16	conservation	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & Percequillo, A, 2008	This rodent occurs in Parque Rio Doce, Minas Gerais State (Stallings <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and in Bananal Ecological Station in Sao Paulo State (Percequillo pers. comm.). It is found in Iguazu National Park (Argentina).	eng
16	distribution	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & Percequillo, A, 2008	This species is known from type locality (Espirito Santo, southeastern Brazil - Musser and Carleton 2005) and it has been collected more recently in a few more localities in Misiones province (Argentina) and others close to Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina. The known distribution is from Espirito Santo State, Brazil south along coast and inland to Misiones province in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 1993, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999, Stallings <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Percequillo and Paglia pers. comm.).	eng
16	habitat	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & Percequillo, A, 2008	This rodent has been recorded in bamboo and secondary forest habitat (Percequillo pers. comm.). Specimens have also been collected from lowland rainforest.	eng
16	population	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & Percequillo, A, 2008	It is considered a rare species but there is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. All localities determined by single specimens so as yet cannot estimate population or range.	eng
16	threats	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & Percequillo, A, 2008	The major threats are deforestation, habitat destruction and wood extraction (Percequillo pers. comm.).	eng
18	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This rodent is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect the distinct area of Comarapa. Further research is needed in this area to try to find additional populations.	eng
18	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality: Comarapa, Province Manuel M. Caballero, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may range more widely, although it may also be restricted to the currently known range, which covers an area less than 100 km². It has been found at an elevation of 1,800 m asl.	eng
18	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is associated with rocky areas within cloud forest. It is not known from outside of cloud forest, and may be specialized to rocky areas in this habitat. This rodent is vegetarian and lives in burrows. In common with other hystricognath rodents, it gives birth to precocial young after presumably a lengthy gestation period (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992).	eng
18	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a rare species (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
18	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat. <em>Abrocoma</em> species have previously been collected for their fur, although it does not seem that this species was affected by the fur trade.	eng
43	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	None known to be in place.	eng
43	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Australian endemic. Found in coastal north-eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland.	eng
43	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Occurs in coastal swamps.	eng
43	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Current population size is not known.	eng
43	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	The main threat to the species is draining of the coastal swamps urban and rural development.	eng
73	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species was restricted to the Hula basin (lake Huleh) in northern Israel.	eng
73	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	<em>A. hulensis</em> lived in Lake Hula and its adjacent marshes. It reached 230 mm total length, spawned from February to April.	eng
73	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Now extinct. The fish was last recorded in 1975.	eng
73	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The Hula swamp was artificially drained by 1957 in order to obtain good agricultural land. Such agricultural development led to massive reduction in the number and size of aquatic ecosystems, due to the diversion and exploitation of their sources.	eng
74	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
75	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
76	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - slow moving waters.	eng
78	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - slow moving waters.	eng
81	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Existing fisheries regulations should be helping to protect the species but they are seldom enforced	eng
81	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Lake Ohrid in Albania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
81	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a lacustrine species living at depth 40 to 60 m. Spawning occurs in December to February in the coastal areas. It is commercially exploited and also reared in fish farms.	eng
81	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
81	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Intentional hybridization with <em>Salmo letnica</em> in fish farms during the last 50 years. The long-term impacts of this hybridization are however, unclear (Rakaj and Flloko 1995). Also subject to heavy fishing but it is still abundant. Future threats include water pollution due to agriculture and tourism.	eng
137	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is probably found in a few protected areas. In some areas (such as Watansoppeng in South Sulawesi) they are protected because they believe this bat brings good fortune, particularly with rains. More studies on the impact of the bushmeat trade on populations is needed.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
137	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is endemic to the Sulawesi subregion, on Sulawesi, Butan, only recorded from Talenge (but likely from all of the Togeran Islands), Mangole, Sanana, Siau, Sangihe, and Selayar, in Indonesia. It is primarily a lowland species, occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
137	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It roosts in trees in villages, and also in bamboo. It is commonly found along the coast and shows a medium tolerance of human disturbance. It is common near villages on Sula Islands (Flannery 1995). Individuals are commonly seen feeding on breadfruit trees and coconut (Flannery 1995). Neither of two adult females examined by Flannery in November 1991 were pregnant or lactating, but suggested seasonal breeding, with births occurring in February to March.	eng
137	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, U., 2008	The population status and trend are unknown but it is conspicuous where it occurs.	eng
137	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, U., 2008	Deforestation due to logging and agriculture is a major threat for this species. It is commonly hunted and found in bushmeat markets for local and regional trade.	eng
138	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is a protected area in the species range (Karekalang Selatan Hunting Park). Community education should be a priority in conservation efforts for this species. The impact of local hunting of this species needs to be determined.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
138	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from the islands of Salebabu (95 km²) and Karekaleng (976 km²) in the Talaud group, in Indonesia. It was described in 1909 from three specimens and no further specimens had been recorded until Riley (2002) found the bat alive on the Talaud Islands. The type locality for this species is Lirong, Talaud Islands, Indonesia.	eng
138	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This seems to be a forest-dependent species, but little information is available. This species is thought to be conspicuous due to its roosting habit. It is surprising that they have not been more commonly recorded. Forest habitat on Karakelang is in forest blocks protected under a newly established protected area and the edges of the island are used for agriculture, while on Salebabu there is predominantly agriculture with remnant forest in the low hills (Riley 2001).	eng
138	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population status and trend are unknown.	eng
138	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	Known threats include hunting and habitat loss due to logging (Riley 2001).	eng
139	conservation	Mildenstein, T., Cariño,A., Paul, S., Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, A., Stier, S., Pedregosa, S., Lorica, R., Ingle, N., Balete, D., Garcia, J.J., Gonzalez, J.C., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is protected under the Philippine Wildlife Act (Republic Act No. 9147, 2001). <em>A. jubatus</em> has been included in Appendix I of CITES since 1995 (the species had previously been included in Appendix II since 1990). Whilst the majority of the species' roosts are within formally designated protected areas, most receive very little protection (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Although officially afforded protection against hunting throughout most of its range in the Philippines (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006), there is little enforcement of the legislation. Three roosts, located on Boracay (off Panay Island), Subic (Luzon), Mambukal (Negros Occidental), are exempt from hunting pressure as much as these lie within popular tourist areas in which hunting is minimal and the bats are often used as an attraction (T.L. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether effective enforcement of legislation is occurring at the Davao colony (Mindanao) (A.B. Cariño and N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006). On Boracay, developers have agreed not to build in the vicinity of roosts (Lorica pers. comm. 2006), although, the construction of a road within the roost site might adversely affect them. Community education and awareness efforts are being undertaken at Subic and Calinawan, and these efforts include addressing problems caused by hunting pressure (A.B. Cariño pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a need for much great, and more focused, conservation efforts throughout its range, including the establishment and management of protected areas, and the control of hunting. A captive-breeding project is underway, but well-established captive-breeding facilities are needed.	eng
139	distribution	Mildenstein, T., Cariño,A., Paul, S., Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, A., Stier, S., Pedregosa, S., Lorica, R., Ingle, N., Balete, D., Garcia, J.J., Gonzalez, J.C., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread with the exception of in the Palawan faunal region and on the Batanes and Babuyan island groups (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It generally occurs at an altitude range of 0-1,100 m asl. It is only found in large roosts with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em>. <em>P. vampyrus</em> roosts have been, and are often still assumed to have, <em>A. jubatus</em> present, but the presence of <em>A. jubatus</em> at many roosts has not been confirmed. Historic confirmed records exist for the following islands: Basilan, Biliran (forgaging from a roost on Maripipi - Rickart <em>et al</em>. (1993)), Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Cabo (in Igat Bay, in Zamboanga del Sur Province, off Mindanao), Cebu, Dinagat, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay (formerly regarded as <em>Acerdon lucifer</em>, now extinct, though animals from Boracay (not <em>A. lucifer</em>) visit the north of the island to feed), Polillo, Sibutu and Siquijor. <br/><br/>Recent surveys by the Bat Count Project (source Bat Count Project 2002 and 2003 - T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007 - unless alternative source given) on the presence and absence of <em>A. jubatus</em> at various bat colonies on islands in the Philippines report its presence at the following sites in which it was found roosting together with larger numbers of <em>P. vampyrus</em>: 1) Bohol Island: Raja Sikatuna Protected Landscape, Bilar; 2) Boracay Island: a colony that feeds on nearby Panay; 3) Cebu: a possible roost at Dalaguete (Pangutalan pers. comm. 2006); 4) Leyte: a colony occurs on Mount Pangasugan; 5) Luzon: Subic Forest Watershed Reserve, Subic Bay; Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Divilacan; Ilocos Norte province, Pangasinan province, Baler in Aurora province, and Calamba in Laguna province (P. Alviola pers. obs. 2005); and a possible roost on Mount Banahaw (D. Balete pers. obs. 2003); 6) Mindanao: Occidental Mindoro (Bilog na Sapa); Mutia, Calamba and Mount Malindang, Misamis Occidenta (Ramayla pers. obs.); Mount Hamguitan, Eastern Mindanao (D. Balete pers. obs. 2005); Malagos Forest Watershed Reserve, Davao (N.R. Ingle pers. obs. 2004; Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007; and Bat Count Project 2002 and 2003); and possible roost sites, where the presence of the species requires confirmation, in: Magum and Mati, Davao Oriental; Malita, Davao del Sur; and Mount Hilong-hilong, in the lowland dipterocarp forest of Cantilan and Carrascal, Surigao del Sur (Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007); 7) Mindoro: a roost occurs at Sablayan and possibly on the eastern side of the island (Saulog and Garcia 2005); 8) Negros: Calinawan, Enrique Villanueva and Sibulan, Negros Oriental; Mambukal, Minoyan, Murcia and Mount Patag, Negros Occidental; and a possible roost in the Manlukahoc area (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006); and 9) Polillo: a roost occurs on privately owned land (Alviola pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The Bat Count Project has surveyed the following colonies of <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> and did not find any <em>A. jubatus</em> (though it is unclear that the species occurred in any of these roosts historically (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006)): 1) Cebu: Tabunan and Dalaguete; 2) Mindanao: Bongo Island, Maguindanao Province; and Pinol and Maitum, Sarangani Province; 3) Negros Oriental (southeast Negros): Sagay, Vallehermosa and San Jose; and 4) Panay: Batbatan Island and Culasi, Antique Province. The Siquijor populations are possibly extinct (Lepiten 1995); this species has been reported absent from there recently (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</>. 2007).	eng
139	habitat	Mildenstein, T., Cariño,A., Paul, S., Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, A., Stier, S., Pedregosa, S., Lorica, R., Ingle, N., Balete, D., Garcia, J.J., Gonzalez, J.C., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This is amongst the heaviest of the world's bats at up to 2.6 pounds (1.2 kg). Currently, it is always found roosting with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> (and sometimes <em>Pteropus hypomelanus</em>), but it is uncertain if it has always occurred in mixed roosts). It typically roosts in trees, but also in mangroves, usually on small islands (Hoogstraal 1951, Rabor 1986, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is generally high roost site fidelity (T.L. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006), and roost sites are often located on steep slopes and cliff edges in areas that are difficult to access by humans. A. jubatus is commonly found in trees on the periphery of the roost in areas that are less likely to be disturbed (Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006).<br/> <br/>Foraging occurs in primary and high-quality second-growth forest (Stier and Mildenstein 2005, Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species may occasionally leave this type of habitat, using streams where fig trees grow on banks; they rarely forage in orchards on agricultural trees (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005). On Mindanao, farmers believe that <em>A. jubatus</em> is a pest in fruit orchards, but it is possible that these individuals are misidentified <em>P. vampyrus</em> which are known to use orchards regularly (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>In captivity young are produced only once every two years (Cariño 2004). This may not reflect productivity in the wild, which in other species has been found to be quite different to productivity in captivity (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006), and is probably higher in captivity than in the wild.	eng
139	population	Mildenstein, T., Cariño,A., Paul, S., Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, A., Stier, S., Pedregosa, S., Lorica, R., Ingle, N., Balete, D., Garcia, J.J., Gonzalez, J.C., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	During the late 1800s and early 1900s there were many anecdotal reports of 100,000 bats in presumed mixed species colonies. Although there are a few mixed colonies that number between 10,000 and 30,000 individuals (from Bat Count surveys - T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006), generally, recent observations of mixed colonies have reported maximum sizes of 5,000 and fewer individuals, generally, recent observations have been of colonies with a maximum of 5,000 individuals of mixed species, and usually much smaller numbers have been reported (Heaney and Heideman 1987; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Utzurrum 1992). There are, however, several colonies that exceed 5,000 individuals of mixed species. <br/><br/>Historically,  most colonies of large fruit bats have been assumed to include <em>Acerodon jubatus</em>, but the actual presence of <em>A. jubatus</em> in many colonies has not been confirmed. Current surveys have shown that many fruit bat colonies do not have any <em>A. jubatus</em> at all, and when <em>A. jubatus</em> is present, it has only been found in mixed colonies roosts with <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> (and sometimes also with <em>Pteropus hypomelanus</em>). Since most mixed colonies are known only through observation, it it has not been determined what proportion of animals in these many colonies are <em>A. jubatus</em> (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <em>A. jubatus</em> numbers in a current colony are a small proportion of the total colony size, rarely approaching 20% of the individuals in the roost and in most cases around 5% (T.L. Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Based on species composition of sites that are hunted, only 5% of animals are <em>A. jubatus</em> - T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is known to be forest-dependent (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005; Stier and Mildenstein 2005), and it has been determined that 90% of the Philippines original old-growth forest cover has been destroyed (Kummer 1992), although roughly 10-15% secondary forest is estimated to remain. Much of this extant forest occurs above 1,000 m asl, where <em>A. jubatus</em> is unlikely to occur. In a mixed roost of <em>A. jubatus</em> and <em>P. vampyrus</em> on Mindanao, <em>A. jubatus</em> was observed in the forest (away from the forest edge), whereas <em>P. vampyrus</em> were at the periphery, and this might reflect a sensitivity of <em>A. jubatus</em> to disturbance (Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Work by the Bat Count Project has shown that populations are small and the number of remaining populations is fewer than were thought to exist historically. Bat Count has also shown that the total colony size (for both <em>A. jubatus</em> and <em>P. vampyrus</em>) correlates closely with available natural forest cover within a foraging range of 15 km², indicating roosting populations are habitat-limited (T.L. Mildenstein, S.C. Stier and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Of the 23 roosts sampled by Bat Count, only nine of these were found to contain <em>A. jubatus</em> during several survey days for each roost. For most other roosts surveyed by Bat Count Philippines, the presence of the species was not documented, (and repeat visits are necessary to confirm absence), but it is not known whether <em>A. jubatus</em> occurred in these roosts historically (T.L. Mildenstein, S.C. Stier and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>L. Heaney (pers. comm. 2006) estimates the total population of <em>A. jubatus</em> to be around one or two percent of what it was 200 years ago and that, if current trends continue, no old-growth lowland forest will remain by 2030. Thus, much of the future population trend for this species will depend on: 1) the extent of regenerating secondary forest; and 2) the ability of A jubatus to persist in secondary forest. A rough estimate of the total population of A. jubatus is around 10,000 individuals (and probably no more than 20,000) (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Carino <em>in litt</em>. 2007).	eng
139	threats	Mildenstein, T., Cariño,A., Paul, S., Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, A., Stier, S., Pedregosa, S., Lorica, R., Ingle, N., Balete, D., Garcia, J.J., Gonzalez, J.C., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	<em>Acerodon jubatus</em> is a known forest specialist (Mildenstein <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stier and Mildenstein 2005) and it has been determined that more than 90% of the Philippines’ original old-growth forest cover has been destroyed (Kummer 1992). The species is threatened by severe habitat loss and hunting throughout its range (including within protected areas). Remaining total forest cover in the Philippines is roughly in the region of 16-20%, possibly slightly higher - including high-elevation mossy forest and secondary forest (L. Heaney <em>in litt</em>. 2007). However, the area of good quality lowland forest, upon which the species depends, is much less than this.<br/><br/>In Samar and Pangasinan (Luzon), open-cast mines are removing forest cover (M. Pedregosa pers. comm. 2006) and in southwestern Negros, a roost of this species occurs in a copper and gold mining claim area (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006). The roost on Polillo which occurs on privately owned land is also under threat from human disturbance (P. Alviola pers. comm. 2006) and the population on Boracay is threatened by infrastructure development for tourism (M. Lorica pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Many flying fox colonies have moved from their original roosting sites due to hunting pressure (Mildenstein and Cariño in litt. 2007). A colony which may include A. jubatus in Davao Oriental (Mindanao) has transferred from its original roost due to hunting pressure by loggers who take flying foxes for food (information from a guide during an interview by the Philippine Eagle Foundation (Gomez in litt. 2007)). <br/><br/>This species is hunted throughout its range. Three roost sites (Boracay; Subic Bay, Luzon; and Mambukal, Negros) are formally protected from hunting by local government, while at most other roost sites, A. jubatus experiences regular hunting pressure (Mildenstein <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Whether or not the roost site is protected from hunting, a large amount of hunting occurs away from the roosts during night-time foraging, which commonly occurs in unprotected forests kilometres from the roost. Generally <em>A. jubatus</em> looks similar to the species with which it roosts, and hunters are not aware of which species they are taking (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Hunters use lines with hooks (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006), shot guns, rifles, and air guns (T.L. Mildenstein and A.B. Cariño <em>in litt</em>. 2007). In Mindanao, Muslim communities are not known to hunt bats and there may be more roosts in this region that do not experience heavy hunting pressure (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but most of the roosts surveyed in this region are of <em>Pteropus vampyrus</em> only (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>An ethnobiological survey of wildlife hunters on Negros Island (Cariño <em>et al.</em> 2006) found that from a total of 150 respondents, 20 reported hunting bats and birds using traditional traps, and 60 reported using air guns. Hunting and eating bats as ‘pulutan’ (any snack eaten while consuming alcohol) is enjoyed. Individual bats can be sold on Negros for 15-30 pesos (0.30-0.60US$) depending on seasonal demand for pulutan. In 2004, the species was reported for sale in Davao in Calinan province (Mindanao) (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2004). <em>A. jubatus</em>, along with other species, is reportedly harvested for food from the mixed species roost at the prison at Sablayan (Mindoro) (H. Garcia pers. comm. 2006); this species is also consumed by locals and enters commercial trade. In general, hunters and fruit bat buyers think of <em>A. jubatus</em> as quite odourous compared to <em>P. vampyrus</em>. In Bataan province (Luzon), <em>A. jubatus</em> is not usually sold because of this (T.L. Mildenstein, A.B. Cariño and S.C. Stier <em>in litt</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>International trade data showed that previously thousands of individuals of fruit bats were exported annually (Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. 1992), but it is not clear that many of these were <em>A. jubatus</em>. In any case, even if this was a threat, because of CITES listing, better enforcement of legislation, and increased efforts by customs in both Guam and the Philippines, international trade in Philippines fruit bats to Guam has now ceased.	eng
140	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Esselstyn, J., Widmann, P., Heaney, L. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>A. leucotis</em> has been listed in Appendix II of CITES since 1990 and has been recorded in a number of protected areas. Stricter habitat protection, and control of hunding, are both important conservation measures that need to be implemented. Appropriate survey techniques should be identified for this species and futher surveys undertaken.	eng
140	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Esselstyn, J., Widmann, P., Heaney, L. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	The Palawan fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Palawan Faunal Region (Palawan, Basuanga, Balabac, and Bat Islands (the latter a tiny island in Honda bay) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998)). The species has been recorded at sea level, but its upper altitudinal limit is not known. Appropriate sampling methods for <em>A. leucotis</em> have not yet been identified (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), and because it  does not form large colonies it might be overlooked during surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). A survey using mist nets in the canopy of secondary forest in San Vicente, Dumuran, in the north east of the Palawan Island did not record any individuals of the species (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006). The Bat Count Project survey failed to locate the species on Rasa and Bat island (A. Carino pers. comm. 2006)	eng
140	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Esselstyn, J., Widmann, P., Heaney, L. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	This species is found in primary and dense secondary forest in inconspicuous locations, making small tents in the tree tops. It has also been found roosting in degraded secondary forest/grassland mosaic at around eight-12 m in the canopy (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006). The species may live for at least five years, possibly up to six to eight years, and so this would lead to a roughly estimated generation time of three years, possibly four to five years (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).	eng
140	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Esselstyn, J., Widmann, P., Heaney, L. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>A. leucotis</em> might be moderately common in primary and secondary forest (Hoogstraal 1951; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, appropriate survey methods have not been identified for this species of flying fox which does not usually form large colonies, and as a result it might not be recorded in surveys of places where it does occur (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). Overall, this species is believed to be in significant decline, and it now longer roosts in large colonies in southern Palawan.	eng
140	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Esselstyn, J., Widmann, P., Heaney, L. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	In southern Palawan, <em>A. leucotis</em> seems to have declined due to hunting (P. Widman pers. comm. 2006), and it is no longer found in large roosting colonies in rattan, probably in part due to over-hunting for food. It is likely that much of the remaining secondary forest will be converted to palm and rubber plantations in the future.	eng
142	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species may occur in protected areas. Surveys for this species are required on the island of Komodo.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
142	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in Indonesia in Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Alor, Sumba, Moyo and Timor islands.	eng
142	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a coastal species occurring from sea level up to 450 m asl, and roosts in colonies of 300-500 individuals. It has been observed roosting in a mango tree together with <em>Pteropus vampiris</em> and is most often caught in gardens and secondary forests (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
142	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population status and trend are unknown. It is believed to be uncommon (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
142	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	Threats to this species include hunting (at roosts, and they are often seen in markets), and massive forest loss due to logging in Nusa Tenggara.	eng
212	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Not in a formal protected area and no measures have been taken for the species conservation.	eng
212	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Endemic to Dianchi Lake (surface area 292.6 km²), Yunnan Province, China. This species occurs only in the inshore areas of the lake, giving a total range area of around 58 km².	eng
212	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Clear water usually with indigenous macrophytes.This species is a small fish. Female fishes have an ovipositor which is used to deposit eggs inside bivalves, juveniles hatch and remain in the bivalve until they can swim.	eng
212	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Only ever known from the Lake, the population is unknown.	eng
212	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	The population has badly declined in Lake Dianchi due to introduced fishes,  especially closely related species, e.g., <em>Acheilognathus macropterus</em>,  <em>A. taenianalis</em>, <em>A. chankaensis</em> and <em>Rhodeus ocellatus</em>. These  species share the same habitat with <em>Acheilognathus elongates</em> and have  competed with it. Water pollution has also caused the loss of breeding sites due  to the local extinction of many bivalves which are the host of the young  <em>Acheilognathus elongates</em>.	eng
214	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Further information on the species distribution, ecology, habitat requirements is required.	eng
214	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Globally, the species is known from only the type locality in Lunda in eastern Angola (Congo River basin) and one other doubtful record at Mkushi River in central Zambia (Zambezi River Basin), close to the type locality.	eng
214	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy rivers (Pinhey 1984).	eng
214	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size is not known.	eng
214	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Main threats to the species are not known.	eng
219	conservation	Durant, S., Marker, L., Purchase, N., Belbachir, F., Hunter, L., Packer, C., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Sogbohossou, E. & Bauer, H., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is protected under national legislation throughout most of its extant and some of its former range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996. However, a number of countries permit cheetahs to be killed in defence of life and livestock (Purchase <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  In Namibia, for example, one is permitted to retain the skin as long as the killing is reported  (Nowell, 1996).  Such policies may at least permit cheetah killing to be monitored.<br/><br/>Promotion of livestock management regimes which minimize conflict with cheetahs are an important conservation measure, pioneered by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia (Marker <em>et al.</em>, 2003) but now being applied more widely.  Elements of successful conservation management include availability of wild prey and more intensive livestock herd protection, especially using guard dogs.<br/><br/>The Asiatic Cheetah is protected in Iran. The main protected areas for this species include Kavir National Park, Khar Touran National Park and Naybandan Wildlife Refuge, Bafgh P.A., and Dar Anjir Wildlife Refuge. A radio-telemetry study in Iran is providing the first detailed data on cheetahs in Iran (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>  In 2009, the Afghan Government placed this species on the country’s Protected Species List, meaning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan is now illegal.<br/><br/>Several countries, including Namibia and Kenya, have developed national action plans or conservation strategies for cheetahs (Nowell, 1996; Durant, 2007); regional conservation strategies have been developed for Southern (Dickman <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Anon., 2008) and Eastern Africa (Anon., 2007); and there is also a global strategy (Bartels <em>et al.</em>, 2002).  These plans call for a number of improvements in monitoring, surveys and information exchange (to better understand cheetah distribution and status); promotion of human-cheetah coexistence (to reduce conflict and develop incentives to conserve cheetahs); national land use planning (to ensure viable national cheetah populations); capacity building (to improve management); policy and legislation (to ensure legal consistency and remove loopholes) and advocacy (to raise awareness of and political commitment to cheetah conservation needs).<br/><br/>Several specialist networks of cheetah conservationists have been established, including the Global Cheetah Forum (affiliated with the IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group) and the North African Regional Cheetah Action Group (NARCAG/OGRAN).  The IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group maintains a Cheetah Conservation Compendium with a reference library and detailed country information (www.catsg.org)<br/><br/>Important protected areas that represent strongholds for Cheetah populations in Africa include the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Nxai Pan and Chobe National Parks, and Okavango Delta (Botswana), Etosha N.P. (Namibia), Liuwa Plains N.P. (Zambia), and, of course, the Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania, Kenya) (Caro in press). In West Africa, the major remaining stronghold for the species is the WAPO protected areas complex. There is a surviving population of Cheetah in the Ahaggar National Park in Algeria (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>However, most cheetah occur outside of protected areas (where they are often persecuted as pests), and given their need for large areas they require conservation action on a landscape scale (for example, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, zoning for land-use to maintain habitat connectivity, and wild prey restoration) (Marker, 2002; Anon., 2007).	eng
219	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is protected under national legislation throughout most of its extant and some of its former range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996. However, a number of countries permit cheetahs to be killed in defence of life and livestock (Purchase <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  In Namibia, for example, one is permitted to retain the skin as long as the killing is reported  (Nowell, 1996).  Such policies may at least permit cheetah killing to be monitored.<br/><br/>Promotion of livestock management regimes which minimize conflict with cheetahs are an important conservation measure, pioneered by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in Namibia (Marker <em>et al.</em>, 2003) but now being applied more widely.  Elements of successful conservation management include availability of wild prey and more intensive livestock herd protection, especially using guard dogs.<br/><br/>The Asiatic Cheetah is protected in Iran. The main protected areas for this species include Kavir National Park, Khar Touran National Park and Naybandan Wildlife Refuge, Bafgh P.A., and Dar Anjir Wildlife Refuge. A radio-telemetry study in Iran is providing the first detailed data on cheetahs in Iran (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Several countries, including Namibia and Kenya, have developed national action plans or conservation strategies for cheetahs (Nowell, 1996; Durant, 2007); regional conservation strategies have been developed for Southern (Dickman <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Anon., 2008) and Eastern Africa (Anon., 2007); and there is also a global strategy (Bartels <em>et al.</em>, 2002).  These plans call for a number of improvements in monitoring, surveys and information exchange (to better understand cheetah distribution and status); promotion of human-cheetah coexistence (to reduce conflict and develop incentives to conserve cheetahs); national land use planning (to ensure viable national cheetah populations); capacity building (to improve management); policy and legislation (to ensure legal consistency and remove loopholes) and advocacy (to raise awareness of and political commitment to cheetah conservation needs).<br/><br/>Several specialist networks of cheetah conservationists have been established, including the Global Cheetah Forum (affiliated with the IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist Group) and the North African Regional Cheetah Action Group (NARCAG/OGRAN).  The IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group maintains a Cheetah Conservation Compendium with a reference library and detailed country information (www.catsg.org)<br/><br/>Important protected areas that represent strongholds for Cheetah populations in Africa include the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Nxai Pan and Chobe National Parks, and Okavango Delta (Botswana), Etosha N.P. (Namibia), Liuwa Plains N.P. (Zambia), and, of course, the Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania, Kenya) (Caro in press). In West Africa, the major remaining stronghold for the species is the WAPO protected areas complex. There is a surviving population of Cheetah in the Ahaggar National Park in Algeria (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>However, most cheetah occur outside of protected areas (where they are often persecuted as pests), and given their need for large areas they require conservation action on a landscape scale (for example, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, zoning for land-use to maintain habitat connectivity, and wild prey restoration) (Marker, 2002; Anon., 2007).	eng
219	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Cheetahs have disappeared from huge areas of their historic range.  They still occur widely, but sparsely, in Africa, but Ray <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimate that the cheetahs have disappeared from 76% of their historic range on the continent.<br/><br/>In Asia, the cheetah has lost almost all its vast historic range, which within the last century extended from the shores of the Mediterranean and the Arabian peninsula, north to the northern shores of the Caspian and Aral Seas, and west through Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan into central India (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Habibi 2004; Mallon 2007).  Part of the reason for their disappearance in Asia is live captures of cheetahs, which were trained to hunt for the aristocracy (Divyabhanusingh, 1995).  The main cause, however, was likely depletion of the wild prey base, especially gazelles, as well as direct killing of cheetahs and development of their habitat (Mallon, 2007).  The Asiatic cheetah (A. j. venaticus) is now known to survive only in Iran, where it is Critically Endangered.  Persistence in Pakistan is unlikely (Husain 2001).  While Habibi (2004) considers it extinct in Afghanistan, a cheetah skin of unknown origin was found in a marketplace in western Afghanistan in 2007 (L. Hunter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern and Eastern Africa are the species strongholds, although there has been significant range loss in parts of these regions.  Cheetahs are known to occur only in 6% of their historical range in Eastern Africa (310,586 km²), and possibly occur in another 892,658 km² (Anon. 2007).  Current distribution in several countries remains largely unknown (Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Angola, Mozambique and Zambia).  Cheetahs are known to be extirpated from large areas in Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi (Anon. 2007, 2008).  In some parts of southern Africa they occur extensively outside protected areas on commercial ranch land where other large predators (lions and hyenas) have been extirpated (Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe) (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs have declined most drastically in northern and western Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  The subspecies (<em>A. j. heckii</em>) is listed as Critically Endangered; see subspecies account for detailed information on northwest Africa.  <br/><br/>Cheetah persistence in the eastern Sahara is unlikely.<br/><br/>Cheetahs are possibly extinct in Libya. Specimens were previously collected near the Egyptian border (northeastern part of the country), in Dahra, Sirtica (north-central), Bir Ghazal and Hamada-el-Homra (northwestern). Other records include Fezzan, Khor-el-Gifa, Gikherra (eastern), El Ftaia (near coastal area) and Mizda (Hufnagl 1972). Myers (1975) mentioned that cheetahs were noted in Niger/Libyan borders as well as Niger/Algerian borders. An inquiry with local Tuaregs suggested that the species might not longer be present in Akoukas Mountains (J.-L. Bernezat pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>In Tunisia, cheetahs were formerly reported to roam in sandy expanses south of Chott-el-Djerid, the desert areas south of Foum Tatahouine and the Grand Erg Occidental and its surroundings (Schomber and Kock 1960). There are no recent records on the species in the country which make it presumably extinct. The El-Borma region, near the Algerian boundaries, was probably among the areas where cheetahs have last been seen in 1974 and documented (Louis 1979).  <br/><br/>As far as Egypt is concerned, data collated during the last few decades suggest that cheetahs are extremely rare, if not extinct, in the country. Osborn and Helmy (1980) provided original and literature-based records from the Matrouh Governorate and Sinai. According to Saleh <em>et al</em>. (2001), cheetahs became extinct from most of the Mediterranean coastal region and easily accessible inland habitats of El-Maghra and Siwa oases one decade after being widely distributed in the northern Egyptian Western Desert until the 1970s. The main reasons explaining cheetah extirpation have been attributed to extensive and uncontrolled hunting and the development of coastal lands (Saleh <em>et al</em>. 2001). If not completely vanished, the species is believed to be confined, with a very low density, to the Western Desert and around the Qattara Depression (Saleh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Hoath, 2003). Recent records from North Sinai, including one female and three cubs killed by Bedouin hunters in 1993, as well as one female seen with two cubs in November 1994, have not been verified (Hoath 2003). <br/><br/>In the eastern Sahel and central Africa, there is little current information:<br/><br/>Current cheetah distribution in most of its historic range in Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia are unknown (Anon. 1997).  In Chad, although cheetahs were still present and seen occasionally in Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim in the 1970s (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008). A recent wildlife survey in western and central Chad, including Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve, conducted by the Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group in 2001, failed to detect any cheetah presence in the region (Monfort <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the Central Saharan (northern) part of the country, cheetahs still occur, in very low density, in and around the Ennedi Massif (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008 based on Rava?s pers. comm.). There is no information on previously reported populations in the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara). In southeastern Chad, cheetahs may still survive to date in Zakouma National Park (population still present in the protected area as of 2006 [N. Vanherle pers. comm. 2008]). <br/><br/>In central Africa, current cheetah distribution in the savanna regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo is unknown (Marker 2002).  It is considered extinct in Rwanda and Burundi, and possibly extinct in Nigeria.  Rosevear (1974) underlined the paucity of positive records for Nigeria and mentioned Lake Chad, Yan Tumaki (Katsina Division) and possibly Bauchi Plateau as localities for three specimens kept in the British Museum. Happold (1987) raised the possibility of their occurrence near Cameroonian boundaries, and also in the Yankari Game Reserve (Happold 1987). Recent reports from protected area managers and wildlife traders indicate that a threatened small cheetah population may still range in restricted areas in north-centre and northeastern parts of the country (R. Ikemeh pers. comm. 2008).	eng
219	distribution	Durant, S., Marker, L., Purchase, N., Belbachir, F., Hunter, L., Packer, C., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Sogbohossou, E. & Bauer, H., 2008	Cheetahs have disappeared from huge areas of their historic range.  They still occur widely, but sparsely, in Africa, but Ray <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimate that the cheetahs have disappeared from 76% of their historic range on the continent.<br/><br/>In Asia, the cheetah has lost almost all its vast historic range, which within the last century extended from the shores of the Mediterranean and the Arabian peninsula, north to the northern shores of the Caspian and Aral Seas, and west through Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan into central India (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Habibi 2004; Mallon 2007).  Part of the reason for their disappearance in Asia is live captures of cheetahs, which were trained to hunt for the aristocracy (Divyabhanusingh, 1995).  The main cause, however, was likely depletion of the wild prey base, especially gazelles, as well as direct killing of cheetahs and development of their habitat (Mallon, 2007).  The Asiatic cheetah (A. j. venaticus) is now known to survive only in Iran, where it is Critically Endangered.  Persistence in Pakistan is unlikely (Husain 2001).  While Habibi (2004) considers it extinct in Afghanistan, a cheetah skin of unknown origin was found in a marketplace in western Afghanistan in 2007 (L. Hunter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern and Eastern Africa are the species strongholds, although there has been significant range loss in parts of these regions.  Cheetahs are known to occur only in 6% of their historical range in Eastern Africa (310,586 km²), and possibly occur in another 892,658 km² (Anon. 2007).  Current distribution in several countries remains largely unknown (Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Angola, Mozambique and Zambia).  Cheetahs are known to be extirpated from large areas in Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi (Anon. 2007, 2008).  In some parts of southern Africa they occur extensively outside protected areas on commercial ranch land where other large predators (lions and hyenas) have been extirpated (Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe) (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs have declined most drastically in northern and western Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  The subspecies (<em>A. j. heckii</em>) is listed as Critically Endangered; see subspecies account for detailed information on northwest Africa.  <br/><br/>Cheetah persistence in the eastern Sahara is unlikely.<br/><br/>Cheetahs are possibly extinct in Libya. Specimens were previously collected near the Egyptian border (northeastern part of the country), in Dahra, Sirtica (north-central), Bir Ghazal and Hamada-el-Homra (northwestern). Other records include Fezzan, Khor-el-Gifa, Gikherra (eastern), El Ftaia (near coastal area) and Mizda (Hufnagl 1972). Myers (1975) mentioned that cheetahs were noted in Niger/Libyan borders as well as Niger/Algerian borders. An inquiry with local Tuaregs suggested that the species might not longer be present in Akoukas Mountains (J.-L. Bernezat pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>In Tunisia, cheetahs were formerly reported to roam in sandy expanses south of Chott-el-Djerid, the desert areas south of Foum Tatahouine and the Grand Erg Occidental and its surroundings (Schomber and Kock 1960). There are no recent records on the species in the country which make it presumably extinct. The El-Borma region, near the Algerian boundaries, was probably among the areas where cheetahs have last been seen in 1974 and documented (Louis 1979).  <br/><br/>As far as Egypt is concerned, data collated during the last few decades suggest that cheetahs are extremely rare, if not extinct, in the country. Osborn and Helmy (1980) provided original and literature-based records from the Matrouh Governorate and Sinai. According to Saleh <em>et al</em>. (2001), cheetahs became extinct from most of the Mediterranean coastal region and easily accessible inland habitats of El-Maghra and Siwa oases one decade after being widely distributed in the northern Egyptian Western Desert until the 1970s. The main reasons explaining cheetah extirpation have been attributed to extensive and uncontrolled hunting and the development of coastal lands (Saleh <em>et al</em>. 2001). If not completely vanished, the species is believed to be confined, with a very low density, to the Western Desert and around the Qattara Depression (Saleh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Hoath, 2003). Recent records from North Sinai, including one female and three cubs killed by Bedouin hunters in 1993, as well as one female seen with two cubs in November 1994, have not been verified (Hoath 2003). <br/><br/>In the eastern Sahel and central Africa, there is little current information:<br/><br/>Current cheetah distribution in most of its historic range in Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia are unknown (Anon. 1997).  In Chad, although cheetahs were still present and seen occasionally in Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim in the 1970s (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008). A recent wildlife survey in western and central Chad, including Ouadi Rime-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve, conducted by the Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group in 2001, failed to detect any cheetah presence in the region (Monfort <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the Central Saharan (northern) part of the country, cheetahs still occur, in very low density, in and around the Ennedi Massif (J. Newby pers. comm. 2008 based on Rava’s pers. comm.). There is no information on previously reported populations in the Tibesti Mountains (Central Sahara). In southeastern Chad, cheetahs may still survive to date in Zakouma National Park (population still present in the protected area as of 2006 [N. Vanherle pers. comm. 2008]). <br/><br/>In central Africa, current cheetah distribution in the savanna regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo is unknown (Marker 2002).  It is considered extinct in Rwanda and Burundi, and possibly extinct in Nigeria.  Rosevear (1974) underlined the paucity of positive records for Nigeria and mentioned Lake Chad, Yan Tumaki (Katsina Division) and possibly Bauchi Plateau as localities for three specimens kept in the British Museum. Happold (1987) raised the possibility of their occurrence near Cameroonian boundaries, and also in the Yankari Game Reserve (Happold 1987). Recent reports from protected area managers and wildlife traders indicate that a threatened small cheetah population may still range in restricted areas in north-centre and northeastern parts of the country (R. Ikemeh pers. comm. 2008).	eng
219	habitat	Durant, S., Marker, L., Purchase, N., Belbachir, F., Hunter, L., Packer, C., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Sogbohossou, E. & Bauer, H., 2008	Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals, and catch their prey, principally small- to mid-sized ungulates, especially gazelles, in high speed chases up to 103 km per hour (29 meters per second) (Sharp 1997), over distances of hundreds of metres.  Other prey include ground-dwelling birds and small mammals, such as hares.  Cheetahs, unlike other African predators, rarely scavenge and do not remain long with their kills, many of which are stolen by other carnivores.  Cheetahs are primarily active during the day, unlike other predators, a strategy that may help to reduce competition (Caro 1994).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are primarily found in open grassy habitats, but also make use of dry forest, savanna woodland, semi-desert and scrub, being absent from tropical rainforest.  There are reports of cheetah at altitudes of 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). In the central Sahara, cheetahs occur in high mountain habitat - the Saharan mountains are hyper-arid, but still receive slightly higher rainfall than the surrounding desert.  They are thus better vegetated and support small permanent waterholes and antelope populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Cheetah habitat in Iran consists of desert, much of it with precipitation of fewer than 100 mm per year. The terrain ranges from plains and saltpans to eroded foothills, and rugged desert ranges that rise to an elevation of up to 2,000-3,000 m. The vegetation, if any, consists of a sparse cover of shrubs, most less than one meter tall, of the genera <em>Salsola</em>, <em>Artemisia</em>, <em>Zygophyllum</em>, <em>Astragulus</em>, <em>Aphaxis</em>, and others. Gazelles <em>Gazella subgutturosa</em> and <em>G. bennetti</em> were preferred prey, but they have now become scarce through over-hunting and replacement by livestock (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Opportunistic recovery of cheetah kills suggests that wild sheep <em>Ovis orientalis</em>, Persian ibex <em>Capra aegagrus</em> and Cape hares <em>Lepus capensis</em> are the key prey species today though none are considered optimal for cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Cheetahs have a social organization that is unique among the felids.  Females are solitary or accompanied by dependent young, and males are either solitary or live in stable coalitions of two or three.  Some coalitions consist of brothers, but unrelated males may also be members of the group.  Unlike the coalitions formed by male lions, which remain attached to and mate with the females in a single pride, cheetah male coalitions mate with as many females as possible (Caro 1994), and females show no mate fidelity (Gottelli <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Female cheetahs in areas where prey is migratory (such as the Serengeti Plains) follow the herds, while male coalitions establish small territories (average 30 km²) and attempt to mate with females passing through (Durant <em>et al</em>. 1988; Caro 1994).  However, in areas where prey is non-migratory, male and females have smaller, overlapping ranges that are similar in size (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  On Namibian farmlands, where prey is non-migratory, both cheetah sexes have very large home ranges (average 1,642 km²); however, intensively used core areas were just 14% of the total home range.  The reasons for such large home ranges were unclear, and were apparently not the result of reduced prey availability (Marker 2002).   <br/><br/>In comparison with other big cats, cheetahs occur at relatively low densities (10-30% of typical densities for lions, leopards, tigers and jaguars in prime habitat: Durant, 2007).  On the Serengeti plains, cheetah densities range from 0.8-1.0 per 100 km², but seasonally cheetahs can congregate at densities up to 40 per 100 km² (Caro 1994).  Caro (1994) attributes lower cheetah densities to interspecific competition (especially with larger species such as lions and hyenas that can kill cheetah cubs), but on Namibian farmlands, where lions and hyenas have been eradicated, cheetahs still occur at low densities (0.2 per 100 km²) (Marker 2002).	eng
219	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals, and catch their prey, principally small- to mid-sized ungulates, especially gazelles, in high speed chases up to 103 km per hour (29 meters per second) (Sharp 1997), over distances of hundreds of metres.  Other prey include ground-dwelling birds and small mammals, such as hares.  Cheetahs, unlike other African predators, rarely scavenge and do not remain long with their kills, many of which are stolen by other carnivores.  Cheetahs are primarily active during the day, unlike other predators, a strategy that may help to reduce competition (Caro 1994).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are primarily found in open grassy habitats, but also make use of dry forest, savanna woodland, semi-desert and scrub, being absent from tropical rainforest.  There are reports of cheetah at altitudes of 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). In the central Sahara, cheetahs occur in high mountain habitat - the Saharan mountains are hyper-arid, but still receive slightly higher rainfall than the surrounding desert.  They are thus better vegetated and support small permanent waterholes and antelope populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Cheetah habitat in Iran consists of desert, much of it with precipitation of fewer than 100 mm per year. The terrain ranges from plains and saltpans to eroded foothills, and rugged desert ranges that rise to an elevation of up to 2,000-3,000 m. The vegetation, if any, consists of a sparse cover of shrubs, most less than one meter tall, of the genera <em>Salsola</em>, <em>Artemisia</em>, <em>Zygophyllum</em>, <em>Astragulus</em>, <em>Aphaxis</em>, and others. Gazelles <em>Gazella subgutturosa</em> and <em>G. bennetti</em> were preferred prey, but they have now become scarce through over-hunting and replacement by livestock (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Opportunistic recovery of cheetah kills suggests that wild sheep <em>Ovis orientalis</em>, Persian ibex <em>Capra aegagrus</em> and Cape hares <em>Lepus capensis</em> are the key prey species today though none are considered optimal for cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Cheetahs have a social organization that is unique among the felids.  Females are solitary or accompanied by dependent young, and males are either solitary or live in stable coalitions of two or three.  Some coalitions consist of brothers, but unrelated males may also be members of the group.  Unlike the coalitions formed by male lions, which remain attached to and mate with the females in a single pride, cheetah male coalitions mate with as many females as possible (Caro 1994), and females show no mate fidelity (Gottelli <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Female cheetahs in areas where prey is migratory (such as the Serengeti Plains) follow the herds, while male coalitions establish small territories (average 30 km²) and attempt to mate with females passing through (Durant <em>et al</em>. 1988; Caro 1994).  However, in areas where prey is non-migratory, male and females have smaller, overlapping ranges that are similar in size (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  On Namibian farmlands, where prey is non-migratory, both cheetah sexes have very large home ranges (average 1,642 km²); however, intensively used core areas were just 14% of the total home range.  The reasons for such large home ranges were unclear, and were apparently not the result of reduced prey availability (Marker 2002).   <br/><br/>In comparison with other big cats, cheetahs occur at relatively low densities (10-30% of typical densities for lions, leopards, tigers and jaguars in prime habitat: Durant, 2007).  On the Serengeti plains, cheetah densities range from 0.8-1.0 per 100 km², but seasonally cheetahs can congregate at densities up to 40 per 100 km² (Caro 1994).  Caro (1994) attributes lower cheetah densities to interspecific competition (especially with larger species such as lions and hyenas that can kill cheetah cubs), but on Namibian farmlands, where lions and hyenas have been eradicated, cheetahs still occur at low densities (0.2 per 100 km²) (Marker 2002).	eng
219	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Southern Africa is the cheetah?s regional stronghold, with a "roughly" estimated population of at least 4,500 adults (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This regional estimate breaks down as follows:  Angola ? present but unknown; Botswana ? 1,800; Malawi - <25 (and probably extirpated: Purchase and Purchase 2007); Mozambique: <50; Namibia ? 2,000; South Africa ? 550; Zambia ? 100; Zimbabwe ? 400.  A large proportion of the estimated population lives outside protected areas, in lands ranched primarily for livestock but also for wild game, and where lions and hyenas have been extirpated.<br/><br/>The number of known resident cheetahs in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 2,572 adults and independent adolescents.  Most population estimates were derived from applying a density estimate of one adult per 100 km² to mapped resident range areas during a conservation strategy workshop, although a few are based on research.  Only four of the 15 known populations were estimated to number >200 animals; the largest population (Serengeti/Maro/Tsavo in Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 710.  It would be much smaller if unprotected lands were included.  Overall, less than half of the estimated cheetah population inhabits protected areas.  In addition, approximately half lives in habitat blocks which are trans-boundary, requiring international cooperation for conservation of the population.  Cheetahs possibly occur over an area which is several times as large as the range of the known population (Anon. 2007).  <br/><br/>These estimates can be compared with previous population estimates based on extensive field interviews and application of density estimates.  There is rough accord for Kenya at 793 (Gros 1998) and Tanzania at 569-1,007 (Gros 2002).  However, in Uganda, Gros and Rejmanek (1999) estimated 40-295 with a wider range in the Karamoja region, whereas now cheetahs have been extirpated and just 12 are estimated to persist in Kidepo National Park and surroundings (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In the remainder of Africa, there are few reliable population estimates.  Cheetahs are considered extinct or possibly extinct in many countries (Marker 2002).  In northwest Africa the population is probably fewer than 250 mature individuals and the subspecies A. j. heckii is listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>In Asia cheetahs are now known to exist only in Iran, where the subspecies A. j. venaticus is estimated at 60-100 (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007) and listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>The known cheetah population is not much greater than 7,000, and the total population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, thus meeting the criteria for Vulnerable.  The current known population is half the 15,000 estimated by Myers (1975) from his continental status assessment.  The effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population contributing to the gene pool through reproductive success) could be less than half of the total population (Kelly 2001). <br/><br/>While the current rate of population decline is of most concern, and the historical rate of decline has been severe (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005), attention has also focused on the cheetah's having perhaps suffered even more extreme losses in the distant past.  The cheetah species exhibits remarkably low levels of genetic diversity in comparison to other felids (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1986) (but not compared to carnivores in general: Merola 1994).  This is consistent with inbreeding among a very few individuals surviving one or more catastrophic population bottlenecks in the past, with the first possibly occurring during the late Pleistocene extinctions, around 10,000 years ago, according to analysis of mitochondrial DNA (Menotti-Raymond and O'Brien 1995).  <br/><br/>It is unclear what sort of agent could have caused such an extreme population decline in a wide-ranging species, and alternative explanations have been explored.  Hedrick (1996) suggested the low levels of genetic variation could result from a very low effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population that is actually passing on its genes), and Kelly's (2001) calculations of effective population size in cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains were quite low (44% or less of the actual population).  She found that only a few females contributed disproportionately to future generations by raising offspring which survived and reproduced (Kelly 2001).  Genetic analysis by Gottelli <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that male cheetahs, on the other hand, passed on their genes more successfully than expected.  Female cheetahs mated with multiple males, many non-resident, with 43% of litters having mixed paternity.  This indicates that rates of genetic loss should be lower than anticipated by Kelly (2001), and underscores the importance of cheetah mobility in their ecology and conservation.   <br/><br/>While the causes of the cheetah's low levels of genetic variation are unclear, what is clear is that large populations are necessary to conserve it.  Since cheetahs are a low density species, conservation areas need to be quite large, larger than most protected areas.	eng
219	population	Durant, S., Marker, L., Purchase, N., Belbachir, F., Hunter, L., Packer, C., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Sogbohossou, E. & Bauer, H., 2008	Southern Africa is the cheetah’s regional stronghold, with a "roughly" estimated population of at least 4,500 adults (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This regional estimate breaks down as follows:  Angola – present but unknown; Botswana – 1,800; Malawi - <25 (and probably extirpated: Purchase and Purchase 2007); Mozambique: <50; Namibia – 2,000; South Africa – 550; Zambia – 100; Zimbabwe – 400.  A large proportion of the estimated population lives outside protected areas, in lands ranched primarily for livestock but also for wild game, and where lions and hyenas have been extirpated.<br/><br/>The number of known resident cheetahs in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 2,572 adults and independent adolescents.  Most population estimates were derived from applying a density estimate of one adult per 100 km² to mapped resident range areas during a conservation strategy workshop, although a few are based on research.  Only four of the 15 known populations were estimated to number >200 animals; the largest population (Serengeti/Maro/Tsavo in Kenya and Tanzania) is estimated at 710.  It would be much smaller if unprotected lands were included.  Overall, less than half of the estimated cheetah population inhabits protected areas.  In addition, approximately half lives in habitat blocks which are trans-boundary, requiring international cooperation for conservation of the population.  Cheetahs possibly occur over an area which is several times as large as the range of the known population (Anon. 2007).  <br/><br/>These estimates can be compared with previous population estimates based on extensive field interviews and application of density estimates.  There is rough accord for Kenya at 793 (Gros 1998) and Tanzania at 569-1,007 (Gros 2002).  However, in Uganda, Gros and Rejmanek (1999) estimated 40-295 with a wider range in the Karamoja region, whereas now cheetahs have been extirpated and just 12 are estimated to persist in Kidepo National Park and surroundings (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In the remainder of Africa, there are few reliable population estimates.  Cheetahs are considered extinct or possibly extinct in many countries (Marker 2002).  In northwest Africa the population is probably fewer than 250 mature individuals and the subspecies A. j. heckii is listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>In Asia cheetahs are now known to exist only in Iran, where the subspecies A. j. venaticus is estimated at 60-100 (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007) and listed as Critically Endangered.  <br/><br/>The known cheetah population is not much greater than 7,000, and the total population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, thus meeting the criteria for Vulnerable.  The current known population is half the 15,000 estimated by Myers (1975) from his continental status assessment.  The effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population contributing to the gene pool through reproductive success) could be less than half of the total population (Kelly 2001). <br/><br/>While the current rate of population decline is of most concern, and the historical rate of decline has been severe (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005), attention has also focused on the cheetah's having perhaps suffered even more extreme losses in the distant past.  The cheetah species exhibits remarkably low levels of genetic diversity in comparison to other felids (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1986) (but not compared to carnivores in general: Merola 1994).  This is consistent with inbreeding among a very few individuals surviving one or more catastrophic population bottlenecks in the past, with the first possibly occurring during the late Pleistocene extinctions, around 10,000 years ago, according to analysis of mitochondrial DNA (Menotti-Raymond and O'Brien 1995).  <br/><br/>It is unclear what sort of agent could have caused such an extreme population decline in a wide-ranging species, and alternative explanations have been explored.  Hedrick (1996) suggested the low levels of genetic variation could result from a very low effective population size (the estimated percentage of the population that is actually passing on its genes), and Kelly's (2001) calculations of effective population size in cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains were quite low (44% or less of the actual population).  She found that only a few females contributed disproportionately to future generations by raising offspring which survived and reproduced (Kelly 2001).  Genetic analysis by Gottelli <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that male cheetahs, on the other hand, passed on their genes more successfully than expected.  Female cheetahs mated with multiple males, many non-resident, with 43% of litters having mixed paternity.  This indicates that rates of genetic loss should be lower than anticipated by Kelly (2001), and underscores the importance of cheetah mobility in their ecology and conservation.   <br/><br/>While the causes of the cheetah's low levels of genetic variation are unclear, what is clear is that large populations are necessary to conserve it.  Since cheetahs are a low density species, conservation areas need to be quite large, larger than most protected areas.	eng
219	threats	Durant, S., Marker, L., Purchase, N., Belbachir, F., Hunter, L., Packer, C., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Sogbohossou, E. & Bauer, H., 2008	In Eastern Africa, habitat loss and fragmentation was identified as the primary threat during a conservation strategy workshop (Anon. 2007).   Because cheetahs occur at low densities, conservation of viable populations requires large scale land management planning; most existing protected areas are not large enough to ensure the long term survival of cheetahs (Durant 2007).<br/><br/>A depleted wild ungulate prey base is of serious concern in northern Africa (Berzins and Belbachir 2006).  Cheetahs which turn to livestock are killed as pests (Claro 2003; Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 2003; Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Conflict with farmers and depletion of the wild prey base are also considered significant threats in parts of Eastern Africa (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In Iran, the Asiatic Cheetah <em>A. j. venaticus</em> is threatened indirectly by loss of prey base through human hunting activities. In addition, most protected areas are open to seasonal livestock grazing, which potentially places huge pressure on the resident ungulate populations through disturbance and potential competition (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). Additionally, domestic dogs accompanying the herds present a likely threat to both cheetahs and their prey (H. Ziaie pers. comm. 2008)  An emerging threat is the possibility of fragmentation into discontinuous subpopulations as a result of increasing developmental pressures (mining, oil, roads, railways); this is particularly the case in Kavir N.P., currently the north-western limit of the Asiatic Cheetah's range (L. Hunter and L. Marker pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conflict with farmers and ranchers is the major threat to cheetahs in southern Africa (Purchase <em>et al</em>. 2007).  Cheetah are often killed or persecuted because they are a perceived threat to livestock, despite the fact that they cause relatively little damage. In Namibia, very large numbers of cheetahs have been live-trapped and removed by ranchers seeking to protect their livestock (from government permit records, Nowell [1996] calculated that over 9,500 cheetahs were removed from 1978-1995).  While removal rates have fallen, in part due to intensified conservation and education efforts, many ranchers still view cheetahs as a problem animal, despite research showing that cheetahs were only responsible for 3% of livestock losses to predators (Marke, 2002). Although cheetah in Iran have been killed because of predation on livestock, since 2003, there has been no direct evidence of killing cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007), though it is likely most incidents go unreported. <br/><br/>Cheetahs are also vulnerable to being caught in snares set for other species (Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>Another threat to the cheetah is interspecific competition with other large predators, especially lions. On the open, short-grass plains of the Serengeti, juvenile mortality can be as high as 95%, largely due to predation by lions (Laurenson 1994). However, mortality rates are lower in more closed habitats (Caro in press). <br/><br/>CITES allows legal trade in live animals and hunting trophies under an Appendix I quota system (annual quotas: Namibia - 150; Zimbabwe - 50; Botswana - 5).  This was accepted by CITES as a way to enhance the economic value of cheetahs on private lands and provide an economic incentive for their conservation (Nowell 1996).  The global captive cheetah population is not self-sustaining; cheetahs breed poorly in captivity and in 2001 30% of the captive population was wild-caught (Marker 2002).  While analysis of trade records in the CITES database shows that these countries have reported almost no live exports since the late 1990s, Purchase <em>et al.</em> (2007) are concerned that there is a substantial illegal cross-border trade in live animals.  There is also concern about illegal trade in skins, as well as capture of live cubs for trade to the Middle East (Anon. 2007).  There is an increasing trade in cubs from north-east Africa into the Middle East (Amir 2005),  but there is currently little trade in cubs from the Sahel region, where it was previously considered a major problem (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are active during the daytime and there is concern that they can be driven off their kills by tourist cars crowding around, or mothers separated from their cubs.  Burney (1980) conducted a study and concluded that tourist cars did not seem to harm cheetahs, and in fact sometimes helped, as cheetah chases more often ended in a kill when there were cars around, distracting prey, providing cover from which to stalk, or otherwise waking cheetahs up to notice prey in the area.  However, tourist numbers have risen sharply by then, and its potential impact on cheetahs remains a concern (Caro 1994; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>The Eastern African cheetah conservation strategy (Anon. 2007) identified four sets of constraints to mitigating these threats across a large spatial scale.  Political constraints include lack of land use planning, insecurity and political instability in some ecologically important areas, and lack of political will to foster cheetah conservation.  Economic constraints include lack of financial resources to support conservation, and lack of incentives for local people to conserve wildlife.  Social constraints include negative conceptions of cheetahs, lack of capacity to achieve  conservation, lack of environmental awareness, rising human populations, and social changes leading to subdivision of land and subsequent habitat fragmentation.  These potentially mutable human constraints contrast with several biological constraints which are characteristic of cheetahs and cannot be changed, including wide-ranging behaviour, negative interactions with other large carnivores, and potential susceptibility to disease.<br/><br/>Disease is a potential threat to the cheetah (Anon. 2007), as its reduced genetic diversity can increase a population's susceptibility  (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1983).  However, the most serious disease mortality thus far documented in wild cheetahs was from naturally occurring anthrax in Namibia's Etosha National Park; cheetahs, unlike other predators, do not scavenge carcasses of ungulates killed by anthrax, and thus had no built-up immunity when they preyed upon springbok sick with the disease (Lindeque <em>et al</em>. 1998).  The cheetah's low density may offer some measure of protection against infectious disease; for example, cheetahs were not affected by an outbreak of Canine Distemper Virus in the Serengeti National Park which killed over 1/3 of the lion population.  Serological surveys of cheetahs on Namibian farmland indicate some exposure and survival of the disease (Marker 2002).	eng
219	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	In Eastern Africa, habitat loss and fragmentation was identified as the primary threat during a conservation strategy workshop (Anon. 2007).   Because cheetahs occur at low densities, conservation of viable populations requires large scale land management planning; most existing protected areas are not large enough to ensure the long term survival of cheetahs (Durant 2007).<br/><br/>A depleted wild ungulate prey base is of serious concern in northern Africa (Berzins and Belbachir 2006).  Cheetahs which turn to livestock are killed as pests (Claro 2003; Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 2003; Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Conflict with farmers and depletion of the wild prey base are also considered significant threats in parts of Eastern Africa (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>In Iran, the Asiatic Cheetah <em>A. j. venaticus</em> is threatened indirectly by loss of prey base through human hunting activities. In addition, most protected areas are open to seasonal livestock grazing, which potentially places huge pressure on the resident ungulate populations through disturbance and potential competition (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 2007). Additionally, domestic dogs accompanying the herds present a likely threat to both cheetahs and their prey (H. Ziaie pers. comm. 2008)  An emerging threat is the possibility of fragmentation into discontinuous subpopulations as a result of increasing developmental pressures (mining, oil, roads, railways); this is particularly the case in Kavir N.P., currently the north-western limit of the Asiatic Cheetah's range (L. Hunter and L. Marker pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conflict with farmers and ranchers is the major threat to cheetahs in southern Africa (Purchase <em>et al</em>. 2007).  Cheetah are often killed or persecuted because they are a perceived threat to livestock, despite the fact that they cause relatively little damage. In Namibia, very large numbers of cheetahs have been live-trapped and removed by ranchers seeking to protect their livestock (from government permit records, Nowell [1996] calculated that over 9,500 cheetahs were removed from 1978-1995).  While removal rates have fallen, in part due to intensified conservation and education efforts, many ranchers still view cheetahs as a problem animal, despite research showing that cheetahs were only responsible for 3% of livestock losses to predators (Marke, 2002). Although cheetah in Iran have been killed because of predation on livestock, since 2003, there has been no direct evidence of killing cheetahs (Hunter <em>et al</em>. 2007), though it is likely most incidents go unreported. <br/><br/>Cheetahs are also vulnerable to being caught in snares set for other species (Ray <em>et al</em>. 2005; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>Another threat to the cheetah is interspecific competition with other large predators, especially lions. On the open, short-grass plains of the Serengeti, juvenile mortality can be as high as 95%, largely due to predation by lions (Laurenson 1994). However, mortality rates are lower in more closed habitats (Caro in press). <br/><br/>CITES allows legal trade in live animals and hunting trophies under an Appendix I quota system (annual quotas: Namibia - 150; Zimbabwe - 50; Botswana - 5).  This was accepted by CITES as a way to enhance the economic value of cheetahs on private lands and provide an economic incentive for their conservation (Nowell 1996).  The global captive cheetah population is not self-sustaining; cheetahs breed poorly in captivity and in 2001 30% of the captive population was wild-caught (Marker 2002).  While analysis of trade records in the CITES database shows that these countries have reported almost no live exports since the late 1990s, Purchase <em>et al.</em> (2007) are concerned that there is a substantial illegal cross-border trade in live animals.  There is also concern about illegal trade in skins, as well as capture of live cubs for trade to the Middle East (Anon. 2007).  There is an increasing trade in cubs from north-east Africa into the Middle East (Amir 2005),  but there is currently little trade in cubs from the Sahel region, where it was previously considered a major problem (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Cheetahs are active during the daytime and there is concern that they can be driven off their kills by tourist cars crowding around, or mothers separated from their cubs.  Burney (1980) conducted a study and concluded that tourist cars did not seem to harm cheetahs, and in fact sometimes helped, as cheetah chases more often ended in a kill when there were cars around, distracting prey, providing cover from which to stalk, or otherwise waking cheetahs up to notice prey in the area.  However, tourist numbers have risen sharply by then, and its potential impact on cheetahs remains a concern (Caro 1994; Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>The Eastern African cheetah conservation strategy (Anon. 2007) identified four sets of constraints to mitigating these threats across a large spatial scale.  Political constraints include lack of land use planning, insecurity and political instability in some ecologically important areas, and lack of political will to foster cheetah conservation.  Economic constraints include lack of financial resources to support conservation, and lack of incentives for local people to conserve wildlife.  Social constraints include negative conceptions of cheetahs, lack of capacity to achieve  conservation, lack of environmental awareness, rising human populations, and social changes leading to subdivision of land and subsequent habitat fragmentation.  These potentially mutable human constraints contrast with several biological constraints which are characteristic of cheetahs and cannot be changed, including wide-ranging behaviour, negative interactions with other large carnivores, and potential susceptibility to disease.<br/><br/>Disease is a potential threat to the cheetah (Anon. 2007), as its reduced genetic diversity can increase a population's susceptibility  (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 1983).  However, the most serious disease mortality thus far documented in wild cheetahs was from naturally occurring anthrax in Namibia's Etosha National Park; cheetahs, unlike other predators, do not scavenge carcasses of ungulates killed by anthrax, and thus had no built-up immunity when they preyed upon springbok sick with the disease (Lindeque <em>et al</em>. 1998).  The cheetah's low density may offer some measure of protection against infectious disease; for example, cheetahs were not affected by an outbreak of Canine Distemper Virus in the Serengeti National Park which killed over 1/3 of the lion population.  Serological surveys of cheetahs on Namibian farmland indicate some exposure and survival of the disease (Marker 2002).	eng
222	conservation	Friedland, K.D. & Kynard, B., 2004	The shortnose sturgeon was listed as endangered under the inaugural U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1967. At that time, very little information was available regarding life history and behavior of this species. Since then, considerable work has been accomplished to determine habitats and migrations important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment, use of fish passage and fish protection structures, and fish culture. The Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery and Management Plan (NMFS 1998) identifies recovery actions that would help to establish population levels that would allow de-listing of the shortnose sturgeon. <br/> <br/>Captive broodstock and several generations of progeny are currently being held at federal fish hatcheries operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and at a research laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey. Additionally, several years of research on spawning has produced larvae from natural mate selection and spawning of adults in an artificial spawning stream, a process that appears to produce superior young fish for conservation stocking.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
222	distribution	Friedland, K.D. & Kynard, B., 2004	Shortnose sturgeons occur in many of the large coastal rivers of eastern North America. From survey and tagging data, the National Marine Fisheries Service now recognizes 19 distinct population segments. The Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery Team considered sturgeon populations from two general regions, northern rivers and southern rivers. The largest populations in the northern region appear to be in the Saint John, NB, Canada (Dadswell 1979), Delaware, NJ-PA (Hastings <em>et al</em>. 1987), Kennebec, ME (Squiers <em>et al</em>. 1982), and Hudson, NY rivers (Bain <em>et al</em>. 1995).  <br/> <br/>See the <a href="%E2%80%9Dhttp://www.natureserve.org/explorer/%E2%80%9C">NatureServe Explorer</a> database for a more detailed description of this species’ range.	eng
222	habitat	Friedland, K.D. & Kynard, B., 2004	Shortnose sturgeon use of saltwater is generally amphidromous throughout most of the species' range, although far northern populations are anadromous (Kynard 1997). Spawning takes place in upper freshwater areas, while feeding (summering) and wintering occurs in both fresh and saline environments. This species typically spends its entire life history in the natal river and estuary and only rarely moves any great distance in near-coastal marine waters. There are no naturally land-locked populations of the species, but two rivers have populations that are segmented by dams. <br/> <br/>This species typically attains an adult size of 75–100 cm total length, though the maximum recorded size for a Canadian-caught female was 1.43 m and 23.6 kg (Dadswell <em>et al</em>. 1984).  Maximum ages determined for female and male shortnose sturgeon (again in Canada) were 67 and 32 years, respectively (Vladykov and Greeley 1963).  Prespawning migrations in northern populations are triggered by increasing water temperatures of 7–10°C, and during spawning, males are attracted to females by a female pheromone (Kynard and Horgan 2002a).  Spawning occurs at water temperatures of 7–15°C.  Spawning habitat is a substrate of rock or large gravel (usually rubble), and water depth during spawning is highly variable. Spawning suitability windows follow day length of 13.9–14.9 h, water temperature of 6.5–15°C, and river discharge that provides 30–120 cm/sec (mean 70 cm/sec) bottom velocity. All spawning windows must be open simultaneously for spawning to occur. Yearling shortnose sturgeon initiate the major dispersal that moves young fish to join older juveniles and adults in fresh or salt water foraging concentration areas. Yearling and older juveniles use the same summering and wintering habitats as adults (Kynard <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>In southern waters, shortnose males may mature in 2-3 years and females in 4-6 years. In northern portions of the range, maturation may not occur for 10-15 years (maximum). Spawning periodicity is poorly understood but in the northern part of the range, females are highly variable (2-9 years) and males spawn at 1-5 year intervals depending on fish age and foraging conditions. Some males in northern populations spawn annually.	eng
222	population	Friedland, K.D. & Kynard, B., 2004	The estimate of the total current population size for the Hudson River indicates a 95% confidence interval of 26,000 to 55,000 individuals. The Saint John, Kennebec, and Delaware subpopulations appear to be on the order of 5,000 to 15,000 fish each. Estimates of other northern populations are the Connecticut River (CT-MA) — about 1,200 fish, and the Merrimack River (MA) of less than 100 individuals (Kieffer and Kynard 1993, Kynard 1997, Savoy 2004). Though many rivers in the southern region have been documented to contain shortnose sturgeon, few have had population estimates conducted. Only abundance in the Ogeechee and Altamaha rivers of Georgia have been estimated and both appear to be on the order of 1,000 fish each (Rogers and Weber 1994). Shortnose sturgeon occur only rarely in Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries and no breeding population has been confirmed here. <br/> <br/>Walsh <em>et al</em>. (2001) analyzed shortnose sturgeon populations from two drainages in Maine and the Hudson River for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences between the Kennebec and Androscoggin stocks and even greater separation when compared to the Hudson stock. These data support the putative stock structure and distinct population segment designation adopted for shortnose sturgeon.	eng
222	threats	Friedland, K.D. & Kynard, B., 2004	Although some shortnose sturgeon may be harvested incidental to Atlantic sturgeon in Canada, there are no legal fisheries or by-catch allowances in U.S. waters. Principal threats to the survival of this species are blockage of up- and downstream migrations at dams, habitat loss or degradation due to dams and dam operations, river channel dredging, and pollution. Southern populations are particularly at risk due to water withdrawal from rivers and groundwaters and from eutrophication that directly degrades river water quality causing loss of habitat. Direct mortality is known to occur from impingement on cooling water intake screens, dredging, and incidental capture in other fisheries (NMFS 1998).	eng
223	conservation	St. Pierre, R. & Runstrom, A., 2004	Commercial harvest of lake sturgeon is prohibited in all U.S. waters and strictly managed in Canadian waters with closed seasons, size limits and gear restrictions.  <br/> <br/>Angling in some waters of Michigan is allowed with several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear. In Wisconsin, harvest is limited to two separate sportfishing seasons. Spear fishermen must purchase a one-fish sturgeon spear tag and they are allowed to spear a fish from early February until a specified quota is reached. In Lake Winnebago, the 2000 quota was set at 400 adult females, 400 juvenile females and 2,150 males. Once 80% of the quota is reached the fishery is closed after the next day. Typical spear fishing harvest in recent years produced 1,500 to 2,500 fish. Wisconsin’s hook and line fishery allows the catch of one fish per angler per season with a minimum size range of 127–178 cm, depending on location, during early September through 15 October. All anglers must apply for and use a free tag and the fishery produces about 300–400 fish per season.  <br/> <br/>Sport fishing for lake sturgeon is currently prohibited in the Mississippi River but is allowed in some tributaries in Wisconsin and Minnesota (e.g., Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers) during a short hook and line season in the fall.  Angling in Minnesota has several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear and the reported annual sport catch was 2,200–4,200 kg in 1998–2000.  Harvest is not allowed in Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois and South Dakota. <br/> <br/>According to the CITES Management Authority of Canada (CMAC 2000) sturgeon harvest in Canada consists of aboriginal, commercial and recreational fisheries. The entire North American commercial harvest of lake sturgeon comes from Canada where in 1997, 223 mt were caught in New Brunswick and Quebec, with 90% (200 mt) being taken from the St. Lawrence River. Catch in Ontario during the late 1990s ranged from 5–8 mt. Most of this came from Lake Huron with a small amount from Lake St. Clair. In 1998, international trade in lake sturgeon meat was reported to be 18.2 mt exported from Canada to the U.S. (mostly New York). No caviar exports are reported and no export quotas have been established by range states. Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans reported that in recent years total recreational catch from the North and South Saskatchewan rivers in Alberta and Saskatchewan amounted to about 1,000 fish. <br/> <br/><em>Acipenser fulvescens</em> is not listed as a species at risk by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Most subpopulations are thought to be capable of sustaining well-regulated fisheries. Although the species is managed and protected in Canada under the Federal Fisheries Act, regulations differ between provinces and are revised annually. This species is listed under provincial legislation as "threatened" in Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Ontario, Quebec and Saskatchewan (CMAC 2000). <br/> <br/>In recent years, interest in the restoration of lake sturgeon has increased greatly. Partnerships have been developed throughout the Great Lakes basin between state and federal natural resource agencies, commercial and sport fishers and other water users. Numerous management and recovery plans have been completed for select waters within the lake sturgeon range and are being implemented as resources allow. Their goals include conservation, rehabilitation and enhancement of sturgeon populations, completion of status assessments, harvest restrictions, identification and restoration of critical habitats and elimination of negative effects of dams.  <br/> <br/>Construction of spawning habitats using coarse stone rip-rapping has been undertaken in some states (particularly Wisconsin) and appears to be highly successful. Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. In New York, sturgeon eggs are taken from wild stocks in the St. Lawrence River and cultured fingerlings have been reared and released in several locations since 1995. Survival has been high and populations appear to be recovering. In Missouri over 210,000 lake sturgeon fingerlings have been stocked in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers since 1986. Survival of stocked fish is considered excellent as tagged lake sturgeon have been recaptured in the Mississippi, Missouri, Gasconade and Osage rivers and commercial fishermen have reported incidental catches reaching nuisance proportions (Hesse and Carreiro 1997).  Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is also under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. Wisconsin DNR propagates some lake sturgeon for restocking purposes with cultured fish only being placed into the same basins from which broodstock were taken. The Tennessee Valley Authority has stocked thousands of young lake sturgeon within the Ohio River Basin.   <br/> <br/>A Lake Sturgeon Management Plan has been implemented in Alberta since 1997. This involves a zero catch limit on the North Saskatchewan River; and on the South Saskatchewan, a closed season during the 1 April to 15 June spawning period with a one fish limit (greater than 130 cm) outside that restricted season. There is no aboriginal fishery in Alberta. In Saskatchewan, a self-imposed moratorium on commercial catch of lake sturgeon has been in place since 1996 and sport angling has not been allowed since 1999. A multi-agency study of habitat, fish migration and abundance is currently underway (CMAC 2000). Manitoba reduced its possession limit of lake sturgeon to zero in 1995. The remaining few commercial fisheries closed down during the 1990s but catch and release angling is still allowed in addition to aboriginal subsistence fishing in most rivers. Lake sturgeon population management has been initiated in several Manitoba rivers with involvement of First Nations communities. <br/> <br/>In Ontario, a Lake Sturgeon Assessment Program has been implemented for Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair, including population abundance estimation and tagging to identify movements and verify ages. As enough information is developed a management plan for the species will be drafted. Commercial catch quotas of lake sturgeon were established in 1984 and were adjusted periodically - through never achieved. In 1997, the catch quotas amounted to 1,500 kg in Lake St. Clair and 13,124 kg in Lake Huron. Huron catch that year was 5,471 kg, the highest of the previous several years. <br/> <br/>Quebec allows the harvest of lake sturgeon with 19–20.3 cm mesh gill nets only during an open season of 14 June through 31 October. A minimum fish length is in effect and quotas are enforced by the requirement that all fish for market must be tagged, and the tag must stay with the fish until it is processed. Quebec sport fishermen may catch and keep one fish per day.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
223	distribution	St. Pierre, R. & Runstrom, A., 2004	Lake sturgeon spend their entire life cycle in freshwater and are widely distributed in North America. They currently range throughout much of the drainages of the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, Hudson Bay-James Bay, and the Saskatchewan River (Pflieger 1975, Becker 1983, Ferguson and Duckworth 1997). In the Mississippi basin this species occurs from the headwaters in Minnesota to the northern portion of the state of Louisiana and up the Missouri River into southern South Dakota. There is no known natural exchange of stocks between the Great Lakes and western Canadian provinces and those of the Mississippi River basin, though some stockings in the Mississippi have included lake sturgeon of Great Lakes Basin origin.  <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range, see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.	eng
223	habitat	St. Pierre, R. & Runstrom, A., 2004	Based on pectoral fin ray sections it has been determined that lake sturgeon can live to be over 100 years old. One individual caught in Lake of the Woods, Ontario in 1953 was estimated to be 152 years old (Priegel and Wirth 1971). Lake sturgeon can reach lengths of 1.9 m, and weigh 91 kg. However, a 141 kg lake sturgeon was reportedly caught in Lake Superior in 1922 and a fish of equal weight was caught in Lake Michigan in 1943. Most fish reported in the literature were less than 35 years old. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon from Black Lake in Michigan measured 75–193 cm total length (TL) and were 9–64 years old, with most fish less than 20 years old (Baker and Borgeson 1999). In the Lake Winnebago system of Wisconsin, female lake sturgeon reach sexual maturity between 24–26 years of age when they are about 140 cm long. Females spawn only every 3–6 years and can produce up to 700,000 eggs each time. Few male lake sturgeon mature before they are 114 cm long or 14–16 years old. Males spawn every one or two years (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Lyons and Kempinger 1992). In the Sturgeon River of Upper Michigan, male spawning intervals of two, three and four years were observed while females returned to spawn every three to seven years (Auer 1999). In Canadian rivers and lakes, mature male lake sturgeon range in size from 76–98 cm and females 84–117 cm (Houston 1987). Compared to sturgeon from Lake Winnebago and the Great Lakes, relatively little information is available regarding age, growth, maturity and spawning periodicity of lake sturgeon in the Mississippi River basin. <br/> <br/>During the spring season, lake sturgeon spawning occurs when water temperatures rise and reach 9–15 °C (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Kempinger 1988).  Spawning sturgeon will select shallow areas over hard clean substrate with relatively strong current velocities (Kempinger 1988). <br/> <br/>Usual lake sturgeon habitat is the highly productive shoal areas of larger lakes and rivers. They require moderate to swift currents and large rough substrates for spawning and embryo development. Lake sturgeon in the Upper Mississippi River prefer habitat in or adjacent to flow, but with relatively low to moderate current velocity (Knights, B. C., USGS, unpublished data).  They are rarely found in backwater habitats without flow. In the Mississippi basin habitat that is in or adjacent to current is generally depositional and has relatively compact silt or silt-sand substrates with presumed high densities of benthic invertebrates. These areas occur at the lower end of navigation pools near the main channel, the mouths of tributaries and large secondary channels, and at some channel border areas. While migrating, presumably en-route to spawning habitats or high use (feeding/home) areas, lake sturgeon will use areas of the river with relatively high current velocities including tailwaters, the main channel in the upper and mid reaches of navigation pools, and tributaries. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon are known to move great distances to spawning and feeding habitats (Auer 1996). Wisconsin DNR recently reported that a sturgeon originally tagged in Lake Winnebago in October 1978 was recovered almost 19 years later at Locust Point Reef in Lake Erie, a minimum travel distance of almost 1,100 km (R. Bruch, WI DNR, news release).	eng
223	population	St. Pierre, R. & Runstrom, A., 2004	Lake sturgeon were, and in some cases continue to be, an important component of Native American diet and culture. Up until about 1870, lake sturgeon were primarily considered a nuisance by commercial fisherman and were stacked on the shores to rot (Milner 1874 cited in Becker 1983). Within the next 30 years the value of sturgeon for flesh and the use of roe for caviar became economically important. During heavy fishing years in the late 1800s lake sturgeon harvest from the Great Lakes averaged over 1,814 metric tons (mt) per year. In the peak harvest year of 1885, 4,901 mt were reported of which 2,359 tons came from Lake Erie alone. Sturgeon populations declined dramatically after 1900 and although some incidental harvest was reported until 1977, numbers were extremely low after 1956. <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon populations in the Great Lakes were greatly reduced due to overfishing during the last several decades of the nineteenth century they appear to be on the rebound throughout the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence basins with spawning populations being documented from 63 locations and spawning size estimates calculated for 17 of these sites.  The current status of lake sturgeon populations in most of the Great Lakes Basin, the St. Lawrence River and in Wisconsin’s Lake Winnebago system is stable or increasing.  <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon were generally considered to be rare to uncommon in most waters of the Mississippi River basin since the late 1800s. In 1989, this species was declared as threatened by the American Fisheries Society in all Mississippi River states except Louisiana where they are believed to be extirpated (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1989). The Department of Natural Resources in Iowa and Illinois and the Missouri Department of Conservation list the lake sturgeon as endangered in their respective states, and in Minnesota, the lake sturgeon is listed as a species of special concern. The species appears to be extirpated from its former range in Alabama and Arkansas. <br/> <br/>The current status of lake sturgeon throughout the Mississippi basin is considered to be severely depressed from historical abundance levels. However, modern population assessment studies are lacking and rate of stock decline or growth is unknown. Native stocks were extremely depressed prior to the stocking program undertaken by the Missouri Department of Conservation. Following the first releases into Mark Twain Lake (Salt River, a Pool 24 tributary) in 1984, then at Louisiana on Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several Missouri River locations in 1988, increasing reports of incidental catch in commercial gear and by recreational anglers has been occurring.	eng
223	threats	St. Pierre, R. & Runstrom, A., 2004	The life history characteristics of slow growth, late maturation, and irregular spawning periodicity make lake sturgeon subpopulations particularly vulnerable to over-exploitation. Anthropogenic effects such as industrial and municipal pollution, blockage of access to habitats by dykes and dams, channeliszation and elimination of backwater areas, dewatering and water level fluctuations, physical destruction of spawning habitat, and inundation of habitat by reservoirs are known to threaten sturgeon subpopulations (Rochard <em>et al</em>. 1990, Auer 1996, Beamesderfer and Farr 1997, Noakes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Direct mortality of lake sturgeon due to impacts with commercial and/or recreational navigation vessels has been documented.  <br/> <br/>Dams may be the greatest impediment to lake sturgeon rehabilitation in the Great Lakes. Although there are numerous recorded instances of tagged sturgeon passing through navigation locks, many fish are precluded or delayed from reaching spawning or preferred feeding waters. Dams without locks completely block sturgeon passage and serve as severe impediments to lake sturgeon recovery in the Mississippi basin. Spawning and nursery areas are further degraded from land use problems such as erosion, sedimentation, and adverse discharges from point and non-point sources. Other concerns in the Great Lakes include stream channelization, over-exploitation and/or illegal harvest, lack of public concern and potential adverse impacts of lampricides on sensitive life stages.  <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon harvest from the Mississippi River is prohibited, financial incentive to collect roe for caviar remains. Small population sizes may limit poachers from targeting this species but it is likely that incidental captures are utilized and end up in the black market. With the first stocking of lake sturgeon by Missouri DOC now at age 17, there is increasing concern that poachers will target them as the females reach maturity within the next few years.	eng
224	conservation	Bronzi, P., Congiu, L., Rossi, R., Zerunian, S. & Arlati, G., 2009	The species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. naccarii</span> is listed in the Annex 2 of the Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Together with the other species of sturgeons once present in Italy (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sturio</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Huso huso</span>), capture of the species is forbidden by law in the regions of the Padana valley, Lombardia, Emilia Romagna and Veneto.<br/><br/>Artificial reproduction in fish farm (ex situ) is effective and successful since 1988, from an original population caught from the wild in the 1970s and from F1, and the species is continuously restocked in Italy. However, there is no evidence to confirm continuing reproduction in the wild.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for this species has been carried out by several public administrations since the early 1990s, with scientific research and restocking actions of about a total of half millions of specimens of different size reintroduced in the public waters (rivers Adda, Oglio, Piave, Po). The last part of the plan was supported also by a Life project. <br/><br/>A project for a fish passage allowing to the fish to overcome the Isola Serafini's dam is under evaluation by the public authority. This project was proposed in occasion of the building of a new and bigger navigation lock close by the old one on the Po river, in the Province of Piacenza.	eng
224	distribution	Bronzi, P., Congiu, L., Rossi, R., Zerunian, S. & Arlati, G., 2009	Present exclusively in the southern part of Europe, apparently restricted to the Adriatic Sea area, in particular in the fresh water of northern part of Italy and of oriental coasts of Adriatic Sea.<br/><br/>Historically the species was present in the sea from Venice and Trieste to Greece and Corfù (Berg 1932); in the Venetian lagoons during fall (Faber 1883). Recorded in the rivers Adige, Brenta, Bacchiglione, Livenza, Piave, Tagliamento and Po and its affluents, once up to Turin (Festa 1892), at Carignano and Carmagnola (Delmastro 1982) and in the Po delta (Tortonese 1989, Paccagnella 1948, D?Ancona 1924, Pavesi 1907); in the Ticino and Adda rivers (Bernini and Nardi 1989, 1990); along the Albanian coasts (Filipini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1956) and Croatia (Mrakovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995), Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro (Lake Skadar). Last recorded from Albania in 1997 in the Buna river (Ludwig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). There is evidence that the species was previously found in Greece (Economidis 1973) but it is no longer known there. It was reintroduced to Greece (Pascos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) but there is no evidence that it has established a viable population. There have been conflicting opinions regarding its presence in Spain.<br/><br/>At present, as a consequence of a recovery plan carried out by several public institutions from 1990 to 2007, specimens have been recorded in the Po river and its inflow rivers (Ticino, Adda, Oglio, Mincio), in the river Adige, Livenza, Piave, Tagliamento. The Isola Serafini Dam on the middle of the Po river, prevents the migratory movements of the downstream populations in the upstream part of the river. No evidence for natural spawning of wild or released individuals are available.	eng
224	habitat	Bronzi, P., Congiu, L., Rossi, R., Zerunian, S. & Arlati, G., 2009	The Adriatic Sturgeon lives in large rivers where past reproduction occurred from May to July. It is a long-lived species. This is an anadromous species living mainly in the rivers, spawning in fresh water after a marine period of growth during which it remains near the shore, at the mouths of the rivers, at a depth between 10 to 40 m. The upstream migration into Italian rivers occurs during the first months of the year (Paccagnella 1948; D?Ancona 1924). It occurs over sandy or muddy bottoms. The remaining suitable spawning areas are at the confluence between the Po river and its tributaries, Adda, Ticino etc.	eng
224	population	Bronzi, P., Congiu, L., Rossi, R., Zerunian, S. & Arlati, G., 2009	Artificial reproduction in fish farms has been effective and successful since 1988 (Arlati <em>et al</em>. 1988), and the species is continuously restocked in Italy. However, there is no evidence to confirm successful reproduction in the wild. The presence of natural populations in Italy cannot be excluded because of some sporadic catches of individuals of possible wild origin. Spawning has not been recorded at suspected spawning grounds over the past 15 years.&#160;A land locked population seems to be present in the river <st1:place w:st="on">Ticino.</st1:place><br/><br/>A genetic comparison between Italian and Albanian samples collected some decades ago showed a high level of diversification and suggested that the different populations should be considered as distinct conservation units (Ludwig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>It was reintroduced to Greece (Pascos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), but there is no evidence that it has established a viable population. <br/><br/>It is considered as regionally extinct in Croatia, Albania and Montenegro.<br/><br/>Of approximately 2,000 specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. naccarii</span> fished in the Po River and sold at the fish market between 1981 and 1988, more than 80% of the specimens weighed less than 3.5 kg, having been taken before the reproductive phase (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1991).	eng
224	threats	Bronzi, P., Congiu, L., Rossi, R., Zerunian, S. & Arlati, G., 2009	Overfishing (both legal and illegal), in particular of pre-reproductive sizes, threatens this species, as do barriers to migratory routes which reduce reproductive success; fragmentation of populations, particularly by dams for hydropower on the Po river (Isola Serafini's Dam, Piacenza) is another threat. Water pollution, the Allee effect, and competition for habitats with allochthonous species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Silurus glanis</span>) also threaten this species.	eng
225	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	There is a zero quota of exporting of Caviar (CAB) but there is still a catch for domestic use. Iran and Russia have established gene bank conservation for this species for both live specimens and cryopreservation with DNA and tissue samples. The 2004 progeny have been produced from captive bred individuals - juveniles were released into the Don and Kuban rivers - and there are between 15 and 20 'farms' in Russia (Chebenov pers comm.). In Iran 80,000-1 million fingerlings (3-5 g each) (from ranched individuals) are released annually to the Caspian Sea (Pourkazemi pers comm.). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.	eng
225	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species has been recorded from the Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas, and some rivers (Danube up to Bratislava, Volga up to Kazan, Ural up to Chkalov, Don and Kuban, Rioni). It was introduced to Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan), to the upper Illi River in China, and to River Syr-Darya (Aral basin) in the 1960s.	eng
225	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Habitat : At sea, close to shores and estuaries. In freshwater, deep stretches of large rivers. Juveniles in shallow riverine habitats. This species spawns in strong-current habitats in main courses of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom.<br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed), with some non-migratory freshwater populations. Males reproduce for the first time at 6-15 years, females at 12-22, with an average generation length of 15 years (but in the Danube, the average population age has now increased and in the Caspian Sea, the average population age is decreasing because of overharvesting). In most drainages, there are two migration runs, in spring and autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the river until the following spring to spawn. Females reproduce every 2-3 and males every 1-2 years in March-May and at temperatures above 10°C. Most juveniles move to sea in their first summer and remain there until maturity. Some individuals remain in freshwater for a longer period. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic fishes, molluscs and crustaceans.<br/><br/>This species has the highest relative fecundity for any sturgeon species (Chebanov pers. comm.).	eng
225	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	It is currently known from the Caspian Sea, where it ascends only the Ural river (where it naturally reproduces) and the Sefid Rud River (where there is no natural reproduction), where 5 fish were caught in 2002 (Parandavar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In the Black Sea,&#160; it ascends the Rioni (last recorded 1997 through bycatch (Zarkua pers. comm.)). In the Danube it was last recorded in 2003 in Serbia at Apatin (released alive) and in 2005 in Mura in Hungary (killed); both these caught fish were males (Simonovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003; Streibel pers. comm.). In Romania, according to a fisherman survey carried out between 1996-2001, 15 individuals were caught by Romanian fishermen (last scientifically recorded in 1950s) (Suciu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) .<br/><br/>Little catch data is available. It has not been caught in Ukraine for the past 30 years. In Kasakhstan 12 tonnes were caught in 1990, 26 tonnes in 1999; in Iran 1.9 tonnes were caught in 1990, 21 tonnes in 1999 (CITES Doc. AC.16.7.2), and 1 ton in 2005/6, with 0.5-1% of total sturgeon catch in Iran belonging to this species (in past 20 years) (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). According to Caspian Aquatic Bioresource Commission (CAB), since 2001/2 export quota for caviar is zero for all Caspian range states.	eng
225	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Over harvesting, bycatch and illegal fishing (poaching) along with dams, water abstraction and drought has led to the loss of spawning habitats/ground and has caused massive population declines. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES Doc. AC.16.7.2).<br/><br/>Transfers of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> from the Caspian Sea, carrying a nematode parasite, were introduced to the Aral sea in the late 1960s and along with increasing salinity, helped cause the extirpation of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nudiventris</span> in the Aral sea within a few years (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>Hybridisation between this species and all sturgeons and especially <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> occurs in freshwater naturally (Chebanov pers. Com.).	eng
227	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Most range states have legislation regulating or banning the catch of the species, and there are stocking programmes for the Danube and Drava rivers. Restocking of the species is reported in Bulgaria, Hungary, the former Yugoslavia and Russian Federation. In 2009 Romania stocked <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ruthenus</span> for the first time in the Danube (Suciu pers. comm.). The majority of international trade is taken from aquaculture in the form of live juveniles (CITES 2000). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Better fisheries monitoring is needed along with enforcement to ban illegal catches.<br/><br/>Many populations of this species are undergoing a serious and dramatic decline in recent years and need immediate conservation action. Individual stock Red List assessments are needed for this species.	eng
227	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species is known from rivers draining to Black, Azov and Caspian Seas; Siberia from Ob eastward to Yenisei drainages. Its current strong holds are the Volga, Ural and Danube systems. It was introduced in Pechora drainage in 1928-1950 and in Lake Ladoga basin (most likely not self-sustaining). Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe, without formation of self-sustaining populations. This species has formed self sustaining populations in reservoirs in Russia.	eng
227	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	The Sterlet is found in large rivers, usually in the current and in deep water. As water level rises, it moves to flooded areas to feed. It spawns on gravel in strong-current habitats.<br/><br/>It is a freshwater species; anadromous populations have been extirpated. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-5 years, females at 5-8 (Siberian populations mature later: males at 7-9 years, females at 9-12 years). The average reproductive age is about 10 years, but in the Danube this is lower (seven years) due to intensive fisheries. Females reproduce every 1-2 years and males every year in April-June when the temperature rises above 10°C. This species is largely sedentary; undertaking only short spawning migrations (322 km reported from Danube). There was a migratory population with large-growing individuals in Volga until end of 19th century, feeding in the northern Caspian Sea and moving upriver in autumn. The Sterlet feeds on a wide variety of benthic insect larvae and molluscs.	eng
227	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Comprehensive catch data are not currently available but recorded catches in the Russian Federation decreased by nearly 40% between 1990 (116 tonnes) and 1996 (80.6 tonnes) (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>In the Danube drainage, the only available catch data is from 1958 to 1981, where catches ranged from 117 tonnes in 1963 to 36 tonnes in 1979, with an average catch of 63.5 tonnes per year (CITES 2000). In the mid and lower Danube catches are not often reported as it is a small species so catch data is suspect. Surveys (Juvenile Production Index) show that there is good current spawning in the Danube in Romania, Hungary and Serbia upstream of dams (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006; Knight <em>et al.</em> 2010). In the mid Danube the species supported large scale fisheries at the end of the 19th century, though currently this is much smaller. Over the past 21 years (estimated three generations in the Danube), a decline has happened but it is unknown to exactly what extent. The population has shown some recovery since the 1980s as the pollution from agriculture has been reduced. Hungary has had a re-stocking programme but its success is in question due to lack of brood fish used in the stocking (Guti pers. comm. 2007, to Suciu).	eng
227	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Overfishing, mostly for their meat, is the major threat to the species. However, in the year 2000 the Russian Federation established an export quota for 300 kg caviar, possibly from aquaculture. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). International trade is mostly made up of live individuals (juveniles) for the aquaculture and aquarium trade, almost exclusively sourced from aquaculture.<br/><br/>Dam construction, which began in the 1930s, led to the loss of spawning grounds across the species' range. Now spawning success is reliant upon the correct level of water being released by hydroelectric power stations; lowered water levels in rivers can cause mass death of fingerlings (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Pollution, including oil products, phenols, PCB's and mercury has threatened the species in the Volga system and Siberian rivers.<br/><br/>Hybrids (artificially produced with <span style="font-style: italic;">Huso huso</span>) released in the beginning of the 1980s in Don, are now possibly breeding with native populations (Chebanov pers. comm.)	eng
228	conservation	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically were directed to control local and national fisheries. Commercial sturgeon fishing was prohibited in the Soviet Union during the periods 1923-1930, 1958-1976 and from 1984 to the present (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).&#160; The Amur Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.	eng
228	distribution	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	This species inhabits the entire Amur River basin from the estuary to the river's upper reaches. It occurs in tributaries - the Shilka, Onon, Argun, Nerch, Sungari, Nonni and Ussuri Rivers (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997) - and extremely rarely occurs in Lake Khanka (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997).	eng
228	habitat	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	Habitat: All types of benthic habitats (on or near the bottom) in large rivers and lakes.<br/><br/>Biology: Freshwater. The Amur Sturgeon spawns in lower reaches of the Amur River in strong-current habitats in the main stream of the river, on gravel or sandy-gravel bottom. Spawning peaks from the end of May to July. Adults spawn many times during their life cycle. Spawning periodicity is 4-5 years in females and 3-4 years in males. The generation length of the species ranges from 12 to more than 45 years (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997; Berg 1948), with an estimated average 3 generation period of ~50 years.	eng
228	population	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	Currently, complete population data based on results of direct counts and fishery statistics do not exist for this species. A decline of catches has been observed since the end of the 19th century (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Russian catches of the Amur Sturgeon in the Amur River Basin declined from 607 tonnes in 1891 to about 14 tonnes in 2006 (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).	eng
228	threats	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	The causes of the population declines are still overfishing, both legal and poaching (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).<br/><br/>Recently, environmental pollution in the Amur River basin threatens the habitat and reproduction of this species (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Chen 2007).	eng
229	conservation	Qiwei, W., 2009	Conservation action priorities within the EU 27 are the implementation of Danube Sturgeon Action Plan (supportive stocking will be continued for 5 to 6 years) to help restore breeding individuals.<br/><br/>Restocking measures are ongoing. However, although aquaculture contributes considerably to the maintenance of the stocks, it cannot compensate for the damage caused to natural reproduction by overfishing (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>It is not fully protected in any range state apart from Moldova. A license is required for fishing in most countries and private sturgeon fisheries are banned in Iran. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>According to 2007 Caspian Sea Bioresource Commission, 8.1 million fingerlings of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> were released into Caspian Sea by Khazakstan, Iran and Azerbaijan. Russia released 45 million (all sturgeon species) in 2007, but not specified how many were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> - but this is not less than 12 million (Ruban pers. comm.). <br/><br/>To preserve the commercial importance of Stellate Sturgeon population it is necessary to protect the recruitment from natural spawning and increase the industrial sturgeon aquaculture. Considering the state of stocks of the Caspian Sea it is necessary for all Caspian Sea states to suspend its harvest for commercial purposes (in Russia, the ban on Stellate Sturgeon commercial harvesting has been introduced since 2005). <br/><br/>Stellate sturgeon has no commercial value in the basins of the Black and Azov Seas.	eng
229	conservation	Qiwei, W., 2009	Restocking measures are ongoing. However, although aquaculture contributes considerably to the maintenance of the stocks, it cannot compensate for the damage caused to natural reproduction by overfishing (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>It is not fully protected in any range state apart from Moldova. A licence is required for fishing in most countries and private sturgeon fisheries are banned in Iran. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>According to 2007 Caspian Sea Bioresource Commission, 8.1 million fingerlings of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> were released into Caspian Sea by Khazakstan, Iran and Azerbaijan. Russia released 45 million (all sturgeon species) in 2007, but not specified how many were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. stellatus</span> - but this is not less than 12 million (Ruban pers. comm.). <br/><br/>To preserve the commercial importance of Stellate Sturgeon population it is necessary to protect the recruitment from natural spawning and increase the industrial sturgeon aquaculture. Considering the state of stocks of the Caspian Sea it is necessary for all Caspian Sea states to suspend its harvest for commercial purposes (in Russia, the ban on Stellate Sturgeon commercial harvesting has been introduced since 2005). <br/><br/>Stellate Sturgeon has no commercial value in the basins of the Black and Azov Seas.	eng
229	distribution	Qiwei, W., 2009	Stellate Sturgeon inhabits in the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and rarely in the Aegan Sea. The Volga, Ural, Terek, Sulak, Kura, Don, Danube, Kuban Rivers are the major spawning rivers. The length of the spawning migration route of the Volga to the cascade of dams is up to Rybinsk, in the Ural - to Uralsk, in the Don - to Pavlovsk, in the Kuban - to Armavir. The highest abundance and biomass of natural population remained in the Caspian Sea. <br/><br/>The feeding area in the Caspian Sea of Stellate Sturgeon extended from the shallow water area of the northern part of the sea to the Iranian coast. An intensive migration of Stellate Sturgeon began in spring (March-May) to the shallow water area, in the Northern Caspian where the largest concentrations of fish were observed at the western coast of this part of the sea, as well as in the pre-mouth areas in the eastern part of the Volga River Delta (Belinskii and Igolkinskii Banks&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009)).<br/><br/><br/><sup></sup>	eng
229	distribution	Qiwei, W., 2009	Stellate sturgeon inhabits in the Caspian, Black and Azov Seas, and rarely in the north-eastern Aegan Sea. The Volga, Ural, Terek, Sulak, Kura, Don, Danube, Kuban Rivers are the major spawning rivers. The length of the spawning migration route of the Volga to the cascade of dams is up to Rybinsk, in the Ural - to Uralsk, in the Don - to Pavlovsk, in the Kuban - to Armavir. The highest abundance and biomass of natural population remained in the Caspian Sea. <br/><br/>The feeding area in the Caspian Sea of Stellate Sturgeon extended from the shallow water area of the northern part of the sea to the Iranian coast. An intensive migration of Stellate Sturgeon began in spring (March-May) to the shallow water area, in the Northern Caspian where the largest concentrations of fish were observed at the western coast of this part of the sea, as well as in the pre-mouth areas in the eastern part of the Volga River Delta (Belinskii and Igolkinskii Banks&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009)).<br/><br/><br/><sup></sup>	eng
229	habitat	Qiwei, W., 2009	This species is found at sea, coastal and estuarine zones, where it forages on clayey sand bottoms, as well as intensively in middle and upper water layers. It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers, on stone or gravel bottoms. It is also known to spawn on flooded river banks, on sand or sandy clay. Juveniles inhabit shallow riverine habitats during their first summer&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Caspian fish first mature at 6-7 years for males, and 7-8 years for females, with a generation length not less than 10 years. Females reproduce every 3-4 years and males every 2-3 years in April-September. It spawns only under relatively constant hydrological conditions, as fluctuating hydrological conditions lead to high egg mortality. This species migrates upriver at higher temperatures and therefore later than other sturgeons, with two peaks, in spring and in autumn. Males remain at spawning sites no longer than six weeks and females only 10-12 days. Spent individuals migrate directly back to sea. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 2-3 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. At sea, this species feeds on a wide variety of crustaceans, molluscs and benthic as well as pelagic fish&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The main habitat in the Caspian Sea of the Stellate Sturgeon in the winter is the middle part of the sea (Legeza 1970). In the spring they migrate to the north, with its maximum density being observed off the mid-west coast in shallow water rich in food organisms (Legeza 1970). In late spring they move to the north-west coast. In autumn Stellate Sturgeons begin migrating to the south of the Caspian Sea (earlier than other species), concentrating at the mid-western coast and the south-eastern coast (Legeza 1970). <br/><br/>The spawning migration starts in April. Spawning occurs at temperatures from 9 to 16 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at the current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. The greatest number of Stellate Sturgeon migrate to the Ural River (Peseridi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986, Dovgopol <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). Stellate Sturgeon stop eating after the beginning of the spawning migration. After spawning, they return downstream into the sea, where they begin actively feeding. The juveniles of Stellate Sturgeon also do not delay in the river and migrate for feeding into the sea.	eng
229	population	Qiwei, W., 2009	In the early 1990s it was estimated that nearly 100% of the Sea of Azov population and 30% of the Caspian Sea population were from stocking. Recent estimations are that more than 50% of the Caspian Sea populations are from stocking (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Global catches show that in 1992, 2,730 tonnes were caught, falling to a low of 38 tonnes in 2004, and 50 tonnes in 2007 (a decline of over 98% in 15 years). The average catch between 1992-1999 was 1,063 tonnes, and between 2000 and 2007 it was 132 tonnes, a decline of 87% (FAO 2009). The decline in commercial catch for the species is believed to reflect a decline in the species population (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>For the whole Caspian basin, catch peaked in 1977 with 13,700 tonnes; this has shown an almost continuous decline to 305 tonnes in 2003 (most recent data) (over 97% decline in 32 years) (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In 2008 the agreed catch quota for <span style="font-style: italic;">A.stellatus</span> for all Caspian Sea countries in 2008 was set at 240 tonnes, including commercial and scientific catch; the quota has not been met (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) shows that the average numbers of spawners entering the lower Volga per year has fallen from a peak of 230,000 (between 1986-90) to just 50,000 (between 1998-2002), a decline of 78%. It is expected that the decline has continued at a similar rate to the present time (though data does not exist) and will continue. In the Ural the estimated number of migrating individuals per year has also shown a decline, in 1970: 1,100,000; 1979: 1,050,000; 1990: 300,000 migrating individuals (Veschev 1995); 1998: 103,600; 2001: 87,400 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This shows a 92% decline from 1979 to 2001 (also from 1970 to 2001, as migrating individuals per year remained relatively stable between 1970 and 1979).<br/><br/>Distribution of Stellate Sturgeon in the Caspian Sea has declined (based on CPUE distribution data) from the 1970s to 2004 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In summer, Stellate Sturgeon feed in the warmer waters, forming the densest concentration, more than 0.6 specimens per 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in the western region of the Caspian sea; this is four times higher than was recorded in 1994 (Khodorevskaya <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Concentration of all species of sturgeons and in particular, of Stellate Sturgeon, remains high in the area off the island of Ogurchinskii in the southern part of the Caspian Sea off the Turkmenian coast, but its abundance has declined 3.4 times compared to 1991&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The total population size in the investigated water in 2008 was between 6.7-9.5 million specimens, this has fallen from 83 million in 1988&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Over recent decades, Stellate Sturgeon abundance in the Caspian Sea has reduced. Evidence of this is shown in the decrease of the average catch per unit effort during trawl surveys between 1978-1999. These showed a three-fold decrease in the northern Caspian Sea, a 2.7-fold decline in the middle part of the Caspian Sea and a six-fold decline off the Dagestan coast (Vlasenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Decrease of CPUE has been more apparent in the southern part of the sea. The Stellate Sturgeon population has declined from 69.7 million specimens in 1978 to 15.6 million in 2002, and 7.6 million specimens in 2008. Commercial stock decreased by 12 times during this period&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, in Romania, from 2002-2005 the catches of wild individuals (stocking only started in 2006 in the Danube) dropped from 12.427 tonnes to 3.43 tonnes (72.5% in 4 years); in 2006 commercial catch was stopped (Suciu pers comm.). In Azov Sea, no wild mature females have been caught [for a stocking programme] since 2004 (Chebanov pers. comm.).	eng
229	population	Qiwei, W., 2009	In the early 1990s it was estimated that nearly 100% of the Sea of Azov population and 30% of the Caspian Sea population were from stocking. Recent estimations are that more than 50% of the Caspian Sea populations are from stocking (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Global catches show that in 1992, 2,730 tonnes were caught, falling to a low of 38 tonnes in 2004, and 50 tonnes in 2007 (a decline of over 98% in 15 years). The average catch between 1992-1999 was 1,063 tonnes, and between 2000 and 2007 it was 132 tonnes, a decline of 87% (FAO 2009). The decline in commercial catch for the species is believed to reflect a decline in the species population (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>For the whole Caspian basin, catch peaked in 1977 with 13,700 tonnes; this has shown an almost continuous decline to 305 tonnes in 2003 (most recent data) (over 97% decline in 32 years) (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In 2008 the agreed catch quota for <span style="font-style: italic;">A.stellatus</span> for all Caspian Sea countries in 2008 was set at 240 tonnes, including commercial and scientific catch; the quota has not been met (Pourkazemi pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) shows that the average numbers of spawners entering the lower Volga per year has fallen from a peak of 230,000 (between 1986-90) to just 50,000 (between 1998-2002), a decline of 78%. It is expected that the decline has continued at a similar rate to the present time (though data does not exist) and will continue. In the Ural the estimated number of migrating individuals per year has also shown a decline, in 1970: 1,100,000; 1979: 1,050,000; 1990: 300,000 migrating individuals (Veschev 1995); 1998: 103,600; 2001: 87,400 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This shows a 92% decline from 1979 to 2001 (also from 1970 to 2001, as migrating individuals per year remained relatively stable between 1970 and 1979).<br/><br/>Distribution of Stellate Sturgeon in the Caspian Sea has declined (based on CPUE distribution data) from the 1970s to 2004 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>In summer, Stellate Sturgeon feed in the warmer waters, forming the densest concentration, more than 0.6 specimens per 10,000 m<sup>3</sup> in the western region of the Caspian sea; this is four times higher than was recorded in 1994 (Khodorevskaya <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Concentration of all species of sturgeons and in particular, of Stellate Sturgeon, remains high in the area off the island of Ogurchinskii in the southern part of the Caspian Sea off the Turkmenian coast, but its abundance has declined 3.4 times compared to 1991&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>The total population size in the investigated water in 2008 was between 6.7-9.5 million specimens, this has fallen from 83 million in 1988&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). Massive stocking levels will also mask declines in the wild populations.<br/><br/>Over recent decades, Stellate Sturgeon abundance in the Caspian Sea has reduced. Evidence of this is shown in the decrease of the average catch per unit effort during trawl surveys between 1978-1999. These showed a three-fold decrease in the northern Caspian Sea, a 2.7-fold decline in the middle part of the Caspian Sea and a six-fold decline off the Dagestan coast (Vlasenko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Decrease of CPUE has been more apparent in the southern part of the sea. The Stellate Sturgeon population has declined from 69.7 million specimens in 1978 to 15.6 million in 2002, and 7.6 million specimens in 2008. Commercial stock decreased by 12 times during this period&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, in Romania, from 2002-2005 the catches of wild individuals (stocking only started in 2006 in the Danube) dropped from 12.427 tonnes to 3.43 tonnes (72.5% in 4 years); in 2006 commercial catch was stopped. The Juvenile Production Index for this species (JPI = number of young of the year (number of >1 years olds caught) from natural recruitment at Danube River Km 118) shows that there is still some recruitment as in 2000 the CPUE was 1.4, 2001 0.2, 2002-4 <0.2, 2005 1.3, 2006-7 0 and 2008 >0.4. In Azov Sea, no mature females have been caught [for a stocking programme] since 2004 (Chebanov pers. comm.).	eng
229	threats	Qiwei, W., 2009	The reason for Stellate Sturgeon abundance decrease is primarily due to marine fishing and a sharp increase of poaching, seizing the largest and mature fish and nullifying the natural reproduction of sturgeon. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Single specimens of Stellate Sturgeon were harvested at the Azerbaijan coast during a trawl survey in 1994; this is most likely due to heavy illegal fishing (large number of poaching gears were observed).<br/><br/>Overfishing has prevented hatcheries catching enough mature individuals to maintain the necessary broodstock (Artyukhin 1997 in CITES 2000), and stocking has severely decreased in the Caspian Sea as the stocking process relies upon wild individuals (unlike other sturgeon species they are difficult to keep mature individuals in ponds, Nikolai pers. comm.). The annual release (over the past 10 years) of sturgeon juveniles from sturgeon hatcheries in Russia amounts to from 3 to 20 million specimens; in Kazakhstan - from 2.5 to 4.1 million specimens; in Azerbaijan - from 2.5 to 6.8 million specimens; in Islamic Republic of Iran - from 0.2 to 1.3 million specimens. This quantity of stocks recruitment of Stellate Sturgeon from industrial sturgeon culture is not enough to supply the population at an optimum level&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Dams have also led to the loss of many spawning grounds. For example the Volgograd dam (built in 1955) led to loss of 40% of spawning sites formally available in the Volga (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is also considered extirpated from the upper and middle Danube since the building of the Djerdap Dams (Iron Gate Dams). The Don River dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban led to the loss of 140,000 ha of spawning grounds.<br/><br/>Pollution is a threat to the species. In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Introduced Mnemiopsis (from US) which impacts the species food source (pelagic fishes) has impacted the Black Sea population (impacts now reduced in Black Sea) and is now impacting the Caspian Sea populations.<br/><br/>Introduction of fertilized eggs (from before 1986 and again 2003/4, and it may continue) from the Caspian Sea into the Azov Sea may impact the genetic integrity of Azov Sea population (Chebanov pers. comm.).	eng
229	threats	Qiwei, W., 2009	The reason for Stellate Sturgeon abundance decrease is primarily due to marine fishing and a sharp increase of poaching, seizing the largest and mature fish and nullifying the natural reproduction of sturgeon.   This also is now the most serious problem for Stellate sturgeons spawning within the EU-27. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Single specimens of Stellate Sturgeon were harvested at the Azerbaijan coast during a trawl survey in 1994; this is most likely due to heavy illegal fishing (large number of poaching gears were observed).<br/><br/>Overfishing has prevented hatcheries catching enough mature individuals to maintain the necessary broodstock (Artyukhin 1997 in CITES 2000), and stocking has severely decreased in the Caspian Sea as the stocking process relies upon wild individuals (unlike other sturgeon species they are difficult to keep mature individuals in ponds, Nikolai pers. comm.). The annual release (over the past 10 years) of sturgeon juveniles from sturgeon hatcheries in Russia amounts to from 3 to 20 million specimens; in Kazakhstan - from 2.5 to 4.1 million specimens; in Azerbaijan - from 2.5 to 6.8 million specimens; in Islamic Republic of Iran - from 0.2 to 1.3 million specimens. This quantity of stocks recruitment of Stellate Sturgeon from industrial sturgeon culture is not enough to supply the population at an optimum level&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009). <br/><br/>Dams have also led to the loss of many spawning grounds. For example the Volgograd dam (built in 1955) led to loss of 40% of spawning sites formally available in the Volga (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The species is also considered extirpated from the upper and middle Danube since the building of the Djerdap Dams (Iron Gate Dams). The Don River dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban led to the loss of 140,000 ha of spawning grounds.<br/><br/>Pollution is a threat to the species. In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species (Gessner, J. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Introduced Mnemiopsis (from US) which impacts the species food source (pelagic fishes) has impacted the Black Sea population (impacts now reduced in Black Sea) and is now impacting the Caspian Sea populations.<br/><br/>Introduction of fertilized eggs (from before 1986 and again 2003/4, and it may continue) from the Caspian Sea into the Azov Sea may impact the genetic integrity of Azov Sea population (Chebanov pers. comm.).	eng
230	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J., Williot, P., Rochard, E. & Freyhof, J., 2009	An ongoing in situ conservation programme is in place. Ex-situ conservation is carried out in France and Germany. Bern Convention Action Plans have been developed, while National Action Plans are to come.<br/><br/>Restocking was initiated in 1995 and later in 2007 until 2009. Survival rate for the 1995 stocking is 3-5%; the survival rate for recent releases is unknown. For the first time in 2007, progenies were obtained from farmed specimen (Williot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>There is a fisheries awareness programme co-ordinated between National Fishermen Associations in Atlantic North Sea and WWF.<br/><br/>This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1975, and moved to Appendix I in 1983.	eng
230	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J., Williot, P., Rochard, E. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species was once known from the North and Baltic Seas, English channel, European coasts of Atlantic, northern Mediterranean west of Rhodos, and western and southern Black Sea. It was occasionally recorded in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The last record from the Rioni (Georgia) was in 1991, although further surveys have failed to find the species (J. Gessner, pers comm.). Today this species is restricted only to the Garonne River (France).	eng
230	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J., Williot, P., Rochard, E. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Biology: Anadromous (spends at least part of its life in salt water and returns to rivers to breed). <br/><br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 10-12 years, females at 14-18. There are indications for a reproduction at two year intervals for males and 3-4 years for females in April-July. Adults do not eat during migration and spawning. The distance of the spawning migration seems to be positively correlated with water level, and a distance of 1000 km or more may be covered during years of high water. Spent fishes immediately return to the sea (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>Potential spawning grounds have been mapped. Juveniles migrate downstream and are present in upper estuary at one year old. They continue a slow downstream migration and penetrate the sea at 2-3 years. For the next 4-6 years, they leave the sea to enter the lower estuary at summer time where movements and feeding were determined. At sea, this species feeds on a variety of molluscs, crustaceans and small fish. Atlantic population feed benthically.	eng
230	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J., Williot, P., Rochard, E. & Freyhof, J., 2009	The sturgeon was an important commercial fish until the beginning of the 20th century (Debus 2007). The last natural reproduction was in 1994 (previous reproduction in 1988). A population assessment in 2005 estimated 2,000 individuals remain. It is estimated that bycatch took around 200 fish per year (gill net and trawling at sea) (Rochard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).<br/><br/>The size of the population today is much smaller (approximately 20-750 native wild adult fish, based on an assessment of the size the cohort before they leave the estuary). There are more individuals from stocking (7,000 in 2007; 80,000 in 2008; and 46,000 in 2009) (Rouault <em>et al.</em> 2008; Rochard 2010). These have not yet bred in the wild and first breeding (from the releases of 1995) is expected by 2014, F1 generation of 2007 and later releases around 2021. The limiting factor is the availability of females which won't reproduce until ~2016 (Rochard, pers. comm).	eng
230	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J., Williot, P., Rochard, E. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Bycatch is the major threat and the extraction of gravel in the Garonne is a potential threat to the species. Dam construction, pollution and river regulation have led to loss and degradation of spawning sites.	eng
231	conservation	Qiwei, W., 2009	A three month seasonal fishing ban between February and April was introduced in 2002 in the upper Yangtze River.<br/><br/>This species has been listed as a First Class Protected Animal of the State since 1988, and has received the same effective protection as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser sinensis</span>. This species was also listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Artificial propagation was first carried out in 1976. Since 2007 more than 5000 juveniles have been released into the upper Yangtze River for stock rehabilitation, but these species are not thought to be breeding in the wild and no larvae have been seen in recent years.<br/><br/>It is considered that the survival of this species is entirely reliant on restocking efforts, without which this species would possibly become extinct (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).<br/><br/>Since the 1970s, the Institute of Aquatic Products of Sichuan Province have increased efforts regarding raising and breeding of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span>. For example young <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span> from the Yangtze River have been introduced into the Changshou City reservoir for culturing (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).<br/><br/>In 2000 the first national nature reserve was created in the upper Yangzte river. The area of this reserve was extended in 2005 to mitigate the conflict between hydroelectric projects and the maintenance of the functionality of the ecosystem. The reserve is now the largest aquatic reserve in China, which has a total length of 1162.6 km (including 436.5 km of the main river) (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).	eng
231	distribution	Qiwei, W., 2009	This species is endemic to China and is restricted to the Yangtze River system. Historically, under the natural, unaltered conditions that existed until the middle of the 20th century, this species inhabited the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River and its large tributaries, including the Ming, Tuo, Jialing, Xiang and Han rivers, as well as the large lakes linking attached to the Yangtze River. <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span> has recently (possibly since 1995) been extirpated from the lower river and is restricted to the upper main stream of the Yangtze River in the Sichuan Province. It also enters major tributaries, including the Ming, Tuo, and Jialing rivers. (Zhuang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).	eng
231	habitat	Qiwei, W., 2009	This is a small sturgeon species that is permanently resident in freshwater. It usually inhabits the middle and lower layers of the water and prefers slow moving water that is rich in humus, and feeds on demersal organisms (those that live at or near the bottom of a body of water).<br/><br/>This species spawns in upper reaches of the Yangtze River, in the spring (March-April) and the autumn (October-December). Its key spawning reach is between Maoshui and Heijang, a stretch of 321.7 km (The Chanjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).	eng
231	population	Qiwei, W., 2009	The natural population of this species was not considered to be large. Historically, this was an important species in commercial fisheries of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River (Chen 2007). In the late 20th century population numbers declined drastically because of overfishing and habitat degradation. Incidental catch data between 1982 and 2008 indicate that since 1982 only tens of specimens are being captured annually and there have been no capture records below the Gezhouba Dam since 1995. The stock has dropped markedly during the past 20 to 30 years and now the production is so small and scattered, that no exact account of total production is reported. Artificial propagation began in 1976 by the Changjianq Fisheries Institute, China. Since 2007, more than 5,000 individuals have been released into the upper reaches of the Yangtze River for stock rehabilitation (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).	eng
231	threats	Qiwei, W., 2009	This species has historically experienced unsustainable levels of fishing. Furthermore, mesh sizes of fishing nets have reduced, thereby capturing young, especially during the periods when many juveniles concentrate to feed.<br/><br/>Fishing effort and intensity has also increased in the past, for example in the Neijiang reach of the Tuo River there were only 500 fishing boats in 1950s, but this number increased to about 2000 by 1985. In the Leshan Reach of the Ming River, drift gill nets are crowded together from day to night.<br/><br/>The primary traditional fishing season in the main stream of Yangzte River is between March and August, with more than 30% of the catch processed between April and May. However, this is also spawning season of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. dabryanus</span>, therefore spawning stock are particularly vulnerable to capture.<br/><br/>Furthermore, the construction of the Gezhouba Dam in 1981 and the Three Gorges Dam in 2003 have caused major adverse effects to the habitat of this species and have resulted in a reduction in the area of occurrence of this species, which is now restricted to the upstream river, above the dams. More recently, the construction of the Xiangjiaba Dam in 2008 is situated in the middle of this species spawning reach and therefore is expected to adversely affect the population through habitat fragmentation and associated habitat degradation.<br/><br/>Additionally pollution from increasing human development affects the entire Yangtze basin. Much untreated waste water discharges into the river each year. Water quality is also affected by run-off caused by deforestation of the the upper Yangtze Valley (Zhuang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).	eng
232	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Restocking measures are ongoing, however stocks are continuing to decline. In the early 1990s, between 30-55% of the Caspian stock reportedly originated from hatcheries (Barannikova 1995 in CITES 2000, Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In Russia, between 1991 and 1998, 70 million fry of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gueldenstaedtii</span> were released in the Volga river and just over 32 million fry into the Sea of Azov.<br/><br/>The species is not fully protected in any range state, though licenses are required in most countries and Iran has banned private sturgeon fisheries. Overall, however, enforcement measures seem to be lacking. Fish lifts and artificial spawning grounds have been introduced to parts of the Caspian region (CITES 2000) without much success. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>Gene bank of live specimens and cryopreservation is ongoing in Russia and Iran.	eng
232	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	EU 27 - Black Sea, where spawning occurs in the lower Danube<br/><br/>This species is known from the Caspian, Black and Azov Sea basins. Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe.<br/><br/>It is currently only known from the Caspian Sea, where it still spawns in the rivers Ural and Volga, and the Black Sea where spawning occurs in the lower Danube and Rioni rivers (last recorded in the Rioni in 1999 (Kolman & Zarkua 2002)). There is no native spawning population remaining in the Sea of Azov, only introduced (stocked) individuals. The species reproduction within the Kura is debated (Vecsei 2001).	eng
232	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species is known from the Caspian, Black and Azov Sea basins. Aquaculture has resulted in intentional and accidental introductions throughout Europe.<br/><br/>It is currently only known from the Caspian Sea, where it spawns in the rivers Ural and Volga, and the Black Sea where spawning occurs in the lower Danube and Rioni rivers (last recorded in the Rioni in 1999 (Kolman & Zarkua 2002)). There is no native spawning population remaining in the Sea of Azov, only introduced (stocked) individuals. The species reproduction within the Kura is debated (Vecsei 2001).	eng
232	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Habitat: At sea, shallow coastal and estuarine zones. In freshwaters, in deep parts of large rivers with moderate to swift current. Spawns in strong current (1-1.5 m/s) in large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous and freshwater populations (freshwater populations existed in the Danube and Volga - both are now extinct). A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes spring and autumn runs. Individuals migrating in spring enter freshwater just before spawning; they tend to spawn in lower reaches of rivers (320-650 km in the unregulated Ural). Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter in rivers and spawn the following spring further upstream (900-1200 km in the Ural). <br/><br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 8-13 years, females at 10-16. Generation length (average age of parents of current cohort) is estimated to be 15 years under natural circumstances, but due to the impacts this species is facing the generation length ranges from between 12 years in the Caspian Sea to over 20 in the Danube. Females reproduce every 4-6 years and males every 2-3 years in April-June, when the temperature rises above 10°C. Larvae drift on currents; juveniles then move towards shallower habitats, before migrating to the sea during their first summer. They remain at sea until maturity. The Russian Sturgeon feeds on a wide variety of benthic molluscs, crustaceans and small fish.	eng
232	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	The species wild native population has undergone major decline which is currently occurring. But due to the large levels of stocking (particularly Russia and Iran) the exact levels are unknown. According to CITES (2000) Russia released 25 million fingerlings into the Vologa between 1979-80, 35 million between 1981-85, 40.8 million between 1986-90, 42 million between 1991-95 and 28 million 1996-98; Iran released 300,000 fingerlings in 1994 which has risen nearly every year to 960,000 in 1999.<br/><br/>Despite this level of stocking, fisheries catches have fallen, particularly from the early 1990s in the Caspian. According to FAO fisheries statistics (FAO 2009) global catches fell from 4,250 tonnes in 1992 (first available catch data) to 67 tonnes in 2007 (last available catch data), a decline of 98% in 15 years. The average catch from 1992-1999 (8 year period) was 1,531.75 tonnes, whereas the average catch from 2000-2007 (8 year period) was 175.37 tonnes, a decline of 88.5%.<br/><br/>Data from the Caspian Sea (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009) shows similar declines: catches were between 6,000 and 9,000 tonnes per year in the 1960s to a peak of around 14,500 tonnes in the late 1970s early 1980s to less than 1,000 per year from 2000 to 2008. The estimated spawning stock biomass in the Volga has also drastically declined, from 13,200 tonnes (1961-65) and 22,200 tonnes (1966-70) to 1,000 tonnes (1996-97) and 1,000 tonnes (1998-2002). Average number of spawners (1,000 individuals) passing fishery zones to the spawning grounds in the lower Volga (per year) has declined by 88% from the 1962-75 average to the 1992-2002 average.<br/><br/>Romanian catch data (Danube) shows that in 2002, 3,726 kg was caught; in 2003, 1,499 kg; in 2004, 440 kg; and in 2005, 37 kg, showing a 99% decline in just four years (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006). A Juvenile Production Index (evidence of breeding) for the Danube (Romania) also shows a decline: CPUE was just over 0.7 in 2000, < 0.2 in 2001, 0.3 in 2002, 0 in 2003, < 0.1 in 2004, 0.1 in 2005, 0 in 2006, < 0.05 in 2007 and 0 in 2008. (CPUE = number of Young of the Year - number of < 1 year olds caught - from natural recruitment captured in one netting (Suciu 2008, pers. comm.;&#160;Paraschiv&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2006; Knight <em>et al</em>. 2010).	eng
232	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Most spawning sites have been lost due to dam construction. The Caspian basin lost 70% of spawning grounds since the 1950s, mainly due to the construction of hydroelectric power stations; the Ural is now the only river in the basin with unregulated flow. Flow regulation of the Kuban River has led to the loss of 140,000 ha, and damming of the river Don has removed 68,000 ha spawning ground. For example, in the Yugoslavian section of the Danube, the annual catch dropped from 14,636 kg in 1983 to 1,636 kg in 1985 (a decline of just under 90%), this is believed to be due to the construction of the Djerdap (Irongate) II dam which was constructed in 1984, leaving no accessible spawning grounds for the species in the upstream reaches and in former Yugoslavia (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Poaching and illegal fishing, which appears to be increasing, is also a threat to the species. Enforcement of legislation regulating the fishery for the species appear to be lacking. In the Caspian Sea and Sea of Azov the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species (in both marine and freshwater).<br/><br/>High levels of pollution (from oil and industrial waste), in both the Black and Caspian Sea basins have altered hormonal balance, and increased the number of hermaphroditic fish. Pollution levels are now decreasing since the break up of the Soviet Union (Levin, 1977 in CITES 2000). In 1990, 55,000 sturgeon were found dead on the shore of the Sea of Azov as the result of pollution.<br/><br/>Genetic pollution is also a potential threat as stocks are moved to different locations (e.g. Caspian stocks moved to Sea of Azov).<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.	eng
233	conservation	St. Pierre, R. & Campbell, R.R., 2006	Fishery managers in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia have recognized the sensitivity of Green Sturgeon to fishing and have actively restricted commercial and sport fisheries everywhere Green Sturgeon occur. None of the reviews examined mentioned any legal, regional, national or international trade in Green Sturgeon products. This species is not considered as good to eat as White Sturgeon and markets for their flesh are limited. <br/> <br/>Due to life history characteristics that make it particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events Green Sturgeon has a designation of "Special Concern" in Canada (Houston 1988, Davies 2004), and no harvest is allowed in Canadian waters. <br/> <br/>In response to a petition to list Green Sturgeon under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) completed a status review for this species (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). NMFS determined that the species is comprised of two distinct population segments (DPS) but that neither warrants listing as a threatened or endangered species at this time (NMFS 2003). However, because of remaining uncertainties about their population structure and status, both DPS populations were added to the agency's list of candidate species and will be reevaluated in five years provided sufficient new information becomes available.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
233	distribution	St. Pierre, R. & Campbell, R.R., 2006	Green Sturgeon is an anadromous species that spend most of their life in near-shore marine and estuarine waters from Mexico to southeast Alaska (Houston 1988, Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995, Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Large concentrations of Green Sturgeon are still found in coastal estuaries, but their range in freshwater has been restricted by damming in some rivers. For example, Green Sturgeon were historically observed hundreds of kilometers upstream in the Sacramento and Columbia rivers, but are currently restricted in the Columbia River to the lower 60 km downstream of the Bonneville Dam (Moyle 2002). Spawning is presently known to occur in only three rivers in North America, all of which are in the United States: the Rogue River in Oregon (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Rien <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the Klamath and Sacramento river systems in California (EPIC 2001, Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002, CDFG 2002, Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1992,1994).  Spawning populations have been extirpated from the San Joaquin, Eel, South Fork, and Trinity rivers, and possibly the Umpqua River (EPIC 2001, NMFS 2002). Seasonal concentrations occur in several estuaries including the Sacramento-San Joaquin, Eel, Columbia, Willapa Bay, Grays Harbor and the Fraser River (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002).	eng
233	habitat	St. Pierre, R. & Campbell, R.R., 2006	The Green Sturgeon is among the most marine oriented and widespread of the sturgeons. Like most sturgeons, the Green Sturgeon is characterized by large size, longevity, delayed maturation, high fecundity, and far-ranging movements. Green Sturgeon reach sizes up to 2.7 m and have been aged to over 50 years (Nakamoto <em>et al</em>. 1995, Farr <em>et al</em>. 2002). Mortality rates of subadults and adults are low and probably do not exceed 10% per year from natural causes based on age frequency analysis.  Males typically mature at about 15–17 years and 1.5–1.8 m, while females typically mature at 20–25 years and 1.8–2.1 m (Van Eenennaam and Doroshov  2001a). Similarly aged males are generally smaller than females with males from the northern DPS achieving a maximum size of 168 cm, while sexually mature males and females from the southern DPS range in size from 139 to199 cm and 157 to 223 cm, respectively (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Spawning is believed to occur every 3-5 years and the generation time is 27–33 years (Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Green Sturgeon are oviparious broadcast spawners and adult Green Sturgeon typically migrate into freshwater beginning in late February and spawning occurs in April to June in deep, turbulent river mainstems (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995). Klamath and Rogue River populations appear to spawn within 160 km of the ocean while the Sacramento population may travel over 320 km upriver. Green Sturgeon eggs and larvae are comparatively larger than those of other sturgeon species. For example, Cech <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a egg diameter of 4.34, 3.40 and 2.62 mm for green, white, and Atlantic Sturgeon (<em>A. oxyrinchus</em>) respectfully indicating that Green Sturgeon have eggs which have a volume twice that of white and over four times that of Atlantic Sturgeon. Consequently, Green Sturgeon have a relatively lower fecundity in comparison to other similar sized sturgeon species as reproductive energy is more heavily invested in egg size rather than egg number (Van Eenennaam <em>et al</em>. 2001b, Cech <em>et al</em>. 2000). Fecundity varies with age and size, but has been estimated to be in the order of  2,800 eggs per kilogram bodyweight; approximately half that of White Sturgeon (<em>Acipenser transmontanus</em>) at 5,648 eggs per kilogram bodyweight (Moyle 2002). <br/> <br/>The eggs do not form a thick jelly coat as do those of other North American sturgeon and exhibit poor adhesion to substrate (Deng 2000, Cech <em>et al</em>. 2000), which would indicate sensitivity to turbidity loading  (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1994, Moyle 2002). Furthermore, the larger eggs and higher growth rates of developing Green Sturgeon in comparison to other North American sturgeons suggests that a higher oxygen demand may be required for proper embryonic development; thus Green Sturgeon may require colder, cleaner water for spawning. (USFWS 1995). <br/> <br/>Eggs hatch in 7 to 9 days at 15°C (Van Eenennaam <em>et al</em>. 2001). Cech <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported that temperatures above 20°C are lethal to embryos and temperatures above 24°C significantly reduce five-day larval growth rates. Larvae begin to feed at 10 days post hatch and complete metamorphosis into juveniles at 45 days (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Juvenile Green Sturgeon grow rapidly reaching 60 cm within 2–3 years and they spend 1–4 years in fresh and estuarine waters before dispersal to saltwater (Beamsesderfer and Webb 2002). Green Sturgeon are commonly observed in bays and estuaries up and down the coast and large concentrations enter the Columbia River estuary, and Washington's Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay during late summer (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995). Limited tagging studies show that tagged individuals from the Columbia River have been recaptured off the west coast of Vancouver Island (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>During the 1 to 4 years of freshwater residence, juveniles gradually move to deeper and more saline areas as they grow (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). As juveniles grow, they exhibit greater tolerance to salinity and achieve seawater tolerance at seven months or sooner (Allen and Cech 2003). Adults return to freshwater to spawn, and Green Sturgeon have been reported to spawn up to 160 km upstream in the Klamath and Rogue rivers, and over 300 km upstream in the Sacramento River (Beamesderder and Webb 2002). After spawning, they to sea in late autumn to early winter when temperatures drop below 10°C and flows increased above 100 m<sup>3</sup>s<sup>-1</sup> (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Juveniles are opportunistic benthic feeders with a diet consisting of various invertebrates and fish (EPIC 2001, Moyle 2002).  Stomach content analysis indicates that adult Green Sturgeon have a marine diet consisting of various benthic invertebrates including shrimp, crabs, worms, amphioids, and isopods (EPIC 2001), but have also been observed feeding on sand lances (<em>Ammodytes hexapterus</em>) and other fish.	eng
233	population	St. Pierre, R. & Campbell, R.R., 2006	Preliminary population genetics results suggest that Green Sturgeon from the Klamath and Rogue rivers are similar to each other but distinct from fish from San Pablo Bay. Green Sturgeon commonly occur in the lower Columbia River (Oregon–Washington) and genetic samples taken there appear to be a mixture of the other populations (Israel <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS 2003) has determined that, based on genetic evidence of discreteness, there are two Distinct Population Segments (DPS's) for Green Sturgeon. The northern population ranges from the Eel River, California, to at least the Rogue River, Oregon. The southern population is principally comprised of the Sacramento River spawning stock. <br/> <br/>Their wide distribution, large numbers observed seasonally in some areas, and projections based on demographic rates suggest that total Green Sturgeon numbers are at least in the tens of thousands (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). The largest known spawning stock of Green Sturgeon is that of the Klamath River and its tributary, the Trinity River. The Klamath River population is estimated to number up to 66,000 individuals of which 3,000 would be mature adults. Actual spawner numbers in the Klamath were estimated at 760–1,500 females per year based on average harvest and total mortality rates (Beamesderfer and Webb 2002). <br/> <br/>Based on a review of recent tagging studies, harvest analyses, and stock assessments from many locations, Beamesderfer and Webb (2002) estimated that the total adult and subadult population size of Green Sturgeon is within the range of 34,000 to 160,000 fish. Of these, greatest abundance was recorded for the Columbia River estuary, and ocean and bay waters of Oregon and Washington. <br/> <br/>Attempts to determine trends in sturgeon abundance in the northern DPS have been inconclusive regarding the status of Green Sturgeon, and the status of the northern Green Sturgeon population is unknown (NMFS 2002, Davies 2004). <br/> <br/>Similar attempts to determine the status of Green Sturgeon in the southern DPS were also inconclusive, and with the exception of anecdotal evidence of a reduction of Green Sturgeon entrainment at water export facilities indicative of a population decline, the status of the southern DPS is also unknown (NMFS 2002, Davies 2004).	eng
233	threats	St. Pierre, R. & Campbell, R.R., 2006	Sturgeon exhibit a combination of morphology, life history and habitat requirements that make them highly susceptible to negative impacts from human activities (Boreman 1997).  Anthropogenic activities known to impact sturgeon include: exploitation   blockage of available freshwater spawning habitat through diking, damming causing inadequate flow regimes, channelization, elimination of backwater areas, dewatering of streams, destruction of thermal refugia, loss of deep pools, inundation of habitat by reservoirs, and exposure to bioaccumulating industrial and municipal pollution, (Boreman 1997, EPIC 2001, Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The long life span and late age of maturity makes sturgeon vulnerable to chronic and acute effects of bioaccumulation. White Sturgeon, for example have been found to have the greatest contaminant concentrations compared to salmonids, suckers, Walleye (<em>Sander vitreus</em>), Pacific Lamprey (<em>Lampetra tridentata</em>), and Eulachon (<em>Thaleichthys pacificus</em>), [USEPA 1999]. Whole body concentrations of hexachlorobenzene (19 ųg/kg), DDT (787 ųg/kg), p,p’DDE (620 ųg/kg), Aroclors (173 ųg/kg), and dioxins were an order of magnitude higher in concentration than all other species tested.  Although Green Sturgeon are less exposed to anthropogenic contaminants due to their marine migratory phase, there is the potential for exposure when entering freshwater to spawn and during estuarine concentrations. <br/> <br/>Marine and estuarine environments in Canada are of concern as they are heavily impacted by a number of activities including logging, aquaculture, agriculture and urbanization, and can be the eventual sinks to freshwater pollutants. However, a 1994 assessment of the quality of the lower Fraser River ecosystem indicated that no dramatic changes in species assemblages were determined to have occurred since the previous study in 1974 (Healey <em>et al</em>. 1994) despite an increase in usage. Area managed for conservation also increased from 23 to 69% over the same time period with 80% of the increase being accounted for by conservation efforts on the Fraser River estuary (MWLAP 2002). The increase in estuary protection and the results from Healey <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggests that estuarine habitat loss that may effect Green Sturgeon is likely not substantial in Canada. <br/> <br/>In the US, where all known spawning populations occur, Green Sturgeon have lost spawning habitat to poor land use practices and habitat alteration through water management projects (EPIC 2001). This has caused a decline in general water quality in some areas through increased sedimentation as well as the loss of deep pools which Green Sturgeon are known to prefer. Furthermore, damming of river systems can block previously available spawning habitat, affect natural flow regimes, potentially reduce areas of thermal refugia, and change sediment transport characteristics of the river which may cascade and impact sturgeon by modifying ecosystem community structure (EPIC 2001). For example, Green Sturgeon were historically observed hundreds of kilometers upstream in the Sacramento and Columbia rivers, but are currently restricted in the Columbia River to the lower 60 km downstream of the Bonneville Dam (Moyle 2002). <br/> <br/>Beamesderfer and Webb (2002 suggest that habitat conditions throughout the Green Sturgeon range have stabilized or are improving, but the results of spawning surveys have yet to substantiate that (NMFS 2002). Most of the northern population segment spawns in the Klamath River. Potential threats to this population include concentration of spawning, harvest (especially in mixed-stock estuarine fisheries), and loss of spawning habitat such as the Columbia River, and the Eel and South Fork, and Trinity Rrivers in California (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The southern population segment (south of the Eel River) is more of a concern because it has fewer spawners (limited to the Sacramento-San Joaquin system), which makes it more susceptible to catastrophic events. These fish also face potentially lethal temperature limits, entrainment by water projects, and may be adversely affected by pesticides and other toxic substances and exotic species (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is probable that Green Sturgeon spawning habitat has been lost behind dams and water diversions throughout the Central Valley (e.g., Red Bluff Diversion Dam and Glenn-Colusa Irrigation District pumping plant). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Green Sturgeon harvest is all bycatch in Green Sturgeon harvest is all bycatch in two three fisheries. The smaller bycatch occurs in Klamath River Tribal salmon gill net fisheries while the larger portion is in the White Sturgeon commercial and sport fisheries (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). Total annual harvest of Green Sturgeon declined substantially to 1,192 fish in 1999–2001 from 6,871 fish in 1985–1989. Most of this earlier harvest came from the Columbia River (51%) and Washington coastal fisheries (28%). In recent years, Columbia and Washington coastal harvest was substantially reduced and in 2001 these two bycatch fisheries and that of the Klamath River tribes were about equal in number. Catch reduction in the Columbia River is a result of increasingly restrictive regulations. For the sturgeon sport fishery, slot limits prohibit retention of fish (white or green) less than 107 cm (42 inches) or more than 152 cm (60 inches). Green Sturgeon retained as bycatch in the commercial fishery must be between 122 and 168 cm (48-66 inches). <br/> <br/>Klamath Tribal fisheries (Yurok and Hoopa) accounted for an average 266 adult fish annually from 1986–2001 with no apparent trend. This fishery is monitored but not regulated. California sport catch of Green Sturgeon, primarily in San Pablo Bay, is not monitored, but is thought to be only a few fish each year (Adams <em>et al</em>. 2002). California slot size limits for both sturgeon species is 117–183 cm (46–72 inches). <br/> <br/>There is also a bycatch in the domestic trawl fishing industry in B.C., which takes about 171 Green Sturgeon annually (Davis 2004). <br/> <br/>There is no information on the extent of illegal exploitation of Green Sturgeon, but poaching activity on White Sturgeon in the lower Fraser River is a concern (Ptolemy and Vennesland 2003).	eng
234	conservation	Duke, S., Down, T., Ptolemy, J., Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	<strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The Kootenai River population of white sturgeon was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act on September 6, 1994 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  Subsequently, a recovery team composed of two Canadians and eight Americans was formed in January 1995. The team completed a final recovery plan for the Kootenai River white sturgeon in 1998 which was subsequently approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in late 1999 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The recovery plan describes a series of 46 specific conservation measures in the United States and Canada that are believed necessary to recover the endangered white sturgeon. Recovery objectives are to re-establish successful reproduction in the wild by increasing Kootenai River flows and producing hatchery-reared juveniles over the next 10 years to prevent extinction.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
234	distribution	Duke, S., Down, T., Ptolemy, J., Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	The largest component of the white sturgeon population occurs along the west coast of the United States and comprises subpopulations occurring in several river systems and rearing primarily within the Sacramento-San Joaquin and Columbia-Snake River basins. The species is also found in the Kootenai River (United States and Canada), the Fraser River drainage (Canada), and the Columbia River between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border. <br/> <br/>There is evidence of emigration from the Sacramento and Columbia river systems based on out-of-system tag studies (PSMFC 1992). These included Chadwick (1959) who cited the recovery of a fish tagged in San Pablo Bay in 1954 and recovered in the Columbia River, and Kohlhorst <em>et al</em>. (1991) who noted that 11 white sturgeon tagged in San Pablo Bay (Sacramento River system) were caught in six river systems north of California, primarily the Umpqua River, Oregon (five tags recovered) and the Chehalis River, Washington (three tags). Also in this study, one tag return each was received from the Columbia River, Yaquina River and Tillamook Bay, Oregon and the Willapa River, Washington. More recently a fish originally tagged in the lower Columbia River was re-captured in the Sacramento River in 1997 (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999a). Population estimates of legal-sized and adult white sturgeon can vary dramatically (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999a, Schaffter and Kohlhorst 1999) but for the most part, this stock is generally believed to be healthy and stable. <br/> <br/>The upper Columbia River white sturgeon subpopulation inhabits the Columbia River mainstem upstream from Grand Coulee Dam. In this area, the largest documented group of the species resides in the area between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border. Other remnant subpopulations occur, or are suspected, throughout the remainder of the drainage. <br/> <br/>White sturgeon are found in the Fraser River mainstem from the estuary upstream at least as far as the Torpy River, a distance of over 1,000 km (R.L.&L. Environmental Services Ltd. 2000). They are also found in a major tributary of the Fraser, the Nechako River and it’s tributary the Stuart River (these two have a combined stream length of about 400 km). However, sturgeon are not evenly dispersed throughout this length of river, but are clustered in suitable habitat.The Kootenai River subpopulation inhabits and migrates freely in the Kootenai River from Kootenai Falls in Montana (United States) downstream into Kootenay Lake, British Columbia (Canada). It is restricted to approximately 270 km of the Kootenai River and Kootenay Lake.	eng
234	habitat	Duke, S., Down, T., Ptolemy, J., Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	Generally anadromous, but some subpopulations are landlocked and spend their entire life cycle in freshwater. <em>Acipenser transmontanus</em> is the largest freshwater fish species in North America. The largest white sturgeon on record weighed approximately 682 kg and was taken from the Snake River, Idaho in 1898. Individuals from landlocked subpopulations tend to be smaller.	eng
234	population	Duke, S., Down, T., Ptolemy, J., Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	<strong>Sacramento-San Joaquin River subpopulations</strong> <br/>The California Department of Fish and Game periodically monitors the status of white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system to estimate abundance and mortality rates. The most recent survey completed in 1997 estimated nearly 140,000 white sturgeon (> 40 inches) in the Sacramento River (Shaffter and Kohlhorst 1999). The number of adult white sturgeon fluctuates annually and is largely the result highly variable year classes affecting adult recruitment. For example, strong year classes from the early 1980s recruited large numbers of adult white sturgeon to the fishery beginning around 1994; conversely subsequent severe drought conditions across California from 1987 to 1992 are expected to affect the size of the adult white sturgeon population since reproduction was generally poor during those years (Schaffter and Kohlhorst 1999). As recruitment basically ceases and growth and general mortality reduce the number of legal-sized fish, the adult population should decline the next few years. However, the subsequent series of wet years beginning in 1993 should contribute to another cycle of strong recruitment producing fish that will enter the fishery late in the next decade. The California Department of Fish and Game believes the current low exploitation rates, the ability for white sturgeon to successfully reproduce and recover rapidly from reduced adult populations during wet cycles, and fishing size limits that protect the most productive (i.e., fecund) female white sturgeon suggest that current fishing regulations are adequate to conserve white sturgeon in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River basin. <br/> <br/><strong>Columbia-Snake River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Today, the white sturgeon population residing in the lower, free-flowing reach of the Columbia River is considered the most productive in the species’ range (Devore <em>et al</em>. 1999a). The recreational and commercial harvest in the lower Columbia river has recently averaged over 42,000 annually through 1997. Estimated abundance for legal-sized (42-60 inches) white sturgeon in the lower Columbia River in 1997 was nearly 157,000 fish, a decline from the estimated 227,700 fish in 1995. It appears that the decline was primarily a result of a decrease in the recruitment to the legal-sized population and emigration from the Columbia River system, and not over-harvest. <br/> <br/>Upstream in the first three impounded reaches of the Columbia River the estimated abundance of white sturgeon in 1997 increased from a general population crash in the mid 1980's (North <em>et al</em>. 1999). Generally, white sturgeon increased in all size classes sampled. Researchers suspect that more restrictive harvest guidelines along with some relatively strong year classes in recent years are contributing to increasing populations in recent years. These landlocked populations continue to sustain limited harvest and consumption fisheries. <br/> <br/>Historically within the Snake River, white sturgeon could range from its confluence with the Columbia River upstream nearly 615 river miles to Shoshone Falls, a natural barrier for sturgeon. Twelve dams were constructed along the Snake River between 1901 and 1975 that fragmented white sturgeon populations from the confluence to Shoshone Falls. The abundance of land-locked white sturgeon in the Snake River varies considerably from river reaches with reproducing populations to other reaches containing few individuals and no detectable recruitment. Reaches with reproducing populations currently provide catch and release sport fisheries only. <br/> <br/><strong>Upper Columbia River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The abundance of white sturgeon from the Columbia River mainstem between Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border was most recently assessed in 1995, when a population of 1,120 individuals (95% CI = 980 to 1,300) was estimated (RL&L 1996a). This figure does not include sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, and thus represents a minimum estimate of the total subpopulation. A smaller group of white sturgeon, considered part of the same subpopulation, has been identified at the upper end of Arrow Lakes Reservoir, located upstream from Keenleyside Dam. Estimates place the size of this group at 38 individuals (95% CI = 23 to 78) based on the results of 2000 studies (RL&L 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>The Kootenai River subpopulation has been in general decline since the mid-1960's (Apperson and Anders 1991, Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining wild population is comprised primarily of adult sturgeon older than 25 years, with very little recruitment observed in the wild population since the mid-1970's (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999, Ireland <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1997, there were an estimated 1,468 adults (95% CI: 740 to 2,197) and 17 juvenile white sturgeon (Paragamian <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Fraser River and Nechako River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for subpopulations in the Nechako and lower Fraser Rivers (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000), plus the preliminary estimate from work being done by the Lheidli T’enneh First Nation (Yarmish and Toth 2001) for subpopulation in the Upper Fraser River show the following population sizes: <br/> <br/>Fraser Regional subpopulation:  22,000 (95% CI = 9,800–70,700) <br/>Upper Fraser subpopulation: 255 (95% CI = 158–352)  <br/>Nechako River subpopulation: 571 (95% CI = 421–890) <br/> <br/>The preliminary population estimate for the Upper Fraser River may be skewed by the high recapture rate of individuals found in known areas of congregation. The fish tend to congregate in areas of preferred habitat but can also be found at very low densities in other areas of the mainstem. However, after extensive sampling, investigators do not believe the population can be larger than a few hundred individuals >50 cm in length (Yarmish, pers. comm).	eng
234	threats	Duke, S., Down, T., Ptolemy, J., Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	<strong>Sacramento-San Joaquin River subpopulations</strong> <br/>In California, white sturgeon reside mainly within the Sacramento River and its combined estuary with the San Joaquin River. Historical spawning habitat has been lost primarily due to dam construction and water diversions. In the Sacramento River, white sturgeon previously spawned upstream of Shasta Dam prior to its construction in the 1940s. It is also believed the San Joaquin River may have supported white sturgeon spawning prior to the development and implementation of large water diversions for agriculture (Moyle 1976). Results from a recent white sturgeon spawning habitat study reveal that most spawning occurs in a 55 river mile reach of the Sacramento River from Knights Landing to upstream of Colusa (Schaffter 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Columbia and Snake River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Historically, white sturgeon were abundant in the unimpounded Columbia River (Oregon and Washington) and in the late 1800's supported an intense commercial fishery (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1993). Intensive sturgeon fishing began in 1889 and peaked in 1892 with about 2,700,000 kg of sturgeon landed. The stock was depleted by 1899 after a ten year period of excessive harvest (Craig and Hacker 1940).  Season, gear and minimum size restrictions failed to restore the population. Only after maximum size regulations designed to protect sexually mature sturgeon were enacted in 1950 did white sturgeon rebound in the Columbia River. <br/> <br/>Hydroelectric development within the Columbia River basin beginning in 1933 began to isolate white sturgeon above dams. Today there are 17 landlocked subpopulations upstream of Bonneville Dam (the furthest downstream dam in the Columbia River) including the tributary Snake River (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1993). Productivity appears to vary among the landlocked subpopulations as some support high populations and sustainable fisheries (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999b, North <em>et al</em>. 1999) while others sustain no exploitation due to low recruitment and productivity (PSMFC 1992). <br/> <br/><strong>Upper Columbia River subpopulation</strong> <br/>Extensive study has confirmed spawning by upper Columbia white sturgeon at two locations. The vast majority of spawning occurs at the Pend d'Oreille-Columbia confluence (Waneta tailrace) area near the Canada-U.S. border (e.g., RL&L 1995). Spawning at this site has occurred annually since 1993 - the first year spawning studies were initiated. In 1999, a second spawning area was documented in the upper Columbia River just upstream from Arrow Lakes Reservoir (RL&L 2000). Spawning did not occur at this site in 2000. <br/> <br/>Despite the regularity of spawning events, age structure analyses show that recruitment began to decline in 1969, and has failed entirely since 1985 (RL&L 1995). Changes in length-frequency distribution follow a similar pattern, with a dramatic reduction in representation by smaller fish in ongoing sampling programs (RL&L 1996a, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). Sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, although less intensive, shows a similar recruitment failure (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999, Spokane Tribe, data on file). Thus, recruitment of upper Columbia white sturgeon has failed completely, to the point where continued existence of the subpopulation is at risk. <br/> <br/><strong>Kootenai River subpopulation</strong> <br/>For more than the last 100 years, human development has modified the natural hydrograph of the Kootenai River through such activities as Libby dam construction and operation, dyke construction and lowered Kootenai Lake levels. These activities have altered white sturgeon spawning, egg incubation, nursery and rearing habitats, and reduced overall biological productivity.  Although these factors may have contributed to a general lack of recruitment of this unique population of white sturgeon during the last century, the operation of Libby Dam in 1974 is considered to be a primary reason for the population’s continued decline (Apperson and Anders 1991). When Libby Dam began regulating the Kootenai River, average spring peak flows were reduced by more than 50% and winter flows increased by more than 300%. <br/> <br/><strong>Fraser River and Nechako River subpopulations</strong> <br/>Area of occupancy has no doubt been reduced in the lower mainstem due to the alienation of side channels from dyking activity, the infolding of sloughs and wetlands, development and industrial activity. The loss of sloughs, side channels and other low velocity backwater areas has decreased available juvenile rearing habitat. Loss of side channels may reduce spawning habitat availability as well. In the Nechako, flow reduction has reduced depth and the amount of habitat available in side channels and backwaters.	eng
235	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Restocking (since 1969) of the species occurs in Iran. Live gene bank and cryopreservation, DNA and tissue preservation exists in Iran and Russia (cryopreservation and tissue samples only).<br/><br/>There is strict national and international regulation of fishing and trading of caviar and meat, but there is still illegal trade. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>A large scale study (joint between Iran and Russia) on the genetic and morpometric differences between these two species is needed. This was identified as a priority in the World Bank sponsored Regional Workshop on Sturgeon Genetics, June 2009. A national action plan is being developed for conservation and sustainable use of this species in Iran. Public awareness raising is an ongoing project  in Iran.	eng
235	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species is known from the Caspian basin, being most abundant in southern part. In its past distribution, the Persian Sturgeon ascended all rivers around the Caspian Sea. It currently now only ascends lower courses of Iranian rivers, the Volga and Ural, and may enter the Terek and Kura. It is not currently stocked in Russia. More than 80% of total sturgeon stocking in Iran is for this species&#160;(Pourkazemi pers. comm.). In 1998, 24.5 million fingerlings were released&#160;(Abdolhay and Baradaran Tahouri 2006), but in 2008 only 10 million fingerlings were released.	eng
235	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Habitat: At sea, coastal and estuarine zones. Spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. Juveniles are found in riverine habitats during their first summer. <br/><br/>Biology: Anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 8-15 years, females at 12-18. Age range for mature females is 6-40 years; 85% are between 14-18 years, and 80% of males are between 12-16yrs (Moghim 2003). Average generation length is 14 years. This species does not spawn every year. Spawning takes place in June-August when temperature rises above 16°C. In the southern Caspian basin, the Persian Sturgeon spawns in April-September but reproduction is interrupted from June to August when temperature rises above 25°C. Most individuals migrate upriver in April-May, but some may enter rivers at other times of the year. In the southern Caspian basin, there is a second run in September-October. Juveniles migrate to the sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. At sea, the Persian Sturgeon feeds on a wide variety of benthic molluscs, crustaceans and small fish.<br/><br/>This species has different ecological biological requirements to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gueldenstaedtii</span>, as it prefers warmer water for spawning and has a shorter migration run.	eng
235	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	The only legal commercial exploitation of this species is in Iran (mainly from hatchery stock). Restocking in Iran started in 1969. It is estimated that 80% of catch originates from stocked individuals (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Iranian catch data shows that there has been between 54-56% decline from 1960/65 to 2006; the catch has continued to decline since 2006 but data is not yet available for this time period. The decline in catch does reflect a decline in abundance even though there are fisheries regulations and a reduction in catch effort (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Russia, commercial catch in the Caspian Sea has been banned since 2000. The 2007 Quota for scientific catch was 8 tonnes; it is unknown if this was met. &#160;<br/><br/>The following Iranian catch data (Pourkazemi 2006) shows the total sturgeon catch from Iran (it is estimated that approximately 40% of the catch from 1960 to 1989 and 50% of the catch between 1990 and 2007 was of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus,</span> Pourkazemi pers. comm.):<br/><br/>1960 - 2,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 440 tonnes)<br/>1965 - 2,100 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 462 tonnes)<br/>1970 - 3,000 tonnes  (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 750 tonnes)<br/>1975 - 1,675 tonnes  (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 302 tonnes)<br/>1980 - 1,429 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 372 tonnes)<br/>1985 - 1,650 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 297 tonnes)<br/>1990 - 2,645 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 582 tonnes)<br/>1995 - 1,500 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 480 tonnes)<br/>1997 - 1,300 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 559 tonnes)<br/>1998 - 1,200 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 588 tonnes)<br/>1999 - 1,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 480 tonnes)<br/>2000 - 1,000 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 540 tonnes)<br/>2001 - 870 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 557 tonnes)<br/>2002 - 643 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 418 tonnes)<br/>2003 - 463 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 315 tonnes)<br/>2004 - 500 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 345 tonnes)<br/>2006 - 330 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 201 tonnes)<br/>2007 - 225 tonnes (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. persicus</span> = 137 tonnes)	eng
235	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Dams across the region have led to the blocking of access to almost all spawning grounds. Illegal fishing/poaching across the Caspian region is the principle threat. In the Caspian Sea, the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species in both rivers and the Caspian Sea. In 1996, fish inspection authorities filed 8,000 citations for violations committed by individuals, mainly in the Astrakhan region along the Volga (Vecsei and Artyukhin 2001).<br/><br/>In Iran, pollution from agriculture and domestic waste causes loss and degradation of spawning sites. In Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, oil and industrial pollution has led to the loss of suitable feeding grounds. In Russia, oil pollution is a potential threat.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>The lack of ability to genetically identify the species in international trade is a potential threat, as Russian and Persian Sturgeon (caviar) can be mixed.	eng
235	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Illegal fishing/poaching across the Caspian region is the principle threat. In the Caspian Sea, the illegal sturgeon catch for all species was evaluated to be 6 to 10 times the legal catch (CITES 2000). Bycatch is also a threat to the species in both rivers and the Caspian Sea. In 1996, fish inspection authorities filed 8,000 citations for violations committed by individuals, mainly in the Astrakhan region along the Volga (Vecsei and Artyukhin 2001).<br/><br/>In Iran, pollution from agriculture and domestic waste causes loss and degradation of spawning sites. In Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, oil and industrial pollution has led to the loss of suitable feeding grounds. In Russia, oil pollution is a potential threat. Dams across the region have also led to the blocking of access to spawning grounds.<br/><br/>The Allee affect is also a potential threat to the species.<br/><br/>The lack of ability to genetically identify the species in international trade is a potential threat, as Russian and Persian Sturgeon (caviar) can be mixed.	eng
236	conservation	Qiwei, W., 2009	Current conservation measures in the Yangtze River include the strict limitation of harvest, the establishment of protected areas and the ongoing restocking programmes.<br/><br/>Commercial fishing has been closed since 1983, and now just small numbers (less than 40 individuals in recent years) are caught for scientific or propagation purposes.<br/><br/>In 1988, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinensis</span> was listed a Class I State protected animal. In 1996, Yichang Chinese Sturgeon Nature Reserve was established, protecting the spawning population. In 2002, a Chinese Sturgeon Nature Reserve in the Yangtze River estuary was established to protect&#160; juvenile sturgeons gathering there. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>In 1983, the Yangtze River Fisheries Institute artificially spawned this species (Fu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). From 1983 to 2007, more than 9 million Chinese Sturgeon (including larvae) were released into Yangtze River to increase the stock (Xiao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Chen 2007).<br/><br/>Currently, adult sturgeons are captured on spawning ground to be used for artificial breeding . Efforts are being made to rear and breed this species in captivity so that captive adults can be used for stocking in the future.	eng
236	distribution	Qiwei, W., 2009	The Chinese Sturgeon is the most southerly distributed of the Acipenseriformes. It was historically recorded in southwestern Korea and in western Kyushu, Japan. In China this species was historically found in the Yellow, Yangtze, Pearl, Mingjiang, and Qingtang rivers. However, it is now considered extirpated in the Yellow, Mingjiang, Qingtang and Pearl rivers (Chen 2008). This species has also recently been extirpated from the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, above the Three Gorges dam, and currently occurs in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze river and close to shore in the Yellow and East China Sea (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988, Chen 2008).	eng
236	habitat	Qiwei, W., 2009	This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Young of this species live in estuarine and nearshore habitats. When the species becomes sexually mature, it migrates up-river. Nearly mature adults (early stage III) arrive at the mouth of the Yangtze River in June or July. The adults do not feed while in the river. <br/><br/>Adults reach the middle sections of the river in September or October, where they overwinter. Ripe individuals were formerly found as far inland as the Jingsha River during the following October and November, where they spawned. Prior to construction of the Gezhouba Dam, the migration distance was as long as 2,500 to 3,300 km. Spawning sites often occur in turbulent sections of the river with rocky substrate and steep cliffs on both banks.<br/><br/>The roe is very large and it sinks and sticks to gravel until hatching. The hatched fries descend from the river to sea near the coast where they grow. They feed mainly on zoobenthos and other bottom invertebrates.<br/><br/>Juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinensis</span> of 7 to 38 cm tail length occur in the Yangtze River estuary from the middle of April through early October. These are presumably one-year-old individuals. Juveniles weighing a few kilograms can be found in coastal waters near the river mouth. Individuals from 25 to 250 kg in weight were registered in some fishing grounds of East China Sea and Yellow Sea. This species attains a length of more than 3 metres.	eng
236	population	Qiwei, W., 2009	In the 1960s, this stock supported a major commercial fishery, but catches in the late 1970s had declined to about 500 fish per year (The Changjiang Aquatic Resources Survey Group 1988).<br/><br/>In the 1970s, the total spawning population of this species was estimated at 10,000 individuals. In 1981, the construction of the Gezhouba dam isolated the upper reaches of the Yangtze river. In 1983 and 1984, the mean spawning stock size was estimated at 2,176 individuals (946 and 4,169 as 95% confidence intervals). Available data from acoustic surveys show that between 2005 and 2007, the total spawning stock of Chinese Sturgeon was 203-257. This data indicates a 97.5% reduction in the total spawning population over a 37 year period.<br/><br/>During 1996-2001, studies using tag-recapture methods, population structure analysis and sonar counting indicated that the spawning stock in the Yichang spawning area (mid-lower reaches of the Yangtze river) had decreased since the completion of the Gezhouba Dam. Annual estimates of spawning adults within the 40 km (including the 4km long spawning area) ranged from 199 to 473 (Chang 1999, Wei 2003).<br/><br/>Between 1983 and 2007, more than 9 million juveniles were released into Yangtze River to increase wild stocks. Prior to 1996, only the larvae were released as techniques had not been developed to cultivate fry, so survivability is expected to be very low (Wei 200, Chen 2008). After 1999, improvement in hatchery techniques allowed juveniles to be raised and the released, but the contribution to wild stocks is considered to be less than 10% (Wei 2003, Zhu 2003).	eng
236	threats	Qiwei, W., 2009	This species has been historically overfished. In the 1970s, fishing was unlimited, but seasonal (occurring mostly between October and November). Gear types include gill nets (upper reach) and row hooks (middle reach).&#160; Due to its life history characteristics, once depleted, stocks of this species take a long time to recover. Fry are also captured by traditional Chinese fishing methods (drift nets in the river and set nets at the river mouth).<br/><br/>Habitat fragmentation, alteration, destruction and changes to hydrological conditions also significantly impacts this species. The construction of the Gezhouba dam in 1981 blocked the migration routes of this species, making it impossible for it to reach&#160; spawning sites in the upper reaches of the river. Currently, there is just one remaining spawning ground, which is situated below the Gezhouba dam.<br/><br/>In 2003, the Three Gorges dam was constructed 40 km upstream of the Gezhouba dam. This has changed the hydrological regime (lowering the water level of the river in autumn and winter) and affected the water temperature. <br/><br/>Additionally, an increase in the amount of shipping traffic in the Yangtze river could be detrimental to the Chinese Sturgeon.<br/><br/>New evidence shows that water pollution is a potential factor lead to the decline of Chinese Sturgeon. Synthetic chemicals in water could contribute to the population decline of this species by significantly decreasing both the quality and quantity of eggs and spawning frequency of fish (Hu 2009).	eng
238	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	A widespread Siberian species found in the rivers Ob, Taz, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena, Kolyma. Some non-migratory populations exist in the Irtysh River system.	eng
239	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Largely inhabit sthe areas of Lake Baikal's major tributaries: the delta zone of the Selenga River, Proval Bay, Chivyrkuy and Barguzin Buys.	eng
239	habitat	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	The sturgeons migrate widely throughout the whole lake alongside the coastal line, swimming into bays and coves.	eng
240	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Recorded from the Yenisei River, Lena  River and east Siberian rivers.	eng
241	conservation	Mugue, N., 2009	More research is needed, particularly on the migration, feeding ecology, the productivity of natural reproduction and life history (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Population monitoring is also required.<br/><br/>Considering the low abundance of this species, research should focus on investigating potential environmental limiting factors (especially estuarine conditions), determining survival rates of the age stages and fecundity (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Conservation aquaculture techniques have been developed since 1995.<br/><br/>Public education, applied management research, and experimental research are necessary to develop better plans for protecting these species from extinction.<br/><br/>International trade is restricted (CITES II, since 1998; CMS Appendix II). Commercially cultured in Japan, and there is a large stock in Sakhalin which has originated from Tumnin spawners.	eng
241	distribution	Mugue, N., 2009	This species ascends small coastal rivers of the Russian Federation (Suchan (Partizanskaya), Adzemi, Koppi, Tumnin, Viakhtu, and Tym rivers) and Japan (Ishikari and Teshio rivers of Hokkaido). It is found at sea, throughout the Sea of Okhotsk, in the Sea of Japan as far east as the eastern shore of Hokkaido, Japan, along the Asian coast as far south as Wonsan, North Korea, and to the Bering Strait on the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>It is currently only known to spawn persistently in the Tumnin River (not further than 100 km upstream from the estuary), where only a single spawning site is known. It has also rarely been found in the Koppi River. This population may be functionally dependent on the Tumnin River or simply ephemeral (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
241	habitat	Mugue, N., 2009	Sakhalin Sturgeon spawn in June-July in the Tumnin River and April and May (historically) in the rivers of Hokkaido (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Estuaries are thought to be the nursery grounds for the species. They are mainly benthic feeding and feed in higher salinity waters (than Amur and Kaluga which share range), where food resources are more abundant than in temperate coastal watersheds (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The species generation length is estimated to be 15 years, with first maturation around 8-10 years (based on similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. medirostris</span>).	eng
241	population	Mugue, N., 2009	Although never abundant, the species was common in the 1950s in the market in Hokaido, Japan, but has been continually declining over the past century (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)<br/><br/>Current population estimates range from ten to thirty adults entering the Tumnin River for spawning annually. In 2005 only three specimens were caught and two specimens in 2008 - these were used for the establishment of aquaculture stocks.	eng
241	threats	Mugue, N., 2009	Illegal poaching (during spawning migration) is greatly affecting the viability of the species in the Tunmin river and this population could vanish within the next 10-15 years (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Bycatch is a threat to the species as there is a lot of trawling off the coast. Pollution and the potential construction of dams is also a threat to the species.	eng
242	conservation	Parauka, F.M., 2006	In 1991, the Gulf sturgeon was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Since then considerable work has been accomplished to better define life history and behavior and to determine habitats important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment and fish culture. A recovery and management plan for Gulf sturgeon was completed in 1995 (USFWS and GSMFC 1995). This plan identifies state and federal actions necessary to rebuild populations to levels that would allow delisting of the subspecies. In 2002, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service officially designated "critical habitat" for this species which includes 2,783 river kilometers and 6,042 km² of estuarine and marine habitat.	eng
242	distribution	Parauka, F.M., 2006	Gulf Sturgeon were first described as a subspecies to <em>A. oxyrinchus</em> (Atlantic sturgeon) in 1955. They occur in most major river systems from the Mississippi River to the Suwannee River in Florida and in marine waters of the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico south to Florida Bay. Though the species was previously listed as also occurring in Mexico, a review of the literature fails to support that contention. A single "sturgeon" was reported seen (but not captured) in the Rio Grande River which separates Texas and Mexico. The Gulf sturgeon’s current area of occupancy is spread over 2,500+ river km and 1,500+ km of coastline. However, construction of dams, sills and other water control structures throughout the 20th century severely restricted inland migrations of Gulf sturgeon in many waterways from St. Andrew Bay, FL to the Bogue Chitto River, LA.	eng
242	population	Parauka, F.M., 2006	Gulf sturgeon population estimates have been completed for the Apalachicola, Suwannee, Yellow and Choctawhatchee rivers in Florida, Pascagoula River in Mississippi, and the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi. The Suwannee River supports the most viable population among coastal rivers of the Gulf of Mexico and was estimated at 7,650 individuals older than age two (Sulak and Clugston 1999). The subpopulation estimate for Gulf sturgeon older than age two in the Choctawhatchee River ranges from 1,700–3,000 fish, while subpopulation estimates in the Apalachicola, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers range from 50–350 fish (Lorio 2000). The number of mature individuals in this range wide population were not estimated but most likely number less than 10,000. Eggs and larvae of Gulf sturgeon have been collected in the Bouie, Escambia/Conecuh, Choctawatchee, Apalachicola and Suwanee rivers (Critical Habitat Ruling). <br/> <br/>Stabile <em>et al</em>. (1996) analyzed Gulf sturgeon populations from eight drainages along the Gulf of Mexico for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences among Gulf sturgeon stocks and suggested they displayed region-specific affinities and may exhibit river-specific fidelity. These authors identified five regional or river-specific stocks: (1) Lake Ponchartrain and Pearl River; (2) Pascagoula River; (3) Escambia and Yellow rivers; (4) Choctawhatchee River; and (5) Apalachicola, Ochlockonee, and Suwannee rivers.	eng
242	threats	Parauka, F.M., 2006	Most North American sturgeons were heavily fished for meat and caviar at the turn of the last century.  Gulf sturgeon supported fisheries (up to 7 mt) in Alabama during 1927–1964, but the most persistent fisheries occurred in Florida. Records for the period 1887–1985 indicated that peak Florida harvest occurred in 1900–1902 (124 mt/year) followed by precipitous decline into the 1920s. From 1923–1971 harvest was fairly stable at about 7 mt per year; declined to 2.3 mt through the 1970s; and fell further to only 0.3 mt until fisheries were closed in 1986 (Barkuloo 1988). <br/> <br/>Gulf sturgeon continue to be threatened by habitat disturbances such as dam construction, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, groundwater extraction, irrigation and other surface water withdrawals, and flow alterations. Contaminants, primarily from industrial sources, also contribute adversely to individual fish health and population declines. Tissue and egg samples of Gulf sturgeon have shown elevated levels of pesticides and heavy metals. Organochlorines such as DDT and its derivatives DDD and/or DDE and toxaphene appear in most samples, sometime in concentrations exceeding U.S. Federal Drug Administration action levels for human consumption. High concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aliphatic hydrocarbons (both from petroleum products) were detected in most Gulf sturgeon samples from numerous Florida rivers. Arsenic and mercury were detected in 92% and 87% of sturgeon samples and cadmium occurred in 42% of samples (Bateman and Brim 1994).	eng
243	conservation	St. Pierre, R., 2006	All U.S. Atlantic sturgeon fisheries have been closed since 1997. Canada maintains active commercial fisheries in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec) for subadults of <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>, and in the Saint John River (New Brunswick) for larger fish. Also, a single fisherman is licensed on the Shubenacadie River in Nova Scotia. The St. Lawrence fishery was limited in 1997 to a quota of 6,015 fish - about 60 tons (Caron and Trembly 1997). Other regulations here include a maximum size limit of 1.5 m during a season extending from 1 May to 30 September. <br/> <br/>Peak landings on the Saint John River were 44 metric tones (mt) in 1988 but have declined in recent years to 10–14 mt. Only nine licensed fishermen remained in the St. John fishery in 1997. They were authorized to fish no more than 2,800 m of gill net with minimum mesh size of 33 cm. Minimum allowable size of sturgeon on the St. John is 120 cm and the season is closed during 1–30 June to protect spawners. Canadian authorities have expressed to U.S. authorities that these harvest levels are sustainable and do not damage the stocks (USFWS and NMFS 1998). A private aquaculture activity also occurs in New Brunswick with eggs and progeny produced from wild-caught adult sturgeon. Except for a few hundred live juveniles, most international trade in <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> in the late 1990s has been meat (2–34 mt/year) from Canada to the U.S. (CITES data).  <br/> <br/>No commercial or sport fishing for Atlantic sturgeon is allowed in territorial waters of the U.S. Atlantic Coast. The management authority for this species is the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission and their amendment to the 1990 Fishery Management Plan (ASMFC 1998) requires (1) no possession allowed in the 15 Atlantic states until at least 20 year-classes reach breeding age (30–40 years); (2) annual reporting of by-catch and by-catch mortality; (3) urges habitat monitoring and improvements as well as research and genetics analysis; and (4) places certain restrictions on sturgeon culture for market production and restocking. In addition to the ASMFC action, the Secretary of Commerce has closed all U.S. Atlantic coastal EEZ waters to harvest of Atlantic sturgeon. <br/> <br/>The recent USFWS-NMFS joint status review for Atlantic sturgeon determined that listing this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. ESA is not warranted at this time. Atlantic sturgeon are widespread and several subpopulations could be considered relatively abundant. However, because of uncertainties about overall stock health and the lengthy time required for population recovery, USFWS has designated Atlantic sturgeon as a "candidate species" for possible future ESA listing and NMFS lists it as a "species of concern".	eng
243	distribution	St. Pierre, R., 2006	<em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. Though populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U.S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John).	eng
243	habitat	St. Pierre, R., 2006	The Atlantic sturgeon (<em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>) is a large anadromous species that historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. This subspecies is recorded to live for up to 60 years and reach a size of 4.3 m and 368 kg (Vladykov and Greely 1963), though most mature fish are considerably smaller. Spawning occurs in fresh or slightly brackish water when water temperatures reached 13–18˚C. Migrations into coastal tidal rivers begin as early as February in the southern portion of the range and continue through June and July in northernmost waters. In the mid-Atlantic area, Atlantic sturgeon males mature at 6–10 years and females at 10–20 years (ASMFC 1990). Maturation occurs earlier in southern waters and later in Canada. Spawning periodicity ranges from 2–6 years. Based on tagging studies ocean migrations of up to 1,450 km have been recorded (Dovel and Berggren 1983).	eng
243	population	St. Pierre, R., 2006	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. The largest fishery was in the Delaware River and Bay which by 1890 supported over 1,000 fishermen and produced 2,300 metric tons of sturgeon product. Several dozen other rivers supported sturgeon fisheries and by the late 1890s, total Atlantic Coast U.S. landings reached 3,200 mt. Severe over-fishing of mature sturgeon in the U.S. led to a crash of the stocks and harvest was reduced by over 90% by the early 1900s and 99% by the 1920s. Throughout the 1970s to mid-1980s, prior to declaration of fishing moratoria, annual U.S. harvest of Atlantic sturgeon ranged from 50–100 mt with most fish being taken from the Hudson River (NY), coastal New Jersey and the Carolinas (ASMFC 1990). <br/> <br/>The number of mature individuals in the current population most likely numbers considerably more than 10,000.	eng
243	threats	St. Pierre, R., 2006	Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1998 status review by USFWS-NMFS and determined not to be limiting factors for Atlantic sturgeon stocks. Throughout the 20th century, sturgeon breeding habitats have been adversely impacted by dams, siltation, channel maintenance (dredging) and water pollution. Although habitat and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the vast majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species.  Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) should result in improvements sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats. With management measures in place the current population trend for Atlantic sturgeon is increasing.	eng
244	conservation	Ruban, G. & Bin Zhu., 2009	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically in place for the Siberian Sturgeon were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels. The Ob River and Baikal Lake populations of the sturgeon are included in Red Data Book of Russian Federation. This means that commercial fishing of these populations is now prohibited. <br/><br/>The Siberian Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.&#160; An export permit can only be issued if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species.<br/><br/>For the last 10 years, eggs of this species (originating from Russia) are being reared in Chinese hatcheries and young are being released into the upper reaches of the Irtysh River, in the northwest part of Xin jiang province, China. No information is currently available on population numbers. This is being undertaken by the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture (Chen 2008).	eng
244	distribution	Ruban, G. & Bin Zhu., 2009	This species is known from all Siberian rivers draining to the Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas: basins of the Ob, Taz, Yenisei, Pyasina, Khatanga, Anabar, Olenyek, Lena, Yana, Indigirka, Alazeya (rarely) and Kolyma rivers, Lake Baikal (the Yenisei River basin) and rivers flowing to the lake – the Selenga, Barguzin and Upper Angara. It is most abundant in the Ob, Yenisei and Lena rivers.<br/><br/>This species is also native to the the Irtysh River, in the northwest of Xin jiang province, China. However, wild populations were extirpated from here in the 1950s; the small population that remains here is from stocking (Chen 2007).	eng
244	habitat	Ruban, G. & Bin Zhu., 2009	This species can be found in all types of freshwater benthic habitats in large rivers and lakes. It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main stream of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. Numerous spawning sites are located in lower and middle reaches of rivers. Spawning peaks at beginning of June, continuing until end of July. <br/><br/>Spawning periodicity is 3-5 years in females and 2-3 years in males. The generation length of the species ranges from 25-30 years (Chen 2007, Ruban 2005). In northeastern populations, females are twice the age of males (Ruban 2005). The average age at maturity for females is 11 (in Lena River) to 22 (in Lake Baikal), and 9-19 years for males.	eng
244	population	Ruban, G. & Bin Zhu., 2009	The total population of Siberian Sturgeon is unknown. Direct counts and fishery statistics exist but are incomplete. However, a decline in catches of sturgeons within the main rivers of Siberia has been observed from the 1930s (Ruban 2005).<br/><br/>Based on commercial catch data, it is estimated that the Ob River basin contains more than 80% of the global population of this species (Chen 2007). In the Ob River basin, catches declined by ~99.5% from 1410 tonnes in 1935 to 6.7 tonnes  in 1996. In the Yenisei River catches declined from 504 tonnes  in 1934 to 10-12 tonnes in 2000s (a ~97.5% decline). In the Lena River catches declined from 190 tonnes in 1943 to about 10 tonnes in recent years (a ~94.5% decline) (Ruban 2005). <br/><br/>This species was extirpated from the northwest parts of Xin jiang province, China in the 1950s. The small population that remains here exists through stocking (Chen 2007).	eng
244	threats	Ruban, G. & Bin Zhu., 2009	The population decline all over the species range is a result of overfishing, damming (Ob, Yenisei, Angara) and poaching. Currently commercial fisheries are banned in the basins of the Ob and Yenisei rivers and the Lake Baikal. A decline in area of occupancy was observed in upper reaches of the Ob, Yenisei and Lena rivers (Ruban 2005). Dam construction at the Ob River resulted in 40% of sturgeon spawning grounds being lost (Gundrizer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). At the main sturgeon rivers of Siberia (Ob and Yenisei) the high level of poaching was noted (Krokhalevskii and Mikhalev pers. com.). At the Ob River, natural reproduction of the sturgeon has also declined due to a high level of abnormalities in development and functioning of reproductive system caused by water pollution (Ruban 2005).	eng
245	conservation	St. Pierre, R. & Parauka, F.M., 2006	All U.S. Atlantic sturgeon fisheries have been closed since 1997. Canada maintains active commercial fisheries in the St. Lawrence River (Quebec) for subadults of <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em>, and in the Saint John River (New Brunswick) for larger fish. Also, a single fisherman is licensed on the Shubenacadie River in Nova Scotia. The St. Lawrence fishery was limited in 1997 to a quota of 6,015 fish - about 60 tons (Caron and Trembly 1997). Other regulations here include a maximum size limit of 1.5 m during a season extending from 1 May to 30 September. <br/> <br/>Peak landings on the Saint John River were 44 metric tones (mt) in 1988 but have declined in recent years to 10–14 mt. Only nine licensed fishermen remained in the St. John fishery in 1997. They were authorized to fish no more than 2,800 m of gill net with minimum mesh size of 33 cm. Minimum allowable size of sturgeon on the St. John is 120 cm and the season is closed during 1–30 June to protect spawners. Canadian authorities have expressed to U.S. authorities that these harvest levels are sustainable and do not damage the stocks (USFWS and NMFS 1998). A private aquaculture activity also occurs in New Brunswick with eggs and progeny produced from wild-caught adult sturgeon. Except for a few hundred live juveniles, most international trade in <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> in the late 1990s has been meat (2–34 mt/year) from Canada to the U.S. (CITES data). <br/> <br/>No commercial or sport fishing for Atlantic sturgeon is allowed in territorial waters of the U.S. Atlantic Coast. The management authority for this species is the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission and their amendment to the 1990 Fishery Management Plan (ASMFC 1998) requires (1) no possession allowed in the 15 Atlantic states until at least 20 year-classes reach breeding age (30–40 years); (2) annual reporting of by-catch and by-catch mortality; (3) urges habitat monitoring and improvements as well as research and genetics analysis; and (4) places certain restrictions on sturgeon culture for market production and restocking.  In addition to the ASMFC action, the Secretary of Commerce has closed all U.S. Atlantic coastal EEZ waters to harvest of Atlantic sturgeon. <br/> <br/>The recent USFWS-NMFS joint status review for Atlantic sturgeon determined that listing this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. ESA is not warranted at this time. Atlantic sturgeon are widespread and several subpopulations could be considered relatively abundant. However, because of uncertainties about overall stock health and the lengthy time required for population recovery, USFWS has designated Atlantic sturgeon as a "candidate species" for possible future ESA listing and NMFS lists it as a "species of concern". <br/> <br/>In 1991, <em>A. o. desotoi</em> was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Since then considerable work has been accomplished to better define life history and behavior and to determine habitats important to each life stage, population status, genetic assessment and fish culture. A recovery and management plan for Gulf sturgeon was completed in 1995 (USFWS and GSMFC 1995). This plan identifies state and federal actions necessary to rebuild populations to levels that would allow de-listing of the subspecies. In 2002, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service officially designated "critical habitat" for this species, including 2,783 river kilometers and 6,042 square km of estuarine and marine habitat. <br/> <br/>With federal protection under the ESA and intensive permitting and consultation requirements for all water-related projects and discharges - especially in areas designated to be critical habitat - it is believed that <em>A. o. desotoi</em> population declines will be halted and reversed.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
245	distribution	St. Pierre, R. & Parauka, F.M., 2006	<em>A. oxyrinchus</em> occurs in the Atlantic coastal waters of Canada and the United States with spawning rivers in both countries.  <br/> <br/><em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> historically ranged along the Canadian and U.S. Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Florida. Though Atlantic sturgeon populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U. S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John). <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi occurs</em> in most major river systems from the Mississippi River to the Suwannee River in Florida and in marine waters of the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico south to Florida Bay. Though the subspecies was previously listed as also occurring in Mexico, a review of the literature fails to support that contention. A single "sturgeon" was reported seen (but not captured) in the Rio Grande River which separates Texas and Mexico. The Gulf sturgeon’s current area of occupancy is spread over 2,500+ river km and 1,500+ km of coastline. However, construction of dams, sills and other water control structures throughout the 20th century severely restricted inland migrations of Gulf sturgeon in many waterways from St. Andrew Bay to the Bogue Chitto River. <br/> <br/>For more information see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.	eng
245	habitat	St. Pierre, R. & Parauka, F.M., 2006	The Atlantic sturgeon is a large anadromous species. <em>A. o. oxyrinchus</em> is recorded to live for up to 60 years and reach a size of 4.3 m and 368 kg (Vladykov and Greely 1963), though most mature fish are considerably smaller. Spawning occurs in fresh or slightly brackish water when water temperatures reached 13–18˚C. Migrations into coastal tidal rivers begin as early as February in the southern portion of the range and continue through June and July in northernmost waters. In the mid-Atlantic area, Atlantic sturgeon males mature at 6–10 years and females at 10–20 years (ASMFC 1990). Maturation occurs earlier in southern waters and later in Canada. Spawning periodicity ranges from 2–6 years. Based on tagging studies ocean migrations of up to 1,450 km have been recorded (Dovel and Berggren 1983).	eng
245	population	St. Pierre, R. & Parauka, F.M., 2006	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. The largest fishery was in the Delaware River and Bay which by 1890 supported over 1,000 fishermen and produced 2,300 metric tons of sturgeon product. Several dozen other rivers supported sturgeon fisheries and by the late 1890s, total Atlantic Coast U.S. landings reached 3,200 mt. Severe over-fishing of mature sturgeon in the U.S. led to a crash of the stocks and harvest was reduced by over 90% by the early 1900s and 99% by the 1920s. Throughout the 1970s to mid-1980s, prior to declaration of fishing moratoria, annual U.S. harvest of Atlantic sturgeon ranged from 50–100 mt with most fish being taken from the Hudson River (NY), coastal New Jersey and the Carolinas (ASMFC 1990). <br/> <br/>In 1998, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) completed a comprehensive "Status Review of Atlantic Sturgeon" in response to a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered under the U. S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The assessment found that, though Atlantic sturgeon populations are currently depressed from historic levels, breeding populations still exist in at least 14 Atlantic Coast rivers in the U. S. (Maine to Georgia) and several more in Canada (St. Lawrence, St. John). The number of mature individuals in this range-wide population was not estimated but most likely it numbers considerably more than 10,000. Area of occupancy is very large (> 1,500 river km spread over 3,000 km of coastline).  Substantial subpopulation mixing may occur, particularly as sub-adults, and recolonization of seriously depleted stocks may occur from adjacent healthy populations.   <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi</em> population estimates have been completed for the Apalachicola, Suwannee, Yellow and Choctawhatchee rivers in Florida, Pascagoula River in Mississippi, and the Pearl and Bogue Chitto rivers in Louisiana and Mississippi. The Suwannee River supports the most viable subpopulation among coastal rivers of the Gulf of Mexico and was estimated at 7,650 individuals older than age two (Sulak and Clugston 1999). The subpopulation estimate for Gulf sturgeon older than age two in the Choctawhatchee River ranges from 1,700–3,000 fish, while subpopulation estimates  in the Apalachicola, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers range from 50–350 fish (Lorio 2000). The number of mature individuals in this range wide population were not estimated but most likely number less than 10,000. Eggs and larvae of Gulf sturgeon have been collected in the Bouie, Escambia/Conecuh, Choctawatchee, Apalachicola and Suwanee rivers (Critical Habitat Ruling). <br/> <br/>Stabile <em>et al</em>. (1996) analyzed <em>A. o. desotoi</em> subpopulations from eight drainages along the Gulf of Mexico for genetic diversity. They noted significant differences among Gulf sturgeon stocks and suggested they displayed region-specific affinities and may exhibit river-specific fidelity. These authors identified five regional or river-specific stocks: (1) Lake Ponchartrain and Pearl River; (2) Pascagoula River; (3) Escambia and Yellow rivers; (4) Choctawhatchee River; and (5) Apalachicola, Ochlockonee, and Suwannee rivers.	eng
245	threats	St. Pierre, R. & Parauka, F.M., 2006	Atlantic sturgeon were an important item of commerce to early American and Canadian colonists and large quantities of meat, roe, oil and isinglass were exported to Europe late 17th and 18th centuries. As flesh and roe (caviar) gained popularity in North American, the species was heavily exploited, particularly during several decades of the late nineteenth century. <br/> <br/>Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1998 status review by USFWS-NMFS and determined not to be limiting factors for Atlantic sturgeon stocks. Throughout the 20th century, sturgeon breeding habitats have been adversely impacted by dams, siltation, channel maintenance (dredging) and water pollution. Although habitat and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the vast majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species. Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) should result in improvements sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats. With management measures in place the current population trend for Atlantic sturgeon is increasing. <br/> <br/><em>A. o. desotoi</em> continues to be threatened by habitat disturbances such as dam construction, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, groundwater extraction, irrigation and other surface water withdrawals, and flow alterations. Contaminants, primarily from industrial sources, also contribute adversely to individual fish health and population declines. Tissue and egg samples of Gulf sturgeon have shown elevated levels of pesticides and heavy metals. Organochlorines such as DDT and its derivatives DDD and/or DDE and toxaphene appear in most samples, sometime in concentrations exceeding U.S. Federal Drug Administration action levels for human consumption. High concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aliphatic hydrocarbons (both from petroleum products) were detected in most Gulf sturgeon samples from numerous Florida rivers. Arsenic and mercury were detected in 92% and 87% of sturgeon samples and cadmium occurred in 42% of samples (Bateman and Brim 1994).	eng
246	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	In the Caspian Sea ansd the tributaries that feed into the Caspian.	eng
247	habitat	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	A riverine species.	eng
250	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	In the Caspian Sea and the tributaries that flow into the Caspian.	eng
251	conservation	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Fish were taken from the Aral Sea and introduced into Lake Balkash, where it still forms a very important part of the commercial fishery.	eng
251	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Was in the Aral Sea.	eng
253	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	In the Caspian Sea and the tributaries that flow into it.	eng
254	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	In the Caspian Sea and the tributaries that flow into it.	eng
257	conservation	Duke, S., 2004	On September 6, 1994, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the Kootenai River population of white sturgeon as endangered under the Endangered Species Act (Act). Subsequently, a recovery team composed of two Canadians and eight Americans was formed in January 1995. The team completed a final recovery plan (Plan) for the Kootenai River white sturgeon in 1998, which was subsequently approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in late 1999 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
257	distribution	Duke, S., 2004	The Kootenai River subpopulation is a land-locked subpopulation restricted to approximately 270 km of the Kootenai River in Idaho and Montana (United States), and Kootenay Lake in British Columbia (Canada), primarily upstream from Cora Linn Dam at the outflow from Kootenay Lake.	eng
257	habitat	Duke, S., 2004	This subpopulation is land-locked and is restricted to freshwater habitats.	eng
257	population	Duke, S., 2004	The Kootenai River subpopulation of white sturgeon has been in general decline since the mid-1960's (Apperson and Anders 1991, Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining wild population is comprised primarily of adult sturgeon older than 25 years, with very little recruitment observed in the wild population since the mid-1970's (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999, Ireland <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1997, there were an estimated 1,468 adults (95% CI: 740 to 2,197) and 17 juvenile white sturgeon (Paragamian <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Beginning in 1991 prior to official action under the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Bonneville Power Administration provided Kootenai River flows from Libby Dam to aid Kootenai River white sturgeon recruitment. These flows, considered experimental from 1991 through 1995, were intended to identify various factors limiting successful reproduction of Kootenai River white sturgeon and help achieve recovery. Beginning in 1995, there was acknowledgment that an adaptive approach was needed since the precise relationship between annual timing, magnitude, temperature, and duration of flows downstream of Libby Dam necessary for successful sturgeon reproduction had not been demonstrated. Since that time, the operation of Libby Dam has included a spring refill period depending upon runoff forecasts, for conservation storage following drafting during the winter flood control season in an attempt to better mimic natural flow regime more closely (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1999). To date, the increased Kootenai River flows provided through the flow augmentation program has resulted in documented spawning each year but not survival beyond the egg stage. Consequently natural recruitment has not been significantly restored. Only a total of 18 wild juvenile white sturgeon have been collected since 1993, with the largest year class appearing to be 1991 with ten wild recruits. It is currently unknown whether flow augmentation will be effective in restoring successful natural reproduction in the near future, consequently it is projected that the wild adult Kootenai River white sturgeon subpopulation will decline well into the future.	eng
257	threats	Duke, S., 2004	For more than the last 100 years, human development has modified the natural hydrograph of the Kootenai River through such activities as Libby dam construction and operation, dyke construction and lowered Kootenai Lake levels. These activities have altered white sturgeon spawning, egg incubation, nursery and rearing habitats, and reduced overall biological productivity. Although these factors may have contributed to a general lack of recruitment of this unique population of white sturgeon during the last century, the operation of Libby Dam in 1974 is considered to be a primary reason for the population’s continued decline (Apperson and Anders 1991). When Libby Dam began regulating the Kootenai River, average spring peak flows were reduced by more than 50% and winter flows increased by more than 300%.	eng
258	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Recorded from the drainage areas feeding into the Caspian and Black Seas.	eng
259	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Found on the Irtysh, Ob and Yenisei Rivers.	eng
260	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	Confined to the Danube River and its tributaries.	eng
263	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Amori, G., 2008	No specific measures are in place or needed. It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
263	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Amori, G., 2008	Endemic to Africa. Known from Western Sahara, Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Egypt (including Sinai), Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Ethiopia. Limits in C and S Sudan, and in Ethiopia are uncertain.	eng
263	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Amori, G., 2008	It is found mainly in rocky areas (Jebels), cliffs, and rocky canyons; not in sandy desert areas (although may sometimes be found in sandy habitats with date palms). Also found in gravel plains with low shrubs in the Sahel. Some populations are commensal, occupying crevices in buildings.	eng
263	population	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Amori, G., 2008	It is common and widespread, and is commensal with people especially in gardens and date groves.	eng
263	threats	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Amori, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
264	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
264	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>Acomys cilicicus</em> is only known from its type locality on the southern coast of Turkey (GMA Turkey 2006).	eng
264	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
264	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Population size and trends have not been quantified.	eng
264	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	There is high tourism development in the only known locality for this species.	eng
265	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
265	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This speciess is primarily found in central and southern Sudan but it extends into Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. It occurs well below 2,000 m asl, and it is not found in the highlands of Ethiopia. It is not present in the Gambela area of Ethiopia which is too low lying and very wet. There are outlying records from Jebel Mara, the base of the jebels in eastern Sudan, Bahr el Ghazal and the Immatongs in Uganda. The occurrence of this species in Djibouti requires confirmation.	eng
265	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in rocky habitats and semi-desert areas. It is an insectivorous species. It appears that the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
265	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There is a large population of this species east of the Nile, and it is not so common in the west. It is locally common in appropriate habitats in Western Nile province of Sudan. This can be a human commensal species.	eng
265	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
266	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It has been recorded from Tsavo National Park and Amboseli, both in Kenya.	eng
266	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is found from northeastern Tanzania (Usambara Mountains), and southern Kenya. It is found at lower altitudes (below 700 to 1,000 m asl).	eng
266	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It occurs in rocky habitats in dry savannas. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
266	population	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is fairly widespread and common, especially in gravel plain areas (former <em>Brachystegia</em> Woodland).	eng
266	threats	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
267	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It has been recorded from Meru National Park, Tsavo (both in Kenya) and probably others.	eng
267	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found from Tanzania northwards to Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia. It does not occur on the coast south of Malindi (Shimba Hills). It occurs westwards into the Rift Valley. This species is not found in highland areas, and probably is not found higher than 700 m asl.	eng
267	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found in similar habitat to <em>Acomys. ignitus</em>, <em>A. loiusae</em> and <em>A. wilson</em>i - on gravel substrates in dry savanna. It is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
267	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is fairly widespread and common in the dry lowlands. It is considered to be very common along the Tana River and Samburu.	eng
267	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
268	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is not known to occur in any major protected areas.	eng
268	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This is a lowland species occurring in the 'Horn of Africa' from Djibouti southwards into northeastern Kenya. It occurs below 500 m asl.	eng
268	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Where they co-occur, it is found in similar habitat as <em>Acomys ignitus</em>, <em>A. kempi</em> and <em>A. wilsoni</em> - on gravel places in dry savanna, but in the north it is found in short grassland. It is an insectivorous species. This species has very distinctive teeth quite different to the other species. It can probably persist in modified or degraded habitats.	eng
268	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is widespread and common in the habitats where it occurs.	eng
268	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
269	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is required to clarify its taxonomic status and determine population trends.	eng
269	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Acomys minous</em> is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece, where it occurs from sea level to 1,000 m (P. Lymperakis unpublished data). More taxonomic research is required to clarify whether <em>A. minous</em> is a valid species, or whether it should be considered as part of <em>A. cahirinus</em>. There is no fossil or subfossil record of <em>Acomys</em> species on Crete (Dieterlen 1978), suggesting that this taxon is the result of a relatively recent human introduction.	eng
269	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is found in arid areas, including scrubby hillsides and rocky slopes. It may be found in close proximity to human habitation, and sometimes enters houses, especially during the winter. Its diet is predominantly herbivorous, supplemented by some animal items (Zima 1999).	eng
269	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Little is known about the status and population trends of this species. It may be common in suitable habitats, and there are no reports of population declines (Zima 1999).	eng
269	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is not believed to face any major threats at present (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
270	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major protected areas in this region.	eng
270	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. It occurs below 1,000 m asl, but mostly below 100 m and even below sea level in the Danakil Depression (= Afar Depression).	eng
270	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It occurs in very barren or sparsely vegetated habitat (shrubs and grasses) on rocky plains and salt flats. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
270	population	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are very few specimens reported in the literature, and not many in museums as few people have worked in this area due to security reasons. There is no information on population size.	eng
270	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the habitat of this species. Only stochastic impacts such as extended drought periods might affect the species.	eng
271	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	No specific measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is required to clarify whether or not this is a valid species. Surveys are needed to determine population size, distribution and trends.	eng
271	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Acomys nesiotes</em> is endemic to Cyprus, where available evidence suggests that it was possibly introduced by humans, and therefore may represent a non-native population of <em>Acomys cahirinus</em>.	eng
271	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	This species is found in rocky areas.	eng
271	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	There were no records of this species between 1980 and 2007. In 2007, four individuals were captured by M. Sozen and colleagues around Lefkoşa (Nicosia) area at an altitude of about 600 meters asl in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, confirming that this species persists (M. Sozen pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is expected to have two disjunct populations in the rocky areas of the island: the Troodos massiv in the South and the Kyrenia hills in the North, which are separated by the non-rocky Mesaoria lowlands.	eng
271	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	Attempts were made in the 1980s and 1990s to trap this species at sites where it was recorded in the 1970s; these were always unsuccessful, and instead of spiny mice, black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> were found at the sites (P. Boye pers. comm. 2007). Habitat at some of these site has been destroyed as a result of road and building construction (P. Boye pers. comm. 2007). This suggests that the Cyprus Spiny Mouse may have suffered significant declines as a result of competition with invasive black rats and habitat loss due to development.	eng
272	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in Samburu and Buffalo Springs in northern Kenya (the type locality), and Omo Reserve in Ethiopia.	eng
272	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Sudan (east of the White Nile River), northeastern Uganda, southwestern Ethiopia and from Kenya. It occurs down the Rift Valley. This is a lowland species found below 1,000 m asl (it does not occur in the Immatong Mountains of Sudan).	eng
272	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It occurs on lava strewn rocky plains, in sparse to bare areas. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
272	population	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is a common species, that has cyclic population fluctuations.	eng
272	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Much of its range is only occupied by pastoralists and there is a low human density.	eng
273	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species is found in many protected areas. A survey on the status of this species in the eastern desert of Egypt and in Wadi Hof is needed.	eng
273	conservation	Scott, D., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	The species is found in many protected areas. A survey on the status of this species in the eastern desert of Egypt and in Wadi Hof is needed.	eng
273	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The type locality is located within a major Egyptian Military base (Wadi Hof), but there is no current information about the species from this area. Beer Kasib is the only other known locality in Egypt outside of the Sinai, but it no longer occurs here. The species was widespread and common in Egypt up to 50 years ago. It has either been extirpated or is very close to extirpation within much of Egypt. It is still common on the Sinai Peninsula (e.g., at St. Catherine's) and in the Middle East (Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, northern Yemen and Oman). This species occurs up to 2,000 m asl. The range of the form <em>A. russatus lewisi</em> may extend into Syria but may be a separate species.	eng
273	distribution	Scott, D., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	The type locality is located within a major Egyptian Military base (Wadi Hof), but there is no current information about the species from this area. Beer Kasib is the only other known locality in Egypt outside of the Sinai, but it no longer occurs here. The species was widespread and common in Egypt up to 50 years ago. It has either been extirpated or is very close to extirpation within much of Egypt. It is still common on the Sinai Peninsula (e.g., at St. Catherine's) and in the Middle East (Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, northern Yemen and Oman). This species occurs up to 2,000 m asl. The range of the form <em>A. russatus lewisi</em> may extend into Syria but may be a separate species.	eng
273	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurred strictly in rocky habitats, at the edges of wadis, at the base of jebels, or on mountain summits. This is a diurnal, insectivorous species.	eng
273	habitat	Scott, D., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	It occurred strictly in rocky habitats, at the edges of wadis, at the base of jebels, or on mountain summits. This is a diurnal, insectivorous species.	eng
273	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species was once very common in Egypt but has declined by more than 90% in the last 50 years. It is still common elsewhere in its range (e.g. Jordan: Amr 2000).	eng
273	population	Scott, D., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species was once very common in Egypt but has declined by more than 90% in the last 50 years. It is still common elsewhere in its range (e.g. Jordan: Amr 2000).	eng
273	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The reasons for the species decline in Egypt are unknown. Elsewhere in its range it is not considered to be seriously threatened. The golden spiny mouse has become a pest in agricultural fields that use drip irrigation as they eat seeds and destroy certain crops. They sometimes are the focus of public health concern because flea populations on these mice may host Rickettsia, the organism which causes typhus.	eng
273	threats	Scott, D., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	The reasons for the species decline in Egypt are unknown. Elsewhere in its range it is not considered to be seriously threatened. The golden spiny mouse has become a pest in agricultural fields that use drip irrigation as they eat seeds and destroy certain crops. They sometimes are the focus of public health concern because flea populations on these mice may host Rickettsia, the organism which causes typhus.	eng
274	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It has been recorded from a large number of protected areas in all the countries of its range. However, it is apparently not in the Selous Reserve in Tanzania.	eng
274	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeastern Tanzania (Amani) and east central Tanzania (Kilosa and Morogoro regions), southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Malawi (on the Nyika Plateau), Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana, central Mozambique and northern and northwestern South Africa (Limpopo Province, North-West province, Gauteng and Mpumalanga).  It occurs up to 1,800 m asl.	eng
274	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found on rocky outcrops in savanna woodland (<em>Brachystegia</em>, Mopane, Miombo, <em>Terminalia</em>, etc.). It is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
274	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is very common in the southern parts of the range, but less common further north.	eng
274	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
275	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Research recommended into this species includes surveys, genetic research, and further research into the species' life history. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
275	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is largely endemic to the Western Cape Province of South Africa; its range just extends into the Eastern and Northern Cape Provinces. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km². This species occurs up to about 1,000 m asl.	eng
275	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with rocky areas on mountain slopes in Fynbos vegetation. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
275	population	Schlitter, D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The current population numbers greater than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
275	threats	Schlitter, D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	the Fynbos habitat is impacted in parts by alien invasives, but this is thought to be unlikely to impact this species. Animals in lower lying areas have been impacted by habitat loss due to crops and expanding urbanization. Overall the species is secure.	eng
276	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found throughout Tsavo, Amboseli (rocky areas only), Samburu (all in Kenya) plus many other protected areas.	eng
276	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in southern Sudan, southern Ethiopia, southern Somalia, northeastern Uganda, most of Kenya, and south to east central Tanzania. It occurs below 1,000 m asl.	eng
276	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in rocky habitats on sparsely vegetated gravel plains. It commonly occurs in dense <em>Sanseviera</em> patches, and in holes on termite mounds. It is an insectivorous species. This is the smallest of all the spiny mice. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
276	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is very common in the Rift Valley.	eng
276	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
278	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures known to be in place to protect this species. None are thought to be needed.	eng
278	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs between 33° and 41°S in the High Andes of Chile and Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may be found up to 4,000 m asl (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
278	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It only occurs in cool, moist forest isolated from other forests by more than 1,000 km of pampa or desert. The dominant trees at any one place are usually one or more species of southern beech (Nothofagus).	eng
278	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Locally abundant (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
278	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
279	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Listed as Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz, 2000); it occurs in the Lanin National Park.	eng
279	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Neuquén Province, Pampa de Hui Hui in areas near Lago Quillén and Lago Hui Hui  (1050 m asl.) (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is thought that the species also occurs in Chile in Malleco Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005; Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
279	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It occurs in forest (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
279	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It is locally abundant, but may have a very limited distribution (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).	eng
279	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Habitat loss is a major threat for this species (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
282	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
283	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
500	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	<em>Actinella anaglyptica</em> is endemic to the Madeiran Islands.	eng
500	threats	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Overgrazing has led to soil erosion, a subsequent decline in quality of habitats and decline in extent of vegetated cover.  This habitat deterioration is the main threat to this mollusc.	eng
501	threats	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Threatened by further footpath developments along the ridges near Pico Arreiro and Pico Ruivo and fire.	eng
503	conservation	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
512	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is protected under national legislation in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; in Libya and Egypt hunting of all gazelles is forbidden by law.<br/><br/>Although massive reserves, such as the Ahaggar and Tasilli in Algeria, the Aïr/Ténéré in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar N.P. in Sudan cover areas where Addax previously occurred, some are under-resourced and all no longer harbour Addax (Newby in press). Continued support for gazetted reserves in Chad and Niger, together with the establishment of new protected areas, especially along the Mali/Mauritania frontier (Majabat), Niger (Termit/Tin Toumma) and Chad (Bodélé, Egueï), is essential, but must be supported and combined with programmes to create incentives for the local people to protect wildlife wherever it is found (Newby in press).<br/><br/>Addax have been reintroduced to fenced sectors of protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma NP) and Morocco (Souss-Massa: 70 animals released 1994-97, increased to c. 550 by 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). The first reintroduction in the wild is underway in Jebil National Park, Tunisia, in the Great Eastern Erg and another is planned in southern Morocco.<br/><br/>There are over 600 Addax in Europe, Libya (Sabratha), Egypt (Giza Zoo), North America, Japan and Australia in managed breeding programmes, and at least 1,000 more individuals are held in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East (Newby in press, T. Jdeidi pers. comm.).	eng
512	conservation	Newby, J. & Wacher, T., 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is protected under national legislation in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; in Libya and Egypt hunting of all gazelles is forbidden by law.<br/><br/>Although massive reserves, such as the Ahaggar and Tasilli in Algeria, the Aïr/Ténéré in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar N.P. in Sudan cover areas where Addax previously occurred, some are under-resourced and all no longer harbour Addax (Newby in press). Continued support for gazetted reserves in Chad and Niger, together with the establishment of new protected areas, especially along the Mali/Mauritania frontier (Majabat), Niger (Termit/Tin Toumma) and Chad (Bodélé, Egueï), is essential, but must be supported and combined with programmes to create incentives for the local people to protect wildlife wherever it is found (Newby in press).<br/><br/>Addax have been reintroduced to fenced sectors of protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma NP) and Morocco (Souss-Massa: 70 animals released 1994-97, increased to c. 550 by 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). The first reintroduction in the wild is underway in Jebil National Park, Tunisia, in the Great Eastern Erg and another is planned in southern Morocco.<br/><br/>There are over 600 Addax in Europe, Libya (Sabratha), Egypt (Giza Zoo), North America, Japan and Australia in managed breeding programmes, and at least 1,000 more individuals are held in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East (Newby in press, T. Jdeidi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
512	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Addax were formerly widespread in the Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley, and present in suitable habitats in all countries sharing the Sahara Desert (Newby in press). As with other ungulates of the Sahelo-Saharan fauna, the Addax has undergone an unprecedented reduction in geographical range over the past century. Today, the only known remaining population survives in the Termit/Tin Toumma region of Niger. However, there are sporadic records of small isolated groups and individuals from eastern Air Mountains/Western Ténéré desert in Niger, and from the Equey region of western Chad (Newby in press). Possible rare vagrants from these areas may be seen in north Niger, southern Algeria and Libya (Newby in press). There are continued rumours of Addax along the Mali/Mauritania border (Majabat Al Koubra), but no confirmed sightings for several years. However, in early March, 2007, the fresh tracks of about 15 Addax were seen in central Mauritania, in an area where they had not been reported for over 20 years (R. Vernet in Newby in press).	eng
512	distribution	Newby, J. & Wacher, T., 2008	Addax were formerly widespread in the Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley, and present in suitable habitats in all countries sharing the Sahara Desert (Newby in press). As with other ungulates of the Sahelo-Saharan fauna, the Addax has undergone an unprecedented reduction in geographical range over the past century. Today, the only known remaining population survives in the Termit/Tin Toumma region of Niger. However, there are sporadic records of small isolated groups and individuals from eastern Air Mountains/Western Ténéré desert in Niger, and from the Equey region of western Chad (Newby in press). Possible rare vagrants from these areas may be seen in north Niger, southern Algeria and Libya (Newby in press). There are continued rumours of Addax along the Mali/Mauritania border (Majabat Al Koubra), but no confirmed sightings for several years. However, in early March, 2007, the fresh tracks of about 15 Addax were seen in central Mauritania, in an area where they had not been reported for over 20 years (R. Vernet in Newby in press).	eng
512	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The most desert-loving large ungulate, occurring in areas of extreme temperature and aridity (less than 100 mm annually) (Newby in press). With the exception of truly mountainous areas, Addax have been recorded from all major habitat types in the Sahara, from gravelly and sandy plains, to dune fields, sandy basins and depressions, pans and wadi systems; their preference is for harder, packed sands and flatter areas within and between dune fields that support perennial vegetation (Newby in press; and references therein). <br/><br/>Addax are nomadic, wandering over large areas in search of grazing. In the Sahel, movements tend to be north-south in direction, i.e., from the more arid desert to the less arid sub-desert and Sahel (Gillet 1965; Newby 1978). In central Niger, movement may also be east-west, i.e., from the open desert towards the better-wooded and more varied habitats of the Aïr and Termit mountains (Hue 1960).	eng
512	habitat	Newby, J. & Wacher, T., 2008	The most desert-loving large ungulate, occurring in areas of extreme temperature and aridity (less than 100 mm annually) (Newby in press). With the exception of truly mountainous areas, Addax have been recorded from all major habitat types in the Sahara, from gravelly and sandy plains, to dune fields, sandy basins and depressions, pans and wadi systems; their preference is for harder, packed sands and flatter areas within and between dune fields that support perennial vegetation (Newby in press; and references therein). <br/><br/>Addax are nomadic, wandering over large areas in search of grazing. In the Sahel, movements tend to be north-south in direction, i.e., from the more arid desert to the less arid sub-desert and Sahel (Gillet 1965; Newby 1978). In central Niger, movement may also be east-west, i.e., from the open desert towards the better-wooded and more varied habitats of the Aïr and Termit mountains (Hue 1960).	eng
512	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Although long extinct in North Africa, Addax were still present in fair numbers in Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad up until the late 1960s and early 1970s (Newby in press). Today, the total global population is estimated at probably less than 300 animals surviving in the wild, distributed unevenly along a narrow, 600-km-long band lying between Termit/Tin Toumma in Niger and the Bodélé Depression in Chad (Newby in press). Ground and aerial surveys of Termit/Tin Toumma carried out in 2004 (Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2004) indicate a population of between 100 and 200 head. A total count carried out by SOS Faune du Niger in October 2004 returned a figure of 128 Addax for a little under 10,000 km² of prime habitat in Termit, Niger (see Newby in press). Otherwise, Addax seem to retain a highly fragmented distribution, based on sightings of individuals and small groups.	eng
512	population	Newby, J. & Wacher, T., 2008	Although long extinct in North Africa, Addax were still present in fair numbers in Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad up until the late 1960s and early 1970s (Newby in press). Today, the total global population is estimated at probably less than 300 animals surviving in the wild, distributed unevenly along a narrow, 600-km-long band lying between Termit/Tin Toumma in Niger and the Bodélé Depression in Chad (Newby in press). Ground and aerial surveys of Termit/Tin Toumma carried out in 2004 (Wacher <em>et al.</em> 2004) indicate a population of between 100 and 200 head. A total count carried out by SOS Faune du Niger in October 2004 returned a figure of 128 Addax for a little under 10,000 km² of prime habitat in Termit, Niger (see Newby in press). Otherwise, Addax seem to retain a highly fragmented distribution, based on sightings of individuals and small groups.	eng
512	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The primary factors in the decline of Addax are uncontrolled hunting and harassment. Drought and the extension of pastoralism into desert lands, thanks to the increase in wells, have also taken a heavy toll (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005; Newby in press). Demographic factors (very small size of subpopulations, extreme fragmentation) are also expected to have an adverse effect.	eng
512	threats	Newby, J. & Wacher, T., 2008	The primary factors in the decline of Addax are uncontrolled hunting and harassment. Drought and the extension of pastoralism into desert lands, thanks to the increase in wells, have also taken a heavy toll (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al.</em> 2005; Newby in press). Demographic factors (very small size of subpopulations, extreme fragmentation) are also expected to have an adverse effect.	eng
520	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Research into the spread of chytrid fungus and education on methods of minimizing and preventing its spread is also needed as a conservation measure.	eng
520	distribution		This Australian endemic has a disjunctive distribution, occurring in the Clarke Range (mid-eastern Queensland), then from Shoalwater Bay (mid-eastern Queensland) south along the coast to Moss Vale (mid-eastern New South Wales), and inland to Blackdown Tableland and Carnarvon Gorge. It was formerly common across a broad altitudinal range but at present it is common only at altitudes of less than 400m asl.	eng
520	habitat		This species is found in wet forest and dry forest environs usually along streams, but also around dams. See Katsikaros and Shine (1997) for studies on diet, habitat use, mating systems and sexual dimorphism. Breeding takes place in streams and ponds. Unpigmented eggs are laid in a foam nest hidden from the light, and development is usually complete within 71 days.	eng
520	population		There is no information on the status of inland populations of this species. Elswhere, it is now absent from some areas of apparently suitable habitat. For example, it has not been recorded along the Great Dividing Range in recent surveys. Upland populations in northern New South Wales have also declined, and the species is listed as threatened in the region. There is no published information on its overall population size, structure, genetics or dynamics.	eng
520	threats		The major threat to this species is loss and degradation of its habitat through agricultural and urban development. Other significant threats are the introduced predatory fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>, and the spread of weeds. Dead frogs that have suffered from chytridiomycosis have been found in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.	eng
523	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
547	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in Tatama and Farallones de Cali National Parks (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
547	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Possibly narrowly endemic, this species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental, 1,700 to 2,580 m, western Colombia, in the Valle del Cauca and Risaralda Departments (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
547	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is terrestrial. It occurs in primary premontane wet forest, secondary forest, croplands and pasture may also be suitable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
547	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species appear to be abundant (or at least easily trapped) at most places where they have been found to date (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
547	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Major threat to this species is general deforestation.	eng
548	conservation	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela. More collections are required.	eng
548	distribution	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is found in the Mérida State, in the Andes of Venezuela (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 2001). It has an elevational range of about 2,000 to 3,000 m (Soriano <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
548	habitat	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is present in cloud forest and paramo (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) and breeds in the wet season. It is likely to be omnivorous and is entirely terrestrial and nocturnal (Aagaard, 1982).	eng
548	population	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is locally common (J. Ochoa and M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
548	threats	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is affected by habitat loss although this is not currently a threat.	eng
550	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Common Impala is one of the most abundant antelopes in Africa, with about one-quarter of the population occurring in protected areas. The largest numbers occurring in areas such as the Mara and Kajiado (Kenya), Serengeti, Ruaha and Selous (Tanzania), Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Okavango (Botswana), Hwange, Sebungwe and the Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe), Kruger (South Africa) and on private farms and conservancies (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia) (East 1999). Its future is secure as long as it continues to occur in large, adequately protected and managed populations in protected areas and private farms and conservancies. <br/><br/>The main surviving populations of the Black-faced Impala occur in Etosha National Park and private farms in Namibia. The numbers of the Black-faced Impala should continue to increase in protected areas and on private land, although it remains at risk from hybridization with the Common Impala (East 1999). The Namibian government has a management plan to eliminate hybridization with Common Impala and strictly regulate harvests. The Namibian Professional Hunters Association has a Black-faced Impala committee and the NGO Conservation Force has a long-term involvement in all aspects of its conservation including funding of the management plan. Good management practices make the future of the taxon secure for now (John J. Jackson III, in litt. to ASG, August 2007).	eng
550	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Impala formerly occurred widely in southern and East Africa, from central and southern Kenya and north-east Uganda to northern KwaZulu-Natal, west to Namibia and southern Angola. Their current distribution range remains largely unchanged from their historical range, although it has been eliminated from parts by hunting for meat and the spread of settlement (for example, they now only occur in south-west Uganda, and have been extirpated from Burundi) (East 1999; Fritz and Bourgarel in press).<br/><br/>In Namibia, the Black-faced Impala is naturally confined to the Kaokoland in the north-west, and neighbouring south-western Angola. Kaokoland was set aside as a protected area in 1928, when it formed part of Etosha N.P., but lost its protection status in 1970. To guard against its extinction, Black-faced Impala were translocated to south-western Etosha on the edge of the historic Black-faced Impala range (Green and Rothstein 1998). Today, this subspecies occurs between the Otjimborombonga area (ca 12°45'E) and Swartbooisdrift on the Cunene R., southward to the Kaoko Otavi area in the south-western part of the Etosha N.P., and the Kamanjab District just south of the Park (Fritz and Bourgarel in press). There is no information on the current status of this subspecies in Angola (Crawford-Cabral and Veríssimo 2005)<br/><br/>Common Impala have been introduced to numerous privately owned game ranches and small reserves throughout southern Africa. Impala have also been introduced in two protected areas in Gabon (P. Chardonnet pers. comm.).	eng
550	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Impala is a water-dependent and typical ecotone species, associated with light woodlands and savannas, selecting open Acacia savannas with nutrient-rich soils providing good-quality grass, and high-quality browse in the dry season (Fritz and Bourgarel in press). In their semi-arid environment, Black-faced Impala also select the interface between wooded savanna and open grassy vleis (Joubert 1971; Matson <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
550	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population estimates are available for most of the Impala’s current range. East (1999) summed these estimates to produce a total population of 1,584,000 Common Impala and 2,200 Black-faced Impala, but the former does not allow for undercounting in aerial surveys or those areas for which population estimates are unavailable. Correcting for undercounting biases, East (1999) estimated the total numbers of Common Impala at ~2 million.<br/><br/>East's estimate of 2,200 for Black-faced Impala is slightly lower than that estimated by Green and Rothstein (1998), who estimated numbers in Etosha at around 1,500 individuals, with an additional 1,200 on private land, and the total population in Kaokoland at around 500. As of 2007, numbers in Etosha and private ranches are estimated at about 3,200 with a further 50-100 on conservancies (all stable and increasing); numbers in the north-west (the original native range) may number approximately 1,000 (J. Jackson in litt to ASG 2007).<br/><br/>As noted by Fritz and Bourgarel (in press), actual recorded densities of Impala vary substantially, from less than 1/km² in Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to as many as 135/km² on the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe (Bourgarel 1998). In the wooded savanna of Akagera N.P. in Rwanda, where Monfort (1972) recorded densities of 214/km², total numbers declined by about 75-80% between 1990 and 1998 (Williams and Ntayombya 1999).	eng
550	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are currently no major threats to the species. Poaching, livestock development and severe drought were the main factors contributing to the decline of Black-faced Impala. The reintroduction of 180 individuals from Kaokoland to the west of Etosha National Park between 1968 and 1971 helped promote the conservation of the subspecies, and a few were translocated from Etosha to private game farms in Namibia (Fritz and Bourgarel in press).<br/><br/>However, the introduction of Common Impala to ranches and conservancies neighbouring Etosha National Park may represent a threat to the Black-faced subspecies through hybridization. Green and Rothstein (1998) earlier estimated that about one-quarter of all privately owned Black-faced Impala occur in mixed herds with Common Impala. In a recent study, Lorenzen and Siegismund (2004) analysed 127 Black-faced Impala individuals from five subpopulations in Etosha National Park to determine whether any hybridization had taken place within the park, but could not find any evidence for hybridization between the two subspecies having taken place.	eng
555	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A1ac (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
555	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Sichuan, Gansu, Hebei (Smith and Xie 2008), and Beijing (CSIS 2008). It exists as two isolated populations; <em>Aeretes melanopterus melanopterus</em> in Hebei and <em>A. m. szechuanensis</em> in northeastern Sichuan and southern Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations lower than 3,000 m asl (Wang 1998).	eng
555	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in mountainous forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
555	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that it is declining as a result of habitat loss.	eng
555	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Deforestation and overharvesting are major threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
556	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J, 2008	It likely occurs in protected areas across its range. However, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
556	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J, 2008	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Penang island, Sumatra and Borneo (Medway 1983). The "typical form" of this species occurs in southernmost provinces of Thailand. Reports from northern Thailand in Lekagul and MacNeely (1977) have not been confirmed, nor have those in Tizard <em>et al</em>. (1997) from northern Lao PDR. However, flying squirrels in these areas remain very poorly known so it is unclear whether these dark animals are melanistic <em>Petaurista</em> sp. or <em>Aeromys tephromelas</em>.	eng
556	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J, 2008	This nocturnal flying squirrel inhabits primary and secondary forests, foothills of the ranges in Borneo and Malaysia. It is also found in gardens where it uses tree hollows. It is relatively adaptable.<br/>This species eats fruits, nuts, and other vegetable matter (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
556	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J, 2008	This is possibly a naturally uncommon species.	eng
556	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J, 2008	There are no major threats to this species, as it is adaptable and is likely to persist unless forest is lost completely.	eng
557	conservation	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found within several protected areas on Borneo.	eng
557	distribution	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The species occurs in Borneo, except of the southern east portion.	eng
557	habitat	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It species is found from lowland to mid-montane forest. It is a nocturnal squirrel, feeding mainly on fruits.	eng
557	population	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is common in suitable habitat.	eng
557	threats	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The species is threatened by anthropogenic habitat loss.	eng
561	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
561	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
561	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research and habitat protection.	eng
561	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mt. Moroto to Mt. Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has not recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, but from the highlands of the Bwindi National Park in south-western Uganda, thus occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.	eng
561	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is common in Kenya's Rift Valley area. Northern boundary is not known.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mt. Moroto to Mt. Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda).	eng
561	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from the eastern Branch of the Rift Valley from Mount Moroto to Mount Meru (Uganda, Kenya and north Tanzania), Bwindi National Park (Uganda). Common in Kenya's Rift Valley area. northern boundary is not known. Not recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, but from the highlands of the Bwindi National Park in south-western Uganda, thus occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.	eng
561	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in savanna and bush along Rift Valley.	eng
561	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams in savanna and bush along the Rift Valley and suitable habitat elsewhere within the species range.	eng
561	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in savannah and bush along Rift Valley.	eng
561	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
561	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The population size is unknown.	eng
561	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The major threats to the species are water pollution and water extraction.	eng
561	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Water pollution and water extraction.	eng
562	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Found in the United States (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah) and Mexico (Nayarit and Chihuahua).	eng
562	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Desert canyons along shaded streams.	eng
562	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
562	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	No known threats in a range of low human population (see Bick 2003). However, streams in arid areas are subject to flood scouring and overgrazing; little consideration of the species is likely in Mexico.	eng
563	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	FHH–species, protected in all countries within the European Union. There is also a species action plan in the Netherlands.	eng
563	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is listed in the Habitats Directive and the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Especially for populations dependent on man-made habitats management plans are needed. For many areas in the Netherlands these are already in place (De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2001). Especially the isolated populations in Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Austria deserve attention.<br/>In some areas, management in which the vegetation of Water Soldier is removed every few years is needed in order to maintain the habitat. This management should however be done in a rotation model in such a way that there is always habitat available.	eng
563	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	Northern, Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia.	eng
563	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is confined to the western part of the Palaearctic and is found from the Netherlands in the west to the Central Siberian lowland. Its European range is largely confined to parts of Northeast Europe. It is relatively widespread in the northern parts of European Russia, Poland and the Baltic states. In the Ukraine it is only found in the northeast while in Finland and Sweden it is confined to the southern half. In West Europe it is found in the Netherlands, parts of Denmark and the north of Germany. More isolated occurrences are known from Austria, Hungary and Croatia.	eng
563	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the European part of its range, <em>Aeshna viridis</em> is almost completely confined to habitats with large fields or Water Soldier. These fields are found in standing or slowly flowing, largely unshaded waters with a mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic status. Natural habitats where this species can occur are lakes or oxbows. In Western Europe occurrences in more natural habitats have become rare and there it is mainly found in man-made waters like large ditches and channels in low peat areas.	eng
563	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Mostly in still waters populated by the plant <em>Stratiotes aloïdes</em>. The species has also been reported from a few odd lakes without this plant present.	eng
563	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Although this species has a relatively wide range, it is only locally common. Densities at the reproduction sites can be high.	eng
563	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Current population size is unknown, but is very large.	eng
563	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna viridis</em> is almost completely dependent on the presence of fields of WaterSoldier. This species quickly disappears when water becomes polluted, especially when the amount of phosphate rises. The decrease of water-quality due to poor water management is the main threat for this species on European scale. At least in Western Europe relatively many populations are found in agricultural areas. Here the increase of maize production is a specific threat. All throughout its range, but especially in Western Europe this species occurs in man-made waters like ditches and channels. In these habitats natural succession of the vegetation will eventually end with the Water-soldier being replaced by other plants. The species is dependent on open areas around the smaller reproduction sites and overgrowth with trees and shrubs could outshade the species and eliminate the population.	eng
563	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	Habitat disturbance/change, foremost in the western parts of the distribution.	eng
564	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	The species is probably more widespread than known due to scarce sampling in the area. Urgent studies are needed to determine habitat, area of occurrence, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
564	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Known from Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. Also likely to occur in Honduras.	eng
564	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Found above 1,500 m asl. Otherwise habitat is unknown. It probably occupies highland forest streams.	eng
564	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Population size is unknown but the species must be relatively rare as it is very infrequently encountered.	eng
564	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Montane habitat is threatened everywhere by deforestation for coffee groves and cattle ranching.	eng
565	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Helgen, K. & Kingston, T., 2008	It occurs in protected areas within its range. There is a current campaign to protect habitats in central Borneo, especially the key watersheds.	eng
565	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Helgen, K. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, central Borneo (in Indonesian and Malaysian Borneo), Sumatra, Java (Mt. Gede), Bali, and Lombok in Indonesia. It has not yet been found in southern Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
565	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Helgen, K. & Kingston, T., 2008	It occurs in hill and montane forests (probably restricted to forest) from 1,000 m up to 2,700 m asl. In Eastern Malaysia the species is found up to 1,700 m. It roosts singly or in small groups of 2-3. A single female collected on Lombok had a large foetus. In the Malay Peninsula, pregnant females were reported from February and May and February to June. It is not known whether it can adapt to human disturbance.	eng
565	population	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Helgen, K. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is widespread but uncommon.	eng
565	threats	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Helgen, K. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation for agriculture, plantations and logging is a major threat in lowland areas, as is coal mining in central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo.	eng
567	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.	eng
567	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is known only from three localities in eastern Zimbabwe (Mount Selinda; Ngorima Reserve; Stapleford), and possibly in the Manica Province of Mozambique. The specimens from Stapleford were collected at approximately 700 m asl.	eng
567	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The species is found in montane dry forest. It has been recorded from tangled vegetation in a rocky area (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
567	population	Taylor, P.J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known.	eng
567	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The restricted range of the species may indicate small population size.	eng
568	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
568	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	The range of this species covers at least all of northern coastal Angola, including the Cabinda enclave, and the adjacent Escarpment Zone, extending southwards to the vicinity of Lobito (Hanha Estate). It is also known to occur east of latitude 17°E, in the Cassange lowland. This species is probably distributed throughout northwestern Angola as it is largely associated with savannas interspersed with forest.	eng
568	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species inhabits savannas, and also savanna interspersed with forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
568	population	Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
568	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
569	conservation	Agwanda, B., Corti, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
569	distribution	Agwanda, B., Corti, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is found from southern Kenya to northern South Africa, and eastwards to Namibia and southern Angola.<br/>It is found on plains and high plateau, but it is not found in montane areas.	eng
569	habitat	Agwanda, B., Corti, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This is typically a savanna species, but it is also found in cropland and secondary forests.	eng
569	population	Agwanda, B., Corti, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The population density of this species is variable, it can be locally abundant.	eng
569	threats	Agwanda, B., Corti, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
570	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
570	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is endemic to karoo areas in south central South Africa. It occurs over a wide area.	eng
570	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species occurs in shrubland and rocky areas on mountain slopes. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
570	population	Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance and population size is not known.	eng
570	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	The species habitat does not appear to be fragmented and there are no known threats.	eng
571	conservation	Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
571	distribution	Agwanda, B., 2008	This species ranges on plains and mountain slopes from Cameroon, eastwards through Central Africa, to Kenya in the east.	eng
571	habitat	Agwanda, B., 2008	This species mostly inhabits moist habitats, although it is occasionally found in drier areas. It feeds on insects and plant material. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
571	population	Agwanda, B., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
571	threats	Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
572	conservation	Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
572	distribution	Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species is found from Kenya westwards to Angola. It is not present in central lowlands of Tanzania where years of intensive trapping have failed to find evidence of this species.	eng
572	habitat	Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is found in dry and moist woodlands, in the sub-tropical and tropical forests of the Congo, and in sparsely wooded savanna. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
572	population	Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
572	threats	Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
573	conservation	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
573	distribution	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is generally found south of the Caprivi Strip throughout most of the southern cone of Africa, excluding southern parts of Mozambique.	eng
573	habitat	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	In northern parts of the range (Namibia), it is only found areas of shifting sand, otherwise it is found in most habitat types. This species shelters in rocky crevices, hollow trees or in burrows constructed under logs or dense shrubs. Nests of this species have been found in trees up to 2 metres. It is a nocturnal and communal species. It is a human commensal, and is found houses and huts.	eng
573	population	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is widespread and common.	eng
573	threats	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
574	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.	eng
574	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is present in Malawi and northern Zambia, and has a scattered distribution in northern Angola. It is probably also present in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, but this is unverified.	eng
574	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly known. It is present in dry tropical forest.	eng
574	population	Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
574	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species.	eng
575	conservation	Boitani, L., Taylor, P.J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
575	distribution	Boitani, L., Taylor, P.J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species of bush rat is generally found in northern Nigeria. There is one record from a locality in western Cameroon.	eng
575	habitat	Boitani, L., Taylor, P.J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	Bush rats generally inhabit areas of grassland, savanna, open scrub habitats, cultivated areas and forest edges.	eng
575	population	Boitani, L., Taylor, P.J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
575	threats	Boitani, L., Taylor, P.J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
576	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
576	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Central Plateau of Angola.	eng
576	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in dry shrubland in the highlands of the Central Plateau of Angola. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
576	population	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
576	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
592	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
592	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sierra Leone: this species is known only from a single locality in Sierra Leone, and is therefore endemic to that country and in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.	eng
592	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
592	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from three specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
592	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases and deforestation which are ongoing in large areas of Sierra Leone.	eng
593	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
593	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guinea: this species is known only from a single locality in Guinea, and is therefore endemic to that country in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.	eng
593	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known. The Upper Guinea forest in the region of Kindia, Guinea has been cleared and has been replaced by slash and burn agriculture and industrial encroachment. The impact of this on the populations of <em>A. gerhildae</em> is not known, but may be expected to cause a decline.	eng
593	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from three specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
593	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases and deforestation which are ongoing in large areas of Guinea.	eng
594	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
594	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sierra Leone: this species is known only from a single locality in Sierra Leone, and is therefore endemic to that country.	eng
594	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known because the collection locality is vague, and is listed only as "Sierra Leone".	eng
594	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
594	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases, more intensive agriculture, deforestation and political unrest which are ongoing in large areas of Sierra Leone.	eng
595	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
595	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guinea: this species is known only from two localities in Guinea and is therefore endemic to that country.	eng
595	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in swamps and year-round wetland habitats in the Guinea savannah zone of northwestern Guinea. The original vegetation cover found at the farmland near the village of Sarabaya where this species was recently collected lies in southern guinea savannah in the semi-deciduous moist forest zone&#160; (Cumberlidge 2006). Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> were collected from cultivated land from burrows dug into permanently moist soil each with a shallow pool of water at the bottom. At the end of the dry season after a six-month period without rain the soil in this area nevertheless remains wet year round, so this locality either has an underground water table close to the surface, or a nearby spring. The natural habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> is still unknown but presumably this cultivated land was originally a permanent freshwater marsh. There were no nearby sources of surface water and it is clear that these crabs do not need to be immersed in water (as do their relatives that live in streams and rivers), and that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. monodosus</span> can meet its water requirements (such as keeping its respiratory membranes moist and osmoregulation of body fluids) with the small amount of muddy water that collects at the bottom of their burrow. This species is clearly a competent air-breather and has a pair of well-developed pseudolungs similar to those seen in the related West African endemic genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Globonautes</span>.	eng
595	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from less than 20 specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
595	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases, deforestation, and associated increased agriculture in northwest Guinea.	eng
596	conservation		It occurs in the Kruger National Park and in several protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
596	distribution		This species ranges from the Mhlatuze Valley in northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) through Swaziland and eastern Mpumalanga (South Africa) to southern Mozambique. An apparently isolated population in extreme northeastern South Africa is probably connected though Mozambique. It occurs up to 300m asl.	eng
596	habitat		It is a species of the lowland coastal plain, inhabiting savannah, bush land and grassland. It lives in leaf axils during the dry season. It breeds in perennial and ephemeral standing pools and marshes, and in dense grass at the edges of shallow semi permanent pans.	eng
596	population		It is very abundant at its breeding sites, and high-density choruses are common.	eng
596	threats		It is not believed to be seriously threatened, but some populations might be impacted by coastal development, including sugar cane farming, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up seasonal pans). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.	eng
694	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from Lake Jackson in Florida.	eng
699	conservation	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	The species in included in Annex C of the Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein. Honduras is included the species in CITES Appendix III in 1987. CITES Export Quotas have been issued for certain countries since 1997.	eng
699	distribution	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is widely distributed. It occurs from Mexico south to eastern Paraguay, northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999), and Uruguay (Mones <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has marginal distribution in Uruguay.	eng
699	habitat	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	The species occurs in a wide range of forest types in moist areas. It is frequently found in gallery forests near rivers and standing waters, where it builds its own burrow, or it can occupy that of another animal. Its diet is frugivorous and it may an important seed distributor (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
699	population	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	Widespread and locally common in the northern part of its range; scarce in the south of its distribution. Local extinctions of the species have occurred due to habitat destruction in the southeast of its range (Quierolo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This rodent occurs at population densities of 84 to 93 individuals per square kilometer in suitable habitat in Colombia (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
699	threats	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This rodent is an important game animal throughout its range, and is frequently taken as bush meat.	eng
700	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
700	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in mountains of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found in several departments in the Andes region of Colombia from 1,500-3,700 m asl (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). There is one record from San Juanito (14°48'16"S, 68°44'8"W) Bolivia (Ríos-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
700	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is found in mountain forests of the Andes. Its diet is unknown (Lord, 1999). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuniculus paca.</span> The record and observations in Bolivia are from montane forest in Yungas (Ríos-Uzeda <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
700	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is rare (Lord, 1999; Tirira, in prep.).	eng
700	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and fragmentation (D. Tirira pers. comm.). This species is considered an agricultural pest and is hunted for its meat.	eng
701	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Protected areas have been identified and established. The species now occurs only in protected areas. In the future, these areas must be well managed. Future research on the distribution and population trend will be needed. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, targeted ecological research must determine what conservation actions should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
701	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Sierra Nevada in Southern Spain, between 2,500-3,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
701	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Sierra Nevada, these butterflies are found in sheltered depressions in an otherwise open landscape, where the foodplant <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace vitaliana</span> grows abundantly. The female lays its eggs among fresh leaves inside the rosettes of the foodplant and the young larvae feed on the parenchyma of the leaves, then overwinter as third instar larvae and use the flowers and developing seeds as food in the next spring. Habitat: plant communities growing on screes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>grasses. It lives in dry and exposed areas such as hilltops where the vegetation is scarce and the foodplant grows close to the ground in the crevices or rocky areas.	eng
701	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the Sierra Nevada, Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The species is showing large populations fluctuations (M. Munguira, pers. comm.)	eng
701	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threat comes from the construction of infrastructure for ski-tourism. Regarding its limited distribution, it might become threatened in the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.	eng
712	conservation	Lü, Z, Wang, D. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Giant pandas are considered a threatened and precious species in China.  They are listed under Category 1 (maximum level of protection) of the Chinese Wildlife Conservation Law of 1988 and on Appendix I of CITES.  In 1989 the Chinese Ministry of Forestry (now SFA) and WWF drafted a joint national conservation plan for the giant panda, which was eventually adopted by the Chinese government in 1992.  This plan now guides conservation initiatives for this species.<br/><br/>Since poaching of pandas has been largely controlled, the major conservation issue is restoring their habitat (Reid and Gong 1999, Lü <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Previous considerations to clone pandas have been largely abandoned.  There are still plans to release captive animals (experimental tests of this are presently occurring), but this effort addresses mainly a problem of overcrowding in captivity (due to enormous success in captive breeding) rather than the wild situation.  Reintroduction of captive animals may be limited by lack of suitable release sites with adequate habitat but few or no pandas, which are necessary conditions to avoid possible transmission of disease and social disruption of the wild population.<br/><br/>A concerted effort has been made to increase both the quantity and quality of panda habitat.  Beginning in 1963, forest reserves were established specifically for the conservation of giant pandas.  By 1990, 13 panda reserves had been established — presently there are nearly 60 (under either federal or provincial jurisdiction).  Increasing linkages among these reserves is a conservation priority (Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In addition to creating new reserves, China has worked to increase and improve forested area outside reserves.  Following extensive flooding in 1998, tied directly to deforestation, China implemented the Natural Forest Conservation Program to enhance forest cover throughout major river basins; this included a ban on logging in natural forests. Additionally, a “Grain-to-Green” policy has forced farmers to abandon agricultural fields on steep slopes and replant these areas with trees (for which they are given grain and cash subsidies).  As a result of these policies, China has become first in the world in terms of forest area gained per year (FAO 2006).  The suitability of many of these newly forested areas for pandas, though, is still questionable.  Additionally, the rising pace of economic development, particularly in presently undeveloped areas, has created more road and hydro-power construction, causing more forest fragmentation.	eng
712	distribution	Lü, Z, Wang, D. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	The giant panda is confined to south-central China. Currently, it occurs in portions of six isolated mountain ranges (Minshan, Qinling, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, and Xiaoxiangling) in Gansu, Shaanxi and Sichuan Provinces (about 75% of the population inhabits Sichuan Province). The panda's total range encompasses approximately 30,000 sq km between 102–108.3° E longitude and 28.2–34.1° N latitude.  This range highly overlaps that of the Asiatic black bear (<em>Ursus thibetanus</em>), although the ecological requirements of these species differ appreciably (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Significant climatic changes combined with thousands of years of cultivation of lower and flatter habitats and hunting by humans caused the giant pandas’ range to shrink to a remnant at the rugged western fringe of a once more expansive area (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985). This species previously ranged throughout most of southern and eastern China, with fossils indicating presence as far south as northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam and stretching north nearly to Beijing.  Another related species, the pygmy giant panda (<em>A. microta</em>), now extinct, also once existed in this area.  As recently as 1850, giant pandas existed in eastern Sichuan and Hubei and Hunan Provinces.  By 1900, they occurred only in the Qinling Mountains and along the edge of the Tibetan plateau.  Soon after 1900, the expansion of agriculture upstream along principal river valleys separated this distribution into separate regions in the six mountain ranges.	eng
712	habitat	Lü, Z, Wang, D. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Giant pandas occupy temperate montane forests with dense stands of bamboo at altitudes of 1,200–4,100 m asl (more typically 1,500–3,000 m asl; Hu and Wei 2004). Habitat use depends both on the type and density of bamboo, the overstory (which influences the growth of bamboo), and the hillslope (Reid and Hu 1991). Giant pandas do not hibernate but they generally descend to lower elevations in the winter (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2002), and may take temporary shelter in hollow trees, rock crevices and caves. <br/><br/>Giant pandas spend about 55% of the day (both daytime and night-time) feeding, mainly on bamboo (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985, 1989).  Bamboo comprises 99% of their diet.  They utilize over 60 species of bamboo, but 35 species comprise their main food source (Hu and Wei 2004).  They often use different species of bamboo in different elevational bands, varying use with the seasons (Pan <em>et al</em>. 2001, Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/><br/>Pandas are often erroneously believed to be poor breeders, an impression rooted in the previous disappointing reproductive performance of captive animals (Lü <em>et al</em>. 2000). Studies of wild pandas, however, indicate that their reproductive rates are comparable to those of some other species of bears (Garshelis 2004, Harris 2004, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Moreover, captive populations in China are now reproducing well.<br/><br/>Giant pandas are usually solitary, except during the mating season and while rearing a cub. During the March–May breeding season, females may breed with multiple males.  Birthing, often in rock dens or hollow trees, occurs in August–September (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2001).  One or two cubs are born, but the mother raises only one.	eng
712	population	Lü, Z, Wang, D. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Three range-wide surveys have been conducted, in the mid-1970s, mid-late1980s, and 2000–2002.  All surveys were based on incidence of sign, but techniques varied, so results are not directly comparable.  Present best estimates indicate a total wild population between 1,000–2,000.  Greater protection of forests and from poaching in recent years suggest that panda populations should be increasing, but this has not been confirmed empirically.<br/><br/>Results from the most recent survey, coordinated by the State Forestry Administration (SFA) of China and World Wildlife Fund (WWF), indicated a total population of ~1600 individuals. This is over 40% higher than previous estimates.  It is believed that the increase in the estimated number of pandas is due largely to differences in survey methodology and a larger search area, as well as possibly an actual increase in panda population size in some areas.  Conversely, in other areas, habitat conditions were deemed to be worse and panda numbers lower in 2000–2002 than in the 1980s survey.<br/><br/>The most recent population estimate was based on differentiating individual pandas from measurements of bamboo fragments in scats.  It is known that different age classes of pandas have different bite-sizes of bamboo (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 1985), but the validity of differentiating individuals of the same age class based on bite-sizes has not been well tested.  Recent information on DNA-identified scats suggests that the bite-size method may underestimate population size in some cases (e.g., dense populations; Zhan <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Many surviving wild giant panda subpopulations have fewer than 50 individuals (Loucks <em>et al</em>. 2001).  No major reductions in the genetic diversity of these populations is apparent, although they likely experienced modest genetic losses from a much larger ancestral population (Lü 2001).  Some controversial research suggests that the Qinling (Shaanxi Province) population is a genetically isolated and distinct subspecies (Wan <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
712	threats	Lü, Z, Wang, D. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Restricted and degraded habitat is the greatest threat to giant pandas.  Population fragmentation exists on two scales — six mountain ranges separated by agriculture, and within these, fragments of bamboo forest separated by patches of cleared lands and forest without a bamboo understory. The giant panda's range contracted as trees were removed in logging operations and land was cleared for farming.  Populations of pandas thereby became small and isolated, and confined to high ridges, hemmed in by cultivation.  <br/><br/>Chinese authorities have established a network of panda reserves, and linkages now exist among some of these, but small population size and small total range remains a threat to the viability of this species.  Moreover, in some reserves, and especially in panda range outside reserves, habitat has become degraded by intensive human use (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2001).   <br/><br/>A further threat to pandas relates to their reliance on bamboo for food.  Bamboo is subject to periodic, synchronous (and hence large-scale) flowering and die-off (at intervals of 15–120 years). Before significant human encroachment of their habitat, pandas could move to areas with healthy bamboo when a die-off occurred.  Studies following the latest major bamboo die-off in the early 1980s indicated that pandas were still able to survive by finding patches that had not flowered, and also by moving to alternate habitats and feeding on less-favoured species of bamboo (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 1988, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Poaching of pandas was a serious problem in the past, but it has greatly diminished, and is no longer considered a major threat. Markets for panda skins have virtually disappeared, and penalties for poaching pandas have become far more severe (including death sentences in some cases).  Panda parts are not used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. However, giant pandas are still sometimes killed in snares set for musk deer and other species.	eng
714	conservation	Wang, X., Choudhury, A., Yonzon, P., Wozencraft, C. & Than Zaw, 2008	The Red Panda is covered under CITES Appendix I (Duckworth <em>et a</em>l. 1999), and Schedule I of the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972, the highest protection possible for a species in India (Choudhury 2001). It is also legally protected in Bhutan, China (where it is classed as a category II species under the Wild Animal Protection Law (Wei <em>et a</em>l. 1999a), and Nepal (Glatston 1994). In China, the species is Red Listed as Vulnerable A2ace. The species is protected in Myanmar by the Wildlife Act of 1994 and is found in at least one, probably several, protected areas (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>There are 20 protected areas in India that have known or possible populations of this species, yet these protected areas cover only about one-third of the total potential habitat for this species (Choudhury 2001). Protection of this species is more or less adequate in the protected areas of India, due more to their remoteness and difficulty of terrain, rather than actual enforcement of laws (Choudhury 2001). Enforcement of protective legislation, especially outside of protected areas, is virtually non-existent (Choudhury, 2001). Outside of India, China has 35 protected areas (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1998) covering about 42.4% of this species habitat in China, Nepal has eight, and Bhutan has five that support known or reported populations of this species (Choudhury 2001). The red panda has been recorded from Singalila National Park (Bahuguna <em>et al</em>. 1998), and Langtang National Park in Nepal (Yonzon and Hunter 1991).<br/><br/>Choudhury (2001) provides the following conservation recommendations: expansion and strengthening of the protected area network, prevention of illegal felling, control of jhum cultivation and overgrazing, regulation of tourism, public awareness of threatened status of this species, and enforcement of existing legal protections. The population of the species, reported at 200 m, is a research priority in order to study how a temperate species has survived in a subtropical habitat.	eng
714	distribution	Wang, X., Choudhury, A., Yonzon, P., Wozencraft, C. & Than Zaw, 2008	The distribution of <em>Ailurus fulgens</em> in the wild is poorly known, but its range is known to include Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar, and southern China, with a disjunct population on the Meghalaya Plateau of northeastern India (Choudhury 2001). The westernmost limit of this species is from the Annapurana Range in Nepal, and the easternmost is from the Qing Ling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China. The distribution range of this species should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). It is found from the southern part of the Gaoligong Shan on the Myanmar-China border (25ºN), to Minshan Mountains and upper Min Valley, Sichuan (33ºN) (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966, Macdonald 1984, Corbet and Hill 1992, Choudhury 1997). Although Roberts and Gittleman (1984) record it as occurring only above 2,200 m, it can be found from 1,500 to 4,800 m, and on the Meghalaya Plateau it is found from 700 to 1,400 m (Choudhury 1997), sometimes as low as 200 m (Surajit Roy pers. comm.). Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (2001) found that this species' preferred altitudinal range in Singhalila National Park in eastern Himalayas was 2,800 to 3,100 m, and it was relatively more abundant between 2,800 to 3,600 m. <br/><br/>In China, the Red Panda is found in the Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Bigger Xiangling, and Lesser Xiangling Mountains in western Sichuan, China (Wei <em>et al</em>.1999a, 1999b, 2000), but former assertions of occurrence in far southern Yunnan, in Xishuangbanna (e.g. Wang Yingxiang 1987) have not been corroborated (e.g. Wei Fuwen <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is believed to have gone extinct from the rest of its historical range in China, e.g. Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghai provinces (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Myanmar it is known only from the northernmost state, Kachin, and is locally distributed even there (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>The red panda was reported as occurring in northern Lao PDR by Deuve (1972) (citing Cheminaud 1942), though recent village interviews around Phongsali in 1996 and 2003–2004 yielded no positive indication of its occurrence. Additionally, re-examination of the historical basis for occurrence reveals significant internal inconsistencies and flaws. Hence, there is no evidence that red panda has ever occurred in Lao PDR, although it may still be found to occur there is future surveys (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; in prep).	eng
714	habitat	Wang, X., Choudhury, A., Yonzon, P., Wozencraft, C. & Than Zaw, 2008	The Red Panda is found closely associated with temperate forest having bamboo-thicket understories (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). This species is sympatric with the Giant Panda in the Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Bigger Xiangling, and Lesser Xiangling Mountains in western Sichuan, China (Wei <em>et al</em>.1999a, 1999b, 2000). In a study of microhabitat use by this species in Sichuan Province, China, it was found that this species spends most of its time in <em>Bashania faberi</em> bamboo forest, and prefers microhabitats containing higher densities of fallen logs and tree stumps (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006). "Bamboo leaves are the main winter food resource for red pandas (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999c, 2000). Because of their small body size, red pandas may utilize fallen logs and tree stumps to gain access to bamboo leaves (Zhang <em>et a</em>l. 2006). It is found in tropical and subtropical forests on the Meghalaya Plateau of India, while elsewhere it is found in subtropical and temperate forests (Choudhury 2001). Red panda diet is largely vegetarian, and consists chiefly of young leaves and shoots of bamboo, yet also includes fruit, roots, succulent grasses, acorns, lichens, bird eggs, insects, and grubs (Choudhury 2001). This species is largely arboreal (Choudhury 2001). Pradhan <em>et a</em>l. (2001) found 79% of records to be 0 to 100 m from the presence of water bodies, indicating that the presence of water may be an important habitat requisite for this species. <br/><br/>The mean gestation in captivity is reported by Roberts and Gittleman (1984) as 134.2 days, with litter sizes ranging from one to four, and young are sexually mature at 18 month.	eng
714	population	Wang, X., Choudhury, A., Yonzon, P., Wozencraft, C. & Than Zaw, 2008	“It is estimated to be more common in the eastern part of its range, especially along the Myanmar-Yunnan border, yet it cannot be considered a common species” (Roberts and Gittleman 1984).  An estimate based on the lowest recorded average density (one individual per 4.4 km²) and the total area of potential habitat (142,000 km², with only about half of this actually being used by the species) suggests that the global population of this species is about 10,000 individuals (Choudhury and Yonzon pers. comm.) Observation of this species is difficult due to its shy and secretive nature, and its largely nocturnal habits (Choudhury 2001). There is an estimate of one animal per 3.9 km² for Singalila National Park and adjacent areas (Bahuguna <em>et al.</em> 1998). Yonzon and Hunter (1991) estimate a density of one animal per 2.0 to 11.0 km², with averages of 2.8 in 1986 and 4.4 in 1987, in Langtang National Park in Nepal. Choudhury (2001) reports a lower population density in the western part of its distribution in Nepal, as compared areas in the east such as Arunachal Pradesh. Anecdotal evidence based on local villager captures suggests the species may be common in the northernmost parts of Myanmar, especially in the Hkakaborazi National Park, however, recent camera-trapping surveys did not capture any red pandas in the area (Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998, Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in prep.) Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (2001) reports a crude density of 1 individual per 1.67 km² in Singhalila National Park in India. It has been found to be relatively common in Tawang and northern West Kameng Districts and in Mishmi Hills, especially Dibang Valley and Lohit Districts (Choudhury 2001). It is estimated that their numbers may have decreased by as much as 40% over the last 50 years due to massive habitat loss, increased human activity and poaching (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1999 which?). Wei <em>et al.</em> (1999) estimated 3,000 to 7,000 total individuals in China, while Choudhury (2001) estimates 5,000-6,000 in India.	eng
714	threats	Wang, X., Choudhury, A., Yonzon, P., Wozencraft, C. & Than Zaw, 2008	The Red Panda is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression (Wei <em>et al.</em> 1998). Habitat loss is considered to be the biggest threat to this species, while poaching is the next biggest threat in the Indian portion of its range and some localized areas (Choudhury 2001), whereas poaching and hunting pose a greater threat in areas of China and Myanmar, particularly in Hkakaborazi and adjacent areas. The ultimate cause of these threats to the red panda is the high growth rate in human populations within the species' range and in surrounding nearby areas (Choudhury 2001). The growth rate of the local human population has almost doubled between 1971 and 1991, causing increased pressure on land for both housing and farming, as well as increased demand for firewood (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>The major causes of habitat loss are commercial logging, demand for firewood (especially in the cold Himalaya), clearing for habitation and farming, jhum (slash-and-burn shifting cultivation) by hill tribes, grazing of domestic stock, monoculture forest plantation, and various developmental activities (Choudhury 2001). Due to human encroachment in suitable forest habitat and the unusual biology of bamboos, the red panda may be near extinction in the western part of its range, especially in Nepal (Roberts and Gittleman 1984). Both legal and illegal felling of old-growth trees is occurring throughout its range in India, and in the Khast Hills of Meghalaya some of the best habitat is privately owned, potentially making conservation efforts difficult (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>Deforestation, which causes fragmentation, is the fundamental threat to this species long-term survival (Wei <em>et al</em>. 1999 ). Between 1980 and 1995 the number of tourists visiting Sikkim annually rose from 1000 to 100,000 (Mahapatra 1998), causing increased pressure on this species due to accelerating habitat loss for firewood (for cooking and heating) (Choudhury 2001). Similar threats are occurring in the Singalila area of Darjeeling and in Nepal (Choudhury 2001). Habitat is effectively stable in northernmost Myanmar (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007), but elsewhere in Kachin where the panda might occur there are indications of rapid habitat degradation through deforestation in this area (B.F. King pers. comm. 1998, cited in Collar <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>Road construction in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh over the past two decades has led to large-scale felling of trees and erosion, and sometimes landslides, also opening up formerly inaccessible areas for both legal and illegal logging (Choudhury 2001). Increased fragmentation of habitat leads to inbreeding and loss of genetic variation, which may significantly impact localized populations, as well as possible increased pressure from hunting (Choudhury 2001). <br/><br/>Hunting does not appear to be as serious a threat to the Red Panda as habitat loss, since hunters do not appear to deliberately hunt this species, but rather is shot opportunistically and caught accidentally in snares during hunting for wild pig, deer, goat-antelopes (serow, goral, and takin) and primates (Choudhury 2001). In Bhutan, the red panda is hunted for making fur caps or hats (Yonten, 2004). In China, Red Panda pelts can be found in many local markets (Glatson 1994). Wei <em>et a</em>l (1998) report data which indicate that hunting and poaching pressures are severe in China, especially to a declining population, which has led to increased declines, and extinctions in some areas. Poaching is considered one of the most serious threats in China (Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Cub mortality of the species is high in areas surrounding cattle grazing activities, estimated at up to 74% (Yonzon pers. comm.).	eng
723	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
723	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in upper montane forests along east Andean slopes, 1,000 to 2,250 m (Patterson <em>et al.</em> in review), in Ecuador, Peru, and central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Patton and Smith, 1992).	eng
723	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This mouse is terrestrial, and mostly diurnal. It probably feeds on insects, seeds, and vegetation. It nests in burrows and travels in tunnels under leaf litter. It is found in evergreen forest, and in montane habitats, grassy areas, especially with tall grass, young second growth, gardens, and clearings.	eng
723	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
723	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
724	conservation	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in Farallones de Cali, Tatamá, Las Orquideas in the Cordillera Occidental, and in Los Nevados National Parks and other protected areas.	eng
724	distribution	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of western Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005); it also occurs in the Cordillera Central, Colombia (Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,300 to 3,000 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
724	habitat	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It has been found in dense forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002). This mouse is terrestrial, and mostly diurnal and crepuscular. It probably feeds on insects, seeds, and vegetation (Quiceno, 1993).	eng
724	population	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is common, in special in secondary and alterated areas (R. Anderson and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). Voss <em>et al.</em> (2002) captured 10 specimens of this species in the valley of the Rio Siato, Departamento Risaralda, Municipio Pueblo Rico, Vereda Siato, at 1,520-1,620 m, with 405 trap-nights.	eng
724	threats	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
725	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is present in several protected areas. In Peru it is known only from a single protected area. There are no immediate conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
725	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This species occurs from southeast Peru, through southwest Bolivia, to north Argentina and extreme northeast Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It ranges from 2,400 m in Salta, Argentina in the south of its range to well over 5,000 m in Peru. In Bolivia it occurs above 3,200 m.	eng
725	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary species. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates. It is present in open grassland, at high elevations, as well as disturbed and cultivated areas.	eng
725	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is a common species. In Peru densities ranged from 3.53 per hectare in quenua forest (<em>Polylepis spp.</em>) to 0.14 in tola habitat (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
725	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
726	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas (at least 15 in Buenos Aires Province).	eng
726	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern and east-central Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and extreme southern Brazil. (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
726	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in montane habitats, in scrub meadows and along the edges of glens (Gonzalez 2001). Gestation period is 24-25 days with 3-7 young per litter, and births between October and May (Gonzalez 2001).	eng
726	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It's a common species and very well studied in the Buenos Aires Province.	eng
726	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	No threats for this species affecting their survival.	eng
727	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas including Chingaza National Park in Colombia, Sierra Nevada in Venezuela.	eng
727	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of northwest Venezuela, east and central Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005); it also occurs in south Colombia to Huila Department (Gómez-Laverde, com. pers.). It has an elevational range of 2,600 to 3,900 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
727	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary species. It feeds on insects, other invertebrates, seeds and vegetation. It is present in open grassland, Polylepis forest, and Paramo/Espeletia areas, at high elevations, as well as disturbed and cultivated areas (Linares, 1998).	eng
727	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is common in some parts of its range and rare in others (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
727	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The major threats are paramo and cloud forest destruction.	eng
728	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
728	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southeast Peru to south central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 3,700 to around 5,000 m. Recently found in Argentina at 3,000 m.	eng
728	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is present in grassland, shrubland, disturbed habitats and cultivated areas. It typically lives in holes at the base of shrubs.	eng
728	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
728	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
729	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in at least two national parks and other protected areas.	eng
729	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in mountain ranges in northwestern Argentina and south central Bolivia (Emmons 1997).	eng
729	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Yungas (Andean forests) at elevations between 800 - 2500 m.	eng
729	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a common species but there are not information on abundance of this species.	eng
729	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Timber exploitation and cattle farming.	eng
730	conservation	Christoff, A., Geise, L., Fagundes, V., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range (Geise pers. comm.). More taxonomic studies are required for the Akodon cursor complex. At present the only method of identifying species is using karyotyping (2n=14,15,16) (Fagundes <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
730	distribution	Christoff, A., Geise, L., Fagundes, V., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Limits are uncertain but species occurs in Atlantic Forest habitat in southeastern Brazil (Bahia to Paraná) (Musser and Carleton 2005) and in Misiones Province of northeastern Argentina approximately 680 km from the Brazilian populations (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species occurs in Atlantic Forest formations in southeast Brazil (Bahia to Paraná States) and perhaps northeast Argentina (Misiones Province, see Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, 2003); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
730	habitat	Christoff, A., Geise, L., Fagundes, V., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Species occurs from sea level to 800 m asl in wet evergreen forests (Lara <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Rio de Janeiro State up to 900 m (Geise pers. comm.). In southeastern Brazil the species occurs mainly in dense rainforest.	eng
730	population	Christoff, A., Geise, L., Fagundes, V., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This is one of the most common species in forests and forest grasslands throughout its distribution. Population numbers are subject to large fluctuations (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
730	threats	Christoff, A., Geise, L., Fagundes, V., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The Atlantic Forest habitat is declining; however, this is not a major threat to this species (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
731	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has been recorded from at least eight protected areas. At present no direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
731	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs in lowland to intermediate elevations (up to 2,450 m), south Pando to west central Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found in the Amazonia, Chiquitano, Campos Cerrados and Yungas ecoregions (Vargas and Gonzales, 2005).	eng
731	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is found in grassy areas, especially with tall grass, young second growth, gardens, and clearings, but also sometimes in Yungas evergreen forest, and in montane habitats (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant females have been found in March, June and July (Anderson, 1997).	eng
731	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is generally considered to be a common species.	eng
731	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
732	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in at least one protected area in Argentina.	eng
732	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in north-central Argentina (Catamarca, Córdoba, and Santiago del Estero Provinces) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
732	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species is found in shrubs but not in highlands grasslands.	eng
732	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
732	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats for the species.	eng
733	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is present in at least four protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for the species at present, other than the general protection of the Yungas and Bosque Tucumano Boliviano habitat.	eng
733	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs from the east Andean slopes, about 1,000 to 3,500 m, of southeast Peru, west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), and northwest Argentina (Jujuy Province, see Díaz and Barquez, 1999) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
733	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species is restricted to Yungas forest and moist grassland-elfin habitat. Northern populations appear to inhabit the lower reaches of paramo grasslands to cloud forest; while the southernmost population was found in a wet, relictual Podocarpus forest (Myers and Patton, 1989; Myers <em>et al.</em>, 1990). It has been found in both primary and disturbed forest. Pregnant females have been collected in November and October.	eng
733	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Pacheco, V., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not well-known, although it may be locally common.	eng
733	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It may be locally threatened by severe habitat loss, but it can generally persist in secondary forest habitats.	eng
734	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	The whole range is including in a protected area.	eng
734	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	This species is known to occur only on Aracena Captain Island (Isla Capitan Aracena) and could also be on the outer islands of the Chilean Archipelago (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
734	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	Moorlands above coastal forests in Magellanic cape.	eng
734	population	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
734	threats	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	There is no information on threats for this species.	eng
735	conservation	Jayat, J., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The range of the species is included in at least one national park and one reserve.	eng
735	distribution	Jayat, J., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina, in Tucumán and Catamarca Provinces (Díaz 1999; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
735	habitat	Jayat, J., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Species occurs in humid, montane pine forests of <em>Podocarpus parlatorei </em>(Capllonch <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
735	population	Jayat, J., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
735	threats	Jayat, J., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Intentional fires and cattle activities affect the survival of the species (comm. Pers. Jayat, J.P)	eng
736	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in at least 4 proteceted areas in Argentina.	eng
736	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs from western to eastern central Argentina (Pardiñas and Galliari 1999) until the Chilean border, and there is a recent record in Chile (comm pers Pardiñas, U) (Buenos Aires Province south to northern Santa Cruz Province, includes La Pampa and southern Mendoza provinces) (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
736	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Species occurs in temperate wooded grasslands and pastures (Patagonian Steppe), usually dominated by Atriplex sp. and Cyclolepis sp. (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004)	eng
736	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This is a very abundant species.	eng
736	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats exist for this species, however, some populations are threatened locally by habitat disturbance related to overgrazing, which is common for all species of rodents in Patagonia area.	eng
737	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in at least seven protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
737	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern and western slopes of the Andes, above 2,700 m, of central Peru, south along west slopes to the Department of Ayacucho (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
737	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in Puna grassland habitat. It can be found in primary habitat and also disturbed habitats, such as traditional crop fields (e.g. potatoes).	eng
737	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
737	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
738	conservation	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G., Teta, P., Pardinas, U. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	In Argentina D. kempi is protected at the Reserva Provincial Punta Lara and the Reserva Natural Estricta Otamendi in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002). In Uruguay, populations of D. k. langguthi are protected at Parque Lecocq in the Department of Montevideo and at Area Protegida Laguna de Castillos in the Department of Rocha (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002). The status of Brazilian populations has not been assessed (Gonzalez and Pardinas 2002).	eng
738	distribution	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G., Teta, P., Pardinas, U. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	This species occurs along Atlantic Coast of South America, from northeast Buenos Aires and south Entre Rios Provinces, Argentina, through Uruguay to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002).	eng
738	habitat	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G., Teta, P., Pardinas, U. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	This species occurs in marsh environments, favoring  edges of wetlands, flood grasslands, and places with reed and straw vegetation, usually without trees (Gonzales and Massoia 2002, Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002). The species has been found in gallery forest in Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Bianchini and Delupi 1994). It feeds on insects and plants and is itself preyed upon by barn owls.	eng
738	population	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G., Teta, P., Pardinas, U. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	It is an abundant species in Uruguay but less common in Argentina. The status of Brazilian populations has not been assessed (Gonzalez and Pardinas, 2002), but it is locally abundant. The species is very rare in some localites Argentina whilst in others it is common; it accounts for around 10% of the small mammal prey of the barn owl in the Delta del Parana, whereas on the Islas de Ibicuy, Entre Rıos Province, it was the 3rd most common prey of the barn owl, approximately 20% of 2,367 individuals taken.	eng
738	threats	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G., Teta, P., Pardinas, U. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	Part of its range is under severe threat by rice plantations in Brazil and Uruguay which destroy its wetland habitat, however, the species is abundant to the north and south of this area. Another important threat is urbanization in northern habitat range.	eng
739	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the ecology and distribution of this species, especially with regards to its relationship with other Akodon species.	eng
739	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is found from the Departments of Cusco and Puno, southeast Peru, 2,750 to 2,900 m, through Cochabamba Department, central Bolivia, 1,833-3,700 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
739	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a terrestrial species. This species occupies moist bunch grass and disturbed shrub habitats at the upper edge of the elfin forest. It occurs in primary and secondary upper and lower Yungas forest habitat, Polylepis woodland, and high elevation elfin forest. It is very common along rock walls of old terraces and buildings and in thick clumps of grass and shrubs in the relatively more open and disturbed areas (Myers and Patton, 1989; Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It has not been recorded yet from agricultural land.	eng
739	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It may be a rare species, but it has been misidentified with similar specie (<em>A. mimu</em>s and <em>A. fumeus</em>) in the past, therefore the abundance is not well known.	eng
739	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, in lower parts of its range it appears to be threatened by ongoing general habitat loss through conversion of natural habitat to agricultural land.	eng
740	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in several protected areas in Argentina and Chile.	eng
740	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in southernmost Chile and Argentina, as far north as northwestern Santa Cruz Province, Argentina (Galliari and Pardiñas 1999).	eng
740	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Occurs in forests and shrublands in southern Patagonia.	eng
740	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This is not a commom species.	eng
740	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
741	conservation	Boada, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Anderson, R., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas (Tirira, D. pers. comm.).	eng
741	distribution	Boada, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Anderson, R., 2008	This species is known from only a few localities and is suspected to occur in the Cordillera Oriental, 2,400 to 3,840 m, in north central Ecuador (Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua Provinces) (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Voss, 2003). It could occur in southern Colombia, but has not been yet recorded (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
741	habitat	Boada, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Anderson, R., 2008	This rodent is present in the shrubby paramo/forest ecotone, in subalpine Rain Forest, in grassy glades surrounded by subalpine Rain Forest, and in grassy paramo. All recorded captures were on the ground: in runways under dense bunch grass, among mixed grasses, and mossy shrubs, and under moss mats or low herbs. Several individuals of A. latebricola were captured in broad daylight, between the time when traps were checked just after dawn and when they were rebaited in the late afternoon (Voss, 2003).	eng
741	population	Boada, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Anderson, R., 2008	It is rare and poorly known (Tirira, D. pers. comm.).	eng
741	threats	Boada, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Anderson, R., 2008	The major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation, due to conversion of its native high elevation grassland habitat to agriculture.	eng
742	conservation	Marinho-Filho, J., Geise, L. & Queirolo, D., 2008	The species occurs in National Park of Brasilia and Serra da Canastra National Park. Further studies are required on the taxonomy and range of this species.	eng
742	distribution	Marinho-Filho, J., Geise, L. & Queirolo, D., 2008	The type locality for <em>Akodon lindberghi</em> is from the National Park of Brasilia, Brazil. It has also been recorded in Serra da Canastra; and Juiz de Fora and Simao Pereira in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.	eng
742	habitat	Marinho-Filho, J., Geise, L. & Queirolo, D., 2008	The species prefers humid grassland areas. Little else is known on the biology of this species.	eng
742	population	Marinho-Filho, J., Geise, L. & Queirolo, D., 2008	This species is known only from three sites, intervening areas have been studied although further specimens have not been found, although it is common where it occurs. The population of the National Park of Brasilia is restricted to appropriate habitat, although it is also a common species there.	eng
742	threats	Marinho-Filho, J., Geise, L. & Queirolo, D., 2008	There is no information available on threats to this species; the two populations occurring in the National Parks are not likely to have threats in operation.	eng
743	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is included in several protected areas in Chile and Argentina.	eng
743	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in central to southern Chile and Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). Teta <em>et al.</em> (2002) give easternmost records in Río Negro and Chubut Provinces of Patagonian Argentina.	eng
743	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is omnivorous and inhabits a range of habitats from dense forest to bushy steppe and marsh (Guthmann <em>et al.</em> 1997). Typically occurs in Andean forests and western Patagonia piedmont (Jayat <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
743	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	Is an abundant species.	eng
743	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
745	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The whole species occurs in a protected area.	eng
745	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs on Isla Wellington in southern Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
745	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Forests in Chilean Patagonia.	eng
745	population	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
745	threats	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for the species.	eng
746	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has been recorded from at least four protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the status of this species in Peru.	eng
746	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the upper east Andean slopes, about 2,000-3,700 m, from southeast Peru (Puno Department; Patton and Smith, 1992) to west central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department; Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
746	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is present in humid parts of primary Yungas habitat (Anderson, 1997), and also in areas modified for agriculture such as potato crops and pastoral areas with sheep. It is an omnivorous species, but feeds a lot on invertebrates (Vargas <em>et al.</em>, in preparation).	eng
746	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is generally a very common species in Bolivia; it is poorly known in Peru.	eng
746	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species in Bolivia. The threats to the species in Peru are poorly known.	eng
747	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is included in several protected areas.	eng
747	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in southern Argentina: from Mendoza to Buenos Aires Provinces south to Chubut Province (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
747	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in jarillal or creosote shrublands dominated by <em>Larrea divaricata</em> and <em>L. cuneifolia</em> (Corbalan and Ojeda 2005). It is also found in pasturelands and rocky fields from 500 m asl (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
747	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
747	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Species uses dense vegetative cover as refuge and increased grazing of livestock has led to declines in local abundances (Tabeni and Ojeda 2005).	eng
748	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in Ecuador; and three in Peru. Further taxonomic research is needed for this species complex.	eng
748	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and adjoining montane regions of north Ecuador to west central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs from close to sea level to around 3,600 m. In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 2,200 to 4,160 m (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
748	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of humid and dry grassland and shrubland habitats. It can be found in secondary habitats, and has been recorded from traditionally cultivated areas.	eng
748	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is the most common mouse in many places of its geographical range (Barnett, 1999). It is generally rarer in lowland areas, such as at the coast.	eng
748	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Pacheco, V., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
749	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is not found in any protected areas.	eng
749	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in western, central Argentina, but exact limits of its range are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005). Records are known only from Neuquen and Rio Negro Provinces.	eng
749	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Shrubs in montane habitat, southern Argentina.	eng
749	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
749	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for the species.	eng
750	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in the Caparao National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002), Itatiaia National Park, Estacao Biologica de Boraceia, Serra dos Orgaos National Park, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, and several other protected areas.	eng
750	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil (Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul States) in Argentina (it found in Misiones Province) and the eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
750	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This speciesd occurs from premontane to higher altitude humid habitats and has been reported from mountain fields, mountain scrub, primary and secondary forest (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is a widespread species inhabiting conserved and altered vegetation but appears to have a restricted habitat use. The species is not limited in distribution by vegetation or elevation in Caparao National Park. It is a terrestrial insectivore (Bergallo pers. comm.), and typically a lowland species except for the Bahian range where it is found at higher altitudes (Leite pers. comm.).	eng
750	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is considered rare (not easy to capture) and not abundant (not caught in numbers) (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Their population varies according to geographic range but generally uncommon.	eng
750	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
751	conservation	Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is included in several protected areas along Chile and Argentina coastal areas and Patagonia.	eng
751	distribution	Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in northern to central Chile, and borders along westernmost Argentina, to Patagonian region of S Chile and Argentina, including Tierra del Fuego (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
751	habitat	Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in shrub and herbaceous steppe habitats as well as in humid plains and <em>Northofagu</em>s forests (Pearson 1995). Inhabits steppe habitat in northern Patagonia (Pearson and Smith 1999).	eng
751	population	Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is an abundant species in many places including forests and shrubs.	eng
751	threats	Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
752	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in at least three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
752	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs on the upper east Andean slopes, central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Barnett (1999) and Moreno and Albuja (2005) recorded this species in Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800 to 3,700 m.	eng
752	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in primary and secondary humid montane forest habitats, humid shrubland and grassland. It can be found in modified areas such as traditional cropland.	eng
752	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
752	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
753	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is present in at least two protected areas in Peru. Further taxonomic research is needed into this species.	eng
753	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in the high Altiplano of central Peru (Puno Department), through west Bolivia, to northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found in a restricted elevational range of 3,800 to 3,900 m in Peru, and from 3,600 to 4,500 m in Bolivia.	eng
753	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in open grassland, disturbed sites, cultivated areas and in Yungas between in foggy grasslands (comm. Pers. Jayat, J.P).	eng
753	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is an abundant species, however, there is no information available on the population of this species.	eng
753	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, populations associated with Yungas forest are threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities.	eng
754	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are several protected areas in the range of the species.	eng
754	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in southern Chile and the range is thought to extend into adjacent Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species has been noted at Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapí in Argentina but never confirmed (Cabrera 1961; Galliari <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
754	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Coastal rainforest (Valdivian forest) until around 800 m. The species is not found on any inshore islands (B. Patterson pers. comm.)	eng
754	population	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is information on decreasing of collected specimens (Murua <em>et al</em>. 2003) There is evident of decreasing of population in some localities (G. D'elia pers. comm.).	eng
754	threats	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Deforestation of the coastal forest for timber activities.	eng
755	conservation	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	More surveys are required as the species is known only from a few specimens. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
755	distribution	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	<em>Akodon sanctipaulensis </em> occurs in Serra do Mar, Sao Paulo State, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
755	habitat	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species has been collected in open vegetation areas.	eng
755	population	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	There is no information is available.	eng
755	threats	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in an agricultural area; it is suspected to be threatened by habitat destruction, however, further research is necessary on the effects of habitat conversion.	eng
756	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (Geise and Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
756	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil; distributional limits are uncertain. The type locality is Paraná State, Serra do Mar, Roca Nova, 1000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
756	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in mixed rainforest (Geise <em>et al.</em> 2001). In the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiquiera provinces of Brazil, this species is only found above 2000 m (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 1997; Geise pers. comm.). The species was found at all elevations sampled between 1,000 m and 2,700 m in a study in Caparao National Park, Brazil. It was most common at intermediate elevations. In the southern part of its range at it occurs at a lower elevation range (Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
756	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This is a common species throughout the range.	eng
756	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	The Atlantic Forest habitat is affected by habitat destruction (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
757	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It may be marginally present in Amboro and Carrasco National Parks. There is a need to prevent further degradation of the species habitat.	eng
757	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality and adjacent cloud forest areas in Cochabamba and west Santa Cruz Departments, central Bolivia. It has been recorded from about 1,833 to 3,075 m (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
757	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species appears to be largely restricted to primary cloud forest habitat. It is not believed to occur, or persist, in modified habitat.	eng
757	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is localized, but is probably not especially rare.	eng
757	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a major road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat.	eng
758	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are at least 5 protecetd areas in the range.	eng
758	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs on eastern, lower Andean slopes, 650-2400 m, from south central Bolivia (Tarija Province; Anderson, 1997) to northwestern Argentina (Jujuy to Catamarca Provinces: Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1997, Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2000a; Tucumann and Salta provinces: Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
758	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Yungas and cloud/foggy grasslands at elevations around 400 m and 2,500 m (J.P. Jayat pers. comm.)	eng
758	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is no information available on populations.	eng
758	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for the species.	eng
759	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in at least 4 provincial protected areas and tow national parks.	eng
759	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina on the eastern Andean slopes (Musser and Carleton 2005) from 400 to 3600 m.	eng
759	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in grasslands (Capllonch <em>et al.</em> 1997) in Yungas and highland grasslands.	eng
759	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
759	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for the species.	eng
760	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is present in several protected areas, including six in Peru.	eng
760	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the east Andean upper slopes from south central Peru (Puno Department) to west central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department) (Anderson, 1997; Patton and Smith, 1992; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs between about 1,900 and 4,500 m.	eng
760	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is found in open grassland, cloud forest, elfin forest, Polylepis forest and cultivated areas. It is present in secondary and disturbed habitats.	eng
760	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
760	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
761	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	A small part of the range may be included into a protected area. Conservation of areas of suitable forest habitat are needed to preserve this species. Further research is needed into the population abundance of this species.	eng
761	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is found in Cusco Department in the east Andes of southeast Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
761	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is generally restricted to primary humid montane forest, and will persist in selectively logged areas but no clearcut. It is not found outside of forest habitats.	eng
761	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The population abundance is not known, but it does not appear to be common.	eng
761	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is threatened by commercial clearcut logging, and clearance of forest habitat through conversion to cropland and pasture.	eng
762	conservation	Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species is found in Baritu National Park.	eng
762	distribution	Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in Salta and Jujuy provinces. The possible distribution in Bolivia is unconfirmed and needs to be reviewed.	eng
762	habitat	Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Yungas and foggy grasslands until 2,000 m.	eng
762	population	Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
762	threats	Jayat, J. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Some populations are suspected at to threatened by logging and agricultural activities.	eng
763	conservation	Jayat, J., D'elia, G. & Teta, P, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in its range.	eng
763	distribution	Jayat, J., D'elia, G. & Teta, P, 2008	This species occurs in the Chaco of western Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia, and contiguous northern Argentina. (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
763	habitat	Jayat, J., D'elia, G. & Teta, P, 2008	The species inhabits dry Chaco areas.	eng
763	population	Jayat, J., D'elia, G. & Teta, P, 2008	It is a common species in the Paraguay Chaco.	eng
763	threats	Jayat, J., D'elia, G. & Teta, P, 2008	No major threats for the species, but the Chaco habitat has many pressures because of loss of habitat due to cattle and agriculture.	eng
764	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in at least four protected areas including Manu and Yanachaga National Parks. Further research is needed into the morphology of this species.	eng
764	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the east Andean cloud forest, between 2,000 to 3,500 m, southeast Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
764	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has been recorded from primary and secondary montane humid forest, elfin forest, and grassland and cultivated areas close to forest habitat.	eng
764	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
764	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is locally threatened by severe habitat loss, although the species can persist in secondary habitats.	eng
765	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Aguillera, M., Rivas, B. & Emmons, L., 2008	It occurs in several national parks in Venezuela. In Colombia it is found only in the piedmont area, which is narrow and under threat.	eng
765	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Aguillera, M., Rivas, B. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in highlands of north and south Venezuela, east Colombia, north Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at from 240 to 2,232 m asl in elevation in northern Venezuela.	eng
765	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Aguillera, M., Rivas, B. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that prefers moist habitats. Though it is predominantly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest; it tolerates second-growth forest and man-made clearings. It feeds on succulent vegetation and seeds (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
765	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Aguillera, M., Rivas, B. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is uncommon.	eng
765	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Aguillera, M., Rivas, B. & Emmons, L., 2008	Some species in the complex may be tolerant to habitat loss whilst others will be threatened.	eng
766	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is unclear as to whether the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomy, habitat, ecology, distribution and threats of this group.	eng
766	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and lowlands in western Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It ranges from 400 to 3,000 m.	eng
766	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	Animals allocated to <em>A. varius</em> have been collected in a wide variety of habitats ranging from Inter-Andean valleys to the Chaco.	eng
766	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	Animals identified as <em>A. varius</em> are commonly collected, but these collections may refer to different species.	eng
766	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
773	distribution	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	Known from one river system in Georgia where it occurs on three tributaries: Ocamulgee (two sites); Altamaha (three sites); and Ohoopee (one site).	eng
773	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This mollusc is found in sandy mud below sand bars in sluggish water.	eng
773	threats	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This species is under threat from loss of habitat and deterioration in water quality. There is a potential impact from <em>Corbicula</em>, present in the streams, but the effects are unknown. There is less than 500 km length of river system and adjacent land is being cleared for agriculture.	eng
774	distribution	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	Known from one river system in Georgia where it occurs on three tributaries: Ocamulgee (two sites); Altamaha (three sites); and Ohoopee (one site).	eng
774	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This mollusc occurs in sandy mud below sand bars in sluggish water.	eng
774	threats	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>A. atropurpurea</em> is under threat from loss of habitat and deterioration in water quality from cotton farming.  There is a potential impact from <em>Corbicula</em>, present in the streams, but the effects of this are unknown. There is less than 500 km length of river system and adjacent land is being cleared for agriculture.	eng
775	distribution	Bogan, A.E, 2000	There are less than eight viable subpopulations, which are all geographically isolated. Appears to be most abundant in Vermont, Connecticut and Carolina.	eng
775	habitat	Bogan, A.E, 2000	This mollusc occurs in muddy, gravelly sands in slow flowing water with a high water quality.	eng
775	population	Bogan, A.E, 2000	Several subpopulations are at levels which would not sustain long term genetic viability.	eng
775	threats	Bogan, A.E, 2000	<em>A. heterodon</em> is under threat from loss of habitat through road construction, declining water quality through the effects of run-off, and damming of the river.	eng
787	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None in place.	eng
787	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species was restricted to the Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
787	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This was a short-lived species, growing to 13–16 cm long.	eng
787	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Extinct. The fish was last seen in 1998 (F. Erk'akan, F. pers. comm.).	eng
787	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> (in 1955) appears to be the main reason for the extinction of this species. Over fishing also contributed to declines.	eng
788	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Annex III of the Bern Convention.	eng
788	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to southern Italy. On the Tyrrhenian side it's natural range includes the area form the Voltumo to Alento rivers. Introduced sub-populations are found in the Mingardo, Bussento, Lao, and Savuto rivers. On the Adriatic side its natural range is from the Trigno to Basento rivers. It has not been introduced to this area.	eng
788	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Ubiquitous throughout rivers, streams, and dams.	eng
788	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant and widespread within its range but has declined by 50% in the past 10 years due to introduction of <em>Rutilus rubilio</em> (Picariello <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
788	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, introduced species (<em>Rutilus rubilio</em>, in particular), and hybridization with <em>Leuciscus cephalus</em>.	eng
789	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
789	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
789	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Most of Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Emba. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic and Aegean basins (except Evros drainage), Italy, Ireland, Great Britain (except southeast), Norway and Scandinavia north of 67°N, Caspian basin south of Volga. Locally introduced in Spain and Italy, in Lake Abrau (Black Sea coast of Russia) and in the Irtysh River.	eng
789	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Most of Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Emba. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic and Aegean basins (except Evros drainage), Italy, Ireland, Great Britain (except southeast), Norway and Scandinavia north of 67°N, Caspian basin south of Volga. Locally introduced in Spain, Portugal and Italy, in Lake Abrau (Black Sea coast of Russia) and in the Irtysh River.	eng
789	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of large lakes and medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. In winter forms large aggregations in backwaters and other still waters. Spawns in shallow riffles or along stony shores of lakes, occasionally above submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Usually spawns only one or two seasons. Spawns in May-August at temperatures above 15°C, 2-4 times at 1-2 week intervals, in early morning. Larvae inhabit littoral zone of rivers and lakes, juveniles leave shores and occupy a pelagic habitat, feeding on plankton, drifting insects or invertebrates fallen on the water surface. Scales were earlier used to make Essence d'Orient, a coating for artificial pearls.	eng
789	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of large lakes and medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. In winter forms large aggregations in backwaters and other still waters. Spawns in shallow riffles or along stony shores of lakes, occasionally above submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Usually spawns only one or two seasons. Spawns in May-August at temperatures above 15°C, 2-4 times at 1-2 week intervals, in early morning. Larvae inhabit littoral zone of rivers and lakes, juveniles leave shores and occupy a pelagic habitat, feeding on plankton, drifting insects or invertebrates fallen on the water surface. Scales were earlier used to make Essence d'Orient, a coating for artificial pearls.	eng
789	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
789	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
789	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
789	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
811	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The largest numbers of the more abundant subspecies occur in the following areas: Western Hartebeest: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal) - although this population declined by half in the 1990s alone, Comoé N. P. (Côte d?Ivoire) - although as noted this population also declined by 60% between 1984 and 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001), Nazinga and Diefoula (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Lelwel: Zakouma and eastern Salamat (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa), Mago-Murule (Ethiopia) and Murchison Falls (Uganda); Coke?s Hartebeest: Tsavo, Masai Mara, Kajiado and coastal hinterland (Kenya) and Serengeti, Tarangire and Sadani (Tanzania); Lichtenstein's Hartebeest: Selous ecosystem, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River, Katavi-Rukwa and Ruaha-Rungwa-Kisigo (Tanzania) and in Kafue National Park and the Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Red Hartebeest: private farmland (Namibia), central and south-western protected areas and adjoining rangelands (Botswana) and protected areas and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999; Gosling and Capellini in press)<br/><br/>Swayne's Hartebeest are now confined entirely to four protected areas: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005; Gosling and Capellini in press); the survival of Swayne?s in Ethiopia depends on improved protection of these remaining populations. Surveys are urgently required to determine the distribution and status of the Tora Hartebeest in areas such as western Eritrea, as a precursor to the development and implementation of protective measures.<br/><br/>Although Hartebeest are present in captivity, no individuals of the Swayne?s and Tora Hartebeests are held in captivity .	eng
811	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The largest numbers of the more abundant subspecies occur in the following areas: Western Hartebeest: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal) - although this population declined by half in the 1990s alone, Comoé N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire) - although as noted this population also declined by 60% between 1984 and 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001), Nazinga and Diefoula (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Lelwel: Zakouma and eastern Salamat (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa), Mago-Murule (Ethiopia) and Murchison Falls (Uganda); Coke’s Hartebeest: Tsavo, Masai Mara, Kajiado and coastal hinterland (Kenya) and Serengeti, Tarangire and Sadani (Tanzania); Lichtenstein's Hartebeest: Selous ecosystem, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River, Katavi-Rukwa and Ruaha-Rungwa-Kisigo (Tanzania) and in Kafue National Park and the Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Red Hartebeest: private farmland (Namibia), central and south-western protected areas and adjoining rangelands (Botswana) and protected areas and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999; Gosling and Capellini in press)<br/><br/>Swayne's Hartebeest are now confined entirely to four protected areas: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005; Gosling and Capellini in press); the survival of Swayne’s in Ethiopia depends on improved protection of these remaining populations. Surveys are urgently required to determine the distribution and status of the Tora Hartebeest in areas such as western Eritrea, as a precursor to the development and implementation of protective measures.<br/><br/>Although Hartebeest are present in captivity, no individuals of the Swayne’s and Tora Hartebeests are held in captivity .	eng
811	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Hartebeest formerly ranged from North Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa and the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa down to the tip of southern Africa; they are absent only from desert and forest, notably the Sahara and the western rainforest (Gosling and Capellini in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last report from south-eastern Morocco was in 1945 (Panouse 1957).<br/><br/>The historical and current ranges of the remaining subspecies can be summarized as follows (after East 1999 and Gosling and Capellini in press):<br/><br/>Western Hartebeest ranged from Senegal eastwards to western Central African Republic and south-west Chad, although they have always been marginal in these last two countries. They have disappeared from much of their former range in this region, surviving mainly in and around protected areas; they no longer occur in The Gambia (though migrants may enter from Senegal).<br/><br/>Tora Hartebeest formerly occurred in western and southwestern Eritrea, north-western Ethiopia and the adjacent border regions of Sudan; they may survive in low numbers in the savannas of Eritrea and some inaccessible parts of Ethiopia, but are probably extinct in Sudan.<br/><br/>Swayne?s Hartebeest occurred throughout the Rift Valley in Ethiopia into northwest Somalia, but now survive in four isolated localities: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). They are otherwise extinct outside Ethiopia. <br/><br/>Lelwel Hartebeest ranged from southern Chad through Central African Republic, southern Sudan, northern and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south-western Ethiopia, north-west Kenya, northern Uganda and extreme north-western Tanzania. They have undergone dramatic reductions in numbers particularly in Uganda and Central African Republic, where they are now reduced to a few protected areas. <br/><br/>Coke?s Hartebeest occurred widely throughout southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They have lost much of their range, but populations still occur in the Serengeti and Tarangire in Tanzania and Tsavo, and the Mara in Kenya.<br/><br/>Lichtenstein?s Hartebeest formerly occurred widely in the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa (probably as far south as KwaZulu-Natal), but now occur mainly in wildlife areas in Tanzania, Mozambique and Zambia; they are extinct in Burundi. <br/><br/>Red Hartebeest occurred throughout much of southern Africa (and marginally into Angola near the Namibian border), and although much reduced by European colonists, they are now expanding their range again as they have been reintroduced into many protected areas and private game farms (and widely introduced outside their former range).	eng
811	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Hartebeest formerly ranged from North Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa and the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa down to the tip of southern Africa; they are absent only from desert and forest, notably the Sahara and the western rainforest (Gosling and Capellini in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last report from south-eastern Morocco was in 1945 (Panouse 1957).<br/><br/>The historical and current ranges of the remaining subspecies can be summarized as follows (after East 1999 and Gosling and Capellini in press):<br/><br/>Western Hartebeest ranged from Senegal eastwards to western Central African Republic and south-west Chad, although they have always been marginal in these last two countries. They have disappeared from much of their former range in this region, surviving mainly in and around protected areas; they no longer occur in The Gambia (though migrants may enter from Senegal).<br/><br/>Tora Hartebeest formerly occurred in western and southwestern Eritrea, north-western Ethiopia and the adjacent border regions of Sudan; they may survive in low numbers in the savannas of Eritrea and some inaccessible parts of Ethiopia, but are probably extinct in Sudan.<br/><br/>Swayne’s Hartebeest occurred throughout the Rift Valley in Ethiopia into northwest Somalia, but now survive in four isolated localities: Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary, Nechisar N.P., Awash N.P. and the newly designated Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). They are otherwise extinct outside Ethiopia. <br/><br/>Lelwel Hartebeest ranged from southern Chad through Central African Republic, southern Sudan, northern and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south-western Ethiopia, north-west Kenya, northern Uganda and extreme north-western Tanzania. They have undergone dramatic reductions in numbers particularly in Uganda and Central African Republic, where they are now reduced to a few protected areas. <br/><br/>Coke’s Hartebeest occurred widely throughout southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They have lost much of their range, but populations still occur in the Serengeti and Tarangire in Tanzania and Tsavo, and the Mara in Kenya.<br/><br/>Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest formerly occurred widely in the miombo woodlands of south-central Africa (probably as far south as KwaZulu-Natal), but now occur mainly in wildlife areas in Tanzania, Mozambique and Zambia; they are extinct in Burundi. <br/><br/>Red Hartebeest occurred throughout much of southern Africa (and marginally into Angola near the Namibian border), and although much reduced by European colonists, they are now expanding their range again as they have been reintroduced into many protected areas and private game farms (and widely introduced outside their former range).	eng
811	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	More tolerant of woodland areas and high grass than other alcelaphines, Hartebeest prefer the edge to the middle of open plains; for example, in open areas such as the grassland of the Serengeti N.P. in Tanzania, they are typically found around the edge of woodland (Estes 1991; Gosling and Capellini in press). They have been recorded to 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). Almost exclusively grazers, Hartebeests feed selectively in medium-height grassland; they are less water dependant than other alcelaphines, but nonetheless dependent on the availability of surface drinking water.	eng
811	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	More tolerant of woodland areas and high grass than other alcelaphines, Hartebeest prefer the edge to the middle of open plains; for example, in open areas such as the grassland of the Serengeti N.P. in Tanzania, they are typically found around the edge of woodland (Estes 1991; Gosling and Capellini in press). They have been recorded to 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). Almost exclusively grazers, Hartebeests feed selectively in medium-height grassland; they are less water dependant than other alcelaphines, but nonetheless dependent on the availability of surface drinking water.	eng
811	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	East (1999) estimated the total populations of Hartebeest at about 362,000 animals (including Lichtenstein's). However, this total is clearly influenced by the number of surviving Red Hartebeest in southern Africa, which East (1999) estimated to number about 130,000 (with 40% on private land and 25% in protected areas). In contrast, less than 600 Swayne?s Hartebeest survive in Ethiopia, with the overwhelming majority of the population in the Senkelle sanctuary and Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). Estimates of population size for the remaining subspecies are: 36,000 Western Hartebeest (>95% in and around protected areas); 70,000 Lelwel (about 40% in protected areas); 3,500 Kenya hartebeest (6% in protected areas and most of the rest on ranchland); 82,000 Lichtenstein's Hartebeest; and 42,000 Coke?s Hartebeest (about 70% in protected areas). The surviving number of Tora Hartebeest is unknown, but is unlikely to be more than a few hundred individuals. <br/><br/>The Lelwel Hartebeest may have undergone a major decline since the 1980s, when its total numbers were estimated to be >285,000, mainly in CAR and southern Sudan (East 1999). Recent survey work conducted in the dry season estimated totals of 1070 and 115 animals for Southern N. P. and Boma N.P., respectively (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007); the latter is a significant decline from the more than 50,000 animals estimated in the dry season in 1980 by Fryxell (1980).	eng
811	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total populations of Hartebeest at about 362,000 animals (including Lichtenstein's). However, this total is clearly influenced by the number of surviving Red Hartebeest in southern Africa, which East (1999) estimated to number about 130,000 (with 40% on private land and 25% in protected areas). In contrast, less than 600 Swayne’s Hartebeest survive in Ethiopia, with the overwhelming majority of the population in the Senkelle sanctuary and Mazie N.P. (Refera 2005). Estimates of population size for the remaining subspecies are: 36,000 Western Hartebeest (>95% in and around protected areas); 70,000 Lelwel (about 40% in protected areas); 3,500 Kenya hartebeest (6% in protected areas and most of the rest on ranchland); 82,000 Lichtenstein's Hartebeest; and 42,000 Coke’s Hartebeest (about 70% in protected areas). The surviving number of Tora Hartebeest is unknown, but is unlikely to be more than a few hundred individuals. <br/><br/>The Lelwel Hartebeest may have undergone a major decline since the 1980s, when its total numbers were estimated to be >285,000, mainly in CAR and southern Sudan (East 1999). Recent survey work conducted in the dry season estimated totals of 1070 and 115 animals for Southern N. P. and Boma N.P., respectively (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007); the latter is a significant decline from the more than 50,000 animals estimated in the dry season in 1980 by Fryxell (1980).	eng
811	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Hartebeest have decreased markedly in numbers across their range, and their distribution has been increasingly fragmented, as a result of over-hunting for meat and the expansion of settlement and livestock. As has already occurred over much of the rest of the species? former range, some key populations are currently decreasing because of poaching, and/or other factors such as drought and disease in some cases. In Comoé N.P., for example, numbers declined by 60% from 18,300 in 1984 to an estimated 5,200 in 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). The distributions of most Hartebeest subspecies are likely to become increasingly fragmented until they are confined to those areas where there is effective control of poaching and encroachment by livestock and settlement.	eng
811	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Hartebeest have decreased markedly in numbers across their range, and their distribution has been increasingly fragmented, as a result of over-hunting for meat and the expansion of settlement and livestock. As has already occurred over much of the rest of the species’ former range, some key populations are currently decreasing because of poaching, and/or other factors such as drought and disease in some cases. In Comoé N.P., for example, numbers declined by 60% from 18,300 in 1984 to an estimated 5,200 in 1998 (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). The distributions of most Hartebeest subspecies are likely to become increasingly fragmented until they are confined to those areas where there is effective control of poaching and encroachment by livestock and settlement.	eng
818	conservation	Geist, V., Ferguson, M. & Rachlow, J., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Human harvesting is generally managed in a sustainable manner throughout most of the sub-species range. The major conservation concern is extensive regional and landscape scale habitat change. Although Ferguson <em>et al.</em> (2000) did not analyze populations considered to be at risk, they identified populations occurring in areas with low primary productivity and low natural predation show the least persistence and require the greatest conservation effort. Both low primary productivity and predation usually occur where humans have caused extensive habitat disturbance. This species thrives where protected from overkill by humans or predators.	eng
818	distribution	Geist, V., Ferguson, M. & Rachlow, J., 2008	Alaska and Canada south through the Rocky Mountains, northern Great Lakes, and New England; Russia, east of the Yenisei  River, east to Anadyr region (eastern Siberia) and south to northern Mongolia and northern China; introduced but now extirpated in New Zealand (Nugent <em>et al.</em> 2001; Boyeskorov 1999; Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). The species is estimated to have arrived in North America from Asia about 11,000-14,000 years ago, shortly before flooding of the Bering land bridge (Hundertmark <em>et al</em>. 2003). Moose range has decreased over the past 100 years in the southern boreal forest regions in the eastern provinces of Canada (e.g., Beazley <em>et al</em>. 2006), but has expanded in other areas. In recent decades, moose have expanded their range westward into the coastal temperate rainforests of British Columbia and some coastal islands (Darimont <em>et al</em>. 2005). These changes have been due to habitat changes caused by humans in boreal and rainforest ecosystems.	eng
818	habitat	Geist, V., Ferguson, M. & Rachlow, J., 2008	This species prefers mosaic of second-growth boreal forest, openings, swamps, lakes, wetlands. Requires water bodies for foraging and hardwood-conifer forests for winter cover. Avoids hot summer conditions by utilizing dense shade or bodies of water. Mineral licks may be important sodium source, used in early summer in Canada and Alaska. It feeds on vegetative parts of various broadleaf trees, preferring birch, ashes and willow in the spring and summer and the twigs of these species as well as of fir, alpine, and juniper in the autumn and winter.  It also eats shrubs, such as blueberry and heather, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants. Moose can be a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ma Yiqing pers. comm.). In the search for food, some populations migrate during the year - covering up to 180 km (110 miles) in North America and 300 km (180 miles) in Asia.  Whether sedentary or migratory, moose utilize specific home ranges, varying in size from 3.6 to >259 km² (Huntermark 1997).<br/><br/>They may become sexually mature after one year (Schwartz 1997), and the maximum life span is about 20 years (Peterson 1977). The moose is active throughout the day and night, although there are peaks at dawn and especially at dusk. Depending on habitat, home range may be up to 20 or 30 km² (Lawson and Rodgers 1997). Populations cohabiting ecosystems with predators, like wolves (Canis lupus)   and bears (Ursus spp.) usually reach densities of <0.5 animals/km² (Messier 1994), while in the absence of such predators or hunting, moose populations can exceed 2.0/km² (Peterson 1955, Crete 1989, Cederlund and Sand 1991). Population density has been reported as up to 1-3 per sq mile (= 11.6/km²) (Peterson 1955), but 18-20 per 10/km² in unhunted area in eastern Quebec (Crete 1989). May yard in winter under deep snow conditions.<br/><br/>Moose populations can be limited or regulated by complex interactions of ecological factors that vary from population to population, or ecosystem to ecosystem. Winter weather (snow accumulation) may strongly affect populations, even more so than wolf density (Mech <em>et al.</em> 1987); however, Messier (1991) found that competition for food, but not wolf predation and snow, had a regulatory impact on moose. Van Ballenberghie and Ballard (1994) found that in some naturally regulated ecosystems, predation by bears and wolves often is limiting and may be regulating under certain conditions. Messier (1994) developed for population models of moose-wolf interactions. Under favourable conditions, moose populations are capable of large annual increases (20-25%) in population size; large populations may degrade habitat. In the presence of relatively few predators, Albright and Keith (1987) documented high calf-survival despite poor physical conditions during winter in a study of population dynamics of introduced populations in Newfoundland. <br/><br/>See Nudds (1990) for discussion of relation between white-tailed deer, moose, and meningeal (brain) worms. Brain worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) may limit moose populations in areas where white-tailed deer are common (Nudds 1990). Deer are not negatively impacted by the brain worm, the larval stage of which is passed in deer faeces. Snails, often inadvertently ingested by moose feeding on vegetation, are the intermediate host for the worm. Deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur; however, an analysis by Schmitz and Nudds (1994) concluded that moose may be able to coexist with deer, albeit at lower densities, even in the absence of habitat refuges from the disease. Whitlaw and Lankester (1994) found that the evidence that brain worm has caused moose declines is weak. Moose are also severely impacted by another parasite of white-tailed deer, the winter tick (Samuel <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/><br/>Where there is no human, wolf or bear predation, moose may alter the structure and dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems. At Isle Royale, Michigan, moose browsing prevented saplings of preferred species from growing into the tree canopy, resulting in a forest with fewer canopy trees and a well-developed understory of shrubs and herbs; also, browsing may have caused an increase in spruce and a decrease in balsam fir (McInnes <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Ferguson <em>et al</em>. (2000) reviewed the dynamics of 15 Canadian moose populations, and reconciled some major factors that influence various populations differently. Populations that live in greater forest cover (i.e., greater primary productivity) and with greater natural predation had more predictable population trends from year to year. Populations living in areas with low primary productivity and with low natural predation experienced more density-independent population change with lower predictability in population size.	eng
818	population	Geist, V., Ferguson, M. & Rachlow, J., 2008	This species is extremely rare and of limited distribution in China, but common in Siberia and North America (Piao <em>et al.</em> 1995; Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993; Yu <em>et al.</em> 1993). In 2003, the species was declared endangered in Nova Scotia, Canada (Beazley <em>et al</em>. 2006). Populations have expanded and increased in western British Colombia since the mid-1900s (Darimont <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population densities average 0.1-1.1 animals per square kilometer, although local densities may be higher.	eng
818	threats	Geist, V., Ferguson, M. & Rachlow, J., 2008	Threats to the status of moose populations are primarily human-caused habitat alteration. Forestry and agricultural practices in the southern range of the species have caused massive and extensive reductions in the extent of boreal forest in southern Canada. In these areas white-tailed deer have occupied modified boreal forests that are increasingly open agricultural fields and extensive deciduous forests. With the deer has come the brain worm which is a significant mortality factor for moose. <br/><br/>In Nova Scotia, Canada, where moose have been declared endangered, recovery issues have been listed as: genetic structure, health, illegal harvest, habitat suitability and fragmentation, and potential climate-related habitat change (Beazley <em>et al.</em> 2006).  <br/><br/>Human-caused habitat change is also the major force causing westward expansion into non-typical habitats (i.e., rainforest ecosystems) in British Columbia. The expansion occurred concomitant with extensive logging in the Coastal Mountain Range. This has led to concerns about the future of native deer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Odocoileus hemionus</span>) with the introduction of this new alternate prey species for predators and the potential introduction of diseases (Diarmont <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
840	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by national legislation. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
840	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to southeast Spain, where it is largely restricted to the Alcaraz, Cazorla and Segura mountain ranges. It exists in a number of isolated subpopulations. This species occurs from 700 up to 1,700m asl.	eng
840	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a generally a species of rocky places, in or close to woodland. It is often found in shady places, and is regularly encountered close to streams. The females lay clutches of one to five eggs.	eng
840	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be locally common in good habitat, but it is in decline. Some populations have been extirpated.	eng
840	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation, development of forestry tracks, erosion of stream banks, water abstraction, forest fires and predation by cats and rats.	eng
843	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Warguez, D., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	<em>A. paucidentata</em> occurs in a protected area. Surveys are needed to confirm whether or not it occurs more widely at high elevations in central Mindanao.	eng
843	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Warguez, D., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The Mindanao pygmy fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to Mindanao on Mounts Kitanglad (Bukidnon province) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and Kalatungan (D. Warguez pers. comm. 2006) where it occupies an elevational range of 1,500-2,250 m asl. As there have not been sufficient surveys for this species elsewhere in relevant habitat on Mindanao, it has not been confirmed whether the species is more widespread there, though it is expected to occur in the central mountains of the island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), such as on Mount Ragang.	eng
843	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Warguez, D., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	Most records are from primary montane mossy forest, it is also present in secondary and primary montane forest but absent in lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). During surveys on Mount Kitanglad <em>A. paucidentata</em> always occurred with <em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
843	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Warguez, D., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	<em>A. paucidentata</em> has not been recorded below 1,500 m, is relatively uncommon at 1,500-1,900 m and abundant at 2,250 m and potentially higher (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is the most abundant bat in mossy forest on Mount Kitanglad (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
843	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Warguez, D., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There are no major threats to <em>A. paucidentata</em>, as it is recorded only from higher elevation forests which have not been deforested as much as lowland forests.	eng
850	conservation	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
850	distribution	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This jeroba species is found in a restricted area of coastal gravel plains within northern Egypt and eastern Libya.	eng
850	habitat	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This nocturnal species is found in vegetation on salt marshes and clay desert areas of the coastal plains. Much of the daylight hours are spent in underground burrows, with the species emerging at night to forage.	eng
850	population	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The species is considered to be very uncommon.	eng
850	threats	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	In North Africa, early researchers remarked on the small numbers of this species and its ecological limitations, and that it had disappeared from certain coastal valleys near Alexandria, Egypt (from where it was originally taken). The species may be threatened by desert reclamation.	eng
851	conservation	Avirmed, D., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species may be present in protected areas in China. Approximately 43% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
851	distribution	Avirmed, D., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the Balikun region of Xinjiang. In Mongolia, it is known from the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert, and eastern parts of Eastern Gobi. It is parapatric in southern Mongolia with <em>A. bullata</em> (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
851	habitat	Avirmed, D., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species inhabits desert and semi-desert habitats. It feeds on roots, tubers, insects and larvae.  It exhibits nocturnal behaviour (Smith and Xie 2008). It may produce two litters per year, reproduction possibly occurring in May, with a litter size of 1-3 (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
851	population	Avirmed, D., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
851	threats	Avirmed, D., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
852	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Shar, S. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Approximately 21% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may be present in protected areas in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
852	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Shar, S. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and Gansu provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia it is known from the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Dzungarian Gobi Desert, Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is sympatric with <em>A. balikunica</em> (Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
852	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Shar, S. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The species occurs in desert and steppe habitats, particularly well vegetated areas. In China these areas are characterized by saltworts, ephedra, and desert bushes (Smith and Xie 2008). Primarily it is a nocturnal rodent spending much of the daylight hours in burrows. Burrows are simple and easily detected with well-defined nest chambers without bedding (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>This species feeds on seeds, roots, tubers, insects and larvae. It has litter sizes of 1-3 young, 1-2 times per year (Smith and Xie 2008). Parturition occurs between May and August (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
852	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Shar, S. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
852	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Shar, S. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
853	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas. Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.	eng
853	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas. Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.	eng
853	conservation	Tsytsulina, K. & European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Up to now no special conservation measures have been taken, although the species occurs in several protected areas. The north Caspian population might need protection in the near future as natural habitats are declining.	eng
853	distribution	Tsytsulina, K. & European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Distributed in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in SE Europe, N Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to S Siberia, to NE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and N Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes SW Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
853	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	<em>Allactaga  elater</em> is a  widespread species that occurs from Turkey, the Caucasus, west to the Russia and China. This species is more specifically found in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in SE Europe, N Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to S Siberia, to NE Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and N Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes SW Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
853	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	<em>Allactaga  elater</em> is a  widespread species that occurs from Turkey, the Caucasus, west to the Russia and China. This species is more specifically found in loamy and rubbly deserts, solonetzic and desertified steppes in southeastern Europe, northern Caucasus and Transcaucasia through Kazakhstan and Central Asia to southern Siberia, to northeast Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, and northern Gansu, China, and western Mongolia. Southern part of the range includes southwestern Pakistan, Afghanistan; Iran; E Turkey (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
853	habitat	Tsytsulina, K. & European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Inhabits various biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). Feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. Solitary, active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. Reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-4 young per litter.	eng
853	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	The smallest species of its genus, the small five-toed jerboa has a body mass of 44-73 g (Ognev, 1962-1964). Coloration varies from sandy or buff coloured to dark russet or black, with pale underparts and a white stripe on the hip (Nowak, 1991). Its feet have five digits. The species is well adapted for moving in large leaps if startled, and has been recorded moving at speeds of up to 48 km/hour (Roberts, 1977).<br/><br/>It inhabits different biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species occurs in some degraded habitats and along the edges of agricultural areas.<br/><br/>It feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. It is solitary, and active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range it hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. The reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-6 young per litter.	eng
853	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	The smallest species of its genus, the small five-toed jerboa has a body mass of 44-73 g (Ognev, 1962-1964). Coloration varies from sandy or buff coloured to dark russet or black, with pale underparts and a white stripe on the hip (Nowak, 1991). Its feet have five digits. The species is well adapted for moving in large leaps if startled, and has been recorded moving at speeds of up to 48 km/hour (Roberts, 1977).<br/><br/>It inhabits different biotopes in deserts and semideserts, depending on soil and vegetation type. The species prefers sandy, rubbly and loamy soils, and is found on solonetzic deserts, but never inhabits real deserts. It prefers areas with a mixture of vegetation including shrubs. Avoids open spaces and dense vegetation (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species occurs in some degraded habitats and along the edges of agricultural areas.<br/><br/>It feeds on different herbs, seeds and insects. It is solitary, and active during dusk and at night. Lives in burrows with a length up to 2 m and depth up to 70 cm. Across most of its range it hibernates for about four months (from mid-November to mid-March), but in Transcaucasia does not hibernate. The reproductive period starts after hibernation (in Transcaucasia in February). There are two reproductive peaks in April and in August-September. Produces 2-3 litters per year with 2-6 young per litter.	eng
853	population	Tsytsulina, K. & European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	A common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
853	population	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
853	population	Shenbrot, G., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Common and abundant species across most of the range. The isolated population in northern Caspian Sea region is currently declining due to rapid transformation of the species' habitats. Population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, so in favourable years the population may increase even though the overall trend is of decline in the northern Caspian Sea region. Population density may fluctuate ninefold between different years (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
853	threats	Tsytsulina, K. & European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	In the European part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.	eng
853	threats	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Relatively secure in most of the range; there are no major threats, although locally there may be negative impacts from desertification and habitat conversion. In Mongolia, drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. A small population in Turkey occurs in an semi-desert area with increasing irrigation pressure (Eken pers. comm.). In the European Russian part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.	eng
853	threats	Shenbrot, G., Tsytsulina, K., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Relatively secure in most of the range; there are no major threats, although locally there may be negative impacts from desertification and habitat conversion. In Mongolia, drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. A small population in Turkey occurs in an semi-desert area with increasing irrigation pressure (Eken pers. comm.). In the European Russian part of the range it is not abundant and the population is declining due to rapid transformation of semideserts into steppes. Also land development reduces natural habitats and causes population decline.	eng
854	conservation	Krystufek, B., 2008	The species occurs in at least several protected areas in Jordan.	eng
854	conservation	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species occurs in at least several protected areas in Jordan.	eng
854	distribution	Krystufek, B., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allactaga euphratica </span>is recorded from Turkey, Syria, and eastern Jordan, through northern Saudi Arabia and Iraq to Kuwait and Iran. It has recently been recorded in Lebanon (Abi-Said 2004). The southern and eastern limits of the range are poorly defined. The species occurs up to 2,660 m in Lebanon.	eng
854	distribution	Kryštufek, B., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allactaga euphratica </span>is recorded from Turkey, Syria, and eastern Jordan, through northern Saudi Arabia and Iraq to Kuwait and Iran. It has recently been recorded in Lebanon (Abi-Said 2004). The southern and eastern limits of the range are poorly defined. The species occurs up to 2,660 m in Lebanon.	eng
854	habitat	Krystufek, B., 2008	The species occurs in steppe and semi-desert habitats. There are some records from cultivated plains (Misonne 1957). Like all Allactaga species, this species is not found in loose sands. Primarily, jerboas are nocturnal rodents spending most of the daylight hours in underground burrows emerging at night to forage. Most species have a vegetarian diet. Females may give birth to up to nine young. March to July is the breeding season in Turkey, February to May in Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991). There may be more than three litters per year (Çolak and Yigit 1998).	eng
854	habitat	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species occurs in steppe and semi-desert habitats. There are some records from cultivated plains (Misonne 1957). Like all Allactaga species, this species is not found in loose sands. Primarily, jerboas are nocturnal rodents spending most of the daylight hours in underground burrows emerging at night to forage. Most species have a vegetarian diet. Females may give birth to up to nine young. March to July is the breeding season in Turkey, February to May in Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991). There may be more than three litters per year (Çolak and Yigit 1998).	eng
854	population	Krystufek, B., 2008	When found together with <em>Jaculus jaculus</em>, <em>A. euphratica</em> is always less common (Qumsiyeh 1996). Amr (2000) reported this species to be common in Jordan, although in 2005 the species was described as relatively rare in Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey (SW Asia Workshop 2005). The populations in Iraq are unknown, as there have been no recent studies. In Jordan surveys have shown a decline in the species, in 2005 the species was very infrequently encountered in areas where it was previously considered common; the situation in Syria is similar with surveys from 2000-2003 showing a marked decrease in the population (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2006).	eng
854	population	Kryštufek, B., 2008	When found together with <em>Jaculus jaculus</em>, <em>A. euphratica</em> is always less common (Qumsiyeh 1996). Amr (2000) reported this species to be common in Jordan, although in 2005 the species was described as relatively rare in Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey (SW Asia Workshop 2005). The populations in Iraq are unknown, as there have been no recent studies. In Jordan surveys have shown a decline in the species, in 2005 the species was very infrequently encountered in areas where it was previously considered common; the situation in Syria is similar with surveys from 2000-2003 showing a marked decrease in the population (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2006).	eng
854	threats	Krystufek, B., 2008	The major threat to the species is agricultural expansion in Jordan and Syria. In Jordan, the species has declined by approximately 50% over the past 20 years owing to agricultural expansion; its population there continues to decline (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). The species' range is threatened by irrigation for cotton in Turkey. Considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan (Qumsiyeh 1996). Also, the species is hunted in some areas of Turkey. In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night) of the species which is sold to falconers for food (Serra pers. comm.).	eng
854	threats	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The major threat to the species is agricultural expansion in Jordan and Syria. In Jordan, the species has declined by approximately 50% over the past 20 years owing to agricultural expansion; its population there continues to decline (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). The species' range is threatened by irrigation for cotton in Turkey. Considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan (Qumsiyeh 1996). Also, the species is hunted in some areas of Turkey. In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night) of the species which is sold to falconers for food (Serra pers. comm.).	eng
855	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its taxonomic validity and geographic distribution.	eng
855	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, 29 km south of Shah Reza (Qomisheh), in Isfahan Province, Iran, at 2,253 m asl (Womochel, 1978). It presumably occurs more widely, but there is no further information on its distribution.	eng
855	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is known only from the type locality, which is a flat plain with a gravel substrate and sparse, mountain steppe vegetation (Womochel, 1978).	eng
855	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on its abundance.	eng
855	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
856	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area in Iran, Kavir National Park. In South Asia, it is present in Hazar Ganji National Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
856	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in eastern Iran and western South Asia. In Iran, it is found in Kerman, Khorasan and Sistan and Baluchistan Provinces. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Afghanistan and Pakistan, at altitudes between 200 to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
856	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	In Iran, this species is associated with gravel and stony deserts in flat plains with a gravel substrate and sparse, mountain steppe vegetation. In South Asia it occurs in hot desert, though avoids steeper slopes in montane areas and also temperate deserts, and has been found to occupy gravel plains, stony peneplains, barren desert areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging from underground burrows at night to forage.	eng
856	population	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	The species abundance is relatively low for jerboa rodents, on average less than one animal per hectare (Shenbrot pers. comm.).	eng
856	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Very little is known about the threats to the species, however, the known habitat of the species is not suitable for agriculture.	eng
857	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The species is listed in the Moscow regional Red Data Book as Extinct in the Wild, but it is not listed in the Russian national Red Data Book due to abundance elsewhere in the range. In the Red Data Book of Ukraine it is listed as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population).	eng
857	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species is listed in the Moscow regional Red Data Book as Extinct in the Wild, but it is not listed in the Russian national Red Data Book due to abundance elsewhere in the range. In the Red Data Book of Ukraine it is listed as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population).	eng
857	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Distributed from forest-steppes to northern parts of deserts from Ukraine and European Russia through Kazakhstan and N Uzbekistan to W Siberia and W Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
857	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed from forest-steppes to northern parts of deserts from W Ukraine and European Russia (S) through Kazakhstan and N Uzbekistan to W Siberia and W Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
857	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	One of the most ecologically plastic jerboa species. Inhabits various habitats; in the northern part of the range the main limiting factor is grass density, and the species is restricted to areas with sparse vegetation. In steppe zone often inhabits roadsides, field edges, pastures and flat slopes of ravines. In deserts and semideserts occurs in all habitats except moving sands. Prefers areas with loamy soils, with absinth and succulent vegetation. Feeds on underground and green parts of plants, also on seeds and occasionally on insect and molluscs. Has three types of burrows: permanent summer and winter, and temporary. Enters hibernation in autumn with the first frost. Exits hibernation in March-April. Reproductive period is prolonged. Pregnant females may be found from March to July. During the reproductive period females may have two litters. Litter size ranges from 1 to 8 young, usually 3-6.	eng
857	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	One of the most ecologically plastic jerboa species. Inhabits various habitats; in the northern part of the range the main limiting factor is grass density, and the species is restricted to areas with sparse vegetation. In steppe zone often inhabits roadsides, field edges, pastures and flat slopes of ravines. In deserts and semideserts occurs in all habitats except moving sands. Prefers areas with loamy soils, with absinth and succulent vegetation. Feeds on underground and green parts of plants, also on seeds and occasionally on insect and molluscs. Has three types of burrows: permanent summer and winter, and temporary. Enters hibernation in autumn with the first frost. Exits hibernation in March-April. Reproductive period is prolonged. Pregnant females may be found from March to July. During the reproductive period females may have two litters. Litter size ranges from 1 to 8 young, usually 3-6.	eng
857	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Widespread across most of its range, but distributed irregularily because of fragmentation of suitable habitats and human-caused landscape change. In Ukraine west of the Dnepr the species was common until the mid 1920s (Bilsky 1929), but there are no recent records of the species there (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
857	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Widespread across most of its range, but distributed irregularly because of fragmentation of suitable habitats and human-caused landscape change. In Ukraine west of the Dnepr the species was common until the mid 1920s (Bilsky 1929), but there are no recent records of the species there (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
857	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Declining very rapidly in the northern part of its range. Has disappeared from Moscow, Kursk regions. The main threat is land use change. The species needs large continuous habitats and fragmentation has strong impact on populations. In the Moscow region, habitat destruction due to building of dachas has caused the species to disappear.	eng
857	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Declining very rapidly in the northwestern part of its range. Has disappeared from Moscow, Kursk regions. The main threat is land use change. The species needs large continuous habitats – fragmentation has strong impact on populations. In the Moscow region, habitat destruction due to building of dachas has caused the species to disappear.	eng
858	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
858	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Deserts in Kazakhstan and Middle Asia to the north till Central Usturt, lower Syrdarya, Sarysu and Chu rivers, and southern Balkhash. To south till SW Turkmenistan, Uzboi, along Amudarya basin to Termez, SW Tadjikistan, western part of Fergana valley and piedmonts of PamirAlai and Tien Shan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
858	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit usually sand, clay, rarely rubbly, and lime (S Kazakhstan) deserts. Avoid moving sands and takyrs. Ecology is poorly studied, but generally similar to that of <em>Allactaga major</em>. Burrows are simple; wintering nests are at 50-85 cm blow ground. Reproduction occurs in March, but in favourable years females can give two litters (in March and in summer). Embryo number is 3-7 in Usturt and 3-4 in Kyzylkum.	eng
858	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
858	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
859	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in protected areas around the range (approximately 12% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended.	eng
859	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in deserts (excluding sand deserts) and dry plane and mountain steppes (up to 3500 m asl) in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, N China, Mongolia, Tuva and Transbaikalia (Russia).	eng
859	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Inhabits steppe, forest-steppe, semi-desert and desert habitats, preferentially with clay, sandy gravel and stones. Solitary and nocturnal, although it may be crepuscular in spring and autumn.  Reported to jump in bounds of up to 2 m.  Its permanent burrows are less complex than those of A. major.  Burrows extend approximately 5 m in length at a depth of 35-65 cm with no branches. Temporary burrows, in contrast, are shorter (60-120 cm long) and shallower (20-30 cm deep).  In southern parts of the area hibernates from September to April in soft nests constructed in its burrow. In northern parts of the area hibernation starts later, after first snow. In spring it is reported to live primarily off of bulbs of Gagea uniflora, although it is also reported to be the most carnivorous of jerboas, eating insects, locusts, and beetles.  It also includes leaves, stems and seeds in its diet.  Breeding begins in April or May and 1-2 litters may be born in an extended breeding season.  Litters normally consist of 2-5 young, although litters of 8-9 have been reported.	eng
859	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
859	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D., Sukhchuluun, G. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No available data.	eng
860	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
860	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Semi-desert piedmonts in S Kazakhstan, NW Kyrgyzstan and S Uzbekistan. Range consist of two isolated areas. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan area is about 38,000 km sq.; in Uzbekistan is about 7,200 km sq.	eng
860	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Stenobiont, inhabit incult areas of piedmont semidesert with light vegetation (wormwood, ephemeras, and saltworts). Prefers clay and argil sand grounds, avoid rubbly areas. In mountains found up to 1000-1200 m. Omnivorous. In spring feed on green sprouts, in summer mainly on seeds. In second part of summer, because of drought, diet changes to underground plant parts. Animals are present in the diet, but never as a main part (Yanushevich <em>et al.</em>, 1975; Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>In eastern part of the range hibernation may last from beginning of October till end of February (Chuya valley), or from end of October to mid-March (Karatau). In western part of the range (Nuratau) hibernation occurs from second half of October till mid-February - beginning of March (Pavlenko and Gubaidulina, 1970). Use three types of burrows: permanent summer, wintering and temporary shelters. <br/><br/>Permanent summer burrows are simple, main passage leads to nest. Two-three passages bifurcate from the main path and lead to surface, but do not end with an exit. Nest is 7-15 cm in diameter. Wintering burrows are without additional exits and deeper under ground (61-89 cm). Passage length is 161-178 cm (Shenbrot, 1995). <br/>Nocturnal, most probably obligatory solitary. Reproduction occurs twice per season, in March - June and August - September. Litter size is 1 to 6 (usually 3-5) young.	eng
860	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare species, in Talass valley (Kyrgyzstan) used to be common, but population is rapidly declining due to ploughing incult areas. In different part of the range population density differs: in Chuya valley is 0,5-16 individuals per ha (Yanushevich <em>et al.</em>, 1972); in Talass valley is 4-5 individuals per km of walking calculation (Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995); in Nuratau 0,5-0,6 individuals per ha (Pavlenko and Gubaidulina, 1970).	eng
860	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare species with relatively small range. Population is rapidly declining due to ploughing of previously uncultivated areas.	eng
861	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
861	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Karakum and Kyzylkum deserts from Nukus latitude in the north to Bukhara oasis in the south, from Uzboi dry bed (Turkmenistan) in the west to central Kyzylkum in the east.	eng
861	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit clay-sandy, clay-rubbly and clay-pebble areas of deserts, and avoid sand deserts. Hibernation is shallow, animals become active during partial thaws. Feed mostly on green parts of plants, rarely on seeds. Insects are significant part of the diet in spring. Over wintered females give up to 3 litters per season, with 2-8 (most often 3-4) young.	eng
861	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In Kyzylkum, 4-5 individuals per 1 km of observation track were registered (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
861	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
865	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and in Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo and also Lake Tumba National Park; marginally present in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in Congo. Studies are needed into the impact of hunting on this species.	eng
865	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The distribution of Allen’s Swamp Monkey, is centred on the lowland forests of the central Congolian basin - Democratic Republic of the Congo (both sides of the Congo River), Cameroon and Congo (Kingdon 2001; Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2006). Allen’s Swamp Monkeys are recorded on two islands in the Sangha River near the village of Bomassa (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2006). The known limits of its east-west distribution are from about 16°E to about 26º–27°E, and its north-south distribution from about 3°N to 6°30′ S (Kingdon 2001). It may be present in north-eastern Angola, although this requires confirmation.	eng
865	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This little-known species inhabits swamp forest and riverine habitat (Kingdon 2001). It largely forages on the ground and has been reported to raid crops. Groups of this species may consist of up to 40 individuals. The females give birth to a single young.	eng
865	population	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Although the abundance of this species throughout its range is not known, it has been reported at high densities in Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
865	threats	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is threatened by hunting for subsistence and commercial purposes. There is no evidence of threat from habitat loss, although research is needed to assess the degree of pressure from hunting.	eng
867	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
867	distribution	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Distributed in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the southern part of Anhui Province and in some parts of the neighbouring provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu.	eng
867	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Found in the Yangtzee River and adjoining swamps, but also has terrestial nest sites, extensive underground burrows and basking areas.	eng
868	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in five national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, and Zahamena), the Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, and three special reserves (Analamazaotra, Marotandrano and Anjanaharibe-Sud). Additional survey work to determine density and biology and ecology would be highly desirable.	eng
868	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. By 1989, there had only been sightings on both sides of the Mananara River (Meier and Albignac 1991), and the species was thought to be restricted to lowland rainforests of that area. Since 1994, however, its presence has been documented in Marojejy National Park, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Mananara-Nord National Park, Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Maromizaha Forest, Forêt de Vohidrazana, the Vohimana Forest, 12 km east of Andisebe (N. Garbutt pers. comm.), and Marotandrano Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Recorded from near sea-level to 1,600 m.	eng
868	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Allocebus is typically found in intact moist forest, though it seems to tolerate moderate levels of human activity (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Relatively little is known about the behaviour and ecology of the Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur. It is nocturnal and has been observed in pairs (presumably male/female), with offspring, and singly.  Groups of two to six nest in holes of larger trees and prefer to complement the nest with straw, even covering themselves with it in captivity (Meier and Albignac 1991). Spotted often in tangles of brush or lianas, it appears to forage in these areas at lower levels of the forest	eng
868	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Until 1989, known only from five museum specimens, three collected in the 19th century. Appears to be extremely rare and elusive, though it may be overlooked and confused with <em>Microcebus</em>; recent records have shown it to be more widely distributed than previously known.	eng
868	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Threats to the survival of <em>A. trichotis</em> include destruction of its eastern rain forest habitat, primarily due to slash-and-burn agriculture, as well as some localized hunting and trapping (Yoder 1996).	eng
872	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
872	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
872	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a scale eater (piscivore <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
872	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 19% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed.	eng
872	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
875	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no specific conservation measures applied to this species.	eng
875	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures applied to this species.	eng
875	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed from eastern bank of the Volga river through the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan to northern Xinjiang (China).	eng
875	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed from eastern bank of the Volga river through the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan to Xinjiang (China).	eng
875	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits dry steppe and semi-deserts, but is occasionally found in agricultural fields and the surroundings of settlements. According to Vinogradov and Gromov (1952) it is found near human settlements in Siberia further north than its original distribution. In the northern part of the range it is also found in forest-steppe (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In the Pleistocene it also occurred west of the Volga (Don basin, Crimea: Nechay 2000). Does not hibernate, however daily activity is lower in winter. Feeds on vegetative parts and seeds of different wild and cultivated plants. Also eats insects and molluscs on a regular basis, there are record of feeding on lizards, voles, small birds' nestlings and young ground squirrels (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). Gives birth to 2-3 litters per year in northern parts of the range and 3-4 in southern. Litter size is 4-6 young.	eng
875	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits dry steppe and semi-deserts, but is occasionally found in agricultural fields and the surroundings of settlements. According to Vinogradov and Gromov (1952) it is found near human settlements in Siberia further north than its original distribution. In the northern part of the range it is also found in forest-steppe (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In the Pleistocene it also occurred west of the Volga (Don basin, Crimea: Nechay 2000). Does not hibernate, however, daily activity is lower in winter. Feeds on vegetative parts and seeds of different wild and cultivated plants. Also eats insects and molluscs on a regular basis, there are record of feeding on lizards, voles, small birds' nestlings and young ground squirrels (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). Gives birth to 2-3 litters per year in northern parts of the range and 3-4 in southern. Litter size is 4-6 young.	eng
875	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Common and relatively abundant throughout the range. In the Ural region the species is expanding its range to the north by occupying agricultural lands.	eng
875	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Common and relatively abundant throughout the range. In the Ural region the species is expanding its range to the north by occupying agricultural lands.	eng
875	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to the species. Eversmann's hamster is a pest of cereal crops, melons and gourds.	eng
875	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. Eversmann's hamster is a pest of cereal crops, melons and gourds.	eng
883	conservation	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	The Ruimsig colony was protected by the establishment of South Africa's first butterfly reserve in 1985.	eng
883	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Aside from an old 1907 from Waterval Onder, Mpumalanga, all recent records are from Gauteng and Free State: Ruimsig, Roodepoort; Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve; Pretoria; Springs; Alberton; Boons; Ladybrand and Heilbron. Also recorded from Maseru, Lesotho.	eng
883	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Habitat is grassland. Flight period August to April, peaking October to December. Larval food plants for <em>A. d. dentatis</em> are: <em>Hermannia depressa</em> (Sterculiaceae) and <em>Lotononis erianthe</em> (Fabaceae); and for <em>A. d. maseruna</em> are: <em>Hermannia jacobifolia</em> (Sterculiaceae). Adults feed on a variety of flowers. An ant-associated species, larvae sheltering in the nest of the ant <em>Acantholepis capensis</em> Mayr. The larvae seem to produce a pheromone which mimics the brood pheromone of the ant, thereby deceiving the ant into treating the larva as it would toward an ant brood. The larvae do not prey upon the ant brood. At night the larvae emerge from the ant nest to feed on the food plants.	eng
884	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Recorded from scattered localities in the Western Cape: Red Hill, Simon's Town; Lambert's Bay; Philadelphia; Mamre; Katzenberg Hill and Piquetberg.	eng
884	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs in sandy, coastal fynbos, although the type locality is Red Hill. Flight period October to April. Larval food plant unknown. Males establish territories in open sandy patches.	eng
884	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Much of the habitat in the area where this species occurs has been affected by housing, industry and farming. Some of the localities where this species was found have been destroyed and the species is becoming difficult to find.	eng
885	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Recorded from around Brandvlei Dam, near Worcester and Rodeberg, near Robertson, Western Cape.	eng
885	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Inhabits lower hill slopes in dry sandy fynbos or renosterveld. Flight period October to March. Larval food plant unknown but probably <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. (Fabaceae). Flight swift, erratic and of short duration.	eng
885	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Building of the dam at Brandvlei may have resulted in the loss of habitat.	eng
886	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Only known from Slanghoek Valley, Goudini, near Worcester, Western Cape.	eng
886	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs in hilly fynbos with open rocky spaces. Flight period is November to March. Larval food plant probably an <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. Flight rapid, butterfly often settling after a short spurt on vegetation or the ground. Only discovered in 1980.	eng
887	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Only definitely known from Swaarweerberg, Roggeveld escarpment, southwest of Sutherland, Western Cape. May also be in the Northern Cape.	eng
887	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occupies flat areas high on karooid mountain slopes. Flight period from October. Larval food plant unknown. Males are territorial; females fly at random through the area. Only discovered in 1977.	eng
888	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Only known from Wakkerstroom district, south-eastern Mpumalanga and Majuba, north-western KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
888	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Habitat is hilly grassland at ca. 2,000 m. Flight period October to November. Larval food plant unknown, perhaps an <em>Aspalathus</em> sp. (Fabaceae). Flight low, swift and elusive. Only discovered in 1984.	eng
889	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Only known from three localities along the Namaqualand coast (Northern Cape): McDougall Bay, Port Nolloth and Hondeklip Bay.	eng
889	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found in dry coastal scrub and sand dunes. Flight period September to January. Larval food plant is unknown. Flight is low and zigzagging.	eng
896	habitat	Sket, B., 1996	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).	eng
897	habitat	Sket, B., 1996	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).	eng
898	distribution	Sket, B., 1996	Endemic to Lake Ohrid.	eng
898	habitat	Sket, B., 1996	An aquatic crustacean found in subterranean caves (i.e., a stygobiont).	eng
899	conservation	P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn., 2006	<strong>Occurrence in protected areas</strong><br/>Good information is available for Norway, Sweden and Finland. For Iceland, Arctic foxes could potentially appear in most protected areas (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Norway: The National Parks Blåfjell-Skjækerfjella, Børgefjell, Saltfjellet, Øvre Dividal, Reisa. On Svalbard Arctic foxes are found in most protected areas.<br/>Sweden: The National Parks Sarek, Padjelanta, and Stora Sjöfallet, in the county of Norrbotten; the Nature Reserves Vindelfjällen, Marsfjället, and Gitsfjället, in the county of Västerbotten; the Nature Reserves Hamrafjället, Henvålen-Aloppan, Vålådalen, Gråberget-Hotagsfjällen, Frostvikenfjällen, Sösjöfjällen and Skäckerfjällen, in the county of Jämtland.<br/>Finland: Malla, Käsivarren erämaa, Iiton palsasuot, Saanan luonnonsuojelualue, Muotkatunturin erämaa, Hanhijänkä Pierkivaaran jänka, Pieran Marin jänkä, Kevo, Kaldoaivin erämaa, Paistunturin erämaa, Pulmankijärvi.<br/><br/>There appear to be no significant protected areas in the the Kola peninsula that contain arctic foxes.<br/><br/><strong>Legislation</strong><br/>It is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II), and is listed on Annex II* and Annes IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. In most of its range, the arctic fox is not protected under national legislation. However, the species and its dens have had total legal protection in Sweden since 1928, in Norway since 1930, and in Finland since 1940. In Europe, the arctic fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE). <br/><br/><strong>Conservation measures taken</strong><br/>Action plans based on status reports have been developed for arctic foxes in Sweden (Löfgren and Angerbjörn 1998) and Norway (Direktoratet for Naturforvaltning 2003), and a status report has also been published for Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Sweden and Finland, a species-specific conservation project has been completed (SEFALO), and a second is under way (SEFALO+), the latter also involving work in Norway (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). Measures taken include den monitoring (and protection of den sites by excluding ptarmigan hunting in Sweden only), supplementary feeding, red fox control, disease research, as well as building public awareness and education work (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Norway a captive breeding programme on arctic foxes was started in 2000 and extended in 2007. The first successful captive reproduction and release of foxes happened in 2006 (A. Landa pers. comm. 2006). A research programme on red fox control was started in northern Norway in 2004. Programmes to build public awareness have also been started in Norway by non-governmental organizations (www.fjellrev.no). A number of research projects on the arctic fox are underway, of which further details can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
899	conservation	Angerbjörn, A., Hersteinsson , P. & Tannerfeldt, M., 2008	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>In most of its range, the Arctic Fox is not protected. However, the species and its dens have had total legal protection in Sweden since 1928, in Norway since 1930, and in Finland since 1940. In Europe, the Arctic Fox is a priority species under the Actions by the Community relating to the Environment (ACE). It is therefore to be given full protection. On St. Paul Island the declining Arctic Fox population has currently no legal protection. In Norway (Svalbard), Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Alaska, trapping is limited to licensed trappers operating in a defined trapping season. The enforcement of these laws appears to be uniformly good. In Iceland, bounty hunting takes place over most of the country outside nature reserves.<br/><br/>For occurrence in protected areas, good information is available only for Sweden and Finland. For Iceland, Arctic Foxes could potentially appear in most protected areas. <br/><br/>An action plan has been developed for Arctic Foxes in Sweden (Löfgren and Angerbjörn 1998) and status reports have been published for Norway (Frafjord and Rofstad 1998) and Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Sweden and Finland, a conservation project is under way (SEFALO). In 1993, Mednyi Island gained protected status as a Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox occurs widely in captivity on fur farms and has been bred for fur production for over 70 years. The present captive population originates from a number of wild populations and has been bred for characteristics different from those found in the wild, including large size. Escaped "blue" foxes may already be a problem in Fennoscandia (and to a lesser extent in Iceland) due to gene swamping (Hersteinsson <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>The following gaps still exist in knowledge of the Arctic Fox:<br/><br/>1) Little is known concerning the impact of diseases introduced by humans on fox populations. Allied to this is our lack of knowledge of the epidemiology of Arctic rabies.<br/><br/>2) Considering the northward spread of the red fox in certain areas, studies are necessary to determine the effects of competition between red foxes and Arctic foxes on various population parameters and Arctic fox life-history patterns.<br/><br/>3) The non-recovery of the Fennoscandian population is a cause for concern, and requires specific attention, especially in terms of disease and genetics.	eng
899	distribution	P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn., 2006	Arctic foxes have a circumpolar distribution (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990, Pulliainen 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999), occurring in three distinct ecological situations. Arctic foxes are found throughout the area of <strong>continental tundra</strong> that covers the northern coasts of Alaska, Canada and Siberia. They occur on most of the <strong>arctic islands</strong> including all islands of the Canadian high arctic, Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bjørnøya, Novaya Zemlja, Wrangel Island, and the Komandor Islands (in addition, they have been introduced to some of the Aleutian Islands: Bailey 1992). Thirdly, they occur on the <strong>alpine tundra</strong> that occurs on the mountain ranges found along the spine of the Scandinavian peninsula (including the Kola region). Arctic foxes are also observed in the open drift ice. In a pan-European context arctic foxes occur in four geographic areas that represent all three ecological situations – continental tundra in western Siberia (Russia), arctic islands in Svalbard (Norway) and Iceland, and alpine tundra in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Kola peninsula of Russia). Southern and altitudinal limitations on its global distribution is most probably set by intraguild competition with the larger red fox (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992). In Europe Arctic foxes occur from sea level to 1,500 m (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2007).	eng
899	distribution	Angerbjörn, A., Hersteinsson , P. & Tannerfeldt, M., 2008	The Arctic Fox has a circumpolar distribution in all Arctic tundra habitats. It breeds north of and above the tree line on the Arctic tundra in North America and Eurasia and on the alpine tundra in Fennoscandia, ranging from northern Greenland at 88°N to the southern tip of Hudson Bay, Canada, 53°N. The southern edge of the species' distribution range may have moved somewhat north during the 20th century resulting in a smaller total range (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1992). The species inhabits most Arctic islands but only some islands in the Bering Strait. The Arctic Fox was also introduced to previously isolated islands in the Aleutian chain at the end of the 19th century by fur industry (Bailey 1992). It has also been observed on the sea ice up to the North Pole. <br/><br/>During the last glaciation, the Arctic Fox had a distribution along the ice edge, and Arctic Fox remains have been found in a number of Pleistocene deposits over most of Europe and large parts of Siberia (Chesemore 1975).	eng
899	habitat	Angerbjörn, A., Hersteinsson , P. & Tannerfeldt, M., 2008	Arctic and alpine tundra on the continents of Eurasia, North America and the Canadian archipelago, Siberian islands, Greenland, inland Iceland and Svalbard. Subarctic maritime habitat in the Aleutian island chain, Bering Sea Islands, Commander Islands and coastal Iceland. <br/><br/>The Arctic Fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger but in most inland areas, the species is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. The species' main prey items include lemmings, both <em>Lemmus</em> spp. and <em>Dicrostonyx</em> spp. (Macpherson 1969; Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Fennoscandia, <em>Lemmus lemmus</em> was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in faeces) followed by birds (Passeriformes, Galliformes and Caridriiformes, 34%) and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) (21%; Elmhagen <em>et al</em>. 2000). In winter, ptarmigan and grouse (<em>Lagopus</em> spp.) are common prey in addition to rodents and reindeer (Kaikusalo and Angerbjörn 1995). Changes in fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles (Macpherson 1969; Angerbjörn <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Foxes living near ice-free coasts have access to both inland prey and sea birds, seal carcasses, fish and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996). In late winter and summer, foxes found in coastal Iceland feed on seabirds (<em>Uria aalge</em>, <em>U. lomvia</em>), seal carcasses and marine invertebrates. Inland foxes rely more on ptarmigan in winter, and migrant birds, such as geese and waders, in summer (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996). In certain areas, foxes rely on colonies of Arctic geese, which can dominate their diet locally (Samelius and Lee 1998).	eng
899	habitat	P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn., 2006	The species is confined to arctic and alpine tundra, above or north of the treeline. The arctic fox is an opportunistic predator and scavenger, but in most inland areas the species is heavily dependent on fluctuating rodent populations. In Fennoscandia, the Norwegian lemming <em>Lemmus lemmus</em> was the main prey in summer (85% frequency of occurrence in faeces) followed by birds and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) (Frafjord 1995, Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2000). Changes in fox populations have been observed to follow those of their main prey in three- to five-year cycles (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1999). The typical response to lemming peak-years is an increase in both the number of litters and litter size (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996).  Foxes living near ice-free coasts have access to both inland prey and sea birds, seal carcasses, fish and invertebrates connected to the marine environment, leading to relatively stable food availability and a more generalist strategy especially in areas without cyclic rodent populations (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1996, Dalerum and Angerbjörn 2000, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Iceland, lamb carcasses frequently are found among prey remains at dens resulting in the species being considered a pest. Although individual foxes may indeed prey on lambs, it is more likely that a large proportion of the lambs have been scavenged (Hersteinsson 1996). Arctic foxes are known to prey on wildfowl (Eide <em>et al.</em> 2005) and occasionally kill reindeer calves (Prestrud 1992a). <br/><br/>Foxes reach sexual maturity at 10 months, and the average lifespan for animals that reach adulthood is approximately three years (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004). In more stable coastal environments the average age is probably higher (Prestrud 1992a). Arctic fox life history traits reflect adaptations to differing constraints in resource availability. Arctic foxes in unstable environments (e.g., habitats dominated by cyclic prey) have higher litter size but do not reproduce every year, whereas arctic foxes in stable environments (e.g., coastal habitats with bird cliffs), have a smaller litter size but reproduce every year (Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004). Social organization (home range size and territoriality) and hence local density of arctic fox is also highly influenced by resource availability; home range sizes range from 10 km<sup>2</sup> in stable coastal habitats up to 52 km<sup>2</sup> in more fluctuating environments (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1997, Strand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2004). Hence predictable coastal habitats support a denser population of foxes compared to more unpredictable habitats. Arctic foxes tend to be territorial, with a mated pair occupying a common territory (Hersteinsson and Macdonald 1986, Prestrud 1992b, Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998, Tannerfeldt and Angerbjörn 1996, Eide <em>et al.</em> 2004). Additional, but non-reproductive adults may also be present within the territory even though their function as “helpers” may be somewhat limited. In some rare cases it has been observed that two adult females will reproduce within the same territory (Strand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bodil Elmhagen pers. comm.). As a result of these home range sizes and territorial social organisation typical densities can vary from 20 adults per 100 km<sup>2</sup> to 2-4 per 100 km<sup>2</sup>. A noticeable feature of arctic fox ecology is dependence on and year round use of dens. These dens are normally excavated in sandy soil and can reach a considerable size (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Dalerum <em>et al.</em> 2002, Frafjord 2003). After several decades, or even centuries, of use they can acquire many tens of openings. In areas without sandy deposits foxes use crevices in cliffs or moraines as dens (Prestrud 1992b).	eng
899	population	Angerbjörn, A., Hersteinsson , P. & Tannerfeldt, M., 2008	The world population of Arctic Foxes is in the order of several hundred thousand animals. Most populations fluctuate widely in numbers between years in response to varying lemming numbers. Only a few populations have been studied directly. In most areas, however, population status is believed to be good. The species is common in the tundra areas of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Russia) and Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels. On the Pribilof Islands, fox populations are now low and appear to be declining further. Vagrant Arctic Foxes are common over the northern sea-ice where they follow polar bears as scavengers.	eng
899	population	P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn., 2006	The world population of arctic foxes is in the order of several hundred thousand animals (see Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004 for specific details). Most populations fluctuate widely in numbers between years in response to varying lemming numbers. The species is common in the tundra areas of Russia, Canada, coastal Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Exceptions are Fennoscandia, Mednyi Island (Komandor Islands, Russia) and the Pribilof Islands, where populations are at critically low levels (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The situation in Europe varies between areas. It is most realistic to consider the four geographic areas of occurrence separately:<br/><br/><strong>Western Siberia (from the White Sea to Novaya Zemlya).</strong> There are no reliable data about arctic fox numbers from this region, although Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate that the total Russian population (including eastern Siberia) could potentially be in the order of 200,000-800,000 animals. In general in Western Russia, the species is sparse on the mainland but common on the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, where some thousands of animals can be estimated on the each island (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Although the hunting pressure on this species is now very low all over Russia, mainland populations may not have recovered from historical overhunting (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Svalbard.</strong> There has been no total census of arctic foxes on this archipelago, but the population is known to be numerous and stable. The arctic fox went extinct on the island Bjørnøya (part of the Svalbard archipelago) and on Jan Mayen (an isolated island further south between Svalbard and Iceland). The two populations were severely depleted following early 20th century extermination efforts (Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 1998). On  Bjørnøya  the arctic fox population has re-established by immigration over sea ice in recent years, and breeding is again documented, while no foxes have been observed on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Iceland.</strong> Numbers of arctic foxes on Iceland have fluctuated as a result of differing management practices. From a low point in the 1970s of around 1,300 individuals, the population reached 8,000 individuals in 2003 and is still increasing (Hersteinsson 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fennoscandia.</strong> Arctic foxes were once very abundant throughout the alpine tundra habitats of Fennoscandia, but were greatly reduced due to over-harvesting in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They have basically never recovered, despite having been protected for over 75 years (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). The most recent estimate is 120 adults in Norway, Sweden and Finland, around 50 of which are found in Sweden (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005), 50 in Norway (Frafjord and Rofstad 1998, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999), and 5-15 in Finland (Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population on the Kola peninsula has not been accurately censused. Estimates range from c.40 individuals (Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 2005), and less than 100 individuals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006), to 1,000-2,000 animals (Potansky 1993). The latter figure is considered likely to be an overestimate (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). Genetic research showed that the Arctic fox in Scandinavia presently is subdivided into four subpopulations, and that the Kola Peninsula and northwest Russia together form a large fifth subpopulation. Current dispersal between the subpopulations seems to be very low (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006). The population trend in Norway and Sweden is stable, but in Finland the population can be assumed to be decreasing as there has been no breeding documented since 2000 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
899	threats	P. Hersteinsson, A. Landa, N.E. Eide, J.D.C. Linnell, H. Henttonnen, A. Tikhonov, A. Angerbjörn., 2006	Globally the large populations on the continental tundra of Alaska, Canada and Siberia (except Kola) and the island of Greenland are all harvested by trapping or shooting. The main motivation is for fur, although they are killed around settlements in parts of Greenland to reduce the risk of rabies being spread to sled dogs and humans. There is nothing that indicates that these populations are currently threatened by overharvest. The small population on the Komandor islands is threatened by a form of mange (<em>Otodectes cynotis</em>: Goltsman <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>In Europe the threats vary between regions.<br/><br/>The animals occupying <strong>western Siberia</strong> are exposed to trapping, but nothing indicates that this is representing an immediate threat. There is no other information available about threats to this population.<br/><br/>On <strong>Svalbard</strong> arctic foxes are trapped, but the extent of this trapping is limited to areas close to settlements, and it is therefore not regarded as a threat (Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 1998). Possible threats include accumulation of long distance transported pollutants and climate change, which may influence sea ice conditions in the future. The arctic fox on Svalbard (Norway) has higher levels of  persistent organic pollutants (POPs)  than foxes in other parts of the arctic (Norheim 1978, Wang-Andersen <em>et al.</em> 1993, Fuglei <em>et al.</em> 2007). The levels are similar to those found in polar bears from Svalbard and Greenland (Verreault <em>et al.</em> 2005). Such high concentrations of contaminants may have possible toxic health effects. The island Bjørnøya holds a small, recently re-established population of arctic foxes, while no foxes have been reported on Jan Mayen since before 1998 (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007). Arctic foxes on these islands are protected and the main threat appears to be lack of influx of new animals and the extremely small population size. These islands were part of the Svalbard metapopulation, as sea ice allowed connectivity. Climate change through reduction in the extent of the sea ice might in fact explain why the arctic fox has not re-established on Jan Mayen (E. Fuglei pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><br/>On <strong>Iceland</strong> the status of arctic fox has changed. Historically they were heavily persecuted because of the belief that they were involved in depredation on livestock. Recent legislation has restricted harvest and the population is increasing (Hersteinsson 2006), although in many areas they are still hunted year round.<br/><br/>In <strong>Fennoscandia</strong> arctic foxes are scattered along the peninsula in very small populations that are relatively isolated from each other. The alpine tundra habitat is naturally fragmented, but the degree of population fragmentation has increased due to the extinction of local populations. The populations have not increased despite over 75 years of protection. <br/><br/>Overexploitation due to hunting and trapping was most probably the originate threat and the reason behind the dramatic decline of arctic foxes in Fennoscandia (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Angerbjörn <em>et al.</em> 1995, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). The value of arctic fox fur together with high grants for killing foxes gave motivation for this strong persecution. In 1924 Norwegian trappers could get 25% more than an average year's salary for a peasant for only one skin (Østbye and Pedersen 1990). Establishment of the fox farm industry at the beginning of 1900 probably also forced the decline further. Live trapping of foxes also continued also after protection. Arctic fox den sites are easy to spot and several dens were dug out during the sixties to catch cubs to bring in to fur farms (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978).     <br/><br/>The exact reason why the population in not responding to protection is not understood, but a range of factors are believed to be involved, including:<br/><br/>Intraguild competition with red foxes. Red fox populations have increased and expanded in range throughout the 20th century, both in the boreal region and above the treeline to alpine tundra habitat (Selås and Vik 2006, Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is known that they have occupied former arctic fox dens in the most productive, low lying areas (Østbye <em>et al.</em> 1978, Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Frafjord 2003, Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002, Kaikusalo <em>et al.</em> 2000). Red foxes occupy the same niche and eat the same prey as arctic foxes (Elmhagen <em>et al.</em> 2002), they can kill arctic fox pups and adults (Frafjord <em>et al.</em> 1989, Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002), and arctic foxes avoid breeding close to red foxes (Tannerfeldt <em>et al.</em> 2002). Therefore the potential for a negative effect is clearly present.<br/><br/>Genetics. The remaining arctic fox populations are all very small and relatively isolated from each other. Today the population consists of four genetically distinct subpopulations with very little exchange of dispersing animals (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2002, Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore the potential for inbreeding is high. So far there are no obvious signs of inbreeding depression but individual genetic variation was negatively associated with fitness (Dalén <em>et al.</em> unpublished). Although there is still a surprisingly high degree of variation, by comparison with historical samples it is clear that 25% of the variation has been lost (Nyström <em>et al.</em> 2006). Hybridization with arctic foxes that have escaped from fur farms has also been documented.  Genetic mapping revealed hybridization of genotypes originating from escaped farm foxes (Norén <em>et al.</em> 2005), mixing in haplotypes not found in the wild Fennoscandian arctic fox (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2005). The amount of reported escapes of farm foxes has increased in recent years and even breeding has been observed (N.E. Eide pers. comm. 2006). However at present demographic stochasticity probably remains a greater threat than inbreeding.<br/><br/>Small population size. The small size of populations directly increases their individual risks of extinction, especially when they occupy a fluctuating environment with strong year to year variation in the probability of reproducing (Linnell <em>et al.</em> 1999, Loison <em>et al.</em> 2001). Extinction risk is further increased by fragmentation, which reduces the chance of rescue effects occurring (Dalén <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Climate change. Projected climate change would intensify fragmentation of the Fennoscandian mountain plateau even further, and may exclude the arctic fox from lower lying alpine tundra areas. For a review of the potential impacts of climate change on arctic foxes see Ims and Fuglei (2005).	eng
899	threats	Angerbjörn, A., Hersteinsson , P. & Tannerfeldt, M., 2008	Hunting for fur has long been a major mortality factor for the Arctic Fox. With the decline of the fur hunting industry, the threat of over-exploitation is lowered for most Arctic Fox populations. In some areas gene swamping by farm-bred blue foxes may threaten native populations. There can also be indirect threats such as diseases and organochlorine contaminants, or direct persecution (as on St. Paul Island for example). Misinformation as to the origin of Arctic Foxes on the Pribilofs continues to foster negative attitudes and the long-term persistence of this endemic subspecies is in jeopardy.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox remains the single most important terrestrial game species in the Arctic. Indigenous peoples have always utilized its exceptional fur; and with the advent of the fur industry, the Arctic Fox quickly became an important source of income. Today, leg-hold traps and shooting are the main hunting methods. Because of their large reproductive capacity, Arctic foxes can maintain population levels under high hunting pressure. In some areas, up to 50% of the total population has been harvested on a sustainable basis (Nasimovic and Isakov 1985). However, this does not allow for hunting during population lows, as shown by the situation in Fennoscandia. The Arctic Fox has nevertheless survived high fur prices better than most other Arctic mammals. Hunting has declined considerably in the last decades, as a result of low fur prices and alternative sources of income. In the Yukon, for example, the total value of all fur production decreased from $1.3 million in 1988 to less than $300,000 in 1994.<br/><br/>The Arctic Fox occurs widely in captivity on fur farms and has been bred for fur production for over 70 years. The present captive population originates from a number of wild populations and has been bred for characteristics different from those found in the wild, including large size. Escaped "blue" foxes may already be a problem in Fennoscandia (and to a lesser extent in Iceland) due to gene swamping (Hersteinsson <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
903	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fish passes and elevators in France allow access to spawning sites. It is a  (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
903	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Fish passes and elevators in France allow access to spawning sites. It is a  (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
903	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is present in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention. In Morocco, Aliss shad fishing is prohibited.	eng
903	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic, North and western Mediterranean Seas, Atlantic coast of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal and Morocco from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Earlier ascended Rhine for about 850 km up to Basel (Switzerland). Now, nearly extirpated east of Rhine, most abundant in Loire and Garonne drainages (France). Landlocked populations in some man-made lakes in Morocco and Portugal.	eng
903	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Baltic, North and western Mediterranean Seas, Atlantic coast of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal and Morocco from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Earlier ascended Rhine for about 850 km up to Basel (Switzerland). Now, nearly extirpated east of Rhine, most abundant in Loire and Garonne drainages (France). Landlocked populations in some man-made lakes in Morocco and Portugal.	eng
903	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Alosa alosa</em>used to be caught from Sebou, Bou Regreg, Oum-er-Rbia, Sous, Massa, Loukkos and Moulouya rivers (Morocco), Algeria and Tunisia.<br/><br/>At local level it is present at the Atlantic coasts, Mediterranean coasts and the North Sea.	eng
903	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Alosa alosa</em> is an amphihaline, anadromous, pelagic and shoaling fish, strongly migratory penetrates a long distance up rivers but not into small tributaries (some purely freshwater populations in Lakes). It enters rivers to spawn in May, usually at night and where the current is swift. Migrating adults do not feed and return to sea after spawning (many die after spawning) while the juveniles move down to the sea in autumn. They feed on small fishes, euphausiids, mysids and isopod. Reproduction is mostly anadromous, and during the breeding season (from May to June) adults used to ascend the Nile for the purpose of breeding (its distribution don't reach the Nile). Maximum weight of  5 kg; maximum length of 80 cm.	eng
903	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water down to 300 m. Juveniles remain close to shore and to estuaries. Migrates from sea upriver, spawning in main river or entering large and warm tributaries. Spawning sites often situated near a confluence. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-9 years. Females first reproduce 1-3 years later than males. Adults start approaching coasts at end of February and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, usually in May. Spawning commences when temperature reaches 15°C. Optimal temperatures 22-24°C. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface at night. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate back to sea, but most die after reproduction, having mated only once. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and remain at sea until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on plankton. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on insect larvae.	eng
903	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water down to 300 m. Juveniles remain close to shore and to estuaries. Migrates from sea upriver, spawning in main river or entering large and warm tributaries. Spawning sites often situated near a confluence. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-9 years. Females first reproduce 1-3 years later than males. Adults start approaching coasts at end of February and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, usually in May. Spawning commences when temperature reaches 15°C. Optimal temperatures 22-24°C. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface at night. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate back to sea, but most die after reproduction, having mated only once. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and remain at sea until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on plankton. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on insect larvae.	eng
903	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Currently large populations in France. Has declined outside France, mainly in the early 1900s, almost extirpated in Germany due to pollution in the 1920's (Freyhof pers comm.).	eng
903	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Currently large populations in France. Has declined outside France, mainly in the early 1900s, almost extirpated in Germany due to pollution in the 1920's (Freyhof pers comm.).	eng
903	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
903	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Overfishing, pollution and dam constructions (cutting off access to spawning sites). Gravel extraction in France is a current threat to the species.	eng
903	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Overfishing, pollution and dam constructions (cutting off access to spawning sites). Gravel extraction in France is a current threat to the species.	eng
903	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
904	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
904	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
904	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is listed on the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
904	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Alosa fallax</em> It is originally a Mediterranean species and used to be caught from Nile Delta, Cairo and Lake Menzala (Egypt) before the Aswan High Dam construction and from Sebou, Loukkos, Oum-er-Rbia and Moulouya Rivers (Morocco), Tunisia and Algeria.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Atlantic coasts, Gulf of Bothnia and Finland, the Mediterranean coasts and the North Sea.	eng
904	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Southern shore of Baltic, North Sea northward to Bergen, Atlantic coasts from Scotland and Ireland to Morocco, northern Mediterranean (and Nile) and rarely in northern Black Sea occasionally east to Crimea, from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn. Ascended Drin to Lake Ohrid. Earlier ascended Rhône for 600 km.	eng
904	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Southern shore of Baltic, North Sea northward to Bergen, Atlantic coasts from Scotland and Ireland to Morocco, northern Mediterranean (and Nile) and rarely in northern Black Sea occasionally east to Crimea, from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn. Ascended Drin to Lake Ohrid. Earlier ascended Rhône for 600 km.	eng
904	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Alosa fallax</em> is a amphihaline species, anadromous, pelagic, also penetrating a long distance up rivers and entering tidal parts of rivers in May -June to spawn (but some purely freshwater populations in Lakes), shoaling, strongly migratory. It feeds on small fishes, euphausiids, mysids and isopod; Reproduction is mostly anadromous, during the breeding season (May - June) adults used to ascend the Nile for the purpose of breeding as far up as Cairo. It has a maximal length of 50 cm.	eng
904	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic. Juveniles remain close to shore and estuaries. Migrates from sea to rivers, spawns in main river often only few kilometres above limit of brackish water. Spawning also reported from small rivers over gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Many individuals spawn 3-4 seasons. Adults congregate near estuaries in April and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, mainly in May-June. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface after midnight. Eggs sink to bottom or are pelagic. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and move to sea at end of second year, where most shads remain until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed. Juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
904	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic. Juveniles remain close to shore and estuaries. Migrates from sea to rivers, spawns in main river often only few kilometres above limit of brackish water. Spawning also reported from small rivers over gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Many individuals spawn 3-4 seasons. Adults congregate near estuaries in April and enter rivers when temperatures reach 10-12°C, mainly in May-June. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns in large, very noisy schools near surface after midnight. Eggs sink to bottom or are pelagic. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth during first summer and move to sea at end of second year, where most shads remain until they mature. Individual fish are thought to return to their natal spawning site. At sea, feeds predominantly on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed. Juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
904	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Quite common in north sea basins and French Atlantic coast. Populations increasing in the Baltic	eng
904	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Quite common in north sea basins and French Atlantic coast. Populations increasing in the Baltic	eng
904	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	There is no information available.	eng
904	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams blocking spawning sites, pollution.	eng
904	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Dams blocking spawning sites, pollution.	eng
904	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
905	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	On paper it is protected by Greek laws on fishery management, but in practice it receives little protection. It is listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
905	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Its range is limited to Lake Volvi in northern Greece. It was previously present in Lake Koronia but in 1995 the lake dried up killing all the fish (G. Barbieri pers. comm).	eng
905	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A lake species, non-migratory. Maximum age: 10 years. It is a predominantly zooplantivorous fish, but the oldest fish are able to eat small fish.	eng
905	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A large <em>A. macedonica</em> population was established in the lake in recent years, principally due to overfishing of its predators (Zarfdjian <em>et al</em>. 1996). A further field survey in 1996 indicated the population to be increasing (M. Kottelat pers. comm.).	eng
905	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In the past the fishery was uncontrolled and overfishing was common. Today the fishermen are disappearing and the fishing pressure is low. Ongoing eutrophication of the lake and water extraction for irrigation might be threats in a near future.	eng
906	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
906	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
906	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sea of Azov and northern and western part of Black Sea, from where adults enter coastal lagoons to spawn.	eng
906	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Sea of Azov and northern and western part of Black Sea, from where adults enter coastal lagoons to spawn.	eng
906	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic in deep water, entering brackish lagoons to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns first at two years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. In Romania, spawners enter Lake Razelm when temperature reaches about 7°C, in March. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C, in late April-June. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish return to sea to feed. In autumn, migrates to southern Black Sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or remain in estuaries during first summer. Feeds predominantly on small fish and crustaceans.	eng
906	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic in deep water, entering brackish lagoons to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns first at two years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. In Romania, spawners enter Lake Razelm when temperature reaches about 7°C, in March. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C, in late April-June. Eggs sink to bottom. Spent fish return to sea to feed. In autumn, migrates to southern Black Sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or remain in estuaries during first summer. Feeds predominantly on small fish and crustaceans.	eng
906	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Common within the species range.	eng
906	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Common within the species range.	eng
906	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction leading to increasing salinity of the limans (coastal lagoons) where the species spawns is a potential threat to the species.	eng
906	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Water abstraction leading to increasing salinity of the limans (coastal lagoons) where the species spawns is a potential threat to the species.	eng
907	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
907	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
907	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Historically ascended Danube for about 1,600 km to Mohacs (Hungary), Don for 900 km to Oust-Medveditskaya, Dniepr up to Kiev, Dniestr up to Yampol and South Bug up to Voznessensks. A landlocked population in Don.<br/>Currently migrates up the Danube, Dneiper, Dneister, Pivdenny Bug, Don and Kuban (not previously used by the species until 1993) where they still spawn below dams.	eng
907	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating far upstream to spawn. Historically ascended Danube for about 1,600 km to Mohacs (Hungary), Don for 900 km to Oust-Medveditskaya, Dniepr up to Kiev, Dniestr up to Yampol and South Bug up to Voznessensks. A landlocked population in Don.<br/>Currently migrates up the Danube, Dneiper, Dneister, Pivdenny Bug, Don and Kuban (not previously used by the species until 1993) where they still spawn below dams.	eng
907	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water. Migrates to middle reaches of large rivers, spawning where current is strongest, close to surface, usually at 2-3 m depth in main channel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, migrating upriver to spawn at three years, rarely earlier. Only few individuals spawn two seasons. Appears along coast in March-April, enters rivers when temperatures reach about 6-9°C, between late March and late April. Migration usually peaks in May. Spawning starts when temperature rises above 15°C, in April-August. Spawns usually between 1 and 8 p.m. Eggs are pelagic. Spent individuals migrate back to sea to feed. Juveniles inhabit floodplain and shallow riverine habitats, migrate to the sea or estuarine habitats during first summer; in autumn, they move to the sea, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (especially crustaceans) and small fish.	eng
907	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deep water. Migrates to middle reaches of large rivers, spawning where current is strongest, close to surface, usually at 2-3 m depth in main channel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, migrating upriver to spawn at three years, rarely earlier. Only few individuals spawn two seasons. Appears along coast in March-April, enters rivers when temperatures reach about 6-9°C, between late March and late April. Migration usually peaks in May. Spawning starts when temperature rises above 15°C, in April-August. Spawns usually between 1 and 8 p.m. Eggs are pelagic. Spent individuals migrate back to sea to feed. Juveniles inhabit floodplain and shallow riverine habitats, migrate to the sea or estuarine habitats during first summer; in autumn, they move to the sea, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (especially crustaceans) and small fish.	eng
907	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
907	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
907	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Overfishing is the major current threat to the species. It is caught both at sea and in the lower courses of rivers during the migration. Dam construction in the Black Sea basin (over 10 years ago) has led to the loss of large areas of spawning grounds.	eng
907	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Overfishing is the major current threat to the species. It is caught both at sea and in the lower courses of rivers during the migration. Dam construction in the Black Sea basin (over 10 years ago) has led to the loss of large areas of spawning grounds.	eng
908	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	State and Federal Agencies are working with conservation groups and researchers to restore passage of Alabama shad to their historic range upstream of Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam in the Apalachicola basin. Efforts to pass shad through the lock by altering lock operation schedules and providing attractant flows have resulted in the passage of shad through Lake Seminole and into the Chattahoochee and Flint River systems in Georgia. A population estimate in 2007 suggested that over 1,000 shad migrated all the way to Albany during that year (Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources 2008). <br/><br/>This species is recognized as a species of concern by the National Marine Fisheries Service and is state protected or listed as a species of concern in many U.S. states within its range. Research into effective fish passages, restoration of hydrologic regimes, migrations, feeding, bycatch, spawning, rearing, and other habitat needs should be carried out (Meadows, Adams and Shaefer 2008).	eng
908	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The historical range of <em>Alosa alabamae</em> included the Gulf Coast from the Suwannee River in Florida, to the Mississippi River, westward in the Ouachita River system to eastern Oklahoma. The largest remaining population is in the Apalachicola River system below Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam. Populations also persist in the Pascagoula River drainage of Mississippi (Ross 2001), the Conecuh and Choctawhatchee rivers in southcentral and southeastern Alabama (Robison and Buchanan 1988, Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996), and the Mobile River drainage of Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004, Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Recent Mobile Basin records are limited to single adults found in the Black Warrior River in 1998 (the first record from that river in more than 100 years) and in the Alabama River in 1993 and 1995 (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the Mississippi River basin, this species is known from old records from as far north as Keokuk, Iowa (Coker 1930), the Ohio River at Louisville (Evermann 1902), and eastern Oklahoma (Moore 1957, Miller and Robison 2004). This species has been found more recently in the Cumberland, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, Ouachita, and Red rivers. <br/><br/>The species is sporatic and now depleted in the Mississippi River basin (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980, Page and Burr 1991). Missouri has some of the last spawning populations in the Mississippi river system (Pflieger 1997). "Since 1988, 88 juveniles and eight adults of this uncommon species have been recorded in 14 Missouri collections from the lower Mississippi, Missouri, Meramec, Gasconade, and Osage rivers" (Pflieger 1997). Surveys in the Arkansas River (Buchanan 1976; Sanders <em>et al</em>. 1985) and Mississippi River (Carter 1984; Pennington <em>et al.</em> 1980, 1983; Beckett and Pennington 1986) did not yield any specimens. Mel Warren (pers. comm.) reported that only two known spawning runs exist in the Mississippi River system (Meramec River, Missouri, and Ouachita River, Arkansas). This shad is known in Oklahoma from "only a handful of specimens and records from the Poteau and Illinois river drainages and from the Little River in McCurtain County" (Miller and Robison 2004). Miller and Robison were uncertain as to whether the species still occurs in Oklahoma. Historically it occurred in the Clinch and Stones rivers in Tennessee, and apparently it was widespread in Tennessee in pre-impoundment days, but Etnier and Starnes (1993) reported no recent records in Tennessee. Etnier and Starnes (1993) mentioned a large adult from the Tennessee River just below Kentucky Dam in Marshall County, Kentucky, collected in July 1986.	eng
908	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Alosa alabamae</em> is an anadromous species. Adults live in saltwater and migrates into medium to large coastal rivers to spawn. Mettee <em>et al</em>. (1996) stated that actual spawning has not been observed but probably occurs in open, flowing water over sand bars in late afternoon or at night. In northwestern Florida, spawning occurs at 19–22°<sup></sup>C in moderate current over coarse sand and gravel (Laurence and Yerger 1966, Mills 1972). In Missouri, young have been captured in swift water about rock wing dikes in the Osage River and over rocky shoals with a noticeable current in the Gasconade River.	eng
908	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Only two known spawning runs exist in the Mississippi River system. Additional spawning runs occur in the Florida panhandle (M. Warren 1999 pers. comm.) and in southern Alabama (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>The total adult population size of <em>Alosa alabamae</em> is unknown. Populations of this species are small and are now very rare in the entire Mississippi River basin (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980, Robison and Buchanan 1988, Etnier and Starnes 1993, Pflieger 1997).<br/><br/>Distribution and abundance of the Alabama Shad has greatly diminished over the past 20–50 years. The species has been eliminated from much of its former inland distribution, especially in the Mobile Basin and the Mississippi River Valley (M. Warren 1999 pers. comm., Boschung and Mayden 2004). It is now rare or extirpated in much of its former range in Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004). It may have been extirpated from the upper Tombigbee, Cahaba, Coosa, and upper Alabama rivers in Alabama (Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). As of around 1990, this shad evidently was still declining in the Pearl River system of Louisiana and Mississippi (Gunning and Suttkus 1990). Ross (2001) reported that this species may be extirpated in the Pearl River.<br/><br/>Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.<br/><br/>Population estimates of migrating Alabama shad near Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam varied considerably from year to year between 2005 and 2007, ranging from greater than 3,000 to less than 25,000 fish (Georgia Department of Natural Resources 2008).	eng
908	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Locks and dams built for navigation, hydroelectric generation, and flood control have effectively blocked migration routes to many historical upstream spawning areas for <em>Alosa alabamae</em> (Robison and Buchanan 1988, Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). High-lift navigation dams on the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers have blocked spawning migrations in the Mobile basin. Streams have been degraded by siltation and pollution, and commercial and navigational dredging of sand bars has degraded or eliminated some spawning habitats. Major threats to the remaining populations in Alabama include increased sedimentation, pesticide runoff from agricultural operations, prolonged drought, and possible reservoir construction for water supply on major tributaries (Mettee in Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the past, harvesting in the Ohio River was considered a major threat to this species.	eng
914	conservation	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C,, 2008	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Belize<br/>Guanacaste National Park (32,512 ha) (R. Horwich pers. comm. to Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Blue Hole National Park (300 ha) (in range)<br/>Mountain Pine Ridge (51,500 ha) (Dahl, 1987)<br/>Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary (40,000 ha) (Horwich <em>et al.</em> 1993; Horwich 1994; Koontz <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Community Baboon Sanctuary (Horwich and Lyon 1990; Horwich 1994; Pavón 1994; Brockett <em>et al.</em> 1999, 2000; Horwich <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001)<br/>Upper Bladen (35,000 ha) (R. Horwich pers. comm. to Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Caracol Archeological Reserve (20,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Monkey Bay Wildlife Sanctuary (Private Reserve) (443 ha) (in range)<br/>Monkey Bay National Park (911 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> reintroduced) (extinguished by yellow fever and hurricanes (1961 and 1978) (Clark and Brocket 1999)<br/>Manatee Forest Reserve (in range)<br/>Chiquibul National Park (107,607 ha) (Dahl 1987)<br/>Bladen Branch Nature Reserve  (39,256 ha) (Dahl 1987)<br/>Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area  (61,513 ha) (Silva-López and Rumiz 1995)<br/><br/>Guatemala<br/>Rio Dulce National Park (9,610 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>El Rosario National Park (1,105 ha) (in range)<br/>Bahia Santo Tomas (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Rosalia (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Miramundo (902 ha) (in range)<br/>Las Victorias (82 ha) (in range)<br/>El Reformador (60 ha) (in range)<br/>Grutas Lanquin (in range)<br/>Cuevas de Silvino (8 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna Lachua National Park (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera Quetzal (1,153 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> according to Curdts (1993) and Silva-López 1998; but <em>A. palliata</em> according to Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo de Chocon Machacas (7,000 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Silva-López 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Biotopo San Miguel La Palotada (49,300 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001; possible occurrence Silva-López 1998)<br/>Rio Escondido – Biotopo Laguna del Tigre (45,900 ha) (in range)<br/>Dos Lagunas (45,950 ha) (in range)<br/>Tikal National Park (57,600 ha) (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 1976; Schlichte 1978; Estrada <em>et al.</em> 2004)<br/>Aguateca Cultural Monument (1,700 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>Ceibal Cultural Monument (1,700 ha) (in range)<br/>Dos Pilas Cultural Monument (3,100 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Silva-López 1998)<br/>Rio Azul (28,900 ha) (in range)<br/>Uaxactún (3,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Ucanal (2,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Xutilha (2,689 ha) (in range)<br/>Ixcun Cultural Monument (400 ha)<br/>El Peru (8,000 ha)<br/>Biotopo San Miguel – El Zotz (42,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Nakum (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>G48 Naranjo (1,200 ha)<br/>Machaquilla Cultural Monument (2,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Yaxha (9,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995; Silva-López 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Polochic (Sympatric with <em>A. palliata</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra Lacandon National Park (200,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Mirador / Dos Lagunas –Rio Azul National Park (147,000 ha) (in range)<br/>El Tigre National Park (350,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Trifinito National Park (4,000 ha)<br/><br/>Mexico<br/>Palenque National Park (1,771 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Mexico, SEDUE, 1989; Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2000; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Tulum National Park 664 ha) (in range)<br/>Ria Lagartos Special Biosphere Reserve (47,840 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanos de Centla (290,397 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (Mexico, SEDUE, 1989;  Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2004; Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/>Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Selva Lacandona) (331,200 ha) (Mexico SEDUE, 1989;  Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (528,147 ha) (Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chan-kin Protection Area for Wild Flora and Fauna (12,184 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Yaxchilán Natural Monument (2,621 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Estrada <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2004; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Bonampak Natural Monument (4,357 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Metzaboc (Hernández-Yãnez pers. comm., in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996a)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
914	distribution	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C,, 2008	<em>Alouatta pigra</em> occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico and Belize, extending into northern and central Guatemela. The westernmost locality given by Hall (1981) is at Frontera, in the Mexican state of Tabasco; <em>A. palliata</em> has been recorded just west of there along the coast, 6 miles south of Cárdenas. Further localities which define the western and southern limits to its range include 5 miles south-east of Macuspana, Tabasco, and San Mateo Ixtatán (c. 11,000 ft) in Guatemala. Smith (1970) identified the southern limits to its range in the east with three localities along the Río Motagua basin in Guatemala, including Quirigua and Zacapa (right bank of the river). Curdts (1993), on the other hand, found that the southern and south-western limits to the range of <em>A. pigra</em> in Guatemala were defined by the Lago de Izabal, El Golfete and the Río Dulce. He noted large numbers of <em>A. pigra</em> in the Río Polochic delta, entering the west end of the Lago de Izabal. These are just to the north of the Río Motagua, where Curdts (1993) identified <em>A. palliata</em>. Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found <em>A. pigra</em> in the northern margin of Rio Dulce and Lago Izabal, and to the West of Lago Izabal. This marks the southernmost locality for <em>A. pigra</em> in the Sierra de las Minas. <br/><br/>Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) provide the most recent review of the limits of the distributions of <em>Alouatta palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> in Central America and Mexico. They found that the highland massif of northern Central America (including the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and central highland of Guatemala) and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation forms a geographic barrier separating <em>A. pigra</em> from <em>A. palliata</em>, and defines the southern limit of <em>A. pigra</em>. They discussed the two contact zones between them: the broad range of overlap north of the highland massif in Mexico over the lowlands of the states of Tabasco and Campeche, and a narrow area of contiguous, non-overlapping ranges in eastern Guatemala where the highlands extend almost the Caribbean. In the first, the localities where parapatry has been observed include Macuspana, Tabasco (Smith 1970; Horwich and Johnson 1986), around Zapata, Tabasco (Horwich and Johnson 1986) and the northern point of the Laguna de Términos in Campeche (Serio-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no geographical barrier separating the species, both occur in the same forests and on both sides of the Rio Usamacinta, for example (Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the second, the ranges are narrowly parapatric, separated by the Río Dulce and the Lago Izabal: <em>A. palliata</em> to the south and <em>A. pigra</em> to the north and west. South-west of Lake Izabal, <em>A. pigra</em> occurs in the highlands of the Sierra de las Minas, but not in the lowlands, occupied by <em>A. palliata</em>. Any past range overlap in this region will have been lost by the extensive oss of forest; the area is heavily farmed.  Baumgarten (2006) found no evidence to support sympatry supposed previously by Horwich and Johnson (1986), Curdts (1993) and Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1998).<br/><br/>Serio-Silva <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported on a detailed survey of the occurrence of <em>A. pigra</em> in the Yucatán Peninsula.	eng
914	habitat	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C,, 2008	This species occurs in primary <em>terra firma</em> rain forest, riparian forest, seasonally flooded riparian areas, and swamps. However, it can be also found in primary and secondary forest. In areas where suitable habitat does not exist they in some cases be found in marginal habitat surrounded by pastures and urban areas (Cuarón 1991, 1997; Marsh, 1999, 2001, 2002). In Calakmul, Mexico and Tikal, Guatemala, they occur in semideciduous tropical forest, but in Yaxchilán in tall evergreen rain forest (Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is mainly found in areas below 900 m, but more commonly below 400 m. However, Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found them in locations up to 3,350 m asl. Reid (1997) reported that it is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest, remnant forest along rivers and tall second growth.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Silver <em>et al.</em> (1998, 2000) have studied the diet and feeding ecology of <em>A. pigra</em> in Belize.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta pigra</em> lives in smaller groups than <em>A. palliata</em>: 2-10 individuals per group compared with 2-45 for <em>A. palliata</em> (mean of 12.3) (Crockett and Eisenberg 1986; Chapman and Balcomb 1998; Pavelka and Chapman 2006). Estrada <em>et al</em>. (2004) recorded a mean group size of 7.5±1.9 individuals (range 4-9, n=8) at Calakmul, Campeche; 6.6±2.1 individuals (range 4-10, n=8) at Yaxchilán, Chiapas; and 8.7±2.2 individuals (range 6-12, n=10) at Tikal, Guatemala. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier 1977). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 11.1-11.6 kg (mean 11.35 kg, n=2), adult female weight 6.3-6.6 kg (mean 6.4 kg, n=4) (Ford and Davis 1992)<br/>Adult male weight 11.4 kg (n=2) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 6.43 kg (n=4) (Peres 1994).	eng
914	population	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C,, 2008	<em>Alouatta pigra</em> is locally common across its range, but mainly in protected areas. In Belize, this species has been recorded at densities of up to 250 individuals/km² in some areas.<br/><br/>Estrada <em>et al</em>. (2004, 2006) carried out surveys of <em>A. pigra</em> populations in a number of areas in Guatemala and Mexico: Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Campeche, 15.2 individuals/km²; Yaxchilán Natural Monument, Chiapas, 12.8 individuals/km²; and Tikal National Park, Guatemala, 17.8 individuals/km²; Palenque, Chiapas 23 individuals/km². At 13 sites where Estrada <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated densities of <em>A. pigra</em>, the mean density was 10.8±5.7 individuals/km² (range 3.5-23 individuals/km²).	eng
914	threats	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C,, 2008	The main threats to this species are deforestation, hunting (for food and for capture as pets) and disease (yellow fever epidemics) (Reid 1997; Pavelka and Chapman 2006).	eng
918	conservation	de Oliveira, M.M. & Keirulff, M.C.M., 2008	This species occurs in the Lençois Maranhenses National Park, Maranhão (157,261 ha), Ubajara National Park, Ceará (6,288 ha) (in range, but possibly extirpated) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Serra da Ibiapaba Environmental Protection Area (1,592,550 ha), Piauí/Ceará.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>There is no captive breeding programme. More surveys are required to establish the status of the surviving populations and to evaluate possibilities and alternatives for conservation action.	eng
918	distribution	de Oliveira, M.M. & Keirulff, M.C.M., 2008	A poorly known howler monkey, its range has been elucidated recently through the efforts of the Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros of the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Paraíba (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2004). It occurs along coastal north-east Brazil in three states: Maranhão, Piauí and Ceará. The type locality is Miritiba, now called Humberto de Campos, on the coast of Maranhão, which it would seem marks the western limit to the range, just east of Rio Itapecurú. Besides the type locality, Bonvicino <em>et al</em>. (1989) mapped Boa Vista, just east of the lower Rio Parnaíba in Maranhão (locality 9, map Figure 2, Table 2); Goiabeira, Granja (locality 5) near the coast on the left (west) bank of the mouth of the Rio Coreaú in Ceará, and Bom Jardim, São Benedito (locality 4) in the Serra da Ibiapaba. Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) indicated the Serra da Ibiapaba as the eastern limit to the species’ range. Guedes <em>et al.</em> (2000) registred two further localities in the Serra da Ibiapaba in the municipality Ibiapina. Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004; pers. comm.) have found that it occurs further south than was previously recognized, extending at least to the Rio Poti in Piauí.	eng
918	habitat	de Oliveira, M.M. & Keirulff, M.C.M., 2008	In Maranhão, they are found in open, transitional <em>babaçu</em> palm forest (Gregorin 2006). The Serra da Ibiapaba,  a humid forest enclave (<em>brejo nordestino</em>), has humid forest on its eastern slopes (that remains only because the terrain is so steep). Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) report that in Ceará (Viçosa do Ceará and Coreaú) they are also found in areas of semideciduous and dry forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). <em>Alouatta ululata</em> groups generally comprise four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).	eng
918	population	de Oliveira, M.M. & Keirulff, M.C.M., 2008	There is no information available on population densities, but total population size is undoubtedly small due to the extreme destruction and fragmentation of its forests in a very restricted geographic range.	eng
918	threats	de Oliveira, M.M. & Keirulff, M.C.M., 2008	Very few populations still survive in a region which has a long history of human occupation, and resulting high levels of forest loss and hunting. The species survives only on hill tops and steep slopes, where they are inaccessible to hunters and where the forest is protected by law (Areas of Permanent Preservation according to the Brazilian Forest Code (Law 4.771, 15 September 1965).	eng
922	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species occurs, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Jau National Park (2,378,410 ha)<br/>Serra do Divisor National  Park (846,408 ha) (Lopes and Rehg 2003)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha)<br/>Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha)<br/>Amanã State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,350,000 ha)<br/>Cujubim State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,450,381 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a) <br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh, 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a) <br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
922	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Gregorin (2006) indicated that this species occurs throughout the upper Amazon in Brazil in the states of Acre and Amazonas, to the south of the Rio Solimões. If <em>A. seniculus amazonica</em> is a junior synonym of <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. juara</em> would be the species to the north of the Rio Solimões, west of the Rio Negro, extending into Colombia and the large part of the Peruvian Amazon, perhaps north of the Rio Inuya (<em>A. puruensis</em> to the south of the Río Inuya).<br/><br/>There is no information concerning the limits of the ranges of  <em>A. juara</em> with <em>A. seniculus</em> of the Colombian Andes and Venezuela (type locality: Cartagena, Bolivar, Colombia), so they have been mapped together.<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>A. seniculus</em> is absent from the Pacific and the desert of the Guajira Peninsula, and has not been reported from the Department of Nariño (Defler 2004). Otherwise, it is present throughout the country, except in non-forested areas and mountainous regions above about 3,000 m above sea level (though it has been reported at 3,200 m in the Central Andes. In Venezuela, Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate that the howler monkey north of the Rio Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta the is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form of red howler, but Linares (1998) labeled it as <em>A. arctoidea</em>, otherwise also occurring along the north coast of Venezuela.<br/><br/>In summary, <em>Alouatta juara-seniculus</em> occurs west of the of the rios Juruá and Envira through the Peruvian Amazon north (say) of the Rio Inuya, north along the Andean Cordillera into Ecuador and in Colombia including the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental into Venezuela around Lake Maracaibo, west of the Serra de Merida. It is possible that either an undescribed red howler (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) or <em>A. arctoidea</em> (Linares 1998) occurs north of the Rio Meta in Colombia.	eng
922	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in evergreen rain forest. Along the Rio Juruá, and undoubtedly elsewhere in its range, it tends to be more common in seasonally flooded forest (<em>várzea</em>) than in <em>terra firma</em> forest (Peres 1997; Queiroz 1995).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen is a large group for the red howler monkeys; they usually number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.  In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. <br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic [1982], considered here to be <em>A. arctoidea</em>).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Brazil<br/>Adult male 7.62 kg (n=28) (Ayres 1986)<br/>Adult female 6.02 kg (n=34) (Ayres 1986).	eng
922	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Peres (1997) estimated the following population densities in <em>terra firma</em> forest in the Brazilian Amazon: Kaxinawá Reserve 9.2 individuals/km²; Altamira 4.6 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho I 1.0 individuals/km²; Fortuna 5.3 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 4.7 individuals/km²; Riozinho 8.4 individuals/km². In <em>várzea</em> (white-water flooded forest), the densities tend to be higher: Sacado do Condor 24.7 individuals/km²; Nova Empresa 35.7 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 15,6 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna 35.7 individuals/km². Queiroz (1995) estimated a density of 38 individuals/km² at Lago Mamirauá, between the rios Japurá and Solimões.	eng
922	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are probably no major threats across the range, although Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) reported that populations of red howlers have declined in the lower parts of the <em>selva alta</em> (high forest) in the Peruvian Amazon as a result of colonization by humans, hunting and deforestation, noting particularly the valley of Chanchamayo (Department of Junín) where they have been extirpated. Although hunted throughout its range, they are less susceptible to hunting pressure than are other atelids.	eng
928	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta.	eng
928	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known only from the Cordillera de Nahuelbuta, Estero Cabrería, Provincia de Malleco, Chile (37° 50'S; 73° 00' W). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
928	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs under logs or stones close to mountain streams, and the surrounding vegetation mainly comprises <em>Nothofagus dombeyi</em> and <em>Araucaria araucana</em>. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
928	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The species is relatively abundant at the type locality. During breeding periods, it is possible to find large numbers of tadpoles in streams.	eng
928	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The main threat is the afforestation of the watershed where this species occurs with an introduced pine. When the pine is harvested, the effect on the surrounding breeding streams could be catastrophic.	eng
929	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Protection and maintenance of its existing habitat is a priority for this species, since it is not currently known from any protected area.	eng
929	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is currently known only from Farellones (33° 32'S; 70° 19'W), in central Chile, 35km north-east of Santiago, at 2,300-3,000m asl. The exact location of the type locality is uncertain, though it is somewhere on the western slopes of the Andes in central Chile.	eng
929	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This stream-breeding species has been found under stones, close to mountain streams, where the surrounding vegetation comprises grasses and shrubs of cold Andean areas. It has free-swimming tadpoles.	eng
929	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The current known population comprises only a few adults. It was last collected in 2003, and the population is known to have declined substantially in recent years. Areas in which the species has been known to reproduce were found to have been completely destroyed in February 2002.	eng
929	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Currently, the primary threat to this species is from recreational skiing and tourist infrastructure development, since the only known locality where the species is found is in a ski resort.	eng
930	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It has been included in the Chilean national legislation as near threatened and it occurs in Parque Nacional Cerro La Campana.	eng
930	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is restricted to central Chile from 150-1,500m asl. Voucher specimens do not support records from Argentina.	eng
930	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It can be found in temperate shrubland and seasonal and permanent streams, in which it reproduces. It is not tolerant of habitat destruction.	eng
930	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It is locally common.	eng
930	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Urban sprawl is rapidly destroying available habitat for this species, and some populations close to the main cities (such as Santiago) have disappeared.	eng
932	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection and maintenance of its remaining native habitat is an urgent priority. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.	eng
932	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is endemic to the western slopes of the Nahuelbuta Range, Arauco Province (37° 59'S; 73° 22'W), Chile, at 50m asl.	eng
932	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species can be found in small patches of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and is not tolerant of habitat modification. It reproduces in pools within permanent streams and has free-swimming tadpoles.	eng
932	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The most recent collection was of tadpoles in 2002 which were found in the only pool in the area.	eng
932	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is highly threatened by habitat destruction due to expanding pine plantations and human settlement. In the last 10 years, in particular, the range of this species has been nearly completely destroyed as a result of afforestation with pine plantations.	eng
939	conservation	Daltry, J. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	A reintroduction plan was established in 1999 by the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project, which focussed on the subspecies on Great Bird Island. Since then, the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project has eradicated alien mammals  from 12 islands and successfully reintroduced the racer to three islands: Rabbit  (1999), Green (2002) and York (2008). At present, there are no individuals of this species in captivity (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010). Continued conservation management, population monitoring and invasive species control are needed to guarantee the species persistence.	eng
939	distribution	Daltry, J. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the island bank of Antigua and Barbuda, where it once ranged over most of the islands; however only subfossil remains (tentatively attributed to this species) have been found  on Barbuda, and the species went extinct from the main island of Antigua shortly  after the Asian mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em> or <em>H. auropunctatus</em>)  was introduced at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Daltry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The area of distribution for this species has been increased from 8.4 ha to 65 ha (0.1% of its natural range). The snake can be found at all elevations of its current distribution range (up to approximately 30m), but was probably also found at higher elevations on Antigua prior to its extinction on the island (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).	eng
939	habitat	Daltry, J. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in habitats with dense canopy cover, dense undergrowth and a layer of leaf litter.	eng
939	population	Daltry, J. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	In 1995, J. Daltry demonstrated the population on Great Bird Island numbered 50 +/- 7 individuals. &#160;Since reintroductions on to Rabbit, Green and York Islands the population now exceeds 300 (Daltry <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
939	threats	Daltry, J. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Invasive mammals, in particular Black Rats and mongooses, are a major threat to this species and are responsible for its dramatic historical decline in abundance. Although the islands now inhabited have been cleared of invasive predators, re-invasions are a threat. Rats re-invaded Great Bird Island in 2001, but were eradicated the same year (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010). In late 2005, rats reappeared on Green Island (Daltry 2006), probably transported by visitor boats, but these were successfully eradicated in 2006. <br/><br/>This species is threatened by loss of genetic variation due to its small population size: Genetic studies by Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust have confirmed the  species to be critically inbred, and fertility is low.<br/><br/>Hurricanes can cause flooding on the lowland areas of the island. J. Daltry (pers. comm.) observed a 20% population decline on Great Bird Island after Hurricane Georges in 1998, the storm surges of which flooded more than 10% of the island.<br/><br/>Visitors to the islands may disturb snakes and could affect feeding and mating behaviour. Incidents of visitors killing snakes have also been reported. In addition, activities such as mowing, trampling, and allowing camp fires to burn out of control may pose threats to the viability of the very small population of this species. Visitor numbers on Great Bird Island have gone up to over 40,000 visitors per year, which has gone up dramatically from only 17,000 visitors per year during the mid 1990s (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).There are also well-substantiated reports of snakes being taken as pets (J. Daltry pers. comm. 2010).	eng
948	conservation	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
948	distribution	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from Himalayan portions of Baltistan (Braldu Valley, Nahr Nulla) and Ladakh (Phyang Nulla), in the disputed Kashmir region (Rossolimo and Pavlinov 1992; Rossolimo <em>et al.</em> 1994; Musser and Carleton 2005). The map of this species range is provisional. The type locality is in a disputed area where not many wildlife surveys have been organised or conducted (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
948	habitat	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. As with other members of this genus, it is probably found in rocky areas with brushy vegetation.	eng
948	population	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
948	threats	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
949	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species is not known from any of the protected areas within South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
949	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species has been recorded from the mountainous areas of Central Asia (eastern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan), western China (northern Xinjiang and Gansu), northern Afghanistan, North West Frontier Province in Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir (Rossolimo 1989; Rossolimo and Pavlinov 1992; Rossolimo <em>et al</em>. 1994; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.	eng
949	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This diurnal species is associated with rocky outcrops in alpine grasslands and shrublands (Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds twice each year, with an average litter size of between four and five young (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
949	population	Molur, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
949	threats	Molur, S., 2008	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005)	eng
950	conservation	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Approximately 20% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the China Red List is listed as Not Applicable; in the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern. Further research is recommended.	eng
950	distribution	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Occurs at low to middle altitudes throughout the Gobi and Mongol Altai of S Mongolia and the Tuva region of Russia. One record from E Tian Shan, Xinjiang.  Occurs at elevations of 900 to 2,500 m.<br/><br/>In Mongolia occurs in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Trans Altai Govi Desert, Govi Altai Mountain Range and parts of Dzungarian Govi Desert (Bannikov, 1954).	eng
950	habitat	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Inhabits mountain-steppe habitats, associated with juniper, honey suckle, currant, cornel, goose berry, dog-rose, willow and wormwood bushes. This species lives between the roots of bushes. Herbivorous.  A female captured in June was lactating and had six placental scars.	eng
950	population	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	No population data are available at present.	eng
950	threats	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	No available data.	eng
951	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No special conservation measures are required.	eng
951	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Mountains in NE Siberia from Lena River to Bering Strait. Absent in Kamchatka. Found from sea level to 1,500-2,000 m asl.	eng
951	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits rocky habitats from sea coast to mountains. In Chukotka inhabits bald mountains and  river valleys where rocky areas combined with grass vegetation. In southern part of the area found in subalpine belt. Feeds mostly on mosses and lichens, less on shrubs and grasses. Reproduces only once per summer, with exception of Southern Yakutia, where two litters per summer have been registered (Revin, 1989).	eng
951	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Population size is usually low. In Chukotka population density was 7-12 individuals per ha (Chernyavskii, 1984).	eng
951	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No major threats to the species. Distribution is fragmented and some of isolates might need protection.	eng
952	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Approximately 15% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the Red Lists of China and Russia is listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
952	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Distributed in mountains from Altai (Southern Siberia) to Trans-Baikal region, Mongolia and China (N Xinjiang). <br/><br/>In Mongolia found in rocky fields of alpine and sub-alpine habitats around Munkhkhairkhan Mountain in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Tarvagatai Mountain in Hangai Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and Munkh Saridag Mountain in Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Litvinov, 1982; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).	eng
952	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Lives in conifer forest and mixed deciduous/conifer forest on rocky mountain slopes. Inhabits rocky alpine habitats at elevations of around 2,450 m, often found around cereal vegetation in the mountainous regions.	eng
952	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
952	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Natural wildfires are believed to be a potential threat to local populations, although little is known about this species at present.	eng
953	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is not known from any of the protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
953	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species appears to be limited to a few locations in India and Pakistan. It has been recorded from locations in Jammu and Kashmir and two locations from North West Frontier Province (Agrawal 2000; Ellerman 1961). It has been recorded from 2,600 m to 4,300 m asl.	eng
953	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is associated with temperate montane forests, where it can be encountered in rocky areas, on cliffs, in caves and among sparse forested areas (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
953	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
953	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	War, civil unrest and loss of habitat due to human encroachment are the major threats faced by the species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
954	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It has been recorded from Nanda Devi National Park. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
954	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to northern India, where it is distributed in the western Himalayas from Kulu Valley in Himachal Pradesh to Kumaon in Uttarakhand (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has been recorded from 2,500 to 4,300 m asl.	eng
954	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is diurnal, colonial and herbivorous. It lives in subtropical and temperate montane rocky areas (including cliffs and peaks), extending from the coniferous treeline to the snowline (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
954	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
954	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Major threats are from overgrazing by livestock of the species habitat, human settlement and general disturbance (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
955	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Approximately 10% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
955	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Distributed in lowland dry rocky steppes from Tuva, through Mongolia (with the exception of western and north-eastern parts of the country) and N China.	eng
955	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Inhabits arid and semiarid grassland and scrubland between the upper limits of coniferous forest and the edge of snow line. Found in forest-steppe, steppe and mountain-steppe habitats associated with juniper and alpine meadows and rocky meadow outcrops.	eng
955	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
955	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No available data.	eng
956	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from Makalu Barun National Park and Saga Matha National Park in Nepal. In South Asia, general field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
956	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is recorded from northern South Asia and western and central China. In South Asia it has been recorded from Jammu and Kashmir, central Nepal and probably occurs in Bhutan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). The records for this species from the Baltistan and Gilgit areas, as reported by Roberts (1997), need to be examined and could probably be <em>Alticola roylei</em>. It is inferred to be widely distributed in areas above 4,000 m asl in the Himalayas although only a few records exist in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been widely recorded from Xizang, southern Xinjiang, Qinghai and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
956	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in montane areas, where it inhabits temperate forest, upper limits of coniferous forest, scrubland, semi-arid and arid grassland, rocky areas to the edge of the snow line (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds twice a year with a litter size of four or five young (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
956	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
956	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
958	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Approximately 15% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China, Russia and Kazakhstan listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
958	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Dry steppes of lower and middle mountain belts (400 to 3000 m asl) in E Kazakhstan, Altai Mts (Russia), NW Mongolia and China( N Xinjiang) (Ma <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Musser and Carleton, 2005; Pavlinov and Rossolimo, 1987). Found at Hovd in Mongol Altai Mountain Range in the north-western corner of Mongolia (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).	eng
958	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Inhabits rocky slopes and eroding outcrops with narrow cavities and crevices. Constructs piles of stone and debris at the entrance to its crevice.  Diurnal.  Feeds on grass stems and seeds, rarely small animals. Constructs big wintering nests and stores vegetation in crevices for consumption through winter. Colonial. In China has at least three litters per breeding season, in northern part of the area (Russia and Kazakhstan) two litters recorded. Specimens with between 7-11 embryos have been reported, in northern part 5-7 young per litter.	eng
958	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
958	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No available data.	eng
959	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	In Russia and Mongolia (approximately 40% of the species’ range) occurs within protected areas. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
959	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	The Altai Mtns and Tuva region, N Khubsugul Lake Valley, S Bailkal Lake Valley, and nearby regions in NW Mongolia.<br/>In Mongolia north-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, northern Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl Mountain Range, and northern Hangai Mountain Range (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).	eng
959	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Inhabits rocky parts of mountain steppe habitats, associated with juniper and alpine meadows. This species feeds on green parts of plants, storing hay as a winter food source.	eng
959	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
959	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No available data.	eng
977	conservation	Joan Mayol Serra, Richard Griffiths, Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, 2008	The species is protected by sub-national and national legislation. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on the national and sub-national Red Data Books. It is present in the protected areas of the Tramuntana mountains. The Balearic Government and Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust have undertaken captive-breeding, re-introduction and other conservation initiatives. At least 10 populations have been successfully reintroduced. Re-introductions of animals from the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust stopped in 2002, but a new captive-breeding facility now exists on Mallorca, and re-introductions are expected to resume. However, as a result of the recent discovery of disease, a recommendation was made in 2004 to the Balearic Government to halt the re-introduction programme. A new recovery programme for the species is now being developed. There is a need to closely monitor populations of this species, especially with regard to the recent detection of the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in introduced animals (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008). A systematic programme is in place to remove <em>Natrix maura</em> from the range of the species.	eng
977	distribution	Joan Mayol Serra, Richard Griffiths, Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, 2008	This species is restricted to the Sierra Tramuntana of northern Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. The present altitudinal range is from 10-850m asl. Its area of occupancy is less than 10km², but slowly increasing as a result of intensive conservation action.	eng
977	habitat	Joan Mayol Serra, Richard Griffiths, Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, 2008	It is currently found only in small streams deeply carved into limestone mountains. The presence of the species is positively associated with steep slopes. Breeding takes place in the small streams that persist as pools in summer. A few populations occur by man-made water sources (cattle troughs, containers, rain tanks etc.) in open mountainous country; these are within the river basins of nearby canyon-living populations. Animals are generally found in rock crevices and under stones. This species does not tolerate serious habitat degradation. The distribution of predators on the species is negatively associated with elevation, and reproductive success is positively associated with elevation.	eng
977	population	Joan Mayol Serra, Richard Griffiths, Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, 2008	The population is approximately 500-1,500 adult pairs (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997; Arnold 2003). There are approximately 25, mostly isolated, populations. The total population is slowly increasing following coordinated recovery efforts, following a long period of decline and near extinction. The current increase, which probably started around the time that the first re-introductions were made in 1989, has been maintained even during years of drought, notably in 1999-2000. The population trend in this species is monitored through annual tadpole counts, the counts for 2004 (over 30,000 tadpoles) being the highest on record. The increase in numbers in established populations is not dependent upon continued re-introductions. However, it is unlikely that new populations would be established without re-introductions.	eng
977	threats	Joan Mayol Serra, Richard Griffiths, Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, 2008	The major threats are predation by the introduced Viperine Snake (<em>Natrix maura</em>), and competition for space with Perez's Frog (<em>Rana perezi</em>). Development of tourism and human settlements, specifically the increased need for water resources (including damming and canalization of streams), is an additional threat. The threats are not likely to decrease, and so the current recovery programme needs to be continued more or less indefinitely. One isolated re-introduced population was impacted by an unidentified non-fungal disease in 2002 which killed some tadpoles. This disease did not recur in 2003 and 2004. Chytridiomycosis has been identified in the wild population, with the source of this chytrid infection traced to reintroduced captive-bred animals from Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, UK (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
979	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Richard Podloucky, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>obstetricans</em>). It is listed in regional Red Data Books and is present in the protected areas of Parque Nacional Sierra Morena, Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, and the Natural Park of Cazorla, Segura y las Villas. Protection measures in Castilla-La Mancha, Andalusia, such as restoration and construction of new breeding habitats, are under way.	eng
979	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Richard Podloucky, 2008	This species is restricted to the mountains of south-eastern Spain. It occurs at altitudes of 700-2,140m asl (Sierra Nevada, Almería).	eng
979	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Richard Podloucky, 2008	The species is present in pine and oak forests, most often on calciferous substrate, in open, very rocky landscapes. Adults occur in rock fissures and on stones next to water sources. Reproduction and larval development takes place in permanent mountain streams, man-made reservoirs and cattle troughs, and the larvae may take a long time to mature. Almost all known breeding habitats are human-modified water bodies.	eng
979	population	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Richard Podloucky, 2008	Populations of this species are very fragmented, many of them confined to isolated mountains and valleys. It is relatively common in the Alcaraz, Segura, and Cazorla mountains, but it is rare in drier mountains (Filabres, Baza, Gádor), where it is associated with springs. Populations in drier areas can consist of only a few adults.	eng
979	threats	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Richard Podloucky, 2008	The species is threatened by loss of suitable breeding habitat as a result of excessive water withdrawal, droughts, and modernization of agricultural practices leading to the abandonment of cattle troughs and other man-made water sources. A potential future threat is the fungal disease chytridiomycosis, which has already impacted the related <em>Alytes obstetricans</em> in Spain.	eng
980	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	The species is considered to be Near Threatened in Austria, but was previously listed as Category A2, a category equivalent to Endangered (Glöer 2002). Its habitat should be protected and communication actions launched to raise awareness on the existence of this species. More research on the population and habitat trends is needed.	eng
980	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is restricted to Austria, where it was originally known from a single locality, a spring near Kalter Brunnen, Kleinzell, NÖ, Austria. It is now recorded from scattered locations in the northern limestone alps (Reischütz and Reischütz, 2007).	eng
980	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	The species is probably present in subterranean waters of this karst region where it has been recorded from 12 springs.	eng
980	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	Usually found as dead shells in outflow from springs, the species can easily be overlooked.	eng
980	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	The major threats to the subterranean waters are pollution and overabstraction of water from the springs, however these threats are localised, so the species is less threatened than other taxa, but subpopulations can easily be destroyed through activities affecting the groundwater.	eng
984	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Policy-based actions needed as well as increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
984	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from the Sigi Forest in east Usambara Mts in Tanzania.	eng
984	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small forest streams, closed canopy.	eng
984	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Its known geographic range is very small, and it is estimated that there are less than 500 individuals left within declining populations.	eng
984	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction is a potential threat to the species. No immediate threats are known to be affecting the main population of this species known within the Amani-Sigi Forest Reserve. Other populations in the vicinity are already extinct or on the border of extinction due to forest destruction and water pollution (see Clausnitzer 2003).	eng
1079	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.	eng
1080	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.	eng
1086	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys of the islands, taxonomic and genetic research, and monitoring of the population. <br/> <br/>The seven marine iguana subspecies described to date have been based on morphology. The taxonomic status of the ten subpopulations of <em>A. cristatus</em> is unclear. Taxonomic/genetic research is recommended for the different island subpopulations to establish whether any of them should be reclassified. Additionally, the status of seven of the ten subpopulations is unknown. Populations on different islands face different threats and should be included in future surveys.	eng
1086	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The marine iguana occurs on the Galápagos Islands of Baltra, Daphne, Darwin, Marchena, Pinzon, Rabida, Santa Fe, Seymor, Sin Nombre and Wolf. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km². Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.	eng
1086	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
1086	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The global population size is currently unknown. Although the island subpopulations listed below are currently classified as <em>A. cristatus</em>, there has been no attempt to evaluate these subpopulations for subspecific status (i.e., they may not all be <em>A. cristatus</em>). Seven of these islands with supposed <em>A. cristatus</em> subpopulations have never been surveyed or studied. Numbers of iguanas in each of the subpopulations are estimated at: <br/> <br/>Marchena = 4,000–10,000; Rabida = 1,000–2,000; Santa Fe = 15,000–30,000; Baltra = unknown; Daphne = unknown; Darwin = unknown; Pinzon = unknown; Seymor = 300? Sin Nombre = unknown; Wolf = unknown.	eng
1086	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality. The 2001 "Jessica" oil spill had a particularly severe immediate effect on the Santa Fe subpopulation, comparable to the 85% mortality caused by el Niño events. Introduced predators may be having a negative effect on the Baltra subpopulation,	eng
1087	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Protected in the De Hoek, New Agatha and Woodbush Forest Reserves. Research needed to document the natural history of this species.	eng
1087	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Woodbush Forest and New Agatha Forest Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded only from the far northern Drakensberg escarpment, between Haenertsburg, New Agatha and Tzaneen (South Africa).	eng
1087	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Afromontane forest and adjacent grasslands in Northeastern Mountain Grassland of Limpopo Province (Savanna biome). Also occurs in cultivated lands and young pine plantations, where it coexists with Common Molerats (<em>Cryptomys hottentotus</em>). Little is known about the ecology of this species.	eng
1087	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common; most numerous in moist soils near watercourses and ponds.	eng
1087	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The distribution of populations is highly-localized and the preferred habitats of the species are threatened by commercial forestry operations. In the former Transvaal Province, this species was given the highest regional priority score for mammals (Freitag and van Jaarsveld 1997).	eng
1089	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Two of the three known populations are protected within the Kruger National Park and the Nylsvley Nature Reserve.	eng
1089	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Recorded from three isolated subpopulations: the Willows (type locality), Shere and Tierpoort in Tshwane (Pretoria), Gauteng (here assessed also as a distinct subpopulation); Nylsvley Provincial Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province; and Numbi Gate, Pretoriuskop and Matjulwana districts of Kruger National Park, in the lowveld of Mpumalanga. Skulls from owl pellets at Witkoppen Cave, ca. 25 km east of Nyslvley Nature Reserve, represent this species, suggesting that it may occur more widely throughout the sandy Sprinkbok Flats. A specimen that may be this species was recently (March 2003) caught at Malelane in Mpumalanga, but genetic data are required to confirm this (analyses currently underway). If this specimen is indeed a <em>N. julianae</em>, this species' range in the lowveld may also be more extensive than previously thought.	eng
1089	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is confined to sandy soils, often pockets of weathered sandstone associated with rocky ridges, in the savanna biome of South Africa, and marginally into the grassland biome in the Pretoria district. The population on Nylsvlei floodplain occurs in Clay Thorn Bushveld and the population at Pretoria in Rocky Highveld Grassland, whereas in the Kruger National Park this species occurs in Sour Lowveld Bushveld. Common in well-irrigated gardens. Absent from grasslands on the heavier soils of the Mpumalanga escarpment where the larger-sized <em>A. septentrionalis</em> and <em>A. robustus</em> instead occur.	eng
1089	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common, with 2–3 individuals/ha in prime habitat. However, dispersion is patchy and clumped owing to specialized habitat requirements.	eng
1089	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The type population on Bronberg ridge outside Tshwane (Pretoria) is being severely impacted by intensive urbanization and a mining operation, and is here treated as a distinct subpopulation. While the other two subpopulations occur within protected areas, there are no intermediate distribution records suggesting gene flow between them, and the Nylsvley subpopulation also occurs in farmlands (adjoining the Nylsvley Nature Reserve) that are subject to habitat alteration and potential degradation, though the impact thereof on this subpopulation is unknown.	eng
1093	conservation		Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, before implementing the appropriate conservation and restoration measures, which might include captive breeding. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
1093	distribution		This species is only recorded in the central highlands of the State of Mexico, near the city of Toluca, in the Río Lerma and the Lerma Lake, and around Almolya, at 2,800-3,000m asl. It is possible that this taxon is more widespread that current records indicate, but more work is needed to confirm this.	eng
1093	habitat		It is a variable species, with individuals capable of reaching sexual maturity either in the metamorphosed or larval stage. Metamorphosed individuals spend most of the time on land in grassland habitat. It breeds in streams, lakes and moderately deep-water reservoirs.	eng
1093	population		While believed to be extinct in Lerma Lake, there is no recent information on the populations around Almoyo, and the species might persist in wetlands in the general area.	eng
1093	threats		The extremely high degree of pollution of the rivers and pools where this species breeds has contributed to its decline. There is also a serious problem of habitat loss due to urban expansion. In addition, animals have been captured for food consumption, while introduced predatory fish might also be a threat.	eng
1095	conservation	Luis Zambrano, Paola Mosig Reidl, Jeanne McKay, Richard Griffiths, Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2008	Conservation action is focusing on raising the profile of Lake Xochimilco through conservation education and a nature tourism initiative, coupled with work on habitat restoration and bioremediation. A species action plan has been drafted. There are several captive colonies around the world, since the species is used in physiological and biomedical research, as well as in the pet trade, but the re-introduction of captive-bred axolotls is not recommended until threats can be mitigated, and disease and genetic risks to the wild populations assessed. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico and is in process of being amended to a higher risk category. Although this species is currently on CITES Appendix II, it is currently under the process of "Periodic Review of species included in CITES Appendices".	eng
1095	distribution	Luis Zambrano, Paola Mosig Reidl, Jeanne McKay, Richard Griffiths, Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2008	This species is known only from central Mexico, on the southern edge of Mexico City, in canals and wetlands in the general vicinity of Xochimilco (including outside the Xochimilco city limits, around the Chalco wetland). The animals are not homogeneously distributed through their range, and congregate in particular places. Records from close to downtown Mexico City in the Chapultepec Lake could refer to either this species or <em>Ambystoma velasci</em>, and require confirmation. It was originally found in Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco (and presumably in the connecting lakes Texcoco and Zumpango), but it has disappeared from most of its range.	eng
1095	habitat	Luis Zambrano, Paola Mosig Reidl, Jeanne McKay, Richard Griffiths, Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2008	This species is native to the ancient system of water channels and lakes in Mexico City. It requires deep-water lakes (both natural and artificial canals) with abundant aquatic vegetation. Structures such as plants are needed to lay eggs. It is a paedomorphic species, living permanently in water, and does not undergo complete metamorphosis.	eng
1095	population	Luis Zambrano, Paola Mosig Reidl, Jeanne McKay, Richard Griffiths, Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2008	The surviving wild population is very small. Although populations are difficult to assess, recent surveys covering almost all of its known distribution range have usually captured fewer than 100 individuals (e.g., during 2002 and 2003, more than 1,800 net casts were made along Xochimilco canals covering 39,173m² and this resulted in a catch of only 42 specimens). In a study covering a span of six years (from 1998 to 2004), axolotl density had reduced from 0.006-org/ m2 to 0.001-org/ m2, although it is thought that this reduction could also be due to its own population dynamics (Zambrano 2006). A recent scientific survey revealed no axolotls, although wild-caught animals are still found in the local market, which indicates that fishermen still know where to find them. There has not been a density study of the Chalco population, but evidence suggests that the population there is small and, furthermore, Chalco is a highly unstable system that runs the risk of disappearing in the near future.	eng
1095	threats	Luis Zambrano, Paola Mosig Reidl, Jeanne McKay, Richard Griffiths, Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2008	The desiccation and pollution of the canal system and lakes in Xochimilco and Chalco, as a result of urbanization, as well as the traditional consumption of the species by local people, is threatening the survival of this species. Increased tourist activity is poorly regulated and adds further pollution (Zambrano, 2006). The species is also captured for medicinal purposes. The harvesting is targeted at animals that are less than one year old. It was formerly also captured for the international pet trade, although probably all animals in the international trade are now of captive origin. Introduced fishes (tilapia and carp) have increased to high abundances (a recent study collected 600kg of tilapia in one small channel using a 100m net) and have also impacted axolotls through competition and predation. The animals are also being affected by disease, probably spread by invasive species, and as a result of poor water quality. Although the water regime has changed in the last 10 years, and it is reported that pollution levels are decreasing, factors such as very high levels of bacterial contamination could still pose a serious threat.	eng
1098	conservation		This species occurs in several state and regional parks and other at least semi-protected areas. Most populations are on private land; an estimated 5% of known populations occur on government-owned lands. In Santa Barbara County, all of the known and potential habitat is largely on unprotected private land (USFWS 2000). As of August 2005, the California Tiger Salamander is protected by California law as a threatened species.	eng
1098	distribution		This species has a discontinuous distribution in west-central California, USA: coast ranges between Sonoma and Santa Barbara counties, Central Valley and surrounding foothills from southern Colusa County to north-western Kern County on the west side of the valley and southern Butte County to northern Tulare County on the east side. It has been eliminated from much of its former range in the Central Valley as a result of agricultural and urban development (Stebbins 1985b), but still occurs throughout most of its overall historical range and can be locally common (Trenham <em>et al.</em> 2000). About 80% of all extant occurrences are in Alameda, Contra Costa, Madera, Merced, Monterey, San Benito, and Santa Clara counties, with 30% of all occurrences in Alameda County. It has recently been rediscovered on the San Francisco Peninsula (Lagunita Lake, Stanford University) (Barry and Shaffer 1994). Jennings (1996; Herpetological Review 27:147) provides an old record from San Mateo County. It ranges from near sea level to 1,054m asl.	eng
1098	habitat		This species occurs in grassland or open woodland habitats, where it lives in vacant or mammal-occupied burrows (e.g., California Ground Squirrel, Valley Pocker Gopher) (Trenham 2001), and occasionally in other underground retreats, throughout most of the year. Eggs are laid on submerged stems and leaves, usually in shallow ephemeral or semi permanent pools and ponds that fill during heavy winter rains, sometimes in permanent ponds; adults spend little time in breeding sites.	eng
1098	population		Total adult population size is unknown, but certainly exceeds 10,000. However, it appears to be in decline due to habitat loss. It has been eliminated from 55-58% of historic breeding sites, and reportedly about 75% of the historical vernal pool-breeding habitat has been lost (Holland 1998) (though some question the reliability of this estimate). Barry and Shaffer (1994) stated that this salamander soon would be in danger of extinction throughout its range, and they noted that it already is gravely threatened in the San Francisco Bay Area and in the San Joaquin Valley. But Trenham <em>et al.</em> (2000) noted that the species still occurs in most of the historical range and can be locally common. In Santa Barbara County, of 14 documented breeding sites, half have been destroyed or have suffered severe degradation since mid-1999 (USFWS 2000).	eng
1098	threats		Most of the remaining range, including population strongholds in eastern Alameda and Contra Costa counties and areas south and west of Millerton Lake in Madera and Fresno counties, is imminently threatened by urban development, conversion of natural habitat to agriculture, introduction of exotic predatory animals (bullfrogs, crayfish, various fishes) that temporarily may occupy salamander breeding habitat, and/or other anthropogenic factors (e.g., rodent control programs, vehicle-related mortality). Reduced ground squirrel populations might reduce the availability of burrows, which are important habitats during the dry season. The use of pesticides for mosquito abatement might reduce food resources for salamanders. Introduction of non-native tiger salamanders might harm populations through hybridization and/or competition. Contaminated runoff from roads might adversely affect salamanders in breeding sites. Localities in the Diablo Range, inner Coast Ranges, and Sierra Nevada foothills are not significantly threatened at present, and there are still a relatively large number of remaining breeding localities. In Santa Barbara County, plans to convert remaining breeding areas from grazing to intensive agriculture are being developed and implemented (USFWS 2000). Five of the six existing habitat complexes supporting this population suffered moderate to severe levels of habitat destruction or degradation between 1996 and 2000 (USFWS 2000). See USFWS (2000) for further information on threats to the Santa Barbara County population.	eng
1099	conservation		This species occurs on several managed areas (see USFWS 1997). A substantial number of populations are on public land (USFWS 1997). Sites include Apalachicola and Osceola national forests and St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge in Florida, Fort Stewart in Georgia, and Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina. Outlook on private lands is poor.<br/><br/>Activities aimed at restoring/maintaining the ecological integrity of mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and associated ephemeral wetlands are needed to preserve extant populations of flatwoods salamanders.<br/><br/>Recovery is directly linked with the ability to preserve existing habitat and restore degraded habitat. Given the drastic decline in the extent of longleaf pine-dominated communities (Ware et al. 1993), elevation of flatwoods salamander populations above present levels is unlikely. Restoration of degraded mesic, seasonally inundated longleaf pine flatwoods and savannas has not been attempted, and may only be feasible in cases where soil disturbance is minimal. The effectiveness of reintroduction into areas where extirpated is unknown.<br/><br/>High quality occurrences include several wetlands within a matrix of pine flatwoods and savanna. Based on the maximum distance adults are known to travel between reproductive and nonreproductive habitat (1.7 km), each breeding site should be surrounded by at least 10 sq km of terrestrial habitat. Longterm perpetuation of a viable population of flatwoods salamanders will presumably require protection of a larger area of terrestrial habitat encompassing a suite of alternative breeding sites (Travis 1994). A suite of wetlands guards against extirpation at any one breeding site, since animals can immigrate from nearby wetlands. The minimum viable population size needed to sustain a population longterm is not known. Preliminary drift fence data at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, suggests that breeding population sizes are low relative to other Ambystoma (Palis, unpubl. data). However, this may be a site specific observation as larger breeding migrations have been observed elsewhere in the range (R. Moulis, pers. comm.). Presently, there is no method of assessing an occurrence based on the number of animals captured at a drift fence or the number of larvae inhabiting a breeding site.<br/><br/>Maintenance of intact mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and ephemeral wetlands by mimicking natural forces, such as lightning-season fire, is the most appropriate form of management. On sites where timber extraction is practiced, several precautions should be taken to limit the impact to flatwoods salamanders. Tree harvest should be restricted to dry periods to prevent soil compaction and rutting. Clearcutting should be replaced with selective timber harvest and natural regeneration enhanced by fire, particularly lightning-season fire. If off-site species such as slash pine have been planted, they should be removed and replaced with longleaf pine at densities found in nature. Mechanical preparation of the soil should be avoided. If a site supports mature, closed-canopy pine plantations, they should be thinned with as little disturbance to the soil and remaining groundcover as possible. The natural hydrology and fire regime of terrestrial and aquatic habitats should be restored on sites where altered. <br/><br/>The wetland/upland ecotone appears to be critical to successful flatwoods salamander reproduction. Some areas are in need of periodic burning to clear encroaching shrubby vegetation that shades out herbaceous ground cover (Palis and Jensen 1995). Maintenance of a graminaceous ecotone and breeding site will require burning in the lightning-season when wetlands are dry or nearly dry (Huffman and Blanchard 1990) . Bury et al. (1980) recommended that wiregrass not be burned in winter (destructive to wiregrass [used for egg attachment] and possibly to salamanders directly). Palis and Jensen (1995) stated that winter burns may be needed to avoid catastrophic fires when warm-season burning is initiated. <br/><br/>Mechanical disturbance of the wetland-upland ecotone should be avoided. The practice of "protecting" wetlands by encircling them with plow line should be abandoned. Where present, berms should be removed and drainage ditches filled. <br/><br/>Breeding ponds should not be dredged or stocked with fishes.<br/><br/>Demographic data are needed to better understand the natural history and, in particular, factors that limit population size (e.g., egg, larval, and metamorph survivorship; competition with other species). <br/><br/>Longterm drift-fence studies are needed at several nearby sites to examine inter-pond salamander movement and to delineate the range of natural population fluctuations. <br/><br/>More information is needed on the extent of upland habitat required to support a population breeding in a particular pond. Radiotelemetry or radioactive tagging of adults could be used to address this need. <br/><br/>Effects on salamander populations of different forms of resource management and of anthropogenic habitat disturbance need to be examined (Palis and Jensen 1995).	eng
1099	distribution		Range includes the lower southeastern Coastal Plain of the United States from southern South Carolina southward to Marion County (north-central Florida) and disjunctly westward to the Apalachicola and Flint rivers (mid-Panhandle of Florida and northward) (Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Based on 37 occurrences, and assuming 4 square kilometers per occurrence (actual value is unknown), area of occupancy would be 148 square kilometers; area of occupancy likely is larger than this.	eng
1099	habitat		The following information pertains to the Ambystoma cingulatum/bishopi complex as a whole.<br/><br/>Post-larval individuals inhabit mesic longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)-wiregrass (Aristida stricta) flatwoods and savannas. The terrestrial habitat is best described as a topographically flat or slightly rolling wiregrass-dominated grassland having little to no midstory and an open overstory of widely scattered longleaf pine. Low-growing shrubs, such as saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra) and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), co-exist with grasses and forbs in the groundcover. Groundcover plant diversity is usually very high. The underlying soil is typically poorly drained sand that becomes seasonally inundated. <br/><br/>Slash pine flatwoods is often cited as the preferred terrestrial habitat of the flatwoods salamander (e.g., Conant and Collins 1991). This may be the result of an error made by Martof (1968) in which he referred to longleaf pine as slash pine (Pinus elliottii). In addition, slash pine now dominates or co-occurs with longleaf pine in many pine flatwoods communities as a result of fire suppression and preferential harvest of longleaf pine (Avers and Bracy 1975). Historically, however, fire-tolerant longleaf pine dominated the flatwoods, whereas slash pine was confined principally to wetlands (Harper 1914, Avers and Bracy 1975). Post-larval individuals are fossorial (live underground) and occupy burrows (Goin 1950, Neill 1951, Mount 1975, Ashton 1992). Presumably, they remain underground during the lightning-season (May through September). Adults are rarely encountered under cover objects at or near breeding sites (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in acidic (pH 3.6-5.6 (Palis, unpubl. data)), tannin-stained ephemeral wetlands (swamps or graminoid-dominated depressions) that range in size from 0.02 to 9.5 ha, and are usually not more than 0.5 m deep (Palis, unpubl. data). The overstory is typically dominated by pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) and slash pine, but can also include red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus). Canopy coverage ranges from near zero to almost 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The midstory, which is often very dense, is most often composed of young of the aforementioned species, myrtle-leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia), Chapman's St. John's-wort (Hypericum chapmanii), sandweed (Hypericum fasciculatum), titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), storax (Styrax americana), popash (Fraxinus caroliniana), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), vine-wicky (Pieris phillyreifolia), and bamboo-vine (Smilax laurifolia). Depending on closure of the canopy and midstory, the herbaceous groundcover of breeding sites can range from about 5% to nearly 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The groundcover is dominated by graminaceous species, including beakrushes (Rhynchospora spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), panic grasses (Panicum spp.), bluestems (Andropogon spp.), jointtails (Manisurus spp.), three-awned grass (Aristida affinis), plumegrass (Erianthus giganteus), nutrush (Sclera baldwinii) and yellow-eyed grasses (Xyris spp.). The floor of breeding sites is riddled with the burrows of crayfish (genus Procambarus). Breeding sites are typically encircled by a wiregrass-dominated graminaceous ecotone. Breeding sites can include roadside ditches (Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, pers. obs.) and borrow pits (D. Stevenson, pers. comm.). Breeding sites often harbor fishes, the most typical species include pygmy sunfishes (Elassoma spp.), mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrookii), and banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) (Palis, unpubl. data). Favorable breeding habitat lacks large predatory fishes. <br/><br/>Before breeding sites fill with water, eggs are deposited singly or in small groups on the ground beneath leaf litter, under logs and Sphagnum mats, at the base of grasses, shrubs or trees, or at the entrance to crayfish burrows (Anderson and Williamson 1976). In wetlands that fill incrementally, eggs are deposited amid graminaceous vegetation at the edge (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Egg deposition in shallow water also has been reported (Ashton 1992). Larvae hide amid inundated graminaceous vegetation by day, but will enter the water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.).	eng
1099	population		Surveys completed since 1990 indicate that 37 populations are known from across the historical range, with 6 in Georgia, 3 in South Carolina, and the remainder in Florida (USFWS 2005).<br/><br/>Secretive habits of adults make population estimates difficult. Total adult population size likely is at least several thousand, but actual number is unknown.<br/><br/>During extensive surveys of historical (pre-1990) breeding ponds, researchers recorded the species at only a small minority of formerly inhabited sites. The salamander has lost much of its former habitat in Georgia and South Carolina. Currently, the species presumably is declining in concert with continued loss of remaining intact pine flatwoods community (particularly degradation of groundcover). The rate of decline is unknown.	eng
1099	threats		Potential threats include conversion of pine flatwoods habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial/residential development; drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fishes) of breeding ponds; habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire; mortality and collecting losses associated with crayfish harvest; and highway mortality during migration.  <br/><br/>The principal threat is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture, silviculture, and residential and commercial development. Modern silvicultural methods rely on altering soil hydrology, suppressing fire, shortening timber rotations, and replacing widely-spaced longleaf pine with dense plantations of slash pine. Loss of groundcover vegetation due to mechanical soil preparation, fire suppression, and shading by overstories of slash pine have been implicated in the decline in north Florida (Means et al. 1994, 1996).<br/><br/>Larvae are threatened in some wetlands by the harvest of crayfish as bait. Bait harvesters drag large hardware cloth buckets through inundated vegetation, dump the contents of the bucket on the ground, and then sort out the crayfish. Flatwoods salamander larvae taken in this manner are left to die or are collected as bait (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>The effect of herbicide or fertilization application on flatwoods salamanders is unknown. However, fertilization of plantations often results in eutrophication of wetlands, promoting algal blooms. Larval flatwoods salamanders have not been observed in algal-choked wetlands (J. Palis, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Ditching or berming of small, isolated pond-cypress wetlands, a common practice when establishing slash pine plantations on mesic sites, results in lowered water levels and shortened hydroperiods (Marois and Ewel 1983). These hydrologic perturbations could prevent successful flatwoods salamander reproduction by preventing egg inundation or stranding larvae before they are capable of metamorphosis. Altered hydrology, in association with fire exclusion, results in a shift in dominance from pond-cypress to broad-leaved hardwoods that reduce herbaceous groundcover vegetation through shading (Marois and Ewel 1983). This may be detrimental since A. cingulatum larvae take shelter in herbaceous vegetation during the day.<br/><br/>Ephemeral pond-cypress depressions are sometimes converted into permanent water bodies, rendering them unsuitable for flatwoods salamander reproduction (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>A constant winter-burn fire plan could be detrimental (Ashton 1992). <br/><br/>See USFWS (1999) for additional information.	eng
1137	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitats.	eng
1137	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This bat occurs from Amazonian Brazil, Guianas, Panama, Venezuela, Trinidad, Bonaire Isl (Netherlands Antilles)(Simmons 2005). In Venezuela, the species occurs from lowlands to 2,100 m, but in Venezuela most have been taken below 1,500 m (Handley, 1976).	eng
1137	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Ecology and habits are poorly known; usually found in lowland, evergreen forest near streams or moist areas, occasionally in clearings, second growth, or deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). They are frugivores. Occasionally can feed on nectar.	eng
1137	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Relatively common and patchily distributed. Can be locally common.	eng
1137	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species range.	eng
1140	conservation	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
1140	distribution	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known only from a few records in Somalia and eastern Ethiopia.	eng
1140	habitat	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in open, dry short grassland and also in areas with scattered shrubs. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
1140	population	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Historical records suggest that this species may be uncommon.	eng
1140	threats	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The habitat of this species is threatened by severe overgrazing by domestic goats, sheep and cattle.	eng
1141	conservation	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y. & Amir, O.G., 2008	There are no protected areas within its range. Establishment of a captive- breeding population has been proposed. There is urgency in initiating conservation action in those parts of its range where this is feasible, e.g., the southern Ogaden. Negative factors continue to impact on the species and its status is likely to deteriorate unless these can be mitigated.	eng
1141	distribution	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Endemic to the Ogaden region of SE Ethiopia and adjoining areas of N and C Somalia.<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, dibatag formerly occurred widely in the vast plains of the Ogaden region in the eastern lowlands. An extensive ground survey revealed that the dibatag is now rare or absent in the northern Ogaden but still occurs locally within a reasonably large area in the southern Ogaden, where it appears to be quite common in some localities (Wilhelmi 1997). In contrast to the northern Ogaden, which has a relatively high density of settlements and concentrations of armed pastoralists and their herds, the southern Ogaden has lower human densities and extensive areas where the natural flora and fauna appear to be largely intact.<br/><br/>It once occurred widely in central Somalia and on the Haud Plateau. By the early 1980s it had disappeared from large parts of its former range but still occurred locally in reasonable numbers in parts of the central coastal hinterland. Local people indicated that it was still present in this region in the late 1980s, but no more recent information is available. This area has been affected by 20 years of civil and military conflict as well as drought and overgrazing and its status is widely considered to have deteriorated, along with that of other antelope species such as <em>Nanger soemmerringii</em> and <em>Oryx beisa</em> that are easier to monitor (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
1141	habitat	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Dibatag inhabit semi-arid, dense to scattered bush, low- to medium-height thornbush savanna and plains with thicket/grassland mosaics. They prefer sandy to moderately gravelled, ferrous oxide rich red soils, characterized by numerous termite mounds (Wilhelmi, in press). Their altitudinal range is approximately 200 to 1,200 m (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
1141	population	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Based on the results of Scott’s expedition in 1959, the population size was estimated at approximately 12,000 individuals with an average density of one animal per km² (Schomber 1966). After three decades of political unrest and armed conflicts a cautious estimate assumed a total population in the very low thousands (East 1999).<br/><br/>The results of recent field surveys in the Ogaden region are better than expected and the finding that this species still occurs in a large area is encouraging. Estimates based on observations and counts suggest a population of about 1,500 in the Ogaden (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006). The total surviving population of the Dibatag is unknown, but is clearly not large. Assuming a total remaining range of 10,000 km² and an average population density of 0.1 to 0.3 per km² would suggest a total population in the low thousands. Since Dibatag are very secretive, it is likely that more accurate and even higher population estimates will be found, once thorough field work is possible.	eng
1141	threats	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Drought and habitat degradation due to overgrazing affect the whole range. In Somalia, extreme political instability and periodic civil and military conflicts over the past 20 years (and continuing), and lack of any central government control have resulted in a prevalence of weapons, over-exploitation of wildlife, and lack of protection for wildlife. Uncontrolled exploitation of trees and scrub for charcoal, exported in huge quantities to the Gulf states is likely to be negatively affecting the habitat.<br/><br/>Hunting is also a factor in Ethiopia, but the dibatag’s alertness and the difficulty in hunting it in dense bush have enabled it to survive locally in viable numbers. Local people consider that it is very shy and more alert than any other antelope species, and that it is almost impossible to hunt dibatag intentionally, even though its meat is preferred because of its excellent taste.	eng
1149	conservation	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The species is currently listed as Threatened by the California Fish and Game Commission and it is a federal C2 candidate taxon. <br/><br/>Significant populations occur on the Carrizo Plain National Monument (encompasses most of the Carrizo Plain and Elkhorn Plain). The national monument designation applies only to public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management. Existing private lands within the monument boundaries are not affected by the designation. The overall Carrizo Plain, which includes some state owned land, will continue to be jointly managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the California Department of Fish and Game, and The Nature Conservancy. <br/><br/>Small populations are also found within two preserves in Kern County owned by The Nature Conservancy, and two reserves owned by the California Department of Fish and Game (in Kern County and Tulare County). See California Department of Fish and Game (1990) for brief comments on protected areas inhabited by this species (e.g., Elkhorn Plain Ecological Preserve, Carrizo Plain, and others).<br/><br/>The California Department of Fish and Game is involved in several conservation efforts, including the Metropolitan Bakersfield Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP), the California Department of Corrections Electric Fence HCP, the Coles Levee area 2081 Agreement, and the Arco Western Energy HCP.<br/><br/>Acquisition and protection of lands with extant populations of antelope squirrels in the Panoche and Kettleman Hills and on the San Joaquin Valley floor should be the highest priority for this species (Harris and Stearns 1991). Also need to determine the population density for the range of habitats occupied; additional inventories are needed, mostly on private land, and also to monitor populations, and obtain data on demography, dispersal, and reproduction.<br/><br/>USFWS (1998) stated that the actions required to conserve the San Joaquin antelope squirrel, in approximate order of importance, are: 1. Determine habitat management prescriptions on the southern San Joaquin Valley floor. 2. Inventory potential habitat in the Allensworth, Semitropic Ridge, and Kettleman Hills natural areas, and along the western edge of the Valley between Pleasant Valley, Fresno County, and McKittrick Valley-Lokern Area, Kern County. 3. Protect additional habitat in the Pixley National Wildlife Refuge-Allensworth Natural Area. 4. Develop and implement a population monitoring program at sites representative of their existing geographic range. 5. Protect additional habitat in the Panoche Region of western Fresno and eastern San Benito Counties. 6. Protect additional habitat in western Kern County. 7. Protect additional habitat in the Semitropic Ridge Natural Area. 8. Reevaluate the status of San Joaquin antelope squirrels within three years of recovery plan approval.<br/><br/>Management Requirements: Protect habitat from overgrazing and loss of shrub cover; maintain sparse shrub cover and associated species; avoid unnecessary rodenticide use. Care should be taken not to destroy burrows near man-made structures in previously disturbed sites (Biosystems Analysis 1989).	eng
1149	distribution	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The species' range is restricted to the central and western San Joaquin Valley and neighbouring areas to the west in the inner Coast Ranges of California in the United States (e.g., Cuyama Valley, Panoche Valley, Carrizo Plain, Elkhorn Plain) (Best <em>et al.</em> 1990). Its elevational range extends from about 50 m asl on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley to around 1,100 m asl in the Temblor Range, but antelope squirrels are not common above about 800 m asl on the ridges and plains west of the San Joaquin Valley proper (Williams 1980; D.F. Williams, unpubl. data). Populations now exist primarily in marginal habitats of low foothills and mountains on the western edge of the San Joaquin Valley; significant populations occur only in western Kern County at Elk Hills and on portions of the Carrizo and Elkhorn plains. In the northern part of the range, low density populations occur in the Panoche and Kettleman hills (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Harris and Stearns 1991).	eng
1149	habitat	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Habitat consists of dry flat or rolling terrain, with slopes less than 10-14 degrees, on alluvial and loamy soils, soils with sandy or gravelly texture, or fine-grained soils that are nearly brick-hard when dry. The species inhabits grassy, sparsely shrubby ground (shrubs include saltbush, ephedra, bladder pod, goldenbush, snakeweed, etc.); it also occurs in areas lacking shrubs where giant kangaroo rats are present. <br/><br/>Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) xerophytic stage of alkali desert scrub with shrubs sparsely distributed and with friable soils, at elevations greater than 4,000 feet, (2) annual grassland with less than six inches annual precipitation, friable soils, and abundance of <em>Dipodomys ingens</em>, (3) halophytic stage of alkali desert scrub with shrubs sparsely distributed and with friable soils, at elevations above 2,200 feet, and (4) annual grassland with 7-9 inches annual precipitation and abundance of <em>Dipodomys heermanni</em>. Habitats that are avoided included valley floor areas of alkaline soils, iodine bush, and spring saltbush, probably due to high water tables (Biosystems Analysis 1989). See also Best <em>et al.</em> (1990) for habitat synopsis. These squirrels seldom dig their own burrows; most often they use burrows made by other small mammals. Preferred burrow locations are under shrubs, in the banks of arroyos at the base of alluvial fans, and along roadcuts, pipelines, and drilling platforms (Biosystems Analysis 1989).<br/><br/>Breeding season coincides with availability of green vegetation. Young are born in March, first seen above ground about the first week of April, at which time they gather food. Gestation lasts 26 days. One breeding season per year. Litter size is 6-12 (average nine). May live five plus years, though usual life span is less than one year.<br/><br/>Half of the remaining habitat supports fewer than one animal per hectare, 15% of the remaining habitat supports 3-10 animals per hectare (generally four or fewer per hectare, California Department of Fish and Game 1990). <Spermophilus beecheyi</em>  reportedly may restrict the range of <em>A. nelsoni</em> (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1990). Among several predators, badger is most important. Lives in small groups.<br/><br/>It is omnivorous, and the diet is mainly green vegetation, grass and forb seeds, and insects. It feeds on insects during the dry season, from mid-April to December. Green vegetation is important December-April. Generally stays underground when air temperature is less than 10C (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Little activity in hot weather, when most active in morning and late afternoon. No evidence of hibernation or aestivation, yet reported to become fat in late spring and disappear during hot months (Best <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
1149	population	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The total population size is unknown. Based on 3-10 squirrels per hectare on 41,300 hectares of the best remaining habitat (Williams 1980), population size would be at least 124,000-413,000. The species is common within the Carrizo Plain National Monument.<br/><br/>This species is represented by several dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. It occurs at scattered sites in low density throughout much of the historical range. Moderate efforts have been made at locating populations.<br/><br/>The current trend is not well known but, since 1979, populations have disappeared from many of the smaller habitat clusters on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley (Williams 1980, USFWS 1998). However, recent protection efforts in the southwestern San Joaquin Valley likely have slowed the rate of decline, and the species remains common in some protected areas. Probably the rate of decline is less than 30% over the past 10 years.<br/><br/>Prior to cultivation, the area within which this species was distributed was approximately 3.5 million acres (about 14,000 square kilometres = historical extent of occurrence). The species is presently extant in less than 20% of its former range. In 1979, extant, uncultivated habitat (but including land occupied by towns, roads, canals, pipelines, strip mines, airports, oil wells, and other developments) for the species was estimated at 275,200 hectares (680,000 acres, 2,752 sqkm) (Williams 1980). None of the best historical habitat remained. <br/><br/>One study indicated that densities in open Ephedra plots and shrubless plots ranged from 0.8 to 8.0 squirrels per hectare, but all but two sites had densities of four or less per hectare.  Densities on shrubless, grassy dominated sites were equal to or higher than those on shrubby sites (Harris and Stearns, 1991).	eng
1149	threats	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The decline is a result of loss of habitat due to agricultural and urban development as well as oil and gas exploration practices. Primary existing threats include loss of habitat due to agricultural development, urbanization, and petroleum extraction, and the use of rodenticides for ground squirrel control. Overgrazing and associated loss of shrub cover is a concern in some areas. These threats will be alleviated by the implementation of the San Joaquin Endangered Species Recovery Plan.	eng
1151	conservation	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	Algeria<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Algeria:  Belezma, Tassili n?Ajjer, and Ahaggar National Parks, and in Djebel Aissa State Forest (De Smet 1997).<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) Establishing more reserves in the north if the species is to survive in the Saharan Atlas range; 2) Reintroducing Aoudad into Djelfa Hunting Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1974) located in the Haut Plateau (34°40?N, 3°15'E), and into Tlemcen Hunting Reserve (400 ha) in north-west Algeria between Oran and Oujda (34°52'N, l°15'E). <br/><br/>Chad<br/><br/>In Chad, Aoudad are present in the Fada-Archei Faunal Reserve (La Reserve de Faune de Fada Archei) in north-eastern Chad. This was established to preserve Aoudad and other desert species in 1967. Unfortunately, conditions have been difficult in this region since 1972, as a result of political instability and the conflict with Libya. Poaching in the reserve probably takes place and there are military personnel stationed at the nearby town of Fada (Mekonlaou and Daboulaye 1997). <br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) carrying out surveys in the Tibesti and Ennedi mountains, and elsewhere to determine current numbers and actual distributions; 2) consider establishing a protected area, preferably a national park or at least a faunal reserve, in the Tibesti mountains; and 3) improve the levels of protection, especially anti-poaching efforts, staffing and support for Fada-Archei Fauna1 Reserve, as with other protected areas in the country.<br/><br/>Egypt<br/><br/>Aoudad have recently been confirmed as occurring in Gebel Elba Conservation Area (48,000 ha; est. 1986). Assiut University Protected Area was originally set aside in the 1930s to protect Aoudad, but there are no recent reports of the species? presence (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) survey areas previously known to be inhabited by the species; and 2) evaluate the habitat along with the potential for re-introductions.<br/><br/>Libya<br/><br/>It is not known whether Aoudad are protected by law. The species was introduced into Tripoli Nature Reserve (870 ha; est. 1978). It may also occur in Jabel Nefhusa Nature Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1978) in northern Libya in the Jebel Tarabulus range of the Jebel Nefhusa mountains (Tripolitania Region 32°N, 12°50'E), although this reserve does not appear to fall within the suspected distribution of the species (Shackleton and De Smet 1997).  There are captive populations in Sabratha, Surman and the Zoological Garden of Tripoli (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). The latter definitely belongs to the subspecies <em>A. l. fassini</em>.<br/><br/>A population survey is needed to determine the current distribution and status of Aoudad in Libya.<br/><br/>Mali<br/><br/>Aoudad receive no protection nor occur in any protected areas in Mali (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include: 1) conduct censuses and surveys to determine population numbers and distribution within the Adrar des Iforas; and 2) consider the feasibility of establishing a protected area for Aoudad in this region. <br/><br/>Mauritania<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in one protected area in Adrar Mouflon Partial Faunal Reserve (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include censuses to determine current numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>Morocco<br/><br/>Since 1958, the annual ministerial order regulating hunting has severely restricted taking Aoudad. For example, in 1961 the species could be hunted for only three days, and only one day in 1966. Since 1966, the species is fully and permanently protected. Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Morocco, including Eastern High Atlas National Park, Toubkal National Park, and the adjacent Takherkhort Hunting Reserve (1,230 ha). The latter, situated in the western High Atlas mountains, was established in 1967 to preserve the species. Although around 350 to 475 animals occupy the hunting reserve (Mokhtari 2006), grazing by livestock is a serious threat. Animals from the reserve have been used for re-introductions to other areas, including Sochatour?s Tiradine Hunting Reserve. The native vegetation is evergreen oak forest, and the Aoudad is reported to be reproducing, and numbered around 70 animals in 1990. Aoudad also inhabit a number of other hunting reserves, most of which are so small that they are occupied only seasonally and have little significance for conservation of the species (Aulagnier and Thevenot 1997). <br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine the status and distribution of Aoudad in Morocco; 2) Increasing the number of protected areas. Among the most valuable and interesting natural places where Aoudad need protection, three or four national parks or permanent reserves can be proposed: Jbel Grouz and Jbel Maiz (arid hills near Figuig), Jbel Bou Iblane or Jbel Bou Nasser (eastern Middle Atlas), and some areas of rocky argan bush in the Anti-Atlas (between Igherm and Tata); and 3) Hunting and grazing should be strictly forbidden in protected areas.<br/><br/>Niger<br/><br/>All hunting has been banned since 1964 and though this law is enforced by the Nigerien Forest Service, the vast range occupied by the Aoudad, together with manpower limitations and political unrest, limit the effectiveness of anti-poaching efforts. Aoudad only occur in one protected area in Niger, in the vast Reserve Naturelle Nationale de L?Air et du Tenere, in north-central Niger. Created in January 1988, the reserve covers 7,737,000 ha of Saharan desert and Sahara-montane habitat. The reserve may harbor as much as 70% of the total population of Aoudad in Niger (Magin and Newby 1997)<br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Aoudad fall under Schedule II as a protected species, though up to two can be shot by anyone with a class A or D license. None occur in any protected area in the Sudan (Nimir 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) move Aoudad to Schedule I so that it is completely protected; and 2) re-introduction of Aoudad to remaining areas and habitats which are suitable.<br/><br/>Tunisia<br/><br/>In Tunisia, Aoudad has been protected by law since 1966. A re-introduction of Aoudad into the Djebel Chambi National Park began in 1987, when ten animals, originally from Kasserine, were released into a one ha enclosure for later release into the rest of the park. Some of these animals escaped in 1988, and the wild population now numbers 100 animals (DGF 2005). A few animals are held in captivity in the Djebel Bou Hedma National Park, in the Bou Hedma ranges of the Atlas Saharien. Animals are also believed to occur in the proposed Dghoumes National Park (De Smet 1997), and the species was also released in the Oued Dekouk Nature Reserve, south of Tataouine.<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) ensuring the establishment of the new desert national park 50 km east of Tozeur at Dghoumes (this area and the rest of the mountain chain north of the Chott El Fedjadj and Chott El Djerid, are considered good Aoudad habitat); and 2) reconsider the suggestion to release Aoudad into Sidi Toui National Park because the topography is probably too flat to be suitable for them.<br/><br/>Western Sahara<br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine whether or not this species surivives in Western Sahara, and if so, to ascertain its status and distribution; 2) Establishing a protected area for the species if there is a surviving population (for example, in Oued Ed Dahab Province); and 3) Strict control of hunting and of grazing where this species survives.	eng
1151	conservation	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	Algeria<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Algeria:  Belezma, Tassili n’Ajjer, and Ahaggar National Parks, and in Djebel Aissa State Forest (De Smet 1997).<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) Establishing more reserves in the north if the species is to survive in the Saharan Atlas range; 2) Reintroducing Aoudad into Djelfa Hunting Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1974) located in the Haut Plateau (34°40’N, 3°15'E), and into Tlemcen Hunting Reserve (400 ha) in north-west Algeria between Oran and Oujda (34°52'N, l°15'E). <br/><br/>Chad<br/><br/>In Chad, Aoudad are present in the Fada-Archei Faunal Reserve (La Reserve de Faune de Fada Archei) in north-eastern Chad. This was established to preserve Aoudad and other desert species in 1967. Unfortunately, conditions have been difficult in this region since 1972, as a result of political instability and the conflict with Libya. Poaching in the reserve probably takes place and there are military personnel stationed at the nearby town of Fada (Mekonlaou and Daboulaye 1997). <br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) carrying out surveys in the Tibesti and Ennedi mountains, and elsewhere to determine current numbers and actual distributions; 2) consider establishing a protected area, preferably a national park or at least a faunal reserve, in the Tibesti mountains; and 3) improve the levels of protection, especially anti-poaching efforts, staffing and support for Fada-Archei Fauna1 Reserve, as with other protected areas in the country.<br/><br/>Egypt<br/><br/>Aoudad have recently been confirmed as occurring in Gebel Elba Conservation Area (48,000 ha; est. 1986). Assiut University Protected Area was originally set aside in the 1930s to protect Aoudad, but there are no recent reports of the species’ presence (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) survey areas previously known to be inhabited by the species; and 2) evaluate the habitat along with the potential for re-introductions.<br/><br/>Libya<br/><br/>It is not known whether Aoudad are protected by law. The species was introduced into Tripoli Nature Reserve (870 ha; est. 1978). It may also occur in Jabel Nefhusa Nature Reserve (20,000 ha; est. 1978) in northern Libya in the Jebel Tarabulus range of the Jebel Nefhusa mountains (Tripolitania Region 32°N, 12°50'E), although this reserve does not appear to fall within the suspected distribution of the species (Shackleton and De Smet 1997).  There are captive populations in Sabratha, Surman and the Zoological Garden of Tripoli (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). The latter definitely belongs to the subspecies <em>A. l. fassini</em>.<br/><br/>A population survey is needed to determine the current distribution and status of Aoudad in Libya.<br/><br/>Mali<br/><br/>Aoudad receive no protection nor occur in any protected areas in Mali (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include: 1) conduct censuses and surveys to determine population numbers and distribution within the Adrar des Iforas; and 2) consider the feasibility of establishing a protected area for Aoudad in this region. <br/><br/>Mauritania<br/><br/>Aoudad occur in one protected area in Adrar Mouflon Partial Faunal Reserve (Lamarche 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include censuses to determine current numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>Morocco<br/><br/>Since 1958, the annual ministerial order regulating hunting has severely restricted taking Aoudad. For example, in 1961 the species could be hunted for only three days, and only one day in 1966. Since 1966, the species is fully and permanently protected. Aoudad occur in four protected areas in Morocco, including Eastern High Atlas National Park, Toubkal National Park, and the adjacent Takherkhort Hunting Reserve (1,230 ha). The latter, situated in the western High Atlas mountains, was established in 1967 to preserve the species. Although around 350 to 475 animals occupy the hunting reserve (Mokhtari 2006), grazing by livestock is a serious threat. Animals from the reserve have been used for re-introductions to other areas, including Sochatour’s Tiradine Hunting Reserve. The native vegetation is evergreen oak forest, and the Aoudad is reported to be reproducing, and numbered around 70 animals in 1990. Aoudad also inhabit a number of other hunting reserves, most of which are so small that they are occupied only seasonally and have little significance for conservation of the species (Aulagnier and Thevenot 1997). <br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine the status and distribution of Aoudad in Morocco; 2) Increasing the number of protected areas. Among the most valuable and interesting natural places where Aoudad need protection, three or four national parks or permanent reserves can be proposed: Jbel Grouz and Jbel Maiz (arid hills near Figuig), Jbel Bou Iblane or Jbel Bou Nasser (eastern Middle Atlas), and some areas of rocky argan bush in the Anti-Atlas (between Igherm and Tata); and 3) Hunting and grazing should be strictly forbidden in protected areas.<br/><br/>Niger<br/><br/>All hunting has been banned since 1964 and though this law is enforced by the Nigerien Forest Service, the vast range occupied by the Aoudad, together with manpower limitations and political unrest, limit the effectiveness of anti-poaching efforts. Aoudad only occur in one protected area in Niger, in the vast Reserve Naturelle Nationale de L’Air et du Tenere, in north-central Niger. Created in January 1988, the reserve covers 7,737,000 ha of Saharan desert and Sahara-montane habitat. The reserve may harbor as much as 70% of the total population of Aoudad in Niger (Magin and Newby 1997)<br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Aoudad fall under Schedule II as a protected species, though up to two can be shot by anyone with a class A or D license. None occur in any protected area in the Sudan (Nimir 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include: 1) move Aoudad to Schedule I so that it is completely protected; and 2) re-introduction of Aoudad to remaining areas and habitats which are suitable.<br/><br/>Tunisia<br/><br/>In Tunisia, Aoudad has been protected by law since 1966. A re-introduction of Aoudad into the Djebel Chambi National Park began in 1987, when ten animals, originally from Kasserine, were released into a one ha enclosure for later release into the rest of the park. Some of these animals escaped in 1988, and the wild population now numbers 100 animals (DGF 2005). A few animals are held in captivity in the Djebel Bou Hedma National Park, in the Bou Hedma ranges of the Atlas Saharien. Animals are also believed to occur in the proposed Dghoumes National Park (De Smet 1997), and the species was also released in the Oued Dekouk Nature Reserve, south of Tataouine.<br/><br/>Priority conservation measures proposed include: 1) ensuring the establishment of the new desert national park 50 km east of Tozeur at Dghoumes (this area and the rest of the mountain chain north of the Chott El Fedjadj and Chott El Djerid, are considered good Aoudad habitat); and 2) reconsider the suggestion to release Aoudad into Sidi Toui National Park because the topography is probably too flat to be suitable for them.<br/><br/>Western Sahara<br/><br/>The most important conservation measures proposed include: 1) Surveys to determine whether or not this species surivives in Western Sahara, and if so, to ascertain its status and distribution; 2) Establishing a protected area for the species if there is a surviving population (for example, in Oued Ed Dahab Province); and 3) Strict control of hunting and of grazing where this species survives.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
1151	distribution	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	The Auodad was formerly widespread in rugged and mountainous terrain from deserts and semi-deserts to open forests in North Africa, but has suffered a strong decline due to poaching and competition from domestic stock. The ranges of the six supposed subspecies can be summarized as follows (following Cassinello in press, and references therein):<br/><br/><em>Ammotragus lervia lervia</em> (Atlas Aoudad) occurs in the mountains of Morocco, except the western half of the Rif, and in northern Algeria and northern Tunisia.<br/><br/><em>A. l. ornata</em> (Egyptian Aoudad) was formerly quite widespread throughout the Eastern and Western Desert of Egypt and was actually thought extinct (see Amer 1997). However, Wacher <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported evidence of the presence of Aoudad in both the Elba Protected Area and the Western Desert between 1997 and 2000 (and see Manlius <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>A. l. blainei</em> (Kordofan Aoudad) were once relatively widespread from west Sudan to the Red Sea coast, but currently are probably restricted to the Red Sea hills of east Sudan (Nimir 1997). Contrary to Mekonlau and Daboulaye (1997), this is the subspecies that may occur in the Ennedi and Uweinat mountains in northeast Chad (Alados <em>et al</em>. 1988). It may also be present in southeastern Libya.<br/><br/><em>A. l. fassini</em> (Libyan Aoudad) is found only in extreme southern Tunisia and in Libya.<br/><br/><em>A. l. angusi</em> (Aïr Aoudad) inhabit the Aïr Massif (Niger) and Termit Massif (Niger).<br/><br/><em>A. l. sahariensis</em> (Saharan Aoudad) has the largest range of the subspecies, including southern Morocco and Western Sahara, southern Algeria, south-west Libya, Sudan, the mountains of the Adrar de Iforas in Mali, Niger, Mauritania, and the Tibesti Massif. There were no reliable reports of the species in the Western Sahara since the surveys of Valverde (1957), but the possibility of their survival in the Oued El Dahab was noted by Aulagnier and Thévenot (1997), and the species was recently rediscovered in this country (Cuzin 2003; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>Auodad have been introduced into the United States, northern Mexico, Spain (mainland and the Canary Islands (La Palma)) (Gray and Simpson 1980; Grubb 2005). These introduced populations are not mapped.<br/><br/>The species occurs from 200 to 4,100 m asl (Cuzin 2003).	eng
1151	habitat	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	Aoudads tend to inhabit rocky and often precipitous areas, from near sea level up to snow-free areas at about 4,100 m (such as the Moroccan Atlas). They also require rocks or sparse tree cover for shade, and might wander far from water sources for long periods of time. This species is a generalist herbivore combining grazing with browsing, and can survive without drinking water for long periods (even years), eating succulent forbs. They probably make small migratory movements in relation to food availability (Cassinello in press).	eng
1151	population	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	There are no total estimates of population size, but overall indications are that the population is in the order of 5,000-10,000 individuals.<br/><br/>The total population in Morocco is estimated to be between 800 and 2,000 animals (Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press), and there are several thousand animals in Algeria. Low numbers survive in Chad, Mauritania and Adrar des Iforas in Mali; there are no estimates in Libya, Western Sahara, or Tunisia. In Niger, estimates are available for the Air and Tenere National Nature Reserve (3,500 animals) and outside the reserve (700). These populations in the Air mountains appear to be increasing, but for the country as a whole the population trend is overall downward. There are no population estimates available for Sudan, but the species is generally regarded as very rare and almost certainly declining (Shackleton 1997; and references therein). Once regarded as extinct, Aoudads seem to be locally numerous in the Eastern and Western Deserts of Egypt (M.A. Saleh, in Cassinello in press).	eng
1151	threats	Cassinello, J., Cuzin, F., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I. & de Smet, K., 2008	The major threats across the range include poaching and habitat destruction, mainly from livestock grazing, fuelwood collection, and from drought and desertification. In the Western Sahara, hunting by soldiers has been a serious threat, and here the species might already be extinct (Valverde 1968). The decline of Egyptian Barbary Sheep has no doubt been accelerated by competition with livestock and feral camels. The availability and distribution of waterholes would likely be a major factor in the condition of populations, and both may fluctuate from year to year.	eng
1154	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	The most important coservation issue is the protection of the caves where these species occur.	eng
1154	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Western Peru, western Ecuador, Puna Island (Ecuador), northern Chile (Simmons 2005). Limited to coastal zone. Species distribution is limited, but it is not much known.	eng
1154	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in forests, arid regions and in cultivated areas; caves and abandoned buildings. <em>A. schnablii</em> mainly eat moths and butterflies (Blessing 2002). It likes big roosts (Solari pers. comm.).	eng
1154	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in small groups up to 300 individuals (Blessing 2002). Found in 3 sites (2 reduced population, 1 colony) (Solari,  pers. comm.).	eng
1154	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Severe population reduction was observed in two to three places of occurrence.	eng
1169	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to determine extent of occurrence, biology, population density and trends, and possible threats to the species. This is especially important because of isolated taxonomic status. Describing unnamed species is a high priority.	eng
1169	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Highlands of Chiapas (El Rayón) south to Comayagua province in Honduras. Described from 'Colombia' but never collected in the intermediate areas of Panama and Costa Rica which are fairly well known.	eng
1169	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Small forested highland streams with moderate current. Larvae found among tangles of leaf trash at the lip of small waterfalls in Guatemala.	eng
1169	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
1169	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation along highland streams for coffee groves and cattle ranching is the main threat to the species.	eng
1181	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
1181	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
1190	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	The lake is closed for fishing for five months every year and seven no-fishing protected bay areas were set up, providing feeding grounds for a part of the fish population in the lake.	eng
1190	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	Endemic to Lake Dianchi and possibly in Songhuaba reservior, Yunnan Province, China.	eng
1190	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	It lives in the middle and upper layers of waters and feeds mainly on aquatic  insects, plankton and fragments of plants. It turns sexually mature after one  winter and lays sticky eggs. The reproduction season is in March, earlier than  <em>Anabarilius alburnops</em>.	eng
1190	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	It is now difficult to catch the species at Dianchi Lake and population size is unknown	eng
1190	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	Its decline in the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, decreasing water quality, the loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing and the loss of breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.	eng
1199	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
1199	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	An endemic fish to the Iberic Peninsula. Most of the distribution is within Spain and some in Portugal (Guadiana river basin) (extent of occurrence <5,000 km²).	eng
1199	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species lives most of the time in small intermittent streams of the Guadiana River basin with high dissolved oxygen concentrations, coarse substratum, shallow depth and water temperature below 25°C. It is a short-lived species (maximum three years old) achieving a small size (< 60 mm). Reproduction takes place in April–May. It is a species with limited dispersal. (Doadrio 2001).	eng
1199	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Very fragmented, declining 50% in the last 10 years (Doadrio 2001).	eng
1199	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Alteration of habitat, reduced flow regime due to water extraction, and river regulation (dams), pollution and introduced species.	eng
1256	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No specific measures known but probably benefits from general conservation measures implemented for Lake Tanganyika.	eng
1256	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on all shores. Locality information in West <em>et al.</em> (2003).	eng
1256	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is confined to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites in moderate to deep waters (5-100 m).	eng
1256	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
1256	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	There is a possible threat from sedimentation in Tanzania. It thrives up to 100 m deep, a level least influenced by most wetland threats like pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
1257	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
1257	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is known only from type locality in Lake Tanganyika, it is known from two empty shells. No locality information in West <em>et al.</em> (2003). Recent survey work has failed to find this species. The map cannot be plotted due to a lack of distribution information.	eng
1257	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
1257	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
1257	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	There is a possible threat from sedimentation in Tanzania due to deforestation in the surrounding terrestrial environments.	eng
1258	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
1258	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers (< 800 m asl).	eng
1258	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
1259	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
1259	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers (<800 m asl).	eng
1259	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
1262	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	Changes in agricultural practices within the region have resulted in increased water abstraction and pollution of the lake with agro-chemicals (Birdlife 2009). Education and training are required to change farming practices and protect water quality. The lake is also an IBA (ET004).	eng
1262	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Lake Ashangi (surface: ca. 20 - 27 km²), Ethiopia.	eng
1262	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	"The lake and its surrounding area occupy an old volcanic crater between the Ambalagie range to the north and the Alamata mountains to the south. The altitude at the lake is 2,400 m while the mountains to the north rise to over 3,000 m. The lake is fed by a number of small streams from the surrounding areas, and as far as is known there is no drainage out of it. [...]The lake has a surface area around 14,000 ha [140 km<sup>2</sup>], a mean depth of c.14 m and a maximum depth of 25.5 m. The water is slightly saline." (Birdlife 2009).&#160; However, most sources site the surface area of the lake as 20 km<sup>2</sup> (e.g. Vanden Bossch and Bernacsek).	eng
1262	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
1262	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	There is declining ground water level due to water extraction for agriculture (Alemayehu 2006). Lake Ashenge is a closed ecosystem. Recent efforts to increase crop production through the use of high-yielding varieties, which require high doses of fertilizers and pesticides, have targeted Ofla Woreda, as its main crops, maize and wheat, respond well to such a system. The resulting accumulation of chemical residues in the lake could have a serious negative impact on the productivity of this wetland. Thus, appropriate monitoring schemes should be initiated to track the situation closely (Birdlife 2009).	eng
1263	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
1263	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to small streams of the districts of Jimma and Lekemti and near Dilla and near Lake Langano (Ethiopia).	eng
1263	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is found in small streams in highlands.	eng
1263	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
1263	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
1264	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in one protecetd area.	eng
1264	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in north central Argentina from Catamarca province south to San Luis province (Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997), and in the vicinity of Catamarca Province, west bank Río Amanao, considering the type locality of A. roigi  (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
1264	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Species at type locality was taken from semiarid thorn scrub bordering saline flats, a narrow ecotone between the Chaco and Monte extending from Catamarca to Rio Negro provinces (Mares and Braun 1996).	eng
1264	population	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is cosidered a rare species.	eng
1264	threats	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
1265	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G, 2008	It has been recorded from at least four protected areas in Bolivia and at least 3 in Paraguay. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
1265	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G, 2008	This species occurs in the Chaco of west Paraguay and southeast Bolivia (Santa Cruz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs at elevations up to 400 m.	eng
1265	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G, 2008	This mouse inhabits dry grasslands that occur as islands in the Chaco of western Paraguay and southeastern Bolivia. The surrounding thorn scrub is inhabited by <em>Graomys griseoflavus</em> (see Myers, 1977; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats. It has been studied as part of disease control measures.	eng
1265	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G, 2008	The abundance of this species is not known, but it is thought not to be common.	eng
1265	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The habitat that the species has been recorded from is largely undisturbed.	eng
1271	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B, Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Jayat. J.P., 2008	It is known from one protected area in Peru and possibly two protected areas in Bolivia and in several in Argentina.	eng
1271	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B, Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Jayat. J.P., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of extreme south Peru (Puno Department) and north Chile (Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Spotorno, 1976), through west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), to northwest Argentina (Jujuy to Catamarca Provinces; Díaz and Barquez, 1999; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1997; Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005).  This is a high-altitude rodent, having been caught at between 1,500 and 5,100 m, with most localities above 3,000 m.	eng
1271	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B, Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Jayat. J.P., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that may be scansorial as well. In Peru it has been recorded from Polylepis woodland and high Andean areas with trees and high shrubs. In Bolivia it has been recorded from Puna grassland and shrubland. Throughout this range it appears to be found mainly in dense vegetation along water courses, although it has also been trapped in rocky terrain (Fonollat, 1984; Orlog, 1979; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It has not been recorded from the most arid parts of the Altiplano. Around Lake Titicaca it has been recorded in cultivated areas with trees (H. Zeballos pers. comm.). In southern Peru, one female was trapped with three embryos (Pearson, 1951).	eng
1271	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B, Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Jayat. J.P., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
1271	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B, Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Jayat. J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
1272	conservation		In China, this species is listed as a Class II state major protected wildlife species. It occurs, or at least used to occur, in many nature reserves within its range, and some nature reserves even use the species as their main conservation target, such as Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander Nature Reserve. Captive rearing of animals has achieved some success, but these projects are mainly to meet the market demand. It is not clear whether or not animals are actually being bred in captivity. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
1272	distribution		The largest of all amphibian species (sometimes growing to more than one metre in length) this species is widespread in central, south-western and southern China, although its range is now very fragmented. It occurs from 100-1,500m asl. Records of the species in Taiwan, Province of China, might be the result of introductions.	eng
1272	habitat		It lives and breeds in large hill streams, usually in forested areas. Females lay approximately 500 eggs in a string in an underwater burrow or cavity that is occupied by a male. Eggs are fertilized externally and are guarded by the male until they hatch after 50-60 days. Larvae then develop in the streams, taking food after about 30 days (Haker 1997).	eng
1272	population		This species was once reasonably common but has declined catastrophically over the last 30 years, principally due to over-exploitation, and it is now very rare, with few surviving populations known.	eng
1272	threats		Commercial over-exploitation for human consumption is the main threat to this species. It has also suffered from habitat destruction (e.g., from the construction of dams) and habitat degradation (e.g., water pollution from mines). Although there is commercial farming of this species, the vast majority of Chinese Giant Salamanders being traded are believed to originate from the wild.	eng
1273	conservation		It has been designated as a special natural monument in Japan and is totally protected, and its habitats are protected in some areas. Asa Zoo has been breeding this species in captivity since 1979 (although no re-introductions have been performed), and it also rescues individuals from degraded habitats. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
1273	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan and is distributed in western Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu.	eng
1273	habitat		It lives and breeds in small to large rivers, preferring clear water, usually in forested areas. It has occasionally been found in rivers in urban areas. The adults can tolerate a wide variety of habitats, but are not necessarily able to breed in these habitats. Females lay their eggs in a string underwater and the larvae then develop in the streams. It is estimated to take at least five years for the young to reach maturity.	eng
1273	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
1273	threats		This species is threatened by dam construction, the construction of artificial concrete riverbanks, and the alteration of river courses. Suitable habitats are therefore becoming increasingly fragmented. It might also be facing competition from the introduced Chinese Giant Salamander (<em>Andrias davidianus</em>). Genetic uniformity in this species is high, which increases its vulnerability to threatening processes.	eng
1282	conservation		To assist its conservation, better information on its current status is needed, as is information on the threats that it faces. The extent to which logging of old growth forest has reduced gene flow among rock outcrop populations should be studied (Petranka 1998), and whenever feasible a forested buffer of at least 100m should be left around occupied rock outcrops (Petranka 1998).	eng
1282	distribution		This species can be found from 140-1,350m asl in the Appalachian region, USA. Its range therefore includes extreme south-western Pennsylvania, extreme western Maryland, and southern Ohio to northern Alabama and extreme north-eastern Mississippi, with a disjunctive area in south-western North Carolina and adjacent South Carolina and Georgia, and additional isolated populations in central Tennessee and north-eastern West Virginia (Conant and Collins 1991). It was recently also recorded in Crawford County, Indiana (Madej 1998).	eng
1282	habitat		This species can be found in damp (but not wet) crevices in shaded rock outcrops and ledges, or beneath loose bark and in cracks of standing or fallen trees (in cove hardwoods, for example). It can sometimes also be found in or under logs on the ground. It sometimes reaches high population densities in logged areas where the tree canopies are left. Eggs are laid in rock crevices, rotting stumps, or similar dark, damp places.	eng
1282	population		It is patchily distributed and generally uncommon throughout most of the range (Petranka 1998). The disjunctive Blue Ridge Escarpment populations exhibited dramatic declines in abundance after the early 1970s (Corser 2001). Snyder (1991) reported that these populations appeared to be recovering, but Corser (2001) determined that three out of six populations first discovered in 1991 crashed in 1996-1997. Populations in the main range appear to have remained stable (Snyder 1991).	eng
1282	threats		The threats to this species that have caused it to decline in some areas are habitat loss (arising from development of the land and watershed areas) and possibly over-collecting and epidemic disease (Corser 2001). Severe drought might exacerbate other threats or cause temporary declines.	eng
1301	conservation		It occurs in several state forests and nature reserves, including Hogsback Indigenous Forest, Katberg Forest, and Stutterheim Nature Reserve.	eng
1301	distribution		This species is known only from the Amotola, Katberg and Keiskammahoek Mountains in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. There is a record from near Patensie, some 200km south-west of the main range, but it has not been found in this area since it was discovered in 1961. It occurs above 1,100m asl.	eng
1301	habitat		It inhabits the leaf-litter of montane forest and lives on the forest edge, being particularly associated with the grassland-forest ecotone, and with small patches of grass and wetland inside forest. However, it is not found outside forest. It makes a terrestrial nest, and lays 11-20 eggs, which develop directly, without a larval stage.	eng
1301	population		It can be common in suitable places.	eng
1301	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to human settlement, afforestation, invasive plants and fire. Pines are often planted right up to the natural forests, destroying the grassland-forest ecotone. Its remaining habitat is very restricted and patchy.	eng
1307	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas. It is legally hunted in some of the protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
1307	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs along both sides of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 3,500 m asl.	eng
1307	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, and in secondary habitats and garden areas. It makes a terrestrial nest of foliage under ground cover (Flannery 1995).	eng
1307	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a naturally uncommon species.	eng
1307	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is threatened by competition, and possibly pathogen and parasite transmission, from the introduced species, <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <br/><br/>It is also hunted by local people for food and for its teeth, with the pelt taken as a by-product of this hunting, but this is not viewed as a major threat. It is adversely affected in parts of its range by conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land.	eng
1550	conservation	Howell, K., Hutterer, R. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas. Further research into population trends and abundance are needed.	eng
1550	distribution	Howell, K., Hutterer, R. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is very widespread in Subsaharan Africa. It ranges in West Africa from Sierra Leone eastwards to the Dahomey Gap, and then from Nigeria into West Africa, where it ranges from Cameroon, southwards as far as central Angola, and eastwards as far as eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. In East Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda, western Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia (though not yet recorded from Katanga Province). It is likely to occur in Benin, although there are no specimen records from this country. It has been recorded on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It has been recorded up to 2,400 m asl.	eng
1550	habitat	Howell, K., Hutterer, R. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This is an arboreal, nocturnal species that is generally found in closed-canopy forest, although it parts of its range it also occurs in Miombo woodland (for example in Zambia). It is largely considered to be a solitary species, although it may also be found in small groups.	eng
1550	population	Howell, K., Hutterer, R. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It is probably not uncommon, and seems likely to be overlooked. In a 75 ha area in central Gabon, Julliot <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated a population density of 27-54/km² for this species.	eng
1550	threats	Howell, K., Hutterer, R. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is threatened by general deforestation. It has been recorded in traditional medicine (M. Ekue pers. comm.).	eng
1551	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species likely occurs within a number of protected areas, including Loffa-Mano, Cestos Sankwan and Sapo in Liberia, Tai and Azagny in Côte d'Ivoire, and Nini-Suhien and Bia in Ghana. Further research on population trends, abundance and threats is needed.	eng
1551	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Upper Guinea Rainforest Zone from Ghana (west of the River Volta) to eastern Liberia. In Liberia, the species is apparently limited to the vicinity of the River Cavalla, with only one record from further west in Deaple (at about 07°04’N, 08°33’W) (Kuhn 1966). There are no records of the species from Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998, Schunke and Hutterer 2005), and, likewise, the species has not been recorded east of the Dahomey Gap.	eng
1551	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species of moist, low-altitude tropical moist forests with an annual rainfall of 1,400 to 3,900 mm. The species prefers high primary forest with numerous tall emergents and palm trees. Animals are usually in pairs, although as many as six individuals have been found together.	eng
1551	population	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	It was formerly regarded as quite common in rainforest, but the strictly nocturnal habits and shyness of this species make any assessment of relative abundance very difficult. Sharing of dens by up to six individuals suggests that abundance might be strongly influenced by local availability of tree holes.	eng
1551	threats	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	Deforestation in the Upper Guinea forests, mainly through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations, has removed much of the species' preferred habitat. Animals are also found in bushmeat markets.	eng
1553	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further research into population trends and abundance is needed.	eng
1553	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from isolated, dispersed localities in Liberia, and then in southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and throughout much of Gabon to the northern border with Congo. It has also been recorded within the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, with the species ranging as far east as the western borders of Uganda. A single specimen (form '<em>batesi</em>') has been recorded from undisturbed forest on the Du River, western Liberia (Allen and Coolidge 1930), and two additional specimens have been reported from Mount Nimba in northern Liberia (Coe 1975). It is not known if the Liberian specimens represent an isolated population, or if the species ranges more widely in West Africa than is currently known (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Rahm and Christiansen (1963) recorded a specimen from 2,200 m asl at Mugaba in the Kahuzi region.	eng
1553	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This is an arboreal, and strictly nocturnal species mainly found in lowland equatorial tropical moist forest. Within the Gabon and Central Rainforest regions, the species has been recorded only from the central parts, and has not been reported from the margins or mosaics.	eng
1553	population	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is possibly very localized. After many years of collecting in eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rahm (1969) listed data for only three specimens, although he does list specimens from other localities in subsequent publications.	eng
1553	threats	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation of suitable habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. Hunting for wild meat is a threat in some areas, but it is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the species.	eng
1559	conservation	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Habitat maintenance, conservation are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
1559	distribution	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species is endemic to Mindoro, where it is known only from Ilong Peak, Halcon Range in the Philippines. Although the species is known only from its type locality, there are other specimens from Mindoro that may represent this species (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
1559	habitat	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The only known locality was from forest at 1,400 m (Musser 1981). It is inferred to be an arboreal species based on its morphology.	eng
1559	population	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species population status is unknown. The species is known only for certain from the type series, other reports are highly speculative (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1559	threats	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species is restricted to an island which has been heavily deforested. It is vulnerable to further deforestation (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991).	eng
1564	conservation	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2009	There are no records into any protected area. Papallacta area is close to two ecological reserves: Antisana y Cayambe-Coca (C. Boada pers. comm.).	eng
1564	distribution	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2009	This species occurs in north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005), at high elevations between 2,860 and 4,000 m (Voss 1988).	eng
1564	habitat	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2009	This rodent is poorly known. It inhabits along swift, cold, turbulent streams bordered by subalpine rainforest or grassy paramo (Voss 1988). It may be nocturnal.	eng
1564	population	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2009	This is a rare species (Tirira in prep.). In the Papallacta area (Napo Province), Voss (2003) collected 12 specimens between 1978 and 1980. In the same area, C. Boada (pers. comm.) in 2002 did not collect any specimens over a nine day period working with 400 traps.	eng
1564	threats	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2009	The major threats are habitat loss and water pollution. In 2003, the Papallacta Lake was seriously contaminated by a huge oil spill. There is no information on how this affected wildlife (C. Boada pers. comm.).	eng
1565	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid habitat lost.	eng
1565	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Surinam, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
1565	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	In the tropical region they are found in big colonies, but they are rare in the south. They are very important pollinators.	eng
1565	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Rare in Argentina and abundance decreases as we move south. Difficult to capture. (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)	eng
1565	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
1566	conservation	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
1566	distribution	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species occurs in humid high montane cloud forest in Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons, 2005).	eng
1566	habitat	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	It is strongly associated with humid montane cloud forest (minimum 1,000 m throughout most of the Andes, but can occur lower where this habitat is present) (Mantilla pers. comm.). It feeds on nectar, pollen occasionally insects and fruit. It roosts in small groups in caves, commonly found with other species in the genus. It also roosts in tunnels or tree hollows.	eng
1566	population	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	The species is rare in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. Locally common in Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
1566	threats	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
1567	conservation	Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont. P.C., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Protect the caves.	eng
1567	distribution	Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont. P.C., 2008	This species occurs in Peru, Bolivia, southeast Brazil, the Guianas, Suriname, and Ecuador to Tamaulipas and Sinaloa (Mexico); It is also found on Trinidad, and on Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005). In Nicaragua it only occurs in central and northern regions, in high areas (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
1567	habitat	Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont. P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with streams within tropical evergreen forest. It feeds on nectar, fruit, and pollen, and may visit flowers primarily to obtain insects. Plant species visited in Mexico include Agave, Ceiba, Calliandra, Eucalyptus, Ipomoea, Pinus, and various composites. It roosts in small groups in caves, tunnels or tree hollows and is found in lowland rainforest, deciduous forest, gardens, and plantations. A colony of about 75 was found in a tunnel in Peru, grouped into several small clusters and hanging from the ceiling. Although common only where there are caves or rock crevices, and they are rare or perhaps absent from lowland Amazonian forests lacking high ground, rocks, and caves. A single birth peak occurs each year, late in the wet season (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997; Tuttle, 1970; Wilson, 1979).	eng
1567	population	Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont. P.C., 2008	It is common and widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
1567	threats	Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont. P.C., 2008	No major threats. Cave mining and tourism can be a threat. Habitat loss in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
1568	conservation	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	Occurs in national parks throughout its range.	eng
1568	distribution	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species has a discontinuous range - Venezuela, Guyana, Colombia, and Peru (Simmons, 2005). Elevation range 50 to 2,100 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).	eng
1568	habitat	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	It is strongly associated with tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). It feeds on nectar, insects, fruit, and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves or tree hollows and is found in lowland rainforest, deciduous forest, gardens, and plantations. Although common only where there are caves or rock crevices, and they are rare or perhaps absent from lowland Amazonian forests lacking high ground, rocks, and caves (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
1568	population	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	In Venezuela and Colombia it is not common (Linares, 1998 and Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
1568	threats	Mantilla, H. & Molinari, J., 2008	No major threats though habitat is under threat in some areas (Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
1569	conservation	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas in Venezuela (Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
1569	distribution	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of Venezuela and the eastern slope of the Cordillera orientale from 1,100 to 2,300 m (Simmons, 2005 and Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
1569	habitat	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Nectar feeding forest dwelling species occurring in non mountainous or hilly terrain in cloud forest, roosts in caves (Molinari 1994).	eng
1569	population	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is relatively rare throughout its range (Molinari and Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
1569	threats	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	No major threats (Mantilla pers. comm.) however, affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range (Molinari pers. comm.)	eng
1581	conservation	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Ellis, M., Robinson, T. & Copley, P., 2008	There is a need to develop trapping techniques to permit effective survey and monitoring of the species. Other conservation measures should include implementing long-term monitoring to validate adequacy of conservation measures; collate distribution data; identify and determine the status of the species across its range; construct habitat model to more accurately determine extent of source and sink habitat available to the Kultarr, identify patches and allow monitoring of the changes in habitat quality, particularly due to excessive flooding and grazing. There is a need to study home range, movement, habitat and food requirements in the field if a population can be located for a 3-5 year population study. Also, measures should include establishing adequate reserves and appropriate management inside and outside the reserve system (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
1581	distribution	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Ellis, M., Robinson, T. & Copley, P., 2008	This Kultarr is endemic to Australia. It was previously distributed in arid and semi-arid zone mallee, shrubland, floodplain and gibber of Western Australia, Northern Territory, western Queensland, New South Wales, possibly Victoria (no evidence) and South Australia.<br/><br/>The species now appears to have disappeared from some parts of western New South Wales (Riverina and the northwest) and Queensland (Sandringham). Occurs in the southern Wheatbelt of Western Australia, western Goldfields, Ashburton and Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia, where apparent scarcity may be a trapping artefact (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Recent records from north-east South Australia (most common recent records), Yellabinna Regional Reserve, western South Australia, south of Lake Frome and at a rare rodent monitoring site on Macumba Station in the stony desert area of northern South Australia. At the latter site Kultarrs were trapped on every visit between July 1992 and mid-1996 and drier conditions and increasing cattle degradation did not lead to any noticeable drop in numbers (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
1581	habitat	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Ellis, M., Robinson, T. & Copley, P., 2008	Kultarrs inhabit: open shrubland, mallee woodland, acacia shrubland with sparse ground cover, hummock grassland, gibber, flood plains, and stony areas with sparse ground cover. The species generally prefers heavier soil types (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Kultarrs have been recorded on severely degraded cattle country in central and western Australia but this may reflect the previous relatively high productivity of these landscape types rather than any benign effect of cattle (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
1581	population	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Ellis, M., Robinson, T. & Copley, P., 2008	Kultarrs appear to undergo fluctuations in population size. It is considered rare and scattered (Valente 2008). This species is very difficult to trap using standard trapping techniques.	eng
1581	threats	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Ellis, M., Robinson, T. & Copley, P., 2008	Habitat degradation by sheep and cattle, and predation by cats and foxes are major threats to this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Also, habitat alteration due to changes in fire regimes since European settlement (Dickman and Read 1992).	eng
1583	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Present in the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.	eng
1583	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Atherton uplands above 650 m (and up to 1,650 m) in north-eastern Queensland, Australia.	eng
1583	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The species appears to be limited to the narrow band (<30 km wide) of upland rainforest above 650 m elevation south of Cairns; it occurs in all major rainforest types (Burnett 2008). It is found in selectively logged forest areas. The species does not survive in fragments of less than 100 ha (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
1583	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is sparse, but locally common. It has a fragmented distribution (Burnett 2008).	eng
1583	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There is habitat fragmentation of the species' range. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals, but this is not considered a major threat. In the future, climate change could be a very severe threat, and over the next 30-50 years it is suspected that much of its range will be lost (Burnett 2008).	eng
1584	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The species is present in protected areas, including the Iron Range National Park; there are negotiations underway to declare additional national parks in the McIlwraith area.	eng
1584	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is known from the east coast of the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, occurring from the McIlwraith Range to the Iron Range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Leung 2008). The elevational range is sea level to 800 m.	eng
1584	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The species occurs in semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest, particularly where there is a lot of ground cover. It can be found both in mature and secondary forest, but in the latter it only occurs when adjacent to mature rainforest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species is semi-arboreal and insectivorous, nesting in hollows.	eng
1584	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is locally common within its limited range (Menkhorst 2001; Leung 2008).	eng
1584	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	No current threats to the species are apparent; however, timber cutting (selective logging) has been proposed in the Lockhart River area, and this could result in declines. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals.	eng
1587	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	Long-nosed Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
1587	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is widespread in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It occurs between 1,400 m and 2,800 m asl.	eng
1587	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Long-nosed Dasyure is found in rainforest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, pandanus forest, and mossy forest (Van Dyck 2002). In the wild it appears that this species may breed at any time of the year and females carry up to four young in the pouch (Woolley 2003).	eng
1587	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	It is a fairly common species.	eng
1587	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
1589	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Habbema Dasyure is present in several protected areas. Further studies of the species' taxonomy, distribution, and natural history are needed.	eng
1589	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is known from scattered localities throughout its range. The Habbema Dasyure's elevational range is 1,600-3,660 m asl (Van Dyck 2002).	eng
1589	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Habbema Dasyure is present in montane primary forest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, mossy forest, and subalpine grasslands (Van Dyck 2002). It occurs in disturbed primary forest, but is not present in secondary forest habitats. This species is nocturnal (Woolley <em>et al.</1> 1991) and probably largely terrestrial. Animals have been found to nest in burrow systems in the ground (Woolley 1989). Females of this species may carry up to four young in the pouch and breeding appears to be aseasonal (Woolley 2003).	eng
1589	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The species is relatively common throughout its range.	eng
1589	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, largely because of the high elevations at which it occurs. The montane grasslands are burned periodically but this is not seen as a major threat.	eng
1590	conservation	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
1590	distribution	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in Victoria and southeast New South Wales. It has an elevational range of sea level to around 2,000 m.	eng
1590	habitat	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of forest and heathland habitats. The females give birth to a litter of between six and ten young (Dickman 2008).	eng
1590	population	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	Locally common.	eng
1590	threats	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some local declines may have occurred through clearing of native vegetation, afforestation with exotic pine trees, changes in fire regimes and predation by owls, and non-native foxes and feral cats (Dickman 2008). Although the species has been known to decline drastically in numbers in some study sites (e.g., Nadgee Nature Reserve), populations can quickly recover.	eng
1591	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	Black-tailed Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of the species are needed.	eng
1591	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Black-tailed Dasyure has a wide distribution across the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Van Dyck 2002). It is also present in the Arfak (Indonesia) and Torricelli (Papua New Guinea) mountain ranges (Van Dyck 2002). This species is found from sea level to mid-montane areas up to 2,800 m (Van Dyck 2002).	eng
1591	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	It is found in rainforest, mid-montane forest, beech forest, pandanus forest, and mossy forest (Van Dyck 2002). The Black-tailed Dasyure breeds throughout the year; females have up to four young (Woolley 2003).	eng
1591	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is relatively abundant.	eng
1591	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
1620	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	A possible conservation measure for this species would be the protection of known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
1620	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	Flower-faced bats are restricted to Bougainville and possibly Buka islands in North Solomons Province of Papua New Guinea, and to the islands of Florida, Choisel, Santa Isabel, and Guadacanal in the Solomons Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). The species ranges from sea level up to 200 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
1620	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, and flying around village houses. It is believed to be a foliage-gleaning insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).	eng
1620	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a rare species (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
1620	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to flower-faced bats are not well-known. This species is present on a few medium-sized islands (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
1676	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Springbok are well represented in protected areas throughout their range, including Etosha National Park and Namib-Naukluft Park (Namibia), Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan National Park (Botswana), the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park between Botswana and South Africa, and Vaalbos and Karoo National Parks and a number of provincial reserves in South Africa. The current status of the population in Iona National Park in Angola, where a population of 2,500 was estimated in 1975, is unknown. Springbok also are well present in private lands, where they are actively managed. East (1999) estimated that about 60% of the total population occurs on private land and 12% in protected areas.<br/><br/>Springbok are amongst the most valued species in the expanding game ranching industry in southern Africa due to the excellent quality of their venison (Skinner in press).	eng
1676	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Historically, the Springbok's range covered the central and western regions of southern Africa, with a marginal extension into southwestern Angola. The species still occurs very widely within its historical range, but in Angola it survives in greatly reduced numbers (East 1999, Skinner in press). <br/><br/>In South Africa, the Springbok was exterminated over much of its natural range during the course of the late 1800s as a result of hunting and the effects of rinderpest. However, it has subsequently been reintroduced widely to private land and protected areas throughout its former range. The largest numbers occur on private game farms, mainly in the highveld of the Free State and Gauteng provinces and the Karoo and Kalahari thornveld of the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape provinces.<br/><br/>Smaller, introduced populations occur widely in extralimital areas, e.g., on private land and provincial reserves in parts of KwaZulu-Natal and the northern bushveld (East 1999).	eng
1676	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Springbok formerly occurred in huge numbers in the dry grasslands, bushland and shrubland of south-western and southern Africa, migrating sporadically in vast herds (treckbokken) in some of the southern parts of its range. These migrations or treks no longer occur, but some indication of the species’ former abundance can still be seen in seasonal concentrations on the areas of short vegetation which it prefers, e.g., in parts of the section of the Kalahari which lies in central and southern Botswana (East 1999). Springbok are primarily browsers, but do also take grass, favouring young succulent grass before it begins to lignify (Skinner in press).	eng
1676	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population in southern Africa at more than 670,000, noting that it was probably an underestimate. Recent estimates for Namibia alone put the population at 730,000, itself an underestimate (P. Lindeque, in Skinner in press). Elsewhere in the range, Skinner (in press) has estimated that numbers are probably in the order of 10,000 for Angola, 40,000 in the Botswana side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (and an additional 60,000 at least in the rest of the country), 75,000 in the Free State, 75,000 in the former Transvaal provinces, 1,000,000 in the Karoo and about 100,000 in the Cape provinces outside of the Karoo. Based on these figures the total population size in southern Africa is estimated at ca. 2,000,000 - 2,500,000 animals (Skinner in press).	eng
1676	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to the long-term survival of the species. They do not occur in woodland savanna almost certainly due to the presence of heartwater to which they show no resistance (Neitz 1944).	eng
1677	conservation	Hoffmann, M., Byers, J. & Beckmann, J., 2008	Populations of the Sonoran Pronghorn in Arizona and Mexico are protected under the US Endangered Species Act (since 1967), and a recovery plan for this subspecies has been prepared by USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Mexican animals are listed on CITES Appendix I. Pronghorns have game-animal status in all of the western states of the United States, and permits are required to trap or shoot pronghorns. <br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, including Yellowstone National Park.	eng
1677	distribution	Hoffmann, M., Byers, J. & Beckmann, J., 2008	The Pronghorn occurs in western North America, from the southern Prairie Provinces of Canada (southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan) south through the western U.S. to northern Mexico (Baja California, Sonora, Hidalgo). <br/><br/>It was introduced on Lanai Island (Hawaii) in 1959, where it reached a population of about 250 in the mid-1960s; however, there were less than 12 in 1983 and it seems headed for extinction (Tomich 1986).	eng
1677	habitat	Hoffmann, M., Byers, J. & Beckmann, J., 2008	An inhabitant of grasslands, sagebrush plains, deserts, and foothills. They range from near sea-level to 3,350 m (O'Gara 1999). Their need for free water varies with the succulence of the vegetation in their diet. Some populations undertake seasonal movements, sometimes moving as much as 160 km from their summering area (O'Gara 1978). They usually occur in small bands, but large winter herds disperse in spring. Forms separate bachelor and female-kid groups in spring and summer. Males associate with females in late summer and early fall. Breeding takes place mid-September to early October in the north, and from late July to early October in south.<br/><br/>In winter, northern populations depend heavily on browse, especially sagebrush; forbs are most important in summer. Southern populations use more forbs and less browse. They also take grasses, and, in some areas, cacti.	eng
1677	population	Hoffmann, M., Byers, J. & Beckmann, J., 2008	In the early 1800s, there were probably in the order of more than 35 million Pronghorn. By 1924, they were believed to be near extinction with only about 20,000 animals remaining. From 1924 to 1964 the population increased ten-fold  (O'Gara 1978). Today, numbers are estimated at about 700,000. They are generally declining in Mexico, although more stable in the remainder of the range; however, numbers do fluctuate depending on the severity of droughts and winters (O'Gara 1999). <br/><br/>It is estimated that there are fewer than 300 individuals of the Sonoran Pronghorn in the United States and 200-500 individuals in Sonora, Mexico (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998).	eng
1677	threats	Hoffmann, M., Byers, J. & Beckmann, J., 2008	The original decline in numbers of Pronghorn was most likely due to hunting, combined with a drastic reduction of available habitat due to habitat loss from agricultural, urban, and mining expansion onto historic lands; fencing across routes of seasonal movements; removal of native vegetation by rangeland rehabilitation projects; and heavy livestock grazing (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). However, effective law enforcement, and habitat and wildlife management techniques during the mid-1900s helped Pronghorn stage a remarkable recovery (Yoakum 1968).<br/><br/>Today, there are no major range-wide threats, although localized declines are taking place, particularly to the Sonoran Pronghorn, mainly as a result of, among others, livestock grazing, the construction of roads, fences and other barriers that pose barriers to historical habitat, illegal hunting (mainly in Mexico), insufficient forage and water, and lack of recruitment (see U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998 for review). Pronghorn usually inhabit large expanses of contiguous habitat and once such regions become fragmented beyond some threshold, use by Pronghorn generally decreases.	eng
1681	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Fully protected by law in India. Occurs in many protected areas, including Velavadar Blackbuck Sanctuary and Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix III (Nepal).	eng
1681	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The Blackbuck formerly occurred across almost the whole of the Indian subcontinent. Their range decreased sharply during the 20th century and they are now extinct in Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. Attempted reintroductions have taken place in Pakistan and Nepal.	eng
1681	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The species inhabits grassland and lightly-wooded country. They require water daily, which restricts distribution to areas where surface water is available for the greater part of the year. Blackbuck are primarily grazers. And mainly sedentary, but in summer may move long distances in search of water and forage (Rahmani 2001).	eng
1681	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The population has increased from an estimated 22,000-24,000 in the 1970s to an estimated 50,000. The largest numbers are found in the states of Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujurat (Rahmani 2001). Introduced populations in Argentina and the USA may number 8,600 and 35,000, respectively (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).	eng
1681	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Although Blackbuck have disappeared from many areas due to habitat destruction through conversion to agricultural use, they are increasing in many protected areas and areas dominated by Vishnoi communities in Rajasthan and Haryana (Rahmani 2001). In some areas, the population has increased so much that the Blackbuck has become a pest in agricultural crops. Some Blackbuck are shot illegally, especially in areas where it shares the same habitat with Nilgai.	eng
1781	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Endemic to New Zealand.	eng
1781	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Found in forest habitat.	eng
1781	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown	eng
1781	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None currently known.	eng
1783	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Confined to a single locality near menzies Bay, Banks Peninsula.	eng
1783	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in open bush.	eng
1783	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Habitat loss due to shrub clearance.	eng
1784	distribution	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	All specimens collected in Roadside Cave (Walsingham Tract), Hamilton Parish (Fosshagen and Iliffe 1985).	eng
1784	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Found in a (marine) limestone cave located 110 m inland from Harrington Sound. It has no visible connection with the sea or other caves. Tides in the pool are 57% of those in the open ocean with a lag time of 80 min. The water in the pool is very clear with no visible particles. The cave may serve as a refugium for rare and less competitive species.	eng
1784	population	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Known only from five mature specimens.	eng
1789	conservation	Miller, B. & Medina, A., 2008	Found in private protected areas in Belize. Found in protected areas in Mexico.	eng
1789	distribution	Miller, B. & Medina, A., 2008	This species occurs in Jalisco, Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas (Mexico); Guatemala; Belize; Honduras (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,300 m (usually below 1,300 m). Northern of Nicaragua in Jinotega (Medina <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
1789	habitat	Miller, B. & Medina, A., 2008	This species can be found in a variety of forested habitats from lowland deciduous to montane pine-oak and cloud forest (Reid, 1997; Engstron <em>et al.</em>, 1987). Little is known of the roosting habitats of this species, except for one individual that was caught in a building. It is active within an hour of sunset and lies low to the ground along forest trails. Its anatomy suggests that this bat may feed by gleaning insects from the ground or vegetation. In captivity, it readily consumes large insect such as cockroaches and katydids (Engstrom <em>et al</em>. 1987; Reid, 1997). In Mexico it has been reported in deciduous forest (Coates-Estrada and Coates, 1986).	eng
1789	population	Miller, B. & Medina, A., 2008	This bat is apparently uncommon and local (Reid, 1997).	eng
1789	threats	Miller, B. & Medina, A., 2008	Habitat loss, restricted to intact forests. In Mexico it does not have important habitat loss (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
1790	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Managing habitat and avoid disturbance.	eng
1790	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in Queretaro and Baja California (Mexico) to Kansas (USA) and British Columbia (Canada); also in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).	eng
1790	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It frequents arid or semi-arid locations. The pallid bat is usually found in rocky, mountainous areas and near water. They are also found over more open, sparsely vegetated grasslands, and they seem to prefer to forage in the open. The pallid bat has three different roosts. The day roost is usually in a warm, horizontal opening such as in attics or rock cracks; the night roost is usually in the open, near foliage; and the hibernation roost, which is often in buildings, caves, or cracks in rocks (Miller 2002).The diet of this bat includes a significant proportion of beetles, grasshoppers, and moths; also it consumes scorpions and flightless arthropods such as crickets. Lizards have also been reported as prey items. Mating takes place in late autumn or early winter. Female pallid bats store sperm in the reproductive tract until ovulation takes place in the spring. Births generally occur in large maternity colonies in May and Junes. Males are generally absent from these maternity colonies. Yearling females have single offspring, whereas older females may have twins annually (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
1790	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is locally common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). This species is gregarious; generally it occurs in groups larger than 20 individuals.	eng
1790	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The pallid bat may be in trouble because it is very sensitive to disturbance. Any disturbance, even hiking, can cause the bat to abandon a roosting area completely. Human disturbance of foraging areas has also decreased prey availability and diversity. Also, the use of pesticides has had a serious impact on pallid bat populations (Miller 2002).	eng
1793	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	African Clawless Otters are present in a number of protected areas across their range. The populations of Cameroon and Nigeria are listed on CITES Appendix I ( as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aonyx capensis microdon</span>). All other populations are included in CITES Appendix II.	eng
1793	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The African Clawless Otter is the most widely distributed otter species in Africa, with a range stretching from Senegal and Mali throughout most of West Africa to Sudan and Ethiopia, and then southwards throughout East Africa to the Western Cape of South Africa. They are absent from the Congo basin, where they are replaced by the Congo Clawless Otter <em>Aonyx congicus</em>, the two species being sympatric in Uganda and Rwanda (Somers and Nel in press).	eng
1793	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	African Clawless Otters are predominantly aquatic and seldom found far from water. Freshwater is an essential habitat requirement, and they only occur in marine habitats provided there is access to fresh water. In marine habitats, rocky shores are preferred (Van Niekerk <em>et al.</em> 1998). Elsewhere, they are found in diverse habitats, from impoundments, estuaries, and mangroves to desert conditions of the upper Doring River in the Western Cape and the Fish River in southern Namibia (Nel and Somers 2007; Somers and Nel in press); they are also found in many seasonal or episodic rivers in the Karoo, such as the Sak, Vis, Riet and Gamka Rivers, provided suitable-sized pools persist (Nel and Somers 2007; Somers and Nel in press). They have been recorded up to 3,000 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). African Clawless Otters have been found in towns and cities, and can occupy rivers with high pollution and eutrophication levels (Somers and Nel in press).	eng
1793	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	African Clawless Otters are fairly common to rare, with populations thought to be stable in 29 of the 35 countries from which they have been recorded (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1995; Nel and Somers 2002). Abundance appears to be dependent on the availability of crabs (Rowe-Rowe and Somers 1998). <br/><br/>Density estimates from various studies in southern Africa are summarized by Somers and Nel (in press). Based on the recovery of radioactive scats, Somers (2001) gives an estimate of 1.53 otters per km of river; assuming there are two otters per km of river, the total population in South Africa alone is estimated at around 21,500 individuals (Somers and Nel in press).	eng
1793	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species; however, in some parts of their range, their habitat has been either drastically changed or lost, following bush clearing, deforestation, overgrazing, siltation, draining of wetlands or water extraction or denudation of riparian vegetation (Rowe-Rowe 1995; Nel and Somers 1998).<br/><br/>In parts of their range, African Clawless Otters may be killed for skins and other body parts (e.g., Cunningham and Zondi 1991; De Luca and Mpunga 2005), or because they are regarded as competitors for food, particularly in rural areas where fishing is an important source of income, or where they are believed to be responsible for poultry losses (Rowe-Rowe 1995). Fisheries managers of the Kairezi River Protected Area in Zimbabwe blamed trout declines on otter predation and competition with trout for food, even though scat analysis revealed that only 1% of otter faeces contained the remains of trout and their diets overlapped only 17% (Butler 1994; Butler and Marshall 1996). Occasionally, they are accidentally caught and drowned in gill nets and fish traps (Rowe-Rowe 1990).<br/><br/>.	eng
1794	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Dzanga-Sangha N.P. in Central African Republic, the Lopé reserve in Gabon, and Nouabalé-Ndoki and Odzala National Parks in Congo Republic (Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). There is a need for a detailed study on the biology, ecology, and distribution of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aonyx capensis</span>).	eng
1794	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Congo Clawless Otter occurs in the rainforests of the Congo basin including Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, northern Angola, and extending eastward to the forests and the wetlands of Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda (Larivière 2001; Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). The limits of the species’ distribution range are still unclear, partly due to the species’ possible confusion with the African Clawless Otter; there are, as yet, no confirmed records from Nigeria (Jacques <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
1794	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Congo Clawless Otter occurs in rain forests and lowland swamps of the Congo River basin (Lariviere 2001; Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press). They are frequently observed in swampy forest clearings (bais), for example, at Langoué Bai in Gabon, and Mbeli Bai in Nouabalé-Ndoki N.P. in Congo Republic (Jacques <em>et al</em>. in press). Recorded to 2,200 m on the Kahuzi Massif (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963). The Congo Clawless Otter is the least well known of the three African otter species, and no detailed ecological study on this species has been conducted. The current state of knowledge has been summarized by Lariviere (2001) and Jacques <em>et al</em>. (in press).	eng
1794	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is a very poorly known species. It may be common in certain undisturbed rainforest locations, but is otherwise thought to be rare (Jacques <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
1794	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although there are probably no major threats to the species, hunting for bushmeat and skins, habitat loss and degradation, and over-fishing are likely localized threats in many areas. According to Carpaneto and Germi (1989), Mbuti pygmies in northeastern DR Congo use the skins of Congo Clawless Otters to make hats.	eng
1802	conservation	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Abiseo National Park (274,500 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Cordillera de Colán (Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo (in range, F. Cornejo unpubl.).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
1802	distribution	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	<em>Aotus miconax</em> is endemic to the Peruvian Andes, occurring south and east of the Río Marañón and west of the Río Huallaga (Hershkovitz 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). Butchart <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded the species in the Cordillera de Colán, south of the Río Chiriaco, at altitudes from 1,730 to 2,400 m above sea level. In the south, it occurs along the left bank of the Río Huallaga in the Department of Huanaco, from the region of the Río Aguaytia (tributary of the Ucayali), north through San Martín into the Department of Amazonas, just south the Maranón (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). This species has been recorded at elevations from 800 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
1802	habitat	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	This species occurs in humid and very humid lower montane cloud forests of eastern central Peru, where sympatric with <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> (Butchart <em>et al</em>. 1995). Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes, above 800 m to 3,200 m above sea level (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Their sleeping sites include vine tangles and tree cavities like other species in the genus. This species can live in altered and secondary habitat. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco) , leaves, and small animals prey such as insects.<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult.  In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em>shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).	eng
1802	population	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	Little is known about the population characteristics, but they are believed to be fairly common in remaining patches of forest. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
1802	threats	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	Butchart <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported that their main threat is deforestation in their restricted range. Threats include colonisation projects, road-building (the carretera central through the cloud forests of the region and new construction throughout their distribution), selective logging, deforestation, and forest fragmentation. Recently, mining companies have been granted concessions in areas where this species occurs and these growing mining operations including open pit mining represent an increasing threat to its habitat and habitat quality.  They are not hunted for food, although Butchart <em>et al</em>. (1995) found one being kept as a pet.	eng
1807	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park (383,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Iguaque Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (6,750 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989; Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tayrona Natural National Park (15,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Catatumbo-Barí Natural National Reserve (158,125 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (23,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
1807	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	<em>Aotus griseimembra</em> is the night monkey of the Río Magdelena and the valleys of the ríos Cauca and São Jorge in northern Colombia (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). It extends north to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, partly up the Guajira Peninsula and east across the Sierra de Perija to Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linhares 1998; Defler 2003, 2004).	eng
1807	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco) , leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).  <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 1.0±0.2 kg (n=20), adult female weight 0.923±0.063 kg (n=16) (Dixson 1983)	eng
1807	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	No information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
1807	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	This night monkey is evidently highly threatened in Colombia, in part due to habitat loss but also because of its capture in the late 1960s and 1970s as an important model for malaria research. Barranquilla was a major port for this commerce. Censuses carried out by Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> (1976) found it to be very scarce, while Green (1978) identified populations in the Sierra San Lucas. This area remains unprotected and could easily be destroyed should the local problems of civil unrest be solved, allowing for colonization.	eng
1808	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & de la Torre, S., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Puracé Natural National Park (83,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tama National Natural Park (48,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Llanganates National Park (219,707 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Most urgent is the protection of any forests that provide habitat for populations in northern Colombia. Censuses of populations and habitat are needed to better assess the population status of this species.	eng
1808	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & de la Torre, S., 2008	A montane night monkey, occurring in the Cordilleras Central and Oriental, from about 1,000 to 1,500 m upward to the treeline at 3,000 to 3,200 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1986). Following the range map in Defler (2003, 2004), it extends south as far as region of the headwaters of the rios Caquetá and Orteguaza. Tirira (2007) provisionally regards the montane night monkeys occurring in the subtropical humid forest along the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes (altitudes 940-1,800 m) as belonging to this species, although he points out (p.160) that its identity has yet to be confirmed. There are few records and all are based on sightings in the wild; the few museum specimens have yet to be studied in this regard. The possibility remains that it may be a variant of <em>A. vociferans</em> occurring otherwise throughout eastern Ecuador and adjacent northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), or even an as yet unrecognized, distinct species.	eng
1808	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), submontane and montane (cloud forests) in the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level in Colombia, and possibly Ecuador (altitudes of 940 to 1,800 m) (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004; Tirira 2007). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animal prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.920±0.075 kg (n=7, range 0.608-1.15 kg), adult female weight 0.859±0.088 kg (n=6, range 0.578-1.05 kg) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985). NB: This could refer to <em>griseimembra</em>, considered by Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1985) to be a subspecies of <em>A. lemurinus</em>.	eng
1808	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & de la Torre, S., 2008	No information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
1808	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Much of the habitat of this night monkey is congruent with human disturbance, including deforestation, expanding illicit crops, coffee and armed conflict.<br/><br/>Many <em>Aotus</em> in Colombia have been released from captivity outside of their range and could be hybridizing; however, very little is known of the effects of this practice.	eng
1843	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place. Further taxonomic research is needed.	eng
1843	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species is restricted to the Tuzgölü basin, to the Büyük-Menderes catchment, to the lake district region in Central Anatolia (Lake Egirdir) and to the south-western region according to Hrbek <em>et al</em>. 2002.	eng
1843	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in clear, well-oxygenated running freshwaters and springs.	eng
1843	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No population information available.	eng
1843	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and water extraction are the main threats to the species. Introduction of predatory species (such as <em>Gambusia</em> species) is a potential threat. No utilization of the species is known at present, but collection for the aquarium trade may be a future threat.	eng
1846	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in the Appendix II and III of the Bern Convention.	eng
1846	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Mediterranean coast of Spain and north-western Algeria. It is believed that the Algerian population is a separate species, but not yet described.	eng
1846	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a ubiquitous and short-lived species that can withstand wide salinity and temperature ranges. It lives mainly in salty lagoons where <em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Fundulus</em> are absent	eng
1846	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
1846	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, drought, water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
1847	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.	eng
1847	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.	eng
1847	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It is listed in the Annex II of the Habitat Directive of EU and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.	eng
1847	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).	eng
1847	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco <em>et al</em>. 1996). The Species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).	eng
1847	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	It is distributed in all countries of the Mediterranean region to the exception of the Iberic Peninsula. It is restricted to coastal waters including islands. It is found in several Mediterranean islands, except Crete (Bianco <em>et al</em>. 1996). The Species is also found in the Suez Canal (Lotan and Ben-Tuvia 1996).	eng
1847	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It lives mainly in brackish and salty waters, mainly in lagoons.	eng
1847	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives mainly in brackish and salty waters, mainly in lagoons.	eng
1847	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	It lives mainly in brackish and salty waters, mainly in lagoons.	eng
1847	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
1847	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Abundant.	eng
1847	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It is abundant within its range.	eng
1847	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	Habitat destruction and eutrophication may be threats at a local scale.	eng
1847	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and eutrophication may be threats at a local scale.	eng
1847	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Habitat destruction and eutrophication may be threats at a local scale.	eng
1849	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
1849	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It was believed that this species was restricted to Lake Burdur in Central Anatolia. However, recent research indicates that it has a wider distribution (Hrbek <em>et al</em>. 2002,  Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been recorded from Lake Egirdir to Lake Kovada and Lake Beysehir outlet into the Konya plains).	eng
1849	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the littoral zone.	eng
1849	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data are currently available.	eng
1849	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution is the main threat to the species. Not known to be utilised at present, but collection for the aquarium trade is a potential future threat.	eng
1869	conservation	Fellers, G.M., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In California relictual populations are protected in National Park Service land or through state endangered species listing. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) have the mountain beaver listed as; Special Concern (01 Nov 2001). The subspecies <em>nigra</em> of northern California is protected nationally under the United States Endangered Species Act as of 1991.	eng
1869	distribution	Fellers, G.M., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The mountain beaver (<em>Aplodontia rufa</em>) occurs along the Pacific coast of western North America, from southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south to central California in the United States. It ranges from near Merritt, British Columbia, south along the Cascade, Olympic, Coast, and Siskiyou ranges to Rio Dell, California; Mt Shasta, California, southeastward through the Sierra Nevada of eastern California and west-central Nevada; Point Arena, Mendocino County, California; and near Pt. Reyes, Marin County, California (Carraway and Verts 1993). <br/><br/>The subspecies  <em>nigra</em> has the most restricted distribution of all subspecies, it is known only from an area of 60 km² in the vicinity of Point Arena, Mendocino County, California. The subspecies <em>phaea</em> is known primarily from an area of approximately 285 km² within the Point Reyes National Seashore, Marin County, California, with a few populations occurring on privately owned land immediately adjacent to the Park.	eng
1869	habitat	Fellers, G.M., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In the main portion of their range, mountain beavers occur in moist forests and forest openings, where they prefer cool, moist environments such as overgrown thickets and seepage areas. They are most abundant near water courses in early to mid-seral stages vegetated by a tangle of secondary growth tree species, shrubs and forbs, and containing debris left from earlier forests (Carraway and Verts 1993). It prefers damp soils, digging networks of tunnels along stream banks. Tunnels generally are just below the ground surface, usually on north slopes in California, and on south slopes in British Columbia. It is primarily fossorial but can climb trees and swims well (but not arboreal or aquatic), and stays mostly underground in winter. Oval nests are constructed with leaves, twigs and grasses in a chamber that may be about two feet below the surface of the ground. <br/><br/><em>A. r. nigra</em> occurs only in sheltered gulches, steep north facing slopes, and in a few old dune systems, where it requires soil conditions that allow easy excavation and abundant succulent plant food. <em>A. r. phaea</em> requires north-facing slopes with dense thickets of brush typically composed of coyote brush, sword fern, blackberry, and poison oak. Openings within Bishop pine forest with dense herbaceous understorey of sword fern and blackberries are also occupied (Carraway and Verts 1999).<br/><br/>Mountain beavers feed on a wide variety of vegetation. They consume ferns, forbs, and deciduous plants in summer and conifer foliage in fall/winter if other plants are unavailable (Banfield 1974). It forages mainly above the ground (Epple <em>et al.</em> 1993). They require free surface water or succulent vegetation on a daily basis and caches grasses and forbs for winter food. They are active during winter. Throughout the 24-hour day in summer, five to seven periods of activity alternate with periods of rest. They are more active at night than during daylight hours.<br/><br/>Mountain beavers have a low rate of reproduction and are monoestrous. Gestation lasts 28-30 days. One litter of two to four altricial young are born March-April, sometimes as late as early May in the north. Young are weaned in about six to eight weeks. Females are sexually mature in about two years; yearling females may ovulate but do not breed (Carraway and Verts 1993). A few live up to five to six years. They are usually solitary but may live in loose colonies. Population density estimates generally range from four to eight per hectare, but up to 15-20 per ha (Carraway and Verts 1993). The home range of ten adults radio tracked for three to 19 months was 0.03-0.20 ha, with a mean of 0.12 ha (Carraway and Verts 1993). Significant predators of mountain beavers include coyote and bobcat.	eng
1869	population	Fellers, G.M., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Except for two small relictual populations in California, the mountain beaver is widespread and common in the Pacific Northwest. Global abundance estimates are from 10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals. For the subspecies <em>nigra</em> there are thought to be 10 populations within its known geographic range, totalling 100 individuals. Prior to a wildfire in 1995 that killed an estimated 98 percent of Reyes Point mountain beavers (subspecies <em>phaea</em>), the population was estimated at 5000 individuals.	eng
1869	threats	Fellers, G.M., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common and considered a pest throughout much of its range in coastal areas of Northern California, Oregon, Washington and southern British Columbia. The areas inhabited are generally not visited frequently by humans. The mountain beaver is only rare in some relictual populations in California.<br/><br/>Threats to the disjunct subspecies <em>nigra</em> and <em>phaea</em> include wildfire, livestock grazing, expansion of exotic plant species, rodent control measures, alteration of natural stream flow, housing development, highway construction, predation by cats and dogs as well as the general uncertainties associated with small population sizes (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
1888	conservation	Kaneko, Y., Krystufek, B., Zagarodnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It is often considered to be an agricultural pest. The population on Uotsuri Island is listed in the Japanese Red List as Critically Endangered.	eng
1888	conservation	Kaneko, Y., Kryštufek, B., Zagarondnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It is often considered to be an agricultural pest. The population on Uotsuri Island is listed in the Japanese Red List as Critically Endangered.	eng
1888	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It occurs within protected areas throughout its range. It tends to be considered an agricultural pest species.	eng
1888	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	The striped field mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrghyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia). The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, China, the Korean peninsula, and Taiwan. It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m in southern Europe (e.g. Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).	eng
1888	distribution	Kaneko, Y., Krystufek, B., Zagarodnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	The Striped Field Mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Krystufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the north, and northwest Xinjiang Province in China in the south. The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, Mongolia (distributed in the extreme east of the country along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Dulamtseren, 1970), China (from west Yunnan to north Heilongjiang), northern Myanmar, the Korean peninsula, Taiwan, and Uotsuri Island (Senkaku Islands) in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m asl in southern Europe (e.g., Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Krystufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).	eng
1888	distribution	Kaneko, Y., Kryštufek, B., Zagarondnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	The striped field mouse has an extensive but disjunct range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, which is in two separate portions (Karaseva <em>et al.</em> 1992, Panteleyev 1998, Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). The first stretches from central and eastern Europe through Russia, Poland and the Caucasus, and northern parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the north, and northwest Xinjiang Province in China in the south. The second encompasses southern parts of the Russian Far East, Mongolia (distributed in the extreme east of the country along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Dulamtseren, 1970), China (from west Yunnan to north Heilongjiang), northern Myanmar, the Korean peninsula, Taiwan, and Uotsuri Island (Senkaku Islands) in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is predominantly a lowland species, although it has been recorded up to 1,750 m asl in southern Europe (e.g. Macedonia) (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). In Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary, there has been a huge expansion of the species' range (V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006), and it reached Austria in the late 1990s (Spitzenberger 1997).	eng
1888	habitat	Kaneko, Y., Kryštufek, B., Zagarondnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	A diurnal species found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred. It feeds on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects.	eng
1888	habitat	Kaneko, Y., Krystufek, B., Zagarodnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	A diurnal species found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred. It feeds on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects.	eng
1888	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It is found in a range of habitats including woodland edge, grasslands, marshes, reedbeds, cornfields, pastures, gardens in rural and suburban areas, and green spaces in urban areas (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999). Moist habitats are preferred.	eng
1888	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
1888	population	Kaneko, Y., Kryštufek, B., Zagarondnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kryštufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kryštufek 1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is a very common species in the Far East. In Mongolia little information is available, but out of 80 traps placed on the Nomrog River Bank, only 2 or 3 individuals were caught. In Japan, there were two individuals captured in 1979 in open grassland on Mount Narahara, western Uotsuri Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is no recent information on the status of the populations on this island, but the habitat is severely degraded by introduced goats and the population is considered to be seriously threatened.	eng
1888	population	Kaneko, Y., Krystufek, B., Zagarodnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	A widespread and abundant species. Population densities fluctuate, producing sporadic population outbreaks, although such an event has not been recorded in central Europe for at least 30 years (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek  1999). During years of peak density it is considered an agricultural pest. Its range in western Europe is expanding (Gliwicz and Kry?tufek 1999, V. Vohralík and I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is a very common species in the Far East. In Mongolia little information is available, but out of 80 traps placed on the Nomrog River Bank, only 2 or 3 individuals were caught. In Japan, there were two individuals captured in 1979 in open grassland on Mount Narahara, western Uotsuri Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is no recent information on the status of the populations on this island, but the habitat is severely degraded by introduced goats and the population is considered to be seriously threatened.	eng
1888	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagarodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	No major threats are known.	eng
1888	threats	Kaneko, Y., Krystufek, B., Zagarodnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
1888	threats	Kaneko, Y., Kryštufek, B., Zagarondnyuk, I., Vohralík, V., Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
1890	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been recorded in Tangjiaha Nature Reserve, as well as Leigongshan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Tongbiguan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is probably present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
1890	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Guizhou, western Hubei, southern Shaanxi, and southern Gansu, and one record from Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations between 1,800-2,300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1890	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in agricultural areas, grassy fields, and open woodland habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Its diet consists primarily of seeds and sometimes insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It is diurnal (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1890	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
1890	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
1891	conservation	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas in Myanmar, but the Mount Victoria record may occur in Nat Ma Taung National Park. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
1891	distribution	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in southern, central and eastern China (eastern Xizang and Yunnan, extending east to Fujian and northeast to Hebei) (Smith and Xie 2008), north and east-central Myanmar (Kachin and Chin states, respectively), and north-eastern India (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Myanmar, recorded from 1,335-3,816 m asl in Kachin; in Chin state, it was recorded only from Mount Victoria at 2,200-2,800 m asl (Musser <em>et al. </em>1996).	eng
1891	habitat	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It inhabits forest heath habitat, and likely to occur in modified habitats. In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical evergreen and montane rainforest, where it is seen at high altitude along the streams (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1891	population	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	Common through much of the range. Several large series were collected in Kachin state in Myanmar.	eng
1891	threats	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall. In South Asia, jhum (shifting) agriculture is a threat to the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1892	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in protected areas across its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
1892	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It occurs in protected areas across its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
1892	conservation	Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, 2006	It occurs in protected areas across its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
1892	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The Yellow-necked Field Mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found occurs through Turkey east to western Armenia, the Zagros Mountains of Iran and south to Syria, Lebanon and Israel.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
1892	distribution	Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, 2006	The yellow-necked mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found in parts of the Near and Middle East and the Caucasus (Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
1892	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The yellow-necked mouse has a large range extending from Great Britain across much of continental Europe to the Urals (Russian Federation). It also found occurs through Turkey east to W Armenia, the Zagros Mountains of Iran and south to Syria, Lebanon and Israel.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is generally widespread, although it is absent from southern Iberia, western France, northern and central Fennoscandia and Russia, and most islands (including Ireland). It is present on some east Mediterranean islands. Occurs from sea level up to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
1892	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Also occurs in open shrublands and secondary habitats. Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).	eng
1892	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Also occurs in open shrublands and secondary habitats. Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).	eng
1892	habitat	Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, 2006	It inhabits a variety of woodland habitats. It tends to be a forest edge species, but in the Alps it lives within forests (F. Spitzenberger <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Its spatial distribution in large forest areas is related to the productivity and spatial distribution of forest trees with heavy seeds, mainly oak and hazel (Juškaitis 2002).	eng
1892	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is a common species throughout much of its range. Populations appear generally stable (natural fluctuations occur). Densities of more than 100 individuals per hectare have been recorded in eastern Europe (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1892	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is a common species throughout much of its range. Populations appear generally stable (natural fluctuations occur). Densities of more than 100 individuals per hectare have been recorded in eastern Europe (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1892	population	Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, 2006	It is a common species throughout much of its range. Populations appear generally stable (natural fluctuations occur). Densities of more than 100 individuals per hectare have been recorded in eastern Europe (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1892	threats	Sandro Bertolino, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, 2006	Globally there are no major threats. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).	eng
1892	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Globally there are no major threats. Locally, habitat degradation due to agriculture may cause population declines. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).	eng
1892	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Globally there are no major threats. Locally, habitat degradation due to agriculture may cause population declines. In the UK, the species occupied a wider distribution in historic times and has undergone a range contraction associated with the conversion of ancient woodland to agricultural land (Battersby 2005).	eng
1894	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is not protected under legislation in Nepal. It is not known from any protected areas in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further surveys and ecological studies are recommended.	eng
1894	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to Nepal, where it is known only from seven locations (Gurkha, Maharigaon, Gorapani, Takucha, Larjung, Chitare and Upper Ulleri) in Central Nepal (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It occupies an altitudinal range of 2,400 to 3,500 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1894	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species, occurs in temperate highlands where it occurs in Rhododendron and coniferous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1894	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
1894	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The threats to the species include loss of habitat and collection of animals for local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1896	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no known records from protected areas, however, there are protected areas within this range. Considered Data Deficient in Azerbaijan.	eng
1896	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	East Caucasus, where it is found in the low mountain broadleaf forests of the Talysh region of southeast Azerbaijan. Then ranges eastward along the coast of the Caspian Sea through Iran and possibly into SW Turkmenistan. Altitudinal range is from sea level up to c.2,000 m. Restricted to lowlands around the southern border of the Caspian Sea.	eng
1896	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Low mountain broadleaf forests.	eng
1896	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species is common in suitable habitats, specifically in mesic forests.	eng
1896	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The lowland belt along the Southern Caspian Sea has been deforested for agriculture; approximately 50% deforested in last 30 years.	eng
1897	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	This species occurs in Wolong, Changshanerhai (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is likely to be present in several other protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the southern limit of its distribution in Myanmar and within India. In India, it was listed under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
1897	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	This species occurs in China and Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). There are a few historical records of its presence in India (Arunachal Pradesh) (Sarker <em>et al.</i. 2005), but its current distribution there is unknown. In China, it is known from the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Qinghai, and Tibet (Smith and Xie 2008). The southern limit in Myanmar requires review, as there is uncertainty regarding its extent within the northern highlands. This species has sympatric distribution with <em>A. draco</em> in Sichuan, Yunnan, and north-east Myanmar (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1966).  It occupies an elevational range of 2,700-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1897	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	In China, this species occupies alpine forests and adjacent meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). In Myanmar, it is presumably present in a variety of lower montane habitats. This species has low tolerance to human disturbance (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is nocturnal (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
1897	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	In Myanmar, it is probably a common species. There are no data regarding the population status in China or India.	eng
1897	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
1898	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2006	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
1898	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs within protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
1898	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	It occurs within protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
1898	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2006	<em>Apodemus mystacinus </em>occurs on some Aegean and Ionian islands eastward through Turkey to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.	eng
1898	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Apodemus mystacinus </em>occurs on some Aegean islands eastward through Turkey and Georgia to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.	eng
1898	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	<em>Apodemus mystacinus </em>occurs on some Aegean islands eastward through Turkey and Georgia to Israel, Lebanon, north-west Jordan, Syria, and northern Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,700 m.	eng
1898	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2006	It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999).	eng
1898	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999). This nocturnal species feeds on grains, pine seeds, acorns, carob pods, snails and insects (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
1898	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	It inhabits forest with rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs. Rocky areas are important for this species (Storch 1999). This nocturnal species feeds on grains, pine seeds, acorns, carob pods, snails and insects (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
1898	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitats (Qumsiyeh 1996, Amr 2000). The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).	eng
1898	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitats (Qumsiyeh 1996, Amr 2000). The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).	eng
1898	population	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2006	It is abundant in suitable habitats. The population trend is stable (Storch 1999).	eng
1898	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats.	eng
1898	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	No major threats.	eng
1898	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2006	No major threats.	eng
1899	conservation	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
1899	distribution	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	This species occurs across much of China except the drier regions to the west and the lowlands in the southeast (Smith and Xie, in press), northwards throughout Korea, northern Mongolia (Mongol Altai, Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, Dzungarian Govi Desert and Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989)), extending to southern Siberia and the Russian Far East including the islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan).  See Wang (2003) for the distributions of the various subspecies in China.	eng
1899	habitat	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	An inhabitant of riparian forest, mixed forests, forest-steppe, grassy fields, cultivated areas and woodlands up to alpine zone in mountains (4000 m). Most abundant in mixed forests and bushy growth. Often found in dwellings. In summer active in dusk and night, in autumn and winter also diurnal. Used natural roosts or makes burrows up to 3,5 m long and 30-40 cm deep. Burrows have several cells and 1-2 exits. Feed on roots, grains, seeds, berries, nuts and insects. Stores nuts and acorns. Reproduce starting from snow melting and lasts till freeze. Usually have about 3 litters, with 5-6 young.	eng
1899	population	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	It is a relatively common species. It is not common on Hokkaido, Japan, where A. speciosus is more dominant.	eng
1899	threats	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall.	eng
1900	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
1900	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic to the Caucasus (S Russia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan).	eng
1900	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat and ecology are similar to those of Apodemus flavicollis. Inhabit mixed forests, forest-steppe, grassy fields, and bushy growth. Mostly nocturnal. Used natural roosts or makes burrows with nest and supply cells. Feed on seeds, grains, nuts and insects. Stores nuts and other food. Reproduce during warm time of the year, litter size is 5-6 young.	eng
1900	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common species on the majority of the range.	eng
1900	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
1901	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is classified as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. Surveys, ecological and population studies are recommended.	eng
1901	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic but widely distributed in the Himalaya of northeastern Pakistan (Baltistan and Hazara districts) and northwestern India (Jammu and Kashmir) at an altitudinal range of 1,980 to 3,350 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
1901	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	A nocturnal and terrestrial animal, it lives in montane forests, scrublands and grasslands in hilly and rocky mountains, sub alpine scrub and meadow, and coniferous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005 as <em>A. sylvaticus</em>).	eng
1901	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Population information not well known.	eng
1901	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Major threats to this species are not known.	eng
1902	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
1902	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations between 1,800-3,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1902	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including grasslands, broad-leaved and coniferous forests, bamboo, and subalpine shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008). It is characterized as a habitat generalist (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Reproductive period is year round for this species, with peaks occurring in April-May and September-October (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter sizes range from two to six (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1902	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In a survey conducted from 1989-1990, this species was found to be abundant and ubiquitous in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993).	eng
1902	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
1903	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	The species is recorded in numerous protected areas.	eng
1903	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is widespread. It is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku, as well as many smaller islands. These include Kunashir, Rishiri, and Okushiri off of Hokkaido, Notojima, Sado, the Izu Islands (Oshima, Niijima, Shikine, Kozu and Miyake), Toshijima (Mie Prefecture), the Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishino, Nakano and Chiburi), Oshima (Wakayama Prefecture), Awaji, Shodo and Teshima (Kagawa Prefecture); Miyajima, Kurahashi, Nouke, and Eda (Hiroshima Prefecture); Geiyo Islands (Oshima, Hakata, Omi, Ikuchi, Inno, Mukai, Takane and Osaki-Kamishima); Yashiro, Oshima, and Nagashim (Yamaguchi Prefecture); Iki, Hirato, the Goto Islands (Fukue and Nakadori), Tsushima; Otoko (Nagasaki Prefecture); Amakusa Islands (Kami, Shimo, Oyano); Yaku; Tane; Shimokoshiki; Tokara Islands (Kuchinoerabu, Kuchino, Nakano) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
1903	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	The species occurs from sea level to montane areas. It is a ground dweller found in forests, grasslands, and cultivated fields (including rice paddies).	eng
1903	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
1903	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
1904	conservation	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
1904	conservation	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
1904	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
1904	distribution	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, the species occurs from southern Europe northwards to Scandinavia; eastwards to northwest Turkey (Thrace and northwestern Anatolia), central Belarus, eastern Ukraine, and closely adjacent parts of the western Russian Federation (the easternmost limit of the species). <br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs in the Atlas Mountains and north of them along the entire coastal plain. It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles, Iceland and numerous Mediterranean islands: for example the Aegean islands, Greece, some islands in the Tuscan Archipelago, Sardinia and Corsica, Italy. <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in the High Atlas mountains.	eng
1904	distribution	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, the species occurs from southern Europe northwards to Scandinavia; eastwards to northwest Turkey (Thrace and northwestern Anatolia), central Belarus, eastern Ukraine, and closely adjacent parts of the western Russian Federation (the easternmost limit of the species). <br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs in the Atlas Mountains and north of them along the entire coastal plain. It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles, Iceland and numerous Mediterranean islands: for example the Aegean islands, Greece, some islands in the Tuscan Archipelago, Sardinia and Corsica, Italy. <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in the High Atlas mountains.	eng
1904	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	The wood mouse has a large range that extends throughout Europe (with the exception of Finland and northern parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic and Russia) and parts of North Africa (Panteleyev 1998, Montgomery 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is present on the majority of offshore islands including the British Isles and Iceland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
1904	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	It is a very adaptable species, inhabiting a wide variety of semi-natural habitats including all types of woodland, moorland, steppe, arid Mediterranean shrubland, and sand dunes. It is also found in many man-made habitats including suburban and urban parks, gardens and wasteland, pastures and arable fields, and forestry plantations. It has an omnivorous diet including seeds and invertebrates. Although it can cause occasional damage, it is not generally considered an agricultural pest (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1904	habitat	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is a very adaptable species, inhabiting a wide variety of semi-natural habitats including all types of woodland, moorland, steppe, arid Mediterranean shrubland, and sand dunes. It is also found in many man-made habitats including suburban and urban parks, gardens and wasteland, pastures and arable fields, and forestry plantations. It has an omnivorous diet including seeds and invertebrates. Although it can cause occasional damage, it is not generally considered an agricultural pest (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1904	habitat	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is a very adaptable species, inhabiting a wide variety of semi-natural habitats including all types of woodland, moorland, steppe, arid Mediterranean shrubland, and sand dunes. It is also found in many man-made habitats including suburban and urban parks, gardens and wasteland, pastures and arable fields, and forestry plantations. It has an omnivorous diet including seeds and invertebrates. Although it can cause occasional damage, it is not generally considered an agricultural pest (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1904	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999).	eng
1904	population	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999). It is very abundant and in places it is considered to be a pest species.	eng
1904	population	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range, and populations appear to be stable. Population density may fluctuate more than tenfold between years of maximum and minimum abundance, but there are no regular cycles (Montgomery 1999). It is very abundant and in places it is considered to be a pest species.	eng
1904	threats	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localised negative impacts.	eng
1904	threats	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localised negative impacts.	eng
1904	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Heikki Henttonen, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	There are no major threats to this species, although pollution by lead and agrochemicals may have localized negative impacts.	eng
1905	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	It occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
1905	conservation	Krystufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	It occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
1905	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	It occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
1905	distribution	Krystufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mo?ansky 1962). From east Europe and Turkey, the species range extends east to the Altai mountains and northwest China (Xinjiang), south to the Caucasus. The southern and eastern limits of the species' range in Central Asia are poorly defined (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
1905	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mošansky 1962).	eng
1905	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	<em>Apodemus uralensis </em>occurs from central and eastern Europe through Russia, northern Anatolia and the Caucasus to central Asia (Panteleyev 1998, Storch 1999). In Europe, it occurs from the Carpathians and the Carpathian basin through southern Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus to the Baltic countries, extending south as far as Bulgaria. In Europe it occurs from sea level to at least 1,400 m in the Carpathians (Mošansky 1962). From east Europe and Turkey, the species range extends east to the Altai mountains and northwest China (Xinjiang), south to the Caucasus. The southern and eastern limits of the species' range in Central Asia are poorly defined (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
1905	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Juškaitis 2003). In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999).	eng
1905	habitat	Krystufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	It prefers forest edge and open habitats adjacent to woodland. In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999). In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Ju?kaitis 2003).	eng
1905	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	It prefers forest edge and open habitats adjacent to woodland. In Anatolia and the Caucasus it tends to occur along streams and brooks in woods with a dense shrub layer (Storch 1999). In Europe, it is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, dry grassland, and humid woodland. In Lithuania, it is an "ecotonic" species, occurring where forests adjoin open habitat (meadows overgrown with shrubs, cornfields and fallow fields), and rarely found inside forests (Juškaitis 2003).	eng
1905	population	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	Little is known about the status of this species. Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).	eng
1905	population	Krystufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Relatively little is known about the status of this species, but it is apparently common in suitable habitat in at least parts of its range (e.g. Caucasus and Anatolia). Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).	eng
1905	population	Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Relatively little is known about the status of this species, but it is apparently common in suitable habitat in at least parts of its range (e.g. Caucasus and Anatolia). Its distribution is patchy in at least parts of its European range (Storch 1999).	eng
1905	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	No major threats.	eng
1905	threats	Krystufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats.	eng
1905	threats	Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats.	eng
1906	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
1906	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species largely ranges through the Pamirs and adjacent mountain ranges of Central Asia and South Asia. It is distributed from southern Kyrgyzstan in the north, ranging through much of Tajikistan, to Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, northwestern India and central Nepal, with a single record from southwestern Xizang in China (Musser and Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Carlton 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). It is found at altitudes of 1,465 to 3,965 m asl.	eng
1906	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from high elevation coniferous and rhododendron forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
1906	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
1906	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species.	eng
1907	conservation	Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It occurs within protected areas in its range.	eng
1907	distribution	Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	The Alpine mouse is endemic to the Alps (France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria), where it occurs from 550-2,100 m (Storch 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It probably occurs in suitable habitat throughout the Alps, although records are patchy.	eng
1907	habitat	Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It typically occurs in montane woodland, where it favours areas with rocks and patches of grass (Storch 1999).	eng
1907	population	Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It is common in suitable habitats (Storch 1999).	eng
1907	threats	Bertolino, S., Meinig, H. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
1910	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The species as currently defined occurs in protected areas. There is a need for further research on taxonomy and to determine its range limits.	eng
1910	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Central Cordillera in north central of Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Current studies indicate that previous reports from 760 m to 1,650 m in the Sierra Madre (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Mallari and Jensen 1993) do not belong to <em>A. datae</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep).	eng
1910	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species occurs primarily in montane mossy forest from 1,600 m to 2,700 m in the Central Cordillera (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952). It also occurs in secondary scrubby forest and there are a few records from high elevation agricultural areas and degraded forest areas.	eng
1910	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This is an extremely abundant animal, perhaps the most common small mammal in the Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm.). This species reaches its highest density in old growth montane and mossy forests, and has stable populations in scrubby areas and secondary growth (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1910	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	Although there are no major threats to this species, there are threats to local populations particularly at lower elevations due to deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).<br/>The type locality on Mt. Data has been largely converted to farm land with high value vegetable crops. However, there is still extensive suitable habitat in the area (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1911	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is known from three National Parks: Mount Kitanglad, Mount Apo and Mount Kalatungan Range.	eng
1911	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines and is restricted to the island of Mindanao where it is known from Bukidnon province in the Mt. Kitanglad range and Davao del Sur province in the Mt. Apo mountain range, at an elevation range from 1,900 to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is probably more widespread than this, occurring in appropriate habitat across the Kamangkil-Lumut Mountain range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1911	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This omnivorous species (L. Heaney pers. comm.) is uncommon in primary montane forest at 1,900 m and abundant in primary mossy forest from 2,250 m to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data; Musser 1982). The species does naturally occur in disturbed forest such as in landslides areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1911	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is abundant in the known habitats, the second most common small mammal in its habitat and the most common <em>Muridae</em> in these habitats (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1911	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, as deforestation is not occurring at the elevation range at which the species inhabits. Fires have occurred on Mt. Kitanglad and are potentially a threat here and on other peaks.	eng
1912	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2009	The species occurs in protected areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.), but management of these areas is needed.	eng
1912	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2009	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to the Mindanao Faunal Region, Mindanao and Dinagat islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from sea level to 2,800 m and is widely documented throughout Mindanao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It does not on occur on Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and Biliran islands, the individuals there represent another undescribed <em>Apomys</em> species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1912	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2009	This species is no longer common in lowland forest. It reaches its largest abundance in montane areas preferring primary forest, but also occurring in disturbed forest (e.g., by low-level logging and natural disturbances such as landslides). It probably does not occur in human dominated areas such as agricultural areas and grasslands (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1912	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2009	This species is locally abundant in sparsely dispersed populations in montane forest, and formerly occurred in lowland forest, but these populations have declined due to habitat loss and are now not considered common (L. Heaney pers. comm.)	eng
1912	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2009	Today, there are no major threats to this species. Deforestation and habitat conversion in the lowlands in the 70s and 90s has led to a decline of lowland populations, and deforestation at middle elevations has certainly affected their habitat ranges. However, since this is a principally montane species, this disturbance is relatively minor to the overall population (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1913	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
1913	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species is endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region (Philippines), where it has been recorded from Mindanao island (Lanao del Sur, and Maguindanao provinces) (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Specimens from Leyte, Biliran, and Bohol were tentatively referred to this species. Formerly recorded also from Negros (Musser 1982), but that sample represents an undescribed species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
1913	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	The holotype was taken on the coastal plain of Maguindanao province. An additional specimen taken at about 1,400 m in Lanao del Sur was tentatively referred to this species (Musser 1982).	eng
1913	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are uncertain, because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
1913	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
1914	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	The species is found in protected areas.	eng
1914	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is found only on Luzon and Catanduanes islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Luzon it is widespread and occurs from near sea level to 2,150 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
1914	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	This species is mainly arboreal occurring in lowland, montane, and mossy primary and secondary forest (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specimens have also been taken from forest near sea level in Isabela Province (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and on Catanduanes (Hollister 1913). There are no records from outside of forest (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).	eng
1914	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	This is a moderately common species locally (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1914	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species as the highlands, where a significant part of the species range occurs, is not affected by deforestation. However, the lowland parts of its range have experienced severe deforestation (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1915	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is in need of taxonomic revision and the conservation status must be reassessed.	eng
1915	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines in Dinagat, Luzon (Benguet, Camarines Sur, Isabela, and Kalinga provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Mindoro islands, occurring from 300-2,000 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
1915	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This is mostly an arboreal species (L. Heaney pers. comm.) found to be abundant in primary montane forest (1,125-1,350 m), uncommon in mossy forest (1,550-1,750 m), and absent in disturbed lowland forest (475-900 m) on Mt. Isarog, southern Luzon (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. in press; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). This species has been recorded in disturbed lowland forest at 300 m in northeastern Luzon (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and at 1,500 m in Benguet (Miller 1910), and in ridgetop mossy forest at 750 m on Dinagat (Tabaranza unpubl. data).	eng
1915	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This is a moderately common species particularly at middle elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are several scattered specimens from Mindoro and one known record from Dinagat, neither of these islands have had recent or adequate surveys undertaken (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
1915	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	There are no major threats. The lowland forested areas throughout its range have experienced significant deforestation, and there is continued deforestation ongoing, but the impact is minor to the overall population given the majority of the population is at higher elevations (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.). The local population of Dinagat Island is particularly threatened by mining (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
1916	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	The species is taxonomically valid, but there is a need to determine the species' exact distribution (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1916	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Luzon Island, Philippines (Musser and Carleton 2005). The holotype is from Saccobia River, Clark Air Base, central Luzon at around 100-200 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1916	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	Habitat and ecology information is unknown. The holotype was from lowland secondary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1916	population	Heaney, L., 2008	The only specimen that is certainly this species is the holotype. There have not been any subsequent surveys n the area, so population trends are unknown (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1916	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The area of the type locality was impacted by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1917	conservation	Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species would benefit from further research on its distribution and threats.	eng
1917	distribution	Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species is known only from the northern highlands on Mindoro from 1,255-1,900 m (Ruedas 1995), but the elevational limits are poorly known. The area has not been surveyed more widely, so there is a possibility that it may be found in other highland areas.	eng
1917	habitat	Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species occurs in primary montane forest, including natural bamboo thickets, which occur in landslide or burned areas within the forest (Ruedas 1995), and is potentially moderately tolerant to some stages of forest disturbance (D. Balete and L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
1917	population	Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species is apparently relatively common locally (Ruedas 1995).	eng
1917	threats	Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species is restricted to an island that has been heavily deforested and is vulnerable to further deforestation (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991). There is also habitat destruction caused by cattle grazing at higher altitudes (Ruedas 1995) and forest fires on Mt. Halcon (J. Gonzalez pers. comm.).	eng
1920	conservation	Cogger, H.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	In Australia this species has protected status and is classed as Endangered. Management and conservation plans have been developed and the only known remaining populations of this species is within protected land. The expansion of protected areas is needed, they will act as a buffer for the species in the case of stochastic events threatening its habitat. Further research into conservation measures, threats, habitat and population trends of the species are suggested, as is population and habitat monitoring. Conservation actions need to be put in place to ensure the survival of this species.	eng
1920	distribution	Cogger, H.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is restricted to the region between Woomelang and Ouyen, northwestern Victoria, Australia (Backhouse and Robertson 2003). The last remaining population is thought to inhabit the Wathe State Reserve where it is recorded from four localities (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993). This reserve is known to have an area of approximately 60 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
1920	habitat	Cogger, H.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is only found in temperate mallee woodlands and shrublands on sandy soils (Wells 2007) that have not been burned for at least forty years (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
1920	population	Cogger, H.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
1920	threats	Cogger, H.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Large areas of this species' former range have been cleared for agricultural use and development. This species is particularly susceptible to the burning of its habitat by both wild and managed fires and in 1991 an uncontrolled wildfire destroyed two of the four areas known to support the species (Cogger <em>et al</em>. 1993). Invasive plant and animal species may also threaten this species' habitat.	eng
1933	conservation	Hutson, T., Helgen, K., Flannery, T. & Wright, D., 2008	The Luplupwintem cave is currently unprotected and protection of this site is an immediate conservation priority, perhaps through reapplication of local taboos as has happened near Herowana. Local awareness programmes and enforced prohibition of hunting are needed to allow the only known population to recover. Areas of suitable habitat in adjacent areas of Papua Province, Indonesia, or to the east of Luplupwintem should be surveyed to locate any remaining populations of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered. Research is ongoing to assess habitat requirements of this species (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
1933	distribution	Hutson, T., Helgen, K., Flannery, T. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). It was first described from 12,000 year old fossil remains. In 1975, living animals were discovered at the Luplupwintem cave, close to the edge of the Hindenburg Wall, in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. Later surveys suggested that the species had been extirpated from the Luplupwintem site, and visits to the roost over the course of a decade did not record any bats. In 1992, Flannery and Seri (1993) counted 137 bats leaving this cave, and subsequently, in 1993, 160 bats were recorded leaving the roost. In the 1980s and 1990s the species was recorded from two sites in the Star Mountains region where the species is no longer known, and recently hunted remains were collected in Eastern Highlands Province in 1995 at the  locality of Huavegemu Cave near the village of Herowana, and nearby two more individuals have been recently recorded (D. Wright pers. comm.). It is possible that additional populations of this species are present in eastern Papua Province, Indonesia, where there is suitable habitat and a low human population density (Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded as living and fossil populations between 1,400 and 2,400 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
1933	habitat	Hutson, T., Helgen, K., Flannery, T. & Wright, D., 2008	It is a cave roosting, mid-montane mixed tropical forest species, apparently tied to limestone areas. The species is frugivorous and has been recorded feeding on ficus in an old garden at Taman Village (Flannery 1995). An adult female collected at Luplupwintem in May 1992 was carrying a single dependent young.	eng
1933	population	Hutson, T., Helgen, K., Flannery, T. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is reported to have once been abundant at Luplupwintem. The population here was decimated by hunting in the late 1970s. The only known colony of this species consists of about 160 individuals.	eng
1933	threats	Hutson, T., Helgen, K., Flannery, T. & Wright, D., 2008	This is a large bat that has been severely hunted for meat at the known sites. The population at Luplupwintem was apparently decimated by groups of hunters with shotguns in the late 1970s. The species also appears to be very sensitive to disturbance of its cave roosts. The elevational range of this species overlaps with areas of high human population density. A large bushfire had swept just north of the Luplupwintem area just prior to 2001 (T. Flannery pers. comm.), and these alpine grasslands are very vulnerable to fire impacts (L. Seri pers. comm.). The population has a restricted range.	eng
1991	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2017	conservation	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G., Griffin, J. & Clausen, M.K., 2008	It is not known whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. Basic biology and the extent to which this species can tolerate usual forest practices (i.e., cutting and burning) needs to be established.	eng
2017	distribution	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G., Griffin, J. & Clausen, M.K., 2008	This species' range extends from the Columbia River south through the Coast Range of Oregon to Humboldt County, California in the United States, and also includes areas on the west slope of the Cascade Range in Lane and Douglas counties, Oregon, eastward to Vida. Its elevational range extends from sea level up to around 1,067 m asl (Verts and Carraway 1995; Manning <em>et al.</em> 2003). Most specimens are from coastal sites.	eng
2017	habitat	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G., Griffin, J. & Clausen, M.K., 2008	This vole has been found along small, alder-lined streams in redwood forest. Very small clearings, created by fallen timber, and supporting herbaceous growth may be important habitat. In the southern Cascade Range of western Oregon, encounters with this species were correlated less with distance to water than with basal area and density of alder (<em>Alnus rubra</em>) and percent cover of hazel (<em>Corylus cornuta</em> v. <em>californica</em>) (Manning <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>This is a nocturnal, terrestrial species, and its morphology suggests a burrowing habit. It breeds throughout the year, and the litter size is two to four, usually three. Typical gestation for the genus is 28 days with a prolonged weaning period of 30-35 days. It will eat a variety of green herbaceous plants. One study found finely chewed roots in the stomach (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).	eng
2017	population	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G., Griffin, J. & Clausen, M.K., 2008	This species may be common within its highly restricted habitat. The actual distribution and density of the species still needs to be determined. The total population size is unknown but surely is at least several thousand. This species, sometimes reported as the rarest of North American voles, probably is more common than it appears to be (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981). Verts and Carraway (1998) noted an accelerating rate of specimen acquisition in recent years. Manning <em>et al.</em> (2003) captured nine individuals in pitfall traps in October-November over three years in the Cascade Range of Oregon. They also reported four additional recent specimens from the Cascade Range.<br/><br/>Manning <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped 46 collection sites across the range (three in California, the remainder in Oregon). Some of these represented newly discovered populations in the Cascade Range. This vole likely occurs in additional areas not yet documented.	eng
2017	threats	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G., Griffin, J. & Clausen, M.K., 2008	Major threats include loss of habitat due to human activity. This vole is sometimes found in disturbed forests and early successional habitats (E. Gaines pers. comm. 1997), so it may have some compatibility with usual forest practices (Special Report 364, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University). In reality, habitat requirements are poorly known, and hence specific threats are difficult to identify.	eng
2018	conservation	Blois, J., Clausen, M.K., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This vole occurs on a few protected sites. Less than 5% of known sites are protected (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). The Survey and Manage program required the U.S. Forest Service to survey for certain logging-sensitive species (including the tree vole) throughout areas subject to timber sale and to provide adequate no-logging buffers if such species are found. Some vole protection was eliminated in March 2004 when the Survey and Manage provisions of the Northwest Forest Plan were withdrawn. Subsequent litigation may affect the ultimate outcome of this situation.<br/><br/>It is necessary to determine the total extent of range and abundance of this species, and to monitor populations to determine trends and further investigate the effect of fragmentation. This species may benefit from existing/proposed conservation measures for the spotted owl (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
2018	distribution	Blois, J., Clausen, M.K., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This vole inhabits northwestern California, from Freestone, Sonoma County, north through Mendocino, Humboldt, and western Trinity counties to the South Fork of the Smith River, Del Norte County (Johnson and George 1991). There is some disagreement over the specific identity (<em>pomo</em> versus <em>longicaudus</em>) of tree voles at the northern extent of the range in northern California (see Hayes 1996).	eng
2018	habitat	Blois, J., Clausen, M.K., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The species' habitat consists of mixed evergreen forests; optimum habitat appears to be wet and mesic old-growth Douglas-fir forest, but this species also occurs in younger forests (e.g., Douglas-fir 47 years old). This vole is primarily arboreal but exhibits some terrestrial activity. It nests in trees, 2-50 m above ground; it may use old nests of birds, squirrels, or woodrats. Nests usually are in Douglas-fir trees but sometimes may be in other conifer or in Pacific madrone (Meiselman and Doyle 1996, Vrieze 1980; all as cited in Adam and Hayes 1998). Meiselman and Doyle (1996) found that nests were most abundant in old-growth forests; the species was associated with large-diameter Douglas-fir, high percentage canopy cover, high stump density, low snag density, shorter snags and logs, and lower elevation; all nests were in Douglas-fir, mostly adjacent to the trunk on the south side.<br/><br/>It breeds throughout the year. Ovulation is induced by copulation (Adam and Hayes 1998). Females may breed within 24 hours of giving birth. It sometimes exhibits delayed implantation. Gestation period is 27 to 48 days, with an average of 31 days (Hamilton 1962). Litter size usually is two, with a range of one to five (Adam and Hayes 1998). Newborns are altricial, weaned at 25 to 46 days (Hamilton 1962).<br/><br/>This species is thought to have very limited dispersal capability (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). Predators include Spotted Owls (<em>A. longicaudus</em> made up almost 50% of prey items of Spotted Owls in Oregon), and probably other owls, Raccoons, and Fishers (Adam and Hayes 1998). This vole feeds primarily on Douglas-fir needles. It also eats needles of Grand or Lowland White Fir, Sitka Spruce, and Western Hemlock. It may eat inner bark of twigs as well (Benson and Borell 1931). Usually feeds inside or on top of its nest.	eng
2018	population	Blois, J., Clausen, M.K., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is relatively common in some areas, but the number of nests found can vary greatly by location and appears to be highest closer to the coast (up to several nests per acre); farther inland toward drier slopes the density drops off dramatically (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). According to Brylski (1990), this species is reported to be rare to uncommon throughout the range, but the difficulty of locating nests and capturing individuals makes abundance hard to assess.<br/><br/>According to Gordon Gould (California Department of Game and Fish), there are currently 900 observations of nests or animals. Approximately 875 of these observations are from the mid-to-late 1990s and the remainder are from the early 1990s. Observations are mapped by the California Department of Game and Fish into occupied legal sections. These data probably will result in the mapping of about 325 occupied sections in California. Gould also stated that most surveys were completed at the request of the timber industry. This species does occupy areas that are not of interest to the timber industry. As a result, there are gaps in distributional information, and many more sections may be occupied than currently indicated (Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998).<br/><br/>Information on current population trend is not unavailable, but area of occupancy and habitat quality probably are declining (likely at less than 30% over 10 years or three generations). The area of occupancy and abundance probably have declined compared to the historical situation. Evidence of persistence was poor in a Del Norte County population revisited in 1985 (Johnson and George 1991).	eng
2018	threats	Blois, J., Clausen, M.K., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Threats include forest fragmentation and habitat loss (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981; Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1993; Gordon Gould pers. comm. 1998). Although the species is locally common in the foothills of mountains on the east edge of the coastal plain in Humboldt County, loss and fragmentation of habitat has been extensive everywhere within the range (Williams 1986). Timber harvest and clearing of trees for agriculture and home sites have significantly reduced available habitat and fragmented populations (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Construction of roads and power lines has also contributed to the loss of habitat and fragmentation and isolation of populations. Furthermore, these trends are likely to continue at an accelerated pace in the future (Williams 1986).<br/><br/>Previously it was believed that this vole requires old-growth mesic forest and, according to Gould (1987), projections were that all old-growth forests capable of sustaining a commercial harvest in California would be cut within 25 years. Obviously such a situation would be a grave threat to the tree vole. However, recent surveys have found many nests in secondary forest and on drier inland slopes. The vast majority of recent observations come from secondary growth forest, some of which is 70-80 years old and fairly well developed (Gordon Gould pers. comm., 1998). A 1984-1985 study conducted nest surveys in nine 20-hectare sites of young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests in northern California. A total of 79 nests were found with 39 nests occurring in old-growth forest, 22 nests in mature forest, and 18 nests in young forest (Meiselman 1987). Thus this species appears to be more adaptable and probably better able to disperse through various habitats than was previously believed.<br/><br/>This vole may have limited dispersal capabilities and thus may be vulnerable to habitat loss or fragmentation (Huff <em>et al</em>. 1992, cited by Adam and Hayes (1998).	eng
2045	conservation	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The known range is entirely within Mt. Isarog National Park. The protection level in the park is variable, with the lower elevations, especially below 1,000 m, heavily impacted by small scale farming and illegal logging. Population surveys should be done on Mt. Malinao and other peaks on the southern peninsula of Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
2045	distribution	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is restricted to Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur province, Luzon island (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
2045	habitat	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in primary montane and mossy forest. Most records of this species are from 1,350 m to 1,750 m (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). The holotype is recorded as being from approximately 750 m, which is in upper lowland forest (Musser 1982). The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally, and feeds predominantly on earthworms and soft-bodied invertebrates (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).	eng
2045	population	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is a moderately common species (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
2045	threats	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The population is restricted to a small area, but relatively stable. It is threatened by habitat destruction (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991) and human disturbance due to rebels activities. The situation has improved somewhat since the 1980s, and the forest is regenerating. But at lower elevations, especially below 1,000 m the area heavily impacted by small scale farming and illegal logging. The upper elevational range of the species is only barely affected by human activities (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
2053	conservation	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is protected by law in Gabon. It is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is presumably in a number of the new National Parks in Gabon. This is a poorly known species in need of further research.	eng
2053	distribution	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species may occur from the Sanaga River to the Congo River/Ubangi River, but with a very localized and patchy distribution. The range limits of this species are poorly known.	eng
2053	habitat	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Confined to vine tangles and areas with abundant young (or slow-growing) leafy stems in the understorey of moist evergreen, lowland rainforests. Large vertical branches are never climbed because the small, narrow hands and feet of this species are adapted only to close around stems less than 6 cm in diameter. This species avoids climbing higher than 15 m (it mostly lives below 5 m) due to heightened competition from birds, less consistent insect resources, more exposure to wind, sun, and predators, and fewer thin-branched tangles to shelter in. It frequently descends to the forest floor for fallen fruits and invertebrates. Caterpillars of all species are eaten, including hairy and distasteful species that are avoided by other insect-predators. The females give birth to one infant twice per year.	eng
2053	population	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This cryptic species is considered rare in Gabon, where densities of 2 individuals/km² were found in dense primary forest and 7/km² in thickets in secondary forest. Normal census methods are impossible because it hides its head and eyes at the least disturbance.	eng
2053	threats	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is too small and cryptic to face much danger from human predation. Clear-felling and large-scale clearances are the only major threat to their habitat.	eng
2054	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is known to occur in Cross River National Park (Nigeria) and Korup National Park (Cameroon). It probably occurs in a few others in the area, although its presence is not confirmed. Further surveys are needed to determine its true conservation status.	eng
2054	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is found in western Equatorial Africa, with a very patchy and localised distribution within the lowland rainforest block between the Niger River and the Sanaga River in Nigeria and Cameroon.	eng
2054	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Confined to areas of very dense, low undergrowth with abundant lianas and vines within the understorey of primary, secondary, and coastal rainforest. This species particularly favours the growth that springs up in clearings, trees falls, and along forest edges. Wherever it is already established, small-scale clearances, selective tree-felling, and road-making probably favour this species. In such areas it is likely to become abundant in thickets and patches of dense secondary growth. It feeds mainly on caterpillars (which are found by smell), and also on beetles and fruits. This species is able to produce two young in a year.	eng
2054	population	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	A cryptic species that is thought to be locally abundant within its patchy distribution. Originally, they were particularly adapted to clearings in the forest and towards the forest edge.	eng
2054	threats	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Major threats are habitat destruction from forestry and clearance for cultivation, as well as some hunting for meat in Nigeria. This species will not be affected by low-level habitat disturbance, since it is able to inhabit secondary forests as long as dense undergrowth remains and inter-tree distance are not too great. However, broader clearances (e.g. those made for plantations, clear-felling, and agriculture) are likely to eliminate it because of its weak capacity to disperse.	eng
2055	conservation	Campagna, C., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. South American Fur Seals are protected and managed by laws in most of the countries where they occur. In Chile, the status of total protection was given to all <em>Arctocephalus</em> species in 1978 (Torres 1987, Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). In Argentina, marine mammals are under the administration of the various provinces. At the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) fur seals are protected by British law. South American Fur Seals have also been afforded protection by the establishment of numerous reserves and protected areas, including privately owned sites.<br/><br/>Particular attention should be paid to local populations in the Pacific. It is possible that the Peruvian and northern Chilean populations are a different stock that may qualify for a threatened status.	eng
2055	distribution	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Fur Seals are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of South America, from Isla Marco (Uruguay) to Isla Mayorca (Peru). Most of the population is concentrated in the Atlantic side of the distribution, especially in the Uruguayan islands. Colonies are often difficult to access and are not regularly dispersed. Along the coast of continental Argentina, 12 rookeries have been described, all on islands. Some of these locales are only used as wintering places. Ten colonies are recorded where reproduction takes place within the Falkland-Malvinas. In the Pacific, animals concentrate in southern (Magellanic region) and northern Chile and in central Peru. The species has a discontinuous distribution and it is absent in the coast of Chile from 28-43°S.<br/><br/>Distribution at sea is poorly known. These seals are thought to forage primarily in continental shelf and slope waters. However, there are records of this species occurring more than 600 km offshore. Vagrants have been reported from the Pacific coast of Colombia and the Juan Fernandez Islands, and the species visits southern Brazil regularly.	eng
2055	habitat	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic. Adult males are approximately 1.3 times longer and 3.3 times heavier than adult females. Adult males reach 1.9 m and 120–160, and possibly 200 kg; females are about 1.4 m long and weigh 40-50 kg. Newborns are 60-65 cm and 3.5-5.5 kg. Most females give birth for the first time when they are 4 years old. Pups are born shortly after females return to the colonies. Oestrous occurs 7–10 days later, and following mating, a female begins to make foraging trips punctuated by time attending the pup ashore. Pups are weaned at 8 months to 2 years of age. Females will nurse a yearling and newborn pup at the same time.<br/><br/>Breeding takes place from mid-October through mid-January. The timing of breeding may differ in the Peruvian and Chilean-Atlantic colonies. Colonies are generally found along rocky coasts, on ledges above the shoreline or in boulder strewn areas. Most areas utilized have some source of shade such as at the base of cliffs or under boulders and easy access to the ocean or tidal pools. Males are polygymous and territorial, and fighting can result in dramatic wounds and scars. Individual bulls can occupy territories for up to 60 days and have up to 13 females on their territories at Uruguayan colonies. Male vocalizations include a bark or whimper, a guttural threat, and a submissive call. Females growl and have a pup-attraction call that is a high-pitched wail.<br/><br/>Time spent on trips and attending the pup likely varies with location and changes in marine productivity; El Niño years have a negative impact on animals in Peru and during them females must spend much more time attempting to forage. Female attendance in Uruguay is affected by weather with females spending less time ashore during the day when ground temperature exceeds 36ºC and more time ashore during storms. Survival rates of pups can be quite low when marine productivity is low and storm surges can sweep large numbers of pups off colonies. Locally, pup morality inflicted via predation by adult male South American sea lions can be significant at some colonies. Data collected on adult female South American fur seals during an El Niño event resulted in mean dives to 29 m, with a maximum of 170 m and mean duration of 2.5 minutes and maximum dive length of 7 minutes.<br/><br/>The population along the coast of Patagonia is linked to the Uruguayan colonies. Very few births occur in the Patagonian population, so the recent increases in numbers in this area are almost certainly due to a migration from the Uruguayan islands. It is possible that a similar movement occurs between the Staten Island colony and the Chilean colonies via the Beagle Channel.<br/><br/>At sea, these fur seals may be seen travelling or rafting at the surface in groups. South American Fur Seals will "porpoise,” or leap clear of the water when moving rapidly at sea, sometimes travelling like this in large groups. While resting at the surface they spend considerable time grooming and assume many poses typical of southern fur seals, including waving both hind flippers in the air while the head is submerged. Groups often form in the water at the base of a colony. They are frequently seen grooming while resting at the surface.<br/><br/>Demersal and pelagic fishes make up the majority of the diet in Uruguay and include: Anchoveta, weakfish, cutlassfish, and anchovy. Cephalopods, lamellibranchs and gastropods are also taken. Additional prey taken in other areas includes sardines, mackerel, hakes and crustaceans such as lobster krill in southern Chile and the Falkland Islands where squid is also a common prey item.	eng
2055	population	Campagna, C., 2008	Most of the global population of South American Fur Seals is concentrated in Uruguay (200,000-250,000 animals). About 55% of the fur seals in Uruguayan waters are found at Isla de Lobos (ca. 180,000 animals; ca. 35,000 pups born per year). The remaining animals are distributed in the area of Cabo Polonio and Islas de la Coronilla. An additional 15-20 000 animals are found in the Malvinas-Falklands. The population along the Argentine Patagonian coast is about 20 000 animals (the largest colony is in Isla Rasa with 12 000 fur seals). The Chilean population is estimated to be 30 000 fur seals. The Peruvian population was estimated to be 11,400 during an El Niño year (Arias-Schreiber 1998). Therefore, the population global population is roughly 250-300 000 fur seals. The population of coastal Patagonia is increasing at about 8% per year. A decrease from 102,000 to 30.000 has been reported for the Chilean population (Sielfeld 1999, Venegas <em>et al</em>. 2002). El Niño years have dramatic effects on the Peruvian population.	eng
2055	threats	Campagna, C., 2008	Human subsistence hunting of South American Fur Seals undoubtedly began with first contact and continues today. Commercial exploitation began after the discovery of South American Fur Seals by Europeans in the 18th century. Harvest levels declined in the 20th century bringing about the cessation of hunting at many locations. A managed harvest of adult males continued in Uruguay until recent times (Vaz-Ferreira and Ponce de Leon 1987). Small numbers of fur seals are taken for subsistence and poached for human food in Chile in Peru. Animals are often shot in the coastal areas of Peru and an estimate yielded that up to 35% of the dead seals found on beaches have been shot.<br/><br/>Extensive development of large-scale commercial fisheries and ongoing, numerous small-scale coastal fisheries have had an unknown effect on the amount of food available to South American Fur Seals. These fisheries are also a source of entanglements and direct mortality.<br/><br/>In southern Chile, seals were illegally exploited some time ago as a source of free bait for the king crab fishery. Because this fishery is decreasing due to overexploitation, hunting pressure on the fur seal is being reduced, although incidental captures in shark nets have been reported for Uruguay (Scialabba 1989). Small numbers of fur seals are also caught in the Chilean trawl-fisheries.<br/><br/>Survival rates of pups can be quite low when marine productivity is low and storm surges can sweep large numbers of pups off colonies. During El Niño years, mortalities of 100% of pups born have been recorded. Also, high mortality rates of pups occur in dense colonies.<br/><br/>The limited number of large, dense breeding aggregations could make this species particularly sensitive to the effects of oil spills and disease epidemics. Like all fur seals, South American Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation.	eng
2057	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Fur seals were protected under Ecuadorian law in the 1930s, and since 1959 with the establishment of the Galápagos National Park, by the Administration of the Park. The waters around the islands are also protected by a 40 nautical mile no fishing zone. Tourism is regulated and most visitors are escorted by a trained Park Naturalist. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2057	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Galápagos Fur Seals are observed throughout the Galápagos Archipelago. Lactating females make trips of relatively short duration, suggesting they do not go far from their colonies. Foraging by males outside the breeding season is unknown. Most breeding colonies are located in the western and northern parts of the Archipelago, close to productive upwelling areas offshore. Vagrants are occasionally observed and pups have been reported to be born on the coast of mainland Ecuador, but these reports have not been confirmed.	eng
2057	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Galápagos Fur Seals are the smallest and the least sexually dimorphic otariid species. Adult males are 1.1?1.3 times longer and 2-2.3 times heavier than adult females. Galápagos Fur Seals are small and compact, and adult males are stocky in build. Pups are blackish brown, sometimes with grayish to whitish margins around the mouth and nose. Pups molt this natal coat for one that resembles that of the adult female.<br/><br/>The few adult males measured to date have been 1.5?1.6 m and weighed 60-68 kg. Adult females have curvilinear lengths of 1.1-1.3 m and an average weight of about 27.3 kg, with a maximum of 33 kg. Pups are 3?4 kg at birth and an average of 11.3 kg when they are 12 months old. Galápagos Fur Seals mature at an age of about 5 years, from which time females usually produce one pup a year but usually rear a pup only every other year for most of the rest of their lives.<br/><br/>Males do not become physically mature, and large enough to compete for a territory that will be used by females until they are considerably older than the average age of maturity of females. Males hold territories that average 200 m², which is large compared to the average size of territories held by of other otariid males; this is particularly notable given the Galápagos Fur Seal?s small size.<br/><br/>The behaviour of the Galápagos Fur Seal has been extensively studied. They occasionally occur on nearly all of the islands in the Archipelago, and prefer to haul-out on rocky coasts with large boulders and ledges that provide shade and the opportunity to rest in crevices and spaces between the rocks. Galápagos Fur Seals have a fairly long pupping and breeding season, lasting from mid-August to mid-November. The peak of pupping shifts little from year to year and usually occurs between the last week of September and the first week of October.<br/><br/>Colonies are located close to foraging areas and the average length of female trips is the shortest for a fur seal with a mean trip length of 1.5 days in the cold season (May to November and up to 4 days in the warm season (December to April). Most foraging occurs at night and the mean depth of foraging dives is 26 m with duration of less than 2 minutes. The maximum dive depth recorded is 115 m, and the longest duration is 5 minutes. Pups are visited around 300 times before weaning, with attendance periods lasting 0.5-1.3 days. Weaning occurs at 18-36 months, with most pups being weaned in their third year. Pups born prior to the weaning of an older sibling rarely survive, with most starving to death and a small percentage being killed by the older pup. Females will allow multiple pups to nurse but this rarely lasts long enough for the youngest pup to get strong enough to survive. In exceptional cases offspring were allowed to nurse when they were 4-5 years old.<br/><br/>In the water, particularly near haul-outs, Galápagos fur seals raft in postures typical of many of the southern fur seal species. There is no evidence for migration, and they do not seem to spend prolonged periods of time at sea, except for males immediately before the period of territory tenure.<br/><br/>Galápagos fur seals consume a variety of small squids including <em>Onychoteuthis banksi</em>, and a number of species of omastrephids. A variety of fish species are also taken mostly myctophids and bathylagids. They feed mostly at night, possibly exploiting vertically migrating species when they come closer to the surface.<br/><br/>Predators of Galápagos fur seals include sharks and killer whales. On land feral dogs on Isabela Island decimated colonies on the south-western end of the island, killing pups and adults.	eng
2057	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	A census conducted in 1978 yielded an estimate of 30,000-40,000 animals (Trillmich 1987). However, there was high mortality, especially of pups and yearlings during the 1982-1983 El Niño, and the amount of recovery since this time is unknown. The population appears to be fluctuating and population size is thought to be diminished markedly compared to the seventies (Alava and Salazar 2006), and current abundance is estimated to be around 10,000-15,000 animals. Methodological differences might exist in survey methods, but the suggestion of a decline in excess of 50% over this period is very concerning.	eng
2057	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Similar to all southern fur seals there was a severe population decline as a result of 19th century exploitation by sealers and whalers. The species was near extinction early in the 20th century and has since recovered. El Niño events dramatically elevate mortality rates of all age classes and cause population declines; this is due to the dramatic declines in productivity around the Archipelago during these events.<br/><br/>Tourism in the Galápagos, which is an Ecuadorian National Park, is heavy but regulated, and fur seals are protected. Episodes of entanglement in local net fisheries have been reported and are thought to be increasing over the last years. Feral dogs on Isabela Island which killed fur seals of all ages have been exterminated. This problem could erupt again if other feral dogs find their way to colony sites. The most serious threat at present is transmission of diseases from dogs to pinnipeds.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, Galápagos Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. Although there is limited large vessel traffic in the Galápagos Archipelago, numerous small and medium sized vessels operate in the area that could release moderate quantities of oils, fuels, and lubricants if involved in a marine accident.<br/><br/>Galápagos Fur Seals have experienced declines from El Niño-caused ocean warming and associated reduced marine productivity (Trillmich and Dellinger 1991) estimated of up to 80% (Salazar 2002; Alava and Salazar 2006), but the exact extent of population reduction is not clear. Therefore, although the effects of global climate change on this species and its habitat are uncertain at this time, it is possible that any change related disruption of present day ocean currents, levels of marine productivity, or increased air temperatures at haul out sites would adversely affect this species.<br/><br/>Despite their population size, the Galápagos Fur Seal population will always be vulnerable to a variety of threats because of the species? restricted distribution to a relatively small Archipelago of islands.	eng
2058	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals protect populations of this species of fur seal below 60ºS. North of the Antarctic Treaty area, Antarctic Fur Seals are protected by the nations that govern the islands on which they breed. The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance provides protection for Antarctic fur seals on South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Seals on the Prince Edward Islands are protected by virtue of these islands status as a special nature reserve and also by the South African Seabirds and Seals Protection Act (PEIMC 1996). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2058	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Antarctic Fur Seals are widely-distributed in waters south, and in some areas slightly north, of the Antarctic Convergence (Bonner 1968). While most Antarctic Fur Seal breed at South Georgia (Boyd 1993) colonies are also found on the South Shetland Islands (Goebel <em>et al</em>. 2003), the South Orkney Islands (Boyd 1993), the South Sandwich Islands (Holdgate 1962), the Prince Edward Islands (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006), Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), Îles Kerguelen (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000), Heard Island (Page <em>et al</em>. 2003), McDonald Island (Johnston 1982), Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Bouvetøya (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005). Vagrants have been recorded at Gough Island (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2006) and on the coasts of Antarctica (Shaughnessy and Burton 1986), southern South America (Drehmer and De Oliviera 2000) and Australia (Stewardson 2007). Antarctic Fur Seals disperse widely when at sea. Distribution and movements are, however, not well known (Boyd <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
2058	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Antarctic Fur Seals are a strongly sexually dimorphic species. Adult males are approximately 1.8 m long and weigh between 130 and 2,000 kg. Adult females are 1.2 - 1.4 m and 22 - 50 kg. Newborns weigh 6 - 7 kg (Laws 1993). Age of first reproduction is 3 years for females (Lunn <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 7 years for males (McCann and Doidge 1987). <br/><br/>Antarctic Fur Seals are highly polygynous. Males arrive at the colonies in late October, some 2-3 weeks before the first females arrive and establish territories. Males continue to arrive and challenge one another for territories through much of the season. Territories are acquired and held by use of vocalizations, threat postures and fighting (Bonner 1968). Females begin to arrive in mid-November and most pupping and breeding occurs from late November to late December. They give birth 1-2 days after arrival at the colony and subsequently attend their pup for 6-7 days. They come into oestrous, mate and then depart shortly afterwards for their first foraging trip of the season (Doidge <em>et al</em>. 1986, Payne 1977). Foraging trip and attendance periods vary by year depending on the availability of the lactating female’s chief prey, adult krill, but generally last 4-5 days at sea followed by 2-3 days attendance on shore (Boyd 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 1989, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Antarctic fur seals undertake short shallow dives, primarily at night (Boyd and Croxall 1992, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Mean dive depth and duration increase during the lactation period (Boyd 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 1989, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Pups are weaned at about four months of age. After the pups are weaned, females are thought to disperse widely and are seldom seen at the colonies before the next breeding season. Breeding bulls also depart the rookery, but subadults and some adult males can be seen at rookeries on South Georgia all year (Bonner 1968, Payne 1977).<br/><br/>The diet of Antarctic Fur Seals varies by season and location. At South Georgia and Bouvet Island Antarctic Fur Seals feed primarily on krill (Bonner 1968, Klages <em>et al</em>. 1998, North <em>et al</em>. 1983). At Heard Island, Macquarie Island and the Prince Edward Islands krill is not available and lactating females prey primarily on cephalopods and fish such as myctophids and notothenids (Green <em>et al</em>. 1989, Green <em>et al</em>. 1991, Klages and Bester 1998, Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Antarctic Fur Seals have also been known to eat penguins at a number of sites (Bonner 1968, Green <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hofmeyr and Bester 1993) <br/><br/>Antarctic Fur Seals are sympatric with other species of fur seals at three sites. Hybridization with Subantarctic Fur Seals occurs at the Prince Edward Islands (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006) and the Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994) and with both Subantarctic Fur Seals and New Zealand Fur Seals at Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
2058	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The island of South Georgia supports approximately 95% of all Antarctic Fur Seals. The total population of this site in 1999/2000 was estimated to be between 4.5 and 6.2 million and is believed to have increased by between 6 and 14 % since the 1990/91 season (Boyd pers. comm. in SCAR EGS 2004). The second largest population, at Bouvetøya supported some 66,000 individuals in the 2001/02 season (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005). Other populations range in size from a few hundred to a few thousand (SCAR EGS 2004). All populations are believed to be either increasing or stable (SCAR EGS 2004).	eng
2058	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Commercial sealing drove this species to the brink of extinction by the late 19th century. It is now believed that this species survived this period of over-exploitation in very small numbers at three sites: South Georgia, Bouvetøya and the Îles Kerguelen (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2005, Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species has probably lost considerable genetic diversity due to the historical population bottleneck (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000) and may now be at increased risk from disease outbreaks and environmental change.<br/><br/>Waters inhabited by Antarctic Fur Seals are exploited by few fisheries, but these may expand in the future (Hanchet <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species has been recorded entangled in marine debris such as discarded fishing line, nets, packing bands and other objects. The numbers of Antarctic Fur Seals entangled in anthropogenic debris annually has been estimated to be as high as 1% of the total population. The majority of entangled animals are juvenile and subadult seals. In approximately 30% of cases recorded, the debris caused injury. Most entangled seals are expected to die as a result of their entanglement (Bonner and McCann 1982, Croxall <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Leopard Seals have been noted to take as many as a third of pups born at sites in the South Shetland Islands (Hiruki <em>et al</em>. 1989). Levels of predation may be high enough to cause a population decline at this site (Boveng <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The risk of transfer of diseases, such as morbillivirus from other pinnipeds or terrestrial animals to Antarctic Fur Seals is unknown. Antarctic fur seals are considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of future disease outbreaks because of their rapidly expanding population, tendency for most animals to congregate in large dense aggregations, and effect of environmental changes associated with global warming on the spread of diseases (Lavigne and Schmitz 1990). Tourism takes place at several locations, but due to the isolation of haulout sites, visits by tourists are rare (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/><br/>The effect of global climate change on Antarctic Fur Seals is unknown, but it has been suggested that warming may result in population declines (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
2059	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Poaching has been prohibited since 1965 (Aguayo 1979). The status of total protection was given to all <em>Arctocephalus</em> species in Chile in 1978 (Torres 1987b, Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2059	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The Juan Fernandez Fur Seal is only found ashore regularly in the Juan Fernandez Archipelago in the eastern South Pacific, west of Chile. The Archipelago includes the Juan Fernandez Island group, and the San Felix Islands, approximately 600 km to the north. Vagrant Juan Fernandez fur seals have been found on the west coast of South America from southern Peru to southern Chile.	eng
2059	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Juan Fernandez Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with males about 1.4 times longer and approximately 3 times heavier than adult females. Adult males are estimated to be 2 m long and weigh 140 kg. Lactating females are on average 1.42 m long and weigh an average of 48.1 kg. Newborn pups are approximately 65-68 cm and 6.2-6.9 kg, and are born in a black coat.<br/><br/>The Juan Fernandez Fur Seal is a polygynous species. The breeding season lasts from mid-November to the end of January, and the colonies are essentially vacated by early September (based on the observations of sealers from the late 18th century), and no later than mid-October.<br/><br/>Males defend territories on land that are typically around 36 m² in size and that include an average of four females, but sometimes males hold territories in the water that are much larger. Most adult females give birth within a few days of arriving at the rookery. Mean time from birth to departure on the first foraging trip, post mating, is 11.3 days. Although females can be gone for as little as 1 day, the mean is 12.3 days per foraging trip and the longest trip recorded lasted 25 days. Mean length of pup attendance between foraging trips is 5.3 days with a range of 0.3–15.8 days. Based on the onset of pupping and the observations of vacant colonies in early September, it has been suggested that pups are weaned in 7-10 months. This species prefers to haulout and breed on rocky shorelines with boulders, grottos, overhangs, and caves.<br/><br/>Juan Fernandez Fur Seal females travel long distances to find adequate quantities of prey and, on average, have the longest lasting foraging trips of any otariid. Based on geolocating time-depth recorders, the mean distance travelled away from the breeding colony is 653 km, and all tagged females travelled at least 550 km to forage. Most trips were southwest and west of the Juan Fernandez Islands, far offshore to deep oceanic areas. Despite this, the mean depth of dive is only 12.3 m and the mean duration of dives is 51 seconds; these values are shallow and short even for an otariid and clearly indicate surface feeding. The deepest dives are made to 90–100 m and the longest dives recorded are just over 6 minutes. Nearly all foraging-type dives occur at night.<br/><br/>Juan Fernandez Fur Seals feed extensively on vertically-migrating prey at night. Their diet is one of the least diverse of any otariid, and along with the long foraging trips made by lactating females reflects the low productivity of their oceanic feeding areas. Foraging varies between years and probably reflects abundance and availability of prey. Myctophids are the most important fishes in the diet and onychoteuthid squid are the most important cephalopods.<br/><br/>At sea, these fur seals can be quite animated as they groom at the surface. They also rest at the surface, assuming a number of postures including: head down with hind flippers elevated and swaying in the air, as is typical of many southern fur seals; asleep at the surface with both hind flippers tucked under a fore flipper in a "jug-handle" position; and with both fore flippers or all 4 flippers held in the air.<br/><br/>Little is known about predators of Juan Fernandez Fur Seals but blue and Great White Sharks are suspected predators, as are Killer Whales, and possibly the Leopard Seals that infrequently visit the islands.	eng
2059	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	This species was hunted alomost to extinction, but was rediscovered in the mid twentieth century. Since that time, numbers have increased. Following the 1990-91 breeding season the total population was estimated to number 12,000 animals; it appears still to be increasing.	eng
2059	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Juan Fernandez Fur Seals were hunted to the brink of extinction by commercial sealers trading pelts in China. Intensive sealing began in the late 18th century and ended in the late 19th century, when few could be found. It is likely that several million Juan Fernandez Fur Seals were killed during this period. Small numbers were seen in the early 20th century, but the species was thought to have gone extinct shortly thereafter. The species was rediscovered in the middle of the 20th century and has since been making a slow comeback.<br/><br/>The limited size of the population and the fact that the species passed through a genetic bottleneck makes this species vulnerable to catastrophic events and stress from disease outbreaks, oil spills, environmental regime shift, disturbance, and fisheries conflicts. No fisheries conflicts have been identified to date. Individual seals have been seen with plastic bands around their necks since 1982, but the level of mortality from these entanglements is unknown.<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on this species are uncertain; however, any negative disruption of the ecosystem of this species, that already undertakes some of the longest foraging trips during the pup dependency period, would likely be a threat.	eng
2060	conservation	Hofmeyr, G. & Gales, N., 2008	Australian Fur Seals are protected nationally by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). They are also protected in all states in which they occur by state-specific legislation (Stewardson 2007). Australian Fur Seals are included in national strategies on seals published in 1999 (Shaughnessy 1999) and 2007 (DAFF 2007). <br/><br/>Although Cape Fur Seals have been protected in South Africa since 1893, they were still subject to government run or government authorized commercial harvests to 1990 (Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wickens <em>et al</em>. 1991). The Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act of 1973 (SBSPA), provides broad protection for seals in South Africa, but also provides for a harvest if it is deemed desirable. While the conservation and harvesting of seals in Namibia was previously controlled by the SBSPA this has been replaced by the Marine Resources Act (2000) which relaxed restrictions aimed at ensuring a humane harvest (Kirkman 2006).<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2060	distribution	Hofmeyr, G. & Gales, N., 2008	Cape Fur Seals haul out along the mainland and coastal islands of southwestern and southern Africa, from Ilha dos Tigres in Angola to Algoa Bay in South Africa (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Vagrants have been sighted on the coasts of Gabon (Thibault 1999) and the Prince Edward Islands (Kerley 1983). Australian Fur Seals breed on islands of the Bass Strait (Warnecke 1995) but range the waters off the coasts of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales (Pemberton and Gales 2004). While both subspecies do not travel far from their continental shelves, Cape Fur Seals have been recorded up to 220 km offshore (Shaughnessy 1979).	eng
2060	habitat	Hofmeyr, G. & Gales, N., 2008	These two subspecies are the largest of all fur seals. They are also highly sexually dimorphic. Adult male Australian Fur Seals average 2.16 m in length and 279 kg in mass, while adult females are 1.36 –1.71 m in length and attain an average weight of 78 kg. Newborns are 60-80 cm in length and weigh between 5 and 12 kg (Warnecke 1995). Adult male Cape Fur Seals are 2–2.3 m long and average 247 kg in weight. Adult females are 1.2–1.6 cm long and weigh an average of 57 kg. At birth they weigh around 6 kg (Shaughnessy 1979).<br/><br/>Females of this species become sexually mature at 3-6 years and males at 9- 12 years. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 71 % for Cape Fur Seals (Wickens and York 1997) and 73 % in Australian Fur Seals (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Gestation lasts 51 weeks, including a three-month delay of implantation. Longevity and adult mortality are unknown (Arnould <em>et al</em>. 2003, Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are highly polygynous. Adult males arrive at the colonies first. Breeding is from late October to the beginning of January. Females give birth 1.5–2 days after arrival ashore. The peak of pupping for both subspecies is in the first week of December, although there is some variation between colonies (De Villiers and Roux 1992, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Females attend the pup for 8-9 days before coming into oestrous, mating, and departing on their first foraging trip (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Foraging trips get longer as the season progresses from summer to winter, changing from a mean of 3.71 to 6.77 days for Australian Fur Seals. Periods of attendance stay the same from birth to weaning and have a mean length of 1.7 days (Arnould and Hindell 2001). Foraging intervals are shorter for Cape Fur Seals, probably reflecting greater availability of food (Gamel <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pups are usually weaned at 10–12 months even though some pups begin to forage at 7 months, and others are nursed for 2–3 years (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). <br/><br/>Foraging dives by lactating Australian Fur Seal females are usually to 65–85 m with a maximum depth of 164 m, and dives usually last from 2–3.7 minutes, with a maximum duration of 8.9 minutes (Arnould and Hindell 2001). At sea, these seals are found alone or in small groups of up to 15 animals, but they often gather in huge rafts adjacent to rookeries. Neither of the populations is migratory; they tend to move locally within their restricted ranges (Arnould 2002, Oosthuisen 1991, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are opportunistic feeders that take a wide variety of prey, including pelagic, mid-water and benthic animals. Australian fur seals feed benthically and take a variety of species of fish, squid, octopus and rock lobsters (Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Cape Fur Seals are principally pelagic foragers. They take cape hake, horse mackerel, pelagic goby, pilchards, anchovy, squid of the genus <em>Loligo</em>, rock lobster, shrimp, prawns, and amphipods (David 1987a, De Bruyn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Mecenero 2006).  Cape Fur Seals have also been reported to occasionally take African Penguins and several species of flying seabirds (Crawford <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Predators of the Cape and Australian Fur Seals include Killer Whales and Great White Sharks at sea (Compagno 1989, Pemberton and Kirkwood 1994). The Cape Fur Seal is also preyed upon on shore by Black-backed Jackals and Brown Hyenas in southern Africa (Skinner <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
2060	population	Hofmeyr, G. & Gales, N., 2008	Estimates indicate that of some 2 million Cape Fur Seals presently breed at some 23 rookeries or rookery groups in 2004 (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population size of this subspecies is believed to have been relatively stable since 1993 (Butterworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Some 75% of Cape Fur Seals breed at three of these sites: the Atlas Bay-Wolf Bay-Long Islands Group, Kleinzee and Cape Cross. Most other rookeries are estimated to contain more than a 1,000 adults (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). While the abundances of the larger rookeries are relatively stable, they do experience fluctuations. These fluctuations are greater in Namibian rookeries which have experienced major mortality events due to the impact of poor environmental conditions on prey populations (Roux 1998). Smaller rookeries tend to experience greater fluctuations than larger rookeries (Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Some 92,000 Australian Fur Seals were estimated to breed at nine rookeries in 2003 and the population is believed to be increasing. More than half of the population (55%) breed at two of these sites: Lady Julia Percy Island and Seal Rocks. Five other rookeries are estimated to contain more than a 1000 adults. Inter-annual fluctuations are experienced at some rookeries (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
2060	threats	Hofmeyr, G. & Gales, N., 2008	Cape and Australian Fur Seals were hunted heavily during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and both populations were reduced to low levels (David 1987b, Warnecke and Shaughnessy 1985). Under protection, both have recovered, although the Cape subspecies to a much greater extent than the Australian subspecies, which has not rebounded to estimated pre-exploitation levels (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Levels of exploitation of Cape Fur Seals were not as severe as that experienced by other species of fur seals and genetic variation remains high (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Seal harvests in South Africa were first controlled in 1893 and were suspended in 1990. They continue in Namibia at the mainland colonies of Cape Cross and Wolf and Atlas Bays. The 2006 annual harvest in Namibia was set at 85 000 animals which is made up primarily of pups, but also includes a small percentage of bulls. This high harvest level has been retained despite several years with very high mortality levels for pups along with many thousands of adult deaths in Namibia (Kirkman 2006). This mortality has been attributed to a scarcity of fish and poor marine productivity along the coast of Namibia, which occurs at intervals (Roux 1998). <br/><br/>Cape Fur Seals are sometimes reported to be detrimental to commercial fisheries, both via direct competition and operational interactions. Some seals are taken incidentally in fishing operations every year. A number are also shot illegally during fishing operations (Wickens <em>et al</em>. 1992). More significantly, Cape Fur Seals are known to become entangled in marine debris such as packing bands, discarded lines and nets and other material that can become a collar around an animal’s neck. Rates of entanglement vary by colony, but have been estimated to be between 0.12–0.66 % (Shaughnessy 1980). Conflicts between Australian Fur Seals and local fisheries include seals damaging gear and stealing catch, and becoming entangled in nets and traps (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pemberton <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stewardson 2007). While the shooting of seals during fishing operations does occur, it is illegal (Stewardson 2007).<br/> <br/>Like all fur seals, Cape and Australian Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation (Bonner 1978). Cape Fur Seals come in regular contact with a number of species of terrestrial carnivores, and both subspecies are at risk of exposure to viruses and other disease types that could lead to epidemics (Kirkman 2006, Lavigne and Schmitz 1990).<br/><br/>Both subspecies are visited by tourists at a number of colonies. Disturbance is believed to be minimal (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003)	eng
2061	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. The Guadalupe Fur Seal and its habitat are protected by the Mexican government and tourist visits to breeding islands are regulated and very limited. In the United States the species is protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Fish and Game Code of the State of California. The Guadalupe Fur Seal was listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1985, which automatically brought the species the status of Depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act to the species.	eng
2061	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The distribution of the Guadalupe Fur Seal has been expanding in recent years. The majority of the population, with around 12-15 thousand individuals, is centred on Guadalupe Island, where nearly all pups are born. In 1997 a small colony was discovered at the San Benitos Islands, southwest of Guadalupe Island, near the Baja California coast; this site was a former rookery. A census in 2007 recorded a population of 1,566 animals and the first pups on San Benitos. A pup was also born on San Miguel Island in the Channel Islands in 1997. Guadalupe Fur Seals have been reported on other southern California islands, and the Farallon Islands off northern California with increasing regularity since the 1980s. They have been sighted in the Sea of Cortez, and as far south as 17°39'N at Zihuatanejo Guerrero, Mexico. The distribution at sea is poorly known, but records from a few satellite-tracked adult females suggest they travel several hundred kilometres during feeding trips.	eng
2061	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Guadalupe Fur Seal are sexually dimorphic, with males 1.5-2 times longer and approximately 3–4 times heavier than adult females. Adult males may reach 2 m. Two adult males that were measured were approximately 1.8 and 1.9 m in length. The 1.9 m male was estimated to weigh 160-170 kg. Adult females average 1.2 m and reach approximately 1.4 m, and weigh 40-50 kg. Pups are estimated to be 50–60 cm long, weigh around 6 kg at birth and are weaned when 9-11 months.<br/><br/>Guadalupe Fur Seals are polygynous, with males establishing territories that are occupied by an average of six females. Pups are born from mid-June to August with a median birth date of 21 June. Male tenure on territories lasts at least as long as 31 days. Males defend territories with vocalizations, displays, and mutual displays with neighbouring bulls. Fighting between males is rare once territories are established. Females select only male territories that provide cover and shade from the sun and all territories occupied by females are fronted by water and include tidal pools. Adult females enter the water daily, presumably for cooling, while otherwise “ashore” attending their pups. Most animals breed in small caves, grottos, and cliff and boulder areas on the rugged east coast of volcanic Guadalupe Island. A small breeding colony was discovered on the east side of the easternmost parts of the San Benitos Islands in 1997, and it appears to be growing annually. During the breeding season of 2007, Guadalupe Fur Seals were seen on the three islands of San Benito.<br/><br/>Females returning to the rookery for the first time usually arrive at night or early in the morning. Estrous occurs 5-10 days after a female gives birth, and females can leave for their first foraging trip right after mating, or stay on the colony for another few days before departing. Foraging and attendance patterns are not well-known but the limited information indicates that females may travel from 700 to 4,000 km during feeding trips lasting from 4 to 24 days. Pups are weaned at 9–11 months, and females with pups can be seen on or around the island throughout the winter and into the spring.<br/><br/>Knowledge of activities and behaviour at sea, away from Guadalupe Island, are limited to a handful of records. At sea, they appear to be mostly solitary. In recent years they have been reported in small numbers throughout the summer in waters off Southern California and northern Baja California by long range sport fishing boats pursuing albacore. Observations of animals in captivity suggest that they spend a considerable amount of time grooming while floating at the surface. They often rest at the surface in the characteristic southern fur seal, head-down posture. They also float with one or more flippers extended out of the water. When travelling rapidly, they have been observed to “porpoise.” <br/><br/>Prey preference and foraging activity are poorly known. Feeding habits based on scat analysis at San Benito Islands indicated that 95% of the prey items were squid species dominated by the market squid (<em>Loligo opalescens</em>) which made up 65% of the identifiable prey. Stomach contents retrieved from stranded animals included a variety of squid, bony fishes, and crustaceans, including vertically-migrating species.<br/><br/>Killer whales and sharks, particularly Great White Sharks which are regularly seen at Guadalupe Island in the summer, are undoubtedly predators of Guadalupe Fur Seals, although there is no evidence in the literature to support this assumption. A wound on a male from a Cookie-cutter Shark bite has been reported.	eng
2061	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Since the 1950s, the species has recovered from an estimated population of 200-500 animals to an estimated level of 15-17 thousands at present, and is growing at about 13.7% per year.	eng
2061	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Guadalupe Fur Seals have a long and mostly unfortunate history of association with humans. Hunted to the brink of extinction by the late 19th century, they were not reported again until 1926. Following this “rediscovery” all animals that could be found were taken and once again the species was thought to be extinct. Guadalupe Fur Seals were suspected to have survived, because of scattered unconfirmed reports in the 1930s, and were rediscovered once again with the sighting of a bull on San Nicholas Island in Southern California in 1949. An expedition to Guadalupe Island in 1954 confirmed the survival of the species.<br/><br/>Although the Guadalupe Fur Seal population is steadily growing, the species is still at risk because the total population remains low and nearly all pup production occurs at only one island. Also, since the species passed through a genetic bottleneck and probably recovered from a very small number of individuals, there may be a lack of genetic diversity within the surviving population (Weber <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The feeding ground of the species occupies the region around Guadalupe and San Benito Islands and the lower part of the California Current. This region is influenced by human population centres with contaminant runoff, extensive oil tanker traffic and offshore oil extraction activity from southern California. Like all fur seals, Guadalupe Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. Guadalupe Fur Seals share most of their haulout and breeding sites with California Sea Lions, which have suffered from viral disease outbreaks in the past, and which could be a vector for transmission of diseases from terrestrial sources to Guadalupe Fur Seals, because of their extensive use of coastal areas. <br/><br/>No conflicts with commercial fisheries are known to exist at the present time, although gillnet and set-net fisheries probably take some animals, as is probably also the case for entanglement in marine debris. There is a possibility of negative interactions between Guadalupe Fur Seals and lobster fishermen when the seals occupy inshore areas to breed and out, particularly if the population continues to increase.	eng
2062	conservation	Hofmeyr, G. & Kovacs, K., 2008	Subantarctic Fur Seals live in some of the most remote oceanic areas and breed on many of the most isolated islands on earth. All of the breeding islands are managed as protected areas or parks by the governments that claim these territories. Seals on the Prince Edward Islands are protected by the South African Sea Bird and Seal Protection Act of 1973 and also inhabit a special nature reserve (PEIMC 1996). Seals on Gough and Tristan Islands are protected by the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance of 1976. Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are regulated by the French Chamber of Deputies, while at Macquarie Island, the fur seals are protected by the Tasmanian Department of Parks, Wildlife, and Heritage (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2062	distribution	Hofmeyr, G. & Kovacs, K., 2008	Subantarctic Fur Seals are widely-distributed in the southern Hemisphere. They breed on sub-Antarctic islands north of the Antarctic Polar Front, including Amsterdam (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), the Crozets (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), Gough (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2006), Macquarie (Shaughnessy 1993), the Prince Edward Islands (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a), Saint Paul (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994) and Tristan da Cunha (C. Glass pers. comm. in SCAR EGS 2004). They have also been recorded breeding on Heard Island (Goldsworthy and Shaughnessy 1989). Vagrants have been recorded on the coasts of Antarctica (Shaughnessy and Burton 1986), southern South America (Aguiar-dos Santos and Haimovici 2001, Bastida <em>et al</em>. 1999), southern Africa (Bester 1989, Shaughnessy and Ross 1980), Madagascar (Garrigue and Ross 1996), Australia (Gales <em>et al</em>. 1992), and New Zealand (Taylor 1990), and on Bouvetøya (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006b), the Comores (David <em>et al</em>. 1993), the Juan Fernandez Islands (Torres and Aguayo 1984), Îles Kerguelen (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000), Mauritius (David and Salmon 2003) and South Georgia (Payne 1979).	eng
2062	habitat	Hofmeyr, G. & Kovacs, K., 2008	Subantarctic Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with adult males being up to 1.8 m long and weighing 70-165 kg; adult females are 1.19–1.52 m long and weigh 25-67 kg, with a mean of around 50 kg. Newborns weigh 4-4.4 kg (Laws 1993). Females attain maturity at 5 years of age (Bester 1995). Gestation lasts 51 weeks. Longevity is unknown (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are polygynous; males defend territories with vocal and postural displays and fighting (Bester 1981, Kerley 1983). They prefer rough rocky or boulder beaches with sources of shade or exposure to prevailing winds (Bester 1982). Pups are born from late October to early January, with a peak in mid-December. Females give birth within 6 days of arriving at the colony with oestrous and mating occurring 8-12 days later. Females spend the time between the births of their pups and oestrous, with their newborn before mating and departing for the first of a series of foraging trips they will make before weaning their pup at approximately 11 months of age (Bester 1981, Kerley 1983). Trip durations of mothers increase over the course of lactation from 6-10 days to 23-28 days (Georges and Guinet 2000, Kirkman <em>et al</em>. 2002). Dives become deeper and slightly longer over the summer, starting at a mean depth of 16.6 m and increasing to 19 m. Dives are seldom deeper than 100 m or longer than 4 minutes (Georges <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are sympatric with other species of fur seals at three sites. Hybridization with Antarctic Fur Seals occurs at the Prince Edward Islands (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a) and the Îles Crozet (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994), and with both Antarctic Fur Seals and New Zealand Fur Seals at Macquarie Island (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Subantarctic Fur Seals are opportunistic and pelagic foragers. They feed on myctophid and notothenid fish, cephalopods, and small numbers of crustaceans at the Prince Edward Islands (Klages and Bester 1998) and at Macquarie Island (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2002). At Amsterdam Island they are know to take Rockhopper Penguins (Paulian 1964).	eng
2062	population	Hofmeyr, G. & Kovacs, K., 2008	The total population was estimated to be greater than 310,000 animals in 1987 and all indications are that it has been steadily growing since that time (SCAR EGS 2004). Subantarctic fur seals breed at numerous sites on eight islands or island groups. Some 95% of Subantarctic Fur Seals breed at three of these sites: Gough Island, the Prince Edward Islands and Amsterdam Island (Bester <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bester <em>et al.</em> 2006, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Two other subpopulations are estimated to contain more than 1,000 adults (Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1994). All subpopulations are either stable or increasing (SCAR EGS 2004).	eng
2062	threats	Hofmeyr, G. & Kovacs, K., 2008	Similar to all of the other southern fur seals, Subantarctic Fur Seals were over-exploited by sealers in the 18th and 19th century and were reduced to the brink of extinction at the beginning of the 20th century. Since then their population has increased rapidly and they have reoccupied much of their former range. This population bottleneck has reduced their genetic variation and may render this species vulnerable to disease or climate change (Wynen <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/><br/>Tourist visits at Subantarctic Fur Seal haulout sites are rare and thought to cause minimal disturbance (Kirkwood <em>et al</em>. 2003, Shirihai 2002). Few fisheries take place in waters occupied by this species (Hanchet <em>et al</em>. 2003). Entanglement in marine debris occurs at the Prince Edward Islands, but with incidences of less than 1% (Hofmeyr <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>While the impact of climate change on fur seals is unknown, it is potentially detrimental (Chown <em>et al</em>. 1998, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fur seals are also at risk of mass mortality from infectious diseases, though breeding on isolated islands affords some species a higher degree of protection from disease (Chown <em>et al</em>. 1998, Lavigne and Schmitz 1990).	eng
2068	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Endemic to Lake Burdur.	eng
2070	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from Lake Zelonoe.	eng
2071	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from Lake Alapathar and Lake Marsar in Jammu and Kashmir.	eng
2089	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
2089	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is known from Lesser Antilles, from St. Eustatius to St. Vincent (Simmons, 2005).	eng
2089	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. It roosts exclusively in trees and other types of arborescent vegetation. It has been taken in forest, in trail bordered by tree and in cacao groves, often over streams. Six females collected in spring were reproductively active; one taken in April was lactating. Other females captured in March and April were carrying a single embryo (Jones and Genoways, 1973).	eng
2089	population	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This bat is found only in the northern Lesser Antilles and is relatively common, having been mist-netted in rain forest, dry scrubby forest as well as in banana plantations, cacao groves, and botanical gardens.	eng
2089	threats	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Vulnerable to hurricanes (Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
2093	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy would be valuable.	eng
2093	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from holotype from Sierra Leone, which is of dubious taxonomic status.	eng
2093	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
2093	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
2093	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
2094	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2094	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Argiocnemis solitaria</em> occurs on Rodrigues.	eng
2094	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2094	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
2094	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2097	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in a number of national parks.	eng
2097	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from east of the crest of the Great Dividing Range in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland.	eng
2097	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in damp woodlands, dry sclerophyll forests and tropical/subtropical rain forest. Found at greater altitudes and in drier conditions than other terrestrial nemertines.	eng
2098	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in the New England National Park.	eng
2098	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from one specimen found in 1972 at Point Look Out, New South wales (80 km east of Armidale).	eng
2098	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The single specimen was found in dry sclerophyll forest.	eng
2098	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Unknown.	eng
2110	conservation	Dávalos, L., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in the Windsor protected area.	eng
2110	distribution	Dávalos, L., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons, 2005). Up to 1,500 m above sea level (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2110	habitat	Dávalos, L., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is a tree-roosting species. Little information has been recorded about its natural history. It can be found in natural forest and cultivated fruit trees. Its diet has not been documented, extensively but it is frugivorous and has been known to eat naseberries. A pregnant female was caught in April; lactating females have been found in June (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2110	population	Dávalos, L., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat can be frequently captured in the appropriate habitat (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2110	threats	Dávalos, L., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Hurricanes. Restricted range.	eng
2113	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Found on the western coast of Madagascar. Also found in Mozambique (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and Tanzania (Eccles 1992).	eng
2113	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Common in rivers and lakes (Taylor 1986), also found in estuaries (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
2113	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	No major, widespread threats are known.	eng
2119	conservation		The type locality, which is not very precise, might be inside, or very close to the Mount Elgon National Park, although its presence there has not been confirmed. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of this species in the wild.	eng
2119	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Elgon, Kenya, at around 2,100-2,200m asl. It was last recorded in 1962, and four attempts to locate the species (in wet and dry seasons) since 2001 have been unsuccessful. There have been no records from the Ugandan side of Mount Elgon.	eng
2119	habitat		It is associated with seeps and fast-flowing streams in montane forest. Breeding is presumably as with other species in genus, with eggs laid on wet rocks close to torrential streams and waterfalls, and the larvae developing on the rocks, out of the water.	eng
2119	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and it has been suggested that it might be extinct.	eng
2119	threats		The habitat of this species appears to be generally in good condition, although it might be adversely impacted by logging and general encroachment of the forest on Mount Elgon. However, the species cannot now be found at its type locality, or in other streams on Mount Elgon. In view of the disappearance of other montane stream-dwelling species elsewhere in the humid tropics, the impact of disease, such as chytridiomycosis, cannot be ruled out.	eng
2121	conservation	Molinari, J., Solari, S., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S, 2008	Occurs in protected areas - conservation of caves important. Reduce habitat loss and degradation.	eng
2121	distribution	Molinari, J., Solari, S., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S, 2008	Northern Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela. This species occurs in Guyana, Venezuela and north Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Found between 25 - 2,000 m asl but is associated with mountains or areas of some topographic relief, possible where caves are more common.	eng
2121	habitat	Molinari, J., Solari, S., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S, 2008	This species is strongly frugivorous, especially eating figs (Ficus), nectar, and insects. This species is associates with caves of many kinds, but mostly smaller caves (Molinari pers. comm.). This species is poorly known. This species is the least well known of the genus. Inferences about habitat and ecology are based on congeners. It is found primarily in forest habitats, both lowland and highland rainforest. It is a frugivore.	eng
2121	population	Molinari, J., Solari, S., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S, 2008	In Venezuela it is uncommon (Linares, 1998), but may be locally common in areas where there are caves and appropriate habitat (Molinari pers. comm.). The least common large <em>Artibeus</em> sp.	eng
2121	threats	Molinari, J., Solari, S., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S, 2008	Sporadic distribution, associated with caves makes them susceptible to cave destruction. Habitat loss, in particular loss of large trees and general reduction in tree species diversity.	eng
2122	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss.	eng
2122	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is found from western Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru (Simmons 2005) and Colombia (Cuervo <em>et al.</em>, 1986). It has been found up to 1,300 m.	eng
2122	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Feeds on fruit, mainly from large trees. Roosts under banana-like leaves, and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) This species is poorly known, but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
2122	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is always represented by only a few records at each locality. It is a canopy frugivore and as such is probably undersampled in surveys due to methodology problems, it may well be more common than currenly suggested.	eng
2122	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Affected by habitat loss although this is not a major threat.	eng
2123	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
2123	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Michoacan and Oaxaca to Nuevo León and Sinaloa (Mexico), south to western Panama (Simmons 2005). Cerro Campana in Central Panama (Reid and Pino pers. comm.).	eng
2123	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	According to Davis (1969), appears to be associated with cloud forests rather than a particular floral assemblage because individuals have been captured in mist nets set in conifer, evergreen forests, mangos and bananas groves, and in a relatively dry valley near Comayagua, Honduras. Jones (1964) collected specimens from abandoned mines surrounded by tropical deciduous forest in narrow valleys that approached the broader of oak and pine-oak forests.<br/>Pregnant females, each having one embryo, have been collected in March, April, July and August and a lactating female was captured in September (Wilson 1979).	eng
2123	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Is common.	eng
2123	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats.	eng
2124	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
2124	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat occurs from Guianas, Venezuela, Colombia, Northern Brazil, Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also Bolivia, Peru, and Suriname (Sampaio pers. comm.). In Brazil, it is found as far south as Sao Paulo state (Sampaio pers. comm.).	eng
2124	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Given challenges in species identification, its distribution is not well known, but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). There are records from the Cerrado (Bredt and Uieda, 1996; Goncalves and Gregorin, 2004). These bats roost in small groups, usually in trees such as palms (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). They prefer multistratal tropical evergreen forest and feed on small fruits and insects. They roost under banana-like leaves and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves  (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species is relatively tolerant of habitat disturbance (Faria pers. comm.)	eng
2124	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Relatively common.	eng
2124	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, although this is not a major threat.	eng
2125	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
2125	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is found in southern Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Tirira, 1999). It has been caught in moist areas from 100 to 1000 m elevation, but in Venezuela, the vast majority has been taken below 500 m (Handley, 1976).Also in Bolivia.	eng
2125	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is found in tropical moist forest, including fragmented forest.. Although also taken in the dry deciduous forests of Brazil, the species may be closely tied to more mesic riverine habitats. It is assumed to be primarily frugivorous (Acosta and Owen, 1993).	eng
2125	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	A locally common species.	eng
2125	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss is affecting the species although this is not a major threat.	eng
2126	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
2126	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Southern Brazil, Paraguay (Simmons 2005). Argentina (Barquez 2006)	eng
2126	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Frugivores. Forest areas. The biology is poorly known (Barquez - pers. comm.)	eng
2126	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2126	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Deforestation is a localised threat.	eng
2127	conservation	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	None.	eng
2127	distribution	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in west Ecuador, and northwest and central Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
2127	habitat	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is strongly frugivorous. The species is common in dry deserts and arid zones (Burneo pers. comm.)	eng
2127	population	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Ecuador this bat is locally common (Tirira, in prep.) as in Peru (Solari pers. comm.). Sometimes a pest to crops.	eng
2127	threats	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	None.	eng
2128	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
2128	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Suriname, and Southern Brazil; Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons 2005). Not in Mexico and Central America.	eng
2128	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species feeds on small fruits and insects. It roosts under banana leaves and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) The species if poorly known but the genus is generally found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
2128	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is found in small numbers at localities, but as a canopy frugivore it is probably under-sampled. It can be confused in the field with other small <em>Dermanura</em> spp. including <em>D. cinerea</em> and <em>D. bogotensis</em>.	eng
2128	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss, although not a major threat.	eng
2129	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss.	eng
2129	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Venezuela, Guianas, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru (Handley 1987; Simmons and Voss 1998). Also Colombia (Rivas-Pava <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Bolivia (Anderson, 1997). Within Brazil, the known distribution has expanded south to Espirito Santo state (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 1995). It has been found up to 800 m in Mato Grosso (Lim 2000; Handley 1987).	eng
2129	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The ecology of the species is poorly known, but the genus generally feeds on small fruits and insects and roosts under banana-like leaves, and perhaps in tents made from palm leaves  (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994). The genus is found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest, plantations and gardens, and cloud forest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).  Together with <em>A. anderseni</em>, it is one of the smallest species in the genus.	eng
2129	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Apparently rare but as a canopy frugivore it may be undersampled, and it may be misindentified in the field. As a result it may be more abundant than indicated by current records.	eng
2129	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of its range, although this is not a major threat.	eng
2130	conservation	Muños, A., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
2130	distribution	Muños, A., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found throughout Bolivia and Venezuela north to Michoacan, Jalisco, and Tamaulipas (Mexico); it is also found in Trinidad. There is a limitable record from Tucson, Arizona (Irwin and Baker, 1967) (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 500-2,250 m, although registers occurs at sea-level and up to 2,400 m  in Venezuela (Lew pers. comm.)	eng
2130	habitat	Muños, A., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is poorly known. Occurs in montane forests.	eng
2130	population	Muños, A., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Its populations are unknown. It is not common but may be locally common (in some areas). Rare in Costa Rica - middle and high areas (Rodriguez pers. comm.). Locally common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
2130	threats	Muños, A., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats throughout its range. Present in highly fragile ecosystems in Bolivia (Nationally listed as near threatened by Aguirre 1998). Deforestation.	eng
2131	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Inside its range it is found some protected areas such as the Chamela-Cuixmala Reserve and the Sierra de Manantlan Reserve (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
2131	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known on the Pacific versant from Sonora to Guerrero (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
2131	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species has been collected most frequently in mist nets over ponds and streams, and in mango and fig orchards. Recorded daytime roosts include abandoned mines, small caves, buildings, and beneath boulders. It has been collected in arid upland zones. Pregnant females have been collected from February to September, except March; and lactating females and scroted males have been taken in June, August, and September (Webster and Jones, 1983). <br/>It has been estimated a habitat loss of 6-13% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
2131	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Is a uncommon species (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)	eng
2131	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
2132	conservation	Reid, F. & Medina, A., 2008	May be found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
2132	distribution	Reid, F. & Medina, A., 2008	This species is known from El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,100 m (Dolan and Carter, 1979). Found in Guatemala (Cajas pers. comm.).	eng
2132	habitat	Reid, F. & Medina, A., 2008	This species usually is found in dry thornscrub, also in deciduous forest and bananas groves (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. A small group (one male, 8 females, and 5 young) was found roosting in a building. Individuals have also been caught over streams and in banana groves. A birth peak may occur in June-July (Reid, 1997).	eng
2132	population	Reid, F. & Medina, A., 2008	This bat is uncommon (Reid, 1997).	eng
2132	threats	Reid, F. & Medina, A., 2008	Habitat loss, burning.	eng
2133	conservation	Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Research actions are a priority.	eng
2133	distribution	Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Known only from type locality in Panama. It is an island endemic species (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
2133	habitat	Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Frugivorous. Probably similar to other lowlands <em>Artibeus</em>.	eng
2133	population	Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Found only in a 3.4 km² island.	eng
2133	threats	Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Not a protected area. Habitat loss (Pino pers. comm.)	eng
2135	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in Protected areas.	eng
2135	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Michoacan, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Ecuador, Peru, west of the andes only; Greater and Lesser Antilles (south to granada), S Bahamas (Larsen <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
2135	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Jamaican fruit bats roost in a very wide range of structures, including caves, rock overhangs, rock fissures, hollow trees, foliage, and even man-made structures such as buildings. These bats have been observed to eat pollen, nectar, fruit, and insects though they are most commonly associated with large cultivated and wild fruits (Mango, Papaya, but never citrus fruits). <br/>This species normally gives birth twice a year. Pregnant females have been found during February and July, while nursing mothers have been found April-July and as late as September. Births are timed to coincide with the rains/times when most food (flowers or fruit) is available.	eng
2135	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	These bats are widely distributed.	eng
2135	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None.	eng
2136	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid deforestation. Found in protected areas.	eng
2136	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Michoacan, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Southern Brazil, Northern Argentina, and Bolivia; Trinidad and Tobago; Southern Lesser Antilles; Trés Marías Isls (Simmons 2005).	eng
2136	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in forests and natural areas. Good seed disperser (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)	eng
2136	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2136	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Deforestation, but not a major threat.	eng
2137	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
2137	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is found east of the Andes in southern Colombia and Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and into the adjacent portions of the Guyanas and most of Brazil even to Santa Catarina state (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Most specimens have been taken below 500 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).	eng
2137	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is not well known compared to congeners. In Venezuela the species is associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). It is also found in savanna, cerrado and caatinga vegetation. Roosts in hollow trees, foliage, and palm trees. The diet includes figs and Cecropia seeds. Fruits are plucked by mouth and taken to feeding roosts. Its habitat may be more specialized in the eastern part of its range.	eng
2137	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Common. It presents some phylogeographic structure (Ditchfield pers. comm.). In Cabruca (in Brazil), it is only found in association with mature forest (Faria pers. comm.).	eng
2137	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	No major threats. It is found at lower densities in small fragments.	eng
2138	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
2138	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Veracruz, Sinaloa, and Michoacan (Mexico) south to Ecuador and Guyana (Simmons 2005).	eng
2138	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Difficult to distinguish in the field from <em>Artibeus watsoni</em> (Reid, 1997). Found in lowland evergreen and deciduous forests up to 1,200 m. Highly Cluttered Space/Gleaning Frugivores (Kalko <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Frugivorous, but occasionally consumes pollen and insects. May modify leaves to form tent roosts. Reproduction is seasonally polyestrus, with birth peaks around April and September. Found in secondary forests, and disturbed habitats.	eng
2138	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Locally common.	eng
2138	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None.	eng
2139	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat conservation. Needs taxonomic review.	eng
2139	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species if found from northern Argentina through Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,  Peru, Venezuela, and Suriname.	eng
2139	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in rural areas. Frugivore. Good seed disperser.	eng
2139	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
2139	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats. Deforestation and habitat fragmentation in Argentina (Barquez and Diaz, pers. comm.)	eng
2140	conservation	Rodriguez, B. & Cajas, J., 2008	Found in Protected areas.	eng
2140	distribution	Rodriguez, B. & Cajas, J., 2008	Panama to Nuevo León and Sinaloa (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).	eng
2140	habitat	Rodriguez, B. & Cajas, J., 2008	This bat has been collected from caves and buildings (Jones 1966), and under banana leaves (Davis 1944). It is also captured in mist nets in subtropical and tropical evergreen forests, particularly over water or in the vicinity of fruit groves, including the semi-arids parts of interior of Mexico (Lukens and Davis 1957). Fruits are the major dietary item, especially figs and <em>Cecropia</em> (Gardner 1977).<br/>Pregnant females have been captured in each month from January to August and in October; lactating females are known from January, May and June, through September (Wilson 1979).	eng
2140	population	Rodriguez, B. & Cajas, J., 2008	Its common (Rodriguez and Cajas pers. comm.)	eng
2140	threats	Rodriguez, B. & Cajas, J., 2008	None known.	eng
2141	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
2141	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Southern Mexico to Southwestern Colombia (Simmons 2005). There is no record for El Salvador.	eng
2141	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in evergreen and semideciduous lowland forests, tolerates second growth and disturbed habitats.<br/>Highly Cluttered Space/Gleaning Frugivores (Kalko <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Feeds on small figs, Cecropia fruits, etc. Roosts in small colonies in leaf tents. Reproduction seems to involve bimodal polyestry.	eng
2141	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>Artibeus watsoni</em> is usually found below 800 m above sea level, in semideciduous and evergreen lowland forests, second growth, and fruit groves (Reid 1997). It feeds primarily on fruits, although to a lesser extent may consume insects and pollen (LaVal and Rodrıguez-H 2002).<br/>Abundant.	eng
2141	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None.	eng
2144	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
2144	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is found in Eritrea and Ethiopia, although it has not been trapped in the Bale Region (Lavrenchenko and Corti pers. comm.). It is found in all other mountain ranges above 1,600 m asl.	eng
2144	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is found in mid and high-altitude grasslands, and it also occurs in cropland. It is a human commensal species and tolerates disturbance.	eng
2144	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	It is common and abundant.	eng
2144	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
2145	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	Much of the species range is within the Bale Mountains National Park, and the conservation status of this species is largely dependent on the management of this protected area. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed to the management of the protected area for the conservation of this species.	eng
2145	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the plateau on the eastern side of the Ethiopian Rift Valley at elevations of 2,500 to 4,050 m asl (Yalden 1976; Yalden 1996; M. Corti pers. comm.). The range of this species is less than 20,000 km²	eng
2145	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species inhabits alpine grassland. It is not found among human habitations. This is a prey species of the Ethiopian Wolf (<em>Canis simus</em>).	eng
2145	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
2145	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species has a relatively restricted range, and could be adversely affected by changes in the management of grazing and hunting.	eng
2146	conservation	Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
2146	distribution	Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is found below 2,000 m asl, in northern Tanzania and central-southern Kenya. Records of its occurrence in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia are doubtful and require further investigation.	eng
2146	habitat	Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	This is a savanna species, that can be found as a human commensal. It is a recognised reservoir of the plague.	eng
2146	population	Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
2146	threats	Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
2147	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
2147	conservation	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
2147	distribution	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The species is mostly a sub-Saharan Africa species although it does occur in the Arabian Peninsula, where it may have been introduced by man, and has been recorded across the Sahara, but it is mostly extinct there. This species is widespread in savannahs in Africa, found from Senegal across the Sahel to Sudan and Ethiopia, from here it ranges southwards to Uganda and central Kenya. Its presence in central Tanzania and Zambia is uncertain. The species is found along the Nile Valley where its distribution is restricted to a narrow strip of flooded plain. It has additionally been recorded from at least three isolated Saharan mountain ranges. In Ethiopia it is not found above 1,600 m asl.	eng
2147	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	The species is mostly a sub-Saharan species although it occurs in the Arabian Peninsula, where it may have been introduced by man, and has been recorded across the Sahara, but it is mostly extinct there. This species is widespread in savannas in Africa, found from Senegal across the Sahel to Sudan and Ethiopia, from here it ranges southwards to Uganda and central Kenya. Its presence in central Tanzania and Zambia is uncertain. The species is found along the Nile Valley where its distribution is restricted to a narrow strip of flooded plain. It has additionally been recorded from at least three isolated Saharan mountain ranges. In Ethiopia it is not found above 1,600 m asl.	eng
2147	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This species favours grasslands, savanna, and shrublands. It is highly commensal species that is very common close to villages and other modified areas.	eng
2147	habitat	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	This species favours grasslands, savanna, and shrublands. It is highly commensal species that is very common close to villages and other modified areas.	eng
2147	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is very common. It is considered a pest species where it occurs in Egypt.	eng
2147	population	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is very common. It is considered a pest species where it occurs in Egypt.	eng
2147	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
2147	threats	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
2148	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
2148	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	There are two disjunct distribution areas for this species: one in Somalia and Ethiopia and a second in northern Tanzania. It is found below 1,000 m asl.	eng
2148	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	It is a species of dry savanna habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
2148	population	Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
2148	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
2149	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	Occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species. The UK is the only part of Europe where the species is currently protected under national legislation.	eng
2149	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species.	eng
2149	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas but is frequently considered a pest species.	eng
2149	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	<em>Arvicola amphibius </em>has a large range extending from Portugal and Great Britain in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is widespread in central and northern parts of the continent, but it is absent from southern Iberia and southern and western France, and occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. The species occurs as two distinct ecological forms: aquatic and fossorial (burrow-dwelling). Aquatic forms are widely distributed, whereas fossorial forms are restricted to mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).	eng
2149	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There is much confusion between <em>Arvicola amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>Arvicola amphibius</em>, as understood here, has a large range extending from France and the United Kingdom in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).	eng
2149	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There is much confusion between <em>Arvicola amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>Arvicola amphibius</em>, as understood here, has a large range extending from France and the United Kingdom in the west, through much of continental Europe and Russia, as far as the Lena Basin and Lake Baikal in Siberia (Russia). Its range extends north of the Arctic circle and south into Iran and the Near East (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).	eng
2149	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	Aquatic forms inhabit a variety of freshwater habitats in the lowlands and the mountains, including rivers, streams, lakes and marshes. In Fennoscandia, the aquatic form becomes fossorial during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. Fossorial forms are restricted to the uplands, where they construct extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Both forms have a herbivorous diet, feeding predominantly on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Saucy 1999).	eng
2149	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This large vole is adaptable and survives in a range of habitats around rivers, streams and marshes in the lowlands and the mountains (Harrison and Bates 1991). It is a strong swimmer and climber (Harrison and Bates 1991). It occurs around streams and irrigation ditches. In Fennoscandia and locally in the Balkans, they live fossorial life during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. May be active at any time, but are most active at dawn and dusk. Mainly vegetarian, feeding primarily on succulent vegetation, but also consumes some insects, mollusks, and small fish; roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Harrison and Bates 1991). Reproduction occurs during the warmer months of the year and may begin as early as February in mild years. Gestation period is 21 days. Females produce 2-4 litters per year. Average litter size between 4-6 young.	eng
2149	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This large vole is adaptable and survives in a range of habitats around rivers, streams and marshes in the lowlands and the mountains (Harrison and Bates 1991). It is a strong swimmer and climber (Harrison and Bates 1991). It occurs around streams and irrigation ditches. In Fennoscandia and locally in the Balkans, they live fossorial life during winter months. Steep riverbanks with lush grass and vegetation are preferred. May be active at any time, but are most active at dawn and dusk. Mainly vegetarian, feeding primarily on succulent vegetation, but also consumes some insects, mollusks, and small fish; roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Reichstein 1982, Harrison and Bates 1991). Reproduction occurs during the warmer months of the year and may begin as early as February in mild years. Gestation period is 21 days. Females produce 2-4 litters per year. Average litter size between 4-6 young.	eng
2149	population	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population declines are evident in some European countries (e.g., United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However, in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank)(Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species. At high population densities, large scale damages on rice fields have been reported in Macedonia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007). The water vole is thought to have been a common species in the Hula swamps of Israel until the area was drained in 1957 (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Azerbaijan, considered to be common in semi deserts, lowland and riparian forests, mountain forests and mountain grasslands and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. The species is locally abundant in lush banks.	eng
2149	population	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population declines are evident in some European countries (e.g., United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However, in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank)(Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species. At high population densities, large scale damages on rice fields have been reported in Macedonia (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007). The water vole is thought to have been a common species in the Hula swamps of Israel until the area was drained in 1957 (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Azerbaijan, considered to be common in semi deserts, lowland and riparian forests, mountain forests and mountain grasslands and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. The species is locally abundant in lush banks.	eng
2149	population	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	Population declines in the aquatic form are evident in some European countries (e.g. Great Britain, the Netherlands and Italy) (Saucy 1999, Battersby 2005). However in many areas it is common and stable (in northern continental Europe it is considered a pest species). Even in optimal habitat, aquatic forms seldom occur at densities greater than 100 individuals per hectare (roughly equivalent to 15 individuals per 100 m of river bank), whereas fossorial forms may occur at such high densities that they become agricultural pests. Fossorial forms undergo pronounced cyclic population fluctuations every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). In Fennoscandia and the Baltic area the aquatic form also shows population cycles in synchrony with other vole species.	eng
2149	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> and competition by the introduced muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>.	eng
2149	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> and competition by the introduced muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>. Population fragmentation is more pronounced in Mediterranean populations due to increased aridity. In Israel it was a common species in the Hula swamps until the area was drained in 1957; a very limited area of the original swamp habitat remains (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Anatolia and Iran, pressure on aquatic habitat for water resources and localized competition with <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (i.e., Georgia). Local population extinctions and reductions have occurred in Turkey, Georgia and other parts of this range due to drainage of swamp habitat (Qumsiyeh 1996). It is considered an agricultural pest and extensive control measures in rice fields were carried out in Macedonia in the 1980s.	eng
2149	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Henttonen, H., Meinig, H., Shenbrot, G., Bukhnikashvili, A., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Declines in aquatic populations in parts of western Europe have been attributed to habitat loss, water pollution, predation by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> and competition by the introduced muskrat <em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>. Population fragmentation is more pronounced in Mediterranean populations due to increased aridity. In Israel it was a common species in the Hula swamps until the area was drained in 1957; a very limited area of the original swamp habitat remains (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Anatolia and Iran, pressure on aquatic habitat for water resources and localized competition with <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (i.e., Georgia). Local population extinctions and reductions have occurred in Turkey, Georgia and other parts of this range due to drainage of swamp habitat (Qumsiyeh 1996). It is considered an agricultural pest and extensive control measures in rice fields were carried out in Macedonia in the 1980s.	eng
2150	conservation	Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The water vole occurs in some protected areas within its range, although this does not particularly improve the status of this species (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006). As yet, the water vole receives no legal protection under EU legislation (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), nor under national legislation in any of the three countries where it occurs. Further research and monitoring is urgently needed to supervise the population trend, and the aquatic habitats where the water vole occurs require protection.<br/><br/>Nature et Humanisme and the SFEPM recommend the following methods for protecting the water vole (J.F. Noblet pers. comm.):<br/>-Prevention of the use of rodenticides in the habitats occupied by the water vole.<br/>Alternative methods of combating the proliferation of the Muskrat, Coypu and American Mink, by more selective means (live cage traps, etc.).<br/>-Forbidding the raising, import, transport or release of these three animals.<br/>-Legislative protection of the water vole, under Annexes I or II of the EU Habitats Directive, the Bern Convention, as well as in national legislation,Legislative protection of the water vole?s habitat. <br/>-Information campaigns directed at the concerned parties (local elected officials, waterway engineers, waterway management bodies, etc.).<br/>-Regulation of management techniques of water ways and their shores, such as forbidding dredging and paving of water vole habitat and destruction of riverside vegetation.<br/>-Forbidding destructive agricultural practices and associated water pollution.<br/>-International cooperation between France, Spain and Portugal in protecting the water vole and coordinating research in cross-border areas where the water vole may occur.<br/>-An ongoing research programme, in order to thoroughly map and monitor the remnant populations and their trends and to analyse the reasons for their ongoing decline.<br/>-A captive breeding programme and eventual reintroduction of the water vole in suitable protected habitat.	eng
2150	distribution	Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The Southwestern Water Vole, <em>Arvicola sapidus</em>, occurs only in freshwater habitats in parts of France, Spain and Portugal, where it is found from sea level to a maximum of about 2,300 m in the Pyrenees (Le Louarn and Quéré, 2003).<br/><br/>In France, the water vole remains relatively common in only three regions: Charente-Maritime, Brittany and southwest France (Pyrenees), though its distribution is still patchy in these areas.  In the French départements of Drôme, Var, Alpes-Maritimes, Hautes-Alpes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Loire, Rhône and Ain, the water vole has become rare, with a maximum of only 10 locations per département.  In the Ain there is only one location, two in the Rhône and no more than 6 or 7 in the Hautes-Alpes.<br/><br/>In Spain, the water vole is now restricted to the northern and eastern parts of the country, and has disappeared from central Spain, where it was formerly common. <br/><br/>Locations of the water vole in Portugal are not well-documented but, as in other parts of its range, the water vole seems to be restricted to fairly isolated subpopulations in only a few parts of the country.	eng
2150	habitat	Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The water vole is almost always found near to water, preferring small (under 8 ha) freshwater lakes, ponds and slow-moving rivers and streams with dense riparian vegetation (Saucy 1999, Fedriani 2002). It sometimes occurs in drainage ditches and wet fields.  Abundant hydrophilic vegetation and shorelines suitable for water vole burrowing activity seem to be essential characteristics of water vole habitat.  Its diet consists mainly of aquatic plants, grasses, and herbs, although small animal prey are occasionally taken (insects, fish, tadpoles, freshwater shrimp). The burrows of the water vole typically have two entrances ? one primary entrance above water level and one underwater entrance. The water vole is mainly active during the day, with two peaks in activity in late morning and early afternoon, as well some nocturnal activity.  It is active throughout the year, with no period of hibernation.<br/><br/>Reproduction occurs between March and October, with 3 to 4 litters of 2 to 8 young per litter, with the average reported as 3.5 to 6 young.  The gestation period is 3 weeks.  Sexual maturity is reached at 5 weeks old and the life span of the water vole varies from 2 to 4 years. The water vole lives in small family groups and, under optimal conditions, its density may reach 5 individuals for every 100 meters of riverbank (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). There have never been any records of damage to human activity or agriculture by the water vole.	eng
2150	population	Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The water vole is declining in most parts of its range. In France it is much less common than it was 10-15 years ago (S. Aulagnier, 2006), and in the Iberian Peninsula it is considered to be declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), although it is not currently classified as threatened in Portugal (Cabral, 2005). Several studies have shown that, in optimal habitat, water vole density can reach five individuals per 100 m of river bank, but that it is unlikely to exceed this figure (Saucy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Population fluctuations are not known (Saucy 1999).<br/><br/><strong>France</strong><br/>A recurring problem with accurately determining the full extent of water vole population decline is that the species has been poorly documented in the past, with older information on water vole population being anecdotal and patchy.  For example, an atlas of mammals of France (1984, Société Française de l?Etude et Protection des Mammifères - SFEPM) mentioned no threat to the water vole, and reported a nation-wide distribution of the species, with the exception of Corsica, the North, North-East and the Alps. There were no national surveys on the water vole and the vole was not even mentioned in the Action Programme for wild fauna and flora, a wide-ranging survey published in 1996 by the French Ministry for the Environment.  In contrast, over the last 10 years there has been increasing attention on the water vole, mainly owing to its apparent disappearance from many areas, a great cause for concern in a species with a normally high reproductive potential (3 to 4 litters per year, averaging 3.5 young per litter). These recent observations and studies all point to its rapid decline.<br/><br/><strong>Spain</strong><br/>The water vole has previously been little known and studied in Spain, yet it is probable that its numbers have suffered drastic declines in recent years, making it crucial to carry out further research and monitoring of the species (J. Román pers. comm., 2007).  Experts in Spain seem to agree that the water vole is facing similar threats in the Iberian Peninsula as those in France (M. Delibes pers. comm., 2007).  The water vole is not currently classified as a threatened species in any part of its range in the Iberian Peninsula, yet its subpopulations in this region exhibit a marked reduction, due to human-induced habitat degradation, destruction or modification, such as cementing over of riverbanks, canal-building, destruction of vegetation along waterways, draining of wetlands and water pollution (Álvarez, 1985; Garde, 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Portugal</strong><br/>The water vole faces a situation similar in Portugal to that confronting its subpopulations in France and Spain, though its status in this country is perhaps the least well-documented of the three.  Research conducted in several locations in Portugal where the water vole is present leads to the conclusion that it is scarce and under threat principally from habitat disturbance and predation, as well as isolation of subpopulations owing to the scattered nature of suitable habitat in Portugal.	eng
2150	threats	Rigaux, P., Vaslin, M., Noblet, J.F., Amori, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Since the water vole is restricted to wetland areas, it faces all the usual threats associated with this habitat.  The water vole only flourishes where the banks and vegetation have not been significantly altered by human activity. Consequently, habitat loss and degradation (as a result of drainage, dredging, canal-building, infrastructure development, intensive agriculture, and so on) are major threats. Competition with the introduced Coypu and Muskrat for food and dens is also a threat. In Spain, water vole decline is attributed primarily to anthropogenic habitat modification, but competition from the Norway rat may be an additional factor threatening the water vole (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Efforts to control invasive species by poisoning have resulted in accidental water vole deaths.<br/><br/>In descending order of importance, the principal threats are:<br/>Secondary poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (Bromadiolone and Chlorophacinone) intended for the Norway Rat, Coypu and Muskrat, <br/>Competition for habitat and food sources with the Muskrat and Coypu,<br/>Predation by the American Mink, Polecat and Norway Rat, as well as domestic dogs and cats,<br/>Trapping and shooting of ?vermin?,<br/>Habitat modification, including draining of suitable wetlands, dredging, canal-building, disturbance by human activity and livestock, etc.,<br/>Drastic variations in water level caused by dams or seasonal droughts,<br/>Pollution and possibly disease and parasites.	eng
2153	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It occurs in the Awash National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution of this species, both in northeastern Africa and in the Arabian peninsula.	eng
2153	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has a restricted known range in northeastern Africa, from central Ethiopia north to Eritrea, and also from islands in the Red Sea including Farasan Island and Segid Island (=As-Saqid) of southwestern Saudi Arabia. It probably occurs more widely in this poorly explored region.	eng
2153	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It roosts in caves and buildings and in dry open terrain such as the semi-desert grassland of the Awash National Park (Hill and Morris 1971). It flies close to the ground catching insects.	eng
2153	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is a poorly known species, but it appears to be rare with small roosts. There is a possibility that it will be found in larger roosts, but to date none have been found.	eng
2153	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There is very little information, but roost disturbance is a possible threat. However, the species is associated with habitats that are not under significant threat, and has been found in buildings, and so can adapt to human presence.	eng
2154	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A., Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Underground roost management is needed in some places. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
2154	conservation	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Underground roost management is needed in some places. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
2154	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A., Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Geoffroy's trident leaf-nosed bat ranges widely in the Sahara, through the Arabian peninsula and the Middle East, to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is absent from the northern parts of Morocco and Algeria, and Tunisia, and occurs south to Ethiopia and Somalia.	eng
2154	distribution	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Geoffroy's trident leaf-nosed bat ranges widely in the Sahara, through the Arabian peninsula and the Middle East, to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is absent from the northern parts of Morocco and Algeria, and Tunisia, and occurs south to Ethiopia and Somalia.	eng
2154	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A., Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is a gregarious and colonial species which occurs in crevices or in cliffs in arid and semi-desert habitats. It roosts in temples, caves, mines, open-wells, underground irrigation tunnels and old tombs and buildings. Forages over desert and semi-desert vegetation zones, mainly in oases. Forages by slow hawking, has been observed foraging around palm trees and buildings, and over water.	eng
2154	habitat	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is a gregarious and colonial species which occurs in crevices or in cliffs in arid and semi-desert habitats. It roosts in temples, caves, mines, open-wells, underground irrigation tunnels and old tombs and buildings. Forages over desert and semi-desert vegetation zones, mainly in oases. Forages by slow hawking, has been observed foraging around palm trees and buildings, and over water.	eng
2154	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A., Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is a very common species, found in colonies of up to several hundred in North Africa, and in its Asian distribution it has been found in groups up to 5,000 animals.	eng
2154	population	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is a very common species, found in colonies of up to several hundred in North Africa, and in its Asian distribution it has been found in groups up to 5,000 animals.	eng
2154	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A., Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The main threat is the widespread use of pesticides against locusts. Human disturbance in caves and old buildings is affecting some populations.	eng
2154	threats	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The main threat is the widespread use of pesticides against locusts. Human disturbance in caves and old buildings is affecting some populations.	eng
2155	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.	eng
2155	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	This species occurs from Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al.</em> 2005) and southern China (Yunnan, Guangxi and Guizhou) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008), south to the Malay Peninsula.	eng
2155	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	The species occurs in limestone areas and is known to roost in caves (C. Francis and P. Bates pers. comm.). The species is not dependent on primary habitat and can survive in degraded areas and extends into agricultural zones and shares roosts with other species (P. Bates pers. comm.). A colony in Thailand roosted in loose association in limestone caves, with individuals at least 30 cm from one another.  Reproductively active females have been collected in May and June in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.	eng
2155	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	It is locally common in limestone areas.	eng
2155	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	The species is vulnerable to disturbance of cave roosts by tourism and also the destruction of caves through limestone extraction (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
2156	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification and protection of additional important roosting sites. It has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
2156	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This widespread species is present on many islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia (e.g., Halmahera, Ambon, Seram and Morotai); Biak and Yapen Islands (Indonesia); much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); the Bismark Archipelago (Papua New Guinea); the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Lousiade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); Bougainville and Buka Islands (Papua New Guinea); throughout most of the Solomon Islands; and Vanuatu (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). It appears to be a lowland species, occurring from sea level to 600 m asl.	eng
2156	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species has been recorded roosting in many caves and tunnels. Animals form groups of 40 to 50 individuals and several hundred bats may occur at a single roost. Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young annually. The foraging habitats of this species are not known.	eng
2156	population	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range (e.g., New Ireland), but uncommon in other areas (e.g., the Moluccas) (Flannery 1995b).	eng
2156	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be threatened in parts of its range by collection for food or cave disturbance.	eng
2173	conservation	Asmat, G.S.M, 2002	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
2173	distribution	Asmat, G.S.M, 2002	This species is only known to exist in an artificial pond (Baizid Bostami shrine) near Chittagong, Bangladesh. In 1912, its distribution was given as in between the Brahmaputra river system and the Arakan streams, but this may have been an incorrect assumption based on the distributions of <em>A. gangenticus, A. leithi,</em> and <em>A. hurum</em> (Asmat, pers. comm).	eng
2173	habitat	Asmat, G.S.M, 2002	Semi-aquatic	eng
2174	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Leith's Soft Shell Turtle is endemic to peninsular India.	eng
2174	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This is an omnivorous, freshwater species occurring in rivers, reservoirs, and ponds.	eng
2174	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Although once common, this species has disappeared from much of its former range, mainly due to siltation and drying up of rivers during the summer.  Trade up to the mid 1970s also took its toll on <em>A. leithii</em>.	eng
2176	conservation	Australasian Marsupial & Monotreme Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
2178	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
2178	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	It is a (EU - Berne Convention) Natura 2000 species, requiring protection from range states.	eng
2178	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Large rivers draining to North Sea (Weser, Elbe), Baltic Sea (southern tributaries, Norway east of Oslo, southern Sweden, Kokemären drainage in southern Finland), Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Seas; Aegean Sea, from Maritza to Lake Volvi drainages. Absent in Black Sea basin south of Danube and Rioni (Georgia) drainages, but present in Turkey west of Ankara. Introduced in Rhine, Northern Dvina and Lake Balkhash (Asia). Identity of populations of Aral Sea remains uncertain.	eng
2178	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Large rivers draining to North Sea (Weser, Elbe), Baltic Sea (southern tributaries, Norway east of Oslo, southern Sweden, Kokemären drainage in southern Finland), Black Sea, Sea of Azov and Caspian Seas; Aegean Sea, from Maritza to Lake Volvi drainages. Absent in Black Sea basin south of Danube and Rioni (Georgia) drainages, but present in Turkey west of Ankara. Introduced in Rhine, Northern Dvina and Lake Balkhash (Asia). Identity of populations of Aral Sea remains uncertain.	eng
2178	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open water of large and mid-sized lowland rivers and large lakes. Spawns on gravel or submerged vegetation in fast-flowing water. Lake populations migrate to tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Reproductive success seems to be associated with low water level and high spring temperatures. Spawns more than one season, in March-early April (mid-May in Volga), when temperatures rise above 8°C (Rhine) or even less (4-6°C in Terek), at places with strong current. Spawning lasts about two weeks. Eggs adhere to gravel or submerged plants. Semi-anadromous individuals or populations (Terek) forage predominantly in estuaries and freshened parts of the sea, migrating to rivers only for spawning. Starts spawning migration in second half of October (Terek) and overwinters in lower part of river. Juveniles are gregarious predators; adults hunt in small groups or are solitary. Juveniles and adults feed predominantly on fish, especially on <em>Alburnus alburnus</em> or <em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>. Juveniles grow rapidly, reaching about 80-100 mm SL during first year. Regularly hybridizes with <em>L. idus</em>.	eng
2178	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open water of large and mid-sized lowland rivers and large lakes. Spawns on gravel or submerged vegetation in fast-flowing water. Lake populations migrate to tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Reproductive success seems to be associated with low water level and high spring temperatures. Spawns more than one season, in March-early April (mid-May in Volga), when temperatures rise above 8°C (Rhine) or even less (4-6°C in Terek), at places with strong current. Spawning lasts about two weeks. Eggs adhere to gravel or submerged plants. Semi-anadromous individuals or populations (Terek) forage predominantly in estuaries and freshened parts of the sea, migrating to rivers only for spawning. Starts spawning migration in second half of October (Terek) and overwinters in lower part of river. Juveniles are gregarious predators; adults hunt in small groups or are solitary. Juveniles and adults feed predominantly on fish, especially on <em>Alburnus alburnus</em> or <em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>. Juveniles grow rapidly, reaching about 80-100 mm SL during first year. Regularly hybridizes with <em>L. idus</em>.	eng
2178	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2178	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Unknown.	eng
2178	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by river engineering projects.	eng
2178	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known. However, locally threatened by river engineering projects.	eng
2183	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.	eng
2183	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is endemic to Madagascar, and extends a little further north than that of any other Malagasy crayfishes. The distribution of this species lies at latitudes 18° to 21° S, longitudes 47° to 49° E. Type specimens were probably collected in the vicinity of Tananarive (Hobbs 1987). This species is found in the Toamasina and Antananarivo provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,697 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
2183	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is widespread in lotic habitats in the eastern rainforests. It is very s<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ilar to <em>A. granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> and essentially appears to fill the same niche as this common species but with a range shifted to the north (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
2183	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> is a relatively common and species where it is found (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
2183	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	In common with other similar species in the genus (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007), habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to agricultural land is likely to threaten <em>Astacoides madagascariensis</em> (J.P.G. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This species is also heavily harvested throughout its range. Although no studies have looked specifically at the sustainability of this harvest, the species is very similar to <em>A. granulimanus</em> which suggests the harvest may be sustainable under current conditions (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a).	eng
2184	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/> <br/>Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better  understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a  community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood  that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to  monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power  (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).  Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span>  is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals  caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both  resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em>  2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).	eng
2184	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it is found between latitudes 20° and 22° S, longitude 47° and 48° E. This species is widespread in the Fianarantsoa province (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005; Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,214 km<sup>2</sup>. It is found at an elevational range of 500 - 1,000 m above sea level (Jones<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
2184	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is commonly found in swampy areas within natural forest, however it may also be found in forest streams and occasionally in rice fields and canals (Dixon 1992, Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). Eggs are laid in June to July, then carried for 4 months, hatching in October/ November. This is the smallest of the MalagasyMalagasy crayfish species, growing to 53 mm carapace length (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005) and reaching sexual maturity at 31 mm carapace length (CL).<span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a> </p>	eng
2184	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p>During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was found to be locally abundant: a maximum of 90 individuals were found during a 2 hour search period.</p>	eng
2184	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is threatened by habitat loss, as the swampy areas utilised by this species are rapidly being converted into rice fields. This species is usually extirpated within 5 to 10 years following habitat conversion (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). It was once described as abundant within natural swamp systems close to forest or within the forest. Some reports cla<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname> that this species has been extirpated from part of its range as there is no remaining suitable habitat. In addition, this species sensitivity to threats is exacerbated by a slow growth rate (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>Astacoides crosnieri</em> is not usually targeted by fisheries due to its muddy taste, and the difficulty in accessing its swampy habitat (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006) however it is harvested in some areas and a high proportion of harvested individuals will not have reproduced prior to harvesting (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/> <br/> Malagasy crayfish are subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005). The survival of native Malagasy crayfish species is further compromised by the introduction of non-native crayfish species. Species of <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008). Life history strategies such as higher fecundity and growth rates of <em>Procambarus</em>, give these species a competitive advantage (Jones<em> et al. </em>2008). <em>Procambarus</em> may also act as a carrier of crayfish plague, <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em>.</p>	eng
2185	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides petiti</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>Further surveys for this species are needed to determine true range.	eng
2185	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides petiti</em> is endemic to Madagascar, and known from only five localities all of which are situated on the eastern versant of the island between latitudes 22° and 25° S, longitude 46° and 48° E. This species is found in the Fianarantsoa and Toliara provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005).This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,045 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
2185	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides petiti</em> is found in lotic habitats and swampy areas.	eng
2185	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There is no population information for <em>Astacoides petiti</em>.	eng
2185	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	Habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to rice fields is likely to threaten <em>Astacoides petiti</em>. In addition this species is likely to be harvested by subsistence fisheries. Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). However, the precise threats to this species are not well understood.	eng
2186	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but there is a national size limit for harvesting crayfish of 10 cm total length under Malagasy regulations. Many local level and traditional rules exist to govern the harvest of this species (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b). <br/><br/>Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals caught per day at a given site could be useful information to both resource managers and external conservation bodies (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2006; Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c). Control of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span> is required.	eng
2186	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place>, along with <em>A. madagascarensis</em>, it has the most widespread distribution within this genus (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species occurs in watersheds draining to the east and west between latitudes 18° to 24° S and longitudes 46° to 48° E (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1987). This species is found in the Toamasina, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has a relatively broad altitude range of 600 and 1,300 m (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This species has an est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated extent of occurrence of 3,826 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
2186	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is a generalist species in terms of its habitat requirements, occupying forest streams, slow flowing rivers and occasionally swampy areas and rice fields/ canals. It is most commonly found in areas of natural vegetation but has been recorded from pine or Eucalyptus plantations, although the river banks retained their natural vegetation (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/> <br/> Eggs are laid during June to July and carried for 4 months, hatching in October to November. Fifty percent of individuals become reproductive at 50 mm carapace length (approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 6 years old), and an grow up to 75 mm carapace length (CL), living up to 20 years old (Jones and Coulson 2006).<br/> <br/> Like other <em>Astacoides</em> species (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007), this species exhibits an exceptionally slow growth rate (Jones and <a style="">Coulson 2006), taking approx</a><st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 62.4 months to reach 40 g (Jones, Andriahajaina and Hockley <span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>2007).</p>          <a name="_msocom_1"></a>	eng
2186	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p>During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was locally abundant with up to 85 individuals found during a 2 hour search period.</p>	eng
2186	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides granul<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>anus</em> is <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacted by deforestation; it was almost never found in streams whose banks had been completely cleared for agriculture (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). However it appears to have a broader habitat tolerance than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. betsileoensis.</span><br/> <br/> The species is heavily harvested throughout its range (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). Most crayfish harvesters (both commercial and subsistence) admit to taking individuals bearing eggs as they are fatter and tastier (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). The crayfish reproductive period also overlaps with the hungry season of when food is scarce from July to December (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). However, although over-harvesting may be a threat in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007), a detailed study in one part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> where harvesting is a major economic activity found the current harvest to be sustainable (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2005). Studies looking into the suitability of this species for aquaculture, <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ply that poor tolerance for low oxygen conditions and slow growth rates make it a bad candidate (Jones, Andriahajaina and Hockley 2007).<br/> <br/> Crayfishes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region></st1:place> are subjected to a heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (such as eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko <em>et al.</em> 2005). Introduced fish species, such as the Asian Snakehead (<em>Channa maculata</em>) represent a new and growing threat (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Crayfish from the genus <em>Procambarus</em> have recently been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a) though the true distribution may in fact extend further. There is concern that <em>Procambarus</em> may eventually out compete native <em>Astacoides</em> species due to higher fecundity and growth rates or may act as a vector for crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). Action is needed to prevent the translocation of this species around the island.	eng
2187	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em>, however there is a national law preventing the harvesting of crayfish under 10 cm total length. Local rules and taboos govern harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008b).<br/> <br/> Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better  understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a  community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood  that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to  monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power  (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).  Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span>  is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals  caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both  resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em>  2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).</p>	eng
2187	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is endemic to the eastern highlands of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and is largely found between the latitudes 18° to 21° S, longitudes 46° <a style="">to</a> 48° E (Hobbs 1987). This is a rare species found only at low altitudes (600-800 m) in rivers draining forested catchments (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007) in the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:place></st1:city> and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated extent of occurrence <a style="">of 2,700 km<sup>2</sup></a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2">.</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2"> It is found at an elevational range of 600 - 800 m above sea level (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</a><span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_2"></a> </p>	eng
2187	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p><em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is only found in large rivers draining forested catchments, at low elevations between 600 - 800m above sea level on the eastern side of the escarpment (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). Most localities where this species is known from are in relatively recently deforestated areas abutting natural forest (Jones et al. 2007). <em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is a tertiary burrower (Jones et al 2007. Eggs are laid in June or July and carried for approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 4 months, hatching in October or November (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>	eng
2187	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<p>In the study by Jones <em>et al.</em> in 2007, this species was found to be the rarest of all Malagasy crayfish sampled (<a style="font-style: italic;">granumilanus</a><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1">, </a><span style="font-style: italic;">crosnieri, betsileoensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">caldwelli</span>). At none of the sample localities, was this species abundant. A max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>um of nine individuals were found in a 2 hr search.</p>	eng
2187	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides caldwelli</em> is currently under threat from rapid habitat loss due to conversion of low elevation forest to paddy fields. While this species is not targeted specifically by commercial fisheries, it is taken incidentally and by subsistence fishers (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2006). Due to the low abundance of this species, harvesting is likely to pose a significant threat in areas of intense fishing pressure. This species was once described as abundant, however local people have reported a significant decline in abundance (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition, Malagasy crayfish are subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/> The survival of native Malagasy crayfish species is further compromised by the introduction of non-native species. Species of <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Antananarivo</st1:city></st1:place> (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008). Life history strategies such as higher fecundity and growth rates of <em>Procambarus</em> give these species a competitive advantage (Jones<em> et al. </em>2008). <em>Procambarus</em> may also act as a carrier of crayfish plague, <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em>.	eng
2188	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the imposed minimum size limit for harvesting <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species is 10 cm total length (TL) according to Malagasy regulations. Local rules and taboos control harvesting in some areas (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2008b). <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species range and abundance is required to better understand the rate at which it is being lost. However, establishing a community led monitoring program may prove difficult as it is understood that time lost monitoring is time lost harvesting. Contribution to monitoring is likely and therefore have little statistical power (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Monitoring of invasive <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span> is also needed. Simple monitoring of the number and size of individuals caught per day at a given site could provide useful information to both resource managers and external conservation bodies (Hockley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006, Jones <em>et al.</em> 2008c).	eng
2188	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides betsileosensis</em> is endemic to the eastern highlands of Madagascar. It is found between latitudes 18° to 20° S, longitudes 46° to 49° E (Hobbs 1987) in the Toamasina, Antananarivo and Fianarantsoa provinces (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005) at an elevation range of 1,000-2,000 m aboce sea level (Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,040 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
2188	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides betsileosensis</em> is typically found to occur in the deeper-water of slow-flowing rivers at altitudes greater than 1,000m above sea level (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). It can also been found in smaller rivers with deep pools. Individuals are normally collected in areas of natural vegetation, although a single specimen has been collected from an irrigation channel in a rice field, and a number of specimens from a pine plantation (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007). This is a burrowing species (Hobbs 1942) and in the study by Jones<em> et al</em>. (2007) it was found in burrows in sandy banks, up to a meter long with galleries running parallel to the bank.<br/><br/>This is the largest of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species, and can reach up to 79 mm carapace length (CL) (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Eggs are laid in June or July, and carried for approximately 4 months, hatching in October or November. Relative to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> it appears to withhold reproduction until it reaches a larger size, however in this study it was found to be the fastest growing species (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). During this same study 50% of females were found to be reproductive at 65mm carapace length.	eng
2188	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	During the study by Jones <em>et al</em>. (2007), this species was never found to be particularly abundant: a maximum of 16 individuals were&#160; found during a 2 hour search period.	eng
2188	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	This species' large size means it is a valued crayfish and is harvested throughout its range (Jones <em>et al </em>2007). Due to the large size at 1st reproduction, this species is at serious threat from recruitment overfishing with only 10% of females likely to have bred before harvesting (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). Interviews with locals supported the suggestion that <em>Astacoides betsileoensis</em> may be particularly vulnerable to over-harvesting with more than 90% of interviewees reporting a decline in this species in their area and 90% of those attributing the decline to over-harvesting (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2007). In this same study this species was also found to have a very low abundance. Crayfish harvesters (both commercial and subsistence), admit to taking individuals bearing eggs, stating they are fatter and tastier. The crayfish reproductive period also overlaps with the hungry season in which food becomes scarce (July to December) (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat loss (land conversion for rice paddies) as it appears to be dependent on forested habitat. Due its association with large river systems, it is more at threat from water pollution than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacoides</span> species which are typically found in headwater streams. Malagasy crayfish are also subject to heavy predation pressure from a number of introduced species (such as eels, rats, and trout) (Boyko<em> et al</em>. 2005). Villages in Vohiparara attributed a reduction in the range of <em>A. betsileosensis</em>, to the Asian snakehead <em>Channa maculata</em> (local name: Fibata). The Asian snakehead is commonly found in large river systems, making this species of crayfish the most susceptible to predation pressure (Jones<em> et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Crayfish from the taxa <em>Procambarus</em> have been found within the vicinity of the Malagasy capital, Antananarivo. The range of this invasive species may in fact extend further but there has been very little sampling. There is concern that <em>Procambarus </em>may eventually out compete native <em>Astacoides </em>species due to higher fecundity and growth rates, and through spreading the crayfish plague (Jones <em>et al. </em>2008). Action is needed to prevent the translocation of this species around the island.	eng
2190	conservation	Walsh, T. & Doran, N., 2010	<p>This species<em> </em>has received much attention as a species of conservation concern. In 1995 it was listed as 'Vulnerable' under the Commonwealth <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 </em>(and preceding legislation) and also under the Tasmanian <em>Threatened Species Protection Act 1995</em> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Under the Tasmanian regional assessment process, it was identified as a category three fauna species i.e. requiring conservation through management plans (PLUC 1997). It was then subsequently listed as a 'priority species requiring consideration' under the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><em>Tasmanian</em></st1:placename><em> <st1:placename w:st="on">Regional</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></em></st1:place><em> Agreement 1997</em> and thereby protected through the Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative (CAR) Reserve System. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">However, after 11 years there has not been one area specifically reserved for this species, even though there have been at least three reports, documenting the stable population areas remaining (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). It has been calculated that 30,000 ha would be sufficient to protect the best remaining tracts of habitat (T.Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></strong></p>             <p>Management of this species is primarily governed by the Threatened Species Unit, which introduced the ban upon the harvesting, trade or keeping of this species without a permit since the 1<sup>st</sup> of January 1998 (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).&#160;&#160;<em></em>A large portion of the range of this species falls within the South West Wilderness World Heritage Area, and so the species is free of many of the other land use pressures (and a lot of poaching) over a lot of its range (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<span lang="EN-AU"> Though, in this species' northeastern range, there still is no protection other than a 10 m machinery exclusion zone for and waterways above 250 m. The Recovery Plan has an attachment stating what can be classified as suitable habitat, though only below 250 m above sea level. Most forest operations would occur above 250 m, as below this altitude the forests have predominately been cleared (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). However, due to stream classification requirements, small streams are not protected by buffer zones and headwater areas are not given buffers because not many crayfish are located in there (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p><p>  Recovery is primarily occurring in the northwest of Tasmania, while populations in the northeast appear to have been too badly fragmented and subject to substantial pressures: i.e. broadscale plantation establishment and severe drying of streams (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span lang="EN-AU"></p><p><span lang="EN-AU">In response to the widespread dramatic declines seen in this species' population abundance, a recovery plan has been developed to see the species down listed from 'Vulnerable' within the next 14 years. The following strategies have been proposed: 1) reduction in fishing pressure, 2) prevention and amelioration of the effects of habitat disturbance, 3) monitoring of population recovery, and identification and protection of core populations, 4) increasing knowledge of the species' biology and habitat requirements and 5) overall coordination of the recovery process. Integration of local communities within the recovery strategies is   going to be necessary, to ensure the success of the project (Threatened Species Section 2006). Protection and rehabilitation of riparian buffer strips adjacent to high habitat suitability sites (Davies and Cook 2004) is imperative to ensure the continued viability of these populations.<br/></p>	eng
2190	distribution	Walsh, T. & Doran, N., 2010	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is found in Tasmanian rivers flowing north into the Bass Strait (with the exception of the Tamar) between 20-300 m above sea level (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Originally, populations were present in the Arthur River and all rivers flowing into Bass Strait, except those of the Tamar, but today the distribution is more broken (Inland Fisheries Service 2008). It has been introduced into two catchments: the North Esk catchment (St Patrick's River) and the Derwent catchment (Clyde River) (Threatened Species Section 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 14,221 km².<br/><br/>Approximately 54% of the species' range occurs on unreserved private land, 24% on state forest (couped and uncouped), and 2% on other public land (e.g. unallocated Crown land, local council, etc). Approximately 19% of the species' range comprises either formal or informal reserves (Threatened Species Section 2006). It must be noted that the majority of this range held privately has been extensively modified (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2009). The best remaining habitat for this species is state forest and crown land (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2009).	eng
2190	habitat	Walsh, T. & Doran, N., 2010	<p>This species<em> </em>can be found in rivers and streams of all sizes, but shows a preference for pristine habitats. It is most commonly found sheltering under decaying logs and undercut banks within deep pools, but is also seen moving through shallow riffle zones (Lynch 1967, Hamr 1990, Inland Fisheries Service 2008). Presence of relatively undisturbed riparian vegetation is another important factor determining the distribution of this species. Streams will also have excellent water quality and low turbidity (T. Walsh pers. comms. 2008). Absence of sediment has a massive influence on populations, and areas which have large amounts or increased levels of sedimentation are avoided by this species (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Sites which had been completely cleared of riparian vegetation for agricultural land etc, showed an absence of this species<em>.</em> While the presence of native riparian vegetation is important to this species, it has also been occasionally found within pine plantations (Threatened Species Section 2006, T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p>In terms of water chemistry, there is a noted preference for sites with a high oxygen content and little suspended sediment (Forteath 1987). This species has been found show a range of water temperatures from 5.2°C to 21°C (Hamr 1990, Lynch and Blühdorn 1997, Webb 2001), although relatively low temperatures are preferred (Threatened Species Section 2006). This species displays a shift in dietary preferences with age and typically feeds on decaying wood, rotting flesh, and small fish (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>      <p>Furthermore, this species displays a high degree of site fidelity. Studies in which mark and re-capture techniques have been applied, tracked this species moving distances of 500 m (Forteath 1987, Growns 1995) and 1650 m. (Webb 2001). Webb (2001) also noted the species returning to its home stream after movement.</p>      <p>Juvenile&#160;<em></em>densities of this species are higher in wider streams at intermediate catchment sizes, typically 2 to 30 km²; streams with low levels of silt substrate (0-2%); streams with high proportions of moss cover (10% and above) and with higher proportions of boulder substrate (Davies and Cook 2004). These particular habitat requirements could have severe consequences for reproductivity if altered, as there could be a scenario where no juveniles are created due to poor habitat quality, resulting in a prolonged period of reduced population growth, until habitat conditions are improved (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p> Mating and spawning typically occurs in the autumn months post-summer moult, with females breeding every two years (Hamr 1990, 1992). However, recent studies have shown that females can release young and moult in the same year, meaning that they can potentially breed each year (Threatened Species Section 2006, Inland Fisheries Service 2008, T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Juveniles are released in the late summer and remain attached until February (T. Walsh pers. comms. 2008), and the number of eggs produced by a single female is said to be relative to body size (Hamr 1996). Males reach sexual maturity at nine years (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>	eng
2190	population	Walsh, T. & Doran, N., 2010	<p>Based on condition of habitat, historical records and anecdotal reports, localized extinctions or large declines in numbers are thought to have occurred in the Welcome, Montagu, Rubicon, Don, Brid, Boobyalla, Pipers, Ringarooma, Duck, Little and Great Forester Rivers and Claytons Rivulet (Horwitz 1994). <br/></p><p>Recent surveys in the north-east of this species' range indicated that massive population declines have occurred in these north-east catchments (Little Forester, Boobyalla-Tomahawk and &#160;Ringarooma) and major population declines have occurred in Pipers and Great Forester/Brid catchments (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Within this range, two small areas within these two catchments appear to have a stable population (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). These north-eastern populations have been&#160;too badly fragmented and are subject to substantial pressures such as broadscale plantation establishment and severe drying of streams (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This reduction of north-eastern ranges may equate to approximately one third of the total for this species.&#160;Recovery is, however, occurring in the north-west of the state (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>At sites that are relatively accessible to humans (close to roads), the proportion of mature individuals can be as low as 5% compared to 40% in relatively inaccessible sites (Hamr 1990). Walsh (pers. comm. 2008) estimates that there has been more than an 80% decline in this species abundance in the last 50 years, and has undergone a dramatic decline in 70% of its range. It has also been postulated that there may be increases in population abundance in catchment areas with relatively good habitat conditions, namely West to East Black Detention, Inglis, Cam, Emu, Blythe and Leven (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
2190	threats	Walsh, T. & Doran, N., 2010	<p>The most significant threats facing this species is past fishing pressure, present illegal fishing, and habitat loss and degradation (Lynch 1967, Hamr 1990, Horwitz 1994, Growns 1995, Lynch and Blühdorn 1997). Under the <em>Inland Fisheries Act 1995</em>, the legal fishing of this species ceased as of January 1<sup>st</sup> 1998. While the relationship between fishing pressure and population dynamics, and structure, is not fully understood, decreases in average body size and the proportion of mature individuals present at accessible sites versus inaccessible sites, might indicate the negative impact that intense fishing pressure has had upon the population (Lynch and Blühdorn 1997, Hamr 1990). Of note is the effect which can be had by removing larger males who can, by their physical size, mate with large mature females (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Since this fishing ban has been imposed, a notable increase in size has been observed in the population (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008) The effects of fishing pressure on this species are further exacerbated by the slow maturation, low fecundity and biennially breeding cycle of this species. Furthermore, it has been suggested that it would take at least 15 years for juveniles to attain a size where the recruitment levels escalate considerably after the termination of fishing for this species (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Despite an imposed law preventing the legal harvesting of this species, illegal fishing activity is still occurring throughout this species range as evidenced by baitlines, anecdotal reports and prosecutions (Threatened Species Section 2006). However, fishing pressure has decreased considerably, but due to this species' cumbersome size it is easy to catch and major damage can be inflicted by a few poachers in a short space of time (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>Habitat loss and degradation is also a significant threat to this species. Due to its preference for relatively pristine sites, changes in land use and alterations to the hydrological regime of a river system are all likely to impact this species. Walsh (pers. comm. 2008) suggests that logging poses a greater risk to this species than harvesting. Large-scale, industrial logging activity throughout <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:place> has been implicated in sedimentation of waterways through the loss of sediment stability, resulting in increased turbidity and lower dissolved oxygen concentrations, along with unfavourable habitat for juveniles (Davies and Cook 2004). Loss of riparian zones can also result in increased run-off from surrounding land, decreased shading resulting in increased water temperatures, and decreased allochthonous material providing an important food source (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p>The Northwest region of this species' range is heavily impacted by agriculture and industry especially in areas 200 m and lower (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<span lang="EN-AU"> A massive old tin mine sits on the headwaters of Arthur River, where it is estimated that the population of this species has been extirpated for up to 20 km, due to heavy metals still flushing from the mine. A large creek pours from the mine into the Arthur River with a pH of less than 3 (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008). Other threats associated with forestry activities include: chemical spraying, roading and culverts, with the latter presenting a barrier to effective dispersal. This species is also potentially impacted by the effects of climate change by increased aridity causing streams to dry up and by farmers increasing water extraction for irrigation especially in the northeastern region (T. Walsh pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>  <span lang="EN-AU"><p>      </p>	eng
2191	conservation	Edsman, L., Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<em>Astacus astacus</em> has been previously assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List Index of Threatened Species (Version 2.3 of the Categories and Criteria), and is listed as Critically Endangered on the 2010 Red List of Swedish Species. This species is currently listed on the Danish Red List as "at risk from eradication due to crayfish plague" (S. Berg pers. comm. 2009). This species is also listed under a number of directives including the EU Habitats Directive Appendix V, and directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. It therefore requires the designation of special areas of conservation for its protection. It is also listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. There has been wide-scale development of species action plans for <em>A. astacus</em>. At present, there is wide-scale re-stocking of this species into lakes from which it was formerly known. <br/><br/>The import of live crayfish into Sweden from abroad is now prohibited.  Restrictions on catch levels, gear-type use and minimum landing size exist in several countries (Taugbøl <em>et al.</em> 2004). Restocking in Sweden is taking place but is met with little success (L. Edsman pers. comm. 2010). Given the continuing population decline, several species protection programmes have been initiated (including re-stocking and re-introduction activities) in various parts of Austria (Füreder 2009).	eng
2191	distribution	Edsman, L., Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	The Noble Crayfish<span style="font-style: italic;">, Astacus astacus</span>, is indigenous and widespread throughout Europe. This species range extends from Russia and the Ukraine in the east, to Finland, Sweden, Norway in the north, to Greece in the south, and the United Kingdom and France in the west. A few recently introduced subpopulations are found outside Europe, for example Morocco. The occurrence of this species within Andorra, Cyprus, the UK, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Morocco and possibly Montenegro and Italy, is via introductions from neighbouring countries.<br/><p></p>	eng
2191	habitat	Edsman, L., Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<p>This species is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, in both lowlands and hills, where shelter availability is high (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160; 2006). This includes stones, logs, roots and aquatic and marginal vegetation. This species prefers soft bottoms with some sand and is not usually found in water bodies with a muddy substrate. In addition, it prefers soft banks where it constructs simple burrows. The oxygen demands of this species can be quite high, leading to high mortality in shallow, eutrophic ponds during summer months (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Habitat of this species is shared by the introduced <em>Pacificastacus leniusculus</em>, which is known to competitively exclude this species after a period of establishment (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).</p>    <p>This species is capable of tolerating lower calcium levels, as low as 2 - 3 mgl<sup>-1</sup> Ca, where other species of crayfish may be excluded. The optimum temperature for best growth is between 16 and 24 <sup>o </sup>C, although up to 28 <sup>o</sup> C can generally be tolerated. In addition, oxygen content below 3 - 4 mgl<sup>-1</sup> is deemed unsuitable for this species. </p>      <p>This species is mainly predated upon by the common eel, in addition to small scale predation by mink, perch, otter and wading birds (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), although predation risk also includes cannibalism. This competition, along with temperature gradients and shelter availability, is the major determinant of this species range (Abrahamsson 1966, Skurdal and Taugbol 2002). </p>    <p>Anecdotal measures of longevity indicate this species may live for up to 20 years. At maturation, males normally mate every year, while female reproductive activity is usually restricted to a single year between periods of sexual inactivity. Thus numbers of sexually active females may vary greatly depending on locality and year (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). </p>        <p>Studies have shown (Jensen 1996) that this species of crayfish is particularly susceptible to increased levels of nitrite in aquatic systems, meaning input of excess amounts of this compound, particularly through agricultural fertilizer run-off, may pose a serious risk to this species.</p><p>    </p><p>It is known that noble crayfish females reach sexual maturity at a size which ranges from 6.2 cm total length in localities with early maturity or slow growth to 8.5 cm total length in localities with late maturity or fast growth. Males become mature at a size of 6.0-7.0 cm total length (Skurdal & Taugbøl 2002).</p><p>    </p><p>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value – recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).</p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
2191	population	Edsman, L., Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<p>Natural subpopulations of the Noble Crayfish have been declining across Europe since the introduction of crayfish plague in the mid nineteenth century (Holdich 2002).&#160; This species used to be the main target of crayfish trapping in Europe, but this industry is now much reduced in central, eastern and southern Europe (Ackefors and Lindqvist 1994).&#160; Current harvest levels are only about 10% of those before the spread of the disease, despite restocking of affected lakes from aquaculture fisheries (Holdich 2002).&#160; The largest remaining subpopulations of this species are in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark (Ackefors and Lindqvist 1994). Note that rates of decline have been calculated over a 22.5 year period (3 generation lengths). </p>  <p>Andorra: There are currently three known subpopulations at an elevation range of 800-1,000m above sea level (T. Changeux pers. comm. 2001 cited in Holdich 2002). The presence of this species within Andorra is doubted and is thought to in fact be <em>Austropotamobius fulcisianus</em> (a soon to be described species) which resulted from introductions from Spain or France (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from 115 sites, 71 of which are ponds (Collas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There is a continual loss of natural populations: many occurrences are due to introductions (C. Souty-Grosset pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p>Austria: Historical records of the Noble Crayfish in Austria data back to 1321 and indicate yields of up to 10 kg ha-1yr-1 in some lakes (Pöckl 1999).&#160; Outbreaks of crayfish plague were first recorded in Austria in 1878, and between 1879 and 1904, approximately 75% of Noble Crayfish subpopulations were devastated (Pöckl 1999). Although the Noble Crayfish is still widespread throughout Austria, most subpopulations are considered unstable and stocks in major rivers have been reduced (Pöckl 1999, Füreder & Souty-Grosset 2005). Often, only single specimens can be found during sampling (Pöckl 1999).&#160;</p>  <p>Belgium: This species is now extirpated from Flanders, but can still be found in Wallonia. Over the last decade, the Noble Crayfish has disappeared from approximately 20% of the sites from which it was previously known (R. Cammaerts pers. comm. 2008). Arrignon <em>et al.</em> (1999) have reported a 67% reduction in this species between 1989 and 1999.</p>  <p>Bulgaria: This species is economically important but population numbers are significantly diminished (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007). This is attributed to inefficient management of the wild fisheries. </p>  <p>Belarus: Population numbers of this species are thought to be on the increase as it spreads up small rivers (Kulesh et al. 1999). It is currently known from 32 waterbodies.</p>  <p>Bosnia: There is no available up to date information on this species within Bosnia. The last report of this species comes from a single locality in Tuzla by Entz in 1909.</p>  <p>Croatia: Subpopulations of this species within Croatia appear to be relatively stable at present, although non-native crayfish species (including carriers of crayfish plague) have only been recently introduced to this area (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Future declines are expected.</p>  <p>Czech Republic: There is also an apparent decline in Noble Crayfish numbers in the Czech Republic, with only one third of recorded localities from the 1980s being confirmed during more recent surveys. However, these studies have also identified a number of new localities, not previously surveyed (E. Kozubikova, P. Kozak and A. Petrusek pers. comm. 2008). This is the most common crayfish species in the Czech Republic.</p>  <p>Denmark: This species is known from the Jutland Peninsula and the islands of Zealand and Funen, though its range is in decline due to habitat degradation (Skurdal <em>et al.</em> 1999). The status of the Danish subpopulation is currently unknown as no attempt, as of yet, has been made to document the crayfish species, distribution and abundance (S. Berg pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Estonia: This species is the only crayfish species present within this country, and is widespread. Declines in the population numbers and range of this species have been noted (Skurdal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). However attempts are being made to reintroduce this species into former areas of its range through translocations and hatchery reared juveniles (Skurdal<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999). <br/></p>  <p><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: red;"><span style="background-color: white;">Finland: <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus</span> population is at a very low level compared to historical (pre-1900) levels. The current rate of the decline of the separate <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> populations is low (probably less than 5 % per 20 years), but the decline of the <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> population size in the whole country is continually declining 20 % or even more every 20 years (M. Pursiainen pers. comm. 2010).<br/></span></p>  <p>France: This species is said to be close to extinction in Lorraine and Morvan, however restocking has been attempted. It is also present within other regions of France, including Alsace. In south and southwestern France it has been extending its range, it is an introduced species (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>Georgia: There does not appear to be any recent accounts of this species within Georgia.</p>  <p>Germany: This species was once widespread and abundant throughout Germany, but over the last century it has become restricted to more upland regions due to habitat degradation, competition, predation and disease (Schulz 2000).&#160; In the district of Lower Saxony in northwest Germany, this species was reported from 155 sites in 1920 (after the introduction of crayfish plague), but by 1990 it was only present at 12 sites (Schulz 2000), a decline in range of 56% over a period of 22.5 years.</p>  <p>Greece: The distribution of the Noble Crayfish in Greece is now much more restricted and fragmented than in previous decades (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>Hungary: The Noble Crayfish is the most widespread crayfish species within Hungary, and certainly the most common within northern regions (Puky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Data from the commercial harvest of <em>A. astacus</em> indicate that there has been a decline in the abundance of approximately 95% over the last 22.5 years, from an annual catch of 13,000 kg for export in 1961 and only 1,000 kg in 1980 (Puky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species is still considered to be declining owing to habitat degradation and loss, and crayfish plague (Puky and Schád 2006).&#160;<span style="background-color: red;"></span></p>  <p>Latvia: There is little available data on the current status of the population within Latvia. It is known to be widespread (T. Taugbøl pers. comm. cited in Holdich 2002).</p>  <p>Lithuania: In 2008, a study to look at sites from which this species was previously known found this species at 3 of 6 rivers (only one of these 3 rivers in fact had an abundant populations, while the others contained <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>). Out of 14 lakes that were looked at, only 9 contained this species (7 lakes were estimated as having quite abundant populations) and 5 lakes were devoid of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus </span>(though 2 of these have been reported to contain crayfish by local people). The conclusion is, despite healthy <span style="font-style: italic;">A. astacus</span> populations still being present, there is a decline in the abundance of this species as a result of the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span> (K. Arbaciauskas pers. comm. 2010). </p><p>Macedonia: This species is known from the Vardar drainage system as well as from the Ohrid Lake - Drin drainage system (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Within Lake Ohrid this species is showing a steep decline in population numbers possibly as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). <em>Austropotamobius torrentium</em> is already thought to have gone extinct in a tributary of Lake Ohrid (Koselska Brook) below Reica as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>  <p>Moldova: There is no available data on the current population trends for this species within Moldova.</p>  <p>Montenegro: It is the opinion of Y. Machino that <defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PostalCode"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="City"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype><defanghtml_o:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></defanghtml_o:smarttagtype> <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus </span>is native in the  Danubian drainage. Then on the  Mediterranean side, it is exotic, and&#160;people have introduced with success.</p>  <p></p>  <p>Netherlands: This species is indigenous to the Netherlands, however it is thought to be close to extinction. Surveys of this species presence/absence in rivers and brooks throughout the Netherlands, indicate a rapid decline with it being known from a single river in 2001 (Niewold 2002). Prior to 1920 it was known from 44 localities, 1921 - 1940 = 32 localities, 1941 - 1960 = 28 localities, 1961 - 1980 = 15 localities, 1981 - 2000 = 4 localities, and in 2001 = 1 locality (Niewold 2002). Over the last 22.5 years this equates to a decline of ~86%.</p>  <p>Norway: The Noble Crayfish, the only crayfish species in Norway, has undergone significant declines since the introduction of crayfish plague in the late 1970s to the Glomma, Halden, Veksa and Store Le watercourses (Taugbøl 2004). Since the late 1980s there have been reintroductions of crayfish adults and juveniles into both the Glomma and Halden watercourses. These subpopulations are developing at varying rates (site habitat characteristics are thought to be largely responsible) however population densities are still significantly below pre-plague densities (Taugbøl 2004). This species has also been reintroduced to the Veksa watercourse. This is believed to have been as a result of fishermen, however the population is much reduced compared to pre-plague densities (Taugbøl 2004). This is thought to be due to declining water quality conditions (Taugbøl 2004). This species is estimated to have undergone &#160;<strong style="font-weight: normal;">~61%</strong> decline over the last 22.5 years from a 40 tonnes yield in 1966, to 10 tonnes in 1999 (Skurdal <em>et al</em>. 1999).<span style="background-color: red;"></span>   However, in Lake Steinsfjorden in south east Norway, CPUE (individuals per trap night) data indicates a recent increase in abundance, though there is no recent data for the period 2000 to present (1979 - 1.1; 1980 - 1.1; 1981 - 0.8; 1982 - 0.8; 1983 - 1.3; 1984 - 1.4; 1985 - 1.3; 1985 - 1.3; 1986 - 1.3; 1987 - 0.7; 1988 - 0.6; 1989 - 0.5; 1990 - 0.7; 1991 - 0.8; 1992 - 0.6; 1993 - 0.9; 1994 - 0.7; 1995 - 0.6; 1996 - 0.5; 1997 - 0.6; 1998 - 0.9; 1999 - 1.0; 2000 - 1.0). This lake is the most important crayfish locality in Norway and accounts for approximately 25% of the annual harvest (Taugbøl and Eriksen 1991, Skurdal,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>G  årnas and   Taugbøl 2002).<strong><strong><a name="bcor1"></a></strong></strong></p><p>Poland: This species is widespread within Poland, but is in decline. Approximately 1 subpopulation is lost every two years (1998 - 98 subpopulations, 2008 - 89 subpopulations) as a result of the introduced species <em>Orconectes limosus</em> Spiny-cheek Crayfish. The range expansion of this introduced species is attributed to the growing tourism industry within Poland, and hence growing interest in angling. Anglers are said to be responsible for moving this species around as it is often taken for bait (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). Other possible reasons for these declines may also be due crayfish plague and pollution (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). Restocking of this species in former parts of its range is underway. New subpopulations are also still being discovered, although numbers are low. These subpopulations are thought two have always existed, but have only recently been discovered due to the expansion in survey area (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). The listing of Vulnerable in the Polish Red Data Book is thought to be suitable to the current situation (P. Smietana pers. comm. 2009). </p>  <p>Romania: This species is known from the Carpathian region and an area in the north east of Romania, however it is possible that it is in fact more widespread (L. Miron pers. comm. 2008). Moderate declines in this species have been observed in Romania (L. Miron pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Russian Federation: This species is widespread within Russia, although it is declining in areas of its range. This species is known from Vologda district, Novgorod district, Kaliningrad district, Pskov district and Leningrad district (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). The population status is not known within Vologda district, however it is said to be found within most lakes and rivers. It is occasionally taken as by-catch by fishers, but is not sold in markets (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). Kaliningrad is a small district within Russia with a very high population density. The waterbodies are said to be badly polluted (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998). This species is now absent from a large number of the water bodies in which it was previously found. The Pskov district is said to have a lot of suitable habitat for this species and produces an annual catch of 10,980 kg (Perminov 1995).</p>  <p>Serbia: This species was once found all over Serbia but now is only known from a few very restricted localities (Simic <em>et al</em>. 2008; Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>Slovenia: This species is native to Slovenia and is found in the Danube River basin, however subpopulations in the northeast of the country have been introduced (Budhina 1989). </p>  <p>Slovakia: This species is thought to be the most abundant crayfish throughout Slovakia (P. Manko pers. comm. 2008). It occurs within eastern and northern Slovakia. Subpopulations are thought to be currently stable (P. Manko pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p>Sweden: It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century, there were some 30,000 subpopulations of this species in Sweden alone (Bohman <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; However, by 1960, only 50% of these remained (Bohman <em>et al</em>. 2006).&#160; In 1994, just 1,724 subpopulations were recorded and numbers continued to decline to 1,597 subpopulations by 1997 and approximately 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Bohman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is estimated that the current rate of crayfish plague outbreaks has increased by 90% (L. Edsman pers. comm. 2008). Over the last 22.5 years there has been an estimated decline of <strong style="font-weight: normal;">~78%</strong> based on a decline from 1,724 known subpopulations in 1994, to 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Fiskeriverket and Naturvårdsverket 1998; Database of Crayfish Occurrences 2005). However, this country still has one of the largest capture fisheries (Souty-Grosset <em>et al.</em> 2006).   This species is now regarded as Critically Endangered in the new 2010 Red List of Swedish Species (It was Endangered in the red list from 2005). This is based on the heavy decline but also on the fact that the crayfish plague has increased 10 fold in the last few years and the disease has now spread to parts of the country that still had Noble Crayfish (the north and middle west parts of the country) and never had crayfish plague before. This is due to illegal introductions of the introduced plague carrying signal crayfish. The species is more or less gone from lakes and rivers in the south and middle east parts of the country where the best habitats are cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate wise and the best possibilities for good noble crayfish populations (Edsman and   Schröder 2009,   Gärdenfors 2010).  <defanghtml_span class="normal"><defanghtml_span style=""></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></p>  <p>Switzerland: Within Switzerland this species is considered to be in a state of decline largely due to <em>Aphanomyces astaci</em> and is considered to be 'threatened' or 'endangered' by the Swiss National Legislation on Fisheries (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2008, Füreder & Souty-Grosset 2005).&#160; </p>    <p></p>	eng
2191	threats	Edsman, L., Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<span style="background-color: white;">An outbreak of crayfish plague </span><em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;"> carried by the Signal Crayfish </span><em style="background-color: white;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</em><span style="background-color: white;"> has had an impact upon all of Europe's </span><em style="background-color: white;">Astacus</em> species. Since the 1960s, the Signal Crayfish has been introduced into more than 20 countries in Europe (Kataria 2004, Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The Signal Crayfish grows faster, reaches sexual maturity earlier, is more aggressive, and has the ability to dominate the use of many important factors like food and refugia</span> (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<span style="background-color: white;">. The Signal Crayfish have also been shown to have a relatively higher population growth time than the Noble Crayfish. Even in watercourses where the Signal Crayfish is free from plague, it seems likely that the Signal Crayfish will out compete the Noble Crayfish, in the long term (Kataria 2004). This species produces fewer young that the Signal Crayfish and so is quickly out-competed in terms of population numbers.</span> This species is also outcompeted by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">The annual catch of this species has dropped to a fraction of what it was prior to the introduction of crayfish plague (Westman 2002; Bohman Nordwall and Edsman 2006). This species was extensively produced but the plague has caused a significant decline of more than 95% during a period of nearly 150 years (Skurdal and Taugbøl 2002). The range of this species remains compromised by the crayfish plague (Holdich and Pockl 2007).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Dredging of waterways in localised areas has further threatened this species as it leaves the water cloudy and disturbs the habitat</span> (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006)<span style="background-color: white;">. Acid rain, also causing a decrease in water quality, is thought to be responsible for a decline in breeding success, as the egg cases of young crayfish are unable to form properly (Collins </span><em style="background-color: white;">et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 1983). Low calcium concentrations may be a factor limiting the distribution and production of this species in soft-water lakes (Rukke 2002).</span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/>    <p>In Sweden, this species is estimated to have undergone a decline of ~78% over the last 22.5 years based on a decline from 1,724 known subpopulations in 1994, to 1,000 subpopulations in 2002 (Fiskeriverket and Naturvårdsverket 1998; Database of Crayfish Occurrences 2005). In Finland, the rate of decline is currently at about 20% every 20 years, though it may be greater (M. Pursiainen pers. comm. 2010). In Norway, this species is estimated to have undergone &#160;~61% decline over the last 22.5 years from a 40 tonnes yield in 1966, to 10 tonnes in 1999 (Skurdal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). While there is no available quantifiable data on the trends in Denmark, the situation is likely to be similar. Rates of decline in other countries are similar to that of the Scandinavian countries: ~67% decline over 10 years in Belgium (Arrignon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999), ~56% decline in Germany over 22.5 years, ~95% decline over 22.5 years in Hungary, and ~86% decline in the Netherlands over 22.5 years. Notable declines are reported for most of the other countries, other than Belarus where numbers are said to be increasing; Croatia where numbers are stable but non-native species have recently been introduced so future declines are expected; &#160;Slovakia where numbers are thought to be stable. These figures indicate that this species is likely undergoing a rate of decline of around 50-80% over a 22.5 year period. However, there are a number of large-scale re-stocking programs for this species and in some areas of its range, numbers are stable so the true rate of decline is likely closer to 30-50% globally.<br/></p>  <br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/></span><br/><p><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>&#160;</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></p>	eng
2193	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
2193	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
2193	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). <em>H. barbarae</em> is an egg snatcher (paedophage).	eng
2193	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
2193	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
2194	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
2194	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
2194	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
2194	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.	eng
2194	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
2195	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa (all part of the greater Victoria system)	eng
2196	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
2196	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
2196	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
2196	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
2196	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
2197	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
2197	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
2197	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone, occurring over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
2197	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 90% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95, and less than 1% for 2006/08.	eng
2197	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
2199	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.	eng
2199	habitat	Kaufman, L., 1996	Found both close inshore and some distance out, over muddy and sandy bottoms in bays, and over clear sandy beaches.	eng
2201	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Kanyaboli, a satellite lake of Lake Victoria.	eng
2202	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa.	eng
2274	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
2274	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This southern African species ranges from southwestern Angola in the west, through northwestern and central Namibia, eastern Botswana, much of South Africa (throughout Gauteng and North West Province, western Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga, and throughout Free State; in the Northern Cape they occur in the northeast and southwards towards the Grahamstown district in Eastern Cape), western Zimbabwe, and perhaps occurring marginally in Lesotho (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
2274	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of semi-arid and subtemperate habitats. Animals have generally been recorded from scrub brush, western Karoo, grassland and suburban gardens (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
2274	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is generally a common species.	eng
2274	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no major threats as a whole to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
2275	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species	eng
2275	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Somalia, where it ranges throughout most of the country.	eng
2275	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a savanna species, presumably also occurring in grasslands and similar open habitats.	eng
2275	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the population abundance of this species.	eng
2275	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Although the species is poorly known, there are not believed to be any major threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
2276	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Stevenson, P., Link, A., Marsh, L. & Morales, A.L., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of  protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha)<br/>Maracá Ecological Station (103,995 ha) (Nunes <em>et al</em>. 1988))<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Mocidade National Park (373,130 ha) (in range)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (282,830 ha) (in range)<br/>Amazonas National Forest (1,573,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Roraima National Forest (2,664,685 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park  (9,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (possibly in range: Defler 2004; reported by interview Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1999)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Ahumada 1989, 1992)<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range: Defler 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Pozo 2001; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,100 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (in range: Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) informed that it exists in low numbers in the Pacaya-Samiria basin. Neville <em>et al</em>. (1976) reported one sighting of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the reserve.<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Serrania de la Neblina National Park (1,360,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Parima Tapirapecó National Park (3,420,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Duida-Marahuaca National Park (210,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Jauá-Sarisarinama National Park (330,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Yapacana National Park (320,000 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
2276	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Stevenson, P., Link, A., Marsh, L. & Morales, A.L., 2008	Ranges in north-eastern Peru, eastern Ecuador, lowland Colombia, east of the Cordillera Oriental, southern Venezuela, and north-western Brazil, west as far as the Rio Branco. The distribution of this species is not well known, and defies easy description. In Colombia, Defler (2003, 2004) informed that it has been recorded in the piedmont and Cordillera Oriental only as far north as the Río Upía drainage in the department of Boyacá. It occurs in the region of the Sierra de La Macarena, eastern Caquetá and the Coehmaní rapids in the south-east of the department of Caquetá. It is rare west of the Río Yarí. It has been seen on the upper Río Mesay, and recorded opposite the mouth of the Río Pirá-Paraná on the right bank of the Río Apaporis, and on the lower right bank of the Apaporis at a <em>salado </em>(clay-lick) site near the Estrella rapids (Defler 2003, 2004). According to Defler (2003, 2004), there is no evidence for its occurrence between the ríos Caquetá and Putumayo, except in the most westerly, upper reaches. <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> extends south along the piedmont into Ecuador, but is evidently absent south of the middle and lower Putumayo (Province of Sucumbíos) and is restricted to the south of Río Napo (de la Torre 2000; Tirira 2007). From there it occurs throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon into northern Peru. The distribution map of Aquino and Encarnación (1994a, p.120) shows the occurrence of <em>A. belzebuth</em> throughout northern Peru, between the Río Putumayo and Amazonas and along the left bank of the Río Ucayali, and including the basins of the ríos Napo, Tigre, Marañón, Pastaza, Pacaya and Samiria, south as far as the Río Cushabatay, a tributary pf the Río Ucayali (<em>Ateles chamek</em> replacing it south of the Cushabatay). The range in Peru extends right through the Putumayo/Napo interfluvium up to the Ecuadorian border, but it would seem ends near the mouth of the Río Aguarico, and not extending into Ecuador between these rivers (Tirira 2007). Its occurrence between the Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in Peru would indicate that it occurs in the Colombian trapezium, but there is no evidence that this is so (Defler 2003, 2004). In Brazil, it is believed to occur north of the Rio Solimões as far as the mouth of the Rio Japurá, east to the Rio Negro and west (right) bank of the Rio Branco. It is absent from the interfluvium of the Rios Solimões and Negro, east of the mouth of the Rio Japurá and south from opposite the mouth of the Rio Branco. <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> occurs throughout the region north of the Rio Negro and west of the Rio Branco in Brazil, extending into Venezuela north towards the Río Orinoco (limited by the llanos/forest interface) and in the east to the left bank of the Río Caura (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987). It would seem that there are no known localities which connect the Brazilian/Venezuelan populations with those of south-western Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru. The occurrence of this species between the Ríos Putumayo and Amazonas-Napo requires further field research. The species has been observed at altitudes up to 1,300 m on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976).	eng
2276	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Stevenson, P., Link, A., Marsh, L. & Morales, A.L., 2008	This species is dependent on high primary forest. Generally associated with <em>terra firma</em> clay soil forests.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata, but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Izawa <em>et al.</em> (1979) reported on subgroup sizes of <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> in La Macarena, Colombia. Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Subgroups observed by Klein and Klein (1976) were most frequently of 1-4 individuals. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. Castellanos (1997) estimated a home range of 148 ha on the Río Tawadu in the Río Caura basin, Venezuela. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Field studies of the behaviour and ecology of this species have been carried put by Klein and Klein (1975, 1976, 1977) and Ahumada (1989, 1992) in La Macarena, Colombia, Nunes (1988, 1996) in the Maracá Ecological Station, Brazil, and Pozo (2001, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c) in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador. Castellanos (1995, 1997; Castellanos and Chanin 1996) studied the feeding ecology of <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> along the middle and lower reaches of the Río Tawadu, a tributary of the Río Nichare, a tributary of the Rio Caura.<br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1972; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size<br/>H&B 46-50 cm; TL 74-81 cm.<br/>Adult male weight mean 8.3 kg (n=10), adult female weight mean 7.9 kg (Smith and Jungers 1997).<br/>Adult male weight 7.3-9.8 kg (mean 8.5 kg, n=12), adult female weight 5.8-10.4 kg (mean 8.1 kg, n=15) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
2276	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Stevenson, P., Link, A., Marsh, L. & Morales, A.L., 2008	Still common within protected areas. Klein and Klein (1976) estimated a population density of 15-18 individuals/km² in La Macarena, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988), who concluded that the main factors involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources.	eng
2276	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Stevenson, P., Link, A., Marsh, L. & Morales, A.L., 2008	The major threat is heavy subsistence and market hunting for food (to the point of local extirpation). There is also some mining taking place within its range resulting in localized habitat loss. In south-eastern Colombia, habitat loss takes place due to clearance of forest for coca plantations, accompanied by fumigation of coca plantations in south-eastern Colombia that results in defoliation of contiguous forests.<br/><br/>In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) indicated that it is extinct in large areas of its distributional range, and reported that "small remnant populations, subject to a strong hunting pressure, are known from the Río Alto Curaray, an affluent if the Río Napo" (p.40). <br/><br/>In Ecuador, Tirira (2007) recorded that it is rare near human settlements, it is hunted, and in demand for pets, but can be common in undisturbed forests where it is not molested. Defler <em>et al.</em> (2003; Defler 2003, 2004) consider it to be the most endangered of any of the Colombian Amazonian primates, its range being coincident with the most heavily colonized parts of the region.	eng
2279	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas across its range, including:<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Arenal National Park (2,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (13,040 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Bahia de Muertos (in range)<br/>Estero Ríos Tabasara – Bubi (in range)<br/>Estero Río La Villa (in range)<br/>Peñon de la Honda (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Isla de Cañas (25,433 ha) (in range)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Freese 1976; Fedigan and Rose 1995; Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Barra Honda National Park (2,295 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve (14,258 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Lippold 1989; Matamoros and Seal 2001. Lippold reported that spider monkeys were extinct in the reserve)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi ornatus</em><br/><br/>Panama <br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (in range) <br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad International Park (in range)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (in range)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Rio San Juan (in range)<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (in range)<br/>Cienega (Cenegón) del Mangle (1,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Palo Seco Protection Forest (244,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha)<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Tortuguero National Park (18,946 ha) (Boza 1987; Matamoros<em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Poás National Park 5,317 ha) (in range)<br/>Braulio Carrillo National Park (44,898 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Irazú National Park (2,309 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuita National Park (1,067 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad (Talamanca) International Park (193,929 ha) <br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (in range)<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (682 ha) (in range)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>., 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Tenorio National Park (12,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (in range<br/>La Selva Protection Zone (2,815 ha) (Fishkind and Sussman 1987; Campbell and Sussman 1994)<br/>El Zota Biological Field Station (1,000 ha) (Pruetz and LaDuke 2001)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus</em><br/><br/>Mexico <br/>Palenque National Park (1,771 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Volcán de San Martin Special Biosphere Reserve (1,500 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Sierra de Santa Marta Special Biosphere Reserve (20,000 ha) (Silva-López 1982)<br/>Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Selva Lacandona) (331,200 ha) (Mexico, SEDUE 1989<br/>El Triunfo National Biosphere Reserve (119,595 ha)<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em><br/><br/>Belize<br/>Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary (40,000 ha) (Horwich <em>et al.</em> 1993; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996a,b)<br/>Upper Bladen (35,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Guatemala<br/>Rio Dulce National Park (9,610 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Tikal National Park (57,600 ha) (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 1976)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/><br/>Mexico<br/>Cañon del Sumidero National Park (21,789 ha) (Castilleja <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Tulum National Park (664 ha) (in range)<br/>Ria Celestun Special Biosphere Reserve (59,130 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Ria Lagartos Special Biosphere Reserve (47,840 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (723,185 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (except for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. g. frontatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. g. panamensis</span>, which are listed on Appendix I).	eng
2279	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are seven recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>The distribution of <em>Ateles geoffroyi geoffroyi</em>is given by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) as the coastal region around San Juan del Norte or Martina Bay, southeastern Nicaragua; probably ranging across the lowlands to the vicinity of Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua on the Pacific coast. It possibly extends into northern Costa Rica, although the true distribution of this species is unknown. Specimens examined by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) were from Managua, Nicaragua.<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em> is definitely known only from the western (Veraguas) side of the forested mountains of the Azuero peninsula in the vicinity of Ponuga, where it appears to be isolated. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) indicated that it may occur to the west along the Pacific coast to the Burica Peninsula, near the Panama-Costa Rica border. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) tentatively attributed a series of skulls 25 skulls from the collection of Adolph H. Schultz (no skins, but reported to have been light coloured) from Río La Vaca, near Puerto Armmuelles, Burica Peninsula to <em>A. g. azuerensis</em>. Baldwin and Baldwin (1976) found no evidence that spider monkeys ever occurred in the Province of Chiriquí. Konstant <em>et al</em>. (1985) reported that the Azuero Pensinula was widely deforested and that subspecies is likely to be surviving only in western parts.  <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em> is believed to range through northwestern Costa Rica and extreme western and northern Nicaragua (Kellogg and Goldman 1944). Specimens from Nicaragua examined by Kellogg and Goldman (1944) were from the following localities: Lavala; Peña Blanca; Río Siquia; Río Yoya, a tributary of the Río Princapolca; Tuma and Uluce. Allen (1908, 1910) recorded <em>Ateles geoffroyi</em>from the east slope of the Nicaraguan highlands, Savala (800 ft), Tuma (1,000 ft), Peña Blanca (high point in low Atlantic coast forests, 1,500 ft) and Uluce (about 1,000 ft), and in the highlands of northern Nicaragua at Matagalpa (2,000 ft).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em> is a subspecies of doubtful validity. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) presumed that it occurred in the valley of the Río Tuyra and probably south-eastward through the Serranía del Sapo of extreme south-eastern Panama and the Cordillera de Baudó of north-western Colombia. Matamoros and Seal (2001) indicate its occurrence in the basin of the lower Río Tuira in Panama and the frontier zone with Colombia. Heltne and Kunkel (1975) indicated Cerro Pirre or Río Tucutí as marking the limits of its range with <em>A. f. rufiventris </em>to the north. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) indicated that <em>grisescens</em> occurs in Colombia: “…[it] is known only from the vicinity of Juradó very near the Panamanian border on the Pacific coast. It is undoubtedly restricted by the Baudó Mountains to a narrow coastal strip that may extend as far south as Cabo Corrientes.” (p.66). Defler <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded that there is no recent information regarding its presence or otherwise along the Panamanian border, but that colonists near the northern parts of the Serranía de Baudó region talk of two “types” of <em>Ateles</em>, one in the lowlands (definitely <em>A. fusciceps</em>) and another form above 500–600 m altitude (J. V. Rodríguez-M. unpubl.), the only real suggestion that this taxon might actually be present in Colombia. <em>A. fusciceps</em> in the central part of the Sierra de Baudó would indicate that the occurrence of <em>grisescens</em> therefore would be limited to the portion immediately abutting Panama, and not the entire mountain range (Defler <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi ornatus</em> is found in forested regions of Panama, east of the Canal Zone (Cordillera San Blas), and west through Chiriquí to central western Costa Rica. Heltne and Kunkel (1975) give the following localities as marking the eastern limit of its range: San Juan, Cerro Brujo, Cerro Azul and Río Pequeñi—all on or within the boundary line of the Madden Lake watershed, and nowhere more than 30 miles east of the Panama Canal. The Río Bayano basin just to the east is occupied by <em>A. fusciceps rufiventris</em> (see Handley 1966; Heltne and Kunkel 1975). This is the spider monkey of the Osa Peninsula, Corcovado National Park and Carara Biological Reserve in Costa Rica (Matamoros and Seal 2001). The population on the Island of Barro Colorado is introduced (Carpenter 1935; J. F. Eisenberg pers. comm. in Konstant <em>et al</em>. 1985). Crockett <em>et al</em>. (1997; see also Cody 1994; Querol <em>et al</em>. 1996) observed spider monkeys in the Refugio Bartola / Reserva Indio-Maíz (300,000 ha), along the Río Bartola, north of the Río San Juan along the frontier with Costa Rica. They were unable to identify the subspecies but said that, unlike <em>A. g. geoffroyi</em>, they were “distinctly reddish on the back and on the top of the tail; the ends of the limbs were dark” (p.73). <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus</em> occurs in the forests of Veracruz and eastern San Luis Potosí and south-eastward through Tabasco, across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca, including the highlands of Guatemala (thought by Kellogg and Goldman [1944] to have been occupied by <em>A. g. pan</em>, here considered a synonym) through El Salvador and Honduras, including the north coast to the lowlands of the Mosquitia in the Department of Gracias a Dios.<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em> occurs in the forests of the Yucatán peninsula, north-eastern Guatemala, and adjoining parts of Belize, intergrading to the south in Mexico (Campeche) and Guatemela with <em>vellerosus</em>.  Parra Lara and Jorgenson (1998) reported on a survey of 36 localities in the state of Quintana Roo. They confirmed the presence of spider monkeys in 11 of them, and received reports of their occurrence in a further 19, extending from the Ejido Tres Garantias in the south to locations way in the north, near Cancún, at Cenote Notnozot. Ramos-Fernández and Ayala-Orozco (2003) have studied the population size and habitat use of <em>A. g. yucatanensis</em> around the Punta Laguna, Quintana Roo.	eng
2279	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest, evergreen and semideciduous, and will enter deciduous forest (Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica: Freese 1976; Ortiz-Martínez and Rico-Gray 2007)<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group sizes of <em>A. geoffroyi</em> can range from 16-24 (Di Fiore and Campbell 2007). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Freese (1976) recorded high numbers of infants in the dry season (December-May) in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976).  They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976; see also Milton 1981; Chapman and Chapman 1990). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male weight 7.42-9.00 kg (mean 8.26 kg, n=56), adult female weight 6.0-9.4 kg (mean 7.7 kg, n = >100) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
2279	population	Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>Ateles geoffroyi azuerensis</em><br/>A total of 112 - 116 individuals has been estimated for this subspecies (Mendez-Carvajal, Ruiz-Bernard, Franco and Silva, in prep.).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis</em><br/>Cant (1978) estimated 24.5 individuals/km² at Tikal, Guatemala. Coelho <em>et al.</em> (1976) estimated a higher density of 45 individuals/km². Populaions of this species can be very high in well prtoected areas: Ramos-Fernández and Ayala-Orozco, 2003) recorded 89.5 individuals/km² in what they refer to as "relatively undisturbed semi-evergreen medium forest [as opposed to successional forest] with trees up to 20 m in height" at Punta Laguna, Quintana Roo.  The estimated a toital population of 648 individuals in the 7.7-km² Punta Laguna Sanctuary. <br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi frontatus</em><br/>A rough estimate of the population the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, given by Freese (1976) was 110-160  individuals (6-9 individuals/km²).<br/><br/><em>Ateles geoffroyi grisescens</em><br/>This subspecies likely does not exist. The two subspecies descriptions do not match, it has never been observed in the wild, and there is only one poor account from a zoo (A. L. Morales pers. comm, 2004).	eng
2279	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, with several subspecies having been subject to very high rates of loss (see, for example, Cuarón 1997; Sánchez-Azofeifa <em>et al</em>. 2001; Velázquez and Estrada 2002). However, there remain several large areas of relatively continuous habitat in the Selva Maya (Mexico, Guatemala and Belize), in the Atlantic zone of Nicaragua and Honduras, and along the Atlantic coast and the Darien in Panama. The species is also subject to exploitation in pet trafficking in some areas and is hunted in some regions.	eng
2282	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P. & Di Fiore, A., 2008	This species occurs in a number of national forests in Brazil, including Tapajós National Forest (545,000 ha), Xingu National Forest (252,790 ha), Alatmira National Forest (689,012 ha), Itaituba I National Forest (220,034 ha), and Itaituba II National Forest (440,500 ha). More strictly protected areas are needed for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>Surveys are currently ongoing throughout the range of the species (Ravetta 2005; A. L. Ravetta pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
2282	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P. & Di Fiore, A., 2008	<em>Ateles marginatus</em> is endemic to the Brazilian Amazon, occurring between the Rio Tapajós (right bank) and its tributary, the Rio Teles Pires (right bank) and the Rio Xingu (left bank), south of the Rio Amazonas (Kellogg and Goldman 1944; Ravetta 2005). This is the least known of the Amazonian spider monkeys.	eng
2282	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P. & Di Fiore, A., 2008	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.   <br/><br/>Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.	eng
2282	population	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P. & Di Fiore, A., 2008	There are no published population densities available.	eng
2282	threats	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P. & Di Fiore, A., 2008	Although it occurs south as far as the north of the state of Mato Grosso, its range is relatively small, cut by major highways such as the Transamazon and the Cuiabá-Santarém, and in many parts subject to active and widespread deforestation (especially in the south), and, as in all spider monkeys, <em>A. marginatus</em> is particularly susceptible to hunting. Accelerated expansion of the agricultural frontier in northern Mato Grosso, with the ongoing establishment of enormous areas of soy bean plantations accompanying the paving of the Cuiabá-Santarém highway are additional and major threats.	eng
2283	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in its range, some of them very large.<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (343,897 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/>Nhamundá State Park (28,370 ha)<br/>Monte Alegre State Park (5,800 ha)<br/>Rio Negro Setor Sul State Park (257,422 ha)<br/>Maicuru State Biological Reserve (1,509,300 ha)<br/>Grão Pará State Ecological Station (4,250,000 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha) (Kessler 1998; Zhang and Wang 1995a)<br/>Kaw Reserved Area (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (possible; Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (present: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; rare: Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
2283	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Ateles pansicus</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazon, east of the Rios Negro and Branco. In Guyana, it is known from the far south and from the east of the River Essequibo (Sussmann and Phillips-Conroy 1995), and east from there through Suriname and French Guiana, excluding the lowland coastal plains, but throughout adequate habitat and into the states of Amapá, Pará (north of the Rio Amazonas), and Amazonas, Brazil. Its occurrence in Venezuela and west of the Essequibo, as proposed by Linares (1998), is doubtful.	eng
2283	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Occurs in primary high forest, and seldom found in edge or degraded forest. In Suriname, <em>A. paniscus</em> is almost entirely restricted to high forests in the interior, and, like <em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Cebus olivaceus</em>, it enters the old coastal plain only in the western part of the country. Although Sanderson (1949) mentioned that <em>Ateles</em> is met with "over certain good areas along a belt 8-15 miles from the coast", this is evidently not the case today. In Guyana, it is also restricted in its habitat, occurring mainly in high forest (Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. 1975; Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995). In Suriname, it rarely enters river edge forest, but Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) made several observations of <em>A. paniscus</em> while surveying by canoe along the Berbice River. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) argued that this may due to differences in hunting pressure between the areas. To what degree <em>A. paniscus</em> extends to the coastal region of French Guiana is unknown. Kellogg and Goldman (1944) listed three localities for French Guiana: the Camopi River, and two on the coast, Cayenne and the Lunier River. Due to forest destruction and development, the high forest preference of the species, and its susceptibility to hunting, it is reasonable to suppose that if it occurred there in the past it is rare or absent today through large parts at least of the coastal forests. In Brazil, it occurs in lowland, submontane and montane (Serra da Pacaraima) forest.<br/><br/><em>Ateles paniscus</em> is very much a canopy species. Nearly three-quarters of all first sightings of <em>A. paniscus</em> during a three-year field study carried out by Marc van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) in the Voltzberg-Raleighvallen Nature Reserve were of animals in the emergent trees (above 30 m) or upper part of the canopy (25-30 m). They also enter the middle and lower parts of the canopy, but were very rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours (Fleagle and Mittermeier 1980). <em>Ateles paniscus</em>, like all spider monkeys, is highly frugivorous and feeds largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly (77% of its feeding time) in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (van Roosmalen 1980, 1985; Zhang and Wang 1995a). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. Guillotin <em>et al.</em> (1993) and Simmen and Sabatier (1996) obtained a similar picture for <em>A. paniscus</em> in French Guiana. The pulp of ripe fruits accounted for 85% of their diet. They also recorded the occasional consumption of fungi and mature seeds. Many even quite large fruits are swallowed whole. Swallowing the entire fruit is characteristic of nearly 40% of the fruit species they eat, and in a further 45% of the fruits they bite off the outer layer and swallow the aril or mesocarp along with the seed or seeds.<br/><br/>Due to their specialization on ripe fruits, and the fact that they tend to swallow whole fruits and intact seeds, <em>Ateles</em> are very important seed dispersers for many trees and lianes. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985; van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em> was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory).  In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groupings of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. In Guyana, Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. (1975) reported an average sub-group size of 2.4 individuals. In Suriname, Van Roosmalen’s (1980, 1985) study group consisted of 18 animals (three adult males, eight adult females, one subadult female, four juveniles and two infants), but the largest subgroup he observed was of nine individuals.<br/><br/>Only van Roosmalen’s (1980, 1985) study has provided an estimate of the home range size for <em>A. paniscus</em>.  His study group covered approximately 255 ha (220 ha with suitable habitat), most of it in high forest and a small portion in high mountain savanna forest. He believes that they maintain discrete, non-overlapping ranges with clearly-defined borders defended by the males, although only a single intergroup encounter was observed at one of these borders. Home range sizes may be bigger in other areas, depending on the distribution and year-round availability of food sources. Within their ranges, subgroups may travel distances from 500 to 5,000 m a day, depending on subgroup size and composition, weather, season, and the distribution of their current food sources (van Roosmalen 1980, 1985). During the dry season, they tend to travel less, especially when leaves have become a more significant component of their diet. Their day typically has two resting periods, one between 08h00 and 10h00 hours, and the other between 12h00 and 14h30. They spend more time resting during the dry season when fruit is scarce. Feeding activity is highest for the first two hours of the morning, and likewise the last two hours before entering their sleeping trees. Van Roosmalen (1980, 1985) recorded 43 different sleeping trees over the three years of his study, but just a few of them were frequently used. They are always tall, emergent trees, well free of the canopy, with a broad, open crown, either small-leaved, leafless or in leaf flush, horizontally branched, and located strategically near the next days feeding site, or better still are the next days feeding site.<br/><br/><em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees. <br/><br/>Although Husson (1957) mentions seeing young animals throughout the year, <em>Ateles</em> have a clearly defined birth season in Suriname. Newborn infants are seen only in November, December and January, indicating that they are born at the end of the long dry season and during the short wet season. However, the few data available from other areas indicate the a lack of a breeding season. Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em> were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1972; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). However, for <em>A. paniscus</em>, van Roosmalen (1980) estimated an interbirth interval of 46-50 months for females successfully rearing their young. They show lactational anoestrus for about three years. When in oestrus, females tend to manipulate, inspect and rub their clitoris. Sexual receptivity lasts 8-10 days, with an interestrus of 15-17 days (van Roosmalen 1980). Copulation is generally preceded by much place sniffing and urine licking on the part of the male, who consorts the female during her oestrus, although van Roosmalen (1980) observed that receptive females appeared to choose their mate. It is the receptive female which initiates sexual activity by rushing towards a male and sitting in his lap. If he does not respond she leaves and then returns to repeat the action some minutes later. Behaviour prior to copulation resembles play, involving head-shaking, heavy panting, and even growling and wrestling. Copulation takes place with both monkeys sitting, the male behind the female, grasping the female around her chest and with his legs over and between the females thighs (van Roosmalen 1980). The female copulates three or four times a day during oestrus.<br/><br/>When two individuals meet after a period of separation, they may show a ritualized form of greeting behaviour that includes embracing and pectoral (chest) sniffing (<em>Ateles</em> have olfactory skin glands in this region, but in the wild at least they have never been observed to rub them on branches as has been seen for <em>A. belzebuth</em> for example). Each put their arms around each other and their nose to the others chest which they may lick or sniff. In <em>A. paniscus</em> this may be accompanied by grunting vocalizations, and the embrace is usually initiated by the lower ranking animal of the two (van Roosmalen 1980). It is often followed by genital sniffing. Klein (1971) suggested that the hypertrophied clitoris is for depositing drops of urine as scent marks, and rubbing of the anogenital region also undoubtedly serves in olfactory communication. Communicative tactile signals include also grooming, and wrapping the tail and limbs around other individuals, which often follows embraces. Other behaviours shown in varying contexts, many of them aggressive or agonistic, include head-shaking, chest-scratching, pilo-erection, hopping and bounding, vigorous arm swaying, and branch shaking and dropping, and, when highly aroused, defecation. In agonistic displays the tail may be held up and curled at the tip. Detailed studies of their behaviours and their possible social meanings are described in Eisenberg (1976: see also van Roosmalen and Klein 1988).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Three males in the British Museum had a mean H&B length of 545 mm (range: 515-580) and a mean TL of 807 mm (range: 720-852); 10 females had a mean H&B length of 540 mm (range: 490-620) and a mean TL of 814 mm (range: 640-930) (Napier 1976). Four females cited in Kellogg and Goldman (1944) had the following measurements: H&B length: 460, 418, 570 and 660; TL 870, 920, 880 and 753. Male <em>A. paniscus</em> are more robust and larger than females. There has been some controversy concerning the possibility that the reverse is true (Ford and Davis 1992; Peres 1994), but a review by Smith (1996) specifically examining this problem points out this supposition was based on statistical error. Body mass for <em>A. paniscus </em> is estimated at 9.11 kg for males and 8.44 kg for females (Mittermeier 1977; Ayres 1986; Smith 1996).	eng
2283	population	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	In the Voltzberg Study Area, spider monkeys were found to occur at a density of approximately 8.2 individuals/km² (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981). At Nourague, French Guiana, Guillotin <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated a density of 14.0 individuals/km², with a biomass of 132.3 kg/km², the second highest in the primate community after the howling monkeys (144.6 kg/km²). Kessler (1998) estimated a slightly lower density in Nouragues: 7-10 individuals/km². Figures from other areas are usually in the same range. Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) estimated lower densities of 2.4-6.2/km² for three areas in Guyana. Factors determining different <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988), who concluded that the main factors involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources. Hunting  is a major factor affecting primate population densities in French Guiana (Roussilhon 1988).	eng
2283	threats	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Spider monkeys are heavily hunted because of their large size, and along with their highly eclectic diet, their need for an enormous variety of fruiting trees, and the fact that they breed rather slowly (a female has one offspring about every three to four years), this renders them the first of the primates to suffer from hunting pressure and logging and other forms of degradation of the tall forests where they live. Although habitat loss is not as severe in the more northerly part of the range of <em>A. paniscus</em>, hunting remains a threat across the range and is taking place even within protected areas.	eng
2295	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	In Chile this species is listed as "Rare" (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).	eng
2295	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Puerto Eden, Wellington Island, Chile (49° 10'S; 74° 28'W). Its altitudinal range is up to 50m asl.	eng
2295	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Its habitat is Magellanic tundra, with a mosaic of small patches of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and bogs. Reproduction probably occurs in the bogs.	eng
2295	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen collected more than 25 years ago.	eng
2295	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is probably not threatened because the habitat on Wellington Island is not under any significant threats.	eng
2296	conservation		The entire known population is in the reserve area of the Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known from only a single location.	eng
2296	distribution		This species occurs only at the type locality (Laguna Verde on Cerro Challhuanco) and in neighbouring areas in Argentina. Its altitudinal range is between 1,300 and 1,550m asl.	eng
2296	habitat		This species can be found in permanent and temporary ponds and humid areas of caducifolius forest (<em>Nothofagus pumilio</em>); breeding takes place in permanent ponds. It is not known from modified habitats.	eng
2296	population		It is common within its restricted range. The minimum population size is estimated at around 1,000 individuals (Ubeda <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
2296	threats		Potential major threats include fires (both natural and human initiated) and increasing touristic activities.	eng
2297	conservation		The entire population of this species is included within the Somuncura Provincial Reserve; however, this Reserve requires better management, since it affords no real protection for the area. Further surveys are needed throughout the Somuncura Plateau area to better establish the population status of this species.	eng
2297	distribution		This species is known from five lagoons on the Somuncura Plateau, an isolated basaltic plateau in Río Negro Province, Argentinean Patagonia, at an altitude of 1,000-1,200m asl.	eng
2297	habitat		The species inhabits steppe tablelands that contain a number of temporary shallow lagoons scattered over the volcanic plateau. Breeding takes place in permanent pools. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
2297	population		It is a rare species.	eng
2297	threats		It is threatened by eutrophication of its aquatic habitat, and the trampling of the shallow ponds by livestock (sheep and goats).	eng
2298	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to obtain more information on the population status and range of this poorly known species.	eng
2298	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Las Bayas Creek, 48km south of Pilcaniyeu, Río Negro Province, Argentina. It is believed to have a restricted range, but further surveys are needed to confirm this. It has been collected at an altitude of 900m asl.	eng
2298	habitat		The species’ habitat includes rocky ravines along creeks in the wasted volcanic landscape of the Pilcaniyeu steppe and tableland. The breeding habitat is not known.	eng
2298	population		The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
2298	threats		There is no information on the threats to this species. There is only some grazing of sheep in the area, though it is unclear what impact this might be having on the species.	eng
2352	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2352	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
2352	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Along coast of Mediterranean, Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Atlantic coast northward to Loire estuary (France). Isolated populations along costs of southern England and the Netherlands (some might actually be the marine A. mochon). Permanent freshwater resident populations in Guadalquivir and Tagus (now extirpated) drainages, Santo André lagoon (Portugal) and Lake Trichonis (Greece). Introduced in Aral Sea, Lake Trasimeno (Italy) and perhaps other lakes in Italy.	eng
2352	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Along coast of Mediterranean, Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Atlantic coast northward to Loire estuary (France). Isolated populations along costs of southern England and the Netherlands (some might actually be the marine A. mochon). Permanent freshwater resident populations in Guadalquivir and Tagus (now extirpated) drainages, Santo André lagoon (Portugal) and Lake Trichonis (Greece). Introduced in Aral Sea, Lake Trasimeno (Italy) and perhaps other lakes in Italy.	eng
2352	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, estuaries, coastal lakes and sea. Freshwater populations prefer still or slow-flowing waters. Pelagic in lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Usually lives 1-2 years, rarely up to four. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Freshwater populations spawn in April-June in Guadalquivir, in March-October in Lake Trichonis. Short spawning migrations into estuaries in some populations. Fractional spawner, larger individuals spawn for a longer period. Eggs with long hairy appendages attaching them to filamentous algae, deposited at 2-6 m depth. Larvae are pelagic but often form schools close to the shores. In lakes and estuaries, feeds mainly on small planktonic invertebrates, often on benthos in rivers.	eng
2352	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, estuaries, coastal lakes and sea. Freshwater populations prefer still or slow-flowing waters. Pelagic in lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Usually lives 1-2 years, rarely up to four. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Freshwater populations spawn in April-June in Guadalquivir, in March-October in Lake Trichonis. Short spawning migrations into estuaries in some populations. Fractional spawner, larger individuals spawn for a longer period. Eggs with long hairy appendages attaching them to filamentous algae, deposited at 2-6 m depth. Larvae are pelagic but often form schools close to the shores. In lakes and estuaries, feeds mainly on small planktonic invertebrates, often on benthos in rivers.	eng
2352	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Common.	eng
2352	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Common.	eng
2352	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
2352	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
2353	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire and National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea. There has been extensive research into harvest levels (see Jori <em>et al.</em> 1998), as well as an investigation into the feasibility of farming these animals in Gabon (Jori <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the low reproductive rates in captivity pose a problem.	eng
2353	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This species is distributed from Guinea, Sierra Leone and The Gambia in West Africa eastwards in forested regions to Kenya. It has been recorded from sea level to the Cameroon Highlands. The species is also found on Bioko Island. A record from east of Lake Tanganyika (Kingdon 1974) is not shown in Swynnerton and Hayman (1951) or Kingdon 1997. It has been recorded up to 3,000 m asl.	eng
2353	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is found in rainforest and in forest along the edge waterways. It lives in holes in the roots of large trees, hollow logs, fallen branches, rock crevices, termite mounds and other similar places. It does not dig its own burrows. The species is a nocturnal, and solitary forager, although it dens communally in parties of two to six (sometimes more) animals.<br/>It has a gestation length of 100 to 110 days, with a single young born (though Haltenorth and Diller [1980] mention up to four), in two to three litters per year. This species has a longevity of 15 years.	eng
2353	population	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This species is not uncommon, but it is nocturnal and is rarely seen.	eng
2353	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	As with other African porcupines, this species can cause damage to crops and agricultural fields, favouring a number of cultivated roots and fruits, such as cassava, sweet potatoes, bananas and other fruits. It is subject to extensive exploitation for human consumption in much of its range (being a ground-dwelling, large-sized rodent, capable of producing up to 2 kg of meat), and in Gabon, Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo this is a favoured species in wild meat markets. (Jori <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Equatorial Guinea, a survey showed that the wild meat trade relied heavily on the Brush-tailed Porcupine and the Blue Duiker (<em>Cephalophus monticola</em>), with these two species accounting for more than one half of all carcasses brought to markets (Fa <em>et al</em>. 1995). Jori <em>et al</em>. (1998) report that the meat of this species is also often the most expensive meat in many African cities	eng
2354	conservation	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, though not listed in CITES. It has been recorded from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia.	eng
2354	distribution	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in northeastern South Asia, through much of central and southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Assam, India and probably also occurs in Bangladesh. It has been recorded up to 750 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from Hainan Island, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Hubei, Hunnan and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely recorded in Myanmar, Thailand (including the island of Tarutau), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia (including the islands of Aor, Pemanggil and Tioman). It is recorded from Sumatra (Indonesia) by Woods and Kilpatrick (2005), but this requires verification.	eng
2354	habitat	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occurring in subtropical and tropical montane forests. It is found on the forest floor, often in areas with profuse undergrowth interspersed with cane and bamboo brakes and palms (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It constructs burrows, which may be occupied by up to three animals. Two litters of a single young are born after a gestation period of 100 to 110 days (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
2354	population	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a widespread species.	eng
2354	threats	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In its limited South Asian range, it is threatened by habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) agriculture, small-scale logging, subsistence harvesting for food, and accidental mortality (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
2358	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	Occurs in Toubkal National Park in Morocco and probably in other protected areas, too.	eng
2358	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	Endemic to the most western part of North Africa, in Western Sahara, Morocco and a small area of northwestern Algeria (Ksours Mountains). Ranges from the coastal zone up to 4,165 m mainly in the Middle and High Atlas south to Agadir, in the Anti Atlas and in the northern edge of the western Sahara, south to Sequiat el Hamra.  Introduced to Fuenteventura (Canary Islands) in 1965.	eng
2358	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	Inhabit stony regions and open habitats from mountain slopes to desert. Avoiding bare areas and forests, they are common in open country with scattered trees and bushes of Juniper (<em>Juniperus</em> spp.), Thuya (<em>Tetraclinis articulata</em>) and Argan (<em>Argania spinosa</em>). Shelter in burrows excavated under rocks or among stones in screes consolidated by vegetation. Also present in various agricultural habitats, favoured by stone walls where they can seek refuge. Even though they require permanent water in the south, they never enter irrigated fields. Diurnal, and social, with the most simple family unit composed of a single female with her young. Litter size: at least four. Capable of producing two litters per year.	eng
2358	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	Abundant in the lower slopes and valleys, they are still very common up to 2,000 m in the Grand Atlas; above this, densities decrease with increasing altitude. Densities also decrease dramatically in the eastern part of the range. Some local patches can be numerous in desert region. Population fluctuations are suspected to occur.	eng
2358	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats. Widespread within its range, and uses poor agricultural habitats. On Fuenteventura (where they are introduced), they are regarded as a pest; it is forbidden to transport animals from one island to another as they prey on the endemic invertebrates, such as snails.	eng
2395	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
2395	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano from south Peru (Arequipa Department) to extreme northeast Chile and west central Bolivia (3,450 to 4,770 m) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
2395	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It lives is open areas and is commonly found on boulder-strewn slopes with sparse vegetation, rock slides, and stone walls, as well as in Ctenomys burrows and viscacha colonies. It is also found in boggy areas. It is diurnal and has a varied diet. In Peru females have three to four embryos. In captivity females will produce three litters a year with three to five young per litter (Pearson, 1951; Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
2395	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
2395	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
2396	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
2396	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina, from about 38°S latitude to Straits of Magellan (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2396	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	Shrubs in south Andes.	eng
2396	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
2396	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
2397	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
2397	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the high Andes from central Peru (Ancash Department) to northwest Bolivia (La Paz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It may occur further south in Bolivia than is currently known. It has an altitudinal range of 3,400 to 4,900 m.	eng
2397	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It can be found in a variety of humid and dry montane habitats including grassland, shrubland and rocky areas. It can be found in traditionally grazed areas.	eng
2397	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is considered to be a common species.	eng
2397	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
2398	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in three protected areas in Peru and several highland protected areas in Bolivia. Its biology needs further study.	eng
2398	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano from south Peru (Ayacucho Department), through west Bolivia (3,800 to 4,740 m) and adjacent Chile, to northwest Argentina (Jujuy and Salta Provinces) (Díaz and Barquez, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005). This species is found at high altitudes from 3,800 to 4,740 in Bolivia; and up to 4,000 to 5,500 in Peru.	eng
2398	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is an animal of open habitats, preferring areas with bunchgrass and rocks. It also is found in abandoned tuco-tuco burrows. It shelters under rocks or rock walls or in often caught together with other individuals of the same species.	eng
2398	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a common species. There are seasonal fluctuations of this species population, especially between June and August.	eng
2398	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
2424	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	The species is currently being listed by NSW Fisheries.	eng
2424	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Southern Sydney Basin, Australia. Only two subpopulations are known.	eng
2424	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Streams.	eng
2424	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Current population size is unknown.	eng
2424	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	River regulation, vegetation clearing, and urban expansion are the main threats.	eng
2426	conservation	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	No conservation measures specifically designed for the recovery of this species has been established. Plans are underway to do river rehabilitation for other species elsewhere in the Cederberg Mountains, and if successful it can be attempted for tributary streams where this species occurs.	eng
2426	distribution	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	This species is endemic to three tributary streams of the Olifants branch of the Olifants River system that drains the Cederberg Mountains (Bills 1999). They have been recorded in recent times in the mainstream of the mainstream of the Olifants River, but unsustainable water extraction has caused these areas to dry up several times in the last few years, suggesting that this area is recolonized from the Heks population.	eng
2426	habitat	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Prefers fast flowing, rocky habitats of headwater streams. They seem to be restricted to cobble zones of the lower gradient sections of tributary streams (Bills 1999).	eng
2426	population	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Although the range of this species is reasonably well understood, information about population trends is lacking. There has probably been a loss of mainstream habitats in the last ten years, and the distribution range in the Noordhoeks tributary has fluctuated depending on where water extraction occurs. However, more accurate information is needed to study long-term trends.	eng
2426	threats	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien invasive species has severely fragmented populations of this species in the past. Especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, must have caused a major reduction in population size just after their introduction in the 1940's. Unsustainable water extraction is a major threat, especially the low gradient sections of tributary streams that this species seems to prefer. All the water of all four tributary streams is being used during summer months, with the result that this species only survives above extraction points. The effect of insecticides has not been quantified, but all the tributary streams has orchards before they reach the Olifants River (Bills 1999).	eng
2427	conservation	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	A river rehabilitation program plans to rehabilitate lower sections of the Rondegat and Krom Rivers that would significantly increase the size of those populations and hopefully secure them against re-invasion by alien fishes.	eng
2427	distribution	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	<em>A. gilli</em> is endemic to the Olifants River system in the Western Cape, South Africa. It occurs in tributaries of the Olifants (Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boontjies, Boskloof, Heks, Rondegat, Jan Dissels, Dwars) and Doring (Biedouw, Tra Tra, Eselbank, Matjies, Krom and Breekkrans) basins of the Olifants River system in the Cederberg Mountains and occurs in the mainstream Olifants River near the Heks tributary (Bills 1999).	eng
2427	habitat	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Common in both lower and headwater sections of tributary streams. They prefer larger pools and deep water within tributary streams associated with cobble and boulder habitat. As juveniles they probably prefer cobble regions, but as they mature they are found in a wide variety of habitats preferring complex structure especially deep cobble and boulder areas (Bills 1999).	eng
2427	population	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	There are large populations (possibly more than 1,000 mature individuals)  in the Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boskloof, Heks (including the mainstream Olifants nearby), Rondegat, Jan Dissels, Dwars, Breekkrans and Krom tributaries and smaller populations (possibly less than 1,000 mature individuals) in the Boontjies, Biedouw, Tra Tra, Eselbank and Matjies tributaries (Bills 1999).	eng
2427	threats	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	The introduction of alien fishes, particularly <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>, has caused a major reduction in their range soon after their introduction in the 1940's. Since, then the decline due to alien fishes has become slower due to the inability of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> to move above some barriers in tributary streams. Unsustainable water extraction is a major threat that affects almost all the tributary streams and mainstream areas. The effect of insecticides has not been quantified, but could have an increasing impact in the future as more orchards are being established (Bills 1999).	eng
2428	conservation	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Conservation of mainstream habitats through South Africa's river health programme needs to be developed further. Some reserves and parks exist that were primarily proclaimed for terrestrial fauna and flora or for scenery, and are therefore ineffective to secure populations of this species.	eng
2428	distribution	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Occurs in the major tributaries and the mainstream of the Orange River system and it has been translocated through inter-basin transfer schemes to the Great Fish River system and the Olifants catchment of the Limpopo River system (Skelton 2001, Skelton and Cambray 1981, Cambray 1984, Laurenson and Hocutt 1984), and may also establish in other river systems that have been connected.	eng
2428	habitat	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Prefers rocky habitat in mainstream areas of major rivers. Omnivorous, feeding on invertebrates especially from rock surfaces with larger specimens also feeding on small fish (Skelton 2001)	eng
2428	population	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	No estimate of population size is available. Despite reports of being caught by fisherman, they appear to occur in relatively lower numbers compared to other angling species.	eng
2428	threats	Swartz, E., Bills, R. & Impson, D., 2007	Sedimentation, particularly because of erosion in the upper Orange, Caledon and some Vaal catchments is a major threat to their rocky habitats. Dams and weirs probably affected the species negatively in the past, but the current influence is unsure. Pollution in Gauteng Province may have caused extinction in some small tributaries of the Vaal River	eng
2430	conservation	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F., Holdich, D., Reynolds, J., Sibley, P. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species has been listed under the EU Habitats Directive Annex II and V and therefore requires the designation of special areas of conservation for its protection. It has also been listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Ireland, this species is protected by the European Union (Natural Habitats) Regulations 1997. Under this regulation, Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) are designated where there are good populations of this species. This applies to all European countries.<br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>Within the United Kingdom, a Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) has been developed for this species: this seeks to maintain the current distribution of the species through a combination of restricting the spread of non-native crayfish and crayfish plague, as well as providing suitable habitat features (UK Biodiversity Group 1995).   <span lang="EN-GB">Eradication      of non-native crayfish in large bodies of water and rivers is difficult,      if not impossible (Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999), although control may be achieved      through trapping. Some success has, however, been achieved in enclosed      waters in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Scotland</st1:place></st1:country-region>      using natural biocides (Peay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).   It is an offence under Schedule 9 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act to keep without licence or release five of the introduced species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus, Procambarus clarkii, Orconectes limosus, Astacus leptodactylus and Astacus astacus</span>) of crayfish into the wild, a sixth (<em>O. virilis</em>) has yet to be added to this act (Holdich and Sibley 2009).<span lang="EN-GB"> This species is also indirectly affected by the EU Water Framework Directive which seeks to achieve good ecological status of aquatic systems. There are a number of local community education programs that aim to inform local communities on identification of native and non-native species and the legal implications of removing these species from the wild.   It is also protected by the Wildlife Acts (since 1975) in Ireland. Non-native crayfish are prohibited by the Fisheries Acts within Ireland (J. Reynolds pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><br/>This species has been reintroduced (using hatchery reared individuals) into a number of sites at which it was previously found (Rogers and Watson 2007). Methodological approaches for re-introductions have been recently reviewed by Souty-Grosset and Reynolds (2009).   The suitability of the target habitat, the stocking material and the stocking procedure itself are paramount during any reintroduction measure: apart from general water quality and structural parameters, a suitable habitat is ideally geographically isolated from other surface waters and human activities such as intensive fishing pressure and agricultural practices. Genetics of stocking material must be considered. However, it is first essential to make sure that the target habitat is free of crayfish plague. Analyses of experience gathered in various European countries indicate how difficult it is to get the best information as a basis for successful restocking and consequently the discussions recently conducted among European researchers and managers were aimed at achieving consensus and common strategies <span lang="EN-GB">(Souty-Grosset and Reynolds 2009).<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>Within Switzerland this species is regulated by the National Swiss Fisheries Legislation and is deemed 'highly endangered'. There is a closed fishing season of 40 weeks per year and minimum harvest size limit of 9 cm (Hefti and Stucki 2006).<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span><br/>Population monitoring within countries for which trend information is lacking, is needed. Further research within these countries, on the main drivers of decline is also required.<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/><br/></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span></span></span></span>	eng
2430	distribution	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F., Holdich, D., Reynolds, J., Sibley, P. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<em>Austropotamobius pallipes</em> has a wide distribution throughout Europe. It was previously thought that the western limit of the species range was in Portugal (though it is now thought to be Extinct there), but is now northwestern Spain. Montenegro is the easterly limit, whilst Spain and Scotland are the southerly and northerly limits respectively. Its distribution is restricted in Austria, Corsica, Germany, Lichtenstein and Montenegro (Souty-Grosset <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
2430	habitat	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F., Holdich, D., Reynolds, J., Sibley, P. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This is a freshwater species which can be found under submerged cobbles, rocks, logs, tree roots, and amongst fallen leaves in permanent water bodies such as canals, streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and water-filled quarries (Holdich 2003).   Recently it has been found that <em>A. pallipes</em> can tolerate muddy habitats if tree roots or other woody habitats are available (Holdich<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). Vertical banks and overhanging vegetation have been highlighted as important features in determining crayfish abundance (Naura and Robinson 1998). It may also be found in large numbers in waters dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> sp. (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species is intolerant to pollution and hydrological change. Waters containing<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species tend to be in the pH range 7-9, with calcium levels above 5 mg l<sup>-1</sup>. This species occurs in areas with relatively hard, mineral-rich waters on calcareous and rapidly weathering rocks. A study from Western France (Trouilhé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) found the site harbouring the largest <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes</span> population had a dissolved oxygen concentration as low as 4.93 mg/L, while water temperature rose above 20°C for several consecutive days during summer. Nitrate concentrations were always found to be above 30mg/L. Principal component analyses (PCA) suggested that an increase of organic matter was a discriminant factor for the presence or absence of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Trouilhé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>It can live for more than 10 years, and usually reaches sexual maturity after three to four years. It will carry 20-160 eggs, but usually less than 100 (Holdich 2003).<br/><br/>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function  within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food  production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services  – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value –  recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds  such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).	eng
2430	population	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F., Holdich, D., Reynolds, J., Sibley, P. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	England, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy once held the greatest abundance of this species, however over the last 10-20 years this species has undergone significant declines in these countries and the greatest subpopulation is now found in Ireland which is still free from the Signal Crayfish. The status of this species has recently been reviewed by Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span>: This species was recorded as present in Livno and in Boracko Lake in the Neretva drainage in 1895 and from Gacko (Herzegovina) and Ljuta (Croatia) in 1961 (Entz 1909, Karaman 1961). These drainage systems are part of the Adriatic drainage system.<br/>    <p>    </p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Croatia</span>: This species is reported from several localities including: Vransko Lake (Island of Cres), near the towns of vica and Gornjit Kosinj, Zrmanja, Krupa, Centina and Krka Rivers (Grube 1864, Bruina 1907). This species has been eliminated from the main stem of the River Nereta due to intensive draining and pollution (Gottstein <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). It has been described as native to Croatia in the rivers belonging to the Adriatic Sea drainage (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2009). Some populations on the south have disappeared (the Ljuta River, Vrljika  River) but due to the enthusiasm of local people, before it became extinct, some crayfish were transferred to surrounding tributaries. It has not been detected in the Krka and Zrmanja Rivers, but has been seen in some of the smaller tributaries. The main causes of disappearance are regulation of river banks and intensive agriculture (pollution) on the river banks (I. Maguire and G. Klobu?ar pers. comm. 2009).<br/>  <p>  </p>  <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Czech Republic</span>: Groombridge (1993) reports this species within the country, however Machino says this report is a mistake (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">England</span>: There has been much debate over the origin of this species within England. This species is now considered indigenous within this country following the recent work of Holdich, Palmer and Sibley (2009) in which they found a number of records to suggest that this  species has been present for at least 500 years and was certainly widespread  and abundant prior to the introduction of signal crayfish and crayfish  plague (Thomas and Ingle 1971, Holdich and Reeve  1991). However, since the 1970s with the introduction of the Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</span>), this species has been undergoing significant declines in its range (Sibley 2003, 2004). This species is suspected to have undergone a 95% decline within Hampshire since the 1970s (A. Hutchings pers. comm. 2009). Data collected by the Environment Agency on presence/absence in southwest England, indicates that this species has undergone a decline of 31% in 10 years (occurred in 87 Water Framework Directive subcatchments prior to 1975, but was only found in 26 of these by the end of 2008) (Sibley, Holdich and Lane 2009). Rates of decline for the South West region were determined by mapping presence/ absence in sub-catchment units, and provides greater resolution than that provided by mapping presence/ absence in 10 km² grid cells (P. Sibley pers. comm. 2009); however this estimate is likely to underestimate true decline as many once dense subpopulations are rapidly disappearing (P. Sibley pers. comm. 2009). A decline of greater than 95% is suspected for the Thames region (G. Scholey and A. Ellis pers. comm. 2009); it was once present in all the major Thames tributaries but now only eight of  the 55 sub-catchments (97.9% decline over a ten year period) have any records for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>since  2004 (J. Foster pers. comm. 2009). East and West Sussex are suspected to have undergone a 100% loss of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes</span>, although a few small populations still exist in Kent (J. Foster pers. comm. 2009).&#160; East Anglia has also undergone significant losses since the 1970s with a range contraction from 384 km of occupied river (between 1970 - 2000), to just 84 km post 2000 (M. Pugh pers. comm. 2009). The situation in Britain has recently been reviewed by Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) and Holdich and Sibley (2009).<br/></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">France</span>: This species is widespread within France and is known to occur in the majority of departments (Laurent 1988, Vigneux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Changeux 1996). Attempts have been made to restock waterways which have been affected by the plague. The population numbers of this species are said to be declining significantly (Vigneux et al. 1993, Vigneux 1997, Changeux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). A survey from   Poitou-Charentes indicates a decline of 40% over the period 1997–2003 (52% decline since 1995) with a decline from 137 subpopulations in 1978, to 120 in 1988, to 81 in 1995, and to 45 populations in 2003 (Bramard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This situation is similar to what is happening across much of France: In Jura 60% of known subpopulations have disappeared since 1989 (~37% decline over a ten year period). Numerous subpopulations have disappeared in 14 departments, with declines are occurring in 26 of the 92 departments (C. Souty-Grosset pers. comm. 2009) </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Germany</span>: This species was first discovered in Germany in 1989 where it is restricted to the south-west of the country (Holdich 2002). The population numbers are declining (H. Schulz pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ireland</span>: O'Keeffe (1986) estimated a population density of approximately 37,000 adults in White Lake (32 ha). Matthews <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1993) estimated a population density of over one million adults in Lough Lene (430 ha); both these subpopulations have since disappeared. Reintroductions have taken place and have been successful within White Lake (Reynolds <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), however the Lough Lene subpopulation has since disappeared. Crayfish plague is suspected to have caused these declines. Matthews and Reynolds (1995) estimated populations in Blessington Reservoir, Co. Wicklow, at 500 adults per 100 m of rocky shoreline, and O'Keeffe (1986) noted dense populations in Lisheen streams nearby; stream densities were up to 6.5 per m².   Outbreaks of the plague in the 1980s caused losses in two catchments. Since then, slow declines are suspected to be occurring in some parts of Ireland (J. Reynolds pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p>  <span style="font-weight: bold;">Italy</span>:   The species is native to Italy where it is the most widespread species, except for Sicily and Sardinia (Gherardi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). The introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus </span>in 1981 from Austria in the South Tyrol region of Italy, may have led to the disappearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>in that area (Füreder and Machino 1999a). A significant decline in the number of populations within Liguria, Piedmont, and Tuscany has also been observed (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Gherardi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002c), 12 populations were reported within South  Tyrol; in 2003 (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) only seven of these populations remained representing an annual change of 58%, or 99.5% over 10 years. South Tyrol is thought to be exhibiting some of the greatest declines in the abundance of this species.<br/> </p><p> </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Montenegro</span>: This species is both native and introduced within this country. In the Danubian  drainage it is said to be native (its presence needs to be  proved), but on the Mediterranean side it is thought to be introduced (Y.  Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Slovenia</span>: <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius pallipes </span>is native to Slovenia. This species' subpopulations are low due to the impacts of the crayfish plague (Budhina 1989, B. Sket pers. comm. 2009)   </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Spain</span>: The origin of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>is uncertain. Albrecht (1983) considers that it is not native to Spain, due to a reference stating that this species was absent in 1642. Grandjean <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001a) and   Trontelj <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005)  found low genetic variability in the Spanish subpopulation, but with similarities to a subpopulation in Italy. Grandjean <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001a) suggest that this could be due to anthropogenic introductions. Alternatively, this could be due to a bottleneck during the Pleistocene, and current subpopulations have arisen from a single refugium. Spanish and Italian subpopulations could be descended from an extinct intermediate population in France. However, Gutiérrez-Yurrita <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1999) considers <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pallipes </span>to be indigenous to Spain. According to records, it was abundant in the 1960s, but had become scarce and restricted to northern Spain in the 1990s. Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000, 2001) state that less than 1,000 small subpopulations exist in northern and north-eastern Spain. To attempt to reinstate this species, some areas are being subject to restocking. Garcia-Arberas and Rallo (2000) state that this species is still located in areas of the Basque Country where it was thought to have gone extinct  </p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Switzerland</span>: This species is native to Switzerland, but is currently experiencing a strong recession (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2009). It is typically found in western regions and alpine valleys, although its presence in montane lakes is thought to be as a result of introductions (Holdich 2002). It is highly  sensitive to crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>). This species is considered as 'highly  endangered' (Stucki and Zaugg 2006).</p>	eng
2430	threats	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F., Holdich, D., Reynolds, J., Sibley, P. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is affected by a range of threats, however the most widespread threat is that of the invasive   alien crayfish species such as  Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus lenisculus</span>)   and Red Swamp Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>) and Crayfish Plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci) </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Invasive crayfish are aggressive predators for food and habitat, and often prey upon the White-clawed Crayfish. This species is also threatened by <span style="font-style: italic;">Thelohania contejeani</span> or Porcelain Disease. It may be present in 10% of a population without apparent harm, but problems may occur if a higher prevalence is reached (Holdich 2003). <br/><br/>  Localised declines can occur as a result of alteration to the hydrological regime of rivers (damming, water abstraction, and channelisation), pollution from agriculture, domestic pollution, sedimentation, eutrophication, loss of in-stream cover such as tree roots and pebbles, droughts, changes in land-use activities (agriculture and urbanisation) and non-indigenous crayfish species (Red swamp Crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, Spiny-cheek Crayfish <em>Orconectes limosus</em>, Virile Crayfish <em>Orconectes virilis</em>, Signal Crayfish <em>Pacifastacus lenisculus</em>, and Turkish Crayfish <em>Astacus leptodactylus</em>).<br/> <br/>Significant declines are occurring across much of this species range: approximately ~52% decline over 10 years in England, ~52% decline between 1995 and 2003 within France, and a 99.5% decline estimated for a ten year period in the South Tyrol region of Italy. These countries once held the greatest abundance of this species (Thomas and Ingle 1971, Holdich and Reeve 1991<span style="background-color: white;">)</span>. While information on the rate of decline is not available for all the countries in this species range, the situation is likely to be similar to that seen in England, France and Italy as the main threats (alien crayfish and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>) are present throughout much of this species range. The situation in Ireland is slightly less serious in that Signal Crayfish are not yet reported from here, however <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci </span>is present and already driving slow declines. This species is estimated to have undergone a 50 - 80% decline over a 10 year period over its global range. Sibley (2002) has suggested that should the current trend in the decline of this species continue, it faces possible extinction in Britain within 30 years.<br/><br/>It is important to note that though this species may appear to be numerous in areas,<st1:personname w:st="on"></st1:personname> the degree of genetic variability may in fact be low. Low intra-population genetic variability has been observed in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>,&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> (Gouin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (Bertocchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Diéguez-Uribeondo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In some populations (e.g. in the&#160;basin of the River Sieve in&#160; <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>) the absence of heterozygotes and a high level of inbreeding has been observed (Bertocchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><em></em>	eng
2431	conservation	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is listed under the Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive as a species requiring special conservation measures (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is also listed on the German Red List (RL3, Appendix 1), and within a number of other countries as threatened (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species is also listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Rates of population decline are needed through long-term population monitoring.<br/><br/><em><br/></em>	eng
2431	distribution	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is mainly confined to Central Europe where it is known from France and western Germany in the west of its range, to Turkey in the east of its range (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/>.	eng
2431	habitat	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is most commonly found in headwater streams with plenty of riparian and instream cover, however it has occasionally been found in lowland rivers (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Female size at maturity has been observed at 4.61 cm (total length) (I. Maguire pers. comm. 2010. Recorded sizes for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. torrentium</span> ranged from 6 to 9 cm (females) and from 8 to 10.5 cm (males) (Laurent 1988).<br/><br/>          <p>The ovigerous females carried external eggs from early November until mid-June the following year (Maguire <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region>, stone crayfish females may incubate 40 to 70 eggs (LAURENT, 1988). The max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>al number of eggs per female (in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) we found was 104 (an average value was 53.56) (Maguire<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2002).</p>  <p>In populations studied in Austria, a maximum of 86 eggs per female was found, while in Croatian populations the number of eggs per female was max<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ally 117 (Maguire <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p><p>Declines in this keystone species are said to negatively <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact both ecosystem structure and function  within freshwater environments through loss of: a) provisioning services – food  production from fisheries, recreational fishing, b) regulatory and support services  – trophic cascades, water purification, nutrient cycling, pr<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ary productivity, c) cultural value –  recreational fishing, education, heritage. Crayfish are also an <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant food source to a range of species including otters, salmonids, and birds  such as kingfishers (Kettunen and ten Brink 2006).</p>	eng
2431	population	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<span style="background-color: white;">Albania:</span> There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Austria: The Signal Crayfish is driving rapid declines in the population numbers of this species (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009).</span> This species is most abundant in Austria and Germany. In Austria, there are 534 localities which are said to account for 46% of all crayfish populations (Pöckl 1999). <br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bosnia-Herzogovina: There have been mass mortalities of this species (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bulgaria: There are only a few small subpopulations of this species (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007). Nothing is known on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Croatia: </span>This species is thought to be reasonably well preserved in this country, however anthropogenic pressure on this species habitat is increasing and likely to be driving some declines in abundance. Some parts of the population have also been significantly impacted by drought which has caused 95% mortality in some streams (I. Maguire pers. comm. 2010).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius  torrentium</span> is a native species and occurs in springs and streams at higher elevations. Even a co-existance of this species with <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacus astacus</span> and with <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius pallipes</span> is recorded (Meguire 2009).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Czech Republic: It is unclear whether this species is native or introduced to this country. It has been found at varying densities in streams, but in a study by Kozak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) they found it at a density of 12 individuals/ km<sup>2</sup> in Klabava Brook.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">France: This species is considered to be close to extinction within this country (Collas, Julien and Monnier 2007) <br/><br/>Germany: This species is undergoing a decline however there no trend information is available (H. Schulz pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Greece: This species can be found in 11 out of the 50 prefectures (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007). Compared to the other 2 crayfish species found in Greece, this species is believed to have undergone the greatest decline. However there is indication of recovery in some areas (Koutrakis <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Hungary: This species is threatened by organic pollution and the spread of non-native crayfish species which has resulted in a decline in the population numbers (P. Miklós pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Italy: </span>  The species is fragmented in its distribution. In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Udine</st1:placename></st1:place>, 2 of the 3 populations recorded in 1995 have gone extinct in 2005 (Machino and Füreder 2005). There has been a strong decline in this species in Northern Italy (Füreder 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Macedonia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Montenegro: </span>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Austropotamobius torrentium</span> is already thought to have gone extinct in a tributary of Lake Ohrid (Koselska Brook) below Rečica as a result of pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Romania: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Serbia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Slovakia: This species is rare in this country, but population numbers are thought to be stable at present (P. Manko pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Slovenia: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.<br/><span style="background-color: white;"><br/>Switzerland: This species is known from the eastern parts of Switzerland where it is known to be in severe decline. It is considered to be 'highly endangered' by the Swiss National Legislation on Fisheries (D. Hefti pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Turkey: </span>There is no information on the population status of this species in this country.</span>	eng
2431	threats	Füreder, L., Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is most threatened by the presence of non-native species such as the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) and the Spiny-cheek Crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">(Orconectes limosus), </span>crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>), and habitat loss and degradation (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is not tolerant of environmental change, so threats such as domestic and industrial pollution, agriculture, sedimentation, eutrophication, damming, water abstraction, and channelisation have all negatively impacted this species  (Füreder <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is reported to be undergoing significant population declines in most of the countries in which it is known from, however no quantitative data on the rate of decline is available.	eng
2434	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported from five national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, Zahamena, Marojejy, and Masoala), and two special reserves (Ambatovaky, Anjanaharibé-Sud) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of the <em>Avahi</em> species in Ankarana and also in the Kalambatritra Special Reserve requires further investigation.	eng
2434	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The range of this species is now somewhat unclear in the wake of recent genetic studies that have described several new species of <em>Avahi</em>. The species was formerly considered to range almost the entire length of Madagascar’s eastern rain forests from the Tolagnaro region in the extreme south to the Ankarana Massif in the extreme north, although the taxonomic status of the forms in Ankarana and Kalambatritra remained uncertain. However, Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> (2007) presented a distribution that shows the species ranging from Mantadia in the south to about Anjanharibe-Sud in the north.	eng
2434	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs in tropical moist lowland and montane forests, as well as secondary forest formations. Population densities appear higher in secondary growth and disturbed habitats. During the day, they typically sleep in clumps of dense foliage, sometimes fairly close to the ground, where group members huddle together. Single births take place in August and September (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
2434	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Fairly common. At the Analamazaotra Special Reserve, estimates of densities reach 72-100 individuals/km² (Ganzhorn 1988).	eng
2434	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are no major threats. Localized declines are no doubt taking place from habitat destruction due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture. Being nocturnal, it is less subject to hunting than many diurnal lemurs, but may be captured opportunistically at its daytime sleeping sites. In Makira and Mananara-Nord, the species is actively hunted by people with spears and slingshots. They are not commonly caught in snares as they don't eat bananas, which are usually used to bait traps, and because they are vertical clingers and leapers and don't venture onto horizontal surfaces.	eng
2435	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in the Ankarafantsika National Park, and in Mariarano Classified Forest. Further research on population numbers and distribution is requireds. Consideration should be given to improving the protected areas status of Mariarano Classified Forest, which is already very well protected by the local people.	eng
2435	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. According to Thalmann and Geissmann (2000), the core distribution is to the north and east of the Betsiboka River as far as Bay of Narindra, and this is the species present in Ankarafantsika National Park. They consider that the isolated population much farther north in the Ankarana region also represents this species, but that in between <em>A. unicolor</em> inhabits both the Ampasindava Peninsula and the Sambirano region, including the Manongarivo Special Reserve. Also recorded from Mariarano Classified Forest (E. Louis pers. comm.).	eng
2435	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found in dry deciduous forests, including secondary forest. They are specialized folivores, active at night, and living in family groups.	eng
2435	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Locally found at high densities. Ganzhorn (1988) estimated population densities in Ankarafantsika at 67 individuals/km².	eng
2435	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is forest destruction due to annual burning that creates new cattle pasture. There may be some localized hunting, but this is probably not a major threat.	eng
2436	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by law in France.	eng
2436	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia brevis</span> is widespread in eastern France (Ain, Doub, Jura, Rhône, Côte d'Or Departments) (Prie, 2009, pers. comm).	eng
2436	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs and probably in subterranean habitats.	eng
2436	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population trend data available for this species.	eng
2436	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
2446	conservation	Oliver, W., Widmann, P. & Lastica, E., 2008	It occurs in the Calauit Island Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary (37.4 km²), which was established in 1976 to protect a collection of free-ranging African ungulates. Protection is inadequate and there are no management plans (Oliver, 1993). Several hundred local people were evicted at that time it was established, but many of these have since returned to settle illegally (Oliver and Villamor, 1993). Thirty animals were introduced to Calauit in 1977 to supplement a small relict population (Orig and Rosell, 1994).<br/><br/>The following conservation actions are recommended:<br/>1. Monitor current status on all the three islands and determine population trends. Evaluate levels of hunting and habitat loss.<br/>2. Strengthen existing protected area system via establishment of new (additional) reserves and development and implementation of properly structured conservation management plan for Calauit that includes improved infrastructure, and measures to combat poaching.<br/>3. Agree and establish a zoning system within Calauit in collaboration with all relevant stakeholders, which enforces strict protection of the core area.<br/>4. Establish protected areas on Culion and Busuanga, based on habitat and deer status surveys.<br/>5. Undertake behavioral and ecological research of Calauit deer to determine management requirements. Conduct<br/>more detailed studies in selected areas.<br/>6. Initiate a conservation education program using Calamian deer as a flagship species to promote a wide variety of related conservation activities, including combatting the bushmeat trade.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. There is a captive population of 54 individuals in the San Diego Zoo (as of March 2008).	eng
2446	distribution	Oliver, W., Widmann, P. & Lastica, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Calamian Islands in the Palawan faunal region. The species occurs on three of the four larger islands in Calamians, i.e. Busuanga, Calauit and Culion, but is absent from Coron (Oliver, 1993; Oliver and Villamor, 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Grubb 2005). The species is also reported to have occurred on at least nine other smaller islands, including three islands where small numbers of individuals translocated from Calauit were released in the late 1980’s (Oliver and Villamor, 1993). However, it was reported to be extinct on at least 7 (78%) of these islands; (Bacbac, Capari, Panlaitan, Galoc, Apo, Alava and Dicabaito), and to survive on only two of these islands, namely Marily and Dimaquiat (Rico and Oliver, in prep.). It is not known from anywhere else in the region, including mainland Palawan, nor the larger and intervening of island of Linacapan.	eng
2446	habitat	Oliver, W., Widmann, P. & Lastica, E., 2008	The species occurs in grasslands, open woodlands and second-growth forest (Hoogstraal, 1951). It has a gestation length of approximately 180 days, with typically one young, and rarely twins. Age at sexual maturity is 8-12 months, with a life span of 12-20 years. This species is diurnal, browses on leaves, and lives in small herds (Wemmer, 1998). This species has a group size up to 27 individuals, but usually 7–14 (with much smaller groups reported in heavily hunted areas; Oliver and Villamor, 1992).	eng
2446	population	Oliver, W., Widmann, P. & Lastica, E., 2008	The species was reputedly common in all suitable localities throughout the main islands islands of Busuanga and Culion in the 1940s, but to have drastically declined in numbers on all parts of these islands, except in the extreme south of Culion, by the mid-1970s (Grimwood, 1976). A small population of deer surviving on Calauit Island at that time was supplemented by a further 30 translocated individuals in 1977 (J. Gapuz pers. comm.), following the creation of the ‘Calauit Island Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary’ in 1976, and the eviction and resettlement of the islands former residents (Oliver, 1993; Oliver and Villamor, 1993). By April 1994, Calauit was reported to hold an estimated population of 1,123 ± 236 individuals (Orig and Rosell, 1994); though more recent estimates indicate significant reductions in the numbers of these animals numbers following resettlement of the island by former residents and resurgence of hunting pressure. A survey in 2006 (Rico and Oliver, in prep.) showed the species still to be widespread on Calauit, Busuanga and Culion. though densities remain low in many areas (W. Oliver pers. comm.). It was also found still to be present on the islands of Marily and Dimaquiat.	eng
2446	threats	Oliver, W., Widmann, P. & Lastica, E., 2008	The species is threatened due to hunting pressure and human settlement and agricultural expansion over its very limited range, coupled by the evident lack of effective and sustained enforcement of the strong local protective legislation (W. Oliver pers. comm. and unpubl.). Hunting was particularly severe during the mid-1970s (Grimwood, 1976), but seemingly declined in most areas during the 1980’ and 1990’s, except on Calauit where hunting pressure increased dramatically following the resettlement of the island by former residents under the auspices of the ‘Balik (Back to) Calauit Movement’. In 1986, 51 out of the 256 families evicted from the island ten years earlier had re-settled on the island, and by 1992 the settlers numbered nearly 500 people (Oliver, 1993; pers. comm.). Much of the hunting of the species is recreational, and also to provide venison to the local markets (W. Oliver pers. comm.). On Calauit, introduced African ungulate populations are increasing but are probably not competing with Calamian deer. A presidential proclamation that precluded removal or control of exotic species, and the movement or management of Calamian deer on Calauit Island was recently amended, thereby also potentially enabling the better future control of the exotic ungulate populations, though in fact many of these populations have also been seriously reduced by poaching. While relatively large parts of Busuanga and Culion Islands are still undeveloped and sparsely inhabited, there are no proper reserves on either.	eng
2447	conservation	Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (CITES 2000). It is protected from hunting not just on paper, but effectively in practice (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). It inhabits Bawean Island Nature Reserve (5,000 ha; the island is 200 km² in size), established in 1979 for which a management plan prepared in 1979 (WWF 1979; Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987) warrants revision. Management activities have included termination of hunting, controlled burning of grassy areas within forests, and thinning of teak plantations to encourage understory development (Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987). Since 2000 a captive breeding programme has been operative on Bawean; as of 2006 it involved two stags and five hinds, while about 300–350 animals are held in zoos and private captive breeding facilities off the island (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions, which should proceed through appropriate revisions to the management plan, include:<br/><br/>1) Increase the populations and if possible expand the area used by the deer. While the population seems to be stable, its small size and insular nature leave it susceptible to chance events (e.g. weather-related disasters or earthquakes or disease), to any resumption of hunting and probably to inbreeding. Increasing <em>Eupatorium</em> will result in time in population decrease. There is thus a major role for active management of habitat through control of <em>Eupatorium</em>, so as to increase population density within the protected area, and thus total population. This species, a problem plant throughout much of South and South-east Asia, is very difficult to control and review of international successes and failures is needed to inform management of the weed on Bawean. Full security would come only through an increase of the range on the island, requiring some deer-centred management for areas outside the protected area.<br/><br/>2) Assess the impact of deer on crops as this may have become a problem if effective protection has allowed the population to increase substantially, or the invasion of <em>Eupatorium</em> is pushing deer to eat more crops. If so, community-based mediation with local conservation officials may be required to find solutions and mitigate conflict.<br/><br/>3) Initiate a co-ordinated breeding programme to evaluate and if necessary address possible inbreeding deficiencies in the captive population.	eng
2447	distribution	Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Bawean Island (= Pulau Bawean), in the Javan Sea off the northern coast of Java, Indonesia (Lachenmeier and Melisch 1996; Grubb 2005). Two main parts of the island are used, the central mountain range, and Mount Bulu in the south-west (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978, 1987). Tanjung Cina (= Cina Cape), an area of 950 m x 300 m, which has hilly topography in its centre and no resident human population, lies at the north-west of Bawean Island and is often cut off from the main island by a sea level of 20–150 m; it has been much used by Bawean Deer since at least the 1990s (Semiadi 2004).<br/><br/>Today’s restriction to Bawean is a relict from occurrence on Java, probably into the Holocene (van den Brink 1982), its disappearance from Java perhaps being caused by competition with Javan Rusa <em>Rusa timorensis</em> and Southern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus muntjak</em> (Meijaard and Groves 2004).<br/><br/>A specimen in the Institute of Zoology, Beijing, is labelled from Bangka Island, which lies off Sumatra (Indonesia); this is presumably in error (Grubb 2005). The species was supposedly discovered by Salomon Müller in 1836 in Tuban, a small town on the northern coast of Java, where the local governor kept a small herd in his garden, and the native range was discovered only after the name was proposed (Sitwell 1970). The species presumably evolved from a Pleistocene Javan <em>Axis</em> species (perhaps <em>Axis lydekkeri</em>) at a time when Bawean was connected to Java via a land bridge (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Meijaard and Groves 2004). Suggestions that the genus was introduced to Bawean by early European settlers seem unlikely (Sitwell 1970) because of the wealth of fossil material (reviewed in Meijaard and Groves 2004), and were not ever referred to by Grubb (2005).	eng
2447	habitat	Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Bawean Deer is found in primary and secondary forest, reaching higher densities in the latter (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978; G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006). The species occurs up to 500 m asl (G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko< pers. comm. 2006), typically in hill forests rather than the marshy grasslands where Hog Deer is most numerous (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987), despite the close taxonomic relationship of these two species. Bawean Deer uses forests with dense undergrowth for refuge while they rest during the day (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). It enters croplands, feeding on corn and cassava leaves, as well as grasses among the crops (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006). The species is found mainly in secondary forest, but enters burned grassy openings during the dry season (Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987). The most recent assessments are in Semiadi (2004).<br/><br/>Bawean Deer primarily grazes on herbs and grasses, but also browses young leaves and twigs (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). An individual deer produces 13 faecal pellet groups per day, a number which has been used to estimate population numbers (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). The seasonal rut is in September and October, although males may be found in breeding condition (i.e. with hard antlers) throughout the year (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Whitehead 1993). The gestation period is 225–230 days, after which a single fawn is born, very rarely twins (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987; Whitehead 1993). Most births occur from February to June; they occasionally occur in other months (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). In captivity, breeding occurs year round with females maintaining an interbirth interval of 9 months (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978).<br/><br/>Bawean Deer are primarily nocturnal, active intermittently through the night. They are very wary, and appear to avoid contact with people; where human activity is heavy, the deer spend the day in forests on steep slopes that are inaccessible to teak loggers. Individuals are occasionally seen on the beach in the southwest of the island, but otherwise are rarely seen directly (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978, 1987). It is typically solitary, although duos made up of a doe and fawn or a buck following a doe sometimes occur (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978).	eng
2447	population	Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Bawean Deer was reported as 'plentiful' during the 19th century. The population increased in the 1950s in response to forest protection, declined during the 1960s–1970s (Grimwood 1976), although no estimates are available, and in the 1980s was thought to number around 300 animals and to be increasing once again (Blouch 1980; Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). Through a 1991 survey the deer was suspected to be in decline (Gunawan and Kustanto 1994) In 2006, the wild population was estimated (based on field-work in 1998–2003) to be stable at 250–300 animals (Semiadi 2004; G. Semiadi and S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006), but there has been no systematic survey; 500 would be an absolute maximum (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Secondary forest seems to be the ideal habitat, supporting up to 19.2 deer per km² (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1978). Teak <em>Tectona grandis</em> forests with understorey, primary forest, and areas with teak and lalang support densities of 3.3 to 7.4 deer per km², while regions dominated by <em>Melastoma polyanthum</em> and <em>Eurya nitida</em> brush, Rombok <em>Merremia peltata</em>, disturbed primary forest, and teak without understorey support only 0.9-2.2 deer per km² (Blouch and Atmosoedirdjo 1987). The most recent assessment is in Semiadi (2004), who drew attention to the wet-season densities of 11.8 animals per km² on Tanjung Cina (= Cina Cape).	eng
2447	threats	Semiadi, G., Pudyatmoko, S., Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Bawean Deer has been subject to uncontrolled hunting, probably since human settlement took place some 500 years ago. During the 1960s much forest on Bawean was replaced by teak plantations; coupled with increased hunting pressure, this probably caused the species to decline in numbers. Hunting ceased in 1977, and the population increased during the next few years (Anonymous 1978; Blouch and Sumaryoto 1987; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). The hunting of pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em> with dogs persists, and leads to inadvertent death of deer (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006), but at the population level hunting is no longer a threat (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Presently, fewer than five deer die per year through direct human influence, chiefly in traffic accidents and when being chased by local dogs during pig hunts (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Maturation of teak (including coppicing from cut stumps) and invasion by the American herb <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em> (= <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>; Compositae) constitute the only significant predictable threat to this deer, through reducing the grazing areas and this carrying capacity (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). For a population at best on the edge of the oft-quoted, though somewhat arbitrary, minimum figure for a population viable into the long term (500), such a further reduction (on top of the major contraction in available habitat for the species over past centuries) should be seen as a major threat despite recent population stability.	eng
2461	conservation	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	The babirusa was accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993).<br/><br/>There are two protected areas in the remaining Buru rainforest, Gunung Kelpat Muda (1380 km²) and Waeapo (50 km²), and one on Taliabu, Pulau Taliabu (700 km²) (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001).  Gunung Kelpat Muda, to the west-central part of the island. has the additional advantage of continuing to be an animal sanctuary according to local custom (Macdonald unpublished, 2008).	eng
2461	distribution	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	<em>>B. babyrussa</em> occurs on two of the Sula Islands (Mangole and Taliabu) and on Buru (Macdonald, 1993) in Indonesia. The species is reported to be extinct on Sulabesi (formerly Sanana) (Sol unpublished, 1986).	eng
2461	habitat	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of the <em>B. babyrussa</em> specifically, but it is assumed that this is very similar than that of B. celebensis. Babirusa inhabit tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). At least on Sulawesi they visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002), so this might also be the case with <em>B. babyrussa</em>. Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>Specific data are lacking for <em>B. babyrussa</em>, but in northern Sulawesi groups or troops of up to 13 individuals of <em>B. celebensis</em> have been observed in rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas and salt licks (Patry <em>et al</em>., 1995; Clayton, 1996). Older adult males were often observed singly and most groups were composed of five or fewer animals, the majority of which were females with young animals.	eng
2461	population	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	The current population status of <em>B. babyrussa</em> is unknown. Although the forests in the northern portions of Buru have been degraded and cleared in the coastal lowlands, two large, contiguous, remaining forest blocks remain and current threats to the forest appear low (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Most of Taliabu, the largest of the Sula Islands, is still forested, but there has been large-scale logging in the lowlands. Mangole, the other Sula island with babirusa, has been heavily degraded (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Babirusa continue to be hunted for meat by local non-muslim village communities in some areas.	eng
2461	threats	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Large-scale commercial logging operations have posed a major threat to this species (Smiet 1982). Current threats to the remaining Buru rainforests are low and the conservation outlook is relatively stable, but remains vulnerable - commercial logging and shifting cultivation are the primary threats (Wikramanayake <em>et al</em>., 2001). Babirusa continue to be hunted for meat in some places by local non-Muslim village communities.	eng
2465	conservation	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
2465	distribution	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from southern Nayarit and central Veracruz, México, to northwestern Nicaragua, excluding the Yucatán Peninsula and Caribbean tropical lowlands (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species occurs from lowlands to 2,000 m (Reid 1997; Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
2465	habitat	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This mouse is found in tropical deciduous forest, dry shrublands and thickets,  grasslands and coastal dunes, pastureland, and in cultivated lands (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). It prefers dense grass and weedy fields. It is usually found in seasonally dry areas, often near rocks, fence rows, and along streams (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It is active by day or in the early evening. The presence of this mouse is often indicated by tiny runways through grass and weeds, littered with piles of small, green droppings. Underground burrows are used in grassy areas; rocks provide shelter in more open, arid regions. In Chiapas, Mexico, the diet consist of about 50% insects, 25% seeds (including <em>Solanaceae</em>), and 25% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). A nest of finely chewed plant material was found under a large kapok (<em>Ceiba</em>) tree (Packard and Montgomery 1978). This species appears to be social and may nest communally. Breeding may occur year-round, and litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging 2.9 (Packard 1960).	eng
2465	population	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is fairly common (Reid 1997). It can be abundant in pastures and cultivated areas (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
2465	threats	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	None known.	eng
2466	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
2466	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The range of this species extends northward from Michoacán, central Hidalgo, and central Veracruz, México in central Mexico in three prongs, with the central and eastern prongs reaching the southwestern United States. The western prong extents to southern Sonora (Mexico), the middle projection extends to southeastern Arizona and southwest New Mexico (USA) and the eastern projection extends to northern and eastern Texas southwest Oklahoma (USA) (Musser and Carleton 2005).  It is known from lowlands to 2,438 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
2466	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This mouse occurs in a variety of habitats including coastal prairie, midgrass prairie, mixed-grass prairie, mixed-desert shrub, prickly pear-short grass communities, post oak savanna, pine-oak forest, and oak-hickory associations. Dense ground cover is a common denominator of occupied habitats. This species does well in disturbed habitats.<br/><br/>It eats the stems and fruit of prickly pear cactus, grass seeds, grass leaves, mesquite beans, and granjero berries.  It breeds year-round with peaks in late fall and early spring. Gestation lasts 20 to 23 days, the litter size averages 2.5 (range 1 to 5). The mouse’s median life span is 23 weeks, with a maximum record life span of 170 weeks for laboratory-reared animals (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
2466	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This rodent is not in general common, but it can be locally common and it is expanding its range. It is sometimes considered a pest in agriculture. Population density ranges from 2 to 84 per hectare, and is lowest during summer and highest during autumn and winter (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Densities are highest in areas of dense ground cover.	eng
2466	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
2467	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946. All range states except Canada are members of the IWC. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is allowed by the IWC on bowhead whales from the BCB stock on the basis of scientific advice.  Indigenous hunting in Canada is co-managed by the national government and regional bodies created under land-claim agreements.	eng
2467	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946; all range states except Canada are members of the IWC. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is allowed by the IWC on bowhead whales from the BCB stock on the basis of scientific advice (see above). Aboriginal hunting in Canada is co-managed by the national government and regional bodies created under land-claim agreements. This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975; Canada had a reservation against this listing until 1978. The species is listed in CMS Appendix I.	eng
2467	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Bowhead whales are found only in Arctic and subarctic regions. They spend much of their lives in and near the pack ice, migrating to the high Arctic in summer, and retreating southward in winter with the advancing ice edge (Moore and Reeves 1993).<br/><br/>The International Whaling Commission recognises five stocks: Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (US (Alaska), Canada, and Russian Federation); Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin (Canada); Davis Strait-Baffin Bay (Denmark (Greenland) and Canada); Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) (Denmark (Greenland), Norway, and Russian Federation); and the Okhotsk Sea (Russian Federation and Japan) (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock occurs from Chaunskaya Guba (Russian Federation) in the western Chukchi Sea east to Amundsen Gulf (Canada), and the northern Bering Sea south to Karaginskiy Zaliv (Russian Federation), St. Matthew Island, and Norton Sound (US (Alaska)) (Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Recent evidence of movements of tagged whales indicating overlapping ranges, and inconclusive analyses of genetic differences, have called into doubt the traditional distinction between the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and the Davis Strait-Baffin Bay stocks (Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2006, IWC 2007). <br/><br/>The range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin stock was traditionally taken to include northern Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Foxe Channel and Foxe Basin. Tracking of satellite-tagged whales in 2002 and 2003 confirm movement from Foxe Basin through Fury and Hecla Strait into the Gulf of Boothia and Prince Regent Inlet (Cosens 2004). <br/><br/>The Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stock is centred in summer in the eastern Canadian High Arctic archipelago and along eastern Baffin Island. The whales move out of the summering areas as ice forms in autumn to wintering areas in polynyas (Holst and Stirling 1999), unconsolidated pack ice, and open water near the ice edge off West Greenland (Reeves and Heide-Jørgensen 1996) and eastern Baffin Island. The summering grounds include Cumberland Sound, the well-studied late summer and autumn feeding ground in Isabella Bay (Finley 1990), Lancaster Sound, Admiralty Inlet, and Eclipse Sound. <br/><br/>Animals satellite-tagged in Cumberland Sound in southeast Baffin Island in 2004 and 2005 moved into Prince Regent Inlet and the Gulf of Boothia and also into Foxe Basin and the Hudson Strait (Dueck <em>et al.</em> 2006). Animals tagged in West Greenland also moved to Prince Regent Inlet and Hudson Strait. There is thus no clear geographical division between the two putative stocks. The genetic evidence is inconclusive, and the IWC Scientific Committee currently regards the stock identity question as open (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stock (see separate listing) occurs from the east coast of Greenland across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea as far as Severnaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and as far south as the ice front, exceptionally reaching Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway).<br/><br/>The Okhotsk Sea stock (see separate listing) occurs in the Sea of Okhotsk from Shantarskiye Zaliv east to Zaliv Shelikova, Gizhiginskaya Guba and Penzhinskaya Guba (Moore and Reeves 1993, Rice 1998).	eng
2467	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Bowhead whales are found only in Arctic and subarctic regions. They spend much of their lives in and near the pack ice, migrating to the high arctic in summer, and retreating southward in winter with the advancing ice edge (Moore and Reeves 1993). The IWC recognises five stocks:  Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea; Hudson Bay-Fox Basin; Davis Strait-Baffin Bay; Spitsbergen; and the Okhotsk Sea (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2003). The Spitsbergen stock extends from the east coast of Greenland across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea as far as Severnaya Zemlya, and going as far south as the ice front, exceptionally reaching Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway).	eng
2467	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.	eng
2467	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter they occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do. During surface skim feeding, coordinated group patterns have been observed, including whales feeding in echelon (V-shaped) formation.	eng
2467	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Current population size<br/>The range-wide abundance is not known with precision but numbers over 10,000 individuals, with 10,500 (8,200-13,500) (in 2001) in the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (Zeh and Punt 2005), and a provisional estimate of 7,300 (3,100-16,900) for a part of the range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks (Cosens <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no reliable abundance estimates for the small Okhotsk Sea and Spitsbergen stocks.<br/><br/>Population trends<br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) population has been monitored for more than 30 years and has been increasing over this period at an estimated rate of 3.4% (1.7%-5%) per year in the presence of subsistence hunting (Zeh and Punt 2005). No quantitative estimates of trends in the other bowhead populations are available, but Inuit hunters and elders report that they are observing more bowheads in the eastern Canadian Arctic than they did in the 1960s-1970s, and that the geographic distribution of the whales has expanded in recent years. No estimates of population trend are available for the Svalbard-Barents Sea and Okhotsk Sea stocks.<br/><br/>Pre-whaling population sizes<br/>All bowhead populations were severely depleted by commercial whaling, which was established in the north-eastern Atlantic by 1611 (Ross 1993).  Basque whalers took bowheads in the north-west Atlantic (Labrador) in the 16th century, but ambiguities over the species identity of whales taken in early commercial whaling make pre-1600 catch records difficult to interpret. Minimum pre-whaling stock sizes are estimated to have been 24,000 for the Svalbard-Barents Sea stock, 12,000 for the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks, and 3,000 for the Okhotsk Sea stock (Woodby and Botkin 1993). The Spitsbergen and Okhotsk Sea stocks are at a small fraction of their pre-whaling levels.<br/><br/>Demographic parameters<br/>A high longevity (>100 years) is suggested by biochemical methods and the finding of old-fashioned stone harpoon heads in harvested animals (George <em>et al.</em> 1999). If this high longevity is confirmed, it would be among the longest known for a mammal.	eng
2467	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>Current Population sizes</em><br/> The range-wide abundance is not known with precision but numbers over 10,000 individuals, with 10,500 (8,200–13,500) (in 2001) in the Bering- Chukchi-Beaufort Seas (Zeh and Punt 2005), and provisional estimates of 3,633 (1,382-9,550) (Koski <em>et al.</em> 2006) and 7,300 (3,100–16,900) for parts of the range of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks (Cosens <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>There are no reliable abundance estimates for the small Okhotsk Sea and Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stocks (see separate listings).<br/><br/><em>Population trends</em><br/>The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort (BCB) subpopulation has been monitored for more than 30 years and has been increasing over this period at an estimated rate of 3.4% (1.7–5%) per year in the presence of subsistence hunting (Zeh and Punt 2005). No quantitative estimates of trends in the other bowhead populations are available, but Inuit hunters and elders report that they are observing more bowheads in the eastern Canadian Arctic and West Greenland than they did in the 1960s–1970s, and that the geographic distribution of the whales has expanded in recent years (Koski <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>No estimates of subpopulation trend are available for the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks (see separate listing).<br/><br/><em>Pre-whaling population sizes</em><br/>All bowhead subpopulations were severely depleted by commercial whaling, which had begun in the northeastern Atlantic by 1611 (Ross 1993). Basque whalers took bowheads in the northwest Atlantic (Labrador in Canada) in the 16th century, but ambiguities over the species identity of whales taken in early commercial whaling make pre-1600 catch records difficult to interpret. <br/><br/>Minimum pre-whaling subpopulation sizes are estimated to have been 24,000 for the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) stock, 12,000 for the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait subpopulation(s), and 3,000 for the Okhotsk Sea stock (Woodby and Botkin 1993). Brandon and Wade (2004) estimate the initial abundance of the BCB subpopulation at 10–20,000. <br/><br/>The BCB stock may be approaching its pre-whaling levels (IWC 2005). The Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks are each at a small fraction of their pre-whaling levels (see separate listings), while the status of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait animals relative to pre-whaling levels is unclear.<br/><br/><em>Demographic parameters</em><br/>A high longevity (>100 years) is suggested by biochemical methods and the finding of old-fashioned stone harpoon heads in hunter-killed animals (George <em>et al.</em> 1999). If this high longevity is confirmed, it would be among the longest known for a mammal.<br/><br/>For the BCB subpopulation, an estimated 44% (SE 1%) of the total population consists of reproductively mature animals, given that the age at maturity is at least 20 years (Koksi <em>et al.</em> 2004). The calving interval is 3–4 years (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 1992). No specific data are available for other subpopulations.<br/><br/>Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimate the generation time for bowhead whales to be around 52 years.	eng
2467	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Heavy commercial hunting, beginning in the 1500s, depleted all populations of bowheads. The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock has recovered substantially since the end of commercial whaling in the early 20th century, while recent provisional estimates of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks also suggest significant recovery. There is no reliable evidence of recovery of the Svalbard-Barents Sea (Spitsbergen) and Okhotsk Sea stocks. <br/><br/>Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling on the BCB stock (by native peoples of Alaska, and the Russian Federation (Chukotka) is permitted by the IWC on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure). These takes have not impeded the recovery of the stock. Very small takes by aboriginal hunters are allowed in Canadian waters. So far these have been too few to impede recovery of the stocks, but there will be pressure to increase take levels given the recent, higher population estimates in the eastern Canadian Arctic. <br/><br/>There has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the Arctic region might affect bowhead whales. There is also evidence of incidental mortality and serious injury caused by entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes (Philo <em>et al.</em> 1992, 1993; Finley 2000). Environmental threats, such as pollution (Bratton <em>et al.</em> 1993) and disturbance from tourist traffic (Finley 2000), may affect bowhead whales but the impacts have not yet been well characterized or quantified. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005). The implications of this for bowhead whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.	eng
2467	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Heavy commercial hunting, beginning in the 1500s, depleted all populations of bowheads.  The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea stock has recovered substantially since the end of commercial hunting in the early 20th century to around 10,000 animals, while recent provisional estimates of the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stocks suggest that a significant recovery has probably occurred. There is no reliable evidence of recovery of the Svalbard-Barents Sea and Okhotsk Sea stocks.  <br/><br/>Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling on the BCB stock (by native peoples of Alaska and Chukotka) is permitted by the IWC on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure). These takes have not impeded the recovery of the stock. Very small takes by indigenous hunters are allowed in Canadian waters, so far too few to seriously impede recovery of the stocks, but there will be pressure to increase these takes given the recent, higher population estimates for the eastern Canadian Arctic. <br/><br/>There has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the Arctic region might affect bowhead whales. There is also evidence of incidental mortality and serious injury caused by entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes (Philo <em>et al.</em> 1992, 1993; Finley 2000). Environmental threats, such as pollution (Bratton <em>et al.</em> 1993), and disturbance from tourist traffic (Finley 2000) may affect bowhead whales but the impacts have not yet been well characterized or quantified. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005).   The implications of this for bowhead whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.	eng
2469	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946 and there is no aboriginal subsistence whaling exemption for <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whales. The species, including this population, is protected under Russian law through its inclusion on the Russian national Red List. This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975.&#160; The species listed in Appendix I of CMS.</p>	eng
2469	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename></st1:place> from Shantarskiye Zaliv east to Zaliv Shelikova, Gizhiginskaya Guba and Penzhinskaya Guba (Moore and Reeves 1993, Rice 1998). The absence of bowhead sightings on any of the Japanese-Russian systematic surveys of cetaceans in the Okhotsk Sea conducted in 1989, 1990, 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2003 (Miyashita and Dorosehnko 1990; Miyahsita and Berzin 1991; Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2001; Miyashita 1999, 2004) tends to confirm that animals from this subpopulation are rarely found outside those four known areas of concentration.</p>	eng
2469	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Little is known about the specific ecology of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whale subpopulation. Unlike other bowhead whale subpopulations, this one inhabits an area that is ice-free in summer. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The seasonal distribution of bowhead whales in general is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al.</em> 1998).&#160; </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.	eng
2469	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Bowhead whales have been seen regularly during Russian surveys in the northeast and southwest <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename></st1:place>. Berzin <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported bowhead sightings every year from 1982 through 1990, except 1985, with up to 72 whales apparently seen on one day. Doroshenko and Ivannikov (2003) reported 48 bowhead whales sighted during a not especially intensive survey conducted in 2001.&#160; </p>    <p>However, there are no reliable estimates of abundance. Berzin <em>et al</em>. (1990) believed the individuals in the southwest <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> to number at least 250–300 animals, while Vladimirov (1994) estimated the subpopulation at 300–400 whales for the entire <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place>. These values appear to be based primarily on the numbers seen, without evaluation of effective search effort. <span lang="EN-US">The proportion of the subpopulation that comprises mature animals is unknown. A value of 44% has been estimated for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> stock of bowhead whales. The absence of bowhead sightings on any of the Japanese-Russian systematic surveys of cetaceans in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (referred to above) tends to suggest that the subpopulation is small. </p>    The subpopulation was subject to intensive commercial whaling during the short period 1852–1860 and apparently had been depleted by 1860, although some catching continued until 1900. Woodby and Botkin (1993) estimated a minimum initial subpopulation size of about 3,000 based on catch records. In the late 1960s, Soviet ship-based whalers took an unknown number of bowheads in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> illegally (Doroshenko 1996). The subpopulation thus appears to still be at a small fraction of its pre-whaling abundance, and there is no direct information to assess whether or not the subpopulation is increasing.	eng
2469	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	This population is not currently subject to hunting. At least one case of fatal entrapment of an <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> bowhead whale in fishing gear has been documented (Brownell 1999).	eng
2472	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The International Whaling Commission has protected bowhead whales from commercial whaling since its inception in 1946 and there is no aboriginal subsistence whaling exemption for <st1:place w:st="on">Spitsbergen</st1:place> bowhead whales. No specific mechanisms are currently in place to protect bowhead habitat or to prevent incidental mortality in fishing gear. More general measures taken for environmental protection of the waters off northeast Greenland, <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> and Franz Joseph Land may have some beneficial effects on the habitat of bowheads.&#160; The species is listed in CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I.	eng
2472	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>East coast of Greenland (Denmark) across the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Kara Sea to Severnaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and south at least occasionally to northern Iceland and the coast of Finnmark (Norway) and Jan Mayen (Norway) (Rice 1998).</p>	eng
2472	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice (Moore and Reeves 1993). During the winter bowhead whales occur in areas near the ice edge, in polynyas, and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice. During the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage. During the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large-scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods (Finley 1990, Finley <em>et al</em>. 1998). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Small to medium-sized crustaceans, especially krill and copepods, form the bulk of the bowhead's diet (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2004). They also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods, and the diet includes at least 60 species. Bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column. It has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom, but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do.</p>	eng
2472	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><em>Pre-whaling subpopulation size:</em></p>  <p>This subpopulation was originally by far the most abundant of the bowhead whale subpopulations, but was heavily depleted by pre-modern commercial whaling from 1611 to the last recorded capture in 1911 (Ross 1993). The only record of catches by modern whaling refers to four taken by modern whaling near <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> in 1932 (Ruud 1937). Based on the catch record, a minimum initial subpopulation size was estimated by Woodby and Botkin (1993) at 24,000 whales. A modeling exercise (Allen and Keay 2006) resulted in an estimate of 52,000 but this may be too high given it assumed a net reproductive rate considerably lower than that currently observed in the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas subpopulation (see global assessment for this species).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p><em>Current subpopulation size</em></p>  <p>There is no quantitative estimate of current subpopulation size, but the available evidence suggests that it is small. Jonsgård (1982) reported no live sightings on surveys between Greenland and Svalbard and around <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> in 1980, but one dead probable bowhead. Based on post-war sightings of only seven individuals in Norwegian and adjacent waters up to 1990, Christensen <em>et al</em>. (1992) suggested that the subpopulation numbered “in the tens”. However, the Norwegian record may have given a somewhat exaggerated impression of rarity, due to lack of coverage within the pack ice.</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>Moore and Reeves (1993) list 37 sightings between 1940 and 1990, mainly near Svalbard and Franz Josef Land (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:place></st1:country-region>). The records include two sightings (Belikov <em>et al</em>. 1989) of apparently quite large winter aggregations near Franz Josef Land in 1981 (“several tens of individuals”) and 1983 (“about 66 animals”). Gilg and Born (2005) list 23 definite and probable sightings off <st1:place w:st="on">East Greenland</st1:place> during 1940–2004, including a probable sighting of ten individuals in 2003. <a name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a name="OLE_LINK1">Seven sightings</a> totalling about 20 individuals were reported in the <st1:place w:st="on">Greenland Sea</st1:place> in April 2006 (Wiig <em>et al</em>. 2007). </span>While the number of sightings records has increased over time this may reflect increased effort rather than increasing abundance. Among the recently reported observations, no calves or small individuals have been reported. <span lang="EN-US">The proportion of the subpopulation that comprises mature animals is unknown. A value of 44% has been estimated for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place> stock. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Anecdotal evidence from historical whaling accounts suggests the possibility of whales from a stock to the east, possibly the <st1:placename w:st="on">Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype> stock, entering into these waters at times (Shelden <em>et al</em>. 1995), which would complicate the interpretation of the sightings data with respect to the size of the remnant <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> stock. Whether the current subpopulation is a remnant of the original <st1:place w:st="on">Svalbard</st1:place> stock, a recolonization, or a mixture of both, is currently unclear, but ongoing analyses of DNA from old bones might throw light on this question (Borge <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
2472	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	This subpopulation is not hunted. Incidental mortality or serious injury from entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes has not been reported. There are no known specific threats to this subpopulation. For a discussion of general threats see the global assessment for this species.	eng
2474	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. IWC members are allowed to issue permits for whaling for scientific research, and Japan makes substantial use of this provision. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for common minke whales off Greenland. Takes of dwarf minke whales have been excluded from the Japanese scientific whaling programme in the Antarctic (JARPA) since summer 1992/93 (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 2005). Minke whales, including <em>B. acutorostrata</em>, are included in Appendix I of CITES, with the exception of the population from Greenland which is included in Appendix II. This implies prohibition of commercial international trade in products, but such prohibition does not apply to Iceland, Norway or Japan, who hold reservations on the species.	eng
2474	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. IWC members are allowed to issue permits for whaling for scientific research. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for common minke whales off Greenland. Takes of dwarf minke whales have been excluded from the Japanese scientific whaling programme in the Antarctic (JARPA) since summer 1992/93 (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Minke whales, including <em>B. acutorostrata</em>, are listed on Appendix I of CITES, with the exception of the population from Greenland which is included in Appendix II. This implies prohibition of commercial international trade in its products, but that does not apply to Iceland, Norway or Japan, who hold reservations on the species. Common minke whales benefit from national protection measures implemented in several range countries.	eng
2474	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The common minke whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all oceans and in virtually all latitudes, from 65°S to 80°N.  In parts of its range it is very abundant, in other parts much less so.  Its migration patterns are poorly known.  It occurs in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and the Southern Hemisphere, but is not known in the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>North Atlantic<br/>In summer, minke whales are common throughout the northern North Atlantic as far north as Baffin Bay, Greenland Sea, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, and as far south as 40°N (New Jersey) on the US east coast (Anon. 2005),  and as far south as the Hebrides (northwest British Isles) and the central North Sea in the east.  In mid-Atlantic the southern limit of summer abundance is at least as far south as 50°N (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1991).  It is likely that at least a part of the minke whale population overwinters in the summer range, but there has been very little observation effort in winter to confirm this.<br/><br/>Minke whales also occur south of this range in the southeastern North Atlantic, but with no obvious seasonality, and are not common, with the exception of the Canary Islands, where they appear to be frequent year-round (van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999).  There have been occasional sightings (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 1983) and strandings (van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999) off Spain and Portugal, Western Sahara, Mauritania and Senegal. Minke whales are rare in the Azores and not recorded from Madeira. The minke whale is considered a “visitor species” in the Mediterranean (average <1 record per year) with one vagrant recorded in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  <br/><br/>There are very few winter records, but a summary by Mitchell (1991) indicates that they do occur in winter near Bermuda, the Bahamas and the Antilles, and the US coast south of 40°N. Ten strandings have been recorded in the Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson and Schiro 1997) but hardly any live sightings. A Norwegian winter expedition sent to the tropical Atlantic in 1989/90 to “find the breeding grounds of the minke whale” encountered just two minke whales, at 20°N and 10°N off West Africa in December (Folklow and Blix 1991).	eng
2474	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The common minke whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all oceans and in virtually all latitudes, from 65°S to 80°N. In parts of its range it is very abundant, in other parts much less so. Its migration patterns are poorly known. It occurs in the North Atlantic, the North Pacific, and the Southern Hemisphere, but is not known from the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>In summer, minke whales are common throughout the northern North Atlantic as far north as Baffin Bay, Greenland Sea, Svalbard (Norway), Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (Russian Federation), and as far south as 40°N (New Jersey) on the US east coast (Anon. 2005a), and as far south as the Hebrides (northwest British Isles) and the central North Sea in the east. In the mid-Atlantic summer concentrations of minke whales occur to at least as far south as 50°N (Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1991). It is likely that at least a part of the minke whale population over-winters in the summer range, but there has been very little observation effort in winter to confirm this.<br/><br/>Minke whales also occur south of this range in the southeastern North Atlantic, but with no obvious seasonality, and are not common, with the exception of the Canary Islands, where they appear to be frequent year-round (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). There have been occasional sightings (Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 1983) and strandings (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999) off Spain and Portugal, Western Sahara, Mauritania and Senegal. Minke whales are rare in the Azores and not recorded from Madeira. The minke whale is considered a “visitor species” in the Mediterranean (average <1 record per year) with one vagrant recorded in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>There are very few winter records, but a summary by Mitchell (1991) indicates that they do occur in winter near Bermuda, the Bahamas and the Antilles, and the US coast south of 40°N. Ten strandings have been recorded in the Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson and Schiro 1997) but hardly any live sightings. A Norwegian winter expedition sent to the tropical Atlantic in 1989/90 to “find the breeding grounds of the minke whale” encountered just two minke whales, at 20°N and 10°N off West Africa in December (Folklow and Blix 1991). <br/><br/><em>North Pacific</em><br/>Minke whales occur in summer right across the North Pacific north of about 30°N in summer, with a tendency for the distribution to shift northward in high summer. They are particularly abundant in the Okhotsk Sea in August (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995), and also occur in the Bering Sea, around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2002, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006) and the Chukchi Sea (Ivashin and Votrogov 1981). In the eastern North Pacific, there appears to be a year-round population off California and Baja California and in the Gulf of California, and minke whales occur in summer off Oregon, Washington and British Columbia (Anon. 2003). They have been seen off Hawaii but are not common there (Anon. 2005b).<br/><br/>In the western North Pacific, there are at least two distinct subpopulations: the so-called “J stock,” an autumn-breeding population that occurs in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea and Sea of Japan, with some penetration into the Okhotsk Sea in summer; and the O-stock which, like most baleen whales, breeds in winter, and occurs in summer in the northwestern Pacific, including the northeastern coasts of Japan, and in the Okhotsk Sea (Omura and Sakiura 1956, Kato 1992). <br/><br/>The winter distribution is poorly known. Japanese expeditions to look for wintering grounds in the southwestern North Pacific during 1993-95 failed to locate any minke whales (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1996). The timing of the arrival of minke whales in Korean and western Japanese waters is suggestive of migration from the south in spring and return in autumn (Ohsumi 1983). The wintering area in the eastern North Pacific has been identified acoustically to be primarily between 15 and 35 degrees N latitude (Rankin and Barlow 2005).<br/><br/><em>Southern hemisphere</em><br/>Much of the data on the occurrence of minke whales in the Southern Hemisphere is ambiguous with respect to identification as <em>B. acutorostrata</em> or <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, because the two species are partially sympatric. Japanese scouting vessel data indicated high abundance of minke whales in November between 10°-30°S in the central South Pacific and in much of the eastern and southern Indian Ocean down to 50°S (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995), but their species identity is unclear. The limited information available from surveys in low and middle latitudes from the 1987/88 season onwards, when the two species were reliably distinguished, indicates that most of the minke whales are <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Nishiwaki <em>et al</em>. 1991), probably on route to the Antarctic from (as yet unknown) low-latitude breeding grounds, but also that <em>B. acutorostrata</em> is present in these latitudes.<br/><br/>Dwarf minke whales occur at higher latitudes but are much less common than <em>B. bonaerensis</em>. Of more than 1,700 minke whales taken by Antarctic pelagic whaling from the 1987/88 to the 1992/93 season (when the two species have been reliably distinguished), only 16 were dwarf minke whales (Nishiwaki <em>et al</em>. 2005). One was taken at 65°S and the remainder at between 55-62°S, the northern limit of whaling operations.<br/><br/>In coastal waters, dwarf minke whales have been recorded off most of the South Atlantic coast of South America (Baldas and Castello 1986, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 1996), in the Beagle Channel (Chile/Argentina) (Acevedo <em>et al</em>. 2005), off South Africa (Best 1985), Australia (Arnold <em>et al</em>. 1987, Bannister <em>et al</em>. 1996, Arnold 1997), New Zealand (Dawson and Slooten 1990), and New Caledonia (Garrigue and Greaves 2001). The most northerly confirmed Southern Hemisphere record is from 2°S, off the northern coast of Brazil (Magalhães <em>et al</em>. 2007). Three dwarf minke whales were caught in whaling operations off Costinha, Brazil in 1980 (along with 900 Antarctic minke whales) (da Rocha and Braga 1982).	eng
2474	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The common minke whale occurs in both coastal and offshore waters and exploits a variety of prey species in different areas according to availability.  In the Northern Hemisphere some populations migrate to higher latitudes in summer, but it is also found year-round in some areas.  With the exception of the Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea- East China Sea population, conception and birth occur in winter.  Most animals occur singly, and few in groups of more than two.  <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas show that minke whale diet varies greatly between areas and years, being dominated by krill in the northern areas, but by herring or capelin in other areas according to what is most abundant that year, with gadoids being taken when herring and capelin were scarce (Lindstrøm and Haug 2002).  In the North Sea the diet consisted almost exclusively of sandeel (data from one year only).  Minke whales taken off Iceland in 2003-04 contained mainly sandeel, with some capelin and gadoids (Víkingsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Minke whales caught off Newfoundland during 1966-72 contained mainly capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>) (Mitchell 1974).<br/><br/>The overlap of the diet of this species with the targets of commercial fisheries poses difficult questions in ecosystem management. The question of whether minke whales should be culled to reduce their fish consumption is a particularly controversial issue.	eng
2474	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The common minke whale occurs in both coastal and offshore waters and exploits a variety of prey species in different areas according to availability. In the Northern Hemisphere some populations migrate to higher latitudes in summer, but minke whales are also found year-round in some areas. With the exception of the Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea – East China Sea population, conception and birth occur in winter. Most animals occur singly, and few in groups of more than two. <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas showed that minke whale diet varied greatly between areas and years, being dominated by krill in the northern areas, but by herring or capelin in other areas according to what was most abundant that year, with gadoids being taken when herring and capelin were scarce (Lindstrøm and Haug 2002). In the North Sea the diet consisted almost exclusively of sandeel (data from one year only). Minke whales taken off Iceland in 2003-04 contained mainly sandeel, with some capelin and gadoids (Víkingsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Minke whales caught off Newfoundland during 1966-72 contained mainly capelin (Mallotus villosus) (Mitchell 1974).<br/><br/>In the Northwest Pacific, Lindstrøm <em>et al.</em> (1998) found that krill Euphausia pacifica dominated the diet in coastal areas and in the Okhotsk Sea, while in the offshore Pacific, Pacific saury Cololabis saira dominated.<br/><br/>Feeding habits of the dwarf minke whale are poorly known. The stomach contents of an individual collected in Brazil contained exclusively Euphausia similis (Secchi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Whales taken in the Antarctic (n=16) ingested mostly myctophid fishes (Kato and Fujise 2000).	eng
2474	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>The IWC recognizes four stocks of minke whales in the North Atlantic: Northeast Atlantic, Central North Atlantic, West Greenland, and Canadian East Coast. The latter includes the US east coast.  Population estimates were last reviewed by the IWC SC in 2003 (IWC 2004), but a new estimate for West Greenland was accepted in 2006 (IWC 2007).  The best/most recent available estimates for the whole North Atlantic total about 182,000, and the Northeast Atlantic stock was estimated at c.80,000 individuals.<br/><br/>Minke whales have been exploited in the North Atlantic, mainly since the 1940s, and recorded catches total about 140,000 (IWC 2006).  The largest catches have been by Norwegian “small-type” whalers who have taken about 120,000 since 1948, mainly in the Northeast Atlantic.  Annual catches peaked at over 4,000 in the late 1950s, declining to about 2,000 annually in the early 1980s. Catches were phased out from 1984 to 1987. Commercial minke whaling resumed in 1993 at a lower level and continues to the present.  <br/><br/>About 4,000 minke whales were taken off Iceland during 1941-85, but recent abundance estimates imply that this would have had no discernible effect on the population.  About 8,000 common minke whales have been caught by small-type whaling off West Greenland, mainly since 1960. The present catch limits (up to 175 annually for the years 2003-7) were set by the IWC in the absence of advice from its Scientific Committee. Some concerns have been expressed by the IWC Scientific Committee over the sustainability of the catch levels given the uncertainty over the size of the population available to the hunters off West Greenland (IWC 2007) although sex ratio information suggests that the population may not have been significantly impacted by the catches (Witting 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>No satisfactory method of age determination has been developed for this species to date. Therefore the value of Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was used. Unlike Antarctic minke whales, common minke whales tend not to develop ear plugs with readable layering (Lockyer 1984).  A method based on layer counts in tympanic bullae (Christensen 1981) could not be reproduced by later workers.  Other aging methods are being researched, but none is yet at the stage where it can be reliably applied to this species (Olsen and Øien 2002).	eng
2474	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The IWC recognizes four stocks of minke whales in the North Atlantic: Northeast Atlantic, Central North Atlantic, West Greenland, and Canadian East Coast. The last includes the US east coast. Population estimates were last reviewed by the IWC SC in 2003 (IWC 2004a), but a new estimate for West Greenland was accepted in 2006 (IWC 2007a). The best/most recent available estimates are listed in Table 1 in the linked PDF document (which constitutes an integral part of this assessment). These total about 182,000. <br/><br/>No abundance estimate is available for the Newfoundland area where there was a small-scale fishery for minke whales during 1948-72 (Mitchell 1974). <br/><br/>Minke whales have been exploited in the North Atlantic, mainly since the 1940s, and recorded catches total about 140,000 (IWC 2006a). The largest catches have been by Norwegian “small-type” whalers who have taken about 120,000 since 1948, mainly in the Northeast Atlantic. Annual catches peaked at over 4,000 in the late 1950s, declining to about 2,000 annually in the early 1980s. Catches were phased out from 1984 to 1987. Commercial minke whaling resumed in 1993 at a lower level and continues to the present. <br/><br/>About 4,000 minke whales were taken off Iceland during 1941-85, but recent abundance estimates imply that this would have had no discernible effect on the population. About 8,000 common minke whales have been caught by small-type whaling off West Greenland, mainly since 1960. The present catch limits (up to 175 annually for the years 2003-7) were set by the IWC in the absence of advice from its SC. Some concerns have been expressed by the IWC SC over the sustainability of the catch levels given the uncertainty over the size of the population available to the hunters off West Greenland (IWC 2007a) although sex ratio information suggests that the population has not been significantly reduced by the catches (Witting 2006).<br/><br/><em>North Pacific</em><br/>The IWC recognizes three management stocks in the North Pacific: Sea of Japan – Yellow Sea – East China Sea; Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific (west of 180°); and “Remainder” (east of 180°). Considerable research has been undertaken since the IWC designation indicating the potential for further stock structure both within the Okhotsk Sea - West Pacific area and in the "Remainder" area.<br/><br/><em>Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific</em><br/>The IWC SC conducted an assessment of the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific stock in 1991. Surveys in the summers of 1989 and 1990 yielded an abundance estimate of 25,049 (CV 0.316) of which the bulk (19,209; CV 0.339) was in the Okhotsk Sea (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992). Although the Okhotsk Sea was surveyed again in 1992 and 2003 (Miyashita 2004), an abundance estimate from the last of these surveys has yet to be presented.<br/><br/>About 13,000 minke whales have been recorded caught by Japanese coastal whaling during 1948-87 (IWC 2006a), of which probably all but about 1,000 were from the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific stock. Annual catches peaked at over 500 in 1973, declining to 300 in 1987 when commercial whaling was suspended. Catches resumed in 1994 under scientific permits issued by the Government of Japan and have increased since then. The catch in 2006 was 195 from a permit for 220 (Miyashita and Kato 2007).<br/><br/>The above catch figures do not include net catches, which are not subject to whaling regulations. Reported net catches of minke whales off Japanese coasts averaged only about 5 per year in the 1980s, but Tobayama <em>et al</em>. (1992) estimated that the true level in 1989 was about 100. Based on genetic analysis of samples of whale products collected in commercial markets during 1993-1999, Baker <em>et al</em>. (2000) also estimated the net catch to be about 100 per year. During the 1990s, reported net catches averaged about 20 per year. After new regulations were introduced in 2001 that provided an incentive to report (only those catches that are reported and genetically sampled can be legally marketed), reported net catches have averaged 127 per year (Japan 2002-2006). About 55% of the reported net catches during 2001-05 have been on the Sea of Japan and East China Sea coasts (IWC 2007b), and would be mainly from the “J stock” (see below), with the remainder from the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific Stock.<br/><br/>The issue of subpopulation structure within the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific Stock has been discussed extensively by the IWC SC in the context of preparations for implementing the Revised Management Procedure (RMP) for western North Pacific minke whales, but with inconclusive results (IWC 2004b).<br/><br/>Although population models suggest that, when considered as a single biological unit, the Okhotsk Sea-West Pacific stock has declined little under the influence of past or present catches (IWC 2004c), the situation should be kept under review; in particular, the more recent 2003 survey data should be analyzed to update the 1990 and 1992abundance estimates for the Okhotsk Sea.<br/><br/><em>Sea of Japan (East Sea) – Yellow Sea – East China Sea stock (“J stock”)</em><br/>The reproductive cycle of this stock, usually referred to by biologists as the “J stock”, appears to be four months out of phase with other Northern Hemisphere minke whales, with conceptions occurring in October-November instead of February-March for the Okhotsk Sea – West Pacific stock (Omura and Sakiura 1956, Kato 1992). This is the only known case of breeding asynchrony in baleen whale populations from the same hemisphere. A degree of reproductive isolation between the two stocks is also suggested by frequency differences at selected allozyme loci (Wada 1984). A segregation of maternal lineages is indicated by marked differences in the frequencies of mtDNA haplotypes (Goto and Pastene 1997; Baker <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>About 16,000 whales are recorded to have been taken from this stock by commercial whaling based in South Korea during 1940-86, in addition to about 1,000 from western Japan (IWC 2006a). Catches peaked at 1,033 in 1977. Catches were phased out with a complete moratorium to take effect from 1986 (IWC 1984). <br/><br/>However, net catches (which are not subject to whaling regulations) began in Korea in the late 1980s (Kim 1999). From 1996 onwards, a regulation has been in effect that requires the reporting of such catches. During 1996-2005, reported catches averaged 90 per year. However, a genetic analysis of samples of whale products on Korean commercial markets yielded an estimate of 827 (SE 164) whales entering the market in the period 1999-2003, as compared with a reported catch of only 458 whales (Baker <em>et al</em>. In press). This suggests that reporting is still far from complete, and that the total J-stock catch from South Korea and Japan (see above) has exceeded 200 per year over the last 10 years. Minke whales are also reported to be a common bycatch in China, but no figures are available (IWC 2006c).<br/><br/>Surveys in the range of the J-stock have been conducted from 1999 in the waters of the Republic of Korea (Sohn <em>et al</em>. 2005) and from 2002 in Japanese waters (Miyashita 2004), but no estimate of total population size is available. The IWC in 2005 (IWC 2006b) endorsed plans for joint research by the range states (Republic of Korea, China, Japan, Russian Federation), and a comprehensive survey in the waters of all four countries is planned for 2007. <br/><br/><em>Eastern North Pacific</em> (east of 180°E)<br/>Population estimates are available only for parts of the eastern North Pacific, <em>e.g.</em> 1,015 (CV 0.73) for the west coast of the US during 1991-2001 (Anon. 2003) and 810 (CV 0.36) and 1003 (CV=0.26) respectively in the central and southeastern Bering Sea (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2002), and 1,232 (CV=0.34) for coastal waters of the northern Gulf of Alaska and the eastern and central Aleutian Islands (Zerbini <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Minke whales are apparently quite abundant in the offshore Gulf of Alaska (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995) but no abundance estimate is available for that region.<br/><br/>Differences in vocalizations during the breeding season strongly suggest further population structure within this area. Different calls are found on either side of about 135 degrees W longitude (Rankin and Barlow 2005).<br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>It is not possible at this time to estimate the abundance of <em>B. acutorostrata</em> in the Southern Hemisphere, because most of the available quantitative sighting data do not distinguish it from the much more numerous <em>B. bonaerensis</em> with which it is partially sympatric. <em>B. acutorostrata</em> has not been subject to significant exploitation in the Southern Hemisphere.<br/><br/><em>Generation time</em><br/>No satisfactory method of age determination has been developed for this species to date. Therefore the value of 22 years from Taylor <em>et al</em>. (2007) was used. Unlike Antarctic minke whales, common minke whales tend not to develop ear plugs with readable layering (Lockyer 1984). A method based on layer counts in tympanic bullae (Christensen 1981) could not be reproduced by later workers. Other age-estimation methods are being investigated, but none is yet at the stage where it can be applied reliably to this species (Olsen and Øien 2002).	eng
2474	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Whaling on this species has been intensive in the Northeast Atlantic, and it reduced the population over the period 1952-83. Catches were phased out by 1987, but whaling resumed, at a lower level, in 1993. Norway sets national catch limits based on the IWC’s Revised Management Procedure, a formula for setting safe catch limits (IWC 1999). In presenting the RMP to the IWC for approval, the IWC SC offered three variants that it believed were acceptable and the IWC chose the most conservative option. Up until 2000, Norway used this option to set its national catch limits. It is now using the least conservative option presented by the SC. The national catch limit for 2006 was 1,052 whales, but only 521 were taken.<br/><br/>Coastal catches averaged about 200 per year off Iceland until 1985 when the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling came into effect. Small (a total of 100 expected for the period 2003-2006) “experimental” catches resumed in 2003. Catches off West Greenland continue, under an IWC catch limit of 175 whales annually, valid through 2007. As discussed above the IWC SC has expressed concern at its inability to provide scientific advice on an appropriate catch limit (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>Catches resumed in the North Pacific in 1994 under scientific permit issued by the Government of Japan, and have increased since. The catch in 2006 was 195 from a permit for 220 (Miyashita and Kato 2007). <br/><br/>Minke whales are subject to some level of incidental catch in fishing gear throughout much of their range, but in most areas the numbers involved are probably not significant. The exceptions are the coasts of Japan and Korea, and possibly China. In particular, the high level of net catches of the Sea of Japan-Yellow Sea-East China Sea population, likely over 200 per year, is a source of concern, which has prompted the IWC SC to conduct an in-depth assessment of this stock. A multinational survey involving the four range states is planned for 2007.<br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Arctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Anonymous 2005c). The implications of this for minke whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.	eng
2474	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Whaling on this species has been intensive in the Northeast Atlantic, and reduced the population over the period 1952-83.  Catches were phased out by 1987, but whaling resumed, at a lower level, in 1993. Norway sets national catch limits based on the IWC’s Revised Management Procedure, a formula for setting safe catch limits (Hammond and Donovan in press). In presenting the RMP to the IWC for approval, the IWC SC offered three variants that it believed were acceptable and the IWC chose the most conservative option. Up until 2000, Norway used this option to set its national catch limits. It is now using the least conservative option presented by the SC. The national catch limit for 2006 was 1,052 whales, but only 521 were taken.<br/><br/>Coastal catches averaging about 200 per year were taken off Iceland until 1985 when the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling came into effect. Small (a total of 100 expected for the period 2003-2006) experimental catches resumed in 2003.  Catches off West Greenland continue, under an IWC catch limit of 175 whales annually, valid through 2007.  As discussed above the IWC Scientific Committee has expressed concern at its inability to provide scientific advice on an appropriate catch limit (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>Minke whales are subject to some level of incidental catch in fishing gear throughout much of their range, but in most areas the numbers involved are probably not significant.	eng
2475	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Sei whales have been specifically protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since 1975 in the North Pacific and 1979 in the Southern Hemisphere.  They have also been protected by the general moratorium on commercial whaling since 1986, although this does not cover catches taken under scientific permit.  No other specific conservation measures for sei whales are reported, but the species benefits from general whale protection laws in several countries.	eng
2475	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Sei whales have been specifically protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since 1975 in the North Pacific and 1979 in the southern hemisphere. They have also been protected by the general moratorium on commercial whaling since 1986, although this does not cover catches taken under scientific permit. This species is included in CITES Appendix I although Iceland has held a reservation against this listing since 2000. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS.	eng
2475	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The sei whale is a cosmopolitan species, with a mainly offshore distribution, occurring in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, but probably not in the Northern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998). It is an occasional visitor to the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006). Sei whales undertake migrations between tropical and subtropical latitudes in winter to temperate and subpolar latitudes in summer, mainly in water temperatures of 8°-18°C, and tend not to penetrate to such high latitudes as other rorquals. Their winter distribution seems to be widely dispersed and is not fully mapped (Horwood 1987, 2002).<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution seems to be quite variable from year to year; however, sei whales typically occur north of an arc running from south of Nova Scotia in the west, to the northwest British Isles and on to Trondheim in Norway, as far as the Davis Strait and the northern end of the Denmark Strait in the north.  Occasional incursions into other areas have been noted (e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Schilling <em>et al.</em> 1993). Peaks of catch rates in early and late summer suggested a northward and southward migration through the former Nova Scotia whaling ground (Mitchell 1975).  Sei whales have been scarce in Norwegian waters in recent years despite significant catches there in the past.  Sei whales were caught in limited numbers, mainly in late summer, off northwestern Spain (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982), and have been recorded in winter as far south as the Caribbean and Cap Blanc, Mauritania (Rice 1998).	eng
2475	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The sei whale is a cosmopolitan species, with a mainly offshore distribution, occurring in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, but probably not in the Northern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998); it is an occasional visitor to the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Sei whales migrate between tropical and subtropical latitudes in winter and temperate and subpolar latitudes in summer, staying mainly in water temperatures of 8-–18°C, and tend not to penetrate to such high latitudes as other rorquals. Their winter distribution seems to be widely dispersed and is not fully mapped (Horwood 1987, 2002).<br/><br/>In the North Pacific, sei whales in summer are distributed mainly north of 40°N, including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (US), and to some extent into the Bering Sea, but not into the Okhotsk Sea. The wintering grounds are poorly known, but sei whales were formerly caught in winter off the Bonin Islands (Japan) (IWC 2006); animals tagged there have been recaptured throughout the summer range (Masaki 1977).<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution seems to be quite variable from year to year; however, sei whales typically occur north of an arc running from south of Nova Scotia in the west, to the northwestern British Isles and Trondheim (Norway) in the east. They occur as far north as the Davis Strait and the northern end of the Denmark Strait. Occasional incursions into other areas have been noted (e.g. the Gulf of Maine, Schilling <em>et al.</em> 1993). Peaks of catch rates in early and late summer suggested a northward and southward migration through the former Nova Scotia whaling ground (Mitchell 1975). Sei whales have been scarce in Norwegian waters in recent years despite significant catches there in the past. Sei whales were caught in limited numbers, mainly in late summer, off northwestern Spain (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982), and have been recorded in winter as far south as the Caribbean Sea and Cap Blanc, Mauritania (Rice 1998).<br/><br/>The summer (Jan–Feb) distribution in the southern hemisphere is mainly in the zone 40–50°S in the South Atlantic and southern Indian oceans, and 45–60°S in the South Pacific (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). Known wintering grounds include a number of former low–latitude whaling grounds, including northeastern Brazil at 7°S (da Rocha 1983), Peru at 6°S (Valdivia <em>et al.</em> 1982), and in earlier years off Angola and the Congo (IWC 2006). Catches off western South Africa (Donkergat) and eastern South Africa (Durban) showed peaks in spring and autumn, suggestive of populations on migration routes (Horwood 1987). <br/><br/>Chilean whaling records (32–38°S) show catches and sightings of “sei” whales throughout the year including summer until the early 1980s, but some of these may have been Bryde’s whales. However, some sei whales have been observed feeding in summer at around 42°S off Chile in recent years (Galletti <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
2475	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Sei whales exhibit a greater variety in diet than, say, blue whales, but tend to feed on only one type of prey at a time. Of 21,713 stomachs examined in the North Pacific, 82.7% contained copepods only, and 12.6% contained euphausiids only; of 31,494 stomachs examined in the southern hemisphere, 54.3% contained euphausiids only, 30.5% contained copepods only, and 14.4% contained amphipods only (Nemoto and Kawamura 1977). Sei whale stomachs examined in the Northeast Atlantic contained copepods and euphausiids (Jonsgård and Darling 1977). Sei whale stomachs analysed in the North Pacific off California contained euphausiids and anchovies (Rice 1977). Sei whales are noted for their erratic appearance in specific feeding grounds, being plentiful in some years and absent (sometimes for years or even decades) in others (Horwood 1987).	eng
2475	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Sei whales exhibit a greater variety in diet than, say, blue whales, but tend to feed on only one type of prey at a time.  Of 21,713 stomachs examined in the North Pacific, 82.7% contained copepods only, and 12.6% contained euphausiids only; of 31,494 stomachs examined in the Southern Hemisphere, 54.3% contained euphausiids only, 30.5% contained copepods only, and 14.4% contained amphipods only (Nemoto and Kawamura 1977). Sei whale stomachs examined in the Northeast Atlantic contained copepods and euphausiids (Jonsgård and Darling 1977).  Sei whale stomachs analysed in the North Pacific off California contained euphausiids and anchovies (Rice 1977).  Sei whales are noted for their erratic appearance in specific feeding grounds, being plentiful in some years and absent (sometimes for years or even decades) in others (Horwood 1987).	eng
2475	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>North Atlantic.</em> The International Whaling Commission (IWC) recognizes three stock divisions for sei whales in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Iceland-Denmark Strait; and Eastern (including the waters of Spain, Portugal, British Isles, Faeroes and Norway), but the divisions were chosen on largely arbitrary grounds (Donovan 1991). <br/><br/>About 14,000 sei whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Atlantic. In addition, an unknown proportion of the approximately 30,000 unspecified large whales caught in the North Atlantic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were sei whales. <br/><br/>Sei whales appear to have been depleted in the eastern North Atlantic, with over 7,500 recorded taken in Norwegian and British waters prior to World War II (not counting the unspecified whales), but fewer than 200 since then. The species seems to be virtually absent there now: Norwegian surveys of northeast Atlantic waters in 1987, 1989, and annually from 1995–2005 have yielded only one sei whale sighting in the Eastern stock area. Small numbers of sei whales were caught during 1957–80 off northwestern Spain, mainly in late summer/autumn (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982); the stock identity of these animals is unclear.<br/><br/>By contrast, sei whales are still abundant in the central North Atlantic (Iceland-Denmark Strait IWC stock area), especially southwest of Iceland south to 50°N in summer. The only survey with reasonably complete coverage, designed specifically for the purpose of estimating sei whale abundance, was in 1989, and yielded a population estimate of 10,300 whales (CV 0.27) (Cattanach <em>et al.</em> 1993). Areas of sei whale abundance seem to shift markedly between years relative to the northern extent of the distribution, more so than for other baleen whale species (Gunnlaugsson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>No recent abundance estimates are available for the western North Atlantic. The population size during 1966–69 was estimated at 2,078 (Mitchell and Chapman 1977) from sightings surveys, using strip transect methodology. About 1,200 sei whales were taken off Nova Scotia during 1962–72. <br/><br/><em>North Pacific.</em> The last assessment of North Pacific sei whales by the IWC Scientific Committee was in 1974 (IWC 1977). The exploitable population (animals of legally catchable size) was estimated to have declined from 42,000 in 1963 to 8,600 in 1974 (Tillman 1977). Over 40,000 sei whales were caught during this period (IWC 2006). A 75% reduction in sei whale catch rates of Californian whaling stations during the 1960s is consistent with an ocean-wide decline (Rice 1977). Exploitation ceased in 1975. The extent to which the population has recovered since then is unclear.<br/> <br/>Hakamada <em>et al.</em> (2004) gave an estimate of 4,100 animals from one area of the western North Pacific, but attempts to extrapolate this to produce an estimate for the entire western North Pacific have not been accepted. It is likely that there has been some increase in the population since the end of exploitation, but given the tendency for sei whale distribution to change from year to year, it is hard to interpret the limited survey data that currently exist. <br/><br/>Sei whales appear not to have formerly been uncommon in the eastern North Pacific. However, a preliminary estimate for the US west coast based on surveys in 1996 and 2001 is only 56 whales (Barlow 2003). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, all potential sei/Bryde’s whales that could be specifically identified were found to be Bryde’s, suggesting that sei whales are now rare (Wade and Gerrodette 1993).<br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere.</em> Over 200,000 sei whales are recorded taken by modern whaling in the southern hemisphere during 1905–1979. The IWC arbitrarily divides southern hemisphere sei whales, along with other southern hemisphere baleen whales, into six longitudinally defined management Areas. Sei whales in all of the six Areas have been classified as Protection Stocks by the IWC since 1978. The greatest catches were during 1960–72, when they exceeded 5,000 in every year, topping at nearly 20,000 in 1964 alone. Most catches were taken in summer by pelagic fleets operating south of 40°S, but winter catches were also taken from land stations in Brazil, Peru and South Africa (and smaller numbers in Chile, where there is ambiguity with Bryde’s whales).<br/><br/>The last assessment of southern hemisphere sei whales by the IWC Scientific Committee was conducted in 1979 (IWC 1980). Some extra information on these assessments is given by Horwood (1987). Based on catches/sightings per unit effort from Japanese catch and scouting vessels respectively, the “exploitable” stock size (sei whales of legal size, approximately 2/3 of total population), excluding Area II (South Atlantic sector), was estimated to have declined from about 64,000 in 1960 to about 11,000 by 1979. The population model used failed to produce an estimate for Area II, because nearly all the catch for this area was taken in just the two seasons 1964/65 and 1965/66, with nearly 30,000 sei whales being taken in these two years, yet the abundance indices suggested a more continuous decline during the 1960s and 1970s (IWC 1980). This suggests that the management Areas do not correspond to biological populations.<br/><br/>Other available evidence also suggests a severe and rapid decline in sei whale stocks during the 1960s and 1970s. The catch and sighting rates from winter whaling operations off Brazil and South Africa show even sharper declines. Abundance indices from the Brazilian whaling ground for sei whales during 1966–81 (da Rocha 1983) declined by ca. 90% during 1966–72. <br/><br/>No recovery of sei whales in Brazilian waters has been detected since that time (Zerbini <em>et al.</em> 1997, Andriolo <em>et al.</em> 2001). Catch and sightings indices off Durban, South Africa for 1965–74 (Best 1976) declined by over 95%. Tag-recapture data from pelagic whaling suggested an approximately 6-fold decline between 1962–76 (IWC 1980, Fig. 1).<br/><br/>IWC (1996, Table 2) gives a total population estimate for sei whales south of 30°S of about 10,000 based on a combination of IDCR and Japanese Scout Vessel (JSV) sightings data. It is difficult to know how much reliance to place on this estimate, because no variance is given, but it is consistent with a severe decline. No more recent summer data are available, except for the area south of 60°S, which is outside the main summer range of sei whales. In the absence of dedicated surveys in sei whale habitat, and resulting abundance estimates, it is not possible to assess whether there has been any increase in southern hemisphere sei whales since the cessation of whaling.<br/><br/><em>Generation time and maximum rate of increase.</em> The generation time is estimated to be 23.3 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The 3-generation time window for applying the decline criterion (A) is 1937–2007. <br/><br/>For assessment purposes, the IWC Scientific Committee has used a natural mortality rate of 0.06, an age at first reproduction declining (with stock depletion) from 12-13 years to 10-11 years, and an annual pregnancy rate increasing (with stock depletion) from 0.27 to 0.37-0.39 (IWC 1980; Horwood 1980). Assuming a maximum annual pregnancy rate of 0.40, a minimum age of first reproduction of 10 years, and no juvenile mortality, the maximum rate of increase is 2.7% p.a. Horwood and Millward (1987) also conclude that the maximum rate of increase for sei whale populations is less than 3% per year.<br/><br/><em>Population assessment.</em> Because the available published assessments for this species are not up to date, an updated population assessment is conducted here to enable assessment of the population reduction over the period 1937-2007 relative to the A criterion. While the available data do not permit a scientifically rigorous estimation of the extent of population reduction, it is reasonable to use conventional population assessment methods to provide a crude indication of the extent of possible reduction relative to the criteria. A conventional deterministic age-structured model with an age at first capture (“recruitment”) (<em>ar</em>) and an age at first reproduction (am), and linear density-dependence was applied to the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere regions separately. The results are provided in the linked PDF document, and constitutes an integral part of this assessment.	eng
2475	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>The IWC recognizes three stock divisions for sei whales in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Iceland-Denmark Strait; and Eastern (including the waters of Spain, Portugal, British Isles, Faeroes and Norway), but the divisions were chosen on largely arbitrary grounds (Donovan 1991). <br/><br/>About 14,000 sei whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Atlantic.  In addition, an unknown proportion of the approximately 30,000 unspecified large whales caught in the North Atlantic in the late 19th and early 20th century were sei whales.  <br/><br/>Sei whales appear to have been depleted in the eastern North Atlantic, with over 7,500 recorded taken in Norwegian and British waters prior to WWII (not counting the unspecified whales), but fewer than 200 since then.  The species seems to be virtually absent there now: Norwegian surveys of northeast Atlantic waters in 1987, 1989, and annually from 1995-2005 have yielded only one sei whale sighting in the Eastern stock area.  Small numbers of sei whales were caught during 1957-80 off northwestern Spain, mainly in late summer/autumn (Aguilar and Sanpera 1982); the stock identity of these animals is unclear.<br/><br/>By contrast, sei whales are still abundant in the central North Atlantic (Iceland-Denmark Strait IWC stock area), especially southwest of Iceland south to 50°N in summer.  The only survey with reasonably complete coverage, designed specifically for the purpose of estimating sei whale abundance, was in 1989, and yielded a population estimate of 10,300 whales (CV 0.27) (Cattanach <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Areas of sei whale abundance seems to shift markedly between years relative to the northern extent of the distribution, more so than for other baleen whale species (Gunnlaugsson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>No recent abundance estimates are available for the western North Atlantic. The population size during 1966-69 was estimated at 2,078 (Mitchell and Chapman 1977) from sightings surveys, using strip transect methodology. About 1,200 sei whales were taken off Nova Scotia during 1962-72.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>The default value of 23.3 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.	eng
2475	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Sei whale exploitation by modern whalers was particularly intensive in the southern hemisphere and the North Pacific from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s, following the depletion of blue, fin and humpback whales. Sei whale stocks were seriously depleted during this period. Exploitation in the North Atlantic occurred over a longer period and was less intensive, except in the eastern North Atlantic, where the population appears not to have recovered from early modern whaling. Commercial exploitation ceased in the North Pacific in 1975, in the southern hemisphere in 1979 and in the North Atlantic in 1989. Catches by Japan under scientific permit resumed in the North Pacific in 2002: since 2004, the annual take has been 100 animals.<br/><br/>Reports of other human-caused deaths of sei whales are rare. Two fatal ship strikes (sei whales found dead on the bows of ships) were reported on the US East Coast during 2000–2004 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is hard to extrapolate from known cases to an estimated total, but sei whales appear to be at relatively low risk of human impacts, probably because of their largely offshore distribution.<br/><br/>Rice (1961, 1974) reported a pathological condition in several North Pacific sei whales which resulted in deterioration or loss of baleen; however, the current frequency of this condition, and its impact (if any) on the population, are unknown.	eng
2475	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Sei whale exploitation by modern whalers was particularly intensive in the Southern Hemisphere and the North Pacific from the late 1950s to the mid 1970s, following the depletion of the larger blue, fin and humpback whales. Sei whale stocks were seriously depleted during this period. Exploitation in the North Atlantic occurred over a longer period and was less intensive, except in the eastern North Atlantic, where the population appears not to have recovered from early modern whaling. Commercial exploitation ceased in the North Pacific in 1975, in the Southern Hemisphere in 1979 and in the North Atlantic in 1989. Catches by Japan under scientific permit resumed in the North Pacific in 2002: since 2004, the annual take has been 100 animals.<br/><br/>Reports of other human-caused mortalities of sei whales are rare. Two fatal ship strikes (sei whales found dead on the bows of ships) have been reported on the US East Coast during 2000-2004 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is hard to extrapolate from known cases to an estimated total, but sei whales appear to be at relatively low risk of human impacts, probably because of their largely offshore distribution.<br/><br/>Rice (1961, 1974) reported a pathological condition in several North Pacific sei whales which resulted in deterioration or loss of baleen; however, the current frequency of this condition, and its impact (if any) on the population, are unknown.	eng
2476	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The Bryde’s whale was the incidental beneficiary of IWC area restrictions on factory ship whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species, at a time when the Bryde’s whale was not yet recognised as a distinct species by the whaling industry (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The Bryde’s whale is included in Appendix I of CITES although Japan has held a reservation against this listing since 1983. The species (as <em>B. edeni</em>) is listed in Appendix II of CMS.	eng
2476	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Because the number of species or subspecies is still unresolved, and because the different forms are not readily distinguishable at sea, considerable uncertainty remains with regard to the geographic range of each form. <br/><br/><em>Ordinary Bryde’s whales</em><br/>“Ordinary” large-type Bryde’s whales occur in the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans between about 40°N and 40°S or in waters warmer than 16.3°C (Kato 2002). Migration to equatorial waters in winter is documented for the southeast Atlantic population (Best 1996) and for the northwest Pacific population (Kishiro 1996). Migration patterns of other populations are poorly known<br/><br/>They are relatively common in the western North Pacific, mainly north of 20°N in summer and south of 20°N in winter. In the eastern North Pacific, they do not venture north of southern California (US), but there appears to be a resident population in the northern Gulf of California (Urbán and Flores 1996), and they occur throughout the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). They occur throughout the tropical Pacific, and across the South Pacific down to about 35°S, but with shifts in distributions between seasons (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). They occur off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador but not during July to September (Valdivia <em>et al.</em> 1981), and off Chile in an upwelling area between 35°-37°S (Gallardo <em>et al.</em> 1983). In the southwestern Pacific, their distribution extends as far south as the North Island of New Zealand (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Bryde’s whales occur throughout the Indian Ocean north of about 35°S. Those in the southern Indian Ocean appear to be large-type animals (Ohsumi 1980b), as are the Bryde’s whales of the northwest Indian Ocean, which were taken illegally by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s (Mikhalev 1997), and those around the Maldives (Anderson 2005). <br/><br/>In the South Atlantic, there is a population that summers off the western coast of southern Africa, and migrates to West African equatorial waters in winter (Best 2001). Elsewhere in the Atlantic the distribution of Bryde’s whales is not well known. The Bryde’s whale appears to occur year-round throughout Brazilian waters (Zerbini <em>et al.</em> 1997). Bryde’s whales occur in the Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004) and throughout the wider Caribbean (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). They do not occur in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006). They have been recorded as far north as Cape Hatteras in the northwest Atlantic (Rice 1998). <br/><br/><em>East China Sea</em><br/>Bryde’s whales which occur off southern and southwestern Japan are now considered to belong to an East China Sea population, having earlier been thought to be a local resident population (Kato and Kishiro 1999). Phylogenetic analyses suggest that they are a subspecies of Bryde’s whales (Yoshida and Kato 1999) or belong to the separate species <em>B. edeni</em> (Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>South African inshore form</em><br/>There is a resident inshore population of Bryde’s whales off South Africa which shows some morphological differences from ordinary Bryde’s whales (Best 1977, 2001). Its main distribution is between Cape Recife and Saldanha Bay (Best 2001). It may simply be a local form of ordinary Bryde’s whale, but its taxonomic status has yet to be investigated genetically. <br/><br/><em>Other small forms</em><br/>Small-type “Bryde’s” whales that appear to be mature at small sizes have been found in various Asian waters and off Australia. <br/><br/>The <em>B. edeni</em> holotype (Anderson 1879) was found in the Gulf of Martaban, Andaman Sea. Further specimens were found on the Bay of Bengal coast of Myanmar (Anderson 1879) and in Bangladesh (Andrews 1918). The Junge (1950) specimen, used in recent studies as the genetic representative of <em>B. edeni</em>, is from Sugi Island, Sumatra (Indonesia) (close to Singapore). <br/><br/>A stranding from Hong Kong (China) and a rescued river-trapped individual in eastern Australian (Priddel and Wheeler 1998) have been found to be closely related phylogenetically to the “<em>B. edeni</em>” clade represented by the Junge (1950) specimen and the southwestern Japan whales (Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006, LeDuc and Dizon 2002). <br/><br/>Phylogenetic analyses reveal that at least some of the small “Bryde’s whales” taken in the Philippines artisanal fisheries (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996) were in fact <em>B. omurai</em> (Sasaki <em>et al</em>. 2006, LeDuc and Dizon 2002).<br/><br/>The identity of “Bryde’s whales” maturing at a small size (11-12 m) caught off western Australia (Bannister 1964) is unclear. They may be a local form, or related to small forms found elsewhere, or they may even have been <em>B. omurai. </em><br/><br/>The identity of eight small “Bryde’s whales” stranded in Thai waters (Andersen and Kinze 1993) is also unclear.	eng
2476	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	A long- standing prohibition on the operation of factory ships north of 40°S except in the North Pacific north of 20°N meant that Bryde’s whale populations largely escaped the consequences of whaling suffered by baleen whale species that feed in higher latitudes, although this regulation was not respected by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s, nor by the pirate whaling ship <em>Sierra</em> in the 1970s (see above). However, some populations such as the East China Sea and South African Inshore stocks may have been reduced by whaling. <br/><br/>Pelagic whaling for Bryde’s whales was suspended in the North Pacific from 1980 following a ban by the IWC on most factory ship whaling, but catches continued from the coast of Japan and the Bonin Islands until 1987. Pelagic whaling resumed in the western North Pacific in 2000 under special permits issued by the Japanese authorities, but to date catches have been limited to 50 per year (IWC 2006a). Like most cetaceans, Bryde’s whales are occasionally by-caught in fishing gear, but they do not appear to be especially susceptible. Records of vessel strikes are also rare.<br/><br/>There are ongoing (or at least recent) artisanal fisheries in the Philippines and Indonesia taking small “Bryde’s whales” (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 1994, Perrin <em>et al. </em>1996, Reeves 2002), but the catches include at least some specimens of <em>B. omurai</em> (LeDuc and Dizon 2002). It is unclear whether one or more forms of Bryde’s whale are also involved. In the absence of better information on the identity of the catches, it is not possible to judge whether these fisheries constitute a conservation threat.	eng
2476	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>Catch statistics</em><br/>Prior to 1972, Bryde’s whales were not distinguished from sei whales in International Whaling Statistics, but in some cases the pre-1972 species breakdown of “sei” whale catches can be determined from original records, or approximated, based on current knowledge of the geographical and seasonal occurrence of sei and Bryde’s whales, or from the compositions of later catches in the same area and season (IWC 1997, 2006b). Bryde’s whales are distinguished from sei whales in Japanese national catch statistics from 1962, but in sighting records only from 1972 (Ohsumi 1978a).<br/><br/><em>Stock divisions</em><br/>In the North Pacific region, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) recognises the following stocks: Western North Pacific Stock (west of 150°W, down to 2°S), Eastern Tropical (east of 150°W down to 10°S), East China Sea, and Gulf of California (IWC 1996). The region of the South China Sea, and the Philippines and Indonesian and Solomon archipelagos are considered habitat of small-type Bryde’s whales and Omura’s whale, and not included in any putative stocks for ordinary Bryde’s whales, although the latter probably also occurs there (see above). <br/><br/>The IWC SC has not assessed Southern Hemisphere Bryde’s whales in recent times, but the IWC Schedule lists the following stocks, based on recommendations from the IWC Scientific Committee in 1980: western South Pacific (west of 150°W, but excluding Solomon Islands area), eastern South Pacific (south of 10°S), southern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, South African Inshore, and South Atlantic.<br/><br/><em>Western North Pacific</em><br/>The currently accepted abundance estimate for the western North Pacific is 26,000 (CV=24%) based on surveys conducted during 1998-2002. Catches of Bryde’s whales from coastal stations in Japan are thought to have begun in 1906 and continued uninterrupted until 1987 when Japan adhered to the IWC’s commercial whaling moratorium. Pelagic catches were taken by Japanese fleets during 1971-79 and by Soviet fleets during 1966-79. Bryde’s whales were also caught from Taiwan during 1976-80 from the Bonin islands (Japan) during 1946-52 and 1981-87, and offshore whaling from the Philippines during 1983-1985 (IWC 2006a). Japanese pelagic catches resumed in 2000 under scientific permit (50 per year). <br/><br/>An annual catch series totalling over 20,000 whales for the period 1911-87 was estimated by the IWC SC in 1996 (IWC 1997). Since then, some new information has come to light: for example, Kondo and Kasuya (2002) reported that catches of Bryde’s whales by Japanese operations in the Bonin Islands during 1981-87 had been falsely reported as 2,659, in order to keep within catch limits, but that the true total was 4,162. According to a 1995 population assessment by the IWC SC, the population was reduced, in the worst case, by 49% during 1911-96 (IWC 1996). Work on a revised catch series and assessment is in progress (IWC 2007). <br/><br/><em>Eastern tropical Pacific</em><br/>Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated 13,000 (CV= 20%) Bryde’s whales for the eastern tropical Pacific (in an irregularly-shaped area of 19 million km² between about 15°S and 25°N) from data collected during 1986-90. <br/><br/>An IWC/International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) — survey of the eastern equatorial Pacific (10°S-10°N, 80°-110°W) in December 1982 yielded an estimate of 17,000 (CV=32%) Bryde’s whales (IWC 1984), but the estimate should be recalculated using current methodology. <br/><br/>Bryde’s whales were distinguished from sei whales in Peruvian catch statistics from 1973, and 3,589 are recorded caught during 1973-83 (IWC 2006a). Of the “sei” whales reported caught during 1968-72, an estimated 1,953 were Bryde’s whales, to give a total Bryde’s catch of 5,542 during 1968-83. <br/><br/><em>Other North Pacific stocks</em><br/>The most recent accepted estimate for the East China Sea Stock is 137 (variance not calculated), and for the Gulf of California stock 235 (173-327) (IWC 1996). The East China Stock was subject to whaling in southwestern Japan until the early 1970s, and may have been depleted (Omura 1977).<br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>The Southern Hemisphere stocks of Bryde’s whales have not been re-assessed during the past 25 years, but the abundance estimates accepted at the time were: southern Indian Ocean − 13,854; western South Pacific − 16,585; and eastern South Pacific – 13,194 (IWC 1981). These were not based on what are currently accepted methods of survey design and analysis. Based on a majority recommendation of the Scientific Committee, the IWC subsequently reset the classification of these stocks to “zero catch limit pending a satisfactory estimate of stock size” (IWC 1983).<br/><br/>Of 1,705 “sei” whales reported taken off Chile during 1932-79 (IWC 2006a), an unknown proportion were Bryde’s whales (Gallardo <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>The South African Inshore stock was estimated at 582 (±184) in 1983 (Best <em>et al.</em> 1984). Over 2,000 Bryde’s whales are recorded caught by modern whaling during 1911-67 in Cape Province, South Africa, including 1,300 during 1947-67 (IWC 2006a) of which most were from the inshore stock (IWC 1980). <br/><br/>No population estimates are available for the remainder of the South Atlantic. Of 2,536 “sei” whales taken by the pirate whaling ship Sierra in the South Atlantic during 1969-76, the majority are believed to be Bryde’s whales (IWC 1980). Of the over 5,000 “sei” whales recorded caught off Brazil during 1948-77, at least some were Bryde’s whales, but possibly only 8% (Omura 1962, Williamson 1975).<br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>Apart from a population estimate for the Southern Gulf of Mexico of 40 (13-129) animals (Mullin and Fulling 2004) there are no abundance estimates for the North Atlantic. Some of the “sei” whales recorded around the Straits of Gibraltar in the first half of the 20th century may have been Bryde’s whales (Aguilar 1984).<br/><br/><em>Small-type Bryde’s whales</em><br/>No population estimates exist, and are unlikely to become available until methods are developed to identify them at sea and their range is better known.	eng
2476	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The Bryde’s whale was the incidental beneficiary of IWC area restrictions on factory ship whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species, at a time when the Bryde’s whale was not yet recognised as a distinct species by the whaling industry (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The Bryde’s whale is included in Appendix I of CITES although Japan has held a reservation against this listing since 1983. The species (as <em>B. edeni</em>) is listed in Appendix II of CMS.	eng
2477	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The International Whaling Commission had granted protection to blue whales by 1966. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. No blue whales have been recorded deliberately caught since 1978. They are protected by national regulations in many range states. Local measures may be required to protect the habitat of specific local populations in order to ensure their long-term viability in the face of increasing human impacts, e.g. see Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> (2005).	eng
2477	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The IWC had granted protection to blue whales by 1966. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation, which have objected to this provision. No blue whales have been recorded deliberately caught since 1978. The species is on Appendix I of both CITES and CMS. <br/><br/>Local measures may be required to protect the habitat of specific local populations in order to ensure their long-term viability in the face of increasing human impacts, e.g. see Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005.	eng
2477	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The blue whale is a cosmopolitan species, found in all oceans except the Arctic, but absent from some regional seas such as the Mediterranean, Okhotsk and Bering seas.<br/><br/>The Antarctic form <em>B. m. intermedia,</em> which used to be by far the most abundant form of blue whale, occurs in the Antarctic in summer, from the Antarctic Polar Front up to and into the ice (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006), including (in the past) the South Georgia area. Its winter distribution is poorly known, but the presumption has been that animals migrate in winter to lower latitudes, largely because blue whales were caught off Namibia, South Africa and Chile in winter (Best 1998, Mackintosh 1965). <br/><br/>Pygmy blue whales (<em>B. m. brevicauda</em>) are confined mainly to the area north of 55°S even in summer, but with one record at 56°15?S (Ichihara 1966). They are most abundant in the southern Indian Ocean on the Madagascar plateau, and off South Australia and Western Australia, where they form part of a more or less continuous distribution from Tasmania to Indonesia. Blue whales are found year round in the northern and equatorial Indian Ocean, especially around Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, and at least seasonally near the Seychelles and in the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>Blue whales occur in the eastern Pacific from around 44°S in southern Chile (Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005) as far as the Costa Rica Dome where they are present year-round (Reilly and Thayer 1990). There may be a gap from there to Baja California where they are quite common as also off the Californian coast (Calambokidis and Barlow 2004) but tracking of a tagged whale suggests that some of the Californian whales may migrate to the Costa Rica Dome in winter (Mate <em>et al.</em> 1999). North of 40°N, blue whales occur across the North Pacific from the coast of Oregon to the Kurile Islands (Russian Federation), and north to the Aleutian Islands (US -Alaska) but not far into the Bering Sea. In the past blue whales were caught off southern Japan and the Korean peninsula, but none have been seen there in recent years.<br/><br/>In the North Atlantic the summer distribution of blue whales extends in the west from the Scotian Shelf to the Davis Strait (Canada) (NMFS 1998). Blue whales occur in the Denmark Strait, around Iceland and north to the ice edge, and in the northeast to Svalbard (Norway). Historically, blue whales were commonly caught along the coasts of North and West Norway, the Faeroes and the NW British Isles. They also occur in low numbers off NW Spain (Bérubé and Aguilar 1998) and in the past near the Strait of Gibraltar, but not in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). The winter distribution is poorly known but it appears that in the past blue whales were widely distributed in the southern half of the North Atlantic in winter (Reeves <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/><br/>McDonald <em>et al.</em> (2006) use song to suggest nine different groupings of blue whales. They argue that because song is used in mating, that these different song types, five of which have data spanning over 30 years and showing stability, should form the basis for population structure hypotheses. Although some of the geographic locations correspond to IWC stocks, for example the northern Indian Ocean, others do not. Thus, the population structure in this account likely underestimates the true number of discreet groups of blue whales.	eng
2477	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The blue whale is a cosmopolitan species, found in all oceans except the Arctic, but absent from some regional seas such as the Mediterranean, Okhotsk and Bering seas. In the North Atlantic the summer distribution of blue whales extends in the west from the Scotian Shelf to the Davis Strait (NMFS 1998).  Blue whales occur in the Denmark Strait, around Iceland and north to the ice edge, and in the northeast to Svalbard.  Historically, blue whales were commonly caught along the coasts of North and West Norway, the Faeroes and the NW British Isles. They also occur in low numbers off NW Spain (Bérubé and Aguilar 1998) and in the past near the Strait of Gibraltar, but not in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  The winter distribution is poorly known but it appears that in the past blue whales were widely distributed in the southern half of the North Atlantic in winter (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
2477	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Blue whales feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), with a variety of species being taken by different blue whale populations, such as <em>Euphausia superba</em> in the Antarctic, <em>Nyctiphanes australis</em> off southern Australia (Gill 2002), <em>Euphausia recurva</em> off Western Australia (Bannister pers comm.) and <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> off the Galapagos (Palacios 1999). They feed both at the surface and also at depth, following the diurnal vertical migrations of their prey to at least 100m (Sears 1999).  The migration patterns of blue whales are not well understood, but appear to be highly diverse.  Some populations appear to be resident year-round in habitats of year-round high productivity, while others undertake long migrations to high-latitude feeding grounds (see above), but the extent of migrations and the components of the populations that undertake them are poorly known.	eng
2477	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Blue whales feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), with a variety of species being taken by different blue whale populations, such as <em>Euphausia superba</em> in the Antarctic, <em>Nyctiphanes australis</em> off southern Australia (Gill 2002), <em>Euphausia recurva</em> off Western Australia (J. Bannister <em>pers. comm.</em> 2007) and <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> off the Galápagos (Palacios 1999). They feed both at the surface and also at depth, following the diurnal vertical migrations of their prey to at least 100 m (Sears 2002). <br/><br/>The migration patterns of blue whales are not well understood, but appear to be highly diverse. Some populations appear to be resident year-round in habitats of year-round high productivity, while others undertake long migrations to high-latitude feeding grounds (see above), but the extent of migrations and the components of the populations that undertake them are poorly known.	eng
2477	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>Generation time. </em><br/>The inferred value of 31 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al. </em>(2007) is considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species. That implies that the three generation time window for applying the A (past reduction) criterion is 1914-2007.<br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>In the North Atlantic, about 400 whales have been photo-identified in the Gulf of St Lawrence (Ramp <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Pike <em>et al. </em>(2004) estimate 1,000-2,000 in the central North Atlantic (Iceland, Denmark Strait, East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Faeroes and the British Isles). Sightings of blue whales are still very rare in areas where substantial catches were made in the past ? e.g. off Norway and especially in northern Norway (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1992, Norwegian sighting surveys 1995-2006), Svalbard and the British Isles. Approximately 8,000 blue whales are specifically recorded in whaling statistics since the start of modern whaling in northern Norway in 1868, but an additional 30,000 unspecified large whales were recorded caught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of which perhaps as many as 25% could have been blue whales (IWC 2006). However, only about 1,600 blue whales were caught after 1914, hence the main decline occurred primarily before the time window of interest (three generations). The population is estimated to have been recovering at 5.2% p.a. (SE 1.1%) in the Iceland/Denmark Strait area during 1969-88, after catching had ceased (Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990). Taken together this all suggests that the North Atlantic population was very low when whaling ceased in the mid-1960s (apart from a very few pirate whaling catches up to 1978) and may now be at or above the 1911 level but still well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/><em>Antarctic</em><br/>The Antarctic blue whale <em>B. m. intermedia</em> was extremely abundant in the past: about 341,830 blue whales have been recorded caught in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic (IWC 2006) in the 20th century, of which 12,618 were identified as pygmy blue whales or are assumed to have been so from their location (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004). About 40,000 of these were taken around South Georgia. In addition, the majority of the over 17,000 blue whales caught off southern Africa were probably Antarctic blue whales (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). Ignoring these and other catches north of 40°S, Branch <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated the pre-exploitation (1905) abundance to be 239,000 (202,000-311,000). The current population size in 1996, based primarily on data from the IWC-sponsored whale sightings cruises conducted during 1978-2001, was estimated to be 1,700 (860-2,900) and to be increasing at the rate of 7.3% (1.4-11.6%) p.a. Branch <em>et al.</em>'s initial (1905) population estimate can be taken as a conservative proxy for the 1911 population size, because few (< 1,000) catches were taken during 1904-11, and they excluded the 17,000 catches off Southern Africa. Their estimate for the ratio of the 1996 population size to the initial is 0.7% (0.3-1.3%). Even allowing for a doubling of the population size since 1996, the Antarctic blue whale population is clearly well below 10% of the 1911 level.<br/><br/><em>Southern Indian Ocean</em><br/>No precise estimates are available of the population of pygmy blue whales (<em>B. m. brevicauda</em>) in the southern Indian Ocean. From a survey in December 1996, Best <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated the abundance of pygmy blue whales in a survey area south of Madagascar to be 424 with wide confidence limits (about 190-930) and suggested, based on the distribution of past catches, that the total population in the southwestern Indian Ocean may be about 3 times that in the survey area. Blue whales appear to be rare in the central southern Indian Ocean (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). They occur in the southeastern Indian Ocean off western and southern Australia but are abundant only in quite small areas (Kato <em>et al.</em> 1996, Bannister <em>et al.</em> 2007, Gill 2002), suggesting a population only in the hundreds. The catch of at least 12,618 pygmy blue whales in the southern Indian Ocean in a rather short period during 1960-71 (Branch <em>et al.</em>, 2004) suggests that the initial population was at least this size, and hence that the current population is still depleted, but not as severely as the Antarctic blue whale.<br/><br/><em>Northern Indian Ocean</em><br/>No population estimates are available but blue whales are regularly observed off Sri Lanka (Alling <em>et al.</em> 1991) and the Maldives (Anderson 2005). Mikhalev (1996) reports 1,294 pygmy blue whales caught illegally by Soviet fleets during 1963-66, mainly off the Seychelles, the Maldives, in the Gulf of Aden, and west of southern India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/><em>Western North Pacific</em><br/>No quantitative abundance estimates for western North Pacific blue whales are available. Japanese scouting surveys recorded 183 blue whales during about 165,000 nmi of search effort in the North Pacific north of 40°N in summer, 1974-2005, spread fairly uniformly throughout the area, although none were observed in coastal waters off Japan where they were hunted historically (Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC, 1975-2006; Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>The IWC data tables list 7,300 blue whales caught in the North Pacific in the 20th Century (western and eastern), but to these should be added about 700 blue whales caught by Soviet fleets in the 1960s that were not reported at the time (Doroshenko 2000). In addition, about 20,000 unspecified large whales were caught during 1900-1930, of which an unknown proportion would have been blue whales (IWC 2006). About 1,500 were taken during the first half of the 20th  century off southern Japan to Taiwan and Korea where no blue whales have been seen in recent times (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/><em>Eastern North Pacific</em><br/>For blue whales in the eastern North Pacific (sub-specific identity uncertain), available population estimates are ~3,000 for the area off California and Baja California (Calambokidis and Barlow 2004). Some proportion of ~1,400 whales from a study that spans the equator and runs from late July through early December are from the North Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), although there may have been some double counting of whales censused off California and Baja California (Calamblokidis and Barlow 2004). The locations of the American pelagic catches are not all recorded, but up to 2,000 of the recorded blue whale catches and an unknown proportion of the unspecified catches could have been from the California-Mexican blue whale population.<br/><br/><em>Eastern South Pacific</em> <br/><br/>Some proportion of ~1,400 whales from a study that spans the equator and runs from late July through early December are from the South Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). Donovan (1984) does not provide an abundance estimate from a survey of Peruvian and Ecuadorian waters, but on the assumption of a similar effective sighting distance to that calculated by Best <em>et al.</em> (2003) using the same vessel and similar procedures, an abundance of the order of ~1,000 whales is implied. No abundance estimates for Chile are available, but the fact that a blue whale fishery catching several hundred animals per year continued until its closure in 1967 without obvious signs of decline (371 blue whales being taken in 1965 alone) suggests a population in the thousands. No abundance estimate has yet been calculated from the IWC Blue Whale Survey in Chilean waters (Findlay <em>et al.</em>1998) but their sighting rate (~5 blue whales per 1,000 km) is consistent with a population in the low thousands. The survey missed a newly discovered blue whale summer feeding and nursery ground around Chiloé Island (41°-44°S) (Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2005), which appears to contain a population at least in the hundreds.<br/><br/><em>Other areas</em><br/>Recent records of blue whales are very rare from the South Atlantic. A stranding at 34°S in southern Brazil could not be diagnosed unambiguously as a pygmy or ?true? blue whale (Dalla Rosa and Secchi 1997). There are no records for the offshore central South Pacific outside the Antarctic, although data for this area are sparse (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/><em>Global</em><br/>The global population of blue whales is uncertain, but based on the above information, the global total for the species is plausibly in the range 10,000-25,000, corresponding to about 3-11% of the 1911 population size.	eng
2477	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	North Atlantic<br/>In the North Atlantic, about 400 whales have been photo-identified in the Gulf of St Lawrence (Ramp <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Pike <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate 1,000-2,000 in the central North Atlantic (Iceland, Denmark Strait, East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Faeroes and the British Isles). Sightings of blue whales are still very rare off Norway, Svalbard and the British Isles despite substantial past catches, especially in northern Norway (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1992, Norwegian sighting surveys 1995-2006).  Approximately 8,000 blue whales are specifically recorded caught in whaling statistics since the start of modern whaling in northern Norway in 1868, but an additional 30,000 unspecified large whales were recorded caught in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of which perhaps as much as  25% could have been blue whales (IWC 2006). However, only about 1,600 blue whales were caught after 1917, hence the main decline occurred primarily before this time. The population is estimated to have been recovering at 5.2% p.a. (SE 1.1%) in the Iceland/Denmark Strait area during 1969-88, after catching had ceased (Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990). Taken together this all suggests that the North Atlantic population was very low when whaling ceased in the mid 1960s (apart from a very few pirate whaling catches up to 1978), and may now be at or above the 1911 level, but still well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/>Generation time. <br/>The default value of 32 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.	eng
2477	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Blue whale hunting started in the North Atlantic in 1868 and spread to other regions around 1900 after the northeastern Atlantic populations had been severely reduced. The Antarctic and North Atlantic populations were probably depleted to the low hundreds by the time whaling ceased, but are increasing. Blue whales have been protected worldwide since 1966, although they continued to be caught illegally by USSR fleets until 1972.  The last recorded deliberate catches were off Spain in 1978 (IWC, 2006). <br/><br/>Blue whales are subject to some ship strikes and entanglements (NMFS 1998) but reported cases are few. The remote distribution of some blue whale populations probably makes them less vulnerable to human impacts than some other cetacean species, but local populations that inhabit waters with significant levels of human activity may be subject to some threat, such as disturbance from vessel traffic, including ship noise (e.g. Gulf of St Lawrence population, NMFS 1998).  Globally, there appear to be no major threats to blue whales at present.	eng
2477	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Blue whale hunting started in the North Atlantic in 1868 and spread to other regions around 1900 after the northeastern Atlantic populations had been severely reduced. The Antarctic and North Atlantic populations were probably depleted to the low hundreds by the time whaling ceased, but are increasing (see above). Blue whales have been protected worldwide since 1966, although they continued to be caught illegally by former USSR fleets until 1972. The last recorded deliberate catches were off Spain in 1978 (IWC 2006). <br/><br/>Blue whales are subject to some ship strikes and entanglements (NMFS 1998) but reported cases are few. The remote distribution of some blue whale populations probably makes them less vulnerable to human impacts than some other cetacean species, but local populations that inhabit waters with significant levels of human activity may be subject to some threat, such as disturbance from vessel traffic, including ship noise (<em>e.g.</em> Gulf of St Lawrence population, NMFS 1998). Globally, there appear to be no major threats to blue whales at present.<br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Antarctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Antarctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2006). The implications of this for blue whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.<br/><br/>Small populations such as the surviving Antarctic population can have a number of interacting effects that accelerate overall risk (Gilpin and Soule, 1986). Among those effects are demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and density dispensation (Allee effects). Although the expectation is that these threats could be serious because cetaceans are social animals with low reproductive output, the fact that the Antarctic population is increasing is encouraging.	eng
2478	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The IWC set catch limits at zero for fin whales in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere from 1976. The IWC adopted a provision (popularly known as the commercial whaling moratorium) in 1982 to set all catch limits for commercial whaling to zero from1986. &#160;This provision does not apply to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Norway</st1:country-region> or the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:country-region></st1:place> which have objected to this provision. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iceland</st1:place></st1:country-region> also considers itself not bound by the provision, based on a reservation attached to its adherence to the treaty governing the IWC. Limited “aboriginal subsistence” whaling is permitted by the IWC for fin whales in <st1:place w:st="on">Greenland</st1:place>.</p>  <br/>Fin whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but this does not apply to Iceland, Norway and Japan, who hold reservations. Fin whales are also listed on Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Under the Agreement for Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black and Mediterranean Seas (ACCOBAMS), fin whales in the Mediterranean, along with other cetaceans, are protected from deliberate killing by signatories to the agreement.	eng
2478	conservation	IUCN, 2007	The IWC set catch limits to zero for fin whales in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere in 1976. Catch limits for all commercial whaling have been set at zero by the IWC since 1986. However, this moratorium does not apply to Iceland, Norway or the Russian Federation which have objected to this provision. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for fin whales taken off West Greenland.  Fin whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but this does not apply to Iceland, Norway and Japan, who hold reservations. Fin whales are also listed on Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).  Under the Agreement for Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black and Mediterranean Seas (ACCOBAMS), fin whales in the Mediterranean, along with other cetaceans, are protected from deliberate killing by signatories to the agreement.	eng
2478	distribution	IUCN, 2007	Fin whales occur worldwide, mainly but not exclusively further offshore. They are rare in the tropics, except in certain cooler-water areas such as off Peru.  <br/><br/><strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>In the North Atlantic, the fin whale's range extends as far as Svalbard in the northeast (but rarely far into the Barents Sea), to the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in the northwest (but rarely into the inner Canadian Arctic), to the Canary Islands in the southeast, and to the Antilles in the southwest (Rice 1998, Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999), but it is rare in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). Their main summer range in the northwest Atlantic extends from Cape Hatteras (39°N) northward (Anon. 2005). In former times, fin whales were caught year-round near the Straits of Gibraltar. While there may be some north-south migration between summer and winter, it does not necessarily involve the entire population, and North Atlantic fin whales may occur to some extent throughout the year in all of their range, as suggested by acoustic data (Clark 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There is a resident population in the central and western Mediterranean which is genetically distinct from that of the North Atlantic (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The species also occurs, but rarely, in the eastern Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
2478	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Fin whales occur worldwide, mainly, but not exclusively, in offshore waters. They are rare in the tropics, except in certain cool-water areas, such as off Peru. <br/><br/><em>North Atlantic</em><br/>In the North Atlantic, the fin whale’s range extends as far as Svalbard (Norway) in the northeast (but rarely far into the Barents Sea), to the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay (Canada and Denmark (Greenland)) in the northwest (but rarely into the inner Canadian Arctic), to the Canary Islands (Spain) in the southeast, and to the Antilles in the southwest (Rice 1998, Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999), but it is rare in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2001). Their main summer range in the Northwest Atlantic extends from Cape Hatteras (39°N) (US) northward (Anon. 2005a). In former times, fin whales were caught year-round near the Straits of Gibraltar. While there may be some north-south migration between summer and winter, it does not necessarily involve the entire population, and North Atlantic fin whales may occur to some extent throughout the year in all of their range, as suggested by acoustic data (Clark 1995).<br/><br/><em>Mediterranean</em><br/>There is a resident subpopulation in the central and western Mediterranean which is genetically distinct from that of the North Atlantic (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species also occurs rarely in the eastern Mediterranean (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>North Pacific</em><br/>In the eastern North Pacific, fin whales occur year-round off the central and southern California coast (Anon. 2003). They occur in summer off the entire coast of western North America from California into the Gulf of Alaska. Fin whales marked off California in winter were recaptured in summer by whaling operations along the entire coast, suggesting migration. Offshore, fin whales occur across the North Pacific north of 40°N, at least from May to September in summer, with some tendency for a northward shift in distribution in high summer, when they also enter the Okhotsk Sea (Miyashita <em>et al</em>. 1995). They occur in the Bering Sea and some have been seen in the Chuckchi Sea, but rarely in the Beaufort Sea (Angliss and Outlaw 2004). <br/><br/>Fin whales occur, albeit in small numbers, in Hawaiian waters in both summer and winter (Anon 2005b). They are rare or absent throughout the tropical North Pacific. <br/><br/>While there appears to be some migration, acoustic data suggests that overall there is no marked seasonality in distribution in the North Pacific (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 2000), in contrast to the traditional view of the fin whale as a migratory species.<br/><br/><em>Gulf of California</em><br/>The fin whales inhabiting the Gulf of California constitute a resident, genetically isolated subpopulation (Bérubé <em>et al.</em> 2002). Telemetry information has shown year-round residency in this area, with seasonal latitudinal movements (Urbán <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em>East China Sea</em><br/>Fin whales in the East China Sea are generally recognized as being a distinct subpopulation from those of the North Pacific (Fujino 1960). Fin whales appear to be rare today off the Korean peninsula and southern and central Japan, but large numbers were caught there in the 20th century (IWC 2006); it is not clear whether these animals were part of the East China Sea population or a separate grouping. <br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>While some fin whales do penetrate into the high Antarctic, along with blue, minke and humpback whales, the bulk of the fin whale summer distribution is in middle latitudes, mainly 40°S-60°S in the southern Indian and South Atlantic oceans, but 50°-65°S in the South Pacific, as evidenced by both sightings data and past catches (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995, IWC 2006a). <br/><br/>The winter distribution is poorly known, but based on catch results fin whales were formerly common off southern Africa in winter and became scarce there following depletion of the species in the Southern Ocean, consistent with this being a wintering area of a migratory population (Best 2003). Catches were mainly off South Africa, but in the early 20th century there were also catches off Angola, Congo and Mozambique (Best 1994).<br/><br/>Recent sighting were made in the mid-latitude region (between 55oS and 61oS) by the IWC/SOWER (Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research Program). A high density area of fin whales was observed between 0oE and 5oE in the south of Bouvet Island (Ensor <em>et al</em>, 2007).<br/><br/>Large numbers of fin whales were caught off South Georgia in the past, but the species is not common there now (Moore <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is assumed that animals caught at South Georgia were migratory (Mackintosh 1965), but the location of their wintering grounds is unknown. Fin whales are now rare in Brazilian waters, but there is virtually no information from the period before the depletion of the whales around South Georgia (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 1997). A few were taken in a brief period of whaling in southern Brazil in the early 1960s. <br/><br/>Winter catches of fin whales off Chile, which also declined from the 1950s onwards in line with declining Southern Ocean stocks, are also suggestive of a wintering ground. Fin whales were caught off Peru for only a few years from 1965 (prior to that the industry had focused on sperm whales), and catches petered out in the early 1970s.	eng
2478	habitat	IUCN, 2007	Fin whales are often portrayed in the secondary literature as eating fish including juvenile herring (e.g. NAMMCO undated). However, the available quantitative evidence suggests that the fin whale's reputation as a fish-eater is largely overstated. In Icelandic catches, 96% contained krill only, 2.5% a mixture of krill and fish, and 1.6% fish only (Sigurjónsson and Víkingsson 1997), while only one of  267 fin whales caught in the northeast Pacific off British Columbia, Canada,  contained fish (Flinn <em>et al.</em> 2002), and over 99% of stomachs with food in the Antarctic contained krill (Kawamura 1994). On the other hand, Overholtz and Nicolas (1979) report apparent feeding of fin whales on American sand lance (sand eel) <em>Ammodytes americanus</em> in the northwest Atlantic, and Mitchell (1975) found that capelin comprised 80-90% of prey in fin whales caught off Newfoundland.  Capelin abundance is extremely variable over time, and fin whales may feed opportunistically on capelin in high-capelin years. In summary, although the fin whale is more flexible in its diet than the blue whale (<em>B. musculus</em>), its consumption of fish is not necessarily a significant problem.	eng
2478	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Fin whales are often portrayed in the secondary literature as eating fish including juvenile herring (e.g. NAMMCO undated). However, the available quantitative evidence suggests that the fin whale’s reputation as a fish-eater is largely overstated. In Icelandic catches, 96% contained krill only, 2.5% a mixture of krill and fish, and 1.6% fish only (Sigurjónsson and Víkingsson 1997), while only one of 267 fin whales caught in the northeast Pacific off British Columbia, Canada, contained fish (Flinn <em>et al.</em> 2002), and over 99% of stomachs with food in the Antarctic contained krill (Kawamura 1994). On the other hand, Overholtz and Nicolas (1979) reported apparent feeding by fin whales on American sand lance (sand eel) <em>Ammodytes americanus</em> in the northwest Atlantic, and Mitchell (1975) found that capelin comprised 80-90% of prey in fin whales caught off Newfoundland. Capelin abundance is extremely variable over time, and fin whales may feed opportunistically on capelin in high-capelin years.<br/><br/>In summary, although the fin whale is more flexible in its diet than the blue whale (<em>B. musculus</em>), its consumption of fish does not necessarily make it a significant competitor with fisheries.	eng
2478	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>North Atlantic</em><br/>North Atlantic fin whales were comprehensively assessed by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) in 1991 (IWC 1992), and an update for the northern part of the region was undertaken in 2006 in a joint workshop with the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO) (IWC 2007a). North Atlantic fin whale stocks had previously been assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1976 (IWC 1977). <br/><br/>Based mainly on past whaling operations, the IWC recognizes seven management areas in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Newfoundland-Labrador; West Greenland; East Greenland-Iceland; North Norway; West Norway-Faeroe Islands; British Isles-Spain-Portugal. Based on genetic evidence, it is now considered more likely that there are from two to four breeding stocks, which use these seven management areas in different proportions (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>The best available estimates of recent abundance accepted by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2007c) are: 25,800 (CV 0.125) in 2001 for the central North Atlantic (East Greenland-Iceland, Jan Mayen (Norway) and the Faeroes (Denmark)); 4,100 (CV 0.21) in 1996-2001 for the northeastern North Atlantic (North and West Norway); 17,355 (CV 0.27) in 1989 for the Spain-Portugal-British Isles area (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992); and 1,722 (CV 0.37) for West Greenland in 2005 (IWC 2007b) There are no complete estimates for the western North Atlantic , but partial estimates are 1,013 (95% CI 459-2,654) for Newfoundland in 2002-3 (IWC 2007a), and 2,814 (CV 0.21) for the east coast of North America from the Gulf of St Lawrence southward (Anon. 2005a). <br/><br/>Subject to a caveat concerning the different dates of the surveys, these figures can be summed to provide a rough total estimate of about 53,000 around the year 2000. <br/>No significant trends were found in the total abundance for any of the above areas, but when the area west and southwest of Iceland was singled out, a significant increasing trend was found (IWC 2007a).<br/><br/>Fin whales were heavily exploited in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, starting in 1876, particularly off Norway, Iceland, the Faeroes and British Isles. Whaling then spread to Spain, Greenland and eastern Canada, and exploitation continued at a lower level until the 1980s. <br/><br/>Catch statistics for the early years are probably incomplete, and a large number of whales were killed but lost, due to lines breaking, etc., perhaps up to one-half in the first 20-25 years and one-third in the next 15-20 years (Tønnessen 1967). The IWC Scientific Committee added 50% to recorded catches up to 1915 to allow for this (IWC 2007a): recorded catches up to 1915 total 15,315 fin whales plus 29,024 unspecified whales of which about half may have been fin whales, thus the total kill may have been about 45,000 up to 1915. The total recorded catch post-1915 has been about 55,000 fin whales. The approximate figures by area are: Canada 12,000; Norway 10,000; Iceland 10,000; Faeroes 5,000; Greenland 1,000; British Isles 3,000; Spain and Portugal 11,000; and pelagic operations 3,000. <br/><br/>The behaviour evident for the various North Atlantic fin whale populations following earlier reductions by whaling differs. It ranges from clear evidence of recovery to no firm indications of any increase. An estimated 14,000 fin whales were killed off northern Norway during 1876-1904, and a further 1,500 during 1948-71, but fin whales are rare there now (although quite abundant off western Spitsbergen, where about 1,500 whales had been killed during 1904-11) (Øien 2003, 2004). An estimated 12,000 fin whales were killed off Iceland during 1890-1915, until whaling was suspended partly due to concerns about the reductions in the stocks, but the modern abundance data suggest that the there has been a recovery in the population that may still be continuing, particularly west of Iceland, despite catches during 1948-89 averaging about 220 per year (Branch and Butterworth 2006). An estimated 10,000 fin whales were taken from the Faeroes, but about 25% of these were actually caught off eastern Iceland (IWC 2007a). Whaling from the Faeroes and West Norway petered out during the 1960s as whales became scarce (IWC 1977), but catches had apparently been mainly of migrating whales rather than whales belonging to local populations. The impact of catches on the fin whale stocks in the Northwest Atlantic is unclear (Mitchell 1972).<br/><br/><em>Mediterranean</em><br/>Catches of about 7,000 fin whales taken near the Straits of Gibraltar in the 1920s apparently reduced the local abundance, and fin whales are still rare there today, but this did not seem to affect the abundance of fin whales off northern Spain, where catches continued until 1985. Within the Mediterranean, the population was estimated in 1991 from surveys covering much of the western basin at 3,583 (CV 0.27) (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is likely, but not certain, that the historical catches near the Strait of Gibraltar were from the North Atlantic rather than from this population (Sanpera and Aguilar 1992). Palsbøll <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that Mediterranean fin whales probably have a small but non-zero genetic exchange with fin whales elsewhere in the North Atlantic. The Mediterranean subpopulation contains fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is subject to ongoing threats that may be causing a decline, but data on trend in abundance are insufficient to determine this (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/><em>North Pacific</em><br/>North Pacific fin whale stocks have not been assessed in depth by the IWC Scientific Committee since 1973, when the assessment by Ohsumi and Wada (1974) was accepted, and that was updated by Allen (1977). The stock in the western North Pacific was estimated to have declined from an “initial level” of 44,000, to 17,000 in 1975. The figures refer to the “exploitable” population, above the minimum allowed size at capture. However, these assessments were based on indices of catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) and sightings-per-unit-effort (SPUE) that did not meet modern requirements for the analysis of such data (e.g. IWC 1989), although there is no doubt that the populations had declined to some unknown extent. <br/><br/>The current abundance of fin whales in the North Pacific is not well known, because survey coverage has been patchy, and not all available data have been analyzed. Current estimates indicate a population of 5,700 whales in the Bering Sea, coastal Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska (Moore <em>et al.</em>2002, Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Zerbini <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a trend in abundance of 4.8%/year with a nominal CV of 0.15 for fin whales in the northern Gulf of Alaska from 1987 to 2003, but recalculation of the variance from the data indicates low precision (95% confidence limits -1.6-11.1%). <br/><br/>Based on surveys conducted in 1996 and 2001, an estimated 3,300 (CV 0.31) fin whales occur in summer/autumn off the west coast of the US (Barlow 2003a). Apart from a small population in Hawaiian waters (estimated 174 animals, CV 0.72; Barlow 2003b), there are no recent estimates of fin whale abundance in the remainder of the North Pacific. Some relevant data exist, including data collected under the Japanese Research Programme in the North Pacific (JARPN) (Tamura <em>et al.</em> 2005), but these do not appear to have been analysed with respect to fin whale abundance. Fin whales seem to be abundant in the central offshore part of the Okhotsk Sea, based on Japanese surveys conducted in 1989, 1990, 1992, 1999, 2000 and 2003, but no abundance estimate has been calculated (Miyashita 2004). <br/><br/>Given the lack of a comprehensive recent estimate, the estimate of 17,000 in 1975 from the earlier assessment is used for this assessment, but the global assessment is not particularly sensitive to the figure used for the North Pacific.<br/><br/>Over 74,000 fin whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Pacific during 1910-75, plus about 20,000 unspecified whales during 1900-30, of which a substantial proportion may have been fin whales. Fin whales were protected by the IWC from whaling in the North Pacific from 1976 onwards, but small Korean catches continued until the early 1980s.<br/><br/>As to whether fin whales recovered from exploitation in the North Pacific, the evidence is, as for the North Atlantic, mixed. Over 24,000 fin whales are recorded caught off coastal Japan and the Korean peninsula from 1910 onwards; annual catches peaked at over 1,000 whales in 1915 and declined steadily thereafter. Fin whales appear to be rare there now (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kim <em>et al.</em> 2004). Similar patterns of apparent exhaustion of stocks occurred elsewhere. For example, about 4,000 fin whales were taken by stations in British Columbia, western Canada, until catches ceased in 1967, with signs of rapid decline in the last 10 years of operation (Gregr <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em>Gulf of California</em><br/>This genetically isolated subpopulation was estimated in 2004 from a mark-recapture analysis of photo-identification data at 613 (CI 426-970) (Díaz-Guzman 2006). There are no data on population trend for this subpopulation. Telemetry information shows an all-year residency in the Gulf of California with seasonal latitudinal movements by these whales (Urbán <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em>East China Sea</em><br/>There do not appear to be any current or historical estimates of abundance for fin whales in the East China Sea.<br/><br/><em>Southern Hemisphere</em><br/>Along with other baleen whales, the IWC has traditionally managed Southern Hemisphere fin whales on the basis of six management areas, Areas I through VI, which are longitudinal pie slices 50°-70° wide. The areas were originally chosen as putative management stocks for humpback whales, and later used for all baleen whales, with little or no biological support (Donovan 1991). <br/><br/>Over 725,000 fin whales have been recorded caught in the Southern Hemisphere during 1905-76 (IWC 2006b). There was a series of assessments in the 1970s, including a synthesis by Chapman (1976) which was reassessed by Breiwick (1977), and updated (for Areas II-VI) by Allen (1977). A reassessment of Area VI fin whales was inconclusive (IWC, 1980). <br/><br/>These assessments were based on a combination of evidence, including trends in CPUE by whaling fleets, sighting rates by Japanese scouting vessels, and inferences on recruitment and mortality rates from age and length data. Their reliability is questionable on various grounds. For example, the IWC Scientific Committee subsequently determined that CPUE data should only be used for stock assessments when the nature of the whaling operations is fully described (IWC 1989). A reanalysis of the historical data using modern methods and insights is warranted.<br/><br/>Less indirect estimates are available from sightings data for more recent times. IWC (1995) gives estimates of 18,000 (CV 0.47) using data from 1966-79 and 15,000 (CV 0.61) using data from 1979-88 for the total population of fin whales south of 30°S in summer. These are obtained by extrapolating abundance estimates for the area south of 60°S from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) international surveys, to the area south of 30°S using Japanese scouting vessel data. A slightly finer stratification of the same data yielded estimates of 8,387 for 1966-79 and 15,178 for 1979-88 (IWC 1996; no variances given). Despite their low precision, these estimates suggest that the previous assessments of the populations were seriously over-optimistic. Best (2003) suggested a similar conclusion, based on declines of fin whale catch and sighting rates of 89-97% on the former South African winter whaling grounds during 1954-75.<br/><br/>The most recent estimate of 15,178 for 1979-88 is used for the purpose of this assessment and referred to the year 1983, the middle of the period to which it refers. Use of updated results from subsequent IDCR surveys (Branch and Butterworth 2001) would lead to an estimate of 38,185 referenced to the year 1997 (Mori and Butterworth 2006), but use of this for the population trajectory computation would hardly affect the results because the predicted trajectory passes close to this value anyway. (The trajectory shown in Fig.1. is for the mature population, and hence not directly comparable). <br/><br/><em>Biological parameters and assessment</em><br/>The generation time for a non-depleted fin whale population is estimated to be 25.9 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The time period of three generations is 1929-2007.<br/><br/>Estimates of age at sexual maturity for female fin whales, based on observed proportions mature by age, are 6-7 years in the Southern Hemisphere from British catches in the 1960s (Lockyer 1972) and Japanese catches in the 1960s and early 1970s (Mizroch 1981), but these values are likely negatively biased due to selection against smaller animals. For the North Atlantic, Gunnlaugsson and Víkingsson (2006) estimated an average of 8.9 years from catches off Iceland during 1967-89, but with some indication of an increase over time from 7.5 years during 1967-78 to 9.25 years during 1979-89. Aguilar <em>et al</em>. (1988) estimated 7.9 years using the same method from catches off Spain during 1979-84. Slightly different values are obtained using alternative methods. There do not seem to be any precise values for the North Pacific, but Kimura <em>et al</em>. (1958) estimated 8-12 years. For the purpose of this assessment, an age at maturity of 8 years is assumed, corresponding to an age at first reproduction of 9 years. The values of other biological parameters (age at first capture, net recruitment rate, and natural mortality rate) were taken from the previous Scientific Committee assessments (Allen 1977).<br/><br/>Because the available published assessments for this species are not up to date, an updated population assessment is conducted here to enable assessment of the population reduction over the period 1929-2007 relative to the A criterion. While the available data do not permit a scientifically rigorous estimation of the extent of population reduction, it is reasonable to use conventional population assessment methods to provide a crude indication of the extent of possible reduction relative to the criteria. A conventional deterministic age-structured model with an age at first capture (“recruitment”) (<em>ar</em>) and an age at first reproduction (<em>am</em>), and linear density-dependence was applied to the North Pacific, North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere regions separately. The parameter values are listed in Table 1 in the attached PDF document (which forms an integral part of this assessment). The starting year was 1874 in the North Atlantic and 1900 in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere. The sex ratio of the population and catches is assumed to be 50:50. The results of this population assessments can be found in the linked PDF document, which forms an integral part of this assessment.	eng
2478	population	IUCN, 2007	<strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>North Atlantic fin whales were comprehensively assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1991 (IWC 1992), and an update for the northern part of the region was undertaken in 2006 in a joint workshop with NAMMCO (IWC 2007).  North Atlantic fin whale stocks had previously been assessed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1976 (IWC 1977). Based mainly on past whaling operations, the IWC recognizes seven management areas in the North Atlantic: Nova Scotia; Newfoundland-Labrador; West Greenland; East Greenland-Iceland; North Norway; West Norway-Faeroe Islands; British Isles-Spain-Portugal.  Based on genetic evidence, it is now considered more likely that there are from two to four breeding stocks, which utilize these seven management areas in different proportions (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The best available estimates of recent abundance accepted by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2007) are: 25,800 (CV 0.125) in 2001 for the central North Atlantic (East Greenland-Iceland, Jan Mayen and the Faeroes);  4,100 (CV 0.21) in 1996-2001 for the northeastern North Atlantic (North and West Norway); and 17,355 (CV 0.27) in 1989 for the Spain-Portugal-British Isles area (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). The only accepted estimate for West Greenland is 1,046 (CV 0.35) in 1988 (IWC 1992); a newer estimate from a 2005 survey could not be accepted due to methodological problems. There are no complete estimates for the western North Atlantic Northwest Atlantic, but partial estimates are 1,013 (95% CI 459-2,654) for Newfoundland in 2003-3 (IWC 2007), and 2,814 (CV 0.21) for the east coast of North America from the Gulf of St Lawrence southward (Anon. 2005).  <br/>  <br/>No significant trends were found in the total abundance for any of the above areas, but when the area west and southwest of Iceland was singled out, a significant increasing trend was found (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>Fin whales were heavily exploited in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, starting in 1876, particularly off Norway, Iceland, the Faeroes and British Isles.  Whaling then spread to Spain, Greenland and eastern Canada, and exploitation continued at a lower level until the 1980s. Catch statistics for the early years are probably incomplete, and a large number of whales were killed but lost, due to lines breaking, etc., perhaps up to one-half in the first 20-25 years and one-third in the next 15-20 years (Tønnessen 1967).  The IWC Scientific Committee added 50% to recorded catches up to 1915 to allow for this (IWC 2007): recorded catches up to 1915 total 15,315 fin whales plus 29,024 unspecified whales of which about half may have been fin whales, thus the total kill may have been about 45,000 up to 1915.  The total recorded catch post-1915 has been about 55,000 fin whales.  The approximate figures by area are:  Canada 12,000; Norway 10,000; Iceland 10,000; Faeroes 5,000; Greenland 1,000; British Isles 3,000; Spain and Portugal 11,000; and pelagic operations 3,000. <br/><br/>The behaviour evident for the various North Atlantic fin whale populations following earlier reductions through whaling differs. It ranges from clear evidence of recovery to no firm indications of any increase. An estimated 14,000 fin whales were killed off North Norway during 1876-1904, and a further 1,500 during 1948-71, but fin whales are rare there now (although quite abundant off western Spitsbergen, where about 1,500 whales had been killed during 1904-11) (Øien 2003, 2004). An estimated 12,000 fin whales were killed off Iceland during 1890-1915, until whaling was suspended partly due to concerns about the reductions in the stocks, but the modern abundance data suggest that the there has been a recovery in the population that may still be continuing, particularly west of Iceland, despite catches during 1948-89 averaging about 220 per year (Branch and Butterworth 2006).  An estimated 10,000 fin whales were taken from the Faeroes, but about 25% of these were actually caught off eastern Iceland (IWC 2007).  Whaling from the Faeroes and West Norway petered out during the 1960s as whales became scarce (IWC 1977), but catches had apparently been mainly of migrating whales rather than local populations.  <br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Catches of about 7,000 fin whales taken near the Straits of Gibraltar in the 1920s apparently depleted the local abundance, and fin whales are still rare there today, but this did not seem to affect the abundance of fin whales off northern Spain, where catches continued until 1985. The impact of catches on the fin whale stocks in the Northwest Atlantic is unclear (Mitchell 1972). The population was estimated in 1991 from surveys covering much of the western Mediterranean at 3,583 (CV 0.27) (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1996).  It is likely, but not certain, that the historical catches near the Strait of Gibraltar were from the North Atlantic rather than from this population (Sanpera and Aguilar 1992).  Palsbøll <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that Mediterranean fin whales probably have a small but non-zero genetic exchange with fin whales elsewhere in the North Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong> <br/>The default value of 27 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species.	eng
2478	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Prior to the advent of modern whaling in the late 19th century, fin whales were largely immune from human predation because they were too hard to catch. Fin whales were depleted worldwide by commercial whaling in the 20th century. Fin whales have been protected in the Southern Hemisphere and North Pacific since 1975, and catches ceased in the North Atlantic by 1990, except for small “aboriginal subsistence” catches off Greenland. Commercial catches resumed off Iceland in 2006, with 9 fin whales being taken that year. A Japanese fleet resumed experimental catches of fin whales in the Antarctic in 2005, taking 10 whales each during 2005/06 and 2006/07, with plans to take 50 per year from the 2007/08 season (IWC 2006a). It seems unlikely that catching of fin whales will return to the high levels of previous years, not least due to the limited market demand for whale products.<br/><br/>Fin whales are one of the more commonly recorded species of large whale reported in vessel collisions (Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001). Five fatal collisions were recorded off the US east coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006). Collisions with vessels appear to be a significant, but not necessarily unsustainable, source of mortality for the Mediterranean population (Panigada <em>et al.</em> 2006, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Fin whales are occasionally caught in fishing gear as a by-catch. Four deaths and serious injuries from this source were reported from the eastern US coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006); recent Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC (www.iwcoffice.org/sci_com/scprogress.htm) reported about 1 fin whale by-caught per year on average.	eng
2478	threats	IUCN, 2007	Prior to the advent of modern whaling in the late 19th century, fin whales were largely immune from human predation because they were too hard to catch.  Fin whales were depleted worldwide by commercial whaling in the 20th century. Fin whales have been protected in the Southern Hemisphere and North Pacific since 1975, and catches ceased in the North Atlantic by 1990, except for small aboriginal subsistence catches off West Greenland. Commercial catches resumed off Iceland in 2006, with nine fin whales being taken that year.  A Japanese fleet resumed experimental catches of fin whales in the Antarctic in 2005, taking 10 whales each during 2005/06 and 2006/07, with plans to take 50 per year from the 2007/08 season (IWC 2006).  It seems unlikely that catching of fin whales will return to the high levels of previous years, not least due to the limited market demand for whale products.<br/><br/>Fin whales are one of the more commonly recorded species of large whale in vessel collisions (Laist<em> et al.</em> 2001). Five fatal collisions are recorded off the US east coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Collisions with vessels appear to be a significant, but not necessarily unsustainable, source of mortality for the Mediterranean population (Weinrich <em>et al.</em> 2005, Reeves and Notabartolo di Sciara 2006).  <br/><br/>Fin whales are occasionally caught in fishing gear as bycatch: four deaths and serious injuries from this source are reported from the eastern US coast during 2000-04 (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2006); recent Japanese Progress Reports to the IWC (www.iwcoffice.org/sci_com/scprogress.htm) report about one fin whale by-caught per year on average.	eng
2479	distribution	Cetacean Specialist Group, 1996	Centered in the Sub-Antarctic Zone of the Indian Ocean between 0°E and 80°E, especially around Prince Edward Island, and the islands of Crozet and Kerguelen. May also range westwards into the southeastern South Atlantic and eastwards into the Tasman Sea. A population along the coast of Chile may also be this species. The winter range is virtually unknown, with scattered records from South Africa and Australia (Rice 1998).	eng
2480	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Catches of Antarctic minke whales were subject to IWC catch limits soon after exploitation started. Catch limits for commercial whaling became zero from 1986 with the coming into effect of the IWC moratorium on commercial whaling. The summer range of Antarctic minke whales is also nominally protected by the IWC Southern Ocean Sanctuary, adopted in 1994, which prohibits catches south of a boundary located mainly at 40°S. Neither the moratorium nor the sanctuary’s proscription applies to taking under scientific permits issued by IWC member governments, which have been ongoing from 1987 to the present. Antarctic minke whales are listed on Appendix I of CITES, but Japan has held a reservation against this listing since July 2000. Japan also holds a reservation on the Sanctuary provision and therefore is not bound by it. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS. The species is covered by generic wildlife conservation measures adopted under international treaties.	eng
2480	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<em>B. bonaerensis</em> is considered a southern hemisphere species, although there is a single record from Suriname (60°N) (Rice 1998). In summer they are abundant throughout the Antarctic south of 60°S, occurring in greatest densities near the ice edge, and to some extent within the pack ice and in polynyas. Particularly high densities have been observed in some years in high Antarctic areas such as Prydz Bay, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea (Kasamatsu <em>et al</em>. 1997). Although <em>B. acutorostrata</em> has been found in the Antarctic as far south as 65°S it is much less common there than <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Pastene 2006a), such that all “minke whale” abundance estimates south of 60°S can for practical purposes be treated as referring to <em>B. bonaerensis</em>.<br/><br/>Minke whales are seen outside the Antarctic in summer (Kasamatsu and Miyashita 1983) but much of the summer data is ambiguous with respect to identification as <em>B. acutorostrata</em> or <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, such that it remains unclear whether significant numbers of <em>B. bonaerensis</em> occur outside the Antarctic in summer. <br/><br/>The winter distribution is less well known. There is a wintering area off Costinha, Brazil (7°S), where minke whales, almost exclusively <em>B. bonaerensis</em>, were the target of a whaling operation during 1964–85, with the peak abundance in October (da Rocha and Braga 1982, Holt, de la Mare and van Beek 1982). The recovery in this fishery of two whales marked in the Antarctic in Area II at 62° and 69°S (Buckland and Duff 1989) demonstrates that at least some individuals from the Brazilian population migrate to the Antarctic. Minke whales were also seen (and small numbers caught) off Durban, South Africa: the seasonal distribution was bimodal, with peaks in April/May and September/October, suggestive of migration past the area (Best 1982). There are occasional records from Peru (VanWaerebeek and Reyes 1994). <br/><br/>Japanese scouting vessel data indicated high abundance of minke whales (species ambiguous) in November between 10°–30°S in the central South Pacific and in much of the eastern and southern Indian Ocean from the tropics southwards to 50°S (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995). The limited information available from low-latitude surveys from the 1987/88 season onwards, when the two minke whale species were reliably distinguished, indicates that most of the minke whales were <em>B. bonaerensis</em> (Nishiwaki <em>et al.</em> 1991), probably on route from (as yet unknown) low-latitude breeding grounds to the Antarctic. The lack of any known areas of high concentration in winter suggests that the breeding distribution is rather dispersed and largely offshore (Kasamatsu <em>et al.</em> 1995). The species identity of minke whales seen in Indonesian waters in November (Miyashita <em>et al.</em> 1995) is unclear.<br/><br/>At least some of the Antarctic minke whale population remains in the Antarctic in winter (Ensor 1989), but the proportion has not been quantified.	eng
2480	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	While in the Antarctic, minke whales feed almost exclusively on krill, primarily <em>Euphausia superba</em>, but also <em>E. crystallorophias</em> (ice krill), <em>E. frigida,</em> and <em>Thysanoessa macrura</em> (Tamura and Konishi 2006). Observed densities of minkes are highest near the edge of the pack ice, but these whales also occur within the pack ice (Shimada and Kato 2006). It is not known whether Antarctic minke whales also feed to any significant extent while outside the Antarctic on their wintering grounds or migration routes. Best (1982) found a very low level of feeding, almost entirely on euphausiids, by Antarctic minke whales taken in winter off Durban, South Africa. Antarctic minke whales may themselves be an important prey for type-A killer whales <em>Orcinus orca</em> (Pitman and Ensor 2003).<br/><br/><em>Generation time</em><br/>The generation time is estimated to be 22 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
2480	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	As for other baleen whales, the IWC’s management of Antarctic minke whales has been based on six Areas, I through VI, which are longitudinal pie slices 50°–70° wide. The population structure is poorly known, but recent analyses suggest a genetic distinction between whales in the Indian Ocean sector of the Antarctic (west of 165°E) and the Pacific Ocean sector (east of this line) with presumably some overlap (Pastene 2006b). With the exception of the two marked whales mentioned above, the relationship between the Antarctic distribution and putative breeding areas is largely unknown.<br/><br/>Ship-based summer surveys of the area south of 60°S have been conducted each summer since 1978/79, under the auspices of the IWC SC, under the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) — programme, and covering a different Area (or part Area) each year (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 2001). These have been used to estimate minke whale population sizes, on the assumption that the bulk of the population is found south of 60°S in the survey season (Branch and Butterworth 2001). The survey vessels do not enter the pack ice, where minke whales are known to occur to some extent (Shimada and Kato 2006).<br/><br/>The IWC SC conducted a major assessment of Antarctic minke whales in 1990, and a population estimate of 760,000 was adopted, based on results of the IDCR surveys conducted in the seasons 1982/83 through 1988/89 (IWC 1991). Results of subsequent surveys indicated lower abundances (see Table 1 in linked PDF document, which constitutes an integral part of this assessment), leading the Committee to conclude in 2000 that the estimate of 760,000 was no longer a valid estimate of current abundance (IWC 2001, p. 31). The Committee has not yet adopted a new current estimate, pending the development, testing and implementation of improved analysis methods. Estimates calculated using the standard methodology for comparative purposes (Branch 2006, IWC 2007) were:<br/><br/>After adjusting for the different coverage of the three sets of surveys (which is not simply a multiplication, because the areas unsurveyed in the earlier years tended to be further north), the ratio of the three abundance estimates for the three periods was 0.97:1.00:0.39 (see Table 1 in attached PDF document). <br/><br/>The Committee has to date (January 2007) been unable to determine whether the apparent decline was real or artifactual. The Committee considered the two most likely confounding factors to be: (i) a reduction in sighting efficiency (e.g. due to smaller school sizes and possibly less experienced observers) and (ii) changes in ice extent, such that fewer whales occurred in surveyable open water.<br/><br/>Two additional points were noted (IWC 2007):<br/>(i) The decline was specific to minke whales; estimates for other species (blue, fin, killer, humpback) increased over the period; an explanation for the decline would need to account for this. <br/>(ii) Abundance estimates for Areas IV and V obtained by the Japanese scientific permit whaling programme (JARPA) for the seasons 1989/90 through 2004/05 showed no statistically significant trend.<br/>Further work on the issues of sighting efficiency and whale/ice distribution is underway. The Committee expects to adopt revised abundance estimates in the near future (2008) and to determine whether and to what extent the apparent decline is real.<br/><br/>Some authors have proposed that the population of Antarctic minke whales had been increasing up to the late 1960s (<i.>e.g.</em> Mori and Butterworth 2006), but this is controversial.	eng
2480	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Whaling on this species has not been as intensive as on the larger baleen whales. Substantial catches of Antarctic minke whales, apart from some experimental catches in the late 1960s, have been made by pelagic expeditions only since 1971, following depletion of the larger baleen whales (IWC 2006). Nearly 100,000 minke whales have been taken by pelagic whaling expeditions in the Antarctic, in addition to over 14,000 taken from the Brazilian land station at Costinha during 1964–85. Since 1987, pelagic catching has continued under scientific permit – at a much reduced, but increasing, level. The catch in the 2005/2006 season was 853 (Miyashita and Kato 2006). Otherwise, Antarctic minke whales are not subject to any substantially known direct anthropogenic threats. Bycatches in fishing gear have been recorded (<em>e.g.</em> van Waerebeek and Reyes 1994) but there is no indication that the numbers are significant. <br/><br/>During this century, a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the Antarctic is expected, and possibly a complete disappearance in summer, as mean Antarctic temperatures rise faster than the global average (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2006). The implications of this for minke whales are unclear but warrant monitoring.	eng
2482	distribution	Cetacean Specialist Group, 1996	Range "..during the summer in the immediate offshore waters from the Sanriku coast of Honshu, northward and eastward along the Kurilskiye Ostrova (but not into the Sea of Okhotsk) and the southern side of the Aleutian Islands, around the Gulf of Alaska, and southeastward as far as central Baja California. They do not go north of the Aleutian Islands, except rarely in the far southeastern corner of the Bering Sea. In the winter they are found regularly from southern Honshu south to Ogasawara Gunto [=Bonin Islands], Ryukyu Retto, and Taiwan, in the western Pacific, and south at least to Nayarit, Mexico, on the eastern side; there are a few records that season in the tropical mid-ocean waters." (Rice 1998)	eng
2483	distribution	Cetacean Specialist Group, 1996	The summer range extends from Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, the waters north of Svalbard as far north as 80°N, and the Barents Sea south to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, and the Bay of Biscay. The winter range remains almost unknown (Rice 1998). Some occur at that season around the islands of Cape Verde and along the African mainland from Ras Nouadhibou, Mauritania, south to Cap Vert, Senegal (Rice 1998).	eng
2531	conservation	Dávalos, L. Burneo, S. & Lim, B., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in protected areas within its range (Davalo pers. comm.).	eng
2531	distribution	Dávalos, L. Burneo, S. & Lim, B., 2008	This species occurs in west Ecuador and Colombia (Simmons, 2005). The species has been recorded from four localities, however, it is presumed to occur within appropriate habitat been these localities. There is only one locality for the species in Colombia: Southern Choco long  3.93333 lat -76.5167 locality data (Mantilla pers. comm.; Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
2531	habitat	Dávalos, L. Burneo, S. & Lim, B., 2008	This species natural history is poorly known. At the genus level it is found in rainforests and feeds aerially on tiny insects. It roosts in small to large colonies in well-lighted caves, rock crevices, culverts, or tree hollows. It is found in rainforest (Emmons and Feer 1997). Narrowly endemic to small area of Choco in Pacific rainforest (Davalos pers. comm.). In Ecuador the species has been found at 510 m (Albuja 1999). The only record from Colombia is at 1,200 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
2531	population	Dávalos, L. Burneo, S. & Lim, B., 2008	In Ecuador it is rare and known only from three localities (Albuja 1999; McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2000). Known from only one locality in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
2531	threats	Dávalos, L. Burneo, S. & Lim, B., 2008	Habitat may be under threat due to deforestation (Davalos pers. comm.). Legal and illegal crops are grown in and outside protected areas, reducing habitat (Alvarez, 2002; Alvarez, 2003). In Ecuador the habitat is severely fragmented and facing a high risk of destruction in the near future because of the lack of control to illegal logging. The situation in Colombia, the situation is better than in Ecuador (Burneo pers. comm.).	eng
2532	conservation	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Avoid habitat destruction. It is found in some protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
2532	distribution	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from southern Veracruz and Oaxaca (Mexico) to east central Guatemala and Belize (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
2532	habitat	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in semideciduous or evergreen forest. It roosts in rather dark recesses of large, limestone caves. Groups may number 50 or more, with individuals widely and evenly spaced, often roosting in crevices on the ceiling of high chambers. Activity starts well after sunset, later than related species, and, as a result, flight and foraging behaviour are difficult to observe. Pregnant females have been recorded between March and July (Arroyo-Cabrales and Jones 1988; Reid 1997).	eng
2532	population	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is locally common (Reid 1997). The population is declining. In the Maya Mountains (Bladden Drainage), in Belize, colonies were observed in continuous forest setting (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
2532	threats	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss and vandalism in the caves. Tourism in caves in Belize (800 people by day) and Yucatan (Miller pers. comm.).<br/>Very threatened in Belize (Miller pers. comm.). In Mexico it has been evaluated as vulnerable because of 45% habitat loss in the last 10 years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
2533	conservation	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Can be found in protected areas.	eng
2533	distribution	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs on the pacific slope in Costa Rica to central Sonora and southern Baja California (Mexico); also northern Colombia (Simmons 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
2533	habitat	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in deciduous forest, dry thorn scrub, and evergreen forest (Reid 1997). It roosts near the entrances of caves and mines or in tree hollows and buildings. Groups may use a separate night roost, such as under a bridge. Group size is usually greater than 50, with a sex ratio of about 75% males to 25% females. Activity begins immediately before sunset; individuals fly above the canopy and forage with long, straight sallies and rapidly dives after flying insects. This early flight above the relatively low, open canopy of deciduous forest can be easily observed. Young are born in late June in Costa Rica, well into the rainy season (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1976; Reid 1997).	eng
2533	population	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is common (in dry habitats) to rare (in rainforests) (Reid 1997).	eng
2533	threats	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss and vandalism and fire induced by humans in the caves. No threats reported for Costa Rica (Rodriguez pers. comm.)	eng
2538	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	On the Malay Peninsula and Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and western Kalimantan), this species occurs within several reserves and protected areas, including production forests (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006).	eng
2538	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs throughout the Malay Peninsula, northern and western Borneo (Brunei, West Kalimantan, Sabah, and Sarawak), the Riau Archipelago (on the islands of Durian and Galang), and southern Thailand (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006). In Thailand, it is known only from Khao Phu Pah, in Trang Province (Corbet and Hill 1992; Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It also has been recorded in the Tigapuluh Hills on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, on the Riau–Jambi provincial border (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent surveys have confirmed its presence also in more southern localities in central and east Kalimantan (Suyanto and Struebig 2007).	eng
2538	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in primary lowland rainforest from sea level up to 1,500 m asl, and is also found in mangroves (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006). In Kalimantan it inhabits secondary and primary forest. It roosts in ferns in rubber trees and excavated termite nests. It usually forms small harem groups. It has also been reported from rubber plantations managed by villagers which retain vegatative structure (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).	eng
2538	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	In Peninsular Malaysia it is common in primary lowland rain forest (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
2538	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is locally threatened throughout much of its distribution by deforestation for agriculture, logging and plantations, and as a result of fire. Scattered populations in southern Thailand, Sumatra, and the Riau Archipelago may be particularly vulnerable (Hodgkison and Kunz 2006).	eng
2540	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in numerous protected areas; it has been reported from more than 25 protected areas in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
2540	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species naturally occurs from northern and southeastern Pakistan throughout much of India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and is present in much of Myanmar. It has been introduced to Aceh in northern Sumatra and Java (both Indonesia), and there are populations on Penang Island (Malaysia) and Phuket Island (Thailand), also close to Jeddah in Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991), and may be possibly present in Kenya (not mapped here). It occurs from sea level to well over 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2540	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is mainly found in agricultural landscapes, such as rice paddies, and can occur in urban areas. Its broad range of natural habitat include swampy open areas, subtropical and tropical dry deciduous forests and mangroves.	eng
2540	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	A common and increasing species.	eng
2540	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no threats to this species which is often considered to be a pest.	eng
2541	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present in several protected areas; it has been reported from more than 15 protected areas in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
2541	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found throughout most of India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the lowlands of Nepal through Myanmar, southern China (recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Fujian and Guangdong) (Smith and Xie 2008), Taiwan, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam; also on Cat Ba Island, off the coast of northern Viet Nam. Introduced into Kedah and Perlis regions of Malay Peninsula as well as Java (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its spotty distribution may reflect other geographic introductions (Taiwan for example) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Sea level to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
2541	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is commonly found in fields, villages and cities. It naturally is found in swampy areas, and is especially common in lowland rice fields. Animals construct burrows in stream banks, paddy dikes and the edges of fields. The typical litter size between five and sevemn young.	eng
2541	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	Common, and even extremely abundant; it has increased in abundance with agricultural expansion.	eng
2541	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
2542	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
2542	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in mainland South East Asia: central Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994), and Cambodia (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is probably present in lowland areas of Lao PDR, within the valley of the Mekong River (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is sympatric in much of its range with <em>B. indica</em>.	eng
2542	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	This is an adaptable species, present primarily in degraded habitats and regarded as a major agricultural pest in certain areas, being commonly found in rain fed paddy fields and corn fields. They are excluded from southerly inundated parts of mainland South East Asia, and appear to be absent from forested environments.	eng
2542	population	Aplin, K., 2008	<em>B. savilei</em> is locally abundant across its range.	eng
2542	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, it is hunted and sold for food, and they are also poisoned extensively as an agricultural pest.	eng
2553	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (as well as Annex IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Research is underway to establish conservation requirements for this species. Recommendations include adopting forestry practices that maintain old trees in sufficient numbers.	eng
2553	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Research is underway to establish conservation requirements for this species. Recommendations include adopting forestry practices that maintain old trees in sufficient numbers.	eng
2553	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	<em>Barbastella barbastellus </em>is largely restricted to central and southern Europe, although its range extends into north Africa. It is widely but patchily distributed from England and probably Ireland, Iberia to the Caucasus and from the Mediterranean coast to southern Scandinavia, and it also found in Morocco and the Canary islands. It occurs to 1,800 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002), 1,900 m in the Caucasus and 2,260 m in the Pyrenees (Urbańczyk 1999, K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
2553	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	<em>Barbastella barbastellus </em>is largely restricted to central and southern Europe, although its range extends into the Caucasus, Anatolia, Morocco (North Africa) and the Canary Islands (La Gomera and Tenerife only). It occurs to 1,800 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002), 1,900 m in the Caucasus and 2,260 m in the Pyrenees (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999, K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
2553	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	Forages in mature woodland, woodland edge (and agricultural edge). Feeds on small moths. Summer roosts: usually older mature woodland with maternity sites in trees (occasionally older buildings). Depends on a large number of old trees to roost in a large part of its range, because individuals change their roosts very frequently and colonies need a large number of roost sites for this reason. Winter: Hibernation may start in trees, but later underground sites are preferred. Usually in smaller numbers (up to 50) in natural caves, but in regions where these are missing in large groups in mines and bunkers. Underground habitats may be of any type, but usually very cold sites. Recorded in old mines in winter in the Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Movements up to 290 km in Austria (Kepka 1960).	eng
2553	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	Forages in mature woodland, woodland edge (and agricultural edge). Feeds on small moths. Summer roosts: usually older mature woodland with maternity sites in trees (occasionally older buildings). Depends on a large number of old trees to roost in a large part of its range, because individuals change their roosts very frequently and colonies need a large number of roost sites for this reason. Winter: Hibernation may start in trees, but later underground sites are preferred. Usually in smaller numbers (up to 50) in natural caves, but in regions where these are missing in large groups in mines and bunkers. Underground habitats maybe of any type, but usually very cold sites. Recorded in old mines in winter in the Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Movements up to 290 km in Austria (Kepka 1960).	eng
2553	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	A rare or infrequent species. Summer colonies, usually c. 30. Winter clusters usually small (often solitary), but can reach 500 and, rarely, up to 1,000 in France, Poland and over 7,000 in Slovakia (Schober 2004). Extinct in the Netherlands since 1984. Last recorded in Norway in 1949, and possibly extinct there (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006). Decreases widely reported. Considered threatened in many range states. Very small numbers in large part of the range with large temporary aggregations in areas without natural caves. Populations increasing in the last 5 years in Germany now that insecticide use has been reduced (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Relatively frequent in woodlands in western part of Caucasus and without reported decline; rare in Ukraine (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). In Africa, population size and trends are unknown.	eng
2553	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	A rare or infrequent species. Summer colonies, usually c. 30. Winter clusters usually small (often solitary), but can reach 500 and, rarely, up to 1,000 in France, Poland and over 7,000 in Slovakia (Schober 2004). Up to 10 in Caucasus (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Extinct in the Netherlands since 1984. Last recorded in Norway in 1949, and possibly extinct (J. van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006). Decreases widely reported. Considered threatened in many range states. Very small numbers in large part of the range with large temporary aggregations in areas without natural caves. Populations increasing in the last 5 years in Germany now that insecticide use has been reduced (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Relatively frequent in woodlands in western part of Caucasus and without reported decline; rare in Ukraine (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005).	eng
2553	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	Loss of old mature woodland and ancient trees with loose bark or wood crevices (reforested areas are not suitable for this species); disturbance and loss of underground habitats, disturbance and loss of roost sites in older buildings. In Germany, habitat loss and fragmentation (caused by <em>inter alia</em> infrastructure development, forestry, and the renovation or demolition of old buildings used as roost sites), and disturbance (e.g. from cave tourism) are major threats (Schulenberg 2005); accidental mortality (roadkill) is also a problem (Rudolph <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
2553	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	Loss of old mature woodland and ancient trees with loose bark or wood crevices (reforested areas are not suitable for this species: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005); disturbance and loss of underground habitats, disturbance and loss of roost sites in older buildings. In Germany, habitat loss and fragmentation (caused by <em>inter alia</em> infrastructure development, forestry, and the renovation or demolition of old buildings used as roost sites), and disturbance (e.g. from cave tourism) are major threats (Schulenberg 2005); accidental mortality (roadkill) is also a problem (Rudolph <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
2554	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Further surveys and monitoring are needed for this species to determine the current population status, range and major threats. It is included in Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and so should be protected in party range states (e.g. Georgia). It probably occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
2554	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Further surveys and monitoring are needed for this species to determine the current population status, range and major threats. It is included in Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and so should be protected in party range states (e.g. Georgia). It probably occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
2554	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This is a very widespread species. The main distribution occurs from the Caucasus eastwards including Iran, Afghanistan and India, and onwards to China where it is known from the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi, Qinghai, Nei Mongol, Xinjiang and Taiwan (Smith and Xie, in press). It is also widespread in Japan. There are isolated populations also known from Sinai (Egypt) and the southern tip of Israel, as well as Eritrea in North Africa. It occurs up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
2554	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This is a very widespread species. The main distribution occurs from the Caucasus eastwards including Iran, Afghanistan and India, and onwards to China where it is known from the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi, Qinghai, Nei Mongol, Xinjiang and Taiwan (Smith and Xie, in press). It is also widespread in Japan. There are isolated populations also known from Sinai (Egypt) and the southern tip of Israel, as well as Eritrea in North Africa. It occurs up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
2554	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A solitary, nocturnal species found in Himalayan moist temperate forest and dry coniferous forest areas in Asia. It roosts in caves, tunnels, crevices, old buildings, mines, tree hollows, and can be found beneath bark. It is a sedentary insectivore, with 3-8 females in nursery colonies, with females normally living separately to males.	eng
2554	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A solitary, nocturnal species found in Himalayan moist temperate forest and dry coniferous forest areas in Asia. It roosts in caves, tunnels, crevices, old buildings, mines, tree hollows, and can be found beneath bark. It is a sedentary insectivore, with 3-8 females in nursery colonies, with females normally living separately to males.	eng
2554	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Considering its wide range there seems to be little information available about the population of this species. Within its range in Africa the population size and trends are currently unknown. In Southwest Asia it is considered to be rare and is poorly known. In 2005, the species was found in Sinai (Egypt) in surveys for the first time in 180 years (D. Kock pers. comm.). For the former Soviet Union the species is listed in the second edition of the Red Book of the USSR (1984) as Rare but was considered to be "least concern" (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). In Japan, it has been observed only rarely except in Hokkaido. In the past 30 years there have also been records from the prefectures of Iwate, Saitama, Gifu and Ehime (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2554	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Considering its wide range there seems to be little information available about the population of this species. Within its range in Africa the population size and trends are currently unknown. In Southwest Asia it is considered to be rare and is poorly known. In 2005, the species was found in Sinai (Egypt) in surveys for the first time in 180 years (D. Kock pers. comm.). For the former Soviet Union the species is listed in the second edition of the Red Book of the USSR (1984) as Rare but was considered to be "least concern" (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). In Japan, it has been observed only rarely except in Hokkaido. In the past 30 years there have also been records from the prefectures of Iwate, Saitama, Gifu and Ehime (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2554	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	More information is needed regarding threats to this species throughout its range. In South Asia (India, Nepal, and Pakistan) deforestation has decreased the area and quality of the species' habitat. Activities associated with war may be a threat to this species in all parts of its western Palaearctic range (damage and disturbance to caves and old buildings, disruption to habitat).	eng
2554	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	More information is needed regarding threats to this species throughout its range. In South Asia (India, Nepal, and Pakistan) deforestation has decreased the area and quality of the species' habitat. Activities associated with war may be a threat to this species in all parts of its western Palaearctic range (damage and disturbance to caves and old buildings, disruption to habitat).	eng
2560	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The species is listed as “endangered” by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making capture and kill illegal. Unfortunately, less than 1% of its preferred habitat is inside protected areas. <em>B. andrewi</em> has been successfully cultured (Smith 1987, Bok and Immelman 1989) for re-stocking purposes and to stock suitable impoundments.  CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency, has established a dedicated whitefish fund to capacitate recovery efforts. These efforts involve angler awareness, riparian land-owner education and promoting this species as an angling alternative to bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) and trout (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em>) within its distribution range. <em>Barbus andrewi</em> have been stocked into several farm dams to create “safe” populations for later recovery efforts. Such efforts will involve the eradication of alien fish species from rivers with suitable <em>Barbus andrewi</em> habitat.	eng
2560	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Berg and Breede River Systems of the Western Cape Province, South Africa (Skelton 2001). Originally widespread in both systems, it is now common in less than 5% of its original range and it seems to have gone extinct in the Berg River system.	eng
2560	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Habitat has not been studied well. Adults prefer deep pools of larger rivers, where rock or overhanging vegetation cover is present. Juveniles are common in riffles. They also thrive in impoundments (Impson 2001). Biology is also poorly studied. Adults are omnivorous, feeding on bottom dwelling invertebrates and algae (Skelton 2001). Juveniles feed on zooplankton and small aquatic invertebrates. Breeds in late spring, when water temperatures exceed 20°C, and schools of adults migrate to deep (1 to 1.5 m) riffles and spawn. Spawning was observed in late morning. Fecundity is high with 2.5 kg captive females yielding about 100,000 eggs (Smith 1987). Spawns successfully in impoundments, with spawning occurring over gravel and rocky beds in shallow water (Impson 2001). A genetic study based on mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b of the Berg and Breede populations indicated little variation between these two river systems (Impson and Bloomer 1999).	eng
2560	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	<em>Barbus andrewi</em> was originally abundant in both the Berg and Breede river systems (Harrison 1952). The introduction of <em>Microterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s into both systems led to a slow collapse of recruitment of this long lived species. CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency for the Western Cape Province, considered the species extinct in the Berg System by 2000 (Impson 2003). The Breede system is characterised by very low numbers of whitefish in lotic environments, due to bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) invasion and habitat degradation. The Hex River is the only known lotic population that has good recruitment. Brandvlei and Sandrif dams in the Breede catchment have very large <em>Barbus andrewi</em> populations. Six farm dams have been stocked with this species, but not enough time has passed to evaluate whether these transplantations have been successful.	eng
2560	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Major threats are invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation, with experts agreeing that the predatory impacts of smallmouth bass (<em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>) are the most significant factor driving this species to extinction. Bass (<em>Micropterus</em>) species dominate preferred <em>Barbus andrewi</em> habitat and now halt their recruitment. The Berg and Breede catchments are characterised by intensive agricultural development, culminating in over-abstracted and polluted rivers that have become a haven for other alien fish species such as <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em>. These two species are competitors to <em>Barbus andrewi</em>.	eng
2561	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2561	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North of the Pyrénées and Alps, from Adour (France) eastward to Neman (Lithuania, Russia) drainages, in rivers draining to Atlantic, North Sea and southern Baltic Sea; Danube to Dniepr drainages in northern Black Sea basin; southeastern England north to Yorkshire. In almost all Mediterranean drainages of France. Locally introduced in northern and central Italy, rivers Wear, Tees and Medway and most western drainages of England.	eng
2561	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From premontane to lowland reaches of clear, warm, medium sized to large rivers with fast current and gravel bottom. Occasionally in lakes. Spawns usually in very shallow, fast-flowing waters, in riffles. Overwinters often in large aggregations inactive or active in slow-flowing river habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults often shoal, hiding under overhanging trees or bridges during day. Most active during dusk and dawn. Lives up to 15 years. Males usually spawn for the first time at 2-5 years, females 1-2 years later. Spawns in May-July, rarely until September when temperature reaches 15°C. Females spawn several times, usually at intervals of 10-15 days each season. Adults often undertake considerable spawning migrations. Lake populations migrate to tributaries. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Males may exhibit courting or sneaking tactics in spawning sites. Courting males follow females to spawning site and, during the spawning act, one male swims head to head with the female. Sneaking males, waiting in the spawning site, then join the couple and try to fertilize eggs. Up to 130 males have been reported to be involved in a single spawning act. Females deposit 2-3 portions of non-sticky eggs into excavations made in the gravel. Feeding larvae drift a short distance from spawning site to shallow shoreline habitats. Larvae and juveniles are benthic, in very shallow shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for faster-flowing waters as they grow. Larvae and juveniles active during both day and night. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates, small fish and sometimes on algae.	eng
2561	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2561	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water pollution, dams, river regulation.	eng
2562	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The distribution range of <em>Barbus calidus</em> fortunately includes proclaimed protected areas, but most is within privately owned land. The upper reaches of the Boskloof, Jan Dissels, Noorhoek and Rondegat rivers are within the Cederberg Wilderness Area whereas the middle Matjies River is within the Matjies River Nature Reserve. Although these rivers may be within protected areas, this does imply that they are free of invasive alien fishes or from future invasion. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. Several of the above rivers have been identified as a priority freshwater environment for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). Conservation staff and researchers have increased awareness of the uniqueness of the Rondegat river. Awareness of the species has been enhanced by displays at prominent public aquaria in Clanwilliam, Cape Town and Jonkershoek.	eng
2562	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Olifants River System in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Skelton 2001). It has been recorded in the mainstream of the Upper Olifants branch of this system near Clanwilliam and Keerom. It is currently found in the Ratels, Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boontjies, Boskloof, Rondegat, Jan Dissels and Dwars tributaries of the Upper Olifants branch and the Biedou, Tra Tra, Eselbank, Driehoeks and Breekkrans tributaries of the Doring River. Its distribution range has thus shrunk substantially, primarily due to alien fish invasion.	eng
2562	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Favours pools and runs in clear, acidic, perennial mountain streams (Impson and Swartz 2002). Feeds almost exclusively on Baetidae, Chironomidae and Formicidae and has an extended breeding season with ripe gonads from November to January (Nthimo 1997). Forms breeding aggregations in shallow slow-flowing pools with spawning occurring in rock crevices and amongst boulders (Impson and Swartz 2002).	eng
2562	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	It is relatively abundant in good habitat where alien fishes are absent.	eng
2562	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The most important threat is the introduction of invasive alien fishes. The introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> into the system in the 1930’s for angling purposes is regarded as the most severe threat, with predatory impacts also from <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>. <em>Tilapia sparrmani</em> is a competitor for food. The other major threat is habitat degradation caused primarily by intensive farming of deciduous fruit and citrus. The major impacts are over-abstraction of water during the dry summer months and the planting of orchards within the 1:1 yr floodline of the river. The absence of a natural riparian zone, and hence buffer area between the river and intensive agriculture allows fertilisers and copper- based pesticides easy access to the aquatic environment.	eng
2564	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The distribution range of <em>Barbus erubescens</em> is entirely within privately owned land. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. The Twee River system has been identified as a priority freshwater environment for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). Conservation staff and researchers have made riparian land-owners in the Twee catchment aware of the uniqueness of the river. <em>Barbus erubescens</em> from the highly restricted Suurvlei sub-population have been stocked in off-stream dams in the Suurvlei catchment as recommended by Swartz (2000) and have been moved above a small waterfall on the upper Suurvlei River to hopefully substantially increase the size of this currently small population. A conservation plan for the Twee River is being developed by CapeNature and the South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity and captive breeding studies at the University of Johannesburg are currently being undertaken.	eng
2564	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Twee River and its tributaries, part of the Olifants River System in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Skelton 1974). It is found in the Heks, Suurvlei and Middeldeur Rivers, and the Twee River to just before its confluence with the Leeu River. Its distribution range has shrunk substantially in the Suurvlei and Twee rivers due to alien fish invasion and habitat degradation (Marriot 1998).	eng
2564	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Adults prefer sheltered areas in pools, particularly near overhanging vegetation and caves formed by boulders. Juveniles are usually found in pools, forming schools in the upper water column, near palmiet (<em>Prionium serratum</em>) beds or beneath overhanging vegetation. Adults reach a maximum age of six years, maturing after two at an average size of 45 mm in males and 42 mm in females (Marriot 1998). Spawns in late spring (October) to early summer (December), with an asynchronous, iteroparous pattern of egg development (Marriot 1998). Females contain up to 400 ova at various stages of development (Marriot 1998). The body and fin bases of both sexes develop an overall reddish hue during the breeding season, with males also characterised by having small nuptial tubercles on the head (Skelton 1988). The diet of <em>Barbus erubescens</em> is dominated by benthic invertebrates although adults frequently feed on drift material and terrestrial insects floating on the water surface (Marriot 1998).	eng
2564	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The species is relatively abundant in good habitat where alien fishes are absent (e.g., upper Suurvlei and Middeldeur rivers). It is absent or uncommon elsewhere in its range because of predation by alien <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and competition with alien <em>Sandelia capensis</em>. A recent population estimate is 4,100 adult fish (Marriot 1998).	eng
2564	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The biggest threat is invasive alien fishes. Several species of fish have been introduced into the Twee River for a variety of purposes. The first introduction was <em>Sandelia capensis</em>, alien to the Olifants River System, but indigenous to most rivers of the Western Cape. A local farmer introduced <em>Sandelia capensis</em> to an off-stream dam in the early 1980’s in a misguided attempt to use an “indigenous” fish for mosquito control (Hamman <em>et al</em>. 1984). <em>Sandelia capensis</em> is now common and widespread in the Suurvlei River where it competes with <em>Barbus erubescens</em> for food; with adult <em>Sandelia capensis</em> also a likely predator on juvenile <em>Barbus erubescens</em> (Marriot 1998). In the late 1970s <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> was introduced above its natural range above three waterfall barriers into the upper and middle Twee River by the Cape Department of Nature Conservation in another misguided attempt to create a sanctuary for an "indigenous" fish. This species is common and widespread, particularly in the Twee River. <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> were illegally stocked into the catchment in the 1990s, and have invaded the Twee river, where they appear to be present in low numbers due to high summer water temperatures (26°C, a deterrent to trout) and strong winter flows (a deterrent to <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em>). The other major threat is habitat degradation caused primarily by intensive farming of deciduous fruit and citrus. There is over-abstraction of water during the dry summer months and orchards are planted within the 1:1 yr floodline of the river. The use of pesticides is not well understood, but the absence of a natural riparian zone, and hence buffer area between the river and intensive agriculture allows fertilisers and copper- based pesticides easy access to the aquatic environment.	eng
2566	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	The Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier National Park and Augrabies National Park were primarily proclaimed for terrestrial fauna and flora and scenery and relatively ineffective to secure populations of this species due to upstream impacts.	eng
2566	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Orange River below Augrabies falls, including the lower Fish River in Namibia (Skelton 2001).	eng
2566	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Open water in mainstream and backwater areas over sand and rocks (Skelton and Cambray 1981, Cambray 1984). Feeds on zooplankton and aquatic insects (Skelton 2001). They reach maturity in their first year and seem to breed throughout spring and summer till early autumn (September to March). A skewed sex ration of 0.55:1 male to female has been recorded and length frequency distributions suggests that two spawning events may occur in one breeding season (Cambray 1984).	eng
2566	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Not assessed, but the regulation of the flow of the lower Orange River by large reservoirs in the Orange and Vaal catchments may have favoured this species (Cambray 1984, Skelton 1987).	eng
2566	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Due to its restricted distribution in mostly the lower Orange River, any threat from the rest of the Orange River system can affect this species. Pollution, especially sudden spills, from industrial and mining areas in Mpumalanga, Gauteng, North-west and Freestate provinces can pose a serious threat.	eng
2567	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
2567	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the southern part of the Rhône river basin and to several coastal streams in France, and to few coastal streams in northern Catalonia, Spain.	eng
2567	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small size barbel (<220 mm). It occurs in the upper and middle courses of mountainous rivers with clear, flowing and well oxygenated waters. Sensitive to pollution. Reproduction takes place between May and July. It can hybridize with <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>Barbus haasi</em>.	eng
2567	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining.	eng
2567	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat alteration, dams, water extraction and pollution are the main factors threatening this species.	eng
2568	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
2568	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Po river basin (including the southern part of Switzerland), all river basins in northern Italy, the Soca-Isonzo river basin (Slovenia-Italy), Reba basin, the Dragonia River, and in Croatian rivers as far as Krka river. It also occurs in lakes. It has been introduced in many rivers of Central Italy for angling.	eng
2568	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is large size barbel (<550 mm) preferring gravel or sandy substrate and rivers with moderately deep, well oxygenated flowing water on foothill regions. Reproduction takes place from late April to early July.	eng
2568	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In the middle and lower main course of the Po basin the species disappeared due to introduced species <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>Silurus glanis</em> (Bianco, G. pers. obs).	eng
2568	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams, organic pollution, drought, introduced species and habitat loss.	eng
2569	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Good populations within the Cederberg Wilderness Area, Matjies River and Oorlogskloof Nature reserves. However, several rivers in these protected areas that have <em>Barbus serra</em>, are invaded by alien fishes, including <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making catch and release compulsory for anglers. <em>Barbus serra</em> has been successfully cultured at the Clanwilliam Yellowfish station, although few fish were produced and stocked compared to the Clanwilliam yellowfish. The Greater Cederberg Biodiversity Corridor (GCBC) was established in 2004 to promote partnerships between CapeNature, the provincial conservation agency, and private land-owners with highly conservation worthy land. Ecologically sustainable use of rivers and associated fauna is an important component of the GCBC, and considerable resources are allocated annually to remove alien vegetation that is invading and degrading rivers.	eng
2569	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Olifants River System, Western Cape Province, South Africa (Skelton 2001). The species was originally widespread in the system, inhabiting both mainstream and tributary areas (van Rensburg 1966, Gaigher 1973, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 2002). The introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s, and its subsequent dominance of mainstream environments, caused recruitment collapse of <em>Barbus serra</em> and localised extinctions in the middle and lower Olifants River and from several tributaries.	eng
2569	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Common in rivers of variable size with good habitat and an absence of alien fishes. Juveniles are primarily pool dwellers (Gore <em>et al</em>. 1991) of foothill river zones whereas adults prefer larger, deeper pools in transitional zones of rivers. The Clanwilliam sawfin is omnivorous, feeding primarily on aquatic insects (van Rensburg 1966). It is a relatively large cyprinid attaining  3.04 kg (Skelton 2001). It is a slow growing species with 1,3 and 10 year old fish attaining 90, 200 and 390 mm SL respectively (van Rensburg 1966). Breeds from late spring (October) to summer (December), with gathering small schools of adults over cobble beds in shallow riffles.	eng
2569	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Currently healthy populations of <em>Barbus serra</em> are characterised by good recruitment and large numbers of fish (e.g., upper Olifants, Ratels and Oorlogskloof populations). Where alien fish, especially bass (<em>Miropterus</em>) predominate, this species is present in very low numbers of adult fish (e.g., Doring River), or is locally extinct.	eng
2569	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Co-exists with <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and faces the same threats, namely predation by and competition with invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation by ecologically unsustainable agricultural development. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> are regarded as the most serious invader.	eng
2572	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Reintroduced successfully into the Treur River (type locality). Both areas of occupancy have been proclaimed National Hertiage sites to protect the species.	eng
2572	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Upper Blyde River - only remaining natural population is above a waterfall in the upper Blyde River. Reintroduced to the Treur River (part of its natural distribution).	eng
2572	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Deeper rocky pools and runs in medium sized streams. Prefers main channels areas.	eng
2572	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Alien fish predators are the major impact on this species particularly small mouth bass (<em>Micropterus dolomieu</em>). Extirpated from the type locality.	eng
2573	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	None known. Efforts are needed to thoroughly investigate the current distribution of this species in relation to invasions of its habitat by largemouth and smallmouth bass. The possibility for benign introductions within its native  range should be considered where alien invasives are absent.	eng
2573	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	Keiskamma and Buffalo Rivers, Eastern Cape, South Africa (Skelton 2001).	eng
2573	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in pools and riffles in clear rocky streams running through forests. When stream opens up with little riparian cover there are few fish. Feeds on aquatic and terrestrial insects, chiefly mayfly nymphs, as well as seeds and algae. Breeds in spring and early summer.	eng
2573	population	Cambray, J., 2007	The species has a very limited distribution, is impacted by aliens and thus has a small population.	eng
2573	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	Loss of habitat and alien invasive fish species.	eng
2574	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Eradication of trout from certain key conservation catchments may help. Discussions with forestry companies and riparian land owners to attempt to reduce sedimentation impacts may also help e.g., increasing riparian buffer zones.	eng
2574	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	The main subpopulations exist in the Sabie-Sand River in Mpumalanga, the Shelangubu River tributaries in Swaziland and southern Phongolo tributaries in both Swaziland and Kwazulu-Natal provinces, South Africa.	eng
2574	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in headwater streams. Typically found associated with banks, root stocks and marginal vegetation. Not abundant where encountered in Swaziland. In the Sabie River system it can be common.	eng
2574	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Threatened by varied impacts in upland catchments - sedimentation caused by forestry activities, predation by alien trout, affects of dams and water abstraction.	eng
2575	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive, and in the Appendix III of Bern Convention.	eng
2575	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to the Tagus and Guadiana river basins in Spain and Portugal.	eng
2575	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It prefers the middle and lower reaches of rivers, in deep and slow waters with abundant submerged vegetation. It occurs also in reservoirs. It is a large size barbel (>500mm).	eng
2575	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not very abundant.	eng
2575	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish predators.	eng
2576	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is protected by a special Greek law, but the law is not enforced.	eng
2576	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to streams of the central/eastern part of Euboea Island in Greece where it is restricted to a single stream named Manikiotikos.	eng
2576	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in a small stream system with great seasonal variations in the water flow. In summer, parts of this stream may dry out and the fish find refuge in deep pools in which they spend the summer until the next rain in autumn. It is a small size barbel (<250 mm) that reproduces in June in gravel beds.	eng
2576	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Rare to scarce.	eng
2576	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Extreme levels of water extraction.	eng
2577	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed on Annex III of the Berne Convention and V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. capito</em>.	eng
2577	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the river systems between Mijares river and Serpis river in the Mediterranean area of Spain. It is also found in the upper part of the Guadiana river basin. It occurs also in lakes and reservoirs.	eng
2577	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size barbel.	eng
2577	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
2577	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish species. Future dam construction and inter-catchment water transfer will seriously impact upon the species.	eng
2578	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed on Annex V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. copito</em>.	eng
2578	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to headwaters of streams belonging to the Ebro river basin and to several coastal river basins in Spain.	eng
2578	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small size barbel (<220 mm), living in the upper part of rivers with cold, rapidly running waters and gravel stony substrate. Reproduction takes place between April and June. Life span is 5–6 years.	eng
2578	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
2578	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction and invasive species have been the main threats. Dam construction is also destroyng some of the species habitat. Desiccation is seen as a major future threat to the species.	eng
2580	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>B. capito</em>.	eng
2580	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Guadiana river basin in Portugal and Spain. It occurs also in a small reach of the Tajo river, where it is probably introduced there.	eng
2580	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small size barbel (<260 mm). It lives in the middle and lower reaches of rivers with deep and slow water. It is absent from the headwaters. It can be found also within reservoirs.	eng
2580	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining.	eng
2580	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction. Habitat alteration (dams) and introductions of exotic fish species.	eng
2581	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Maintenance of flows in key streams is needed. Land and aquatic habitat conservation. Preventing stockings of alien fishes.	eng
2581	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Limited to the upper catchments of the Marico and Crocodile Rivers in North-West and Gauteng Provinces, South Africa.	eng
2581	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	In slow flowing sections and shallow pools of small streams. Associated with banks and vegetation.	eng
2581	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Water abstraction and general habitat degradation.	eng
2582	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
2582	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
2582	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small size barbel (<300mm) that spends most of its life in the lakes except during reproduction (late April-July) when it migrates into tributaries to spawn. It is a commercial species.	eng
2582	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
2582	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, overfishing, and water extraction resulting in a reduction in water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes.	eng
2584	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2584	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Atlantic slope of Spain and Portugal, from Lima to Sado drainages.	eng
2584	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Middle and lower reaches of streams, with slow current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at three years (70 mm), females at 6-8 years (180-200 mm). Lives up to 11 years. Moves to areas of faster current for spawning, mainly in May-June. Feeds on detritus and benthic invertebrates.	eng
2584	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2584	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
2585	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None, except for a special law for protection of <em>Barbus cyclolepis cholorematicus</em> but this is not enforced.	eng
2585	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is endemic to the Cholorema, Strymon, Evros, Nestos, Axios, Pinios and Sperchios river basins as well as in the northern part of Eboia Island in Greece. Recently the subspecies <em>B. c. pergamonensis</em> was found in the Evergetoulas river basin in Lesbos Island. It is also found in the Menderes river and Gediz river basins in Western Turkey.	eng
2585	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small sized, riverine, barbel (<250 mm).	eng
2585	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant but locally depressed.	eng
2585	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction. Drought.	eng
2587	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2587	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Spain: from Ebro to Ter drainages on Mediterranean slope and westward to Ason drainage on Atlantic slope. Introduced to Fiora, Ombrone and Albegna drainages (central Italy) around 1998.	eng
2587	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower and middle reaches of rivers, with slow current. Prefers areas with vegetation and shore cover, migrates to upstream areas with faster current and gravel or stone bottom for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 16 years. Spawns for the first time at 4 years, 150-200 mm SL. Spawns in May-August. Generally feeds on algae and aquatic macro-invertebrates.	eng
2587	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2587	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
2588	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention as <em>Barbus peloponesis</em>.	eng
2588	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Peloponnesus and western Greece, from Kalamas to Parmissos.	eng
2588	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A small size barbel <230 mm) which lives mainly in the upper reaches of rivers with stony substrate, cold and well-oxygenated water, and fast current. Also found in oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes.	eng
2588	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Generally abundant, but locally decreasing in a few intermittent streams.	eng
2588	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and water extraction.	eng
2589	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2589	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Southern Spain and Portugal: from Segura to Mira drainages.	eng
2589	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Occurs in a variety of habitats; most abundant in large rivers and streams with slow to moderate current. Avoids upper, cold water streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to about 18 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years (7-9 cm), females at 6-7 years (11-16 cm). Spawns in May-June.	eng
2589	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
2589	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
2590	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
2590	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to the Tagus and Guadiana River basins in Spain and Portugal.	eng
2590	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size barbel (<500mm). It prefers the middle and lower reaches, in deep and slow waters, with abundant submerged vegetation. It occurs also in reservoirs.	eng
2590	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not very abundant.	eng
2590	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, habitat destruction and introduction of exotic fish predators.	eng
2592	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	None.	eng
2592	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Endemic to the Po river basin (including that part extending into southern Switzerland) and northern Italy. It was also native to the Isonzo river but due to the impact of introduced species it is now not clear if it remains there.	eng
2592	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	It lives in the upper hill zone of the mountainous area, up to 800–1000 a.s.l. It is a small-size barbel (< 250 mm) that requires rapidly flowing, clear water at temperature of 14–18°C. Spawning occurs between May and July. It is a multiple spawner, and is both polyandric and polygymnic.	eng
2592	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Formerly abundant, but now declining (Bianco and Delmastro 2004).	eng
2592	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Alteration of the habitat, dam construction, flow regulation, pollution and extraction of water. It is also threatened by the introduction of the non-native <em>Barbus barbus</em> and <em>B. graellsii</em>.	eng
2593	conservation	Das, I., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the distribution and threats to this species is needed.	eng
2593	distribution	Das, I., 2009	This species is found in Orissa, India. It has been documented from only two locations, the type locality of Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, Ganjam District and adjacent Nandan Kanan Biological Park, Cuttak District (Das 1999).	eng
2593	habitat	Das, I., 2009	This species lives in the semi-evergreen forests of the low hills in Orissa. It burrows in loose earth around the roots of trees and is insectivorous and nocturnal (Sharma 2002).	eng
2593	population	Das, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
2593	threats	Das, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats, however, it may be affected by habitat loss. The forests in Orissa are very fragmented, as there has been extensive deforestation for fuel-wood and to clear land for agriculture and settlements (WWF 2001).	eng
2609	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species has no specific protection in Nicaragua or Panama but they are protected under Colombian legislation. The situation in Ecuador is unclear (Glatston 1994). The species' distribution overlap with a number of protected areas in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador. In addition, the species is locally protected under Colombian legislation and listed on Appendix III of CITES in Costa Rica.	eng
2609	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is distributed in west Colombia, Costa Rica, northern Ecuador, central Nicaragua and Panama.	eng
2609	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Occurs near water in evergreen forests and forest edges, preferring upper canopy than ground from sea levels to 2000 meters (Nowak, 2005; Pontes and Chivers, 2002). Some authorities maintain that it is almost never encountered where there is human development, while other reports indicate the bushy-tailed olingo can adapt, to secondary vegetation or plantations in much the same way as kinkajous (Glatston, 1994). Its primarily frugivore but occasionally feeds on insects and small vertebrates (Kays, 2000; Nowak, 2005; Pontes and Chivers, 2002).	eng
2609	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Generally unknown, possibly rare depending on the authority. Is said to be quite rare in Ecuador (Albuja pers. comm.). Some people maintain that olingos are not threatened but are common throughout western Amazonia (L. Emmons pers. comm.). However, confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2609	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2610	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is suspected to occur in a several protected areas.	eng
2610	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is distributed in Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela.	eng
2610	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. The species is found amongst the numerous tepui and granitic outcrop mountains of the Guiana Shield region. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).	eng
2610	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2610	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2611	conservation	Helgen, K., Timm, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	This speciesoccurs in several protected areas.	eng
2611	distribution	Helgen, K., Timm, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Harris's Olingo is only known from the type locality near the source of the Rio Estrella in southern Cartago, Costa Rica, at an altitude of approximately 1,500 m (Glaston 1994). It is presumed to occur across the Cordillera Central north of the capitol, San Jose.	eng
2611	habitat	Helgen, K., Timm, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Though presumed to occur in montane forests based on the type specimen, noting is know of the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
2611	population	Helgen, K., Timm, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2611	threats	Helgen, K., Timm, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	The areas surrounding the type locality faces a number of threats including human conversion of habitat for agriculture and settlement - however, the extent of these threats remains unclear until taxonomic uncertainty is clarified.	eng
2612	conservation	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in a several protected areas.	eng
2612	distribution	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has a very restricted distribution between Rio Chriqui Viejo and Rio Colorado in the Chiriqui area of Panama (Glatston 1994) and is suspected to occur in south-eastern Costa Rica (Cordilelra Talamanca).	eng
2612	habitat	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).	eng
2612	population	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2612	threats	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted, the young are caught for pets (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2613	conservation	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The cacomistle is listed in CITES Appendix III by Costa Rica, and it is also listed as an endangered species in Costa Rica. In Belize it is covered by the Wildlife Protection Act. It is not protected by law in Panama. Elsewhere the situation is unknown. Cacomistles are known to occur in the proposed Volcano Baro National Park in Panama, in the Monte Cristo National Park in El Salvador and in the Cockscomb Basin Reserve in Belize and may be living in a number of protected areas where there is suitable habitat (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2613	distribution	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs from Mexico (Guerrero and south Veracruz) through Mesoamerica to central Panama (Lake Bayano). Its occurrence is unknown in Nicaragua.	eng
2613	habitat	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The cacomistle is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It feeds on fruits, insects, and probably small vertebrates. Cacomistles use the middle and upper levels of tropical forests. It is found in both montane and lowland rain forest, in wet evergreen forest as well as seasonally dry forest, scrub, and secondary forest (Glatston, 1994).	eng
2613	population	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The status of its population is unknown. It is suspected to be uncommon over much of its range (Glatston, 1994), however, it can be locally common. It is common in the remnant forests of Veracruz, but it is rare in Panama (Emmons, 1990). It is suspected to be fairly common in some portions of Belize, El Salvador and Honduras and patchily distributed in Guatemala and Mexico (Poglayen-Neuwall pers. comm.).	eng
2613	threats	Samudio, R., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Loss of habitat due to deforestation is a major threat. In Mexico the rate of forest clearance is tremendously high and forest fragmentation is also a major problem. In addition, it is hunted in Honduras and Mexico for its fur and for meat by indigenous people (Nowak, 2005).	eng
2614	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites (sandbars and riverbanks). Also tidal areas of large river estuaries.	eng
2614	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Illegally exported from Indonesia and traded in substantial numbers in China despite a CITES I listing. It occurs in small populations over its range.	eng
2615	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
2615	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is restricted to Lake Tanganyika. This species occurs on the southern shores near Melroes in Tanzania.	eng
2615	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is documented to thrive from approx. 45 meters - 200 meters.	eng
2615	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
2615	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
2616	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2616	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found only on the southern shores of DRC, Tanzania and Zambia.	eng
2616	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found in sandy-muddy substrates, 20 - 80 meters in depth.	eng
2616	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available. Although collections rarely recover more than one individual, thus populations are not dense (E. Michel, pers. comm.).	eng
2616	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
2619	conservation	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	The species occurs within Sperrgebiet (Namibia), which, while lacking government protection, has a very high level of protection. Long-term population monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
2619	distribution	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Namibia and western South Africa. There are three isolated populations, one from Alexander Bay, Orange River, the second from Port Nolloth to Groen Rivier, and the third from Steinkopf to Kamieskroon and the Kamiesberg (South Africa). The species rarely occurs above 300 m asl.	eng
2619	habitat	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is found in areas of coastal sand dunes, and consolidated alluvial soils with mean annual rainfall less than 400 mm. It is a subterranean and largely solitary species. Between two and seven young are born after a gestation period of 52 days. The species has a generation length of two years.	eng
2619	population	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	Population densities of this species are greater inland, with up to 44 individuals per sq km.	eng
2619	threats	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	The species is threatened by some loss of habitat through diamond mining operations in the coastal range. Although mining is a threat, public access to these regions is entirely restricted.	eng
2620	conservation	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
2620	distribution	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. It ranges through the Western Cape province from Knysna to the area around Lamberts Bay. In addition there is a record from Rondawel near Groenrivier, Northern Cape province, (where it occurs in sympatry with <em>B. janetta</em>). It is not known whether the species range along the west coast of South Africa is continuous. It is found below 300 m asl.	eng
2620	habitat	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	This subterranean species is associated with loose coastal sands, sandy loam along coasts, and alluvial sand along river banks. It tends to favour areas with sandveld vegetation. The species appears to adapt well to human-modified landscapes, and it may be encountered in wheatfields and other agricultural lands. It is considered to be a pest species on golf courses, bowling greens and tennis courts and in the wheat growing areas, as their mounds can cause heavy wear to reaping machine blades. It is generally a solitary species, with a litter size of one to six young and a generation length of two years.	eng
2620	population	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is not known how many subpopulations there are, but the species can be locally abundant. Population densities may reach more than 300 individuals per ha in grasslands and wheat fields.	eng
2620	threats	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is considered to be a pest species in South Africa, and active pest control efforts are conducted. There is some human consumption, as the flesh of this species is considered a delicacy. In parts of the species range, De Graaff (1981) recorded that four or five were caught weekly by some families, this being their only source of protein apart from fish.	eng
2636	conservation	Cook, S. & Zorzi, G., 2005	None in place for this species. More research is required on this and other poorly known deep-sea species to fully determine their threatened status (Raschi <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
2636	distribution	Cook, S. & Zorzi, G., 2005	Its range is continuous in the northern Pacific from Bishop Rock, West Cortes Basin, California through the Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk to Choshi on the Pacific central coast of Honshu, Japan (Dolganov 1983; Nakaya 1983; Ishihara and Ishiyama 1985, 1986; Zorzi and Anderson 1988, 1990; Zorzi and Martin, unpubl. data). Until the past few years there were fewer than a dozen known specimens of this skate in collections, attesting to the infrequency with which it was taken in deep-set research collecting gear.	eng
2636	habitat	Cook, S. & Zorzi, G., 2005	The rare deepsea skate was and remains the deepest occurring known rajid species, being recorded from depths of 396?2,904 m (Grinols 1965; Miller and Lea 1972; Eschmeyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983; Zorzi and Anderson 1988, 1990). Due to the depths it inhabits and paucity of collection of this species little is known about its biology. Like all skates it is oviparous, but the number of eggs produced per reproductive cycle and the length of embryonic development are unknown. Size at maturity is estimated by Zorzi and Anderson (1988) as 1.1 m for males, although no specimens in the 0.75?1.0 m range occurred in the sample they examined so no closer estimate of minimum mature size could be made. Information on stomach contents and food habits of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. abyssicola</span> are generally lacking. Some of the 145 specimens observed by Cook (1979) from 1,000?1,200 m depth curves of the continental slope south-west of the Pribilofs, central Bering Sea, were examined and found to hold remains of molluscs (sea snails) and lesser amounts of bony fishes (grenadiers, snailfishes, eelpouts and flatnoses (codlings)).	eng
2636	population	Cook, S. & Zorzi, G., 2005	A rare, deepsea skate.	eng
2636	threats	Cook, S. & Zorzi, G., 2005	Due to the rarity of this species and the depths at which it occurs, it is only taken in extreme deep-set gear (>400 m depth). It has been taken in bottom (otter) trawls. It is not common enough to be sought commercially, but it is apparently regularly taken by deep commercial trawling gear set for flatfishes in the Bering Sea. As commercial fisheries operations in other portions of its range move to trawl deeper waters (i.e., Oregon, where trawling for Thornyheads (<em>Sebastolobus</em> spp.) is currently being conducted down to the 1,300 m isobath (J. Griffith pers. comm.)), we can expect to see many more of this species taken incidentally. Due to the number of this species observed by Cook (1979) in Japanese deep trawls in the Bering Sea, it may be more commonly harvested than once believed. Due to its apparent rarity, it may be heavily impacted by increasing bathybenthic commercial fishery efforts. One record exists of this species being taken in a commercial blackcod (sablefish) trap (Zorzi pers. comm.).	eng
2641	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	All three known localities are within protected areas, one is moderately small and well managed, the second is well managed and the third although poorly managed has areas of good quality habitat adjacent to it (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
2641	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	The species is known only from the Luzon faunal region from three localities Mt. Data, Benguet province, and Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur province, and Mt. Balbalasang (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, it is likely to be distributed at similar elevations and habitats through the central Cordillera, Caraballos Mts., and the Sierra Madre (L. Heaney pers. comm.) but surveys to look for the species have not yet been undertaken in its elevation range from 1,350-2,150 m.	eng
2641	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	The species occurs in high elevation primary or naturally disturbed mossy forest and upper ranges of montane forest, there are no records from outside forest habitats (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
2641	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	Populations, particularly in the southern part of the range, have undergone declines due to habitat loss. This species is poorly known, but is probably widespread and moderately common at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been reported as uncommon in montane and mossy forest at 1,600-2,150 m elevation in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), on Mt. Isarog (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991), and in thick vegetation on the ground at 2,100 m in the Central Cordillera (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898).	eng
2641	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Alviola, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species however, it is affected by habitat loss through conversion of forest to vegetable farms,  particularly in the southern portion of the Central Cordillera. While this species is moderately tolerant of habitat disturbances, an increase in unregulated vegetable farms could be problematic (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
2642	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	There is a need for further surveys of the areas around the type locality.	eng
2642	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	Endemic to the Philippines, this species is only known from the type specimen Haights-in-the-Oaks at 2,134 m, Benguet province on north Luzon island (Musser and Carleton 2005). A biological inventory undertaken between 2001 and 2003 north of the type locality did not find this species. However, the actual survey technique required for this species is not known (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
2642	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	The only record was from upper montane forest (Miller 1910).	eng
2642	population	Heaney, L., 2008	Population trend is unknown, species is known only from the holotype from around 1907 (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2642	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	There is deforestation in the area, but the affect on the species is unknown.	eng
2643	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	There are records from protected areas.	eng
2643	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Philippines and  is restricted to the Mindanao faunal region occuring on Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon province) from 1,200 to 2,400 m, Leyte and Biliran islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its elevation range starts at 1,200 m upwards on Mindanao with highest densities occurring at 1,600 m. It is thought to be widespread on Mindanao and other islands.	eng
2643	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in montane and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
2643	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	It is a species that is probably common in primary montane and mossy forest, but has declined in the lowlands of Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). On Leyte, the species is common in montane and ridgetop mossy primary forest from 700 m to 950 m and uncommon at 500 m in lowland forest there (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993); on Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao it is moderately common in montane and mossy forest from 1,600 m to 2,375 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
2643	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	On Mindanao, the species habitat is being encroached on for vegetable farming from mid to high elevations. On Dinagat island it is particularly threatened by mining and deforestation. Lowland forest has been deforested, but since this species occurs primarily at higher elevations, this is less of a concern (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
2645	conservation		Based on its known habitat preferences and distribution, this species occurs in the Reserva Nacional de Junin and may also occur in the Santuario Nacional Huayllay and the Santuario Historico Chacamarca. Measures are urgently required to control and manage the offtake of this species from the wild.	eng
2645	distribution		This species occurs in Junin and Pasco Departments in Peru; it has also been introduced into the upper valley of the Río Mantaro, in the central Andes of Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 3,200-4,300m asl.	eng
2645	habitat		It is an exclusively aquatic species and can be found in marshy lakes such as Lake Junin and smaller, deep, isolated lakes.	eng
2645	population		Previously common, this species has undergone a noticeable decline over the last twenty years.	eng
2645	threats		The species is threatened by introduction of trout into lakes in the high Andes, by uncontrolled exploitation as a food source, and potentially through the loss of habitat quality due to water pollution.	eng
2647	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Nearly all the known populations occur on public lands administered by the Sequoia National Forest. Kern Canyon slender salamanders are listed as Threatened by the State of California and are a Federal Species of Concern.	eng
2647	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species is known from a number of sites in the lower Kern River Canyon, Kern County, California, at the southern end of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the USA. It occurs in isolated colonies, and probably occurs in many densely wooded canyons in the lower Kern River Canyon. They have been recorded from 450-1,220m asl. Populations in the vicinity of Fairview, Tulare County, have been allied with <em>B. simatus</em>, but probably represent a distinct species.	eng
2647	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	It favours north-facing slopes and small wooded tributary canyons. It also inhabits oak-pine communities on slopes; willow and cottonwood communities along streams; chaparral; and may range into grassland adjacent to woods. It is often found in crevices in talus slopes or under rocks and logs. It is a terrestrial breeder.	eng
2647	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Total adult population size is unknown, although individual population sizes are presumably quite small. It is locally abundant (Bury, Dodd and Fellers, 1980).	eng
2647	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	At present there do not appear to be any significant threats. Potential future threats include cattle grazing, highway construction, and the proposed development of water storage facilities within the Kern River Canyon.	eng
2648	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Within Caliente Canyon, much of the known salamander habitat occurs on public lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Much of the Tehachapi Mountains and adjoining areas are inaccessible owing to a combination of rugged terrain and private ownership. Needed conservation measures include the protection of public lands from logging and other alterations, and the acquisition of private lands, especially in the Tehachapi Mountains.	eng
2648	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species is known from two areas in Kern County, California, USA: scattered sites in the Caliente Creek drainage, Piute Mountains, southern Sierra Nevada, at 550-790m asl; and scattered populations in the Tehachapi Mountains from Tejon Canyon to Fort Tejon, recorded at 945-1,430m asl, which have tentatively have been assigned to this species (Hansen and Wake, 2005).	eng
2648	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	It can be found in seasonally shaded, north-facing slopes of canyons located in arid to semi-arid terrain. In the Caliente Canyon, they are associated with granitic or limestone talus and scattered rocks, where the vegetation consists of pine, oak, cottonwood, sycamore, and California buckeye. In the Tehachapi Mountains, salamanders occur in areas of downed wood or talus. It is a terrestrial breeder.	eng
2648	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Individual populations are small and localized, but all populations are believed to be extant.	eng
2648	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	At present there do not appear to be any significant threats. Potential threats include the development of Tejon Ranch for housing communities, and logging which might cause extirpation of populations. Some sites in Caliente Creek have been affected by road construction, mining, and cattle grazing, and potentially by flood control projects (Hansen and Wake, 2005).	eng
2649	conservation		All populations occur on federal lands managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management or USDA Forest Service, but the level of protection is questionable. There is clearly a need for immediate effective protection of remaining habitat from any alteration. Protection of all populations is necessary to maintain diversity, since each population is genetically isolated and unique. This species is registered as a Species of Special Concern by the California Department of Fish and Game.	eng
2649	distribution		This species is known only from about 15 localities in the Inyo Mountains, Inyo County, California, USA. It has an elevational range of 490-2,950m asl (Hansen and Wake 2005a). It is quite likely that there are other populations, but while there have been efforts to locate other populations, much of the area surrounding the known inhabited localities are relatively inaccessible and inhospitable.	eng
2649	habitat		It occurs along small permanent desert springs and seeps with riparian vegetation, and is generally found under stones, wood, or in holes or crevices in moist soil near spring seepages and pools. Vegetation along watercourses consists of willows and wild rose. Surrounding slopes are arid, and the vegetation includes sagebrush, buckwheat, rabbit brush, and cactus (Stebbins 1985). It probably breeds by direct development, and the eggs are probably laid in moist crevices within rocky outcrops.	eng
2649	population		The total adult population size is unknown, but each of the known populations encompasses a very small area and hence is probably represented by a small population. Some populations were declining in the recent past due to spring alterations related to mining.	eng
2649	threats		Threats include habitat alteration from flash floods, mining, water diversion, and vegetation damage by cattle and feral burros (Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
2650	conservation		Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats.	eng
2650	distribution		This species occurs on the western slope of the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA. It is found from the lower Kern River canyon in Kern County to highlands drained by Tule River and Kern River in central Tulare County, and from one site on the western margin of the Kern plateau (east of Kern River; Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). The type locality is at 730m asl, and other populations in the lower Kern Canyon have previously been found as low as 500m asl. Outside the canyon populations occur at substantially higher altitudes (1,200-2,500m asl; Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution is probably poorly known.	eng
2650	habitat		At higher altitudes, this species occurs mainly in heavily forested areas in mixed pine-fir-incense cedar forest, sometimes with substantial numbers of deciduous oaks. In lower Kern Canyon, the tree cover is sparse and consists mainly of deciduous and live oaks with scattered pines and buckeyes and a few sycamores in the bottoms of the creeks (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species is often found under logs and rocks at the edge of springs and seepages, and is sometimes in the film of water, although on other occasions it can be found at some distance from water. It breeds on land, and eggs of this species have been found under objects along the banks of a shallow stream (Stebbins 1972).	eng
2650	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least a few thousand.	eng
2650	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
2664	conservation		Not known to occur in any protected areas, this species will be a priority for survey work as soon as the situation in Afghanistan permits.<br/><br/>  Considering the species' endemism, isolation and the number of threats it faces, <em>P. mustersi</em> was listed by the Afghan Government as a legally <strong>protected</strong> species in 2009.	eng
2664	distribution		This species is known from the three tributaries of the Paghman stream drainage approximately 4km above the town of Paghman in the Hindu Kush of Kabul Province, Afghanistan. The stream is about 4km in length and is fed by melting glaciers; the mid-point in the stream is at 34° 36'N; 68° 55'E. The salamanders are found at an altitude of 2,440-3,750m asl.	eng
2664	habitat		This species is fully aquatic and only occurs within cold fast-flowing waters of the Paghman stream drainage. In drier years animals are restricted to the more constant environments of the three tributary sources. Adults are found under flat rocks, crawling through submerged talus or feeding in the stream bed; larvae are usually found in deeper pools than the adults, out of the main flow of the current shaded by vegetation, or under beds of submerged vegetation. The eggs of this species are attached to the underside of rocks in the stream; between 15 and 25 eggs have been found in single egg cases, although the total number of cases deposited by females is not known. The vegetation surrounding the stream in which the salamanders occur is arid scrub without trees. This species is very sensitive to habitat disturbance.	eng
2664	population		Although the species was previously reported to be common between 2,750 and 3,050m asl, it now appears to be uncommon in the lower elevations of this range. The population is estimated to contain 1,000-2,000 adults.	eng
2664	threats		There is some evidence to suggest that there has been a constriction in range and a decline in population, probably caused by irrigated cultivation close to the streams thereby reducing stream flow. Additionally, grazing by livestock has removed stream edge vegetation causing an increase in temperature in the streams (high water temperature might be an important factor limiting their local distribution). The habitat is also impacted by the physical disturbance of pedestrian and livestock traffic in and along the stream. The impact of the recent war in Afghanistan on this species remains to be determined (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.). A potential threat is the damming of the stream to provide a water source for the city of Kabul (T. Pappenfuss pers. comm.)	eng
2665	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species occurs in the protected Hyrcanian forest region. In general, more information on the natural history of this little known species is needed. Additional field surveys are needed to identify more populations of this species. More details are needed into the ecological requirements of the larvae to better inform conservation activities. Further research is needed into the little known adults of this species.	eng
2665	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is found on the Caspian slope of the Talesh and Alborz Mountains of Iran, from 0-1,500m asl.	eng
2665	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This is an aquatic species known only from mountain streams surrounded by a few trees, in high rainfall Hyrcanian-type forest. The adults are rarely seen, but have been found in holes under rocks. The caves where the adults are presumed to occur have yet to be found, and the stream-dwelling larvae are more frequently encountered. It is believed to be very susceptible to habitat change (for example, stream pollution).	eng
2665	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is locally common to rare.	eng
2665	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation), and logging (with associated siltation of streams and possible changes of temperatures), and also by aquatic pollution and in some parts of its range by increasing light pollution. Some populations might also be affected by extended periods of drought. Collection for the pet trade is a potential though not confirmed threat to this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September, 2008).	eng
2666	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	Nearly all the Hyrcanian forests of Iran are conserved within protected areas, including the range of this species (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). Shir-Abad Cave and the surrounding area was designated a Natural National Monument by the Department of Environment of Gorgan and Gonbad-e-Kavous in 1998.	eng
2666	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is endemic to the Shir-Abad Cave and the stream flowing from it, 60km east of Gorgan (36° 57'N; 55° 01'E), in the eastern part of the Elburz Mountains, Golestan Province, northern Iran. The cave is at an elevation of 310m asl.	eng
2666	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	It is an almost fully aquatic species. The adults are only known from a single pool in the cave that measures 100m by 10m at its widest point. The larvae of the species are only found outside the cave in the stream flowing from it. Its breeding biology is not well known, but eggs are deposited by the female and fertilized by the male. The forest surrounding the cave and stream is a temperate Hyrcanian forest.	eng
2666	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	There are estimated to be about 100 breeding adults within its extremely localized range.	eng
2666	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	The Shir-Abad Cave is now significantly impacted by the activities of people visiting the cave (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). However, the forest surrounding both the cave and stream does not appear to have been logged, since the area is generally considered to be too rugged for development. Collection for the pet trade is a potential though not confirmed threat to this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
2675	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	In Kenya, Jackson’s Mongoose is confirmed in the Aberdare N.P. and Mt. Kenya N.P., and is also likely to occur in Mt. Elgon N.P. (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press). In Tanzania, all confirmed localities lie within protected areas, including the Udzungwa Mountains N.P. De Luca and Rovero (2006) recommend full protection of forests adjacent to the Udzungwa Mountains N.P., and that other East African groundwater-dependant forests (including those near Matundu and Nambiga Forest Reserves) be surveyed for the presence of Jackson’s Mongoose.	eng
2675	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from central and southern Kenya, south-eastern Uganda, and from the Udzungwa Mountains (900 km to the south) in Tanzania (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press). The Tanzanian population seems to be highly localized: camera-trapping conducted over three years in 76 sites throughout the Udzungwa Mountains recorded Jackson’s mongoose in only five sites, all within Matundu Forest (De Luca and Rovero 2006). It is possible that this species occurs in and around other massifs within the Eastern Arc Mountains, including the Ulugurus, Ngurus and Usambaras. Recorded to montane elevations in the Aberdares, Mt. Kenya and Mt Elgon up to 3,300 m asl.	eng
2675	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from lowland forest as well as in montane forests and bamboo zones. Kingdon (1997) suggested that the presence of remains of rodents of the genera <em>Dasymus</em> and <em>Otomys</em> in stomachs suggests that they hunt frequently in the thick herbaceous growth around swamps.	eng
2675	population	Van Rompaey, H., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no reliable information, but they are believed to be rare.	eng
2675	threats	Van Rompaey, H., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Given its apparent dependence on forest habitat, the main threat to this species is likely to be ongoing forest loss in its range (Van Rompaey and Kingdon in press).	eng
2676	conservation	Howell, K., Oguge, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	The species is found in the Udzungwa National Park, and also occurs in some forest reserves. It occurs in a few protected areas in Malawi. Research is needed into: population numbers, range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. This species needs to be monitored. Protected area management is also required.	eng
2676	distribution	Howell, K., Oguge, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	This species is known from the coastal forest of southeastern Kenya, throughout eastern and southern highlands of Tanzania and west to the Udzungwa montains (FitzGibbon <em>et al.</em> 1995), south to southern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988), and west to northern and north-eastern Zambia (Ansell 1978). There is a possible occurrence in the Zambezia District, Mozambique (Smithers and Tello 1976). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
2676	habitat	Howell, K., Oguge, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	The species has been recorded from primary or selectively logged forest, and riparian forest, and can tolerate quite a degree of forest disturbance. However, It has not been found outside of forest habitat.	eng
2676	population	Howell, K., Oguge, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	The species is not particularly rare or common, and its abundance appears to vary between countries.	eng
2676	threats	Howell, K., Oguge, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	The species' forest habitat is being selectively logged heavily in Kenya and Tanzania, causing habitat loss and fragmentation. Mining is a future threat in Tanzania in Pugu Forest Reserve. In Malawi the species is threatened by agricultural development.	eng
2719	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
2719	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known only from the Mananjary drainage.	eng
2719	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat degradation and pressure from exotic predators and competitors.	eng
2720	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
2720	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
2720	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	None known at present. The introduction of <em>Channidae</em> spp. may be a future threat.	eng
2721	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
2721	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers and lakes.	eng
2721	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
2722	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
2722	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known only from one tributary of the Faraony River.	eng
2722	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation by alien invasive species.	eng
2724	conservation	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	This species is listed by Verdú and Galente (2009) as Data Deficient for Spain and by Bouchet (in Baillie and Groombridge 1996) as Vulnerable D2 in France.&#160; Further data is required to determine distribution and status of populations, and the relationship between the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella pyrenaica</span>&#160; and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella iberopyrenaica</span>.	eng
2724	distribution	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	Although this species is considered to be endemic to French Pyrenees, further survey is needed.&#160; The species may well extend to Spain, in the region across the border, but due to confusion with other species, now separated as <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella iberopyrenaica</span>, the distribution details are uncertain.	eng
2724	habitat	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
2724	population	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
2724	threats	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella pyrenaica</span> is considered to be a spring species, and thus potentially threatened by the disturbance of the springs, through habitat degradation (to improve the spring for exploitation), overexploitation of the spring (leading to drying during summer periods) and from pollution of the groundwaters feeding the spring.&#160; However detailed threats to the species are unknown, given the current uncertainty about the range.	eng
2725	conservation	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is not protected by law and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR).	eng
2725	distribution	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	<em>Belgrandiella austriana</em> is endemic to southeastern Austria, where it is recorded from&#160;<span id="result_box" class="short_text">Andrtiz-Ursprung, north of Graz. This species is only known from the type locality and believed to be restricted to this site.	eng
2725	habitat	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	This species only exists in one freshwater spring.	eng
2725	population	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	The population of this species exists at very low densities compared to the other spring-snails at the same site (one specimen of&#160;<em>Belgrandiella austriana</em> to 1,000 of the other spring snail) (P. Reischütz pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p>	eng
2725	threats	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is only known from a single site, where it lives in low abundance compared to the other species found at the site. The spring is not in a protected area; it lies on private land and is therefore vulnerable to disturbance and to pollution from agricultural practices. It is also threatened by introduced species and the lowering of groundwater levels.	eng
2726	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is listed on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR).&#160;It is protected by Lower Regulation in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
2726	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. It is known from the northern limestone Alps region. Specifically it is known from Salzerbad in Halbachtal and Turnitztal at Gstettenhofer. It is found between 430 and 560 metres above sea level.	eng
2726	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is known from freshwater springs.	eng
2726	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There is no current population information available for this species, although the habitat degradation at the type locality decimated the numbers of this species over the last 30 years, such that only a 'modest' population remained in 1979.	eng
2726	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation and the lowering of groundwater levels. The type locality of this species was destroyed in 1979.	eng
2728	conservation	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	The site where this species is found is a protected specifically for this species (Haase 1994).&#160;This species is protected by law in Austria, but there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of its habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trend.<p></p>	eng
2728	distribution	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella parreyssii</span> is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the thermal springs at Bad Vöslau, south of Vienna.	eng
2728	habitat	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is restricted to thermal springs, where it may withstand temperatures of up to 23.5°C (Boeters 1998).	eng
2728	population	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	Although population data for this species are not available, it is known to have declined considerably in abundance at its only known site over the last 50 years. In the 1960s, stones at the site were encrusted with this species, whereas now it is considered very rare (P. Reischütz, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
2728	threats	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2009	The only site of occurrence of this species is exploited for human recreational activities, and the management (cleaning) of the site for recreational use is known to impact the population levels.	eng
2729	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>This species is conserved in the Styrian region and features on the&#160;Austrian National Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that habitat monitoring should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.</p>	eng
2729	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is found in the limestone Alps region of Austria, in the Styria and Lower Austria provinces. It is only known from the type locality, an intermittent stream at Bärenloch near Mixntiz, west of Vienna (Glöer 2002).	eng
2729	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>This freshwater species lives in an intermittent stream and is also found in springs. </p>	eng
2729	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species was once found in every spring, however it is now considered to be 'rare'.	eng
2729	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>Its main threats are habitat degradation, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution, mainly by fertilizers from agricultural practices.</p>     <em></em>	eng
2732	conservation	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>     .	eng
2732	distribution	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from the northern limestone Alps in the Upper Austrian province. It is restricted to a single spring in the Kirchbichlbach area, south of Weyer (Haase 1993). The estimated area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 4 km² for the extant subpopulation, based on the buffer zone around the spring. It was&#160;found only at a single spring measuring around 1 m², although there were several springs in the immediate vicinity on the same slope (M. Haase pers. comm. 2009). At all the other springs in this area, another species, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span>, was recorded while<em> B. ganslmayri</em> was absent.&#160;Museum samples with empty dead&#160;shells of this species are known from the wider area around this site, including floodline debris from the Gaflenz River, although there are no data to confirm that these populations are still extant. Haase (1993) notes that it is possible this species would be found at other springs.	eng
2732	habitat	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	This species inhabits cold, freshwater springs.	eng
2732	population	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	This species was previously abundant but is now considered to be 'rare'.	eng
2732	threats	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater for drinking water and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.	eng
2734	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
2734	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella mimula</span> is endemic to Austria. It is found in a single spring in the Wiener Becker south of Vienna.	eng
2734	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species inhabits a thermal spring.	eng
2734	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species has experienced a population decline and is now considered to be 'rare'.	eng
2734	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices that pose a threat to this species. Some localities are also under pressure from tourism activities.</p>	eng
2735	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>The species is protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). However, it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
2735	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p><em></em>This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the 'Pannonian flat and hill regions'. It is only known from the left spring of the Fischa River, near Haschendorf and one spring in the Wiener Becken, south of Vienna. Originally there were two locations however in the Austrian Red List (2008) it is stated that this species can no longer be found in one of these locations.</p>  <p><em></em></p>	eng
2735	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	<em></em>This is a freshwater species that is found in springs (Gloer 2002).	eng
2735	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is noted to be abundant at the one remaining site, but overall is experiencing a population decline and is therefore&#160;considered to be 'rare'.	eng
2735	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>The main threat to the species is habitat degradation, as a result of water abstraction resulting in the lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, which also pose a threat to this species.&#160;</p>	eng
2737	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (Reischütz and&#160;Reischütz 2007).&#160;It is protected under law in Lower Austria&#160;(Reischütz and Reischütz, 2007). This valley is also a protected water catchment area (Haase 1996), so it does exist in a protected area but there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
2737	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. The type locality is a small spring on the left bank of the Further Bach, west of Furth, Lower Austria (Haase 1996). It only occurs in two springs in the Further Bach valley, at 490 meters above sea level and higher (Reischütz ﻿& Reischütz 2007). This valley is also a protected water catchment area (Haase 1996).	eng
2737	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species inhabits two freshwater springs (Haase 1996). The volume of the springs water is reduced after the spring flush event, and these springs are thus possibly subject to drying out in the late Autumn (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
2737	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	The population has experienced a significant decline, with only a 'dozen or so' living specimens found (Haase 1996). It is thought that with further sampling, more individuals can be found in the surrounding area of the two inhabited springs.	eng
2737	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution&#160;(Reischütz and&#160;Reischütz 2007).</p>	eng
2738	conservation	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2738	distribution	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. Lake Victoria and Upper Nile (Uganda and Kenya). No detailed distributional data from Uganda but found below Owen Falls dam in Nile river near Lake. Brown (1994) recorded from Winum Gulf. Lange (2003) has recorded the species from his survey work.	eng
2738	habitat	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	Most of the lake habitats but mostly on sandy shores.	eng
2738	population	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	Not fully understood but there is presently an ongoing study on gastropods diversity in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Over 3,000 specimens just like the species description in Keys were recorded (Lange unpublished data) from a short survey.	eng
2738	threats	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	Undocumented. However in a short survey (Lange, unpublished data) the species did not appear threatened.	eng
2739	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
2739	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya contracta</span> is endemic to central Africa, recorded from southeastern DRC. Three locations are known; two on the Lufra stream (Kiubu Rapids) and one in the Kiala district (Mwadingusha) in upper Katanga.	eng
2739	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams.	eng
2739	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
2739	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Wide scale copper mining in the area producing acidic and copper-based run-off is the main threat to this species.	eng
2740	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2740	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. In Tanzania it could be present over much of the southern shores of the lake It is known from Mywanza to Bukoba. In Kenya known around Mbita Point (Rusingi Island). Data from Survey work by Lange (2003) suggests that this species is common and abundant in the Mbita area, present at 70% of sites. This species occurs on exposed shores rather than within Gulfs.	eng
2740	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Not published. In the short survey of the gastropods of the Lake in the Kenyan side, they appeared to be associated with course sandy sections with clear water, though they were recorded from most of the lake substrata.	eng
2740	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Not fully assessed but in a short survey of the gastropods of Lake Victoria, Kenya, in 2002/2003 over 4,000 specimens of the species were recorded at Mbita point, Kenya. The study also found clues that the species is abundant at the lake open waters.	eng
2740	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2741	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.	eng
2741	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya crawshayi</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia and DRC) where several collection sites are known. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but this is declining.	eng
2741	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is known from Lake Mweru, and sand and mud substrate.	eng
2741	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. Currently the population is considered to be stable; it is widespread in the lake.	eng
2741	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is sensitive to increased salinity and lower oxygen levels. The genus is known to have gone extinct in other lakes as a result of changes in salinity and oxygen levels. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
2742	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	A small portion of the species range is covered by a National Park. Within the park all fishing activities are prohibited.	eng
2742	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
2742	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2742	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2742	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Fishing villages on Lake Malawi threaten this species. Deforestation near Lake Malawi may increase sedimentation through soil erosion.	eng
2743	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D., Mailosa, A., Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2004	A small area of Lake Malawi is protected by National Park status. Recommended actions include urgent species-specific survey work.	eng
2743	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D., Mailosa, A., Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Endemic to Lake Malawi (maximum 21 m depth).	eng
2744	conservation	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2744	distribution	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. Lake Victoria and Upper Nile (Kenya and Uganda). Brown (1994) recorded the species from Winum Gulf. No detailed distributional data from Uganda but found below Owen Falls dam in Nile river near the Lake.	eng
2744	habitat	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found on mud amongst papyrus at Winum Gulf but on the bottom sediments of the open lake (Brown 1994).	eng
2744	population	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2744	threats	Lange, C.  & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available. There is a possible threat from sedimentation, pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
2745	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
2745	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya leopoldvillensis</span> is endemic to central Africa, where it occurs in DRC. The species is known from the lower Zaire River at Stanley Pool and Kinshasa (Brown 1994). It has been collected from Matadi and Kinshasa It is known from the Ngilima basin to Matadi.	eng
2745	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species was collected from deeper waters in the Congo rivers.	eng
2745	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available. Very few specimens have been located and Mandahl-Barth suspects that this may be a deep-water species.	eng
2745	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
2746	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with  information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution. This species has already been assessed but we have no more information than for the previous assessment in 1996. Therefore further surveys are urgently needed to even check whether this species is still extant.	eng
2746	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. Reported only from the type locality for this species is on rocks in the St. Paul's River near Bavia.	eng
2746	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found among rocks, St. Paul's River, otherwise unknown.	eng
2746	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
2746	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
2747	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
2747	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Southern Angola and northern Namibia; It is known from the Kunene River where it has been found at Ruacana Falls and a little Upstream and in the Okavango River between Rundu and Popa Falls (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species may occur in the upper Kunene and the upper Okavango rivers as these two systems used to be connected, however this needs to be confirmed. It has been looked for in Botswana but not found (Curtis pers. comm.).	eng
2747	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	This is a riverine and benthic species, on sand and preferably rock substrata.	eng
2747	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	Even though there has been considerable collecting effort within the species known range, it has been recorded only rarely (Curtis pers. comm.).	eng
2747	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	The species known population in the Kunene is above the proposed dam so that even if the dam were to be built upstream, the impacts are unlikely to be severe as the species favours standing water.	eng
2748	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys and monitoring are essential for this species.	eng
2748	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya mweruensis</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia, DRC), where it was most recently recorded at two sites (out of 20 sampling sites in the lake) (A. Jørgensen, pers. comm.).	eng
2748	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in Lake Mweru. Juveniles live buried in sediment.	eng
2748	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is certainly rare within the lake and seems to be in decline; in the 1920s it was considered much more abundant than it was reported as in the 1950s and from current data.	eng
2748	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
2749	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys and monitoring are essential for this species. A potential conservation action to help this, and other species in the lake, is to dredge deeper areas in the lake.	eng
2749	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya pagodiformis</span> is endemic to Lake Mweru (Zambia, DRC), where it was most recently recorded at two sites (out of 20 sampling sites in the lake) (A. Jørgensen, pers. comm.).	eng
2749	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in Lake Mweru. Juveniles live buried in sediment.	eng
2749	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is certainly rare within the lake and seems to be in decline; in the 1920s it was considered much more abundant than it was reported as in the 1950s and from current data.	eng
2749	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
2750	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2750	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species occurs in deep waters of Lake Victoria at about 33m. It is only known from the type locality at the southwestern side of the lake at Nyamgosto. It is believed to exist in the lake sections of Tanzania and probably Uganda. During the short survey of freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria, Kenyan side, the species was not recorded even on the open deep waters.	eng
2750	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in deep waters of Lake Victoria.	eng
2750	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2750	threats	Lange, C., 2004	By catch from trawling, and sedimentation threaten this species.	eng
2751	distribution	Brown, D.S., 1996	Recorded from Lake Malawi.	eng
2752	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
2752	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Albert, Uganda.	eng
2752	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	Occurring down to 18 m in depth.	eng
2752	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
2752	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
2753	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2753	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria occurring in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania sections. It is found in near shore to depths of 30 m. The species identity from <span style="font-style: italic;">B. constricta</span> is unclear and hence its actual distribution may have been confused with this very similar species.	eng
2753	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2753	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
2753	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available. Possibly affected by pollution, sedimentation and other types of human disturbances.	eng
2756	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh and Nengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram in India; Royal Chitwan National Park in Central Nepal. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
2756	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This poorly known species appears to have a wide, but patchy distribution, in northeastern South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Nepal, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal) and possibly Bhutan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan and Guangdong (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly Cambodia although there are no records from this country (Walmart pers. comm.). This species occurs at elevations of 800 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
2756	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a mostly nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in temperate and subtropical dry deciduous forests. It has been found to occupy tree hollows of dense broadleaved forest patches and also in rock crevices (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It appears to be limited to primary forest habitat. The generation time is thought to be relatively long, and might be five or six years, with a litter size of one or two young.	eng
2756	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	The population abundance of this species is poorly known, however, it is believed to be significantly declining, or at least very rare, in some areas.	eng
2756	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	Major threats to this species over most of its range include general habitat loss (often through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use) and significant levels of hunting for food. In South Asia, it is threatened by shifting (jhum) cultivation, forest fires, monoculture plantations and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
2761	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
2761	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
2761	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from one doubtful specimen from the Caspian basin, one specimen from the Danube basin, in the lower Dneiper river and recorded from near Kiev, Lake Shabla in Bulgaria.	eng
2761	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Only known from one doubtful specimen from the Caspian basin, one specimen from the Danube basin, in the lower Dneiper river and recorded from near Kiev, Lake Shabla in Bulgaria.	eng
2761	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Very rarely observed. Estuaries, coastal lakes and lower part of rivers, at depths up to 15 m, in still, fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives only one year. Spawns in July-August, possibly only a small batch of about 20-30 eggs. Feeds on small crustaceans, gastropods and insect larvae.	eng
2761	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Very rarely observed. Estuaries, coastal lakes and lower part of rivers, at depths up to 15 m, in still, fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives only one year. Spawns in July-August, possibly only a small batch of about 20-30 eggs. Feeds on small crustaceans, gastropods and insect larvae.	eng
2761	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Its population is unknown as it is very rarely recorded. It may only be extant in the lower Dneiper, or cold be wide spread across the Black sea.	eng
2761	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Its population is unknown as it is very rarely recorded. It may only be extant in the lower Dneiper, or could be wide spread across the Black sea.	eng
2761	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Suspected that the narrowing of the brackish zone due water abstraction and flow regulation (Bogutskya, N. pers comm.). Also climate change is predicted to increase the severity of drought.	eng
2761	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Suspected that the narrowing of the brackish zone due water abstraction and flow regulation (Bogutskya, N. pers comm.). Also climate change is predicted to increase the severity of drought.	eng
2762	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
2762	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Arnoux's beaked whales are found in a circumpolar pattern in the southern Hemisphere from the Antarctic continent and ice edges (ca. 78°S) north to about 34°S in the South Pacific (Kasuya 2002). They may even reach as far north as 24°N in the South Atlantic off South America. Nowhere within this range are they very well known or considered common. Most of the reported sightings are from the Tasman Sea and around the Albatross Cordillera in the South Pacific. The overwhelming majority of strandings have been from around New Zealand (Balcomb 1989, Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). The northernmost records are strandings from Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, and Australia (Paterson and Parker 1994, Culik 2004).	eng
2762	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species generally occurs in deep, cold temperate and subpolar waters, especially in areas with steep-bottomed slopes beyond the continental shelf edge (Kasuya 2002). However, some sightings have been associated with shallower regions, coastal waters, continental slopes or seamounts (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Hobson and Martin (1996) observed groups of Arnoux’s beaked whales near the Antarctic Peninsula and found that their breath-holding capabilities make this species one of the most accomplished mammalian divers, capable of swimming up to an estimated 7 km between breathing sites in sea ice. The species seems well-adapted to life in ice-covered waters and may be able to exploit food resources inaccessible to other predators in the region (Ponganis <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Little is known of the feeding habits of Arnoux's beaked whales but they are assumed to be similar to those of their Northern Hemisphere relatives, Baird's beaked whales, consisting of benthic and pelagic fishes and cephalopods (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Culik 2004). Squids are probably the main dietary items.	eng
2762	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no abundance estimates available for this species (Kasuya 2002), but in comparison with the sympatric southern bottlenose whale, Arnoux’s beaked whale is considered uncommon. In general, the species may be naturally rare. However, Arnoux's beaked whales seem to be relatively abundant in Cook Strait, at least during summer, and are also concentrated south of New Zealand and South America.<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
2762	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Arnoux’s beaked whale has never been hunted to any significant degree, and direct anthropogenic threats are not known. However, a few whales have been taken for scientific study (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Considering that some beaked whale species are known to be vulnerable to large-mesh pelagic driftnets (e.g. Californian drift-netting for swordfish and sharks (Barlow and Cameron 2003)), it is highly likely that Arnoux’s beaked whales were caught in the large-scale drift-netting in the Tasman sea. Although current levels of bycatch are unknown, they are likely to be low due to adoption in 1989 of resolution 44/225 of the UN General Assembly, which called for effective conservation and management measures of living marine resources in areas of high seas drift-netting. Developing high-latitude fisheries, such as that for Antarctic toothfish, a significant proportion of which is illegal and unregulated, have the potential to reduce food available for large predators.<br/><br/>Arnoux's beaked whales have been reported trapped in sea ice, which may contribute to natural mortality. In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of a number of beaked whales including several Mesoplodon species and Indopacetus pacificus (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006, Wang and Yang 2006). Sound impacts may be important for all ziphiid species. However, this species’ range probably puts it largely outside the major areas of such impacts.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, given its cool-temperate to sub-Antarctic habitat, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
2763	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There has been no agreement in the IWC on whether or not it has the competence to classify or set catch limits for this species, even though it is included in the IWC definition of "bottlenose whale" (the only species so regulated is the northern bottlenose whale, <em>Hyperoodon ampullatus</em>). At the 2000 annual meeting of the IWC Scientific Committee, Japan explicitly expressed its unwillingness to subject its research and management program for this species to international scrutiny (IWC 2001). <br/><br/>Although the IWC does not control the annual quota of Baird's beaked whales, it is assumed that the present catch levels over a short period would not seriously affect the subpopulation, but research is needed to obtain information that will allow a full assessment of its status.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
2763	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Baird's beaked whales are found in deep oceanic waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the adjacent Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas. Their range extends to the southern Gulf of California in the eastern Pacific, and to the island of Honshu, Japan in the western Pacific. They may occur in the vicinity of drift ice in the northern Sea of Okhotsk. Off the Pacific coast of Japan, they migrate into waters over the continental slope from May to October, but where they go in winter is not known. They also occur in the Sea of Japan. Their distributional limits in oceanic waters of the mid-Pacific are also not well known (Balcomb 1989; Kasuya 2002).	eng
2763	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Though they may be seen close to shore where deep water approaches the coast, Baird's beaked whales' primary habitats appear to be over or near the continental slope and near oceanic seamounts (Kasuya 2002) in temperate oceanic waters 1,000 to 3,000 m deep. Off the Pacific coast of Japan, these whales have been recorded in waters ranging between 23°C and 29°C, with a southern limit lying at the 15°C isotherm at a depth of 100 m. In the northern Okhotsk Sea the species has been recorded in waters less than 500 m deep, which could be explained by the availability of prey species in shallower waters at higher latitudes (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>Baird's beaked whales feed mainly on deepwater and bottom-dwelling gadiform fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (Balcomb 1989; Kasuya 2002), as well as some pelagic fish, such as mackerel, sardines, and saury. The diet off the Pacific coast of Japan consists of 82% fish and 18% cephalopods, while in the southern Sea of Okhotsk the proportions are 13% and 87%, respectively. They may do much of their feeding at depths of 800-1,200 m.	eng
2763	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Three subpopulations of Baird’s beaked whales are recognized in the western North Pacific (Sea of Japan, Okhotsk Sea, and Pacific Ocean), where these whales have been exploited for centuries. There are an estimated 1,100 Baird’s beaked whales in the eastern North Pacific, including about 228 (CV=51%) off the US west coast (Barlow <em>et al</em>. 2006, Caretta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Abundance in Japanese waters has been estimated at about 7,000 individuals (5,029 off the Pacific coast, 1,260 in the eastern Sea of Japan, and 660 for the southern Okhotsk Sea – Miyashita 1986; Kasuya 2002; Barlow <em>et al</em>. 2006). These are likely underestimates because visual survey methods often do not account for the fact that the whales dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
2763	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Baird’s beaked whales are one of the few species of ziphiids to be commercially hunted (Kasuya 2002; Kasuya and Ohsumi 1984). Small numbers have been hunted by the Soviets, Canadians and Americans, whereas hunts by Japan have been major. The Japanese fishery started in the early 1600s and underwent several expansions and declines. At its peak, after World War II, over 300 whales were killed annually. Now the industry operates with a quota of 8 for the Sea of Japan, 2 for the southern Okhotsk Sea and 52 for the Pacific coasts (Kasuya 2002). <br/><br/>Incidental catches have been recorded, but are generally not common. Some Baird's beaked whales have been caught in Japanese salmon driftnets (Reeves and Mitchell 1993). <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006) <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, given its cool-temperate to sub-polar habitat, although the nature of likely impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
2767	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas within its wide range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
2767	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	This species ranges from southern Myanmar, and southern China (southern Yunnan) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), through Thailand (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995), Lao PDR and Cambodia (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 2003), to southern Viet Nam (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994; Kuznetsov 2000). It roughly occurs from around 200 to 2,000 m.	eng
2767	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	This species inhabits forests from near sea level to at least 1,400 m, but most common in upland areas where it is reported to favour swampy areas. Occasionally an agricultural pest, but generally avoids human habitations. It is nocturnal, spending the day in their burrows.	eng
2767	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	Although the species occurs at low densities, it can be locally abundant.	eng
2767	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Frost, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is considered to be a pest species in parts of its range.	eng
2768	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in several protected areas.  It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether populations on the Malay peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra may be a separate species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
2768	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is recorded from China (Yunnan and Sichuan to Zhejiang and Fujian [Smith and Xie 2008]), north-east India (Agrawal, 2000), north and central Myanmar, northern and peninsular Thailand, northern Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Malay Peninsula, and Medan in north-west Sumatra, Indonesia (see Musser and Carleton 2005). Appears to have a wide elevational range 600-1,800 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
2768	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In general this species is present in a wide variety of habitats where there is suitable continuous tree cover, from forest to plantations. In South Asia, it occurs in temperate and subtropical montane forests, and is found in burrows in cultivated fields, disturbed primary and secondary forests, abandoned jhum (shifting agriculture), scrub, moist deciduous and evergreen patches (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
2768	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	Common and locally abundant, albeit patchily distributed.	eng
2768	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It might possibly be threatened in some parts of its range where there has been extensive forest loss.	eng
2769	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It  is recorded from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Southeast Asia, it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
2769	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This poorly-known species has been reported from Assam in northeast India, adjacent northern Myanmar, and is additionally known from isolated, apparently disjunct, records in southern China (Sichuan Province), southern Myanmar and southern Viet Nam. There has be some sampling over parts of the potential range, and it appears to be possible that this is present only as patchy isolated populations, that may represent distinct undescribed taxa. It is an upland species that has a rough altitudinal range of 1,200 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
2769	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occurring in subtropical montane evergreen and moist deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
2769	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It appears to be a locally abundant species in Assam, India, inferred from the number of specimens collected.	eng
2769	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	The threats to this poorly-known species in Southeast Asia are not known. In South Asia, the major threats include habitat loss, fragmentation, logging, fires and encroachment (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
2770	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas in Myanmar, although it probably does occur in some. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
2770	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in India in Assam (Golaghat), Nagaland (Kekrima and Naga Hills), and Manipur (Bishenpur, Senapati, and Imphal); north and central Myanmar, and southern China (Yunnan W of the Salween river) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
2770	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from evergreen rainforest, oak-scrub associations (with or without tall grass), riverine meadow, riverine scrub, never trapped in human habitations or cultivated fields (Musser and Newcomb 1983) In South Asia, it occurs in subtropical montane forests, high altitude scrublands and grasslands where it is seen among patches with oak scrub and bamboo (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
2770	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	In central Myanmar, it is fairly common in forests; most available information comes from India from the early 1900s (Musser and Newcomb 1983).	eng
2770	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	The major threat is likely to be forest loss, since it is dependent on forest habitats much of which has been extensively deforested due to logging and expanding human settlement in the region. It is probably hunted for food in India as an incentive to keep rodent populations down during bamboo flowering in 2007-2008 (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
2772	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/burdigala.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2773	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/chlorophaynx.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2774	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/hipposideros.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2775	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/livida.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2776	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/spilotogena.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2777	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/simplex.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2778	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/tomi.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2779	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/persephone.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2780	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/miniopinna.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2781	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/chini.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2782	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	For further documentation see <a href = "http://www.ibc-smp.org/species/macrostoma.html">International Betta Congress</a>	eng
2783	conservation	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in some protected areas. Recommended conservation actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: reserve suitable dry sclerophyll habitats; maintain open habitat through appropriate fire management; continue monitoring abundance at selected sites throughout range; identify populations vulnerable to 1080 and implement measures to reduce its use in those districts; educate landowners on minimal use of 1080 and land clearing.	eng
2783	distribution	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. There are two subspecies recognised: <br/><br/><em>Bettongia gaimardi gaimardi</em> is presumed to be extinct. It was formerly distributed throughout much of the south-eastern Australian mainland, as far north as south-eastern Queensland, but disappeared around the 1920s.<br/><br/><em>B. g. cuniculus</em> is widespread in eastern Tasmania from sea level up to 1,000 m (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
2783	habitat	Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is found in well drained, open eucalypt or Casuarina forests and woodlands with grassy or heathy ground cover. Breeding is continuous and the females may produce two or three young per year (Rose and Johnson 2008).	eng
2783	population	Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct on the Australian mainland, but it is common on Tasmania (Rose and Johnson 2008).	eng
2783	threats	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is threatened by land clearing (through timber harvesting) and excessive grazing of stock. Repeated use of 1080 poison for wallaby control on private land and the recent introduction of foxes both adversely affect the species.	eng
2784	conservation	Richards, J., Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier, Dorre, and Barrow Islands are all protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Studies are underway into the taxonomic identity of remaining populations. There is a need to actively manage and monitor populations. This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations (currently there are captive breeding populations at Yookamurra Wildlife Sanctuary, Scotia Wildlife Sanctuary, and Return to Dryandra Field Breeding Facility); use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. <br/><br/>The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). There have been reintroduction attempts in the past. Many of these failed do to the presence of introduced predators, and it is clear that success of reintroductions requires sites to be free from cats and foxes. There is a proposed reintroduction to Dirk Hartog Island, which is not possible unless feral cats there have been eradicated (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
2784	distribution	Richards, J., Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it was formerly widespread in central, southern, and south-western parts of the country. While it is now presumed to be extinct on the Australian mainland, it persists in insular populations on Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay (Western Australia) and on Barrow Island off the Pilbara coast (Western Australia) (Richards 2005; Burbidge and Short 2008). <br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations on Faure Island in Shark Bay and Boodie Island (both Western Australia), as well as on the mainland in Scotia Wildlife Sanctuary (New South Wales), Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs (South Australia), and Heirisson Prong (Western Australia) (all three mainland sites are fenced reserves within the historical range of the species).	eng
2784	habitat	Richards, J., Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is found in arid and semi-arid areas of shrubland and woodland, on sandy or loose soils. Currently it is found in areas with calcrete rock and sandy areas. It is nocturnal and omnivorous, and lives as loose colonies in a complex warren of underground burrows. The females breed throughout the year and usually give birth to a single young three times a year (J. Richards pers. comm.).	eng
2784	population	Richards, J., Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is abundant on Barrow (total 3,400 individuals), Bernier (total of 650 individuals), and Dorre (1,000 individuals). These populations appear to be stable (Richards 2005). The populations on Bernier and Dorre Islands (and presumably Barrow Island and possibly mainland populations) are known to undergo extreme fluctuations in response to rainfall and drought (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Estimates for the reintroduced island populations are as follows: Boodie (few hundred), Faure Island (150 individuals); it is extinct on Dirk Hartog Island (Burbidge and Short 2008). Reintroduced mainland populations include: Arid Recovery (500), Scotia (300); Heirisson Prong (20). Populations are increasing where reintroduced.	eng
2784	threats	Richards, J., Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The current major threats to the natural populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators. These same threats apply to varying degrees to the reintroduced populations. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is also unclear to what extent population fluctuations occur at the reintroduction sites on the mainland. This species would likely qualify as having "extreme fluctuations" in population in terms of the IUCN criteria (IUCN 2001) if it were still restricted to the islands off of Western Australia. This is because these fluctuations are tied to climatic extremes that are likely to be synchronous in these locations, but unlikely to be in synchrony with fluctuations (should they occur) in reintroduced populations in South Australia and New South Wales.<br/><br/>Presumably, overgrazing of suitable habitat by cattle and rabbits, loss of wooded areas to agriculture, as well as changes to the fire regime contributed to the decline of the species on mainland Australia. Introduced species, particularly feral cats and foxes, are thought also to have led to its mainland demise (Richards 2005). Feral cats are a proven threat to this species, as they predated on all animals in a trial reintroduction in the Gibson Desert, Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It is believed to have been extirpated from Dirk Hartog Island by foxes and/or feral cats (Burbidge and Short 2008). The role of disease unclear, but may have been a historical threat.<br/><br/>Black rats were a historical threat to the species on Boodie Island. It suffered greater losses, however, due to a rat-baiting program that accidentally eradicated the species from island in 1985. In 1993 the species was reintroduced to Boodie Island from Barrow Island (Morris 2002).	eng
2785	conservation	Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	Since 2005 the Woylie Conservation Research Project has been intensively investigating the causes of the recent rapid and substantial declines with a focus in the Upper Warren region. Lead by DEC (Department of Environment and Conservation, Western Australia) in collaboration with Murdoch University, Perth Zoo, and Australian Wildlife Conservancy, the project is investigating the roles of predation, food resources, and disease (A. Wayne pers. comm.). There is also a DEC research program focused on the predators and Woylie populations at Dryandra and Tutanning. Possible new translocation sites are being investigated. Ongoing fox control is important for the management of the species. There is a need to understand role of cats in population declines.<br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
2785	distribution	Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. The two subspecies, <em>Bettongia penicillata penicillata</em> and <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em>, formerly occurred in suitable habitat over much of the mainland south of the tropics. Recorded from south-west Western Australia, across southern Australia (including St. Francis Island near Ceduna) to the Great Dividing Range (Finlayson 1958). Oral history research involving Aboriginal people has confirmed that the species also ranged over much of the Great Sandy and Gibson Deserts in Western Australia and into the Tanami Desert of the Northern Territory (Burbidge and Fuller 1984; Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>B. p. penicillata</em> occurred in south-eastern Australia and is now considered to be extinct. <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em> currently occurs as natural populations at Dryandra Woodland, Perup Nature Reserve (and adjacent areas within the Upper Warren River Catchment, as far west as Kingston Forest and south near Lake Muir), and at Tutanning Nature Reserve. Sightings in Fitzgerald River National Park have not been confirmed, despite extensive trapping. <em>B. p. ogilbyi</em> has been translocated to 46 sites in Western Australia, notably Batalling Forest, Boyagin Nature Reserve, Julimar CP, two privately-owned sanctuaries (Karakamia and Paruna), and multiple sites in the northern jarrah forest as part of research into the effectiveness of different rates of aerial fox baiting (Operation Foxglove). There have also been three translocation sites in New South Wales (including Scotia Sanctuary) and 12 in South Australia, including Venus Bay Island A, Wedge Island, St. Peter Island, mainland Venus Bay CP, and Yookamurra Sanctuary. These translocations have met with mixed success, although some are too recent for their success to be measured.	eng
2785	habitat	Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species formerly inhabited a wide range of habitats from desert spinifex grasslands to forests. It is now restricted to forests and open woodlands in Western Australia and mallee shrublands in South Australia with clumped low understorey of tussock grasses or low woody scrub (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
2785	population	Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species suffered localized extinctions throughout its range, and by the 1970s occurred at only three locations in the wild, Dryandra Woodland, Upper Warren (Perup Nature Reserve), and Tutanning Nature Reserve (K. Morris pers. comm.). With the commencement of broad-scale fox control in 1996, the existing populations increased significantly from approximately 5-10% trap success to around 60% (K. Morris and A. Wayne pers. comm.). Populations also expanded either through natural spread as at Kingston near Perup, or via translocations such as with Batalling, Boyagin, and Tutanning (K. Morris pers. comm.). As a result the Woylie was removed from State and Commonwealth threatened species lists in 1996. However, since 2001 original and translocated populations have declined at a rate of 25-95% per annum to <10% trap success. Examples of the magnitude of population declines to date include Dryandra (93%), Upper Warren (95%), Batalling (97%) (A. Wayne pers. comm.). In some cases, such as Lake Magenta, Woylies have declined to extinction (K. Morris pers. comm.). None of the Western Australia forest populations are increasing (K. Morris pers. comm.). Venus Bay CP (South Australia) has also underwent >90% decline between 2005 and 2007. South Australian Island populations remain apparently stable. Between 2001 and 2006 it is estimated that the species had declined by 70-80% (approximately 8,000-15,000 individuals). The declines have continued and there are no clear signs of population recovery. <br/><br/>The population of this species at the following locations is currently estimated as: Wedge Island - 1,500; St. Peter Island - 2,000; Venus Bay Peninsula - 1,500; Dryandra - low hundreds; Peron - 100; Upper Warren - low thousands; Tutanning Nature Reserve - 100; Julimar - 200; Boyagin - 100. There are now fewer than 50 in Lincoln National Park, and fewer than 50 in Venus Bay Island A.	eng
2785	threats	Wayne, A., Friend, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	The species is believed to have historically declined through fox and cat predation and habitat destruction and alteration, including changes to fire regimes, competition with domestic and feral introduced herbivores. Disease is also possibly responsible for historical declines (Abbott 2006). Relict populations survived where shrubs of Gastrolobium containing fluoroacetate (1080 poison) provide suitable shelter, presumably reducing the impact of foxes, and possibly also reducing competition from rabbits and stock. <br/><br/>The cause of the dramatic population decline since 2001 is a mystery. Although some small populations have declined or even disappeared, large declines have occurred in all large populations, and the declines appear to exhibit density dependence (A. Wayne pers. comm.). For this reason, there is some hope that in a couple of years declines will stabilize allowing the species to persist at lower densities. However, within a year or two there may only be about 1,000 individuals left in the three most important (original) populations combined (A. Wayne pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Some of the smaller, translocated populations have failed, some appear to have met with success, and for others it is too early to know whether they have succeeded. Because the translocated populations are small they are subject to stochastic events. In addition, many of these populations were started with few individuals and there are likely to be issues of genetic viability. For example, the population on Wedge Island (1,500 individuals) was founded with as few as four individuals (A. Wayne pers. comm.).	eng
2787	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Northern Bettong is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Part of its range occurs within the Lamb Range State Forest, Davies Creek National Park, and Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species within Queensland (Dennis 2001)  . It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.  <br/><br/>Existing conservation measures include: surveys to determine the species’ distribution, relative population abundances, and habitat associations, research into fire related ecology, population genetics, and mating systems, surveys of fox distribution and abundance and the partial development of a fox control plan, and liaison with government agencies to manage state forests containing bettong populations for their conservation (Dennis 2001).<br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended by the recovery plan include: manage the habitat of the four known populations of Northern Bettong (monitor populations, map distribution and predicted distribution, survey potential habitat; fire and grazing management and research, negotiate for protection across land tenures at Lamb Range, and protect and manage other significant areas), monitor and control exotic predators and competitors, rehabilitate degraded habitat and re-introduce Northern Bettongs to their former range, and encourage community participation (Dennis 2001).	eng
2787	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Northern Bettong is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia. There are currently three localities with extant populations: the western side of the Lamb Range (includes Davies Creek, Emu Creek and Tinaroo subpopulations), Mt. Carbine Tableland, and the Coane Range (Paluma). One other locality, Mt. Windsor Tableland, may have an extant population. A population in the vicinity of Ravenshoe has not been seen since the 1920s; presumably, the Northern Bettong has been extirpated from this area and it is not mapped. A single individual was recorded from the Dawson Valley (near Rockhampton) in 1884; no Northern Bettongs have been seen in this area since that year (also not mapped) (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been recorded at elevations between 800 m and 1,200 m asl (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
2787	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Northern Bettong is found in a range of eucalypt forest types associated with granite soils, from tall and wet forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus grandis</em> and tall forest dominated by <em>E. resinifera</em>, abutting the rainforest, to medium height and drier woodlands dominated by <em>Corymbia citriodora</em> and <em>C. platyphylla</em> (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/> <br/>This species is solitary and nocturnal. Home ranges are typically 50 – 70 hectares, but may be as large as 120 hectares (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). Northern Bettongs are heavily dependent on truffles (the underground fruiting bodies of fungi) as a food source throughout the year. The more than 35 species eaten comprise over 45% of their diet, depending on location and season. They also eat roots, tubers, the underground parts of grasses, small invertebrates, and seeds (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Northern Bettongs reproduce year-round. Typically, a single young is born and remains in pouch about 100 days. Under optimal conditions, this animal can produce up to three young per year (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
2787	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is considered rare and limited (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). Of the three localities with confirmed extant populations, only the Lamb Range has a substantial number of individuals over a broad area (densities of 4 to 7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>). Mt. Carbine Tableland and the Coane Range both have small and restricted populations occurring at low densities (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>No Northern Bettongs have been seen at Mt. Windsor Tableland since 2003, despite considerable effort, and the status of this population is unknown (Dennis 2001; Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
2787	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The small size of extant populations and a fragmented, isolated distribution across a limited geographic extent makes the Northern Bettong susceptible to stochastic events, inbreeding depression, and predation should even a few individuals of predators be introduced to their range (Dennis 2001). <br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat transformation, particularly at the wetter end of its habitat range. In these areas a lack of fire has led to invasion of rainforest species and ultimately to loss of habitat suitable for the Northern Bettong (Dennis 2001).	eng
2801	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is in at least 5 protected areas in Misiones province (Argentina) and Paraguay.	eng
2801	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in province of Misiones (D'Elia, <em>et al.</em>, 2005) and Southeast of Paraguay (D'Elia <em>et al</em>. in prep.)	eng
2801	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Wet Chaco in grasslands close to the jungle.	eng
2801	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
2801	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
2802	conservation	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species has been recorded in several protected areas.	eng
2802	distribution	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The species is found in Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Several point localities in Minas Gerais, Brazil south to Misiones province in Argentina, excluding the state of Rio de Janeiro, inland from coastline (Percequillo and Leite pers. comm.).	eng
2802	habitat	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This rodent inhabits forest areas (Leite pers. comm.).	eng
2802	population	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The populations of this species are severely fragmented.	eng
2802	threats	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
2803	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It is included in one Reserve (Protected Area).	eng
2803	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005), in Provinces of Buenos Aires and Entre rios (D'Elia <em>et al.</em>, 2005)	eng
2803	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in the Parana delta.	eng
2803	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
2803	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas., U., 2008	Populations of this species are declining due to habitat loss for urbanization.	eng
2807	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K. & Ngereza, C., 2009	No information available.	eng
2807	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
2807	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K. & Ngereza, C., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Iringa Region, Lake Ingeuzi (Brooke Bond Estates) and Ruaha River in central Tanzania. Also It is known from north of Salima-Mchiji, Hara River, Dwanga Wovwe River, Papa River and Namando River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Species is known from Little Ruaha swamps, Kalenga and Lake Ngwazi in Tanzania. In Zambia it is known from the Chambezi River near Wantipa and Chozi River (tributaries of the Zambesi). In Malawi the species is known from swamps north of Nkota-kota. The species has been searched for as it is susceptible to infection by <em>Schistosoma mansoni </em>.	eng
2807	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Found in the Iringa Region, Lake Ingeuzi (Brooke Bond Estates) and Ruaha River in central Tanzania. Also from north of Salima-Mchiji, Hara River, Dwanga Wovwe River, Papa River and Namando River in Malawi.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.	eng
2807	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Lives in lakes and swamps.	eng
2807	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K. & Ngereza, C., 2009	This species occurs in lakes and swamps.	eng
2807	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K. & Ngereza, C., 2009	No information available.	eng
2807	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
2807	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K. & Ngereza, C., 2009	No information available.	eng
2807	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
2808	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
2808	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to northeastern Africa. This species is known only from empty (subfossil?) shells collected in the Lower Awash basin near Assaita and near Lake Zwai (Ethiopia) (Brown 194). It may possibly be extinct.	eng
2808	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
2808	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
2808	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
2809	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
2809	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	The species has never definitively been found from Namibia and previously recorded specimens are possibly misidentified <em>B. pfeiffer</em> (Curtis pers. comm.). The species has been recorded from Angola near Dongo and near Malange (type locality) and between Cangadala and Vila Artur de Paiva.	eng
2809	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No information available. Similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Biomphalaria</span> spp. which occur in a wide variety of permanent freshwater habitats.	eng
2809	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
2809	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
2810	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Supporting any measures to reduce the drying up of Lake Chad; e.g. diverting water into lake (but beware unforeseen impacts on local fauna from exotic species coming in); abstraction control schemes.<br/>It would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
2810	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is only in Lake Chad; recorded from Kouri Archipelago and Malamfatori.	eng
2810	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species probably acts as a host for Schistosomiasis.	eng
2810	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
2810	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The entire lake is drying out. There has been a 63% decline in the area of Lake Chad between 1962 and 1985 (Fishpool <em>et al.</em> 2001), which was continuing at least until 2001 (Vital Water Graphics, http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/27/htm). Over this period, irrigation water use has increased 4-fold. Habitat quality has also declined through the invasion of species such as water hyacinth to Lake Chad, which now covers 50% of the remaining area. If any water translocation schemes are carried out, there could be a threat from incoming species (e.g. competitors, predators). Snail control measures if carried out.	eng
2811	conservation	Eldredge, L.G., 1996	The coconut crab is protected in some areas, with minimum sizes for taking and a protected breeding period.	eng
2811	distribution	Eldredge, L.G., 1996	Coconut crabs live in areas throughout the Indian and western Pacific oceans.	eng
2811	habitat	Eldredge, L.G., 1996	Coconut crabs live alone in underground burrows and rock crevices. They dig their own burrows in sand or loose soil. During the day, the animal stays hidden, to protect itself from predators and reduce water loss from heat. They live almost exclusively on land, and some have been found up to 6 km from the ocean. <br/> <br/>Mating occurs near the sea. After this the female lives within 100 metres of the sea to regularly moisten herself with seawater. The young (as zoea) are spawned from the eggs into the water. The zoea takes 3-6 weeks to go through 4-5 zoea stages and form an ampbibious stage called a glaucothoe. The benthic, shrimplike glaucothoe finds a minute shell and after 3-4 weeks it migrates ashore. After about 4 weeks of living around the high tide mark, it transforms into a juvenile crab, which continues to use a gastropod shell for 1-2 years, and lives very secretively in burrows. <br/> <br/>They are solitary and usually nocturnal, especially where human activity is frequent. They are omnivorous, commonly eating the fallen fruit of Pandanus and the Coconut Palm.	eng
2811	population	Eldredge, L.G., 1996	The populations are reportedly quite large, with one of the largest populations being on Caroline Island. It is believed that the coconut crab is quite common on some islands, but rather rare on others.	eng
2811	threats	Eldredge, L.G., 1996	The Coconut Crab is esteemed as food. Unfortunately, it is easily over-harvested, because of its complex life-cycle and slow growth rate. Coastal development on many islands also reduces the natural habitat of the crab. <br/> <br/>The juvenile coconut crab is vulnerable to introduced carnivores such as rats and pigs, and ants such as the yellow crazy ant.	eng
2812	distribution	Bonham, K., 2006	There are now nine sites recorded for this species. There are likely to be very many more (hundreds) but species is cryptic, small, occurs in very variable population densities, lives mainly in fairly remote areas and hence is rarely seen. Extent of occurrence estimated as 5,000 km², but this is likely to be an understimate. It is impossible to estimate area of occupancy with any accuracy because species is of inconsistent population density; it is probably abundant and consistent in some areas but very scattered in others. One record of a single specimen is 60 km away from the other records despite considerable searching in the intervening area. Breaking the species’ range into “reliable” and “unreliable” sections and using estimates of suitable forest cover based with success rates from sampling, a figure of 800 km² can be estimated, but this is an extremely unreliable guesstimate (K. Bonham. pers. comm). There is no information on any range decline.	eng
2812	habitat	Bonham, K., 2006	Rainforest, mixed forest, wet eucalypt forest. Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span (although this is suspected to be short), etc).	eng
2812	population	Bonham, K., 2006	Number of subpoulations is unknown. The species is capable of occurring densely (perhaps several hundred live adults per hectare) but there is not enough information to estimate total populatio size. Probably millions exist. <br/> <br/>It is unknown whether any population decline has occurred or is occurring. Clearing (agricultural and forestry) in some parts of the range may have caused a reduction of a few percent in the past 200 years.	eng
2812	threats	Bonham, K., 2006	No known threats.	eng
2814	conservation	Olech, W., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix III (protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. The European Bison Pedigree Book has been developed, which registers and publishes lists of European bison, enabling the genetic purity of the species to be maintained. A Conservation Action Plan for the species has been published (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004), and most countries in which the species occurs have national management plans. The European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for zoos was established by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) in 1996, and now a third of the captive population is participating in this programme. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended in the 2004 Action Plan (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004) include the following:<br/>1. Continue captive breeding, following a coordinated programme that focuses on maintaining genetic variability. Hybridisation between existing breeding lines (Lowland and Lowland-Caucasian) should be avoided, as should hybridization between European bison and American bison <em>Bison bison</em>.<br/>2. Establish a Gene Resource Bank (semen collection in the first phase) to serve as a safeguard against loss of important genetic diversity.<br/>3. Continue reintroductions and benign introductions, into forests and other ecosystems (including large tracts of land where human activities are abandoned, such as former farmland or military training grounds). A target of 3,000 free ranging animals of each genetic line is recommended as a management goal. It will be necessary to link isolated subpopulations (e.g., by creating habitat corridors) and restore metapopulation function to enable the population to be self-sustaining in the long term.<br/>4. Regulate bison populations by culling, when necessary, to prevent populations exceeding the carrying capacity of remaining habitat.<br/>5. Manage habitat appropriately, for example by creating watering places, and cultivated meadows or feeding glades for use by other ungulates. <br/>6. Implement and enforce stricter regulations to control poaching.<br/>7. Continue producing the European Bison Pedigree Book, and expand its scope.<br/>8. Establish an International Bison Breeding Centre, to coordinate reintroductions, monitoring of captive and free-ranging herds, and genetic management of particular herds.<br/>9. To promote protection of the species, upgrade it to Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Further details, as well as recommended research activities, can be found in Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004.	eng
2814	conservation	Wanda Olech (Bison Specialist Group), 2006	The species is listed in Appendix III (protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. The European Bison Pedigree Book has been developed, which registers and publishes lists of European bison, enabling the genetic purity of the species to be maintained. A Conservation Action Plan for the species has been published (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004), and most countries in which the species occurs have national management plans. The European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for zoos was established by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) in 1996, and now a third of the captive population is participating in this programme. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended in the 2004 Action Plan (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004) include the following:<br/>1. Continue captive breeding, following a coordinated programme that focuses on maintaining genetic variability. Hybridization between existing breeding lines (Lowland and Lowland-Caucasian) should be avoided, as should hybridization between European bison and American bison <em>Bison bison</em>.<br/>2. Establish a Gene Resource Bank (semen collection in the first phase) to serve as a safeguard against loss of important genetic diversity.<br/>3. Continue reintroductions and benign introductions, into forests and other ecosystems (including large tracts of land where human activities are abandoned, such as former farmland or military training grounds). A target of 3,000 free ranging animals of each genetic line is recommended as a management goal. It will be necessary to link isolated subpopulations (e.g. by creating habitat corridors) and restore metapopulation function to enable the population to be self-sustaining in the long term.<br/>4. Regulate bison populations by culling, when necessary, to prevent populations exceeding the carrying capacity of remaining habitat.<br/>5. Manage habitat appropriately, for example by creating watering places, and cultivated meadows or feeding glades for use by other ungulates. <br/>6. Implement and enforce stricter regulations to control poaching.<br/>7. Continue producing the European Bison Pedigree Book, and expand its scope.<br/>8. Establish an International Bison Breeding Centre, to coordinate reintroductions, monitoring of captive and free-ranging herds, and genetic management of particular herds.<br/>9. To promote protection of the species, upgrade it to Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>Further details, as well as recommended research activities, can be found in Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004.	eng
2814	distribution	Wanda Olech (Bison Specialist Group), 2006	European bison <em>Bison bonasus</em> is the largest herbivore in Europe. Historically it was distributed throughout western, central, and south-eastern Europe and the Caucasus. By the end of the 19th century, there were only two populations of European bison left in the wild: in Białowieża Forest <em>B. b. bonasus</em> and in the western Caucasus mountains <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>. <em>B. b. bonasus</em> was finally driven extinct in the wild in 1919, and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> had been extirpated by 1927. Subsequently, the species survived only in a few European zoological gardens (Sztolcman 1924). As a result of reintroductions and introductions, it now occurs in free-ranging and semi-free herds in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Slovakia. The introduced Kyrgyzstan subpopulation has recently gone extinct (EBPB 1996, Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Captive populations are well distributed in 30 different countries worldwide (see Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004 for details). It occurred from sea level to 2,100 m in the Caucasus (Pucek 1986), and in the Carpathians it is presently found at alitutudes of up to 800 m (K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006).	eng
2814	distribution	Olech, W., 2008	European bison <em>Bison bonasus</em> is the largest herbivore in Europe. Historically it was distributed throughout western, central, and south-eastern Europe and the Caucasus. By the end of the 19th century, there were only two populations of European bison left in the wild: in Bia?owie?a Forest <em>B. b. bonasus</em> and in the western Caucasus mountains <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>. <em>B. b. bonasus</em> was finally driven Extinct in the Wild in 1919, and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> had been extirpated by 1927. Subsequently, the species survived only in a few European zoological gardens (Sztolcman 1924). As a result of reintroductions and introductions, it now occurs in free-ranging and semi-free herds in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Slovakia. The introduced Kyrgyzstan subpopulation has recently gone extinct (EBPB 1996, Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Captive populations are well distributed in 30 different countries worldwide (see Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004 for details). It occurred from sea level to 2,100 m in the Caucasus (Pucek 1986), and in the Carpathians it is presently found at alitutudes of up to 800 m (K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006).	eng
2814	habitat	Wanda Olech (Bison Specialist Group), 2006	Optimal habitats for the European bison are deciduous and mixed forests, but the range should include about 20% of grassland habitats (meadows) (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004, K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006). In Białowieża Forest (Poland) they primarily forage in moist deciduous forests, and then in mixed coniferous forests (Krasińska <em>et al.</em> 1987, Krasiński and Krasińska 1994). Forest complexes with a mosaic-like forest type arrangement (such as Białowieża and Borecka Forests, Poland) are most favourable. In fresh deciduous forest, European bison find food throughout the vegetative season. In the Caucasus region, European bison prefer foothill forests; in summer, they feed on alpine meadows (Kazmin and Smirnov 1992, Kazmin <em>et al.</em> 1992). However, considerable plasticity of European bison with regard to food means they also forage in habitats where coniferous forests predominate (Krasiński <em>et al.</em> 1999). All European bison populations inhabit ranges that include open areas, such as mown meadows, deforested feeding glades covered with grass, clear cuts and young plantations up to 10 years old (Dzięciołowski 1991, Krasińska and Krasiński 1994, Krasiński <em>et al.</em> 1999). The attraction of open areas results from the fact that meadows and glades provide ungulates with much more food than the same area of the forest herb layer and food is more easily available there (Korochkina and Bunevich 1980, Kazmin <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species had an important role in the formation of the prehistoric European broad-leaf forest and forested steppe ecosystems (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
2814	habitat	Olech, W., 2008	Optimal habitats for the European bison are deciduous and mixed forests, but the range should include about 20% of grassland habitats (meadows) (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004, K. Perzanowski pers. comm. 2006). In Bia?owie?a Forest (Poland) they primarily forage in moist deciduous forests, and then in mixed coniferous forests (Krasi?ska <em>et al</em>. 1987, Krasi?ski and Krasi?ska 1994). Forest complexes with a mosaic-like forest type arrangement (such as Bia?owie?a and Borecka Forests, Poland) are most favourable. In fresh deciduous forest, European bison find food throughout the vegetative season. In the Caucasus region, European bison prefer foothill forests; in summer, they feed on alpine meadows (Kazmin and Smirnov 1992, Kazmin <em>et al</em>. 1992). However, considerable plasticity of European bison with regard to food means they also forage in habitats where coniferous forests predominate (Krasi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1999). All European bison populations inhabit ranges that include open areas, such as, mown meadows, deforested feeding glades covered with grass, clear cuts and young plantations up to 10 years old (Dzi?cio?owski 1991, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 1994, Krasi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1999). The attraction of open areas results from the fact that exploited meadows and glades provide ungulates with much more food than the same area of the forest herb layer and food is more easily available there (Korochkina and Bunevich 1980, Kazmin <em>et al</em>. 1992). The species had an important role in the formation of the prehistoric European broad-leaf forest and forested steppe ecosystems (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
2814	population	Wanda Olech (Bison Specialist Group), 2006	In historical times, the European bison was widespread and presumably abundant in its native range. However, by the end of the 19th century it was close to extinction, with only two wild populations remaining (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shortly after World War I the species was extinct in the wild, and the captive population consisted of just 54 (29 males; 25 females) European bison with proved pedigrees (Raczyński 1978, Pucek 1991), originating from 12 founder animals (Slatis 1960). The captive population subsequently increased slowly until World War II, when the species again suffered a steep decline, with the population dropping from 160 animals in 1943 to 93 in 1946 (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As a result of captive breeding, reintroductions, benign introductions, and intensive conservation management, the total population of free-ranging bison now stands at c.1,800. A further c.1,400 individuals live in captivity (EBPB 2004). Some captive animals are not recorded in the European Bison Pedigree Book, so this is likely to be an underestimate (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Population structure is such that approximately 60% of individuals are sexually mature (Krasiński 1978, Krasińska and Krasiński 2004). The effective population size is smaller than the total population size, because European bison are a polygynous species, so not all males have the opportunity to breed (Krasiński and Raczyński 1967, Krasinska and Krasiński 1995, Krasińska and Krasiński 2004). The free-living population increased more or less steadily from the mid-1960s to a peak of c.2000 in the early 1990s (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Following a period of decline in the mid to late 1990s, the population is once again expanding (W. Olech pers. comm. 2006), although the potential for ongoing growth is limited by a number of factors (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Two genetic lines are distinguished in recent populations: the Lowland line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em>) and the Lowland-Caucasian line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em> x <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>). There are no surviving pure-bred populations of <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
2814	population	Olech, W., 2008	In historical times, the European bison was widespread and presumably abundant in its native range. However, by the end of the 19th century it was close to extinction, with only two wild populations remaining (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shortly after World War I the species was Extinct in the Wild, and the captive population consisted of just 54 (29 males; 25 females) European bison with proved pedigrees (Raczy?ski 1978, Pucek 1991), originating from 12 founder animals (Slatis 1960). The captive population subsequently increased slowly until World War II, when the species again suffered a steep decline, with the population dropping from 160 animals in 1943 to 93 in 1946 (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As a result of captive breeding, reintroductions, benign introductions, and intensive conservation management, the total population of free-ranging bison now stands at c. 1,800. A further c. 1,400 individuals live in captivity (EBPB 2004). Some captive animals are not recorded in the European Bison Pedigree Book, so this is likely to be an underestimate (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Population structure is such that approximately 60% of individuals are sexually mature (Krasi?ski 1978, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 2004). The effective population size is smaller than the total population size, because European bison are a polygynous species, so not all males have the opportunity to breed (Krasi?ski and Raczy?ski 1967, Krasinska and Krasi?ski 1995, Krasi?ska and Krasi?ski 2004). The free-living population increased more or less steadily from the mid-1960s to a peak of c. 2000 in the early 1990s (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Following a period of decline in the mid to late 1990s, the population is once again expanding (W. Olech pers. comm. 2006), although the potential for ongoing growth is limited by a number of factors (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Two genetic lines are distinguished in recent populations: the Lowland line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em>) and the Lowland-Caucasian line (<em>B. b. bonasus</em> and <em>B. b. caucasicus</em>). There are no surviving pure-bred populations of <em>B. b. caucasicus</em> (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
2814	threats	Olech, W., 2008	Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to agricultural activity, forest logging, and unlimited hunting and poaching were the primary reasons for the decrease and extinction of European bison populations. Pucek (1991, 1994) has summarized the history of their extinction. Among the primary reasons for the rapid decrease of the European bison population in Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest at the beginning of 19th century was the over-population of deer species, and the drastic reduction of natural food resources for herbivores which followed (Wróblewski 1927). During the period of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, conflict and heavy poaching exacted a severe toll on remaining populations (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Conflict and political instability continues to be a threat to the species in the Caucasus, where reintroduced free-living herds have suffered very severe losses (leading to extinctions) in recent years (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other current threats include lack of appropriate habitat, fragmentation of populations (and concomitant loss of genetic diversity), inbreeding depression, disease, hybridisation, and poaching. There is little space for a large herbivore such as the European bison in Europe?s contemporary ecosystems, especially in the west. The most significant limit for the enlargement of European bison populations is human population density; forestry and agricultural activity is not a limiting factor. Fragmentation and isolation of free-ranging (and captive) herds result in little or no exchange of genetic material. Small isolated populations quickly lose their genetic heterogeneity and are more vulnerable to extinction (Franklin 1980). As yet, the opportunity to reconstruct a more compact geographic range to facilitate migration of bison between herds does not exist. As a consequence of passing a dramatic bottleneck (the current population descends from just 12 founder animals), the gene pool is limited and animals are highly inbred. The average inbreeding coefficient is very high compared to other large mammals, and is equal to 44% in the Lowland line and 26% in the Lowland-Caucasian line for individuals with a full pedigree (Olech 1998). The negative effects of inbreeding, manifested in the decline in reproduction rate, are more strongly pronounced in the Lowland-Caucasian line than in the Lowland line (Olech 1987, 1989, 1998). Inbreeding exerts a harmful effect on skeleton growth, particularly in females (Kobry?czuk 1985), and possibly lowers the resistance of bison to disease and pathologies.<br/><br/>Diseases appearing in European bison populations can bring serious threats to the whole species. It is not certain whether the species has always shown a weak resistance to disease or if immunity has declined, due to limited genetic heterogeneity.  The most important disease affects the male reproductive organs and is manifested in the inflammation of the penis and prepuce, leading to diphtheroid-necrotic lesions, diagnosed as balanoposthitis. This disease was discovered at the beginning of the 1980s in Bia?owie?a Forest (Kita <em>et al</em>. 1995, Piusi?ski <em>et al</em>. 1997, Jakob <em>et al</em>. 2000); although similar symptoms had been reported earlier (Korochkina and Kochko 1982) in Russia and Ukraine (Krasochko <em>et al</em>. 1997). Despite many years of study, its pathogenesis has not yet been elucidated. Other diseases that are potentially major threats to herds include foot-and-mouth disease<span style="font-style: italic;"> Aphte epizooticae</span> (to which the species is known to be sensitive) (Podgurniak 1967), and tuberculosis (?órawski and Lipiec 1997, Welz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>A particular problem concerning the management of extant populations of European bison is the existence of hybrid herds, especially European × American bison hybrids living in the Caucasus. Two free-living hybrid herds have been established in the Caucasus Mountains, in close proximity to reintroduced free-living herds of the pure blood Lowland-Caucasian line. There are fears that all these animals will crossbreed, creating a mixture of various genotypes. According to Russian authors, the distances between herds are not so great, but the configuration of mountain ridges and valleys make it impossible for contact between them. There are also two small semi-free herds of European and American bison hybrids in Toksove Forest Park (St Petersburg) and the Mordovia Wildlife Reserve (Pucek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Finally, poaching as a result of administrative disorders and a failure to enforce nature conservancy law threatens free-living herds of European bison in many countries.	eng
2814	threats	Wanda Olech (Bison Specialist Group), 2006	Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to agricultural activity, forest logging, and unlimited hunting and poaching were the primary reasons for the decrease and extinction of European bison populations. Pucek (1991) has summarised the history of their extinction. Among the primary reasons for the rapid decrease of the European bison population in Białowieża Primeval Forest at the beginning of 19th century was the over-population of deer species, and the drastic reduction of natural food resources for herbivores which resulted (Wróblewski 1927). During the period of World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, conflict and heavy poaching exacted a severe toll on remaining populations (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/><br/>Conflict and political instability continues to be a threat to the species in the Caucasus, where reintroduced free-living herds have suffered very severe losses (leading to extinctions) in recent years (Pucek <em>et al. </em>2004). Other current threats include lack of appropriate habitat, fragmentation of populations (and concomitant loss of genetic diversity), inbreeding depression, disease, hybridization, and poaching. There is little space for a large herbivore such as the European bison in Europe's contemporary ecosystems, especially in the west. The most significant limit for the enlargement of European bison populations is human population density; forestry and agricultural activity is not a limiting factor. Fragmentation and isolation of free-ranging (and captive) herds result in little or no exchange of genetic material. Small isolated populations quickly lose their genetic heterogeneity and are more vulnerable to extinction (Franklin 1980). As yet, the opportunity to reconstruct a more compact geographic range to facilitate migration of bison between herds does not exist. As a consequence of passing a dramatic bottleneck (the current population descends from just 12 founder animals), the gene pool is limited and animals are highly inbred. The average inbreeding coefficient is very high compared to other large mammals, and is equal to 44% in the Lowland line and 26% in the Lowland-Caucasian line for individuals with a full pedigree (Olech 1998). The negative effects of inbreeding, manifested in the decline in reproduction rate, are more strongly pronounced in the Lowland-Caucasian line than in the Lowland line (Olech 1987, 1989, 1998). Inbreeding exerts a harmful effect on skeleton growth, particularly in females (Kobryńczuk 1985), and possibly lowers the resistance of bison to disease and pathologies.<br/><br/>Diseases appearing in European bison populations can bring serious threats to the whole species. It is not certain whether the species has always shown a weak resistance to disease or if immunity has declined, due to limited genetic heterogeneity.  The most important disease affects the male reproductive organs and is manifested in the inflammation of the penis and prepuce, leading to diphtheroid-necrotic lesions, diagnosed as balanoposthitis. This disease was discovered at the beginning of the 1980s in Białowieża Forest (Kita<em> et al.</em> 1995, Piusiński <em>et al. </em>1997, Jakob <em>et al.</em> 2000); although similar symptoms had been reported earlier (Korochkina and Kochko 1982) in Russia and Ukraine (Krasochko<em> et al.</em> 1997). Despite many years of study, its pathogenesis has not yet been elucidated. Other diseases that are potentially major threats to herds include foot-and-mouth disease <em>Aphte epizooticae</em> (to which the species is known to be sensitive) (Podgurniak 1967), and tuberculosis (Żórawski and Lipiec 1997, Welz <em>et al.</em> 2005) .<br/><br/>A particular problem concerning the management of extant populations of European bison is the existence of hybrid herds, especially European × American bison hybrids living in the Caucasus. Two free-living hybrid herds have been established in the Caucasus Mountains, in close proximity to reintroduced free-living herds of the pure blood Lowland-Caucasian line. There are fears that all these animals will crossbreed, creating a mixture of various genotypes. According to Russian authors, the distances between herds are not so great, but the configuration of mountain ridges and valleys make it impossible for contact between them. There are also two small semi-free herds of European × American bison hybrids in Toksove Forest Park (St Petersburg) and the Mordovia Wildlife Reserve (Pucek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Finally, poaching as a result of administrative disorders and a failure to enforce nature conservancy law threatens free-living herds of European bison in many countries.	eng
2815	conservation	Gates, C. & Aune, K., 2008	A recovery program for wood bison has existed in Canada since the early 1960s where the subspecies was designated as 'Threatened' by the Committee on Endangered Species of Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). In May 2004 COSEWIC assessed the status of plains bison and recommended listing them as 'Threatened' in Canada.  National Refuges and Parks and State parks play an important role in maintaining conservation herds in Canada and the United States. Wild free-ranging herds are managed by government agencies. The Nature Conservancy manages 8 captive herds and the American Prairie Foundation (World Wildlife Fund) manages one herd primarily for conservation objectives. Restoration of large populations of plains bison are being planned in southern Colorado and northern Montana. The State of Alaska is at an advanced stage in planning to reintroduce wood bison to the wild. There are no coordinated federal initiatives for plains bison conservation in any nation in North American, although there is some discussion of a coordinated strategy by the US Department of the Interior at the time of writing (January 2007). <br/><br/>The Bison Specialist Group (North America) is developing a bison conservation assessment and action plan that will provide support and guidance for policy development and conservation planning and management for public and private sector projects, including: numeric, geographic and genetic status of North American bison, including public and private herds; a review of legislation and policies of individual range states regarding bison conservation; geographic assessment of priority conservation areas in North America (Wildlife Conservation Society lead); enhancing the capacity of members of the Bison Specialist Group and organizations they represent to provide timely, innovative and practical solutions to conservation challenges; guidelines for management in support of species’ conservation and ecological restoration. <br/><br/>There are potential opportunities for ecological restoration of herds managed primarily for conservation on federal, state, provincial lands in some jurisdictions (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There may be opportunities for establishing herds on Native-owned lands that are managed for combined conservation and socio-economic purposes. However, there are significant challenges in integrating western science-based conservation into such community-based initiatives.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Bison bison athabascae</span> is listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
2815	distribution	Gates, C. & Aune, K., 2008	Original North American range extended from northern Mexico to Alaska. Plains bison occurred from Northern Mexico to central Alberta. Wood bison occurred from central Alberta to Alaska. Current range is restricted by land use and wildlife management policies in the southern area and by wildlife and reportable disease management policies in the north. Bison in conservation herds currently occupy less than 1% of their original range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
2815	habitat	Gates, C. & Aune, K., 2008	North American bison are primarily grazers and forage primarily in grassland and meadow communities. They had the widest natural range of any North American herbivore, from the arid grasslands of Chihuahua State in northern Mexico, through the grasslands of the Great Plains, to the riparian meadows of interior Alaska. They can persist in arid regions (Mexico and New Mexico) and in areas experiencing deep snow cover (Yellowstone National Park). Grasses and sedges form the mainstay of the annual diet in all regions. However, summer and fall diets may be broader, including flowering plants, woody plant leaves, and lichens, in addition to grasses and sedges, depending on local availability. Bison excavate snow at foraging sites by sweeping it away using side to side motions of their muzzle. The plains bison undertook seasonal migrations when it was abundant prior to European settlement of the continent. It no longer migrates owing to land use change and depopulation. The wood bison was not migratory and remains so. Both subspecies exhibit strong seasonal aggregation during the calving through breeding seasons (May through August).	eng
2815	population	Gates, C. & Aune, K., 2008	There are approximately 19,000 total plains bison in 54 conservation herds (herds managed in the public interest by governments and environmental organizations), and 11,000 total wood bison in 11 conservation herds. The proportion of mature individuals is difficult to calculate as even wild herd are often intentionally managed with skewed sex ratios. An optimistic estimate of the total number mature individuals for both subspecies (breeding adults including subadult males) is 23,000 (75% of total), while a more realistic estimate (breeding females and mature males only) is 21,000 (70% of total). Populations are considered viable in the long term if they exceed 1000 individuals. There are 5 plains bison conservation herds and 3 wood bison conservation herds each exceeding 1000 - therefore the total number of viable populations is only 8.<br/><br/>Six wild (free-ranging, not confined primarily by fencing) herds of plains bison occur in the natural range of this subspecies: two in Canada, three in the United States and one in Mexico. There are ten wild populations of wood bison within the natural range of the sub-species; all are in Canada. Wood bison are extirpated in the wild in Alaska, a natural range state. There are approximately 500,000 bison in captive commercial populations (mostly plains bison) on about 4000 privately owned ranches. <br/><br/>Under the IUCN Red List Guidelines, commercial herds are not eligible for consideration in determining a Red List designation therefore we have calculated the total population of bison in conservation herds to be approximately 30,000 individuals and the mature population to be approximately 20,000 individuals. Of the total number presented only 15,000 total individuals are considered wild bison in the natural range within North America (free-ranging, not confined primarily by fencing). Of the wild populations, only 11,250 (75% see above) are mature individuals using the most conservative estimate.	eng
2815	threats	Gates, C. & Aune, K., 2008	In the 19th Century, market, subsistence and recreational hunting nearly eliminated the bison throughout its range in North America. Conservation measures have brought about limited recovery in the wild and in captive conservation herds.  Private commercial production of bison has resulted in significant numerical recovery, but does not provide for conservation of the bison as wildlife in the sense used for Red List designation. Existing threats include: habitat loss; genetic manipulation of commercial bison for market traits; small population effects in most conservation herds; few herds are exposed to a full range of natural limiting factors; cattle gene introgression; loss of genetic non-exchangeability through hybridization between bison subspecies; and the threat of depopulation as a management response to infection of some wild populations hosting reportable cattle diseases. Canada, the United States and Mexico list bison nationally as both wildlife and domestic livestock. Legal status varies among State and Provincial jurisdictions. In Canada, four provinces and two territories list bison as both wildlife and livestock. Bison are listed by 20 states in the United Sates; 10 states list bison as wildlife and all 20 list them as livestock. An additional threat to populations of this species is culling to prevent the spread of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis.	eng
2816	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to maintain suitable areas of habitat for this species, and to undertake detailed field surveys to determine whether the species still persists and to determine the current distribution range (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
2816	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is only known with certainty from a single specimen collected in Namdapha National Park (at altitudes of 100-350 m asl), Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Saha 1981). The surrounding area has been well surveyed but there have been no verified sightings of the species since (S.S. Saha pers. comm. 2005). It might be restricted to the area of a single valley within the park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
2816	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is a mostly crepuscular and arboreal species. It occurs in dry deciduous montane forests occupying moist forest tracts along streams (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
2816	population	Molur, S., 2008	This appears to be a rare species, and is thought to have a very small population. Nothing known about population trends. It is known only from the holotype specimen collected in 1981, although informal sightings occurred in 2002 near Halidibari and Deban (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
2816	threats	Molur, S., 2008	Poaching of animals for food within the park has been observed to be the major threat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species appears to have a restricted range, with presumably some general habitat loss and degradation taking place. Additional important threats include habitat loss through landslides and flooding (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
2823	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is found in the periphery of Tandoureh National Park in the Kopet-dag Mountains of Iran (Siahsarvie <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little known species.	eng
2823	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in semi-desert, steppes, and mountainous areas of southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, central Afghanistan and northeastern Iran (Habibi 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005; Siahsarvie <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Afghanistan, it has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,400 m asl.	eng
2823	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is generally associated with semi-desert and steppe habitats. It has been recorded from areas of clay and loess substrate, and can be found close to watercourses (Habibi 2003). It is a colonial species that lives in an extensive system of interconnected burrows (Habibi 2003).	eng
2823	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
2823	threats	Molur, S., 2008	In view of the distribution over a wide area of suitable habitat, there seem to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
2824	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known.	eng
2824	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Northern ranges of Pamir-Alay, namely Zeravshan, Gissar and Nuratau Ranges (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), and Badakhshan Range (Afghanistan). Distributed up to at least 1500 m asl, in Afghanistan probably up to 3000 m (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995)	eng
2824	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat characteristic to the species are matted loess soils, sometimes found in loess-sandy semideserts in mountains. Diurnal, colonial. Makes complex burrows, on ground exits connected by pathways. Reproduces whole year round with 2-3 months break in summer.	eng
2824	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Ecology of the species is similar to that of <em>Blanfordimys afganus</em>, which usually undergo periodical population fluctuations.	eng
2824	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
2825	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
2825	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known from northern Myanmar and western and northwestern Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Jiang <em>et al</em>. (2003) located the species at high elevations in both north east Myanmar and adjacent China, where it is thought to be endemic. In Myanmar, the species can be found as high as 2,400 m, and in China it has been found between 1,600 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
2825	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species occurs in temperate forests at high elevations, including openings and edges. It forages in cool, damp ground cover (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
2825	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is apparently not uncommon in suitable habitats, judging from large collections of specimens in museums.	eng
2825	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species at present. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.	eng
2827	conservation	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
2827	distribution	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil (Bahia to São Paulo States; Silva <em>et al.</em>, 2003) and northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province; Massoia, 1993).	eng
2827	habitat	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in tropical and subtropical moist forests. This species is primarily insectivorous (dos Reis <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species forages in soil for invertebrates, and the scant information available suggests it breeds from September to January, producing a litter of one or two (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It inhabits forest over a range of elevations (Moura and Paglia pers. comm.).	eng
2827	population	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The species distribution is fragmented and it is known only from a few specimens per locality.	eng
2827	threats	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
2828	conservation	Duarte, J.M.B., Varela, D., Piovezan, U., Beccaceci, M.D. & Garcia, J.E., 2008	The species is included on CITES Appendix I. The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. A management plan for this endangered deer is urgently needed to assure the survival of populations closely related with the major basin in South America (Mauro 1995). Recommended conservation actions include further population surveys, ecological research, strengthening of existing management of protected areas, creation of new protected areas, establishment of a collaborative captive breeding programme, and enlisting the co-operation of local landowners in maintaining this species.	eng
2828	distribution	Duarte, J.M.B., Varela, D., Piovezan, U., Beccaceci, M.D. & Garcia, J.E., 2008	The marsh deer, <em>Blastocerus dichotomus</em>, is the largest South American deer. Originally much more widely distributed throughout present range (Nowak and Paradiso 1983), it now occurs in east-central and northeastern Argentina, west-central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, southeastern Peru, and eastern Bolivia. The species has been extirpated from Uruguay.	eng
2828	habitat	Duarte, J.M.B., Varela, D., Piovezan, U., Beccaceci, M.D. & Garcia, J.E., 2008	This species is found in the marshy habitats south of the Amazon River into northern Argentina (Pinder and Grosse 1991), with water depth as much as 0.0 m (Tomas <em>et al.</em> 1997). Diet is generally grasses, reeds and aquatic plants, but may include shrubs and vines during prolonged flooding (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). The marsh deer is generally solitary or found in small groups of 2–3. Aggregations of up to six animals have been reported on islands during floods (Schaller and Vasconcelos 1978). The marsh deer is the largest cervid species of South America. Male animals can reach up to 150 kg and the females up to 100 kg (Duarte and Merino 1997).	eng
2828	population	Duarte, J.M.B., Varela, D., Piovezan, U., Beccaceci, M.D. & Garcia, J.E., 2008	The species is declining throughout much of its range (Nowak and Paradiso 1983) although recent surveys in Brazil have revealed higher populations than had been previously recorded (Mauro 1995). Information gathered at a PHVA workshop indicates that approximately 41,000 marsh deer still survive in Brazil (Pinder 1995). In Argentina, population estimates are around 2,000 animals in Iberá marshes, other important populations are known from Formosa and the Paraná River Delta (Varela <em>et al.</em> 2001) . In Bolivia, several populations are known from the  Beni savannas and Noel Kempff National Park, and a recent population survey in Pampas Heath estimates 700 deer in the north of Madidi National Park (Gomez and Ríos-Uzeda 2004).<br/><br/>The principal population in Paraguay is in the Yacyretá region where density is low. Most populations in Paraguay were reported to be declining in the 1970s (Jungius 1974, 1976).  In Peru the species occurred in small numbers in Pampas del Heath (Hofmann <em>et al.</em> 1976, Montanbault 2002, Escamilo pers. comm.). The last record of the species in Uruguay dates back to 1958 (Ximenez <em>et al.</em> 1972, González 1994).	eng
2828	threats	Duarte, J.M.B., Varela, D., Piovezan, U., Beccaceci, M.D. & Garcia, J.E., 2008	The species is declining throughout its range due to excessive hunting and wetland conversion for agriculture, tree plantations, and dams. In Brazil and Argentina, hydroelectric projects have eliminated floodplain habitat along many large rivers, including the Tiete, Paraná, and Rio Grande (DSG 1991), and cattle ranching has severely reduced and fragmented habitats. Competition with domestic livestock may be a major threat (Schaller and Vasconcelos 1978) and pollution of waterways associated with gold mining is a serious threat in the Pantanal. Accidental introduction of bovine diseases may account for large losses reported in Bolivia during the 1970s when reproductive failure was reportedly common (Mann and Schuerholz 1977). Beccaceci (1994) also mentioned disease, hunting, and competition with livestock as possible limiting factors in the Ibera Natural Reserve, Argentina. In the Paraná River Delta, the conversion of marshes for exotic tree plantation and hunting threaten the population in Argentina (Varela 2003). In Brazil, tick infestation was one of the most important causes of death after habitat loss in the Parana River basin (Szabo, <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
2857	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in three protected areas in Peru; it has not been recorded from protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
2857	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in the altiplano grasslands of southeast Peru and west Bolivia, as far south as Tarija Department in Bolivia (Anderson, 1993; Musser and Carleton, 2005), and Salta Province in Argentina. It has an elevational range of 3,200 to 4,300 m.	eng
2857	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in open puna grasslands and <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands. It has been recorded from cultivated areas in Bolivia.	eng
2857	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a generally rare species, though can be locally common. It is known in Argentina only form one locality, there is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
2857	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Overgrazing probably affecting the survival of the species in some areas, however, there does not appear to be any major threats to this species overall.	eng
2858	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It may occur in a number of protected areas, although the presence in these needs to be confirmed. No immediate conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
2858	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in the eastern Andean highlands of south central Bolivia (see Anderson and Olds, 1989) and northwest Argentina (Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, and Tucumán Provinces; see Ortiz <em>et al.</em>, 2000) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of about 2,000 to 4,000 m in Bolivia, being found down to 1,500 m in Argentina.	eng
2858	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The species is present in puna habitat and dry valleys of the eastern slopes of the Andes; it can be found in disturbed habitats, but not heavily modified areas such as cropland.	eng
2858	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
2858	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its dry valley range through conversion of land to agricultural use (cattle and crops).	eng
2859	conservation	Marinhio-Filho, J., Vieira, E., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
2859	distribution	Marinhio-Filho, J., Vieira, E., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is known from central Brazil south of the Amazon River, extreme southeast Peru (as per Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995), and northeast Argentina (see Galliari <em>et al</em>. 1996); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Paraguay and Bolivia.	eng
2859	habitat	Marinhio-Filho, J., Vieira, E., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This rodent occurs in open areas, grasslands, forest borders, and in cerrado enclaves within the Amazon. It is a diurnal and nocturnal species. It feeds on insects and fruits.	eng
2859	population	Marinhio-Filho, J., Vieira, E., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is abundant to very common.	eng
2859	threats	Marinhio-Filho, J., Vieira, E., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
2860	conservation	D'elia, G., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P., Teta, P. & Patterson., B., 2008	This species occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
2860	distribution	D'elia, G., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P., Teta, P. & Patterson., B., 2008	This species occurs in isolated populations along coastal areas of southern Uruguay (ssp. obscurus) and Buenos Aires Province, east-central Argentina (ssp. scagliarum). (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2860	habitat	D'elia, G., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P., Teta, P. & Patterson., B., 2008	This species occurs at the edge of marshes and meadows (Gonzalez 2001).	eng
2860	population	D'elia, G., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P., Teta, P. & Patterson., B., 2008	The populations are very fragmented and restricted, however, where they occur they could be considered common.	eng
2860	threats	D'elia, G., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P., Teta, P. & Patterson., B., 2008	Agricultural activities affect the survival of the species.	eng
2861	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
2861	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurred in an indeterminate area of Ecuador and perhaps Colombia (Voss, 1991; Musser and Carleton, 2005). The enigmatic distribution of the few fragmentary specimens assignable to punctulatus, which originate from a region outside of the core geographic range of Bolomys (= Necromys), is discussed by Voss (1991).	eng
2861	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2861	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unknown. This species was listed as extinct in the Red Book of Mammasl of Ecuador (Tirira, 2001).	eng
2861	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
2862	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The species occurs in several proteced areas.	eng
2862	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes, Formosa, and Chaco Provs.; see Contreras, 1982). (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2862	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This rodent occurs in open areas, grasslands, forest borders.	eng
2862	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
2862	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
2864	distribution	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	<em>Bolyeria multocarinata</em> was formerly restricted to Round Island, a 151 ha volcanic islet approximately 0.25 ha NNE of Mauritius.	eng
2864	habitat	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	This fossorial Boa was found in the palm groves of mid-altitude top-soil layers on volcanic slopes.	eng
2864	population	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It was last recorded in 1975.	eng
2864	threats	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	The introduction of rabbits and goats to the island in 1840 resulted in damage to the vegetation, consequently causing soil erosion on the volcanic slopes and deterioration of palm forest habitat.  This decline in habitat quality is thought to have been the main reason for the extinction of the Round Island Burrowing Boa.	eng
2865	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries, occurs in many protected areas, and is listed in many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. This species has been successfully reintroduced to some sites in Sweden (Arnold, 2002), as of 2008 there are 10,000 adults in 3,000 breeding ponds. In other parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
2865	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries, occurs in many protected areas, and is listed in many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. This species has been successfully reintroduced to some sites in Sweden (Arnold, 2002), as of 2008 there are 10,000 adults in 3,000 breeding ponds. In other parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
2865	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is found in central and eastern Europe ranging from Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains of Russia, southwards to the Danube floodplain, Turkey (Thrace and the vicinity of Adapazari <em>B. b. arifiyensis</em> in north-western Anatolia), and the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom (one colony in Surrey). It is a lowland species that occurs from sea level up to a maximum of 730m asl (in western Bohemia).	eng
2865	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is found in central and eastern Europe ranging from Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains of Russia, southwards to the Danube floodplain, Turkey (Thrace and the vicinity of Adapazari <em>B. b. arifiyensis</em> in north-western Anatolia), and the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom (one colony in Surrey). It is a lowland species that occurs from sea level up to a maximum of 730m asl (in western Bohemia).	eng
2865	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	Within Europe this species is associated with lowland areas of marshy or grassy wetlands, often along river valleys, with small, shallow, often-temporary lakes and ponds. In the former Soviet Union it has been reported from steppe, forest steppe, broad-leaved and mixed leafed coniferous forests, but it also inhabits open landscapes, using drainage channels as pathways for dispersal. At the southeastern margin of its distribution, the species lives in permanent freshwater bodies in river valleys surrounded by an arid saline landscape (solonetz-solonchak complex). It is primarily an aquatic animal living in shallow (less than 50-70cm depth) stagnant lakes, ponds, pools, swamps, peat bogs, ditches, flooded rice fields and quarries. It may occasionally be found in semi-flowing waters: springs, irrigation channels, rivers and stream pools and the water must generally be clear (for example in the Carpathian region, B. bombina lives in wetlands with clearer water than the congeneric Bombina variegata); however, near the southern margin of the range (such as southeastern Ukraine and the Krasnodar Region) the species often occurs in waters that have been polluted with industrial and agricultural chemicals such as settling and sedimentation reservoirs, rice fields, polluted ponds in rural and urban areas. The species breeds by larval development in pools with a good growth of sub-aquatic vegetation. Hybrid populations of this species with <em>B. variegata</em> have been recorded.	eng
2865	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	Within Europe this species is associated with lowland areas of marshy or grassy wetlands, often along river valleys, with small, shallow, often-temporary lakes and ponds. In the former Soviet Union it has been reported from steppe, forest steppe, broad-leaved and mixed leafed coniferous forests, but it also inhabits open landscapes, using drainage channels as pathways for dispersal. At the southeastern margin of its distribution, the species lives in permanent freshwater bodies in river valleys surrounded by an arid saline landscape (solonetz-solonchak complex). It is primarily an aquatic animal living in shallow (less than 50-70cm depth) stagnant lakes, ponds, pools, swamps, peat bogs, ditches, flooded rice fields and quarries. It may occasionally be found in semi-flowing waters: springs, irrigation channels, rivers and stream pools and the water must generally be clear (for example in the Carpathian region, B. bombina lives in wetlands with clearer water than the congeneric Bombina variegata); however, near the southern margin of the range (such as southeastern Ukraine and the Krasnodar Region) the species often occurs in waters that have been polluted with industrial and agricultural chemicals such as settling and sedimentation reservoirs, rice fields, polluted ponds in rural and urban areas. The species breeds by larval development in pools with a good growth of sub-aquatic vegetation. Hybrid populations of this species with <em>B. variegata</em> have been recorded.	eng
2865	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species remains fairly abundant over much of its range (for example it is extremely common to the north and west of the Danube floodplain where it has benefited from increased irrigation), although many northern populations have declined (e.g., in Poland and Germany). The populations of this species in both Denmark and Sweden are low. Individual populations of this species can show significant fluctuations in numbers. There are no recent records from Greece, but its range in this country has not been surveyed for many years. The species is common in parts of European Russia, Ukraine and Moldavia, and while it is unlikely to be declining on this territory in general, many local populations are declining.	eng
2865	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species remains fairly abundant over much of its range (for example it is extremely common to the north and west of the Danube floodplain where it has benefited from increased irrigation), although many northern populations have declined (e.g., in Poland and Germany). The populations of this species in both Denmark and Sweden are low. Individual populations of this species can show significant fluctuations in numbers. There are no recent records from Greece, but its range in this country has not been surveyed for many years. The species is common in parts of European Russia, Ukraine and Moldavia, and while it is unlikely to be declining on this territory in general, many local populations are declining.	eng
2865	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	In western and northern Europe the species is threatened by the loss of habitat through modernisation of agricultural methods, most significantly the drainage and/or pollution of suitable wetland areas. Recent declines in northwestern Europe might also be related to climate change. In Turkey it is threatened by urban development and agricultural development. Within the former Soviet Union destruction of wetlands is also the most serious threat, although industrial pollution and recreational activities also impact populations. Additional localized threats to this species include mortality on roads, entrapment in open wells with vertical walls, hybridization and replacement by <em>Bombina variegata</em> and collection for the pet trade. However, at a global scale this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
2865	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	In western and northern Europe the species is threatened by the loss of habitat through modernisation of agricultural methods, most significantly the drainage and/or pollution of suitable wetland areas. Recent declines in northwestern Europe might also be related to climate change. In Turkey it is threatened by urban development and agricultural development. Within the former Soviet Union destruction of wetlands is also the most serious threat, although industrial pollution and recreational activities also impact populations. Additional localized threats to this species include mortality on roads, entrapment in open wells with vertical walls, hybridization and replacement by <em>Bombina variegata</em> and collection for the pet trade. However, at a global scale this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
2884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Manguao, Palawan, Philippines.	eng
2884	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A benthic carnivore that feeds on crustaceans and fish.	eng
2885	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
2885	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Cuba.	eng
2885	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
2885	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
2885	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known, but the extinction was possibly due to rats.	eng
2886	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None	eng
2886	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Cuba.	eng
2886	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
2886	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Unknown, but the extinction likely followed the introduction of rats.	eng
2888	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	This species is legally protected in all range states. The species is not listed on CITES, although a proposal was submitted to include it on Appendix 1 (Hedges 1996).<br/><br/>The most significant known Banteng populations remaining in Southeast Asia are in Java, Cambodia and perhaps Thailand and Borneo, and it is in these countries and around these populations that conservation efforts should be focused.<br/><br/>Banteng is mainly confined to protected areas throughout Southeast Asia (see Population), with the probable exception of Cambodia (and the situation in Myanmar is unknown), where significant number may still occur outside them (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Presence in Lao protected areas is currently uncertain but there are at least 10 large forested protected areas in the south which may still support the species as well as three to four areas in the north, but any populations are certainly not large. In Viet Nam, the species probably now occurs in only a few protected areas (see Population). <br/><br/>In Cambodia, most of the large forested protected areas, of which there are more than 15, are likely to retain at least residual Banteng populations. Unfortunately, in most protected areas of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia which still retain Banteng, protected status offers little if any protection to the species (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Exceptions are Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (although Banteng is not confirmed still extant), and the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia; in the latter two areas there are now even signs of population recovery (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data). The immediate conservation needs for the large Mondulkiri-centred Cambodian population are to continue strengthening site-based conservation management, in particular of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, and laying the necessary groundwork to ensure that such management can be continued indefinitely.<br/><br/>Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java (several of which contain ideal habitat for Banteng and, at least into the mid 1990s, large populations) remained remarkably intact for much of the period. During the 1980s and early to mid 1990s guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. The strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring. Thus there was relatively little hunting of Banteng and populations were stable or even increasing. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ‘tragedy of the commons’, has indeed led to increased destruction and poaching in the past decade. Banteng, as a large ungulate, is particularly threatened by this rapid rise in illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) and also by expansion of agriculture on Java and other forms of encroachment (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008.). The decentralisation of conservation management decisions and actions, macro-economic fluctuations and reduced authority of The Law impedes control of illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand there are two populations thought to contain over 50 individuals, in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Kaeng Krachan National Park. Both areas are under active conservation management. <br/><br/>A large captive population exists (in addition to the large global population of the domesticated form which is believed to have hybridized widely with other oxen species) and a large introduced feral population, derived from Bali cattle, occurs in the northern territories of Australia (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
2888	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	The species historically occurred from southern China (Yunnan) throughout mainland Southeast Asia, through Peninsular Malaysia to the islands of Borneo, Java, and probably Bali (see below). <br/><br/>No fossil evidence is known from Bali, and Grubb (2005) stated that Banteng was introduced to the island; Corbet and Hill (1992) did not include Bali in the range of wild Banteng and various other sources simply state that it occurs as domestic animals. Nevertheless, it does not seem unreasonable to suggest that Banteng should be included among the native fauna of Bali since several Indo-Malayan animal species are known to have penetrated eastwards as far as Flores and Timor during times of lowered sea-levels in the Pleistocene (Hooijer 1975). Ashby and Santiapillai (1988) treated the small number of free-living Bantengs which in occur in west Bali as wild animals as did Watling (1991); although Watling noted that interbreeding with domestic Bali cattle is a problem and the population is unlikely to consist solely of pure-bred animals. Wind and Amir (1977) had earlier raised similar fears.<br/><br/>Domestic Banteng has been introduced to several of the islands of eastern Indonesia including Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Sumba (Van der Maarel 1932; Rollinson 1984). Feral Banteng occur in Kalimantan (National Research Council 1983). Introduced Banteng (probably feral animals) occurs on the Indonesian islands of Enggano (off Sumatra) and Sangihe (off Sulawesi) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Grubb 2005). Domestic Banteng has also been introduced to New Guinea and Australia and there are now large feral herds in the Northern Territory (Kirby 1979; Bowman 1993; Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Wild Banteng currently occurs on Java and possibly Bali, in Kalimantan [Indonesian Borneo], Sabah [part of Malaysian Borneo], Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. A few may remain in Sarawak [Malaysian Borneo] (D. Labang, cited in Caldecott 1988) but it is thought to be extinct in Brunei (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Banteng is extinct in Bangladesh (Gittins and Akonda 1982; Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008), and in India (Prater 1971; IUCN 1978), if it ever occurred there: Groves (2003) stated that “there have been constant reports from Manipur, but there is as yet no confirmation”. In West Malaysia it has probably been extinct since at least the 1950s (Hislop 1961). Medway (1983) thought that Banteng may have still occurred in parts of Kedah and Kelantan after that time, but there have been no recent records. In China, Banteng has been reported to occur in one area of southeast Yunnan around Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, along the border with Myanmar; however, the source for this is unclear; and presence in China should be considered tentative at best. <br/><br/>In Cambodia the species is still likely to be widespread in the northern and eastern forests and as well as parts of the Cardamoms Mountain range, with the bulk of the population remaining in the eastern forests, centred on Mondulkiri Province (see Population). On Borneo, the species occurs in parts of eastern Sabah (Malaysia), including Tabin Wildlife Reserve, and in Kalimantan (Indonesia), it occurs along the border with Sarawak (Malaysia), as well as in the south central region and two isolates in the eastern parts of the province (in and around Kutai National Park and Hutan Kapur Sangkulirang Nature Reserve). Distribution is other countries is detailed under Population.	eng
2888	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Wharton (1968) summarized information about Banteng habitat from throughout its range and he concluded that on the Asian mainland it avoids evergreen rainforest and is usually within more open dry deciduous forests; but within the more humid areas of Java and Borneo it occupies secondary forest formations resulting from logging and fires, and enters tracts of sub-humid forest on occasion. However, on mainland Southeast Asia, human use of these preferred areas has increased, may have forced surviving Banteng to retreat to relatively closed formations where consequently they now overlap more with Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em>; although good evidence for such an assertion is lacking. In Myanmar, Banteng is reported to prefer flat or undulating terrain with light deciduous (particularly indaing forest) or mixed deciduous and evergreen forest, with grassy glades which burn annually, and patches of bamboo; but it has retreated to denser hill forest in the face of advancing cultivation (Peacock 1933; Wharton 1968; Tun Yin 1967; Prater 1971). Similarly in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR Banteng occur(red) in open mainly deciduous forest with glades, parklands, and dense forest patches; and ‘it is claimed by some that they prefer rocky, slightly hilly country, but they are certainly at home wherever the Kouprey [<em>Bos sauveli</em>] is found. Their range in Cambodia [and elsewhere in South-east Asia] suggests that Banting [sic] are more adaptable than Kouprey and perhaps less exacting in their habitat requirements’ (Wharton 1957: 46; Wharton 1968). Recently the attachment to open, more deciduous forest types was reported in Xe Pian National Protected Area, Lao PDR (Steinmetz 2004). In Borneo Banteng is ‘locally common in logged forest on flatland...[and occur] in dipterocarp, swamp and beach forests’ particularly along river courses (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Java Banteng occurs in semi-deciduous monsoon forest with small clearings, more open grassland-monsoon forest mosaics, and ‘parkland’ formations (Halder 1976; Hommel 1987; S. Hedges pers. comm., based on unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>Banteng generally occurs from sea level up to at least 2,100 m asl (Hoogerwerf 1970; National Research Council 1983; Pudyatmoko 2004; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 base on unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>Banteng reportedly drinks large quantities of water and prefers feeding grounds near a permanent water supply (Hoogerwerf 1970). When conditions are favourable it drinks daily, preferring standing water; but during droughts animals can survive several days without drinking (National Research Council 1983). Mineral licks are also an important feature of Banteng habitat; in coastal regions which lack mineral licks animals seem to meet their mineral requirements by occasionally drinking seawater (Halder 1976; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Alikodra 1987; S. Hedges pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Although probably a grazer by preference Banteng should perhaps be considered an intermediate feeder since it can and does consume a lot of browse and fruits depending on season and local food availability. It eats grasses, sedges, herbs, bamboo, as well as the leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, and young branches of woody shrubs and trees including palms. The young shoots of alang-alang grass (<em>Imperata cylindrical</em>) are apparently a favoured food source (Hoogerwerf 1970). Lists of food plants are provided by Wharton (1957), Hoogerwerf (1970), Halder (1976), Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977), Djaja <em>et al</em>. (1982), Alikodra (1983), Prayurasiddhi and Smith (1993), and Hedges (in prep.). However, very little is known about the Banteng’s nutritional requirements, seasonal and annual variation in their dietary preferences, or the composition and quality of their diet. Hoogerwerf was of the opinion that Banteng were largely dependent on grasses and sedges and, with reference to Ujung Kulon in West Java, he stated that ‘there were no proofs that browse formed a substantial part of the diet.’ However, Schenkel and Schenkel-Hulliger (1969) reported that Banteng and deer in Ujung Kulon are forced to travel widely in the dry season and ‘feed on bamboo, young palm leaves, bush, and saplings as well.’ And the stomachs of a number of bulls which were shot in the South Tjiandur region of Java were almost completely full of non-graminaceous species. In Pananjung-Pangandaran Reserve in West Java Banteng were observed to graze on a variety of plants but appeared to prefer the grasses <em>Ischaemum muticum</em>, <em>Axonopus compressus</em>, <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em>, and <em>Cynodon dactylon</em>; and a woody forest shrub ,i>Psychotria malayana. Grazing intensity was lower in the forest than in the open fields where it was inversely proportional to the amount of <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em> and <em>Imperata cylindrical</em> although they did eat these species (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977).<br/><br/>When undisturbed, Banteng displays a more or less fixed diurnal pattern of behaviour with periods (usually two to three hours long) of feeding alternating with rest periods of a similar length during which the animals ruminate. In areas which are subject to frequent human disturbance it becomes rather nocturnal and generally enters open areas only at night, although in especially attractive localities it will tolerate human presence to a certain extent (Halder 1976). In undisturbed areas Bantengs ‘do not differentiate much in their activities between day and night, but...really large assemblages on open plains occur almost exclusively by day...This round the clock activity (which is, however, interrupted countless times to rest and/or ruminate) may not be regarded as abnormal’ (Hoogerwerf 1970: 211-212).<br/><br/>The basic social group appears to be female–juvenile unit (as in the other large Asian Bovini) with larger groups tending to be more-or-less temporary assemblages. Maternal herds containing several adult cows, juveniles, and calves occur; these groups can often contain one or more subadult and adult males. Groups of cows without calves are also seen. For much of the year (adult) Bantengs are largely sexually segregated and all-male groups are frequently encountered at this time. Solitary animals tend to be mature bulls or sometimes old cows. The composition of small groups of cows with calves or juveniles, and the solitary state of old individuals may remain the same for months or even years. The composition of other small groups, particularly the unisex groups, usually varies from day to day. During the mating season the male groups disband and dominant males compete for access to receptive females (Hoogerwerf 1970; Halder 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991-2002).<br/><br/>In open areas large herds of more than 100 animals have been reported but these herds appear to be temporary associations formed when smaller groups and solitary animals arrive in an area to feed and the animals tend to reform into smaller groups when they leave the feeding areas. The composition of these groups often varies on a daily basis although there may be a stable nucleus of animals which returns to the same clearing day after day. The large herds may have an established dominance hierarchy but it seems to vary depending on the habitat. In more densely vegetated areas solitary animals or small groups, generally with fewer than eight animals, are more typical (Halder 1973, 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002).<br/><br/>In Thailand the mating season is in May and June (Lekagul and McNeely 1977); while breeding reportedly occurs the whole year round in Myanmar (Peacock 1933). Wharton (1957) collected information from Cambodians living within Banteng habitat which suggested that the majority of births occurred in December and January which, assuming a gestation period of about 10 months, suggests that most conceptions take place in March and April. However, Hermanns (cited in Hoogerwerf 1970) was of the opinion that Banteng in mainland Asia mate from September to October. Hoogerwerf (1970) recorded mating taking place all year round in West Java but there was a peak of activity in October; and he thought that those cows which mated outside the peak period were probably exceptional. He was of the opinion that Bantengs in both East and West Java generally calved in July and August which would suggest that mating generally took place from October to December; more recent observations in East Java have also revealed evidence of year-round matings (neonates have been seen in all months) but with an apparent peak of births between June and September (S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002).	eng
2888	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	The world population of Banteng is unlikely to be more than 8,000 and is quite possibly fewer than 5,000 animals. No subpopulations of more than 500, and only 6–8 subpopulations of more than 50 animals, are known, with 4–5 on Java and 1–2 in Thailand (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000; Pudyatmoko 2004). A once fairly widely distributed species, it is now largely reduced to small isolated populations, most of which are still in decline.<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Banteng probably declined by 90% or more between the late 1960s and the early 1990s. At this latter time they still remained widespread, although in generally low numbers, in the lowland forests of the north and east, and also, probably somewhat more sporadically, in the south and west including the Cardamom Mountain range (Daltry and Momberg 2000; Heng Kimchhay <em>et al</em>. 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). From at least this time onwards the most substantial Banteng population has been centred on Mondulkiri Province where in the late 1990s at least several hundred to a perhaps over a thousand Banteng survived in a forested landscape of over 15,000 km² (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Further declines took place from the early 1990s to the present, with quite probably more than a 50% decline in this time period, and the resultant loss of Banteng populations from significant parts of the still forested landscape (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). As of 2007 the most significant population by far in Cambodia remained that in Mondulkiri Province, still thought to be hundreds of animals (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Protection efforts in parts of this landscape have probably stabilised declines locally, although for the area as a whole the trend is still likely to be a significant decrease (WCS unpublished data; WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Banteng’s other present-day stronghold is Java, where six large subpopulations (those with more than 50 animals) occurred in 1990, but these declined to only 4–5 by 2004 (Pudyatmoko 2004). Pudyatmoko (2004) estimated: Ujung Kulon National Park (300–800 individuals in 2003), Cikepuh-Cibanteng Nature Reserve (25–65 individuals in 2003), Bonjonglarang-Jayanti Region (a small stable population of unknown size in 1988, with no recent data available), Cimapag Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Leuweng Sancang Nature Reserve (10 individuals in 2000, extinct in 2003), Cikamurang Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Pangandaran Nature Reserve (25–65 individuals in 2003), Kediri Region (occurrence recorded until 1970, with current status unknown), Coast of Blitar (10 individuals in 1988, with current status unknown), Coast of Malang (6 individuals in 1988, with current status unknown), Meru Betiri National Park (200 individuals in 2000, with at least 57 individuals in 2002), Alas Purwo National Park (with at least 80 individuals in 2002), and Baluran National Park (around 206 individuals in 2002). Number in all areas are declining (Hedges and Tyson 1996; S. Hedges unpub. data. 1991–2002; Pudyatmoko 2004).<br/><br/>Population numbers and even trends are difficult to quantify for Borneo but there have been declines, especially in Kalimantan (S. Pudyatmoko pers. comm. 2006; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006), and in Sabah (Han pers. comm.). The Bornean population is thought to have been particularly negatively affected by interbreeding with domestic and/or feral oxen of types other than pure-bred ‘Bali cattle’. Banteng occurs in Kutai National Park and Hutan Kapur Sangkulirang Nature Reserve, Kalimantan (Indonesia). A small population was reported from Belantikan Hulu in Central Kalimantan in November 2007 (tracks found) and April 2008 (local reports of capture of cow and calf); the population is believed to be small (Togu Simorangkir, Chair of Yayorin pers. comm. 2008). Populations in Sabah are now confined in protected areas scattered mostly in the east coast of the state. Current reports include the Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Danum Valley Conservation, Ulu Kalumpang Forest Reserve, Ulu Segama-Malua Forest Reserve, Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, and Deramakot Forest Reserve. Over 100 individuals live in Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, and the state-wide gross estimation of the population size is 300–500 individuals. However, this is only based on presence–non-detection surveys and the figure should be regarded as a crude approximation (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). The biggest decline happened during the intensive and extensive timber operation and transformation of lowland forests large-scale plantations (palm oil, cocoa and other crops) late in the twentieth century (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). The declines are over 50% in Sabah and Borneo as a whole (Belden Giman pers. comm.).<br/>In Thailand, the only subpopulations with more than 50 animals are Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and perhaps Kaeng Krachan National Park; smaller numbers do or may persist in Mae Ping National Park, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary, Thap Lan National Park, Khwo Ang Ru Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Khao Sok National Park. Banteng range probably declined by approximately 85% in Thailand from 1980 to 2000 (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). The Banteng population in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary is reported to have increased over the past 10 years (per R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008).<br/>Numbers in Lao PDR are now likely to be very low, with probably no area supporting more than 50 animals (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Evidence of Banteng was found for a number of areas in the 1990s (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Steinmetz 2004), but there has been very little survey effort since 1998. Confirmation of presence after the mid-1990s, when populations were in steep decline (Duckworth and Hedges 1998), is lacking. Most areas have received little if any protection: so it is quite likely that Banteng has been hunted out from several, perhaps most, conceivably all, of them (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most likely areas for continued presence are in the southern half of the country. A similar scenario is likely in Viet Nam, with little recent evidence of continued presence in most areas (M. Pedrono pers. comm. 2008), and perhaps only one region (the Yok Don National Park area along the Cambodian border) has a population that might exceed 50 animals; current presence is also possible elsewhere in the western border areas from Kontum Province to Dak Lak Province and in Krong Trai Nature Reserve, Rung Kho Phan Rang Nature Reserve, and Cat Tien National Park (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; M. Pedrono pers. comm. 2008; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Little recent information has been traced from Myanmar: a national camera-trapping survey aimed at Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, which will not necessarily have covered all, or even the best, areas for Banteng, recorded it in and around Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, Mahamyaing Reserve Forest, and the central Bago (= Pegu) Yoma (Lynam 2003). Current numbers are unknown but are sure to be declining, given general trends in ungulates in better-studied parts of the country. There are no quantitative data available on remaining populations in China (Smith and Xie Yan 2008), but these are clearly small.<br/><br/>A domesticated form of Banteng, often called ‘Bali cattle’, and considered to be the same species (contrasting with general taxonomic treatment for several other oxen) occurs widely in Indonesia and has been introduced to other areas of the world. However, few if any populations of this form are now likely to be pure-bred, due to interbreeding with domestic oxen derived from other <em>Bos</em> species (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006). One population of approximately 6000 animals, which appears now to be superficially indistinguishable from wild Banteng, thrives in Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, on the Cobourg Peninsula in Northern Territory, Australia. These animals derive from approximately 20 domesticated ‘Banteng’ taken from Denpasar, Bali in 1849, and they have recently been shown to be genetically identical to wild Banteng, at least to the extent of the molecular sequences analysed. This suggests that they have not been cross-bred previously to any significant extent with other domestic cattle (Bradshaw <em>et al</em>. 2006). Some domestic oxen lineages in mainland Southeast Asia, for instance in Cambodia, may have at least partial Banteng ancestry (e.g. Timmins and Ou 2001).	eng
2888	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	The major threats to Banteng are hunting and habitat loss (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Pudyatmoko 2004; Steinmetz 2004; S. Hedges unpub. data 1991–2002). In Sabah habitat loss to permanent agriculture is a serious threat, although hunting is equally significant and the species has been rapidly exterminated from many areas there (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008). Habitat loss has also been serious in Java since 1998. Elsewhere, hunting is the most widespread and significant threat, and is exacerbated especially in mainland Southeast Asia by human repopulation of lowland forest areas and associated habitat fragmentation, that is, the very areas where most Bantengs occur (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Although huge tracts of suitable habitat were lost in the twentieth century, and continue to be converted, this has probably largely occurred after Banteng have been hunted out (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Thus, the hunting is the proximate cause of decline, but habitat loss is continually reducing the maximum population possible if hunting issues were to be controlled.<br/><br/>The magnitude of the threat posed to Banteng by international trade in trophy horns is difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, given the small size of the remaining Banteng population and the number of trophies found for sale in Cambodia, the Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam, during what were essentially opportunistic surveys, it is clearly a major threat on the Asian mainland (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Baird 1993; Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994, 1995; Martin and Phipps 1996; Srifa La-Ong <em>et al</em>. 1997; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001). The threat posed by use of traditional medicinal substances derived from wild oxen is even harder to determine in the case of Banteng and essentially remains unknown, although it is thought to be a source of significant threat to Gaur (see 2008 Red List account). <br/><br/>The most important population in Cambodia is scattered through a forest landscape that encompasses four provinces (Mondulkiri, Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri) and five conservation areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Protection Forest (including the Srepok Wilderness Area) and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary) (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is still rife in much of this area, and forest fragmentation is rapidly accelerating with human population in-migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, although perhaps less than 20% of this area is well protected from the aforementioned threats and protected area management is only close to effective in two areas, the most significant issue concerning the area is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area. Although conservation efforts for Banteng and many other species have been, in both areas, extremely encouraging for the last few years, both areas face an uncertain future with the possibility of de-gazettment of conservation status of parts of them, the possible loss of adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the possible loss of political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff.<br/><br/>On Java some populations are potentially threatened by heavy predation from Dholes <em>Cuon alphinus</em> (Hedges and Tyson 1996; Pudyatmoko 2004). All populations are also threatened by poaching and some, perhaps most, are threatened by habitat loss and degradation (S. Hedges unpub. data 1991–2002). During the 1980s–1990s, when poaching and land conversion were relatively well under control in Javan national parks, the chief threat to the large population of Banteng in Baluran National Park was loss of grazing area to invasion by the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em> (Leguminosae) that converts open grassland to dense thorny scrub-forest. This plant was introduced (without adequate risk assessment) as part of an attempt to create a living fire-break around the park's grasslands, wild fire then being adjudged the major threat to the park’s monsoon forests. Since that introduction, repeated cutting of the acacia has led to coppicing into very dense thickets that contain little or no grass or other herbs and are difficult for the cattle to penetrate. Thus habitat loss and poaching are now serious limiting factors in Baluran National Park, and habitat loss/degradation remains a severe long-term threat to be addressed (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> (Verbenaceae) is also a problem in Banteng habitat in Baluran National Park and elsewhere on Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Bali cattle have long been interbred with other cattle: Banteng and Bali cattle can interbreed with both common cattle and mithan (<em>Bos frontalis</em>) (Fischer 1980; National Research Council 1983). Hybrids between Banteng and common cattle (<em>Bos Taurus</em>) of the zebu type are fully fertile; in hybrids between Banteng and <em>Bos Taurus</em> of the European type the males are sterile (Jellinek <em>et al</em>. 1980; National Research Council 1983). Domestic and feral livestock are thus a potential threat to the genetic integrity of wild Banteng populations and a number of reports suggest that wild Banteng does interbreed with domestic cattle. For example, Hoogerwerf (1970) referred to several sources from the 1930s and 1940s which mention that many groups of Banteng in Kalimantan (particularly East Kalimantan) were no longer pure-bred having interbred with stray domestic cattle. Wharton (1957) also found evidence of interbreeding with domestic cattle in Cambodia; and reports from Myanmar mention that Banteng feed alongside village cattle and occasionally interbreed with them (Tun Yin 1967; Salter 1983). In addition to the genetic threat, domestic livestock are a potential source of diseases and parasites. This can have very serious consequences for Banteng which appear to be particularly susceptible to a number of cattle diseases; for example, Banteng populations in Myanmar have been very badly affected by diseases from domestic cattle (Hundley cited in Wharton 1968). <br/><br/>Introgression with domestic cattle is not presently an issue in Sabah; there have been imports of Bali cattle mostly by large cattle farms who house animals in feedlots away from wild populations. Ahmad AH (pers. comm. 2008) is unaware of any instances of deliberate introduction of Bali cattle or other domestic oxen into forest areas, or of any plantation holders that have deliberately introduced their cattle into the range of wild Banteng. Although integration of livestock into oil palm plantation has been discussed for many years, this has not yet been put into practice (Ahmad AH pers. comm. 2008).	eng
2890	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Hedges, S. & Duckworth., J.W., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I, and is legally protected in all range states. If the species is still extant it is most likely to be in eastern Cambodia in one of four protected areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Mondulkiri Protection Forest and or Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area) (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There are no kouprey in captivity. There have been suggestions that domesticated kouprey may survive in Cambodia (Hassanin <em>et al</em>. 2006), but this seems very unlikely (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), although domestic oxen in Cambodia may well carry kouprey genes (Hassanin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It is unlikely that specific survey work for kouprey would produce any better evidence than has already been documented, and the best conservation measures for the species now would be to concentrate on <em>in situ</em> protection activities for large mammal communities in eastern Cambodia, especially building upon and strengthening the existing projects within the Srepok Wilderness Area of the Mondulkiri Protection Forest and the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
2890	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Hedges, S. & Duckworth., J.W., 2008	The historical distribution of this species was Cambodia, southern Lao PDR, southeast Thailand, and western Viet Nam (Grubb 2005). However, due to significant declines, this species is now thought to be possibly exinct.	eng
2890	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Hedges, S. & Duckworth., J.W., 2008	Little is known of its biology and ecology, the only significant work being that of Wharton (1957). The species travels in small herds, primarily of females and calves, of up to 20 animals, which commonly associate with banteng. Mature males form bachelor herds. The diet was grasses, sedges, and some browse.<br/><br/>The kouprey was primarily an animal of open deciduous dipterocarp forests, especially those areas with extensive grasslands. Although deciduous dipterocarp forests are extensive in Cambodia, and also in parts of adjoining countries (especially Lao PDR and Viet Nam), the preferred facies of kouprey, are much more localised, and perhaps account for less than 30% of the total area of the lowland mosaic forests dominated by deciduous dipterocarp forest (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species appeared to use patches of mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forest which also occur in such landscapes. Most of the kouprey's range lies in a highly seasonal area receiving less than 2,000 mm of precipitation per annum. The terrain in this area is generally flat or undulating lowlands. The presence of pools and mineral licks were certainly important.	eng
2890	population	Timmins, R.J., Hedges, S. & Duckworth., J.W., 2008	At an international workshop, held in Viet Nam in January 1988, reports were presented which suggested that there were about 27 kouprey in Viet Nam, possibly 40?100 in the Lao PDR, and up to 200 in Cambodia, with perhaps a seasonal presence of a few animals in Thailand. These figures, which were little more than guesses, suggested that a total of about 100?300 kouprey still existed in the late-1980s. Unfortunately, it now seems that these figures were too optimistic, especially for Lao and Viet Nam where surveys in the 1990s were unable to document even significant populations of other species of wild oxen (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Cox <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1992; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997). Numbers of wild oxen were, however, much higher in Cambodia, even though, within the vast extents of habitat, their densities were already low as documented during an aerial survey of a large part of eastern Cambodia in 1994 (Olivier and Woodford 1994).<br/><br/>The last published records of kouprey are those of C. Wharton, who lead an expedition to capture kouprey in 1963/64 (Wharton 1966). In 1969, J. Mellon saw two female kouprey in the Chhep/Melouprey area of Cambodia, and in 1993 he was of the opinion that there may still be kouprey in the area (J. Mellon <em>in litt</em> to D. Ashwell 1993). Later reports were also received by Pfeffer (1974 <em>in litt</em>. to IUCN/CMC). In the 1964?1970 period, Pfeffer undertook five expeditions to Indochina (each three months long) during which he collected information about kouprey and ?took the only reasonable photograph of a wild kouprey? (Kemf 1988; see Pfeffer and Ou Kim-San 1967; Pfeffer 1969). None of the evidence for kouprey since Mellon?s time, based on second-hand reports, hearsay, equivocal track identification or trophy horns (found in villages or wildlife markets and which could plausibly date back to Wharton's era) (e.g. MacKinnon and Stuart 1989, Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001, Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003), has been particularly convincing in suggesting that viable populations of kouprey remain; rather it suggests that a very rapid demise occurred. Wharton (1957) observed kouprey to occur, even in what was considered optimal habitat, in lower numbers than banteng (his figures and other observations suggest a ratio of somewhere between 1:2 ? 1:10), and suggested that, because of their restricted range and habitat specificity, they were at elevated risk of extinction compared with the other wild cattle. Extensive survey work has now documented where significant wild cattle populations remain within the historical range of kouprey, and in no area other than eastern Cambodia are wild cattle numbers high (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In most areas wild cattle numbers are so low (low dozens of individuals scattered through hundreds of square kilometers of habitat) that it is no longer conceivable that kouprey could survive (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997, Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; RJ. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Although it will, at least for the foreseeable future, be impossible to identify every remaining individual wild ox to species in such areas, there are no defensible grounds for considering the population of kouprey to be anything other than negligible in such areas, primarily because of the naturally lower densities of kouprey compared with banteng, the habitat specificity of kouprey and its exceptional value in trade (Wharton 1957; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This trade value pre-dates the meteoric rise in volume and financial value of wildlife trade out of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia during the 1990s and 2000s. Salter <em>et al</em>. (1990) found three sets of male and two sets of female kouprey horns (all reportedly from Cambodia) in a village in southern Champasak Province (southern Lao PDR). The male horns were valued by the owner at USD4,000 and the female horns at USD1,600 per set. During a trip to Amphoe Muang (Mukdahan Province, on the border with Lao) on 29 March 1991, kouprey parts were found to be available at one vendor. Horns were not on display but customers could examine photographs in an album: female kouprey horns were offered at USD6,000?8,000 per pair and male horns at USD2,000 per pair. The male horns were polished so that the shredded ends could not be seen. During a second visit (in July 1991) the same vendor?s stall was less active and no kouprey trophies were on offer (although gaur and banteng could still be ordered). Wild cattle trophies were on offer at other vendors but no kouprey horns or skulls were for sale at these stalls (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992). During a visit to Ban Mai (Thai/Lao border) by Srikosamatara and his colleagues in April 1993 a vendor of wildlife products claimed to have sold a pair of kouprey horns to a Thai buyer for USD800 two years before. He also claimed to have two more sets of kouprey horns (both old males) for sale at USD2,800 and USD12,000 respectively. Three months later (July 1993) another survey (by I. Baird) found no kouprey trophies for sale at the same vendors (Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994).] In eastern Cambodia there has now been substantial survey work (including observation-based field surveys and camera-trapping) which has documented hundreds of both banteng and gaur and even small numbers of wild water buffalo (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. D. Evans and T. Clements pers. comm. 2008). This, in addition to suggesting kouprey really has been hunted out, gives good numerical grounds to be confident that kouprey (historically the rarer species) no longer occurs in the ratio found by Wharton and that kouprey declined significantly faster and was almost certainly less resilient to hunting than are the other species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Certainly fewer than 2,000 wild cattle now survive within the historical range of kouprey, 90% or more of those within Cambodia and the majority of those within the eastern provinces (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). If kouprey still survives, it is certainly only as individuals (not functional groups) in very low numbers; its extinction, if not yet upon us, is certainly sealed.	eng
2890	threats	Timmins, R.J., Hedges, S. & Duckworth., J.W., 2008	Hunting, both for local consumption and for trade (meat and body parts, especially horns and skulls), is (or, if the species is extinct, was) the major threat throughout the kouprey's range (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). Diseases from domestic and/or free-ranging livestock could have disastrous consequences given the already severely reduced kouprey population. Habitat loss as a result of the rapidly increasing land clearance for cultivation (local and commercial), mining and logging, as well as increasing levels of other human disturbances, are also threats, but are insignificant compared with hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; see also 2008 account for Banteng). Many wildlife species of high monetary value still remain widespread and, relative to neighbouring countries, abundant in the extensive lowland forests of Cambodia, and with the fall of the Khmer Rouge and a rapidly growing free market economy there has been a surge of hunting to supply bushmeat, trophy antler/horn and medicinal markets, which is leading in many cases to very rapid declines in large quarry species (e.g. macaques have declined in some areas by over 90% in as little as five years; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), thus, however, rare kouprey becomes it will continually be at risk because, unlike in a single-quarry species system where at certain levels it becomes uneconomic to seek out the last few individuals, hunting levels will remain high, fuelled by returns from the more common species (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Wild oxen in Cambodia are now low in number and in most areas now rare or already hunted out (see 2008 IUCN Red List accounts for banteng, gaur and wild water buffalo). Knowledge of the kouprey is widespread among rural people in Cambodia, concerning its rarity and the value of trophies and perhaps other body parts; as such it is a more desirable target than most in Cambodia.	eng
2891	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Hedges, S., 2008	Gaur is listed in CITES Appendix I, and is legally protected in all range states. It occurs in many protected areas, although in north-east India, Myanmar, China, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Malaysia many such areas retain only tiny populations or have already lost the species.<br/><br/>South and central India have a well established network of wildlife refuges and protection activities, to a large extent, are effective in many of them (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). However, conservation-oriented research and interventions on Gaur are limited and seem unlikely to expand much in the short-term, meaning that the species benefits largely through general protection activities (particularly those focused around Tiger and Asian Elephant), while species-specific negative factors or worrying long-term trends are likely to go unmanaged and even unnoticed (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). The chief of these seems to be competitive interaction with grazing stock: Gaur densities were the most depressed of all ungulates surveyed by Madhusudan (2004), perhaps reflecting higher niche overlap with domestic cattle than shown by the others (chiefly deer). There is long-term monitoring of some Gaur populations, for instance Mudumalai, Bandipur, Bhadra and Nagarahole (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Rinderpest has reportedly been eradicated from India (Choudhury 2002). Choudhury (2002) listed proposed aspects of protected area expansion and consolidation to slow further fragmentation of Gaur populations in southern and central India.<br/><br/>In some protected areas (recent examples being Bhadra and Kudremukh in Karnataka), formerly forest-dwelling human communities have resettled closer to markets, clinics, school and other services (Karanth and Karanth 2007). This expands habitat available to Gaur (that which was formerly fields and houses) but more significant is the removal of a source of hunters and the cessation of grazing competition with domestic stock (see Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Such conservation interventions have helped recovery of Gaur populations in this region. Increasing development aspirations mean that out migration is likely from further areas, e.g. Mudumalai (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>As the majority of the Gaur population is in South Asia, conservation activities are important there. It is also important that populations are maintained at least in several areas in Southeast Asia, to maintain Gaur presence through its historical range, to preserve Gaur genetic diversity and through its importance to the ecosystems within which it lives. Given the regional pattern of threats and current successes to date, implementing effective conservation interventions is considerably more challenging, and therefore a higher priority in the Southeast Asian region.<br/><br/>Gaur occurs mainly in protected areas in Southeast Asia, although Cambodia and Myanmar may both have large populations outside them and some may persist is such areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth 1996; Hansel 2004). In most protected areas of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia which still retain Gaur, protected status offers little, if any, real protection to the species, exceptions being Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam, the Srepok Wilderness Area and the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia; in the latter two Cambodian areas, there are now even signs of population recovery (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), as there are at Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, with effective tackling of poaching (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary form part of Thailand’s ‘Western Forest Complex’ which if these recent gains are consolidated will, in the long term, hold the largest functional Gaur population in Thailand and perhaps South-east Asia.<br/><br/>The most important conservation measure for the species in Cambodia is the continued strengthening and support of conservation efforts in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Srepok Wilderness Area, and to a lesser extent support of protected area conservation management in the northern plains and central Cardamoms. Likewise in Viet Nam, the most important conservation measure is the continued support of protection efforts within Cat Tien National Park, in Thailand it is to continue the consolidation of the ‘Western Forest Complex’ and to continue the high-intensity protection of the rebuilt herd in Khao Paeng Ma reforestation site, adjacent to Khao Yai National Park. In Myanmar the Hukaung Valley is an exceptional area of lowland plains forest, grassland, and wetlands. Part lies within the Wildlife Sanctuary and some of the rest of the outstanding plains habitat is within an enormous proposed extension. Through its size and mostly little-encroached condition, this is the most outstanding remaining landscape-level floodplains habitat for very large mammals remaining in tropical Asia, and although wildlife populations are highly depleted, warrants the strongest effort to conserve it. It faces a number of daunting challenges (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, any of a large number of areas could become key Gaur conservation sites, but there is as yet no precedent in the country for effective conservation of high-trade-value large mammals. Xe Pian, Nam Et–Phou Louey, and Nakai–Nam Theun NPAs could all be highly significant areas for the species (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Steinmetz 2004; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006) but so could almost any other NPA; the reality is that the most success with Gaur conservation is likely to come through identifying areas with positive underlying situations to achieve conservation, rather than identifying the area with the most intrinsic importance for Gaur as the focus for efforts. Choudhury (2002) listed aspects of protected area expansion and consolidation to slow further fragmentation of Gaur populations in north-east India, Nepal, and Bhutan, and perhaps allow repopulation of Bangladesh.<br/><br/>The most important actions in Malaysia are to determine if any viable population remains in the country and, if so, to implement effective anti-poaching measures and to work at the policy level to allow effective control of large mammal hunting and trading. Under the current circumstances, any site-based activities are likely to require the sort of 24-hour security employed at the reforestation site adjacent to Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, which has allowed a rapid population growth of Gaur. It may also require reintroduction. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks have a breeding population of captive Gaur in enclosures in the Jenderak ranger station (within Krau Wildlife Reserve), for captive release.<br/><br/>A large captive population exists of wild-type Gaur (as well as of Mythun); given the complexity of field conservation of large ungulates, particularly in South-east Asia, it is clearly in resolving issues of hunting, trade, and protected area effectiveness that conservation interventions must focus.	eng
2891	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Hedges, S., 2008	Gaur historically occurred throughout mainland south and southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. It currently occurs in scattered areas in the following range states: Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia only), Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Viet Nam, but is extinct in Sri Lanka and also, as a resident, apparently in Bangladesh (Grubb 2005; Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008; Hedges in prep.). The species is now seriously fragmented within its range, and the mapped distribution is generalised, especially in India, Myanmar, China and Malaysia.<br/><br/>The domesticated form of Gaur, considered by IUCN a separate species (Bos frontalis; Mythun, Mithan or Gayal), occurs in parts of India, China, and Myanmar as feral, semi-feral, and domestic animals. This animal is excluded from the red-listing considerations for Gaur.	eng
2891	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Hedges, S., 2008	The Gaur occurs from sea level up to at least 2,800 m asl (Wood 1937; Wharton 1968; Choudhury 2002). Despite the many reports that call it an animal of hill-country, low-lying areas seem to comprise optimal habitat (Choudhury 2002): in Conry’s (1989) study area, elevations ranged from 46 to 1,079 m asl but the three radio-tracked Gaur only used areas below 381 m. Elevations below 61 m were used most intensively and all three animals selected these low-lying areas; elevations above 61 m were selected against or used in proportion to availability (Conry 1989). Similarly, in the Tenasserim–Dawna mountains, Thailand, signs of Gaur were more abundant in the lowlands than in the hills, noting that this was the opposite of the patterns that would be predicted if hunting (itself concentrated heavily in the lowlands) was the chief determinant of population densities, although solitary animals were found mainly in the hills (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008). Schaller (1967) compared vegetation maps of India with the (mid-20th century) distribution of Gaur and concluded that the species was largely confined to evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist deciduous forest but it also occurred in dry deciduous forest areas at the periphery of its range. He considered Gaur habitat to be "characterized by (1) large, relatively undisturbed forest tracts, (2) hilly terrain below an altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 ft (1,500–1,800 m asl), (3) availability of water, and (4) an abundance of forage in the form of coarse grasses (including bamboo), shrubs, and trees". However, He cautioned that the apparent preference of Gaur for hilly terrain may be partly due to the earlier conversion of most of the plains and other low lying areas to croplands and pastures. Similarly, Wharton (1968) concluded that Gaur appeared to avoid evergreen rainforest, "preferring foothill tracts of sub-humid or deciduous forest adjacent to savanna forest, glades or other open terrain affected by man and fire thus co-existing with and exploiting low human populations in hill zones with moderate to heavy rainfall". Throughout the range of Gaur, habitat destruction and human presence is usually higher in lowlands than in hills, meaning that differential human pressures may have caused the apparent preference of Gaur for hills. Gaur occurs in many forest types in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia including truly evergreen and montane forest, but populations in closed canopy forests especially those at higher elevations might naturally be at much lower densities than those in lowland areas with a mosaic of open and closed forest types, and in closed canopy forests areas the species appears to frequent grassy openings (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999; Greiser Johns 2000; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). No significant difference was found in Gaur densities in moist compared with in dry deciduous forests in Nagarahole, India (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) considered that Gaur herds in an expanding population were consistently concentrated in mixed deciduous forest rather than semi-evergreen forest, although the total area of study, that was safe from poaching, was only 20 km².<br/><br/>Gaur can persist in fragmented areas with some habitat disturbance and hunting, including in landscapes dominated by plantations (such as on parts of the Valparai plateau, south India), but in Southeast Asia it has been too heavily hunted in such areas to survive in them. Gaur can better tolerate rugged terrain and denser forest than other wild and domestic cattle, provided that there are adequate water sources (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008.; Smith and Xie Yan in press). In Thailand it uses former cultivation amid forest, and populations in such areas can recover well if not hunted (Anak Pattanavipool pers. comm. 2006; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Gaur only in those coffee areas within 1 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Gaur both grazes and browses, reportedly eating mostly young green grasses but also leaves, fruit, twigs, and bark of various woody species, as well as coarse dry grasses, and bamboo. It seems able to maintain good condition on relatively low quality feed. At least 180–190 species of plants have been recorded in the diet (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). More information is given about Gaur’s diet in Dunbar Brander (1923), Hubback (1937), Schaller (1967), Wharton (1968), Krishnan (1972), Khan (1973), Conry (1981), Ebil Yusof (1982), Ramachandran <em>et al</em>. (1986), Prayurasiddhi and Smith (1993) and Sankar <em>et al</em>. (2000). Captive Gaur are reported to eat about 20 kg of green fodder per day (Ramachandran <em>et al</em>. 1986). During the cool season (November–February) the Gaur that Schaller (1967) studied in central India ate various herbs, large quantities of the leaves and seeds of bamboo, various other grasses, and the leaves of a number of tree species; but by the beginning of the hot season (March–June) coarse dry and semi-dry grasses made up the bulk of their diet, averaging 85% by volume (range 66–100%; four rumen samples), with browse only making up about 10%. Gaur also feeds on crops including corn, cassava, and young rubber trees, sometimes causing great damage (Wharton 1968; National Research Council 1983). Schaller (1967) reported that Gaur in Kanha National Park drank at least once per day during the hot season, usually in the evening. Sahai (1972) stated that Gaur drink at least twice in a 24-hour period but there appears to be no fixed time for drinking.<br/><br/>In undisturbed areas, Gaur is mainly diurnal, but in areas of high human disturbance, it is reported to become mainly nocturnal. <br/><br/>The basic social group appears to be a female–juvenile unit with larger groups tending to be more-or-less temporary assemblages (as in the other large species of Asian Bovini). Maternal herds containing several adult cows, juveniles, and calves frequently occur but their composition is somewhat fluid, particularly during the rut; these herds can often contain several subadult and adult males. The number of bulls in a herd changes with the time of year. Mature males associate with cows primarily during the rut: during Schaller’s study in Kanha National Park 65% of herds were accompanied by a mature male during April (the peak of the rut) but during the second half of the year the proportion dropped to 31% (Schaller 1967). Neither Schaller (1967) nor Sahai (1972) found any evidence to support Powell’s (1964) statement that young bulls usually live apart from the maternal herds; nor did Schaller’s observations support Dunbar Brander’s (1923) statement that the ‘master bull’ drives all other males from the herd. Males not associating with mixed herds either live in all-male groups or are solitary. The bull herds are generally unstable, although sometimes two or more animals may frequently associate. The typical herd size appears to be in the range of 5–12 animals and herds are rarely larger than 20 (Dunbar Brander 1923; Hubback 1937; Hislop 1961a; Schaller 1967; Prater 1971; Sahai 1972; Pal and Guin 1986). Large groups of 20, 40, or even 100 animals are probably temporary aggregations of smaller groups (Pal and Guin 1986).<br/><br/>The majority of the 125–150 Gaur studied by Schaller (1967) in Kanha National Park (India) ranged over an area of at least 78 km²; and the herds he studied travelled on average 2–3 miles (3.2–4.8 km) a day, although on occasion the distance could be much less. In West Malaysia Gaur home ranges have been estimated to be: approximately 13 km² (the Kuala Tahan herd in Taman Negara National Park) (Weigum 1972); and 29.9 km² for a yearling male, 52.1 km² for a yearling female, and 137.3 km² for an adult male in Pahang (Conry 1989). The large differences between the two studies probably reflect the different methods employed by the two workers (see Conry 1989: 60). Home ranges that can be as large as 137 km² hinder the setting aside of conservation areas for Gaur, particularly as Gaur often occurs in those areas where the pressures for economic development are highest.<br/><br/>In central India, most Gaur mate in December and January, and calves are born in August and September according to Dunbar Brander (1923); Stebbing (1911) and Sanderson (1912) generally agreed with Dunbar Brander but noted that calves may also be born in April, May, and June. In Kanha National Park (central India) Schaller (1967) recorded rutting bulls from December to June, with an apparent peak of sexual behaviour in March and April; however, the occurrence of a few new-born animals throughout the year indicated that some mating must occur in every month. In southern India the majority of matings reportedly take place between November and March (Morris 1937). In Cambodia the majority of Gaur births occur in December and January (Wharton 1957). In Myanmar, calves are born throughout the year (Evans 1912; Peacock 1933); and in West Malaysia young Gaur are seen in all months except October to December (Hubback 1937).<br/><br/>The gestation period of Gaur is reported to be nine months by Hubback (1937) and Crandall (1964) and 270 days, ‘a little shorter than for Banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak and Kouprey’, by National Research Council (1983: 49). Only one calf is born to a cow per pregnancy; there are no records of twins (Hubback 1937; Schaller 1967). Females probably first mate when about two years old and thus have their first calf at three years old (Schaller 1967). If the food supply is favourable, most adult females probably calve every year. In Kanha National Park, approximately 90% of adult cows bore young during a year but calf mortality was high, with about 50% of the calves dying before reaching one year old; the main cause of death was predation by Tigers <em>Panthera tigris</em> (Schaller 1967).<br/><br/>Rarely, bulls kill each other when fighting, and occasionally they are severely injured while fighting. Predation is by far the major cause of Gaur mortality, perhaps followed by disease (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). For example in Bandipur, Gaur is the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Tiger (42%) and Leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em> (15%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Bandipur, Gaur remains were found in about 24% of Tiger faeces and 9% of Leopard faeces (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole, the proportion of Gaur in Tiger’s diet was about 45% in kills, 17% in scats (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Tadoba-Andhari, Gaur together with Sambar contributed to nearly 70% of the prey biomass consumed by Tiger, whereas in Pench-Maharashtra it was 80% (Karanth and Kumar 2005). In well protected forest reserves where different body-sized ungulates are abundantly available, Gaur is selectively predated by Tiger (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).	eng
2891	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Hedges, S., 2008	The global population is estimated to lie within 13,000–30,000 animals. Field data suggest that the proportion of mature individuals in the population is likely to be 0.4–0.6, indicating a total of 5,200–18,000 mature individuals, with no population known to have over 1,000 individuals (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). Most population figures given for numbers of Gaur are little more than guesses.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, Gaur is probably extinct (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). A few were thought still to occur in the Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Sylhet, and Mymensingh areas in the early 1980s (Sarker and Sarker 1984), but none had been seen in Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary in the Hill Tracts since the early 1970s (Khan 1985). Choudhury (2002) stated that Gaur individuals from Mizoram and Tripura (India) still cross into Bangladesh, although the records on which this was based were not given.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, Gaur apparently persists all over the southern foot-hill zone, notably in Royal Manas National Park, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary and Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Gaur probably declined by 90% or more in the period from the late 1960s to the early 1990s, at which time it still remained widespread, outside the lower Mekong and Tonle Sap lowlands, although in generally low numbers (Heng Kimchhay <em>et al</em>. 1998; Daltry and Momberg 2000; Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). By far the most substantial Gaur population of the country remained in eastern Cambodia centred on Mondulkiri province, where in the late 1990s potentially several hundred to a thousand may have survived in a forested landscape of over 15,000 km² (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Further declines, of about 50%, took place from the early 1990s to the present (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). As of 2007 the most significant population by far in Cambodia still remained within Mondulkiri Province (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007). Protection efforts in part of this landscape have probably stabilised the population there (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS and WWF unpublished data; T. Clements pers. comm. 2007; T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2007). Protection outside these two areas is limited and for Cambodia as a whole the trend is still a significant decrease (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In China, Gaur occurs in Yunnan and southeast Tibet (Ma Yiqing and Wang Yingxiang 1995). All sites in Yunnan (except Yingjiang) formed, until the 1950s–1960s, one large contiguous population, but this is now heavily fragmented. By the 1980s, the species was extinct in Lancang county, and the remaining animals were split into two populations: Xishuangbanna–Simao and Cangyuan (Wang Yingxiang verbally 1998 to Duckworth and Hedges 1998). Some sources suggest that a population of 600–800 existed in Yunnan Province in the mid-1990s, with the majority occurring in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve (Ma Yiqing and Wang Yingxiang 1995); other sources suggest that only small numbers of Gaur remain in Yunnan (along the border with Myanmar) and that hunting had led to the local extinction of Gaur in Xishuangbanna (Xiang and Santiapillai 1993).<br/><br/>In India, three major (Western Ghats, Central India and North-East) and two minor (Bihar and West Bengal) “Gaur conservation areas” have been identified, reflecting the remaining distribution (Sankar <em>et al</em>. 2000; Choudhury 2002). The Western Ghats and their outflanking hills in south India constitute one of the most extensive extant strongholds of Gaur, with good numbers in Wynaad – Nagarahole – Mudumalai – Bandipur complex (Ranjitsinh 1997). Recent distributional assessment surveys in the Karnataka part of the Western Ghats showed the presence of Gaur in more than 60% of the 22,000 km² landscape (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Ranjitsinh (1997) estimated 12,000–22,000 in India, while Choudhury (2002) suggested that there were about 23,000–34,000 Gaur in India, Bhutan, and Bangladesh; but the true number is simply not known, as shown by the wide ranges. Major populations have been reported in Nagarahole National Park (probably over 2,000), Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (not known; may not be large), Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (over 800), Melghat Tiger Reserve (perhaps 500), Bandipur National Park (over 2,000), Kanha National Park (probably under 200), Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary (not known; may not be large), Tadoba–Andhari Tiger Reserve (over 1,000), Periyar Tiger Reserve and adjoining forest complex (500–1000), Annamalai range complex (Parambikulum, Valparai, and Grass Hills) (500–700), Silent Valley and adjoining forest complex (500–1000), Agastyamalai forest complex (about 500), Biligirirangangswamy Wildlife Sanctuary and Malemahadeswara Hill range (over 1000), Anshi–Dandeli Tiger Reserve and adjoining forest mosaic (perhaps about 400), Kudremukh National Park and Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary (about 200–400), Brahmagiri–Pushpagiri–Talakaveri Sanctuary, Mukurti National Park, Pench Tiger Reserve, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’), Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’), and Gorumara Wildlife Sanctuary (‘a large population’). Many other areas are known or suspected to hold small populations, but in many sites such small numbers are unlikely to be viable (Choudhury 2002). The foregoing figures were assigned by N.S. Kumar (pers. comm. 2008) and are based on a variety of sources and methods, and from most areas are for guidance only. An increasing rigour is being applied to large mammal population estimation in India and some of the figures here will warrant modification and future changes to the quoted populations should not necessarily be seen as indicating that a real change in numbers has occurred. In recent years Gaur has reportedly been exterminated from three protected areas, Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bhandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Kanger Valley National Park (Madhya Pradesh) (Pasha <em>et al</em>. 2004). Information on population status from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and North-East is limited (Choudhury 2002); there are demonstrably very few Gaur in Kaziranga (Karanth and Nicholls 2000). Recent population trends appear to have been stable in well protected areas. The following densities have been estimated: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 1.48 +/- 0.63 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Pench (Madhya Pradesh) dry deciduous forest, 0.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 9.6 animals per km², making it the second-most abundant ungulate there (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 7.0 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 1.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 1.0 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Pench (Maharashtra) dry deciduous forest, 0.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005). No densities could be estimated, despite the use of suitable survey methodology, at Kanha or Namdapha, implying relatively low populations, and none was found during such surveys at Kaziranga or Ranthambore (Karanth and Nichols 2000); only small numbers persist in Kaziranga (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching (using snares, dogs and shotguns) and livestock grazing. However, the Gaur population there is now steadily increasing with successful conservation interventions (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). A study at Nagarahole National Park compared the fauna of an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site: this found respective densities of six and two Gaurs per km² (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Byers <em>et al</em>. (1995) stated that the national population was approximately 1,000. This number is perhaps possible (field records exist from many areas), but animals would have been widely dispersed and at very low density in the extensive forest tracts across the country, with perhaps fewer than six sites holding more than 50 animals (Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Steinmetz 2004; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). A large population of Gaur was found in Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and the adjoining Nakai Plateau in the mid 1990s, when signs were readily found and even the animals themselves seen directly (Duckworth 1998; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). Resurveys of both areas, although using comparable methodology only on the plateau, indicate massive declines in the subsequent decade, with, for example, fairly intensive camera-trapping not recording the species at all (Dersu 2007; Johnson and Johnston 2007). The last decade has seen major reductions (in general, probably of well over 50%), in many large mammal populations across Lao PDR and it is now likely that many of the populations listed in Duckworth and Hedges (1998) have become locally extinct (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Malaysia, in 1994 the population was stated to be less than 500 individuals and it was thought to be declining (J. Brennan pers. comm. to Read <em>et al</em>. 1994; a number of other stated numbers from around that time, all of the same general order of a few hundred, and none derived allowing a quantification of error margin, are presented in Hedges in prep.), with then confirmed records from various sites, e.g. the Sungai Singgor area of Temenggor Forest Reserve, Hulu Perak (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995). In the subsequent few years, the population collapsed, despite optimism through relatively stronger control of guns in Malaysia than elsewhere on the southeast Asian mainland, and a perception (e.g. Nash 1993) of relatively strict control of wildlife trade in Malaysia. Densities in Taman Negara were crudely estimated from surveys during 1999–2001 as 0, 3 and 22 Gaurs per 100 km² in three study sites (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Although these authors adjudged large mammal poaching to be negligible in Taman Negara, high levels were confirmed there by Wan Shahruddin (1998) and camera-trapping (suitable in methodology and intensity to find Gaur if any significant numbers were present) did not record Gaur at a fourth sector of Taman Negara in 1999 (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). No Gaur was photographed at all in eight other potential Tiger areas surveyed by Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2007) during 1997–1999, including Temenggor (see Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995); because these were selected as the areas most likely to support Tigers and as Tiger-oriented camera-trapping elsewhere in South-east Asia usually yields photographs of Gaur, this study proves that only very low numbers of Gaur remain in Malaysia, no doubt way below the estimate in Read <em>et al</em>. (1994). Further supporting this, none was found in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, from which it was suspected to have been eradicated by hunting (Azlan 2006). Gaur was found in only two of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas), making it among the most localised mammal species which was detected in a study assessing the importance of virgin jungle reserves. The two occupied sites were a contiguous pair in each management class, and among the biggest sites surveyed (over 100 km²); the virgin jungle reserves themselves rarely exceed 3 km² (Laidlaw 2000). In the 1960s, there were estimated to be approximately 40 Gaur in Krau Wildlife Reserve, a figure deemed optimistic at the time; in the 1980s there were thought to be 22–31; in 1995 the estimate was only seven. When surveying the reserve in 2000 (see DWNP/DANCED 2002), R. Dunlop (pers. comm. 2008) covered the whole reserve (about 440 km²) with camera-traps in 119 one km-grid squares. Out of a total of 6,918 periods of 24-hour trapping, 61 species were recorded in 1,804 photographs of wildlife, yet only one photograph was of a Gaur. In almost 100 days of field searching for signs, Gaur tracks were recorded only on eight days, on each occasion as prints of isolated animals. The photograph, the sole sighting, and the eight track records were all in the south-east lowland area of the reserve, moving between an area of salt-licks and grazing just outside the reserve. This survey corroborated the 1995 estimate of seven animals, and the 2000–2001 figure could be even lower. Sumatran Rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> and Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em> have both disappeared from Krau, and Gaur may be the next species to go. R. Dunlop (pers. comm. 2008) considers there no reason to expect this recent history not to typify that of Gaur populations at all sites in Malaysia. There are very recent records from: Tanjong Mentong in Taman Negara, where tracks were found during elephant surveys in late 2006 (Nurul Huda, WCS Malaysia pers. comm. 2008); Belum, in 2007, where animals were camera-trapped at salt-licks several times, including a herd of seven (Ahmad Zafir, WWF Malaysia pers. comm. 2008); and Temenggor, where individual animals (no herds) were camera-trapped nine times (never at salt licks, always on logging roads) in 2,364 trap-nights in 25 locations (Mark Darmaraj, WWF Malaysia pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, the status of Gaur is poorly known (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A March 1994 survey of Taminthi Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar's largest protected area, guessed that 100–200 Gaur remained, and that they were in danger of being extirpated from the area if current levels of poaching continued (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1995). A national Tiger survey camera-trapped Gaur in 11 of 15 camera-trapped sites, commonly in several (Lynam 2003); these sites were selected for their chances of holding Tigers, so, because the two species face similar threats, it may present the most positive picture of Gaur occurrence in the country.<br/><br/>In Nepal, the Gaur population was estimated to be 250–350 in the mid-1990s, with the majority in Chitwan National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve; population trends appeared to be relatively stable (J. Heinen pers. comm. to S. Hedges 1995). A few other areas hold small numbers (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>In Thailand, an estimated total of 920 Gaur remained in 1994. Only 6–7 populations were thought to contain 50 or more animals and there were no Gaur outside protected areas. The most important protected areas for Gaur were Khao Yai National Park, Tap Lan National Park and Pang Sida National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaeng Krachan National Park and Mae Nam Phachi Wildlife Sanctuary, the Khlong Nakha complex, and possibly Om Koi and Mae Tuen Wildlife Sanctuaries. Even in protected areas with much suitable habitat Gaur densities were very low, for example in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary the population density was less than 50% of the estimated carrying capacity of the area (Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1995; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000). Gaur populations are probably now increasing in several sites in Thailand, notably in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, with effective tackling of poaching. In Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, sign monitoring in one small area (20 km²) over six years since poaching absolutely ceased indicated an annual population growth rate there of 0.31, although the relative contributions of birth and immigration could not be distinguished. Breeding herds became much more common, compared with the situation 10–15 years previously at the height of poaching (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In the Khao Paeng Ma reforestation site adjacent to Khao Yai National Park  the population apparently expanded from two to 100 Gaur in less than 10 years, initially reflecting recolonization but apparently mostly from reproduction among animals at the site, all within a 10 km² area of secondary forest. The population stabilized at about 100 animals during 2004–2007 (based on counts from hilltops). As the forest grows and browse and grass diminish, reproduction is likely to decline (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). This herd has flourished only by dint of the provision of 24-hour security (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). Numbers also seem to be expanding rapidly in Kuiburi National Park in southern Thailand, again from an artificially lowered population and again within a secondary forest area adjacent to semi-evergreen forest. In early 2008, a (temporary) herd of almost 50 animals was spotted by elephant-watchers in a tree hide; only a few years previously, there were probably far fewer than this in the whole area (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). By contrast, Gaur is largely gone from southern Thailand forest remnants, although it may be safe on the Malaysian border, reflecting tight control of illegal access and activities by the Border Patrol Police, and the danger of operations because of insurgency (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, the current status of Gaur is poorly known. Several areas in Dak Lak Province (the Easo and Easup areas and Yok Don National Park) were known to contain Gaur in 1997 (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997) but very little reliable information was traced for other parts of the country by Duckworth and Hedges (1998). Several herds of Gaur persist in Cat Tien National Park and in adjacent state forest enterprises (Polet and Ling 2004). There seems little room for doubt that the Gaur population is in serious decline, and many of the sites reported in Duckworth and Hedges (1998) may now have lost the species.	eng
2891	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Hedges, S., 2008	The set of threats and the gravity of each threat to Gaur differs greatly between south and central India, and Southeast Asia; China and most of northeast India are more similar to Southeast Asia in this respect (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008), and are so treated in the following discussion.<br/><br/>In Indochina, Myanmar, and northeast India, hunting is the major problem, compounded by loss of suitable habitat: large tracts of suitable habitat hold few or no Guar. Ongoing habitat degradation and conversion is continually reducing the potential population, should hunting be brought under control (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Duckworth and Hedges 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; Choudhury 2002; Steinmetz 2004; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; R.J Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is often for meat and a variety of methods is used (Choudhury 2002). There is also a flourishing international trade in Gaur parts, both horns (decorative) and internal organs (for medicinal purposes). Given the small size of the remaining Southeast Asian subpopulations and the number of trophies found for sale in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Myanmar during essentially opportunistic surveys, trade is clearly a major threat (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Baird 1993; Srikosamatara and Suteethorn 1994, 1995; Martin and Phipps 1996; Srifa La-Ong <em>et al</em>. 1997; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). The most important population in Cambodia is scattered through a forest landscape that encompasses four provinces (Mondulkiri, Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri) and five conservation areas (Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Protection Forest (including the Srepok Wilderness area) and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary). Hunting is still rife in much of this area, and forest fragmentation is rapidly accelerating with human population immigration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction. However, although perhaps less than 20% of this area is well protected from the aforementioned threats and protected area management is only close to effective in two areas, the most significant constraint to the area’s Gaur is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area and Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area. Although conservation efforts for Gaur and many other species are, in both these areas, extremely encouraging, both face an uncertain future with the possibility of degazettement of conservation status of parts of them, the possible loss of adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the possible loss of political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated well trained staff. Almost throughout Southeast Asia, protected areas are not yet stalling declines in mammals with commercial value, such as Gaur. Areas with stabilized populations (in addition to the two Cambodian areas, perhaps only a few areas in Thailand (see Population) and Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam) are exceptional (R. Steimetz pers. comm. 2008; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Surprisingly, given its retention of healthy populations of other high-value very large mammals (Tiger and Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 for elephants), Malaysia has among the most rapidly declining populations of Gaur. This reflects targeted hunting for large mammals of high commercial value, even within protected areas (Abdul Kadir 1998; Wan Shahruddin 1998; Lynam 1999; DWNP/Danced 2002; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Given the rapid decline within the 1990s and the lack of information traced since 2002, the exact current situation of Gaur in Malaysia is unclear. Kemasul Forest Reserve, where the species was found in Laidlaw’s (2000) survey of virgin jungle reserves, probably no longer exists as such. Even at the time of survey, most of the Forest Reserve was due to be converted into an <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantation, although still nominally a Forest Reserve. Kemasul was, long ago, part of a massive block of lowland forest which included the famous Jengka Triangle and Krau "Game" Reserve. Only Krau remains, albeit much reduced (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). Even Krau, which was set up (in 1923) principally for the protection of Gaur, numerous in the area then, faces multiple threats (R. Dunlop pers. comm. 2008). In the surveys for DWNP/DANCED (2002), evidence of hunting, including cartridges, was found within the reserve, particularly in the easily accessible lowland areas; there were plenty of hunting stories by and about all of the different local communities, without exception, although their preferred target species differed. Conversion from natural forest to other land-uses of adjacent state-land combined with new ease of access has undoubtedly made Krau more of a focal point for such activity. There is a new (metalled) road and land conversion right up to the boundaries, facilitating access and easing the use of hunting methods such as spotlighting, as well as reducing habitat. The salt licks (for which Krau used to be famous) increasingly fall outside the forest (reflecting shrinking reserve boundaries and farmland encroachment into the reserve) and are now mostly in zones of high human activity of one sort or another. Temporary grasslands generated through traditional indigenous farming, which were often fairly difficult to get to and thus relatively free from hunting, were previously important Gaur habitat. A forester who used to work in Malaysia in the 1940s said that Gaur herds used to follow the Orang Asli settlements, moving in when they moved out, and Weigum (1972) even recommended "...to maintain herds in the park it is recommended that 45 acres of land be clear-cut preferably in 15 acre plots ½ mile apart and be recut every three years". Gaur meat is, or at least was being, sold at restaurants in placed like Cameron and Grik.<br/><br/>In south and central India, densities are likely to be widely below ecological carrying capacity, through hunting and competition with domestic livestock, although this conclusion is based on rather few empirical studies and there are some outstanding populations in well-secured protected areas. Substantial declines and local extinctions of Gaur were driven by hunting (for meat), competition with livestock, and habitat conversion, particularly during the first half of the twentieth century, resulting in a drastically reduced and fragmented distributional range, especially outside the protected area network (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is much less prevalent than in Southeast Asia, reflecting the general enforcement of wildlife protection laws (Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Nonetheless, even in high-profile reserves, it is still suppressing densities significantly. For example, densities in Bhadra Tiger Reserve are very low, because of poaching, by comparison with what the habitat should support (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the measured density in a heavily hunted area of Nagarahole National Park was only a third of that in a well secured area (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). Even though all hunting is illegal in this protected area, preventive measures are uneven across it, and Gaur is still poached, at least sporadically, wherever protection effectiveness is low (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). In recent years Gaur, has reportedly been exterminated from three Indian protected areas, Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bhandhavgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Kanger Valley National Park (Madhya Pradesh) (Pasha <em>et al</em>. 2004). Interaction with domestic stock is greatly under-appreciated as a threat to Gaur, but is probably the main factor which currently limits populations in south and central India: livestock are widely grazed even in otherwise well-managed protected areas. Mean densities of Gaur were fully 132 times higher in livestock-free areas than in adjacent livestock-grazed areas of Bandipur, and in shared grazing areas Gaur densities declined sharply with increasing livestock densities; in the grazed area studied, halving the livestock density allowed increases of Gaur by a factor of 57 (Madhusudan 2004). Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>, and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but the effects of these on Gaur populations warrant further study. Killing of Gaur in retaliation to crop damage (through consumption and trampling) occurs, but is of limited significance to conservation (Choudhury 2002; Farshid Ahrestani pers. comm. 2008). Some animals also die from ingestion of agrochemicals, and human response when wandering into farmland and villages; these could be significant for already isolated and reduced populations (Choudhury 2002).<br/><br/>Throughout the range, diseases, particularly rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease, transmitted by domestic cattle are a potentially serious threat. Foot-and-mouth is the most frequent, but rinderpest has had a particularly dramatic impact in India and several sub-populations of Gaur were nearly destroyed as a result of the disease in 1968 (Krishnan 1972; Pal and Guin 1986; Choudhury 2002), while in Bhadra, it nearly wiped out Gaur populations in 1988–1989, when nearly 800 individuals died (Girish D.V. pers. comm. 2008). In north and central Myanmar anthrax was a major factor in the decline of the species (Salter 1983). Pasha <em>et al</em>. (2004) considered that “in fact no wild animal in India [is] so profoundly influenced by transmitted infections from domestic livestock as Gaur”. There is little research or other evidence to determine impacts of introgression with domestic oxen on Gaur populations, although such factors might be expected to be most serious in India, given the wide overlap of domestic stock with Gaur. Farshid Ahrestani (pers. comm. 2008) saw a Gaur herd of 20 individuals far from human habitation with one domestic ox in the Palni Hills, so it seems likely that introgression occurs to at least some extent.<br/><br/>Srikosamtara and Suteethorn (1995) drew attention to the pressing threats facing Gaur, placing it in the same league of trade-driven threat as better-known species such as Tiger and Asian Elephant, and emphasising the international dimension of trade. Subsequently, the population collapse in Malaysia seems to have been driven by hunting teams from Lao PDR and Thailand (as proven by language at hunting camps in Temenggor), co-opting local Malaysian associates (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). It is reasonable to expect that when returns in Malaysia drop (as they probably have done already) these teams may turn their attention to other countries’ Gaur populations.	eng
2892	conservation	Harris, R.B. & Leslie, D., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Wild Yak have been protected in China since 1962, and are currently listed as a Class I protected animal, which means that they are totally protected by the central government. Within China, wild yaks exist in a number of large nature reserves, including the Arjin Shan, Chang Tang, Kekexili, Sanjiangyuan, and Yanchiwan Nature Reserves, although none of these reserves provide complete protection from habitat loss or occasional poaching.<br/><br/>In India, the species receives total protection under The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (IUCN-ELC in litt. to Hedges 1991).	eng
2892	distribution	Harris, R.B. & Leslie, D., 2008	Historically, this species occurred throughout the Tibetan Plateau, including China (Gansu, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai), northern India (Ladak), and Nepal (Schaller and Liu, 1996). According to Smith and Xie (2008), the species apparently occurred in Kazakhstan, Mongolia and southern Russia until the 13th-18th centuries, although these countries are not included on the IUCN Red List country list or range map, given the uncertainty surrounding the dates of extinction, and whether they occurred in these places after the year 1500, the cutoff date for recording extinctions on the IUCN Red List.<br/><br/>The species is considered extinct in both Nepal and Bhutan. Until recent decades wild yak penetrated northern Nepal (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994), but there is no evidence that the species still occurs in Nepal and is considered extinct in the country. In India, the species is currently known from Ladakh region of Kashmir (Schaller and Liu 1996, Ul-Haq 2003).<br/><br/>In China, the species occurs in scattered populations on the Tibetan Plateau (Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet), with the main populations remaining in the Chang Tang Reserve, covering 284,000 km² between in northern Tibet (Schaller and Liu, 1996, Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004), as well as in the Arjin Shan area of southeastern Xinjiang, and  Kekexili Nature Reserve in Qinghai and adjacent areas of the Kunlun Mountains (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Harris and Loggers 2004, Schaller <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are also isolated populations north and south of the main population, in the west central Tibet, south-central Qinghai, and western Gansu.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) mentions the existence of feral populations in a few places within China, but these do not appear to have conservation significance.	eng
2892	habitat	Harris, R.B. & Leslie, D., 2008	Wild yaks live in the alpine tundra, grasslands, and cold desert regions of the northern Tibetan plateau (Wiener <em>et al</em>. 2003). These mountainous areas range from 4,000 to 6,100 m elevation. In the Chang Tang Reserve in northwestern Tibet, the average annual precipitation is only 100–300 mm, much of it falling as hail and snow; lakes are generally saline and surface water is scarce. Temperatures can fall below -40°C. Vegetation is sparse, and is dominated by grasses, sedges, forbs, and low or procumbent shrubs; much of it can be classed as alpine, or high cold steppe (Schaller and Gu 1994). The species moves seasonally, descending into lower valleys in the winter (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994, Smith and Xie 2008). It feeds mostly on grasses and sedges, with some forbs. Yaks are gregarious, often aggregating into groups of > 100 individuals, although smaller groups of 10-20 are also common. Adult males often travel with females and young, although older males will often form small groups of 2-5, and travel separately from maternal herds.	eng
2892	population	Harris, R.B. & Leslie, D., 2008	Schaller and Liu (1996) estimated  8,000–8,500 wild yaks in Tibet, of which about 7,000–7,500 were in the Chang Tang Reserve (284,000 km²), plus about 3,200–3,700 in Qinghai Province, and about 2,000–2,500 in Xinjiang. These figures were, of necessity, a combination of estimates and inferences, but they suggest that the world population of wild yak was probably about 15,000 in 1995 (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1994, Schaller 1998). The population trend is downward in many areas: wild yak in the southern 24% of Chang Tang have been almost exterminated with the arrival of pastoralists since the 1960s. The Arjin Shan Reserve (Xinjiang Uygur) had a substantial subpopulation in the late-1980s, but the subpopulation declined precipitously in the early-1990s (Achuff and Petocz 1988; Schaller and Liu 1996). However, at least one area in Qinghai, locally termed “Wild Yak Valley”,  has retained a high abundance of wild yaks (approximately 1,700 counted in 2002), with no evidence of decline (and possibly an increase) from the early 1990s through at least 2007 (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Harris and Loggers 2004; Harris 2007; Harris, unpublished data, 2007). Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2007) tallied 977 wild yaks during a winter-time transect through the northern Chang Tang and Kekexili Nature Reserves into the western-most part of the Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>In India, only a very few Wild Yak remain, with some individuals moving seasonally into the Ladakh region of Kashmir from areas controlled by China (Schaller and Liu 1996; Ul-Haq 2003).	eng
2892	threats	Harris, R.B. & Leslie, D., 2008	Poaching, including commercial poaching for meat, has been seen as the most serious threat to wild yaks (Schaller and Gu 1994; Miller and Schaller 1997; Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999). Males tend to be more vulnerable to hunting, especially by motorized hunters, because they tend to disperse away from the hill bases and high ridges apparently preferred by females (Schaller and Gu 1994). However, with the confiscation of weapons in most of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, poaching has declined as a threat to yak populations. However, wild yaks have limited tolerance for disturbance from people and their livestock; they tend to move away from areas where livestock are herded. Increasing livestock herds and increased intensity of pasture use displaces wild yaks and ultimately reduces availability of wild yak habitat (Harris 2007).<br/><br/>Interbreeding between domestic and wild yaks also presents a threat to the remaining Wild Yak populations (NRC 1983; Khan 1984; Schaller and Liu 1996; Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999; Smith and Xie 2008). Diseases transmitted from domestic livestock, either directly or via other wild species, may be an additional threat, although this has not yet been documented. Schaller and Gu (1994) documented low recruitment in a wild yak population in the Chang Tang Reserve in 1990. Only 6.7% of the total population sample (n=586) in the Aru basin of Chang Tang Reserve were young of that year; in the nearby Yalung basin the figure was only 5.3% (n=114). Even fewer young were recorded in 1992: only 1.0% of the population (n=315) comprised young animals and only one yearling was seen (n=225) in the Aru basin. It is unknown whether this reproductive failure was due to disease - e.g., brucellosis, which can cause spontaneous abortion - or to high levels of postpartum mortality (Schaller and Gu 1994).<br/><br/>Where wild yaks have held on or increased in numbers, interactions and conflicts with domestic pastoralists have recently increased (including abducting domestic yaks into wild herds, and in some cases, damage to humans or their property; Tsering <em>et al</em>. 2006). This has the potential to increase retaliatory killing (although it presently appears to be rare).<br/><br/>If domestic livestock can be kept out of the large nature reserves containing wild yaks, their persistence is likely. However, the geographic range of wild yaks has evidently continued to contract toward the west, with herds east of the Golmud-Lhasa highway increasingly small and isolated (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
2893	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occur in numerous National Parks and other Protected Areas in India (particularly Gir N.P., Ranthambore N.P., Sariska N.P. and Kumbhalgarh Sanctuary), although most of the population occurs outside of protected areas (Rahmani 2001). Considered sacred by Hindus because of resemblance to the cow so rarely persecuted.	eng
2893	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Widely distributed in India and in the lowland zone of Nepal, extending into border areas of Pakistan where it is rare. Now extinct in Bangladesh.	eng
2893	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occur in arid areas, scrub, dry deciduous forests and agricultural areas, but avoid dense forest and deserts. They are both browsers and grazers (Rahmani 2001).	eng
2893	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Rahmani (2001) estimated that the Indian population could exceed 100,000. Locally common to abundant in agricultural areas in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. No figures are available for Nepal. Numbers are very low in Pakistan. About 37,000 feral nilgai are established on Texas ranches.	eng
2893	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Considered an agricultural pest in parts of India and, although legally protected in India, legislation has been amended to permit hunting when crop damage becomes excessive. Hunting and habitat destruction have had an adverse effect in Pakistan and Bangladesh (Rahmani 2001).	eng
2917	distribution	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	<em>Bothrops insularis</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island, off the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil (Campbell and Lamar 1989).	eng
2917	habitat	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	The species occurs in lowland rainforest areas.	eng
2917	threats	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	The main threat to the species is the destruction of habitat.  Large areas of the island have been destroyed through repeated burning.  The continuation of such activities threaten the survival of the species.	eng
2957	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
2957	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the arid regions of the country (Smith and Xie 2008). This includes deserts from northern Xinjiang through northern Gansu to western Nei Mongol north of the Tien Shan (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
2957	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occupies semi-permanent sand dunes with heavy shrub cover or dunes that lie close to wooded areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It constructs relatively simple burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
2957	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is characterized as occurring at lower densities than other species of gerbil (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
2957	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
2963	conservation	Beauvais, G.P., Sequin, E., Rachlow, J., Dixon, R., Bosworth, B., Kozlowski, A., Carey, C., Bartels, P., Obradovitch, M., Forbes, T. & Hays, D., 2008	General: Greater sage-grouse range overlaps with <em>B. idahoensis</em> range. Conservation of sage-grouse is a big issue and a federal listing may occur. Conservation of sage-grouse will likely benefit <em>B. idahoensis</em> to a significant degree. However, fire is being used to restore shrub-steppe and sage-grouse range in places, and although agencies are starting to include <em>B. idahoensis</em> in planning, it does not always happen (Hays 2004).<br/><br/>Washington: <em>B. idahoensis</em> from the Columbia Basin are federally listed as endangered. A recovery plan is being prepared, a captive breeding program is in place, habitat acquisition is proceeding, habitat management has changed, surveys have proceeded, reintroduction sites have been selected, and reintroduction techniques have been developed (Hays 2004). The reintroduction plan involves intercross breeding of <em>B. idahoensis</em> from the Columbia Basin with intraspecific rabbits from Idaho because of the bottleneck of genetic diversity caused by an extremely small population size (Sayler <em>et al.</em> 2007). The plan outlines reintroductions in 2007, followed by monitoring through the year for survival, dispersal, and reproductive success, and then a second reintroduction in early 2008 to augment the established population (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). In March 2007, the first reintroduction of 20 rabbits bred by the Oregon Zoo were released in Douglas county, Washington, eight of which will be tracked by radio collar (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Wyoming: In Wyoming, <em>B. idahoensis</em> occurs on Fossil Butte National Monument; small population segments may extend onto Seedskadee and Bear River Meadows National Wildlife Refuges. These are all rather small and isolated protected areas. The vast majority of <em>B. idahoensis</em> populations in Wyoming occur on surfaces managed for multiple uses by the USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM). A lesser amount of state and private land within the BLM matrix also supports rabbits. The USDA Forest Service may manage some small population segments at the high-elevation periphery of the species distribution. B. idahoensis is on the Sensitive Species list of the Wyoming State Office of the BLM, which requires that agency to consider the effects of management actions on <em>B. idahoensis</em> (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada: There is increased awareness but otherwise no conservation actions for <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada. B. idahoensis populations are located in the Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge, as well as in the Great Basin National Park (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>California: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is located at Mono Lake and Bodie State Historic Park and receive protection in these areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: Surveys are being conducted throughout the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon and additional surveys are planned for fall 2004 and 2005. A Master's student is studying habitat at Sheldon NWR. Also, a small telemetry project is underway. The BLM and Hart Mountain National Wildlife Refuge are now surveying for <em>B. idahoensis</em> prior to management activities such as road work and controlled burns (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Oregon Zoo has provided a source population for reintroductions of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in the Columbia Basin, Washington (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Utah: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is listed in Utah as a Species of Special Concern, and has been the focus of three ambitious grants designed to assess the effects of current land treatment practices on B. idahoensis, to examine historical trends in habitat loss, and to develop a statewide habitat model to increase management efficiency of the species (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>Idaho: Current actions include increased survey efforts to document the occurrence of <em>B. idahoensis</em> within its range, and research into its ecology and habitat requirements. Captive breeding has been established for the Columbian Basin DPS and experimental reintroductions have been initiated for the species. Loss and/or modification of habitat include agricultural and urban development, invasive weeds, and changes in fire frequencies (Rachlow 2004). In 2004, 42 captive-bred rabbits were released into the wild at the Idaho National Laboratory for a study intended to evaluate techniques to be used for future Columbia Basin, Washington population reintroductions. Less than half survived more than 18 days, but survival may have been more successful if release pens were more protected from predators and if the rabbits had been released farther apart (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Montana: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is listed as a species of special concern by Montana Natural Heritage Program (Rauscher 1997).	eng
2963	distribution	Beauvais, G.P., Sequin, E., Rachlow, J., Dixon, R., Bosworth, B., Kozlowski, A., Carey, C., Bartels, P., Obradovitch, M., Forbes, T. & Hays, D., 2008	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> occurs throughout the Great Basin and neighbouring intermountain areas, in sagebrush habitat from southwestern Montana and western Wyoming in the east to southwestern Utah in the southeast and an isolated population in central Washington. The range also includes central Nevada to northeastern California, to the north in eastern Oregon and southern Idaho (Dobler and Dixon 1990). Within this wide range, it occurs in patches correlating positively to the density of sagebrush (Dobler and Dixon 1990). <br/><br/>Washington:  <em>B. idahoensis</em> historically occurred in many areas of the Columbia Basin, but the sagebrush habitat has been heavily overgrazed and cleared completely for agriculture in many places.  The population in Washington is now isolated from other populations (Dobler and Dixon 1990). <br/><br/>Idaho: Known populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> are patchy but locally abundant in some areas within the valleys of the east-central region (Lemhi, Birch Creek, Big and Little Lost, and Pahsimeroi Valleys). Recently, isolated populations have been located in Owyhee County in the southwest of the state. Isolated populations also have been documented in the south-central region on the Camas Prairie (Rachlow 2004a).<br/><br/>An understanding of the current status and distribution of populations is limited by sampling effort; intensive surveys for populations have not been conducted in most areas. Within Idaho, agricultural and urban development of the Snake River Plains likely represents a significant barrier dividing populations north and south of the Snake River. Some populations north of the Snake River connect to those in southwestern Montana (including populations on the Continental Divide). South of the Snake River, populations likely connect to those in neighboring states (Oregon, Nevada, and Wyoming). The Idaho Conservation Data Center (IDCDC) has approximately 180 records of the species in the program's geospatial database, comprising both recent and historical records of occurrence. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) recommends that the area of occupancy be computed by overlaying the distribution of known occurrences with a uniform grid and tallying the area of occupied grid cells. Using a 2-km grid, we calculated the area of occupancy to be 748 km² using IDCDC records. Two important sites are the Idaho National Environmental and Engineering Laboratory (INEEL) and the Lemhi Valley, BLM lands south of Salmon, Idaho. Both areas have received significant research currently or in the past, and both support large populations of pygmy rabbits (Dixon and Bosworth 2004).<br/><br/>Wyoming: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Wyoming appears to be widespread throughout the sagebrush-dominated portions of the Bear and Green River Basins.  In the Bear River, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is consistently found in good numbers at Fossil Butte National Monument. In the Green River, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is consistently found to the south and west of the towns of Pinedale and Boulder. B. idahoensis appears to be widespread in the western quarter of the Great Divide Basin as well. The Jack Morrow Hills are known to support several occurrences. There is a single occurrence in the Sweetwater River Basin, just across the divide from the Great Divide Basin, documented in 2003; this signals the need for more sampling in the Sweetwater to determine the actual distribution there. This is the only known occurrence of the species on the east side of the Continental Divide in Wyoming (Beauvais 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: The range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon has not been determined. Recent surveys have found rabbits in Lake, Harney, Malheur, and Deschutes counties. Known areas include Foster Flat, Warner Valley, and north of Sheldon National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) (Carey <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: Occurrences of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Utah listed in Oliver (2004) have been augmented since the document's printing. Initial survey efforts have focused on the determining of presence or absence, but systematic searches in suitable habitat over large geographic ranges have given us a measure of relative densities. The top three most populous areas include the Western Box Elder County, Northern Rich County, and the Piute/North-western Garfield County. Within these areas, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is considered relatively common. The most notable absence of rabbits occurs throughout the central portion of Utah's Great Basin, which was included in historical estimates of the rabbit's statewide range (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>California:  They occur in Mono County California and are abundant from the Bodie Hills to south of Mono Lake.  No pygmy rabbits have been relocated to northern California but surveys are on going (Sequin 2004).  A recent survey found <em>B. idahoensis</em> present throughout the southern portion of its historic range in California, but did not find active sites in Modoc and Lassen counties in northern California (Larrucea and Brussard 2008).  <br/><br/>Nevada: B. idahoensis is found from the state border in the north to the northern end of Nye and Lincoln Counties in the south and from the state border in the east to Vya, Nevada in the west.  The pygmy rabbit is still found in most of the higher intermountain regions in the Great Basin Desert of Nevada (Sequin 2004).  A recent survey found <em>B. idahoensis</em> present throughout the entire extent of its historic range in Nevada (Larrucea and Brussard 2008).<br/><br/>Montana: They are known from the extreme southwest corner of Montana (Dillon south to Idaho border) (Hays 2004).	eng
2963	habitat	Beauvais, G.P., Sequin, E., Rachlow, J., Dixon, R., Bosworth, B., Kozlowski, A., Carey, C., Bartels, P., Obradovitch, M., Forbes, T. & Hays, D., 2008	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> mainly occupies big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), especially where the vegetation is very dense. It forms burrows in soft, deep soils, in areas such as alluvial fans, often burrowing into a slope or rise in land elevation (Dobler and Dixon 1990).<br/><br/>As observed in captivity, free-ranging females construct natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. The natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often are located at the base of shrubs (Rachlow <em>et al.</em> in prep). Preliminary observations based on radio-telemetry in the Lemhi Valley, Idaho, suggest that <em>B. idahoensis</em> moves longer distances than previously documented (more than 7 km for adults, and more than 6 km for juvenile rabbits) (Rachlow <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/><br/><em>B. idahoensis</em> is preyed upon by coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>), badgers (<em>Taxidea taxus</em>), weasels (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), bobcats (<em>Lynx rufus</em>), great horned owls (<em>Bubo virginianus</em>), long-eared owls (<em>Asio otus</em>), northern harriers (<em>Circus cyaneus</em>) (Dobler and Dixon 1990) and red foxes (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) (Green and Flinders 1980).<br/><br/>Wyoming: In Wyoming, <em>B. idahoensis</em> appears to follow the general accepted patterns of habitat use: an affinity for tall and dense sagebrush growing on friable soils. A few documented observations are from areas with only short and sparse sagebrush; there is some speculation (and only speculation) that <em>B. idahoensis</em> can occupy this type of habitat when wind is persistent enough to keep even short sagebrush exposed in the winter (i.e. the true habitat requirement is sagebrush exposed in winter, which in most areas is tall sagebrush, but in a few windy sites may be otherwise). Alternatively, these observations may represent juveniles dispersing through non-typical environments. In landscapes where short and sparse sagebrush is the matrix surrounding island patches of tall and dense sagebrush, <em>B. idahoensis</em> can be reliably found in the islands. Several field workers in south-west Wyoming have independently remarked that <em>B. idahoensis</em> tends to be most frequently found in an elevation band from approximately 6,500-7,500 ft (Beauvais 2004).<br/><br/>Nevada: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada seems to have similar habitat preferences as rabbits found in other states. They require loamy soils with big sagebrush. They can be located throughout entire valleys, but when not, they generally tend to be found in the largest, most dense clumps of sagebrush on appropriate soils. They have been located in areas with practically no understory (example: Reese Valley) as well as in areas with a heavy understory of forbs and bunch grasses (Sheldon Preserve). There may be competition between <em>B. idahoensis</em> and cottontail rabbits. Areas with high understory often have both rabbit types while areas with moderate understory only have cottontails. These cottontails have been found to be living in burrows that may have originally been made by <em>B. idahoensis</em>. In areas with practically no understory, <em>B. idahoensis</em> has been found with no cottontails (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>California: <em>B. idahoensis</em> in California has similar habitat requirements to those in Nevada. However, the rabbits around Mono Lake are found in soils that have a higher sand content than populations found in Nevada. They are often found in "loamier" inclusions in stabilized sand dunes. Also, the rabbits in the Bodie area live at very high elevations (8,400+ ft). These rabbits are found in loamy soils in relatively low sagebrush (about 2-3 ft). They are still more likely to be found in the largest and densest sagebrush in the area (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: Habitat use by <em>B. idahoensis</em> as inferred from burrow placement and distribution of pellets indicates preferential use of the densest patches of sagebrush available on the landscape. Use of sagebrush species (<em>Artemisia tridentata tridentata, A. t.vaseyana, A. t. wyomingensis</em>, and <em>Artemisia arbuscula</em>) and heights (30 -160 cm) varies considerably with elevation and latitude. It should also be noted that numerous sites considered by range specialists to be "overgrazed" (maintains its sagebrush over story, but exhibits substantial loss of grass and forb understory) contained large numbers of <em>B. idahoensis</em>. This, combined with their use of roadsides and disturbed edge, indicated that rabbits in Utah seem relatively flexible in their use of habitat, given sagebrush maintains proper canopy cover. Extensive snow tracking has been conducted in populations of the Wyoming Basin (Rich County). Initial analysis of non-dispersal movements indicated regular movements of 0.5-1.0 km within the first six hours after a fresh snowfall (Kozlowski 2004).	eng
2963	population	Beauvais, G.P., Sequin, E., Rachlow, J., Dixon, R., Bosworth, B., Kozlowski, A., Carey, C., Bartels, P., Obradovitch, M., Forbes, T. & Hays, D., 2008	Washington: The Columbia Basin population of <em>B. idahoensis</em> was extirpated as of 2004 (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007), and is federally listed as endangered. A captive population exists with 21 Columbia Basin specimens of <em>B. idahoensis</em> and 26 rabbits crossed and backcrossed with <em>B. idahoensis</em> from Idaho (Hays 2004). Specimens taken to establish founding population for reintroduction had low reproductivity and high disease susceptibility, probably as a result of inbreeding depression. Intercrossing with <em>B. idahoensis</em> from Idaho was successful in restoring genetic diversity and increasing reproductive levels (Sayler <em>et al</em>. 2007). In March 2007, 20 rabbits were released as part of a reintroduction program in Douglas County, Washington (Oregon Zoo 2007). <br/><br/>Wyoming: The Wyoming Natural Diversity Database (WYNDD; University of Wyoming) has on file 93 records of B. idahoensis observations documented in Wyoming. Very few populations have been studied enough to draw reliable conclusions as to size or trend. The population at Fossil Butte National Monument as been studied at various times in the past, and appears to be rather abundant and persistent. In general, field biologists with good knowledge of <em>B. idahoensis</em> habitat can find individuals with relative ease within the known range of the species in Wyoming. In 2003, WYNDD biologists surveyed two areas outside of known range in the state; <em>B. idahoensis</em> was documented at one of these sites (Sweetwater River watershed, described above). Appropriate habitat is rather abundant and contiguous in southwest Wyoming; cheatgrass has not impacted this area to any great degree (yet) (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada and California: Sizes of populations and abundances of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in an area vary. Certain populations in Nevada are composed of vast expanses of burrows. Other populations may include only one burrow system with only about two rabbits photographed at the site. However, we do not know how far these rabbits can disperse and so do not know what constitutes a single population. Once an area is found to contain <em>B. idahoensis</em>, they are often located throughout the valley in reasonable numbers. Fragmentation of populations is largely unknown since we do not know much about dispersal potential. I have photographed juvenile rabbits in areas with no burrows, a long way from any known burrow sites. These rabbits may potentially be able to travel farther than we think as long as cover is provided. Fragmentation is a serious issue when fires or agricultural fields remove cover from vast areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: In 2000, a survey was conducted at 17 historical sites active in 1995 in southeast Oregon and only three sites contained evidence of current use by <em>B. idahoensis</em>. A 2001-2002 survey of 38 historical sites found evidence of recent use at only one location. However, recent surveys at new sites with habitat attributes preferred by <em>B. idahoensis</em> found evidence of rabbit use. On the Burns BLM district, 54 sites were surveyed and 12 sites showed signs of occupied rabbit use and undetermined use at 8 sites (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Utah: The more surveys that are conducted, the more rabbits are found. Populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in the Wyoming Basin, Great Basin, Colorado Basin, and Wasatch Mountains all appear to sustain habitat with robust numbers. It should be noted that to date, little to no attention has been paid to analyzing the density, genetic isolation, or trends of these populations (although surveys to increase our knowledge of these three issues are currently underway). It appears that the habitat that has remained intact since the last statewide examination of B. idahoensis in the 1940s also continues to maintain populations. Although it is clear that significant populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> (both in terms of area and numbers) still inhabit Utah, overall loss of habitat has occurred since the 1950s, rendering large portions of their historical range unsuitable (Eastern Box Elder County, Central Great Basin, Southwestern Utah) (Kozlowski 2004).<br/><br/>Montana: Rauscher (1997) includes Horse Prairie, Big Sheep Creek, Sage Creek, Centennial Valley, the Sweetwater Basin, The Blacktail Wildlife Management Area, Antelope Flats, and the White Rocks as <em>B. idahoensis</em> range.<br/><br/>Idaho: In Idaho, known populations of <em>B. idahoensis</em> are highly fragmented, with the exception of the east-central valley region (Rachlow 2004b).	eng
2963	threats	Beauvais, G.P., Sequin, E., Rachlow, J., Dixon, R., Bosworth, B., Kozlowski, A., Carey, C., Bartels, P., Obradovitch, M., Forbes, T. & Hays, D., 2008	General: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is dependent on big sagebrush (<em>Artemisia tridentata</em>), it is particularly sensitive to habitat loss. Fires that are more frequent due to the increase of invasive cheatgrass, conversion to cropland and rangeland are contributors to loss of sagebrush habitat. Isolation of populations due to fragmentation of suitable habitat cause bottlenecks that threaten subpopulations. Dispersal is limited in fragmented populations, because <em>B. idahoensis</em> will not cross large open areas (Dobler and Dixon 1990).<br/><br/>Washington: In Washington, <em>B. idahoensis</em> is threatened by loss of deep soil shrub-steppe habitat, increase in fire frequencies due to cheatgrass invasion. Fires have the potential to remove sagebrush from vast areas. A recent fire in Washington State burned 66,000 hectares just outside the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em>. There are 417,000 hectares within the historic range of <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Washington with soil types where rabbits have been located. Of that amount, 27,000 acres remain in shrub-steppe today, and much of that has been degraded through fire and agricultural practices. Change in abundance and foraging of native predators due to habitat change are potential threats range wide that are largely unstudied (Hays 2004).<br/><br/>Wyoming: Although cheatgrass is not yet a major problem in southwest Wyoming, it is thought to be only a matter of time before it begins to dominate here as it has in states to the west. Also petroleum exploration and development is expected to increase markedly here, with consequent increase in sagebrush removal, alteration of fire cycles, increased road density, and increased potential for cheatgrass and other noxious weed establishment. Habitat managers appear to support more prescribed burning of tall and dense sagebrush, primarily to increase forage for big game and improve habitat for sage grouse. There is only occasional attention being paid to how this might harm <em>B. idahoensis</em>, as well as other vertebrates with similar habitat affinities (e.g. sage thrashers, sage sparrows). Heavy livestock grazing has the potential to reduce habitat quality for <em>B. idahoensis</em>, but it is important to recognize that southwest Wyoming was historically grazed by bison and white-tailed prairie dogs (<em>Cynomys leucurus</em>) with the latter species persisting into the present. Grazing by domestic sheep, cattle, horses, and feral horses occurs today, but was probably more intense and pervasive in the early 20th century and <em>B. idahoensis</em> are presumed to have persisted through that period. Disturbance of habitat in the vicinity of Bear Lake (ID) may reduce the already tentative connectivity between Wyoming populations and those to the west (Beauvais 2004). <br/><br/>Nevada and California: The main threat to <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Nevada and California is fragmentation due to vast fires. (These fires have extirpated populations from entire valleys and without leaving any cover behind may not allow rabbits to repopulate the area.) This is a severe problem that will most likely become greater with increasing cheatgrass invasion across Nevada. Agricultural fields are also a threat. Not only are they usually placed on the same loamy soils  the rabbits prefer, but they also create a potentially impassable barrier and may increase the habitat suitability for cottontails. Road systems may also be a larger barrier to dispersal that we may think. In nighttimes road transect surveys in areas with known ratios of jackrabbits/cottontails/ <em>B. idahoensis</em>, <em>B. idahoensis</em> was consistently significantly underrepresented. This may be due to their reluctance to cross open areas (Sequin 2004).<br/><br/>Oregon: Threats to <em>B. idahoensis</em> in Oregon include fire (natural and managed), flooding, conversion to agriculture, exotic plants, decadence and overgrazing. The accumulative effects of the threats have contributed to habitat fragmentation and the isolation of populations (Carey <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Utah: The primary threat to <em>B. idahoensis</em> at this time is habitat loss. Loss occurs as a result of human development (historic losses: Wasatch Front north of Salt Lake; current losses: southwestern portion of the state in the vicinity of Cedar City), conversion to cultivated agriculture (northwestern portion of the Great Basin), degradation of plant communities due to overgrazing (widespread), increased fire frequency due to invasive weed understory (Great Basin), and large scale range improvement projects favouring the creation of large openings in mature sagebrush (Wyoming Basin, Lower Wasatch Range). As populations get smaller and more isolated, predators and disease may play more prominent roles as threats (Kozlowski 2004). <br/><br/>Idaho: <em>B. idahoensis</em> is threatened in Idaho by loss and/or modification of habitat including agricultural and urban development, invasive weeds, and changes in fire frequencies (Rachlow 2004b).<br/><br/>Montana: Rauscher (1997) mentions fragmentation of <em>B. idahoensis</em> habitat resulting from projects to improve rangeland for cattle as a threat (sagebrush is removed). He qualified that by stating that the rabbit is somewhat resilient and has the ability to use sites that were previously disturbed.	eng
2964	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
2965	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
2982	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
2982	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known from Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and throughout Lesser Antilles south to St. Vincent and Barbados (Simmons, 2005).	eng
2982	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	The biology of this bat is poorly known. Individuals have been observed in a variety of habitats ranging from the xeric Guanica State Forest to the mesic Luquillo Experimental Forest, in Puerto Rico. It roost in caves; however, it is present in some habitats where cave are absent, indicates that it can uses other roosts. Its diet consists of insects, pollen, and especially fruit (like mango, papaya, and sapodilla). It forages in the canopy or take fruit that has to fallen to the ground. Information about it reproductive patters are fragmentary (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Twelve females from the Island of Caicos carried similar-sized fetuses in March (Buden, 1977), and on St. Croix from one colony gave birth during a three-week period in late May and early June (Bond and Seaman, 1958; Nellis and Ehle, 1977 in Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). They have also been found roosting in buildings and other man-made structures (Allen, 1939).	eng
2982	population	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is one of the most commons fruit-eating bats in some Caribbean Islands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
2982	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There are no major threats at present.	eng
2983	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
2983	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica (extinct, known only from fossils), Grand Cayman (Cayman Islands, UK), and Middle Caicos (Simmons, 2005).	eng
2983	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is highly gregarious and large colonies are found in caves (Silva-Taboada, 1979). This bat can occur in the same cave together with other species (Brachyphylla, Erophylla and Phyllonycteris). On Cuba, this species was found to be carrying embryos from December through May, with lactation occurring from May to August (Silvia-Taboada, 1979). Twelve females collected in March on Middle Caicos were pregnant; and one female captured on August was lactating. Its diet includes fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects; however, in captivity it can feed on banana. It species leave the caves last after sunset (Swanepoel and Genoways, 1983).	eng
2983	population	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	It is among the most common and widespread bats of Cuba and the Isle of Pines (Silva-Taboada, 1979). In Haiti it is rare (Klingener <em>et al.</em>, 1978 in Swanepoel and Genoways, 1983).	eng
2983	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	In Middle Caicos is known from only one cave (Davalos pers. comm.). Population in Hispaniola and Middle Caicos are small (Davalos pers. comm.).	eng
2991	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Analamazaotra Special Reserve, the Mantadia National Park and the Ranomafana National Park. It may be present in the Andohahela National Park. There is a need to protect the forest habitat of this species, including adding more protected areas.	eng
2991	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar, where it ranges from the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud Massifs south to Vinanitelo, south of Fianarantsoa and may range as far south as the Parc National d'Andohahela. The records of this species are patchy across the presumed distribution. It occurs at elevations of between 450 and 1,600 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
2991	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This is a nocturnal, arboreal species of the eastern humid forest. This species is strictly forest dependent. The nests are made in tree holes and hollowed portions of standing tree trunks within 2.5 m of the ground (Carleton and Goodman 2003). Individuals in captivity have produced litters of up to six young (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
2991	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is not commonly recorded, because of its nocturnal, arboreal habits. One of the poorest known rodents in Madagascar (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
2991	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat caused by shifting agriculture, charcoal production and wildfires. Additionally, this species is hunted, unlike other rodents, as local people consider it to be analogous to a lemur (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
2993	conservation	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is recorded from the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro (28,267 ha) (Câmara 1995; Marroig and Sant`Anna 2001)<br/>Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Rio de Janeiro (11,800 ha) (Garcia and Andrade Filho 2002; Cunha 2003, 2004)<br/>Desengano State Park, Rio de Janeiro (22,400 ha) (Garcia 2005)<br/>Carlos Botelho State Park, São Paulo (37,432 ha) (Pacaganella 1991; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1987; Talebi and Soares 2005)<br/>Intervales State Park, São Paulo (45,000 ha) (Petroni 2000)<br/>Alto Ribeira State Park (55,000 ha) (UNESCO 1999)<br/>Lauráceas State Park, Paraná (23,000 ha) (possibly: Koehler <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/>Xitué Ecological Station (3,095 ha) (Gonzalez-Solis <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/>Paraiso Ecological Station, Rio de Janeiro (5,000 ha) (Garcia 2005)<br/>Cairuçú Environmetal Protection Area (APA), Rio de Janeiro (33,800 ha) (Vaz 1998; Garcia 2005)<br/>Guaraqueçaba Environmental Protection Area, Paraná (283,014 ha) (Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. 1994; Koehler <em>et al</em>. 2005<br/><br/>A long-term research site was set up in the Carlos Botelho State Park in 1986 and the NGO Associação Pró-Muriqui was set up in 2000 to ensure continued research activities in the park and elsewhere in São Paulo (Talebi and Soares 2005)<br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) was held for both species of <em>Brachyteles</em> in 1998 (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1998), which sparked a series of surveys in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and Bahia. In 2002, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) set up the Committee for the Conservation and Management of the Muriqui (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>There is a small, but promising, captive breeding programme for the species (Coimbra- Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Pissinatti <em>et al</em>. 1998; Pissinatti 2005). Captive breeding has been problematic due to low levels of reproduction and poor infant survival. Some zoos in São Paulo (for example, Sorocaba and Santos) receive wild-born muriqui pets every year, originating mostly from palm-harvesters and hunters who have killed the mother. Investment in a well-managed breeding programme helps greatly enhance our understanding of the primates and provides a backstop for population extinctions in the wild.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
2993	distribution	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	According to Aguirre (1971), <em>Brachyteles arachnoides</em> was to be found in climax montane forests at altitudes of 600 to 1,800 m above sea level, in well-preserved remnants of seasonal and evergreen forests in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. It occurs north as far as the southern slopes of the Serra da Mantiqueira, running approximately east-west in southern Minas Gerais, northern São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993). Its stronghold today is in the montane forests of the Serra de Paranapiacaba (Talebi and Soares 2005). Based on a reference of Krieg, cited by Hill (1962, pp.252–356), Aguirre (1971) considered the southern limit of the range of the species to be about 25ºS, in the region of the Rio Ribeira in Paraná. Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. (1994) informed of two localities where they found muriquis in Paraná. One was in the municipality of Jaguariaíva, the other in the Guaraqueçaba Environmental Protection Area, near to 25ºS, corroborating the southern limit of Aguirre (1971). The first locality is in the municipality of Sengés, on the banks of the Rio Jaguaricatu, and the second is in the south of the state of São Paulo (Koehler <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Koehler <em>et al</em>. (2005) provide details of its known range on northern Paraná. These authors carried out surveys for <em>B. arachnoides</em> along the rios Açungui, Ribeira, Turvo, Santana and Ponta Grossa and, farther east, on the rios Grande and São Sebastião (all affluents of the Rio Ribeira marking the state limits of Paraná with São Paulo). Throughout the region, the only remnant forest of any considerable size is that of the Lauráceas State Park of 23,000 ha, in a montane region of the municipalities of Adrianópolis and Tunas do Paraná. It is quite probable that muriquis will be found there.	eng
2993	habitat	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Inhabits submontane and montane evergreen tropical forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil.<br/><br/>Studies of feeding ecology have been made in the Carlos Botelho State Park (Moraes 1992a,b; Talebi <em>et al</em>. 2005), the Fazenda Barreiro Rico by Milton (1984) and Martins (2003a,b, 2005b, 2006) and the Intervales State Park (Petroni 1993, 2000).<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight  10.2 kg (n=1) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)<br/>Adult female weight 8.5 kg (n=1) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)	eng
2993	population	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The estimated total population is 1,300 individuals (Melo and Dias 2005). The largest single population of muriquis is evidently that in the Carlos Botelho State Park.	eng
2993	threats	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The geographical distribution and status of the southern muriqui populations in São Paulo are still poorly known. Hunting (Lane 1990) and habitat loss and fragmentation are the main threats. The southern muriqui has been extirpated throughout the lowland (plateau) forests of São Paulo, Paraná and Rio de Janeiro, except at one site: the Fazenda Barreiro Rico in Sao Paulo (Milton and de Lucca 1984; Martins 2005b). Today, its populations can only otherwise be found in remote montane forests of the Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Although occurring in relatively large expanses of protected forest, it seems they occur naturally at lower densities in these areas than in smaller, fragmented forests. All wild muriqui populations are declining.<br/><br/>The following are the current principal threats to the southern muriqui as outlined by Talebi and Soares (2005):<br/><br/>Forest loss. Less than 7% of the muriqui’s forests remain, and much of what does is highly fragmented. Deforestation has occurred as a result of logging, intensive land-use for subsistence and commercial farming (for example, coffee), timber plantations (eucalyptus and pine) and cattle ranching, through urban expansion, and highway construction and general infrastructure development, both regional and national, such as dams and the leisure industry. Despite its protected status, the Paranapiacaba Ecological Continuum will always be under threat from developmental pressures such as these.<br/><br/>Hunting for sport. Historically, and even today in some areas, the muriqui is hunted for sport, a cultural trait that has remained from the earliest days of the colonization of São Paulo State by Europeans.<br/> <br/>Mining in the buffer zones of protected areas. This refers particularly to bauxite, sand, clay, and granite. These activities result in deforestation, erosion, flooding, and the silting and pollution of rivers and streams.<br/><br/>Illegal palm-harvesting in large areas of forest. The palm tree, <em>Euterpe edulis</em>, is endemic to the Atlantic Forest, and an economically important forest product. Palm tree harvesters (<em>palmiteiros</em>) camp in the forest and transport and process the palm hearts in glass jars, while still in the forest. Thousands of palm trees can be felled in just a few days. Populations of <em>E. edulis</em> are declining everywhere in areas where they used to be the dominant understorey tree. <em>Palmiteiros</em> hunt game, including muriquis, during their sojourns in the forest.<br/><br/>Most of these threats are repeated by Garcia (2005), who summarizes threats to this species in Rio de Janeiro as follows:<br/><br/>Although occurring in a number of protected areas, muriquis are under pressure from hunting, habitat loss and degradation, and disturbance from human activities everywhere they occur. In the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, for example, both adventure tourism (perhaps restricting the area that the muriquis will use) and hunting were evidently serious enough to be prejudicial to the small number of muriquis surviving there (Cunha 2005). There is hunting throughout the park. In the APA Cairuçú, the Paraíso Ecological Station, and in the region of Macaé de Cima hunting is also the key factor (Silva 1987; Martuscelli <em>et al</em>. 1994). Garcia (2005) found that both hunting and deforestation by squatters are threats in the Desengano State Park. The Itatiaia National Park would seem to be comparatively free of hunting, and habitat loss is probably the key issue with the constant presence of people living in the park, of tourists, the threat of fires, and the illegal exploitation of plants such as palms for palm hearts (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
2994	conservation	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Caparaó National Park, Espírito Santo (31,853 ha) (Gomes and Melo 2005)<br/>Itatiaia National Park, southern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (28,155 ha)<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo (3,573 ha) (Pinto <em>et al.</em> 1993)<br/>Mata Escura Biological Reserve, Minas Gerais (50,890 ha)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park, Minas Gerais (1,488 ha) (Fontes <em>et al.</em> 1996; Moreira <em>et al.</em> 2003; Ferraz <em>et al.</em> 2005)<br/>Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais, (35,976 ha)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park, Minas Gerais (13,210 ha) (Moreira <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/>RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (Caratinga Biological Station), Minas Gerais (957 ha)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego, Minas Gerais (180 ha)<br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) was held for both species of <em>Brachyteles</em> in 1998 (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1998). This has now resulted in a series of surveys in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and Bahia. As from 1983, the Caratinga Biological Station was the only long-term field for research on this species (Strier and Boubli 2006), but following the PHVA workshop long-term research was also initiated in Espírito Santo, Santa Maria do Jetibá by the Instituto de Pesquisas da Mata Atlântica – IPEMA and the Federal University of Espírito Santo. The use of population viability modeling has been continued since then as a tool for conservation planning for muriquis (Strier 1993/1994; Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a; Brito and Grelle 2006).<br/><br/>In 2002, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) set up the Committee for the Conservation and Management of the Muriqui (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>From 2001 to 2003 the Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological Diversity (Projeto de Conservação e Utilização Sustentável da Diversidade Biológica Brasileira – PROBIO), of the Ministry of the Environment (MMA), approved financing for three projects for the conservation and management of the northern muriqui. They are coordinated by three NGOs, the Instituto de Pesquisas da Mata Atlântica – IPEMA, the Fundação Biodiversitas, and the Instituto Dríades. Two important meetings resulted from this, the first in January 2003 in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Espírito Santo, and the second in March 2004 in Belo Horizonte. They provided the information and directives for the elaboration of a management plan for the species (in prep., see Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a).<br/><br/>Currently there are research programmes on, and conservation initiatives for, muriquis being carried out in six locations, four in Minas Gerais (RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala, RPPN Mata do Sossego, and Serra do Brigadeiro and Rio Doce state parks) and two in Espírito Santo (Caparaó National Park and Santa Maria de Jetibá). These studies and initiatives cover about 90% of the entire population of <em>B. hypoxanthus </em>(see Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Besides population monitoring and ecologicall/behavioural studies, research is being carried on population genetics (Fagundes 2005; Chaves <em>et al.</em> 2006), parasite incidence and ecology (Stuart and Strier 1995; Pissinatti 2005), and captive breeding, veterinary aspects, nutrition, husbandry and management (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a; Pissinatti 2005).<br/><br/>There is a small but promising captive breeding programme for the species (Coimbra- Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Pissinatti <em>et al.</em> 1998; Pissinatti 2005).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
2994	distribution	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The range of the northern muriqui (<em>B. hypoxanthus</em>) covers the Atlantic forest of the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Bahia, excluding the lowland forests in the extreme south of Bahia and northern Espírito Santo. According to Aguirre (1971), the northern limit to its range was probably the Rio Jequiriçá basin, which flows into the Baía de Todos os Santos, and including the forests of the right bank of the Rio Paraguaçu. The southern limit is more poorly defined, but it probably extended to the Serra da Mantiqueira, in southern Minas Gerais, near to the state boundaries with Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo (Aguirre 1971; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1987; Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993; Strier and Fonseca 1996–1997).	eng
2994	habitat	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Inhabits the humid coastal forests of the Serra do Mar to the semideciduous forests inland in the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais.<br/><br/>Almost all of the information available on the ecology, behaviour, reproduction and demography of the northern muriqui comes from a single population at the Caratinga Biological Station (Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala), Minas Gerais. There, muriquis have been systematically monitored and researched since 1982 (Fonseca 1985; Strier 1987a,b, 1993/1994, 1999, 2000; Strier <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2006).<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight 9.25-9.6 kg (mean 9.4 kg, n=3)  (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)<br/>Adult female weight 6.9-9.3 kg (mean 8.33 kg, n=3) (Lemos de Sá and Glander 1993)	eng
2994	population	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The minimum known population in 2005 was 855 individuals (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a), broken down as follows:<br/><br/>Caparaó National Park (Espírito Santo), Federal protected area (31,853 ha) – minimum population 82<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve and vicinity (Espírito Santo), Federal protected area (3,573 ha) 14 (Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993; Vieira and Mendes 2005).<br/>Mata Escura Biological Reserve (Minas Gerais), Federal protected area (50,890 ha – minimum population 28 (Melo <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2004; Melo 2004)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (Minas Gerais) State protected area (35,976 ha) – minimum population 124 (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a,c)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (Minas Gerais), State protected area (1,488 ha) – minimum population 7 (the muriqui population is largely in forest fragments outside the state park) (Moreira <em>et al</em>. 2003; Oliveira 2003; Ferraz <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (Minas Gerais), State protected area (13,210 ha) – minimum population 226 (Moreira <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Alto Cariri (Minas Gerais/Bahia), privately-owned (18,000 ha) – minimum population 7 (Melo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2004; Melo 2004).<br/>Fazenda Córrego de Areia (Minas Gerais), privately-owned (494 ha) – minimum population 13 (Hirsch <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station (RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala) (Minas Gerais), privately-owned (957 ha) – minimum population 226 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a,c)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego (Minas Gerais), Fundação Biodiversitas (180 ha) – minimum population 41 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005a,c)<br/>Santa Maria de Jetibá (Espírito Santo), privately owned (+2,000 ha, encompasses a group of 13 partially isolated forest fragments) – minimum population 84 (Mendes <em>et al</em>. 2005b)<br/>Fazenda Esmeralda (Minas Gerais), privately owned (44 ha) – minimum population 3 (Melo <em>et al</em>. 2005)<br/><br/>In summary, the northern muriqui can be found in 12 sites, six on private land, three in state protected, and three in federal protected areas. Combined, these areas total about 158,665 ha and a minimum known number of 855 individuals (Mendes <em>et al.</em> 2005a).	eng
2994	threats	Mendes, S.L., de Oliveira, M.M., Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species survives in much reduced and isolated populations – none of which alone are believed to be viable in the long term—none exceed 500 individuals, and the largest known is that in the RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (about 230 individuals).<br/><br/>The main threats to the species have been hunting for food and sport accompanied by the widespread destruction of its forests, but although hunting is relatively infrequent today, the rarity and small size of the populations of these animals means that even the loss of a few individuals can have serious impacts. As the number of protected areas increases, hunting will have less of an impact. The remnant populations in the fragmented forests of the montane region of Espírito Santo (Santa Maria do Jetibá) have survived only because hunting has long been discouraged by the local communities there. Despite some fairly extensive remaining forests in the north of its range, very few muriquis survive today, and those in only the remotest areas, because of the predisposition of the local people (in Bahia particularly), to hunting.	eng
2995	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Control of pollution and ecological management of wet areas are needed.	eng
2995	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Iran to the south coast and center-east of Turkey. About 35 localities are now known for this species.	eng
2995	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Pools, swamps, gravel pits, barrage lakes, and slow flowing streams.	eng
2995	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
2995	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Pesticide and other pollution, drainage and destruction of swamps.	eng
2997	conservation	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Ranomafana National Park (Jansa and Carleton 2003). Further studies into the natural history, population, and distribution of this species are needed.	eng
2997	distribution	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern-central highlands of Madagascar. The northern limit of its range appears to be southeast of Lac Alaotra, the southern limit seems to be the Andringitra Massif. However, it may range further north of Lac Alaotra (Jansa and Carleton 2003). The elevational range is from 1900 to around 2,600 m asl.	eng
2997	habitat	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is associated with heathland, lush wet meadows, marshy wetland areas, grasslands and scherophylous forest. Animals can be found in abandoned rice fields (Jansa and Carleton 2003). The females are suspected to have a maximum of two young.	eng
2997	population	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	There are no good abundance data, but even in some areas outside of forest it is remarkably common. In some open grassland pseudo-steppe habitat, the species is common (Langrand and Goodman 1997).	eng
2997	threats	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	In some of the areas where this species occurs, there is habitat loss through conversion to cultivated land, fires and fragmentation of habitat. Some areas of habitat conversion may be beneficial for the local abundance of this species. This species may be suffering competition in abandoned rice fields from the introduced black rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) although further studies are needed to confirm this (Jansa and Carleton 2003).There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
2998	conservation	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is present in the Andringitra National Park. There is a need to further research the distribution, population and natural history of this species. There is an importance for conserving the Marolambo-Fandriana forest corridor.	eng
2998	distribution	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it has been recorded from three sites in the south-eastern lowlands (the type locality of Ampitambe, Amboasary, and the Andringitra Massif) and most recently the Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, near Andapa. Additional collections are needed to better establish the extent of the species' range between the former three localities and the much more northerly Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, since there have been inadequate surveys for this species in the areas between the known localities. For example, it has recently been found in the forest of Marolambo (D. Rakotondravony and M. Raherisehena, unpubl.). It has been recorded at elevations of between 900 and 1,960 m asl (Jansa and Carleton, 2003).	eng
2998	habitat	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from both montane and sclerophyllous forest. Animals have been caught on the ground close to extensive tunnel networks associated with tangled roots (Jansa and Carleton 2003). As far as currently known, this is a forest dependent species.	eng
2998	population	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species appears to be hard to capture, so there are no reliable estimates of abundance.	eng
2998	threats	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss from agriculture and fire. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
3009	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3012	conservation	Tolley, K., 2009	This species was listed in the 1988 South African Red Data Book as Restricted (Haagner 1989). A global assessment by IUCN in 1996 categorized it as EN (B1+2c) under the version 2.3 criteria. This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Much of its distribution is protected (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010). Further research is required into the threats affecting the species and to confirm its area of occupancy.	eng
3012	distribution	Tolley, K., 2009	This species has a fairly continuous distribution along the coast from St. Lucia estuary, northwards into southern Mozambique (Tolley and Burger 2007).&#160;&#160;It is found from 0 to 100 m above sea level. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,600 km², within which it has an estimated area of occupancy of 4,400 km²<sup></sup> (Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
3012	habitat	Tolley, K., 2009	This species inhabits coastal dune forest where it can be found amongst the undergrowth (Haagner 1989) and in trees (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010). It has been found on tall grass stems along a small stream running through a suburb (Haagner 1989) as well as in urban gardens (Branch 1998), indicating that this species may be able to tolerate moderately anthropogenic environments.	eng
3012	population	Tolley, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
3012	threats	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is threatened by the loss of coastal dune forest due to land use change for crops, plantations, and livestock. Mining takes place north of Richards Bay, however, it is unknown if this poses a major threat to the species.	eng
3017	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3023	conservation	Tolley, K., 2010	Part of this species' distribution coincides with protected areas, and all species of this genus are listed on CITES Appendix II. This species has been previously assessed as Critically Endangered under B1+2c by IUCN in 1996, using version 2.3 criteria.<br/><br/>Research into the population status and monitoring of the populations is recommended to determine if this species may qualify for a higher or lower threat category in the future.	eng
3023	distribution	Tolley, K., 2010	This species is native to South Africa. The type locality is near Algoa Bay (Tolley and Burger 2007). The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is approximately 5,850 km²<sup></sup>, within which its area of occupancy is estimated as 400 km²<sup> </sup>(K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3023	habitat	Tolley, K., 2010	This species inhabits mountain fynbos habitat (Branch 1998), where it is often found on fine-leaved and fine-structured vegetation, particularly members of the family Restionaceae (Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
3023	population	Tolley, K., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
3023	threats	Tolley, K., 2010	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats to this species. Figures for fynbos habitat in general suggest that around 7.5% of the mountain fynbos habitat is currently under agricultural land uses (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), with pine plantations driving much of the conversion (Branch 1998). Invasive alien plants also threaten this montane habitat, as 89.9% of the mountain fynbos has been invaded at low densities, with 2.3% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). However, within this species restricted range the remaining fynbos habitat does not appear to be under threat, and in some areas of plantation there is slow conversion back to fynbos (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><br/>This species does not feature significantly in the national and international pet trade.	eng
3036	conservation	Chiarello, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas (e.g. Poço das Antas Biological Reserve; União Biological Reserve; Desengano State Park). In view of the low genetic diversity within fragmented populations, there is a need to develop corridors of suitable habitat between these populations. Confiscated animals should be genetically characterized to determine the most appropriate release site.	eng
3036	distribution	Chiarello, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is restricted to the Atlantic coastal forests of eastern Brazil. Historically, it possibly occurred throughout the coastal forest of Bahia through to the state of Pernambuco (footnote by O. Pinto in Wied's 19th century account). At present, the southern part of the state of Bahia is the primary stronghold for the species. There are unconfirmed reports of this species from the state of Alagoas; however, the extensive deforestation of suitable habitat in this state suggests that it is unlikely to survive there. There is a natural biogeographic gap in northern Espírito Santo, because of natural deciduous forest in the valley (Chiarello pers. comm.). The species does not occur from the left bank of Doce River to the vicinity of Mucuri River. It has been reported from extreme northern Minais Gerais on the left bank of Jequitinhonha River. The species has been introduced to Caparão National Park and other areas, although it is not known if the species is still present at these sites. The species ranges from sea level to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
3036	habitat	Chiarello, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This largely arboreal species is found in tropical coastal forest, most typically in areas with an annual precipitation of at least 1,200 mm. It can be found in secondary forest habitats, and animals have been recorded from forest fragments as small as 50 ha, although the long-term persistence of populations at these sites is unknown. It is possible that the species is not found in semi-deciduous forest. It is a strict folivore that has a relatively small number of food plants. Animals descend from trees once a week to urinate, defecate or move to another tree. The females give birth to one young annually; there is no information available about the age at which sexual maturity is reached.	eng
3036	population	Chiarello, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	In some parts of Bahia and Espírito Santo, the animals are locally abundant in forest fragments (Chiarello pers. comm.), although the population density is not well known. Studies of population genetics indicate that there is no gene flow between the populations of southern Bahia (Ilhéus) and Espiríto Santo (Santa Teresa) and those of Poço das Antas. It appears that eastern subpopulations may have been genetically distinct before the fragmentation of habitat. In general, there is little genetic diversity exhibited within individual populations (Lara-Ruiz 2004). Overall, the global population of this species is assumed to be decreasing in response to the continuing loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat.	eng
3036	threats	Chiarello, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	The coastal forest habitats of this species are diminishing rapidly, and becoming severely fragmented, as a result of lumber extraction, charcoal production, and clearance for plantations and cattle pasture. The species is also significantly threatened by excessive hunting (food and sport) and poaching (especially in Bahia). The genetic integrity of distinct populations is threatened by the release of confiscated animals at different sites without knowledge or understanding of their origins. Additional threats include accidental mortality of the species on roads, and predation by domestic dogs.	eng
3037	conservation	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
3037	distribution	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species occurs in the Guyana Shield region, from Venezuela south of the Orinoco (although its distribution crosses at the delta region) into northern Brazil (south to the Amazonas/Solimões), through to Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The species also has been found in eastern Colombia from the department of Caquetá (FMNH 140254).	eng
3037	habitat	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It has been recorded on tepuis.	eng
3037	population	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There is a preliminary population density estimate of 1.7 animals per km² from French Guiana (Tauber <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
3037	threats	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3038	conservation	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into variation between populations in this wide-ranging species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3038	distribution	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species ranges from Honduras in the north, through southern Central America. In South America, it ranges from Colombia into western Venezuela, and south into Ecuador, eastern Peru and Bolivia, into Paraguay, Brazil and northern Argentina (now considered to be extirpated). The species is historically absent from the southernmost states of Brazil and northeastern Argentina; the southernmost record of the species is at Londrina, in the state of Paraná, Brazil. It is now considered to be extinct in Argentina, being last recorded in 1916: the region where it occurred has been actively surveyed and no remaining populations have been located. The species is found from sea level to at least 2,400 m asl.	eng
3038	habitat	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It has been recorded from a number of forest types including seasonal mesic tropical forest, semi-deciduous forest (inland Atlantic Forest), cloud forest and montane tropical forest.	eng
3038	population	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is a locally abundant species. There are density estimates of up to 8.5 animals per hectare in Panamá and up to 9.9 animals per hectare in Costa Rica.	eng
3038	threats	Chiarello, A. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3069	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No research or conservation actions are currently&#160;prioritised&#160;for this species. However, it would be important to discover the influence of pollution from pesticides on this and other species in the genus. Population estimates are required in order to conduct monitoring, especially in areas of land transformation. It occurs in several protected areas, including Cape Peninsula National Park, Helderberg Nature Reserve, and Paarl Mountain Nature Reserve.	eng
3069	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the south-western Western Cape Province of South Africa, where it ranges from the central Cape Peninsula in the south, to west of Citrusdal in the north. There is a distribution gap in the Swartland. It ranges from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. Its Extent of Occurrence is 6,700 km<sup>2</sup>, with an Area of Occupancy estimated to be 10% of its Extent of Occurrence.	eng
3069	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a burrowing frog of renosterveld fynbos heathland. It also occurs in disturbed habitats, such as pine plantations and gardens and there is ongoing decline in its habitat over much of its range. It breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests with up to 22 froglets recorded for this species (Minter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), and is not associated with water.	eng
3069	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<span style="background-color: white;">It can be relatively common in parts of its range. Its distribution is not considered to be severely fragmented (as less than half of the individuals can be found in isolated patches) and it is estimated to occur in over 10 locations.</span>	eng
3069	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although it is somewhat adaptable, its habitat&#160;has been severely reduced and fragmented by&#160;agricultural expansion in much of its range and urban development in parts of its range. It is possibly impacted by the use of pesticides, and herbicides, and this might account for the apparent absence of the species from most renosterveld fragments in the Swartland, north of Cape Town.	eng
3070	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to establish conservation areas within the range of the species.	eng
3070	distribution		This species occurs on the Namaqualand coast of South Africa, north to Lüderitz in coastal south-western Namibia. It ranges from close to the high-water mark to 10km from the coast.	eng
3070	habitat		It is a fossorial species that lives in sand dunes vegetated with low, succulent shrubs and other xerophytic vegetation in the fog belt. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not associated with water.	eng
3070	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
3070	threats		The main threat to the species is loss of its habitat as a result of coastal opencast diamond mining. Development of roads, increasing pressure from human settlement, and changing land-use (e.g. increased grazing) pose additional threats.	eng
3083	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
3121	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
3121	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Hispaniola. The only report of this species is from Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdez who lived on the island from 1536 to 1546 and documented an animal called the Mohuy that matches the description of living spiny rats.	eng
3121	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
3121	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
3121	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Driven to extinction by introduced rats. Was hunted by Arawak Indians prior to European arrival.	eng
3126	conservation	Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, 2008	The species is listed on CITES Appendix I and fully protected under Indonesian law (Jahja 1987). Lowland Anoa occur in a number of protected areas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are several key protected areas thought to hold significant populations of this species, including Lore Lindu National Park, Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve on Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), as well as Lambu Sango Wildlife Reserve on Buton Island (Burton 2001). There is an ongoing status survey, as well as genetic and morphological research that aims to clarify the confusion that surrounds anoa systematics. A number of Lowland Anoa are in captivity, but the breeding program has been greatly hindered by the difficulties of assigning captive anoa to appropriate taxa. The captive population doubled in size in the 1990s, with around 125 individuals in zoos as of 1998. Of these, a small number are thought to be Mountain Anoa, although the taxonomic status of most individuals remains unconfirmed (Nötzold 1999).<br/><br/>According to Burton <em>et al</em>. (2005) this species requires the following conservation actions: (1) protection from hunting, (2) prevention of habitat loss at key sites, (3) complete genetic studies to better determine the taxonomy of this species, and (4) determination of the status of remaining populations. This species, as it is confined mainly to lowland areas, requires well established protected areas with protection from hunting a major priority. Law enforcement combined with education should be employed to reduce hunting pressure.	eng
3126	distribution	Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, 2008	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found only on Sulawesi and Buton Island off the southeast coast, with no records of either species of Anoas from other small neighbouring islands adjacent to Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), where it is found up to 1,000 m (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether the two putative species, <em>Bubalus depressicornis</em> and <em>Bubalus quarlesi</em>, are sympatric or parapatric in their distribution (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Across the island, local distribution of anoa species remains unclear, as they may occur in forest patches at different altitudes or sympatrically (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records of skulls and morphological descriptions of this species suggest it is present in the northern peninsular, as far east as the Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park. It is also found across the central region and ranging to the tip of the eastern and southeastern peninsulars, but no longer present in the south peninsular. The lowland anoa is also present in the central and north of Buton Island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Historically, anoa of one species or other were present throughout the majority of the island’s forests (Weber 1890, Sarasin and Sarasin 1901, Mohr 1921, Harper 1945, Groves 1969, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3126	habitat	Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, 2008	There is very little is known about the ecology and life history of the Anoas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Overall population densities were estimated to be 0.9 and 1.1 anoas/km² in Tanjung Peropa and Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Reserves, southeast Sulawesi, respectively (Mustari 2003). This species is found in both primary and secondary lowland forest, as well as swamp and mangrove forest (A. Priyono and G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006, Mustari 2003). Riverine and lowland forests were preferred by anoa compared to rocky-cliffs forest in Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve due to the availability of water sources, known food plants and fruit-bearing trees (Mustari 2003). In the past the species was reportedly common along coasts. Lowland Anoa are also found at high elevations in mountainous areas. Like other wild buffalo, Anoas wallow and bathe in pools of water and/or mud. It is probable that mineral springs or licks are also required, although Anoa are reported to drink seawater, which might fulfil their mineral needs in areas without licks or springs.<br/><br/>The species is solitary and is a browser, feeding on vegetation (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foead 1992). The typical life span in captivity is reported to be 20 to 30 years, with age at sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years old (in captivity), with typically one offspring per year (NRC, 1983; Jahja, 1987), though in wild conditions this may be less.	eng
3126	population	Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, 2008	There are to few data exist to accurately quantify the species' current abundance, nevertheless, they still appear to be distributed relatively widely within their known historical range on Sulawesi. There have been declines of this species throughout Sulawesi, especially in the southern and northeastern peninsulas, with the decline attributed to hunting for meat and habitat loss (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). The range is extremely fragmented, especially in the southern, northeastern and the south of the southeastern peninsulas of the island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005, B. Mannullang pers. comm. 2006). These declines probably began at the turn of the nineteenth century, with an increased decline rate from the 1980 to 2005 period (<em>circa</em> three generations), precipitously in some areas. The population size is unknown because there have been no island-wide surveys to estimate this, even for the largest populations. Estimating the population size is further complicated by the uncertain distribution of the two <em>Anoa</em> species. It is thought that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. Most populations are becoming rapidly fragmented, suggesting that conservation of viable populations may soon require management of subpopulations (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought no subpopulation exceeds 250 mature individuals. The threats to this species, and thus the declines, are more serious for this species than for the Mountain Anoa.<br/><br/>The Lowland Anoa populations in small reserves (e.g., Tanjung Amolengu Wildlife Reserve) and other forest fragments are threatened with local extinction. Even the populations in large protected areas and other large forest blocks are reported to be in decline as a result of heavy hunting pressure. O'Brien and Kinnaird (1996) report a 50 to 95% decline of this species in Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Northern Sulawesi in a 10-year period, with more recent surveys suggesting it is now locally extinct. The rate of population decline across their range is thought to be 20% over two generations (generation length of 7 to 9 years). The species’ ecology was studied recently in the Tanjung Peropa and Tanjung Amolengo Wildlife Reserves in southeastern Sulawesi.	eng
3126	threats	Semiadi, G., Mannullang, B., Burton, J., Schreiber, A., Mustari, A.H. & the IUCN SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, 2008	Land conversion to agriculture and hunting, mainly for food, are the two major threats to this species (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005), as well as gold mining and other activities related to the collection of non-timber forest product (A. Priyono pers. comm. 2006). Recent reports indicate that hunting is by far the more serious threat. International trade in live animals or body parts is not thought to present a serious threat.	eng
3127	conservation	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., de Leon, J., Custodio, C. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	The Tamaraw is listed on CITES Appendix I. Tamaraw receive total protection under Philippine law. The largest of the three known subpopulations occurs in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park. A small number of Tamaraw are held in captivity in the Philippines, but the captive breeding program has had no success. Of the 21 individuals captured around 1982, there were nine individuals remaining in 1997. As of  2006, two individuals remained, one of which is from the original population and one which was bred in captivity, and there are no further plans for captive breeding. The original captive breeding programme consisted of placing the animals in a semi-natural "gene pool" on Mindoro, but these animals were not intensively managed, nor were the husbandry techniques focused on building a large captive population.<br/><br/>Required research for this species includes an island wide population survey to determine if there are any additional extant populations. There is also a need for improved habitat conservation through effective management. In addition, the feasibility and need for a new captive breeding programme should be assessed.	eng
3127	distribution	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., de Leon, J., Custodio, C. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	The Tamaraw is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro (9,735 km² in area), where it was formerly widespread across the island (Hedges and Duckworth pers. comm. 2000, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, the current range is estimated to cover less than 300 km², in only two or three areas: Mount Iglit-Baco National Park (within the Iglit mountain range), Mount Aruyan/Sablayan, and Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve (Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, de Leon <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species was more widespread prehistorically in the Philippines, with Pleistocene epoch records from Luzon (Beyer 1957, in Kuehn 1986).	eng
3127	habitat	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., de Leon, J., Custodio, C. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	Formerly Tamaraw were found across the whole of Mindoro from sea level to the high peaks (to over 1,800 m), inhabiting open grassland or forest glades, thick bamboo-jungle, marshy river valleys, and low to mid-elevation forests (Rabor 1977). The species is currently confined to a few remote areas over 200 m, and is most often recorded in secondary forest and mixed forest/grassland (Kuehn 1986, Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Tamaraw are largely solitary, although females occur with offspring (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Males and females occasionally associate temporarily throughout the year (Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996), which is similar to other bovines species, such as African buffalo, banteng and gaur. The solitary nature of the species is probably an adaptation to forest habitats, where large groups would prove to be a hindrance (Eisenberg 1966, in Kuehn 1986). Tamaraw feed primarily on grasses, as well as young bamboo shoots, in open grasslands, resting within tall grasses or dense forest (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Although formerly diurnal, Tamaraw have become largely nocturnal due to human encroachment and disturbance (Talbot and Talbot 1966).	eng
3127	population	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., de Leon, J., Custodio, C. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	In 2006, three separate populations were known. Population estimates undertaken have increased in frequency and have benefited from improved techniques over time. The estimate of numbers of individuals has increased subsequently, but it is almost certain that these increases are a reflection of improved estimates rather than an actual increase in numbers of individuals. Based on recent surveys, the minimum total population is estimated at around 300 individuals with 60 to 70% of these mature individuals (de Leon pers. comm. 2006).  However, earlier field data suggested that the percentage of mature individuals was 35 to 59% (Oliver 1994, Custodio <em>et al</em>. 1996, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).The population on Mount Iglit-Baco, as of April 2005 was estimated to number approximately 269 individuals (the actual number might be slightly higher). The population on Mount Calavite (the most northerly site) in 2004 had an estimated 15 individuals based on faecal matter and animal tracks; there has been only one confirmed sighting. The population in Aruyan has an estimated 15 to 20 individuals, with six confirmed recent sightings (de Leon pers. comm. 2006). The population size is therefore around 300 animals, and the number of mature individuals is 105-210, depending on the percentage of mature animals in the overall population. An estimated continuing decline of 25% over the next three generations (approximately 30 years) does not seem unreasonable given that the number of subpopulations reportedly declined from five or six to three between 1990 and 2006.	eng
3127	threats	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., de Leon, J., Custodio, C. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	The main current threat to the Tamaraw is habitat loss due to farming by resettled and local people, with a high human population growth rates in and around its remaining habitat. In some areas, fires set for agriculture are a threat to the species' habitat. Cattle ranching and farming activities pose a number of threats, including the risk of diseases spreading to the Tamaraw from livestock and burning of pastures leading to a reduced number of palatable grass species. Historically, Tamaraw were hunted for both subsistence and sport, which led to a period of drastic decline in numbers of individuals and populations (Rabor 1977). Hunting was carefully regulated prior to World War II, but since then a growing human population, logging operations, ranching, and widespread availability of firearms on Mindoro have caused a dramatic decline in numbers (Talbot and Talbot 1966). Since the 1980s, sport hunting has reduced due to a decline in the Tamaraw population, closure of nearby ranches, and more intensive patrolling and awareness activities since the establishment of the protected area. International trade in this species or its derivatives has not been reported. Although protected by law, the illegal capture and killing of this species continues.	eng
3128	conservation	Semiadi, G., Burton, J., Schreiber, A. & Mustari, A.H., 2008	This species is listed in CITES under Appendix I, and fully protected under Indonesian law (Jahja 1987, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mountain Anoa occur in a number of protected areas. There are several key protected areas thought to hold significant populations of this species, including Lore Lindu National Park, Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve on Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is an on-going status survey, as well as genetic and morphological research that aims to clarify the confusion that surrounds anoa systematics. A small number of Mountain Anoa are in captivity, but the breeding program has been greatly hindered by the difficulties of assigning captive anoa to appropriate taxa. The captive population has around five individuals in a Mountain Anoa breed line (J. Burton pers. comm.), although the taxonomic status of most individuals remains uncertain (Nötzold 1999).<br/><br/>According to Burton <em>et al</em>. (2005) this species requires the following conservation actions: (1) protection from hunting, (2) prevention of habitat loss at key sites, (3) complete genetic studies to better determine the taxonomy of this species, and (4) determination of the status of remaining populations. Law enforcement combined with education should be employed to reduce hunting pressure.	eng
3128	distribution	Semiadi, G., Burton, J., Schreiber, A. & Mustari, A.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it is found only on Sulawesi and Buton Island off the southeast coast, with no records of either species of Anoas from other small neighbouring islands adjacent to Sulawesi (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has been typically recorded from 1,000 to 2,300 m, but can be found at near sea level (National Research Council 1983, Sugiharta 1994, G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). It remains uncertain whether the two putative species, <em>Bubalus depressicornis</em> and <em>Bubalus quarlesi</em>, are sympatric or parapatric in their distribution (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Across the island, local distribution of anoa species remains unclear, as they may occur in forest patches at different altitudes or sympatrically (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records of skulls and morphological descriptions of this species recently could only confirm that it was present across most of the Central region of Sulawesi and in the north of Buton Island (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, slightly earlier reports suggest the Mountain Anoa also occurs in the north peninsular and part way along the southeastern peninsular (Groves 1969). Both of these areas still sustain anoa populations, so these may include populations of Mountain Anoa. Identifying Mountain Anoa, and therefore their range, is made difficult by the fact that they cannot be differentiated from young Lowland Anoa. Historically, anoas of one species or other were present throughout the majority of the island’s forests (Weber 1890, Sarasin and Sarasin 1901, Mohr 1921, Harper 1945, Groves 1969, Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3128	habitat	Semiadi, G., Burton, J., Schreiber, A. & Mustari, A.H., 2008	There is very little is known about the ecology and life history of the Anoas (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is typically found in dense forest as opposed to more open subalpine habitats, and prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation (Foead 1992, Sugiharta 1994, G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Mountain Anoas typically live near abundant water sources in areas with low human activity (Sugiharta 1994), and in the past there are records at sea level. Like other wild buffalo, Anoas wallow and bathe in pools of water and/or mud. It is probable that mineral springs or licks are also required, although Anoa are reported to drink seawater, which might fulfil their mineral needs in areas without licks or springs. The species is solitary and is a browser, feeding on grasses and other vegetation (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foead 1992). The typical life span in captivity is reported to be 20 to 30 years, with age at sexual maturity at 2 to 3 years old (in captivity), with typically one offspring per year (NRC 1983, Jahja 1987), though in wild conditions this may be less.	eng
3128	population	Semiadi, G., Burton, J., Schreiber, A. & Mustari, A.H., 2008	Too few data exist to precisely quantify the current abundance of Mountain Anoa. Nevertheless, they still appear to be distributed relatively widely within their known historical range on Sulawesi. However, there is little doubt that they have been in decline (i.e., there has been a decrease in their range and abundance) since the end of the 19th century. They have declined over the 1980 to 2000 period (ca. three generations), precipitously in some areas. The population size is unknown because there have been no island-wide surveys to estimate this, even for the largest populations. Estimating the population size is further complicated by the uncertain distribution of the two anoa species. It is thought that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. There have been declines of this species throughout Sulawesi, especially in the southern and northeastern peninsulas, with the decline attributed to hunting for meat and habitat loss (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most populations are becoming rapidly fragmented, suggesting that conservation of viable populations may soon require management of metapopulations (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought no subpopulation exceeds 250 mature individuals. The current status of the species is consequently a matter for concern because even the subpopulations in large protected areas (e.g., Lore Lindu National Park) and other large forest blocks are reported to be in decline as a result of heavy hunting pressure. There are two areas where the declines have been most serious, Gorontalo and Buol Toli-Toli (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Overall, the decline rate is not well known, however, based on distribution surveys and questionnaires, the range of this species is retreating to the central parts of forested areas. The rate of population decline across their range is thought to be 20% over two generations (generation length of 7 to 9 years).	eng
3128	threats	Semiadi, G., Burton, J., Schreiber, A. & Mustari, A.H., 2008	The two major threats to this species are hunting, for food, and habitat degradation (Burton <em>et al</em>. 2005) due to agriculture, mining (gold mining) (G. Semiadi and D. Gunaryadi pers. comm. 2006). Illegal international trade in live animals or body parts is not thought to present a serious threat.	eng
3129	conservation	Hedges, S., Sagar Baral, H., Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Wild Water Buffalo is included in CITES under Appendix III (Nepal). It is legally protected in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Thailand. The Cambodia population was a major factor in the decision to place further protection on the area, now designated as Mondulkiri Protection Forest, and a significant factor in the decision to establish the Srepok Wilderness Area Project of the Cambodian Department of Forestry and WWF (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2003; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Most of the known populations are within protected areas. In Myanmar, which retains true lowland floodplains in near-natural state in the Hukaung Valley, the protected area system originally almost entirely excluded floodplain grasslands. The inclusion of some areas is now under consideration, and would benefit this species. However, the outcome is far from certain (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Most remaining populations still require protection from hunting (especially those in Thailand and Cambodia, and Myanmar if still extant), but probably the greater threat in South Asia is protection from contact with other domestic bovines, especially Domestic Water Buffalo. <br/><br/>There is an urgent need to evaluate the integrity of wild-living buffalo populations, including those generally taken as being truly wild and those living as wild animals within the native range, using habitat typical of wild animals, and which have lived outside even occasional husbandry for a long time, in order to determine populations of conservation priority. This should involve the assessment of the relationship of such populations in the context of obvious domestic lineages, especially those in close proximity to wild populations. Such an approach should use multiple genetic markers in addition to an assessment of morphological characteristics. <br/><br/>Surveys to investigate current status of wild-living populations are needed in Myanmar and perhaps the Satay district of Viet Nam.	eng
3129	distribution	Hedges, S., Sagar Baral, H., Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	During the Pleistocene epoch the genus <em>Bubalus</em> was widely distributed throughout Europe and southern Asia and contained forms conspecific with <em>B. arnee</em>. When the climate became drier the genus was restricted to the Indian subcontinent, mainland South-East Asia, and some of the South-East Asian islands. In historical times <em>B. arnee</em> ranged across South and South-East Asia, occurring from Mesopotamia to Indochina (Epstein 1971; Mason 1974; Cockrill 1984). <br/><br/>Remnant populations of Wild Water Buffalo are thought to occur at single sites in each of southern Nepal, southern Bhutan, western Thailand, eastern Cambodia, and northern Myanmar, and at several sites in India: in the Bastar region of Madhya Pradesh, in Assam, in Arunachal Pradesh, and possibly in Meghalaya, Orissa and Maharashtra.<br/><br/>Wild Water Buffalo is believed to be extinct in Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The domestic form (considered by IUCN as <em>B. bubalis</em>) occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide (Grubb 2005).<br/><br/>The situation in Indochina is less certain. Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam were not included within the range of Wild Water Buffalo given in Corbet and Hill (1992). Free-living buffalo of unknown pedigree occur throughout the region (e.g. Sayer 1983; Laurie <em>et al</em>. 1989; Salter <em>et al</em>. 1990; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) but Wild Water Buffalo is probably extinct in Viet Nam and almost certainly in Lao PDR (Groves 1996; Grubb 2005; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The origin and current genetic status of the herds of apparently wild buffaloes in Sri Lanka is uncertain but it is thought unlikely that any true wild buffaloes remain there today. Corbet and Hill (1992) included Sri Lanka within the historical range of wild buffalo, although Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951), Gee (1964), and Maia (1970) thought that the Sri Lankan buffaloes were descended from introduced domestic stock. Certain ancient texts seem to support this view (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). The fact that no buffaloes occur south of the Godavari river in India has also been taken to suggest that Sri Lanka possesses only feral buffaloes descended from introduced animals. However, Deraniyagala (1953), considered that the occurrence of fossil buffalo teeth in the gem sands of the Ratnapura area disproved this view, although it is not clear how old these buffalo teeth are (and Gaur remains found at similar depths in the same area were less than 1,000 years old). Moreover, morphometrics suggest that there was an ancestral population of animals on that island closer to Wild Water Buffalo than to Domestic Water Buffalo (Groves and Jayantha Jayawardene unpublished). Nevertheless, even if the Water Buffalo is indigenous to Sri Lanka the question of whether the free-living herds found there today should be treated as wild <em>B. arnee</em> still arises. In the nineteenth-century, free-ranging herds were common over much of the island’s dry low country but they were nearly eliminated by an outbreak of rinderpest at the end of the century, and for a time their survival was in doubt (Phillips 1935). Phillips reported that small populations might have survived in the hill country but the subsequent intensification of agriculture probably led to their demise (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). After the rinderpest outbreak buffalo recolonized much of the dry zone but most of them had apparently interbred with domestic stock and in 1953 Deraniyagala wrote ‘[the] relatively purest herds are restricted to Yala Game Sanctuary, but much vigilance will be necessary if this remnant is to be kept free from domestic animals which are now encroaching upon this once inaccessible area’. Woodford (1979) also suggested that the genetic integrity of the wild form has already been lost in Ruhuna. To conclude, even if it is assumed that Wild Water Buffalo once occurred on Sri Lanka it seems unlikely that they survived the rinderpest outbreak and the subsequent genetic swamping by feral and domestic buffalo: consequently all free-living buffalo populations on Sri Lanka almost certainly contain genetic input from domestic or feral stock.<br/><br/>Neither Java nor Sumatra are included within the original range of wild <em>Bubalus arnee</em> as presented in many accounts. Nevertheless Stremme (1911) thought that the occurrence of the fossil <em>B. palaeokerabau</em> in Java made it probable that the buffaloes there belonged to the original fauna of the island (as Cuvier believed). Merkens (1927) also doubted, on historical grounds, the domestic origin of all free-living buffaloes on the island as did Mason (1974) who stated that domestic buffalo were present on Sumatra and Java long before the Hindus arrived almost 2,000 years ago. Moreover Van der Maarel (1932) provisionally regarded the fossil specimens which he obtained from Java (and indeed <em>B. palaeokerabau</em>) as specifically indistinct from modern buffaloes, pointing to a Pleistocene presence of the species on the island (<em>cf</em>. Medway 1972). Corbet and Hill (1992) also thought it probable that wild buffaloes occur on Java and Sumatra. Despite the doubts raised by Van der Maarel and Dammerman there is in fact little doubt that all the apparently wild buffaloes now living on Java and Sumatra are descended from domestic animals, or from Wild Water Buffaloes that have interbred with domestic and/or feral buffaloes (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Opinion is divided over whether to include Borneo within the historic range of the species. Corbet and Hill (1992) did not list it, and neither Mason (1974) nor Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) considered it likely that Water Buffalo was part of the indigenous fauna. Lydekker (1898), by contrast, described the small buffalo of Sarawak as a separate subspecies (<em>B. b. hosei</em>), although Mason (1974) thought that Lydekker was probably describing the feral animals which were common there. Cockrill (1968) suggested that traders from the Hindu empire in Sumatra may have introduced the buffalo in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and he did not think that there was any convincing evidence that would suggest that it was an indigenous species. Nevertheless, animal remains from the Niah caves indicate a Stone Age presence of buffalo in Sarawak (Harrisson 1961). Van Strien (1986) also considered it probable that <em>Bubalus bubalis</em> was part of the original fauna of the island and gave north-west Borneo as its current distribution. Harrisson, however, thought that the wild form was extinct. Feral (and semi-feral) buffaloes were formerly numerous throughout Borneo but the current status of the island’s feral population is poorly known. What does seem certain, however, is that even if the species is indigenous to the island (as seems to be the case) no true wild <em>B. arnee</em> occur there today since they would have been genetically swamped by the numerous feral animals some of which were descended from buffaloes introduced from outside Borneo (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).	eng
3129	habitat	Hedges, S., Sagar Baral, H., Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Wild buffaloes are tied to the availability of water: historically their preferred habitats were low-lying alluvial grasslands and their surrounds, with riparian forests and woodlands also used (Lydekker 1926; Prater 1971; Choudhury 1994). In Indochina the species frequented the lowlands dominated by deciduous forests and with a marked dry season, where it apparently used small pools and marshes, in addition to permanently flowing rivers (Wharton 1957). Free-ranging domestic animals continue to live like this today; in such areas buffalo retreat to the vicinities of larger more permanent waterbodies during the height of the dry season, but move widely through the forests at other times of the year (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Before their major population decline, wild buffaloes were known to make long-distance movements with season, such that when an undoubted wild buffalo turned up in Panna district, India, some 225 km northwest of its nearest known present-day occurrence in Raipur district, this was not an unprecedented movement (Hasan 1980; Arun Singh 1980).<br/><br/>The upper elevational limit is difficult to determine, although animals certainly occur down at sea level; it possibly relates to a need for level land rather than preference for lower elevations, thus allowing for plateaux, and wild-living feral buffaloes live up to at least 1,000 m asl in East Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Little has been published on the diet of wild (or feral) Water Buffaloes. They are probably grazers by preference, feeding mainly on grasses when available, but they also eat herbs, fruits, and bark as well as browsing trees and shrubs. Daniel and Grubh (1966) listed <em>Cynodon dactylon</em>, <em>Themeda quadrivalvis</em>, and <em>Coix</em> sp., as grasses known to be eaten by wild buffaloes in India. They also saw them feeding on the sedge <em>Cyperus corymbosus</em>. Dahmer (1978), Shrestha (1981), and Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha (1986) provided a little information about the diet in Nepal. Wild Buffalo also feeds on crops, including rice, sugar cane, and jute, sometimes causing considerable damage (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha 1986; Bauer 1987b).<br/><br/>Wild Water Buffalo can be both diurnal and nocturnal. Typically, it forms maternal groups of loosely structured herds, typically containing 10–20, but up to 100, individuals, year round. Adult males form bachelor herds of up to 10 individuals, with older males often solitary. The species exhibits a polygynous mating system, with females typically giving birth to single offspring, although twins are possible. It is a seasonal breeder in most of its range, typically in October and November, however, some populations breed year round. Its gestation lasts 10-11 months, with an interbirth interval of one year. Age at sexual maturity is 18 months for males, and three years for females. The maximum known lifespan is 25 years in the wild (Nowak 1999).	eng
3129	population	Hedges, S., Sagar Baral, H., Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The total world population of Wild Water Buffalo is almost certainly less than 4,000 animals and may well be less than 200, occupying an area of less than 20,000 km². Indeed it is possible that no pure-bred Wild Water Buffaloes remain. However, these figures are little more than informed guesses, since any assessment of buffalo numbers is hampered by the difficulty of distinguishing between free-ranging domestic buffaloes, feral buffaloes, truly wild buffaloes, and hybrids between wild and other buffaloes. Individuals of Wild Water Buffalo and Domestic Water Buffalo are difficult to distinguish in some areas, and some domestic populations may be very closely related to (perhaps identical to) Wild Water Buffalo, as in Cambodia, where traditional forms of buffalo husbandry allow herds to range freely in forest areas (Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There have been few detailed analyses of the purity of the presumed remaining Wild Water Buffalo populations, nor in many cases is it obvious how such an assessment would be made. The Domestic Water Buffalo occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide, including in sympatry with most remaining populations of Wild Water Buffalo (Grubb 2005; S. Hedges pers comm. 2008). Some feral and domestic populations may well have conservation significance, retaining some of the genetic stock of the wild populations for that particular region, this may be especially true in Indochina due to traditional methods of Water Buffalo husbandry (S. Hedges pers comm. 1994, 2008; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In India, Wild Water Buffalo is now largely restricted to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. In Assam, the species is found in and around Manas Sanctuary, Laokhowa Sanctuary, Kaziranga National Park, and Dibru Sanctuary. In Arunachal Pradesh, the species occurs in and around Namdapha Sanctuary. There are two populations in Madhya Pradesh (Bastar district), one in Indravati National Park, and another in Udanti Sanctuary, which might extend into adjacent parts of Orissa. However, most, if not all, surviving populations are believed to have interbred with domesticated and/or feral Domestic Water Buffalo. In the late 1980s, Divekar suggested that there were fewer than 100 truly wild buffaloes left in India (in Madhya Pradesh); and by 1992 the numbers had dropped even further to an estimated 50 animals. However, Choudhury (1994) reported that in the early 1990s there may still have been about 3,300–3,500 wild buffaloes in Assam and the adjacent states of northeast India, plus a small number in Madhya Pradesh. A 1997 CAMP workshop assessed the number of mature individuals in India to be less than 1,500 (S. Hedges pers. comm. 1995). The population data suggest a decline of about 80% between 1966 and 1992 in central India. In northeast India, insufficient data exist to enable trends to be calculated but there is little doubt that the number of true wild buffalo has declined and is continuing to decline as a result of interbreeding with domestic and/or feral buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss (S. Hedges and J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2000).<br/><br/>An unknown number of Wild Water Buffaloes, believed to include truly wild individuals, occurs in and around Bhutan's Royal Manas National Park. This is the only subpopulation in Bhutan and is contiguous with that in Manas Tiger Reserve in India. <br/><br/>Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve contains the only population in Nepal, where there were 159 wild Asian Buffalo in 2004 but this sole Nepali population is currently seriously threatened (Heinen and Kandel 2006). <br/><br/>There are no population estimates for Myanmar, reflecting a paucity of recent surveys. The extent of suitable habitat means the species could be still extant, and a few wild-living animals independent of human husbandry live in the Hukaung Valley of Kachin state (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2006; A.W. Tordoff pers. comm. 2006 to J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008 ). Pending further information, these should be seen as likely to be genuinely wild stock or at least if feral, of archaic origin, and so, in either case, of conservation significance.<br/><br/>In Thailand, 40–50 wild buffaloes are reported to occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary; this is the only population remaining in Thailand (Rattanawat Chairat <em>in litt</em>. to Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). This population may be interbreeding with Domestic Water Buffalo, although individuals can often be distinguished in the field (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, wild buffalo numbers have apparently been relatively stable since the mid-1980s (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The population in Cambodia, which is confined to a small area of easternmost Mondulkiri and possibly Ratanakiri Provinces is very small, with perhaps a few dozen individuals remaining (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has not been any thorough analysis of the purity of these animals (i.e. whether they are truly wild, rather than some mix or perhaps just feral domestic animals), as is the case with most other putative populations of the species (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Before 1999, there was reportedly a population in Mom Ray, Viet Nam, but this population no longer exists (Dang Huy Huynh <em>in litt</em>.; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). Rumours still persist of presence in other areas, for example the Satay region (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Wild buffaloes of the Cambodian population may wander into western Dak Lak province, but no recent records in Viet Nam have been confirmed to represent wild Water Buffalo (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species was thought to formerly occur in Lao PDR, but the date of extinction is not known (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
3129	threats	Hedges, S., Sagar Baral, H., Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The most important threats to Wild Water Buffalo are interbreeding with feral and domestic buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss/degradation. Diseases and parasites (transmitted by domestic livestock) and interspecific competition for food and water between wild buffalo and domestic stock are also serious threats. The scale of the threat posed to Wild Water Buffalo by the trade in wildlife products is difficult to quantify, not least because it is unclear how many of the trophies from reportedly wild buffalo are in fact from wild buffalo rather than from feral or hybrid animals (Divekar and Bharat Bhusan 1988; Heinen 1993; Choudhury 1994; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000).<br/><br/>Most of the species' former lowland habitat has been lost to agriculture, and what remains is highly fragmented. However, especially in countries such as Cambodia and Lao PDR, vast tracts of suitable lowland forest remain from which the species has long since been hunted out, and certainly there are several viable tracts of habitat in which the species could be re-introduced (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Cambodian population is under severe threat from hunting for trophy horns both by Cambodians and Viet Namese hunters crossing the border (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). This threat is currently somewhat alleviated through to an active protected area management project, but hunting is still rife in much of the surrounding area, as is forest fragmentation due to human population in migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, the most significant threat to the area is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area. This area faces an uncertain future. with part already degazetted from conservation status and the possibility that more would be excised in the future, the lack of long-term security of external funding adequate to maintain high standards of management, the uncertainty of long-term political support to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, the population of wild-ranging buffaloes either truly wild or at least living outside human custody for a long time in and around the proposed Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve faces a very uncertain future. The seasonally-flooded plains, a matrix of grass and scrub, lies largely outside the already-established Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary and the areas of highest conservation significance lie south of the boundary even for a vast proposed extension to form the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve. All level areas in this region are under very high threat for conversion to agriculture, both rice and industrial-scale plantations of cash-crops. There is also an active hunting system for wild meat to feed hundreds of thousands of itinerant labourers in this area (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The invasive <em>Mikania</em> sp. also potentially threatens wetlands in the South Asian range of wild Water Buffaloes (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Hydropower development and resulting changes in water flow and level conditions downstream also threaten the ecological maintenance of floodplain areas (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Disease epidemics spreading from domestic livestock presumably pose a threat, especially given the close overlap of Wild Water Buffalo populations and domestic livestock in South Asia, the high densities especially of the latter, and the small and localised nature of Wild Water Buffalo populations.	eng
3160	conservation	Song, Y.-L., Smith, A.T. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	In China, all subspecies are protected from direct exploitation by their inclusion under Category I of the  National Wildlife Law of 1988, although a small number are taken yearly in trophy hunts. They are not legally hunted in India or Bhutan. Their legal status in Myanmar is uncertain. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>The subspecies is currently protected by legal statute (the National Wildlife Protection Law of 1988) and nature reserves in Shaanxi, and both distribution and number seem to have increased in recent years.  As of 2003, fourteen nature reserves, occupying about 3,250 km² have been established for protection of takin and their habitat. Logging bans established in the late 1990s greatly improved the habitat conditions and security for <em>B. t. bedfordi</em>.  <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>In the remote areas where this subspecies lives in China, local people may not be aware of its legal status. It occurs in Nujiang Nature Reserve, located in the northern mountains of Yunnan, which was established in 1981 to protect this takin along with other endangered species. Herds of greater than 100 animals have been seen in this nature reserve (Lu, 1987). It also occurs in Gaoligongshan in Yunnan. It ocurrs in Cibagou Nature Reserve (Wu and Zhang 2006) and Dong Jiu Nature Reserve (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 1996) in Tibet. It occurs mainly within protected areas in Myanmar, (Than Zaw pers comm. 2006). In Arunachel Pradesh, India, it occurs in Namdapha National Park, Mouling National Park, Dibang Willdife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve (Singh 2002). Conservation measures proposed are: 1) complete a population census of the Mishmi takin, beginning in the Nujiang Nature Reserve, before moving to other parts of its range; 2) develop a co-operative program between Chinese and Myanmar authorities to strictly forbid hunting of this animal; and 3) locate potential protected areas. <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Between 1963 and 1978, a total of 10 nature reserves were established in Sichuan to protect endangered animals such as the giant panda and golden monkey, but most also provided protection for Sichuan takin.  Protected areas with this subspecies include: Baishuijiang (Gansu); Baihe, Fengtongzhai, Jiuzhaigou, Labahe, Mabian Dafending, Tangjiahe, Wanglong, Wolong and Xiaozhaizigou (Sichuan). Since that time, the nature reserve system with habitat for the taxon has continued to expand, including Huanglongsi and Meigudanfengding (Sichuan), and Jianshan and Tou’ersantan (Gansu; MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 1996),  Captive breeding has been successful in Chengdu Zoo since 1978 (Hu <em>et al</em>. 1984). The primary conservation measure proposed is further scientific study on the ecology and management of this subspecies is necessary for its long term conservation.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>This taxon is currently listed in Schedule I of Bhutan’s Forest and Nature Conservation Act (1995). In China, it is found in Nujiang (Yunnan) and Muotua (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986) Nature Reserves. In Bhutan, the species is known to inhabit Jigme Dorji National Park. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) educate local people to make them aware of conservation legislation; 2) develop co-operative conservation measures between countries; 3) undertake a survey to census numbers and delineate distributions; 4) special emphasis should be given to determining and preserving its migration routes between seasonal ranges to protect takin habitat (Wollenhaupt, 1990); 5) in India, establish the proposed biosphere reserve that encompasses the Namdapha National Park and several additional protected areas in northeastern Arunachal Pradesh (if adequately protected, these areas would significantly increase the number and size of effective conservation areas for takin); and 6) continually reassess human populations and their increased access in the takin distribution area since the species is commonly hunted by locals.	eng
3160	distribution	Song, Y.-L., Smith, A.T. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species occurs in Bhutan, China (southeastern Gansu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, southeast Tibet, and northwestern Yunnan), and northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim; Singh 2002) and northern Myanmar (Salter 1997).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>This golden takin is confined to the Qinling mountains in southern Shaanxi, China where distribution records of its occurrence have been collected throughout mountain ranges between elevations of 1,500 to 3,600 m. The area covers 17 counties of Shaanxi Province, west from Mount Ziboshan in Liuba County, as far east as Niubeiliang in Zashui County (Ge 1990; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1986; Wu <em>et al</em>. 1991). The current distribution region covers 18 counties of Shaanxi province: Foping, Yangxian, Ningqiang, Liuba, Mianxian, Chenggu, Ningshan, Shiquan, Fengxian, Zashui, Zhen’an, Danfeng, Taibai, Meixian, Zhouzhi, Liantian, Chang’an, and Huxian (Forestry Bureau of Shaanxi Province 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>The Mishmi takin is found in the southeast of Tibet and northwestern Yunnan, but its distribution in China is split into two sections by the extreme northeast tip of India and northern Myanmar. In Tibet, the western boundary is formed by the great bend of the Yarlung Zangbo (Tsangpo) river, where it occurs south of Medog on the mountain slopes on the border with Arunachal Pradesh (India). It enters China again southeast of here in northern Yunnan, where it inhabits the Gaoligongshan range which lies between the west side of the Salween (Nu) river and the Sino-Myanmar border. This eastern section of its distribution extends from around Gongshan in the north, south to include Fugong, Lushui, Tengchong, Baoshan and at least as far as Longling (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986; Wu <em>et al</em>, 1987). In Myanmar, it occupies the high mountain slopes above 2,750 m in Kachin State, northern Myanmar, to the border with China (Blower, 1985, Salter 1997). However, there is no recent distribution data. The geographic boundary between <em>B. t. taxicolor</em> and <em>B. t. whitei</em> is evidently uncertain.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Sichuan takin is found along the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau. Here, its distribution runs from the Min mountains along the Sichuan-Gansu provincial border, south through the Qionglai mountains west of Chengdu to the border with Yunnan Province. Records of this takin have been found from more than 50 counties in Minshan in the north, Xianling in the west, as well as in the Qionglai Shan in the centre, and the Liang Shan in the south.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>In Tibet, China, this subspecies is known to occur south of the Yarlung Zangbo river, from Gyaca, Nangxian. Mainling, Myingchi, Cona and Lhunze, on the southern flank of the eastern Himalaya, to the west side of the big bend of the Yarlung Zangbo river. In Bhutan, no censuses have been carried out, but it is believed the species occurs in scattered populations throughout the forested and unforested mountain slopes along Bhutan’s northern border. One or two populations are known to occur on both sides of the upper catchment of the Mo Chu (Wollenhaupt, 1990). Within Bhutan, Jigme Dorji National Park is the main stronghold, but they are also found in northern Wangdue and Bumthang districts (Tshewang Wangchuk pers. comm., 2008); these populations appear to be separated from those in Tibet. Within India, takin is found in Arunachal Pradesh (both along its western border with Bhutan and its northeastern border with China and Myanmar), and in Sikkim. There it inhabits sub-tropical to subalpine forests, mainly between 2,000 and 3,500 m, but sometimes entering as low as 1,500 m, or up to areas above timberline (Fox and Johnsingh 1997, Singh 2002).	eng
3160	habitat	Song, Y.-L., Smith, A.T. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species is found in eastern Himalayan pine shrub, subtropical forest, and possibly temperate forest in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). <em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em> inhabits sub-tropical to subalpine forests, mainly between 2,000 and 3,500 m, but sometimes entering as low as 1,500 m, or moving up to areas above the timberline. In summer, Takin feed in alpine meadows up to 4,000 m.  In winter they descend into the valleys and forests to as low as 1,000 m.  They feed on a variety of grasses, bamboo shoots, forbs and leaves of shrubs and trees.  Takin forage in early morning and late afternoon, and regularly visit salt-licks which renders them very vulnerable to poachers who lay in ambush.  Takins seasonally migrate to preferred habitats.  During spring and early summer months, they begin to gather in large herds of up to 100 animals at the uppermost limits of treeline.  During cooler autumn months, when food is less plentiful at higher elevations, herds disband into smaller groups of up to 20 individuals, and move to forested valleys at lower elevations.  Groups mainly comprise females, subadults, young and some adult males.  Older males usually remain solitary throughout most of the year, but gather with females during the rutting season.  Sexually mature at about 3.5 years of age. Rutting occurs in late summer, followed by a gestation of 200 to 220 days.  Single young are born in March or April.  Longevity is about 16-18 years.<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em> inhabits in temperate forest and coniferous forest from 1,300 to 2,800 m in the Foping Nature Reserve, and make seasonal vertical movement (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2008). They feed on 163 species of plant, including grasses, bamboo shoots, forbs and leaves of shrubs and trees (Zeng and Song 2001). Breeding season starts in early June and lasts to the end of July with a peak from middle of June to middle of July (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2005). Newborn calves are observed in February and March.  Mean group size was 10.84 (n=96), the male:female ratio was0.49:1 (Zeng <em>et a</em>l. 2002). Solitary males were observed during the breeding season; most solitary, old males were seen during winter in lower elevation. Sexually maturity occurs at 4.5 years of age for female and 5.5 for males in wild populations of <em>B.t. bedfordi</em>.	eng
3160	population	Song, Y.-L., Smith, A.T. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	<em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>The total population size in China was estimated as 21,200 individuals by Ge (1990), but a later effort by provincial officials in Shaanxi estimated 5,069 (range: 4,418-5,720; Forestry Bureau of Shaanxi Province 2001).  Three centers of relatively high population density occur in Taibai, Ningshan and Zhouzhi, where they are restricted to the upper catchments areas of several rivers (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987). In 1974, a field survey of five areas gave the following numbers of takin: Fuping - 104; Taibai - 191; Yangxian - 225; Zhouzhi - 587; and Ningshan - 135 (Total 1,242) (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987).  A census by counting individuals in Foping Nature Reserve from April to July 1996, there were 435-527 individuals there with a ratio of adult females: subadults: calves of 1:0.99: 0.35 (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>No rigorous estimate has been made of the total population in China, but Wang (1998) estimated about 3,500, mostly in Tibet. In Myanmar populations are decreasing because of hunting for bushmeat (by trapping and crossbow), and is now rare (Than Zaw pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>No total population estimate in China has been made, but several thousand animals are believed to inhabit the Qionglai and Min mountains. A survey of Sichuan takin populations carried out in 1975 in the Wolong and Tangjiahe Nature Reserves (Qingchuan county), estimated 191 (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1987) and 370 to 410 (Ge <em>et al</em>., 1989) animals, respectively. Large herds numbering as many as 45 to 100 individuals have been seen occasionally in Tianguan, Baoxing, Pingwu and Qingchuan. Other population observations estimate the young to account for 17.8%, the sub-adults for 13.3% and the adults 68.9%, while the adult male to female sex ratio is 2:1 (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; see also Schaller <em>et al</em>., 1986).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>There is no known estimate of population size or trend for B. taxicolor whitei within China, Bhutan, or India.	eng
3160	threats	Song, Y.-L., Smith, A.T. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	<em>Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi</em><br/>Deforestation, hunting, disturbance, and habitat fragmentation are continuing concerns (Wang 1998).<br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor</em><br/>In Tibet, China, hunting is the main threat, but habitat destruction caused by deforestation is also serious (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997, Wang 1998). In Myanmar populations are threatened by for bushmeat (by trapping and crossbow; Salter 1997). <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor tibetana</em><br/>Overhunting has resulted in local extirpation of this takin in some areas of its range, and recovery has been slow despite legal protection measures. Habitat loss and disturbance from tourism are also significant threats. <br/><br/><em>Budorcas taxicolor whitei</em><br/>With almost no management or protection in the remote border areas of China, over-hunting by local people is hard to control, and hunting of large herds in winter is reported to be a serious problem (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). In Bhutan, threats include competition and disease transmission from domestic livestock, habitat loss (pasture burning), and loss or disruption of migration routes. In India, major threats come primarily from habitat loss resulting from activities such as timber harvesting, cane and bamboo cutting and road construction, all associated with human populations that continue to encroach on areas occupied by takin. Local people are also known to hunt takin regularly, both within and outside protected areas. Recent surveys of takin found evidence of hunting in the Siang Valley and Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary but only limited sign of the animals themselves, whereas in Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, considerable numbers of takin tracks and droppings, and evidence of hunting were found (Katti <em>et al</em>., 1990). Current levels of hunting by local residents may not represent a significant influence on takin populations (Katti <em>et al</em>., 1990).	eng
3169	conservation		The Department of Fish and Game has purchased 719 acres to protect the habitat at Deep Springs; Deep Spring College (owner of property at Buckhorn and Antelope springs) has fenced an area to exclude livestock and is manipulating irrigation water to minimize impacts on breeding toads, eggs, and larvae (California DF&G 1990). Other sites are on BLM land, but the level of protection is uncertain.	eng
3169	distribution		This species' range includes several springs feeding Deep Springs Lake, in Deep Springs Valley, Inyo County, California, USA: Buckhorn Spring, Corral Spring and adjacent ponds, and Bog Mound Springs at about 1,520m; also Antelope Springs at about 1,710m (Murphy, Simandle and Becker 2003, Stebbins 2003). Apparently, this species was introduced to a flowing well in Saline Valley, Death Valley National Park, Inyo County, California (Murphy, Simandle and Becker 2003), and also introduced at Batchelder Spring, Westgard Pass, Inyo County, but is possibly extirpated there.	eng
3169	habitat		Its primary habitat is watercourses/marshes (grass, sedge, dwarf bulrush, and watercress), formed by water flow from springs, and surrounded by desert with low bushes. Adults are more aquatic than other toad species in California. Adults prefer habitats with short plant cover and unobstructed access to still or slowly flowing water (Schuierer and Anderson 1990). It retreats to rodent burrows or other refuges in winter. It breeds in shallow marsh and pond waters (Schuierer and Anderson 1990).	eng
3169	population		The population of this species was regarded as more or less stable in the early 1970s (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980), and no significant change was reported in 1990 (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Schuierer and Anderson 1990). The population at Antelope Springs (apparently introduced) was reported to have died out (Stebbins 1985b), but is still referred to by both Murphy, Simandle and Becker (2003) and Stebbins (2003). Historical population data is as follows: over 4,000 individuals (1971 survey), more than 80,000 individuals (1977 estimate). The population at Corral Spring(s) was reported in 1980 as more than 22,000 (Sherman 1980).	eng
3169	threats		At present, there do not appear to be any major threats to this species. However, potential future threats include habitat destruction from irrigation schemes or other factors resulting in water table alteration, recreational vehicle use, cattle overgrazing, and predation by carp.	eng
3170	conservation		The Houston toad was the first amphibian granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. A critical habitat was designated in 1978 in Bastrop and Burleson counties, in areas supporting the largest populations known at that time. However, the population within critical habitat in Burleson County has not been seen since 1983. In the 1970s, the state of Texas acquired land within designated critical habitat in Bastrop County adjacent to Buescher and Bastrop state parks to aid in conservation. Additionally, an effort was started in 1978 by the Houston Zoo to identify remaining Houston toad populations and supplement them or establish new populations in protected areas using wild-caught adults, naturally deposited eggs, or captive-reared juveniles and adults. However, new populations were not established in spite of introducing over 500,000 individuals (adults, juveniles, larvae) into sites at the Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge. Research is urgently needed to determine the status of Houston toad populations outside Bastrop County and promote conservation efforts in these areas. Research is also critical to determine which management practices are most conducive to the Houston toad and the ecosystem on which it depends. The Houston Toad Recovery Plan was published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1984. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and the USFWS have jointly prepared a brochure for private landowners who wish to implement their agricultural practices in ways that are compatible with the needs of the Houston toad and the Texas Forest Service has formed a committee to develop management practices that protect the Houston toad and its habitat. Additionally, the USFWS is working with community leaders, private landowners, and conservation organizations to develop and implement a regional Habitat Conservation Plan for Bastrop County, which would provide for the issuance of endangered species permits that allow development to proceed while ensuring permanent habitat protection. The USFWS also has established a fund with the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to assist in local habitat protection efforts for the Houston toad.	eng
3170	distribution		Historically, this species ranged across the central coastal region of Texas. Houston toads disappeared from the Houston area (Harris, Fort Bend and Liberty counties) during the 1960s following an extended drought and the rapid urban expansion of the city of Houston. Although this species has been found in nine additional counties (Austin, Bastrop, Burleson, Colorado, Lavaca, Lee, Leon, Milam, Robertson) as recently as the 1990s, several of these populations have not been seen since they were first discovered. Of the few remaining populations, the largest is in Bastrop County.	eng
3170	habitat		Houston toads are restricted to areas with sandy, friable soil such as loblolly pine forest, mixed deciduous forest, post oak savannah, and coastal prairie. Breeding may occur from late January to late June, but usually earlier than May, in rain pools, flooded fields, roadside ditches, and natural or man-made ponds. Optimal habitats are non-flowing, fishless pools that persist for at least 60 days (long enough for larvae to metamorphose). Houston toads are nocturnal, spending daylight hours in burrows, buried in sand, or under leaf-litter, pine duff, or surface objects.	eng
3170	population		At least 2000 adults occur in Bastrop County; unknown numbers probably persist in seven other counties (http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/nature/endang/htoad.htm; Seal 1994). Recent trend analyses suggest that Houston toads are declining in Bastrop State Park, which lies near the centre of its critical habitat in Bastrop County.	eng
3170	threats		Habitat conversion poses the most serious threat to the Houston toad. Several populations were eliminated with the expansion of Houston, and the largest remaining population in Bastrop County is also under intense and immediate threat from urbanization and recreational over-development. Many Houston toads are killed each year by automobiles. Roadway mortality will increase as human populations continue to increase within the species’ habitat and as the habitat continues to be dissected by more roads. Road construction further isolates populations and disrupts or prevents the movement of individual toads between populations. This movement of toads is necessary to maintain gene flow, and thus genetic diversity, and to supplement small or declining local populations. It is possible to build roads with underpasses or other structures that allow toads and other wildlife to pass safely beneath the roads. While converting woodlands to pastures or ploughed fields destroys Houston toad habitat and favours the proliferation of other toad species, certain agricultural practices can be beneficial to Houston toads. These include maintaining low to moderate numbers of livestock to avoid overgrazing, protecting pond habitat from livestock and predatory fish, planting native bunchgrasses instead of sod-forming grasses such as Bermuda grass (which are difficult for the toads to move through), and conserving large blocks of woodlands. Certain forestry practices may benefit the Houston toad, while others, such as clear cutting, are harmful. Thinning and burning have been shown to benefit some species of amphibians and reptiles by opening up the forest canopy and allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor. This practice encourages the growth of vegetation and, in turn, increases insect numbers. This may be beneficial to the Houston toad. Other threats that often appear in conjunction with the factors outlined above include prolonged drought and the presence of fire ants, an unwelcome species from Brazil. Fire ants have been observed preying on toadlets as they leave their breeding pond. Fire ants thrive in open, sunny areas where the soil has been disturbed and woody vegetation uprooted, as in agricultural fields and urban areas. Protecting large forested areas is one of the most effective deterrents to fire ants. Where fire ant control with pesticides is necessary, mounds should be treated individually, rather than broadcasting the chemicals, to avoid impacting other invertebrates that the Houston toad eats (see http://ifw2es.fws.gov/HoustonToad).	eng
3172	conservation		Its entire range was protected by the Reserva Biológica Monteverde.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo periglenes</span>).	eng
3172	distribution		This species was known only from the Reserva Biológica Monteverde, Costa Rica, at elevations of 1,500-1,620m asl.	eng
3172	habitat		It lived in cloud and elfin forest, and was recorded breeding in temporary pools at the beginning of the rainy season.	eng
3172	population		Formerly a common species, no specimen has been seen since 1989. It last bred in normal numbers in 1987, and its breeding sites were well known. In 1988, only eight males and two females could be located. In 1989, a single male was found, and was the last record of the species. Extensive searches since this time have failed to produce any more records (as of August, 2007).	eng
3172	threats		Its restricted range, global warming, chytridiomycosis and airborne pollution probably contributed to this species' extinction.	eng
3173	conservation		Protected at Sonoran Desert and Organ Pipe Cactus National Monuments and the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge. Sonoran green toads are ranked at G3G4 and S4 by the State of Arizona meaning the species is apparently secure, but is uncommon in parts of its range. Collection of Sonoran green toads in Arizona is limited to 10 toads/yr with a fishing license. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
3173	distribution		This species occurs from south-central Arizona in the USA (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996), south to south-central Sonora, Mexico. Known from elevations from 150-900m asl (Bogert, 1962; Stebbins, 1985; Sullivan <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Arizona, it is known from Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument east across the Tohono O'odham Reservation to San Xavier Mission, throughout Pima County and north to Waterman Wash near Mobile, Arizona. It also occurs in Vekol Valley (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1992, Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1983). Occurs on forty documented sites in Arizona (Schwartz pers. comm., 1997). Hulse (1978) mapped 17 collection sites in Mexico. Sullivan <em>et al.</em> (1996) mapped 51 historical collection locations. During a 1993-1994 Arizona survey, the species was relocated at or near all historical locations surveyed and at additional new sites for a total of 25 collection localities (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
3173	habitat		This species inhabits semi-arid plains, mesquite grassland and creosote bush desert. Well drilling and irrigation may create suitable habitat (Hulse 1978). Breeding has been observed in temporary pools formed in roadside ditches, rainwater sumps, cattle tanks, and wash bottoms (Hulse, 1978; Stebbins, 1985; Sullivan <em>et al.</em>, 1996). Inactive for more than 10 months each year, emerging only following intense rainfall events during the summer monsoon season (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
3173	population		The total adult population size is unknown but fairly common and probably stable. It is less common on the periphery of its range, near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in the west, near Mobile in the north, and in the Altar Valley in the east (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species is difficult to survey due to limited property access (most of Arizona range on Tohono O'odham Reservation, access denied), secretive nature (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997), and long inactive period. Ashton (1976) reported that Arizona populations were stable (see Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). Recent documentation (1993-1994) at most historical sites and additional new localities in Arizona suggests no widespread declines (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, there is no solid population information available to assess trends (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997). No information available for Mexico.	eng
3173	threats		Stebbins (1975) considered over collecting the chief threat (see Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). It occurs in large aggregations during breeding events. Over collecting of females (for the pet trade or research) at this time could be detrimental but is not currently a problem (B. Sullivan pers. comm., 1997). It naturally hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. punctatus</span> but given the apparent rareness of hybrids, it is unlikely that this presents a significant concern for the population status (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996). The effects of grazing practices or agriculture are unknown.	eng
3176	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The key research action required is to relocate this species and determine its phenology. There is a possibility that after 11 years without being seen, this species may be already extinct. Other priorities are to identify management units and assess perceived threats. If populations can be located,&#160;the population size should be determined and the site protected. If the specific requirements of this species can be determined, this may lead to restoration of appropriate habitat.	eng
3176	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from the Winterberg and Amatola Mountains, between Katberg and Keiskammahoek, in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, at 1,400-1,800 m asl.	eng
3176	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It lays strings of eggs in shallow temporary pools and seepages in high-altitude moist grasslands, and is absent from forests and plantations. Tadpoles are free living and metamorphose before leaving the aquatic environment.	eng
3176	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	About ten visits to suitable sites over 11 years (1998-2009) have not turned up any frogs of this species and it is possible that this species is already extinct. Prior to the disappearance, it was known to congregate in large numbers to breed.&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented based on historical data as no one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.	eng
3176	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats are&#160;loss of grassland through&#160;afforestation affecting the majority of the distribution, overgrazing, and fires; over the last 20 years about 20% of its habitat has been lost to plantations. Overgrazing and frequent fires may be responsible for disappearance from remaining appropriate sites in the last 11 years.	eng
3177	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Monitoring of the subpopulations is needed. It occurs in the Pan de Azucar National Park and the Paposo Reserve.	eng
3177	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is endemic to the desert Pacific coastal region with Mediterranean influences from Antofagasta (25° 00'S) to Vallenar (Huasco River 28° 28'S), Chile. It occurs from 0-800m asl.	eng
3177	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It occurs in and near oases and streams year-round. Reproduction takes place in permanent pools (including livestock water tanks), streams and rivers. The eggs are laid in long strings, and the larvae develop where these were laid. It is somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbances.	eng
3177	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It is abundant; many were seen in 2002.	eng
3177	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Extensive droughts and water pollution in rivers threaten local populations of this species, but it is not seriously at risk.	eng
3179	conservation		This species occurs in many national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas in the US where habitat destruction is not a major threat. In Mexico, it is found within Parque Nacional Sierra de San Pedro Martir. It is listed as an endangered species in the state of Colorado and is warranted but precluded from US federal endangered species status.	eng
3179	distribution		This species occurs along the Pacific Coast of North America from southern Alaska (Wiedmer and Hodge 1996) to Baja California, and ranges eastward to the Rocky Mountains in west-central Alberta, Montana, Wyoming, Utah (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1995), Colorado (Hammerson 1999), and (formerly) northern New Mexico (Degenhardt, Painter and Price 1996). It is absent from most of the desert south-west (Stebbins 1985b). Its altitudinal range extends from sea level to at least 3,640m asl.	eng
3179	habitat		This species is found in a wide variety of habitats including desert springs and streams, meadows and woodlands and mountain wetlands. It is also known from around ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and slow-moving rivers and streams. It digs its own burrow in loose soil or uses those of small mammals, or shelters under logs or rocks. The eggs and larvae develop in shallow areas of ponds, lakes, or reservoirs, or in pools of slow-moving streams.	eng
3179	population		The total adult population size of the species is unknown but is likely to exceed 100,000. It is still common in much of its range. The Rocky Mountain populations in Colorado and Wyoming have undergone a drastic decline since the 1970s (Corn, Stolzenburg and Bury 1989; Hammerson 1989, 1992, 1999; Carey 1993; Muths <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also declined greatly in the Yosemite area of the Sierra Nevada, California (Drost and Fellers 1996). It is apparently undergoing localized declines in Yellowstone National Park (Peterson, Koch and Corn 1992), Montana (Reichel and Flath 1995), and elsewhere (Olson 1989).	eng
3179	threats		The extent of threat across the species' range is not known with certainty. The decline in the Southern Rocky Mountains is not due to acidification of breeding habitats (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Carey (1993) hypothesized that some environmental factor or synergistic effects of more than one factor might stress the toads, causing suppression of the immune system or indirectly causing immunosuppression by causing elevated secretion of adrenal cortical hormones; immunosuppression, coupled with the apparent effect of cold body temperatures on the ability of the immune system to fight disease, might lead to infection by <em>Aeromonas hydrophila</em> bacteria (which causes "red-leg") or other infectious agents and subsequently to death of individuals and the extirpation of populations. Die-offs in the southern Rockies have been associated with chytrid fungus infections (Muths <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eggs are highly susceptible to the pathogenic fungus <em>Saprolegnia ferax</em>, which might be introduced during fish stocking (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997). Another possibility is that declines are related to the sensitivity of eggs to increased levels of ultraviolet radiation (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994), but see Corn and Muths (2002) for an alternative viewpoint. In the Cascade Range of Oregon, persistent predation of adults by ravens during the toad breeding season appears to have contributed significantly to some population declines (Olson 1992). Possibly significant predation by birds has also been observed in Colorado and Idaho. The decline might be related, at least in part, to habitat destruction and degradation, water retention projects, predation by, and competition with, native and non-native species, fishery management activities, or other factors, but these factors have not been adequately assessed.	eng
3180	conservation		Most of the habitat of this species is confined within protected areas including: Yosemite National Park, Kings Canyon National Park, wilderness areas of Eldorado, Inyo, Stanislaus, and Sierra National Forest, with the highest number of populations recorded in Sierra National Forest followed by Stanislaus National Forest. Off-highway vehicle use, pack stock and cattle grazing still occur in National Forests, as well as protected wilderness areas; only pack stock use continues in Yosemite National Park and Kings Canyon National Park. Because declines have occurred in pristine areas in parks, no occurrences can be regarded as adequately protected. This species has been federally petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act in March 2000 by the Pacific Rivers Council and Centre for Biological Diversity. In December 2002 the US Fish and Wildlife Service published a decision in the Federal Register that placed the toad on the "warranted-but-precluded" list due to higher priority listings. Further taxonomic work is required to determine the status of this species relative to <em>B. exsul</em>.	eng
3180	distribution		This species is endemic to the state of California, USA. It is found only in the high sierra from the Blue Lakes region north of Ebbets Pass (Alpine County) south to Spanish Mountain area (Fresno County), and is found at elevations of 1,460-3,630m asl.	eng
3180	habitat		It inhabits wet mountain meadows and borders of forests, and obtains shelter in rodent burrows as well as in dense vegetation. This species breeds in shallow edges of snowmelt pools and ponds or along edges of lakes and slow-moving streams. Some breeding sites dry up before larvae metamorphose. Females may breed every other year or once every three years. It persists in meadow habitats degraded by cattle as well as in lakes stocked with non-native trout.	eng
3180	population		The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least a few thousand. Declines, some in seemingly pristine environments, occurred in the eastern Sierra Nevada between the early 1970s and early 1990s (Kagarise Sherman and Morton 1993). Although still distributed over most of its original range, and many populations have active breeding and recruitment (Shaffer <em>et al.</em> 2000), the species has declined or disappeared from more than 50% of the sites from which it has been recorded (Jennings and Hayes 1994; Drost and Fellers 1996). USFWS (2000) reviewed additional evidence of declines in distribution and abundance.	eng
3180	threats		Leading hypotheses for the declines are disease (chytridiomycosis), airborne contaminants, and livestock grazing. An examination of preserved specimens from a 1970 die-off found multiple pathogens, but no single pathogen was present in more than 25% of the specimens, suggesting that the animals suffered from suppressed immune systems (Green and Kagarise Sherman 2001). Davidson, Shaffer and Jennings (2002) found a weak pattern between declines at sites and amount of agricultural land upwind (suggesting that windborne agrochemicals may have contributed to declines). Livestock grazing may have detrimental impacts on Yosemite Toads through trampling, alteration of meadow habitat, and possible lowered water quality (D. Martin pers. comm.). Other factors that may have contributed to declines are the 1980s California drought, and predation by introduced trout. Ultraviolet radiation is not suspected to be a major contributor to declines based on fieldwork by Sadinski (pers. comm.).	eng
3181	conservation		The majority of available habitat is on private property. BLM has initiated protection (Area of Critical Environmental Concern) for all occupied sites under their jurisdiction. TNC purchased a 60-ha ranch near Beatty for experimental habitat management (Burroughs 1999). Nye County is a co-operator with state and federal agencies in a conservation agreement (Burroughs 1999).	eng
3181	distribution		This species occurs in riparian habitats associated with the Amargosa River, tributary springs of the Amargosa River in Oasis Valley, and isolated spring systems near Beatty, Nye County, Nevada, USA (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996).	eng
3181	habitat		Usually found near water at desert springs and outflow. Vegetation bordering water consists of cottonwood trees, cattails, and sedges. May congregate at streetlights to feed on attracted insects (Burroughs 1999). Eggs and larvae develop in spring waters (open areas with little vegetation at LaFleur).	eng
3181	population		The total adult population size is uncertain but is likely to be at least several hundred. Thousands were reported in 1958; estimates of the size of the metamorphosed population at 10 sites in 1993 and 1994 ranged from 30-130, but some sites that were probably occupied have not been surveyed in recent years (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996). Surveys at 20 sites since 1990 yielded the following results: apparently extirpated from one spring, decreased abundance at four springs, fluctuating but relatively constant populations at 15 sites (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996; see also unpublished 1993 and 1994 reports by Hoff, prepared for the USFWS, Reno, Nevada). Over the past few decades, the species reportedly has declined greatly from its former range and abundance (Altig and Dodd 1987), but more recent surveys found that distribution and abundance were greater than previously known (USFWS, Federal Register, 1 March 1996).	eng
3181	threats		Factors that may be adversely affecting the toad and its habitat include the effects of variable rainfall on small populations, livestock and feral burro grazing and trampling, off-road vehicle use, grading for flood control, activities related to commercial development, non-native predators (catfish, crayfish, bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>)), water pollution, and water diversion (Froglog, December 1994). Trampling of larvae by cattle may be negatively affecting the LaFleur population, which also may be threatened by road widening (of Route 95). Expansion of non-native salt cedar may degrade habitat (Burroughs 1999).	eng
3282	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus adelphus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
3282	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone of Santa Cruz Island.	eng
3282	population	Parent, C., 2003	The species has not been found alive over the past three years and it is thought that it may now be extinct.	eng
3282	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes of population decline. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3287	threats	Seddon, M.B., 2000	The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to the species.	eng
3289	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus darwini</em> is endemic to The Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). Total range area is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².	eng
3289	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid and pampa zones. Found mainly on shrubs and small trees (<em>Tournefortia</em> spp., <em>Psychotria rufipes</em>, <em>Zanthoxylum fagara</em>) and ferns.	eng
3289	population	Parent, C., 2003	Five subpopulations are known on the island.	eng
3289	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Main threats to the species are introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats and donkeys.  The wild pig population has now been removed from the island and vegetation on the island is beginning to recover.	eng
3290	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus eos</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Range of suitable habitat available is less than 100 km².	eng
3290	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Transition zone.	eng
3290	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been found recently and it may already be extinct.	eng
3290	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3291	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus eschariferus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristóbal. It is known only from one location with a range of 3 km².	eng
3291	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.	eng
3291	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The reason for population decline is probably habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
3292	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus hirsutus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). The species has a very narrow range, probably less than 2 km². The range of total suitable habitat available for this species is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
3292	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone. Found under lava rocks.	eng
3292	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.	eng
3293	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus jacobi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). It is known only from two subpopulations, with a total range area of less than 10 km².	eng
3293	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.	eng
3293	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats.	eng
3294	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus lycodus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
3294	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Possibly the arid or transition zones.	eng
3294	population	Parent, C., 2003	It was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island and may already be extinct.	eng
3294	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3295	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus nesioticus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). The range of suitable habitat for the species is less than 200 km².	eng
3295	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid and pampa zones. Found on shrubs and ferns, under lava rocks and on trunks of trees (mainly <em>Zanthoxylum fagara, Tournefortia</em> spp. and <em>Psychotria rufipes</em>).	eng
3295	population	Parent, C., 2003	Population size is seen to fluctuate widely from year to year.	eng
3295	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats is the main threat to the species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
3296	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus nux</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km² and 173 km² respectively). It is known from four subpopulations with a total area of occupancy less than 20 km².	eng
3296	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Found in humid zone on Floreana and San Cristóbal Islands, in <em>Scalesia</em> forest on Floreana Island. Specimens mainly found on trunks (often under bark) or in leaf litter.	eng
3296	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and/or alteration and/or fragmentation by human activities and introduced species. There are established populations of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on these islands (Silberglied 1972).	eng
3297	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus ochsneri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). It is known from one population with a range less than 10 km².	eng
3297	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid to transition zones. Found under rocks or on tree trunks (mostly <em>Zanthoxylum fagara</em> and <em>Bursera graveolens</em>).	eng
3297	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3298	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus reibischi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). It is known from one population with a total range of no more than 10 km².	eng
3298	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid to transition zones. Found on shrubs and on tree trunks (<em>Croton scouleri</em> and <em>Bursera graveolens</em>).	eng
3298	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on Santa Cruz Island has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.	eng
3299	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus rugiferus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Santa Cruz and Santiago.	eng
3299	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
3299	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither Santa Cruz nor Santiago Islands were surveyed extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
3299	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.	eng
3300	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus saeronius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz. Less than 100 km² of suitable habitat remains.	eng
3300	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded during recent surveys of the island and may already be extinct.	eng
3300	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to this species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3301	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus sculpturatus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). It is known from only one population with a very restricted range (<1 km²).	eng
3301	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone. Found under lava rocks.	eng
3301	population	Parent, C., 2003	There are probably no more than 200 individuals.	eng
3301	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats	eng
3307	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus tanneri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Suitable available habitat is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
3307	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Possibly the humid zone.	eng
3307	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent surveys on the island and it may already be extinct.	eng
3307	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species.	eng
3308	threats	Seddon, M.B., 2000	The introduction of fire ants to the area is thought to form the main threat to this species.	eng
3310	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus wolfi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
3310	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid to transition zones. Found under lava rocks.	eng
3310	population	Parent, C., 2003	It is known from one population of no more than 500 individuals with a very restricted range (less than 2 km²).	eng
3310	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
3311	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
3311	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is documented as occurring in the Kenyan and Tanzania coastal strip.	eng
3311	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It lives in ponds, swamps and dams.	eng
3311	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
3311	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This group of snails are known to be very adaptive to the regional wetlands and most changes affecting them.	eng
3312	conservation	C.N. Lange, 2004	No information available.	eng
3312	distribution	C.N. Lange, 2004	This species is endemic to the Kano plains and central Kenya. The type locality is at Obuso.	eng
3312	habitat	C.N. Lange, 2004	This species is recorded in drains briefly filled with rainwater.	eng
3312	population	C.N. Lange, 2004	No information available.	eng
3312	threats	C.N. Lange, 2004	The Kano plains region is fast being reclaimed by commercial sugarcane and rice plantations. The impact of this on the species is unknown and needs to be investigated.	eng
3313	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
3313	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Bulinus camerunensis</em> is known only from western Cameroon, where it has been recorded from two crater lakes; Barombi Koto and Debundsha (Brown 1994), (approximately 2 km² each). This species is only mollusc found in Lake Debundscha.	eng
3313	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known only from crater lakes, occurring down to 1 m depth (Brown 1994).	eng
3313	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
3313	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	The species' very limited distribution makes it susceptible to habitat changes. Explosions and release of poisonous gas venting from beneath the lakes is known to occur in crater lakes in Cameroon, and this is likely to be the biggest threat to the species. Other potential threats come from human induced disturbance and habitat pollution (the species occurs in the margins of the lakes, to 1 m depth), and potential for molluscicides.	eng
3314	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
3314	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
3314	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	In central Africa, <em>Bulinus canescens</em> occurs in southeast Democratic Republic of Congo (lower Luapula region and Mulonde). Most of the species' range falls outside of the region, but it is not known how much of the range is within the region.	eng
3314	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Angola, DRC, and possdibly Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bulinus canescens</em> occurs in southeast DRC (lower Luapula region and Mulonde). Most of the species' range falls outside of the region, but it is not known how much of the range is within the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is only known from one location in Angola (marshes near Bengo River the type locality), possibly also Zambia (Brown 1994).	eng
3314	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Inhabits marshes and wetland areas.	eng
3314	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in marshes and wetland areas.	eng
3314	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
3314	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
3314	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Although there are major threats from mining in the region, the effects on the species are not known.	eng
3314	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
3316	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.	eng
3316	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
3316	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Only known from type locality (Quiapose river near Sange) and Salazar area, both in northern Angola. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Northern Angola and Southern Gabon. Possibly present in between (Kristensen pers. comm.).	eng
3316	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species occurs in the type locality (Quiapose river near Sange) and Salazar area, both in northern Angola. It is also present in southern Gabon (Gamba).	eng
3316	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Found in slowly flowing streams and irrigation canals.	eng
3316	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in slowly flowing streams and irrigation canals.	eng
3316	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information.	eng
3316	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
3316	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	None known.	eng
3316	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Unknown.	eng
3317	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
3317	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Ethiopian highland plateau north of Addis Ababa (Brown 1994).	eng
3317	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in streams on the Ethiopian Highland flowing through grasslands with abundant vegetation in the residual pools.	eng
3317	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
3317	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
3318	conservation	Kaunda, E. &  A. Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
3318	distribution	Kaunda, E. &  A. Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from southwest shores in water 1.5 to 15m deep (and at 95m (Gray 1981)), and is also found at Monkey Bay and Cape Maclear.	eng
3318	habitat	Kaunda, E. &  A. Mailosi, A., 2004	It is found in soft substrates from shallow to potentially very deep (5-95 m).	eng
3318	population	Kaunda, E. &  A. Mailosi, A., 2004	At Cape Maclear studies found 90 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> in soft sediment at 5-10m depth (Genner and Michel, 2003) and 1.6 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (Louda <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
3318	threats	Kaunda, E. &  A. Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is threatened by fishing activities, especially where submerged plants are removed by fishing gears e.g. seine nets. A number of distribution centres of fishing have been set close to the shore.	eng
3320	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
3320	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is only known from four locations restricted to Monkey Bay and the south west shores. The species may occur in between.	eng
3320	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It has a restricted habitat in the crown of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vallisneria aethiopica</span>, a short grass-like plant growing submerged in Lake Malawi.	eng
3320	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
3320	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Submerged <em>Vallisneria aethiopica</em> plants of Lake Malawi are being destroyed due to the use of seine nets. Most of the shoreline has been cleared of plants due to construction of resorts.	eng
3321	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
3321	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the shores of Lake Victoria. It occurs at Bukoba, Kisumu and the first part of Victoria Nile.	eng
3321	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is recorded by Brown from stony beaches in Kisumu.	eng
3321	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
3321	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
3322	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is found in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
3322	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This is a widespread species in Mindanao Faunal Region, with records from Bucas Grande, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Maripipi, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Samar, and Siargao islands, in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It occurs at an elevation range on Mindanao from 200 to 1,800 m.	eng
3322	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in lowland forest, occasionally into mossy forest (Sanborn 1952), from 300 m to 500 m in lowland forest on Leyte, and in montane forest at 740 m on Maripipi (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), including secondary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records of the species from outside of forest.	eng
3322	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is very abundant, especially in secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002) and is likely to have been widespread in lower elevation forest and it is still common in montane forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3322	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	There are no major threats however, there is some habitat loss caused by conversion to agriculture. In the past this species lost significant parts of its habitat at lower elevations and there was most likely a decline in population size. Now that all forest has been converted, the population has stabilized. Additionally, the population of Dinagat island is particularly threatened by mining and by the negative local politics activities (corruption surrounding the mining and vegetable farming).	eng
3323	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas. Taxonomic studies are needed as there is geographic variation throughout the range.	eng
3323	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is occurs on Luzon at an elevation range from 200 to 2,400 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from scattered locations from Aurora, Benguet and Camarines Sur provinces. In Balbalasang, Kalinga province, the species was recorded at 1,050-1,950 m elevation (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
3323	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species seems to be a habitat generalist with respect to habitat and elevation. The species has been found in   lowland as well as montane primary and secondary forest, including regenerating logged forest, as well as scrubby second growth and mixed agriculture (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
3323	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is widespread on Luzon and occurs from lowland areas up to high elevations. More common in slightly disturbed areas, although it is present in primary forest as well as badly degraded forest.	eng
3323	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	There are no major threats but complete loss of primary or secondary forest would be a problem for this species. There is widespread burning in the area to meet minimum requirements for land ownership and this in turn promotes the growth of pine trees (wood for building and firewood). But given that this species is a habitat generalist and seems to do well in secondary habitat, this is not assumed to be a threat to the species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3326	conservation	South African Mammal CAMP Workshop, 2008	<em>Bunolagus monticularis</em> is listed as Endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book, and there is a genetic study of the species underway.  At the CBSG CAMP South Africa workshop, conservation actions recommended included further research into the life history of this species, management of habitat, wild population management, limiting factors, captive breeding/cultivation, and increased public awareness. The captive breeding/cultivation recommendations include plans for species recovery, education, reintroduction, research, and a management plan workshop. There is currently a coordinated species management program in South Africa.	eng
3326	distribution	South African Mammal CAMP Workshop, 2008	<em></em>This species is endemic to the central Karoo region of South Africa.  The extent of occurrence is 101-5,000 km² and area of occupancy is 11-500 km².	eng
3326	habitat	South African Mammal CAMP Workshop, 2008	The Riverine Rabbit inhabits dense riparian growth along the seasonal rivers in the central Karoo (Nama-Karoo - shrubland). Occurs specifically in riverine vegetation on alluvial soils adjacent to seasonal rivers. The habitat is highly fragmented and transformed.  Studies show the habitat to be 67% fragmented in certain areas that can be considered representative of the entire distribution.<br/><br/>STATE OF HABITAT: Fragmented. <br/>CHANGE IN HABITAT SIZE: Decreasing in area. <br/>RECENT CHANGE: 51%-80%. <br/>DURING HOW MANY YEARS? 100. <br/>PREDICTED DECLINE IN HABITAT <20%. <br/>PREDICTED DURATION OF DECLINE: 100. <br/>PRIMARY CAUSE OF CHANGE: Cultivation and livestock farming. <br/>CHANGES IN QUALITY: Decrease in quality. <br/>NOTES ON QUALITY: livestock and cultivation. <br/>HABITAT NOTES: Habitat not being minimally transformed at present. subpopulations isolated from each other by jackal-proof fencing and severe land transformation through agricultural practices.<br/><br/>Generation length for this species is two years (Collins <em>et al.</em> 2004).  This species has a single litter per year with 1-2 young per litter (Duthie 1989).  Reproductive periodicity occurs from August through May (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Gestation time is 35-36 days (Duthie 1989).  Longevity in captivity is five years (Collins <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Home range is 12 ha (Duthie 1989).  Total length ranges from 33.7-47.0 cm (Nowak 1991).	eng
3326	population	South African Mammal CAMP Workshop, 2008	Ref: (Collins <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are less than 90% of mature individuals in one subpopulation.  There are 10 subpopulations.  There has been a rapid decline of population due to loss of 50-60% of habitat in the past 70 years, this decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservancies.  The current population is estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs and is declining.  It is estimated that over the last 70 years the population has declined by 60%  or more.  Population decline of 10% or more is predicted to occur between 2002 and 2022.  The population is fragmented, with no subpopulation containing more than 50 individuals.  Population densities were estimated at 0.064-0.166/ha (Duthie <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
3326	threats	South African Mammal CAMP Workshop, 2008	Loss and degradation of habitat are the main threats to the species.  Over the last century, 50-80% of habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (mostly in the past) and livestock farming (ongoing).  Other threats to the species include hunting (the rabbit is hunted for sport and by farm workers), and accidental mortality in traps set for pest animals on farmlands.	eng
3327	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park in Sulawesi. Further research in general is needed into this species. Conservation of suitable forested habitat, especially in the lowlands, is needed.	eng
3327	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is found throughout central Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the southeast and southwest peninsulas (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from Buton Island (Indonesia) to the southeast of Sulawesi. It occurs from lowland areas to possibly around 1,400 m.	eng
3327	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This is primarily a lowland tropical evergreen rainforest species but can reach lower montane rainforest in parts of its range (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded in secondary forest and scrubby areas close to relatively undisturbed forest, but has not been recorded from cultivated areas. It is sympatric with other <em>Bunomys</em> species in parts of its range.	eng
3327	population	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	Although population densities are not known, it can be locally common in some areas of primary forest. The abundance of this species varies greatly and in some parts of tis range it is generally uncommon.	eng
3327	threats	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is threatened in lowland parts of its range by a general loss of forest habitat through logging and conversion to cultivated land.	eng
3328	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park.	eng
3328	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia), and is found throughout the island generally between 200 and 1,500 m, although reaching 2,200 m in some regions (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
3328	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been collected in primary rainforest, although a few specimens have been collected from slightly degraded forest. They are most common along ravines and rocky stream terraces in mesic shaded areas. It is strictly terrestrial and feeds primarily on small vertebrates (e.g., small frogs and lizards), fruit and earthworms.	eng
3328	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known to be abundant in some parts of its range, but uncommon elsewhere such as in the north east.	eng
3328	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be loss of habitat due to clearance of habitat for agriculture and logging. No extant specimens have been collected from the lowlands of the south west peninsula, partly because most of the original forest has been removed (the species once occurred in the deforested areas as represented by subfossils) but also because remaining tracts of forest in the region have not been adequately surveyed.	eng
3329	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	The species occurs in the Gunung Lampobatang Protection Forest. Further dedicated surveys to study the habitats and ecology of this species are needed. There is a need to protect any remaining suitable habitat. Further studies are also needed to review the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Bunomys crysocomus</em>.	eng
3329	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is restricted to the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at the southwest tip of Sulawesi (Indonesia), at elevations  between 1,800 and 2,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). The record of this species from Tanko Salocco is incorrect, and refers to a specimen of <em>Bunomys chrysocomus</em> (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
3329	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It is found in primary montane forest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005), and has not been recorded outside of this habitat.	eng
3329	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It can be common where it occurs.	eng
3329	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	The species has a very restricted distribution, and is threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural use (such as passion flower cultivation), and small-scale logging. It is also considered to be threatened by competition from <em>Rattus</em> spp.	eng
3330	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Bogani Nani Watarbone National Park, although there is a need for improved management of this area.	eng
3330	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the north east region of the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality, Rurukan, is at 1,067 m.	eng
3330	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species inhabits tropical evergreen rainforest formations from lowlands to high elevations up to 1,800 (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if it survives in degraded or disturbed habitats.	eng
3330	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Based on early collections, this species is believed to have been common, and they probably remain so where suitable habitat exists.	eng
3330	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss mainly due to expanding agriculture; this is also a region where there have been recent gold-mining activities. This species is also hunted for food.	eng
3332	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is common in Lore Lindu National Park. Field surveys are needed to determine if the species can persist in modified habitats outside of forest.	eng
3332	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to montane forest formations in the central core and southeast peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only found above 1,400 m.	eng
3332	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This terrestrial species is known from evergreen rainforest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded outside of forested areas, however, no trapping has taken place outside of primary forest.	eng
3332	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is abundant in montane evergreen forests (Musser 1991).	eng
3332	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is clear-cut logging of forest and conversion of land to cultivated gardens over much of the species range. Loss of forest at lower elevations may also be impacting the montane habitat of the species by leading to increased desiccation of montane regions.	eng
3333	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The only known locality is apparently in a protected area (Morowali Nature Reserve), although it is possible that it also occurs outside this protected area.	eng
3333	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from 1,830 m on Gunung Tambusisi, Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Although it is not impossible it may be shown to occur more widely with additional survey work in neighbouring ranges, the species is more than likely restricted to Tambusisi.	eng
3333	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It occurs in montane forest, in short and very mossy areas (Musser 1991).	eng
3333	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It was reported to be common (Musser 1991), although the type series collected is small. There is no information on current population status.	eng
3333	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and logging activities.	eng
3334	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is possibly Extinct in many countries and it is likely to struggle unless conditions change. Monitoring of the remaining sites and action plans based on this monitoring are recommended.<br/><br/>In Romania, the only known population is well preserved in one protected area; the place is difficult to access (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy, one of the localities is in a national park.</strong><strong></strong>	eng
3334	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This species is believed to be scattered across Europe ranging from Russia to central and western Europe, and from south-eastern Europe to northern Europe; but is absent from Britain and Ireland.<br/><br/>In Italy it has been recorded from two Apennines sites in Basilicata Region (southern Italy) (Curletti 2006). In Romania, it has been recorded from the south-western part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span> It is known from three localities in Spain. Its status in Greece is not known.<br/><br/>It formerly occurred in central Europe and the forest zone in Ukraine, however its has not been found there for many decades. In Germany, Austria and Sweden this species is Extinct.<span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>	eng
3334	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in relict old growth <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests.Larval development takes place in the dead wood of large diameter trunks (above 40 cm) and in the higher portion of the tree. Host trees have to be sun-exposed. In Romania, the newly reported population is in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> relict forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
3334	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This species is very rare across its European range, and its populations are severely fragmented and declining. It might be extinct in Ukraine and Spain, and it is already extinct in Germany, Austria and Sweden. At present the species occurs only in a minor part of its original range with small and widely separated relict populations (Luce 1996).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, this species is very rare. It was known from one specimen collected near Kiev 60 years ago (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Spain, it is only known from three specimens collected in the last 50 years. There is only one old record from Bavaria from before 1900 in Germany <br/><br/>There is one recent record in Poland. In the Balkans, there is little information about the remaining populations. In Romania, a new specimen was reported a few years ago from the south-western Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3334	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is commercial and illegal logging, affecting age structures and tree density. Several subpopulations which are not subject to this threat are endangered by slow regrowth and are therefore vulnerable to single threatening events such as fires. Remaining populations can be threatened by commercial collection of specimens. In Romania, the threats to this species are unknown, possibly the loss of populations is due to removal of dead and dying trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p></p>	eng
3338	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Further data are needed on this species before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert searches to be made across the known range of the species.	eng
3338	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species has only been recorded from West Bengal (Hasimara) and Uttaranchal (Dehra Dun), but is likely to be more widespread than this.	eng
3338	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	No information is available on the habitat requirements of this species, although it is very likely to breed in streams.	eng
3338	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific information is available. There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.	eng
3338	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Without further data it is not possible to do more than guess at the threats that might be faced by this species.	eng
3339	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Broome, L. & Driessen, M., 2008	The entire extent of the species' range is in protected areas, though important parts (and all of the Mt. Buller population) are in ski-resort lease areas. Government-endorsed management plans exists in Victoria (Mansergh <em>et al.</em> 1989) and New South Wales (NSW 2002), and a national recovery plan is being prepared. The recovery objectives for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; NSW 2002), include: conserve all remaining habitat and maintain it in a condition to support existing population levels; restore or re-create habitat in areas of disturbance; define habitat and population levels in Buller-Stirling area (Victoria) and reassess total population size and distribution of habitat in New South Wales; control feral predators and exotic species; monitor populations and habitat; define source and sink populations, understand genetic interrelationships and produce a metapopulation dynamics model; review threatening processes and predict the probability of long-term persistence in the wild; determine the feasibility of a viable captive breeding program; promote community awareness.<br/><br/>Recovery actions completed or underway include: distribution and abundance is well defined, general ecology and population dynamics have been studied at five sites over the last 20 years and additional sites over the last 10 years. Monitoring of populations, diet, food supply (Bogong moths and seeds) and habitat in ski resorts and control areas and consequent on-ground protection and planning is ongoing; protocols that provide protection to populations have been developed within some ski resorts, legislative and operational protection of all habitat needs to be finalised. Habitat restoration is occurring in fragmented, burnt, and disturbed areas in ski resorts. Feral cat, fox, rabbit, and weed control has been initiated in some areas; genetic studies are nearing completion; establishment of a captive colony of the Mt. Buller population is under consideration.<br/><br/>Studies required include: determine effects of the ski industry (notably use of snow-grooming equipment over habitat) and loss of snow cover on hibernation and over-winter survival; investigate Bogong moth population dynamics and pesticide residues, the possibility of competition or predation by co-occuring small mammal species, social dynamics, reproductive success, and captive husbandry techniques; continue research aimed at producing reliable metapopulation dynamics and viability models.	eng
3339	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Broome, L. & Driessen, M., 2008	The Mountain Pygmy Possum is endemic to south-eastern Australia where it occurs as three isolated, genetically distinct populations: 1) between Mt. Bogong and Mt. Higginbotham, Victoria 2) at Mt. Buller, Victoria and 3) in the Kosciuszko region of New South Wales (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its range is much smaller than the mapped distribution, and its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 6 or 7 km² (Heinze <em>et al.</em> 2004; Broome 2008). This species ranges in elevation from 1,300 to 2,228 m asl (Broome 2008).	eng
3339	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Broome, L. & Driessen, M., 2008	This is the only Australian mammal species confined to alpine environments (Broome 2008). They occur in periglacial boulder fields (basalt, granite, granodiorites) overlain with mountain plum-pine <em>Podocarpus lawrenceii</em> heathland and adjacent alpine communities. The basalt boulderfields have the greatest population density. Mountain Pygmy Possums are nocturnal and terrestrial, but they are also adept climbers. It has a spring-summer diet composed predominantly of Bogong moths <em>Agrotis infusa</em> and other invertebrates with seeds and fruits important in late summer and autumn (Mansergh and Broome 1994). Females normally have one litter of 4 young following snowmelt in spring. All individuals accumulate subcutaneous fat during late summer and autumn and spend the winter in hibernation (about 7 months for adults and 5 months for juveniles; Geiser and Broome (1991)). Snow cover provides important insulation and protection to hibernating animals.	eng
3339	population	Menkhorst, P., Broome, L. & Driessen, M., 2008	Common where they occur, but declining. The total population is estimated to number approximately 1,700 adult females and 550 adult males (Broome 2008).	eng
3339	threats	Menkhorst, P., Broome, L. & Driessen, M., 2008	The extremely restricted habitat has been fragmented or destroyed by road construction, dam/aqueduct construction, and development of infrastructure for the downhill skiing industry. Approximately 50% of the habitat supporting the Mt. Bogong-Mt. Higginbotham population and 20% of the Kosciuszko habitat was burned in bushfires in January 2003, killing <em>Podocarpus</em> heathland aged from 50-400 years (L. Broome pers. comm.). The population at Mt. Buller suffers from fragmentation and subpopulations here and around ski resorts in the Kosciuszko area have declined severely since 2000 due to: habitat destruction, predation by feral cats, and possibly low snow cover. Predation by the introduced red fox is also a threat and the habitat is subject to weed invasion (e.g., willow <em>Salix</em> species). Bogong moths are migratory and have been found to carry arsenic from their breeding grounds in the Murray-Darling Basin to the mountains where it accumulates in food chains. Arsenic has been found in the scats of <em>B. parvus</em> and other small mammals, but the implications of this are as yet unknown (Green <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Marginalisation and loss of habitat and the severity of predation are predicted to increase with global warming. A recent trend of second litters following early snow melt has been observed at Mt. Buller (D. Heinze pers. comm.). Neither second litters nor their mothers are known to survive the winter because they are unable to accumulate the fat reserves necessary for successful hibernation through winter.	eng
3381	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on local and global populations, and monitoring of harvest levels are recommended.	eng
3381	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>This species has a wide geographic range from East Africa, including Madagascar and the Comoros in the Indian Ocean (Keith <em>et al.</em> 2006); across to Sri Lanka and Bangladesh (Rahman 1989); north to the South China Sea; south through the Indo-West Pacific region as far as Australia and New Caledonia (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002) and as far east as <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Fiji (Ryan 1981).&#160;In&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam this s</st1:country-region>pecies lives in downstream <st1:placetype w:st="on">rivers</st1:placetype>, estuaries and lagoons of&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype>&#160;of&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Tonkin.</st1:placename></st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>	eng
3381	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<span class="sheader51">This tropical species is found in brackish habitat and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams, usually on mud bottoms (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).&#160;<span class="sheader51">It is usually found in lagoons, estuaries, and mangrove swamps; particularly where there is vegetation. Occasionally this species ascends rivers.&#160;<span class="sheader51"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place><br/><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><br/><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51"><span class="sheader51">This species feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><p>Specimens described by Nguyen Nhat Thi, 1991 and Mai Dinh Yen.  Results were:&#160;L = 69-155 mm; Lo = 57-125 mm;&#160;D1 = V-VI; D2 = I, 7-8; A =  I, 8; P = 18-20; V = I, 5; C = 20;&#160;Lo = 4,29-4,69 H = 2,88-3,11 T. T =  5,59-6,10 O = 3,40-4,81 OO.</p>  Long and flat side body. Dorsal edge  curved. Draw band and long head. Long and sharply snout. Large mouth.  Lower jaw is longer than upper jaw. Has two nostrils on each side. Has  many sharply teeth rows on two jaws. Two dorsal fins distincted. First  dorsal fin is lower than second ones. Large pectoral fin, strong&#160; origin  ones. Large caudal fin, back edge&#160; ones round. Large scales on body.  Black body. Almost scales on side body has a white point. First dorsal  fin has many black veins. Second dorsal fin has white upper area and ash  in lower area, four to six mottles on dorsal fin rays. Anal and dorsal  fins has black colour. Has a large black point in the middle two white  points on pectoral fin origin. Has many brown veins cross on ash caudal  fin.</span></span></span>	eng
3381	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, although it is said to be reasonably abundant in parts of its range.	eng
3381	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. Possible localized threats associated with this species' habitats include: destruction of mangrove forest, and coastal development.&#160;Current and future climate change may threaten this species as a result of extreme weather such as flooding and droughts, or as a consequence of habitat shifts and degradation.	eng
3385	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species has no known conservation actions in France. Conservation actions recommended include habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity	eng
3385	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to the Departement of Côte d'Or in France where it is known from 5 locations.	eng
3385	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
3385	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
3385	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over&#160; or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
3386	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected in France, and listed as Category 4, Near Threatened in Switzerland. Further research is required to establish the taxonomic status in light of recent work on this species group by Bichain <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) and Benke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009).	eng
3386	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is restricted to France (Ain and possibly Haute-Savoie and Jura departements) and Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2002). There is no recent information available on this species in France, although in Switzerland it is recorded from springs around Lake Geneva and in the Jura (19 different squares).	eng
3386	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
3386	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available.	eng
3386	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water.	eng
3393	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is possibly present in a Nautra 2000 protected area but there is no species specific recovery plan in place. However, it is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.	eng
3393	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella cylindrica</span> is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from the eastern Alps in the Lower Austria province, in the Triesting valley.	eng
3393	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	The species inhabits mainly freshwater springs, but during dry phases of the spring it can withdraw for a short periods of time into the deeper 'groundwater' zones of the spring.	eng
3393	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">This species is described as 'rare'. It has also experienced a significant decline in the population. The last known living population was significantly reduced (from millions of individuals down to tens of living specimens) due to the reconstruction of a chapel.</p>	eng
3393	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">The main current threats to this species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of water for drinking purposes and pollution, arising mostly from the over-use of fertilizers in agricultural practices.&#160;</p>	eng
3396	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measures.	eng
3396	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, and is restricted to the Padirac River catchment, in Department Lot, in the region of Midi-Pyrenees. As such, it is found in one location with an area of occupancy of&#160; 92km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3396	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This is a freshwater mollusc restricted to the groundwaters of a river catchment.	eng
3396	population	Prie, V., 2009	No detailed information on population status, but considered stable (Prie pers. comm 2009).	eng
3396	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The threats to this species, lie in the vulnerability of the single location, to pollution events.&#160; The species requires clean, unpolluted waters, and as such any degradation of the water (road run-off, pesticides and herbicides from agricultural sources and domestic sewage) could impact the species in the future.	eng
3397	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by the French law. Its habitat is listed in the annex of the Habitat directive (8310-4).	eng
3397	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum articense i</span>s a French endemic, known from the Ardèche and Gard departments, and it is considered to be widespread in Gard (V. Prie, pers. comm, 2009).	eng
3397	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
3397	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no data on the population trends for this species.	eng
3397	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of groundwater levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
3398	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This species is protected by the French law. It's habitat is listed in the annex II of the Habitat directive (8310-4).	eng
3398	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Bythiospeum bressanum</em> is endemic to France, where it is currently found in the&#160;départements of&#160;Jura, Ain and Isère.	eng
3398	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
3398	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.	eng
3398	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Groundwater levels may become lowered if the aquifers are overexploited, causing habitat degradation, and hence threatening this species.	eng
3399	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This is a nationally protected species.	eng
3399	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Bythiospeum diaphanu</em><em>m</em> is endemic to France, and is restricted to a few locations in the south of the Jura mountains.	eng
3399	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean freshwater habitats.	eng
3399	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available.	eng
3399	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption may be another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
3400	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	No conservation actions.	eng
3400	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum garnieri </span>is endemic to France, where it is found in throughout the lower Rhone drainage systems in Departments Ardeche and Rhone.	eng
3400	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This small freshwater gastropod lives in subterranean waters.	eng
3400	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
3400	threats	Prie, V., 2010	As this species is widespread, it is only locally threatened.&#160;                  <p><span lang="EN-US">Species that live in subterranean habitats&#160; are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.</p>	eng
3403	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is strictly protected in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). However, it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
3403	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum cisterciensorum </span>is endemic to the north-eastern Alps in Lower Austria. It is only known from the type locality, which is discharge from the spring Siebenbrunn, besides the river Türnitz, north of Annaberg.	eng
3403	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species inhabits groundwater and water found in rock fissures.	eng
3403	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species was previously considered 'very common' in occurrence. However, a population decrease has been recently observed and is now thought of as 'rare'.	eng
3403	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.	eng
3404	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum elseri&#160; </span>is protected by law in Lower Austria. <span id="result_box" class="long_text">It is currently listed on the Red List of Austria as Critically Endangered (CR) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007) and in the past has been listed as Endangered and Near Threatened (Wells and Chatfield 1992, Baille and Groombridge 1996). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
3404	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum elseri</span> is <span class="inlink">endemic to <span class="inlink">Austria. It is found in the northern limestone Alps region of upper Austria, where it is currently known from only one locality, where it was recorded in                 floodline debris of the river Traun near Wels. Reischutz & Reischutz (2009) noted that it might be expected <span id="result_box" class="long_text">to be found in the sources of Nebenbäche.	eng
3404	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This is a very small freshwater species, living in springs and groundwater. It is seldom found in river deposits.	eng
3404	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There have been no living specimens of this species recorded. However, the ecology of this species may be the main reason for the lack of collecting of live individuals, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris, flushed from karst fissures. It is difficult to sample these groundwaters effectively, and as such the species, like many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum</span>, will appear rare.	eng
3404	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species could be threatened by habitat degradation due to the abstraction of groundwater and subsequent lowering of groundwater levels.	eng
3405	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is placed on the Austrian Red List as Endangered (EN) and is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria.&#160;It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
3405	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum geyeri</span> is endemic to Austria. It is known from the border zone of the northern granite and gneiss highlands and the Pannonian flat and hill countries. Specifically it is found in the sand and gravel plains of&#160;Schoenbuehel&#160;Bay (Dunkelsteiner forest) and the&#160;River Danube, between 154 and 226 metres above sea level.</p>	eng
3405	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species is found underground in gravel deposits.                This is the only species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>which also lived in the deeper parts of a spring in Schönbuehel, from where living specimens could be obtained. Approximately up to the 1980's. Since then living specimens were not found again.<u></u>	eng
3405	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
3405	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>The main threats to this species are habitat destruction, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution.</p>	eng
3406	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.	eng
3406	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to the northern limestone Alps in eastern Upper Austria. The exact distribution is not known, as the type description was based on shells from floodline debris of <span id="result_box" class="long_text">alluvial deposits (Gaflenz Weyer, Oberösterreich), consequently the groundwater source is uncertain.	eng
3406	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	The species occurs in groundwaters and rock fissures. It is rarely found, usually in floodline debris from rivers.	eng
3406	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There are no comprehensive data about population trend available.	eng
3406	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are habitat degradation as a result of water pollution and the abstraction of groundwater lowering the water table.	eng
3410	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered.&#160;This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
3410	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Bythiospeum pfeifferi </span><span style="background-color: white;">is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is known from&#160;Kremsmünster in the Northern Alps, between 340 and 380 metres above sea level where it's known from a spring which feeds a pipeline (</span>Reischütz & Reischütz, 2009)<span style="background-color: white;">.</span>&#160; According to Reischütz & Reischütz (2009) the  species was first found around 1887 from the area of  Kremsmünster , but no precise location. It was then lost for decades until it was rediscovered in 1949 by F. Mahler, but again no exact location is given (Reischütz 1994a). It was not until 1993 when it was found alive in a spring at <span style="background-color: white;">Kremsmünster</span> (Reischütz 1995).	eng
3410	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species is found in subterranean environments such as caves, where it inhabits groundwater and rock fissures.	eng
3410	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
3410	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat destruction, the lowering of the groundwater level and pollution in the form of eutrophication.</p>	eng
3411	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
3411	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the calcareous Alps region near Graz, Styria, but has not been recorded since the 1980's. The type locality was 'Höhle bei St. Martin am Fuße des Bruchkogels [sic]) bei Graz, Steiermark'.	eng
3411	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species inhabits ground water sources and rock fissures. It is rarely found in the mouths of springs.	eng
3411	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	The population trend for this species is currently unknown. However it is suggested that this species may be extinct due to the building of a road highway in the species locality.	eng
3411	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown. However, the building of a road is thought to have destroyed this species locality.	eng
3412	conservation	Superina, M. Abba, A. M., 2009	This armadillo species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, such as Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve, Manglares Cayapas-Mataje Ecological Reserve and Bilsa Protected Forest in Ecuador. There is a need to determine the population status of the species throughout its range, as well as potential threats.	eng
3412	distribution	Superina, M. Abba, A. M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> ranges from Chiapas state in Mexico, through Central America, to western Colombia, north-western Ecuador and north-western Venezuela (Gardner 2005, Tirira 2007). It occurs from sea level to around 3,000 m asl.	eng
3412	habitat	Superina, M. Abba, A. M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> occurs in dry, to moderately moist (mesic), deciduous and semi-deciduous forests, at forest edges in rocky terrain and in open habitats such as dry savanna (Reid 1997). It has also been recorded in tropical moist montane forests, as well as in the subparamo of the Colombian Central Andean highlands (Díaz-N. and Sánchez-Giraldo 2008). It can be found in secondary forest habitat, and also tolerates a moderate mix of forest and agricultural land. It is a solitary, insectivorous species, partly adapted to digging and life underground.	eng
3412	population	Superina, M. Abba, A. M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is apparently rare and patchily distributed. Individuals are not commonly seen or captured, which may be due to its secretive habits. The population trend is unknown.	eng
3412	threats	Superina, M. Abba, A. M., 2009	The threats to this species are not known. Throughout most of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is not hunted for food because of its pungent odour and local beliefs. The species is, however, indistinctively hunted along its known Andean distribution. Some Andean populations are facing severe impacts due to urbanization of their natural habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. centralis</span> is distributed throughout the Tropical Dry Forest, one of the most threatened habitats of northwestern South America, which in Colombia has been reduced to 1.5% of its original area (Etter 1993). Although its sensitivity to habitat loss is not known and the species seems to tolerate some degree of habitat degradation, it seems to prefer primary, well-preserved forests. The severe habitat  transformations are therefore likely to have a negative impact on the species.	eng
3413	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	&#160;This armadillo species has been recorded in several Argentinean national and provincial parks.	eng
3413	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chacoensis</span> has been recorded from the Gran Chaco of western Paraguay and center Argentina (Gardner 2005). It has not been recorded in Bolivia.	eng
3413	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This largely fossorial species is restricted to chaco-seco (thorn forest) habitats (Meritt 1985). It is not present in cultivated areas. There is little available information on its life history and other biological characteristics<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
3413	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	The abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chacoensis</span> is not known. In general it is rarely sighted.	eng
3413	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat degradation from agricultural activity, subsistence hunting for food by local people, as well as predation by dogs.	eng
3414	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This species is present in many protected areas. It listed on Appendix III of CITES (Uruguay).	eng
3414	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This armadillo species is present in eastern and southern Brazil, north-eastern Uruguay, north-eastern Argentina and south-eastern Paraguay. Records from Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, are erroneous (Abba and Vizcaíno 2008).	eng
3414	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. tatouay</span> inhabits tropical lowland and submontane forest, as well as open areas (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It is also found in agricultural areas, and it may possibly occur in secondary forest (Mikich and Bernils 2004, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008). The species is highly fossorial.	eng
3414	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	It is not uncommon and can be regularly encountered within suitable habitat.	eng
3414	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	There is extensive habitat loss in much of its range, including in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest. In addition, the species is hunted locally.	eng
3415	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	It is present in some protected areas.	eng
3415	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This South American species is found east of the Andes from northern Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, through to Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana and Suriname in the north, to the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil) in the south (Gardner 2005). Its presence in northeastern Brazil is doubtful and needs to be confirmed (Anacleto and Diniz 2006).	eng
3415	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. unicinctus</span> inhabits tropical lowland and submontane forest. Although it is not found in agricultural areas, it possibly occurs in secondary forest.	eng
3415	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	It is a relatively common species.	eng
3415	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Populations in the south of the range are subject to a degree of hunting and habitat loss (e.g., Machado <em>et al.</em> 1998, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).	eng
3416	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Bowler, M., Silva Jr., J.S., Queiroz, H.L., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB <http: www.ibama.gov.br="" cpb="">), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout Brazil. An international committee (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos) was established by the the CPB and Instituto Chico Mendes (ICM) to discuss and define actions for the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa, and together with the members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG), is currently developing Conservation Action Plans for each of the four subspecies in Brazil. <br/><br/>A decree (No. 34-2004-AG) was published by the Peruvian government in 2004 that approves the categorization of threatened Peruvian wildlife and prohibits hunting, capturing, owning, transporting, and exportation for commercial purposes. It is hoped that this will help in conservation actions and stimulate research on threatened Peruvian wildlife (Heymann 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>This subspecies  is protected within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Ayres <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/> <br/><em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em>:<br/>Afforded some protection within two extractive reserves, the Middle Juruá and the Upper Juruá, where hunting and the exploitation of natural resources are permitted.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> should be relatively well protected as it occurs within the Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (284,285 ha), south of the rio Solimões (Nogueira-Neto 1992).<br/><br/><em>Cacjao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Until recently, the only protected area known to contain <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em> was the regional Tamshiyacu Tahuayo Communal Reserve (TTCR). The TTCR extends over an area of 322,500 ha, and is situated close to the city of Iquitos in upland forests between the Amazon and the Yavarí (Newing and Bodmer 2004). The reserve was created as a result of a strong alliance between local people and conservationists. The presence of <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em> has become part of the justification for three areas either under proposal or newly created. These are the Sierra del Divisor Reserved Zone, the Lago Preto Conservation Concession (LPCC) and the proposed Greater Yavarí Reserve. Community conservation work is conducted by WCS-Peru and the Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology on the Yavari and Yavari-Mirin Rivers in Peru. This project aims to reduce the hunting of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> in this area (Bowler 2007).	eng
3416	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Bowler, M., Silva Jr., J.S., Queiroz, H.L., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is found in Brazil and Peru. The distribution of the Bald-headed Uacari is poorly known and field surveys are needed to resolve a series of issues related to the distribution and taxonomy of these taxa. Available data suggest that there is no range overlap among the subspecies of <em>Cacajao calvus</em>, although there may be a contact zone between <em>Cacajao calvus calvus</em> and <em>Cacajao calvus rubicundus</em> (Ayres 1986).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em> has a restricted range, from the confluence of the rios Japurá and Solimões north-west between the two rivers connecting to either the Paraná Yaula, or the Furo or Paraná da Aranapa in Brazil (Hershkovitz 1987). Until recently, the White Bald-headed Uacari was considered endemic to Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, but observations indicate the presence of this taxon in the region of the lower Juruá (Vira Volta), south of the Solimões (Silva Jr. pers. comm.). A new population of white uacaris was recorded from the Rio Jurupari, a tributary of the Rio Envira in the state of Amazons, about 750 km to south-west of the current range (Silva Jr. pers. comm.), and another sighting along the Alto Jurupari south of the town Feijó in the state of Acre (L. Veiga pers. comm.), but it has not yet been confirmed whether or not these are the same or distinct taxa (see Figueiredo 2006). Unlike most other Amazonian platyrrhines, uacaris tend to range along rivers rather than within interfluvia; várzea forests connect the two populations along the rivers between these two areas. No field data are available to determine if these populations are allopatric. The subspecies <em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em> occurs in the middle of these two populations (Silva, Jr. and Martins 1999). <br/><br/>The geographic range of <em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em> has been updated since first described by Hershkoivitz (1987) when it was thought to occur only on the south bank of the upper rio Juruá between the Rios Tarauacá and Eirú. Peres (1988, 1997) extended its range north-east of the range described by Hershkovitz (1987), on the left bank of the Juruá and at Lago da Fortuna, Carauari to the north. Populations of <em>Cacajao calvus</em> observed by Peres on the upper Juruá, and unconfirmed reports by Fernandes (1990) in the Brazilian state of Acre on the upper Juruá and Purus, are either of <em>Cacajao calvus novaesi</em> or <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em>, which would extend the known ranges of either of these subspecies (Bowler 2007).<br/> <br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> occurs in Brazil, with a relatively restricted (poorly known) range. It presents an apparent disjunct geographic distribution, known from an area situated in the Iça-Solimões interfluve in Amazonas (type locality: opposite the town of São Paulo de Olivença, north bank of the Solimões [Hershkovitz 1987]), and another near the mouth of the Auati-Paraná. <em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em> also occurs south of the Solimões, west of the Jutaí River at the Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (Nogueira-Neto 1992). It may have formerly occurred in the Trapezium of Colombia, but if they did they are now believed to be extirpated.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> is found south of the Amazon River in Peru between the Ucayali and Yavarí Rivers. In the past, its range probably extended as far as the Urubamba River (Hershkovitz 1987), but surveys undertaken in the 1980s suggest that the southern limit is now the Sheshea River (Aquino 1988). Hershkovitz (1987) claimed this taxon also occurs on the east bank of the lower Yavarí in Brazil. The subspecies has a patchy distribution. It may no longer be present on the Brazilian side of the Yavarí, and is absent from a long stretch on the Peruvian side, upriver from the mouth of the Yavarí-Mirín perhaps as far as Quebrada Curacinha close to the town of Colonia Angamos (Salovaara <em>et al.</em> 2003). On the Yavarí-Mirín, the species is present on a large of the North bank, but is absent from the south side of the river, except in the upper reaches. As noted earlier, populations of <em>Cacajao calvus</em> observed by Peres on the upper Juruá and unconfirmed reports by Fernandes (1990) in the Brazilian state of Acre on the upper Juruá and Purus, may be either of <em>Cacajao calvus novaesi</em> or <em>Cacajao calvus ucayalii</em>, which would extend the known ranges of either of these subspecies (Silva Jr.and Martins 1999).	eng
3416	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Bowler, M., Silva Jr., J.S., Queiroz, H.L., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Bald-headed Uacaris are habitat specialists that are limited primarily to white-water várzea habitats. In addition to their ecological range restrictions, their distribution along rivers makes them relatively more vulnerable to human impact. They are highly specialized seed predators, with immature seeds and fruits comprising the bulk of the diet. Uacaris live in large multi-male, multi-female groups with a fission-fusion social organization. Specialist habitat and feeding requirements may mean greater sensitivity to habitat modification. While other pitheciines (<em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Pithecia</em>) have demonstrated a degree of tolerance and adaptability in the face of habitat disturbance, the capacity of uacaris to cope with anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>This taxon is a habitat specialist that is primarily limited to flooded forests such as the lower Rio Juruá or the white-water várzea habitats of the low Rio Japurú. The White Bald-headed Uacari is a highly specialized seed predator, fruits and seeds are the most important food item and just a handful of tree species made up the bulk of the diet (Ayres 1986).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/>No field data on ecology are available for this subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Occurs in flooded forests, low to medium hill and high terrace forests, and palm swamps. As with other Bald Uacaris, Red Uacaris are specialized for the predation of seeds, with fruits and immature seeds making up the bulk of the diet. <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> palm fruit was also the most important species in the diet of this taxon at Lago Preto, accounting for 20% of the annual diet (Bowler 2007).	eng
3416	population	Veiga, L.M., Bowler, M., Silva Jr., J.S., Queiroz, H.L., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Uacaris generally tend to occur at low densities.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao. c. calvus</em>:<br/>Average population densities in the region surrounding Mamirauá and Teiu Lakes (Mamirauá Reserve) were 10 individuals/km² (5 sites) in 1984/5 (Ayres 1986) and 17/km² (6 sites) in 2004/5 (Paim 2005).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>In surveys undertaken in the Sierras de Contamana, part of the Sierra del Divisor located on the right margin of the Ucayali River, near the frontier with Brazil, this subspecies was recorded at an abundance of 479 individuals/100 km (Aquino 2005). Sites on the Yavarí and Yavarí-Mirín have some of the highest densities of (Puertas and Bodmer 1993; Salovaara <em>et al.</em> 2003). Jorge and Velazco (2006) discovered some new populations on the upper Tapiche River and on the Divisor ridges in the Zona Reservada Sierra del Divisor.	eng
3416	threats	Veiga, L.M., Bowler, M., Silva Jr., J.S., Queiroz, H.L., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The major threats to this species include forest loss and hunting. The distribution along rivers may make this taxon relatively more vulnerable to human impact, while specialist habitat and feeding requirements may result in greater sensitivity to habitat disturbance. <br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. calvus</em>:<br/>Although this subspecies is rarely hunted in its range because its appearance is considered too human-like (Ayres 1986), the main threat facing this primate is the reduction and transformation of its flooded forest habitat. The main forms of deforestation in the area, are small-scale agriculture and logging (Ayres and Johns 1987). Current data indicate that almost the entire (confirmed) population are included within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve and population densities appear to have increased in the 20 years up to 2005 (Ayres 1986; Paim 2005).<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. rubicundus</em>:<br/>This species is hunted for food. It may be affected by habitat loss due to logging and forest loss especially along the main stream of the Amazon. <br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>:<br/>Surveys conducted between 1979 and 1986 (Aquino 1988) showed that the range was much reduced, hunting having exterminated the species in several areas. Aquino (1988) suggests that populations close to the Ucayali and Amazon Rivers have been greatly reduced and in some areas exterminated, caused by hunting and habitat disturbance. The Yavarí River and its tributary the Yaquerana represent the stronghold for remaining populations. Close to Iquitos, <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> is extracted in large quantities by felling the palms (Bodmer <em>et al.</em> 1999; Meyer and Penn 2003); the unsustainable extraction of this resource may have an impact on <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em> in some areas (Bowler 2007). Logging concessions designated in 2004 cover around one-third of the geographic range of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>. While the selective removal of low-density, high-value timber species does not appear likely to have a great impact on populations of <em>Cacajao c. ucayalii</em>, the logging operations increase human populations and bushmeat hunting in remote parts of the range (Bowler 2007). Hunting levels on the Yavarí-Mirín and Yavarí have increased since 2004, when human populations increased due to logging activities. Bodmer <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that more wild meat was consumed per capita in a commercial forest concession on the Yavarí than in the nearby rural communities.<br/><br/><em>Cacajao c. novaesi</em>:<br/>This subspecies is affected to some degree by hunting and the exploitation of natural resources within the two extractive reserves where it occurs.	eng
3417	conservation	Barnett, A.A., Boubli, J.-P., Veiga, L.M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Presently, several large parks and reserves protect parts of the range of this species. In Colombia, they are protected by two large natural reserves: Nukak (855,000 ha) and Puinawai (1,280,000 ha). In Brazil, the species is protected in several areas including the 2,270,000-ha Jaú National Park and the Amanã Extractive Reserve. However, the species continues to be hunted for meat in areas, including some that are officially protected. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
3417	distribution	Barnett, A.A., Boubli, J.-P., Veiga, L.M. & Palacios, E., 2008	The range of <em>C. melanocephalus</em> is delimited to the south by the Solimões and Japurá rivers in Brazil, to the west by the Apaporis and La Macarena mountains in Colombia, to the north by the Guaviari River in Colombia and the Negro River in Brazil. Boubli <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest a range extension to include the region between the Canal Cassiquiari (north) and the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The extension could mean that the species would be sympatric with <em>Chiropotes</em>, as previously reported elsewhere within the range of the genus by Boubli (2002).	eng
3417	habitat	Barnett, A.A., Boubli, J.-P., Veiga, L.M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Golden-backed Black Uakaris are habitat specialists, spending the majority of the year in igapó forests, although animals may migrate seasonally to <em>terra firme</em> forest when fruit resource availability is at its lowest (Barnett and da Cunha 1991; Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2005). They appear to avoid degraded igapó (Hernandez-Camacho and Cooper 1977; Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2002; A. Barnett pers. comm.), and have not been reported from either secondary forest or low shrubby white sand habitats.<br/><br/>In igapó forests, they spend by far the greatest amount of their time in the canopy, though they may forage at all levels from the water level upwards. They have been observed descending to the ground to consume germinating seeds in the period when the igapo is unflooded (Barnett 2008). Like other uakaris, golden-backeds are specialized seed predators and the majority of their diet is made up of immature seeds (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Barnett 2008). In months when immature seed availability is low, the diet may be supplemented by fruit pulp, young leaves, pith and arthropods. The majority of food species are from tall canopy trees. In addition, emergents are often used as sleeping trees (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2008). Hard fruits are bitten along points of weakness, such as sutures, to open them economically (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007b). <br/><br/>Groups range in size from 5-40 individuals, but groups with >100 individuals have been seen – probably as a result of a congregation of several groups. As groups with 1-10 individuals have been found more frequently at times when fruits are scarce, it is possible that group size is positively correlated with fruit availability (Defler 2001; Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2007a, 2008). Though the species may be sympatric with bearded sakis in some parts of its range, competition may be limited by the super-abundance of some of their diet items (see Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3417	population	Barnett, A.A., Boubli, J.-P., Veiga, L.M. & Palacios, E., 2008	There are no precise data concerning total population numbers. Golden-backed black Uakaris have been found to be abundant during periods of high fruit availability in igapó (the seasonally flooded forest that occurs along the margins of blackwater rivers in north-west Amazonia) (Barnett 2005; Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2005). Defler (2001) estimated a crude density of 4.15 animals/km² at the landscape level and an ecological density (in terms of food abundance) of 12 animals/km².	eng
3417	threats	Barnett, A.A., Boubli, J.-P., Veiga, L.M. & Palacios, E., 2008	In Colombia, there is some habitat loss due to the planting of illegal crops and human settlement, but only in the northern portion of the range. In Brazil, there is some occasional hunting for food or bait (A. Barnett pers. comm.). The Golden-backed Black Uakari may become threatened if climatic changes provoked by global warming reduce the present extent of its flooded forest habitats (Queiroz and Valsecchi 2007). A number of the species eaten by golden-backeds are also used by the commercial timber industry (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
3441	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No research or conservation priorities are assigned to this species. Knowledge of the biology and ecology of the species, together with how these are affected by habitat changes and different land uses, and in particular agrochemicals, are needed to better evaluate its status.&#160;It is known to occur in three protected areas: J.N. Briers-Louw Provincial Nature Reserve (near Paarl), Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve (near Hermon) and the adjoining Voëlvlei Provincial Nature Reserve.	eng
3441	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the Cape lowlands (below 280 m asl) west of the Cape Fold Mountains, in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. It occurs from the Cape Flats, through the wheat-growing region known as the Swartland, northwards for approximately 200 km to Graafwater, with two relictual populations occurring in the Olifants and Breede River valleys. Its extent of occurrence (19 500 km² with an area of occupancy of around 1%) appears to have contracted over the last few decades, in tandem with increased urbanization, and it is now extirpated from the urban areas and immediate surrounds of Cape Town. However, this process has slowed in recent years.	eng
3441	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It lives in undulating low-lying areas with poorly drained loamy to clay soils, although it is known from some shallow sand habitats. The dominant vegetation in which it historically occurred was Renosterveld heath land, which can leach and acidify the surface water. However, its contemporary presence in disturbed agricultural land indicates that acidic water is not a prerequisite for this species. It breeds in vleis and depressions in flat low-lying areas.&#160;The eggs are laid in numerous small clusters (20-50) attached to submerged vegetation in temporary water, with up to 400 eggs from a single female. It can tolerate some disturbance, and survives in many regularly ploughed wheat fields, possibly due to its burrowing to depths below the reach of conventional ploughs (they aestivate in burrows during the dry season).	eng
3441	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Subpopulations are widely scattered and densities (as assessed by chorus intensity) can be high but do not normally reach historical levels. Most of the populations that were close to regions of heavy urbanization have been lost.	eng
3441	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs in a habitat that is in high demand for urbanization and agriculture, and over 90% of its former habitat has been transformed by agriculture or urbanization. These same areas are under pressure from alien invasive plants which threaten to dry the breeding habitats. The long-term viability of populations living in disturbed agricultural fields, which contain high levels of agro-chemicals, is uncertain.	eng
3442	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
3442	distribution		Assuming that this is a valid species, it is known only from the type locality,Town Bush Valley, in Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.	eng
3442	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, the only specimen of which was found in a beer bottle at a plant nursery.	eng
3442	population		It is known only from a single female specimen collected in 1954, and numerous subsequent searches by various herpetologists have failed to find this form again. If it ever existed, it will probably have to be considered extinct.	eng
3442	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
3449	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
3449	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is only known from the Mbanzagungu caves (Thysville) (circa 5°S, 15°E), Lower Congo River basin (Lévêque and Daget 1984). The international trade is restricted (<strong>CITES</strong> II, since 6.6.1981).	eng
3449	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a blind fish which lives in caves (700 m above sea-level) (Lévêque and Daget 1984) and feeds on small crustaceans living in the caves and also on animals washed into the caves (Wheeler 1977). <em>Caecobarbus geertsi</em> is not closely related to any extant epigean species of the Congo region. It is classified as `textbook and popular press fish' in Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991. Eggs are expelled in a more or less haphazard fashion, the substrate on which the species spawns must have crevices and pores into which the adhesive eggs can roll and be hidden so to prevent predation by its parents or other cave inhabitants.	eng
3449	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
3449	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Natural and agricultural sedimentation, toxicity and habitat destruction (caves that collapse) form threats for this species. Sedimentation flowing into the caves poses the main threat to the species. At least one cave is known to be used as a quarry.	eng
3450	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
3519	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Its cryptic nature allows it to coexist successfully with humans. <em>C. o. chrysillus</em> is adequately protected in KwaZulu-Natal at Ndumu Game Reserve, Tembe Elephant Park, Kosi Bay Nature Reserve, Lake Sibaya Nature Reserve, and the Maputaland Coastal Forest Reserve. In Mozambique, this subspecies occurs in the Maputo Elephant Reserve. <em>C. o. obtusirostris</em> has been recorded from the Kruger National Park in South Africa, and Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe. It may also occur in the Gorongoza National Park of Mozambique. <em>C. o. limpopoensis</em> has not, however, been recorded from any conservation area.	eng
3519	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Largely restricted to the Mozambique sand plain. Ranges from Inhambane in Mozambique southwards to northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and inland to the eastern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains and the southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe.	eng
3519	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Restricted to sandy soils in southern African savanna. <em>C. o. chrysillus</em> occurs in Coastal Bushveld-Grassland and Subhumid Lowveld Bushveld. <em>C. o. limpopoensis</em> inhabits miombo savanna of eastern Mozambique. <em>C. o. obtusirostris</em> occurs in Acacia and Mopane savanna in Mozambique and adjacent parts of Zimbabwe. Occur in close proximity to human settlements, thrive in gardens.	eng
3519	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Common in suitable habitats.	eng
3519	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
3549	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species is present in Caitutu and Kaxaraari Amerindian Reserves. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3549	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	<em>Callicebus dubius</em> has a relatively large, but poorly known, range that includes parts of northern Bolivia, south-eastern Peru and three Brazilian states. It occurs south of the Rio Ituxí, or perhaps Rio Mucuím, both right bank tributaries of the Rio Purús, west to the Rio Purús; the southern limit is unknown. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) placed <em>C. dubius</em> in northern Bolivia, but Rowe and Martinez (2003) found no evidence to support this supposition, and <em>C. brunneus</em> is the species in the Pando, north and south of the Río Madre de Dios (R. Wallace pers. comm.)	eng
3549	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
3549	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
3549	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in a remote isolated region of the Amazon, and is not considered to be under any immediate threat.	eng
3553	conservation	Veiga, L.M., DeLuycker, A.M., Bóveda-Penalba, A.J., Vermeer, J. & Cornejo, F., 2008	In the past, little attention has been given to forest conservation in this region. There are 13 municipal protected areas in the Department of San Martín; however, most are poorly demarcated and are routinely invaded by immigrants (Mark 2003). This species’ range possibly includes the Bosque de Protección de Alto Mayo, which extends from the town of Rioja north along the border between the departments of San Martín and Amazonas. During short surveys of the Reserve, no titis were detected in the high-altitude areas which make up most of the reserve. It is likely that the species only occurs in the low-altitude areas on the edges of the reserve (<1%) (Rowe and Martinez 2003; DeLuycker 2006). Other protected areas in this species’ range include: The Pabloyacu Reserve (640 ha) of the Universidad de San Martín, and Tarangue (74 ha), which belongs to a conservation organization called IKAMA Peru. Mark (2003) and DeLuycker (2006) have emphasized the potential importance of both privately owned reserves and Amerindian reservations for the long-term conservation of this species. There are 14 indigenous Aguaruna communities located throughout the Alto Mayo region. The large tracts of forested land allocated to these well-organized communities could play a key role in conservation initiatives (Mark 2003). <br/><br/>A team of scientists from NatureServe, Conservation Data Center - Peru/UNALM, and the Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) have recently completed part of a a project financed by the Moore foundation “Endemic Species and Ecological Systems of the Eastern Andean Slope and the Amazon Basin in Peru and Bolivia”. The objectives were to develop conservation baseline maps for the Andes-Amazon regions of Peru and Bolivia to inform planning and effective conservation action at regional and local scales and build local and regional capacity for developing and using biodiversity information.<br/>http://www.natureserve.org/aboutUs/latinamerica/andes_amazon.jsp<br/>Together with regional leaders the project identified sustainable ways to regulate land use while also protecting the region’s natural species and habitats. Biodiversity information generated by the project was analysed together with existing land use data to identify areas of high conservation concern and develop scenarios of land uses for agriculture, infrastructure and forestry that have lower impact and help support biodiversity conservation.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3553	distribution	Veiga, L.M., DeLuycker, A.M., Bóveda-Penalba, A.J., Vermeer, J. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Until 2007, this species was thought to occur only in the upper Rio Mayo valley or Alto Mayo (Hershkovitz 1990). However, a recent study by Bóveda-Penalba, Vermeer, Rodrigo and Guerra-Vásquez (in prep.) has revealed that the distribution extends much further to the south of the Department of San Martin, almost reaching the Rio Huallabamba (or rio Huayabamba). Mark (2003) and DeLuycker (2006) suggested that the species’ altitudinal range may be restricted to below 1,000 m. This is confirmed in the study undertaken by Bóveda-Penalba <em>et al.</em> (in prep.), in which the species was only found above a thousand metres (at 1,050 m) in an area where all the lower forest had been cut. Boveda-Penalba <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) estimate the species’ total range to be approximately 9,000 km², at least 60% of which appears to have been deforested.<br/><br/>There is an urgent need for additional surveys of all potential habitats in San Martin, and larger tracts of forest. Mark (2003) notes that subpopulations near the banks of the Rio Mayo differ in colour from those in the Aguaruna territory in the north-east. DeLuycker (2006) reported a marked difference in pelage colour between a group she studied in a fragment near Moyobamba and those photographed by Noel Rowe. During surveys, attention should be given to the distributions of the different colour morphs (Mark 2003). Bóveda-Penalba <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) detected little difference in colour. Animals in the southern part of San Martin were found to be somewhat greyer than animals near Moyobamba. However, the authors claim that the colour of these animals varies depending on the light conditions. Some darker animals appeared much lighter when their bodies were turned in a different direction, making it difficult to determine differences in colour between populations. The same was true for the quantity of white hair on the face.	eng
3553	habitat	Veiga, L.M., DeLuycker, A.M., Bóveda-Penalba, A.J., Vermeer, J. & Cornejo, F., 2008	This species occurs in mid-altitude tropical forest (750 to 950 m asl), in both terra firme and seasonally flooded forests. It is known to occur in low secondary forests and remnant forest and has been seen in bamboo stands, viney thickets, fruit crops and palm-dominated semi-flooded forests (“aguajales” and “renacales”) (DeLuycker 2006, 2007). Mark (2003) noted that occurrence records (both sightings and calls) were frequently located near rivers and streams (distance of <20 m) or in flooded or seasonally flooded habitats, and suggested that this may indicate a preference for gallery forest or swamp areas (Mark 2003). However, Bóveda-Penalba <em>et al.</em> (in prep.), also found the species in forests located far away from rivers. These titis appear to be able to survive (at least in the short term in the absence of hunting) in forest fragments and relatively large groups have been registered in fragments of <20 ha, some located very close to human habitations such as Moyobamba city (Mark 2003). <br/><br/><em>Callicebus oenanthe</em> occurs in the same region as another threatened primate, <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em>. The former occupies the valleys to the south-east of the distribution of <em>O. flavicauda</em> and there no known area of sympatry. <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> is only present above 1,500 m (A. DeLuycker and J. Vermeer pers. comm.) in the mountains bordering the range of <em>C. oenanthe</em>; the same is probably true for <em>Aotus miconax</em> (J. Vermeer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Titi monkeys are known to be monogamous and live in small family groups. In the first long-term study of <em>C. oenanthe</em> (undertaken in an isolated fragment), a group of five monkeys (an adult male and female and their three offspring) used an area of 2.5 ha (DeLuycker 2007). This group’s diet consisted mainly of insects (45%) and fruits (39%), although young seeds, flowers and non-reproductive plant parts such as leaves, shoots and tendrils and new meristem were also eaten (DeLuycker 2007). Liana species were particularly important in the diet, as were fruits from stem-parasitic plants from the mistletoe family, and the group spent a considerable  amount of time foraging for insects (DeLuycker 2006). In contrast with titi monkeys at other sites, the group used only three sleeping sites during the entire study. They shared the fragment with saddleback tamarins [<em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em>] (DeLuycker 2006).	eng
3553	population	Veiga, L.M., DeLuycker, A.M., Bóveda-Penalba, A.J., Vermeer, J. & Cornejo, F., 2008	A few short surveys have been undertaken (Rowe and Martinez 2003; Mark 2003; DeLuycker 2006) and interviews conducted with communities of Aguaruna Amerindians to confirm the presence or absence of the species in different parts of its range. In 2007, the French conservation foundation - Le Conservatoire pour la Protection des Primates - started a long-term study on the distribution and conservation of <em>Callicebus oenanthe</em>. Some preliminary results are due to be published shortly (Bóveda-Penalba <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Aldrich (2006) undertook a song-based survey of a population at Tarangue - a 74 ha private reserve near Moyobamba - and estimated a population density of 1.4 individuals per ha. Group sizes were unusually large for titis, with 20% of groups containing six to eight individuals. Rowe and Martinez (2003) carried out a four-day survey, and although they did not observe the species in the wild, they heard several groups of titi monkeys (presumed to be <em>C. oenanthe</em>) vocalizing in a forest remnant at 925 m. They photographed a family being sold at a local market that had been captured near Rioja. Mark (2003) carried out surveys at five sites and observed monkeys in fragments as small as 2 ha (804 m asl).	eng
3553	threats	Veiga, L.M., DeLuycker, A.M., Bóveda-Penalba, A.J., Vermeer, J. & Cornejo, F., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation. The region has suffered intense human colonization over the last 30 years because of a major agrarian programme, which has attracted huge numbers of immigrants. Agricultural activities include the cultivation of rice and coffee; cattle ranching and selective timber extraction also occur. The region is characterized by rapid rates of deforestation (estimates vary from 40,000 to 100,000 ha per year) and fragmentation, and has lost at least 40% of its forest cover, mainly from the low-altitude river basins (the preferred habitat of this species) over the last 20 years (Mark 2003; DeLuycker 2006). The construction of a two-lane all-weather road, which was asphalted in 2003 - La Carretera Marginal, Via Marginal, or Carretera Fernando Belaunde Terry - which runs all the way to the coast (Chiclayo) and past Tarapoto has contributed to the influx of immigrants and a change from subsistence to small-scale farming. It has also altered the spatial distribution of human settlers, who now follow the highway far into the valley and high forests, and the lack planning or state-regulated land occupation and use puts protected areas and remaining forests at risk (DeLuycker 2006). <br/><br/>Both the Aguarunas and recent immigrants hunt this species (Mark 2003; DeLuycker 2006). While titis may not be a particularly lucrative source of protein, hunting pressure is likely to increase as preferred game become scarce and fragmentation facilitates access. <br/><br/>These titi monkeys are popular as pets (Mark 2003; DeLuycker 2006) and have been found for sale at markets (Rowe and Martinez 2003; Mark 2003) and encountered along with <em>Aotus miconax</em> at tourist centres in the upper Mayo valley (Mark 2003).	eng
3554	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	The species does not occur in any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Conservation programmes in the region include: the Greater Madidi Landscape Conservation Program in northern La Paz and south-western Beni Departments and Kaa-Iya Landscape Conservation Program in Santa Cruz Department of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Asociación Boliviana para la Conservación and Conservation International in the south-western Beni Department.	eng
3554	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Bolivia with very restricted range estimated to be 400 km² (Martinez and Wallace 2007). Recent surveys have revealed that <em>C. olallae</em> is apparently confined to gallery forest and adjacent forest islands of the Yacuma River, with just one other locality in gallery forest of the Manique River (Martinez and Wallace 2007), both in south-western Beni Department. In contrast to the geographic distribution proposed by van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002), Felton <em>et al</em>. (2006) argue that the species only occurs to the east of the Río Beni. Extensive surveys in the region have since confirmed this to be the case (Martinez and Wallace 2007). The geographical range of <em>Callicebus olallae</em> overlaps with <em>Callicebus modestus</em>, although transitional zones between the two taxa have yet to be confirmed and each seems to specialize on different habitat types (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007). Found below 400 m a.s.l.	eng
3554	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	This taxon occurs in relatively dry forest patches within a forest-savanna mosaic, apparently restricted to gallery forest and immediately adjacent forest islands (Lonnberg 1939; Anderson 1997; Felton <em>et al.</em> 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007).<br/><br/>Titis are frugivores, monogamous primates that generally live in small family groups. Three groups, each with two members, were encountered at Puerto Santa Cruz, to the north of the Rio Yacuma. Aggressive displays were directed towards the researchers. Martinez and Wallace (2007) and Lopez-Strauss (2007) details average group sizes of 2.7 and 2 individuals respectively.	eng
3554	population	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	The species was formerly only known from the type locality (La Laguna, 5 km from Santa Rosa, [upper río] Beni, Bolivia, altitude about 200 m; Patterson 1992, Tarifa 1996; Anderson 1997). In 2002, Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) conducted titi monkey surveys and interviewed local residents at four locations: Puerto Santa Cruz on the Río Yacuma; the type locality of La Laguna; Petaca; and Naranjal. Titis were relatively abundant in Naranjal, not encountered in Petaca (although local residents claim they occur there), and are no longer present in La Laguna (probably exterminated through hunting). Examination of holotypes indicates that groups encountered in Rio Yacuma were <em>C. olallae</em>, while two of three groups found in Naranjal were <em>Callicebus modestus</em> (the third appeared to combine characters from both species).<br/><br/>Lopez-Strauss (2007) estimated density for both <em>C. olallae</em> and <em>C. modestus</em>s using calling behavior and an adapted point-count methodology. <em>C. olallae</em> presented conservative density estimates of between 1.8 and 11.5 groups per km² (Lopez-Strauss 2007).	eng
3554	threats	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	There is some forest loss and habitat fragmentation within its range. Groups surveyed by Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) occurred in fragments surrounded by cattle ranches. A farmer in Naranjal reported seeing groups crossing grassland gaps (300–400 m) between patches of forest (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this behaviour has since been confirmed (J. Martinez and Lopez pers. comm.). Uncontrolled grassland fires are also a major threat especially if they jump to forest patches (J. Martinez pers. comm.). Critically, the proposed major improvement to a regional road will exacerbate deforestation and is likely to increase hunting pressure (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The disappearance of the species from the type locality - La Laguna - indicates that they may be threatened locally by hunting (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006). They are used as bait for fishing and cat hunting and some are captured for pets. Apparently the presence of sympatric primates such as <em>Saimiri</em> may also be a threat to <em>C. olallae</em> (J. Martinez pers. comm.).	eng
3555	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	The largest remaining population is in the Reserva Biológica de Sooretama and the Reserva Natural de Linhares.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3555	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic forest of south-eastern Brazil in the state of Espírito Santo, north-western Minas Gerais and northern Rio de Janeiro (Kinzey 1982; M. C. M. Kierulff in Rylands 1988; Oliver and Santos 1991; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>Callicebus personatus</em> occurs further inland into north-western Minas Gerais, east at least as far as Teófilo Otoni (Kinzey 1982; Hershkovitz 1990) and the east (right) bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). The Rio Mucurí, to the north of the Rio Itaúnas, was identified as the northern limit by Hershkovitz (1990), but Oliver and Santos (1991) reported that <em>C. melanochir</em> may occur south of the lower Itaúnas as far as Barra Nova (18º54’S, 39º47’W). Oliver and Santos (1991) indicated that the region of the Rios Itaunas and Mucurí might be a zone of intergradation between <em>personatus</em> (to the south) and <em>melanochir</em> (to the north). <em>Callicebus personatus</em> occurs on the right bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha, but it remains unclear whether this, or another species of titi, occurs to the north-west of this river (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). The range of this species extends westwards along the Rio Doce valley into Minas Gerais as far as the Mantiqueira Mountains (Cosenza 1993). Hershkovitz (in litt. A. B. Rylands, January 1988) listed Buenópolis, near the Serra do Cabral (17º54’S, 44º11’W), north-western Minas Gerais, as a locality for <em>C. personatus</em>, but it was not included as a locality in his publication in 1990 (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is possible that the distribution of <em>C. personatus</em> is more restricted that previously supposed, since <em>C. nigrifrons</em> and not <em>C. personatus</em> was recorded at the frontier between Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, an area formerly considered to be within the range of <em>C. personatus</em> (Hirsch <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3555	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic forest. <br/><br/>Titis are small primates, weighing from 800 to 1,300 g (Norconk 2007). Diet comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. A home range size of 10.7 to 12.3 km² and mean day range of approximately 1 km was reported for this species (Price and Piedade 2001a).	eng
3555	population	Veiga, L.M., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Chiarello and Melo (2001) report a mean density of 15.67 ± 6.51 (±SE) individuals/km².	eng
3555	threats	Veiga, L.M., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species has a relatively small geographic range that coincides with the most densely populated region of Brazil, which has the longest history of European colonization. This has resulted in widespread deforestation and fragmentation, with very little remaining forest cover (estimated from between 5 to 10%). The reduction of available habitat for the eastern Brazilian titis is ongoing, mainly due to pressures for cattle ranching and agriculture. These economic activities, together with urbanization, are driven by the developmental goals of local governments. The resulting small, isolated populations of titis are exposed to demographic and genetic risks, although hunting pressure is probably negligible to moderate in most cases, given their small body size. Titis are also rarely kept as pets, in comparison with the larger-bodied capuchins (<em>Cebus</em> spp.) and the much smaller marmosets (<em>Callithrix</em> spp.) from the same region.	eng
3564	conservation	Cornejo, F., 2008	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Calouro 1999; Lopes and Rehg 2003)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) Within presumed range (Defler 1994, 2003, 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) Within presumed range (Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989; Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 1999) Within presumed range (Defler 2003, 2004).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (Terborgh 1983).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
3564	distribution	Cornejo, F., 2008	<em>Callimico goeldii</em> occurs in the upper Amazon from the Rio Caquetá in Colombia, south through the Peruvian Amazon and the extreme western Amazon of Brazil into the Pando region of northern Bolivia (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966; Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) predicted that it should occur in the Ecuadorian Amazon, but it has not been found there to date. Despite its wide range, <em>Callimico</em> is notoriously patchy in its distribution and is evidently absent over a large part of it. In Colombia, it occurs from the base of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in the Department of Putumayo between the Ríos Putumayo and Caquetá east at least to the mouth of the Río Cahuinarí, a right bank affluent of the Caquetá. It is not known to occur in the Colombian trapezius (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). In Peru, it is evidently limited largely to the eastern Amazon. Hershkovitz (1977) mapped numerous localities south of the Río Napo, along the lower and middle Río Ucayali and the Río Tapiche. The westernmost locality given by Hershkovitz (1977, map p.864) is on the Rio Marañon, but it is listed in the gazetteer as “Apaga (Rio), enters Río Putumayo from south at approximately 4º42'S, 77º10'W, P. Soini, April 1970, sight record”. The coordinates would  seem to be right, but the description of the locality wrong, and the Rio Marañon is excluded from the distribution map of Aquino and Encarnación (1994a). These authors have <em>Callimico</em> only definitely occurring south of the lower Ucayali (from the mouth of the Rio Blanco), extending to both sides of the Ucayali at about 6ºS and south along the Andean foothills to the Río Pachitea and the Madre de Dios. It occurs in the Manu National Park (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). From there it extends east into extreme northern Bolivia, north of the Río Tahuamanu (Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000; Christen and Geismann 1994). Christen and Geismann (1994) reported seeing <em>Callimico</em> south of the Río Nareuda, indicating it occurs south as far as the Rio Muyumanu. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al.</em> (2000) found no evidence of its occurrence south of the Tahuamanu-Nareuda. <em>Callimico</em> occurs in a small part of the south-west Brazilian Amazon in the state of Acre, through the Serra do Divisor south of the upper Rio Juruá to the Rio Gregório (state of Amazonas), to the Rio Iaco (above the Rio Acre) on the south (right) bank of the upper Purus, and into the Madeira basin along the Rio Abunã in the state of Rondônia (Hershkovitz 1977; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999; Lopes and Rehg 2003).	eng
3564	habitat	Cornejo, F., 2008	Occurs in forest mixed with bamboo, and in <em>varillales</em> (large stands of thin, straight trees). Izawa (1979), Buchanan-Smith (1991a), and Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (1999) have indicated that it is a habitat specialist concentrating on bamboo forests and disturbed forests (secondary growth) related to their tendency to spend much of their time in the lowest parts the forest understorey in dense vegetation. They can also be found in more open, mature forest (Christen and Geissmann 1994; Christen 1998, 1999). Porter (2007) quantified the time a group spent in different habitat types during the course of a year: primary forest with dense understorey 76%; bamboo forest 10%; secondary forest 3%. The group used bamboo forest more than the sympatric tamarins (<em>S. fuscicollis</em> and <em>S. labiatus</em>). Its preference for dense vegetation is related to its extraordinary inclusion of fungi in its diet and to its insect foraging behaviour. Bamboo, stream edge, and tree falls are where they are able to find the jelly fungi and bamboo fungi that they appreciate (Pook and Pook 1981; Porter and Christen 2002; Porte, 2007; Porter <em>et al</em>, 2007). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>Callimico</em> includes fruit, arthropods (especially orthopterans and stick insects), fungi, and exudates. Porter (2007; Porter and Christen 2002; see also Hanson <em>et al.</em> 2006) found that fungi were an essential and considerable component of the diet. Two types were eaten: jelly fungi (<em>Auricularia</em>, 3 species) and bamboo fungi (<em>Ascopolyporous</em>, 2 species). In some months (May-July, dry season) fungi accounted for 48-63% of the feeding records. <em>Callimico</em> forages for arthropods in the understorey and beneath the leaf litter on the forest floor. They are understorey specialists spending 84% of their time foraging below 5 m above the ground (saddleback tamarins tend to forage more a little higher, up to 10 m above the ground, and the moustached tamarins forage even higher up, mostly in the middle and lower canopy - above 10 m (Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1999; Porter 2007). <em>Callimico</em> tends to eat more vertebrates (frogs and lizards) than the tamarins. For a review see Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1981). <br/><br/>In her long-term study of <em>Callimico</em>, Porter found that one group used an area of 114 ha, covering the entire home ranges of six tamarin groups (Porter 2007; Porter <em>et al</em>. 2007). Rehg (2003, 2007) on the other found her <em>Callimico</em> group using a range of about 59 ha; similar in size to the <em>Saguinus labiatus</em> group which they travelled with for about 67% of the time. Group size 7 (six adults and subadults and an infant). <em>Callimico</em> groups can be as large as 12 (Encarnación and Heymann 1998) and unlike other callitrichids can have more than one breeding female (Masataka 1981a, 1981b). Copulations occur as soon as 10 days after the female gives birth indicating post-partum oestrus. They produce single offspring. Other members of the group help carry the young (communal breeding), with the first transfer from the mother a few days (4-11) after birth. <br/><br/><em>Callimico</em> travels  and forages with saddleback tamarins <em>(Saguinus fuscicollis</em>) and moustached tamarins (<em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em>) (Pook and Pook 1979a,b, 1981, 1982a). Lopes and Rehg (2003) recorded <em>Callimico</em> associating with <em>S. imperator</em> in the Serra do Divisor National Park, Brazil. Rehg (2003, 2006) and Porter (2001, 2007) studied the associations between <em>Callimico</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>S. fuscicollis weddelli</em> in south-eastern Acre, Brazil, and north-western Pando, Bolivia, respectively. Porter (2007) reviews in detail the different specializations of <em>Callimico</em>, saddleback tamarins and moustached tamarins that allow for their sympatry.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult males 366 g (n=3) (Encarnación and Heymann 1998)<br/>Adult females 355 g (n=5)  (Encarnación and Heymann 1998)<br/>These are wild specimens. In captivity, weights are rather higher: 450-600 g.<br/><br/>Female H&B 24.5 cm, TL 35.5 cm (n=1) (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966)<br/>Make H&B 19.0 cm, TL 25.5 cm (n=1) Holotype (Hernández-Camacho and Barriga-Bonilla 1966, <em>fide</em> Thomas)<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity at 57 weeks (median, range 48-70 weeks). Median body weight 473 g (n=10, range 420-543 g) (Dettling and Pryce 1999).	eng
3564	population	Cornejo, F., 2008	Very localized and patchy distribution. Always rare and difficult to observe. Groups are generally widely separated, determined by the availability of the right mix/mosaic of habitats and food availability. Key habitat such as stream edge, bamboo forest and secondary growth patches are needed due to their predilection for certain species of fungus.<br/><br/>Recorded population density estimates in Bolivia, include: 0.29 groups/km² (Izawa and Yoneda 1981); 0.25 groups/km² (Pook and Pook 1981); 9.6 individuals/km² (Cameron <em>et al.</em> 1989); and 6.1 individuals/km² (Porter 2007).<br/><br/>Rehg (2003, 2007) recorded 0.8-1.2 groups/km² in an 820-ha forest patch in Acre, Brazil. This is higher than density estimates recorded from Bolivia, and Rehg (2007) believed it might be related to habitat heterogeneity, including disturbance associated with tree falls.<br/><br/>Porter (2007) combined all group counts reported in the literature and calculated an average group size of 6.4 individuals, and a general population density of 5.6 individuals/km² where they occur. At one site  in the far north-west of Bolivia, Porter (2007) estimated 37 individuals/km².	eng
3564	threats	Cornejo, F., 2008	Although there are probably no major threats at present, the species is at risk of becoming threatened very quickly depending on proposed development projects, and logging in areas where it is known to occur. <br/><br/>Bamboo often reforests areas that have been cleared for agriculture or pasture. Studies are needed to determine  <em>Callimico</em>'s degree of tolerance for habitat disturbance in its range (Porter 2007).	eng
3570	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/>Brazil – Federal <br/>Serra da Bocaina National Park (110,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro/ São Paulo (Coimbra-Filho 1991)<br/>Serra dos Orgãos National Park (11,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (Coimbra-Filho 1991) <br/>Itatiaia National Park (30,000 ha), Minas Gerais / Rio de Janeiro (?) (See Ávila-Pires and Gouveia 1977; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1982; Coimbra-Filho 1986b, 1991; Loretto and Rajão 2005)<br/>Piraí Ecological Station (4,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (?)<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (32,500 ha) (Cosenza and Melo 1998)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (36,000 ha) (Stallings and Robinson 1991)<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego (221 ha) (privately owned)<br/>Fazenda Monte Alegre Reserve (<em>c.</em>150 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Rio de Janeiro<br/>Desengano State Park (22,400 ha)<br/>Pedra Branca State Park (12,500 ha)<br/><br/>São Paulo<br/>Jureia Ecological Station (24,065 ha)*<br/>Serra do Mar State Park (esp. Núcleo Cunha) (315,000 ha) (Corrêa 1995; Coutinho 1996)<br/>Cantareira State Park (7,000 ha)<br/>Alto Ribeira State Park (36,712 ha)<br/>Campos do Jordão State Park (8,342 ha)<br/>Vassununga State Park (1,676 ha)<br/>Mogi-Guaçú State Biological Reserve (469 ha)<br/>Mogi-Guaçú State Ecological Station (981 ha)<br/>Bauru State Ecological Station (288 ha)<br/>Bananal State Ecological Station (884 ha)<br/>Jureia-Itatins State Ecological Station (79,270 ha)<br/>Itapeti State Ecological Station (89 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil – Private Reserves<br/>Fazenda Monte Alegre Reserve (<em>c.</em>150 ha) (privately owned) Minas Gerais (Muskin 1984a,b)<br/>Fazenda Barreiro Rico Reserve (3,259 ha) (privately owned), São Paulo (Milton and De Lucca 1984).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
3570	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> occurs in the montane rain forests of south-eastern Brazil, in the southern part of the state of Minas Gerais, the state of Rio de Janeiro, and the east and north-east of the state of São Paulo (see Coimbra-Filho 1986b; Olmos and Martuscelli 1995; Brandão and Develey 1998; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1996). Hershkovitz (1977) marks the northern limit in Minas Gerais as the Rio Muriaé, but it occurs to the north in the Rio Doce State Park in Minas Gerais (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1982), and hybrids (with <em>C. flaviceps</em>) have been recorded at Carangola in the Serra do Brigadeiro, Minas Gerais (Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Mendes 1997a,d; Cosenza and Melo 1998). Hershkovitz (1977) indicated the south-easternmost locality to be the Rio Ribeira de Iguapé in São Paulo. However, Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) failed to find evidence for this. They reported that extensive fieldwork (1982-1995) in such localities as the Fazenda Intervales State Park, Alto Ribeira State Park, Ilha do Cardoso and Carlos Botelho, and the Jureia Ecological Station and the muncipalities of Juquitiba amd Miracatú in the Serra da Paranapicaba consistently failed to find <em>C. aurita</em>. They proposed the southern limit to be near the city of São Paulo, north of the junction of the Rios Pinheiros and Tietê. The Rio Tieté forms the southernmost boundary and the most southerly record is close to Ipanema (23º26’S, 47º36’W), today Araçoiaba da Serra (the type locality for <em>Leontopithecus chrysopygus</em>). From there it extends west between the upper reaches of the Rios Tieté/Piracicaba. Again the exact limits are unclear, but believed by Olmos and Martusecelli (1995) to be the junction of these two rivers.<br/><br/>Brandão and Develey (1998) carried out surveys to understand better the range of <em>C. aurita</em>. Although generally believed to be largely montane in its range (600-1,200 m according to Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) and 500-800 m according to Rylands (1994)) museum specimens have been collected in the foothills of the Serra do Mar, south of Rio de Janeiro: Pedra Blanca, municipality of Paratí at 80 m, and Mambucaba, municipality of Angra dos Reis at 100 m (Brandão and Develey 1998). Coimbra-Filho (1991) and Mendes (1993) also indicated that it occurred elsewhere in lowland Rio de Janeiro, including the north-east, but is probably today extinct there. All recent records are montane. Brandão and Develey (1998) carried out extensive surveys of the lowland coastal forests of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and were unable to obtain evidence of the species’ existence anywhere except at Mambucaba where they found one in captivity and observed a group at 165 m.<br/><br/>This marmoset has been recorded north of the Rio Paraíba do Sul at the following sites: Mogi-Guaçú (Rio Mogi-Guaçú) by R. A. Mittermeier (unpubl.) and Muskin (1984); Alfenas, upper Rio Grande, in Minas Gerais (Hershkovitz 1977; Muskin 1984a); Vargem Grande, São Paulo (Muskin 1984a); Fazenda Monte Alegre, Monte Belo, Minas Gerais (Muskin 1984a) and in the vicinity of Viçosa, Minas Gerais (Mendes 1993); Serra do Capanema, Rio de Janeiro (21º03’S, 42º03’W) (Mendes 1993), Fazenda João Abdo, Rio de Janeiro (21º27’S, 41º56’W) (Mendes 1993). The westernmost locality shown by Hershkovitz (1977, p.490) is Boracéia, north-east of Bauru, on the upper Rio Tieté (22°10'S, 48°45'W), but Olmos and Martuscelli (1995) found this to be an outlier and suggested that locality really refers to the Boracéia Biological Station near the headwaters of the Rio Tietê.	eng
3570	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> occurs in the montane rain forests and forests of the inland plateau, at altitudes up to 1,300 m,  where dry season temperatures can fall close to freezing (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Brandão and Develey 1998). <em>Callithrix aurita</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> are the southernmost forms of marmosets in terms of the natural range of the genus (<em>C. jacchus</em>, <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been introduced further south in Paraná, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Argentina). There is what would appear to be a natural hybrid zone with <em>Callithrix flaviceps</em>, at the Serra do Brigadeiro, Carangola, in south-eastern Minas Gerais (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993; Cosenza 1993; Cosenza and Melo 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging tree trunks and branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Brandão (1999) recorded a home range of 39.9 ha (extending as high as 1,350 m above sea level) for one group at the Bananal Ecological Station, São Paulo.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>C. aurita</em> has been studied by Muskin (1984a,b) and Martins (1998a,b; Martins and Setz 2000; Santos and Martins 2000) in southern Minas Gerais, Brandão (1999; Brandão and Devely 1998) at the Bananal State Ecological Station, and by Corrêa (1995; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Corrêa <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Coutinho (1996; Coutinho and Corrêa 1995) at the Núcleo Cunha of the Serra do Mar State Park in São Paulo, Brazil. Coutinho (1996) studied particularly the social and reproductive behaviour. <br/><br/>The dentition of <em>Callithrix aurita</em> is less specialized for tree-gouging to obtain gum than it is in <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata (see</em> Natori 1986). Despite this, gum is an important part of the diet year round, and largely obtained from sites where it is available without requiring gouging (Muskin 1984a,b; Coimbra-Filho 1991; Corrêa 1995; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996; Martins and Setz 2000). Martins (2000) recorded them foraging for prey over army ant (<em>Eciton burchelli</em>) swarms. Notable for this species is its consumption of fungi, otherwise recorded only in <em>Callimico goeldii</em>. They find the fruiting bodies of these fungi on the stems of bamboos <em>Merostachys</em> sp. and the South American mountain bamboo <em>Chusquea</em> sp., both of the family Poaceae.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Average weight male: 429 g (Muskin 1984a,b).	eng
3570	population	Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> is nowhere common, and populations in the National Parks of Bocaina and Serra dos Orgãos are minimal (Coimbra-Filho 1984). Nine months of surveys in the Carlos Botelho State Park in the Serra do Paranapiacaba, in the south of its range, failed to provide any evidence for populations of this marmoset (Paccagnella 1991; see also Torres de Assumpção 1983). Although recorded as rare in the Itatiaia National Park by Ávila-Pires and Gouveia (1977), Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported it extinct there, although it may still occur in very reduced numbers (Coimbra-Filho 1986b). It is extremely rare in the private reserve of the Fazenda Barreiro Rico (3,259 ha of forest), São Paulo. Milton and Lucca (1984) estimated no more than 8–12 animals in the entire area. <br/><br/>Other recorded density estimates include: 15 individuals/km² at the Fazenda Barreiro Rico, São Paulo (Torres de Assumpção 1983); 0.02-0.08 individuals/km² in the Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais (Stallings and Robinson 1991); and 20-23 individuals/km² in the Serra do Mar State Park (esp. Núcleo Cunha), São Paulo (Corrêa 1995).	eng
3570	threats	Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	The widespread destruction of the forests within its range, especially, for example, along the valley of the Rio Paraiba, and in the lowlands is a major threat to this species (Coimbra-Filho 1986b; Brandão and Develey 1998). It might still remain in some areas of the lowland forests of Rio de Janeiro (e.g., Mambucaba, Angra dos Reis), but is believed extinct from lowland forest in the state of São Paulo (Brandão and Develey 1998). <br/><br/>These animals are sometimes hunted for pets. It is possible that introduced <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> and <em>Callithrix penicillata</em> have competed, and still are competing, with and displacing this species in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo particularly. Many non-native <em>Callithrix</em> are also interbreeding with <em>C. aurita</em> resulting in hybridization, although the extent of this threat needs further investigation.	eng
3571	conservation	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Caparaó National Park (31,853 ha) (part Espírito Santo)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station / RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (900 ha) (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1981).<br/>RPPN Mata do Sossego Biological Station (221 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (4,492 ha) (Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993)<br/>Pedra Azul State Reserve (993 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/>Forno Grande State Reserve (340 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/>São Lourenço Biological Station (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)  <br/>Santa Lucia Biological Station (350 ha) (Mendes 1991; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Oliver and Santos 1991)<br/><br/>Attempts to establish a captive breeding program have to date been unsuccessful (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
3571	distribution	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	The distribution of <em>C. flaviceps</em> is described by Hershkovitz (1977), Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1981), and Coimbra-Filho (1986a). It occurs in the Serra da Mantiqueira in southern Espírito Santo, south of the Rio Doce at least to the state boundary with Rio de Janeiro (and in the past possibly in the north of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in the municipalities of Natividade, Porciuncula and the north of Bom Jesus do Itabapoãna when they were forested). It extends west into eastern Minas Gerais in scattered localities in the highly fragmented forests of the Rio Manhuaçu basin as far as Manhuaçú (40°02’W), as noted by Coimbra-Filho (1986a) Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1981) and Mendes and Melo (2007). Ferrari and Mendes (1991) and Mendes (1993) reviewed the distribution of <em>C. flaviceps</em>. Hirsch (2003; Hirsch <em>et al.</em> in prep.) obtained records in Minas Gerais which have extended its known range somewhat north and west, towards the east (right bank) of the Rio Doce (Fazenda Saet [19º43'S, 42º26'] and the Fazenda do Eraldo A. Alves [19º45'S, 42º25'] both at an altitiude of 270 m and about 10 km from the east bank of the Rio Doce, in the municipality of Pingo d’Água). Hirsch (2003) also refers to two localities which would extend the range a little further south in Minas Gerais, but they have still to be confirmed and may be hybrids with <em>C. aurita</em> (the left bank of the Rio Matipó, municipality of Abre Campo, and the Córrego Jurumirim, left bank of the Rio Casca, municipality of Rio Casca).	eng
3571	habitat	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	<em>Callithrix aurita</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> are the southernmost forms of marmosets in terms of the natural range of the genus (<em>C. jacchus</em>, <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been introduced further south in Paraná, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Argentina). They occur in the montane Atlantic coastal forest and forests of the inland plateau, at altitudes up to 1,200 m where dry season temperatures can fall close to freezing (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996). They show a preference for disturbed forest, being rare in old growth forest with sparse understoreys (Ferrari 1988; Ferrari and Mendes 1991). There is a natural hybrid zone, with <em>Callithrix aurita</em>, at the Serra do Brigadeiro, Carangola, in south-eastern Minas Gerais (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993; Cosenza 1993; Mendes 1997a; Cosenza and Melo 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (see Ferrari 1988, 1991; Corrêa <em>et al</em>. 2000). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals.  Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>C. flaviceps</em> has been studied by Ferrari (1988, 1991, Ferrari and Diego 1992) at the 880 ha Caratinga Biological Station in Minas Gerais. The home range of the group he studied was 35.5 ha. Guimarães (1998a, 1998b) also studied the same marmoset group at Caratinga.<br/><br/>The dentition of <em>Callithrix flaviceps</em> is less specialized for tree-gouging to obtain gum than it is in <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata (see</em> Natori 1986). Nevertheless, gum is an important part of the diet year round, and largely obtained from sites where it is available without requiring gouging (Ferrari 1988, 1991; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Average weight: 406 g (Rosenberger 1992).	eng
3571	population	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Their distribution is locally patchy, being abundant in some areas, but rare or absent in others close by. <br/><br/>In Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Espírito Santo, Pinto <em>et al.</em> (1993) recorded a mean density of 7.1 individuals/km² (range = 3.4 - 18 injdividuals/km²). At the Caratinga Biological Station, Minas Gerais, the recorded density was 40 individuals/km² (Ferrari 1988).	eng
3571	threats	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species has a restricted range in an area where the forest is extremely fragmented through agriculture, cattle ranching, tree plantations (Eucalyptus), urbanization, and mining (Coimbra-Filho 1986a; 1990; Ferrari and Mendes 1991; Mendes and Melo 2007). They are hunted for pets.<br/><br/>Mendes and Melo (2007) surveyed forest fragments in the Zona da Mata of the state of Minas Gerais, and recorded the presence of introduced populations of <em>Callithrix jacchus</em>, <em>C. peniciilata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em>, which they believe are displacing <em>C. flaviceps</em>. They recommended awareness campaigns to reduce the habit of releasing marmosets willy nilly, in the region centred on the town of Manhuaçú.	eng
3572	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Serra do Cipo National Park (33,800 ha), Minas Gerais (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Fazenda Córrego de Areia Reserve (60 ha) (privately owned)<br/><br/>Espirito Santo<br/>Córrego Grande Biological Reserve (1,504 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Córrego do Veado Biological Reserve (2,392 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999)<br/>Comboios Biological Reserve (833 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Duas Bocas State Reserve (2,910 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (21,787 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999))<br/>Goitacazes Forest Reserve (1,400 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Santa Lucia Biological Station (350 ha) (Mendes 1991)<br/>Fazenda São Joaquim Reserve (Klabin Reserve) (1,505 ha)(Mendes 1991)<br/>Its occurrence in the Monte Pascoal National Park is in some doubt, and Oliver and Santos (1991) reported that <em>C. jacchus</em> had possibly been introduced there.<br/><br/>Bahia<br/>Porto Seguro Forest Reserve (6,069 ha)<br/>Pau Brasil Experimental Station (900 ha)<br/>Gregório Bondar Experimental Station (710 ha)<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
3572	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Geoffroy’s Marmoset occurs in the state of Espírito Santo and the forested eastern and north-eastern part of Minas Gerais, north as far as the Rios Jequitinhonha and Araçuaí and south to near the state border of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro (Ávila-Pires 1969; Hershkovitz 1977; Coimbra-Filho 1984; Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988). The populations just south of the Rio Jequitinhonha resulted from animals released near its mouth, at Belmonte, around 1975 (Coimbra-Filho 1986c). From there it spread eastward, and today also occurs in gallery forests throughout the region of dry thorn scrub (<em>caatinga</em>) of the middle reaches of the river (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). Vivo (1991) limits it to the east of the Serra do Espinhaço in Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from the eastern slopes of Serra do Cipó, a southerly section of the Serra do Espinhaço range, at an altitude of 1,274 m (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hybrid populations of <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. geoffroyi</em> have been observed in some parts of the Serra da Piedade along the Rio Piracicaba, affluent of the upper Rio Doce, where the Atlantic coastal forest gives way to the cerrado (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1993; Passamani <em>et al.</em> 1997). The range of <em>C. geoffroyi</em> overlaps with <em>C. flaviceps</em> (see below) in southern Espírito Santo (south of the Rio Doce) and south-eastern Minas Gerais. However, <em>C. geoffroyi</em> is generally restricted to lowland areas, below 500–700 m, and <em>C. flaviceps</em> to altitudes above 400–500 m (Coimbra-Filho 1971; Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1981). Hershkovitz (1977) asserted that the highest recorded locality for <em>C. geoffroyi</em> is Santa Teresa, 659 m above sea level, but Mendes (1993, 1997a) has observed mixed bands of <em>C. geoffroyi</em> and <em>C. flaviceps</em> at altitudes of 800 m. Hybrid populations have been recorded for intermediate elevations (Mendes 1993, 1997a).	eng
3572	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Occurs in lowland and sub-montane forest, and dry forest patches in desert scrub (the north of its range in the Jequitinonha valley) (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Passamani 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Passamani and Rylands (2000b) recorded a home range of 23.3 ha, in a forest fragment of 119 ha surrounded by a Eucalyptus plantation, in the state of Espírito Santo.<br/><br/>Passamani (1996, 1998; Passamani and Rylands 2000a,b) studied the behaviour and ecology of a group of five <em>C. geoffroyi</em> in a forest fragment amongst <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations of Aracruz Cellulose Cia., in Espirito Santo.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 359 g (n=46) (Rosenberger 1992).	eng
3572	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Chiarello (1995) recorded a density of 10.5 groups/km² and a total population of about 1,644 individuals in the Linhares Forest Reserve (21,800 ha) of the Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, in northern Espírito Santo, Brazil. Subsequently, Chiarello (1999) surveyed <em>Callithrix geoffroyi</em> in a number of areas in the state of Espírito Santo. In the Sooretama Biological Reserve (24,250 ha) he recorded encounter rates of 1.81 groups/10 km, and in the Linhares Forest Reserve, 2.16 groups/10 km. Densities were lower in the smaller forests of the Córrego do Veado Biological reserve (2,400 ha) and Córrego Grande Biological Reserve (1,504 ha), at 1.05 groups/10 km and 0.15 groups/10 km, respectively.	eng
3572	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Although considered an adaptable species, populations are declining because of widespread destruction of the Atlantic forest in the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Less than 6.8% of the original area of Atlantic forest remains in the state of Minas Gerais (Fonseca 1985). Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (1982) and Coimbra-Filho (1986c) recommended that this species be considered endangered, but Oliver and Santos (1991) found that although it was patchily distributed, it remained locally abundant, and concluded that the species is not seriously threatened at the present time. It is occasionally hunted for pets.	eng
3575	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Kierullf, M.C.M., 2008	Occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Una Biological Reserve (18,500 ha)<br/>Serra do Conduru State Park (8,941 ha)<br/>Serra das Lontras National Park (16,800 ha)<br/>Una Wildlife Refuge (23,000 ha)<br/>Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha) <br/>Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha)<br/><br/>The expansion of the Una Bioloigcal Reserve is ongoing and of importance for this species as well as <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>Leontopithecus chrysomelas</em>.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
3575	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Kierullf, M.C.M., 2008	<em>Callithrix kuhlii</em> occurs between the Rio de Contas and Rio Jequitinhonha in southern Bahia, just entering the north-easternmost tip of the state of Minas Gerais (Santos <em>et al.</em> 1987; Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988). The western boundary is not well known, but undoubtedly defined by the inland limits of the Atlantic coastal forest. I. B. Santos (in Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988) observed hybrids of <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. kuhlii</em> in the region of Almenara, Minas Gerais, left bank of the Rio Jequitinhonha (16°41’S, 40°51’W). Its range is largely coincident with that of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin <em>Leontopithecus chrysomelas</em>. These two callitrichids are broadly sympatric.<br/><br/>Surveys in 1986/1987 by Oliver and Santos (1991) demonstrated the presence of forms intermediate in appearance between <em>C. kuhlii</em> and <em>C. penicillata </em>north from the Rio de Contas, along the coast up to the regions of Valença and Nazaré, just south of the city of Salvador (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1988). Individuals observed by Rylands near to Nazaré, just south of the city of Salvador lacked the white frontal blaze, and, although retaining the pale cheek patches typical of <em>kuhlii</em>, were paler grey. A photograph of the marmoset from Valença, Bahia, north of the Rio de Contas, is shown in Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. (1988, p.19). The variation in pelage colour of the marmosets in this region is considerable, but Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. (1991/1992), showed that true <em>C. kuhlii</em> extended north through coastal Bahia into the state of Sergipe as far as the Rio São Francisco in the recent past. The present-day confusion has arisen from the widespread forest destruction, most marked and nearly total in Sergipe, and the introductions and invasions of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>.	eng
3575	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Kierullf, M.C.M., 2008	An Atlantic forest species occurring in lowland and sub-montane humid forest, seasonal (mesophytic) rain forest, <em>restinga</em> and white sand piaçava forest. Also known to use <em>cabruca</em> - cacao plantations which are shaded with some native trees remaining from the original forest. They have been observed in secondary growth forest in abandoned rubber plantations. <em>Callithix kuhlii</em> is an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites. Near the coast, in the cocoa growing region, there is no distinct dry season with rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm a year (the heaviest rains are from March to June), but in the west of their range the forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and in some areas the forests are semideciduous, with rainfall as low as 1,000 mm a year (Rylands 1989; Pinto and Rylands 1997). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Rylands (1982) observed groups sizes of 5 to 9 individuals (mean 6.56 ±1.33, n=8). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Rylands (1982, 1989) recorded a home range of 12 ha for a group of 5 individuals.<br/><br/>Rylands (1982, 1984, 1989) studied the behaviour and ecology of <em>C. kuhliii</em> at the Lemos Maia Experimental Station, Una, Bahia.  B. Raboy and G. Canale are also studying this species in the Una Biological Reserve (Raboy and Dietz 2000; Raboy <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 482 g (n=55) (Smith and Jungers 1997).	eng
3575	population	Rylands, A.B. & Kierullf, M.C.M., 2008	Population densities recorded from the Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC), Una, Bahia were 8.70-9.09 groups/km² or 50.00-68.06 individuals/km², along three trails of 1 km, 1 km and 1.5 km (Rylands 1982).	eng
3575	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Kierullf, M.C.M., 2008	The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, most particularly in the west of their range where cattle ranches predominate and forest fragmentation is most severe. They are also hunted for pets.	eng
3590	conservation	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Following the termination of the Interim Convention on the Conservation of the North Pacific Fur Seal in 1984, the Northern Fur Seal is now managed on land independently by the Commonwealth of Independent States and the United States. The eastern north Pacific stock of the Northern Fur Seal was listed as depleted under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1988, and a final conservation plan was completed in December 2007.	eng
3590	distribution	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Northern Fur Seals are a widely-distributed pelagic species in the waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the adjacent Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan. They range from Northern Baja California, Mexico north and offshore across the North Pacific to Northern Honshu, Japan. The southern limit of their distribution at sea is approximately 35° N.  Vagrants reach the Yellow Sea in the west and eastern Beaufort Sea in the Arctic. The vast majority of the population breeds on the Pribilof Islands, with substantial numbers on the Commander Islands as well. Still other sites are used, including San Miguel Island in California, Bogoslof Island in the Bering Sea, and Robben Island off Sakhalin Island in Russia. Many animals, especially juveniles, migrate from the Bering Sea south to southern California or the waters off Japan, to spend the winter feeding.	eng
3590	habitat	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Northern Fur Seals exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism, with males being 30-40% longer and more than 4.5 times heavier than adult females. Males can be as large as 2.1 m and 270 kg. Females can be up to 1.5 m and 50 kg or more. Newborns weigh 5.4-6 kg, and are 60-65 cm long. Pups are blackish at birth, with variable oval areas of buff on the sides, in the axillary area and on the chin and sides of the muzzle. After 3-4 months, pups moult to the colour of adult females and subadults. Northern Fur Seals become sexually mature at 3-5 years old, at which time females usually produce one pup a year for most of the rest of their lives. Gestation lasts 51 weeks, which includes a delay of implantation of 3.5 to 4 months. Longevity of this species is 25 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Males do not become physically mature, and large enough to compete for a territory that will be used by females, until they are 8-9 years old. The generation time for females is approximately 12-15 years depending on the determination methods used.<br/><br/>Breeding on the Pribilof Islands occurs from mid-June through August, with a peak in early July (the median date in southern California is approximately 2 weeks earlier than at the Pribilofs). This is a highly polygynous species. Males arrive at the rookeries up to one month before females and vocalize, display and fight to establish and maintain territories.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals usually give birth a day after arrival at the rookery. Mean time from birth to oestrous is 5.3 days, followed by a departure for a mean of 8.3 days for the first feeding trip. Females breeding at the Pribilof Islands are located relatively far from the foraging areas, which are concentrated at the edge of the continental shelf and hence females in this population consistently make longer foraging trips than most other female otariids, with a mean trip length of 6.9 days. Once foraging begins the mean depth of dives is 68 m and average duration is 2.2 minutes with maximum depth recorded of 207 m and maximum duration of 7.6 minutes. Pups are visited 8-12 times over the lactation period and attended for a mean of 2.1 days during each visit, before being abruptly weaned at 4 months old.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals are one of the most pelagic pinnipeds. They spend most of the year at sea, rarely (if ever) returning to land between one breeding season and the next. Thus, males spend an average of only 45 days ashore a year and females only 35 days a year. Once weaned, juveniles go to sea and do not haul-out until they return, usually to the island of their birth, 2-3 years later. At sea, Northern Fur Seals are most likely to be encountered alone or in pairs, with groups of 3 or more being uncommon. They forage relatively far from shore, over the edge of the continental shelf and slope. Diving is concentrated around dawn and dusk. Northern fur seals spend quite a bit of time rafting at the surface, either asleep or grooming. They employ a wide variety of resting postures, including raising one or more flippers into the air, and draping one of their fore flippers over both of the rear flippers to form a posture known as the "jug handle" position.<br/><br/>Many animals, especially juveniles, migrate from the Bering Sea south to California or the waters off Japan, to spend the winter feeding.<br/><br/>The diet varies by location and season and includes many varieties of epipelagic and vertically-migrating mesopelagic schooling and non-schooling fish and squid. Prey species of importance in the waters off California and Washington include anchovy, hake, saury, several species of squid and rockfish, and salmon. In Alaskan waters, Walleye Pollock, Capelin, Sand Lance, Herring, Atka Mackerel, and several species of squid are important prey.<br/><br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks, and Steller Sea Lions.	eng
3590	population	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	The current global population was estimated to be approximately 1.1 million in 2004-2005. Abundance is declining. The overall decline is not proportional with the regions where the greatest decreases are occurring - in the Pribilof Islands – in fact, the small populations in the Kuril Islands and on Bogoslof Island in the Aleutians have increased. Approximate individual site population sizes are estimated as follows: Pribilof Islands: 688,028: Commander Islands: 225,000-230,000; Robben Island: 88,000; Kuril Islands: 45,000-50,000; San Miguel Island: 7,784 (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). The Pribilof Islands population declined at 6.2% annually on St. Paul Island and 4.5% annually on St. George Island between 1998 – 2004 (Towell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pup production on St. Paul again dropped, by 10.5% between 2004 and 2006. Once containing approximately 75% of the world population of northern fur seals, the Pribilofs currently have approximately 50%. Estimated pup production on St. Paul Island in 2004 was at a level equal to that observed in 1918, which was a time when the population was growing at a rate of 8% annually following cessation of the pelagic harvests (Towell <em>et al</em>. 2006), so the current declines are quite perplexing.	eng
3590	threats	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Northern Fur Seals have one of the longest and most complex histories of commercial harvesting, which began when the main breeding colonies were discovered in the late 18th century; exploitation continued through until 1984. Numerous international treaties and agreements were put in force over time in efforts to manage this species. There were many periods of decline and recovery over this long period. It is estimated that the population numbered up to 2.5 million animals in the 1950s. They may have been considerably more numerous than this level back when there were many more active rookeries, before the onset of exploitation by Europeans and Americans.<br/><br/>Northern Fur Seals compete for Walleye Pollock with one of the largest commercial fisheries world. Measurable annual mortality, especially for juveniles and subadults, is caused by entanglements in derelict and discarded fishing gear, marine debris and direct interactions with commercial fisheries. This mortality was highest during the period of active high seas drift net fishing in the North Pacific in the 1980s. But, entanglement in debris is an ongoing problem. Long-term ecosystem regime change in the North Pacific and possible changes in the foraging patterns of a key predator (the Killer Whale), may be working synergistically with the fisheries related issues to cause the current population decline.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, Northern Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation. The small colonies at San Miguel Island in the California Channel Islands and on the Farallon Island may be at greatest risk due to proximity to major harbours, shipping lanes and offshore oil extraction facilities.<br/><br/>The effect of global climate change on this species is uncertain. However, any further negative disruption of the ecosystem of the northern fur seal should be considered a threat.<br/><br/>Small numbers of Northern Fur Seals are taken annually by Alaska Natives in a subsistence harvest on the Pribilof Islands. For the period 1999-2003, the average annual harvest was 869 animals; all animals taken were juvenile and sub-adult males. Subsistence harvest has declined in recent years to the level of 478 taken in 2007 on both Pribilof Islands (Lestenkoff and Zavadil 2007, Malavansky 2007).	eng
3591	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
3591	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species inhabits the lowlands and hills in Sabah and Sarawak, Borneo, below the altitudinal range of <em>Callosciurus orestes</em> (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
3591	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species inhabits dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
3591	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
3591	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
3592	conservation	Meijaard, E. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
3592	distribution	Meijaard, E. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is restricted to northern Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
3592	habitat	Meijaard, E. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	These squirrels are found in primary forests in lowland and riparian and regularly flooded areas, as well as degraded, secondary forest and scrub.	eng
3592	population	Meijaard, E. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
3592	threats	Meijaard, E. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
3593	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including Kinabalu National Park.	eng
3593	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species has been found above 300 m elevation in Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia.	eng
3593	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species inhabits primary forest, but also occurs in secondary forest and agricultural lands.	eng
3593	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
3593	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
3594	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
3594	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is found in Thailand, peninsular Myanmar and Malaysia, and small adjacent islands including Langkawi in the west (Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is found west of the Mekong and east of the Salween (Moore and Tate 1965). It is likely to occur in the small parts of Lao PDR west of the Mekong but thes have not been surveyed adequately yet (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3594	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This squirrel is well adapted to the presence of people. It may be found in plantations, cultivated areas, second growth and gardens, as well as forest. In natural habitats it seems to prefer dense dipterocarp forests with thick brushy vegetation. It may be found up to 2,500 m, but is usually found at lower elevations (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/>The Gray-bellied Squirrel is normally diurnal and arboreal (Saiful and Nordin 2004), although it sometimes descends to the ground to pick up food, which it then carries into a tree and eats. The diet consists of fruit and some insects. The spherical nest is built on the upper branches of a bush or small tree. The home range is small compared with other arboreal squirrels, and does not change in size seasonally.<br/>It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).	eng
3594	population	Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment). It is common in Kuala Lumpur Parks (W. Duckworth pers. comm.) and in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand (W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
3594	threats	Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The are no major threats to this species.	eng
3595	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	It is known from the following protected areas in India: Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Sessa Orchid Sanctuary and Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It Ispresumably present in many protected areas in China and Southeast Asia.	eng
3595	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in northeastern South Asia, much of central and southern China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is known to occur in Bangladesh and northeastern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is widely distributed in the region. In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan, Guandong, Guangxi, Hunan, Guizhou, Hainan Island, Xizang, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it is present in Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, eastern Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
3595	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	It is diurnal and arboreal species typically occurring in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests, although in China it is also present in subalpine coniferous forests or in a mix of conifers and broadleaf trees at altitudes above 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy. Very flexible in terms of habitat; Duckworth and Robichaud (2005) found in heavily degraded scrub landscapes with small degraded forest patches in far northern Lao PDR, It has a generation time of two to three years.	eng
3595	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	This is generally a locally common species. During a survey of Lao PDR in 1994-95, Evans <em>et al.</em> (2000) found this species to be common and widespread as did Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1994.	eng
3595	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Hunting for consumption has depleted some South Asian populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3596	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. & Parr, M., 2008	A major structured program of collecting is required to clarify the complex taxonomy of this species in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are many named and still unnamed forms in Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam some of which have small ranges.	eng
3596	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. & Parr, M., 2008	This species occurs only in central Indochina from central Myanmar southeast through much of Thailand and Lao PDR and Cambodia to the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam (Moore and Tate 1965; Corbet and Hill 1992; Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>An apparently undescribed form of this species was found in the limestone mountains of central Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). A small introduced population exists in Singapore (B. Lee pers. comm.).	eng
3596	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. & Parr, M., 2008	This is an arboreal species, found in many habitats including open woods, coconut plantations, and dense forest (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It is very tolerant of degradation and fragmentation (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). Ecological overlap with <em>C. erythraeus</em> seems to be extremely restricted but is know from parts of Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
3596	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. & Parr, M., 2008	It is common across at least its Lao range living at very high densities in large blocks of habitat. Small numbers are found in fragmented and degraded patches (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). The introduced population on Singapore is less than 20 individuals (B. Lee pers. comm.).	eng
3596	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R. & Parr, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3597	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It probably occurs in protected areas in China. It has been regionally Red Listed, in China, as Vulnerable A1cd; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
3597	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in southern Yunnan, China (Smith and Xie 2008), Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), and Viet Nam (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
3597	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species has been found in secondary and disturbed forest in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has also been found in both wet and dry evergreen forest (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Observations in Viet Nam and Lao PDR suggest that this is actually an edge and disturbed forest species (Lunde, Timmins, Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
3597	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is relatively common and abundant in Viet Nam (Timmins and Lunde pers. comm.). In Lao PDR, it is found sporadically and at low density in large forest blocks (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), but large populations occur in secondary forest and scrub in north Lao PDR (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005) and probably central Lao PDR (Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
3597	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species is hunted in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Large populations persist close to villages in Phongsali, and there is no evidence that hunting is a threat (Duckworth pers. comm.). Habitat loss may not be a threat as the species may actually benefit from the shifting cultivation system (Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
3598	conservation	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is present in Siberut National Park.	eng
3598	distribution	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mentawai Archipelago, Indonesia. It occurs on Siberut, Sipura, and North Pagai islands (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
3598	habitat	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species lives in lowland primary and secondary forest.	eng
3598	population	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	Population of this species has been much reduced due to forest loss on all three islands.	eng
3598	threats	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
3599	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
3599	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found in the southern part of Malaysia, on Sumatra and Java, and on the islands of Tioman and Tambelan (Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is also found in southern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
3599	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is an arboreal squirrel, living in primary and secondary forest, from lowlands to montane areas; occurring also in<br/>mixed areas with cropland and tree cover. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).	eng
3599	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The population of this species is stable. This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment).	eng
3599	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3600	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range and there are no conservation measures needed for this species (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).	eng
3600	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand to Java, Bali, Lombok, and Borneo (Lekagul and McNeely 1988; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is also widespread on smaller islands. The population on Salajar island, south of Sulawesi, has been introduced possibly from Java (Musser 1987). This species is found from lowland up to 1,500 m.	eng
3600	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	<em>C. notatus</em> is a very adaptable species, as it is found in secondary forests, plantations, and all kinds of habitats, though not so common in pristine forest (Han pers. comm.). Ancestral habitats appear to be mangroves and major natural disturbances along big rivers (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005). Now it is very common in towns, scrub, secondary forest, forest edge and urban parks (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em> pers. comm.).<br/>This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), though it dies descend to the ground to forage (Han pers. comm.). The diet of this species consists of fruit (42%) and bark 40% (A. Saiful pers. comm.), as well as insects and rubber tree latex (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
3600	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is abundant and widespread. It was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 5.35 ± 1.73 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. Evidently it has greatly expanded with human encroachment on Sundaic forests (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). This species is very common in oil palm plantation in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia to the extent of becoming a pest.	eng
3600	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3601	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
3601	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found in north east Borneo at middle elevations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
3601	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It appears to be restricted to lower montane forest and to upper dipterocarp forest. It is active in small and<br/>medium-sized trees, feeding on fruits and black ants.	eng
3601	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The population appears to be stable.	eng
3601	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3602	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
3602	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is found in China, western Yunnan, extending into Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3602	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species appears to inhabit the rain forest vegetation area from the mouth of the Salween river northward. It occurs in primary and secondary broadleaved forest, but it is found also in mixed areas with cropland and tree cover. Phayre’s Squirrel is apparently the medium-sized tree squirrel in these tropical deciduous forests.	eng
3602	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The population seems to be stable.	eng
3602	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
3603	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
3603	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species is widespread in the southern part of Thailand, throughout Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, and on many smaller islands of Southeast Asia and Peninsular Malaysia (Corbett and Hill 1992; Oshida <em>et al</em>. 2001). Also found in northern Sulawesi where it has been introduced Musser (1987).	eng
3603	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), descending only occasionally to ground to forage (Han pers. comm.). This species can tolerate secondary forest, and often enters fruit orchards (Han pers. comm.). <br/>This species is found in the dense rainforests of the southern Thai peninsula, eating mostly fruit, but also some arthropods, and is considered a pest of oil palm and coconut plantations (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
3603	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species was the second most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a denisty of 3.29 ± 1.54 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malayasia: in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 7.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 2.98 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak. In general, throughout its range it is fairly common (Han pers. comm.) and stable.	eng
3603	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The remaining habitat of this lowland species is very small. A substantial part of its native range has been replaced by plantations. In parts of Sarawak it is very heavily hunted for pets (Giman and Han pers. comm.).	eng
3604	conservation	Shrestha, N., Sarkar, S.K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Namdapha National Park and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, and Gorumara National Park and Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal in India; Royal Chitwan National Park in Central Nepal  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
3604	distribution	Shrestha, N., Sarkar, S.K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal at elevations of 500 to 1,560 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is largely confined to western and central Myanmar.	eng
3604	habitat	Shrestha, N., Sarkar, S.K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	In general, this is a diurnal and arboreal species that occupies mid canopy temperate, tropical and subtropical moist forest with thick to moderate evergreen forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Nepal, it has been reported from riverine woodland (Shrestha pers. comm.). It appear to be tolerant of some habitat modification. In Bangladesh and China the species has been recorded from gardens, plantations (including bananas) and cane shrubs (Sarkar pers. comm. and Smith and Xie 2008). The species reproduces once each year, with a litter size averaging three to four young (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
3604	population	Shrestha, N., Sarkar, S.K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is rare in Nepal (Shrestha pers. comm.), fairly common in Bangladesh (Sarker pers.comm.), and stable in Myanmar (Lunde, Duckworth, Lee and Tizard pers. comm.). In Chillapat forest, West Bengal, India, the density was estimated at 0.05 individuals per hectare in 1983. However, a similar study in 2002 revealed the density to be 0.03 individuals per hectare due to the decrease in canopy cover from 65 to 40 percent (S. Chakraborty pers. comm. 2005).	eng
3604	threats	Shrestha, N., Sarkar, S.K., Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from shifting agriculture, small-scale and selective logging, clear cutting of forest, the establishment of human settlements, forest fires, and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is generally threatened by habitat loss (Wang, Zheng, and Kobayashi 1989). The species is used for medicinal purposes in Nepal (Sarker pers. comm.). The threats in Southeast Asia are not known.	eng
3605	conservation	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance in Myanmar and adjacent Yunnan.	eng
3605	distribution	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found in a small part of north eastern Myanmar and adjacent western Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3605	habitat	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species occurs primarily in mountain forests above about 1,000 m, but can also be found in the lowlands.  It lives alone or in small family groups. Nests are built of twigs, and placed on the outer branches of small trees. The diet consists of vegetation and a fair proportion of insects.	eng
3605	population	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
3605	threats	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
3609	conservation	Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
3609	distribution	Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in yungas areas on the eastern slopes of the Andes in western Bolivia, from 1,000 to 2,700 m. The species has not been recorded from Peru, but occurs close to the Peruvian border in Bolivia and may occur further north. In Argentina it is found in Salta, Jujuy and Tucuman provinces.	eng
3609	habitat	Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in yungas habitat.	eng
3609	population	Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
3609	threats	Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats. The species is often treated as a pest species.	eng
3610	conservation	Teta, P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is in two national parks in Argentina.	eng
3610	distribution	Teta, P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina in Entrerios, Corrientes, Chaco y Santa Fe.	eng
3610	habitat	Teta, P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species has been found in dry shrublands/Espinal.	eng
3610	population	Teta, P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
3610	threats	Teta, P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
3611	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta., P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. The species occurs in Cerro Cora National Park, Paraguay (Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> 2002) and in several protected areas in Brazil (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
3611	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta., P., 2008	This species occurs in east Bolivia, north Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta y Santiago provinces), Paraguay, and contiguous west central Brazil; isolated records in southeast and east Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul States) (see Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It is present from lowland to 2,050 m.	eng
3611	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta., P., 2008	This species occurs in dry and subhumid areas. <em>Calomys callosus</em> is a species of open vegetation formations (Cerrado and Pantanal), especially common in areas disturbed by humans. In Paraguay it was trapped in palm savannas in bunchgrass meadows, and in dry marshes. In the Brazilian caatinga it is found in the later seral stages of old field succession and in low thorn scrub, whereas in central Brazil it is most common where forest has been cleared and grass planted. Animals from central Brazilian population have a gestation period averaging 21.8 days (range 20-23, n = 43), a litter size averaging 4.5 (range 2 to 9, n = 13), and an average neonatal weight of 2.3 g (n = 42). Young open their eyes on the sixth or seventh day, and lactation lasts fifteen to seventeen gays.	eng
3611	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta., P., 2008	It is a common and very abundant species (Bonvicino pers. comm.). The species experiences large population fluctuations (G. D'Elia pers. comm.).	eng
3611	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta., P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. There are threats in Brazil from habitat destruction and fragmentation, mainly in the Cerrado region (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
3612	conservation	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
3612	distribution	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2009	This species occurs in the llanos of northeast Colombia (La Guajira), north, central, and south Venezuela, the continental shelf islands, Curaçao and Aruba (Linares 1998, Musser and Carleton 2005), and Brazil (one specimen).	eng
3612	habitat	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2009	This primarily herbivorous and nocturnal mouse is found in sandy grassland habitats. It occurs in lowlands, pastures and very sandy floors; in low vegetation and in primary zones (J. Ochoa and B. Rivas pers. comm).<br/><br/>The gestation is believed to be less than twenty-five days, and five young have been reported as the typical litter. It was the first described in the Dutch West Indies from the islands of Curaçao and Aruba. It is unknown how it became distributed in the Dutch West Indies (Hershkovitz 1962). That <em>Calomys</em> has a scattered distribution in the semiarid portions of Colombia and Venezuela suggests this is a natural, relictual distribution (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
3612	population	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2009	It is a rare species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
3612	threats	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2009	The major threats are degradation and loss of savanna habitats, including by conversion to pasture and pine and eucalyptus plantations, and by fires induced by humans.	eng
3613	conservation	Christoff, A., Weksler, M., Vieira, E, D'Elia, G., Jayat., J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
3613	distribution	Christoff, A., Weksler, M., Vieira, E, D'Elia, G., Jayat., J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in south central Bolivia (Chaco), north and east central Argentina, west Paraguay, west central and extreme south Brazil and Uruguay (González <em>et al.</em>, 1995).	eng
3613	habitat	Christoff, A., Weksler, M., Vieira, E, D'Elia, G., Jayat., J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This rodent is found in dry biotopes (González <em>et al.</em>, 1995), agricultural areas, open vegetation (Christoff pers. comm.), meadows, mountain ranges and coastal sandbanks (Gonzalez 2001). Gestation is 25 days and produces litters of 4-8 young (Gonzalez 2001)	eng
3613	population	Christoff, A., Weksler, M., Vieira, E, D'Elia, G., Jayat., J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species is relatively common in Rio Grande do Sul; also common in agricultural areas and open vegetation throughout the range (Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
3613	threats	Christoff, A., Weksler, M., Vieira, E, D'Elia, G., Jayat., J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	There are no major threats affecting this species (Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
3614	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
3614	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of central Peru, through western Bolivia, to northeast Chile and northwest Argentina (Jujuy, Salta and Tucuman Provinces) (Díaz, 1999; Ortiz <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,600 to 5,000 m.	eng
3614	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This is a species of the high-altitude grasslands; it can be found in stone walls and rocky areas.	eng
3614	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
3614	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
3615	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The range includes several protected areas.	eng
3615	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in arid habitats over wide elevations in west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), western Paraguay, and Argentina (Jujuy and Salta provinces as far south as Chubut; Díaz 2000; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1997; Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2000; Pearson 1995); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005). Pocasi <em>et al.</em> (2005) predict that the range extends to parts of Peru and Uruguay and Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> (2001) suggest the range may extend as far as central Brazil - but no records have been found to validate these inferences.	eng
3615	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is seasonally reproductive, breeding during the longer photoperiods from spring to the beginning of autumn (Buzzio and Castro-Vasquez 2002). It is a highland species typically found at middle elevations above 1,000 m (Salazar-Bravo <em>et al.</em> 2001).This species occurs in lower abundances in disturbed areas and favours shrubland creosotebush habitats (Tabeni and Ojeda 2005). Found strongly associated with croplands in Argentine agroecosystems (Yahnke 2006).	eng
3615	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
3615	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
3616	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in at least 14 protected areas. Other than further taxonomic studies of this species complex, no further direct conservation measures are needed.	eng
3616	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Peruvian Andes, from Libertad Department, in the north, to Puno Department, in the south (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 4,600 m.	eng
3616	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of montane habitats including <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, shrubland, grassland, pasture and cropland.	eng
3616	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
3616	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
3617	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
3617	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region and habitats bordering the Cerrado, south east Brazil (south Goiás, Minas Gerais, São Paulo States), in northeast Argentina (Misiones Province; Massoia, 1988) and east Bolivia (Anderson, 1997); range limits need refinement (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
3617	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs mainly in cerrado; it is also found in Atlantic forest borders (Bonvicino pers. comm.) and thrives in disturbed habitats (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
3617	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is relatively common in Brazil (Bonvicino and Reis pers. comm.) and there are no reasons to suggest that it would not be relatively common through the rest of the range (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
3617	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Although habitat destruction occurs throughout the range, it is not considered to be a serious threat to this species (Marihno-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
3618	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species has been recorded in protected areas. More information is needed on distribution, population status and trends.	eng
3618	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species has been recorded in protected areas. More information is needed on distribution, population status and trends.	eng
3618	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species is found in Iran. A single specimen collected in southeastern Turkey may belong to this species, but this requires taxonomic confirmation.	eng
3618	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species is found in Iran. A single specimen collected in southeastern Turkey may belong to this species, but this requires taxonomic confirmation.	eng
3618	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Relatively little is known about its ecology. The species is found in barren, dry and rocky mountainsides with little vegetation. The breeding season is long with early pregnancy observed from October to November, two litters per year is usual (Harrison and Bates 1991).	eng
3618	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Relatively little is known about its ecology. The species is found in barren, dry and rocky mountainsides with little vegetation. The breeding season is long with early pregnancy observed from October to November, two litters per year is usual (Harrison and Bates 1991).	eng
3618	population	Shenbrot, G., Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
3618	population	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
3618	threats	Shenbrot, G., Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
3618	threats	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
3619	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is protected in the following protected areas within Pakistan such as Hazar Ganji National Park (Baluchistan), Dureji Game Reserve and Kirthar National Park (Sindh) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ecological, population and distribution studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3619	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is widespread in Afghanistan and Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Roberts 1997; Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has been recorded from sea level to around 600 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
3619	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is found in arid areas where it inhabits rocky places with scattered scrub. It is a loosely colonial species which lives under rocks and burrows. It is nocturnal, fossorial and gregarious animal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Norris <em>et al</em>. (2008) report that it 'inhabits rocky terrain often sparsely covered with pistachio (<em>Pistacia cabulica</em>) or juniper (<em>Juniperus excelsa</em>) trees'.	eng
3619	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
3619	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
3620	conservation	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas within its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3620	distribution	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species has been recorded from southeastern Iran and southwestern Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Norris <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been recorded between 67 and 1,890 m asl (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3620	habitat	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is found in arid rocky habitats in association with dwarf palms (<em>Nannorrhops ritchieana</em>), and dry, rocky mountain tops with sparse shrubby vegetation at elevations of up to 1,890 m asl (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3620	population	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It varies in population density from a 0.6% trap success rate at some localities to 4-8% success in other sites (Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
3620	threats	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In Pakistan, the species is reported to be threatened by expansion of agriculture and settlements (Mike Jordan pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3621	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas in Turkmenia.	eng
3621	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in S Turkmenia (Kopetdag, Great and Lesser Balkhan, south-western Badkhyz), Transcaucasia (south of Nakhichevan Republic), Northern Iran and possibly NW Afghanistan. In Transcaucasia found up to 1650 m, in Iran up to 3000 m. The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.	eng
3621	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits rocky mountain steppe, especially cliff openings and rock deposits, including those with shrubs or rare cereal and wormwood vegetation. Also was found in juniper stang boscage. Lives in groups or solitarily. In summer active only at night, in spring and autumn also diurnal. Feeds mainly on seeds, also to a lesser extent on leaves and shoots of grasses and shrubs. In captivity they have occasionally been observed to consume insects, their larvae and small spiders. Reproduces from end of March till beginning of May. Litter size is usually 3-5, maximally up to 7. Some females have second litter at the beginning of summer.	eng
3621	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Abundance depends on the local availability of suitable habitats. In areas with high number of shelters it is abundant, in less suitable habitats it is rare. There are no population fluctuations, and in suitable habitats it is always abundant. Population trend is stable (Malikov pers. comm.).	eng
3621	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
3622	conservation	Kryštufek, B., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place. More research is needed to gather data on the distribution of this species, its habitat, ecology and major threats.	eng
3622	distribution	Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Calomyscus tsolovi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, known only from the Derra district in southwest Syria (Harrison and Bates 1991). This locality likely does not represent where the species was actually recorded. Only the type series is known (around 15 specimens). Surveys have failed to locate the species in northern Jordan (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). The range limits for the species are unknown.	eng
3622	habitat	Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species probably occupies similar habitats to other members of its genus (rocky desert and semi-desert).	eng
3622	population	Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type series; there is no information available on population size or trend.	eng
3622	threats	Kryštufek, B., 2008	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
3623	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Need research on distribution, habitat ecology and threats.	eng
3623	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species is restricted to extreme southern Transcaucasus (Azerbaijan) and far northwestern Iran (northwestern Azarbaijan Province).	eng
3623	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Poorly known species. Inhabits rocky mountain steppe, including stone placer with shrubs and light grass and wormwood vegetation. Lives in groups or solitary. In summer only nocturnal, in spring and autumn also diurnal. Feed mainly on seeds, rarely on leaves and sprouts. Reproduce from end of March till beginning of June. Litter size is 3-5 young.	eng
3623	population	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Unknown.	eng
3623	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats identified based on similar habitat types for conspecifics.	eng
3626	conservation	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
3626	distribution	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This species was endemic to central Australia. There have been no reliable records of the species since 1935, but there were unconfirmed sightings in Queensland following periods of rain in 1956-1957 and 1974-1975 (Carr and Robinson 1997).	eng
3626	habitat	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	The desert rat-kangaroo was found on gibber plains, clay pans, and sandridges. Individual animals formed shallow nests under a bush or in the open (Smith and Johnson 2008).	eng
3626	population	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	It is presumed to be extinct. It was apparently never abundant (Smith and Johnson 2008).	eng
3626	threats	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	Direct habitat alteration by humans and introduced predators (cats and foxes) contributed to the extinction of this species.	eng
3627	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Endemic to the United States.	eng
3627	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Rapid riffles of larger streams (Westfall and May 1996). Small rivers and large streams, particularly at rapids and riffles (Lam 2004).	eng
3627	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
3627	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2006	None currently known.	eng
3628	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Protection of pristine river sections in nature reserves or protected areas. <em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> is found in protected areas.	eng
3628	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> is an endemic of the southern Levant with a restricted distribution along the river systems of the Levant: upper course of the Orontes (not beyond 35°N), Litani, Jordan, coastal rivers between 35°N and 32°N. Populations in the Wadis of the Dead Sea Valley do no longer exist (Schneider 1982). Egyptian and Turkish records are misidentifications. From a zoogeographical point of view the species is postglacially expanding northwards although this movement is now stopped due to habitat destruction.	eng
3628	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Calopteryx syriaca</em> needs perennial running waters but does survive in intermittent coastal rivers with flowing sections and riparian vegetation (emergent vegetation, submergent vegetation, roots).	eng
3628	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No information is available for this species. It is not common in the Mediterranean region.	eng
3628	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	As for its congener <em>C. hyalina</em>, the major threat is water extraction for agriculture and human consumption over its entire range. Drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is another future threat.	eng
3648	conservation	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
3648	distribution	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	This species is found in northern and central Colombia, northwestern and southern Venezuela, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, eastern and southern Paraguay, northern Argentina (Misiones), and western and southern Brazil. This species is replaced by <em>Caluromys derbianu</em>s to the west of the Andes (Eisenberg, 1989). This species is found up to an altitude of 2,000 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1999) or 2,500 m (Bangs, 1898). This species is sympatic with <em>C. philander</em> (Patton and Costa, 2003)	eng
3648	habitat	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Nocturnal; arboreal; solitary. This species is typical of rainforest and is at the extreme portion of its range in southern South America. Feeds on fruit, probably a few invertebrates, and in the dry season drinks flower nectar. Found in tropical multistratal mature and secondary evergreen rainforest, disturbed forest, gallery forest. A specimen from Paraguay was obtained on a branch 10 m above the ground, and all indications are that this species is highly arboreal (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976) and occurs to at least 1,000 m elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
3648	population	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Locally common to rare; formerly hunted for its fur, which in no longer demand (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
3648	threats	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	There are no major threats. Locally, habitat loss may be a threat to this species. It was formerly hunted for its fur (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Some populations are threatened by deforestation.	eng
3649	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
3649	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species ranges from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil, inlcuding Margarita Island, Trinidad, Guyana, French Guiana, and Surinam. It can be found up to 1,800 m in elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). In Venezuela, it is found from sea level to 1200 m (Lew pers. comm.).	eng
3649	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species inhabits arboreal strata in rain forest, subtropical forest, and marginal forest, as well as semi-natural areas such as plantations, secondary vegetation, and abandoned human settlement areas. It seems to prefer thick, closed vegetation, although it is also found in the upper, open canopy area of the trees. <br/><br/>Nocturnal and solitary, C. philander is the best field studied species of its genus. It is highly arboreal; it is rarely taken on the ground and is strongly associated with moist habitats. Although most specimens have been taken in multistratal evergreen forests, the species is adaptable, and has been caught in orchards. Populations can become isolated with habitat destruction, as it can not cross open areas of more than a few hundred metres (Brito pers. comm.). It often shelters in tree cavities, where it constructs a nest of dead leaves. Although its diet is primarily fruit, it also includes gum, nectar, small vertebrates, and invertebrates. It is not known to exhibit torpor (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). <br/><br/>Litter size is four to six, and gestation is assumed to be about 14 days. The young remain in the mother’s pouch for approximately eighty days, then enter a nest phase for another thirty days. During the nest phase the mother returns from her nocturnal forays to nurse. Young disperse from the natal nest at about 130 days of age. The female does not breed until she is approximately one year old. Maternal care is prolonged. Females can produce three litters a year, but if there is a seasonal scarcity of food she will probably not rear more than one litter each year (Atramentowicz, 1982; O’Connell, 1979).	eng
3649	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is fairly common throughout its extensive range. It thrives in disturbed vegetation, although it requires forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Nowak, 1999).	eng
3649	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. However, habitat loss may affect the species locally.	eng
3650	conservation	Lew, D., Soriano, P.,  Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L.,  Reid, F. & Helgen, K, 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
3650	distribution	Lew, D., Soriano, P.,  Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L.,  Reid, F. & Helgen, K, 2008	This species ranges from southern Mexico (Veracruz) to western Ecuador and the Cauca Valley of Colombia (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found from sea level to 2,600 m in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). To the east, this species is replaced by C. lanatus (Eisenberg, 1989), and it apparently does not pass over the eastern cordillera of the Andes. This species is decreasing in number in the northern parts of its range (Mexico and Ecuador).	eng
3650	habitat	Lew, D., Soriano, P.,  Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L.,  Reid, F. & Helgen, K, 2008	This species generally inhabits forested areas (evergreen and deciduous), and is predominantly arboreal. It is found in mature and disturbed evergreen rainforest, dry forest, and gardens and plantations (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It has an omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, seeds, leaves, soft vegetables, insects, other small invertebrates and possibly carrion. It is nocturnal and solitary. The average litter size is three (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
3650	population	Lew, D., Soriano, P.,  Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L.,  Reid, F. & Helgen, K, 2008	The woolly opossum is fairly common throughout its extensive range. This species appears to be locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is very common in Central Panama, Monteverde in Costa Rica, but locally common in Mexico.	eng
3650	threats	Lew, D., Soriano, P.,  Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L.,  Reid, F. & Helgen, K, 2008	There are no major threats. The species may be locally threatened by deforestation. It was trapped in the past for its fur, but this is no longer in demand.	eng
3651	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The species is known from at least several protected areas in Peru.	eng
3651	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in southeastern Peru and western Brazil (the upper Jarú River). Specimens were also captured in Leticia (extreme southeast of Colombia) and Iquitos, Peru (lzor and Pine, 1987), although these were probably examples of introduced individuals. It is found up to an altitude of 700 m, and is known for certain from around five scattered localities. There has been little sampling in the intervening habitat in Bolivia, however, likely occurs there.	eng
3651	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is known from humid forests where it leads an arboreal and nocturnal lifestyle. There are records from bamboo adjacent to forest (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In the dry season it feeds on the nectar of flowers, and it presumably also eats fruit. It is known only from mature rainforest. This species uses mostly the upper levels of the forest, and rarely seems to descend even to the middle levels (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Specimens in captivity have been known to eat small rodents in addition to a wide range of fruits (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
3651	population	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is generally extremely rare and patchy in distribution, but in some years it can be locally common. It is known from fewer than 30 specimens (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The apparent rarity of this species is likely due to its arboreal lifestyle.	eng
3651	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no major threats. The Peru part of its range is relatively secure, as its within several large protected areas. The range within Brazil is subject to intense habitat loss, which likely is a threat to the species.	eng
3669	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification, or reduction of a species' habitat or range, and restricted range (Criteria 1, 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
3669	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from two locations: the type locality, which is a pond at Oak Grove, Escambia County, and in the floodplain of the Escambia River near McDavid Florida, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1980, P. Moler pers. obs. 2010).	eng
3669	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits ponds (Hobbs 1980).	eng
3669	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.	eng
3669	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats impacting this species. However, if the range of this species is truly restricted to two single locations then it is at risk from threats relating to having such a small range, such as one-time catastrophic events (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). In addition it has been noted that the type locality of this species is now surrounded by soybean, cotton and peanut farmland (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3670	conservation	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine this species' population status, in addition to the effect had by current threats.	eng
3670	distribution	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in Mobile County, Alabama, and George and Jackson counties, Mississippi, USA (Hobbs 1945), from fewer than 15 different localities and with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 8,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(R. L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). Within this area, this&#160;species&#160;is regarded as neither widely nor&#160;uniformly&#160;distributed (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3670	habitat	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in pools, sluggish portions of permanent streams and ditches. Along the Gulf coast in Mississippi, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in some oxbow lakes, which are slow moving, warm and heavily vegetated with litter-covered substrate (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1996). These conditions provide enhanced protection for this species (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1996). Hobbs (1945) recorded this species from pools with filamentous algae, decaying leaves, and sticks.	eng
3670	population	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	Although not regarded as common, this species is known to be abundant at sites where it occurs (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3670	threats	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, Mobile County is the third most populated in the Southern USA, consisting of a large dockland area, which is intensively used, creating substantial water pollution in this area and surrounding streams and ponds. The<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>use of oxbow lakes by this species is useful for protection against predation, however, these are ephemeral habitats and, therefore, alternative habitat is also necessary (Peterson<em> et al.</em> 1996). In addition, this species is tolerant of differing water and habitat qualities (Hobbs 1945), though, with continued expansion of the Mobile docklands and intensive agriculture within the area, it is unknown how long these habitats will remain suitable (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is known to be threatened by siltation from logging and construction, and stream alteration (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3671	conservation	Adams, S., Jones, R.L. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Threatened, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, vulnerable to extirpation (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). The Mississippi Species of Greatest Conservation Need (2005) has categorized this species as a species that is "in need of timely conservation action and/or research because of rarity, restricted distribution, unknown or decreasing population trend, specialised habitat needs or habitat vulnerability or significant threats." Further research is needed on the abundance of this species, as well as the impact that current threats are having.	eng
3671	distribution	Adams, S., Jones, R.L. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species is known from Baldwin, Mobile and Washington counties in Alabama and George County, Mississippi (Hobbs 1989). This species has been collected from the Alabama, Mobile and Tombigbee rivers, though Mobile Bay is considered to be the main part of its range  (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is believed to be known from fewer than 25 locations (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/>The extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;is 11,187km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3671	habitat	Adams, S., Jones, R.L. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species can be found at the bottom of permanent pools and streams where submerged vegetation occurs (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, it is known from standing water and ditches, and in Pascagoula from sluggish streams (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3671	population	Adams, S., Jones, R.L. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species is reasonably abundant and known from a number of records, though it is believed to be rare in Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).&#160;&#160;More recently one of two locations in George County has been in decline; 82 specimens were collected from this site in 1989 while only six individuals were found in 2008 (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>There is no indication of either increase or decline in populations (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3671	threats	Adams, S., Jones, R.L. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	Mobile Bay is impacted upon by urbanization, shipping traffic and water management, however these are not thought to pose a major threat to this species at present (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Some declines in George County, Alabama, have been attributed to increased siltation, making the habitat much less suitable for this species (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). This&#160;appears&#160;to be localized, however.	eng
3672	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and is considered vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007). This species is currently contained within a Wildlife Management Area (i.e. Central Kentucky Wildlife Management Area)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3672	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is known from four counties in Kentucky, USA (Burch 1990). Here, it is endemic and is known from the outer Blue Grass Region in the Kentucky River drainage in Estill, Garrand, Madison, and Rockcastle counties (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 972 km².	eng
3672	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is a primary burrower; and spends almost its entire life in burrows near permanent ponds in areas of poor drainage. It constructs complex burrows ranging from 0.3 - 1.5 m in depth, while the surrounding vegetation is usually dense and covers the burrow entrances (Schuster 1976, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Burrows are found in ditch areas where water collects and the water table is approximately 1.5 m below the surface (Schuster 1976). Furthermore this species inhabits areas disturbed by human activities such as farming and mowing   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3672	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, although Burch (1990) found the species to occur in dense numbers in a three-county area.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
3672	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting this species. However, as this species is only known from one location it may be at risk from stochastic disturbance. This species inhabits areas disturbed by human activities such as farming and mowing (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3673	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><em></em>This species has been listed as endangered by the American Fisheries Society and has been given a heritage rank of G2 (imperiled) (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). There are some conservation goals outlined for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>, but it has been stated that these are not being met for crayfishes and snails (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2002). Monitoring is needed to ensure that future degradation does not result in significant declines of the global population of this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3673	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is believed to have several subpopulations throughout, and around 22 recorded localities, some of which may be connected (O'Bara 1988).&#160; In Kentucky, it is restricted to Roaring Paunch Creek proper in McCreary County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province, from three localities in the Big South Fork Cumberland River including Perkins Creek and Roaring Paunch Creek in Scott County (Williams and Bivens 2001).&#160; Recently in a survey of Tennessee (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), it was found in Perkins Creek (type locality), a headwater tributary to Perkins Creek, and Roaring Paunch Creek, but also from 3 new stream localities: Isham Creek, Jones Branch, and Otter Creek. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is just under 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3673	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been collected from streams. Perkins Creek has a rocky substrate, and is susceptible to flooding, making the water cloudy (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970). Furthermore, individuals are found among vegetation, in heavily silted pools, and among boulders (O'Bara 1988). This species displays plasticity in its habitat requirements, also being found in streams with no vegetation or boulders. This allows it to exist in severely degraded parts of the Roaring Punch Creek System (O'Bara 1988).	eng
3673	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
3673	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Within the Roaring Punch Creek System, coal mining has adversely affected most of the tributaries. This species appears to be able to tolerate these adverse conditions and has persisted in the area (O'Bara 1988).&#160; In addition, non-point urban run-off has caused a decline in habitat quality with potential for decline in suitability (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009), and acid mine drainage is deleterious to habitat quality in the Kentucky populations (G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3674	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society due to the existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of this species habitat (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Some occurrences of this species are on state lands.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
3674	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from the Upper Piedmont in the PeeDee and Cape Fear River drainages in Guilford, Randolph, Montgomery, and Davidson counties, North Carolina, USA   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It has a disjunct occurrence&#160;across this distribution, which is possible evidence of fragmentation (J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 6,487 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3674	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species dwells in sandy-clay soils of river basins where the water table depth is between 5 and 60 cm. This species is a primary burrower   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). This species is also known to occur in metropolitan areas   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3674	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. Surveys have, however, revealed abundant burrowing activity at the locations where it was surveyed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, populations are reported to be disjunct and occur through the Greenville metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3674	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, although continued urban development could have long term effects on the species (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The habitat of this species is in decline (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010), however it is unclear how this is affecting the population.	eng
3676	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats of this species are needed.	eng
3676	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from the South Chickamauga Creek basin (Tennessee River drainage) in Catoosa, Walker, and Whitfield counties, Georgia, and in the same basin in Hamilton County, Tennessee, USA (Bouchard 1972,&#160; Hobbs 1981). The northern range of this species extends into southeastern Kentucky (Rhoades 1944). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 2,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3676	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em> This species is found in large streams with moderate flow and small, shallow rock-littered streams (Rhoades 1944, Fetzner 2008). Futhermore, this species can be found in association with <em>Cambarus bartoni </em>(Rhoades 1944). This species is also found among trapped leaf litter   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3676	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. There is anecdotal evidence that populations within Chattanooga have declined (D. Withers pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3676	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown. Several subpopulations are, however, located in or near the Chattanooga  metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009.), so are likely to be impacted by pollution and urbanization.	eng
3677	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><em></em>This species was assessed as endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and was given a heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe      (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population trends and range of this species is needed.<br/></p>	eng
3677	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in Big Hurricane Creek at the Putnam-Cumberland County Line in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA </st1:state></st1:place>(Hobbs and Shoup 1947). This creek is a head water stream, which flows into the East Fork of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Obey</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in the Cumberland Drainage, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state>. It is now known only from three localities within these headwaters in Fentress, Putnam and Overton counties. However, the known distribution suggests that this species is restricted to  the upper reaches of streams that remain on the table rock portion of  the Cumberland Plateau, upstream of where the streams have began to cut  through the Pennsylvanian Sandstone caps (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as 86 km<sup>2</sup> (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3677	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in small to large streams where they are found beneath large rocks in moderate to slow current (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). These streams are known to dry periodically   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3677	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In 2004 and 2005, catch per unit effort (CPUE) values were highest on Little Piney Creek and Hurricane Creek site 2 with catch rates of 13.0 and 9.6 specimens per hour respectively. Hurricane Creek site 1 and Little Hurricane Creek were somewhat lower with 6.7 and 6.0 specimens per hour, which can most likely be attributed to a reduction of the preferred habitat (large flat rocks in moderate to slow current). Interestingly, this species was always the most common species encountered where it occurred during surveys (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006), although one population may have been lost in Dripping Springs Creek (more surveys are needed to confirm this   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). All historical occurrences have recently been confirmed to be extant and viable (Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; However, in 2008, most of the streams dried completely; in the dried stream reaches numerous dead  specimens were observed. This drying event causes fluctuations in population numbers, and may have resulted in a loss of over  50% of the species' population (T. Jones, R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3677	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Habitat loss and poor water quality issues from point and non-point source pollution have plagued aquatic organisms within these streams for many decades   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). While efforts are currently underway to improve water quality in a few streams, much of the watershed continues to suffer from historical surface coal mining practices   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Although much of the East Fork Obey River system remains forested, increasing residential development, logging, and agricultural practices pose continuing threats. Note there is the potential (not realized) threat of a large sand mine being considered for construction in the heart of the range of this species (R. Thoma to C. Taylor pers. comm. 2008).	eng
3678	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/> The US Fish and Wildlife Service compiled a species recovery plan for this species in 1988, citing limiting factors and stating that there should be regular surveys of the population and analyses of habitat quality (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). As a result of this action plan, cave gates and fencing have been installed at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hells</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Creek</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place>, although trespassing and vandalism continue to occur (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). The land adjacent to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hells</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Creek</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place> is protected as part of the Hells Creek Natural Area (Graening <em>et al</em>. 2006). Protection of the cave and its recharge zone is being implemented largely through the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission and The Nature Conservancy. The groundwater recharge area was defined as a 906 ha zone.&#160; Lands adjacent to the cave are protected within a Natural Area and attempts to expand that area are underway.&#160; A site conservation and management plan has been prepared and installation of cave gates, fencing, and monitoring has secured the entrances to the cave although trespass and vandalism continue to occur (Graening <em>et al.</em> 2006, USFWS 1988).</p>  There are no conservation measures present at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nesbitt</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and the groundwater recharge zone has not been defined.&#160; No conservation activities have occurred at this cave or within the watershed but the landowner remains dedicated to the protection of the groundwater resource (Graening <em>et al.</em> 2006, USFWS 1988). No measures have been put in place to reduce groundwater pollution, however.	eng
3678	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in Hell Creek Cave and has recently expanded to Nesbitt Spring Cave, Stone County, Arkansas, USA (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Surveys have been initiated at 170 other caves; no additional populations have been located. This species has an inferred area of occupancy (AOO) of less than 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3678	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams, between one and two meters wide and one to eight meters deep (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). The water temperature was 14.5<sup>o</sup>C.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is found both on the rock sides and mud bottom of the streams (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). This species dislikes turbid water and will crawl up the sides of the stream to clearer water or move to deeper areas (Hobbs and Bedinger 1964). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is reliant on nutrients from Grey Bat guano, which use the caves to roost, and from leaf litter which enters the caves by floodwaters (Natural Heritage 2009). The caves are situated in an area of sinking streams which supply groundwater (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The groundwater recharge area is 9 km<sup>2 </sup>(Natural Heritage 2009).	eng
3678	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was previously known from one pool, at one cave.&#160; Recent survey work has located an additional population, also in Stone County, Arkansas (Graening<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). An additional 29 cave streams in Stone County revealed no additional populations beyond this one and it was also not found in another 50 caves outside this area.<br/><br/>Up until recently, the total population of this species had been estimated at fewer than 50 individuals (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1988) from a single cave at the type locality. Historically published observed specimens from this locality include 5 specimens in 1961, two in 1972, 15 in 1983, 13 in 1990, 6 in 2000 (two in the first pool and four more in non-submerged passages), 8 in 2001 (most upstream to 300 m in unmapped passages), and 6 in 2003 (Graening<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).&#160; In 1992, several stygobitic crayfish were reported from the second locality and later censuses confirmed the identity of two specimens in 2002 and 14 in 2005 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
3678	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by groundwater contamination, vandalism, collectors, trespassing, and the removal of the Grey Bat population. The two caves where<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is located are in an area characterized by sinking streams. These streams are vital for the transition of nutrients to the caves. However, these also cause pollutants to be easily introduced to the groundwater system through the recharge zone (Natural Heritage 2009). The caves are downstream from Mountain View City and a major highway resulting in the introduction of sewage, siltation from construction, and chemicals from spills into the recharge system (Natural Heritage 2009). Illegal refuse dumping, salvage yards and malfunctioning septic tanks are also polluting the groundwater system (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). An electrical transmission line also crosses the recharge area, and herbicides have been used to clear the right-of-way (Natural Heritage 2009). Vandalism, trespassing and collectors are also major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zophonastes. </span>Due to its sensitivity to water disturbance and turbidity, and due to its low population numbers, it is susceptible to the removal of individuals and human disturbance (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Once, 16,000 grey bats roosted in the caves, but for several years they have not been recorded. The loss of nutrients from the guano may have limited the population size of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zophonastes</span> and is now reliant on leaf litter nutrients which are brought in from floodwaters. <br/><br/>The federal recovery plan (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1988) cited limiting factors such as destruction of habitat, scientific collection, disturbance by amateur cavers, and lack of reproduction. Updated threat information can be found in Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006). Although over-collection may have been a significant mortality factor in the past, scientific collection has ceased and no amateur collection is known.&#160; Recreational caving impacts and habitat destruction continue to be potential factors threatening the viability of this species.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
3679	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em> This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007) and was given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to find the abundance of this species and ensure it is not being affected by some unknown threat process. Its limited range means it could be susceptible to severe declines if a new threat process appears within its range.	eng
3679	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from four localities in Anderson and Roane counties, Tennessee (Clinch and Emory River drainages) and is widespread in eastern Kentucky, (Cumberland and Licking River drainages), USA.&#160; Until recently, it was thought to have a restricted range in the Clinch and Emory River drainages of northwest Tennessee, but in recent years has been widely but sporadically collected in central and southeastern Kentucky (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; There is some question as to whether these new populations represent a continuous distribution or isolated disjunct distribution (G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3679	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> this species is a floodplain in the east of Poplar Creek. The soils consist of clays and fragments of shale. This species is a primary burrower, with complex and variable burrows, the openings of which are well concealed by vegetation (Bouchard and Etnier 1979). These usually occur in open areas with high water tables.	eng
3679	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3679	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats affecting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em> this species. However, in the late seventies there was some filling near the type locality, but this did not seem to have a major impact on this species and it was still said to be thriving. Much of the area of the type locality has been incorporated into a golfcourse (Bouchard and Etnier 1979). However, burrowing crayfish are typically able to withstand this kind of distrubance and so the continued survival of this species was not affected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)  .	eng
3680	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as endangered (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Taylor</st1:city></st1:place> <em>et  al</em>. 2007) and it has been given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 using Criteria 5 (restricted range) by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning this species is considered imperiled.</p><p>Further research is needed to determine the full range of this species, its abundance, and the threats that impact it.</p>	eng
3680	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species maintains a disjunct distribution within the upper tributaries of the Caney Fork River drainage, in Cumberland, Bledsoe, White and Van Buren counties, Tennessee (Rohrbach and Withers 2006). In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province in  tributaries of the upper Caney Fork River system in Cumberland and  Bledsoe counties, and Sequatchie River system in Sequatchie County  (Williams and Bivens 2001). This species has recently been discovered  in several additional localities (approximately 15 localities newly  discovered since 2004) and is now known from 19 streams in Cumberland,  Van Buren, White and Bledsoe counties, Tennessee (Rohrbach and Withers  2006). Wither and McCoy (2005) have recently noted an expansion of this species range, including an increased number of locations in Cumberland County in 6 additional streams.&#160;<br/>    <p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is approximately 4,100 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
3680	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is known to inhabit rivers (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970).	eng
3680	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3680	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is noted to be threatened by siltation from nearby silviculture operations (Withers and McCoy 2005), while residential development pressure in the area is thought to be minimal.	eng
3681	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range under Critera 5 (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007). Several inhabited stream systems are included within lands managed by the state of Florida (Torreya State Park) or The Nature Conservancy (Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines Preserve and Travelers Tract). Much of the remaining habitat is on the state's land acquisition list (Apalachicola River CARL project) (FL NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on possible threats affecting this species.	eng
3681	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is restricted to the steephead stream region, roughly from Torreya State Park to Alum Bluff, along the eastern bank of the Apalachicola River, in Liberty and Gadsden counties, Florida, USA (FL NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). This species is expected to occur in most of the seepage stream systems  along the upper Apalachicola River; this includes more than a dozen  systems. As of 2000, this species has been documented from five of these  systems. Lack of records from others probably reflects limited  collection effort and difficulty of collection, although the species may  be absent from some systems   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 815 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3681	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is a primary burrower. It occurs in saturated soils along the banks of small steephead creeks and burrows among roots   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3681	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is estimated to be more than 10,000 individuals at several of the known sites; this species is abundant, based on the number of burrows observed. Populations at sites surveyed in 1999 and 2000 appear relatively large despite the past abuse of surrounding uplands (NatureServe 2009).	eng
3681	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
3682	conservation	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). All habitats known to harbor the species are receiving some conservation attention.&#160; The groundwater basin boundaries have been delineated for two of the caves, and some environmental quality assessments have been performed in the first main cave (Graening and Fenolio 2005). The Nature Conservancy's Oklahoma Field Office purchased 10 ha of land, including the entrances to the first main cave, and created a preserve (Graening and Fenolio 2005). The Nature Conservancy and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service have management agreements with the landowners at Jail Cave and Star Cave for periodic monitoring of the habitats (Graening and Fenolio 2005).	eng
3682	distribution	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from three caves which occur in a very small area of Delaware County, within the Neosho River watershed,  Oklahoma, USA (Hobbs 1993). Within these three localities,  two of the caves consist of one pool each, 20 and five meters  respectively, and in the third cave it is found in six pools which are a  maximum of three meters wide (Graening and Fenolio 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 9 km².	eng
3682	habitat	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known to inhabit cave streams and pools, on clay covered with silt at a maximum depth of 3 - 4 m. It can also be found on mud-bottomed pools, and gravel and mud pools rarely deeper than 1 m (Hobbs 1993).	eng
3682	population	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	At present only 34 specimens are known (Graening and Fenolio 2005). Graening and Fenolio (2005) assessed a further 50 caves in the region and no <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>individuals of this species were found. Subsequent assessments of Oklahoma crayfish (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) have not revealed any additional localities.	eng
3682	threats	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is threatened by habitat degradation. The most important threat to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is the disposal of untreated animal wastes from surrounding large hog farms and poultry houses which are seeping into the groundwater, polluting subterranean waters (Hobbs 1993). This is further amplified by the pollution of the Nesho River, through excessive nutrient loading and the presence of toxic organic compounds and metals (Graening and Fenolio 2005).	eng
3683	conservation	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range, and existing or potential destruction of habitat (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  Conservation actions have been implemented at these two caves. The land surrounding the cave entrances have been acquired, and cave gates have been installed (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The first cave and the 24 ha surrounding it, were donated by the Looney Family to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, creating the Mary Looney Unit of the Ozark Plateau National Wildlife Refuge (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The Long Family sold 61 ha containing the second cave to The Nature Conservancy in 1997, which now manages the caves within the Eucha Nature Preserve (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Groundwater recharge zone delineations and hazard assessments have been performed for the second cave, but have still yet to be implemented at the first cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
3683	distribution	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species was, until 2006, only found in one cave, but it has now expanded to a second cave in the Spavinaw Creek watershed (which also includes the Neosho River), north of Colcord, Delaware County, Oklahoma, USA (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The caves are 10.8 km apart from each other (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated as less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3683	habitat	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams in two caves. These caves are not physically connected, but their groundwater recharge zones are contiguous&#160; (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The conduit at the first cave is 1,800 m long and the passage in the second cave is 350 m long.	eng
3683	population	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been found in two caves. The first cave contained 17 individuals, with 63 in the second cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is a now a total of 80 individuals, which has increased from the six that Hobbs and Cooper recorded in 1972.	eng
3683	threats	Bergey, E., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by declines in water quality. Spavinaw Creek is an impaired water body due to excessive nutrient loading caused by the numerous confined animal feeding operations upstream, and the city of Colcord, which discharges its treated municipal sewage into the watershed (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Additionally, these caves also encompass the Neosho River, which has a low dissolved oxygen content, altered pH and contains toxic organic compounds, metals and pesticides (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is vulnerable to changes in water quality conditions, because it is highly adapted to stable subterranean environments. Due to this being a cave dwelling species, it is late to reach reproductive maturity, and has increased longevity. As a result of this, it is susceptible to the accumulation of toxins in the water over a period of many years causing long term impacts (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
3684	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><em></em> This species has been assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to investigate what impact the habitat alterations of 1980 had on<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species. Research is also needed to determine its full range, as it is possible that it inhabits seasonally flooded areas   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3684	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has a limited range in the upper East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County, Tennessee, USA (Rohrbach and Withers 2006, Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). Although originally known only from the type locality at  Brawley's Fork (East Fork of Stones River), Cannon County, it has been  discovered since 2004 in several new localities (including the East Fork  Stones River proper), bringing the total distribution to 18 streams in  Cannon County (Rohrbach and Withers 2006). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 223 km².	eng
3684	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species primarily burrows into gravel substrates in fast to moderately rapidly flowing water, but has also been found under rocks at the shoreline and in the water (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). It may be found in small burrows, at or near the surface of cobble substrates, both in areas of uniform cobble distribution and in more isolated pockets of such material in streams with more prevalent bedrock (Rohrbach and Withers 2006).	eng
3684	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3684	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>In 1971, the stream in which<em></em> this species is found was clear, and about 3 m wide. It had moderate current flow, a cherty gravel substrate, and there was water cress growing on the stream margins. By 1980, this stream was dramatically altered as a result of stream bed restructuring and the construction of a larger bridge (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). The stream bed had also been broadened, straightened and the bottom made shallower with extensive silt and sand cover. Upstream, the creek was fed by a large spring and the creek bed upstream of this was dry (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995). However, the impact these habitat modifications may have had on <em></em>this species is unknown. Rohrbach and Withers (2006) noted the primary threat to this species appears to be sedimentation which is increasing due to urban development and increases in construction, particularly in the Woodbury area. During 2004 and 2005, the installation of a gas pipeline along the East Fork Stones River, combined with poor erosion control and several stream crossings, caused a significant amount of unconsolidated material to enter the uppermost part of the watershed.&#160; The impacts of this activity on this species have not yet been determined. Outside Woodbury, the large rural agricultural areas often provided cattle access to creeks and were devoid of crayfish. However, this species is apparently secure in its limited range of the upper East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County (Rohrbach and Withers 2006).<br/></p>	eng
3685	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species. One population is on the Beaverdam Wildlife Management Area (GA DNR pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).<br/></p>	eng
3685	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was known only from four localities in the Fall Line Hills District in the Oconee Basin of Laurens and Wilkinson counties, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981). Recently a few other localities were found including one in Washington County, giving a total of 11 known localities (GA NHP pers. comm. 2008 cited in NatureServe 2009). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 228 km².	eng
3685	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing species found in complex burrows in sandy clay soil (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
3685	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3685	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Within and just north of the known range of this species, the landscape is pock marked with mining pits from kaolin mining. This deposit is strongly associated with the fall line area of the eastern Appalachian Mountains. Since the mines are encroaching on the range of this species, this should be considered a threat. It appears that mining could be extended in a southeastern direction which would put the activity fully within the species range. The nearest mine pit is approximately 4 miles away from the type locality. It is the sandy clay soils that this species is known from, that are being mined. While the precise effects of these impacts are not yet well understood, they are believed to be having a significant impact on habitat quality and population size (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3686	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
3686	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is confined to streams on Lookout and Sand Mountains of the Tennessee River system in extreme northwestern Georgia and northeastern Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989). This species is also known from Little River system of the upper Coosa River in Georgia (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, Hobbs (1981) reported the species from nine localities in two counties of Georgia. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at under 788 km<sup>2</sup>. It si not thought that this species will be found at many more localities with further studies (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3686	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004) in permanent rocky streams (Hobbs and Hall 1969). According to the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GA DNR), this species is found in medium-sized mountain streams from beneath rocks in moderate to swift current (GA DNR pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).	eng
3686	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
3686	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known threats to this species. The area from which it is known in Georgia is underdeveloped, isolated and there are no immediate plans to develop on it (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3687	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009); the American Fisheries Society assessed it as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
3687	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from the upper Guyandotte River and Bluestone River drainages of West Virginia; the upper Big Sandy drainage in Buchanan and Dickerson counties, Virginia; in Floyd and Pike counties, Kentucky, USA. Occurrences in Levisa Fork and Knox Creek on the Tug Fork River are disjunct from the remaining populations (T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). Special efforts have been made to collect this species from adjacent streams in neighbouring counties but to no avail (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). The species has lost half of its distribution in Virginia, is near  extirpation in West Virginia, and occupies a small portion of the  Russell Fork mainstem in Kentucky (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is approximately 3,300 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>This species has been searched for every year since 2000 in West Virginia without success, including  intensive survey effort based on habitat suitability modeling (Channell 2004). In Kentucky, it is known only from the upper portions of the Big Sandy River  drainage in Floyd and Pike counties and a single collection from the Red River in  Estill County (Kentucky River drainage) exists in the EKU Crayfish Collection, although subsequent surveys have not found the species here (Taylor and Schuster, 2004). Recent field work in Kentucky found the species to occur in both Tug Fork  (Pike County) and Levisa Fork (Floyd County) of the Big Sandy drainage; this now  makes only seven confirmed sites in Kentucky, however, more field work may find  more (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). This species has lost half of its distribution in Virginia, is near extirpation in  West Virginia, and still occupies a small portion of the Russell Fork mainstem  in Kentucky (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
3687	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent, fast-flowing streams with a width of 10 - 20 m and a substrate composed of bedrock, cobble, boulder and sand (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).	eng
3687	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in low numbers at each of the sites at which it is found (Channell 2004). Recent field work in Kentucky found the species to be sporadic in distribution and uncommon at sites   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). In West Virginia this species has been found at three locations, one in the Guyandotte River basin and two in the Tug Fork basin, though historically 13 locations were reported for this species in West Virginia. In Kentucky it has been documented from 11 locations, and in Virginia from 17. The largest subpopulation is found in Russel Fork and associated Levisa Fork, though this species remains in only one stream of the Levisa Fork basin. All of the Tug Fork subpopulations are isolated as the mainstream Tug Fork is severely polluted and devoid of the species, resulting in disjunct subpopulations at the mouths of tributaries large enough to support the species. At present the Guyandotte River and Tug Fork populations are likely to become extirpated. In these two basins this species occurs in very low numbers and observed individuals appear stressed and unhealthy (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3687	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The <st1:place w:st="on">Upper  Guyandotte</st1:place> is severely affected by the extractive industry, logging and road construction. This has caused fragmentation and degradation of habitat that has historically been used by this species. Attempts to locate&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in other areas with suitable habitat have been unsuccessful (Channell 2004). Continued coal mining, road construction and logging all occur extensively in the range of this species. Jezerinac <em>et al</em>. (1995) report that the species is absent from streams polluted with organic material from septic tanks and coal dust. There are major mining threats in the area, in addition to plans for large road construction. (Channell, 2004, J. Wykle, WV DNR pers. comm. 2005 cited in NatureServe 2009).	eng
3688	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., DiStefano, R. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a recovery plan in place for the protection of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> compiled by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (Jacobson 1996). This plan has seen the implementation of cave gates on two sites<st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, and three caves have surrounding land recovered and septic tanks are being upgraded to prevent leakages (NatureServe 2009). One of the localities has been designated as a<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> National Wildlife Refuge (Jacobson 1996).  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species h<span lang="EN-GB">as been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by the American Fisheries Society&#160;(Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. It also qualifies as endangered under the Federal Environmental Species Act of 1973 (Jacobson 1996).<em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></span></p><p></p>	eng
3688	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., DiStefano, R. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from two caves in Benton County, Arkansas, USA (Hobbs 1989, Robison and Allen 1995) and just into Missouri (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). With all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of Fayetteville, a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find further specimens of this species. It has long seemed confined to the original caves, yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens. In Missouri, expert survey work has been carried out with no further discoveries of the species in that state (Brian Wagner, AR Game and Fish, to Cindy Osborne, AR Heritage, pers. comm. 2002). The area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 4 km². <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></p>	eng
3688	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., DiStefano, R. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species is a cave dwelling species inhabiting subterranean streams and pools (Jacobson 1996). One of the caves from which this species is known is an Ozarkian solution channel, within which this species has been observed along the side walls of a pool or at the stream margin (Robison and Allen 1995). Cave streams in which this species lives are generally less than 50 cm deep.<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></p>	eng
3688	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., DiStefano, R. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">was surveyed thoroughly between 1985 and 2006, at all four caves, and a total of 40 individuals were collected (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Two of the four sites are considered viable, one with decent viability (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; Probably < 200 adults are extant. Numbers of crayfish observed vary dramatically between cave visits. The greatest number observed at one time in one cave is nine and in the other cave 21 (USFWS, 1996).&#160; The current total observed population size is 40 individuals, based on the latest complete visual census of the second largest occurrence (n=6), largest occurrence (n=31), small occurrence (n=2), and the smallest creek pool discharge occurrence (n=1) (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The maximum historical count (irrespective of date) is 56 (47 in the largest cave occurrence, 9 in the second largest cave occurrence) (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/></p>	eng
3688	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., DiStefano, R. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS 1996) recovery plan listed the following factors causing decline of the species: habitat destruction, disturbance by cavers or trespassers, specimen collection, low reproductive potential, and competition and predation by non-stygobitic species, Banded Sculpin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cottus carolinae</span>)<span lang="EN-GB">.&#160; Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) have assessed continuing threats since the recovery plan. Among these, habitat degradation from groundwater pollution is the primary reason for federal listing of the species and remains a serious threat.&#160; Organic pollutants are present in the groundwater basins of the two initial caves.&#160; Mean concentrations of nitrate, phosphorous, and faecal bacteria consistently equals or exceeds those of regional surface waters monitored by the National Water Quality Assessment Program for the Springfield Plateau Aquifer. Over 100 confined animal feeding operations (poultry and swine) and cattle ranching operations as well as over 60 residences on septic systems are within the recharge zone of one cave and two confined feeding operations, and at least 200 residences on septic systems are within the discharge zone of the second cave (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160; As for human disturbance, both caves with the largest populations were both formerly popular recreational destinations.&#160; Vandalism and trespassing continue to be serious management issues at both sites, even after erection of steel channel gates.&#160; Trampling was formerly considered a threat at all sites but has been alleviated at one cave when a fixed line was bolted to a canyon ledge 3 m above the stream in 2001 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160; Another historical threat was overcollection but scientific collection has ceased and no amateur collection has been reported, probably due to federal listing in 1993 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). More specifically, hog and poultry operations, fertilization of nearby pasture lands, regional airport expansion, and residential development threaten the water quality of the second cave. Residential development is the primary threat to water quality in the largest cave occurrence (USFWS 1996).<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><em><span lang="EN-GB"><em><em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></span></p>	eng
3689	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Eversole, A.G., Skelton, C., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been listed as Special Concern in North Carolina (Fullerton 2009). Most of its range falls within the Chattahoochie National Forest in Georgia, the Sumter National Forest in South Carolina, and Nantahala National Forest in North Carolina. It has also been considered as 'endangered' through its range by Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996). Since then Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) have modified it to threatened. NatureServe has assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 due to its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is suggested on threats within the range of this species and the impacts of river management for trout fishing, on the persistence of this species.<br/><br/>    <p>It is estimated that close to 50% of this species range may occur in national parkland (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
3689	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Eversole, A.G., Skelton, C., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	This species is known from   Oconee and Pickens counties in South Carolina, USA (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). It is also known from Rabun County, Georgia (Hobbs 1981). LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) also cite streams in the Savannah drainage in Jackson, Macon, and Transylvania counties, North Carolina. The Extent of Occurrence of this species is estimated at 5,426 km<sup>2</sup>. The number of sites from which this species is known has been extended over the last 10 years, though actual range extent has not (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3689	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Eversole, A.G., Skelton, C., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to moderately sized streams with rocky substrate (Clamp 1999). Substrate type is of importance to the standing crop biomass of this species; this species requires   medium to large substrate for adequate shelter from predators and water velocity   (Eversole and Foltz 1993). Streams where this species is found, were characterised by alternating rapids/runs and pools.<br/><br/>Preliminary data suggests this species lives to 4 - 5 years and is faster growing than the primary burrowers   (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). Hobbs (1981) records for the smallest ovigerous female and form I male, I expect <em>C. chaugaensis</em> to achieve reproductive size (age) in 3 years; of course the faster growers in the population may achieve reproductive size in 2 years.	eng
3689	population	Cordeiro, J., Eversole, A.G., Skelton, C., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3689	threats	Cordeiro, J., Eversole, A.G., Skelton, C., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	NatureServe has stated that there are no immediate threats to this species   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is likely that the industrial pollution occurring at the Savannah River site is having an impact on the crayfish habitat even though it is downstream   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). No major urban areas are close to the Savannah River although urban and industrial development are occurring. Furthermore the creation of Hartwell Lake has likely eliminated significant amounts of potential habitat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). It is thought that any activity that increases sedimentation (owing to the habitat preferences of this species) would negatively impact the population (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).   At the present the streams in South Carolina appear in good shape and portions are in national forest. Also some the streams (e.g. the type locality) are trout streams and managed for sport fishing (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has been searched for in Gold Mine Creek (only known Georgia locality according to Chris Skelton) as well as surrounding tribs and it has not been found; these were high quality creeks (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010), however Georgia is at the edge of this species range (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3690	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em> This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In addition, several populations occur in the Chattahoochee National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
3690	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known only from the Coosawattee watershed (<st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype>) in <st1:city w:st="on">Gilmer  County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as approximately 1,284 km².	eng
3690	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been found in clear streams and riffles with sandy, rock-littered bottoms and is known to use rocks as cover (Hobbs 1981). This species has close affinities with <em>Cambarus longirostris</em> and <em>Cambarus fasciatus</em> (Hobbs 1981).	eng
3690	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Populations of this species seem stable across its range, despite some farming and development in the vicinity of the stream (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3690	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>The range of this species may be fragmented by reservoir construction (Carters Lake) in the one river where it occurs. The Coosawattee watershed area has experienced a large increase in residential development in recent years. Furthermore, 47,064 ha of forest have been allocated for residential building to be completed by 2030 (White 2009). The watershed contains many confined animal feed operations scattered in the headwaters above Carters Lake that can potentially impact habitat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). &#160;</p>	eng
3691	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (NatureServe 2009)   and threatened by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). One site at Florida Caverns State Park is gated; Marianna Bat Cave (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009),&#160;purchased by the state of Florida (GFC) and TNC, is fenced.	eng
3691	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species occurs in the aquifer of the Dougherty Plain (Marianna Lowlands), from Decatur County, Georgia, to Jackson County, Florida, USA. All sites lie within the Apalachicola River basin. (Hobbs 1981, Hobbs 1989). The estimated extent of occurrence of this species is 21,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Recent collections of this species have greatly extended the range southwestward in Florida, and northward in Georgia. The additional Florida records are all from spring caves, but the Georgia records, especially, suggest that the species may be widespread within the aquifer, independent of surface caves (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3691	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits subterranean freshwaters (Hobbs 1989). These are usually low energy caves in carbonate rocks. This species has been taken from wells, sinks, shallow caves, and spring caves. Furthermore, it is able to tolerate low oxygen levels ranging from 3.6 - 6.6 mg/L<sup>-1</sup> (Purvis and Opsahl 2005).	eng
3691	population	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is widespread within its range.	eng
3691	threats	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Excessive water withdrawals from the Floridian Aquifer are known to reduce the amount of habitat for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Furthermore, agricultural pesticide and nutrient run-off are also considered a threat to this species (Skelton 2008). Given this species broad range, these threats are likely driving localised declines.	eng
3692	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Skelton, C., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007) due exclusively to restricted range. Further research on the distribution of this species is needed. Site protection is needed.	eng
3692	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Skelton, C., 2010	This species is known only from Murray County, Georgia, and a seepage area along Mill Creek in Bradley County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1981, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). These localities are within 15 miles of each other. Recently new occurrences were found in Coahulla Creek in Whitfield County, Georgia, and the Coahulla River and South Chestuee Creek (Hiawassee River drainage) in Bradley County, Tennessee (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated at 1,790 km<sup>2</sup>. It is presently only known from 4 locations (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010). Due to the burrowing nature of this species, and the difficulty in collecting it, it is possible further sites may be found (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3692	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Skelton, C., 2010	This species is found in elaborate burrows in open grassy areas with a high water table, commonly burrowing around houses and flower gardens. Females have more complex burrows than males, both with crude chimneys (Hobbs 1970).	eng
3692	population	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Skelton, C., 2010	This species was known from two localities, within 15 miles of each other (Hobbs 1981). In Tennessee it occurs in the Ridge and Valley province in a seep area adjacent to Mill Creek (Conasauga River system) in Bradley County, and Red Clay State Historic Park (Williams and Bivens 2001, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Recently three new locations were found in Coahulla Creek in Whitfield County, Georgia, and the Coahulla River and South Chestuee Creek (Hiawassee River drainage) in Bradley County, Tennessee, USA (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3692	threats	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Skelton, C., 2010	Of the 4 known locations, 3 of them are threatened: one site is in the yard of a homeowner in a city neighborhood; one has been partially paved over; the other is currently being used for cattle grazing and is in bad condition. This last site has been visited twice and no specimens have been found (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010).   The species is somewhat tolerant of disturbance (can live in road rightaways, lawns, and ditches). It seems to prefer spring-like seeps (often in elaborate burrows in open grassy areas with a high water table, commonly burrowing around houses and flower gardens) and many of these seeps have been drained by landowners. This type of activity will likely continue unabated, and although this is not a large scale effort, it is having a large scale <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on populations of all burrowing species in the area (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2010).	eng
3693	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em> This species has been assessed as Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Furthermore, it was given a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), due to existing or potential habitat destruction, modification, or reduction and this species restricted range.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to ascertain the abundance of this species, and the full extent of its range.	eng
3693	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The type locality of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is the Laurel Fork of the Left Fork of the Holly River, West Virginia, USA. More recently, this species has only been recorded from the upper Elk River above Sutton Lake, and in the Holly and Birch rivers in Webster, Nicholas, and Pocahontas counties, West Virginia (Jezerinac<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995). This species is known from fewer than 10 locations and is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of 4,387 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3693	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in streams and rivers. The type locality was a 10 m wide stream, that was 0.5 m deep. The substrate was sand, gravel, sandstone boulders and cobbles. Specimens where found where there was a strong current, under rocks and cobbles. The vegetation in the banks included alder, birch, hemlock and rhododendron (Jezerinac and Stocker 1993). This species is not found in small head water streams. This species was found with other members of the subgenus <em>Hiaticambarus</em> (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).	eng
3693	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3693	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is currently known that coal mining, siltation, logging and other impacts to water quality are affecting this species (Forests for Watersheds and Wildlife 2005). The Elk River Watershed is dominated by agricultural lands. Furthermore, coal mining, and oil and gas extraction are common (T. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This is causing acidic discharge into the river which is having an extremely negative impact on the river system (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2001).&#160; As a coldwater stream with a reservoir at one end, the opportunity for the introduction of a recently identified exotic competitor,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Orconectes virilis</span>, is high.	eng
3694	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Further research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, range and threats.	eng
3694	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is restricted to Etowah River drainage in northwest Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981), corresponding to a 6 county area. Most populations are located near the rapidly expanding Atlanta  metropolitan area   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).  The Extent of Occurrence of this species has been estimated as exceeding 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3694	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in fast flowing streams with sandy bottoms littered with rocks. Adults have been found sheltering under rocks, while young have been found in leaf litter (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
3694	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3694	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is located close to the Atlanta metropolitan area and is thus exposed to associated distubance   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition the range of this species has been fragmented by a reservoir (Allatoona Lake)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Mining, agriculture and other human activities have caused the degradation of water quality in the Etowah&#160; River basin in recent years (Walters&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). However, it is unknown if this is impacting upon this species, which maintains its entire global population within one river basin.	eng
3695	conservation	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G2G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species range extent and abundance is needed.	eng
3695	distribution	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from Rabun County, Georgia and Macon County, North Carolina, USA (equating to 80 km of the Little Tennessee River drainage)   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Similarly, LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) cite the upper Little Tennessee drainage in Jackson and Macon counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence is approximately 3,100 km<sup>2</sup>. This species is known from 31 occurrences (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/><strong><defanghtml_span style="color: rgb(254, 38, 23);"></defanghtml_span></strong>	eng
3695	habitat	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been found in fast flowing streams with sandy bottoms of a depth of no more than 1 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). It is associated with debris in slower parts of swift streams and areas lacking other crayfish competitors   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). Species was absent in the most polluted areas of its range (McLarney 1993).<br/></p>	eng
3695	population	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	An intensive survey for the species collected 302 individuals from 37 sites. Hobbs (1981) cites 51 specimens from a single site on the Little Tennessee River in Rabun County, Georgia and Macon County, North Carolina. It was collected at one of 13 sites surveyed recently (but not sites known to have historical occurrences) (Simmons and Fraley 2008). Hobbs (1981) notes some decline, especially at the type locality, based upon competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii</span>.	eng
3695	threats	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>Declines have been noted at some localities and are thought to be as a result of competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii</span>. In the Georgia part of its range it is affected bu extensive agriculture, stream channelisation and heavy sedimentation (C. Skelton pers. comm. 2010). However, this is only a small portion of this species range and it still appears to be widespread and reasonably secure.<br/></p><defanghtml_span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';"></defanghtml_span>	eng
3696	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to describe this species range and to characterize threats posed to its continued survival.	eng
3696	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from only two sites in the Piedmont of the Flint and Chattahoochee River systems, in Meriwether County, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1981).   The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be 680 km².	eng
3696	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing species that is found in ponds and streams (Herrig and Shute 2001).	eng
3696	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known only from 16 specimens, collected by an experienced collector. The actual population size is not known. Recent surveys have found more populations of this crayfish, but its distribution is still limited to one county (GA NHP pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).	eng
3696	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	High levels of agriculture in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> area has increased sedimentation, decreased stream depth and has resulted in a change to river bed substrates. These threats are known to have had an adverse effect on species living in this river (Walser and Bart 2006). However, it is unknown how these threats may be impacting upon this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is only known from two sites in one county and has never been documented elsewhere. It is therefore intrinsically vulnerable to stochastic events causing extirpation.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
3697	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Critera 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed into the abundance and threats of this species. Some populations of this species occur in the Chattahoochee National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
3697	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in the upper Hiwassee River basin, Blue Ridge Province in northeastern Georgia and southwestern North Carolina (Hobbs 1981) and in Tennessee in Polk County, USA (Williams and Bivens 2001). It has been collected from 39 localities (18 in Georgia and 21 in North Carolina). LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) cite streams in the Hiwassee drainage in North Carolina. Cooper (2006) similarly found it in the Hiwassee basin in North Carolina. In Tennessee it occurs in the Blue Ridge Province in Brushy Creek, Hiwassee River in Polk County, near the state line (Williams and Bivens 2001). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated in the region of 4,100 km².	eng
3697	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear, fast flowing streams with a rocky substrate (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981, R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
3697	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In an intensive state-wide survey Hobbs (1981) reported 395 specimens of this species. In a distributional study of the species in North Carolina, recently conducted, this species is reported to be common in the basin. Recent data indicates it is highly stable in North Carolina but recent development in the area might warrant further monitoring in the area (Simmons and Fraley 2008).	eng
3697	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The range of this species is fragmented by several large reservoirs (Simmons and Fraley 2008), though this species is presently thought to be stable. There is no compelling evidence for continuing decline or fluctuations and it is fairly common within the basin (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
3698	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research on this species is required to determine abundance, ecology, distribution and major threats. Furthermore, work is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species.	eng
3698	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>According to <st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city> (1981), this species ranges from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> to Halawakee Creek (as far as <st1:city w:st="on">Auburn</st1:city>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Lee</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename> and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Chattahoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> system, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place> (Mirarchi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, populations in North and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South   Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> have been tentatively identified as this species. Possible identifications of this species have been made in the Saluda and <st1:placename w:st="on">Enoree</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in <st1:city w:st="on">Greenville</st1:city> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Anderson</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Counties</st1:placetype> as well as the upper <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Broad</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It is necessary to conduct taxonomic work on previously collected species in order to determine the identity and status of these populations (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2006).&#160; Also, populations in the upper Piedmont regions of northwestern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> may be this species (Eversole and Jones 2004).&#160; Recently it was possibly found at several sites in the Catawba River and tributaries in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state> (Alderman 2005).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 62,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;   </p>	eng
3698	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams, primarily in riffle areas (Hobbs 1989).	eng
3698	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been collected from 18 sites in Georgia (Hobbs 1981). Known from Alabama only from nine records from the Chattahootchee River system (Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).	eng
3698	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is threatened by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water quality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The type locality in Sope Creek is heavily polluted from storm sewers and effluent from a sewage treatment plant (Hobbs 1981), however the species is still thriving there (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3699	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). However, recent surveys have indicated it is much more common than previously expected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine abundance and major threats.	eng
3699	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from a limited portion of the Escambia River drainage in extreme southern Alabama and western Florida (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). Schuster and Taylor (2008) recently documented several dozen new occurrences in Alabama and Florida. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in one site in Baldwin County, Alabama (Fitzpatrick 1978) 6 records near the type locality in Baldwin County, Alabama, 2 records from Covington County and further records from Corn Branch and Negro Creek in Baldwin County (Fitzpatrick 1991, Mirarchi<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In April 2007, according to the Florida Natural Heritage Program (FL NHP) a small female was collected in McDavid Creek, Escambia County, Florida (D. Jackson, FL NHP, pers. comm. 2007 cited in NatureServe 2009). Schuster and Taylor (2008) reported this species from 31 sites, in 10 basins (including Mobile Bay, Perdido River, Perdido Bay, Blackwater River,&#160; Pascagoula Bay, Mississippi Sound, Fish River, Choctawhatchee Bay, and Choctawhatchee Bay) in Covington and Mobile counties, Alabama, and Escambia, Holmes, and Washington counties, Florida. <br/>    <p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
3699	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978). It lives within 50 m of flowing water but is intolerant of saline intrusion into groundwater.	eng
3699	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The population in Daphne's D'Olive Creek, south Baldwin County, Alabama, is healthy and is estimated to equal hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals (Raines 2007). This species has recently been shown to be much more common than previously thought (Schuster and Taylor 2008).	eng
3699	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it is unlikely to be undergoing any significant threat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3700	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Endangered (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007) and it was given a heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe using criteria 5 (restricted range)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).   </p><p>Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.<em> </em></p>	eng
3700	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in Matt's <st1:placename w:st="on">Black</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype> in <st1:city w:st="on">Greenbrier  County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">West Virginia</st1:state>, USA (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1964). It has since been found in 11 caves in the Greenbrier River drainage, <st1:placename w:st="on">Greenbrier</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> and in one cave in the Elk River Drainage in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pocahontas</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> (VanLuik 1981).   The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 2,296 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3700	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in streams in caves. The most studied caves (i.e., Bransford and McLaughlin-Unus caves) are fed by surface streams, and are prone to extreme water level fluctuations. The stream substrate ranges from larger rocks, to small gravel and silt, with some vegetative debris   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3700	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is some population information available for sub-populations of <em></em>this species found in the Bransford and McLaughlin-Unus caves. Nine stations within these caves were sampled monthly from October 1978 through to November 1979, using baited, modified minnow traps. In total, 198 individuals were processed, suggesting a much larger sub-population than originally thought. In 1978, Lincoln-Peterson estimated, using data from that autumn, a sub-population size of 181 (VanLuik 1981). One crayfish per 2.4 square meters of habitat from cave 219 (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).<br/></p>	eng
3700	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>The caves in which this species is found are a restricted environment and present a number of potential threats. Caves are often subject to surface run-off and can easily bring in contaminants such as sewage or fecal contamination, pesticides or herbicides, and hazardous materials via accidental spills or deliberate dumping such as road salting (Lewis 2001). Sedimentation resulting in habitat alteration is a common threat caused by construction, farming, logging, and other development that disturbs the groundcover. It can block recharge sites in caves and alter flow velocity and volume (Lewis 2001). Flooding can be a serious threat to cave dwelling species as it changes stream flow. Stream back-flowing is another source of contamination introduction into cave habitats, as is local exploration for oil, water or gas, which may encounter cave passages (Lewis 2001).     Approx<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ately 40 caves were surveyed and most did not harbor the species. Many of the uninhabited caves were being used (at the mouth) by cattle as a heat refuge in the summer and large quantities of manure was entering the cave system. It was believed the excess manure had destroyed the habitat for the species. Many of the uninhabited caves looked to be suitable <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nerterius </span>habitat. Populations have apparently been lost but having populations in separate environs provides some protection (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p>Despite all these potential threats to <em></em>this species, it is unknown how significant their impact on the global population of this species may be.</p>	eng
3701	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Almost the entire range of this species occurs in U. S. Forest Service land   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Further research on this species is required to clarify its range, abundance and threats. <br/></p>	eng
3701	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is only known from a few headwater tributaries of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Hiwassee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Towns County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, and Clay County, North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1981, Copper 2006). Ten years of intensive searching has found a total of 11 locations.  Hobbs (1981) described the species from the headwaters of the Hiwassee  River in Towns County, Georgia, and Clay County, North Carolina.&#160; The North Carolina and Georgia populations are  separated from one another by Chatuge Lake.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite  streams in the Hiwassee  drainage in Cherokee and Clay Counties, in far western North  Carolina. Cooper (2006) also found this species in the Hiwassee basin  in North Carolina and sites 5 localities in Towns County, Georgia, and 2&#160; in Clay County, North Carolina.	eng
3701	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found beneath rocks in the rocky stretches and riffle areas of clear streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
3701	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3701	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes.	eng
3702	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   due to its limited range and threat of disturbance due to urbanization. It has been assessed as 'currently stable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In addition, several sites occur in the Nantahala National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).Further monitoring of this species populations is advised.	eng
3702	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has its type locality and tributaries in the French Broad River in Buncombe, Henderson, Jackson, Madison, and Transylvania counties, North Carolina, USA. Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) also believe <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species may be found in Tennessee, as the French Broad River originates in this county but it has not been found there yet.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species can also be found in the headwaters of the Savannah River and an introduced population was described in a small tributary of Horsepasture River from Sapphire Lake east of Cashiers, Jackson County, North Carolina <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Prins and Hobbs 1972). Cooper and Braswell (1998) report a new record for the species in a  lower reach of the French Broad drainage (Madison County) and two new  locations in the Savannah drainage (Transylvania County).&#160; LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) cite streams in the  upper portions of the French Broad drainage, and in one stream in the  Savannah drainage in Buncombe, Henderson, Jackson, Madison, and  Transylvania counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at  just under 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3702	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits slow to moderately flowing permanent freshwater streams, often occurring in the headwaters (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It has also been found inhabiting small freshwater lakes (under 8 ha).	eng
3702	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Cooper and Braswell (1995) believe this species to be fairly common and widespread in its limited range. In 2004 and 2005 this species was collected at 3 of 15 sites and 0 of 23 sites, respectively, and some decline from historic sites was noted (Simmons and Fraley 2008). However, it was found in new sites near to historical occurrences (Simmons and Fraley 2008).	eng
3702	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is under threat from expanding urban development from Asheville, North Carolina, USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species may also be affected by domestic pollution from the towns upstream of the French Broad River. The French Broad River is widely used as a white water rafting site and also for many anglers   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). However these threats are not thought to pose a significant problem to this species at present.	eng
3703	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/>Further research is required on this species to determine abundance, more precise distribution information and whether it is impacted by any major threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3703	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is restricted to the Chattooga River basin in Chattooga and Walker Counties in Georgia and Cherokee County, Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1981). The Alabama specimens are assigned to this species, but do not share all characters (Hobbs 1981), although it is listed as occurring in Alabama (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2004) lists this species in Alabama from 9 records in the upper Coosa River system (Chattooga River).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,300 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
3703	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams of 0.5 m deep, with swiftly flowing water over a rock-littered substrate (Hobbs 1981). It is most abundant, however, in areas with swift water and rocks (Hobbs 1981).	eng
3703	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Where collected in Alabama recently, this species was found to be common where found (G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3703	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3704	conservation	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research on the abundance, range and effect of present threats is needed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3704	distribution	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is confined to a small segment of the Coosawattee River basin in Gilmer, Murray and Pickens counties, Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989). This equates to an extent of occurrence of 2,267 km².	eng
3704	habitat	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear or slightly cloudy, moderately to swiftly flowing streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981) under rocks on a rock-littered substrate and has never been found in a burrow (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>	eng
3704	population	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	A very experienced collector found this species at only 9 sites in over a decade of study (Hobbs 1981). Schuster (2001), however, documented it at five additional sites where it is common and appears unthreatened.	eng
3704	threats	Skelton, C., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species include Carter's Dam & other regulation dams, which have already fragmented and destroyed portions of the habitat of other crayfish species, and is believed to be destroying the habitat of this species and fragmenting the population into disjunct occurrences (Hobbs 1981). The small range of this species, and the intense development within its range are significant threats. Heavy sedimentation resulting from poor development and land management practices may cover substrates and other daytime hiding places, upon which crayfishes rely to avoid predation. However, this species is believed to be currently stable at this time (Schuster 2001). The introduction of non-native crayfishes may pose a threat to this species in the future, according the the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009).	eng
3705	conservation	Eversole, A.G., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society, which has been assigned due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>  Further surveys of this species are needed along with research on life history parameters and abundance estimates in determining the status of <em>C. spicatus </em>(A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3705	distribution	Eversole, A.G., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from North and South Carolina, USA, in the Broad River basin. In South Carolina it is known from <st1:city w:st="on">Spartanburg</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Fairfield</st1:city> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Richland</st1:city></st1:place> counties but may also occur in Union County, North Carolina and Laurens and Newberry counties, South Carolina (A.G. Eversole, pers. comm. 2009). In North Carolina this species is also reported from Cleveland County and Polk County (Cooper and Braswell 1995, Le Grand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006)<br/><span class="copy"><br/><p></p>	eng
3705	habitat	Eversole, A.G., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams (Fetzner 2008).   Most of the <em>C. spicatus</em> collected by Arnie Eversole, have been taken in debris (leaf litter etc.) along the margins of the streams. The streams were <em>C. spicatus</em> were collected exhibited the classic signs of flash floods (sand deposits and wood jams) (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
3705	population	Eversole, A.G., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This is not an abundant species and is described as rare in North Carolina   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is not known from many collections and most of these have been made around the Little River area in Fairfield and Richland counties (A.G. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
3705	threats	Eversole, A.G., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	While trends are not clear, this narrowly distributed species may be declining. &#160;Many streams within its range in North Carolina carry heavy sediment loads that can degrade habitat for this species (Simmons and Fraley 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, an non-native invasive species of crayfish, has been collected within the range of this species which may pose a future threat (Simmons and Fraley 2008). It is also likely to be impacted by <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>, the Red Swamp Crayfish, which has also been found in the Broad River basin (Fullerton and Watson 2001). There is human population expansion occurring in the river basin inhabited by this species and therefore urban development is likely to be impacting this species by reducing the area of available habitat, while causing pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).   It is thought there is sufficient habitat within the species home range, but it is not clear if these streams are in good condition.&#160; It is noted that there has not been a lot of development in this part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:state></st1:place> and some the streams course through national forest lands (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
3706	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species.</p>	eng
3706	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from only ten localities in the Broad and Little River basins, and in tributaries of the Savannah River in Elbert, Oglethorpe, and Wilkes counties, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia, USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981; GA DNR, pers. comm. 2009 cited in NatureServe 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,169 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
3706	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Adult<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>s of this species are found in complex burrows in sandy-clay soils near streams or in areas with a high water table. The burrows of this species are built in soil that is rich in organic matter. The openings of the burrow are usually marked with chimneys (mounds of sand or mud placed around openings above ground). Occasionally it leaves the general safety of its burrow to search for food or a mate at night (Hobbs 1981).	eng
3706	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
3706	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting upon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
3744	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Golden jackals are present in all protected areas of India except for those in the high elevation regions of the Himalayas. In East Africa, they occur in the Serengeti-Masai Mara-Ngorongoro complex, as well as numerous other conservation units. Thus they have a wide coverage in terms of protected populations. <br/>The species is included in CITES Appendix III (in India). Jackals feature on Schedule III of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of India and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. The golden jackal could be considered as a "species requiring no immediate protection" with caution and knowledge that populations throughout its range are likely declining.<br/><br/>Besides being represented in a wide array of protected areas covering several landscapes, no special species targeted conservation efforts have been undertaken. Almost all zoos in India have golden jackals.<br/><br/>Current or planned research projects include ongoing, long-term studies in the Serengeti, Tanzania; ongoing studies on wolves, jackals, and striped hyaenas in Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India; and investigation into crop damage, densities and ranging patterns of golden jackals in Bangladesh. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Little quantitative information is available on jackal densities, habitat use, and ranging patterns in relation to food availability. Information on dispersal, survival and mortality factors of adults, pups and dispersing individuals is needed. Jackal ecology needs to be studied in forested ecosystems of Southeast Asia where a different set of factors are likely to operate affecting food availability, ranging patterns and survival. Aspects of canid diseases in relation to population dynamics of jackals and transmission need to be better understood.	eng
3744	conservation	Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D., 2008	Golden jackals are present in all protected areas of India except for those in the high elevation regions of the Himalayas. In East Africa, they occur in the Serengeti-Masai Mara-Ngorongoro complex, as well as numerous other conservation units. Thus they have a wide coverage in terms of protected populations. <br/>The species is included in CITES Appendix III (in India). Jackals feature on Schedule III of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of India and are afforded the least legal protection (mainly to control trade of pelts and tails). However, no hunting of any wildlife is permitted under the current legal system in India. The golden jackal could be considered as a "species requiring no immediate protection" with caution and knowledge that populations throughout its range are likely declining.<br/><br/>Besides being represented in a wide array of protected areas covering several landscapes, no special species targeted conservation efforts have been undertaken. Almost all zoos in India have golden jackals.<br/><br/>Current or planned research projects include ongoing, long-term studies in the Serengeti, Tanzania; ongoing studies on wolves, jackals, and striped hyaenas in Bhal and Kutch areas of Gujarat, India; and investigation into crop damage, densities and ranging patterns of golden jackals in Bangladesh. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Little quantitative information is available on jackal densities, habitat use, and ranging patterns in relation to food availability. Information on dispersal, survival and mortality factors of adults, pups and dispersing individuals is needed. Jackal ecology needs to be studied in forested ecosystems of Southeast Asia where a different set of factors are likely to operate affecting food availability, ranging patterns and survival. Aspects of canid diseases in relation to population dynamics of jackals and transmission need to be better understood.	eng
3744	conservation	Giorgos Giannatos, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	The jackal is not considered a priority species for the European Union (it is included in the Annex V of the Habitats Directive, 92/43 EC). In Bulgaria, Croatia and Hungary it is a game species, and in Greece it is not classified. An Action Plan has recently been produced for jackals in Greece (Giannatos 2004), which suggested the following conservation measures: preservation and restoration of safe and good quality habitat; scientific research and monitoring to develop a database in order to improve management decisions for jackal conservation and promote co-operation of the jackal hosting countries in the region;  legislation improvement; and public awareness, education and information to improve the animal's public image.	eng
3744	distribution	Giorgos Giannatos, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	The golden jackal has a large global distribution extending from north and east Africa and south-eastern and central Europe eastwards through the Middle East, the Caucasus and central and and southern Asia to Burma and Thailand (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is the only jackal species that occurs outside subsaharan Africa. In Europe, it is resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and southwestern Ukraine. It has a very patchy distribution in Europe. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and northeastern Italy (Kryštufek 1999). It is generally found between sea level and 600 m, and occasionally up to 1,000 m in the Peloponnese (Greece) (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).	eng
3744	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Golden Jackal is widespread in North and north-east Africa, occurring from Senegal on the west coast of Africa to Egypt in the east, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, and Libya in the north to Nigeria, Chad and Tanzania in the south. They also occur in the Arabian Peninsula and have expanded their range into Europe, where they have a patchy distribution, being resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and south-western Ukraine. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and north-eastern Italy (Krystufek 1999). Eastwards they range into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then east and south to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and parts of Indo-China.	eng
3744	distribution	Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D., 2008	The Golden Jackal is widespread in North and north-east Africa, occurring from Senegal on the west coast of Africa to Egypt in the east, in a range that includes Morocco, Algeria, and Libya in the north to Nigeria, Chad and Tanzania in the south. They also occur in the Arabian Peninsula and have expanded their range into Europe, where they have a patchy distribution, being resident in the Balkans and, since recent times, in Hungary and south-western Ukraine. It is regularly found as a vagrant in Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and north-eastern Italy (Kryštufek 1999). Eastwards they range into Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Central Asia, the entire Indian subcontinent, then east and south to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and parts of Indo-China.	eng
3744	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Due to their tolerance of dry habitats and their omnivorous diet, the Golden Jackal can live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel Desert to the evergreen forests of Myanmar and Thailand. They occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannas in Africa; and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural and semi-urban habitats in India and Bangladesh (Clutton-Brock <em>et al.</em> 1976; Poche <em>et al</em>. 1987; Y. Jhala, pers. obs.). Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. Jackals have been recorded at elevations of 3,800 m in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996) and are well established around hill stations at 2,000 m in India (Prater 1980).	eng
3744	habitat	Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D., 2008	Due to their tolerance of dry habitats and their omnivorous diet, the Golden Jackal can live in a wide variety of habitats. These range from the Sahel Desert to the evergreen forests of Myanmar and Thailand. They occupy semi-desert, short to medium grasslands and savannas in Africa; and forested, mangrove, agricultural, rural and semi-urban habitats in India and Bangladesh (Clutton-Brock <em>et al.</em> 1976; Poche <em>et al</em>. 1987; Y. Jhala, pers. obs.). Golden Jackals are opportunistic and will venture into human habitation at night to feed on garbage. Jackals have been recorded at elevations of 3,800 m in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996) and are well established around hill stations at 2,000 m in India (Prater 1980).	eng
3744	habitat	Giorgos Giannatos, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	Globally, it occupies a wide range of habitats, from the Sahel desert to the evergreen forests of south-east Asia (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Europe, it prefers cultivated areas and wetlands in lower elevations, with adequate cover to be used for hiding and breeding. Dense continuous forests and large intensively cultivated areas without cover are not suitable. Moderate human activity may benefit the jackal, as it tends to increase availability of food (carrion, refuse, and animal dung) (Giannatos 2004). In Central Europe (Hungary) the dominant food of golden jackal is small mammals, and the trophic niche overlap with red foxes is usually high, although the jackal seems to be more carnivorous and more specialist than the fox (Lanski and Heltai 2002, Lanski <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
3744	population	Giorgos Giannatos, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	In Europe, the jackal occurs in small and scattered populations, mainly along the Mediterranean and Black Sea coast of the Balkan Peninsula and in southern parts of Hungary. Over the last century, its distributional border has fluctuated, and there have been both local colonisations and extinctions (Kryštufek 1999). In Greece, one of its European strongholds, its range and population have declined over the last 25 years, and it is by far the most rare canid species (Giannatos 2004, Giannatos <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is now stable in northeastern Greece (and may even be increasing) but in parts of southern Greece is still declining. The largest population in Europe is found in Bulgaria where the species has increased 33-fold in the last 20-30 years (Kryštufek and Tvrtkovic 1990). In Hungary, the jackal went extinct in 1942, but it has naturally recolonised over the last few decades, and now has a rapidly expanding population of c.1,000 individuals (Heltai <em>et al.</em> 2000, Heltai <em>et al.</em> 2004). Other population estimates for the jackal include 5,000 individuals (Bulgaria), >1,000 adults and sub-adults (Greece), and 40-50 animals in 7-8 groups (Ukraine) (Giannatos 2004, Giannatos <em>et al.</em> 2005). The global population is large, with a minimum of 80,000 individuals estimated for the Indian sub-continent (population estimates for Africa are not available), but it may be declining as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
3744	population	Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D., 2008	The Golden Jackal is fairly common throughout its range. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. In several parts of India, high densities of low-quality cattle are maintained. Due to religious beliefs, most people do not consume beef, and cattle carcasses are freely available for scavenging. <br/><br/>In India, jackal populations achieve high densities in pastoral areas such as Kutch, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Based on intensive observations on breeding pack units and radio-collared individuals, jackal densities in the semi-arid Velavadar National Park were estimated between one and two jackals per km² (Y. Jhala <em>et al.</em>, unpubl.); see Sharma (1998) for densities quoted for the Thar Desert in India. On the African continent, in the Serengeti National Park, densities can range as high as four adults per km² (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989).<br/><br/>Based on known density estimates for parts of India and considering that about 19% (i.e., about 637,000 km²) of the geographical area of India has forest cover with jackal populations (and that jackals are also found outside forested habitats), a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals would not be unreasonable for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available.	eng
3744	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Golden Jackal is fairly common throughout its range. High densities are observed in areas with abundant food and cover. In several parts of India, high densities of low-quality cattle are maintained. Due to religious beliefs, most people do not consume beef, and cattle carcasses are freely available for scavenging. <br/><br/>In India, jackal populations achieve high densities in pastoral areas such as Kutch, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Based on intensive observations on breeding pack units and radio-collared individuals, jackal densities in the semi-arid Velavadar National Park were estimated between one and two jackals per km² (Y. Jhala <em>et al.</em>, unpubl.); see Sharma (1998) for densities quoted for the Thar Desert in India. On the African continent, in the Serengeti National Park, densities can range as high as four adults per km² (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989).<br/><br/>Based on known density estimates for parts of India and considering that about 19% (i.e., about 637,000 km²) of the geographical area of India has forest cover with jackal populations (and that jackals are also found outside forested habitats), a minimum population estimate of over 80,000 Golden Jackals would not be unreasonable for the Indian sub-continent. Population estimates for Africa are not available.<br/><br/>    <p>In the Mediterranean region, population trends vary in different areas. In Morocco and Libya the species is declining but in other parts of North Africa (Tunisia and Algeria) it is expanding. In recent decades the species has expanded its range into south-eastern Europe. </p>	eng
3744	threats	Giorgos Giannatos, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	In Greece, population declines have been linked to loss of suitable habitat caused by changes in agricultural practices (intensification), specifically the loss of scrubby patches used as cover (Giannatos 2004). Changes in animal husbandry may have reduced the food base. Throughout its range, the species is widely persecuted as a pest.	eng
3744	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Over its entire range, except in protected areas like National Parks and Sanctuaries, the jackal population is steadily declining. Traditional land use practices, like livestock rearing and dry farming that were conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to this change and may persist for a while, but eventually disappear from such areas like other wildlife. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning (for example, Israel and Morocco). Jackals may occasionally be hunted as a game species and eaten, as has been recorded in Morocco (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). There is no significant trade in jackal products, although skins and tails are occasionally sold.	eng
3744	threats	Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D., 2008	Over its entire range, except in protected areas like National Parks and Sanctuaries, the jackal population is steadily declining. Traditional land use practices, like livestock rearing and dry farming that were conducive to the survival of jackals and other wildlife, are being steadily replaced by industrialization and intensive agriculture; wilderness areas and rural landscapes are being rapidly urbanized. Jackal populations adapt to some extent to this change and may persist for a while, but eventually disappear from such areas like other wildlife. There are no other known threats, except for local policies of extirpation and poisoning (for example, Israel and Morocco). Jackals may occasionally be hunted as a game species and eaten, as has been recorded in Morocco (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). There is no significant trade in jackal products, although skins and tails are occasionally sold.	eng
3745	conservation	Gese, E.M., Bekoff, M., Andelt,W., Carbyn, L. & Knowlton, F., 2008	The species is not included on the CITES Appendices, and there is no legal protection of the species. Restrictions on harvest and method of harvest depend upon state or provincial regulations.<br/><br/>The Coyote occurs in almost all protected areas across its range.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Occurrence in captivity</span><br/>Over 2,000 Coyotes occur in captivity in zoos, wildlife centres, etc., throughout their range. They readily reproduce in captivity and survival is high.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Gaps in knowledge</span><br/>Several gaps in knowledge still remain: coyote reproductive physiology and possible modes of fertility control; selective management of problem animals; effects of control; genetic differentiation from other canids (particularly the red wolf); development of non-lethal depredation techniques; interactions of coyotes and other predators; coyote-prey interactions; human-coyote interactions and conflicts at the urban interface; factors influencing prey selection; communication; adaptations in urban and rural environments; and interactions with threatened and endangered species.	eng
3745	distribution	Gese, E.M., Bekoff, M., Andelt,W., Carbyn, L. & Knowlton, F., 2008	Coyotes were believed to have been restricted to the south-west and plains regions of the U.S. and Canada, and northern and central Mexico, prior to European settlement (Moore and Parker 1992). During the 19th century, coyotes are thought to have expanded north and west. With land conversion and removal of wolves after 1900, coyotes expanded into all of the U.S. and Mexico, southward into Central America, and northward into most of Canada and Alaska (Moore and Parker 1992).<br/><br/>Coyotes continue to expand their distribution and occupy most areas between 8°N (Panama) and 70°N (northern Alaska). They are found throughout the continental United States and Alaska, almost all of Canada (except the far north-eastern regions), south through Mexico and into Central America (Bekoff 1982; Reid 1997; Bekoff and Gese 2003).	eng
3745	habitat	Gese, E.M., Bekoff, M., Andelt,W., Carbyn, L. & Knowlton, F., 2008	Coyotes utilize almost all available habitats including prairie, forest, desert, mountain and tropical ecosystems. The ability of coyotes to exploit human resources allows them to occupy urban areas. Water availability may limit Coyote distribution in some desert environments.<br/><br/>Coyotes are opportunistic, generalist predators that eat a variety of food items, typically consuming items in relation to changes in availability. Coyotes eat foods ranging from fruit and insects to large ungulates and livestock. Livestock and wild ungulates may often be represented in coyote stomachs and scats as carrion, but predation on large ungulates (native and domestic) does occur (Andelt 1987). Predation by Coyotes on neonates of native ungulates can be high during fawning (Andelt 1987). Coyotes in suburban areas are adept at exploiting human-made food resources and will readily consume dog food or other human-related items.	eng
3745	population	Gese, E.M., Bekoff, M., Andelt,W., Carbyn, L. & Knowlton, F., 2008	Coyotes are abundant throughout their range and are increasing in distribution as humans continue to modify the landscape. Elimination of wolves may also have assisted Coyote expansion. Coyote density varies geographically with food and climate, and seasonally due to mortality and changes in pack structure and food abundance. Local control temporarily reduces numbers on a short-term basis, but Coyote populations generally are stable in most areas.<br/>Coyote densities in different geographic areas and seasons vary from 0.01–0.09 coyotes/km² in the winter in the Yukon (O'Donoghue <em>et al.</em> 1997) to 0.9/km² in the fall and 2.3/km² during the summer (post-whelping) in Texas (Knowlton 1972, Andelt 1985). Density in different geographic areas and seasons are listed in Sillero-Zubiri (2004).	eng
3745	threats	Gese, E.M., Bekoff, M., Andelt,W., Carbyn, L. & Knowlton, F., 2008	There are no current threats to Coyote populations throughout their range. Local reductions are temporary and their range has been expanding. Conservation measures have not been needed to maintain viable populations. Coyotes adapt to human environs and occupy most habitats, including urban areas. Hybridization with dogs may be a threat near urban areas. Genetic contamination between dogs, Coyotes, and Grey Wolves may be occurring in north-eastern U.S. Hybridization between Coyotes and Red Wolves is problematic for Red Wolf recovery in south-eastern U.S.<br/><br/>Coyote fur is still sought by trappers throughout its range, with harvest levels depending upon fur prices, local and state regulations, and traditional uses and practices. Many states and provinces consider Coyotes a furbearing species with varying regulations on method of take, bag limit, and seasons.	eng
3746	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The species is included in CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. There is extensive legal protection in many European countries; however, enforcement is variable and often non-existent. <br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>The species lives and breeds well in captivity and is common in many zoological gardens.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>One of the most important questions still remaining about wolves involves the nature of their interaction with prey populations. The conditions under which wolves limit, regulate, or control their population is still open and important (Mech and Boitani 2003). Of more academic interest are questions involving wolf genetics, scent-marking behaviour, pseudo pregnancy and diseases (Mech 1995).	eng
3746	conservation	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	The species is included in CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. There is extensive legal protection in many European countries; however, enforcement is variable and often non-existent. <br/><br/>  The species now receives legal protection in Afghanistan, having been listed by the Afghan Government on the country's 2009 Protected Species List. This prohibits all hunting and trade of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lupus</span> within Afghanistan.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>The species lives and breeds well in captivity and is common in many zoological gardens.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>One of the most important questions still remaining about wolves involves the nature of their interaction with prey populations. The conditions under which wolves limit, regulate, or control their population is still open and important (Mech and Boitani 2003). Of more academic interest are questions involving wolf genetics, scent-marking behaviour, pseudo pregnancy and diseases (Mech 1995).	eng
3746	conservation	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	The species is included in CITES Appendix II, except populations from Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are listed on Appendix I. There is extensive legal protection in many European countries; however, enforcement is variable and often non-existent. <br/><br/>  The species now receives legal protection in Afghanistan, having been listed by the Afghan Government on the country's 2009 Protected Species List. This prohibits all hunting and trade of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lupus</span> within Afghanistan.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Occurrence in captivity:</span><br/>The species lives and breeds well in captivity and is common in many zoological gardens.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Gaps in knowledge:</span><br/>One of the most important questions still remaining about wolves involves the nature of their interaction with prey populations. The conditions under which wolves limit, regulate, or control their population is still open and important (Mech and Boitani 2003). Of more academic interest are questions involving wolf genetics, scent-marking behaviour, pseudo pregnancy and diseases (Mech 1995).	eng
3746	conservation	Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, 2006	The species is strictly protected by the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and is in Appendix II of CITES. In the European Union the species is protected by the Habitats Directive but there are several exceptions:<br/>1) in Spain, wolves north of the Duero river are not protected<br/>2) in Greece, wolves north of 39°N are not protected<br/>3) in Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area in northern Finland fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; wolves outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV<br/>4) in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) wolves are harvested (HD Appendix V)<br/><br/>In general, habitat restoration is required in key areas to increase a healthy prey base and encourage wolves to move back into their former territory where appropriate. Corridors of land between small populations need to be established to allow movement of animals and prevent local extinctions. Conflict with humans needs to be addressed by involving local people in wolf management plans and through education programmes to increase people' s understanding of wolf biology and behaviour. Problems resulting from wolves preying on domestic animals need to be tackled by livestock protection schemes and compensation systems. Details of specific conservation measures for European wolf populations are given below: <br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Wolves are fully protected in Portugal and south of the Duero river in Spain. North of the Duero, wolves are game species under various management regimes depending on legislation of 8 autonomous regional governments. Asturias has a wolf management plan and Galicia and Castilla y León are about to approve their plans. The autonomous regions are gradually approving their action plans. However, management coordination among the regional governments and between Spain and Portugal is very limited. The sub-population of Sierra Morena require ad-hoc management to ensure its viability (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005).<br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>The population is fully protected under the French, Italian and Swiss law. In France and Switzerland the national Action Plans include provisions for legal take of few wolves under strict conditions of damages on livestock.  The three countries have recently (2006) signed a formal agreement of cooperation for the management of the entire population, marking an innovative procedure based on the recognition that the biological population needs to be managed through a common and accepted approach.  <br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Fully protected by a national law, while damage compensation is provided by 14 different regional laws. Compensation paid per wolf has been estimated to be the highest among European countries, but the effectiveness of compensation programs has never been assessed and it is increasingly questioned. Apart from formal protection the population is not actively managed. The species occur in several protected areas throughout its range but the size of these areas is far too small to protect a viable population. In spite of formal protection, illegal killings are estimated to take a substantial portion of the population every year (up to 15-20%). A national Action Plan sets the broad strategic ground for management but is not being implemented by the national and regional governments (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003). <br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Management is fragmented by several national laws. It is a game species in almost all countries, except for Slovenia, Croatia and Greece south of 39° latitude where wolves are fully protected. In Croatia, an effective Action Plan is in place and implemented (Štrbenac <em>et al.</em> 2005). In general, law enforcement is weak or totally absent even in protected populations.<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>In Slovakia wolves are game species with hunting season 1.11-15.1 and no quotas per season; in the Czech Republic they are protected game species, but hunting is prohibited; in Poland they are protected and in Romania they are protected game species with hunting quotas decided yearly; in Ukraine wolves are not game species nor protected (often treated as “pest” species, with bounties of c.20 Euro per individual) (Salvatori <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>The standard management practice for most of the 20th century was open harvest, often with bounty incentives, all with the view of exterminating wolves, or at least seriously reducing their numbers. This situation persisted until the 1990s, when restrictions on their harvest gradually came into place in all countries They are currently protected in Poland, but harvested in the three Baltic States (EU Habitats & Species Directive Appendix V) and in Belorussia and Ukraine. The sub-population of western Poland and Germany requires ad-hoc management to ensure its viability. There is an action plan for the conservation of the wolf in Latvia (Ozolins and Andersone 2001).<br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>In Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; those outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV. Finland has recently approved a National Management Plan that include removal of some wolves under controlled circumstances. In Russian Karelia, wolves are killed throughout the range and at any time. In spite of the small number of wolves, Finland has approved a plan to maintain the population within the current size (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2006). Discontinuous flow of dispersing wolves from Russia allow a reasonable but cautiously positive forecast on the conservation of this population.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>it is fully protected in Sweden and Norway; however, Norway applies a zoning system that includes culling of wolf numbers in the areas where damages are considered unacceptable. Both Norway and Sweden provide full compensation of damages; Sweden applies a preventive compensation system to reindeer breeders that operate in areas where wolves live.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>Wolves are protected in both countries, but the extent to which protection is enforced in western Poland is questionable.	eng
3746	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Originally, the Grey Wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Their present distribution is more restricted: wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N.	eng
3746	distribution	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	Originally, the Grey Wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Their present distribution is more restricted: wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N.	eng
3746	distribution	Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, 2006	Originally, the wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as the domestic dog <em>Canis familiaris</em>). It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Present distribution is more restricted; wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Europe wolves are found from sea level to 2,400 m, although in central and southern areas they tend to occur in mountainous areas above 600 m, as a result of persecution (Sulkava and Pulliainen 1999). The European wolf population is a large metapopulation with several distinct fragments, which can be described as follows (LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Iberia <br/>Wolves are found in the north-western quadrant of Iberia including the western Basque country. Not in the Pyrenees, but south as far as Ávila. A very small number of wolves is isolated in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005).<br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>The population occupies an area that includes most of the Western Alps in France and Italy, many wolf packs territories being transboundary along the French-Italian border south of Valle d’Aosta. Isolated animals are dispersing regularly into Switzerland as far as Grisons but failed, until now, to establish a permanent pack (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Wolves occur in the whole Apennines range from Liguria to Calabria (Aspromonte) and extending into northern Lazio and central western Tuscany (provinces of Siena, Grosseto and Pisa) (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003).<br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>The population cover a vast area from Slovenia to north-central Greece and it includes the whole Dinaric mountain range through Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, western Serbia and Kosovo, Montenegro, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia, Albania, western and southern Bulgaria. <br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>The central Carpathian mountains in Romania are home of one of the healthiest and more numerous wolf population in Europe. This population extends across several countries, from Northern Bulgaria to Eastern Serbia, Romania, south-western Ukraine, Slovakia and southern Poland. Wolves are rarely reported in the Czech Republic.<br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>This population covers eastern Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, northern Ukraine and the Russian oblasts of Kaliningrad, Lenningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Smolensk, Bryansk, Moscow, Kursk, Belgorod and Orel.<br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>Wolves occur in Finland (mainly in the south) and Russian Karelia. The Finnish wolf population is a fringe population of a large Russian population.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The distribution range of the population is in central Sweden and, to a lesser extent, in south-eastern Norway. It is spreading slowly toward southern and northern Sweden and into southern Norway.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>This population consists of scattered packs living in eastern Germany (Saxony) and western Poland.	eng
3746	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Ranges in all northern habitats where there is suitable food (Mech 1970), densities being highest where prey biomass is highest (Fuller 1989). Food is extremely variable, but the majority comprises large ungulates (moose, caribou, deer, elk, wild boar, etc.). Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage.	eng
3746	habitat	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	Ranges in all northern habitats where there is suitable food (Mech 1970), densities being highest where prey biomass is highest (Fuller 1989). Food is extremely variable, but the majority comprises large ungulates (moose, caribou, deer, elk, wild boar, etc.). Wolves will also eat smaller prey items, livestock, carrion, and garbage.	eng
3746	habitat	Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, 2006	Wolves live in diverse habitat types and their broad distribution ranges show the species' adaptability to the most extreme habitat conditions. The wolf's habitat has been described as everywhere where humans do not kill it and where there is something to eat.  Where wolves depend on wild ungulate prey, their habitat is that of their prey. Habitat quality should thus be interpreted in terms of human disturbance, prey densities and range size. In general, large forest areas are particularly suitable for wolves in Europe, although wolves are not primarily a forest species. The wolf has a very diversified diet and is a true generalist that feeds opportunistically on what is most available in its habitat. The wolf diet may include large prey, such as moose, deer and wild boar, or small vertebrates, invertebrates, vegetables and carcasses. Diet composition throughout the geographic range and seasonal variations depends on the relative abundance of potential prey, as well as accessibility and availability. A wolf typically requires 3-5 kg of meat per day, although it can fast for several days when food is not readily available.	eng
3746	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement and development of wolf range, wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Wolf densities vary from about one/12 km² to one/120 km².<br/><br/>Sillero <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide details, for each range country, on subspecies present, population status, approximate numbers, the percentage of former range occupied at present, main prey (where known), legal status, and cause of decline.	eng
3746	population	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement and development of wolf range, wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Wolf densities vary from about one/12 km² to one/120 km².<br/><br/>Sillero <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide details, for each range country, on subspecies present, population status, approximate numbers, the percentage of former range occupied at present, main prey (where known), legal status, and cause of decline.	eng
3746	population	Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, 2006	Because of the diversity in climate, topography, vegetation, human settlement and development of wolf range, wolf populations in various parts of the original range vary from extinct to relatively pristine. Wolf densities vary from about one per 12 km² to one per 120 km². Sillero <em>et al.</em> (2004) provide details, for each range country in the world, on subspecies present, population status, approximate numbers, the percentage of former range occupied at present, main prey (where known), legal status, and cause of decline. The European wolf population is a large metapopulation with several distinct fragments, although dispersal could theoretically connect almost all fragments. Following the bottleneck of the 1960s and 1970s, the European wolf population is generally increasing in number and expanding the distribution range. However, most European populations are still small and only a few have more than 1,000 animals (see below for specific details). Dispersing animals can be found anywhere in Europe. The total number of wolves in the EU 25 is likely to be in the order of 4-5,000; some of the populations are in continuity with wolf populations living in countries not yet part of the EU. The number of wolves in geographic Europe is likely to exceed 10,000.<br/><br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Population size: 2,500 wolves (including c.50 in the Sierra Morena). The Iberian wolf (<em>Canis lupus signatus</em>) may be a distinct subspecies. After the population reduction up to the 1960s, it is currently increasing in numbers and expanding its range across central Spain. The northwestern population is expanding, having recently crossed the Duero river in Spain. There are three distinct population segments within this population. The largest is that north of the river Duero in both countries. South of the Duero in Portugal there is a small segment of around 50 wolves which has only limited exchange of animals with the segments north of the Duero in Portugal and east to the Spanish segment south of the Duero. The isolated population in the Sierra Morena numbers c.50 individuals and appears to be stable. <br/><br/>The nearest wolf population is in the Western Alps and connections between the two are nonexistent or limited to exceptional cases. In Cataluña, there are currently 2-3 wolves that have been genetically identified as members of the Alpine population from where they are assumed to have dispersed naturally (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005). <br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>Population size: 100-120 wolves. This population is of Italian origin and all wolves share the same Italian genetic haplotype. Individual wolves dispersing from the Apennines first colonized the Alps in 1992 and succeeded in establishing a permanent and expanding population which shows a highly dynamic spatial pattern spreading towards the west and north. The total number is estimated to be 100-120 wolves, increasing on average by 10% per year. The genetic continuity with the Apennines population has been recently assessed at 2.5 individuals per generation, all of them moving from the Apennines to the Alpine population. In 2005, a young radio-marked wolf dispersed more than 1000 km from Parma to Nice, providing evidence of the natural dispersal along the northern Apennines range. In spite of the continuity between the two populations, their ecological and socio-economic contexts are sufficiently different to justify a separation for management purposes (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005, LCIE 2007).<br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>Population size: 500-800 wolves. The population has been described in 1921 (Altobello 1921) and confirmed in 1999 (Nowak 1999) as a distinct subspecies (<em>Canis lupus italicus</em>). It is genetically recognized by the presence of a unique mtDNA haplotype. After the population bottleneck of the 1960s, when total numbers were estimated to be about 100 animals, the population has steadily recovered and expanded into the western Alps. In 2006, the population was estimated to be 500-800 wolves. The nearest population (apart that in the Western Alps, see above) is in Slovenia (Dinaric-Balkan population). However, a large portion of the central Alps and the agricultural Po river valley effectively separate the Italian and the Dinaric populations (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003).<br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Population size: 5,000 wolves.There is continuity of the population and suitable habitats throughout the range although the population might be significantly structured within the elongated range. The population is estimated to number c.5,000 individuals, although locally the densities may vary greatly and its overall demographic trend is unknown. In Croatia and Slovenia, the population has recovered significantly following active management started in the 1990s. To the north, the population has no contact with the nearest population in Italy, although dispersing animals are reported in Austria and eastern Italy. To the east, the population may exchange individuals with the large wolf population of the Carpathians which extends into northern Bulgaria (Iliopoulos 1999, Kusak <em>et al.</em> 2005, Štrbenac <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>This population is estimated to number c.5,000 animals, the majority of them living in Romania and Ukraine. Slovakia hosts about 400-500 wolves and southern Poland contributes with good wolf habitat in the areas along the south-eastern borders (wolf population in Polish Carpathians is about 180-220 individuals). In the past, there was natural continuity with wolves living in northern Poland and Belarus but the link is now constrained by large areas where wolves have been exterminated. Nevertheless, it is likely that some level of genetic exchange still occurs with the Dinaric-Balkan population in western Bulgaria and with the Belarusian population in eastern-central Poland (Okarma 1993, CLCP 1997-98, 2000, 2001, 2002; Smietana and Wajda 1997, Okarma et al. 2000). <br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>Population size: 3,600 wolves. The trend throughout the region appears to have been very consistent. At the start of the 20th century populations were reduced, but still widely present, these increased during and after World War 1. In the period between the wars, populations were greatly reduced again, but recovered to peak levels during and after Word War 2, only to be heavily persecuted in the 1950s such that they again reached very low levels in the 1960s and early 1970s. The populations appear to have then increased, peaking in the early 1990s – before being shot down again in the late 1990s. There are about 1,000 wolves in Poland and the Baltic States, about 1,000 in Belarus and 1,600 in the neighbouring Russian oblasts. This population is the westernmost portion of the large Russian population and it connects with the wolf range of Russian Karelia. In Poland, although the distribution is not continuous, it is highly likely that dispersal is still possible between the northern and southern populations (Carpathian), and dispersal towards west (Germany) is still observed (Bluzma 2000, Ozolins and Andersone 2001, Valdmann 2001, Sidorovich <em>et al.</em> 2003, Linnell <em>et al. </em>2006). <br/><br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>Population size: 750 wolves. Following widespread control of the population in the first part of 20th century, the population recovered after the 1980s and 1990s. The current estimates are based on counts of family groups in Finland (about 200 wolves in Finland) and the population is expanding. In Karelia wolf numbers appear to be stable.<br/><br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>Population size: 130-150 wolves. The population derives from a pair that immigrated from Finland and first reproduced in Sweden in 1983. A third immigrant in 1991 boosted the reproduction and the population is now estimated to be 130-150 wolves (about 20% in Norway), with as many as 15 litters produced in 2006. The population has been steadily increasing from 1983-2001, then slightly decreased in 2002-3, and is currently increasing again. There is evidence of no genetic exchanges with the Finnish/Russian wolf population after 1991. Immigration from Finland is the only possible mechanism to increase the genetic variability of the population.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>Population size: <50 wolves. Wolves were exterminated in Germany during the 19th century, but individuals that were dispersing from Poland were shot occasionally throughout the 20th century. In the mid 1990s a pack began breeding in Saxony, and there are currently two packs breeding regularly. Wolves in western Poland have had a dynamic history, but presently there are only a few widely scattered packs throughout the region. This population is extremely fragmented internally. Potential connections exist to both the Baltic and Carpathian populations, but the distances are in the order of several hundred kilometers.	eng
3746	threats	Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, 2006	Human intolerance is perhaps the greatest threat facing wolves in Europe today. Fear, misunderstanding and the fact that wolves do kill livestock have prompted an uneasy relationship with people in many areas, leading to direct conflict and persecution. In some countries unrestricted hunting of wolves poses a threat, while in others, licenses for killing wolves are issued irrespective of biological understanding. Poaching is widespread and probably represents the most important mortality factor for the wolf in Europe. Wolves preying on domestic animals have been a problem since man progressed from hunter/gatherer to farmer, and although the numbers of sheep or cattle taken are, as a percentage very low, livestock depredation remains the primary reason for exterminating wolves. Human encroachment is the most significant threat to wolf habitat. Wolves can live close to humans but they require safe areas in which to retreat. This is not considered in land planning in wolf areas and the small, fragmented populations in Western Europe can result in animals moving into unsuitable habitat. Specific threats to different European wolf populations are as follows:<br/><br/>1. Iberia<br/>Illegal killing is still common (estimated to account for 50% of the total mortality) and poison baits are used (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Álvares 2005). <br/><br/>2. Western-Central Alps<br/>Documented causes of mortality include primarily car or train accidents and poaching events. Several cases of illegal killings have been reported in France and Italy, and conflicts with hunters and farmers are constantly reported. Both France and the Regional Government of Piemonte have been carrying out extensive and continuous research and monitoring of the wolf population and the damages to livestock and excellent data is available for management purposes. The number of livestock depredations in the Italian Alps is decreasing, despite the increase in wolf numbers, due to the high efforts in the implementation of preventive practices promoted by the Regional Government of Piemonte. Also if the wolf presence is still far from being accepted by local farmers and livestock breeders, the general attitude is improving (Boitani 2003, Marucco <em>et al.</em> 2005, Tropini <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>3. Italian peninsula<br/>The population is protected on paper but the law is poorly enforced and unpersecuted illegal killing is very common throughout the range. Poison baits are increasingly used against dogs, foxes and wolves.  Hybridization with dogs has been found and it appears to account for at least 5% of the total wolf population (Ciucci and Boitani 1998, Corsi <em>et al.</em> 1999, Boitani 2003, Verardi <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>4. Dinaric-Balkan<br/>Legal hunting and illegal killing are taking an unknown number of wolves throughout most of the range. Other pressures are commonly reported: widespread use of poisons, habitat fragmentation due to construction of fenced highways and shortage of wild preys (Huber <em>et al.</em> 2002, Iliopoulos 2005).<br/><br/>5. Carpathian<br/>Poison baits and illegal killing are widespread throughout the range. In Ukraine, wolves are often treated as a pest species.<br/><br/>6. Baltic<br/>The Latvian population appears to be on the way to being divided into two, with the area south of Riga starting to appears as a carnivore free area. This development will greatly increase the vulnerability of carnivore populations in western Latvia. <br/><br/>7. Karelia<br/>The main threat to wolves in this region is killing by humans. In Finland, wolves cause very limited damage to livestock; predation on domestic dogs is the most frequent damage that cause strong resentment from the public. <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The inbreeding coefficient is very high, on average higher than for full siblings mating (Liberg <em>et al.</em> 2005). Predation on domestic dogs, sheep and reindeer are the most frequent damages that cause continuing debate on wolf conservation.<br/><br/>9. Germany/western Poland<br/>The main risk for this population is its very small size, highly fragmented internal structure, and long distance from any other source. Coordination between Germany and western Poland is crucial. A single litter of wolf-dog hybrid pups was born in 2003.	eng
3746	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Their original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the United States by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to depredation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the United States, and reintroduction in the western United States. Continued threats include competition with humans for livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated concern by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small for populations with long-term viability. There is sustainable utilization of the species' fur in Canada, Alaska, and the former Soviet Union and Mongolia.	eng
3746	threats	Mech, L.D. & Boitani, L., 2008	Their original worldwide range has been reduced by about one-third, primarily in developed areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico, and the United States by poisoning and deliberate persecution due to depredation on livestock. Since about 1970, legal protection, land-use changes, and rural human population shifts to cities have arrested wolf population declines and fostered natural recolonization in parts of Western Europe and the United States, and reintroduction in the western United States. Continued threats include competition with humans for livestock, especially in developing countries, exaggerated concern by the public concerning the threat and danger of wolves, and fragmentation of habitat, with resulting areas becoming too small for populations with long-term viability. There is sustainable utilization of the species' fur in Canada, Alaska, and the former Soviet Union and Mongolia.	eng
3747	conservation	Kelly, B.T., Beyer, A. & Phillips, M.K., 2008	The species is not included on the CITES Appendices. The Red Wolf is listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) (United States Public Law No. 93-205; United States Code Title 16 Section 1531 et seq.). The reintroduced animals and their progeny in north-eastern North Carolina are considered members of an experimental non-essential population. This designation was promulgated under Section 10(j) of the ESA and permits the USFWS to manage the population and promote recovery in a manner that is respectful of the needs and concerns of local citizens (Parker and Phillips 1991). Hunting of Red Wolves is prohibited by the ESA. To date, federal protection of the Red Wolf has been adequate to successfully reintroduce and promote recovery of the species in North Carolina.<br/><br/>The only free-ranging population of Red Wolves exists in north-eastern North Carolina in an area comprised of 60% private land and 40% public land. This area contains three national wildlife refuges (Alligator River NWR, Pocosin Lakes NWR, and Mattamuskeet NWR) which provide important protection to the wolves. Red Wolves or a very closely related taxon may also occupy Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. <br/><br/>A very active recovery programme for the Red Wolf has been in existence since the mid-1970s (USFWS 1990; Phillips <em>et al.</em> 2003), with some measures from as early as the mid-1960s (USFWS, unpubl.). By 1976, a captive breeding programme was established using 17 animals captured in Texas and Louisiana (Carley 1975; USFWS 1990). Of these, 14 became the founders of the current captive breeding programme. In 1977, the first pups were born in the captive programme, and by 1985, the captive population had grown to 65 individuals in six zoological facilities (Parker 1986).<br/><br/>With the species reasonably secure in captivity, the USFWS began reintroducing Red Wolves at the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in north-eastern North Carolina in 1987. As of September 2002, 102 animals have been released with a minimum of 281 descendants produced in the wild since 1987. As of September 2002, there is a minimum population of 66 wild Red Wolves in north-eastern North Carolina, with a total wild population believed to be at least 100 individuals. Likewise, at this same time, there is a minimum population of 17 hybrid canids present in north-eastern North Carolina. The 17 known hybrids are sterilized and radio-collared (USFWS, unpubl.).<br/><br/>During 1991 a second reintroduction project was initiated at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee (Lucash <em>et al</em>. 1999). Thirty-seven Red Wolves were released from 1992 to 1998. Of these, 26 either died or were recaptured after straying onto private lands outside the Park (Henry 1998). Moreover, only five of the 32 pups known to have been born in the wild survived but were removed from the wild during their first year (USFWS, unpubl.). Biologists suspect that disease, predation, malnutrition, and parasites contributed to the high rate of pup mortality (USFWS, unpubl.). Primarily because of the poor survival of wild-born offspring, the USFWS terminated the Tennessee restoration effort in 1998 (Henry 1998). <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>As of September 2002, there are approximately 175 Red Wolves in captivity at 33 facilities throughout the United States and Canada (USFWS, unpubl.). The purpose of the captive population is to safeguard the genetic integrity of the species and to provide animals for reintroduction. In addition, there are propagation projects on two small islands off the South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the U.S. which, through reintroduction of known breeding individuals and capture of their offspring, provide wild-born pups for release into mainland reintroduction projects (USFWS 1990).	eng
3747	distribution	Kelly, B.T., Beyer, A. & Phillips, M.K., 2008	As recently as 1979, the Red Wolf was believed to have a historical distribution limited to the south-eastern United States (Nowak 1979). However, Nowak (1995) later described the Red Wolf's historic range as extending northward into central Pennsylvania and more recently has redefined the Red Wolf's range as extending even further north into the north-eastern USA and extreme eastern Canada (Nowak 2002). Recent genetic evidence supports a similar but even greater extension of historic range into Algonquin Provincial Park in southern Ontario, Canada.	eng
3747	habitat	Kelly, B.T., Beyer, A. & Phillips, M.K., 2008	Very little is known about Red Wolf habitat because the species' range was severely reduced by the time scientific investigations began. Given their wide historical distribution, Red Wolves probably utilized a large suite of habitat types at one time. The last naturally occurring population utilized the coastal prairie marshes of south-west Louisiana and south-east Texas (Carley 1975; Shaw 1975). However, many agree that this environment probably does not typify preferred Red Wolf habitat. There is evidence that the species was found in highest numbers in the once extensive bottomland river forests and swamps of the south-east (Paradiso and Nowak 1971, 1972; Riley and McBride 1972). Red Wolves reintroduced into north-eastern North Carolina and their descendants have made extensive use of habitat types ranging from agricultural lands to pocosins. Pocosins are forest/wetland mosaics characterized by an overstory of loblolly and pond pine (<em>Pinus taeda</em> and <em>Pinus serotina</em>, respectively) and an understory of evergreen shrubs (Christensen <em>et al.</em> 1981). This suggests that Red Wolves are habitat generalists and can thrive in most settings where prey populations are adequate and persecution by humans is slight. The findings of Hahn (2002) seem to support this generalization in that low human density, wetland soil type, and distance from roads were the most important predictor of potential wolf habitat in eastern North Carolina.	eng
3747	population	Kelly, B.T., Beyer, A. & Phillips, M.K., 2008	Red Wolves exist only in a reintroduced population in eastern North Carolina, USA. The current extant population of Red Wolves occupies the peninsula in eastern North Carolina between the Albermarle and Pamilico Sounds.<br/>Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the Red Wolf was reintroduced by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1987 into eastern North Carolina. The Red Wolf is now common within the reintroduction area of roughly 6,000 km². However, the species' abundance outside the reintroduction area is unknown.	eng
3747	threats	Kelly, B.T., Beyer, A. & Phillips, M.K., 2008	Hybridization with Coyotes or Red Wolf x Coyote hybrids is the primary threat to the species' persistence in the wild (Kelly <em>et al.</em> 1999). While hybridization with Coyotes was a factor in the Red Wolf's initial demise in the wild, it was not detected as a problem in north-eastern North Carolina until approximately 1992 (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1995). Indeed, northeastern North Carolina was determined to be ideal for Red Wolf reintroductions because of a purported absence of coyotes (Parker 1986). However, during the 1990s, the Coyote population apparently became well established in the area (P. Sumner pers. comm.; USFWS, unpubl.).<br/><br/>It has been estimated that the Red Wolf population in North Carolina can sustain only one hybrid litter out of every 59 litters (1.7%) to maintain 90% of its genetic diversity for the next 100 years (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, prior to learning of this acceptable introgression rate, the introgression rate noted in the reintroduced population was minimally 15% (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1999) or approximately 900% more than the population can sustain to maintain 90% of its genetic diversity for 100 years. If such levels of hybridization continued beyond 1999, non-hybridized Red Wolves could disappear within 12?24 years (3?6 generations). An adaptive management plan designed to test whether hybridization can be reduced to acceptable levels was initiated in 1999 (Kelly 2000). Initial results from this plan suggest that the intensive management specified in the plan may be effective in reducing introgression rates to acceptable levels (B. Fazio pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In the absence of hybridization, recovery of the Red Wolf and subsequent removal of the species from the U.S. Endangered Species List is deemed possible. It is noteworthy that similar hybridization has been observed in the population of suspected Red Wolf-type wolves in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. If these wolves are ultimately shown to be Red Wolf-type wolves, this will enhance the conservation status of the species and nearly triple the known number of Red Wolf-type wolves surviving in the wild.<br/><br/>Human induced mortality (vehicles and gunshot) can be significant. However, the threat this mortality represents to the population is unclear. Most vehicle deaths occurred early in the reintroduction and were likely due to naive animals. Nonetheless, the overall impact of these mortality factors will depend on the proportion of the losses attributable to the breeding segment of the population (effective population (Ne) and what proportion of the overall population is lost due to these human factors (both N and Ne)).	eng
3748	conservation	Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Marino, J., 2008	The species is not included on the CITES Appendices. It has full official protection under Ethiopia's Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1974, Schedule VI. Killing a wolf carries a sentence of up to two years.<br/><br/>The Ethiopian Wolf occurs in several protected areas: Simien Mountains National Park; Bale Mountains National Park; Hunting blocks in Arsi; Denkoro State Forest in South Wollo; Guassa Community Management in North Shoa.<br/><br/>A number of important steps have been taken in the interests of conserving this endemic species, including: 1) a dog vaccination campaign in Bale, currently extended to Wollo; 2) sterilization programme for domestic dogs and hybrids in Bale; 3) vaccination of wolves in parts of Bale affected by rabies; 4) community and school education programme in Bale and Wollo; 5) strengthening the capacity of the Bale Mountains National Park – funding patrolling, maintenance of infrastructure, etc.; 6) surveys to determine the persistence and status of all populations of wolves; 7) monitoring of all wolf populations; 8) Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Strategy Workshop, Bale Mountains, November 1999, with representatives of national, regional and local governments and international scientists (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2000); and 9) establishment of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Committee within Ethiopia as a national steering committee for dealing with conservation issues.<br/><br/>In 1983, the Wildlife Conservation Society set up the Bale Mountains Research Project, which publicized the wolf's plight and started a regular monitoring programme for the species. A detailed four-year field study followed (Sillero-Zubiri 1994). Based on its findings, the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group produced an action plan for the Ethiopian Wolf (Sillero-Zubiri and Macdonald 1997), providing a detailed strategy for the conservation and management of remaining wolf populations. This plan advocated immediate action on three fronts – education, wolf population monitoring, and rabies control in domestic dogs – to conserve the Afroalpine ecosystem and its top predator. As a result, the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) was established in 1995 by Oxford University with support from the Born Free Foundation, UK. Its overall aim is to protect the Afroalpine ecosystem and many of its rare highland endemic plants and animals through better management in Bale and the establishment of other conservation areas in Menz and Wollo. The EWCP currently monitors the demography of the Bale and selected populations in South and North Wollo, supports park patrols within the wolf range, undertakes domestic dog control and the removal of dog-wolf hybrids. Additionally, the EWCP carries out a community conservation education campaign that targets people living inside the wolf's range and is aimed at improving dog husbandry and combating disease in the park and surroundings. A large-scale dog vaccination programme (targeting up to 3,000 dogs a year) seeks to reduce the occurrence of rabies and distemper within the Ethiopian wolf range and is backed up by further epidemiological and demographic studies. The EWCP is also active elsewhere in Ethiopia, with representatives surveying and monitoring all wolf ranges and implementing education campaigns about the plight of the species. Zelealem Tefera Ashenafi set up the Guassa Biodiversity Project in 1996, looking at the relationships between pastoralists and wildlife in the highlands of Menz. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>There are no animals in captivity. Recent attempts to establish captive populations were abandoned due to lack of permission from the Ethiopian government.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Although the behavioural ecology of the species is well known, this has been focused in the optimal habitats in the Bale Mountains. Additional information on dispersal distance and survival would be useful. Investigation into the role of the species in the epidemiology of canid-related diseases is necessary. Studies on wolf-prey relationships and prey availability in the high risk populations of northern Ethiopia are also urgently needed.	eng
3748	distribution	Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Marino, J., 2008	Endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, above the tree line at about 3,200 m. There are no recent records of the species at altitudes below 3,000 m, although specimens were collected at 2,500 m from Gojjam and north-western Shoa at the beginning of the century (references in Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1980). Reported in the Simien Mountains since the species was first described in 1835, but scattered and irregular sightings suggest numbers have been declining. Reported on the Gojjam plateau until early this century (Powell-Cotton 1902; Maydon 1932). South of the Rift Valley, wolves have been reported in the Arsi Mountains since the turn of the century, and, more recently (1959), in the Bale Mountains. Reports of small populations in North Sidamo (Haltenorth and Diller 1980) may be in error. There is no evidence that the Ethiopian Wolf ever occurred in Eritrea (Coetzee 1977).<br/><br/>The species currently is confined to seven isolated mountain ranges of the Ethiopian highlands, at altitudes of 3,000–4,500 m (Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1992; Marino 2003). In the northern highlands wolves are restricted to land above 3,500–3,800 m by increasing agricultural pressure (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1980; Marino 2003). Wolf populations occur north of the Rift Valley in the Simien Mountains, Mount Guna, North Wollo and South Wollo highlands, and Menz. Recently extinct in Gosh Meda (North Shoa), and absent from Mt Choke, Gojjam, for a few decades. South-east of the Rift Valley there are populations in the Arsi Mountains (Mt Kaka, Mt Chilalo and Galama range) and in the Bale Mountains, including the Somkaru-Korduro range (Marino 2003).	eng
3748	habitat	Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Marino, J., 2008	A very localized endemic species, confined to isolated pockets of Afroalpine grasslands and heathlands where they prey on Afroalpine rodents. Suitable habitats extend from above the tree-line at about 3,200 m up to 4,500 m, with some wolves present in montane grasslands at 3,000 m. However, subsistence agriculture extends up to 3,500–3,800 m in many areas, restricting wolves to higher ranges (Marino 2003). Rainfall at high altitude varies between 1,000 and 2,000 mm/year, with one pronounced dry period from December to February/March.<br/><br/>Wolves utilize all Afroalpine habitats, but prefer open areas with short herbaceous and grassland communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. Prime habitats in the Bale Mountains are characterized by short herbs (<em>Alchemilla</em> spp.) and grasses and low vegetation cover, a community maintained in continuous succession as a result of molerat (<em>Tachyoryctes macrocephalus</em>) burrowing activity. Other good habitats include tussock grasslands (<em>Festuca</em> spp., <em>Agrostis</em> spp.), high-altitude scrubs dominated by <em>Helichrysum</em> spp. and short grasslands in shallow soils. In northern parts of the range, plant communities characterized by a matrix of 'guassa' tussock grasses (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), 'cherenfi' bushes (<em>Euryops pinifolius</em>) and giant lobelias (<em>Lobelia rhynchopetalum</em>) sustain high rodent abundance and are preferred by wolves. Ericaceous moorlands (<em>Erica</em> and <em>Phillipia</em> spp.) at 3,200–3,600 m are of marginal value, with open moorlands having patches of herbs and grasses which are relatively good habitat.	eng
3748	population	Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Marino, J., 2008	More than half of the species' population lives in the Bale Mountains, where wolf density is high for a social carnivore of its size, and is positively correlated with density of rodent prey and negatively with vegetation height (Sillero-Zubiri and Gottelli 1995). Highest wolf densities are found in short Afroalpine herbaceous communities (1.0–1.2 adults/km²); lower densities are found in Helichrysum dwarf-scrub (0.2/km²), and in ericaceous heathlands and barren peaks (0.1/km²). Wolves are also present at low density (0.1–0.2/km²) in montane grasslands at lower altitudes. <br/>Elsewhere, overall wolf density is relatively lower In Menz, wolf density was estimated at 0.2 animals/km² using transect data (Ashenafi 2001). Comparison of census transect data from recent comprehensive surveys (Marino 2003) indicates higher abundance in North Wollo (0.20 ± 0.20 sightings per km), intermediate in Arsi and Guna (0.10 ± 0.11 and 0.10 ± 0.14, respectively), and lower in South Wollo and Simien (0.08 ± 0.13 and 0.06 ± 0.11, respectively). These results were supported by counts of wolf signs (diggings and droppings) and interview results. <br/><br/>A summary of abundance and population trend in each region can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004). The most reliable population estimates are those from Bale and Menz where research has been more intense. The size of the populations in other mountain ranges was derived from field maps of current habitat distribution and extrapolations of wolf densities to the areas of 'optimal' and 'good' quality wolf habitat in each isolated range (Marino 2003).<br/><br/>Time series of count data from a long-term monitoring programme in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia, spanning over 17 years, evidenced marked variation in wolf abundance in association to disease epizootics affecting high-density populations in the early 1990s (Marino 2004). Population numbers returned to previous levels after disruption, evidencing resilience to catastrophes, but at the lower extreme of densities the population rate of increase was inversely density-dependent; delays in the formation of new breeding units appeared to limit the capacity for immediate recovery (Marino <em>et al.</em> submitted).	eng
3748	threats	Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Marino, J., 2008	Continuous loss of habitat due to high-altitude subsistence agriculture represents the major threat. Sixty percent of all land above 3,200 m has been converted into farmland, and all populations below 3,700 m are particularly vulnerable to further habitat loss, especially if the areas are small and of relatively flat relief (Marino 2003). Habitat loss is exacerbated by overgrazing of highland pastures by domestic livestock, and in some areas habitat is threatened by proposed development of commercial sheep farms and roads. Human persecution triggered by political instability in the past is currently less severe and is associated to conflicts over livestock losses (Marino 2003). Recent population decline in Bale is mostly due to disease epizootics, with road kills and shooting as secondary threats. Rabies is a potential threat to all populations. Most of these threats are exacerbated by the wolves' specialization to life in the Afroalpine ecosystem.<br/>In Bale the Ethiopian wolf hybridizes with domestic dogs (<em>Canis familiaris</em>). Gottelli <em>et al.</em> (1994) used mitochondrial DNA restriction fragments and microsatellite alleles to conclude that hybridization was relatively common in western Bale as a result of crosses between female wolves and male domestic dogs. Hybrids have shorter muzzles, heavier-built bodies and different coat patterns. Although hybrids are confined to the Web Valley in western Bale they may threaten the genetic integrity of the wolf population. Following hybridization, a population may be affected by outbreeding depression or reduction in fitness, although to date this does not seem to have taken place in Bale. To date there is no indication of hybridization taking place outside western Bale.<br/><br/>There is no exploitation of the species for furs or other purposes.	eng
3753	conservation	Atkinson, R.P.D. & Loveridge, A.J., 2008	The species is not listed on the CITES Appendices, and jackals have no legal protection outside protected areas.<br/><br/>It occurs in many protected areas across its range, including Niokola-Koba National Park (NP) in Senegal, Comoe NP in Ivory Coast, Queen Elizabeth NP in Uganda, Serengeti NP in Tanzania, Hwange NP in Zimbabwe, and Kruger NP in South Africa. <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>The species has been kept and bred in zoos, but it is not a common zoo exhibit and there are none currently listed on ISIS. Captive animals have been used in experiments testing rabies vaccine efficacy (Bingham <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>For many years the only major studies on the species' ecology remained those of Kingdon (1977) and Smithers and Wilson (1979), with additional observations by other authors. In the last five years, studies conducted in Zimbabwe by the authors have gone some way to increasing our understanding of this jackal species, particularly as concerns their role in rabies transmission. However, in comparison with the better-known black-backed jackal, the side-striped jackal has a much wider distribution, such that there are large parts of their range for which no information on populations or status is available.	eng
3753	distribution	Atkinson, R.P.D. & Loveridge, A.J., 2008	The Side-striped Jackal occurs in West, Central and southern Africa (excluding the southernmost part), being replaced in the arid south-west and north-west of the continent by the Black-backed Jackal <em>Canis mesomelas</em> and in North Africa by the Golden Jackal <em>Canis aureus</em>.	eng
3753	habitat	Atkinson, R.P.D. & Loveridge, A.J., 2008	Side-striped Jackals occupy a range of habitats, from game areas through farmland to towns within the broad-leaved savanna zones, including wooded habitats, bush, grassland, abandoned cultivation, marshes and montane habitats up to 2,700 m (Kingdon 1977, 1997; Estes 1991). The species tends to avoid very open savanna (although Rowe-Rowe (1992) mentions they occur in open grassland in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal), thickly wooded areas and arid zones (Stuart and Stuart 1988; Skinner and Smithers 1990; Kingdon 1997), but Kingdon (1997) states that it enters the equatorial forest belt in the wake of human settlement. Side-striped Jackals frequently occur near rural dwellings and farm buildings (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Kingdon 1997), and penetrate peri-urban and urban areas (Liebenberg 1990; Skinner and Smithers 1990). In Botswana, Smithers (1971) recorded them where mean annual rainfall was 400–700 mm, and many authors note that the species occurs in well-watered areas (e.g., Kingdon 1977; Skinner and Smithers 1990). Where Side-striped Jackals occur sympatrically with other jackal species, they may avoid competition by ecological segregation (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1989). In such areas of sympatry, Side-striped Jackals usually occupy areas of denser vegetation, while Black-backed and Golden Jackals dominate in the more open areas (Loveridge 1999; Loveridge and Macdonald 2003).	eng
3753	population	Atkinson, R.P.D. & Loveridge, A.J., 2008	Regional estimates of abundance are not available, but from work undertaken in two diverse habitats in Zimbabwe, it seems reasonable to assume the species is common and to estimate a total population in excess of three million. It is likely that the population is at least stable. Jackal densities are estimated at around 1/km² in highveld commercial farmland in Zimbabwe (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 1998), where rural density is probably highest; density estimates from western Zimbabwe were between 0.5–0.8 individuals/km². In Senegal's Sahel, jackal density was estimated at 0.07/km² (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>This species' dietary flexibility and ability to co-exist with humans on the periphery of settlements and towns suggests that populations are only vulnerable in cases of extreme habitat modification or intense disease epidemics.	eng
3753	threats	Atkinson, R.P.D. & Loveridge, A.J., 2008	Side-striped Jackals are persecuted for their role in rabies transmission and their putative role as stock killers. It is unlikely that this persecution has an effect on the overall population, but indiscriminate culling through poisoning could affect local abundance. Side-striped Jackals appear well capable of exploiting urban and suburban habitats, a factor which may help to ensure their persistent occurrence. There appears to be little or no trade in jackal products.	eng
3755	conservation	Loveridge, A.J. & Nel, J.A.J., 2008	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices and has no legal protection outside protected areas. It is known to occur in protected areas throughout its range (see Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) for a summary).<br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>Black-backed Jackals have been maintained in captivity for use in experiments testing rabies vaccine (Bingham <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>A large amount of research focusing on the behaviour and ecology of this species has been undertaken, particularly in the last 25 years. In the last decade, however, the emphasis has generally shifted to the role that the animal plays as a vector of rabies, and as a problem animal. The study of Loveridge (1999) may provide a model for future research, whereby funds and efforts are directed towards better understanding their role, for example, in disease transmission and livestock predation, and ecological, behavioural and other data are gathered concurrently. In many settled areas this species, together with the caracal Caracal caracal, represent the top predators in many ecosystems, yet their roles are poorly understood.	eng
3755	distribution	Loveridge, A.J. & Nel, J.A.J., 2008	The Black-backed Jackal is endemic to Africa. This species has a disjunct distribution range, and is found in two separate populations, one in East Africa, and the other in southern Africa. Ansell (1960) notes that this species is entirely absent from Zambia and it is absent through much of central and equatorial Africa. The disjunct distribution of this species is similar to that of other endemic African species adapted to dry conditions (e.g., Aardwolf <em>Proteles cristatus</em> and Bat-eared Fox <em>Otocyon megalotis</em>). The two Black-backed Jackal ranges are separated by as much as 1,000 km and their discontinuous distribution suggests that regions of dry Acacia bush and savanna, the preferred habitat of this species, once connected south-west Africa and the Horn of Africa.<br/><br/>Fossils of Black-backed Jackals have been found in deposits in South Africa dating to at least two million years ago (Hendey 1974), but fossil remains have never been found north of Ethiopia suggesting that they have always been restricted to sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
3755	habitat	Loveridge, A.J. & Nel, J.A.J., 2008	Black-backed Jackals are found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert (Dreyer and Nel 1990), montane grassland (Rowe-Rowe 1982), arid savanna and scrubland (Skinner and Smithers 1990), open savanna (Wyman 1967; Kingdon 1977; Lamprecht 1978; Moehlman 1983; Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1989; Estes 1991), woodland savanna mosaics (Smithers 1971; Loveridge and Macdonald 2002) and farmland. In general, Black-backed Jackals show a preference for open habitats tending to avoid dense vegetation (Pienaar 1969). In KwaZulu-Natal, they are recorded from sea level to more than 3,000 m asl. in the Drakensberg, and in localities receiving more than 2,000 mm of rainfall (Rowe-Rowe 1982, 1992). Where more than one jackal species occur in sympatry the habitat is partitioned. The trend is for Black-backed Jackals to use preferentially either the open grassland (when sympatric with Side-striped Jackal; Loveridge 1999) or wooded savanna (when sympatric with Golden and Side-striped Jackals; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1989). In western Zimbabwe, habitat partitioning was mediated by aggressive encounters in which Black-backed Jackals displaced Side-striped Jackals from grassland habitats (Loveridge 1999).	eng
3755	population	Loveridge, A.J. & Nel, J.A.J., 2008	Regional estimates of abundance are not available. However, Black-backed Jackals are generally widespread and, in Namibia and South Africa, they are common in protected areas where suitable habitat occurs. They occur in many livestock producing areas, where they are considered vermin, but despite strenuous control measures in many farming areas of southern Africa this species is still relatively abundant.<br/><br/>In the Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa, Rowe-Rowe (1982) found densities of one jackal/2.5–2.9 km², while J.A.J. Nel <em>et al.</em> (unpubl.) recorded linear densities along the Namib Desert Coast of Namibia that varied from 0.1–0.53 jackal/km² along food-scarce beaches along the Skeleton Coast, to 7.0–9.0/km² at the food-rich seal rookery at Cape Cross, reaching a maximum of 16.0–32.0/km² along the centre of the seal rookery.	eng
3755	threats	Loveridge, A.J. & Nel, J.A.J., 2008	Black-backed Jackals are persecuted for their role as livestock killers and as rabies vectors. Population control efforts appear largely ineffective and probably only succeed in producing a temporary reduction in local numbers. There is no significant trade in jackal products, although body parts are used in traditional African medicine.	eng
3759	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	In general, animals are presumably found in a number of protected areas. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Nepal - India: Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram; Nepal: Royal Chitwan National Park, Central Nepal and Makalu Barun National Park, Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species is included in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to these poorly-known taxa.	eng
3759	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species ranges from eastern Nepal (up to 2,000 m asl [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]), through northeast India (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal), Bhutan, southeastern Bangladesh, Myanmar, south China, northwest Viet Nam, Thailand and Cambodia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Species within this complex have generally been recorded from roughly sea level to around 4,000 m asl. This is an unresolved species complex, with some taxa restricted to certain elevations, the altitudinal range is not constant throughout the known range.	eng
3759	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species complex has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from bamboo forest to cultivated land, and other disturbed areas (although it is not present in rice paddies). In South Asia it occurs in montane temperate forest and bamboo forests in subtropical forest tracts; with animals found under bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are long-lived species that have only one or two young in a litter.	eng
3759	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It can be locally very abundant in some areas.	eng
3759	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	In general the species is quite heavily exploited in some areas for food, and isolated populations in particular may be declining through overharvesting. It is also killed as a pest of rubber plantations in parts of its range (such as Myanmar), and may occur in densities of up to 600 animals per  hectare (Ken Aplin pers. comm.). In South Asia, it is locally threatened by habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) cultivation, forest fires and harvesting for subsistence use (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
3760	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
3760	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Sichuan (CSIS 2008). It generally occupies elevations between 1,000-1,400 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
3760	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Unlike other hamsters, this is an arboreal species, that occurs in deciduous forests of the mountainous habitats within its range (Smith and Xie 2008). It is nocturnal, and primarily active in spring and summer (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a herbivore, feeding on leaves and grasses (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Litter size is 6-8 (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
3760	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
3760	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
3776	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Taxonomy, understanding ecology, threats and population size and trends are all high priority areas for research in conserving this species. Known sites need active management to reduce influence by alien vegetation.&#160;Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.	eng
3776	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs only in south-western South Africa, where it is restricted to the mountains south-west of the Breede River, including the Cape Peninsula (an Extent of&#160;Occurrence&#160;of 6,526 km<sup>2</sup> with and Area of Occupancy estimated to be 2% of its Extent of Occurrence). Its&#160;altitudinal&#160;range is 60 to 1,600 m asl, with more than 80% of localities being above 400 m asl.	eng
3776	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of mountain fynbos heathland, and does not survive in altered habitats. Adults congregate to breed in temporary pools, where they lay around 100 eggs in long strings of amber jelly.	eng
3776	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is locally common at breeding sites, and large breeding aggregations can sometimes be found. However, it is absent from some apparently suitable sites and can no longer be found at some historically recorded sites on the Cape peninsula.	eng
3776	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threat to this species is the loss of its fynbos habitat, mainly because of the spread of alien vegetation and frequent burning. No explanation or threat has been deduced for historical populations now missing from the Cape Peninsula.	eng
3778	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	No specific conservation measures exist for this rarely sighted species, but it is covered by generic whale protection measures both internationally and in the known range states. It is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS.	eng
3778	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The pygmy right whale probably has a circumpolar distribution in temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere between about 30°S and 55°S (extending to 20°S in at least the Benguela system (southwestern African continental shelf) (Hoffmann and Best 2005). There are only a few confirmed records of live whales at sea, but strandings have been reported from Argentina, Falkland Islands (Malvinas), Namibia, South Africa, Chile, western, southern and eastern coasts of Australia, and North and South Islands of New Zealand (Cabrera <em>et al.</em> 2005; Hoffman and Best 2005; Kemper 2002a,b; Rice 1998; Ross <em>et al.</em> 1975). Two individuals were taken by a whaling vessel in the South Atlantic between 34°-35°S (Ivashin <em>et al.</em> 1972). An unusual sighting was made in 1992 of an aggregation of about 80 individuals 320 nm southwest of Cape Leeuwin, southwest Australia (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 1996). A group of 14 individuals was sighted in 2001 at 46°S in the South Pacific 450 km southeast of New Zealand (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
3778	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The stomachs of the two individuals taken in Russian whaling operations (Ivashin 1972) and a juvenile immature stranded individual (Sekiguchi <em>et al.</em> 1992) contained mainly calanoid copepods.	eng
3778	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The pygmy right whale is one of the least known baleen whale species, and there are too few records to attempt an estimate of population size, even to an order of magnitude. The single sighting of about 80 whales in the southeast Indian Ocean (Matsuoka <em>et al.</em> 1996) represents over half of the recorded sightings of live individuals. Apart from the two large schools mentioned above, most sightings have been of one or two individuals, sometimes in association with other species of whales and dolphins. The inconspicuous, small blow and quick, shallow surfacing of pygmy right whales make them difficult to spot and observe at sea. They are unlikely to be correctly identified by non-experts.	eng
3778	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	This poorly known species has never been hunted commercially. There is no evidence of any direct anthropogenic threats. The species may be naturally rare throughout its range, or simply difficult to detect or identify, or perhaps its areas of concentration have not yet been discovered.	eng
3784	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
3784	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to southwest Turkey (Aksu and Kopru streams).	eng
3784	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species.	eng
3784	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
3784	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams and restricted range are the main threats (restricted to two streams only).	eng
3785	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
3785	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Lakes Beysehir and Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. But now absent in Egirdir Lake as a result of over fishing and introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in 1955. Now only occurs in one small pond near Beysehir lake.	eng
3785	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is large size fish (<500 mm). It was an important commercial species for the inhabitants of the watersheds of these lakes.	eng
3785	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Very small population remains in one pond only. Population size currently estimated to be less than 50 mature individuals (Erk'akan, F. pers. comm).	eng
3785	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Overfishing and the introduction of Pikeperch <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in 1955 are the main reasons attributed to the decline of this fish.	eng
3786	conservation	Weinberg, P., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Afghanistan<br/>Reconnaissance surveys were conducted to evaluate the species? distribution patterns in the mid 1970s. The work was discontinued after the start of the civil war. Surveys to determine the current status and distribution of the species in the country and to develop conservation strategies.<br/><br/>Former Soviet Union<br/><em>C. a. aegagrus</em> is protected by law, and was included in Category II in the Red Data Book of the USSR (Borodin 1984), Georgia (1982) and Russia (1983). No more than 200 occur in at least three protected areas. The wild goat is found in Tushetian Reserve in the Greater Caucasus, and in the Caucasus Minor, in the Geigel (Azerbaijan) and the Khosrov (Armenia) Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroyechkovsky 1990). It also occurs in Ordubad  Sanctuary (Nakhichevan), and periodically in ShikakhokhNature Reserve (Armenia). Turkmen wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em> [= <em>turcmenica</em>]) is also protected. It was included in Class II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve is the only protected area with this subspecies. The Turkmenistan Government planned to allow hunts for 20 goats in 1993-94; the current licensed hunting situation is not clear. Throughout its range in the former Societ Union, more strict and effective measures are needed to control of poaching. Most local people in the Caucasus consider wild goats and other species as a source of meat, hides and horns, so stricter prohibition measures alone will not be sufficient. Public awareness programmes are also needed. It is essential to protect the forest habitat of this in Daghestan and elsewhere in the Caucaus. An Ordubad National Park has been established on the southern flank of Zangezur Ridge in Nakhichevan (Caucasus Minor) in an important site for the species. At least two new protected areas are needed, one in western Daghestan, and the other in the Large Balkhan. In Turkmenistan, the wild goat should be re-introduced into the Siunt-Khasardag Nature Reserve in the western Kopet Dagh, and into the Badkhyz Nature Reserve in the Gyaz-Gedyk range.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>The wild goat occurs in several protected areas where hunting is prohibited and livestock grazing is strictly controlled. It is found in seven National Parks, 11 Wildlife Refuges, and 34 Protected Areas throughout the country. They can be hunted under licence outside protected areas between September and February each year, but more strict enforcement of hunting regulations is needed. <br/><br/>Iraq<br/>Surveys are needed to determine the status and distribution of this species, and in particular whether or not any populations remain in the country.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>A captive breeding plan and subsequent re-introduction program has been proposed, in conjunction with one in Syria.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>In addition to the Kirthar and Hazarganji-Chiltan National Parks, there are several reserves providing different levels of protection to wild goats in the country, but for many, no management plans have been developed and most lack even supervisory staff (Virk 1991). Protected areas with Sind wild goat include: Baluchistan - Las Bela District: Hingol National Park, Dureji Wildlife Sanctuary, Khurkhera Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Khuzdar District: Dhrun National Park (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Chorani Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Gwadar District: Buzi Makola Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Kharan District: Ragai Rakshan Wildlife Sanctuary, Ras Koh Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990); Ras Koh Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Chagae District: Gut Wildlife Sanctuary (Baluchistan Forest Department 1990). Kalat District: Koh-Egish Wildlife Sanctuary (Zoological Survey Department, no date); Dadu District: Kirthar National Park, Sumbak-Surjan-Eri-Hothiano Game Reserve (Mirza and Asghar 1980). A wildlife management plan for Kirthar National  Park (Holloway and Khan 1973) recommended: 1) no extension of irrigated cultivation, 2) reduction of livestock grazing by the locals and immigrants, and 3) prohibition of tree felling, cutting branches for livestock fodder, poaching, stone quarrying and honey collection within the park. This plan is currently being revised. The world?s last remaining population of Chiltan goat is restricted to Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park (Quetta District; Zoological Survey Department, no date) where <em>ca</em>. 480 animals lived in 1990 (Forest Service reports cited in Virk 1991). Previous efforts to protect this Park included more administrative staff, control of livestock grazing, wood cutting, poaching, and construction of <em>ca</em>. 30 km boundary fence. This resulted in a marked recovery of the vegetation and an increase in the Chiltan goat population prior to 1990 (Baluchistan Forest Department Records, cited in Virk 1991). However, there are reports that conditions have recently deteriorated in this National Park. Conservation measures proposed for the species as a whole in Pakistan are as follows: 1) Implement the management ecommendations for Kirthar National Park. 2) Consider alternative livelihoods for the people who would be displaced by implementation Kirthar National Park?s management plan. 3) Develop a range management program for the Park based upon a system of zones of varying use-intensity by humans and livestock. 4) Implementation of such restrictions on the human population, must be accompanied not only by some form of compensation, but also include responsible involvement of the local community in conservation and agricultural programs. Virk (1991) emphasised the importance of participation of the local communities in the wildlife conservation process and gave a list of objectives for a local participatory approach, as well as a list of management goals. 5) Determine the current distribution and status of this species, and assess the remaining habitat before launching any further wild goat conservation projects in the Province of Baluchistan. 6) Consider implementing Virk?s (1991) three proposals for Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park: a) Enlarge the area of Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park by including the adjacent Kerkhasa State Forest (Ahmad 1988, cited in Virk 1991) to support any increase in the Chiltan goat population. b) Reintroduce and manage at least one herd of Chiltan goat in a formerly inhabited mountain range (e.g. Murdar, Koh-i-Maran). Such re-introductions would provide ways of presenting wildlife conservation to the public, and involve the local people in the conservation program. Natural dispersal from Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park to neighbouring mountain areas can be expected only over the long term and even then only with a high population density within the Park. c) Stop allowing hunters to take animals from the last population of Chiltan goat. Only when viable populations have been built up outside the National Park, could a trophy hunting program be considered as a possible means of generating funds for further conservation efforts. If conditions have deteriorated and the Park?s effectiveness has declined since 1990, obviously steps should be taken immediately to deal with the problems.<br/><br/>Syria<br/>The proposed joint re-introduction project with Lebanon should be implemented.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>Much stricter conservation measures are needed to control hunting, and especially to secure the future of the larger populations.	eng
3786	distribution	Weinberg, P., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The wild goat ranges discontinuously from central Afghanistan and southern Pakistan, west through Iran, western Turkmenistan, northern Iraq, the Caucasus region (Armenia, Azerbaijan, northeastern Georgia, and southern Russia), as far as southwestern Turkey. It once occurred in Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, but is now extinct in these countries (Grubb, 2005). It also occurred in Israel before 10,000 ago (Dayan <em>et al</em>. 1986).<br/><br/>Its range in particular countries and regions is as follows:<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>It is probably confined to the Hazarajat and Uruzgan mountains in central Afghanistan, including the arid Feroz Koh and Siyah Koh in the headwaters of the Hari Rud, Farah Rud, Helmand and Arghandab rivers. However, no animals were observed by FAO or WWF survey teams in the 1970s, but horns and skulls were occasionally seen at shrines and grave sites. One captive animal seen in 1975 in a private zoo in Kandahar, was reputedly caught in the nearby mountains. The species had probably been reduced to a small portion of its former range by the late 1970s (Habibi 1977). Its current status in the country is unknown.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>One subspecies of the wild goat is recognised in the Caucasus. The distribution of <em>C. a. aegagrus</em> is in two separate parts. It occurs in forested areas along northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains from the Upper Argun river, in Chechen-Ingushetia and in Georgia, up to the headwaters of the Jurmut river (around 42°30?N, 46°E) in Daghestan, with an isolated population on the southern slopes of Mount Babadagh, Azerbaijan. It also occurs in the drier, more open habitats in the Caucasus Minor mountains in both Azerbaijan and Armenia, south and east of Sevang lake, namely the Shakhdagh, Mrovdagh, Karabakh, Gegam, Vardenis and Zangezur ranges, and on the Delidagh massif between 39° to 40°30?N and 45° to 46°39?E.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>The wild goat is widely distributed throughout Iran wherever large areas of rocky terrain are available. This includes not only mountainous areas, but also cliffs along the seashore, in deciduous forested areas of the north, and in areas of the central desert.<br/><br/>Iraq<br/>If it still occurs in Iraq, it would most likely be found in the Zagros mountains in the extreme north and along the northeastern border with Iran. Nothing is known of current distributions.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>The wild goat used to be relatively common in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon. However, by the early 1900s it was extinct in Lebanon (Kumerloeve 1975; Harrison 1968).<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>The present range of Sind wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em>) is the Baluchistan plateau and its foothills in south-western Pakistan. Populations are scattered on arid mountain ranges that are isolated by lowlands of southern Baluchistan and Sind. The range includes the low Mekran coastal range (District Gwadar), areas up to 3,250 m asl in the Koh-i-Maran range south of Quetta (District Kalat), and also the Kirthar range (Districts of Dadu and Las Bela) (Roberts 1977, Schaller 1977, Bollmann 1989). A second subspecies, the Chiltan goat (<em>C. a. chialtanensis</em>) was restricted in the early 1970s to four or five populations in the accessible mountain ranges (Chiltan, Murdar, Koh-i-Maran and Koh-i-Gishk ranges) south of Quetta (Roberts 1977, Schaller 1977). Today, these have been reduced, principally by uncontrolled hunting, to only one surviving population in the Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park (Districts of Quetta and Kalat).<br/><br/>Syria<br/>Wild goat was reported in northern Syria, in the mountains north of Dimasq, and must once have occurred in the western mountains as well. However, it is now believed to be extinct (Harrison 1968).<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>The wild goat ranges widely in Turkey, east from the Datca peninsula, through the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains in the mountainous regions of southeastern, eastern and northeastern Anatolia (Kence 1987).<br/><br/>Turkmenistan<br/>The Turkmen wild goat (<em>C. a. blythi</em> [= <em>turcmenica</em>]), occurs in scattered populations in the central Kopet Dagh along the border between Turkmenistan and Iran between about 37°20?N, 55°20?E and 38°N, 57°20?E, and in the Large Balkhan (Bolshye) north of Nebit Dagh about 39°30?N, 50°30?E. It is not known whether this subspecies still inhabits the Small Balkhan (Malye).	eng
3786	habitat	Weinberg, P., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The wild goat inhabits mountainous areas, where there is a mixture of rocky outcrops (including scree slopes) and vegetation (shrubby thickets (maquis) or conifer forests).  It tends to be found in relatively arid habitats, though it is a forest species in the Caucasus. It is herbivorous, feeding on grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs.	eng
3786	population	Weinberg, P., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The global population of wild goat has not been estimated. Although the species ranges very widely, it is probably extremely rare or absent in much of its mapped range. In some places it is clearly decreasing rapidly. However, there is also evidence of localised population recovery when adequate protection is in place. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, perhaps as much as 30% over three generations. There is an urgent need for updated information on the status of this species. Specific information on country-level abundance is as follows:<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>No estimate of numbers available, but the species is probably now very rare in this country.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>It inhabits mainly forested habitat, so accurate censuses are difficult to make. The total population estimate for wild goat was between 3,500 and 4,000 individuals in the late 1980s, with 1,500 in the Greater Caucasus (Arabuli 1989; Bathiyev 1989; Prilutskaya and Pishvanov 1989) and the rest in the Caucasus Minor, where more than half (1,000 to 1,250) lived in the southern half of the Zangezur range (Kuliyev 1981). At the end of 1990s, 2,500 animals were estimated for Daghestan alone (Nasrulayev, 2003), but numbers were declining rapidly, by 50% in three years (Magomedov, Omarov, Nasrulayev, 2001).  The overall population trend for this subspecies is negative, and in recent years the rate of decline has increased. <br/><br/>Iran<br/>No estimates of total numbers are currently available. However, 1991 estimates are available for Golestan National Park - 2,500 animals, and for Alborz-Markazy Protected Area - 4,000 animals.<br/><br/>Iraq<br/>There are no population estimates, but the species is probably extremely rare, if it survives at all.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>For <em>C. a. blythi</em> there is no overall population estimate. Most survive in small inaccessible areas in isolated populations (Virk 1991). However, reasonable numbers are reported for the Dhrun and Hingol areas (Ahmad and Beg 1989). Kirthar National Park probably contains the largest population of Sind wild goat in the country. In the Karchat Mountains, which are withinf Kirthar National Park, the population has increased from between 400 and 500 when the establishment park was established in 1973 (Schaller and Laurie 1974) to around 950 to 1,050 (Bollmann 1989). For the whole Park, Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a total of 1,480 goats, while Kermani and Khan (1985) gave an optimistic number of 4,000 animals. According to Bollmann?s (unpubl. data) observations in 1987, the total population inhabiting the Park was between 1,500 and 2,000 goats. The adjacent Surjan-Sumbak-Eri-Hothiano Game Reserve contained another 900 to 1,100 (Mirza and Asghar 1980), resulting in a total estimate of 2,400 to 3,100 wild goat for Sind Province. Depending on the study area, densities ranged between 0.5 to 0.65 animals/km² (over 3,087 km² in Kirthar National Park; Bollmann, unpubl. data) and 11.8 to 16.3 animals/km² (over 60 km² in Karchat Mountains; Edge and Olsen-Edge 1990). However, the overall density within the species? distribution area in Pakistan is probably well below 0.5 wild goat/km². For <em>C. a. chialtanensis</em> the single population totalled ca. 168 animals in 1975 (Mirza 1975). Due to rigid protection following establishment of the National Park in 1980, the population had increased to 480 animals by 1990 (Baluchistan Forest Dept. Records, cited in Virk 1991) but this improvement may not have continued. There is an urgent need to updated information on the abundance of the wild goat in Pakistan.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>It is declining in Turkey throughout its range, and the total population is believed to be less than 10,000 mature individuals, with no subpopulation larger than 1,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>Turkmenistan<br/>Korshunov (1986), whose data are the most reliable, estimated that the total population was up to 7,000 animals.	eng
3786	threats	Weinberg, P., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major threats to this species are poaching, competition for food with domestic livestock, and disturbance and habitat loss from logging and land clearing.<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>Overhunting and colonisation of their habitat by livestock resulted in depleted numbers prior to 1979, with small bands of wild goats forced into the most inaccessible parts of the mountain ranges.<br/><br/>Caucasus<br/>Main threats in the Greater Caucasus are poaching and logging, since animals are mostly confined to forested areas. In the Caucasus Minor, there is also competition with livestock. The state of war between Azerbaijan and Armenia has a negative impact upon the main local populations of the wild goat.<br/><br/>Iran<br/>Poaching, competition for food with domestic livestock, and disturbance and habitat loss from logging and land clearing, are major threats.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/>The extinction of wild goat in Lebanon was caused by large scale habitat destruction and the disregard of hunting regulations.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Within its range, the species is only locally abundant and under successful protection only in a few areas (e.g., in Sind Province). Most of the animals are in scattered populations on mountain ranges isolated from each other by lowlands. Consequently, they are at risk, especially because local people and nomadic tribes graze their domestic stock on most of the mountain ranges used by wild goats, and because hunting is still widespread. <br/><br/>Syria<br/>Extinction was probably caused by habitat destruction and hunting.<br/><br/>Turkey<br/>It is declining in Turkey principally due to over-hunting.	eng
3787	conservation	Valdez, R., 2008	<em>Capra falconeri</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. Within Afghanistan, the species was protected nominally by a nationwide presidential decree banning hunting, but this ban was not generally enforced.   In 2009 the species as a whole was listed on Afghanistan’s Protected Species List, making any hunting or trade of this species within the country illegal. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) census current population numbers, productivity and distributions; 2) re-assess conservation potentials after population surveys have been made; and, based on these data 3) consider a series of hunting reserves that have full support of the local people. This is probably the best chance for the flare-horned markhor’s survival. It will be critical to the success of such a program that the local people receive a substantial benefit from the operation of such reserves. Nuristan and Laghman are home to some of the toughest tribes in the country, with non-integrated societies that are frequently at odds with each other. <br/><br/>In India, it is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Currently, markhor in India occurs in only three small protected areas: the Limber Game Reserve and the Lachipora and Hirapora Wildlife Sanctuaries. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) A new survey, with subsequent monitoring, is urgently needed to reassess the current status of the Astor markhor in India. However, this will have to await the easing of political tension and violence in the area. 2) Consider future re-introductions to previously inhabited ranges in the Pir Panjal mountains. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, the markhor is completely protected by federal law (Rao, 1986). A trophy hunting program for markhor was initiated in 1998, with a total of 7 animals legally taken through 2001 (Shackleton 2001). The quota was increased by CITES in 2002 from 6 to 12 animals due to the success of the program with the purpose of encouraging local communities for conservation of markhor through economic incentives from trophy hunting program. The central government issues permits only to areas in which a community-based trophy hunting program has been established; as of 2000, 80% of hunter fees were mandated to go to the community (although inter-community, as well as provincial-federal disputes over receipts and permitting have occurred). The program has continued through 2007 with trophy price for markhor increasing from US $18,000 to about US $57,000. According of official records, approximately US $830,000 has been distributed to communities within Northwest Frontier Province since 1998 from hunter remittances from the 17 markhor taken since 1998 (A. Khan, unpublished data, Northwest Frontier Province Wildlife Management, 2008). <br/><br/>Several protected areas contain flare-horned markhor: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP, Drosh Gol GR, Gahirat Gol GR, Goleem Gol GR, Goleen Gol GR, Purit Gol- Chinar Gol GR, Tushi GR (NWFP, 1992); Swat District: Totalai GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987). Northwn Areas - Gilgit District: Kargah WS, Naltar WS, Danyore GR, Sherqillah GR. (Rasool, no date); Diamir District: Astor WS, Tangir GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Baltistan WS, Askor Nallah GR (Rasool, no date). Azad Jammu and Kashmir - Muzaffarabad: Mauji CR, Qazi Nag GR, Hillan CR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1986); Poonch District: Phala GR (Qayyum, 1986, 47). Despite containing only about 200 animals, Chitral Gol NP may still protect the largest population of flare-horned markhor in the world—an indication of how critical the status of this subspecies is. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) stop allowing foreign hunters to take animals in Chitral Gol National Park; 2) treat Kargah GS as a focal area for markhor and enforce protection measures (Kargah is probably the best place for markhor in the Gilgit District, and like the Chitral Gol, should be rather easy to control because it is a traditional wildlife sanctuary and is close to Gilgit); 3) adopt a similar procedure for the area around Bagheecha in the Indus valley, which is one of the best places in Baltistan for markhor and also relatively easy to control; and 4) do not lift the hunting ban (which is excepted for approved community-based trophy hunts), as is currently being considered for the Northern Areas, because no single area contains greater than 50 animals.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in three Nature Reserves: Kugitang (Turkmensitan), Surkhan (Uzbekistan), and Dashti Jum (Tajikistan). Hunting by foreigners is currently permitted (at least two markhor/ year) in Tajikistan, with the government planning to allow more to be hunted in 1993-94, but the current status of hunting is uncertain. In Uzbekistan, two markhor were taken in 1994, and “Glavbiocontrol” of the State Committee for Nature Protection planned for two markhor licenses to be issued in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). A captive herd of markhor is reported in Dashti Jum NR, and a captive breeding program is apparently underway in Ramit Nature Reserve in the Gissar range (Tajikistan), with about 10 animals released by 1989. All markhor currently held in western zoos are considered to belong to this subspecies. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) stop poaching as soon as possible; 2) halt trophy hunting until professional biologists have completed adequate population surveys and thoroughly assessed the suitability of such programs; and 3) enlarge the size of the Kugitang Nature Reserve (Turkmenistan) on the western slopes of the Kugitangtau, because it protects only the high elevation summer habitat of markhor and the currently unprotected lower winter ranges are grazed by livestock. In Afghanistan, no measures were taken in the country and the species occurs in no protected areas.  Much needed are surveys to determine if the taxon occurs in Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES. In Afghanistan, no measures were taken in the country and the species occurs in no protected areas. Status within country is Indeterminate (probably Endangered). Drastic measures will be required if the Kabul markhor is still alive today. It is necessary to carry out surveys to assess numbers and distribution as soon as possible.  Public support for its conservation is essential if it is to survive, but this will be difficult to obtain.<br/><br/>Only one protected area is known to contain straight-horned markhor in Pakistan: Sheikh Buddin NP (previously a Wildlife Sanctuary) in Dera Ismail Khan District of NWFP (Zoological Survey Dept., 1987). The status of the subspecies in protected areas in Baluchistan is uncertain. Its occurrence is not confirmed in Chiltan-Hazarganji NP, and there is no reliable information for either Sasnamana or Ziarat Juniper WS’s. There are no reports of any in protected areas in Punjab. Due to recent protective measures in Koh-i-Sulaiman area, the population may be increasing slowly, but poaching still occurs in Takatu. <br/><br/>The Torghar Conservation Project in Baluchistan however, appears to have had success in reducing poaching and competition by livestock (Johnson 1997); the markhor population in this area is reported to have increased steadily since initiation of the program Torghar (Rosser <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Additional conservation measures proposed are: 1) immediately develop a conservation and management plan that includes information on the status and distribution of the subspecies in the areas it still inhabits; 2) include participatory management in the tribal areas in this plan; 3) besides the Torghar hills, consider the area of Koh-i-Sulaiman and the Takatu hills as a focal area for conservation efforts; and 4) if feasible, establish a captive population.	eng
3787	distribution	Valdez, R., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan, northern India (southwest Jammu and Kashmir), northern and central Pakistan, southern Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan (Grubb, 2005).  It ranges in elevation from 600 to 3,600 m asl.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Within Afghanistan, it is historically been limited to the east in the high mountainous, monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. Within India, markhor is restricted to part of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir (Ranjitsinh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Populations are scattered throughout this range starting from just east of the Banihal pass (50 km from the Chenab river) on the Jammu-Srinagar highway westward to the disputed border with Pakistan. Populations are known from recent surveys still to occur in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, Schaller and Khan (1975) considered the former Astor markhor (<em>C. f. falconeri</em>) and Kashmir markhor (<em>C. f cashmiriensis</em>) to be one subspecies – the flare-horned markhor. The distribution map given by Schaller and Khan (1975) seems still valid for this markhor, though the populations within the large range along the Indus have probably since decreased. Markhor is mainly confined to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) river and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (District Kohistan) upstream to near the Tungas village (District Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit river, Chalt up the Hunza river, and the Parishing valley up the Astor river (Schaller and Khan, 1975). The occurrence of this markhor on the right side of the Yasin valley (Gilgit District) in the recent past (Schaller and Kahn, 1975) was also reported to R. Hess in 1986, but could not be confirmed. The flare-horned markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar river (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho river, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj river (Schaller and Khan, 1975).<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>This subspecies previously occupied most of the mountains lying along the north banks of the Upper Amu Darya and the Pyanj rivers from Turkmenistan to Tajikistan. Today it is found in only about two to three scattered populations in a greatly reduced distribution. It is limited to the region between lower Pyanj and the Vakhsh rivers near Kulyab in Tajikistan (about 70”E and 37’40’ to 38”N), and in the Kugitangtau range in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (around 66’40’E and 37’30’N) (Weinberg <em>et al</em>.1997).  This subspecies may possibly exist in the Darwaz peninsula of northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan. Almost nothing was known of this subspecies or its distribution in Afghanistan before 1979 (Habibi, 1977), and no new information has been developed in Afghanistan since that time.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, at least until 1978, this markhor survived only in the Kabul Gorge and the Kohe Safi area of Kapissa, and in some isolated pockets in between. Intensive hunting pressure had forced it into the most inaccessible regions of its once wider range in the mountains of Kapissa and Kabul Provinces. In Pakistan, the most comprehensive study of the distribution and status of the straight-horned markhor comes from Schaller and Khan (1975). They showed a huge recent past range for this subspecies, but the present range in Pakistan consists only of small isolated areas in Baluchistan, a small area in NWFP, and one unconfirmed occurrence in Dera Ghazi Khan District (Punjab Province). Virk (1991) summarized the actual information for Baluchistan Province and confirmed the subspecies’ presence in the area of the Koh-i-Sulaiman (District Zhob) and the Takatu hills (District Quetta), both according to Ahmad (1989), and in the Torghar hills of the Toba Kakar range (District Zhob) (Tareen, 1990). The NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1987) considered that the areas of Mardan and Sheikh Buddin were still inhabited by the subspecies. There is no actual information about the Safed Koh range (Districts of Kurram and Khyber) where, according to Schaller and Khan (1975), probably at least 100 animals lived on the Pakistan side of the border at the time of their survey.	eng
3787	habitat	Valdez, R., 2008	<em>Capra falconeri</em> is adapted to mountainous terrain between 600 m and 3,600 m elevation. The species is typically found in scrub forests made up primarily of oaks (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), pines (<em>Pinus gerardiana</em>), and junipers (<em>Juniperus macropoda</em>). This species is diurnal but most active in the early morning and late afternoon. The species alternates seasonally between grazing (summer) and browsing (winter).  It eats grasses and leaves.  Females gestate for 135-170 days and give birth typically to 1-2 kids.  Animals are sexually mature at 18-30 months, and live 12-13 years.  Predators include the wolf, snow leopards, and lynx.	eng
3787	population	Valdez, R., 2008	The global population is estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals, although recent data are lacking for most parts of its range.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/><br/>In Afghanistan, some 350 markhor were counted in western Nuristan (Petocz, 1972), which was considered a small proportion of the animals present. The population was believed to be declining steeply 10 years ago. Camera and hunter surveys conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in Nuristan during 2006-07 suggest that the species is now quite rare, and remaining individuals continue to be of interest to poachers. <br/><br/>In 1975, markhor were estimated to total 250 to 300 animals in India (Schaller and Khan, 1975). In 2005, Ranjitsinh <em>et al</em>. (2005) conducted surveys in most of the historical range of markhor in the Pir Panjal mountains of Jammu and Kashmir, observing 155 markhor within 2 of the 7 blocks surveyed. They guessed the total population within the surveyed area of Jammu and Kashmir to be some 280-330 markhor (although stressed that they did not believe this represented a true population increase from previous estimates). Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. (2007) estimated 63 ±16 in the Limber catchment of this area. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, there are comparable population numbers over the last 20 years for three areas. 1) In 1970, the Chitral Gol, a valley of 77.5 km² in the Chitral District, and at that time the private hunting reserve of the Mehtar of Chitral, was estimated to harbor 100 to 125 animals (Schaller and Mirza, 1971). In 1984, this area was declared a National Park, and by 1985-86, it contained 160 (census) to 300 (estimated) animals. In addition, the proportion of males 24.5 years old increased during the same period (Hess, 1986). Within this time span, Aleem (1979) registered a maximum of 520 animals in Chitral Gol in 1979. The increase was attributed to better protection from poaching and to other improvement efforts in the Park (Malik, 1985). However, according to the latest official census (Ahmad, unpubl. data), the population in Chitral Gol NP was reduced to 195 markhor in 1987. 2) For the Tushi GR in the Chitral District, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated 125 animals, a number similar to that estimated in 1985-86 (anonymous 1986, Hess in press). 3) The population of markhor in the Kargah GS (Gilgit District) was estimated by Roberts (1969) as not less than 500 to 600 animals; by Schaller and Khan (1975) as 50; by Rasool (no date, probably 1976) as 109; by Hess (1986) as 50 to 75; and by Rasool (unpubl. data) in 1991 as 40-50. In 1983, Rasool (unpubl. data) estimated that this area was the best area for markhor within the Gilgit District. Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated a total of at least 5,250 flare-horned markhor living in Pakistan, in the border areas with Afghanistan, and in India. The official census for Chitral District gave 6 17 markhor for 1985-86, and the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) estimated 1,075 for the whole province (619 - Chitral, 109 - Dir, 58 - Swat, 221 - Kohistan, 50 - Mansehra; NWFP, 1992). The Wildlife Wing (Northern Areas Forest Dept., unpubl. data) estimated a total of 1,000 to 1,500 markhor in the Northern Areas in 1993 (Districts Gilgit, Diamir and Baltistan), though there may be no more than a maximum of 40 to 50 animals for a single area. Hence the population of this subspecies appears to have decreased since 1975. Today, less than 2,500 to 3,000 flare-horned markhor are estimated to survive in Pakistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>In the ex-Soviet republics, the total population was estimated to be about 700 animals, and numbers generally decreasing in the 1990s (Shackleton <em>et al</em>. 1997), although Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997), based on reports from game wardens and local inhabitants,  believed the population in Kugitang Nature Reserve in eastern Turkmenistan was increasing during the mid-1990s. In the Khozratisho range and in Kushvoristone (Tajikistan) there were around 350 markhor (Sokov, 1989), but nothing is known about current population numbers in Tajikistan. A recent survey in Kugitang revealed that its western (Turkmenistan) slopes harbor over 250 markhor (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the early 1980s there were 400 in the whole of Uzbekistan according to the Uzbek Red Data Book (1983), but in 1994 there were only 290 estimated in this Republic, with only 86 counted in the Surkhan Nature Reserve in May 1993 (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995). There is no estimate for Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, very few animals survived even 10 years ago, perhaps 50-80 in the Kohe Safi region, with a few in other isolated pockets. In Pakistan, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated that more than 2,000 individuals remained throughout the entire range of straight-horned markhor. Roberts (1969) estimated that the total population of the former subspecies <em>C. f. jerdoni</em>, restricted mainly to the Province of Baluchistan, may have exceeded 1,000 animals, but that it was severely threatened because it survived in discontinuous and isolated pockets. For this same area, Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated less than 1,000 animals. Roberts (1969) believed that the main concentration of this former subspecies was in the Toba Kakar and Torghar hills and numbers could have been less than 500. Johnson (1997) estimated there were 695 Sulaiman markhor in the Torghar Hills in 1994.  However, Rosser <em>et al</em>. (2005) summarized results from more recent surveys that suggested markhor in the Torghar Hills had increased to over 1,600 by the year 2000. Schaller and Khan (1975) estimated 150 straight-horned markhor living in the Takatu hills in 1971, but later Ahmad (1989) reported that only 50 still existed in these hills, and only 100 in the area of Koh-i-Sulaiman. The NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) gave a total of only 24 animals for the whole province: 12 for the Mardan area, and 12 for the Sheikh Buddin NP. There is no recent estimate for the total number of straight-horned markhor in Pakistan.	eng
3787	threats	Valdez, R., 2008	<em>Capra falconeri falconeri</em><br/>Within Afghanistan, markhor have been traditionally hunted in Nuristan and Laghman, and this may have intensified during the war. Domestic livestock were also increasing 10 years ago, creating competition for forage.  According to surveys conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in Nuristan during 2007, markhor continue to be attractive for local hunters (despite a nominal ban on hunting nationwide). The continued existence of markhor in India is threatened by hunting and some habitat alteration. The small population of markhor in India justifies its Endangered status. The primary current threat related to hunting is increasing in association with the civil unrest and armed conflict present in the region of its habitat along India’s border with Pakistan. Thus, the main threat to markhor in India is their value as food within areas of armed conflict, although their high value as a trophy species also makes them sought after by hunters. Flare-horned markhor generally occur only in small (<100), scattered populations and at low densities throughout most of northern Pakistan. Control of poaching in Chitral Gol NP has been successful (Malik, 1985), and similar protection should be afforded other populations. Such actions alone may not be sufficient, however. Despite less poaching, markhor numbers have decreased and no more than 200 are believed to remain in Chitral Gol NP (Ahmad, unpubl. data).<br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri heptneri</em><br/>In Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, markhor are reportedly poached for meat and for horns which are used for medicinal purposes in the large Asian market. Animals are also threatened by habitat loss, disturbance and forage competition from domestic livestock. <br/><br/><em>Capra falconeri megaceros</em><br/>In Afghanistan, excessive hunting by local people and forage competition with livestock were pushing markhor to the periphery of its range. Such severe pressure was endangering the population towards a slow demise, and its status is unlikely to have improved since. In Pakistan, hunting and livestock competition, as well as significant habitat loss caused by logging in the Suleiman range, which is the most important area of straight-horned markhor’s distribution.	eng
3794	conservation	Weinberg, P., 2008	This species is listed in Karachai-Circassia Red Data Book (1988). This tur is protected in the Caucasus Nature Reserve (Russia), which has played a major part in its conservation (Bannikov, 1977). It also occurs in the Teberda Nature Reserve (Karachai-Circassia, Russia). It has been reported from Pskhu-Gumista and Ritsa Nature Reserves in Georgia, but recent surveys indicate that it is no longer present there (P. Weinberg pers. comm.). Hunting under license is permitted in some areas. The most useful conservation measure at present would be to increase the level and effectiveness of protection in existing reserves, because organization of new ones seems improbable for the time being.	eng
3794	distribution	Weinberg, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the western part of the Great Caucasus Mountains in Georgia and Russia. Its range stretches in a narrow stripe from Tchugush Mountain massif (apprroximately 44ºN, 39º45?E) to the Balkar Cherek River headwaters on the north slope and Inguri River headwaters on the south slope (appr. 43ºN, 42º50?E), just east of the Mount Elbrus massif (Dinnik, 1910; Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961; Kotov, 1966; Tsalkin, 1955; Vereshchagin, 1959). The present length of the range hardly exceeds 250 km. The distribution reaches its maximal width near Mount. Elbrus ? up to 70 km. Thus, the range of the West Caucasian tur is the smallest one among all the genus <em>Capra</em>.	eng
3794	habitat	Weinberg, P., 2008	The habitat and ecology of western and eastern tur do not differ noticeably. Western tur are more influenced by high precipitation and heavy snow cover. They mostly inhabit subalpine and alpine zones between 800 and 4,000 m asl. They rarely live in forests outside snowy season, probably because forest in the West Caucasus is composed predominantly of fir and spruce and forms closed stands. Where pine are more abundant, Western tur stay more readily in forests (Bobyr, 2002). During the region's harsh winters, tur concentrate on sunny slopes, with 30 to 80% of the animals staying below timberline; during  the summer, tur expand their distribution to slopes of different exposures (Kotov, 1968; Bobyr, 2002).<br/><br/>At high population densities, summer herd size average 11.7 animals, while in winter this rises to 20.3 individuals (Kotov, 1968). Population densities in summer may reach 13 animals/km², more than tripling in wintering areas to 44 animals/km² (Kotov, 1968). The sex ratio usually favors females (Kotov, 1968; Bobyr, 2002; Romashin, 2001).<br/><br/>The rut lasts from mid-November until the beginning of January; birthing season takes place in May-July. Only one kid is born. One month after parturition, average proportion of kids is 13%, but yearlings only 5-9% (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Romashin, 2001; Zalikhanov, 1967). Western tur are preyed upon by wolf (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and lynx (<em>Lynx lynx</em>), but snow avalanches cause most natural deaths (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Zalikhanov, 1967). The leopard (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), while formerly a major predator of <em>C. caucasica</em>, is now very rare in the Caucasus.<br/><br/>Western tur coexist with chamois (<em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em>), dominating the latter throughout the year (Kotov, 1968; Romashin, 2001). The proportions of kids in the populations are mutually negatively correlated in both species, but more markedly so in chamois (Romashin, 2001). The diet of <em>C. caucasica</em> contains over a hundred recorded species of plants, especially grasses. In winter, animals often browse on pine, spruce and willow. Salt licks are visited mostly in the end of spring ? beginning of summer (Bobyr, 2002; Kotov, 1968; Zalikhanov, 1967).	eng
3794	population	Weinberg, P., 2008	The total population estimate in the late 1980s was ca. 12,000 animals (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997), but in recent years numbers have been declining significantly (P. Weinberg, unpubl. data). In 2001, numbers were estimated at 6,000-10,000 (Krever <em>et al</em>., 2001), but the latest available data indicate about 2,500 in the Caucasus Nature Reserve (Romashin, 2001), up to 1,000 animals in Teberda Nature Reserve, with probably few animals outside it (Bobyr, 2002), and approximately 1,000 tur in Svaneti region in Georgia (NACRES, 2006). The total population was given at 5,000-6,000 animals by Weinberg (2004), and might now be lower.	eng
3794	threats	Weinberg, P., 2008	Livestock grazing and poaching are the major threats to the western tur, combined with the impacts of severe winters. Poaching is probably the most significant cause of the recently observed serious declines. Livestock grazing results in competition for resources, especially with domestic sheep and goats. The species is also impacted by habitat loss and degradation (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).	eng
3795	conservation	Weinberg, P., 2008	It is included in Category III in the Georgian Red Data Book (1982). Hunting, including hard currency foreign trophy hunting, is forbidden in Georgia, but is permitted under license in Azerbaijan and Russia. This species of tur is found in several Nature Reserves: 5,200 in Kabardin-Balkarian (Russia), 800 in North-Ossetian (Russia), 700 in Lagodekhi (Georgia), and 2,000 in Zakatala (Azerbaijan). Other protected areas with this species include Tushetian and Kazbegi Nature Reserve (Georgia), and Ilisu Nature Reserve with Kakh sanctuary and Ismailly Nature Reserve together with a sanctuary of the same name, and the newly founded Shakhdagh National Park (Azerbaijan). Of these, tur receive effective protection in Kabardin-Balkarian, North-Ossetian, Lagodekhi and Zakatala Nature Reserves. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) create new reserves, particularly in Daghestan on the border with Georgia and Azerbaijan neighboring with Lagodekhi and Zakatala Nature Reserve respectively; 2) strictly enforce protection measures outside the four-month hunting season; if controls are successful and the population responds, then 3) consider the possibility of increasing the annual hunting quota.	eng
3795	distribution	Weinberg, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern part of the Great Caucasus along the borders of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan between 800 and 4,000 m asl. Its range begins around the headwaters of the Baksan river east of Mount Elbrus (about 43ºN, 43ºE) and stretches for some 600 km eastward along both slopes of the Greater Caucasus to Babadagh mountain (41ºN, 48ºE) (Kuliyev, 1981; Tsalkin, 1955). The distribution is widest (up to 70 km)  in Daghestan (Magomedov, Akhmedov and Yarovenko, 2001), being most narrow in North Ossetia (ca. 12 km) (Weinberg, 2002).	eng
3795	habitat	Weinberg, P., 2008	Eastern tur inhabit elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 m asl. Although the mountains in their range can reach 5,000 m asl, tur seldom rise above 3,500 m asl. They live in forests found up to 2,600 meters, and in subalpine and alpine meadows and rocky talus slopes at higher elevations. Animals avoid thick forests on gentle slopes, but stay readily in open forests growing on steep precipitous slopes. In winters, proportion of animals dwelling below timberline increases (Veinberg, 1984). On average, 34% of eastern tur lived in the forest throughout the year in Georgia (Ekvtimishvili, 1952). Some forest-dwelling populations in Azerbaijan are completely isolated from subalpine and alpine zones (Vereshchagin, 1938; P. Weinberg pers. comm.) In summer, adult males typically inhabit higher altitudes than females and young (Veinberg, 1984). During the region's harsh winters, tur concentrate on sunny slopes; during the summer, animals expand their distribution to slopes of different exposures (Veinberg, 1984; Zalikhanov, 1967; Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001). Seasonal migrations rarely exceed 5 km (Veinberg, 1984; Zalikhanov, 1967).<br/><br/>Animals form mixed, adult male-female groups in November, just prior to rut. These disband by mid-January or the beginning of February at the latest, and adult males and females live separately until the next rutting season (Veinberg, 1984). Females give birth predominantly to just one kid (Veinberg, 1984). Proportion of kids may exceed 20% in Azerbaijan (Kuliev, 1981) and Daghestan (Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001), but reach only 16,5% in North Ossetia, while yearlings make above 7% there (Veinberg, 1984). Sex ratio favours males in protected populations (Weinberg, 2002). Yearly changes of overall group size depends on the reproductive cycle. Rugged and precipitous terrain reduces group size (Veinberg, 1984; Weinberg, 2002). Mean group size also correlates with population density (Magomedov, Akhmedov, Yarovenko, 2001). Overall mean group size is below 10 in North Ossetia (Veinberg, 1984), but reached ca. 78 in Azerbaijan (Kuliev, 1981). Average population density varies from 0.15 to 17 animals/km² (Weinberg, 2002). Eastern tur consume 256 plant species in Daghestan (Abdurakhamanov, 1977). Eastern tur coexist with chamois (<em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em>) on the northern slope in the Central Caucasus and on the southern slope in the Eastern Caucasus (mainly Azerbaijan), but the latter is much less numerous; in Daghestan and Chechnya, it is sympatric with the wild goat (<em>Capra aegagrus</em>) which dominates in the forest but seldom rises above timberline (Weinberg, 2002).	eng
3795	population	Weinberg, P., 2008	Following a period of increase between the 1940s and 1960s numbers have since declined. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the total number was estimated to be between 25,000 to 30,000 animals (Kuliyev, 1981; Ravkin, 1975), but by the late 1980s had declined by >30% to between 18,000 and 20,000 head, of which <em>ca</em>. 2,000 occurred in Georgia (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997). Magomedov, Akhmedov and Yarovenko (2001) suggest that there are up to 20,000 tur in Daghestan alone, but this may be optimistic. The latest data suggest that there are no less than 4,000 animals in three Georgian Nature Reserves alone: Kazbegi, Tusheti and Lagodekhi (NACRES, 2006), probably with few tur remaining outside. An estimate of 3,000 tur reported in Kazbegi Nature Reserve might be twice too much (P. Weinberg pers. comm.). In Russia, besides Daghestan, there are about 800 tur in North-Ossetian Nature Reserve (Mallon, Weinberg and Kopaliani, 2007), and about 7,000 animals in Kabardin-Balkaria (Akkiyev and Pkhitikov, 2007) (though the taxonomic status of this latter population remains unclear).	eng
3795	threats	Weinberg, P., 2008	Livestock grazing and poaching are the major threats to the eastern tur, combined with the impacts of severe winters. Poaching is probably the most significant cause of the recently observed serious declines. Livestock grazing results in competition for resources, especially with domestic sheep and goats. The species is also impacted by habitat loss and degradation (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).	eng
3796	conservation	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	Egypt<br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is protected by Agricultural Law No. 53/l 966 and amendment 1012 July 1992. Hunting of this species is totally forbidden, as mentioned in article 117 of the Agricultural Law. Nubian Ibex occur in several protected areas in Egypt: Gebel Elba Conservation Area; Assiut University Protected Area, where it was rediscovered in 1984 (Krausman and Shaw 1986); and in Jabal (Gebel) Musa and Jabal Katrina Wildlife Reserve in southern Central Sinai. The Gebel Elba Conservation Area falls into the disputed Sudan Government Area in the extreme south-east corner of Egypt, along the border with Sudan. With both Egypt and Sudan claiming the area, any legislation requires the agreement of both parties for it to be realized. Hunting, although banned in the protected area, does take place in at least one part of this area, because neither government claims authority over this section (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Amer (1997) proposed a number of conservation measures, including: considering government control for Assiut University Protected Area to ensure full protection because it is one of the few remaining areas where Nubian Ibex definitely still survive outside the Sinai and Egypt has full control (the site is in the Eastern desert and includes the Wadi El Assiuti and its junction with the Wadi Habib; reactivating the proposal to make Gebel Elba a National Park in co-operation with the Egyptian and Sudanese governments. <br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Between 1980 and 1985, 10 to 44 hunting licenses were issued annually for hunters to kill Nubian Ibex in the Red Sea region. Licenses continued to be issued until 1989, despite a three-year hunting ban introduced in 1988. Due to prior commitments with foreign hunters, hunting Nubian Ibex was exempted from the ban in 1989. Neither the number of licenses issued, nor the areas open for hunting, were based on any scientific surveys to determine if hunting could be sustained by the populations. Poaching is also practiced by nomads who hunt with dogs and traditional weapons. According to the Wildlife Laws, both sheep and ibex can be hunted with an ordinary hunting license. Since January 1992, Nubian Ibex are included as a Schedule II species under the Wildlife Conservation Act; however, this allows the species to be legally hunted with a special hunting permit (Nimir 1997). Nubian Ibex occur in three protected areas along the Red Sea coast: in the Erkawit and Sinkat Sanctuaries, and in the Tokar Game Reserve. As in Egypt, the Gebel Elba Conservation Area is an important site for the conservation of this species, but falls into the disputed Sudan Government Administration Area along the border between the extreme south-east corner of Egypt and the north-east part of the Sudan. Sudan and Egypt are currently negotiating the future of this area, and settlement of this dispute will be required before any form of legislation is realized (Nimir 1997).<br/><br/>Nimir (1997) proposed the following conservation measurees: 1) Increasing protection to effective levels, especially in the protected areas; 2) Placing the species in Schedule I to ensure its full legal protection; and 3) carrying out the Sudan Government?s proposed population estimate and ecological studies, so that a comprehensive conservation management plan for Nubian Ibex can be developed.<br/><br/>Eritrea<br/><br/>The Yob Reserve was legally established under the Italian post-World War II administration in 1959 (Gazetta Eritrea No. 4, p. 3 1,16 March 1959), primarily for the conservation of Nubian Ibex (where the species is believed to have occurred) and other desert wildlife species. However, no formal development occurred, and little is known of this area since that time. Nubian Ibex were never recorded in either of the other two protected areas established in Eritrea in 1959: the Nakfa and Gash-Setit Wildlife Reserves (Hillman and Yohannes 1997).<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hillman and Yohannes 1997) include: 1) carrying out detailed surveys for Nubian ibex in northern Eritrea from the ground and from the air as soon as resources are available; and 2) based on these data, develop a conservation strategy for the species.<br/><br/>Israel<br/><br/>The Israel Nature Reserve Authority designates the species as ?vulnerable? within their principal arid-zone range, and as ?rare? in Mediterranean parts of the country (i.e., Golan Heights). In Israel, it is fully protected and the law is effectively enforced. At least 80% of ibex range is within 15 officially or designated protected areas, most of which are administered by the Nature Reserves Authority. Designated Nature Reserves await formal establishment, but are effectively managed as Nature Reserves. Most established Nature Reserves had tenures of various durations as ?designated? reserves prior to their final establishment. Recent and current management involves annual, autumn 1-day ground surveys of ibex in all major ranges (except Golan), protection of populations and habitats, and encouraging research. A management plan has been developed for Avdat Canyon National Park which supports a large population of ibex in the northern Negev highlands (Ayal 1992). Artificial food patches have been maintained at the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert, but are subject to increasing conflicts with agriculture for irrigation water (Alkon 1997)<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Alkon 1997) include: 1) Develop formal management programs or conservation biology plans for ibex. Up to the present, conservation measures have emphasized the protection of ibex populations and their habitats, and monitoring the species? status. It is recommended that these include considerations of population dynamics, population genetics, habitat requirements and human disturbance. This would involve development and implementation of a more active management/conservation program that would include specific goals and objectives, accurate monitoring of the numerical and genetic statuses and dynamics of ibex populations, management of water resources and other key habitat components (e.g. nutritional ecology and habitat requirements; population dynamics and genetics; effects of human disturbances on ibex behavior and habitat quality). 2) Consider augmenting natural water sources for ibex habitat improvement. Nubian ibex are highly dependent on water, and the lush vegetation around desert springs and other water sources may be important food sources. Present ibex ranges are centered around permanent water sources, and their protection and quality should be a paramount management objective. Conflicts of water allocation between wildlife needs and agricultural uses have arisen in the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert. 3) Initiate a study of the dynamics of the large populations in the Judean desert (~800 animals) and the Negev highlands (~400 animals) that presently appear secure but which are poorly understood. Preliminary analyses indicate that recent annual fluctuations are around 30% density dependent and 70% related to stochastic environmental variation. Due to the small size of the populations, the Eilat mountains and Golan populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation, but nothing is known of their demography. One study (Alkon and Kohlmann 1990) commissioned by the Nature Reserves Authority indicates that the current annual ibex surveys may be deficient in accurately estimating densities and structure of ibex populations, and recommends that alternative monitoring methods be considered. 4) Launch a research program on the genetic diversity among populations. This will be essential for planning appropriate population management programs. The Sede Boqer segment of the Negev highlands population contains substantial genetic diversity (Stiiwe <em>et al</em>. 1992), but nothing is known of the genetics of other populations, or the extent of gene transfer among populations. Present data indicate some movement and possible interchange among elements of the Judean desert and Negev highlands populations, but the Golan and Elat mountains populations are probably genetically isolated. 5) Evaluate the effects of visitors on ibex ecology. Tourism and nature study are intense at several nature reserves and parks in the Judean desert and Negev highlands which are important for ibex. Studies of other wild animals and of Nubian ibex in the Negev highlands (Hakham 1985; Stone 1989) suggest that park visitors may disrupt ibex behavior and movement patterns, and exclude ibex from desired sites. The biological and management consequences of human-ibex interactions are complex. On one hand, Nubian ibex appear to have adapted well to some human activities, and their presence has enhanced the value of the parks and reserves for human visitors, thus promoting public awareness and support of natural values. Conversely, the threshold levels at which human disturbance may adversely impact habitat carrying capacity are unknown, and are likely to vary seasonally, temporally, by location, and with the type of human activity.<br/><br/>Jordan<br/><br/>Until 1978, the ibex was legally hunted in Jordan, but since then it has received full protection and a total ban on hunting this species was put into effect indefinitely. Ibex occur in three protected areas: Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve (212 km²), which includes the escarpment area of the Rift valley desert and extends as far as the Dead sea to 400 m below sea level; Dana Wildlife Reserve protecting 150 km² in the Rift valley mountains; and Wadi Rum Reserve extending over 570 km² of the precipitous rocky outcrops of the Rum mountains in southern Jordan (though the continued presence of the species in this area needs confirmation).  It is also present in the proposed Jebel Masadi Wildlife Reserve, which covers 460 km² from the mountainous plateau and escarpment, down to the Rift valley desert (Hays and Bandak 1997).<br/><br/>The San Diego Wild Animal Park sent 22 young ibex to Jordan in July 1989, to which was added a locally captured juvenile. These animals were housed in a 0.25-0.4 km² enclosure on the slopes of Wadi Mujib. They reproduced well and by 1992, there were 34 individuals, increasing to 68 adults in 1995, when 24 births raised the total captive population to 90. The RSCN began releasing surplus animals into the wild in 1998 and continued until 2006 when the program was terminated becaused the wild population in Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve was judged stable at about 200 animals (L. Harding pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hays and Bandak 1997): 1) Maintain the current strict measures of hunting control to ensure the survival of the species in Jordan. 2) Conduct field studies to assess the status of existing populations and to determine factors controlling their demography. 3) Census the population in Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve, annually, or preferably seasonally, to evaluate the results of the supplemental release into the Reserve. If Jordan?s wildlife reserves are to effectively protect the remaining ibex populations, the support of local people is essential and their community grazing rights must be adequately addressed. To these ends, it would be desirable to initiate a study to determine sustainable levels of domestic livestock grazing within potential ibex habitat. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for trained personnel, together with continued support from international conservation organizations and donor agencies.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/><br/>In Lebanon, where the species is now extinct, a re-introduction programme has been proposed. The Ministry of State for the Environment is establishing a system of protected areas in which to place the offspring from captive breeding units. These areas include Mashgara National Park (3,500 ha) to be in the western Beqaa Valley, and the Barouk multiple use area in central Lebanon. Both these areas are very suitable for Caprinae re-introductions, but both species should not be released into the same reserve to avoid possible interbreeding. However, none of these proposals will be feasible until the armed political unrest ceases or declines significantly (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Oman<br/><br/>Fully protected by law (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4 1976) throughout the country, but the actual level of protection varies somewhat, in part due to the rugged and isolated terrain, and also to local conditions. Nubian Ibex occur in no guarded areas, but in central Oman, notably on the Huquf escarpment, ibex are protected by the guards of the Arabian Oryx Re-introduction Project based at Yalooni in the Governorate of the Central Region. Around the Huqf escarpment, the local Harasis tribes are more amenable to conservation and poaching is minimal. In the Governorate of Dhofar, there is no active enforcement system of the law protecting the ibex, although local individuals make voluntary reports of poaching activities from time to time, some of which are followed up by the local authorities. Both the Huquf escarpment and the main portions of the Jabal Samhan (Dhofar mountains) were included in a 1987 proposal for a national system of Nature Conservation Areas (IUCN 1986). Research is currently being conducted in the central region on the Huquf escarpment and is planned to continue for several years (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed by Daly <em>et al</em>. (1997) include: 1) Determine numbers and distributions throughout the taxon?s range. The first priority area is the eastern range of the Dhofar mountains, the Jabal Samhan, where large concentrations of ibex, as well as conservation problems, have been reported (e.g., Sale 1980). A survey of this area should also include identification of conservation and research needs. Second, the Huquf escarpment study should be continued, focusing particularly on population dynamics, because this population is probably the easiest to study due to its proximity to the oryx project; 2) Surveys for ibex should also be conducted in the Hajr mountains in conjunction with work on Arabian tahr, to determine if it occurs in these northern ranges; 3) Initiate ecological studies throughout the ibex?s range to enable appropriate conservation plans to be developed for this species. These should also include a study of the level of competition between ibex and feral donkeys; 4) Give priority to the establishment of the six protected areas recommended in the 1986 IUCN proposal which would provide protection for ibex populations and their habitat. The proposed protected areas with ibex are: Central Region - Janabah Hills National Nature Reserve (290,000 ha), Janabah Coast National Scenic Reserve (69,000 ha) AZ Zahr National Scenic Reserve (225,000 ha); Southern Region - Arkad National Resource Reserve (264,000 ha) Jabal Samhan National Nature Reserve (346,000 ha) and Shuwaymiyah National Resource Reserve (60,000 ha). <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia<br/><br/>Legally protected by a hunting by-law passed in 1979 which, along with gazelles, gives the species total protection. This law, however, can be difficult to enforce in some remote areas. In Saudi Arabia, it occurs in two official reserves; At Tubayq Reserve in the north, and the Ibex Reserve in Hawtat bani Tamim in the east-central region. Ibex also inhabit the Ahmadi tribal hema (Hemah Fiqrah) in the Western Mountain chain which may become an officially delineated reserve in the future (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include (Habibi and Tatwany 1997): 1)  Vigorously enforce the hunting ban and create legislation banning the movement of Bedouins and ?hunters into protected areas, to halt the indiscriminate poaching of ibex; 2) Launch an education programme in the school system in an effort to inform the public about the merits of conservation, and of the role which wildlife plays in the stability of fragile ecosystems; 3) The current priority of NCWCD must be to establish contiguous protected areas in the mountain chain of western Saudi Arabia, which constitute the major habitats of Nubian ibex. In Syria, Legislative Decree No. 152 (1970) covers hunting regulations and the provision of hunting councils. In 1979, Legislative Decree No. 50 banned all hunting for a 5-year period. Whether this is still in effect is unknown. <br/><br/>Syria<br/><br/>Syria has no protected areas and hunting regulations are not enforced. It was believed that two areas, each about 20,000 ha, had been set aside one in 1968 the other in 1983, as areas for ?le patrimoine animal? (Serhal 1997).<br/><br/>Yemen<br/><br/>Nubian Ibex reportedly occur in proposed Jabal al-Ara?is Reserve, in Abin Province (Mahir Abu Ja?far 1984).	eng
3796	conservation	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	Egypt<br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is protected by Agricultural Law No. 53/l 966 and amendment 1012 July 1992. Hunting of this species is totally forbidden, as mentioned in article 117 of the Agricultural Law. Nubian Ibex occur in several protected areas in Egypt: Gebel Elba Conservation Area; Assiut University Protected Area, where it was rediscovered in 1984 (Krausman and Shaw 1986); and in Jabal (Gebel) Musa and Jabal Katrina Wildlife Reserve in southern Central Sinai. The Gebel Elba Conservation Area falls into the disputed Sudan Government Area in the extreme south-east corner of Egypt, along the border with Sudan. With both Egypt and Sudan claiming the area, any legislation requires the agreement of both parties for it to be realized. Hunting, although banned in the protected area, does take place in at least one part of this area, because neither government claims authority over this section (Amer 1997). <br/><br/>Amer (1997) proposed a number of conservation measures, including: considering government control for Assiut University Protected Area to ensure full protection because it is one of the few remaining areas where Nubian Ibex definitely still survive outside the Sinai and Egypt has full control (the site is in the Eastern desert and includes the Wadi El Assiuti and its junction with the Wadi Habib; reactivating the proposal to make Gebel Elba a National Park in co-operation with the Egyptian and Sudanese governments. <br/><br/>Sudan<br/><br/>Between 1980 and 1985, 10 to 44 hunting licenses were issued annually for hunters to kill Nubian Ibex in the Red Sea region. Licenses continued to be issued until 1989, despite a three-year hunting ban introduced in 1988. Due to prior commitments with foreign hunters, hunting Nubian Ibex was exempted from the ban in 1989. Neither the number of licenses issued, nor the areas open for hunting, were based on any scientific surveys to determine if hunting could be sustained by the populations. Poaching is also practiced by nomads who hunt with dogs and traditional weapons. According to the Wildlife Laws, both sheep and ibex can be hunted with an ordinary hunting license. Since January 1992, Nubian Ibex are included as a Schedule II species under the Wildlife Conservation Act; however, this allows the species to be legally hunted with a special hunting permit (Nimir 1997). Nubian Ibex occur in three protected areas along the Red Sea coast: in the Erkawit and Sinkat Sanctuaries, and in the Tokar Game Reserve. As in Egypt, the Gebel Elba Conservation Area is an important site for the conservation of this species, but falls into the disputed Sudan Government Administration Area along the border between the extreme south-east corner of Egypt and the north-east part of the Sudan. Sudan and Egypt are currently negotiating the future of this area, and settlement of this dispute will be required before any form of legislation is realized (Nimir 1997).<br/><br/>Nimir (1997) proposed the following conservation measurees: 1) Increasing protection to effective levels, especially in the protected areas; 2) Placing the species in Schedule I to ensure its full legal protection; and 3) carrying out the Sudan Government’s proposed population estimate and ecological studies, so that a comprehensive conservation management plan for Nubian Ibex can be developed.<br/><br/>Eritrea<br/><br/>The Yob Reserve was legally established under the Italian post-World War II administration in 1959 (Gazetta Eritrea No. 4, p. 3 1,16 March 1959), primarily for the conservation of Nubian Ibex (where the species is believed to have occurred) and other desert wildlife species. However, no formal development occurred, and little is known of this area since that time. Nubian Ibex were never recorded in either of the other two protected areas established in Eritrea in 1959: the Nakfa and Gash-Setit Wildlife Reserves (Hillman and Yohannes 1997).<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hillman and Yohannes 1997) include: 1) carrying out detailed surveys for Nubian ibex in northern Eritrea from the ground and from the air as soon as resources are available; and 2) based on these data, develop a conservation strategy for the species.<br/><br/>Israel<br/><br/>The Israel Nature Reserve Authority designates the species as “vulnerable” within their principal arid-zone range, and as “rare” in Mediterranean parts of the country (i.e., Golan Heights). In Israel, it is fully protected and the law is effectively enforced. At least 80% of ibex range is within 15 officially or designated protected areas, most of which are administered by the Nature Reserves Authority. Designated Nature Reserves await formal establishment, but are effectively managed as Nature Reserves. Most established Nature Reserves had tenures of various durations as “designated” reserves prior to their final establishment. Recent and current management involves annual, autumn 1-day ground surveys of ibex in all major ranges (except Golan), protection of populations and habitats, and encouraging research. A management plan has been developed for Avdat Canyon National Park which supports a large population of ibex in the northern Negev highlands (Ayal 1992). Artificial food patches have been maintained at the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert, but are subject to increasing conflicts with agriculture for irrigation water (Alkon 1997)<br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Alkon 1997) include: 1) Develop formal management programs or conservation biology plans for ibex. Up to the present, conservation measures have emphasized the protection of ibex populations and their habitats, and monitoring the species’ status. It is recommended that these include considerations of population dynamics, population genetics, habitat requirements and human disturbance. This would involve development and implementation of a more active management/conservation program that would include specific goals and objectives, accurate monitoring of the numerical and genetic statuses and dynamics of ibex populations, management of water resources and other key habitat components (e.g. nutritional ecology and habitat requirements; population dynamics and genetics; effects of human disturbances on ibex behavior and habitat quality). 2) Consider augmenting natural water sources for ibex habitat improvement. Nubian ibex are highly dependent on water, and the lush vegetation around desert springs and other water sources may be important food sources. Present ibex ranges are centered around permanent water sources, and their protection and quality should be a paramount management objective. Conflicts of water allocation between wildlife needs and agricultural uses have arisen in the En Gedi Nature Reserve in the Judean desert. 3) Initiate a study of the dynamics of the large populations in the Judean desert (~800 animals) and the Negev highlands (~400 animals) that presently appear secure but which are poorly understood. Preliminary analyses indicate that recent annual fluctuations are around 30% density dependent and 70% related to stochastic environmental variation. Due to the small size of the populations, the Eilat mountains and Golan populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation, but nothing is known of their demography. One study (Alkon and Kohlmann 1990) commissioned by the Nature Reserves Authority indicates that the current annual ibex surveys may be deficient in accurately estimating densities and structure of ibex populations, and recommends that alternative monitoring methods be considered. 4) Launch a research program on the genetic diversity among populations. This will be essential for planning appropriate population management programs. The Sede Boqer segment of the Negev highlands population contains substantial genetic diversity (Stiiwe <em>et al</em>. 1992), but nothing is known of the genetics of other populations, or the extent of gene transfer among populations. Present data indicate some movement and possible interchange among elements of the Judean desert and Negev highlands populations, but the Golan and Elat mountains populations are probably genetically isolated. 5) Evaluate the effects of visitors on ibex ecology. Tourism and nature study are intense at several nature reserves and parks in the Judean desert and Negev highlands which are important for ibex. Studies of other wild animals and of Nubian ibex in the Negev highlands (Hakham 1985; Stone 1989) suggest that park visitors may disrupt ibex behavior and movement patterns, and exclude ibex from desired sites. The biological and management consequences of human-ibex interactions are complex. On one hand, Nubian ibex appear to have adapted well to some human activities, and their presence has enhanced the value of the parks and reserves for human visitors, thus promoting public awareness and support of natural values. Conversely, the threshold levels at which human disturbance may adversely impact habitat carrying capacity are unknown, and are likely to vary seasonally, temporally, by location, and with the type of human activity.<br/><br/>Jordan<br/><br/>Until 1978, the ibex was legally hunted in Jordan, but since then it has received full protection and a total ban on hunting this species was put into effect indefinitely. Ibex occur in three protected areas: Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve (212 km²), which includes the escarpment area of the Rift valley desert and extends as far as the Dead sea to 400 m below sea level; Dana Wildlife Reserve protecting 150 km² in the Rift valley mountains; and Wadi Rum Reserve extending over 570 km² of the precipitous rocky outcrops of the Rum mountains in southern Jordan (though the continued presence of the species in this area needs confirmation).  It is also present in the proposed Jebel Masadi Wildlife Reserve, which covers 460 km² from the mountainous plateau and escarpment, down to the Rift valley desert (Hays and Bandak 1997).<br/><br/>The San Diego Wild Animal Park sent 22 young ibex to Jordan in July 1989, to which was added a locally captured juvenile. These animals were housed in a 0.25-0.4 km² enclosure on the slopes of Wadi Mujib. They reproduced well and by 1992, there were 34 individuals, increasing to 68 adults in 1995, when 24 births raised the total captive population to 90. The RSCN began releasing surplus animals into the wild in 1998 and continued until 2006 when the program was terminated becaused the wild population in Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve was judged stable at about 200 animals (L. Harding pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed (Hays and Bandak 1997): 1) Maintain the current strict measures of hunting control to ensure the survival of the species in Jordan. 2) Conduct field studies to assess the status of existing populations and to determine factors controlling their demography. 3) Census the population in Wadi Mujib Wildlife Reserve, annually, or preferably seasonally, to evaluate the results of the supplemental release into the Reserve. If Jordan’s wildlife reserves are to effectively protect the remaining ibex populations, the support of local people is essential and their community grazing rights must be adequately addressed. To these ends, it would be desirable to initiate a study to determine sustainable levels of domestic livestock grazing within potential ibex habitat. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for trained personnel, together with continued support from international conservation organizations and donor agencies.<br/><br/>Lebanon<br/><br/>In Lebanon, where the species is now extinct, a re-introduction programme has been proposed. The Ministry of State for the Environment is establishing a system of protected areas in which to place the offspring from captive breeding units. These areas include Mashgara National Park (3,500 ha) to be in the western Beqaa Valley, and the Barouk multiple use area in central Lebanon. Both these areas are very suitable for Caprinae re-introductions, but both species should not be released into the same reserve to avoid possible interbreeding. However, none of these proposals will be feasible until the armed political unrest ceases or declines significantly (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Oman<br/><br/>Fully protected by law (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4 1976) throughout the country, but the actual level of protection varies somewhat, in part due to the rugged and isolated terrain, and also to local conditions. Nubian Ibex occur in no guarded areas, but in central Oman, notably on the Huquf escarpment, ibex are protected by the guards of the Arabian Oryx Re-introduction Project based at Yalooni in the Governorate of the Central Region. Around the Huqf escarpment, the local Harasis tribes are more amenable to conservation and poaching is minimal. In the Governorate of Dhofar, there is no active enforcement system of the law protecting the ibex, although local individuals make voluntary reports of poaching activities from time to time, some of which are followed up by the local authorities. Both the Huquf escarpment and the main portions of the Jabal Samhan (Dhofar mountains) were included in a 1987 proposal for a national system of Nature Conservation Areas (IUCN 1986). Research is currently being conducted in the central region on the Huquf escarpment and is planned to continue for several years (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed by Daly <em>et al</em>. (1997) include: 1) Determine numbers and distributions throughout the taxon’s range. The first priority area is the eastern range of the Dhofar mountains, the Jabal Samhan, where large concentrations of ibex, as well as conservation problems, have been reported (e.g., Sale 1980). A survey of this area should also include identification of conservation and research needs. Second, the Huquf escarpment study should be continued, focusing particularly on population dynamics, because this population is probably the easiest to study due to its proximity to the oryx project; 2) Surveys for ibex should also be conducted in the Hajr mountains in conjunction with work on Arabian tahr, to determine if it occurs in these northern ranges; 3) Initiate ecological studies throughout the ibex’s range to enable appropriate conservation plans to be developed for this species. These should also include a study of the level of competition between ibex and feral donkeys; 4) Give priority to the establishment of the six protected areas recommended in the 1986 IUCN proposal which would provide protection for ibex populations and their habitat. The proposed protected areas with ibex are: Central Region - Janabah Hills National Nature Reserve (290,000 ha), Janabah Coast National Scenic Reserve (69,000 ha) AZ Zahr National Scenic Reserve (225,000 ha); Southern Region - Arkad National Resource Reserve (264,000 ha) Jabal Samhan National Nature Reserve (346,000 ha) and Shuwaymiyah National Resource Reserve (60,000 ha). <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia<br/><br/>Legally protected by a hunting by-law passed in 1979 which, along with gazelles, gives the species total protection. This law, however, can be difficult to enforce in some remote areas. In Saudi Arabia, it occurs in two official reserves; At Tubayq Reserve in the north, and the Ibex Reserve in Hawtat bani Tamim in the east-central region. Ibex also inhabit the Ahmadi tribal hema (Hemah Fiqrah) in the Western Mountain chain which may become an officially delineated reserve in the future (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed include (Habibi and Tatwany 1997): 1)  Vigorously enforce the hunting ban and create legislation banning the movement of Bedouins and ‘hunters into protected areas, to halt the indiscriminate poaching of ibex; 2) Launch an education programme in the school system in an effort to inform the public about the merits of conservation, and of the role which wildlife plays in the stability of fragile ecosystems; 3) The current priority of NCWCD must be to establish contiguous protected areas in the mountain chain of western Saudi Arabia, which constitute the major habitats of Nubian ibex. In Syria, Legislative Decree No. 152 (1970) covers hunting regulations and the provision of hunting councils. In 1979, Legislative Decree No. 50 banned all hunting for a 5-year period. Whether this is still in effect is unknown. <br/><br/>Syria<br/><br/>Syria has no protected areas and hunting regulations are not enforced. It was believed that two areas, each about 20,000 ha, had been set aside one in 1968 the other in 1983, as areas for “le patrimoine animal” (Serhal 1997).<br/><br/>Yemen<br/><br/>Nubian Ibex reportedly occur in proposed Jabal al-Ara’is Reserve, in Abin Province (Mahir Abu Ja’far 1984).	eng
3796	distribution	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	This species occurs in Egypt east of the Nile, north-east Sudan, northern Ethiopia and western Eritrea, Israel, west Jordan, scattered locations in western and central Saudi Arabia, scattered locations in Yemen, and in southern Oman (Grubb 2005). It is extinct in Lebanon (not mapped) and Syria (not mapped; however, there is one introduced population).<br/><br/>In Africa, Nubian Ibex exist as small isolated populations in the Eastern Desert and Red Sea Mountains of Egypt. Confirmed ibex occurrences in Egypt?s Eastern Desert are: Moattum/Qattamiya hills, Gabal Attaqa, El Galala El Bahariya Plateau, and El Galala El Quiblia Plateau (Saleh, in Alkon in press). Ibex also occur throughout the Red Sea Mountains of Egypt, from Gabal Gharib in the north to Elba near the Sudan border (Alkon in press). Recent records in Egypt?s Sinai Peninsula come from Gabal El Maghara, Gabal El Halal and Gabal Yalag in north Sinai, the El Tih Plateau in central Sinai, and at many sites in the south Sinai mountains (Saleh and Basuony 1998). A discussion of the historical ecology and biogeography of the Nubian Ibex in Egypt from 1800 to the present day is given by Manlius (2001).<br/><br/>In Sudan, small Nubian Ibex populations were observed at Erkawit, Jebel Ashat and Sherik Gebel during a 1990 survey (Nimir 1997), and the species likely occurs elsewhere in the country?s Red Sea hills (I.M. Hashim, in Alkon in press).<br/><br/>Although previously recorded near the Sudan border, there are no confirmed recent records available for Eritrea (Hillman and Yohannes 1997, D. Zinner pers. comm.). Nubian Ibex had been reported in extreme northern Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984), but the only recent record is an unconfirmed report from the Tendaho Estates area in east-central Ethiopia near the Djibouti border (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Israel, its former range is believed to approximate the present natural distribution of ibex, although populations were probably smaller prior to the 1960s. Today, ibex naturally occur in three major centers comprising mountainous and steep terrain in eastern and southern Israel: Judean desert, Negev, and Elat mountains. Substantial interchange of animals is likely within each of the major ranges, and is also likely between portions of the Judean desert and Negev populations. Ibex inhabiting the Elat mountains may be separated from other ibex in Israel, but more research is required to define connections among ibex populations in the country (Shkedy and Saltz 2000). The small, population of the Golan (Israeli occupied Syria) represents re-introduction.<br/><br/>In Jordan, ibex is currently confined to remote areas of rugged, mountainous terrain from the north-eastern escarpment of the Dead Sea, south along the Rift valley to Wadi Araba, and further south-east in the mountains of Wadi Rum (Hays and Bandak 1997). It is also recorded from Wadi Zerqa Main and Aqaba (Harrison 1968a). <br/><br/>In Lebanon, ibex were previously found in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon until the early 1900s; they are now extinct (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Nubian Ibex may have occurred in the western Hajr mountains in northern Oman (Harrison 1967, 1968a; Harrison and Bates 1991), but as this was a single observation and there have been none since, it is possible that they are now absent or never existed as a viable population in this region. Currently, its known distribution is patchy and extends along the coastline in rugged terrain, south from the Huquf escarpment (approximately 21?N) to the border with Yemen. Five populations are known within this region, based on isolated sightings: Huquf Janaba Hills, Ra?s Madrakah, Jabal Samhan, and Jabal al Qamr. Recent evidence from radio-tracked individuals caught and released on the Huquf escarpment indicates that there is some movement of animals between the Huquf and Janaba Hills populations (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, few systematic censuses have been made. Most data come from brief aerial and ground reconnaissance surveys made to locate populations. Among the 15 sites where ibex have been found, major concentrations occur in the western mountains of the Arabian shield, with isolated populations located in the north, north-central and central regions. Only scattered observations have been made in the south. The highest densities appear to be in Jabal Qaraqar, Hemah Fiqrah and Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Based on records provided in Harrison (1968), Nubian Ibex was found in Syria in the Jabal ash-Sharqi mountain ranges north of Dimasq which run southwest-northeast, as far as Halab (Aleppo) and to just south of Tadmur (Palmyra), presumably in the Jabal al Khunayzir. There are apparently no recent records of the species in Syria (Masseti 2004), and it is believed to be extinct (Serhal 1997), apart from the re-introduced population in the Golan Heights. A female from the mountains east of El Qaryatein was collected in 1905 (Masseti 2004), and the last published record of a sighting is that of Maydon (1930) who recorded the species in the Jabal el Abtar, southwest of Tadmor (Harrison 1968a, Harrison and Bates 1991), although according to recent interviews with local people at Palmyra the species may have survived in the Tadmor region into the second half of the 1900s (G. Serra pers. comm. in Masseti 2004).<br/><br/>This ibex was also previously reported from the mountains in south-east Yemen which join with the Dhofar mountains of Oman (Harrison 1968). No recent surveys of current distributions have been made; however, it appears to still exist in greatly reduced numbers in the remotest regions of the dry mountains of the Hadramawt in the east (C. Stuart, in Shackleton 1997).	eng
3796	distribution	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	This species occurs in Egypt east of the Nile, north-east Sudan, northern Ethiopia and western Eritrea, Israel, west Jordan, scattered locations in western and central Saudi Arabia, scattered locations in Yemen, and in southern Oman (Grubb 2005). It is extinct in Lebanon (not mapped) and Syria (not mapped; however, there is one introduced population).<br/><br/>In Africa, Nubian Ibex exist as small isolated populations in the Eastern Desert and Red Sea Mountains of Egypt. Confirmed ibex occurrences in Egypt’s Eastern Desert are: Moattum/Qattamiya hills, Gabal Attaqa, El Galala El Bahariya Plateau, and El Galala El Quiblia Plateau (Saleh, in Alkon in press). Ibex also occur throughout the Red Sea Mountains of Egypt, from Gabal Gharib in the north to Elba near the Sudan border (Alkon in press). Recent records in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula come from Gabal El Maghara, Gabal El Halal and Gabal Yalag in north Sinai, the El Tih Plateau in central Sinai, and at many sites in the south Sinai mountains (Saleh and Basuony 1998). A discussion of the historical ecology and biogeography of the Nubian Ibex in Egypt from 1800 to the present day is given by Manlius (2001).<br/><br/>In Sudan, small Nubian Ibex populations were observed at Erkawit, Jebel Ashat and Sherik Gebel during a 1990 survey (Nimir 1997), and the species likely occurs elsewhere in the country’s Red Sea hills (I.M. Hashim, in Alkon in press).<br/><br/>Although previously recorded near the Sudan border, there are no confirmed recent records available for Eritrea (Hillman and Yohannes 1997, D. Zinner pers. comm.). Nubian Ibex had been reported in extreme northern Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984), but the only recent record is an unconfirmed report from the Tendaho Estates area in east-central Ethiopia near the Djibouti border (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Israel, its former range is believed to approximate the present natural distribution of ibex, although populations were probably smaller prior to the 1960s. Today, ibex naturally occur in three major centers comprising mountainous and steep terrain in eastern and southern Israel: Judean desert, Negev, and Elat mountains. Substantial interchange of animals is likely within each of the major ranges, and is also likely between portions of the Judean desert and Negev populations. Ibex inhabiting the Elat mountains may be separated from other ibex in Israel, but more research is required to define connections among ibex populations in the country (Shkedy and Saltz 2000). The small, population of the Golan (Israeli occupied Syria) represents re-introduction.<br/><br/>In Jordan, ibex is currently confined to remote areas of rugged, mountainous terrain from the north-eastern escarpment of the Dead Sea, south along the Rift valley to Wadi Araba, and further south-east in the mountains of Wadi Rum (Hays and Bandak 1997). It is also recorded from Wadi Zerqa Main and Aqaba (Harrison 1968a). <br/><br/>In Lebanon, ibex were previously found in Barouk, the Ammiq mountains and on Mount Harmon, northern Lebanon until the early 1900s; they are now extinct (Serhal 1997). <br/><br/>Nubian Ibex may have occurred in the western Hajr mountains in northern Oman (Harrison 1967, 1968a; Harrison and Bates 1991), but as this was a single observation and there have been none since, it is possible that they are now absent or never existed as a viable population in this region. Currently, its known distribution is patchy and extends along the coastline in rugged terrain, south from the Huquf escarpment (approximately 21”N) to the border with Yemen. Five populations are known within this region, based on isolated sightings: Huquf Janaba Hills, Ra’s Madrakah, Jabal Samhan, and Jabal al Qamr. Recent evidence from radio-tracked individuals caught and released on the Huquf escarpment indicates that there is some movement of animals between the Huquf and Janaba Hills populations (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, few systematic censuses have been made. Most data come from brief aerial and ground reconnaissance surveys made to locate populations. Among the 15 sites where ibex have been found, major concentrations occur in the western mountains of the Arabian shield, with isolated populations located in the north, north-central and central regions. Only scattered observations have been made in the south. The highest densities appear to be in Jabal Qaraqar, Hemah Fiqrah and Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). <br/><br/>Based on records provided in Harrison (1968), Nubian Ibex was found in Syria in the Jabal ash-Sharqi mountain ranges north of Dimasq which run southwest-northeast, as far as Halab (Aleppo) and to just south of Tadmur (Palmyra), presumably in the Jabal al Khunayzir. There are apparently no recent records of the species in Syria (Masseti 2004), and it is believed to be extinct (Serhal 1997), apart from the re-introduced population in the Golan Heights. A female from the mountains east of El Qaryatein was collected in 1905 (Masseti 2004), and the last published record of a sighting is that of Maydon (1930) who recorded the species in the Jabal el Abtar, southwest of Tadmor (Harrison 1968a, Harrison and Bates 1991), although according to recent interviews with local people at Palmyra the species may have survived in the Tadmor region into the second half of the 1900s (G. Serra pers. comm. in Masseti 2004).<br/><br/>This ibex was also previously reported from the mountains in south-east Yemen which join with the Dhofar mountains of Oman (Harrison 1968). No recent surveys of current distributions have been made; however, it appears to still exist in greatly reduced numbers in the remotest regions of the dry mountains of the Hadramawt in the east (C. Stuart, in Shackleton 1997).	eng
3796	habitat	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	Nubian Ibex occur in rocky, desert mountains with steep slopes and hills (which provide vital escape routes), and associated plateaus, canyons and wadis. They consume a wide array of herbaceous and woody plants.	eng
3796	population	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	There is currently a lack of population data for some parts of the range of the Nubian Ibex; however, it is estimated that there are less than 2,500 mature individuals. More information is needed on population trends in the past, present, and future.<br/><br/>On the Sinai Peninsula, between 1977 and 1979, the population in the north has been estimated at around 50 animals, in the central region around 200, and in the south 155 (Baharav and Meiboom 1981). There are no reliable estimates of overall population size in Egypt, but they are thought to be stable; about 200 Ibex inhabit the El Galala El Baharia Plateau (M. Saleh, in Alkon in press). There are no estimates available for Eritrea, Ethiopia or Sudan.<br/><br/>In Israel, comprehensive, one-day ground surveys (supplemented by sporadic aerial counts) have been conducted annually each autumn within all major ibex ranges since 1981 by the Nature Reserves Authority. Total counts were relatively stable during 1982 to 1987, with a mean total count of 1,064 + 147 during this period, and a mean adult female-kid ratio of 2.2:1. Count data suggest that ibex are at carrying capacity in their major ranges. Given that the survey probably underestimates actual numbers, the total estimated number of Nubian Ibex in Israel is about 1,500, of which 800 are in the Judean desert, 500 in the Negev, and 150 in the Elat mountains. Recent counts indicate a decline in all three subpopulations (D. Saltz pers. comm.). No informed estimate is available for the size of the re-introduced Golan Heights population in Israeli-occupied Syria (Alkon 1997). <br/><br/>In Jordan, a captive breeding program was started in 1989 to augment a small relict population in danger of extirpation (L. Harding pers. comm.). Captive-bred animals were released into the Wadi Mujib Nature Reserve beginning in 1998, and the programme was terminated in 2006 when the wild population was estimated at approximately 200 (L. Harding pers. comm.). They are now believed to be stable in numbers (Maher Abu Jafar pers. comm.). A second population further south, centered on the Dana Nature Reserve, has been increasing any may be larger than the Wadi Mujib population, although no estimates of numbers are available (L. Harding pers. comm.). The former population in the Rum mountains has not been confirmed in recent years (L. Harding pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Oman, no data are available on the size, demographic status or trends of the total Nubian Ibex population. Ibex distributions and numbers are most likely determined to a large extent by the temporal and spatial rainfall pattern, particularly in the most arid areas. However, surveys have been completed only in the Huquf escarpment area, where numbers appear to have been stable over the last five years. In the coastal hills to the south of this population, the status of ibex is unknown (but see Sale, 1980). Generally, densities are likely to be similar to the Huquf escarpment where there are estimated to be one ibex/km² (Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>In Saudi Arabia, there are no population estimates, but overall, numbers are believed to be decreasing in areas where ibex are not protected. In contrast, ibex numbers are believed to be increasing in the two protected areas where recruitment is satisfactory and females appear to give birth to twins frequently (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). In the Hawtat bani Tamim Ibex Reserve, the most recent census (Spring 2007) recorded 400 individuals (I. Nader pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are no estimates for Yemen (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>The Nubian Ibex is extinct in Syria, and in Lebanon due to large scale habitat destruction and abuse of hunting regulations (Serhal 1997a,b).	eng
3796	threats	Alkon, P.U., Harding, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Cuzin, F. & Saltz, D., 2008	Competition with livestock, camels and feral donkeys is a general threat throughout the range (Amer 1997; Hays and Bandak 1997; Daly <em>et al</em>. 1997). In Egypt, the availability and distribution of waterholes is likely to be a major factor in the condition of populations, and both may fluctuate from year to year (Amer 1997). Water resources are also scarce in Israel and competition for these resources, along with habitat degradation by contamination of water sources, are major potential threats. High levels of tourists at watering, feeding and birthing sites also threatened the population in Israel (Alkon 1997).<br/><br/>Hunting is a threat to the species throughout its range. Poaching definitely occurs in Egypt (Amer 1997) and in Sudan (Nimir 1997), and is implicated in the disappearance of this species from some parts of its range in Egypt (Manlius 2001). Poaching also occurs in Jordan, although this threat has decreased recently (Hays and Bandak 1997). In Saudi Arabia, a general ban on hunting ibex was promulgated in 1979; however, it is difficult to control poaching, especially in remote areas (Habibi and Tatwany 1997). The species is effectively protected from hunting in Israel (Alkon 1997). In Yemen, automatic weapons are owned by many people throughout the country and hunting is probably the greatest threat to the ibex (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation threatens the species in much of its range. In Saudi Arabia, Nubian Ibex continue to be threatened by habitat degradation, particularly through the extension of roads, livestock encroachment and other development pressures in and around its remaining refuges (Habibi and Tatwany 1997).  Bedouin access to isolated regions where ibex occur means that the habitat and water resources of otherwise secure populations are threatened.<br/><br/>Some predation by leopards (<em>Panthera pardus</em>) has been reported in Israel, and reproductive success and juvenile survival vary from year to year, probably depending largely on the nutritional status of adult females. No significant effects of parasites or diseases have been detected among wild populations (Alkon 1997).  In Jordan, the small size of remaining ibex populations and their isolation from each other is also a cause for concern (Hays and Bandak 1997). In Saudi Arabia, continued displacement and isolation of ibex populations will further limit opportunities for dispersal and genetic interchange between scattered populations (Habibi and Tatwany 1997).	eng
3797	conservation	Geberemedhin, B. & Grubb, P., 2008	The Walia Ibex is protected by Ethiopian law and cannot be hunted except under a Special Permit for Hunting Game Animals for Scientific Purposes. The Walia Ibex is used by the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) and the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS) as their emblem, and frequently features in other Ethiopian symbolism (such as the national football team). <br/><br/>The Simen Mountains National Park, which contains the majority of the world population of this species, was gazetted by the Simen National Park Order No. 59 (1969) and became a World Heritage Site in 1978. Here the Walia Ibex may be receiving adequate if limited protection. The Park, while providing a core conservation area, must be considered in terms of a much larger environmental unit. It is essential to maintain wildlife corridors between the Park and surrounding areas of the Simen mountains. A detailed management plan for the Park and surrounding areas was developed after a 20-year inter-disciplinary research program (Hurni 1986). It deals not only with the Walia Ibex, but all the area’s unique wildlife, as well as the needs of the rural human population. Currently, the Park is administered by the Parks and Wildlife Administration Authority of the Regional Government. The park has attracted more international and national attention following its inclusion on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1996. An integrated conservation and development project  – the Simen Mountains National Integrated Development Project - funded by the Austrian Government and implemented in collaboration with the Parks Authority has resulted in considerable conservation activity in the last seven years.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures have been proposed: 1) establish the 400 km² buffer zone proposed in the 1986 Management Plan (Hurni 1986) for Simen Mountains National Park, which would increase the effective area of Simen Mountains National Park to 590 km² and serve two main functions; 2) reduce human and livestock impact in the National Park; 3) prohibit all hunting within the Park and enforce regulations effectively; 4) although no hybrids of domestic goats with Walia Ibex have been reported, free-ranging domestic goats must be eliminated from the Park and around other ibex populations to exclude the possibility of hybridization occurring; 5) with no Walia Ibex in captivity anywhere in the world, a small number should be captured to form the nucleus of a captive-breeding group in a closely managed and protected location in Ethiopia, and for a captive-breeding population outside the country; and 6) establish a monitoring programme that includes systematic execution and control of the conservation measures (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997; Nievergelt in press). A detailed ecological study of the species and habitat assessment on the potential new areas for re-establishment is needed.	eng
3797	distribution	Geberemedhin, B. & Grubb, P., 2008	Ethiopia is home to the world’s only population of Walia Iibex, which is found only in and around the Simien Mountains (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984; Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997; Nievergelt in press) in the North Gonder Administrative Zone of the Amhara National Regional State of north-western Ethiopia. Formerly more widespread in the Simen Mountains, most remaining Walia Ibex are found within the boundaries of the Simien Mountains National Park (13,600 ha), mainly along 25 km of the northern escarpment between Adarmaz Camp and Chennek Camp. There are also four small populations outside the protected area: north of Werk Amba west of the park; between Silki and Walka north-east of the park; between Bwahit and Mesarerya; and just north of Weynobar along the Ras Dejen escarpment to the north (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
3797	habitat	Geberemedhin, B. & Grubb, P., 2008	The Simien Mountains are characterized by huge gorges and gulleys, both of which carve out steep and jagged cliffs, with this species inhabiting only the high cliffs that rise above the lower elevated plateau. However, ibex may descend to plateaus in areas where there is less human interference or disturbance.<br/><br/>Walia Ibex have varied social units, such as female-based groups that include kids and young males until they are about two or three years, groups of adult males, and mixed groups (Nievergelt 1981, Dunbar and Dunbar 1981). Most groups are relatively small, although groups of more than 50 individuals have been observed (Ludi 2006). Sexual segregation is pronounced mostly during parturition and lactation. This species is polygynous, with breeding year round, unlike other ibex species; however, there is a rutting peak from March to May. The diet of the Walia Ibex includes a great variety of herbaceous and woody plants (Dunbar 1978, Nievergelt 1981).	eng
3797	population	Geberemedhin, B. & Grubb, P., 2008	In 2004, the poulation stood at around 500, a slight increase over earlier estimates of 200-250 animals in 1994-1996 (Nievergelt in press). The population has been showing signs of increase over the past decade or so.	eng
3797	threats	Geberemedhin, B. & Grubb, P., 2008	Having survived two decades of war, the main threat to this species is now habitat destruction caused by human encroachment (the remaining natural habitat is extremely limited), even though most of the villagers who lived in the lowland areas of the Park were resettled outside the Park in 1978. However, they have returned once again taking advantage of the war that occurred over the last two decades or so and are residing within the National Park creating increasing pressure on the Park and its wildlife. Today, there are over 30,000 people living within and just outside of the National Park boundary. Despite the existence of national and regional legislation, the remoteness of the area coupled with the existence of people living within and outside of the Park prior to its establishment as a Conservation Area makes legislation difficult to enforce.<br/><br/>A few Walia ibex also move to the south-east of their natural range to feed on cultivated crops at places where there is cultivation of barley and other crops on steep gradients. These incidences occasionally lead to conflict with local farmers (B. Gebremedhin pers. comm.).	eng
3798	conservation	Herrero, J. & Pérez, J.M., 2008	The species is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is listed as Critically Endangered in Portugal, owing to its very small population in that country (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>C. p. victoriae</em> occurs in Sierra de Gredos, las Batuecas and Riaño Hunting Reserves and Manzanares Natural Park. <em>C. p. hispanica</em> occurs in a number of protected areas, including Sierra de las Nieves, Sierra de Grazalema, Sierra Nevada, and Sierra de Tajada y Almijara, Puertos de Tortosa y Beceite, and Muela de Cortes. However, most of the range occupied by wild goats is outside protected areas. Conservation measures proposed include establishing additional populations of <em>C. p. victoriae</em> in other areas to strengthen its conservation status by reducing the possibility of an epizootic or some other catastrophe wiping out, or severely depleting, the present small population. When establishing new populations, founder effects should be considered, and sufficient numbers of animals should be introduced to maintain genetic diversity (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Measures should be taken to reduce poaching (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and the impact of hunting should be scientifically assessed.	eng
3798	distribution	Herrero, J. & Pérez, J.M., 2008	This species historically occurred throughout the Iberian peninsula, including southwest France, Spain, Andorra, and Portugal (Grubb, 2005). It is, however, extinct in the northern part of its range (including in France and Andorra), and no longer occurs in the Pyrenees. <em>Capra pyrenaica</em> is now endemic to the Iberian peninsula. Of the four described subspecies, only two are extant: <em>C. p. victoriae</em> and <em>C. p. hispanica</em>. <em>C. p. victoriae</em> occurs in the central Spanish mountains (Sierra de Gredos), and has been re-introduced to a number of additional sites in Spain (Batuecas, La Pedriza, Riaño) and northern Portugal (Peneda-Gerês National Park) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, Moço <em>et al.</em> 2006, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). <em>C. p. hispanica</em> occupies the arc of mountains that run along the Mediterranean coast, from the Ebro river to the rock of Gibraltar (where it no longer occurs), as well as the Sierra Morena. <em>C. p. lusitanica</em> died out at the end of the 19th century, and <em>C. p. pyrenaica</em> went extinct in 2000 when the last known individual was found dead (Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). It formerly occurred throughout much of the French, Spanish and Andorran Pyrenees, and persisted until recently in Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park in the Maladeta massif.  The species is found from sea level to 3,400 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
3798	habitat	Herrero, J. & Pérez, J.M., 2008	It occurs in rocky habitats. Even small rocky patches in arable farmland and on the coast may be used, although cliffs and screes interspersed with scrub or pine trees are the most typical habitats. It often lives in very close proximity to humans, and is a familiar and popular species. It disperses readily and can rapidly colonise new areas if appropriate habitat is available. It is an important trophy-hunting species, with some trophy prices exceeding EUR 2,000 (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Hunting can be an important source of revenue to local communities in rural areas. The species can sometimes be an agricultural pest, causing damage to almond trees (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006).	eng
3798	population	Herrero, J. & Pérez, J.M., 2008	The population in the whole of the Iberian peninsula was estimated at c.50,000 individuals in more than 50 subpopulations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002). Subpopulations include those of the Sierra Nevada (16,000 individuals), Sierra de Gredos (8,000  individuals), Maestrazgo (7,000 individuals), Serranía de Ronda and Sierras de Grazalema (4,000  individuals), Puertos de Tortosa y Beceite Natural Park (4,000 individuals) Cazorla (2,500  individuals), Sierra Tejeda y Almijara (2,500  individuals), Sierras de Antequera (2,000  individuals), Sierra Morena (2,000 individuals) and Muela de Córtes (1,500  individuals) (Pérez <em>et al.</em> 2002, J. Herrero and J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have expanded dramatically since the early 1990s, when the total population was estimated at c.7,900 individuals (Shackleton 1997), and continue to increase. Its range is expanding in Spain and into Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 2003 the Portuguese population consisted of a minimum of 75 individuals. (Moço <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
3798	threats	Herrero, J. & Pérez, J.M., 2008	No threats are causing population or range declines at present - indeed the species is expanding. However, alteration and fragmentation of habitats (through agriculture, forestry, fires, and infrastructure development) may impact upon certain <em>Capra pyrenaica</em> populations, and competition with the introduced the aoudad (<em>Ammotragus lervia</em>) might become a conservation problem in the near future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006). The aoudad was introduced during the 1970s in southeastern Spain, and recently an important range expansion of this exotic ungulate has been reported (Cassinello <em>et al.</em> 2004); competition between these two ungulate species can be expected. The impact of hunting (predominantly for trophies) has not been scientifically assessed (J. M. Pérez pers. comm. 2006), but the poaching of large dominant males might alter gene flow (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). However, hunting levels are broadly under control. Outbreaks of mange (<em>Sarcoptes scabiei</em>) occur sporadically and have caused at least one major population crash (Shackleton 1997, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Wild goats are occasionally killed by accident during wild boar hunting-drives with dogs (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>Previously, the population was kept low by competition with domestic livestock, which restricted wild goats to marginal habitats. The causes of <em>C. p. pyrenaica</em>' s demise are unknown, but there are a number of hypotheses including competition for food with chamois, inbreeding depression, parasite infections from domestic livestock, climatic conditions, poaching, and low fertility due to plant secondary compounds (Shackleton 1997). The last remaining individual, a 13-year-old female, was killed by a falling tree.	eng
3810	conservation	Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	Since 1989, the Formosan serow has been listed as a “Precious and Rare species” under Taiwan’s Wildlife Protection Act, and hunting the species is prohibited. Serow is protected in National Parks and in Nature Reserves. Recently, through the development of environmental-protection awareness and enforcement of related wildlife protection laws, conditions for serow have improved. Conservation measures proposed include: 1) conduct in-depth studies of their population biology and ecology, as well as the impact of the disease and parasites; 2) develop a community-based management and monitoring programme with aboriginal tribes.	eng
3810	distribution	Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	The Formosan serow is endemic to Taiwan and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions throughout the island (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei 1992, Pei and Chiang 2004). It occupies elevations from 50 m to greater than 3,900 m just below the peak of Yu-shan, the highest mountain in the country. However, most populations today occupies regions higher than 1,000 m because most lowlands are encroached upon by human.	eng
3810	habitat	Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	Formosan serow live in various mountainous habitats, from lowland tropical and subtropical rainforests, mixed broadleaf-conifer forests and warm temperate rainforests at mid-altitudes, to coniferous forests, alpine meadow, and tundra at the highest altitude range of 3,000 m~3,952 m (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004, Chiang 2007). They are adapted to steep and rugged terrain and may use the steep and craggy rock faces and cliffs to avoid predators. In forests lower than 3,000 m as in southern Taiwan, Formosan serow occurs more frequently at lower altitudes, at areas close to ridges and cliffs, and in steep, rugged or rocky terrain (Chiang 2007). At altitudes higher than 3,000 m, Formosan serow also occur in alpine grasslands dominated by <em>Yushania niitakaymensis</em>, in forests with <em>Juniperus formosana</em>, <em>Juniperus squamata</em>, <em>Tsuga chinensis</em>, and <em>Abies kawakamii</em>, and on cliff-tops (personal observations and Lue 1987). Populations can be high at high altitudes, particularly in remote areas or where there are cliffs. <br/><br/>The Formosan serow is intermediate feeder between selective browser and roughage eater (Hofmann 1985) with a tendency of being a selective browser (Hofmann 1985, Ochiai 1999). Formosan serow feeds on grasses, shrubs, browse, young twigs, some fruits, and even juvenile parts of conifers (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987). Based on information from aborigines, Lue (1987) stated that preferred food plants include, but are not limited to, <em>Urtica fissa</em>, <em>Elatostema edule</em>, <em>Anisogonium esculentum</em>, <em>Begonia laciniata</em>, <em>Polygonum chinensis</em>, <em>Chamabainia cuspidate</em>, <em>Mussaenda parviflora</em>, <em>Perrottetia arisanensis</em>, and <em>Pellionia arisanensis</em>. Analysis of relationships between forest structures and occurrence frequencies suggested that they may prefer disturbed and early-succession forests with gaps (Chiang 2007) where they could find grass and shrubs to browse (personal observations and McCullough 1974, Lue 1987).<br/><br/>Virtually nothing is known of its social organization. Captive animals mark objects with their infra-orbital glands and have localized dung sites; both behaviours are suggestive of territoriality (Chen 1987). Its reproduction is known almost exclusively from a limited number of captive animals (Wang and Chen 1981, Chen 1987). There is a single young born after seven months gestation (Smith and Xie 2008). Female Formosan serow are likely to be pregnant during September and November and give birth after March based on captive and hunters’ observations (Chen 1990). Formosan serow is mostly solitary (personal observation and Chen 1990), although captive groups with up to eight animals have been maintained (Chen 1987). Young Formosan serows were observed to follow their mothers with occasional hiding behaviour suggesting a follower type (Chen 1990). In the wild, young serows had also been photographed by camera traps to follow their parents in spring and fall (Pei and Chiang 2004).<br/><br/>Camera trapping data in remote areas with least human activities showed that Formosan serow is active day and night with significantly more diurnal activities (74% vs. 26%, Pei and Chiang 2004). It is most active during the 3 hours after sunrise and during the 4 hours before sunset (but lower activity levels than in the morning) and seasonal variations of activity levels were more pronounced in the afternoon (Pei and Chiang 2004). However, Formosan serow could become more nocturnal in areas close to human activities (Liu 2003).<br/><br/>Habitat segregation was found between Formosan serow, sambar deer (<em>Cervus unicolor swinhoei</em>) and Reeve’s muntjac (<em>Muntiacus reevesi micrurus</em>) (Chiang 2007). There may be competition in the wild with the sympatric sambar deer and Reeve’s muntjac, though the effects of these interactions require further research.	eng
3810	population	Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	There is no estimate of total population size. Surveys showed that the Formosan serow is still widely distributed throughout the island, from the north to the south (McCullough 1974, Lue 1987, Pei and Chiang 2004). However, since World War II, logging and agriculture have encroached upon the virgin forests inhabited by serow, resulting in significant habitat loss. In addition, heavy hunting pressure over the past decades may have caused the population to decline (McCullough 1974). An average density of 22 serows/km² was estimated in part of high altitudes of Yu-shan National Park (K. Y. Lue, unpublished data). Casual observations by park rangers, hikers and wildlife researchers suggest that serow populations may be increasing in recent years. This may due to reduced hunting activities for game meat market in the city because of tighter law enforcement. However, this impression might be confounded because more people are now involved in outdoor activities. More sightings of serow may lead to a biased impression of increasing populations. Population trends need further research.	eng
3810	threats	Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	In the past, wildlife was a source of food for the local indigenous people in Taiwan. Because of the growth in the livestock industry over the past 40 years in Taiwan, food from wildlife is becoming less and less important and hunting serow is now banned throughout Taiwan. However, wild meat is still preferred over livestock meat in certain situations such as ceremonies or gifts. Better economic conditions may also increase the demand for wild meat. Wild meat is still taken through illegal hunting and hunting activity seems to have increased in recent years, partially because the immigration of foreign workers into Taiwan have caused unemployment among the indigenous people, who have returned to their villages and now practice hunting for a living. Nevertheless, current hunting pressure still seems lower compared to several decades ago. It is unknown whether current hunting pressure has a significant adverse effects on serow populations. In addition, forestry, agricultural, road construction activities in the mountainous regions have encroached upon the virgin forests originally inhabited by serow. The latest threat to serow comes from increasing recreational and tourist pressures, but the impact is unknown. Mortality related to skin parasites have also been reported (Pei and Chiang 2004, Tsai 2005) and confirmed (Chen and Pei 2007) and could be a potential threat to the serow populations in Taiwan.	eng
3811	conservation	Tokida, K., 2008	Due to a severe decline in the early 20th century, serow was designated a ‘Non Game Species’ by the Hunting Law in 1925, and hunting of this species was prohibited. In 1934, this species was designated to ‘’Natural Monument Species’’ under the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties (LPCP). In 1955, its status was raised to ‘’Special Natural Monument Species’’. Although serow hunting has been prohibited by laws since 1925, poaching pressure was high before the 1950s. As a result of the anti-poaching campaign conducted throughout the country in 1959, poacher’s syndicates were eliminated, and the serow population began to increase. The population increase was probably also due to an increase in suitable habitat in the form of young coniferous plantations created from 1950s to 1970s. By the 1970s these artificial plantation accounted for more than 40% of forest cover in Japan, and the serow range had expanded to around 40,000 km² ,and population increased to 100,000.  However, with this increase, damage to forestry and agricultural production had also drastically increased and conflicts arose between serow conservation and primary industries. Nevertheless, any capture of serows, including nuisance animal control, was not permitted until 1978 (with the exception of scientific research). <br/> <br/>The Japanese serow is legally managed under two laws, LPCP and the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Law (WPHL).  The competent authority of LPCP is the Agency for Cultural Affairs, and that of WPHL is the Environmental Agency (currently Ministry of the Environment). The Forestry Agency has jurisdiction over forest management policy, which concerns damage prevention and habitat treatment. In 1979, these three Agencies reached an agreement to change serow management measures.  The essential points of new management policy were as follows.<br/>1) To establish serow protection areas. This decision meant the designation of ‘Special Natural Monument Species’ would be repealed and instead ‘Serow Protection Areas’ would be designated based on LPCP in the future. <br/>2) To allow serow cull as pest control outside the serow protection areas in cases of necessity.<br/>3) The Agency for Cultural Affairs would bear responsibility for conservation in the protection areas, the Environmental Agency would bear responsibility for management of serow outside the protection areas, and the Forestry Agency for avoiding serow damage on young conifer plantations by non-fatal methods such as fencing and netting. <br/>Conservationists, nature conservation NGOs, and some biologists opposed to this policy change.<br/><br/>Three primary functions were expected from the protection areas were 1) to maintain stable and viable local populations; 2) to preserve the geographical genetic diversity of serow populations; and 3) to establish a management system for serow and its habitat. Fifteen protection areas were nominated and 13 of them had been established by 1989, ranging in size from 143 km² to 2,180 km². The total area is 11,800 km², which covers about 20% of the current serow range over 23 prefectures. However, in many cases, the protection areas avoid commercial forests, and are situated at relatively high elevations including unsuitable habitats for serow. Therefore, some protection areas do not have enough suitable habitat quality and/or area size for the effecitve protection of local populations.  <br/><br/>The Agency of Cultural Affairs initiated a systematic survey of serow management in 1985, composed of main and supplemental survey programs. The purpose of main survey program is to monitor population trends and habitat conditions once every 6 or 7 years for each protection area. This program is carried out by specialists. The supplemental survey program is carried out annually, except in the main survey’s year, by local inhabitants to monitor population indices, habitat changes and damage, by simple and easy methods. The data from both programs are used to develop the management plan for each protection area.  Protection areas are not yet established in Kyushu and Shikoku due to disagreements with land owners. Therefore, the Japanese serow still retains the status of ‘Special Natural Monument Species’.  <br/><br/>In 1978, a control cull began in the restricted small areas of Gifu and Nagano Prefectures, and the culling area has expanded to large part of central Honshu.  As a matter of course, control cull is conducted outside the protection areas. The total number of serow removed was over 20,000 by 2005. The damage to conifer plantations in central Honshu markedly decreased in 1990s, because population density of serow in this area and also the area of young conifer plantations have reduced.  Two kinds of permissions, based on LPCP and WPHL, are required for control culls of serow. The areas and periods of the control, the upper limit of the harvest number, and the capture methods are specified in the permits. Biological investigation of killed serow has been continued since the beginning of the control.  Place and date of capture, sex, age, and reproductive condition are recorded for almost all individuals. These data are used for serow management. <br/><br/>In 1999, the WPHL was amended and the ‘Specified Wildlife Management Plan System’ was established. This is a legal management system and each prefecture can make a plan to properly manage wildlife populations. This plan must state specific goals for the target species, and prescribe concrete measure for properly controlled hunting, preventing negative influences on the population, and conserving habitats. This adaptive management system is considered to be useful and practical for management of serow outside the protection areas, and seven such plans for serow had been established by 2007.<br/><br/>The management system for serow has significantly developed during the last 25 years. Serow populations are stable and/or increasing in most areas, but following problems might affect negatively some populations:<br/>1) Growth of conifer plantations planted for the period from late 1950s to 1980s and over-grazing and/or browsing by sika deer reduce food supply for serow and deteriorate habitat quality.<br/>2) Interspecific competition with sika deer may reduce serow populations.<br/><br/>The serow population has recently decreased in Kyushu.  It is considered this decrease is probably caused by interspecific competition with sika deer. Also, the influence of deer control operations, such as disturbance of home ranges and accidental killing by hunting dogs and deer-fencing, might be having an impact. Surveys and countermeasures are needed for these problems.	eng
3811	distribution	Tokida, K., 2008	The Japanese serow (<em>Capricornis crispus</em>) is endemic to Japan on three of the main islands: Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. The species is widespread in appropriate habitat on Honshu, but is absent from lowland cultivated areas and areas around human settlements. On Shikoku and Kyushu, their distribution is more limited. It became extinct in western Honshu and greatly reduced in other areas before the early 20th century. Since the 1960s, its range has been expanding.	eng
3811	habitat	Tokida, K., 2008	This species is diurnal, though the animals actively feed only in the early morning and late afternoon. Their habitat includes various vegetation types such as broad-leaved evergreen forest, subalpine coniferous forest, alpine meadow and coniferous plantations, but temperate deciduous forest that is their preferred habitat. They eat fleshy leaves, evergreen leaves, plant shoots, and acorns (Jass and Mead 2004). This species is a monogamous, territorial browser, and sexual dimorphism is not developed. They are found solitarily, in pairs or small family groups. The population density is generally low (the average was 2.6/km² in the 1983 survey). Females mature sexually at 30 months. The gestation period is 7 months, and females give birth to single fawn. Life expectancy at birth and longevity are estimated to be 4.8-6.5 years and 25 years respectively (Tokida and Miura, 1988, Miura and Tokida, 1992).	eng
3811	population	Tokida, K., 2008	The Japanese serow is common in the mountain ranges of northern and central Honshu, and eastern Shikoku, but is restricted to small, fragmented areas in Kyushu. By 1978 the total range occupied by serow was estimated at 34,500 km², with total number estimated by the  block count method (Maruyama and Nakama, 1983) of 70,000 to 100,000 animals. In 1983, the total population was estimated by the Environmental Agency at <em>ca</em>. 100,000 animals with a distribution area of more than 39,000 km².  In 2003, the distribution had expanded to 170% of that in 1978. On the other hand, the population density has slightly decreased in many areas. Currently the population is assumed to be stable or slowly increasing.	eng
3811	threats	Tokida, K., 2008	The serow had been threatened due to over-hunting until the 1950s. It is considered that the poaching pressure was exceedingly high before the 1950’s. However, poacher’s syndicates were eliminated by anti-poaching campaign in 1959, and after that serow population began to increase.  Furthermore, the increase of young conifer plantations, which occurred from 1950s to 1970s and supplied a large quantity of food for serow, might affect the population growth.  From middle of 1970s to early 1990s, damage on young conifer plantations and agricultural crops by serow increased and the high level had been maintained.  The management measures of this species became a matter of controversy between conservationists, and forest owners and/or farmers, then the government agencies decided to start serow control in 1978.  In 1990s, damage by serow had declined with decrease of young plantations.  On the other hand, damage on forestry and agriculture by sika deer (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus nippon</span>), wild boar (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>), and Japanese monkey (<span style="font-style: italic;">Macaca fuscata</span>) has remarkably increased, and accordingly social demands to control serow had decreased. <br/><br/>The sika deer population is conspicuously increasing throughout Japan in recent years, and undergrowth of forest is decreasing by the  grazing and browsing, and the interspecific competition with sika deer might affect serow population.	eng
3812	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/>In Indonesia (Sumatra), has been protected by law since 1932. A total of 3,083,308 ha of serow habitat are under some form of protection in a system of protected areas that includes three national parks, three game reserves, three nature reserves and two protected forests. However, many of these areas await gazetting and staffing, and in the absence of these actions they are little more than “paper” parks. Conservation measures proposed for Indonesia: 1) Conduct surveys along the Barisan mountain chain to determine current status, and to identify if there are any other viable populations of serow outside the currently known, main concentrations areas. 2) Maintain natural forest cover along the volcanic spine of Sumatra, free from roads, agriculture, timber extraction and other human encroachment. This offers the best hope for the serow’s long-term survival in Indonesia (Santiapillai and Widodo 1989). 3) maintain the strict protection of reserves where viable serow populations still exist; this must remain the prime concern. Protected areas where serow now occur must be properly zoned and managed. 4) Strictly protect the core areas which incorporate the feeding and breeding areas, to avoid interactions with humans. 5) Design land-use activities in the vicinity of serow reserves so that they are compatible with serow conservation. 6) Adopt measures to improve the living conditions of people existing along the periphery of serow reserves. 7) Publicize the plight of the serow to the people through sensible conservation education programs. <br/><br/>The Sumatran serow is totally protected under the Wildlife Act (76/72) of Peninsular Malaysia. Enforcement is carried out by the Department of Wildlife and National Park’s Enforcement Division. Serow occur in seven protected areas, but unfortunately these neither represent typical serow habitat, nor are they adequate to ensure its survival. Serow is also found in six proposed protected areas. Small captive breeding groups of serow are held at Zoo Negara (Vellayan, 1989) and Zoo Melaka. Conservation measures proposed for Malaysia: Implement the serow conservation strategy developed by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia. This strategy includes: 1) Develop management plans and the application of appropriate wildlife management techniques to conserve and enhance serow populations. The management goals are to: 2) establish and conserve genetically viable populations in protected wildlife reserves, national parks, permanent forest reserves, and other forested areas and limestone hills; 3) protect areas which contain serow and manage them for an optimum sustainable population; and 4) establish a captive breeding population for future re-introduction of serow into protected areas. Specific management objectives and recommendations identified to meet these goals include: 5) co-ordinate actions of conservation agencies with those of agencies involved in quarrying and logging operations, to promote wildlife conservation; 6) develop a public education program; 7) increase effectiveness of law enforcement; 8) train personnel; 9) improve habitat management and conservation by increasing thenumber of protected areas; and 10) carry out ecological and biological research.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
3812	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia (Sumatra), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaya), Thailand (south of about 9°S latitude) (Grubb, 2005). In Indonesia (Sumatra), limited almost entirely to the volcanic mountain chain of the Barisan mountains which runs along the western spine of Sumatra from Aceh in the north to Lampung in the south. Although suitable habitat is more extensive within these mountains (Santiapillai and Widodo, 1989), there are only three known major concentrations: the Aceh highlands in the north, the Kerinci highlands in the centre and the Barisan Seletan highlands in the south. It is also found scattered through Peninsular (West) Malaysia, but concentrated in the northern states, especially Kelantan, Perlis and Perak. The species has been recorded in 50 areas in Peninsular Malaysia, but in each area, the number of animals is estimated to be only between 10 to 15 individuals.	eng
3812	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	It inhabits steep mountain slopes between 200 and 3,000 m (van der Zon, 1979), covered by both primary and secondary forests. The serow is predominantly a browser (Santiapillai and Widodo, 1989). It is usually solitary in nature, but small groups of up to seven have been observed (Nowak, 1991). It may occupy seasonal ranges and use well marked trails that often run along ridges of steep hills. Sumatran serow feed in the early hours of the morning and in late evenings, sheltering under overhanging cliffs and rocks during the rest of the day. No information on Sumatran serow reproduction is available.	eng
3812	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	No population estimates have been made in Indonesia. Although vulnerable to poaching and habitat destruction, serow appears to thrive well in some of the better protected areas such as Gunung Leuser National Park. Here the serow population may be healthy and increasing (M. Griffiths pers. comm., 1992). The species is considered 'rare' in Taratak Forest Reserve, Sumatra, Indonesia, based on a camera trapping survey undertaken in 2005. <br/><br/>In Malaysia, Mustafa <em>et al</em>. (1990) conducted a reconnaissance survey in the Pelangai Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan (3,107 ha), in an effort to determine the number of serow present before a capture operation started. Thirteen animals were recorded in this area, giving a density of 0.4 serow/km². The total number of serow estimated for Peninsular Malaysia is between 500 and 750 animals, scattered through many, very small, isolated populations, though the basis for these numbers is very unclear. It  is said not to be common in the Malay peninsula (Kwai HinHan pers. comm.).	eng
3812	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Within Indonesia, habitat destruction threatens the long-term survival of serow. The principal causes of habitat destruction are slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by highlanders and shifting cultivators, and the indiscriminate extraction of timber for export to the West. Poaching is not uncommon, and serows are caught in snares set for other game species, as well as shot, for local consumption of the meat, and for use of body parts in traditional medicines.  Hunting occurs inside and outside of protected areas.  Sources living around protected areas in Sumatra, such as the Gunung Leuser National Park, Aceh, claim that hunting continues to increase as illegal logging roads have opened up parts of the park, allowing access to previously inaccessible areas. Locals claim that populations of this species are in decline.  Trade of parts, especially the horns, is carried out openly in some places, such as in the town of Pancur Batu, North Sumatra.  No enforcement action against individuals trading in Serow parts has taken place in these locations.<br/><br/>Threats in Malaysia come mainly from disturbance and from habitat destruction caused by mining activities in the limestone and quartz ridge quarries within their habitat, and by deforestation of the hill dipterocarp forests for logging and agriculture. Serows also suffer from substantial poaching for its meat and body parts that are used for medicinal purposes. In Malaysia, a number of small populations exist, but are threatened by illegal hunting, with this species sometimes being a target, not just an opportunistic kill.  In Malaysia, this species does appear to be tolerant of some human disturbance, and in some areas, occurs very near human habitation.  Over the past two years, enforcement authorities have taken action against individuals involved in illegal hunting of this species, and as a result, trade in this species is not carried out openly, as it is in other Southeast Asian range States.  Very little information on current populations of this species exists.  However, local people living near serow habitat state that populations may be declining, due to hunting and due to quarrying of limestone and quartz areas.  Some wildlife restaurants in Malaysia offer the meat of this species.	eng
3814	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	It is on Appendix I of CITES, and in Class II in China’s list of protected species. This serow exists in many protected areas including: Sichuan-Baihe, Fentongzhai, Jiuzhaiguo, Labahe, Mabian Dafengdin, Meigu Dafengdin, Tangjiahe, Tiebu, Wanglag, Wolong and Xiaozhaiziguo; Shaanxi-Tabaishan, Fuping (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1986) and Takin Reserve; Gansu - Baishuijiang and Tou’ersantan; Yunnan - Fenshuilin, Gaoligongshan, Tongbiguan, Xishuanbangnan and Yulonghabaxueshan (Lijiang and Zhongdian); Fujian - Daiyunshan and Wuyishan; Zhejiang - Fengyangshan and Jiulongshan; Jiangxi - Jiulianshan and Wuyishan; Guangxi – Congzuo Xiling, Huaping, Qianjiadong, Shouchen and Yindinshan; Gu&hou - Fenginshan; Guangdung - Chebaling. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Reclassify serow as Class I in the national wildlife protection list. 2) Ban hunting and 3) the State Commercial System should be prohibited from purchasing products of this animal. 4) Conduct basic population surveys to determine distributions and numbers for development of conservation actions. 5) Undertake studies of ecology, population and management problems of this serow as part of the conservation management program for the giant panda.<br/><br/>It also occurs in many protected areas through the remainder of its range. Generally, has not been targeted for protection from hunting (or other conservation actions), as other species are much more threatened (W. Duckworth, pers comm. 2006). Legislation has successfully reduced hunting in Thailand (Anak Pattanavibool, pers comm. 2006). It is protected in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.., 2006). <br/><br/>Currently, Cambodian legislation (State Council No. 35 KR.C, Law Decree on Forestry) governs the use and management of forests and wildlife, and stipulates penalties for contravention. However, this legislation is only interim and is generally unenforceable. It is also only very general in scope and does not specifically include serow. Protection of serow lies within the Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, and more specifically with the newly-created Wildlife Protection Office. Serow was known to occur only in Phnom Kravanh protected area, but this is located in a region which saw military conflict between 1980 and 1982, and possibly more recently. Conservation measures proposed for Cambodia: 1) Determine the serow’s distribution and status in Mondulkiri Province. The Forestry Department planned to begin these censuses as soon as it became safe and feasible. International support will be required to fund both the census studies and the development of the subsequent conservation plans. 2) The Cambodian Government should create a broad conservation strategy, including a network of protected areas and supporting infrastructure to protect all the country’s natural resources. The species likely occurs widely in the Cardamom range of the southwest, which is now well covered by national protected areas, and conservation management in several of these areas is already ongoing and starting to effectively control hunting (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species also likely occurs in several other areas of the country covered by protected areas, namely Rattanakiri province in Virachey NP and Mondulkiri Province (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given Cambodia’s exceptional concentration of highly threatened species, conservation of serow should not be considered a high priority nationally, and with effective conservation management of suitable protected areas, the species should be safe without the need for species specific conservation activities (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Serow is included in Appendix II of the Endangered and Rare Species List of Viet Nam. However, it is not included in the list of 38 species covered by Declaration No. 276 of the Ministry of Forestry (2 June 1989) and Decision No. 18 HDBT of the Council of Ministers (17 January 1992) so serow can be hunted or captured. The species has been recorded from many protected areas and likely occurs in many others with extensive tracts of suitable habitat, the most significant populations remaining are likely to be found in the extensive tracts of habitat covered by protected areas in the Annamite (Truong Son) mountain chain, especially the extensive limestone formations of the central region and limestone formations in the north (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Effective management of suitable protected areas, especially controlling hunting, should be sufficient to conserve the species nationally, however, the majority of areas are still fall well below this level of management, although there is cause for optimism within a few (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, serow occur in Kahilu (an area of armed civil unrest, which suffers from poaching) and Kelatha Hill Game <br/>Sanctuaries, and in Shwesettaw and Shwe-U-Daung Wildlife Sanctuaries. It also probably occurs in Tamanthi, Pidaung, and Mulayit Wildlife Sanctuaries. Serow is also reported in a number of proposed National Parks: Alaungdaw Kathapa, Kyaukpandaung, Natma Taung and Pegu Yomas. Serow was eliminated from Taunggyi Wildlife Sanctuary, probably as the resultof poaching and hunting by domestic dogs (IUCN, 1992b; WCMC, 1987). Conservation measures proposed for Myanmar: 1) Carry out surveys and censuses to develop conservation programs. 2) Immediate enforcement of protection against poaching, especially in protected areas. <br/><br/>Serow is also protected in Thailand. It is known or expected to occur in the following protected areas: National Parks – Chaloem Rattankosin (Than Than Lot); Doi Inthanon; Doi Khuntan; Erawan; Khao Chamao-Khao Wong; Khao Luang; Khao Pu-Khao Ya; Khao Sam Lam; Khao Sam Roi Yot; Khao Yai; Nam Nao; Namtok Phliu (Khao Sabup); Phu Kradung; Rhamkhamhaeng; Si Nakarin; Si Satchanalai; Thaleban and possibly Ao Phangnga. WiZdZifi Sanctuaries – Doi Chiang Dao; Doi Pha Muang; Huai Kha Khaeng; Khao Banthat; Om-Koi/Mae Tun; Maenam Phachi; Phu Khieo; Phu Luang; Phu Miang-Phu Thong; Salawin; Thung Yai Naresuan; Tong Nga Chang. Conservation measures proposed for Thailand: Determine the serow’s status to assess the effects that logging and poaching are having on its distribution and numbers.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
3814	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	This species occurs in much of Myanmar, Cambodia, south and central China (Himalayas and east Tibet, south Gansu to Zhejiang and south to Yunnan), Lao PDR, Thailand, and Viet Nam (Grubb, 2005). Originally widely distributed throughout Thailand, the species is now restricted to steep, forested limestone hills and cliffs, in areas relatively inaccessible to human encroachment and the range is highly fragmented (Kamchanasaka, in press, Department of National Park and Wildlife). The Thai range map accompanying this account is only indicative of the extent of occurrence and not occupancy of range. Lekagul and McNeely (1988) stated that even when the surrounding areas were completely taken over by cultivation, these steep hills remain covered with dense vegetation. Such areas act as miniature sanctuaries for the serow. In 1977, these authors also reported serow in the north and northeast Thailand, but Nakasathien (1986) suggested a much more conservative distribution. The dividing line between the ranges of <em>C. milneedwardsii</em> and <em>C. sumatraensis</em> is unclear, but is suspected to fall somewhere in the Chooporn or Suratchathani Provinces on the Thai peninsula. In Thailand the species is primarily confined to the mountainous areas of the north and west, with isolated populations, in hill areas in the east and southeast. The historic distribution of serow in Lao PDR almost certainly included the vast majority of the countries land area, the majority of which is hilly to mountainous (e.g. Deuve, 1972; Lekagul and McNeely, 1988; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Currently in Lao PDR the species is still widespread due to extensive tracts of habitat, often over rugged terrain, especially along the Annamite mountain range of eastern central and southern Lao PDR (W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Cambodia the species is probably naturally restricted to the hill and mountainous terrain that surround the Mekong and Tonle Sap (lake) central plains, although confirmation of presence comes from relatively few areas, primarily as a result of survey bias (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In Viet Nam the species was at least historically likely to have been widespread, except perhaps for the far southern Mekong Delta region, although this is not well documented, probably due to a historical bias towards surveys in the north (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Populations in the northern highlands are likely to be heavily depleted in number and fragmented, but are likely somewhat more numerous and contiguous along the Annamite (Truong Son) mountains of central and southern Viet Nam. Confirmed records, especially well documented ones, from the southern portions of this range are very few (Gia Lai and Kontum Provinces (Do Tuoc, 1990), Lam Dong Province (Pham Mong Giao, 1990) but this is likely primarily a reflection of the paucity of fieldwork, rather than the actual status of serow. The species has also been recorded from offshore islands of the north, e.g. Cat Ba (Ha Dinh Due <em>et al</em>., 1989; Le Hien Hao, 1973). <br/><br/>The general distribution in Myanmar appears to follow the forested mountain ranges surrounding the central plains. Its distribution in the northwest is believed to stretch through the Chin Hills from the border with India, probably as far south as 20ºN in the Arakan Yoma range. A larger distribution area occurs in the mountains in the north (Kachin state) and in the mountains east of about 96ºW, to Myanmar’s borders with China, Lao PDR and Thailand. <br/><br/><em>C. milneedwardsii</em> (as constituted here) is widely distributed through much of central and south-eastern China. The general distribution range may be taken to include all the area of the Southwest China Region from southern Gansu southward through Sichuan and most of Yunnan, and beyond into Myanmar. But the species is replaced in parts of northern Myanmar by <em>Capricornis rubidus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008), and probably by <em>C. thar</em> in parts of western Myanmar.<br/><br/>Records show a more or less continuous distribution along the ranges of the Hungduan mountain system. East of this region, populations occur in adjacent mountain areas of Qinling (Southern Slope), Shaanxi and Guizhou (Zhen, 1982). A few populations exist in the north-western Hengduan Mountains of Yushu and Nangqen (Qinghai) (Li <em>et al</em>., 1989). The species has a comparatively widespread distribution through western and southern Zhejiang, northern Fujian, most of Jiangxi (Shen <em>et al</em>., 1982), eastern Guizhou (Luo <em>et al</em>., 1985), northern Guangdong, eastern and south-western Guangxi, eastern and southern Yunnan, where it inhabits low mountains and foothills. It may also occur in south-western Sichuan, as indicated by specimens from the adjacent mountains of Jijiang.	eng
3814	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Accounts from throughout the species range report the species inhabits rugged steep hills and rocky places, especially limestone regions up to 4,500 m asl (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lekagul and McNeely 1988, Smith and Xie 2008). However, the species is also routinely recorded (by camera-trapping) in hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), and does occur in flatter areas marginally (Will Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). The species occurs on small offshore islands and has been reported swimming between them (Duckworth and Walston 1998) and in Cambodia appears to occupy small very naturally isolated karst limestone outcrops in the level lowlands of the Mekong plains (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Feeds on a wide range of leaves and shoots, and visits saltlicks.  It is mostly nocturnal and solitary.<br/><br/>It is likely to tolerate moderately degraded habitat well, due to its presence in natural karst scrubland, though it is unlikely to be present in heavily disturbed areas such as agricultural land (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006), and has been documented amidst secondary forests and swidden in at least one landscape mosaics of such habitats and ‘primary’ forest (W. G. Robichaud in litt. to R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species also appears to persist well in small habitat isolates, both naturally (i.e. Cambodia; R. J. Timmins pers. comm.. 2008) and due to habitat loss (i.e. Thailand; Lekagul and McNeely 1988). In parts of China it winters in the forest belt, ascending into alpine cliffs in summer (Yao, 1990). Elsewhere little is known of the species seasonal ecology.	eng
3814	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	No total estimates of numbers have been made. Populations in southeast China south of the Yangtze river) are small and isolated, and its general distribution range falls within regions with relatively dense human populations which are well-exploited economic areas. Although no population estimates have been made in this area, numbers are believed to be decreasing and its distribution range is gradually being reduced. In Lao PDR, this species is still widespread, and despite heavy hunting, it is consistently present in areas of suitable habitat (W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006; R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Little is known about the species in Cambodia, although it is likely widespread in suitable terrain, which is extensive, particularly in the Cardamom range of the southwest (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Numbers in Viet Nam are probably low, although as in Lao PDR the species appears to persist remarkably well in rugged terrain and where suitable habitat remains extensive (R. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).	eng
3814	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	The meat, fur and various parts of this serow are highly prized by local people for food and medicinal purposes, so it is heavily hunted especially in the northern parts of its range. Habitat loss primarily from agricultural expansion, but also piecemeal clearance for firewood and timber is also a serious long-term threat in some areas. It is threatened at least locally because habitat is rapidly being lost to deforestation and land clearing. In 1962, a die-off caused by an unknown epizootic was reported in the Tangjiahe area (Qingchuan County, Sichuan).<br/><br/>The main threats to serow in Cambodia are posed by hunting, and to a lesser degree habitat loss, but the species is relatively safe in this country compared to other range states. In Lao PDR, serow horns, frontal bones, leg bones and other body parts are used in local, traditional medicine and are readily available in shops in Vientiane and elsewhere. The meat is also eaten in rural areas; however, the extent to which hunting affects the population status of this species in Lao PDR is unknown. In Viet Nam, serow is frequently hunted for meat and for sale as live individuals in many local markets, while its bones and other body parts are valued for medicinal purposes (TRAFFIC, 1993). The inaccessibility of much of the species preferred habitats is likely to be the serow’s main defence against eradication in most sites where it still occurs.	eng
3815	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Than Zaw, 2008	The red serow (as <em>C.S. s. rubidus</em>) was listed as Endangered (A2cd) in the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 2007). However, this assessment probably included the red form of Himalayan Serow which was often attributed to this species but is currently included in <em>C. thar</em>. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. There is an urgent need to survey this species' habitat to determine the range limits, population, and threats. Measures also need to be enacted to prevent hunting of the species. It is expected to occur in several protected areas, but this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
3815	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Than Zaw, 2008	This species is known from northern, and perhaps western, Myanmar (Grubb, 2005). The range of <em>C. rubidus</em> is not well known, partly because of confusion with another red serow form in adjacent territories to the west in Assam and Bangladesh, and the fact that all serows can show varying amounts of red and black colouration. True <em>rubidus</em> specimens have black hair base rather than white. Records and specimens from Kachin state in the north of Myanmar are clearly this species. Other localities reported include the Upper Chindwin, Ararakan Hill Tracts and limestone hills in the upper Salween. Without accompanying specimens these records are less certain. The species may overlap in some locations with <em>C. milneedwardsii</em> which extends through most of the Shan States and Pegu (Bago) Yoma at least as far west as the Ayeyarwady river. The type locality is from the "Arakan Hills", however, many of the type localities from that time period are wrong and this may be one of them. Little survey work has been in the region of the type locality.<br/><br/>In northeastern India, serows attributed to <em>Capricornis sumatraensis rubidus</em> apparently occur south of the Brahmaputra River in hilly tracts in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura (Green, 1987). However, in this assessment, these animals are considered to be <em>Capricornis thar</em>, pending further information.	eng
3815	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Than Zaw, 2008	There is nothing known about the natural history of this species. It is assumed to  be similar in ecology to <em>Capricornis milneedwardsii</em>, inhabiting rugged steep hills and rocky places, as well as hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain.	eng
3815	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Than Zaw, 2008	There is no current information on the population of this species.	eng
3815	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Than Zaw, 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but there is significant hunting of other large mammals in the area. The serow in Myanmar is one of the most heavily traded species in the local trade.  Every market surveyed by TRAFFIC in Myanmar in 2006 had Serow, and in most markets, this was the most commonly observed species, with the bulk of the parts observed being horns and heads. Many of these markets are situated on the Myanmar-Thailand border and dealers claim that all buyers in these border markets come from Thailand, indicating a blatant disregard for both national legislation and CITES. Serows are protected throughout Southeast Asia by law, but protecting this species on the ground does not appear to be a priority in many countries.<br/><br/>Serow are very heavily hunted in Myanmar, with meat usually being consumed locally, but parts, including the forelegs, heads, horns and fat from the stomach region being the most sought after for use in traditional medicines.  These parts are rendered down and the oil is sold in small bottles.  According to dealers, this oil is applied externally to treat skin ailments and joint problems.  Horn tips are also exported from Myanmar to Thailand to be attached to the spurs of fighting cocks (this is believed to give them more power).<br/><br/>In 2006, interviews with dealers in border markets and markets in the centre of Myanmar, revealed that in all areas surveyed, Serow are apparently in decline. Hunters stated that they were having to travel further to get serow, and that they were, in many locations, becoming scarce.	eng
3816	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The Himalayan serow is listed on Appendix I of CITES. In India, it is listed in Schedule I (revised March 1987) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) and is thus totally protected. This status has been accepted by all states except Nagaland. In China, it is a Class II nationally protected species.<br/><br/>Within India, this species of serow occurs in a number of protected areas in Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim, as well as a few protected areas in Manipur, Meghalaya, and Mizoram (Kathayat and Mathur (2002). In total, it is present in over 50 Indian protected areas, ranging in size from 4 km² to 1,800 km², and totaling about 17,000 km². However, many of these areas include substantial habitat unsuitable for serow and it is has been suggested that only some 6,000 to 8,000 km² of ca. 19,000 km² of good serow habitat in India, lies within protected areas (Johnsingh, 1991; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>., in prep. H). Serow occurs in the following protected areas (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986; Green, 1987b; Kumar and Rao, 1985; Lamba, 1987; S. Pandey, 2002; Singh <em>et al</em>., 1990): Jammu and Kashmir- Dachigam National Park and Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary; Himachal Pradesh-Great Himalayan National Park and the Daranghati, Gamgul Siya-Behi, Kalatop, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Manali, Naina Devi, Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan (possibly) and Tundah Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttar Pradesh -Nanda Devi National Park, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; Arunachal Pradesh - Namdapha National Park; and - Megahakrya - Balphakram National Park. However, the species is considered to be locally threatened even within some of these protected areas (e.g. Great Himalayan National Park and Daranghati, Manali, Tirthan and Tundah Wildlife Sanctuaries). Status within country: Indeterminate. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park, Himachal Pradesh. 2) Develop a management program for maintaining serow habitat and sustaining hunting outside protected areas. Habitat alteration and hunting will continue to negatively affect serow populations throughout northern India, and because serow is apparently dependent on patches of dense vegetation associated with rugged terrain, the alteration or elimination of such vegetation will be highly detrimental to the species. Management to control habitat alteration, prevention of overhunting outside protected areas, and effective protection in parks and sanctuaries, will be required to maintain viable populations in the future.<br/><br/>In China, two reserves have been established in Xiaca and Muotuo, and it should occur in the international protected area, the Qomolangma Nature Reserve, on the Sino-Nepal border. Conservation measures proposed for China: l) Undertake censuses to determine population status and distribution, including surveys in the Chun-pi valley. <br/><br/>It is listed in Schedule I of Bhutan’s Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995. Himalayan serow is reported in Royal Manas National Park on the southern border with Assam (Jackson 1981). It also lives in the vast Jigme Dorji National Park (Blower, 1989; Wollenhaupt, 1988d), which extends across all of northern Bhutan, and in Black Mountains National Park (Blower, 1989). Conservation measures proposed for Bhutan: Surveys to determine numbers and distribution. <br/><br/>In Nepal, it occurs in the following National Parks: Royal Chitwan, Lake Rara, Langtang, Sagarmatha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area), Khaptad, and Shey-Phoksundo. It is also found within the Annapurna Conservation Area, and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. The species probably occurs in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, and possibly also in Royal Bardia National Park, but these need to be confirmed. Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: 1) Conduct censuses and 2) studies of population demographics, to 3) develop specific conservation plans.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Capricornis</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
3816	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species is known to occur in east and southeast Bangladesh, Himalayas (Bhutan, northern India including Sikkim and Nepal), China (Tibet only), northeast India (provinces east of Bangladesh), and probably into western Myanmar (Grubb, 2005). <br/><br/>Formerly, serow used to occur in the whole region of Bangladesh east of the Jumuna river (90°E). Today, it is very rare and confined to a few scattered, isolated populations in pockets of evergreen and sal forests of northern Mymensingh, northeastern Sylhet, Chittagong, and Chittagong Hill Tracts (Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Kahn, 1985). Serow from the neighboring Indian states of Meghalaya and Tripura are believed to enter the districts of Comilla, Jamalpur and Myemsingh (Green, 1987b). In northeastern India, the red serow apparently occurs south of the Brahmaputra river in hilly tracts in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura (Green, 1987b; Groves and Grubb, 1985). <br/><br/>The Himalayan serow is widespread but sparsely distributed throughout the forested southern slopes of the Himalaya in northern India, from Jammu and Kashmir to the Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh, and in the hill states of northeastern India (Prater 1971). Himalayan serow is known to be locally present between 300 and 3,000 m as in all Himalayan states (Green 1987b), and is found extensively in the Sutlej and Beas River catchments (Himachal Pradesh) (Pandey, 2002). <br/><br/>Almost nothing is known of its distribution in Bhutan, other than it can exist in subtropical and temperate zones, and has been recorded in Royal Manas and Black Mountain National Parks (NCS, 1995). This serow is probably widespread throughout the forested mountain slopes of Nepal.<br/><br/>In China, it occurs in the forest belt between 2,000 and 3,000 m only in the narrow area on south slope of Qomolangma on the border with Nepal. Observations of serow running across highways are not infrequent (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). A population is found in the narrow area east of the Big Bend of Yarlung Zangbo River, where it inhabits sub-alpine forests (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). Identification of this taxon in China, which is mainly distributed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, is based on a specimen obtained from Pugiongshan in Medog county in Tibet.	eng
3816	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Accounts from throughout the species' range report that it inhabits rugged steep hills and rocky places, especially limestone regions up to 3,000 m asl, and also in hill and mountain forest areas with gentler terrain.	eng
3816	population	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	No estimates of population size are available in India, but density in good habitat within Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttaranchal) has been estimated at 1.6 serow/km² (Green, 1987a). No censuses have been made in Bangladesh, but numbers are believed to be very low, as are densities. No estimates of population size or trends have been made, but the population in China is believed to be small (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986), and the habitat and secretive behavior make estimating population numbers very difficult in Nepal.	eng
3816	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Though sometimes heavily hunted by locals for meat and trophies, habitat destruction, especially loss of forest understory due to clearing for agriculture and to collection of fuelwood, is probably the main threat to serow in India (Green, 1987b). Within some protected areas, serow populations may approach maximum densities of 2 animals/km². However, its apparent preferred habitat of steep, thickly vegetated slopes, is so patchily distributed that overall densities are low and serow is relatively rare throughout its range. Serow habitat is generally at higher elevations than the areas of intensive agriculture in the western Himalaya. Here, and in the eastern Himalaya (where cultivation is less extensive anyway), hunting is apparently the most importance influence on serow populations.<br/><br/>Habitat disturbance and poaching are the greatest threats to its survival in Bangladesh, both related to slash and burn (jhoom) cultivation (Khan, 1985).<br/><br/>The main threat in China is probably hunting. Although officially 64% of Bhutan remains forested, the figure is probably closer to 50% (Sargent, 1985), making deforestation one of the main threats to the forest-dwelling serow. Serow requires denser habitat than goral and hence is likely to be more susceptible to deforestation and removal of understory vegetation. In winters with heavy snowfalls, avalanches can cause considerable mortality within some serow populations. Poaching is also a problem in Nepal.<br/><br/>Hunting of this species is probably both for food and traditional medicine.	eng
3833	conservation	Maheswaran, G. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>C. hispidus</em> is listed in CITES Appendix I, in India it is listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, and in Nepal it is listed in Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973 (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990, Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).   It has been nationally listed in India as Endangered B2ab(ii,iii,iv) due to restricted area of occupancy, few and fragmented locations, with major threats affecting habitat area and quality (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  In Nepal, it has been nationally listed as Critically Endangered B1ab(ii,iii,iv)+2ab(ii,iii,iv) due to restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, single location with major threats affecting habitat area and quality (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/><em>C. hispidus</em> has records of occurring in several protected areas, including Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Royal Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Dudwa National Park, Royal Chitwan National Park, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Kahna National Park, and Barnodi Wildlife Sanctuary (Maheswaran 2002, Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  A survey conducted in 2001 found no evidence of the presence of <em>C. hispidus</em> in Buxa Tiger Reserve, where it had been reported as occurring it the 1980s (Maheswaran 2002). <br/><br/>Long term research is needed to examine effects of threats such as burning, harvesting, and livestock grazing, as well as studies of ecology, reproduction, and movement patterns during flood and burning seasons (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990, Maheswaran 2002).  Control of the burning season within the range of <em>C. hispidus</em> is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year, as well as the development of management plans for the remaining areas of suitable grassland habitat (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Forest managers should be encouraged in the fostering of local species of grass and avoid the introduction of alien species for use by camp elephants (Maheswaran 2002). A return to the natural system would help prevent the extirpation of <em>C. hispidus</em>, as well as other native species (Maheswaran 2002).  Local education regarding the status of <em>C. hispidus</em> is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where <em>C. hispidus</em> occurs (Maheswaran 2002).  Forest guards are often only aware of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus nigricollis</span> and should be educated in the areas of active preservation of the threatened species (Maheswaran 2002)	eng
3833	distribution	Maheswaran, G. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Knowledge of the distribution of <em>C. hispidus</em> has always been limited. The historic range of the species extended along the foothill region of the southern Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh through southern Nepal, the northern region of West Bengal to Assam, and into Bangladesh as far south as Dacca (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). The current distribution in South Asia is sporadic, including the countries of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and possibly Bhutan (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The extent of occurrence of <em>C. hispidus</em> is estimated to be between 5,000 and 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is estimated to be between 11 and 500 km², in highly fragmented populations (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It occurs at elevations ranging from 100-250 m (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3833	habitat	Maheswaran, G. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>C. hispidus</em> primarily occupies tracts of early successional tall grasslands, locally termed elephant grass (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). During the dry season, most grassy areas are subject to burning, and the rabbits take refuge in marshy areas or grasses adjacent to river banks that are not susceptible to burning (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/>The limited information available on reproduction indicates that <em>C. hispidus</em> probably has a small average litter size (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It exhibits crepuscular behaviour (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3833	population	Maheswaran, G. & Smith, A.T., 2008	During the mid-1960s there was speculation that <em>C. hispidus</em> had gone extinct, however, the capture of a live specimen in 1971 in the Barnadi Wildlife Sanctuary, northwest Assam, confirmed that the species was persisting (Maheswaran 2002). Though there is no information available on exact number of individuals in any areas of the range of <em>C. hispidus</em>, little doubt exists that the species has experienced a dramatic decline due to habitat loss in recent years (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). <br/><br/>Nowhere within the range is the population of <em>C. hispidus</em> well above satisfactory levels, but in some places, such as Dudwa National Park in northern Uttar Pradesh and Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary in northern Wets Bengal, fresh as well as old fecal pellets of <em>C. hispidus</em> can be found in abundance (Maheswaran 2002). Taking into consideration the degree of habitat (tall and wet grassland habitat in places) fragmentation, chances are very remote that the species can disperse freely, especially during flooding and grassland burning during the dry season (Maheswaran pers. comm.). The number of individuals occurring in these two areas is currently unknown.<br/><br/>Density of <em>C. hispidus</em> in suitable habitat (unburned tall grassland) is 1/1,470 m² (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
3833	threats	Maheswaran, G. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The primary threat to <em>C. hispidus</em> populations is habitat loss, caused by encroaching agriculture, logging, flood control, and human development (Bell <em>et al.</em> 1990). The natural spatial and temporal dynamics of the tall grassland habitat, particularly the fire cycles, are key important to the conservation of this species (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1990, Maheswaran 2002). <br/><br/>The natural process of succession of grassland into woodlands reduces suitable habitat for grassland specialists such as <em>C. hispidus</em>. Thus, the elephant grass habitat occupied by the species is highly fragmented, and often intersected by forests, streams, and rivers (Maheswaran 2002).<br/><br/>The decline (quantitative and qualitative) of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and is expected to continue at this rate through 2014 (Jordan <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
3842	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The species is found in many protected areas in Cuba. The species is monitored in many of the areas where it occurs.	eng
3842	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Desmarest's hutia is known from mainland Cuba and other islands within the Cuban archipelago, including the Isle of Youth and Archipiélago de las Doce Laqunas (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
3842	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is primarily herbivorous. It is arboreal and prefers areas with caves and extensive root systems where it will hide (Soy pers. comm.). It is found in all types of habitats such as montane cloud forests, arid coastal semi-deserts, semi-deciduous forests, low, marshy areas and even in the mountains of eastern Cuba. This species can climb trees; however, it is more often found on the ground. The species lives in pairs in dense forests. <br/><br/>Its diet consists of leaves, fruit, bark, reptiles, insects and other small animals. The gestation period is between 110 to 140 days. After this time 1 to 6, but generally 2 fully developed young are born. These are nursed for about 153 days and become sexually mature at the age of 10 months. The life span of the species in captivity is up to 11 years (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991; Poiez <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
3842	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is widespread throughout all of Cuba. It is apparently common; in some protected areas its density has reached 50/ha, and in some mangrove swamps it reaches 100/ha (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991).	eng
3842	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	No major threats exist for this species. The species is sometimes hunted.	eng
3847	conservation	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Populations in Asian range states are included in CITES Appendix I; populations in African range states are included on Appendix II. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (updated from Nowell and Jackson 1996).   <em></em>In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is protected from hunting in about half of its range states (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Namibia and South Africa, the caracal is classified as a Problem Animal, which permits landowners to kill the species without restriction; nonetheless, caracal have persisted and remain widespread.<br/><br/>Caracal are present in many large, and well-managed protected areas, across their vast range.	eng
3847	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Populations in Asian range states are included in CITES Appendix I; populations in African range states are included on Appendix II. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Algeria, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Morocco, Pakistan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (updated from Nowell and Jackson 1996). In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is protected from hunting in about half of its range states (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Namibia and South Africa, the caracal is classified as a Problem Animal, which permits landowners to kill the species without restriction; nonetheless, caracal have persisted and remain widespread.<br/><br/>Caracal are present in many large, and well-managed protected areas, across their vast range.	eng
3847	distribution	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	The caracal is widely distributed across Africa, Central Asia, and south-west Asia into India. While it is relatively common, there is concern over the status of populations on the edge of its range in the Central Asian republics and in Pakistan (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The caracal is widely distributed on the African continent, being absent only from the equatorial forest belt and from much of the central Sahara, but they are present in the montane massifs of that desert and its fringes, including the Hoggar and Tassili mountains of SE Algeria and the Saharan Atlas,  the Aïr of Niger, and edges of the great sand areas of Eastern Great Erg Tun and Alg. Their range is continuous to the west and east of the central Sahara, linking the ranges to the south and north of the desert (Stuart and Stuart in press).  The historical range of the caracal mirrors that of the cheetah, and both coincide with the distribution of several small desert gazelles (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Caracals still occupy much of their historic range in Africa but have experienced substantial loss at the peripheries, particularly in north and west Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
3847	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Caracal is widely distributed across Africa, Central Asia, and southwest Asia into India. While it is relatively common, there is concern over the status of populations on the edge of its range in the Central Asian republics and in Pakistan (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Caracal is widely distributed on the African continent, being absent only from the equatorial forest belt and from much of the central Sahara, but they are present in the montane massifs of that desert and its fringes, including the Hoggar and Tassili mountains of southeastern Algeria and the Saharan Atlas,  the Aïr of Niger, and edges of the great sand areas of Eastern Great Erg Tun and Alg. Their range is continuous to the west and east of the central Sahara, linking the ranges to the south and north of the desert (Stuart and Stuart in press).  The historical range of the caracal mirrors that of the Cheetah, and both coincide with the distribution of several small desert gazelles (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Caracals still occupy much of their historic range in Africa but have experienced substantial loss at the peripheries, particularly in north and west Africa (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005)·	eng
3847	habitat	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	The caracal occupies a wide variety of habitats from semi-desert to relatively open savanna and scrubland to moist woodland and thicket or evergreen/montane forest (as in the Western Cape of South Africa), but favours drier woodland and savanna regions with lower rainfall and some cover (Stuart and Stuart in press).  While drier open country is preferred, they are absent from true desert and are usually associated with some form of vegetative cover (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They range up to 2,500 m and exceptionally 3,300 m (exceptionally) in the Ethiopian Highlands (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Caracal prey mainly on small- to medium-sized mammals, from small murids to antelope up to ~50 kg, but they will also take birds, reptiles, invertebrates, fish, and some plant matter (Stuart and Stuart in press).  Like cheetahs, caracals were captured and trained to hunt for Indian royalty, but although it is capable of taking the larger ungulates it was mainly used for small game and birds (Divyabhanusinh 1995).  Caracals often scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Home ranges are large in arid areas, with the home ranges of three males averaging 316.4 km² on Namibian ranchland (Marker and Dickman 2005).  In Saudi Arabia, a radio-tracked male ranged over 270 km² to 1,116 km² in different seasons (Van Heezik and Seddon 1998), while in an Israeli study, home ranges of males averaged 220.6 km² (Weisbein and Mendelssohn 1990).  Male home ranges in better-watered environments of South Africa are smaller (two males averaged 26.9 km² in West Coast National Park:  (Avenant and Nel 1998), and female ranges are considerably smaller than males (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
3847	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The caracal occupies a wide variety of habitats from semi-desert to relatively open savanna and scrubland to moist woodland and thicket or evergreen/montane forest (as in the Western Cape of South Africa), but favours drier woodland and savanna regions with lower rainfall and some cover (Stuart and Stuart in press).  While drier open country is preferred, they are absent from true desert and are usually associated with some form of vegetative cover (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They range up to 2,500 m and exceptionally 3,300 m (exceptionally) in the Ethiopian Highlands (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Caracal prey mainly on small- to medium-sized mammals, from small murids to antelope up to ~50 kg, but they will also take birds, reptiles, invertebrates, fish, and some plant matter (Stuart and Stuart in press).  Like cheetahs, caracals were captured and trained to hunt for Indian royalty, but although it is capable of taking the larger ungulates it was mainly used for small game and birds (Divyabhanusinh 1995).  Caracals often scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Home ranges are large in arid areas, with the home ranges of three males averaging 316.4 km² on Namibian ranchland (Marker and Dickman 2005).  In Saudi Arabia, a radio-tracked male ranged over 270 km² to 1,116 km² in different seasons (Van Heezik and Seddon 1998), while in an Israeli study, home ranges of males averaged 220.6 km² (Weisbein and Mendelssohn 1990).  Male home ranges in better-watered environments of South Africa are smaller (two males averaged 26.9 km² in West Coast National Park:  (Avenant and Nel 1998), and female ranges are considerably smaller than males (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
3847	population	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is common in parts of its range, especially in South Africa and southern Namibia where it is expanding into new, and recolonizing vacant, areas; however, in central and West Africa, where they are largely absent, densities are apparently lower, possibly due to finer partitioning of resources in a more diverse carnivore community (Stuart and Stuart in press). Avenant and Nel (1998) recorded a density of 0.23-0.47 caracal/km² in the West Coast N.P. in the Western Cape of South Africa.<br/><br/>In its north Africa, the caracal is considered threatened (Stuart and Stuart in press), and rare in the Central Asian republics and India (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
3847	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In sub-Saharan Africa, the caracal is common in parts of its range, especially in South Africa and southern Namibia where it is expanding into new, and recolonizing vacant, areas; however, in central and West Africa, where they are largely absent, densities are apparently lower, possibly due to finer partitioning of resources in a more diverse carnivore community (Stuart and Stuart in press). Avenant and Nel (1998) recorded a density of 0.23-0.47 caracal/km² in the West Coast N.P. in the Western Cape of South Africa.<br/><br/>In its north Africa, the caracal is considered threatened (Stuart and Stuart in press), and rare in the Central Asian republics and India (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
3847	threats	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	As caracals are capable of taking small domestic livestock, they are often subject to persecution. Stuart (1982) recorded that over the years 1931-1952 an average of 2,219 caracals per year were killed in control operations in the Karoo, South Africa. Similarly, Namibian farmers responding to a government questionnaire reported killing up to 2,800 caracals in 1981 (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Brand (1989) found that caracals were responsible for the loss of up to 5.3 domestic stock per 100 km² per annum in the former Cape Province of South Africa. Severity of depredation appears to be dependent on the availability of wild prey and husbandry techniques (Stuart and Stuart in press).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction (agriculture and desertification) is a significant threat in central, west, north and northeast Africa where caracals are naturally sparsely distributed (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is also likely to be the main threat in the Asian part of its range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
3847	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	As caracals are capable of taking small domestic livestock, they are often subject to persecution. Stuart (1982) recorded that over the years 1931-1952 an average of 2,219 caracals per year were killed in control operations in the Karoo, South Africa. Similarly, Namibian farmers responding to a government questionnaire reported killing up to 2,800 caracals in 1981 (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Brand (1989) found that caracals were responsible for the loss of up to 5.3 domestic stock per 100 km² per annum in the former Cape Province of South Africa. Severity of depredation appears to be dependent on the availability of wild prey and husbandry techniques (Stuart and Stuart in press).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction (agriculture and desertification) is a significant threat in central, west, north and northeast Africa where caracals are naturally sparsely distributed (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is also likely to be the main threat in the Asian part of its range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
3849	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
3849	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
3849	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North, Baltic, White, Barents, Black and Caspian Sea basins; Aegean Sea basin only in Maritza drainage; eastward to Kolyma drainage (Siberia); westward to Rhine and eastern drainages of England. Absent from North Sea basin in Sweden and Norway. In Baltic basin north to about 66°N. Widely introduced to Italy, England and France but possibly often confused with <em>C. gibelio</em>.	eng
3849	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	North, Baltic, White, Barents, Black and Caspian Sea basins; Aegean Sea basin only in Maritza drainage; eastward to Kolyma drainage (Siberia); westward to Rhine and eastern drainages of England. Absent from North Sea basin in Sweden and Norway. In Baltic basin north to about 66°N. Widely introduced to Italy, England and France but possibly often confused with <em>C. gibelio</em>.	eng
3849	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually restricted to densely vegetated backwaters and oxbows of lowland rivers. Also in small well vegetated lakes and channels. Tolerates high summer temperatures and very low oxygen concentrations in summer and under ice cover. Able to survive in almost completely frozen water or almost-dry habitats by burying itself in mud. Spawns in dense submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at three years, females at four years in central and eastern Europe, at two years in southern Europe. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 18°C. Individual females spawn with several males. Males follow ripe females, often with much splashing. Females spawn 3-5 times during a season. Eggs are sticky and are attached to water plants. Omnivorous; feeds all day but mostly at night on plankton, benthic invertebrates, plant material and detritus. Seems to be a weak competitor, usually absent from waters with rich ichthyofauna and abundant predatory species. Very abundant in the absence of other fish species. High-bodied, fast-growing individuals in habitats with predatory fish, more elongate in habitats without predatory fish.	eng
3849	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually restricted to densely vegetated backwaters and oxbows of lowland rivers. Also in small well vegetated lakes and channels. Tolerates high summer temperatures and very low oxygen concentrations in summer and under ice cover. Able to survive in almost completely frozen water or almost-dry habitats by burying itself in mud. Spawns in dense submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at three years, females at four years in central and eastern Europe, at two years in southern Europe. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 18°C. Individual females spawn with several males. Males follow ripe females, often with much splashing. Females spawn 3-5 times during a season. Eggs are sticky and are attached to water plants. Omnivorous; feeds all day but mostly at night on plankton, benthic invertebrates, plant material and detritus. Seems to be a weak competitor, usually absent from waters with rich ichthyofauna and abundant predatory species. Very abundant in the absence of other fish species. High-bodied, fast-growing individuals in habitats with predatory fish, more elongate in habitats without predatory fish.	eng
3849	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
3849	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
3849	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduced <em>C. gibelio</em>.	eng
3849	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Introduced <em>C. gibelio</em>.	eng
3851	conservation	Burgess, H. G. & Branstetter, S., 2005	The Blacktip Shark receives management in only two countries, Australia and the USA. In Australia, it is one of a suite of species that is collectively managed in the limited-entry fishery of northern Australia (Simpfendorfer pers. comm.). A keystone species in the US Atlantic directed shark fishery, it similarly is managed through a management plan that addresses the entire group of species represented in the fishery. At the time of this writing, species-specific management of the Blacktip Shark in the region was forthcoming.	eng
3851	distribution	Burgess, H. G. & Branstetter, S., 2005	The Blacktip Shark is widespread in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical waters. Primarily it is a continental species, although it is found around some oceanic islands. In the western Atlantic it ranges from Massachusetts, United States, to southern Brazil; in the eastern Atlantic it is known from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to central Africa; it is widespread in the Indian Ocean from South Africa to western Australia, including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; and in the Pacific Ocean it is recorded from throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, at oceanic islands such as Hawaii, Tahiti and the Marquesas, and in the eastern Pacific from California, USA, to Peru (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
3851	habitat	Burgess, H. G. & Branstetter, S., 2005	The Blacktip Shark occurs in nearshore waters off beaches, in bays, estuaries, over coral reefs and off river mouths. In the western North Atlantic it migrates north seasonally as far as Cape Cod, Massachusetts (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948) and is common year-round in southern areas of the USA. In this region males and females generally remain in sexually segregated schools outside of the mating season and off South Africa there is similar segregation in the local population (Dudley and Cliff 1993b). <br/><br/>This species commonly occurs in loose aggregations. The Blacktip Shark uses coastal bays and estuaries throughout the south-eastern US as nursery grounds (Castro 1996). It has an unusual habit of leaping from the water, rotating as many as three times, and falling back in the water, usually on its back. For this behaviour, as well as its similar morphology, it is often confused with the Spinner Shark. <br/><br/>The Blacktip Shark primarily eats bony fishes, but its diet also contains smaller amounts of crustaceans, such as shrimp and crabs and cephalopods (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Dudley and Cliff 1993b, Castro 1996). Small-sized elasmobranchs are also consumed in lesser quantities. This shark commonly follows fishing trawlers, consuming discarded bycatch and rarely attacking the cod ends of trawl nets. <br/><br/>The species is placentally viviparous producing 4?11 pups (mean 4?6) after an 11?12 month gestation period (Killam 1987, Dudley and Cliff 1993b, Castro 1996). Larger females produce more and larger pups. The females have a one-year resting stage between pregnancies, making the reproductive cycle a two-year event. In the western North Atlantic, mating occurs in early June through early July; in South Africa it occurs in November and December. Implantation usually occurs during the 10?11th weeks of gestation (when embryos measure 178?194 mm total length (TL)) and pups are born in late May-early June the next year. Pups occupy specific nursery grounds in shallow coastal waters away from the adult population, which may reduce predatory mortality on the cohorts. Pups are born at 53? 65 cm TL. The neonate stage lasts about a month and the juveniles continue to occupy nearshore nursery areas. Neonates increase by 25?30 cm during the first six months, have an annual growth of 20 cm during the second year of life and growth slows gradually through adulthood. This is a very fast growing species compared to its congeners. After reaching maturity, growth is less than 5 cm annually. The oldest fish aged have been 9?10 years of age. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for western North Atlantic Blacktip Sharks are: Females: L? = 195 cm TL; k = 0.197 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -1.15 year (Killam and Parsons 1989). Males: L? = 167 cm TL; k = 0.276 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -0.88 year (Killam and Parsons 1989). Sexes combined: L? = 176 cm TL; k = 0.274 year<sup>-1</sup> t = -1.2 year (Branstetter 1987).<br/><br/>There are regional differences in many biological parameters of Blacktip Sharks. In the western North Atlantic, males mature at 130?145 cm TL (or 4?5 years of age) and most females mature at 150?156 cm TL (or 6?7 years of age). In South Africa most males reach maturity at 146?150 cm pre-caudal length (PCL) and females at 151?155 cm PCL. The smallest pregnant female observed in South Africa was 146 cm PCL. Maximum reported size of females for the Northwest Atlantic population is 193 cm, with most large females ranging from 175?185 cm TL. Maximum reported size for males is 175 cm TL (128 cm PCL) and most are less than 165 cm TL in this region. In South Africa maximum sizes for both sexes occurs at 190 cm PCL, with modes of 161?165 cm PCL for males and 166?170 cm PCL for females. A female reaching 206 cm PCL has been recorded from the equatorial Indian Ocean The intrinsic rate of increase has been estimated at 0.054 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). In the western North Atlantic, at approximately 100 cm TL the shark weighs about 10 kg, at 150 cm TL about 25 kg and when nearing maximum size (<em>ca</em>. 180 cm TL) it will weigh almost 50 kg. Weight-length relationships for Blacktip Sharks in this region are: Males: wt (kg) = 1.4 × 10-5(cm TL 2.9) (Killam 1987) Females: wt (kg) = 3.0 × 10?6 (cm TL 3.1) (Killam 1987) Sexes combined: wt (kg) = 1.44 × 10-5(cm TL 2.87) (Branstetter 1987a) For South African blacktips (Killam 1987), the relationships are: Males: wt (kg) = 1.18 × 10-5(cm PCL 3.05) Females: wt (kg) = 1.08 × 10-5(cm PCL 3.08).	eng
3851	population	Burgess, H. G. & Branstetter, S., 2005	The Blacktip Shark is common in nearshore waters. It may be the most abundant large-coastal species in the north-west Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter 1981a).	eng
3851	threats	Burgess, H. G. & Branstetter, S., 2005	In the western North Atlantic this species has long been important in the recreational fishery and now is a primary target of the directed commercial fishery along the southeast coast from South Carolina to Florida and throughout the Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter and Burgess 1996, 1997). It is the second most important commercially landed species in that region after the Sandbar Shark (<em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em>) and its meat is considered superior to the latter species. In the USA, Blacktip Shark other carcharhinid meat is often sold under the name ?Blacktip Shark? because of wide consumer preference for the product. It is a significant constituent of the substantial Mexican shark catch, from both Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Elsewhere, it is the most commonly caught species in the large Indian fishery (Hanfee 1996), occasionally caught in the Mediterranean Sea driftnet fishery (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005), and surely constitutes a sizeable portion of the catch in smaller scale and artisanal fisheries throughout the northern Indian Ocean and South China Sea. In Australia, it represents a minor component of the shark catch in northern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Blacktip Shark meat is primarily consumed locally and fins are dried and shipped to the Far East where they are used in preparing shark-fin soup. In some areas the hides are utilised in preparing leather and the livers are used to extract oil.	eng
3852	conservation	Musick, J.A., Grubbs, R.D., Baum, J. & Cortés, E., 2007	Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Family Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as dusky shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993, Joyce 1999). In US Atlantic waters dusky sharks are a prohibited species (outside of the shark research fishery) on the Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks. Prohibited species must be released immediately with minimum injury and without removing them from the water. The population appears to be responding to this measures, with substantial recruitment over the last six years (Ha 2006, Musick unpublished, Romine 2004), but it remains to be seen how many of these recruits will survive to maturity given the high bycatch mortality.<br/><br/>Management of the Australian fishery is through input controls implemented as time-gear units. In 2006, the Western Australian Government introduced a number of changes in all commercial fisheries to reduce mortality, particularly of dusky and sandbar sharks, including: a maximum size limit for Dusky Shark; additional controls on the use of longline; and the conversion of monthly gear units to daily gear units (McLoughlin 2008, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The main management objective is to achieve target biomass levels of 40% of the initial biomass by 2040 for Dusky Shark (McLoughlin 2008).	eng
3852	distribution	Musick, J.A., Grubbs, R.D., Baum, J. & Cortés, E., 2007	The Dusky Shark has a cosmopolitan but patchy distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span>: Southern Massachusetts and Georges Bank to Florida, Bahamas, Cuba, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Nicaragua, southern Brazil (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic</span>: This shark?s distribution is uncertain in the northeast and eastern central Atlantic and these records, and others from tropical insular areas, may be misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. galapagensis</span> (J. Musick pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Senegal and Sierra Leone. Uncertain records exist from elsewhere, including Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Madeira (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). &#160;<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Most records are from the western and central-southern regions, along the North African coasts and Sicily Straits. It is likely that this species? ranges further east in the Ionian Sea and Levantine Basin (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Around 20 specimens have been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea to date: after Lozano Rey?s first record for the Mediterranean (1928), Moreno (1982) cites three specimens from the Alboran Sea and Hemida and Labidi (2002) reported another three from eastern Algeria. A single Tunisian report is from Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1979) and similarly, one from Malta (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). At Mazara del Vallo, Sicily, a further three specimens were observed (Cigala-Fulgosi pers. comm. in Fergusson and Compagno 2000) and Vacchi and Serena (1997) observed one. A single specimen was caught at Capo Testa, Sardinia (Fergusson and Compagno 2000) and at least five were seen in Tripoli, Libya, by Trevor Meyer (pers. comm. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Indian Ocean</span>: South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, and possibly in the Red Sea. Also, patchy records scattered in the Arabian Sea and recorded from the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Pacific</span>: Japan, China, Viet Nam, New Caledonia and throughout Australian waters (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Pacific</span>: Southern California to Gulf of California, Revillagigedo Islands, and possibly Chile (Compagno in prep., Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>The Dusky Shark undertakes long temperature-related migrations. On both coasts of the U.S., Dusky Sharks migrate northward in summer as the waters warm and retreat southward in fall as water temperatures drop (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). In western Australia, adolescents and adults move inshore during the summer and fall, with neonates occupying separate inshore areas (Last and Stevens 1994). Seasonal migrations (north in winter and south in summer) also occur off South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973). In the Indian Ocean, the young are known to aggregate in dense assemblages when feeding (Compagno 1984). Nursery areas occur in shallow waters (Compagno in prep.). Off Brazil, Mazzoleni (2000) suggested that there was possibly a nursery area in the north of Santa Catarina State, when 79 neonates were caught by the artisanal fishery from 1994 to 2000. Neonates were abundant in the end of summer to the middle of autumn (February?May). In the winter season virtually no specimens were caught. Nursery areas also occur off the southern coast of Natal, South Africa and off South Carolina, USA (Compagno in prep.).	eng
3852	habitat	Musick, J.A., Grubbs, R.D., Baum, J. & Cortés, E., 2007	The majority of the information below is taken from Camhi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005).<br/><br/>This shark is coastal and pelagic in its distribution, where it occurs from the surf zone to well offshore, and from the surface to depths of 400 m (Compagno 1984). Because it is poorly adapted to osmoregulate at lower salinities, it is not commonly found in estuaries (Compagno 1984, Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). A study off Brazil by Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1997) recorded the species at depths of 8?15 m off southern Sao Paulo State. Tagging studies in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Davies and Joubert 1967, Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973), the Northwest Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico (Kohler 1996), and the southeastern Indian Ocean (Simpfendorfer unpublished data) have all shown that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> is a highly migratory species. The longest distance between tagging and recapture is 2,052 nautical miles, and the longest period at liberty 15.8 years. Movements normally show seasonal patterns, with adults moving into more temperate areas as temperatures rise in summer. Movements of adults are longer than those of neonates and juveniles, although juveniles of approximately a year old have been recorded moving as much as 742 nautical miles off South Africa (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The juveniles are known to migrate down as far as the southern and western Cape when the waters warm up during the summer months. They retreat back to the east coast as it cools (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2004). Major nursery areas for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> have been identified off the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973), the New Jersey to South Carolina coast of the United States (Musick and Colvocoresses 1988, Castro 1993), and the southwest coast of Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Simpfendorfer 1999). The neonates occur in nearshore waters in all of these nursery areas, but do not enter lower salinity areas.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is a large shark that reaches >360 cm in length and 180 kg (Castro 1983). Off KwaZulu-Natal a female of 383 cm precaudal length (PL) and 450 kg has been captured in the protective shark nets (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Maximum sizes recorded in the Mediterranean Sea were a male of 311 cm and a female of 349 cm (Fergusson and Compagno 2000). Size and age data are available from several areas. In the northwest Atlantic, males mature at 231 cm fork length (FL) and at 19 years of age, and females at 235 cm FL and at 21 years of age (Natanson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). In the southwest Indian Ocean, off South Africa, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that males mature at 210 cm PL and 19.2 years of age and females at 214 cm PL and 20 years of age. The oldest Dusky Shark reported from vertebral ageing studies is 37 years, although they are believed to live to a maximum of 40-50 years (Natanson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, Sminkey 1996). <br/><br/>The Dusky Shark is placentally viviparous, with litters normally ranging in size from 3?16 pups, of 70?100 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Recent work has suggested that gestation may be as long as 22 months (Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Romine 2004). The lack of large yolky ova in the ovary of late-term pregnant <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> indicates that there is one year resting period between birth and mating, making the reproductive cycle at least three years long (Musick 1995, Branstetter and Burgess 1996, Romine 2004). <br/><br/>Recent demographic analyses of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the western Atlantic have generated estimates of the annual rate of population increase of 2.8% (Cortés 1998) and 5.57% (Sminkey 1996). Both of these estimates are for the population without fishing mortality and assume a two-year reproductive cycle. Given that it is now thought that the reproductive cycle lasts three years these population increase rates are probably lower. Romine (2004) estimated the annual rate of population increase only to be around 1.9% and the population doubling time was estimated to be 36 years. Simpfendorfer (1999), using a three year reproductive cycle, estimated the annual rate of population increase for the Australian population was 4.3%. The low rates of population increase highlight the need for conservative management of fisheries that capture <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> (Cortés 1998). <br/><br/>Diet: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus </span>has a varied diet that includes teleosts, elasmobranchs and cephalopods. Neonates and juveniles mostly consume small pelagic teleosts (e.g., sardines and anchovies) and squid (Smale 1991, Stevens 1990, Simpfendorfer pers. data). With increasing size larger teleosts (e.g., groupers, jacks) and elasmobranchs (e.g., dasyatids <span style="font-style: italic;">Raja </span>spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinobatus </span>spp., squatinids, carcharhinids, mustelids and squalids) become more important in the diet (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, van der Elst 1979, Castro 1983, Smale 1991, Gelshleichter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). As a common apex predator <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> plays an important (but poorly studied) role in the marine ecosystem. In the western Atlantic, the dusky has always been less abundant than some other species of carcharhinid sharks with which it is sympatric, such as the sandbar shark (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). This seems to be in keeping with its larger size and higher trophic position.	eng
3852	population	Musick, J.A., Grubbs, R.D., Baum, J. & Cortés, E., 2007	This species is estimated to have undergone population decline in several areas of its range, as summarized in the threats section, below.	eng
3852	threats	Musick, J.A., Grubbs, R.D., Baum, J. & Cortés, E., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is taken as both bycatch and target in commercial shark fisheries using, set nets, longlines, hook and line and trawls (Cramer 1995, Compagno in prep.) in many areas of its range. The species has among the most sought after fins for shark fin soup because of their large size and high fin needle content (ceratotrichia) (TRAFFIC 1996, R. Hudson pers. comm.). Because of its high-value fin, dusky sharks caught incidentally in tuna and swordfish fisheries are now regularly landed rather than released. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> was found to represent at least 1.2?1.7% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006a). It is estimated that between 144,000 and 767,000 Dusky Sharks are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 6,000 to 30,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). The very low intrinsic rate of increase of the Dusky Shark renders this species among the most vulnerable of all vertebrates (including great whales and sea turtles) to man-induced mortality (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Musick 1999). Furthermore, Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that the species is difficult to manage or protect because it is taken in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Further threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> are from beach meshing programs in Australia and South Africa and from recreational fishing. Beach meshing in Australia (Queensland and News South Wales) undoubtedly catches <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span>, however, species-specific data are not available. Between 1972 and 1990, the New South Wales programme caught a total of 765 whaler sharks (Reid and Krough 1992), of which Stevens (1984) reported the capture of larger juvenile and adult <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> by recreational fishers off the east coast of Australia. Dusky sharks were one of the most important species in the trophy shark tournaments held in Florida, USA, until the stock collapsed (Heuter 1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</span><br/>The initial decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic was caused by a targeted recreational fishery that developed in the late-1970s and by bycatch in the pelagic swordfish longline fishery (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). A rapid expansion of the directed commercial shark fishery in the US in the late 1980s was fuelled in large part by the demand for shark fins in the markets of Asia (Cook 1990). Although Dusky Shark meat is used domestically in the US, the very high value of the fins suggests that the decline in this dusky shark population over past decades has been, and continues to be, driven by international trade in shark fins. There is little reason to believe that the demand for dusky shark products will lessen, especially as other fishery resources become increasingly depleted. In the Gulf of Mexico during the late 1980s, the dusky shark was the fourth most abundant species in the tuna longline bycatch, where medium to large dusky sharks were often shot, finned and discarded (Russell 1993).<br/><br/>Declining catch rates for Dusky Sharks in this area have been a cause for concern. Off North America the proportion of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in the catch decreased, while fishing for more abundant species continued (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> was put on the protected list in 2000, requiring all individuals captured in the longline fishery to be released. Even though the mortality of small juveniles on the longline was as high as 50% (lower for larger juveniles and adults) (Romine 2004), the juveniles have shown an increase of about 30% from the lowest point in the time series to 2005 in the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) survey, and continue to rise. This increase was not apparent in the stock assessment, which analysed catch data and multiple fisheries-independent and fisheries-dependent time series data sets in the western Atlantic (NMFS 2006). This assessment led to estimated declines of 62?92% between 1974 and 2003. These declines are of the same magnitude as those found in analyses of the VIMS survey data (Musick <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993, Romine 2004, Ha 2006), but in these studies the low point in Dusky Shark abundance occurred in the early-1990s. The NMFS (2006) assessment, which did not include the 2004?2006 VIMS survey data (which shows a further increase in juveniles) may not have detected the recent increase of juveniles because it was heavily influenced by pelagic data sets collected in deep water where juveniles are absent. The other long-term shark targeted survey in this region, which has been conducted off Cape Lookout, North Carolina through the University of North Carolina annually between 1972 and 2005 (data available to 2003) has captured 1,036 Dusky Sharks. This survey series shows a large, statistically significant decline of 98.8% (95%CI: 97.5?99.6%) and found evidence of no increase in recent years (Myers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.).<br/><br/>A new analysis of observer data from the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fishery from 1992?2005 (which combined catches of Dusky, Silky, and Night Sharks because of identification problems) suggests that this species complex has declined significantly, by 70% (95% CI: 54-81%) during this recent time period (Baum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). The observer data shows a steeper decline when Dusky Shark is analysed alone, but this analysis ignores species identification problems, and hence is not considered reliable (Baum <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). For the Gulf of Mexico, an analysis of data from U.S. pelagic longline research surveys conducted in the mid-1950s and U.S. pelagic longline observer data from the late-1990s estimated that dusky sharks declined by 79% over this forty-year period (Baum and Myers 2004), which is less than the three generation period for this species. Thus, recent management actions in the US may have led to an increase in the numbers of juvenile Dusky Sharks, however adults still appear to be declining.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southwest Atlantic</span><br/>This species is taken both incidentally and as a target species in longline and artisanal fisheries throughout Brazilian waters and elsewhere in the South Atlantic. It is taken by longline off Santos where it is retained as ?other sharks? (Arfelli and Amorim 1994). The species has also been recorded from artisanal fisheries off Rio de Janeiro State (Sant'Anna and Siqueira 2000) and from southern Sao Paulo State (Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Bertozzi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Gadig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). From July 1996 to February 1997 the species made up 1.12% of the catch (Motta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997) and 5.61% of the total catch from 1996 to 1999, which consisted mostly of juveniles, most frequently caught in June and August (Gadig <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). A number of countries operate longline fleets targeting tuna and swordfish in the high seas areas of the Southwest Atlantic region. In addition to the coastal nations of the Southwest Atlantic, nations including Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Spain, Bolivia, Cape Verde, United Kingdom, China and Barbados also operate vessels here. Tuna and swordfish longline fisheries now also target sharks due to increasing demand for shark products and the value of their fins (Bonfil <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Mejuto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>The main threats in the Mediterranean Sea are commercial fisheries. This species is caught sporadically in longline, setline, gillnet and sometimes by tuna trap (?Tonnara? Tonnarella?) fisheries, principally off North African and rather less frequently by surface longlines, artisanal setlines and possibly trawlers in the Sicilian Channel. Carcharhinid sharks have been caught as target or bycatch in historical fisheries in this region, where fishing pressure is high, however there are few species-specific records from which to elucidate population trends. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus</span> is rarely observed on fishmarkets in the Mediterranean, but is easily mistaken for other ?grey? requiem shark carcasses, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plumbeus</span>. This species is utilised for human consumption in several areas of the Mediterranean, including Sicily, Malta and Libya, although the meat is considered of low commercial value.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span><br/>The fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> off southwestern Australia developed in the 1940s, but rapidly increased in the late 1970s to produce annual catches of 500?600 t. The fishery uses demersal gillnets (16.5 to 17.8 cm stretched mesh) to target neonates in the nursery area and the selectivity of the nets results in very few individuals over three years of age being captured. The flesh of the young <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> is highly regarded and fetches a good price on local markets. Fins are also sold. Current estimates are that 18?28% of neonates are caught in their first year. An assessment using demographic models indicated that the fishery was sustainable at the then level of catch provided the fishing mortality of animals larger than two metres was less than 4% (Simpfendorfer 1999). However, a more recent assessment (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) found that the stock was less productive than previously thought, and that mortality of older dusky sharks in wetline fisheries outside the target fisheries was leading to a decline in recruitment. This assessment also estimated that the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of Dusky Sharks declined by more than 75% between the early 1970s and 2004, and that the decline was continuing. In 2006 additional management measures were introduced to the fishery (see below), including a maximum size limit for Dusky Shark. These management measures should arrest further declines, but continued monitoring and assessment will be essential to monitor the stock, and the effectiveness of these measures.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">South Africa</span><br/>Off South Africa, there is a pelagic tuna longline fishery that may take some as bycatch but this is unconfirmed. There is a small commercial line fishery taking juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span>, and there is a recreational line fishery that targets juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> but most are released (they were not released a decade ago) and there is the beach meshing operation that catches juveniles, adolescents and adults. <span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus obscurus </span>would have been a significant component in the beach meshing program off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, between 1978 and 1999, when the mean annual catch of was 256 individuals (range 129?571, Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). There was no trend in either catch or catch rate. A subsequent update by Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) showed no trend in either catch rate or size over the period 1978?2003. The large mesh size of the nets used in these programs means that many of the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> taken are sub-adults and adults, but juveniles are also caught. The occurrence of sub-adult and adult <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> off KwaZulu-Natal is affected by an annual winter influx of sardines Sardinops sagax and shark catches are influenced by attempts to remove the nets in advance of the arrival of the sardine shoals (Dudley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Reports of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> in recreational fisheries are limited. Van der Elst (1979) reported that large numbers of juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">C. obscurus</span> were taken by recreational shore anglers in South Africa and Govender and Birnie (1997) have expressed concerns about the high rate of instantaneous fishing mortality in this fishery, although there is an increasing tendency to release the sharks.	eng
3853	conservation	Musick, J.A., Stevens, J.D., Baum, J.K., Bradai, M., Clò, S., Fergusson, I., Grubbs, R.D., Soldo, A., Vacchi, M. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries  is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to  improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Family  Carcharhinidae is listed as highly migratory under the 1995 UN Agreement on the  Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish  Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States  to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To  date, there has been little progress (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further  details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the  Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that  Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population  assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark  management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as sandbar  shark whose stocks are exploited by many States on the high seas. Steps are  being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on  pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as  have several range states (e.g. Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More  are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans  (NMFS 1993, Joyce 1999). In US Atlantic waters Sandbar Sharks are a prohibited  species (outside of the shark research fishery) on the Fishery Management Plan  for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks. Prohibited species must be released  immediately with minimum injury and without removing them from the  water.<br/><br/>The species is under a comprehensive management plan in Western  Australia (McAuley <em>et al.</em> 2005). Management of the Australian fishery is  through input controls implemented as time-gear units. In 2006, the Western  Australian Government introduced a number of changes in all commercial fisheries  to reduce mortality, particularly dusky and sandbar shark, including: a maximum  size limit for dusky shark; additional controls on the use of longline; and the  conversion of monthly gear units to daily gear units (McLoughlin 2008, McAuley  <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
3853	distribution	Musick, J.A., Stevens, J.D., Baum, J.K., Bradai, M., Clò, S., Fergusson, I., Grubbs, R.D., Soldo, A., Vacchi, M. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This species occurs world-wide in tropical and warm temperate waters.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Atlantic</span>: USA from Gulf of Maine, Massachusetts to Yucatan, Mexico, Cuba and Bahamas; possibly to Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Columbia, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela; southern population extending from southern Brazil to northern Argentina (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Atlantic</span>: Portugal, possibly Canary Islands, Spain, Morocco, Senegal, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Zaire, Sao Tome and Principe (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Corsica, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Indian Ocean</span>: South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Mauritius, Seychelles, Red Sea, Gulf of Oman (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Pacific</span>: Viet Nam, China (including Taiwan Province), Japan, Indonesia (Aru Island), Australia (Queensland, New South Wales), New Caledonia (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Indian Ocean</span>: Western Australia and the Northern Territory (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Also common in the Hawaiian Islands in the Central Pacific (Compagno in prep). Records from Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands are probably spurious.	eng
3853	habitat	Musick, J.A., Stevens, J.D., Baum, J.K., Bradai, M., Clò, S., Fergusson, I., Grubbs, R.D., Soldo, A., Vacchi, M. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	The below is mainly taken from Musick (2005), with some information updated.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus plumbeus</span> is a coastal shark, often in shallow waters associated with sandy or muddy flats, bays, estuaries and harbours commonly down to salinities of 20 ppt in some populations (Grubbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a) and also further offshore, particularly on banks, near islands, flat reefs and other topographic features in open waters (Compagno in prep.). This species occurs from the surfline down to 280 m (Compagno in prep.), but typically in waters less than 100 m where it frequently forages near the seabed. In the Mediterranean it is caught down to 200 m (caught at this depth on the bottom in Sicilian waters by trawlers) (Compagno in prep.). Juveniles tend to occur in offshore temperate waters, while larger sharks mainly occur in tropical waters (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>This species is viviparous with a yolk sac placenta. Gestation has been estimated at 9?12 months in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic (Springer 1960, Colvocoresses and Musick 1989), 12 months off Brazil (Hazin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), 11?12 months off South Africa (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988) and the East China Sea (Taniuchi 1971), 10?12 months off Taiwan (Province of China) (Joung and Chen 1995) and 12 months off Western Australia (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Females apparently have young only every two or three years. Joung and Chen (1995) noted that about 50% of mature females are pregnant off Taiwan (Province of China), and Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1988) reported the same off KwaZulu-Natal. Conversely Springer (1960) noted that only 17?27% of mature females captured off Florida were pregnant. However, most of the mature females examined in the mid-Atlantic Bight of the US in summer are pregnant or recently have born young (Colvocoresses and Musick 1989). Therefore, the pregnancy rate in the Northwest Atlantic may be near 50%, but it is difficult to obtain a synoptic sample of the entire population of mature females because of their wide geographic distribution and seasonal movements. McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) report biennial reproductive periodicity off Western Australia with mating occurring during summer and autumn.<br/><br/>In general, size at maturity, maximum size and litter size decrease from the western Atlantic (Sminkey and Musick 1996) to the western Indian Ocean (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Baranes and Wendling 1981), to Taiwan (Joung and Chen 1995) and Australia (Last and Stevens 1994), to the east China Sea (Taniuchi 1971) to Hawaii (Wass 1973). Size at maturity in females ranges from 129?158 cm total length (TL) and from 123?156 cm TL in males, as summarized by McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007). Litter size is variable and depends in part on the size of the mother. In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic litter size averages 8.4?9.3 (range = 1?14). However, in Hawaii mean litter size is only 5.5 (range = 1?8) (Tester 1969). In Western Australia litter size varies from 4?10 with a mean of 6.5 (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Within a given geographic area litter size is only very weakly correlated with the size of the mother (Cliff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988, Colvocoresses and Musick 1989, Hoff 1990, Joung and Chen 1995, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>Size at birth varies slightly by region but does not follow the same geographic pattern. New born pups range from 40?53 cm TL. In the Gulf of Gabes, Mediterranean Sea, Capapé (1984) reported size at birth at 58?65 cm TL. Size at birth in Western Australia is 40?45 cm FL. And 60% of the embryos were female (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>Sandbar Sharks are slow-growing K-selected species (Hoff 1990, Sminkey and Musick 1995). Although growth and age at maturity may be accelerated under captive conditions (Wass 1973), wild populations grow very slowly and mature at a relatively late age. In the western Atlantic the von Bertalanffy growth coefficient, k, has been estimated to be very low (0.039?0.089) in validated studies using annuli on vertebral centra (Lawler 1976, Casey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995). Maturity in these studies was estimated at 13?16 years. However, in another study based on growth rates calculated from tag/recapture data, growth was considerably slower and age at maturity was estimated to be 29 years (Casey and Natanson 1992). Considerable debate has arisen concerning the discrepancy between the two methods including the small tag/recapture sample size and the possible effects of tagging on growth rates (Sminkey 1994). A recent study of age and growth off Taiwan (Joung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) based on caudal vertebrae for which the annual nature of growth bands have not been validated is suspect. Romine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) recently defined age and growth of sandbar sharks in Hawaii where the population grow faster (k male = 0.12; k female = 0.10) and mature at an earlier age (males at 8 and females at 10 years of age, respectively) than populations in other areas. This study contradicts earlier very rapid growth estimates in captive sandbars (Wass 1973). In Western Australia, the annual periodicity of growth band formation was validated using vertebrae from tagged sharks, which were injected with oxytetracycline and were at liberty for up to 8.1 years. The oldest female was estimated to be 25 years of age and the oldest male was 19 years. The ages at which 50% of female and male sharks were mature was estimated to be 16.2 and 13.8 years, respectively (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Validated age at maturity estimates are available from McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006): females reach 50% maturity at 16.2 years of age and males at 13.8 years of age.<br/><br/>Recent publications suggest that for sandbar sharks the annual population increase rate can vary from 2.5% to 11.9% (Sminkey 1994, Sminkey and Musick 1996). These low rates of intrinsic increase are probably close to the real situation and reflect the K-selected life history parameters typical of virtually all large sharks. In Western Australia the stock was estimated to have a potential rate of population growth of 2.5% per year, in the absence of fishing (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The estimated generation and population doubling times of approximately 23 years, indicated a lengthy recovery period for the stock should it be reduced to lower than acceptable levels (McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Regardless, Sandbar Sharks grow slowly and mature late. Longevity is 35-41 years (Musick 2005, McAuley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>Diet: This shark mainly feeds on small bottom fishes, as well as molluscs and crustaceans. Compagno (2001) reports that this species? diet includes sardines, shad, menhaden, anchovies, sea catfishes, moray and snake eels, pipefish, barracuda, mullets, goatfishes, hairtails, spanish mackeral, bonito, mackeral, jacks, groupers, croakers, grunts, porgies, flounders and soles, sea robins, toadfish, cusk eels, porcupine fish, sharpnose sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhizoprionodon</span>), spiny dogfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Squalus</span>), bonnethead sharks, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, cow-nosed rays, squid, cuttlefish, octopi, bivalves and conchs, amphipods, shrimp and crabs. Neonates may consume mostly crabs and other large crustaceans and then eat more fishes as they get older (Ellis and Musick 2007). The species does not consume garbage and mammalian carrion as a rule, unlike some other members of its genus.	eng
3853	threats	Musick, J.A., Stevens, J.D., Baum, J.K., Bradai, M., Clò, S., Fergusson, I., Grubbs, R.D., Soldo, A., Vacchi, M. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> is a significant component of coastal shark  fisheries worldwide (Bass <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1973, Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994,  Branstetter and Burgess 1995, Joung and Chen 1995, McAuley <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This species is caught with longlines, hook-and-line, and set bottom nets and is  also fished with rod and reel by sports anglers as a game fish (Compagno in  prep.). Sandbar sharks were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins  auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke  <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Their fins are generally considered to be of high value,  comparable to dusky shark and hammerhead fins (S. Clarke unpubl. Data). Tagging,  age and growth studies show that sandbar sharks are a long-lived species with  low fecundity and are very vulnerable to over-fishing (Springer 1960, Casey  <em>et al.</em> 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995, 1996; McAuley <em>et al. </em>2005,  2006). It is an important component of shark fisheries in most areas where it  occurs and has been severely overfished in the Northwest and Western Central  Atlantic, Mediterranean, Southern Brazil and probably the Northeast Pacific. It  has declined from fishing off western Australia and is common but not fished in  Hawaiian waters (Romine <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest Atlantic</span><br/>Along  the Atlantic coast of the US, Branstetter and Burgess (1995) reported that this  species contributed up to 60% of the catch and 80% of the landings in the  directed longline fishery. In addition, the sandbar shark is second only to the  blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em> (a pelagic species) in the US Atlantic  recreational shark fishery (Hoff and Musick 1990). During the last 20 years the  recreational and commercial fisheries for sharks along the south Atlantic coast  of the US and in the Gulf of Mexico have expanded at rapid rates (Anderson 1985,  1990; Casey and Hoey 1985, Hoff and Musick 1990). Recreational catch has been  estimated at 2.5 million sharks (c.35,000 t) annually; 20?40% of these are killed  (National Marine Fisheries Service 1993). Driven by increased marketability, the  commercial fishery has rapidly expanded since 1985, with landings exceeding  7,100 t in 1989 (National Marine Fisheries Service 1993). In the Northwest and  Western Central Atlantic sandbar shark stocks were reduced by 85?90% in just 10  years because of over-exploitation. This species continued to support a  substantial fishery after such a severe population decline only because of the  very large size of the original stock. In addition, the age structure of the  population has been shifted dramatically toward younger age classes. Adult  females became very uncommon (Musick et al. 1993). Furthermore, the average size  of sandbar sharks off Virginia in 2005 had declined to 32% of the size in 1975  (Ha 2006). A Fishery Management Plan was introduced in 1993, on which <em>C.  plumbeus </em>is managed as a coastal species. Several states (Virginia, North  Carolina, Texas and Florida) also enacted laws to regulate shark fishing in  their respective regions (14% of commercial and 64% of recreational catches  occur in state controlled waters). Although biomass of the species was reported  to have increased by 2002 (Cortes <em>et al. </em>2002), a recent assessment  estimated that the stock is still only 35-47% of virgin biomass and 26-43% of  virgin mature abundance in numbers (SEDAR 2006). Further evidence of decline  comes from newly available analyses of survey data: A shark-targeted longline  research survey from the University of North Carolina, conducted annually  between 1972 and 2003 off Cape Lookout has caught 310 sandbar sharks. The  standardized CPUE time series for this survey indicates significant declines for  sandbar shark amounting to an 86% decline, with no recovery in the latter years  of the survey (Myers <em>et al. </em>in prep). A second shark-targeted longline  survey conducted in South Carolina in 1983-84 and 1993-1995 shows large  significant declines in sandbars, amounting to a 97% decline just over this 13  year time period (Myers <em>et al.</em> in prep). Finally, a trawl survey  conducted in Delaware Bay by the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and  Environmental Control between 1964 and 2004 shows a significant decline rate,  that over this 41 year time period amounts to an 84% decline (Myers <em>et  al.</em> in prep). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southwest Atlantic</span><br/>Intensive fishing by pair trawl,  gillnet and beach seine on pupping and nursery grounds is thought to have caused  excessively high juvenile mortality to the point of threatening the population  of the species in southern Brazil. Fishing with these gears has been intense in  this species? habitat during the last 20 years. The company SOPESCA in Rio  Grande recorded receipt of 10t of <em>C. plumbeus</em> on 11 February 1983. A  record of a typical beach seine catch on 23 February 1983 indicates that 20  individuals of <em>C. plumbeus</em> were caught within a single haul, with seven  specimens smaller than 80cm TL (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). No catches of the  species were observed during shore fishery monitoring in summer 2003, but  neonates of <em>C. plumbeus</em> were common during monitoring of a coastal  fishing at depths of 18-60m between Tramandaí and Saint Simão in summer 2005.  Neonates of <em>C. brevipinna, C. falciformis </em>and <em>C. signatus</em> were  also observed in this area, as well as adults of <em>Carcharias taurus</em>, which  is Critically Endangered in this region (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Carcharhinus plumbeus is also caught off Uruguay and northern Argentina (A.  Domingo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Adults of this species are also caught by pelagic  fisheries operating off the Atlantic coast of South America. A number of  countries operate longline fleets targeting tuna and swordfish in the high seas  areas of the Southwest Atlantic region. In addition to the coastal nations of  the Southwest Atlantic, nations including Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Spain, Bolivia,  Cape Verde, United Kingdom, China and Barbados also operate vessels here.  However, with the exception of Taiwan, (and during certain periods of the year,  Korea and Spain), the effort of these fleets is minor compared with other areas  of the Atlantic (Bonfil 1994). This species is taken, along with other  Carcharhinids in these fisheries (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2005). Tuna and swordfish  longline fisheries now also target sharks due to increasing demand for shark  products and the value of their fins (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005, Mejuto <em>et  al. </em>2006). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> is  caught with surface and bottom longlines, gillnets and occasionally trawls in  the Mediterranean Sea, including in the Sicilian Channel, off Tunisia, Libya and  Egypt, Spain, Morocco and Algeria and infrequently elsewhere. There are also  anecdotal reports of bycatch of this species in fixed tuna traps (Tonnara) in  Sicily. Both coastal and pelagic fishing pressure is high throughout much of the  Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>This species was common until the 1980s along all the  Levantine coasts (Saad <em>et al. </em>2004), where it was the most dominant  species in shark catches (>85%) (Baranes and Ben Tuvia 1978). The sandbar  shark <em>C. plumbeus</em> is still the most important shark species captured in  this area, however, there has been a significant decline in captures (M. Bradai  pers. obs. 2008). <br/><br/>The Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia, and an area off Turkey  appear to be important nursery grounds for this species (Capapé 1984, Saidi  <em>et al.</em> 2005; Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2006, STECF 2003). There are no recent  records of gravid females of this species in the Mediterranean outside of these  areas. Constantini and Affronte (2003) report that the northern Adriatic Sea may  also be an important nursery area for the species, based on six neonatal sandbar  sharks captured with gillnets in this area between 1998 and 2000. The last  record of a pregnant female sandbar shark from this area was recorded in 1982  (Constantini and Affronte 2003, Travaglini 1982). <br/><br/>This species was  previously regularly seen on fish markets of southern Sicily during the summer  months but has not been observed on the same markets in recent years (F.  Cigala-Fulgosi and M. Vacchi pers. obs. 2003). A similar situation is apparent  in the eastern Adriatic sea (Lipej <em>et al. </em>2000, A. Soldo pers comm.) and  therefore recent publications have described <em>C. plumbeus </em>as an endangered  species in the Adriatic Sea (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, in Tunisia, the  species is regularly landed and observed in fish markets (Bradai <em>et al.</em>  2006).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Gabès, juvenile <em>C. plumbeus</em> are caught with  longlines and trawls and adult females are targeted using specially-designed  gillnets (locally known as ?kallabia? from ?kalb? bhar? (literally sea dog)  which means shark in Arabic) during spring and early summer, when they move  inshore to pup (Saidi <em>et al. </em>2005, Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2006). Given the  high biological vulnerability of this species to exploitation, the declines  observed in other areas of its range where it is taken as a target and bycatch  and continuing, unregulated fishing pressure in this area, it is strongly  suspected that this stock will also decline. <br/><br/>The species is a known  bycatch of pelagic fisheries operating within Mediterranean waters (STECF 2003),  but recent records appear to be very rare. While, in the Gulf of Gabès, juvenile  <em>C. plumbeus</em> represent a major component in total capture of the pelagic  fisheries targeting swordfish (Bradai <em>et al. </em>2006). In a study of  incidental catch of pelagic sharks from the swordfish and tuna fisheries  operating throughout the Mediterranean Sea from 1998-2000, only two specimens of  <em>C. plumbeus</em> were recorded in one area (the Straits of Sicily)  (Megalofonou <em>et al. </em>2005). Although blue shark, shortfin mako and  thresher sharks make up the bulk of shark catch in the Moroccan pelagic driftnet  fisheries in the eastern Mediterranean, Carcharhinid species are also known to  be taken and landed by this fleet on an occasional basis. Some boats are known  to deploy their nets near to the coast (1-2 miles from the shore) to target  pelagic sharks (Tudela <em>et al. </em>2005). Important catches of Carcharhinids  such as <em>C. plumbeus</em> are also made in the pelagic longline fishery  operating from ports in eastern Algeria (Walker <em>et al.  </em>2005).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation of this species? coastal nursery areas  through coastal development and pollution also poses an important  threat.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northwest and Western Central Pacific</span><br/>This species is a known  catch of longline, trawl and set net fisheries operating throughout large areas  of this region. It is a known catch of shark longline and tuna gillnet fisheries  operating off Indonesia (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Japanese data on sandbar  sharks are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports show a sharp  decline during the period since 1992. At that time landings totaled 126 mt per  annum, but this amount decreased to 91 mt in 1995, 21 mt in 2000 and 3 mt in  2004. No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006). In Taiwan,  Province of China, catches and sizes have decreased during recent years,  particularly in north east waters (Chen <em>et al.  </em>1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Australia</span><br/>Sandbar sharks are an important component of the  Western Australian shark fishery. Current total biomass is probably at about 35%  of its level prior to the start of full-time northern shark fishing. Current  management arrangements in the fishery should arrest any further declines in  stock biomass, but continued monitoring and assessment will be essential to  monitor the stock, and the effectiveness of these measures. See McAuley <em>et  al.</em> (2005) for a summary of the fishery and stock status.	eng
3854	conservation	Pollard, D. & Smith, A., 2005	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> was protected in NSW in 1984 because of serious declines in the population due to commercial and recreational fishing, spearfishing and beach meshing. In early 1997, the Queensland State Government also declared <em>C. taurus</em> a totally protected species in that State?s waters, and the Australian Commonwealth Government followed suit with protection of <em>C. taurus</em> as a Vulnerable species in all Commonwealth waters and throughout Australia?s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (i.e., out to two hundred nautical miles offshore). Also in 1997, <em>C. taurus</em> received full protection on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the USA, under the Atlantic Fishery Management Plan. The main current threat to this species in south-eastern Australia is probably the accidental (bycatch) capture of juveniles by recreational line fishers.	eng
3854	distribution	Pollard, D. & Smith, A., 2005	Historically, the Grey Nurse Shark is regarded as having a broad inshore distribution, primarily in subtropical to warm temperate waters around the main continental landmasses, except in the eastern Pacific off North and South America (Compagno 1984a). In the Western Atlantic, this shark occurs from the Gulf of Maine to Florida (USA), in the northern Gulf of Mexico, around the Bahamas and at Bermuda, and also from southern Brazil to northern Argentina. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from the Mediterranean to the Canary Islands, at the Cape Verde Islands, along the coasts of Senegal and Ghana, and from southern Nigeria to Cameroon. In the western Indian Ocean it ranges from South Africa to southern Mozambique, but does not occur around Madagascar. This species has also been reported from the Red Sea and may occur as far east as India (where it appears to have been referred to as <em>C. tricuspidatus</em>; see Compagno 1984a). In the western Pacific, it has been reported from Japan and Australia, but not New Zealand (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
3854	habitat	Pollard, D. & Smith, A., 2005	The maximum size of this species has been given variously as ~3.2 m by Compagno (1984a), ~2.75 m and ~142 kg by Hutchins and Swainston (1986) and ~3.2 m and ~300 kg by Hutchins and Thompson (1983). Catch records from beach meshing in NSW, however, suggest that these sharks may grow to 4.3 m, though this maximum length is doubtful and may be due to a misidentification (Reid and Krough 1992).<br/><br/>Branstetter and Musick (1994) described the age and growth of <em>C. taurus</em> in the western North Atlantic based on banding patterns on vertebral centra and stated the maximum age to be 30?35 years. The largest (oldest) male examined (248 cm TL) from the south-eastern USA was 7.5 years old, and the largest (oldest) female examined (272 cm TL) was 10.5 years old. The hypothesis of double annual ring formation is currently being re-examined. If only one ring is deposited each year, the ages cited above would be approximately doubled (J. Musick pers. comm.). The oldest individuals recorded in aquaria were 13 years in Australia (Roughley 1955) and 16 years in South Africa (Govender <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>The Grey Nurse Shark occurs either alone or in small to medium-sized aggregations of 20?80 individuals (Silvester 1977, Aitken 1991, Cliff unpubl.). These sharks are often observed hovering motionless just above the seabed in or near deep sandy-bottomed gutters or rocky caves, usually in the vicinity of inshore rocky reefs and islands. They are generally coastal, usually being found from the surf zone down to depths of around 25 m. However, they may also occasionally be found in shallow bays, around coral reefs and, very rarely, to depths of around 200 m on the continental shelf. They usually live near the bottom, but may also move throughout the water column (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/>Males and females both mature at approximately 2 m in length off the south-eastern USA (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). They are ovoviviparous and usually only two pups are born per litter once every two years. This is because the remaining eggs and developing embryos are eaten by the largest and/or most advanced embryo in each horn of the uterus (a phenomenon known as adelphophagy or uterine cannibalism). The gestation period may last from 9?12 months and size at birth is relatively large, at about 1 m (Gilmore <em>et al. </em>1983, Gilmore 1993).<br/><br/>Grey Nurse Shark populations off South Africa and the east coast of the USA are known to undertake complex size and sex segregated migrations. These have been documented by Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975c), Gilmore (1993) and Musick <em>et al</em>. (1993). In other parts of its range and particularly in south-eastern Australia, this species appears to undertake similar migrations.<br/><br/>The species feeds on a wide range of teleost fishes, as well as smaller sharks (Carcharhinidae and Triakidae), rays (Myliobatidae), squids, crabs and lobsters (Compagno 1984, Gelsleichter <em>et al</em>. 1999). Scott <em>et al.</em> (1974) reported that Grey Nurse Sharks in south-eastern Australia fed on shoals of Australian salmon (Arripidae) and other pelagic fish species.	eng
3854	threats	Pollard, D. & Smith, A., 2005	Grey Nurse Sharks have been fished throughout their range in the past, but are of variable economic importance regionally (Compagno 1984a). The species is highly regarded as a food fish in Japan, but not in the western Atlantic. It is caught primarily with line fishing gear, but is also taken in bottom-set gillnets and trawls. The meat is utilised fresh, frozen, smoked, and dried and salted, for human consumption. This species has also been used for fishmeal, its liver for oil, and its fins for making soup via the oriental sharkfin trade (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/>This species has been taken along the Atlantic coast of the United States in a commercial shark fishery directed towards a wide array of large coastal species, but supported primarily by catches of <em>Carcharhinus plumbeus</em> and <em>C. limbatus</em>. Musick <em>et al.</em> (1993) showed that several species of sharks, including the sand tiger, had declined by as much as 75% during the decade from 1980?1990 because of overfishing. Recently, this fishery has come under management and <em>C. taurus</em> has been accorded full protection (see below).<br/><br/>In the 1850s, this species was fished by hook-and-line in and around Botany Bay, New South Wales (NSW), Australia, during October and November, to provide a source of oil ?of excellent quality for burning in lamps? (Grant 1982). In the late 1920s this species was also fished, together with other shark species, at Port Stephens, NSW (Roughley 1955). It was the second most commonly captured shark after the whaler sharks (Carcharhinidae) in this area. According to Roughley (1955), Grey Nurse Sharks produced the best quality shark leather but their fins were not as desirable as those from some of the other sharks commonly caught in this fishery. Commercial fishing for <em>C. taurus</em> reputedly continued on and off in NSW using various methods up until the Second World War.<br/><br/>Pepperell (1992) summarised catch records of gamefishermen in south-eastern Australia and found that <em>C. taurus</em> constituted 11% (161 sharks) of the total recorded shark catch (1,461) during the 1960s and 7% (244 sharks) in the 1970s (total catch 3,466 sharks). The weights of <em>C. taurus</em> specimens caught by game fishermen ranged from less than 10 to around 190 kg (Pepperell 1992). Capture of this species was banned voluntarily by game fishermen throughout Australia in 1979 (Pepperell 1992).<br/><br/>Meshing of beaches was instituted in NSW in the late 1930s to protect bathers from shark attack (Reid and Krough 1992). Since then, shark meshing has also been adopted in Queensland, Australia (Paterson 1986) and in Natal, South Africa (Cliff and Dudley 1992). <em>Carcharias taurus</em> comprised 3.8% (n = 369) of the total NSW (i.e. Newcastle-Sydney-Wollongong area) beach meshing catch of sharks from 1950?1990 (Reid and Krough 1992). The number of <em>C. taurus</em> taken in these mesh nets in NSW over this 40-year period is thus slightly less than that taken by game fishermen during the 1960s and 1970s. Overall, there have been large declines over time in the meshing catch and catch per unit effort for the species. During the early 1950s, 24?36 <em>C. taurus</em> were meshed per year, but since the late 1970s only 0?3 were caught each year (Pollard <em>et al.</em> 1996). Prior to this 40-year period, Coppleson (1958) reported 58 Grey Nurse Sharks being caught in these beach meshing nets between October and December 1937.<br/><br/>Cliff and Dudley (1992) reported an average annual catch of 246 spotted ragged tooth sharks in the Natal (South Africa) beach meshing programme for the period 1978?1990, with 38% of the catch being found alive in the nets. Whenever possible these live sharks were released, many with tags. Between 1966?1972 there was a significant decline in the catch rate of this species, followed by a significant increase between 1972?1990 (Dudley and Cliff 1993a). Maximum and minimum catches were 20 (1966) and two (1981) sharks per km of net per year (Dudley and Cliff 1993a).<br/><br/>Interactions between skindivers and <em>C. taurus</em> in Australia are nowadays rare. There are reports of Grey Nurse Sharks stealing speared fish from skindivers, but this is not common. During the 1950s and 1960s, however, skin and SCUBA divers armed with barbless or barbed spears, hypodermic spears containing strychnine nitrate, and especially explosive powerheads, killed many <em>C. taurus</em> off the NSW coast (Cropp 1964). Divers also took them alive, often with lassos, to sell to aquariums (Cropp 1964). <em>Carcharias taurus</em> are still taken, under permit, for aquariums (Smith 1992), but with the assigning of their protected status (see later) and an increased awareness of the need for their conservation, there are now no reports of divers killing these sharks deliberately.<br/><br/>Because of its large size and fearsome appearance, and because it occurs in relatively shallow water where it often hovers almost motionless near the sea floor, <em>C. taurus</em> can be readily approached and is now a very popular attraction with SCUBA divers. Dive guides tend to highlight locations where these sharks regularly occur (e.g., Byron 1985), and divers can observe <em>C. taurus</em> at the same locations on many occasions, suggesting a high degree of site-attachment by these sharks. On the other hand, concern has been expressed (most recently in South Africa) that disturbance by divers may be detrimental to natural behaviour patterns and could even result in the exclusion of some sharks from critical habitat and/or important refuge areas (Andrew Cobb in litt.).	eng
3855	conservation	Fergusson, I., Compagno, L.J.V. & Marks, M., 2005	The Great White Shark is currently protected in the Australian EEZ and state waters, South Africa, Namibia, Israel, Malta and the USA (California and Florida states, with directed fisheries prohibited off all coasts). Protective laws are strict, but loopholes and inadequate enforcement causes problems including promoting the black-market for high-value Great White Shark products including jaws, teeth and fins. Australia has developed a comprehensive and multidisciplinary recovery plan for great white sharks in its waters (Compagno 2001). A proposal to list the great white shark in CITES, to regulate or ban international trade failed in 2000, but Australia has since listed the species in Appendix III. A CITES listing might help slow trade in great white shark products, but will not eliminate low volume criminal trade. The Great White Shark was added to both Appendices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) in 2002 with the objective of providing a framework for the coordination of measures adopted by range states to improve the conservation of the species (Government of Australia 2002). The great white shark should be removed from international game fish record lists, and needs consistently rational and realistic treatment by entertainment and news media to counter its notoriety and inflated market value.	eng
3855	distribution	Fergusson, I., Compagno, L.J.V. & Marks, M., 2005	The Great White Shark occupies a cosmopolitan range throughout most seas and oceans with concentrations in temperate coastal seas (Compagno 2001). It is principally known as a pelagic dweller of temperate continental shelf waters, but also ranges into the open ocean far from land and near oceanic islands, the cold boreal and austral (sub-Antarctic) seas and the coastal tropics. It is found from the surfline and the intertidal zone to far offshore, and from the surface down to depths over 250 m. It does not occur in fresh water, but penetrates saline bays and estuaries; during high tide it may swim in bays that have no water at low tide. Recent tagging and tracking studies and DNA analyses have demonstrated that this species undertakes long distance trans-oceanic movements, for example between South Africa and Australasia (Pardini <em>et al</em>. 2001) and California and the Hawaiian Islands (Boustany <em>et al.</em> 2002). Consequently its distribution is not considered disjunct, albeit that interchange between some populations may be limited. It is most commonly recorded from the waters of southern Africa (particularly from Namibia to KwaZulu-Natal and Mozambique); eastern, western and particularly southern Australia; New Zealand; the Japanese archipelago; the north-eastern seaboard of North America, especially Long Island and environs; the Pacific coast of North America, primarily from Oregon to Baja; the coast of Central Chile; and the Mediterranean Sea, primarily the Western-Central region and Tyrrhenian Sea (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Great White Sharks also occur, albeit less frequently, at many sites elsewhere (e.g., Brazil, Caribbean, Azores, Hawaii, north-west Africa, east Africa (Kenya, Tanzania), Seychelles, Mauritius, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, northern Australia, New Caledonia and Philippines). Limited inter-hemispherical movement between temperate areas, across equatorial waters by means of tropical submergence has been suspected (Last and Stevens 1994), but more recently Great White Sharks have been found in tropical inshore waters of east and southern Africa and even sighted and photographed by divers on coral reefs in Mozambique and elsewhere (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 2000, Compagno 2001).	eng
3855	habitat	Fergusson, I., Compagno, L.J.V. & Marks, M., 2005	The maximum size attained by Great White Sharks remains a matter of debate, and is estimated to be around 6 m, and possibly to 640 cm or more; the largest free-swimming individuals commonly captured are between 500?580 cm (mostly adult females) (Compagno 2001). Lengths at maturity for both sexes remain somewhat undetermined and based on (currently limited) age-growth data it may be possible that different populations mature at varying lengths. The majority of females mature at between 450?500 cm total length (TL) (Francis 1996), but have been reported as immature at sizes as much as 472?490 cm long (Springer 1939, Compagno 2001). Males mature at about 350?410 cm (Pratt 1996, Compagno 2001). One study of age and growth, pooled from 21 specimens (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1985) suggests a generalised age of maturity of 10?12 years based on counts of vertebral growth rings that are deposited yearly. A mature female of 500 cm is estimated to have reached c.14?16 years. The average reproductive age is estimated at 17 years. The oldest individual reported is a female with 23 growth rings from South Africa, assumed to be at least 23 years old. Longevity is suspected as being about 30 years (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1985). Since 1980, six pregnant females have been verified, taken from coastal waters off Okinawa and Japan (Uchida <em>et al.</em> 1996); North Cape, New Zealand (Francis op. Cit.) and Cape Bon, Tunisia (Fergusson 1996). Further recent but unconfirmed reports originated during the same decade from Australia (Bruce 1992, Francis, op. Cit. Via J.D. Stevens pers. comm.) and Taiwan (Francis op. Cit. As pers. comm. with D. Ebert). Reported litter-sizes range from 2?10 foetuses. Gestation time is unknown but likely to be a year or more (Compagno 2001). Size at birth is within a range of 109?165 cm TL. The Great White Shark is ovoviviparous and practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy (ingestion of unfertilised eggs). Mating has not been reliably witnessed to-date. Conceivably, females may give birth every two or three years rather than annually. Parturition apparently occurs during the spring to late summer in warm-temperate neritic waters.<br/><br/>Great White Sharks take a variety of bony fish as prey, from sedentary demersal rockfish, lingcod and benthic flatfish to fast pelagic species, and ranging in size from small demersal and schooling fishes to giants such as broadbill swordfish and bluefin tuna. Great White Sharks are known to congregate at concentrations of schooling bony fishes such as pilchards and bluefish, and follow the KwaZulu-Natal sardine run off South Africa (Compagno 2001). A broad range of elasmobranchs ? sharks and batoids ? are eaten by Great White Sharks, as are chimaeroids, chelonians, cephalopods and other molluscs, crustaceans and occasionally sea birds such as cormorants and penguins (Compagno 2001). The role of <em>C. carcharias</em> as a primary predator upon marine mammals and especially pinnipeds (e.g., northern elephant seals, harbour seals, California sealions, fur seals), has dominated much contemporary study of this species due to accessibility and intensive studies of seal colonies and a focus on seal predation as being related to biting of humans by great white sharks. The global importance of pinnipeds as prey taxa may be overstated, due to the regional bias in contemporary field observation towards those areas where sharks and pinnipeds are sympatric. Great White Sharks (especially larger individuals) are also active hunters of small odontocetes, particularly so (but not exclusively) in regions where pinnipeds are scarce or absent. Dead baleen whales and other large cetaceans may contribute a significant amount to the Great White Shark?s diet in some areas (Long and Jones 1996), but such food is sporadically available.	eng
3855	threats	Fergusson, I., Compagno, L.J.V. & Marks, M., 2005	Under various synonyms (maneater, white death), the Great White Shark has long been a focus for negative media attention, generated by its sometimes lethal interactions with humans. As a consequence of this typically exaggerated threat to human safety and an almost legendary ?Big Fish? status, the species is targeted as a source for sports-fishing, commercial drumline trophy-hunting (for jaws, teeth and even entire specimens preserved), sporadic human consumption or merely as the piscine whipping-boy of individuals pandering to shark attack paranoia. All of these activities have greatly increased since the ?JAWS? media phenomenon of the mid 1970s, not only to the detriment of <em>C. carcharias</em> but also in encouraging targeting of other, less high-profile species. Nowhere is the Great White Shark abundant and productive enough to sustain long-term directed fisheries; the majority of annual captures worldwide being made incidentally through commercial fisheries operating longlines, setlines, gillnets, trawls, fish-traps and other gear. The Great White Shark is ensnared throughout the water column in nearshore fisheries but, notably, is rarely represented in the elasmobranch bycatch of offshore oceanic pelagic fisheries (unlike Shortfin Mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) and Porbeagle (<em>Lamna nasus</em>)). The Great White Shark is vulnerable to capture trauma and may be killed or has limited survivorship after capture. Great White Sharks are curious and readily approach boats, scavenge from fishermens? nets or longlines and devour hooked fish taken by rod-and-line or swordfish harpoon. This vulnerable propensity often results in either their own accidental entrapment or deliberate killing by commercial fishermen. In certain regions the Great White Shark has traditionally been viewed negatively as manifesting a costly interference to fisheries, although some fishers appreciate it for its role in eating pinnipeds that devour their catches. This species is unquestionably vulnerable to directed exploitation such as sports fisheries, the curio trade, the oriental shark-fin trade and even the public aquarium trade. The overall, long-term impact of these causes of mortality upon regional populations, coupled to those caused through indirect fishery captures or protective beach meshing, is probably detrimental. The removal of even a few individuals apparently has very tangible effect at discrete localities (such as the Farallon Islands, California, based upon observations following the cull of four local sharks in 1984 (Ainley <em>et al.</em> 1985)). Habitat degradation (development, pollution and overfishing) also threatens this species and may largely exclude it from areas, perhaps traditionally utilised for feeding or as nurseries, where it was historically much more abundant. Great White Sharks have been sought as the ultimate species to display in large public oceanaria, but with poor survivorship so far. Directed fishery exploitation of Great White Sharks is primarily undertaken with the aim of trading its teeth and jaws as trophies or curios and its fins for the oriental fin trade. In South Africa offers of US$20,000?$50,000 have been made for great white shark jaws and US$600? $800 for individual teeth. Apart from their size, Great White Shark products in the form of curios and fins are boosted in value because of notoriety. A fin-set from a large great white shark may be valued at over US$1,000. Unfortunately, as with rhino horns and elephant tusks, the high value of Great White Shark products encourages poaching, clandestine trade and flouting of protective laws (Compagno 2001). Comparative data of catch-rates and CPUE are sketchy or lacking for most of the Great White Shark?s range, although some figures are available from select regions. Observations of game fishery captures in south-east Australia between 1961?1990 indicate a catch-ratio from 1:22 in the 1960s, declining to 1:38 in the 1970s and 1:651in the 1980s (Pepperell 1992), suggesting a possible decline in abundance. South Australian game-fishing catches from 1980?1990 averaged 1.4 sharks per year and has declined since the 1950s, possibly through a reduction in effort (Bruce 1992). Sydney game fishing catches have ranged from 0?17 between 1950?1980, with no significant trend. Commercial bycatches off Australia are suspected to be the largest cause of mortality to Australian Great White Sharks, although without any data to currently substantiate this claim (J.D. Stevens and B. Bruce pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recent tagging off South Australia (70?90 animals tagged) has demonstrated a 4?6% recapture rate (Stevens and Bruce pers. Comm.), which may be considered cause for concern. Approximately 40% of 126 Great White Sharks tagged at Dyer Island or Struisbaai, South Africa, between 1992?94 were resighted (Compagno unpubl.). Both the Australian and African research demonstrates at least short-term residency and site-affinity with some pronounced seasonality, coupled to more irregular nomadicity. Off the eastern USA, NMFS statistics from 1965?1983 show a decline from 1:67?1:210 (Casey and Pratt 1985), suggesting a possible decline in abundance. Data from beach meshing programmes in NSW and Queensland show a gradual and irregular decline in CPUE since the 1960s (J.D. Stevens and B. Bruce pers. comm.) whilst trends in KwaZulu-Natal meshing programmes are variable and less clear, but essentially downwards. Other indices of catch-rates are available from: California, between 1960?1985 as 0?14 sharks per year (mean 3.2, Klimley 1985), KwaZulu-Natal, between 1974?1988 as 22?61 sharks per year (Cliff <em>et al. </em>1989) and the Central Mediterranean Sea (Sicilian Channel), between 1950? 1994 as 0?8 sharks per year (mean 2.2, Fergusson unpubl.). We presently have no complete data for Japan, New Zealand or Chile. In other areas, catches are much more nominal and very sporadic (e.g., Brazil, Hawaii).	eng
3858	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Listed as Rare in most of the range (Mongolia, Kazakstan and Russia), but Least Concern in China. Occurs in protected areas (approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia) occurs within protected areas. Further research is recommended to identify conservation actions.	eng
3858	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Distributed in deserts and semi-deserts in SW Mongolia, Tuva, and China (Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Nei Mongol). Isolated area in E Kazakhstan. Distributed from close to the northern border of Mongolia in Great Lakes Depression, through Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and south to Eastern Govi, Trans Altai Govi Desert, and Alashani Govi Desert.	eng
3858	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Inhabits rocky deserts, arid steppe, desert-steppe and sandy deserts with Poacae, pea shrubs (Caragana spp.), spear grasses (Stipa spp.), Artemisia areneria and Cleistogenes soongorica. Lives in burrows dug by other species, jerboa, jirds, and hamsters. Solitary. Nocturnal.  Possesses obvious body fat deposits in summer, when tail may reach a diameter of 8 mm.  Diet primarily seeds and grains. Hibernates about 7 months a year. Reproduces once each year.  <br/>This is a nocturnal species, foraging for seeds at night.	eng
3858	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
3858	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Natural disasters such as drought and heavy rainfall constitute threats to this species.	eng
3859	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The species has been recorded from protected areas in Kenya (e.g.. Tsavo West National Park [Vaughn 1976; Aggundey and Schlitter 1984]) and is likely to be present in protected areas in some other East African countries. Additional studies are needed into the impact of disturbance on this species.	eng
3859	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This East African species is distributed from north-east Sudan (near the Red Sea) south to central Tanzania. The distribution extends from the border area of Uganda and Sudan in the  west, to east Somalia (near the tip of the Horn of Africa) in the east. Highest altitudinal record is 940 m (Csada 1996).	eng
3859	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Animals have typically been recorded from lowland savanna, shrubland, and the coastal strip, and in some instances may be observed in river valleys (Varty and Hill 1988; Csada 1996). It roosts alone, or in small numbers, in caves, hollow trees and abandoned buildings (Kingdon 1974; Vaughn 1976; Ryan and Tuttle 1987; Csada 1996; Pearch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
3859	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Although there is little overall information on the abundance of this species, up to 81 bats have been found roosting in a hollow baobab tree (Vaughn 1976).	eng
3859	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, further studies are needed into the impact of disturbance on roosting sites.	eng
3897	conservation	Marine Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
3897	habitat	Marine Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
3898	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
3898	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
3898	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is exported in large numbers for the international live animal trade from southern Irian Jaya, Indonesia. It is heavily exploited and locally consumed in Papua New Guinea and  endangered by habitat loss and degradation in Australia.	eng
3903	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Further systematic studies necessary to clarify distinction between different <em>Carollia</em> spp. The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.	eng
3903	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Central and South America. This species occurs throughout east Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and north and east Brazil; it is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).	eng
3903	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species depends on the fruit of Piper for the major portion of its diet, but it also gleans foliage for insects; its diet is supplemented by nectar in the dry season. It forages near moist areas, being taken most frequently in tropical evergreen forests. It is often one of the most numerous bats in lowlands rainforests, and it seems most common in disturbed areas. It uses the understory vegetation levels, where it concentrates its feeding on the fruits of shrubs and treelets, especially the slender green, candle like fruits of plants of the genus Piper. Because of its high numbers, this bat is one of the most important seed dispersers for Piper and many other plants with small fruits (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997). It inhabits a wide range of forest, forest fragments and savannas.	eng
3903	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is abundant to common in second growth woodland, clearings, and plantations; less common in mature forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Abundant but not as common as <em>C. perspicillata</em>. It is common through Central America and the Amazon; less common south of the Amazon.	eng
3903	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	None known.	eng
3904	conservation	Mantilla, H. & Solari, S., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
3904	distribution	Mantilla, H. & Solari, S., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs throughout Honduras to Peru, Bolivia, western Brazil, Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname (Simmons, 2005).	eng
3904	habitat	Mantilla, H. & Solari, S., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Within the genus <em>Carollia</em>, this species is the most specialized in fruits of Piper (Thies and Kalko 2004). It forages near moist areas, being taken most frequently in tropical evergreen forests.  It uses the understory vegetation levels, where it concentrates its feeding on the fruits of shrubs and treelets, especially the slender green, candle like fruits of plants of the genus Piper. Because of its high numbers, this bat is one of the most important seed dispersers for Piper and many other plants with small fruits. In Panama, birth peaks occur in March to April and July to August (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Wilson, 1979). Thies <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that the activity of this species is not affected by moonlight conditions, and that only strong rain reduces the time it spends flying.  Thies <em>et al.</em> (in press) estimated a home range size of 13.8 +- 12.1 ha for this species in Panama, and suggested that its foraging patterns may increase the chance of seeds to find safe sites for germination.	eng
3904	population	Mantilla, H. & Solari, S., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is abundant to common in second growth woodland, clearings, and plantations; less common in mature forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Is easily caught during sampling in appropriate areas (Davalos pers. comm.).	eng
3904	threats	Mantilla, H. & Solari, S., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
3905	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Need taxonomic review. Found in protected areas.	eng
3905	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Oaxaca, Veracruz and Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil and Guianas; Trinidad and Tobago; perhaps Northern Lesser Antilles (Simmons 2005).	eng
3905	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in tunnels, understory. Bats of this species are widespread and highly abundant in many localities of the Neotropics. They demonstrate a strong preference for fruits of the family Piperaceae (Fleming 1988), but may feed on at least 38 different plant families (Geiselman <em>et al.</em> 2002). They may also feed on nectar, pollen and insects during seasons of low fruit availability (Mello <em>et al</em>. 2004). A more generalist diet may be a mechanism that allow coexistence of this species and other member of the same genus in the same locality (Thies and Kalko 2004), and the focus on Piper may reduce competition with other small-sized frugivorous phyllostomids like <em>Sturnira</em> (Marinho-Filho 1991). These bats present the typical bimodal reproductive pattern of plant-eating phyllostomids, and the timing of their breeding seasons is mainly determined by climate and fruiting food-plants (Mello <em>et al</em>. 2004). Cloutier and Thomas (1992) report that <em>C. perspicillata</em> bats may form colonies from a few to hundreds of individuals. Charles-Dominique (1991) observed differences in feeding behaviour between males and females, especially during the reproductive season. There is a strong reduction in number of captures of these bats in mist-nets during brither periods and nights, an evidence of lunar phobia (Mello 2006).	eng
3905	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
3905	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
3906	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
3906	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Jalisco (Mexico) to northwestern Nicaragua. A report of this species from Guyana (Koopman, 1993) appears to be in error (Lim pers. comm.) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,200 m (Reid, 1997). Occurs in Costa Rica.	eng
3906	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in dry, deciduous forest and second growth woodland (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves, empty wells, culverts, hollow trees, and buildings (Reid, 1997). This bat feeds on fruits of Piper, Cecropia, Muntingia, and Solanum spp. (Fleming, 1988). Reproductive cycle appears to be bimodal, with pregnant females from December to May and July to October (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).	eng
3906	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is common to abundant in dry forest; absent in rainforest (Reid, 1997).	eng
3906	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Really difficult to identify, may be confused with other species of <em>Carollia</em>. In Mexico does not have important habitat loss (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
3916	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	It occurs in Balbasang National Park.	eng
3916	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Luzon island (Philippines). This species has been recorded from Benguet, Ifugao and Kalinga provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) at an elevation range from 2,100 to 2,500 m. It is likely to be widespread in Central Cordillera (L. Heaney pers. comm.) and could occur from 1,600 m and up, where the habitat zone changes.	eng
3916	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is found in mossy forest at high elevations (Largen 1985; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and is likely to be arboreal and forest dependent (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3916	population	Heaney, L., 2008	The population status is unknown. The original specimens from were collected in 1895, two further specimens have been collected one each in 1946 and 2003 (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Each of these three collection localities are from different parts of Central Cordillera.	eng
3916	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs at high elevations, so it is less affected by conversion of parts of its range to vegetable farms than mid and lower elevation species (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
3917	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ong, P., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Surveys using appropriate sampling techniques are required to determine where this species may occur.	eng
3917	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ong, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and is known only from the type locality, Mt. Data, Benguet Province, Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
3917	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ong, P., 2008	The specimens were collected from mossy and upper montane forest at high elevation, from 2,200 to 2,500 m. (Largen 1985; Thomas 1898). It is likely to be an arboreal and forest dependent species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3917	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ong, P., 2008	There is very little known about population or local abundance of this species. It may be locally common (Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known from four specimens in the original collection from 1895 and another two taken later that year, there have been no surveys for this species since then and it has not been collected again (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3917	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ong, P., 2008	The region of the type locality at Mt. Data has been largely converted to vegetable farms although there are other mossy, montane forests nearby where this species may occur (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
3921	conservation	Reis, M. & Lacher, T., 2008	This rodent has been registered in Chapada dos Guimãraes National Park (Reis, M. pers. comm.).	eng
3921	distribution	Reis, M. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the Cerrado of eastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); probably in two or three disjunct populations (Reis, M. pers. comm.).	eng
3921	habitat	Reis, M. & Lacher, T., 2008	This semi fossorial species inhabits transitional areas between gallery forest and Cerrado grassland where there is seasonal rainfall (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). A female with one embryo has been reported.	eng
3921	population	Reis, M. & Lacher, T., 2008	There is no information on the population of this species; it is difficult to capture in surveys in areas where it is known to occur (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
3921	threats	Reis, M. & Lacher, T., 2008	Habitat loss to agriculture is affecting the species throughout its known range (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
3998	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Caseolus subcalliferus</em> is endemic to Madeira.	eng
3998	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	This terrestrial species was described by Wollaston (1878) as living on upper parts of various plants including <em>Juncus maritimus</em>.  Recent surveys have only found the species in areas of conifer plantation, where it was aestivating at up to 2 m up on the branches.	eng
3998	threats	Seddon, M.B., 2000	The main threat to this species is destruction of habitat.	eng
3999	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. (1992) recommend that surveys are needed to assess the conservation status of this species, to determine if it is present in protected areas, and to learn more about the food plants and general natural history of this species.	eng
3999	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This lowland species is distributed in Central Africa. It has been recorded from southern Cameroon, the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
3999	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest, a mosaic of these two forest habitats, and a mosaic of swamp forest and secondary grassland (Bergmans 1990). It is a solitary rooster, with one specimen collected in the dense foliage of a bush (Nowak 1999). The female gives birth to a single young (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
3999	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is apparently not uncommon, with many specimens (~20) caught in mist nets from a locality in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
3999	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. (1992) indicate that there is little information on the threats to this species, but that it may be threatened by deforestation. It is possible that this species eats cultivated fruits, and consequently might be persecuted as a crop pest.	eng
4003	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Hunting and trapping of the American beaver is regulated at the national level. Introduced populations occur in some protected areas.	eng
4003	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is found throughout North America except the arctic tundra, peninsular Florida and the deserts of the southwestern United States. Its range extends into northern Mexico. In 1937 it was introduced in Finland, from where it naturally dispersed to Karelia and Leningrad Region (northwest Russia). It is also introduced in the Russian Far East, Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island (Russia).	eng
4003	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	It inhabits areas near lakes, ponds, and streams with access to suitable food and building resources. Beavers are known for their ability to modify an environment through the construction of dams, which often cause flooding of the surrounding areas (Jenkins and Busher, 1979).	eng
4003	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Following overexploitation for the fur trade, protection and re-introduction programs have re-established the American beaver throughout its historical range. It is now abundant. The current population size in Russia is unknown, but the population in northwest Russia is stable.	eng
4003	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to the species throughout its range. It is hunted and trapped for pelts. Many beavers are killed in areas where tree felling and dam building are in discordance with human development. It is highly sensitive to tularemia.	eng
4007	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II and IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, <em>C. f. birulai</em> is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000), and is included as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). This subspecies is also listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). Approximately 11% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place in Mongolia:<br/>1) Bulgan Gol Nature Reserve was established along the Bulgan River in 1965 to conserve this species. <br/>2) Many translocations and conservation introductions have taken place over the past 50 years to enhance the Mongolian population.<br/><br/>The species is considered Endangered (EN A1bcd) in the Chinese Red List.	eng
4007	conservation	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II and IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, <em>C. f. birulai</em> is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000), and is included as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). This subspecies is also listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place in Mongolia:<br/>1) Bulgan Gol Nature Reserve was established along the Bulgan River in 1965 to conserve this species. <br/>2) Many translocations and conservation introductions have taken place over the past 50 years to enhance the Mongolian population.<br/><br/>The species is considered Endangered (EN A1bcd) in the Chinese Red List.	eng
4007	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	A number of conservation measures have contributed to the species' recovery in Europe, including reintroductions and translocations, hunting restrictions, and habitat protection. It is listed under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex V for the Swedish and Finnish populations, Annex II & IV for all others). In Finland, <em>C. canadensis</em> populations are controlled to prevent them spreading into the west where <em>C. fiber</em> occurs. Halley and Rosell (2002) recommend regulated hunting as the optimal management regime in managed landscapes with healthy beaver populations. Management of beaver populations should be at the watershed scale, except where large human-made dams form significant barriers to spread. Early provision of interpretation and public viewing opportunities is also recommended, as this provides a benefit to the local economy through wildlife tourism, and helps foster positive attitudes to beavers (Halley and Rosell 2002). This has been a successful feature of several recent reintroductions. Reintroduction to Italy has been recommended in a European Union/Bern Convention Nature and Environment Series document (Nolet 1996). Considerable efforts have been made to develop a beaver reintroduction programme in Scotland, and a full public consultation showed strong support for such a scheme among the general public, including in rural areas where beavers were likely to be released (Halley and Rosell 2002).	eng
4007	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The Eurasian beaver <em>Castor fiber</em> was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). A series of management measures and reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. <br/><br/>Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, Italy, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña <em>et al.</em> 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña <em>et al.</em> (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (Halley pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In Mongolia, a small population exists along the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert, in the south-western corner of Mongolia. Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions carried out conservation introductions along Hovd River in Mongol Altai Mountain Range in 1974, 1975, and 1978, and along Tes River in northern Hangai Mountain Range in 1985, 1988 and 2002. In all cases Mongolian beavers from the Bulgan River were used in order to protect the gene pool in the central Asiatic hydro-geographic basin (Stubbe and Dawaa, 1982; Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 2005a). A separate attempt to reintroduce beavers from Voronezh Reserve (Russian Federation) was unsuccessful (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
4007	distribution	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The Eurasian beaver <em>Castor fiber</em> was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). A series of management measures and reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. <br/><br/>Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, Italy, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña <em>et al.</em> 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña <em>et al.</em> (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (Halley pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In Mongolia, a small population exists along the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert, in the south-western corner of Mongolia. Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions carried out conservation introductions along Hovd River in Mongol Altai Mountain Range in 1974, 1975, and 1978, and along Tes River in northern Hangai Mountain Range in 1985, 1988 and 2002. In all cases Mongolian beavers from the Bulgan River were used in order to protect the gene pool in the central Asiatic hydro-geographic basin (Stubbe and Dawaa, 1982; Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 2005a). A separate attempt to reintroduce beavers from Voronezh Reserve (Russian Federation) was unsuccessful (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
4007	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	The Eurasian beaver <em>Castor fiber</em> was once widespread in Europe and Asia. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, over-hunting had drastically reduced both the numbers and range of the species. In Europe, only a few isolated sites remained: parts of the Rhone (France) and Elbe (Germany), southern Norway, the Neman River and Dnepr Basin (Belarus) and Voronezh (Russia). Reintroductions have enabled the beaver to return to much of its former range, and there are now a number of rapidly expanding populations extending from Spain and France across central and eastern Europe to European Russia, and in Scandinavia and parts of western Finland. Free-living populations of beavers are now established or establishing in most regions of their former European range, the main exceptions to date being Portugal, the south Balkans and Great Britain (Halley and Rosell 2002, Ceña <em>et al.</em> 2004). Detailed information on the status and distribution of the Eurasian beaver in each range state can be found in Halley and Rosell (2002), and information on the population that was translocated to Spain in 2003 can be found in Ceña <em>et al.</em> (2004). It is generally a lowland species, but occurs up to 850 m in Europe (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4007	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4007	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, Halley pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4007	habitat	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Beavers are adapted for a semi-aquatic life, using a variety of freshwater systems, including rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, lakes, and swamps. They generally prefer freshwater habitats surrounded by woodland, but may occur in agricultural land or even suburban and urban areas (Tattersall 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002). In northern Scandinavia, beavers may be found right up to the limit of the willow zone in the mountains, where knee-high willow bushes are the only woody vegetation and it is iced over for 8 months of the year. This is not preferred habitat, but they can survive there. In many places, beavers live both on the valley floor, and on the mountain plateau above (where it is wooded), with a break in distribution where streams flow down the steep valley sides. In general beavers should be able to live in almost any freshwater habitat where there are trees or shrubs and the gradient is not precipitous. However, patterns of recolonisation demonstrate a clear preference for still or slow, laminar water flow if it is available (Nowak 1999, Halley and Rosell 2002, Halley pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4007	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totaling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population has reached 800 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
4007	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totalling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. <br/><br/>However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population is about 700 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006, Smith and Xie in press).<br/><br/>In Mongolia in 1964, the population size was estimated to consist of 100-150 individuals (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), rising to 200 individuals by 1973 (Zevegmid and Dawaa, 1973). In 1991, surveys estimated there to be approximately 300 individuals along Bulgan and Hovd rivers (Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 1991). The most recent population assessment was conducted in 2004, which recorded 40 lodges along Hovd River and estimated the population to consist of 130-150 individuals (Shar, 2005). Ten beaver settlements were recorded in the Tuvan section of Tes River in 2005 (A. Saveljev pers. comm.), and the Mongolian section of this river is believed to contain a similar beaver population (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Chinese subspecies of the Eurasian Beaver (C. f. birulai) is one of the rarest and least known aquatic mammals in China.  In the 1970s it was believed that only 100 animals remained in fewer than 20 family groups.  Currently, only one substantial population is known, at the Buergan River Beaver Reserve along the Xinjiang-Mongolian border - a narrow strip 50 km long and only 500 m wide.  Here the population is estimated to be only 500 animals, and only 700 may live in all of China.	eng
4007	population	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	By the beginning of the 20th century, the global population had been reduced to eight populations, totalling approximately 1,200 individuals (Halley and Rosell 2002). Protection (beginning with a hunting ban implemented in Norway in 1845), natural spread and reintroductions have resulted in a rapid recovery in numbers and range, particularly in Europe. In 1998, the global population was estimated at 430,000 (Nolet and Rosell 1998), by 2002 it had reached at least 593,000 (Halley and Rosell 2002), and in 2006 the minimum estimate was 639,000 (D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). This is almost certainly a considerable underestimate, as both population and range are in rapid expansion (Halley and Rosell 2002, 2003; D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). Considerable further expansion in range and population, especially in western Europe and the lower Danube basin, can be expected. If current trends continue, the Eurasian beaver will be a fairly common mammal in much of Europe within the next few decades. <br/><br/>However, populations in Asia are still considered small. In Mongolia, reintroductions have been successful and the population has reached 150, and in China the population is about 700 (Halley and Rosell 2002, EMA Workshop 2006, Smith and Xie in press).<br/><br/>In Mongolia in 1964, the population size was estimated to consist of 100-150 individuals (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), rising to 200 individuals by 1973 (Zevegmid and Dawaa, 1973). In 1991, surveys estimated there to be approximately 300 individuals along Bulgan and Hovd rivers (Stubbe <em>et al.</em>, 1991). The most recent population assessment was conducted in 2004, which recorded 40 lodges along Hovd River and estimated the population to consist of 130-150 individuals (Shar, 2005). Ten beaver settlements were recorded in the Tuvan section of Tes River in 2005 (A. Saveljev pers. comm.), and the Mongolian section of this river is believed to contain a similar beaver population (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Chinese subspecies of the Eurasian Beaver (C. f. birulai) is one of the rarest and least known aquatic mammals in China.  In the 1970s it was believed that only 100 animals remained in fewer than 20 family groups.  Currently, only one substantial population is known, at the Buergan River Beaver Reserve along the Xinjiang-Mongolian border - a narrow strip 50 km long and only 500 m wide.  Here the population is estimated to be only 500 animals, and only 700 may live in all of China.	eng
4007	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). <br/><br/>Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver <em>C. fiber</em> by its American cousin <em>C. canadensis</em> may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with <em>C. fiber</em>, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Road kill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, illegal hunting for skins, meat and castoreum still occurs in some areas such as the Tes River. Habitat loss through selective clear-cutting of willow, upon which this species relies for food and shelter is also a threat; this is known to be occurring along the Bulgan River and is leading to isolation of small populations and inbreeding. Pollution of water systems is also a threat. A hydroelectric dam in the Chinese section of the Bulgan River prevents migrations in this area (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, firewood gathering has depleted much of the forest on which the beavers need to subsist; additionally heavy grazing pressure has further reduced vegetation needed by beavers.	eng
4007	threats	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). <br/><br/>Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver <em>C. fiber</em> by its American cousin <em>C. canadensis</em> may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with <em>C. fiber</em>, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Road kill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, illegal hunting for skins, meat and castoreum still occurs in some areas such as the Tes River. Habitat loss through selective clear-cutting of willow, upon which this species relies for food and shelter is also a threat; this is known to be occurring along the Bulgan River and is leading to isolation of small populations and inbreeding. Pollution of water systems is also a threat. A hydroelectric dam in the Chinese section of the Bulgan River prevents migrations in this area (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, firewood gathering has depleted much of the forest on which the beavers need to subsist; additionally heavy grazing pressure has further reduced vegetation needed by beavers.	eng
4007	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Linas Balciauskas, 2006	The beaver's historic decline was caused by over-hunting for fur, meat and castoreum (a secretion from the scent glands), combined with loss of wetland habitats. Beaver populations were severely reduced in most countries by mediæval times, but the species clung on in marshes and other inaccessible places until the advent of efficient steel traps and accurate firearms in the 17th century; and then through to the 19th century there was a rash of final extinctions for these reasons combined with drainage of many of the large marshland areas in which the species clung on (all of the European refugia where the species survived, except in Norway, are extensive marshlands). <br/><br/>Today, beaver populations in Europe are expanding rapidly, and there are no major threats (e.g. threats of a magnitude likely to cause decline at the regional level). Competitive exclusion of the native European beaver <em>C. fiber</em> by its American cousin <em>C. canadensis</em> may be a threat in parts of Finland and north-west Russia, but it is not a major threat regionally. In Europe North American beavers are now confined entirely to Finland and north-west Russia, where populations are increasing only slowly (due to heavy harvesting). The former population at a reservoir near Paris has been removed, and populations introduced to Poland and Austria have apparently gone extinct in competition with <em>C. fiber</em>, the opposite of what has tended to happen in Finland and north-west Russia (it has been suggested that, due to differences in the life history of the two species, Eurasian beavers may have a competitive advantage at more southerly latitudes, whilst North American beavers may be more successful further north: D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). There are no serious prospects of further introductions (Halley and Rosell 2002, D.J. Halley pers. comm. 2006). The two species do not interbreed (Tattersall 1999). Roadkill is an important source of mortality for some populations (Tattersall 1999). Rapidly expanding beaver populations may come into conflict with humans in some areas, as they do some damage to forestry and crops. Such damages should be put into perspective: they tend to be less severe than those caused by other species such as deer and voles, but are noticed because beavers are a new and unfamiliar species in areas where they have been recently introduced (Halley and Rosell 2002).	eng
4015	conservation	Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Noss, A. & Maffei, L., 2008	This species is included on Appendix I of CITES. Hunting of all wildlife in Paraguay is officially prohibited. The species is also officially protected in Argentina, where its exportation, interprovincial traffic and commercial exploitation is illegal. Even so, the Chacoan peccary is heavily hunted for its meat everywhere it occurs and existing regulations prohibiting its hunting are ignored and unenforced (Taber 1993, Altrichter 2005). There are only two national parks within this species' range in Paraguay, the Defensores del Chaco (7,800 km²) and Teniente Enciso (400 km²). In Bolivia this species occurs in and around the huge Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (34,400 km²). In Argentina, the only protected areas containing Chacoan peccaries are Copo National Park (1,140 km²), in Santiago del Estero province, and other small provincial reserves.<br/><br/>The species has proved difficult to establish in captivity. In 1985, the Chacoan peccary was adopted for a Species Survival Plan (SSP) under the aegis of the Conservation Management Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums. The following year, a captive breeding station was established at Estancia Toledo, near Filadelfia, in the central Paraguayan Chaco, with funding from the Foundation for Endangered Animals, the Zoological Society of San Diego, and the Lincoln Park Zoo. Of the total of 44 wild caught adult and juvenile animals obtained for 'Proyecto Tagua' 31 died in captivity (Byrd <em>et al</em>. 1988; Benirschke <em>et al</em>. 1990; Unger 1992; Brooks pers. comm.). However, by 1992 the herd had grown to 44 animals the majority of which were born in captivity. In 1996 a mixed group of 10 animals were imported into the United States from the Paraguayan colony.<br/><br/>Priority conservation actions recommended for this species are: upgrade and expand the existing protected areas system within the dry Chaco of Paraguay, Argentina and Bolivia; expand the private reserve system in the Chaco; establish an effective hunting ban on the species; develop an environmental education program; strengthen wildlife services in all three Chaco countries; improve and extend captive breeding initiatives; assess the feasibility of translocating wild caught peccaries into the national parks or other reserves from areas where the natural habitat is being destroyed; and conduct further research on various aspects of the Chacoan peccary's reproductive biology, behavior, ecology, range wide status, and future management needs both in the wild and in captivity (Taber 1993).	eng
4015	distribution	Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Noss, A. & Maffei, L., 2008	The Chacoan peccary is endemic to the dry Chaco of western Paraguay, south-eastern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Redford and Eisenberg 1992; Sowls 1984; Taber 1993). It has a total geographical range of approximately 140,000 km²  (Sowls 1984). In Paraguay, the species formerly occurred in all departments of the Chaco. In Argentina, Chacoan peccaries occurs in Chaco, Formosa, Salta and Santiago del Estero Provinces.  <em>C. wagneri</em> persists in the Bolivian dry Chaco in the departments of Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (Maffei <em>et al</em>., submitted)	eng
4015	habitat	Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Noss, A. & Maffei, L., 2008	The Chacoan peccary occurs in areas of low rainfall and high temperature and is restricted to the driest parts of the Gran Chaco biome (Sowls 1984, 1997). The prime habitat for the species is xerophytic thorn forest characterized by emergent trees, such as <em>Schinopsis lorentzii</em> and <em>Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco</em>; a dense shrub layer including <em>Ruprechtia triflora</em>, <em>Caparis</em> sp. and <em>Acacia</em> sp.; and a ground cover of bromeliads and cactii, such as <em>Opuntia</em> sp., <em>Cleistocactus baumannii</em> and <em>Eriocereus guelichii</em> (Mayer and Brandt 1982). Chacoan peccaries are also found at lower density in open woodland, characterized by trees such as <em>Tabebuia caraiba</em> and <em>Schinopsis balansae</em> (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Cactii, including <em>Cleistocactus</em>, <em>Eriocereus</em>, <em>Quiabentia</em> and at least two species of Opuntia, constitute the principal food of Chacoan peccaries. They also forage on the roots of bromeliads, fruit from various species of Acacia and Prosopis, and occasionally browse on forbs (Mayer and Brandt 1982; Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Chacoan peccaries lick and eat mineral rich soil from naturally occurring salt licks and leaf-cutter ant mounds. They also consume carrion on occasion and may even prey on small mammals.<br/><br/>Like the collared peccary, they are territorial and their home range sizes, based on convex polygons, measure about 1,100 ha and contain a core area of about 600 ha in the Paraguayan Chaco (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Density estimates vary from less than 1 individual/km² to as high as 9.2 individuals/km² (Mayer and Brandt, 1982). A study in the Paraguayan Chaco produced a density estimate of 0.43 individuals/ km² (1.1 individuals/sq mi) (Taber 1991). In the Argentine Chaco the density varied between 0.17 individuals/ km² in hunted sites to 0.44 individuals/ km² in non-hunted sites (Altrichter 2005). <br/><br/>Chacoan peccaries are diurnal and become active about sunrise, are active throughout the day and become inactive at dusk (Taber 1991). Reports of herd sizes in the Paraguayan Chaco vary between one and nine (Mayer and Brandt, 1982; Sowls, 1997), with an average of 4.5 (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, in hunted areas, average group sizes are smaller ranging from 1 to 4 (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1993, Mayer and Brandt 1982, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004). <br/><br/>A slightly biased sex ratio in favour of males has been reported by Mayer and Brandt (1982) and Sowls (1984). Captive females in Paraguay (Proyecto Taguá, San Diego Zoo) gave birth between 1.2 and 8.3 years of age; younger females (<3 years old) usually had smaller litters than older females. They have one litter a year. Litter sizes in Paraguay have been reported to vary between one and four with averages of 2.72 (Mayer and Brandt, 1982; Brooks, 1992; Yahnke <em>et al</em>., 1997). Taber <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated litter size of 1.7 for a wild population and presumed that this small litter size resulted from low reproductive rate or high neonate mortality. The farrowing season extends from September through January. Maximum longevity is unknown, but Sowls (1984) estimated the age of some individuals, based on tooth cementum layers, as at least nine years. In captivity, animals have reached 10 years and 6 months. Gestation time in captivity has been found to be 151 days (Proyecto Tagua, San Diego Zoo).	eng
4015	population	Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Noss, A. & Maffei, L., 2008	Populations are fragmented within its limited geographical range and numbers of Chacoan peccary are declining. The species has disappeared from large areas of the Argentine Chaco where its original range has been reduced by approximately 40% (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Altrichter 2006). Its range has also been reduced in Bolivia (Maffei pers. comm.) and in the eastern Paraguayan Chaco (Neris <em>et al</em>. 2002). The total population size is unknown, but probably several thousand persist in the dry Chaco of Argentina and Bolivia and an estimated 5,000 individuals were estimated to survive in Paraguay in the early 1990’s (Taber 1993). Using estimates of density and remaining habitat for <em>Catagonus</em> in Argentina, M. Altricher (pers. comm.) estimated a population of 3,200 individuals in 2002. This was before the massive deforestation of the region for soy bean and cattle ranching started in 2003. In a recent study conducted in the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter and Boaglio (2004) found Chacoan peccary to be the rarest of the three species found in the area as well as being probably the most vulnerable to human disturbance.	eng
4015	threats	Altrichter, M., Taber, A., Noss, A. & Maffei, L., 2008	The decline in the range and numbers of Chacoan peccaries is probably due to a combination of factors. These factors include hunting by humans, habitat destruction, and disease with predation by large felids also a contributor (Taber 1989, 1991, 1993, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Altrichter 2005). Of these, hunting pressure undoubtedly has the most negative impact on these animals. All peccary species in the Chaco in all three countries are vigorously hunted wherever they occur, even in national parks and reserve areas. Sowls (1984, 1997) has stated that the Chacoan peccary constituted one of the most important sources of bush meat in the areas where they were previously abundant. Chacoan peccary hides are thinner and much less valuable than those of the other peccary species. Fur buyers in Paraguay in 1988, for example, purchased <em>Catagonus</em> skins from settlers for about US$0.5 each compared to about US$8.0 for those of <em>Pecari tajacu</em> and US$5.0 for <em>Tayassu pecari</em> (Taber 1991). However, they still have been hunted and traded commercially. Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. Although large tracts of intact bush survive, the rate of clearance for agriculture and cattle pasture in the Paraguayan Chaco has been estimated by some authorities as being as much as 1,500 km² annually (Sanjuro pers. comm.). A study in the Argentine Chaco found that Chacoan peccaries disappear when forest cover is reduced to less than 87% of the original cover (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004).<br/><br/>Estimated rates of decline are given below:<br/><br/>Argentina: 1972 to 2001, 588,900 ha (<em>c</em>. 20% of the forests) was deforested at a rate of 2.2% a year. Assuming this rate has continued, and will continue, this implies a 40% habitat loss over a given 18 year period (3 <em>Catagonus</em> generations). However, these total deforestation rates hide the impact of habitat degradation, which impacts virtually the whole area. Also, there are good reasons to believe that deforestation has greatly accelerated in the Argentine Chaco. The ongoing soy /commodity boom is having major impacts: e.g., over the last 10 years in the Chaco and Santiago del Estero provinces, soy cropland has grown from 284,000 ha to 1,513,000 ha. Some of this replaced smaller scale cotton cultivation, but most of this is new agro industrial expansions. This is putting tremendous pressure on remaining forest habitat. <br/><br/>Paraguay: One source reported that 45% of the dry forest was cut or selectively degraded by 1990. Since that time, approximately half of the area that had the largest <em>Catagonus</em> population existed in 1990 has now gone (A. Taber pers. comm.). The pressures of the habitat are not abating, and are probably increasing, particularly in the prime <em>Catagonus</em> habitat in Central Chaco (A. Taber pers. comm.). The species probably only hangs on in the fringes of this area, as the far west is too dry for the species, and the east too wet. Proposals for major irrigation schemes from the Paraguay River which would further expand deforestation in the Central Chaco, and allow limited expansion to areas further west, are being discussed. Also, dryland-adapted transgenic crops (especially soy bean) are allowing more land to be put under extensive agriculture, further encroaching on the species in its prime habitat.<br/> <br/>Bolivia: This situation is less clear in this country. The Kaa-Iya National Park in the north of the range probably stabilises the situation there. It is suspected that the conditions in the dry Chaco in Chuquisaca and Tarija are likely to be similar to those in the Argentine Chaco with increasingly extensive agriculture.<br/><br/>Based on the above observations, it is believed that an estimated present and future 50% loss of Chacoan peccary habitat over a three-generation time period (18 years) is defensible. Also, hunting pressures have probably not abated, further increasing the likelihood of such a rate of decline.	eng
4037	conservation	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Catopuma&#160;badia</span>). It is fully protected by national legislation across most of its range. Hunting and trade are prohibited in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It has been confirmed to occur in the following protected areas:  <br/><br/>Sabah: Danum Valley Conservation Area (Nowell and Jackson 1996)<br/><br/>Sarawak - Gunung Mulu National Park (Dinets 2003), Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/>Kalimantan: Gunung Palung National Park, Bentuang Karimum National Park (Meijaard 1997), Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007)	eng
4037	distribution	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Found only on the island Borneo, where its distribution is poorly known, with increasing but relatively few recent records (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Meijaard 1997, Dinets 2003, Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005, Azlan and Sanderson 2007, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007, Azlaand Sanderson 2007).<br/><br/>Historically it probably occurred islandwide (Meijaard 1997, Azlan and Sanderson 2007).  However, there are still no confirmed records from Brunei (J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2008).  Meijard's (1997) records went up to 500 m elevation, and it may range up to 800 m (Giman and Boeadi, Indonesia mammal assessment, 2006) or higher - there is an unconfirmed record from 1,800 m on Mt. Kinabulu (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).<br/><br/>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).	eng
4037	habitat	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	The Borneo bay cat appears to be forest dependent, with records from hill and lowland forest as well as swamp forest (Meijaard 1997, Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Azlan and Sanderson 2007, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007).  It has been recorded from regenerating logged forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Hearn and Bricknell 2003, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005a).  It has never been studied and there is no information about its diet (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  It occurs in both a reddish and grey colour phase.  Observations and camera trap photos have occurred at mid-day (Azlan <em>et al.</em> 2003, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), early morning (Hearn and Bricknell 2003), and at night (Dinets 2003, Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005a).	eng
4037	population	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	The Borneo bay cat appears relatively rare compared to sympatric felids, based on the paucity of historical as well as recent records.	eng
4037	threats	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Habitat loss due to commercial logging and oil palm plantations are the major threat.  Oil palm plantations are likely to expand in the future as a result of the push for biofuels, and forest cover on the island of Borneo, if current deforestation rates continue, is projected to decline from 50% to less than one-third by 2020 (Rautner <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Wildlife traders are aware of the species' rarity, and bay cats have been captured illegally from the wild for the skin and pet markets (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2004, Azlan and Sanderson 2007).	eng
4038	conservation	Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J. & Khan, J.A., 2008	<em>P. temminckii</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Catopuma temminckii</span>). It is fully protected over most of its range by National legislation. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Viet Nam and is regulated in Lao PDR. There is no legal protection outside protected areas in Bhutan (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Its range includes many protected areas.	eng
4038	distribution	Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J. & Khan, J.A., 2008	The Asiatic golden cat has a similar range to its close relative Pardofelis marmorata: from the Himalayan foothills into China and Southeast Asia.  However, it has a larger range in China, like the clouded leopard, and it does not occur on the island of Borneo, where its other close relative, Pardofelis badia, occurs (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>	eng
4038	habitat	Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J. & Khan, J.A., 2008	The Asiatic golden cat is primarily found in forest habitats, ranging from tropical and subtropical evergreen to mixed and dry deciduous forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Less frequently it is found in more open habitats such as shrub and grasslands (Choudhury 2007).  Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) found golden cats used closed forest and more open habitats in proportion to their occurrence, showing no significant preference.  Some studies have suggested it may be less common in montane forest:  in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat National Park, all records for this species were from lowland forest with none from montane forest, unlike the clouded leopard and marbled cat (Holden 2001).  Mishra (2006) also found clouded leopard and marbled cat, but no Asiatic golden cat, in the hill forests of India's western Arunachal Pradesh province.  However, Wang (2007) obtained camera trap photos of the Asiatic golden cat at an elevation of 3,738 m in Bhutan's Jigme Sigye Wangchuk National Park in an area of dwarf rhododendron and grassland, an elevation record for the species.  <br/><br/>Activity readings from two radio-collared golden cats in Thailands's Phu Khieu National Park showed daytime and crepuscular activity peaks (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Forty-seven per cent of 15 camera trap records in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat National Park were in daytime (Holden 2001).  This suggests that the species is not primarily nocturnal, as thought previously.  <br/><br/>An adult female Asiatic golden cat in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park had a home range of 32.6 km², overlapped 78% by a male whose home range was 47.7 km².  Golden cat home ranges were larger than clouded leopard home ranges, although they were similar in activity and mean daily distance moved (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>One confirmed scat contained the remains of Indochinese ground squirrel (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Scats from Sumatra contained rat and muntjac remains, and the stomach contents of a carcass in Thailand's Kaeng Krachan National Park included the remains of a small snake (Grassman 1998). <br/><br/>While the reddish-gold pelage the cat is named for is the most common form, there are also are spotted (Wang 2007) and melanistic morphs (Holden 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
4038	population	Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J. & Khan, J.A., 2008	Some surveys have found more records for the Asiatic golden cat than for some other sympatric small felids (including the marbled cat, flat-headed cat, and fishing cat), suggesting that it may be more common than previously thought (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2007).  Other survey efforts, however, have turned up fewer records (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2005, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Given that its distribution (Nowell and Jackson 1996), home range (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and camera trap encounter rates (Holden 2001, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006) are similar to those of clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa and Neofelis diardi diardi), it may be of roughly equivalent abundance.	eng
4038	threats	Sanderson, J., Mukherjee, S., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Hearn, A., Ross, J. & Khan, J.A., 2008	The Asiatic golden cat is threatened primarily by habitat loss to deforestation, but it threatened by indiscriminate snaring (Holden 2001), and there is illegal trade in its pelt and bones (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It has been reported killed for depredating livestock, including poultry but also larger animals such as sheep, goats and buffalo calves (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  The Asiatic golden cat is capable of taking larger prey, and is threatened by declining ungulate abundance in many parts of Southeast Asia.	eng
4051	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs in the Warner Lake Basin of south-central Oregon, Lake County, near the California/Nevada line, and in the Nevada portion of Twelvemile Creek, Nevada.	eng
4055	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, Helen Gerson, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. The harvesting of this species from the wild needs to be managed sustainably.	eng
4055	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, Helen Gerson, 2008	This species occurs from Coquimbo (at approx. 29°S) to Puerto Montt (40°S), in Chile. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.	eng
4055	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, Helen Gerson, 2008	It occurs in large, deep ponds, and small reservoirs, and breeding takes place in ponds. It tolerates some minor disturbance of its habitat, but requires permanent ponds to persist.	eng
4055	population	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, Helen Gerson, 2008	Populations of this species are currently declining in central Chile; it is practically absent in ponds and lagoons close to towns where it was very abundant only a few years ago. However, populations are apparently common and stable in southern Chile.	eng
4055	threats	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, Helen Gerson, 2008	The main threats include harvesting as an exotic food source, and water pollution due to agriculture. Introduced trout and the drainage of ponds for development and agriculture are additional threats. Two wild-caught individuals from Chile were imported into Canada via the United States in 2005 for the pet trade (H. Gerson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
4064	conservation	Dunnum, J., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Brito, D., Queirolo, D. Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
4064	distribution	Dunnum, J., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Brito, D., Queirolo, D. Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Bolivia, north Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay (Dunnum, 2003; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There are no records from French Guiana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is found from 400 to around 3,000 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000, J. Vargas pers. comm.). The presence of this species needs to be confirmed in lowland Peru (J. Dunnum, pers comm.).	eng
4064	habitat	Dunnum, J., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Brito, D., Queirolo, D. Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species primarily is associated with savannas and other open habitats (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is diurnal and crepuscular, living in burrows with many entrances and shared by several individuals (Lord, 1999). In the Bolivian Yungas it occurs in disturbed areas. Asher <em>et al.</em> (2004), investigated populations of single males with one to two females, these males had a home range 880 +/- 217 m² and females 549 +/- 218 m². Gestation time is ~62 days with 1-5 (average 2) pups per litter, with several litters per year and births generally occurring between September and April (Gonzalez, 2001).	eng
4064	population	Dunnum, J., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Brito, D., Queirolo, D. Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	In Venezuela and Bolivia it is common (Lord, 1999), population densities ranged from 12.5 to 38 per hectare (Asher <em>et al.</em>, 2004). In Ecuador it is rare (Tirira, in prep.). It is only known from a single record in Peru and Ecuador. In Peru from Bahuaja Sonene National Park, in Ecuador from Alao, near Sangay National Park (Schliemann, 1981).	eng
4064	threats	Dunnum, J., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Brito, D., Queirolo, D. Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, the species is sometimes hunted for food.	eng
4065	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	There are some national and state reserves within its range, but there are no known records within these areas. More research is needed on taxonomy for this species.	eng
4065	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species occurs in the coastal areas of southeastern Brazil (Ximenez, 1980).	eng
4065	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The species is native to the Atlantic Forest and has been introduced to grasslands. It prefers forest borders.	eng
4065	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This rodent is widespread in grasslands. There has been some research on its population and taxonomy classifications.	eng
4065	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes hunted for food, although this is not a major threat.	eng
4066	conservation	Gonzalez, E. & Lessa, E., 2008	The species occurs at least in one protected area in Uruguay (Laguna de Castillos) and at least four in Brazil. Further taxonomic studies of this species are required.	eng
4066	distribution	Gonzalez, E. & Lessa, E., 2008	This rodent occurs from Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina States, in Brazil, to eastern Uruguay (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It occurs in the wetlands of southeast Uruguay and close to the Atlantic coast in southern Brazil,  (Ximenez 1980).	eng
4066	habitat	Gonzalez, E. & Lessa, E., 2008	It occurs along the margins of glens between hills and in association with <em>Cardo caraguata</em> (<em>Eryngium spp.</em>) (Gonzalez 2001). It inhabits grasslands and forest borders (Christoff, A. pers. comm.). The species has a low reproductive rate with gestation greater than two months and usually only 1-2 young (Kraus and Rodel 2004). Reproduction is seasonal (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
4066	population	Gonzalez, E. & Lessa, E., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance, but the species is adaptable to grasslands and is assumed to have a stable population.	eng
4066	threats	Gonzalez, E. & Lessa, E., 2008	Intentional burning of vegetation for cattle ranching is a major threat.	eng
4068	conservation	Dunnum, J., Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H. & Teta, P., 2008	It has been recorded from 12 protected areas in Peru; it is present in at least two protected areas in Bolivia. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
4068	distribution	Dunnum, J., Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Peru, highland Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, and northeastern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs from around 3,000 to around 4,300 m asl (Dunnum, 2003; Emmons, 2001). It is not present in the Yungas of the eastern versant of the Andes or the lowlands of Bolivia (Dunnum, 2003).	eng
4068	habitat	Dunnum, J., Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is typically found in moist habitats with scattered rocks and close to dense riparian habitats (including boggy areas). In Peru the species lives in thick grass or brushy grasslands and disturbed gallery forest in which it makes distinct runways. It is present in both primary and disturbed habitats. In Argentina it has been reported to live in burrows with multiple entrances. In captivity the gestation period is 63.3 days, litters average 1.9 (range 1-4), and the average age of first reproduction is two months (Weir, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
4068	population	Dunnum, J., Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H. & Teta, P., 2008	It is considered a common species, although there are not many records from Argentina.	eng
4068	threats	Dunnum, J., Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
4074	conservation	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The largest single population is currently in the Una Biological Reserve contiguous with the Una Widlife Refuge (a buffer zone around the Biological Reserve), but a further protected area will be decreed in 2008: the Serra da Lontras National Park (16,800 ha), west of the biological reserve.<br/><br/>Also present in Condurú State Park (8,941 ha); Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha); and Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha).<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Conservation and Management for the Atlantic forest capuchin monkeys, <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>C. robustus</em>, was created in 1992 by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) to promote field studies and organize a captive population from the numerous individuals kept as pets. It languished, but was resuscitated in 2002 (Santos and Lernould 1993; Baker and Kierulff 2002), and took in a Working Group created in 2003 for Barbara Brown?s Titi Monkey (<em>Callicebus barbarabrownae</em>) and Coimbra-Filho?s Titi Monkey (<em>C. coimbrai</em>) (both also occurring in north-eastern Brazil).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4074	distribution	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> is restricted to the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil, north of the Rio Jequitinhonha, at least as far north as the Rio Paraguaçú near Salvador, but probably historically throughout the entire area west of, and north to, the Rio São Francisco (Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1991/1992; Silva Jr, 2001).	eng
4074	habitat	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Tropical lowland and submontane forest in of the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>, 2004; Jack 2007). Also dry, semideciduous forest patches in the western part of its range in Bahia.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals in their diet, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top-ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). No field studies have been carried out examining particularly the behaviour and ecology of this species.	eng
4074	population	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Rylands (1982) estimated the density at Una, Bahia, at 0.72 groups/km² or 10.87 individuals/km².	eng
4074	threats	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is subject to very high rates of habitat loss and is heavily hunted (Santos <em>et al</em>. 1987; Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1992/1993).	eng
4091	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Cecilioides eulima</em> is endemic to Madeira.	eng
4092	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species used to occur on Mt. Data National Park, but does not anymore. It does, however, occur in a number of other protected areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4092	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to the Central Cordillera in northern Luzon. This species is known only from four widely scattered localities ranging in elevation from 1,800-2,500 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Records are from high elevation forest in Benguet province and in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
4092	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in thick vegetation in high elevation transitional montane-mossy and mossy forest at 1,800 to 2,500 m (Sanborn 1952; Thomas 1898; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also found in mosaic habitats created by landslides but is not tolerant to significant forest disturbance. It feeds on earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4092	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There is uncertainty about the population status of this species, though overall it may be modertately common (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4092	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as it occurs on high elevation montane areas where it is cold, wet and steep. There is some localized threat such as high altitude vegetable farming, but this takes place only in a small portion of their range.	eng
4097	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Celestus occiduus</em> was known from Jamaica.	eng
4097	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The last record of this species was in 1840.	eng
4097	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The introduction of predatory species (e.g., mongooses) may have resulted in the extinction of the Jamaica Giant Galliwasp.	eng
4112	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Retention of primary forest. Presumably the species occurs in some protected areas. This is true for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.	eng
4112	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is found in South America. It ranges from Northeastern Peru to South Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana (Simmons 2005).	eng
4112	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat tends to roost in hollow trees. Aerial insectivore. It appears to be a slow flier and has a rather regular pattern of foraging in its home range, a feature shared with other emballonurids (Eisenberg 1989). Forages in beats, with a slow, fluttering flight. They have been noted flying in late afternoon. Found in mature rainforest and secondary forest (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
4112	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is poorly known; apparently it is uncommon everywhere in its geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
4112	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.	eng
4131	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no protected areas around the island of Ascension. Collecting this species from the wild has recently become prohibited by law (Endoh 2007). Most specimens in the aquarium trade in recent years originate from captive breeding.	eng
4131	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic the Ascension Island (to the UK) in the south central Atlantic Ocean. It has been recorded at depths from 15 m to at least 40 m depth.	eng
4131	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	The habitat of this species consists of rock and rubble (Allen 1980). It is an omnivore.	eng
4131	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This is an abundant species. Groups of up to dozens of individuals can be seen below 100 ft (B. Bowen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
4131	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no apparent threats to this species. No significant habitat loss, if any, is taking place or expected within its limited range.	eng
4133	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Research actions. Found in protected areas.	eng
4133	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Venezuela to Tamaulipas and Sinaloa (Mexico); also in Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,400 m (Reid, 1997). It does not occur in high zones in Guatemala (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
4133	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest; it is most common in dense second growth and low, seasonally flooded forest, where it is sometimes abundant. In deciduous forest, it is often caught in mist nets set over small pools of water (Reid, 1997). It is also found in dry forest, gallery forest, plantations, and gardens. Apparently adapts well to extremely disturbed habitats and can live in city parks and scrubby forest near cane fields. It roosts in vine tangles and dense foliage. Males roost singly or in groups of two or three; a number may be dispersed around the same tree. Females roost in dense clusters. While roosting, the mask of skin in pulled up tightly completely over the face and forehead and covers the horizontal flaps of the ears; a ridge across the crown holds it in place and/or forms an air channel for breathing. It flies rapidly like big, heavy beetles, with a wobbly motion, sometimes with the body vertical to the ground (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Activity starts soon after sunset but is curtailed around full moon. This bat feeds on fruit, possibly by biting ripe fruits and sucking the juice. The facial folds may be used to direct juice to the mouth. Captives will accept green fruits, however, little is known of their feeding behavior in the wild (Snow <em>et al.</em>, 1980; Reid, 1997).	eng
4133	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is rare to uncommon, but widespread and with a wide habitat range (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).<br/>May be locally abundant when there is fruit available (Miller pers. comm.)	eng
4133	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
4134	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 2010	Additional data on distribution, populations, habitat and threats is urgently needed for this species. The priority should be for fresh searches across its known and likely range. Once fresh data is obtained any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
4134	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 2010	The species is known to occur in Sikkim in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936). Existing records from China (Needham 1930) appear to refer to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalaeschna</span> species, although it is likely to occur in Yunnan, as well as other north east Indian provinces and Bhutan.	eng
4134	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 2010	This is a montane species, but nothing else appears to have been recorded on its habitat requirements.	eng
4134	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 2010	There are few records of this species, but this may be due to a lack of expert sampling across much of its known range, and the habits of the species rather than genuine rarity.	eng
4134	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 2010	Without more information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to do more than guess at any threats it might face.	eng
4135	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded to occur in Lake Lanao.	eng
4137	conservation	Finnie, D., 2008	In Zanzibar, the revised version of the Aders' Duiker Species Recovery Plan (SRP) constitutes a framework for conservation of the species (Finnie 2002). In Kenya, a conservation and recovery plan has been proposed by Kanga (2002a).<br/><br/>Aders' Duiker has been protected under Zanzibar law since 1919, while in Kenya Aders' Duiker is a protected species. <br/><br/>In Zanzibar, the newly designated Jozani-Chakwa Bay National Park has secured part of the Aders' Duiker range within a strictly protected area. Another important subpopulation in Kiwengwa Forest is now protected as a nature reserve. In Kenya, the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is designated as a National Park, part of which is a strict nature reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine whether a viable population persists in the Dodori National F.R.<br/><br/>Intensive fieldwork undertaken in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest by the Kenya Wildlife Service has involved population surveys for Aders' Duiker and other species as well as monitoring illegal human activities. In 2003, fieldwork also involved the removal of animal snares from Aders' Duiker habitat.<br/><br/>In Zanzibar a community wildlife management programme commenced in 1995 in an effort to reduce antelope hunting to a more sustainable level. Village Hunter Associations have been set up to manage local wildlife. This will be continued and expanded. Community Forest Management Agreements are in place for the eight villages surrounding Jozani Forest, and the programme has been extended to cover most of southern Unguja. Part of these agreements involves the designation of high protection zones that allow extremely limited use of forest products. All five major subpopulations are covered by some form of community protection.<br/><br/>Conservation education programmes have had some success in increasing awareness in rural areas in both Kenya and Zanzibar. However, in Zanzibar a lot of work is still required in urban areas, the main market for firewood.<br/><br/>An investigation into the feasibility and efficacy of a captive breeding programme on Zanzibar was undertaken in December 2001 (Finnie 2001). An in-country captive-breeding programme has also been proposed for Kenya (Kanga 2001).<br/><br/>Trophy hunting has also been suggested in Zanzibar as a conservation tool (Finnie and Ely 2001). However, for such a rare species, the likely success of this programme must be investigated thoroughly.<br/><br/>The status of Aders? Duiker needs to be monitored closely so the efficacy of the recovery plans can be judged and, if necessary, altered. A simple research programme to understand more about the behavioural and population ecology of Aders? Duiker is necessary.	eng
4137	distribution	Finnie, D., 2008	Aders? Duiker occurs on the main island of Unguja, Zanzibar, as a near endemic since, although the species has been described by Kingdon (1982) as widespread in the forests, woodland and thickets north of Mombasa (Kenya) ? almost up to the Somali border, in the light of rapidly shrinking suitable habitat, it would appear the population has succumbed to a severe decline in numbers. In the Arabuko ? Sokoke Forest, northwest of Kilifi (Kenya), the species is still present, but very few substantiated sightings are made each year. This forest covers approximately 416.8 km². In 2004, what is thought to be an Aders? Duiker was sighted in the Dodori National F.R. north of the Tana River Delta on the north Kenya coast (Andanje and Wacher 2004).<br/><br/>There is a possibility that Aders? Duiker may have once occurred on Fundo Island, off the coast of Pemba Island (Williams 1998)) and is reported to have been introduced on to Funzi Island, Pemba (Kingdon 1997), but has since become extinct on both these islands. Archer and Mwinyi (1995) mention, "unconfirmed?(but) reliable reports (which) indicate a thriving population on Tumbatu Island". Further confirmation of this is yet to be forthcoming.<br/><br/>In February 2000, five Aders? Duikers were translocated to Chumbe Island from mainland Zanzibar, where a female was already in place.	eng
4137	habitat	Finnie, D., 2008	In Zanzibar, Aders? Duiker inhabits tall, undisturbed coral rag thicket known locally as msitu mkubwa (Archer 1994) of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic (XIII). It is usually found singly, sometimes in pairs or trios and often, when encountered, may be following a troop of Sykes (<em>Cercopithecus mitis albogularis</em>) or Kirk's Red Colobus (<em>Procolobus kirkii</em>) monkeys feeding on discards and dislodged edibles from the canopy above (Swai 1983;  Imani  pers. comm. to Williams 1998). <br/><br/>Williams <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that Aders? Duiker has very specific habitat requirements. They were only found in older growth thicket areas and the highest population densities (11.4±5.18 per km²) were recorded in undisturbed high thicket. In contrast, Kanga (1999) did encounter the occasional Aders? in secondary thicket. In the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Aders? Duiker inhabits <em>Cyanometra</em> forest, one of three major habitat types dictated by local soils.<br/><br/>Aders? Duiker appears to be loosely diurnal (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1996), with a very acute sense of hearing and possibly smell (Archer 1994, Williams 1998). Aders? is a browser selecting for dicotyledenous leaves, seeds, sprouts, buds and fruits (Swai 1983). Territories are maintained by facial gland secretions on prominent twigs and faecal heaps (Swai 1983). No formal study of behavioural or ecological allopatric separation of Aders? Duiker with other small antelope has yet been attempted. Moreover, little is known about the population dynamics of this species or of its reproductive biology. Williams (in press) summarizes the available knowledge on the species.	eng
4137	population	Finnie, D., 2008	To date, three surveys have been carried out within Zanzibar. The first in 1982 (Swai 1983) estimated the Aders? Duiker population to be in the region of 5,000 individuals. A second, more detailed survey undertaken in 1995 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1996) placed the population at below 2000. The populations were shown to be located in five main subpopulations with varying degrees of interconnectedness: Kiwengwa Forest in the north, localities in the central Jozani-Chwaka Bay area and Mtende in the south. A third survey carried out in 1999 (Kanga 1999) placed the population at 614±46 within the same study area as Williams <em>et al.</em> (1996). This represents an 87.7±0.7% decrease in the calculated population size in 17 years. However, as each survey method used different methodologies, the results are not directly comparable. Nevertheless, it is evident that there has been a significant decline in the population in recent decades. <br/><br/>The Kenyan population in Arabuko-Sokoke is probably even closer to extinction. A figure of around 500 individuals was estimated in 1999 based on a drive-count survey. However, this figure was extrapolated from just three individuals and is extremely approximate (Kanga 2002b). Recent surveys have only sighted very low numbers (three in 1999, two in 2002 and two in 2003) (Kanga 2002a, 2002b and 2003).	eng
4137	threats	Finnie, D., 2008	The major threats to Aders' Duiker are hunting and habitat loss.<br/><br/>There has been a long tradition of hunting in Zanzibar and Kenya. In Zanzibar, there is likely to have been an increase in hunting pressure following the revolution of 1964 after which enforcement of the wildlife laws became largely non-existent. It would appear that, partly as a result of hunting, the mini-antelope populations of Zanzibar and, especially Aders? Duiker, have undergone long-term declines. The Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry (DCCFF) began to address the hunting situation in Zanzibar in 1994. Although hunting has come under an increasing level of control in Zanzibar (both at the village and governmental level), it remains a significant threat at present (Finnie 2002). In the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest hunting and trapping are common. Over 2,600 households live within 2 km of the forest and at least 33% carry out hunting and/or trapping (FitzGibbon <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is assumed that the high level of trapping represents a significant threat to the continued existence of Aders? Duiker in Kenya.<br/><br/>In Zanzibar there has been a substantial amount of deforestation and forest degradation over the last 30 years. This has led to loss of habitat for Aders? Duiker, but also severe habitat fragmentation. Firewood is the primary source of income for a significant proportion of people living near the forest (Ely <em>et al</em>. 2000) and there are few alternative means of income generation. Habitat destruction is probably the most significant threat to Aders? Duiker survival on Zanzibar.<br/><br/>The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is one of the last major remnants of lowland forests on the East African coast, indicating the massive loss of habitat suffered by Aders? Duiker. Illegal wood-cutting continues to modify Aders? Duiker habitat and is assumed to negatively impact habitat quality. Wood-cutting continued to increase between surveys undertaken in 1998 and 2002 (Kanga 2002a). It is likely that habitat destruction will constitute the most difficult threat to address in terms of Aders? Duikers? future security.	eng
4138	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Major and generally stable populations occur in areas such as Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Alen (Equatorial Guinea), Lope, Minkebe and other relatively undisturbed forests (Gabon), and Odzala, Nouabale-Ndoki and Lake Tele-Likouala (Congo-Brazzaville) (East 1999).	eng
4138	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Endemic to western Central Africa in moist lowland forests of south and south-eastern Cameroon, south-western Central African Republic, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and north and south-western Congo (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Feer and Mockrin in press).	eng
4138	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Found in areas with relatively undisturbed or primary forests, but also present in logged forest with dense undergrowth; sometimes recorded in secondary forest and farm-bush (East 1999; Feer and Mockrin in press).	eng
4138	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	it remains widespread and locally common and is frequently the most abundant medium-sized duiker species in undisturbed areas, but its populations are generally reduced to very low levels where hunting pressure is high (East 1999). Densities are summarized by Wilson (2001) and Feer and Mockrin (in press).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 382,000. Population trends are generally stable in the core areas of its range where human densities are low, but declining elsewhere.	eng
4138	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The primary threats to the survival of the species are habitat loss due to human settlement and expansion of agriculture and hunting (especially through the use of snares). In some areas where the hunting pressure and human disturbance is high, these factors have caused localized reductions in numbers to very low levels.	eng
4139	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bay Duiker occurs in a number of protected areas including: Sapo (Liberia), Kakum (Ghana), Campo, Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Aien (Equatorial Guinea), Lope, Minkebe and other forests (Gabon), Odzaia and Nouabate-Ndoki-Kabo (Congo-Brazzaville) and lturi, Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa) (East 1999; Wilson 2001).<br/>Listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
4139	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bay Duiker formerly occurred throughout the equatorial lowland forests of West and Central Africa, extending to a limited extent into forest patches in the adjoining forest-savanna mosaic. Its range stretches from Guinea-Bissau to the Rwenzori Mts, the Albertine Rift and Lake Tanganyika, and south to north-east Angola to about 11°S; there are no confirmed records from Gambia, Benin or Nigeria, west of the Cross River (Kingdon and Feer in press, and references therein). Formerly occurred in Uganda, but now extirpated (East 1999).	eng
4139	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits primary and relatively unmodified equatorial forests ranging from lowland to mid elevations. While it shows a preference for high primary rainforest, they may occupy patches of forest within savanna mosaics; also occurs in old farm-bush and old secondary forest (Kingdon and Feer in press).	eng
4139	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population densities are summarized by Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Feer (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 725,000. While its numbers are generally stable in the less disturbed forests where hunting pressures are relatively low, its overall numbers are in decline because of loss of habitat and over-hunting for meat in other parts of its range (East 1999).	eng
4139	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threats to this species include bushmeat hunting, which takes place across its range (using both cable snares and nets) and habitat loss and degradation (particularly in the face of expanding human settlement), especially given its preference for primary forest.	eng
4140	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The long-term survival of Jentink’s duiker is closely linked to the future of the remaining blocks of primary forest, in particular Tai National Park and Sapo National Park, and other key areas such as Krahn-Bassa and Grebo National Forests in Liberia, Cavaiiy-Gouin Forest Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire and Western Area Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone (East 1999).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
4140	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Confined to the western part of the Upper Guinean forest block, from Sierra Leone (where only positively reported for the first time in 1989) through Liberia to western Côte d’Ivoire; there are no confirmed records from Guinea (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).	eng
4140	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Jentink’s Duiker formerly occurred widely in primary forest; it also enters secondary growth and farm bush adjacent to high forest, and in Liberia was stated to be a significant crop pest by rural communities in some areas of the south-east (East 1999).	eng
4140	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This large duiker appears to be uncommon/rare throughout its range. East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 3,500, but Wilson (2001) doubted whether there were even more than 2,000 animals left throughout the range. The population trend is downwards except for a few remote areas where forest destruction and hunting pressures are lower (e.g., Sapo National Park), and the few areas where there is effective protection.	eng
4140	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threats to this species are widespread forest destruction (due to, for example, logging and human settlement) and hunting for meat.	eng
4141	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Important protected areas for this species include Lopé Reserve (Gabon), Monte Alen N.P. (Equatorial Guinea), Dzangha-Ndoki N.P. (CAR), Odzala N.P. (Congo), and Kahuzi-Biega N.P., Maiko N.P. and Okapi Faunal Reserve (DR Congo). However, while some of these areas receive moderate to high levels of protection and management (e.g., Dzanga-Sangha-Dzanga-Ndoki, Lope, Odzala), others offer little or no protection against the expansion of logging, settlement and meat hunting.	eng
4141	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The White-bellied Duiker ranges in the west from southern Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, through Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, northern and south-western Republic of Congo, and extreme south-western Central African Republic, and eastwards, north of the Congo River, to north-east DR Congo (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Hart in press). There are no confirmed records from Cabinda (Angola), south-eastern Central African Republic or Uganda (Hart in press).	eng
4141	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Prefers moist lowland equatorial forests and mature closed-canopy forest; also present in older secondary forests, but absent from swamp forest, gallery forest, forest-savanna mosaics and cleared areas. It appears to prefer mono-dominant stands of <em>Gilbertiodendron</em> forest in areas such as Nouabale-Ndoki in Congo-Brazzaville and the lturi Forest in DR Congo (Hart in press).	eng
4141	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species generally occurs at lower densities than other medium-sized duikers, and is uncommon or rare in many areas where it occurs (Wilson 2001, Hart in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 287,000 animals. Like most other duikers of the Central African lowland equatorial forests, its numbers are generally stable in areas remote from settlement, but decreasing elsewhere because of forest degradation and bushmeat hunting.	eng
4141	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threat to this species, especially given its occurrence at low densities, is likely to be hunting (both with snares and nets), and it is one of the first species to drop out of the small ungulate fauna in areas subject to heavy snare pressure (Hart in press).	eng
4142	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It occurs in virtually all protected areas within its range and is well represented in areas such as Sapo (Liberia), Taï (Côte d’Ivoire) and Kakum, Bia and Nini-Suhien (Ghana).	eng
4142	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Maxwell’s Duiker formerly occurred throughout the moist lowland forests of West Africa, extending into the adjoining savannas (East 1999). It ranges from western Gambia and south-west Senegal east to the Cross River in Nigeria (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Nett and Newing in press).	eng
4142	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Occurs in moist lowland forests (primary, secondary forests and plantations) and more locally within riverine forests, forest patches and forest-savanna mosaics. Much of its original habitat has been destroyed by the spread of settlement and agriculture, but Maxwell's Duiker are particularly adaptable to dense thickets, farm-bush habitats, and it still occurs locally in areas with thick undergrowth or other suitable cover. Thus, it has probably benefited from the destruction of primary forests by adapting well to disturbed habitats and remains widespread, occurring in primary and secondary vegetation and often surviving in close proximity to settlement.	eng
4142	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Generally abundant throughout the Guinean forest zone. It is the most common duiker species in Côte d’Ivoire, where Newing (2001) recorded a density of 79 / km² in a mixed, hunted farmland near Taï N.P.<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 2,137,000, likely a conservative estimate. Despite its resilience to hunting pressure and its adaptability to degraded forest habitats, its numbers show a general tendency to decrease in many areas, especially as there are few protected areas within its range which receive effective levels of protection and management.	eng
4142	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	While much of its original habitat has been modified or destroyed by the spread of agricultural settlement, it adapts to derived savannas and farm bush. Its major threats are human population growth and extensive hunting for bushmeat throughout its range states. It does show considerable resilience to hunting pressure, but not to intense poaching; for example, in the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire, high levels of poaching led to numbers of Maxwell’s Duiker declining by more than 90% within 20 years (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001).	eng
4143	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Blue Duiker occurs in large, generally stable numbers in many protected areas within the core of its range, e.g., Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Dzanga-Ndoki (Central African Republic), Monte Aien (Equatorial Guinea), Lope and Gamba (Gabon), Odzala, Nouabale-Ndoki, Lake Tele-Likouala and Conkouati (Congo-Brazzaville) and the Okapi reserve, Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa), not to mention several protected areas in South Africa.<br/><br/>The Blue Duiker should continue to survive in large numbers and provide an important source of protein to human populations in the Central African forest zone, as long as human population densities remain low to moderate over extensive parts of its range.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4143	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Widely distributed in central, eastern and southern Africa, from the Cross River in Nigeria to south-east Sudan and southwards to central Angola, and remnant forests and thickets in Zambia, Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe, and parts of central Mozambique. In South Africa, this species is mainly confined to the evergreen forest and thicket along the coast from northern KwaZulu-Natal to the eastern Western Cape province; there are no confirmed records from Swaziland and none from southern Mozambique, suggesting a break in distribution between their South African range and eastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique. Also present on the islands of Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Hart and Kingdon in press).	eng
4143	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Blue Duiker thrives in a wide range of forested and wooded habitats, including primary and secondary forests, gallery forests, dry forest patches, coastal scrub farmland and regenerating forest from sea level up to 3,000 m asl (Hart and Kingdon in press). They can persist in small patches of modified or degraded forest and thicket, even on the edge of urban centres.	eng
4143	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of more than 7,000,000 animals, likely a conservative figure. Protected areas comprise only a small part of its total range, but its core populations are generally stable apart from areas where subsistence and commercial meat-hunting pressures are exceptionally high (East 1999).	eng
4143	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The species is subject to extensive hunting for bushmeat throughout its range states, and is arguably the most important wild ungulate economically and ecologically in Africa (Wilson 2001). However, it withstands hunting pressure better than most of the larger duikers. Furthermore, unlike many of the other forest duikers, Blue Duikers tolerate and even thrive in a range of human-modified habitats, even in the vicinity of settlement, and often persist well in small habitat patches (Hart and Kingdon in press). Nonetheless, some local populations may be subject to declines or extirpation in the face of one or both of these threats (e.g., see Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
4144	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Natal Red Duiker is well represented in several well-managed protected areas such as Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Maputo Game Reserve (Mozambique), Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, Hluhluwe-iMfolozi and Ndumo G.R. (South Africa) (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further taxonomic work to investigate the status of this species relative to Harvey's Red Duiker.	eng
4144	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Natal Red Duiker formerly occurred widely in coastal and riverine forests and thickets, escarpments and montane forests from south-eastern Tanzania to north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press). There are no confirmed records of this species from Zimbabwe or Zambia; East (1999) shows the species occurring in north-east Zambia and northern Malawi, but these records relate to Harvey’s Duiker (see Hoffmann and Bowland in press, and references therein).	eng
4144	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits evergreen forest, tropical/subtropical forest patches, coastal scrub, and riverine thickets. In north-east KwaZulu-Natal, they occur up to about 200 m elevation (Rowe-Rowe 1994).	eng
4144	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bowland (1990) recorded densities varying from 1/0.5-1.0 ha in favourable habitat (such as at St. Lucia) to 1/2.5-5.0 ha in less favourable areas. East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 42,000, although actual numbers could be considerably greater. Population trend is gradually downwards over much of the species’ range, although a substantial part of the range occurs in Mozambique, where an overall recovery in wildlife populations is likely to include this duiker (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press).	eng
4144	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Natal Red Duiker have disappeared from large parts of their former range, largely as a result of the loss of suitable habitat in the face of expanding human settlement and agriculture, as well as hunting (East 1999; Hoffmann and Bowland in press). Nonetheless, it remains locally common within its former range.	eng
4145	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black Duiker occurs in several protected areas, such as Sapo N.P. (Liberia), Western Area F.R. (Sierra Leone), Taï N. P. and Comoé N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire) and Bia, Nini-Suhien and Kakum National Parks (Ghana) (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
4145	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black Duiker ranges in forested and formerly forested areas from south-western Guinea eastwards through Sierra Leone to the Niger River (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). There are no confirmed records from Benin or from Burkina Faso (East 1999), and no indication that the species has ever occurred east of the Niger River (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
4145	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black Duiker inhabits lowland rainforests of West Africa, the edge of primary forest, gallery forests, thicket, and riverine and deciduous forest patches within savannas. Black Duikers adapt quite well to a range of modified habitats throughout its range, including logged forest, secondary forest and farm bush, and it is among the most successful antelopes in colonizing farm-bush, and even (rarely) plantations (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
4145	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It is particularly common and successful in the central parts of its range, from Liberia to Ghana, but is rare or declining both east and west of this heartland. East (1999), assuming average population densities of 2.0/km² where it is known to be common/abundant and 0.2/km² elsewhere, produced an estimated total population of about 100,000. The population trend is probably gradually downwards over large parts of its range.	eng
4145	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Its adaptability to degraded and secondary forests and farm bush have enabled it to withstand the advance of settlement better than other medium-sized forest duiker species in West Africa and it still occurs quite widely within its historical range. Although it is a common component of bushmeat, it shows resilience to hunting and remains locally common. Given this, it is likely to persist in substantial numbers for considerably longer than most other medium-sized and large duiker species in West Africa. Nevertheless, it has already disappeared from the more densely settled parts of its former range (East 1999).	eng
4146	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black-fronted Duiker is present in a number of protected areas such as Lobeke (Cameroon), Dzanga-Sangha and Bangassou (Central African Republic), Lake Tele-Likouala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Congo-Brazzaville), Virunga, Ituri, Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga (Congo-Kinshasa), Bwindi (Uganda), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda) and Mount Kenya. Most of these key populations are stable. <br/><br/>Much of the Ugandan range of the Rwenzori Red Duiker is included within Rwenzori Mountains National Park. There is a need for further taxonomic work to determine whether this subspecies does indeed deserve recognition as a distinct species (as considered by Kingdon in press).	eng
4146	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black-fronted Duiker occurs widely in swamp forests and alongside watercourses within the equatorial forest zone, from south-eastern Nigeria to the Albertine Rift, and in isolated montane forests in East Africa. The Nigerian population occurs in the Niger Delta and is probably disjunct from the nearest known population in Cameroon (East 1999; Plumptre in press). Isolated populations of this species were recorded on Mounts Cameroon, Kupe and Manengube by Bowden (1986), but Grubb <em>et al.</em> (2003) were not convinced these records relate to Black-fronted Duiker.<br/><br/><em>C. n. rubidus</em> is confined to the Ruwenzori Mtns at altitudes of 1,300-4,200 m, although it is thus far only recorded from the Ugandan side (Kingdon 1982, Grubb and Groves 2001; Kingdon in press).	eng
4146	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Tropical forests of central Africa ranging from lowland swamp forest and seasonally flooded forest with poorly drained or permanently saturated soils (where it is frequently encountered along streams and in marshy areas) to montane forests, subalpine vegetation zones, bamboo, and moorland on Mounts Elgon and Kenya and the Aberdares (Kenya).	eng
4146	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 300,000. Population trends are probably downwards over large parts of the species’ range, except for areas where hunting pressures are low because of low human population densities and/or active protection. <br/><br/>East (1999) suggested that the population of the Rwenzori Red Duiker may number at least in the thousands.	eng
4146	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Like most other forest duikers, the distribution and numbers of this species have been reduced markedly in areas of dense human settlement and intensive hunting for bushmeat, but it survives in good numbers in areas where the level of human activities is relatively low (East 1999). <br/><br/>Although much of the range of the Rwenzori Red Duiker falls in a national park, the species nonetheless remains susceptible to snaring, and to habitat loss in the lower elevations of its range.	eng
4148	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Brooke''s Duiker is now known to exist in reasonable numbers in only a few areas, such as Sapo National Park and some other forests in eastern Liberia and Tai National Park in south-western Côte d'Ivoire. <br/><br/>The mainland population of the nominate subspecies has only a few remaining strongholds, e.g., Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Cross River N.P. (Nigeria); it has also been recorded from several forest reserves (Forboseh <em>et al.</em> 2007). It remains relatively numerous on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). The effective protection of the Gran Caldera de Luba Scientific Reserve is crucial to the survival of this species on Bioko Island.<br/><br/>The distinctive White-legged Duiker is now known to be relatively widespread and numerous in Gabon, including protected areas such as Lope and the Gamba complex, and Odzala N. P. (Congo).<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4148	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Ogilby’s Duiker is known from four separate populations within the equatorial forest zone (East 1999; Wilson 2001; Kingdon in press): <br/><br/><em>C. o. brookei</em> (Brooke's Duiker) ranges in Sierra Leone, south-east Guinea, Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, west of the Volta River;<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies occurs on Bioko Island, and then on the mainland in south-east Nigeria and south-west Cameroon;<br/><br/>The white-legged form of Ogilby’s Duiker, <em>C. o. crusalbum</em>, occurs in Gabon, mostly south of the Ogooué River, and is reported to occur in north-west Republic of Congo.	eng
4148	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Its preferred habitat is primary moist lowland forest, yet it is common in forest patches within the forest-savanna mosaic. It has been recorded in areas with a mix of high forest and logged forest, or high forest and secondary forest (but seems to be very rare in highly modified secondary forest). <br/><br/>On Bioko, the species is not only present in lowland forest but also in the island’s montane forest (perhaps to elevations exceeding 2,000 m) and in the higher altitude <em>Schefflera</em> forest zone, habitats which are normally occupied by other duiker species on the mainland (East 1999).	eng
4148	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 35,000, including an estimated 5,000 Brooke’s Duikers, 12,000 <em>C. o. ogilbyi</em> and 18,000 of the white-legged form. Populations are probably decreasing throughout the ranges of Brooke’s Duiker and the nominate subspecies, with a few possible exceptions such as some protected areas. The White-legged Duiker’s numbers are probably stable in considerable parts of its range in Gabon and north-western Congo where human population densities are very low.	eng
4148	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Threatened by habitat destruction (due to agriculture, human settlement, and logging) and intense hunting pressure, mainly by snaring for bushmeat. Although hunting takes place throughout the range, this is particularly severe on Bioko (see summary of bushmeat studies in Kingdon in press).	eng
4149	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Red-flanked Duiker is well represented in protected areas (about half of the total population occurs in and around protected areas), generally in stable populations, with relatively large numbers in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe, Haut Bandama and Marahoue (Ivory Coast), Mole, Bui and Digya (Ghana), Pendjari and W (Benin), Bouba Ndjida, Benoue and Faro (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris, Bamingui-Bangoran and Sangba (Central African Republic) and Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa) (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
4149	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This duiker formerly occurred throughout the band of savanna woodlands that stretches across West and Central Africa from Senegal and The Gambia to the Nile Valley (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Formerly widespread in north-western Uganda, as far east as the Albert Nile (East 1999); a small relic population was discovered in the Bugungu G.R., immediately south of the Murchison Falls N.P. (Allan 1996).	eng
4149	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	An inhabitant of the savanna woodlands of west and central Africa. In Sierra Leone, it was formerly the commonest duiker species in the northern savanna and in farm bush on its southern edges; the replacement of primary forest with farm bush and other secondary vegetation has enabled this species to expand its range southwards to some extent (East 1999).	eng
4149	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Published density estimates are summarized by East (1999), Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Hoffmann (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 170,000. The population trend is gradually decreasing as human populations and hunting pressures continue to grow.	eng
4149	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Red-flanked Duiker withstands heavy hunting pressure and probably still occurs reasonably widely throughout much of its historical range. It is common in most of the protected areas and most of the forest reserves within its range where suitable habitat remains, including areas where poaching has greatly reduced or eliminated most other antelope species. However, while it is more resilient than most other antelopes in the savanna zone, its numbers are generally in decline because of human disturbance and severe meat hunting pressures.	eng
4150	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About one-third of this estimated population occurs within protected areas, including several in West Africa and Lobeke (Cameroon), Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Republic of Congo), Bangassou (Central African Republic), Monte Allen N.P. (Equatorial Guinea), Bwindi and Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Kafue and Kasanka (Zambia), and Ituri (DR Congo) in Central Africa (East 1999; Kingdon and Lahm in press).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4150	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Yellow-backed Duiker has the widest distribution of the forest duikers, ranging from south-western Senegal through all West African countries to south-western Sudan and south-west Uganda, south to northern Angola (including Cabinda) and Zambia; they also occur in the Mau forest in south-west Kenya (Kingdon and Lahm in press). They are now considered extinct in The Gambia (East 1999), although whether they actually ever formerly occurred is uncertain (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). They were thought to have been extirpated from Rwanda (East 1999), but have been confirmed as surviving in the Nyungwe Forest (F. Mulindahabi and A. Vedder pers. comm.).	eng
4150	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Throughout most of its range it occurs in moist lowland and montane forests, forest-savanna mosaics, riverine forests  gallery forest, thickets and isolated forest patches within moist savanna woodlands; also present in secondary forest, plantations and farm bush (East 1999; Kingdon and Lahm in press).	eng
4150	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Density estimates are summarized by East (1999), Wilson (2001) and Kingdon and Lahm (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 160,000. The population trend is generally decreasing, except for some areas where hunting pressures are low because of low human populations and/or effective protection against poaching.	eng
4150	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In much of its range, especially outside protected areas, it has been reduced to low numbers or eliminated by forest destruction, and encroachment of human settlements, coupled with uncontrolled hunting for bushmeat. The species was formerly subject to strict taboos that once protected it in some parts of its range, and it is still considered a non-preferred game species in some areas; however, many of these taboos have broken down.	eng
4151	conservation	Moyer, D.C., Jones, T. & Rovero, F., 2008	Udzungwa Mountains National Park is patrolled by anti-poaching rangers, and zero utilization of animals is permitted. However, the capture of Abbott's Duiker in snares is still occurring in Mwanihana Forest within the Park. With exception of Mount Kilimanjaro, where most of the forests were recently included in the National Park, there is no management in all the other sites.<br/><br/>Current work in the Southern Highlands employing hunters in environmental education initiatives in exchange for stopping hunting, has met with some success. It is too early to say if this will have a significant positive impact on Abbott?s duiker populations, although it may prove a valuable model for conservation at other sites and is being carried out alongside the use of Abbott's Duiker as a flagship species in village education programmes.<br/><br/>Major conservation management measures that would enhance the protection of Abbott's Duiker are the expansion of the Udzungwa Mountains N.P. to include important forests currently unprotected, in particular Uzungwa Scarp, Iyondo and Matundu. Also necessary is the inclusion of Mount Rungwe within the new Kitulo N.P. and greater law enforcement enacted in those areas that are currently not adequately protected (such as Southern Highland forests, Usambara and Uluguru Mountains). Critical forest connections, such as the degraded Bujingijila corridor linking Mount Rungwe to Livingstone forest in Kitulo, must be adequately protected.	eng
4151	distribution	Moyer, D.C., Jones, T. & Rovero, F., 2008	A Tanzanian endemic found in a few montane and submontane forests and one lowland forest in the Eastern Arc Mountains, Mount Kilimanjaro and Southern Highlands. Formerly recorded from the forests patches along the top of the Gregory Rift between Babati and Mbulu. In the Eastern Arc, it is currently reported only from West Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains, while it probably disappeared from the Uluguru and East Usambara Mountains (Wilson 2001; Moyer 2003; Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press). Its status in other Eastern Arc forests is unknown; however, recent surveys failed to detect its presence in North Pare, South Nguru and Uluguru Mountains (F. Rovero, unpubl.). There are old records from the escarpment forests in eastern Njombe District (Swynnerton and Hayman 1951) but the status of these forests is uncertain and under investigation. Wilson (2001) noted that Abbott's Duiker was still present on the Poroto Mountains in 1958 but the status of that population is also uncertain. A small population is still present on Mount Rungwe and the Livingstone Forest within the new Kitulo National Park. The Udzungwa Mountains and Mount Kilimanjaro might hold the only two viable populations (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
4151	habitat	Moyer, D.C., Jones, T. & Rovero, F., 2008	Found in interior and clearings of mature montane and submontane forest. In Mount Kilimanjaro, this duiker is reported as commonest between 1,300 and 2,700 m asl. (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995). In the Udzungwa Mountains, Abbott's Duiker has been recorded as low as 300 m in Matundu Forest a large, lowland and semi-deciduous forest (F. Rovero, unpubl.), as well as on the highest peak (Mount Luhombero, 2,600 m; Rodgers and Swai 1988). It is known from disturbed and secondary montane forest and bamboo forest to 2,500 m and occasionally plateau grassland to 2,800 m on Mount Rungwe and in Livingstone-Kitulo in the Southern Highlands (T. Davenport and S. Machaga unpubl.).<br/><br/>Very little is known of Abbott's Duiker ecology and behaviour. This is an extremely secretive species, occurring at low densities and very rarely seen even where it is considered relatively common. Furthermore, it appears to be mainly nocturnal and crepuscular (F. Rovero unpubl.) and, as with most duiker species, probably prefers dense, understory vegetation.<br/><br/>They have been seen browsing forest understory leaves, and marshy vegetation in forest clearing; also one individual photographed with a frog in its mouth.<br/><br/>Abbott's Duikers are known to be predated by leopards (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), and juveniles are probably predated by African Crowned Eagles (<em>Stephanoetus coronatus</em>) and pythons (<em>Python</em> spp). In the Udzungwa Mountains, the Lion (<em>Panthera leo</em>) and the Spotted Hyeana (<em>Crocuta crocuta</em>) are also potential predators (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press, Moyer unpubl. data).	eng
4151	population	Moyer, D.C., Jones, T. & Rovero, F., 2008	Although data are scarce, the total population is probably less than 1,500 individuals. Maximum densities in the Udzungwa Mountains are estimated at 1.3 individuals/km² (Rovero <em>et al</em>. in press), i.e. this species is at low densities even where locally common.<br/><br/><strong>Udzungwa Mountains subpopulations</strong>:<br/>Mwanihana Forest (177 km², 300-2,300 m, within Udzungwa Mountains National Park): locally common.<br/>Luhombero Forest (250 km², 1,350-2,500 m, West Kilombero Forest Reserve/Udzungwa Mountains National Park): locally common (Jones, unpubl.).<br/>Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (180 km², 300-2,050 m): rare.<br/>Matundu Forest Reserve (176 km², 300-1,000 m): rare.<br/>Ukami forest (6 km², 1,100-1,600 m): locally common.<br/>Nyumbanitu Forest Reserve (49 km², 1,350-2,500 m): scarce.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Highlands</strong>: very rare, with some 40 individuals estimated in Mount Rungwe and adjacent Livingstone forest (T. Davenport and S. Machaga, unpubl.). They may also persist in a few other Southern Highland forests currently being surveyed.<br/><br/>A new population, estimated at a maximum of 50 individuals, was found in 2006 in the southern Rubeho Mountains (?Ilole forest, 30 km²), where the species is locally common (F. Rovero, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Population abundance in Mount Kilimanjaro and West Usambara is unknown.	eng
4151	threats	Moyer, D.C., Jones, T. & Rovero, F., 2008	A major threat to this species is snaring, which is taking place at low level within Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Mwanihana Forest), where there is a relatively high level of protection. Snaring has also been reported from other sites (Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Southern Highlands, West Usambara Mountains), but at higher levels. Abbott's Duiker is also affected by loss of habitat due to agricultural encroachment, and selective logging. Virtually nothing is known of the ecology of this species, but selective logging may be predicted to adversely affect a duiker of the body size and low density of Abbott's Duiker (Struhsaker 1997).	eng
4152	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Populations of the species occur in a number of protected areas, including the Okapi Faunal Reserve and Maiko and Salonga National Parks (DR Congo), Kibale N. P. (Uganda), Mount Elgon N. P. (Kenya) and Mahala Mountains N. P. (Tanzania) (East 1999).	eng
4152	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Widespread in DR Congo, including large areas of contiguous range north of the Congo River, from the Ubangui in the west, to western Uganda, western Rwanda and Burundi, and western Tanzania (Mahali Mtns. and Gombe). Also in southern Sudan (Imatong and Dongotona Mtns.), Mt Elgon, and the forests of Kakamega and the Mau Escarpment in western Kenya (Hart in press).	eng
4152	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In its lowland range in DR Congo, the species is restricted to large blocks of closed forest and does not range far out into gallery forests or forest islands in the savanna ecotone; however, in East Africa, they occur in relatively small and isolated forest remnants. In the Ituri Forest, Weyns’ Duiker occurs widely in primary and older secondary forests. Occurs in montane forests up to 3,000 m, reportedly on Mt Elgon (Hart in press).	eng
4152	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In the Ituri Forest, Weyns’ Duiker is the second most common duiker species after Blue Duiker <em>Philantomba monticola</em>, with densities of unhunted populations averaging 15 animals/km² (Hart 2000). East (1999) estimated a total population 188,000.	eng
4152	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The main threat to this species is hunting (especially with nets), although this species is among the more resilient to hunting pressure (Hart in press).	eng
4153	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Zebra Duiker is now confined to the remaining areas of primary forest within its former range, with its main strongholds being the Gola Forests in Sierra Leone, Sapo National Park and other forests of south-eastern Liberia, and Taï National Park and the adjoining Haut Dodo-Rapide Grah-Hana Forest Reserves, and Cavally-Gouin, Scio and Niegre Forest Reserves in Côte d’Ivoire (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).<br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4153	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Zebra Duiker occurs from eastern Sierra Leone to south-western Côte d’Ivoire; their presence in south-eastern Guinea was confirmed by a report from the Ziama-Diecke Forest Reserves (East 1999; Hoppe-Dominik in press).	eng
4153	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Zebra Duiker appears to be dependent on undisturbed primary lowland forest, sometimes ranging into montane and hill forest (Hoppe-Dominik in press). Although it may be found in secondary growth and swidden cultivation (e.g., Newing 2001), Wilson (2001) considered them the least adaptable of all West African duiker species to deforestation and therefore the least likely to survive hunting pressure and habitat degradation.	eng
4153	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 28,000. However, Wilson (2001) regarded this as an over-estimate, and doubted that there could be more than 15,000 animals across the range at most. The population trend is generally downwards because of poaching for meat and continuing destruction of West Africa’s few remaining primary forests. The only exceptions are a few localities where hunting pressures are low and/or there is effective protection against logging and poaching (East 1999).	eng
4153	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat. For example, in Côte d'Ivoire it is confined to primary rainforest in the south-west, to the west of the Niouniourou River. This region was sparsely populated until the early to mid-1970s. Since then, there has been large-scale immigration, and timber extraction, forest clearance and agricultural settlement have proceeded rapidly (East 1999).	eng
4154	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It is well represented in several protected areas, including Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks and Forest Reserves, and Shimba Hills and Tana River National Reserves (Kenya), Mount Kilimanjaro, Udzungwa Mountains, Mikumi, Arusha and Lake Manyara National Parks (Tanzania), Bush Bush National Park (Somalia) and Bale Mountain N.P. (Ethiopia) (Kingdon and Rovero in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further taxonomic work to investigate the status of this species relative to Natal Red Duiker.	eng
4154	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Harvey's Duiker occurs in central and south-eastern Kenya, north-eastern and central Tanzania, marginally in southern Somalia, and northern Malawi; there is a single record from Zambia (Kingdon and Rovero in press).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia an expedition to the Harenna forest in the southern part of Bale Mountains National Park in 1986 produced positive sightings of a “red” duiker. This was the first confirmed sighting of a <em>Cephalophus</em> duiker from Ethiopia. There has also been a subsequent sighting of this duiker in the same area. While identification of the species awaits confirmation, it is considered highly likely to be Harvey’s Duiker. This species occurs in southern Somalia and could have entered the Bale forests up the Juba and Genale valleys, a route which has been used by forest primates. In 1996, the presence of an unidentified species of red duiker was confirmed in dense bush around and north of the headquarters of Omo National Park in the south-west. The Omo population could be Weyns’ duiker (<em>C. weynsi</em>), which occurs in the lmatong Mountains of south-eastern Sudan 400 km to the south-west, but is here treated as an isolated population of C. harveyi (following East 1999, Wilson 2001 and Kingdon and Rovero in press).	eng
4154	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Harvey’s Duiker occurres in lowland and montane forests, isolated forest patches, riverine forest, coastal scrub, thickets and other habitats with thick cover (East 1999; Kingdon and Rovero in press). Occurs to elevations above 2,400 m in some Eastern Arc massifs (e.g., in the Ulugurus; Doggart <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
4154	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 20,000 individuals, but this must be a substantial underestimate. The overall population trend is downwards as pressures of habitat destruction and subsistence hunting increase with expanding human populations (East 1999).	eng
4154	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The main threats are habitat loss due to timber extraction and encroachment of settlement, especially in the many coastal and montane forests. It continues to be heavily hunted throughout most of its range, using both dogs and wire snares.<br/><br/>In Somalia, this species was recorded from riverine habitats on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and in coastal scrub and forest in the Lake Badana region, but by the mid-l980s, it had lost almost all of its habitat on the Juba and Shebelle Rivers to agricultural expansion and survived in only a few remaining patches of riverine forest on the lower Juba.	eng
4159	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Although Commerson’s dolphins may have been seriously affected by the illegal deliberate take for bait in the Chilean crab fishery, the pressure on them in the southern part of their range apparently was reduced beginning in the late 1980s. However, in various parts of their range, incidental mortality in gillnets and other fishing gear continues and represents an ongoing threat (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003, Iniguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Such mortality should be investigated in more detail.	eng
4159	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The two disjunct subspecies are separated by 130° of longitude and about 8,500 km. <br/><br/><em>C. c. commersonii</em> - Falkland Islands / Islas Malvinas and the coastal waters of southern South America. On the Atlantic coast the northern limit is at approximately Península Valdés. The range extends south into Drake Passage (61°50'S) as far as the South Shetland Islands, well within the range of <em>C. eutropia</em> (Rice 1998) (<em>C. eutropia</em> is predominately coastal and rarely goes into deep water or far offshore). Single dolphins and groups of up to hundreds were sighted in the late 1980s and early 1990s along the northern coast of Tierra del Fuego (Goodall 1994). Although sightings in the northern parts of the range often are of small groups or solitary individuals, overall numbers and group sizes increase to the south. On the west coast of South America, the northernmost confirmed record is a sighting of five individuals off Cape Valentin (53°33’S, 79°25’W) (Sielfeld and Venegas 1978). Genetic population structure is being studied in Argentina, where two “ecological stocks” have been identified based on differences in parasite loads and patterns of prey consumption (Berón-Vera <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><em>C. c.</em> subsp. nova - Shallow coastal waters around all of the Îles Kerguélen in the southern Indian Ocean (Rice 1998; Robineau <em>et al</em>. 2007). No sightings or specimens have yet been reported from islands between South America and Kerguélen, such as Crozet, Heard, Amsterdam or St Paul (Goodall 1994). Dolphins of the Kerguelen Islands subspecies are most commonly sighted in the Golfe du Morbihan, on the eastern side of Kerguélen.<br/><br/>Recently, a sighting of a single individual south of Cape Town, in South African waters, was reported, although this should be considered extralimital (de Bruyns <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are also unsubstantiated reports of this species at South Georgia, but these have been rejected (Brown 1988).	eng
4159	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Commerson's dolphins are found in cold inshore waters along open coasts, in sheltered fjords, bays, harbours and river mouths, and occasionally the lower reaches of rivers. Their offshore limit is not very clear. Along the Atlantic shelf Commerson’s dolphins have been sighted more than 100 nmi offshore and in water deeper than 1000 m (Pedraza 2008). Within the Strait of Magellan, they prefer the areas with strongest currents, such as the Primera and Segunda Angostura (First and Second Narrows), where the current can reach or exceed 15 km/hr (Goodall 1994). Off South America, Commerson's dolphins appear to prefer areas where the continental shelf is wide and flat, the tidal range is great, and temperatures are influenced by the cool Malvinas Current. In coastal Patagonia, they are found principally in areas with continental runoff such as at the mouths of the Chubut and Santa Cruz Rivers and at Puerto Deseado. Around the Falklands/Malvinas and Kerguelen Islands, as well as off mainland Argentina, they are often seen swimming in or at the edge of kelp beds. Commerson's dolphins sometimes move very close to shore, even inside the breakers. However, they are also observed offshore in waters deeper than 50 m.<br/><br/>South American Commerson's dolphins appear to be opportunistic, feeding near the bottom on various species of fish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and benthic invertebrates in kelp beds but also on pelagic schooling fish in more open areas. In the Kerguelen Islands, they seem to have a more restricted diet, consisting mostly of fish.	eng
4159	population	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Commerson's dolphin seems to be the most abundant species of the genus <em>Cephalorhynchus</em> (Dawson 2002) although much of its range has not been surveyed and there are only a few estimates of abundance. Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. (1988) conducted aerial surveys in the northern Strait of Magellan and estimated a minimum of 3,221 dolphins for that area. However, they did not observe Commerson's dolphins in some areas where the species had been recorded previously. It has been suggested that the reduced abundance of these dolphins in some areas of southern Chile was due to either depletion of the population or displacement of the animals eastward of the Strait of Magellan. In either case, potential causes include mortality in fishing gear and extensive hunting in the past. The practice of using dolphins and other marine mammals as bait is reported to have declined in recent years, due in part to the fact that legal bait has been more readily available and in part to measures taken by Chilean government agencies (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons, 1994; Reeves <em>et al</em>., 2003). <br/><br/>Venegas (1996) estimated the density of Commerson's dolphins during early summer (1989-1990) in the eastern sector of the Strait of Magellan, flying 79 transects corresponding to 1,320 km. The estimated total number within the study area was 718 ± 196 individuals. Venegas attributed the substantial difference between his figures and those of Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. (1988) to methodological factors and time of year. In Argentine waters, overall abundance in the early to mid-2000s was estimated at about 40,000, with at least half of that number in Tierra del Fuego and southern Patagonia (Pedraza 2008).<br/><br/>The status of the Kerguelen Islands subspecies is even less clear than that of the South American subspecies. As of 1985, there had been more than 100 reported sightings, the largest group of about 100 dolphins having been seen near the edge of the shelf (Goodall 1994; Robineau 1989). The Kerguelen subspecies is restricted in range and is therefore probably small and relatively vulnerable to any anthropogenic threats.	eng
4159	threats	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Until recently, various species of small cetaceans, mainly Commerson's dolphins and Peale's dolphins, were harpooned and used as bait in the southern king crab ("centolla") fishery in both Argentina and Chile (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Because the centolla is overfished in the Magellan region, fishing effort has shifted to the false king crab, which is exploited principally farther west in the channels. Commerson's dolphins are not found there, but they are relatively abundant in the eastern part of the Strait. In Argentina, the crab fishery operates in the Beagle Channel, where there are relatively few Commerson's dolphins. Some animals have been killed for sport (Reyes 1991) and others have been live -captured for dolphinaria (Goodall 1994).<br/><br/>This is the odontocete species most frequently taken in fishing nets off southern South America, perhaps due to its coastal distribution which overlaps with trammel and artisanal gillnet fisheries (<em>e.g</em>. Iñiguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is taken most often in fairly large-mesh nets. Although the scale of the bycatch is unknown, at least 5-30 died each year in nets set perpendicular to the shore in eastern Tierra del Fuego alone during the 1980s and early 1990s (Goodall 1994). They are also taken in this type of fishing in the Argentinean provinces north of Tierra del Fuego and in the eastern Strait of Magellan and Bahia Inútil in Chile. Commerson’s dolphins are also killed at least occasionally in midwater trawl nets on the Argentine shelf (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000). Recent aerial surveys off Patagonia provided an estimate of 1,200 to 2,750 Commerson’s dolphins for Chubut Province (Pedraza 2008). The bycatch there in hake and shrimp fisheries (25 to 170 individuals per year, mostly females; Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003) could represent anywhere from 0.9 to 14% of the estimated abundance. Incidental mortality in gillnets was calculated as almost 180 animals for the fishing season 1999-2000 in a small area of the Santa Cruz Province, southern Argentina (Iñiguez <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The salmon farming industry in southern Chile plans to expand into the Southwestern Atlantic in an effort to meet the increasing demand for feeds based on anchovy, mackerel and other pelagic species of fish (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pelagic fish are captured by large vessels operating with trawls or purse seines, and those fish are then converted into meal to feed salmon. The rising global demand for fish meal could lead to unsustainable anchovy fishery expansion on the Patagonian coast. Global aquaculture, which uses feeds manufactured from fish meal, increased by 50% between 1998 and 2004, and will likely continue to grow (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Uruguay recently approved a Chile-financed factory to process 200,000 tons of anchovy into fishmeal (Skewgar <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition to uncontrolled fishing that will reduce populations of key prey species like the southern anchovy, substantial bycatches of several species of dolphins, including Commerson’s, off Patagonia have been documented over the last 15 years. Commerson’s dolphins are particularly susceptible to capture in pelagic trawls or purse seines (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000). Enforcement of fishery regulations in Argentina and other countries in southern South America is reportedly inadequate (E. Crespo pers. comm.).	eng
4160	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Better information on the status of Chilean dolphins is needed. The species may be declining because of bycatch and the consequences of extensive modification of its limited habitat in Chile. Specifically, it is important to obtain abundance estimates, quantitative information on direct and incidental mortality, and better information on habitat use in relation to aquaculture and other human activities that may degrade or eliminate these dolphins’ habitat. The rapid expansion of salmon (and shellfish) farming in southern Chile is a particular concern. It is also important to evaluate possible gaps in the distribution of Chilean dolphins.	eng
4160	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.. & Zhou, K., 2008	This dolphin is found only along the Chilean coast (and possibly in southern Argentina), from about 30°S to Cape Horn, at the southern tip of South America. As is true of other members of the genus, it is found in shallow coastal waters, and sometimes enters estuaries and rivers. It occurs in the channels and fjords of southern Chile, and to a lesser extent along the west coast of Tierra del Fuego, such as in the Strait of Magellan. Its distribution appears to be continuous, although there may be areas of local abundance, such as Golfo de Arauco, the coast off Valdivia and the eastern side of Isla de Grande Chiloé (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
4160	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.. & Zhou, K., 2008	The Chilean dolphin is restricted to cold shallow coastal waters. According to Goodall (1994) it inhabits two distinct areas: (1) the channels from Cape Horn to Isla Grande de Chiloé and (2) open coasts, bays and river mouths north of Isla Chiloé, such as waters near Valdivia and Concepción. It seems to prefer areas with rapid tidal flow, tide rips, and shallow waters over banks at the entrance to fjords. The dolphins readily enter estuaries and rivers. <br/><br/>Most sightings have been near shore and therefore the Chilean dolphin is considered a coastal species, although there has been little survey effort in adjacent offshore waters. Movements appear quite limited, with most dolphins resident in a small area. Individuals identified from natural markings on their dorsal fins have been shown to concentrate their activities in specific bays and channels (Heinrich, 2006; F. Viddi pers. comm., April 2007). Groups tend to be small (between 2 and 15), but relatively large aggregations (20-50) also have been reported (Goodall 1994). Although mixed groups of Chilean and Peale’s dolphins have been observed, a clear pattern of spatial and temporal partitioning of coastal habitat by the two species was documented during a six-year study at Isla Grande de Chiloé (Heinrich 2006). This pattern might not apply in other areas, such as farther south in the Guaitecas Archipelago, where mixed groups are often observed foraging and socializing (F. Viddi pers. comm., April 2007). <br/><br/>Chilean dolphins feed on shallow-water fishes (<em>e.g</em>., sardines, anchovies, rock cod), cephalopods, and crustaceans (Goodall 1994).	eng
4160	population	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.. & Zhou, K., 2008	The only reliable abundance estimate is of 60 dolphins in an area of approx 270 km² off southern Isla Chiloé, Chile (Heinrich 2006). The total population appears to be very small (low thousands at most) although the perceived rarity of these dolphins may be due, to some extent, to the lack of boat traffic and fewness of trained observers in the channels, and to the animals’ shyness and evasive behaviour. Based on information from 20 years ago, it has been suggested that Chilean dolphins are locally abundant in areas such as Bahia Corral off Valdivia, the Golfo de Arauco near Concepción and around Isla Grande de Chiloé . Groups of 20-50 have been seen on the open coast near the northern limit of the species’ range (Goodall 1994). At least some Chilean dolphins near Chiloé reside in the same inshore waters year-round (Goodall 1994; Heinrich 2006).	eng
4160	threats	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.. & Zhou, K., 2008	Chilean dolphins have been hunted for many years for food and crab bait. The crab bait fishery in southern Chile (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994) and a variety of other fisheries (particularly coastal gillnet fisheries) are potentially serious threats. Fishermen in coastal areas north of Isla Chiloé harpoon dolphins or use those taken incidentally in their nets as bait for longlines targeting <em>róbalo</em> (<em>Eleginops maclovinus</em>), individual hooks targeting swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>) and ring nets for crabs (<em>Cancer</em> sp.) (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988). From Isla Grande de Chiloé south, dolphins have been used along with sheep, seals, sea lions, penguins, other marine birds, and fish for bait for the lucrative "centolla" (southern king crab) and "centollon" (false king crab) fishery. It was estimated in the early 1980s that two Chilean dolphins could be taken per week per boat at one cannery in Magellan Strait (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1988), and in 1992 up to 600 dolphins (including the more numerous and approachable Peale’s dolphin) were harpooned per year in the area near the western Strait of Magellan (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Fishing areas since then have moved farther north and south, and alternative sources of bait (such as offal from the fishing and fish farming industries) have become more readily available. The killing of dolphins for bait presumably continues to some extent but unfortunately there is no reliable recent information on this issue. Although hunting is now illegal, fishermen in the area are poor and enforcement of the law in remote areas is difficult.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality occurs throughout the range. Although no estimate exists of total incidental mortality in Chile, at Queule, south of Valdivia, Chilean dolphins accounted for nearly half of the dolphins taken in gill nets set from some 30 boats (Reyes and Oporto 1994). This would imply a catch of some 65-70 Chilean dolphins per year at this one port (Goodall 1994). An unknown number of Chilean dolphins are caught in shore-based gillnets set by local people from Isla Chiloé to capture small native fish and introduced farmed salmon that have escaped from their cages (Heinrich 2006).<br/><br/>Aquaculture farms for salmon and shellfish also may have negative effects on Chilean dolphins, <em>e.g.</em> by restricting their movements and eliminating important habitat along the east coast of Isla Grande de Chiloé. Exclusion of Chilean dolphins from bays and fjords is due mainly to large-scale shellfish farming operations but also to salmon farms, although these latter usually are located farther from shore and in deeper water than that preferred by the dolphins (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2003; Heinrich 2006; Ribeiro <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been shown that boat traffic, mainly related to aquaculture, affects the behaviour of Chilean dolphins (Ribeiro <em>et al</em>. 2005). Finally, there is evidence that Chilean dolphins are sometimes caught incidentally in anti-sea lion nets set up around salmon farms in the fjords and channels (Francisco Viddi pers. comm., April 2007).	eng
4161	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the distribution of the species in Angolan waters in particular, as well as on the nature and extent of directed and incidental catches. More research emphasis should in future also be placed on possible detrimental interactions due to the overfishing of prey stocks, especially hake. Increased inshore fishing pressure will inevitably increase interactions between the fisheries and Heaviside’s dolphins (Peddemors 1999).	eng
4161	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Heaviside’s dolphins have a limited range, restricted to southwestern Africa (Angola to South Africa), with records from about 17°S to the southwestern tip of the continent. They are commonly seen along the west coast of South Africa in the Cape Town region (Rice 1998; Dawson 2002). Records extend along the entire west coast of South Africa and Namibia, and into southern Angola (J-P Roux pers. comm.), but as the cetacean fauna of Angola is poorly known, it is uncertain how far north the species’ distribution extends there (Best and Abernethy 1994).	eng
4161	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	This is a coastal, shallow-water dolphin seen mainly in waters less than 100 m deep (Best and Abernethy 1994). It is generally associated with the cold, northward-flowing Benguela Current. Rice and Saayman (1984) speculated that some subpopulations may be resident in particular areas year-round, although this was questioned by Best and Abernethy (1994). Satellite-linked tagging indicated that in summer female Heaviside’s dolphins occupied home ranges of up to 1,000-2,000 km² over periods of up to 54 days, with a strong onshore-offshore diurnal pattern of movement (Elwen <em>et al</em>., 2006). More than 85% of sightings were in water with surface temperatures of 9-15°C (Best and Abernethy 1994). <br/><br/>The diet of Heaviside’s dolphin consists mainly of juvenile hake (individuals well below the modal length of commercially caught fish) (Sekiguchi <em>et al</em>., 1992). Other demersal fishes, pelagic schooling fishes, and cephalopods (including octopus) are also taken (Best and Abernethy 1994).	eng
4161	population	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	No range-wide survey has been conducted for this species. A published estimate of 800 -1,000 (Carwardine 2002) is not based on a survey and is only a guess. Surveys off the coast of southern Africa yielded approximate densities of 4.69 sightings per 100 nautical miles within 5nm of the coast, with relatively fewer sightings further offshore (Best 1984). Griffin and Loutit (1988) stated that Heaviside’s dolphins were the cetaceans most frequently seen from the Namibian coast.	eng
4161	threats	Reeves, R.R., Crespo, E.A., Dans, S., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Pedraza, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	In general, Heaviside’s dolphins appear to face fewer threats than other members of its genus. Although fully protected legally, some killing with hand-thrown harpoons or guns has been reported (Rice and Saayman 1984; Best and Abernethy 1994). Heaviside’s dolphins are susceptible to entanglement in inshore gear such as beach seines, purse seines, trawls, and gillnets (Best and Abernethy 1994; Peddemors 1999). <br/><br/>Concern has been expressed about the potential effects of pollution and boat traffic (Culik 2004). However, organochlorine levels in a small sample of Heaviside’s dolphins failed to indicate significant exposure to DDT in the coastal waters of South Africa’s west coast, where the scarcity of arable land and low rainfall may help minimize pesticide residue inputs to the marine environment (De Kock <em>et al</em>. 1994). Also, low human population densities and the scarcity of large ports along most of the species’ range probably help reduce the possibility of adverse effects from boat traffic (Best pers. comm.).	eng
4162	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>The entire range is within New Zealand waters, and therefore national conservation measures are discussed here. The New Zealand Government has created two protected areas to promote the conservation of <em>C. hectori</em>, and it is thought that these areas have contributed to reduced mortality in recent years. The Banks Peninsula Marine Mammal Sanctuary was established in 1988 under the Marine Mammals Protection Act to protect Hector’s dolphins. The 1,170 km² sanctuary extends 70 nautical miles alongshore around the Banks Peninsula to the Rakaia River and out to 4 nautical miles offshore (Dawson and Slooten 2005). Its effectiveness has been compromised by the interests of sports and commercial fishermen and by the fact that the dolphins’ offshore distribution extends beyond the protected area (Dawson and Slooten 1993). At Banks Peninsula the dolphins are found further offshore than elsewhere, probably because the bathymetry there slopes more gradually. Up to 65% of the dolphins in the area occur outside the sanctuary boundaries in winter months (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). <br/><br/>The protected area established for Maui’s dolphins stretches for 210 nautical miles along the west coast of the North Island out to 4 nautical miles offshore. Although this area was closed to gillnetting under the Fisheries Act in 2003, gillnetting has continued inside the harbors, and trawling is restricted only within the first nautical mile offshore (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006b). <br/><br/>Discussions between the Ministry of Fisheries and Department of Conservation are currently (early 2008) underway to develop a more comprehensive management plan. A continuing high level of bycatch mortality indicates that stronger protection from entanglement in commercial and recreational fisheries is needed. Protected areas, reduced gillnet fishing effort and changes in fishing methods have been recommended as necessary to ensure the species’ long-term persistence (e.g. Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999, Burkhart and Slooten 2003, Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007). Meetings of stakeholders have concluded that fishery mortality must be reduced to zero to allow the North Island subspecies to recover (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001; Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Several other small subpopulations (100 individuals or fewer) are at a similar risk from entanglement (Burkhart and Slooten 2003; Slooten 2005). Recent surveys (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2004, Slooten 2005, Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a,b) indicate that restricting gillnet fisheries to waters >100 m deep would have a major benefit in terms of reducing bycatch. In waters <100 m deep it would also be advisable to institute observer programs on any trawl fisheries that operate in Hector’s dolphin habitat.	eng
4162	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Hector’s dolphin is endemic to New Zealand, and it has one of the most restricted distributions of any cetacean (Dawson and Slooten 1988; Dawson 2002). They are most common off the South Island and the west coast of the North Island. There are at least three genetically separate populations in the South Island, and a single small North Island population (<em>C. h. maui</em> - Baker <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
4162	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The habits and biology of Hector's dolphin have been well studied in the last couple of decades, and this is undoubtedly the best-known species of the genus (Dawson 2002). It is found in shallow coastal waters, almost always within about 15 km of shore and <100 m deep, strongly concentrated in shallow, turbid waters close to shore in summer months and dispersing more widely in winter (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Photo-identification studies have demonstrated that at least some individuals are resident in small areas (about 30 km of coastline) year-round (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 1993). No two sightings of an individual have been more than 106 km apart (Bräger <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>Hector's dolphins feed on several species of small fish and squid (Dawson 2002). The diet is more varied on the east coast of the South Island (8 species make up 80% of the diet) than on the west coast (only 4 species make up 80%).	eng
4162	population	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA show that North Island Hector's dolphins are genetically distinct from any of the South Island subpopulations, with no overlap of maternal lineages between them (Pichler <em>et al</em>. 1998). Such differences over such a small geographic scale have not been observed in any other genetic studies of marine mammals (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Recent surveys indicate that the South Island Hector’s dolphin populations collectively number about 7,270 individuals (CV = 15.8%) (Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Gormley <em>et al</em>. 2005). The North Island subspecies is estimated to number about 111 (CV = 44%), and that population’s abundance and range appear to have been declining rapidly over the past 30 years (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2006b; Dawson <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
4162	threats	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Hector’s dolphin faces serious pressures from human activities given its limited coastal distribution. The main threat to the species in general is entanglement in gillnets (Dawson 1991; Slooten and Lad 1991; Dawson and Slooten 1993; Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999; Secchi 2006; Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007), with trawl fisheries also causing some mortality. Amateur gillnetting (as opposed to commercial gillnetting) is a significant part of the problem (Dawson and Slooten 2005). Sixty percent of all dead Hector’s dolphins for which cause of death could be determined, had died as a result of gillnet entanglement (DOC and Mfish 2007). Risk analyses for Hector’s and Maui’s dolphins indicate that recent levels of mortality are unsustainable (Slooten and Lad 1991; Martien <em>et al</em>. 1999; Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2000; Burkhart and Slooten 2003; Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007). This conclusion is robust to the uncertainty in abundance, mortality, and vital rates (Slooten <em>et al</em>. 2000; Slooten 2007). The most recent population viability analysis indicates continued population declines (Slooten 2007). Additional threats include pollution, disease, vessel traffic, and habitat modification (Stone and Yoshinaga 2000).	eng
4166	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	<strong></strong>This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>In Hungary important populations of this species live in protected areas and Natura 2000 areas. The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Germany there are several actions and plans (monitoring and management) in place according to the EU Habitats Directive. In Germany this species is listed as Critically Endangered (2009). It is also included in the Red Book of Ukraine. In Italy there are management plans in SIC.<br/><br/>Key actions needed are to retain veteran oaks where they are in open country and to retain dying trees <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span>. In denser stands of oak, opening up to improve sun penetration will favour this species.	eng
4166	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe but increasingly rare or absent in the north and south-western Europe (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Asia Minor and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, but virtually absent in the north-east. It is much more sporadic on the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs where old oaks are present. In the European part of Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987, Canakcıoglu 1993, Lodos 1998) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004, Malmusi and Saltini 2005). In Italy it has been reported from all the administrative regions (except in Aosta Valley) (Sama 2006). In France it has been reported from all the French Mediterranean area; it becomes more scarce and localised in the northern part of the country (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is probably present across all the country, but records are lacking from the centre; there are many recent records from the north and south.<br/><br/>It is absent from Britain and Ireland. There is sub-fossil evidence for its occurrence in Britain up until 3690 +/- 100 BP, from Cambridgeshire fenland bog oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Duffey 1968). More recent records have all been casual importations.	eng
4166	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  This species lives in veteran trees which are currently in decline across Europe; regeneration of these trees is slow and there   may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available for this species.<br/></p><p>It develops in <em>Quercus</em>. The larvae first develop under the bark of stressed living or dying trees, later burrowing deeper in the wood of sick, sun-exposed stems. The life cycle is at least three years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults winter in the pupal cell and emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host plants - it is predominantly a nocturnal and crepuscular species. In France trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Castanea</span>) with traces of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cerdo</span> usually have a diameter greater than 40 cm and are sun exposed. The species is below the altitude of 900 m. In Romania it has been reported from all type of oaks. In the south, it has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris, Quercus pubescens, Quercus pedunculiflora</span>, and in the north, it has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus robur, Quercus petraea</span>. Adults became active from mid May, until August in mountains. During the day they are hidden inside holes, under bark, and during the evening they become active. In the European part of Turkey larvae are said to develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Acer, Carpinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Cupressus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Platanus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Prunus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>,<strong style="font-weight: normal;"> <em>Quercus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Ulmus</em></strong>. Adults are active in VI-VII and the life cycle is three or four years (Canakcıoglu 1993).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species lives in thermophilous oak woods (mainly in turkey oak woods) in the hills and the lower mountain areas. Important populations occur in wood pastures and parklands where huge, old, solitary pedunculate oaks occur.&#160; <br/></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
4166	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	Has suffered a dramatic decline in the number of populations and in population sizes across central Europe over the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Buse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common. <br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. However, viable populations still occur in older stands of oak and in a few wood pastures. In Romania it is well preserved in some protected areas from the south, south-west and south-east where old oak forests exist; in the Carpathians can be found in traditional pastures with old oaks and large deciduous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is distributed throughout all German States, but the population has heavily declined and the species is almost Extinct. In France it seems to have disappeared from landscapes that have suffered massive changes in land use (suppression of hedges); it is more common in the south also in villages and city parks (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is localized but common and it also is common in Spain. In Sweden it is rare. In the Czech Republic it is&#160; rather common in the south-east and there has been a strong population decline in the western part of the country. In Slovakia there are many sites in the south and east.<br/><br/>In Portugal there is no information about the populations and the abundance of recent records is probably related to a higher sampling effort in the last two decades   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is considered a pest. <br/><br/>In the UK it was definitely present during Holocene (sub-fossil evidence) but no reliable evidence for breeding in the historic period; occasional imports with timber; single sighting in New Forest in 1966 and yet no other records from this well-recorded area.<br/><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
4166	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Felling of sick or dying trees - especially in the favoured, open sunny situations, where they are more vulnerable to this treatment and where more visible to people - is a threat to this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is threatened by habitat loss because of the forest management (removal of old trees) in the hills and mountains. Lowland and wood pasture populations are threatened by abandonment of the grazing activity and reforestation (the old stems are no longer exposed to the sun) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Romania removal of the occupied oaks from pastures and forests is an issue; also local people use these for firewood (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <br/><br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
4177	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
4177	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is known only from Socotra island. During the intensive limnological sampling surveys (Lab Ecology, Ghent University, Belgium) that went on from 1997 till 2004 on Socotra the species was not found. It is now probably extinct.	eng
4177	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is known from a pool on Socotra.	eng
4177	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
4177	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
4185	conservation	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	Effective field protection of rhino populations has been critical. Many remaining rhino are now concentrated in fenced sanctuaries, conservancies, rhino conservation areas and intensive protection zones where law enforcement effort can be concentrated at effective levels. Monitoring has also provided information to guide biological management decision-making aimed at managing rhino populations for rapid population growth. This has resulted in surplus animals being translocated to set up new populations both within and outside the species’ former ranger. Increasing efforts are also being made to integrate local communities into conservation efforts. Strategically, White Rhinos are now managed by a range of different stakeholders (private sector and state) in a number of countries increasing their long-term security. In Southern Africa live sale of White Rhinos on auction (and limited sport hunting of surplus males) has also created incentives for private sector conservation and generated much needed funds which can help pay the high cost of successfully monitoring, protecting and managing rhino. Over 4,000 White Rhino across Africa are now managed by the private sector (Emslie 2006). <br/><br/>In 1984, the Garamba National Park Project began with rhino conservation as its central focus. The increased protection afforded by anti -poaching efforts in Garamba allowed the population of Northern White Rhino to double from 15 in 1984 to 30 by 1991. The very critical status of the subspecies, following the upsurge in poaching in 2003, resulted in the development of an emergency strategy aimed at providing increased support for the Park and translocating a founder group of five rhinos to a more secure site. An international delegation led by the IUCN SSC AfRSG held very high-level discussions with Government officials of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Kinshasa in January 2005, but despite initial support from the President’s Office, later complications prevented the signing of the protocol. Subsequently, African Parks Foundation was contracted by the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN) to manage Garamba National Park for five years. Replicated aerial total counts were undertaken in March 2006 with a further aerial total count backed up by some ground survey work in 2007 (Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2006; Reid 2007). These surveys and follow-up work on the ground have confirmed the presence of the four rhino and provided evidence of a significant improvement in security in the Park. However, the situation regionally remains volatile and the Park still faces a significant threat from surrounding areas. <br/><br/>A strategic planning workshop was held in September 2007 in Kinshasa to determine the best approach for securing the future of the Nothern White hino. While a decision by the Democratic Republic of Congo on the implementation of a survival strategy for the last remaining Northern White hinos in Garamba National Park is still awaited following from this workshop, results from recent surveys have proved very disappointing. While spoor was seen in a number of locations and only one direct sighting observed in 2007, the most recent surveys undertaken by the Congolese wildlife authority and African Parks Network with support from FFI and US Fish and Wildlife have failed to confirm their continued presence. Further intensive efforts are planned for the second half of 2008, combining extensive foot surveys, aerial recces, community intelligence, and international expert trackers to thoroughly search potential rhino range, including the adjacent Domaines de Chasse. Hopefully, the animals will be located during these more extensive surveys, but should they not be, then the future of the subspecies will indeed be bleak as it may depend on the up to four potential breeders held in Dvur Kralove in Czech Republic.<br/><br/>By 1977, all African rhino species were listed on CITES Appendix I, and all international commercial trade in rhinos and their products was prohibited. However, following a continued increase in numbers, the South African population of Southern White Rhino was downlisted in 1994 to Appendix II, but only for trade in live animals to “approved and acceptable destinations” and for the (continued) export of hunting trophies. In 2004, Swaziland’s Southern White Rhino were also downlisted to CITES Appendix II, but only for live export and for limited export of hunting trophies according to specified annual quotas. To help reduce illegal trade, and complement CITES international trade bans, domestic anti-trade measures and legislation were implemented in the 1990s by a number of the major consumer states and law enforcement effort has been stepped up in many consumer countries. In addition to  local, national, international and continental initiatives, there are a number of regional African rhino conservation initiatives: the South African Development Community (SADC) Regional Programme for Rhino Conservation and the Southern African Rhino and Elephant Security Group. IUCN SSC’s African Rhino Specialist Group is the continental coordinating body for rhino conservation in Africa.	eng
4185	distribution	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	Two subspecies of White Rhinoceros are recognized, the northern and the southern, each having a strikingly discontinuous range. The Northern White Rhino used to range over parts of north-western Uganda, southern Chad, south-western Sudan, the eastern part of Central African Republic, and north-eastern DR Congo (Sydney 1965). The only confirmed population today occurs in the Garamba National Park in north-eastern DR Congo. There have been unconfirmed reports of rhino in southern Sudan, and surveys are planned.<br/><br/>The Southern White Rhino is now the most numerous of the rhino taxa, with South Africa remaining the stronghold for this subspecies, with sizeable populations in the Kruger N.P. and Hluhluwe-Imfolozi, but also occurring in numerous state protected areas and private reserves (some of which are also well protected) throughout the country. There are smaller reintroduced populations within the historical range of the species in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Swaziland, while a small population survives in Mozambique. Populations have also been introduced outside of the former range of the species to Kenya, Uganda (meaning that the species as a whole has been reintroduced to this country) and to Zambia (Emslie and Brooks 1999; Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Note: At the request of certain members, the AfRSG has a policy of not releasing detailed information on the wherabouts of all rhino populations for security reasons. For this reason, only whole countries are shaded on the map.	eng
4185	habitat	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	The species is found in grassland in bushveld savanna habitats.	eng
4185	population	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	As of 31 December 2007, there were an estimated 17,480 White Rhino in the wild (see Table 1). As of Dec 2005 there were an estimated  760 in captivityworldwide (750 <em>C. s. simum</em> and 9 <em>C. s. cottoni</em>). The majority (98.8%) of White Rhino occur in just four countries (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya) (AfRSG data 2008).<br/><br/>Once widespread in the bushveld areas of southern Africa south of the Zambezi river, the Southern White Rhino was on the brink of extinction by the end of the 19th century having been reduced to just one small population of approximately 20+ animals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. However, by 2007, after years of protection and many translocations, the subspecies has grown to 17,480 wild animals. South Africa remains the stronghold for this subspecies (93.0%) conserving 16,255 individuals in 2007. Smaller reintroduced populations occur within former range states in Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe; populations of free-ranging Southern White Rhino have also been established outside their historical range in Kenya, Zambia (Emslie and Brooks 1999) and more recently Uganda. The 3,398 White Rhinos located on private property in South Africa iin 2004 was up from the 2,842 in 2002 with the number of private landowners also increasing from 180 in1999 up to 318 in 2004 (Knight 2006). Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya are the only other countries with over 300 wild Southern White Rhino, and together they conserve 82.5% of the subspecies outside of South Africa. Côte d'Ivoire is not considered part of the White Rhino's range, since the population here is considered to be out of range and "semi-captive" (Emslie and Brooks, in litt).<br/><br/>Northern White Rhino (<em>C. s. cottoni</em>) numbers have declined rapidly from 30 in April 2003 due to an upsurge in poaching in the only confirmed surviving wild population in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and surveys in 2006 confirmed the presence of only four rhinos (Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2007). Numbers are believed to have stood at around 2,360 in 1960 (Emslie and Brooks 1999).	eng
4185	threats	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	One of the main threats to the population is illegal hunting (poaching) for the international rhino horn trade. Rhino horn has two main uses: traditional use in Chinese medicine, and ornamental use (for example, rhino horn is a highly prized material for making ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers (jambiyas) worn in some Middle East countries). At the continental species level, poaching at present is not having a serious impact on overall numbers of White Rhinos in Africa, with poaching losses in parts of the range being surpassed by encouraging growth rates in others. From detected and reported figures, the annual average poaching incidents during 2003 to 2005 represented just 0.2 % of the total number of White Rhinos at the end of 2005 (Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Poaching and civil wars in both DR Congo and neighbouring Sudan have had a devastating impact on Northern White Rhino. Whilst poaching pressure initially increased during civil unrest and war in the late 1990s, good reproduction enabled the population to remain relatively stable. However, since 2003, poaching escalated and the population declined rapidly with 11 carcasses found in a three-month period between March and May 2004. Confirmed numbers of Northern White Rhino fell from 30 individuals in April 2003 to just four in August 2005, presenting serious doubts over the longer-term viability of this subspecies (Emslie <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
4192	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The species is present in several protected areas. Within Australia, there is a need to monitor the distribution and abundance of the species, and to undertake studies of ecology and habitat requirements (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed, particularly to elucidate the taxonomic status of the New Guinea forms.	eng
4192	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is present in the highlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and in the lowland and upland rainforests between Paluma Range and Cooktown, Queensland, Australia (Flannery 1995; Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It ranges from medium elevations to 3,450 m asl (New Guinea) and from sea level to 1,600 m in Australia.	eng
4192	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal and mostly arboreal species (though with some terrestrial activity). In New Guinea, the species is found in montane and mid-montane primary and secondary tropical moist forests, especially where there are tree ferns. It also occurs in areas of subalpine shrubland. In Australia, it is known from rainforest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species breeds twice a year in Australia, with the female typically giving birth to between one and four young (Haffenden and Atherton 2008).	eng
4192	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is generally a common species within suitable habitat in New Guinea, although it appears to be uncommon in the Australian part of the range.	eng
4192	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species in Australia or New Guinea. Cats could be a threat to the species in some parts of the range.	eng
4200	conservation	Butynski, T.M., Struhsaker, T., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The Tana River Primate National Reserve (TRPN) holds about 56% of the mangabey groups. Of the 48% of mangabey groups outside of TRPN 10% of the groups live in forests under the management of the Tana Delta Irrigation Project while the remainder are on Trust/Government land.<br/><br/>A priority action is the re-establishment of the Mchelelo Research Station in the Tana River Primate National Reserve.	eng
4200	distribution	Butynski, T.M., Struhsaker, T., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is restricted to 27 patches of gallery forests along the lower part of the River Tana in Kenya from 20-40 m asl. It has an extent of occurrence of 60 km along the riverside, from Nkanjonja to Hewani. The area of occupancy is considerably smaller (Butynski and Mwangi 1994). Broadly sympatric with <em>Procolobus rufomitratus rufomitratus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus</em>; narrowly sympatric on the forest edges with <em>Papio cynocephalus ibeanus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
4200	habitat	Butynski, T.M., Struhsaker, T., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Wahungu <em>et al.</em> (2005) found that the abundance of the mangabey was highly correlated with the spatial characteristics of the forests. This species is restricted to riverine gallery forests and adjacent patches of bush (the 1974 census found animals in 27 of the forest patches (50%)). It is a semi-terrestrial species that may be found in groups of 13 to 36 individuals, sometimes combining to form aggregations of 50 to 60 animals. In 1974, 86 groups were recorded (Butynski and Mwangi 1994).	eng
4200	population	Butynski, T.M., Struhsaker, T., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is common within its small range. In 1994, the global population was estimated to number 1,000 to 1,200 individuals. The population appears to be somewhat below the 1975 estimate of 1,200 to 1,600 individuals. The population has declined by roughly 10-30% since 1975 (Butynski and Mwangi 1994).	eng
4200	threats	Butynski, T.M., Struhsaker, T., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation for agricultural land and timber, burning of adjacent grasslands preventing forest regeneration, overgrazing of forest understory by livestock, and changes to the flow of the Tana River and water table by damming and irrigation projects. Wahungu <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimates 35% of forests within the colobus’ geographical range was lost between 1979 and 2000. Animals may be persecuted for crop-raiding. There is no evidence of hunting for meat. There is a proposal to plant oil palm plantations, but it is not clear where as yet. The proposed Tana Integrated Sugar Project in Tana River and Lamu Districts threatens more than 200 km² of semi-natural habitat in the area.	eng
4201	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/>This species is present in a number of protected areas including: Okomu National Park, Cross River National Park (Nigeria); Douala-Edea Reserve, Campo-Ma'an National Park, Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, Dja Reserve and Korup National Park (Cameroon); Sette Cama Forest Reserve and Mayumba, Loango, Moukalaba-Doudou, and Pongara National Parks (Gabon); Conkouati-Douli National Park (Congo); and Monte Allen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
4201	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species ranges in coastal forests from western Nigeria into southern Cameroon, and throughout Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and Gabon (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the Gabon-Congo border on the Atlantic shore (Maisles <em>et al</em>. 2007). Its southern limit is south of the Ogooue River in Gabon. There have been unconfirmed reports of its occurrence into Benin, and if it ever did occur it may now be extirpated (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is absent from Bioko Island.	eng
4201	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is primarily found in high forest, but it also occurs in mangrove, gallery and swamp forest (Maisles <em>et al.</em> 2007). It can also be found in young secondary forests and around cultivated areas. Group size has been reported to be between 14 and 23 animals (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
4201	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Although seemingly widespread, and sometimes locally abundant in scattered localities, the species now appears to be absent in areas with even low to medium hunting pressure (Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007). It was already considered to be uncommon in Nigeria in 1982, and J. Oates (in Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007) suggested that they may be naturally less common<br/>in Cameroon and Nigeria because of competition with drills <em>Mandrillus leucophaeus</em>. However, in other areas large troops of both mandrills <em>Mandrillus sphinx</em> (which are in a similar niche to drills) and of White-collared mangabeys have been recorded living sympatrically.	eng
4201	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for meat throughout most of its range. In places it is considered to be an agricultural pest.	eng
4203	conservation	Ehardt, C., Butynski, T.M. & Struhsaker, T., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/>It is present in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve, Tanzania (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005; Ehardt and Butynski 2006). Efforts to expand the National Park boundaries to improve the level of protection in the Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve have been unsuccessful. Demographic surveys are needed. There is a need to enforce laws prohibiting hunting in forest reserves, and to increase prevention of habitat alteration.	eng
4203	distribution	Ehardt, C., Butynski, T.M. & Struhsaker, T., 2008	This species is known from the region of Mwanihana Forest and Udzwunga Scarp Forest Reserve, on the eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. It ranges from 400-1,300 m asl.	eng
4203	habitat	Ehardt, C., Butynski, T.M. & Struhsaker, T., 2008	This species is often found in the lower understory of submontane and montane forest, and spends ~50% of its time foraging on the forest floor (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ehardt and Butynski 2006). It frequently moves through and utilizes disturbed areas and mosaic habitat (Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Diet is strongly concentrated on fruit, nuts and seeds, as well as herbaceous material (Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mean group sizes range from 15 to >40 animals (Wasser 1993; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
4203	population	Ehardt, C., Butynski, T.M. & Struhsaker, T., 2008	The population was originally estimated to be between 1,800 and 3,000 animals (Homewood and Rodgers 1981; Rodgers and Homewood 1982; Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001). Current population estimate likely does not exceed 1,300 individuals (Ehardt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Split into two distinct subpopulations: the largest subpopulation (ca. 60%) occurs within the recently established Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and the remaining ca. 40% in Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Ehardt 2001; Ehardt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Until recently, a third subpopulation was believed to exist in Ndundulu Forest Reserve, but surveys in 2004 confirm that the earlier reports by ornithologists (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001) were based on  misidentification of the primates present in this Forest Reserve (Ehardt and Butynski 2006).	eng
4203	threats	Ehardt, C., Butynski, T.M. & Struhsaker, T., 2008	It is threatened by continuing deforestation for timber and charcoal production. It is also threatened by hunting, including with dogs.	eng
4205	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. European Union listed in Appendix I.<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies occurs in a number of protected areas including Tai National Park and Sapo National Park. <em>C. a. lunulatus</em> occurs in Comoe National Park but it is threatened by civil conflict and hunting; it has also been recorded from Ankasa Resource Reserve, Dadieso Forest Reserve and Yoyo Forest Reserves in Ghana, and Marahoué National Park, Dassioko Forest Reserve and Niegre Forest Reserve in Côte d’Ivoire. Many of these protected areas should be elevated to national park status. <br/><br/>There are captive-breeding programmes for this species in European zoos.	eng
4205	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is restricted to the Upper Guinea area. It is known from coastal Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, and is widespread in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,000 m asl and possibly higher in the Lome Moutains in Sierra Leone. There are two subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. atys</em> ranges in Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire to the Nzo-Sassandra system.<br/><br/><em>C. a. lunulatus</em> ranges through the eastern part of the range from the Nzo-Sassandra system to the Volta River. It has recently been recorded from Burkina Faso (Galat and Galat-Luong 2006).	eng
4205	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forests, gallery forest, swamp forest including mangrove and mosaic habitats in the Guinean Forest Zone. This species is largely terrestrial but will also use the forest canopy. In Guinea it is known from woodland savanna. This species is known to raid farms. They are tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation in the absence of hunting.	eng
4205	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	There have been very few recent surveys for <em>C. a. atys</em> in Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, but it is not thought to be common. In the absence of hunting, this species used to be relatively widespread in farm/bush and secondary forest in Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><em>C. a. lunlulatus</em> has a more restricted range, patchy distribution and is not known to be abundant anywhere.	eng
4205	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by habitat loss caused by deforestation for timber and firewood. The species is locally hunted for meat, and this is an increasingly important threat with ongoing forest fragmentation. Although they are tolerant of a wide range of habitats, hunting of this species for meat and persecution from crop raiding are major threats. However, in the muslim populations in the northern and western parts of its range, hunting is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
4207	conservation	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. There are no confirmed records from Salonga National Park, although it has been recorded from near the south-west boundary and probably does occur (see Ehardt in press). Further studies into the limits of distribution, abundance, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
4207	distribution	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is found south of the Congo River, in the central Congo Basin, where currently believed to be endemic to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The precise northern, southern and eastern range limits are not fully known, but based on current records the western limit is the Congo River, the northern limit could be the Lulonga River, and the eastern limit the Lomami River (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ehardt in press). Found up to 500 m asl.	eng
4207	habitat	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species occurs in seasonally inundated lowland and upland rain forest and may occur in gallery forest (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999); sometimes also recorded in secondary forest, and are apparently an agricultural pest in some areas. Diurnal species in which group size probably averages about 15 animals (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999), although J. Eriksson (in Ehardt in press) estimated group size at often more than 100 animals.	eng
4207	population	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This is a poorly known species, and there is a paucity of information available on its population status. It appears to be very patchily distributed across its range, and there are very few records.	eng
4207	threats	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Major threats to this species include hunting (both for meat and the pet trade); they may also be at risk from localized habitat loss.	eng
4212	conservation	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
4212	distribution	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is found from the south and east of the Congo-Oubangui River system in central Africa, through Uganda to the Rift Valley in Kenya and western Tanzania; it ranges as far south as northern Angola to north-western Zambia Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Butynski 2002). It is known to occur up to 2,000 m. <br/><br/>There are five recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. ascanius</em> is present in Angola and south-western Democratic Republic of the Congo, south of the Congo and Kasai Rivers, generally below 500 m asl. North of this, some animals between the Kasai and Lukenie rivers may be attributable to this form (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>C. a. atrinasus</em> is restricted to the vicinity of the type locality of Zovo, Angola on the Lunda Plateau at about 850 m asl. Although the type locality is near DR Congo, this subspecies has never been recorded from this country (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The southern subspecies <em>C. a. katangae</em> is present mainly in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, between the Kasai and Lualaba Rivers at 500-1,300 m asl (see Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001 for details). It is also reported in north-western Mwinilunga District (Ansell 1978). <br/><br/><em>C. a. whitesidei</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo where it ranges mostly south and east of the Congo River and west of the Lomami. The Lukenie marks the southern boundary, although monkeys that are similar to this taxon are known from south of the river (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The eastern subspecies <em>C. a. schmidti</em> has the widest distribution of the five subspecies and occurs from east of the Lualaba River, Democratic Republic of Congo, into Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and Kenya, and also occurs north of the Congo River where it is found north of Bangui, Central African Republic to southern Sudan in the east (see Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001). It ranges between 400 and 2,500 m asl, mainly at elevations about 1,300 m in the eastern part of its range (Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Transitional forms are said to occur between <em>whitesidei</em> and <em>katangae</em>, <em>katangae</em> and <em>ascanius</em>, and <em>katangae</em> and <em>atrinasus</em>. There is a wide transitional zone between <em>ascanius</em> and <em>atrinasus</em> (Lernoud 1988; Sarmiento <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
4212	habitat	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is found in lowland, submontane, and montane tropical moist forests, swamp forest, riverine and gallery forest, and forest mosaic. It can occur in secondary or regenerating forests. Animals generally live in small family groups (~25 individuals) (Butynski 2002).	eng
4212	population	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	It is presumably a common species in some areas.	eng
4212	threats	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is likely that some populations are locally threatened by severe habitat loss or hunting.	eng
4213	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is known to occur in most of the protected areas within its geographic range.	eng
4213	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species ranges from The Gambia and Senegal, just north of the Casamance River, through West Africa to the River Volta.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. c. campbelli</em> ranges from The Gambia in the west to the River Cavally, on the Liberia-Côte d'Ivoire border, while <em>C. c. lowei</em>  is found from the River Cavally (Côte d'Ivoire) in the west to the River Volta, Ghana in the east. The former subspecies is also known from the island of Caravela in the Bijagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau (Gippoliti and Dell'Omo 2003).	eng
4213	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of tropical forests including lowland forest, gallery forest, mangroves, and woody savanna. Both subspecies occur in secondary forest and subsistence agriculture and farmbush.	eng
4213	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is widespread and common in some areas.	eng
4213	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species has been impacted by habitat loss through deforestation, and bushmeat. However, it often thrives in disturbed habitats, and remains common in many parts of its range.	eng
4214	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This widespread species is present in a number of protected areas in Gabon (including most of the newly establish national parks) and in southern Cameroon.<br/><br/>The recently described subspecies <em>ngottoensis</em> is present in the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue park in CAR, but is absent from the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park and the contiguous Nouabale-Ndoki National Park, Congo, and apparently does not occur in any other protected area in the region (Brugiere <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
4214	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species ranges from the Sanaga River in Cameroon south and east to the Congo River, and just south of the lower Congo in the north-western corner of Angola. Its range extends east of the River Sangha (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Colyn 1999; Butynski 2002). <br/><br/>Three subspecies are recognized. The subspecies <em>C. c. cephus</em> ranges over much of the species' range, the exception being the region of coastal Gabon and Congo bounded by the Ogooué and Kouilou-Niari Rivers, which is the area inhabited by the subspecies <em>C. c. cephodes</em>. A third subspecies <em>C. c. ngottoensis</em> is present in the Central African Republic, where it is known from the Kadei-Mambéré region east to the Oubangui, occurring as far north as Bangui, and in northern Congo.	eng
4214	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This aboreal and diurnal species is largely associated with lowland tropical rainforest; however, animals may also be found in secondary habitat types (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). Primarily a frugivorous species, it also consumes seeds, leaves, arthropods, eggs, and fledglings. Group sizes range from 4 to 35 individuals (Butynski 2002).	eng
4214	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	It is common and widespread in parts of its range.	eng
4214	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species has been impacted by habitat loss through deforestation, and presumably hunting for meat. However, it can thrive secondary habitat, and seems to remain common in some parts of its range.	eng
4215	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. They Roloway Monkey has previously been recorded from a number of protected areas across the region. However, very recent surveys failed to confirm the presence of Roloways in four reserves in western Ghana including one — Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve — believed to harbor the monkey only several years earlier. It is possible that Ankasa Resource Reserve still contains a few Roloway individuals; a thorough survey of Ankasa, and of the Dadieso Forest Reserve (where the monkey was also reported in the recent past) should be a high priority (McGraw and Oates 2007). In neighboring Côte d’Ivoire, the Roloway guenon is not known from any protected areas. Surveys formerly documented them in two forests, namely the Yaya Forest Reserve and wet forest adjacent to the Ehy Lagoon (McGraw and Oates 2007). However, field surveys made in 2004 failed to document them at additional sites in southern Côte d’Ivoire, although hunters indicate that Roloways are present in small numbers in the Parc National des Iles Ehotilé (Kone and Akpatou 2005). Further investigations are needed in the forest zone along the Togo-Ghana border to confirm or refute the presence of Roloway Monkeys in Togo (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The nominate subspecies is better off than its conspecific, and occurs on Mt. Nimba, part of which is a designated World Heritage Site. To protect this primate there is a need to protect large areas of mature forest from logging and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
4215	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is found in the forests of Upper Guinea in West Africa, ranging from coastal south-eastern Guinea to Sierra Leone, Liberia, southern Côte d'Ivoire, and southwestern Ghana. There range may extend to Burkina Faso. There are also historical museum records and some reports of this species in Togo to the east of Lake Volta (see Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008 for summary). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>C. d. diana</em> ranges from coastal south-eastern Guinea to the River Sassandra in Côte d'Ivoire; <em>C. d. roloway</em> is found from the River Sassandra in the east to the River Pra in Ghana.	eng
4215	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This largely arboreal species occurs in the canopy of primary and old secondary lowland moist forest, and riverine and gallery forest. It is rare in degraded forest, but it appears that it can survive in lightly logged forest where the canopy remains	eng
4215	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It appears to be a rare and declining species throughout the majority of its range, with <em>C. d. roloway</em> much rarer than <em>C. d. diana</em> in the west. In Ghana, Roloway Guenons have been steadily extirpated from both unprotected and protected areas (for example, Bia National Park) and the monkey is nearing extinction in that country if it has not disappeared already (McGraw and Oates 2007).	eng
4215	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is generally threatened by hunting and habitat degradation and loss. The relatively large size of this species and the value of its meat and skin makes it a preferred game species. Large-scale deforestation in the region, through logging, conversion to agricultural land and charcoal production, continues to reduce the habitat available to this species (McGraw 1998; McGraw and Oates 2007).	eng
4216	conservation	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hurley, M., 2008	This species is currently known only from the community-managed Kokolopori reserve in north-eastern DR Congo. Effective management of this reserve will be key to the survival of this species. Further surveys are urgently needed to assess the distribution and population status of this species. No individuals are held in captivity.<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
4216	distribution	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hurley, M., 2008	This species is known only from a few locations in the Lomela and Wamba regions of the Congo Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species has also been recorded at Kokolopori where four wild populations have been indentified in secondary forests within the Kokolopori Reserve of approximately 500 km² (these populations are extremely fragmented and isolated). The estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km² within the proposed Kokolopori Reserve, between the Luo and Lopori Rivers (which may serve as geographic barriers) (M. Hurley pers. comm.). Ranges to about 380 m asl.	eng
4216	habitat	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hurley, M., 2008	This is a largely terrestrial species that occurs in thickets in dense secondary lowland moist forest, and perhaps also in swamp forest (Kuroda <em>et al.</em> 1985); primary forest seems to be avoided. They forage mainly in the lower stratum of secondary forest but also frequently on the ground. The home ranges for the four populations in Kokolopori vary between 2.8 and 7.0 ha and the troops seem to be squeezed between expanding agricultural degradation of their secondary forest homes and primary forests (M. Hurley in press). Troop size ranges from 2 to 15 individuals (Kuroda <em>et al</em>. 1985), but sometimes the species can be observed in troops of about 30 monkeys (M. Hurley pers. comm.); they also have been recorded forming mixed groups with other guenons (Kuroda <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
4216	population	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hurley, M., 2008	With the exception of the recent observations from Kokolopori, this species has not been sighted in recent surveys undertaken in its known range (J.A. Hart pers. comm.; M. Hurley pers. comm.). Although there is no reliable information on its population status, estimates indicate that there could be fewer than 200 individuals left in the wild (M. Hurley pers. comm.).	eng
4216	threats	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hurley, M., 2008	The main threats to this species are hunting and habitat loss to agriculture.	eng
4217	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class A of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. In Nigeria it is present Okomu National Park and in a number of forest reserves (e.g., Udo, Omo, Oluwa, and Ifon Forest Reserves). Strict protection of remaining forest habitat and hunting restrictions are needed. It is present in sacred groves in Benin but is not strictly protected.	eng
4217	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species occurs in scattered populations in isolated forest patches within south-western Nigeria (both west and east of the Niger River within the delta region) and southern Bénin (perhaps as far as Banon at 8°29' N) (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008) with a western limit up to the Kouffo River. Campbell <em>et al</em>. (2008) tentatively suggested its presence in the Dahomey Gap in the Togodo Forest in Togo, and subsequent survey work has confirmed this record (G. Nobime <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. e. erythrogaster</em> ranges from southern Benin, including the Forêt Classé de Lama (see Sinsin <em>et al</em>. 2002 for review), and <em>C. e. pococki</em> is known from Nigeria.	eng
4217	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is found in primary, secondary and riverine lowland moist forest. The average group size is five animals although groups of up to 30 have been observed.	eng
4217	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	It has a scattered distribution and is generally rare, but can be locally abundant (e.g., around Okomu National Park in Nigeria which was originally established for this species and where they are now flourishing).	eng
4217	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Bearder, S., 2008	The forest habitat in the range of this species has been heavily degraded and exploited. The remaining patches of forest are threatened in particular by timber extraction and conversion to agricultural land. In the Niger Delta, forest degradation is mainly through large-scale artisanal felling of commercial trees, but not widespread conversion to farmland, with the result that potential suitable habitat remains. This species is also hunted for meat.	eng
4218	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is protected by national legislation in Cameroon and Nigeria. This species is present in several protected areas including Cross-River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park and several forest reserves (Cameroon), and Pico Basile and Southern Island Scientific Reserve (Bioko, Equatorial Guinea).	eng
4218	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species has a restricted range from the Cross River in south-eastern Nigeria to just south of the Sanaga River in Cameroon. It is also present on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea up to 1,000 m asl. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the nominate subspecies <em>C. e. erythrotis</em> is endemic to Bioko; <em>C. e. camerunensis</em> is present on the African mainland in Nigeria and Cameroon.	eng
4218	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary lowland tropical and sub-montane moist forest, and sometimes lives in close proximity to humans (as on Bioko). Group size ranges from four to 30 animals.	eng
4218	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is a secretive, shy animal and therefore hard to detect, but is thought to persist over a large area of much of its historic range. This is the most common primate on Bioko, and is estimated to number more than 20,000 individuals, a documented decline from the more than 30,000 estimated in 1986 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
4218	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation through timber extraction and conversion of forest to agricultural land. It is also hunted for meat throughout its range, particularly on Bioko, where commonly found in the Malabo bushmeat market.	eng
4219	conservation	Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Okapi Wildlife Reserve, Maiko National Park, and Virunga National Parks in DRC, and in Nyungwe Forest Reserve in Rwanda. Presence in Itombwe Massif is not yet confirmed. Additional research on population numbers and range is required, and this species would benefit from control of bushmeat trade.	eng
4219	distribution	Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species ranges from the the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is found in lowlands from the Congo/Lualaba River to the Ituri Forest and into the Albertine Rift and Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda. It occurs north to the Lindi-Nepoko river system and south to the southern tropical moist forest limit, where its range limit is poorly defined. Although it is generally a lowland species, it also occurs in the mountains of Albertine Rift, where many records come from the bamboo zone. The easternmost highland populations of <em>C. hamlyni</em> are now isolated in fragmented habitat islands and some have been extirpated (e.g., Gishwati, Rwanda, the Virunga Volcanos, and forest islands between Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Massisi). The species occurs above 3,000 m in both Tshiberimu and Kahuzi, so it seems safe to assume that 3,200 m is the upper elevation limit.	eng
4219	habitat	Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	A predominantly terrestrial species found in lowland and mid-montane tropical moist forest and montane bamboo forest. Mean group size in Kahuzi-Biega lowlands and the Ituri forest is 2-3 (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2006; J. Hart, unpubl.).	eng
4219	population	Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Widespread, and apparently most common in the lowlands of Kahuzi-Biega National Park (densities of 5-7 individuals per km²; Hall <em>et al.</em> 2006). Most extant populations in montane sites are small. A cryptic and quiet species, which is difficult to census.	eng
4219	threats	Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation in the montane areas (due to shifting agriculture). In addition, it is intensely hunted in some areas, particularly in lowland areas where snaring is common.	eng
4220	conservation	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hall, J., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is protected by national legislation in Burundi (where it is not yet confirmed as occurring), Rwanda and Uganda. It has been recorded in a number of well-protected sites (see Distribution). This species, like <em>C. hamlyni</em>, would benefit from control of bushmeat hunting.	eng
4220	distribution	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hall, J., 2008	This species ranges from the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, east of the Lualaba River through the Ituri Forest, Rwanda and western Uganda (south-west Kigezi District and the Ruwenzori Mountains), and south to the Itombwe Massif. The southern limits are poorly defined. Isolated populations occur east of the main block of the range, and include Kibale Forest National Park, Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Ruwenzori Mountains National Park, Maramagambo Forest Reserve and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), Nyungwe National Park (Rwanda), and Virunga and Kahuzi-Biega National Park uplands (DRC). Presence in Burundi not yet confirmed (they may occur in Kabira Forest). Recently also recorded from Kahuzi-Biega lowlands (DR Congo) (J. Hall pers. comm.). This species is strongly sympatric with <em>C. hamlyni</em>, especially west of the Albertine Rift. It is found up to 2,900 m asl.	eng
4220	habitat	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hall, J., 2008	A terrestrial species that occurs in lowland, submontane and montane forests. In some areas, it enters cultivated land to raid crops. This species is found in small groups of on average 10 to 17 animals, although larger bands have been observed. This species is among the most important primate prey in the diet of leopards <em>Panthera pardus</em> in the Ituri Forest (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
4220	population	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hall, J., 2008	Widespread within the lowland block, but only locally common in some areas (e.g., the Epulu area in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve). It is also common in some of the eastern fragments (e.g., Nyungwe and Bwindi, the Rumangabo area of the Virunga NP in DRC).	eng
4220	threats	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Hall, J., 2008	Deforestation is taking place on the eastern edge of the main block of the species' range, primarily as a result of agricultural expansion. It is hunted for meat in parts of its range, and is particularly vulnerable to both snaring and shotgun hunting.	eng
4221	conservation	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M., Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H., Lehn, C. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in many protected areas across its range. There is an urgent need to assess the current status of <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> and <em>C. m. schoutedeni</em>.	eng
4221	distribution	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M., Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H., Lehn, C. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This widespread African species ranges from Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo eastwards to the Indian Ocean coastline and Zanzibar Island (Tanzania); in the eastern part of its range it is found from Ethiopia in the north to eastern South Africa in the south (Colyn and Verheyen 1987; Lawes 1990; Colyn 1991; Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Butynski 2002a, b). It is found from sea level up to 3,800 m asl (Rwenzori Mountains).<br/><br/>There are 17 subspecies: <br/><br/>1). <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>. In Kenya, present in Kipini Conservancy, Witu Forest, Tana River forests west as far as Meru and Kora National Parks. <em>C. m. phylax</em>, a synonym of <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>, is present on Patta and Witu Islands, Lamu Archipelago, Kenya. Reported to be present in the coastal forest of southern Somalia, but this requires confirmation (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <br/>2). <em>C. m. kolbi</em> is restricted to the highlands of Kenya, east of the Rift Valley (including Nairobi). There is no evidence that <em>C. m. kolbi</em> occurs in Marsabit (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers comm. 2007).<br/>3). <em>C. m. albogularis</em> is present from Kilifi Creek south to northern Tanzania, and from here west to Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru, Tanzania; it also occurs on the island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. This subspecies is possibly the subspecies that occurs from Kilifi Creek to Malindi (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/>4). <em>C. m. francescae</em> is known only from Mount Waller and the Vipya Plateau of Malawi.<br/>5). <em>C. m. moloneyi</em> is present from Zambia west of the Luangwa River, northern-most Malawi, the Southern Highlands of Tanzania to the Udzungwa Mountains (T. Butynski pers. comm.).<br/>6). <em>C. m. erythrarchus</em> ranges from the Mlanje Plateau in southern Malawi, to Zimbabwe, much of Mozambique (althought the coastal limits are uncertain) to Limpopo Province and northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa in the south.<br/>7). <em>C. m. labiatus</em> is restricted to South Africa where it is found in the Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape.<br/>8). <em>C. m. heymansi</em> ranges between the Lualaba and Lomami Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/>9). <em>C. m. opisthostictus</em> ranges from the Province of Katanga (= Shaba) in the Democratic Republic of Congo, north to approximately 6°N on the left bank of the River Lualaba to the western shores of Lake Tanganyika, it is found in north-western Zambia west of the Luangwa River.<br/>10). The nominate subspecies <em>C. m. mitis</em> is known only from the Dundo region of Angola.<br/>11). <em>C. m. boutourlinii</em> is present in southern Ethiopia, where it is found from Lake Tana southwards along the western side of the Ethiopian Rift, but does not reach Lake Turkana.<br/>12). <em>C. m. stuhlmanni</em> is widespread occurring in the Democratic Republic of Congo from the region between the Uele River and the Congo River, east of the Itimbiri River to the Ituri and Semliki Forests (Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda), and from here south to about 6°S and east of the Lualaba River, into southern Sudan, northern Uganda and parts of Kenya west of the Rift Valley, including Mount Elgon and the Kakamega Forest.<br/>13). <em>C. m. schoutedeni</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo on the islands of Idjwi and Shushu in Lake Kivu, and from the Virunga Volcanoes and south-west as far as Bobandana.<br/>14). <em>C. m. doggetti</em> is found in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Burundi, north-western Tanzania, through Rwanda and parts of southern Uganda (there is uncertainty in the distribution of this subspecies and the degree of overlap with neighbouring subspecies).<br/>15). <em>C. m. kandti</em> has an unclear distribution, but is generally found in the area of Virunga Volcanoes, the contiguous Gishwati Forest, and higher part of Nyungwe.<br/>16). <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> (treated by some as a synonym of <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em>) has a very restricted distribution in southern Somalia along the Jubba and Webi-Shebeli Rivers. See Gippoliti (2006) for a review.<br/>17) <em>C. m. monoides</em> ranges through the Selous Game Reserve and Kichi Hills west to the foot of the Udzungwa Mountains, south into Newala District.	eng
4221	habitat	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M., Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H., Lehn, C. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is present in many different forest types including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, riverine and gallery forest, delta forest and bamboo forest (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 1990). Also found in sand forest. It can occur in secondary forest, logged forest and thickets. Group size ranges from 2 to more than 40 individuals. The gestation period is around 176 days after which a single young is usually born.	eng
4221	population	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M., Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H., Lehn, C. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The population density of this species varies greatly with the habitat type occupied, but it is generally common throughout its range. In South Africa, lowest densities are found in swamp, sand and riverine forests (<0.3 individuals/ha), medium densities in Afromontane forests (0.4-0.9 individuals/ha) and highest densities in coastal forests (2 individuals/ha) (Lawes 1992). <br/><br/>Gippoliti (2006) estimated that there may be no more than 200-500 individuals of <em>C. m. zammaranoi</em> surviving in riverine forest fragments in Somalia.	eng
4221	threats	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M., Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H., Lehn, C. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole, although it is generally threatened to some degree by deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The species is also threatened by hunting in places (for food and animal parts are also used in places for traditional medicine). The population in Angola may have disappeared through habitat loss in a now densely settled region. Those subspecies with more restricted ranges are presumably threatened by deforestation because of a range of activities including agricultural activities (mainly shifting agriculture), selective logging for timber, logging for firewood, replacement by commercial timber forests (especially in South Africa), expanding human settlement and future mining operations. The area of Kipini Forest, in which the subspecies <em>C. m. albotorquatus</em> is common, has recently been given over by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and Kipini Conservancy for resettlement of people from the lower Tana River area. This could mean that the remaining forest is likely to be destroyed in the very near future (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
4222	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is known to occur in a number of protected areas, such as Digya and Kalakpa National Parks in Ghana, and several forest reserves in south-west Cameroon.	eng
4222	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This West African species ranges from south-eastern Ghana (the Volta) to Cameroon, just south of the Sanaga River. It is often associated with rivers. It has been introduced to Sao Tome and from there to the Caribbean islands of Grenada and possibly to Saint Kitts and Nevis.	eng
4222	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This is a lowland forest species that inhabits all but the most severely degraded habitat and extends into the savanna zone in gallery forest. The species is abundant close to river and gallery forest. It may be found in mangroves. Animals live in groups averaging 12 individuals.	eng
4222	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is generally a widespread and common species.	eng
4222	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species has been impacted by large-scale habitat loss, and hunting for meat. However, it appears that it can adapt well to secondary habitat, and remains common in parts of its range.	eng
4223	conservation	Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, having recently been recorded by Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2007) from several additional national parks.	eng
4223	distribution	Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This widespread species ranges from north-eastern Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and Gabon in the west of its range to Uganda, Kenya and south-western Ethiopia in the east. It was formerly believed that the Sanaga River formed the northern boundary in Cameroon, but Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2007) extended the current known range for <em>C. neglectus</em> 100 km farther north in Cameroon, about 140 km farther south in Gabon, and about 80 km farther west in Congo than was previously known. The surveys were carried out in Cameroon in the Mbam Djerem National Park, in Gabon in the Bateke Plateau National Park, and the adjoining Bateke Plateau area in Congo. <em>C. neglectus</em> were found on both sides of the Djerem River in Cameroon, along the Mpassa and its tributaries in Gabon, along the Nambouli River in the Lefini Reserve in Congo, and up to the right bank of the Ogooué River on the Congo side of the border (Maisles <em>et al</em>. 2007). Until recently, the species was not known to range east of the Great Rift valley in Kenya, but it has now been recorded in the remote and isolated Mathews Range Forest Reserve of Samburu at an elevation of 2,200 m (the highest elevation at which the species has yet been recorded; Mwenja 2007).	eng
4223	habitat	Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is associated with riverine forest habitats. It is found close to rivers in lowland and submontane tropical moist forest, swamp forest, semi-deciduous forest and Acacia dominated forest. They are mainly arboreal. De Brazza’s Monkey is considerably more inconspicuous than most other guenons, rarely using group calls, and generally avoiding living in polyspecific troops (Gautier-Hion and Gautier 1978), and at least in Gabon, northern Congo, the Bateke Plateau and central Cameroon, living in small family parties (Maisels <em>et al.</em> 2007); however, it can be found in groups of as many as 35 individuals.	eng
4223	population	Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	One of the most widespread of African forest monkeys, though never abundant over its range. The recently discovered isolated population in Mathews Range Forest Reserve was estimated at 200-300 individuals (Mwenja 2007).	eng
4223	threats	Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	There are some localized declines taking place across the range, especially in East Africa, through deforestation of habitat for agricultural land and timber. It is also hunted for meat, especially in the more western parts of its range, while in East Africa it is killed both for food or as an agricultural pest (e.g., Brennan 1985).	eng
4224	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), Mbam Djerem National Park (Cameroon) and others. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species, particularly elucidate the status of forms currently included in <em>C. n. martini</em>, since many of them may represent truly threatened subspecies.	eng
4224	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is present as a disjunct population in Liberia and western Côte d'Ivoire, and then more continuously from the Osse River in western Nigeria south and east to the Congo River, across the Oubangui River as far east as Buta and Budjala (both Democratic Republic of the Congo) between the Congo River and Oubangui River. It is also present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). This isolated western range is thought to be due to competion with <em>C. diana</em>. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies. The subspecies <em>C. n. nictitans</em> is distributed south of the Sanaga River, Cameroon through the eastern part of the species range. The systematic status of the subspecies <em>C. n. martini</em> is uncertain, and herein includes a number of forms sometimes recognized as distinct taxa. Animals currently allocated to this subspecies occur from north-west of the lower Sanaga River, Cameroon, into the western part of the species range, including the island of Bioko.	eng
4224	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is present in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, gallery forest and secondary forest; it is less common in swamp forest. This species generally lives in groups of between 12 and 30 animals.	eng
4224	population	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is rare in West Africa, but reasonably common in the eastern part of its range. On Bioko, numbers have undergone steep declines, exceeding 50% between the period 1986 to 2006 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
4224	threats	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species may be locally threatened, especially in the west of its range, by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and agricultural land and by hunting for meat. Although it is hunted heavily (e.g., on Bioko), it still remains common in the central and eastern parts of its range.	eng
4225	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is a widespread species that is present in several protected areas, including Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and Digya National Park (Ghana).	eng
4225	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This West African species is distributed from Guinea-Bissau in the west to Togo in the east. There is also a recent reliable record from south-eastern Senegal (Pruetz <em>et al.</em> unpubl.). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>C. p. petaurista</em> is found east of the Cavally River in Côte d'Ivoire to about the Dahomey Gap; <em>C. p. buettikoferi</em> is found to the west of the Cavally River.	eng
4225	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It can be found in primary and secondary forests, riverine and gallery forest, regenerating areas and coastal bushland. It is also found in farmbush.	eng
4225	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is a common and widespread species.	eng
4225	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species may have been impacted in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation and human settlement. It is possibly hunted for meat in some areas.	eng
4226	conservation	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynksi, T. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This widespread species is present in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon) - an important stronghold to insure the survival of <em>C. pogonias</em> in the Cameroon-Nigeria border area - Odzala National Park (Congo), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea) and Salonga National Park (DR Congo). Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the status of the various subspecies, and particularly to ascertain whether some forms merit recognition as distinct species.	eng
4226	distribution	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynksi, T. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Cross River in Nigeria, east and south to the Congo Basin where it is widespread and found throughout, ranging eastwards to Rwanda, and Uganda, and southwards into the forests south of the River Kasai. Also present on Bioko Island, where it has a limited distribution on the southern slopes of the Southern Highlands up to about 1,250 m asl; a small population on the southern slopes of Pico Basile was probably hunted out in 2000 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There are seven subspecies:<br/><br/>The distribution of the nominate subspecies, <em>C. p. pogonias</em> is a little unclear. Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999) restrict it to Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, with an unnamed subspecies replacing <em>C. p. pogonias</em> on the mainland north of the Sanaga River. However, Groves (2001) records <em>C. p. pogonias</em> as occurring from the Cross River across the River Sanaga to Río Muni, and includes Bioko. The current treatment considers this subspecies to include the animals on Bioko, as well as the form occurring on the mainland between the Cross and Niger Rivers.<br/><br/>According to Groves (2001), the subspecies <em>C. p. nigripes</em> ranges from Río Muni (Equatorial Guinea), Gabon and Congo, south into Cabinda (Angola). However, this distribution does not conform with that mapped by Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999), who map <em>grayi</em> as the form in Cabinda.<br/><br/><em>C. p. grayi</em> ranges from south Cameroon (middle Sanaga River) east to the Central African Republic, and south into Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo north of the Congo River. It ranges as far eastwards as about the Itimbiri River north of the Congo River. Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. (1999) map this species occurring south to the mouth of the Congo River.<br/><br/><em>C. p. denti</em> is found in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo to the east and north of the Congo-Lualaba River, extending north into the Central African Republic, but not found to the west of the Itimbiri River. This subspecies has also been recorded from western Rwanda and Uganda. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. p. wolfi</em> ranges between the Congo and Sankuru Rivers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><em>C. p. elegans</em> ranges between the Lomani and Lualaba Rivers south of 2ºS. <br/><br/><em>C. p. pyrogaster</em> is found between the Rivers Kwango and Kasai-Lulua in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola.	eng
4226	habitat	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynksi, T. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is associated with lowland tropical forest, especially primary high-canopy forest, but may also be found in mature secondary mature up to submontane and montane elevations. This species lives in groups of eight to 20 animals.	eng
4226	population	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynksi, T. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range, but rare in some regions. Unlike for many other primates on Bioko, this island may be one of the strongholds for <em>C. pogonias</em> and especially for the nominate subspecies. In 1992, Mate and Colell (1995) found <em>C. p. pogonias</em> to be by far the most common monkey at their study side on the south-east coast of Bioko, recording densities of 1.8-2.25 individuals/km², perhaps because hunting of primates is lower on the south coast of Bioko as anywhere on the island (T. Butynski pers. obs.). Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) did not record any significant decline of the species on Bioko between 1986 and 2006.	eng
4226	threats	Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynksi, T. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species has been impacted in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation, agriculture and human settlement, and it is also hunted for meat across most of its range. <br/><br/>Results of survey work in Korup N. P. in Cameroon suggest that, although <em>C. pogonias</em> is small bodied, it might be more vulnerable to hunting than other guenon species due to its relatively narrow feeding and habitat requirements. Populations of <em>C. p. pogonias</em> appear to be declining in the north-east section of Korup N. P. and might have already been extirpated from areas of the park that are most heavily hunted and where anti-poaching patrols are absent. Results from forests near to Korup N. P. also suggest that hunting has reduced or eliminated populations of <em>C. pogonias</em>. However, populations appear to be increasing in southern Korup N. P. This may be the result of the relatively low hunting pressure (compared with north-east Korup) and/or a potentially more favourable habitat for this species in southern Korup (Linder 2008).	eng
4227	conservation	Oates, J.F., 2008	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. The species occurs in the Okwangwo division of Cross River National Park and on the adjacent Obudu Plateau (Nigeria), Pico Basile National Park and the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (Bioko), and in the Takemanda Forest Reserve, Ibo Forest, and Banyang-Mbo Forest (Cameroon) which has been proposed for elevated protection status. Surveys of the status and distribution across its range are needed. None of the montane forest areas of the Cameroon highlands, the most important remaining habitat for this species, are formally protected and require urgent conservation action.	eng
4227	distribution	Oates, J.F., 2008	This species has a restricted distribution in western Cameroon, eastern Nigeria, and on Bioko Island. It is most abundant in montane and sub-montane forest up to at least 2,500 m asl. Its range includes isolated patches of forest in the grasslands of the Cameroon Highlands.<br/><br/>This species is divided into two subspecies: <em>C. preussi preussi</em>, on the mainland, and <em>C. p. insularis</em>, which is restricted to Bioko Island.	eng
4227	habitat	Oates, J.F., 2008	This species is found mainly in montane and submontane forest above 800 m, and on Bioko shows a preference for Schefflera forest (Gonzalez Kirchner 2004; Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also more rarely found in lowland forest (e.g., to 450 in the Caldera on Bioko), and can occur in isolated forest patches in mountainous grasslands. They have semi-terrestrial habits and are found usually in the understorey of the forest. Little is known about feeding behaviour, but it is known to eat fruits, seeds, leaves, and flowers. This species lives in groups of 2-12 animals, consisting of a single male and several females with their young.	eng
4227	population	Oates, J.F., 2008	There has been no comprehensive population survey of this species, except on Bioko where the species has undergone declines exceeding 55% over a 20-year period (1986-2006; Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the mainland, the species is uncommon and highly fragmented.	eng
4227	threats	Oates, J.F., 2008	This species’ population size and distribution have been severely affected by habitat destruction and hunting. For example, Cameroon’s forests have been severely eroded by cultivation, fire and collection of wood for fuel. As a result, little montane forest remains in the mainland part of this species’ range. This species is highly susceptible to human predation because it is semi-terrestrial and relatively large-bodied, and hunting has led to a decline in its population across its range, but particularly on Bioko.	eng
4229	conservation	Oates, J.F., Baker, L.R. & Tooze, Z.J., 2008	This species is currently listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>There are no protected areas for wildlife in the range of Sclater's Monkey. Baker (2005) suggests the following conservation actions: 1) elevate the species to Schedule I of the Nigerian Endangered Species Decree of 1985 (this change may not be considered unless the species is elevated to CITES Appendix I); 2) raise awareness about the species and its uniquely Nigerian status through publicity and education; and 3) protect key forest areas, including the Edumanom and Upper Orashi Forest Reserves in Rivers and Bayelsa States, the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve in Akwa Ibom State, and the communities of Ikot Uso Akpan, Lagwa and Akpugoeze. Other potential areas for protection are the Niger floodplain and Osomari Forest Reserve (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992), and the Blue River (Azumini, Abia State) and Enyong Creek/Ikpa River (Akwa Ibom State) (Tooze 1995).	eng
4229	distribution	Oates, J.F., Baker, L.R. & Tooze, Z.J., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Nigeria. It ranges from the eastern Niger Delta in Bayelsa State east to the Cross River, and north to Enugu and Ebonyi States; the most northerly known populations occur in southern Anambra-Enugu States and central Ebonyi State (Baker and Olubode 2008). Sclater’s Monkey was feared extinct until it was sighted southwest of Oguta, Imo State, in 1988 (Oates and Anadu 1989). Additional populations were subsequently discovered in the early to mid-1990s (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Tooze 1995, 1996). More recently, the species was located in several sites where it had not been previously recorded (Baker 2005; Baker and Olubode 2008). Across its range, this species has been recorded in mostly fragmented, degraded forests (Oates <em>et al</em>. 1992; Tooze 1995; Baker and Olubode 2008).	eng
4229	habitat	Oates, J.F., Baker, L.R. & Tooze, Z.J., 2008	The original habitat of this species would be moist tropical lowland forest, but due to severe habitat degradation, Sclater’s Monkey now persists in remnant secondary, gallery/riparian and freshwater swamp forests. The species is also found in marginal forest and farm-bush in communities where monkeys are regarded as sacred (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Tooze 1995; Baker 2005). The species is likely omnivorous, with a diet similar to other members of the <em>C. cephus</em> group: mostly fruits, insects and young foliage (Oates and Baker in press).	eng
4229	population	Oates, J.F., Baker, L.R. & Tooze, Z.J., 2008	Until recently, this species was thought to be very rare, but extensive surveys have revealed its presence at a number of formerly unknown sites (Baker and Olubode 2008). The authors did not encounter any localities of recent extirpation, or sites where local reports indicated that populations of Sclater’s Monkeys had been extirpated even though suitable habitat remains.	eng
4229	threats	Oates, J.F., Baker, L.R. & Tooze, Z.J., 2008	Sclater's Monkey occurs in a region with a very dense human population and where most natural forest has been destroyed by logging, conversion to cultivated land and oil exploration (Oates <em>et al.</em> 1992; Baker and Olubode 2008). Of particular concern for this species is severe fragmentation of remaining habitat and thus lack of connectivity among existing populations. Sclater’s is hunted throughout its range (except in the very few places where monkeys are held sacred), but it continues to persist due to preferential hunting of larger-bodied primate taxa and its small size, shy nature and adaptability (Baker and Olubode 2008).	eng
4230	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It was declared a totally protected species by the Gabonese government in 1994. About 10% of the species' range is in the Lopé National Park, but the highest density of this species is in Foret des Abeilles (which remains unprotected) and better protection of this Forest is needed. Planned logging activity in the south of the Lope Reserve should be monitored closely, and hunting both within the reserve and in the Foret des Abeilles urgently needs to be controlled. More detailed studies of its distribution and biology are urgently needed. A few animals are held in captivity in Gabon.	eng
4230	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is endemic to central Gabon with a total range thought to be in the order of 11,000-12,000 km² (encompassing the Forêt des Abeilles). The species has been recorded west of the Offoué River within Lopé National Park, but not to the west of 11.50°E; the westerly limit remains unclear. The recorded eastern limit is the Ogooué R. The southern limit is also unclear, but it extends apparently to the foothills of the Massif du Chaillu (Gautier <em>et al.</em> 1992; Brugiere and Gautier 1999).	eng
4230	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Occurs in primary and secondary lowland moist forest. The forest is dominated by Gaboon mahogany (<em>Acoumea</em>), the leguminous awoura (<em>Julbernardia</em>), false nutmeg (<em>Pycnanthus</em>), and mubala-oil tree (<em>Pentaclethra</em>). Sun-tailed Monkeys prefer densely shaded, tangled areas. They remain common after light logging, perhaps because dense undergrowth increases. The diet of this species is currently being studied, but it is known to prefer fruits which are abundant all year round. They are sometimes recorded raiding crops around villages. This species occurs in single-male, multi-female groups.	eng
4230	population	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	The population density of this species varies with habitat suitability and seemingly with altitude: at the Makandé Field Research Station, the density was estimated at 25 individuals per km² (Brugiere and Gautier 1999). In southern Lope, the mean density was about 4 per km² (Brugiere 2005).	eng
4230	threats	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Brugiere and Gautier (1999) note that there is no recent evidence of a direct population decline in the species as a result of human activities. This species is hunted for meat (although it is reported to be difficult to hunt, because of its cryptic behaviour), and, being semi-terrestrial, is sensitive to ground snares (a common form of hunting around logging camps). Hunting pressure seems to be relatively low, but commercial hunting is likely to become a growing threat. Habitat loss, mainly due to logging (including in the Foret des Abeilles, which is largely allocated to logging concessions) is also a threat (Brugiere and Gautier 1999).	eng
4233	conservation	Kingdon, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
4233	distribution	Kingdon, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Present in Sudan from Khartoum in the north to Mongalla in the south, and in Djibouti, Ethiopia and Eritrea where it is found south of the River Omo and ranges as far east as the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Dandelot and Prevost 1972). Its range formerly extended along the Nile Valley.	eng
4233	habitat	Kingdon, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers (Dorst and Dandelot 1972). It is an extremely adaptable species that can live in both rural and urban environments. Heavily dependent on acacia seeds, flowers, foliage and gum. Also feeds on figs and other fruiting trees (Butynski 2002).	eng
4233	population	Kingdon, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	It is a common species. They live in bands of from 6 to 20, averaging a dozen individuals (Dorst and Dandelot 1972).	eng
4233	threats	Kingdon, J. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	It is generally common and adaptable over its range, and there are presumed to be no major threats.	eng
4240	conservation	Butynski, T.M., Gippoliti, S., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in the proposed Harena-Kokosa National Forest Reserve, but which needs to be formally gazetted. Ongoing survey work in the Bale Mountains will hopefully reveal a better idea of the species' distribution and population status.	eng
4240	distribution	Butynski, T.M., Gippoliti, S., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, east of the Ethiopian Rift Valley in the Bale Mountains, where found at high elevations from 2,400 to 3,000 m asl (see Butynski in press).	eng
4240	habitat	Butynski, T.M., Gippoliti, S., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species has specialised habitat requirements as it is found in the bamboo forest zone of the Bale Mountains massif. Butynski (in press) summarizes the current state of knowledge of this diurnal, semi-terrestrial monkey.	eng
4240	population	Butynski, T.M., Gippoliti, S., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The species was presumably more widespread and abundant in historic times. There is no information on population size, but it may be locally common in some areas (e.g., in Odobullu Forest at 6.87ºN, 40.17ºE; Butynski in press).	eng
4240	threats	Butynski, T.M., Gippoliti, S., Kingdon, J. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The main threat to this species is ongoing habitat loss and degradation. For example, the Harenna Forest, where the Bale Monkey is generally uncommon, is under threat from expanding human populations, fire, agriculture, and the removal of forest products such as bamboo, lumber, fuelwood, and charcoal. Persecution for crop raiding may also be a localised threat. There is suggestion that hybridization may occur with <em>C. aethiops</em> on the margins of its range, but there are no confirmed records as yet.	eng
4248	conservation	Courtenay, O. & Maffei, L., 2008	Listed on CITES – Appendix II.<br/><br/>In Argentina, the crab-eating fox was considered "not endangered" by the 1983 Fauna and Flora National Direction <br/>(resolution 144), and its exploitation and commercial use was forbidden in 1987 (A. Novaro pers. comm., A. Farias pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no specific protective legislation for this species in any country, though hunting wildlife is officially forbidden in most countries. Generally, there is no specific pest regulatory legislation for the Crab-eating Fox, but it is strongly disliked locally as a pest of livestock (poultry and lambs) leading to illegal hunting and consequential sales of pelts. In some countries, pest control is limited by specific quotas (without official bounties), although the system is often ignored, abused, or not reinforced (J. Carvino pers. comm., A. Soutullo pers. comm.). In Uruguay, hunting permits have not been issued since 1989 on the basis that lamb predation by foxes is negligible (Cravino <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2000).<br/><br/>Occurs in a large number of protected and unprotected areas across its geographical range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures are proposed for this species. No protection required at present.	eng
4248	distribution	Courtenay, O. & Maffei, L., 2008	The species is relatively common throughout its range from the coastal and montane regions in northern Colombia and Venezuela, south to the province of Entre Ríos, Argentina (35ºS); and from the eastern Andean foothills (up to 2,000 m) in Bolivia and Argentina (67ºW) to the Atlantic forests of east Brazil to the western coast of Colombia (1ºN). Its known central distribution in lowland Amazon forest is limited to areas north-east of the Rio Amazon and Rio Negro (2ºS, 61ºW), south-east of the Rio Amazon and Rio Araguaia (2ºS, 51ºW), and south of Rio Beni, Bolivia (11ºS).<br/><br/>Few records exist in Suriname and Guyana. Recent records in French Guyana (Hansen and Richard-Hansen 2000) have yet to be confirmed (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). The previous citation of its occurrence in Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em> 1995) has since been retracted by the authors (D. Cossios pers. comm.).	eng
4248	habitat	Courtenay, O. & Maffei, L., 2008	Occupies most habitats including marshland, savanna, cerrado, caatinga, chaco-cerrado-caatinga transitions, scrubland, woodlands, dry and semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest, Atlantic forest, Araucaria forest, isolated savanna within lowland Amazon forest, and montane forest. Records up to 3,000 m. Readily adapts to deforestation, agricultural and horticultural development (e.g., sugarcane, eucalyptus, melon, pineapples) and habitats in regeneration. In the arid Chaco regions of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, confined to woodland edge; more open areas used by the Pampas Fox.<br/><br/>Vegetative habitats generally utilized in proportion to abundance, varying with social status and climatic season. Radio-tagged foxes in seasonally flooded savannas of Marajó, Brazil, predominated in wooded savanna (34%) and regeneration scrub (31%); low-lying savanna was "avoided", and areas of wooded savanna "preferred", more by senior than junior foxes and more in the wet season than dry season (Macdonald and Courtenay 1996). In the central llanos of Venezuela, fox home ranges similarly shift to higher ground in response to seasonal flooding, though are generally located in open palm savanna (68% of sightings) and closed habitats (shrub, woodlands, deciduous forest, 32%) (Brady 1979; Sunquist <em>et al.</em> 1989). In Minas Gerais, Brazil, two radio-tagged foxes (one male, one female) in different territories were observed most often at the interface of livestock pasture and gallery forest ("vereidas") (82%) and in eucalyptus/agricultural plantations (8%) (O. Courtenay, unpubl.). Eighty-eight Crab-eating Fox specimens collected by the Smithsonian Venezuelan Project were taken from prairie and pasture (49%), deciduous and thorn forest (19%), evergreen forest (17%), and marshes, croplands and gardens (15%) (Handley 1976 as cited in Cordero-Rodríguez and Nassar 1999).	eng
4248	population	Courtenay, O. & Maffei, L., 2008	No precise estimates of population sizes are available, but populations generally are considered stable.	eng
4248	threats	Courtenay, O. & Maffei, L., 2008	The main potential threat is from spill-over pathogenic infection from domestic dogs. In the Serra da Canastra National Park, Brazil, Crab-eating Foxes raid human refuse dumps in close company with unvaccinated domestic dogs along park boundaries (R. Cunha de Paula pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is of no direct commercial value as furbearer due to the unsuitability of the fur which is coarse and short; however, pelts are sometimes traded as those of the South American grey fox in Argentina, and as those of the latter species and the Pampas Fox in Uruguay (Cravino <em>et al.</em> 1997, A. Farias pers. comm.). Current illegal trade is small as the probable consequence of low fur prices; in Paraguay, for example, no illegal fox pelts were confiscated from 1995 to 2000 (J. Cartes pers. comm.)	eng
4249	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
4249	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
4249	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
4249	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from one site in Mozambique (the type locality). Globally, the distribution is recorded as Tanzania and Mozambique.	eng
4249	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta (Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Mozambique.	eng
4249	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Tanzania (Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta) and Mozambique (the type locality). It occurs within Miombo woodlands from Mozambique northwards, and is likely to be widespread in suitable habitat within the Miombo forest areas.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from the Kichi Hills south of the Rufiji Delta (Tanzania).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from one site in Mozambique (the type locality).	eng
4249	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Seasonal pools in coastal Miombo forest.	eng
4249	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Seasonal pools in coastal Miombo forest.	eng
4249	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Seasonal pools in coastal Miombo forest (Pinhey 1981).	eng
4249	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
4249	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
4249	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
4249	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
4249	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
4249	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
4256	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	White-lipped deer are listed as a Class I protected species under Chinese law.<br/><br/>Government deer farms were established during the 1970s and 1980s to supply the market and prevent poaching. Many had closed by the end of the 1980s due to overproduction by farms in New Zealand and elsewhere (prices in China dropped due to imports). For internationally held stock see ISIS (1993). <br/><br/>White-lipped deer occur in a few large nature reserves in western China, such as Yanchiwan (and possibly Qilian Shan) in Gansu, and Sanjiangyuan in Qinghai. However, habitat protection is not guaranteed by legal protection as a nature reserve (Harris 2007).	eng
4256	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	The species previously ranged across much of the eastern Tibetan Plateau (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species presently occurs in fragmented populations in northwestern and southwestern Gansu, eastern and central, and southern Qinghai, eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, and northwest Yunnan (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Yu <em>et al</em>. 1990; Kaji <em>et al</em>. 1989,1993; Schaller 1998; Wu and Wang 1999).	eng
4256	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species inhabits conifer forest, rhododendron and willow scrub and alpine grasslands from 3,500 to 5,100 m asl; is somewhat lower in winter (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; G. Schwede pers. comm. 1998). Compared with other cervids on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, the white-lipped deer is most likely to be found in open habitats. The species' diet is comprised mostly of grasses, herbs, lichens, leaves and bark of trees and bushes (Tatatsuki <em>et al</em>. 1988, Wu and Wang 1999). In summer in alpine meadows, they may feed extensively on sedges (Harris and Miller 1995). The species occurs in seasonally large herds (up to 200–300), and female families (Miura <em>et al</em>. 1989). Males and females live separately except during the breeding season. In winter, they may range in the vicinity of lakes and rivers when food availability is higher (Jia-Yan Wu pers. comm. 1998). Calving is between late May and early July (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; Yu <em>et al</em>. 1993) following a rut in October (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). Gestation estimated at 246 days (Yu <em>et al</em>. 1993). Age at first reproduction in captivity is two years (hinds) and five years (stags) (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
4256	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	There is no global population estimate. The species is distributed sporadically at low density, with some 2,000 individuals estimated in Gansu and Qinghai, and 4,000 individuals in Sichuan and the Tibet Autonomous Region (Wu pers. comm. 1990). Wang (1998) estimated a total population of some 7,000 (although Liu and Yin 1993 postulated 5,800 within the Tibetan Autonomous Region only). The species typically lives in high-elevation, remote habitats, and appears to have large, unpredictable ranges. Thus developing a reliable estimate of abundance will be difficult without intensive and rigorous efforts. <br/><br/>During the 1990s and first part of the 21st century, there have been anecdotal reports suggesting that white-lipped deer populations may be increasing, at least in some portions of their Tibetan Plateau range (e.g., Harris and Loggers, 2004).	eng
4256	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	The species is hunted for meat, antlers, and other organs, which are used in traditional Chinese medicine (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species has been heavily depleted, especially due to hunting young individuals for their antlers. Guns have recently been confiscated from most pastoralists living in proximity to white-lipped deer in China, however, and poaching appears to be on the decline generally (Harris 2007). Throughout its range, competition with livestock is major threat, leading to habitat degradation. Populations have become seriously fragmented as a result of these threats (Koizumi <em>et al</em>. 1993; Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Harris 2007). The species is extensively farmed for antler production on government farms in China (and in other countries, such as New Zealand).	eng
4257	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, Sagar Baral, H. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES – Appendix I<em></em>. It is a Schedule I species under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004) and it is protected under the Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 of Bangladesh (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). A PHVA (Population and Habitat Viability Assessment) workshop was conducted at the Wildlife Institute of India in July 1995. In 1995 there were 74 (25:34:15) individuals of <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> in 10 Indian zoos (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). <br/><br/>Protected areas form the cornerstone of protecting Barasingha, given its attachment to level, well-watered areas, i.e. those perfect for agriculture. This makes for challenging conservation: “Controlling human disturbance on Lagga Bagga [Pilhibit Forest Division, Terai Arc Landscape, India] is a huge challenge: many people rely on it for firewood, thatch grass and fodder. Intensive protection and participatory management with these people are required to restore the area” (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Lagga Bagga was recently accorded protected area status, as a tiger reserve (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Lagga Bagga and Kishanpur protected areas are connected by the Pilibhit Forest Division although Barasingha habitat is not contiguous (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Dudhwa is also close by, and Lagga Bagga is adjacent to Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve of Nepal. These four areas in total hold most of the remaining <em>R. d. duvauvcelii</em>. Not surprisingly, few Barasingha herds now exist outside protected areas; in the Terai Arc Landscape of northern India, Hog Deer and Barasingha had the highest proportions (of all ungulates studied) of their regional populations within protected areas (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Remaining populations outside protected areas seem to be small, scattered, and facing a number of threats difficult to resolve; probably these should be seen as of lower priority than ensuring the persistence of populations within protected areas, but a rigorous assessment of this is needed.<br/><br/>Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995) recommended conservation actions which can, over a decade later, be boiled down to maintaining the integrity of the protected areas supporting key populations, with particular attention to:<br/>1. Curb poaching. The species does not have a high international trade value so poaching must tackled at least partly by and through local communities.<br/>2. Curb habitat degradation through further fragmentation and over-harvest of plant material from protected habitat.<br/>3. Develop long-term conservation management security for those areas where significant numbers disperse seasonally out of existing protected areas into surrounding farmland.<br/>4. Maintain appropriate burning regimes and other active habitat-management measures.<br/>5. Reduce and eventually cease grazing of domestic stock within protected areas.<br/>All these five issues should be addressed through effectively formulated and implemented protected area-specific management plans, reflecting the fragmented present distribution, the negligible likelihood of ever rejoining populations and that the threats have local causes and thus locally appropriate solutions. Given the wide range of possible threats and, in particular, the apparent necessity for active management of habitats (as well as control of human behaviour), management plans are particularly important to ensure a cohesive approach to conservation of Barasingha within the ecosystem of each protected area. Management plans have been prepared for various protected areas but their current status is not documented here.<br/><br/>One of the subspecies is down to a single herd, and another to just two herds. This makes extinction for a variety of unpredictable factors (e.g. weather, disease) a possibility. Establishment of additional populations of each of these forms a priority (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Patches of suitable habitat remain for each form, from which the species has been hunted out and which could, if hunting can be prevented, serve as suitable release areas. Captive breeding is often mentioned as being important for this species, but its conservation benefit is not clear. Each subspecies has protected areas which have–in the nick of time for two subspecies–secured buoyant populations. To expand beyond these, those protected areas retaining the species but not functioning so effectively need strengthening to allow natural recruitment. Establishment of additional herds of the two races down to a single site could be supported by translocations from each one’s sole current herd.<br/><br/>In Kanha National Park, conservation activities have included dispersal of Tigers <em>Panthera tigris</em> away from main grazing areas, control of poaching, cessation of grass burning, creation of water reservoirs, and reduction in domestic cattle numbers (Khajuria and Sinha 1986). Out-migration of villages from the park has significantly extended Barasingha habitat and protected their traditional fawning and rutting grounds (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994). Another park, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, has been enlarged from about 60 km² to some 300 km².	eng
4257	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, Sagar Baral, H. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Barasingha is currently found in isolated localities in north and central India, and southwestern Nepal. It is extinct in Pakistan and Bangladesh (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Into the early twentieth century, the Barasingha was widely distributed in areas of suitable habitat throughout the Indo–Gangetic plain and the lowlands flanking the southern Himalaya. The range formerly extended eastward across the terai of southern Nepal through the Sundarbans as far as Assam. Barasingha occurred west to the River Indus, into Pakistan, and as far south as the River Godavari area of east-central India (Schaller 1967; Groves 1982; Sankaran 1989). The only known population in Bangladesh was in the Sundarbans, where it has been extinct for perhaps a century. The species may also have been in the northeast of Bangladesh, given its distribution in adjacent India (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Groves (1982) defined three subspecies with distributions (from Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004) as follows:<br/><em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> (G. Cuvier, 1823) (Wetland Barasingha): Indo-Gangetic plain, north of the Ganges: Nepal, India, and, where extinct, Pakistan.<br/><em>R. d. branderi</em> Pocock, 1943 (Hard-ground Barasingha): central India, between the rivers Ganges and Godavari.<br/><em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> (Groves, 1982) (Eastern Barasingha): Brahmaputra plain; probably disjunct from the nominate for a very long time (Groves 1982): India and, where extinct, Bangladesh.	eng
4257	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, Sagar Baral, H. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Habitat use differs between Barasingha populations, and is reflected in hoof morphology. Central Indian animals (<em>R. d. branderi</em>) occupy open sal (<em>Shorea robusta</em>) forest with a grass understorey and grass glades; northern animals (<em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em>) are obligate grassland forms, true swamp deer, inhabiting flooded tall grassland (Dunbar Brander 1927; Pocock 1943; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004), and, in Bangladesh, formerly, around mangroves of the Sundarbans (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Barasingha is predominantly a grazer (the main forage species are given in Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004), but at least <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> is known to feed occasionally on aquatic plants (C.D. Schaaf pers. comm. 1990), and aquatic plants contribute significantly to the diet of <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> during the monsoon and winter (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>The animals disperse in the wet season and congregate in large herds during the dry season, often in response to new growth following fire and the need for drinking water (Henshaw 1991; Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004 and references therein). These seasonal movements take animals outside protected areas in at least Dudhwa and Kaziranga (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Dudhwa, mean group sizes during summer, monsoon, and winter were 32, 13, and 7 respectively; congregations of up to 250 individuals have been seen (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994). The composite home range of herds ranges from 10 to 30 km² annually (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The Barasingha is polygynous: males and females have a linear hierarchy and during the rut males tend to defend females in oestrous (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1985, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Mating in <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. branderi</em> occurs during winter; most of the stags are in hard antler by September and they start calling by then. Calling peaks during mid October to November, but occurs within mid August–mid April. As the season progresses, the evening calling peak shifts to morning (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Rutting starts for <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> in August–September, for <em>R. d. branderi</em> in early December and for <em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> in April; antler shedding begins by mid January, late April and early October respectively for the three races; fawning peaks in July–August, September-October, and March-April respectively for the three races (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2005 and references therein). There is strong fidelity to rutting sites and animals continue to visit those amid cultivation (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The Barasingha is monoestrous and monotochus (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females reproduce at the age of 2–3 years and males older than 4 years contribute to breeding (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Gestation lasts 240–250 days (Asdell 1964). The sex ratio in all three subspecies ranged is 40–80 stags per 100 hinds (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1989, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). The low male : female ratio reflects selective predation and poaching (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Barasingha females (including the two-year-olds to have reproductive rates of 20–45 fawns per 100 hinds (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Sankaran 1989, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Barasingha mortality is largely by predation, flooding (for <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> and <em>R. d. ranjitsinhii</em>), and poaching. Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> is a major predator of Barasingha, there are anecdotal reports of kills by Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> and Dhole <em>Cuon alpinus</em> (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Golden Jackal <em>Canis aureus</em> predation on fawns and yearlings was reported by Singh (1985) and Schaff (1978).<br/><br/>Ecology and behaviour have been studied in several populations; Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004) gave an overview of information to date.	eng
4257	population	Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, Sagar Baral, H. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The present distribution of the Barasingha is much reduced and fragmented, reflecting major losses in the 1930s–1960s through conversion of large tracts of grassland to cropland and through barely-restrained hunting (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>The northern subspecies <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> is the most numerous of the three races, with an estimated wild population is of 1,800–2,400 in India and 1,650–1,800 in Nepal (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, NTNC, <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Schaller (1967) reported <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> from 15 localities in India of which 11 were in Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal, three in Assam and one in West Bengal. At present <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em> exists in only six localities in Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal, two in Assam and none in West Bengal. In Nepal, out of four localities reported by Schaller (1967) only two now hold the species. Holloway (1973) reported a locality additional to Schaller’s, the Katerniaghat Sanctuary in Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh. According to Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004), using data largely from Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995), <em>R. d. duvacelii</em> is restricted to Jhilmil tal Wildlife Conservation Reserve (Uttaranchal; no estimate), Hastinapur Sanctuary; Bijnor Forest Divison; Pilibhit Forest Divison (50–90 animals in the early 1990s, about 50 a decade later, centred on the Lagga Bagga forest block of Mahof and Mala ranges; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; but a population of about 300 in Lagga Bagga reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Kishanpur Sanctuary (about 400 in the early 1990s, Qureshi and Sawarkar 1994; and still “considerable numbers” a decade later, Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; a population of 600 reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Dudhwa National Park, Kheri District (a decline from 1,200–1,500 in 1976 to about 700 by 1993, but still excellent habitat; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; a population of 600 reported in 2008 to B. Long pers. comm. 2008); Katerniaghat Sanctuary (10–25 animals in the early 1990s) (all in Uttar Pradesh) in India. There is also a population of over 100 Barasinghas in a small conservation reserve called Tatwala in Hardwar district; this habitat and population is totally isolated from other Barasingha populations (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). It persists at two sites in Nepal, Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and Karnali–Bardia Reserve. At the former there was an increase from around 900 in 1976 to around 1,850 animals in 1993 (Henshaw 1993), and since then relative stability: the minimum estimate in a count in April 2007 was of 1,674 animals, making this the largest single population in the world of the subspecies (Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, NTNC, <em>in litt</em>. 2008). At Karnali–Bardia Reserve, at least 34 animals were thought to be present, an increase from six in 1977, by Bauer (1990); during 1995–1996, Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral (<em>in litt</em>. 2008) recorded about 73 animals in the park. Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated 50–100 animals. Since the assessments of Schaller (1967) populations have apparently gone from Banke Division and Chitawan Division (both Nepal); Jaulasal Sanctuary; Lalkua Sanctuary; Maldhan Sanctuary; along the river Ganges, west of Handpur; between Hardwar and Luksor; Sonaripur Sanctuary; South Kheri Forest Division; Bahdi Tal, 6 miles west of Bellerain; Ghola and surrounding tracts; Mirchia, bordering Nepal; Jaldapara Sanctuary and surroundings (all India) (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Further details of the Indian population of <em>R. d. duvaucelii</em>, estimated to total 3,500–4,000, are summarized in Qureshi <em>et al</em>. (1995); no more recent synthesis was traced.<br/><br/><em>R. d. ranjitsinhi</em> is only found in Assam: Kaziranga National Park may have held about 750 animals in 1984, but this had declined to 350–500 by 1994 (Choudhury 1987; Qureshi and Sawarkar 1994). These numbers were not based on methods which quantify confidence in the proposed population size; the first-ever rigorous estimates came from Karanth and Nichols (2000) who recorded a population density of 14 animals per km² during their surveys in 1996 in Kaziranga National Park. The current status in Manas Tiger Reserve is uncertain (although it reportedly still occurs; B. Long pers. comm. 2008), and the species is extinct in Darang Division along the Bhutan border (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>R. d. branderi</em> survives only in Kanha Tiger Reseve (Madhya Pradesh): the population peaked at an estimated 500 in 1988, an increase from a count of 66 in 1966 (Khajuria and Sinha 1986, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In 1995, Karanth and Nichols (2000) estimated population density of 3 per sq km in Kanha National Park. In 2004, the population was thought to number 300–350 (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other populations had become extinct since the 1960s in Motinala and Karanjia ranges, Mandla District; Balaghat District between Baihar and Lamba; near Amarkantak, Bilaspur District; near Kota, Bilaspur District; Madhya Pradesh-Orissa border Raipur District; West Bastar Division near Tekemeta; West Bastar Division near Kutru in Toynar and Bhairamgarh Range (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004; some different locality names were used in Schaller 1967).<br/><br/>In 1992 there were approximately 50 individuals in five Indian zoos and 300 in various zoos in North America and Europe (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004)	eng
4257	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral, Sagar Baral, H. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	It is likely that Barasingha always had a patchy distribution, reflecting the available suitable habitat, and thus was predisposed to local extermination (Groves 1982). In aggregate, habitat conversion has led to its loss from most of its ancestral range. High levels of malaria discouraged settlement, agriculture, and thus habitat conversion in the Terai Arc Landscape until recently. The conquering of malaria has made the Indian side of the Terai Arc Landscape "one of the most densely populated regions of [India] and the [human] population is growing at a much higher rate than the rest of [India]. Most of the fertile terai plains have been taken over by agriculture." (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004: 32). Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (203 km²) is one of the few remnants of terai habitat in India (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). This deer's habitat is now reduced to isolated fragments as a result of agricultural encroachment and the destruction through habitat conversion of wetlands; the wet grasslands were seen as useless areas (they were termed ‘blanks’). Conversion took place largely during the 1930s–1960s (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Isolation into small, fragmented, populations increases the likelihood of localised extinctions, including those through chance events such as extreme weather and disease, as well as compounding the effects of ‘situation-normal’ threats like hunting.<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is still problematic within protected areas supporting Barasingha. Grass, timber and fuelwood cutting, by local people, degrade the surviving habitat, which lies mostly within protected areas, and external threats include change in river dynamics due to human developmental activities, increase in siltation and reduced flow of water during critical periods of summer. Protected area management practices are sometimes questionable, e.g. the current practice of grassland burning to control woody succession needs to be done in form of a mosaic, and harrowing should be discouraged as it seems to deteriorate grassland condition and promote occupation by unpalatable grass species like <em>Cymbopogon</em> spp. Many grasslands and woodlands have weed infestation (e.g. <em>Sesbania</em> spp.); manual weed removal in Dudhwa and Kaziranga yielded good results for habitat of Barasingha (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, 2004). Although there seems to be no direct analysis of the effect of domestic stock grazing on this deer, in other wild ungulate communities studied in India they cause a major depression of densities of grazing species (e.g. Madhusudan 2004), and pending direct data, this should be assumed to be the case with Barasingha. Barasingha populations recovered in parts of North and Central India once grazing by domestic stock was controlled (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaff 1978, Singh 1984, Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Serious efforts remain necessary to control grazing in Hastinapur, Jhilmil tal and Katerniaghat (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The grasslands and wetlands of the Terai arc landscape and the obligate species that they support, even those within protected areas are besieged by a multitude of threats which synergistically bode badly for the future (see also 2008 Red List accounts for Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Great Indian Rhinoceros <em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em>).<br/><br/>Barasingha meat is not considered a delicacy, being seen as less palatable than the meat of Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Chital <em>A. axis</em> (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 1994) but Barasingha are still poached for antlers and meat (to local markets), especially populations outside protected areas permanently or seasonally (Qureshi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The hide is used to manufacture whips and other items (A. Singh pers. comm.). Particularly in Bangladesh, hunting seems to have been responsible for national extinction because the Sundarbans mangrove forest is still extensive (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). It is likely to remain a highly significant threat for populations outside well-secured protected areas.	eng
4265	conservation	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I<em></em>. <br/><br/>Most Cambodian Eld?s deer are within protected areas, although a significant (but decreasing) number occur outside (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Timmins 2006). In several protected areas mammals effectively receive no protection other than a decreased likelihood of landscape-scale conversion of habitat (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Conservation management of the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, Kulen Wildlife Sanctuary, Preah Vihear Protection Forest, and, particularly, Ang Trapeang Thmor Conservation Area and Srepok Wilderness Area may be stabilising and perhaps even increasing Eld?s deer populations, through externally funded conservation management projects supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society and The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF unpublished data; WCS unpublished data; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). These five areas cover well over 3,000 km² of relatively suitable Eld?s deer habitat, and thus the most pressing conservation need is the continued support and consolidation of these protected areas. Only once this is in place would it be sensible to divert resources to protect Eld?s deer in further areas of Cambodia currently with little to no active protection.<br/><br/>The central Lao population in Chonbuly District, Savannakhet Province, is under nominal protection in a roughly 200 km² provincial protected area specifically designated for the species (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004). The area had an ongoing conservation management project supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004) but despite a very promising start, this stalled in 2007. Options are being investigated for resumption of collaboration, because this population is highly threatened by ongoing agricultural expansion and unfettered dogs, and probably by poaching (A. Johnson pers. comm. to J.W. Duckworth 2008). The single southern Lao population found during extensive surveys in the 1990s was small and inhabited a mosaic of farmland amidst forest, adjacent to a subsequently declared provincial protected area (Round 1998). Attempts to upgrade the provincial protected area to national status have failed (A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007). The most important conservation measures for the species in Lao PDR are resumption and consolidation of the Chonbuly District Eld?s deer project, and perhaps assisting protected area management in southern Lao PDR, especially of Xe Pian National Protected Area, in order to maintain significant areas of suitable habitat, which might one day be recolonised.<br/><br/>In Thailand the protected area system failed to prevent the species' effective national extinction some years ago. Therefore, recent conservation efforts there have focused on the captive breeding of large numbers of <em>R. e. thamin</em> (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004), which is not, however, native to most of Thailand. Attempts to introduce <em>R. e. thamin</em> to non-native areas have had limited success, although there is a residual herd at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propogation Station (Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is a current plan to introduce 40 of them into Hauai Kha Khaeng WS, in 2008, with 100 more in 2009 (W.J. McShea pers. comm. 2008). <em>R. e. siamensis</em> was the subject of an abortive Smithsonian Institution reintroduction program initiated in 1985. By 1989, progress was limited to construction of holding facilities at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propogation Station. As with other range states the most pressing conservation measures seem to be strengthening protected area management in those areas that cover the species' former range, so that reintroduction might be possible in the future, jointly with measures to align all stakeholders to ensure that introduction programmes do not create herds with a mix of <em>R. e. siamensis</em> and <em>R. e. thamin</em> ancestry.<br/><br/>The Hainan population is now highly managed with most of the population in Datian NR, and other animals in Bangxi NR and Mihouling Reserve, and other captive facilities (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has been the subject of various avenues of research, for instance a population viability analysis was undertaken to examine demographic and environmental (drought) challenges to the two enclosed populations at the Hainan Datian Nature Reserve (Song 1996), with other research by Yuan <em>et al</em>. (1993) and Song (1993) (see also Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). But, the most important conservation measure needed appears to be strengthening of the protected area system so that deer can be re-established in a wild state without danger of poaching or habitat encroachment (see Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>India held 97 captive animals in 15 zoos in December 1992, a slight decline from over 100 in the mid-1980s (Decoux 1993); by 1994, 14 zoos held 107 animals (Sharma 1994). The population is probably inbred: all reportedly are descended from two founder pairs (Walker and Marimuthu 1991; see also Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>. 2003). The 40 km² Keibul Lamjao National Park was gazetted in 1977 specifically to protect <em>R. e. eldii</em> (Ranjitsinh 1978). Subsequently projects at the park have raised public awareness, and local support has been developed for conserving the endemic Manipur subspecies, and largely halted encroachment of the species habitat (Singh 2004). Status surveys of <em>R. e. eldii</em> have been carried out annually in Keibul Lamjao National Park since 1975 (Ranjitsinh 1996; Singh 2004), and research has been undertaken by Singh (1983; 2004). A Wildlife Institute of India proposal in the 1980s to establish a second free-ranging population in Assam (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1993) was not implemented. Conservation needs are essentially mitigating detrimental effects of the hydropower project on the park, strengthening the protected area management of the park (e.g. through even further improvement of local relations and capacity building), increasing the park?s area to meet the needs of deer through appropriate research and potentially establishing further wild populations in other areas.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary were established specifically to protect <em>R. e. thamin</em> (Salter and Sayer 1986), but little management has been undertaken and despite promising initial efforts, management effectiveness appears to be decreasing (Myint Aung 1990; W.J. McShea pers. comm. 2008). Deer were found on the outskirts of only one other protected area, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, but protection efforts were never extended to cover the appropriate area, and the majority of the remnant area occupied by the species are likely to be outside protected areas (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). A number of reintroductions have taken place into enclosed sites such as Hlawga Wildlife Park, using animals from Rangoon Zoo and the wild. In 1995, an ecological study of radio-collared <em>R. e. thamin</em> was initiated in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary by the Smithsonian Institution, and a community education project commenced later that year to raise local awareness of the deer and the wildlife sanctuary (Wemmer 1995). The Wildlife Division surveys the population annually using a basic line transect method. Conservation measures needed were recently assessed to include extending the protected areas network (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000) but in the interim the most pressing needs seem to be to prevent further deterioration at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and to salvage the Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, if this is possible.<br/><br/>McShea <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued that "only Cambodia, with 11% suitable forest protected, has placed sufficient dry dipterocarp forest under protected status. Other Southeast Asia countries have not recognized dry dipterocarp forest as a significant ecotype worthy of conservation status". It is certainly true that this forest type has been seen as a low priority in the conservation planning of all range states, but consideration that a country has placed 'sufficient' of any habitat type under protected status is subjective and a variety of measures can be used. In this case, 'sufficiency' was judged on the basis of proportion of a country's total suitable habitat that has been nominally protected. An alternative would be to consider factors like the actual amount of protected habitat, and whether this is enough to represent the range of biotic variation within the country; whether such habitat is in large enough blocks to remain ecologically functional into the long term, and whether protection is largely nominal or is genuinely effective. The last dichotomy is likely to be the chief determinant of whether Eld's deer will survive. Considering that no range states yet have existing protected areas which have secured the species on a long-term footing (although there are promising developments in several countries), and considering the speed with which populations can decrease, priority is necessary at present to concentrate most conservation actions for Eld?s deer on securing existing protected areas for key populations which have real potential for success. Determining this potential will reflect situational factors as much or more than ?traditional? biological factors such as current Eld?s deer status within them. Eld?s deer could potentially persist in habitat mosaics of forest and agriculture, as they still do in some areas of Myanmar and Cambodia (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; T. D. Evans pers. comm. 2007), but cultural predisposition to hunting and competing land uses make it unlikely that poaching can be controlled, or habitat management developed, without the context of a protected area, in most range countries (India and perhaps Myanmar being the most likely exceptions).<br/><br/>There are large captive populations of the species, estimated in 2003 to number 180 <em>R. e. eldii</em>, 1,100 <em>R. e. thamin</em>, 23 <em>R. e. siamensis</em> (non-Hainan stock) and 280 <em>R. e. siamensis</em> (Hainan stock), but most captive groups are not managed with conservation in mind (Siriaroonrat 2004). There is some scope for using these animals in reintroduction programmes, particularly in Thailand where Eld?s deer is nationally extinct yet the country is now probably in ?the best financial and bureaucratic position? of all range states to conserve landscape-scale field populations of the species (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
4265	distribution	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species was formerly widely distributed across suitable habitats of South and Southeast Asia, from the Manipur region of northeastern India through much of Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam to the island of Hainan (China) in the east (Salter and Sayer 1986; Grubb 2005). The historical range was broken into four major components, consisting of the Manipur region of India inhabited by <em>R. e. eldii</em>; <em>R. e. thamin</em> on the central plains of Myanmar; <em>R. e. siamensis</em> populations in the lowlands of Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (separated by the mountains along the Thai?Myanmar border from <em>R. e. thamin</em>); and the population on Hainan and former populations in mainland southern China, which appear to have been disjunct outliers of <em>R. e. siamensis</em>, separated from its main range by mountainous terrain in Lao PDR and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>The global Eld?s deer population is currently very localised to small areas within the species' former range. <em>R. e. eldii</em> is now confined to a single small population at the southern end of Loktak Lake in Manipur, India (Singh 2004). <em>R. e. thamin</em> still occurs in several localised areas of central Myanmar, as well as there being introduced populations in Thailand (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; Aung 2004; Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>R. e. siamensis</em> occurs in one or two small localised populations in Lao PDR (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004), and as scattered small subpopulations mainly in the northern and eastern lowlands of Cambodia (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005), and occurs in a relatively wild state in one protected area on Hainan, with additionally several other managed herds on that island (Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
4265	habitat	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Populations in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia seems to have occurred in a variety of primarily open, grass dominated habitats. Most evidence of presence comes from Deciduous Dipterocarp Forests which primarily occur in the highly monsoonal areas of the Mekong plains (Wharton 1957; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), but historical populations known from, for instance, the Nakai and Bolaven plateaux of Lao PDR appear to have used a mosaic of small grasslands and wetlands amongst pine, semi-evergreen and other forest types, and those known from the Dalat and Kirirom plateaux would seemingly have occurred in more extensive pine?savanna habitats (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species may also have occurred in northern Lao PDR, where suitable habitat is localised to a few plains amid the generally unsuitable rugged densely forested terrain but no conclusive records have been traced (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and would have presumably inhabited Mixed Deciduous Forests and grasslands of anthropogenic origin, as Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest does not occur in such northern areas (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Populations in Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest appear to favour open-canopy formations, with grass dominated understory, especially areas with extensive grassland patches (mainly hydrological in origin), and avoid closed-canopy formations where small deciduous bamboos predominate in the understory (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given the highly seasonal nature of such forest areas, permanent wetlands, usually in the form of forest pools or stream bed pools, are likely to be very significant to the species and the densities of animals that a given area can support (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Despite suggestions to the contrary in some sources, there is no evidence that Eld?s deer in these countries are particularly wetland associated, nor is there evidence that the species reached high densities in floodplain tall grasslands (contrary to the case with hog deer) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The hydrological grasslands that the species appears often to associate with are favoured over forest for conversion to rice paddies, and the paddies likewise appear attractive to the deer. Males appear to be fond of wallowing. Anecdotal evidence suggests that deer do not make substantial movements and tend to remain year round within relatively small areas (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Lekagul and McNeely (1988) suggested that Eld?s deer had been ?driven? into drier areas by hunting and habitat destruction. However, this is clearly not the case in Cambodia where historically Eld?s deer were considered one of the most abundant species in the open seasonally very dry forests of the north and east (Wharton 1957). <br/><br/>The Loktak lake population in Manipur, India, inhabits an area of floating marsh called locally ?phumdi? (Singh 1983; 2004). This population has adaptations of the feet which are thought to help the animals move easily in their marshland habitat (Pocock 1943), but Pocock (1943) speculated that elsewhere in north-east India Eld?s deer would also have occupied drier plains. <br/><br/>In Myanmar most Eld?s deer occur in indaing forest, which is usually dominated by the tree <em>Dipterocarpus tuberculatus</em>, and is structurally and ecologically fairly equivalent to the Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest of Indochina and Thailand. There are two other types of deciduous forests used by the deer in Myanmar, dry (thandahat), and mixed (teak). All three forest types receive 100?200 cm of rainfall a year (Prescott 1987; Bronson 1989; McShea <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001; Myint Aung <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pristine habitat is now absent within the Myanmar range of Eld?s deer and all populations use habitats at various stages of secondary succession (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The ecology of animals in Myanmar is likely to be similar to those in Indochina and Thailand reflecting the similarities in habitat, with dry-season movement closely correlated with the locations of water sources (Prescott, 1987; McShea <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001). At the Hlawga wildlife park just outside Yangon, Myanmar, many species of Myanmar?s native wildlife have been introduced. In contrast to hog deer, sambar and northern red muntjac, which have all increased to good populations, Eld?s deer has failed to establish itself within this small fenced area. This is attributed by staff, including a past veterinarian, to the area being too humid (it is said to be outside the native range of Eld?s deer) although this has not been confirmed.<br/><br/>The typical habitat of Eld?s deer in Hainan Island is scrubland and dry grassland together with sparse trees in hills below 200 m asl in altitude (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Eld?s deer feeds on grass and some browse and also take fallen fruits and flowers, and reportedly can live without water for several days. Eld?s deer regularly visits salt licks. Stags are generally solitary except during the rut, while hinds congregate throughout most of the year (Gee 1961; Myint Aung pers. comm. 1996). Wharton (1957) recorded large herds in Cambodia in the 1950s, and Lekagul and McNeely (1988) stated that, prior to hunting reductions, herds of over 50 formed. In Keibul Lamjao National Park, <em>R. e. eldii</em> is thought to move from the ?phumdi? to island hillocks during periods of flooding (Green 1990). In China, the rut is during February?June, with a single fawn born from September to January. In India, calving occurs from mid-October to the end of December. Gestation period is between 237 and 240 days, and sexual maturity is reached at approximately 1.5?2.0 years (Wemmer and Grodinsky 1988).	eng
4265	population	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Based on both habitat extent and size of remaining patches, Myanmar and Cambodia are the pre-eminent countries for Eld's deer (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the actual status of remaining populations is more related to hunting levels.<br/><br/>In Cambodia Eld?s deer still occurs over a relatively wide area, although localised within this, surviving as small remnant groups in the lowland forests of the north and east. The total population could well be several thousand animals in a forest area that probably exceeds 20,000 km², but densities are extremely low (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Survey work in appropriate habitat in the last decade has detected populations in at least 15 separate areas, with anecdotal evidence from several more areas (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2005; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Bird <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in press). A few may remain in the southwest, although there is little evidence other than for one small population in the Phnom Aural area which persisted until at least the late 1990s (Henshaw <em>et al</em>. 2002; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). Declines since the late 1950s, when large herds were still readily seen (Wharton 1957), have been dramatic. Even in the last decade or so, the species has declined by 90% or more, given comparisons of aerial counts in 1994 with ground survey results from 1998 to the present (Olivier and Woodford 1994; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; R.J Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Declines are likely to continue into the future, especially as most remnant groups and animals live either outside protected areas, or in protected areas with little active management. At least a 50% decline in the next 10?15 years seems likely. Populations in the Srepok Wilderness Area, the Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area, the Preah Vihear Protection Forest, Ang Trapeang Thmor Conservation Area and Kulen Wildlife Sanctuary are likely to remain stable and may potentially increase due to ongoing externally funded conservation area management projects (WWF unpublished data; WCS unpublished data; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>R. e. thamin</em> was still relatively widespread and abundant during the mid-1980s on the plains of central and northern Myanmar, where its range centred on the Irrawaddy Plain, including the Bago or Sittang Plain to the east. It was said to be present to the southeast, along the Thai border (Salter and Sayer 1986), and along the western border with Bangladesh (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), but these records are doubtful and a questionnaire in 1992 and surveys in 1997 could only find evidence for the species in the northeast (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1992 a countrywide questionnaire was distributed by the then Wildlife Department of Myanmar, this resulted in reports of Eld?s deer from 28 Myanmar townships, and 2,200 Eld?s deer were estimated to remain within Myanmar, with the largest population (over 1,200 deer) in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (Myint Aung 1994; McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). Regular transect surveys in Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary between 1983 and 1996 indicated a population decline of upwards of 40% (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000), with a population estimated at about 500 deer in the latter years (Myint Aung pers. comm. 1996). A nationwide survey of Myanmar in 1997 found evidence of Eld?s deer within 23 of 24 townships surveyed, out of the 28 that were reported to contain Eld?s deer in 1992. The four unsurveyed townships were considered very unlikely to still harbour deer because of the little remaining habitat within them (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000). By 2003 a repeat of the 1992 surveys concluded that deer had disappeared from four townships and had declined in at least another four, but there were signs that in some townships populations were stable or even increasing (Myint Aung 2004). Increases and decreases were in part put down to reforestation efforts and habitat loss respectively (Myint Aung 2004). Conditions in Myanmar for Eld?s deer have deteriorated in the most recent years. At Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, favourable habitat has been taken over by agriculture. Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary is now the only viable population with nominal protection, and habitat currently appears more secure, but protection efforts appear to be failing, at least partly reflecting changes in management. Since funding from the Smithsonian Institution ceased in 2003, the amount of patrolling and the Eld?s deer population have both decreased every year (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008); a causal link seems inescapable. A population detected on the outskirts of Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park was never protected by inclusion in the national park, and elsewhere in the country other populations and large blocks of suitable habitat have not been gazetted into the protected area system despite hopes that they would be (McShea <em>et al</em>. 2000; W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). No large populations have been found outside of Chatthin WS, and indeed all new populations detected in recent years have been based on sporadic records in planted teak forests, with numbers too low to attempt any empirical estimate of population (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008). The rate of net removal of forest is high within Eld?s deer range, even taking into consideration efforts to plant teak, giving further cause for concern (W. McShea pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR there are one or two known populations. One (of probably under 100 animals) is in Savannakhet province (central Lao PDR) and has been the focus of a small-scale species-specific conservation project, with regular subjective monitoring of the population (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004; A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007). Activities lapsed in 2007, but options are being assessed for restarting support. In the late 1990s another small population, of probably the low dozens of animals, was found from Champasak Province, far south-western Lao PDR, in areas adjacent to the Dong Khanthung Provincial Protected Area, but there has been no recent re-evaluation of the site and it is quite plausible that the species has been hunted out there (Round 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; A. Johnson pers. comm. 2007; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely, given the distribution of suitable habitat, the distribution of the human population, and the pervasive hunting culture in Lao PDR that any more significant populations of the species remain to be found (R.J. Timmins pers. obs.); lowland Savannakhet province was the only unprotected part of Lao PDR where in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999: 41) recommended additional surveys of large mammals as likely to reveal new conservation priorities. One population was indeed found but since that was written, options for others have greatly declined due to extensive road-building, conversion of remaining dry forest habitat and assignment of much of the rest to plantation concessions (particularly on the western plains of the province) and continued extremely high levels of trade-driven large mammal hunting make the chances of any others remaining now very low (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008 from field assessment in late 2007).<br/><br/>Survival in Viet Nam is now very doubtful. Eld?s deer is still reported by local inhabitants (e.g. as reported in Nguyen Xuan Dang and Nguyen Thi Thuy (2004), but field surveys of such areas have failed to find the species (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). Perhaps a few animals remain along the border with Cambodia (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006), but repeated recent surveys of one of the more promising areas, Yok Don National Park, has not produced good evidence (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2004). The reported distributions given by Dang Huy Huynh (1990) and Ratajszczak (1991) were either overly optimistic and based on unverified evidence, or indicate a recent swift decline in the species in Viet Nam; probably both factors are responsible.<br/><br/>Continued presence of ancestral wild populations in Thailand is also now very unlikely. Very occasional reports, which are largely unverifiable, continue to be made, primarily in the Thailand?Lao PDR?Cambodia triborder area, and the Huai Kha Khaeng WS (e.g. Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). At best a few remnant individuals may survive or immigrate. The Thai Royal Forestry Department has a captive breeding programme for both <em>R. e. thamin</em> and <em>R. e. eldii</em> and there have been attempts at introduction of the former in two areas (where it was never a native subspecies); numbers living in a ?wild state? are in the low tens (Naris Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Although once distributed in the tropical zone of southwest Yunnan and further east, the South China Eld?s deer has long been extirpated (Smith </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. in press; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By the 1970s the only remaining Chinese populations were on Hainan and had declined to some 40 animals in Dong Fang and Bai Sha Counties, primarily due to poaching, from a reported 500 individuals in 1950s (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). In 1976 two protected areas, the Datian Nature Reserve, and the Bangxi NR, West Hainan, were founded around the two last remaining isolated herds of deer, with 26 and 20 animals respectively (Song and Zeng 2004; Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By 1981 the Bangxi NR population had been exterminated by poaching (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). The animals in Datian NR were kept in fenced enclosures while the population grew, and at the current time the whole c. 13 km² of the reserve is enclosed (Song 1996; Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). Initial problems with conservation efforts at Datian included encroachment of almost half its habitat by agriculture since its establishment, deer deaths through drought and overcrowding in small enclosures, and some poaching (Pang </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2003; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). By 1991 the Chinese population had rebounded to 346 animals, of which 261 were within the Datian Nature Reserve (Yuan </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 1993). By 2003 there were about 1,000 animals in Datian NR, and beginning in 1986 captive and semi-wild populations were established at other facilities, the total population in which was approximately 260 animals in 2003 (Song and Zeng 2004; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). A semi-wild herd was founded once again in Bangxi NR, and by 2002 the population there was reportedly 115 animals (</span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). In 2003 a third ?wild? herd was founded in Mihouling Reserve (Song and Zeng 2004; </span>Zeng<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><em>et al</em><span style="background-color: white;">. 2005). </span><br/><br/>In India, <em>R. e. eldii</em> was thought to be extinct in the early 1950s but was subsequently rediscovered. By 1975, the only remaining wild population had declined to about 14 animals in the swamps of Loktak Lake, Manipur (Ranjitsinh 1978). On this basis, a floating marsh on the southern end of Loktak Lake was gazetted in 1977 as the Keibul Lamjao National Park (Ranjitsinh 1978). The population was reported to have increased to about 137 by 1994 (Singsit 1994; Singh 2004), and by 2003 censuses indicated a total of about 180 animals (Singh 2004). There are additionally similar numbers in captive conditions in India (Salter and Sayer 1986; Decoux 1993).	eng
4265	threats	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam the most obvious threat to Eld?s deer is hunting, which in addition to local consumption of meat is driven by a thriving and probably increasing trade in bushmeat, a national, regional and East Asian market for traditional medicinal products derived from the species, and a regional international market for trophy antlers (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). The influence of traditional medicinal trade is uncertain, but may be very significant as products derived from the species are reportedly more valuable than are those from other deer (Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some hunting in Cambodia is probably also driven by a demand for captive animals especially from zoos and menageries in Thailand and Cambodia (Salter and Sayer 1986; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species is apparently easy to hunt compared with other sympatric deer, and fawns are likely to be very vulnerable to dogs which almost always accompany human parties during forest visits, even when the visits are not for hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The effects of hunting have been exacerbated by forest loss and fragmentation which is rapidly accelerating with human population in-migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction. Selective logging was initially one of the main driving forces, but it is now of relatively minor concern (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Human in-migration and subsequent agricultural encroachment into forest areas tends to concentrate on those habitats most used by Eld?s deer, and thus the species has suffered more than most from hunting (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005). As an inhabitant of relatively open habitat through which travel and transport are easy, it is also likely to have been more heavily affected by a given level of hunting effort compared with species of rugged, dense hill evergreen forest; a similar scenario has been postulated for Jungle Cat <em>Felis chaus</em> (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Habitat loss <em>per se</em> is generally a lesser threat (especially in recent decades), and although huge tracts of suitable habitat have been lost in the last century, at least in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam this has probably largely occurred after Eld?s deer have been hunted out (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Probably the most significant challenge to conserving the species in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam is the uncertainty involved with long-term protected-area based conservation management. Protected areas, even those that at present have relatively active and effective management, face an uncertain future with the possibility of excision of conservation status for parts or all of some, the lack of long-term security in external funding adequate to maintain high standards of management, fluctuations in political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the consequential difficulties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff. Currently most protected areas that could or do support Eld?s deer in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam offer the species little if, any, protection (exceptions are listed under Conservation Measures).<br/><br/>Protected areas, primarily those along the triborder area of Thailand where it adjoins both Lao PDR and Cambodia, and the Huai Kha Khaeng WS, were unable to prevent the decline and likely extirpation of Eld?s deer from the wild in Thailand (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004). This decline was likely to have been driven by much the same reasons as in Indochina. If any Eld?s deer do remain in the wild there, it seems unlikely that they will ever recover unassisted. There are few data on the introduced populations of <em>R. e. thamin</em> to non-native areas (see Bhumpakphan <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Threats to the species in Myanmar appear to be similar to those in Indochina, with perhaps more emphasis on exploitation for meat (Salter and Sayer 1986; Myint Aung pers. comm. 1997). Habitat loss in some range areas is still ongoing (Myint Aung 2004) and Koy <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that ?patterns of percentage tree canopy-cover were negatively correlated with human population density, suggesting further threats to Eld's deer populations as the human population continues to grow?. A support programme for the main site, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, had an encouraging start but following cessation of external funding the population is now in decline (see Population), while other protected areas in the country either failed to include appropriate habitat for the species (e.g. Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park) or failed to protect the habitat even within the protected area (e.g. Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary). Overall, the challenges of generating functional protected areas which will sustain Eld?s deer are similar to, and under current conditions even more daunting than, those outlined for Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (above). In general, protected areas in Myanmar are themselves highly threatened by major shortfalls in funding and political will (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The population on Hainan faces an uncertain future as a wild animal without hands-on management because protected area management has not been effective in preventing poaching (see Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Loss of suitable habitat has been extensive and is continuing, but large enough areas probably remain for further population expansion, provided that herds in such situations could be adequately protected from poaching (see Zeng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Genetic analyses of the population suggest that there is low diversity resulting from a population bottleneck, and this could in the future threaten the population?s viability (Pang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Indian populations of Eld?s deer declined due to some combination of hunting and habitat loss. Even at the Keibul Lamjao National Park, the habitats of the deer have been encroached for grazing, cultivation, and fish farming (Green 1990), but this seems to be mainly now under control (Singh 2004). This population is now most threatened by a hydro-electric project in Logtak Lake which maintains unnaturally high water levels during the dry season and has changed water flow patterns and water quality in the lake (Singh 2004). These in turn appear to be affecting the ecology of the Keibul Lamjao National Park floating marsh (Singh 2004; Sanjit <em>et al</em>. 2005). Floods could also seriously affect the population, which has no high ground to which it can easily escape (Singh 2004). There may also be the threat of low genetic diversity resulting from the effect of a very small founder population (Balakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2004) and as a small isolated population it must also be considered at risk from disease transfer from domestic livestock, and potentially other factors.<br/><br/>Eld?s deer readily grazes on rice and some other agricultural products (McShea and Myint Aung 2001). This provides some potential for human?wildlife conflict, but under current conditions populations seem to be too low for this to be a serious problem (e.g. at the Chonbuly district population, Savannakhet province, Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Retributory killing may become more of a threat if populations are successfully rebuilt in areas close to agriculture.	eng
4273	conservation	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Heaney, L. & Lastica, E., 2008	This species is fully protected under Philippine law, but effective enforcement is wanting in most in most areas. A number of new protected areas have been established within the range of the species, but management and enforcement likewise remains ineffective in most (perhaps all) such areas. Awareness levels have increased greatly; unfortunately, this has not yet lead to a change in behaviour in terms of hunting pressure. The species occurs in small populations in several protected areas: Mount Canlaon National Park (8,000 ha); North Negros Forest Reserve (c. 18,000 ha); Mount Talinis/Lake Balinsasayao Reserve (c. 11,000 ha); and the proposed West Panay Mountains National Park (c. 70,000 ha). However, the formal declaration of the latter area was eventually stymied by lack of unanimity amongst relevant local government units and a number of separate, smaller areas have since been declared, though these do not cover all of the most important sites, nor have any of these areas been significantly better protected since declaration owing the absence of any corresponding national budgetary allocations. Small numbers of individuals are also reported to survive in and Hinoba-an in southwestern Negros Oriental, though there is now very little forest remaining in this area.<br/><br/>The Philippine Spotted Deer Conservation Programme (PSDCP) was formally established in April in 1990 under the aupices of a new Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, Government of the Philippines) and the Parc Zoologique et Botanique de la Ville Mulhouse (Mulhouse Zoo, France), to enable development of a properly structured conservation breeding programme (viz: the  ‘World Herd’ of captive <em>R. alfredi</em>) based on the accession of donated and confiscated individuals, previously illegally held as pets by private owners, and to initiate a variety of other related, highest conservation priority activities. These included: development of three local wildlife rescue and breeding centres (two on Negros, one on Panay); wide-ranging field surveys and other field studies; assistance in the establishment of new protected areas and related habitat restoration measures; distribution-wide public awareness campaigns; and diverse personnel training and other local capacity-building initiatives. This  programme has since constituted easily the most successful programme of its kind in the Philippine but, and more importantly, it was also established and managed as a ‘flagship’ species/programme for the ‘West Visayas (or ‘Negros-Panay’) Faunal Region’; one of the world’s highest conservation priority areas in terms of both numbers of threatened endemic taxa and degrees of threat. As such the PSCDP has also constituted the principal driving force behind a diverse range of related conservation activities principally focused on a number of other most threatened West Visayan endemic species and species’ groups. As of 31 December 2006, there were also nearly 200 individuals of Negros Island origin and over 50 individuals of Panay Island origin in the captive breeding programme, and efforts are currently to conduct the first species reintroduction projects in the Philippines, and to do this by means of enabling the development of additional protected areas and/or the far more effective protection and restoration of selected existing protected areas (W. Oliver, 1996; Oliver <em>et al</em>, 2003, 2007) <br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1.Enhance management and protection of existing protected areas, most of which effectively ‘unmanaged’ and ‘unprotected’ at present owing any national budgetary resource allocations for these areas. One means of doing this would be to faciliate development of co-management agreements between the relevant national and local government agencies; thereby both actively involving the latter and enabling the allocation of annual local (provincial and municipal) budgetary appropriations for these purposes.<br/><br/>2. Establishment of new ‘local conservation areas’ (in effect ‘municipal reserves’) via the Philippine ‘Local Government Code’, and/or private nature reserves; either or both of which avoid the cumbersome processes of the “National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)’, which effectively transfers administrative authority for these areas to seriously under-resourced national government agencies, which are thus ill-equipped to development and implement effective protection and restoration measures. <br/><br/>3. Reinvestigate the current status of this species on Masbate and develop and implement relevant conservation management recommendations for the enhanced future protection of any remaining native forest habitats and the potential future reintroduction of this (and other West Visayan endemic species) on this island and on Cebu (where <em>R. alfredi</em> was extirpated in the mid-twentieth century), and in other selected ‘vacant’ habitats on Panay and Negros Islands. <br/><br/>4. Implement priority recommendations re. local awareness-raising arising from recent, range-wide ‘ethnobiological’ surveys, revealing both currently low levels of awareness re. local protection legislation and overwhelming prevalence of ‘recreational’ (rather than ‘subsistence’) hunting in all key sectors.<br/><br/>5. Monitor and control illegal captures and movement of spotted deer; assess status of privately-held captive stocks and continue attempts to access animals of known origin for a collaborative breeding program; develop and extend breeding program through dispersal of breeding stocks on loan to reputable (breeding loan signatory) institutions, which are also prepared to contribute resources and technical assistance for relevant <em>in-situ</em> conservation activities under the aegis of this “flagship” program. Extend these activities to other critically threatened Visayan endemic species and their habitats.<br/><br/>6. Conduct (or complete) systematic (including mtDNA) research on intra- and inter-population variation amongst surviving Negros and Panay Island populations.	eng
4273	distribution	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Heaney, L. & Lastica, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Visayan Islands (or Negros-Panay Faunal Region) of the central Philippines. The species was previously found on Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Cebu, Masbate and probably Ticao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a, 1996). Presently, the species is restricted to the Mount Madja - Mount Baloy area of west Panay and a few scattered remnants of forest on Negros (Cox 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1992). It was extirpated on Cebu in the mid-twentieth century. A few individuals were reported to survive on Masbate between 1991 and 1993, but the population there is almost certainly extinct or ‘functionally extinct’. It is not known whether <em>R. alfredi</em> or <em>R. mariannus</em> occurred formerly on Siquijor, where no deer now survive, but this species is replaced by <em>R. mariannus</em> on Bohol and all other larger Philippine Islands east of Huxley’s Line (i.e. excluding Palawan) (Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a, 1996).	eng
4273	habitat	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Heaney, L. & Lastica, E., 2008	The species formerly occurred from sea-level to at least 2,000 m asl in primary forest and second growth. It can persist in some degraded habitats such as cogon grasslands as long as there are areas of dense cover. The preferred habitat of this species is not clear, since it is now restricted to steep, rugged slopes of dipterocarp forest that are innaccessible to humans (Cox, 1987). It was known to rely on dense forest for refuge (Rabor, 1977), but also frequents open grassy patches and secondary communities. Rabor (1977) reports that the main constituents of their diet are young shoots of cogon grass (found in clearings) and young low-growing leaves and buds within forests. It is predominately a browser, but also a grazer (captive animals also relish fruit). They also visit burnt forest clearings for the mineral content of floral ash, as well as the pioneering shoots. All local reports indicate an average group size of one to three individuals - mostly solitary males and females with single young – though it remains unclear whether or not these small group sizes are a function of continued and sustained hunting pressure, particularly as much larger numbers of individuals have been maintained peacefully together in captivity for indefinite periods (W. Oliver, pers. obs.). The species breeds year round in captivity and young animals are reported to be captured in the wild at all times of the year.	eng
4273	population	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Heaney, L. & Lastica, E., 2008	The species is considered to be rare throughout its present, limited range. Populations are severely fragmented and declining, although the species is evidently able to utilise a wide variety of habitats. Currently, the species is estimated to have been extirpated from at 95% to 98% of its former range (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; 1996). There is no global estimate of the population size, but it is reasonable to suppose that it is less than 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
4273	threats	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Heaney, L. & Lastica, E., 2008	This species has declined primarily as a result of habitat conversion (agriculture and logging) and hunting (Cox 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; Oliver 1992). Despite being fully protected by law, this species is still intensively hunted throughout its remaining range; both by local farmers in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities; both of which groups use the species as game (for meat and trophies), rather than for subsistence purposes (Cox, 1987; Evans <em>et al</em>., 1993; Oliver, 1994; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992). Both of these groups may also sell any surplus meat as venison in local markets or to speciality restaurants; whereas local hunters from upland communities also specialize in live-captures to meet strong demand for these animals as pets (particularly amongst local politicians). Many of these are supplied by the orphans of hunter-killed animals, though almost all such captive stocks also include animals captured as adults in leg snares, as evinced by the amputation of their lower limbs.<br/><br/>There is continuing severe habitat fragmentation and reduction of populations from illegal logging and agricultural expansion, and some populations are now so reduced in size as to be of doubtful viability. Hybridization with <em>R. mariannus</em> has been repeatedly observed amongst poorly (i.e. unscientifically) managed captive stocks of these two species, but (and despite previously published fears to the contrary) is most unlikely to pose any additional threats to the few surviving populations of <em>R. alfredi</em> given the evident allopatry in the natural ranges of these two species (Cox, 1987; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991; Oliver 1993a, 1996, unpubl.)	eng
4274	conservation	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Ong, P. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	Enforcement of existing regulations and protected area management is inadequate and requires strengthening. Some subpopulations or subspecies are severely threatened and may need to be considered individually for management purposes. Captive breeding of this species was advocated by the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB) as a means of supporting rural communities. A large herd mixed with domestic stock is maintained on a ranch in Batangas, medium-sized deer farms (30–40 animals) exist in the Bicol region, and small backyard farms (3–5 animals) are found on Luzon. However, it is most unlikely that these initiatives might ever mitigate threats to any wild populations, as originally supposed, partly because of the increased demand for wild-caught founder breeding stocks, but also (and perhaps more importantly) it is virtually inconceivable that the commensurate establishment of legal markets in locally produced venison would not be widely abused for the continued sale of illegally-caught specimens; especially given the ineffective enforcement of existing protective legislation pertaining to these and other commercially valuable species.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1. Conduct surveys of Philippine deer populations on all major islands to determine their relative abundance, and the nature and extent of threats, and efficacy of any existing protective measures.<br/>2. (Re-)investigate the systematic relationships of these animals from and within all major islands, especially within the ‘Greater Mindanao Faunal Region’, and secure comparative specimens from currently undescribed populations on Samar, Leyte and other smaller islands.<br/>3. Identify most ‘at risk’ populations based on the aforementioned surveys and systematic studies, and formulate and implement consensual recommendations for the enhanced future protection (and/or recovery) of the most threatened populations/taxa; any such recommendations to also include: the development of new ‘protected areas’ (and/or enhanced protection and management of existing protected areas) where existing habitat and species’ protection measures are clearly inadequate at present; and the re-evaluation and amendment of the evident existing anomalies between permissible subsistence hunting of non-threatened species by indigenous people <em>versus</em> contrary and more recent amendments to the threatened status rankings of traditionally targeted species/subspecies, and/or genuine subsistence hunting <em>versus</em> recreational (and/or commercial) hunting by local community hunters who are no longer economically dependant on such resources. <br/>4. Conduct a field investigation of species in an undisturbed population, preferably within a protected area.<br/>5. Re-examine the whole precepts of local deer farming initiatives in the Philippines, and the extend to which they help or hinder conservation.	eng
4274	distribution	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Ong, P. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the Negros-Panay Faunal Region, the Babuyan/Batanes groups, the Palawan Faunal Region, the Sulu Faunal Region, and other isolated islets (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992). It has been recorded on Luzon, Polillo and Catanduanes; Mindoro; Samar, Leyte, Biliran (where it is now extinct; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993), Bohol (where it is possibly extinct; Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1992), Mindanao and Basilan Islands) and Marinduque (where it might also be extinct (W. Oliver pers. comm.)), but is apparently absent from both Dinagat and Siargao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Grubb, 2005. It has a highly fragmented distribution on most of the islands on which it survives, and was undoubtedly more extensively distributed in the past.<br/><br/>Populations have been introduced on Guam, Mariana and Caroline islands in the western Pacific (Grubb 2005). The species was introduced onto the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands (Japan) in late 18th to early 19th centuries by Spanish ships, but went extinct there by about 1925; the species was introduced there again from Guam after World War II, but does not currently occur there (Miura and Yoshihara, 2002; Grubb, 2005).	eng
4274	habitat	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Ong, P. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	This species formerly occured from sea-level up to at least 2,900 m asl in primary and secondary forest (Taylor, 1934; Sanborn, 1952; Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998).  The Mindoro subspecies also frequents open grasslands, where it may be able to persist. In general, however, this is a forest species, which forages in grassland.	eng
4274	population	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Ong, P. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	Populations of this species are fragmented, but are reported to be locally common in isolated areas, but heavily hunted and declining throughout most of its range (Danielsen <em>et al</em>., 1994). The largest populations are located on Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, and Leyte (Oliver <em>et al</em>., 1991). Local extinctions have been reported on Biliran (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993), and probably Bohol and Marinduque (W. Oliver pers. comm.). Population declines have been reported in the subspecies <em>R. m. barandana</em>, which has the most restricted range on Mindoro, and which island has been severely deforested, especially in lowland areas (Oliver <em>et al</em>. , 1991). The overall population of the species remains unknown, but a decline of 30% over three generations (estimated at 24 years) seems plausible.	eng
4274	threats	Oliver, W., MacKinnon, J., Ong, P. & Gonzales, J.C., 2008	The species is threatened due to continuing and severe loss of habitat due to illegal logging, human encroachment, agricultural encroachment and mining (Villamor, 1991). It is intensively hunted throughout its range for meat, hides, trophies, and trade, and legal protective measures are often not enforced (Villamor, 1991). Some subpopulations or subspecies are now severely threatened. Removal of animals from the wild for commercial purposes and the establishment of deer farms near protected areas (consisting of this species and introduced/foreign species) are a potential threat through the spread of disease and hybridization. Because of its small population size, the Mindoro subspecies (<em>R. m. barandana</em>) is highly threatened, due to the same causes (with intense habitat loss, as over 90% of forest cover has gone on the island).	eng
4288	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Robichaud, W.G. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	As an extinct species there are no appropriate conservation measures. The indication that a remnant population might still survive (Schroering 1995 and <em>in litt</em>. as reported in Grubb 2005; MacPhee and Flemming 1999) was followed up by investigation, independently by several people, of Phongsali province, Lao PDR, by field survey and interview. This failed to find any further evidence of the species there or to elicit a consistent story of the origin of the antlers (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; per J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Given regional trends in Schomburgk’s deer’s sole known habitat, non-forest floodplains (its massive conversion to agriculture over the last 150 years) it is unlikely that the species could survive. However, any future indication of its existence should be followed up carefully. If by chance the species does survive, legislation giving it the highest levels of protection (in whatever country it was found), and an assessment of specific conservation needs would be imperative.	eng
4288	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Robichaud, W.G. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	<em>Rucervus schomburgki</em> was endemic to Thailand and is thought to have become extinct when the last captive individual was killed in 1938; the last known wild animals were killed in 1932 near Sai Yoke and Kwae Yai, although this date was not universally accepted at the time (Harper 1945; Lekagul and McNeely 1988). The recent range in Thailand seems to have lain within 13°30′–18°N, 98°30′–102°E, comprising the central plain of Thailand (Giles 1937; Harper 1945; G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Attempts to circumscribe the range have, however, been bedevilled by a surprisingly large number of statements of occurrence elsewhere.<br/><br/>Statements of occurrence in the Sanda Valley, Yunnan, China by Sclater (1891: 180) and Bentham (1908) led to this locality being included without any caveat by Grubb (2005), and relate to both a frontlet and a skin. However, Sclater (1891) listed the set of antlers as of unknown locality, and the skin has a "?" mark that makes its Sanda Valley locality no more than tentative (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Then, Bentham (1908) indicated that the antlers had been collected in the Sanda Valley by John Anderson in 1878, without giving explicit source for this statement. In fact, Anderson was in the Sanda Valley in 1868, not 1878, and moreover recorded no such antlers in his thorough write-up of zoological results of his Yunnan expeditions. This locality assignment for the antlers should be seen as an error of Bentham's, presumably stemming from the earlier, tentative, assignment of Sanda Valley to the deer skin Sclater also reported (G. J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Pocock (1943) included under distribution of the species “N. Siam [Thailand] and, it has been alleged, Yunnan and Lao PDR”, indicating his own concern with the Sanda valley ‘evidence’. The Shan states (Myanmar) have also figured as part of the species’s range, e.g. by Blanford (1891: 540). Reference to historical occurrence in these areas seems to stem from Brooke (1876), who wrote, based on written communication from a Dr Campbell of the Bangkok British Consulate) in reference to new specimens sent to him that ". . . all specimens were procured in northern Siam, probably even in the tributary states named Lao PDR and Shan". Campbell seems to have based his opinion at least partly on what professional indigenous hunters told him or others. Brooke gave no definition of "northern Siam" (conceivably it simply meant some way north of Bangkok), and Lao PDR in this context could well have included part or all of the Korat Plateau and other areas in present-day Thailand which are ethnically Lao and were often referred to in the past by terms such as ‘Siamese Lao PDR’. It is not even clear that Lao PDR and Shan were not just speculation on the part of Campbell and/or Brooke (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Not surprisingly, Harper (1945) considered the Shan states report to be “highly indefinite” and occurrence in “Indo-China” [presumably = Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam] to be “in error”, although he took the ‘Sanda valley’ frontlet as “apparently authentic”, perhaps being focussed on the identity (which is not in doubt) rather than the provenance (presumably assuming that the association with the highly-respected Anderson’s name was enough). A more modern reanalysis concluded that "the northern Thailand, Myanmar, Yunnan, and Lao PDR range extensions suggested in the literature are based on erroneous or quite inconclusive items of evidence", sometimes perhaps influenced by a switch of Thai names between Eld’s and Schomburgk’s deer by Flower (1900) (G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Two loose antlers, presumed to be a pair, of Schomburgk’s deer photographed in Phongsali province, far northern Lao PDR, in 1991 were a most surprising find. This has been taken to suggest the species might survive, at least into the 1980s, and that it did indeed occur in Lao PDR (Schroering 1995) and it was even taken as sufficient evidence that the species was not extinct by MacPhee and Flemming (1999). However, while these are indeed Schomburgk’s deer antlers, it has proven impossible to recover a consistent story from their owner of the antlers’ origin (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and there is no compelling evidence that they had come from a recently killed animal, rather than being decades-old stock still in trade; Williams (1941) noted that even then that Schomburgk’s deer antlers "keep coming down to Bangkok from Paknampo and Korat by railway amongst collections of ordinary deer-horns consigned to Bangkok Chinamen . . . the horns are probably quite old . . ." and Schomburgk’s deer antlers are still in trade in Thailand (Srikosmatara <em>et al</em>. 1992). The owner of the antlers was, according to his daughter, a middleman trader in wildlife parts sourced from all over Indochina (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008, based on visit in 1996). Consequently, while remains of the species have been seen in Lao PDR in recent times, they cannot be taken as evidence that the species survives today, or ever occurred in Lao PDR.	eng
4288	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Robichaud, W.G. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The species inhabited seasonally inundated swampy plains with long grass, cane, and shrubs; it apparently avoided forest (Giles 1937), although there seems to be no information on where animals went at the height of the wet season, when much of the dry-season range was under water.	eng
4288	population	Duckworth, J.W., Robichaud, W.G. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Schomburgk’s deer was apparently “not uncommon” in the late nineteenth century and herds still occurred around 1900–1910 (Harper 1945), but the species underwent a very rapid decline: Harper (1945) stated that it was never seen in the wild state by a European (although this may be better taken as a lack of such reports, because Europeans working, for example, on the Paknampo railway in the early days would almost surely have seen and hunted these deer; G.J. Galbreath <em>in litt</em>. 2008). The usually successful hunter Arthur S. Vernay made three trips to Thailand specifically for the species, the first in 1920, but failed to see the species. There are some hundreds of skulls, frontlet and antlers in collections (Harper 1945), but the species is now extinct.	eng
4288	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Robichaud, W.G. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Commercial production of rice for export began in the late nineteenth century in Thailand’s central plains, leading to the loss of nearly all the grassland and swamp areas that this deer depended on, and greatly fragmented what remained. Intensive hunting pressure at the turn of the 19th–20th century restricted the species further and it disappeared in the 1930s. Schomburgk’s deer was prominent in the antlers sought by the Chinese medicine trade (Harper 1945). During the wet season, animals marooned on higher ground were hunted readily with spears from boats (Harper 1945), no doubt hastening the species' decline.	eng
4292	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2005	The Basking Shark is strictly protected under wildlife legislation within 12 nautical miles of the Isle of Man and Guernsey (United Kingdom dependent territories) and in British waters. It is protected in US Federal waters (including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) by a National Marine Fisheries Service rule for Atlantic shark fisheries, which prohibits directed commercial fishing, landing and sale of the species and in Florida State waters. The basking shark is one of several species partially protected through New Zealand?s Fisheries Act (1983). Commercial target fishing has been banned since 1991, but bycatch may be utilised. The liver and fins are landed and the fins almost certainly exported. The Basking Shark is listed on Annex II (Endangered or Threatened Species) of the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea (1976) Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, but only Malta has legally protected the species. The Mediterranean population is also listed on Appendix I of the Bern Convention for the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats, subject to a European Commission reservation. A UK government proposal for an Appendix II listing on CITES was narrowly defeated in 2000, but was followed by an Appendix III listing in Europe later that year. Japan and Norway, the world's two main trading nations, took reservations on this listing. An Appendix II proposal, accepted by the 12th Conference of the Parties in 2002, came into effect at the end of February 2003 (www.cites.org). This requires international trade to be monitored and derived from sustainably managed fisheries.	eng
4292	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2005	Basking Sharks occur in temperate and boreal oceans. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs from the transition between Atlantic and Arctic waters (including the Gulf of Maine, south and west of Iceland and off the North Cape of Norway and Russia) to the Mediterranean, and occasionally as far south as Senegal and Florida. In the North Pacific, around Japan and off the Chinese coast, and from California north to British Columbia. In the southern hemisphere, recorded from South Africa, Brazil to Ecuador in South America, southern Australia and New Zealand (Compagno 1984a). Most records are from surface waters during spring and summer, with some reports from deep water in winter (Francis and Duffy 2002, Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003). A seasonal migration may occur, either from deep to shallow water or from lower to higher latitudes in warmer weather (the latter is not supported by recent UK observations (Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003)). Most records occur within a narrow range of water temperatures: 8°?14°C in the UK, Japan and Newfoundland, but up to 24°C in New England, USA. Records in warmer waters are generally of moribund or stranded specimens. At least some populations are migratory (Sims <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly seasonally segregated by sex; the winter distribution of most populations and locations used by pregnant females are unknown, although it seems likely that wintering sharks occur mainly in deep shelf water (Francis and Duffy 2002, Sims <em>et al. </em>2003). The different morphological characteristics of basking sharks in the Pacific and the North and South Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984a), but geographically isolated populations.	eng
4292	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2005	This shark is named from its habit of ?basking? on the surface in good weather conditions, usually singly or in small groups, although it also carries out extensive vertical migrations between the surface and deep water on the continental shelf and shelf-edge (Sims <em>et al</em>. 2003). Basking sharks are often associated with surface aggregations of zooplankton (Kunzlik 1988, Earll and Turner 1993), particularly along tidal and shelf-break fronts (Sims <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2003, Sims and Quayle 1998, Speedie 1998), where they feed on small fish, fish eggs and zooplankton by swimming open-mouthed with gill rakers erect and extended across the gaps between the gill arches to form a sieve (Stendall 1933, Matthews and Parker 1950, Van Deinse and Adriani 1953). <br/><br/>The large liver and high squalene levels (Burandeen and Richards-Rajadurai 1986) are characteristic of deepwater sharks. Deepwater pelagic shrimps (from >100 m) found in the stomach of a basking shark in Japan first indicated mesopelagic food sources (Mutoh and Omori 1978). Few sharks are recorded from coastal and surface waters in winter, indicating a migration into warmer regions or deep water, although there are surface records from Monterey Bay in winter (Squire 1990, Baduini 1995). A few winter specimens from the northeast Atlantic had shed their gill rakers, indicating that they were not feeding during this period of low zooplankton abundance. It was suggested that Basking Sharks might rest in deep water in winter (Parker and Boeseman 1954), utilising food reserves in the large liver. Energetics and tagging studies, however, indicate that feeding still takes place at this time and that extensive horizontal and vertical migrations are undertaken throughout the winter, on and near the edge of the Northeast Atlantic continental shelf (Sims <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2003). A New Zealand winter hoki fishery, targeting fish aggregated in deep water for spawning, takes a bycatch of Basking Sharks that may be feeding on the energy-rich eggs (Francis and Duffy 2002), while Sims <em>et al. </em>(2003) suggest that deep-diving sharks may feed on over-wintering copepods. <br/><br/>The reproductive biology of Basking Sharks is considered to be similar to that of other lamnoid sharks (Kunzlik 1988). Pairing takes place in early summer, wounds caused by copulation having been recorded in British waters in May by Matthews (1950). A single functional ovary contains a very large number of small eggs. Ovoviviparity occurs: embryos hatch within the uterus. Other lamnoid sharks exhibit embryonic ovophagy, in which the mother continues to produce infertile eggs on which the embryos can feed; the Basking Shark probably has the same strategy. Estimates for gestation period range from 12?36 months (Parker and Stott 1965, Pauly 1978, 2002, Compagno 1984a). The only record of a pregnant female was made by a Norwegian fisherman, who caught a shark which gave birth to five live young and one still-born, estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 m in length (Sund 1943). This indicates birth at a larger size than any other known ovoviviparous or viviparous shark. The catch from commercial surface fisheries is almost entirely non-pregnant females (e.g. Watkins 1958). It is thought there is likely a resting period of at least a year between pregnancies, and therefore a 2?4 year interval between litters (Parker and Stott 1965, Pauly 1978, 2002, Compagno 1984a). Pregnant females must normally segregate to an area where no fishery takes place (probably in deep water). Lien and Fawcett (1986) recorded twice as many males as females in incidental catches in deeper water around Newfoundland, indicating segregation of the sexes.<br/><br/>The smallest free-swimming individuals recorded are about 1.7?1.8 m (Parker and Stott 1965). However, the young are very rarely encountered until they reach more than 3 m in length. Growth is about 40 cm annually (Pauly 1978, 2002, Watterson in litt.). Males become sexually mature at a length of 5?7 m, age unknown, but possibly 12?16 years. Females are mature at 8.1?9.8 m and perhaps 16?20 years (Compagno 1984a). Pauly (1978) suggested mean age at first maturity for females as 18 years and that a shark of 9.6 m was 31 years old. There are unconfirmed measurements of 12.76 m (a theoretical maximum from Parker and Stott 1965) and 13.72 m (Holden 1974). Theoretically, longevity is about 50 years, though much more work on the age, growth and demographics of this species is needed. It is estimated that the natural mortality is low (M~0.07 per year) (Pauly 2002).	eng
4292	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2005	Anon. (2002c) describes historical and modern fisheries. The Basking Shark has been exploited for several centuries to supply liver oil for lighting and industrial use, skin for leather and flesh for food or fishmeal. Modern fisheries yield liver oil, fins, meat and cartilage (Rose 1996, Anon. 2002c). The large liver represents 17?25% of total weight and contains a high proportion of squalene oil (Buranudeen and Richards-Rajadurai 1986). The very large fins fetch extremely high prices in international trade to East Asia (Fleming and Papageorgiou 1996, Lum 1996, Fairfax 1998, Anon. 2002c). Targeted basking shark fisheries entangle them in nets or use non-explosive harpoon guns to take sharks on the surface. Incidental catches are utilised when there is a market for the products and there has been an unutilised ?eradication? fishery. Catches have been recorded from Norway, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, Iceland, Canada, California, Peru, Ecuador, China and Japan (Compagno 1984a, Anon. 1999). One fishery in the Northeast Atlantic continues to take small numbers (ICES data, see Anon. 2002c). Most Basking Shark fisheries appear to have collapsed after initial high yields, and this species is considered by Compagno (1984a) to be extremely vulnerable to overfishing ? perhaps more so than most other sharks. A small fishery off Monterey Bay, California (Northeast Pacific), produced fishmeal and shark liver oil between 1924?1937. It expanded from 1946 to early 1950s, taking about 200 sharks annually. A drop in market prices for shark liver reportedly made the operation uneconomic. R. Lea (pers. comm.) reports that basking shark sightingsoff central California over the past 20 years are less numerous than in the past. The population may not have recovered from a substantial depletion during the 1940s and 1950s fishery and could still be affected by bycatch. S. van Sommeran (pers. comm.) notes that finned carcasses are occasionally reported.<br/><br/>Basking Sharks are common in the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples of Vancouver Island, Canadian Pacific. Salmon net fishermen in Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, complained of damage through accidental basking shark catches in the 1940s. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans instigated a shark eradication programme in the 1950s. Clemens and Wilby (1961) state that Fisheries vessels killed ?several hundred? in Barkley Sound up to 1959, to reduce salmon net bycatch. Darling and Keogh (1994) state ?Basking sharks are rarely sighted in Barkley Sound today, suggesting that the majority of the population in that area were killed.? It seems that this stock of Basking Sharks was significantly depleted over a period of just a few years and has not yet recovered. A summer Basking Shark fishery started at Achill Island, western Ireland in 1947, using set nets to entangle sharks. It peaked in the early 1950s, when 1,000?1,808 sharks were taken each year. In the early 1970s only 29?85 sharks were taken annually, a decline of over 90% in 20? 25 years. Re-capitalisation of the fishery in 1973 failed to increase yields locally and it closed in 1975, despite high oil prices. Parker and Stott (1965) and Horsman (1987) attributed the decline and collapse of this fishery to the overfishing of a local stock. Berrow and Heardman (1994) noted that there were still very few observations of basking sharks along the whole west and north-west coast of Ireland in 1993, and Achill Island fishermen reported fewer than 10 sharks sighted annually (Earll pers. comm.). This fishery appears to have depleted the population to such an extent that it has still not recovered some 40 years later. A wide-ranging Norwegian fleet has undertaken the major basking shark fishery in the northeast Atlantic from April to September in most years. Catches were high (>1,000 and up to >4,000) from 1959?1980 (Kunzlik 1988, ICES data, in Anon. 2002c). The Norwegian quota in European Community waters was 800 t (liver weight) in 1982, 400 t (approximately 800?1,000 sharks) in 1985, subsequently reduced to 200 t, 100 t, and to zero in 2001. Because basking sharks are taken by fishing vessels targeting small whales, increased restrictions on whaling activities and ageing vessels have reduced fleet size. The decline in this fishery has also been attributed to the falling value of Basking Shark liver oil, as a result of the competition from deepwater shark fisheries. Landings rose slightly in the early 1990s, when the fishery was being sustained by high fin prices (ICES 1995), but have since declined to very low levels, despite steeply increasing fin values. The majority of fins landed by Norway have been exported to Japan (Anon. 2002c). Since the precise location from which the basking sharks were taken is only identified by ICES sea area, it is difficult to detect and evaluate trends in catches, effort, and hence population, but the declines appear to be related to population trends and driven by fisheries and trade demand (Anon. 2002c). An intensive targeted Japanese Basking Shark fishery, utilising liver oil, shark fin and meat, took place in spring off Nakiri, Shima Peninsula, in the 1960s and 1970s. An estimated 1,200 sharks were harpooned from 1967?1978, peaking in 1972 when more than 60 sharks were sold at market in one day. Catches declined from about 150 sharks in 1975, to 20 in 1976, nine in 1977 and six in 1978. The fishery closed a few years later. In the 1990s, only 0? 2 Basking Sharks were being sighted each year off Nakiri during migration (Yano 1976, 1979, Uchida 1995). Basking sharks are sometimes landed and sold after becoming entangled in set nets or pot lines, or caught in trawls, but bycatch (whether landed or discarded) is rarely reported. Exceptions are reports by Lien and Fawcett (1986) on an incidental fishery for basking sharks by salmon and cod set nets and deepwater trawls in Newfoundland, and Francis and Duffy (2002) on incidental capture in deepwater fisheries off New Zealand. Incidental shark catches in Newfoundland increased in 1981 when a market developed for the fins and liver. When there is no market for the sharks? fins and livers, salmon fishermen generally remove their gear from the water to prevent damage when basking sharks are known to be in the area. If there is a market, any sharks caught are killed and landed. <br/><br/>Berrow (1994) estimated that 77?120 sharks are taken annually in the bottom set gillnet fishery in the Celtic Sea. Fairfax (1998) reports that basking sharks are sometimes brought up from deepwater trawls near the Scottish west coast during winter. Bycatch in Isle of Man herring fishery is about 10?15 fish annually and a further 4?5 entangled in pot lines, (K. Watterson in litt.). Local fishermen estimate an unreported bycatch of up to 40 Basking Sharks per year in one large bay in south-west England (C. Speedie pers. comm.). In contrast to these relatively large coastal bycatches, observer data from oceanic gillnet fleets suggest that only about 50 Basking Sharks were among the several million sharks taken annually offshore in the Pacific Ocean (Bonfil 1994). Habitat loss or degradation is not considered to be a serious problem for this species.<br/><br/>Following notes added by Lucy Harrison (iucnshark@gmail.com) via Sarah Fowler May 17th 2010<br/><p>Later in 2005, the species was listed in Appendix I and II of CMS. Appendix I means that Parties are required to provide strict  protection. </p>        <p>In 2006 ICES issued this advice, which is still current:“<em>No targeted fishing for basking shark should be permitted and additional  measures should be taken to prevent bycatch of basking shark in fisheries  targeting other species. A TAC should cover all areas where basking sharks are  caught in the northeast Atlantic. This TAC should be set at zero.”</em><br/>This advice was adopted in 2007 and the zero TAC covers all areas of the NE Atlantic where basking sharks may be caught. </p>      <p>Norway ALWAYS implements ICES advice (and indeed, unless they take out a reservation, also other MEA measures – unlike many other  States). Their basking shark fishery was therefore closed in either 2006 or 2007,  I forget which but probably the latter. They are presumably still landing bycatch, because Norway prohibits discards, but fishermen are not paid  full market value for catches for which they do not have a license – only  enough to cover the cost of bringing home the catch. This means that they will  be avoiding basking sharks wherever possible. <br/></p>  <p>Because of the CMS Appendix I listing, basking shark is also an EU prohibited species: “It shall be  prohibited for Community vessels to fish for, to retain on board, to tranship and to  land the following species in all Community and non-Community waters” Every year, however, we get reports of basking sharks being caught, landed and  put on sale illegally in the EU. So, small scale bycatch and utilisation is  definitely ongoing even in areas where the species is strictly protected.</p>    <p>Elsewhere: NZ is the only place where there is still a fairly large utilised basking shark bycatch (in trawls over hoki spawning  grounds). &#160;The fins are exported under CITES license to East Asia. NZ allows finning. </p>	eng
4305	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
4305	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, through Cameroon and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan and western Uganda. Its is known from around 50 localities (mostly single specimens).	eng
4305	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist and dry forest, dry savanna and more marginally from moist savanna. It is suspected to roosts in hollow trees.	eng
4305	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This high flying species is rarely captured. It is found in relatively small groups.	eng
4305	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat by logging activities.	eng
4306	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In view of the species wide range t is presumably present in many protected areas (including Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
4306	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This widely distributed bat has been recorded from much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from northeastern Côte d'Ivoire in the west, through much of the northern part of West and Central Africa (north of the Congo basin), to Ethiopia and East Africa, from here southwards as far as northeastern South Africa. It has been recorded between 400 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
4306	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is generally associated with dry woodland savanna. Roost sites include rock crevices, caves and abandoned mines. It has also been recorded roosting in the roofs of buildings and expansion joints in bridges.	eng
4306	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It appears to be generally uncommon, although colonies may contain hundreds of bats.	eng
4306	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of West Africa, some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.	eng
4307	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is present in Meru National Park, Kenya, and is presumably present in several more protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, natural history, threats and distribution of this species.	eng
4307	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This African species is widely distributed from Sierra Leone in the west, then patchily through West and Central Africa to southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania in the east. It has been recorded up to 1,700 m asl on Mount Nimba along the border of Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).	eng
4307	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	In the west of its range it is associated with montane tropical moist forest. The eastern populations are generally found in savanna and grassland savanna, Acacia, Combretum and Acacia–Commiphora communities. Roost in rocks, rock caves and fissures (Freeman 1981).	eng
4307	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	The abundance of this species is unclear, in parts of the range it seems to be a rare species that is found in small colonies consisting of a few individuals. In East African this species exhibits a clumped distribution, yet is relatively<br/>abundant locally (Weballa <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
4307	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
4308	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is presumably present in some East African protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, distribution and natural history of this bat.	eng
4308	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This East African species ranges from Eritrea and Ethiopia in the north, through southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and eastern Tanzania, to Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the south.	eng
4308	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is associated with both dry and moist savanna habitats. It is generally dependent on rocky inselbergs for roosts, although specimens have been taken in an old mine (Smithers and Labao Tello, 1976).	eng
4308	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it is common in collections suggesting that it is easily found.	eng
4308	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
4309	conservation	Palmeirim, J., 2008	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas. The protection and monitoring of the few known roosting sites would be a useful conservation measure for this species. An assessment of the roosting sites in Vanuatu is urgently needed, as is further information about its distribution (to determine if there are other roost sites).	eng
4309	distribution	Palmeirim, J., 2008	This species is restricted to Fiji and Vanuatu. In Fiji it has been recorded from the islands of Taveuni and Vanua Levu. However, the only known roosting site in Fiji is a cave near the village of Nakanacagi on Vanua Levu, and because the species is likely to forage widely, it is possible that this site is indeed the only roosting site in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). In Vanuatu this species has been reported from the islands of Espiritu Santo (Nanumbu Cave) and Malo (Tan Lensingo Cave and Abounatori Village) (Flannery 1995). It was extirpated from Tonga in prehistoric times (Koopman and Steadman 1995), and appears to have been extirpated from Viti Levu, Fiji as well, based on bones that have been found there (Worthy and Anderson 1999, as cited in Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
4309	habitat	Palmeirim, J., 2008	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been observed roosting in a mudstone cave in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007), and it has also been found roosting in caves in Vanuatu (Medway and Marshall 1975; Flannery 1995). In Fiji, it has been observed foraging in open spaces in a variety of habitats, including coconut groves, farmland, forest, and even over the ocean, near to the shore (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been mist-netted in areas of montane forest (Ingleby and Flannery 1991).	eng
4309	population	Palmeirim, J., 2008	There is no recent information concerning the populations in Vanuatu. The single known roosting site in Fiji appears to hold thousands of individuals (Flannery 1995; and on the basis that Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> visited the site in 2000 and located <em>c.</em>1,000 young after the adults had left, reported in Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
4309	threats	Palmeirim, J., 2008	The species remains known from only three roosting sites. On Vanua Levu, villagers occasionally exploit the roost for food and disturbance at the cave is also a concern (Flannery 1995; Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
4310	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It has been recorded from  Kruger National Park in South Africa, and from Mole National Park in Ghana and Comoe in Present in Kruger National Park, South Africa. (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).	eng
4310	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been widely recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been collected from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa, southern Sudan, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya, ranging south into southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia.	eng
4310	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been recorded from savanna habitats and river valleys. It appears to be associated with intact woodland that is occasionally disturbed (e.g.. Mopane damaged by elephants).	eng
4310	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In general there is little information on the abundance of this species over its range. It can be common in northwestern Zimbabwe, but it is not regularly recorded. The species is found in small colonies, with a single observation of a small group of breeding females.	eng
4310	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It may be threatened in parts of its range through habitat loss and degradation (e.g.. in northern Zimbabwe and parts of Zambia)	eng
4311	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
4311	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Scierie Forest, 30 km of southwest Kindu, Kivu' in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may range more widely, however, other surveys in the general area have not recorded this species.	eng
4311	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	As with similar member of the genus, it is presumed to fly at relatively high altitudes and possibly roosts in hollow trees, crevices and caves (Nowak 1999). There is little information available on the natural history of this species.	eng
4311	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There is little information on the abundance of this species.	eng
4311	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear. It may be threatened by habitat loss, through the conversion of forest to agricultural use and timber extraction, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
4312	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Richards, G., 2008	It is known to be present in some protected areas in Australia as well as Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Western Province of Papua New Guinea. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
4312	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Richards, G., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from the islands of Seram (Indonesia) and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and is present over much of northern Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
4312	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Richards, G., 2008	This species is found in open tropical moist forest, open sclerophyll woodland, and clearings in these habitats. The species roosts in hollow trees, caves, and old buildings.	eng
4312	population	McKenzie, N. & Richards, G., 2008	It is a common species in Australia (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
4312	threats	McKenzie, N. & Richards, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
4313	conservation	Csorba, G. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. It has been collected in the Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003), Riverssketam and Reliau in Taman Negara National Park (L. B. Liat pers. comm.), and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
4313	distribution	Csorba, G. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in west Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Johore, Malaysia. At present it is known from only one locality in Sumatra.	eng
4313	habitat	Csorba, G. & Kingston, T., 2008	Specimens have been netted over a forest stream (Medway 1978) and in lowland (<300 m asl) evergreen dipterocarp forest. It is also thought to have the foraging strategy of an open space insectivore (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
4313	population	Csorba, G. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population status and trend are unknown.	eng
4313	threats	Csorba, G. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species, in particular for logging, agriculture, plantations, and also resulting from fire.	eng
4314	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The species has a wide range, and likely occurs in some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
4314	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	this lowland species is found throughout much of West Africa (including Senegal, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger, and Nigeria), as well as a narrow distribution following the Nile from northern Sudan to Uganda. A second population is known from the east of Lake Victoria in eastern Uganda, western Kenya, and north-western Tanzania. A third, apparently disjunct, population in present in southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania.<br/>The records from Liberia should be re-examined as they may represent a different species, while the record from Malawi is doubtful (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).	eng
4314	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This high flying bat is associated with savanna habitats. It ranges from the humid savanna, through to the Sahel. It is tree roosting, although not exclusively so, also being found in rock crevices, cracks, fissures and houses. Roosts are often very close to the ground.	eng
4314	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This is a relatively common species, found in fairly small colonies.	eng
4314	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are threatened by general habitat loss and disturbance of old buildings.	eng
4315	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
4315	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is widely distributed over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east, being recorded as far south as Angola, Botswana and Zimbabwe. There are some additional records from the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen and western Saudi Arabia. Animals have been found at elevations of up to 1,000 m asl, and possibly occur higher than this.	eng
4315	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This is a savanna woodland species associated with <em>Brachystegia</em> woodlands in the southern portion of its range (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2002; Skinner an Chimimba 2005). In Nigeria, animals have been found in the Guinea and Sudan savannas extending southwards into cleared areas of tropical moist forest (Happold 1987; Willis <em>et al.</em> 2002). During the day this species has been recorded roosting in groups under tree bark an in the roofs of houses (Happold 1987; Ansell 1960; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
4315	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is typically found in small groups of 10 to 15 animals, with maternity roosts being formed of up to 25 bats.	eng
4315	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The ability of the species to exploit buildings as roosts, and its association with cleared rainforest in Nigeria, suggests that it is relatively resistant to anthropogenic impacts (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
4316	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Protection of key roost sites, surveys and habitat management are urgently recommended along with public awareness (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, while many large colonies are protected in countries such as Myanmar and Thailand by villagers and monks (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), and the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, there is a need to protect key roosting sites and to undertake population surveys in areas of previous decline (eg. Philippines).	eng
4316	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This very widely distributed species is found throughout much of South Asia, southern and central China, most of mainland Southeast Asia, and much of insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is very widely distributed and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Central and Western Provinces) (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 950 m asl. The species is likely to be found in Bangladesh (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005). In China it has been recorded from Gansu, Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present in Myanmar, Thailand, western Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia in mainland Southeast Asia. Within insular Southeast Asia it is wide ranging, and is found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Lombok (all to Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines there are records from Leyte, Luzon (Cagayan, Isabela, Pampanga, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Cotabato) (Taylor 1934), Cebu and Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
4316	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species can form large colonies of thousands of bats that typically roost in caves, but can also be found in crevices in rocks, old disused buildings and temples. Populations generally forage close to roost sites, and have been recorded hunting in forested areas and over rice fields. It is a high and fast flyer that feeds on insects and other invertebrates.	eng
4316	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widespread but localized species which occurs in large colonies usually in caves. In South Asia, this species is widespread in its range in India, but is found in few locations. The Sri Lankan population is stable (W. Yapa pers. comm.) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, colonies ranging from a few hundred to more than 200,000 have been reported (Smith and Xie 2008). In Peninsula Malaysia the species is common and widespread although there are very few recent records. The total population in Thailand is around eight million, with a single population of over two million individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006); it is a very abundant species in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4316	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened due to extraction and mining activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In mainland Southeast Asia, a colony of 300,000 bats was destroyed in northern Myanmar as a result of limestone extraction for cement manufacture (P. Bates pers. comm.), and a colony of hundreds of thousands of bats was eradicated as pests in Phnom Pehn, Cambodia (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006). In the Philippines, this was formerly among the most abundant bats in some large caves. However, virtually all of the known large colonies have now been extirpated, including the loss of a very large colony from Leyte in 1984 (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). The remaining population is probably declining due to forest loss, disturbance in caves (guano mining, hunting), and tourism (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The only recent reports since 1980 are from northern Luzon (Danielsen <em>et al.</em> 1994; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and two recent records from Cebu (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It parts of its range, such as Lao PDR and Borneo, overharvesting of this species for food is leading to significant population declines.	eng
4317	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Ravino, J., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Gerlach, J., 2008	In view of its wide range it seems probable that this species is present in some protected areas. On Madagascar, it has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it has been recorded from houses close to protected areas. The status of the population on Aldabra need to be clarified with complementary research needed into the conservation status of this population.	eng
4317	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Ravino, J., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Gerlach, J., 2008	This widespread species is found from Senegal in the west of its range, eastwards to Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia, and as far south as South Africa. It has been recorded from the island of Bioko and the Annobon Islands (Equatorial Guinea), Pemba and Zanzibar (Tanzania), the Comoros Islands, Mayotte (Goodman 2007), and Madagascar (Bouchard 1998) and on the Aldabra Atoll of the Seychelles (Hutson 2004). In Madagascar, the species is restricted to the humid areas of the island (in the north and east) and can be found up to 1,300 m asl. Its southernmost range in Madagascar is not well understood and it has not been recorded south of Moramanga (Goodman and Cardiff 2004).	eng
4317	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Ravino, J., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Gerlach, J., 2008	Bouchard (1998) indicates that this species is found in a variety of habitats from semi-arid regions in the north of its range to cleared rainforest regions in the south (Happold, 1987). It occurs widely in the savannas of Guinea and Sudan, and in the forests of the Congo basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is found in savanna woodlands in Zambia, and in the Cape Province of South Africa they occur in mountainous areas in the Cape Macchia Zone as well as in more arid open country further. In Zimbabwe the species shows a clear preference for low veld conditions and it is never taken on the plateau above 1,000 m asl (Smithers 1983). In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, it is largely restricted to the Valley bushveld, lowveld and Coast lowland bioregions. Although the species appears to prefer forest or savanna woodlands outside built-up areas, its presence in built-up areas is determined solely by the availability of suitable roofs and buildings for roosting. In Madagascar, it is known from the eastern humid rainforests, where it has been recorded from buildings and houses.  It is not thought to be a habitat specialist as it has been recorded in villages both near intact forest and in areas that are heavily degraded. On Aldabra the habitat is dry tropical shrub, it roosts in trees with a single roost of 30 animals recorded. Preferred roosting sites include horizontal surfaces of rafters, between rafters and brickwork, in the corrugations of corrugated roofs, between the roof tiles and the insulating material underneath as well as in air vents. In Madagascar it is often found roosting in buildings close to forests; however, this may reflect a bias in sampling methods. Natural roosts are hollows and crevices in trees, the crowns of various species of palms (see references in Bouchard 1998).	eng
4317	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Ravino, J., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Gerlach, J., 2008	The colonies of this species range from a few animals (between 5 and 20) to hundreds of individuals. There are no estimates of its population in Madagascar but it is thought to be locally common in the eastern zone. On Aldabra, the population might be fewer than 250 animals.	eng
4317	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Ravino, J., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Gerlach, J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. In some parts of its range, it is threatened from persecution as a pest, especially since it roosts in buildings.	eng
4319	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from the Hell's Gate National Park in Kenya and Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
4319	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This little known African species has only been recorded from five, widely dispersed, localities. It has been recorded in the west from Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, from '12 km northeast of Kade' in Ghana, from central Cameroon, from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the type locality), and from the Hell's Gate Canyon National Park in Kenya.	eng
4319	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It is generally considered to associated with tropical forest habitats, with animals roosting in trees. In Ghana it has been recorded at the forest edge between invasive Guinea woodland and high forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
4319	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It is believed to be a quite rare species that occurs in small colonies.	eng
4319	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It is presumably threatened by habitat loss in parts of its West African range, although further studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
4320	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	A significant population has been recorded at the Mufu Point caves on Santa Isabel. A suitable conservation measure may be the protection of this site, and other known roosting sites.	eng
4320	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to the Solomon Islands where it has been recorded on the islands of Choiseul and Santa Isabel (Flannery 1995).	eng
4320	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	Troughton (1931) described the type locality (Mufa Point on Santa Isabel) as being caves opening out to cliffs over ocean (Troughton 1931, as referenced in Flannery 1995).	eng
4320	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	There is no recent information about the population size of this species.	eng
4320	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
4321	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
4321	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from two lowland localities, Praia das Conchas (3 km NW of Guadalupe) and Agua Izé, in the northern part of São Tomé Island, of São Tomé and Príncipe. Extensive surveys have not located the species elsewhere on the island.	eng
4321	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from Praia das Conchas which is quite open and the driest point of the island (open savanna forest with baobabs), and from Agua Izé which is much more humid, and although it is now cocoa plantations it was previously forest (J. Juste pers. comm. 2008). It is unclear if the species can persist in modified habitats. The colony size is not known.	eng
4321	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	It seems to be a very rare species that, despite considerable trapping effort, is currently only known from the type series of three specimens (J. Juste pers. comm. 2008).	eng
4321	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	The species is believed to be threatened by general habitat loss resulting from coastal development, including tourism activities, conversion of land to agricultural use and possible port construction. The species may be competing with the much more abundant species <em>Chaerephon pumila</em>(J. Juste pers. comm. 2008), with further studies into this relationship needed.	eng
4322	conservation	Burbidge, A., Dickman, C. & Johnson, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
4322	distribution	Burbidge, A., Dickman, C. & Johnson, K., 2008	The Pig-footed Bandicoot occurred in Australia. It was recorded from Western Australia, through South Australia and the southern part of the Northern Territory, to south-western New South Wales and western Victoria. The last known specimen was collected in 1901. Reports of sightings in central Australia during the 1920s were unconfirmed. There were recollections of this species by the Pintupi people in the Great Sandy and northern Gibson Deserts into the 1950s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
4322	habitat	Burbidge, A., Dickman, C. & Johnson, K., 2008	It was found in semi-arid and arid areas such as open sclerophyll woodland, mallee, heath, and grassland.	eng
4322	population	Burbidge, A., Dickman, C. & Johnson, K., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
4322	threats	Burbidge, A., Dickman, C. & Johnson, K., 2008	The main causes of this species’ demise are unknown, but it declined rapidly following European settlement (Johnson and Burbidge 2008). Destruction of habitat by rabbits and predation by foxes had been thought to be major factors, but these species were not yet present at the time Pig-footed Bandicoot populations crashed. Cats, however, were present and may have been a factor; disease or destruction of habitat by sheep might also have played a role (Johnson and Burbidge 2008).	eng
4326	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Part of the range of this species falls within several protected areas.	eng
4326	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known from the Baja California Peninsula (Patton 2005), and Magdalena Island and Cerraluo Island, Mexico.	eng
4326	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is associated with sandy soils; it is found in an extremely arid region in habitats characterized by soil consisting almost entirely of sand and by sparse vegetation; it prefers flat areas, and is less common on slopes and ridges. Mounds and burrows of this species were found far up arroyos having a sandy floor, suggesting sandy soil is a more significant aspect of the habitat than a flat, open environment (Lackey 1991). The only known predator of <em>C. arenarius</em> is the barn owl, <em>Tyto alba</em> (Lackey 1991). <br/><br/>A female with two embryos was found in March (Lackey 1991).	eng
4326	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat (Lackey 1991).	eng
4326	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Human activity may affect this species on Margarita Island, but it is not currently considered a major threat to the species' population status.	eng
4327	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	A small part of this species' range falls within a protected area.	eng
4327	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known from south Sonora, southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, Sinaloa, and northern Nayarit (Mexico) (Patton 2005).	eng
4327	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found only in habitats such as barrancas having rocks of various sizes, but with no extensive rock-free areas. In Durango, it occurs on the subtropical western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It is found on sandy areas among mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>). In mountainous regions it is common along creek bottoms and the edges of cultivated fields. It is granivoruous (Best and Lackey 1992).	eng
4327	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat (Best and Lackey 1992).	eng
4327	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This habitat of this species is changing to agricultural areas. This species is somewhat adaptable to cultivated land. However, rodenticides are applied to extirpate the species.	eng
4328	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.	eng
4328	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known from south Arizona, southwestern New Mexico (USA), south to north Sinaloa (Mexico) (Patton 2005).	eng
4328	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Primary habitat for this species is within desert, associatated with shrubs or small trees, at the interface between sandy flats and rocky slopes. <br/><br/>It forages most often in the shelter of perennial plants and modifies its behavior in response to the risk of predation from owls. In the presence of owls, individuals make furtive, short trips into risky open areas between shrubs, especially when the moon is bright. It is solitary, nocturnal, lives in burrows, eats mostly seeds that it stores avidly against lean times, and does not need to drink water. It is unique among Sonoran desert pocket mice in its ability to consume seeds of the dominant shrub jojoba (<em>Simmondsia chinensis</em>), which contain chemical compounds toxic to most mammals. It also is unusually slow in harvesting seeds from sand, especially in comparison with kangaroo mice. Breeding is controlled by rainfall. In the Sonoran desert there are often two reproductive periods, one in spring following winter rains and another in early autumn following summer monsoons (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
4328	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common. Its population sizes respond to seed availability, growing in years of good rains and shrinking during droughts (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Estimates of density vary from 2.2 to 86.1 animals per hectare (Paulson 1988).	eng
4328	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
4329	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
4329	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Ranges throughout the Sierra Nevada, Coast, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges of southern California and northern Baja California, Mexico.	eng
4329	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is strongly associated with dense chaparral, and forages along the edges between shrubs and small open areas. It is rare to uncommon in arid grassland, desert, and coastal scrub habitats.	eng
4329	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is not common.	eng
4329	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The chaparral habitat within the range of this species is undergoing land use change due to grazing, fire, and urbanization.	eng
4330	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Subspecies <em>C. f. fallax</em> and <em>C. f. pallidus</em> are federal candidate taxa in the United States and Species of Special Concern in the State of California. On Cedros Island, Baja California this species is considered endangered.	eng
4330	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in Southern California and northern Baja California. It occurs up to 1,835 m. There is one population on Cedros Island (Baja) that was previously known as <em>C. anthonyi</em>.	eng
4330	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occupies shrublands that vary from sparse desert shrublands to dense coastal scrub. Tends to be more abundant where rocks or shrubs provide cover. Lives in a variety of habitats: desert slopes, agave, rocky areas, coastal sage scrub, etc.<br/><br/>It has a diet composed largely of seeds, but insects and plant foliage are also consumed. Like other heteromyid rodents, it is nocturnal, solitary, and seeks shelter in burrows during daylight. Burrow systems can be quite elaborate, consisting of a network of tunnels and chambers. Usually one or two chambers are used as dens for sleeping; the remaining chambers are used for hoarding seeds. Although reproduction can occurs throughout the year, this species breeds mainly during spring. The litter size probably ranges between 2 and 6. Young become sexually mature at 5 to 6 months of age. Females can produce 1 to 3 litters per year. Typical longevity in nature is only 4 to 6 months, but is not usual for some individuals survive 1 to 2 years (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
4330	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is common and widespread (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Populations up to 52 mice/ha have been recorded.	eng
4330	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	In some parts of its range (San Diego), the species may suffer habitat destruction from expansion of metropolitan areas (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations on Cedros Island, Baja are threatened by predation by feral dogs.	eng
4331	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known conservation measures exist for this species. There are protected areas within its range.	eng
4331	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in western North America, mostly within the Great Basin and Mojave and Colorado deserts and including parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and California (United States), and the eastern coastal plain of Baja California (Mexico).	eng
4331	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species usually occurs in rocky habitats (lava beds, pebbly soils, gravel surfaces of stream beds, and among large boulders. It may occur in sandy soils along creek beds and under shrubs. Vegetation includes various desert shrub species.	eng
4331	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common in the United States. However, in Baja California, Mexico, this species is not very common. It has been found at densities of up to 30 mice/hectare in suitable habitat.	eng
4331	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	In Mexico, this species is found where there is a lot of infrastructure for tourism, which may threaten populations in this region.	eng
4332	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2009	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is unknown whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
4332	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2009	This species occurs in Mexico, from northeastern to southern Sonora, southwestern Chihuahua, and northern Sinaloa (Patton 2005).	eng
4332	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2009	This species can be found in brushy arroyos, and along the edges of cultivated fields. It occurs in sandy areas among mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>). It is common near rocks and in dry arroyos. The habitat is thornscrub and short-tree forests with alluvial soils. There is a paucity of information regarding diet; however, in Sonora it eats grass seeds (Lackey and Best 1992). This species can live in agriculture areas. It is found in coastal areas, and along the foothills of the Sierras, which has not yet been converted to agriculture.	eng
4332	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2009	This is not a common species.	eng
4332	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2009	At least 60% of its historical range is estimated to have been converted to agriculture. In the southern part of its range, agricultural development and the application of rodenticides are threats to this species. The application of rodenticides over the past 10 years is thought to have caused a serious decline in its population.	eng
4333	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
4333	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found from North Dakota southward through the Great Plains to Texas, south-eastern Arizona, and north-central Mexico. There are two disjunct populations: one in central Mexico, the other in the Baja Peninsula.	eng
4333	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in grassy habitats associated with pinyon-juniper, short and mixed grass plains, mesquite grasslands, tall grass prairie, and oak uplands. Prefers prairie areas with sparse or moderate vegetation; various dry grassland habitats. Prefer sandy soils, but will live where clay content is high. Can also occur in rocky or gravelly areas with heavy soils. Has been found in irrigated cornfields.	eng
4333	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
4333	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
4334	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
4334	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs from south-central Utah south through Arizona, central and southern New Mexico and the Trans-Pecos, Texas, (United States), and into northern Sonora and Chihuahua (Mexico).	eng
4334	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Zonally confined to lower grasslands and deserts. Commonly found in creosote-bush, mesquite, saltbush, and creosote-bush-lechuguilla areas. Associated with rocky habitats rather than sandy soils, particularly cliffs, canyons, rocky gulches, old lava flows.	eng
4334	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common.	eng
4334	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
4335	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
4335	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From the Chihuahuan Desert of the north-central Mexican Plateau north to west Texas and extreme south-eastern New Mexico (Patton 2005).	eng
4335	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in desert shrub vegetation, where it is associated with rocky soils on slopes with scattered shrub cover. This rodent has strong preference for rocky places in Chihuahuan desert shrub vegetation. It prefers rocky soils or slopes where cactus, creosote, stool, and lechuguilla provide scattered cover. It is seldom found on sandy or other fine soils. <br/><br/>This rodent is active throughout the year. It feeds entirely on the seeds of various desert shrubs and grasses (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Mating begins in February and continues throughout July, with peaks of pregnancy in March, May, and July. The gestation period is about one month and the young leave the nest when they are about four weeks of age. The number of embryos per litter averages 3.2, with extremes of two and four. The annual population turnover is about 86%; that is, only 14 of each 100 individuals survive more than one year.	eng
4335	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is locally abundant when habitat is suitable (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Densities reported to range up to 60 individuals/ha.	eng
4335	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
4336	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
4336	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	North American deserts from northern Baja California and northcentral Mexico northward to southeastern California and extreme southern Nevada and Utah, and eastward through southern Arizona to extreme southwestern New Mexico. This geographic range excludes the range of taxa now separated as <em>C. eremicus</em>.	eng
4336	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Associates with sandy soils on creosote-scrub flats or washes bordered with small trees. Avoids rocky soils.	eng
4336	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Abundant in suitable habitat. Densities reported between 0 - 8.5 individuals/ha.	eng
4336	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
4337	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	A small part of this species' range occurs in a protected area.	eng
4337	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands from south Sonora to north Nayarit, Mexico (Patton 2005).	eng
4337	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species can be found on the coastal plain in habitat characterized by a soil of fine alluvial silt nearly devoid of small rock material, by a flora consisting of thorny leguminous trees, arborescent cacti, and a dense understory of <em>Opuntia</em>, rathbunia, and small woody shrubs (Patton and Jones 1972). Such habitat is common below the oak (<em>Quercus</em>) belt. Also, this species is found in thick cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>) associations, and is abundant along the edges of cultivated fields. It also occurs on sandy loam soils in arid tropical habitat (Best and Lackey 1992). <br/><br/><em>Chaetodipus pernix</em> is granivorous; it is known to feed on grass seeds. In Sonora, young are born in October and November, and a pregnant female was found in April (Best and Lackey 1992).	eng
4337	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat (Best and Lackey 1992).	eng
4337	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Extensive agricultural conversion is occurring within part of this species' range, and this species is also threatened by the application of rodenticides.	eng
4338	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
4338	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in southern Nevada, southeast California (USA) south to the cape of Baja California Peninsula (Mexico); also occurs on many islands in the Gulf of California (Patton 2005). It occurs at elevations up to 900 m (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California this species is found on Espiritu Santo Island, San Francisco Island, San Jose, Carmen, Coronados, San Marcos, San Lorenzo, Angel de la Guarda, Mejia islands, and in the Pacific on Margarita Island.	eng
4338	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This rodent usually inhabits rough desert landscapes of boulders, washes, rocky slopes, coarse soil, and sparse vegetation characteristic of the lower Sonoran life zone. On islands it prefers rocky desert (Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Little is known about the natural history of the spiny pocket mouse despite its wide range and the many reports of its occurrence. It is nocturnal, thereby escaping the intense heat and aridity of the desert during the day. Its diet probably consists of seeds and it may eat green vegetation following the brief periods of rain. Because water is scarce in its habitat much of the time, this rodent probably finds water derived from its food. The only record of reproduction detailed the occurrence of four embryos in one specimen. Nothing is known about growth, development, physiological function, and behavior (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
4338	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is frequent and stable (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Very common on the Baja peninsula.	eng
4338	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats known. Most populations are probably secure because the species inhabits areas of little agricultural value (Wilson and Ruff 1999). However, some populations on islands are threatened by predation from feral cats, and on Meija and Coronados Islands other species of rodents have been extirpated (<em>Peromyscus guardia</em> and <em>Neotomys bunkeri</em>).	eng
4360	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. There are protected areas within the range of this species (e.g. in the Marianas Islands) but the presence of populations within these needs to be confirmed. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.	eng
4360	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Pacific where it has only been recorded from Guam (USA) and the Northern Marianas Islands. It is possibly present at the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) however this requires confirmation (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths from 35-80 m.	eng
4360	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It has been recorded on coral reefs and rocky reefs from steep drop-offs and vertical walls where currents are strong, with abundant growth of gorgonians and black coral.	eng
4360	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is not often sighted (largely because of its distribution in deeper waters) and is known only on the basis of a few museum specimens and underwater photographs. It is relatively uncommon to occasional with stable populations.	eng
4360	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Any collecting for the pet trade would likely be very limited.	eng
4361	conservation	McAllister, D., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
4361	distribution	McAllister, D., 2009	This species is endemic to the seas surrounding Easter Island (= Rapa Nui) in the southeastern Pacific Ocean (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been observed from 1-25 m in depth.	eng
4361	habitat	McAllister, D., 2009	This species is associated with rocky reefs composed of volcanic boulders with a prolific growth of brown algae (Allen 1980). Juveniles have been collected from shallow tide pools with some coral growth (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4361	population	McAllister, D., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
4361	threats	McAllister, D., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the population.</p>	eng
4362	conservation	Roberts, C., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.	eng
4362	distribution	Roberts, C., 2009	This western Indian Ocean species ranges from Delagoa Bay (Mozambique) in the north to Lamberts Bay (South Africa) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been collected at depths of up to120 m.	eng
4362	habitat	Roberts, C., 2009	This species is generally associated with rocky and coral covered reefs, but has also been recorded from shallow tidal pools and estuaries where it lives among macroalgae (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4362	population	Roberts, C., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4362	threats	Roberts, C., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4363	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Although Saint Paul's Rocks is not a conservation area, it is very isolated and can only be reached by sea. There are discussions ongoing concerning the possible establishment of a protected area. It is possibly protected by Brazilian national legislation, although this requires verification.	eng
4363	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in the eastern central Atlantic where it is known only from Saint Paul's Rocks (Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks), Brazil. It known from depths of 55 to at least 100 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
4363	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Animals are usually found on the vertical rock faces of rocky reefs. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
4363	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Very few individuals of this species have ever been observed and/or collected.	eng
4363	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is known to only have occurred once, and is not believed to have had a significant impact on the population to date.	eng
4364	conservation	Roberts, C., 2009	It is not known to occur in any marine protected area.	eng
4364	distribution	Roberts, C., 2009	This species is distributed in the eastern central Atlantic, where it ranges from Cape Verde and Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea. It is known from depths of 3-70 m.	eng
4364	habitat	Roberts, C., 2009	It usually inhabits rocky areas from inshore shallows to at least 50 m (Allen 1980). It is often seen in pairs (Allen 1980).	eng
4364	population	Roberts, C., 2009	It appears to be the most common butterflyfish along the tropical coast of West Africa (Allen 1980). It is particularly common on rocky reefs of the northern Gulf of Guinea (Guinea to Nigeria) (Allen 1980). Also common in Sao Tome Island.	eng
4364	threats	Roberts, C., 2009	No apparent major threats.	eng
4366	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in some state and federal parks and reserves. Deborah Faria is developing management plan for this species.	eng
4366	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in fragments of Brazilian rain forests of Bahia, Espirito Santo and possibly Rio de Janeiro States (there are no confirmed reports of the species occurring in this state (Faria, in litt., 2006), its range is relatively restricted. It also occurs in Sergipe State.	eng
4366	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is nocturnal and almost entirely arboreal; it occurs in primary and secondary rainforests; it feeds on leaves. Found most commonly along forest edge. Preliminary radio-telemetry indicates that cacao plantations are used to transit between forest fragments, but not as primary habitat. Its folivore diet does not include cacao leaves (Faria pers. comm.).	eng
4366	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is found more commonly in Restingas, in northeastern Brazil, but this could be a factor of access (Faria pers. comm.). The main population strongholds are in Bahia along the coast in the north and southeast of the state and in Espirito Santo State where it can be found in protected areas including Sooretama Biological Reserve, Paulo Cesar Vinha State Park, Vale do Rio Doce Reserve, and in mountain forests in the Santa Teresa region.	eng
4366	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The main threat to this species is the loss of its habitat to agriculture, in particular cocoa plantations. This fragmentation of its habitat is resulting in the creation of isolated populations. This rodent is hunted for food.	eng
4367	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is found in one protected area in Bolivia (Sajama National Park). Further systematic studies for this species are needed, most specifically, to determine if it is a distinct species, or a high-altitude subspecies of <em>Chaetophractus vellerosus</em> (Wetzel 1985, Gardner 2005).	eng
4367	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This armadillo species is found in Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Argentina. Its distribution is poorly known, as it is often confounded with <em>Chaetophractus vellerosus</em>. In Argentina, it has been recorded in localities farther south than its current range (Carrizo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but these records need to be confirmed to exclude the possibility that they are <span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus.</span>	eng
4367	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This omnivorous species inhabits high altitude grasslands, where it digs its burrows in sandy soils (Redford and Eisenberg 1992, Pérez Zubieta 2008).	eng
4367	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	Peredo (1999) estimated a total population of 13,000 individuals in an area of 340 km². The wild populations are decreasing.	eng
4367	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This species is intensively harvested commercially for its meat and carapace, including for charangos (musical instrument) and also handicrafts (Romero-Muñoz and Pérez-Zubieta 2008). Cáceres (1995) estimated 2000 individuals harvested each year in Bolivia. It also suffers habitat loss from sand excavation for concrete production (Peredo 1999) and agricultural activities (Ríos and Rocha 2002).	eng
4368	conservation	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is present in a number of protected areas. The highest density of this species in a protected area is probably found in the Kaa-Iya National Park (3.4 million hectares), Bolivia.	eng
4368	distribution	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is generally known from the Chaco region of Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003, Noss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), Paraguay and Argentina (Gardner 2005). A disjunct population occurs in eastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Crespo 1974, Carlini and Vizcaíno 1987, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008). Records from Chile are probably <span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetophractus nationi</span>.	eng
4368	habitat	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus </span>is primarily found in xeric environments, in both lowland and upland areas with loose sandy soils; it has been recorded from rangeland pasture and agricultural areas. The animal constructs burrows, and it is absent from rocky areas where burrows cannot be excavated (Greegor 1985, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008).	eng
4368	population	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	The population status of this species is not known, but the wild populations are expected to be stable.	eng
4368	threats	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. vellerosus</span> is heavily hunted for its meat and carapace (including for charangos, a musical instrument; Aguiar and Fonseca 2008), especially by indigenous groups in some parts of the Chaco region in Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003, Noss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is also persecuted as an agricultural pest. In addition, some animals are killed by hunting dogs. The isolated population on the coast of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, is negatively affected by mining activities (Abba 2008).	eng
4369	conservation	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
4369	distribution	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus</span> is present in the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina as far south as Santa Cruz, Argentina and Magallanes, Chile (Gardner 2005). It has been introduced in Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina (Poljak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007,&#160; Poljak <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (Argentina).	eng
4369	habitat	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus</span> is present in a wide variety of habitats, among them grasslands (including pampas and chaco), savanna, and forest. It is also found in cultivated landscapes (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Abba 2008).	eng
4369	population	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	This is one of the most common armadillo species in Argentina (Abba 2008).	eng
4369	threats	Abba, A.M. Superina, M., 2009	In some parts of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. villosus </span>is locally used for food and charangos (musical instruments; Aguiar and Fonseca 2008). It is also persecuted as a pest species in agricultural areas, and is subject to sport hunting. Animals may also be killed on roads and by dogs (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008).	eng
4375	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A sustainable fisheries management plan was prepared in 1996 and appllied in several phases since then (Sari 2006). However, further actions have been proposed by Sari (2006) which include: strict prohibition of illegal fishing practices, creation of alternative employment opportunities for the fishermen, prevent sand removal from riverbeds and initiate measures to protect Lake Van.	eng
4375	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to the Lake Van basin (the largest soda lake in the world).	eng
4375	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Inhabits brackish water, coastal lagoons and river mouths; it also occurs in freswater rivers (Sari 2006). The species exhibits schooling behaviour according to year classes in the lake (Sari 2006). It is a plankton feeder.	eng
4375	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species is locally abundant but sparsely distributed (Sari 2006).	eng
4375	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species is declining due to illegal fishing during the spawning migration (Sari 2006). There is also habitat degradation and loss due to mining of river sand and pollution from wastewater from domestic and industrial sources.	eng
4414	conservation	Pennay, M. & Thomson, B., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect roost sites and important areas of foraging habitat. Further research is needed into the ecology and threats to this species, particularly its foraging behaviour and habitat (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
4414	distribution	Pennay, M. & Thomson, B., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to Australia where it is found in scattered localities in eastern New South Wales and adjacent south-eastern Queensland.	eng
4414	habitat	Pennay, M. & Thomson, B., 2008	It has been recorded from dry and wet sclerophyll forests and woodland, subalpine woodland, open Eucalypt forest with a rainforest canopy, and at the edge of rainforest habitat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hoye and Schulz 2008). The species may depend heavily on sandstone outcrops with adjacent woodlands for natural roosting sites (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; M. Pennay pers. comm.). It also roosts in caves, mine tunnels, and Fairy Martin nests. Females give birth to one or two young. One known maternity roost contains 15-20 females (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
4414	population	Pennay, M. & Thomson, B., 2008	It appears to be an uncommon or rare species (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The majority of records are from northern New South Wales. Current information indicates that the species is more widespread and stable than previously thought (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
4414	threats	Pennay, M. & Thomson, B., 2008	The species is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites (including by goats entering caves) (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Roosting sites are also threatened by coal mining. Other threats to the species include: clearance of foraging habitat for agriculture and urbanisation, the impacts of forestry operations, and predation by feral animals (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
4417	conservation	Lumsden, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
4417	distribution	Lumsden, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is widespread over much of Australia, being absent only from the Cape York Peninsula. It is present on the island of Tasmania and on Norfolk Island. Known from sea level to 1,500 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
4417	habitat	Lumsden, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is found in dense forest, open woodland, mallee, tall shrubland, and open areas. It roosts in trees and many different types of structures in human environments. The gestation period is about three months after which one or two young are born.	eng
4417	population	Lumsden, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a common species (Dixon and Lumsden 2008).	eng
4417	threats	Lumsden, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
4419	conservation	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed on the isolated populations (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
4419	distribution	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread, especially in the south. Known from sea level to 1,570 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
4419	habitat	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats from rainforests to treeless plains (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008). It forms colonies in tree hollows, caves, and buildings. Colonies may consist of less than 10 individuals to more than 1,000 (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females usually give birth to a single young.	eng
4419	population	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is a common species (Young <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
4419	threats	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
4420	conservation	Brescia, F., 2008	It is not known to be present in any protected areas. Information about the population numbers, distribution, taxonomy, ecology, current status, and threats are all vital. Identification and protection of suitable areas of habitat is also needed.	eng
4420	distribution	Brescia, F., 2008	The New Caledonia Wattled Bat is endemic to the island of Grande Terre, New Caledonia (Flannery 1995; Simmons 2005), where it is currently known from a roost site in each of three towns: Hienghène (North Province), and Païta and Sarraméa (South Province). Further survey work is likely to find other colonies of this species on Grande Terre (F. Brescia pers. comm.).	eng
4420	habitat	Brescia, F., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. Flannery (1995) mentions that he did not capture the species while mist-netting in forest, and suggests that it prefers more open habitats. The holotype was collected in a house (Flannery 1995). The three known colonies are roof-roosting (F. Brescia pers. comm.).	eng
4420	population	Brescia, F., 2008	It is known from few specimens (Tidemann 1986; Flannery 1995), and several efforts to locate the species during the 1990s were unsuccessful. Three colonies have recently been discovered that use human structures. The first one was found in 2002 in Hienghène (Kirsch <em>et al.</em> 2002). Two more have since been found in Païta and Sarraméa (in 2004 and 2005) (F. Brescia pers. comm.). Each of the three locations contains between 200 and 500 individuals (F. Brescia pers. comm.). A maximum population of 1,500 individuals would be based on the known colonies, however, there could well be other populations that have not been yet been discovered (F. Brescia pers. comm.).	eng
4420	threats	Brescia, F., 2008	The threats to New Caledonia Wattled Bat are unclear. It may be threatened by habitat loss and direct human persecution as it is considered to be a pest roosting in roofs.	eng
4421	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Bonaccorso (1998) suggests that local educational campaigns may assist the conservation of this species in New Guinea.	eng
4421	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species has been recorded on the island of New Guinea (present in Papua New Guinea only), on Fergusson Island in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), and from much of northern Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It ranges from sea Level to 300 m asl.	eng
4421	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is present in lowland habitats where it has been recorded from wet sclerophyll forest, open woodlands, scrub, and over sand dunes. It roosts in tree holes, rock crevices, and in buildings. It is an aerial insectivore that forages over wetlands, including waterholes, marshes, creeks, and sewage ponds, and within forested areas. Females give birth to one or two young (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
4421	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is common and widespread within its Australian range (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Bonaccorso (1998) suggests that it is not commonly encountered in Papua New Guinea, even though it occurs in association with humans.	eng
4421	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of roosting sites or loss of tree hollows.	eng
4422	conservation	Ellis, M. & Pennay, M., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging sites. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
4422	distribution	Ellis, M. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is found in a broad arc from coastal central Queensland, through the semi-arid central- and south-west of the state and in drier habitats of inland south-eastern Queensland (G. Ford pers. comm.). The range of the species continues into western New South Wales and north-eastern South Australia (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Ford <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a possibility of a gap developing in the central part of New South Wales due to cropping activities in the wheatbelt. The species is found only in a few large remnants of habitat that remain in this area. If these remnants become more fragmented, this species will no longer be found in the wheatbelt (M. Ellis and M. Pennay pers. comm.). Found from <em>c.</em>40-400 m (M. Ellis pers. comm.).	eng
4422	habitat	Ellis, M. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species occurs in eucalypt and acacia-dominanted open woodlands, semi-arid tall shrublands, dry sclerophyll forests, and Araucarian notophyll vine forests (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is found in subterranean roosts, tree hollows, and abandoned buildings. Colonies range from a few individuals to up to <em>c.</em>50 animals (T. Reardon pers. comm.). Generation length is likely to be around three to five years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Broad-scale habitat loss has occurred and is on-going across the eastern parts of the species' range in Queensland. It appears to be most scarce in highly fragmented landscapes (e.g., southern inland Queensland cotton/grain cropping region), but even there it sometimes persists in corridors and well-connected small remnants of native vegetation (G. Ford pers. comm.).	eng
4422	population	Ellis, M. & Pennay, M., 2008	It was previously considered to be an uncommon species (Strahan 1995). It is now known, however, to be captured more frequently close to permanent or semi-permanent waterbodies (M. Pennay pers. comm.) and can be locally common (T. Reardon and M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
4422	threats	Ellis, M. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss. Land clearance for cotton over the last fifty years has reduced the range in New South Wales, by about 10% of its overall range, and this clearance is ongoing (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Similar habitat loss is occurring in Queensland, but the extent and effects are unclear (L. Hall pers. comm.). Other potential threats include: roost disturbance, harvesting of timber in State forest lands, and changing fire regimes (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
4425	conservation	O'Donnell, C., 2008	This species is protected by the New Zealand Wildlife Act of 1953. Conservation is occurring using guidance from a national Bat Recovery Plan (Molloy 1995), with on-going assessments and annual work plans being co-ordinated by the national Bat Recovery Group. Conservation programmes are in place aimed at protecting roosting sites, enhancing habitat, controlling predators, and educating the public about New Zealand long-tailed bat. More information is needed regarding the population numbers and current status of the species. <br/><br/>There are two proposed subspecies/evolutionary significant units (ESUs) recognised by the New Zealand Bat Recovery Group and the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Winnington 1999). The national (non-IUCN) listings for these populations are as follows (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2007):<br/><br/>Long-tailed bat (North Island) <em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>, nationally vulnerable<br/>Long-tailed bat (South Island) <em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>, nationally endangered	eng
4425	distribution	O'Donnell, C., 2008	This species is endemic to New Zealand where it has been recorded from areas of suitable habitat on North Island, South Island, and Stewart Island. It has recently become absent from the Banks Peninsula of South Island, and now also appears to be rare or absent from many sites where they were formerly common (O'Donnell 2005).	eng
4425	habitat	O'Donnell, C., 2008	New Zealand long-tailed bats are associated with areas of native temperate forest. The species has been recorded some distance from forest, occasionally in farmland and non-native plantations, but are generally found close to remnant native forest fragments (O'Donnell 2005). They primarily roost as solitary animals or in small groups within cavities in trees in native forest (O'Donnell 2005). Females are thought to give birth to a single young annually (O'Donnell 2001, 2005).	eng
4425	population	O'Donnell, C., 2008	There were substantial population declines in this species during the 1990s (O'Donnell 2001). The species is now rare or absent from many sites at which it was once common, and these declines are continuing (O'Donnell 2005).	eng
4425	threats	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Declines in long-tailed bats result from a combination of threats, namely predation and competition by introduced predators and browsers, habitat loss through land clearance, habitat degradation through logging and fragmentation of forests, and disturbance at roost sites. Introduced mustelids (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela </span>spp.), rats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus </span>spp.), possums, and feral and domestic cats all prey on, or attempt to prey on, New Zealand bats (Worthy 1997; O'Donnell 2000; Pryde <em>et al.</em> 2005; Pryde <em>et al.</em> 2006). In a recent management trial survival was increased significantly in two subpopulations where intensive control of ship rats occurred (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).	eng
4586	conservation	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
4586	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs only in Pyramid Lake and Truckee River, Nevada.	eng
4589	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	North America: known only from one specimen collected in Snake River below Jackson Dam in Wyoming, USA.	eng
4592	conservation	Russell, B., 2004	Australia <br/>Western Australia – complete protection since May 1998 because stocks determined to be insufficient and susceptible to overfishing. From December 1st, 2003, Coral Reef Fin Fish Management Plan (for Queensland waters, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) prohibited all take and possession of Humphead Wrasse, other than for limited educational purposes and public display. <br/> <br/>China <br/>Permits are required for the sale of this species in Guangzhou province, southern mainland China – for conservation purposes. <br/> <br/>Indonesia <br/>Fishing permitted if: <br/>- Done by researcher (with research permit) for the purpose of scientific and mariculture development, as well as by artisanal fishers (with specific fishing permit). <br/>- Allowable weights are 1 to 3 kg. Fish with weight less than 1 kg and more than 3 kg should be used for mariculture and/or freed to nature. <br/>- Allowable fishing methods for catching humphead wrasse are hook and line, fish trap and gill net. <br/>- With regards to artisanal fishers involve in fisheries business partnership, the fishers should sell the fish to its collector partners. <br/>- Collector and exporters should develop a rearing and culturing facility in the collection site which is equipped with staff knowledgeable in reef fish culture. <br/>- Provincial Fisheries Services much monitor, control and report on permits and volumes 3-monthly but no data were available despite multiple queries and are apparently not collected. <br/> <br/>Maldives <br/>All exports ofumphead Wrasse were banned in 1995, largely due to concern for recreational diving, a sector that values this species. <br/> <br/>Niue <br/>The interference, take, kill, or bringing to shore of the Humphead Wrasse is prohibited without written approval. <br/> <br/>Palau <br/>Illegal to fish, buy or sell humphead wrasse < 64 cm TL. Illegal to export Humphead Wrasse irrespective of size. <br/> <br/>Papua New Guinea <br/>There is a 65 cm minimum size limit for exporting Humphead Wrasse but this does not prevent fishers from catching and holding smaller Humphead Wrasse in cages (culturing) until they attain 65 cm TL. All live fish operators are required to obtain licenses. <br/> <br/>Philippines <br/>Exports of all live fish are technically prohibited from throughout the Philippines but this part of the code is evidently not implemented. Until recently Humphead Wrasse could not be exported from Palawan with an exemption for the taking of small fish for mariculture. The Palawan regulation is pending reconsideration. There was much illegal movement of this species outside of Palawan for subsequent export.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4592	distribution	Russell, B., 2004	The Humphead Wrasse is widely distributed on coral reefs and inshore habitats throughout much of the tropical Indo-Pacific, from western Indian Ocean and Red Sea to southern Japan, New Caledonia and into the central Pacific Ocean (follow link below for a distribution map). In Australia, it occurs on offshore reefs of north-western Australia and the Great Barrier Reef (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is rare in the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef in the Capricorn-Bunker Group (Russell 1983) and at Middleton and Elizabeth Reef (Gill and Reader 1992). This species appears to occur predominantly at depths of less than 100 m. It is not known from the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Island, Easter Island, Pitcairn Is., Rapa or Lord Howe Islands, Kermadec or Australes Is., and evidently does not occur in the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, Reunion Is., Mauritius or Rodrigues Is. <br/> <br/>Adults are known to occur largely on outer reef areas, often in association with channels and passes. Spawning aggregation sites have been reported from outer reef areas.	eng
4592	habitat	Russell, B., 2004	In one study, small post-settlement humphead wrasses were found in a species of seagrass (<em>Enhalys acoroides</em>), four species of hard coral (three <em>Acropora</em> spp. and <em>Porites cylindricus</em>), and in the soft coral <em>Sarcophyton</em> sp. (branching form; M.A. Tupper, pers. comm.). After settlement, juveniles and adults live associated with reef or near-reef habitats of seagrass beds and mangrove areas, with juveniles typically inshore and the largest individuals found in deeper waters of outer reefs or lagoons (Myers 1999). Juveniles of 3–20 cm TL, and larger, occur in coral-rich areas of lagoon reefs, particularly among live thickets of staghorn, <em>Acropora</em> spp. corals, in seagrass beds, murky outer river areas with patch reefs, shallow sandy areas adjacent to coral reef lagoons, and mangrove and seagrass areas inshore (Randall 1955, Randall<em>et al</em>. 1978, Myers 1999, J.H. Choat, pers. comm.).  Recruitment patterns may vary considerably between years (M.A. Tupper, unpublished data). Adults are more common offshore than inshore, their presumed preferred habitat being steep outer reef slopes, reef drop-offs, reef tops, channel slopes, reef passes, and lagoon reefs to at least 100 m. They are usually found in association with well-developed coral reefs (Vivien 1973, Randall <em>et al</em>l. 1978, Winterbottom <em>et al</em>. 1989, Allen and Swainston 1992, Sluka 2000). Typically they are solitary or paired, but have also been noted in groups of 3–7 individuals (Donaldson 1995). They appear to be somewhat sedentary in that the same individuals, indentifiable by distinct natural markings, may be seen along the same stretch of reef for extended periods.  Indeed, many commercial dive sites have their ‘resident’ Humphead Wrasse, a favoured species for divers.  Natural densities are evidently never high, even in presumed preferred habitats. For example, in unfished or lightly fished areas, densities may range from two to rarely more than 10–20 individuals per 10,000 m² of suitable reef. In fished areas, however, densities are typically lower by tenfold or more, and in some places fish no longer appear to be present. <br/> <br/>Accounts of reproductive activity in the field reveal that, depending on location, this species spawns between several and all months of the year, in small or large groupings, that spawning coincides with certain phases of the tidal cycle, and that groups of spawning fish can form daily, at a range of different reef types. Spawning areas and aggregated adults have been noted regularly along specific sections of reef, sometimes associated with no obvious topographical features, sometimes close to the shelf edge on outer reefs, or adjacent to exposed reef passes near fairly steep drop-offs, or on mid-shelf (unspecified) reefs (P.L. Colin, J.H. Choat, R. Hamilton, S. Oakley, pers. comms.). The species is evidently a daily spawner that probably does not migrate far to its spawning site(s), spawning for extended periods each year, i.e., a ‘resident’ spawner (Domeier and Colin 1997, P.L. Colin, pers. comm.): groups of up to 150 fish were observed in Palau along the shelf edge in a loose aggregation. <br/> <br/>Probable spawning aggregations have also been noted on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Fiji, New Caledonia, and in the Solomon Islands. Although spawning was not always observed, aggregated fish were ripe, or exhibiting behaviour likely associated with spawning. On the GBR, aggregations of up to 10 large males and 20–50 smaller fish (35–95 cm TL) were noted (J.H. Choat, pers. comm.). GBR aggregations from the Ribbon Reefs and north of Jewell Reef, once noted to include hundreds of fish, are no longer known at the same sites (Johannes and Squire 1988, L. Squire, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The longevity of this species is up to at least 32 years, with females outliving the males (the oldest female recorded was 32 years), and sexual maturity is reached at about eight years of age (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). Histological studies show that sexual maturation is reached at a size of between 40 cm and 60 cm total length (Sadovy, unpublished data). This species is thought to be a protogynous hermaphrodite, with sex reversal occurring at about 15 years of age (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). At a total length of approximately 111 cm (Lau and Li 2000). Males grow very rapidly (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>It feeds on a variety of molluscs, fishes, sea urchins, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
4592	population	Russell, B., 2004	Abundance estimates on northern Queensland (Australia) reefs are 2.5–3.5 adults per 8000 m² (Choat in Pogonosky <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>There are no data on total numbers of this fish globally. However, adults are largely limited to outer reef areas which are a small proportion of the total reef area within its distribution and, even in preferred habitats, densities are very low for a commercially exploited species (rarely > 10 fish per 10,000 square meter when not fished). It is considered uncommon to rare naturally. Nothing is known about the extent of subpopulations or degree of fragmentation but available suitable habitat is a major determinant of its distribution. Some edge of range extirpations are suspected. <br/> <br/>The species is hermaphroditic, changing sex from female to male. The sex ratio of samples and fish observed in the field is female biased. Under IUCN criteria for mature individuals, there should be a correction made to factor in the sex bias which effectively reduces substantially the estimates of fish numbers included in this assessment.	eng
4592	threats	Russell, B., 2004	Threats include: <br/> <br/>1) Intensive and species-specific removal for the live reef food fish export trade of a naturally uncommon and vulnerable species; <br/>2) Readily accessible to spearfishing at night with SCUBA or hookah (i.e., compressed air) gear, and easy to catch with cyanide, or other poisons such as <em>Derris trifoliata</em>, due to predictable adult habitat and shallow depth range; <br/>3) Lack of coordinated, consistent national and regional management largely due to limited management capacity and the sometime secretive nature of traders – in particular there is no relevant regional fishery management authority to address problems with this species; <br/>4) Selective fishing, in particular the intensive take of juveniles for direct export sale and for grow-out (also referred to as ‘culture’ – the species cannot be hatchery reared; and <br/>5) Illegal, unregulated, or unreported (IUU) fisheries (Donaldson and Sadovy 2001). <br/> <br/>In addition, the species’ essential coral reef habitat is seriously threatened by human activity throughout the Indo-Pacific region.  Destructive fishing practices, such as sodium cyanide use which stuns animals for capture and incidentally kills living coral, have been well documented and are spreading in the Indo-Pacific region (Barber and Pratt 1998, Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Johannes and Riepen 1995).  Despite its prohibition in many countries (including major exporters such as the Philippines and Indonesia), cyanide is still the preferred method for capturing certain live reef fish for international trade in some areas (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Johannes and Riepen 1995, Barber and Pratt 1998).  Indeed, larger Humphead Wrasse are difficult to catch any other way, other than by night-time capture.  When cyanide is applied, the fish often retreats into a crevice and becomes increasingly lethargic as the toxin reduces its ability to take up oxygen.  Divers may break away the living coral to get access to the hiding area, and remove the fish to clean water where it will often recover for shipment or holding in net pens. <br/> <br/>The most serious threat to this species is overfishing for the live fish export trade. They are mainly taken live for food – only rarely for the aquarium trade as far as can be determined.  This species is long-lived and naturally uncommon, and if it is similar to other reef fishes of similar size and biology (e.g., sequential hermaphroditism; aggregation-spawner) it is expected to have low rates of replacement and therefore be particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure (Donaldson and Sadovy 2001).  Moreover, being one of the largest of all reef fishes, they have few natural predators which means that fishing mortality may rapidly exceed natural mortality, possibly accounting for the rapid declines noted once fishing intensifies. <br/> <br/>Although data are not available from throughout its range, wherever there are significant exports and no effective controls, fish numbers have declined substantially within a decade or less and exploitation rates are expected to continue, or more likely, intensify. There are few refuges for this species since live reef fish carriers have access to all reefs where it occurs and it does not extend into very deep water, probably little more than 60 m. Adults only occur in reasonable numbers where the fishery is effectively managed or where they occur in marine protected areas. <br/> <br/>There has been speculation that Humphead Wrasse, and other reef fishes, can be cultured or "farmed" to meet international demand.  However, it appears that the use of cultured fish may actually pose a threat to wild populations in certain circumstances since it does not involve hatchery production (not yet possible for this species and unlikely to be possible at commercial levels for many years according to experienced aquarist M.A. Rimmer, pers. comm.) but the grow-out of wild sourced juveniles.	eng
4598	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in eight national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, Masoala, Montagne d’Ambre, Midongy du Sud, and Ranomafana), two nature reserves (Betampona and Tsaratanana), and two special reserves (Anjanaharibe-Sud and Pic d’Ivohibe), although this may require confirmation given the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the exact distributional limits of the various species of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. The dwarf lemur species occurring in Zahamena National Park and the Analamazaotra Special Reserve at Andasibe (= Périnet), previously believed to be <em>C. major</em>, is now believed to be <em>C. crossleyi</em> (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
4598	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. As a result of Groves’ (2000, 2001) revision of <em>Cheirogaleus</em>, this species has now been split into several and it is not clear how the new taxonomy affects its overall distribution, although it is still considered to be widespread ranging from Andohahela in the south to the Sambava region in the north. The southern extent of its distribution is verified by Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), who apparently found it along with <em>C. medius</em> and <em>C. crossleyi</em> near Tolagnaro. In addition, there are two records from Bemeraha and one from Bongolava (Thalmann 2000). Ranges from sea level to 1,800 m.	eng
4598	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of Madagascar’s eastern lowland and montane forests where conditions of water and food availability are not as seasonally severe as in the drier western deciduous forests. The species prepares for hibernation by storing excess fat in its tail, perhaps representing as much as 30% of its total body mass; it hibernates in tree holes and hollows (Wright and Martin 1995). Home ranges of adult females extend up to 4 ha and appear to include those of adult males and juveniles as well. Sleeping groups of up to three adult animals have been observed both in tree holes and clumps of vegetation. Mating behavior ensues shortly after emergence from torpor in October and November, females giving birth to two to three infants in January after a gestation of about 70 days (Petter-Rousseaux 1964). However, a number of observations of this species, cited here and elsewhere in this account, were made in Andasibe (= Périnet), and probably refer to <em>C. crossleyi</em>.	eng
4598	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Apparently a widespread and abundant species.	eng
4598	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are probably no major threats to the species, although it may be undergoing localized declines due to habitat loss from slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
4599	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Its presence is reported from five national parks (Andohahela, Ankarafantsika, Kirindy Mitea, Tsingy de Namaroka and Baie de Baly) and five special reserves (Andranomena, Ankarana, Bemarivo, Maningoza and Beza-Mahafaly) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
4599	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Groves (2000, 2001), in revising the genus, limited its range to the dry forests of western Madagascar. However, subsequent field studies and genetic analyses have extended the species' range all the way to the southern tip of Madagascar and into the evergreen humid forest of Saint Luce, 40 km north-east of Tolagnaro in southeastern Madagascar (Hapke <em>et al.</em> 2005). The range of the species relative to <em>C. adipicaudatus</em> is not clear. Ranges from sea-level to 800 m.	eng
4599	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests. Individual home ranges approach 1-2 hectares. Small family groups consist of the reproductively-active pair and their offspring from one or two breeding seasons. Daylight hours are spent in tree holes during the day, with up to five individuals occupying a single shelter. Litter sizes range from one to four, but twins are most common and the young are born with eyes open and covered with fur. Both males and females take part in raising the young. Sexual maturity is reached during the second year of life (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).	eng
4599	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>Cheirogaleus medius</em> is an apparently widespread and abundant species. It occurs at densities estimated to range between 40-400 individuals/km² (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).	eng
4599	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are probably no major threats, but habitat loss, primarily due to slash-and-burn agriculture, charcoal extraction, and bushfires may be resulting in localized declines.	eng
4600	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
4600	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs on Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006), Sanana, Sulawesi and Sulu Islands (Indonesia) (Lawrence 1939; Simmons 2005; Flannery 1995) and throughout the Philippines, except Palawan (Ingle and Heaney 1992), where it is reported from Mindoro (Lawrence 1939), Mindanao (Davao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, and South Cotabato provinces), and Negros (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is a record from Tawi-tawi (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4600	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is not well known, but it probably occurs in agricultural areas from sea level up to 200 m asl. It has often been found roosting in hollow trees (Rabor 1986; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The record from Sanana Island is from secondary forest near a village (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).<br/>In the Philippines these bats are known to roost in coconut palms, hollow trees, and occasionally in caves (Ingle and Heaney 1992). They have been found flying low over the mouth of a stream on Sunana Island (Flannery 1995). These bats are insectivores and are thought to have two young at a time that are left in the roost when the adult bats go to forage (Nowak 1999).	eng
4600	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown as there have not been many appropriate surveys.	eng
4600	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation is occurring throughout its range. In the Philippines, much of the lowland forest has been lost. As this species is a large microbat, it is hunted in Sulawesi in large numbers (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4601	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
4601	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Terutau Island (Thailand) (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006) and in Indonesia, from Sumatra to Java, and across Borneo. In the Philippines it is found only on Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The record from Mindanao (Corbet and Hill 1992) represents a misidentified individual of Cheiromeles parvidens (L. Heaney  pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4601	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	On Borneo, it roosts in large caves and hollow trees and forages over streams, clearings, and above the forest canopy (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Thailand it is found mainly in lowlands (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006) and is a highly gregarious species, roosting in large colonies where suitable habitat is available (L. B. Liat unpubl. data).	eng
4601	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is generally rare though in some parts of its range it is considered to be a pest.	eng
4601	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Hunting and exploitation of caves for swiftlets are threats recorded from Borneo (Clements <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/>In Peninsular Malaysia the species is eaten by indigenous people and it is believed to be a pest of rice crops – roosts are destroyed in an effort to control the species. It is under threat from destruction of cave habitats though mining in other parts of its range.	eng
4603	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	The range is included in several protected areas.	eng
4603	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in the southern Andes along Chile-Argentina boundary, from approximately 34°S latitude south to Straits of Magellan (Musser and Carleton 2005). Distribution in central Chile augmented by Pine <em>et al.</em> (1979) and in Argentina by Pearson (1995) and Teta <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
4603	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Nothofagus forests and western ecotonal steppes of Patagonia (Pardinas <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
4603	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It is an uncommun species.	eng
4603	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for  this species.	eng
4604	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is included in several protected areas.	eng
4604	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in central Chile, along the coastal region from Coquimbo Province south to Cautín Province (Musser and Carleton 2005). Note: The Andes distribution should be reviewed as the species may ony occur in the coastal range.	eng
4604	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in shublands of the Chilean matorrall.	eng
4604	population	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is considered rare.	eng
4604	threats	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	Agricultural activities, viniculture and cattle activities affect their habitat and therefore the survival of this species.	eng
4606	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4606	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
4606	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species occurs only in three separate populations on a single small island (Roti) with 70 km² available habitat. It is collected exclusively for the pet trade, where it commands high prices due to its status as a distinct, restricted-range endemic. It is now considered commercially extinct by Indonesian traders.	eng
4607	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - swamps and streams.	eng
4608	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
4608	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	International live animal trade in this attractive species has led to probable illegal trade from Papua New Guinea to Indonesia and western pet markets.	eng
4609	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
4609	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	The species is the only endemic turtle in Papua New Guinea and restricted to a small range close to an urban center. It is illegally exported to the international pet market where it commands high prices due to its status as a distinct, restricted-range endemic.	eng
4615	conservation	Seminoff, J.A., 2004	Green turtles have been afforded legislative protection under a number of treaties and laws (e.g., Navid 1982, Humphrey and Salm 1996, Fleming 2001, Fretey 2001). Among the more globally relevant designations are those of Endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN; Baillie and Groombridge 1996, Hilton-Taylor 2000); Annex II of the SPAW Protocol to the Cartagena Convention (a protocol concerning specially protected areas and wildlife); Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora); and Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). A partial list of the International Instruments that benefit green turtles includes the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia (IOSEA), the Memorandum of Understanding on ASEAN Sea Turtle Conservation and Protection, the Memorandum of Agreement on the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA), and the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa. <br/>As a result of these designations and agreements, many of the intentional impacts directed at sea turtles have been lessened: harvest of eggs and adults has been slowed at several nesting areas through nesting beach conservation efforts and an increasing number of community-based initiatives are in place to slow the take of turtles in foraging areas. In regard to incidental take, the implementation of Turtle Excluder Devices has proved to be beneficial in some areas, primarily in the United States and South and Central America (National Research Council 1990). However, despite these advances, human impacts continue throughout the world. The lack of effective monitoring in pelagic and near-shore fisheries operations still allows substantial direct and indirect mortality, and the uncontrolled development of coastal and marine habitats threatens to destroy the supporting ecosystems of long-lived green turtles.	eng
4615	distribution	Seminoff, J.A., 2004	The Green Turtle has a circumglobal distribution, occurring throughout tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical waters (Atlantic Ocean – eastern central, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest, western central; Indian Ocean – eastern, western; Mediterranean Sea; Pacific Ocean – eastern central, northwest, southwest, western central). Green turtles are highly migratory and they undertake complex movements and migrations through geographically disparate habitats. Nesting occurs in more than 80 countries worldwide (Hirth 1997). Their movements within the marine environment are less understood but it is believed that green turtles inhabit coastal waters of over 140 countries (Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989).	eng
4615	habitat	Seminoff, J.A., 2004	Like most sea turtles, green turtles are highly migratory and use a wide range of broadly separated localities and habitats during their lifetimes (for review see Hirth 1997). Upon leaving the nesting beach, it has been hypothesized that hatchlings begin an oceanic phase (Carr 1987), perhaps floating passively in major current systems (gyres) that serve as open-ocean developmental grounds (Carr and Meylan 1980, Witham 1991). After a number of years in the oceanic zone, these turtles recruit to neritic developmental areas rich in seagrass and/or marine algae where they forage and grow until maturity (Musick and Limpus 1997). Upon attaining sexual maturity green turtles commence breeding migrations between foraging grounds and nesting areas that are undertaken every few years (Hirth 1997). Migrations are carried out by both males and females and may traverse oceanic zones, often spanning thousands of kilometers (Carr 1986, Mortimer and Portier 1989). During non-breeding periods adults reside at coastal neritic feeding areas that sometimes coincide with juvenile developmental habitats (e.g., Limpus <em>et al</em>. 1994, Seminoff <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
4615	threats	Seminoff, J.A., 2004	Green turtles, like other sea turtle species, are particularly susceptible to population declines because of their vulnerability to anthropogenic impacts during all life-stages: from eggs to adults. Perhaps the most detrimental human threats to green turtles are the intentional harvests of eggs and adults from nesting beaches and juveniles and adults from foraging grounds. Unfortunately, harvest remains legal in several countries despite substantial subpopulation declines (e.g., Humphrey and Salm 1996, Fleming 2001, Fretey 2001). In addition, a number of incidental threats impact green turtles around the world. These threats affect both terrestrial and marine environments, and include bycatch in marine fisheries, habitat degradation at nesting beaches and feeding areas, and disease. Mortality associated with entanglement in marine fisheries is the primary incidental threat; the responsible fishing techniques include drift netting, shrimp trawling, dynamite fishing, and long-lining. Degradation of both nesting beach habitat and marine habitats also play a role in the decline of many Green Turtle stocks. Nesting habitat degradation results from the construction of buildings, beach armoring and re-nourishment, and/or sand extraction (Lutcavage <em>et al</em>. 1997). These factors may directly, through loss of beach habitat, or indirectly, through changing thermal profiles and increasing erosion, serve to decrease the quantity and quality of nesting area available to females, and may evoke a change in the natural behaviors of adults and hatchlings (Ackerman 1997). The presence of lights on or adjacent to nesting beaches alters the behavior of nesting adults (Witherington 1992) and is often fatal to emerging hatchlings as they are attracted to light sources and drawn away from the water (Witherington and Bjorndal 1990). Habitat degradation in the marine environment results from increased effluent and contamination from coastal development, construction of marinas, increased boat traffic, and harvest of nearshore marine algae resources. Combined, these impacts diminish the health of coastal marine ecosystems and may, in turn, adversely affect green turtles. For example, degradation of marine habitats has been implicated in the increasing prevalence of the tumor-causing Fibropapilloma disease (George 1997).	eng
4618	conservation	Austin, C.M. & Bunn, J., 2010	The Threatened Species Scientific Committee have proposed that this species be listed as Critically Endangered and be noted as Threatened Fauna of Australia under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Recreational fishing of this species has been prohibited above the 10 Mile Brook Junction (Molony <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, illegal fishing activity still occurs and many fishers find it difficult to distinguish between Smooth and Hairy Marron (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008). A broodstock of Hairy Marron are being maintained at Pemberton Freshwater Research Centre for possible re-introduction programs. While re-introduction programs could result in increases in the population, this is only going to be maintained if other stressors are removed.<br/><br/>Conservation measures, as suggested by the Threatened Species Scientific Committee, include: removal of Smooth Marron from key habitat of the Hairy Marron, prevention of any further introductions of the Smooth Marron to the Margaret River, habitat maintenance, and re-introductions from the Pemberton broodstock.	eng
4618	distribution	Austin, C.M. & Bunn, J., 2010	This species is restricted to the upper reaches of the Margaret River in the south-west of Western Australia (Morgan and Beatty 2005, Bunn 2004). This species is currently only known from 11 sites in an area less than 50 km in length (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008). The area of occupancy (AOO) for this species is estimated to be less than 10 km² (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008).	eng
4618	habitat	Austin, C.M. & Bunn, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in the deep waters of rivers on sandy stretches with plenty of organic matter. Individuals require access to shelter and refugia (e.g. rocks and tree roots), and good water quality (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
4618	population	Austin, C.M. & Bunn, J., 2010	<em></em>This species has undergone a significant decline in population numbers within a very short period of time. Estimates indicate that there are possibly only 10,000 wild individuals left (Bunn 2004). In 2002, Austin and Ryan determined there had been an estimated 70% reduction in the numbers of this species in seven years at just one location, with a near 100% reduction in 13 years.	eng
4618	threats	Austin, C.M. & Bunn, J., 2010	The main threat to this species is direct competition with the Smooth Marron, <em>Cherax cainii</em>. The Smooth Marron has now replaced much of this species' former range in the lower and middle reaches of the Margaret River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax tenuimanus</span> is reported to hybridize with the Smooth Marron; 10% of the population at a location in the upper reaches of the river was comprised of hybrids (Bunn 2004). If Smooth Marron are considered the primary threat to this species, then the entire Margaret River system could be termed one location.<br/><br/>This species faces a number of threats in the middle and lower reaches of the river including habitat degradation, changes to the hydrological regime, predation by fish species (e.g. Redfin Perch) and competition (e.g. Smooth Marron and Yabbies), and illegal fishing activity targeting mature individuals (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008).	eng
4621	conservation	Austin, C.M., Jones, C. & Wingfield, M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
4621	distribution	Austin, C.M., Jones, C. & Wingfield, M., 2009	This species<em> </em>is native to freshwater creeks and water bodies in tropical Queensland, the Northern Territory and south-eastern Papua New Guinea. <em></em>It has been widely translocated around the world, and is considered an invasive species. This species has established feral populations in South Africa, Mexico, Jamaica and Puerto Rico (Ahyong and Yeo 2007). This species has a distribution exceeding&#160; 3.5 million km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>	eng
4621	habitat	Austin, C.M., Jones, C. & Wingfield, M., 2009	This is a non-burrowing species that is tolerant of a wide variety of habitats. This species can be found in coastal streams and freshwater environments, with a preference for the slower moving upper reaches of rivers as well as lakes and lagoons (Wingfield 2002). The distribution of this species is restricted to tropical and subtropical climates as the species cannot survive prolonged exposure to water temperatures below 10<sup>o</sup>C (Semple <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995). The hardiness and conspicuous colouration of&#160;<em></em>this species has also made it popular in the aquarium trade worldwide (Ahyong and Yeo 2007).<br/><br/><em></em>This is a species with considerable potential for commercial culture. High growth rates and tolerance to wide variations in water quality make the species suitable for cultivation (Anson and Rouse 1994). In areas where this species has been introduced, <em></em>it may impact native fauna through direct competition, predation or habitat modification, or spreading previously unknown parasites into native populations (Ahyong and Yeo 2007). <br/><br/>This species has been reported to be a carrier of a number of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoan and metazoan parasites (Edgerton 1999, Edgerton <em>et al</em>. 2000, Hauck <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bowater <em>et al</em>. 2002, Romero and Jimenez 2002). This species has life history traits which are typical of an invasive species; that is ,this species is<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;r</span>-selected.	eng
4621	population	Austin, C.M., Jones, C. & Wingfield, M., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
4621	threats	Austin, C.M., Jones, C. & Wingfield, M., 2009	<em></em>There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
4626	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Benign introductions made into one dam in Kruger National Park already successfully made. Introductions into irrigation dams in the Lomati catchment are suggested.	eng
4626	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Lomati River (low-veld) system in Swaziland and Mpumalanga, South Africa.	eng
4626	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Slow flowing vegetated sections of rivers and backwaters. Artificial dams.	eng
4626	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	A rare species - typically encountered in ones and twos in riverine habitats. Does very well in Dams (e.g., Driekoppies and Lomati Draai Dam).	eng
4626	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	River regulation (continuous high flows) of the Lomati River. <em>Serranochromis robustus</em> is spreading through the lower Lomati and Komati River systems. Subsistence fishermen do target this species as they are easily caught on baited hooks.	eng
4627	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in two protected areas, Tama National Park in Venezuela and Chingaza National Park in Colombia.	eng
4627	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Andean highlands in far west Venezuela, Colombia, and central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of approximately 2,492 to 2,584 m (Voss, 1988).	eng
4627	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	This mouse is found in montane areas near to streams in association with cloud forest. It is aquatic, found in small creeks in humid tropical forest. It feeds on snails and possibly small fishes (Voss, 1988).	eng
4627	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
4627	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	Major threats are unknown.	eng
4629	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>C. bleheri</em> is endemic to Indonesia, occurring in Danau Biru (Lake Holmes) in the Mamberamo River system of Irian Jaya.	eng
4629	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The habitat consists of three interconnected freshwater lakes lying within a radius of six to seven kilometers.  The largest lake in this system is about 4.5 km long and 2 km wide.	eng
4629	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The main threats to this species are the presence of introduced species such as carp and tilapia, and the increasingly common gill netting fisheries on the lakes.	eng
4631	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>C. sentaniensis</em> is endemic to Indonesia, occurring in Lake Sentani and in its tributaries.	eng
4631	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat is approximately 30 km long and 2-5 km wide.	eng
4631	population	Allen, G., 1996	The species was reported as being common in the 1950s. However. repeated attempts to collect the fish over the last 20 years have yielded only around ten specimens taken from a single creek.	eng
4631	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The human population living along the shore of Lake Sentani is rapidly increasing and was estimated at 25,000 in 1996.  The resultant pollution from domestic waste entering the lake is a threat to the species living there.  A further threat to this fish comes from the introduction of exotic species into its habitat, including carp, tilapia, walking catfish, barbs, and gouramies.	eng
4632	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	The few populations remaining for this species need to be given priority for conservation efforts. Land and water use practices need to be carefully managed and stocking of alien organisms need to be stopped. Probably the best way to effect this would be through conservancy agreements with riparian land owners and Mpumalanga Parks Board.	eng
4632	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Restricted distribution. Known only from a few headwater tributaries (900 to 1,200 m altitude) in the Incomati system in Mpumalanga, South Africa and Swaziland.	eng
4632	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Rocky habitats in fast flowing streams and rivers. Frequently occurs together with <em>C. anoterus</em> but it typically inhabits deeper runs rather than rapids.	eng
4632	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Not very commonly collected but this is perhaps due to not targeting the correct microhabitats: deeper water flows. However, not as abundant as the co-occurring <em>C. anoterus</em>.	eng
4632	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Appears to have gone extinct from its type locality on the Crocodile River near Lydenburg. Probably due to continuous flows released from the Kwena Dam. Additional impacts within the region are sedimentation from forestry and agricultural activities, water extraction resulting in reduced or no flows, introduced alien fishes (<em>O. mykiss</em> and <em>M. salmoides</em>) and pollution from the Ngodwana paper mill. Interestingly, previous spills from the Ngodwana paper mill which caused substantial fish kills do not seem to have affected the present species numbers in the Elands River. Rapid recovery of Elands River populations has occurred. The impacts on genetic diversity on this population is, however, not known.	eng
4633	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	River health programmes aimed at improving the conservation of aquatic habitats should be supported. Widespread establishment of conservancies may also help in conserving aquatic habitats.	eng
4633	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Limpopo in southern Zimbabwe.	eng
4633	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Found in sandy habitats in larger streams and rivers. The species buries itself in the sand substrate and forages on drift invertebrates and those in the substrate.	eng
4633	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Habitat degradation. Sedimentation of habitats from varied forestry and agricultural activities affect this and all other <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Chemical pollution from industries, large towns and agriculture also locally affect <em>Chiloglanis</em>. Require permanent flows and have disappeared from the Letaba River.	eng
4634	conservation	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D., Pacheco, V. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further research is needed to determinate its taxonomic status.	eng
4634	distribution	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D., Pacheco, V. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in the north Andes, from central Ecuador (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998), through central and north Colombia, to west Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Linares, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 3,700 m.	eng
4634	habitat	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D., Pacheco, V. & Rivas, B., 2008	This rodent is poorly known. It is restricted to moist humid cloud forest and co-occurs with the larger Thomasomys hylophilus, which it resembles (Aagaard, 1982). It is terrestrial, omnivorous, and nocturnal.	eng
4634	population	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D., Pacheco, V. & Rivas, B., 2008	In Ecuador this rodent is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.). In Venezuela it is rare (Linares, 1998).	eng
4634	threats	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D., Pacheco, V. & Rivas, B., 2008	No major threats although deforestation is affecting the species in some parts of its range.	eng
4647	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It occurs in Temengor Forest Reserve and Ulu Langat Forest Reserve (Hutterer 2005), and probably within other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
4647	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only from Peninsular Malaysia (Hutterer 2005). It occurs mainly in hilly areas, where it occurs quite widely, and has been found at altitudes as low as 305 m asl in Selangor (approximately 20 km east of Kuala Lumpur). Its range could extend as far as extreme southern Thailand, but there have been no records.	eng
4647	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	In the Ulu Langat Forest Reserve, this species seems to prefer moist habitats within forest. It is adapted to an aquatic lifestyle, living in wetlands, permanent rivers, and the banks of streams in intact forest, feeding on aquatic invertebrates. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
4647	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
4647	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has a relatively small range, and it is confined to a restricted habitat that is under pressure from human encroachment for agriculture, plantations and logging. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, but the extensive habitat loss within its range is likely to be having an impact.	eng
4648	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and conservation needs of this species.	eng
4648	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species is endemic to Malaysia, where it is found in the state Sabah in northern Borneo. In Sabah, it is present in three mountain ranges: Mount Trus Madi; Mount Kinabalu; and the Crocker Range. It probably occurs further south in Kalimantan (Indonesia) in appropriate habitats.	eng
4648	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species is considered to be semi-aquatic, and its diet is primarily composed of invertebrates. The species prefers moist habitats in montane forest, and can be found by streams in tropical forests in addition to marshland habitats. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. The species can be mistaken for <em>C. himalayica</em> due to its similarities in appearance and size.	eng
4648	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
4648	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has a small range, and it is confined to a restricted habitat that is under pressure from human encroachment, especially for logging. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, but the extensive habitat loss within its range is likely to be having an impact, and the species is probably ecologically sensitive.	eng
4649	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
4649	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species has only been recorded from Pager Alam, in the Padang Highlands of southern Sumatra, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). It is known from a single old record, but the lack of recent information could be related to the limited survey effort in this region.	eng
4649	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is poorly known, and is thought to be found in streams in montane forests, in common with other members of the genus. The species in this genus are good underwater swimmers, and, therefore, their diet consists primarily of benthic organisms including insects, aquatic larvae, crustaceans and small fishes. They create burrows, with the entrance usually located within the stream. This shrew has physical adaptations for aquatic life.	eng
4649	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is kknown only from the holotype.	eng
4649	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. However, it is likely to have been negatively impacted by human encroachment of its habitat, especially for small-holder agriculture, settlements, and timber extraction.	eng
4651	conservation	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are reports of the species existence in Bolivia from the Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve for Andean Fauna (N. Bernal pers. comm.). This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975 as <em>Chinchilla brevicaudata</em> and since 1977 as <em>Chinchilla chinchilla</em>.	eng
4651	distribution	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The historic distribution of this species extended throughout the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, northwest Argentina, and Chile. The species has since been eradicated from many areas of its former range; it is now extinct in Peru and Bolivia, where specimens have not been recorded for over 50 years (Tarifa 1996, Anderson 1997). However, recent reports (from interviews with local people and observations of park guides) from the border region of Bolivia (Potosi Department) and Chile (Antofagasta) seem to indicate extant populations (J. Jimenez and N. Bernal pers. comm.). The species is not likely to persist elsewhere in its historic range in Bolivia. There may be records of released pets in parts of its range. The distribution of this species in Bolivia needs review.	eng
4651	habitat	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species lives in burrows or rocky crevices usually in arid areas, and are strictly nocturnal. It is a colonial species and feeds on vegetation.	eng
4651	population	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The range of this species has been severely reduced to a portion of its former didtribution. In Bolivia, the species was thought to be extinct. However, there may be populations persisting on the border with Chile, in an isolated region with low human population. The populations experience natural fluctuations in relation to harsh winters.	eng
4651	threats	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species was hunted extensively in the past, but it is now bred easily in captivity for the fur and pet trade so hunting in the wild is no longer a major threat.	eng
4652	conservation	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	Legislation to protect the species has been in place since 1929, but was not efficiently enforced until the establishment of the Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas in Auco, Chile in 1983 (Jimenez 1996). This species has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1977.	eng
4652	distribution	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs from northern Chile along the foothills of the Andes and coastal mountains south to Talca (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been suggested that its range extends into Argentina and Salta province (Chebez 1994), but this is to be confirmed.	eng
4652	habitat	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It occurs in barren, arid, and rugged areas of the mountain chains connecting the coastal mountain ranges and the Andes (Spotorno <em>et al.</em> 2004). Typical habitat is rocky or sandy with a sparse cover of thorn shrubs, few herbs and forbs, scattered cacti, and patches of succulent bromeliads toward the coast (Spotorno <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Sexual maturity in both sexes occurs on average at 8 months, but may occur as early as 5.5 months (George and Weir 1974). Females have a first litter at a mean age of 459 days, gestation lasts 111 days and there is an interbirth interval of 214 days (Neira <em>et al.</em> 1989). Litters have 1-6 pups (mean of 1.75) (Spotorno <em>et al,</em> 2004).	eng
4652	population	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species was once widespread, but in 1996 only 42 discrete colonies could be found in the wild; the number of these colonies and the general population size have been declining over time (Jimenez, 1996).	eng
4652	threats	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species has been threatened for years by human activities, including poaching, hunting, grazing by cattle and goats, mining, and firewood extraction. Despite current protection measures, populations are continuing to decline (Jimenez 1996). Current hypotheses to explain this decline, as summarized by Jimenez (1996), include:<br/>(1) current numbers are lower than the minimum viable population size for long-term survival;<br/>(2) predation by foxes upon chinchillas has increased during the past decades; <br/>(3) the later decline is caused by long-term abiotic and/or biotic changes; and <br/>(4) the trend might represent the decreasing phase of a long-term natural cycle of chinchilla populations.	eng
4655	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in Peru and Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
4655	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, western Bolivia, and northern Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). This has an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,800 m.	eng
4655	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is usually caught among boulders and along stone walls; it can be in association with the viscacha (Lagidium). The species is found in also in dry shrubland. The Chinchillula is nocturnal and herbivorous; stomachs usually contain leaves, seeds, and a few insects.	eng
4655	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
4655	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It was historically trapped, around fifty years ago, for its skin; this is not a current threat to the species.	eng
4656	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
4657	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Jaime Bosch, Mathieu Denoël, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and is also listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in both Portugal and Spain. It occurs in several protected areas including Picos de Europa National Park, Spain, and Peneda-Gerêz National Park, Portugal.	eng
4657	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Jaime Bosch, Mathieu Denoël, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species is restricted to mountainous and hilly areas in north-western Spain (Galicia and Asturias) and northern and central Portugal with an annual precipitation of over 1,000mm. Its distribution is patchy because its required habitat is fragmented. It has been introduced to the Serra de Sintra, Portugal. It has an altitudinal distribution 100-1,000m asl (records above 1,000m asl require confirmation).	eng
4657	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Jaime Bosch, Mathieu Denoël, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is associated with clear, well-oxygenated, small- to medium-sized slightly acidic streams (although in Portugal it has been found in water with pH 7-8), with dense surrounding vegetation in mountainous and hilly areas. The species has also been recorded from caves and abandoned flooded mines. It is associated with broad-leaved oak forest, and occurs in secondary vegetation, but not usually in commercial plantations. Animals have been recorded from eucalypt plantations, pine forests and even shrubland (<em>Taxus</em> or <em>Erica</em>) (Iñigo Martínez-Solano pers. comm. December, 2008). The females lay approximately 12-20 eggs in shallow stream water, often attaching the eggs to the bottom substrate. It is often associated with areas of traditional farming practices, and is particularly found in dry stonewalls. Some populations in north-western Spain have disappeared following replacement of broad-leaved forest with other habitats.	eng
4657	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Jaime Bosch, Mathieu Denoël, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This is a localized species that can be abundant in suitable habitats (4-5 adults per metre of brook habitat). Eastern Spanish populations are found at lower population densities, and there have been reports of declines and extinctions of some populations in Galicia. In Portugal, populations are widespread and abundant (P. Arntzen pers. comm.) and not in any immediate danger, but they are considered to be vulnerable because of their specialized habitat requirements (Paulo 1997).	eng
4657	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Jaime Bosch, Mathieu Denoël, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The major threats to the species are pollution of streams with agrochemicals, canalization, and water extraction from streams for agricultural purposes, and the loss of terrestrial habitats associated with the streams through conversion to forestry plantations (<em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> plantations). In Portugal, habitat is at risk from fire.	eng
4658	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
4658	conservation	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
4658	distribution	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Caucasus in Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and the eastern Black Sea mountains of northeast Turkey.	eng
4658	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Caucasus in Russia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and the E Black Sea Mtns of NE Turkey.	eng
4658	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species occurs in open rocky habitats including at the edge of forest. Uses natural roosts, sometimes makes simple dens. Active in dusk, in summer and autumn also diurnal. In the winter doesn't come to the surface. Feeds on green parts of grass and small shrubs, berries and mosses. In June starts storing food, usually in shape of small stocks, up to 6 kg. Has up to 4 litters per year. Smaller number of embryos and slower development of young than other vole species.	eng
4658	habitat	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species occurs in open rocky habitats including at the edge of forest. Uses natural roosts, sometimes makes simple dens. Active in dusk, in summer and autumn also diurnal. In the winter doesn't come to the surface. Feeds on green parts of grass and small shrubs, berries and mosses. In June starts storing food, usually in shape of small stocks, up to 6 kg. Has up to 4 litters per year. Smaller number of embryos and slower development of young than other vole species.	eng
4658	population	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	This species is common in suitable rocky habitat between 500 and 3,000 m.	eng
4658	population	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	This species is common in suitable rocky habitat between 500 and 3,000 m.	eng
4658	threats	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Some of the areas are used as pasture land but no major threats.	eng
4658	threats	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Sozen, M., 2008	Some of the areas are used as pasture land but no major threats.	eng
4659	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs within many protected areas within its range. In the Ukraine, the species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine.	eng
4659	conservation	Krystufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs within many protected areas within its range. In the Ukraine, the species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine.	eng
4659	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs within many protected areas within its range. In the Ukraine, the species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine.	eng
4659	distribution	Krystufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Chionomys nivalis </em>has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999), but also found down to sea level; it is a species of rocky habitats (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).  Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Chionomys nivalis </em>has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999), but also found down to sea level; it is a species of rocky habitats (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).  Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Chionomys nivalis </em>has a global distribution extending from south-western Europe through south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Iran (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, it is restricted to mountainous and rocky areas, typically above 1,000 m and up to 4,700 m (Amori 1999). Its strongholds in Europe are in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. Of the islands, it is found only on Euboea (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It inhabits open, rocky areas, typically above the tree-line (Amori 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, shrubs, and berries (Krapp 1982).	eng
4659	habitat	Krystufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It inhabits open, rocky areas, typically above the tree-line (Amori 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, shrubs, and berries (Krapp 1982).	eng
4659	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It inhabits open, rocky areas, typically above the tree-line (Amori 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on grasses, shrubs, and berries (Krapp 1982).	eng
4659	population	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and no declines have been recorded. Fluctuations in population density are not known to occur. Its distribution is naturally fragmented as subpopulations became isolated from each other when temperatures warmed at the end of the last ice age (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	population	Krystufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and no declines have been recorded. Fluctuations in population density are not known to occur. Its distribution is naturally fragmented as subpopulations became isolated from each other when temperatures warmed at the end of the last ice age (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and no declines have been recorded. Fluctuations in population density are not known to occur. Its distribution is naturally fragmented as subpopulations became isolated from each other when temperatures warmed at the end of the last ice age (Amori 1999).	eng
4659	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by enchroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.	eng
4659	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by encroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.	eng
4659	threats	Krystufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	In the northeastern part of the range the species occurs exclusively in rocky slopes. During the last two decades, these areas have been covered by encroaching new forest as sheep grazing has declined (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). However, this is not though to be a serious threat to the species at present.	eng
4660	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species has been recorded in protected areas.	eng
4660	conservation	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species has been recorded in protected areas.	eng
4660	distribution	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species is found in the western Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), and in the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey. Elevation range is from sea level to 3,200 m.	eng
4660	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species is found in the western Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), and in the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey. Elevation range is from sea level to 3200 m.	eng
4660	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	Unique species. Lives in  mesic habitats along streams and mountain rivers, usually rocky mossy areas with shrubs. The species apprears to be semi-arboreal, and although it dwells in the proximity of streams, does not appear to have aquatic adaptations (climbs and jumps across water). Although the species has been found outside forest, it typically is found in forested areas. Feeds on fern, elderflower and rhododendron leaves. Has 2-3 litters per year with about 3 young in each.	eng
4660	habitat	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	Unique species. Lives in  mesic habitats along streams and mountain rivers, usually rocky mossy areas with shrubs. The species apprears to be semi-arboreal, and although it dwells in the proximity of streams, does not appear to have aquatic adaptations (climbs and jumps across water). Although the species has been found outside forest, it typically is found in forested areas. Feeds on fern, elderflower and rhododendron leaves. Has 2-3 litters per year with about 3 young in each.	eng
4660	population	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	Moderately common, typically 5-10% of small mammals, though can be more common in suitable habitats.	eng
4660	population	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	Moderately common, typically 5-10% of small mammals, though can be more common in suitable habitats.	eng
4660	threats	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In Turkey, there is pressure on riverine habitats in its range. There is mining for rocks in some of the habitats.	eng
4660	threats	Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. & Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In Turkey, there is pressure on riverine habitats in its range. There is mining for rocks in some of the habitats.	eng
4664	conservation	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Avoid habitat loss.	eng
4664	distribution	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Minas Gerais and São Paulo (SE Brazil), Paraguay (Simmons 2005).	eng
4664	habitat	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The natural history of the genus Chiroderma is poorly known (Peracchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). C. doriae was thought to be found only in rainforest habitats (Bordignon 2005), but it occurs in a variety of habitats such as primary and secondary forests, small forested fragments, cultivated areas (Faria 1995), and even urban parks (Esbérard <em>et al</em>. 1996). Use of human-dominated areas indicates some flexibility of <em>C. doriae</em> to colonize or at least forage in urban areas if its food resource is available (Nogueira and Peracchi 2002). These records of <em>C. doriae</em> in disturbed areas are only from Rio de Janeiro (Esbérard 2003). Information about roosts is scarce (Peracchi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Species of Chiroderma are considered predominantly frugivorous. Some data suggest that pregnancy and lactation of C. doriae are seasonal events (Peracchi <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
4664	population	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
4664	threats	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Restricted geographic range and occurrence in habitats under severe anthropogenic pressure (e.g., Atlantic Rain Forest) (Nogueira and Peracchi 2002).	eng
4665	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Not known.	eng
4665	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is known from Guadeloupe and Montserrat (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
4665	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Little is known about its natural history; presumably it is frugivorous like other members of the genus; it has been collect in open field adjacent to gallery forest, over streams, and under gallery forest (Jones and Baker, 1980).	eng
4665	population	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species apparently is rare (Jones and Baker, 1980).	eng
4665	threats	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat conversion. Hurricanes and Mt Serrat (volcanic eruption) are also potential threats (Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
4666	conservation	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. Needs further research. Not very common in protected areas in Guatemala.	eng
4666	distribution	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs throughout Peru, Bolivia, and Venezuela north to Michoacan, Hidalgo, and Chihuahua (Mexico) (Simmons 2005). Occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
4666	habitat	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This bat is poorly known, ecologically and taxonomically. It is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest and forest openings; also near streams in dry areas and in savannas. It probably travels in the canopy or sub-canopy, as it is seldom caught in a nest at the understory level. It feeds on fruits, especially figs. It prefers moist habitats and evergreen tropical forests, as well as open areas (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). In Costa Rica and Panama it has been captured over the forest canopy (Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
4666	population	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is apparently uncommon to locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).	eng
4666	threats	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	None known.	eng
4667	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitat. Found in protected areas.	eng
4667	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This species is distributed from Costa Rica (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002) south to Amazonian Brazil, Guianas, Suriname, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). In Venezuela, it occurs at low elevations, below 1,000 m (Handley, 1976).	eng
4667	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Poorly known. In Venezuela it prefers moist habitats and multistratal evergreen tropical forest (Handley, 1976) and occurs in open areas (Reid, 1997). The type specimen from Trinidad was caught in a well-lit cave (Goodwin and Greenhal, 1961). It probably travels in the canopy or subcanopy, as it is seldom caught in nets set at understory level (Reid, 1997).	eng
4667	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Widely distributed. The species seems to be relatively uncommon but populations poorly understood and may be under represented in studies due to sampling bias. Just two records in Costa Rica (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).	eng
4667	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, although this is not a major threat.	eng
4668	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
4668	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This species occurs from Hidalgo and Veracruz, Mexico south through the Isthmus, over much of northern South America to western and southern Brazil, Bolivia and Peru; also in Trinidad and Tobago (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). In Venezuela occurs in lowlands below 600 m (Handley, 1976).	eng
4668	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Poorly known. In Venezuela, it is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976); also second growth forest, clearings, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997). Feed on fruits, especially figs and roosts in trees hollows (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
4668	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Widespread, uncommon to locally common. It forages at the canopy level and may be under sampled because of methodological issues (Faria pers. comm.). Not common in Guatemala (Perez pers. comm.)	eng
4668	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss, though not a major threat as the species is relatively tolerant to a range of habitats.	eng
4669	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
4669	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is recorded from south west China (south Yunnan), eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
4669	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is an arboreal, it inhabits moist deciduous and evergreen forest (Corbet and Hill 1992), using mosaic scrub areas as extensions of forest. It may also occur in regrowth and other degraded habitats. It is probably present at higher elevations above 700-800 m.	eng
4669	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is common and can be locally abundant.	eng
4669	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
4670	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Suyanto, A., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
4670	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is known from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Nias, western Java, and also Sulawesi in Indonesia, and from scattered records in Borneo (including Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan). There is apparently a record from Bali.	eng
4670	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It occurs in lowland, hill and montane forest. The Sabah specimen was taken in the understorey of dipterocarp forest. It has been found roosting in small groups in tree ferns and in a shallow cave (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is probably not dependent on water.	eng
4670	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This is a fairly common species.	eng
4670	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Suyanto, A., 2008	Habitat loss is a threat for this species, it is usually not found in disturbed forest. Deforestation is occurring throughout its range for logging, agriculture and plantations, and as a result of fires.	eng
4671	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	It is found in many protected areas.	eng
4671	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	The range of this species extends from southern Mexico (Oaxaca and Tabasco), through Central America to Colombia, northwestern Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, the mouth of the Amazon river in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, southern Brazil, and northeastern Argentina (Misiones) (Gardner, 2005). It has been found up to 1,860 m in Argentina (Eisenberg, 1989) and 1,830 in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.). The scattered records in the central Amazon are likely a sampling artefact. Occurs up to 1800 m in Central America (Reid 1997).	eng
4671	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	Nocturnal; terrestrial and semi aquatic; solitary; it is carnivorous, eating small fish, crabs, crustaceans, insects that it catches in the water, and occasionally frogs. Prey is captured with either the front feet or the mouth. This is confined to areas of permanent water such as streams or rivers, usually within a forest. It is an excellent swimmer and diver, paddling with its hind feet and using its tail as a rudder, and the eyes and top of the head just above water. The den is usually a subterranean cavity, reached through a hole in the stream bank just above water level. Found in tropical forests and cleared areas in tropical forest regions. Most records are from clear rivers, lakes, and streams in hilly areas; may be rare or absent from silt-laden lowland watercourse. Litter size is one to five, with two to three most common. The female keeps the young in her pouch when she swims. In captivity one female had her first oestrous cycle at ten months of age. Within this cavity it builds a nest; in captivity animals have been observed to transport nesting material with their tails (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Marshall, 1978).	eng
4671	population	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species seems to be common where it occurs, but absent from many regions (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is rare in Venezuela, although some authors think that the species is only rarely encountered due to nocturnal habits and inaccessible habitats (Marshall, 1978). Others believe that C. minimus is rare in all areas except Central American river systems (Emmons and Feer 1998).	eng
4671	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no major threats. This species was formerly captured for its skin, although the demand for marsupial furs has subsided in recent years (Eisenberg, 1993). Requires forest and water courses, cannot occur where this habitat is degraded or destroyed. Artisanal gold-mining in French Guiana and other parts of the species' range might degrade water courses posing a serious threat (Catzeflis in litt., 2006).	eng
4679	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	More survey work is required to determine the geographic range and status of the species.	eng
4679	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is endemic to lowland habitats in the Palawan Faunal Region, Philippines (Musser 1979) with records from Balabac, Busuanga, and Palawan islands. There is a new record for Dumaran island by Widmann in 2005-2006 (pers. comm., voucher in National Museum, Manila). J. C. Gonzalez reported a specimen collected on Calauit, but the specimen was lost.	eng
4679	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	This rarely captured arboreal mouse is known from lowland forest near sea level (Taylor 1934), coconut groves, and bamboo thickets (Sanborn 1952) and uses vines which grow well in second growth forest. It has also been recorded from residential areas (P. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
4679	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown. It is apparently difficult to capture (Musser 1979).	eng
4679	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	Deforestation and habitat degradation may be a major threat to the species. However, it has been recorded in secondary and disturbed areas and is presumed to persist in those habitats.	eng
4680	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present in many protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). In India it is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
4680	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species is present in northeastern India, south China (including Hainan island), Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, eastern Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia (Java, southern Sumatra, the Mentawai Islands and other islands) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs between sea level to 1,600 m (Molur e<em>t al.</em> 2005).	eng
4680	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	Arboreal, found in primary and secondary forest; it does not appear to be restricted to a particular forest type and specimens have been obtained from tropical moist deciduous forest and evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests on lowlands, coastal plains, and hills, and from the montane evergreen rain forests on mountains and plateaus (Musser 1979). It can be found in very degraded habitat with some forest. In South Asia, it is found in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest where it is seen among primary and secondary forests with abundance of bamboo and also in coastal habitats and hills. Bamboo species with moderate girths are favoured nesting sites between 1 to 3 m high from the ground  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
4680	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It can be locally abundant, although it is patchily distributed.	eng
4680	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	Overall, there appear to be no major threats to this species other than heavy deforestation. The major threats of the species in South Asia include, habitat loss due to jhum (shifting) cultivation, small-scale logging, forest fires, clearing of bamboo patches, expansion of human settlements and dam constructions. It is also in local trade where it is harvested for consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
4681	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	Part of Siberut is protected as the Siberut National Park, but it is not clear if this species is present in this reserve. There is an urgent need for improved habitat protection on the Mentawai islands. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.	eng
4681	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is known only from Pagai and Siberut islands, in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
4681	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This is an arboreal species living in tropical primary lowland forest (Musser 1979).	eng
4681	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	It is known only from a single specimen from Pagai. There is no recent information on its population status.	eng
4681	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	The major threat is forest loss due to logging.	eng
4682	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether it occurs more widely on Borneo as is expected.	eng
4682	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo, where it is recorded only from Sarawak and Sabah (Musser 1979), but probably also occurs in Kalimantan and more widely throughout Borneo. On Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah it is found between 900 and 1,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
4682	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is an arboreal species, specimens have been collected in lowland evergreen and montane forest formations and adjacent coastal areas (Musser 1979).	eng
4682	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
4682	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although other members of the genus are known to be able to withstand some habitat degradation and occur in forest edge.	eng
4683	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether it occurs more widely throughout montane Borneo as is expected.	eng
4683	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known from only a few specimens from Gunung Kinabalu (1,100-1,220 m) and north Kalimantan (Long Petak), but it probably occurs more widely on Borneo than current records suggest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
4683	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is an arboreal in montane tropical forest (Musser 1979).	eng
4683	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is no information on current population status, it is known only from a handful of specimens.	eng
4683	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although other members of the genus are known to be able to withstand some habitat degradation and occur in forest edge.	eng
4684	conservation	Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
4684	distribution	Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and southern Kalimantan (Indonesia), but probably occurs throughout Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
4684	habitat	Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is an arboreal species that is presumably found in various types of forest, including degraded or modified forest areas, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
4684	population	Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
4684	threats	Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is presumably threatened at lower elevations by loss of forest habitat.	eng
4685	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Pinto, L.P., Ferrari, S.F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional da Amazônia [Tapajós] (10,000 km²), and Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Flona Tapajós).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
4685	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Pinto, L.P., Ferrari, S.F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	In the south and west of its range it appears to have an unusual distribution. It is absent from the Jiparaná-Marmoré interfluvium (between the Rios Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná and Serra dos Pacaás Novos in the south), and from areas of terra firme forest south of Serra dos Pacaás Novos; as such, it is excluded from almost two-thirds of the state of Rondônia (Ferrari and Lopes 1992; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999). Unexpectedly, it occurs further south in transitional, savanna-like forest (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999), extending south as far as the east bank of the Rio Guaporé in extreme southern Rondônia, on the border with Bolivia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1996). Ferrari and colleagues (1999) suggest that ecological factors, rather than physical barriers, limit the distribution of <em>Chiropotes albinasus</em> in this area, possibly linked to competition with the region's other pitheciine species, <em>Pithecia irrorata</em>.	eng
4685	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Pinto, L.P., Ferrari, S.F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	The preferred habitat is high terra firme forest; however, the species has been observed occasionally in fragmented areas and inundated forests (Ayres 1981; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1996; Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 2003), and vegetation at the transition between forest and savanna (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>This is a specialized seed predator and a highly frugivorous species, with as much as 90% of the diet composed of fruits (Ayres 1981; Pinto in press). In the Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Flona Tapajós), immature seeds were the most important food item (48%), followed by mature fruit pulp (39%) and flowers (5%); matures seeds, immature pulp and invertebrates and other dietary items were eaten in smaller quantities. The most important plant families in the diet were Sapotaceae, Lecythidaceae and Moraceae (Pinto in press.). In Aripuanã, Ayres (1981) observed groups with 19 to 26 individuals. A group studied in Flona Tapajós had 56 members and used an estimated area of 1,000 ha in an 11-month study (Pinto, 2008).	eng
4685	population	Veiga, L.M., Pinto, L.P., Ferrari, S.F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs at low densities and appears to require large areas of continuous forest with high fruit productivity (Pinto and Setz 2005). From studies based on standardized line transects, population densities have been calculated for a number of areas (Table 1).	eng
4685	threats	Veiga, L.M., Pinto, L.P., Ferrari, S.F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	The Trans-Amazon highway bisects the range of this species from east to west and, perhaps more importantly, the Santarém-Cuiabá highway (BR-163) makes most of the Xingu-Tapajós interfluvium easily accessible from the south. In recent years, this highway has become the main channel of colonization for soybean planters migrating northwards from Mato Grosso, although for the time being, this threat is limited to a relatively small proportion of the species’ range. Soybean farms contribute directly to forest clearing, but also provide the economic and political impetus for the development of new roads and infrastructure projects which accelerate rates of deforestation by other actors (Fearnside 2007). Cattle ranching is also an important threat. The species is hunted for food and occasionally for its tail (for use as dusters).	eng
4691	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas. It is legally hunted in some of the protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
4691	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is present in eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and also on the D'Entrecasteaux Group of islands where it has been recorded from Fergusson, Goodenough, and Normanby islands (Papua New Guinea). It ranges from sea level to 1,300 m asl.	eng
4691	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found from lowland tropical moist forest to montane mossy forest at higher altitude, and occurs in secondary habitats wherever there are large trees with holes. It lives in small groups of four or five animals in tree hollows. Females give birth to a litter of two or three young and are highly fecund.	eng
4691	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The population size of this species is not known, but it is more abundant than many other species in its range.	eng
4691	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. It is locally hunted for food.	eng
4692	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. The degree to which this species is threatened by introduced rats should be studied.	eng
4692	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to the Owen Stanley Mountain Range of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,300 m asl.	eng
4692	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded in areas of primary and severely degraded tropical moist forest. Animals generally live in tree hollows.	eng
4692	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
4692	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It may be threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>. It is also hunted for food by local people, but this is not a major threat.	eng
4693	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
4693	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,500 m asl.	eng
4693	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found from tropical moist forest and possibly in secondary habitats. It presumably lives in small groups in tree hollows. Females produce multiple litters annually.	eng
4693	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
4693	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. It is potentially threatened by competition for tree hollows from the introduced species <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <em>C. vates</em> is not specifically hunted for food, but would be killed if found.	eng
4695	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4695	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Found in Thailand (restricted to Mtheae Klong basin; was formerly more widely distributed).	eng
4695	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Found in large rivers with clear water and sandy bottoms.	eng
4695	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is intensively exploited for food and international pet trade.	eng
4696	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
4696	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Found in the rivers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and western Malaysia.	eng
4696	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Spend most of the day submerged in the sandy bottoms of deep rivers. Females lay their eggs on sandy beaches.	eng
4703	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	It has been recorded in a number of protected areas in Bolivia (Cuéllar and Noss 2003), and Reserva Natural General Pizarro in Salta, Argentina (Regidor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Paraguay, it is known from Defensores del Chaco National Park (Meritt 2008).	eng
4703	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> occurs in the Gran Chaco region of central and south-eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, and extreme northern Argentina (Gardner 2005). The two records further south from Redford and Eisenberg (1992) are not confirmed.	eng
4703	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> is restricted to loose, sandy soils. It is patchily distributed and absent from areas with clay soils. It can be found in disturbed habitat, and may be encountered close to villages and other populated areas.	eng
4703	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	The population status of this small armadillo is not known.	eng
4703	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. retusus</span> is threatened by habitat loss in the Chaco region. It is persecuted because of traditional beliefs concerning the animal as an omen of disaster (Cuéllar<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2001, Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
4704	conservation	Superina, M., Abba, A.M. & Roig, V., 2009	It is present in a number of protected areas including Lihué Calel National Park in La Pampa (9,905 ha), and some provincial protected areas in Mendoza. There is national and provincial legislation specifically in place for its protection, such as Provincial Law 6599 Mendoza. Further studies into the population status, demography and ecology of this species are needed.	eng
4704	distribution	Superina, M., Abba, A.M. & Roig, V., 2009	This smallest of all armadillo species is endemic to central Argentina, where it is found in the provinces of Buenos Aires (southern part only), Catamarca, Cordoba, La Pampa, La Rioja, Mendoza, Rio Negro, San Juan and San Luis.	eng
4704	habitat	Superina, M., Abba, A.M. & Roig, V., 2009	This poorly known, nocturnal species is found in dry grassland and sandy plains with shrubby vegetation.	eng
4704	population	Superina, M., Abba, A.M. & Roig, V., 2009	It may be relatively rare, but nothing is known about its population size or trend.	eng
4704	threats	Superina, M., Abba, A.M. & Roig, V., 2009	Habitat conversion due to agriculture (ploughing of fields) and cattle ranching (compaction of soil) are the predominant threats this species is facing, but predation by domestic cats and dogs is also contributing to its decline.	eng
4726	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Research into the life history of this species is required, as is its current status regarding population size and trend.	eng
4726	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic for Japan and restricted to the Iriomotejima islands of the Ryukyu archipelago. This island is 284 km² large.	eng
4726	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits the upper mountain streams in virgin subtropical forest.  Adults fly in swarms through gaps in the forest.	eng
4726	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species has a restricted range and the population is stable.	eng
4726	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Most habitats have not changed, but potentially recent drought (perhaps global warming) has impacted the stream species.  It is also affected by pollution from farming and domestic developments.	eng
4730	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Much of the population occurs within protected areas. Invasive trees are being removed. No additional measures are currently required for this species.	eng
4730	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species is now known to be widespread throughout high elevation (higher than 1,700 m asl) in Lesotho, South African Drakensberg Mountains.	eng
4730	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Clear, high montane streams (higher than 1,700 m asl) with an abundance of fringing grasses, herbs and bushes.	eng
4730	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	The population is probably at least 10,000 individuals and stable.	eng
4730	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	With proclamation of the transfrontier Drakensberg Park, a huge area is now protected which adequately conserves this species. Invasive pine trees were formerly a threat, but these are now being removed.	eng
4731	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species is not known from any protected areas. Surveys on further localities are urgently required. Removal of <em>Acacia mearnsii</em> should continue. Liaison with local farmers is essential so that cattle may enter streams at certain points only, fencing off other areas of the stream.	eng
4731	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	In 1975, this species was known from ten sites (Wilmot 1975), whereas in 2000 it was known from only two, showing a decline in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, as well as decline in extent and quality of suitable habitat. It is currently known only from the Kubusi (near Stutterheim) and the Thorn River, eastern Cape, South Africa.	eng
4731	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species inhabits clear, shallow, rocky streams with riffles and glides and with an abundance of long grass, herbs and indigenous overhanging bushes (used as oviposition sites).	eng
4731	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	It is estimated that no more than 1,000 adults (per generation) exist, and even this may be a generous estimate. Population trends are unknown.	eng
4731	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	Populations are severely threatened by cattle trampling stream banks and the synergistic effects of shading of the habitat by the alien invasive tree <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>. Further adverse synergistic effects include detergent entering the streams at Stutterheim, and possibly also the effects of direct predation from rainbow trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>.	eng
4766	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Recorded from the Garden Castle Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal), Karoo National Park (Western Cape) and Golden Gate National Park (Free State). Probably occurs also in other natures reserves along the Drakensberg in KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
4766	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species occurs in South African and Lesotho. Restricted to montane habitats from Beaufort West and Sutherland in Western Cape northeastwards to the Drakenberg mountains of Eastern Cape, western KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mpumalanga, and the Maluti Mountains of Lesotho and western Free State. Distributional limits of the four subspecies are unclear owing to poor geographic sampling, but their known ranges are separated by seemingly inhospitable habitat suggesting that they may be geographically isolated (Bronner 1995).	eng
4766	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Restricted to high-altitude grasslands, scrub and forested kloofs in the Nama-Karoo and Grassland biomes of South Africa. <em>C. s. shortridgei</em> occurs in Escarpment Mountain Renosterveld. <em>C. s. sclateri</em> and <em>C. s. guillarmodi</em> in South-eastern Mountain Grassland with marginal intrusion into Wet Cold Highveld Grassland. <em>C. s. montana</em> is known from only North-eastern Mountain Grassland where it favours forested kloofs rather than valley grasslands where <em>A. septentrionalis</em> is the commoner species.	eng
4766	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common.	eng
4766	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
4767	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Research is needed to ascertain the generic affinities and systematic status of this species, and to document its distributional limits.	eng
4767	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen (partial owl pellet remains) collected from the type locality at Giohar, Somalia.	eng
4767	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Dense bush and savanna of the Somali Peninsula (Agnelli <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
4767	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Known only from the incomplete remains collected from an owl pellet.	eng
4767	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	There is no information on the major threats to this species.	eng
4768	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Protected in the Tsitsikamma National Park, Wilderness National Park, Keurboomsriver Nature Reserve, as well as numerous forest reserves managed by either the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, or local authorities. It also thrives in cultivated areas and gardens (particularly in the Walmer district of Port Elizabeth), suggesting that it is not at risk from human activities. Research needed to accurately determine distribution limits, and to quantify possible major threats.	eng
4768	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. It occurs in a narrow coastal band between Kynsna (Western Cape) northwards to Port Elizabeth (Eastern Cape) in South Africa.	eng
4768	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Alluvial sands and sandy loams in Afromontane and Coastal Forest of the Fynbos and Moist Savanna biomes. Coexists with <em>Amblysomus corriae</em> in parts of their range, but trapping data suggest that  <em>A. c. corriae</em> prefers fynbos and forest fringes, and <em>C. duthieae</em> deeper forest. Thrives in cultivated areas and gardens.	eng
4768	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common in suitable habitats, but no quantitative data.	eng
4768	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Major threats include extensive (and intensive) development of coastal tourism resorts that could degrade habitats and lead to population fragmentation. Localized threats include predation by domestic pets in vicinity of human habitations, and persecution by gardeners.	eng
4772	conservation	Tavares, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	Occurs in Coservation Areas. Research activities.	eng
4772	distribution	Tavares, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species is found throughout Sinaloa (Mexico) to Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 0-1,600 m.	eng
4772	habitat	Tavares, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is associated with moist areas in tropical evergreen forest. It is found in rainforest and openings in the forest such as marshes and plantations, and in montane forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997).	eng
4772	population	Tavares, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	This bat is uncommon to rare but widespread in in Central America (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Does not seem to be common in South America (Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
4772	threats	Tavares, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	No known threats.	eng
4774	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Forest retention is required.	eng
4774	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species inhabits southern parts of Venezuela, the Guianas, Suriname, southeastern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Brazil and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
4774	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	In Venezuela, it is associated with moist areas in multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). Found in rainforest and openings in the forest such as marshes and plantations, and in montane forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species roosts in tree hollows in groups of up to eight (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Occurs up to 1,300 m.	eng
4774	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Relatively uncommon to rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
4774	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation although not a major threat.	eng
4775	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in very few protected areas  between which habitat is rapidly being destroyed. Existing protected areas are not enforced and may offer little protection.	eng
4775	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species if found in southwestern Colombia, and northwestern Ecuador. Seems to be a Chocoan endemic (thus records from elsewhere are likely eronnius). Occurs 0-500 m in humid habitats.	eng
4775	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Limited to primary forest. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It is found in rainforests, and it feeds on nectar, and small insects.	eng
4775	population	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is rare (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
4775	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The habitat  where this species occurs is rapidly being destroyed for agriculture, logging, road construction and illicit crop.	eng
4776	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	Found in protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Special concern in Arizona and California.	eng
4776	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	This species is known from Honduras and El Salvador to south California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico (USA); a single record from south Texas (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
4776	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	This species can be found in desert scrub, deciduous, and pine-oak forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and mines, less commonly in buildings. Individuals are spaced 2 to 5 cm apart and hang near the roost entrance where they remain alert and fly out if disturbed. This species leaves the roost shortly after sunset and feeds on pollen and nectar of agaves, cacti, Ipomoea, Ceiba, and other plants. Cactus fruits are also eaten. In southeast Arizona, this bat often visits hummingbird feeders, where it hovers in flight while lapping the nectar. Northern populations migrate south for the winter. Young are born in June to July in Arizona (Arroyo-Cabrales <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Reid, 1997).	eng
4776	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	This bat is fairly common (Reid, 1997; Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Not so common in Guatemala and Mexico (not rare) (Perez and Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
4776	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	Habitat loss. Mining and Tourism in the caves.	eng
4777	conservation	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
4777	distribution	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species ranges through Venezuela (the delta and south of the Río Orinoco) and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname) south into Brazil (Maranhão state west along the Rio Amazonas/Solimões) and west into the upper Amazon Basin of Ecuador and Peru. It ranges from sea level up to 2,438 m asl (Britton 1941).	eng
4777	habitat	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is found in tropical moist lowland and montane forest.	eng
4777	population	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	In Suriname, it has been found at densities of 0.9 animals per hectare (Tauber <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
4777	threats	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Because they are usually found high in the canopy, motionless and virtually invisible, they're not as commonly hunted as armadillos or tamanduas, and there are taboos against their consumption by some native groups. They are probably hunted opportunistically, but there is no serious bushmeat trade. They are, however, increasingly caught for sale as pets to internal tourists in Colombia (Moreno and Plese 2006).	eng
4778	conservation	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix III (Costa Rica). Further research is needed to establish whether there are taxonomic differences between the two disjunct populations.	eng
4778	distribution	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species has two disjunct populations. The northernmost population ranges from Nicaragua south into western Venezuela. The southern population is found from north-central Peru through extreme south-western Brazil (south-western Amazonas and probably Acre states) to central Bolivia. There is a doubtful, outlying record for this species from the Rio Aripuanã, Mato Grosso state, Brazil (Aguiar 2004). The range of the species within Brazil is unclear, and further surveys are needed. This species ranges from sea level to 3,300 m asl in Costa Rica; up to 1,925 m asl in Panama; and up to 1,150 m asl in the southern Andes of Venezuela.	eng
4778	habitat	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is largely found in lowland and montane tropical forest, both deciduous and mixed-deciduous. In Central America, it is found in evergreen and semi-deciduous tropical moist forest, as well as in secondary forest, but it is rare or absent in lowland dry forest. It can occur in dry grassland with thorny bushes and trees (Nicaragua) (Genoways and Timm 2003).	eng
4778	population	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is common in Central America, especially in high elevations (Reid 1997). In Panamá it has been found at densities of 1.05 animals per hectare on Barro Colorado Island, although is not representative of natural conditions.	eng
4778	threats	Meritt, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It appears that there are no major threats to this species, although populations in the north-westerly part of the range (Colombia and Central America) are declining through severe habitat degradation. Because they are usually found high in the canopy, motionless and virtually invisible, they're not as commonly hunted as armadillos or tamanduas, and there are taboos against their consumption by some native groups. They are probably hunted opportunistically, but there is no serious bushmeat trade. They are, however, increasingly caught for sale as pets to internal tourists in Colombia (Moreno and Plese 2006).	eng
4785	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.	eng
4785	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the southern Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain in the following river basins: Guadiana (Spain and Portugal), Odiel, Guadalquivir, Guadalete, Guadiaro and Guadalhorce (Spain).	eng
4785	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	All river sections with strong current.	eng
4785	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining (Carmona, J. pers. comm).	eng
4785	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction due to dams and introduced species.	eng
4786	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4786	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to northeastern Italy including the river basins: Vomano, Tronto, Esino, Cesano, Metauro, Foglia, Po, Adige, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento and Isonzo. It has been introduced in central Italy (Tuscany and Latium).It is apparently extinct in the river Sava, the Slovenian stretch of River Isonzo. In this river the species is still reported in few populations as result of interaction with the introduced <em>C. nasus</em> and others riverine species. It is no longer extinct in the Adriatic basin of Slovenia in the river Vipava, a tributary of the Soca (Povz, M. pers comm.).	eng
4786	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Prefers running waters in the foothill zone of mountainous regions, with gravely or sandy substrates. It is also found in lakes. Warm water adapted.	eng
4786	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A common species but it is known to be declining in some localities.Has nearly disappeared in the middle and lower course of Po basin due to interaction with introduced species as <em>Silurus glanis</em>, <em>Leuciscus idus</em>, <em>Aspius aspius</em> and <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. In others rivers the species should be considered as stable	eng
4786	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water pollution and extraction. The introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em> is a major current threat having been responsible of the near extirpation of this species from Slovenia 20 years ago.	eng
4787	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
4787	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to western Anatolia in Turkey (Bakircay, Gedtiz and Kucuk Menderes).	eng
4787	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
4787	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available on population size. Believed to be declining.	eng
4787	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (agriculture, commercial, domestic, sewage) and extraction. Annual observations of water quality indicate overall decline in water quality (e.g., DSI 1987).	eng
4788	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4788	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.	eng
4788	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
4788	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Common throughout its range.	eng
4788	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams, water pollution and extraction. It is also threatened by the potential introduction of alien species.	eng
4789	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
4789	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Basins of Black (Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages), southern Baltic (Nieman, Odra, Vistula) and southern North Seas (westward to Meuse). Invasive or introduced in Rhône, Loire, Hérault, Seine (France) and Soca (Italy, Slovenia) drainages.	eng
4789	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing large to medium sized rivers with rock or gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on shallow gravel beds often in small tributaries. May show a strong size related longitudinal distribution in smaller rivers, with adults inhabiting more upper river stretches. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years. May migrates some tens of km to spawning sites, which are often situated in tributaries, but which it does not inhabit in summer. Spawns in March-May when temperature reaches 12°C. Males form large aggregations, each male defending a small territory. Females spawn only once a year and, in some populations, during a very short period (3-5 days). Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae live along shores. Larvae live below surface. Early juveniles are benthic and inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. When growing, they leave the shores for faster-flowing waters. Recruitment is closely related to high spring temperature, absence of spring floods and available shallow-water habitats along shores. Juveniles overwinter in backwaters or in cavities along shores. Adults form dense swarms during winter in lower parts of rivers. Larvae and early juveniles with superior mouth feed on small invertebrates. Larger juveniles and adults, which have inferior mouth, feed on benthic diatoms and detritus cleaned up from hard substrate in habitats with strong current.	eng
4789	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
4789	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Damming, destruction of spawning sites and pollution	eng
4790	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4790	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Karst region (endorheic basins) and river basins in Croatia (river Cetina] and Bosnia-Hercegovina [Glamocko, Livansjiko, Duvanjsko poljes] and lake Busko Jezero.	eng
4790	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in streams and lakes, and in small satellite lakes near rivers.	eng
4790	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The subpopulation in Croatia has declined and the subpopulation in Bosnia Bushko is likely to decline following the introduction of an alien predator.	eng
4790	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water abstraction, alien species, pollution, and habitat loss.	eng
4791	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4791	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the central Iberian Peninsula of Spain and Portugal including the Vouga, Mondego, Alcoa, Tagus and Sado river basins. It has been introduced in Jucar, Sepima and Segura river basins in Spain	eng
4791	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	it lives in all river sections with a strong current.	eng
4791	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
4791	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, drought, and introduced species.	eng
4792	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
4792	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
4792	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A small size fish (<300 mm). It lives all year round in lake Mikri Prespa whereas, in Lake Megali Prespa, it undertakes a spawning migration into the permanent in flowing rivers. This migration takes place exclusively at night.	eng
4792	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
4792	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, introduced species, overfishing. Water extraction leads to decreased water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes.	eng
4794	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4794	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to northern Italy, the southern part of Switzerland. It has been introduced in some Italian lakes. It is locally extinct in Slovenia and the Isonzo river basin in Italy due to the introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>, a practice still implemented.Recorded introductions into the rivers of central Italy were often a misidentification for <em>C. genei</em>. Several present records for <em>C. soetta</em> are probably a misidentification for <em>C. nasus</em>, due to similarities between these two species. As an example of how the alien species are spread now in Italy, in rivers from the Rovigo Province in eastern Italy, where <em>C. soetta</em> is still reported, the biomass of all native species was found to be about 22% of whole ichthyofauna.	eng
4794	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A deepwater lacustrine species that also inhabits large rivers. It migrates from the lake to its tributaries for spawning in spring.	eng
4794	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Very different from one locality to another. It is locally extinct in Slovenia but still thriving in other parts of its range. This species is now becoming quite rare in the lakes of northern Italy and Switzerland (Lugano, Maggiore, Como, Iseo, Garda) mainly as result of interaction with alien species, especially <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, which was introduced around 1990 and has become very common and is the subject of commercial fishing in several of these lakes. (Bianco, P. pers. comm). This species is also rarely found in rivers and has nearly disappeared in the main stretch of the Po basin, in the other rivers it forms very small populations and spawning occurs only in a few areas of each river (except in the Po).	eng
4794	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams, water pollution and extraction, and introduction of alien species as <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, <em>Silurus glanis</em> and <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. The reduction in suitable spawning places due to pollution (agriculture) and to water extraction is of major concern.Other threats to the species are predation by cormorants, where in several places of Italy have become a serious pest and destroyed a large amount of fishes, especially in torrents or small river were the fishes migrate to for reproduction. (Compiled by C.esare Puzzi from GRAIA, and P.G. Bianco pers comm.).	eng
4795	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
4795	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Rhône river basin in France and Switzerland and to coastal rivers in France. In France it has been introduced in river basins of the Atlantic coast. It has also been recorded in the Aude and Herault (Kottelat, M. pers comm).	eng
4795	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It prefers the lower reaches of rivers. It can be found also in reservoirs. In presence of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em> (an introduced species), <em>C. toxostoma</em> occupies the areas upstream, and in the absence of <em>C. nasus</em> it occupies both upstream and downstream zones. Hybridization between <em>C. nasus</em> and <em>C. toxostoma</em> has been observed in the wild. Hybrids can successfully reproduce as shown by the introgressive capacity at the nuclear and mitochondrial level, and the survival of hybrids.	eng
4795	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
4795	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (dams) and introduction of <em>Chondrostoma nasus</em>. However the destruction of dams has also allowed <em>C. nasus</em> to extend its range further upstream. In the past it has been out competed in its range by introduced <em>C. nasus</em>. The disappearance of spawning sites is an important factor for the decline.	eng
4803	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
4803	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs from south central Peru, through western Bolivia, to northwestern Argentina and central Chile as far as 34°S (Muñoz Pedreros 2000). Usually found above 3500 m asl in the Altiplano (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
4803	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in the southern and central Andes at high elevations.	eng
4803	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is nothing know of the populations of this species.	eng
4803	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is nothing known of the threats to this species.	eng
4804	conservation	Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in many protected areas, at least 13 in Peru alone.	eng
4804	distribution	Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of central Peru (see Arana-Cardó and Ascorra, 1994) to western Bolivia and northwestern Argentina. It has an elevational range of about 2,200 to 5,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
4804	habitat	Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in open grassland, rocky areas, shrub land, cultivated areas and rural houses.	eng
4804	population	Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a very common species. It can have population fluctuations, with many animals found during the harvest season.	eng
4804	threats	Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vargas, J., Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
4806	conservation	Roberton, S., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Wang Ying-Xiang & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	Due to its restricted distribution and possible high level of threat, the Owston's civet is of conservation concern (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2004; Long and Roberton in prep.). This species was listed as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>., 1989). This species is listed as Endangered on the China Red List and Vulnerable in the Viet Nam Red Book (MOSTE 2000). It is protected in Yunnan province, but not in Guangxi (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006), whilst in Viet Nam the species is listed in group IIB meaning exploitation is regulated but not prohibited (Decree 32/2006/ND-CP).<br/><br/>A successful international breeding program, coordinated from Viet Nam, has been established with populations in Europe, Viet Nam and soon in North America and the species has been the flagship species for the Small carnivore Conservation Program of Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam for the last 10 years (Roberton, S. pers comm. Heard Rosenthal, 1999).<br/><br/>It is likely to be present in protected areas throughout its distribution, and has been confirmed in 10 protected areas in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.), two in Lao PDR and three in China (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).	eng
4806	distribution	Roberton, S., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Wang Ying-Xiang & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	This species is known to occur in northern and central provinces of Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>1999, Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004), Viet Nam and southern China in Yunnan and Guangxi provinces (CITES 1997; Wang Ying-Xiang pers. comm.). Northern and central Viet Nam appear to hold the largest area of this species distribution range (Long and Roberton in prep., Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.) occurring from the most northern provinces in the Hoang Lien Son mountains and northern limestone highlands and throughout the northern and central Annamites (Long and Roberton in prep.; Rozhnov <em>et al</em>. 1992; Long <em>et al</em>., 2004). It has not been found west of the Mekong river (Corbet and Hill 1992, Rozhnov <em>et al</em>. 1992). In the Southern Annamites, the potential range is based on the occurrence of suitable forest type and elevation, unconfirmed village reports and similarly distributed species but there is no confirmed data from this area (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). The range may also potentially extend into Cambodia for the same reasons, and two stuffed individuals have been seen in the Phnom Tamao zoo collection of stuffed mounts, yet lack any information on their source (Long and Roberton, in prep.)	eng
4806	habitat	Roberton, S., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Wang Ying-Xiang & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	The habitat use and general ecology of this species are poorly known. It has been recorded in lowland and montane evergreen forests, broadleaf forests over limestone, bamboo forest, heavily degraded forest and forest edges (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999; Timmins and Cuong 2001; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Long and Roberton, in prep; Wang Ying-Xiang pers. comm.). The range restriction of Owston’s civet in eastern Lao PDR is thought to be associated with the extent of wet evergreen forest in the eastern Annamites (Timmins and Cuong 2001).	eng
4806	population	Roberton, S., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Wang Ying-Xiang & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	Population status is poorly known across its range. It has been said that this species does not seem to be as abundant as other civet species in the region such as Paguma larvata, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Viverricula indica and Viverra zibetha (Veron <em>et al.</em> 2004). Within some parts of its range it is clearly scarce, e.g. In Quang Nam province in the central Annamites of Viet Nam only two animals were photographed during a camera trapping survey (Long <em>et al.</em> 2004). Despite concerns that this species was not at all common, Bourret (1944) determined it was locally common, and even considered it the most common civet between the Fansipan mountains and the Black river in northern Viet Nam. Two more recent trapping studies, one in the Hoang Lien mountains in northwestern Viet Nam and one in Pu Mat National Park in the northern Annamites this civet to be one of the most commonly photographed small carnivores in these areas (Lei Pu Long <em>et al</em>. in prep; SFNC 2000). It therefore may best be considered locally abundant and locally scarce	eng
4806	threats	Roberton, S., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Wang Ying-Xiang & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation were assessed as the major threats to Owston’s civet when it was still effectively unknown in the west (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Throughout its distribution this species is threatened by intensive snare trapping for meat, traditional medicine, living trophies and skin, and there has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2004; Lyman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Long and Roberton in prep.). Although habitat fragmentation magnifies the impact of hunting on populations, insight on the direct effects of habitat factors is thus far limited.	eng
4807	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in Mt. Isarog National Park and appears to be stable. There is need for further surveys of in southeast Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4807	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and known only from Mt. Isarog, southern Luzon Island. It occurs at an elevation range from 1,350-1,800 m. A photograph from nearby Mt. Malinao may depict this species, suggesting that it is more widely distributed than its current known range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4807	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in montane and mossy forest, from approximately 1,350 m and above, on Mt. Isarog (Balete and Heaney 1997; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rickart and Heaney 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991). The species is tolerant of disturbance, and requires the presence of earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4807	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This is a fairly common species with a stable population and restricted distribution (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4807	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	Three sides of Mt. Isarog have areas of intact habitat that are well managed. The remaining side was affected by logging in the 80s although there has been good habitat recovery in this area (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, agriculture is encroaching on the species low elevation habitat (Abaca as fibre for clothing). Fortunately, this is predominantly an upper-elevation species (1,200 m and above) in oak dominated forests and threats at that elevation are minor.	eng
4808	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
4808	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is recorded from Mindoro island and lowland central Luzon (Laguna, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Tarlac provinces) (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from near sea level to about 2,020 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4808	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest and occasionally in adjacent agricultural areas and cane grass (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Kellogg 1945; Musser <em>et al</em>. 1981; Rickart and Heaney 1991). It is tolerant of disturbance. It requires presence of earthworms (L. Heaney pers. comm.) and is often found along creeks.	eng
4808	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is thought to be fairly common as there are scattered, widespread records from Mindoro (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4808	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	Although the species is tolerant of disturbed habitats, deforestation would be a major threat.	eng
4810	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is known to occur in some protected areas throughout its range (Balbalasan National Park, Mt. Data National Park).	eng
4810	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and restricted to Luzon (Benguet and Mountain provinces). It is widespread in the northern and central Cordillera occurring from 925-2,700 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4810	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The species occurs in primary, secondary and disturbed lower montane forest to mossy forest in the Central Cordillera (Largen 1985; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952) and agricultural areas adjacent to forest. It is the most habitat tolerant native species and can also be found in vegetable gardens and farms, rice fields that are being fallowed, essentially anywhere where there are earthworms. The species is not found in grasslands or in open agricultural areas.	eng
4810	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This is a common species throughout its range (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), including in disturbed habitat. Population seems stable.	eng
4810	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss caused by vegetable gardening and other widespread agriculture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
4811	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat conservation. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Found in protected areas.	eng
4811	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Veracruz (Mexico) south to the Guianas, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and N Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Paraguay.	eng
4811	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Carnivore, dense forest. These bats tend to live near streams and other moist areas in forested lowlands, tropical rainforests, tropical deciduous forests, and cloud forests. They have been reported to roost in hollow trees, caves, and even Mayan ruins. (Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1994). There is little known about the mating system of <em>C. auritus</em> (Altringham, 1996; Hill and Smith, 1984). Big-eared woolly bats have low reproduction rates, typically having just one offspring per litter. Females have only been reported to be reproductively active during the second half of the year. Pregnant females, however, have been observed from April until July. This is consistent with a monestrous cycle, varying geographically. One female taken into captivity gave birth to a single young after 99 days. They have a maximum gestation period of 220 days and a maximum weaning time of nine months. The age of reproductive maturity is between one and two years. (Kunz and Racy, 1998; Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1994).<br/>Big-eared woolly bats are not exclusively carnivores. In fact, they have a flexible foraging strategy that allows them to eat insects and fruit in addition to extensive consumption of small vertebrates like bats, opossums, mice, birds, lizards, and frogs. They have a diet similar to that of <em>Vampyrum spectrum</em> and <em>Trachops cirrhosus</em>. Big-eared woolly bats have significant seasonal diet changes. In the wet season they eat more insects because they are more abundant. However, age and sex do not have any effect on what they eat. (Altringham, 1996; Hill and Smith, 1984; Kunz and Racey, 1998)	eng
4811	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very common. Thesey bats exist in low population density areas and form complex social groups that tend to stay together for several years. Colonies can consist of one to seven individuals, but typically contain three to five individuals. (Hill and Smith, 1984; Kunz and Racy, 1998; Medellin, 1989; Nowak, 1999). Rare in Mexico. Not so common in Central America.	eng
4811	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
4812	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Research is needed to ground-truth the existence of this species in the Gouna area, and/or to trace the locality from which the type specimen was collected. Study of more specimens required to clarify systematics status.	eng
4812	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen collected from the type locality at Gouna, Northern Cape, South Africa. Several field trips to ground-truth the occurrence of this species have yielded no specimens, or even signs of golden moles, suggesting either an error in recording provenance, or that the original specimen was transported there by anthropogenic means or even perhaps floodwaters of the Renoster River, flowing from the Roggeveld mountains further south.	eng
4812	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	The type locality is situated in Bushmanland Nama-Karoo, with extensive agriculture on the alluvial sand floodplains of the Vis and Renoster rivers. Adjacent natural habitats are gravel plains and small hills, which appear unsuitable habitats for chrysochlorids.	eng
4812	population	Bronner, G., 2008	No signs of this species have been found at the type locality during two independent expeditions in the last 20 years.	eng
4812	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Extensive agriculture has dramatically transformed habitat at the type locality, but impact thereof cannot be assessed given uncertainty about provenance of the type specimen and/or the habitat requirements of the species.	eng
4819	conservation	Rodden, M., Rodrigues , F. & Bestelmeyer, S., 2008	It is included on CITES Appendix II. Protected in Argentina (classified as Endangered on the Red List) and included on the list of threatened animals in Brazil (Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990). Hunting is prohibited in Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia. Maned wolves are protected by law in many parts of their range, but enforcement is frequently problematic. Included in the United States Endangered Species list.<br/><br/>The species occurs in many protected areas in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and, possibly, Peru.  <br/><br/>Assessors are not aware of any conservation actions specific to the Maned Wolf. However, they are the beneficiaries of broader attempts to protect the cerrado (for example, recent actions to reduce the impact of road kills in Brasilia). <br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>As of 31 December 1999, 144 institutions reported a total of 412 maned wolves in captivity, including 203 males and 209 females.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>Population surveys throughout the species' range are needed. The impact of human encroachment on suitable habitat is not clearly understood, and the suitability of agricultural land as maned wolf habitat needs to be investigated. The impact of disease processes on wild populations is not well understood.	eng
4819	distribution	Rodden, M., Rodrigues , F. & Bestelmeyer, S., 2008	The Maned Wolf inhabits the grasslands and scrub forest of central South America from the mouth of the Parnaiba River in north-eastern Brazil, south through the Chaco of Paraguay into Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, and west to the Pampas del Heath in Peru (Dietz 1985). Beccaceci (1992) found evidence of Maned Wolves in Argentina as far south as the 30th parallel, and a sighting in the province of Santiago del Estero was recently reported (Richard <em>et al.</em> 1999). They probably range into northern Uruguay. Their presence in this country was confirmed through a specimen trapped in 1990 (Mones and Olazarri 1990), but there have not been any reports of sightings since that date (S. Gonzalez pers. comm.).	eng
4819	habitat	Rodden, M., Rodrigues , F. & Bestelmeyer, S., 2008	Maned Wolves favour tall grasslands, shrub habitats, woodland with an open canopy (cerrado), and wet fields (which may be seasonally flooded). Some evidence indicates that they may prefer areas with low to medium shrub density (Bestelmeyer 2000). Maned Wolves are also seen in lands under cultivation for agriculture and pasture. Daytime resting areas include gallery forests (Dietz 1984), cerrado and marshy areas near rivers (Bestelmeyer 2000; F. Rodrigues unpubl.). There is some evidence that they can utilize cultivated land for hunting and resting (A. Jácomo and L. Silveira, unpubl.), but additional studies are essential in order to quantify how well the species tolerates intensive agricultural activity. <br/><br/>Omnivorous, consuming principally fruits and small- to medium-sized vertebrates. Numerous authors (Dietz 1984; Carvalho and Vasconcellos 1995; Motta-Júnior <em>et al.</em> 1996; Azevedo and Gastal 1997; Motta-Júnior 1997; Rodrigues <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jácomo 1999; Santos 1999; Silveira 1999; Juarez and Marinho 2002; F. Rodrigues unpubl.) have investigated the diet of the Maned Wolf. These studies have all found a wide variety of plant and animal material in the diet, with about 50% of the diet comprising plant material and 50% animal matter. The fruit <em>Solanum lycocarpum</em> grows throughout much of the range and is a primary food source; other important items include small mammals (Caviidae, Muridae, Echimydae) and armadillos, other fruits (Annonaceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae, Bromeliaceae and others), birds (Tinamidae, Emberizidae and others), reptiles and arthropods. Although the frequency of plant and animal items found in faecal samples is approximately equal, the biomass of animal items is usually greater than that of plant items (Motta-Júnior <em>et al</em>. 1996; Santos 1999; F. Rodrigues unpubl.). Certain items, such as rodents and <em>Solanum</em>, are consumed year round, but the diet varies with food availability. At least occasionally, pampas deer (<em>Ozotoceros bezoarticus</em>) are also consumed (Bestelmeyer and Westbrook 1998). In Jácomo's (1999) study, deer appeared in 2.4% of 1,673 samples analysed.	eng
4819	population	Rodden, M., Rodrigues , F. & Bestelmeyer, S., 2008	A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment workshop held in 2005 estimated the total population of Maned Wolves at ~23,600 animals, including 21,746 in Brazil, 880 in Argentina, and 660 in Argentina (Paula <em>et al.</em> 2008). Numbers in Bolivia are unlikely to exceed 1000 animals. <br/><br/>With their primarily solitary habits and large home ranges, Maned Wolves are found in low densities throughout the range.	eng
4819	threats	Rodden, M., Rodrigues , F. & Bestelmeyer, S., 2008	The most significant threat to Maned Wolf populations is the drastic reduction of habitat, especially due to conversion to agricultural land (Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1994). In addition, habitat fragmentation causes isolation of subpopulations. Many Maned Wolves are killed on the nation's roads. Highways border many of the Conservation Units of the Brazilian cerrado, and drivers often do not respect speed limits. Reserves close to urban areas often have problems with domestic dogs. These dogs pursue and may kill Maned Wolves and can also be an important source of disease. Domestic dogs also possibly compete with the Maned Wolf for food. Interactions with humans also pose a threat to the Maned Wolf. Diseases, such as those mentioned above, can be important causes of mortality in the wild, but there is very little information available about the health of wild populations. In areas where there are domestic dogs, the problem is certainly greater.<br/><br/>There is no commercial use. Indications are that the use of Maned Wolf parts for medicinal purposes does not involve any sort of large-scale commercial transactions and is confined to native folk medicine.	eng
4828	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Possibly present in a few small nature reserves in its range. Field surveys are needed to establish the conservation status and threats faced by populations at the 17 localities this species is known to have occurred in the past.	eng
4828	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. Recorded from indigenous Afro-Montane forests in Eastern Cape from East London northwards along coast to Port St Johns, and inland to Amathole and Kologha Mountains near King Williams Town and Stutterheim.	eng
4828	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Coastal and Afromontane forests, sometimes marginally into adjacent grassland habitats (Maddock 1986). Not present in commercial forestry plantations, which abut or have replaced many indigenous forest patches. They have rather specific habitat requirements, selecting areas in forest patches with soft soils, well-developed undergrowth, and deep leaf-litter layers; they avoid steep slopes and rocky terrain. Apparently restricted to larger forest patches (Castley et al. 2000).	eng
4828	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common, but with a clumped dispersion.	eng
4828	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Likely major threats include: habitat loss owing to fragmentation of forests, which is ongoing in coastal forests as a result of urbanization (East London district) and ubiquitous coastal tourist resorts; and degradation of remaining forests as a result of forest clearance, collection of firewood, bark stripping, cutting for construction, livestock overgrazing. The species may now be locally extinct in many places where it occurred formerly (even within the Amathole forests they have disappeared at sites where they were collected in the early 1990s; G. Bronner pers. comm.).	eng
4829	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Possibly occurs in the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve (Mpumalanga), and Mgeni Vlei Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal). Research is needed to assess status of populations, and the threats they face, at all known localities.	eng
4829	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution in South Africa, being recorded only from scattered localities in Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces.	eng
4829	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Sandy soils in grasslands, meadows and along edges of marshes in savanna and grassland biomes of South Africa. Recorded from gardens and parklands, also found in dense stands of kikuyu grass (<em>Pennisetum clandestinum</em>) adjoining natural grasslands.	eng
4829	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Extremely rare and secretive; only three specimens have been collected since 1980. Difficult to detect owing to preference for areas with sandy soils and dense vegetation cover.	eng
4829	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The major threats are habitat alteration as a result of mining and power generation, ecologically poor agricultural practices and urbanization, and habitat degradation associated with mining for shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations that occur in the high-altitude grassland habitats in the northern parts of this species' range. Rehabilitation attempts at these sites have proved largely ineffective. These power stations form the backbone of South Africa's electricity network, and disturbance is likely to increase as human populations grow and the demand for power increases. The widespread practice of allowing cattle to graze in marshes and dense grasslands near water during dry winter months leads to trampling and a loss of cover, and this undoubtedly impacts severely on this species. Some areas in which they formerly occurred (e.g., Tshwane (Pretoria) West) have been completely transformed by urbanization. Currently, there are only a handful of sites (3 in KZN midlands, 1 in Mpumalanga) where there are conclusive signs of their presence.	eng
4833	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
4833	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It has a patchy distribution on all coastlines.	eng
4833	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It is widespread in the lake living in sand, silt and mud substrates. This species is documented to from 10-60 m (possibly 80 m).	eng
4833	population	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species occurs in low numbers, patchy, on soft substrates (E. Michel, pers. comm.).	eng
4833	threats	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
4958	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
4958	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
4958	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias maclareni</em> is a demersal species. It is a lacustrine species that lives in deeper as well as in shallow waters. Larger specimens feed mainly on fish, especially Cichlidae; small specimens feed on insect larvae, Chironomids-Odonata (Teugels 1986).	eng
4958	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
4958	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
4959	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
4965	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - most terrestrial North American turtle.	eng
4967	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - sphagnum bogs, swamps, slow streams.	eng
4968	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - bogs, marshy land, woodland streams. Terrestrial nesting sites	eng
4969	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
4972	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Abundant species that occurs in some protected areas. In all countries of occurrence listed as Least Concern.	eng
4972	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Tian Shan except western ridges (NW Xinjiang, China; Kyrgyzstan) and Dzungarian Ala Tau (Kazakhstan). In northern Tian Shan and northern Dzungarian Ala Tau found from 1300 to 2900 m, in southern Dzungarian Ala Tau found from 1800 m.	eng
4972	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits mountain mainly coniferous forests, however, sometimes found in broadleaf forests and above the coniferous forests belt. Colonies found in forests with rich grass and shrubs, rocks covered with moss and forest clearings. At high forest border lives on all slopes except southern slopes without forest, but found on southern slopes in subalpine belt with rich juniper stands. In autumn and winter sometimes found in human dwellings. Feeds on green parts of plants, berries, fir seeds. In autumn increases its consumption of mountain ash, honeysuckle and juniper bark, in winter feeds on brier and mountain ash berries. Near human settlements often consume apples and apricots. Make nests in natural shelters, under rocks or tree roots. Winter nests could be directly beneth snow cover, if it is thick enough. Reproduction time differs depending on the altitude. In lower border of distribution it is about 7 months (from beginning of March to end of September - beginning of October). At upper forest border it is 4 - 4,5 months (from the end of April to end of August). Litter size is 2-9 young.	eng
4972	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Population fluctuates with years. Minimal fluctuations observed in rocky areas, and maximal in coniferous forests, where population size rises after good fir yield (Fedosenko, 1964). In Dzungarian Ala Tau population density is always low (Fedosenko and Lobachev, 1970).	eng
4972	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, but continuous deforestation may significantly affect range size.	eng
4973	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juskaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
4973	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
4973	conservation	Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, 2006	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
4973	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juskaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	The bank vole, <em>Myodes glareolus</em> has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	The bank vole, <em>Myodes glareolus</em> has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	distribution	Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, 2006	The bank vole has a wide range in the Palaearctic which stretches from the British Isles through continental Europe and Russia to Lake Baikal. In the north, its range extends beyond the Arctic circle, and in the south it reaches northern Turkey and northern Kazakhstan (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is widespread in Europe, although it is absent from southern Iberia and the Mediterranean islands. It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juskaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It inhabits all kinds of woodland, preferring densely-vegetated clearings, woodland edge, and river and stream banks in forests.  It is also found in scrub, parkland, and hedges (Viro and Niethammer 1982, Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It inhabits all kinds of woodland, preferring densely-vegetated clearings, woodland edge, and river and stream banks in forests.  It is also found in scrub, parkland, and hedges (Viro and Niethammer 1982, Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	habitat	Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, 2006	It inhabits all kinds of woodland, preferring densely-vegetated clearings, woodland edge, and river and stream banks in forests.  It is also found in scrub, parkland, and hedges (Viro and Niethammer 1982, Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
4973	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juskaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It is very common throughout much of its European range, with typical densities varying between approximately 6-12 individuals per hectare and 50-100 individuals per hectare (Spitzenberger 1999). Populations densities fluctuate from year to year. The long-term trend appears stable.	eng
4973	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It is very common throughout much of its European range, with typical densities varying between approximately 6-12 individuals per hectare and 50-100 individuals per hectare (Spitzenberger 1999). Populations densities fluctuate from year to year. The long-term trend appears stable.	eng
4973	population	Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, 2006	It is very common throughout much of its European range, with typical densities varying between approximately 6-12 individuals per hectare and 50-100 individuals per hectare (Spitzenberger 1999). Populations densities fluctuate from year to year. The long-term trend appears stable.	eng
4973	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juskaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
4973	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Henttonen, H., Vohralík, V., Zagorodnyuk, I., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Bertolino, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
4973	threats	Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Vladimir Vohralík, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Rimvydas Juškaitis, Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, 2006	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
4974	conservation	Sheftel, B. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its wide range. The population trend should be monitored in the north-western part of the range.	eng
4974	conservation	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its wide range. The population trend should be monitored, particularly in the north-western part of the range.	eng
4974	distribution	Sheftel, B. & Henttonen, H., 2008	The grey-sided vole, <em>Myodes rufocanus</em>,  has a large range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from northern Fennoscandia through northern Russia, including Siberia to Kamtchatka, the south Ural Mountains, Altai Mountains, and northeastern and northern Korea (Keima Plateau) and the islands of Sakhalin (Russia), and Japan (Sulkava 1999). It ranges as far south as northern parts of Mongolia and China (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In China it occurs from northern Xinjiang eastwards through Mongolia to the provinces of Jilin and Liaoning in northeast China. In Mongolia it is known from woodland habitats in Hangai, Hentii, Hövsgöl, Mongol Altai and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. There is an isolated population around Ikh Bogd Mountain in Govi Altai Mountain Range (Lkhagvasuren and Samiya, 2004). In Japan, the subspecies <em>Clethrionomys rufocanus bedfordiae</em> is found on Hokkaido, Rishiri, Rebun, Daikoku, Teuri, Yagishiri, as well as Kunashir and Shikotan (South Kuril Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs from the coast to at least 1,170 m in northern Fennoscandia (Henttonen and Viitala 1982), and can reach elevations of up to 2,700 m asl in its Mongolian range, such as the Hangai Mountain Range.	eng
4974	distribution	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The grey-sided vole has a large range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from northern Fennoscandia through northern Russia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Sakhalin, Hokkaido and Rishiri (Sulkava 1999). It ranges as far south as northern parts of Mongolia, China and the Korean peninsula (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from the coast to at least 1,170 m in northern Fennoscandia (Henttonen and Viitala 1982).	eng
4974	habitat	Sheftel, B. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It inhabits coniferous forests and birch forests often around river valleys, where it tends to prefer rocky areas, dense undergrowth and leaf litter, and is also found in dry peat-bogs, grasslands and subarctic dwarf shrub heathland. It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on vegetative parts of grasses, herbs, and dwarf shrubs, and on berries (Henttonen and Viitala 1982, Sulkava 1999). The species can sometimes be found in high densities in clear-cut areas, and is often found on plains (B. Sheftel pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4974	habitat	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It inhabits coniferous forests and birch forests, where it tends to prefer rocky areas, and is also found in dry peat-bogs and subarctic dwarf shrub heathland. It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on vegetative parts of grasses, herbs and dwarf shrubs, and on berries (Henttonen and Viitala 1982, Sulkava 1999). The species can sometimes be found in high densities in clear-cut areas, and is often found on plains (B. Sheftel pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4974	population	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is a common species in northern Fennoscandia. The long-term trend is stable with cyclic fluctuations every 4-5 years (Sulkava 1999). In northern Fennoscandia (Fennoscandian taiga) and northern Russia it was previously common, but there have been declines since the mid-1980s (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4974	population	Sheftel, B. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It is a common species in northern Fennoscandia. The long-term trend is stable with cyclic fluctuations every 4-5 years (Sulkava 1999). In northern Fennoscandia (Fennoscandian taiga) and northern Russia it was previously common, but there have been declines since the mid-1980s (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4974	threats	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species at present. Declines in Fennoscandia may be linked to changes in forestry practices (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4974	threats	Sheftel, B. & Henttonen, H., 2008	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species at present. Declines in Fennoscandia may be linked to changes in forestry practices (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4975	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B. & Batsaikhan, N., 2008	It receives no legal protection under international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas in its wide global range.	eng
4975	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	It receives no legal protection under international legislation. Occurs in a number of protected areas in its wide global range, including some in northern Fennoscandia.	eng
4975	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	<em>Myodes rutilus </em>has a northern Holarctic distribution. It occurs in northern Fennoscandia, European Russia, Siberia, Sakhalin and Hokkaido islands (Japan), Alaska (USA) and Canada, at latitudes of 43-73 degrees north (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).	eng
4975	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B. & Batsaikhan, N., 2008	This species has a northern Holarctic distribution. It occurs in northern Fennoscandia, European Russia, Siberia, north Xinjiang Province in China, through Mongolia, to northeast China and northern parts of the Korean peninsula (Keima Plateau), and the islands of Sakhalin (Russia), and Hokkaido (Japan), Alaska (USA) and Canada, at latitudes of 43-73 degrees north (Musser and Carleton 2005, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Mongolia it is known from Hövsgöl, Mongol Altai, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. In north-western North America, it occurs throughout Alaska and eastward to Hudson Bay, and south to northern British Columbia and north-east Manitoba (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
4975	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	It is found in the subarctic birch forest zone and in northern parts of the boreal forest zone. It is more abundant in productive (eutrophic or mesotrophic) forests, with a dense understorey of grasses, herbs (especially Scrophulariaceae), or moss. It prefers mature old-growth forests and, unlike other <em>Myodes </em>species, it is absent from clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants. In the autumn it stores seeds, especially of Scrophulariaceae (Sulkava 1999).	eng
4975	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B. & Batsaikhan, N., 2008	It is found in the subarctic birch forest zone and in northern parts of the boreal forest zone. It is more abundant in productive (eutrophic or mesotrophic) forests, with a dense understorey of grasses, herbs (especially Scrophulariaceae), or moss. It prefers mature old-growth forests and, unlike other <em>Myodes </em>species, it is absent from clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, feeding on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, nuts, seeds, bark, lichen, fungus and insects, storing food for winter. In the autumn it stores seeds, especially of Scrophulariaceae (Sulkava 1999).	eng
4975	population	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	It is described as common in subarctic Fennoscandian birch woods. In northern parts of its European range, the long-term population trend is stable, with fluctuations on a 4-5 year cycle. In southern parts of its European range (e.g. in central Finland and Russian Karelia) the species is suspected to be declining (Sulkava 1999).	eng
4975	population	Linzey, A.V., Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B. & Batsaikhan, N., 2008	It is described as 'common' in subarctic Fennoscandian birch woods. In northern parts of its European range, the long-term population trend is stable, with fluctuations on a 4-5 year cycle. In southern parts of its European range (e.g. in central Finland and Russian Karelia) the species is suspected to be declining (Sulkava 1999). In North America, from year to year, recorded densities vary from <1 to >60/ha.	eng
4975	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	Suspected declines in southern parts of its European range have been attributed to increased clear-felling of old-growth spruce forest (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4975	threats	Linzey, A.V., Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B. & Batsaikhan, N., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Suspected declines in southern parts of its European range have been attributed to increased clear-felling of old-growth spruce forest (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
4982	habitat	Skelton, P., 1996	Found in brackish estuarine waters and also in the sea.	eng
4983	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Fahr, J., 2008	In South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal province they are protected from human disturbance. It might occur in some protected areas. Protection of nesting and roosting sites from disturbance is important.	eng
4983	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Fahr, J., 2008	Percival's trident bat is largely confined to southern Africa, with records from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Swaziland, south-east Botswana, southern Zambia, Zimbabwe (the core of the distribution), and extralimital records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, northwestern Mozambique, and coastal Kenya (Taylor 2000). It has also been found on Mafia Island in Tanzania (unpublished record). It elevational range is from sea level to 1,000 m.	eng
4983	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Fahr, J., 2008	It presumably occurs in savanna areas where there is sufficient cover in the form of caves and mine tunnels for day roosting (Taylor 2000). It feeds exclusively on moths, and appears to be very sensitive to disturbance.	eng
4983	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Fahr, J., 2008	Large fluctuations in population numbers are known, and it is prone to local extinctions. It is never found in very large colonies, with the largest known colony (of about 300 individuals) being reported in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, on the southern section of its range. However, the current estimated population size of the KwaZulu-Natal colony is currently only 50 animals. There are no population estimates from elsewhere in its range, although the largest population might be in Zimbabwe.	eng
4983	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Fahr, J., 2008	There have been seemingly stochastic extinctions of colonies, though it is not known if the animals simply move to new locations. Roost disturbance seems to be an important factors, but there might be others, and there has been speculation that DDT might be a cause of population disappearances.	eng
4985	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is within the Lake Abrau Nature Reserve.	eng
4985	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Abrau, near Novorossiisk (northern Caucasus, Russia).	eng
4985	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Abrau is a warm and turbid hill lake, 2.6 × 0.6 km, 1.6 km², maximum depth 10 m, 84 m above sea level. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to two years. Spawns in open water, in late evening, in May-September. Eggs are pelagic. Feeds on crustaceans (copepods, mysids), following their daily vertical movements, swimming in surface layers at night and descending during daylight hours.	eng
4985	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species was abundant in 1996 (Chikhachev, 1997), in a recent survey (2006) very few individuals were recorded (J. Freyhof, J. pers comm.).	eng
4985	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are 18 species introduced species in the lake, there are only 5 native species. Water abstraction has also reduced the level of the lake.	eng
4987	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
4987	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
4987	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northwestern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.	eng
4987	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Northwestern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.	eng
4987	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Euryhaline, in coastal waters, lagoons and lakes, estuaries and lower reaches of large rivers with a salinity up to 13 ?. Absent from pure seawater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-18°C. Eggs are pelagic. In Azov See, there are two spawning runs, one in spring and one in autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter close to spawning sites and spawn in spring. Returns to sea after spawning. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.	eng
4987	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Euryhaline, in coastal waters, lagoons and lakes, estuaries and lower reaches of large rivers with a salinity up to 13 ‰. Absent from pure seawater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-18°C. Eggs are pelagic. In Azov See, there are two spawning runs, one in spring and one in autumn. Individuals migrating in autumn overwinter close to spawning sites and spawn in spring. Returns to sea after spawning. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.	eng
4987	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant in esturine habitats.	eng
4987	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very abundant in esturine habitats.	eng
4987	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
4987	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
4988	conservation	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
4988	distribution	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species is confined to southern Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
4988	habitat	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	<em>Clyomys bishopi</em>, a monocot herbivore, was the most specialized species in diet and microhabitat requirements in a study of seasonal niche dynamics of coexisting rodent species of the cerrado habitat. It is captured in habitats in the transition between semi-deciduous tropical forests and Cerrado habitats. In the dry season, the species was found in areas with partially continuous arboreal cover, from 2 to 3 m tall, with discontinuous herbaceous cover; in other seasons, it occurred in areas with partially continuous herbaceous cover, from 0.2 to 1 m tall, with 10 to 30% arboreal cover.	eng
4988	population	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance of this species.	eng
4988	threats	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
4989	conservation	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas throughout it range (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
4989	distribution	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species occurs in Cerrado areas and Pantanal, central and southeastern Brazil, from Tocantins to Santa Catarina States, and in eastern Paraguay (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).	eng
4989	habitat	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	A semi fossorial, colonial species with diurnal activity confined to savanna areas and their edges (Emerson pers. comm.). In Brazil, three females with single embryos were caught during the period June to December (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
4989	population	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species is patchy distributed but locally abundant (Filho pers. comm.).	eng
4989	threats	Vieira, E. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	There are no major threats; however, habitat destruction through conversion to agriculture may affect the species in the southern part of the range (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
4996	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is present in all known designated Stephens' Kangaroo Rat Reserves in southern California; it is adequately protected in some parks, on some public lands, and on military bases (Brattstrom 2000). It is also present in protected areas in Mexico.	eng
4996	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species extends from southwestern California in the United States (north to Dana Point, Orange County, and to near Colton, San Bernardino County), west of the crest of the Peninsular Ranges, south to southern Baja California peninsula in Mexico (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998), including the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita, and San Marcos and Los Coronados islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002). In southern California, most populations are in Riverside and San Diego counties (Brattstrom 2000). It is absent from the interior of the Vizcaíno Desert in Mexico. Its elevational range extends from sea level to usually about 900 m (2,950 feet), rarely to 1,058 m (Stebbins 1985, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Grismer 1999, Brattstrom 2000). Stebbins (2003) reported the elevational range as high as perhaps 610 m (2,000 feet).	eng
4996	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	According to Brattstrom (2000), in southern California this lizard occurs primarily on coarse soils in open coastal sage scrub vegetation; it also inhabits many other vegetation types and disturbed areas: open chaparral, along edges of open, dry, riparian areas, along trails, along dirt roads, and in areas of light off-road vehicle use; often in areas with 50% cover and 50% bare soil, and flat to sloping topography; it seldom uses rodent burrows. Stebbins (2003) described the habitat as washes and other sandy areas where there are rocks and patches of brush and rocky hillsides: coastal chaparral, thornscrub, and streamside growth. This species often occupies open spaces between clumps of vegetation on loose, fine-grained soils, such as rocky hillsides bordering arroyos or the lower slopes of foothills (Tevis 1944, Welsh 1988, Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
4996	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is extant in hundreds of locations in southern California; it has been observed at 227 sites since 1985 (Brattstrom 2000). It exists in very many additional areas in Baja California (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Grismer 2002). The total population size in southern California may be as high as 10 to 40 million individuals, or at least that order of magnitude (Brattstrom 2000). Presumably a greater number exists in the Baja California peninsula. Jennings and Hayes (1994) reported that about 75% of the formerly occupied habitat in the United States has been destroyed by development. However, Brattstrom (2000) found that the species is extant at 96% of known historical localities in California and that about 10 to 20% of the habitat has been lost in southern California since 1900 (Brattstrom 2000).	eng
4996	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In southwestern California, a considerable amount of the habitat has been destroyed and fragmented by urban and agricultural development (Jennings and Hayes 1994). There has also been habitat loss in the central portion of the Baja California peninsula. However, overall the species remains abundant through most of its range.	eng
5027	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
5027	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Duero, Ebro and Tajo river basins in Spain and Portugal.	eng
5027	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in upper and middle reaches of rivers with shallow waters and stony bottom.	eng
5027	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
5027	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (due to gravel extraction), water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species (e.g., pike in the Duero river).	eng
5029	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
5029	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It occurs in rivers of the central and southern Iberian peninsula. Introduced into the Mino and Nalon river basins in Northern Spain.	eng
5029	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the middle to lower parts of rivers with low current, sandy to gravel bottom with aquatic vegetation and shallow waters.	eng
5029	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
5029	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (due to gravel extraction, water extraction and diversion). Introduction of exotic fish species. Illegal commercial trade as live bait.	eng
5030	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
5030	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is extirpated from its original range in the Kefalovriso karstic spring in Velestino village within the former Lake Karla basin in central Greece. Recent survey of the springs and streams of the Pinios and the previous Lake Karla basins has found it in the Chasambali spring (Economidis and Bobori 2003).	eng
5030	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in springs.	eng
5030	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
5030	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution, and drought.	eng
5031	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5031	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage: systems of Nera (Romania), Sava, Kupa (Slovenia, Croatia), Morava (Yugoslavia), Vit and Iantra (Bulgaria). Extirpated in Jiu (Romania) and perhaps Iantra (Bulgaria).	eng
5031	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing stretches of shallow rivers. On sandy banks and shores, sometimes on rock bottom with submerged vegetation. Not known to enter small streams, large rivers or river stretches without current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
5031	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally abundant.	eng
5031	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5032	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
5032	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Louros river basin in western Greece.	eng
5032	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species preferring mud substrate.	eng
5032	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
5032	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution and potential hybridization with <em>C. arachthosensis</em> living in the Arachthos River since canals, now link in the lowland the two river basins.	eng
5034	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
5034	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
5034	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is an annual fish species dying after reproduction, which takes place in May. It spawns in coarse sand.	eng
5034	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
5034	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (agriculture and domestic). In potential introduction of alien species to Lake Prespa would be likely to have a negative impact upon <em>C. meridionalis</em>.	eng
5036	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5036	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Romania: Danube basin, Arges, Olt, Jui, Mures and Tapolitza systems.	eng
5036	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Sandy streams with clean water and moderate to fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns from May to July.	eng
5036	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining, localised and fragmented population.	eng
5036	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Development in Romania is leading to increased water abstraction, pollution and damming of rivers.	eng
5037	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5037	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Atlantic drainages from Seine northward; Baltic basin south of 61ºN; upper Volga drainages; northern Black Sea basin (except Danube). Ancient records from Adour, Garonne and Loire drainages (France) require confirmation.	eng
5037	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From small lowland streams to large rivers. In channels, ditches, backwaters and lakes on sand bottom. In Baltic Sea at salinity up to 5 ‰. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to five years, males up to three. Females spawn for the first time at 2-3 years, males at 1-2 years and more than 45 mm SL. Spawns in April-July, at temperatures above 18°C. Eggs are spawned in dense vegetation. Fractional spawner, producing 1-18 portions (under laboratory conditions). Larvae negatively phototactic, hiding under vegetation and in debris until beginning of exogenous feeding. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. elongatoides</em>.	eng
5037	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5037	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5038	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
5038	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia, Ozeros and Amvrakia and to the Acheloos river basin in western Greece.	eng
5038	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is mainly a lacustrine species. It reproduces in the spring.	eng
5038	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
5038	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (eutrophication) and abstraction. Habitat destruction. Lake level seasonal fluctuation.	eng
5039	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5039	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aegean and Black Sea basins, from Struma drainage to area of Varna (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey), Lakes Volvi and Koronia (Greece); Danube basin in Bulgaria.	eng
5039	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Still to flowing waters with sand or silt bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
5039	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5039	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5040	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5040	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aegean Sea basin, from Pinios to Gallikos drainages (Greece, Macedonia).	eng
5040	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Still waters of lakes, oxbows and backwaters, rarely in flowing water. On mud to silt bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
5040	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant.	eng
5040	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction.	eng
5042	conservation	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	Found in the Lorentz National Park. Surveys to find this species again are required.	eng
5042	distribution	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	Found at two localities 9 km apart (Mount Wilhelmina and Lake Habbema) during the Archbold Expedition in 1938.  Extensive trapping in the area collected only six individuals at one locality. However, it is possible that it is found at other localities in the area. Elevation range 2,800 to 3,225 m asl.	eng
5042	habitat	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is found in subalpine heathland above the tree line. It presumably lives in burrows.	eng
5042	population	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is either rare or not readily trappable. The group that collected it found only 6 individuals out of thousands of specimens caught at one locality.	eng
5042	threats	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	There are no threats to this species in its high elevation range.	eng
5047	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 1996	Patchily distributed in central Europe. There are fossil records from North America.	eng
5047	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 1996	Occurs in undisturbed wetlands and calcareous bogs	eng
5074	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia, and might be present in protected areas in South Asia and China. Within South Asia there is a need for additional research (surveys, monitoring), and programmes to increase public awareness about the species and bats in general (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
5074	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species ranges from South Asia eastwards into southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh Sunderbans (Khulna division) and India (Meghalaya and West Bengal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan and the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia it ranges from Myanmar, through most countries in the region, to Thailand and Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali) In South Asia it has been recorded from elevations ranging from 100 to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
5074	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded from subtropical forests and mangroves, with small colonies found roosting in caves or hollows of trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is basically a forest species. It has been found in a warm cave where the bat seemed to be hibernating. In Taiwan, this species is found in man-made structures, such as old pillboxes. In Southeast Asia, it is usually associated with forests, occurring from lowland to submontane forests, and is sometimes associated with limestone areas (Bates and Furey pers. comm.). It can persist in disturbed habitats and many types of roosting habitats are used including manmade tunnels (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
5074	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Although the species is widespread, it does not appear to be especially common. This may indicate natural rarity, or reflect difficulties in surveying the species. A maximum of seven animals were found together during surveys in Thailand (Sara Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia it has been found in colonies of sixteen or fewer individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
5074	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, some populations are threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agriculture and settlements especially in the Indian northeast (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Bangladesh, cyclones represent an additional threat to the habitat. In China and Southeast Asia, the main threat to some populations of this species is general habitat loss and degradation associated with ongoing deforestation.	eng
5075	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It is probably dependent on the conservation of adequate areas of forest habitat. Taxonomic work should be carried out to determine the validity of the species.	eng
5075	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the islands of Mindanao (Bukidnon province) and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species could certainly be present on islands between the known localities (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
5075	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	There is very little information, but the species might be dependent on caves and presumably lives in forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
5075	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	There is very little information on its abundance. This species is hard to survey and only one survey has been carried out using harp traps, which are appropriate for this species, and this suggests that the species is more common than was once thought (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
5075	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	There is very little information, as the ecology of the species is so poorly known. However, the species is suspected of having declined due to loss of forest habitat due to agriculture, logging, mining and urbanisation.	eng
5076	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is known to occur in the Krau Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
5076	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in inland Peninsular Malaysia and eastern Borneo.	eng
5076	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	The species roosts in caves and is found in primary and secondary forest.	eng
5076	population	Heaney, L., 2008	There is very little information on its abundance. In Peninsular Malaysia this species has been captured at Kuala Lompat, Kuala Serloh, and Lubuk Baung (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2006; Senawi 2004).	eng
5076	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	The species is likely affected by deforestation in many parts of its range due to logging, expanding agriculture and plantations, and fire.	eng
5080	conservation	Ott, J., 2006	Control of water pollution and water regimes, and renaturation of waters are needed. In Germany, the species is regionally extinct. <em>C. h. freyi</em> is listed in the EC habitats directive (Annex II), and is included in the Bern Convention (Annex II).	eng
5080	distribution	Ott, J., 2006	Main area of the nominotypical subspecies from Sibiria to Japan, and maybe one isolated population in the delta of the river Ob; in Europe subspecies <em>freyi</em> is presently only known from Austria (valley of the river Lech, Tyrol); one population was discovered in Germany in 1952 by Bilek (lake “Zwingsee” near Inzell), but the population was extinct in 1967.	eng
5080	habitat	Ott, J., 2006	Clear and oligotrophic mountain lakes with zones of slow running waters (from incoming streams), shallow and vegetated.	eng
5080	population	Ott, J., 2006	Only seven reproducing populations (two more obviously without reproduction) are known from Austria; in general the population sizes are small or very small; rarest damselfly of Europe; population sizes and status in Sibiria and Asia unknown.	eng
5080	threats	Ott, J., 2006	Water pollution, changes in the water regimes, eutrophication, introduction of fishes, climatic changes.	eng
5081	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Preservation of traditional agricultural, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers. Examples of restoration took place in some restricted places in the UK, and also in northeast France through some actions of the Conservatoire des Sites Lorrains.	eng
5081	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of traditional agriculture and rearing, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers.	eng
5081	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Preservation of traditional agriculture and rearing, control of water pollution. Forest clearing around rivers. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
5081	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is included in Annex II  and IV of the European Habitats Directive. Main conservation measures inlcude the management of water courses, control of water pollution, management that keeps the vegetation open. Intensification of agriculture should be avoided. Examples of restoration took place in some restricted places in the UK, Belgium and northeast France.	eng
5081	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco (24 locations - four now possibly extinct), Algeria (eight locations - five now possibly extinct), and Tunisia (five locations - three now possibly extinct).	eng
5081	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco (out of 24 locations, four now possibly extinct), Algeria (out of eight locations, five are now possibly extinct), and Tunisia (out of five locations, three are now possibly extinct).	eng
5081	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion mercuriale</em> occurs in western Europe and the Maghreb. More than 1,550 localities have been recorded in Europe for this species, among which at least 70 are probably lost. In Italy, only five recent records were published after 1990 and the species has clearly declined both in the southern areas and in Sicily (where it may be extinct) due to small streams drying up. Possibly, 50% of the known locations in Italy have become extinct.	eng
5081	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	West Europa and Maghreb.	eng
5081	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Small brooks and springs.	eng
5081	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous	eng
5081	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous.	eng
5081	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. mercuriale</span> is found in small brooks and springs with aquatic and riparian vegetation, generally more or less calcareous. Also, the species lives in man-made irrigation channels, which are permanently wet.	eng
5081	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, the species is rather common in France. It is more scattered in southern Iberia, rare in Germany, very rare in the United Kingdom, Belgium, Liechtenstein, extinct in southern Switzerland, Luxembourg, Austria and the Netherlands. About half of the Italian records are old and may refer to populations that are now extinct; the species is currently rare in Italy. Moreover, it is extinct or erroneously recorded in Slovenia, erroneously recorded from Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Macedonia, the Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania and the Caucasus.	eng
5081	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, this southwestern Palearctic species is fairly scattered in north Morocco but is very rare in Algeria (only three recent records) and Tunisia (two recent records).	eng
5081	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In northern Africa, this southwestern Palearctic species is fairly scattered in north Morocco but is very rare in Algeria (only three recent records) and Tunisia (two recent records).	eng
5081	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	The species is rather common in France, except in the northwest, Iberia and Northern Morocco. Endangered in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Italy, Algeria, Tunisia, Slovakia. Critically Endangered in Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria. Extinct in Luxembourg, The Netherlands and Slovenia. The records of this species in the Czech Republic and in Bulgaria are questionable. Records from Albania, Hungary, the Republic of Moldova and Romania are now considered as erroneous.	eng
5081	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Rivers straightening, water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices. Overgrazing. Drought in relation to global warming.	eng
5081	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	River straightening, water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, watertable lowering through irrigation, field destruction or conversion into other agricultural practices, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices.	eng
5081	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats include river straightening (channelisation), water harnessing, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution. All modern intensive agricultural practices lead to the extirpation of the species. Drought in relation to global warming, forest closure and plantation of trees on river banks, poor management of bank side vegetation and the large scale of clearance of the ditches are also major threats.<br/>Flourishing populations still occur in many countries but their survival is definitely incompatible with modern intensive agricultural practices and forest closure. Although the species remains widespread in France, most of the populations at the periphery of its main area have been destroyed and a continuous decline is observed in any area where agriculture shifts from grasslands to irrigated ploughed fields, the worst situation being reached with maize (a crop that is irrigated throughout the summer months) and rice cultivation.	eng
5081	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The major threats to the species are river channelization, water management, swamps and soil drainage, water table lowering through irrigation, meadow destruction and conversion towards other agricultural management, water pollution, modern intensive agricultural practices, overgrazing and drought in relation to global warming.	eng
5083	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas and is listed as Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz, 2000).	eng
5083	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in northwest Bolivia, Peru, western Ecuador, northern and southwest Colombia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). In Bolivia it is found from the lowlands of Beni up to 2,500 m asl in the yungas (Incachaca) of Cochabamba (Anderson, 1997).	eng
5083	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is nocturnal, arboreal and solitary, but adult pairs have been found denning together in tree holes. It is slow moving but can climb swiftly. It is restricted to forested regions, and is found in mature and disturbed lowland and montane rainforest; its movements are inoffensive, but quick to defend itself with its spines or by biting. It feeds leaves, fruits and bark (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
5083	population	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	It can be locally common, at low densities, as per other porcupines, and widespread; it is becoming less common due to deforestation.	eng
5083	threats	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	There are no major threats. In the Bolivian yungas, the species is killed as a pest in fruit orchards (J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
5084	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species; not enough is known about the status of this species to know if any conservation measures are needed.	eng
5084	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is found in Brazil south of the main channel of the Amazonas River, from Ilha de marajo, Belem to Ilha Tayauna, in the Pará and Amazonas States (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
5084	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	The species is nocturnal and herbivorous (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). A lowland tropical rainforest species occuring in primary forest, there is a possibility that mature secondary growth might be inhabited (Voss in litt. 2006).	eng
5084	population	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
5084	threats	Dunnum, J. & Delgado, C., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
5085	conservation	Marinho-Filho, J., Queirolo, D. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
5085	distribution	Marinho-Filho, J., Queirolo, D. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is broadly distributed from Colombia and Venezuela south to northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); occurring in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000; Emmons and Feer 1997; Zapata and Castro 2001).	eng
5085	habitat	Marinho-Filho, J., Queirolo, D. & Emmons, L., 2008	Lives in dry and wet forests, disturbed and undisturbed forests.<br/><br/>The species is nocturnal and herbivorous (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). It rests in tree cavities or canopies during the day. Sexual maturity is reached at about nineteen months and they remain reproductively active for more than twelve years. There is no reproductive season but the reproductive interval is about 203 days. Gestation lasts up to 203 days after which one young is born (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
5085	population	Marinho-Filho, J., Queirolo, D. & Emmons, L., 2008	This is rare in some areas but is the common, dominant mammal in others.	eng
5085	threats	Marinho-Filho, J., Queirolo, D. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species at this time.	eng
5086	conservation	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	Occurs within many protected areas within its range where it is still common (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
5086	distribution	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in Panama (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), and possibly west of Andes in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Reid 1997). It can be found in only lowlands (Reid 1997).	eng
5086	habitat	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species can be found in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest (Reid 1997). It occurs less often below 800 or 1,000 m (Samudio pers. comm.). It is able to persist within disturbed forest (Samudio pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is nocturnal and arboreal; it sleeps during the day in vine tangles near the tops of trees. The diet includes fruit and leaves (Goldman 1920, in Reid 1997).	eng
5086	population	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	It has previously been considered uncommon (Reid 1997). However, recent surveys show the species to be fairly common in Panama.	eng
5086	threats	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
5100	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Hungary, Austria and France, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
5100	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in France (the western Pyrenees, les Landes, Gironde to Charente-Maritime and Charente, Sarthe, Seine-et-Marne, Savoie and Isère), Switzerland (Rhine Valley and Tessino), Italy (Varese, Treviso, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia), Slovenia, Austria, Liechtenstein, Poland and Hungary. Sea level-500 m. It is also found throughout Kazakhstan and South Siberia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
5100	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Ringlet is a very local species that is declining at an alarming rate in several countries, though more stable in others. It inhabits low-lying, grassy marshes and reed-beds that are usually situated in the shelter of woodland, creating a warm and humid environment. The butterflies fly very slowly and hardly ever colonize nearby habitats. The eggs are deposited one by one on the blades of grasses, like meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), rye-grasses (<em>Lolium</em> spp.), hair-grasses (<em>Deschampsia</em> spp.), sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.)  and Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>). The caterpillars hibernate half-grown in the tussock, where they pupate as well. The False Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), blanket bogs (20%), raised bogs (13%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).	eng
5100	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is extremely local in very isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Bulgaria, Germany, Switzerland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, France, Hungary (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
5100	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Agricultural improvements (inc. land drainage) as well as abandonment of grassland habitats are the largest threats for <em>Coenonympha oedippus</em>. It survives nowadays in small and fragmented habitats where colonies are threatened by isolation.	eng
5112	conservation	Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Rocamora and Joubert (2004) recommend annual census of individuals along established transects; regular sensitive visits to all known roosting localities with additional surveys to locate any additional sites; reevaluation of the species distribution every three or four years; legal protection of all known roosting sites and their immediate surroundings; control of introduced predators (barn owl <em>Tyto alba</em> and cats); habitat protection within known feeding areas; public awareness campaigns; ongoing and additional research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species. Gerlach and Taylor (2006) also outline the importance of removing invasive vegetation from existing and abandoned roost sites, and restoring lowland forests through the control of coconut and cinnamon, and replanting native vegetation.	eng
5112	distribution	Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Seychelles, and is currently found on the islands of Silhouette, Mahé (in the northwest of the island) and Praslin. It is thought to have become extinct on La Digue island and Praslin since 1980s (Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).	eng
5112	habitat	Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from coastal boulder field caves with stable cool temperatures and access into native palm woodland or marsh habitat (Gerlach and Taylor 2006). It appears to need boulder caves with horizontal ceilings; low, stable temperatures; and clear cave flyways not obscured by vegetation (Gerlach and Taylor 2006). Joubert (2004) and Gerlach and Taylor (2006) provide specific details on the ecological requirements of this rare species. Although the species has recently been recorded from three islands, the only occupied roosting localities are known at La Passe and Grande Barbe (their continued presence at this second site was recently confirmed by J. Gerlach pers. comm.), on Silhouette island (Rocamora and Joubert 2004; Gerlach and Taylor 2006), and from two sites on Mahé, the main locality of Cap Ternay containing between 20 and 30 animals, and Anse Major with one or two bats (J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2008). Abandoned roosts have been recorded from all four islands in the species historical distribution. A detailed study of the roosting site at La Passe is provided by Burgess and Lee (2004).	eng
5112	population	Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The species was noted by Wright (1868) to be 'very common in the neighborhood of the town of Port Victoria'. Joubert (2004) mentions that the species was seemingly still abundant up to the 1970s, and that the use of guano deposits as an indicator suggests that the magnitude of decline may have been as high as 90%. The global population is now clearly very small, and although the precise number is not known, it is believed to be fewer than 100 mature individuals (Rocamora and Joubert 2004; J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2008). The roosting cave at La Passe was recorded to contain 32 bats in total in 2003 (Gerlach 2004; J. Gerlach pers. comm. 2008), however, more recently only 27 animals have been recorded roosting at this locality (Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).	eng
5112	threats	Gerlach, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Gerlach and Taylor (2004) report that the most catastrophic decline of this species probably occurred in the late 1800s and early 1900s when lowland forests were cleared, converting the mosaic of woodland and open gaps to intensively managed coconut plantations with no shrub layer to support the invertebrate diet of this species. Invasive plants including the Kudzu vine (<em>Pueraria phaseoloides</em>) and coconut scrub from abandoned plantations threaten remaining suitable habitat for this species. Kudzu vine threatens to overgrow roost cave entrances or to change the temperature gradient within caves (Gerlach and Taylor 2004). The species is sensitive to disturbance of roosting caves and this remains a threat to any active roost sites. Other suggested threats have been the predation of bats by the barn owl, <em>Tyto alba</em>, introduced in 1949, and feral cats.	eng
5113	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Cardiff, S. & Bergmans, W., 2008	On the African continent, there are no species-specific conservation measures in place, but there are some protected areas within its range. Both of the known sites for this species in Madagascar are within protected areas (the Ankarana Special Reserve and Namoroka National Park).	eng
5113	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Cardiff, S. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The African sheath-tailed bat is found in much of east and eastern-central Africa, with an isolated record from central Mozambique. It is also found in west Africa, with records from Guinea and Guinea Bissau, northern Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. There is also a small distribution in western Angola. This species was recently discovered in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is known only from the Ankarana Special Reserve in the north of the island and the Namoroka National Park in the west.	eng
5113	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Cardiff, S. & Bergmans, W., 2008	On mainland Africa, the African sheath-tailed bat is found in well illuminated caves, rocky crevices and cellars of houses (Rosevear, 1965). It preferentially roosts in caves along the sea and lake shores (Kingdon, 1974). In Nigeria, the African sheath-tailed bat is found in localised rocky habitats in southern Guinea savanna. Rosevear (1965) stated that they occur in woodland but only where there are acceptable roosting places. It is likely that other colonies occur in suitable rocky habitats in the southern Guinea savanna of western Nigeria. On Madagascar this bat taxon appears to be more varied in its habits, with some roost sites typically very dark and others quite close to the cave entrance. The two known sites on Madagascar are within dry deciduous tropical forest on a karst substrate (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some authours suggests that the African sheath-tailed bat migrates (Happold, 1987; Skinner and Smithers 1990).	eng
5113	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Cardiff, S. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In the African portion of the African sheath-tailed bat's distribution, it roosts in large colonies (in the 1,000s of animals). The population and local abundance of this species in Madagascar is not known, but there is a minimum estimate of 500 individuals in one cave complex in Ankarana, Madagascar.	eng
5113	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Cardiff, S. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The threats to this species are not well understood. Disturbance of roost sites could potentially be a threat, but the effect of this on the population is not well known.	eng
5142	conservation	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including Salonga National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Virunga National Park (DR Congo), Nyungwe National Park (Rwanda), and Kaya Gonja and the Shimba Hills National Reserve (Kenya).	eng
5142	distribution	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species ranges from northern Angola north to the Congo-Oubangui river system, and then eastwards (with a disjunct range) to the montane and coastal forests of Tanzania and Kenya. Recorded to 2,415 m asl in Kenya (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>There are six described subspecies. <br/><br/><em>C. a. angolensis</em> ranges from Angola north to the great bend of the Congo River. <br/><br/><em>C. a. cottoni</em> occurs from north-east of the River Congo, east to Lake Albert and north to the Uele-Oubangui river system (this subspecies forms a hybrid zone with <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em> in the south of its range). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em> ranges along both sides of the western Rift, from the Semiliki Valley and the Rwenzori Mountains through south-eastern Uganda, Rwanda, Mount Kahuzi (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Burundi to the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania. <br/><br/><em>C. a. cordieri</em> is present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo where it occurs between the Lowa and Luama rivers from the Lualaba River in the west to close to Lake Kivu in the east, where it forms a hybrid zone with <em>C. a. ruwenzorii</em>. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. a. prigoginei</em> is endemic to Mount Kabobo, in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/>The eastern subspecies, <em>C. a. palliatus</em>, is discontinously distributed in the Southern Highlands and coastal and gallery forests of southern and eastern Tanzania and south-eastern Kenya. Kenyan distribution of <em>C. a. palliatus</em> is solely restricted to the southern coastal forests of the Kwale District (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>An isolated, undescribed subspecies is present on Mount Nkungwe and adjacent uplands in the Mahale Mountains of western Tanzania.	eng
5142	habitat	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This largely arboreal species occurs in both lowland and montane primary and gallery forests. It is generally found in small family groups, but temporary aggregations of up to 300 animals have been reported. The eastern <em>Colobus a. palliatus</em> is a folivorous primate confined to the forests of Tanzania and southern Kenya (Kingdon 1997), and is forest-dependent primate.	eng
5142	population	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This widespread species can be common in suitable habitat. Their populations in the eastern part of the range are much more fragmented than the populations across the Congo basin. In a recent comprehensive survey of the Kenyan range of the species, a total of 55 colobus populations were located, with the total Kenyan <em>C. a. palliatus</em> population estimated at between 3,100 and 5,000 individuals (560–900 groups). The density of <em>C. a. palliatus</em> in Shimba Hills forest, the largest population, was 15 individuals/km², and the total population size was thus estimated at ca. 2,400 individuals  (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
5142	threats	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J., Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion of land to agricultural use. Isolated populations, such as those in the Eastern Arc and coastal forests, are especially vulnerable (see Anderson <em>et al.</em> 2007 for further detail on <em>C. angolensis palliatus</em>). It is hunted for meat, especially in the Congo Basin.	eng
5143	conservation	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed to assess the validity of the various described subspecies.	eng
5143	distribution	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the area of the Donga River region of Nigeria and the Yabassi District of Cameroon, eastwards across the Oubangui River from the Central African Republic to the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and then discontinuously eastwards to southern Sudan, Uganda, the Kenyan and Ethiopian highlands, and Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and the Kahé District of Tanzania (Groves in press).<br/><br/>There are eight subspecies: <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. g. occidentalis</em> occurs from eastern Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon, eastwards to south-western Sudan and Uganda. <br/><br/>The nominate <em>C. g. guereza</em> is found in forested areas of the Ethiopian highlands west of the Rift Valley and down into the lowland reaches along the Awash River, the Omo River and in the Blue Nile gorge.<br/><br/><em>C. g. gallarum</em> is restricted to the Ethiopian highlands east of the Rift Valley. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>C. g. dodingae</em> is endemic to the Didinga Hills in south-eastern Sudan. <br/><br/><em>C. g. matschiei</em> is found in Kenya west of the Rift Valley, and also in some of the forests within the Rift, west to Mount Elgon (Kenya and Uganda), and south to the Ngorongoro Crater and the Grumeti River in Tanzania. <br/><br/><em>C. g. percivali</em> is restricted to the Matthews Range of Kenya. <br/><br/><em>C. g. kikuyuensis</em> is known only from the Ngong Escarpment, Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountain Range, Kenya. <br/><br/><em>C. g. caudatus</em> is present on montane forests of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru, and the adjoining forests at slightly lower altitudes (Kahe; Momela Lakes in Arusha National Park), Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
5143	habitat	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, and gallery forest. They are often common in secondary or degraded forest. Animals live in small family groups.	eng
5143	population	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Groves, C.P., 2008	A very widespread species that is still locally adundant in many areas.	eng
5143	threats	Kingdon, J., Struhsaker, T., Oates, J.F., Hart, J. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through deforestation for timber, conversion to exotic forest plantations and conversion to agricultural land (e.g., von Hippel <em>et al.</em> 2000). Hunting may also be severely impacting populations in the western part of the species range; Mwenja (2007) commented, in passing, that this subspecies is killed for its skins by local pastoralists in and around the Matthews Range Forest Reserve.	eng
5144	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed as Class A under the African Convention and under Appendix II of CITES. It is found in a number of protected areas, including Sapo National Park (Liberia), Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), and Tiwai Island Sanctuary (Sierra Leone).	eng
5144	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is found in far western Africa, from southern Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, east to the Sassandra River in Côte d’Ivoire (Kingdon 1997; Groves 2005). <br/><br/>A possible subspecies <em>C. p. dollmani</em> is found east of the Sassandra River, but is probably a hybrid with <em>C. vellerosus</em> in this very narrow contact zone up to the Bandama River.	eng
5144	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Rainforest and forest galleries are preferred, the species is rarely found in degraded habitat, though sometimes in secondary forests.	eng
5144	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Until recently this species was widespread. However, although the total range of this species is still extensive, habitat loss and hunting are becoming an increasing threat and fragmenting the remaining populations.	eng
5144	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is affected primarily by hunting and secondarily by habitat loss.	eng
5145	conservation	Oates, J.F., Kingdon, J., Groves, C.P. & Brugiere, D., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. This species needs effective protection against hunting, and its habitat must be protected. In Gabon, it is present in Lope Reserve (Gabon), where there is relatively good protection (Brugiere 1998), and also in the Foret des Abeilles, which is mostly allocated to logging concessions. Elsewhere, it is recorded from Monte Alen National Park in Rio Muni, and on Bioko from the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve. Further data on the distribution and status of this species are required.	eng
5145	distribution	Oates, J.F., Kingdon, J., Groves, C.P. & Brugiere, D., 2008	This species is found from Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), through Equatorial Guinea, western and central Gabon inland to Lope National Park (Brugiere 1998) (and with unconfirmed reports of sparse populations east of the Ogooue and Ivindo Rivers), parts of Congo, and on Bioko Island. This species is now rare or absent in those parts of its range where there has been extensive logging. In mainland Equatorial Guinea, for example, its range had been reduced to one-third of its former size by 1967. It is thought to occur from 500-2250 m asl. <br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>C. s. satanas</em> is found only on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), while <em>C. s. anthracinus</em> is found in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, Equatorial Guinea, Congo and Gabon.	eng
5145	habitat	Oates, J.F., Kingdon, J., Groves, C.P. & Brugiere, D., 2008	This species inhabits coastal evergreen, lowland moist, montane, and swamp forests. It is typically found high in the canopy of dense, primary rainforest, and is now only present in protected or undisturbed inaccessible areas. On Bioko, it has been observed on the montane heathland. It appears unable to survive in secondary forest, and is rare or absent in forests where logging has reduced canopy height. <em>C. satanas</em> is a highly arboreal, diurnal species. It feeds selectively on seeds and unripe fruits, and shows a strong preference for the leaves of lianas. Old leaves are less favoured, and only in sand-dune forest are they eaten with regularity. This species lives in groups averaging 15 individuals, and has an annual home range of approximately 60 ha.	eng
5145	population	Oates, J.F., Kingdon, J., Groves, C.P. & Brugiere, D., 2008	There are no estimates of the total population of this species, but it is known to live at low densities. It is thought to have a patchy distribution in parts of its range. The highest density populations are thought to be in Lope Reserve, Gabon, where there is a population of approximately 50,000 - 55,900 individuals (Brugiere 1998), in the Foret des Abeilles (central Gabon) where the population density is 25-30 animals/km², and in the Douala-Edea Reserve (Cameroon), where the density was estimated to be 38 animals/km² in 1978. <br/><br/>On Bioko, this species has undergone the biggest decline of all the primates -- more than 60% between the period 1986 and 2006 (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006). They were common species on Pico Basile in 1986, but have been heavily hunted in the Pico Basile National Park in the 2000s. They are now rare outside the Gran Caldera.	eng
5145	threats	Oates, J.F., Kingdon, J., Groves, C.P. & Brugiere, D., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and forest clearance for agriculture. Its dependence on high-canopy habitats make it particularly susceptible to tree felling (Brugiere 1998). This species is also widely hunted for its meat and skin, with the populations on Bioko being under considerable pressure (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
5146	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed as Class A under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It is known from several protected areas including Comoe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), Fazao-Malfakassa National Park (Togo) and Mole, Bui and Digya National Parks (Ghana).	eng
5146	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species ranges between the Bandama River (Côte d’Ivoire) and its tributary, the Nzi, east into western Nigeria, to the Dahomey Gap (Togo and Benin). Historically, it occurred in central and eastern Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. The population west of the Bandama, as far west of the Sassandra, the form "dollmani", is essentially a hybrid with <em>C. polykomos</em> (Groves <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
5146	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Found in lowland rainforest and gallery forests and far north into the Guinea Forest Savannah Zone. In Bénin, they were observed in several habitats, including swamp forests, semi-deciduous forests and gallery forests (Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008). The diet is thought to resemble that of <em>C. guereza</em>, but the exact composition may vary according to the presence or absence of other monkeys.	eng
5146	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	There has been no systematic survey of this species, but it is known to have become rare in several national parks in Ghana where it had been assumed to be secure. It is now also a very rare animal in Benin, Togo and Nigeria.	eng
5146	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is threatened primarily by hunting and secondarily by habitat loss. The region it inhabits has a dense and rapidly growing human population, forest destruction has been extensive, and the hunting of wildlife is uncontrolled in most places (although in some places they are hold sacred; e.g., see Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
5151	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Schlitter, D., Dieterlen, F. & Cotterell, F.P.D., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
5151	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Schlitter, D., Dieterlen, F. & Cotterell, F.P.D., 2008	Thi species is found in the rainforest zone and adjacent forest-savanna mosaic. It has been patchily recorded from Liberia (Lofa), western Cameroon, northeastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda (Mount Elgon), western Kenya, southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. The range limits are not fully resolved, but it has not been recorded from the rainforest of Central African Republic or the forests of West Africa (except Gabon and Liberia). The species has been recorded up to 3,200 m asl, while the lowest elevation recorded is about 400 m, but generally it occurs above 800 m asl.	eng
5151	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Schlitter, D., Dieterlen, F. & Cotterell, F.P.D., 2008	<em>Colomys goslingi </em>is most commonly found along banks of small and shallow flowing streams and around pools in tropical evergreen rainforests (lowland and montane). It has also been collected along streams in grasslands and savanna far from forest.	eng
5151	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Schlitter, D., Dieterlen, F. & Cotterell, F.P.D., 2008	It is locally common.	eng
5151	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Schlitter, D., Dieterlen, F. & Cotterell, F.P.D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species other than localised habitat loss in parts of the range; it is threatened in Zambia due to habitat destruction through clearing for charcoal production.	eng
5221	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is not known if thes species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5221	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen collected at Lubondai, Kasai Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Although the species has not recently been collected, no directed searches have been undertaken near to its type locality (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). This species is probably to be restricted to southern forest belt of the Congo, although more research is needed to confirm this (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).	eng
5221	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	The type collection took place within tropical moist gallery forest. There is little further information available on the natural history of this poorly known species.	eng
5221	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
5221	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats are not known, but it seems plausible that habitat loss (resulting from logging operations) could be a threat to this species.	eng
5222	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
5222	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is currently known only from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Busu Lite and one additional unnamed site).	eng
5222	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown but possibly present in swamp forest.	eng
5222	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
5222	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known at present.	eng
5223	conservation	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
5223	distribution	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	This species was endemic to Australia, where it appears to have been distributed in south-eastern South Australia, Victoria, southern and eastern New South Wales and possibly in extreme south-eastern Queensland (Dixon 2008).	eng
5223	habitat	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It was found in areas of eucalyptus woodland, where animals were recorded nesting in hollow branches. One female was known to have had a litter of three young (Dixon 2008).	eng
5223	population	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	This species is presumed to be extinct. It has not been recorded since 1860-1862 in Victoria, where it was at one time common and even regarded as a pest. Although it was widely distributed, it was apparently not abundant (Dixon 2008). Surveys conducted over the years have not found this species.	eng
5223	threats	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It has been suggested that the possible causes for extinction of this species were habitat disruption by introduced livestock and rabbits, and predation by cats.	eng
5224	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is not listed in Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Listed as vulnerable the Northern Territory (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000). It occurs in a large protected area on the peninsula of the Northern Territory (Garik Gunak Barlu National Park); also present in Kakadu National Park; and in Prince Regent Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution of the species in New Guinea, the ecology of the species, and threats to it. Future protection should be directed towards island populations. Targeted surveys are needed in Western Australia, particularly on population trends. There are ongoing studies on experimental release into areas with different fire regimes and cat control.	eng
5224	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is known from Australia and the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). In Australia, it previously occurred though much of monsoonal northern areas, including a number of offshore islands (e.g., Groote Eylandt). Currently this species occurs in perhaps 20 per cent of historic range. It is restricted to the mainland within a thin strip of about 30 km of the coast in Western Australia and Northern Territory. It is also known from islands. The smallest island from which the species is currently known is 8,181 ha (Inglis Island) (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Western Australia, the species is only known from several localities. The range is apparently disjunct between the northern Western Australia segment and the northern Northern Territory segment, though there have not been extensive recent surveys in the region. In Northern Territory, it is now found on Cobourg Peninsula, Bathurst, Melville, and Inglis Islands, Groote Eylandt, and a small area in Kakadu National Park (Woinarski 2000, 2005). The species is also present on Bentinck Island, Queensland.<br/><br/>In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from two nearby localities (Penzara Village and Morehead) in southern Western Province, where it seems to be a distinct subspecies, <em>C. p. randi</em>. Surveys suggest that the species has a restricted distribution (Flannery 1995). It ranges from sea level to 60 m asl.	eng
5224	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This is a partly arboreal species found in open eucalypt woodland or savanna habitats, with a grassy or sparse shrub understorey (Flannery 1995; Woinarski 2005). On Cobourg Peninsula, it also occurs in coastal grasslands (with scattered large trees, beaches, and stunted eucalypt woodland) (Woinarski 2005). Females can give birth to several litters in a season of between one and four (usually 3) young, after a gestation period of 36 days (Kemper and Firth 2008). This species requires tree holes (Woinarski 2005). Its diet is mainly seeds (especially of grasses), with some fruits, invertebrates, and leaves and grass (Woinarski 2005).	eng
5224	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is sparsely distributed, but may be locally abundant (Kemper and Firth 2008). Its range and population size in the Northern Territory has probably declined by well over 50% since European settlement, but this decline cannot be dated with any assurance (Woinarski 2005). Historically it was abundant in Northern Australia, where records from 1880s and 1890s tell of its extraordinarily high density. This species is known from about 6 locations in the Kimberley Region. In the Northern Territory, there are recent records only from the Tiwi Islands, Inglis Island, a small area within Kakadu National Park, and on Coubourg Peninsula (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). In the latter area, it may be locally abundant (densities to 6 individuals/ha) (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are no recent (post 1990) records from several other sites where it was formerly recorded (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are no other data on recent population trends (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from two specimens.	eng
5224	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species appears to have specific habitat requirements and may be vulnerable to local extinctions (Kemper and Firth 2008). In Papua New Guinea, the habitat of this species is impacted by introduced deer and the species may be predated by feral dogs. Frequent fires decrease the availability of tree holes, on which these species depends (in the last century there has been a change to a more frequent fire regime). With too few fires, the species can also be threatened – it needs an appropriate fire regime. Cattle were a threat in the past, and may continue to be, but there is little evidence to support this. Feral cats are a problem and it is probably no coincidence that many of the remnant populations are on islands without feral cat populations.<br/><br/>The population on the Tiwi Islands will be reduced by a proposed forestry development that aims to clear between 30,000 and 100,000 ha of the preferred habitat (tall eucalypt open forests) and replace it with plantations of fast-growing exotic Acacia species (Woinarski 2005).	eng
5228	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Currently, about 20% of the population occurs in protected areas, with around 80% occurring on private farmland and conservancies (East 1999). The most immediate conservation need is avoiding keeping <em>C. taurinus</em> and <em>C. gnou</em> in the same areas.	eng
5228	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Black Wildebeest occurs in South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho. By the end of the 19th century, excessive hunting had reduced the formerly vast population to a few individuals surviving on two farms in the Free State Province of South Africa; since then, protection by farmers and conservation agencies has allowed the species to recover (East 1999, Vrahimis in press). It has now been reintroduced to parts of its former range (western Swaziland and western Lesotho) and into farmland areas outside of its natural range (Namibia). A detailed discussion of the historical distribution of the species is given by Von Richter (1971).	eng
5228	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	A species characteristics of the open plains grasslands and karoo shrublands of South Africa and Lesotho. The high central plateau grasslands are characterized by flat to rolling hills, and mountainous areas with altitudes ranging from 1,350-2,150 m (Vrahimis in press). The Black Wildebeest is predominantly a grazer and prefers short grassveld (Von Richter 1974).	eng
5228	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Recent estimates are available for almost all of this species’ populations, including total counts for protected areas and questionnaire surveys for private land. Summation of these estimates gives a total population estimate of more than 18,000, of which about 80% is on private farms and conservancies and 20% in protected areas. Population trend is increasing, especially on private land, with a large extralimital population now established in Namibia, where importations from South Africa led to a dramatic rise in the estimated total numbers, from 150 in 1982 to more than 7,000 in 1992 (East 1999).	eng
5228	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Previously, the main threat to this species was hunting pressure, habitat loss, and periodic outbreak of disease (Vrahimis in press). However, now that the species has recovered and numbers are increasing, the only significant threat is the problem of hybridization with the Common Wildebeest, <em>C. taurinus</em>, which can occur when the two species are mixed unnaturally on fenced land (East 1999). Hybrids are known to be fertile (Fabricius <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
5229	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The vulnerability of this species to illegal hunting and loss of habitat caused by the encroachment of settlement is increased by the dependence of some migratory populations on seasonal access to unprotected rangelands. In these cases, e.g., Liuwa Plain, Tarangire and Kajiado, effective protection and management of national parks which contain only part of the population’s annual range may be insufficient to prevent major population declines. Loss of range outside protected areas may result in the replacement of migratory populations with much smaller (but nevertheless substantial) resident populations within protected areas, as has occurred in areas such as Etosha National Park and Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve. Some wildebeest populations are naturally relatively sedentary and/or their seasonal movements are generally accommodated within protected areas, e.g., Kafue, Luangwa, Hwange and Selous. The overall status of the species may not change in the long term if it continues to be well represented in protected areas and on private land, but if current trends continue its populations will become increasingly sedentary within fenced parks, reserves and farms (East 1999).<br/><br/>The future of the enormous migratory wildebeest population of the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem will have a major impact on the species’ overall conservation status. This population has shown signs of recovery from its decline in the early 1990s (Thirgood <em>et al.</em> 2004), but two sections of the migration route – the Ikoma Open Area and the Mara Group Ranches – currently receive limited protection and are threatened by poaching or agriculture.<br/><br/>Other smaller, but substantial populations, of Common Wildebeest occur in areas such as: Kafue and Liuwa Plain (Zambia), Etosha (Namibia), Okavango, Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan, Ngamiland and the central and southern Kalahari (Botswana), Hwange (Zimbabwe), Kruger, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and Mkuzi (South Africa), Hlane (Swaziland) and private farmland (Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa) (Blue Wildebeest); the Luangwa Valley (Zambia) (Cookson’s Wildebeest); the Selous ecosystem (Tanzania) (Nyassa Wildebeest); Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania) (Western White-bearded Wildebeest); and Tarangire (Tanzania) and Kajiado (Kenya) (Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest). Most of these populations are currently stable or increasing. Some populations have decreased substantially from historical levels because of the loss of their former migration routes, e.g., Etosha, Kalahari.	eng
5229	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly distributed from southern Kenya southwards to northern and eastern Namibia, Botswana, the Orange River in South Africa, and Mozambique (East 1999; Estes in press). Common Wildebeest have also been introduced to regions outside their former distribution range, such as the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and private farmland in Namibia (East 1999).<br/><br/>The ranges of the five subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Estes in press):<br/><br/><em>C. t. taurinus</em> (Blue Wildebeest). Namibia and South Africa to Mozambique north of the Orange River, and from Mozambique to Zambia south of the Zambezi River, and from south-west Zambia to south-east and southern Angola.<br/> <br/><em>C. t. cooksoni</em> (Cookson’s Wildebeest). Restricted to the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. May have ranged as vagrants onto the adjacent plateau into central Malawi. <br/><br/><em>C. t. johnstoni</em> (Nyassa or Johnston’s Wildebeest). North of Zambezi River in Mozambique to east-central Tanzania, and formerly in southern Malawi, where now extinct. <br/><br/><em>C. t. albojubatus</em> (Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest). Northern Tanzania to central Kenya just south of the Equator, west to the Gregory Rift Valley.<br/><br/><em>C. t. mearnsi</em> (Western White-bearded Wildebeest of the Serengeti ecosystem). Northern Tanzania and southern Kenya west of the Gregory Rift Valley, reaching Lake Victoria at Speke Bay.	eng
5229	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species occurs in short-grass plains, and bordering Acacia savanna open bushland and woodland in drier areas. Serengeti wildebeests thrive on short grasslands on alkaline and volcanic soils during the rainy season, and withdraw to longer grasslands in areas of higher rainfall and permanent water during the dry season. They are rarely found above 1,800-2,100 m (e.g., the Ngorongoro Crater). Common Wildebeest are pure grazers, requiring water at least every day or two in the dry season (Estes in press).	eng
5229	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	During the late 1990s, estimates were available for all of the major surviving populations of this species, mainly from aerial surveys, producing a total population in excess of 1,200,000 (correcting for undercounting bias in aerial surveys). The migratory Serengeti-Mara population represented about 70% of global species numbers (942,000, having dropped below one million following the severe 1993 drought). Other population estimates were: Blue Wildebeest, 150,000 (with about half in protected areas, and one-quarter on private land and conservancies); Cookson’s Wildebeest, 16,000 (about 60% in protected areas); Nyassa Wildebeest, 96,000 (about two-thirds in protected areas, particularly Selous); and Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest, 94,000 (with about two-thirds in and around protected areas) (East 1999). <br/><br/>The most recent estimate of the total population size of Common Wildebeest is around 1,550,000 (R.D. Estes and R. East, in Estes in press), largely due to the rebounding of the Serengeti population to about 1,300,000 (Thirgood <em>et al.</em> 2004); other subspecies populations are estimated at 130,000 Blue Wildebeest, 5,000-10,000 Cookson’s, and 50,000-75,000 Nyassa. However, estimates of Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest indicate a steep decline in the subspecies’ populations to a current level of perhaps 6,000-8,000 animals.<br/><br/>Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated by aerial surveys range from less than 0.15/km² in areas such as Kafue, Etosha, Hwange and the central and southern Kalahari, to 0.6-1.3/km² in areas such as Kruger, North Luangwa, Selous and Kajiado, and 3.6/km² in Tarangire. Recent total counts in areas where the species is abundant have produced population density estimates as high as 34.0-35.0/km², e.g., Serengeti and Ngorongoro Crater.	eng
5229	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Once often found in large concentrations, the numbers and distribution of Common Wildebeest have been reduced by the spread of settlement and livestock, elimination of water sources through watershed deforestation and expropriation for irrigation, poaching for meat, the loss of the seasonal ranges of some migratory populations, and  game eradication programs in failed efforts to eliminate the wild hosts of sleeping sickness (nagana) and other diseases of domestic livestock (East 1999; Estes in press). <br/><br/>Fences that blocked migration between wet and dry-season ranges have caused mass die-off events, by denying access to water and to higher-rainfall refuges during severe droughts. A notorious example is the decline in numbers and episodes of mass mortality of Botswana wildebeest caused by veterinary cordon fences that blocked drought-induced migrations, particularly after thousands died at Lake Xau in the north-east of the Kalahari Desert in 1980 (Owens and Owens 1980).	eng
5239	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5240	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5263	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and is confirmed from Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea. Measures are needed to work with local communities to manage the harvest at sustainable levels. A captive-breeding programme should be considered.	eng
5263	distribution		The world's largest frog is known only from south-western Cameroon from the region of Nkongsamba, and south to Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea. It is generally found at low to medium altitudes, below 1,000m asl.	eng
5263	habitat		It lives in or near fast-flowing rivers and streams in rainforest, preferring warmer, slower rivers than <em>Conraua robusta</em>, though faster rivers than <em>C. crassipes</em>. It can survive in secondary habitats close to rivers, as well as in forest, but not in very heavily degraded areas (farm bush). Breeding occurs in streams and small rivers. The young rest by flowing water during the day. Around Nkongsamba in western Cameroon, <em>C. goliath</em>, <em>C. crassipes</em> and <em>C. robusta</em> occur sympatrically.	eng
5263	population		It has decreased significantly as a result of harvesting for food.	eng
5263	threats		The most important threat to this species is hunting for food, and new, sophisticated traps for catching this species are now being used in the Nkongsamba area of Cameroon. Animals are also imported from Cameroon to the USA on a regular basis by animal dealers for zoos, the pet trade and competitive frog races (one estimate of this trade is 300 animals per year). It is also adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements, as well as by sedimentation of its breeding streams.	eng
5330	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Preservation of spring and brooks and of water quality.	eng
5330	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Southwest Caucasus and northeast Turkey in the Pontic Alps.	eng
5330	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Mountain brooks and rivulets in the cloudy/rainy forest zone.	eng
5330	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Four old localities are known in the SW slopes of Caucasus, and 14 new localities known in the northern slopes of the Pontic Alps in northeastern Turkey, between Ordu and the Georgian border.	eng
5330	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Water pollution and harnessing for human use.	eng
5333	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5336	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5338	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5340	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
5360	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5360	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic basin, lakes of upper Volga drainage (Seliger, Vseluga, Perejaslavskoe), some lakes of White Sea basin and North Sea basin east of Elbe drainage. Anadromous in Gulf of Finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of Gulf of Bothnia. North to about 69°N in Lake Inari, northern Finland. Lower Rhine (now extirpated). Frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in northern and central Germany and Poland.	eng
5360	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and marine in open water. At sea, forages close to coast. Spawns along shores, at 3-10 m depth, rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface. Spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, marine and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years (2-3 in Lake Onega), males usually earlier than females. Spawns in October (central Finland), December (northern Germany) at 6-7°C. Anadromous populations start migrating to rivers in August (Neva). Eggs hatch in March-April and juveniles migrate to sea in late summer of first year in anadromous populations. Larvae pelagic close to water surface, usually close to shore. Usually occurs in deep waters in daytime and moves to upper layers at night. Feeds on zooplankton.	eng
5360	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very common. The species extended its range to the north through shipping canals and translocations.	eng
5360	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5361	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The Longjaw Cisco was known from Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories in the United States, and Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes basin (except Lakes Ontario and Erie), Canada.	eng
5361	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	This demersal, freshwater species formerly was found in deep waters of freshwater lakes.	eng
5361	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species was last recorded in 1978.	eng
5361	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Over-exploitation by humans and predation by Sea Lampreys were the main causes of the decline of the Longjaw Cisco populations. Environmental changes may also have served to limit their populations.	eng
5362	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Widely distributed in Canada and northern US in St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, Arctic, and upper Mississippi River basins from Quebec to Northwest Territories and Alberta and south to northern Ohio, Illinois and Minnesota.	eng
5362	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Inhabits open waters of lakes and large rivers; also coastal waters of Hudson Bay (Canada).	eng
5363	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5363	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5363	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	All drainages (except Ob River and Lake Baikal basin in the Yenisey drainage) of Arctic Ocean in Eurasia from Mezen eastward; America from Cape Barrow to Coronation Bay. Introduced in many localities of former USSR, but not established.	eng
5363	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	All drainages (except Ob River and Lake Baikal basin in the Yenisey drainage) of Arctic Ocean in Eurasia from Mezen eastward; America from Cape Barrow to Coronation Bay. Introduced in many localities of former USSR, but not established.	eng
5363	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Migratory. Mostly larger lowland rivers. At sea, in salinity up to 22 ?. Northernmost distribution among whitefishes; in summer enters open waters of Kara Sea and reaches Novosibirsk Islands. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives 10-12 years, rarely up to 20. Spends 6-8 years at sea before maturing and returning to rivers in June-July, to spawn in September-October of same year. A second run in autumn; those fishes remain a year in rivers before spawning. Moves far upstream, sometimes up to 1,500 km. Spawns in shallow tributaries with some current in well oxygenated water over gravel bottom. Individual females do not spawn every year; spawns only 2-3 times during entire life. After spawning, adults return directly to sea. Embryonic development lasts up to seven months. Alevins migrate downstream in May-June. At sea, feeds on larger crustaceans and small fish. No feeding during spawning run.	eng
5363	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Migratory. Mostly larger lowland rivers. At sea, in salinity up to 22 ‰. Northernmost distribution among whitefishes; in summer enters open waters of Kara Sea and reaches Novosibirsk Islands. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives 10-12 years, rarely up to 20. Spends 6-8 years at sea before maturing and returning to rivers in June-July, to spawn in September-October of same year. A second run in autumn; those fishes remain a year in rivers before spawning. Moves far upstream, sometimes up to 1,500 km. Spawns in shallow tributaries with some current in well oxygenated water over gravel bottom. Individual females do not spawn every year; spawns only 2-3 times during entire life. After spawning, adults return directly to sea. Embryonic development lasts up to seven months. Alevins migrate downstream in May-June. At sea, feeds on larger crustaceans and small fish. No feeding during spawning run.	eng
5363	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Commonly reported in catch statistics from Canada (J. Freyhof pers comm). The population in Russia is in decline.	eng
5363	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Commonly reported in catch statistics from Canada (J. Freyhof pers comm). The population in Russia is in decline.	eng
5363	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Overfishing, and pollution - mainly in Siberia.	eng
5363	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Overfishing, and pollution - mainly in Siberia.	eng
5366	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Formerly occurred in Lake Nipigon and all of the Great Lakes except Lake Erie; now evidently extirpated in lakes Ontario and Nipigon and declining in lakes Superior and Huron.	eng
5367	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	This species formerly occurred in Lakes Huron and Michigan in the Great Lakes basin.	eng
5367	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Coregonus johannae</em> was a demersal, freshwater species inhabiting the deeper portions of the lakes.	eng
5367	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Commercial exploitation and predation by the Sea Lamprey were the main causes of the extinction of the Deepwater Cisco.	eng
5368	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Formerly more widespread in the Great Lakes; now occurs only in Lake Superior.	eng
5369	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5369	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Native to Lakes Bourget (France) and Geneva (Switzerland, France). Population of Lake Aiguebelette (France) apparently introduced, but a 'lavaret' had already been recorded from there in the 17th century.	eng
5369	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on gravel, near shore, in shallow water, in December.	eng
5369	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in Lake Bourget. In Lake Aiguebelette its population status is unkown. The species is extirpated in Lake Geneva (early 1900s), but as offspring of Lake Bourget population are hatched and reared in Thonon (on the shores of Lake Geneva), escapes should be expected.	eng
5369	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In lake Bourget there are no threats known. The reasons for the extirpation in Lake Geneva are unknown.	eng
5370	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5370	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5370	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	All drainages of Arctic Ocean from Volonga (46°E) and Pechora to Alaska (102°W). Rarely at sea, in water with salinity up to 9-15 ?.	eng
5370	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	All drainages of Arctic Ocean from Volonga (46°E) and Pechora to Alaska (102°W). Rarely at sea, in water with salinity up to 9-15 ‰.	eng
5370	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 4-8 years, females at 5-9. Adults start upstream migration in late July-August and reach spawning sites by October-November and spawn in stretches with swift current and sand-pebble bottom, often under ice. Spawning lasts 5-7 days and fish leave spawning site soon after, migrating downstream to overwinter in deeper places of lower stretches of rivers together with older juveniles. In spring, alevins drift from spawning sites downstream with flood-water and forage in floodplain lakes and oxbows where they remain until end of summer before moving to river or reaching maturity (if lakes are large enough and do not dry out). Alevins and juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on benthos, mainly chironomid larvae and molluscs.	eng
5370	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 4-8 years, females at 5-9. Adults start upstream migration in late July-August and reach spawning sites by October-November and spawn in stretches with swift current and sand-pebble bottom, often under ice. Spawning lasts 5-7 days and fish leave spawning site soon after, migrating downstream to overwinter in deeper places of lower stretches of rivers together with older juveniles. In spring, alevins drift from spawning sites downstream with flood-water and forage in floodplain lakes and oxbows where they remain until end of summer before moving to river or reaching maturity (if lakes are large enough and do not dry out). Alevins and juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on benthos, mainly chironomid larvae and molluscs.	eng
5370	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5370	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
5370	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5370	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
5371	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Formerly occurred in the Great Lakes (lakes Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior); now apparently extinct in the Great Lakes; last known specimens from Lake Huron in 1923 and Lake Michigan in 1969. Populations of what may be this species are extant in Lake Nipigon and possibly in other localities in central Canada, but some authors argue that this is <em>Coregonus artedi</em>.	eng
5371	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurred in the upper zones of deepwater areas of lakes.	eng
5371	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Decline and extinction due to overfishing, sea lamprey predation, and introgressive hybridization.	eng
5374	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5374	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5374	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia: Arctic Ocean basin from Kolyma (eastern Siberia) westward to Mezen drainages. Hybrids involving <em>C. peled</em> introduced in many reservoirs and lakes (Onega) throughout Russia, eastern and central Europe.	eng
5374	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Russia: Arctic Ocean basin from Kolyma (eastern Siberia) westward to Mezen drainages. Hybrids involving <em>C. peled</em> introduced in many reservoirs and lakes (Onega) throughout Russia, eastern and central Europe.	eng
5374	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12-13 years (5-6 in dwarf form). Different populations of different forms greatly differ in growth rate. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years, males one year earlier than females. Females ripen very fast just before spawning; most females spawn each year. Spawns in autumn-early winter depending on local climate, over hard sand (shallows in lakes), sand, gravel or stone bottom (in rivers). In northern lakes, spawns under ice. Depth at spawning sites depends on ice thickness and changes in water level, commonly 1-3 m. Spawning lasts 12-16 days at 2-3°C. Feeds on zooplankton (mostly crustaceans), benthic animals (especially insect larvae and mussels, also algae) and insects from surface.	eng
5374	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12-13 years (5-6 in dwarf form). Different populations of different forms greatly differ in growth rate. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years, males one year earlier than females. Females ripen very fast just before spawning; most females spawn each year. Spawns in autumn-early winter depending on local climate, over hard sand (shallows in lakes), sand, gravel or stone bottom (in rivers). In northern lakes, spawns under ice. Depth at spawning sites depends on ice thickness and changes in water level, commonly 1-3 m. Spawning lasts 12-16 days at 2-3°C. Feeds on zooplankton (mostly crustaceans), benthic animals (especially insect larvae and mussels, also algae) and insects from surface.	eng
5374	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5374	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
5374	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5374	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
5375	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5375	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5375	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Ocean basin, from Finland (Lapland) to eastern Siberia, Alaska, Canada eastward to Mackenzie drainage.	eng
5375	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Arctic Ocean basin, from Finland (Lapland) to eastern Siberia, Alaska, Canada eastward to Mackenzie drainage.	eng
5375	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes with tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, brackish waters. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 4-7 years, females at 5-8. Migratory. In July-August, congregates in large schools and migrates upriver to spawning sites. Lacustrine-riverine stocks enter lake tributaries. Distance of migration varies, commonly not very long. Most individuals spawn annually in August-November, sometimes later, in smaller streams or shallows of larger rivers with heavy current over gravel or stone bottom. Lacustrine stocks not migratory. Female lays only a single portion of eggs. Adults migrate downriver to deeper holes of middle stretches to overwinter. Usually starts downstream migration to feeding areas with ice melting. Feeds mainly on large benthic invertebrates (molluscs, gammarids, mysids, chironomids) and plankton in summer, small fishes and terrestrial insects in autumn.	eng
5375	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes with tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, brackish waters. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 4-7 years, females at 5-8. Migratory. In July-August, congregates in large schools and migrates upriver to spawning sites. Lacustrine-riverine stocks enter lake tributaries. Distance of migration varies, commonly not very long. Most individuals spawn annually in August-November, sometimes later, in smaller streams or shallows of larger rivers with heavy current over gravel or stone bottom. Lacustrine stocks not migratory. Female lays only a single portion of eggs. Adults migrate downriver to deeper holes of middle stretches to overwinter. Usually starts downstream migration to feeding areas with ice melting. Feeds mainly on large benthic invertebrates (molluscs, gammarids, mysids, chironomids) and plankton in summer, small fishes and terrestrial insects in autumn.	eng
5375	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5375	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5375	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5375	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
5376	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Historical range included lakes Michigan, Ontario, and Huron.	eng
5376	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurred in the upper zones of deepwater areas of lakes.	eng
5376	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Decline and extinction due to overfishing, and sea lamprey predation.	eng
5378	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Recorded from the Great Lakes (extant but declining in Lake Superior, relatively common in Lake Nipigon) to Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories; uncommon outside Great Lakes basin. Occurrences also reported from Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba; Reindeer Lake and Lake Athabasca, Saskatchewan; Barrow Lake, Alberta; and Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Has apparently been extirpated from lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie.2	eng
5378	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Generally in deep water of large lakes.	eng
5378	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	The major threats include overfishing, predation by sea lamprey, and effects of introduced species; the last is considered the greatest current threat.	eng
5379	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	In the 1996 and 2000 IUCN Red Lists this species was incorrectly recorded as being present in the USA and that it occurred in the Great Lakes. The species is confined to the Petite Riviere watershed in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada. Fish are known to occur in Millispsigate, Minamkeak and Hebb Lakes.  These are all landlocked subpopulations. There appears to be an anadromous component and individuals have been recorded annually in the estuary. Specimens have also been recorded in the estuary of the LaHave River. The Tusket River subpopulation was considered anadromous, although they have not been recorded in the watershed for many years. Further information on the anadromous form is required, especially confirmation of its presence in the Gulf of Maine.	eng
5379	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	The Atlantic Whitefish is anadramous, however, very little is known about its habitat requirements in both sea and fresh water, its reproduction or its behaviour.  It is likely that they spawn in late autumn (fall), as individuals have been observed moving upstream with Atlantic Salmon in October and November.  The anadramous form is believed to spend the summer months in coastal waters.	eng
5379	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	The landlocked subpopulations in the Petite Riviere watershed have been angled for the last 60 years.  They are considered to be an excellent game fish.  They are often confused with the Lake Whitefish (<em>Coregonus clupeaformis</em>) and considered a food fish.  The Tusket River subpopulation was allegedly ruthlessly exploited.	eng
5380	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
5380	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Southern North Sea basin: Schelde, Rhine and Meuse drainages (exceptionally northern France). Ascended Rhine up to Köln [recorded to have reached Strasbourg (France) but this is probably erroneous]. Occasional records from southeast coast of England.	eng
5380	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In brackish water and main rivers; no evidence that it enters marine waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-December in rivers. Young move to brackish habitats where they remain until mature. Feeds on zooplankton, supplemented by benthic invertebrates in adults.	eng
5380	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in 1940.	eng
5380	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution.	eng
5383	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fishing has now been banned in Lake Fegen for this species.	eng
5383	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sweden: Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden, Fegen (Ätran drainage); <br/><br/>Other populations in Finland (Lakes Änättijärvi, Kostonjärvi, Kokkamo, Pirttijärvi, Suomunjärvi (winter spawning), Sokojärvi, Kajoonjärvi, Luovijärvi, Siikajärvi (spring spawning)) and Russia (some lakes of Karelia (winter spawning; e.g. Korpiselkä)) are most likely not conspecific (Freyhof pers comm.).	eng
5383	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in late April-early May (Sweden), December-January (winter spawning, Finland) or March-May (spring spawning, Finland), at 10-30 m depth. In all lakes, spring spawning <em>C. trybomi</em> occur in sympatry with <em>C. albula</em>. Winter spawning <em>C. trybomi</em> occur with <em>C. albula</em> only in Lake Änättijärvi, Finland. Feeds on plankton. In October-November rises to surface, probably to feed on spawn of <em>C. albula</em>.	eng
5383	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is no longer present in Lakes Ören (Motalaström drainage), Hålsjön (Viskan drainage), Äsunden.	eng
5383	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Alien species (including <em>Sander lucioperca</em>) and water pollution from acid rain has caused the extirpation from Swedish lakes.	eng
5414	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only by subfossil fragments collected at the type locality and from sites on Timor island (Glover 1986).	eng
5414	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5439	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Endemic to Bear Lake, Utah and Idaho. Has supposedly been introduced to Flaming Gorge Reservoir, Utah and Wyoming (but not known if still extant there or not).	eng
5439	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	A benthic species, found from shoreline to a depth of 53 m or more.	eng
5439	population	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Said to be common.	eng
5443	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Known only from Coldwater Spring (Coosa River system), Calhoun County in Alabama.	eng
5443	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	A spring species.	eng
5445	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5445	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Baltic basin in Scandinavia south to stream Maurine (53°51'N 10°56'E) in southwesternmost corner of Baltic basin (Germany). Lower reaches of streams and rivers and along coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia southwest to Estonia. Danube (except upper tributaries Save and Arges), Elbe, Ems, Weser and Rhône drainages. Tributaries of upper Rhine downriver (northward) to about Mannheim. A few of the uppermost tributaries of River Tevere, Central Italy. Adriatic drainages, from Potenza (Italy) to Zrmanja (Croatia), except Timavo spring (inhabited by <em>C. scaturigo</em>). mtDNA and microsatellite data show that sculpins from the stream Steenputbeek (4°17'N 50°43'E) in Scheldt drainage represent <em>C. gobio</em>, suspected to be introduced. Sculpins reported from Neretva drainage (Bosnia-Herzegovina) probably also belong to <em>C. gobio</em>.	eng
5445	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold, clear and fast-flowing water of small stream to medium-sized rivers. As well on gravel or rocky shores of cold lakes and in slightly brackish waters along eastern Baltic coast. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard the egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
5445	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5445	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5446	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
5446	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
5446	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Streams in Carpathians draining to Danube, Dniestr, Vistula and Odra. Baltic basin, especially in northern Sweden and Finland between 64 and 68°N, central Finnish lakes area, a few streams in southern Finland, Lake Ladoga and southern Lake Onega drainage, a few lakes in northern Germany (extirpated), Lake Hancza (Poland) and Skjernaa drainage (Denmark). In Siberia from River Ob eastward to Lena. Absent in rivers draining to Baltic Sea south of Iijöki drainage in central Finland and in rivers draining to the White and Barents Seas.	eng
5446	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Streams in Carpathians draining to Danube, Dniestr, Vistula and Odra. Baltic basin, especially in northern Sweden and Finland between 64 and 68°N, central Finnish lakes area, a few streams in southern Finland, Lake Ladoga and southern Lake Onega drainage, a few lakes in northern Germany (extirpated), Lake Hancza (Poland) and Skjernaa drainage (Denmark). In Siberia from River Ob eastward to Lena. Absent in rivers draining to Baltic Sea south of Iijöki drainage in central Finland and in rivers draining to the White and Barents Seas.	eng
5446	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Northern, and mountain and foothill streams, oligotrophic lakes. In Carpathian streams usually more upstream than <em>C. gobio</em>, very rarely syntopic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, about 40 mm SL. Spawns in February-April, when temperature rises above 5°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Nocturnal, shifts to day-activity during winter in the Arctic. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
5446	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Northern, and mountain and foothill streams, oligotrophic lakes. In Carpathian streams usually more upstream than <em>C. gobio</em>, very rarely syntopic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, about 40 mm SL. Spawns in February-April, when temperature rises above 5°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Nocturnal, shifts to day-activity during winter in the Arctic. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
5446	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
5446	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
5446	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
5446	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
5447	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
5447	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to a 3 km stretch of the Lez River (Le Lez) from the spring to the Lirou tributary in southern France north of the town of Montpellier.	eng
5447	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The Lez River is fed by a large resurgence draining a karstic plateau. Substrate is gravel and stony beds, temperature rarely exceed 20°C. Discharge is very regular.	eng
5447	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
5447	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, drying out of River Lez, and introduction of <em>Cottus gobio</em> are major threats. Water extraction for drinking water for the Montpellier town.	eng
5481	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	There is a need for the protection of the cave roosts. A survey of the limestone caves just across the Thai border inside Myanmar is required to determine if the species occurs there. Education of monks to prevent burning of incense is also required (P. Bates pers. comm.) as well as improvement of transboundary collaboration on conservation of the species along with transboundary information exchange, and identification and establishment of protected areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
5481	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	This species occurs in Thailand and Myanmar. The type locality in Thailand is Kanchanaburi, Ban Sai Yoke (= Yok), cave near the Forestry Station (14''26'N, 8''51'E). It potentially occurs further south in Myanmar, a genetic study is being undertaken to determine if the species exists in two isolated subpopulations. There are additional limestone caves near the Thai border in Myanmar although these have not been surveyed. Its elevational range is from 0-500 m asl.	eng
5481	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is always associated with limestone outcrops near rivers and can survive in degraded areas. It always roosts in caves. Weighing around two grams, this tiny bat is reputedly the world's smallest mammal. It is insectivorous and normal foraging range appears to be limited to an area of around 1 km from the roost site (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
5481	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	The total population is restricted to eight caves in Myanmar (Pereira <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 35 in Thailand (Yokubo <em>et al.</em> 2005; Redfield, 2006). The population in Thailand is estimated to be 5,100 individuals and the population has decreased. From 1983 to 1997, there has been a 10% decrease while from 1998 to the present a 14% decrease has been estimated. These figures are not based on the same cave samples, as the species disappeared from some caves and appeared in others and it is not known whether this simply reflects colonies moving from one cave to another (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) The population in Myanmar is over 1,500 individuals (P. Bates pers. comm.), all age classes are included although this is likely to be represented by mature individuals as the species matures quickly.	eng
5481	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	The species is affected by disturbance of roosts by religious visits, fertilizer collection and tourism - there has been development of 'show caves' (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). There is also the potential for the extraction of limestone which would cause habitat destruction.	eng
5494	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>C. lacustris</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system, Papua New Guinea.	eng
5494	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat is about 19 km long and 2 to 4 km wide and has six villages on its shores.	eng
5494	threats	Allen, G., 1996	Gill nets and the use of outboard motors on the lake have been introduced since the 1980s.  Oil drilling and logging has also grown in the area over the last ten years.	eng
5499	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The area around the type locality is included within an Important Bird Area. Species specific surveys are urgently needed on Dinagat to determine its range there and also on Siargao and Bucas Grande islands to ascertain if it occurs on those islands. The species is likely to be forest dependent, given its arboreal nature, although the extent which it can persist in secondary forest is unknown. Surveys of this species could potentially be undertaken under the EIAs required for mining projects.	eng
5499	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species which is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from a single specimen collected between 1974 and 1975 (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1985; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) from Dinagat island. The type locality is Balitbiton, Loreto municipality, Surigao del Norte Province, Dinagat island, Philippines (Musser and Carleton 2005). <br/>Several teams of biologists have visited Dinagat briefly but specific surveys for this species have not been performed and the species was not located (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). <br/>The species may occur also on adjacent islands, especially Siargao and Bucas Grande, where <em>Podogymnura aureospinula</em>, previously only known from Dinagat, is now known to occur. Local people on the nearby island of Siargao reported seeing an arboreal rat resembling <em>Crateromys australis</em> (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) but this still needs to be confirmed.	eng
5499	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The holotype is from disturbed lowland forest, near a logging road. The species may be dependent on primary forest. It is not known whether this species is able to persist in secondary forest. The species is small for a cloud rat which occurs in the canopy.	eng
5499	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype. Individuals of other <em>Crateromys</em> species are difficult to capture (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5499	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Dinagat island is particularly threatened by increasing levels of mining for chromite which occurs in ultrabasic areas. The species and habitat occur in an area which is negatively affected by local political activities. Deforestation is probably a major threat (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a recent visit to the island showed that much of the forest has been logged (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
5500	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	Stricter enforcement of hunting restrictions in combination with awareness raising may be most helpful. Parts of the species habitat are protected but their management needs to be strengthened.	eng
5500	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the Greater Luzon Faunal Region, in the mountains of northern Luzon (southern to central part of the Central Cordillera), from Benguet, Ifugao and Mountain provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952). It occurs at an altitude from 2,000 to 2,500 m (Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952).	eng
5500	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is arboreal and occurs in oak-dominated forest where it builds stick-nests in tree crowns for shelter (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been said that <em>C. schadenbergi</em> is associated with anthropogenic disturbance but evidence is scanty and anecdotal.	eng
5500	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	This is a moderately widespread species in the pine forest of southern the Central Cordillera and apparently locally common in oak-pine forest, though it is rare elsewhere (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). From talking to local hunters it is less common than <em>Phloeomys pallidus</em>, but apparently still moderately common.	eng
5500	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	It is supposed that hunting is the greatest threat to this species. This species is hunted for food and for its fur to make hats, although this has not been seen for the past 5 years (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is also negatively affected by habitat loss due to conversion of its habitat to vegetable farms.	eng
5501	conservation	Oliver, W., Heaney, L., Ong, P. & Rodriquez, J.C., 2008	There is an urgent need for surveys to determine whether the species is present on Mindoro.	eng
5501	distribution	Oliver, W., Heaney, L., Ong, P. & Rodriquez, J.C., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known with certainty only from Ilin island. Unverified reports suggest its presence on southern Mindoro (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The holotype is a taxidermy mount purchased on Ilin island, but the true provenance of the specimen is unknown (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, surveys with local people have failed to reveal knowledge of the species. The specimen was "found" in the collection at the Smithsonian Museum decades after being donated (Musser and Gordon 1981).	eng
5501	habitat	Oliver, W., Heaney, L., Ong, P. & Rodriquez, J.C., 2008	Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology. It probably occurred in lowland forest (Musser and Gordon 1981).	eng
5501	population	Oliver, W., Heaney, L., Ong, P. & Rodriquez, J.C., 2008	This species is known only from one individual. A two week survey on Ilin island and adjacent Ambulong islands in 1997 was unable to find the species; a prior survey in 1989 and a later one in 2000 were also unable to detect it and its presence has not been detected during an ongoing conservation project on Ilin island. Extensive surveys on Mindoro have failed to detect its presence. The species was reported as extinct on Ilin (Pritchard 1989).	eng
5501	threats	Oliver, W., Heaney, L., Ong, P. & Rodriquez, J.C., 2008	There is no primary forest on Ilin island, and little remains of the fragile karst forest there.	eng
5502	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	There is a successful captive breeding project in place in Mar-it Conservation Park in Lambunao on Panay, numbering 45 individuals in 2005. There are also captive populations outside of the Philippines (for example in London Zoo).  Habitat protection and restoration urgently needed, a proposal for a protected area has was put forward in 1987 but little progress has been made. Population surveys are required.	eng
5502	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where is found only in the Greater Negros-Panay Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1999) on Panay island perhaps up to 400 m. However, local people suggest that the species occurs up to a much higher altitude (W. Oliver pers. comm.).	eng
5502	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	This is a strictly arboreal and forest dependent species. It has been collected from lowland tropical primary and secondary evergreen rainforest formations (Gonzales and Kennedy 1996; Schweigert 1998). It may also occur in higher elevation forests based on many reports from local people (W. Oliver pers. comm.).	eng
5502	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5502	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is severely impacted by habitat destruction on Panay (Gonzales and Kennedy 1996; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993), particularly so in the lowland areas, due to illegal logging and agricultural encroachment. There is a low level of hunting pressure. The species range may have been restricted further to upland areas only.	eng
5512	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	In India it is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. <br/>In India it is known from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Pench National Park in Maharashtra; Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa. In Sri Lanka it is present in Gal Oya National Park in Eastern Province; Kumana Wildlife Sanctuary in Northeastern Province and Yala National Park in Southern Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5512	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is distributed in Bangladesh (Sathira), India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Southern and Eastern Province) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5512	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial, sometimes fossorial species occuring in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous and scrub<br/>forests, moist deciduous and evergreen forests, where it is seen in rocky areas, caves, crevices, tree hollows and subterrenean habitats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5512	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It was a commonly trapped rodent in the evergreen forests and fragments of Anamalais in the southern Western Ghats (Chadrasekar-Rao and Sunquist 1996; Shankar 1998), while it was not trapped even once in evergreen forests, fragments and plantations of Coorg, northern Western Ghats (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
5512	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Threats are not known for this species or the habitat where it occurs.	eng
5513	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded from the Sri Lanka Malleshwara Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5513	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to India, where it is widely distributed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Rajasthan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5513	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous and deserts, where it is seen in thorn scrub sparse vegetation, plain grasslands, agriculture lands and rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5513	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is little information available on the population of this species.	eng
5513	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
5514	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to undertake surveys to locate viable populations of this species, and to identify appropriate areas for conservation.	eng
5514	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is known only from Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005). It has been recorded from an elevation of about 600 m asl.	eng
5514	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurs in tropical dry deciduous scrub forest, where it is seen in rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5514	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
5514	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The major threats of the species are habitat loss, conversion of forests to agricultural lands and plantations and fuel wood collection (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5515	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Endemic to the White River drainage in Pahranagat Valley, southeastern Nevada; including the spring of the Moapa River.	eng
5515	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Lives in vegetated warm springs and their outflows and marshes.	eng
5521	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Further research to resolve taxonomic issues within this genus is needed. Research is also needed into population numbers, range, biology, and ecology. The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
5521	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This widespread species occurs from West Africa through the Congo Basin to East Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa to Cameroon, and from here through Central Africa to Uganda and Tanzania in the east, ranging as far south as northern Angola. It also occurs on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It occurs from sea level up to 3,500 m asl.	eng
5521	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The species occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest habitats. It has not been recorded outside of forest habitat.	eng
5521	population	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
5521	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species. The species is eaten throughout its range but it is such an abundant species that its is not considered a major threat. It is even considered to be a pest species in some parts of its range.	eng
5522	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas. Research into taxonomy is needed.	eng
5522	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	This very widespread species occurs from the coast of West Africa through central Africa to the coast of East Africa, southwards to the north-eastern tip of South Africa and southern Angola. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
5522	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species occurs in various habitats including forest and woodland, as well as farmland, cropland, plantations and rural areas. It is considered to be an adaptable species that is even known to invade sewers.	eng
5522	population	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
5522	threats	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. It is eaten throughout its range but it is such an abundant species that harvesting is not considered to be a major threat. The species is also used in medical research and has been recorded in the European pet trade. It is considered to be a species pest in some areas.	eng
5523	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5523	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in northern South Asia and China. In South Asia it is found in northern India (Jammu and Kashmir) and in western Nepal at an altitude of around 4,000 m asl. It is presumed to be widely distributed at this elevation along the Himalaya (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southwestern Xinjiang and northwestern Xizang, and is normally found at elevations ranging from 3,100-5,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
5523	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species occupies coniferous and birch forests to desert steppe, shrubland, swampy meadow and highland meadow. Littter size ranges from 5-10 young (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
5523	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
5523	threats	Molur, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
5524	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Approximately 9% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern.<br/>Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
5524	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Distributed from forest steppe to semideserts in south of Western Siberia, Tuva, Trans-Baikal region, Mongolia, NE China, Primorye (Russia) and Korea.<br/><br/>In Mongolia found throughout the country with the exception of extreme western and south-western regions. It does not occur in Valley of the Lakes or around the Gobi Desert region, where C. sokolovi occurs (G. Shenbrot pers. comm.).	eng
5524	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Inhabits arid country, including steppe and semi-desert habitats, although it adapts to and is commonly found in croplands. Sometimes found in buildings. Occupies a simple burrow system with 2-3 entrances; the circular opening has a diameter of 2-3 cm.  The burrow runs to 1 m in length at a depth of 10-50 cm, and 4-5 branches end in nest or food storage areas.  Nests are lined with grass.  About 4-5 individuals (a maximum of eight) occupy each burrow.  Most active in the first half of the night.  Diet consists of grains and legumes, and they store these seeds in caches.  Hibernate overwinter, emerging in February-March.  Reproduction peaks in March and April, and again in autumn.  May breed between 2-5 times each year, producing large litters (range 1-10; average 6-7).	eng
5524	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
5524	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tinnin, D., Shar, S., Avirmed, D. & Usukhjargal, D., 2008	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires also constitutes a threat. Neither of these are considered major threats to the species at present.	eng
5525	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
5525	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is an endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Xizang, Qinghai, Gansu, and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,300-4,100 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.	eng
5525	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occurs in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008). Burrows are built in which it stores grain for the winter (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of grains, grass seeds, and insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It exhibits activity during the day and night (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Reproductive periodicity is from May to August with litter sizes ranging from 5-10 (7-8 the norm) (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
5525	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
5525	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
5526	conservation	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In the rest of the area listed as Least Concern.	eng
5526	distribution	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Distributed in mountain steppes in N and C China (Qinghai, Xizang; Nei Mongol, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, N Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, N Xinjiang), W and C Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Tuva and Trans-Baikal Region (Russia). In Mongolia east to approximately 104° E longitude. Recently recorded in northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.	eng
5526	habitat	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Inhabits desert country to shrubland to forests and alpine meadows in southern part of the range. Also found in rocky mountain steppe and semi-desert habitats, preferentially foothills and southern sides of mountains where poa and bushes grow.  Most abundant in piedmont semidesert and low cereal steppe up to 1900 m asl. It occupies shallow burrows often constructed under rocks that extend horizontally beneath the surface. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes use insects. Constructs food stores and grass-lined nests.  Sometimes occupies burrows built by other small mammals.  Nocturnal.  At least two litters of 4-9 young are produced each year, beginning in March or April.	eng
5526	population	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
5526	threats	Batsaikhan, A., Tinnin, D., Lhagvasuren, B. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. In some areas, other rodent species may cause competition for resources. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species at present.	eng
5527	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas in China. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
5527	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in Mongolia and China. There is little data available on the distribution of this species within Mongolia, it is known from the Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, and Eastern Gobi. In China, it occurs in the province of Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
5527	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	it is known to occur in semi-desert habitats.<br/><br/>Parturition starts in mid-May for this species and it produces 2-3 litters/year with 4-9 young/litter (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
5527	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
5527	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, the drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are being driven by anthropogenic activity (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Threats to this species in China are unknown.	eng
5528	conservation	Boris Kryštufek,  Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.	eng
5528	conservation	Krystufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its wide range. Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.	eng
5528	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its wide range. Surveys are required to determine population status and trends, and research is needed to determine the species' requirements and investigate potential threats.	eng
5528	distribution	Boris Kryštufek,  Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. In the south, its distribution extends into Turkey, Israel, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Kashmir. In Europe, it is restricted to Greece, Turkish Thrace, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, and European Russia. It is recorded from sea level to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).	eng
5528	distribution	Krystufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. The southernmost edge of its range extends through Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India (Jammu and Kashmir). It has also been recorded from Greece (but has not been recorded there in the last 35 years: G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007), Turkish Thrace, and Bulgaria. In Turkey, occurs up to 2,300 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.). The majority of records are from above 1,000 m. It has been recorded up to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).	eng
5528	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	The present range of the grey hamster extends from eastern Europe through Russia and central Asia to Mongolia and western China. The southernmost edge of its range extends through Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India (Jammu and Kashmir). It has also been recorded from Greece (but has not been recorded there in the last 35 years: G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007), Turkish Thrace, and Bulgaria. In Turkey, occurs up to 2,300 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.). The majority of records are from above 1,000 m. It has been recorded up to 4,300 m in the Pamir mountains of central Asia (Vohralík 1999).	eng
5528	habitat	Boris Kryštufek,  Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds.	eng
5528	habitat	Krystufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds. A burrowing, nocturnal rodent.	eng
5528	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	It originally occurred in dry grasslands, steppes and semideserts. Now, it also inhabits agricultural land and gardens, sometimes even living in houses. Arid areas with relatively sparse vegetation are preferred, and forests and damp habitats are avoided (Vohralík 1999). It typically feeds on roots, shoots and seeds. A burrowing, nocturnal rodent.	eng
5528	population	Krystufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	A common species in appropriate habitats in the Caucasus and Central Asia. In Armenia and Kyrgyzstan, the species is synathropic, and sometimes more abundant than <em>Mus musculus</em>. However, in other parts of its range (e.g. the Balkans) it is scarce and sporadic.	eng
5528	population	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	A common species in appropriate habitats in the Caucasus and Central Asia. In Armenia and Kyrgyzstan, the species is synathropic, and sometimes more abundant than <em>Mus musculus</em>. However, in other parts of its range (e.g. the Balkans) it is scarce and sporadic.	eng
5528	population	Boris Kryštufek,  Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It is scarce and sporadic in the Balkans, although it may be more abundant elsewhere in its global range. Populations in Greece (very rare: known from less than ten collections), Bulgaria (very rare: only six records) and Turkish Thrace may be isolated (Nechay 2000).  Its status is poorly known. There have been range contractions in some parts of Europe (EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
5528	threats	Krystufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	No major threats are known at the global level.	eng
5528	threats	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A., Sozen, M. &  Isfendiyaroglu, S., 2008	No major threats are known at the global level.	eng
5528	threats	Boris Kryštufek,  Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	The species is rare, especially in the Balkans, and its requirements are not well known. It is not known why the species is not more widespread within Europe, given that it can use a variety of habitats.	eng
5529	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Specific conservation recommendations to improve the status of the species in western Europe are detailed in Stubbe and Stubbe (1998) and Nechay (2000). These focus on subsidising farmers to manage agricultural habitats appropriately, and minimising use of pesticides. In the last few years, reintroductions have been carried out in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Monitoring is required in eastern range states to determine population trends.	eng
5529	conservation	Krystufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Specific conservation recommendations to improve the status of the species in western Europe are detailed in Stubbe and Stubbe (1998) and Nechay (2000). These focus on subsidising farmers to manage agricultural habitats appropriately, and minimising use of pesticides. In the last few years, reintroductions have been carried out in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Monitoring is required in eastern range states to determine population trends.	eng
5529	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Specific conservation recommendations to improve the status of the species in western Europe are detailed in Stubbe and Stubbe (1998) and Nechay (2000). These focus on subsidising farmers to manage agricultural habitats appropriately, and minimising use of pesticides. In the last few years, reintroductions have been carried out in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Monitoring is required in eastern range states to determine population trends.	eng
5529	distribution	Krystufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	<em>Cricetus cricetus</em> has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	<em>Cricetus cricetus</em> has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	<em>Cricetus cricetus </em>has a large global range, extending from western Europe, through central and eastern Europe, Russia, and Kazakhstan, reaching as far east as the Yenisey river (Asian Russia). In Europe, it occurs from Belgium, the Netherlands and northern France in the west to Russia in the east, and from northern Germany, Poland and Russia in the north to Bulgaria in the south (Panteleyev 1998, Weinhold 1999). It is found from sea level to 650 m (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	Its original habitat was fertile steppe and grassland, but it has successfully spread into a variety of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, croplands (especially cereals), and field edges, road verges and scrubby fallow areas on farms. In eastern parts of its range it is found quite often in gardens and orchards, in close proximity to human habitation. It is more abundant in these man-made habitats than it is in natural grassland. It prefers relatively deep, heavy soils, in which it digs extensive burrows. Its diet mainly consists of the green parts of plants and seeds, supplemented by invertebrates and, occasionally, small vertebrates. At high densities, it can be an agricultural pest (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	habitat	Krystufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Its original habitat was fertile steppe and grassland, but it has successfully spread into a variety of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, croplands (especially cereals), and field edges, road verges and scrubby fallow areas on farms. In eastern parts of its range it is found quite often in gardens and orchards, in close proximity to human habitation. It is more abundant in these man-made habitats than it is in natural grassland. It prefers relatively deep, heavy soils, in which it digs extensive burrows. Its diet mainly consists of the green parts of plants and seeds, supplemented by invertebrates and, occasionally, small vertebrates. At high densities, it can be an agricultural pest (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Its original habitat was fertile steppe and grassland, but it has successfully spread into a variety of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, croplands (especially cereals), and field edges, road verges and scrubby fallow areas on farms. In eastern parts of its range it is found quite often in gardens and orchards, in close proximity to human habitation. It is more abundant in these man-made habitats than it is in natural grassland. It prefers relatively deep, heavy soils, in which it digs extensive burrows. Its diet mainly consists of the green parts of plants and seeds, supplemented by invertebrates and, occasionally, small vertebrates. At high densities, it can be an agricultural pest (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It has undergone severe range and population declines in western and central Europe, and it now has a highly fragmented distribution in these areas. Subpopulation extinctions have occurred in a number of countries including Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Less is known about the status of the species in eastern Europe and Russia, but it is certainly more abundant there than in the west. Spring population densities of 0.5-3 individuals per hectare are reported in western Europe (Weinhold 1999), whereas densities of 3.4-37 occupied burrows per hectare have been recorded in Hungary (Nechay 2000). In Ukraine the species is considered abundant (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). In areas where the species is abundant, periodic population outbreaks occur (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	population	Krystufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It has undergone severe range and population declines in western and central Europe, and it now has a highly fragmented distribution in these areas. Subpopulation extinctions have occurred in a number of countries including Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Less is known about the status of the species in eastern Europe and Russia, but it is certainly more abundant there than in the west. Spring population densities of 0.5-3 individuals per hectare are reported in western Europe (Weinhold 1999), whereas densities of 3.4-37 occupied burrows per hectare have been recorded in Hungary (Nechay 2000). In Ukraine the species is considered abundant (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). In areas where the species is abundant, periodic population outbreaks occur (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	population	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It has undergone severe range and population declines in western and central Europe, and it now has a highly fragmented distribution in these areas. Subpopulation extinctions have occurred in a number of countries including Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany. Less is known about the status of the species in eastern Europe and Russia, but it is certainly more abundant there than in the west. Spring population densities of 0.5-3 individuals per hectare are reported in western Europe (Weinhold 1999), whereas densities of 3.4-37 occupied burrows per hectare have been recorded in Hungary (Nechay 2000). In Ukraine the species is considered abundant (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). In areas where the species is abundant, periodic population outbreaks occur (Nechay 2000).	eng
5529	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	Its decline in western Europe has been attributed to a combination of persecution and agricultural intensification. It was trapped and poisoned to prevent damage to crops, and this practice continues in some parts of the hamster's range (although not in the western part of its range). In eastern Europe it continues to be trapped for the fur trade. Agricultural intensification, specifically the loss of perennial crops and small uncultivated patches of land, the introduction of autumn-sown cereals, and the increased use of pesticides, has had a negative impact on many hamster populations. Changing agricultural practices in eastern Europe, where the hamster population has traditionally been considered stable, may pose a threat in the future.	eng
5529	threats	Krystufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Its decline in western Europe has been attributed to a combination of persecution and agricultural intensification. It was trapped and poisoned to prevent damage to crops, and this practice continues in some parts of the hamster's range (although not in the western part of its range). In eastern Europe it continues to be trapped for the fur trade. Agricultural intensification, specifically the loss of perennial crops and small uncultivated patches of land, the introduction of autumn-sown cereals, and the increased use of pesticides, has had a negative impact on many hamster populations. Changing agricultural practices in eastern Europe, where the hamster population has traditionally been considered stable, may pose a threat in the future.	eng
5529	threats	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Meinig, H. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Its decline in western Europe has been attributed to a combination of persecution and agricultural intensification. It was trapped and poisoned to prevent damage to crops, and this practice continues in some parts of the hamster's range (although not in the western part of its range). In eastern Europe it continues to be trapped for the fur trade. Agricultural intensification, specifically the loss of perennial crops and small uncultivated patches of land, the introduction of autumn-sown cereals, and the increased use of pesticides, has had a negative impact on many hamster populations. Changing agricultural practices in eastern Europe, where the hamster population has traditionally been considered stable, may pose a threat in the future.	eng
5558	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Hillwood Farm private game ranch (~165 km²), and it has also been recorded from the Nchila Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
5558	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura ansellorum</em> is known from gallery forests in northwestern Zambia. It is restricted to the Ikelenge Pedicle. The holotype and paratype were collected in 1973 from Isombu stream and another paratype was collected from Nyansowe stream. A new specimen was collected on Hillwood Farm in 1990, in the leaf litter under gallery forest along Kazombi stream (Cotterill 2002). It is possible that this species also occurs in adjacent Congo (it has been collected 4 km from the border with Congo) and eastern Angola, but no surveys have been undertaken for the species in theses area. Expeditions into Pemba did not find it despite the presence of suitable Mushitu forest (evergreen) habitat.	eng
5558	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is restricted to patchy gallery forests in the corner of northwest Zambia. They occur in Mushitu forests (evergreen), which are generally no more than 100 m wide, along the catchment of the upper Zambezi River. This habitat is distributed along tributaries and is highly fragmented.	eng
5558	population	Cotterill, F.P.D & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is only known from four specimens. The most recent was collected in 1990.	eng
5558	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D & Hutterer, R., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion. Local-scale tree felling for extraction is also a contributing factor. The habitat of this species is also regularly damaged by fires.	eng
5559	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is present in the Simien National Park, Ethiopia. There is a need to conserve suitable habitat at known localities, and to undertake surveys within the region to locate additional populations of this restricted range species.	eng
5559	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from localities in the Ethiopian highlands of the Rift Valley. It has a very fragmented distribution and until recently was only known from three isolated mountain ranges. Recently a new location, Mount Guna, has been recorded. This species has been recorded at elevations from 2,700 m to 3,300 m asl.	eng
5559	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This is a montane species which occurs in montane grassland and moorland in the afro-alpine zone. At lower elevations this species is limited by the lack of suitable habitat due to the conversion of natural vegetation to agriculture.	eng
5559	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is not commonly found where sampled.	eng
5559	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	Small-holder farming of crops and livestock is the principal threat to this species. Some habitat destruction has taken place in two of the five known localities.	eng
5560	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. canariensis</em> is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and is also protected under Spanish law. It is found within a number of National Parks in Fuerteventura. Research is needed to determine the ecological and conservation requirements of this species (Stone 1995). Recommended conservation measures include controlling feral cats and preventing further introductions of alien species to small islands such as Mount Clara (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
5560	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	The Canary shrew <em>Crocidura canariensis </em>is endemic to the eastern Canary Islands, where it is currently found on Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Lobos and Mount Clara. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km². Recent fossils indicate that it previously occurred on Graciosa and Alegranza (Hutterer 1999), but it has never been trapped on either of these islands and is presumed to have gone extinct there (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Canary shrew remains have been found in owl pellets collected on Graciosa and Alegranza, but this is believed to result from the movement of owls between different islands (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
5560	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	The Canary shrew's main habitat is the malpaís (barren lava fields), and it seems to be adapted to the hot and dry conditions of these plains (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 1992, Stone 1995). It feeds on snails and insects in lava tubes, and it is cool inside its burrows even when temperatures reach 60ºC outside. The shrew is also sometimes found in gardens and abandoned arable land adjacent to lava fields, as well as in rocky gullies and sandy areas with rocks and vegetation (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). On Mount Clara, the species is restricted to a single coastal sand dune. More suitable habitat is found on other islands, however, there is a lot of urbanisation and industry.	eng
5560	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	Numbers and population trends are unknown. Mount Clara has a tiny population, which is unlikely to number more than a hundred individuals. The habitat of <em>C. canariensis</em> is severly fragmented as a result of anthropogenic habitat loss and natural barriers to dispersal (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2006).	eng
5560	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has a highly restricted distribution. Rapid urbanisation and infrastructure development in and around its range are causing loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat, and desiccation may also be a problem (Hutterer 2004). Introduced cats <em>Felis catus </em>sometimes depredate Canary shrews (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Other introduced species, e.g. rats and mice, are also present but are not known to have any effect on the Canary shrew. Of these threats, habitat loss is considered to be the most important (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
5561	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found within Okapi Fauna Reserve.	eng
5561	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	The type locality of <em>Crocidura congobelgica</em> is Lubila, near Bafwasende, in the Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of the Congo. More recently <em>C. congobelgica</em> has been recorded in the Okapi Fauna Reserve (Katuala <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in Masako Forest (unpublished data) both in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
5561	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. congobelgica</em> is restricted to undisturbed primary lowland forest. It is not clear at present whether the sites where it has been found are connected by continuous forest.	eng
5561	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is uncommon and appears to have small population sizes. Generally only one or two specimens have been found during surveys. In total seven specimens have been recorded from three localities over an approximately 90 year period.	eng
5561	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The main threat to <em>C. congobelgica</em> is general habitat destruction. The Okapi Fauna Reserve is currently threatened by illegal logging and mining activities.	eng
5562	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas in Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic and Congo. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
5562	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. crenata</em> ranges throughout parts of the western Congo basin and is recorded from Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), southern Central African Republic (in Kongana Forest), the Congo, Gabon, and southern Cameroon, including the western parts of Korup National Park. There is also a record from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
5562	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. crenata</em> generally inhabits primary lowland forest, between 100 m to 700 m asl.	eng
5562	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is abundant in some localities.	eng
5562	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5565	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	Mount Cameroon is not officially a national park, but it is generally protected due to limited, controlled access: visitors must pay a fee in order to go up to the summit.	eng
5565	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	Crocidura eisentrauti is endemic to the top of Mount Cameroon, Cameroon, where it is limited to an area of approximately 10 km², between 2,000 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
5565	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. eisentrauti inhabits the strip of grassland that occurs above forest line, up to the bare lava on top of the volcano.</em>	eng
5565	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This is a little known species. The last specimens of <em>C. eisentrauti were collected in the 1950s. The current population size is not known.</em>	eng
5565	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	While there are currently no major threats to this species, it is potentially threatened by stochastic events such as volcanic eruptions; the last eruption of Mount Cameroon was in the 1950s.	eng
5566	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The southern part of its range is part of Bale Mountains National Park. There is a need to effectively conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species.	eng
5566	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is known from east of the Great Rift Valley in the Ethiopian highlands where is occurs in isolated patches. The type locality is the Gara Mulata Mountains. It is found at high altitudes of 2,700 to 4,050 m asl. There are three known main localities.	eng
5566	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. glassi</em> occures in montane grassland, scrub, and afroalpine moorland.	eng
5566	population	Lavrenchenko, L., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat, and can occur at high densities.	eng
5566	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The habitat of this restricted range species is threatened by fires and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
5567	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	Several of its localities are within protected areas, such as the Parque Nacional de Monte Alen, Equatorial Guinea. There is a need for general research into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
5567	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from the high forest regions in Gabon, Central African Republic, southern Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) (Heim de Balsac 1968; Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is possibly present in Congo.	eng
5567	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in primary lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
5567	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This localised species occurs at low densities.	eng
5567	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. Some populations are likely to be threatened by localised deforestation.	eng
5568	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The swamp inhabited by this species is located within Kahuzi-Biega National Park. There is a need to prevent any future habitat loss within the restricted range of this species. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
5568	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	<em>C. kivuana</em> is restricted to the Kahuzi Mountains in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is known from two localities, 4 km apart. Its elevational range is 1,700-2,000 m asl.	eng
5568	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species only occurs in montane cyprus swamps within Kahuzi National Park (Dieterlen and Heim de Balsac, 1979).	eng
5568	population	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is not uncommon in swamps, but does not seem to be present in other habitat types.	eng
5568	threats	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	Although there are no current threats to this species, it is considered plausible that it could be threatened in the future following any drainage of its wetland habitat.	eng
5569	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is well protected in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park. Additional studies are needed to clarify the distribution of this species.	eng
5569	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is restricted to the montane region of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded from Kivu, Lemera, Irangi, Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and around Tshibati (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). In Rwanda, it has been recorded from Uinka. The elevational range of this species is 1,850 m to 2,450 m asl.	eng
5569	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species inhabits primary montane forest, <em>Cyperus </em>swamps, and bamboo forests near Lake Kivu. It occurs in distinct localities at small, isolated mountain swamps.	eng
5569	population	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There is no population available for this species.	eng
5569	threats	Hutterer, R. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species may be threatened by habitat loss at Tshibati and Lemara due to the development of tea plantations. There is no known habitat loss in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park.	eng
5570	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. latona</em> occurs in Masako Forest, a forest reserve which includes primary forest, logged and regrown areas and cultivated areas.	eng
5570	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura latona</em> inhabits the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Known localities include, the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, Kisangani, the type locality of Medje, and recently from Masako Forest. It occurs on the left and right banks of the Congo River and has been found on Mbiye island in the Congo River. It also occurs in Epulu and Njaro (Katuala pers. comm.). It occurs in lowland forest at an elevation of 500 m asl.	eng
5570	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. latona</em> is a lowland species which occurs mainly primary forest but is also found in secondary forest and fallow areas (Katuala pers. comm.). Some islands in Congo river are flooded by tides, so the Mbiye Island population might be temporary.	eng
5570	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is very uncommon.	eng
5570	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5571	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for <em>C. longipies</em>. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Research priorities include, undertaking surveys of its swamp habitats and genetic studies comparing this species with <em>Crocidura foxi</em> and <em>Crocidura theresae</em> in West Africa.	eng
5571	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is very little information available on the distribution of <em>Crocidura longipes </em>. It is known from two swamp areas in western Nigeria, near Kainji Lake National Park, east of Bahindi. This species is probably not widely distributed.	eng
5571	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species inhabits isolated swamps near Kainji Lake. It may also occur in dry Guinea savanna.	eng
5571	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is no up to date information available on the population size of <em>C. longiceps</em> as there have been no surveys in the species range since 1967.	eng
5571	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species may be threatened by its restricted range and be affected by habitat loss.	eng
5572	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	At least two of the three localities where <em>C.lucina</em> occurs are protected by Bale Mountains National Park. Further general surveys of this species are needed.	eng
5572	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura lucina</em> has only been recorded from the Ethiopian highlands at 3,000 m asl, east of the Rift Valley around Dinshu and Mount Albasso. The species has a restricted area of occupancy, and appears to be highly restricted to three highland locations. It has been recorded at elevations of 3,000-4,050 m asl.	eng
5572	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. lucina</em> principally inhabits afroalpine moorland, being found in grassland at lower elevations.	eng
5572	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is thought to be relatively rare. However, surveys have been infrequent and future research would enable more accurate estimates of population size.	eng
5572	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is thought to be relatively safe from habitat destruction as it occurs at high altitudes to cold for human activity. However, this species has an extremely limited range.	eng
5575	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat within the Cameroon highlands. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species	eng
5575	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura manengubae </em> is endemic to the western highlands of Cameroon, where it has been found at Bamenda, Adamaoua, the Yaounde highlands and near Lake Manenguba at 1,800 m asl. The species may be present at additional montane localities, however, surveys are needed to confirm this. Its minimum known elevation is 1,000 m asl. It is not present on Mount Oku.	eng
5575	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. manengubae</em> occurs in relict montane forest and middle elevation tropical moist at Yaounde. This region contains volcanic mountains which are covered in remnant forest. It is only found in primary forest habitats. At the Lake Manenguba locality, it appears to be limited to forest on a single slope of land going down to the lake.	eng
5575	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5575	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has a restricted range, and is probably threatened by some degree of habitat loss or degradation resulting from logging operations and conversion on land to agricultural use.	eng
5576	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs in Drakensberg in South Africa, a protected wilderness area, and presumably is present in additional protected areas within its southern African range. Further studies are needed into the distribution and general ecology of this species.	eng
5576	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura maquassiensis</em> is found in South Africa (Transvaal, Northwest Province, Kwa-Zulu Natal), Zimbabwe (including Nyamaziwa Falls and Matopo Hills) and Swaziland.	eng
5576	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>C. maquassiensis</em> is found in rocky, mountain habitats. It may tolerate a wider range of habitats and individuals have been collected in Kwa-Zulu Natal from a garden, and in mixed bracken and grassland alongside a river at 1,500 m asl (Taylor 1998). A single specimen has been collected from coastal forest.	eng
5576	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is relatively rare and seldom caught in traps during sampling. <em>C. maquassiensis</em> is a small shrew that is not easily trapped.	eng
5576	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5577	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5577	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Crocidura monax</em> occurs in montane forests in northern Tanzania and possibly in western Kenya. In Tanzania the type locality is Mount Kilimanjaro, and it has also been recorded from the Uluguru Mountains. Records of this spcecies in Kenya are uncertain and need to be reviewed (Hutterer 2005).	eng
5577	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of <em>C. monax</em>.	eng
5577	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5577	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
5578	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from the undisturbed core area of Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable forest for this species throughout its range. Additional surveys are need to identify any additional viable populations.	eng
5578	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This lowland to submontane West African species has been recorded from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. Localities that it has been reported from include Mount Nimba (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Liberia), Panguma in Sierra Leone and from Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
5578	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. nimbae</em> has been recorded from undisturbed lowland tropical moist forest at around 500 m asl (Taï forest), to submontane habitats at the foot of Mount Nimba. This species appears to be associated with hills or small mountains.	eng
5578	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. nimbae</em> appears to be  very rare; the largest sample collected was ten animals from Taï forest, Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
5578	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Mount Nimba is currently being heavily mined for minerals, and approximately half the mountain has already been severely degraded. The habitat of this species in Sierra Leone is also severely degraded.	eng
5580	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. phaeura</em> is present in Nachisar National Park which is relatively well-protected. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5580	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura phaeura</em> is endemic to Ethiopia. It is only known from the areas of Nachisar National Park where 13 specimens were collected in the riverine forest bordering the Collufu and Sermale Rivers (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1993) and from the type locality, Sidamo, which is located at the base of Mount Guramba. Its elevational range is 1,100 m-2,400 m asl.	eng
5580	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. phaeura</em> is found in montane and riverine forest along the Ethiopian Rift Valley.	eng
5580	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5580	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has a relatively restricted range, and there is believed to be threatened by some habitat loss, presumably through conversion of land to general agricultural use.	eng
5582	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Dieterlen, F. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. There is a need to protect suitable areas of habitat for this species, most especially in localities such as Echuya Forest where habitat degradation is currently ongoing. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known shrew.	eng
5582	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Dieterlen, F. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has a restricted range in the montane areas of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southwestern Uganda. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded from the type locality of Kahuzi-Biega National Park. In Uganda it has been recorded from Echuya Forest and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Extensive survey of swamps in Burundi and the Ruwenzori Mountains have not yielded any specimens of this species.	eng
5582	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Dieterlen, F. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is largely associated with montane <em>Cyperus</em> swamps, although it has been recorded from other moist habitats and small swamps.	eng
5582	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Dieterlen, F. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
5582	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., Dieterlen, F. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by the drainage of wetlands within Echuya Forest, presumably as part of the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
5583	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in some forest reserves in the Usambaras. Further studies are needed into the threats and natural history of this species.	eng
5583	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura tansaniana</em> is confined to the East and West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species was previously known only by the holotype, but recent surveys have found this species Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is thought to occur at elevations of 1,500-1,800 m asl. All other forest blocks in this area have been surveyed and this species has not been found.	eng
5583	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. tansaniana</em> is found in sub-montane rainforest. It occurs in both primary forest and forest where logging has taken place previously but not recently. This species can tolerate some forms of selective logging.	eng
5583	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is relatively uncommon.	eng
5583	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It may be threatened by mining in the East Usambaras.	eng
5584	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from some forest reserves. There is a need to prevent further habitat loss and degradation within the restricted range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the species natural history and taxonomy.	eng
5584	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura telfordi</em> is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania, inhabiting parts of the Uluguru Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species occurs above 1,150 m asl.	eng
5584	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known species appears to be limited to montane tropical moist forest.	eng
5584	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs at very low densities and is not often found.	eng
5584	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by forest loss in the Uluguru Mountains, presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use..	eng
5585	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is present in Bale Mountain National Park.	eng
5585	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is found in the Ethiopian Highlands, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at elevations of 515 to 3,300 m asl (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
5585	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	<em>C. thalia</em> is found in open habitats from humid woodland savanna to upland grasslands, moorland and scrub, both to the east and west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. It is largely absent from afromontane forest with a dense canopy (Lavrenchenko 2000).	eng
5585	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
5585	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5586	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in some forest reserves. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the species natural history.	eng
5586	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura usambarae</em> is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in the Western and Eastern Usambara Mountains and the South Pare Mountains, in the north-east of the country. It may also be present in the south-western Ngozi Crater (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 1996; Stanley <em>et al</em> 2000). A skin recorded from the Poroto Mountains in southern Tanzania may belong to a different species (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). Its elevational range is likely to be 1,500-2,000 m asl. In the Usambara Mountains it is found below 2,000 m asl due to the lack of forest above that altitude. It is found at 2,000 m in the Para Mountains.	eng
5586	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. usambarae</em> is found in montane tropical moist forest.	eng
5586	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Surveys in the last 10 years have recorded <em>C. usambarae</em>.	eng
5586	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. usambarae</em> is threatened by continuing encroachment by people into the small forest patches it inhabits. Mining is a particular threat in the Eastern Usambaras.	eng
5587	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine if this species still persists.	eng
5587	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura wimmeri </em> appears to be endemic to southern Côte d?Ivoire, where it seems to be restricted to the area surrounding Adiopodoume. Records of this species from outside Côte d?Ivoire are based on misidentifications. Specimens recorded from Cameroon and Gabon refer to <em>Crocidura batesi</em> (Brosset 1988; Hutterer 2005).	eng
5587	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known only from moist savanna habitat.	eng
5587	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	Studies suggest that this is a rare species. It has not been recorded since 1976.	eng
5587	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is believed that all suitable habitat for this species in the area of Adiopodoume has now been cleared, presumably largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
5588	conservation	Vohralík, V., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Research is required to determine its distribution and population trend, and to investigate potential threats (especially competition with <em>C. suaveolens</em>) and identify appropriate conservation measures.	eng
5588	distribution	Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Crocidura zimmermanni</em> is endemic to the island of Crete (Greece), where it has been trapped in the central mountains at altitudes of 1,150 to 1,400 m. However, owl pellets collected at 140 to 830 m contained remains of this species, indicating that it may also occur at lower altitudes (Vogel 1999).	eng
5588	habitat	Vohralík, V., 2008	It has been collected in open mountainous areas that are dry in summer and snow-covered in winter (Vogel 1999). It is likely also to occur at lower altitudes, but if so its habitat preferences there are unknown.	eng
5588	population	Vohralík, V., 2008	It is a rare and little-known species which is only recorded from a small number of localities. Analysis of owl pellets suggested that <em>C. zimmermanni </em>is more than ten times rarer than its congener <em>C. suaveolens</em> (Vogel 1999). The population trend has not been quantified but it is suspected to be decreasing.	eng
5588	threats	Vohralík, V., 2008	The introduction of <em>C. suaveolens</em> in Minoan times (<em>ca</em>. 2,500 to 1,500 BC) may have forced <em>C. zimmermanni</em> into a restricted range as it is out-competed for habitat (Pieper 1990, Nowak 1999). <em>C. suaveolens</em> is abundant in coastal areas, but has also been found in the mountains at the same sites as <em>C. zimmermanni</em> (Vogel 1999).	eng
5589	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from one protected area in Central African Republic, and in the Masako Forest protected area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
5589	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura ludia</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the Central African Republic. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been found at Masako Forest near Kisangani, Medje and Tandala (Hutterer 2005), and has also been found on the southern side of the Congo River (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). In the Central African Republic it has been recorded from the Ngoto forest and the Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve (Hutterer 2005). It is possibly present in Congo and southeastern Cameroon.	eng
5589	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. ludia</em> is restricted to lowland rainforests. It inhabits isolated gallery forest patches in savanna. The preferred habitat is not continuous throughout its range.	eng
5589	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is believed to have a small population.	eng
5589	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	General habitat loss and fragmentation are threatening the northern populations of this species in the Central African Republic.	eng
5590	conservation	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	At least one record is from a protected area. Control of the introduced mongoose species is necessary. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
5590	distribution	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	This species is known only from the islands of Amani-Oshima (712 km²), Tokunoshima (248 km²) and Kakeromajima (77 km²) in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. On Amani-Oshima, it is known only from the southern parts, although the type locality lies further north. It occurs from sea level up to 300 m asl.	eng
5590	habitat	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	It inhabits broad-leaved natural forest.	eng
5590	population	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	The population of this species is probably very small; only around 10 specimens have been recorded. Only single specimens are known from Kakeromajima and Tokunoshima, the former dating back to the early 2000s and the latter to 1974. There has been no recent survey work on Tokunoshima or Kakeromajima.	eng
5590	threats	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	The species' habitat is confined to natural forests on mountain areas where many roads have been constructed and forests have been destroyed in the last 50 years. Less than 30% and 15% of natural forest remains intact on Amami-Oshima and Tokunoshima, respectively. The spread of the introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) remains a major threat to this species in Amami-Oshima (Japan RDB, 2002).	eng
5591	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
5591	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura polia</em> has only been recorded from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1916, Hollister described a set of six species, one of which was <em>C. polia</em>. Five of these were not found again until surveys by A. Dudu and colleagues, while <em>C. polia</em> has yet to be rediscovered.	eng
5591	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
5591	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known only from the holotype.	eng
5591	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
5592	conservation	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species occurs in a protected area but grazing during dry season may be a threat. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.	eng
5592	distribution	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura raineyi</em> is a very rare species which has only been recorded from Mount Gargues in the Matthews Range, Kenya. It has not been recorded since 1912, with surveys needed in the area. It is not present on the adjacent Neru mountain range. The Matthews Range is fairly extensive, so its distribution may be wider than just Mount Gargues. The elevation range of this species is unknown but its presence in creeks indicates that it is found at lower altitudes.	eng
5592	habitat	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in montane forests and creeks. It is thought that it may prefer dry forests.	eng
5592	population	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. raineyi</em> is considered to be a very rare species.	eng
5592	threats	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat.	eng
5593	conservation	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is present in a National Park in Kenya. There is a need for additional research into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
5593	distribution	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura selina</em> has been recorded from three lowland forests in Uganda (including the type locality of Mabira Forest) (Dippenaar 1989), and there is also a possible record (<em>Crocidura</em> cf. <em>selina</em>) from an isolated forest patch in the Kyulu Hills of southern Kenya (Oguge <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>C. selina</em> has not been found in forest in Nairobi, or near Mount Kenya. Its maximum elevation is approximately 1,700 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
5593	habitat	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. selina</em> is found in tropical moist forest and swamps.	eng
5593	population	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	This species appears to be uncommon in Uganda. It is the most common shrew in the Kyulu Hills of Kenya (Oguge <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
5593	threats	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	It may be threatened by forest fragmentation in Uganda. Oguge <em>et al</em>. (2004) indicate that the species is potentially threatened by the ongoing loss of forest fragments in Kenya.	eng
5594	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5594	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. thomensis</em> is endemic to the island of São Tomé in São Tomé and Príncipe (Dutton and Haft 1996).	eng
5594	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. thomensis</em> is associated with montane tropical moist forest.	eng
5594	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is considered to be an uncommon to very rare species.	eng
5594	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by general habitat loss and degradation, largely through deforestation for the construction of houses and gardens.	eng
5595	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park (Das, 1999). Taxonomic research and field surveys to determine the population size and range and the current status of the available habitat, with ongoing monitoring of populations needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5595	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species was previously only known by the holotype of 'South Andaman Island', India in the eastern Indian Ocean. A single individual of this species was recently collected on Mount Harriet, South Andaman Island (Das 1999; Hutterer 2005).	eng
5595	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is a nocturnal animal, that lives in tropical moist deciduous and evergreen forests, where it inhabits leaf litter and rock crevices (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5595	population	Molur, S., 2008	Population abundance is not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5595	threats	Molur, S., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to anthropogenic activities on the island, except within the National Park. It is possible that the habitat of this species was damaged by the December 2004 tsunami event (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5596	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known.	eng
5596	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Recorded from Armenia and Azerbaijan.	eng
5596	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5596	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No information.	eng
5596	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5597	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species occurs in Mount Kitanglang National Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
5597	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it occurs widely in the Mindanao faunal region and on Camiguin. It has also been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Leyte, Maripipi, and Mindanao (Agusan, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga provinces) (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Its elevation range is 0-2,600 m.	eng
5597	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species occurs in primary forest, secondary forest and scrubby secondary growth, although uncommon in the latter two habitats. It appears to be tolerant of a certain level of disturbance, although it does not occur outside of forested habitats (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
5597	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is widespread and locally abundant, generally found in most areas on Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is most common at mid-elevations, and somewhat less common at higher and lower elevations.	eng
5597	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Locally, the species is threatened by deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlements. Although there was significant deforestation in the past, there has been less deforestation above 1,500 m asl, and current populations are probably stable at higher elevations.	eng
5598	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are several large protected areas within the species' range and these are likely to provide some long-term protection. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species.	eng
5598	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is endemic to the mountain ranges in the northern and western regions of Sumatra (Indonesia), including Mount Singalang (Hutterer 2005; Ruedi 1995). It can be found in altitudes between 1,800-2,200 m.	eng
5598	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species prefers montane and sub-montane tropical forests. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
5598	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5598	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement, probably represents a major threat to this species. This threat will be more severe if it is shown that the species cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats. The rate of forest loss on Sumatra is lower at the higher elevations at which this species occurs.	eng
5599	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
5599	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	Known only from type locality (Oman: Dhofar, Khadrafi). Collected at an altitude of 620 m.	eng
5599	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5599	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	No information is available on population size or trend.	eng
5599	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5600	conservation	Saleh, M. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Currently there are no conservation measures taken to protect this species in Egypt, and no part of its known distribution range is protected. More data are required on population status (densities, trends), threats, etc.	eng
5600	distribution	Saleh, M. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura floweri</em> is endemic to Egypt. It has been recorded from El Giza and the southern region of the Nile Delta, as well as records from Wadi El Natrun (a large oasis west of the Nile Delta), and from the Upper Nile Valley. <br/><br/><em>C. floweri</em> appears to have a restricted range, although M. Saleh (pers. comm.) believes that this may be due to the restricted sampling range of the commercial collectors from the village of Abu Rawash in Giza, from whom many of the specimens have originated. Saleh believes that it is not unlikely that, with a proper survey, this species will be found throughout the rest of the Nile Delta and possibly the Nile Valley, where habitats identical to those within its known area of occupancy extend uninterrupted by any obvious ecological barrier. However, collecting efforts over a period of one year in the 1990s failed to find any specimens in the Nile Valley area (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species was reported possibly extinct in 1962, however, in the 1980s it was recorded from owl pellets.	eng
5600	habitat	Saleh, M. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Very little is known about the habitat requirements of this shrew, although it is found in man-made habitats in the Nile Valley.	eng
5600	population	Saleh, M. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The species apparently has a very small population, although it may not be as rare as it currently appears to be. Certainly it does not appear to be rare in the Cairo, Giza, and southern Nile Delta region (M. Saleh pers. comm.), although there do not appear to have been any population studies carried out.	eng
5600	threats	Saleh, M. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The population may have been impacted by environmental pollution caused by the widespread use of agricultural insecticides during the 1960s and 1970s, which is known to have had a very adverse effect on the Nile Valley wildlife. It is also possible that its habitat has changed drastically since the Aswan dam was built in Nile valley - this has had a great impact on small mammal species, partly due to the increased prevalence of pest rats. However, such an effect on <em>C. floweri</em> is undetermined.	eng
5601	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species has been recorded from Mount Malindang National Park. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
5601	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It was originally described from Mount Malindang on Mindanao island (Misamis Occidental province) in 1906, where it is known only from the holotype (and one other individual) taken at 1,859 m (Heaney and Ruedi 1994). There were no surveys for the species between 1906 and 2000, but in recent years two surveys on Mount Malindang found several specimens which might represent this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records from the highest peaks on Mindanao, Mount Apo (Sanborn 1952) and Mount Katanglad (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), which suggests that the species could be confined to the Zamboanga Peninsula (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and within that range restricted to Mount Malindang, which is the highest point on the peninsula and adjacent islands.	eng
5601	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species might be confined to primary forest at mid- to high-elevations although this has not been confirmed (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
5601	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species as it is known only from a few individuals. There have not been adequate surveys for this species on Zamboanga Peninsula, or in other areas of Mindanao. Its potential range should be sampled with appropriate techniques, including drift fences and pitfall traps (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5601	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There has been extensive deforestation in the region where the species occurs. It occurs within the Mount Malindang National Park, but the park is not well managed and therefore does not afford this species adequate protection. Most of the lowland forest has been cleared. The effects of deforestation on this species are not known.	eng
5602	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
5602	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Luzon and Mindoro faunal regions. There are records from Catanduanes, Luzon (Abra, Benguet, Camarines Sur, Kalinga, Laguna, Mountain, and Rizal provinces), and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) at an elevation range from 250-2,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998, 2004; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
5602	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is common in primary lowland, montane, and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 2004; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991) and less common in secondary forest. It does not occur outside of forested areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5602	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is locally common (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5602	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Deforestation has affected the species, especially at lower elevations. Forest has been lost for agriculture, timber extraction, and human settlements.	eng
5603	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	Thorough surveys, and studies on taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat, ecology and threats are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.	eng
5603	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is restricted to and known only from the holotype on Middle Andaman Island (Andaman Islands, India) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Recent surveys by Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> (2004) did not yield any specimens of this species.	eng
5603	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is a nocturnal animal, that lives in the leaf litter of tropical evergreen forests of northern Middle Andaman Island (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
5603	population	Molur, S., 2008	Population status is unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5603	threats	Molur, S., 2008	No current major threats known, but the habitat of this species might have been damaged by the December 2004 tsunami event.	eng
5604	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This shrew has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park (Das 1999). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional research is needed into the taxonomy, abundance, and threats to this species, with regular monitoring of populations also needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5604	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species has been recorded from the holotype at Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, India. Das (1999) found six individuals of <em>Crocidura jenkinsi</em> in sympatry with <em>Crocidura andamanensis</em> on Mount Harriet, South Andaman Island. It has been recorded up to 100 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
5604	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is a nocturnal/crepuscular and semi fossorial animal, associated with the leaf litter of primary tropical moist deciduous forest. A single adult has been taken from forest guest house in Mount Harriet National Park.	eng
5604	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
5604	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to selective logging, general anthropogenic activities and natural disasters such as the tsunami event of December 2004 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5605	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
5605	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	The species is endemic to Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia south of the Isthmus of Kra, including a number of offshore islands (Hutterer 2005). It is also present in Singapore.	eng
5605	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	It is a poorly known species, occurring in lowland and montane forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
5605	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5605	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.	eng
5606	conservation	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	More surveys are needed on Mindoro and Sibuyan to find new information about the species' populations, habitat preferences, threats and conservation needs. Taxonomic work is also needed to determine whether or not the population on Sibuyan is conspecific with that on Mindoro. It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
5606	distribution	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from Mindoro and Sibuyan islands (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
5606	habitat	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	There is little known about the habitat and ecology of this species. On Mindoro the three specimens were collected in high elevation primary forest and on Sibuyan, the six individuals were collected in lowland to low montane forest.	eng
5606	population	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species is known on Mindoro from two specimens taken in 1906 at 1,920 m asl and one specimen taken at 1,550-1,800 m on Mount Halcon, and on Sibuyan from six specimens taken in 1989 and 1992 at 325-1,325 m (Goodman and Ingle 1993; Goodman and Heaney unpubl. data). Adequate surveys have not been undertaken and there is little else known about the population status of this species.	eng
5606	threats	Heaney, L. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	Nothing is know about threats to this species, as it is not known whether or not it is dependent upon forest. Mindoro and Sibuyan have undergone extensive deforestation. However, there is some remaining montane forest on both islands.	eng
5608	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5608	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, being found only in five fragmented localities of Central and Sabaragamuwa provinces. It has an altitudinal range of occurrence from 330 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5608	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	The Sri Lankan Long-tailed Shrew is a nocturnal/crepuscular animal that leads a fossorial mode of life. It lives in the tropical montane and lowland forests, where it inhabits the wet Patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5608	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	It is known from only a handful of specimens (Hutterer 2005).	eng
5608	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	Deforestation (presumably through logging operations, and conversion of land to agricultural and other uses) and forest fires are some of the major threats faced by this shrew (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5609	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is not currently known from any protected areas, and conservation of the small amount of remaining habitat is needed urgently. Research on its distribution, population, habitat and ecology is also essential. This includes appropriate surveys for this species on the islands Panay and Cebu.	eng
5609	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Cuernos de Negros volcanoes in southern Negros island (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Rabor 1986). The species might be found to occur in northern Negros, but surveys in the north have not used appropriate techniques to catch this species and so it is not known if its range extends further than the Cuernos de Negros volcanoes. Even if it occurs more widely, it is thought have an extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
5609	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The only known specimens were taken in primary lowland and montane forest from 500 to 1,450 m (Heaney and Ruedi 1994; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Rabor 1986). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habtats outside forest, though this is unlikely.	eng
5609	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown as it is known only from six specimens. The first specimen was found in 1948, the others in the 1980s. Surveys in the Mount Kanlaon area (northern Negros) have not found any populations (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.), but the bait used on these surveys might not have been appropriate. Surveys undertaken on neighbouring Panay and Cebu did not use appropriate techniques to survey this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5609	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The Cuernos de Negros volcanoes have the only remaining intact forest in southern Negros. However, this forest is fragmented and continues to decline, there being no effective protection in this area. (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; L. Heaney pers. comm.). The construction of a geothermal electrical plant has led to deforestation in the only known area of its occurrence (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
5610	conservation	Saha, S.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The Nicobar Shrew has been recorded from Campbell Bay National Park (possibly now extinct here) and Galathea National Park in Great Nicobar Islands (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2004; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5610	distribution	Saha, S.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is known only from the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island (India) in the Bay of Bengal. It has been recorded up to about 100 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5610	habitat	Saha, S.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The Nicobar Shrew is a nocturnal and semi fossorial species, which lives among leaf litter in tropical moist deciduous forest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5610	population	Saha, S.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	In 1975 the species was recorded from Campbell Bay National Park to the Galathea River, but in a subsequent survey in 1984, no specimens were observed in the same area (S.S. Saha pers. comm.). The population is considered to be decreasing.	eng
5610	threats	Saha, S.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to selective logging, general anthropogenic activities and tsunami events (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5611	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known from Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and potential threats to this species.	eng
5611	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known for certain only from the vicinity of the type locality at Cibodas, western Java (Indonesia), including Mount Pangrango and Mount Gede at altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
5611	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species inhabits mountain forests of Java. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
5611	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5611	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	Most of its range is in a protected area, and it is unlikely to be facing any immediate threats, other than those inherent to a species with a small range at high elevations (such as climate change).	eng
5613	conservation	Widmann, P., 2008	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas, and it is found in Subterranean River National Park. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, especially in relation to human alteration of its habitat. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
5613	distribution	Widmann, P., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Palawan Faunal Region with records from Palawan and Balabac islands, at an elevation range from sea level to 1,300 m asl. Ten individuals of a <em>Crocidura</em> species caught on Dumaran and others caught in the Malampaya Sound are smaller than one would expect for <em>C. palawanensis</em> (P. Widmann pers. comm.); the identification of these specimens is currently underway (J. Esselstyn pers. comm.).	eng
5613	habitat	Widmann, P., 2008	This species is found in old growth and scrubby secondary forest (Taylor 1934; Hoogstraal 1951; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is likely to tolerate a good deal of habitat loss and is possibly resistant to habitat fragmentation (indicated by its occurrence at a site at Dumaran, which was logged decades ago and degraded).	eng
5613	population	Widmann, P., 2008	Very little was known about these species until recent surveys, using pitfall trapping and drift fences, yielded many specimens. It appears to be a widespread species and abundant in suitable habitat, which include highly degraded forest, but probably not agricultural areas. This species has been collected only with pitfall trapping, while other methods have not located the species and this was the reason behind the scant records available for this species. There have been recent collections in Malampaya Sound (northern Palawan), but these individuals still need to be identified. However, it is likely that the species occurs throughout Palawan (L. Heaney pers. comm.). On Dumaran Island, 10 individuals were found in 260 pitfall trap/nights in 60 ha of heavily logged forest patch (elevation 35-70 m), where the canopy height was 25 m but with dense understory, including some individuals in bamboo shrub (L. Heaney pers. comm.), although these individuals have yet to be identified.	eng
5613	threats	Widmann, P., 2008	The area is undergoing rapid deforestation (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Lowland primary forest was disappearing quickly before a logging ban was placed in the mid-1990s, which has since then somewhat slowed deforestation rates and allowed regeneration of second growth forest. However, the species is reasonably adaptable and seems to be able to survive in some secondary habitats.	eng
5614	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are several large protected areas within the species' range and these are likely to provide some long-term protection. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
5614	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the mountains of northern and western Sumatra (Indonesia), where it has been recorded at 1,000-2,000 m asl. A possible record from Java (Corbet and Hill 1992) has not been confirmed to represent this species.	eng
5614	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in montane forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
5614	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5614	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Deforestation, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement, probably represents a major threat to this species. This threat will be more severe if it is shown that the species cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats. The rate of forest loss on Sumatra is lower at the higher elevations at which this species occurs.	eng
5615	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas within its range. General taxonomic research and field surveys are needed for this poorly known species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
5615	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is known only with certainty from the type locality of Skoro Loomba, in Pakistan administered Kashmir, at an elevation of around 2,900 m asl (Hutterer 2005).	eng
5615	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is found in montane temperate forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5615	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5615	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Threats not known for this species or habitat where it occurs (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5616	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	None in place. More research is required to gather data on the status of the population, range, ecology, and potential threats to the species.	eng
5616	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Only two specimens of <em>Crocidura religiosa</em> are known (in the British Museum); these were collected from the neck of the Nile delta and further down the Nile. Mummified specimens have also been found further south.	eng
5616	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is possibly found in degraded habitat, based on Hoogstraal 1962. However, specific habitat preferences are unknown.	eng
5616	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
5616	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Potential habitat has been affected by construction of the Aswan Dam.	eng
5617	conservation	Temple, H., 2008	Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.  In the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern as <em>C. suaveolens</em>. Occurs in protected areas.	eng
5617	distribution	Temple, H., 2008	This species is found from southeast Siberia, east China and Korea including Taiwan, Cheju, Tsushima and Kamishima Island (Japan) (Hutterer 2005).	eng
5617	habitat	Temple, H., 2008	With such an extensive range, this species has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats. In the western section of its distribution, it is found in semi-desert grasslands, while farther to the north it occupies steppe biotopes, and the southern fringe of coniferous forest and mixed broadleaf forest. In the south-central portion of its range it occurs in montane forests, while along the southeastern edge it occupies the heavily agricultural Yangtze river valley (Smith and Xie, in press). In Japan inhabit river banks, shrubs sourrounding cultivated lands and foothills (Abe, 2005).	eng
5617	population	Temple, H., 2008	Common species, in some areas abundant. In Russia still recognized as <em>C. suaveolens</em>, therefore data might need verification as summarized for a transpalaearctic species.	eng
5617	threats	Temple, H., 2008	None known.	eng
5618	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
5618	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has only been recorded from Dezful, Khuzistan province, southwest Iran, but it may range more widely.	eng
5618	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Poorly known.	eng
5618	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is only known from type series. There is no information on population size or trend.	eng
5618	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
5619	conservation	Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In particular, the taxonomic validity of the species needs to be assessed.	eng
5619	distribution	Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is endemic to Timor, both Indonesia and Timor-Leste at 200 to almost 3,000 m asl. It is so far known from only two locations, but it is expected to occur more widely on the island, especially at higher elevations. Nevertheless, its extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
5619	habitat	Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in primary mossy and montane forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest.	eng
5619	population	Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5619	threats	Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown. If it is dependent on forest, then threats, especially in the lowlands, include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. Forest on Timor is now restricted to small patches.	eng
5620	conservation	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas on Kilimanjaro and Meru. There are current plans to survey the Kenyan populations in near future (Nick Oguge pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Further information is also required on the status of its habitat to monitor the potential impacts of climate change.	eng
5620	distribution	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Baxter, R., 2008	This species is known from Kenya and northern Tanzania. It is present on Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru, the Ngorongoro crater, and in the highlands of southwestern Kenya. It is thought to occur at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
5620	habitat	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura allex</em> is a montane species found in alpine grassland and swamp areas, including above the treeline. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
5620	population	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Baxter, R., 2008	Although this species is generally considered to be relatively rare, it appears to be quite common in the afro-alpine zone at 3,500 m asl on Mount Kilimanjaro (Shore and Garbett 1991).	eng
5620	threats	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Baxter, R., 2008	On Mount Kilimanjaro and the Ngorongoro crater, this species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from small-holder farming and possibly disturbance from tourism. It is also probable that it is threatened by agricultural expansion in other parts of its range. It is suspected that global warming may become a threat in the near future to the mountain habitats of this species. The glacier on Kilimanjaro has significantly already significantly retreated.	eng
5621	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, this species may occur in areas of small reserves in the Cameroon Mountains. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
5621	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species occurs from the Cameroon Mountains to eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is known from several localities in the Cameroon Mountains, Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in eastern Nigeria. <em>C. attila</em> is primarily a montane species but it is probably also present in lowland areas. Within Medge it occurs below 1,000 m asl in hilly terrain but all other known localities are above 1,500 m asl. The highest recorded altitude for this species is 1,900 m asl in the Gotel Mountains. Although it has not yet been recorded it is likely that this species also occurs in the Central African Republic.	eng
5621	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This forest-dwelling species is primarily montane and sub-montane but also occurs in lowlands. There is some evidence that <em>C. attila</em> is able to persist in degraded habitats.	eng
5621	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is not uncommon throughout its range. Over 20 specimens were collected from Medje in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
5621	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species has no known threats. Most of the forest in Cameroon is degraded but this species has been collected from degraded areas and seems tolerant of degradation.	eng
5622	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The Harenna forest, Bale Region, is one of the few remaining natural forests in southern Ethiopia and currently, the largest sub-section of the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
5622	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is known from the Bale mountains and Mount Albasso in Ethiopia. Five specimens have been recorded from two isolated forest patches. It is thought to occur at elevations between 2,400 m to 3,280 m asl.	eng
5622	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	<em>C. bottegoides</em> occurs in grassy clearings within the Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains. These clearlings are within a mosaic of different habitats including <em>Erica arboreum</em> woodland, grassy clearings in escarpment forest, moist riverine habitat, and mixed evergreen tropical rainforest. It is restricted to forest on narrow, south facing slopes of the escarpements.	eng
5622	population	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is uncommon and is only known from five specimens. Harenna Forest contains the greater abundance of the two patches.	eng
5622	threats	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The remnant areas of forest within the Bale Mountains are generally threatened by collection of timber and firewood by local villagers and groups of insurgents. The habitat of this species is also believed to be threatened by fires started by people.	eng
5623	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is present within the Ituri Forest National Park. Further general studies are needed into the distribution of this little-known species.	eng
5623	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is known from four localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo, including Kisangani, Masako Forest, and a locality 2 km west of the Epulu Forest. It is also found on Kungulu Island (Katuala pers. comm.).	eng
5623	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Relatively little is known about this species. It inhabits primary forest on a lowland plateau at an elevation of around 750 m asl. Forest in the area of distribution is still abundant. This species has been recorded along creeks and on fallow land. It has also occasionally been found in secondary forest.	eng
5623	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	A study of Masako Forest found this species to be the most abundant shrew species in this region.	eng
5623	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.	eng
5624	conservation	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species may occur within Uzungwe National Park, but its presence there is uncertain. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining tracts of montane forest inhabited by this species.	eng
5624	distribution	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Crocidura desperatais endemic to relict forest patches in the Rungwe and Udzungwa mountains of southern Tanzania. It is found at elevations over 1,500 m asl.</em>	eng
5624	habitat	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is found in the mountain bamboo zone of patchy montane tropical moist forests.	eng
5624	population	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The species is known from few specimens. It has been collected relatively recently, indicating that the species is still extant.	eng
5624	threats	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is considered threatened by increasing forest loss and fragmentation in the Udzungwe Mountains of southern Tanzania. It is particularly vulnerable due to its restricted range, although restricted range in itself is not necessarily a direct threat.	eng
5625	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs within Mount Elgon National Park. There is a need to effectively protect additional areas of suitable montane forest for this species. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the limits of the species distribution.	eng
5625	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known from the mountains of western Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. It is possibly present in Uganda. It occurs at elevations above 1,000 m asl. Approximately seven localities have been recorded including Mount Elgon in Kenya.	eng
5625	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known species is associated with montane tropical moist forest.	eng
5625	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is uncommon to moderately common in suitable areas.	eng
5625	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened within its limited range by general habitat loss, presumably mostly through conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
5626	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5626	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in western Angola, where it ranges from Duque de Braganca in the north to Huila in the south (Heim de Balsac and Meester 1977). The type specimen was found at an elevation of 1,098 m asl (at Pungo Andongo).	eng
5626	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
5626	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5626	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It may be vulnerable due to its seemingly quite restricted range.	eng
5627	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species. There is a need for additional taxonomic research, especially concerning the relationship between this species and <em>Crocidura voi</em>.	eng
5627	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is known only from two East African locations, the type locality of "Nguruman" in southern Kenya, and Himo in Tanzania. These two localities are not connected as suitable habitat at Nguruman is isolated by Lake Magadi to the north, swamp to the south, and the Rift Valley escarpment to the west. Until the taxonomic issues surrounding the relationship between <em>Crocidura voi have been resolved it is difficult to determine the full extent of the species geographic range. This species has been recorded at approximately 800 m asl.</em>	eng
5627	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This little known species is a dry savanna specialist that is not present in mountainous areas.	eng
5627	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is uncommon.	eng
5627	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species could be threatened in the future by loss of habitat resulting from the expansion of agricultural irrigation systems.	eng
5628	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs in a number of conservation areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
5628	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs in South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho and southern Mozambique. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m asl and possibly higher.	eng
5628	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs mainly in grassland and grassland savanna but it also found in gardens.	eng
5628	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is relatively common in the coastal part of its range. <em>Crocidura flavescens is a synanthropic species which is adapted to living in habitats modified by humans and is commonly found in gardens. It is regularly found in low numbers at elevations of approximately 1,500 m asl.	eng
5628	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5629	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is presumably present within a number of protected areas.	eng
5629	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This African species has been recorded throughout the Sudan savanna zone, from Senegal in the east to southern Sudan. In West Africa, this species is well known from Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and possibly occurs in other countries. Its Nigerian range includes the Jos Plateau which has an average height of 1,280 m and is the only region of Nigeria with a near temperate climate. There is an unpublished record of <em>C. foxi from Chad. This species has not been found in Benin.	eng
5629	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	The natural habitat of <em>C. foxi</em> is moist savanna and forest edges. However, this species can tolerate some habitat disturbance and is common in sugarcane plantations and similar modified habitats. At Owerri (Nigeria), they reportedly favor secondary growth and cleared land (Cozens and Marchant 1952; Happold 1987).	eng
5629	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is common in some areas but its numbers vary throughout its range.	eng
5629	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations might be locally threatened by severe habitat loss.	eng
5630	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	Both Aberdare and Mount Kenya are classified as National Parks and <em>C.fumosa</em> has a reseasonable degree of protection when it occurs in these area. However, the National Parks are not entirely effective in preventing forest loss.	eng
5630	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>Crocidura fumosa</em> occurs on Mount Kenya and in the Aberdare range, Kenya. It is found at high altitudes in three isolated "islands" in the Aberdare mountain range. Two of the localities have known elevations of 2,600 m and 3,200 m asl. It is thought that another locality may have a lower elevation at between 1,500 m-2,000 m asl but this would be considered unusual for this species.	eng
5630	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species occurs in moist montane forest.	eng
5630	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5630	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The greatest threat to this species is the loss of forest (presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use), in high elevation areas despite the fact that Mount Kenya and much of the Aberdare range have National Park status.	eng
5631	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5631	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Corcidura gracilipes</em> is known only from the holotype, collected at the indistinct type locality of "Auf der Reise nach dem Kilimandscharo" which is usually taken as "Kilimanjaro, Tanzania" (Hutterer 2005). It has not currently been recorded from Mount Kilimanjaro; it may have been collected from the Tanzanian coastal area.	eng
5631	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There is no definite information available on the habitat and ecology of <em>C. gracilipes</em>. It may be a coastal forest species.	eng
5631	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is currently known only from the holotype.	eng
5631	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
5632	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.	eng
5632	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura greenwoodi</em> has only been recorded from southern parts of Somalia.	eng
5632	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from gallery forest, savanna, arid bush, and cultivated land.	eng
5632	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
5632	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is considered to have a relatively restricted range.	eng
5633	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in Bale Mountain National Park. There is a need to prevent further loss or degradation of this species range, and the Harenna Forest as a whole. Known localities should be monitored to record any changes in abundance.	eng
5633	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The type locality for <em>Crocidura harenna</em> is in Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains, southern Ethiopia. Harenna forest is thought to cover a maximum area of 200 km². Surrounding areas have been sampled but additional populations of <em>Crocidura harenna</em> have not been found. This species has an elevational range of 2,400 to 2,630 m asl.	eng
5633	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in Harenna forest. It is restricted to a narrow altitudinal belt known as the <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> belt which has a specific type of vegetation.The <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> belt is composed of mixed montane evergreen tropical forest. The total area inhabited by <em>C. harenna</em> is only 200 m wide and 20 km long resulting in a distribution of approximately 4 km².	eng
5633	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat in the Bale Mountains.	eng
5633	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Remnant forest habitat in the Bale Mountains is threatened by conversion of land to agricultural use, overgrazing by domestic livestock, collection of firewood and timber and fires.	eng
5634	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is not present in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of montane habitat within the known range of this species. More research into population levels and habitat requirements is required to determine potential conservation actions.	eng
5634	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	<em>Crocidura macmilliani</em> is found in the Western Plateau of Ethiopia. Until recently it was known only from the holotype (collected at 'Kotelee, Walamo'), but it was rediscovered in 2002 in the Middle Godjeb Valley, Western Plateau (Bannikov <em>et al</em>., 2001). It is currently known from three localities including, Koteke, the Middle Godjeb Valley, and Sheko Forest. It is unlikely that <em>C. macmilliani</em> occurs further north than these localities due to the lack of suitable habitat. Its elevational range is from 1,220-1,930 m asl.	eng
5634	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is found in Ethiopian montane tropical forest, and humid woodland Terminalia-Combretum savanna with high grasses.	eng
5634	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5634	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The destruction of montane forests may become a serious threat to this species in the future by considerably reducing its geographic range and population numbers. The main threats to these forests in this region are fires and deforestation by humans.	eng
5635	conservation	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
5635	distribution	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>Crocidura macowi</em> is only known from its type locality on Mount Nyiro, south of Lake Turkana, Kenya.	eng
5635	habitat	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
5635	population	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5635	threats	Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
5636	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve. It is not known if it is present within any additional protected areas. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining areas of montane forest within the Cameroon highlands. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
5636	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This little known species is believed to be endemic to the mountains of Cameroon. It has been recorded from the type locality of Tinta (Mamfe Division) (Sanderson 1940), from the Bamenda Highlands (Schlitter <em>et al.</em> 1999), and more recently from Mount Oku (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). The Cameroon mountains are an isolated area, and surveys of other mountain blocks have not revealed this species. Its elevational range is between 1,200-1,800 m asl.	eng
5636	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This little known species is currently known only from montane tropical moist forest habitats.	eng
5636	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is very uncommon with very few specimens recorded..	eng
5636	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive habitat destruction and degradation in the Cameroon mountains, including the protected Mount Oku area.	eng
5637	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
5637	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura pitmani</em> is known from central and northern Zambia. The type locality for this species is uncertain but is thought to be the Maluwe-Sarengi district.	eng
5637	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Other than being a montane species, little is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
5637	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5637	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
5638	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. The top of the Aberdare Range is protected in Aberdare National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known species.	eng
5638	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>Crocidura ultima</em> is only known from its type locality of the Jombeni Range in the Nyeri District, Kenya. It might also occur in parts of the Aberdare Range, Kenya, but this needs to be confirmed.. It has been recorded at an altitude of approximately 1,524 m asl.	eng
5638	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.	eng
5638	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5638	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The extent to which this species habitat in the Jombeni Range is threatened varies across this area. Suitable habitat in the Aberdare Mountains is severely threatened. The principle threats to this species are human activities including encroachment into forest, settlement and deforestation.	eng
5639	conservation	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>C. xantippe</em> has been recorded from Tsavo National Park, Kenya, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species..	eng
5639	distribution	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>Crocidura xantippe</em> is known from Voi and Tsavo in southeast Kenya, possibly Mount Nyiru in northwestern Kenya, and from the Usambaras Mountains in northeastern Tanzania.	eng
5639	habitat	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is found at foot of of the Usambara Mountains and may have a wider distribution than is currently known. It occurs in bushland or very dry savanna.	eng
5639	population	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>C. xantippe</em> is generally an uncommon species, even within suitable habitat.	eng
5639	threats	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Oguge, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
5640	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species occurs in Upemba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known species.	eng
5640	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura zimmeri</em> is a very distinct species from Katanga Province, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is known only from Upemba National Park. It was described in 1936 when two specimens were collected but has not been collected or seen again. However, this area has not been thoroughly sampled since its discovery and it is possible that further surveys may provide new records. It is thought to occur at an altitude of approximately 600-700 m asl.	eng
5640	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. zimmeri</em> is a large shrew and one of the most distinctive of the <em>Crocidura</em> species. There is little natural history information available for this species. The Upemba National Park largely consists of wetlands, and the species is though to be associated with these habitat types.	eng
5640	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
5640	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species may be threatened by gold and diamond mining in Bakama. There is also a considerable amount of settlement and fishing in the area where it is found.	eng
5659	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Cuba, which is included in Appendix II).	eng
5659	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Found in both freshwater and brakish/saline lakes, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5660	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
5660	distribution	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Occurs in central and western Africa.	eng
5660	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	<a name="habi">A highly aquatic species, found primarily in riverine habitat with dense vegetation cover. Also found in large lakes. Individuals have been found in more brackish water, near the coast, and even on an offshore island (Bioko). These reports are unusual, but they do indicate a moderate tolerance of salinity</a>.<br/><br/>Has terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5661	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
5661	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5663	conservation	Ross, J.P., 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the populations of Belize and Mexico, which are included in Appendix II with a zero quota for wild specimens traded for commercial purposes).	eng
5663	habitat	Ross, J.P., 2000	Can also be found in brackish waters in some areas. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5667	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
5667	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	May also be found in coastal saltwater lagoons. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5668	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the populations of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, which are included in Appendix II).	eng
5668	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Inland lakes, swamps and marshes as well as coastal brackish waters and tidal sections of rivers. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5670	conservation	Targarona, R.R., Soberón, R.R., Cotayo, L., Tabet, M.A. and Thorbjarnarson, J., 2008	This species is listed under Appendix I of CITES. There are also direct conservation measures, including captive breeding programmes, reintroductions and protected areas. Illegal hunting continues to occur, therefore further harvest management is required to reduce the rate of population decline currently occurring. Further research and monitoring of the population, taxonomy, harvest levels, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
5670	distribution	Targarona, R.R., Soberón, R.R., Cotayo, L., Tabet, M.A. and Thorbjarnarson, J., 2008	This species is no longer found in most of its historic range and is currently restricted to two relatively small areas in Cuba. Its principal distribution is in the Zapata Swamp, where it occupies an area of 360 km². In the Lanier Swamp on the Isle of Youth its present distribution is 35 km².	eng
5670	habitat	Targarona, R.R., Soberón, R.R., Cotayo, L., Tabet, M.A. and Thorbjarnarson, J., 2008	The Cuban Crocodile is a medium-sized crocodile found in freshwater marsh and inundated shrublands where it preys to a large degree on small mammals, particularly the native hutias (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capromys</span> spp.) and freshwater turtles (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trachemys decussata</span>). Females make mound-type nests at the beginning of the annual rainy season (May-June) and lay 20-40 eggs.	eng
5670	population	Targarona, R.R., Soberón, R.R., Cotayo, L., Tabet, M.A. and Thorbjarnarson, J., 2008	The only population estimate available is from a study by Ramos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996). Based on this study the population of crocodiles in the Zapata Swamp is 3,000-5,000 individuals. The number in the Lanier Swamp has not been evaluated but is known to be much smaller than that in the Zapata Swamp. The total population size is likely to be 4,000 (Targarona <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm.).	eng
5670	threats	Targarona, R.R., Soberón, R.R., Cotayo, L., Tabet, M.A. and Thorbjarnarson, J., 2008	There are two main threats: illicit hunting and hybridization with native American Crocodiles. Hunting increased substantially from the 1990s to the present and is principally for the sale of meat to private restaurants serving the tourist industry or for local consumption. Hybridization has long been suspected but poorly understood. Recent genetic studies provide preliminary evidence that extensive hybridization is taking place in the wild. A captive population is present in two areas (in the Zapata Swamp and in the Lanier Swamp) but hybrid animals are strongly suspected in these populations as well. Neither of these threats has been resolved.	eng
5671	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	The Crocodile Management Association of Thailand (CMAT) has a strategy for re-introducing Siamese crocodiles into wild habitats in hopes of partial restoration of these crocodiles in their historical range in Thailand. It is also included in Appendix I of CITES.	eng
5671	distribution	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Small populations remain in Laos, Viet Nam, and Indonesia, but wild Siamese crocodiles are virtually gone in Thailand. In 2000 a single specimen was discovered in Kaeng Krachan National Park in western Thailand, and in 2002 one to three were sighted in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary in central Thailand. An effort has begun to establish additional populations by releasing captive reared specimens in areas of protected habitat	eng
5671	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Freshwater species, occurring in swamps and slow-moving sections of streams and rivers, but also found in lakes and rivers. Terrestrial nesting and basking sites.	eng
5671	population	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	The Siamese Crocodile has been eradicated from much of its former range.	eng
5671	threats	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	The principal threats are habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and persecution.	eng
5672	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
5672	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
5674	conservation	Honer, O., Holekamp, K.E. & Mills, G., 2008	Legal classification varies from “vermin” (Ethiopia) to fully protected in conservation areas. Thus, while it is fully protected in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, the Spotted Hyaena may be legally shot by sport hunters in the adjacent Maswa Game Reserve. Spotted Hyaeans enjoy protection in a number of protected areas across their range, particularly in southern Africa, including Kruger National Park (South Africa), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa and Botswana), and Etosha National Park (Namibia).	eng
5674	distribution	Honer, O., Holekamp, K.E. & Mills, G., 2008	Spotted Hyaena are relatively widely distributed in Africa, south of the Sahara. Their distribution is patchy, especially in West Africa, with populations often concentrated in protected areas. More continuous distributions persist over large areas of Chad, Central African Republic, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Angola, Namibia, and parts of South Africa. Hofer and Mills (1998a) reported the species as extinct in Algeria, where they may have occurred in the Ahaggar and Tassili d’Ajjer, and also report no recent records from Djibouti, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, and Togo; however, Künzel <em>et al.</em> (2000) report that Spotted Hyaena are still widespread in Djibouti, and Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) note the same for Gambia. Recently, Henschel and Ray (2003) reported images of a single Spotted Hyaena inside the Ivindo National Park in Gabon, where the species has not been recorded since eradication around 1950. <br/><br/>There is no confirmed evidence of their occurrence in Egypt, Liberia or Lesotho.	eng
5674	habitat	Honer, O., Holekamp, K.E. & Mills, G., 2008	Spotted Hyaenas are present in all habitats including semi-desert, savanna and open woodland, dense dry woodland, and even montane habitats, such as in the Aberdares, Mt Kenya, and the Ethiopian Highlands, up to 4,100 m altitude (Hofer and East in press; and references therein). It is absent from, or present at very low densities in, extreme desert conditions, tropical rainforests, although they may make deep incursions into forested areas where logging roads provide access (Hofer and East in press). In many parts of their range, they occur in close association with human habitations. Often considered scavengers, Spotted Hyaenas are in fact effective and flexible hunters (Hofer and East in press); damage to domestic stock mainly involves cattle, sheep and goats and varies widely in intensity (Hofer 1998). The ecology of the species is reviewed by Hofer and East (in press).	eng
5674	population	Honer, O., Holekamp, K.E. & Mills, G., 2008	Viable populations still exist in a number of countries and a tentative estimate of the total global population is between 27,000 and 47,000. The largest known populations occur in the Serengeti ecosystem (in the Tanzanian sector, 7,200-7,700; in the Kenyan sector, 500-1,000) and the Kruger N.P., South Africa (1,300-3,900). Population densities based on systematic censuses vary substantially, from 0.006 to 1.7 individuals per km² (Hofer and Mills 1998b; and see references therein). Most populations in protected areas in southern Africa are considered to be stable, whereas many populations in eastern and western Africa, even in protected areas, are considered to be declining, mostly due to incidental snaring and poisoning (Hofer and Mills 1998b).	eng
5674	threats	Honer, O., Holekamp, K.E. & Mills, G., 2008	Outside protected areas, populations are subject to human persecution through shooting, trapping and poisoning. Such activities may sometimes occur within the boundaries of conservation areas: mortality due to wire snares set to catch wild herbivores for meat is an important cause of adult mortality in the Serengeti, where snares kill around 400 adult hyaenas each year and are responsible for more than half of all adult mortality (Hofer <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently only since the mid-1970s has game meat hunting rapidly expanded, as more people have moved within walking distance of the boundaries of protected areas north and west of the Serengeti (Hofer 1998). The numbers killed by sport hunters are small as they are not considered an attractive species. It is also killed for food or medicine (Hofer and Mills 1998b). A further threat is posed by the decline in densities of wildlife species consumed by Spotted Hyaenas due to habitat loss caused by increased human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
5675	conservation	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species is protected in coastal reserves.	eng
5675	distribution	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Coastal lakes and estuaries from  southern Mozambique to Durban, KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001), recorded from Madagascar.	eng
5675	habitat	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Restricted to sandy, quiet water areas where it lives in burrows excavated in clean sand, often in association with the sandprawn <em>Callianassa kraussi</em> (Skelton 2001). It is unable to form burrows where the substrate is disturbed by water movements, is muddy or consists of sand with a particle diameter >0.5 mm. On exposed shores, it occurs deeper than 3.5 m, occasionally intertidal. Its food consists of slow moving benthic organisms like chironomid larvae, gastropods, bivalves and amphipods. Spawns throughout summer, males territorial.	eng
5675	population	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Not known because of burrowing habits making sampling difficult	eng
5675	threats	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Human disturbance and siltation of estuaries.	eng
5679	conservation	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution of this species are needed.	eng
5679	distribution	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	The species has been recorded along the Central Cordillera from the Swart Valley in the west to the Huon Peninsula in the east (Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It may range more widely as it is a secretive species that is rarely recorded (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 1,200 to 3,500 m asl.	eng
5679	habitat	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is associated with mountain stream habitats. Animals live in fast rivers close to the forest edge. Females are reported to have a single young (Flannery 1995).	eng
5679	population	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	While it is difficult to catch, it is consistently present at known sites in small numbers. This species is much more widespread and common than originally thought.	eng
5679	threats	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by hunting for food and some mining activities in the western part of the range.	eng
5704	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Although technically found within Lore Lindu National Park, this protected area has not been well managed for biodiversity conservation. The type locality, Dana Lindu, is now in an area heavily used by humans. Although Lore Lindu is clearly in need of more effective management, there is also a need for further survey work using more appropriate survey techniques (specifically pit-fall traps) to determine the range and population status of this species.	eng
5704	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from two localities: the mountain valley of Danau Lindu at 1,067 m, and upper drainage of Sungai Miu in the Kulawi region at 823 m, Central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is likely to be more widespread, but is almost certainly endemic to central Sulawesi.	eng
5704	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a terrestrial insectivore that inhabits tropical lowland evergreen rainforest. It is unclear whether it is able to survive in degraded habitats.	eng
5704	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is no information on population status, and it is known only from three specimens collected in the mid 1970s. These specimens were all incidentally captured, and there has been limited survey work involving appropriate survey techniques.	eng
5704	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and forest clearance due to expanding agriculture (especially rice and corn) and logging, particularly at lower elevations. Recent surveys (L. Ruedas pers. comm.) found much of the former rainforest habitat at the type locality had been converted to rice agriculture.	eng
5705	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There is an urgent need to conduct surveys in remaining lowland forest blocks to determine the range of the species.	eng
5705	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Luzon island, Philippines. It is known only from the holotype collected in 1895/1896 from the interior side of the northern portion Sierra Madre, Isabela province, at around 300 m (Thomas 1898).	eng
5705	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown. However, it is possibly that it is confined to primary lowland forest (Musser 1982; Thomas 1898).	eng
5705	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype (Thomas 1898).	eng
5705	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The lowland forest in the vicinity of the type locality is almost completely deforested.	eng
5706	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	More surveys using appropriate trapping techniques (with earthworms or drift fences) need to be undertaken at lower elevations to get a better sense of this species' population status. More research should also be carried out to determine if the species can persist in second growth forest.	eng
5706	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and occurs from sea level to 1,550 m on Camiguin (L. Heaney pers. comm.; Heaney and Tabaranza 1995), Leyte, and Mindanao (Bukidnon, Cotabato, and Davao del Norte provinces) which represent two biogeographic regions. It is known from scattered records in the central parts of its range in Mindanao but is likely to occur throughout eastern Mindanao since it also occurs on Leyte (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
5706	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species inhabits lowland forest and tolerates some level of habitat disturbance. On Camiguin it has been found in disturbed agricultural land among secondary forest and disturbed montane forest (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006).	eng
5706	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The population status of the species is not very well known as it is very difficult to trap and there have been very few appropriate surveys for this species (L. Heaney pers. comm.). However, it has been found to be moderately common on Camiguin (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
5706	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There is significant deforestation in the lowlands, and much of this species habitat is gone.	eng
5748	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Not recorded from any protected areas. Fieldwork to survey for populations and assess the extent of anthropogenic threats is urgently needed. Research to clarify systematic status, and determine distribution limits and basic ecology is also a priority.	eng
5748	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. Recorded only from the type locality at Port Nolloth, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.	eng
5748	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Coastal dunes and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld of the Namaqualand coastal plain (Nama-Karoo biome).	eng
5748	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Extremely rare; known from only three specimens and not captured for over 50 years despite survey work.	eng
5748	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Habitat alteration as a result of mining of coastal sands for alluvial diamonds in the Port Nolloth district may pose a threat to this species (Smithers 1986).	eng
5749	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Not yet recorded in any proclaimed conservation areas, but would be protected by the proposed Groen-Spoeg National Park. Research is needed to establish distribution limits and to gather basic data on natural history of this species.	eng
5749	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Until recently, recorded from only the type locality near Lambert's Bay, South Africa (Helgen and Wilson 2001). Another specimen was collected at Groenriviermond, some 150 km further north along the Namaqualand coast in November 2003, suggesting that the range of this species is more extensive than previously recognized.	eng
5749	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Coastal dune belt and adjacent sandy areas in Strandveld Succulent Karoo (Nama-Karoo biome).	eng
5749	population	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is extremely rare.	eng
5749	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Mining of coastal sands for alluvial diamonds could be impacting on this species, as this has been identified as threat to <em>Eremitalpa granti</em> (Smithers 1986), with which this species coexists. However, the extent and impact of this potential threat is unknown. Habitat alteration associated with tourism developments along the west coast may pose an additional minor threat.	eng
5751	conservation	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from Mole National Park, Ghana, and a few other protected areas.	eng
5751	distribution	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is widely distributed in east-central Ghana, probably between the arms of the Red and Black Volta and Oti Rivers. Reports of this species in central Togo (Rosevear, 1969; and see map in Honeycutt <em>et al.</em> 1991) refer to the collection from the type locality, which was originally in Togo, but is now within Ghana.	eng
5751	habitat	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This is a subterranean species associated with savanna woodland, but also well adapted to agricultural land. It can be found burrowed into farmland, particularly those in which <em>Dioscorea alata</em> or <em>Manihot utilisima</em> were cultivated. It is a social animal living in colonies of up to seven individuals, with a single breeding pair. The species can probably produce two litters of one or two young per year.	eng
5751	population	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is common within its restricted distribution, and is apparently considered to be an agricultural pest.	eng
5751	threats	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
5752	conservation	Faulkes, C., Maree, S. & Griffin, M., 2008	While the species has yet to be recorded from any protected areas it is suspected to occur in several, including the Liuwa Plains National Park, Zambia. Additional surveys are needed to more clearly determine the range of the species, and its population abundance.	eng
5752	distribution	Faulkes, C., Maree, S. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is has been widely recorded from central and south-eastern Angola, southwards across the Cunene River into extreme northern Namibia (Ovamboland provinces). There is a disjunct report of this species from Lubango, west-central Angola (14°56' S, 13°27' E) (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2004). Although there are no confirmed records from Zambia (not mentioned in Ansell 1978); a specimen from Sananga in south-western Zambia, which though sharing the same chromosome number (2n=58) is not believed to represent this species. The species may occur in the southern Democratic Republic of Congo, as noted in Woods (2005), however, this requires confirmation.	eng
5752	habitat	Faulkes, C., Maree, S. & Griffin, M., 2008	There is little general information available on the habitat preferences of this species. In Namibia the species has been reported from dry savanna, and flat and sandy terrain. In other parts of its range it has been recorded in areas of Miombo woodland. This is a social, subterranean species; four animals were caught from a single colony that was incompletely trapped.	eng
5752	population	Faulkes, C., Maree, S. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is probably a common species, although further studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
5752	threats	Faulkes, C., Maree, S. & Griffin, M., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It might be overharvested for food in parts of its range, although this needs confirmation.	eng
5753	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species occurs in many protectected areas throughout the range, including both the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Conservation Area (Botswana and South Africa), and many protected areas in northern Botswana.	eng
5753	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species has been recorded in westen parts of Zambia, western Zimbabwe, Botswana (it is generally widespread in except in the extreme eastern parts), central and northern Namibia (including the Caprivi Strip), and marginally into the Northern Cape of South Africa (Hotazel, Kalahari Park). It has been suggested that it is present in southern Angola (Woods 1995), but this has yet to be confirmed (the species occurs on the islands in the Okavango, and could potentially cross the river).	eng
5753	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	It is found in semi-arid thornscrub, woodland, savanna, grassland habitats associated with red Kalahari sands and sandy soils. It is a diurnal, subterranean species that prefers to live in Kahalahri arenosols, and loose unconsolidated alluvial sands. The areas in which the species occurs generally have a low to sporadic annual rainfall of around 2-400 mm. This is a social species that lives in colonies that average around 16 animals, but may be as many as 41 individuals. There is a single breeding pair, and colonies are formed from this pair and their subsequent litters, which remain in the natal group (Jarvis and Bennett 1993). Colonies can produce up to four litters of one to six young a year (Bennett pers. comm.). If the reproductive female dies, the colony disperses. The species has a generation length of three years.	eng
5753	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species is locally common, with densities known to exceed 318 individuals per sq km.	eng
5753	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
5754	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	It is unlikely that this species occurs in any protected areas, as the Jos Plateau, at least, is not protected.	eng
5754	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This poorly known species has been recorded from the highlands of Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from a single locality, Panyam, on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria, and from Ngaoundere in Cameroon.	eng
5754	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	On both the Jos Plateau of Nigeria and in Cameroon, the species has been recorded from extensive grasslands, rocky areas, riverine forest along streams. It is a subterranean species that lives in colonies. Rosevear (1969) mentions that they were found to eat worms in captivity.	eng
5754	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	The general population abundance of this species is not well-known. Rosevear (1969) discusses the 12 known specimens all collected at the same locality in Nigeria almost a century ago, as well as the 6 additional specimens taken from the same locality in 1966. In Cameroon it is apparently common, but localised.	eng
5754	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	On the Jos Plateaux this species might be highly threatened by agricultural activities, particularly in the regions where the soil is more fertile and well suited for crops that cannot be grown in most other parts of Nigeria (e.g, potatoes). Collection of firewood in the area has also resulted in deforestation. However, it is not known to what degree these threats are affecting the species (some mole-rats adapt well to agricultural disturbance) The threats to the species in Cameroon are not known.	eng
5755	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Further taxonomic study of this species is needed to clarify the status of the various subspecies.	eng
5755	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species is widespread in South Africa, where it is found in Western Cape as far south as Stellenbosch and Somerset West in Cape Peninsula, extending to Stenkopf in the northwest, and then inland in the Northern Cape province to Prieska and Calvinia along consolidated sands along the east coast and inland to the Eastern Cape province, to the southern Free State and into Gauteng (subspecies <em>C. h. hottentotus</em>; <em>C. h. pretoriae</em>, <em>C. h. mahali</em>); the subspecies <em>C. h. natalensis</em> occurs from the Eastern Cape through KwaZulu-Natal, Lesotho, Swaziland (where <em>C. h. pretoriae</em> may also occur in the west) and into southern Kruger National Park and extreme southern Mozambique. The range of <em>C. h. nimrodi</em> begins at the Limpopo River and goes up to Bulawayo, but the eastern limit is unclear. Animals formerly recognised as <em>C. whytei,</em> (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 2004), exist as a disjunct, isolated poplulation occurring in extreme southwestern Tanzania (at Suma, 9°10' S, 33°40' E), and the Nyika Plateau region of Malawi and adjacent Zambia southwards to the Nsanje District of southern Malawi (a single record; which may yet represent another taxon). The precise limits of distribution of the various subspecies remain to be properly delimited.	eng
5755	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	It occurs in a wide range of subtrates from friable sandy loams to exfoliated schists and sandy, stony soils. It is apparently, unable to utilize heavy red clay soils or the hard soils associated with mopane woodland. In South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal province, it occurs in a variety of habitats from short, mesic grassland to dense coastal forest, and from stony soils on hillslopes in the Drakensberg (Taylor 1998). In many parts of the range (e.g., Pretoria, Swaziland, and KwaZulu-Natal), they are found in a variety of man-made habitats including lawns, golf-courses and gardens. The species is subterranean, and social, with a colony size of around five animals (and up to 14) including a single reproductive pair. It has a litter size of two to six young and a generation time of about three years.	eng
5755	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well-known. It is a widespread but localised species, presumably because of specific soil requirements (the population density may exceed 150 individuals per sq km in preferred habitats).	eng
5755	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
5756	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species is lkely to occur in a number of protected areas in Zambia. Further studies of animals from Malawi are needed to clarify their systematic status. There is a need to monitor populations of this species.	eng
5756	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a central African species that has been recorded from central Angola, northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Faulkes <em>et al</em>. 2004, mention a record from Kinshasa at 4°22' S, 15°27' E), and southwestern Tanzania (Ufipa Plateau [not mapped here]). There is a record from northern Malawi (apparently from Rumphi), but this record probably represents another species (and the same may hold true for the specimen from Ufipa).	eng
5756	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a subterranean species that inhabits a variety of soil types (including stony soil, pure sand and clay) in savanna bushland and dense Acacia woodland with an annual  rainfal of over 1,100 mm. It is an adaptable species and has been recorded from agricultural land and abandoned fields, gardens, and pine plantations. This is a social species, with colonies generally consisting of between two and 20 individuals (although there may be as many as 40 animals).	eng
5756	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	Although there is no information on recorded densities, the species is very abundant in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia.	eng
5756	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species is a major agricultural pest (especially for kasava), for which there have been long-running control projects. The species is also heavily exploited for food, particularly in Zambia, but this is not believed to currently represent a major threat.	eng
5757	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	Iit is considered likely to occur in protected areas such as Garamba National Park in the northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
5757	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	It has been recorded from the southern Sudan (most easterly to 100 km east of Nile), northern Uganda, northern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic. The locality records are widely distributed. Records of the species from eastern Nigeria (Woods 2005) are probably explained by the previous synonymy with <em>Cryptomys foxi</em>. The species may occur in eastern and central Cameroon, however, this requires confirmation. It is presumed to have a wide altitudinal range.	eng
5757	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a subterranean species of wooded savanna and agricultural land. Very little is known about the natural history of this social animal.	eng
5757	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	The population abundance of this widespread, yet localised, species is not known. A comment in Setzer (1956) notes that the species is "plentiful in mountain meadows".	eng
5757	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
5760	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in many protected areas throughout Madagascar (such as Kirindy Forest, and Ranomafana, Masaola, and Ankarafantsika National Parks). It is the subject of a successful <em>ex situ</em> captive breeding programme. Better protection of intact forests and awareness programmes concerning the value of this species for pest control are needed. This species is not currently protected adequately under national legislation, as there are conflicts within national legislation, as well as within and between local community laws.	eng
5760	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in less disturbed forests of Madagascar. It is absent from areas where forests have been cleared (e.g. the central high plateau). It is found from sea level up to around 2,600 m asl on the Andringitra Massif (Hawkins 2003).	eng
5760	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species is found both arboreal and terrestrial. It is found in all less disturbed forest types thoughout the island. Additionally, this species may be found above the treeline in montane areas (Goodman 1996). In general, it is not found outside of intact forest habitat, but it may pass through nonforest habitat as transient individuals. Its diet is known to include most animals in forests it inhabits, including lemurs to the size of Diademed Sifaka (bodyweight ~3 kg), rodents and reptiles (Rasolonandrasana 1994; S.M. Goodman and L. Dollar, unpubl.; F. Hawkins pers. comm.). Lemurs are frequently caught in trees. The gestation period is six to seven weeks after which between two and four young are born (Hawkins 2003); since infants remain with the mother for the first year, females only breed every other year. Sexual maturity is reached at three or four years of age (Hawkins 2003) and it is maximum known age in captivity is more than 20 years. It is active equally throughout the day and night (cathemeral), with periods of inactivity in the hottest and coldest parts of the day or night.	eng
5760	population	Hawkins, A.F.A. & Dollar, L., 2008	The Fossa is generally a solitary species that is found at low population densities (Hawkins 2003). Density estimates for the Menabe region are 0.26 individuals/km² (Hawkins 1998), and for Ankarafantsika 0.20/km² (Rahajanirina 2003). In a recent estimate incorporating 25 protected areas large enough to support a (not necessarily viable) population, current population size is at <2,500 (Hawkins and Racey 2005). The maximum estimated population size for the largest protected area in Madagascar (Masoala National Park) is 414 breeding adults, and this is likely to be a substantial overestimate. Metapopulations of more than this may be possible, given the ability of this species to range between forest patches. Connectivity of populations between distant forest fragments is not yet conclusively known. <br/><br/>Densities for the eastern forests are hypothesized by some to be at one-third that of the west, based on phototrapping and cage trapping efforts throughout the humid forests (L. Dollar, unpubl.). Subjective encounter rate is much higher in western forests (particularly in Menabe, Bemaraha and Ankarana reserves) than in rainforests (F. Hawkins unpubl.), but densities could well be similar between dry and humid forests. This is an important point for future investigation. Important factors may include densities of lemur prey species, and levels of hunting.	eng
5760	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A. & Dollar, L., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss and fragmentation of forest habitat, largely caused by the conversion of forested areas to agricultural land and pasture and selective logging. It also preys on domestic fowl and is consequently killed as a pest species by local people. It is very susceptible to hunting, and is often targeted by groups engaged in collective group hunting (e.g. in the Makira forests) specifically for the purpose of eradication. Parts of this species are also used for medicinal purposes. Competition with feral carnivores also occurs, including predation by feral dog packs.	eng
5763	conservation	Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Pino, J.L., 2008	The species is probably found in La Amistad protected area.	eng
5763	distribution	Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Pino, J.L., 2008	This species is known only from far west Panama (Hutterer, 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 1,850 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
5763	habitat	Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Pino, J.L., 2008	One specimen was caught in an isolated barren of stunted trees and sparse ground cover in a region characterized by dense, wet evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is unknown.	eng
5763	population	Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Pino, J.L., 2008	This species is apparently rare (Reid, 1997).	eng
5763	threats	Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Pino, J.L., 2008	Deforestation and development are a threat to this species.	eng
5764	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Pino, J.L., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas such as La Amistad National Park in Panama and in many protected areas in Costa Rica.	eng
5764	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Pino, J.L., 2008	This species occurs from central Costa Rica southwards to western Panama. It is known from 1,800 to 3,400 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
5764	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Pino, J.L., 2008	It can be found in highland oak forest and paramo (Reid 1997). The litter size is 1 to 4, and breeding may occur all year round (Reid 1997).	eng
5764	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Pino, J.L., 2008	This species is fairly common (Reid, 1997).	eng
5764	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Pino, J.L., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species, and it may also be affected by pesticides.	eng
5765	conservation	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It occurs in two protected areas; La Tigra National Park and El Uyuco Reserve.	eng
5765	distribution	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs east of Tegucigalpa, Honduras and possibly also in adjacent regions of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua (Hutterer, 2005). It is currently known only from 3 localities at 1,700 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
5765	habitat	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It can be found in pine, mixed pine, and oak forests in highland areas (Hutterer 2005). Its biology is unknown.	eng
5765	population	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species apparently is rare (Reid, 1997) and is only known from three localities.	eng
5765	threats	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	Deforestation and pesticides are probably threats to this species, but more research is needed to confirm this.	eng
5766	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is listed under the Category subject to Special Protection under the Official Threatened Species List of Mexico (NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001). A small part of its northern range is included in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. There are good forest practices in part of its range.	eng
5766	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in north central Oaxaca, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It occurs from 1,500 to 2,850 m asl.	eng
5766	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in cloud forest and wet conifer-oak forest, and apparently prefers dense, waist-high herbaceous cover at the edge of wet pine-oak forest. Sometimes it can be found using runways, which are common in the moss root that cover the forest floor (Robertson and Rickart, 1975). Females with three embryos were taken in May and October. Apparently, at least some reproduction occurs in both the wet and dry seasons.	eng
5766	population	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is relatively common, but according to trapping records, it is not common at any site in the north (Robertson and Rickart, 1975).	eng
5766	threats	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Woodman, N., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. In 2005, 72% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
5792	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It has been recorded from the Eastern Atlas National Park in Morocco, and is presumably present in other protected areas.	eng
5792	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	<em>Ctenodactylus gundi </em> ranges from eastern Morocco, through Algeria and Tunisia, to western Libya. It occurs mainly on the southern slope of the Atlas Mountains, where it has been recorded at altitudes from 230-2,900 m. The limit between the distribution of this species and C. vali in the west of the Saharan Atlas varies according to precipitation, with C. gundi disappearing in dry periods, and C. vali then occupying these areas.	eng
5792	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This is an inhabitant of rocky habitats, where it shelters in fissures and rock crevices, and under rock formations. The species does not burrow and appears to be less well adapted to desert conditions than either C. vali or Felovia vae. It isa diurnal species that lives in small family groups of between three and 11 adults, with one to three males. The group occupy a common territory, which is marked and defended. The species has a gestation period of 73 days with a litter size of one to four young. There are usually two litters per year.	eng
5792	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is fairly common, but with yearly changes in abundance. This is a difficult species to observe.	eng
5792	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
5793	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
5793	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species occurs in two isolated populations. There is one population in extreme northeastern Morocco and adjacent parts of northwestern Algeria (along the valleys of the Guir, Zousfana and Saoura Rivers), with a southernmost record from Kerzaz in Algeria. The second population is in northwestern Libya, some 1,000 km to the east. This western population is found on high plateaus at about 1,000 m asl.	eng
5793	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species inhabits rocky habitats, sheltering in fissures and rocky crevices. It inhabits drier desert regions than C. gundi and in contrast with C. gundi, the species is more solitary, with males and females only coming together in the breeding season from November to January. The species is generally diurnal, although it is sometimes active for short periods after sunset. It has a gestation length of 56 days after which one to three young are born. The species has two or three litters per year.	eng
5793	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	In Morocco it is less abundant than the fairly common C. gundi, but the main part of this populations range is in Algeria, where there is no information on population abundance. There is no information available on the abundance of this species in Libya.	eng
5793	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown, but it is presumed that there are no major threats to the species.	eng
5795	conservation	Bidau, C. & Lessa, E., 2008	The species is not found in any protected area and no conservation measures are in place to protect it.	eng
5795	distribution	Bidau, C. & Lessa, E., 2008	This species occurs in north-central Argentina in Formosa and Chaco (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
5795	habitat	Bidau, C. & Lessa, E., 2008	The claws and teeth are specialized for fossorial life (Wilson and Reeder 2005, Mora <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in regions of sandy soils (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
5795	population	Bidau, C. & Lessa, E., 2008	C. argentinus is composed of lots of fragmented populations (Bidau, 2006).	eng
5795	threats	Bidau, C. & Lessa, E., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion for soy farming and naturally small, fragmented populations (Bidau, 2006).	eng
5796	conservation	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There are no known conservation measures being taken to protect this species.	eng
5796	distribution	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005) in a very narrow distribution along the coast.	eng
5796	habitat	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It inhabits coastal sand dune habitats with grasses (Panicum; Poa) (Malizia <em>et al.</em> 1991, Comparatore <em>et al</em>. 1992). It only occurs within 50 m of the coast, in the first line of the dunes.	eng
5796	population	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The average young per litter is 2.9 (Zenuto and Busch cited in Busch <em>et al.</em> 2000)	eng
5796	threats	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The major threats to this species are the development of resorts for beach tourism and the establishment of pine plantations, both of which lead to significant habitat loss.	eng
5797	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It does not occur in protected areas.This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
5797	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in La Pampa Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
5797	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in psamophile vegetation which is a naturally patchily distributed habitat (Bidau, 2006).	eng
5797	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is made up of several naturally fragmented Populations (Bidau, 2006)	eng
5797	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion (Bidau, 2006)	eng
5798	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
5798	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs around the city of Santa Cruz, in Santa Cruz Department, central Bolivia; Mato Grosso in southwestern Brazil; western Paraguay; and Formosa Province in Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). In Bolivia it is found at about 400 m asl to 500 m asl (Anderson 1997).	eng
5798	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It has been recorded from open savanna areas that have been disturbed, by sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and other agricultural activities. Opening up of savanna habitats is generally beneficial to tuco-tuco species.	eng
5798	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
5798	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
5799	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found within Parque Nacional del Chaco (Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
5799	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in north eastern Argentina in southeastern Chaco Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Type locality at 26.48 and 59.33 (in decimal degrees)	eng
5799	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information about the habitat and ecology of this species. The range overlaps <em>C. argentinus</em> so may be similar.	eng
5799	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Populations fragmented (Bidau pers. comm.)	eng
5799	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is the loss of its habitat due to agricultural expansion for the growth of soy (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5800	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is not known if any conservation measures are needed in order to protect this species. Further research is needed.	eng
5800	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This rodent is confined to southeast Brazil; the type locality is Minas Gerais (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).	eng
5800	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The is no information about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species.	eng
5800	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
5800	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
5801	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species. This species is considered Endangered in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
5801	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in the extreme western portions of Santa Cruz Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). The species is only known from the type locality (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.)	eng
5801	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in Patagonian steppes (Lessa pers. comm.)	eng
5801	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Very little is known about this species.	eng
5801	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
5802	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in the Parque Nacional Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco in Bolivia.	eng
5802	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs in Gran Chaco of Paraguay and southeast Bolivia, and possibly northeast Argentina though this needs confirmation (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found at around 175 to 400 m. According to Bidau and Lessa the species does not occur in Argentina (pers. comm.).	eng
5802	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It Is found in arid Chaco xerophytic shrubland. It can be found in both undisturbed habitats an and in areas disturbed by ranching.	eng
5802	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a generally common species where it is present.	eng
5802	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
5803	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5803	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern Chaco which lies west of the Paraguay River in the northern Chaco, Paraguay (Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). This species is only known from a single specimen which is lost. The map shows the possible region where the type locality is (Bidau, Lessa and Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5803	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Chaco region. It plays a large role in maintaining the ecological processes of the ecosystem: by digging burrows it buries leaf litter, thereby introducing sufficient humidity to allow for the decomposition of the leaf litter (Barreto <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
5803	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
5803	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Deforestation and habitat conversion, mainly into cattle pasture in conjunction with population growth of the indigenous communities could have a negative impact on the population.	eng
5804	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found in the El Tromen Provincial Park. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
5804	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in Neuquén Province and is confined to sand dune habitats at about 800 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5804	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It inhabits sand dune habitats at about 800 m (Pearson 1984, cited in Mora <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
5804	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found in very few localities, a rare species (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5804	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Only few populations of this species are known.	eng
5805	conservation	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	In Bolivia, the species potentially occurs within Tariquia National Fauna and Flora Reserve and Aguaragua National Park, which are within its known distribution and contain appropriate habitat.	eng
5805	distribution	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in southwest Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There is an isolated locality where 3 individuals were recorded from around 4,300 m asl outside of the city of Potosi (Anderson, 1997). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 4,300 m.	eng
5805	habitat	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that feeds on underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils, not prone to flooding. It is found in both primary and secondary habitat as well as disturbed and undisturbed areas (Cook <em>et al.</em>, 1990).	eng
5805	population	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is patchily distributed due to habitat, but locally abundant.	eng
5805	threats	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
5806	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5806	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains and the Monte desert of northwestern Argentina and northern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), although Bidau and Lessa (pers. comm.) say it does not occur in Argentina. This part of the range is range of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. opimus</span>. The range goes as far as 29o south in Chile (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5806	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5806	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
5806	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
5807	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5807	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in Chubut and Rio Negro Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Two smaller populations have been added to distribution by Lessa (pers. comm.).	eng
5807	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species lives in arid, steppe grassland punctuated at irregular intervals by wet meadows known as mallines (marshes) (Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). The diets of some individuals in the C. haigi study population consisted primarily of Poa pratensis, diets of other individuals were dominated by the grass Stipa speciosa (E. A. Lacey and M. Manacorda; in litt. cited from Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). Although its primary habitat is Patagonian Steppe it is also found in low Monte and Valdivian rain forest.	eng
5807	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
5807	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
5808	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in Parque Campo de los Alisos.	eng
5808	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in western Argentina from the mountains of La Rioia Province north to Salta Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), above 2,000 m asl.	eng
5808	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in highland grasslands (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5808	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
5808	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Habitat loss to agricultural expansion, in the form of potato plantations, is a threat to this species.	eng
5809	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5809	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina in Tucumán and Salta Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5809	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It inhabits dry areas with xeric vegetation at about 600 m on soft and sandy soils (Reig and Kiblisky, 1969).	eng
5809	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is composed of severely fragmented populations.	eng
5809	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is under threat from habitat loss to agricultural expansion.	eng
5810	conservation	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Bolivia; in Peru it is present in the Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca. Further research is needed into the impacts of the persecution of this species.	eng
5810	distribution	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in west Bolivia and eastern Peru around Lake Titicaca (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs between 3,800 and 4,500 m asl.	eng
5810	habitat	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in Altiplano open grasslands, in both primary habitat and areas disturbed by grazing. It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils.	eng
5810	population	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a patchily distributed species that is locally common where it is found. In Peru it is the rarest of the Ctenomys species, occurring in a restricted area. (Cook and Yates, 1994).	eng
5810	threats	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species is locally threatened at some sites through persecution as a pest of grazing land, although the degree of threat from these measures is not known.	eng
5811	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in the Questa de Sama National Reserve.	eng
5811	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is restricted to the Tarija Department in south central Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found at elevations of 2,600 to 4,000 m asl (N. Bernal pers. comm.).	eng
5811	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is found in open Altiplano grasslands, also in the foothills of Sama. It is found in both primary and disturbed areas. It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that uses underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable soils.	eng
5811	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a locally common species where it occurs.	eng
5811	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is present in areas of traditional grazing and cultivation.	eng
5812	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is listed as Near Threatened in the Argentina national Red List (2000). In the Chilean country-level red list assessment (www.ssvsa.cl/especies.htm) the subspecies are classified as follows:<br/><em>Ctenomys magellanicus dicki</em>: Extinct<br/><em>C. m. osgoodi</em>: Endangered<br/><em>C. m. magellanicus</em>: Endangered.	eng
5812	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is endemic to extreme southern South America including southern Chile and southern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is the only species of Ctenomys to inhabit Isla Grande Tierra del Fuego. The range shown in our maps is the historical range of the species (Lizarralde <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
5812	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in steppes in Patagonia (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5812	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Osgood (1943) notes a decline in population in all over its range (Lessa pers. comm.). Lessa doubts there are extinct subspecies, even though there are information about declines.	eng
5812	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is historical information that species is declining throughout its range for several decades (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5813	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Part of its range occurs within several protected areas.	eng
5813	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in south-central Chile from Talca to Cautin Provinces and in Argentina in Neuquén Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5813	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found in the Patagonian steppes in the arenas volcanicas between 900-2,000 m asl (Pearson and Christie, 1985).	eng
5813	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the population status of this species.	eng
5813	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
5814	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place to protect this species. It is not known if any are needed.	eng
5814	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina on eastern slopes of the Andes from Santa Cruz north to Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Elevation at locations of known occurrence ranges from 460 to 3,400 m asl. (Rosi <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
5814	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It inhabits semixeric to xeric habitats with grasses and shrub communities (Larrea sp.) that are predominantly on poorly developed sandy and gravelly soils (Mora <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
5814	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Gestation length is 95 days and the average young per litter is 2.9 (Busch <em>et al.</em>, 2000)	eng
5814	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
5815	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas in Bolivia.	eng
5815	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs on the coastal plains of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Mato Grosso, Brazil. It can also be found and eastern Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). In Bolivia this species is known only from a single locality in Santa Cruz Department at 400 m.	eng
5815	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	In Bolivia it is found in arid scrubby vegetation at the edge of the Chaco. It is found in colonies in shallow burrows. It is not known if the species is present in disturbed areas.	eng
5815	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	In Bolivia the population is known only from three specimens.	eng
5815	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The threats to this species in Bolivia are not known. The coastal plain environment inhabited by this species suffers from constant modifications because of urbanization, cattle raising and agricultural land use and drainage procedures associated with rice-paddy cultivation (Freitas, 1995).	eng
5817	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5817	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from type locality in Tucumán, northwestern Argentina, however it is presumed to occur in adjacent provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5817	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5817	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
5817	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The original range of this species is under severe pressure from habitat loss and degradation to agricultural expansion, mainly to sugar cane and soy. Most of the lost habitat has been destroyed in the last six years.	eng
5818	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, N., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It may be present in a number of protected areas. Further general research is needed into this species.	eng
5818	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, N., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in northwest Argentina, southwestern Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile, between 2,500 and 5,000 m asl on the Andean steppe.	eng
5818	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, N., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is found in high-Andean puna vegetation. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is crepuscular and diurnal.  This rodent is found on sandy and gravely soils, usually on slopes. Burrow systems usually consist of a single main tunnel from which short lateral branches diverge every few meters and include one or more chambers with stored vegetation and other chambers with nests. Only one animal lives in each burrow system. The burrows are expanded as vegetation is eaten and C. opimus reveals its presence by stripping large areas of natural vegetation. It eats roots, stems, or leaves of most of the available plants. The species digs a tunnel to the food source, then forages no more than two to thee body lengths outside its burrows, bringing the food back to the hole to eat (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Pearson, 1951, 1959; Pine <em>et al</em>. 1979; Tamayo and Frassinetti, 1980).	eng
5818	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, N., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a locally common species with patchy distribution. It is abundant where vegetation is sparse and the soil is loose. In southern Peru it can occur at densities of one to 17 individuals per acre (Pearson, 1959). Gestation length is 120 days and the average young per litter is 1.6 (Pearson, 1959).	eng
5818	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, N., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
5819	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	No conservation measures are in place to protect this species in particular. Some protected areas have been created to conserve coastal lagoons and these may indirectly benefit <em>C. pearsoni</em> (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5819	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known from Soriano, San Jose and Colonia departments in Uruguay (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs below 200 m asl in altitude.	eng
5819	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species demonstrates great variation in its burrow construction, but usually there is one principal gallery with a constant depth that forms the major axis. Tunnels have an average of thirteen openings, with a range of five to 24, and vary in length from 70 to 130 cm. There are one or two nests of dried grass per tunnel (Altuna, 1983). Prefers sand dune habitats but ranges inland as well (Queirolo pers. comm.). It uses a broad range of soil types (Lessa pers. comm.). It lives in predominantly sandy soils with variable clay-loam fraction (Lessa and Langgruth 1983, cited in Mora <em>et al.</em>, 2003). In the west it inhabits hard soils and in the east it also inhabits softer soils, close to lakes and lagoons, including sand dunes (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5819	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species of rodent is common where it occurs but populations are fragmented (Lessa pers. comm.). Individuals occur at a density of 15-20 per hectare.	eng
5819	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss to coastal development for tourism and real estate in the eastern portion of its range.  In the western portion of its range habitat loss is to agriculture and livestock (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5820	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5820	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina, in the central area of western Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It does not occur in Misiones (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
5820	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Species occurs in sandy soils (Bidau, Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5820	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in two disjunct populations and where it occurs it is abundant.	eng
5820	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
5821	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in the Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
5821	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Altiplano of Puno in extreme southern Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has been recorded between elevations of 3,800 and 4,700 m asl.	eng
5821	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in open areas of Altiplano grassland. In occurs in sandy areas in which it constructs burrows. It lives in small colonies of a few animals. It is present in areas used for grazing.	eng
5821	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species and it occurs as patchy colonies.	eng
5821	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however, it is sometimes used for traditional medicinal purposes.	eng
5822	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5822	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in western Argentina, east of the Andes in San Luis and Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is only known from the type locality near San Rafael (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5822	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5822	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
5822	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
5823	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5823	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Argentina in Buenos Aires and La Pampa Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).<br/>.	eng
5823	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Pampas grasslands were the original habitat of this species but due to changes in land use it is mostly found at the edges of the fields.	eng
5823	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	C. porteousi is relatively common where the species persists (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
5823	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Is found only at the edges of the fields (Bidau pers. comm.). Throughout the range, almost the entire habitat has been converted to wheat, sunflower, and other crops.	eng
5824	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5824	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northern Argentina in Salta and Jujuy Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Type locality is uncertain but in the province of Salta (Lessa pers. comm.). There is only one known locality (Lessa and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
5824	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5824	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
5824	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
5825	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5825	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern Argentina in Santa Cruz, Chubut, and Río Negro Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is known only from the type locality south of Parque Nacional Perito Moreno ((Allen, 1903) (Lessa and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
5825	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5825	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
5825	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
5826	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in the Reserva Nacional del Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), although it is not clear if there are any conservation measures being taken to safe guard it in particular. This species is considered Critically Endangered in the Argentinian Red List  (Diaz and Ojeda 2000).	eng
5826	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in Neuquén Province within the area of Reserva Nacional del Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5826	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species lives in arid, steppe grassland punctuated at irregular intervals by wet meadows known as mallines (Lacey and Wieczorek, 2003). The primary dietary item for all C. sociabilis sampled was the grass <em>Poa pratensis</em> (E. A. Lacey and M. Manacorda, in litt.).	eng
5826	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Populations are declining across the limited range.	eng
5826	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Habitat disturbance by grazing sheep is the main threat to this species.	eng
5827	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
5827	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is endemic to western Santa Cruz Department of Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is present between around 400 to 500 m asl.	eng
5827	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a fossorial, herbivorous species that forages on underground tubers and roots. Colonies are found in areas with friable, not often flooded, soils. It has been recorded from open savanna areas that have been disturbed by sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and other agricultural activities. Opening up of savanna habitats seems to be generally beneficial to this species.	eng
5827	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
5827	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
5828	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known measures taken to conserve this species.	eng
5828	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Argentina along the coast in Buenos Aires Province, possibly extending to Santa Fe Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). There are 3 disjunct populations (Justo <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
5828	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It lives in well vegetated grassy habitats that have more or less sandy and friable to hard clay soils (Malizia <em>et al.</em>, 1991, Vassallo, 1998). It inhabits highly variable habitat from sand dunes to inland grasslands (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
5828	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Gestation length of this species ranges between 95 and 102 days (Weir 1974, Zenuto 1999 cited in Busch <em>et al.</em>, 2000) and the average young per litter ranges between 4.09-4.52 (Malizia and Busch 1991, 1997, cited in Busch <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
5828	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
5829	conservation	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.  More studies should be performed at melocular and ecological levels, and protected areas must be set aside to preserve these species (Fernandes <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
5829	distribution	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (Fernandes, 2007).	eng
5829	habitat	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The species occurs in wide range of habitats (Lessa pers. comm.). It prefers sandy habitats in Argentina and Uruguay; in Uruguay it does not occur in cultivated areas (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It lives in relatively shallow burrows and is diurnal in surface activity when it feeds on plants around the burrow entrance (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Young are born from September to December after a gestation of 105 days.	eng
5829	population	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is widespread and composed of locally large populations (Lessa pers. comm.). The population density is related to food plant density (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
5829	threats	Lessa, E. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Despite its wide geographic distribution, C. torquatus is endangered in Brazil. In the sand fields in central and southern Rio Grande do Sul, agriculture has developed rapidly since the 1960s, particularly soybean, Pinus and Eucalyptus plantations (Fernandez, 2007). Strip coal mining is thought pose a significant threat of habitat disturbance to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. torquatus</span> (Freitas, 1995).	eng
5830	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information on any conservation actions in place or needed for this species. This species is listed as Vulnerable on the Argentine Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
5830	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina, in Tucumán Province west of the mountains to 3,000 m (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs in two disjunct populations (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5830	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It inhabits humid plains to 3,000 m in rather compact, loamy and humous soils (Reig <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
5830	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is relatively abundant in its northern range (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5830	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Habitat loss to agricultural expansion is a major threat to this species (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
5831	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
5831	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5831	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It inhabits humid areas of the plains of central Tucuman (Reig and Kiblisky, 1969).	eng
5831	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
5831	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is thought that habitat loss to agricultural expansion is a major threat to this species.	eng
5832	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
5832	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina in Mendoza Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
5832	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
5832	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is considered Vulnerable in Argentina (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
5832	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
5935	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Horák, J. & Tezcan, S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is accordingly legally protected in many countries, for example in Hungary. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Finland). In Finland it is listed as Critically Endangered and in Poland as Least Concern. It is planned to included this species in the Red Book of Ukraine.	eng
5935	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Horák, J. & Tezcan, S., 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe but it is largely absent in the south and west. The strongest populations are in central Europe. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country wherever wooded plant societies occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been recorded from three sites in the south (Ratti 2006). In Finland only two or three populations exist. A single locality is known in Spain, from the 1960s (Español 1963); it has never been found again.<br/><br/>Luce (1996) suggests that sites in southern Europe are mistaken identifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. haematodes</span>, although he provides no evidence in support of this opinion. Both species are recorded from Italy, which suggests that the records are genuine.	eng
5935	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Horák, J. & Tezcan, S., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults live under bark of deadwood of a variety of broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Acer,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, </span>and rarely <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. The adults and larvae are saproxylophagous, feeding on the decaying wood, but are sometimes reported as necrophagous or predatory (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The species needs open spaces and prefers lowland areas with soft-wooded broad-leaves. The adults and older stages of larvae hibernate under bark on the deadwood. In Romania larvae develop under very decayed bark of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees with the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Ceratocystis </span>etc. The adult is active in May - June. Young beetles appear in July - August (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests, including hilly and mountainous broad-leaved forests, pine, poplar and black locust tree plantations, city parks, alleys or in solitary trees along roads (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it lives in old-growth forests in old aspen trees.	eng
5935	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Horák, J. & Tezcan, S., 2009	The species is expanding in central-eastern Europe but declining in the surrounding areas. In the Czech Republic there are strong populations due to withering poplar plantations; it is the same situation in most parts of central Europe. In Germany, in the eastern part it seems common. In Hungary populations in hilly and mountainous broad-leaved forests and indigenous or planted pine forests are mostly small; populations in riverine willow galleries and indigenous or planted poplar plantations are often much stronger (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered very rare. <br/><br/>In Spain two specimens were collected in a single locality in the 1960s and it has never been found again (Español 1963). Very rare or presumably extinct in Spain (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
5935	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Horák, J. & Tezcan, S., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.In Hungary removal of dead wood is a key threat, but the species is widespread and quickly colonizes new habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine a negative factor is the felling and destruction of old trees. In Finland populations are within protected areas, but the species is threatened by insufficient continuum of large aspen and poor possibilities of colonizing new areas.<br/></p>	eng
5953	conservation	Durbin, L.S., Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Tyson, M., Lyenga, A. & Venkataraman, A., 2008	Included in CITES – Appendix II (2003).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, the current wildlife decrees give the dhole protection from all hunting. A new forestry law is under preparation, and a proposal to list the species as a fully protected species is under discussion. In India, the dhole is protected under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Act of 1972 (permission is required to kill any individual unless in self defence or if an individual is a man killer). The creation of Project Tiger Reserves in India has provided some protection for populations of the dukhunensis subspecies (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm., L. Durbin, pers. obs.). In the Russian Federation, dholes received the status of "protected animal" in 1974 (A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov in litt.); however, the poisoning of grey wolves may inadvertently affect any remnant dhole populations (V. Puzanskii pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, the dhole is protected by Decree 18/HDBT (17/01/1992) and the amendment Decree 48/2002/ND-DP (22/04/2002) under category IIB, which limits extraction and utilization. However, the levels of extraction or utilization are not quantified (B. Long in litt. 2003). Dholes are listed as a category II protected species under the Chinese wildlife protection act of 1988.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures specifically focused on dholes have been reported for most range states. In India, Project Tiger could potentially maintain dhole prey bases in areas where tigers and dholes coexist. There do not appear to be any specific measures for dhole conservation in Indochina, although the declaration of relatively large protected area networks in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam will, when these areas become functional realities on the ground, form a suitable conservation system for the species in at least Cambodia and Lao PDR. <br/><br/>There are at least 110 dholes in captivity, and the sex ratio is approximately even. Except for some captive populations in India heterozygosity appears to be good, but there is little chance of breeding the putative subspecies as animals from diverse geographical origins have been widely interbred (M. Boeer pers. comm.).	eng
5953	distribution	Durbin, L.S., Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Tyson, M., Lyenga, A. & Venkataraman, A., 2008	In Central and eastern Asia, there have been no confirmed, recent reports of dholes from Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan (where they were found formerly in the Tian-Shan area) or Tajikistan (where they were found formerly in the eastern Pamir area) (A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov in litt. D. Miquelle pers. comm.). There is a recent report of a dhole that was captured in Jiangxi district, south China (C. Bellamy pers. comm.). Dholes were once present in parts of western China in the Tian-Shan Range, but the species' current status in this area is unclear; they do at least still persist, perhaps in low numbers, in parts of the Qilian Shan in north-western Gansu Province (Harris 2006). The species is still found in Tibet today, particularly in areas bordering the Ladakh region of India (R. Wangchuk pers. comm.), and the Tibet Forestry Bureau has reported that dholes are still "common" in parts of southeast Tibet (S. Chan, in litt.). Dholes occurred in northern Korea (Won Chang Man and Smith 1999) and a few small populations may still exist. There have been no records from Pakistan, but the species occurred on the alpine steppes of Ladakh, Kashmir, and India (Johnsingh 1985) that extend into the region termed Pakistan-occupied Kashmir by India. <br/><br/>Dholes are still found throughout much of India south of the river Ganges, and especially in the Central Indian Highlands and the Western and Eastern Ghats of the southern states. They are also found throughout north-east India, in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, and West Bengal (A. Venkataraman, A.J.T. Johnsingh and L. Durbin pers. comm.). In the Himalaya and north-western India, the status of dholes seems more precarious with a much more fragmented distribution. Dholes reportedly still occur in the Ladakh area of Kashmir, which is contiguous with the Tibetan highlands in China (R. Wangchuk pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species formerly was recorded in the Terai region of the Indo-gangetic plain, including the Royal Chitawan National Park in Nepal, but there have been few recent reports. There is an unconfirmed report of dholes in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in the late 1990s (R.C. Kandel pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Bhutan, there have been recent press reports that dholes have recovered from a government-initiated mass poisoning campaign in the 1970s and there have apparently been numerous recent incidents of dholes killing livestock in the lower Kheng region. Two recent, independent, eye-witness reports identify dholes in six protected areas in Bhutan (S. Wangchuk pers. comm., T. Wangchuk pers. comm.). In some regions, dhole predation on wild boar (Sus scrofa) may be viewed in a positive light by local people (T. Wangchuk pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Bangladesh, dholes were thought to occur in the forested tracts of the Chittagong and Sylhet Districts (Johnsingh 1985). It is not certain whether any remain in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, dholes were recorded by camera trapping at 11 of 15 survey areas scattered across the country, only four of which were protected. Dholes and/or leopards have apparently replaced tigers as the top predator in these areas (Myanmar Forest Department 2003).<br/><br/>In Indochina, dholes probably ranged over all or almost all of Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand, although reliable site-specific information is scarce. Present distribution is highly fragmented and large parts, particularly of Viet Nam and Thailand, are without any regular occurrence of dholes, although they persist in a number of protected areas (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Waltson 2001, M. Baltzer and R. Shore in litt., A. Lynam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species' historical range probably included all or most of the Malaysian peninsula and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java, but reliable information is scarce. Current distribution is poorly known but is thought to be highly fragmented. On the Malaysian peninsula, dholes are known to occur in four sites in northern and central areas of the peninsula (from recent camera-trap surveys; J.B. Abdul pers. comm.). On Java, dholes appear to be most common in the protected areas at the eastern and western ends of the island. On Sumatra, very little is known, but dholes are known to occur in major protected areas in the southern, central, and northern parts of the island (e.g., from camera trapping; D. Martyr pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no reliable evidence of the presence of Dhole in Turkey (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001; Can 2004).	eng
5953	habitat	Durbin, L.S., Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Tyson, M., Lyenga, A. & Venkataraman, A., 2008	The dhole is found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including: primary, secondary and degraded forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forest; evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dry thorn forests; grassland–scrub–forest mosaics; and alpine steppe (above 3,000 m). They are not recorded from desert regions.<br/>In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forest may represent optimal habitats, based on the regions thought to hold the largest dhole populations. Ungulate biomass, particularly that of cervid species, is highest in these vegetation types when compared to others in the same region (A. Venkataraman and V. Narendra Babu, unpubl.). In India, tropical dry and moist deciduous forests are subject to seasonal monsoon climates. <br/><br/>Important factors that may influence habitat selection include the availability of medium to large ungulate prey species, water, the presence of other large carnivore species, human population levels and suitability of breeding sites (proximity to water, presence of suitable boulder structures and sufficient prey).	eng
5953	threats	Durbin, L.S., Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Tyson, M., Lyenga, A. & Venkataraman, A., 2008	Depletion of prey base: Across almost all of Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam, as well as within protected areas, ungulates occur at levels well below natural. All species of ungulate except muntjacs (<em>Muntiacus</em> spp.), pigs (<em>Sus</em> spp.) and in some areas southern serow (<em>Naemorhedus sumatraensis</em>) are ecologically or fully extinct across extensive parts of the region. Only a few of the largest wildernesses support nearly intact species assemblages and even in these, the larger species (<em>Bos</em> spp., <em>Cervus</em> spp., hog deer <em>Axis porcinus</em>) are very rare. This situation will likely hinder any possibility of recovery by the region's dhole populations, even if the other issues could be addressed. While not as depressed as in Indochina, prey levels in Indonesia also exist at levels much below carrying capacity (because of illegal hunting and habitat degradation). In protected areas in southern and central India, where dhole numbers are stable, prey densities are high. In north-east India, prey densities are very low in protected areas with dholes.<br/><br/>Habitat loss and transformation: Currently, extensive areas of natural or semi-natural vegetation remain in Lao PDR and Cambodia, some areas encompassing many hundreds of square kilometres of potential dhole habitat. However, habitat conversion and fragmentation are proceeding apace. In Viet Nam, very few natural areas of over 50 km² remain. Habitat loss and fragmentation is a major threat to protected areas in Indonesia, particularly those on Sumatra. Habitat loss and degradation are also serious threats to dholes in South Asia and the disappearance of dholes from many of the forested tracts in India has been attributed in large part to loss of habitat.<br/><br/>Persecution: This certainly occurs in Indochina, although it is unclear how often. In Indonesia, too, it is a threat but again its significance is unknown. In India, such persecution can play a serious role in limiting local populations. Dholes living outside or on the edge of core protected areas are particularly vulnerable to human kleptoparasitism, snaring (non-selective) and direct persecution. For example, during a radio-tracking study in 2000, in the buffer zone of Kanha Tiger Reserve, central India, at least 16 out of 24 dholes in one pack died from a sudden strychnine poisoning (L. Durbin pers. obs.). In southern India, such persecution is moderate to low and often occurs indirectly when cattle graziers and others inadvertently go close to dhole dens and disturb adults and pups, disrupting breeding and rearing (A. Venkataraman pers. obs.). "By-catch" in snares and other traps is probably a significant threat to dholes across Indochina at least.<br/><br/>Competition with other species: Apparently, free-living dogs have been seen and/or camera trapped in many parts of Indochina, but there is no evidence for existence of large populations. Undoubtedly, the main competitor for prey species in Indochina is people. There is no evidence that feral dogs are significant competitors with dholes in Indonesia. In many parts of their range, dholes are sympatric with tigers and leopards and so the potential for significant interspecific competition for prey exists, especially if the prey populations are reduced as a result of hunting by people.<br/><br/>Disease and pathogens: Particularly those transmitted by feral and/or domestic dogs (e.g., mange, canine distemper, parvovirus and rabies). The significance of disease is unclear in Indochina, but diseases are a significant threat in South Asia and probably in parts of Indonesia.<br/><br/>There is no widespread exploitation for fur or other purposes, though medicinal use should be investigated in China.	eng
5955	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Known from around the Gulf of Tonkin in Southeast Asia, particularly in northern Viet Nam and Hainan Island, China.	eng
5955	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is found in high altitude woodland areas, often keeping to the safety of the underbrush.	eng
5957	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Blanck, T. & Lau, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> is protected under Chinese domestic legislation and is included in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Surveys to locate and protect any remaining animals and populations and their habitat are in progress; should one or more populations be found, effective in-situ protection of the species and its habitat are urgently required, alongside the establishment of an assurance colony for future re-introduction and population reinforcement.<br/><br/>A single pair in captivity has successfully reproduced (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and could represent the nucleus of a captive assurance colony.	eng
5957	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Blanck, T. & Lau, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. yunnanensis</span> has been reported only from Kunming Fu and Tongchuan Fu [=Dongchuan <span style="font-style: italic;">fide</span> Iverson, 1992, but refers to Zhongping (=Huize) City <span style="font-style: italic;">fide</span> Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006] in Yunnan, China, at the time of its 1906 description (Iverson 1992, Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and a single animal from Xi Shan (Western Mountains) near Kunming collected in 1940 (Zhang and Cheng 1946). It is likely that these animals were purchased in markets and may have been transported by humans, possibly for substantial distances  (Blanck 2005). Three more specimens in the Institute of Zoology in Beijing (Parham<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, Blanck 2005) have no reported locality data or collection date. The origin of three recent specimens discovered since 2004 and now held in captivity has not been recorded (Zhou and Zhao 2004, Zhou 2005, He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and the precise geographic origin of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. yunnanensis</span> remains subject of speculation, with northwestern Yunnan and adjacent Sichuan, northeastern Yunnan close to the Myanmar border, southern Yunnan, and northern Laos having been suggested (Blanck 2005, Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Yang and Rao, 2008).	eng
5957	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Blanck, T. & Lau, M., 2009	No information is available beyond the general assumption that <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> inhabits streams, lakes and/or swampy wetlands, the typical lifestyle of most <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora</span> species. The type locality, Kunming, is at just under 1,900 m altitude; a distribution range of 2,000-2,260 m altitude is generally cited (e.g., Yu 1998, Lau and Shi 2000), but has been questioned as being too high (Blanck 2005).<br/><br/>Females reach up to 17.5 cm CL at 850 grams, males about 15 cm at 375 grams (Zhou and Zhao 2004, Zhou 2005, Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). In captivity, one or two clutches per female per year, of 4–8 eggs per clutch (maximum eight eggs per year), have been reported (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Hatchlings emerge after 64–68 days of incubation at 28–30­°C, and measure 32–35 mm at a weight of 6.5–8.3 grams (Zhou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
5957	population	van Dijk, P.P., Blanck, T. & Lau, M., 2009	The type series of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis </span>consists of five animals collected at Kunming by a single collector, plus one from Tongchuan [Zhongping] collected by another collector, and another three museum specimens from Kunming, all collected at the same time (Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Blanck 2005), suggesting that the species was not particularly rare at this early period of exploration (1900–1906). Four more specimens were subsequently collected and stored in Chinese collections, one of these in 1940 (Parham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Zhou and Zhao 2004, Blanck 2005). Commercial turtle collectors and traders have extensively harvested turtles throughout China (Lau and Shi 2000), and extensive but unsuccessful search efforts had been made to locate <span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> in the wild or in trade. Based on this information, the Asian Turtle Trade Working Group (2000) considered the species extinct. However, a single animal, without data on its origin, was purchased in a Kunming market in 2004 (Zhou and Zhao 2004), showing that this conclusion was premature. At least two animals have subsequently been reported and are held in captivity (Zhou 2005, He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Yang and Rao 2008). There were initial concerns that the single 2004 animal could have been a hybrid animal that resembled <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> in its head and throat pattern, but not its absence of an anal notch; however, the identity of the live animals as <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> was genetically confirmed by He <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007).	eng
5957	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Blanck, T. & Lau, M., 2009	The main site of presumed historical occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span>, Kunming, is now an expansive city surrounded mainly by agricultural fields especially in the flat areas. The adjacent Kunming Lake is heavily polluted; the lake's endemic newt <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynops wolterstorfii</span> is considered extinct as a result of water pollution. Monofilament fishing nets were seen abandoned at the lakeshore in 2005, suggesting a risk of accidental drowning if <span style="font-style: italic;">yunnanensis</span> persists (van Dijk pers obs 2005). Substantial areas of the lake have been encroached upon by expansion of the city of Kunming, though a large area of open water remains. The Western Hills area has been extensively developed for tourism, including roads, trails and a cable car, and contains a long-term settlement of rural people tending vegetable and fruit gardens (and presumably gathering local flora, fungi and fauna, potentially including turtles). Hence, habitat degradation and destruction are believed to represent threats.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cuora yunnanensis</span> has been restricted from international trade by inclusion in CITES Appendix II in 2000, but is reputed to be worth about USD 50,000 for the first animal to emerge from China into the international pet trade (Blanck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and several USD 1,000 for subsequent animals, generating strong incentives to search for and smuggle out any animal.	eng
5958	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Juveniles fully aquatic (marshes, swamps, ponds, pools, rice paddies); adults semi-aqautic.	eng
5960	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic - ponds, rice paddies	eng
5962	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
6012	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed as Range Restricted, but with a Stable population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is not listed on current conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns 1999). However, as part of the <em>Oligosoma </em> Species Recovery Plan, the following measures are listed as preferred options for the species: pest prevention, monitoring of translocations, planning for reintroduction to Cuvier, Stanley and Middle Chain Islands, and surveying of Red Mercury Island. The Ten Year Goals include reintroduction of the species to Tiritiri Matangi, Motuora Island and Double Island (Towns 1999).	eng
6012	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	Morphological and molecular data indicate that this species is distributed on the Poor Knights Islands (Aorangi, Tawhiti, Motu Kapiti Island, Archway Island, Stack A, Stack B,and Stack C (Whitaker 1978, Towns 1999), Mercury Islands (Middle, Green, and Korapuki Island), Ohinau Islands only on Old Man rock (Whitaker 1978, Towns 1999) and Aldermen Islands (Half Island, Ruamahuanui, Hongiora, Ruamahuaiti) off the north coast of New Zealand (Towns 1999, Gill and Whitaker 2001, Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008). The new species separated from this species complex (<em>O. townsi</em>) is restricted to the Mokohinau Islands, Hen and Chickens group, Little Barrier Island and Great Barrier Island.<br/><br/>The Korapuki Island population in the Mercury Island group was reintroduced from Green Island in 1992-1993 (Towns 1994). <br/><br/>An extent of occurrence has been calculated by taking the sum of the island areas equalling 26 km²<sup></sup>:&#160;Poor Knights Islands, 24 km²<sup></sup>;&#160;Mercury Islands, 1 km²;&#160;Aldermen Islands, 1 km²; Ohinau Islands, 0.7 ha<br/><br/>Data from local extant species and subfossil deposits indicate that this species had lived in the coastal broadleaf forests and associated shoreline of Northland, near the Cavalli Islands, 1,000 years B.P. (Towns and Daugherty 1994); however, it is now locally extinct from this region.	eng
6012	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits coastal forest and scrub (Towns 1994), preferring leaf litter (Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is crepuscular (twilight-dwelling) to nocturnal (Towns and Daugherty 1994). It is omnivorous, and eats a variety of invertebrates, fruits and berries (Chapple <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
6012	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed as Range Restricted, but with a stable population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
6012	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	Species of this genus have been particularly vulnerable to the effects of introduced mammals, namely rats and cats (Towns 1994). Middle Island and Green Island have not been colonized by introduced predators (Town 1994). <br/><br/>This species may be more vulnerable to predators due to its limited ability to climb and therefore shift to vertical use of the habitat (Whitaker 1978); however a number of the islands this species inhabits are free from introduced predators and there is frequent monitoring to ensure recolonization does not occur. &#160;This said, there is always the potential threat of recolonization by introduced predators, particularly rats, which could be detrimental to this species population (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).	eng
6019	conservation	Chiarello, A., Miranda, F., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. The seemingly disjunct population in north-eastern Brazil may be taxonomically distinct and needs further study (Miranda pers. comm.). This population is especially threatened by the almost total destruction of suitable forest habitat for sugarcane production.	eng
6019	distribution	Chiarello, A., Miranda, F., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species ranges from México (Veracruz and Oaxaca) in the north (although absent from the Pacific coast of México), south into Colombia from where it ranges west of the Andes to southern Ecuador, and east of the Andes into Venezuela, Trinidad Island, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil (Acre state east to Alagoas state), and as far south as Bolivia (La Paz and Santa Cruz) (Gardner 2005). A disjunct population has been reported from the northern Atlantic Forest (Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Paraiba, and Rio Grande do Norte). The species has not been recorded from El Salvador and it is unclear if the species was ever present there, especially as it does not occur in the Pacific coastal region of Mexico. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
6019	habitat	Chiarello, A., Miranda, F., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This nocturnal and arboreal species occurs in semi-deciduous and evergreen tropical moist lowland and gallery forest, mangrove forest, and cerrado (dry savanna habitat). It can be found in secondary forest habitat. Adults are solitary, and the females give birth to a single young up to twice a year (Reid 1997).	eng
6019	population	Chiarello, A., Miranda, F., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It has been recorded at a density of 0.77 animals per hectare in Panamá.	eng
6019	threats	Chiarello, A., Miranda, F., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	Although general deforestation is taking place over many parts of the range, it remains widespread in the Amazon Basin and there are no major threats to its survival.	eng
6026	conservation	Gerber, G., 2004	The Turks and Caicos has a fairly extensive system of national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries, a number of which encompass areas supporting iguanas. However, these reserves are not immune to the effects of introduced mammals and few government resources are presently allocated to maintain or enforce protection of non-marine parks. Largely due to the urging of the TCI National Trust, legislation to protect iguanas within the islands has recently been drafted, although not yet implemented. In addition, the government has granted the TCI National Trust stewardship of Little Ambergris Cay, which supports a healthy iguana population, and Little Water Cay, which supports a large population of iguanas but needs management due to its popularity with tourists and recent invasion by feral cats. Finally, the TCI National Trust has initiated a public education campaign that includes a tour of all schools to discuss iguanas and other conservation issues. In November, 2003, a Conservation and Management Plan was drafted at a joint IUCN-government sponsored workshop attended by in-country conservation managers, government officials, private businessmen, and international iguana conservation experts. The plan lays out a comprehensive strategy to conserve and restore populations of the Turks and Caicos iguana within its historic range, and perpetuate it as a symbol of national pride and sound environmental management. <br/> <br/>All Bahamian rock iguanas are protected under the Wild Animal Protection Act of 1968. The Bahamas National Trust has proposed to the Bahamas government that Booby Cay, which is also of significant value for nesting seabirds, be named a protected area under the national parks system (Carey <em>et al</em>. 2000). Representatives of the Wildlife Committee of the Bahamas National Trust and the Department of Agriculture are planning the removal of feral goats.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6026	distribution	Gerber, G., 2004	The species is found on 50–60 of the > 200 islands comprising the Turks and Caicos island banks.  The combined surface area of all islands in the Turks and Caicos is approximately 500 km². The extent of occurrence for iguanas is 13 km², most of which is accounted for by three large cays (Big Ambergis, Little Ambergris and East Bay). In the Bahamas, the species is found only on Booby Cay, located 0.5 km off the eastern end of Mayaguana Island. The cay is 2 km in length and varies from 100–750 m wide. Approximately 30% of the cay is taken up by two ponds.	eng
6026	habitat	Gerber, G., 2004	The species is most abundant is rocky coppice and sandy strand vegetation habitats, and friable soil is required for nesting. It is diurnal and spends the night in burrows it has dug or in natural retreats under rocks. It is primarily herbivorous throughout its life, feeding arboreally or terrestrially on the fruits, flowers and leaves of > 60 plant species, as well as occasional invertebrates.  Adult males are territorial throughout the year. Courtship and mating occur in April/May, with a single annual clutch of 2–11 eggs laid in May/June. Females defend the nest burrow for several days to weeks after nesting, but are not territorial during the rest of the year. Hatching occurs in September after about 90 days of incubation. Sexual maturity in males occurs at about 7 years and in females at 6–7 years. Annual survivorship ranges from about 55% for the first three years of life, to about 67% during years four through six, to 90–95% in adults. Life table analysis suggests that mean cohort generation time is 14 years. Preliminary data suggest that some individuals live at least 20 years.	eng
6026	population	Gerber, G., 2004	Approximately 30,000 adult iguanas remain in the Turks and Caicos islands, fragmented into 50–60 island subpopulations. Subpopulations range from islands without feral mammals, where iguanas are very common (densities may exceed 30 adults per hectare) to islands with feral mammal populations, on which iguana are either absent or extremely rare. The most important remaining subpopulations are on three large cays lacking feral predators (Big Ambergris, Little Ambergis and East Bay), the largest of which (Big Ambergris; 4.3 km²; supporting approximately 10,000 adult iguanas) is privately owned and under development.   <br/> <br/>In the Bahamas, surveys indicate that iguanas on Booby Cay were fairly numerous in 1988 and 1997, with all age classes present. However, the iguana population is restricted to a single small cay with a high point of 6.2 m and most of its area below 3 m. Although no formal census has been conducted, it is unlikely that the population exceeds 750 adults (Gerber <em>et al</em>., unpublished data).	eng
6026	threats	Gerber, G., 2004	In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the primary threat to iguanas is introduced mammals, particularly cats and dogs.  Iverson (1978, 1979) documented the near-extirpation of a population of over 5,000 adults in three years as a result of predation by feral cats and dogs. Feral livestock (goats, cows, donkeys and horses) pose a serious threat also, presumably because they compete for food plants, alter the vegetational composition of habitats and trample soft substrates where iguanas burrow and nest. In 1995, iguanas were found on only 5–26 islands with cats or livestock. Iguanas on these islands were very rare, whereas iguanas on islands without introduced mammals are common.  Recently, feral cats have crossed a newly formed sand spit connecting Pine and Water Cay (two islands with cats) to Little Water Cay (an important nature reserve that was previously cat-free). Development for tourism is also an increasing cause of habitat loss. <br/> <br/>On Booby Cay, Bahamas, the immediate threat to the population is the presence of goats, which are degrading the vegetation through over-browsing.  Catastrophe, particularly in the form of a hurricane or storm surge, is a significant threat. <br/> <br/>In the Turks and Caicos, iguanas are still occasionally eaten by local fishermen, and although illegal exportation for international trade is undocumented, it probably occurs. There have been no reports of poaching of iguanas on Booby Cay, although it is unknown is any are taken by local fishermen for consumption.	eng
6027	conservation	Grant, T.D., Gibson, R. & Wilson, B.S., 2010	<p>  </p><p>  </p><p>Although most of Jamaica’s remaining ecologically important forests, including the Hellshire Hills, are owned by the government and protected by law under the Forest Act of 1996, the Act has received little enforcement. The Hellshire Hills is currently part of the Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA). Declared in 1999, the PBPA is Jamaica’s largest protected area and includes both of the Goat Islands. Designation as a protected area provides a promising legal instrument to prevent the expansion of large-scale development projects in the Hellshire Hills.<br/></p><p>Following the rediscovery of the species in 1990, a local Jamaican Iguana Research and Conservation Group (JIRCG) was formed, comprising representatives from the University of the West Indies, the Natural Resources Conservation Authority, Hope Zoological Gardens, and the Institute of Jamaica. Together with a group of international iguana specialists, the JIRCG held an IUCN-sponsored workshop in Kingston in 1993, which developed a Population and Habitat Viability Assessment and a comprehensive plan for recovering this species in the wild (CBSG 1993). During the workshop, it became clear the current mortality level of juvenile iguanas in the wild was too high to permit survival of the population. This led to recommendations for a captive headstarting program at the Hope Zoo, which has resulted in the release of 138 iguanas back into the Hellshire Hills from 1996 through 2010.<br/></p><p>The JIRCG is now known as the Jamaican Iguana Recovery Group (JIRG) and includes international collaborators. In addition to captive headstarting and release, the group continues to survey the wider Hellshire Hills, monitors individuals in the core area centered around the known nesting sites, and is detailing a complete natural history of the species (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2004; Wilson and van Veen 2005, 2008). Repatriated animals have demonstrated high survivorship and are now integrated into the breeding population. Complementary predator control in the core area has resulted in improved recruitment attributable to enhanced survival among younger age classes. The group also focuses on education, international awareness, and habitat protection and improvement.<br/></p><p>In 1994, an <em>ex situ</em> captive population was initiated with the importation of 12 iguanas to three U.S. institutions (Indianapolis Zoo, Fort Worth Zoo, and Gladys Porter Zoo). In 1996, this group was supplemented by a second importation of 12 iguanas to the San Diego Zoo, Central Florida Zoo, and Sedgwick County Zoo. After successful breeding in the U.S., the program has expanded to Fresno, Miami, and St. Louis zoos. The primary purpose of the U.S. captive population is to promote education, awareness, and provide support for the ongoing recovery effort of the wild population. Additionally, the captive colony is managed for long-term maintenance of genetic diversity in the event of catastrophic loss in the wild population (Grant 2010).<br/></p><p>As a further safeguard against extinction, captive-reared juvenile iguanas may also be used to establish satellite populations on the Goat Islands, provided the islands can be rendered free of predators and goats. A priority goal, highlighted in the 2006 Jamaican Iguana Species Recovery Plan, outlines establishing a dry forest biodiversity reserve on these offshore islets and is arguably the single most critical conservation activity ensuring the long-term recovery of the Jamaican Iguana. <br/></p><p>The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/>         </p><p></p><p></p>	eng
6027	distribution	Grant, T.D., Gibson, R. & Wilson, B.S., 2010	According to Sloane (1725), who visited the island in 1688, iguanas were once common in Jamaica although their distribution seems to have been restricted to the drier sections of the south coast. The Jamaican Iguana declined dramatically during the second half of the 19th century, probably due to the introduction of the Indian Mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em> [=<em>auropunctatus</em>]) in 1872, changing land use patterns, and human population growth.&#160; Today, the iguana survives only in the Hellshire Hills, a rugged limestone area with suitable habitat totalling 114 km². However, extensive surveying has shown that iguanas are only found near the central core area that is protected from mongoose (<10 km²). Despite the proximity to Jamaica’s densely populated capital Kingston, the Hellshire Hills persist as a wilderness area because of its ruggedness and lack of surface water, making the area unsuitable for agriculture and large-scale settlement. The species was recorded to occur from sea level up to 200 m.	eng
6027	habitat	Grant, T.D., Gibson, R. & Wilson, B.S., 2010	<p>  </p>  <p>Rugged limestone outcroppings comprise much of the Hellshire Hills with coarse red ferralic soil accumulating in crevices and depressions. Soil suitable for nesting is comparatively scarce. The vegetation of the Hellshire Hills consists of tropical dry forest, one of the world’s most threatened ecosystems. Jamaican Iguanas are found only in the remotest sections of the Hellshire Hills where the forest remains in good condition. The Jamaican Iguana feeds on leaves, fruits, and flowers of a wide variety of plant species, supplemented occasionally by animal matter, including snails and insects.<br/></p><p>Since 1991 the known communal nest sites have been observed intensively (Vogel 1994, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2004) and individuals have been marked. Nesting occurs in underground burrows, filled with loose soil, and is guarded for several days. Gravid female iguanas begin digging trial holes long before egg laying. Females deposit their eggs in mid-June, and hatchlings emerge approximately 85-87 days later. Clutch sizes range from 6-20 eggs depending on the size and age of the female. Hatching success varies from 0 to 100% and appears to be related to maternal body size and seasonal rainfall extremes (B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010).</p><p></p>	eng
6027	population	Grant, T.D., Gibson, R. & Wilson, B.S., 2010	<p>  </p><p>At the beginning of the 20th century, the Jamaican Iguana was thought to have survived only on the Goat Islands, two small islets offshore from the Hellshire Hills.&#160; The iguana was believed extinct after this population disappeared in the 1940s.&#160; However, the continued survival of the Jamaican Iguana in the Hellshire Hills was confirmed in 1970 (Woodley 1980) from a single individual and again in 1990, both found by hunter’s dogs. A preliminary survey in 1990 revealed a small surviving population of fewer than 100 animals living in the least disturbed central and western sections of the Hellshire Hills. Two active nesting sites were also found though juvenile recruitment appeared to be minimal. Iguanas appear to have disappeared from northern and eastern sections of the Hellshire Hills because of extensive logging for charcoal production, use of dogs for pig hunting, and human settlements (CBSG 1993, B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010).</p><p>Today, because of intensive predator control and the reintroduction of headstarted iguanas, the population in the central core area only is increasing. &#160;Field research has documented several milestones in the core area including: a greater than two-fold increase in the number of nesting females, successful reproduction among repatriated releases, and long-term survival and reproductive maturation of hatchlings (B. Wilson and R. van Veen pers. comms. 2010). The population trend for iguanas wandering outside the area protected by the mongoose trapline is unknown.</p><p></p>	eng
6027	threats	Grant, T.D., Gibson, R. & Wilson, B.S., 2010	The most significant pressure on the remaining population in areas of intact forest are alien invasive predators, including mongooses, cats, stray dogs, and possibly feral pigs. Mongooses are very common throughout the Hellshire Hills and field observations indicate they prey on both young iguanas and iguana eggs. Cats occur throughout the area and are also known predators of juvenile iguanas. The dogs used to hunt feral pigs are of particular concern, as they are able to kill adult iguanas (Woodley 1980). Although feral pigs have not been observed disturbing iguana nests in the Hellshire Hills, evidence from Mona Island suggests they are potentially important egg predators (Wiewandt 1977).<br/><br/>Another significant problem is illegal tree cutting in the forest for use in charcoal production, a local industry that provides income to an estimated 10,000 Jamaicans. Approximately one-third of the Hellshire Hills is badly degraded as a result of this enterprise. Development projects proposing large-scale limestone mining, human settlements, and tourism also threaten the eastern half of the Hellshire Hills. Although a few localized limestone quarries might have only limited impact on the iguanas and their habitat, the new roads that would be constructed to facilitate the mining process would undoubtedly allow charcoal burners, pig hunters, and other forest users to migrate further into the forest.<br/>The Jamaican Iguana is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This iguana has not been utilized by humans since well before the late 1800s.	eng
6028	conservation	Day, M., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6030	conservation	Day, M., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6031	conservation	Mitchell, N., 1996	A major grant has been received from the Environment, Science and Energy Department of the UK Foreign Commonwealth Office to facilitate conservation activities on Anegada.  Goals of this program are to 1) implement a cat eradication/control feasibility study, 2) expand the current headstart facility, 3) train the Senior Terrestrial Warden in iguana husbandry and facility maintenance, 4) conduct population censusing and mapping at sites nesting sites and other potential sites where adults may be found, and 5) develop environmental education materials to raise public awareness of the importance and vulnerability of iguanas on Anegada. <br/> <br/>In the 1980s, eight iguanas were moved from Anegada to Guana Island, British Virgin Islands, to start a second population in part of the species’ former range (Goodyear and Lazell 1994).  This is not a limestone island, and does not provide as many natural retreats as Anegada.  In the absence of introduced predators, however, the iguanas appear to do well and reproduce in areas that are free of sheep (the only feral grazing competitor present).  Currently, approximately 20 adult iguanas are estimated to inhabit Guana.  Offspring have been seen each year since 1987, but recruitment is very low over much of the island.  Guana Island Wildlife Sanctuary continues to try to rid the island of sheep, which may improve the habitat for iguanas.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6031	distribution	Mitchell, N., 1996	The common name of the Anegada Island Iguana is misleading, as the animal was once distributed over the entire Puerto Rico Bank. Fossils are known from Saint Thomas and Puerto Rico. Vulnerability to predation by humans and their dogs and cats may have resulted in a contraction of its distribution to Anegada.	eng
6031	habitat	Mitchell, N., 1996	Estimates in the late 1960s (Carey 1975) showed small home ranges for both sexes (less than 0.1 ha), one principal burrow per animal, a 1:1 sex ratio, and habits that indicated monogamy (apparent pairs inhabited separate but proximate burrows in a joint home range isolated from other pairs).  The current population structure is quite different.  While previous studies may not have been sensitive to long range movements, it now appears that home ranges are quite large on Anegada:  males average 6.6 ha and females average 4.2 ha.  Home ranges broadly overlap and have one or two centers of activity.  In 1991 the sex ratio had dropped to 1 female:2 males.  Thus male competition for limited females may be responsible for the high degree of home range overlap.   <br/> <br/>Burrows of both sexes may be located on the old limestone reef-tract or in sandy areas adjacent to it.  If available, iguanas will use additional holes or crevices as emergency retreats.  Whereas degraded vegetation may provide for male subsistence, it may not provide females with sufficient energy to allow them both to produce eggs and compete with other animals for forage to support their own growth and metabolism.  Reproducing females may have low survivorship, resulting in the present skewed sex ratio.  Females usually lay one clutch of about 12-16 eggs per year in late spring or early summer. <br/> <br/>Although largely facultative herbivores, all age-groups of these iguanas are opportunistic carnivores.  Invertebrates (beetles, caterpillars, centipedes, roaches) form less than 1% of the natural diet, although this may be a result of limited availability.  The bulk of the diet consists of leaves and fruits.   <br/> <br/>Over the past 20 years, grazing pressure by goats, sheep, burros, and cattle has radically changed the vegetation composition of Anegada. The iguanas' diet is now composed of plant species the feral animals reject.	eng
6031	population	Mitchell, N., 1996	Population density in 1968 was estimated at 2.03/ha (Carey 1975).  In 1991, this figure had dropped to 0.36/ha in comparable habitat. Extrapolation of density estimates, distribution, and relative habitat quality yields a population estimate for Anegada of 164 individuals. A small restored population also exists on Guana Island with eight founding adults (Goodyear and Lazell 1994), from which three juveniles have been translocated to Necker Island. The total population, including individuals on Anegada, Guana, and Necker probably consists of fewer than 200 individuals.	eng
6031	threats	Mitchell, N., 1996	Areas on Anegada that once contained dense populations of iguanas now support few or none.  Research indicates that this is due to three major causes, including competitive grazing pressure from free-ranging livestock, predation by feral dogs, and predation of juveniles by feral cats.	eng
6032	conservation	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Aside from occasional smuggling of animals across the Haitian border, compliance with international CITES trade regulations is effective.  Enforcement of national protective legislation in the Dominican Republic has improved during the past few years, but effective control is adversely influenced by a number of factors.  Clearing of natural habitat for development is not being prevented nor regulated and illegal hunting for food and the local pet market continues.  <br/> <br/>Ricord’s iguana is partially protected in two areas.  In the Neiba Valley, about 60% of the area supporting iguanas, including Isla Cabritos and a section of the south shore of Lake Enriquillo, is protected within the recently created Lago Enriquillo National Park.  The Isla Cabritos population has been protected within Isla Cabritos National Park since 1974.  <br/> <br/>In the Barahona Peninsula range, two protected areas, Parque Nacional Jaragua and the Acetillar Scenic Reserve, cover most of the remaining distribution of the species to the north and east of Cabo Rojo.  Ricord’s iguanas are only known from the park’s western boundary, where conflicts with limestone mining concessions on both sides of the park border continue to be unresolved.  Until now, no formal management has been established in the Acetillar reserve, and the habitat is impacted by a variety of activities.    <br/> <br/>As of November 1995 the total captive population of Ricord’s iguana was 5.9 individuals in two collections (Indianapolis Zoo and one private collection).  Successful captive breeding has been achieved in both, but survivorship of young has been low.  The only other significant captive breeding program was developed at the Parque Zoologico Nacional (ZooDom).  Although adversely affected by institutional problems, the program lasted for a number of years with comparable success.  Plans to re-establish the program at ZooDom have been halted since 1994 due to unfavorable institutional conditions	eng
6032	distribution	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Ricord’s iguana is known only from southwestern Dominican Republic, where it is restricted to the arid Valle de Neiba and the most xeric portion of the Peninsula de Barahona coastal lowlands. The two populations are separated by the mesic Sierra de Baoruco (Massif de la Selle in Haiti), with three peaks exceeding 2,000 m that form an extensive ecological barrier.  Past drier Pleistocene climates may have allowed genetic exchange between the two subpopulations. The total range of Ricord’s iguana in the Dominican Republic is under 100 km², and less than 60% of the historical range is occupied, most of it showing various levels of disturbance. Throughout their range, Ricord’s iguanas are sympatric with rhinoceros iguanas.	eng
6032	habitat	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Compared to rhinoceros iguanas, Ricord’s iguanas are quite specialized.  Several key environmental factors, including  soil depth and texture, landform, bedrock parental material, and climate seem to determine their presence.  Ricord’s iguanas inhabit the most arid regions of the Dominican Republic, where the climate is highly seasonal.   <br/> <br/>Ricord’s iguanas are strongly associated with thorn scrub woodlands, particularly with the thorn scrub-dry forest ecotone.  Typical habitat can be found north of Cabo Rojo inside the fork of the Oviedo-Pedernales and Cabo Rojo-Acetillar bauxite mine roads.  The topography of the area consists of a series of broad, flat plains punctuated by rocky steps and marine terraces with very fine soil over exposed dogtooth limestone.  Trees and shrubs are widely spaced, without forming a closed canopy.  Further north, only rhinoceros iguanas are present at a second, higher elevation site, with similar temperature but greater rainfall. In the transition zone between these two sites, both iguana species are present, sharing the edge habitat. <br/> <br/>On Cabritos Island, where Ricord’s iguanas have historically outnumbered rhinoceros iguanas based on frequency of sightings by visiting researchers, the plant community is a succulent-dominated 5-6 m dry forest on white sandy soil with low topography.  Ricord’s iguanas occur on north and south gentle slopes as well as on the central plateau, where soil conditions are favorable for their extensive burrows.  Ricord’s iguanas feed on a wide variety of plants and plant parts, depending on local availability.  Insects and crustaceans are also taken opportunistically.  <br/> <br/>While rhinoceros iguanas make extensive use of limestone crevices in addition to soil burrows, Ricord’s iguanas prefer to dig soil burrows which they continue to expand over time.  Hollow tree trunks and rock cavities are also used for retreats when soil is unavailable.  Retreat entrances are generally dug under dense thorny vegetation, shrubs, stumps, or exposed rocks.  <br/> <br/>Nesting sites are separate from retreats, in fine sandy soils.  Egg laying is highly synchronized with the first rainy period (May-June).  Females lay 2-18 eggs per clutch.  Incubation lasts 95-100 days, and hatching is synchronized with the second rainy season (September-October).  Females reach sexual maturity at about 2-3 years of age.  The social behavior of Ricord’s iguana generally resembles that of other rock iguanas, although wild males defend females much more aggressively in captivity than do wild male rhinoceros iguanas maintained at lower densities in comparable enclosures.  Although of major research interest and significant conservation importance, little is known of interspecific interactions between Ricord’s and rhinoceros iguanas.	eng
6032	population	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	All available data indicate that the historical range of Ricord’s iguana was small and disjunct. Several factors indicate that the population is currently declining, including direct observation, reduction in the extent and quality of available habitat, and documentation of the negative effects of introduced species.  Researchers and local inhabitants agree that until the mid-1970s, population densities of mature individuals were much higher than they are at present.  Lacking more accurate data, a current population estimate of 2,000 to 4,000 is probably conservative but fair.	eng
6032	threats	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	The major threats to Ricord’s iguanas are from human activities resulting in habitat reduction and degradation (clearing of vegetation for agricultural use, charcoal production, harvesting of fuelwood and hardwoods, overbrowsing by free-ranging livestock, mining of limestone, illegal collection of live cacti for local and international trade), in combination with local subsistence hunting for food and predation from introduced carnivores (dogs, cats and mongooses).  Competition from mammalian herbivores probably also occurs.  Hunting of Ricord’s iguanas for food and trade has increased gradually since the mid 1970s, both for local consumption as well as at a few oriental restaurants in Santo Domingo where iguanas were offered as a specialty dish.  In the past, some hunters used to set up to 100 snare traps per day at the entrance of retreats, with 30-50% trapping success.  Although current populations no longer support the numbers harvested 15 years ago, iguanas continue to be captured opportunistically in all areas with remaining populations, except on Isla Cabritos where law enforcement is presently effective.	eng
6033	conservation	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6035	conservation	Knapp, C.R., Iverson, J.B. & Buckner, S., 2004	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. At the national level, the species is protected by the Wild Animals (Protection) Act, 1968 for the Bahamas.  <br/> <br/>A new protected area on North Andros was declared in 2003. However, this is in an area of low iguana occurrence and is only protected on paper. There are no protection measures on the ground. In the Exuma Islands, protected areas include  Pasture and Alligator Cays, Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park. <br/> <br/>Captive populations exist in Ardastra Gardens, Nassau, The Bahamas; and Los Angeles Zoo. <br/> <br/>Recommended actions include further surveys, genetic research, life history studies, investigation into the effects of current trade on the population, and a public education programme. A species management programme is recommended for The Bahamas.	eng
6035	distribution	Knapp, C.R., Iverson, J.B. & Buckner, S., 2004	Found on Andros and Exuma Islands, The Bahamas. Extent of occurrence is <20,000 km². At least three main subpopulations are known on Andros and 13 subpopulations in the Exuma Islands.	eng
6035	habitat	Knapp, C.R., Iverson, J.B. & Buckner, S., 2004	Preferred habitats are tropical dry forest, pine barrens, coastal coppice, mangrove and beach strand vegetation areas.  <br/> <br/><em>Cyclura cyclura</em> is a herbivorous, ground dwelling, saxicolous species using limestone crevices, or burrows constructed in sandy loam, as retreats. Juveniles and subadults often climb trees and shrubs in the morning to feed and bask. Hollows in dead trees often are used as retreats for juveniles. The islands are low-relief (< 20 m above sea level) karst limestone platforms. <br/> <br/>Average generation length is around 20 years.	eng
6035	population	Knapp, C.R., Iverson, J.B. & Buckner, S., 2004	The current global population is less than 5,000 and is declining. Of the three subpopulations on Andros, there are <500 in the northern part of the island, <1,500 in the middle, and <2,000 in the south part of the island. Satellite cays hold < 1,000. Subpopulation sizes in the Exuma Islands are: Bitter Guana Cay (20–50); Gaulin Cay (275–325); White Bay Cay (200–250); Noddy Cay (200–250); North Adderly Cay (235–275); Leaf (< 10); Guana Cay (80–90); Pasture Cay (16); Alligator Cay (75–90); Leaf Cay north of Highbourne Cay (500); U-Cay (300); Allen Cay (15); Flat Rock Cay (10).	eng
6035	threats	Knapp, C.R., Iverson, J.B. & Buckner, S., 2004	On Andros Island, there is island-wide logging, construction of homes and roads, feral animals and fire for agriculture or crab hunting. In the Exumas, main threats to the species are feral animals (e.g., goats), fire caused by tourists, and rapid private land acquisition. A direct threat to the population is hunting. This species is the target of illegal subsistence hunting for the animal's meat, and collection for the international pet trade. <br/> <br/>The species inhabits two distinctly different island areas in the Bahamas. The Andros population is threatened based on the acceleration of perturbations, such as habitat loss, feral animals, and subsistence hunting. Although the island is large and some undisturbed subpopulations exist, it is only a matter of time before humans or feral animals degrade the populations. A suggestive north/south trend in population decline is noted and procedures must be implemented to stop further degradation of populations and habitat. The Exuma Island populations inhabit an area that is becoming increasingly popular with tourists- both as a sailing destination and region to buy islands. Increased human traffic brings potential and distinct deleterious consequences to the local flora and fauna. In 2004, a large-scale fire was reported on an iguana-inhabited island that has recently become a designated tourist destination. The fire is purportedly the result of a tourist cigarette. Also, in recent years there has been an increase in feral animals and wildlife smuggling throughout the islands. Continued population monitoring must be a priority along with recognizing that the fragmented population faces a precarious future.	eng
6036	conservation	Gerber, G. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	All Bahamian rock iguanas are protected under the Wild Animals Protection Act of 1968.  There have been no reports of poaching of iguanas on Booby Cay and it is not known if any are taken by local fishermen for consumption.  The Bahamas National Trust has proposed to the Bahamas Government that Booby Cay, which is also of significant value for nesting seabirds, be named a protected area under the national parks system.   <br/> <br/>Representatives of the Wildlife Committee of the Bahamas National Trust and the Department of Agriculture began to survey the status of the iguanas on Booby Cay in early 1995 and to initiate removal of feral goats.  There are no other research programs in progress or currently proposed for this subspecies, and no captive programs currently exist.	eng
6036	distribution	Gerber, G. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	This subspecies is restricted to Booby Cay, located 0.5 km off the eastern end of the island of Mayaguana in the southern Bahamas. The cay is 2 km in length, approximately 750 m wide at its northeastern end, narrowing to less than 100 m, and again widening to approximately 250 m at its southwestern end. Approximately 30% of the cay is taken up by two ponds. Iguanas probably originally ranged over the entire cay but were likely concentrated on the eastern half where the vegetation was more dense. There are historical anecdotal references to the presence of iguanas on Mayaguana.  However, there have been no recent sightings on the island, which has an area of 285 km² and a human population of approximately 500 concentrated on the western half.  There are no roads extending to the eastern end of the island and it is conceivable that iguanas still exist in this area.	eng
6036	habitat	Gerber, G. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	No research has been conducted on this subspecies.  Like the Turks and Caicos iguana, this subspecies is primarily herbivorous throughout life, although insects, mollusks, crustaceans, arachnids, lizards and carrion are occasionally consumed.  Burrows or crevices in or under rocks are used for retreat.  Bartsch’s iguana also probably inhabits rocky coppice and sandy strand vegetation habitats.	eng
6036	population	Gerber, G. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Surveys indicate that iguanas were fairly numerous in 1988 and 1997 with all age classes present, indicating a healthy reproducing population.  However, this subspecies is restricted to one population on a single small cay with a high point of 6.2 m and most of its area below 3 m.  Although no census has been conducted, it is unlikely that the population exceeds 500 animals, and is estimated to be between 200 and 300 (Blair 1991, Bendon 1997).	eng
6036	threats	Gerber, G. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The immediate threat to the single population of Bartsch’s iguana is the presence of goats, introduced to Booby Cay.  The cay is not readily accessible from the settlements on Mayaguana which could be the reason this population has survived so far.  However, the cay is visited on an irregular basis by local conch fisherman, who sometimes overnight there.  Catastrophe, particularly in the form of a hurricane or hurricane surge, is a very real threat.	eng
6037	conservation	Gerber, G., 1996	The Turks and Caicos have a fairly extensive system of national parks, nature reserves, and sanctuaries, a number of which encompass areas supporting iguanas.  Since the establishment of the National Trust for the Turks and Caicos Islands in 1994, a significant increase in conservation of terrestrial wildlife habitats in the area has begun. Legislation to protect iguanas within the Turks and Caicos Islands has recently been drafted.  In addition the government has granted the National Trust stewardship of Little Water Cay, which supports a large population of iguanas but needs management.  The National Trust recently initiated a trapping programme to remove feral cats from Pine, Water, and (if needed) Little Water Cays.  If successful, this programme will remove feral cats from Little Water Cay and allow iguanas to repopulate Pine and Water Cays.  Boardwalks and observation towers have been constructed at two popular landing sites on Little Water Cay  to reduce the negative impacts of tourism, and a visitation fee has been introduced to help support conservation activities in the area.  The National Trust has also introduced a public education programme.  No captive programmes currently exist for this taxon.	eng
6037	distribution	Gerber, G., 1996	This subspecies is native to the Turks and Caicos Islands. A survey carried out in 1995 estimated that only 30,000 adults remain in the wild. The iguana was found on 56 of the 120 cays visited, however, most of these cays were very small and the combined area of all cays occupied by iguanas is only about 28 km².	eng
6037	habitat	Gerber, G., 1996	Iverson (1979) studied the natural history of this iguana and found that it is most abundant in rocky coppice and sandy strand vegetation habitats, with sandy habitat required for nesting. It is a diurnal animal, spending the night in burrows dug during the day, or in natural retreats or beneath rocks.  It is primarily a herbivore, feeding arboreally or terrestrially on fruit, flowers and leaves.  However, it also occasionally takes insects, molluscs, crustaceans, arachnids, lizards and carrion.  <br/> <br/>Adult males are territorial, courtship and breeding occur in May, and a single annual clutch of two to nine eggs are laid in a nest burrow in June. Hatching occurs in September.  Maturity is reached at around seven years for males and six to seven years for females.  Life table analysis suggests that mean cohort generation time is 14 years.  Preliminary data suggest that some individuals live at least 20 years.	eng
6037	population	Gerber, G., 1996	Over half of the range area consists of five cays where iguanas are extremely rare. The species is still common within a total area of 13 km². A comparison of this survey with one conducted in the mid-1970s (Iverson 1978) suggests that at least 13 iguana populations have been extirpated over the last 20 years, mostly on relatively large islands.	eng
6037	threats	Gerber, G., 1996	The primary threat to the population is predation by introduced mammals, particularly cats and dogs.  Feral livestock (goats, cows, donkeys and horses) also pose a serious threat, presumably due to competition for food, alteration of vegetational composition of the habitat through different grazing strategies, and trampling of the soft substrates where iguanas burrow and nest. Iguanas are still occasionally eaten by fishermen, and although illegal exportation for international trade is not documented, it is thought to occur.	eng
6039	conservation	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. Like all Bahamian rock iguanas, this subspecies is also protected in the Bahamas under the Wild Animals Protection Act of 1968. However, no areas have been specifically designated for the protection of iguanas on Andros and no specific conservation programs are in place. <br/> <br/>There are currently no captive programs for this subspecies. There is one old individual at Ardastra Gardens and Zoo in Nassau. No one has been found who recalls the iguana being brought to the zoo and as yet no records have been found. This iguana, first observed and photographed by S. Buckner in 1991, was still alive as of June, 1997. One large male, a long term captive held by a private resident of South Andros, was still alive in 1984. Attempts to breed this animal have resulted in the death of at least two other iguanas, presumably females. <br/> <br/>A new protected area on North Andros was declared in 2003 but is in an area of low iguana occurrence and is only protected on paper. There are no protection measures on the ground.	eng
6039	distribution	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	This subspecies is found on Andros Island on the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank. Andros is the largest of the Bahamian islands with an area of 5,959 km². Subpopulations are found in areas in the North, Middle and South of the Island with associated satellite cays.	eng
6039	habitat	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	The Andros rock iguana is the only iguana in the Bahamas that is not now confined to small cays.  One preferred habitat of this subspecies is under the open canopy of the pine barrens (<em>Pinus caribaea</em> var. <em>bahamensis</em>), which offers a variety of fruits, flowers and leaves of plants suitable for consumption by rock iguanas.  The karst rock provides suitable retreats. <br/> <br/>Herbivorous, ground dwelling, saxicolous iguana using limestone crevices, or burrows constructed in sandy loam, as retreats. Juveniles and subadults often climb trees and shrubs in the morning to feed and bask. Hollows in dead trees are often used as retreats for juveniles.	eng
6039	population	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	While estimates put the wild population at 2,500 to 5,000 distributed in three or more subpopulations (Hudson <em>et al</em>. 1994), these figures could be much too optimistic as only occasional animals are observed, and these in scattered locations. Alternatively, due to the remoteness and difficulty in accessing much of the region, large subpopulations could be encountered, particularly in the central and southern regions of the island and in the western reaches of north Andros. <br/> <br/>Current subpopualtion size estimates are: North Andros (<500); Middle Andros (<1,500); South Andros (<2,000); satellite cays (<1,000).	eng
6039	threats	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	A major threat to the Andros Island iguana is the proliferation and expansion of the range of feral pigs.  While this is recognized both locally and nationally, appropriate methods of control have yet to be determined. Particularly in north Andros, feral pigs pose a very real threat to the recruitment of iguanas as they are known to rout out eggs from iguana nests. Feral and domestic dogs are also a threat to both juvenile and adult animals. The status and degree of threat posed by feral cats on Andros is unknown. Many local residents are apparently unaware of the protected status of the Andros iguanas and may occasionally take them for human consumption. <br/> <br/>The Andros iguana is threatened as a result of the acceleration of perturbations to iguana populations, such as habitat loss, feral animals and subsistence hunting. Although the island is large and some undisturbed subpopulations exist, it is only a matter of time before humans or feral animals degrade the populations. An obvious north/south trend in population decline is noted and procedures must be implemented to stop further degradation of subpopulations and habitat.	eng
6040	conservation	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	<em>Cyclura cychlura</em> is included in <a href="http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml">CITES Appendix I</a>. All Bahamian rock iguanas are protected under the Wild Animals Protection Act of 1968. Field surveys are continuing to assess current populations and to better define the geographic distribution of the subspecies.  The Leaf Cay population was newly discovered in 1997. Blood samples are being collected from each study population to establish genetic profiles for different cays. Potential threats unique to each cay are being documented in order to provide the Bahamian government with information that will aid in setting conservation policies. Also the vegetation and habitat condition on cays not currently supporting iguanas is being investigated for possible translocation programs. <br/> <br/>The Bahamas National Trust has erected signs on Gualin Cay notifying the public of the protected status of the iguanas. The Bahamian government currently does not recognize any captive breeding programs, although unsanctioned breeding of these iguanas is apparently taking place in the United States.	eng
6040	distribution	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	This subspecies is known from small cays scattered over 80 km throughout the central and southern Exuma island chain of the Bahamas. Anecdotal information suggests additional inhabited cays, but verification is necessary. The determination of range through historic records is problematic due to certain cays sharing multiple names. Bitter Guana and Gaulin Cays constitute the northern extent of the population. Four cays, White Bay, Noddy, North Adderly, and Leaf Cays, all located northeast of Norman’s Pond Cay, compose the nucleus of the range. Guana Cay, southwest of Great Exuma, forms the southern boundary of the population.	eng
6040	habitat	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	The Exuma Island iguana utilizes a variety of habitats including sandy beaches, xeric limestone devoid of vegetation, and areas of vegetation with or without sand or rock substrates. Limestone crevices and sand burrows are used as retreats at night and in adverse weather conditions.   <br/> <br/>Except for the Guana Cay population, few formal natural history studies have been conducted. The Guana Cay population was studied in the 1970s (Wilcox <em>et al</em>. 1973, Carey 1976, Windrow 1977, Coenen 1995) and is currently being reinvestigated along with the other remaining subpopulations (Knapp 1995 and 1996). <br/> <br/>Adult iguanas are herbivorous and are arboreal as well as terrestrial feeders.  Preferred food items are seasonally dependent and primarily consist of flowers, fruits, young buds and leaves of <em>Rachicallis americana, Reynosia septentionalis, Strumpfia maritima, Jacquinia keyensis, Erithalis fruticosa, Coccoloba uvifera, Coccothrinax argentata, Eugenia axillaris, Suriana maritima</em>, and the rotting fruit of <em>Casasia clusiifolia</em> (Windrow 1977, C. Knapp, unpubl. data).  Coenen (1955) reports the iguanas as coprophagous.  They actively forage for the faeces of the zenaida dove, <em>Zenaida leucocephala</em>, and the white-crowned pigeon, <em>Columba leucocephala</em>. <br/> <br/>Nesting has been observed on Guana Cay, with females digging the nest burrow. The only excavations of nest chambers revealed three eggs each in two nests (Coenen 1995).	eng
6040	population	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	Eight subpopulations are known, totaling < 1,300 individuals: Bitter Guana Cay (20–50); Gaulin Cay (275–325); White Bay Cay (200–250); Noddy Cay (200–250); North Adderly Cay (235–275); Leaf (<10); Guana Cay (80–90); Pasture Cay (16). The population size is declining.	eng
6040	threats	Knapp, C.R. & Buckner, S.D., 2004	Conversations with locals suggest that removal of animals from their home cays for tourist attractions elsewhere could constitute a significant threat.  Although such activities probably occur on a small scale, they may reflect the larger problem of smuggling of iguanas from the Bahamas for illegal wildlife trade. Some cays are visited regularly by locals and yachtsmen, and dog tracks have been observed on Bitter Guana Cay. In addition to possible hunting pressure, predation by dogs may be contributing to the apparent decline of that population. The presence of rats on Gualin Cay has been reported. The effect of rats on this population is unknown, but past research indicates the detrimental consequences of rats on island reptiles (Cree <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Certain cays possess diminutive nesting sites and the possibility of a season’s recruitment being decimated by severe weather conditions is genuine. <br/> <br/>The isolation of iguana-inhabited cays creates a problem for consistent population monitoring. Discrete environmental events including hurricanes could endanger certain populations. For example, Hurricane Lily engulfed Great Exuma and her satellite cays on 18 October 1996.  The effects of Lily on the Guana Cay iguana population were not observed until May, 1997 (S. Buckner, pers. comm.).	eng
6041	conservation	Blair, D. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The Allen’s Cays iguanas are protected nationally under Bahamian law, but enforcement is difficult without a warden present.  The warden of the nearby Exumas Land and Sea Park can potentially respond to reports of poaching, but that is not always practical.  Fortunately signs erected on the islands explain the vulnerability of these lizards, and most visitors on yachts radio the authorities if anyone is seen harassing the iguanas.  Unfortunately visitors also enjoy feeding them unnatural foods.  Long-term investigations of growth, survivorship and population status of these iguanas are ongoing by J. Iverson, but a study of their reproductive ecology is urgently needed. <br/> <br/>A few captive Allen’s Cay iguanas are currently maintained at the Ardastra Zoo and Nature Centre Different on Abaco.  Captive breeding is a goal, but long-term plans for any offspring produced need to be developed.	eng
6041	distribution	Blair, D. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Only two breeding populations of this subspecies are known, on Leaf Cay (4 ha) and U Cay (also known as Southwest Allen’s Cay; 3 ha) in the northern Exuma Island chain in the Bahamas. Probably less than seven adults also occur on Allen’s Cay (7 ha), but no evidence of breeding has been found there during 12 years of study.	eng
6041	habitat	Blair, D. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The natural habitat of this iguana on Leaf and U Cays has not been significantly disturbed by human activity, even though a number of introduced ornamental plants occur on these cays (e.g., <em>Casuarina</em>, lilies, palms).  All potential habitats on both Leaf and U Cays are occupied by iguanas, including some suboptimal areas of bare, honey-comb limestone.  Additional habitat is available on Allen’s Cay, but without sandy areas for nesting, the island apparently cannot support a breeding population.  Dredging of sand from the harbor between Allen’s Cay and Leaf Cay to upland areas on Allen’s Cay could double the potential habitat area for this iguana. <br/> <br/>Most of the details of the life history of this iguana remain unstudied.  What is known has been accumulated during approximately biennial visits by J. Iverson.  During these trips lizards have been marked and recaptured, primarily for growth and survivorship studies.  These iguanas can apparently survive on the very smallest rocky islets as long as sufficient vegetation is present for food. However, areas of sand are necessary for nesting.  Hatched egg shells have been found on several occasions but always in sandy areas.  The lack of breeding on Allen’s Cay may be due to insufficient areas of exposed sand above tidal influence. <br/> <br/>Based on minimum age of adults first caught in 1980 and still alive in 1992 and/or 1993, some of these iguanas live beyond 25 years of age.  Allen’s Cay iguanas are active diurnally, spending the night in burrows they have dug or in natural retreats in or under rocks.  They are primarily herbivorous, feeding on fruits, leaves and flowers of most of the plants present on their tiny islands.  They will climb up into the vegetation to feed.  They are also opportunistically carnivorous, as evidenced by crab claws in their feces.  In addition humans regularly feed the iguanas (particularly on Leaf Cay) everything from table scraps to fresh produce.   <br/> <br/>Nothing is known about reproduction in this species, but mating probably occurs in May, with egg-laying commencing in June.  Jolly-Seber models of recapture data suggest that survivorship of subadults and adults exceeds 90% per year.  During the non-breeding season, these lizards appear to have dominance hierarchies rather than strictly defended territories; however, this may be because tourists frequently feed the iguanas on the main beach areas, perhaps causing a breakdown in the natural social system.  Their behavior during the breeding season is unknown.	eng
6041	population	Blair, D. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Based on a 17-year mark and recapture study, approximately 130 subadult and adult iguanas (> 8 years old) occur on Leaf Cay and 100 on U Cay.  Juvenile population estimates are not precise, but in March are probably near 100 for each island.  The entire wild population of this subspecies is less than 500 individuals.  The populations have generally been stable over the past 17 years, with recruitment occurring on both islands every year.  However, some removals from Leaf Cay by poachers and Bahamian zoo and park personnel are known to have occurred over the past decade.  Although the two main populations are generally stable, the two cays are heavily visited by tourists.	eng
6041	threats	Blair, D. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The only significant current threat to these populations is the removal of iguanas by humans.  The problem is exacerbated by the fact that these cays offer good anchorage less than a day’s sail from Nassau; for example, during March 15-20 yachts and 1-2 native boats are anchored there each night.  Regular reports of actual or attempted poaching are made to the warden of the Exumas Land and Sea Park to the south.  In addition, iguanas are occasionally removed for exhibit purposes in Bahamian zoos, parks, and gardens.  Illegal exploitation for international trade is undocumented, but probably occurs.	eng
6042	conservation	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	In the Dominican Republic, most rhinoceros iguana populations are either fully or partially protected inside existing national parks and reserves.  Protected areas supporting iguana populations include Montecristi National Park, Parque Nacional del Este including Isla Saona, Parque Nacional Jaragua including Isla Beata, Las Caobas Strict Natural Reserve, El Acetillar scenic area, Sierra Martín García National Park, and Lago Enriquillo National Park, including Isla Cabritos.  However, the foothill regions in the latter two areas remain only partially protected.  Management in most protected areas is not intensive, and in some cases is restricted to legislation.  <br/> <br/>Compliance with international trade regulations is effective, aside from occasional smuggling of animals across the border with Haiti.  Rhinoceros iguanas are protected nationally by Dominican wildlife regulations.  Enforcement  has improved during the past few years, but clearing of the natural habitat for development is not being prevented, and illegal hunting and poaching for food and for the local pet market continues.  No formal protected areas are known within the present distribution of iguanas in Haiti.  The status of protective legislation is also uncertain, although the rhinoceros iguana was included on a list of protected wildlife by the Ministry of Agriculture during the 1980s.  Enforcement of any potentially existing wildlife regulations seems unlikely at present.  <br/> <br/>Rhinoceros iguanas are the most common rock iguana in captivity.  A successful breeding program existed at the Parque Zoológico Nacional of the Dominican Republic (ZooDom) from 1974 to 1994, with an average of 100 young hatching annually.  These efforts included experimental reintroductions of captive-bred young to several protected areas in the southwest Dominican Republic.  Although a captive colony of almost 300 iguanas representing all age classes was maintained at ZooDom as of December 1994 the program has been adversely affected by administrative changes since January 1995.  It is hoped that these problems can soon be resolved and the program resumed.  <br/> <br/>As of November 1995 rhinoceros iguanas elsewhere in captivity included 393,236 individuals at about 20 zoological institutions, with an additional 533 animals of unassigned subspecies, reported by seven American Zoo and Aquarium Association institutions (Christie 1995).  The actual number may be higher considering holdings at some European zoos and many private collections.	eng
6042	distribution	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Rhinoceros iguanas are still widely distributed throughout Hispaniola, including most of its offshore islands.  Their current geographic range is fragmented relative to their more continuous historical distribution, and is strongly associated with xeric regions of lower human population density.  Most iguana concentrations are found along the southern side of Hispaniola, with the highest numbers in south-southwestern Dominican Republic.  <br/> <br/>In the Dominican Republic a minimum of ten subpopulations are known. In Haiti ten or fewer increasingly threatened subpopulations may still exist.	eng
6042	habitat	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Rhinoceros iguanas are most abundant in, although not restricted to, dry forests characterized by xeric, rocky habitats of eroded limestone in coastal terraces and lowlands of the mainland and several offshore islands and small cays.  In areas supporting iguanas, mean annual rainfall ranges from 470 to 1,000 mm, and mean annual temperature is 25°C.  With some exceptions, the species ranges in elevation from -35 m (Isla Cabritos, Lake Enriquillo) up to 400 m. They are found in a variety of subtropical life zones and habitat types, including thorn scrub woodland, dry forest and transitional semideciduous to subtropical moist forests. <br/> <br/>Like other rock iguanas, rhinoceros iguanas are diurnal, spending the night in retreats.  Rock crevices, caves, burrows dug in soil or sand, and hollow trunks are also used during the day for resting, cooling or sheltering.  Males defend territories containing retreats attractive to females.  High trees and exposed rocks are used by males for basking and overseeing defended areas.  Mating takes place at the beginning of or just prior to the first rainy season of the year.  Females lay from 2 to 34 eggs, with an average clutch size of 17.  Females guard nests for several days after laying, and incubation lasts approximately 85 days.  Females probably become sexually mature at 2-3 years of age.  Rhinoceros iguanas feed on fruits, leaves and flowers of a variety of plants, depending on availability.  Additional information on their ecology and natural history is summarized by Schwartz and Henderson (1991).	eng
6042	population	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Rhinoceros iguanas were common and widespread until the early 1950s, but accurate information concerning current population estimates on Hispaniola is lacking. Unpublished data, based on opportunistic surveys, are available for a few localities but are inadequate for extrapolation to other areas facing different levels of disturbance, particularly in Haiti. Observations on population and habitat trends recorded since the 1970s provide a fair but rough approximation of 10,000 to less than 17,000. Iguana densities are low in the majority of the areas where they presently occur and appear to be declining. Local extirpations are known from both Dominican Republic and Haiti. Populations are seemingly stable only on Isla Beata and the extreme of the Barahona Peninsula inside Parque Nacional Jaragua.	eng
6042	threats	Ottenwalder, J., 1996	Habitat destruction, due to extraction of hardwoods and fuelwood, charcoal production, agriculture, livestock grazing and limestone mining, represents the major threat to rhinoceros iguanas in both the Dominican Republic and Haiti.  In the Dominican Republic about 13% of the human population occupy dry forest regions.  These areas are also the most economically depressed and exploitation of forest habitats for charcoal and fuelwood represent important sources of income.  About 75-80% of the total national demand for these products originates from dry forest habitats.  In the Dominican Republic, roughly 35% of rhinoceros iguana habitat has been lost, and approximately 75% of what remains is disturbed.  Both figures are much higher for Haiti.   <br/> <br/>Other important threats are predation by feral dogs, cats, mongoose and pigs on adults, juveniles and eggs, and illegal hunting of subadults and adults for food and local trade.  The use of iguanas for food in Haiti is extreme in rural areas where iguanas are conspicuous enough that local people are familiar with them.  International trade of wild animals from Hispaniola, a conservation problem until the mid 1980s, has been controlled in the Dominican Republic under CITES since 1987, but no such control exists in Haiti.	eng
6043	conservation	Gerber, G., 1996	Iguanas are protected within the Cayman Islands by the Animals Law of 1976 (Davies 1994) but protection of native habitats is lacking.  The Development and Planning Law of 1971 provides a legal mechanism to prevent the destruction of terrestrial habitats in the Cayman Islands, but this has never been implemented (Davies 1994).  Currently, the only protected areas on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are the Cayman Brac Parrot Preserve (a 65 ha tract of potentially important iguana habitat) and the Little Cayman Ramsar Site (an 82 ha preserve encompassing Booby Pond and surrounding mangroves). <br/> <br/>The National Trust for the Cayman Islands has had an active iguana conservation program since 1990. However, due to limited resources, efforts have largely concentrated on the Grand Cayman iguana. An intensive field study of Lesser Caymans iguanas was conducted on Little Cayman in 1993 by Gerber.  Plans to continue this research await further funding. <br/> <br/>A captive breeding program does not exist for this subspecies but may be warranted for the Cayman Brac population if it is genetically distinct from the Little Cayman population.  This possibility needs to be investigated.  No pure Lesser Caymans iguanas are presently held in zoological institutions (B. Christie pers. comm.).	eng
6043	distribution	Gerber, G., 1996	The Lesser Caymans iguana is native to two islands: Cayman Brac (38 km²) and Little Cayman (28.5 km²).  The islands are 7.5 km apart and are well isolated from other land masses. Both islands have been continually inhabited since the early 1800s. Current human populations for Cayman Brac and Little Cayman are approximately 1,000 and 200 respectively. <br/> <br/>In 1938 iguanas were abundant on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Since that time, populations of Lesser Caymans iguanas have declined and are clearly in danger of extinction, particularly on Cayman Brac. In 1965 the iguanas were abundant on Cayman Brac only along a relatively small section of the southwest coastline (Carey 1966). Today, the subspecies is nearly extinct on Cayman Brac. Over the last four years, F. Burton (pers. comm.) has seen only two iguanas on Cayman Brac (both juveniles) and received only two reports of sightings (both adults). Based on these results, the population probably numbers fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
6043	habitat	Gerber, G., 1996	Like other rock iguanas, Lesser Caymans iguanas require suitable forage plants, basking areas, retreats and nesting sites.  On Little Cayman these requirements are met in a variety of coastal and interior habitats and iguanas are widely dispersed.  Maximum densities occur in dry evergreen bushlands and thickets growing on exposed and highly weathered limestone or dolomite.  These habitats provide a diverse assemblage of forage plants, a mosaic of sun and shade for thermoregulation, and an abundance of solution holes in the rock substrate which iguanas of all sizes use as retreats.  However, suitable nesting sites in these habitats are restricted to shallow patches of soil that accumulate in small depressions.  Consequently many females migrate to coastal areas with relatively deep sandy soils to nest. <br/> <br/>The diet of all age classes consists almost entirely of leaves, flowers and fruits; however, iguanas occasionally scavenge on animal carcasses (e.g., land crabs) or prey on slow-moving insects (e.g., Lepidopteran larvae).   <br/> <br/>Courtship and mating occur in April and early May, coinciding with the end of the dry season when temperatures and photoperiod are increasing.  Males compete intensely for territories which are occupied in all seasons.  Male territories are large, on the order of 1 ha, and during the breeding season as many as 10 females may temporarily reside within a single territory.  The adult sex ratio appears to be skewed toward females. <br/> <br/>Females lay a single clutch of 7-25 eggs (mean 15) annually, between late-May and mid-June, coinciding with the beginning of the wet season.  Females nest either in small soil patches within the rocky interior or in large sandy tracts along the coast, and may migrate considerable distances to nest sites.  Hatchling emergence occurs from early August to early September and incubation averages 72 days (range 63-80).	eng
6043	population	Gerber, G., 1996	Presently Little Cayman still supports a widely, although patchily, distributed iguana population (G. Gerber unpubl. data). The population is reproducing and all age classes are represented, although juvenile mortality is very high due to predation by feral cats. During nine months of field work on Little Cayman in 1993 over 200 iguanas were captured and marked.  However due to the inaccessibility of much of the interior of the island and the patchy distribution of iguanas, good population estimates are not available; mature iguanas possibly number between 750 and 1,500.  he population appears not to have declined significantly since the 1970s (Townson 1980, Stoddart 1980) and 1980s (Blair 1983) and may even be larger today. Nonetheless, dense concentrations of iguanas which occupied the mid-northern (B. Ryan, pers. comm.) and mid-southern (Grant 1940) coasts of Little Cayman 50+ years ago no longer exist, and a growing population of feral cats and increasing human development severely threaten the long-term survival of iguanas on Little Cayman.	eng
6043	threats	Gerber, G., 1996	Threats to Lesser Caymans iguanas include habitat destruction from road construction; commercial and residential real estate development; livestock grazing (on Cayman Brac) and farming practices; predation by feral cats and domestic dogs (and possibly introduced rats); disturbance of sensitive nesting areas; and road kills.  Since the construction of a municipal power generating station on Little Cayman in the early 1990s habitat destruction associated with road construction and real estate development have increased dramatically and the human population, although still small, has increased several fold.  Under the present socioeconomic conditions this pattern can be expected to accelerate.  Plans to replace the existing, grass airstrip on Little Cayman with a new, paved airstrip are underway.  Proposed sites for this project overlap areas of prime iguana habitat on the west end of the island.  Aside from the loss of habitat, such an airstrip will significantly increase human visitation to the island and promote further development.  The continued destruction and disturbance of coastal nesting areas on Little Cayman is of particular concern as nesting opportunities for iguanas in the interior appear to be limiting due to the paucity of suitable soil patches.  Also the increasing number of feral cats on Little Cayman pose an immediate threat to population recruitment.	eng
6045	conservation	Alberts, A. & Perera, A., 1996	All but one of the major iguana concentrations are either partially or fully protected.  At selected localities within the National System of Protected Areas, projects directed toward conservation and reproduction of Cuban iguanas are being carried out by the Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas in collaboration with researchers from Havana University.  Ecological and systematic studies are being conducted at the Institute of Ecology and Systematics, Cuban Academy of Sciences.	eng
6045	distribution	Alberts, A. & Perera, A., 1996	The Cuban iguana is well distributed around Cuba, mainly in xerophilic coastal areas, but relatively safe populations are found only on some islets along the north and south coasts and in isolated protected areas on the mainland.  This subspecies has also been introduced to Isla Magueyes, southwest of Puerto Rico.	eng
6045	habitat	Alberts, A. & Perera, A., 1996	Cuban iguanas can be found in relatively undisturbed xerophilic coastal lands on both mainland Cuba and surrounding islets, primarily in rocky limestone areas where natural refuges and appropriate nesting sites are available.  Foraging is commonly observed in concentrations of coastal mangroves.  In western Cuba there is an isolated population inhabiting an inland karstic mountain area.  Apparently, semiarid lands several kilometers inland from the coast can still support iguana populations. <br/> <br/>The Cuban iguana is a phytophagous generalist and the diversity of its diet depends on the floristic diversity and abundance of vegetation in each locality.  If readily available with little effort, Cuban iguanas will also feed on animal matter.  The most common animal item in the diet is the crab <em>Cardisoma guandhumi</em>.   <br/> <br/>Sexual maturity is reached at an age of two to three years.  Reproductive behavior in this subspecies is similar to that described for other members of the genus. Males become aggressive, and vigorously defend territories in competition for females. Females lay 15 to 30 eggs annually in a single clutch in a nest which they dig in the sand.	eng
6045	population	Alberts, A. & Perera, A., 1996	Because of its wide distribution, accurate information about the number of distinct subpopulations of Cuban iguanas is currently unavailable, yet it may be present on as many as 4,000 islets surrounding the Cuban mainland.  The population on the U.S. Naval Station at Guantánamo Bay has been estimated at 2,000-3,000 individuals (A. Alberts and J. Phillips unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Not many decades ago, the subspecies was extremely widespread on Cuba.  However populations on the mainland have decreased dramatically or disappeared entirely in most areas since the end of the last century.  On many islets populations are still relatively safe, but this situation is changing with the transformation of many islets for tourist developments.  Nevertheless if strictly protected areas on the mainland and islets continue to remain untouched, 60 to 80% of the remaining population will probably be safe.  Any population analyses should be carried out with two distinct components:  one for populations living on the mainland, and one for populations inhabiting small islands and islets. <br/> <br/>The total population of this subspecies in Cuba is estimated at between 40,000 and 60,000 individuals.   <br/> <br/>In general the population is declining, more quickly on the mainland than in other areas. Most disturbing is the rapidity of the loss of this subspecies in disturbed areas. Iguanas are now absent from the northeastern Havana coast, the Hicacos peninsula and Key Largo, where they were known to be very abundant some 30-40 years ago.  Mainland populations have probably been declining at a rate of greater than 1% per year for the last ten years.	eng
6045	threats	Alberts, A. & Perera, A., 1996	Habitat transformation and human disturbance represent the main threats to Cuban iguana populations.  Other important threats include predation by wild and domestic dogs on both adults and juveniles, predation by cats on juveniles, and egg predation by pigs.  Hunting is not a major threat because there is not a widespread tradition of consumption of iguana meat or eggs.	eng
6046	conservation	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	A grant from the Chicago Zoological Society has facilitated eradication of black rats from White Cay.  The project was a collaborative effort of the West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, the Bahamas National Trust, the Bahamas Department of Agriculture, and Zeneca Agrochemicals, Inc., which donated the rodenticide used in the eradication.  Two cays that appear promising as potential sites for establishment of a second wild population of the White Cay iguana have been identified.  Although they have yet to be surveyed on the ground, both look appropriate from the air, both are Crown land, and both have active seabird nesting colonies, a good sign that introduced predators are absent. W. Hayes and R. Carter visited White Cay in 1996 to obtain blood samples and other measurements from the iguanas and to evaluate their status.	eng
6046	distribution	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	This subspecies occurs on only a single island, White (Sandy) Cay, in the southern Exumas of the Bahamas. This island is small, comprising about 25 ha (Schwartz and Carey 1977). The iguanas were probably much more widely distributed during the last ice age when many of the Exuma Cays were presumably connected due to lower sea levels. They possibly occupied additional adjacent cays in recent centuries but, if so, have vanished without a trace.	eng
6046	habitat	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	Except for informal visits mainly to collect specimens, this isolated subspecies has been largely ignored by scientists.  Essentially nothing has been published about its ecology or natural history.	eng
6046	population	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	The island can support only a limited number of iguanas. According to Lincoln-Peterson surveys conducted in 1997, the size of the population has been estimated at 150 to 200 individuals.	eng
6046	threats	Carter, R.L. & Hayes, W.K., 1996	Illicit smuggling and the possibility of introduced animals are likely the greatest threats to this population.  From photos that appeared in the April 1994 issue of a popular reptile magazine, it is clear that at least some <em>C. rileyi</em>, potentially from White Cay, have been recently smuggled.  At least eight individuals of <em>C. rileyi</em>, presumably of this subspecies, were discreetly exhibited in the showrooms of several Florida reptile wholesalers in 1993 (R. Ehrig pers. comm.), which suggests that more than a trivial number of animals were taken.  Another potential threat is inbreeding depression due to centuries or longer of effective isolation. <br/> <br/>In 1996 the footprints of a raccoon were observed on White Cay.  It may have dispersed there on its own after several were formerly introduced to nearby Hog Cay.  Although that animal has since been confirmed dead, it appears to have predated a significant proportion of the iguana population, particularly juveniles and females.  Black rats formerly threatened the iguana population, but have since been removed from the cay.	eng
6047	conservation	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	W. Hayes and R. Carter are currently evaluating body size and genetic relationships among the three populations.  They visited the Acklins Bight in 1996, as well as the introduced population, in order to obtain blood samples and measurements from the iguanas and to evaluate their status.	eng
6047	distribution	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Natural populations of Acklins iguanas are found only on Fish Cay and North Cay in the Acklins Bight, Bahamas. They formerly occurred on at least Long (Fortune) Cay, and probably once roamed other cays in the vicinity, including the much larger Crooked and Acklins Islands. An additional introduced population with five founding individuals became established on a small cay in the early 1970.	eng
6047	habitat	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Only anecdotal information on the natural history of this subspecies is available.  Like other rock iguanas, male Acklins iguanas appear to be highly territorial. Males have been observed in jousting matches involving open-mouthed territorial displays, and will chase other males out of defended areas.  Scars in the form of bite marks have been observed which probably result from these activities.	eng
6047	population	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The total population is currently estimated at 13,000 or more iguanas.	eng
6047	threats	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	No evidence of feral animals or other threats have been identified in the Acklins Bight populations.  Introduced hutia (<em>Geocapromys ingrahami</em>) may be affecting the vegetation on the cay adjacent to that harboring the introduced population, although they have not yet crossed the channel separating the two cays.  Further, with only five founder animals, genetic heterozygosity of this population may be compromised.  On all cays, the potential for illegal poaching remains a threat.	eng
6048	conservation	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	At present, baseline data are being collected on all populations of <em>C. rileyi</em> to aid conservation management decisions.  Initial efforts involve population surveys, assessment of threats to survival, and genetic sampling.  Genetic analyses are essential to resolve the taxonomic identities of the nominate taxa, to assess the degree of divergence among individual populations, and to evaluate heterozygosity (which may reveal inbreeding depression).  Divergence may be sufficient that the genetic identity of most or all populations will need to be maintained. <br/> <br/>Further steps include concentrated searches for isolated colonies on the mainland and on the southernmost lakes, as well as reintroductions of iguanas to previously inhabited cays.  Further research is necessary to determine the suitability of each cay, and to assess what corrective actions would be necessary to render each suitable for reintroduction (e.g., removal of feral rats or supplementation of nesting habitat).  Reintroduction of iguanas on the mainland should be undertaken only if protection of a large area can be assured.  Additional comparative research planned for the isolated populations of this taxon includes vegetation analyses and studies of reproductive strategies, seasonal dietary shifts, and behavioral ecology. <br/> <br/>At present, no legal captive breeding programs exist outside the Bahamas.  The Bahamian government has wisely refused to issue export permits for any rock iguana taxa.  However, Ardastra Gardens in Nassau (New Providence Island, Bahamas) currently holds two juveniles and plans to implement an <em>in situ</em> programme.  Captive programs could be highly valuable for repatriation efforts, particularly if the genetic integrity of individual populations needs to be preserved. <br/> <br/>A public relations campaign is planned to heighten awareness and appreciation among island residents for their endemic iguana.	eng
6048	distribution	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Fossil remains found by Olson <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicate that San Salvador iguanas once occurred throughout the island of San Salvador (area 150 km²).  Today, however, sightings on the mainland are exceedingly rare, occurring most often on the eastern side between Great Lake and Storrs Lake.  At present San Salvador iguanas appear to be restricted largely to five tiny offshore cays (Gaulin, Goulding, Green, Low, Manhead) and two cays within Great Lake (Guana and Pigeon, Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  They were presumably extirpated on at least six additional cays, with two extinctions occurring in recent decades (discounting an unconfirmed sighting on High Cay in 1991). The seven inhabited cays range in size from 1–12 ha and total approximately 26 ha of marginal to excellent habitat.	eng
6048	habitat	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	The habitat on cays presently occupied by iguanas varies greatly.  Vegetation on offshore cays is similar in varying degrees to coastal rock, sand strand and sea oat, and coastal coppice plant communities described on the mainland (Smith 1993).  However, for cays within inland lakes, the vegetation resembles the blacklands coppice (Guana Cay) and mangrove (Pigeon Cay) communities on the mainland.  Habitats on the mainland of San Salvador are highly diversified and suitable enough to harbor large iguana populations. <br/> <br/>Mean and maximum body sizes of iguanas vary significantly from cay to cay, and are positively correlated with plant diversity.  Iguanas are largest on Low Cay and smallest on Manhead Cay.  Previously reported measurements of body size (Schwartz and Carey 1977) were limited to samples from cays having low plant diversity.  Thus, prior recognition of <em>C. rileyi</em>  as the smallest of the rock iguanas may be an artifact of historical extinctions resulting in extant populations being confined today largely to the most inaccessible cays having minimal plant diversity. <br/> <br/>Iguanas are locally most common in the vicinity of limestone rock outcrops and/or patches of sea grape (<em>Coccoloba uvifera</em>).  On some cays they are numerous in patches of buttonwood (<em>Conocarpus erectus</em>) where they ascend into the foliage to browse.  On Pigeon Cay they are frequently encountered basking on the limbs of mangrove trees, often several meters or more above the ground.  The iguanas share their habitat with nesting seabirds on several cays, most notably on Gaulin Cay where brown noddies (<em>Anous stolidus</em>) and sooty terns (<em>Sterna fuscata</em>) are extremely dense. <br/> <br/>Aspects of feeding and reproductive ecology remain unstudied but are likely similar to other rock iguana species.  Adult males appear to be territorial throughout the year.  Courtship and mating probably occur in May, followed by nesting and egg-laying in June or July.  Hatchlings probably emerge from nest burrows in September or October.  Like other rock iguanas, San Salvador iguanas presumably require sandy areas for nest construction.  Such habitat appears to be limited on Guana Cay, but the presence of several juveniles in 1994 is indicative of successful nesting there.	eng
6048	population	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Recent censuses by Hayes <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggested that approximately 500–600 individuals remain. However they suspected that juveniles were underestimated in their surveys, and have since learned that a moderate population thrives on Pigeon Cay, the one known population they had not yet visited. Nevertheless this subspecies likely numbers fewer than 1,000.  Populations on the isolated cays vary from perhaps as few as 10 (Gaulin Cay) to as many as 250 (Green Cay). Several populations are threatened by human-related causes and appear to be declining.	eng
6048	threats	Carter, R.L., Hayes, W.K. & West Indian Iguana Specialist Group, 2000	Although remote and relatively difficult to access, populations on the cays are still threatened by human-related causes (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  The scarcity of juveniles on Low Cay is probably attributable to the presence of feral rats only recently detected there (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  More recently, rats have also been seen on Guana, High, and Pigeon Cays.  Considering the apparent impact of rats on insular populations of the tuatara (<em>Sphenodon punctatus</em>), an iguana-sized burrow-nesting reptile in New Zealand (Cree <em>et al.</em> 1995), rats probably pose a serious threat to survival of iguanas on several Cays and need to be exterminated soon.  Rats may also impact iguana populations indirectly by affecting vegetation, especially on cays with low plant diversity. <br/> <br/>The once dense population on Guana Cay (Ostrander 1982) has become greatly reduced in recent years.  A mysterious die-off due to unknown causes occurred in spring 1994, as evidenced by the discovery of eight adult carcasses and an estimated surviving population of only 24 individuals (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Although natural disease is a possible cause, so too might be mosquito control efforts, recently implemented for the benefit of the growing tourism industry.  The ticks which infest these iguanas have not been found on any other cay, and may have rendered the lizards more vulnerable to agents causing their deaths.   <br/> <br/>The larvae of a moth (<em>Cactoblastis cactorum</em>) introduced decades ago to the West Indies are now rapidly devastating prickly-pear cacti (<em>Opuntia stricta</em>), an important food source for iguanas, on several cays.  The dense population of lizards on Green Cay is especially vulnerable, particularly since destruction of the cacti will be nearly complete within a matter of years, there are no known means of controlling the moth, and the remaining vegetation (nine plant species) represents a meager diet compared to other rock iguana species (Auffenberg 1982).  The impact of this ecological disturbance needs to be closely monitored. <br/> <br/>Rapid development on the island of San Salvador will undoubtedly threaten the populations further.  Feral dogs and cats are already numerous in local areas, but will increase as more resorts and housing tracts are constructed.  This would seriously jeopardize any possible reintroductions of iguanas to the mainland, unless protected areas of considerable size could be set aside.  Pollution of Great Lake due to environmentally unsound landfill practices may threaten the fragile mangrove community that harbors a moderate iguana population on Pigeon Cay.  Eventually, tourists may discover the attributes of the iguanas themselves, which could increase potentially detrimental human-iguana contacts.	eng
6061	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Cylindraspis indica</em> was known only from Réunion.	eng
6061	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species is thought to have become extinct in 1800.	eng
6062	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Cylindraspis inepta</em> was endemic to Mauritius.	eng
6062	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It has not been recorded since the early eighteenth century.	eng
6062	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Hunting pressures and possibly the introduction of predators and competitive species to the island may have resulted in the demise of this species.	eng
6063	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Cylindraspis peltastes</em> was endemic to the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius.	eng
6063	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species is thought to have become extinct in 1800.	eng
6063	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Hunting pressures, direct habitat alteration by man and the introduction of predators and competitive species are cited as the causes of this species' extinction.	eng
6064	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Cylindraspis triserrata</em> was endemic to Mauritius.	eng
6064	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It has not been recorded since the early eighteenth century.	eng
6064	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Hunting pressures from humans and introduced predators and competitive species have been blamed for the extinction of this species.	eng
6065	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Cylindraspis vosmaeri</em> was endemic to the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius.	eng
6065	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It was last recorded in 1800.	eng
6065	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Hunting pressures and the introduction of predators and competitive species are thought to have contributed to the demise of this species.	eng
6069	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Italy, Tyrrhenian sea (Gulf of Naples, Gulf of Gaeta).	eng
6069	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Found in marine/brackish water.	eng
6069	threats	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Commercial exploitation.	eng
6081	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C., Custodio, C., Carino, P. & Pamaong-Jose, R., 2008	The species is found in a number of protected areas.	eng
6081	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C., Custodio, C., Carino, P. & Pamaong-Jose, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is only found in the Mindanao Faunal Region. It has been recorded from the following islands: Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Maripi, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Samar, Siargao and Tongquil (Heaney . 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
6081	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C., Custodio, C., Carino, P. & Pamaong-Jose, R., 2008	It is common in lowland primary and secondary forest, and in mixed forest and orchard (Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Wischusen <em>et al</em>. 1992, 1994; Wischusen and Richmond 1989; L. Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). This species can also tolerate disturbed habitats. It feeds on leaves and some fruit.	eng
6081	population	Gonzalez, J.C., Custodio, C., Carino, P. & Pamaong-Jose, R., 2008	This species is widespread and common and populations are stable (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
6081	threats	Gonzalez, J.C., Custodio, C., Carino, P. & Pamaong-Jose, R., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to this species, especially at lower elevations. Commercial logging of second growth forest is also threat. This widespread destruction of lowland forest makes them somewhat vulnerable, but their ability to persist in disturbed forest makes them a relatively resilient species. Their fur is used for making hats in Bohol (C. Custodio pers. comm. 2006). The species is persecuted in Samar because it is thought to be a bad omen (J.C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).	eng
6082	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Sebastian, T., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The otter civet is listed in Appendix II of CITES and as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Conservation of this species requires protection of forest and riverine habitat, and policing against illegal harvesting of timber and hunting (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a need to survey for this species to determine its tolerance to secondary habitats, including riverine areas in plantations and other areas that maintain some natural vegetation, as well as to further assess its distribution and monitor its populations. Live trapping and camera trapping are being done in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in order to study different species of small carnivores, and hopefully to detect the presence of the otter civet (Malaysia Carnivore Project 2005). The absence of recent records in Peninsular Malaysia is of great concern, and it is very important to know if some protected areas still harbor this species (G. Veron pers. comm., 2006).<br/><br/>This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. Including Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary in western Sarawak in 2000 (Sebastian, 2005), Kaeng Krachan National Park (12 57 N, 99 23 E) in Thailand in 1998 (Anon, 1998), Bukit Sarang Conservation Area in Sarawak (Belden <em>et al. </em>2007), Way Kambas National Park in Sumatra (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006), Danau Sentarum National Park (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), and Leuser National Park in Sumatra (van Strien, 1996).	eng
6082	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Sebastian, T., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The otter civet has a Sundaic distribution and is found in Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo), Thailand and apparently, far from the Sundaic region,  northern Viet Nam (Tonkin, which is the type locality of Cynogale lowei) (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is one very old record from Singapore (Meiri 2005) but there is no evidence that this involved an animal taken there, rather than one with a trade locality (B.Y.P.H. Lee in litt. to J. W. Duckworth 2007).<br/><br/>Lekagul and McNeeley (1977) listed the species in southern Thailand, but there were no confirmed records until 1992 (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). Another record in Kaeng Krachan National Park in 1998 confirms its presence in southern Thailand (Anon 1998). There is also an unconfirmed sighting from northern Thailand from Phu Kradung National Park in 1986 (Schreiber 1989; Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006), which should be viewed with skepticism until corroborated, as it would take the species range out of the purely Sundaic pattern is shows by all other records and it is based on an unverified local report.<br/><br/>Recent records of this species from Borneo include sightings in Sarawak (Sebastian 2005; Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007s) and in Sabah (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). The otter civet has been recorded as high as 1,370 m above Bario in Sarawak, but the majority of records are from lowland forest (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006).There are some camera trap pictures of this species in Sumatra (Veron <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also a possible record from a fisherman's house near Yilong Lake in southern Yunnan, China in 1973, which is of unknown provenance (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). If the species does actually occur in both northern Thailand and Yunnan (China), then it is likely to also occur in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
6082	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Sebastian, T., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of the otter civet and further studies are required. This species is thought to be largely confined to peat swamp forests, though there are recent records from lowland dry forest (Sebastian 2005). Preferred habitat appears to be lowland primary forest, but it has been recorded in secondary forest, bamboo, and logged forest (Heydon and Bulloh 1996; Franklin 2001; Veron <em>et al.</em> 2006), however, the long-term persistence of this species in these habitats is unknown (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). The otter civet has also been recorded from freshwater swamp forest and limestone forest, surrounded by acacia plantation in Bukit Sarang Conservation Area, Sarawak (Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>As the otter civet is semiaquatic (Veron <em>et al</em>, 2006) and known to forage in the water (Medway, 1978; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Yasuma, 1994), it is assumed that this species feeds on fish, crabs, mollusks, small mammals, and birds (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is also thought to be nocturnal (Sebastian, 2005), though there is data indicating it is also occasionally active during the day (see data from N. Franklin; G. Veron pers. comm. 2006; Sebastian 2005).	eng
6082	population	Duckworth, J.W., Sebastian, T., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	There is very little known about the otter civet’s population trends and local abundance, and further studies are required (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). Sebastian (2005) reports that this species’ apparent rarity is puzzling, including a low detection frequency in heavily surveyed areas. There is a need to determine whether the species' rarity is due to sampling or methodology bias (possibly due to its habitat specificity) or due to naturally low densities (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). It is known from 75 total museum individuals: 40 from Borneo, 12 from Sumatra, and eight from Peninsular Malaysia (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989; Veron <em>et al</em>. 2004). There have been 19 other sightings of this species in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). There was an intensive survey that recorded this species 59 times during 3,920 camera trap days in Way Kamabas National Park in Sumatra between January 1996 and December 1998 (Veron <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
6082	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Sebastian, T., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Reduction in primary forest habitat has proceeded very fast throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). This has probably reduced populations of otter civets, and threatens its persistence (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). Clear-cut logging is one of the major factors contributing to decline in suitable habitat, and even selective logging may sufficiently alter habitat such that it is the species can no longer occupy it; combined, this loss of primary forest may be responsible for the current rarity of the otter civet (Veron <em>et al</em>. 2006). Heydon and Bulloh (1996) found that the abundance of civets (including palm civets, banded palm-civet, otter civet, terrestrial civets and linsangs) in northern Borneo was significantly lower in logged forest than in primary forest, with the most specialized civets, including the otter civet, being less tolerant of logged forests than generalist civets. Conversion of peat swamp forests to oil palm plantations is a major threat particularly to this species. There is no evidence that the species is specifically hunted, but as a ground-dwelling species it will be exposed to the snares and other ground-level taps set for other species. The numbers of animals caught and effects on populations, if any, are unknown.	eng
6089	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	<em>C. mexicanus</em> is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
6089	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	<em>Cynomys mexicanus</em> is endemic to north-central Mexico. It is found in the states of Coahuila and San Luis Potosi; it once also occurred in the states of Nuevo Leon and Zacatecas.	eng
6089	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Prairie dogs generally occupy open grasslands in plains and plateaus. They are diurnal animals using elaborate burrow systems for shelter and protection against predators. They show a high degree of social organisation and form large colonies (towns) which often cover an area of 100 ha or more.	eng
6089	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
6089	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The Mexican prairie dog is losing habitat to the expansion of agriculture and livestock farming.  Many colonies have been exterminated through poisoning.<br/><br/>This species has lost at least 65% of its habitat, which has been converted for agriculture and other uses. It is considered extinct in Zapatecas, which represented 10% of its original range. San Luis de Potosi, representing 25% of its original range, has also been heavily converted to agriculture, and the extraction of water has dried up soils and grasslands.	eng
6090	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Rosmarino, N., Willson, K., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	In 1991, a formal recovery plan for Utah prairie dogs was approved. The bulk of the recovery efforts has centered around the establishment of colonies on public lands by transplanting animals from private lands within their historical range (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). The potential of these efforts to be successful in the long-term have apparently been undermined by reclassification of its status to Threatened (allowing animals to again be eradicated). In 2001, the US Fish and Wildlife Service was petitioned to restore Endangered status. However, no finding has been issued. In March 2004, the petitioners expressed intent to sue over the failure to make a timely finding.<br/><br/>One colony is protected in Bryce Canyon National Park. As of 2004, despite public land efforts at establishing new Utah prairie dog colonies and supplementing existing ones, approximately 68% of Utah prairie dogs still occur on private and other nonfederal lands.<br/><br/>Research needs include: determine causes of high rate of crashes of local populations; determine rangeland revegetation and grazing practices that will result in improved persistence of translocated populations; determine genetic consequences of high rates of population crashes and how this affects the spatial arrangement of translocation sites and numerical goals for population recovery (Utah Prairie Dog Recovery Implementation Team 1997).	eng
6090	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Rosmarino, N., Willson, K., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The species' range is restricted to an area of about 1,850 square kilometres in southern Utah in the United States. Prior to control programs, the range reportedly extended from Pine and Buckskin valleys in Beaver and Iron counties (perhaps west to Modena in Iron County), north to at least Salina Canyon and near Gunnison in Sevier County (possibly to Nephi), south to Bryce Canyon National Park, and east to the foothills of the Aquarius Plateau (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975, McDonald 1997). More recently, this species occurred in substantial populations in only three areas: the Awapa Plateau, along the east fork of the Sevier River, and in eastern Iron County; the grass and Sevier river valleys, plus three small, widely separated mountain valleys have small populations (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). The species is scarce or absent in the Aquarius Plateau, Fremont and Paria valleys, and Salina Canyon (Collier 1974, Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). It occurs only in areas at elevations of 1,500 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
6090	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Rosmarino, N., Willson, K., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Habitat consists of grasslands, in level mountain valleys, in areas with deep well-drained soil and vegetation that prairie dogs can see over or through. Prairie dogs dig underground burrow systems, in which the young are born. <br/><br/>They reproduce slowly, relative to other rodents (Hoogland 2001). Females produce only one litter per year, but the probability of weaning a litter each year is only 67% (Hoogland 2001). Although all females copulate as yearlings, only 49% of males do so (Hoogland 2001). For females that wean offspring, mean litter size at first emergence from the nursery burrow is 3.88 (Hoogland 2001). Mating occurs in March or April. Gestation lasts about one month. Young are born in late April or early May. Litter size is 2-10 (average 3-5); female produces one litter per year. Young emerge above ground at six weeks (late May to early June), weaned in about seven weeks, first breed at about two years.<br/><br/>Lives in colonies ("towns"). Colony structure is dynamic in size and location; social units within colony comprise a dominant male, several females, and the young of the past two years (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Survivorship in the first year is less than 50%; only 30% remain alive at the end of their second year (Hoogland 2001). <br/><br/>Feeds primarily on grasses, alfalfa, leafy aster, European glorybind, wild buckwheats in seed, flowers and seeds of shrubs, and insects when available; also may consume cattle faeces; generally prefers flowers and seeds over leaves. The species is inactive and torpid in severe winter conditions. Adults emerge and begin foraging from mid-March to early April, enter dormancy mid-July to mid-August; juveniles enter dormancy from early October to mid-November; low elevation colonies (below 7,000 ft) generally are two weeks earlier than higher elevation colonies (Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
6090	population	Linzey, A.V., Rosmarino, N., Willson, K., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Counts by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources in 2004 yielded a population estimate of approximately 8,000 adults (USFWS, http://mountain-prairie.fws.gov/species/mammals/utprairiedog/). On a broad scale, USFWS (1991) mapped about two dozen subpopulations (distinct patches of occupied habitat).<br/><br/>According to USFWS (1990), the total population increased to 9,200 adults in spring 1989. The range continued to expand in the early 1990s as a result of transplantation and natural population increase; this increase may have resulted from recent mild winters in Utah; population densities in the early 1990s were "increasing to a point where a crash is imminent due to an outbreak of plague" (USFWS 1990). Range-wide spring survey counts conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources in the spring of 2004 found 4,022 adults, which represents approximately half of the total population. Hence the current population size is similar to that in 1989.<br/><br/>Population in 1920 (before control programs) was estimated at 95,000 (USFWS 1990). Currently the adult population size is thought to be fewer than 10,000. Historical area of occupancy has declined from about 1,800 square kilometers historically to only about 28 square kilometers today.<br/><br/>Population densities are extremely variable, ranging from a mean of less than 2.5/ha to more than 74/ha (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>Population in 1920 (before control programs) has been estimated at 95,000 (USFWS 1990). Currently the adult population size is thought to be fewer than 10,000. Historical area of occupancy has declined from about 1,800 square kilometers historically to only about 28 square kilometers today.	eng
6090	threats	Linzey, A.V., Rosmarino, N., Willson, K., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The major historical decline was primarily a result of intensive poisoning efforts. For example, in 1971, poisoning "annihilated" one of the few remaining large colonies (near Loa, Wayne County) (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975). In 1972, the largest colony (Enoch, Iron County) was reduced from more than 1,000 individuals to fewer than 50, apparently from poisoning (Pizzimenti and Collier 1975).<br/><br/>Recent threats include habitat destruction resulting from residential and agricultural development on private lands, deliberate (illegal) poisoning and shooting by ranchers and farmers concerned about agricultural damage, and plague outbreaks (Hoogland <em>et al.</em> 2004). Plague has caused major declines in various populations over the past several decades. Grasslands are becoming dominated by sagebrush due to livestock grazing (K. McDonald pers. comm., 1995); shrubby habitats provide poor conditions for prairie dogs. Drought may reduce prairie dog food resources and cause population declines in colonies on drier sites.	eng
6091	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R., 2008	Many colonies are in national parks, state parks, and other protected lands, most of which prohibit prairie dog control/eradication. However, few colonies are provided protection, even in parks. Large, core occurrences need protection from population control.<br/><br/>Inventories are needed range-wide, and they should determine locations and sizes of colonies, ownership, and the presence of plague.<br/><br/>Of primary concern is the long-term viability of colonies in relation to size and distance to nearby colonies. Additionally, research into prairie dog genetics is needed to determine if currently reduced populations and habitat fragmentation are causing damaging levels of inbreeding.	eng
6091	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R., 2008	This is primarily a Great Plains species, originally occurring from extreme southern Saskatchewan in Canada (Frenchman River Valley), and Montana south through the western and central Great Plains to the desert grasslands of western Texas, New Mexico, southeastern Arizona (formerly) in the United States, and northeastern Sonora, and northern Chihuahua in Mexico (Koford 1958). The species is now extirpated from southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and locally in many other areas throughout its range.	eng
6091	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R., 2008	Habitat consists of dry, flat or gently sloping, open grasslands with low, relatively sparse vegetation, including areas overgrazed by cattle. The species occurs in open vacant lots at town edges in some areas. Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>Habitat includes all major grassland types - short, mixed and tall; most abundant and an important community member in the Mixed Grass Prairie and Short Grass Plains associations (Carpenter 1940, in Osborn 1942). Tallgrass prairie habitat is mainly areas where wild or domestic ungulates or other disturbance has reduced the stature of the tallgrass; prairie dogs maintain the vegetation in a low stature.<br/><br/>Fine to medium textured soils are preferred (Koford 1958), presumably because burrows and other structures tend to retain their shape and strength better than in coarse, loose soils. However, sandy soils often support larger, coarser graminoids with lower forage quality; prairie dogs may avoid these forages and thus associated sandy areas. Colonies commonly are found on silty clay loams, sandy clay loams, and loams (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1986). Encroachment into sands (e.g., loamy fine sand) occurs if the habitat is needed for colony expansion (Osborn 1942). <br/><br/>By colonizing areas with low vegetative stature, prairie dogs often select areas with past human (as well as animal) disturbance. In North Dakota and Montana, colonies tended to be associated with areas heavily used by cattle, such as water tanks and long-term supplemental feeding sites (Licht and Sanchez 1993).<br/><br/>Breeding system is harem-polygamous, with most females copulating with one male and males with several females (Hoogland and Folts 1982). Litter size typically averages about four. Individual females produce one litter per year.	eng
6091	population	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R., 2008	The total population size in the early 2000s was estimated at between 3,684,000 and 33,156,000; using average density figures, the estimated population was 18,420,000 (USFWS 2004). <br/><br/>This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Most occurrences are represented by relatively small populations, and it is unknown how many are viable in the long term, but certainly there are at least several dozen occurrences with good viability.<br/><br/>Currently, the species is declining in some areas, increasing in others; overall trend at present is probably stable or slightly decreasing, with a long-term outlook of slow decline (USFWS 2002). A small stable population exists in Canada (USFWS 2004). Range and abundance appear to be relatively stable in Mexico in recent decades (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Area of occupancy has been reduced from about 40 million hectares historically to about 766,400 hectares (USFWS 2004), a decline of about 98 per cent. Range contractions have occurred in the southwestern portion of the range in Arizona, western New Mexico, and western Texas through conversion of grasslands to desert shrublands; in the eastern portion of the range, range contractions are largely due to habitat destruction through cropland development in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Texas (USFWS 2004). Approximately 37 per cent of the historical habitat has been converted to cropland, now generally unavailable due to continuous disturbance. <br/><br/>Prairie dog towns formerly were much larger than at present. For example, one town in central Oklahoma stretched 35 km (Tyler 1968). In 1998, maximum town size in Oklahoma was 427 ha; length 2.1 km) (Lomolino and Smith 2001).<br/><br/>Density of prairie dogs fluctuates within and between years according to colony demographics, environmental conditions, forage availability, and soil and/or vegetation sites within towns (Koford 1958). Typical adult densities are about 12 per hectare (Koford 1958).	eng
6091	threats	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D., Hammerson, G., Cannings, S. & Wallace, R., 2008	Threats fall into four main categories. 1) Exotic disease, particularly sylvatic plague (<em>Yersinia pestis</em>) to which prairie dogs are highly susceptible. 2) Loss of habitat to agriculture and urbanization. 3) Habitat fragmentation and its many effects. 4) Control activities by government, private organizations, and individuals via poisoning and shooting. <br/><br/>EXOTIC SPECIES/DISEASE: Sylvatic plague was introduced to North America around 1899 (Cully 1989) and first reported in black-tailed prairie dogs from Texas in the mid-1940s (Reading <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a serious threat given its pervasiveness and efficacy, as it can kill more than 99% of prairie dogs in a colony (Cully 1989), and numbers do not appear to fully recover (USFWS 2002). Though prairie dogs have persisted in the presence of plague since about 1900 and prairie dog numbers are high given habitat loss and control efforts, plague is still of concern to local populations and for long-term persistence. Plague is not well documented in black-tailed prairie dogs across their range though there is no reason to believe that plague is not as significant in black-tailed as it is in white-tailed prairie dogs (Cully 1992). On large areas originally selected as possible ferret reintroduction sites, declines of up to 90 per cent from about 1985-2000 are "generally attributed to sylvatic plague" (USFWS 2000). Only about 10 percent of the historical range is both plague-free and available (not cropland) (USFWS 2000). Widespread outbreaks in 2001 may indicate the beginning of an 'up' cycle in plague occurrence (USFWS 2002). The significance of plague in range-wide prairie dog mortality is unclear, though experts agree that where plague occurs it is extremely important in population dynamics (Cully 1992). Plague may be introduced into a colony by other species or by dispersing prairie dogs, which bring plague-ridden fleas into a colony.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) noted that: (1) High exposure doses of plague bacilli may be necessary for disease contraction in some individuals; (2) limited immune response has been observed in some individuals; (3) a population dynamic may have developed in low-density, isolated populations that contributes to the persistence of these populations; (4) the apparent ability of some sites to recover to pre-plague levels after a plague epizootic; and (5) approximately one-third of the species' historic range has not been affected by plague. Based on this and on recent estimates of occupied habitat, USFWS (2004) concluded that plague no longer appears to be as significant a threat as previously thought and that plague in combination with other factors is not likely to cause the black-tailed prairie dog to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION: Habitat loss has been an important factor in prairie dog declines in the past. Cheatheam (1977) estimated that about 36% of the land area in regions used by prairie dogs was covered by water developments, urban expansion, cropland, and improved pasture. Similarly, Bishop and Culbertson (1976) detected extensive colony loss on river terraces as a result of farming activities. Conversion of native prairie to farmland does not necessarily represent habitat loss to prairie dogs, but farmers will not tolerate prairie dogs in their fields (Merriam 1902). Similarly, prairie dogs prosper in empty urban lots and fields, yet this is not often tolerated given the plague risk. However, in New Mexico, urban (Gunnison's) prairie dogs are often allowed to remain because colony fleas are killed instead. Still, developments that destroy patches of grassland (e.g., roads, buildings, water impoundments) result in loss of potential prairie dog habitat and restriction of area for colony expansion.  <br/><br/>USFWS (2004) concluded that present or threatened habitat destruction is not a threat to the species, although considerable effects due to this factor have occurred in the past. Additionally, USFWS concluded that present or threatened habitat modification as it relates to plague is not a significant threat to the species.<br/><br/>CONTROL: Control by humans, interacting with low forage production, is probably the main cause of loss of the prairie dog from the more arid parts of its range, including southwest New Mexico and southeast Arizona (Cully 1992) and Texas (see map in Cheatheam 1977). For most of the 20th century, Animal Damage Control, its forerunners, and other control agencies worked hard to eliminate prairie dogs over wide areas (Cully 1992). Towns were poisoned primarily with strychnine and zinc-phosphide baits (e.g., oats mixed with rodenticide). Poisoning was immediately followed up with extermination of any remaining living prairie dogs (Cully 1992). Indeed, control efforts, with some help from plague, resulted in a reduction in prairie dog acreage from 700,000,000 to 1,500,000 in 1971 (Cain <em>et al.</em> 1971, in Fagerstone and Biggins 1986; Cully 1989). Today prairie dog poisoning efforts are limited to local, problem populations and entail control, not extermination. Public control agencies, including ADC, do very little prairie dog control work, as most control is practiced by land managers. These agencies do provide technical information and assistance, however.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) acknowledged extant and potentially significant local population reductions due to chemical control of prairie dogs but concluded that impacts due to this factor are not a threat to the extent that the species could become endangered in the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>USFWS (2004) acknowledged that recreational shooting can reduce population densities at specific sites and that extirpation possibly may have occurred in isolated circumstances due to this factor. However, USFWS noted that populations can recover from very low numbers following intensive recreational shooting and therefore concluded that effects due to recreational shooting do not constitute a significant threat.<br/><br/>Distribution, abundance, and trend data indicate that inadequate regulatory mechanisms are not limiting black-tailed prairie dog populations at present, nor are they likely to within the foreseeable future (USFWS 2004).	eng
6103	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Other than further taxonomic studies, no conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole. It is present in many protected areas throughout its range. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka and Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and in Hakgalla National Park in Sri Lanka.	eng
6103	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species ranges from South Asia, through parts of southern China to parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (North Central, Uva and Western provinces) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). In southern China, it has been recorded from Guangdong, with possible records from Xizang (Medog) and southern Yunnan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In continental Southeast Asia, it is known from southern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam (identity of records from northern Viet Nam need verification), Cambodia (known only from Phnom Phen [G. Csorba pers. comm.]), and Peninsular Malaysia. In Insular Southeast Asia, it is known from the islands of Sumatra and Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia only), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the Talaud Islands (Indonesia) and Ternate Island (Indonesia). It might be present on the island of Palawan in the Philippines, but this requires confirmation.	eng
6103	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species can be found from habitats ranging from orchards, gardens to forested tracts. It roosts in palms especially seed clusters of palms either solitary or in small groups of a few individuals in rural and urban landscapes and in forested areas. Bears a single young after a gestation period of 105-120 days (Bates and Harrison 1997). In South Asia, the species is believed to be more restricted to higher elevations when compared to <em>C. sphinx</em>, making it specifically a hill forest species.	eng
6103	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In northeast India, the population is stable and it is common but not as abundant as <em>Cynopterus sphinx</em> (Tarapada Bhattacharyya pers. comm. June 2005), while in southern India it is rare (C. Srinvasulu pers. comm. September, 2007). In Southeast Asia, it is generally locally abundant and most common in disturbed and residential areas, however, is locally rare in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
6103	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
6104	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	Isolated populations from Thailand need to be examined taxonomically (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6104	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Lesser Sunda Islands, and adjacent small islands in Indonesia. It has also been recorded from Bali, Lombok, Simelue and Nias (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
6104	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It is found in many habitats in Indonesia but only pristine forests in Thailand. In Malaysia it has been found in agricultural areas, suburban parks, fruit orchards and secondary forest as well as good forest (Campbell and Kunst, 2006). They have a harem social structure, and are highly gregarious when roosting in caves, but are found in smaller groups when roosting in forests. It makes tent roosts.	eng
6104	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is common in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.), but locally rare in northern and western Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
6104	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Deforestation is a threat in Thailand, but elsewhere this species adapts to disturbed habitats.	eng
6105	conservation	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Maharandatunkamsi, D., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.	eng
6105	distribution	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Maharandatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species occurs throughout Indonesia on Bali, Lombok, Moyo, Sumbawa, Sangeang, Komodo, Flores, Sumba, Adonara, Lembata, Pantar, Alor, and Wetar Islands (Simmons 2005). It has also been collected in West Timor (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.). The type locality of is Desa Belo (8°52'S, 116°50'E), at around 40 m asl, Jerewah, west Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia.	eng
6105	habitat	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Maharandatunkamsi, D., 2008	It is found in disturbed habitats and secondary forests up to 100 m asl. There is very little additional information available for this species.	eng
6105	population	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Maharandatunkamsi, D., 2008	The species is common throughout its range.	eng
6105	threats	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Maharandatunkamsi, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6106	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	As it is present in many protected areas and is very adaptable, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. Taxonomic studies, population monitoring and lobbying with the government to accord it a non-vermin status are recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Molecular taxonomic studies to know the variations in the population are recommended (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October, 2007).	eng
6106	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed from much of South Asia, through southern China, most of mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka, Khulna and Rajsahi divisions), Bhutan (Phuntsholing), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central, Eastern, Far Western and Western Nepal), Pakistan (Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 400 m asl distributed widely in the region.  In southern China, it is found from Tibet to Fujian (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here it occurs in Indonesia (the Mentawai Islands, Sumatra, western Java, Bali, Sumbawa and Sulawesi) and southern Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia]).	eng
6106	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats from rural areas, primary and secondary forested habitats to urban landscapes. It is found as small colonies consisting of 3-7 individuals, sometimes more; it roosts underside leaves, in flower and fruit clusters of Kitul Palm, on Saraka asoka trees and is known to build tents in the roosting trees. It feeds on a variety of fruits both wild and cultivated. It has a low but fast flight. It breeds twice a year, and in some areas is known to breed throughout the year and bears a single young (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
6106	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widespread and very common species. In South Asia, it is considered to be more adaptable than <em>C. brachyotis</em>, and the population of <em>C. sphinx </em>seems to be stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
6106	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened in parts of its range through deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agriculture and for construction of dams and other developmental activities. It is also under threat due to hunting for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it is a pest species of orchards and is hunted for food in some parts of the range. In China, there is some habitat loss and the species is hunted for medicinal purposes.	eng
6107	conservation	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
6107	distribution	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species occurs in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Timor, and adjacent small islands.	eng
6107	habitat	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is tolerant of a broad range of habitats, including secondary and disturbed habitats. It was observed roosting in an old building (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
6107	population	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	The population is stable but it is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
6107	threats	Ruedas, L., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
6135	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Endemic to the Apalachicola  River drainage area in the southeastern US.	eng
6139	distribution	Contreras-Balderas, S. & Almada-Villela, P., 1996	Recorded from tributaries of the lower Rio Grande, including Pecos and Devils rivers (Texas, US); Las Moras, Pinto, and San Felipe creeks (western Texas, US); and Rio San Carlos (Coahuila, Mexico). The species may have occurred in the upper Pecos before aridity in the area increased (Mayden 1989).	eng
6154	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species' range lies within a Ramsar site: Laguna de Chichankanab.  It has also been listed as threatened by SEDESOL (1994).	eng
6154	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species only occurs in Laguna Chichancanab, a complex of inland freshwater lakes following a fault line, near the centre of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.  Laguna Chichancanab has a surface area of 7.5km².	eng
6154	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>C. labiosus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes, in clear to brownish water, with hard or soft substrates.	eng
6154	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
6154	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species' habitat is threatened by several factors, including the impacts of tilapia breeding (introduced in 1988) and by the poorly planned development of touristic activities. Pesticides and fertilizers used on surrounding agricultural lands can drain into the lagoon. An enlargement of agricultural land will increase deforestation, and possibly siltation in the lagoon (Ramsar 2004).	eng
6164	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species was once thought to be extinct, but has since been identified in a few, small refugia in eastern California. There are approximately five remaining occurences of this species, with only a few of these adequately protected. Recovery plans need to protect all five populations with at least 500 overwintering individuals, from all potential threats.<br/><br/><em>Cyprinodon radiosus</em> was previously assessed as Endangered (criterion A2ce) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.	eng
6164	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This pupfish is endemic to the Owens Valley, California, from Fish Slough and its springs (Mono County) near Bishop downstream to Owens Lake (Inyo County), including springs around the lake (Moyle 2002). It is now confined to several special refuges in the Owens Valley (Bolster 1990, Mire 1993, Moyle 2002). This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence less than 5,000 km².	eng
6164	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This pupfish was once abundant in shallow, clear, warm (about 10–25°C) sloughs, spring pools, irrigation ditches, marshes with emergent bullrushes and <em>Chara</em> mats, and flooded pastures along the Owens River (Lee<em> et al</em>. 1980, Moyle 2002). Now it occurs mostly in deep pools and shallows of artificially created refugia (Bolster 1990). It needs good quality water, aquatic vegetation, and a silt- or sand-covered bottom. Males establish spawning territories around rocks or vegetation where adhesive eggs can be laid and guarded. Females avoid male territories except when ready to spawn. Spawning substrate includes silty bottoms, submerged plants, algal clumps, rocks, or crevices, at depths up to 2 m (Moyle 2002). Larvae and juveniles stay close to the substrate (Moyle 2002). In early morning and late afternoon, mixed aggregations of 10–20 males and females swarm throughout the habitat, foraging by picking invertebrates and detritus from rocks and vegetation (Mire 1993). Hatching time is 6 days at an air temperature range of 24–27°C (Mire and Millet 1994).	eng
6164	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). As of the beginning of the 21st century, this species was regarded as stable in only two of five refuges (Moyle 2002), but they remained threatened because these sites require active, ongoing management to keep the habitat favourable for pupfishes and to keep out alien species (Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>See Minckley <em>et al.</em> (1991) for a fairly detailed account of the historical status of this species.<br/><br/>The existing population is descended from fewer than 1,000 individuals rescued from a drying habitat in 1969 (Pister pers. comm.).	eng
6164	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Population declines observed in this species, have been attributed to water diversion and subsequent habitat alteration (loss of seasonally flooded shallows along the Owens River), and competition with, and predation by, introduced species. Current threats include introduced species [Largemouth Bass (which eliminated pupfish from the Owens Valley Native Fishes Sanctuary and BLM Spring; Moyle 2002), mosquitofish, bullfrogs, crayfish], encroaching vegetation (cattails, tules, and other emergent plants), and habitat degradation (including vandalism). All populations are in small, artificial situations, vulnerable to stochastic fluctuations.	eng
6178	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	The “Regulations on the Management of Dianchi Lake” indicates that the lake is closed to fishing in the season when this species is breeding.	eng
6178	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Only ever known from Lake Dianchi and it tributaries. It may now only survive in Songhuaba Reservior.	eng
6178	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	It stays mostly in calm water with plenty of waterweeds. It feeds on  miscellaneous food but primarily on aquatic insects, small shrimps etc. It  spawns from May to July at the littoral zone on mud and sand. Its growth is slow  (Wu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Yang and Chen 1994, Yue and Chen 1998).	eng
6178	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	There is no record of this species in past few decades from Lake Dianchi.&#160; It was a common commercial species in the 1960s, but it has not been caught in the main lake or been found in any fish market around the lake for about 20 years. It may survive in Songhuaba Reservior but the population size is unknown.	eng
6178	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	The reproduction and growth rate of <em>Cyprinus micristius</em> is low. The  pollution of the lake water, overfishing and the introduction of alien fish  species has caused a sharp decline in the species population.	eng
6180	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Confined to the Danube River and its tributaries.	eng
6181	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	More research is needed into the threats to species	eng
6181	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
6181	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins. Introduced throughout the world. Cultivated in large quantities for human food and stocked for sport fishing.<br/><br/>In Europe, <em>C. carpio</em> has apparently been domesticated since the Middle Ages and cultivated stocks are assumed to be derived from the wild form of the Danube. Wild stocks occur naturally only in rivers draining to the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. <em>C. carpio</em> is widely cultivated worldwide, but in fact many cultivated stocks (and most of the Asian ones) belong to several other East Asian species. One of them, <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> (often erroneously referred to as <em>C. carpio haematopterus</em>) is cultivated in several eastern European countries and has been introduced to Russia and Ukraine. It is not known whether it has become established there. In western Europe, Japanese ornamental varieties (kois) possibly derived from <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> or of hybrid origin occasionally escape from ponds. Wild <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> are distinguished from wild <em>C. carpio</em> by having 29-33 + 2-3 lateral line scales (vs. 33-37 + 2-3), 18-22½ branched dorsal rays (vs. 17-20½), body silvery with red pelvic, anal and lower caudal lobe (vs. grey to bronze).	eng
6181	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins. Introduced throughout the world. Cultivated in large quantities for human food and stocked for sport fishing.<br/><br/>In Europe, <em>C. carpio</em> has apparently been domesticated since the Middle Ages and cultivated stocks are assumed to be derived from the wild form of the Danube. Wild stocks occur naturally only in rivers draining to the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. <em>C. carpio</em> is widely cultivated worldwide, but in fact many cultivated stocks (and most of the Asian ones) belong to several other East Asian species. One of them, <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> (often erroneously referred to as <em>C. carpio haematopterus</em>) is cultivated in several eastern European countries and has been introduced to Russia and Ukraine. It is not known whether it has become established there. In western Europe, Japanese ornamental varieties (kois) possibly derived from <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> or of hybrid origin occasionally escape from ponds. Wild <em>C. rubrofuscus</em> are distinguished from wild <em>C. carpio</em> by having 29-33 + 2-3 lateral line scales (vs. 33-37 + 2-3), 18-22½ branched dorsal rays (vs. 17-20½), body silvery with red pelvic, anal and lower caudal lobe (vs. grey to bronze).	eng
6181	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Warm, deep, slow-flowing and still waters, such as lowland rivers and large, well vegetated lakes. Introduced in all types of water bodies. Spawns along shores or in backwaters. Successful survival of larvae only in very warm water, among shallow submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 3-5 years, females at 4-6. Lives up to 50 years and usually spawns every year. Age of maturity is related to latitude and altitude. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 18°C. Adults often make considerable spawning migrations to suitable backwaters and flooded meadows. Individual females spawn with a few males in dense vegetation. The sticky eggs are attached to water plants or other submerged objects. Larvae and juveniles inhabit warm and shallow flooded river margins or backwaters, feeding mostly on very small zooplankton (rotifers). Reproductive success is restricted to years when the water level starts rising in May and when high temperatures and flooding of terrestrial vegetation last for a long period during May and June. Juveniles and adults feeds on a wide variety of benthic organisms and plant material. Most active during dusk and dawn. Very tolerant of low oxygen concentrations.	eng
6181	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Warm, deep, slow-flowing and still waters, such as lowland rivers and large, well vegetated lakes. Introduced in all types of water bodies. Spawns along shores or in backwaters. Successful survival of larvae only in very warm water, among shallow submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 3-5 years, females at 4-6. Lives up to 50 years and usually spawns every year. Age of maturity is related to latitude and altitude. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 18°C. Adults often make considerable spawning migrations to suitable backwaters and flooded meadows. Individual females spawn with a few males in dense vegetation. The sticky eggs are attached to water plants or other submerged objects. Larvae and juveniles inhabit warm and shallow flooded river margins or backwaters, feeding mostly on very small zooplankton (rotifers). Reproductive success is restricted to years when the water level starts rising in May and when high temperatures and flooding of terrestrial vegetation last for a long period during May and June. Juveniles and adults feeds on a wide variety of benthic organisms and plant material. Most active during dusk and dawn. Very tolerant of low oxygen concentrations.	eng
6181	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Within its native range the species is thought to be abundant.	eng
6181	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Within its native range the species is thought to be abundant but pure populations are very rarely distinguished from hybrids or domesticated and semi-domesticated populations.	eng
6181	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	River regulation (they require flooded areas to spawn) and hybridisation with introduced stocks is a major threat.	eng
6181	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	River regulation (they require flooded areas to spawn) and hybridisation with introduced stocks is a major threat.	eng
6204	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Numerous conservation measures, international management plans, harvest quotas, and agreements and treaties, have been developed for the conservation of hooded seals dating back to the 1870s.  Molting seals in the Denmark Strait have received complete protection since 1961. Harvest quotas at Jan Mayen began in 1971, hunting was banned from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in 1972, and quotas were placed on the rest of the Canadian harvest beginning in 1974. A European Economic Community ban on importation of all seal products in 1985 reduced the harvest of blue-back hooded seals through loss of the primary market for the furs (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992). In addition to establishing quotas, several countries place observers on commercial fishing boats, and monitor subsistence harvests.	eng
6204	conservation	Kovacs, K., 2008	Numerous conservation measures, international management plans, harvest quotas, and agreements and treaties, have been developed for the conservation of Hooded Seals dating back to the 1870s. Moulting seals in the Denmark Strait have been protected since 1961. Harvest quotas at Jan Mayen began in 1971. Hunting was banned in the Gulf of St Lawrence in 1972 and quotas were placed on the rest of the Canadian harvest beginning in 1974. A European Economic Community ban on importation on seal products in 1985 reduced the harvest of blueback Hooded Seals through the loss of the primary market for the furs (Lavigne and Kovacs 1986, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
6204	distribution	Kovacs, K., 2008	Hooded Seals are found at high latitudes within the North Atlantic; seasonally they extend their range north into the Arctic Ocean, as well as south into the North Sea in the Northeast Atlantic. They breed on pack ice and are associated with it much of the year, though they spend significant periods of time pelagically, without hauling out (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Folkow and Blix 1999). There are four major pupping areas: near the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St Lawrence, north of Newfoundland in an area known as the “Front,” the Davis Strait (Sergeant 1974) and in the West Ice in the Greenland Sea near the island of Jan Mayen. Hooded Seals wander extensively sometimes; young animals have come ashore as far south as Portugal and the Canary Islands in Europe and south into the Caribbean in the West Atlantic (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986). They are increasingly common in recent years on Sable Island and along the New England coast (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2001, Lucas and Daoust 2002). They have also been found outside the Atlantic in the eastern Beaufort Sea and an adult female stranded in southern California in 1992 (Dudley 1992, Rice 1998, Kovacs 2002). Since the mid 1990s large numbers of vagrant Hooded Seals have been found away from the Arctic in some years; the numbers of these sightings are increasing for unknown reasons (Mignucci-Giannoni and Haddow 2002, Harris and Gupta 2006).	eng
6204	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Hooded seals are found in the Arctic Ocean and in high latitudes of the North Atlantic. They breed on pack ice and are associated with it for most of their lives, shifting their distribution with seasonal fluctuations in ice cover (Sergeant 1974). There are four major pupping areas: near the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, north of Newfoundland and east of Labrador in an area known as the “Front”, the Davis Strait, and near Jan Mayen (Reeves and Ling 1981). Hooded seals wander widely, and animals have beached as far south as Portugal and the Canary Islands in Europe, and from New England south to several islands in the Caribbean, in the Americas. Since the mid 1990s large numbers of wandering vagrants have been found away from the Arctic in some years, and the numbers of these sightings are increasing for unknown reasons (Mignucci-Giannoni and Haddow 2002).	eng
6204	habitat	Kovacs, K., 2008	Hooded Seals are a markedly sexually dimorphic ice-breeding pinniped. Adult male hooded seals average 2.5 m in length and 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), with large animals reaching over 400 kg (Kovacs 2002). Adult females are smaller, averaging 2.2 m and 160 kg, but can reach 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992). Pups are born at approximately 1 m in length and 24 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals pup on pack ice in mid March. The breeding season for this polygynous species is very short, usually lasting only about 2.5 weeks, and mating takes place in the water (Boness <em>et al</em>. 1988, Kovacs 1990). This species has the shortest lactation period for any mammal, with most pups being weaned in four days (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 1985). Pups weigh an average of 48 kg at weaning in the Northwest stocks (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992, Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1997). The short reproductive period is energetically advantageous to both males and females, with relative losses in body mass being small for both sexes compared to other phocid seals (Kovacs and Lavigne 1992, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals moult in July, with each breeding stock congregating at a separate, traditional site, north of their whelping areas. If mixing does occur, the degree to which this takes place is unknown. Following the moulting period each stock disperses in the North Atlantic; movement patterns are only documented for the Greenland Sea stock (Folkow and Blix 1995, 1999, Folkow <em>et al</em>. 1996). Apart from the breeding and moulting periods where Hooded Seals form loose aggregations in specific areas, it is thought that hooded seals live quite solitary lives. However, little is in fact known about them outside the periods when they congregate. Groups of females with young animals have been seen at the northern ice edge in summer, but it is not known whether the groups were socially facilitated or solely the result of concentrations of prey (Kovacs pers. Obs.). Hooded seal longevity is 25-30 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals are very capable divers that spend extensive periods at sea without hauling out (Folkow and Blix 1999). Most of their dives are from 100-600 m in depth and last 5-25 minutes, however, very deep dives to over 1,000 m and dives lasting almost an hour have been recorded (Folkow <em>et al</em>. 1996, Lydersen <em>et al</em>. Unpubl. Data). Hooded Seals feed on a wide variety of fish and invertebrates, including species that occur throughout the water column. Examples of typical prey are <em>Parathemisto</em>, Greenland halibut, members of the cod family such as Polar and Atlantic Cod, redfishes (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), sand eels, herring, capelin, squid (e.g. <em>Gonatus fabricii</em>), and shrimp (Haug <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2007).<br/><br/>Polar Bears and Killer Whales are known Hooded Seall predators (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988); Greenland Sharks might also take young Hooded Seals.	eng
6204	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Hooded seals are markedly sexually dimorphic pinnipeds. Adult male hooded seals average 2.5 m in length and 300 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), with very large animals reaching over 400 kg (Kovacs 2002).  Adult females are smaller, averaging 2.2 m and 160 kg (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986), but can reach 300 kg (Reeves and Ling 1981). Pups are born at approximately 1 m in length and 25 kg (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded seals pup on pack ice in March and early April. The breeding season for this polygynous species is very short, usually lasting about two weeks, and mating takes place in the water (Boness <em>et al.</em> 1988).  This species has the shortest lactation period for any mammal, with most pups being weaned in four days at an average weight of 42.6 kg (Bowen <em>et al.</em> 1985).  <br/><br/>Most animals congregate in the Denmark Strait or north of Jan Mayen for a post-breeding molt in early summer, followed by dispersal in the North Atlantic (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986).  With the exception of the breeding and molting periods where they form short-lived, loose aggregations in specific areas, hooded seals live solitary lives that can last 25-30 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Hooded seals are capable divers and spend approximately 90% of their time at sea submerged. The majority of dives are from 100-600 m in depth and last 5-25 minutes, however, very deep dives to over 1,000 m and others lasting almost an hour have been recorded (Lavigne and Kovacs 2002).  Although their diet is not well known, hooded seals have been reported to feed on a wide variety of fish and invertebrates, including species that occur throughout the water column.  Examples of typical prey are Greenland halibut, cods such as polar and Atlantic cod, redfishes (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), herring, capelin, squid, and shrimp (Reeves and Ling 1981, Kovacs and Lavigne 1986).  Polar bears, killer whales, and Greenland sharks are known hooded seal predators (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).	eng
6204	population	Kovacs, K., 2008	Aerial surveys carried out at all three whelping areas in the Northwest Atlantic in 2005 produced an estimate of 116,900 pups born. The whole population, modelled based on the pup counts, produced an estimate of 592,000 individuals (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005). This suggests a moderate increase both in pup production and population size between the mid 1980s and 2005 (Hammill and Stenson 2006, 2007). Hooded Seals in the northeast Atlantic are showing an opposite trend. Pup production estimated for the Greenland Sea stock (West ice, near Jan Mayen) in 2005 was 15 250 pups, which in turn produces an estimate of total population size of about 70,000 animals (Øigård and Haug 2007, Salberg <em>et al</em>. 2008). This population estimate for the northeast Atlantic stock is 10-15% of the level observed some 60 years ago. Pup production estimated for this hooded seal whelping area in 1997 was 24,000. The cause of the significant, on-going decline in this population is unknown. But, concern for the apparent problems facing this stock has lead to the closure of hunting in recent years and the listing of this stock in the Norwegian Red List as Vulnerable (www.artsdatabanken.no).	eng
6204	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The current worldwide population of hooded seals is unknown. From the 1950s to the 1980s various estimates were published giving a population from 300,000-600,000 animals.  However, the methods used to generate these past estimates are poorly documented and the estimates are considered unreliable (Kovacs and Lavigne 1986). Counts of pups born in the western Atlantic breeding areas have been used to extrapolate an estimate of approximately 400,000-450,000 animals for the Front and Gulf of Saint Lawrence herds (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). Using similar methods, the Jan Mayen stock has been estimated at 200,000 animals (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
6204	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Hooded seals were subjected to episodes of intense commercial hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries. Harvests were often conducted in association with harp seal harvests and commercial fisheries for Greenland sharks. Norway, the Soviet Union, Canada, and Greenland have been principally involved in the commercial harvests. Following World War II this was primarily focused on newborns, because of their highly prized blue-back pelt, however, many adults females were taken when defending their pups. Annual harvests of hooded seals continue in Canada and Greenland (Lavigne and Kovacs 2002).   <br/><br/>In 1985 a permanent import ban on hooded seal pelts by the European Union ended most of the commercial harvesting of this species, although Canada took approximately 26,000 as recently as 1996. Hooded seals are also taken by Native People of Greenland and Canada for subsistence purposes every year (Kovacs 2002).  Bycatch of hooded seals in coastal net fisheries has been reported from the United States, from trawl fisheries off Norway and Newfoundland, and salmon drift nets used off Greenland (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992, Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005, Woodley and Lavigne 1991). Competition for food with commercial fisheries and other predators has been suggested as a factor that may limit population growth or lead to declines (Reijnders <em>et al. </em>1993).<br/><br/>Impacts of oil spills on hooded seals have not been reported; however as an ice breeding species, they might be at risk of mortality from spills during the pupping season when newborn and newly weaned pups could be fouled (St. Aubin 1990). Hooded seals did not suffer fatalities during the mass die-off of harbour seals in European waters from phocine distemper virus in 1998 and 2002. Subsequent testing of a variety of Arctic seals revealed antibodies to the virus in 18-24% percent of the hooded seals sampled indicating exposure and transmission of the virus (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>The hooded seal is an Arctic pack ice species dependent on ice as a substrate for pupping, molting, and resting, and as such is vulnerable to reduction in extent or timing of pack ice formation and retreat. The productivity of the ice edge ecosystem is also dependent on the dynamics and seasonality of Arctic ice, and alteration of the cycle of formation and retreat could have negative effects on important hooded seal prey such as Arctic cod (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Decreases in sea ice cover could also lead to more shipping and development of extraction based industries in the Arctic which in turn could negatively affect hooded seals through increased exposure to contaminants and pollution, increased disturbance, and increased risk of shipping accidents and spills (Pagnan 2000).	eng
6204	threats	Kovacs, K., 2008	Hooded Seals were subjected to intense commercial hunting in the 19th and 20th centuries. Harvests were often conducted in association with Harp Seal harvests and commercial fisheries for Greenland Sharks. Norway, the former Soviet Union, Canada, and Greenland have all been involved in the commercial harvests of this species. Following World War II the hunt was primarily focused on pups because of their highly prized blue-back pelt, however, many adult females were taken when defending their pups (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). The number of Hooded Seals in the northwest Atlantic is relatively well known. Pup production estimates have been repeatedly conducted, and TAC (total allowable catch) adjusted through time (e.g. Sergeant 1976, Hay <em>et al</em>. 1985, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 1987, Hammill <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stenson <em>et al</em>. 1996). Since 1998 TAC has been set at 10,000 seals per year, but catches are in fact only a few hundred animals (ICES 2006). Hooded Seals have also been harvested commercially in the Greenland Sea for centuries. The hunt increased substantially after World War II, to levels that were clearly not sustainable; regulatory measures were introduced in 1958 to reduce effort, and quotas were imposed in 1971 (Sergeant 1976, ICES 2006). Based on catch per unit effort analyses and mark-recapture pup production estimates it was assumed that the stock increased from the 1960s through to the 1990s at an unknown rate (Ulltang and Øien 1988). Aerial survey attempts in 1994 failed to produce an estimate (Øritsland and Øien 1995). Recent modelling efforts suggest that a very substantial decrease in population abundance took place from the late 1940s up to the early 1980s (ICES 2006). Aerial surveys in recent years suggest that this downward trend is continuing. Total pup production was estimated to be 24 000 in 1997 and this number dropped to 15 250 in 2005 (Salberg <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Hooded Seals are also taken by native people of Greenland and Canada for subsistence purposes every year (Kovacs 2002). By-catch of Hooded Seals in coastal net fisheries has been reported from the United States, from trawl fisheries off Norway and Newfoundland, and salmon drift nets used off Greenland (Woodley and Lavigne 1991, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992, Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005). Competition for food with commercial fisheries and other predators has been suggested as a factor that may limit population growth or lead to declines (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Impacts of oil spills on Hooded Seals have not been reported; however, as an ice breeding species, they might be at risk of mortality from spills during the pupping season when newborn and newly weaned pups could be fouled (St. Aubin 1990). Hooded Seals have been exposed to morbillivirus (Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997), but did not suffer fatalities during the mass die-offs of Harbour Seals in European waters from phocine distemper virus in 1998 and 2002. Subsequent testing of a variety of Arctic seals revealed antibodies to the virus in 18-24% percent of the Hooded Seals sampled indicating exposure to the virus (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The Hooded Seal is a pack ice species, which is dependent on ice as a substrate for pupping, moulting, and resting and as such is vulnerable to reduction in extent or timing of pack ice formation and retreat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2005, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). The productivity of the ice edge ecosystem is also dependent on the dynamics and seasonality of arctic ice, and alterations to the cycle of formation and retreat could have negative effects on important Hooded Seal prey such as Arctic Cod. Decreases in sea ice cover could also lead to more shipping and development of extraction based industries in the Arctic which in turn could negatively affect Hooded Seals through increased exposure to contaminants and pollution, increased disturbance and increased risk of shipping accidents and spills (Pagnan 2000).	eng
6206	conservation	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Research actions.	eng
6206	distribution	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from a few localities in the Caribbean lowlands of Nicaragua (Koopman, 1993) and Costa Rica (Starrett and Casebeer, 1968; Rodriguez pers. comm.); Colombia (Rodriguez <em>et al.</em>, 1995), Guyana (Lim and Engstrom, 2005), Suriname (Lim, unpublished data), French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998), Amazonian Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1996), Panama (Reid pers. comm.). All localities are at or below 500 m elevation.	eng
6206	habitat	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Roosts in groups of 1 to 10 at the top of palm trees on fronds, usually in relatively open areas such as groves or gardens. It hangs freely by the feet when roosting, near the midrib of a frond. Activity starts about 45 min after sunset but is usually restricted to immediately around the roost for 15 to 30 min, after which time, in complete darkeness, individuals disperse, flying at least 3 to 4 m above ground (Starrett 1972; Reid and Langtimm 1993). Adaptable to human disturbed areas. Aerial insectivore.	eng
6206	population	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This is one of the rarest Neotropical bats, know from fewer than twenty individuals taken from less than ten localities in humid lowland areas (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).	eng
6206	threats	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Rarity - but no immediate threats. Not considered rare in Costa Rica (Pineda e Rodriguez pers. comm.).	eng
6219	conservation	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
6219	distribution	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from eastern Nepal, northeastern India, southern China (southern and western Yunnan) and from adjacent areas of Lao PDR and Viet Nam in Southeast Asia. It is known only from a small number of specimens from a few scattered localities (Musser and Carleton 2005). In South Asia, although it is known from only a few locations in the region, it is presumed to be very widely distributed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).This montane species occurs from around 1,050 (South Asia) to 3,000 m asl.	eng
6219	habitat	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It has only been recorded from upper montane tropical and subtropical primary evergreen moist forest. It is not known if it can be found in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
6219	population	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
6219	threats	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species at the few known Southeast Asian localities. In South Asia, the major threats of the species are general deforestation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It could also be under pressure from culling by local people and government agencies due to a perceived threat of a population boom of rodents during bamboo flowering years of 2007-2008.	eng
6220	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas.	eng
6220	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species ranges throughout much of the Yungas of Bolivia and southeastern Peru, and extends at least into extreme western Brazil (Dunnum and Salazar-Bravo, 2004). This species occurs up to about 1,000 m.	eng
6220	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Vivar, E., 2008	In Bolivia, the species is found in Yungas forest areas where it is specifically restricted to disjunct patches of bamboo habitat. It can also be found in bamboo stands in disturbed areas, such as alongside rivers in urban areas. All localities are within tropical or subtropical areas.	eng
6220	population	Dunnum, J. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is relatively common within suitable bamboo habitat.	eng
6220	threats	Dunnum, J. & Vivar, E., 2008	Although the species is restricted to bamboo habitats it is adaptable to habitat change, as long as some bamboo stands remain.	eng
6221	conservation	Patton, J. & Marinho, F., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6221	distribution	Patton, J. & Marinho, F., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and western Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6221	habitat	Patton, J. & Marinho, F., 2008	This nocturnal and arboreal species is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is social and forages in bamboo clumps in family groups (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Its home ranges reach up to 0.43 ha (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is a varzea specialist and is rarely seen but can be heard because of its very distinctive call.	eng
6221	population	Patton, J. & Marinho, F., 2008	This rodent is not common.	eng
6221	threats	Patton, J. & Marinho, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
6222	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It has been recorded from the Cotapata National Park in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitats and threats to this species.	eng
6222	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species is known only from two sites, Cotapata in Bolivia (3,300 m asl) and in Juliaca, Peru (around 1,000 to 3,000 m asl) (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Salzar-Bravo <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
6222	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species is found in cloud forest where it is restricted to bamboo habitat. It is folivorous and bamboo is a major food item (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The type specimen was collected along a creek in the middle of the day (Allen, 1900). It is not known to occur in modified habitats.	eng
6222	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens.	eng
6222	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Zeballos, H., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
6223	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Mekil Wildlife Management Area.	eng
6223	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is known from the high elevations of western New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded at four localities but it is expected to occur more widely. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
6223	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a strictly arboreal species of primary montane moss forest. It has not been recorded in secondary forests.	eng
6223	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is rarely encountered; only ten individuals were encountered in 600 hours work at one locality (L. Salas pers. comm.).	eng
6223	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is occasionally hunted by local people for food and its pelt, however, it is not easily encountered, and hunting is not considered a major threat to this species.	eng
6224	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L. & Allison, A., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to better determine the distribution (particularly to see if it is present elsewhere on the island), abundance, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
6224	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L. & Allison, A., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to Fergusson Island, of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea. All records are from the mountains in the west of the island at elevations of 600 to 1,000 m asl; it is possible that the species is restricted to this area (Flannery 1995).	eng
6224	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L. & Allison, A., 2008	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species of primary tropical moist forest habitats. During the day animals den in dry leaf nests in hollows. Its diet is largely composed of insects, fruits, and leaves.	eng
6224	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L. & Allison, A., 2008	It is known from very few specimens (most recently, a specimen was collected in 2003).	eng
6224	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L. & Allison, A., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but presumably include loss of suitable habitat and denning sites because of expanding agriculture.	eng
6225	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6225	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout the Vogelkop Peninsula (Indonesia), central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 850 and 3,050 m asl (mostly above 1,200 m).	eng
6225	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This is a largely arboreal species of primary montane tropical moist forest. It has not been recorded from secondary forest habitats. Females may give birth to a single young.	eng
6225	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat, but as it is a cryptic species that is difficult to detect.	eng
6225	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is occasionally hunted by local people for food and its pelt, however, it is not easily found, and hunting is not considered to be a major threat to this species.	eng
6226	conservation	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species is present in several protected areas in New Guinea, and is also present in some Australian protected areas (e.g., Wet Tropics World Heritage Area).	eng
6226	distribution	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species ranges from the islands of Waigeo, Yapen, and the Aru Islands (all Indonesia); through much of the lower elevation forests of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); into Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from Mt. Spec, near Townsville to the Iron Range (Handasyde 2008).	eng
6226	habitat	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This nocturnal, arboreal species occurs in primary and degraded tropical moist forests, and adjacent eucalypt and melaleuca woodlands. The female gives birth to up to two young (Handasyde 2008).	eng
6226	population	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	Within New Guinea this species is abundant in suitable habitat. In Australia, it is common in the lowlands and uncommon at higher elevations.	eng
6226	threats	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Within New Guinea, the main threat to this species is deforestation through subsistence agriculture. It is also hunted for food, however, this is not considered to be a major threat. There are no major threats to this species in Australia.	eng
6229	conservation	Blasdale, T., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Guallart, J. & Ungaro, N., 2006	Deepwater sharks are subject to management in Community waters and in certain non Community waters for stocks of deep-sea species for 2005 and 2006. The TAC for ICES areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX for a group of deep sea shark species including <em>D. licha</em> is 6 763 t. In Subarea X (the Azores) the TAC is 120t and in Subarea XII 243 t. The EC has also introduced emergency measures to ban deep-water gill-netting.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. The EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action, which encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of sharks in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
6229	distribution	Blasdale, T., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Guallart, J. & Ungaro, N., 2006	Found on continental and insular shelves and slopes in warm-temperate and tropical areas (Compagno and Cook 2005). This species is found in the western and eastern Atlantic, western Indian Ocean, western Pacific and around the Hawaiian islands (Compagno in prep.).	eng
6229	habitat	Blasdale, T., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Guallart, J. & Ungaro, N., 2006	The Kitefin Shark is a deepwater, benthic to mesopelagic species. Found on continental and insular shelves and slopes in warm-temperate and tropical areas from 37 m down to 1,800 m depth, most common below 200 m. Within the Western Mediterranean it occurs at depths of up to 1,800 m (Stefanescu <em>et al.</em> 1992), in the Tyrrhenian Sea it is present between 200?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001) and in the Adriatic it was found at depths of up to 900 m (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It is, however found primarily on the continental slopes at depths of 300?600 m (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Reproduction is via aplacental viviparity and occurs throughout the year, with greater activity during the summer and autumnal months (Bini 1976, Tortonese 1956). Produces 3?16 pups per litter, (Bauchot 1987), but usually 6?8 per litter (Bini 1976, Tortonese 1956). The size at birth is approximately 30 cm in total length (Bauchot 1987, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). The length of maturity for males ranges between 77-121 cm and for females, between 117?159 cm (Bauchot 1987). However, in the Adriatic a mature female was observed which was considerably smaller, measuring 96 cm in length (N. Ungaro pers. obs.). The maximum size of kitefin sharks is reported to be 180 cm in total length, however 120 cm is a more common length (Bauchot 1987).<br/><br/>This shark is a solitary species (Bauchot 1987). The Kitefin Shark?s diet is indicative of the water region it occupies, it preys on mesopelagic and benthic fishes, including catsharks (<em>Galeus</em>) and spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> and <em>Etmopterus</em>), as well as cephalopods, crustaceans and polychaetes (Macpherson 1980, Bauchot 1987).	eng
6229	population	Blasdale, T., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Guallart, J. & Ungaro, N., 2006	Population size is unknown; however the Kitefin Shark is believed to be relatively common yet low in abundance. There is probably little or no exchange between populations separated by the deep ocean or occurring in different ocean basins, which are considered to form distinct regional subpopulations (Compagno and Cook 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>In the Mediterranean, the range of this species appears to be confined to the western and central basins (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Biomass appears to be very low in this region (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The GRUND project, a series of experimental trawl surveys carried out on the continental and upper slopes of the central Mediterranean suggest a positive trend in kitefin catches between 1985 and 1998, however the dataset was relatively poor in that very few specimens were caught (average 1.9 per hour) over 12 years of surveys (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>D. licha</em> were present in <2% of bottom trawls across the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al. </em>2000). A bottom trawl fishery for red-shrimp Aristeus antennatus operating in the Gulf of Valencia collected data between 1988 and 1989 on the frequency of <em>D. licha</em> catches. The species was present in 28.6% of trawls carried out at 450?675 m depth, with a mean abundance of 0.06 specimens per hour of trawling (Guallart 1990). During exploratory surveys to collect data of the exploited and virgin stocks of deep-sea <em>A. antennatus</em> (DESEAS project), <em>D. licha</em> were caught in all three areas of the study (the Balearic area, the western Ionian and the eastern Ionian). Abundance decreased with depth in the Balearic area and the species was found to be more abundant between 1,000 and 1,499 m in the western Ionian and was present mainly at shallower depths in the eastern Ionian (Sion <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Stock identity of Kitefin Shark in Northeast Atlantic is unknown. However the species seems to be more abundant in the south area of the Mid Atlantic Ridge (ICES Area X). Elsewhere in the Northeast Atlantic, kitefin shark is infrequently recorded. For the purposes of stock assessment and management, the Azores/Mid-Atlantic Ridge population is considered to be separate from the Northeast Atlantic Slope population (ICES 2006). There is very little population information for this species over the remainder of its range. On the Chatham Rise in New Zealand, <em>D. licha</em> comprised less than 1% of the total shark catch in all fishing (Wetherbee 1999). The species has been captured in greater numbers, however in fishing that was conducted at shallower depths other locations in New Zealand (Clark and King 1989).	eng
6229	threats	Blasdale, T., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Guallart, J. & Ungaro, N., 2006	This shark has long been exploited commercially (Compagno and Cook 2005). Because of the generally deep depth at which this species appears to spend most of its time, historically it was taken primarily in deepwater directed fisheries efforts (Compagno and Cook 2005). However, with recent trends in development of deep fishing gear (especially trawl gear), and the increasing need for commercial fisheries to fish deeper in attempts to sustain harvest levels, this species and other deep-sea elasmobranchs will undoubtedly come under increased pressure in the future (Compagno and Cook 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>The following is taken from the ICES WGEF Report (2006) unless stated otherwise.<br/><br/><em>D. licha</em> was formerly caught in targeted hand-line and gill-net fisheries in the Azores. Landings from the Azores began in the early 70s and increased rapidly to over 947 t in 1981. From 1981 to 1991 landings fluctuated considerably, following market fluctuations and peaked at 937t in 1984 and 896t in 1991. After 1991 the reported landings declined linearly, possibly as a result of economic problems related to markets. The fishery ceased at the end of the 1990s because it was not profitable. Since 1988 a bycatch has been reported from mainland Portugal with 282 t in 2000 and 119 t in 2003. <em>D. licha</em> from the Azores is now a bycatch from different deep-water fisheries, with landings in 2004 and 2005 of less than about 15 t (Pinho 2006). This species is also caught by longline fisheries off the Portuguese mainland.<br/><br/>This species has been reported in longline and gill-net fisheries directed at mixed deep-water sharks west of the British Isles. Recent emergency measures by the EC and NEAFC have closed these deep-water gill-net fisheries. It is apparently also taken in small quantities by mixed deep-water trawl fisheries west of the British Isles but quantities are unknown as shark species are not usually separated in landings statistics. According to the WGEF (ICES 2006), while the United Kingdom and Ireland have official reported landings of Kitefin Shark, these have likely been misidentified, and are more likely to be either Portuguese dogfish or leafscale gulper shark. A comparison between recent Scottish trawl surveys and MAFF surveys in the 1970s shows a 94% decline in catch rate, however, this value must be treated with caution as it is likely that other species may have been misidentified as <em>D. licha</em> in the 1970s (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore this species is at the limit of its geographical range west of Scotland. In total, the WGEF estimated total landings in the ICES area to be around 47 t in 2005.<br/><br/>Stock assessments of the <em>D. licha</em> fishery were made during the 80s (Silva 1987). The stock was considered intensively exploited with the average observed total catches (809 t) near the estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY=933 t). During the DELASS project (Heessen 2003), the stock was considered depleted based on the probability of the Biomass 2001 being less than BMSY.  Preliminary assessment results suggest that the stock may be depleted, to about 50% of virgin biomass. However, further analysis is required, particularly analysing the effect of liver oil prices on the fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There was a specific Kitefin Shark fishery based in the Ligurian Sea until the 1930s. Roughly ten boats worked this fishery using traditional longline gear. It is reported that each boat caught approximately twenty large individuals, which were often pregnant females (Vacchi and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2000).<br/><br/>Today, the Kitefin Shark is caught across the Mediterranean mainly as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries. In the Balearic Sea, individuals ranging from small juveniles to adults are caught by such fisheries operating on the continental slope at depths between 300 and 675 m (Guallart pers. comm.).  These individuals are generally discarded, the majority of which are still alive (Guallart 1990, Guallart pers. comm. 2003). There is no information on post release survival rates for this species, however due to neutral buoyancy of its body, many of them are unable to sink again, die on the surface, and sometimes are found stranded on the coast (Guallart pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Although little specific information is available in other areas of the species' range, it is distributed over a wide depth range and is therefore a potential bycatch in a number of deepwater fisheries. The life history characteristics of the species (i.e., slow growth, relatively large size at maturity etc.) make them vulnerable to rapid declines should pressure increase throughout their range.	eng
6232	conservation	Rabiei, A. & Temple, H., 2008	This species has an important and interesting conservation history. In 1960, the Iranian Game and Fish Department initiated the first conservation actions by designating the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal's re-discovery. A male and a female calf were bought from local people in south-west Iran by a team from Von Opel?s zoo in Germany in ?1957-1958?, and subsequently a stag was sent to Germany. Between 1964 and 1965, a 400 strong team captured 6 deer within the protected areas and transfer them to the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge, where they were managed in a 55 hectare enclosure, and where the population increased. The stock in Germany also bred well, but unfortunately they interbred with <em>Dama dama</em> (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Iran received seven of these hybrid animals from Germany in 1972, but fortunately kept them isolated from the pure-bred Persian population at Dasht-e-Naz. The hybrid population totalled 30 animals in 1977 and was transferred to a 6 ha enclosure in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge to allow more space for the pure-bred population, and to prevent gene exchange between them. In December 1978, four of these hybrid animals were smuggled into Israel. From 1977, specimens of pure-bred Persian fallow deer were transferred to new sites in different parts of Iran including its original habitat in Karkheh Wildlife Refuge. Signs of deer were still presented in Karkheh prior to the translocation (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Subsequently in 1995 the new enclosure (180 ha) was established in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge for transferred pure-bred deer from Dasht-e-Naz, in order to reduce the population density in Dasht-e-Naz (Rabiei 2002). These conservation measures have brought the species back from the brink of extinction in Iran, and the population is gradually increasing. However, the two truly wild population remain seriously threatened and need strict protection in order to recover. <br/><br/>The re-introduction program within Israel was initiated in 1996 (Bar-David <em>et al</em>. 2005), but consists entirely of hybrid animals.<br/><br/>The species is included on CITES Appendix I. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions have been compiled by Rabiei (1995, 2002, 2003, 2004), and include: further population surveys; ecological and genetic research; strengthening of existing management of protected areas; creating of new protected areas; promote protection of the last remaining truly wild populations in the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge; re-introducing animals to these two populations; strengthening the existing captive breeding programs; and establishing a collaborative captive breeding programme. It is extremely important to keep the pure-bred and wild animals separate, and to concentrate all conservation efforts on the pure-bred stock.	eng
6232	conservation	Rabiei, A., 2010	This species has an important and interesting conservation history. In 1960, the Iranian Game and Fish Department initiated the first conservation actions by designating the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge around the site of this animal's re-discovery. A male and a female calf were bought from local people in south-west Iran by a team from Von Opel’s Zoo in Germany in 1957–1958, and subsequently a stag was sent to Germany. Between 1964 and 1965, a 400 strong team captured 6 deer within the protected areas and transfer them to the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge, where they were managed in a 55 hectare enclosure, and where the population increased. The stock in Germany also bred well, but unfortunately they interbred with <em>Dama dama</em> (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Iran received seven of these hybrid animals from Germany in 1972, but fortunately kept them isolated from the pure-bred Persian population at Dasht-e-Naz. The hybrid population totalled 30 animals in 1977 and was transferred to a 6 ha enclosure in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge to allow more space for the pure-bred population, and to prevent gene exchange between them. In December 1978, four of these hybrid animals were smuggled into Israel. From 1977, specimens of pure-bred Persian fallow deer were transferred to new sites in different parts of Iran including its original habitat in Karkheh Wildlife Refuge. Signs of deer were still presented in Karkheh prior to the translocation (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). Subsequently in 1995 the new enclosure (180 ha) was established in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge for transferred pure-bred deer from Dasht-e-Naz, in order to reduce the population density in Dasht-e-Naz (Rabiei 2002). These conservation measures have brought the species back from the brink of extinction in Iran, and the population is gradually increasing. However, the two truly wild population remain seriously threatened and need strict protection in order to recover. The reintroduction program within Israel was initiated in 1996 (Bar-David <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions have been compiled by Rabiei (1995, 2002, 2003, 2004), and include: further population surveys; ecological and genetic research; strengthening of existing management of protected areas; creating of new protected areas; promote protection of the last remaining truly wild populations in the Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge; re-introducing animals to these two populations; strengthening the existing captive breeding programs; and establishing a collaborative captive breeding programme. It is extremely important to keep the pure-bred and wild animals separate, and to concentrate all conservation efforts on the pure-bred stock.<br/>The species is included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Dama dama mesopotamica</span>).	eng
6232	distribution	Rabiei, A., 2010	The Persian Fallow Deer formerly occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). It was depicted in relief artwork dated prior to the 9<sup>th</sup> century BC and in ancient times its range probably included North Africa from Tunisian border to the Red Sea. By 1875 it was restricted to southwestern and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was rediscovered in southwestern Iran in 1956. The only surviving indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Iran (though the population in Karkeh has also been restocked with animals from the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge).<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in Iran as follows: Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Ashk and Kaboudan Islands in Lake Uromiyeh (Uromiyeh National Park); and the Miankotal enclosure in Arjan and Parishan Protected Area. All these reintroduced populations are either in enclosures or on islands. Some of the animals in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, although the hybrids and pure-bred animals are maintained in separate populations. Introductions to Shiri, Lavan, Kish Islands in the Persian Gulf were probably not successful.<br/><br/>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Israel</st1:place></st1:country-region> a reintroduction program for Persian Fallow Deer has been underway since 1996 with more than 250 animals in the wild today. The breeding nucleus in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Israel</st1:country-region> was founded in 1976 from three animals (two males and one female) from the Opel Zoo and four females from Semeskandeh facility in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Animals at the Semeskandeh facility were received from Opel in 1973 and were suspected in to be hybrids with the European Fallow Deer. However, all hybrids produced at Opel were reported to have been disposed of in 1965-66 (Jantschke 1991). Genetic studies of the Israeli population revealed low genetic diversity (over 95% similarity between individuals), which suggests no hybridization. None of the individuals in the Israeli population exhibits the morphological traits typical of European fallow deer (palmate antlers or a relatively long bushy tail with a central black streak).	eng
6232	distribution	Rabiei, A. & Temple, H., 2008	The Persian Fallow Deer formerly occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami and Rabiei 2002). It was depicted in relief artwork dated prior to the 9th century BC and in ancient times its range probably included North Africa from Tunisian border to the Red Sea. By 1875 it was restricted to southwestern and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was rediscovered in southwestern Iran in 1956. The only surviving indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Iran (though the population in Karkeh has also been restocked with animals from the Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge).<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in Iran as follows: Dasht-e-Naz Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge in northern Iran; Ashk and Kaboudan Islands in Lake Uromiyeh (Uromiyeh National Park); and the Miankotal enclosure in Arjan and Parishan Protected Area. All these re-introduced populations are either in enclosures or on islands. Some of the animals in Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, although the hybrids and pure-bred animals are maintained in separate populations. Introductions to Shiri, Lavan, Kish Islands in the Persian Gulf were probably not successful. In Israel, hybrid animals from Semeskandeh Wildlife Refuge were re-introduced in the Hai Bar Carmel Reserve in 1978, where they have been bred and subsequently released (since 1996) into the Kziv Reserve and surrounding countryside in northern Israel, and since 2005 into the Jerusalem Mountains. Hybrid animals are not included in this assessment.	eng
6232	habitat	Rabiei, A. & Temple, H., 2008	The Persian fallow deer occupies a range of woodlands, such as tamarisk, oak and pistachio woodlands. The wild population utilizes riparian forest thickets (McTaggart-Cowan and Holloway 1978). The rut is during August and early September, and calving at the end of March to early April, following a gestation period of approximately 229 days (Chapman and Chapman 1975).	eng
6232	habitat	Rabiei, A., 2010	The Persian Fallow Deer occupies a range of woodlands, such as tamarisk, oak and pistachio woodlands. The wild population utilizes riparian forest thickets (McTaggart-Cowan and Holloway 1978). The rut is during August and early September, and calving at the end of March to early April, following a gestation period of approximately 229 days (Chapman and Chapman 1975).	eng
6232	population	Rabiei, A. & Temple, H., 2008	The Persian fallow deer was thought to be extinct by the 1940s, but a small population of perhaps 25 animals was subsequently rediscovered in Khuzistan Province, Iran during the 1950s (Davies 1982). As of the mid 1990s, the total population in Iran (including captive and re-introduced animals) did not exceed 250. By 2004, the total Iranian population had increased to approximately 340 individuals (Rabiei 2004). By 2008, the number of animals had increased further, though only 365 of these are pure-bred, the remainder being hybrids (A. Rabiei pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Israel there were approximately 200 individuals in the north of the country by 2005, and around 150 in Hai Bar Carmel Reserve. However, all animals in Israel are hybrids with <em>Dama dama</em>, and there are not included within the assessment.	eng
6232	population	Rabiei, A., 2010	The Persian Fallow Deer was thought to be extinct by the 1940s, but a small population of perhaps 25 animals was subsequently rediscovered in Khuzistan Province, Iran during the 1950s (Davies 1982). As of the mid 1990s, the total population in Iran (including captive and re-introduced animals) did not exceed 250. By 2004, the total Iranian population had increased to approximately 340 individuals (Rabiei 2004). By 2008, the number of animals had increased further, though only 365 of these are pure-bred, the remainder being hybrids (A. Rabiei pers. comm.). In Israel there were approximately 200 individuals in the north of the country by 2005, and around 150 in Hai Bar Carmel Reserve.	eng
6232	threats	Rabiei, A., 2010	This species has experienced numerous threats such as habitat destruction, poaching, natural predation, and competition with livestock, and this lead to its long decline and near extinction. Also they are suffering from the effects of small population size, isolation and inbreeding (Hemami and Rabiei 2002).	eng
6232	threats	Rabiei, A. & Temple, H., 2008	This species has experienced numerous threats such as habitat destruction, poaching, natural predation, and competition with livestock, and this lead to its long decline and near extinction. Also they are suffering from the effects of small population size, isolation and inbreeding (Hemami and Rabiei 2002).	eng
6234	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This is one of the most highly threatened antelopes in Africa. Recommendations for the long-term conservation of the Hirola in Kenya have been included in a conservation action plan (Magin 1996) and a conservation evaluation report (Butynski 1999). These recommendations are now part of the current conservation and management plan for the Hirola in Kenya (Hirola Management Committee 2004) and are being acted upon by the Kenya Wildlife Service, in conjunction with the Hirola Management Committee and local conservation NGOs. There is an urgent need to improve the level of management and protection of the one natural population of Hirola, particularly in the Arawale National Reserve and in the Galma Galla/Kolbio region of Kenya. Community conservation and anti-poaching activities must be established over a large portion of the remaining range, but insecurity for conservation workers is an extremely serious problem in this region. Consideration should be given to establishing protected areas at Galma Galla and Lag Dere, and to expanding the Tana Primate National Reserve to the east to include at least 300 km² of prime habitat for Hirola (Butynski in press). There are only two Hirola in captivity.	eng
6234	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Hirola is endemic to north-east Kenya and south-west Somalia. Historical distribution is estimated to have covered ca. 17,900 km² in Kenya and ca. 20,500 km² in Somalia (Bunderson 1981, East 1999, Butynski in press). In Kenya, Hirola currently occur between Garsen, Bura and Galma Galla/Kolbio over an area of ca. 8,000 km² (Butynski 1999). Current status in south-west Somalia is not known, but its former range has been badly affected by prolonged civil and military conflicts that continued up to early 2007.<br/><br/>There is a small translocated population in Tsavo East National Park, outside the species’ natural range. This originated from a translocation of 30 animals from Garissa District conducted in 1963. It is thought that most of these perished soon after release and that the size of the “effective founder population” was only 11 to 19 animals (Butynski 1999). A further 10 animals were translocated to Tsavo East in 1996 (Hofmann 1996).	eng
6234	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Hirola inhabit semi-arid thorn bush, open bush grassland, to light woodland, and lush savanna grassland. Their preferred habitat is seasonally flooded, open grassland with scattered small shrubs and trees on well-drained soils with short leafy swards of grass formed by fire, or by the combined grazing pressure of wildlife and domestic livestock (Bunderson 1981, Butynski in press).	eng
6234	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In 1979, there were ca. 16,000 animals in Kenya on 17,900 km². Estimated numbers decreased from 12,500 in the early to mid-1970s to about 7,000 in 1977-83, followed by a drastic decline (85 to 90%) between 1983 and 1985 caused by the severe drought of 1984 (Butynski 1999). Ground surveys suggested a population of between 500 and 2,000 in Kenya in 1995/1996 (Andanje and Ottichilo 1999, Butynski 1999, Dahiye and Aman 2002). Somalia had ca. 2,000 Hirola in 1979, but has few, if any, today (Butynski 1999). Overall, numbers have fallen by 85 to 90% since 1980 and are still declining (East 1999, Butynski in press).<br/><br/>The translocated population in Tsavo East National Park numbers ca. 105 individuals, an increase from the 56 to 76 animals in 1995/1996 (Andanje and Ottichilo 1999, Butynski in press).	eng
6234	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Hunting, disease, drought, habitat loss, and competition with livestock. Lack of effective protection leaves it vulnerable to poaching. The development of the cattle industry, compounded by rinderpest and drought are continuing threats. The Tsavo population additionally faces predation by relatively high densities of large carnivores and competition from a greater variety of other wild herbivore species (but much lower numbers of cattle) than in its natural range (East 1999, Butynski in press).	eng
6235	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Around 98% of remaining Korrigum occur in and around protected areas, primarily in the W-Arly-Pendjari complex (Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin) and in Waza and Benoue in northern Cameroon (East 1999; Duncan in press).<br/><br/>About one-quarter of Tiang occur in protected areas), including: Zakouma N.P. (the largest population in central Africa at ca. 1,300) and Salamat Faunal Reserve and Aouk hunting areas (Chad), Manovo-Gounda-St Floris N.P. (CAR), Dinder N.P. (Sudan), Omo N.P. and Mago N.P. (Ethiopia) and Sibiloi N.P. (Kenya) (East 1999; Duncan in press). There is no information on their status in Dinder N.P., where they may now number no more than a few dozen individuals (Chardonnet 2004).<br/><br/>Coastal Topi occur mainly outside protected areas, although they are present in Boni and Dodori National Reserves (East 1999).<br/><br/>More than 90% of Topi occur in protected areas, in particular Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Akagera N.P. (Rwanda), Mara (Kenya) and Serengeti N.P. (Tanzania). However, the populations in QENP and the Virungas have been declining (East 1999). The population in Akagera, the last effective stronghold for Topi in Rwanda, declined from around 7,500 in 1990 to an estimated 2,000 in 1997-1998; following the reduction in size of the park in 1997, only an estimated 770 animals survive in the new Akagera N.P. (Williams and Ntayombya 1999).<br/><br/>The Bangweulu Tsessebe occurs in Bangweulu, and has been translocated to a number of private game ranches in Zambia (Cotterill 2003). The latter author called for the translocation of a population to Kasanka N.P.<br/><br/>Tsessebe are well represented in both protected areas (40%) and on private land (20%), with strongholds in Okavango and Chobe N.P. (Moremi) and Kruger N.P. (South Africa). However, the population in Kruger N.P., among the best-protected areas on the continent, declined to about 220 individuals in 1996 (Dunham <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
6235	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species formerly occurred widely on floodplains and other grasslands in sub-Saharan Africa. It was one of the most numerous large antelope species in Africa, but has been eliminated from much of its former range. Various populations have become very rare and it has disappeared from Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Senegal, The Gambia, and Burundi. The ranges of the subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Duncan in press):<br/><br/>Korrigum formerly occurred from southern Mauritania and Senegal to western Chad, but has undergone a dramatic decline since the early 1900s because of displacement by cattle and uncontrolled hunting for meat. The species no longer occurs in Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, or The Gambia, and they probably no longer occur in northern Togo, Nigeria or western Chad, except as vagrants.<br/><br/>Tiang occurred throughout southern Chad, northern Central African Republic, and Sudan to south-western Ethiopia and extreme north-western Kenya.<br/><br/>Coastal Topi formerly occurred in southern Somalia in riverine grasslands on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and the area around Bush Bush N.P., and in Kenya in Lamu, Garissa and Tana River districts. Their range is unchanged in Kenya, although there is no information available from Somalia.<br/><br/>Topi occurred in south-west Kenya, northwest and western Tanzania, east and south-western Uganda, north-eastern Rwanda, and the eastern floodplains and savanna grasslands of Burundi. Topi are now extinct in Burundi.<br/><br/>Bangweulu Tsessebe formerly occurred in the Bangweulu Flats in northeastern Zambia, and in the Katanga Pedicle of DR Congo, where they are now extinct.<br/><br/>Tsessebe remain present in a number of populations in southern Africa, but became extinct in Mozambique around the late 1970s or early 1980s. They have been reintroduced in Swaziland, after the indigenous population was exterminated.	eng
6235	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Generally an inhabitat of floodplains and other grasslands in sub-Saharan Africa. The species moved seasonally between the Sahel grasslands, savannas and the floodplains of the Niger Delta. In Sudan, the Tiang was widespread in savanna and floodplain grasslands, but also occurred in much lower numbers in the woodlands of the south-west. In Somalia, the Coastal Topi formerly occurred locally in the south, in riverine grasslands on the lower Shebelle and Juba Rivers and in the Lake Badana (Bush Bush National Park) area. In South Africa, the Tsessebe formerly occurred in the bushveld and lowveld. Currently, the Tsessebe occurs mainly on the basalt plains of northern Kruger National Park. Tsessebe do not occur in forests, arid or montane habitats (above 1,500 m) (East 1999; Duncan in press). Nearly exclusively grazers, they can go for months without drinking in the dry season if they are feeding on growing grass (Duncan in press).	eng
6235	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) gives total population estimates of 30,000 Tsessebe, 93,000 Topi, 100,000 Coastal Topi, 75,000 Tiang and 3,000 Korrigum, and a species total of about 300,000. Based on the figures available in Appendix 4 in East (1999), numbers of Bangweulu Tsessebe are in the order of 3,500.<br/><br/>Chardonnet (2004) revised the estimate of the global population of Korrigum to 1,850-2,650 (including 800 in W-Arly-Pendjari and 800-1,600 in Waza N.P.), and estimated the number of Tiang in Central Africa at 3,200. <br/><br/>East's (1999) total for Tiang included an estimated 50,000 Tiang in southern Sudan, which he acknowledged could be a gross underestimate of the actual population; indeed, recent aerial surveys carried out by WCS in southern Sudan in the early dry season in 2007 indicate a population of ~153,000 (probably an underestimate) in the Jonglei area and a generally favourable conservation situation (although numbers in Boma National Park had declined). These estimates are lower than those reported for the late dry season in 1980 (by about half), but slightly larger than those recorded in the early dry season in the same year (see Mefit-Babtie 1983).<br/><br/>Population trends are increasing for the Tsessebe (especially on private land) and Bangweulu Tseseebe, but decreasing for most of the other subspecies.	eng
6235	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	While the species is still numerous and widespread, it has been eliminated from large areas of its former range by hunting, and habitat degradation associated with the encroachment/expansion of cattle. These threats have been most marked on the West African Korrigum; of the 12 countries in which they formerly occurred, they are now extirpated from four, and probably only occur as vagrants in three.	eng
6236	conservation	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
6252	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
6252	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from one area in the Nilwala River basin, in Opatha, Sri Lanka (R. Devi, pers. comm.).  The range of this species is an estimated 818 km².	eng
6252	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>D. pathirana</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in swift flowing streams, with pebble or boulder substrates.  It has not been found in silted rivulets flowing into the mainstream.  It forms groups of 3-5 individuals slowly moving near the surface.	eng
6252	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>D. pathirana</em> is reported to be numerous within its limited range (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
6252	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>D. pathirana</em> is threatened by pressure from shade loss and agricultural effluents (Pethiyagoda 1994).    <br/><br/>During the past two centuries, nearly all the natural forests in this eco-region have been cleared for tea, rubber, and coconut plantations, rice paddies, and human settlements (WWF 2001).	eng
6265	conservation	McKnight, M., Canty, P.,  Brandle, R., Robinson, T. &  Watson, M., 2008	The Kowari is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a few protected areas including Diamantina and Astrebla Downs National Parks.	eng
6265	distribution	McKnight, M., Canty, P.,  Brandle, R., Robinson, T. &  Watson, M., 2008	The Kowari is endemic to Australia, where it is found on the gibber plains of the Channel Country in southeastern Queensland and northern South Australia (Lim 2008).	eng
6265	habitat	McKnight, M., Canty, P.,  Brandle, R., Robinson, T. &  Watson, M., 2008	Kowaris inhabit stony gibber plains with sparse scrub between braided river channels and sand dunes in Channel Country (Lim 2008).	eng
6265	population	McKnight, M., Canty, P.,  Brandle, R., Robinson, T. &  Watson, M., 2008	This species is rare and scattered with low densities (Lim 2008). Populations fluctuate with climatic conditions (Lim 2008). Estimates of total population are based on area, maximum density and the fact that there are 24 known populations (although probably less now as some populations are thought to have recently disappeared; Canty and Brandle 2008). The total adult population is probably less than 10,000 individuals (P. Canty pers. comm.).	eng
6265	threats	McKnight, M., Canty, P.,  Brandle, R., Robinson, T. &  Watson, M., 2008	Kowari numbers have declined in areas where livestock grazing is intense, and their occurrence has diminished near water holes used by stock. The affects of introduced predators on this species is unknown. Global warming has the potential to be a threatening process for this species. Modelling by Chapman and Milne (1998) for the Kowari predicted a severe contraction in range.	eng
6266	conservation	Woolley, P., 2008	This species is found in at least one protected area (e.g., Simpson Desert Regional Reserve). Research into its distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and possible threats is needed.	eng
6266	distribution	Woolley, P., 2008	The Crest-tailed Mulgara is endemic to Australia, where it is known with certainty only from some of the desert regions along the border between the Northern Territory and South Australia. Because the re-recognition of <em>D. blythi</em> as a species has been so recent the identity of museum specimens must be re-checked before the true range limits of both it and <em>D. cristicauda</em> can be determined (Woolley 2005, 2008).	eng
6266	habitat	Woolley, P., 2008	<em>D. cristicauda</em> is found primarily in Sandhill Canegrass (<em>Zygochloa paradoxa</em>) dominated dunes, with a vegetation cover less than 20%, Nitre Bush (<em>Nitraria billardierei</em>) grasslands (Foulkes and Canty 2000), and Sandhill Canegrass flats near salt lakes (J. Foulkes pers. comm.). Their burrows have been found on dunes (Woolley 1990) and at the base of Nitre Bush hummocks (Masters 2008). Relatively little is known of the biology of this species (see Woolley 2006), but the reproductive pattern is thought to be similar to that of <em>D. blythi</em>.	eng
6266	population	Woolley, P., 2008	This species has a wide known range (Woolley 2005; Masters 2008).	eng
6266	threats	Woolley, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
6267	conservation	Woolley, P., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
6267	distribution	Woolley, P., 2008	The Brush-tailed Mulgara is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in arid regions of the central and western parts of the country. Because the re-recognition of <em>D. blythi</em> as a species has been so recent the identity of museum specimens must be re-checked before the true range limits of both it and <em>D. cristicauda</em> can be determined (Woolley 2005, 2008).	eng
6267	habitat	Woolley, P., 2008	This species occupies spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) grasslands, and burrows in flats between sand dunes. It is generally a solitary species that hunts at night, although it is not strictly nocturnal (Woolley 2008).<br/><br/>This species has a wide ranging diet that includes various types of invertebrates, reptiles, and small mammals (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1998; Masters 1998; Turner 2004). It produces one litter per year (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1982) with a maximum litter size of six and a sex ratio of 1:1 (Baker 1996; Masters 1997, 1998). The breeding season is June to October (Masters 1997). Individuals of both sexes can survive for more than one breeding season, with only a very small proportion of the population surviving to the third year (Masters 1997). In captivity Brush-tailed Mulgaras can live up to five years of age (Woolley 1971). This species is solitary with a home range of 1.4 to 14 ha (Manson 1994; Masters 2003).	eng
6267	population	Woolley, P., 2008	The Brush-tailed Mulgara currently occurs in scattered populations at fairly low density, but may be locally abundant (D. Pearson pers. comm.) – such as in the Tanami Desert and Uluru National Park (Gibson and Cole 1992; Masters 1993, 1998). The density of Brush-tailed Mulgaras fluctuates depending on long-term climatic conditions (Gibson and Cole 1992). The population also fluctuates annually, declining during breeding season (June to October) and increasing following the influx of juveniles in the spring (Masters 1993, 1997, 1998). There have been no recent declines, as the species appears to be relatively secure within its present range (Masters 2005).	eng
6267	threats	Woolley, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. Its habitat has been adversely affected by the grazing of introduced species (e.g., camels, rabbits, cattle), and changes to the fire regime. However, losses in spinifex cover probably do not adversely affect the species as long as at least 15% cover is maintained (Masters <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also possible that predation by introduced feral cats and foxes may threaten this species. Climate change is likely to pose a threat to this species in the future (Masters 2005).	eng
6268	conservation	Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
6268	distribution	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is restricted to the central Nigerian plateau (the Jos Plateau).	eng
6268	habitat	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is an extreme wetland specialist, found in moist savanna, seasonally wet grassland, swamps, and also in plantations.	eng
6268	population	Taylor, P.J., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known, although it appears to be scarce and it is found at low densities.	eng
6268	threats	Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown. It might have a restricted range, with habitat specialisations (moist to wet habitats), and it might be affected by continuing habitat loss.	eng
6269	conservation	Taylor, P.J., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed to resolve taxonomic questions concerning the validity of several taxa currently included within the <em>Dasymys incomtus</em> species complex.	eng
6269	distribution	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been widely recorded over Central Africa, East Africa and parts of Southern Africa. It ranges from Congo and Central African Republic in the west, through the Congo Basin, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya, and from here southwards into Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, western Mozambique and Zimbabwe, ranging as far west as northern Botswana and Namibia and as far south as eastern and coastal regions of South Africa.	eng
6269	habitat	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, including forest and savanna habitats, swampland and grasslands. It is unclear if the species can persist in agricultural landscapes.	eng
6269	population	Taylor, P.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species is not known.	eng
6269	threats	Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
6270	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	Its range is mostly covered by the Ruwenzori Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintainance within its range is needed.	eng
6270	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found on the Ruwenzori Mountains (between lakes Edward and Albert) in Uganda and may possibly occur in adjacent areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is only found from 2,600 to 3,800 m asl.	eng
6270	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in montane tropical forest, montane grassland and wetlands.	eng
6270	population	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends, for this species are not known.	eng
6270	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species has a restricted range, and is threatened by habitat loss, presumably resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.	eng
6271	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.	eng
6271	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species appear to be distributed in two separate areas, in south central Angola and in southwestern Zambia, northern Botswana and Namibia.	eng
6271	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in moist grasslands and wetlands.	eng
6271	population	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends, for this species are not known.	eng
6271	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
6272	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species. Habitat maintainance and restoration may be needed.	eng
6272	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This West African species ranges from Senegal (where it occur in coastal areas) eastwards south of the Sahel belt, through most of West Africa, to western Nigeria and possibly from Cameroon.	eng
6272	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species inhabits swampy and wetland areas.	eng
6272	population	Boitani, L., 2008	This is a rare species that is rarely caught.	eng
6272	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but human impacts on its habitat (habitat degradation and water pollution) may be locally significant.	eng
6277	conservation	Lessa, E. , Ojeda, R., Bidau, C., Timm, T., Samudio, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix III in Honduras. Guyana had a CITES Annual Export Quota of 350 live animals for 2001. In Panama it is listed as Least Concerned. Occurs in Panamanian national parks and on Panamanian islands.	eng
6277	distribution	Lessa, E. , Ojeda, R., Bidau, C., Timm, T., Samudio, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is widespread in Mesoamerica and South America, and has a disjunct range. The northern portion of the range occurs from Chiapas and the Yucatan Peninsula (southern Mexico) to northern Ecuador and Colombia and western Venezuela. The southern portion of the range occurs from southern Peru and Bolivia, through south-western Brazil and Paraguay to northern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been introduced to western and eastern Cuba and the Cayman Islands (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). In Mesoamerica, it can be found from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997). In South America, it is found up to at least 1,500 m (Emmons and Freer 1997).	eng
6277	habitat	Lessa, E. , Ojeda, R., Bidau, C., Timm, T., Samudio, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in mature deciduous and evergreen forest, secondary forest, and in gardens and plantations (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is a lowland tropical forest species that feeds on palm (<em>Attalea butyraceae</em>), and is an important seed disperser (Wright and Duber 2001). It is diurnal; activity starts early in the morning and continues on and off throughout the day. It is sometimes seen at night as it is easily disturbed when sleeping, and it may continue feeding after sunset. It sleeps in hollow logs, under buttress roots, or in tangles of vegetation. Burrows in banks may be used in some regions. Each individual has several sleeping sites that are used repeatedly. The diet consists mainly of seeds and fruits; small amounts of plant material and fungi are included when supplies of fruit are low. When food is abundant, it carries seeds away and buries them for future use, depositing each seed in a different place. Since not all seeds are recovered, this rodent is an important seed disperser for a number of tree species including Guapinol (<em>Hymenaea courabil</em>) (Hallwachs 1986). <br/><br/>Agoutis live in stable pairs that remain together until one of the pair dies. Often only one individual may be seen, as members of the pair do not stay in close contact with each other. Pairs maintain territories but are fairly tolerant of other agoutis if food is plentiful. In aggressive interactions, the long rump hairs are raised to form a fan-shaped crest. Females give birth to 1 or 2 well-developed young. Soon after birth, the mother leads the young to a small nest hole. Young are independent at 4 to 5 months (Reid 1997).	eng
6277	population	Lessa, E. , Ojeda, R., Bidau, C., Timm, T., Samudio, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rodent is widespread, and is one of the most common species throughout most of its range (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997).	eng
6277	threats	Lessa, E. , Ojeda, R., Bidau, C., Timm, T., Samudio, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is a preferred game species (Wright and Duber 2001). This agouti is heavily hunted for meat, and populations are much reduced in many areas with suitable habitat (Emmons and Freer 1997; Reid 1997). It is reluctant to leave its territory and so can be run to ground by dogs and killed with machetes (Reid 1997). In the northern portion of its range, this species is also threatened by habitat loss (conversion to pasture) (Emmons and Freer 1997).	eng
6278	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Listed as potentially Vulnerable in Argentina	eng
6278	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in east central and southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay to Misiones Province, Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6278	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	A frugivore, there is no information on habitat and ecology; maybe they are similar to other Dasyprocta species. See Dasyprocta puntata.	eng
6278	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no data on the population size of this species.	eng
6278	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is hunted and as a result may have undergone local extinctions.	eng
6279	conservation	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	The island is a protected area. Considered a threatened species in Panama (R. Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
6279	distribution	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Coiba Island, Panama (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
6279	habitat	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This rodent is poorly known. It is found in forested regions, which are mainly deciduous (Reid 1997). Its biology has not been reported, but is probably similar to <em>D. punctata</em> (Reid 1997).	eng
6279	population	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	Its population status is unknown.	eng
6279	threats	Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species has no major threats, though it could be subject to a single threat event. Future potential threats include tourist development, hurricanes, and disease.	eng
6280	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
6280	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Guianas.	eng
6280	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Occurs in lowland humid forests and secondary forests.	eng
6280	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is apparently common.	eng
6280	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted by this is a minor threat.	eng
6281	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas within its geographic range.	eng
6281	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs from southern Venezuela and adjacent areas of Colombia, south to Ecuador, Peru, Guyana, Suriname, and west central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6281	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The agouti is a significant harvester of seeds and fruits. Within its home range it accumulates stores for times of fruit scarcity, caching food in small pits which it excavates and then covers. Adult females defend parts of their home ranges when food is scarce. Young may be tolerated within the parent’s home range. An adult male defends as large an area as he can against other adult males, thereby ensuring the paternity of the young in his range. At high densities the ranges of a male and a female may be coincident, and thus they give the appearance of living in pairs (Smythe, 1978). During times of fruit scarcity, the subadults may lose weight. When startled, agouti produce a bark like warning call to alert family members within the home range to a potential predator, and the long hairs of the rump are erected, increasing the animal’s apparent size. On encountering boas (Boa constrictor), they sit at a distance and drum with a hind foot, attracting other family members, who join them in foot drumming until the snake moves off (Kleiman, 1974; Eisenberg, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6281	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is common to uncommon and has a large geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6281	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is intensively hunted for meat, but nevertheless persists close to villages (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6282	conservation	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is protected under Annex II of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol in Venezuela. Much of its range is within protected areas.	eng
6282	distribution	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	The Orinoco agouti is found only in Delta Amacuro State, Venezuela (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs only in lowland areas, from 0 m asl to 30 m asl (Linares, 1998).	eng
6282	habitat	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in flooded areas where the vegetation is rainforest or mangrove (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) and it feeds on fruits and seeds.	eng
6282	population	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is a common species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
6282	threats	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is hunted for food in indigenous areas. It is also affected by habitat destruction (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
6283	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is not known if there are any effective conservation measures in place to protect this species.	eng
6283	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs at elevations of up to 3,080 m asl.	eng
6283	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.	eng
6283	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There is very little known about this species.	eng
6283	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown, although it is thought that they are hunted for their meat.	eng
6284	conservation	Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in every country in its range.	eng
6284	distribution	Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found in South America north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro (L. Emmons pers. comm.); it occurs in Venezuela, the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), central Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago. It has been introduced to the Lesser Antilles; specifically Dominica, Grenada, and US Virgin Islands (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
6284	habitat	Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This is a forest species, including degraded secondary forest.	eng
6284	population	Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
6284	threats	Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted locally, but this is not seen as a major threat to the species overall.	eng
6285	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs within a few protected areas in Mexico.	eng
6285	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs from central Veracruz to eastern Oaxaca (Mexico) (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has been introduced to western and eastern Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It can be found from lowlands to 500 m (Reid 1997)	eng
6285	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs in lowland evergreen forest and second growth (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is mainly diurnal, although sometimes it is seen at night. It is terrestrial. This species eats fruit, soft seeds, and new growth of forest plants. In Veracruz, fruits eaten include figs, hog plums (<em>Spondias mombin</em>), and <em>Brosimum alicastrum</em>. It may be seen alone or in pairs. Pairs occupy territories of 1 to 2 ha. One or two young are born during the dry season. Young are precocious and follow their mother soon after birth (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986; Reid 1997).	eng
6285	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This rodent is probably uncommon (Reid 1997).	eng
6285	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Habitat loss is a major threat (IUCN Redlist 1996).	eng
6286	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is not known if there are any effective conservation measures in place to protect this species.	eng
6286	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Brazil south of the Amazon (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6286	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in Caatinga, within semi arid scrubland (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6286	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This is a common agouti species (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6286	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
6287	conservation	Schipper, J., Emmons, L., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species occurs within two protected areas (J. Schipper pers. comm.). Further taxonomic research is needed.	eng
6287	distribution	Schipper, J., Emmons, L., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is presumably endemic to Roatán Island, Honduras (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). There are peccary populations on several other nearby islands that are thought to be transplants, however, it is not known which species they represent (Emmons pers. comm.).	eng
6287	habitat	Schipper, J., Emmons, L., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This rodent is poorly known. It is found in forested regions and second growth forest (Reid 1997). Its biology has not been reported, but is probably similar to that of <em>D. punctata</em> (Reid 1997).	eng
6287	population	Schipper, J., Emmons, L., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is locally common where protected or where not persecuted.	eng
6287	threats	Schipper, J., Emmons, L., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	Ongoing habitat-loss and habitat degradation, as well as hunting, are major threats.	eng
6288	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> has been recorded in a few protected areas. It is considered a conservation priority species in Uruguay (E. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2010).	eng
6288	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> is found in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil. It occurs as far south as the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina (Abba 2008). The distribution is more restricted than depicted by Redford and Eisenberg (1992) and Wetzel (1985). Localities in the west near the Andes are based on incorrectly identified individuals. In the province of Córdoba, Argentina, it is restricted to the east. The exact northern limit of its range is uncertain due to its morphological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">Dasypus septemcinctus</span>.	eng
6288	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This armadillo species is typically found in the grasslands and pampas of northern and central Argentina (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Abba 2008, Abba and Cassini 2008). It is also present, but less common, in woodland and forest habitats.	eng
6288	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> was previously common (although there are no population density estimates available), but it is sensitive to habitat loss through urbanization, and agricultural expansion has meant that populations are declining or absent over much of its former range (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It remains a common species in parts of its range (e.g. the province of Buenos Aires, Abba 2008).	eng
6288	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span> is threatened by habitat loss through agriculture, urbanization, accidental mortality on roads, direct hunting for food and predation by dogs (Abba <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Abba 2008).	eng
6289	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kappleri</span> is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
6289	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This species has been recorded from Colombia (east of the Andes), Venezuela (south of the Orinoco), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and south through the Amazon Basin of Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and northern Bolivia (Pando Department) (Gardner 2005). In Brazil, it occurs in a large part of the state of Mato Grosso, but has not been recorded from southern Pará state, east of the Rio Tapajós. The easternmost locality is on the left bank of Rio das Mortes, a tributary of the upper Rio Araguaia, western Mato Grosso. There is a potentially disjunct population to the south of Marajó Island (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
6289	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This relatively large armadillo is restricted to the tropical moist lowland forests of the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. In savanna areas it is restricted to forest patches. The species constructs burrows in well-drained soil. The females typically give birth to two young (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
6289	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	There are no details available on the population status of this species.	eng
6289	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	There are no major threats. Locally, the species is threatened by deforestation, and in Ecuador and Brazil it is subject to hunting (Tirira 2001, T.C.S. Anacleto pers. comm. 2010). It is unable to survive in savannas or open areas.	eng
6290	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	The species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
6290	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This armadillo ranges from the southern United States of America through Mexico and Central America, to South America as far south as northern Argentina (McBee and Baker 1982, Gardner 2005). It is also present in the Lesser Antilles, on Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
6290	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	It is very adaptable and is present in a variety of habitats (McBee and Baker 1982). It has a high rate of reproduction, and commonly produces quadruplets.	eng
6290	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	It is a common species.	eng
6290	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species; it is hunted throughout its range, but given its high rate of reproduction it seems able to withstand a reasonably high degree of offtake. In North America, it is subject to poisoning as it is often considered a nuisance.	eng
6291	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	It has been recorded from the Río Abiseo National Park.	eng
6291	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. pilosus</span> has been recorded only from the south-western Peruvian Andes in the departments of San Martín, La Libertad, Huánuco, and Junín (Gardner 2005). It has recently been observed in the department of Amazonas (L. Bermúdez Larrazábal pers. comm. 2009). The known localities were mapped incorrectly by Wetzel (1982), and repeated in Eisenberg and Redford (1999). It ranges from lowlands to 3,000 m asl.	eng
6291	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This little-known species is endemic to the Peruvian yungas (subtropical montane deciduous and evergreen forests). It is found in areas with dense or shady cover and limestone formations.	eng
6291	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. pilosus</span>.	eng
6291	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This species is threatened by severe deforestation of its habitat. It is likely subject to hunting, but there is no information on the intensity and the degree to which it constitutes a major threat.	eng
6292	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> has been recorded from several protected areas and is protected by national legislation in Venezuela.	eng
6292	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is found throughout the Llanos (the flat plains) of Venezuela and Colombia. It has been recorded at elevations between 25 and 200 m asl (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
6292	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is generally restricted to open or shrubland habitats in lowland and mid-altitude areas. Animals have a home range of between 1.7 and 11.6 hectares (Ferguson-Laguna 1984).	eng
6292	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sabanicola</span> is locally rare. In intact natural habitats, it has been found to be moderately common.	eng
6292	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	In parts of its range it is threatened by intense hunting for subsistence purposes (Ferguson-Laguna 1984), and by ongoing habitat loss.	eng
6293	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is present in some protected areas.	eng
6293	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> ranges from the lower Amazon Basin of Brazil, to the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Its southern limit is uncertain due to morphological similarities to <span style="font-style: italic;">D. hybridus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi</span> and juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">D. novemcinctus</span> (see Hamlett 1939) .	eng
6293	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> appears to be a grassland species. However, in south-eastern Brazil it prefers to live in gallery forests. It appears adaptable to human disturbance and secondary habitat (Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).	eng
6293	population	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	The population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is not known.	eng
6293	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, A.M., 2009	There are no major threats. Locally, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. septemcinctus</span> is threatened by habitat degradation and hunting for food.	eng
6294	conservation	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Recovery objectives for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: ensuring that the species persists within its present (1992) range, and increasing population numbers by expansion into former range.<br/><br/>Management actions completed or underway (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): habitat management research into the impact of prescribed burning and timber harvesting in the Jarrah forest is under way. Western Quoll habitat requirements are considered during rehabilitation after bauxite mining; impact of fox control programs completed research has shown that Western Quolls have benefited from fox control programs using 1080 meat baits. A broad-scale fox baiting program is now under way in the Jarrah forest; Western Quoll populations are being monitored at several sites within the Jarrah forest as part of the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia) faunal management programs and as part of ongoing research into fox control, prescribed burning, and timber harvesting. A monitoring site in the Wheatbelt has not yet been established; distribution and requirements in the semi-arid zone increase over the next few years. An extensive survey for Western Quolls in the southern Wheatbelt failed to detect any. Populations may have continued to decline over the last 10 years and restocking of suitable areas is probably required; captive breeding program ongoing and successfully undertaken at Perth Zoo since 1989. Over 60 Western Quolls have been bred, with most being used for translocation to Julimar Conservation Park; a successful translocation has been undertaken at Julimar Conservation Park. Translocations to Wheatbelt reserves and Shark Bay have been proposed.<br/><br/>A study into the impact of introduced predators on native fauna, including native predators such as the Western Quoll is currently underway (K. Morris pers. comm.).	eng
6294	distribution	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The Western Quoll, or Chuditch, formerly occurred as two subspecies over approximately 70% of the Australian continent, being found in every mainland state and the Northern Territory ? museum specimens from the east of Australia of <em>D. geoffroii geoffroii</em> are known from Peak Downs in eastern Queensland (Thomas 1888), the Liverpool plains of New South Wales (Gould 1840), and Mildura New South Wales (Kreft 1857). The western subspecies, <em>D. g. fortis</em>, is now restricted to the south-west of Western Australia, occurring at low densities throughout the Jarrah forest and more patchily in the drier woodlands and mallee shrublands of the central and southern Wheatbelt (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The Julimar population is translocated.	eng
6294	habitat	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The former wide range of the Western Quoll suggests the capability of occupying a variety of habitats, including deserts, woodlands, mallee shrublands, sclerophyll forests, and coastal areas. The species can be found in degraded areas. Western Quolls are generally nocturnal and solitary. Females construct burrows during pregnancy and maintain non-overlapping core areas in their home range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is an opportunistic species that mainly eats invertebrates.	eng
6294	population	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The total population of Western Quolls is probably under 10,000 individuals. Some populations are under 100 individuals (as in Julimar). The species probably naturally occurs in small populations. The Western Quoll is very wide ranging. There is some fluctuation within populations. The species has suffered declines in the past, but due to active management and translocations, it seems to be recovering. <br/><br/>Western Quoll are known from 25 of the 57 fauna monitoring sites in the south-west of Western Australia, in 15 of these, the species has increased in abundance (as measured by trap success rates) or remained unchanged since fox control was implemented in 1996 (K. Morris pers. comm.). In the other 10 sites this species has declined; the reason for this is unclear at present, however, in at least one of these sites (Honeymoon Pool, Collie River) management practices have changed so that rubbish bins are no longer left at the picnic and camping sites (Western Quolls are well known scavengers) (K. Morris pers. comm.). A study into the impact of introduced predators on native fauna, including native predators such as the Western Quoll, is currently underway and reintroduction of captive breed <em>D. g. fortis</em> to former areas of its range in the arid zone of Western Australia is planned for the period 2009-2012 (K. Morris pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Whilst no substantiated evidence has been found to support the continued presence of the eastern subspecies <em>D. g. geoffroii</em> in Queensland, New South Wales or Victoria, there are three unconfirmed reports cited in the Threatened Species of Western New South Wales folder (1996) of this species from far western New South Wales. Specifically, these sighting are from 1996 at North of Broken Hill, in 1990 from ?Myall? NW of Tilpa, and ?Albermarle? between Broken Hill and Menindee in 1988. The latter record was chased out of a tree but escaped into a rabbit warren. Known and unconfirmed occurrences of <em>D. maculatus</em> from the central and far west of New South Wales make it hard to verify reports of <em>D. geoffroii</em> made by the public (as distinguishing the two species can be difficult). A live <em>D. geoffroii</em> was confiscated by New South Wales Department of Conservation and Climate change staff in 1983 from a chicken pen on a property in Central West New South Wales ?  it was presumed to have been a captive individual/pet that had originated from a from Western Australia stock, however, its origins were never verified and there was no further consideration or exploration of the possibility of a wild population persisting in the area, despite being within its former range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It is generally accepted that mammal survey techniques in most areas of the former eastern range of <em>D. g. geoffroii</em> have not been targeted towards <em>D. g. geoffroii</em>, being neither adequate in magnitude or duration to detect the presence of this species if it does indeed persist at all.	eng
6294	threats	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Habitat alteration due to clearing, grazing, and frequent wildfire (especially extensive, hot wildfires) may have detrimentally impacted the population; after fires, there is often an incursion of foxes, which can be detrimental. Competition for food and predation from cats and foxes, hunting, and poisoning have also contributed to its decline.	eng
6295	conservation	Oakwood, M., Woinarski, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The Northern Quoll occurs in a number of protected areas. Recommended actions for this species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: monitor abundance and disease status at selected sites across range; undertake additional research into causes of decline. In the Northern Territory, it has been recorded from 15 conservation reserves (Kakadu, Litchfield, Garig Gunak Barlu, Mary River, Manton Dam, Nitmiluk, Umbrawara Gorge, Fogg Dam, Charles Darwin, Black Jungle, Tjuwaliyn (Doglas Hot Springs), Berry Springs, Limmen, Leaning Tree Lagoon, and Howard Springs) (Woinarski 2005).	eng
6295	distribution	Oakwood, M., Woinarski, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The Northern Quoll occurs in the northern parts of Australia. Historically, it occurred in northern Australia from Pilbara to south-east Queensland, extending inland as far south as Alexandria. More recently, there has been substantial decline in southern and eastern Queensland and the Cape York Peninsula. The Northern Quoll has apparently disappeared from most or all of the lower rainfall former range in the Northern Territory and south-east and south-west Kimberley. A substantial decline has also occurred in Pilbara (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species has been recorded from Groote Eylandt and the nearby North-east Island, Marchinbar Island (in the Wessel group), Inglis Island (in the English Company Islands group) and Vanderlin Island (Sir Edward Pellew group). It has also been recently translocated to Astell and Pobassoo Islands in the English Company island group (Woinarski 2005). This species occurs up to around 1,300 m asl.	eng
6295	habitat	Oakwood, M., Woinarski, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The Northern Quoll occurs in a range of habitats including Eucalyptus open forest, monsoon rainforest, and savanna woodlands. The species is most abundant (and apparently with less fluctuations) in rocky environments. In north Queensland, it is most common in coastal and/or high altitude rocky areas and in drier habitats of upland tablelands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species is a generalist, as it occurs in a wide range of habitats and its diet consists of a variety of invertebrates and small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). The Northern Quoll shelters in hollow logs, rock crevices, caves, and tree hollows (Woinarski 2005). It is mostly a ground-dwelling species, but is also an adept climber (Woinarski 2005).	eng
6295	population	Oakwood, M., Woinarski, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The species is locally common, although it currently is undergoing declines across much of its range. Densities of 3-4 females per square kilometre in savanna woodland have been recorded (Oakwood 2002). Several studies suggest that there has been a recent, severe population declines in Kakadu National Park due to cane toads (Watson and Woinarski 2003; Oakwood 2004). This species is common in north-western Kimberley, particularly in near-coastal, high-rainfall areas (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
6295	threats	Oakwood, M., Woinarski, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	Current threats are uncertain, but the species may be vulnerable to disease, possibly related to the presence of cats. Cats and dogs are known to kill individuals, although they apparently do not like to eat them. Predation is the main cause of mortality in some areas (exacerbated by changes in fire regimes that result in more frequent burning), particularly woodland and forest habitats (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There have been recent substantial population declines in the Iron Range (Queensland), Cape York Peninsula, and the top end of the Northern Territory associated with the spread of cane toads and land-use changes. For instance, major declines to regional extinction have been reported for Northern Quolls following cane toad invasion on Cape York Peninsula (Burnett 1997). Northern Quolls appear to be particularly susceptible to the poison of cane toads, and are killed when they attempt to kill or consume the toads (Woinarski 2005). The species has also disappeared from coastal lowland areas in north Queensland following agricultural and urban development (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6296	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	Recommended actions for Eastern Quolls (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: design and implementation of a suitable system for monitoring change in range and abundance of the species in Tasmania; identify threats and habitat requirements for management, through appropriately developed research. Ongoing fox control measures in Tasmania should be fully supported.	eng
6296	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	Historically, the Eastern Quoll occurred on Tasmania and on the Australian mainland, including South Australia (from the southern Flinders Range to the Fleureu Peninsula), Victoria, and New South Wales to the mid-north coast (C. Rehberg pers. comm.). The range has now been reduced by 50-90%. It has become extinct on the mainland within the last 40 years (the last mainland specimen being a road-killed specimen was in 31 January 1963 in Vaucluse, Sydney), although there are numerous unconfirmed reports of the species since then (C. Rehberg pers. comm.). The species is now present only in Tasmania and on Bruny Island, where it may have been introduced. It is widespread within Tasmania, but its distribution is patchy (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6296	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	In Tasmania, Eastern Quoll occurs in open forests, woodlands, grasslands, and ecotones including agricultural pasture. It also occurs in heaths, wet scrub, and moorlands. The quoll occurs at all altitudes and in a wide range of vegetation types except rainforest (Rounsevell <em>et al.</em> 1991). Specific habitat requirements are unknown (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6296	population	McKnight, M., 2008	The species is still fairly common on Tasmania.	eng
6296	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	The threatening processes that caused the decline and extinction of Eastern Quoll on the Australian mainland are unknown. While the biology of the species is fairly well known, diseases and habitat requirements for conservation of the population are not. The Eastern Quoll is susceptible to road mortality and an increase in traffic speed has resulted in local extinction in one area (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The impact of feral cats in Tasmania is not well understood, and red foxes were recently introduced (in 2000), which could pose a major threat to this species in the future.	eng
6299	conservation	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The New Guinea Quoll has been recorded from a number of protected areas. It is not currently protected by any government legislation and deserves some attention as a key predator.	eng
6299	distribution	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The New Guinea Quoll is widespread throughout much of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but has a patchy distribution across its range. It has a wide elevational range (sea level to 3,600 m), most often occurring 1,000-1,300 m asl; it is absent from the south-western lowlands (Flannery 1995). It is not certain if the species occurs in the Vogelkop region of Papua, although the map is drawn to include that area. The New Guinea Quoll is also found on Yapen Island.	eng
6299	habitat	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The New Guinea Quoll is widespread throughout tropical moist forest including areas of disturbed forest. It has been reported from rural gardens and entering villages to prey on rats. Very little is known about the biology of this species. It is, however, clear from a study of museum specimens (Woolley 1994) that breeding occurs throughout the year. The New Guinea Quoll is a top-level predator in New Guinea.	eng
6299	population	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is locally common, but declines have been recorded especially in areas where human impact has increased.	eng
6299	threats	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	Increasing human populations, hunting by dogs, and expanding land-use may have an impact on this species (particularly the potential loss of the lowland habitats to oil palms). It is possible that it is affected by competition with introduced cats, but studies are needed for confirmation. Cane toads may also pose a threat.	eng
6300	conservation	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	Recovery objectives (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> include: monitor populations; prevent further habitat loss and fragmentation; minimise any impact that 1080 baiting may be having on the species; undertake public education, especially of private land holders in rural areas, to reduce direct killing.<br/><br/>Population trends should be conducted using repetitive density estimates in a range of habitats across its distribution. Suveys are particularly needed in central and southern New South Wales to complement forest surveys in north-eastern areas. Cage trapping and hair tubing have proved fairly successful in detecting the species if more than one sampling period per site is undertaken. Additional studies should investigate the effects of competition from other predators including feral cats, foxes and dingoes/wild dogs. Habitat use and further study of dietary requirements are also a priority. In Tasmania, monitoring of population densities should be conducted in relation to forestry practices.<br/><br/>Management actions required for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al. </em>1996) include: determining the critical threatening processes and taking remedial actions; minimising habitat loss, establishing broad wildlife corridors between conservation areas and implement these in all land use plans; feral predator control in significant areas; minimising non-target kills from 1080 baiting in known habitat areas. <br/><br/>There have been several management actions completed or underway for <em>D. m. maculatus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).  For Victoria, an Action Statement was prepared under Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. A study of diet and some home range estimates and bait take behaviour was completed (Belcher 1995). Experimental baiting trials are under way (commenced 1995 by DNRE Orbost). For Tasmania, a three-year study of diet, fine-scale habitat use and competition with the two sympatric dasyurid carnivores <em>D. viverrinus</em> and <em>Sarcophilus harrisii</em> was completed (Jones 1995; Jones and Rose 1996).<br/><br/>Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) define recovery objectives for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> as being the identification of current distribution and limiting factors, and to conserve remaining populations.  Much of the habitat of this subspecies is secure from large-scale disturbances as it lies within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. A three-year field study of the life-history strategy, ranging behaviour, feeding ecology, distribution and abundance, and conservation status of the species in north Queensland is in the report stage (Burnett 2000). A management profile for the species in State Forests in north Queensland has been prepared (Burnett 1995) and a report on the conservation status of the species has been presented to QDE (Burnett 1993) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Management actions required for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> include continued monitoring of quoll populations; additional survey work in order to locate other quoll populations and to test more rigorously for population distributional limits; experimental removal of cane toads from roads within the optimum habitat of <em>D. m. gracilis</em> and monitoring of effects if any on quoll populations; community extension work in areas where quolls have been, and continue to be, displaced (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6300	distribution	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Spotted-tailed Quoll is endemic to Australia, where it exists as two subspecies: <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dasyurus maculatus maculatus</em> was formerly distributed in south-eastern Queensland (as far north as Bundaberg and as far west as Chinchilla), eastern New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania (including some of the Bass Strait Islands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) report that in south-east Queensland it has undergone a range contraction indicated to be in excess of 30% over the last 25 years and is now rare in most areas. Remaining populations are concentrated in the Blackall and Conondale Ranges, southern Darling Downs (Stanthorpe to Wallangarra), Main Range (Goomburra to Spicers Gap), Lamington Plateau and McPherson/Border Ranges (Springbrook to Mount Lindsay). This species is still extant in the Australian Capital Territory and eastern New South Wales, patchily distributed as far west as Warrumbungles National Park with a number of localized areas where reasonably abundant, mostly in wet forests. Most abundant populations believed to be in north-eastern New South Wales, where most commonly encountered on the north coast and ranges from the Hunter Valley, Taree, Port Macquarie to Coffs Harbour and gorges and escarpments of the New England Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Victoria, it is now patchily distributed through the Eastern Highlands, East Gippsland, the Otway Range and the Mount Eccles - Lake Condah area. Records of the species since 1970 are concentrated in the upper Snowy River valley, the Otway Range, Mount Eccles National Park, the Rodger River - Errinundra Plateau area and around the Gippsland Lakes (Mansergh 1995). There is a recent (1991) record from the Murray Mallee near Swan Hill, however, no population has been located. In Tasmania Spotted-tailed Quoll is absent from islands and absent or rare in the central midlands and parts of the central east coast cleared for agriculture. Records (339) during the past 30 years show it is more frequently recorded in wet forests or scrub in the north-east highlands and in the west of the State (Rounsevell <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is extinct in South Australia.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>D. m. gracilis</em> formerly occurred throughout the latitudinal range of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of north Queensland. It is now apparently extinct from the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands, and there are few sightings south of 17<sup>o</sup>45'S. This represents a decline in extent of occurrence of approximately 20% (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6300	habitat	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	<em>D. m. maculatus</em> is found in forests, woodlands, wet forest alliance, rainforest, coastal heaths and coastal wet scrub, estuarine areas, and rocky headlands (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The optimum habitat for <em>D. m. gracilis</em> appears to be upland (>900 m asl) notophyll vine forest. Occurs in lower abundances in progressively more marginal habitat - in lower altitude notophyll and mesophyll habitats (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Occasionally it occurs as a transient in wet and dry sclerophyll forest and in modified habitats (e.g., pastures.	eng
6300	population	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The total population of Spotted-tailed Quolls is on the order of 20,000 mature individuals. Populations in south-east Queensland, western Victoria (Otways and far south-west of Victoria), and coastal areas of southern New South Wales are known to be declining. Populations in north-eastern Queensland are small, fragmented, and are <1,000 individuals (Burnett 2000). Tasmanian population numbers appear to be stable. <br/><br/>There is some evidence of a decline in distribution or in numbers in remaining suitable habitat (e.g., in the Otway Range), and the species is mostly uncommon (although it is present in good numbers in some areas, such as the Marengo and Chaelundi Forests).	eng
6300	threats	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The reasons for decline of <em>D. m. maculatus</em> are a combination of habitat loss and fragmentation, possible disease at the beginning of the 20th century, competition with foxes and feral cats, predation by foxes and dogs, and impact of widespread strychnine baiting for dingoes. Most recently threats include non-target mortality from trapping and poisoning (there is a long-standing concern that quolls are being killed by the use of 1080 poisoning, but this has not been confirmed and is currently the focus of a number of investigative trials). Direct persecution is significant as they are attracted to caged birds and do not necessarily take flight when discovered. Estimated forest loss as a result of clearing within its former range in south-east Queensland is over 70%, with the majority of loss occurring over the last 20 years. The species uses a large number of den sites throughout the year and activities that reduce the number of den logs are likely to be significant. In Tasmania this taxon is naturally rare, possibly as a result of competition with <em>D. viverrinus</em>, <em>Sarcophilus harrisii</em>, and feral cats (Jones 1995). Road mortality could be a significant factor where high speed roads and good habitat coincide, as quolls are attracted to feed on the carcasses of road-killed animals (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><em>D. m. gracilis</em> is susceptible to factors which increase juvenile and/or adult mortality, or which otherwise decrease breeding success. Such factors may include habitat clearance, logging, introduced species including cane toad, and direct killing at chicken pens, at houses, and on roads (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6301	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species occurs in Wassur National Park (Papua Province, Indonesia) and Tonda Wildlife Mangement Area (Papua New Guinea). Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to Bronze Quolls are needed (especially interactions with introduced species).	eng
6301	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Woolley, P., 2008	<em>Dasyurus spartacus</em> is the only mammal in New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) restricted to the Trans-Fly ecoregion in the southern part of the island that cannot also be found in Northern Australia (Helgen and Oliver 2004). This species is thought to range in elevation from 0 m to 200 m asl (S. Hamilton pers. comm.), but it has only been recorded from 0 m to 60 m asl. It has not been recorded north of the Fly River although patches of suitable habitat exist in these areas.	eng
6301	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Woolley, P., 2008	It is a nocturnal predatory species occurring in savanna woodlands. The habitat is reduced during the wet season when much of the lower lying areas are inundated with water, confining both predator and prey species to smaller "islands” of habitat. Individuals have been caught raiding chicken houses, and there is a report from locals of a female with young being found in a newly dug (empty) pit toilet at Serki village in April 2006. <br/><br/>Little is known about the biology of this species; Woolley (2001) has recorded observations on reproduction and suggested that this species is a seasonal breeder. A clear distinction in size and weight among 12 individuals was observed, suggesting that two cohorts were represented (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It is thought to live for a maximum of three years.	eng
6301	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species was described from 5 specimens (2 juveniles, 1 adult male, and 2 adult females) (Van Dyck 1988), and it is now known from a total of only 12 museum specimens. Locals report it to be common in parts of the Trans-Fly region, and there are several local language names for this species across its range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It was first found in 1972 (Waithman 1979). Earlier mammal surveys in the region, including those of the 1936-37 Archbold expedition (Rand and Brass 1940) and Jentink (1907), did not find it. Four specimens were collected by P. A. Woolley in 1991 (Woolley 2001). Seven weeks of targeted trapping with between 100 and 150 traps per night in the Trans-Fly in 2006 (at both Mibini and Serki) resulted in only 12 records of this species, eight of which were captured in traps; the other four were obtained from local hunters (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
6301	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Woolley, P., 2008	Bronze Quolls are possibly affected indirectly by human hunting practices. People in the region use dogs for tracking and locating other game species. When hunting dogs locate quolls, they reportedly kill them. Predation likely also occurs from feral dogs. Introduced feral cats were found breeding in areas between Morehead and Mibini in 2006 within several hundred meters of sites where Bronze Quolls were trapped. Feral cats have not been recorded previously in the Trans-Fly region. The impact of cats on this species is unknown, but one specimen obtained by Woolley was killed by a cat (P. Woolley pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is a predicted loss of Bronze Quoll habitat due to invasive weeds (e.g., <em>Mimosa</em>), and altered fire regimes. The greatest threat from invasive species, however, could be from cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) and the toxins they possess, which are lethal to many vertebrates if consumed. Cane toads are a potential threat given the localised extinction of its congener <em>D. hallucatus</em> in the Northern Territory, which coincided with the range expansion of toads across northern Australia in recent times (Oakwood and Foster 2008). At present, this threat remains speculative given the fact that cane toads have not yet arrived and the effects of cane toads on this species are unknown.	eng
6302	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <em>Daubentonia madagascariensis</em> is reported to occur in numerous protected areas, including 12 national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mamamara Nord, Mantadia, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d?Ambre, Ranomafana, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Verezenantsoro, and Zahamena), and 13 special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Analamerana, Anjanaharibé-Sud, Ankarana, Bora, Forêt d?Ambre, Kalambatritra, Manombo, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, Nosy Mangabe, and Pic d?Ivohibe). In addition, the Aye-aye has been sighted in the north-eastern forests of Daraina, which was declared a new protected area in 2005 (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a captive breeding program involving various institutions, and a EEP and an SSP.	eng
6302	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Recent confirmed sightings document the Aye-aye's presence in eastern forests from Ampanefana in the north to Andohahela National Park in the south, and in western forests from Montagne d'Ambre in the north to at least the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park. There is also an introduced population on the island of Nosy Mangabe and Aye-Aye island, above Mananara Nord (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). Sea-level to 1,875 m.	eng
6302	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The nocturnal aye-aye is quite adaptable and is known from a variety of habitats including primary rain forest, deciduous forest, secondary growth, cultivated areas, dry scrub forest, coconut groves, and mangrove swamps; the southern spiny desert appears to be the only habitat in which the species does not occur. Its presence in many areas appears to be determined largely by its primary food resource, the seeds of ramy (<em>Canarium</em> spp.) although there are also other dietary staples (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). <br/><br/>During the day, Aye-ayes sleep in nests, tree forks or vine tangles. Nests may be occupied for a few days at a time and several individuals may use the same nest at different times. Males occupy much larger home ranges than females, 125-215 ha compared to 30-40 ha; interestingly, aye-ayes appear to spend more time moving along the ground than any other lemur except <em>Lemur catta</em> (Sterling 1993). Recent evidence suggests that Aye-ayes are not strictly solitary, but also forage in tandem and may exhibit differing relationships between animals of the same sex (Sterling and Richard 1995). There appears to be no restricted mating season and a single young is born. Females begin breeding at three or four years, and indications are that females give birth every two to three years (Petter and Peyrieras 1970).	eng
6302	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Despite the Aye-aye?s widespread distribution, it is still killed as a crop pest, and a harbinger of evil, and habitat destruction remains a localized threat throughout the range. In addition, trees such as <em>Intsia bijugia</em> and <em>Canarium madagascariense</em>, which are dietary staples for this species, are also cut preferentially for the construction of boats, houses, and coffins (e.g., Iwana and Iwakawa, 1988). There is also some evidence that it is hunted for food in some areas (e.g., Makira, C. Golden pers. comm.).	eng
6313	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Most of the specimens were collected in Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Research is needed into population numbers, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. Populations of this species should be monitored. Further management of the protected areas in which the species occurs is needed.	eng
6313	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift valley in southwest Uganda, western Rwanda, Burundi and extreme eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs from 1,700 to 2,400 m asl, perhaps even higher.	eng
6313	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal species mostly confined to high altitude marshes within bamboo and montane forest. It is specialized for climbing on stems of marshy grass and other plants. The species has not been recorded from human habitats. Two pregnant females have been recorded with three embryos each, and a nest with four young has been found (Nowak 1999).	eng
6313	population	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	In some swamps it may be common but to date only about 20 specimens have ever been collected.	eng
6313	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The small geographic range of the species has experienced considerable habitat destruction in recent years and has a very high human population density. However, much of the species habitat is in the highlands which is well protected in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), the lowlands are more threatened.	eng
6316	conservation	Cogger, H.G. & Maryan, B., 2009	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Queensland under the 1992 Nature Conservation Act and is protected nationally by the Environmental Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Environmental Protection Agency 2007). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
6316	distribution	Cogger, H.G. & Maryan, B., 2009	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia. It is mainly found in the Brigalow Belt region, along the central Queensland coast in the areas of Townsville to Keswick Island. This species has also been reported in the islands of Magnetic, South Mole, and Shaw Islands (Environmental Protection Agency 2007). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,756 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
6316	habitat	Cogger, H.G. & Maryan, B., 2009	This species inhabits open forest, including wet sclerophyll forest, with under-storeys of low vegetation. This species has been collected in leaf litter and has been found sheltering under objects on the forest floor (Shea 1986).	eng
6316	population	Cogger, H.G. & Maryan, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
6316	threats	Cogger, H.G. & Maryan, B., 2009	This species occurs mainly in the Brigalow Belt, a region which has been extensively cleared for agricultural use (Wilson 2003). The remaining habitat is fragmented and under further pressure from urban development and invasive plants and animals.	eng
6317	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are recovery and management plans in place for this species, and it is listed as a species with special protection status. Further research and monitoring of its population is required to ensure that the current legislation is effective. Conservation measures, including the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to ensure that habitat loss within this species' range is reduced.	eng
6317	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occurs in southeastern Queensland, Australia, and was previously restricted to 13 localities (Porter 1998), including areas in the Brigalow Belt (Wilson 2003). Its range may now be further reduced as it is only known from four of these sites; Mount Crosby, Lake Manchester, Karana Downs and the Bunya Mountains (Department of the Environment and Water Resources 2007). The Bunya Mountains are disjunct from the other three localities. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,283 km² however, its extent of occurrence is closer to 20,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
6317	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occurs on rocky outcroppings in dry, open eucalyptus-acacia woodlands with an under-storey of grass and shrubs (Porter 1998). It is known to inhabit leaf litter and has also been found under logs and stones (Ryan 2006).	eng
6317	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is rare (Porter 1998).	eng
6317	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is thought to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (Porter 1998). Land clearing for agriculture has occurred in this region and the remaining habitat has become fragmented and degraded by invasive plants and animals (Wilson 2003).	eng
6329	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6329	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul states) and northeastern Argentina (Misiones province) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
6329	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	<em>Delomys dorsalis</em> occurs in forest in cool climates including lowlands and highlands in south and from 600 to 2,400 m in north (Costa, Geise, and Vieira pers. comm.). This species occurs in wet tropical and subtropical forests (Cademartori <em>et al.</em> 2005). Bonvicino and Geise (1995) found this species in mountain scrub montane forest habitats at 1,750 m elevation and above.	eng
6329	population	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This rodent is locally abundant (Costa, Geise, and Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
6329	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
6330	conservation	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6330	distribution	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs along the Atlantic coast (Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Santa Catarina States), of southeast Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
6330	habitat	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This rodent is found in forest around 500 m elevation, inland from coastline in North and along coast in South (Geise and Costa pers. comm.).	eng
6330	population	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species is locally common (Voss, 1993).	eng
6330	threats	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
6335	conservation	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Although the beluga was hunted intensively on a commercial basis in many parts of its range during the 20th century, the only known direct removals at present are for food (subsistence use) and the aquarium trade (there is a limited live-capture fishery in Russia). A regional management body, the Joint Committee on Narwhal and Beluga/North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (JCNB/NAMMCO), exists in Canada and Greenland with the expectation that it will ensure the conservation of belugas. This body sets or recommends catch limits for beluga populations within member countries. Catch levels from subpopulations range anywhere from <10 to a few hundred animals per year. Removals from some subpopulations/stocks are considered sustainable, however, there is concern and evidence that removals from other subpopulations/stocks are not (e.g. Eastern Hudson Bay and West Greenland) (Alvarez and Heide-Jørgensen 2004, COSEWIC 2004, NAMMCO/JCNB 2005).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
6335	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Local and regional management bodies exist in Canada, Greenland, and the United States (Alaska), with the expectation that they will ensure the conservation of belugas. These include the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee (United States) and JCNB/NAMMCO (Canada/Greenland) and generally set harvest limits or recommend harvest limits for beluga populations within countries of interest. Harvest levels from sub-populations range anywhere from <10 to a few hundred animals per year. Removals from some subpopulations/stocks are considered sustainable, however there is concern and evidence that removals from other subpopulations/stocks are not (e.g. Eastern Hudson Bay and West Greenland) (Alvarez and Heide-Jørgensen 2004). In the Russian Federation, there is little to no population assessment.	eng
6335	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Beluga whales are distributed in high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from the west coast of Greenland westwards to Svalbard (Stewart and Stewart 1989, O'Corry-Crowe 2002). Records from the Sea of Japan and Baltic Sea are considered extralimital but resident populations occur in cold temperate latitudes in Cook Inlet (Alaska) and the St. Lawrence River system (Canada).	eng
6335	distribution	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Beluga whales are distributed in high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from the west coast of Greenland westwards to Svalbard (Stewart and Stewart 1989; O'Corry-Crowe 2002). Records from the Sea of Japan and Baltic Sea are considered extralimital, but resident populations occur in cold temperate latitudes in Cook Inlet (Alaska, US) and the St. Lawrence River system (Canada). Satellite telemetry, genetic studies, and organochlorine analyses show belugas have strong matrilineally driven seasonal site fidelity to fjords and estuaries for summering and they migrate to separate wintering grounds (O’Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001 de March <em>et al</em>. 2002; Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; O’Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 2002; Palsbøll <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
6335	habitat	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Belugas are relatively well-studied as a result of carcass sampling in association with hunting, along with a considerable amount of satellite-linked radio-tracking (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998a,b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a; Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Belugas occur seasonally (mainly in summer) in coastal waters as shallow as 1-3 m deep but also in deep offshore waters (>800 m).  They typically enter estuaries and sometimes move upstream into rivers; there are records of individuals or small groups ranging hundreds of kilometers from the sea. They occupy estuaries, continental shelf and slope waters, and deep ocean basins in conditions of open water, loose ice, and heavy pack ice.  Belugas generally prefer to overwinter in shallow or coastal areas, usually with light or highly moveable ice cover (Barber <em>et al</em>., 2001; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a) and may occur as fully Arctic populations (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) or sub-Arctic populations (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/><br/>Some belugas undertake large-scale annual migrations between summering and wintering sites, while others remain in the same area year-round, shifting offshore only when excluded from coastal habitat by fast-ice formation (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Large numbers of migratory belugas occur along the northwestern and northern Alaskan coast, in the Canadian high Arctic, and in western Hudson Bay.  At certain times of the year, those whales migrate thousands of kilometers, in some cases as far as 80oN into dense pack ice (Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) or thousands of kilometers into the North Water polynya or to the pack ice off West Greenland (Richard <em>et al</em>. 1998a,b; Richard <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003a).  Non-migratory belugas that generally make seasonal shifts in distribution of less than a few hundred kilometers are found in Cook Inlet, Cumberland Sound, Svalbard, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Kingsley 2002; Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>While the general features of beluga whale habitat can be described for the relatively well-studied populations, the importance of those features is not well understood (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press).  For example, the summer occupation of nearshore/estuarine waters has been ascribed alternatively to feeding (Seaman <em>et al</em>. 1982), to warm water providing a thermal advantage to neonates (Sergeant and Brodie 1969), and to the presence of fresh water and coarse substrates facilitating skin shedding during molt (St. Aubin <em>et al</em>. 1990; Frost <em>et al</em>. 1993).  The relative importance of each of those factors likely varies based on the environmental conditions (e.g., water temperatures and prey availability) specific to each of the summering areas (Frost and Lowry 1990a).  Similarly, it is unclear why belugas sometimes move into deep, ice-covered waters.  One potential reason would be to avoid killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1992).  However, the movements into the ice appear excessive for what would be needed to avoid killer whales (Suydam <em>et al</em>. 2001) and actually could expose belugas to predation by polar bears (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1987a) as well as increase the risk of entrapment in the ice.  It is possible belugas move into ice-covered offshore regions for feeding, primarily on Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>), but few data are available to test this hypothesis.  Similarly, the associations of belugas with features such as the continental shelf break (Moore 2000) may be related to oceanographic processes that produce good feeding conditions (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in Press).<br/><br/>Dives may last up to 25 min. and can reach depths of > 800 m.  The beluga has a diverse diet, which varies greatly from area to area.  Although various species of fish are considered to be the primary prey items (including salmon, herring, and Arctic cod), belugas also feed on a wide variety of mollusks (such as squid and octopus) and benthic crustaceans (shrimps and crabs).  Polar bears and killer whales are known predators of belugas throughout their Arctic range (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
6335	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Belugas occupy estuaries, continental shelf and slope waters, and deep ocean basins in conditions of open water, loose ice, and heavy pack ice. Belugas occur seasonally (mainly in summer) in coastal waters as shallow as 1-3 m deep but also in deep offshore waters (>800 m). They typically enter estuaries and sometimes move upstream into rivers; there are records of individuals or small groups ranging hundreds of kilometers from the sea.	eng
6335	population	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The global population consists of numerous subpopulations with varying degrees of differentiation (hereafter the terms subpopulation and stock are used interchangeably).  The International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (IWC 2000) organized information on belugas on the basis of 29 provisional management stocks.  Some of the stock boundaries overlap spatially and seasonally, complicating assessment.  Many of the subpopulations or stocks maintain distinct or contiguous geographical ranges during the summer months but mix during the spring and autumn migrations and share common wintering quarters.  While good abundance estimates are available for some beluga subpopulations/stocks, the sizes of others are virtually unknown.  Total numbers worldwide are well above 150,000 animals, with many portions of the range unsurveyed.  The following estimates for subpopulations/stocks or regions range from relatively precise abundance estimates to rough approximations of numbers in the late 1990s or early 2000s: <br/><br/><strong>Alaska</strong><br/><em>Cook Inlet</em>: The number of beluga whales in Cook Inlet is estimated from counts by aerial observers and aerial video group counts (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2000b; Lowry <em>et al</em>. 2006). The most recent published estimate at the time of the present assessment (May 2008) was 302 (CV=0.16) in 2006 (Angliss and Outlaw 2007). In addition, the National Marine Fisheries Service had indicated via a web posting that the point estimate from the 2007 aerial survey was 375.<br/><br/><em>Bristol Bay</em>: Most recently (1994), the number of beluga whales in Bristol Bay was estimated at 1,555 (Lowry and Frost 1999).  This estimate was based on a maximum count of 503 animals, which was corrected using radio-telemetry data for the proportion of animals that were diving (Lowry and Frost 1999) and for the proportion of newborns and yearlings not observed due to their small size and coloration.  Surveys in 1999 and 2000 resulted in maximum counts of 690 and 531, which can be extrapolated to population estimates of 2,133 and 1,642, respectively (L. Lowry, University of Alaska Fairbanks pers. comm. to K. Laidre, 1/07). <br/><em>Eastern Bering Sea</em>:  Aerial surveys of Norton Sound, the summering site for the eastern Bering Sea stock, were conducted in 2000.  Preliminary analyses produced an uncorrected estimate of 5,868 animals; when corrected for animals not visible at the surface and for newborn and yearling animals not observed due to their small size and dark coloration, the estimated population size for Norton Sound is 18,142 (CV=0.24) (R. Hobbs, AFSC-NMML pers. comm. 01/07; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). <br/><br/><em>Eastern Chukchi Sea</em>: Frost <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated the minimum size of the eastern Chukchi stock of belugas at 1,200, based on counts of animals from aerial surveys conducted during 1989-91.  The total corrected abundance estimate for the eastern Chukchi stock is 3,710. <br/><br/><strong>Shared Alaska/Canada</strong><br/><em>Eastern Beaufort Sea/Beaufort Sea</em>: The most recent aerial survey, conducted in July 1992, resulted in an uncorrected estimate of 19,629 (CV=0.229) (Harwood <em>et al</em>. 1996).  The corrected population estimate was 39,258 animals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). <br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/><em>Cumberland Sound</em>: This stock numbers about 1,500 animals and is thought to have increased since the 1980s (COSEWIC 2004)<br/><br/><em>Ungava Bay</em>:  The Ungava Bay stock is too small to estimate. Hammill <em>et al</em>. (2004) recently estimated it at <50 animals; none were seen on a survey conducted in 2001. <br/><br/><em>West Hudson Bay</em>: There are estimated to be more than 23,000 belugas in western Hudson Bay and more than 1,300 along the southern Hudson Bay coast (Richard 1991). <br/><br/><em>East Hudson Bay</em>: Belugas in Eastern Hudson Bay have declined from 4,200 (SE 300) in 1985 to 3,100 (SE 800) in 2004 (corrected estimates) (Hammill <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/><em>St Lawrence River</em>: The St. Lawrence subpopulation is estimated to be in the order of 900-1,000 individuals.  There is no evidence of a significant trend in abundance since 1988 (COSEWIC 2004).<br/><br/><em>Eastern High Arctic/Baffin Bay</em>: A survey in 1996 estimated 21,213 belugas (95% CI 10,985 to 32,619) in the waters surrounding Somerset Island: Barrow Strait, Peel Sound and Prince Regent Inlet (Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002).  This estimate takes into account both whales missed by observers and those that might have been unavailable for detection due to diving behavior. It includes whales that move to West Greenland during the winter.<br/><br/><strong>Shared Canada/Greenland</strong><br/><em>West Greenland</em>: Aerial surveys flown in late winter in West Greenland between 1981 and 1994 found that beluga numbers had decreased by 62% during that period, probably because of overharvesting (Heide-Jørgensen and Reeves 1996).  Further surveys in 1998 and 1999 confirmed the decline and found 7,941 (95% CI: 3650-17278) belugas in West Greenland, including whales missed by the observers and whales that were submerged during the survey (Heide-Jørgensen and Acquarone 2002).  Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimate that approximately 30% of the Eastern Canadian high Arctic/Baffin Bay beluga stock migrates to West Greenland for overwintering.<br/><br/><strong>Svalbard</strong><br/>Belugas have never been surveyed around Svalbard.  Pods numbering into the thousands are sighted irregularly around the archipelago, and pods ranging from a few to a few hundred individuals are seen regularly (Gjertz and Wiig 1994; Kovacs and Lydersen 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Russia</strong><br/><em>Eastern and Central Russian Arctic</em>: There are no rigorous abundance estimates for the Eastern and Central Russian Arctic (Boltunov and Belikov 2002).  Rough estimates of a few thousand in Anadyr Gulf and a few thousand in the western Chukchi and eastern East Siberian Seas were summarized in a table compiled by the IWC Scientific Committee (IWC 2000).  In addition to those animals, belugas from Alaskan stocks (e.g. eastern Bering Sea, eastern Chukchi Sea, and Beaufort Sea stocks) move into eastern Russian waters during the winter.  The IWC table mentioned above (IWC, 2000) indicates a rough estimate of 18,000-20,000 in the Okhotsk Sea. <br/><br/><em>Western Russian Arctic</em>:  Belugas in the Western Russian Arctic occupy four major areas: (1) southern Barents and White seas, (2) southern Barents and Kara seas, (3) coastal waters of the Kara Sea, and (4) western portion of the Laptev Sea.  They may share wintering grounds to some extent.  Surveys have not yet been conducted in the Barents and Kara seas and the number of belugas inhabiting these regions is unknown.  The White Sea hosts a resident population of belugas numbering about 1,000 over-wintering individuals.  In summer, this number is augmented by animals from the Barents Sea.	eng
6335	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The global population consists of numerous subpopulations with varying degrees of differentiation. The IWC organized information on the basis of 29 management stocks and recognized that these were provisional (IWC 2000). Some of the stock boundaries overlap spatially and seasonally, complicating assessment. Many of the sub-populations or stocks maintain distinct or contiguous geographical ranges during the summer months and mix during the spring and autumn migrations and share common wintering quarters. While good abundance estimates are available for some beluga sub-populations/stocks, the size of others is virtually unknown. Total numbers worldwide are well above 150,000 animals.	eng
6335	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Direct hunting by aboriginal people for food is the biggest known threat to belugas across certain portions of their range. The most immediate concerns relate to continuing harvests from small and depleted subpopulations (IWC 2000). The strong philopatry of belugas, which causes them to return to the same estuaries year after year, makes them highly vulnerable to overexploitation. This behavioural trait is undoubtedly the most important natural factor which has led to the extirpation of belugas from some parts of their range (e.g. southwest Greenland, some river mouths in Ungava Bay, Canada) by a combination of commercial and subsistence hunting. <br/><br/>Another threat is Arctic climate change. As recent decreases in ice coverage have been more extensive in the Arctic belugas may experience climate-induced geographic shifts or altered reproductive capacity due to persistent changes in ice extent. Changes in sea ice extent and concentration thus have the potential to alter the distribution, range and migration patterns of cetaceans associated with ice habitats, and thus indirectly affect nutritional status, reproductive success, and ultimately the abundance and stock structure of these species (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Laidre <em>et al.</em> in press).  Belugas are also susceptible to <em>sassats</em> or ice entrapments when sea ice conditions rapidly change.<br/><br/>Other known or potential threats include a wide variety of human activities: oil and gas development, expansion of fisheries (with possible implications for bycatch and resource depletion), and industrial and urban pollution.	eng
6335	threats	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Hunting for human consumption is the biggest known threat to belugas across certain portions of their range. The most immediate concerns relate to continuing harvests from small and depleted subpopulations (IWC 2000). The strong philopatry of belugas, which causes them to return to the same estuaries year after year, makes them highly vulnerable to overexploitation. This behavioural trait is undoubtedly the most important natural factor that has led to the extirpation of belugas from some parts of their range by a combination of commercial and subsistence hunting (e.g. in southwestern Greenland and some river mouths in Ungava Bay, Canada). <br/><br/>Known or potential threats include a variety of human activities in addition to hunting: oil and gas development, expansion of fisheries (with possible implications for bycatch and resource depletion), hydroelectric development (in Hudson Bay), and industrial and urban pollution. Climate change will likely increase the scale and distribution of these activities. Hydroelectric development may affect belugas because of their dependence on estuarine conditions. Areas such as the McKenzie Delta and West Greenland are subject to oil exploration, which often includes seismic surveys, offshore drilling, and artificial island construction. These activities are undertaken in the summer months in the same areas occupied by belugas at this time of year. In a study of responses of belugas to ice-breaking ships, the belugas typically moved rapidly along ice edges away from approaching ships and showed strong avoidance reactions to approaching ships at distances of 35-50 km (Finley <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/>Climate change is another potential threat. Belugas may experience climate-induced geographic shifts or altered reproductive success due to persistent changes in extent of sea ice (Tynan and DeMaster, 1997, Laidre <em>et al</em> In Press).  Belugas are also susceptible to savssats or ice entrapments when sea ice conditions change rapidly.<br/><br/>Threats from contaminants are of concern in some areas. Studies of the small, geographically isolated subpopulation in the St. Lawrence River have found that concentrations of both total PCBs and chlorinated PCB congeners are much higher in these belugas than in Arctic belugas. Some scientists believe that the increased occurrence of opportunistic bacterial infections, parasitic infestation, gastric ulcers and other disorders in St. Lawrence belugas is evidence of a link between immune system dysfunction and PCB exposure (Martineau <em>et al</em>., 1994). <br/><br/>To summarize, in some parts of the species’ range, particularly in Canada and Greenland, intensive hunting represents an ongoing major threat, and in a few instances this is compounded by the less direct and less easily quantified threats (realized and potential) of disturbance by vessel traffic (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary, river mouths in eastern Hudson Bay), habitat modification (e.g. large hydroelectric dams in rivers flowing into Hudson Bay and James Bay), contaminants (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary), climate change (including secondary effects from opening of Arctic and sub-Arctic waters to year-round ship traffic, oil an gas development, commercial fishing), and possibly incidental catch in fisheries (e.g. St. Lawrence estuary).	eng
6336	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The common dolphin is included in EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora; <em>D. delphis</em> is listed on Annex IV (Animal and Plant Species of Community Interest in Need of Strict Protection).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>A large Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin has been declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Other smaller marine protected areas exist or have been proposed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). While these types of designations may benefit common dolphins at least indirectly, measures to provide direct benefits, e.g., area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, curtailment of inputs of particular pollutants, etc., remain to be identified and implemented. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS 2002) considers the Mediterranean common dolphin as an endangered population. It is expected that efforts to increase understanding of ongoing threats, monitor status, and provide needed protective measures on behalf of the dolphins and their habitat will be organized and implemented through ACCOBAMS. The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.<br/><br/><strong>Black Sea</strong><br/>Commercial killing of Black Sea common dolphins, as well as other Black Sea cetaceans, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. The Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (1996) envisages some special cetacean-oriented conservation and research actions, and a regional Conservation Plan for Cetaceans in the Black Sea has been drafted in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). On a national level, Black Sea cetaceans, including common dolphins, are protected by environmental legislation and governmental decrees. Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in Ukraine (2001) and Romania (2003) but they have no legal effect at present (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
6336	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. The Mediterranean population is listed in Appendices I and II of CMS.<br/><br/>Common dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery, are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seiner and has promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001). In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S. drift gillnet fishery has been required to use acoustic warning devices since 1996 to reduce cetacean bycatch; however, some bycatch of <em>Delphinus delphis</em> has continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.	eng
6336	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The short-beaked common dolphin is an oceanic species that is widely distributed in tropical to cool temperate waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans (Perrin 2002), from nearshore waters to thousands of kilometers offshore. It regularly occurs in some enclosed seas, such as the Okhotsk Sea and Sea of Japan, and separate subpopulations apparently exist in the Mediterranean and Black seas.  Short-beaked common dolphins may occur in parts of the Indian Ocean around southeast Africa and southern Australia, but previous records of this species in other parts of the Indian Ocean and in waters of Taiwan and are now thought to have been long-beaked common dolphins <em>D. capensis</em> (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).	eng
6336	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The short-beaked common dolphin is an oceanic species that is widely distributed in tropical to cool temperate waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Perrin 2002), from nearshore waters to thousands of kilometers offshore. They regularly occur in some enclosed seas, such as the Okhotsk Sea and Sea of Japan, and separate subpopulations exist in the Mediterranean and Black seas. Short-beaked common dolphins may occur in parts of the Indian Ocean around southeastern Africa and southern Australia, but previous records of this species in other parts of the Indian Ocean and in waters of Taiwan are now thought to have been of long-beaked common dolphins (<em>D. capensis</em>; Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).	eng
6336	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Short-beaked common dolphins appear to have a preference for upwelling-modified waters, areas with steep sea floor relief, and extensive shelf areas, but they are widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters (Evans 1994). In the eastern tropical Pacific, they prefer equatorial and subtropical waters with a shallow thermocline, relatively large seasonal changes in surface temperature, and seasonal upwelling (Reilly 1990; Fiedler and Reilly 1994). <br/><br/>Mediterranean common dolphins frequent coastal and upper slope waters (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Black Sea, common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of small pelagic fishes such as anchovy and sprat (Birkun 2006). Black Sea common dolphins avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they do not occur in the Sea of Azov and in the Kerch Strait. <br/><br/>Associations with other marine mammal species are common. Schools in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) are sometimes associated with yellowfin tuna, and have thus been involved in tuna purse-seine fishing operations (Gerrodette 2002). Mixed-species groups of common, striped and Risso’s dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been observed frequently in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). The prey of common dolphins consists largely of small schooling fishes and squids (Perrin 2002).	eng
6336	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Short-beaked common dolphins appear to have a preference for upwelling-modified waters, areas with steep sea floor relief, and extensive shelf areas, but they are widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters (see Evans 1994).  In the eastern tropical Pacific, they prefer equatorial and subtropical waters with a shallow thermocline, relatively large seasonal changes in surface temperature, and seasonal upwelling (Reilly 1990, Fiedler and Reilly 1994). <br/><br/>Mediterranean common dolphins frequent coastal and upper slope waters (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the Black Sea, common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of small pelagic fishes such as anchovy and sprat (Birkun 2006).  Black Sea common dolphins avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they do not occur in the Sea of Azov and in the Kerch Strait. <br/><br/>Associations with other marine mammal species are common. Mixed-species groups of common dolphins, striped dolphins (<em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>) and Risso's dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been observed frequently in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). The prey of common dolphins consists largely of small schooling fishes and squids (Perrin 2002). Reproduction is seasonal, with the exception of the Central population in the eastern tropical Pacific, which breeds throughout the year (Danil and Chivers 2007).	eng
6336	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is a very abundant species, with many available estimates for the various areas where it occurs. In the Atlantic, abundance in European continental shelf waters was estimated at 63,400 (95%CI=27,000-149,000) in 2005 (SCANS-II project: P. Hammond pers. comm. 2007). Offshore, abundance in a block bounded by 53-57ºN and 18-29ºW has been estimated at 273,000 (95%CI=153,000-435,000) in 1995 (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> in press).  West of the Bay of Biscay, 62,000 common dolphins were estimated in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in 1993 (Goujon 1996).  In the western North Atlantic, 121,000 (CV=0.23) were estimated (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the western Mediterranean, abundance has been estimated at 19,400 (95%CI=15,300-22,800) in the northern Alborán Sea between 2000 and 2004 (Cañadas 2006). Once one of the most common species in the Mediterranean Sea, the short-beaked common dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decline during the last 30-40 years (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Dramatic negative trends were recorded in portions of the central Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Adriatic Sea and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006). Recent genetic studies indicate that population structure within the Mediterranean reflects differences in distribution pattern and habitat use by short-beaked common dolphins in the eastern (where the species is predominantly coastal) and western (where it is predominantly pelagic) portions of the basin (Natoli 2004).  Genetic exchange between short-beaked common dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve predominantly animals from the Alborán Sea (Natoli 2004). <br/><br/>The population size in the Black Sea is unknown. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in a few parts of the range.  The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. Results suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more (Birkun 2006).  By the mid 1960s, the Black Sea subpopulation collapsed due to long-running overexploitation and a reduction of 70% was inferred. However, directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased.  The population has not recovered (Birkun 2006).	eng
6336	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This is a very abundant species, with many available estimates for the various areas where it occurs. In the Pacific, 2,963,000 (CV=24%) was estimated for the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002), and an average of 352.000 (CV = 18%) was estimated for the US west coast based on surveys between 1991 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney in press). Off California, common dolphins show seasonal and inter-annual changes in abundance due to shifts in distribution (Forney and Barlow 1998).<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, abundance in European continental shelf waters was estimated at 63,400 (95%CI=27,000-149,000) in 2005 (SCANS-II project; P. Hammond pers. comm.). Offshore, abundance in a block bounded by 53-57ºN and 18-29ºW was estimated at 273,000 (95%CI=153,000-435,000) in 1995 (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> in press). West of the Bay of Biscay, 62,000 common dolphins were estimated in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in 1993 (Goujon 1996). In the western North Atlantic, 121,000 (CV=0.23) were estimated to occur (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the western Mediterranean, abundance has been estimated at 19,400 (95%CI=15,300-22,800) in the northern Alborán Sea between 2000 and 2004 (Cañadas 2006). Once one of the most common species in the Mediterranean Sea, the short-beaked common dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decline during the last 30-40 years (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dramatic negative trends were recorded in portions of the central Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Adriatic Sea and in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004; 2006). Recent genetic studies indicate that population structure within the Mediterranean reflects differences in distribution pattern and habitat use by short-beaked common dolphins in the eastern (where the species is predominantly coastal) and western (where it is predominantly pelagic) portions of the basin (Natoli 2004). Genetic exchange between short-beaked common dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve predominantly animals from the Alborán Sea (Natoli 2004). <br/><br/>The population size in the Black Sea is unknown. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in a few parts of the range. The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. Results suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more (Birkun 2006). By the mid 1960s, the Black Sea subpopulation collapsed due to long-running overexploitation, and a reduction of 70% was inferred. However, directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased. The population has not recovered (Birkun 2006).	eng
6336	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The common dolphin is one of the most prominent by-catches of pelagic purse-seine and driftnet, and trawl fisheries. Incidental capture of common dolphins in European Atlantic fisheries has been well studied in recent years, and as a result of recent EU legislation, on-board observer programmes are being carried out in most of the fisheries considered to have a potentially significant bycatch of common dolphins. Northridge (2006) showed that bycatches of common dolphins in European pelagic trawl fisheries probably total around 800 animals per year in UK and French pelagic trawl fisheries for sea bass.  Annual catch rates in the UK sector of this fishery have been falling in recent years (Northridge 2006) and the annual average total mortality (2000-2006) is 170 animals in this sector.  Other bycatches in the same area are known to occur in gill nets, tangle nets and possibly other fisheries (Northridge 2006). <br/><br/>The main factors thought to have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Mediterranean short-beaked common dolphins include: 1) incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially driftnets, 2) reduced availability of prey caused by overfishing and habitat degradation, 3) contamination by xenobiotic chemicals resulting in immunosuppression and reproductive impairment, and 4) environmental changes such as increased water temperatures affecting ecosystem dynamics (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2006).  A recent survey focusing on the Moroccan driftnet fishing fleet estimated that about 12,000-15,000 dolphins are killed annually around the Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>At least 840,000 dolphins were taken from the Black Sea from 1946 until a ban of small cetacean hunting was declared in Turkey in 1983.  The take was certainly much greater because that value did not incorporate catch statistics from Romania (whole period), Turkey (before 1976 and after 1981) and Bulgaria (before 1958) (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Reduced prey availability is considered to be a major ongoing threat to Black Sea common dolphins (Bushuyev 2000).  Of two mass mortality events that killed an unknown but certainly large number of common dolphins in 1990 and 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as the result of a morbillivirus epizootic.  However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic (8 to 12 fold) decline in the abundance of the two main common dolphin prey species, anchovy and sprat.  Such a reduction was caused by a combination of overfishing, eutrophication and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>.  Correlation between large die-offs of Black Sea common dolphins and prey scarcity suggests that reduced prey availability increases susceptibility to viral infection (Birkun 2006).	eng
6336	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The common dolphin is one of the most prominent by-catches of pelagic purse-seine, driftnet and trawl fisheries. In the ETP, common dolphins are sometimes found in association with yellowfin tuna, <em>Thunnus albacares</em>, and annual incidental mortality in the tuna purse-seine fishery of this species has been as high as 24,307 (in 1986) (IATTC, 2006). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) imposed per-vessel stock limits on the international fleet, the mortality declined to 325 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Takes have been recorded in other purse-seine fisheries in the Indian Ocean and off the west coast of Africa (Simmons 1968). Short-beaked common dolphins are the most commonly killed cetacean in the U.S. drift gillnet fishery for sharks and swordfish, with about 2,100 estimated killed between 1990 and 2002 (Julian and Beeson 1998; Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005); measures have been in place to reduce cetacean takes since 1996, and bycatch levels are not a population level concern (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Incidental capture of common dolphins in European Atlantic fisheries has been well studied in recent years, and as a result of recent EU legislation, on-board observer programs are being carried out in most of the fisheries considered to have a potentially significant bycatch of common dolphins. Northridge (2006) showed that bycatches of common dolphins in European pelagic trawl fisheries probably total around 800 animals per year in UK and French pelagic trawl fisheries for sea bass. Annual catch rates in the UK sector of this fishery have been falling in recent years and the annual average total mortality recently (2000-2006) has been 170 animals in this sector. Other bycatches in the same area are known to occur in gill nets, tangle nets and possibly other fisheries (ICES 2005; Northridge 2006). <br/><br/>In the western North Atlantic, 105 common dolphins are taken on average each year by sink gill nets and bottom trawls (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). By-catches have also been reported from other areas (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2000; Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The main factors thought to have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Mediterranean short-beaked common dolphins include: 1) incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially driftnets, 2) reduced availability of prey caused by overfishing and habitat degradation, 3) contamination by xenobiotic chemicals resulting in immunosuppression and reproductive impairment, and 4) environmental changes such as increased water temperatures affecting ecosystem dynamics (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2006). A recent survey focusing on the Moroccan driftnet fishing fleet estimated that about 12,000-15,000 dolphins are killed annually around the Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>At least 840,000 dolphins were taken from the Black Sea from 1946 until a ban of small cetacean hunting was declared in Turkey in 1983. The take was certainly much greater because that value did not incorporate catch statistics from Romania (whole period), Turkey (before 1976 and after 1981) and Bulgaria (before 1958) (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Reduced prey availability is considered to be a major threat to Black Sea common dolphins (Bushuyev 2000). Of two mass mortality events that killed an unknown but certainly large number of common dolphins in 1990 and 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as the result of a morbillivirus epizootic. However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic (8 to 12 fold) decline in the abundance of the two main common dolphin prey species, anchovy and sprat. Such a reduction was caused by a combination of overfishing, eutrophication and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>. Correlation between large die-offs of Black Sea common dolphins and prey scarcity suggests that reduced prey availability increases susceptibility to viral infection (Birkun 2006). Prey depletion caused by overfishing was considered as a main cause for the decline of common dolphins in the eastern Ionian Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
6337	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Vessel quotas for incidental take for <em>Delphinus</em> sp. are issued under an international agreement managed by the IATTC for the eastern tropical Pacific.	eng
6337	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Long-beaked common dolphins generally occur within about 180 km of the coast. The overall distribution of this species remains imperfectly known, because until 1994, all common dolphins around the world were classified as a single species: <em>D. delphis</em> (Heyning and Perrin 1994). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies recognized:<br/><br/><em>D. c. capensis</em> – This subspecies appears to be found in distinct areas and apparently-disjunct subpopulations are known from the east coast of South America, West Africa, southern Japan, Korea and northern Taiwan (and possibly China), central California to southern Mexico, Peru, and South Africa. <br/><br/><em>D. c. tropicalis</em> – This subspecies ranges in the Indo-Pacific from at least the Red Sea/Somalia to western Taiwan/southern China and Indonesia, and including the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Thailand (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002).	eng
6337	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Long-beaked common dolphins inhabit tropical and warm-temperate waters of all three major oceans. <em>D. capensis</em> seems to prefer shallower and warmer water and occurs generally closer to the coast than does <em>D. delphis</em> (Perrin 2002). It is found mostly over continental shelf water depths (< 180 m), and generally does not occur around oceanic islands far from mainland coasts (Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002). It sometimes associate with other species of cetaceans.	eng
6337	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are no estimates of global abundance for <em>D. capensis</em> and few local abundance estimates. Off California, USA, at the northern part of this species' range, abundance estimates have ranged from about 11,000 to 49,000, averaging about 22,000 (CV = 50%) dolphins between 1999 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). Dolphins found off California are part of a larger population extending southward through Mexico, where Gerrodette and Palacios (1996) estimated 55,000 within Pacific coast waters of the Mexican EEZ and 69,000 in the Gulf of California. One relatively well-studied variant of the long-beaked form is the Baja neritic race, which is found in the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez), Mexico, and the coastal warm-temperate eastern North Pacific, north of 20°N. About 15,000-20,000 are estimated to occur off South Africa (Cockcroft and Peddemors 1990). The <em>tropicalis</em> subspecies is widespread in the Indian and western Pacific oceans, but there are no estimates of abundance for any portion of its range.	eng
6337	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Long-beaked common dolphin are known to be taken in bottom-set gillnets and purse seine fisheries off southern California, but potential impacts are uncertain. Some bycatch has also been documented in drift gillnets off California (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are only occasionally involved as bycatch in the eastern tropical Pacific tuna fishery. They are present off Japan, and some have been taken in drive fisheries there. There are anecdotal reports of potentially large numbers of dolphins, including long-beaked common dolphins, killed for bait in some coastal fisheries off Baja California, Mexico (K. Forney pers. comm.). Long-beaked common dolphins have been taken opportunistically by harpoon in northeastern Taiwan and are caught incidentally by oceanic driftnets off eastern Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). There is a large direct kill around Margarita Island, off eastern Venezuela, in which dolphins are harpooned in large numbers (Romero <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the Indian Ocean and Chinese waters, they are taken in gillnets, trawls, and purse seines. There is growing concern about the large numbers of long-beaked common dolphins killed off Peru and used for human food or shark bait (K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.). Incidental catches of <em>Delphinus</em> sp. in pelagic driftnets in southern and south-eastern Brazil have been recorded (Zerbini and Kotas 1998), but no current estimates of bycatch are available. Given that this fishery occurs in the presumed range of the species, some of these individuals may belong to this species.	eng
6405	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	It occurs in Crocker Range National Park (Sabah, Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
6405	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is endemic to montane Borneo where it is restricted to altitudes above 900 m (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998) in Malaysian northern Borneo, including the mountains of north-eastern Sarawak and Mts. Kinabalu and Trus Madi in Sabah (Helgen 2005). Recorded from 1,200 m to elevations of 3,350 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
6405	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in submontane and montane pristine forest. This species needs undergrowth as it comes down to forage for insects (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
6405	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species has not been recorded since the early 1970s. Between 1989 to 1991, three sessions of trappings at the area (Sinsuran Ridge, Sabah) where the animal was last caught in the early 1970s, failed to capture the animal (K.H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
6405	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to non-tree plantations at lower elevations.	eng
6409	conservation	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas across its range, including of course Serengeti National Park.	eng
6409	distribution	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Patchily distributed in forested areas of central and eastern mainland Africa, from central Kenya as far south as the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa, west to north-east Angola. Not recorded from Botswana, Zimbabwe or the Limpopo Province of South Africa (Milner and Gaylard in press).	eng
6409	habitat	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	The species occurs in forested and well-wooded areas. In South Africa, occurs in Afromontane forests and thickets of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000). At the western coastal limit occurs in milkwood-dominated coastal forests (Gaylard 1994), while further north in central Mozambique it occurs in lowland evergreen forests and in the evergreen riverine forests of the Save River (Smithers and Lobão Tello 1976). In East Africa, in the Ngorongoro Crater, Serengeti National Park and Maasai Mara Game Reserve, they are found in fig trees and in the riverine forests (H. Hoeck pers. comm.); they also occur in drier Acacia woodland and in rocky alpine and sub-alpine habitats. Throughout their range, dependent on tree cavities, epiphytes or dense matted forest vegetation for shelter. A decrease in numbers in southern Africa has been attributed to loss of structure within habitat, rather than forest size (Castley and Kerley 1993). The biology and life-history of the species is summarized by Milner and Gaylard (in press).	eng
6409	population	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Southern Tree Hyraxes spend long periods inactive in the high canopy or tree holes and so often escape notice. They are locally abundant in the Virunga Mts (13.4/ha; Milner and Harris 1999) and Ruwenzori Mts, where they live at a high density. In southern Africa, where <em>D. arboreus</em> is considered rare (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000), relative density has been estimated by means of counts of latrines in cavity trees (i.e. Catch Per Unit Effort; Gaylard 1994): 0.07[rn]0.29 latrines/man hour searching were found in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.	eng
6409	threats	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	The main threats include forest clearing and snaring for meat and skins (Milner and Gaylard in press). Many forest patches are too small to maintain viable populations (Lawes <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
6410	conservation	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas in its range, including Tai National Park and the National Park of Upper Niger (Guinea).	eng
6410	distribution	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	This species is confined to West and Central Africa from Sierra Leone to northern Uganda and southwards to northern Angola and north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Also on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (Shultz and Roberts in press).	eng
6410	habitat	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Usually found in lowland moist forests, as well as moist savannas, but also in montane habitats to elevations of 3,500 m (Shultz and Roberts in press).	eng
6410	population	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	There is no reliable information on population densities and structure. Observations from Taï N. P., Côte d’Ivoire, provide a rough estimate of 1-2 individuals/km² based on nocturnal calling records (Shultz and Roberts in press).	eng
6410	threats	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although they are presumably sensitive to severe habitat fragmentation as a result of deforestation, and they are also hunted for food and skins (Shultz and Roberts in press). Fa <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded a significant increase in the number of carcasses of this species found in bushmeat markets in Bioko I. between 1991 and 1996.	eng
6426	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. Recommended conservation actions for this species include: monitor distribution and abundance; and continue research on population dynamics, especially in lowland and riverine forests.	eng
6426	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the area north of the Daintree River to the vicinity of Mount Amos and west to the Mount Windsor Tablelands, on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. The elevational range is sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
6426	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is an arboreal species of closed tropical moist forests, including tropical vine and gallery forest where they have recently been expanding their range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is primarily nocturnal.	eng
6426	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is a cryptic species that is now relatively common, although it is thought to be rare in the uplands.	eng
6426	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	Upland populations appear secure. Lowland areas of forest have been disturbed by development. The viability of lowland populations was threatened by continued subdivision and development of remaining tracts of lowland rainforest under freehold tenure (specifically in the Daintree), which would have fragmented tree-kangaroo habitat and increased their exposure to predation by domestic dogs. However, this threat has now been much eased because of the buy-back schemes in the Daintree region and the recent introduction and enforcement of the Queensland Management Act. <br/><br/>In the past it was threatened by hunting pressure by Aborigines (Martin and Johnson 2008). Resumption of hunting might constitute a future threat (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6427	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to it.	eng
6427	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is endemic to New Guinea, where it is found in the high elevations of the central mountains of southeastern Papua New Guinea. It ranges between 600 and 3,650 m asl.	eng
6427	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is restricted to mossy mid- to upper primary montane tropical forest.	eng
6427	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is generally rare and occurs at low densities. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.	eng
6427	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food with dogs by local people. Future threats include habitat loss and degradation.	eng
6429	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Hunting regulations and local awareness programmes should be developed to protect this species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
6429	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where it occurs in the mid-montane areas of the Central Cordillera. It may have previously occurred in lowland areas, however, it now appears to be extirpated from this part of its range. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,860 m asl.	eng
6429	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is now restricted to montane tropical forest; it was formerly present in areas of lowland forest.	eng
6429	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	It is probably not a common species, especially as its range overlaps with high human densities.	eng
6429	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	The species is highly threatened by hunting for food and is traded internally for cultural reasons by local people, and additionally by habitat loss through local deforestation for wood and timber, and by shifting cultivation and coffee plantations and rice (dryland) and wheat.	eng
6431	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species occurs in a couple of protected areas. There is a community-based conservation project in the northern coastal range of New Guinea that is focused on protecting tree kangaroo species. Further surveys are needed to determine the true range of this species.	eng
6431	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in the northern coastal areas (including the Foja mountains), and the Vogelkop Peninsula of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present on the adjacent islands of Yapen, Waigeo, Misool, Salawati, and possibly Batanta (Indonesia). It probably ranges further to the south-west from the northern coastal range (this is a poorly surveyed area). It ranges in elevation from between 100 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
6431	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland and mid-montane tropical forests. It is found in both primary and degraded forests.	eng
6431	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	It is a rare species, but it might occur at higher densities in the absence of humans. The population in the northern coastal range of New Guinea is considerably more threatened than other populations.	eng
6431	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food by local people, and by habitat loss and degradation through conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use, and large-scale oil palm plantations.	eng
6432	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. The species has been promoted as a flagship species, and it has a very high profile in the region where it occurs. Recommended conservation actions for this species from Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996), include: monitor distribution and abundance; study habitat utilisation and population dynamics in fragmented and regenerating rainforest habitats.	eng
6432	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is present in the rainforests between Ingham and Mossman in north-eastern Queensland, Australia. It is now largely restricted to upland rainforests because of extensive clearing of lowland rainforests. Its area of occupancy has declined substantially in upland areas because of clearing of prime habitat on basalt soils on the Atherton Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The elevational range is sea level to 1,600 m asl.	eng
6432	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in wet rainforests, and often in secondary forests. Occasionally found in dry and fringing eucalypt forests. They are known to forage in agricultural areas. This species is nocturnal, cryptic, and territorial. Its diet consists of fruit and leaves of a variety of rainforest plants (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
6432	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
6432	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	Historically, the main threat has been reduction of habitat, but this has ceased with the declaration of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and the species appears to have been able to persist in the mosaic of fragmented habitat (particularly where there are available habitat corridors). On the Atherton Tableland, increased fragmentation makes them more vulnerable to predation by dogs, although strategic reforestation on the Atherton Tableland opens the possibility of some recovery of its original area of occupancy in the future (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In agricultural areas where it occurs, predation by dogs and road kills represent threats.	eng
6433	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	The community-based Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program in Papua New Guinea is protecting this species through protection of habitat (S. Martin pers. comm.). The species has received considerable conservation attention within Papua New Guinea. There is a need to regulate hunting of this species through establishment of no-hunting areas by local people (S. Martin pers. comm.). The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program is working with local communities on the Huon Peninsula to create a Conservation Area of over 80,000 hectares (S. Martin pers. comm.).	eng
6433	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is restricted to the high elevations of the Huon Peninsula on the island of New Guinea, Papua New Guinea. There is a population present on the island of Umboi, Papua New Guinea, but this is "almost certainly introduced" (Flannery 1995a), and although this population is mapped it is not considered for the purposes of listing. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 3,300 m asl. The extent of occurrence is less than 14,000 km².	eng
6433	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is found in tropical montane and upper montane forests. Females have a gestation period of about 44 days (Heath <em>et al.</em> 1990); in captivity the young permanently leave the pouch by about 41 weeks (Dabek 1994). The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program is currently conducting a study of home range and habitat characteristics (S. Martin pers. comm.).	eng
6433	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	It has a naturally low population density.	eng
6433	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by overhunting for food by local people, and habitat loss due to conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use and general human encroachment. The human population of the Huon Peninsula is rapidly growing. Coffee production is increasing and there is an active nickel mine on the northern edge of the mountain range.	eng
6434	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
6434	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea where it is restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula, and possibly the Fak Fak Peninsula, of Papua Province, Indonesia (Flannery 1995). The elevation today ranges between 1,000 and 2,500 m asl. There are historical records from sea level.	eng
6434	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is a montane tropical forest species, although it occurred historically in lowland forest.	eng
6434	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is an uncommon species that is restricted primarily to the uninhabited parts of its range. It has lost a significant portion of its range (and hence population) in the last 60-70 years.	eng
6434	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting by local people for food, and through loss of habitat by conversion of forest to cultivated land. Flannery (1995) indicates that it has been eliminated from the more densely populated parts of the Arfak Mountains.	eng
6435	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	There is a community-based conservation project in place for this species; this includes a local hunting moratorium in the Swelpini area (Flannery 1995).	eng
6435	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	This species has an extremely restricted range on the summits of the eastern Bewani range and the Menawa block, and the Torricelli Mountains between the Yonkeitei and Wigotei Villages in the Fatima area of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). The total range is estimated to be close to 1,247 km². It has been recorded between 830 and 1,520 m asl.	eng
6435	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	It has been recorded from montane tropical forest. This species spends large amounts of time on the ground (Flannery 1995). Animals are wary and are usually only encountered as solitary individuals, although small groups of animals were recorded in the past (Flannery 1995). There does not appear to be a breeding season, and the females seem to give birth to one, or possibly two, young (Flannery 1995).	eng
6435	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	The subpopulation size of this species in the Torricelli Mountains totals less than 250 individuals (L. Salas pers. comm.). At the eastern end  of the Bewani range at the village of Kabori, Jim and Jean Thomas (pers. comm.) report that nine animals were killed during a hunting trip. The village representatives were willing to sign a hunting moratorium.	eng
6435	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people and by habitat loss through conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use and regional human population growth.	eng
6436	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is found in a management area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
6436	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is restricted to the Papuan Plateau lowlands on the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where Flannery (1995) reports that it has been recorded from between the upper Awarra and Strickland Rivers, Bamu, the Mount Sisa area and the Wabo area, southern Chimbu Province. The altitudinal range is incompletely known, but it appears to be found between sea level and 800 m asl.	eng
6436	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is found in lowland tropical forests where it is associated with karst habitats. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
6436	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	In relation to other tree kangaroo species, it is considered to be locally abundant in places.	eng
6436	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Salas, L., Flannery, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is hunted for food locally, however, this is not considered a major threat to this species as there is a low human population density in the area, which is largely related to the region's inhospitable limestone topography. Deforestation due to logging is a threat in places (three quarters of the range is now a logging concession, but the dry karst country is largely inaccessible). There are ongoing proposals to put in oil palm plantations. There is also drilling for oil in one place.	eng
6437	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2009	This species is not present in any protected areas. It is protected from hunting in parts of its range by traditional beliefs. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
6437	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it is restricted to the Tembagapura and Kwiyawagi mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is found between 2,700 and 3,500 m asl.	eng
6437	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2009	This is a sub-alpine species. It is present in upper montane low mossy forest or scrub type habitats, usually above 2,700 m. It is largely a terrestrial species that is found in rugged areas. These are very docile animals.	eng
6437	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2009	It is a very rare species.	eng
6437	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Salas, L., 2009	It is threatened by hunting for food in parts of its range. In the western parts of the range the species is still protected  by tradition, but in the eastern parts it has undergone major declines due to increasing human population and loss of habitat. Climate change also poses a long-term threat for this sub-alpine species; already the climate changes are allowing changes in agricultural practices.	eng
6439	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The single known locality is within the Kahnti-Biega National Park. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures. There is a need to monitor the only known population of this species. Improvements in the management of the protected area for this species is needed.	eng
6439	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens from a single location on Mount Kahuzi in the highly threatened montane forest of the Kahnti-Biega National Park in the Kivu Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The records are from around 1,900 to 2,100 m asl. There have been many surveys in surrounding areas that have not found the species, suggesting that it is a narrow range endemic (Dieterlen 1969; Dieterlen 1976).	eng
6439	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The specimens were collected in a deep valley in dense montane forest and bamboo on Mount Kahuzi. There is little further information available on this species.	eng
6439	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is only known from two specimens. The high level of collecting undertaken in the area suggests that this is a rare species.	eng
6439	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Major threats to this species are illegal logging and burning of the habitat within the park.	eng
6440	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species occurs in a few protected areas including forest reserves. The taxonomic status of species in this genus is very confused and further research is needed. More information is needed about the species population abundance, range, biology, ecology, habitat status and threats. There is a need to monitor populations of this species [[WHY?]]	eng
6440	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Oguge, N., 2008	This relatively widespread species is endemic to highland areas of East Africa, including western Kenya (Hollister, 1919). It has been reported from Mount Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border (Clausnitzer 2001), Mount Kilimanjaro (Shore and Garbett 1991; Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995), the western Rift Mountains from western Uganda including the Ruwenzoris south to western Rwanda and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kivu region). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 4,700 m asl. There is some uncertainty regarding the range of the species because of both the unresolved taxonomic status of some related forms, and the lack of adequate sampling in some areas.	eng
6440	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is more terrestrial than other species of the genus. It inhabits dry, dense, grassy areas, and less frequently marshes and moist herbaceous vegetation. The species also occurs in sparse bamboo and secondary forest. On Mount Kilimanjaro, <em>D. insignis</em> inhabits heath and alpine zones at 3,500 to 4,700 m asl, with the savanna species, <em>D. melanotis</em>, found near the forest margin at 1,500 m (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995)	eng
6440	population	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Oguge, N., 2008	The species can be abundant at lower altitudes, but it becomes gradually less common with increasing altitude.	eng
6440	threats	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Oguge, N., 2008	There are no major threats to the species at present. There are some localised threats from agriculture on the Mau Escarpment in Kenya that may threaten the species in the future.	eng
6441	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The range of the species includes Kahnti-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and also protected areas in Burundi as well as elsewhere within its range. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology and ecology. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.	eng
6441	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This East African species is endemic to the Albertine Rift Valley endemic where it has been recorded from the western and eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori Mountains in Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda, and in the Kivu region in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species has been recorded from 1,300 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
6441	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The species occurs in a wide range of habitats along the Albertine Rift. It inhabits grassland and disturbed habitats such as plantations and cropland. At higher elevations the species lives in open forests and or/bamboo forest at the edges of swamps. All of the habitats in which the species has been recorded have moist dense vegetation suitable for climbing.	eng
6441	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It can be quite common.	eng
6441	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
6442	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is present within the area of the proposed Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Although the park is yet to be officially established, the area is generally well protected (although there is some illegal grazing of livestock). The species is also found in Simien Mountains National Park. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, habitat status, threats and potential conservation measures. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.	eng
6442	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The species is confined to the high plateau of Ethiopia, and has been recorded from both sides of the Rift Valley (Yalden and Largen 1992). It is known from about nine sites and has been recorded from 2,500 to 3,550 m asl.	eng
6442	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This is a grassland species that has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. This species differs from congeners in its inability or reluctance to climb (Yalden and Largen 1992). This species may be nocturnal (Gotelli and Sillero-Zubiri 1990).	eng
6442	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is an uncommon species, only about 30 specimens are known (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1976; Yalden and Largen 1992). The species is rarely captured in survey work.	eng
6442	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is threatened by extensive livestock grazing within its range.	eng
6443	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic resolution.	eng
6443	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This wide ranging Subsaharan species occurs along the coast of southern South Africa, north through Swaziland, and up the coast of Mozambique through Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, central Angola, Zambia and the very southern corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It also has disjunct populations in Tanzania, the highlands of Ethiopia, Nigeria, the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Uganda, Benin, and Liberia and Guinea. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl in southern Africa. In Ethiopia it is a high elevation species.	eng
6443	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The species inhabits grasslands and savanna. It has not been recorded from human habitats.	eng
6443	population	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Although the species is difficult to trap, it is not thought to be a common species.	eng
6443	threats	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
6444	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.	eng
6444	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is known from coastal South Africa and from disjunct populations in Tanzania, Botswana and Mozambique. The populations are separated by areas of unsuitable habitat. It occurs from sea level in the southern part of its range, to montane areas in the north.	eng
6444	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The species has been recorded in forest/grassland mosaic habitats in the southern parts of its range. In northern areas it is more restricted to grassland habitat. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
6444	population	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	In the southern part of its range it is reported to be very common in suitable habitat.	eng
6444	threats	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	While there are no major threats to this species, grassland fires may represent a potential threat to a number of populations.	eng
6445	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The range of the taxon is presumed to include a few protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.	eng
6445	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This taxon has been recorded from two disjunct areas, one population in West Africa (from Togo east to Cameroon) and two sites in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been recorded from close to 300 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
6445	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is an inhabitant of montane bunch grass. There is little further information is available on this taxon.	eng
6445	population	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is considered to be common in Cameroon. There is no infoemation available on populations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
6445	threats	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6446	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. This is a species complex that requires taxonomic revision.	eng
6446	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution in Southern Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia in the north, largely through East Africa to northeastern South Africa in the south, being found as far west as Angola, but absent from the Congo Basin. It has been recorded up to around 1,500 m asl.	eng
6446	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is an inhabitant of grassland/savanna mosaic habitats.	eng
6446	population	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
6446	threats	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall, although fires can be a local threat.	eng
6447	conservation	Chitaukali, W., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
6447	distribution	Chitaukali, W., 2008	This species is largely distributed in southern Central Africa and northern Southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, into southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, eastwards through Zambia, into Malawi and southern Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. It has a fragmented distribution, being found only in suitable habitat. It occurs up to about 2,200 m asl.	eng
6447	habitat	Chitaukali, W., 2008	It is an inhabitant of forest/grassland mosaic, although it is more of a forest specialist.	eng
6447	population	Chitaukali, W., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
6447	threats	Chitaukali, W., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall, although fires can be a localised threat.	eng
6448	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The range of the species is not within any protected area. There are some reserves for birds but these are at lower elvations in the forest.	eng
6448	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is known only from three mountains in western Cameroon; Mount Cameroon from 1,700 to 4,000 m asl, Mount Manenguba 1,800 to 1,900 m asl and Mount Kupe at 850 m asl. It is most likely an endemic of these mountains. It has not been recorded from lower altitudes.	eng
6448	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It lives in burrows in the grass in montane sanvannas. It is also found in plantations and farmlands on Mount Kupe. It is mostly terrestrial, diurnal and nocturnal.	eng
6448	population	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
6448	threats	Schlitter, D. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The species occurs above the forest line in montane grassland so it will not be effected by deforestation. Climate change may be a future threat and grazing livestock may move up to higher latitudes if the forest is cleared.	eng
6449	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
6449	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Chitau, east-central Angola at around 1,500 m asl.	eng
6449	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The type locality is in an agricultural area that was previously moist savanna.	eng
6449	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is not thought to have been collected again since it was first described.	eng
6449	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
6483	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	The species occurs in the Zoological gardens which are protected, but it must also occur elsewhere. Further research to establish the species' range, population status and habitat requirements is urgently needed.	eng
6483	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, in the Zoological Garden of Brazzaville, in the Congo, at around 300 m asl. (Petter 1966).	eng
6483	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It has only been captured in a bamboo clump in the Zoological Gardens. The dentition of this species suggests that it could be insectivorous (Nowak 1999).	eng
6483	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known, and only a few specimens have been collected. It is an extremely difficult species to trap.	eng
6483	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
6490	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
6490	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species largely occurs in the Congo Basin of Central Africa. It ranges from Cameroon east through the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Central African Republic, to Rwanda and Uganda. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
6490	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It occurs in lowland swampy and riverine habitats, and forages in streams in lowland and montane tropical forest. The diet consists on insects and other invertebrates, and occasionally vegetable matter (Nowak, 1999).	eng
6490	population	Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is locally common in appropriate habitat.	eng
6490	threats	Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6491	conservation	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
6491	distribution	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This West African species is patchily distributed from Sierra Leone, through Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana.	eng
6491	habitat	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been reported from lowland and montane rain forest, and also in secondary forest associated with swampy soils.	eng
6491	population	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is generally considered to be an uncommon species.	eng
6491	threats	Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but its association with forest habitats suggest that it may be threatened by deforestation.	eng
6493	conservation	Vogt, R.C., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P. & Van Dijk, P.P., 2006	<em>Dermatemys</em> has been subject to legal protection in Mexico since 1927, as under the Mexican Constitution all natural resources belong to the Nation and can only be exploited with formal authorization/permits. <em>Dermatemys</em> was included in the Mexican Red data list (NOM-059-ECOL 1994) as endangered, making all forms of harvest and exploitation illegal. However, very little is done to enforce the law and few people respect it (Vogt pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>In Belize, there is national legislation (Statutory Instrument No. 55, of April 1993) designed to control the level of harvest and establish some protected populations (Polisar 1994). The efficacy of this legislation needs to be evaluated and the nation-wide status of the species assessed. <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is protected under Guatamalan law (Campbell 1998) but exact details are not available. <br/> <br/><em>D. mawii</em> is categorized as a highly protected species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (Code of Federal Regulations, 1987).  <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is listed on Appendix II of CITES. <br/> <br/>Laguna La Popotera, Veracruz, Mexico, was designated a RAMSAR site in 2005 with specific hopes of creating the first extensively managed wildlife reserve specifically for <em>Dermatemys</em> (Horne in litt. to TFTSG RLA, 27Jul 05). The species is present in Laguna del Tigre N.P. in Peten, Guatemala, and was recommended as a focal species for park management (Castañeda Moya <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/> Currently there are several <em>ex situ</em> populations of this species with which viable breeding colonies can be established in different zoos and farms. Some of these <em>ex situ</em> populations are: Nacajuca, Tabasco, with 880 turtles, La Florida, Veracruz, with 45 turtles, the Veracruz Aquarium with 2 animals, Chicago Zoo with 2 animals, Detroit Zoo with 2 animals, Philadelphia Zoo with 9 specimens, and the Guatemala City Zoo with one animal. <br/> <br/>In 2004 a group for <em>D. mawii</em> conservation was established, proposing a program that includes raising the authorities' and people’s awareness on the species, its captive conservation that includes the genetic management of the captive populations, evaluating the wild populations and their habitat, improved enforcement of existing legal protection, promotion of harvest management measures for sustainable use, and the creation of a reintroduction program. <br/> <br/>In summary, existing protective measures need to be implemented, populations inhabiting protected areas must be watched over carefully, and careful thought must be given to meeting some, if not all, of the intensive commercial demand for the species by sustainable production from farms.	eng
6493	distribution	Vogt, R.C., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P. & Van Dijk, P.P., 2006	Inhabits the regions within the large rivers from the Papaloapan basin in central Veracruz and along the lowlands of the Usumacinta basin in the States of Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as in Campeche, Mexico, through Belize and the large rivers and lakes of the department of Peten on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala. There are no records for this species in either the State of Yucatan or in the northern part of Quintana Roo (Iverson and Mittermeier 1980, Iverson 1992, Campbell 1998, Vogt unpublished data). (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF for a map of the extent of occurrence).	eng
6493	habitat	Vogt, R.C., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P. & Van Dijk, P.P., 2006	<em>Dermatemys</em> primarily inhabit the larger deeper rivers and oxbow lakes throughout the year. During the rainy season they will enter the flooded forests and travel up smaller river courses to nest. Often as flood waters recede they will become trapped in oxbow lakes until the next rainy season, since they are so poorly designed for terrestrial locomotion. Even though this turtle is a fast swimmer and is capable of swimming up rapids they often concentrate in the deep pools at the bottom of the river during the day (Vogt unpublished data). Well oxygenated water is preferred, as they have highly vascularized papillae in the larynx which enable them to stay underwater indefinitely, drawing water in through the mouth and exhaling through the nostrils. However anaerobic black water oxbow lakes used to hold large concentrations of <em>Dermatemys</em> that are trapped there after the water level of the river recedes in the dry season. Although <em>Dermatemys</em> will use fast-moving sections of rivers, they often seek respite from the current in the calmer parts of deep pools and are found in association with submerged tree trunks imbedded in the river bottom. Larger turtles usually rest on the bottom and sometimes partially imbed themselves if the substrate is soft enough. Small individuals often seek shelter closer to shore, resting partially imbedded in accumulations of detritus and also hidden amongst the branches of submerged trees. During April and May, the dry season, adult <em>Dermatemys</em> congregate in the deeper waterholes, 6 m or more in depth. During this same time of the year juveniles and subadults can be found along the shorelines of smaller tributaries taking refuge within the branches of fallen trees or mounds of accumulated detritus (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979, Polisar 1996, Vogt pers. obs.). Populations in Belize are known to enter estuaries (Moll 1989). Dermatemys is an herbivorous turtle throughout its life (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979, Moll 1989, Vogt unpublished data). It eats a wide variety of aquatic vegetation, fallen leaves and leaf detritus, and fallen fruits from riparian vegetation. Belizean populations are also known to enter estuaries to feed upon mangrove vegetation and sea grasses (Moll 1989). <br/> <br/>Females reach maturity between 34.2–42.0 cm, while males become mature between 32.8-38.5 cm (Polisar 1996, Vogt unpublished data). Females grow larger than males; largest size reported is 60 cm and 22 kg (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979), although none of 567 turtles examined by Polisar (1996) in North-Central Belize during 1989–1990 exceeded 49 cm. No information is available on age at maturity or on longevity. <br/> <br/>Nesting begins during the height of the rainy season from September through December when water levels are at their annual peaks; up to three, exceptionally four, clutches of eggs are laid (Vogt and Flores-Vilela 1992, Polisar 1996). Reports in the literature describing the nesting season as March and April (Lee 1969, Moll 1986a) were based on turtles found in the markets that were most likely holding their eggs for an extended period due to their captive condition. Some females may lay their ultimate clutch for the season in late February or early March, but these are anomalies. Vitellogenesis begins in June and July with oviposition from September to March in the Rio Lacantun in Chiapas (Vogt unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Nests are excavated within 3 m of the shoreline, usually within 1 m (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979), often in saturated soil. Nests are often constructed under an overhanging river bank. Since the nests are scattered along a dynamic shoreline during the rainy season they often go undetected by predators. Often nests are exposed by flood waters creating the misconception that this species of turtle lays its eggs underwater (Vogt unpublished data). The earliest nests of the season are often inundated for weeks at a time with no effect on survivorship. Polisar (1992) documented 80–100% hatching success in eggs subjected to more than 30 days of submersion in water. The physiological mechanisms of this emybryonic diapause need to be investigated further. <br/> <br/>Up to three clutches were laid per year in Chiapas, with clutch size ranging from 6-16 eggs. Incubation time in the laboratory varied from 115–223 days, this variation is attributed to embryonic dormancy. Diapause allows the eggs to remain at an early developmental stage when environmental conditions are not favorable for development, cool temperatures and flood conditions, diapause is broken by drying of the nests and warmer temperatures. Clutches laid over a 4 month time span hatch synchronously, stimulated by moistening of the soil during the first summer rains (Vogt unpublished data). In Belize Polisar (1992) reported 217–300 days between oviposition and hatchling emergence. Vogt and Flores-Villela (1992) reported that incubation temperatures in the laboratory above 28° C produced all females and temperatures of 25–26° C produced males.	eng
6493	population	Vogt, R.C., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P. & Van Dijk, P.P., 2006	In the 1970s populations in Tabasco near Villahermosa were decimated and the professional turtle hunters began to go farther and farther away to find turtles to harvest. Harvest quantities in the 1970s amounted to 1,000–2,000 turtles per lake annually; the species was abundant enough in the Tio Lacantum area, Chiapas, that traders built an airstrip to fly them out to Villahermosa (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979). Tales were told by locals of 100s to a thousand <em>Dermatemys</em> taken in a single day in oxbow lakes along the Rio Lacantun and Lago Palestina near Juarez, Chiapas (Vogt unpublished data). By the 1980s no such large populations remained, and the largest confiscations were rarely over 100 turtles. By 1990 Vogt (pers. obs.) never saw more than 5 animals in one place being held from confiscation or for sale. In the Rio Tsendales, Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, in the 1980s, it was possible to catch 40–45 adults in 5 days of trapping with 20 fyke nets (Vogt unpubished data). By the mid 1990s this population had been decimated by Tabascanian turtle trappers, even though the area was completely within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (Vogt pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Populations of <em>Dermatemys</em> are now so low in Mexico that recovery is perhaps not possible in most regions. The only viable populations of <em>Dermatemys</em> currently (in 2005) exist in inaccessible areas far from civilization. In the Rio Blanco of Veracruz there exists a recuperating population, with a proportion of subadults to adults that is extremely high. Normally at least 80 per cent of the population consists of adults when the population is not being over harvested (Vogt unpublished data). When there are few adults and few subadults and more hatchlings found than adults the population is in extremely fragile shape. When this population was trapped in the late 1990s it had a majority (80%) of subadults, signifying that the adults had recently been overharvested, but that there was sufficient reproductive stock being produced that the population was judged to be recuperating. How many decades this might take is unknown (Vogt unpublished data). <br/> <br/><em>Dermatemys</em> is legally protected by several laws and international agreements but these regulations have not stopped its capture or consumption, and populations of the species in Mexico have been almost eliminated (Vogt and Flores Villela 1992). In Guatemala the status of the population is not clear (Polisar and Horwich 1994). Moll (1986b) conducted countrywide surveys of river systems inhabited by <em>Dermatemys</em>, and market surveys, in 1983–1984. Polisar (1992) documented population structures in sections of the Belize River exposed to contrasting levels of exploitation, finding adults very scarce in the heavily exploited sections. There are reasonable probabilities that some populations in Belize are now afforded at least partial protection, such as sections of Rio Bravo and Irish Creek, Cox Lagoon, and part of the Sibun River (which is a village-originated Hickatee Conservation Area). While pressures in Belize can be assumed to be high, trends have been less disastrous and declines less rapid than in Mexico. <br/> <br/>In Guatemala the status of the populations are not known (Polisar and Horwich 1994). A herpetofauna survey of Laguna del Tigre, Peten, Guatemala, in April 1999 focused on Morelet's Crocodile but also recorded the occurrence of <em>Dermatemys</em>, though in densities too low to quantify reliably (Castañeda Moya <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further surveys in Guatemala and follow-up evaluations in Belize are a priority. <br/> <br/>It was listed in the 1982 IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Groombridge 1982) and has been considered as a high priority by the IUCN Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle SG in its 1989 action plan; it was uplisted to Endangered in the 1996 IUCN Red List.	eng
6493	threats	Vogt, R.C., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P. & Van Dijk, P.P., 2006	<em>D. mawii</em> is perhaps the most endangered species, genus, and family of turtles in Mexico, and possibly elsewhere in its limited range. Currently the greatest threat to this species is the human over-consumption that has driven them to be threatened with extinction. Although some of the habitats where these turtles live have been degraded, over-exploitation started even before habitat degradation. <em>Dermatemys</em> are captured with nets, by free diving and by harpooning. Its sale has been illegal since 1975, but this has not done very much to reduce its capture. In Mexico, <em>Dermatemys</em> sold for up to US$ 10 per large animal (presumably over 10 kg) in 1979 (Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979); it is currently valued at over $40 per kg live weight in Villa Hermosa (Syed pers. comm. with PROFEPA wildlife inspectors in Tabasco 2005). In 1980 animals were still seen in the fish markets of Alvarado, Lerdo de Tejada and Minatitlan; today they are not sold openly in local markets. In Alvarado, their meat is frozen for sale and delivery is by request (Vogt pers. obs.). Turtle traders in Veracruz expressed concern about future supplies as long ago as 1970 (Mittermeier in Alvarez del Toro <em>et al</em>. 1979). <em>Dermatemys</em> are traditionally harvested for consumption in many areas of Belize (Moll 1986b, Polisar 1995). <em>Dermatemys</em> is similarily one of the most valued turtles in Peten, Guatemala, because its meat is considered a delicacy; animals continue to be hunted with nets, harpooned or collected by hand. At recent harvest rates, the species is expected to be driven inevitably to extinction (Campbell 1998). In addition, the depletion of Mexican populations and the high demand for the species in Mexico will inevitably invite smuggling from Guatemala and Belize.	eng
6494	conservation	Sarti Martinez, A.L., 2000	Extraction of sea turtles and their products has become illegal in most countries. In many, there are conservation programmes to protect egg clutches and nesting females from poaching. International trade of all sea turtle products and sub-products is forbidden under CITES. However, the use of the Leatherback meat, oil or eggs is allowed in some nations, as part of internal traditional customs or rituals. While many international instruments (CMS, CBD, SPAW to name a few) require the protection of sea turtles in international waters, lack of effective monitoring in pelagic fishing operations still causes significant bycatch mortality. As an unprecedented action, the United States government recently closed a very large area in the northern Pacific to the US longline fishery in order to protect leatherbacks from incidental capture. <br/> <br/>Because of the decline in the world's populations of the leatherback turtle, full protection of all nesting beaches to eliminate poaching, avoid degradation of critical habitat, and increment hatchling recruitment (through enhancing hatching success and incrementing the number of nesting protection programs) will be necessary. However, as pointed out by Sarti <em>et al</em>. (1996) and Spotila <em>et al</em>. (2000) recovery of this population cannot be achieved by increasing hatchling production alone because of the very high mortalities as fisheries' bycatch. Due to the very drastic observed population declines in last few decades, pelagic and coastal fishing practices that impact leatherbacks must be changed or eliminated urgently to minimize leatherback mortality in these habitats. Further, because the migratory routes of leatherbacks cross territorial waters of many nations or occur in the high seas, international collaboration focused on sea turtle conservation is essential. In regions such as the Caribbean, where populations are shared and the dynamic nature of the nesting habitats provokes shifts in nesting sites, greater collaboration and data sharing will be necessary to derive a better understanding of population sizes and trends.	eng
6494	distribution	Sarti Martinez, A.L., 2000	The Leatherback turtle has a worldwide distribution. It is found from tropical to sub-polar oceans; nests on tropical (rarely subtropical) beaches. Very little is known about the distribution of post-hatchlings and juveniles. Leatherbacks smaller than 100 cm curved carapace length seem limited to regions warmer than 26°C. Sightings of turtles less than 145 cm show that some juveniles remain near to the coast in St. Lucia, E. Trop. Pacific, Mexico, Barbados, USA (east and west coast-Georgia, S. Carolina, Texas, Rhode Island, California) Puerto Rico, Amer. Samoa, Bonaire, Chile, Spain, Venezuela, Scotland, and England (Eckert 1999).	eng
6494	habitat	Sarti Martinez, A.L., 2000	<strong>Main Habitats</strong>: Nest on sandy beaches. The juveniles may remain in tropical waters warmer than 26°C, near  the coast, until they exceed 100 cm in curved carapace length.  When adults, they are pelagic and live in open ocean, sometimes in temperatures below 10°C. There are very few sighting of males near the coast during the breeding season, only the females are near to the coast during the breeding season and go to the beach to nest. <br/> <br/><strong>Generation Length</strong>: The estimate of age to maturity for the species used by most authorities is based on a skeletochronological analysis by Zug and Parham (1996), that placed it at around 13-14 years.  However, population-wide estimates of age are not currently practical and thus average age of parents are not known. Considering that most authorities agree that the life-span of leatherbacks is 30 years or more, then age to maturity plus one half of the reproductive life span (22 years) is taken as a reasonable approximation of generation length. If density dependence applies, the severely depleted status (see below) would argue that current growth rates are higher than natural and natural generation time may be longer than 22 years.  <br/> <br/><strong>Degree of fragmentation</strong>: Genetic analyses have shown that the Pacific populations are very closely related, and distinct from those of the Atlantic, suggesting a degree of reproductive independence. However, the lineages in the two ocean basins are not as highly differentiated as found for analogous assemblages in other cheloniid species (Dutton <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
6494	population	Sarti Martinez, A.L., 2000	The first attempt to evaluate the world population was done by Ross in 1979 (Ross 1982), estimating than 29,000 to 45,000 adult leatherback existed in the world, not counting the rookeries of the Eastern Pacific which had not been discovered yet.  Pritchard estimated in 1982 that the world population consisted of 115,000 adult females, and considered that the Mexican population supports up to 60% of the global total.  In 1996, Spotila and collaborators provided the most recent global estimation, compiling published data, unpublished information and personal comments from 28 leatherback nesting sites, estimating that 20,000 to 30,000 adult females existed at that time in the world.  This represents a reduction of the global population of 78% from Pritchard’s estimation in 14 years, less than a single generation. <br/> <br/>Based on the number of nestings known to date, it has been mentioned that some of the most important populations have collapsed.  For example, the rookery in Malaysia, which from 10,155 clutches in 1956 fell to 37 in 1995 in the same stretch of beach. The East Pacific leatherback population has been estimated to have collapsed to about 1,690 adult females, down from 4,638 in 1995 (Spotila <em>et al.</em> 2000) with the Mexican population, which is in serious danger of collapse in spite of protection efforts applied for over a decade (e.g., number of nests have fallen from 5,080 to less than 100 annually in one of the main rookeries of the Pacific coast); and those in Costa Rica dropping from 1,646 nest to less than 500 nest in the main nesting beach on the Pacific coast. In the Pacific basin, only the Indonesian population remains as still somewhat abundant (2,983 nests in 1999 in a single beach from 13,000 nests in 1984) but with uncertain status and future prospects, since civil problems have hampered the continuation of monitoring and protection activities in the area, along with significant fisheries pressures that impacts the population. <br/> <br/>There are areas in the Atlantic in which the number of nests per season has increased in the past few years, as is the case of the US Virgin Islands. However, these populations are relatively minor. Others populations in the Atlantic have decreased or fluctuated such as those in French Guyana or Surinam.  In these two, the beach dynamics hinder an accurate evaluation of the population status, since whole beaches disappear, forcing females to search for alternative suitable nesting beaches.  Along with this, the leatherback population is shared between Surinam, Guyana, French Guyana and maybe Trinidad and Brazil.  Until a true international cooperation program exists, it won’t be possible to have thorough evaluations of such population.  For the coast of Africa, there are historical records for South Africa. In the Indian Ocean,  the population is increasing but cannot be considered a large population, with around 100 nests per season in 56 km. in the last four years. Recent reports mention that west Africa has an important population with around 10,400 nest per season, but the total area occupied for the leatherbacks is not well known and there is no available historical information. J. Fretey mentioned (pers. comm.) that this population could be currently the most important in the world.	eng
6494	threats	Sarti Martinez, A.L., 2000	The main threats have been a prolonged harvest of eggs and the incidental capture in oceanic fisheries. In some areas the egg harvest and illegal poaching has removed more than 95% of the clutches, and this has been recognized as the main cause for the collapse in the Malaysia population (Chan and Liew 1996). Fishing activities using longline and driftnets are an important threat since juvenile and adult are captured in migratory routes (Zug and Parham 1996).  In some areas females are killed on the nesting beaches for oil extraction. Leatherback hunts, which have been stripped of their traditional customs and controls, are also a serious threats (Suarez and Starbird 1996). Oceanic pollution, basically by plastics is another cause of mortality. Phthalates, derived form plastics have been found in the leatherback egg yolk (Juárez-Cerón 1998).	eng
6495	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.	eng
6496	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.	eng
6506	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The desman is listed in the Russian Red Data Book (under category 2: declining in number rare relict species). It is protected in the buffer zone of Okskiy, Voronezhskiy, Kaluzhskie Zaseki  Zapovednik, and Ugra National Parks and several small protected areas. This species has been the subject of re-introductions attempts. Recently, conservationists tried to reintroduce it to the Desna basin, in the area of Bryanskiy Les Zapodnenik. The Biodiversity Conservation Centre has started a public campaign against nylon nets and electro-fishing. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended to stabilize and improve the condition of the Russian desman throughout its range include the following:<br/>· Banning the unrestricted sale of nets and net-making materials;<br/>· Developing a system of measures to combat electric landing nets; and<br/>· Setting up specialized hunting reserves in the desman's key areas of habitation.	eng
6506	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The desman is listed in the Russian Red Data Book (under category 2: declining in number rare relict species). It is protected in the buffer zone of Okskiy, Voronezhskiy, Kaluzhskie Zaseki  Zapovednik, and Ugra National Parks and several small protected areas. This species has been the subject of re-introductions attempts. Recently, conservationists tried to reintroduce it to the Desna basin, in the area of Bryanskiy Les Zapodnenik. The Biodiversity Conservation Centre has started a public campaign against nylon nets and electro-fishing. <br/><br/>Conservation measures recommended to stabilize and improve the condition of the Russian desman throughout its range include the following:<br/>· Banning the unrestricted sale of nets and net-making materials;<br/>· Developing a system of measures to combat electric landing nets; and<br/>· Setting up specialized hunting reserves in the desman's key areas of habitation.	eng
6506	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	This species occurs in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan; it has recently disappeared from Belarus. At the beginning of the 20th century the desman was common in the Dnepr, Don, Volga and Ural rivers basins. Its current range is very fragmented, and it has disappeared form many areas where it formerly occurred. At the end of the 19th century it disappeared from Ukraine, but was reintroduced in the 1950s. In the 1990s it was found again in the Desna (a tributary of the Dnepr, Ukraine).	eng
6506	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	This species occurs in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan; it has recently disappeared from Belarus. At the beginning of the 20th century the desman was common in the Dnepr, Don, Volga and Ural rivers basins. Its current range is very fragmented, and it has disappeared from many areas where it formerly occurred. At the end of the 19th century it disappeared from Ukraine, but was reintroduced in the 1950s. In the 1990s it was found again in the Desna (a tributary of the Dnepr, Ukraine).	eng
6506	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	A riparian species, it is found in holes primarily along oxbow lakes, less frequently by rivers and ponds. It does not inhabit all water bodies within its range; it has quite strict habitat requirements and prefers water bodies with rich water-marsh vegetation, bushes and primary forests along the banks. Prefers lakes with 1-2 m depth with rich invertebrate fauna. Also found in small rivers with slow flow. In favourable years it is able to reproduce during the whole year, but usually has two reproduction peaks at the end of spring and autumn. Males participate in care of young. Omnivorous, recorded feeding on at least 72 species of water invertebrates and 30 plant species, as well as fish and amphibians.	eng
6506	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	A riparian species, it is found in holes primarily along oxbow lakes, less frequently by rivers and ponds. It does not inhabit all water bodies within its range; it has quite strict habitat requirements and prefers water bodies with rich water-marsh vegetation, bushes and primary forests along the banks. Prefers lakes with 1-2 m depth with rich invertebrate fauna. Also found in small rivers with slow flow. In favourable years it is able to reproduce during the whole year, but usually has two reproduction peaks at the end of spring and autumn. Males participate in care of young. Omnivorous, recorded feeding on at least 72 species of water invertebrates and 30 plant species, as well as fish and amphibians.	eng
6506	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	At the beginning of the 1970s in the Soviet Union there were about 70,000 individuals, of which the majority occurred in Russia, with about 1,500 individuals in Kazahstan and single records in Ukraine and Belarus. More recent surveys in the Russian Federation indicate that the population there declined from 39,000 in 1985 to 27,000 in 2000/2001, and it is suspected that rates of decline have increased since then owing to growing threats from fisheries bycatch. The 2000/2001 survey covered around 30,000 km of the banks of rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs, and a uniform methodology was used (see the Biodiversity Conservation Centre website http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html for further details). In Ukraine the desman is currently very rare and in Belarus it has recently been extirpated.	eng
6506	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	At the beginning of the 1970s in the Soviet Union there were about 70,000 individuals, of which the majority occurred in Russia, with about 1,500 individuals in Kazahstan and single records in Ukraine and Belarus. More recent surveys in the Russian Federation indicate that the population there declined from 39,000 in 1985 to 27,000 in 2000/2001, and it is suspected that rates of decline have increased since then owing to growing threats from fisheries bycatch. The 2000/2001 survey covered around 30,000 km of the banks of rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs, and a uniform methodology was used (see the Biodiversity Conservation Centre website http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html for further details). In Ukraine the desman is currently very rare and in Belarus it has recently been extirpated.	eng
6506	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The main threat to the Russian desman at present is the widespread use of fixed fishing nets. These nets, which are used by poachers, have become increasingly cheap and widely available in recent years: a recent study recorded 50 'outlets' freely selling these nets on the Moscow-Vladimir section of the Nizhny Novgorod highway alone (http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html). The very low price and high durability of modern nets means that poachers often leave them in the water for days or even months, checking them only occasionally and often abandoning them. A desman dies on average within 5-10 minutes when trapped in a net. <br/><br/>The second most important threat is the use of 'electric landing nets' (or electric rods), which use an electric current to stun fish. These items of equipment, also used by poachers, have become widespread over the last 10-15 years. They are not believed to directly harm desmans, as a general rule, but they almost totally wipe out the fish and aquatic invertebrates that the desman depends upon.  <br/><br/>A third major threat is habitat loss and degradation. During the second half of the twentieth century water pollution, creation of impoundments, drainage, clearance of riparian vegetation, and uncontrolled agricultural exploitation of flood plains became widespread and contributed to the decline in the species' population. However, this process has abated somewhat in the last decade, and its influence on the decline in the Russian desman population is today secondary. Competition for breeding sites with introduced nutria (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and muskrats (<em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>) may also be a threat.	eng
6506	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The main threat to the Russian desman at present is the widespread use of fixed fishing nets. These nets, which are used by poachers, have become increasingly cheap and widely available in recent years: a recent study recorded 50 'outlets' freely selling these nets on the Moscow-Vladimir section of the Nizhny Novgorod highway alone (http://www.biodiversity.ru/eng/programs/desman/results.html). The very low price and high durability of modern nets means that poachers often leave them in the water for days or even months, checking them only occasionally and often abandoning them. A desman dies on average within 5-10 minutes when trapped in a net. <br/><br/>The second most important threat is the use of 'electric landing nets' (or electric rods), which use an electric current to stun fish. These items of equipment, also used by poachers, have become widespread over the last 10-15 years. They are not believed to directly harm desmans, as a general rule, but they almost totally wipe out the fish and aquatic invertebrates that the desman depends upon.  <br/><br/>A third major threat is habitat loss and degradation. During the second half of the twentieth century water pollution, creation of impoundments, drainage, clearance of riparian vegetation, and uncontrolled agricultural exploitation of flood plains became widespread and contributed to the decline in the species' population. However, this process has abated somewhat in the last decade, and its influence on the decline in the Russian desman population is today secondary. Competition for breeding sites with introduced nutria (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and muskrats (<em>Ondatra zibethicus</em>) may also be a threat.	eng
6508	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in a number of protected areas, but no specific conservation measures are in place.	eng
6508	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a Sahelian species found from Senegal and Mauritania eastwards through Mali, Burkina Faso Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, possibly Chad and Sudan to the Red Sea.	eng
6508	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is recorded from scrub savannas with sparse vegetation and hardened soils, often with gravel.	eng
6508	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is locally very abundant in suitable habitats (based on observations and owl pellet counts).	eng
6508	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6509	conservation	Coetzee, N., 2008	It is found in a number of protected areas, but no specific conservation measures are in place.	eng
6509	distribution	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is widespread in southern Africa. It ranges from southwestern Angola in the north, through much of Namibia and Botswana, into western, central and northeastern South Africa, and possibly into Zimbabwe.	eng
6509	habitat	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found on arid gravel plains and areas of hardened sand. This species is not found in high (soft) dune areas.	eng
6509	population	Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a seasonally abundant species.	eng
6509	threats	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6510	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is a need for building human resource capacity for colonies elimination.	eng
6510	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Uruguay, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Northern Chile north to Sonora, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas (Mexico); Margarita Island (Venezuela); Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also Uruguay.	eng
6510	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in  large colonies. Hematophagous. Common vampire bats are limited to warm climates. They can be found in both arid and humid parts of the tropics and subtropics. They occur up to 2400 meters in elevation (Ramirez,  pers. comm.). The bats usually live in colonies ranging from 20 to 100 individuals although much larger colonies (up to 5,000) have been reported. Desmodus rotundus roosts in moderately lighted caves with deep fissures, and in tree hollows. Vampire bats can also be found in old wells, mine shafts, and abandoned buildings. Roosts often smell strongly of ammonia because of the digested blood that has collected in the crevices and on the floors of the roosts (Mulheisen and Anderson 2001).	eng
6510	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant. This bat is a social animal that hunts and lives in groups. The bats live in colonies consisting of both males and females. In captivity, dominance hierarchies based on access to food were observed, but there is little conclusive evidence of complex hierarchies in the wild. Curiously, most close associations are formed between several females or females and their offspring; adult males do not form close social ties in the roost. Females frequent more roost site than males, making associations in many different places. The associations between females are maintained over many years. Wilkinson (1985, 1986) reported that although self-grooming occurs more often, social grooming is an important part of the vampire bat's behaviour. Social grooming usually occurs between females and their offspring, but it is also significant between adult females. The adult females participating in grooming are usually closely related or roost mates. Wilkinson (1986) found that social grooming has more to do with food sharing than with the removal of ectoparasites. In many instances, social grooming begins with one female approaching another and grooming her for as long as two minutes. The female being groomed then regurgitates part of her blood meal for the grooming female. It is also common to see females regurgitate food for their offspring.	eng
6510	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is persecuted due to rabies but this is not a major threat.	eng
6511	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
6511	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is found on the central Ethiopian plateau. It has been recorded at elevations of 1,800 to 3,300 m asl.	eng
6511	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This is a semi-arboreal species of moist montane forests and scrub. It is also found in agricultural lands adjacent to forest.	eng
6511	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
6511	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There are no known threats to this species. It is not considered to be at risk because of its high population levels and because it can be found in agricultural lands.	eng
6520	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).<br/>Found in protected areas.	eng
6520	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad; Margarita Isl (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Also Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname.	eng
6520	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in forests and transition zones. Hematophagous. <em>D. youngi</em> has been found in moist tropical and dry forests. They have been found roosting in caves, tree hollows, and on the edges of banana tree plantations. (Elizondo, 1999; Nowak, 1999). White-winged vampire bats feed mostly on blood from various bird species, including free-ranging poultry species (chickens, Guinea fowl, and turkeys). (Nowak, 1999; Schutt <em>et al.</em>, 1999)	eng
6520	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Rare, three specimens found in three localities to southern cone. Little work has been done on this rare species, therefore the range may be larger than what has been documented. (Greenhall <em>et al.</em>, 1983)	eng
6520	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Can be confused with the common vampire bat (<em>D. rotundus</em>) and be persecuted.	eng
6553	conservation	van Strien, N.J., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Isnan, W., Khan, M.K.M, Sumardja, E., Ellis, S., Han, K.H., Boeadi, Payne, J. & Bradley Martin, E., 2008	The species has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1975, and legally protected in all range states.  An extensive international co-operative programme for the conservation of this species is being implemented with <em>in situ</em> activities being conducted in Indonesia and Malaysia. The primary objectives are to develop and deploy effective anti-poaching teams and to provide the co-ordination capacity to manage and sustain the programme. Rhino Protection Units (RPU) have been a <em>force majeur</em> in stopping poaching in Sumatra. Many organizations are involved with these units, including the Government of Indonesia (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). The expansion and reinforcement of anti-poaching programmes is the top priority if this species is to survive.<br/><br/>There are also ongoing efforts to develop managed breeding centers for the species in Indonesia and Malaysia. There have been recent advances in captive breeding techniques for this species, including a successful births at the Cincinnati Zoo in 2001 and 2004 (Khan <em>et al</em>., 2004). One of these offspring was transferred back to a breeding center in Sumatra.<br/><br/>There is a need for further surveys in northern Myanmar to determine the status of any remaining populations.	eng
6553	distribution	van Strien, N.J., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Isnan, W., Khan, M.K.M, Sumardja, E., Ellis, S., Han, K.H., Boeadi, Payne, J. & Bradley Martin, E., 2008	The Sumatran rhinoceros once occurred from the foothills of the Himalayas in Bhutan and north-eastern India, through southern China (Yunnan), Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and the Malay Peninsula, and onto the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997; Grubb, 2005). The species' precise historical range is indeterminate, as early accounts failed to distinguish rhinos to specific level, due to partial sympatry with the other two Asian rhino species (<em>Rhinoceros sondaicus</em> and <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em>). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis</em> formerly occurred in India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Nowak, 1999). The subspecies is extinct in the three former countries, but there is a possibility that populations remain in northern Myanmar.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni</em> formerly occurred throughout the island of Borneo. Currently, the species occurs only in Sabah (Malaysia), although a few individuals may still survive in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) (Meyaard, 1986).<br/><br/><em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis</em> formerly occurred in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra (Indonesia). Presently, the subspecies occurs only in parts of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997).<br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m asl.	eng
6553	habitat	van Strien, N.J., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Isnan, W., Khan, M.K.M, Sumardja, E., Ellis, S., Han, K.H., Boeadi, Payne, J. & Bradley Martin, E., 2008	The species inhabits tropical rainforest and montane moss forest, and occasionally occurs at forest margins and in secondary forest (Nowak, 1999). The species occurs mainly in hilly areas nearby water sources, and exhibits seasonal movements, moving uphill in times of lowland flooding (van Strien, 1975). This shy species is dependent on salt licks, and occurs mostly in primary forest in protected areas, but wandering into secondary forests outside protected areas, especially in the dry season in search of water (Van Strien, 1975; Boeadi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Males are primarily solitary, but can have overlapping territories with females, which are commonly found with offspring (Nowak, 1999). The home range size of females is probably no more than 500 ha, while males wonder over larger areas, with likely limited dispersal distance. The species is generally solitary, except for mating pairs and mothers with young (Nowak, 1999). Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 35-40 years, gestation length of approximately 15-16 months, and age at sexual maturity estimated at 6-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; IRF website (www.rhinos-irf.org), 2007).<br/><br/>Home range: Males up to 5,000 ha, females 1,000 -1,500 ha. Daily movements between feeding sites and wallows are probably only a few kilometers per day. Longer treks are made when males and females go to saltlicks (5-10 km) and by males exploring their large ranges. Dispersal appears to be mainly by sub-adult animals (4-7 years) old. In this period they may be found rather far from the home grounds. Adults are very traditional in the use of their ranges and will not move away unless severely disturbed. Water is never very far away in the habitats occupied by the Sumatran rhino.	eng
6553	population	van Strien, N.J., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Isnan, W., Khan, M.K.M, Sumardja, E., Ellis, S., Han, K.H., Boeadi, Payne, J. & Bradley Martin, E., 2008	The total population is estimated at fewer than 275 individuals, though probably more than 220. Until the early 1990's the numbers continued to decline at a rapid rate with estimated losses of 50% or more of the population per decade (Foose and van Strien 1997). Over the last decade the decrease has been halted or slowed in most of the larger populations because of better protection, but animals are still being lost in the small remnant populations.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis</em> now occurs mainly on Sumatra, where there are 170 to 230 individuals. It has its largest populations remaining in Bukit Barisan Selata, Way Kambas, and Gunung Leuser National Park (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997). There are about 60 to 80 animals in Gunung Leuser, about 60 to 80 Bukit Barisan Selatan, and 15-25 in Way Kambas, with some local reports of rhinos occurring outside of protected areas in Aceh Province (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). There are also a few small, non-viable populations, including no more than a few individuals in Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Some populations are decreasing due to poaching, with very steep decreases in some areas (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). Poaching has ceased in Bukit Barisan Selata and Way Kambas National Parks recently (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). Populations in Peninsular Malaysia are now very small, but the species possibly survives in Taman Negara National Park and in Tamon Besor/Belum area. It probably no longer survives in Endau Rompin National Park (Malaysia).<br/><br/>The majority of the few remaining individuals of the subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni</em> occur in Tabin National Park in Sabah (Malaysia), with some also in the Danum Valley (also in Sabah). The total population in Sabah is likely to be about 50 individuals (Han pers. comm.). A two year survey from 2000-2002 indicated 6 known individuals, 10 probable individuals, and an additional 35 possible (Van Strien, 2005).<br/><br/>The population status of the subspecies <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis</em> is unknown, with the very slight possibility that a small number of individuals survive in the Lassai Tract in Myanmar.<br/><br/>There are over 20 animals in captivity, mostly in Indonesia and Malaysia, with a few in the United States.	eng
6553	threats	van Strien, N.J., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Isnan, W., Khan, M.K.M, Sumardja, E., Ellis, S., Han, K.H., Boeadi, Payne, J. & Bradley Martin, E., 2008	The two principal threats are poaching and reduced population viability. Hunting is primarily driven by the demand for the supposedly medicinal properties of rhino horns and other body parts, and many centuries of over-hunting has reduced this species to a tiny percentage of its former population and range. The species is now so reduced that there are very small numbers in each locality where it still survives. As a result, breeding activity is infrequent, successful births are uncommon in many populations, and there is a severe risk of inbreeding depression (J. Payne pers. comm.). The species is frequently stated to be sensitive to habitat disturbance (van Strien, 1986), but timber extraction is of little or no significance to the species, as it is robust enough to withstand more or less any forest condition (J. Payne pers. comm.).	eng
6557	conservation	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	Black Rhino have been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1977. All international commercial trade in Black Rhinos and their products have been prohibited. To help reduce illegal trade, and complement CITES international trade bans, domestic anti-trade measures and legislation were implemented in the 1990s by a number of consumer states. Effective field protection of rhino populations has been critical. Many remaining rhino are now concentrated in fenced sanctuaries, conservancies, rhino conservation areas and intensive protection zones where law enforcement effort can be concentrated at effective levels. Monitoring has also provided information to guide biological management decison-making aimed at managing rhino populations for rapid population growth. This has resulted in surplus animals being translocated to set up new populations both within and outside the species? former range. Following a decline in breeding performance in some areas, increased effort has recently been given to improving biological management with a view to increasing metapopulation growth rates. Increasing efforts are also being made to integrate local communities into conservation efforts (most notably in the Kunene region of Namibia). Strategically, Black Rhinos are now managed by a range of different stakeholders (private sector and state) in a number of countries increasing their long term security. In contrast to Southern White Rhino, most Black Rhino on privately owned land are managed on a custodianship basis for the state. Since CITES CoP13 limited sport hunting quotas have been approved of up to 5 surplus males annually (to further genetic and demographic conservation management goals) for the two range states with biggest populations (South Africa and Namibia). In addition to local and, national initiatives, there are a number of regional African rhino conservation initiatives: the South African Development Community (SADC) Regional Programme for Rhino Conservation, the SADC Rhino Management Group, and the Southern African Rhino and Elephant Security Group. IUCN SSC?s African Rhino Specialist Group is the continental coordinating body for rhino conservation in Africa.	eng
6557	distribution	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	There are four recognized ecotypes/subspecies of Black Rhinoceros occupying different areas of Africa. To the west, the subspecies <em>D. b. longipes</em> once ranged through the savanna zones of central-west Africa; in recent years, it has been known only from northern Cameroon (with a few animals possibly remaining in Chad) although based on surveys across most of its possible remaining range in Cameroon (which failed to find a single individual or sign of rhino, but did find evidence of widespread poaching) it is feared extinct. <br/><br/>The other three more numerous subspecies are found in the eastern and southern African countries. The original range of <em>D. b. bicornis</em> included Namibia, southern Angola, western Botswana, and south-western and south-eastern South Africa (up to the Kei River), although today they occur only in Namibia (the stronghold) and South Africa.<br/><br/><em>D. b. michaeli</em> was distributed from southern Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia, through Kenya into northern-central Tanzania and Rwanda. Its current stronghold is Kenya. Smaller but growing numbers occur in northern Tanzania. A single animal was reported to survive in Rwanda (at least as of December 2005), but this animal has since been poached and they may now be extinct (although there have been unsubstantiated claims that another one animal still survives). One important free-ranging population occurred outside its range in a private game reserve in South Africa. Contractually, these <em>D. b. michaeli</em> animals may only be translocated back to historical range and not elsewhere in South Africa and/or to zoos. The repatriation of these animals back to former subspecies range in Tanzania is currently being planned.<br/><br/><em>D. b. minor </em>occurred from western and southern Tanzania through Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique to the northern, north-western and north-eastern parts of South Africa (north of the Mtamvuna river). It also probably occurred in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, eastern Botswana, Malawi, and Swaziland. Today, its stronghold is South Africa and to a lesser extent Zimbabwe, with smaller numbers remaining in southern Tanzania. The South-central Black Rhino is now thought to be extinct in Angola and possibly also Mozambique, but has been reintroduced to Botswana, Malawi, Swaziland and Zambia.<br/><br/>Note: At the request of certain members, the AfRSG has a policy of not releasing detailed information on the whereabouts of all rhino populations for security reasons. For this reason, only whole countries are shaded on the map.	eng
6557	habitat	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	Black Rhino occur in a wide variety of habitats from desert areas in Namibia (<em>biceros</em>) to wetter forested areas. The highest densities of rhinos are found in savannas on nutrient-rich soils and in succulent valley bushveld areas. Black Rhino are browsers and favour small Acacia?s and other palatable woody species (<em>Grewia</em>?s, <em>Euphorbiacea</em> species etc.) as well as palatable herbs and succulents. However, because of high levels of secondary plant chemicals, much woody plant browse (especially many evergreen species) in some areas is unpalatable. Failure to appreciate this, has in the past led to carrying capacities being over-estimated in some areas. Apart from plant species composition and size structure, Black Rhino carrying capacity is related to rainfall, soil nutrient status, fire histories, levels of grass interference, extent of frost and densities of other large browsers. To maintain rapid population growth rates and prevent potential habitat damage if the population overshoots carrying capacity, populations of black rhinos should be managed at densities below long term ecological carrying capacity (zero growth densities).	eng
6557	population	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	Throughout most of the 20th century, the Black Rhino was the most numerous of the world's rhino species.  Relentless hunting of the species and clearances of land for settlement and agriculture resulted in the population being reduced from a probable several hundred thousand at the start of the century, to less than 2,500 by the early 1990s (the minimum population estimate in 1995 was approximately 2,410 (Emslie and Brooks 1999). Between 1970 and 1992, large-scale poaching caused a dramatic 96% collapse in numbers. From 1992-1995 total numbers remained relatively stable with increases in some countries (those with the best-protected and managed populations) being cancelled out by declines in others. However, since 1995, Black Rhino numbers at a continental level have increased every two years when continental population estimates have been revised reaching 4,180 by December 2007 (Emslie 2006; Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2007; AfRSG data 2008).<br/><br/>Subspecies totals as of December 31, 2007, are provided in Table 1, based on AfRSG data for 2008. In Cameroon, no evidence of the Western Black Rhino was found during extensive surveys over much of its known range during the dry season in 2006. The population was estimated at 10 to 13 individuals in 2002, though these were unconfirmed. This subspecies may now be extinct. The South-western Black Rhino currently numbers 1,510 individuals, while the South-central subspecies numbers 1,980. Numbers of the Eastern Black Rhino stand at 700.<br/><br/>Two countries have shown net increases in numbers of Black Rhino over the period 1980-2007: South Africa and Namibia, from estimated 630+300 in 1980 (Emslie and Brooks 1999) to 1,470 + 1,390, respectively in 2007 (AfRSG data 2008). In both countries, investments in conservation programmes, including monitoring and law enforcement, have been high. As with White Rhinos, four range states (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya) conserve the majority (95.7%) of remaining wild Black Rhino.<br/><br/>As of December 2005, an additional 240 Black Rhino (171 <em>D. b. michaeli </em>and 69 <em>D. b. minor</em>) occurred in captivity worldwide (Emslie <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
6557	threats	IUCN SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, 2008	The Black Rhino faces a variety of threats. One of the main threats to the population is poaching for the international rhino horn trade. Rhino horn has two main uses: traditional use in Chinese medicine, and ornamental use (for example, rhino horn is a highly prized material for making ornately carved handles for ceremonial daggers (Jambiyas) worn in some Middle East countries).<br/><br/>Civil unrest and the free flow of weapons in Africa have had a significant impact on African rhino conservation efforts. Black Rhino populations in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, DR Congo, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda have to varying degrees all suffered from the consequences of war and civil unrest since the 1960s (Emslie and Brooks 1999). The negative effects of this have been exacerbated when combined with lack of political will and lack of conservation expenditure by some governments. Some detrimental effects include trading of rhino horn and ivory for weapons, increased poaching due to increased poverty in times of civil unrest, and diminished levels of protection for rhino populations as funds are diverted away from wildlife departments. Habitat changes can also cause rhino populations to decline.	eng
6561	conservation	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Research actions.	eng
6561	distribution	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from Nayarit (Mexico) to eastern Brazil and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).	eng
6561	habitat	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>D. albus</em> prefer humid habitats like riparian and tropical rainforests but have been found in human-disturbed areas like plantations, clearings, and over villages (Ceballos and Médelin 1988). They are solitary, and like all members of the family are insectivorous (Ceballos and Médelin 1988).	eng
6561	population	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	They do not form colonies and are found in small groups only during the breeding season (Ceballos and Médelin 1988). The home range size for <em>D. albus</em> is unknown (Potchynok and Myers 2006).	eng
6561	threats	Lim, B., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
6562	conservation	Lim, B., Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Not cited. Listed as the least known species of the genus, thus research actions should be taken.	eng
6562	distribution	Lim, B., Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The species ranges from southeastern Colombia and adjacent Venezuela to the Guyana, extending south to northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). Many specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989)	eng
6562	habitat	Lim, B., Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). It is associated with multistratal evergreen forest and prefers moist areas (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in abandoned towers, or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997). Maybe well adapted to human habitation.	eng
6562	population	Lim, B., Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	They are known from only a few specimens, and this is the least known species in the genus. The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them extremely difficult, and it is not possible to say whether they are common or rare or to estimate population size.	eng
6562	threats	Lim, B., Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Restricted distribution (for the genus) with few specimens.	eng
6563	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Retention of forest. Research actions.	eng
6563	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species ranges from southern Venezuela to northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). Specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
6563	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). They are associated with wet habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
6563	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Known from few localities but can be locally common. The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them and inferring population size using current methodologies extremely difficult.	eng
6563	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation is a localised threat.	eng
6564	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Forest retention.	eng
6564	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is distributed in the Amazonia portions of Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em> 1995), Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1996), adjacent Venezuela (Linares 1998), Guianas and Surinam (Lim and Engstron 2005). Many specimens have been taken below 200 m elevation (Eisenberg 1989) and upper elevation limit is below 1,000 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976).	eng
6564	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Ecology is little known. These bats fly high in open space, such as above rivers, streams, and lagoons, and above the forest canopy. They are attracted to concentrations of insects around high floodlights and are among the many species swooping around such lights, even in towns (Emmons and Feer 1997). They are associated with wet habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Eisenberg 1989). Their roosts are not well known; perhaps they are found in or between the leaves of palm trees (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
6564	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The high roosting and flying behaviour of these bats makes detecting them extremely difficult, and it is not possible to say whether they are common or rare (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
6564	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation is a localised threat.	eng
6567	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Morrison, M. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.	eng
6567	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Morrison, M. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This lemming is known from the Ogilvie Mountains, north-central Yukon Territory, Canada (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993, 2005). It probably represents a relict population that became isolated above valley glaciers well over 10,000 years ago (Youngman 1967).	eng
6567	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Morrison, M. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' habitat includes rocky alpine tundra south of the High Arctic tundra zone (Musser and Carleton in Wilson and Reeder 2005). This lemming has been collected at the base of a glacial cirque (Youngman 1967). Little else known about this species.	eng
6567	population	Linzey, A.V., Morrison, M. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The current population status of this species is unknown. It is estimated that there are only a small number of occurrences (NatureServe).	eng
6567	threats	Linzey, A.V., Morrison, M. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6568	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas. The collared lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya (<em>Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus</em>) is considered as Vulnerable under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).	eng
6568	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas. The collared lemming subspecies from Novaya Zemlya (<em>Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus</em>) is considered as Vulnerable under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).	eng
6568	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	"Arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra in the Palearctic, from White Sea, W Russia, to Chukotski Peninsula, NE Siberia, and Kamchatka; including Novaya Zemlya and New Siberian islands, Arctic Ocean" (Wilson and Reeder 2005), but excluding Wrangel Island (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
6568	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	"Arctic and sub-Arctic tundra and forest-tundra in the Palearctic, from White Sea, W Russia, to Chukotski Peninsula, NE Siberia, and Kamchatka; including Novaya Zemlya and New Siberian islands, Arctic Ocean" (Wilson and Reeder 2005), but excluding Wrangel Island (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
6568	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra with small <em>Salix</em> spp. bushes. Lives in colonies with simple burrows along feeding routes; nesting and seed storage chambers used collectively. Activity is multiphase and may occur around the clock. Feeds on shoots and leaves of willows and birches, and vegetation and berries of cloudberry, great bilberry and other species. Litters 2-3 times a year with 5-6 young each time. A migratory species.	eng
6568	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra and forest-tundra with small <em>Salix</em> spp. bushes. Lives in colonies with simple burrows along feeding routes; nesting and seed storage chambers used collectively. Activity is multiphase and may occur around the clock. Feeds on shoots and leaves of willows and birches, and vegetation and berries of cloudberry, great bilberry and other species. Litters 2-3 times a year with 5-6 young each time. A migratory species.	eng
6568	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Common throughout the distributional area. Shows extreme cycles of abundance approximately every three years. Apparent population declines in the European part of the distribution area may have been the result of natural population fluctuation.	eng
6568	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Common throughout the distributional area. Shows extreme cycles of abundance approximately every three years. Apparent population declines in the European part of the distribution area may have been the result of natural population fluctuation.	eng
6568	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No major threats known at present, but climate change may threaten the species in the future.	eng
6568	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No major threats known at present, but climate change may threaten the species in the future.	eng
6569	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The whole island is State Reserve "Ostrov Vrangelya".	eng
6569	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Known only from Wrangel Island (Os. Vrangelya), off coast of Anadyr region (Russia, SE Siberia).	eng
6569	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In summer it inhabits a number of different biotopes. Prefers dry rocky slopes, and river and brook valleys with rare, but abundant vegetation (shrubs, cereals and grasses). Often occurs together with <em>Lemmus sibiricus portenkoi</em>. Avoids excessively damp places. In winter concentrates in places with early snow cover, such as hill slopes and lowlands. Winters together with <em>Lemmus sibiricus portenkoi</em>. Main part of the diet is shrubs, different grasses and cereals. Starts storing food in en of July - beginning of August. Maximum amount of stored plants was about 10 kg (Belyaev and Shamurin, 1967). Builds complex dens that may cover 30 sq. m and have up to 30 entrances (Belyaev and Shamurin, 1967). The underground passages are one level, about 25 cm from ground level, but some cells could be about 50 cm in depth. <br/><br/>Females give 1-2 litters in summer and up to 5-6 litters during under snow period. Summer litters are usually 5-6 young, while in winer it is 3-4. Young born during summer do not reproduce in summer. Development pace of young highly dependent on population cycle stage, faster during depressions and slower during peaks (Chernyavskii and Tkachev, 1982).	eng
6569	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species experiences cyclic population outbreaks. Population dynamics was studied by different researchers from 1964 to 1998. During this period population peaks occurred in 1966, 1970, 1981, 1984 and 1994. Between depressions and peaks the number of animals differs by 250-350 times (Chernyavskii and Tkachev, 1982; Dorogoi, 1987). Usually depressions and peaks last no longer than a year, and population decrease and increase are gradual. However, since 1986 regular periodicity of the cycles was broken. In general, since then population is under depression and the peak of 1994 was small. There are data that population cycles and population size in different parts of the island do not coincide (Litvin and Baranyuk, 1989; Travina, 1999).	eng
6569	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic of the single island, with pronounced population cycles. No major threats, but intrinsically vulnerable because of restricted distribution and marked population fluctuations.	eng
6607	conservation	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range. There is some national legislation in at least parts of its range. There is an urgent need to establish a long term monitoring program, and to determine the extent of competition with the European snow vole.	eng
6607	distribution	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The Balkan snow vole is endemic to the Balkan states of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and western Macedonia. Its range is likely to extend into Albania and may include northern Greece, although there are no known records (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m, but is typically found over 1,500 m and rarely much lower (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It is the only living representative of its genus, and its range was restricted throughout prehistorical times.	eng
6607	habitat	Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is found exclusively in rocky karst limestone areas, typically being found in stone-piles in meadows above the tree line, less often in rocky areas below the tree line. It has highly specific habitat requirements (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). It eats grasses and herbs. The species' life history is slow compared to other Arvicoline rodents: longevity is up to four years, age at sexual maturity is two years, and the species has 1-2 litters per year (Petrov 1992, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
6607	population	Kryštufek, B., 2008	Because it is restricted to karst limestone habitats, it has a naturally discontinuous distribution, and subpopulations are always small and isolated (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). The long-term population trend has not been quantified, but there is evidence to suggest that the species is declining in both population and range (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). At the southernmost known site (on the Macedonia/Albania border) there have been no records of this species in the last 30 years, and the only records since then are of the European snow vole <em>Chionomys nivalis</em> (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). There are three distinct lineages within the population (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). One of these, the north-western lineage, is of particular cause for concern: its range is excessively limited and<br/>highly fragmented, with only 17 known localities that stretch along approximately 300 km of the Dinaric mountain<br/>range; and its populations are invariably small and frequently highly isolated, with an extensive survey of its range often yielding only one individual in many of the sampling localities (Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
6607	threats	Kryštufek, B., 2008	It tends to inhabit isolated, inaccessible areas that are subject to little human disturbance. However, interspecific competition with another native rock-dwelling vole, <em>Chionomys nivalis</em>, may possibly pose a threat (Kryštufek 1999, Kryštufek <em>et al.</em> 2007). There has been no research and monitoring to determine whether this is a major threat, or whether this is occurring over a long time period - there is only anecdotal evidence from the southernmost locality (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
6608	conservation	Tirira, D., Vargas, J. & Dunnum, J., 2008	There are records in several protected areas.	eng
6608	distribution	Tirira, D., Vargas, J. & Dunnum, J., 2008	This species occurs in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found in Colombia from 300 to 3,400 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In the Bolivian yungas it is known from 1,000 to 1,600 m; there are few records in Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
6608	habitat	Tirira, D., Vargas, J. & Dunnum, J., 2008	This species is thought to inhabit high selva and upper parts of the lower selva (Grimwood, 1969). Little is known about the wild habits of this species, but in captivity it is tame. Claws indicate it to be a digger, appears to be easy to capture for both predator and man. It is active by night, resting in caves or dens at the base of trees. This rodent has some climbing ability, especially prominent in young animals. It feeds on fruits, leaves, and plant shoots. It produces a wide variety of vocalizations, and males seeking mates produce a complicated, intricate series of calls. Gestation lies between 222 and 280 days; generally only two young are born (Eisenberg, 1974; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Lord, 1999). Its behavior in captivity has been summarized by Meritt (1984).	eng
6608	population	Tirira, D., Vargas, J. & Dunnum, J., 2008	It appears to be rare and its distribution is patchy (Lord, 1999). In Bolivia, the species appears to be rare in general; however, it appears to be common in Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
6608	threats	Tirira, D., Vargas, J. & Dunnum, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation and habitat loss. As an agricultural pest this species is hunted and its meat is eaten, especially in cultivated areas.	eng
6622	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its distribution range, population status and threats. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
6622	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is currently known only from single records from Namti in northern Myanmar (Musser and Newcomb 1983), and from western Nepal (Musser and Carleton 1993), and from two locations in northern India (Bihar and Manipur; Agrawal 2000). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
6622	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This burrowing species occurs in tropical evergreen, temperate broad leaved, moist deciduous forest. It is unclear whether it is restricted to forest habitats or can also be found in fields.	eng
6622	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Little is known about the population of this species. It has been collected very infrequently and in widely separated areas (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
6622	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	The major threats to the species are unknown.	eng
6628	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Further surveys are needed in the Amazon region to confirm the species presence or absence. As for other vampire species, education  programs about vampire and rabies control programs are required. The species should be excluded from vampire control programs.	eng
6628	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	North, Central, and South America. This species ranges from Southern Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, and Eastern Brazil; a single vagrant individual has also been reported from Southern Texas (USA) (Simmons 2005). Lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid, 1997). Has been collected up to 1,000 m asl. Also central and southern Brazil.	eng
6628	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Found in all types of forest, mainly at low elevations.  Roosts in caves and mines, rarely in hollow trees. Individuals are well spaced in the roost, and group size is usually small, although a group of more than 500 was found in a cave in Puebla, Mexico, where numbers were much reduced in January, perhaps indicating seasonal movements or migration.  Avian blood may predominate in the diet of wild individuals, although cattle are occasionally exploited. Unlike other vampires, this attractive bat is gentle and easy to handle. Reproduction occurs year around (Reid, 1997). Also occurs in open areas (Aguiar pers. comm.).	eng
6628	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Uncommon and local, but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). They roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less. In one study, <em>D. ecaudata</em> was observed to be more solitary and did not gather into groups when in the presence of other bats in a cave. They have a structured society in which they build strong social bonds with other bats in the colony. Very rare in Belize (Miller pers. comm.)	eng
6628	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. There are vampire control programs.	eng
6635	conservation	Hon, J. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Hose’s palm civet is protected in Sarawak (Wildlife Protection Enactment 1998) and in Sabah (Wildlife Protection Enactment 1997). The species is known to occur in protected areas such as Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo where it was recorded in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al,</em> 2005) and in 2002 (Dinets, 2003), as well as in Ulu Temburong National Park in Brunei (Yasuma, 2004; Francis, 2002).	eng
6635	distribution	Hon, J. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Hose’s palm civet is endemic to the island of Borneo, found in Sabah, Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei (Francis 2002; Yasuma 2004; Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Sabah, this species was recorded in Mount Kinabulu National Park (Dinets 2003; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), in Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary (Azlan pers. Obs. And Sabah Wildlife Department). In Brunei, the species has been recorded in Ulu Temburong National Park (Francis 2002; Yasuma 2004), as well as from Bukit Retak (deep within Ulu Temburong National Park, at 04 31 N, 115 10 E) in 1997 (Yasuma 2004). This civet’s full elevational range is thought to extend from 450 m (Francis 2002) to 1,700 m (Dinets 2003). The holotype is from Mount Dulit in northeastern Sarawak collected in 1,891 at 1,200 m (Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004).	eng
6635	habitat	Hon, J. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Little is known of the ecology of Hose’s palm civet and further studies are required. Observations by Yasuma (2004) suggest the species is nocturnal and ground-dwelling, making dens in holes between rocks and/or tree roots. <br/><br/>Due to the few recorded sightings of this species in the wild, each in different forest types and elevations, the habitat preference and ecology of this species is difficult to characterize and remains largely unknown. Although it was formerly assumed to be strictly montane (e.g. Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), several recent sightings suggest this species is wide-ranging in terms of elevation (Francis 2002, Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004, Azlan pers. comm.).This species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest, montane forests, mature mixed dipterocarp forest hilltop and montane broadleaf forest (Payne <em>et al</em>, 1985; Dinets, 2003; Van Rompaey and Azlan, 2004; Yasuma, 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
6635	population	Hon, J. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Almost nothing is known about population status and breeding status of Hose’s palm civet (Van Rompaey and Azlan, 2004)). As this species is known from only 17 individual museum specimens, it is either rare, its range in northern Borneo has not yet been thoroughly explored, or a combination of the two (Van Rompaey and Azlan 2004). The wide altitudinal spread of records suggests that the species ought to be common in collections; the fact that it is not suggests very strongly that something limits its population to be very localised in distribution, very low density, or both.	eng
6635	threats	Hon, J. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	As very little is known about Hose’s palm civet, it is difficult to characterize current threats (Azlan pers. comm.); nevertheless habitat loss and degradation have been assumed to be major threats to this species (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses. It is possible that hunting could pose a major threat, especially as population numbers and trends are unknown. This species was listed as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids since it is known from only 15 museum specimens (most recent specimen collected in 1955) and there were then no records of a live individual being spotted in the wild (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
6662	conservation	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The type locality of this species is not in a protected area. Further surveys are needed in distribution, threats, status and ecological requirements.	eng
6662	distribution	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is possibly known only from the type locality in the northern part of the central Cordillera, Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Woods and Kilpatrick (2005) note it could possibly occur in Ecuador,  however, this is likely to be a confusion with D. labilis.	eng
6662	habitat	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This is a highly arboreal rodent.	eng
6662	population	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There is no information on the population of this species.	eng
6662	threats	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
6663	conservation	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in Panama. Further surveys are needed into its distribution, threats, status, and ecological requirements.	eng
6663	distribution	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is found in Panama (including San Miguel Island), possibly also western Colombia (but no specimens) and northern Ecuador. Occurs in lowlands to 1,500 m asl (Reid 1997).	eng
6663	habitat	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This rat is found in evergreen and deciduous forest, mangroves, plantations, and second growth. It is nocturnal and strictly arboreal and has not been trapped on the ground. It move slowly and may remain motionless for long periods, but climbs swiftly if pursued. During the day, adult pairs or lone individuals sleep in holes in trees. If disturbed by banging on the trunk of an occupied tree, they stick their heads out. This behaviour is well known to rural residents, who report them occupying trees near water and always being in pairs. Pairs may travel and forage together at night. The diet probably includes fruit and young leaves. Its litter size is 1 to 2 young and breeding may occur year-round (Reid 1997; Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
6663	population	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	The population status of this species is largely unknown, but it is probably not uncommon (Reid 1997). It may be locally common (Emmons and Feer 1997), such as on Barro Colorado Island, Panama.	eng
6663	threats	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown. Much of its geographic range has been deforested (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
6664	conservation	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species may occur in some protected areas.	eng
6664	distribution	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is known only from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northeast Colombia at 680 m asl (Allen, 1899). It is known from only two specimens (Emmons, 2005).	eng
6664	habitat	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecological requirements of this species are unknown at present.	eng
6664	population	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
6664	threats	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6665	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.	eng
6665	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Rapel River drainage basin between Chilean Regions V and VI.	eng
6665	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. chilensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
6665	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Though this species has previously been regarded as extinct, two specimens attributed to this species were recently collected in the Rio Cachapoal, Rapel basin (Dyer 2000).	eng
6665	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	All diplomystids are considered to be potentially or actually threatened or endangered due to habitat deterioration and predation or competition by introduced trout, <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em>. <em>Diplomystes chilensis</em> may be extinct (Lundberg <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>This species is threatened by habitat degradation and contamination (Campos <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
6671	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	On Okinawa Island, full protection for all of Yanbaru is necessary. Research methods to control introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
6671	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is found only on Amami-oshima and Tokuno-shima islands of the Amami Group, and Okinawa island, on the Ryukyu Islands in Japan. Since 1980, the species has been restricted to the mountains in western Amami-oshima, Mount Amagi, Mount Inokawa, and Mount Inutabu on Tokuno-shima, and the mountains in the northern part of Okinawa (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
6671	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	The species inhabitats intact chinquapin and oak forests from mid- to upper montane regions on Okinawa, chinquapin and oak forests and secondary areas at 300-400 m asl on Amami-oshima, and areas with over 60% forest cover at elevations of 300-400 m asl on Tokuno-shima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
6671	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a rare species. Based on questionnaire surveys conducted in 1985 and 1995, the species is thought to have undergone declines. There have been no extensive surveys for this species since 1995 (although there have been incidental sightings).	eng
6671	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There is major deforestation on all three islands. Also, feral dogs and cats predate this species on all three islands, while introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) predate the species on Amami-oshima and Okinawa (Japan RDB, 2002).	eng
6675	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Wahl, R., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Horner, P., 2008	It is protected as a Threatened non game species by the state of Texas, and is a federal C2 candidate taxon. No populations are known to occur in captivity. Most of the species' range is on privately owned lands, however, a few individuals were trapped at Copper Breaks State Park in Hardeman County in the 1980s, but no individuals have been observed in the 1990s (Martin pers. comm.). However, a road kill was recently (1997) obtained just outside the park boundary (Horner, unpubl. data), and an area less than 1 km from the park boundary is known to be occupied by this species. Most of the habitat in the park is no longer suitable habitat due to the growth of vegetation. Continued road spotlight surveys need to be conducted throughout the range, especially in those six counties where kangaroo rat populations are most abundant and observable. Also, access to private lands where colonies were found in the 1980s needs to be obtained. Colonies of various sizes need to be monitored to determine trends.	eng
6675	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Wahl, R., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Horner, P., 2008	The species' range encompasses a small area in north-central Texas and adjacent Oklahoma (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989, Schmidly, 2004). Surveys in Texas from 1985 to 1987 yielded occurrences in Cottle, Hardeman, Wilbarger, and Wichita counties (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1988); one specimen was obtained in 1989 in Motley County (Martin and Matocha, 1991), and a new county record for Childress County was obtained in 1987 (Wahl, unpublished data). Apparently, there are few, if any, populations remaining in Archer, Baylor, Clay, and Montague counties (southeastern part of the range in Texas).<br/><br/>The first report from Oklahoma was by Bailey in 1905 (Carter <em>et al</em>. 1985); the species has been very infrequently recorded since then (e.g., Baumgardner, 1987; Caire <em>et al</em>. 1989). A 1988 survey yielded no observations of this species in Oklahoma (Moss and Mehlhop-Cifelli, 1990), but subsequent surveys have yielded a few specimens.	eng
6675	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Wahl, R., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Horner, P., 2008	It prefers areas of short grass with open patches of bare ground, often with a high clay content. Patches of mesquite (<em>Prosopis glandulosa</em>) have been associated with this species, but may not be essential. The open habitat allows a good view of the surrounding area. Dust baths appear to be essential to kangaroo rats both to maintain good condition of skin and fur, and also to facilitate territorial scent-marking. Primarily they are nocturnal, spending most of the day in burrow systems and emerging at night to forage on seeds, vegetation and insects. Most kangaroo rats will store a supply of seed within their burrows in case of long periods of drought. They are highly adapted to arid conditions and rarely need to drink water.	eng
6675	population	Linzey, A.V., Wahl, R., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Horner, P., 2008	Considering all occurrences of occupied habitat, both current and historical, there are certainly more than 21 occurrences or subpopulations, but probably less than 100 (Martin and Matocha, 1972; Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1988; Stangl and Schafer, 1990; Shaw, 1990; Martin and Matocha, 1991). However, if only extant occurrences with good estimated viability are considered, the number of occurrences probably drops to fewer than 20 (Martin pers. comm.). Based on recent surveys (Martin pers. comm.), population size probably exceeds 1,000. This number, however, is difficult to confirm since colonies are known only from private property, and access is often difficult to obtain. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species has apparently decreased from 11 counties (including Oklahoma) to six counties. Areas that traditionally had stable populations or occurrences of Texas kangaroo rats in the late 1980s and early 1990s no longer seem to support an observable population. The vegetation in some of these traditional areas has become overgrown, and if individuals are present, they are in smaller, fragmented patches. However, this may be a normal cycling pattern for this species. Population sizes vary greatly over time, and literature from the late 1980s and early 1990s seem to indicate stable populations, but more recent surveys indicate a depression in numbers (Martin pers. comm.).	eng
6675	threats	Linzey, A.V., Wahl, R., Roth, E., Hammerson, G. & Horner, P., 2008	Available habitat has been greatly reduced and fragmented over the past several decades as a result of the conversion of land to agricultural uses and development. Prairie dogs create improved habitat conditions for the Texas kangaroo rat, and extirpation of most prairie dogs from within the range of <em>D. elator</em> may have negatively affected populations of the kangaroo rat. Rangeland management practices that result in dense growth of grasses, or the invasion of non-native grasses have degraded conditions for the kangaroo rat, which thrives in heavily grazed or otherwise disturbed conditions. Heavy cattle grazing is not a threat but rather yields good kangaroo rat habitat.	eng
6676	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species protected by Mexican law (Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-059-ECOL 2001).	eng
6676	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in north-western Baja California, Mexico (Patton 2005).	eng
6676	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found on cactus-covered slopes and in contiguous areas with short vegetation and little topographic relief; the southern populations inhabit floodplains and relatively flat areas bordered by mesas and hills.<br/><br/>It uses burrows that are not located under vegetation. The species apparently possesses a high affinity for flat land and a lack of tolerance for cultivation. It is nocturnal. Young are born during several months of the year, but the peaks appear to be in winter and spring (Best and Lackey 1985).	eng
6676	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance. This species has not been recorded since 1986, despite exhaustive surveys. This species may be extinct.	eng
6676	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Threats include habitat destruction and agriculture, as well as intrinsic factors related to a restricted range. Little of this species' original habitat remains intact.	eng
6678	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	<em>D. ingens</em>was listed as Endangered by both the California Fish and Game Commission (in 1980) and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (in 1987). Habitat is protected to varying degrees at Carrizo Plain National Monument, U.S. Department of Energy Naval Petroleum Reserves in western Kern County, and certain BLM lands. Parcels in the Lokern area of western Kern County have been protected by the California Energy Commission, California Department of Fish and Game, and The Nature Conservancy. <br/><br/>Habitat for three of the six regional populations (Cuyama Valley, Kettleman Hills, and San Juan Creek Valley) include no public or conservation lands; all are small and vulnerable to extirpation from demographic and random catastrophic events (e.g., drought, flooding, fire), and inappropriate land uses that would degrade or destroy habitat (USFWS, 1998).<br/><br/>Future conservation actions require an adequate understanding of compatible land uses and management prescriptions that provide optimum habitat conditions (Williams and Germano, 1993). Data should be collected on demography, dispersal, and reproduction, as well as the status of populations occurring on private lands in the Cuyama Valley, San Juan Creek area, and Ciervo/Tumey Hills. See USFWS (1998) for specific protection, management, and monitoring needs.	eng
6678	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range is endemic to California in the United States and is confined to a narrow strip along the southwestern border of the San Joaquin Valley and a few nearby valleys to the west, including the Carrizo and Elkhorn plains and upper Cuyama Valley, with scattered colonies in the Ciervo, Kettleman, Panoche, and Turney Hills, and the Panoche Valley (Grinnell, 1922; Hall, 1981; Williams and Kilburn, 1991; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). Its historical range extended from Merced County south to the base of the Tehachapi Mountain in Kern County, and west to eastern San Luis Obispo County and extreme northern Santa Barbara County (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1993). Its elevational range extends to about 868 m asl (400-2,850 feet).<br/><br/>The population is currently fragmented into six major geographic units: 1) the Panoche region in western Fresno and eastern San Benito counties; 2) Kettleman Hills in Kings County; 3) San Juan Creek Valley in San Luis Obispo County; 4) western Kern County in the area of the Lokern, Elk Hills, and other uplands around McKittrick, Taft, and Maricopa; 5) Carrizo Plain in eastern San Luis Obispo County; and 6) Cuyama Valley in Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo counties (see USFWS, 1998). These major units are fragmented into more than 100 smaller populations, many of which are isolated by several miles of barriers such as steep terrain with plant communities unsuitable as habitat, or agricultural, industrial, or urban land without habitat for this species (USFWS,1998).	eng
6678	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The habitat of giant kangaroo rats consists of gently sloping and level piedmont plains and (formerly) areas supporting saltbush and perennial grasses; habitat now is dominated by introduced annuals, with many shrubs in some areas. The species occupies areas of sparse vegetative cover and well-drained soils and slope generally less than 9% (Williams and Kilburn, 1991) (sometimes up to 22%; USFWS, 1998), often in areas that are heavily grazed by cattle and sheep (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). They prefer semi-arid slopes at the head of draws in barren shrubless areas, with loose, easily diggable, sandy loam soils. Found in underground burrows when inactive. They are absent from areas continuously in dry-land cultivation and from irrigated fields but may recolonize fallow dry-land grain fields if there are colonies on uncultivated land nearby (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Habitats listed in order of decreasing favorability: 1) annual grassland association in areas with less than five to six inches annual rain, and level to gently sloping ground, 2) alkali desert scrub association in areas with less than five to six inches annual rain, sandy loam soils, and level to gently sloping ground, 3) friable soils of sand, loam, clay loam or gravelly in areas with the above characteristics, and 4) slopes of 10-15 degrees with the above characteristics and located near colonies in more favorable habitats (D. Williams pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Home range is about 60-350sqm. This species is basically solitary and territorial, with strict intrasexual avoidance indicated. In spring, areas around occupied burrows have a more lush growth of herbaceous vegetation than do areas between burrow systems; this growth is eventually removed by grazing by livestock and/or kangaroo rats (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Digging and feeding activity promote the establishment of exotic weeds, which in turn are a favoured food source (Schiffman, 1994). Giant kangaroo rats feed on seeds, especially those of <em>Lepidium nitidum, oenothera, Bromus rubens,</em> and <em>Erodium cicutarium</em>. They also eat some green herbaceous vegetation and occasionally insects. In some localities. They gather dry grass into "haystacks" to cure, later removing seeds for storage in underground burrows. They also temporarily bury seeds in the ground before storing in burrows. Giant kangaroo rats emerge to forage soon after sunset in spring. They spend a little less than two hours per night above ground actively foraging in spring-summer (Braun, 1985).<br/><br/>Limited data indicate that the reproductive season may extend from January through May (Williams and Kilburn, 1991) (February to June or perhaps later according to Biosystems Analysis, 1989). Gestation lasts about one month. Litter size is three to six (Biosystems Analysis, 1989); average litter size is probably four (Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Young are weaned at four weeks (Matthews and Moseley, 1990).	eng
6678	population	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The huge colonies of this species described in historical literature no longer exist. Extant habitat comprises only about 1.8 percent of the historical habitat (Williams, 1992; USFWS, 1998).The extant distribution includes more than 100 more or less distinct populations, but most of these represent fragments of a formerly more continuous distribution. There are six major geographic units, each of which could be regarded as a single occurrence or subpopulation. Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 during average conditions. Adult population size varies substantially with drought and plant productivity (USFWS, 1998); density ranges from one to 110 individuals per hectare (see USFWS, 1998).<br/><br/>Within the area of currently occupied habitat, populations have expanded and declined with changing weather patterns since 1979; at their peak in 1992 to 1993, there probably were about six to 10 times more individuals than at their low point in spring of 1991, when a majority of the 11,145 hectares probably was uninhabited and most of the rest was inhabited by less than 10 percent of peak numbers (see USFWS, 1998 for sources). Population density is five to 50 per hectare (18-69/ha in the larger and denser colonies, Williams and Kilburn, 1991). Extant population sizes are small; from fewer than 10 to several hundred individuals (Braun, 1985).	eng
6678	threats	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The decline is largely a result of conversion of habitat to agricultural uses, combined with additional loss of habitat to industrial uses (e.g., petroleum exploration and extraction) and urbanization, and population reductions and extirpations from rodenticide use (aimed at California ground squirrel and historically at kangaroo rats) (Williams, 1992; USFWS, 1998). Possibly excessive livestock grazing may have contributed to the decline in some areas (livestock may crush near-surface burrows and compete for food with kangaroo rats) (see USFWS, 1998). Between 1972 and 1980 most of the remaining habitat was converted from native vegetation to cultivated agricultural crops due in part to an abundance of irrigation water supplied by recently completed water delivery systems. <br/><br/>More recently, the conversion of habitat to agricultural uses has slowed substantially, but urban and industrial developments, petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, new energy and water conveyance facilities, and construction of communication and transportation infrastructures continue to destroy habitat and increase the threats to the species by reducing and further fragmenting populations (USFWS, 1998). Habitat degradation due to lack of appropriate habitat management on conservation lands, especially lack of grazing or fire to control density of vegetation (including shrubs) may be a threat (Williams and Germano, 1993).	eng
6682	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	<em>D. stephensi</em> is listed as Endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1988). A Habitat Conservation Plan targeting the species has been prepared by Riverside County designating six major areas for study as potential preserve sites. Some of the land within these sites has been purchased for preserve use. Most of the major populations occur within the boundaries of existing protected areas including Lake Perris State Park, San Jacinto Wildlife Area, Sycamore Canyon Park, Lake Mathews Ecological Reserve, and Roy E. Shipley Reserve.<br/><br/>Some habitat has been protected through the establishment of San Jacinto Wildlife Area and Lake Mathews Ecological Reserve in Riverside County. The Riverside County Habitat Conservation Agency has implemented a habitat conservation plan for the creation of a reserve network within a portion of the species' range (USFWS, 1997).<br/><br/>It is necessary to determine if the species is present in the Rawhide Motorcross Park and to estimate abundance. Habitat should be protected from agricultural and urban development. As of the early 1990s, existing state regulations and county zoning restrictions did not provide adequate habitat protection (Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). Habitat conservation efforts should be directed at establishing a few large, widely separated preserves, rather than many smaller ones (Price and Endo, 1989). For long-term population persistence, Burke <em>et al.</em>, (1991) recommended a minimum reserve size of 1,320 ha (3,300 acres) of suitable habitat. Most extant populations occupy areas of less than 400 ha; Burke <em>et al.</em>, (1991) proposed nine potential reserves (see also O'Farrell and Ulark, 1989). Some reserves should be at higher elevations as these may serve as refuges during drought (Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). For delisting, USFWS (1997) recommended the establishment of at least five reserves (at least 6,675 ha) in Riverside County and two in San Diego County.<br/><br/>It is necessary to obtain data on demography, dispersal, reproduction, and food habits; investigate taxonomic relationship to <em>D. heermanni</em> and <em>D. panamintinus</em>; and investigate grazing impacts.	eng
6682	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species encompasses approximately 2,870 square kilometres in the San Jacinto Valley and adjacent areas of western Riverside County, southwestern San Bernardino County (at least formerly), and northwestern and north-central San Diego County, California in the United States (Bleich 1977, Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). It is found at elevations of 55 to 1,250 m asl (USFWS, 1997). As of the late 1980s, most extant populations were in western Riverside County, but the largest known population was on the Warner Ranch near Lake Henshaw, San Diego County (see Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
6682	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitats include annual grassland and coastal sage scrub with sparse shrub cover, the former more favourable than the latter, commonly in association with <em>Eriogonum fasciculatum</em>, <em>Artemisia californica</em>, and <em>Erodium cicutarium</em> (USFWS, 1997). Typical habitat includes sparsely vegetated areas (perennial cover less than 30%) with loose, friable, well-drained soil (generally at least 0.5 m deep) and flat or gently rolling terrain. This species may recolonize abandoned agricultural land. It is most abundant where stands of native vegetation remain (Matthews and Moseley, 1990) but deceases as bunchgrass density increases (see Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). In western Riverside County, shrub removal resulted in increased kangaroo rat densities (Price <em>et al</em>. 1994). Periods of inactivity are spent in underground burrows. Individuals may construct their own burrows or may nest in old burrows of the California ground squirrel or in abandoned burrows of pocket gophers (see Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991, USFWS, 1997). In captivity, females construct elaborate nests (Bleich, 1977).<br/><br/>This species probably produces one litter per year or two litters per year under high rainfall conditions and perhaps none under drought conditions. Average litter size is about 2.5. In Riverside County, a peak in recruitment occurred in spring (McClenaghan and Taylor, 1993). In some areas, young are born in late spring or early summer, and at least sometimes as late as July. In some years, young-of-the-year may reproduce. Life span appear to be relatively short, generally less than a few years.<br/><br/>Mean home range size for two populations in Riverside County were 570 sq m and 970 sq m (Bleich, 1977). Price <em>et al.</em> (1994) found that the median of the maximum distances moved between captures was about 29 m for 557 individuals and home ranges were stable over time. Diet is probably similar to <em>D. heermanni</em> and <em>D. panamintimus</em> which feed primarily on seeds but also eat insects and herbaceous vegetation in the spring. Sagebrush may provide much of the food. More likely to forage in open, lit spaces than is sympatric <em>D. agilis</em> (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991). Predators include owls and various carnivores.	eng
6682	population	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	As of the late 1980s, there were 79 known extant populations (O'Farrell and Uptain, 1989; see also Burke <em>et al.</em>, 1991). Some of these populations no longer exist whereas subsequent surveys have revealed previously undocumented populations (see USFWS, 1997). USFWS (1997) mapped a dozen "significant populations," noting that additional small fragmented populations also exist. Most existing populations occupy relatively small areas and probably are of less than optimal size for maximum viability. O'Farrell and Uptain (1989) found that 68 occupied sites were less than 40 hectares.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but exceeds 10,000. As of the late 1980s, the largest known population included about 14,000 individuals (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991). Population density estimates vary with location and season, and range from about five to 58 per hectare; perhaps about 20-40 per hectare would be typical (USFWS, 1987; Bleich, 1977; McClenaghan and Taylor 1993). Population densities can vary more than ten-fold in response to rainfall patterns (Price and Endo, 1989). In Riverside County, peak numbers occurred in late spring-early summer; populations declined from late summer through winter; minimum monthly survival rates for adults was 0.79-0.87 (McClenaghan and Taylor, 1993). <br/><br/>As in most small mammals, abundance is a misleading index to degree of jeopardy. Habitat decline is expected to continue (Burke <em>et al</em>. 1991), but the rate of habitat loss decreased in the 1990s, in part as a result of a habitat conservation plan initiated in western Riverside County (USFWS, 1997). Price and Endo (1988) estimated that the historical habitat had been reduced by about 60 percent by 1984. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining."	eng
6682	threats	Linzey, A.V., Williams, D.F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The habitat occupied by Stephens' kangaroo rat is also attractive for agricultural and urban developments. The known range of the species is centred around a rapidly developing part of southern California. A significant portion of its former range has been lost, however, several major populations of the species remain. Suitable habitat for <em>Dipodomys stephensi</em> happens to be mostly on private land and it is threatened by agricultural and urban development and fragmentation. Apparently some areas have been intentionally ploughed or poisoned in efforts to eliminate this species (1988 Federal Register 54(190):38465-38469). <br/><br/>Certain non-native grasses (e.g., <em>Bromus diandrus</em>) can exclude this species from otherwise suitable habitat (USFWS, 1997). Land management practices that lead to the development of thick vegetation have resulted in kangaroo rat population declines in some areas (USFWS, 1997). Populations isolated by fragmentation are vulnerable to extirpation or decline from some types of grazing (e.g., excessive vegetation removal and burrow trampling by horses in small enclosures), off-road vehicle activity, rodenticide use, genetic bottlenecks, or unnaturally high levels of predation (by domestic cats associated with urban development).	eng
6683	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Subspecies <em>exilis</em> and <em>nitratoides</em> are listed by United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as Endangered. Most protected occurrences are for the unlisted subspecies <em>brevinasus</em> on the Carrizo Plain; few protected occurrences are of the listed subspecies <em>exilis</em> or <em>nitratoides</em>. Subspecies <em>nitratoides</em> current range includes Pixley National Wildlife Refuge, Allensworth Ecological Preserve, and TNC lands at Paine Wildflower Preserve (Matthews and Moseley 1990). For subspecies <em>exilis</em>, about 85 percent of the 347 hectares of designated Critical Habitat has been acquired, but these lands generally have not been appropriately managed for kangaroo rats (see USFWS 1998). Most of the critical habitat is within state Alkali Sink Ecological Reserve; about nine hectares are part of the Mendota Wildlife Management Area; the rest is privately owned (Matthews and Moseley 1990, USFWS 1998).<br/><br/>Efforts to locate populations of subspecies <em>exilis</em> should be continued and intensified (USFWS 1998). Further inventory of subspecies <em>brevinasus</em> is needed. Remaining suitable habitat needs to be protected from development or conversion to incompatible uses.<br/><br/>The relationship between population density and habitat quality needs to be assessed, and more data on demographics, reproduction, and impacts of grazing and fire are needed. Taxonomic status of the nominal subspecies and of various populations needs to be resolved.	eng
6683	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The range of this species encompasses part of the San Joaquin Valley and adjacent valleys, in California in the United States, from the valley floor in Merced County, south of the Merced and San Joaquin rivers, to the southern edge of the valley, and the Panoche Valley (eastern San Benito County), the Carrizo Plain (San Luis Obispo County), and the upper Cuyama Valley (San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties), at elevations of 50-800 metres (Best 1991, Williams <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
6683	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Habitat includes friable sandy or silty soils in areas with no to moderate shrub cover and scattered herbaceous plants: sparsely vegetated alkali sink communities where soils are generally sandy or silty; valley grassland; saltbush and sink scrub. The species does not tolerate irrigation or cultivation but may reinvade fields no longer under cultivation. <br/><br/>Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) level to gently sloping areas with sparse to moderate shrub cover in alkali desert scrub and valley grassland, (2) ridge tops and steep slopes with sandy, friable soils and scattered shrubs in alkali desert scrub and valley grassland, (3) sandy arroyos and dry stream beds in above associations, and (4) arid annual grasslands with alkaline, friable soils. <br/><br/>When inactive, it occupies underground burrows; burrows in hummocks (e.g., around base of shrub); burrow systems are shallow but often extensive. Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding season is reported to be December-August or throughout the year (Best 1991). Reproductive activity starts in late February and continues until September, with a peak in April. Gestation lasts 31-35 days. Litter size is 1-3, usually two. Young leave nest at about three weeks. Females will have up to three litters per year. <br/><br/>Feeds on seeds (e.g., those of <em>erodium, capsella bursapastoris</em>, and <em>atriplex</em>). Also consumes some insects and green vegetation in the spring. May cache seeds in small pits in the walls of the burrow system.	eng
6683	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but appears to be at least a few 100,000s. Local population size tends to exhibit large fluctuations. Reported densities are generally between 5-20 per hectare. It is represented by numerous relatively small populations found throughout most of the historical range that spanned several million acres.	eng
6683	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Habitat has been reduced and fragmented primarily as a result of agricultural development, with additional losses due to urbanization, associated transportation infrastructure, and invasion by exotic grasses (USFWS 1998). Most extant habitat is of poor or marginal quality, is unprotected in private ownership, and in rapidly developing areas. Some populations have been negatively affected by rodenticides.<br/><br/>Populations of this species periodically increase to high levels and decline rapidly (due to long-term drought, excessive amounts of precipitation, flooding, or other factors). Sometimes these fluctuations lead to local extirpation (USFWS 1998). When large expanses of connected habitat existed, local extinction was not a great problem because some surviving populations eventually increased, and individuals recolonized areas where they had been eliminated (USFWS 1998). Current population fragmentation inhibits or prevents such recolonization. Fragmentation, isolation, and subsequent extirpation without recolonization has greatly affected subspecies <em>exilis </em>and may now be in progress in subspecies <em>nitratoides</em> (USFWS 1998).	eng
6684	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Probably several occurrences of this species are in protected areas such as state parks.	eng
6684	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the United States in the Los Angeles Basin and foothills of San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains in Ventura, Los Angeles, and Riverside counties north to Santa Barbara County and through the southern Sierra Nevada, including Mount Pinos, Tehachapi and San Gabriel mountains, and northern San Fernando Valley (Sullivan and Best, 1997). Populations extending southward into Baja California are now allocated to <em>Dipodomys simulans</em> (Sullivan and Best, 1997).	eng
6684	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is primarily montane, occupying chaparral-covered slopes upward to coniferous forests (Best <em>et al.</em>, 1996). It prefers easily excavated sandy or gravelly soils for constructing burrows, typically on steep slopes. Abundance increases following fires that create open space (Price and Waser, 1984). Nests are in underground burrows. No reproductive information is available, but they probably produce an average of two young per litter. Diet is likely to be similar to other closely related species that feed primarily on seeds but also eat some insects and green vegetation. This species is nocturnal.	eng
6684	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Sullivan and Best, 1997), but some of them are not extant. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown. Specific data on long-term trends are lacking, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined.	eng
6684	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Many populations probably have been extirpated or depleted due to urbanization and related habitat destruction (Sullivan and Best, 1997). This is an ongoing threat as human populations in the region expand.	eng
6685	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range probably includes a few protected areas.	eng
6685	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found on the barrier islands of Tamaulipas, Mexico; Mustang and Padre islands of southern Texas; and the adjacent eastern two thirds of mainland Texas, from Zapata County and south from Bexar and Gonzales counties (Baumgardner and Schmidly, 1981; Davis and Schmidly, 1994).	eng
6685	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Gulf Coast kangaroo rats prefer to inhabit sparsely vegetated areas with sandy soils. On islands they are usually associated with dunes. On the mainland, sites include overgrazed mesquite savanna, cleared brushland supporting various grasses and weedy forbs, and post oak-blackjack oak association with deep sandy soil. Nests are in underground burrows (Baumgardner, 1991). Diet includes the seeds of various plants. This species is active at night, throughout the year.	eng
6685	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).	eng
6685	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Mainland habitats are affected by farming and ranching. The barrier islands habitat may be affected by infrastructure development, however, this species most probably remains common in the undisturbed areas of its range.	eng
6686	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
6686	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Ranges through arid regions of the southwestern United States (California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona), extending southward into northwestern Mexico (Senora and Baja California).	eng
6686	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Prefers low desert with sandy soil and sparse vegetation, particularly stabilized dune areas with vegetation. In the United States, inhabits dunes from -60 m (Death Valley, CA) to 1,710 m asl (Nevada).	eng
6686	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is very common in suitable habitat. Density varies seasonally, but is typically 0.2-1.4 individuals/ha.	eng
6686	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known major threats. In some areas, this species is threatened by cars and recreational vehicles on dune areas. This species can live in disturbed areas such as agricultural zones were the soil has been overturned.	eng
6687	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in a protected area and is protected under Mexican law, with the status of in danger of extinction, "en peligro de extinción".	eng
6687	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs only on San Jose Island off the southeastern coast of Baja California, Mexico.	eng
6687	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	San Jose Island is covered with hills and low mountains of less than 600 m, with vegetation similar to that of mainland Baja California (Best and Thomas 1991). This species has been collected in open habitat at 100 m from sandy beach, in an area with 65% vegetative cover and 35% desert pavement (Best and Thomas 1991).<br/><br/>The current estimated area of occupancy is less than 30 km<sup>2</sup> and the maximum extent of occurrence is less than 70 km<sup>2</sup> (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).	eng
6687	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are few specimens known of the species. There are probably fewer than 100 adults remaining (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).	eng
6687	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	The major threats to this species are predation from introduced feral cats and destruction of habitat by introduced feral goats. Threats also include ongoing, human-induced habitat loss and habitat degradation, and intrinsic factors related to a restricted range.	eng
6688	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is listed as endangered and protected under Mexican law (NOM-059-ECOL-201).	eng
6688	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species only occurs on Santa Margarita Island off the western coast of Baja California, Mexico. The extent of occurrence is less than 70 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
6688	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Santa Margarita Island is mountainous with barren rocky slopes varying from 300 to 540 m in elevation. Vegetation is sparse and dominated by giant cactii (<em>Pachycereus</em> spp., <em>Machaerocereus gummosus</em>, <em>Pedilanthus marocarpus</em>, etc.) (Best 1992).<br/><br/>This species is found only in the sandy areas in a valley in the middle of the island (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).	eng
6688	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Although relatively unknown; it is apparently uncommon (Best 1992).	eng
6688	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by introduced feral cats and dogs. Santa Margarita Island has been designated as a military reservation by the Mexican government (Best 1992).<br/><br/>It is also threatened by intrinsic factors due to its restricted range.	eng
6689	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Two subspecies do have conservation measures. <em>D. m. parvis</em> is a federal candidate taxon in the United States and a California Species of Special Concern, and <em>D. m. collinus</em> is also a federal candidate in the United States  (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
6689	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Upper and Lower Sonoran Life Zones of southwestern United States and northern Mexico, including parts of California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Sonora, Sinaloa, and the islands of Margarita and San Jose. Populations on these two islands were previously considered to be distinct species.	eng
6689	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in a broad range of habitats with a substrate of sandy soils, clays, gravel, or rocks. Vegetation is characterized by desert scrub, sagebrush, pinyon-juniper, and Joshua tree.	eng
6689	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common.	eng
6689	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats known.<br/><br/>Habitat loss due to rapid expansion of coastal metropolitan areas in California threatens two subspecies (<em>D. m. collinus</em> and <em>D. m. parvus</em>) (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
6690	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.	eng
6690	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Mexican Plateau from north Coahuila and south Chihuahua to north San Luis Potosi and south Nuevo Leon (Mexico) (Patton 2005).	eng
6690	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be found in desert shrub vegetation, in arid interior-desert region consisting mainly of rolling plains. <br/><br/>Scattered dome-shaped burrows with peripheral entrances are conspicuous on desert flats; these usually possess several entrances. Sometimes openings of burrows are conspicuous in banks shallow ditches along roadways; some mounds have as many as six entrances and are honeycombed with tunnels (Best 1988). Four females taken in July in different places have two embryos each (Best 1988).	eng
6690	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is relatively uncommon (Best 1988). It has had densities reported from 8.5 - 20 individuals per hectare (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).	eng
6690	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
6691	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Very abundant in protected areas in the United States and probably in Mexico.	eng
6691	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Ranges from southern Alberta and Saskatchewan (Canada) in the north to southern Hidalgo, Mexico in the south. Eastward from central Oregon and eastern California to central Kansas and Oklahoma (United States).	eng
6691	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Occurs in a variety of vegetation types, but all are associated with fine-textured, sandy soils. Vegetation includes semi-arid grasslands, mixed-grasslands, and scrublands.	eng
6691	population	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Wide ranging and common. Very abundant.	eng
6691	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	None known. In, Mexico it inhabits areas with low human activity.	eng
6692	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
6692	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from central Durango south to north Oaxaca, Mexico (Patton 2005). Its known altitudinal distribution is from 950 m to 2,850 m (Jones and Genoways 1975).	eng
6692	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs primarily in semi-arid or arid environments characterized by short grasses and clumps of prickly pear, nopal, cactus, or low thornbrush interspersed with open patches of bare ground. <br/><br/>Little has been recorded on foods habits. Some captured individuals had seeds and small green leaves or young plants in their pouches. The species uses burrow systems with a single entrance. A female recorded in June had two embryos, and two females taken in October had three embryos each; also some juveniles were reported in April, August, and November. From this information it is concluded that the reproductive period is prolonged (Jones and Genoways 1975).	eng
6692	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It this species is relatively common throughout its range. However, in the Valley of Mexico, the population is considered extinct.	eng
6692	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats. Some populations are threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, but this is not currently considered a major threat to the entire population.	eng
6693	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Frey, J. & Lacher, T., 2008	None.	eng
6693	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Frey, J. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution. The northern portion of its range is from north-eastern Arizona, northern New Mexico, and far western Texas (USA), southward to northern Sonora and Chihuahua (Mexico). The southern portion of its range is in central Mexico, primarily in Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosi states.	eng
6693	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Frey, J. & Lacher, T., 2008	Desert grasslands with scattered shrubs. However, these kangaroo rats disappear when invasive shrub cover exceeds 20%. Thus, their presence is an indicator of the health of desert grasslands (Krogh <em>et al.</em> 2002; Waser and Ayers 2003).	eng
6693	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Frey, J. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species can be locally common.	eng
6693	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Frey, J. & Lacher, T., 2008	Degradation of desert grasslands, with replacement by mesquite or creosote bush communities, is a major threat (Whitford 1997). Declines in some areas correspond with increases in the density of woody plants associated with grassland degradation. Heavy rains associated with tropical storms possibly may impact seed stores and cause major population declines.	eng
6705	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Populations near the Don river are listed in the local Red Data Book. The species occurs in several protected areas (for example, in Mongolia approximately 17% of the species’ range lies within protected areas).	eng
6705	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Populations near the Don river listed in the local Red Data Book. The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6705	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in deserts and partly in semi-deserts from Don River sands (Russian Federation) to cis-Caspian region, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and N Iran and through Kazakhstan to Irtysh River, Tuva, Mongolia and China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
6705	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is distributed in deserts and some semi-deserts from Don River sands (Russian Federation) to cis-Caspian region, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and N Iran and through Kazakhstan to Irtysh River, Tuva, Mongolia and N China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
6705	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits different types of sand, however avoids large expanses of open sand-dunes. Also found in sand-dunes covered with pine forest. Most abundant in hilly and ridge sands, including those used as pastures. Often found together with <em>Allactaga</em> spp. One of the pioneer species that is occupying new habitats that have emerged as the Aral Sea dries out. In northern parts of the range it hibernates, while in southern parts it remains active throughout the year with the exception of extremely cold winters. Lives in burrows with length of about 5-6 m and depths up to 3 m; can also occupy burrows of <em>Meriones major</em>. In spring feeds on vegetative parts of grasses and shrubs, also eats roots and bulbs. When seeds start to ripen it switches its diet to seeds. During the whole year it takes insects and larvae as a usual part of its diet. The length of the reproductive period differs in northern and southern parts of the range: from 2 to 2.5 months in north to 8-9 months in south. The number of litters per year differs correspondingly, from 1 to 4 in differents parts of the range.	eng
6705	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits high-altitude sandy deserts and semi desert, but avoids large expanses of open sand-dunes. It is also found in sand-dunes covered with pine forest. Most abundant in hilly and ridge sands, including those used as pastures. It is often found together with <em>Allactaga</em> spp. It is one of the pioneer species that is occupying new habitats that have emerged as the Aral Sea dies out. In northern parts of the range it hibernates, while in southern parts it remains active throughout the year with exceptions in extremely cold winters. Lives in burrows with length of about 5-6 m and depths up to 3 m; can also occupy burrows of <em>Meriones major</em>. In spring feeds on vegetative parts of grasses and shrubs, also eats roots and bulbs. When seeds start to ripen it switches its diet to seeds. During the whole year it takes insects and larvae as a usual part of its diet. It is highly adapted to arid conditions and rarely needs to drink water. The length of the reproductive period differs in northern and southern parts of the range: from 2 to 2.5 months in north to 8-9 months in south. The number of litters per year differs correspondingly, from 1 to 4 in differents parts of the range.	eng
6705	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A common species with weakly marked population fluctuations. In favourable years population density could reach 5-6 animals per hectare (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).	eng
6705	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	A common species with weakly marked population fluctuations. In favourable years population density could reach 5-6 animals per hectare (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).	eng
6705	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that occupies opening sands in the Aral Sea area. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. It is listed as threatened in the Don River region's local Red Data Book because of the fragmentation of its preferred habitat (sand dunes).	eng
6705	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species is common throughout most of the range and is a pioneer species that occupies opening sands in the Aral Sea area. There are no major threats to the species across its entire global range. However, pervasive changes to desert habitats are a major threat in the European part of the range. It is listed as threatened in the Don River region's local Red Data Book because of the fragmentation of its preferred habitat (sand dunes). In Mongolia, drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
6713	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the national Red Data Book of Spain and is protected by national legislation. There is a need to further clarify the distribution of this species.	eng
6713	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species is endemic to isolated areas in southern, eastern and north-eastern Spain, from sea level to around 2,050m asl (in Granada).	eng
6713	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	An inhabitant of open areas, pine groves and shrubland associated with limestone or gypsum soils. This is a very aquatic species found in shallow pools, streams, springs, ponds and artificial water sources, such as drinking troughs and drainage channels. Breeding and larval development takes place within the aquatic habitats. It can be present in traditionally farmed areas.	eng
6713	population	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	It is generally more abundant in the south of its range, and is considered to be scarce in the north, although further surveys are required. Its occurrence is very patchy within its overall range, and it is believed to be in decline, principally due to increased aridity within its range. It is likely that isolated populations have recently become extinct along the Mediterranean coast.	eng
6713	threats	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The major threat to this species is continued loss of habitat as a result of increased aridity throughout its range. It is also threatened by loss of suitable habitat (including fragmentation) to agricultural and infrastructure development. The species is particularly impacted by the loss, or contamination, of aquatic habitats (such as drinking troughs), and introductions of predatory fish and crustaceans, in particular the Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>). Its populations are now fragmented in many parts of its range.	eng
6714	conservation	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
6714	distribution	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is endemic to Corsica (France), where it is found mainly in the central part of the island, from Corte and Cervione in the north to Porto-Vecchio in the south (Noellert and Noellert 1992). It has been recorded from localities between 300m and 1,900m asl, and is absent from coastal lowlands.	eng
6714	habitat	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This frog is strongly associated with running waters in high-altitude pristine woods and forests, and is especially found in areas with precipitous streams. The eggs are deposited under rocks and stones in mountain streams, with larvae developing in these streams.	eng
6714	population	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There is little information available on the population status of this species, which was only recently identified and differentiated from the more widespread <em>Discoglossus sardus</em>. It is believed to be slowly declining as a result of predation by introduced salmonid fishes.	eng
6714	threats	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is threatened by introduced predatory salmonid fishes.	eng
6715	conservation		The species remains protected by national legislation in Israel. Surveys of potentially suitable habitat in the Aammiq marsh of nearby south-east Lebanon in April 2004 and April 2005 failed to locate any animals (Tron 2005). The Aammiq marsh is the only remaining wetland fragment of the Bekaa valley, which was once a major wetland of the Middle East but has been drastically reduced by conversion to agricultural use and urban development.	eng
6715	distribution		This species was recorded from only two localities on the eastern shore of Lake Huleh, Israel. It seems possible that it could once also be found in adjacent parts of Syrian Arab Republic. The map indicates the possible former range.	eng
6715	habitat		The species was reported to occur in marginal freshwater habitats within the Lake Huleh wetlands of Israel. It was presumably a larval developing species.	eng
6715	population		It is known only from a few specimens and is now believed to be extinct. The single adult collected in 1955 represents the last confirmed record of this species.	eng
6715	threats		The Huleh marshes were drained in the 1950s in an attempt to both eradicate malaria and to make the land suitable for agricultural use. Of the original 6,000ha of marshland, only 300ha remained after drainage. While this remaining wetland was set aside as a nature reserve in 1964 (at a considerable distance from the recorded localities of <em>Discoglossus nigriventer</em>) it seems that this action was too late to save the species.	eng
6735	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Discus guerinianus</em> is endemic to the Madeiran Islands.	eng
6735	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	In 1878, Wollaston described the habitat as intermediate to high elevations, confined to deep wooded ravines under stones and leaf litter.  No other published data is known.  Since the species has only recently been rediscovered, there is no available specific information on habitat preferences.	eng
6735	population	Seddon, M.B., 2000	After 80 years of being regarded as extinct, the species was rediscovered in a different area of the island.	eng
6736	conservation	Frest, T., 2004	The status of this species should be reviewed regularly to check that the species has not started to decline.	eng
6736	distribution	Frest, T., 2004	Endemic to the USA. This species remains restricted to the southern fringe of the 'driftless area': Illinois (Jo Daves Co.); Iowa (Allamakee, Clayton, Clinton, Delaware, Dubuque, Fayette, Jackson). Originally Frest (1984) reported <em>ca</em>. 18 localities, but species specific surveys in the right habitat suggest there are at least 45 localities where the species is recorded (Frest 1992, Nekola, pers. comm).	eng
6736	habitat	Frest, T., 2004	This species is largely limited to cool limestone cliffs above algific (cold-producing) talus slopes, or sometimes in/on the talus as well. It seems to like rock fissures in particular.	eng
6736	population	Frest, T., 2004	Nekola (pers comm.) believes that the populations status is currently stable, with no populations being lost over the last decade.  In fact, the main change is the addition of new sites during species specific surveys.	eng
6736	threats	Frest, T., 2004	Main threat is habitat change either through changing microclimate or vegetation change. McMillan and Nekola (2003) note that these habitats are vulnerable to impact of rock climbing at sites.	eng
6763	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species.</p>	eng
6763	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Piedmont</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Broad</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in Oglethorpe, Elbert, and Wilkes Counties, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, USA (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981, 1989).   <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
6763	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower found in sandy clay soil (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>	eng
6763	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<p>&#160;There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
6763	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
6764	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as endangered (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, Critically imperilled, due to its very restricted range   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species has been ranked as the highest priority out of 23 high priority crayfish species by the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, for which a conservation strategy has been developed (Eversole and Welch 2010).<br/>    <p>The small geographic size of known <em>D. youngineri</em> colonies, however, facilitates protection of the species through land purchases or conservation easements, at least until research determines the habitat requirements and a management plan is established.</p>	eng
6764	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from 2 localities in Newberry County, South Carolina, USA.&#160; These constitute its type locality and another 14.4 km away on State Route 121 (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 1,656 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
6764	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower, the burrows of which extend below the water table, sometimes more than a metre down (Fitzpatrick and Eversole 1997). It is found in forested wetland with sandy clay substrate (Hobbs and Carlson 1985).	eng
6764	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a reported very small total population in South Carolina. There are believed to be 1 - 1,000 individuals in South Carolina with a past decline of 10 - 30% (in an unknown time frame) and a currently declining population   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009, Eversole and Welch 2010). This species is no longer present at its type locality, which was completely destroyed by clear-cutting in 1989   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
6764	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	In 1989 the entire forested area constituting this species type locality was clear felled. This species is no longer found at this location. Thus, future felling could cause a decline in the population abundance   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species is also impacted by ground water abstraction&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009), and changes in soil hydrology, for example due to ditch construction and&#160;drainage&#160;tiles (Eversole and Welch 2010). This&#160;species&#160;may also be threatened by the introduction of pesticides and other nutrient-rich pollutants introduced in to ground water from agriculture and industry (Eversole and Welch 2010), although the impact of this is not known.	eng
6765	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Flannery, T., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6765	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species is widespread throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is largely absent from the southern lowlands of the island. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.	eng
6765	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species is generally found in early regrowth and disturbed tropical moist forest, although it can be found in mature forest habitats. It is fairly resilient to human disturbance, occurring in gardens, but it does require some form of tree cover within its habitat. The average number of pouch young in females is 1.4 young (Flannery 1995).	eng
6765	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Flannery, T., 2008	It is a locally abundant species in parts of its range. It appears to be more abundant in the southern part of its range.	eng
6765	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Flannery, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
6770	conservation	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
6770	distribution	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species ranges widely through the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guniea), except from montane regions, and is also presnt on Yapen Island, Indonesia (Bergmans and Sarbini 1985). A record from Sulawesi, Indonesia, by Boeadi and Bergmans (1987), probably represents an undescribed subspecies or species.	eng
6770	habitat	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, swamp forest, and gardens. The species roosts singly or in small groups, usually in the forest understory. It has not been found in cave roosts. This is a frugivorous species, and is has been recorded feeding on the introduced invasive <em>Piper aduncum</em> (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Females give birth to a single young annually.	eng
6770	population	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is a common species. Bonaccorso (1998) considered it to be more abundant than previously thought because it chiefly roosted as scattered individuals (rather than in large roosts), and had a tendency to fly above the normal placement of mistnets. The species is caught frequently in canopy nets (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
6770	threats	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
6771	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	It probably occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
6771	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. It has been recorded from Bali, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Moyo, Sangeang, Komodo, Sumbawa, Rinca, Flores, Lembata, Pantar, Alor, Wetar, Babar, Timor, Sematu, Roti, Savu, and Sumba islands.	eng
6771	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	It roosts in caves and rock crevices. A large series was collected from a hollow tree. Colonies up to 300 individuals have been found on Timor (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). This species seems to be quite tolerant of disturbance.	eng
6771	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
6771	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting (by smoking them out of caves), and cave loss can be localised threats to the species.	eng
6772	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed to determine if this species is conspecific with <em>Dobsonia viridis</em>.	eng
6772	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the Raja Ampat Islands (Batanta, Gebe, Salawati, Gag, Waigeo (plus possibly Misool)), and the Biak and Supiori islands (including Owi) in Geelvinck Bay, Indonesia. It is not present on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995).	eng
6772	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species roosts in large colonies in both caves and trees. It is commonly found foraging in secondary forest, Pandanus, plantations, and gardens. Flannery (1995) thought that the similar-sized <em>Dobsonia emersa</em> excludes it from caves where the two species co-occur. Of the 14 specimens in the type series collected in December 1909 from Waigeo, seven females were lactating or pregnant. Females observed on Biak-Supiori in September were in an early stage of pregnancy, while on Batanta many pregnant females were observed in October (Flannery1995).	eng
6772	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is widespread and common within its range.	eng
6772	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is unlikely to be hunted within this range (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
6773	conservation	Heaney, L., Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Paguntulan, L.M., Pedregosa, S. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	On Cebu, <em>D. chapmani</em> occurs in the Catmon municipal watershed and it has been adopted as a flagship species by the local government in Carmen municipality. There are political problems in the region and researchers are reluctant to take part in surveys there. <br/><br/>The local government of Carmen has organized a group of environment protection coordinators who patrol and report violations to the municipal mayor and council. Part of the duty of the environment protection coordinators is to survey cave sanctuaries and report illegalities e.g. tree felling and hunting particularly of bats. The municipal government has declared the caves where these bats occur as Naked-backed Fruit Bat Sanctuaries. Reforestation project is underway there (Paguntalan in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>The largest remaining forest fragment is not within a protected area and was not included in the listing of Key<br/>Conservation Sites in Cebu (Mallari <em>et al.</em> 2001). This needs to be rectified.<br/><br/>On Negros, the species has been recorded from a provincial level forest reserve in the southwest of the Island (Calatong). Two towns are pending resolutions to adopt this as a flagship species. <br/><br/>There is an urgent need for improved protection of the remaining known populations on both islands, and further surveys are needed to locate additional populations.	eng
6773	distribution	Heaney, L., Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Paguntulan, L.M., Pedregosa, S. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	The Negros Naked-backed Fruit Bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Cebu and Negros Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Simmons 2005) occurring at an elevation range from sea level to 860 m. It was thought to be probably extinct but was rediscovered at Carmen and Catmon on Cebu Island in 2001 (Pangutalan <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Calatong (near Sipalay City), Negros Occidental province, southwest Negros Island, in 2003 (Alcala <em>et al</em>. 2004). Further surveys might locate additional populations on both islands.	eng
6773	habitat	Heaney, L., Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Paguntulan, L.M., Pedregosa, S. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>D. chapmani</em> occurs in remnant patches of secondary forest on karst limestone, where the natural vegetation is batino (<em>Alstonia macrophylla</em>), hindunganon (<em>Macaranga</em> sp.), tubug (<em>Ficus septica</em>) and matamban (<em>Mallotus</em> sp.) on steep slopes. The surrounding agricultural clearings are planted with abacca (<em>Musa textiles</em>), gabi (<em>Colocasia esculenta</em>) and coconuts (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>) (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004). The forest at Carmen and Catmon, Cebu island, is a critically important site for the species. However, the only available habitat for the species in this area is a series of small secondary-growth forest fragments on limestone, all of which are highly disturbed (Paguntalan <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The species lives in small caves or cracks in limestone, and forages in karst habitats, which have less rainfall than in other parts of the country. Records suggest that the species is exclusively a cave dweller (Rabor 1986; Heaney and Heideman 1987; Utzurrum 1992). However, three specimens were observed roosting in coconut fronds (Rabor 1954), indicating that <em>D. chapmani</em> is not restricted to forest and is able, to some extent, to make use of degraded and highly disturbed habitats (Paguntalan <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
6773	population	Heaney, L., Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Paguntulan, L.M., Pedregosa, S. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>Dobsonia chapmani</em> was known to occur on the islands of Negros and Cebu between 1949 and 1964 and the species was believed to have become probably extinct by the 1970s as a result of forest destruction, disturbance through guano mining, and hunting (Heaney and Heideman 1987; Utzurrum 1992). About 35 specimens were collected in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s from several different cave systems in southern Negros some of which occurred in well forested and sparsely populated areas (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species was reported to be formerly common in lowland forest from sea level to 800 m in southern Negros Island (Rabor 1986). Populations were rediscovered in Carmen and Catmon on Cebu Island in 2001 (Pangutalan <em>et al.</em> 2004), and five individuals were found in a small limestone forest fragment (Calatong) near Sipalay City, Negros Occidental province, southwest Negros Island in 2003 (Alcala <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
6773	threats	Heaney, L., Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Paguntulan, L.M., Pedregosa, S. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	The Negros Naked-backed Fruit Bat is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, and harvest for meat throughout most of its range.<br/><br/>On Negros, lowland forest and karst habitat within the former known range of the species (before its rediscovery) have been heavily degraded by logging and clearing for agriculture. Since its rediscovery in 2001 there has been significant conversion of habitat to agriculture and mining for copper and gold within the current known range of the species on Cebu. Evans (1993) reported that less than 4% of Negros Island was forested, with small patches of degraded forest in the central and southern portion of the island. Roosts of the species are disturbed by guano miners.  The largest remaining fragment of forest within the range of this species on Cebu is approximately 60 ha and this is threatened by the cutting of trees for charcoal and agricultural development (Paguntalan <em>et al.</em> 2004)<br/><br/>Harvest of <em>D. chapmani</em> for local consumption and sale has caused past population declines. Hunting is known to occur in the areas in which it has been rediscovered. In an ethnobiological survey, which included the islands of Sipalay City, out of 28 respondents, 15 reported hunting this species (A. Carino pers. comm. 2006). As a larger species, it is particularly targeted by hunters and in the past the species was sold in street markets. However, since 1995, <em>D. chapmani</em> has rarely been captured in caves where it has reportedly been hunted before. Interviews with hunters indicate that only about one or two individuals of <em>D. chapmani</em> have been taken during the 2003-2005 period indicating a population decline (Paguntalan in litt. 2006). It has been bred in captivity by collectors as a pet (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006).	eng
6774	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is believed to occur in some protected areas.	eng
6774	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Numfoor, Biak-Supiori, and Owi. Populations attributed to this species from Numfoor, however, represent a closely related, undescribed species (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It has been reported from sea level to 30 m asl.	eng
6774	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This cave-roosting species is present in both primary and secondary forest habitats; the original specimens from Biak were collected from a garden, while the Owi animals were collected in secondary forest (Flannery 1995). It is apparently common around villages, and very docile. Flannery (1995) remarked that they are easily disturbed at the roost in caves.	eng
6774	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not uncommon.	eng
6774	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is only known from less than five sites. It may possibly be threatened by habitat degradation and forest clearance due to logging and agricultural expansion on Biak (this is the most highly populated West Papuan island), but it appears able to tolerate some level of disturbance so this is unlikely (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). There is some disturbance at roost sites and limited hunting of this species.	eng
6775	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6775	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia, and has been recorded from Sulawesi, Muna, Mangole, Sanana, Malenga (and probably on all the Togians Islands). It is also possibly found on Buton Island, according to genetic evidence (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
6775	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It inhabits primary and disturbed habitats. This species is commensal with humans. It roosts in caves and lives in small to medium colonies.	eng
6775	population	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.	eng
6775	threats	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting of this species in caves may cause some localised declines, but is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
6776	conservation	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Important roosts of this poorly-known species should be protected. Further studies are needed into the species biology, ecology, and threats. This species is not known to be present in any protected areas, except perhaps a wildlife management area on Goodenough and Lake Lawma on Fergusson. It is likely more vulnerable on the Trobriands and Woodlark Island (as subspecies, <em>Dobsonia pannietensis remota</em>); needs monitoring and further study.	eng
6776	distribution	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from the islands of Fergusson, Goodenough, Normanby, Misima, Panaeati, Rossel, Sudest, Kiriwina, and Woodlark (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded at elevations of between sea level and 1,800 m asl.	eng
6776	habitat	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This little-known species roosts in caves and tree hollows (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is a roosts in groups.	eng
6776	population	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is very common in some parts of its range (e.g., Woodlark and Normaby Islands) (Flannery 1995), and is altitudinally wide ranging. There is no evidence of declines, but this could be due to a lack of applicable studies.	eng
6776	threats	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation in parts of its range. Hunting may be a threat, since it is large, and could be seen as a good source of meat.	eng
6777	conservation	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
6777	distribution	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is restricted to the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from the islands of  Duke of York, Dyaul, Mioko, New Britain, New Ireland, Ulu, Umboi (and nearby small islands), and the New Hanover Islands (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
6777	habitat	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is found in lowland primary and secondary tropical moist forest, plantations, and rural gardens. It normally roosts in small groups, or as solitary individuals, in foliage. It has been recorded roosting in coconut plantations, and there are some records of animals roosting in caves.	eng
6777	population	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
6777	threats	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Conversion of lowland forest habitats to oil palm plantation is a major threat. Somewhat threatened by deforestation, for the timber trade, but it is very resilient as long as there is not complete conversion (if small forest patches are maintained during clearing).	eng
6778	conservation	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
6778	distribution	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from much of the Solomon Islands as well as neighbouring islands in Papua New Guinea (i.e., Bougainville and Buka, and possibly Nissan). Occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
6778	habitat	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	It roosts in medium-sized to large caves, although small numbers of individuals can be found in rock overhangs. It forages in disturbed areas and is less common in primary forests. Its closest relative, <em>D. praedatrix</em>, roosts in small colonies in the crowns of coconut trees (beneath old drooping fronds), and it is possible <em>D. inermis</em> may also utilize these roosting sites.	eng
6778	population	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is widespread and common. It is unknown to what extent there is genetic connectivity between island populations. It is unlikely, for instance, that there is any regular exchange of genes between the most distant population on Rennell Island and other islands in the Solomon Archipelago (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
6778	threats	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Whilst commonly observed in coastal areas, its dependence on caves for large breeding colonies makes it particularly susceptible to even low levels human disturbance and hunting.	eng
6779	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is known from a number of protected areas. There is a need to ensure the protection of important roosting sites. Bonaccorso (1998) mentions a large roosting site of some 10,000 bats at a village near Omeru (Papua New Guinea), where local villagers have provided protection to the bats and offer walking tours to view the roost for a small fee. Taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this species relative to <em>D. magna</em>.	eng
6779	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species ranges from Timor, Samau (I. Maryanto pers. comm.), Maluku Islands (including Ambon, Bacan, Buru and Seram islands), Banda Islands, throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), including the Kai and Aru Islands (Indonesia) to Australia, where it is restricted to the Torres Islands and Cape York, Queensland. It is also found on Waigeo, Batanta (Ibhu pers. comm.), Salawati, and Yapen in Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,700 m asl.	eng
6779	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, wet open forest, rural gardens, and fruit and coconut plantations. It is generally absent from dry woodland and savanna. It roosts in caves, sinkholes, boulder piles, old mines, disused buildings, and dense vegetation. It is a gregarious species. In New Guinea, colonies may contain several thousand animals. In Australia, colonies are generally much smaller. Females annually give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
6779	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is the most abundant and widespread fruit bat on Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998). It is generally rare in Australia (Strahan 1995). Few specimens are known from Buru island but it is common on Seram and Banda. It is uncommon on other islands.	eng
6779	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., Maryanto, I. & Sinaga, U., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Habitat loss, due to active logging is a threat along with hunting for food and mining activities for Nickel on Gag. It is also locally threatened in parts of its range by shooting as a pest species, and accidental mortality on barbed-wire fences (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999),	eng
6780	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6780	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found on the Kai Islands, central and south Moluccas including Seram, Ambon, and Buru, Banda Islands, all in Indonesia. A closely related but undescribed species occurs in the Tanimbar Islands (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
6780	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is common in disturbed forest, coconut plantations, and gardens. It roosts in caves and trees.	eng
6780	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.	eng
6780	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Hunting, especially in caves (Boadi pers. comm.), represents a localised threat for some populations.	eng
6785	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The species occurs in at least 12 protected areas. It is categorized as Vulnerable in the Red Book of Mammals of Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda, 2000).	eng
6785	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina, from Bolson de Pipanaco, Catamarca Province at approx 28 degrees south to 50 degrees south (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Subspecies <em>D. p. centricola</em> occurs in Catamarca Province, the eastern region of La Rioja Province, the northwest of Cordoba Province, and the southwest of Santiago del Estero Province (Cabrera, 1953). Subspecies <em>D. p. patagonum</em> occurs in the central area of Buenos Aires Province, the south of Cordoba Province, San Luis and Mendoza Provinces, and to the south of Argentina to Santa Cruz Province (Cabrera, 1953).	eng
6785	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The species occurs in lowland habitats, including forest and creosote bush (Larrea) flats in northwestern Argentina (Campos <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It prefers habitats with shrub cover but will also use overgrazed and bared soils in the Monte Desert biome (Kufner and Chambouleyron, 1991). Maras are herbivores (Kufner and Duranona, 1991). In southern Argentina, breeding is from August to January (Taber and Macdonald, 1992) and in Patagonia, most births occur between September and October (Taber, 1987). In captivity, maras produce three or four litters each year (Dubost and Genest, 1974), but in the wild, most females produce only one litter annually (Taber, 1987). Average litter size is two (range, 1-3) (Campos <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
6785	population	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The population is decreasing and the species is not easily found (Ojeda, R. pers. comm.).	eng
6785	threats	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Habitat destruction for agriculture, and hunting for their skins have resulted in localized extinctions such as Buenos Aires Province (Cabrera, 1953). The species competes with large, introduced herbivores such as sheep and the European hare (Jayat, J. pers. comm.).	eng
6786	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is probably present in some protected areas in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay.	eng
6786	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in the Chaco of Paraguay, northwest Argentina as far south as Cordoba Province, and extreme south Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs at elevations around 400 m asl in Bolivia.	eng
6786	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This rodent occurs in the arid Chaco, and is typically found in dry, low, flat thorn scrub. It probably can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It digs large burrows, conspicuous by the extensive piles of dirt outside the entrances. Females have been caught with one and two embryos. In captivity its gestation period is 77 days; the litter size averages 1.5 (range 1 to 3) (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Wilson and Kleiman, 1974).	eng
6786	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is common where it is found. The home range varies from 33.3 to 197.5 ha, with a mean of 97.9 ha (Taber, 1987).	eng
6786	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
6793	conservation	Heckel, J.-O., Rayaleh, H.A., Wilhelmi, F. & Hammer, S., 2008	There are no protected areas within beira range or active in-situ conservation programmes for the species. There is a successful captive- breeding population at Al Wabra, Qatar.	eng
6793	distribution	Heckel, J.-O., Rayaleh, H.A., Wilhelmi, F. & Hammer, S., 2008	Endemic to northeast Africa. Most of the distribution area lies in northern Somalia [Somaliland], from the Nogaal Valley northwards. Full details of the distribution are unclear, but from historical and recent information the remaining core areas of the population are: Asse hills-Lahan Sheik, Garoowe area (Bur Cobohille), Wagar, Buuraha and Golis mountains, Araweina, Ali Haidh and Guban region. Between these locations, occasional sightings have been reported (Moustapha Elmi 1992, Giotto et al. in press).<br/><br/>The species’ existence in Djibouti was only confirmed in 1993, when they were observed on hillsides at two sites in the southeast, close to the borders with Somalia and Ethiopia (Künzel and Künzel 1998). Recent surveys have shown that the area of distribution in Djibouti is about 250 km² and located in the mountainous Ali Sabieh - Arrey - Assamo region (Künzel et al. 2000, Laurent et al. 2001, Heckel et al. 2004).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, the species is known from the Marmar mountains along the border with north-west Somalia (Bolton 1973). No recent information is available on its status in this part of the country, where large numbers of armed pastoralists and their livestock now reside. There is no evidence of their occurrence in the Ogaden region (Wilhelmi 1997, Wilhelmi et al. 2006).	eng
6793	habitat	Heckel, J.-O., Rayaleh, H.A., Wilhelmi, F. & Hammer, S., 2008	Beira frequent rocky or stony hillsides, rarely steep slopes, where the dominant vegetation is a woody steppe of mixed <em>Acacia</em> scrub (Giotto <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
6793	population	Heckel, J.-O., Rayaleh, H.A., Wilhelmi, F. & Hammer, S., 2008	In the 1980s it still occupied large parts of its historical range, but in greatly reduced numbers. East (1999) estimated the population at 7,000 [though fewer mature individuals] based on the assumption that a population density of 0.2 /km² applied throughout the species’ range, and that its area of occupancy is about 35,000 km². Most occur in northern Somalia, which has been relatively unaffected by the civil/military conflicts in the rest of the country. Its numbers may be decreasing in some parts of its range where settlement is expanding and livestock densities are high, but its populations are probably stable in areas with few settlements.<br/><br/>In Djibouti, the total population has been estimated at between 50 and 150 individuals (Künzel and Künzel 1998, Laurent <em>et al</em>. 2001, Heckel <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Djibouti, Beira are restricted to a limited area and likely decreasing in number due to desertification by overgrazing and disturbance from an incoming population of refugees. In Somalia, animals underwent a marked decline in number during the 1975 drought (Simonetta 1988).	eng
6793	threats	Heckel, J.-O., Rayaleh, H.A., Wilhelmi, F. & Hammer, S., 2008	Drought, habitat deterioration as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock, uncontrolled hunting and cutting of woodland and scrub for charcoal exports to the Gulf area (Moustapha Elmi 1992, East 1999). However, the Beira’s small size, wariness, and the vegetated rocky habitat it prefers have apparently enabled it to avoid heavy hunting pressure.	eng
6794	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Protection of areas of suitable habitat and regulation of hunting activities may be beneficial to the conservation of this species.	eng
6794	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Goodenough Island, Papua New Guinea (extent of occurrence is <100 km²). It ranges between 1,000 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
6794	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is restricted to montane tropical oak forests with little herbaceous growth, but with a ground cover thick with ferns, mosses, and lichens. The female is believed to give birth to a single young. The species comes down seasonally to the gullies, and is then susceptible to hunting (D. Mitchell pers. comm.).	eng
6794	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is common within suitable habitat.	eng
6794	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It has been recorded as being hunted by local people using dogs, although Flannery (1995) suggests that hunting pressure may be decreasing. The forest habitat of this species is being cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture and is rapidly being converted to grassland.	eng
6795	conservation	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in at least one protected area (Mamberamo) and one wildlife management area.	eng
6795	distribution	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is generally widespread across northern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is absent from the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. It ranges in elevation from sea level to around 400 m asl.	eng
6795	habitat	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary tropical lowland forests. It can occur in disturbed areas including abandoned gardens. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
6795	population	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat and resilient to hunting pressures.	eng
6795	threats	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by subsistence hunting for food.	eng
6799	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., James, R., Flannery, T., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in Varirata National Park near Port Moresby, although this population may have been recently extirpated (L. Salas pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the impacts of hunting on populations of this species. This species needs to be closely monitored and regularly reassessed.	eng
6799	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., James, R., Flannery, T., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is found in the lowlands of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia). It is absent from areas of high elevation. It ranges from sea level to 400 m asl.	eng
6799	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., James, R., Flannery, T., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical forests. It can occur in disturbed areas including abandoned gardens. It is often found in gallery forests.	eng
6799	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., James, R., Flannery, T., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
6799	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., James, R., Flannery, T., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is threatened by local hunting for food and habitat loss due to conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use, logging concessions, and road building (which will lead to more hunting). It is a preferred bushmeat species, and the populations around Port Moresby have been largely hunted out. Sold for 50 Kina per animal at the markets.	eng
6800	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in Lorentz National Park. Habitat protection and regulation of hunting is needed to protect this species in parts of its range.	eng
6800	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands of western Papua Province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It also occurs on the neighbouring Indonesian islands of Misool, Salawati, and Yapen.	eng
6800	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in swampy lowland tropical forest (seasonally inundated) and probably occurs in secondary habitats (old gardens). The female gives birth to a single young.	eng
6800	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is abundant in the southern coastal area of its range, but it is rare in the central portion of the Vogelkop Peninsula. Animals are able to persist close to human habitation.	eng
6800	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. It is threatened in parts of its range by hunting for food and habitat loss through conversion of forested areas to small-scale agricultural use. The species is threatened on Yapen Island by ongoing logging activities.	eng
6801	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g., Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area). It needs further study on its taxonomy and distribution.	eng
6801	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in the hill to lower montane areas of south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). The distribution range is uncertain. It is restricted to the southern slopes in an elevational range of 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
6801	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is found in lower montane primary and disturbed tropical moist forest. Females give birth to one or two young.	eng
6801	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is common in hill forest and lower montane forest.	eng
6801	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species is locally threatened by subsistence hunting for food.	eng
6802	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
6802	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in the upper hill to upper-montane forests throughout the central mountain chain of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been extirpated from the Hunstein, Schrader, and the Torricelli ranges, and probably the Adelberts (L. Salas pers. comm.). There are fossil records from the Vogelkop and from the Arfak Mountains. It occurs from 800 to 3,100 m asl.	eng
6802	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary forests and small garden clearings. The home range is about 1-1.5 ha. It uses holes in the ground. It is often associated with small streams. Females give birth to one or two young.	eng
6802	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This used to be a common species. It is now uncommon and is especially hard to find near human settlements.	eng
6802	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by local overhunting for food. It is also a common prey item of naturalized (New Guinea singing) dogs (prehistorically introduced) even in the most remote highland areas of New Guinea, so essentially everywhere it is killed readily by humans and/or dogs (K. Helgen, per. comm.).	eng
6814	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p>Public aquariums have had <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>in their collections but not many aquariums actively raise this species in captivity (Koldewey 2005) and commercial breeding of pipefish for sale to aquarists is rare (Seahorse Sanctuary 2008).</p><p>This species is found or suspected to occur in the following Australian marine protected areas: Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, Western Australia, Cartier Island Marine Protected Area, off northern WA (unconfirmed), Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland, and Rowley Shoals Marine Park, Western Australia (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p><p>In Australia, this species has been subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1 January 1998 and is listed as a marine species under section 248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).</p>	eng
6814	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus </span>is a pipefish that inhabits tropical and subtropical waters. It is found in the Indo-Pacific region. Its range includes the Red Sea and East Africa in the east to American Samoa in the west (Froese and Pauly 2009). The waters of Japan mark the northern boundary of its range (Matsuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1984) and it is found in the south as far as Australian waters (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p><p></p>	eng
6814	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p>A marine species associated with coral reefs (Belmaker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>is found in pairs or occasionally in large groups (Kuiter 2000), although aggregations may be composed of juveniles (Kuiter 1996, cited by Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, p. 136). Males start brooding at 90 mm standard length (Dawson 1985) and eggs are carried on the underside of the abdomen.<br/></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus </span>is found at depths between five and 56 m. It has also has been observed to live in caves and crevices (Kuiter 2000). This species is found with cleaner shrimps and is assumed to perform some role in cleaning other fishes (Kuiter 2000, Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<br/></p>	eng
6814	population	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available regarding the population sizes or trends of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>for its entire known geographic range. Within Australian jurisdictional waters population declines are not suspected (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002), however no information is available for regions where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>is caught for the aquarium trade, such as Indonesia and the Philippines (Paulus 1999, Reksodihardjo-Lilley and Lilley 2007).</p>	eng
6814	threats	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p>There is little information on direct threats to this species, other than the removal of wild individuals for the aquarium trade. There are no catch or trade volume estimates for <span style="font-style: italic;">D. dactyliophorus </span>available.</p>	eng
6820	conservation	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is found in at least Mt. Kinabalu National Park (Han pers. comm.) and Gunung Mulu National Park (Giman pers. comm.).	eng
6820	distribution	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is found on mountains of north and west Borneo (Kalimantan, Sarawak, Sabah), above 975 m  (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
6820	habitat	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species can tolerate secondary forest and fruit orchards, and appear to be more common in primary forest (Han pers. comm.).	eng
6820	population	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is fairly common and stable throughout its range (Han pers. comm.).	eng
6820	threats	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	Deforestation due to land conversion for agriculture is the major threat to this species, even right outside Mt. Kinabalu National Park, where people grow vegetables at high altitudes (Han pers. comm.).	eng
6821	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia - Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and National park, Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India; Lawachara National Park in Bangladesh (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, life history and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
6821	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in northeastern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. This species has been widely recorded from Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal in South Asia at elevations of 900 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from southern Xizang and eastern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from western and northern Myanmar.	eng
6821	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is diurnal and arboreal species that also forages on the forest floor. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests (including moist semi deciduous forest in Bangladesh [Sarkar pers comm.] and oak-rhodedendron forest in Nepal [Shrestha pers. comm.].). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from rhododendron forests to subtropical forests at lower elevations, and conifer forests at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). The species litters of two to five young (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
6821	population	Molur, S., 2008	This species is locally common in India. There appear to be few animals in Bangladesh and Nepal (Sarkar and Shreshta pers. comm.).	eng
6821	threats	Molur, S., 2008	In Nepal and Bangladesh the species is threatened by deforestation and fragmentation of habitat (Sarkar and Shreshta pers. comm.). Hunting for consumption is a major threat in northeastern India.	eng
6822	conservation	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation, neither is it known from any of the protected areas in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is presumably present in many protected areas outside of South Asia. Survey, life history and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
6822	distribution	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed through northeastern South Asia, central and southern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has only been recorded from only a couple of locations in Manipur and Nagaland in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been reported from Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It has also been recorded from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded in northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam. It is found between 900 and 3,500 m asl (China).	eng
6822	habitat	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is diurnal and arboreal species, which also forages on the forest floor. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen, broad leaved forests and coniferous forests. It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
6822	population	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	While there is little information available on the abundance of this species, it appears to be reasonably common over much of its range.	eng
6822	threats	Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole. Habitat degradation due to shifting (jhum) cultivation practices and hunting and poaching for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
6823	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, Bawangling, and Jinfoshanis Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A2cd+3cd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
6823	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008). The distributional limits of this species are uncertain due to taxonomic confusion and misidentification in the field. It is known to occur in the provinces of Guizhou, Hubei, Sichuan, Guangdong, Anhui, Guangxi, Hunan, and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). Thorington and Hoffmann (2005) indicate that the distribution extends into extreme northern Viet Nam. The distribution is apparently fragmented (Smith and Xie 2008) and requires review.	eng
6823	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies holes in rocky terrain (Smith and Xie 2008). They are characterized as rather inactive during winter (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
6823	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
6823	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6824	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas in Southeast asia, with no direct conservation measures needed (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). In South Asia, it is known from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
6824	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed, from northeastern South Asia and southern China, into much of mainland Southeast Asia. It has been recorded in only two locations in India, once each in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland at around 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In southern China, it has been recorded from Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is distributed from Myanmar in the west, through western Thailand, much of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and northern areas of Peninsular Malaysia. It is generally found at less than 1,500 m asl.	eng
6824	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is diurnal and largely arboreal. It occurs in subtropical montane evergreen and broadleaved forests. It is predominantly found in thick shrub layer vegetation but does go into the forest canopy to feed and forages on the floor; it persists well in degraded and fragmented habitats (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been found to occupy tree hollows in mid and high canopy of dense oak, bamboo, fir and pine forest patches (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
6824	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
6824	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Southeast Asia (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Hunting for food is a major concern in parts of northeastern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
6834	conservation	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the impact of the numerous possible threats to populations - especially logging and agriculture.	eng
6834	distribution	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Only found in southern and central Chile, to the south of Concepcion and on the island of Chiloe, and adjacent Argentina. It was recently captured in Argentina in Lake Nahuel Huapi National Park (Birney <em>et al.</em>, in press).	eng
6834	habitat	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Dromiciops gliroides live in the cool, humid forests of the Chilean Andes where they inhabit thickets of Chilean Bamboo (Chusquea sp.). This nocturnal, arboreal mammal construct spherical nests of water-repellant bamboo leaves lined with moss or grass. Nests probably serve to protect the animals from the cold, but when temperatures drop during the winter and food becomes scarce, Dromiciops gliroides will hibernate. Feeds primarily on larvae and pupae of insect.	eng
6834	population	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Its population has declined over recent years. Currently, <em>D. gliroides</em> has been catalogued as a rare species in Chile,<br/>due to its reduced population size. Furthermore, the high degree of fragmentation in the Maulino forest, allows to suppose that the local population of Dromiciops as well as that of the Reserva Los Ruiles and Los Queules could be in danger of extinction.	eng
6834	threats	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is threatened by a loss of restricted habitat.	eng
6852	distribution	ANZECC Endangered Fauna Network, 2002	It was previously thought that <em>Dryococelus australis</em> was endemic to Lord Howe Island, Australia. In the 1960s, large stick insects were reported to exist on Balls Pyramid, a rocky outcrop 23 km away from Lord Howe Island (Smithers 1969). A scientific expedition to the rock in 2001 confirmed that this stick insect is <em>Dryococelus australis</em> (Macey 2001).	eng
6852	habitat	ANZECC Endangered Fauna Network, 2002	<em>Dryococelus australis</em> is a large, heavy-bodied species (Gurney 1947). On Lord Howe Island the species was found in large cavities in the trunks of living trees, emerging at night to feed.  However, Balls Pyramid is a small, desolate, rock island without trees.	eng
6852	population	ANZECC Endangered Fauna Network, 2002	After the introduction of rats to Lord Howe island in 1918, the population dwindled and the species was thought to have become extinct in 1920. Current numbers on Balls Pyramid are not known.	eng
6858	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV), in parts of its range where these apply. Listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). The species is found in protected areas.	eng
6858	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV), in parts of its range where these apply. Listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). The species is found in protected areas.	eng
6858	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is protected by international law under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV). The species is found in protected areas.	eng
6858	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China).<br/>In the Mediterranean, occurs in Italy (including an isolated population in the south), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
6858	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China).<br/>In the Mediterranean, occurs in Italy (including an isolated population in the south), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Macedonia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
6858	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	<em>Dryomys nitedula</em> is found from Switzerland in the west through eastern and southern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus to central Russia and central Asia, reaching as far as 90°E. Many isolated subpopulations occur on the edge of its range, including in Israel, central Iran, Afghanistan, the Tien Shan mountains and Sinkiang (China). In Europe, it occurs from eastern Switzerland through eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula to Latvia in the north and Russia in the east, with an isolated subpopulation in southern Italy (Kryštufek and Vohralik 1994). Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
6858	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats including broad-leaved, mixed, coniferous and dwarf montane woodland. Also found in rocky areas, evergreen shrubland (including Mediterranean-type shrubland), and wood-steppe (Kryštufek 1999, Smith and Xie in press). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.	eng
6858	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats including broad-leaved, mixed, coniferous and dwarf montane woodland. Also found in rocky areas, evergreen shrubland (including Mediterranean-type shrubland), and wood-steppe (Kry?tufek 1999, Smith and Xie in press). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.	eng
6858	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It occurs in a broad variety of habitats in Europe, including broad-leaved, mixed, and coniferous woodland (mainly at higher altitudes), dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em> and rocky areas, evergreen Mediterranean shrubland, and wood-steppe (Kryštufek 1999). In the west, the species is found in moist areas next to streams (Austria, Switzerland, and Germany). The species is not found in human dominated habitats such as agricultural areas.	eng
6858	population	Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	A widespread species that is common in some parts of its range and rare in others. <br/><br/>In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kryštufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere in Europe as yet (Kryštufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>This species is widespread and common in mountainous areas of Azerbaijan and is widespread in Turkey. In Israel in 1961 only 35 animals were observed during 350 hours of field surveys (Harrison and Bates 1991). Reported as quite common in Syria in evergreen forests and orchards (Shehad <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, a survey along the Bulgan River drainage basin estimated there to be 20 individuals per hectare (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968). In 1988, only a few old nests were found in the vicinity of Bag Shar Bolog, although the population is believed to be fairly stable (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
6858	population	Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	A widespread species that is common in some parts of its range and rare in others. <br/><br/>In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kry?tufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere in Europe as yet (Kry?tufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>This species is widespread and common in mountainous areas of Azerbaijan and is widespread in Turkey. In Israel in 1961 only 35 animals were observed during 350 hours of field surveys (Harrison and Bates 1991). Reported as quite common in Syria in evergreen forests and orchards (Shehad <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, a survey along the Bulgan River drainage basin estimated there to be 20 individuals per hectare (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968). In 1988, only a few old nests were found in the vicinity of Bag Shar Bolog, although the population is believed to be fairly stable (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
6858	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	In Europe west of Russia it is generally rare, although in some southeastern areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, Moldova) it is locally common, reaching densities of 23-25 individuals per hectare in Moldova (Kryštufek 1999). At the western border of its distribution, populations have declined due to deforestation. There is only one population remaining in Switzerland (Tester and Müller 2000), and the German population has not been surveyed in over 30 years (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been no reports of declines elsewhere as yet (Kryštufek 1999, EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
6858	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	There are no major threats in most parts of its range.	eng
6858	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Yigit, N., 2008	There are no major threats in most parts of its range.	eng
6858	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Vladimir Vohralík, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	There are no major threats in most parts of its range (EMA Workshop 2006). Declines at the western edge of its range have been attributed to deforestation (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006)	eng
6859	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Found in at least one protected area (Ciglikara Forestry Research Area).	eng
6859	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>D. laniger <em>is endemic to Turkey, where it ranges from the south-west to eastern Anatolia. It occurs at altitudes of 1,500 m and above (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007)</em></em>	eng
6859	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	This species is a habitat specialist restricted to rocky and stony habitats in the mountains. In southwestern Turkey it is found in rocky areas dominated by Cedar (Cedrus libani), Juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. foetidissima, J. oxycedrus), Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Fir (Abies cilicica) and Oak (Quercus cocciferae). In central Anatolia, vegetation cover within the distributional range is sparse.	eng
6859	population	Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species is specialized and naturally rare. Only several tens of specimens are known.	eng
6859	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	The species is not thought to be under any major threat. There is a possible localized threat on Munzur Mountain, Turkey due to ongoing construction of a dam, and in other areas mining for stones may be a problem.	eng
6860	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been recorded in Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Wanglang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A1c; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
6860	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
6860	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies subalpine forests of mixed coniferous and broadleaf trees (Smith and Xie 2008). It will make nests (12 cm in diameter) in trees usually 3.0-3.5 m above the ground (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a nocturnal species that forages on green plants (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Parturition occurs in May, with litter size of four (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
6860	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is known from only five specimens (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
6860	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Loss of habitat resulting from logging is most likely a major threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
6909	conservation	Marsh, H., 2008	The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
6909	distribution	Marsh, H., 2008	Coastal and Island waters between East Africa and Vanuatu between latitudes of about 27° North and South of Equator. See Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002).	eng
6909	habitat	Marsh, H., 2008	See <a href="http://www.unep.org/dewa/reports/dugongreport.asp">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.	eng
6909	population	Marsh, H., 2008	Total population size is unknown. See <a href="http://www.unep.org/dewa/reports/dugongreport.asp">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.	eng
6909	threats	Marsh, H., 2008	See <a href="http://www.unep.org/dewa/reports/dugongreport.asp">Marsh <em>et al</em>. (2002)</a>.	eng
6923	distribution	IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group, 2008	Dusicyon australis was endemic to the Falkland Islands.	eng
6923	population	IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group, 2008	It was discovered in 1690 and was still common when Charles Darwin visited the Falklands in 1833. Throughout the 1800s however, the population declined drastically. The last individual is believed to have been killed in 1876.	eng
6923	threats	IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group, 2008	The species was hunted by US fur traders in the 1830s, and when Scottish settlers arrived in the 1860s and began raising sheep on the Island, <em>D. australis</em> was poisoned as a pest species.	eng
6924	conservation	Leite, M.R.P. & Williams, R.S.R., 2008	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices. <br/><br/>It is legally protected in Brazil. Recently removed from the list of protected species in Peru. Although protected on paper in some Amazonian countries, this has not yet been backed up by specific conservation action. <br/><br/>The Short-eared Dog is likely to occur in most protected areas that encompass large tracts of undisturbed forest in western Amazonia. During the last decade, its presence has been confirmed in protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. <br/><br/>No animals currently are known to be in captivity, and only a dozen confirmed records of captive animals exist.<br/><br/>The biology, pathology, and ecology of the species are virtually unknown. Especially lacking is any true estimate of population density and an understanding of the species' habitat requirements.	eng
6924	distribution	Leite, M.R.P. & Williams, R.S.R., 2008	The Short-eared Dog has been found in scattered sites from Colombia to Bolivia and Ecuador to Brazil. Its presence in Venezuela was suggested by Hershkovitz (1961) but never confirmed. Various distributional hypotheses for the species have been published, suggesting the presence of the species throughout the entire Amazonian lowland forest region, as well as Andean forests in Ecuador and savanna regions (Emmons and Feer 1990, 1997; Tirira 1999).<br/><br/>For the 2004 assessment, museum specimens were re-checked and an extensive survey of field biologists doing long-term research in the species' putative range was carried out, constructing a distributional map based only on specimens of proven origin and incontrovertible field sightings (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). Results of this survey suggested a much smaller distribution range, limited to western lowland Amazonia. The northernmost record is in Mitú, Colombia, at 1º15'57"N, 70º13'19"W (Hershkovitz 1961), the southernmost on the west bank of the river Heath, Pampas del Heath, northwest Bolivia, at 12º57'S, 68º53'W (M. Romo pers. comm.), the easternmost record is from the vicinity of Itaituba, Brazil, at 4º20'S, 56º41'W (M. De Vivo pers. comm.), and the westernmost in the Rio Santiago, Peru, at 4º37'S, 77º55'W (Museum of Vertebrate Biology, University of California, Berkeley, collected 1979). However, records of this species since have been confirmed from a little further to the east in Para state, Brazil.	eng
6924	habitat	Leite, M.R.P. & Williams, R.S.R., 2008	The Short-eared Dog favours undisturbed rainforest in the Amazonian lowlands. The species has been recorded in a wide variety of lowland habitats, including terra firme forest, swamp forest, stands of bamboo, and primary succession along rivers (M.R.P. Leite, unpubl.). At Cocha Cashu, sightings and tracks of the species are strongly associated with rivers and creeks, and there are five reliable reports of short-eared dogs swimming in rivers. Records are very rare in areas with significant human disturbance, i.e., near towns or in agricultural areas. It is unclear whether the short-eared dog is able to utilize habitats outside wet lowland forests. One sighting in Rondonia, Brazil, was in lowland forest bordering savanna (M. Messias pers. comm.). Another, at the highest elevation yet documented for the species, was at 1,200 m in the Ecuadorean Andes, in a transitional zone between lowland forest and cloud forest (Pitman <em>et al.</em> 2002). Two specimens collected in 1930 are allegedly from even higher elevations in the same region – above 2,000 m on Volcan Pichincha and Antisana (near Quito) – but the absence of any other reports from these well-studied areas leads assessors to believe that these represent mislabelled specimens.	eng
6924	population	Leite, M.R.P. & Williams, R.S.R., 2008	The Short-eared Dog is notoriously rare, and sightings are uncommon across its range. However, this may not always have been the case. The first biologists to study the species found it relatively easy to trap during mammal surveys around Balta, Amazonian Peru, in 1969 (A.L. Gardner and J.L. Patton pers. comm.). Grimwood (1969) reported collecting specimens around the same time in Peru's Manu basin (now Manu National Park), suggesting that the species was also relatively common in that area.<br/><br/>Following these reports, the species went practically unrecorded in the Peruvian Amazon until 1987, despite intensive, long-term field surveys of mammals in the intervening years (Terborgh <em>et al.</em> 1984; Janson and Emmons 1990; Woodman <em>et al.</em> 1991; Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1995). Even Louise Emmons, who carried out long-term projects monitoring and trapping ocelots <em>Leopardus pardalis</em> and other mammals at the Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Manu, never saw or trapped the Short-eared Dog (L. Emmons pers. comm.). For whatever reason, the species appears to have gone entirely unrecorded from the region between 1970 and 1987.<br/><br/>Over the last decade, it appears that the species may be recovering in southern Peru and eastern Ecuador, with increasing numbers of sightings in recent years at both sites. Between 1987 and 1999, biologists working in the Peruvian department of Madre de Dios, mostly in the vicinity of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, reported 15 encounters with the Short-eared Dog (M.R.P. Leite <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). <br/><br/>In an ongoing field study initiated at Cocha Cashu in 2000, Leite and biologists have sighted and followed five individuals in an area of 10 km², giving an estimated density of 0.5 individuals/km². However, far too little is known about the species to extrapolate this estimate (itself preliminary) to the rest of the species' range. For the time being, the Short-eared Dog must be considered extremely rare throughout its range and certainly one of the rarest carnivores wherever it occurs.	eng
6924	threats	Leite, M.R.P. & Williams, R.S.R., 2008	The major threats to this species are diseases from domestic dogs and habitat loss. There are no reports of widespread persecution of the species. An ongoing distribution survey (M.R.P. Leite, unpubl.) suggests that the Short-eared Dog is rare throughout its range and threatened by the large-scale forest conversion underway in Amazonia. <br/>Reports of commercial use are scattered and few. In some cases, wild individuals have been captured for pets and occasionally for sale to local people and zoos.	eng
6925	conservation	Asa, C.S., Cossíos, E.D. & Williams, R., 2008	Not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Between 1975 and 2000, a governmental authorization was required to hunt the species in Peru. Since 2000, hunting outside the established areas and trade of the species has been prohibited. The police and the Ministry of Agriculture are responsible for the control of illegal trade. However, it has proven especially difficult to control trade in rural areas and in some cities. Currently, there are no international treaties or conventions regarding this species.<br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador and Peru.<br/><br/>The Sechuran Fox was not traditionally protected, for cultural reasons, until recently. Now it is protected in Santa Catalina de Chongoyape, a rural community of Lambayeque department, because they are considered important for tourism and as seed dispersers (D. Cossíos, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Some specimens are kept in the authorized collections, including Parque de las Leyendas Zoo, Lima (26 specimens) and Atocongo Zoo, Lima (three specimens).	eng
6925	distribution	Asa, C.S., Cossíos, E.D. & Williams, R., 2008	The Sechuran Fox can be found in the coastal zones of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador, between 3 and 12°S. In Peru, it is distributed on the western slope of the Andes between the frontier with Ecuador and Lima. Specimens living further south may be the Chilla <em>Pseudalopex griseus</em> or another species not yet described (E. Vivar pers. comm.).	eng
6925	habitat	Asa, C.S., Cossíos, E.D. & Williams, R., 2008	The Sechuran Fox occupies habitats ranging from sandy deserts with low plant density to agricultural lands and dry forests (Cabrera 1931; Huey 1969; Langguth 1975).	eng
6925	population	Asa, C.S., Cossíos, E.D. & Williams, R., 2008	This species was judged by Grimwood (1969) as being abundant at the time and not in need of protection. The species is often observed in rural areas and disturbed environments from Piura department to La Libertad department in Peru. Surveys based on footprints in Coto de Caza El Angolo in Piura, Peru, recorded an average of 12.6 foxes/km (CDC 1989). The Sechuran Fox is uncommon in Ecuador.	eng
6925	threats	Asa, C.S., Cossíos, E.D. & Williams, R., 2008	The most important threats to this species are from the market for handicrafts and amulets and from persecution because of damage to livestock. In Peru, the typical attitude towards this species is one of persecution (68.3% of correspondents) or indifference (31.7%). The stated reasons for persecution were due to damage on domestic fowl and guinea pigs (65% of correspondents), the consumption of vegetal or stored goods (13.3%), and the belief of goat predation (10%) (D. Cossíos, unpubl.). <br/><br/>Illegal sale of pups, of amulets made from body parts, and of handicrafts made from fur occurs principally in the markets of Tumbes, Chiclayo, Piura and Lima city. The most common type of handicraft made with fox parts consists of preserved adult animals in a "sitting" position. This activity is limited almost exclusively to the department of Piura, Peru. The practice of magic-religious rituals by shamans involving preserved Sechuran Fox specimens or parts is the principal human use of this species in Peru. The specimens are used to attract "good spirits" or "positive energies" during premonition rituals or to manufacture amulets (called seguros) with different purposes. Some shamans use also the Sechuran Fox's fat for the treatment of bronchial illness and stomach disorders (D. Cossíos, unpubl.).<br/><br/>The Sechuran Fox also faces some pressure in agricultural zones and from urbanization and habitat degradation; indeed, habitat reduction or loss is considered the principle threat to this species in Ecuador (Tirira 2001).	eng
6926	conservation	Dalponte, J. & Courtenay, O., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/>The species is currently listed as Least Concern on the Brazilian Red List (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005); it is classified as Near Threatened in the Minas Gerais state list.<br/><br/>Hunting and trade in wildlife is generally forbidden in Brazil. There is no specific hunting legislation for Hoary Foxes. <br/><br/>Specimens in Brazilian zoos at the time of writing include: Brasilia (1); São Paulo (1); Ribeirão Preto (1); Belo Horizonte (5); Teresina (1). High mortality rates due to starvation amongst captive cubs are reported. There are no current plans to reintroduce hoary foxes into the wild.<br/><br/>Gaps in Knowledge<br/>Areas for further research include focusing on aspects of behavioural ecology, population status, geographical range, the potential role of disease in population regulation, and their status as potential reservoirs of veterinary (e.g., scabies, distemper) and public health (e.g., leishmaniasis, rabies) pathogens.	eng
6926	distribution	Dalponte, J. & Courtenay, O., 2008	The Hoary Fox is confined to Brazil, associated with the cerrado habitats (mosaic of grasslands and xerophytic vegetation) of the central Brazilian plateau, and peripheral transitional zones including dry open habitats of the Pantanal (Mato Grosso state). Confirmed in the states of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Tocantins and Goiás (J. Dalponte unpubl.), southern and western Bahia (Juarez and Marinho-Filho 2002; J. Dalponte, pers. obs.), and western Piauí in Parque Nacional Serra da Capivara (F. Olmos pers. comm.). Capture records of an extant specimen held in Teresina Zoological Park indicate its northerly geographical limit is probably in north Piauí (Costa and Courtenay 2003). A previous report of its occurrence in Ceará (north-east Brazil) (Deane 1956) was contested by Courtenay <em>et al.</em> (1996). Records along the Brazil-Bolivian border in Mato Grosso (Anderson 1997) are unsubstantiated; the nearest record is 70 km to the south in the Pantanal (Mato Grosso do Sul) (J. Dalponte unpubl.).	eng
6926	habitat	Dalponte, J. & Courtenay, O., 2008	Occurs in open cerrado habitats, but readily adapts to insect-rich livestock pastures and areas of agriculture (soybean, rice, corn, eucalyptus plantation). Rarely observed in densely wooded cerrado, floodplains, dry or gallery forests.	eng
6926	population	Dalponte, J. & Courtenay, O., 2008	The species is locally abundant in the central highland cerrado biome, but populations appear smaller than those of the sympatric Crab-eating Fox for which population estimates are similarly lacking.	eng
6926	threats	Dalponte, J. & Courtenay, O., 2008	The principal biome where Hoary Foxes occur is the cerrado which is being destroyed at a rate of 3% each year, largely in the interests of agriculture (livestock and soybean) (MMA-BRASIL 1998). However, it appears that Hoary Foxes adapt to livestock pasture rich in termites and dung beetles. Breeding foxes are found in deforested wooded areas (J. Dalponte, pers. obs.), thus it is possible that deforestation may not have a negative impact on the species. Areas of high human population density are unlikely to be suitable. The species is not exploited for fur or any other products.	eng
6927	conservation	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Included in CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex griseus</span>).<br/><br/>Present in at least six protected areas in central west Argentina. In Chile, the secies is present in 30 Wildlife Protected Areas (WPA) from a total of 49 surveyed. However, 40% of those 30 WPAs are smaller than the 115 km² needed to sustain a minimum viable population (500 individuals). Estimates of local extinctions in WPAs from central Chile reach 50% (see Simonetti and Mella 1997). The most important Chilean WPAs in which Chillas occur include: Parque Nacional Lauca, Parque Nacional Puyehue, Parque Nacional Vicente Pérez Rosales, Parque Nacional Torres del Paine.<br/><br/>Resolution 144/83 of the former National Secretary of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development of Argentina categorises this species as "In Danger". Chillas are totally protected in Mendoza, Catamarca, and San Luis, while in the continental provinces of Patagonia and in Tierra del Fuego, hunting and fur trading are legal (A. Novaro and M. Funes pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Chile, the passing of the 1972 furbearer's protection law appears to have curtailed the exports of pelts (Iriarte and Jaksic 1986, Iriarte 2000). Currently, all Chilean populations are protected by law N° 19,473 [1996], except for those from Tierra del Fuego (XII Region), where a maximum of 10 individuals/day/hunter are allowed from May 1 to July 31 (A. Iriarte pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Efforts are being made in Argentina to concentrate the relevant biological, legal and commercial information on the species in an attempt to design a plan for sustainable use and conservation (A. Novaro and M. Funes pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Chillas occur in many zoos of Argentina and Chile, but details of breeding in captivity are not known.<br/><br/>The need for a deeper understanding of the biology of the Chilla has been repeatedly emphasized by Argentinean as well as by Chilean studies (e.g., Johnson and Franklin 1994a; González del Solar <em>et al.</em> 1997). Reliable information is needed especially with regard to those biological aspects required for population management leading to sustainable use and conservation: population-dynamics, incidence of parasites and other diseases, and research on the role of chillas in small-livestock mortality.	eng
6927	distribution	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Widespread in plains and mountains on both sides of the Andes, from northern Chile (17°S) down to Tierra del Fuego (54°S). In Argentina, they occur in the western and southern arid and semi-arid regions of the country, from ca. 23°S (Jujuy and Salta) to Tierra del Fuego, and from the eastern foothills of the Andes mountain range to meridian 66°W, reaching the Atlantic coast (ca. 63°W) south from Río Negro. Present in the following provinces: Jujuy (Jayat <em>et al.</em> 1999), Salta (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1996), Tucumán, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, west of San Luis, Neuquén, west of La Pampa, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego (Osgood 1943; Olrog and Lucero 1981).<br/><br/>Widespread in Chile from the I Administrative Region (Atacama Province) in the north, south to the Strait of Magellan (XII Administrative Region, Magallanes Province) and Tierra del Fuego (Medel and Jaksic 1988; Marquet <em>et al</em>. 1993), and from the western foothills of the Andes mountain range to the Pacific coast (71–73°W). They were introduced to Tierra del Fuego in 1951 in an attempt to control rabbit (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>) infestation (Jaksic and Yáñez 1983).<br/><br/>Other populations have been reported to exist in some of the southern Atlantic islands, including Malvinas/Falkland (Olrog and Lucero 1981), but this requires confirmation. Their presence in Peru is uncertain.	eng
6927	habitat	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The Chilla occurs in steppes, "pampas" (grasslands), and "matorral" (scrublands) (Olrog and Lucero 1981). They generally inhabit plains and low mountains, but they have been reported to occur as high as 3,500–4,000 m (see Marquet <em>et al.</em> 1993; Jayat <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although Chillas occur in a variety of habitats, they prefer shrubby open areas. In central Chile, they hunt more commonly in flat, open patches of low height (1–2 m) scrub than in areas with dense vegetation or ravines. Yet, they do visit ravines, apparently in search of fruit (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1980; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1996). In southern Chile (Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta), Chillas also prefer open areas to those more dense patches where Darwin's Foxes occur (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1990; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990; Medel <em>et al</em>. 1990). Durán <em>et al</em>. (1985) found that in Chilean Patagonia, their typical habitat was the shrubby steppe composed of "coirón" (<em>Festuca</em> spp., <em>Stipa</em> spp.) and "ñires" (<em>Nothofagus antarctica</em>), and that burning and destruction of forests in order to augment the land for sheep farming seems to have been advantageous for Chillas. A similar preference was detected in Parque Nacional Torres del Paine, where 58% of the 12 monitored individuals used matorral shrubland or <em>Nothofagus</em> thicket habitat within their home ranges, more than was expected (Johnson and Franklin 1994b). In the north-eastern Mendoza desert (Argentina), these foxes seem to prefer the lower levels of the shrubby sand dunes that characterize the landscape or the valleys among dunes rather than their higher sections (R. González del Solar, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Chillas are tolerant to very different climatic regimes from remarkably hot and dry areas, such as the Atacama coastal desert in northern Chile (less than 0 mm average annual rainfall, 22°C mean annual temperature), to the humid regions of the temperate Valdivian forest (2,000 mm average annual rainfall, 12°C mean annual temperature) and the cold Tierra del Fuego (ca. 400 mm average annual rainfall, 7°C mean annual temperature).	eng
6927	population	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	In Argentina, Olrog and Lucero (1981) considered chillas to be "locally common". In the latter country, relative abundance of chillas has been evaluated mainly through the scent stations technique. Autumn data collected in Pilcaniyeu (Río Negro) from 1983 to 1989, as well as winter data collected in Patagonia from 1989 to 2000 (A. Novaro and M. Funes unpubl.) and in north-eastern Mendoza from 1993 to 1997 (F. Videla <em>et al.</em> unpubl., R. González del Solar <em>et al.</em> unpubl.), suggest that populations are essentially stable in the southern half of Argentina where habitat is more favourable. They are reported to have expanded their distribution in Tierra del Fuego since their introduction (A. Novaro pers. comm.). J. Bellati (pers. comm.) estimated in 1996 an ecological density of one chilla/km² in Tierra del Fuego. Their status in the northern half of the country is unknown.	eng
6927	threats	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The main threat to Chilla populations in the past was commercial hunting. However, inferences on the historical rate of Chilla extraction are difficult, since official pelt-export reports apparently have conflated data corresponding to different species. Hunting intensity has apparently declined in recent years. Illegal trapping still occurs in some regions of Chile and Argentina, mainly related to controlling predation on small livestock and apparently not as intensively as in the past (A. Iriarte pers. comm.). The species is hunted for its pelt in Argentina and Chile.	eng
6928	conservation	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Included in CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex gymnocercus</span>).<br/><br/>In Uruguay, the Pampas Fox has been reported in many protected areas which are included in a law passed in 2000 establishing the national protected areas system. However, this law has not been implemented yet (R. Rodríguez-Mazzini and D. Queirolo Morato pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Argentina, it was declared not threatened in 1983 and its trade was prohibited in 1987. However, this species continues to be hunted and demand for its fur exists. <br/><br/>In Uruguay, all foxes are protected by law, and the only legal exception is the government's so-called "control hunting permission", which does not allow the taking of animals for the fur trade. The situation is very similar in Paraguay.<br/><br/>In Argentina, the Pampas Fox has been successfully bred in captivity and presently is the best represented carnivore species in captivity in the country (Aprile 1999).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Most aspects of the species' ecology remain unknown. Studies on population dynamics in agricultural land, impact and sustainability of hunting, effect of predation on livestock and game species are needed, particularly for an appropriate management of wild populations. In addition, resolution of the species' taxonomic status is essential.	eng
6928	distribution	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The Pampas Fox inhabits the Southern Cone of South America, occupying chiefly the Chaco, Argentine Monte, and Pampas eco-regions. From eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay and east of Salta, Catamarca, San Juan, La Rioja and Mendoza provinces in Argentina, to the Atlantic coast; and from south-eastern Brazil to the Río Negro Province, Argentina, in the south. Information on the limits of its distribution and the extent to which it overlaps with congeneric species is uncertain.	eng
6928	habitat	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The Pampas Fox is a typical inhabitant of the Southern Cone Pampas grasslands. It prefers open habitats and tall grass plains and sub-humid to dry habitats, but is also common in ridges, dry scrub lands and open woodlands (Brooks 1992; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In the driest habitats in the southerly and easterly parts of its range, the species is replaced by the Chilla. Where its range overlaps with that of the Crab-eating Fox, the Pampas Fox would select more open areas. Apparently, the Pampas Fox has been able to adapt to the alterations caused by extensive cattle breeding and agricultural activities to its natural habitats.	eng
6928	population	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Little quantitative data are available on the abundance of Pampas Fox populations. However, it would be either abundant or common in most areas where the species has been studied. <br/><br/>In the coastal area of central Argentina, a study based on scent-stations found that Pampas Fox signs were more frequent than the Common Hog-nosed Skunk (<em>Conepatus chinga</em>) and Grison (<em>Galictis cuja</em>) (García 2001). Similarly, the frequency of observation of Pampas Fox was higher than that of skunk, grison, and the Geoffroy's Cat (<em>Oncifelis geoffroyi</em>) in a Sierra grassland area of Buenos Aires Province (M. Lucherini <em>et al.</em> unpubl.). In areas where the Pampas Fox is sympatric with the Crab-eating Fox, the former would be more abundant in open habitats, while the latter would more frequently inhabit woodland areas.<br/><br/>The Pampas Fox seems to be tolerant of human disturbance, being common in rural areas, where introduced exotic mammals, such as the European hare (<em>Lepus europaeus</em>), could form the bulk of its food intake (Crespo 1971; Farias 2000a; D. Birochio and M. Lucherini unpubl.).	eng
6928	threats	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The implementation of control measures (promoted by ranchers) by official organizations, coupled with the use of non-selective methods of capture, represent actual threats for the Pampas Fox. Fox control by government agencies involves the use of bounty systems without any serious studies on population abundance or the real damage that this species may cause. In rural areas, direct persecution is also common, even where hunting is officially illegal.<br/>Most of the species' range has suffered massive habitat alteration. For instance, the Pampas, which represents a large proportion of the species' distribution range, has been affected by extensive cattle breeding and agriculture. Approximately 0.1% of the original 500,000 km² range remains unaffected. However, due to the species' adaptability, the Pampas Fox seems able to withstand the loss and degradation of its natural habitat, as well as hunting pressure. Since no studies are available on its population dynamics in rural ecosystems, caution is required, since the sum of these threats may eventually promote the depletion of fox populations. Hunting pressure has resulted in diminished populations in the provinces of Tucumán (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1991) and Salta (Cajal 1986) of north-western Argentina.<br/><br/>Considering that the Pampas Fox trade is banned, no statistical information on the fur harvest is available. Different authors have pointed out that Argentine exports corresponding to the Chilla historically included other species, such as the Crab-eating Fox and the Pampas Fox (Ojeda and Mares 1982; García Fernandez 1991).	eng
6929	conservation	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Included on CITES – Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycalopex culpaeus</span>).<br/><br/>In Chile, the Culpeo occurs in 38 protected areas distributed throughout the country, encompassing all the habitats where it can be found. However, only 14% are large enough to support viable populations. In Argentina, the species occurs in 12 national parks and several provincial reserves, the majority of which probably support viable populations. In Peru, Culpeos occur in 13 protected areas (D. Cossios pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Chile, hunting has been banned since 1980, although law enforcement is not strict.<br/><br/>The Argentine legislation about Culpeos is contradictory. Culpeos were considered "Endangered" by a 1983 decree of the Argentine Wildlife Board (Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestres), due to the numbers of culpeo pelts traded during the 1970s and early 1980s. However, trade at the national level and export of Culpeo pelts was legal during that entire period and currently remains legal. The Culpeo's endangered status has never been revised in spite of marked changes in the fur trade and reports from monitoring programmes. The Tierra del Fuego population has been legally protected since 1985 (N. Loekemeyer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Peru, the Culpeo is not considered endangered and hunting may be legal if a management plan is approved by the government (D. Cossios pers. comm.). In Bolivia, although the fur export was banned in 1986, the species is not protected (Tarifa 1996, L. Pacheco pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Argentine Wildlife Board is starting to develop a management plan for canids that will include the Culpeo (V. Lichschein and M. Eliseth pers. comm.). Five regional workshops that included wildlife agency officials from provincial governments, wildlife traders, conservationists, and scientists have been held in Argentine Patagonia during recent years (the last one in 2002) to coordinate efforts to manage culpeo populations in a sustainable manner and reduce sheep predation. Similarly, in Chile, two national carnivore workshops have been organized by the Livestock and Agricultural Bureau during recent years. These were aimed at presenting new findings on the natural history of canids, including Culpeos, and wildlife-livestock issues and to discuss ways of improving our knowledge and better protecting Chilean carnivore populations. <br/><br/>The Culpeo is common in zoos throughout Chile and Argentina.	eng
6929	distribution	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	The Culpeo is distributed along the Andes and hilly regions of South America from Nariño Province of Colombia in the north (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 1995) to Tierra del Fuego in the south (Markham 1971; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It ranges down to the Pacific shoreline in the desert of northern Chile (Mann 1945, J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.), south to about Valdivia (Osgood 1943) and then again in Magallanes. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, the culpeo is found in Argentina from Jujuy Province in the North, reaching the Atlantic shoreline from Río Negro and southwards. This extended eastward distribution is relatively recent and was apparently favoured by sheep ranching (Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Novaro 1997a).	eng
6929	habitat	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Throughout its wide distribution, the Culpeo uses many habitat types ranging from rugged and mountain terrain up to the tree line, deep valleys and open deserts, scrubby pampas, sclerophyllous matorral, to broad-leaved temperate southern beech forest in the south. The Culpeo uses all the range of habitat moisture gradients from the driest desert to the broad-leaved rainforest. In the Andes of Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, the culpeo reaches elevations of up to 4,800 m (Redford and Eisenberg 1992; Romo 1995; A.J. Novaro <em>et al</em>. unpubl.; J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.). Redford and Eisenberg (1992) placed the Culpeo in the coldest and driest environments of South America relative to other South American canids.	eng
6929	population	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Due to conflicts with humans (i.e., preying upon poultry and livestock, Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Bellati and von Thüngen 1990) and because of its value as a furbearer, the Culpeo has been persecuted throughout its range for many decades (Jiménez 1993; Novaro 1995). Thus, current population numbers may be the result of past and present hunting pressure and food availability. The introduction of exotic prey species such as European hares (<em>Lepus europaeus</em>) and rabbits, as well as small-sized livestock into Chile and Argentina ca. 100 years ago, probably led to increases in the distribution and abundance of Culpeos, and facilitated their expansion towards the lowlands in eastern Argentina (Crespo and De Carlo 1963; Crespo 1975; Jiménez 1993; Jaksic 1998; Novaro <em>et al.</em> 2000a). Currently, Culpeos range over a much wider area in Patagonia than previously. Likewise, in several areas of the desert of northern Chile, recent mining activities provide the culpeo with resources such as food, water and shelter that were in much shorter supply in the past, and hence have changed their local distribution and abundance (J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Culpeos appear to withstand intense hunting levels as shown by fur harvest data from Argentina and still maintain viable regional populations (Novaro 1995). Culpeo populations that are harvested intensively may maintain viable levels through immigration from neighbouring unexploited areas that act as refugia (Novaro 1995). The Culpeo population in Neuquén Province in north-west Patagonia for example, appears to function as a source-sink system in areas where cattle and sheep ranches are intermixed (Novaro 1997b). Cattle ranches where no hunting occurs supply disperser foxes that repopulate sheep ranches with intense hunting. Changes in sex ratio may be another mechanism that allows culpeo populations to withstand intense hunting (Novaro 1995). Furthermore, large litter size and early maturity (Crespo and De Carlo 1963) could explain the Culpeo's high resilience to hunting.<br/><br/>When hunting pressure is reduced, Culpeo populations usually can recover quickly (Crespo and De Carlo 1963). This increase was observed at the Chinchilla National Reserve (Jiménez 1993) and at Fray Jorge National Park (Meserve <em>et al.</em> 1987; Salvatori <em>et al</em>. 1999), both in north central Chile. Culpeo densities also have increased in many areas of Argentine Patagonia following the reduction of fur prices and hunting pressure in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Novaro 1997b; A.J. Novaro and M.C. Funes unpubl.). An exception to this response is the Culpeo population in Tierra del Fuego, where they are still declining in spite of several years of reduced hunting pressure (N. Loekemeyer and A. Iriarte pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Estimates from intensive trapping by Crespo and De Carlo (1963) provided a density of 0.7 individuals/km² for north-west Patagonia, Argentina. Thirty years later, Novaroet al. (2000b), using line transects, reported densities of 0.2–1.3 individuals/km² for the same area. In north central Chile, the ecological density of culpeos in ravines is 2.6 individuals/km², whereas the crude density (throughout the study site) is 0.3 individuals/km² (Jiménez 1993). In Torres del Paine, a crude density of 1.3 individuals/km² was reported based on sightings (J. Rau pers. comm.). Interestingly, a later estimate for the same area, based on telemetry, rendered an ecological density of 1.2 individuals/km² (Johnson 1992, in Jiménez 1993).<br/><br/>Based on radio telemetry, sightings and abundance of faeces, Salvatori <em>et al</em>. (1999) concluded that Culpeos respond numerically to a decline in the availability of their prey in north central Chile. Earlier, based on abundance of faeces, Jaksic <em>et al</em>. (1993) reached the same conclusion for the same Culpeo population. In contrast, Culpeos (not distinguished from sympatric Chillas) did not show a numerical or a functional response during a decline of their main prey at another site in north central Chile (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
6929	threats	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Main threats to Culpeos have been hunting and trapping for fur (although trade has decreased in the last decade) and persecution to reduce predation on livestock and poultry. Habitat loss does not appear to be an important threat to this species. Predation by feral and domestic dogs may be important in some areas (Novaro 1997b).	eng
6930	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	In Portugal it is restricted to the upper Tejo estuary, the Caniçada reservoir belonging to the Cávado drainage basin, and four reservoirs belonging to the Mondego system (Aguieira, Raiva, Fronhas, and Lagoa Comprida). Found in temporary ponds in the Doñana National Park (SW Spain) and on the Quadalquivir River.	eng
6931	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6931	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is reasonably widespread in southeast Asia occurring from the Malay Peninsula, possibly including southern Thailand, to Indonesia where the species occurs in Borneo including Brunei and possibly Sumatra (A. Suyanto pers. comm. 2006) and the Philippines, where it is known only from one specimen from Luzon (Abra province) and three from Mindanao (Misamis Oriental province) (Kock 1969; Utzurrum 1992; L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), although it probably occurs over a substantial part of the Philippines (L. Heaney  pers. comm. 2006).	eng
6931	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This is probably a canopy or supracanopy species and has been taken in mist nets over streams, primarily in lowland, hill, and montane forest. It is not clear if this species can persist in degraded areas.<br/>In the Philippines, it has been found in montane rainforest in areas close to disturbed areas (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006). It has also been caught in secondary forest (Ramayla pers. comm. 2006) and roosts in small groups in ferns there. In Indonesia, it has been recorded from montane regenerating forest which had been heavily logged during the 1970s. On Borneo, they are believed to roost in hollow trees and caves (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
6931	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	These are high flying bats that are difficult to record (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). They are uncommon in Indonesia where they naturally occur at low densities.	eng
6931	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is affected by deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture, logging, plantations, and forest fires, throughout much of its range, particularly in the lowlands.	eng
6937	conservation		It occurs at the boundary of the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky (but yet confirmed to be within this protected areas [Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006]) and probably in Parc National de Masoala (the locality of Maroantsetra is located here [Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006]). Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) recommend that some known "urban" populations (such as the population within Maroantsetra) should be managed and protected. Additionally survey work is needed over much of the species range. This species is sometimes bred for commercial purposes outside Madagascar, and many specimens exchanged in the pet trade are captive bred. Captive breeding programmes and the CITES Appendix I status of this species have effectively halted commercial exploitation of it in Madagascar (if indeed this was ever a major threat), and any future trade in it needs to be well regulated. There is a well-managed captive breeding programme involving many US zoos, and it is now also kept in a zoo in Madagascar. Further taxonomic work is required to resolve confusion between this species and <em>D. guineti</em>.	eng
6937	distribution		This species occurs in north-eastern Madagascar, where it has a relatively wide, but poorly understood, distribution. Specific records come from Andivoranto (a historical record), around Antongila Bay, Fizoana, Iaraka, Maroantsetra, Rantabe and Voloina (Glaw and Vences 2007). Other reported localities for this species, especially the southernmost ones, might in fact refer to <em>Dyscophus guineti</em>. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
6937	habitat		It lives in primary rainforest, coastal forest, secondary vegetation, degraded scrub, and highly disturbed urban areas. It is a very adaptable species, but possible declines in Maroansetra indicate that there might be a limit to the extent that it can persist in urbanized habitats. It appears to be localized to sandy ground near the coast, and breeds in ditches, flooded areas, swamps, and temporary and permanent still or very slowly flowing water.	eng
6937	population		It is locally abundant, especially in and around Maroansetra (the best known locality for this species). However, surveys undertaken around Maroansetra in 2006 suggest that the population here seems to be declining (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In Ambatovaky its population is stable and abundant.	eng
6937	threats		Pollution of waterbodies is a potential threat, and in the past this species was subject to collection for international trade, although this is now largely under control and restricted.	eng
6973	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Current protection of natural forest is maintaining the species' habitat and cessation of all natural forest removal is critical. Restoration of natural forest edges may enable it to expand its area of occupancy. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable.	eng
6973	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species is endemic to South Africa. The original geographical range of this species has probably been reduced through removal of the Cape forests. Currently the species is known from streams near Storms River and in the Tsitsikamma Forest (Western Cape and Eastern Cape) (Samways 2006 in press), and Marloth Nature Reserve. It was recently discovered at Swellendam. The current known range is around 400 km².	eng
6973	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	This is an unusual odonata species for South Africa in that it inhabits small, fern-fringed streams in the deep shade of the forest at relatively southerly latitudes (<em>ca</em> 34°S).	eng
6973	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is unknown, but with the protection of the Tsitsikamma Forest, range and population size appear to have stabilized (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
6973	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	Renewed natural forest removal would be a severe future threat, but currently this is considered to have minimal impact.	eng
6975	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	The population occurs within protected areas (Hottentots-Holland Reserve, Kogelberg Nature Reserve, Cedarberg Nature Reserve, Table Mountain National Park). Population levels should be monitored regularly. There must be no further encroachment of plantation forestry or introduction of trout. Fish-farming enterprises in Jonkershoek and Du Toit' s Kloof are of concern. The removal of alien invasive trees, is of great benefit to this species.	eng
6975	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species is endemic to South Africa. It is only known from the mountains in the West Cape, this species could never have been abundant as it is such a habitat specialist. From early records (Pinhey 1984) it was nevertheless at many more localities than it is today, having disappeared in particular from the Rawsonville area. Today it is known only from small, boulder-filled streams in the upper reaches of small rivers in the Cape Fold mountains (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
6975	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species is now known from several locations with clear, shallow streams with an abundance of large, lichen-covered boulders (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
6975	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is unknown, however its population appears to have stabilised in both range and size.	eng
6975	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	There are several threats which are also synergistic. Alien invasive trees (pines and <em>Acacia longifolia</em>) shade the habitat and alien invasive rainbow trout are predators. The former threat of habitat removal (mostly for plantation forestry) has largely subsided.	eng
6977	conservation	Leite, Y. & Langguth, A., 2008	This rodent occurs in Araripe National Forest (Leite, 2003). The species would benefit from habitat protection measures. Further studies on the ecology and life history of this species are required (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6977	distribution	Leite, Y. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Brazil from the southern portion of the state of Ceara to the northern most part of Minas Gerais state (Leite 2003). The range of this species is likely to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
6977	habitat	Leite, Y. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species is nocturnal and is probably folivorous (Leite, 2003). It is strongly arboreal, and some species construct leaf nests in tree cavities (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6977	population	Leite, Y. & Langguth, A., 2008	This rodent may be locally common although occurs in fragmented and patchy habitat (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6977	threats	Leite, Y. & Langguth, A., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
6978	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species has not been found in any protected areas (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6978	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species originally occured in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is now highly restricted to Minas Gerais and no longer in Rio de Janeiro (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6978	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Original specimen was found in a cave near Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
6978	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is uncommon; it is known from only four specimens (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6978	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002), and habitat destruction is ongoing in the Cerrado (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6979	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
6979	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and northeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999), and in Bolivar state of eastern Venezuela (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
6979	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is nocturnal and arboreal in nature. Two young are born (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is present in primary forest.	eng
6979	population	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	Its population is not well known but it not thought to be particularly common (Catzeflis, F. and Patton, J. pers. comm.).	eng
6979	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	The species is affected by deforestation, although this is not considered a major threat at this time.	eng
6980	conservation	Leite, Y. & Christoff, A., 2008	Some studies on ecology and natural history in progress. It occurs in some protected areas including Itapoa State Park.	eng
6980	distribution	Leite, Y. & Christoff, A., 2008	The known range of the drab Atlantic tree rat extends from the southern state of Parana to Rio Grande do Sul (Leite, 2003). This species has been reported in localities within 60 km of Porto Alegre, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6980	habitat	Leite, Y. & Christoff, A., 2008	This species is strongly arboreal; it constructs leaf nests in tree cavities (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It occurs in semideciduous and Araucaria forests. Some predation by foxes has been documented in Atlantic Forest habitat. It is nocturnal and folivorous (Leite, 2003).	eng
6980	population	Leite, Y. & Christoff, A., 2008	This rodent is apparently common in some localities (Y. Leite, com. pers.).	eng
6980	threats	Leite, Y. & Christoff, A., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
6981	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	There are no records from protected areas but this species likely occurs in Mamiraua, State of Amazonas.	eng
6981	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is found in the central Amazon region, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). As <em>Toromys grandis</em> the species occurs along both banks of the Amazon, the lower Solimoes and the mid to lower sections of the Tapajos (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Further sampling may demonstrate the presence of this species along other tributaries of the Amazon (Lack-Ximenes <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
6981	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is apparently restricted to flooded forest but sampling has been poor.	eng
6981	population	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance.	eng
6981	threats	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	The species is affected by deforestation; however, it occurs in flooded forest, a habitat which is not highly threatened in this region.	eng
6982	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent occurs in Estaçao Ecologica da Acaua (State Park) in Minas Gerais state.	eng
6982	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs from the coastal regions of Pacaraíba, Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil; there are three clusters on record approximately 700 km apart (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Leite, 2003).	eng
6982	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is present in the Eastern forests (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002) where it is found mainly inland in semideciduous forests but reaches the coastal area of Paraiba (Leite, 2003).	eng
6982	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known from 31 specimens in 5 localities (Leite, 2003).	eng
6982	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
6983	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
6983	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is confined to western Amazonia. It is found from the Cenepa River in northern Peru through to the Jurua, Jau, Purus and Negro rivers in Brazil (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The range is thought to extend into eastern Ecuador (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
6983	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Little is known of the biology of this species; it is probably adaptable to secondary habitats including gardens, anywhere there is a closed canopy; also found along stream edges (J. Patton pers. comm.). During a survey three of the four specimens of this species captured were taken in the tree canopy. The digestive system physiology suggests it feeds on leaves (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). In the same survey, a single adult female was found to be pregnant with a single embryo.	eng
6983	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The results of a study were unable to ascertain the true abundance of this species, it was unclear whether the trapping program failed or whether Makalata macrura is rare throughout the Rio Jurua (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Emmons and Feer (1997) suggested that the species is locally common.	eng
6983	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
6984	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species occurs in Floresta Nacional de Ipanema (Protected National Forest) (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Also occurs at the Parque Estadual da Ilha do Cardoso, Sao Paulo state (Leite, 2003).	eng
6984	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil from states of Rio de Janeiro to Parana, mainly along the coastal zone but extending inland to western Sao Paulo state (Leite, 2003, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6984	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent inhabits in the eastern forests (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The species may construct arboreal nests of leaves (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Most museum records are in areas of broadleaf evergreen rainforest, but species also occurs in semideciduous forest (Leite, 2003).	eng
6984	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6984	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
6985	conservation	Moura, R.T. & da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2008	The species is not recorded from any protected areas, however, it would benefit from areas of its known range being given protected area status. Studies are needed to provide better information on population size, biology and ecology of the species and to determine the best plan for conservation action. The species would further benefit from habitat restoration, enforcement of existing restrictions on hunting and a captive breeding programme to release individuals into natural habitat.	eng
6985	distribution	Moura, R.T. & da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002); it is concentrated around Região de Ilhéus-Itabuna; also one record from 1997 is known in Eliseo Medrado Municipality, Bahia State. The extent of occurrence is approximately 15,000 km², not including outlier record in Eliseo Medrado (Moura, R. pers. comm.).	eng
6985	habitat	Moura, R.T. & da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2008	This species lives on cacao plantations and consumes cacao leaves, but further research is required to determine what its original habitat was before its association with humans; it is likely to have been a forest inhabitant (R. Moura pers. comm.).	eng
6985	population	Moura, R.T. & da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2008	Some interviews with locals indicate that this species was abundant in past, but it has been more difficult to locate recently (R. Moura pers. comm).	eng
6985	threats	Moura, R.T. & da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2008	The destruction of  forests for pasture represents a serious threat to the survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">Callistomys pictus </span>and other species in southern Bahia. This rodent inhabits lands predominated by cacao cultivation, also being turned over for pasture lands, coffee plantations and eucalyptus timber. It is hunted. Road construction is fragmenting some of its natural habitat.	eng
6986	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
6986	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality: Pebas, northeastern Peru. It was collected at around 200 m. Emmons and Feer (1997) and Woods and Kilpatrick (2005) include a larger range. They said that this species occurs in the central and north of the Amazonia Peru.	eng
6986	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It was collected in lowland Amazonian tropical moist forest.This rodent is nocturnal, and arboreal and nests in hollow trees. The female appears to bear only one or two young (Eisenberg and Redford, 1997; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6986	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is difficult to collect and as a result very little is known about it..	eng
6986	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
6987	conservation	Tirira, D. & Solari, S., 2008	This rodent occurs in two protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
6987	distribution	Tirira, D. & Solari, S., 2008	E. saturnus is known from a few scattered localities in eastern Ecuador and central Peru, in the upper Marañon River (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005) to at least 1,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
6987	habitat	Tirira, D. & Solari, S., 2008	This rodent is nocturnal, and arboreal. It nests in hollow trees. The females appear to bear only one or two young. It is found in premontane and lowland rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6987	population	Tirira, D. & Solari, S., 2008	It is rare, and known from fewer than 10 individuals, from a small geographic range (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
6987	threats	Tirira, D. & Solari, S., 2008	The major threats to this species are deforestation and habitat fragmentation.	eng
6988	conservation	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in several national parks within its range.	eng
6988	distribution	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in northern Colombia and Venezuela (Iack-Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005) including Margarita Island (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
6988	habitat	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is found in lowland thorn forest in moist areas near streams. It has been captured in trees, and probably is nocturnal. Its nests in trees holes and feeds on fruits and seeds. This rat is found in gallery forest, thorn forest, dry forest, and trees in llanos, and rarely in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Lord, 1999).	eng
6988	population	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This spiny rat is locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Lord, 1999).	eng
6988	threats	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
6989	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	80% of the 336 km² of São Sebastião Island consist of Atlantic rainforest, mostly old second growth due to selective logging. The forest is, however, currently in the process of expansion (Olmos, 1997) since most of the island surface is protected as a state park (Parque Estadual de Ilhabela, ca. 27,000 ha) (Leite, 2003).	eng
6989	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is endemic to the Ilha de Sao Sebastiao, Sao Paulo state, Brazil; this continental island is 336 km², 80% is Atlantic rainforest (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Leite, 2003; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
6989	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is an arboreal nester; captive specimens may feed on fruit but not foliage (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Island has rugged topography from sea level to 1,379 m, the dominant vegetation is broadleaf, evergreen rainforest (Leite, 2003).	eng
6989	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6989	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The island includes a population of introduced cats (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
6990	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	More research is required to determine its conservation status. The species would benefit from establishment of a protected area within its range. A proposal exists to create a protected area adjacent to, but not extending into, the known range of the species (R. Moura pers. comm.).	eng
6990	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species was known only from the type specimen collected in the nineteenth century (Emmons <em>et al.</em> 2002). The type locality is Helvecia, Bahia state, Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Recently an extensive search was conducted in the surrounding area with only one specimen found during a year (R. Moura pers. comm.).	eng
6990	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no detailed information on the habitat of this species and little is known of its ecology. This rodent has been collected in broadleaf evergreen rainforest close to sea level (Leite, 2003).	eng
6990	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Just one specimen found in recent history, located within 40 km of Helvecia (type locality) (R. Moura pers. comm.).	eng
6990	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known but estimated to be direct and indirect effects of deforestation.	eng
7010	conservation	Delgado, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species has been found in several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
7010	distribution	Delgado, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the western, central, and eastern Cordilleras of Colombia between 800 and 2,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005), and on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
7010	habitat	Delgado, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	Little is known of the behavior and natural history of this species. It is known from the montane forest as well as secondary forest. It is thought to be nocturnal, arboreal and solitary.The species is preyed on by pumas in the central Andes (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
7010	population	Delgado, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	In Ecuador it is rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia, the species is common in appropriate habitat (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
7010	threats	Delgado, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species is typically killed by locals in Colombia to protect their dogs (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
7013	conservation	Shine, R., 2009	The species was listed as Vulnerable at a national scale by Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1993) who drew up an action plan for the species. However, most of the arguments for listing are based on the eastern populations, which have been listed as "endangered" in New South Wales (NSW Scientific Committee 2003), "vulnerable" in Victoria (Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007), and "rare" in Southern Australia (Wilson and Swan 2008). It is not considered threatened in Western Australia. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, particularly of the declining populations in New South Wales, which are likely to become extinct unless threats are eliminated (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).	eng
7013	distribution	Shine, R., 2009	This species is an Australian endemic. It has a disjunct distribution, and is widespread throughout southwestern Western Australia. Its eastern distribution is smaller, and comprised of three disjunct and small populations: Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, southwestern New South Wales, and western Victoria (Shine 1982, Wilson and Swan 2008).	eng
7013	habitat	Shine, R., 2009	This species inhabits heaths and open scrubland, favouring mallee/spinifex associations. In the eastern part of its range, the species seems to be dependent on mallee and <span style="font-style: italic;">Triodia</span> hummock grass (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>It often shelters amongst leaf litter under low-lying vegetation and is likely to be a sit-and-wait ambush predator (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).	eng
7013	population	Shine, R., 2009	The eastern populations of this species are considered under threat (Annable 1996) and appear to have declined dramatically in places. In New South Wales, the population is considered extremely small, due to a lack of sightings over a period of fourteen years, despite extensive biodiversity surveys (NSW Scientific Committee 2003).	eng
7013	threats	Shine, R., 2009	In Victoria, clearance of mallee habitat for agriculture and grazing, together with inappropriate fire regimes and overgrazing by livestock, has greatly diminished the amount of habitat available to this species (Robertson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989). These factors are also thought to affect the species in the remainder of its eastern distribution (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Annable 1996). Predation by foxes may also be acting as a major threat to this species (NSW Government 2005).<br/><br/>With the species thought to be an ambush predators, the above threats may have a particular devastating effect, as ambush predators are thought to undergo particularly rapid declines among the Australian elapid snakes (Reed and Shine 2002).	eng
7014	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It may be present in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, but this requires confirmation since there are no records this far west. Further work is necessary to better determine the distribution range and population status of this species, and to what degree it is impacted by bushmeat hunting.	eng
7014	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (Indonesia) where it occurs in the north-east tip of the northern peninsula, from sea level to 1,100 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
7014	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a terrestrial and vermivorous species that inhabits lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser 1990). It is unknown whether it can survive in degraded habitats, since most localities from which the species is known are very early collecting sites when the habitat was probably more intact than today.	eng
7014	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is only known from museum specimens. There are museum records from six localities (G. Musser pers. comm.). In the early 1940s, H. Raven collected eight specimens in a single locality, but there is no recent information on the current status of this species.	eng
7014	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, expanding agriculture and human settlement. It is also hunted for bushmeat.	eng
7015	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Seri, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Clara's Echymipera occurs in several protected areas.	eng
7015	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Seri, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands of north-central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the island of Yapen (Indonesia) (Van Deusen and Keith 1966). It ranges from sea level to 1,700 m asl.	eng
7015	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Seri, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species prefers lowland and lower-montane tropical moist forests. It is also sometimes found in rural gardens and other disturbed areas. It is a highly fecund species.	eng
7015	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Seri, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Clara's Echymipera is locally abundant. A large portion of its range is in areas of very low human population density.	eng
7015	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Seri, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, it is extensively hunted for food by local people.	eng
7016	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the range, natural history, and possible threats.	eng
7016	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is known only from two fairly recent specimens collected at two localities in the Fly-Strickland river drainage of Papua New Guinea. There is a third, unconfirmed record from Mount Menawi. If accepted, this would extend both the range and the elevation of the species. Elevation range is sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
7016	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Very little is known about the natural history of Menzies' Echymipera. It is suspected to be restricted to a specific habitat type that has not been well surveyed, possibly the gallery forests along the Fly-Strickland river drainage.	eng
7016	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Menzies' Echymipera is known from only two (possibly three) specimens. It appears to be a naturally rare species.	eng
7016	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Threats to Menzies' Echymipera are not known. It could be restricted to a specific habitat type. Predation by feral dogs may be a threat to the species.	eng
7017	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	It is not known if David's Echymipera is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, range, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
7017	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Kiriwina, in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It may be present on other islands in the group, although further field studies are needed to confirm this. Kiriwina is a small island and the extent of occurrence of the species is at most 280 km<sup>2</sup>. The island of Kiriwina has a high human population and is very low lying (maximum elevation 100 m asl).	eng
7017	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	It has been recorded from areas of degraded forest and regrowth habitats (Flannery 1995).	eng
7017	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	David's Echymipera is supposedly common, despite high human population in its range (Flannery 1995).	eng
7017	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	The threats to David's Echymipera are poorly known, but the island has a high human population and much of the area is cultivated.	eng
7018	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
7018	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Common Echymipera is widely distributed throughout New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and neighbouring islands in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, the eastern Moluccas of Indonesia, and Yapen and Biak-Supiori islands of Indonesia. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m (but usually below 1,200 m) asl.	eng
7018	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Common Echymiperas occur in lowland and lower-montane primary and degraded forests, including coffee plantations. It is resilient to disturbance. The females give birth to between one and three young.	eng
7018	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is extremely abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
7018	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Common Echymipera is locally hunted for food, sometimes by using dogs, but this is not considered a major threat. It may be locally threatened in some areas by predation from feral or village cats.	eng
7019	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Winter, J., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Long-nosed Echymipera occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
7019	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Winter, J., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This widely distributed species ranges from the islands of Misool, Yapen, the Aru Islands, and Kai Islands (all Indonesia); across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); to the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Goodenough, Fergusson, and Normanby) of Papua New Guinea and the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, in the south. It ranges from sea level to 2,100 m, but almost always below 1,200 m asl. In Queensland occurs from sea level to 800 m asl.	eng
7019	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Winter, J., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	On New Guinea, the Long-nosed Echymipera is found in primary lowland tropical moist forest and grassland adjacent to closed forest. The species is considered to be intolerant to habitat disturbance. In Australia, it is known from mesophyll vine forest, notophyll vine forest, gallery forest and coastal closed heath near to closed forest (Gordon 2008).	eng
7019	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Winter, J., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is uncommon over much of its range (Flannery 1995a,b), including Australia.	eng
7019	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Winter, J., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	In New Guinea, this species is threatened by overhunting for meat and by disturbance of forest habitats. There appear to be no immediate threats to the species in Australia (not hunted and unlikely to be as it is difficult to find), although its range here is restricted.	eng
7021	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The integrated water resources management plan for the Trichonis Lake (developed in the framework of the Life - Nature '99 project entitled: 'Actions for the preservation of Calcareous fens in Trichonis lake') should be implemented in the area aiming to eliminate the present high water level fluctuations in the lake on both annual and monthly basis. This will decrease the environmental impacts from the water abstractions for irrigation during the dry period and will facilitate preservation of the ecologically important habitats, in the broader area.	eng
7021	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Lake Trichonis and Lyssimachia in southwestern Greece.	eng
7021	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A lacustrine species. It is the smallest freshwater European teleost at maturity: 18 mm with a maximum length of 25 mm. It is a semelparous species dying just after spawning. The males provide parental care.	eng
7021	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Common in specific sites within the lakes. Maybe declining.	eng
7021	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, water extraction (lake level now fluctuates), and potentially habitat impacts from bottom trawling.	eng
7022	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
7022	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to western Greece, north of Patraikos Gulf, including Lefkas Island (may now have disappeared). Specifically, it is present in the Louros and Arahthos Rivers and in Trichonis Lake, possibly including the Mataranga river although this river dries out in the summer. Also found in the lower drainage of rivers Kalamas river and Acheloo and Pahvotis Lake (introduced), in Blykos spring, and in a small river the Agios Dimitrios. Occurrence further north in Albania needs to be confirmed.	eng
7022	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives exclusively in freshwaters, rivers, springs and lakes. Maximum length is ca. 54 mm for females and 51 mm for males. Minimum size at maturity is 24 mm. Reproduction is in the spring and summer. Phragmites plants are required for reproduction. The males provide parental care.	eng
7022	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Common in western Greece. Probably stable.	eng
7022	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat destruction.	eng
7030	conservation	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
7030	distribution	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species is known from Honduras to western Panama (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from Caribbean lowlands to 700 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
7030	habitat	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species can be found in wet, evergreen forest and tall second growth. It roosts in groups of 4 to 8 in tents made from small to medium sized Heliconia spp. or other understory plants. Horizontal leaves are chewed on either side of the midrib, causing the sides to collapse and hang vertically. Old heliconia leaves assume the same form, but appear withered and dead, whereas tents in active use are in succulent, green leaves. Tents are about 2 m above ground, and some tents are used only as night feeding roosts. Fruit pulp and seeds of small, understory figs were found under a night roost. This bat is seldom caught in mist nets, except when nets are set near occupied tents. Roosting groups can be closely approached and observed. Males and females share tents until young are born (in April in Costa Rica), then males leave. Females appear to suckle each other's young on occasion (Timm, 1982; Reid, 1997).	eng
7030	population	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	This bat is uncommon and local (Reid, 1997).	eng
7030	threats	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	May have habitat preference (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.). In Costa Rica the population declined, food preference, habitat restriction (Rodriguez pers. comm.)	eng
7037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from the type locality in the Cataract Gorge of the South Esk River (also referred to as the Dennison River), Launceston, Tasmania. The river is dammed at Trevallyn Dam near Launceston and used for the city's Hydro Electricity scheme. Although most of the water is dammed at Lake Trevallyn, some flows on into the Cataract Gorge where it becomes a tributary to the Tamar River, and the outflow from the power station also joins the Tamar River downstream of Launceston.	eng
7037	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Threatened by the construction of the hydroelectric dam in 1956 which changed the water flow through the Cataract Gorge. This may have resulted in the extinction of this species.	eng
7083	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) including, Parc National d’Isalo, Parc National de Namoroka, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana and Réserve Spéciale de Cape Sainte Marie; however, hunting has been reported from within Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Cardiff 2006). Roosts that are located in inaccessible rock outcrops pose significant challenges to hunters are relatively protected. Cave roosts are probably subject to highest hunting pressure and conservation measures should be focused at these sites.	eng
7083	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is widespread, albeit with a patchy distribution (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found both along the coast and on the central high plateau and areas from where there are no records probably reflect inadequate survey coverage rather than a genuine absence. There are some areas within its range where the lack of crevices means there are no roosting opportunities (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7083	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is known to roost in tree foliage, but is more usually found in rock fissures and caves (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana it used caves that were high and long with a good buffering capacity for temperature and humidity (Cardiff 2006). Its patchy distribution which includes humid, dry deciduous and spiny forest is probably related to the availability of suitable roost sites and <em>E. dupreanum</em> is rare or absent from a number of forests without rocky outcrops (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007; Schmid and Alonso 2005). It continues to survive in highly modified landscapes with very little native vegetation remaining (Ratrimomanarivo 2007), but appears to use native forest vegetation for food in preference to introduced plants (Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fruit is the main dietary component but it also eats leaves and other plant parts (Picot 2005; Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007). Through the ingestion of pollen and small seeds, a significant ecological role is inferred (Picot <em>et al</em>. 2007; Ratrimomanarivo 2007) and <em>E. dupreanum</em> may be an important pollinator of threatened baobab trees (Baum 1995). Additional research is needed on natural history and in particular roosting ecology and movements. MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that <em>E. dupreanum</em> might be migratory because of regular variation in the occupancy and abundance of roosts. Antibodies to Nipah, Tioman and Hendra viruses were detected in <em>E. dupreanum</em> in eastern Madasgascar (Iehlé <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
7083	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The population size and local abundance of this species are not well known. Estimates of colony size are difficult to obtain because the bats are hidden during the day, but is usually in the range of between 10 and 500, with a median of 200 individuals (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). The maximum colony size of 1,400 is from Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff unpubl.).	eng
7083	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is subject to harvesting for bushmeat across its range and hunting occurs both at roosting and foraging sites (Jenkins and Racey in press). It is classed as a game species under Malagasy law and although it can only be legally hunted between May and August (Durbin 2007), this legislation is widely ignored and the bats are hunted throughout the year. Its roosts tend to be well protected from bushfires and it is able to survive in landscapes with severely depleted natural food supplies as long as alternative plants are available (Ratrimomanarivo 2007). Hunting is therefore the main threat and was reported to account for a 30% desertion rate from 60 roosts (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although hunters report that deserted roosts are recolonized after a few years, there are several confirmed examples where this species has been extirpated at roost sites (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
7084	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Racey, P.A., 2008	This species is present in a few protected areas across its range, with a large roosting colony in Kasanka National Park, Zambia. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites, and a better understanding of the migratory patterns of this species would be beneficial to any conservation activities. The highest priority is to limit the harvesting of this species to sustainable levels.	eng
7084	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Racey, P.A., 2008	This bat is broadly distributed across the lowland rainforest and savanna zones of Africa from Senegal in the west, through to South Africa in the south and Ethiopia in the east (possibly ranging into Djibouti and southern Eritrea). It is also present on the extreme southwest Arabian Peninsula, where it has been recorded from Yemen and Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991). Populations of this bat occur on several offshore islands including the Gulf of Guinea islands and Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia (off Tanzania) (Bergmans 1990; Simmons 2005). There is a possibly disjunct population in the Air Mountains of Niger. Distribution at northern and southern extremes of the range is patchy and erratic. It is also sparse or absent in large areas of the Horn of Africa, central East Africa, and elsewhere (Bergmans, 1990). This bat is a migratory species in parts of its range; populations migrate from the West African forest north into the savanna zone during the major wet season. It ranges from sea level to around 2,000 m asl (Ruwenzori Mountains).	eng
7084	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Racey, P.A., 2008	This adaptable species has been recorded from a very wide range of habitats. It is commonly found in moist and dry tropical rain forest, including evergreen forest habitats in the form of coastal (including mangrove) and riverine forest, through moist and dry savanna and mosaics of these and similar habitat types. Populations can persist in modified habitats and the species is often recorded in urban areas, such as wooded city parks.	eng
7084	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Racey, P.A., 2008	In general this is a common species forming large colonies of thousands to even millions of individuals. Within colonies they form tight clusters of up to 100 animals, although in particularly large colonies this clustering may not be so obvious. Colonies may show extreme roost-site fidelity. During migration this species disperses into small groups. There is evidence of a widespread decline (P. Racey pers. comm.). A well-known colony in Kampala (Uganda) declined in numbers over a forty-year period from <em>ca</em>. 250,000 animals to 40,000 in 2007 (Monadjem <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Eidolon helvum</em> is the most heavily harvested bat for bushmeat in West and Central Africa, and this is believed to be a major factor in reportied population declines (P. Racey pers. comm.).	eng
7084	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Racey, P.A., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. It is, however, locally threatened in parts of its range by severe deforestation, and more generally across West and Central Africa by hunting for food and medicinal use. It is the most heavily harvested bat for bushmeat in West and Central Africa, and one of the most frequently consumed mammals in this region (P. Racey pers. comm.). Large pre-migration colonies are considered particularly vulnerable to any threats. In some areas it is considered to be a pest species and roosting locations may be restricted by cutting down trees. Trees are also cut down in order to catch bats for the market (P. Racey pers. comm.).	eng
7091	conservation	Vyas, R.V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
7091	distribution	Vyas, R.V., 2009	In India, this species is known from Purnea in Bihar, Mal, Bardighi and Calcutta in West Bengal, Wardha district in Maharashtra, and from Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal (Sharma 2003, Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been recorded in Rangpur, Bangladesh and Chitwan, Nepal (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has recently been recorded from Surat and Bhavnagar Gujarat (Vyas 2006).<br/><br/>The Maharashtra specimen recently recorded has extended the range by about 950 km from Corbett National Park, by 1,070 km from Purnea, by 950 km from Chitwan, and by 1,230 km from both Mal and Bardighi, West Bengal (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7091	habitat	Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species inhabits both dry and moist broadleaf forests. It is also known to occur in dry thorny scrub land and deciduous forest (R. Vyas pers. comm.).	eng
7091	population	Vyas, R.V., 2009	According to Sharma (2003), this species is rare. Currently, only nine specimens are known (Captain <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7091	threats	Vyas, R.V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
7112	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	The species is not listed by CITES. It is included in the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A2bcd+3bcd (Smith and Xie 2008), but it is not classified as a national protected species. It is listed as a provincially protected species in Hunan, Sichuan, Tibet, and Gansu. Being a widespread species, it is likely to be present in many protected areas. There is a need to determine its current status in the wild across is its wide range in China. Activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies, and investigations into human use of the species. More effort is required to confirm the existence and status of the species in Myanmar, particularly in the north eastern part of Kachin State (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm.).	eng
7112	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is found in central and southern China and there are old records from northern Myanmar (Groves 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). There has been fairly extensive camera trapping in the Myanmar range of the species where it is known from old specimens, but these surveys have failed to locate the species (Than Zaw pers. comm.). If it does persist in Myanmar it must have an isolated habitat, or limited elevational or geographic range that has prevented its detection; the Wildlife Conservation Sociery surveys have looked for this species many times without any result (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
7112	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	It is known to live in high damp forests up to the tree line and close to water, between 300 and 800 m asl in southeastern China; between 1,500-2,600 m asl in the middle of its range; and to as high as 4,750 m asl in western Sichuan (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Its diet is grass, some browse, and fruits. They are secretive and crepuscular, and are usually solitary or found in pairs. They live within well-defined home territories where they travel along well-established paths, rendering them vulnerable to snares. Rut occurs between September and December, single or twin fawns are born in April to July after about six months gestation, and animals are sexually mature in about nine months (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). It lives on mountainous terrain covered by dense forests. It eats bamboo and herbs (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2004). Zhang <em>et al</em>. (2004) also found that tufted deer habitats were characterized by relatively high shrub and herb density, but also a relatively high proportion of open land. Historically, this species was known from high damp forest in the northeastern Myanmar just below the snow line.	eng
7112	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	No documented estimates of population size or trend are available, although Sheng <em>et al</em>. (1998) guessed that there might be 300,000 to 500,000 animals in China. Little work is being done on this species and its status is poorly known.	eng
7112	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	In China, this species is hunted by locals (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Although data are lacking, given the very high level of harvesting of large mammals in China, it is reasonable to expect that this species in in decline. In Myanmar, hunting for trade to China is a pervasive threat that almost certainly applies to this species (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
7121	conservation	Jiang Zhigang & Harris, R.B., 2008	It is listed on the Chinese Red List as Extinct in the Wild, and on the China Key List - I. The present re-introduced populations are contained within enclosures and are essentially still subject to captive management.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation action includes:<br/>1.  Establish additional populations when and where appropriate, with the aim of re-establishing a genuinely wild, free-ranging population. <br/>2.  Establish a genetic management programme of all populations in China. <br/>3.  Develop conservation education programmes to raise conservation awareness among the local people and general public.<br/><br/>Following a trial release of this species in the Dafeng Reserve, China, Hu and Jiang (2002) concluded that future releases will necessitate either natural or artificial boundaries to alleviate conflict between introduced <em>E. davidianus</em> and farmers, on whose land the deer are likely to stray. These authors suggest a reintroduction model based on that of <em>Oryx leucoryx</em> in Oman (Stanley Price 1989).	eng
7121	distribution	Jiang Zhigang & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is endemic to China. Père David’s deer has been recovered from the brink of extinction and has become a classic example of how to rescue a highly threatened species (Ebenehard 1995). In the mid 1980s, Père David’s deer was re-introduced into captive facilities in China, and populations established in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang. <br/><br/>Fossils of <em>Elaphurus bifurcates</em>, <em>E. chinanensis chia</em>, <em>E. lantianensis</em> have been excavated from the region east of Xi’an and south of Harbin. The modern species of <em>Elaphurus</em>, Père David’s deer (Milu in Chinese) evolved in the Pliocene period of the Tertiary, according to fossils excavated in southern Japan. During the Pleistocene period, it was known from Manchuria (Hofmann, 2007). During the Holocene, <em>P. davidianus</em> was restricted to swamps and wetlands in the region south of 43°N and east of 110°E in mainland China (Cao 1992, Zhou, 2007). However, the distribution of <em>P. davidianus</em> shrank and its population declined due to hunting and land reclamation in the swamp areas as human population expanded (Jiang and Li, 1999). <em>P. davidianus</em> had largely disappeared in the wild by the late 19th century, and the last wild animal was shot near the Yellow Sea in 1939.<br/><br/>However, during the Qing Dynasty (1616-1911), the Nanyuang Royal Hunting Garden contained a herd of <em>P. davidianus</em> in its 200 km² hunting ground. This hunting garden in the southern suburbs of Beijing was predominantly a wetland, consisting of swamps, ponds and lakes crossed by the Yongding River. The area had been sealed off from the outside world since the Yuan Dynasty (1205-1368) as a royal garden. The French missionary Père Armand David “discovered” <em>P. davidianus</em> in the Nanyuan Royal Hunting Garden in 1864. Realising that the deer was an unknown species to the West, he persuaded the wardens to give him hinds and skeletons of an adult male, an adult female and a young male, and sent them to Paris in 1866, where the species was named Père David’s deer by Milne-Edwards. In 1895, the wall of the Nanyuan Hunting Garden was destroyed by a heavy flood of the Yongding River, and most of the Père David’s deer escaped and were hunted. Only 20-30 animals survived in the garden. Then in 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the garden was occupied by troops and the remaining deer were shot and eaten.<br/><br/>However, before the demise of the royal herd of Père David’s deer in the Nanyuan Royal Hunting Garden in 1900, the deer had been introduced into private deer collections in the United Kingdom, France and Germany. During the first decade of the 20th century, the 11th Duke of Bedford in the United Kingdom gathered the last 18 Père David’s deer in the world to form a breeding herd at the Woburn Abbey, England. Only 11 of these deer were capable of reproducing (Bedford, 1951-52). Nevertheless, the heavily inbred Père David’s deer safely passed though the genetic bottleneck of inbreeding and adopted the vast open parkland of an English country estate (Jones <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>The captive population started to increase (though with a setback during the First World War due to food shortage), and since the Second World War, the animals started to be spread through captive facilities worldwide, with the first captive animals being sent back to Beijing Zoo in 1956. More recently deer have been sent to China into managed, fenced situation in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang.	eng
7121	habitat	Jiang Zhigang & Harris, R.B., 2008	Studies have been carried out on the behavior, ecology and reproduction of Père David’s deer in Beijing since 1985, in Dafeng since 1986, and in Tianezhou since 2001. This species lives in low-lying grasslands and reed beds, often in seasonally flooded areas such as the lower Yangtze River valley and coastal marshes.  It eats grass, reeds and leaves of bushes, can swim well, and spend long periods in water.  It lives in single sex ormaternal herds. Animals reach maturity during second year. Gestation is 270-300 days. One, rarely two young are born. These are weaned in 10-11 months.  Adults live up to 18 years. Data from the Dafeng Reserve suggests that female <em>E. davidianus</em> establish a home range of approximately 1 km² (Hu and Jiang 2002).	eng
7121	population	Jiang Zhigang & Harris, R.B., 2008	After decades of <em>ex situ</em> conservation, the species breeds successfully in captivity (Beck and Wemmer 1983). In China there are now fenced populations in Beijing, Dafeng, Tianezhou and Yuanyang. <br/><br/>The first conservation reintroduction of Père David’s deer to China included two groups, of 20 deer (5 males : 15 females) and 18 deer (all females), in 1985 and 1987, respectively. All 38 deer were donated by the Marques of Tavistock of Woburn Abbey, and the transportation was sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). After a careful search and evaluation by a group of zoologists, botanists, wildlife managers and officers, the relic site of the Nanyuang Royal Hunting Garden in the southern suburbs of Beijing was chosen as the site of re-introduction, creating the Beijing Milu Park (39°07'N, 116°03'E), with an area of 60 ha.  The deer in the park have received supplemental feeding year round (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2000a).<br/><br/>The second re-introduction of <em>E. davidianus</em> was carried out in August of 1986, organized by former Ministry of Forestry and WWF. A group of 39 Père David’s deer was selected from five zoological gardens in the United Kingdom, with the deer mainly from the Whipsnade Wild Animal Park. An extensive search which covered a vast area in eastern China for a potential reintroduction site was conducted before a decision was made. The Dafeng State-Owen Forestry Farm was chosen, on the Yellow Sea coast in eastern China in a lightly populated area (semi-fossils of Père David’s deer have been excavated from the neighbouring counties, so this site is probably in its natural habitat). The introduced herd was released into three fenced paddocks, each about 100 ha in area.  The reserve purchased another 30 km² land in 1995, more than doubling its original size. In 1997, the Dafeng Milu Natural Reserve was approved by the National Nature Reserve Commission as a national nature reserve. The Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve has the potential to host a large population of Père David’s deer. The reserve has kept the reintroduced Père David’s deer and their offspring on its land, and in 1998 the first group of deer was released from the paddocks into the wider reserve (Hu and Jiang 2002). In 2003, and 2006 another two groups of deer were released from the paddocks. There were 950 Père David’s deer in the reserve in 2006. The annual average population growth rate of deer in the reserve was 17.01%. This Père David’s deer conservation strategy calls for further expanding of the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve (Jiang <em>et al</em>., 2000b). <br/><br/>The Beijing Milu Park is in a suburb of the national capital with a limited area and is engulfed by city development, whereas the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve is located in a remote costal region with little human settlement, where it is possible to acquire more land for conservation. Therefore, the Beijing Milu Park while keeping a healthy nuclear breeding herd of about 100 deer at the park, has shipped Père David’s deer to other sites in east China (Yang, 2007). The translocations thus reduced the grazing pressure on the park vegetation and expanded the distribution range of the Père David’s deer in the country. The average annual population growth rate for Père David’s deer in Beijing Milu Park from 1987-1997 was 17.3%. This Père David’s deer conservation strategy calls for an expansion of this artificial dispersal of animals to establish new sites (Jiang <em>et al</em>., 2000b). <br/><br/><em>E. davidianus</em> from the Beijing Milu Park have been relocated to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in eastern China and Hainan Island in the South China Sea. In October 1993, a group of 30 Père David’s deer (8 males : 22 females) arrived and was released in a paddock on a small peninsular in the Yangtze River, Tianezhou (29°49'N,112°33'E). This site was then established as the Tianezhou Milu Nature Reserve in 1993. The size of the reserve is 11.67 km². Another group of 34 Père David’s deer (10 males : 24 females) was transferred from the Beijing Milu Park to the Tianezhou paddock in the following year to enlarge the population. An additional 30 deer (15 males : 15 females) were released into the paddock of the reserve in 2002. The relocated deer reproduced in the second year after the relocation (Yang <em>et al</em>, 2002). By the end of calving season of 2006, there were 522 <em>E. davidianus</em> in the Tianezhou Milu National Nature Reserve. The annual average population growth rate was 22.2%. The birth rate and population growth rate in Tianezhou were significantly higher whereas the mortality rate was significantly lower than those of the Dafeng. <br/> <br/>In November, 2002, 30 <em>E. davidianus</em> (14 males : 16 females) from Beijing Milu Park and 20 from the Dafeng Milu Nature Reserve were introduced to Yuanyang Forestry Farm, Henan. These deer are in an enclosure on the Yuanyang Yellow River Nature Reserve (35°11'N, 114°15'E). In 2006, there were 53 deer in the Yuanyang Yellow River Nature Reserve paddock, but the sex ratio was predominately male biased (38 males : 15 females)  (Li <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Currently, there are a total of 53 herds of <em>E. davidianus</em> in China. Nine herds have fewer than 25 deer, 75.5% have fewer than 10 deer (Yang <em>et al</em>., 2003). Such a small herd size raise question about the effective population size and health of population genetics, since those herds are isolated and there is no gene exchange. The artificially dispersed <em>E. davidianus</em> herds are similar to a meta-population. The viability of the meta-population depends on the man-made gene exchange process by the managers.	eng
7121	threats	Jiang Zhigang & Harris, R.B., 2008	The species became extinct in the wild due to habitat loss and hunting.  The size of the reintroduced population was only 120 in 1993 (Cao 1993), although has increased to over 2,000 since that time (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). Low genetic diversity has been identified as a long-term threat by Zeng <em>et al</em>. (2007) and Yang <em>et al</em>. (2008). It is unclear how much native habitat remains on which <em>E. davidianus</em> can exist in a free-ranging state.	eng
7135	conservation	Larson, H. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this is a common, very widespread species, more information about its population size and trends, biology and potential threats (even if localized) facing this species is required.<br/>At the present moment, no species-specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
7135	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
7135	conservation	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population range, biology and ecology, and threats.	eng
7135	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Some estuarine systems in north eastern South Africa and in Mozambique provide some protection.	eng
7135	distribution	Larson, H. & Ng, H.H., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris melanosoma</span> is known from the East African coast, and from the Society Islands to north of Japan. This species has been introduced into the Panama Canal Zone (Koumans 1953).</p>	eng
7135	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from the East coast of Africa south to Transkei. Also tropical Indo-West Pacific (Skelton 2001).	eng
7135	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone and lower reaches of rivers.	eng
7135	distribution	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone, also Indo-West  Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Tanzania  southwards<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast,  Mozambique south to Transkei, South Africa.	eng
7135	habitat	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	A secretive species that inhabits muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove  swamps, sometimes penetrating into freshwaters (Skelton 2001).	eng
7135	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	A secretive species that inhabits muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps, sometimes penetrating into freshwaters (Skelton 2001).	eng
7135	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Epibenthic in freshwater and estuaries (Maugé 1986).	eng
7135	habitat	Larson, H. & Ng, H.H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris melanosoma</span> is a demersal, amphidromous species that can usually be found on mud bottoms. Adults inhabit brackish estuaries and medium to large size rivers. It is also found in submerged bank vegetation of freshwater streams.	eng
7135	population	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
7135	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
7135	population	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Not known.	eng
7135	population	Larson, H. & Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends available for this species. However, given the very wide distribution of this species and the absence of any significant threats, the global population can be considered stable.	eng
7135	threats	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
7135	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
7135	threats	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Removal of mangrove swamps, construction of harbours in estuaries with resultant pollution, and other human impacts may affect populations locally.	eng
7135	threats	Larson, H. & Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. It is known from estuarine and riverine habitats where it may be suffering localised declines due to water pollution, boat traffic and fishing activity.	eng
7136	conservation	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.	eng
7136	distribution	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The Cape Sengi is endemic to South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Although most distribution maps show it as having two disjunct areas of occurrence, recent data indicate that it is continuously distributed (Stuart and Stuart 1991; Friedman and Daly 2004). It has not been recorded in Namibia, and is not suspected to occur north of the Orange River.	eng
7136	habitat	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	This species occupies rocky habitats.	eng
7136	population	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species is not considered abundant, but it is widespread in suitable habitats and locally common. Current population trends are not known, but there is no reason to believe that <em>E. edwardii</em> numbers are increasing or decreasing significantly due to any factors other than natural variation in environmental conditions in the rocky and arid environments where they occur.	eng
7136	threats	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development, however, these are not considered major threats to the current population.	eng
7137	conservation	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. It should be a priority for further survey work.	eng
7137	distribution	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	This species is found only along the northern coast of Somalia (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
7137	habitat	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	Similar to <em>Elephantulus rufescens</em>, but not well known.	eng
7137	population	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
7137	threats	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	Major threats to this species are not known.	eng
7138	conservation	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.	eng
7138	distribution	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	A widespread species found mainly in South Africa and Namibia, but also extreme southern Botswana (Smithers 1971) and south-western Angola (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
7138	habitat	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	This species occupies arid habitats, including deserts, dry savannas, and dry shrublands. It is especially associated with rocky ridges and outcrops or koppies.	eng
7138	population	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no data on the population status of <em>E. rupestris</em>, but it is likely to be locally common and it can be expected that populations will vary greatly in the arid habitats that it occupies.	eng
7138	threats	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development. Changes in habitats due to desertification and bush encroachment may adversely alter habitats for sengis, but at present these changes do not appear widespread or serious.	eng
7140	conservation	Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T.,  Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. The most important conservation priorities for the Asian elephant are: 1) conservation of the elephant's habitat and maintaining habitat connectivity by securing corridors; 2) the management of human–elephant conflicts as part of an integrated land-use policy that recognizes elephants as economic assets from which local people need to benefit or at least no suffer; 3) better protection to the species through improved legislation and law enforcement, improved and enhanced field patrolling, and regulating/curbing trade in ivory and other elephant products. Monitoring of conservation interventions is also needed to assess the success or failure of the interventions so that adjustments can be made as necessary (i.e. adaptive management). Reliable estimation of population size and trends will be needed as part of this monitoring and adaptive management approach.	eng
7140	distribution	Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T.,  Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E., 2008	Asian elephants formerly ranged from West Asia along the Iranian coast into the Indian subcontinent, eastwards into South-east Asia including Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and into China at least as far as the Yangtze-Kiang. This former range covered over 9 million km² (Sukumar 2003). Asian elephants are now extinct in West Asia, Java, and most of China The western populations (<em>Elephas maximus asurus</em>) were probably extinct by 100 BC, and the main Chinese populations (sometimes referred to as <em>E. m. rubridens</em>) disappeared sometime after the 14th century BC. Even within its surviving range in South and South-east Asia, the species has been in retreat for hundreds if not thousands of years, and generally survives only in highly fragmented populations (Olivier 1978; Sukumar 2003; Blake and Hedges 2004).<br/><br/>Asian elephants still occur in isolated populations in 13 states, with a very approximate total range area of 486,800 km² (Sukumar 2003; but see Blake and Hedges 2004). The species occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka in South Asia and Cambodia, China, Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra) Lao PDR, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah), Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam in South-east Asia. Feral populations occur on some of the Andaman Islands (India).<br/><br/>The elephants of Borneo were believed to be feral descendants of elephants introduced in the 14th–19th centuries (Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982; Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008); however, recent genetic evidence suggests they are indigenous to the island (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2003; but see Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008). <br/><br/>The species was once found throughout Sri Lanka, but today elephants are restricted mostly to the lowlands in the dry zone where they are still fairly widespread in north, south, east, north-western, north-central and south-eastern Sri Lanka; but with the exceptions of small remnant populations in the Peak Wilderness Area and Sinharaja Area, elephants are absent from the wet zone of the country. The species continues to lose range to development activities throughout the island. <br/><br/>Once widespread in India, the species is now restricted to four general areas: northeastern India, central India, northwestern India, and southern India. In northeastern India, the elephant range extends from the eastern border of Nepal in northern West Bengal through western Assam along the Himalaya foothills as far as the Mishmi Hills. From here it extends into eastern Arunachal Pradesh, the plains of upper Assam, and the foothills of Nagaland. Further west, it extends to the Garo Hills of Meghalaya through the Khasi Hills, to parts of the lower Brahmaputra plains and Karbi Plateau. Elsewhere in the south in Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, and the Barak valley districts of Assam, isolated herds occur (Choudhury, 1999). In central India, highly fragmented elephant populations are found in the States of Orissa, Jharkhand, and the southern part of West Bengal, with some animals wandering into Chattisgarh. In north-western India, the species occurs in six fragmented populations at the foot of the Himalayas in Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, ranging from Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Bahraich Forest Division in the east, to the Yamuna River in the west. In southern India, elephants occur in the hilly terrain of the Western Ghats and in parts of the Eastern Ghats in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and, relatively recently, Andhra Pradesh. There are eight main populations in southern India, each fragmented from the others: northern Karnataka; the crestline of Karnataka–Western Ghats; Bhadra–Malnad; Brahmagiri–Nilgiris–Eastern Ghats; Nilambur–Silent Valley–Coimbatore; Anamalais–Parambikulam; Periyar–Srivilliputhur; and Agasthyamalais.<br/><br/>In Nepal, elephants were once widespread in the lowland Terai, but are now restricted to a few protected areas along the border with India: Royal Chitwan National Park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Royal Bardia National Park, and Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, and their environs. There is some movement of animals between these protected areas and between Bardia National Park and the adjacent parts of India.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, all the existing elephant populations are found along the border with India. They are reported from Royal Manas National Park, Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Sanctuary, Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Reserve Forests such as Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary, Dungsum, and Mochu. In the past, elephants made seasonal migrations from Bhutan to the grasslands of India during the wetter summer months of May to October, returning to their winter range in Bhutan from November. Now these movements are restricted as a result of loss of habitat on the Indian side and fragmentation of habitat on the Bhutan side. <br/><br/>In Bangladesh, the species was once widespread, but today it is largely restricted to areas that are relatively less accessible to humans, mainly Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast. In addition, some animals periodically visit the New Samanbag area of Maulvi Bazar District under the Sylhet Forest Division in the north-east of the country, coming from the neighbouring Indian states of Tripura, Meghalaya, and Assam.<br/><br/>The Asian elephant has a wide, but highly fragmented, distribution in Myanmar. The five main areas of elephant abundance are: the Northern Hill Ranges, the Western Hill Ranges, Pegu Yoma (central Myanmar), Tenasserim Yoma (in the south, bordering Thailand), and Shan State or eastern Yoma.<br/><br/>In Thailand, the species occurs mainly in the mountains along the border with Myanmar, with smaller fragmented populations occurring in the peninsula in the south (in several forest complexes, south to the border with Malaysia); in the northeast (in the Dong Phaya Yen-Khao Yai forest complex, including Khao Yai National Park, and the Phu Khieo-Nam Nao forest complex); and in the east (in a forest complex composing the Khao Ang Runai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Khitchakut National Park, and Khao Cha Mao National Park).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, elephants are primarily found in the mountains of the south-west and in Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri Provinces. Recent surveys in Keo Sema District (Mondulkiri Province) suggest that important numbers may remain in that area (WCS unpubl. data). Elsewhere, Asian elephants persist in Cambodia in only small, scattered populations (Duckworth and Hedges, 1998).<br/><br/>In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, elephants remain widely but very patchily distributed in forested areas, both in the highlands and lowlands. Two important and likely viable populations are known, one in Xaignaboli Province west of the Mekong and one on the Nakai Plateau. Other potentially important elephant populations occur in Phou Phanang and Phou Khao Khoay in Vientiane Province; Phou Xang He in Savannakhet Province; Dong Ampham and Dong Khanthung, including Xe Pian, close to Cambodian border; and Nam Et, Nam Xam, Phou Dendin, and Nam Ha in the north, close to the Viet Namese and Chinese borders.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, only a small population persists now. In the northern part of the country there are no elephants left, barring occasional wanderers into Son La from Lao PDR. In the central and southern parts of the country, very small isolated populations remain in Dak Lak, Nghe An, Quang Nam, Dong Nai, and Ha Tinh Provinces. <br/><br/>In China, Asian elephants once ranged widely over much of southern China, including the Fujiang, Guangdong, and Guangxi Provinces (Smith and MacKinnon, in press). The species was extirpated in southern Fujiang and northern Guangdong during the 12th century, but evidence indicates persistence in Guanxi into the 17th century (Smith and MacKinnon, in press). All that now remains of this once widespread elephant population in China is the remnant in Yunnan where the species survives in three prefectures: Xishuangbanna, Simao, and Lincang.<br/><br/>In Peninsular Malaysia, the species is still widely distributed in the interior of the country in the following States: Pahang (which probably has the largest population), Perak, Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah, and Negeri Sembilan (where very few animals remain).<br/><br/>On Borneo, elephants only occur in the lowlands of the northeastern part of the island in the Malaysian State of Sabah and adjacent parts of Kalimantan (Indonesia). In Sabah, they occur in forested areas in the south, centre, and east of the State in the following Districts: Kinabatangan, Sandakan, Beluran, Lahad Datu, Tawau, and Pensiangan. In Kalimantan, elephants occur only in the Upper Sembakung River in Tindung District. The origin of the elephants of Borneo remains unclear and the subject of debate. Due to the limited distribution of the island’s elephant population it is argued by some that the species was not indigenous, but descended from imported captive elephants (Medway 1977; Cranbrook <em>et al</em>., 2008). However, others argues that while captive elephants have undoubtedly been brought to Borneo, genetic analyses have shown that the elephants found on Borneo are genetically distinct, with molecular divergence indicating a Pleistocene colonization and subsequent isolation (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2003)<br/><br/>On Sumatra (in Indonesia), the elephant was once widespread, but now survives only in highly fragmented populations. In the mid-1980s, 44 discrete elephant populations were known to exist in Sumatra’s eight provinces, 12 of these were in Lampung Province (Blouch and Haryanto, 1984; Blouch and Simbolon, 1985). However, by 2003, only three of Lampung’s 12 populations were extant (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). An unknown number of Sumatra’s other elephant populations remain (Blake and Hedges, 2004), and those that do are threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and as a result of conflict with humans (Santiapillai and Jackson, 1990; Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). Nevertheless, the island is thought to hold some of the most significant populations outside of India. For example, recent surveys in Lampung Province’s two national parks, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas, produced population estimates of 498 (95% CI=[373, 666]) and 180 (95% CI=[144, 225]) elephants, respectively (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005). Bukit Barisan Selatan NP is therefore a critically important area for Asian elephant conservation. The challenge now is to protect these populations from further habitat loss and poaching.	eng
7140	habitat	Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T.,  Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E., 2008	Asian elephants are generalists and they occur in grassland, tropical evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest, dry deciduous forested and dry thorn forest, in addition to cultivated and secondary forests and scrublands. Over this range of habitat types elephants are seen from sea level to over 3,000 m asl. In the Eastern Himalaya in northeast India, they regularly move up above 3,000 m asl in summer at a few sites (Choudhury, 1999). The Asian elephant is one of the last few mega-herbivores (i.e. plant-eating mammals that reach an adult body weight in excess of 1,000 kg) still extant on earth (Owen-Smith, 1988). Given their physiology and energy requirements, elephants need to consume large quantities of food per day. They are generalists and browse and graze on a variety of plants. The proportions of the different plant types in their diet vary depending upon the habitat and season. During dry season in southern India, Sukumar (1992) observed that 70% of the elephant's diet was browse, while in wet season, grasses make up about 55%. However, in an adjoining area, Baskaran (2002) observed that browse formed only 15% of the diet in dry deciduous forest and 47% of the diet in the thorn forest in the dry season, while the annual diet was dominated by grass (84%). In Sri Lanka, elephants may feed on more than 60 species of plants belonging to 30 families (McKay, 1973). In southern India, Baskaran (2002) recorded that elephants fed on 82 species of plants (59 woody plant species and 23 grass species). Elephants may spend up to 14–19 hrs a day feeding, during which they may consume up to 150 kg of wet weight (Vancuylenberg, 1977). They defecate about 16–18 times a day, producing about 100 kg of dung. Dung also helps disperse germinating seeds. <br/><br/>Elephants range over large areas and home ranges in excess of 600 km² have been recorded for females in south India (Baskaran <em>et al</em>., 1995). In north India, female home ranges of 184–326 km² and male home ranges of 188–407 km² have been recorded (Williams, 2002). Smaller home range sizes, 30–160 km² for females and 53–345 km² for males, have been recorded in Sri Lanka (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2005). Given their requirements for large areas, elephants are regarded as an “umbrella species” because their conservation will also protect a large number of other species occupying the same area. They are also a premier “flagship species” and are sometimes regarded as a “keystone species” because of their important ecological role and impact on the environment.<br/><br/>The life span of Asian elephants is 60 to 70 years, and males reach sexual maturity at between 10–15 years of age; females usually first give birth in years 15 or 16 (Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982).	eng
7140	population	Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T.,  Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E., 2008	A recent estimate for the global population size of the Asian elephant was 41,410–52,345 animals Sukumar (2003) The estimated population size for each country was: Bangladesh 150–250; Bhutan 250–500; Cambodia 250–600; China 200–250; India 26,390–30,770; Indonesia 2,400–3,400; Lao PDR 500–1,000; Malaysia 2,100–3,100; Myanmar 4,000–5,000; Nepal 100–125; Sri Lanka 2,500–4,000; Thailand 2,500–3,200; and Viet Nam 70–150 (Sukumar, 2003) . However, Blake and Hedges (2004) and Hedges (2006) argue that the oft-repeated global population ‘estimate’ of about 40,000 to 50,000 Asian elephants is no more than a crude guess, which has been accepted unchanged for a quarter of a century. They argue that with very few exceptions all we really know about the status of Asian elephants is the location of some (probably most) populations, with in some cases a crude idea of relative abundance; and for some large parts of the species range we do not even know where the populations are, or indeed if they are still extant. These difference of opinion are due in part to the difficulty in counting elephants in dense vegetation in difficult terrain, different survey techniques being used in different places, and a too-widely held belief that population monitoring is unimportant. Nevertheless, whatever the error margins, it appears almost certain that over 50% of the remaining wild Asian elephants occur in India. <br/><br/>The overall population trend of the Asian elephant has been downwards, probably for centuries. This remains the case in most parts of its range, but especially in most of the countries of South-east Asia. Within India, there is evidence that the large population in the Western Ghats in south of the country has been increasing in recent years due to improved conservation effectiveness.	eng
7140	threats	Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T.,  Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E., 2008	The pre-eminent threats to the Asian elephant today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation (Leimgruber <em>et al</em>., 2003; Sukumar, 2003; Hedges, 2006), which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Hundreds of people and elephants are killed annually as a result of such conflicts. The long-term future of elephants outside protected areas, as well as in some protected areas, is therefore inextricably linked to mitigating such human–elephant conflicts, and this is one of the largest conservation challenges in Asia today (Sukumar, 1992, 2003; Hedges 2006).<br/><br/>Asian elephants live in the region of the world with the densest human population, growing at a rate of between 1–3% per year. Because elephants require much larger areas of natural habitat than most other terrestrial mammals in Asia, they are one of the first species to suffer the consequences of habitat fragmentation and destruction and because of its great size and large food requirements, the elephant cannot co-exist with people in areas where agriculture is the dominant form of land-use. In extreme cases, elephants have been confined as so called ‘pocketed herds’ in small patches of forest in landscapes dominated by man. Such ‘pocketed herds’ represent an extreme stage in the human–elephant conflict (Olivier, 1978). In other cases elephants have been caught and taken to so-called Elephant Training Centres where they languish, lost to the wild population (Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005, 2006). <br/><br/>Poaching is a major threat to elephants in Asia too, although reliable estimates of the number of elephants killed and the quantities of ivory and other body parts collected and traded are scarce (Sukumar <em>et al</em>., 1998; Milliken, 2005). It has been argued that poaching is a relatively minor threat to Asian elephant because some males and all females lack tusks (Dawson and Blackburn, 1991). However, the reality is that elephants are poached for a variety of other products (including meat and leather) in addition to ivory, and poaching is now acknowledged as a threat to the long-term survival of some Asian elephant populations (e.g. Kemf and Santiapillai, 2000; Menon, 2002). Moreover, poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious problem in some parts of Asia (Sukumar, 1992; Menon <em>et al</em>., 1997). In Periyar Tiger Reserve in southern India, for example, ivory poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios: over the 20-year period from 1969 to 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122 (Chandran, 1990). Selective removal of tusked males has several implications for the affected populations: sex ratios obviously become highly female biased, genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline (Sukumar <em>et al</em>., 1998; Sukumar, 2003). Poaching of elephants is also a major problem in other parts of Asia. Large-scale hunting of elephants for ivory, bushmeat, hides, and other products has reduced their populations significantly over a wide area from Myanmar to Indonesia (Menon <em>et al</em>., 1997; Duckworth and Hedges, 1998; Kemf and Santiapillai, 2000; Martin and Stiles, 2002; Menon, 2002; World Wide Fund for Nature, 2002a; Hedges <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
7142	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The range of this species includes Carite Forest Reserve, which is a well-managed protected area. Further surveys are needed to relocate this species and determine whether or not it might still survive in the wild. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
7142	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species is found in the Sierra de Cayey, Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 647-785 m asl.	eng
7142	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species has been recorded from bromeliads (terrestrial and arboreal) in forests and open and rocky areas. It is known to be a live-bearing species, giving birth to 1-3 young, unique amongst members of the genus.	eng
7142	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species has not been seen since 1981, and it is now possibly extinct. Extensive surveys of suitable habitat have failed to find any individuals. It has clearly undergone a catastrophic decline.	eng
7142	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	While the cause(s) for decline in this species remain(s) unknown, suspected factors include habitat destruction, forest fragmentation, limited distribution (10 km2), high habitat specialization, slow reproduction, climate change, chytridiomycosis and introduced predators.	eng
7143	conservation	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but both caves are currently within an area designated as a national park for the future (although this is not yet confirmed). One cave is currently within the Jackson Bay Hunting Club.	eng
7143	distribution	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	This species is only known from two caves near Jackson's Bay, on the Portland Ridge Peninsula, very close to sea level (10-15 m asl), in Jamaica.	eng
7143	habitat	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It has only been recorded inhabiting caves in moderately well-forested areas. Eggs are laid among rocks and it breeds by direct development.	eng
7143	population	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It is a very rare species and is difficult to find. It was last seen in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009), but there have been no surveys for the species since.	eng
7143	threats	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	The caves in which it occurs on the Portland Ridge Peninsula are being disturbed by humans, including by people occupying caves illegally. There is also significant disturbance of the habitat from agriculture, the nearby lighthouse, and from touristic activities.	eng
7144	conservation	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	There are at least two forest reserves in the area where this species occurs, as well as a proposed National Park (Dolphin Head National Park). Ensuring the gazettment of this new protected area, and maintenance of the existing habitat is essential, and further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
7144	distribution	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	This species has a restricted range in western Jamaica, and has been recorded from 120-680 m asl.	eng
7144	habitat	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	This is a terrestrial species found in mesic closed-canopy forests, where it calls from bare ground or rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
7144	population	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It could be locally abundant within its restricted range, but it had a  very fragmented and restricted distribution. It was last observed in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
7144	threats	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	The primary threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, in particular due to agriculture, selective logging, and infrastructure development for ecotourism. Invasive bamboo is also becoming a problem in regenerating areas.	eng
7145	conservation	Blair Hedges, 2008	This species is not known to occur in any formally protected areas. Although its range includes Cockpit Country Forest Reserve, this does not guarantee long-term protection for the remaining habitat. The maintenance and protection of remaining suitable habitat across the range of the species is essential.	eng
7145	distribution	Blair Hedges, 2008	This species is known from only four localities in the central uplands of Jamaica. It has been recorded from 600-835 m asl.	eng
7145	habitat	Blair Hedges, 2008	This is a terrestrial species that has only been found on the edge of forest in banana groves and pastures. It calls from rock and earthen crevices, but can it be quite a difficult species to locate, mainly because its call is drowned out by that of the invasive <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
7145	population	Blair Hedges, 2008	It is known to be extremely rare and has only been seen or heard on a few occasions since it was first described in 1926. Two specimens were collected in the mid 1980s, and one individual was heard in the late 1990s. A series of specimens was collected in the 1960s, suggesting that it might have been more common in the past. Although there has been no recent survey work for this species, it does appear to have declined significantly.	eng
7145	threats	Blair Hedges, 2008	The primary threat is habitat destruction, due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development. Their range has now been completely invaded by the introduced <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>, which has a much louder call (and is more locally abundant), and which is quite possibly out-competing this species ecologically, and resulting in noise interference in mating calls (S.B. Hedges pers. obs.).	eng
7146	conservation	Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species formerly occurred in El Yunque National Forest, but it has not been recorded recently from this area. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it survives in the wild. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
7146	distribution	Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is known from eastern Puerto Rico as well as the western mountains, at an altitudinal range of 45-630 m asl.	eng
7146	habitat	Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is an aquatic species, restricted to mountain streams, with a preference for rocky torrents in closed mesic forest. It is known to call from boulders, banks, and waterfalls, and to breed by direct development.	eng
7146	population	Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Richard Thomas, 2008	Formerly known to be abundant in eastern Puerto Rico as well as the western mountains, it has not been seen since 1976 or 1988 (Hedges and Díaz 2009). Habitats where it once occurred have been surveyed repeatedly by experts at different times of year (including the rainy season), without success, and it is now considered to be almost certainly extinct.	eng
7146	threats	Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Richard Thomas, 2008	The main cause of the decline of this species appears to be related to the synergistic effects of chytridiomycosis and climate change, although invasive predators might also have had an impact.	eng
7147	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The species is known from Parc National Morne La Visite and Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat within them continues to be destroyed. Urgent action is required to conserve the remaining habitat in these areas. Survey work is also necessary to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
7147	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is only known from the Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la Selle, in Haiti. It has been recorded from 303-1,697m asl.	eng
7147	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is a riparian/aquatic stream-dwelling species found in mesic hardwood forests, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
7147	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	At one time this species was abundant, but it has not been seen in the last two decades despite extensive surveys of suitable habitat prior to 1991, and might now be extinct. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz, 2009).	eng
7147	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Severe habitat destruction, as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture, is taking place on the Massif de la Hotte and Massif de la Selle. Chytridiomycosis might also be implicated in the decline of the species, although this has yet to be confirmed.	eng
7148	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but its known range is in Cockpit Country Forest Reserve, although this does not guarantee the long-term protection of the species' habitat. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining forested habitat is a priority.	eng
7148	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "vicinity of&#160; 'the cave' about 4 miles WNW Quick Step..." in the Cockpit Country of south-western Trelawny Parish, Jamaica, at around 450m asl.	eng
7148	habitat		It is a very small frog found in heavy leaf-litter in low-elevation wet forests on limestone. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
7148	population		It is a rare species, and is difficult to find.	eng
7148	threats		This species requires undisturbed forested habitat, and so the continued clearing of forest for the planting of illegal crops at the type locality represents a serious threat to its survival.	eng
7149	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the habitat of this species is urgently needed.	eng
7149	distribution		This species has a restricted range at Cuchilla de Pandura, Puerto Rico. Its altitudinal range is 91-303m asl.	eng
7149	habitat		It lives near rivers and in humid forests where it is found among large boulder clusters; the eggs are laid on damp boulder surfaces in grottoes and develop directly.	eng
7149	population		The species is not currently believed to be declining.	eng
7149	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat destruction that is taking place due to agricultural expansion and urban development; as some populations are associated with streams, they might also be susceptible to chytridiomycosis. In addition, presence of introduced species such as Rattus rattus among boulder clusters may pose a threat.	eng
7150	conservation	Blair Hedges, Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	This species was known to occur in Luquillo National Forest in the El Yunque area. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to determine whether or not this species could still survive in the wild; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
7150	distribution	Blair Hedges, Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	This species formerly occurred in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, at an altitude of 300-1,150 m asl.	eng
7150	habitat	Blair Hedges, Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	A terrestrial species that breeds by direct development, it is known from extremely humid closed-canopy forest.	eng
7150	population	Blair Hedges, Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	Formerly uncommon even in the 1980s, this species was last recorded in 1990 and subsequent extensive searches have failed to locate this species. It is now believed to be most probably extinct.	eng
7150	threats	Blair Hedges, Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	While the cause for this species' disappearance remains unknown, potential factors could have been climate change and disease. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993, and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <em>Eleutherodactylus coqui</em>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to establish their relative contribution to amphibian declines.	eng
7455	conservation		Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, habitat loss is proceeding even within the reserve borders, and there is therefore a need for improved and strengthened management of this protected area.	eng
7455	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the upland regions of Holguin and Guantanamo Provinces, eastern Cuba, with an altitudinal range from 300-1,000m asl.	eng
7455	habitat		It is arboreal in mesic closed forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
7455	population		It is moderately common within suitable habitat.	eng
7455	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction due to mining and agriculture.	eng
7577	conservation	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
7577	distribution	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs on Atlantic-facing Andean slopes at intermediate elevations in northwestern Argentina (Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, San Juan y Mendoza).	eng
7577	habitat	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	In deserts and shrublands, up to 1,800 m at north of its range.	eng
7577	population	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	A common species not facing threats for its survival.	eng
7577	threats	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
7578	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
7578	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in western Patagonian areas of southern Argentina, from central Mendoza and south Río Negro Provinces and adjacent parts of Magallanes in Chile.	eng
7578	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in Patagonian steppe habitat.	eng
7578	population	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
7578	threats	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
7579	conservation	Ojeda, R., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
7579	distribution	Ojeda, R., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano, usually above 3000 m, of extreme southern Peru, through northeastern Chile and west-central Bolivia, to northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Argentina in Jujuy, Salta and Catamarca provinces.	eng
7579	habitat	Ojeda, R., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Puna and highlands Andes, above 3,000 m.	eng
7579	population	Ojeda, R., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
7579	threats	Ojeda, R., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
7580	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The species it is found in several protected areas.	eng
7580	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in the eastern Patagonian region of southern Argentina, from Buenos Aires and La Pampa Provinces southwards to Santa Cruz province (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
7580	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in areas with open vegetation such as sandy lowland scrub areas and sandy flats with halophytic<br/>plants (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). The species inhabits sand dunes in the Monte Desert (Corbalan and Ojeda 2004) and disturbed shrub and grasslands in the Andean Piedmont (Gonnet and Ojeda 1998). Gestation was determined to last 18 days (Mares 1988).	eng
7580	population	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is abundant in dense shrublands dominated by Larrea cuneifolia with high grass cover (Corbalan and Ojeda<br/>2004).	eng
7580	threats	Ojeda, R. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
7618	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is found in many protected areas. There is a need to determine why the populations in the eastern part of the range are in decline, to monitor these populations, and to identify and implement appropriate conservation measures.	eng
7618	conservation	Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is found in many protected areas. There is a need to determine why the populations in the eastern part of the range are in decline, to monitor these populations, and to identify and implement appropriate conservation measures.	eng
7618	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Eliomys quercinus </em> is endemic to Europe, where it was historically widespread from Portugal in the west to the Urals (Russia) in the east. It is now largely confined to western Europe, including numerous Mediterranean islands, with eastern populations having become scattered and fragmented. The focus of the species range in the region is in the west. It is a polytypic species, and some insular populations are distinctive forms (e.g., Balearic Islands). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
7618	distribution	Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Eliomys quercinus </em> is endemic to Europe, where it was historically widespread from Portugal in the west to the Urals (Russia) in the east. It is now largely confined to western Europe, including numerous Mediterranean islands, with eastern populations having become scattered and fragmented. The focus of the species range in the region is in the west. It is a polytypic species, and some insular populations are distinctive forms (e.g., Balearic Islands). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
7618	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Its main habitat is woodland (coniferous, deciduous, and mixed), although it is sometimes found in orchards and gardens. It is less arboreal than some other dormice, and is often found on the ground in rocky areas, cracks in stone walls, and even in houses (Le Louarn and Spitz 1974, Vaterlaus 1998, Filippucci 1999, Spitzenberger 2002, Bertolino 2006).	eng
7618	habitat	Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Its main habitat is woodland (coniferous, deciduous, and mixed), although it is sometimes found in orchards and gardens. It is less arboreal than some other dormice, and is often found on the ground in rocky areas, cracks in stone walls, and even in houses (Le Louarn and Spitz 1974, Vaterlaus 1998, Filippucci 1999, Spitzenberger 2002, Bertolino 2006).	eng
7618	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population declines, range contractions and local extinctions have occurred in central, eastern and southern Europe over the last few decades. Some island populations are declining. The species is now rare in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (probably extinct: Ju?kaitis 2003), east Germany and the Czech Republic (Andera 1994) and adjacent Austria (Spitzenberger 2002), and has disappeared completely from the Slovakian part of the Carpathians and from the Croatian mainland. The last record in Romania is over 20 years old (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In the south of Spain, where it was formerly abundant and expanding, it is now rare (Ruiz and Roman 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal a decline in population is possible, although causes and magnitude of any such reduction are unknown (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Many of the declines were over the last 50 years or so, with some of the declines more recently recorded. The species may have been lost from over half of the range in the last 30 years (S. Bertolino pers. comm. 2006). In parts of its range where it is more abundant, population density is usually less than 10 individuals per hectare, though exceptionally densities of 30-50 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Filippucci 1999).	eng
7618	population	Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Population declines, range contractions and local extinctions have occurred in central, eastern and southern Europe over the last few decades. Some island populations are declining. The species is now rare in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (probably extinct: Juškaitis 2003), east Germany and the Czech Republic (Andera 1994) and adjacent Austria (Spitzenberger 2002), and has disappeared completely from the Slovakian part of the Carpathians and from the Croatian mainland. The last record in Romania is over 20 years old (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In the south of Spain, where it was formerly abundant and expanding, it is now rare (Ruiz and Roman 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal a decline in population is possible, although causes and magnitude of any such reduction are unknown (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Many of the declines were over the last 50 years or so, with some of the declines more recently recorded. The species may have been lost from over half of the range in the last 30 years (S. Bertolino pers. comm. 2006). In parts of its range where it is more abundant, population density is usually less than 10 individuals per hectare, though exceptionally densities of 30-50 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Filippucci 1999).	eng
7618	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It has been suggested that it is threatened in some areas (especially Corsica) by direct competition with the brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The populations from Germany eastwards are declining (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006), but the reasons are not well known, although thought to be related to habitat changes. In some areas of orchards, the species is considered a pest.	eng
7618	threats	Bertolino, S., Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Zima, J., Juškaitis, R., Meinig, H. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It has been suggested that it is threatened in some areas (especially Corsica) by direct competition with the brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The populations from Germany eastwards are declining (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006), but the reasons are not well known, although thought to be related to habitat changes. In some areas of orchards, the species is considered a pest.	eng
7619	conservation	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
7619	conservation	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
7619	distribution	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Eliomys melanurus</em> is a widespread species, occurring from the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula westwards to Egypt. It is found from low altitude desert up to 2,850 m.	eng
7619	distribution	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Eliomys melanurus</em> is a widespread species, occurring from the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula westwards to Egypt. It is found from low-altitude desert up to 2,850 m.	eng
7619	habitat	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species exists in a wide variety of habitats from steppes and semi-desert to high mountains in rocky areas which are devoid of trees and bushes. It has been found in areas which are snow covered throughout winter.	eng
7619	habitat	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The species exists in a wide variety of habitats from steppes and semi-desert to high mountains in rocky areas which are devoid of trees and bushes. It has been found in areas which are snow covered throughout winter.	eng
7619	population	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Both <em>E. melanurus</em> and <em>E. munbyanus</em> are locally common.	eng
7619	population	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Both <em>E. melanurus</em> and <em>E. munbyanus</em> are locally common.	eng
7619	threats	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Has a broad range and is not seriously threatened. Overgrazing and loss of vegetation is a problem in some areas, for instance in the Negev Desert.	eng
7619	threats	Amori, G.,  Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Has a broad range and is not seriously threatened. Overgrazing and loss of vegetation is a problem in some areas, for instance in the Negev Desert.	eng
7621	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
7621	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	The most widely distributed species in the genus, found in eastern and northern Madagascar including the western portion of the central highlands. It ranges from the Montagne l'Ambre in the north, to the Anosyennes and Vohimena Mountains in the south-east. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,875 m asl (Carleton 2003).	eng
7621	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is found in humid forest, as well as some sites in dry deciduous forest, including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, where it uses a wide variety of terrestrial and arboreal microhabitats (Carleton 2003). The females give birth to litters of up to four young (Carleton 2003). Although primarily restricted to forest, it is one of the few <em>Eliurus</em> species that can be found in very degraded forest.	eng
7621	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species can on occasion be common in montane forest (D. Rakrotondravony pers. comm.)	eng
7621	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is mainly threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for conversion to agricultural land and for charcoal production. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
7622	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is present from at least 11 protected areas including the Andohahela, Andringitra, Marojejy and Montagne d'Ambre National Parks, Manongarivo Special Reserve, and Pic D'Ivohibe and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserves.	eng
7622	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern and northern Madagascar including the western portion of the central highlands. It has been recorded from the Montagne d'Ambre in the north to the Parc National d'Andohahela in the south. This species is found at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl (Carleton 2003).	eng
7622	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is known from areas of montane rainforest and has not been recorded outside of forest. It appears to be a mostly arboreal species, occasionally visiting ground level (Carleton 2003). The females may give birth to up to four young.	eng
7622	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	In certain montane forest habitats this species is remarkably common (Carleton and Goodman 2000).	eng
7622	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is found in montane areas above 1,000 m, which is above the zone of heaviest deforestation, although in portions of this species range its habitat is threatened by deforestation. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
7623	conservation	Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from a numerous protected areas including Ankarana Special Reserve, Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d'Ankarafantsika, Kirindy Forest and Zombitse and Vohibasia Forests.	eng
7623	distribution	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it ranges widely from lowland humid forest in the north-east to dry forests formations in the western and southern portions of the island. It occurs from the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d'Ankarafantsika in the north to the vicinity of Bevilany in the south-east. It has been recorded from near sea level to 1,250 m asl (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 2001; Carleton 2003).	eng
7623	habitat	Goodman, S., 2008	This predominantly scansorial species is found in lowland humid forest of the north-east, dry deciduous forest in the west, and spiny forest in the south and south-west of its range. It can also be found in dry-humid transitional forest (Carleton 2003). This species nests in tree holes and has a gestation period of 24 days, after which it gives birth to a litter of up to three young (Carleton 2003). This species also occurs in secondary forest, including areas with regenerating forest after fire (Randrianjafy 2003; S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). This species is dependent on forest, though it can occur in heavily degraded forests.	eng
7623	population	Goodman, S., 2008	It appears to be more common in deciduous forest than in spiny forest. At other sites such as Analavelona, it is very abundant (S.M. Goodman, unpubl.).	eng
7623	threats	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through livestock grazing, charcoal production and wildfires. This species is also locally threatened by domestic and feral dogs and cats. This species is not susceptible to plague as the only humid forest areas that it occurs in are below 800 m.	eng
7624	conservation	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. More surveys are needed to determine the species' distribution, population, biology, and ecology. There should be genetic work to determine its exact relationship with regard to <em>E. majori</em> and <em>E. danieli</em> (Carleton and Goodman 2007).	eng
7624	distribution	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This poorly known species is endemic to eastern Madagascar, where it was previously known only from the type locality of Ampitambe forest, in the vicinity of Ambositra in Fianarantsoa Province (Carleton and Schmidt 1990; Carleton 2003). This species was not recorded for 92 years until recorded in 2000 from Ankerana, about 35 km north-east of Fandriana in the Fandriana-Marolambo corridor (Carleton and Goodman 2007; Raherisehena and Rakotondravony, unpubl.).  It has been collected from 900-1,670 m asl. This seems to be one of the few rodents in the eastern humid forest with a restricted distribution, as there have adequate surveys to the north and south of its known distribution (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
7624	habitat	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is known only from montane humid forest. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species.	eng
7624	population	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is known only from the type series, collected in 1895-1896, and one additional specimen collected in 2000 (Carleton and Goodman 2007; Raherisehena and Rakotondravony, unpubl.).	eng
7624	threats	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
7625	conservation	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas (at least 12) including Ranomafana National Park, Masaola National Park, and Andohahela National Park.	eng
7625	distribution	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is endemic to the humid forests formations of Madagascar, from the northern highlands south to Andohahela National Park in the southern Anosyennes Mountains. It has been recorded between 410 and 1,625 m asl (Carleton 2003).	eng
7625	habitat	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is associated with tropical moist forest on foothills and montane forest. It is found in grassy glades and amongst herbaceous vegetation, vines, stands of tree ferns and bamboo thickets. It is partly scansorial but is also found at ground level, especially in montane forest. The females give birth to up to four young (Carleton 2003). This species has been found to be adaptable to secondary forest, although at lower abundances.	eng
7625	population	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	It appears to be more common in mid-altitude and montane forest.	eng
7625	threats	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
7626	conservation	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M., Randrianjafy, V., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas across eastern Madagascar.	eng
7626	distribution	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M., Randrianjafy, V., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is endemic to the humid forests formations of northern and eastern Madagascar. It ranges from Montagne d'Ambre in the northern highlands to the southern Anosyennes and Vohimena Mountains, and the littoral forests of the south-east. It is found from near sea level up to around 1,025 m asl, but also recorded on the Andringitra Massif to 1500 m (Carleton 2003; V. Randrianjafy pers. comm.).	eng
7626	habitat	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M., Randrianjafy, V., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is found in lowland and littoral forest. it is one of the few native Malagasy rodents found in littoral forests. It is a mostly a scansorial species that lives in monogamous pairs, and occupies ground burrows (Carleton 2003). The females give birth to up to three young (Carleton, 2003). It also has been found to occur in plantations of non-native trees, such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
7626	population	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M., Randrianjafy, V., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	At certain sites, particularly lowland forest, this species can be relatively common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
7626	threats	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M., Randrianjafy, V., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land.	eng
7640	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	The species is confined to the upper parts of the Chipola River catchment.	eng
7640	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This mollusc is found only in the upper reaches of the catchment. It occurs in the silty sand substrates of slow to medium flowing tributaries.	eng
7652	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Restricted to the Apalachicola River basin (only known within a stretch of 1.5 km.) and the Ochlockonee River System (Florida).	eng
7653	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known. Need further study of habitat and ecology and necessary conservation measures.	eng
7653	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Recorded only from the Alai Mtns, S Kyrgyzstan.	eng
7653	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly studied species. Habitat and ecology is possibly similar to that of Ellobius tancrei.	eng
7653	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
7653	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
7654	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures as a whole are currently needed for this species.	eng
7654	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species ranges from eastern Iran, through Turkmenistan and Afghanistan, east to Pakistan  (Habibi 2003). It ranges from sea level to an elevation of several thousand metres.	eng
7654	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is fossorial and is found in open steppe habitat with loose soil not sand. It has been recoded from cultivated fields though it can live in shallow mountainside soils, where it burrows, feeding on the undergound parts of plants. It does not hibernate but may become inactive in the summer. The reproductive period is short. Females have been reported with three to four embryos in Armenia.	eng
7654	population	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is common in suitable habitats. It is uncommon in Turkmenistan.	eng
7654	threats	Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In southern Turkmenistan, the habitat is being degraded in some areas by agriculture. In South Asia it is threatened by natural calamities such as drought, wildfires, avalanches and landslides and interspecific competitors (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7655	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	No records in protected areas in Turkey. Found in protected areas in Armenia (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
7655	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	No records in protected areas in Turkey. Found in protected areas in Armenia (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
7655	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Southern Transcaucasia through east Turkey and northwest Iran.	eng
7655	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	S Transcaucasia through east Turkey and northwest Iran.	eng
7655	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Most abundant in mountain grasslands and steppes from 700 to 2,500 m. Also found in sandy semi-deserts in piedmonts. Ecology is similar to that of <em>Ellobius talpinus</em>. Colonial, subterranean, appears on the ground only when moves soil from the burrows. Feeds mostly on underground parts of plants (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
7655	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Most abundant in mountain grasslands and steppes from 700 to 2500 m. Also found in sandy semi-deserts in piedmonts. Ecology is similar to that of <em>Ellobius talpinus</em>. Colonial, subterranean, appears on the ground only when moves soil from the burrows. Feeds mostly on underground parts of plants (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
7655	population	Kryštufek, B. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	In Turkey, 240 individuals/ha. Common in Iran and Armenia.	eng
7655	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	In Turkey, 240 individuals/ha. Common in Iran and Armenia.	eng
7655	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
7655	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
7656	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	As the species is abundant across most of the range and even sometimes a considerable agricultural pest, there have been no conservation measures in Russia and Kazakhstan. Ukrainian populations are severely fragmented and recently <em>Ellobius talpinus</em> was included in new edition of the Ukraine Red Data Book.	eng
7656	conservation	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	As the species is abundant across most of the range and even sometimes a considerable agricultural pest, there have been no conservation measures in Russia and Kazakhstan. Ukrainian populations are severely fragmented and recently <em>Ellobius talpinus</em> was included in new edition of the Ukraine Red Data Book.	eng
7656	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Steppe grassland and semi-deserts in SE Europe, Kazakhstan (except SE Kazakhstan) and Turkmenia. Sometimes found in forest-steppes.	eng
7656	distribution	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Steppe grassland and semi-deserts in SE Europe, Kazakhstan (except SE Kazakhstan), Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Sometimes found in forest-steppes.	eng
7656	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	A typical subterranean steppe mammal. Lives in large groups, digs complex burrows which may be inhabited by around ten animals. Colonies are very mobile. Burrow entrances usually sealed with soil. Feeds on subterranean plant parts. Nesting chambers (especially winter ones) and foraging chambers are usually about 4 meters underground. Seldom emerges above ground (usually only to clear soil from the burrow or to disperse, rarely for feeding). During dispersal could cover distances up to 800 meters. No real hibernation, but in winter as well as during summer heat and drought, activity declines significantly. During the warm period of the year gives birth to two litters with 2-3 young in each.	eng
7656	habitat	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	A typical subterranean steppe mammal. Lives in large groups, digs complex burrows which may be inhabited by around ten animals. Colonies are very mobile. Burrow entrances usually sealed with soil. Feeds on subterranean plant parts. Nesting chambers (especially winter ones) and foraging chambers are usually about 4 meters underground. Seldom emerges above ground (usually only to clear soil from the burrow or to disperse, rarely for feeding). During dispersal could cover distances up to 800 meters. No real hibernation, but in winter as well as during summer heat and drought, activity declines significantly. During the warm period of the year gives birth to two litters with 2-3 young in each.	eng
7656	population	Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Common throughout most of the range. In some parts it is abundant on cultivated lands, especially along forest belts, where one hectare could be inhabited by 15 family groups. In some parts in Russia and Kazakhstan it is a considerable pest. The population in Ukraine is fragmented and declining owing to cultivation of steppe areas. It has been extirpated from areas between Dnieper River and Lugansk region, and from the Dnieper to Crimea (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
7656	population	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	Common throughout most of the range. In some parts it is abundant on cultivated lands, especially along forest belts, where one hectare could be inhabited by 15 family groups. In some parts in Russia and Kazakhstan it is a considerable pest. The population in Ukraine is fragmented and declining owing to cultivation of steppe areas. It has been extirpated from areas between Dnieper River and Lugansk region, and from the Dnieper to Crimea (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
7656	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina and European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Cultivation of steppe habitat, fragmentation of social groups and populations.	eng
7656	threats	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	No major threats at present to the species as a whole. Cultivation of steppe habitat may lead to fragmentation of social groups and populations.	eng
7657	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. On the rest of the territory leasted as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
7657	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Distributed in lowland and mountain semi-deserts and deserts in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, SE Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia (NW, central and SE), and Tuva (Russia). In China found in N Xinjiang through Mongolia to Nei Mongol and extending south to S Gansu and Shaanxi.	eng
7657	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Inhabits steppes, semideserts, deserts and grasslands, especially in moist valleys and near the banks of lakes and streams.  Sometimes found in oasis farmlands.  Feeds on the underground parts of plants and especially starch bulbs and tubers.  Fossorial “head-lift diggers,” they use their incisors and skull to loosen and shovel dirt.  Lives in a complex burrow system including food storage and nest chambers.  Long burrow passages are between 5-6 cm in diameter usually lying at depths between 10-40 cm, while nest and food storage chambers descend to depths of 50-70 cm.  They are active day and night, but spend little time outside their burrows during the day.  At night, however, they may range quite far from their burrows.  Extremely timid, they may emit a bird-like chirp when frightened.  Reproduction typically occurs between April and September.  Males and females reach reproductive maturity at about 90 days.  Gestation period is about 26 days, and females have their first litter at about five months of age and may have as many as 6-7 litters of between 3-4 or 5-7 depending on environmental conditions.  Offspring remain in their underground nest until they are weaned at about 60 days of age.  The interval between litters is between 34-36 days.	eng
7657	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
7657	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
7664	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	The Mary River Turtle is endemic to the Mary River in south-eastern Queensland.	eng
7664	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	The Mary River Turtle occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated sections of streams. Its habitat consists of riffles (particularly productive parts of the river that are shallow with fast-flowing, aerated water) and shallow stretches alternating with deeper, flowing pools. It generally does not occur in impoundments. Has terrestrial nest sites.	eng
7667	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves and the identification of additional important roosting sites. The species has been recorded from Mt Stolle, which is in line to be designated as a Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
7667	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is endemic to New Guinea and nearby islands. In Papua New Guinea, it has been collected from Chimbu, East Sepik, Gulf, Southern Highlands and Western Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998). Within Papua Province, Indonesia, the species has been recorded from the Kapari River of Fakfak District, Yapen Island, and from Biak Island. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,500 m asl.	eng
7667	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species has been recorded at roosts in limestone caves and mining tunnels (Bonaccorso 1998). Colonies normally number between ten and 30 individuals (Bonaccorso 1998). It is a nocturnal species that forages in open areas.	eng
7667	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It appears to be a rare species that is known from few sites.	eng
7667	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation and may be adversely affected locally by collection for food.	eng
7668	conservation	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification of additional important roosting sites. The species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
7668	distribution	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is known from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Halmahera, Ambon, Seram, Gebe, Yapen, Biak, Numfor, and Supiori. It is present throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Central, Chimbu, East Sepik, and Eastern Provinces of Papua New Guinea), and also occurs on New Ireland, Lihir, Tabar islands, Bougainville, and Buka, Papua New Guinea. In the Solomon Islands, it has been reported from the islands of Guadalcanal, Malaita, New Georgia, and Sanata Isabel (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). It has an elevational range of sea level to 1,600 m asl.	eng
7668	habitat	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species inhabits shallow limestone caves and mining tunnels, with colonies typically consisting of between ten and 30 animals (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a). It is an insectivorous species that combines aerial feeding with foliage gleaning (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
7668	population	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Flannery (1995a) reports that this is a relatively common species on New Guinea.	eng
7668	threats	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It may be threatened locally by collection for food.	eng
7669	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Allison, A., 2008	Although there have been no conservation actions to protect this species to date, it is fully protected by legislation in Samoa, Guam, and in the Northern Marianas Islands. Suitable conservation actions for this species include the protection of known roosting caves, and the identification of additional important roosting sites. Surveys are needed on population status and trends, as well as ecology, and threats (e.g., pesticide levels). A proposed survey of fossil remains on many of the southern islands of its historical range could yield potential translocation sites.	eng
7669	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Allison, A., 2008	The Pacific Sheath-tailed bat contains four subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Emballonura semicaudata rotensis</em> is found on the Marianas, and was historically on Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, Saipan. Today it is only present on Aguiguan Island. <br/><br/><em>E. s. semicaudata</em> was historically found in Samoa, American Samoa, Fiji, Palau, and Tonga. In Samoa, it was found on Savai'i and Upolu, where it was common; in American Samoa, it was found on Manua and Tutuila. This species has now disappeared from Samoa and American Samoa (Tarburton 2002). In Tonga, it was found on Eua and Niuafoou, and was last collected in 1989. In Fiji, it was found on Taveuni, Ovalau, Viti, Levu Lakiba, the Yasawas, and Rotuma (it is common on the last). The species is also known historically from Vanuatu (Koopman 1997). <br/><br/><em>E. s. sulcata</em> occurs on the islands of Chuuk and Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands, and is doing well on at least Pohnpei. It is not found in the Marshall Islands (there was an erroneous record of presence from there).<br/><br/><em>E. s. palauensis</em> is found on Palau, including Koror, Peleliu, Babelthuap, and Anguar, where it is common. It ranges from sea level up to 210 m asl (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
7669	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Allison, A., 2008	This is a small (five gram) bat with high site fidelity to caves. <em>E. semicaudata</em> is usually considered a cave-dependent species (it prefers cave entrances), but it also has been found roosting beneath overhanging cliffs. The species has been recorded flying in daylight under forest, but normally emerges at dusk. Details of its diet are not known (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>E. s. rotensis</em> is found primarily in forested habitats on Aguiguan (Esselsytn <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
7669	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Allison, A., 2008	This species was previously a common species over much of its range. <em>E. s. rotensis</em> was last observed on Guam in 1972, and was thought to have become extinct in the Northern Mariana Islands after 1932 until recent confirmation of a population on Aguiguan Island in 1984. It is estimated that 150 to 300 animals remain there with no immediate threats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Populations in Fiji have significantly declined and may be extinct on Viti Levu (Flannery 1995). The subspecies <em>E. s. sulcata</em> and <em>E. s. palauensis</em> are thought to be stable, but there are limited data to support this (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
7669	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Allison, A., 2008	Reasons for the declines and disappearances of the Pacific Sheath-tailed Bat are unclear. There have been continual declines since 1945. Threats include the disturbance of roosting sites, pesticide contamination, the loss of native forests to agriculture and grazing, invasive species, and stochastic events.<br/><br/>Monitor lizards, cockroaches, and rats may limit the selection of roosting sites on Aguiguan. During WWII caves in the Marianas were bombed (some caves were also sealed off during this time); since then, there has been limited disturbance of roosting sites (limestone caves), resulting from cave visitation and guano mining. Pesticide use is another potential threat. In Fiji, the disturbance to caves and burning of forest near roosts are possible causes of decline. In American Samoa and Samoa the effects of cyclones may have an effect, although the populations here will have experienced such perturbations in the past. The conversion of forest to agriculture must have had an effect, while other factors such as introduced cats and rats, pesticide use, and disturbance to caves are likely to have had a minor influence (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
7670	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Helgen, K., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Suyanto, A. & Maryanto, I., 2008	In the Philippines, this species is found in protected areas, but most of these areas in the lowlands afford minimal protection. As with other species dependent on caves and crevices, there is a need to assess the population status, including the surrounding forest areas, across its range. Elsewhere in its range, it occurs in some protected areas.	eng
7670	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Helgen, K., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Suyanto, A. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species occurs in Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi and other Indonesian islands. In the Philippines, it is probably found throughout except the Batanes/Babuyan region. Records are from Balabac, Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Laguna, Quezon provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Negros, Panay (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found across Borneo.	eng
7670	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Helgen, K., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Suyanto, A. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is found in lowland disturbed forest, as well as agricultural areas near remnant forest. Most records are from caves, under large boulders, crevices, overhangs, or in man-made tunnels (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Ingle 1992; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species tends to roost close to the entrance of caves (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There are no records from old growth forest (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm.).	eng
7670	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Helgen, K., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Suyanto, A. & Maryanto, I., 2008	In the Philippines the species is common in areas with caves, including in or near secondary forest; but is apparently rare elsewhere (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Indonesia the species is common in the eastern part of its range (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
7670	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Helgen, K., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Suyanto, A. & Maryanto, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, there is ongoing disturbance to caves, but whether this affects the species is not currently known (D. Balete, L. Heaney and A. Suyanto pers. comm. 2006).	eng
7671	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species has been recorded from Parc National de Mantadia (Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Parc National de Midongy du Sud (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006) as well as from a network of protected sites around the Baie de Antogil (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). It probably does not require specific conservation action as long as forest vegetation is protected, but local populations should be monitored at roosting sites.	eng
7671	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species is restricted to the humid zone of eastern Madagascar and has been recorded from around Maroantsetra in the north to Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) in the south (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is known from a wide elevational range, from as low as 30 m (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006) to at least 900 m (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
7671	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	<em>Emballonura atrata</em> is usually found roosting in caves and small crevices in or near to relatively intact humid forest (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandrianina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is considered to be dependent on relatively intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006).	eng
7671	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There is no information on population size. This species is rarely trapped in flight or detected acoustically and information on populations and distribution is mainly from bats found in caves. Colony size in caves rarely exceeds 20 individuals (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
7671	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species is collected by people for bushmeat in one part of eastern Madagascar (D. Andriafidison pers. comm.). Otherwise, forest clearance for expanding agriculture threatens the foraging and roosting sites for this species (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
7672	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves and identification of additional important roosting sites. Mt. Stolle (Papua New Guinea) is in line to be designated as a Wildlife Management Area, and the species has been recorded from this area (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
7672	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Kai Islands, Yapen Island, Biak Island, and mainland Papua Province (all Indonesia); and the highlands of Papua New Guinea and the islands of New Ireland, Bougainville, Woodlark, Kiriwina, and Alcester (all Papua New Guinea) (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a,b). The mapped range reflects the current extent of knowledge. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,500 m asl (more common above 500 m on New Guinea, but starting lower on other islands).	eng
7672	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This is a cave-dwelling species that forages for insects along forest streams, clearings, and dense forest (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.	eng
7672	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	Bonaccorso (1998) reports that it is abundant in some caves on New Ireland, common in the Trobriand Islands, but uncommon on mainland New Guinea.	eng
7672	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It may be locally threatened by over-collection for food. A potential threat is disturbance of caves (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
7673	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for this species are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification of additional important roosting sites. There are no known records of this species from protected areas, but it may occur in some within its range in Papua New Guinea.	eng
7673	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is known from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from East New Britain, Gulf, New Ireland, Southern Highlands, and Western Provinces. In the Solomon Islands it has been recorded from the islands of Guadalcanal, Rennel, Malaita, and Santa Isabel (Bonaccorso 1998). It may be present on other islands within the Solomons group. This species ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl (Mu, East New Britain Province).	eng
7673	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This is a cave-dwelling, insectivorous species that has been recorded from mossy tropical forest (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are believed to give birth to two young per year (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
7673	population	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is considered to be rare, but it may be more abundant than is currently known (Bonaccorso 1998). The occurrence of this species across several biogeographic regions (mainland New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Solomon Islands) may indicate that there is little genetic connectivity between some populations (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
7673	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation and may be locally impacted by collection for food.	eng
7674	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
7674	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in Myanmar and Thailand to western Malaysia, Borneo (all of the island) and Indonesia (Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Belitung, Enggano, Babi Islands, Batu Islands, Nias Island, Mentawai Islands, Java, Sulawesi) (Simmons 2005). The distribution in Sulawesi is uncertain. There is a new record from southern Thailand, near Phanom, suggesting that the Myanmar population is linked to that of southern Thailand and Malaysia (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).  This species may also have been recorded from Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm.). It is found at an altitude of about 50 m in southern Myanmar and 330 m asl in Sumatra (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).	eng
7674	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in limestone caves and small crevices throughout secondary forest in southern Myanmar where colony size reaches 50 individuals. In southern Thailand a maximum of 100 individuals are found in manmade caves while smaller colonies are found under hanging rock in tropical lowland forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Peninsular Malaysia <em>E. monticola</em> occurs in lowland rainforest, roosts under fallen trees, buttresses and tables (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
7674	population	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is very little population information for this species. It is relatively common on the islands of southern Myanmar (P. Banks pers. comm.).	eng
7674	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Extraction of limestone may lead to the destruction of caves where this species is found. Deforestation for agriculture, plantations, logging and as a result of fire is a major threat in some parts of its range.	eng
7709	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - lakes, ponds, marshes, creeks.	eng
7710	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites.	eng
7717	conservation		The species is subject to a variety of European, national and other protective legislation and occurs in a number of protected areas. Maintenance of suitable wetlands, ensuring that some viable populations of all subspecies are effectively protected, control of competition from exotic turtle species, minimising water pollution and population monitoring all appear desirable conservation measures.	eng
7717	distribution		This species has a wide, but now very fragmented distribution in Europe (especially in the Mediterranean region, but north to central France, northeastern Germany, Poland, Latvia and Belarus), in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions (east to Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, south to most of Turkey and northwestern Iran), and in coastal northwestern Africa from eastern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Its distribution somewhat complicated by suspected human introductions. For a more detailed treatment, see Fritz (2001b).<br/><br/>The subspecies are distributed as follows: <br/><em>Emys orbicularis occidentalis</em>: Northern Africa: northeastern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis hispanica</em>: Donana of South-west Spain and probablly all other Atlantic drainages on the Iberian Peninsula. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis fritzjuergenobsti</em>: Mediterranean drainages of Spain.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis galloitalica</em>: Mediterranean coastal region from Catalonia (Spain) through southern France and the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy. Populations of southern Italy an Sicily represent an undescribed subspecies.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis lanzai</em>: Corsica.<br/><em>Emys orbicularis capolongoi</em>: Sardinia. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis hellenica</em>: Adriatic coastal region southwards to Peloponnesus and Bootia (Greece); possibly including populations of the southern Crimea and western European Turkey. This includes a population on the island of Limnos (Greece) reported by Sindaco et al. (2000).<br/><em>Emys orbicularis orbicularis</em>: Central Europe, from eastern Germany through Poland, Baltic States and Russia eastwards to the Aral Sea, as well as central France and the Danube basin; apparently disappeared from the Rhine basin. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis iberica</em>: Southern Dagestan (Russia), Kura drainage basin and Kura-Araksinker depression of Georgia and Azerbaijan . <br/><em>Emys orbicularis persica</em>: Northern Iran and adjoining Turkmenistan. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis colchica</em>: Southeastern Balkans, Turkish Black Sea coast and parts of western and central Anatolia, Colchis, and possibly various areas in eastern South Ukraine. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis eiselti</em>: localised endemic from the vicinity of Gaziantep, southeastern Anatolia. <br/><em>Emys orbicularis luteofusca</em>: Southern Central Anatolian high plain.	eng
7717	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - ponds, lakes, brooks, streams, rivers, drainage canals.	eng
7717	habitat		This species has variable habitat utilisation across its wide range. It favours freshwater or slightly brackish waterbodies with slow-flowing or standing water, often small-scale, densely vegetated and frequently seasonal, while preferred nesting sites have sandy soil, generally a southerly orientation and certain characteristics with regard to vegetation and insolation (Fritz 2001b, and references therein). Mature females produce one, two or in some populations three clutches of about six to nine eggs (extremes one to 16; large clutches tend to correlate with fewer clutches per year). Animals reach sexual maturity after about four to ten years, depending on location, males maturing earlier than females (Fritz 2001b, and references therein).	eng
7717	population		Populations towards the northern extremes of the distribution range tend to be very small, whereas populations in the Mediterranean and Caucasus regions can be more abundant (e.g., Corsica - Cheylan 1995). French (Servan 1995), Spanish and at least western Turkish populations were considered to be in decline (Atatur 1995).	eng
7717	threats		Habitat loss impacts have been considered crucial to declines of populations of the species: urbanisation, road construction, wetland drainage (Atatur 1995; Servan 1995). Species is sensitive to water pollution, which has been considered a factor in the localised disappearance of the species (Atatur 1995;  Servan 1995; Mascort 1996).<br/>The species has been considered as at especially high risk from competition for food, basking and nesting sites by exotic <em>Trachemys scripta</em> (Kramer 1995; Servan 1995). Collection for food and pet trade has been a historical impact and continues in some locations but is not a major threat to the species overall. Overexploitation of water sources is reducing the available habitat of the species, and increasing salination.	eng
7720	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Some populations of <em>E. recurvatum</em> occur in protected reserves, but many are in recreation lands. Monitoring of populations will remain important, so to will the establishment of protected areas.  Further research on all aspects of its biology is required.	eng
7720	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Enallagma recurvatum</em> is found in seven states in the United States of America.	eng
7720	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs at coastal-plain ponds with shallow, sandy shores, large amounts of vegetation, especially <em>Juncus militaris</em>, and yearly natural fluctuations in water levels. Turnover rate (33.3%) and local extinction rate (41%) between two years is relatively high for damselfly (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus it has probably adapted to patch colonization within meta-populations. Adults have limited flight season in early summer.	eng
7720	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. recurvatum</em> is often common, sometimes abundant, in its preferred habitat.	eng
7720	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. recurvatum</em> is under threat from wetland and adjoining upland habitat destruction from construction and development, lowering water level from groundwater use, and pollution from roadway run-off and sewage. Both motor boats and automobiles represent threats in wetlands and terrestrial uplands adjoining them.	eng
7735	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range coincides with national parkland. It has not been listed for protection under any State or <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Federal Acts</st1:state></st1:place> (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). A regional survey of this species range is required (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <u1:p></u1:p>	eng
7735	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Australia, and has only been found on Wilsons Promontory, Southern Victoria. Due to the low disperal ability expected for this species, and the isolation of the Promontory from both the mainland of Victoria (by the Yanakie Isthmus) and the Bass Strait Islands including Tasmania, it is unlikely that the species will be found elsewhere (Horwitz 1990). The area in which this species is distributed is 517 km², and this species is thought to have a severely fragmented distribution (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7735	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	The burrows of this species<em></em> are usually located on the hill slopes adjacent to the flood plain where they receive no water from the water-table (type 3 burrows). The soil consists of 1 - 2 cm of macro-organic material, followed by 15 - 40 cm of silty sand and a gradual change to soils with a heavier component of clay. The largest individual found has a carapace length of 26.8 mm, and the largest reproductive female was 24.1 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7735	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
7735	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution to one small region which falls within a gazette national park (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Regional disturbance such as a decline in rainfall and repetitive severe fires could cause significant declines in subpopulations (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Fire hasn't been a major issue for burrowing crayfish in the past as they are insulated by the soil; however fire frequency and severity have been increasing under climate change, while habitats have been drying out (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, species living in type 3 burrows might be exceptionally susceptible to climate change as they rely on predictable level and timing of water supply (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
7736	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is classified as Threatened under the state of Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. The potential threat posed by elevated sedimentation and turbidity within Croajingolong National Park as a result of timber harvesting in adjacent state forest, is generally managed through the application of the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996). Degradation of native riparian vegetation along Victorian rivers and streams (SAC 1996) is listed as a potentially threatening process under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Van Praagh 2003a). The Thurra River is designated a Representative River, characteristic of the eastern Victorian dissected uplands and river plains and the catchment of the Benedore River is declared a ?Scientific Reference Segment? under the State Environment Protection Policy ? waters of East Gippsland (NRE 1996). These rivers occur within the potential range of the Mallacoota Burrowing Crayfish and may confer additional habitat protection for the species. The East Gippsland Forest Management Area Plan includes a specific conservation guideline for this species (Van Praagh 2003a).<br/><br/>Doran and Richards (1996) found that the primary consideration in the management of <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> species appears to be related to the level of available moisture, soil type and degree of disturbance to which they are subject.&#160;      Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, with monitoring of the population trends and threats. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7736	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. The known distribution of this species is confined to two sites on the western region of Mallacoota Inlet, near the Victoria-New South Wales border (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  15 km² <sup><em></em></sup>and is known from a single location.	eng
7736	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	Habitat information regarding this species<em></em> is known only from the type locality. It was found in a creek measuring 1 - 2 m wide with steep, clear banks (free of vegetation) of predominantly silty and sandy soil in a warm temperate rainforest. The burrow was filled with water at the level of the creek but no connections to the creek were found (type 2 burrows). The largest male found was 17.8 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 17.6 to 20.4 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7736	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	There is no population information for this species,   however this is not an abundant species   (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
7736	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is threatened by its restricted distribution coupled with the loss of riparian vegetation (Horwitz 1995). Loss of riparian strips results in elevated sedimentation and turbidity. At present, recreational fishing is allowed in Croajingolong National Park but it is not known whether harvesting of crayfish as food or bait is occurring. The potential range of this species also includes areas of private land grazed by cattle resulting in trampling, erosion and sedimentation of habitat (Van Praagh 2003a). Many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus </span>are particularly vulnerable to localized environmental disturbances (Williams 1990). Localized catastrophic events, such as an extended drought, fire or large sediment pulses could drastically effect populations of this species (Van Praagh 2003a).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7737	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and as 'endangered' under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). <em></em>It is included in the objectives for fauna conservation in the Parks and Wildlife Service (2000), Strzelecki National Park Management Plan. It is also included in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Government (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is found within an existing national park, however it is unknown how much of its range is located within formal reserves (Doran 2000). A detailed assessment of its geographic distribution and the quantity, quality and long-term security of its available habitat needs to be undertaken, especially given the significant threat posed by bushfires (Doran 2000).   Future research should also focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<p><strong></strong></p>	eng
7737	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to the region of Mount Strzelecki and the Darling Ranges on Flinders Island in the Bass Strait, as well as the higher gullies of Mount Munro on Cape Barren Island, Australia (Horwitz 1990, N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It has an estimated distribution of 15.1 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004), and an estimated area of occupancy of 0.18 km<sup>2</sup> (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008). Though, these figures are rough estimates, as the exact distributional boundaries for the species are poorly known and need to be better surveyed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7737	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is most commonly found in boggy habitats and small clear water creeks in higher altitude temperate wet fern gullies (Horwitz 1990). More recently it has also been found in poorly drained mossy tea-tree bogs and small grassy spring/soak in open dry eucalyptus forests at lower altitudes (Doran 2000). The burrows often have more than one opening and frequently ramify beneath rotting logs or the root matting of tree ferns. The largest male found was 25.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.8 to 25.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/><p></p>	eng
7737	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;it can be very locally abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7737	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is restricted in distribution to only three known, relatively high altitude, regions on Flinders Island and Cape Barren Island in the Bass Strait (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008). The reservation status of this species is relatively high, however there are still numerous threatening processes present within its habitat (Doran 2000). The habitat for this species is considered to be susceptible to severe wildfire and subsequent habitat loss   including loss of shade and moisture. Whilst the likelihood of fire has not been quantified, key habitat is identified as the most fire sensitive. High fuel levels, the existing drought conditions and the lack of access for fire control, dramatically increases the likelihood of intense wildfires (Doran 2000). Within the next ten years, the risk of fire and subsequent habitat loss and population decline can be considered high (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2008).<br/><br/>Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Feral pigs are a potential threat on Flinders Island, especially in areas with shallow soils where the crayfish can be readily caught (N. Doran and P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Forestry and agricultural issues are currently not a major threat to this species, however this might change in the future depending upon decisions regarding such activities on the islands (Doran 2000). <br/>  <br/><strong></strong>	eng
7738	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>This species is currently listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). The species&#160; is included in the <em>Engaeus</em> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Governments (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). The distribution of the species covers several informal reserves, comprising approximately 7% of its extent. An estimated 50-55% of the species distribution occurs in state forest (Doran and Richards 1996). Doran (2000) states that a major proportion (41%) of the distribution of this species is in state forest. At present there are buffer zone requirements in place to protect this species. While buffer zones had been put in place throughout this species' range, in a key location the forest industry has undermined its own protection mechanisms by not adhering to procedure and subsequently impacting on important habitat for this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Conservation actions need to address procedural errors and the lack of management within agricultural land.</p>	eng
7738	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to the region around <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Arthur</st1:placename> in north eastern <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. A four month field investigation of this species extended its known distribution from the three original sites to seventy nine sites. The species is now estimated to cover a range of approximately 215 km², with at least another 50 km² to the south of its distribution over which abundance is lower. Thus, the distribution of this species is approximately 290 km² (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>	eng
7738	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>The habitat requirements of this species appear to be relatively simple, with the presence of sufficient moisture and suitable soil for burrowing being the major requirements. Provided these needs are met, the species is found over a wide range of altitudes, slopes, vegetation types, and stream classes, although it tends to favour broad seeps and flats, and marshy pans next to streams. This species seems to be highly tolerant of disturbance, and was found in high numbers in culverts, streams through standing pine plantation, and even seeps in the middle of cleared and burned plantation. Specimens collected from burrows in such places were found to be healthy and reproductively active. This species has an adult cephalothorax length, or occipital carapace length (OCL), of 3 to 4 cm. (Doran and Richards 1996).</p>	eng
7738	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is considered to be widespread throughout its range (Doran and Richards 1996). Long-term monitoring plots have been established for this species, although these need to be revisited and the data analysed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7738	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>A large proportion (41%) of the distribution of this species is in state forest, and so is subject to forestry activity (Doran 2000). Notably, a portion of key habitat allocated as protected area was removed recently, owing to procedural errors (Doran <em>et al.</em> 2001). Such forestry activities needs to be properly managed to minimise impacts (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). In the remainder of its range the species is also subject to heavy pressure from agricultural activity on private land, for which no code or guidelines are in place (Doran 2000). Broad scale habitat degradation and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major threat in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>   <p><strong></strong></p>	eng
7739	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species has been listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (SAC 1993). Any activity which damages stream bank integrity and alters water tables or drainage lines could be potentially harmful. The surrounding streamside vegetation within the plantation area is currently protected by Regional Prescriptions and the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996), which excludes timber extraction operations from streamside buffers and steep zones. A requirement of this code is the production of Forest Management Plans (FMPs) which include detailed prescriptions for the conservation of native forest fauna (Van Praagh 2003b).<br/><br/>Conservation measures in the management plan include surveys and monitoring to accurately map the distribution of the species (Van Praagh 2003b). The responsibility of NRE (Parks, Flora and Fauna Division, Forests Service, Gippsland Region) includes; encourage research into the biology and ecology of the Narracan Burrowing Crayfish to identify the effects of agricultural and forest management practices on crayfish populations; establish a buffer zone around selected localities (the number to be determined when extent of population distribution is known), and avoid locating roads or tracks within buffer zones. Burns within crayfish habitat should be avoided during late spring and early summer when the species is close to or above the soil surface (Van Praagh 2003b).<br/><br/>Education programs will involve local Landcare groups and other community groups such as field naturalists in the conservation of the species. These programs will include landholders and land managers, and educate them about the crayfish through this Action Statement and the production of a colour brochure. Habitat restoration will include the rehabilitation of degraded environments where the species is known to occur. Landowners within the catchment of the Land for Wildlife Program, will be advised of grants that are available to assist in protecting and enhancing riparian habitat (Van Praagh 2003b).	eng
7739	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia, and has been recorded from a 30 km section of the highland region to the north and west of the western Strzelecki Ranges in South Gippsland, Victoria. It is restricted to localities above 120 m in altitude. The range is likely to be slightly increased westward by further collecting, however extensive collections in northerly, southerly and easterly directions have failed to reveal its presence (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution of approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>	eng
7739	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is typically found in the flood-bed regions of fern tree gullies in temperate, wet sclerophyll forests. The lateral burrow branches may be constructed immediately beneath the root mats of the tree ferns. The soils in such flood-beds are usually high in organic matter, have a high silt component, and are dark in colour (Horwitz 1990). Van Praagh and Hinkley (1999) found that many of the sites they surveyed had a dense understorey or dominance of tree ferns such as Soft Tree Fern (<em>Dicksonia antarctica</em>) and Rough Tree Fern (<em>Cyathea australis),</em> as well as the ?wet ferns? Mother Shield Fern<em> (Polystichum proliferum)</em> and Hard Water Fern <em>(Blechnum wattsii)</em>. Buttercup (<em>Ranunculus spp</em>.) and native nettle (<em>Urtica incisa)</em> often made up a sometimes quite sparse ground cover. <br/><br/>Burrows of this species may occasionally be found in the banks of flowing creeks, and under these circumstances the burrows usually have two or three openings (which are chimneyed), descending to the water level where they have a horizontal component before descending further to the deepest level of the water-table. The largest male found was 26.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 20.2 to 25 mm carapace length. The species appears to breed in mid to late spring and carries larvae during summer, probably releasing juveniles in late summer. The species life history and ecological requirements is poorly known (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7739	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	There is no population information for this species, although the species can be locally abundant (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7739	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is relatively common within its range, but has a very restricted distribution. The area where the species has been recorded was previously tall wet <span style="font-style: italic;">sclerophyll </span>forest dominated by Mountain Ash <span style="font-style: italic;">(Eucalyptus regnans</span>) (Horwitz 1990). Much of the area has been significantly modified since European settlement, primarily being cleared for dairy farming and crops such as potatoes. Many of the gullies in which the species occurs retain some native vegetation (Horwitz 1990). In its final recommendation, the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC 1993) determined that this species is highly vulnerable to future threats which are likely to result in extinction. At present the distribution of the species on cleared land and the extent of stock grazing within the known range of the crayfish, is unclear. Due to the clayey nature of the soil, riparian habitat is particularly sensitive to pugging and compaction by stock (Van Praagh 2003b). Removal of riparian vegetation and grazing is contributing to soil erosion, stream bank damage, siltation of streams and possible damage to the crayfish burrows. Although the role of native vegetation in the survival of the species is not known, the species occurs predominantly in areas where remnant riparian vegetation remains (Horwitz 1990). This suggests that native vegetation may be important for this species conservation (Van Praagh 2003b). The distribution of this species encompasses land used for timber production. Little is known about the impacts of forestry practices on the crayfish, however it is thought that forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to the crayfish through habitat destruction from creation or use of logging roads, and removal of vegetation (Horwitz 1990).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7740	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Existing conservation measures for this species include surveys which were undertaken as part of the Regional Forest Agreement process for the Gippsland Region (Van Praagh 2003c). Recommended conservation measures are as follows: Conduct surveys to establish the distribution of the species within the 30 km stretch of riparian habitat and search likely habitat outside this area; Monitor key populations represented within national parkland, Crown land plantation areas, and private land; Incorporate actions to protect, enhance and restore this species' habitat into relevant Regional Catchment Strategies or their subordinate strategies via Biodiversity Action Plans; Protect this species' habitat within the Tarra-Bulga National Park and plantation areas; Provide landholders with information and advice regarding measures to protect this species if surveys confirm the presence of this species on or near private land (Van Praagh 2003c). Plans to pursue funding under the Natural Heritage Trust and /or provide incentives to support fencing of habitat on private land to exclude stock have been made. Research should be encouraged into the biology and ecology of this species over a three year period and identify the effects of forest management practices using the population found in Tarra-Bulga National Park as a control.	eng
7740	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to southern Victoria, Australia. It is restricted to the high altitude regions of the Eastern Strzelecki Range in South Gippsland, Victoria. All sites at which it was collected were over 400 m altitude (Horwitz 1990). However, Van Praagh (2003c) states this species is restricted to an area of habitat occurring along streams over a linear distance of approximately 30 km in two river basins, namely the La Trobe and South Gippsland drainages (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2008). This includes the Tarra-Bulga National Park, public land and leased land for private forestry and some privately owned land. This species has an estimated Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) of 116 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
7740	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species' burrows have been found either in the flood-bed where they were very shallow and almost without a descending or vertical component, or immediately adjacent to the flood-bed in the banks where vertical tunnels of these burrows often descended to the flood-bed level. These yellow soils were composed of a heavy clay component (Horwitz 1990). The species has been largely recorded from the very high, steep parts of the Eastern Strzelecki Ranges, in wetter gullies where there is no clear demarcation between the gully and the hillside.	eng
7740	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;No data exist&#160;to say at this stage whether this species is undergoing a population decline or whether it is stable (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009)</p>	eng
7740	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species' burrows can be located in head water regions which are particularly susceptible to degradation by forestry practices. This is particularly the case if the prescriptions in the 'Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production' (NRE 1996) are not strictly followed or developed in accordance with the ecological requirements of this species (Van Praagh 2003c). Crayfish that are restricted to high altitudes such as this species are generally thought to be more sensitive to changes in water quality due to their occurrence within cooler temperature regimes and clear water, compared to more opportunistic lowland crayfish. All freshwater crayfish appear to be highly susceptible to chemical pollutants such as herbicides and insecticides, and this species has not been found in areas cleared of native vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. to B. Van Praagh undated). On privately owned land, removal of riparian vegetation combined with the impacts of stock grazing contribute to soil erosion, stream bank damage, and siltation of streams resulting in damage to the crayfish burrows. While the exact role of native vegetation in the survival of the species is not known, it is likely to be important (Van Praagh 2003c). A substantial amount of land within the range of the species distribution is used for plantations. The species has been recorded from above <st1:street w:st="on"><st1:address w:st="on">Grand Ridge Road</st1:address></st1:street> (Rhyton Junction) on Crown land which is leased to Grand Ridge Plantations, a subsidiary of Hancock Victorian Plantations Pty Ltd. This area contains both hardwood and softwood plantations. Forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to this species from construction, use and maintenance of logging roads, snig tracks, and removal of vegetation. Potential threats include habitat destruction and crushing of burrows, deposits of sediment into burrows and alteration of water table levels (Horwitz 1990). Any activity which may lead to an alteration in the nature of the stream-side water table or drainage patterns could impact on the species' survival locally. Guidelines for forestry operations have been developed in the Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production (NRE 1996) to minimise any impacts from these activities (Van Praagh 2003c). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2008). Given the species' relatively high altitude occurrence, climate change will pose a significant threat to this species in the future (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
7741	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is listed as 'endangered' under both the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999). This is due to its restricted distribution, its negligible reservation status, and continued threatening processes throughout its range (Doran 2000). Both prior management plans recommend two particular sections of land for protection. These areas represent both major habitat types of the species, and cover one seventh (62 ha) of its total available habitat. The areas are: the riparian reserve along Surveyors Creek - thus securing the flood plain and tea tree habitat - covering approximately 3.5 km of creek and 15 m on the northern side of the creek only; an area of state forest around the upper portions of Surveyors Creek, consisting of buttongrass plains and a sufficient buffer of land around the potentially available habitat of the species (Doran and Richards 1996). It has been suggested that the first area be adequately protected by the exclusion of livestock, while the second could be established as either a fauna reserve and/or wildlife sanctuary (Gaffney and Horwitz 1992). <br/><br/>In addition, this species has been included in the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Engaeus </span>Group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both State and Federal Government (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently incorporated in a notification and conservation prescription system established by the Forest Practices Board (FPB) and the Threatened Species Unit (TSU) to advise forestry operations within sensitive areas (Doran 2000). Long-term monitoring programs have been put in place to provide feedback information on the effectiveness of conservation measures currently in place.	eng
7741	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to north-eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is known from a limited area north-east of Scottsdale with an extent of occurrence of approximately 25 km². It has been estimated that only 4 km² of suitable habitat is available to this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Approximately 22.5%, 12.8%, and 64.7% of its range are found on private land, unallocated crown land, and state forest respectively (Horwitz 1991).	eng
7741	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is primarily found in wet buttongrass and healthy plains (particularly with peaty and saturated soils), but also occurs in surface seepages, the floodplains of creeks (often with scrubby or taller tea tree vegetation), wet areas converted to pasture, and some creek banks in open dry eucalyptus forest (Doran 1999). Females mature at a carapace length of 16.4 mm. Mating occurs between mid November and late December, and may represent the only time that male crayfish will be found openly wandering on the surface (in search of female burrows). Females carry eggs and larvae through December and January. While a strong linear relationship exists between body size and fecundity in this species, no information exists regarding the rate of growth, survivorship and recruitment, age, or number and frequency of breeding events (e.g. biennial or singular) (Doran 1999).	eng
7741	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	The population size for this species has been estimated to be 1,360,000 to 2,670,000 individuals (Horwitz 1991).  This figure is likely to need revision. Two key areas of its habitat have since been drained and modified by unauthorized development, which could have led to a reduction in population numbers (N. Doran pers. comm. 2010). However, it is unclear to what degree the population has been impacted. Long term monitoring plots have been established for this species, however they need to be revisited and the data analysed (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Qualitative evidence exists for local population decline following drainage of swampland, and cattle trampling (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7741	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are forestry and agricultural activities (Doran 2000). Downstream effects of road construction, quarrying and the effect of inappropriate fire management are other potential threats. An uncontrolled fire of high intensity or inappropriate burning practices could be devastating to a species of such limited distribution. The peat habitat of  this species could be lost entirely under such conditions, or could smoulder for long periods (Gaffney and Horwitz 1992). This species will be particularly sensitive to this when the soil is at its driest (December to March/April), or when the species is likely to be on or near the surface (during the mating period of late spring and early summer) (Horwitz 1991). <br/><br/>While the species can be found on swampland that has been converted to pasture, there is evidence that such drainage and conversion has a significant impact on this species and the faunal assemblages that depend on it (Horwitz 1991). Threats as a result of conversion to pasture, include the introduction of exotic plants, ploughing, fertilisation, grazing by hoofed animals, potentially higher water temperatures, and ensuing dangers of eutrophication. Ploughing disturbs the soil to a certain depth, and changes its structure by mixing and sometimes compacting layers (Horwitz 1991). Trampling by cattle is a direct threat to crayfish at times of the year when they are close to or on the surface (Horwitz 1991). The effects of fertilisers (used in the conversion of buttongrass swamps to pasture) and herbicides/pesticides on this species<em></em> are largely unknown. However, some decapod crustaceans are known to exhibit high sensitivity to certain pesticides (Horwitz 1991, Davies <em>et al</em>. 1994). Gravel reserves, tracks and roads within the range of this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are situated on gravelly and sandy soils prone to sheet, rill and gully erosion resulting in deposition of soils in low lying parts where the swamps occur (Horwitz 1991). These deposits have the potential to smother crayfish burrows (Horwitz 1990, 1991).<br/><br/>While parts of this species' range are within the North Scottsdale Forest Reserve, most of its available habitat is not secured (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Few loggable trees exist within the relevant habitat itself except along riparian strips, but forestry activity higher in catchments may cause indirect problems through enhanced soil erosion and siltation. The major portion of this land is currently classified as 'deferred forest', and Gaffney and Horwitz (1991) state the long term preservation of these areas is not currently secured. Twenty two percent of the area in which this species can be found is private and the majority of this land is either drained, converted to pasture or regularly grazed (Horwitz 1991). While a small portion of unallocated Crown land along Surveyors Creek is marked as a river reserve, this conveys no special status to the area beyond that of unallocated Crown land (Doran and Richards 1996). Two of these key areas have been drained and modified by unauthorized development, which could have led to a recent reduction in population numbers (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The acute range restriction of this species makes the identification and amelioration of potential threats to its habitat and population numbers a priority (Doran 2000).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Climate change might&#160; also exacerbate the fire risk by increasing the susceptible burning periods for the peat soils that the species prefers. It is highly likely that one significant fire event could drive this species to extinction (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7742	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species has been listed as a threatened taxon in Schedule 2 of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. In its final recommendation, the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC 1993) determined that this species is significantly prone to future threats which are likely to result in extinction (Morey 2004). A community education and awareness component was implemented by NRE in 1995. An information brochure on this species was distributed to all landholders within the Labertouche Creek catchment, and meetings were also held with landholders and the local Labertouche Landcare group. Some of the known habitat was fenced to help restrict access for cattle to the creek (Morey 2004).<br/><br/>Future management will include: coordinating research and surveys at other locations within the Labertouche Creek catchment and adjacent catchments to estimate the population size, determine its ecological requirements, investigate its reproductive biology, and determine the ecological relationships with other sympatric decapods; set aside the Crown Land on Labertouche Creek containing remnant vegetation that has been recommended for reservation by the LCC as a Flora and Fauna Reserve; determine appropriate buffer width of riparian vegetation required to protect the species, and encourage land managers and landholders to fence off direct access to creeks for cattle; re-establish indigenous riparian vegetation (Morey 2004).	eng
7742	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. The only known current localities of the species are on Labertouche Creek and Wattle Creek (a tributary of Labertouche Creek) in West Gippsland (Morey 2004). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 16 km². This species is thought to have undergone a reduction in this EOO since the previous Red List assessment (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7742	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species inhabits creeks which flow through predominantly cleared grazing land. Remnant patches of indigenous vegetation, some of which is in a relatively natural condition, and scattered eucalypts (<em>Eucalyptus viminalis</em> and <em>E. ovata</em>) are present along these creeks (Morey 2004). The largest male found was 20.3 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 16 to 19 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 15.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7742	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	There is no population information for this species<em></em>.   The species is very cryptic due to its particular burrowing habitat so all apparent records of low levels of abundance should be regarded critically (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7742	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species appears to have an extremely limited distribution, despite extensive searches (Horwitz 1990). Virtually nothing is known of the ecology, population dynamics and habitat requirements of the species. It is thought indigenous vegetation removal, cattle trampling of both the ground and creek banks and alteration of the water table may adversely affect this species (Morey 2004). Most of the creek frontage at the known locations is unfenced and where cattle have had unrestricted access to creeks in the catchment, the understorey is virtually absent. Cattle has been grazed in the area for the past 100 years (B. Whiting pers. comm. to J. Morey undated). Cattle may have affected this species by compacting the ground and possibly collapsing burrows as well as causing streamside erosion, bank damage and loss of native vegetation. Gold-mining was apparently conducted along the creek and its tributaries earlier this century. Rock is still mined within the catchment. It is not known how critical the persistence of native vegetation is to the survival of the species (Morey 2004). The only known current locations of the species are on Labertouche Creek and Wattle Creek (a tributary of Labertouche Creek) in West Gippsland (Morey 2004). This means that if the Labertouche Creek were to become polluted the Wattle Creek population may also be affected.	eng
7743	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species is listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Research is required to provide improved taxonomic and distributional understandings for this species, and following this a clearer determination of its habitat requirements, population numbers and conservation status (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
7743	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<em></em>This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. Its range extends from the Mount Baw Baw region in the east, to Warburton in the west (Horwitz 1990).&#160;<br/>This species has an approximate distribution of 274 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;<p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
7743	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This is a burrowing species, with burrows found predominantly in the flood-plain, in grey clayey and silty soils. The largest male found was 29 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 18.4 to 30.7 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 23.5 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7743	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
7743	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution, although disturbance to the area in which this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found could cause a significant population decline. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7744	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species should also be assessed for listing under State/ Federal listing, and management plans should be developed for known sites of occurrence (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
7744	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It can be found in fractured locations in the Granville Harbour-Rosebery district in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state></st1:state>, the region of the <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Dazzler</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, and north of Deloraine in northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state></st1:place></st1:state> (Horwitz 1990). It has also been recorded in the vicinity of Burnie in north-west <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state></st1:place></st1:state> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,586 km², but has a disjunct distribution (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>  <p><strong></strong></p>	eng
7744	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	At all sites from which this species has been collected, the vegetation was mixed forest with burrows being found in soils of sandy, silty clays. The largest male recorded was 24.9 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 20 to 24.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 21 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7744	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is rare throughout its range, and only occurs in small, fragmented localities (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7744	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	The major threat to this species is its severely fragmented distribution. It has undergone a decline in its range, most likely as a result of urbanization. This threat has been inferred from maps showing an overlap of urban areas with the range of this species. Urban development is still ongoing in some of its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore,   broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
7745	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P. , 2010	In 2001-02, funding was provided to the Tasmanian government through the National Heritage Trust (NHT) Endangered Species Program to prepare and implement the Burrowing Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span>) Recovery Plan 2001-2005 for several species of burrowing crayfish. Survey work undertaken as part of this project led to the discovery that this species should also be considered a threatened species (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2005), especially as its range does not appear to overlap with secure reserves (Doran 2004). Other suggested conservation measures include targeting of private landowners for conservation covenants, creating new reserves, establishing waterwatch monitoring programs in catchments (G. Marsden pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2005) and protecting existing colonies (A. Richardson pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004).<br/><br/>Increased public awareness and involvement in threatened species protection through community education and involvement will also greatly assist the recovery process for this species. Through the work of the Burrowing Crayfish Recovery Team, public awareness of several other Tasmanian burrowing crayfish has been raised through school and community talks and through a series of magazine, press and newspaper articles (Doran 1999).<br/><br/>Priority recovery and threat abatement actions required for this species are: monitor population trends; and determine specific threats to known colonies and appropriate actions to abate them (Threatened Species Scientific Committee 2005).	eng
7745	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P. , 2010	This species is endemic to central north Tasmania. It is found in an area running southwest from Port Sorell to the Railton area and north to Quoiba, near Devonport (Nelson 2003). The historical distribution of this species is difficult to determine. Based on the distribution and abundance of other burrowing crayfish, it is likely that this species was quite common throughout its range prior to its habitat becoming highly modified (Nelson 2003). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 515 km² (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Surveys conducted in 2002-03 found that this species had a restricted, fragmented population with limited connectivity between populations. Occupancy within its range is estimated to be between 0.2 - 0.5 km² (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). This estimate is based on known locations, with a 10 m (0.2 km²) or 20 m (0.5 km²) buffer applied to waterways and suitable wet areas within each colony to give an overall estimate of potentially occupied habitat (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). This is thought to be a conservative estimate (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). It is still not clear how much available suitable habitat is unsampled (Threatened Species Scientific Commitee 2004). It is highly probable that known populations will remain isolated due to the modified environments separating them and the continuing threatening processes operating throughout the range of the species (Nelson 2003).	eng
7745	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P. , 2010	This species occupies seeps, wetlands and stream banks in relatively undisturbed habitats. It is only rarely seen above ground or in standing water. This species is often found in clayey soils with deeper burrows than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span> species. It is believed to eat rotting wood, detritus, root material and, occasionally, animal material. The dispersal of this species through waterways may be limited, leading to restricted ranges and a high degree of local speciation (Doran 1999). The largest male recorded was 25.5 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged form 18.8 to 29.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 19.6 mm carapace length (Horwtiz 1990).	eng
7745	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P. , 2010	Population estimates for this species are based on detailed population density information available for the Scottsdale Burrowing Crayfish, <em>Engaeus spinicaudatus</em>. These population estimates identify a difference in burrowing crayfish density between disturbed and undisturbed land (Horwitz 1991). Direct observations have produced a population estimate across known sites of between 1,000 - 1,500 mature individuals (Nelson 2003). The population range may be between 20,000 and 188,000 individuals, however this is possibly a major over-estimate (Doran 2004).<br/> &#160;<br/>It was estimated that on the basis of habitat change alone, it is possible the species would have experienced a serious decline in the past 100 years with a potential decline greater than 80% over any ten year period, or three generations (P. Horwitz pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004). Another study found that the population could be experiencing a decline of approximately 90% (Doran 2004). However, precise population figures are difficult to determine and estimates range considerably.	eng
7745	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P. , 2010	This species habitat is highly impacted by agriculture, forestry and urban development. It was estimated that approximately 86% of the species' known habitat occurs on private and public land subject to disturbance and modification, with a further 11.5% existing in state forest where it is subjected to forestry activities (G. Walker-Smith pers. comm. to the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2004).<br/><br/>This species may be impacted by activities that severely alter water quality, quantity or soil and food availability (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). Potential threats include the clearing of vegetation along rivers and drains; ploughing; dam construction; unrestricted stock grazing (which churns and compacts the soil); burning; conversion to plantation (which imposes significant mechanical disturbance on stream headwaters and seepage channels); frequent, high intensity fires that have negative long-term effects on soil and vegetation; the establishment of roads and associated drainage activities that impact on seep, wetland and stream bank habitat quality (e.g. through the promotion of siltation and erosion); and other activities that degrade river bank integrity and enhance erosion (DPIW 2007).<br/><br/>The species' habitat may also be affected by poor waste management; waterway pollution; the inappropriate application of pesticides and fertilisers; and degradation through the establishment of weeds such as gorse and blackberries in waterways and seeps  (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). In addition, a recent survey recorded <em>Cherax destructor</em>, an introduced burrowing crayfish, from a dam where this species<em></em> was present. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> is not native to Tasmania and is regarded as an introduced pest. It may pose a threat to this species through competition for food and habitat (Nelson 2003; DPIW 2007).<br/><br/>This species' fragmented distribution means that it is very susceptible to population decline, with each isolated colony at risk of direct disturbance, especially in urban and production areas, or under the influence of climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Numerous small populations also depend on small springs that might be affected by changes in rainfall, drainage and evaporation.<br/><br/>While severe disturbance could eliminate the species, it can also persist, possibly for very long periods, in farm, suburban, and industrial forest surrounds. The species is apparently tolerant of clearing and agricultural development, occurring naturally in small and scattered colonies (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts 2008a). While all of these impacts have the potential to affect burrowing crayfish habitat over the long term, this species is most at risk from these activities at periods when it is moulting, visiting the surface, mating or nurturing young (Horwitz 1991). Local government planning has not been particularly successful in incorporating consideration of this species. Several public complaints have been lodged for investigation under federal legislation with regard to developments affecting this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, despite intensive surveys this species was not found to occur in secure reserves (Doran 2004).	eng
7746	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring to detect if any population declines are occurring. Potential threats also require investigating as these are largely unknown.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7746	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It can be found in the central northern region of Tasmania. Collections in the Queen Victoria Museum come from the suburbs of Launceston, including St. Leonards on the eastern side of the Tamar River, and these specimens represent the eastern most extension of its known range. It appears to be most abundant in the Meander River region between Deloraine and Launceston (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160;  2,499 km<sup>2 </sup>(Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
7746	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species can be found in burrows in the banks of creeks and in swamps where the vegetation is characteristically dry sclerophyll in nature, frequently with an abundance of tea tree. The soils typically have a heavy clay component, particularly in the region of the Meander River where the clays are yellow. The largest male found was 27.6 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 15.1 to 27.9 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7746	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no population information for this species, however its burrows are either less obvious or less abundant than those of other crayfish species living in similar habitats (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7746	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>The range of this species overlaps with areas which have undergone development for agriculture which may have reduced population numbers in the past due to cattle trampling and habitat loss, but there is no evidence to support this claim (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Urban populations no longer appear to exist, and the introduced brown trout <em>Salmo trutta</em> is known to predate on this species. These types of threats require further investigation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, climate change will be a major issue if it changes in groundwater levels in thick clays where this species is predominately found (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
7747	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is listed under the Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 as Threatened (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, research on the impact that possible threats are having on the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
7747	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. This species has been found in the Dandenong Ranges, east of Melbourne. Its occurrence near Mt. Donna Buang is unexpected and the eastward extension of its range is in need of clarification. It is not likely to be found west of Mt. Dandenong (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 167 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
7747	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	The species occurs in flood-beds of headwater creeks in temperate, wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em> and with abundant ferns at ground level, where it creates shallow burrows that ramify extensively (Horwitz 1990).  <p>&#160;<u></u></p>	eng
7747	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	There is no population information for this species.   It can be locally common (Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985), but it is infrequently encountered, partly because of its cryptic behaviour (Horwitz 1990).	eng
7747	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	Feral pigs, illegal cutting of tree ferns, and forestry activity resulting in sedimentation of head water creeks, may be problematic for this species. However, no evidence exists to suggest that these types of activities have lead to declines in populations.   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
7749	conservation	Burnham, Q., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species. Although its distribution range does coincide with the   D?Entrecasteaux National Park.	eng
7749	distribution	Burnham, Q., 2009	<em></em>This species is endemic to the Augusta region in Western Australia, and is distributed from the Margaret River to the Windy Harbour region (Morgan and Beatty 2005). Its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been inferred as 2,578 km², and is unlikely to be much greater (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).&#160;It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).<p></p>	eng
7749	habitat	Burnham, Q., 2009	<em></em>This species is a primary burrower and is found in swamps and peatlands, in any areas where the water table reaches or nearly reaches the surface, and there is a suitable substrate for burrowing (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). They are not found in significant water bodies (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). This species appears to be closely associated to certain hydrological processes and potentially soil types, and responds poorly to disturbance&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
7749	population	Burnham, Q., 2009	There is no population information for&#160;<em></em>this species. However, historical records show that in the last 20 to 40 years, subpopulations have extirpated from some sites (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). It is thought to be abundant at sites where it is recorded (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
7749	threats	Burnham, Q., 2009	This species is threatened by rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas, which  have affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). This species has not been found at its type locality since 1960 as it was degraded by cattle, water hole construction and hydrological changes associated with urbanization (Horowitz and Adams 2000). However, these subpopulations would seem not to be under threat at present. This species appears to have a larger distribution and there has been significantly less development around the area where this species is now found (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). Feral pigs also appear to negatively impact this species (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
7750	conservation	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enhydra lutris nereis</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I. All other populations are included in CITES Appendix II. In the United States, sea otters are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (Act) and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The US Fish and Wildlife Service is the federal agency responsible for their conservation and management. The ESA also makes it illegal to buy, sell or possess any part of endangered species or items made from them. In addition, it also mandates that efforts must be made to recover the species, which means creating and implementing a plan for returning them to healthy population levels. <br/><br/>Since 1997, the USFWS and the Alaska Sea Otter and Steller Sea Lion Commission (TASSC) have signed cooperative agreements authorized under Section 119 of the MMPA for the conservation and co-management of Sea Otters in Alaska. Each of the six TASSC regions has a regional management plan that includes harvest guidelines. <br/><br/>In Canada, Sea Otters are protected and managed under the Species at Risk Act. Despite protection and various conservation measures, the Californian population has been slow to recover; a new Recovery Plan by the US Fish and Wildlife Service was currently being developed with the aim of managing damaging human activities to enable the population to recover to a point where it can be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. There have been several successful reintroduction attempts along the west coast of North America, restoring this highly appealing animal to much of its former range.	eng
7750	distribution	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A., 2008	Sea Otters occur in nearshore marine waters along the coasts of California, Washington, British Columbia, Alaska, Russia (Kuril Islands, Kamchatka Peninsula and Commander Islands) and Japan. The original distribution was from 27°32' N on the Pacific coast of Baja California (Ogden 1941). northward along the Pacific coast of North America to Prince William Sound, southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula and through the Aleutian, Pribilof, and Commander islands to Kamchatka, and south through the Kuril Islands to Sakhalin and Hokkaido (Estes 1980). The longest gap in the original distribution was 300 km between the Near and Commander islands (Lensink 1960). Abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant population  two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; five in the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaska Peninsula; and one each at Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, the Queen Charlotte Islands, central California, and San Benito Islands (Estes 1980). In recent years much of the original range is occupied from the Kuril Islands, across the north Pacific to Prince William Sound; they are largely absent to the southeast of Prince William Sound. Translocations have re-established Sea Otters at Chichagof and Baranof islands, southeast Alaska (Jameson <em>et al.</em> 1978), and Vancouver Island (Bigg and MacAskie 1978).	eng
7750	habitat	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A., 2008	Throughout their range, Sea Otters use a variety of near shore marine environment usually in depths under 40 m and stay within a kilometer of the shore. Their classic association is with rocky substrates supporting kelp beds, but they also frequent soft-sediment areas where kelp is absent (Riedman and Estes 1990, DeMaster <em>et al.</em> 1996). Kelp canopy is an important habitat component, used for foraging and resting (Riedman and Estes 1990). They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs. Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt. Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round. Sea Otters forage in rocky and soft-sediment communities on or near the ocean floor. The maximum confirmed depth of dive was 97 m (Newby 1975). <br/><br/>Sea Otters are weakly territorial (Kenyon 1969) with fighting and aggression rare (Loughlin 1980). Only adult male Sea Otters establish territories. Males patrol territorial boundaries and attempt to exclude other adult males from the area. Females move freely between and among male territories. Groups of male and female Sea Otters generally rest separately. Sea Otter annual home ranges can occupy up to 0.8 km² (80 ha) and extend along 16 km of coastline (Kenyon 1969, Loughlin 1980). Typically, female Sea Otter home ranges are about 1.5-2 times larger than resident adult males during the breeding season; however, females have smaller annual or lifetime home ranges than males (Riedman and Estes 1990). Jameson (1989) found that territorial adult males occupied a mean home range of 40.3 ha during the summer-fall period (when home range size was considered equal to territory size); and mean coastline length was 1.1 km. Winter-spring mean home range size of territorial adult males that remained in female areas was 78.0 ha, with a mean coastline length of 2.16 km.<br/><br/>The diet of Sea Otter consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other molluscs, crustaceans, and snails. Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets crabs and giant octopuses (Estes 1980). Sea urchins, abalones and rock crabs are the principal prey of Sea Otters in newly reoccupied habitats of central California (Vandevere, 1969). Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, Sea Otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type. In California, it has been noted that Sea Otters ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across. Often 50% of the diet of sea otter consisted of fish. The fish species eaten were usually bottom dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as the Red Irish Lord and Globefish (Estes 1980). They also consume mussels turban snails, squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, large barnacles, scallops, and sea stars (Wild and Ames 1974). Bivalve molluscs are excavated by digging in sand or mud bottoms and are the most common prey in soft-sediment communities (Calkins 1978).<br/><br/>Male Sea Otters reach sexual maturity around age five or six, but probably do not become territorial or reproductively successful for two or three subsequent years (Riedman and Estes 1990). Most female Sea Otters are sexually mature at age four or five (Kenyon 1969, Jameson and Johnson 1993). Sea Otters apparently are polygynous, although the exact nature of the mating system may vary. Females normally give birth to a single pup that weighs 1.4 to 2.3 kg at birth (Riedman and Estes 1990). Twinning has been documented in sea otters (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1980); however, litters larger than one are rare, and when they occur, neither pup is likely to survive (Jameson and Bodkin 1986). Pups remain dependent upon their mothers for about six months (Jameson and Johnson 1993). Longevity in Sea Otters is estimated to be 15 to 20 years for females and 10 to 15 years for males (Riedman and Estes 1990).	eng
7750	population	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A., 2008	The Sea Otter population thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000, occurring along the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja Peninsula in Mexico. Its abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant populations: two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; five in the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaska Peninsula; and one each at Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, the Queen Charlotte Islands, central California, and San Benito Islands. Several of these subsequently declined to extinction (Kenyon 1969). Today much of the original range is occupied from the Kuril Islands, across the north Pacific to Prince William Sound; they are largely absent to the southeast of Prince William Sound (Estes 1980). <br/><br/>Sea Otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, and there have been reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 Sea Otters. As of 2004, Sea Otters have repopulated their entire former habitat in these areas, with an estimated population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are in the Kurils, 2,000 to 3,500 on Kamchatka and another 5,000-5,500 on the Commander Islands.<br/><br/>The Sea Otter population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 individuals in 1973. By 2006, however, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals. A massive decline in Sea Otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation was suspected. The Sea Otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of Sea Otters in 1989. Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the Sea Otter's range is discontinuous. Between 1969 and 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They established a healthy population, estimated to be over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range is now from Tofino to Cape Scott. In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which had a size of about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade. <br/><br/>In 1969 and 1970, 59 Sea Otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington State. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point. California has over 3,000 Sea Otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938. The spring 2007 Sea Otter survey counted 3,026 Sea Otters in the central California coast, down from an estimated pre-fur trade population of 16,000. California's Sea Otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern Sea Otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938; their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County. <br/><br/>In the late 1980s, the US Fish and Wildlife Service relocated about 140 California Sea Otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California for establishing a reserve population should the mainland is struck by an oil spill. The San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland, As of 2005, only 30 Sea Otters remained at San Nicholas, thriving on the abundant prey around the island	eng
7750	threats	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A., 2008	Oil spills are the greatest anthropogenic threat to Sea Otter (Geraci and Williams 1990). Sea Otters become hypothermic when oiled because oiled Sea Otter fur loses its insulative property and Sea Otters have no blubber layer, oil can be ingested while grooming, leading to gastrointestinal disorders, other ailments and death and volatile components of oil inhaled by Sea Otters can cause lung damage. Estimates of sea otter mortality following the Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound ranged from 2,650 (Garrott <em>et al.</em> 1993) to 3,905 (DeGange <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>Significant numbers of Sea Otters drowned in gill and trammel nets in California from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s (Estes 1990). Recent population declines in California’s Sea Otters may be incidental to summer commercial fisheries. Estes <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that Sea Otter mortality was elevated in the summer months and that commercial fin fish landings in the coastal live trap fishery increased. Recent analyses indicated annual Sea Otter carcass recoveries and reported fishery landings were significantly correlated.<br/><br/>Thomas and Cole (1996) found 10% of southern Sea Otters they examined to be emaciated without specific cause of mortality. Severe weather and periodic climatic events such as El Niño can disrupt foraging behaviour and food availability, and increase pup loss. Under these circumstances, Sea Otters may find it difficult to meet their high metabolic needs, leading to malnutrition or starvation. Serious tooth wear in older Sea Otters may also contribute to mortality (Riedman and Estes 1990). Recent studies have found infectious disease to be an important mortality factor in California Sea Otter populations. Around 280 Sea Otters found dead have been linked “to a pair of protozoan parasites, <span style="font-style: italic;">Toxoplasma gondii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sacrocystis neurona</span>, that are known to breed in cats and opossums.<br/><br/>Killer Whales (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orcinus orca</span>), Great White Sharks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharodon carcharias</span>), Bald Eagles (<span style="font-style: italic;">Haliaeetus leucocephalus</span>), Coyotes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Canis latrans</span>), and Brown Bears (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ursus arctos</span>) have been documented as predators of Sea Otters (Riedman and Estes 1990). Predation by Killer Whales is one factor that is believed to have caused Sea Otter population declines across the Western Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (Doroff <em>et al</em>. 2003, Estes <em>et al</em>. 1998, Hatfield <em>et al</em>. 1998). Significant declines in preferred prey species populations - Northern Fur Seals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Callorhinus ursinus</span>), Harbour Seals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoca vitulina</span>), and Steller Sea Lions (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eumetopias jubatus</span>) are believed to have caused Killer Whales to prey switch and consume Sea Otters (Estes <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/><br/>Studies in Washington and elsewhere have shown that Sea Otter predation on sea urchins may indirectly enhance the growth of kelp and kelp-associated communities. Shellfish are important to commercial, recreational, and tribal fisheries in Washington and predation by Sea Otters in a specific area can be significant and result in localized fisheries management issues.	eng
7777	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
7777	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
7777	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.	eng
7777	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes as less than 1 in 1979/80, and 0 for 1987/88, increasing to about 100 for 2006/08. (No exact figures are given for the 1993/95 small trawl).	eng
7777	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
7780	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Occurs in Ghandisagar Reservoir, River Narmada and a hillpool in the Madhya Pradesh State in central India.	eng
7781	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas. Survey and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7781	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan (Nuristan and Badakshan), northern Pakistan (North Western Frontier Province) and northern India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) (Habibi 2003, Molur <em>et al. </em>2005, Nowak 1999). It is widely distributed in the region at elevations of 1,800 to 3,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
7781	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In general this species is foun in montane coniferous forest. It is believed to have a generation time of approximately 4-5 years; it has up to two litters annually of 2-4 young (Nowak 1999).	eng
7781	population	Molur, S., 2008	The population is believed to be declining, though the trend is not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7781	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Selective logging, civil unrest, hunting for pet and fur trade are threats in parts of the species range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7782	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Least Concern in China, Data Deficient in Russia. In Mongolia approximately 50% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas.	eng
7782	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Distributed in China, Kazakhstan, Russia and Mongolia. Main part of the range is in China, N Xinjiang (Smith and Xie in press).<br/><br/>In Mongolia found in Dzungarian Govi Desert and parts of Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Recently recorded in Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi. <br/><br/>At the end of XIX century used to be common in Caspian and Kazakhstan deserts and semi-deserts, but western part of the range drastically has drastically shrunk. Currently western limit of the range is at Zaisan basin, Kazakhstan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). In Russia found in S Altai near the border with Kazakhstan and China.	eng
7782	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Inhabits dry-steppe, semi-desert, and stable sand dune habitats. In spring and summer they occur at lower altitudes, where they will remain until the grass is all dried at which time they will move up to higher altitudes to feed on montane grass through winter. Diurnal. Constructs burrows in areas of sandy soil, and each entrance is connected to others via runways. Feeds on roots, tubers and seeds of salsola, wormwood, and different grass near in the vicinity of their holes and emerges for only very short periods of time. Once the food around their hole has been depleted they will move on to a new hole or dig a new one.  Reproduction occurs in the summer months producing at two (Mongolia) or least three (China) litters of about 6-9 young per litter. The young are sexually mature within 3-4 weeks.  Population sizes and the extent of the distribution of the species may fluctuate greatly from year to year.  In years of abundance the species may be distributed across all of N Xinjiang reaching densities of between 1,000-3,000 per hectare. When populations crash; however, the species is rare and restricted to just a few localities with very favorable conditions.  Disease transmission is a problem during high population years.	eng
7782	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	This species experiences population fluctuations on a yearly basis, with large populations observed in 1993 (N. Batsaikhan pers. comm.), 1996, 1997 and 2002 (D. Avirmed pers. comm.), however, the most recent estimate in 2005 found small population sizes (D. Avirmed pers. comm.). In Kazakhstan and Russia it is rare.	eng
7782	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered to be major threats to the survival of the species.	eng
7783	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., 2008	In Mongolia, approximately 19% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species may be present in protected areas in China. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). In Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Research should be conducted regarding the distribution of this species in Mongolia.	eng
7783	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., 2008	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it occurs in the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Eastern Gobi, Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em> 1989). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, and Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7783	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., 2008	This species inhabits montane meadows and riverbanks (Smith and Xie 2008), and semi-desert habitats, constructing burrows in areas of sandy soil. The burrow systems are complex with multiple openings, storage chambers, and nests (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It feeds on bulbs, seeds, and roots. It breeds during the summer (May to August) with each female giving birth to three litters of between 4 and 10 offspring.	eng
7783	population	Batsaikhan, N., 2008	No data are available at present regarding the population status. This species experiences population fluctuations.	eng
7783	threats	Batsaikhan, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
7786	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Sinaga, U., 2008	Cave conservation is an important measure for this species. More information on population status, range, habitat and ecology and threats are needed for this species.	eng
7786	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species occurs in Borneo. A record from Mentawai Islands could be a large example of <em>spelaea</em> (Corbet and Hill 1992), but Helgen (pers. comm.) suggests it may represent an undescribed subspecies. Thus the records from Mentawai Islands have been excluded from the map here because it is highly unlikely that the specimens originally collected by Kate (1942) were misidentified (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
7786	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It roosts in limestone caves. It has been collected in banana mixed garden close to caves (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). It is most likely a canopy species, but there is not much information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
7786	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Sinaga, U., 2008	Only a few specimens have been collected from both eastern (A. Suyanto pers. comm.) and western Kalimantan.  It is considered rare and uncommon across the island.	eng
7786	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Sinaga, U., 2008	Exploitation of karst areas may be a threat to this species (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). This species is also hunted, but it is not known if this constitutes a threat to the species (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).	eng
7787	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is adaptable, and is present in many protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. In South Asia, this species like most other fruit bats in India is considered a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected areas like Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, and lobbying to remove it from vermin category are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Awareness programmes on ill effects of cave/roost disturbance is recommended (C. Srinivasulu and Bhargavi Srinivasulu pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
7787	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges widely from northern South Asia, into southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia  it is known from India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Uttaranchal) and Nepal (far western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is found in southwestern Guangxi and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, and parts of Viet Nam and Cambodia to Peninsular Malaysia. In insular Southeast Asia, it ranges from Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumba, Sulawesi, Muna, Sanana, Halmahera, Batjan and Tidore), much of the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia) to the Philippines where is found throughout the country, except the Batanes/Babuyan region. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camotes (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Carabro (Alcala and Alviola 1970), Catanduanes, Cebu, Danjugan (Carino 2004), Ilin (Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006), Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Cavite, Ilocos Norte, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental [Ramayla pers. comm.], South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Polillo, Samar (Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006), Sanga-sanga, Sabtang, Siargao, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas, and Ticao (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
7787	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a cave roosting bat forming compact clusters and cohabits with other bats. It roosts in large groups consisting of thousands of individuals in caves in forested areas. They are more often found in disturbed and agricultural areas, although they do occur in primary forest as well. It is a nectar eating bat with a slow flight, and has adapted to using the flowers of many important agricultural and orchard crops (Smith and Xie 2008). It breeds throughout the year and produces one young (Bates and Harrison 1997). It has been also reported living in small groups from the attics of village huts in northeast India (Tarapada Bhattacharyya pers. comm. June 2005) and Myanmar (Khim Maung Swe pers. comm. January 2000).	eng
7787	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	More than 4,000 individuals were recorded from Batu caves in Malaysia (Bates and Harrison 1997). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia although a recent discovery of this species in Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu suggests a comparatively rare occurrence compared to the Rousettus leschenaulti (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the Philippines, this species is often found in colonies of thousands in caves, even in agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). On Palawan Island two populations were found, one exceeding 2,000 individuals and another that probably exceeded 50,000 individuals (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
7787	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of South Asia it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Cave tourism and lighting is an emerging threat in some caves, as at Borra Caves, Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2003). In China they are often under heavy hunting pressure (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7797	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Wawushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), and likely present in Gonggashan and Labahe Nature Reserves.  Mt. Emei was named a World Heritage Site in 1996 (UNESCO 2008).  Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7797	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is an endemic of China, known only from the Omei (Emei) Shan range of Sichuan province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,500-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7797	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies forests and meadows (Kaneko 1996). Reproductive period is from early summer to late fall (Kaneko 1996).	eng
7797	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7797	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
7798	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Changshanerhai Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7798	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,500-4,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7798	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occurs in montane forests, scrub, bamboo, and in open and rocky meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Reproductive periodicity occurs from early summer to late fall (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7798	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been characterized as common along stream banks (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7798	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
7799	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolongmay (CSIS 2008), Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7799	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008), Qinghai, and Ningxia (CSIS 2008). It occurs at elevations approximately between 2,600-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7799	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occupies mountain forests particularly damp mossy forest at altitudes between about 2,600-4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It appears to fill the ecological niche of <em>Eothenomys</em> at higher elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of seeds, buds, young leaves, and grass (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7799	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7799	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
7800	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is found in Tiantangzhai, Houhe, Foping Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7800	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), Anhui, Sichuan, Gansu, Henan, Ningxia, Hebei (CSIS 2008), and Hubei. The subspecies <em>inez</em> occupies the northern portion of the distribution and subspecies <em>nux</em> occupies the southern portion (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found at elevations ranging from 500-2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7800	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species will make burrows in loose soil, in overgrown wooded gullies and ravines (Smith and Xie 2008).  Reproductive periodicity is from March to October (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7800	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7800	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
7801	conservation	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present within many protected areas. The isolated population in Thailand is present in Doi Inthanon National Park. In South Asia, it has been recorded in Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7801	distribution	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, it is widespread in south China, and ranges into northern Southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from Mishmi hills (Agrawal 2000) and upper catchment area of Noa Dihing river (S.S. Saha pers. comm.) in Arunachal Pradesh at over 300 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Anhui, Guangdong, western Yunnan, southeastern Xizang, southern Gansu and southwestern Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in northern Myanmar, extreme northwestern Viet Nam; and there is an isolated locality in Thailand that possibly represents a relictual population (Musser and Carleton 2005), there may be additional isolated populations of this species that have not been recorded. The species has a known altitudinal range of 700 to 3,000 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
7801	habitat	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	In China it is found in temperate montane evergreen forest (pine and rhododendron), in southern parts of the range it is more likely to be associated with open or cultivated areas close to the forest edge. In South Asia found in tropical and subtropical montane, temperate forest, where it leads a subterranean life, found in the leaf litter on the forest floor. Frequents wooded jungles and grassy meadows (Agrawal, 2000) and transition zones between temperate broad leaved and subtropical forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7801	population	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
7801	threats	Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threat to this species as a whole. In South Asia this species is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging, human settlements (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
7802	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Ailaoshan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7802	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008).  This distribution is characterized as fragmentary and widely scattered (Kaneko 1996). It occupies elevations between 1,800-3,350 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7802	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It inhabits montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7802	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7802	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range at present.	eng
7803	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7803	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China and occupies a restricted range located on the Sichuan and Yunnan border (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging between 2,500-4,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7803	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occupies rocky areas and meadow habitats (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from spring to fall (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7803	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7803	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
7804	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
7804	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to North and South Korea (Kaneko, 1990). It ranges across the north-western, central, and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula.	eng
7804	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This vole occupies a fairly wide variety of habitats, but seemingly avoids extensive forests (Won, 1967). Specimens of this species have been collected from scrub-covered hillsides, talus slopes, forested areas, abandoned paddy fields, the edge of the forest, old logs, tree stumps, and often near the bank of streams (Won and Smith, 1999; Allen and Andrews, 1913; Jones and Johnson, 1965; Won, 1967). It can probably adapt to some anthropogenic habitats.	eng
7804	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is fairly common in central and southern Korea (Yoon, 1994).	eng
7804	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be experiencing any major threats.	eng
7805	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Songshan, Xinglongshan, Houhe, and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7805	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hebei, Beijing, Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008), Henan and Hubei (CSIS 2008).	eng
7805	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occurs in forest and woodlands (Smith and Xie 2008). Its diet consists of green vegetation, shoots and to a lesser extent seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). It is primarily nocturnal (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7805	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
7805	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
7806	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), Liupanshan, Taibaishan, Wanglang, and Wolong Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is presumed to occur in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
7806	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces. <em>E. s. setchuanus <em>occurs in western Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan, and southwestern Qinghai, while <em>E. s. vicinus</em> occurs in southern Gansu, eastern Qinghai, southern Shaanxi, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occurs at elevations ranging from 3,000-4,000 m asl (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
7806	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies shrub-steppe or meadow habitats in mountainous regions, at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008). It is sometimes found in spruce forests (Smith and Xie 2008). The preferred habitat seems to be alongside streams in cool forest areas (Nowak 1991). It was also recorded in dense shrubland resulting from deforestation (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its diet "primarily consists of green plants" (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
7806	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	A study conducted in southern Gansu in 1996 recorded this species as occurring in previously unknown habitat (dense shrubland), where it was characterized as not so rare (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> (1998) also indicate that this species is often recorded by Chinese surveys conducted in forests within its range.	eng
7806	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
7807	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	This species was endemic to Thailand, formerly inhabiting the Chao Phrya basin.	eng
7807	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	The redtail sharkminnow is a demersal, tropical freshwater fish species. There is no published information on specific habitat. However, a similar species in the Mekong basin (<em>E. munensis</em>) lives in rocky substrate in relatively deep water (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.).	eng
7807	population	Kottelat, M., 1996	It is not clear whether <em>Epalzeorhynchos bicolor</em> still exists in the wild, but tens of thousands are exported annually from Thailand, all now captive bred (Kottelat and Whitten 1996).	eng
7807	threats	Kottelat, M., 1996	The reasons for the decline in the wild population of <em>E. bicolor</em> are not known. The aquarium fish trade has been accused of driving species to extinction because of very selective overfishing, but there is no documented evidence for this (Kottelat and Whitten 1996). Habitat modification may be the more likely cause of population declines in this case (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.). In the 1970s, many dams were constructed in Thailand and these probably severely impacted several large basins in the region. Large swamp areas have also been drained.	eng
7815	conservation	Day, M. & Tolson, P., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
7821	conservation	Mayer, G.C. & Tolson P.J., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. This species is legally protected by the US Endangered Species Act of 1973. Research into the threats, population numbers and trends, and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
7821	distribution	Mayer, G.C. & Tolson P.J., 2009	This species is widely distributed in Puerto Rico, and is especially abundant in the northern karst region (Acevedo-Torres <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species has an elevational range of 0 to 480 m above sea level.	eng
7821	habitat	Mayer, G.C. & Tolson P.J., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats. It occurs in rainforests, karst landscape, caves, and even altered environments such as plantations and urban areas.	eng
7821	population	Mayer, G.C. & Tolson P.J., 2009	This species is described as common in undisturbed karst areas of northwestern Puerto Rico (Tolson and Henderson 1993). Much of the boa's apparent rarity undoubtedly relates to observers' difficulties in visually detecting the species in forests (Wunderle <em>et al</em>. 2004), and this boa is not as rare as previously thought (Puente-Rolon and Bird-Pico 2004). Although the species is probably less abundant than it was in pre-Columbian times, recent accounts indicate that it is still widespread on Puerto Rico, and suggest that it may be common in some locations (Reagan 1984).	eng
7821	threats	Mayer, G.C. & Tolson P.J., 2009	This species has undoubtedly been threatened in the past and declined in numbers. Most of Puerto Rico has now been deforested except for inaccessible karst areas, which this species prefers. It is predated on by introduced mongooses, and killed by humans for a number of reasons, including extracting their fatty oils. However, this species is still abundant in its natural and altered habitats.	eng
7826	conservation	Gibson, R., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
7832	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	A search for other populations of <em>E. camelus</em> is urgently needed, as is extent of habitat (forested streams) that is available in the general area. Population size and trends have to be monitored. Occurs in the protected area of Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. One occurrence is unpublished, that from D. R. Paulson's collection.	eng
7832	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica; Alajuela (collection notes: "10 mi N Varablanca, 2,800 ft" (D.R. Paulson collection), and Cartago (collection notes: "Juan Viñas, 1,036 m" and "Carrillo, ca 300 m", both in Calvert (1920)).	eng
7832	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at forest streams, from lowland to mid elevation (300 - 1,000 m).	eng
7832	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. camelus</em> is, at best, described as being uncommon at known localities.	eng
7832	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is an ongoing threat; it mostly occurs in unprotected land within the species range.	eng
7833	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. clavatus</em> is not known to be present in any protected area. Searches for other populations are urgently needed, as is the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends have to be monitored. Realistically, there is no odonatologist living anywhere near its known range.	eng
7833	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in Guatemala: Alta Verapaz, Cobán (Belle 1980) and in Mexico: Chiapas, Lagunas de Montebello, 1,480 m (S. E. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006).	eng
7833	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. clavatus</em> is found at forest streams.	eng
7833	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size of <em>E. clavatus</em> is not known.	eng
7833	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation of <em>E. clavatus</em> habitat is assumed to continue and much of its known range is already deforested.	eng
7834	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	First, further study is needed to determine that the two known subpopulations are of the same species. A search for existing subpopulations is needed, with assessment of habitat needs. Population sizes and trends need to be monitored.	eng
7834	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Pacific slope of southern Mexico (Nayarit and Oaxaca).	eng
7834	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland rainforest streams (400–900 m).	eng
7834	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
7834	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation and diversion of water for human uses.	eng
7835	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
7835	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Chiapas in Mexico.	eng
7835	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland rain-forest streams (600 m).	eng
7835	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
7835	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
7836	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	One population lies within the protected area of Reserva Forestal El Rodeo.  New studies are needed to confirm habitat status and population range of <em>E. subsimilis</em>.	eng
7836	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Epigomphus subsimilis</em> is found in Costa Rica from the following areas:<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Turrúcares, Rio Siquiares, 670 m (Calvert 1920)<br/>Costa Rica: San José, Reserva Forestal El Rodeo, 7 km W Colón (Ramírez 1996, R. W. Garrison collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, 14 km SSW Monteverde, 355 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)	eng
7836	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presumably lowland rain-forest streams like most other <em>Epigomphus</em>. Type series taken in corn and banana fields near river, however. Males taken at swampy spring seep in forest, one patrolling small pool and another at forest edge. Known elevation range 355 - 670 m.	eng
7836	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to assess <em>E. subsimilis</em> population size or trend.	eng
7836	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The deforestation of <em>E. subsimilis</em> habitat is presumed to continually affect its numbers, causing a decline in the population.	eng
7854	conservation	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	<em>E. drummondhayi</em> was listed as a "Candidate Species" in 1997 under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA), and was classified as a "Species of Concern" in April 2004 by National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (see: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/concern/). In either case the status does not carry any procedural or substantive protection under the ESA. <br/> <br/>Status by Distinct Population Segment (DPS) US: Endangered, steady and drastic decline in abundance, males rare (G.R. Huntsman pers. obs.).	eng
7854	distribution	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	The species occurs in the waters around Bermuda and along the coast of the USA from North Carolina to the Florida Keys and in the northern and eastern Gulf of Mexico. Reports of Speckled Hind from Cuba and the Bahamas are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
7854	habitat	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	<em>E. drummondhayi</em> derive their common name (Speckled Hind) from the multitude of tiny white spots that cover their reddish-brown head, body and fins. Specked hinds are deep-water groupers, which have their pelagic egg and larval stages offshore (Richards 1999). Adults inhabit offshore rocky bottoms in depths of 25 to 183 m but are most common between 60 and 120 m (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles are more commonly found in shallower portions of the depth range (Ross 1988). <br/> <br/>Speckled Hind are protogynous hermaphrodites (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000); females mature at 4 or 5 years of age (45–60 cm TL), transition into males was estimated to occur at ages 7 to 14 (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Spawning occurs from April to May and July to September (Heemstra and Randall, 1993, Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000). No direct observation of spawning has been reported; spawning may occur at >70 m depth based on the catch of ripe individuals (Brule <em>et al</em>. 2000, Gilmore and Jones 1992). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is about 110 cm TL and maximum weight is 30 kg (Matheson and Huntsman 1984, Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Prey items, which can be engulfed whole, include fishes, crabs, shrimps lobsters and molluscs (see <a href="http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/">NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources</a> web site).	eng
7854	population	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	Very little population data have been reported for the species. <br/> <br/>In Bermuda the species is rare and probably not reproducing. Biologist and Bermuda Fisheries government officer Brian Luckhurst "examined and photographed two specimens in 1983 and that was the last time I have seen any specimens". "My view is that there is probably not a reproductively viable population here. We may occasionally get larvae coming in on Gulf Stream eddies but that is sporadic. Suffice it to say that the species is commercially extinct here and has been for at least 20 years" (B. Luckhurst pers. comm). Smith (1958) reported the species to be sporadically common in Bermuda at depths of 146–182 m, but now the species appears to be quite rare (Smith-Vaniz <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>US National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) data showed that the landings of <em>E. drummondhayi</em> have fluctuated. In southeastern USA, annual landings (recreational and commercial) declined to about 5 metric tons in the mid-1990s, then increased to about 18 metric tons, then dropped to just a few metric tons in 1995 (see Figure 2 in the attached pdf for a graph of these figures). More recent landings data have not been located (Parker and Mays 1998). <br/> <br/>The landings reflected in the commercial landings for all US waters indicates a different trend, one showing overall increase from 1980 to 2004 (yearly landings from 1980 in metric tons: 0.7; 1.9; 5.3; 12.3; 14.8; 14.6; 12.7; 9.9; 8.7; 8.9; 9.8; 27.1; 30; 20.7; 29.4; 19.4; 17.5; 28.2; 23.2; 23.2; 29.7; 30.9; 23.3; 40.3; 47.4). (See the detailed table of commercial landings data for this species at http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/commercial/landings/annual_landings.html). <br/> <br/>It is not known what trends in fishing effort have been associated with the reported landings, although there appears to be a movement of effort offshore (and into the areas where this species occurs) by both recreational and commercial sectors as part of moving fishing effort away from inshore waters. The declines and increases noted above could either reflect declines or increases in catch rates combined with a movement/change of fishing effort, or some combination of the two. <br/> <br/>Personal observations by Dr. Gene Huntsman (cited in Musick <em>et. al</em>. 2001), a scientist familiar with the species and its fishing history suggested steady and drastic declines in abundance. <br/> <br/>Low resilience, minimum population doubling time is 4.5 - 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/>A detailed analysis of size-frequency data and catch data in the Gulf of Mexico is needed to determine stock status in this location. The species appears to be depleted over its more shallow range and status in both deep and shallower areas needs to be determined.	eng
7854	threats	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	An immediate threat to this species is related to management of the commercial bottom long-line fishery of the southeastern US. The management trend has been to restrict such indiscriminate gear to deeper waters. If this management trend continues Speckled Hind and other deep-water species like it (Warsaw Grouper, Snowy Grouper, Yellowedge Grouper, and several species of tilefish) will experience an even greater impact than they do now because barotrauma (expansion of enclosed gases in the swimbladder (embolism)) results in hemorrhage and eventual death as these deep-water fish are brought to the surface (Coleman and Williams 2002, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>There is also a trend for the recreational fishery to operate in deeper water as shallower stocks become depleted. Even though there is a daily bag limit and trip limit for groupers, there are so many recreational fishermen (over 1 million saltwater licenses in Florida alone) that the potential impact on the already depleted Speckled Hind population is serious. <br/> <br/>At the present time there are no stock assessments and none are planned.	eng
7855	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
7855	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>exsul</em> is an eastern Central Pacific species occurring from the Gulf of California to Panama.	eng
7855	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> is a demersal species mostly known from juveniles. One juvenile examined came from a depth of 55 m. It is apparently too rare to be of commercial interest. The only adult specimen was found in Panama City fish market and was 125 cm TL.	eng
7855	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> is a rare species throughout its range and known from only a few specimens.	eng
7855	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> exsul</em> are not known.	eng
7857	conservation	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B., 2006	<em>E. itajara</em> was listed as a candidate species on the US Endangered Species List, and since 1991 has been referred to as a Species of Concern throughout its geographic range in US waters. However, a recent status review (not a full status review) has had the species removed from this category (M. Nammack, NOAA, pers. comm.). All harvesting of the Goliath Grouper in federal waters of the southeastern United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) has been prohibited since 1990 by the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council and the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council and in the Caribbean since 1993 by Caribbean Fishery Management Council. <br/> <br/>The NMFS, under the authority of the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act, lists the Goliath Grouper as overfished in Reports to Congress on the Status of Fisheries (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp  accessed on 4th Jan 2006, Porch <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The American Fisheries Society classified <em>E. itajara</em> as being conservation dependent. Due to the fish's life history, it is vulnerable to become threatened, but can be kept from threatened status with appropriate protective measures (www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2000-07-20-jewfish-update.htm, accessed on 31st Dec 2005). <br/> <br/>Classified as endangered by US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) under the concept of District Population Segments (DPS) but regarded as recovering under Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The population off the coast of the southeastern United States is listed as a Species of Concern by the NMFS (Federal Register 15 April 2004). Was formerly on the 1999 candidate species list (Federal Register, 23 June 1999) (www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Epinephelus+itajara accessed on 4th Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>A 5-year-protection was granted by the IBAMA (Brazilian Environmental Agency) on 20th September 2002 (www.vidamar.org.br/meros/english/index.php accessed on 3rd Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>According to the regulations for <em>E. itajara</em> fishing in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, fishing in any form for this species is totally prohibited all year (www.caribbeanfmc.com; accessed on 4th Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>It was indicated that the ban on spear-fishing in the upper Florida Keys has significantly and beneficially influenced the average size of groupers, although their populations in this region have not reached stable levels (Sluka and Sullivan 1998).	eng
7857	distribution	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus itajara</span> is found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans. In the western Atlantic, the species ranges from North Carolina (USA) to southeast Brazil (Francesconi and Schwartz 2000), and is caught widely in the Gulf of Mexico and throughout most of the Caribbean. It is reported in the eastern Atlantic from Senegal to Congo. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs from the Gulf of California to Peru (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>In Venezuela, the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. itajara</span> dates back to Upper Miocene (Urumaco Formation), according to a study on a fossil specimen (Anguilera and de Anguilera 2004).	eng
7857	habitat	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B., 2006	<strong>General Ecology</strong> <br/>Found from inshore to about 100 m in reef, mangrove, seagrass, and estuarine habitats (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>Juveniles live in shallow bays, holes, below undercut ledges in swift tidal creeks draining mangrove swamp, rivers and estuaries while adults live around structures in, near, and offshore (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992, Gerber <em>et al</em>. 2005, Koenig <em>et al</em>. in press). Juveniles exhibit high site fidelity to mangrove habitat for 5?6 years, then emigrate to offshore reefs at body length of about 1 m TL (Koenig <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>During a survey of the freshwater fish of southern Florida from 1976 to 1983, no <em>E. itajara</em> was collected although the salinity-tolerant juveniles could be found in shallow, costal waters (Loftus and Kushlan 1987). In 181 sites, presence of mangrove areas appears to be important for juveniles (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Koenig <em>et al</em>. (in press) demonstrated the high nursery value of mangrove to juvenile goliath grouper. <br/> <br/><strong>Diet</strong> <br/>The species feeds on a wide diversity of fishes and invertebrates (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). It is a classic apex predator, large, rare and only a few individuals occur on any given reef unit (Huntsman <em>et al</em>. 1999) <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong> <br/>Up to 100, sometimes more, individuals aggregate to spawn at specific times and locations. The aggregations last only a few weeks each year and represent most of the total annual reproductive effort (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Its reproductive season occurs between June and December, with peak activity indicated from July through September in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992).  Goliath Grouper is one of the few groupers that aggregate in relatively shallow (10?50 m) water (Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Possible courtship activities (without spawning) were observed on a wreck in the eastern Gulf of Mexico at 33 m depth in August 1990 (Colin 1994). Wrecks are often noted to be spawning areas for this species. <br/> <br/>A study indicated that a 1,322 mm SL and a 1,397 mm SL female had a batch fecundity of 38,922,168 ±1,518,283 and 56,599,306 ±1,866,130 oocytes, respectively (Bullock and Smith 1991). <br/> <br/>According to a conceptual model for the role of dispersal in a simple life history model of <em>E. itajara</em>, such groupers exhibit a positive response to the establishment of a marine reserve. Apart from inducing an increase in population growth rate, implementation of a reserve could increase population recovery rates by increasing reproductive output (Gerber <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Age, growth and longevity</strong> <br/><em>E. itajara</em> grow slowly relative to their potential maximum size. Growth rates for male and female are similar, averaging >100 mm per year through age 6, then slowing to about 30 mm per year by age 15, and finally declining to <10 mm per year after age 25. Von Bertalanffy growth model was found to be TL (mm) = 206(1-e<sup>(-0.126(Age+0.49)</sup>) (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Maximum size and age recorded were 2,000?2,500 mm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993), 37 years (female) and 26 years (male) (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992), respectively. <br/> <br/><strong>Genetic Studies</strong> <br/>Loci were found to be scorable and polymorphic across <em>Epinephelus</em> spp., and might be useful for population genetic studies in which appropriate management of the target population can be achieved (Zatcoff <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7857	population	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B., 2006	Global or regional abundance of adults is unknown. Abundance is now rare where formerly it was abundant (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). The species, in general, was noted to be uncommon or rare in the mid 1990s, but appears to be recovering in some parts of its range where fishing moratoria were introduced (e.g., Florida). <br/> <br/>Juvenile distribution in mangroves depends on local water quality, particularly dissolved oxygen content (>4 ppm) and mid-range salinities (>10 ppt) (www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec 2005). <br/> <br/>Female-to-male sex ratio was 1.75 : 1 in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from 1977 to 1990 (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Distribution densities of juveniles around mangrove islands (22?61 juveniles per km of mangrove shoreline) in the Ten Thousand Islands were found to be higher and less variable than the densities in rivers (0?46 juveniles per km) (Koenig <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Sexual pattern has not been confirmed (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992, Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>Most individuals collected from the eastern Gulf of Mexico were between 9 and 15 years (with female and male ages overlapping), few exceeded 30 years (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Estimated average length and fishing mortality in the exploited stock were found to be 1161 mm TL and 0.04 per year in the Florida Keys, respectively (Ault <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7857	threats	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B., 2006	Life history characteristics of <em>E. itajara</em> make this species highly vulnerable to overfishing (Bullock <em>et al</em>. 1992). <em>E. itajara</em> is of significant commercial and recreational interest. Since the 1970s, landings, mean sizes, and CPUE have fallen sharply in regional fisheries, and growth and recruitment are suspected to be in severe decline in some locations due to overfishing. Loss of critical juvenile habitat would also threaten this species (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/><em>E. itajara</em> is apparently vulnerable to stresses caused by cold water (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1978) or red tide — it was recorded that populations of <em>E. itajara</em> were much reduced during a red tide in 1971 and dead individuals over 45 kg were often observed (Smith 1976). During an outbreak of red tide in Florida in March 2003, eleven large dead Goliath Grouper (sized 12 inches to 81 inches) washed up near the Sanibel Island Causeway (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp, accessed on 4th Jan 2006). <br/> <br/>Mangrove habitat loss also affects the recruitment of juveniles, hindering population recovery (www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec 2005).	eng
7858	conservation	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<strong>Protection in Australia</strong> <br/><em>E. lanceolatus</em> was catergorized as Lower Risk (conservation dependent) on an Australia-wide basis. <br/> <br/>Under current Queensland Fisheries regulations, the fish is classified as "no take species" for recreational fishing (http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/). <br/> <br/>Under Northern Territory Regulation 9 of the Fisheries Act, no species of the genus <em>Epinephelus</em> above the size of 120 cm may be taken (H. Larson, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Protected Species in NSW Waters (since 1977). <br/> <br/>Protected Species in WA waters. <br/> <br/>No ASFB Listing (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Protected species in Queensland waters (since 2003) (Queensland Fisheries Service 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Protection in India</strong> <br/>There is a total ban on the capture and sale of <em>E. lanceolatus</em> in the Union Territory of Andaman Islands, India, where <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is relatively abundant. The local fisheries department has issued notices and the field staff monitor the capture and sale of it. Shipment or marketing of this species is not permitted. However, there is accidental capture of this species along with other groupers, although it cannot be marketed openly. In mainland India, this species is included in the banned list of species for fishing. But, except in Laccadive Islands and in the Gulf of Mannar, the species is not common (Dr. C.M. James pers. comm.).	eng
7858	distribution	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>E. lanceolatus</em> is the largest and most widely distributed among all groupers (Sadovy and Cornish 2000) but is locally rare (Randall 1995). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea to Algoa Bay (South Africa) and eastward to the Hawaiian and Pitcairn Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993) throughout Micronesia (Myers 1991). In the western Pacific, it ranges northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Australia. In Australia it occurs all along tropical and temperate coasts, rarely straying into cool temperate waters (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994. It is known from oceanic islands as well as continental localities. Its absence in the Persian Gulf is puzzling (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It can be found in the entire Indian Ocean, but is rarely seen north of the Maldives (Delbelius 1993). Not known from the coast of Pakistan, near the entrance to the Gulf or Gulf of Oman, but <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is reported from the coast of Pakistan near the entrance to the Gulf of Oman observed by divers off Raysut, southern Oman (Randall 1995). <br/> <br/>In S and SE Asia <em>E. lanceolatus</em> is recorded from Japan, mainland China, Hainan Island, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. There isalso a recent record for Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In Taiwan the species was recorded rarely at Ruerhmen at the southwest waters, but not found in other parts of the island (Kuo and Shao 1999). <br/> <br/>Indonesia and the Philippines were, respectively, the main sources of Live Reef Fish imports into Hong Kong as well as the main sources for <em>E. lanceolatus</em> (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999, Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
7858	habitat	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>E. lanceolatus</em> is the largest of all coral reef dwelling bony fishes. It tends to be solitary and inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs at a depth of a few to at least 50m. Large individuals often have a "home" cave or wreck in which they frequently stay (Myers 1991). It is somewhat unusual for a large species in that large individuals can be found in shallow inshore waters, including rocky areas, caves and wrecks, habours and estuaries, (Lau and Li 2000, Sadovy and Cornish 2000) and down to 100 m; overall it is more often found in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It even swims into brackish areas (Delbelius 1993). Specimens more than a meter long have been caught from close to shore and in harbours (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Its favourite food on coral reefs and in rocky areas is spiny lobsters. It is also known to eat a variety of fishes, including small sharks and batoids, and juvenile sea turtles; in South African estuaries, the main prey item is the mud crab (Heemstra and Randall 1993). All food is swallowed whole (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>Maturity size is thought to be approximately 129 cm and max size is 270 cm (Lau and Li 2000). It rarely reaches its final weight of about 400 kg. The larger it grows, the shyer it becomes according to underwater observations (Delbelius 1993). <br/> <br/>There are no reported direct observations of spawning aggregations (as is found in many other grouper species) for <em>E. lanceolatus</em>, although these have been reported anecdotally (Domeier <em>et al</em>. 2002). Interviews with fishermen provide indirect evidence of spawning aggregations in eastern Indonesia where seasonally, catches increase from an average 1 fish/week/boat to 5–6 fish/week/boat during the possible aggregation season; the spawning period was suggested to be December to February based on these interview data (Sadovy and Liu 2004). <br/> <br/>Rarely is the species seen underwater anywhere, but there are reports of individuals caught in Hong Kong, by hook or spear, in deeper water and outer islands such as Waglan Island dating back at least 30 years (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The Giant Grouper is nowadays often brought into Hong Kong from elsewhere in the South China Sea and beyond, for consumption, and periodically escapes from mariculture facilities, so the source of Giant Grouper seen in Hong Kong waters to day is uncertain. From older reports, however, small numbers of this species did once occur naturally in local waters but this location is edge of range (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>It is not common enough to be of much commercial importance, but it is often the target of spearfishermen because of its size. Caught with hook and line and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Data are needed on age, growth, reproduction, landings and trade (other than Hong Kong imports).	eng
7858	population	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	It is rare thus population status cannot be inferred from insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).	eng
7858	threats	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	Commercial and recreational fishing activities, including the live reef fish trade and the marine aquarium fish trade, have the potential to adversely affect populations of this species (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Andaman Islands, India, Giant Grouper are protected by law but the fisheries department does not enforce this law and the fish caught are unnoticed and are not cared for (Dr. C.M. James pers. comm.), leading to mortalities. <br/> <br/>It is likely that since a large area of reef is required to maintain such a large predator, its numbers are typically low, even in unexploited areas; this is consistent with underwater observations. In many places, it has all but disappeared (Myers 1991), due primarily to spearfishermen. Since the species takes decades to grow, and juveniles are also relatively uncommon, there is little chance of giant individuals reappearing in unprotected areas (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>The gall bladder of the Giant Grouper is an item of strong magical-medical significance to cure 'soul loss and ease pain', and even today, the highly distinctive thick walled stomach of <em>E. lanceolatus</em> sells for a high price and the skin and flesh are appreciated (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>Small groupers are quite palatable, but the flesh of large fish is strong flavoured and stringy (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). The meat of this fish is quite popular around the world. It is one of the most highly valued live food dishes and retails at over US$ 100/kg for the smaller specimens; larger specimens have a lower wholesale price per kg (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999, Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Juvenile Giant Groupers are sometimes found in the pet (aquarium) trade. As a young fish, this grouper sports beautiful colors and moves gracefully, hence the appeal.	eng
7859	conservation	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	A spearfishing ban has been imposed on the species for ten years in France. A number of Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect the habitat of the fish. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, <em>E. marginatus</em> forms part of a ‘restricted’ group of species governed by a bag limit of five fish per day (S. Fennessy, pers. comm., 2003).	eng
7859	distribution	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus marginatus</span> occurs in the eastern Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: Mediterranean Sea and round the southern tip of Africa, except for Namibia (S. Fennessy, pers. comm. 2004) to southern Mozambique. Western Atlantic: southern Brazil, and from Uruguay and Argentina (see <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>). Also reported from southern Oman (Randall 1995). Reports from Madagascar are likely in error (M. Harmelin-Vivien, pers. comm. 2004) For this species, which aggregates to spawn, area of occupancy is taken as the area of all aggregations sites. This area, which will occupy < 10% extent of occurrence, is not known. Known or suspected reproductive sites in the north-western Mediterranean Sea: Corisca (Revellata, Lavezzi Islands), Var (Les Embiez, National Park of Port-Cros), Pyrenees-Orientales coasts (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003), Medes Islands (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a) and Lampedusa Island (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
7859	habitat	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	<em>E. marginatus</em> inhabits rocky reefs from 8–300 m (see species account on <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, changing from female to male at large size. <br/> <br/>Females in Tunisian waters reached sexual maturity at age 5, while sex reversal of females to males takes place between the 9th and 16th years with a maximum at the12th year (Chauvet 1988). In Brazil, 50% of females reach sexual maturity at 47 cm while the largest female was 79 cm and the smallest male was 80 cm. The species matures in spring and spawns in early summer with a peak in December (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><em>E. marginatus</em> forms small spawning aggregations of a few tens of individuals. (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a, Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997b). Aggregation sites are known from the Medes Islands Marine Reserve, Spain (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a), off Lampedusa Island in the Mediterranean (Marino <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the National Park of Port-Cros, France (Chauvet and Francour 1991). Aggregation sites also appear to exist in Brazil as spearfishermen have reported large catches (up to 400 kg) in a few days from the same areas (Andrarde <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>In the Medes Island Marine reserve in Spain, density of Dusky Grouper was low in winter and maximal in summer, which took place from late June to late August (up to 8–fold increase). The number continued to increase before spawning in mid August, then dropped rapidly afterwards. During this period, dominant males developed territorial behaviour and displayed aggressively towards neighbouring males and smaller females. The observed sex ratio was approximately 1:7 (sexually active males versus adult females) (Zabala <em>et al</em>. 1997a).	eng
7859	population	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	It is highly likely that the two primary areas where <em>E. marginatus</em> occurs, in eastern Africa/Europe and South America represent (at least) two separate subpopulations with minimal gene flow due to the very large distance between them. <br/> <br/>In France, Spain and Italy, this species is abundant only in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) where fishing is totally banned. A fish survey conducted for more than ten years demonstrates an increase in the population of the Dusky Grouper inside MPAs. The fish is much more abundant in the southern part of the Mediterranean than in the north. The population of <em>E. marginatus</em> has never been very numerous along the French Mediterranean coast. But a dynamic population of groupers has been recorded in the northern Mediterranean for 15 years (Harmelin and Robert 2001). Visual censuses conducted in Ustica Island revealed a high abundance of the grouper in coastal areas (La Mesa and Vacchi 1999). <br/> <br/>A recovery in the Dusky Grouper population has been observed in France, first in MPAs and now even in unprotected areas. A tenfold increase was observed in the French National Park of Port-Cros for the last 10 years. The increase is believed to be related to several factors acting in synergy: increased number of MPAs, spearfishing ban and global warming of the Mediterranean Sea (M. Harmelin-Vivien, pers. comm. 2003). <br/> <br/>The presence of small groupers is constantly observed in the south of Spain and along the North African coasts. The presence of many small Dusky Groupers were also observed in Corsica between 1990, 1992, 1996 and 2001 (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, a decline in populations has been observed in Tunisia and southern Spain due to overfishing (reported by scientists of these countries at the 1998 Symposium on Mediterranean groupers).	eng
7859	threats	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	Overexploitation from commercial fishing is the primary threat. The slow growth rate and the complex reproductive style of <em>E. marginatus</em> compound its inability to withstand high fishing pressure (Fennessy 1998). <br/> <br/>In the past, spearfishing has been the main cause of mortality in France. Furthermore, the possible removal of legal protection of dusky groupers and a resumption of spearfishing will further impact the re-established juvenile population (Bodilis <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
7860	conservation	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	<em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> was listed as a "Candidate species" in 1997 under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) (United States), and was classified as a "Species of Concern" in April 2004 by National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). Both status assessments do not carry any procedural or substantive protections under the ESA.<br/> <br/>According to the NOAA Fisheries' 2002 Report to Congress (NMFS 2003), the status of the Warsaw Grouper stock in Gulf of Mexico is unknown, and the status of the Atlantic stock is overfished with overfishing occurring.<br/> <br/>Current commercial grouper regulations for the Gulf of Mexico include Warsaw Grouper - no minimum size; 726 mt overall deep-water grouper quota (GMFMC 2003).<br/> <br/>Current commercial grouper regulations for the U.S. South Atlantic include Warsaw Grouper - one per vessel per trip; may not be sold or traded; no transfer at sea (SAFMC 2003).<br/> <br/>Status by Distinct Population Segment (DPS) US: Endangered, steady and drastic decline in abundance, males are rare (G.R. Huntsman, pers. obs.).	eng
7860	distribution	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	The species occurs in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad, and as far south as Rio de Janeiro. Warsaw Grouper seem to be rare in the West Indies, with single records from Cuba, Haiti, and Trinidad; this rarity and the apparent absence from the western Caribbean shelf may be due to the dearth of deep-water fishing in this area (Manooch and Mason 1987, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Robins and Ray 1996).	eng
7860	habitat	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	<em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> is classified as a deep-water grouper; they inhabit reefs (such as deep Oculina reef areas and other growth-encrusted hard bottom) on the continental shelf break in waters 76-219 m deep (Manooch and Mason 1987). The fish have their pelagic egg and larval stages pelagic offshore (Richards 1999, Parker and Mays 1998), juveniles can be found in nearshore areas, occasionally seen on jetties and shallow-water reefs (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Hardy 1978, Lavett Smith 1971). Adults are usually found on rough, rocky bottoms in depths of 55 to 525 m (FAO 1977, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Bullock and Smith 1991, Gutherz 1982).<br/> <br/>The Warsaw Grouper is long-lived (up to 41 years) and has a slow growth rate (Manooch and Mason 1987, Musick <em>et al</em>. 2001). Maximum size is about 235 cm TL and about 200 kg. <br/> <br/><em>Hyporthodus nigritus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, age of maturity occurs at nine years (Parker and Mays 1998, Musick <em>et al</em>. 2001). Spawning has been reported to occur around April and May in Cuba (García-Cagide 1994).<br/> <br/>The Warsaw Grouper's large mouth enables it to engulf prey whole after capturing it in ambush or after a short chase. Diet items include crabs, shrimps and fishes.	eng
7860	population	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	No abundance population data have been reported for the species. <br/> <br/>Landings data are available from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) for the period from 1950 to 2003. Landings of <em>H. nigritus</em> were recorded in a few southeastern states of the US, including, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Florida (east and west coasts). Landings were variable over 40 years from 1950 to 1990, ranging from 56 to 162 metric tons; peaks occurred in 1952, '65, '81 and '88, while troughs were recorded around 1960, '80 and '84. The landings showed marked declines between 1995 and 1998 to 25 to 40 metric tons, but rose again to 114 metric tons in 2003. (For the landings figures see Table 1 in the attached PDF).<br/> <br/>By region (see Table 1 in the attached PDF), about 99% of Warsaw Grouper are caught in the Gulf of Mexico (Texas Louisiana, Alabama and Florida west coast). In terms of location, Florida west coast is the largest landing port in the US, responsible for about 68% of the total US landings from 1950 to 1985. However, the landings showed a decreasing trend in the Florida west coast since 1985, while the landings in Texas and Louisiana increased during the same period and took over the leading place in the 1990s. The change in trends of landings may indicate a shift in abundance around the area due to natural causes or because of a change in fishing practices. Further study on <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. nigritus</em> is needed to better understand stock trends. <br/> <br/>According to the NOAA Fisheries' 2002 Report to Congress (NMFS 2003), the status of Warsaw Grouper Gulf of Mexico stock is unknown, and the status of the Atlantic stock is overfished with overfishing occurring. Long-term and short-term biomass trends for Warsaw Grouper are unknown (Mazurek 2004). <br/> <br/>Although Cuba is within the range of this species, no information on landings could be found and it was not mentioned in a Cuban context in the recent book by Claro <em>et al</em>. 2001 which discusses ecology and fisheries of marine fishes of Cuba. This strongly implies that the species is either not common, has always been insignificant in the fishery, or has been seriously depleted. However a spawning season for the species in Cuba was noted by Garcia-Cagide (1994) indicating a reproductive population in the area. <br/> <br/>The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) capture fisheries data, but their records only recorded production of <em>E. nigritus</em> in the West Central Atlantic Fisheries Area (31), annual production ranged from 16 to 54 metric tons during the period from 1994 to 2000 (FAO 2002). <br/> <br/>The species is reported to have low resilience, with a minimum population doubling time of 4.5 - 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).	eng
7860	threats	Ng Wai Chuen & Huntsman, G., 2006	An immediate threat to this species is related to management of the commercial bottom long-line fishery of the southeastern US. The management trend has been to restrict such indiscriminate gear to deeper waters. If this management trend continues Warsaw Grouper and other deep-water species like it (Speckled Hind, Snowy Grouper, Yellowedge Grouper, and several species of tilefish) will experience an even greater impact than they do now because barotrauma (expansion of enclosed gases in the swimbladder - embolism) results in hemorrhage and eventual death as these deepwater fish are brought to the surface (Coleman and Williams 2002, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>There is also a trend for the recreational fishery to operate in deeper water as shallower stocks become depleted. Even though there is a daily bag limit and trip limit for groupers, there are so many recreational fishermen (over 1 million saltwater licenses in Florida alone) that the potential impact on the already depleted Warsaw Grouper population is serious. <br/> <br/>The limited dataset used to determine the status of the Atlantic stock, in the absence of a full stock assessment (M. Prager pers. comm.), indicates that the spawning potential ratios (SPR) for Warsaw Grouper in the Atlantic is between 6 and 14%, well below the threshold level indicating overfishing (NMFS 2003). There are no stock assessments for the Gulf of Mexico stock and none are planned in the immediate future.	eng
7861	conservation	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the US, the species has been monitored and had conservation measures applied directly to manage the fishery since the early 1990s.<br/><br/>In Brazil,&#160;  <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em> niveatus</em> was a frequent species and was often landed with <em>Polyprion americanus</em> (Polyprionidae) (DD) (Sadovy 2003), but was likely commonly misidentified and quantified. In 2005, a 10-year-ban for <em>P. americanus</em> fisheries was instituted by the Brazilian Environment Ministry (BRASIL/MMA 2005) that may afford <em>H. niveatus</em> some protection from fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>1. US Amendment #6 (1993): commercial quotas and trip limits enacted (SAFMC 2005).<br/><br/>2. US Amendment #11 (1998): <em>H. niveatus</em> determined to be overfished (static SPR = 5-15%) (SAFMC 2005).<br/><br/>3. Preferred Alternatives in US Amendment 13C: <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Commercial</span>:<br/>Reduce the annual commercial quota from 344,508 lbs gutted weight (406,519 lbs whole weight; implemented in 1994) to 84,000 lbs gutted weight (99,000 lbs whole weight). Prohibit purchase and sale, and prohibit harvest and/or possession of <em>H. niveatus</em> over the bag limit after the quota is taken. Specify a commercial trip limit of 10 fish until the quota is met (SAFMC 2005). An annual quota of 245,082 kg, with a trip limit of 1,134 kg (SAFMC 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Recreational</span>:<br/>Limit the possession of <em>H. niveatus</em> to one per person per day within the five-grouper per person per day aggregate recreational bag limit.<br/><br/>4. Classified as endangered by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick<em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Suggested measures</strong><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that the age composition of <em>H. niveatus</em> landings should be monitored because only 19% of the fish caught (n=809) by longlines in South Carolina were older than six years. This further emphasizes the problem of removal of females, as Moore and Labisky (1984) could not find a male until age 6 years. Juveniles would have to be protected to ensure recruitment to the adult population through developmental migration (Moore and Labisky 1984).	eng
7861	distribution	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>niveatus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Massachusetts (USA) to the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda, the Caribbean, southern Brazil (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and Uruguay.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Aruba, Bahamas, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, French Guiana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico (stray), Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela.	eng
7861	habitat	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Adult <em>H. niveatus</em> occur offshore on rocky bottoms at depths of 30 to 525 m, but are most common between 100 and 200 m. Juveniles may be found inshore and are often reported from the northeastern coast of the USA (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) reported that larger adults were caught more frequently in waters deeper than 100 m in South Carolina. Jones <em>et al.</em> (1989) observed <em>H. niveatus</em> utilizing shelter around rock ridge habitat in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, suggesting there would be a resource partitioning of habitat space utilization or shelter between <em>H. niveatus</em> and <em>H. flavolimbatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum size attained is about 120 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Recorded maximum weight is 30 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum age attained is 29 years (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999). Full recruitment into the fishery occurred at 575–600 mm TL and at age eight years (Moore and Labisky 1984). Ximenes-Carvalho <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> was long-lived (tmax=46.4 years) and had annual natural mortality (M) of 0.170.<br/><br/><strong>Length-age relationship</strong><br/>Based on an otolith study of 536 <em>H. niveatus</em> collected from the US South Atlantic Bight from 1972 to 1979, the von Bertalanffy growth equation of the was TL(mm)=1255 (1-e(-0.074(Age+1.92)) (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>Based on 178 fish from relatively unexploited population in the lower Florida Keys, the von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>H. niveatus</em> was 1,320 mm TL (1-e(-0.087(Age+1.013)) (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>According to otolith-based age studies of <em>H. niveatus</em> collected by commercial and research vessels, the von Bertalanffy growth equations calculated in different sampling periods were (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999):<br/><br/>1993-94 by snapper reels (commercial catch; n=311) = 1201 mm TL (1-e(-0.103(Age+1.149))<br/><br/>1982-85 by longlines and Kali poles (research; n=163) = 948 mm TL (1-e(-0.122(Age+0.668))<br/><br/>1993-94 by longlines (commercial catch; n=1218) = 1117 mm TL (1-e(-0.119(Age+1.409))<br/><br/>Annual mortality of the relatively unexploited stock was calculated to be 16% by catch-curve analysis (Moore and Labisky 1984), which was lower than the total annual mortality rates of 21–22% for commercially fished stocks in North Carolina and South Carolina during the late 1970s (Matheson 1981).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed mainly on fishes, gastropods, cephalopods, and brachyuran crustaceans (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/>Examination of intestinal contents revealed that <em>E. niveatus</em> feeds on fish (47% by number), cephalopods (18%) and brachyuran crabs (Bielsa and Labisky 1987).<br/><br/>Based on a study on stomach content, Weaver and Sedberry (2001) recorded that the diet of <em>H. niveatus</em> included swimming crab <em>Portunus spinicarpus</em> (90%), other benthic crustaceans, fishes (6%) and squids (2%).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>niveatus</em> was suggested to be a protogynous hermaphrodite by the presence of early males aged 7, 8 and 9, showing evidence of recent sexual transformation (no transitional was found) (Moore and Labisky 1984).  <br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) concluded that <em>H. niveatus</em> is protogynous based on the size (767-1090 mm) and age (8-29 year) of 97 males and the capture of two transitionals (787 mm TL, age unknown and 1000 mm TL aged 13).<br/><br/><em>Reproductive biology</em><br/>81% of 144 females reached sexual maturity by age 4–5.  Males could not be found until age six, but males comprised 40% of all fish of age eight or older (Moore and Labisky 1984). Moore and Labisky (1984) also suggested that sexual transition occurs principally within 3–4 years after the females reach sexual maturity in the Florida Keys.<br/><br/>Based on samples collected in the Carolinas from 1991 to 1995, Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) found that female <em>H. niveatus</em> matured at lengths from 451 to 575 mm TL (ages 3–7). Mature gonads were found in 4% of the females at age three, 52% at age five, 95% at age seven, and 100% at ages older than seven. The smallest mature female was 469 mm TL and the largest immature female was 575 mm TL (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>In the Florida Keys, <em>H. niveatus</em> were found in spawning condition from April to July (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>On the upper continental slope off South Carolina at depths of 176–232 m, <em>H. niveatus</em> were observed to be in spawning condition from April to September (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that <em>H. niveatus</em> might form spawning aggregations.	eng
7861	population	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The most common deep-water grouper throughout its range, although in decline in association with heavy fishing.<br/><br/>From catch curve estimates, the mortality of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> increased from 0.19 to 0.32 in the headboat fishery in 1972 to 1978, but remained stable at 0.24 to 0.25 in the commercial fishery from 1977 to 1979 (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>Huntsman <em>et al.</em> (1999) stated that <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> was very rare and that only small individuals were observed in the US South Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>Studies on the populations of <em>H. niveatus</em> in the USA revealed that its population has declined since 1985. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <em>H. niveatus</em> encountered [n] by the total number of surveys carried out in a particular year [N]) of <em>H. niveatus</em> in the tropical western Atlantic stayed almost zero from 1993 to 2005 (except 0.01% to 0.04% in 2002 to 2004) (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 2<sup>nd</sup> Mar 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Sighting frequency of <em>H. niveatus</em> based on Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) underwater visual census.<br/><br/><em>Adrian's Mark (2,700 sq. m), Onslow Bay, North Carolina, USA</em><br/>Based on the catches (from a previously unexploited group of <em>H. niveatus</em>) from 21 trips by two fishing vessels (fished at depths of 137-194 m) from June 1985 to April 1986, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> comprised 91.7% of 1,094 fish caught, contributing over 30% of the total amount of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> landed in North Carolina (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).  <br/><br/>Epperly and Dodrill (1995) estimated the initial exploitable biomass ranged from 29.2–30.8 tonnes (eviscerated weight), at a density of about 11 kg  per sq. m.  Epperly and Dodrill (1995) also found that not only had catch rates declined from 8.10 fish (68.8 kg) per drop in June 1985 to 1.25 fish (6.6 kg) per drop in September 1985, but also that of the mean fish size. In that study, the rate of decline in numbers between 28 June and 7 August 1985 (40 days) was estimated to be 3% of the population daily by fishing. By early August 1985, over 60% of the exploitable biomass was found to be removed; and within a year, over 80% had been removed (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).<br/>     <br/><em>North Carolina and South Carolina, USA</em><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) suggested that the population of <em>H. niveatus</em> was overfished based on the following:<br/><br/>1. size at age of fish caught with longlines and snapper reels had increased noticeably since the 1980s, which could be a density-dependent population response to a decrease in competition for resources;<br/><br/>2. 81% of the fish caught with commercial longlines in 1993 to 1994 (N=809) were aged to six years, with immature females the majority (56%) (female maturity is about three years);<br/><br/>3. the percentage of males in the population (based on 599 sexually mature fish) seemed to have decreased significantly from 7-23% in the 1970s and 1980s to 1% in the 1990s; and<br/><br/>4. mean length of fish landed in the longline fishery had steadily decreased from 65 to 80 cm TL in the early 1980s to 50 to 60 cm TL in the mid-1990s. <br/><br/><em>Broward County, Florida, USA</em><br/>Based on over 1,100 visual fish census on natural and artificial reefs at depths of 7 to 23 m from 1995 to 2002, only eight juvenile <em>H. niveatus</em> were recorded from seven visual point counts (Arena <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>Fishery-dependent data by country<br/><br/><em>Southeast Brazil</em> (23° to 26°S)<br/>From 1986 to 1995, <em>H. niveatus</em> comprised 9.9% of the total catch by bottom line fisheries (201-650 m). The largest catch was made between 201 and 300 m, with a mean CPUE of 0.1 kg per hook-day (Paiva and Garcez 1998).<br/><br/>Among the species observed in the industrial landings in south Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), from 1989 and 1999, <em>H. niveatus</em> (cherne-verdadeiro), and was captured frequently during the 90?s, but was never abundant (1 to 30 specimens per boat) (Monica Brick, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Southeast Brazil</em> (18° to 26°S)<br/>From 1986 to 1995, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> comprised 12.1% of the total catch of benthic fishes by liners (Paiva and Andrade-Tubino 1998).<br/><br/>Annual landings in Santa Catarina (south Brazil) for <em>H. niveatus</em> is as follows 14.15t (2002), 1.76t (2003), 0.54t (2004), 1.70t (2005) and 4.50t (2006) (GEP/UNIVALI, 2006). For São Paulo (southeast Brazil), 8.45t (1999), 5.38t (2000), 0.37t (2001), 0.51t (2003), 0.34t (2004) and 0.32t (2005) (Instituto de Pesca 2006).<br/><br/>In areas where it has been fished beyond economic viability, recovery has been slow.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>According to the NMFS annual commercial fishery landings of <em>H. niveatus</em>, the quantity between 1981 and 2004 ranged from 44.2 to 306.7 mt. From 1999 to 2004, an annual average of 232.6 mt of <em>E. niveatus</em> was landed (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 5<sup>th</sup> Jan 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><strong>Table 2</strong>: NMFS annual commercial fishery landings of <em>H. niveatus</em> (1981-2004); and <br/><strong>Table 3</strong>: Catch and revenue of landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> from the South Atlantic.<br/><br/><em>USA (Gulf of Mexico region, including all of Monroe County)</em><br/>According to NMFS, the annual recreational harvest estimates of both number (N) and weight of <em>H. niveatus</em> averaged 7,619 fish and 15,641 kg in 1996 to 2005. Landing peaked at 87,298 fish and 280,263 kg in 1981. (Note: there are very large proportional standard errors (PSE) associated with the annual estimates of landings, which suggest these are rare-event landings in the recreational fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico.) (Tom Sminskey, Statistician of the Fisheries Statistics Division of the NMFS, pers. comm. on 15<sup>th</sup> Mar 06)<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: NMFS Gulf of Mexico region, including all of Monroe County ? annual recreational harvest estimates of both number (N) and weight of <em>H. niveatus</em>.	eng
7861	threats	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Caught with hook-and-line, bottom longlines, with traps and trawlings (Moore and Labisky 1984, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>Trawls operated at 25-45 m depths poses a threat to juvenile survival (Moore and Labisky 1984).<br/><br/>Yield-per-recruit model for <em>H. niveatus</em> indicated that the headboat and commercial fisheries were harvesting 60–80% of the maximum available yield per recruit (Matheson and Huntsman 1984).<br/><br/>In Onslow Bay, off the central North Carolina coast, the rate of decline in number between 28 June and 7 August 1985 (40 days) was estimated to be 3% of the population was removed daily by fishing. By early August 1985, over 60% of the exploitable biomass was found to be removed; and within a year, over 80% had been removed (Epperly and Dodrill 1995).<br/><br/>Wyanski <em>et al.</em> (1999) reported that <em>H. niveatus</em> is susceptible to rapid depletion in a localized area through fishing efforts.<br/><br/>Musick <em>et al.</em> (2000) considered that the risk factors of <em>H. niveatus</em> included low productivity, protogyny, spawning aggregations, and that the species is vulnerable to extirpation in United States waters where populations are severely depleted and where the percentage of males in populations have declined significantly (Wyanski <em>et al.</em> 1999; Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Arena <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggested that the high demand for <em>H. niveatus</em> with its naturally slow growth rates made this species extremely susceptible to overfishing.<br/><br/><em>H. niveatus</em> occurs at depth outside most established marine protected areas within its range.	eng
7862	conservation	Cornish, A. & Eklund, A.-M., 2003	There has been a complete ban on the fishing of Nassau grouper in the US federal waters since 1990. This includes federal waters around Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. There is also a ban on U.S. state waters. The species is a candidate for the US Endangered Species List. <br/> <br/>In Mexico in 1997, the fishery authority completely banned fishing Nassau grouper "during spawning aggregations" (December to February) (Aguilar-Perera, pers. comm. 2001). This regulation is believed to still be in place. <br/> <br/>In the Bahamas, three spawning aggregation sites, High Cay of the coast of Central Andros and two sites off the east coast off Long Island were protected by law from 17 Dec 1999 to 24 February 2000. In addition, fishing for Nassau grouper was banned throughout the Bahamas from 12-26 February 2000 (M. Braynen press release, February 2000). As of 2003, there is no enforcement (other than voluntary at one site) of fishery bans on aggregations at any site in the Bahamas (Sir Nicholas Nuttall, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In Belize, spawning aggregation sites were open to fishing on a rotational basis but in at least one recent case (Glover's Reef in 1999/2000), there was no enforcement of a fishing ban and it was fished (Sala and Ballesteros 2000). As a result of growing concern, all Nassau grouper aggregations were closed to fishing at the end of 2002 in Belize. <br/> <br/>In the Cayman Islands, there are three main ('traditional') grouper 'holes'  in the Cayman Islands which only residents are allowed to fish during spawning season.  Only line fishing is permitted. This legislation appears to have come into effect in 1978 (Phil Bush, pers. comm. 2001). Recognizing further declines new legislation is to be introduced in January 2003 to protect Nassau grouper at designated spawning areas (Phillippe Bush pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>In addition, it is forbidden to fish for groupers during spawning seasons in the Dominican Republic, there is a moratorium on fishing for Nassau groupers in Bermuda and a quota system was introduced for the capture of Nassau's in Cuba (see Sadovy and Eklund 1999). <br/> <br/>The degree to which the Nassau grouper receives protection through no-take marine protected areas is not known. <br/> <br/>The available evidence indicates that spawning aggregations are extremely important to maintenance of Nassau grouper populations, most of the data needed to improve the accuracy of this assessment in the future would be on the current status and importance of these aggregations. Information on the following would be of great value: <br/> <br/>1) Are traditional aggregation sites special or can aggregations form in new areas ? <br/> <br/>2) Does reproduction in the Nassau grouper only occur in spawning aggregations and if this is the case, do mature individuals reproduce each year and do they always use the same site ? <br/> <br/>3) There are a number of traditional aggregation sites that have reportedly disappeared (see Sadovy and Eklund 1999) that do not appear to have re-visited in recent years. Assessing the health of Nassau grouper populations in the future would be greatly improved by annual monitoring of as many traditional aggregation sites as possible. This would include checking for the possible formation of aggregations in the vicinity of traditional sites where no aggregation currently occurs. <br/> <br/>It would also be helpful to know the degree to which Nassau groupers receive effective protection in marine protected areas of the Caribbean.	eng
7862	distribution	Cornish, A. & Eklund, A.-M., 2003	The Nassau Grouper is found from Bermuda and Florida throughout the Bahamas and Caribbean Sea. Heemstra and Randall (1993) indicate a second subpopulation lying along the coast of Brazil, roughly from Forteleza to Rio de Janeiro. However this may be an error, as there do not appear to be any specimens or verifiable photographs of the Nassau grouper from Brazil (Heemstra, pers. comm. 2001, Moura 2001).	eng
7862	habitat	Cornish, A. & Eklund, A.-M., 2003	Occurs to at least 130 m and is most abundant in clear water with high relief coral reefs or rocky substrate (Sadovy and Ekland 1999) Post-settlement fish inhabit <em>Laurencia</em> macroalgal clumps, seagrass beds and coral (Eggleston 1995, Dahlgren 1998). <br/> <br/>Generation time is estimated at 9-10 years, based on average fish size from an unexploited aggregation in Belize and the growth curve from five Cayman Island spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Eklund 1999).	eng
7862	population	Cornish, A. & Eklund, A.-M., 2003	Most time series landings/CPUE data sets show some yearly fluctuations and even large ones, but not order of magnitude fluctuations. However, Table 16 in Sadovy and Eklund (1999) of commercial landings in the US showed order of magnitude variations from 1986 to 1988 when total landings in pounds were 15,633, 0, 4,737 respectively. The data has been checked and indeed, very few Nassau were caught in 1987, and for no apparent external reason (Eklund, pers. comm., March 2001). As the Nassau grouper is long-lived and relatively sedentary this is rather surprising. <br/> <br/>Current population size is estimated at >10,000 mature individuals. It is estimated that a population decline of 60% has occurred over the last three generations (27-30 years). Ideally, the percentage decline (from the best available data, i.e., landings, CPUE, spawning aggregation size) would be applied to estimates of the original Nassau subpopulation within each country for which the decline applies. This would be done for all countries and the overall decline would be the percentage difference between the original global population size and the current one. Unfortunately, estimates of country stock size are rare. Therefore, past declines were weighted by coral reef area (rather than population size) to give an overall decline figure. This method assumes that pristine densities of Nassau grouper were the same at all localities. This is probably not likely to have been the case but it enables a single figure to be derived, which is likely more representative of the global situation than the alternative, which would be to say that the decline lies between 55 and 99.5% (the lowest and highest documented decline rates). <br/> <br/>From the available data and most recent reports, Nassau subpopulations are likely to either be stable (e.g., the U.S.) or in decline (e.g., Cuba, Belize). Overall, it seems very likely (80-100%) that overall, the global population of Nassau grouper will continue to decline over the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>There is no evidence of distinct subpopulations of Nassau grouper based on genetic work (mtDNA and microsatellites) of fish sampled from a number of sites in Florida, Cuba, Belize and the Bahamas (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1996). Therefore, it is considered that there is only one subpopulation with all individuals in it, that the population is not severely fragmented. There is no evidence of extreme fluctuations in the number of locations or subpopulations.	eng
7862	threats	Cornish, A. & Eklund, A.-M., 2003	Nassau Grouper are fished commercially and recreationally by handline, longline, fish traps, spear guns and gillnets. Aggregations are mainly exploited by handlines, or by fish traps, although gillnets have recently been used in Mexico. Declines in landings, catch per unit effort (CPUE) and, by implication, abundance have been reported throughout its range and it is now considered to be commercially extinct in a number of areas (Sadovy and Ekland 1999). The fact that much of the catch in many areas comes from spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Eklund 1999) is also worrying given that targeted aggregations have evidently collapsed in many countries. <br/> <br/>Suitable habitat for the Nassau grouper is also likely to be in decline. Of the estimated 20,000 km² of coral reef in the Caribbean, 29% is estimated to be under high risk of degradation from human activities, 32% is at medium risk and 39% is at low risk (Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998). Although the Nassau grouper also inhabits rocky reefs, these are unlikely to be able to compensate for the loss of quality coral reef habitat.	eng
7863	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7863	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Medium to large rivers in shoal and riffle areas.  Winter breeder.	eng
7863	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species, which probably went Extinct in 1940.	eng
7864	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7864	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Shallow fast moving water in medium to large rivers.  Possibly a winter breeder.	eng
7864	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species, which probably went Extinct in 1940.	eng
7865	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7865	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species.	eng
7866	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7866	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming along entire river systems has had an impact on this species.	eng
7869	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Cumberland and Tennessee River Basins.	eng
7870	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Disjunct distribution from main <em>Epioblasma florentina</em>.	eng
7870	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Small-medium rivers.  Restricted in range and only found in riffles.	eng
7870	population	Bogan, A.E., 2000	No longer found in Black River. A few specimens were collected in the last decade.	eng
7872	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7872	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Medium to large rivers, amongst riffle-beds in gravel and sand.	eng
7872	population	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Only known from one small stretch of river in the 1970s.	eng
7872	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Last subpopulation killed off by domestic sewage influxes.	eng
7874	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7874	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Small to medium rivers, in gravel and sand in clear fast flowing water.	eng
7874	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Extinction due to habitat destruction and deterioration.	eng
7879	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming on river systems caused the extinction of this species.	eng
7881	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Lower Warbash River system.	eng
7886	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Tennessee River, Upper tributaries including North Fork, South Fork, Clench River, Dow River.	eng
7892	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7892	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Large rivers, amongst shallow riffle-beds in gravel and sand.  Winter breeder.	eng
7892	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Extinction due to pollution and habitat destruction.	eng
7893	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurred in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems.	eng
7893	population	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Used to occur extensively in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems but now down to single subpopulation in the Cumberland River, with no evidence of reproduction.	eng
7893	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Habitat destruction, habitat deterioration, pollution, introduction of non-indigenous species, decline of host fish populations.	eng
7895	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Tennessee River system.	eng
7896	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	More studies are needed concerning its present range and potential threats.	eng
7896	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Eastern Himalaya, from Kathmandu Valley to Darjeeling in Sikkim.	eng
7896	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane streams.	eng
7896	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
7896	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pollution and siltation because of erosion of streams.	eng
7897	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Endemic to Lake Baikal.	eng
7897	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Makes up the main bulk (90%) of zooplankton of this size (1.5 - 2 mm) in the lake, and plays the main role in filtering and purifying Baikal's water.	eng
7899	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a needto maintain areas of suitable primary forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
7899	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is distributed in West Africa from Sierra Leone (only recorded from Bintamane Mountain and the Gola Forest [Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998]), through Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, east to Ghana (west of the Volta Basin). In Central Africa, it has been reported from Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River only), Equtorial Guinea, Gabon, and also from Congo-Brazzaville (Abolo). In Sierra Leone, recorded to 1,020 m and at low altitude in the Gola Forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
7899	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) state that the species is found in undergrowth in thick forest, favouring <em>Raphia</em> palm areas (feeding on the fruit of these trees). Probably does not adapt well to human-modified landscapes and has not been recorded from secondary forest formations. Animals are generally solitary and arboreal, but possibly at least partly terrestrial.	eng
7899	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is not common, and seldom encountered. There are relatively few specimens in museums and it has only been recorded from a few localities over its wide distribution.	eng
7899	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to primary tropical moist forest. Deforestation, presumably largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations, are possibly major threats to this species.	eng
7901	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species it has been recorded from Mupa National Park and Bikuar National Park in Angola. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable roosting and feeding sites for this species, and for new field surveys to better determine the current conservation status of the species.	eng
7901	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This African bat is present in Angola and adjacent parts of northern Namibia. It is largely a lowland species, but may range into more montane areas. In Angola it is present west and south of the Mosaic of Guineo-Congolian lowland rain forest and secondary grassland (Bergmans 1988). In eastern Angola the range seems to be halted by the extensive mosaic region of <em>Brachystegia bakerana</em> thicket and edaphic grassland (Bergmans 1988).	eng
7901	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Bergmans (1998; 1999) reports that the species is present in wetter Zambezian miombo woodland, north Zambezian woodland; <em>Colophospermum mopane</em> woodland and scrub woodland. Simmons and Chimimba (2005) suggest that the species may be largely confined to riverine forest and other evergreen forest with fruit-bearing trees. Shortridge (1934) reports on animals hanging singly from bare branches of large <em>Acacia</em> trees near the Cunene River, however, loose colonies of up to 200 have also been found.	eng
7901	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The abundance of this species is poorly known, with very little recent information.	eng
7901	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is threatened by the removal of roost trees, often for use as fuel. Griffin (1998) indicates that the removal of riverine trees is a particular threat to species of Epomophorus in Namibia, with relatively little suitable habitat remaining; presumably this is similar problem in Angola. It may have been threatened by the availability of firearms during the long civil war in Angola, although this requires confirmation.	eng
7902	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. The area where it occurs has been inaccessible for many years, further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
7902	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This poorly known African bat has only been recorded at the type locality of Dundo in northeast Angola, and from Pointe Noire on the coast of Congo (Bergmans 1988).	eng
7902	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Although the natural history of this species is poorly known, it seems to be primarily a savanna species that may range into tropical moist forest.	eng
7902	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
7902	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. There is deforestation taking place in parts of the species range, however, it is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat modification.	eng
7903	conservation	Mickelburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in many protected areas.	eng
7903	distribution	Mickelburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This widespread African bat ranges from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa and parts of Central Africa, to Ethiopia in the east. It does not appear to be present to the south of northern Democratic Republic of the Congo or Ethiopia. It is typically a lowland species occurring below 500 m asl, however, the Ethiopian populations may be found up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
7903	habitat	Mickelburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This adaptable species is present in a variety of tropical moist and dry forest, savanna, bushland and mosaic habitats, and has additionally been reported from mangroves and swamp forests. It is able to persist in areas of partially degraded forest. Roosting usually takes place as individuals or small groups in dense vegetation (Happold 1987).	eng
7903	population	Mickelburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is generally common throughout the woodlands and savannas of western Africa. Animals are often found in loose colonies of up to 100 bats.	eng
7903	threats	Mickelburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by overhunting for food and habitat loss through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
7904	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. Additional research is needed into the impact of possible overharvesting of animals on some populations.	eng
7904	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is largely distributed in Central Africa and East Africa. It appears to range from northern Nigeria and Cameroon, into Chad, southern and central Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and from here south into eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, Kenya and Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), being recorded as far south as Malawi, northern Mozambique and northern Zambia. There is one isolated record from coastal Congo, although the presence of the species in this country, and also in Chad and Nigeria, needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded from lowland sites up to elevations of over 2,000 m asl (2,200 asl at Gondar, Ethiopia).	eng
7904	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is regularly recorded from woodland (including miombo woodland), savanna, bushland, arid or semi-desert grassland habitats and mosaics of these general habitat types. It East African coastal areas it has been recorded from mangroves. It has been found resting together in small groups of about a dozen animals.	eng
7904	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
7904	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.	eng
7905	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
7905	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This East African species is present in Uganda, northern Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia.	eng
7905	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Animals have been recorded from dry and arid savanna habitats. It is possible that this species has a specialised diet to persist in its arid habitat.	eng
7905	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It can be a common species.	eng
7905	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation of its habitat for timber and firewood.	eng
7906	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
7906	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is found in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (it is broadly distributed across southern Africa). It has been recorded from Cameroon (Aellen 1952), Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo and Angola in the west, through southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, being distributed in East Africa from Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia in the north, through Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique into Zimbabwe, eastern and southern South Africa and Swaziland. There is a need to confirm the presence of this species in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. It ranges from sea level to around 2,000 m asl.	eng
7906	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	mosaics of these habitat types. It appears to be largely absent from densely forested areas, but has been recorded from mangrove and riverine forest with fruiting trees. Roosting sites are often under the canopy of trees, in thick foliage, with animals sometimes present in considerable numbers. The species is somewhat adaptable to habitat modification, with populations recorded from well wooded urban and suburban areas, where it is associated with fruit-bearing trees. Animals occasionally roost in man-made structures.	eng
7906	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Common.	eng
7906	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
7907	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in West Africa (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Further studies are needed into the dependence of this species on forested areas.	eng
7907	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This lowland West African bat ranges from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in the west, to central Nigeria in the east.	eng
7907	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is largely known from the wetter and drier types of the Guineo-Congolian lowland tropical moist forests of the western Upper Guinea forest block and the adjoining mosaic of lowland tropical moist forest and secondary grassland, with some possibly isolated occurrences in the eastern Upper Guinea region (the Nigerian localities) (Bergmans 1989). In the Mount Nimba area species was caught mostly in areas of secondary bush or cultivated land, in preference to primary forest; it was rarely caught within closed forest, but did occur in the fringes (Wolton <em>et al.</em>1982). Populations have also been recorded from swamp forest and mangroves. Animals are typically found singly or in small groups.	eng
7907	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It appears to remain common in many areas, with the exception of Nigeria, but populations may be declining in areas of ongoing deforestation.	eng
7907	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is possible that there are no major threats to this species. Populations might be threatened by deforestation in parts of the species range, however, the extent to which it depends on forest cover is unclear.	eng
7908	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It has been recorded from Kasungu National Park in Malawi and from Parc National de l'Upemba in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is a need for additional studies into the natural history of this species and into any possible future threats to the species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
7908	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This species is distributed in East Africa, Central Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, Namibia, Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Mozambique, being found as far north as Tanzania and possibly Rwanda. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,500 m asl (in Malawi) and at 1,890 m asl at Kibwele, Tanzania.	eng
7908	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This species is generally associated with miombo woodland, dominated by <em>Brachystegia</em>, <em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Isoberlinia</em> vegetation. It may not roost in groups, although this needs confirmation.	eng
7908	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It does not appear to be an especially rare species in Malawi. There is little information on the abundance of the species over the rest of its range, but it is presumed to be reasonably common.	eng
7908	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7909	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species as a whole.	eng
7909	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This widespread species is present in much of West Africa and Central Africa, with some records from East Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, to Cameroon, and then through Central Africa to southern Sudan, Rwanda and Uganda in the east. It has been recorded as far south as northern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northeastern Zambia.	eng
7909	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest, where it has been recorded in both primary and secondary habitat. Populations are also present in the mosaic habitats of tropical moist forest with woodland and grassland (Bergmans 1989). It is an adaptable species that can be found in disturbed areas, seemingly being only absent from heavily degraded or urban areas. The species roosts as small groups, often close to water (Brosset 1966; Jones 1972).	eng
7909	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
7909	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
7910	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states in Europe. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
7910	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
7910	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Eptesicus nilssonii </em>is a widespread Palaearctic species that occurs from France and Norway through northern and central Europe and Asia east to the Pacific seaboard and northern Japan. In Europe, it occurs north to well above the Arctic Circle, but is absent or occasional in the west (the Low Countries, UK, western France, Iberia). It occurs from sea level to 2,300 m (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
7910	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	This is a widespread Palaearctic species that occurs from France and Norway through northern and central Europe and Asia, east to the Pacific seaboard and northern Japan (found only on Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), Rebun, and Rishiri). In Europe, it occurs north to well above the Arctic Circle, but is absent or occasional in the west (the Low Countries, UK, western France, Iberia), and is scarce in the mountains of southern Europe (occurs from southern France across northern Italy and there are scattered occurrences in the Balkans). It has been recorded once from Iran although the population there is marginal to the species' range (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). In Mongolia (subspecies <em>E. n. nilssonii</em>), it is found throughout the north of the country, in forested areas in north-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,300 m asl (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
7910	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	A fast flying nocturnal bat species, found in a variety of habitats from mountain taiga to desert. It forages in open areas of diverse habitats, including woodland edge (or above woodland), small-scale farmland, parks and gardens with trees (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006), over lakes and rivers and at street lights. It is also found in river valleys where it can remain by a source of freshwater, roosting in tree holes and crevices. In autumn, it forages and displays in high mountains above the tree line (Spitzenberger 2002). Its diet comprises small insects such as Diptera. Summer roosts are located mainly in houses, occasionally in tree holes. It may change roost sites during summer. Winter roosts are found mainly in houses, cellars, and natural and artificial underground habitats. In winter the species roosts singly or in small groups of 2-4 individuals. Long-distance movements of up to 450 km have been recorded by Tress (1994). In Mongolia it hibernates from November to December until March or April, and although it does not migrate, it may shift roosts several times over seasons .	eng
7910	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages in open areas of diverse habitats, including woodland edge (or above woodland), small-scale farmland, parks and gardens with trees (van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006), over lakes and rivers and at street lights. In autumn, it forages and displays in high mountains above the tree line (Spitzenberger 2002). Its diet comprises small insects such as Diptera. Summer roosts are located mainly in houses, occasionally in tree holes. It may change roost sites during summer. Winter roosts are found mainly in houses, cellars, and natural and artificial underground habitats. In winter the species roosts singly or in small groups of 2-4 individuals. Long-distance movements of up to 450 km have been recorded by Tress (1994).	eng
7910	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	A widespread and common species over much of its range, indeed the most abundant bat species in the north (Rydell 1999). Summer maternity colonies usually number 10-100 females.	eng
7910	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	A widespread and common species over much of its range in Europe, indeed the most abundant bat species in the north (Rydell, 1999). Summer maternity colonies usually number 10-100 females. In Mongolia, there have been no population estimates conducted, but the species is believed to be evenly distributed and not rare (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). In Japan, colonies of over 100 individuals can be found.	eng
7910	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	The main threat is likely to be disturbance of colonies in houses (and possibly when hibernating in underground habitats). However this is not thought to be a major threat to the species.	eng
7910	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There are localized threats in some parts of its range but these are not having a significant impact on the species overall.	eng
7911	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species  Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions known in North Africa or South Asia.	eng
7911	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species  Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions known in North Africa or South Asia.	eng
7911	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species  Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. No specific conservation actions known. Protection of maternity roosts and study of impact of <em>B. thuringiensis </em>on the species are needed at least in Austria (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).	eng
7911	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Eptesicus serotinus </em>is widely distributed through the Palaearctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboards, across the Mediterranean from Portugal eastwards to Turkey, and is marginal to North Africa. It occurs north to about 57ºN in Denmark, south-west to North Africa (found in Morocca, Algeria, Tunisia, and to western Libya), and east into northern parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. In the Middle East it is recorded from Syria and Lebanon. Records from the Canary Islands (Lanzarote) refer to a single vagrant that died shortly after arrival (Trujillo 1991). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to to 1,440 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
7911	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Eptesicus serotinus </em>is widely distributed through the Palaearctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboards, across the Mediterranean from Portugal eastwards to Turkey, and is marginal to North Africa. It occurs north to about 57ºN in Denmark, south-west to North Africa (found in Morocca, Algeria, Tunisia, and to western Libya), and east into northern parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. In the Middle East it is recorded from Syria and Lebanon. Records from the Canary Islands (Lanzarote) refer to a single vagrant that died shortly after arrival (Trujillo 1991). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to to 1,440 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
7911	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Eptesicus serotinus </em>is widely distributed through the Palaearctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboards. It occurs north to about 57ºN in Denmark, south-west to North Africa, and east into northern parts of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. Records from the Canary Islands (Lanzarote) refer to a single vagrant that died shortly after arrival (Trujillo 1991). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to to 1,440 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
7911	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Found in a variety of habitats across its wide range including semi-desert, temperate and subtropical dry forest, Mediterranean-type shrubland, farmland and suburban areas. Favoured feeding areas include pasture, parkland, open woodland edge, tall hedgerows, gardens, and forested regions.  Feeds on larger beetles, moths and flies.<br/>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br/>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7911	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T. & Benda, P., 2008	Found in a variety of habitats across its wide range including semi-desert, temperate and subtropical dry forest, Mediterranean-type shrubland, farmland and suburban areas. Favoured feeding areas include pasture, parkland, open woodland edge, tall hedgerows, gardens, and forested regions.  Feeds on larger beetles, moths and flies.<br/>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br/>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7911	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages over open woodland, woodland edge, and pasture, feeding on larger beetles, moths and Diptera.<br/>Most summer (maternity) colonies are in buildings (mainly houses) and occasionally tree holes or rock fissures.<br/>In winter it roosts singly or in small numbers in buildings and rock crevices, or often in underground habitats in north central Europe. Winter roosts are usually in fairly cold, dry sites. It is a largely sedentary species, with movements to 330 km recorded (Havekost 1960 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
7911	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	A very widespread and abundant species, with decreases recorded in some areas and increases in others. It may be increasing in some parts of northern Europe (e.g. Denmark) and decreasing in others, slightly (e.g. UK), or severely (e.g. Austria). In Austria, a 70% decline has been recorded in the eastern part of the country (the former stronghold) over the last 15 years, and the species is now absent from lowland regions with bare arable land (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). It is suspected to be declining in the rest of Pannonian basin. It is known from a single locality in European Turkey, and the total population in Turkey is small (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Iran it is at the edge of the its range, the species occurs in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Summer maternity colony size is generally 10-50 females (occasionally up to 300). It winters singly or in small groups.	eng
7911	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A very widespread and abundant species, with decreases recorded in some areas and increases in others. It may be increasing in some parts of northern Europe (e.g. Denmark) and decreasing in others, slightly (e.g. UK), or severely (e.g. Austria). In Austria, a 70% decline has been recorded in the eastern part of the country (the former stronghold) over the last 15 years, and the species is now absent from lowland regions with bare arable land (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). It is suspected to be declining in the rest of Pannonian basin. It is known from a single locality in European Turkey, and the total population in Turkey is small (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). In Iran it is at the edge of the its range, the species occurs in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). There is a large North African population: it is the most common bat species in northwest Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>Summer maternity colony size is generally 10-50 females (occasionally up to 300). It winters singly or in small groups.	eng
7911	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T. & Benda, P., 2008	A very widespread and abundant species, with decreases recorded in some areas and increases in others. It may be increasing in some parts of northern Europe (e.g. Denmark) and decreasing in others, slightly (e.g. UK), or severely (e.g. Austria). In Austria, a 70% decline has been recorded in the eastern part of the country (the former stronghold) over the last 15 years, and the species is now absent from lowland regions with bare arable land (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). It is suspected to be declining in the rest of Pannonian basin. It is known from a single locality in European Turkey, and the total population in Turkey is small (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). In Iran it is at the edge of the its range, the species occurs in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). There is a large North African population: it is the most common bat species in northwest Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>Summer maternity colony size is generally 10-50 females (occasionally up to 300). It winters singly or in small groups.	eng
7911	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In some areas it is affected by habitat loss and disturbance and destruction of colonies in houses. Population decline in Austria might be related to food reduction due to large scale mosquito control with the bacterium <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, used in the Danube and Moravia regions (F. Spitzenberger and I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). The species is a host of the rabies-related virus EBLV1. There is increasing interest in the occurrence, risk to humans and epidemiology of this virus (e.g. Stantic-Pavlinic 2005), which could have an effect on the public image of this house-dependent bat.	eng
7911	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T. & Benda, P., 2008	In some areas it is affected by habitat loss and disturbance and destruction of colonies in houses. Population decline in Austria might be related to food reduction due to large scale mosquito control with the bacterium <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, used in the Danube and Moravia regions (F. Spitzenberger and I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). The species is a host of the rabies-related virus EBLV1. There is increasing interest in the occurrence, risk to humans and epidemiology of this virus (e.g. Stantic-Pavlinic 2005), which could have an effect on the public image of this house-dependent bat.	eng
7911	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	In some areas it is affected by habitat loss and disturbance and destruction of colonies in houses. Population decline in Austria might be related to food reduction due to large scale mosquito control with the bacterium <em>Bacillus thuringiensis</em>, used in the Danube and Moravia regions (F. Spitzenberger and I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). The species is a host of the rabies-related virus EBLV1. There is increasing interest in the occurrence, risk to humans and epidemiology of this virus (e.g. Stantic-Pavlinic 2005), which could have an effect on the public image of this house-dependent bat.	eng
7912	conservation	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
7912	distribution	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela (Simmons, 2005). In Ecuador found up to 3,300 m (Burneo pers comm,Tirira 2003) - and in Bolivia as low as 100 m (Aguirre pers com). In Venzuela occurs in Andes, Cordillera la Costa, and Pantepuis.	eng
7912	habitat	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is purely insectivorous. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.	eng
7912	population	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is uncommon to rare throughout its range.	eng
7912	threats	Molinari, J. & Aguirre, L., 2008	None known.	eng
7913	conservation	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
7913	distribution	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is endemic to central Australia.	eng
7913	habitat	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is found in a variety of wooded habitats. In the north of its range, it seems to follow major watercourses (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and abandoned buildings. Colonies can contain a few individuals to around 50 animals (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
7913	population	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a common species (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7913	threats	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Ellis, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7914	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None in place. More research is needed to determine population status and trends.	eng
7914	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in NW Kazakhstan, and to the north of Aral Sea.	eng
7914	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Ihhabits deserts on the NE coast of Aral Sea. There are insufficient data on the biology of the species. Nursing colonies were found in clay constructions.	eng
7914	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data on population size.	eng
7914	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data on major threats to the species.	eng
7915	conservation	A.M. Hutson, S. Aulagnier, P. Benda, 2006	Protected through Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive in parts of range where these apply. No specific conservation actions known.	eng
7915	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Protected through Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive in the very small part of the range where these apply. Taxonomic work is required to determine if more than one species is involved here and what the ranges of these are, and what their population status is.	eng
7915	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Karataş, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Protected through Eurobats (Bonn Convention) and Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive in the very small part of the range where these apply. Taxonomic work is required to determine if more than one species is involved here and what the ranges of these are, and what their population status is.	eng
7915	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A Palaearctic species, occuring from the eastern Mediterranean around margins of Arabian peninsula to Iraq, Iran and southern Caucacus states; also central Asia to India, northwestern China and possibly Mongolia.	eng
7915	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Karataş, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A Palaearctic species, occuring from the eastern Mediterranean around margins of Arabian peninsula to Iraq, Iran and southern Caucacus states; also central Asia to India, northwestern China and possibly Mongolia.	eng
7915	distribution	A.M. Hutson, S. Aulagnier, P. Benda, 2006	Found in "Rhodes (Greece), Turkey, Egypt, Yemen, Israel, Jordan, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, east to Mongolia, NW China, and Pakistan" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range falls within the European Mammal Assessment region. Altitude: to 2,100 m.	eng
7915	habitat	A.M. Hutson, S. Aulagnier, P. Benda, 2006	Forges over open habitats, including disturbed (e.g. agricultural) habitats and around street lights. Roosts in crevices in buildings (including ruins) and rock faces.	eng
7915	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Found in a wide range of semi-arid habitats including Mediterranean vegetation, lowland farmland and rocky mountains. A crevice dwelling species, inhabiting buildings, ruins (including tombs), and natural rock crevices throughout the year.	eng
7915	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Karataş, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Found in a wide range of semi-arid habitats including Mediterranean vegetation, lowland farmland and rocky mountains. A crevice dwelling species, inhabiting buildings, ruins (including tombs), and natural rock crevices throughout the year.	eng
7915	population	Aulagnier, S., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Little known; appears to be generally rare to uncommon although reported as locally common in Egypt. <br/><br/>Colony size probably small (e.g. generally c.2-3) (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Uncommon or probably rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Rare in Jordan (Amr, 2000). Not abundant in the northern parts of its range; although not included in the Red List  of Turkmenistan, it is considered rare there (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species is very rare in Turkey, it has been recorded in 19 locations and is often encountered as single individuals, although it is occasionally observed in groups of 15-20 individuals in maternity colonies (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). The Syrian records are mostly of solitary animals (Shehab <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reported to be locally common in Egypt, with colonies of up to 200 females being reported (African Mammal Assessment Workshop 2004).	eng
7915	population	Aulagnier, S., Karataş, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Little known; appears to be generally rare to uncommon although reported as locally common in Egypt. <br/><br/>Colony size probably small (e.g. generally c.2-3) (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). Uncommon or probably rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Rare in Jordan (Amr, 2000). Not abundant in the northern parts of its range; although not included in the Red List  of Turkmenistan, it is considered rare there (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species is very rare in Turkey, it has been recorded in 19 locations and is often encountered as single individuals, although it is occasionally observed in groups of 15-20 individuals in maternity colonies (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). The Syrian records are mostly of solitary animals (Shehab <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reported to be locally common in Egypt, with colonies of up to 200 females being reported (African Mammal Assessment Workshop 2004).	eng
7915	population	A.M. Hutson, S. Aulagnier, P. Benda, 2006	Nothing known, but nowhere common. Seems to be more common in arid regions. Colony size probably small (e.g. to c.20).	eng
7915	threats	A.M. Hutson, S. Aulagnier, P. Benda, 2006	Not known; apparently a species that adapts to artificial habitats.	eng
7915	threats	Aulagnier, S., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species requires ruins which are decreasing in number and can be disturbed by tourists (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007), however, this is not thought to be a major threat to the species as a whole at present.	eng
7915	threats	Aulagnier, S., Karataş, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species requires ruins which are decreasing in number and can be disturbed by tourists (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007), however, this is not thought to be a major threat to the species as a whole at present.	eng
7916	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is found in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.	eng
7916	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Veracruz (Mexico) south to Northern Argentina, Paraguay; Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). It does not occurs in western Mexico (Arroyo-Cabralles pers. comm.).	eng
7916	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Mountain forests (Perez pers. comm.). Roosts in houses and hollow trees (Reid pers. comm.)	eng
7916	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Uncommon in Mexico. Fairly locally common in Costa Rica. May be a species complex (Barquez - pers. comm.).	eng
7916	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No threats throughout its range.	eng
7919	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is known to be present in some protected areas.	eng
7919	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is distributed in northern parts of Northern Territory and Kimberley of Western Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is also present on the Bonaparte Archipelago, and Groote Eylandt.	eng
7919	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species forages in tropical woodlands, grassland, and thickets. It roosts in caves and disused mines (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008), as well as in road culverts (which are sometimes used for maternity colonies) and bird nests within road culverts (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is usually found in groups of a few individuals, however, maternity colonies may consist of several hundred individuals (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to one or two young.	eng
7919	population	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is a common species (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7919	threats	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, the maternity colonies are especially sensitive to human disturbance (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7920	conservation	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
7920	distribution	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia including Tasmania and Lord Howe Island. Known from sea level to 1,300 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
7920	habitat	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is found in rainforest, wet and dry eucalypt forests, subalpine woodland, and alpine moors. It occurs in urban areas and in remnant farmland vegetation (L. Lumsden and T. Reardon pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows in colonies of up to 60 animals (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
7920	population	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is a common species (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7920	threats	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7921	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known to occur in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
7921	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen collected in southern Thailand (Bandon, Kao Nawg), and from southern Nepal (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000) where it has been recorded in and near Royal Chitwan National Park.	eng
7921	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
7921	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known .	eng
7921	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
7922	conservation	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Check taxonomic status of the species, and systematics of diminuta's group.	eng
7922	distribution	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
7922	habitat	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Insectivorous, inhabits open areas, urban and sub-urban, low populations (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)	eng
7922	population	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Not common, but wide distribution.	eng
7922	threats	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	None.	eng
7923	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging areas.	eng
7923	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to the Kimberley region of Western Australia in Australia.	eng
7923	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It has usually been collected close to waterbodies (which likely reflects collection effort) in sandstone ranges (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). This species roosts in caves and buildings. It is found in colonies of up to 80 individuals (Armstrong and Kitchener 2008). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
7923	population	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is rare and seldom recorded, but it could be underestimated (Armstrong and Kitchener 2008).	eng
7923	threats	McKenzie, N. & Lumsden, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7924	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
7924	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is widespread across much of Australia.	eng
7924	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species inhabits a variety of habitat types, being found from deserts through to tropical moist areas in the north (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is generally located close to rocky areas with caves, cracks, and crevices in which the species roosts. It also roosts in abandoned mines. Females may breed twice a year and give birth to a single young, althought about a fifth of births are of twins (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7924	population	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is an abundant species (Reardon <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7924	threats	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7926	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this poorly known species.	eng
7926	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	This little known bat has only been recorded from Mali (Timbuktu) and Sudan (all records within a 200-mile radius of Ed Dueim) and recently from Mahmûdé Lake, Wilaya Hodh Ech Chargui in Mauritania (Braestrup 1935; Koopman 1975; Padial and Ibáñez, 2005).	eng
7926	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	Animals have been collected from thorny acacia thicket, dry shrubland, dry grassland and desert habitats. Koopman (1975) mentions that collection sites in Sudan and Mali are similar thorny acacia thickets and that the species may be associated with this vegetation type. Padial and Ibáñez (2005) note that the species was collected in a similar thorny dry habitat to other records.	eng
7926	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is known from very few specimens.	eng
7926	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7927	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions, taxonomic review. It is found in protected areas.	eng
7927	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	N Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay, Brazil, and the Guianas east to Peru and north to Jalisco and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).	eng
7927	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Biology poorly known, roosts in trees and houses.	eng
7927	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Common and widespread.	eng
7927	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
7928	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in protected areas.	eng
7928	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Southern Canada to Colombia and Northern Brazil; Greater Antilles; Bahamas; Hispaniola, Dominica and Barbados (Lesser Antilles); Alaska (Simmons 2005).	eng
7928	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The big brown bat inhabits cities, towns, and rural areas, but is least commonly found in heavily forested regions (Kurta 1995). Some bats require stable, highly insulated environments in order to hibernate. Eptesicus fuscus has a more tolerant constitution so it can winter in less substantial structures. Besides human dwellings, it has been found to take up residence in barns, silos, and churches. Also, this bat has been found roosting in storm sewers, expansion joint spaces in concrete athletic stadiums, and copper mines (Baker 1983). In presettlement times it is presumed the big brown bat roosted in tree hollows, natural caves, or openings in rock ledges. Occasionally groups of these bats are still found living in tree cavities (Baker 1983). Recently, some were found hibernating in caves in Minnesota (Knowles 1992).<br/>The big brown bat hibernates in various structures, either man-made or natural environments. They prefer cool temperatures and can tolerate conditions many other bats cannot. They may become active during their winter hibernacula and can move to an optimum habitat. One banded bat was recorded to have moved to a different cave 400 yards away, during the same winter (Goehring 1972).<br/><em>E. fuscus</em> is an insectivorous bat. It preys primarily on beetles using its robust skull and powerful jaws to chew through the beetles' hard chitinous exoskeleton. It also eats other flying insects including moths, flies, wasps, flying ants, lacewing flies, and dragonflies (Baker 1983). One study indicated that juvenile E. fuscus ate a greater range of softer food items in their diets, compared to adults. The same study also indicated that bats having survived their first winter (yearlings), did not differ significantly in diet from the adults (Hamilton and Barclay 1998).	eng
7928	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is reasonable to speculate that populations of the big brown bat have increased with an increasing number of human habitations (Baker 1983). Big brown bats can survive up to 19 years in the wild and males tend to live longer than females. Most big brown bats die in their first winter. If they do not store enough fat to make it through their entire hibernation period then they die in their winter roost. Female big brown bats form maternity colonies to rear young. The size of these colonies can vary from 5 to 700 animals. Males of the species roost alone or in small groups during this time. Both sexes will roost together again in the late summer (Nowak 1999).	eng
7928	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Big brown bats are fairly common and are not of any special conservation concern.	eng
7929	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Research actions.	eng
7929	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs in Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
7929	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
7929	population	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
7929	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Habitat loss, hurricanes.	eng
7931	conservation	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas in South Africa, and presumably is present in protected areas within other parts of the species range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
7931	distribution	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This largely Southern African species ranges from southern Angola in west, through parts of Namibia, South Africa, southern Lesotho, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia, with a single record as far north as southwestern Kenya.	eng
7931	habitat	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Most specimens appear to have been collected close to rivers, or in a range of surrounding habitats including montane grassland, marshland and well-wooded banks (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It has been recorded roosting in small groups of three or four animals in dry and wet caves, mines, and similar habitats. A single specimen was collected hanging on the outside wall of a building in Zimbabwe (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
7931	population	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Although the species is considered to be sparsely distributed, it is locally common in part of the ranges, such as Zimbabwe but is though to be rarer elsewhere (e.g.. South Africa).	eng
7931	threats	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7932	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
7932	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Peru, and western Ecuador, including Puna Island (Ecuador) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
7932	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is strictly insectivorous. It occurs in dry and semi-deciduous forests (Tirira, in prep.). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.	eng
7932	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Ecuador it is rare but locally common in Peru.	eng
7932	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	No known threats - however, the area where it occurs is undergoing rapid deforestation (but affect unknown).	eng
7933	conservation	Hutson, A.M., 2008	Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of this species.	eng
7933	distribution	Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species is known only from three localities across the Korean Peninsula, Pyongyang, Seoul and Gaesung.	eng
7933	habitat	Hutson, A.M., 2008	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
7933	population	Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species has not been identified since its original description, the original description suggests possible synonymy with one or two other species, and no specimen has been available to assess its taxonomic status (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
7933	threats	Hutson, A.M., 2008	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
7935	conservation	Sharifi, M., Amr, Z., Kock, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this little known species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7935	distribution	Sharifi, M., Amr, Z., Kock, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily recorded, from the Arabian Peninsula to western South Asia. It has been recorded from Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, it is possibly present in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait, it has been recorded from southern Iraq (including Basra), and southern and southeastern Iran. Within South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Laghman provinces) and Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sind) at an elevation of 860 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7935	habitat	Sharifi, M., Amr, Z., Kock, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Oman, the species has been recorded in the crevices of walls and behind stones of ruined buildings, isolated in semi-desert terrain and on sand dunes next to the sea (Harrison and Bates 1991). In Iran it has been recorded from arid areas with the roosting sites unknown. Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in South Asia except that it is found in semi-arid to arid areas in caves near rivers (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7935	population	Sharifi, M., Amr, Z., Kock, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It has been reported on five occasions in Iran where they were found as individuals or in small groups (Sharifi <em>et al</em> 2000). The most recent record for Iran is from the 1970s despite more recent survey efforts, and the species appears to be genuinely rare (Sharifi pers. comm.). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7935	threats	Sharifi, M., Amr, Z., Kock, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species or its habitat overall. The threats to this species in South Asia remain unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7936	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. It is not known if it is present in protected areas in other parts of the species range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7936	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia, through much of central China, with some records from northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) and India (Meghalaya and Mizoram) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges throughout much of the central part of the country, being recorded as far north as Gansu and Ningxia. In Southeast Asia, it is limited to records from northern Myanmar and northern Thailand.	eng
7936	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) except that it is reported from Khasi Hills in Meghalaya where the vegetation is tropical moist deciduous forest (Bates and Harrison 1997). There appears to be nothing recorded on the natural history of this species from other regions of its range.	eng
7936	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7936	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
7937	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed to try to locate and study a population of this species.	eng
7937	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This poorly known West African bat is known only from a few specimens. It is known from the type locality at Lagos in Nigeria, from specimens from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (although these specimens may not have originated on Bioko) and from an unspecified locality in Senegal. The Lagos and Senegal specimens were collected around 1900 (Happold 1987).	eng
7937	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.	eng
7937	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	There is no good information on the population abundance or size of this bat.	eng
7937	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
7938	conservation	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	The species has been recorded from quite a few protected areas.	eng
7938	distribution	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it has been recorded from Queensland and New South Wales.	eng
7938	habitat	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	This species has been recorded in a number of moist forest habitats. It roosts in tree hollows (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to one or two young.	eng
7938	population	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	It is a common species (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7938	threats	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Clearance of forest for urban development is a threat in New South Wales (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
7939	conservation	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species occurs many protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not the populations west of Adelaide represent a different species from those to the east (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
7939	distribution	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Australia, including the island of Tasmania. Known from sea level to 1,700 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
7939	habitat	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats including wet and dry sclerophyll forest, shrubland, low shrub woodland, mixed temperate woodland, and mallee (Tidemann and Law 2008), as well as remnant vegetation in farmland and in urban areas (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and buildings, with colonies of up to 100 animals recorded (Tidemann and Law 2008). Females give birth to a single young after a gestation period of about three months (Tidemann and Law 2008).	eng
7939	population	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is a common species (Tidemann and Law 2008).	eng
7939	threats	Lumsden, L., Reardon, T. & Pennay, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7942	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be located and monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7942	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to India. It is presently known only from the type locality of Darjeeling in West Bengal. A single location record hence area and extent are unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7942	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is reported from montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Das 2003).	eng
7942	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7942	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
7944	conservation	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into its ecology and identification.	eng
7944	distribution	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, from eastern Queensland to north-eastern New South Wales.	eng
7944	habitat	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from dry forests and tropical woodlands, with rocky habitats. It roosts in small groups in rock overhangs, mine tunnels, and sometimes in buildings (Parnaby <em>et al.</em> 2008; M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
7944	population	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitat, although such habitat is limited (Parnaby <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7944	threats	Pennay, M. & Hall, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
7945	conservation	Lumsden, L. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is known to occur in many protected areas.	eng
7945	distribution	Lumsden, L. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia including the island of Tasmania. Its altitudinal range in Victoria is from sea level to 1,100 m asl, but it is most common below 400 m (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
7945	habitat	Lumsden, L. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is associated with temperate mixed woodland, and dry and wet sclerophyll forest. It roosts in tree hollows and building roofs in maternity colonies of less than 20 individuals up to 120; males often roost singly (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
7945	population	Lumsden, L. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is an abundant species (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
7945	threats	Lumsden, L. & Pennay, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Land clearing for cropping is a threat, at least in the northern part of New South Wales (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
7949	conservation	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. In Ethiopia, the Yangudi-Rassa National Park (4,731 km²) and the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve (8,766 km²) were established in 1969. However, the former has never been formally gazetted, and both areas are utilized by large numbers of pastoralists and their livestock. These areas are remote and extremely arid, and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) has not had sufficient funds or personnel for appropriate management (Kebede 1999). In Eritrea, the government designated the African wild ass area between the Buri Peninsula and the Dalool Depression as a high-priority area for conservation protection as a nature reserve. In both Eritrea and Ethiopia, research and conservation programmes (Ministry of Agriculture and EWCA) have been critical for sustaining African Wild Ass populations by involving local pastoralists in their conservation. There are no protected areas in the range of the species in Somalia. Populations of Somali Wild Ass are maintained in captivity (Moehlman 2002).<br/><br/>Recommended research and conservation actions, include:<br/><br/>1. Ecosystems based and population dynamics research on the African Wild Ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia.<br/>2. Research on interactions among pastoralists, livestock, wildlife and the environment<br/>3. Actively involve local pastoralists in the preparation and management of long-term action plans<br/>4. Post-graduate training of personnel in Eritrea and Ethiopia.<br/>5. Surveys in Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt to determine current distribution of African wild ass<br/>6. Genetic research on the African Wild Ass and local domestic donkey populations to clarify the genetic status of the two subspecies.	eng
7949	distribution	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	The African Wild Ass occurs in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia; some animals may persist in Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt, but there is no recent information available (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded them to 1,500 m in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are recognized. The Nubian Wild Ass, <em>E. a. africanus</em>, lived in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the shores of the Red Sea, and south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. During aerial flights in the 1970s, wild asses were seen in the Barka Valley of Eritrea and in the border area between Eritrea and the Sudan. The Somali Wild Ass, <em>E. a. somalicus</em>, was found in the Denkelia region of Eritrea, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, western Djibouti, and into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. In Somalia, they ranged from Meit and Erigavo in the north to the Nugaal Valley, and as far south as the Shebele River (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>The current range of the African Wild Ass (in Ethiopia and Eritrea) is approximately 15,000 km². DNA extracted from faecal samples collected from animals in Eritrea and Ethiopia resulted in the identification of five mitochondrial DNA haplotypes: one haplotype (group of polymorphisms) specific to the Eritrean population (haplotype D); one haplotype specific to the Ethiopian population (E); and three shared haplotypes (A, B, and C). These results suggest that there is and/or has been gene flow between the subpopulations (Afrera, Serdo) in Ethiopia and the population in Eritrea (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7949	distribution	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	The African Wild Ass occurs in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia; some animals may persist in Djibouti, Sudan and Egypt, but there is no recent information available (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded them to 1500 m in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are recognized. The Nubian Wild Ass, <em>E. a. africanus</em>, lived in the Nubian desert of north-eastern Sudan, from east of the Nile River to the shores of the Red Sea, and south to the Atbara River and into northern Eritrea. During aerial flights in the 1970s, wild asses were seen in the Barka Valley of Eritrea and in the border area between Eritrea and the Sudan. The Somali Wild Ass, <em>E. a. somalicus</em>, was found in the Denkelia region of Eritrea, the Danakil Desert and the Awash River Valley in the Afar region of north-eastern Ethiopia, western Djibouti, and into the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. In Somalia, they ranged from Meit and Erigavo in the north to the Nugaal Valley, and as far south as the Shebele River (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>The current range of the African Wild Ass (in Ethiopia and Eritrea) is approximately 15,000 km². DNA extracted from faecal samples collected from animals in Eritrea and Ethiopia resulted in the identification of five mitochondrial DNA haplotypes: one haplotype (group of polymorphisms) specific to the Eritrean population (haplotype D); one haplotype specific to the Ethiopian population (E); and three shared haplotypes (A, B, and C). These results suggest that there is and/or has been gene flow between the subpopulations (Afrera, Serdo) in Ethiopia and the population in Eritrea (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7949	habitat	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	The primary habitat is arid and semi-arid bushland and grassland. In Eritrea and Ethiopia, the African Wild Ass lives in volcanic landscape of the Great Rift Valley where they range from below sea level in the Dalool Depression to 2,000 m asl (Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In Eritrea and Ethiopia, limited observations indicate that African Wild Asses are primarily grazers, but that they will also utilize browse. Typical of arid habitat equids, the only stable groups are composed of a female and her offspring. Females do associate with other females or with males, but even temporary groups are small. Low density and low sociability may be due to low forage quality and availability. In the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve the preferred forage is <em>Aristida</em> sp, <em>Chrysopogon plumulosus</em>, <em>Dactyloctenium schindicum</em>, <em>Digiteria</em> sp, <em>Lasiurus scindicus</em>, and <em>Sporobolus iocladus</em> (Kebede 1999; Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).  In Eritrea, <em>Pannicum turgidium</em> is an important forage species (Teclai 2006).	eng
7949	population	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	In Ethiopia, there has been a severe population decline since the early 1970s. Klingel (1972) recorded group sizes of 10-30 individuals in the Danakil, and he estimated a density of 18.6 wild asses per 100 km² in an area of approximately 10,000 km². During that survey, Yangudi-Rassa National Park had the highest density (30 wild asses per 100 km²). In 1994, Moehlman and Kebede did a ground survey of the Yangudi-Rassa N.P.; no wild asses were seen, although local Issa pastoralists reported that they were present but rare and occurred at an approximate density well below one animal per 100 km² (Moehlman 1994; Kebede 1995; Moehlman <em>et al.</em> 1998). In 2007, Kebede (F. Kebede <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2007) surveyed the historic range of the African Wild Ass in Ethiopia and determined that they have been extirpated from the Yangudi-Rassa N.P. and the Somali Region and that the only remaining population is in the north-eastern Afar Region. The total number of wild ass observed during this survey was 25 in an area of 4,000 km² yielding a density of 0.625 animals per 100 km². This density is higher than that of 1994-1998 survey, which was 0.5 wild ass per 100 km² in an area of 2,000 km² (Moehlman 2002). In the Serdo-Hillu area, where there has been a research and conservation programme with Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority and local Afar pastoralists for the past ten years, the population has remained stable. Although the number of African Wild Ass in this area has not declined, the population is very small and under high risk of extinction. There may be fewer than 200 African Wild Ass left in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In Eritrea, there are limited long-term data. The first successful survey was made in 1996 and there has been a research and conservation programme with the Ministry of Agriculture for the past ten years. The main study site in the Northern Red Sea Zone has had a population of roughly 47 individuals per 100 km² (Moehlman <em>et al</em>. 1998; Moehlman 2002). This is the highest population density found anywhere in the present range of the species and is similar to population densities recorded in Ethiopia in the early 1970s. This is a limited study area (100 km²), but recent research indicates that African Wild Ass currently inhabit approximately 11,000 km² in the Denkeli desert (Teclai 2006). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution and density of African Wild Ass in this larger area. A rough estimate of African Wild Ass in Eritrea would yield a total of possibly 400 individuals. <br/><br/>In Somalia, in 1997, local pastoralists said that there were less than 10 African Wild Ass left in the Nugaal Valley; an earlier ground survey in 1989 in the Nugaal Valley yielded population estimates of roughly 135-205 animals or approximately 2.7-4.1/km² (Moehlman 1998). Some animals may remain near Meit and Erigavo, but this area has not been surveyed since the 1970s (Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press). It is not known if African Wild Ass currently persist in Somalia.<br/><br/>In summary, the total number of observed African Wild Ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia is 70 individuals; there may be as many as 600 individuals in these two countries, but this figure is a very rough extrapolation from more intensely studied areas. The number of mature individuals is approximately one-third of the population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), hence the minimum number of mature individuals is 23 and the maximum might be 200. In Ethiopia, in the last 35 years there has been a greater that 95% population decline and in the last 12 years the African Wild Ass has been extirpated from roughly 50% of its range (Kebede <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Eritrea, the population is stable and slowly increasing. However, it is difficult to predict population trends into the future. The desert habitat of the African Wild Ass in both Eritrea and Ethiopia suffers from recurrent and extreme droughts (Kebede 1999; Teclai 2006).	eng
7949	threats	Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. & Kebede, F., 2008	The major threat to the African Wild Ass is hunting for food and medicinal purposes; for example, body parts and soup made from bones are used for treating tuberculosis, constipation, rheumatism, backache, and boneache (Kebede 1999; Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al.</em> in press). Limited access to drinking water and forage (largely due to competition with livestock) is also a major constraint, with reproductive females and foals less than three-months old most at risk. Hence, it will continue to be important to determine critical water supplies and basic forage requirements, allowing management authorities to determine (in consultation with local pastoralists) how to conserve the African Wild Ass (Kebede 1999, 2007; Moehlman 2002; Teclai 2006; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press). The third major threat to the survival of the African Wild Ass is possible interbreeding with the domestic donkey (Moehlman 2002; Moehlman <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
7950	conservation	Moehlman, P.D., Rubenstein, D.I. & Kebede, F., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Grevy's Zebra are legally protected in Ethiopia, although official protection has been limited. Community-based conservation has been more effective. In Kenya, they have been protected by a hunting ban since 1977. While under the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act No 376 of 1976 (Part II of the First Schedule), Grévy’s Zebra was listed as a ‘Game Animal’ (Williams 2002); they are currently being uplisted to a legally ‘Protected Animal’ in Kenya.<br/><br/>At present, protected areas form less than 0.5% of the range of Grevy’s Zebra. In Ethiopia, the protected areas are nominal (Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve, Yabello Sanctuary, Borana Controlled Hunting Area and Chalbi Sanctuary). In Kenya, the Buffalo Springs, Samburu, Shaba N.R. complex and the private and community land wildlife conservancies in Isiolo, Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau provide a core and crucial protection of Kenya’s southern population of Grevy’s Zebra (Williams 2002). On the Laikipia Plateau, protection and reduced competition with domestic livestock, have seen Grevy's Zebra numbers increasing since they first expanded into this area in the early 1970s (Williams 2002, in press).<br/><br/>Kenya has recently taken steps to develop a national conservation strategy for Grevy’s Zebras. Ethiopia has held two workshops on the status and conservation of the Grevy’s Zebra. Research and community-based conservation is on-going in the three known population areas.<br/><br/>Williams (2002) highlights several other conservation actions focused on wild populations, involving: 1. Protection of water supplies; 2. Management of protected areas; 3. Community conservation; and 4. Monitoring of numbers in the wild.	eng
7950	distribution	Moehlman, P.D., Rubenstein, D.I. & Kebede, F., 2008	Grevy's Zebra is confined to the Horn of Africa, specifically Ethiopia and Kenya. They may persist in southern Sudan. Grevy's have undergone one of the most substantial reductions of range of any African mammal. Historically, they ranged east of the Rift Valley in Kenya to western Somalia, and in northern Ethiopia from the Alledeghi Plain through the Awash Valley, the Ogaden, and north-east of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia to north of Mt. Kenya and south-east down the Tana River in Kenya (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1994). Currently, Grevys’ Zebra have a discontinuous range, and are found from the eastern side of the Rift Valley in Kenya to the Tana River. There is a small, isolated population in the Alledeghi Plains northeast of Awash N.P. in Ethiopia. From Lake Ch’ew Bahir in southern Ethiopia, the population extends to just north of Mt. Kenya although a few animals are found further southeast along the Tana River. A small introduced population survives in and around Tsavo East N.P. in Kenya. They are considered to be extirpated from Somalia (where the last confirmed sightings date to 1973) and from Djibouti; there are no confirmed records that the species ever occurred in Eritrea (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1986, Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1994). Sightings from southern Sudan require verification (Williams 2002, in press). <br/><br/>Yalden <em>et a</em>l. (1996) recorded them to 1,600 m in Ethiopia.	eng
7950	habitat	Moehlman, P.D., Rubenstein, D.I. & Kebede, F., 2008	Grevy’s Zebras live in arid and semi-arid grass/shrubland where there is permanent water (Klingel 1974; Rubenstein 1986; Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press). They are predominantly grazers, although browse can comprise up to 30% of their diet during times of drought or in those areas which have been highly transformed through overgrazing. Breeding males defend resource territories (water and food being the key resources) of 2–12 km²; the home range size of non-territorial individuals is up to 10,000&#160;km². They are extremely mobile and individuals have been recorded to move distances of greater than 80&#160;km, with movements determined by the availability of resources; lactating females, for example, can only tolerate one or two days away from water (Klingel 1974; Rubenstein 1986; Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press).	eng
7950	population	Moehlman, P.D., Rubenstein, D.I. & Kebede, F., 2008	Current estimates put the total population of Grevy's Zebra remaining in the wild in Kenya and Ethiopia at approximately 1,966 to 2,447 (B. Lowe pers. comm. 2008; F. Kebede pers. comm. 2008). From 1988 to 2007, the global population of Grevy’s Zebra declined approximately 55%. The worse case scenario is a decline from 1980 to 2007 of 68%. The number of mature individuals is approximately 750, and the largest subpopulation is approximately 255 mature individuals.<br/><br/>In Kenya, the Grevy’s Zebra population declined from an estimated 4,276 in 1988 (KREMU 1989) to 2435-2707 in 2000 (Nelson and Williams 2003) to 1567-1976 in 2004 (B. Low pers.comm.) to an estimated population size of 1468-2135 in 2006 (B. Low pers. comm. 2007). In 2007, the population estimate of 1838-2319 indicates that either more individuals were being accurately observed or that the population is stabilizing and increasing (Mwasi and Mwangi 2007). The trend from 1988 to 2006 (18 years) is a decline of 50 to 66%. The data for 2007 indicates a potential increase in the population in Kenya.<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, Grevy’s Zebra declined from an estimated 1,900 in 1980 to 577 in 1995 (Rowen and Ginsberg 1992, F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007), to 106 in 2003 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). In 2006, the population in Ethiopia was estimated to be 128 (F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007). The trend from 1980 to 2003 (23 years) is a decline of roughly 94%. The data for 2006 indicates a potential increase in the population in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>The density and area of occupancy of Grevy’s Zebras fluctuates seasonally as animals move in their search for resources. During the dry season, when they are dependent on permanent water, animals tend to be more concentrated. However, given that they can move up to 35&#160;km from water even during the dry season, their densities are never high. They are most abundant and most easily observed in the southern portion of their range in southern Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau.	eng
7950	threats	Moehlman, P.D., Rubenstein, D.I. & Kebede, F., 2008	The major threats to Grevy's Zebra include: reduction of available water sources; habitat degradation and loss due to overgrazing; competition for resources; hunting; and disease (Rowen and Ginsberg 1992; Williams 2002, in press). <br/><br/>In Kenya, hunting for skins in the late 1970s may have contributed to the observed decline, although recent data suggest that the continuing decline in this country is attributable to low recruitment due to low juvenile survival. This is a result of competition for resources – both food and access to water – with pastoral people and domestic livestock (Williams 1998). However, a low level of hunting of Grevy’s Zebra for food and, in some areas, medicinal uses continues (Williams 2002, in press). Furthermore, the water supply in critical perennial rivers has declined, most notably in the Ewaso Ng’iro River where over-abstraction of water for irrigation schemes has reduced dry season river flow by 90% over the past three decades (Williams 2002, in press).<br/><br/>In Ethiopia, killing of Grevy’s Zebra is the primary cause of the decline (F. Kebede pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Recently, Muoria <em>et al.</em> (in press) recorded an outbreak of anthrax in the Wamba area of southern Samburu, Kenya, during which more than 50 animals succumbed to the disease.	eng
7951	conservation	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N., Masseti, M. & Feh, C., 2008	This species is legally protected in Mongolia, Turkmenistan, Iran and India. In Mongolia it is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (MNE 1996). Hunting has been prohibited since 1953, and it is currently listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997). <em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em> and <em>E. h. khur</em> are included in CITES Appendix I, with the other subspecies being on CITES Appendix II. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). The species occurs in protected areas in all range states where it survives. Approximately 29% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As outlined in the section on geographic distribution, there have been re-introduction projects for this species in a number of countries, including Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia. In an effort to increase the total number of kulan populations, animals from the Badkhys and Barsa Kelmes were translocated to other areas in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbzekistan between 1955 and 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Recognizing the threatened status of the dwindling Kulan population in the 1940s, the Soviet government gazetted the 900 km² Badkhyz Preserve in Turkmenistan to protect the remaining 200 Kulan. The population consequently grew to approximately 6,000 animals between 1945 and 1993. However, in the late 1990s when the Kulans left  the reserve during the summer months, they were killed in large numbers. The population was significantly reduced to approximately 600 animals. This history illustrates how quickly a healthy population of equids can be reduced to a critically endangered level. <br/><br/>To date, the introduction of <em>E. hemionus</em> in Israel has been successful. The animals were introduced in 1982. Due to a high percentage of male births, the population grew very slowly at first (Saltz and Rubenstein 1996). Starting in 1991, the population began to grow more quickly with 17 births in 1994. As of the 1997 birth season, there were approximately 105 animals, of which 31 were adult breeding females. The animals are found over an area of 4,500 km². The animals use three artificial water points that are maintained by the Israeli Nature Reserves Authority in addition to several natural  springs. Detailed ongoing studies of the population examine population increase, range expansion, habitat use, and changes in vegetation density and species richness. Information from these studies will be used in the development of management plans for the population (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There are some important research needs for this species. A large omission in our knowledge of the Asiatic Wild Ass is its status and distribution within China. In Turkmenistan and Iran, the management of the Onager and Kulan would greatly benefit from increased knowledge of basic behaviour and ecology. Such information would provide a better understanding of threats to these populations. In particular, as the potential for escalating human-wildlife conflict increases during droughts, a short-term study to understand the seasonal movement patterns of the Badkhyz Kulan population in Turkmenistan, and the places where conflicts are taking place, might help to address how best to protect this population. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the following conservation measures are in place:<br/>? In 1999, the Mongolian Government created two protected areas specifically for the conservation of this species, Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Dzungarian Gobi Desert) and Zagiin Us Nature Reserve (Northern Gobi) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/>? Research projects have been conducted to investigate the status, distribution, ecology and social structure of Asiatic Wild Ass in Mongolia (e.g., Feh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>? Several conservation organizations were brought together at the ?First Asiatic Wild Ass Conference? held in Mongolia in 2005 (AWAC 2005), where a range of conservation management issues were addressed.<br/>? An in-depth study of the ecological impact of the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway has been conducted, including trials using Mongolian Gazelles to investigate the possibility of their crossing bridges or tunnels. This research may also benefit Asiatic Wild Ass migration.<br/>? Activities in Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area include: monthly wildlife transects, monitoring of Asiatic Wild Ass and other species such as wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and Przewalski?s Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) to understand interactions, vegetation mapping, and workshops to integrate park management with sustainable livelihoods (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/> <br/>The following five actions are now those deemed most important for this species (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002):<br/><br/>1. The Kulan population in Badkhys Preserve has declined by approximately 90% in a three year period. Improved protection from poaching is needed both within the reserve and along the summer migration route to the Kushka River. The ecological requirements of this population need to be determined and an ecosystem analysis made of their habitat in order to prepare a long-term sustainable management plan.<br/><br/>2. Over 30% of the Khur population is ranging outside the Protected Area. The Sardar Sarovar Canal has changed the land-use patterns and the agro-economy i.e. from rain dependent crops to irrigated cash crops. Around the Rann, mitigation measures for the increasing number of wildlife and human conflicts are urgently needed. <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, is an exotic shrub spreading fast across the habitat, the management needs to undertake thinning operation of this shrub for habitat improvement. Salt mining is the major economy for eight months in the year for the locals living around the Rann. This area produces 21% of India?s salt. The transportation of the salt is through well-defined routes. Presently truckers? criss-cross through the area (habitat) thereby causing excessive damage to fragile arid grasslands (Shah 1993). The Sardar Sarovar canal has fragmented the Khur population. There is a need to evaluate possible linkages between the fragmented Khur population and its source Rann population. There is a need to understand the demography and immigration patterns of Khur in the newly occupied sites (i.e., Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Velavadar Blackbuck National Park, areas in Bhal, Great Rann and neigbouring state of Rajasthan) (Shah 1993, 1998, 1999). The existing sanctuary infrastructure and staffing needs to be strengthened which is presently inadequate for managing a Sanctuary of 5,000 km² (Shah 1993). There is a need for disease monitoring of domestic equids and other livestock.  The sanctuary was notified in 1973, and the land settlement process has been initiated. The sanctuary has been identified as a potential Natural World Heritage Site; its evaluation is pending (Gujarat Forest Department 2007). There is a need for an assessment of the status of Khur along the Indo-Pakistan border adjoining the Rann. The Wild Ass Sanctuary was identified as one of the six landscape sites in India for biodiversity conservation through improved rural livelihoods, a programme which is aided by the World Bank (Government of India 2007).<br/><br/>3. Taxonomic questions need to be clarified and subspecies ranges should be demarcated. These data are needed for the Wild Ass subspecies in Mongolia and for the Kulan/Onager populations in Turkmenistan and Iran. Information from the latter investigation could also affect the taxonomic listing of the introduced Israeli population.<br/><br/>4. Investigation and development of plans are needed to address conflict between local human groups and Wild Ass populations. Today, grazing outside reserves and encroachment into agricultural areas threaten to decrease ?good-will? towards Asiatic Wild Ass populations in Turkmenistan and Mongolia. Whether now or in the future, all Wild Ass populations will probably be in conflict with local pastoralists and agricultural groups. Conflict with human populations will lead to loss of habitat quality and increased susceptibility to high mortality during drought and disease outbreaks. Efforts need to be made to address current problems and to limit their occurrence in the future. In addition, the following conservation measures have been identified specifically for Mongolia (AWAC 2005):<br/><br/>? Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, including strict control at border posts between Mongolia and China for illegal export of carcasses.<br/>? Control meat markets, to prevent illegal trade in carcasses within Mongolia.<br/>? Map critical habitat and movement corridors.<br/>? Consider migration routes when planning transportation routes and fences, including implementation of mitigation measures along fenced transportation routes (e.g., railway Ulaanbaatar-Beijing) (P. Kaczensky pers. comm.).<br/>? Raise public awareness and establish education programmes to highlight the international importance and socioeconomic benefits of Mongolian populations (e.g., teach herders that they benefit from Asiatic Wild Ass digging waterholes in dry riverbeds) (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/>? Livelihood aid for local people, e.g., alternative income strategies. Conflict between local pastoralists and agricultural groups needs to  be addressed.<br/>? Conduct further research on population numbers, habitat use and migration, including further research to clarify the subspecific taxonomy of Mongolian populations of Asiatic Wild Ass (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), and rigorous annual population monitoring, preferentially using aerial surveys.<br/>? Stronger co-operation between Mongolia and China to facilitate conservation efforts, e.g. formation of trans-border protected areas.	eng
7951	conservation	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N. & Feh, C., 2008	This species is legally protected in Mongolia, Turkmenistan, Iran and India. In Mongolia it is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (MNE 1996). Hunting has been prohibited since 1953, and it is currently listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Rare in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997). <em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em> and <em>E. h. khur</em> are included in CITES Appendix I, with the other subspecies being on CITES Appendix II. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). The species occurs in protected areas in all range states where it survives. Approximately 29% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As outlined in the section on geographic distribution, there have been re-introduction projects for this species in a number of countries, including Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia. In an effort to increase the total number of kulan populations, animals from the Badkhys and Barsa Kelmes were translocated to other areas in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbzekistan between 1955 and 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Recognizing the threatened status of the dwindling Kulan population in the 1940s, the Soviet government gazetted the 900 km² Badkhyz Preserve in Turkmenistan to protect the remaining 200 Kulan. The population consequently grew to approximately 6,000 animals between 1945 and 1993. However, in the late 1990s when the Kulans left  the reserve during the summer months, they were killed in large numbers. The population was significantly reduced to approximately 600 animals. This history illustrates how quickly a healthy population of equids can be reduced to a critically endangered level. <br/><br/>To date, the introduction of <em>E. hemionus</em> in Israel has been successful. The animals were introduced in 1982. Due to a high percentage of male births, the population grew very slowly at first (Saltz and Rubenstein 1996). Starting in 1991, the population began to grow more quickly with 17 births in 1994. As of the 1997 birth season, there were approximately 105 animals, of which 31 were adult breeding females. The animals are found over an area of 4,500 km². The animals use three artificial water points that are maintained by the Israeli Nature Reserves Authority in addition to several natural  springs. Detailed ongoing studies of the population examine population increase, range expansion, habitat use, and changes in vegetation density and species richness. Information from these studies will be used in the development of management plans for the population (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There are some important research needs for this species. A large omission in our knowledge of the Asiatic Wild Ass is its status and distribution within China. In Turkmenistan and Iran, the management of the Onager and Kulan would greatly benefit from increased knowledge of basic behaviour and ecology. Such information would provide a better understanding of threats to these populations. In particular, as the potential for escalating human-wildlife conflict increases during droughts, a short-term study to understand the seasonal movement patterns of the Badkhyz Kulan population in Turkmenistan, and the places where conflicts are taking place, might help to address how best to protect this population. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the following conservation measures are in place:<br/>• In 1999, the Mongolian Government created two protected areas specifically for the conservation of this species, Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Dzungarian Gobi Desert) and Zagiin Us Nature Reserve (Northern Gobi) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/>• Research projects have been conducted to investigate the status, distribution, ecology and social structure of Asiatic Wild Ass in Mongolia (e.g., Feh <em>et al</em>., 2001; Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/>• Several conservation organizations were brought together at the ‘First Asiatic Wild Ass Conference’ held in Mongolia in 2005 (AWAC 2005), where a range of conservation management issues were addressed.<br/>• An in-depth study of the ecological impact of the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway has been conducted, including trials using Mongolian Gazelles to investigate the possibility of their crossing bridges or tunnels. This research may also benefit Asiatic Wild Ass migration.<br/>• Activities in Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area include: monthly wildlife transects, monitoring of Asiatic Wild Ass and other species such as wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and Przewalski’s Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) to understand interactions, vegetation mapping, and workshops to integrate park management with sustainable livelihoods (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/> <br/>The following five actions are now those deemed most important for this species (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002):<br/><br/>1. The Kulan population in Badkhys Preserve has declined by approximately 90% in a three year period. Improved protection from poaching is needed both within the reserve and along the summer migration route to the Kushka River. The ecological requirements of this population need to be determined and an ecosystem analysis made of their habitat in order to prepare a long-term sustainable management plan.<br/><br/>2. Over 30% of the Khur population is ranging outside the Protected Area. The Sardar Sarovar Canal has changed the land-use patterns and the agro-economy i.e. from rain dependent crops to irrigated cash crops. Around the Rann, mitigation measures for the increasing number of wildlife and human conflicts are urgently needed. <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, is an exotic shrub spreading fast across the habitat, the management needs to undertake thinning operation of this shrub for habitat improvement. Salt mining is the major economy for eight months in the year for the locals living around the Rann. This area produces 21% of India’s salt. The transportation of the salt is through well-defined routes. Presently truckers’ criss-cross through the area (habitat) thereby causing excessive damage to fragile arid grasslands (Shah 1993). The Sardar Sarovar canal has fragmented the Khur population. There is a need to evaluate possible linkages between the fragmented Khur population and its source Rann population. There is a need to understand the demography and immigration patterns of Khur in the newly occupied sites (i.e., Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Velavadar Blackbuck National Park, areas in Bhal, Great Rann and neigbouring state of Rajasthan) (Shah 1993, 1998, 1999). The existing sanctuary infrastructure and staffing needs to be strengthened which is presently inadequate for managing a Sanctuary of 5,000 km² (Shah 1993). There is a need for disease monitoring of domestic equids and other livestock.  The sanctuary was notified in 1973, and the land settlement process has been initiated. The sanctuary has been identified as a potential Natural World Heritage Site; its evaluation is pending (Gujarat Forest Department 2007). There is a need for an assessment of the status of Khur along the Indo-Pakistan border adjoining the Rann. The Wild Ass Sanctuary was identified as one of the six landscape sites in India for biodiversity conservation through improved rural livelihoods, a programme which is aided by the World Bank (Government of India 2007).<br/><br/>3. Taxonomic questions need to be clarified and subspecies ranges should be demarcated. These data are needed for the Wild Ass subspecies in Mongolia and for the Kulan/Onager populations in Turkmenistan and Iran. Information from the latter investigation could also affect the taxonomic listing of the introduced Israeli population.<br/><br/>4. Investigation and development of plans are needed to address conflict between local human groups and Wild Ass populations. Today, grazing outside reserves and encroachment into agricultural areas threaten to decrease “good-will” towards Asiatic Wild Ass populations in Turkmenistan and Mongolia. Whether now or in the future, all Wild Ass populations will probably be in conflict with local pastoralists and agricultural groups. Conflict with human populations will lead to loss of habitat quality and increased susceptibility to high mortality during drought and disease outbreaks. Efforts need to be made to address current problems and to limit their occurrence in the future. In addition, the following conservation measures have been identified specifically for Mongolia (AWAC 2005):<br/><br/>• Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, including strict control at border posts between Mongolia and China for illegal export of carcasses.<br/>• Control meat markets, to prevent illegal trade in carcasses within Mongolia.<br/>• Map critical habitat and movement corridors.<br/>• Consider migration routes when planning transportation routes and fences, including implementation of mitigation measures along fenced transportation routes (e.g., railway Ulaanbaatar-Beijing) (P. Kaczensky pers. comm.).<br/>• Raise public awareness and establish education programmes to highlight the international importance and socioeconomic benefits of Mongolian populations (e.g., teach herders that they benefit from Asiatic Wild Ass digging waterholes in dry riverbeds) (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/>• Livelihood aid for local people, e.g., alternative income strategies. Conflict between local pastoralists and agricultural groups needs to  be addressed.<br/>• Conduct further research on population numbers, habitat use and migration, including further research to clarify the subspecific taxonomy of Mongolian populations of Asiatic Wild Ass (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), and rigorous annual population monitoring, preferentially using aerial surveys.<br/>• Stronger co-operation between Mongolia and China to facilitate conservation efforts, e.g. formation of trans-border protected areas.	eng
7951	distribution	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N., Masseti, M. & Feh, C., 2008	In historic times the Asiatic Wild Ass ranged through much of Mongolia, north to Transbaikalia (Russia), east to northeastern Inner Mongolia (China) and possibly western Manchuria (China), and west to Dzhungarian Gate (Grubb 2005). It formerly occurred in Kazakhstan, north to the upper Irtysh and Ural Rivers in Russia, and westward north of the Caucasus and Black Sea to at least the Dniestr River (Ukraine), Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, and southeast of the Caspian Sea in Iran, northern Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, east to Thar Desert of northwestern India (Grubb 2005). It also extended through the Arabian Peninsula as far south as central Saudi Arabia. It survived in Armenia and Azerbaijan until 17th-18th Centuries (Wolfe 1979). The Syrian Wild Ass became extinct in 1927.<br/><br/>By the 19th Century, their range had declined significantly. Today, the most abundant subpopulation of the species occurs in the southern part of Mongolia and adjacent northern China (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species also survives as isolated populations in the Rann of Kutch (India), the Badkhyz Preserve (Turkmenistan) and at Touran National Park and Bahramgor Reserve (Iran) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Populations have been re-established as follows: Barsa-Khelmes Island in the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan); Aktay-Buzachinskiy reserve on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan); Andasayskiy reserve and Kapchagayskoye in southeastern Kazakhstan; Dzheiran Ecocentre near Bukhara (Uzbekistan); Meana-Chaacha, Kaakha, Kopet Dag, and Sumbar Valley in southern Turkmenistan (re-introduced populations in Kurtusu and Germab perhaps no longer survive); Sarakamish Lake in northern Turkmenistan; the Beruchi Peninsula (Ukraine), the Negev (southern Israel), and Taïf (Saudi Arabia) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The re-established populations in Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia are not of the subspecies that originally occurred there (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There are five generally recognized subspecies (Grubb 2005):<br/><em>Equus h. hemionus</em> - the Mongolian Kulan (in northern Mongolia) (<em>E. h. luteus</em> - the Gobi Kulan in southern Mongolia and northern China, is probably a synonym of <em>E. h. hemionus</em> (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2000, Grubb 2005))<br/><em>E. h. khur</em> ? the Khur (India)<br/><em>E. h. kulan</em> the Turkmen Kulan (in Turkmenistan, re-introduced in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine)<br/><em>E. h. onager</em> - the Onager (Iran, introduced in Saudi Arabia)<br/><em>E. h. hemippus</em> ? the Syrian Wild Ass (Extinct, formerly from Syria south into the Arabian Peninsula)<br/>The reintroduced population in Israel is of hybrid origin (<em>E. h. onager</em> and <em>E. h. kulan</em>).<br/><br/>The largest surviving subpopulation, the Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus h. hemionus</em>)  is in Mongolia, where it was formerly widely distributed throughout steppe and semi-desert habitats, from the extreme west of the country to the Mongolian-Russian-Chinese border in the extreme northeast (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Asiatic Wild Ass has experienced a major decline in population size and range size, even in Mongolia (Bannikov 1981) and they are now only found in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, the Northern Gobi, the Alashani Gobi Desert and the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), as far north as Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in the Eastern Gobi (S. Amgalanbaatar and R. Reading pers. obs.). Recent evidence suggests that the population has either expanded or shifted further north and east over the past 20-25 years, but rarely crosses the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway line (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.). There are important populations in the Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area, in Dzungarian Gobi, and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>The Khur <em>Equus hemionus khur</em> was formerly widespread in the arid zone of northwestern India and Pakistan, westwards through much of central Asia. However, it is now limited to the Little Rann of Kutch  in Gujarat, India. The khur probably went extinct in Baluchistan and the extreme south of Pakistan, on the Indian border, during the 1960s (Corbet and Hill 1992). There are some recent records of Khur along India-Pakistan border. During the last two decades Khur has shown range expansion along with an increase in their population (Shah 2004).	eng
7951	distribution	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N. & Feh, C., 2008	In historic times the Asiatic Wild Ass ranged through much of Mongolia, north to Transbaikalia (Russia), east to northeastern Inner Mongolia (China) and possibly western Manchuria (China), and west to Dzhungarian Gate (Grubb 2005). It formerly occurred in Kazakhstan, north to the upper Irtysh and Ural Rivers in Russia, and westward north of the Caucasus and Black Sea to at least the Dniestr River (Ukraine), Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, and southeast of the Caspian Sea in Iran, northern Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, east to Thar Desert of northwestern India (Grubb 2005). It also extended through the Arabian Peninsula as far south as central Saudi Arabia. It survived in Armenia and Azerbaijan until 17th-18th Centuries (Wolfe 1979). The Syrian Wild Ass became extinct in 1927.<br/><br/>By the 19th Century, their range had declined significantly. Today, the most abundant subpopulation of the species occurs in the southern part of Mongolia and adjacent northern China (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species also survives as isolated populations in the Rann of Kutch (India), the Badkhyz Preserve (Turkmenistan) and at Touran National Park and Bahramgor Reserve (Iran) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Populations have been re-established as follows: Barsa-Khelmes Island in the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan); Aktay-Buzachinskiy reserve on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan); Andasayskiy reserve and Kapchagayskoye in southeastern Kazakhstan; Dzheiran Ecocentre near Bukhara (Uzbekistan); Meana-Chaacha, Kaakha, Kopet Dag, and Sumbar Valley in southern Turkmenistan (re-introduced populations in Kurtusu and Germab perhaps no longer survive); Sarakamish Lake in northern Turkmenistan; the Beruchi Peninsula (Ukraine), the Negev (southern Israel), and Taïf (Saudi Arabia) (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). The re-established populations in Ukraine, Israel and Saudi Arabia are not of the subspecies that originally occurred there (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There are five generally recognized subspecies (Grubb 2005):<br/><em>Equus h. hemionus</em> - the Mongolian Kulan (in northern Mongolia) (<em>E. h. luteus</em> - the Gobi Kulan in southern Mongolia and northern China, is probably a synonym of <em>E. h. hemionus</em> (Oakenfull <em>et al</em>. 2000, Grubb 2005))<br/><em>E. h. khur</em> – the Khur (India)<br/><em>E. h. kulan</em> the Turkmen Kulan (in Turkmenistan, re-introduced in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine)<br/><em>E. h. onager</em> - the Onager (Iran, introduced in Saudi Arabia)<br/><em>E. h. hemippus</em> – the Syrian Wild Ass (Extinct, formerly from Syria south into the Arabian Peninsula)<br/>The reintroduced population in Israel is of hybrid origin (<em>E. h. onager</em> and <em>E. h. kulan</em>).<br/><br/>The largest surviving subpopulation, the Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus h. hemionus</em>)  is in Mongolia, where it was formerly widely distributed throughout steppe and semi-desert habitats, from the extreme west of the country to the Mongolian-Russian-Chinese border in the extreme northeast (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Asiatic Wild Ass has experienced a major decline in population size and range size, even in Mongolia (Bannikov 1981) and they are now only found in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, the Northern Gobi, the Alashani Gobi Desert and the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002), as far north as Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in the Eastern Gobi (S. Amgalanbaatar and R. Reading pers. obs.). Recent evidence suggests that the population has either expanded or shifted further north and east over the past 20-25 years, but rarely crosses the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway line (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.). There are important populations in the Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area, in Dzungarian Gobi, and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>The Khur <em>Equus hemionus khur</em> was formerly widespread in the arid zone of northwestern India and Pakistan, westwards through much of central Asia. However, it is now limited to the Little Rann of Kutch  in Gujarat, India. The khur probably went extinct in Baluchistan and the extreme south of Pakistan, on the Indian border, during the 1960s (Corbet and Hill 1992). There are some recent records of Khur along India-Pakistan border. During the last two decades Khur has shown range expansion along with an increase in their population (Shah 2004).	eng
7951	habitat	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N., Masseti, M. & Feh, C., 2008	Asiatic Wild Ass inhabit mountain steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert plains. They are usually found in desert steppe. Typically they are grazers and in Mongoia (Gobi B) throughout the year they eat <em>Stipa glareosa</em>, <em>Agropyron cristatum</em> and <em>Achnatherum</em> (<em>Feh</em> 2001). They can be found in rocky or sandy areas associated with <em>Artemisia</em>, grasses, <em>Anabasis</em> spp., Russian thistle (<em>Salsola</em> spp.), saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>) and pea shrubs (<em>Caragana</em> spp.) (Harris and Miller 1995, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001). To date, there have been few detailed studies of Asiatic Wild Ass feeding ecology. However, observations suggest a feeding strategy similar to that observed in other equids in xeric environments. When grass is plentiful, Asiatic Wild Ass are predominately grazers. During dry season and in drier habitats, Asiatic Wild Ass will browse a large portion of their diet. While Asiatic Wild Ass eat woody plants, other forage is taken when possible. Animals have been observed eating seed pods (Shah 1993) and using their hooves to break up woody vegetation to obtain more succulent forbs growing at the base of the woody plants. Herds can number up to 1,200 individuals. Water sources are an important determinant of distribution; in summer months the species occurs within 10-15 km of standing water, and this range increases five-fold in winter when it is not restricted by water availability. In Mongolia, Asiatic Wild Ass have been observed digging holes as deep as 60 cm in dry riverbeds to access water, eating snow during winter as a substitute (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Asiatic Wild Ass weigh approximately 200?260 kg. Gestation is 11 months and breeding is seasonal. Peak birthing season occurs between April and September ? within any one subpopulation, births tend to occur over a two to three month span with a peak between mid June and mid July (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There have been a number of studies on social organisation and behavioural ecology of Asiatic asses. These studies have been conducted on several of the Asiatic Wild Ass populations throughout their range. While the explanations and terminology describing the species? mating system do not necessarily coincide, there are similarities in the observations. In all studies, breeding is seasonal and females with young tend to group together in relatively small groups (two to five females). Descriptions of male breeding strategies differ considerably (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Early studies were mostly descriptive. Both Solomatins and Rasheks long term studies based mostly on individual follow-ups described a harem type social structure in Turkmene Kulan harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) whereas Klingel?s one week observations described a territorial system. Bannikov?s short term survey in Mongolia described harems or family groups.  Both harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) and territorial defence (Klingel 1977) social systems were described. Since 1980, several detailed studies have been carried out on various subspecies: Khur in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah 1993), Kulan in Mongolia (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the reintroduced Kulan/Onager hybrids in Israel (Saltz and Rubenstein 1995, Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Two studies, Shah (1993) and Saltz <em>et al</em>. (2000), describe systems in which individual stallions either defend territories or form all-male groups. Four social units are identified in Khur; family group, stallion, all male group and displaced stallion (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Stallions in the Rann of Kutch exhibit both seasonal and year-round territoriality with females, forming small seasonal harems (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). Territorial stallions defend territories throughout the year in the Rann of Kutch. Females remain on territories during the breeding season (monsoon season), with some females remaining on one territory and others moving between territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). A few mares continue to remain on territories all year round. Shah (1993) refers to the two groupings as year-round and seasonal harems. The term ?harem? maybe misleading here, as the stallion behaviour describes resource defence rather than guarding of females, and the ?item? at stake is land. Shah (1993) states that ?the quality of the territory seems to be a prime determinant of dominance?. This is similar to territory stallion dominance witnessed in Grévy?s zebra (Ginsberg 1989). Within the Rann of Kutch, female movements were often limited to single territories, thereby creating ?harem-like? female groupings (Shah 1993). However, females are able to move freely between territories, thereby describing a system in which female movement adapts to changing resource availability, as well as mate preference. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem type social organization (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Rainfall and productivity of food resources  determine the <em>khur</em> recruitment and population growth rate (Shah and Qureshi 2007).<br/><br/>Similar social behaviour has been documented in the reintroduced population of wild asses in the Negev, Israel. The study in Israel is unique in that it has documented a growing population of all known individual females and territorial stallions. The study has followed  the population from having one territorial stallion to more than seven. Males return to the main breeding area (an area with  permanent water sources) each spring, several weeks before the females return (Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). The majority of males return to the same territories that they held in previous years; non-territorial males either form small all-male groups in the breeding area or remain in the winter grazing areas. Females return within a few weeks and foal almost immediately. Females form groups on territories but group membership remains fluid. This fission-fusion social system (Rubenstein 1986, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007) has some females remaining on one territory throughout the breeding season while others switch territories regularly.<br/><br/>In the Gobi B National Park (Mongolia), both Bannikov (1958) and Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that Kulan social behaviour is similar to that of feral horses. Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) describe family groups consisting of individual males with several females and their foals moving to and from water sources, but the study is based on only a small number of identified individuals. In addition, stallions were observed to herd females. This behaviour is similar to that found in feral horses (although some of the specific postures differed) and is not common among the other subspecies studied. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem where stallions defend resources and benefit from having access to mares on these territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi 2007). In Gobi B, stallions were observed to defend both females and foals from predators (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994). Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that khulan behaviour in Gobi B is different from other populations as a direct response to predation pressure from cooperatively hunting wolves.<br/><br/>Further study of known individuals is necessary to fully understand the social behaviour of Asiatic wild ass. It is likely that differences in social structure and behaviour depend on climatic seasonality, vegetation cover, and predator hunting pressures. Additional clarification of social structure and the factors that influence animal movement and behaviour (e.g. climatic and anthropogenic factors, grazing pressure, etc.) can provide a helpful tool in understanding threats to individual populations. The studies briefly outlined above demonstrate that there is a great deal of flexibility within the species? social structure. With increasing levels of desertification and habitat fragmentation, all the above and future studies should be consulted in the formation of habitat and species conservation plans Feh <em>et al</em> 2002, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
7951	habitat	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N. & Feh, C., 2008	Asiatic Wild Ass inhabit mountain steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert plains. They are usually found in desert steppe. Typically they are grazers and in Mongoia (Gobi B) throughout the year they eat <em>Stipa glareosa</em>, <em>Agropyron cristatum</em> and <em>Achnatherum</em> (<em>Feh</em> 2001). They can be found in rocky or sandy areas associated with <em>Artemisia</em>, grasses, <em>Anabasis</em> spp., Russian thistle (<em>Salsola</em> spp.), saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>) and pea shrubs (<em>Caragana</em> spp.) (Harris and Miller 1995, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001). To date, there have been few detailed studies of Asiatic Wild Ass feeding ecology. However, observations suggest a feeding strategy similar to that observed in other equids in xeric environments. When grass is plentiful, Asiatic Wild Ass are predominately grazers. During dry season and in drier habitats, Asiatic Wild Ass will browse a large portion of their diet. While Asiatic Wild Ass eat woody plants, other forage is taken when possible. Animals have been observed eating seed pods (Shah 1993) and using their hooves to break up woody vegetation to obtain more succulent forbs growing at the base of the woody plants. Herds can number up to 1,200 individuals. Water sources are an important determinant of distribution; in summer months the species occurs within 10-15 km of standing water, and this range increases five-fold in winter when it is not restricted by water availability. In Mongolia, Asiatic Wild Ass have been observed digging holes as deep as 60 cm in dry riverbeds to access water, eating snow during winter as a substitute (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Asiatic Wild Ass weigh approximately 200–260 kg. Gestation is 11 months and breeding is seasonal. Peak birthing season occurs between April and September – within any one subpopulation, births tend to occur over a two to three month span with a peak between mid June and mid July (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/><br/>There have been a number of studies on social organisation and behavioural ecology of Asiatic asses. These studies have been conducted on several of the Asiatic Wild Ass populations throughout their range. While the explanations and terminology describing the species’ mating system do not necessarily coincide, there are similarities in the observations. In all studies, breeding is seasonal and females with young tend to group together in relatively small groups (two to five females). Descriptions of male breeding strategies differ considerably (Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Early studies were mostly descriptive. Both Solomatins and Rasheks long term studies based mostly on individual follow-ups described a harem type social structure in Turkmene Kulan harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) whereas Klingel’s one week observations described a territorial system. Bannikov’s short term survey in Mongolia described harems or family groups.  Both harem-style behaviour (Bannikov 1958, Solomatin 1973, Rashek 1973) and territorial defence (Klingel 1977) social systems were described. Since 1980, several detailed studies have been carried out on various subspecies: Khur in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah 1993), Kulan in Mongolia (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the reintroduced Kulan/Onager hybrids in Israel (Saltz and Rubenstein 1995, Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Two studies, Shah (1993) and Saltz <em>et al</em>. (2000), describe systems in which individual stallions either defend territories or form all-male groups. Four social units are identified in Khur; family group, stallion, all male group and displaced stallion (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Stallions in the Rann of Kutch exhibit both seasonal and year-round territoriality with females, forming small seasonal harems (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). Territorial stallions defend territories throughout the year in the Rann of Kutch. Females remain on territories during the breeding season (monsoon season), with some females remaining on one territory and others moving between territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi, 2007). A few mares continue to remain on territories all year round. Shah (1993) refers to the two groupings as year-round and seasonal harems. The term “harem” maybe misleading here, as the stallion behaviour describes resource defence rather than guarding of females, and the “item” at stake is land. Shah (1993) states that “the quality of the territory seems to be a prime determinant of dominance”. This is similar to territory stallion dominance witnessed in Grévy’s zebra (Ginsberg 1989). Within the Rann of Kutch, female movements were often limited to single territories, thereby creating “harem-like” female groupings (Shah 1993). However, females are able to move freely between territories, thereby describing a system in which female movement adapts to changing resource availability, as well as mate preference. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem type social organization (Shah and Qureshi 2007). Rainfall and productivity of food resources  determine the <em>khur</em> recruitment and population growth rate (Shah and Qureshi 2007).<br/><br/>Similar social behaviour has been documented in the reintroduced population of wild asses in the Negev, Israel. The study in Israel is unique in that it has documented a growing population of all known individual females and territorial stallions. The study has followed  the population from having one territorial stallion to more than seven. Males return to the main breeding area (an area with  permanent water sources) each spring, several weeks before the females return (Saltz <em>et al</em>. 2000). The majority of males return to the same territories that they held in previous years; non-territorial males either form small all-male groups in the breeding area or remain in the winter grazing areas. Females return within a few weeks and foal almost immediately. Females form groups on territories but group membership remains fluid. This fission-fusion social system (Rubenstein 1986, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007) has some females remaining on one territory throughout the breeding season while others switch territories regularly.<br/><br/>In the Gobi B National Park (Mongolia), both Bannikov (1958) and Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that Kulan social behaviour is similar to that of feral horses. Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) describe family groups consisting of individual males with several females and their foals moving to and from water sources, but the study is based on only a small number of identified individuals. In addition, stallions were observed to herd females. This behaviour is similar to that found in feral horses (although some of the specific postures differed) and is not common among the other subspecies studied. <em>Khur</em> have territorial harem where stallions defend resources and benefit from having access to mares on these territories (Shah 1993, Shah and Qureshi 2007). In Gobi B, stallions were observed to defend both females and foals from predators (Feh <em>et al</em>. 1994). Feh <em>et al</em>. (1994, 2001) suggest that khulan behaviour in Gobi B is different from other populations as a direct response to predation pressure from cooperatively hunting wolves.<br/><br/>Further study of known individuals is necessary to fully understand the social behaviour of Asiatic wild ass. It is likely that differences in social structure and behaviour depend on climatic seasonality, vegetation cover, and predator hunting pressures. Additional clarification of social structure and the factors that influence animal movement and behaviour (e.g. climatic and anthropogenic factors, grazing pressure, etc.) can provide a helpful tool in understanding threats to individual populations. The studies briefly outlined above demonstrate that there is a great deal of flexibility within the species’ social structure. With increasing levels of desertification and habitat fragmentation, all the above and future studies should be consulted in the formation of habitat and species conservation plans Feh <em>et al</em> 2002, Rubenstein <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
7951	population	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N., Masseti, M. & Feh, C., 2008	During the past century the total population and range of Asiatic Wild Ass has declined significantly (Clark and Duncan 1992, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The largest remaining subspecies population is the Mongolian Khulan (<em>E. h. hemionus</em>) which was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 +/- 898 in four areas (Lkhagvasuren  2007). Southern Mongolia currently holds the largest population of Asiatic Wild Ass in the world, representing almost 80% of the global population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this population is at risk due to illegal hunting and numbers have declined significantly from an estimated population size of 43,165 in 1997 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). There may be as many as 4,800 to 6,000 Khulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but this may be a seasonal population that is migrating from Mongolia (Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006). Offtake for the illegal meat trade is estimated at 3,000 individuals per year. Recruitment (number of offspring) varies from 3-23%. The potential net loss per year may be 5-10%. In 21 years or 3 generations, the population decline will be greater than 50%. If illegal hunting continues in Mongolia, the potential decline of this important population will be 5-10% per year. The Kulan population in Turkmenistan is also at risk due to illegal hunting.<br/><br/>The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur (<em>E. h. khur</em>) with an estimated population in 2004 of 3,900 in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). This is the only subpopulation of Asiatic Wild Ass that has had a steady increase in population size since 1976 to the present. The population increase is associated with range expansion, <em>khur</em> has occupied areas beyond ~200 km away from its source population in Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). <br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>E. h. kulan</em>) populations in 2005 were approximately 1,300 in Turkmenistan (Badkhys Reserve  850-900 and seven reintroduction sites (445) (Lukarevskiy and Gorelov 2007) The Kulan has experienced a recent dramatic decline in its main population in Turkmenistan. The population in the Badkhyz Preserve declined from 6,000 in 1993, to 2,400 in 1998 to 646 in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1995 to 2000 the estimated number of Kulan in reintroduction sites was approximately 320. In 1992 the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan were Barsa-Khelmes Island : 96 ; Aktau-Busatchinski: uncertain; Andasaiski reserve: 164 ; Kaptchagaiskoye: 150 for a total of 410. In 1999, the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan in these four sites was approximately 900 animals (Pereladova and Baidavletov pers. com. 2006). The reintroduced population in Uzbekistan in Dzheiran Ecocentre was 34 in 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Information on the status of the Onager in Iran (<em>E. h. onager</em>) is limited, but recent estimates are 600 in the two protected areas (L. Shamimi, pers.com. 2007). There were 471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, and 96 in Bahramgor Reserve in 1996, with four re-introduced animals in Yazd Province in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). There were also five <em>E. h. onager</em> in Taïf (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and the hybrid <em>E. h. onager</em> x <em>E. h. kulan</em> population in Israel numbered 100 in 2000.<br/><br/>The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Ass has declined by 52% population in the last 16 years. It occurs in 14 locations and is severely fragmented. Generation length in <em>Equus hemionus</em> is seven years, age at first reproduction for females is 5 years, females produce one live foal every three years, sex-ratio at birth is 50/50, first year survival rate is approximately 50%, second year survival rate is approximately 50%, and only half of the stallions reproduce, yielding an approximately one-third of the population being ?mature individuals? (Feh <em>et al</em> 2001). The current estimated number of mature individuals is 8358. The estimated global population decline in the future is >50% due to illegal hunting.	eng
7951	population	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N. & Feh, C., 2008	During the past century the total population and range of Asiatic Wild Ass has declined significantly (Clark and Duncan 1992, Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The largest remaining subspecies population is the Mongolian Khulan (<em>E. h. hemionus</em>) which was estimated in 2003 at 18,411 +/- 898 in four areas (Lkhagvasuren  2007). Southern Mongolia currently holds the largest population of Asiatic Wild Ass in the world, representing almost 80% of the global population (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this population is at risk due to illegal hunting and numbers have declined significantly from an estimated population size of 43,165 in 1997 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). There may be as many as 4,800 to 6,000 Khulan in the Kalameili Reserve in China, but this may be a seasonal population that is migrating from Mongolia (Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006). Offtake for the illegal meat trade is estimated at 3,000 individuals per year. Recruitment (number of offspring) varies from 3-23%. The potential net loss per year may be 5-10%. In 21 years or 3 generations, the population decline will be greater than 50%. If illegal hunting continues in Mongolia, the potential decline of this important population will be 5-10% per year. The Kulan population in Turkmenistan is also at risk due to illegal hunting.<br/><br/>The next largest subpopulation is the Indian Khur (<em>E. h. khur</em>) with an estimated population in 2004 of 3,900 in the Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). This is the only subpopulation of Asiatic Wild Ass that has had a steady increase in population size since 1976 to the present. The population increase is associated with range expansion, <em>khur</em> has occupied areas beyond ~200 km away from its source population in Little Rann of Kutch (Shah and Qureshi 2007). <br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>E. h. kulan</em>) populations in 2005 were approximately 1,300 in Turkmenistan (Badkhys Reserve  850-900 and seven reintroduction sites (445) (Lukarevskiy and Gorelov 2007) The Kulan has experienced a recent dramatic decline in its main population in Turkmenistan. The population in the Badkhyz Preserve declined from 6,000 in 1993, to 2,400 in 1998 to 646 in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1995 to 2000 the estimated number of Kulan in reintroduction sites was approximately 320. In 1992 the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan were Barsa-Khelmes Island : 96 ; Aktau-Busatchinski: uncertain; Andasaiski reserve: 164 ; Kaptchagaiskoye: 150 for a total of 410. In 1999, the reintroduced populations in Kazakhstan in these four sites was approximately 900 animals (Pereladova and Baidavletov pers. com. 2006). The reintroduced population in Uzbekistan in Dzheiran Ecocentre was 34 in 1991 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Information on the status of the Onager in Iran (<em>E. h. onager</em>) is limited, but recent estimates are 600 in the two protected areas (L. Shamimi, pers.com. 2007). There were 471 animals in Touran National Park in 2000, and 96 in Bahramgor Reserve in 1996, with four re-introduced animals in Yazd Province in 2000 (Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). There were also five <em>E. h. onager</em> in Taïf (Saudi Arabia) in 2000, and the hybrid <em>E. h. onager</em> x <em>E. h. kulan</em> population in Israel numbered 100 in 2000.<br/><br/>The global population of mature Asiatic Wild Ass has declined by 52% population in the last 16 years. It occurs in 14 locations and is severely fragmented. Generation length in <em>Equus hemionus</em> is seven years, age at first reproduction for females is 5 years, females produce one live foal every three years, sex-ratio at birth is 50/50, first year survival rate is approximately 50%, second year survival rate is approximately 50%, and only half of the stallions reproduce, yielding an approximately one-third of the population being ‘mature individuals’ (Feh <em>et al</em> 2001). The current estimated number of mature individuals is 8358. The estimated global population decline in the future is >50% due to illegal hunting.	eng
7951	threats	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N., Masseti, M. & Feh, C., 2008	Threats to the species include loss of habitat as a result of human settlement, cultivation, overgrazing, developmental activities, conflict with humans (crop depredation), competition for water, salt extraction, poaching for meat, competition with domestic livestock and, in certain parts of the range, war and civil unrest have had a detrimental effect on the species (Clark and Duncan 1992; Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Perhaps the greatest threat to the populations of Asiatic Wild Ass appears to be the potential for catastrophic population declines due to poaching (i.e., <em>kulan</em> in Turkmenistan and <em>hemionus</em> in Mongolia). Disease and/or drought are ?stress events? that are a constant threat to small, isolated Wild Ass populations, such as those in India, Iran, Israel, and Turkmenistan. For example, a disease outbreak of African horse sickness in the 1960s resulted in a major decline and the extinction of small Khur populations (Gee 1963). Continued fragmentation and marginalisation of the smaller populations could result in similar extinctions. Small, isolated populations are demographically and genetically vulnerable.<br/><br/>Specific threats to particular populations are outlined below:<br/><br/>The main threats to the Onager (<em>Equus hemionus onager</em>) in Iran are, in decreasing order of severity, poaching, overgrazing, competition for water, and removal of shrubs (Tatin <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tatin <em>et al</em>. (2001) identified the main threats to the Onager population at Touran, and outlined the actions being implemented to combat them. Both the Touran and Bahramgor populations are geographically, and therefore genetically, isolated from each other.<br/><br/>The Khur (<em>Equus hemionus khur</em>) in the Little Rann of Kutch is the subspecies subject to the most direct threat from increasing human activities. The ecology of the Wild Ass Sanctuary, for example, is threatened by a canal building project ? the Sardar Sarovar Project of the Narmada Development Authority (Goyal <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is growing competition for resources as an increasing number of livestock are grazed within the reserve during monsoon season. At the same time, salt mining, the major economic industry for local people, has increased 140% since 1958 (Shah 1993). Such increased activity is particularly disruptive as the period for salt mining coincides with advanced stage of pregnancy in the Khur (Shah 1993). The increase in Khur population and its range expansion into the human dominated landscapes has resulted in increased incidences of crop depredation. Agriculture has intensified with better irrigation facilities thus changing the land use patterns.<br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus kulan</em>) has suffered a catastrophic decline in the late 1990s due to poaching for the sale of meat (Lukarevskii pers. comm. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). The only naturally occurring population of this subspecies is in the Badkhyz Reserve in Turkmenistan. During the summer months this population migrates to the Kuska River, which is 100&#160;km outside of the protected area. The critical situation of the Badkhys Reserve Kulans clearly illustrates how swiftly isolated equid populations can be decimated and potentially driven to extinction during a period of a few years.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em>) is suffering from illegal hunting for meat and skins, for commercial use in some areas (Duncan 1992; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stubbe <em>et al</em> 2007). Habitat is being degraded through human settlements such as herder camps which restrict access to oases, resource extraction such as mining, and possibly though grazing by increasing numbers of domestic livestock, particularly domestic horses and sheep. Habitat fragmentation and restriction of wide-scale movements due to fencing is a significant problem along the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway and the China-Mongolia border (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006, in prep.), and is also caused by roads, fences and railway lines associated with resource extraction activities. Nomadic herdsmen in Mongolia claim that an increasing number of Kulan are damaging the rangeland (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997). In part, wildlife-livestock competition may result from an increased number of livestock following Mongolia?s shift to a market economy (e.g., livestock  numbers increased from 24.6 million head to 28.6 million head between 1989 and  1995 (Honhold 1995, Müller and Janzen 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). The negative impacts of grazing in Mongolia are well documented, especially where wild and domestic livestock overlap (Honhold 1995, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987). Increased competition with livestock may result in further fragmentation of the wild ass population by limiting Kulan to strictly protected areas. In addition to competition for grazing land, poaching for meat and hides poses an increasing threat to Kulan in Mongolia (Duncan 1992, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). High levels of hunting in the 1980s severely decreased kulan populations in inner Mongolia. Xiaoming and Schaller (1996) found very few Kulan further than 100&#160;km from the Chinese/Mongolia border, suggesting that the inner Mongolian population is only a seasonal expansion of the Mongolian population. Wingard and Zahler (2006) reported that the illegal trade in Mongolian Kulan is removing approximately 3,000 individuals per year from the population. This level of exploitation is not sustainable.	eng
7951	threats	Moehlman, P.D., Shah, N. & Feh, C., 2008	Threats to the species include loss of habitat as a result of human settlement, cultivation, overgrazing, developmental activities, conflict with humans (crop depredation), competition for water, salt extraction, poaching for meat, competition with domestic livestock and, in certain parts of the range, war and civil unrest have had a detrimental effect on the species (Clark and Duncan 1992; Feh <em>et al</em>. 2002). Perhaps the greatest threat to the populations of Asiatic Wild Ass appears to be the potential for catastrophic population declines due to poaching (i.e., <em>kulan</em> in Turkmenistan and <em>hemionus</em> in Mongolia). Disease and/or drought are “stress events” that are a constant threat to small, isolated Wild Ass populations, such as those in India, Iran, Israel, and Turkmenistan. For example, a disease outbreak of African horse sickness in the 1960s resulted in a major decline and the extinction of small Khur populations (Gee 1963). Continued fragmentation and marginalisation of the smaller populations could result in similar extinctions. Small, isolated populations are demographically and genetically vulnerable.<br/><br/>Specific threats to particular populations are outlined below:<br/><br/>The main threats to the Onager (<em>Equus hemionus onager</em>) in Iran are, in decreasing order of severity, poaching, overgrazing, competition for water, and removal of shrubs (Tatin <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tatin <em>et al</em>. (2001) identified the main threats to the Onager population at Touran, and outlined the actions being implemented to combat them. Both the Touran and Bahramgor populations are geographically, and therefore genetically, isolated from each other.<br/><br/>The Khur (<em>Equus hemionus khur</em>) in the Little Rann of Kutch is the subspecies subject to the most direct threat from increasing human activities. The ecology of the Wild Ass Sanctuary, for example, is threatened by a canal building project – the Sardar Sarovar Project of the Narmada Development Authority (Goyal <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is growing competition for resources as an increasing number of livestock are grazed within the reserve during monsoon season. At the same time, salt mining, the major economic industry for local people, has increased 140% since 1958 (Shah 1993). Such increased activity is particularly disruptive as the period for salt mining coincides with advanced stage of pregnancy in the Khur (Shah 1993). The increase in Khur population and its range expansion into the human dominated landscapes has resulted in increased incidences of crop depredation. Agriculture has intensified with better irrigation facilities thus changing the land use patterns.<br/><br/>The Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus kulan</em>) has suffered a catastrophic decline in the late 1990s due to poaching for the sale of meat (Lukarevskii pers. comm. 2001, Feh <em>et al</em> 2002). The only naturally occurring population of this subspecies is in the Badkhyz Reserve in Turkmenistan. During the summer months this population migrates to the Kuska River, which is 100&#160;km outside of the protected area. The critical situation of the Badkhys Reserve Kulans clearly illustrates how swiftly isolated equid populations can be decimated and potentially driven to extinction during a period of a few years.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Kulan (<em>Equus hemionus hemionus</em>) is suffering from illegal hunting for meat and skins, for commercial use in some areas (Duncan 1992; Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stubbe <em>et al</em> 2007). Habitat is being degraded through human settlements such as herder camps which restrict access to oases, resource extraction such as mining, and possibly though grazing by increasing numbers of domestic livestock, particularly domestic horses and sheep. Habitat fragmentation and restriction of wide-scale movements due to fencing is a significant problem along the Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway and the China-Mongolia border (Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2006, in prep.), and is also caused by roads, fences and railway lines associated with resource extraction activities. Nomadic herdsmen in Mongolia claim that an increasing number of Kulan are damaging the rangeland (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997). In part, wildlife-livestock competition may result from an increased number of livestock following Mongolia’s shift to a market economy (e.g., livestock  numbers increased from 24.6 million head to 28.6 million head between 1989 and  1995 (Honhold 1995, Müller and Janzen 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). The negative impacts of grazing in Mongolia are well documented, especially where wild and domestic livestock overlap (Honhold 1995, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987). Increased competition with livestock may result in further fragmentation of the wild ass population by limiting Kulan to strictly protected areas. In addition to competition for grazing land, poaching for meat and hides poses an increasing threat to Kulan in Mongolia (Duncan 1992, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001). High levels of hunting in the 1980s severely decreased kulan populations in inner Mongolia. Xiaoming and Schaller (1996) found very few Kulan further than 100&#160;km from the Chinese/Mongolia border, suggesting that the inner Mongolian population is only a seasonal expansion of the Mongolian population. Wingard and Zahler (2006) reported that the illegal trade in Mongolian Kulan is removing approximately 3,000 individuals per year from the population. This level of exploitation is not sustainable.	eng
7953	conservation	Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen, J. & Qureshi, Q., 2008	The kiang is legally protected in several countries. In China it receives first class protection; in India it is on Schedule I of Indian Wildlife, Protection Act of 1972; and in Pakistan it is conserved under the Northern Areas Wildlife Preservation Act 1975. It is on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Conservation and research recommendations include:<br/><br/>• Research on the molecular genetics of the taxonomic status of the three subspecies of kiang, with urgent emphasis on the status of <em>E. k. polyodon</em>.<br/>• Coordinated surveys on the present distribution, population numbers and trends, using comparative methodologies.<br/>• Comparative ecosystem analysis of habitat and forage requirements of domestic livestock and kiang. Initial efforts should concentrate on known areas of seasonal overlap between kiang, pastoralists and their livestock.<br/>• Studies on population dynamics with emphasis on recruitment and mortality rates<br/>• Long-term studies using individually recognized animals should be implemented (i.e. to understand life-history strategies, movements patterns, resource selection patterns, etc.)<br/>• Carry out studies of ecology or seasonal movement patterns. These two types of data are necessary to develop sound management plans. In addition, information on species’ requirements (e.g., forage, water, range) would be helpful to ensure that other species-specific or ecosystem management plans incorporate aspects important to kiang biology.<br/>• Develop and implement mitigation management plans to reduce conflict between kiangs and domestic livestock.<br/>• Develop a protocol for disease monitoring.<br/>• Implement conservation education and awareness programs. These should be promoted amongst the army in areas where the kiang habitat comes under military jurisdiction, in order to help conserve the kiang and other wildlife. This is especially important in areas where kiang may be moving between protected, non-protected, and/or military areas.<br/>• The transboundary aspects of management of kiang need to be considered. Where possible, data sharing and management collaboration should be fostered between the park rangers and wardens who manage the same animals on either side of a border. In addition, a kiang population and habitat viability analysis would bring all the scientists and managers associated with the species on one platform to develop a conservation action plan.<br/>• A review of the management actions every three years would help to portray the true conservation status of the species as it exists in the field, and the effectiveness of the conservation measures that have been taken.	eng
7953	distribution	Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen, J. & Qureshi, Q., 2008	The distribution of this species is centred on the Tibetan Plateau between 2,700 and 5,400 m asl. Most of the distribution is in China, but the species extends into northern parts of Pakistan, India, Nepal and possibly Bhutan. Within this broad range, kiang distribution has become increasingly fragmented, and at present, most of the populations are found in protected areas or in areas under army jurisdiction.<br/><br/>In China the species is found in much of Qinghai, in southern Gansu, in southern Xinjiang, and in most of Tibet (Xizang). In Pakistan, at the westernmost edge of the species' distribution, kiang are largely restricted to a belt stretching along the Oprang and Muztagh Rivers, close to the Pakistan-China border. In India kiang occur in Ladakh area of Kashmir, and in northern Sikkim. In Nepal kiang are restricted to a few areas along the border with China. There have been no reports from Bhutan, but their presence is possible in the extreme north and northwest of the country.	eng
7953	habitat	Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen, J. & Qureshi, Q., 2008	The kiang is an animal of open terrain, mainly found in plains, alpine meadows, desert steppes, broad valleys, and hills, where grasses and sedges, are abundant (Harris and Miller 1995, Schaller 1998, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006). They reach their highest densities on the vast alpine meadows and range from 2,700 m to as high as 5,400 m (Schaller 1998). However, they also occur in desert steppe and other arid habitats, such as in the Qaidam Basin. For example, kiang are found in largest numbers in xeric, south-facing basins throughout Yeniugou (“Wild Yak valley” in Chinese) in Qinghai Province (Harris and Miller 1995). Kiang in Pakistan have been sighted along river and stream basins in patches of <em>Myricaria</em>, willow, and <em>Hippophe</em> (Rasool 1992). Major sightings in Ladakh (India) are along the Indus and Hanley Rivers and the species is very common around high altitude lakes (Shah 1996). In Xinjiang Province, in the East Arjin Shan Nature Reserve, kiang have been sighted between 3,345 m and 4,355 m during a winter survey (Shah and Huibin 2000). In south and central Tibet, were located between 4,305 and 5,431 m in September (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). In Gansu Province, sightings range from 3,400 to 4,200 m (Bleisch 1996). They have been sighted at elevations of 3,500 to 4,700 m in Ladakh (Shah 1996), while in north Sikkim (India), the major kiang sightings were in the undulating and rolling plains and meadows at an altitude of 5,100 to 5,400 m (Shah 1994).<br/><br/>As a wild equid, kiang relies on coarse but abundant forage to meet its nutrient requirements (Duncan 1992; Schaller 1998). <em>Stipa</em> spp., a common grass on the Tibetan Plateau, constitutes most of the diet of kiangs, whereas sedges are eaten occasionnaly (Shah 1994, 1997, Harris and Miller 1995; Schaller 1998). Forbs and shrubs are rarely eaten (Harris and Miller 1995, Schaller 1998). There are direct observations of kiang feeding on <em>Carex</em> spp., <em>Kobresia</em> spp., and <em>Stipa</em> spp. in Sikkim (Shah 1994, 1997). In Chang Tang, the summer diet of the kiang was approximately 65% <em>Stipa</em> spp., followed by <em>Kobresia</em> spp., <em>Carex</em> spp., <em>Poa</em> spp., and <em>Elymus</em> spp., and small amounts of a few forbs and shrubs (Schaller 1998).  In the same area, the proportion of <em>Stipa</em> in winter diets increased to > 90% (Schaller 1998).<br/><br/>No regular migration pattern has been observed in kiang (Schaller 1998). They do, however, make seasonal movements between different habitat types, often dispersing in small groups into hilly terrain in summer, and concentrating in basins and flat terrains during winter (Schaller 1998). It has been suggested that these movements are linked to the availability of relatively high-quality forage (Schaller 1998). Daily movements between flat plains and meadows and higher elevation terrain have been observed, suggesting a daily pattern of altitudinal movements (A. St-Louis, pers. obs.). In Xinjiang Province, major activity occurs along the <em>Stipa</em> meadows and in winter, mixed herds spent 50% of their time feeding with two feeding peaks per day (Shah and Huibin 2000).<br/><br/>Limited observations indicate that the social organisation of the kiang is similar to that of other wild equids living in arid conditions, such as Grévy’s zebra (<em>E. grevyii</em>), African wild ass (<em>E. africanus</em>), and Asiatic wild ass (<em>E. hemionus</em>). In this type of social organization, there are no permanent groups, and the most stable social unit is mother-foal. Males do not permanently tend groups of mares and young but are territorial, and young males often form bachelor groups (Klingel 1977). Male kiangs often show territorial behaviour, chasing intruders as they come by and occupying the same area for several months (Denzau and Denzau 1999). Males recognizable by natural marks have been observed occupying the same territory over a period of 3 years in eastern Ladakh (A. St-Louis, pers. obs.). Bachelor groups are also common (Schaller 1998, A. St-Louis pers. obs.). Kiangs normally foal in July and August (some in June and September), which is also the period of time in which females appear to come into estrus (Schaller 1998). During this season, males are often solitary and spaced in such a fashion as to appear to be territorial. Group sizes also tend to be smaller during this season. Females of the same reproductive stage are often associated. Large aggregations may form on good pasture during the fall and winter (Schaller 1998). Kiang mares have a gestation period of 355 days. Kiang are usually solitary or are found in small herds. Herds congregate on good pastures in autumn and winter, at times in herds of 300 to 400 (Schäfer 1937; Schaller 1998; Shahand Huibin 2000). More than 500 kiang were seen in one group in December 1999 (Shah and Huibin 2000).	eng
7953	population	Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen, J. & Qureshi, Q., 2008	The current global population estimate of kiang is 60,000-70,000 animals, 90% of which are in China (Shah 2002). The Chinese population is approximately 56,500-68,500 animals, of which 15,000 are in Qinghai and Gansu (Schaller 1998), 4,500-5,500 in Xinjiang (Schaller 1998, Shah and Huibin 2000), and 37,000-48,000 in Tibet (Schaller 1998). Outside China, the population is estimated at 1,600-2,145 (Shah 2002). It must be stressed, however, that these figures come from several surveys conducted using different methods, and over a period of >20 years. Also, the kiang is a trans-border species, and their propensity to make large-scale movements makes any attempt to quantify their numbers in any given area difficult (Shah 1996). Recent surveys do not allow new population estimates, but illustrate local trends that should be taken into account. For example, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2005) documented a population increase in Tibet since their surveys in the early 1990s. At this point new surveys are urgently required throughout the kiang’s distribution range. The information below provides the available data for specific regions prior to 1999 and a last section provides information on kiang surveys since 1999.<br/><br/><em>Qinghai and Gansu</em> (China)<br/>It is estimated that 15,000 kiang reside in Qinghai (Schaller 1998). The kiang population in Qinghai appears to be fragmented, and there are large areas of the province where the species is rare, particularly where the pastoralists live in greater numbers. Kiang have been almost exterminated in the eastern third of Qinghai Province and are uncommon in and around the periphery of Qaidam Basin. The southwestern part of Qinghai comprises some 100,000 km² where the highest kiang density occurs (Schaller 1998). Kiangs are mostly found in remote areas with low human population densities or, in some cases, in valleys seasonally unoccupied by pastoralists, such as the plains north of Qinghai Hu (also known as Koko Nur Lake - Foggin 2000). Kiang also extend east to Ngoring Hu and in the north across the Qaidam Basin to the Qilian Shan, but only at low densities. This is a vast tract for which no real population estimates have been made. Areas between Kunlun Pass around Wudaoliang and Tuotuohe have been surveyed for wild ungulates and had about 1,500–2,000 kiang: a density of about 0.1 animal/km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). In the Yeniugou valley in southwest of the province, Harris <em>et al</em>. (1999) estimated a population of 843 individuals in 1,051 km² in 1991, counted less than 100 in 1992, and in 1997 counted 418 kiang. In Wudaoliang, 213 kiang were seen in 2,100 km² and 1,500–2,000 were estimated in 20,000 km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). On the Qinghai-Tibet border, 510 kiang were counted in 2,736 km² (Feng 1991) and 1,000–1,500 kiang were estimated in a 75,000 km² area. Three hundred and twenty kiang were counted between March and July 1997 north of Qingha Hu, Huashixia (Maduo county) and Tuotuoheyan (Foggin 2000).<br/><br/>In Gansu, kiang were the second most commonly observed ungulate in winter when 0.255 kiang/km were encountered in a 679 km vehicle survey (Bleisch, 1996). In Yanchiwan Reserve, 58 kiang were sighted in 1985 (Schaller 1998). Kiang occur in the Aksai area adjacent to the Qinghai Boundary (R. Harris <em>in litt</em>., 1999).<br/><br/><em>Xinjiang</em> (China)<br/>In Xinjiang, the best known kiang population is in the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve (Altun Mountain Nature Reserve; Achuff and Petocz 1988). Kiang seem to be flourishing, and have replaced chirus (or Tibetan antelope, <em>Phantolops hodgsoni</em>) as the most numerous large mammal in the reserve (J. Gaw <em>in litt</em>., 1997), with a population estimate of 2,000-3,500 (Shah and Huibin, 2000). Along the southern margin of Arjin Shan (Tula Valley), 56 kiang were sighted in a 300 km drive. Numbers fluctuate with season in the Tula Valley as they travel to and from the adjoining Arjin Shan Reserve (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1991). West of Arjin Shan Reserve, 108 kiang were sighted in a 4,000 km² area (Schaller 1998). A survey of 23,000 km² in the western half of the reserve showed that most kiang were concentrated in about 5,795 km² (Achuff and Petocz 1988). Kiang were more abundant in the eastern half of the reserve, where over 1,000 kiang were sighted by Butler <em>et al</em>. (1986), whilst Feng (1991) had recorded 770 kiang in 1,030 km². These numbers were extrapolated to an estimate of 41,262 kiangs for the whole reserve (Gao and Gu (1989), which is considered much too high by Schaller (1998). The eastern Arjin Shan Nature Reserve survey in the winter of 1998 had an encounter rate of 2.56 kiang/km (333.5 km of vehicle survey; Bleisch 1999). The 1999-2000 survey had an encounter rate of 2.34 kiang/km (1,854 kiang in 792 km of travel, Shah and Huibin 2000). The western Arjin Shan Nature Reserve had a very low kiang density of 0.137/km², especially in the vicinity of gold-mining camps. Kiang numbers were estimated at 1,500 in this area of the reserve (Bleisch 1999b). Taking all the above surveys and estimates into account, Shah and Huibin (2000) derived their total kiang population of the area at 2,000-3,500 animals. Some earlier population estimates for the reserve were clearly much too high (e.g., 30,000; Butler <em>et al</em>. 1986). Elsewhere in Xinjiang, the species was last seen in the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve during the 1950s (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1987). Kiang still occur in the Aksai Chin region of Xinjiang, but there have been no surveys (Schaller 1998).<br/><br/><em>Tibet</em> (China)<br/>The largest populations of kiang in the world are in Tibet, mostly located in the northwest region of Chang Tang. Kiang occur in southern Tibet, but they are separated from the northern populations probably as a result of intensive agricultural practices and human settlements along the Tsangpo River valley (Schaller 1998). Local people reported that kiang were exterminated in most of this region between the 1960s and 1980s (Schaller 1998). Scattered populations survive along the Himalaya west of Bhutan (Schaller 1998). Kiang were sighted north of the Tibet-Sikkim border (Shah 1994). Kiang occur in the Qomolangma Reserve, but estimates are not clear, ranging from <50 up to 300 individuals (Jackson 1991; Schaller 1998). In southwestern Tibet, the kiang population is fragmented along the foothills of the Himalaya (R. Jackson pers. comm., Schaller 1998). A vehicle survey was conducted in September 2000 in south, southwest and central Tibet, covering the area between Nyalam-Lhatse-Saga-Mansarovar-Gar-Gerze-Dong Co-Coqen-Saga-PaikaTso-where 421 kiang were sighted in 2,660 km of travel (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). An encounter rate of 1.4 kiang/km was obtained between Mayumla and Mansarovar (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). Kiang were also sighted in the Gakyi, Gerze, Tsochen, and Raga areas (Shah and van Gruisen 2000). In the eastern part of their Tibet range, kiang occur around Chigo Co in three populations and others persist just south of Yamdrok Co, totaling not more than 200 animals (Schaller 1998). In the Chang Tang region, the eastern area located east of a line from Nam Co to Siling Co is now almost devoid of kiang (Schaller 1998). Kiang, however, are widely distributed and moderately common to the west and north of Siling Co, including the whole Chang Tang Nature Reserve, (Schaller 1998).They were also sighted along the road that crosses Chang Tang north to Coqen and west in Gerze and Shiquanhe (Schaller 1998). In 1990, the Aru Basin had an estimated 250 kiang in 1,800 km² (0.14/km²; Schaller and Gu 1994). Based on Schaller’s work, the number of kiang in the reserve would be between 21,743 and 28,006 in an area of 334,000 km² (or 18,488 to 23,813 in the official area of 284,000 km²). A team of Chinese scientists carried out research in the Karakoram and Kunlun Mountain systems and reported the occurrence of large herds of kiang roaming around the Memar Lake (Rasool 1992). Kiang have been reported from Phala (300 miles north-west of Lhasa) and Motsobunnyi Lake (Goldstein and Beall 1989). A concentration of 806 kiang south of Yibug Caka was sighted in October 1993 (Schaller 1998). <br/><br/><em>Outside China</em><br/>Outside China, kiang numbers are small. In India the largest populations are in eastern Ladakh, in the Jammu and Kashmir state. Historically and currently, their range encompasses the area between Rupshu and Changchenmo (Stockley 1936; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991). Although their range covers an area of 6,000 km² in Ladakh, kiang numbers have been greatly reduced in many areas (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991). Approximately 1,500 to 1,600 kiang are distributed over an estimated range of 15,000 km² in the Trans-Himalayan region with no protected areas (Chundawat and Rawat 1994). Reports state that kiang are numerous in the Eastern Plateau in Ladakh around Tso Moriri (Mallon 1991). The Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Department, Leh, conducted a census in 1988 and estimated a total of 1,500 kiang, and in 1994 counted 1,518 kiang in East Ladakh (Ladakh Wildlife Department, Jammu and Kashmir State Forest Department). An encounter rate of 1.17 kiang/km was obtained (497 kiang in 426 km) during the June 1995 survey covering areas around Pangong Tso, Chushul, Hanley, Tso Moriri, Tso Kar, and Demchok; Chumur was not surveyed due to bad weather (Shah 1996). A high encounter rate of 12.64 kiang/km was obtained along the Indus (278 kiang counted, Shah 1996), whilst 574 kiang were counted in a survey in July 2000, at an encounter rate of 0.92 kiang/km (Bhatnagar 2000). Other kiang habitats in Ladakh include the More Plains located south of the Taglang la along the Leh-Manali road (Q. Qureshi pers. comm., 1996), and Norbu Sumdo  and Korzok, south-east of Ladakh (Charudutt Mishra pers. comm., 1998). Kiang have been reported by locals from Kharnak (upper Zanskar) in Ladakh (Y.V. Bhatnagar pers. comm., 1999). According to local Lahul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) informants, kiang in small numbers have been sighted north of Kibar, along the Jammu and Kashmir/Himachal Pradesh state boundary (Y.V. Bhatnagar and C. Mishra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Elsewhere in India, the kiang population in Sikkim was recently thought to be extinct (Duncan 1992). However, two surveys conducted in 1994 and 1995 in north Sikkim confirmed their continued existence in a 200 km² area close to the Indo-Tibetan border, at an altitude between 5,100 m and 5,400 m (Shah 1994, 1997). An encounter rate of 0.54 kiang/km was obtained in a 138 km vehicle survey in this area in November 1994 (Shah 1994) A vehicle survey between May and June 1995 recorded an encounter rate of 0.092 kiang/km (26 kiang counted in 283 km, Shah 1997) The largest herd of kiang (n=48; foals were seen, but not counted) was observed across the border, west of Bamchola (Shah 1994). In 1994, the kiang population was estimated at 74–120 individuals (Shah 1994). This area has no protected status as it comes under army jurisdiction (Shah 1994, 1997)<br/><br/>The continued presence of the species in extreme northeastern Pakistan has been confirmed (Wegge 1988). An isolated population of 20 to 25 kiangs is sporadically distributed towards the easternmost boundary of the Khunjerab National Park beyond Shamshal, adjoining the area between the Aghil range and the Kunlun Mountains of Chinese Turkistan (Rasool 1992). This represents the westernmost limit of the kiang range. Kiang are restricted to a belt stretching along the Oprang and Muztagh Rivers, which form the Pakistan-China border. High altitude porters in June 1985 reported kiang sightings in Chikar, Furzin, and Muztagh Kayul Ridge (Rasool 1992). Few censuses have been conducted due to the isolation of the area and the population status remains unknown (Rasool 1992).<br/><br/>In Nepal the status of the species is still very uncertain. There are records from Chhujung in the Mustang district, Kiangchummi, Lapchagawa, and in the watershed areas of Salekhola, Yarchakhola, and Itikhola (Gurung 1999). Other potential sites for kiang in Nepal include the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, the Annapurna Conservation area and the Shey-Phoksundo National Park (Shah 2002) Sharma <em>et al</em>. (2004) reports 37 kiang in Chuksung, Upper Mustang. It is not clear whether these data refer to animals that wander across the border with China or to animals permanently living in Nepal.<br/><br/><em>Recent kiang surveys</em> (after 1999)<br/>Surveys were conducted in the eastern part of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve in an area northwest of Siling Co by Schaller <em>et al</em>. (2005) to assess changes in the wildlife populations since the early 1990s. The density of kiang was more than twice that observed in 1991, with 2,266 kiang counted in an area of 11,870 km², compared to 1,224 kiang seen over an area of 17,500 km² (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). Whether this trend can be generalized to other parts of the kiang distribution range remains unclear, but these observations suggests that there is an increase in kiang numbers within the Chang Tang Nature Reserve (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys were also conducted between 1999 and 2002 across the Chang Tang Nature Reserve to assess the influence of human presence on ungulate densities (Fox and Bårdsen 2005). These surveys revealed that kiang are well distributed across the reserve but tend to be concentrated in areas with low human presence. Kiang densities in areas with low human presence ranged from 1.06 to 1,53 individuals/km² (encounter rate = 0.13-0.23 kiang/km); whereas densities in areas with medium human presence were estimated at 0.88 individuals/km² (encounter rate = 0.06-0.16 kiang/km; Fox and Bårdsen 2005).<br/><br/>A recent winter survey crossed the northern region of the Chang Tang Nature Reserve and continued across the Kekexili Nature reserve in Qinghai to the Golmud-Lhasa highway (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007). Few kiangs were observed along the entire route, with densities less than 0.1 individuals/km². The majority of the kiang censused (48%) were seen near the end of the transect line near the Golmud-Lhasa (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In Ladakh, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated a mean density of 0.24 individuals/km² in a wide survey of Ladakh, and concentrations up to 0.56 individuals/km² in the Hanle valley. The general figure for Ladakh is thus comparable with the densities estimated in the 1980s (0.25 individuals; Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
7953	threats	Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen, J. & Qureshi, Q., 2008	The main threats to this species are potential conflicts with human presence and livestock, over-hunting, and possible disease transmission from domestic livestock. Because the status and trends of kiang populations are poorly known, it is difficult to come up with one situation that may apply to the entire kiang population and its range. It appears that there is much regional variation in their population decline or increase (Schaller 1998; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is no doubt that kiang populations have been decimated in the past, and that they are now absent or scattered in some part of their former range (Schaller 1998). During the last decade, however, successful wildlife protection measures, such as a strict control of illegal hunting, resulted in a population increase in some areas (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). But the real conservation issue for kiangs is related to conflicts with livestock herding practices. Changes in rangeland use policy are increasing the human presence and movements in key wildlife areas, along with increasing livestock numbers (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005; Fox and Tsering 2005). Rangelands in some locations are turned into private ranches owned by several families (G. B. Schaller pers. comm.), likely causing an intensification of pasture use. Rangelands are also often fenced from wildlife, which not only prevent kiang to gain access to key resources, but may also cause injuries and casual deaths (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005; Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006). It also appears that, while there may be a general perception by local communities that kiang overuse pastures on a wide scale, the real conflicts occur at local scale. For example, Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. (2006) pointed out that in Ladakh, kiang only use 10-11% of the total forage consumed, while the other 89-90% is used by livestock. Still, large concentrations of kiang may undoubtedly have an important impact on grasslands at a local scale, and appropriate management decisions may be necessary. But it should be stressed that in order to address this conflict, solutions must also be implemented at local scale.<br/><br/>More specific threats in particular parts of its range are listed below.<br/><br/>Qinghai (China): The Yeniugou valley is one of the finest and most accessible wildlife areas in Qinghai. This area has a continuing influx of Tibetan and Mongolian nomads who, unlike the nomads in Tibet, lack allocated rangelands (Harris 1993). There are plans to make this valley a hunting reserve (Schaller 1998). In 1994, 2,000 to 3,000 gold diggers from Qinghai Province moved into the Nyima area (Southern boundary of the Reserve). Oil exploration teams were also in the area at the same time. Such extractive works should be monitored to avoid damage to the environment and to control illegal hunting by oil workers and miners (Miller and Schaller 1997). Gold miners from eastern Qinghai Province first began entering the Yeniugou Valley in the late 1980s and were still using it as a transportation corridor to mining sites in 1997 (Harris <em>et al</em>. 1999). Poaching continues in some places (e.g. near Golmud), sometimes with the acceptance of nomads who perceive the kiang as a nuisance to their livestock (G. B. Schaller pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Xinjiang</em> (China): In the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve (AMNR), densities of wildlife in the north and west of Aqik Lake are very low as the area is used extensively by tractors and supply trucks travelling to and from two large gold mines within the nature reserve (Bleisch 1999b). Pastoralists have settled in the eastern part of the reserve and their domestic horses have been observed feeding with kiang in its winter range. Such use of the area needs to be analyzed and monitored, with special attention to the possibility of disease transmission.<br/><br/><em>Tibet</em> (Xizang) (China): In the Chang Tang Nature Reserve, most of the area inhabited by pastoralists is located in the southern and western part of the reserve, although human presence is increasing even in the most remote areas (Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004). Today there are between 20 and 30,000 people and >1.5 million head of livestock dependent on the rangelands of the reserve (Miller and Schaller 1997; Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fox and Tsering 2005). Changes in traditional pastoral production systems pose a danger in the Chang Tang Reserve. Remote pastoral areas that used to take months to reach on horseback and by caravan are now accessible in a few days by vehicle from Lhasa (Miller and Schaller 1997). The complex system of rotational grazing, which has succeeded in maintaining the rangelands, is being modified. Nomad groups now fence winter pastures and some have built long fences across valleys and hills to keep wildlife out, which will affect the kiang and chiru populations (Miller and Schaller 1997; Shah and Huibin 2000; Shah and van Gruisen 2000; Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2005). The current development priorities that will affect the kiang is “sedentarisation” of pastoralists. This will intensify land use and problems of overgrazing, and will increase competition for forage. Consequently, there are demands from herders to control kiang populations (Miller and Schaller 1997; Foggin 2000; Harris 2008). But since the hunting ban also prevents subsistence hunting - such as in northwest Tibet for example, where it used to be common - an intensification of rangeland use may meet the needs of the local people (Fox and Tsering 2005). In southern Tibet there may be less than 2,500 kiang. If this is a separate subspecies it will be important to carefully monitor their status (Neumann-Denzau and Denzau 2003).<br/><br/><em>Ladakh</em> (India): Approximately 215,000 domestic livestock (90% represented by sheep and goat and 10% by yaks and horses) compete with an estimated 5,000 wild ungulates (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006) in the Changthang region. Hence there is an increased pressure on the pastureland. The Jammu and Kashmir Government has encouraged nomads to keep pashmina goats for production of wool by giving incentives that will sustain their living standards. In this context, kiang are increasingly perceived as serious competitors by pastoralists and the local administration. A decreasing tolerance for kiang may thus lead to a “worsening willingness to preserve it” by local authorities (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006:935). Other disturbances also arise from, 1) road networks being established for strategic reasons; 2) the State Tourist Department planning to open up new areas in the upper Indus Valley towards the Tibetan border, allowing pilgrims to visit the holy “Mount Kailash” directly from Ladakh (Pfister 1998), which would occur through the major kiang habitats in Dungti and Fukche areas.<br/><br/><em>Sikkim</em> (India): The habitat on the Indian side of the Sikkim plateau is the only area that has water when compared to the adjacent Tibetan plateau. The Tibetan pastoralists and livestock inevitably visit the Indian side for watering during the dry period, effectively preventing the kiang from accessing water sources. The livestock could also potentially transmit diseases. Seventeen Dokpa families (nomads) have ‘Nangs’ (temporary settlements) on the Sikkim plateau (200 km²). Approximately 1,000 yaks and 1,500 sheep are dependent for grazing on the plateau areas from October to April each year, which may cause interspecific competition with kiang (Shah 1994).	eng
7960	conservation	Novellie, P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. z. zebra</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I; <span style="font-style: italic;">E. z. hartmannae</span> is listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Various authors provide an historical perspective on the conservation actions taken for Mountain Zebra (Penzhorn 1988, in press; Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). Most surviving Cape Mountain Zebra are now found in national parks (793 animals in 2006) or provincial nature reserves (596 in 2006), although the numbers on private land have also increased (165; Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). Over 90% of the current total population of 1,389 Cape Mountain Zebras are derived from animals relocated from the Mountain Zebra National Park. The management of the Cape Mountain Zebra metapopulation requires the mixing of at least some animals from the three relict populations (MZNP, Gamkaberg, and Kamanassie), all of which are genetically depauperate, although this has been hampered by the relatively slow growth of the Kamanassie population. Chadwick and Watson (2007) have proposed facilitating the growth of this population by changing the fire management regime in the habitat preferred by zebra; acquiring adjacent land; and the translocation of Mountain Zebra onto adjacent land.<br/><br/>Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra occur in four key protected areas in Namibia: Skeleton Coast Park, Etosha National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park, and Ai-Ais-Hunsberg Park complex. Namib-Naukluft Park is particularly important with a population of around 2,300 animals (1998 estimate). Around 25% of the national population in Namibia occurs on conservancies in communal lands with the remainder on commercial livestock and game farms (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). In South Africa, an estimated 280 animals occur on private properties and in the Goegap Provincial Nature Reserve. In the Northern Cape; the numbers of Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra in South Africa’s Eastern Cape and Western Cape comprise nearly one-quarter of the population of the subspecies in South Africa, and their removal and replacement with the Cape subspecies is a priority (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002, Penzhorn in press).	eng
7960	distribution	Novellie, P., 2008	Historically, Mountain Zebras occurred from the southern parts of South Africa through Namibia and into extreme south-western Angola (Penzhorn in press). Two subspecies are recognized: Cape Mountain Zebras (E. z. zebra) were widely distributed along mountain ranges forming the southern and western edge of the of the central plateau of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces of South Africa, from the Amatola Mountains in the Cathcart District westward and northward to the Kamiesberg in Namaqualand in the Northern Cape; Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras (E. z. hartmannae) occur in the mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the central plateau in Namibia, with a marginal extension into south-western Angola (Penzhorn 1988, in press). Novellie <em>et al.</em> (2002) postulate that the ranges of the two subspecies were separated by an area devoid of mountainous habitat between the northernmost point of the Cedarberg and Bokkeveldberg ranges, and the southernmost point of the Kamiesberg range.<br/><br/>Today, surviving natural populations of Cape Mountain Zebra occur only in Mountain Zebra National Park, Gamka Mountain Reserve, and the Kamanassie mountains. Populations have been reintroduced to various parts of their former range, including Karoo National Park, De Hoop Nature Reserve, Karoo Nature Reserve (recently proclaimed as the Camdeboo National Park), Commando Drift Nature Reserve, Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area, Tsolwana Nature Reserve. and Gariep Dam Nature Reserve (Lloyd 2002; Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In Namibia, the establishment of artificial waterpoints have allowed Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra to occupy previously unsuitable habitat, such that their present range differs from that in historical times. Joubert (1973) gave their range as discontinuously distributed in four populations: from Kunene Province southwards to the Ugab River and east to the Outjo District; the Erongo Mountains; on the escarpment from the Swakop River southwards to the Naukluft Mountains and eastward along the Kuiseb and Gaub drainages into the Khomas Hochland; and the Fish River Canyon and Huns Mountains near the Orange River in the south. Hartmann's Mountain Zebra are also established in three conservation areas in the Northern Cape, South Africa: Richtersveld and Augrabies National Parks and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserve.  Hartmann’s Mountain zebra may still survive in Angola, in Iona National Park(Crawford-Cabral and Verissimo 2005). Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have also been introduced outside of their range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
7960	habitat	Novellie, P., 2008	Mountain Zebra inhabit rugged, broken mountainous and escarpment areas up to around 2,000 m with a rich diversity of grass species and perennial water sources (Penzhorn in press). They are predominantly grazers, only browsing if forced to do so. The typical social structure is one of small harems comprising an adult stallion and one to three (maximum five) mares and their dependent foals; non-breeding groups consist primarily of bachelors, but sometimes include young fillies (Penzhorn in press).	eng
7960	population	Novellie, P., 2008	In 1998, the number of Cape Mountain Zebras had increased from <100 animals in the 1950s to about 1,200 individuals, with the largest population (reintroduced), estimated to number 250 in 1998, in the Karoo National Park (Lloyd 2002; Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). The average annual rate of increase of the entire Cape Mountain Zebra population from 1985 to 1995 was 8.6% (Novellie <em>et al.</em> 1996), and from 1995 to 1998, 9.6% (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). From 1998 to 2006 there has been a steady increase in the populations of Cape Mountain Zebras from 1003 to 1389 in National Parks and Provincial Nature reserves. In 1998, there were approximately 165 Cape Mountain Zebra on private lands; more recent figures are not available. Hence, the Cape Mountain Zebra population in South Africa has been steadily increasing since the 1980s. The current population size is estimated to be more than 1,500 individuals (ca. 500 mature) (Mountain Zebra Working Group pers. comm., R. Smith 2008).<br/><br/>In 1998, the Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras population was estimated to number about 25,000, or approximately 8,300 mature individuals (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). Limited data from Namibia indicates that populations are increasing on communal lands in the north-western part of the country (G. Stuart-Hill pers. comm. 2008); from 2000 to 2006, numbers have increased from 6 to 27 individuals observed per 100 km of road surveyed. However, there is no information on the status of populations of Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra in the protected, private and communal areas in the rest of Namibia (and see Major Threats).	eng
7960	threats	Novellie, P., 2008	Cape Mountain Zebra were once extensively hunted for their skins, because they competed with livestock for grazing, and allegedly because they broke fences (Penzhorn 1988). Today, however, the greatest threat to the Cape subspecies may stem from the risk of crossing with Hartmann's Mountain Zebra, which are introduced to the Eastern and Western Cape.<br/><br/>The most important threat to Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras in Namibia is livestock production and farming activities such as fencing that prevent access to water. Increasingly sophisticated farming could further disrupt movements through fencing or by preventing access to surface water (Novellie <em>et al.</em> 2002). The risk of hybrization in Hartmann's Mountain Zebra is minimal, given that only a single subspecies occurs in Namibia and the fact that importation of Mountain Zebras of either subspecies has never been permitted (Novellie <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>In Namibia, there is commercial trade in Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra skins. Populations need to be carefully monitored so that harvesting does not adversely affect population viability. Hartmann's Mountain Zebra are reportedly being harvested at a rate of about 2,000-3,000 per year, which may exceed their rate of population growth (e.g., Cape Mountain Zebra in Gamka Mountain Nature Reserve increase at about 5% per year; Watson <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
7961	conservation	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	Przewalski's Horse is legally protected in Mongolia. It is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000). Hunting has been prohibited since 1930, and the species is listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Critically Endangered in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997), and in the Regional Red List for Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The taxon’s entire re-introduced range in Mongolia is within protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are in place:<br/>• An International Studbook was produced in 1959, followed in the 1970s by establishment of the North American Breeders Group, which developed into the Species Survival Plan for the Przewalski’s Horse. The European Endangered Species Programme for this species was accepted in 1986. Many countries now cooperate in these programmes to minimise inbreeding and retain genetic diversity in their horse populations.<br/>• There are three ongoing reintroduction sites in Mongolia.<br/>• There have been several workshops of stakeholders involved in the reintroduction of Przewalski’s Horse to Mongolia.<br/>• The Status and Action Plan for the Przewalski’s Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) was produced in 2002 (see Wakefield <em>et al</em>. 2002), and provides a more detailed account of the history and ongoing conservation efforts surrounding the species.<br/>• All three reintroduction sites are fully monitoring their populations and are integrating community livelihood support into their projects.<br/><br/>Conservation measures required:<br/>• The health of wild and domestic horses should be monitored for disease  (Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2005). Standardized techniques should be used to monitor health, fecundity, mortality, habitat utilisation and social organisation of all populations (Wakefield <em>et al</em>. 2002), and contact between Przewalski’s Horses and domestic horses should be kept to a minimum.<br/>• A single population management approach should be developed.<br/>• Mongolia currently has the only wild population and an action plan is needed for the country. <br/>• The genealogy of all horses in Mongolia should be established based on individual micro-satellite data to monitor inbreeding levels, identify hybrids and plan for necessary movements of horses between reintroduction centres to maximise genetic diversity.<br/>• An authoritative government protocol for hybrids should be developed, to be established before hybridization occurs, and to be made available in each re-introduction centre and to local people (King and Gurnell 2005).<br/>• Further communication and cooperation between all re-introduction centres would be beneficial.<br/>• Further training and post-graduate education of staff and biologists involved with this conservation work.	eng
7961	distribution	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	The last wild population of Przewalski’s Horses survived until recently in southwestern Mongolia and adjacent Gansu, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia (China). Wild Horses were last seen in 1969, north of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989).<br/><br/>Since the 1990s, reintroduction efforts have started in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and Ukraine; Mongolia is the only country where truly wild reintroduced populations exist within its historic range. Reintroductions in Mongolia began in Takhin Tal Nature Reserve in the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (9,000 km²) and Hustai National Park in Mongol Daguur Steppe (570 km²) in 1994 (King and Gurnell 2005). A third reintroduction site, Khomiin Tal, (2,500 km²), in the Great Lakes Depression, was established in 2004, as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur National Park in Valley of the Lakes (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All living Wild Horses belong to the subspecies <em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>. The first visual account of Przewalski’s-type Wild Horses date from more than 20,000 years ago. Rock engravings, paintings, and decorated tools dating from the late Gravetian to the late Magdalenian (20,000–9,000 BC), were discovered in caves in Italy, southern France, and northern Spain; 610 of these were horse figures (Leroi-Gourhan 1971). Many cave drawings in France show horses that look like Przewalski’s horse (Mohr 1971). In prehistoric times, the species probably roamed widely over the steppes of central Asia, China, and Europe (Ryder 1990). The first written accounts originate from Tibet, recorded by the monk Bodowa, who lived around 900 AD. In the “Secret History of the Mongols”, there is also a reference to Wild Horses that crossed the path of Chinggis Khaan during his campaign against Tangut in 1226, causing his horse to rear and throw him to the ground (Bokonyi 1974). That the Wild Horse was a prestigious gift, denoting its rarity or that it was difficult to catch, is shown by the presentation of a Przewalski’s Horse to the emperor of Manchuria by Chechen-Khansoloj-Chalkaskyden, an important Mongolian, circa 1630 (Zevegmid and Dawaa 1973). In a Manchurian dictionary of 1771, Przewalski’s Horse is mentioned as “a wild horse from the steppe” (Dovchin 1961).<br/><br/>Przewalski’s Horse was not described in Linnaeus’s “Systema Naturae” (1758) and remained largely unknown in the West until first mentioned by John Bell, a Scottish doctor who travelled in the service of Tsar Peter the Great in 1719–1722 (Mohr 1971). His account of the expedition, “A Journey from St Petersburg to Peking”, was published in 1763. Bell and subsequent observers all located horses known at that time within the area of 85–97° E and 43–50° N (Chinese-Mongolian border). Wild Horses were reported again from what is now China by Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewalski, an eminent explorer, at the end of the nineteenth century. He made several expeditions by order of Tsar Alexander the Second of Russia to central Asia, aiming to reach Tibet. While returning from his second expedition in central Asia, he was presented with the skull and hide of a horse shot about 80 km north of Gutschen on the Chinese-Russian border. The remains were examined at the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Science in St Petersburg by I.S. Poliakov, who concluded that they were a wild horse, which he gave the official name <em>Equus przewalskii</em> (Poliakov 1881). Further reports came from the brothers Grigory and Michael Grum-Grzhimailo, who travelled through western China from 1889–1890. In 1889, they discovered a group in the Gashun area and shot four horses: three stallions, and a mare. The four hides and the skulls of the three stallions, together with an incomplete skeleton, were sent back to the Zoological Museum in St. Petersburg. They were able to observe the horses from a short distance and gave the following account: ‘Wild horses keep in bands of no more than ten, each herd having a dominant stallion. There are other males, too, but they are young and, judging by the hide of the two-year old colt that we killed, the dominant male treats them very cruelly. In fact, the hide showed traces of numerous bites’ (Grum-Grzhimailo 1982). Current scientific review of the taxonomy of wild equids (Groves 1986) places Przewalski’s Horse as a subspecies of <em>Equus ferus</em>.	eng
7961	habitat	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	Przewalski’s Horse formerly inhabited steppe and semi-desert habitats, as most of this range became degraded or was occupied by livestock, the species became restricted to semi-desert habitats with limited water resources (Van Dierendonck and de Vries, 1996). Lowland steppe vegetation was preferentially selected by horses at Hustai National Park and seasonal movements are affected by the availability of the most nutritious vegetation (King and Gurnell, 2005).<br/><br/>Because the historic range is not precisely known, there has been much debate about the areas in which Przewalski’s Horses were last seen: was it merely a last refuge or was it representative of the typical/preferred habitat? The Mongolia Takhi Strategy and Plan Work Group (MTSPWG 1993) concluded that the historic range may have been wider but that the Dzungarian Gobi, where they were last seen, was not a marginal site to which the species retreated. Although grass and water are more available in other parts of Mongolia, these areas often have much harsher winters. Of all the wild equid species, Przewalski’s Horse is the one with the most eastern distribution and was most likely well-adapted to the arid steppe of the Dzungarian Gobi (Zimmermann 1999).<br/><br/>An alternative viewpoint of the desert-steppe controversy is that the Eurasian steppe should be considered the Wild Horse's optimal habitat (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). This would suggest that Przewalski’s Horses were forced into sub-optimal ranges such as the arid Gobi, as the more favourable steppe region was colonised by nomadic pastoralist people over several millennia. Studies of feral horses have shown that they are able to live and reproduce in semi-desert habitats but their survival and reproductive success is clearly sub-optimal compared to feral horses on more mesic grassland (Berger 1986). Van Dierendonck and de Vries (1996) suggest that the Wild Horse is primarily a steppe herbivore that can survive under arid conditions when there is access to waterholes.	eng
7961	population	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	There are now approximately 325 free-ranging re-introduced and native-born Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia (January 2008). All Przewalski’s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding programme (Bowling and Ryder 1987). Introgression of domestic horse blood happened not only in Halle (#229 dom.Mongol), but also in Askania Nova (#175 Domina; Bowling <em>et al</em>. 2003). Between 1992 and 2004, 90 captive-born horses were transported to the Takhin Tal/Gobi B reintroduction site in Mongolia (ITG International Takhi Group, Zimmermann 2008). A further three males were translocated from Hustai National Park to Takhin Tal in 2007 (Zimmermann 2008). There are currently 111 free-ranging horses in nine groups within this population (Zimmermann 2008, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007).  From 1992 to 2000, 84 horses were brought to Hustai National Park by the Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse and Mongolian Association for Conservation of Nature and the Environment (MACNE) from reserves in Europe (King and Gurnell 2005). As of 1 January 2008 this population totalled approximately 192 individuals in 24 harems with 33 bachelor males (Zimmerman 2008). A third reintroduction site was started in 2004 at Seriin Nuruu in the Khomiin Tal buffer zone of the Khar Us Nuur National Park in western Mongolia (Association pour le cheval de Przewalski: TAKH). Twenty-two individuals consisting of four pre-established families and one male bachelor group were brought from Le Villaret, France between 2004 and 2005 (C. Feh pers. comm., Zimmermann 2008). For the reintroduced population in Mongolia mature individuals are those that are five years of age, however, individuals born in captivity do not count as mature until they have reproduced in the wild and that offspring is at least five years old. As of 2006 there were 55 mature individuals in the wild (52 (M.F 26.26) in Hustai, 3 (1.2) in Takhin Tal). In 2007 Hustai had 68 (33.35) mature individuals that had been born in Mongolia and Takhin Tal had 11 (3.8). <br/><br/>In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) of the Department of Forestry at Kalameili Nature Reserve (KNR) in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region has established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski’s Horses (January 2008, Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006, Zimmermann <em>et al</em>. 2007). Since 2007 one harem group is roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi (Xinjiang); another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter (Zimmermann <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>The history of population estimates and trends in Przewalski’s Horse has been described by Wakefield <em>et al</em>. (2002). Since the ‘rediscovery’ of the Przewalski’s Horse for western science, western zoos and wild animal parks became interested in this species for their collections. Several long expeditions were mounted to catch animals. Some expeditions came back empty-handed and some had only seen a glimpse of wild Przewalski’s Horse. It proved difficult to catch adult horses, because they were too shy and fast. Capture of foals, with possible killing of the adult harem members, was considered the only option (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Four expeditions that managed to catch live foals took place between 1897 and 1902. Fifty-three of these foals reached the west alive. Between the 1930s and the 1940s only a few Przewalski’s Horses were caught and most died. At least one mare was crossbred with domestic horses by the Mongolian War Ministry (Bouman and Bouman 1994).<br/><br/>Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in an area between the Baitag-Bogdo ridge and the ridge of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu (which, translated from Mongolian, means “the Yellow Mountain of the Wild Horse”), but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 by the Mongolian scientist N. Dovchin. He saw a stallion near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989). Annual investigations by the Joint Mongolian-Soviet Expedition have since failed to find conclusive evidence for their survival in the wild (Ryder 1990). Chinese biologists conducted a survey in northeastern Xinjiang from 1980 to 1982 (covering the area of 88–90° E and 41°31'–47°10' N) without finding any horses (Gao and Gu 1989). The last native wild populations had disappeared.<br/><br/>The number of living animals in the International Studbook was 1,872 in early 2008. Of the 53 animals recorded in the Studbook as having been brought into zoological collections in the west, only 12 contributed any genes to the current living population. Of these, 11 were brought into captivity between 1899 and 1902 and the last of them died in 1939. The twelfth founder was captured as a foal in 1947. The thirteenth founder was born in 1906 in Halle (Germany) to a wild-caught stallion and a domestic Mongolian mare, and the fourteenth founder is a female born in Askania Nova (Ukraine) to a Przewalski’s Horse stallion and a domestic female of a Tarpan type. Nevertheless, the current population is genetically very close to the original wild horses (Bowling <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition to animals held in captivity and those already re-introduced, there have been a number of animals released into very large enclosures (reserves). The four largest are in Le Villaret (21.16; Massif Central, France), Buchara (19.17.1; Uzbekistan), the Hortobágy-National Park (45.44; Hungary), and the Chernobyl exclusion zone (32.35; Ukraine) (information as of January 2008, Zimmermann pers. comm.).	eng
7961	threats	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	A number of causes have been cited for the final extinction of Przewalski’s Horses in Mongolia and China. Among these are significant cultural and political changes (Bouman and Bouman 1994), hunting (Zhao and Liang 1992, Bouman and Bouman 1994), military activities (Ryder 1993), climatic change (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1992), and competition with livestock and increasing land use pressure (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ryder 1993, Bouman and Bouman 1994). Capture expeditions probably diminished the remaining Przewalski’s Horse populations by killing and dispersing the adults (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). The harsh winters of 1945, 1948, and 1956 probably had an additional impact on the small population (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Increased pressure on, and rarity of waterholes in their last refuge should also be considered as a significant factor contributing to their extinction (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996).<br/><br/>For the reintroduced populations, hybridization with domestic horses is the primary threat, accompanied by competition for resources with domestic horses and possibly other livestock. Wherever Przewalski's Horses come into contact with domestic horses, there is a strong risk of hybridization and transmission of diseases. In Hustai National Park, it has been noted that overgrazing of the buffer-zone and continued pressure on the reserve are possible consequences of the enhanced economic activity in this area (Bouman 1998); however, the second phase of the project (1998-2003) paid much more attention to sustainable development of the buffer-zone. In the western section of the Gobi National Park (Gobi B), habitat degradation by nomads and military personnel and their livestock continues; there is no core zone here that is free from human influence all year round. Infectious diseases transmitted from domestic horses, notably <em>Babesia equi</em>, <em>B. caballi</em> and strangles (infection by <em>Streptococcus equi</em>), are a major threat to small reintroduced populations originating from zoos (Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2005, King and Gurnell 2005). Predation on foals by wolves may account for a significant number of mortalities and constitutes a threat to the population growth and continued survival of this taxon (Wit and Bouman 2006, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007).<br/><br/>There is concern over loss of genetic diversity after being reduced to a very small population and maintained in captivity for several generations. Sixty per cent of the unique genes of the studbook population have been lost (Ryder 1994). Loss of founder genes is irretrievable and further losses must be minimised through close genetic management. Furthermore, inbreeding depression could become a population-wide concern as the population inevitably becomes increasingly inbred (Ballou 1994). However, correct management of the population can slow these losses significantly, as has been achieved since the organization of the regional captive-breeding programmes.	eng
7980	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
7980	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Pyrenees between 1,500 and 2,500m; in Spain particularly, at altitudes higher than 2,000 m in the central part of the Pyrenees. This is a European endemic species.	eng
7980	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Gavarnie Ringlet is found on screes with patches of grassy vegetation and on steep, grassy slopes. Meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) are the main foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).	eng
7980	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
7980	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
7982	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
7982	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the south of Europe: in France in the southeast of the Massif Central (Ardèche, Cévennes), in northeast Italy (vicinity Lago di Garda) and in Southeast Europe from the southwestern part of Croatia, the south of Bosnia and of Serbia to central Greece. 800-2,600 m (mostly 1,400-2,000 m). It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
7982	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the mountains, the Ottoman Brassy Ringlet occurs on slopes and level ground with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, it is found in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and other fine-leaved grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), screes (11%).	eng
7982	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
7982	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
7983	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat.	eng
7983	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the southeast of France (from Drôme and Vaucluse to the French Alps) and in the bordering Italian Alps.&#160; Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
7983	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Larche Ringlet inhabits steep screes and rocky slopes of limestone with sparse grassy vegetation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
7983	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
7983	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
7984	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
7984	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in the central Spanish and French Pyrenees. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
7984	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Dewy Ringlet looks very like the Dewy Ringlet (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. pandrose</span>) but, as far as it is known, the two species do not occur in the same habitat type. This species mostly occurs on steep, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on various meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) and fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). It has one generation a year has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).	eng
7984	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
7984	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
7993	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found in warm springs.	eng
7994	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected area in South Africa, but will be protected by the proposed Groen-Spoeg National Park if this is established. In Namibia, this species occurs in the Namib Desert National Park. Research is needed to clarify the systematic status of the two subspecies; consistent morphological differences correspond with a major barrier to gene flow (Orange River).	eng
7994	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Confined to the west coast of southern Africa, from St. Helena Bay (Western Cape, South Africa) northwards to Walvis Bay (Namibia).	eng
7994	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Strandveld, Succulent Karoo and Namib Desert. Prefers soft, shifting sands of dunes but also present in inter-dune swales with quite dense vegetation providing sand is not too consolidated. Areas containing scattered clumps of the dune grass (<em>Aristida sabulicola</em>) are the preferred habitat for this species in South Africa. The young are thought to be born in tunnels constructed by this species, but it lacks a proper burrow system; resting sites are usually under vegetation. It is a nocturnal surface forager of termites, but also other invertebrates and small lizards. The home ranges of individual <em>E. granti</em> overlap, but they are solitary and tend to avoid each other when feeding (Fielden <em>et al</em> 1990, 1992)	eng
7994	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Densities are low owing to the arid, energy-sparse conditions of their environment, especially in the Namib Desert. Adults solitary, but tracks of several individuals have been found in the same area on the same night suggesting that a certain amount of home range overlap is tolerated.	eng
7994	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Habitat fragmentation by dune removal and diamond mining may have impacted on populations in parts of this species' range.	eng
7995	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
7995	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	From Karakum desert near Aral sea and western part of Uzboi to Ashgabat, Mary, western parts of Bukhara oasis, SE Kyzylkum and Chuya Moinykum. Isolated population in S Balkhash basin.	eng
7995	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit sandy deserts, mainly in matted and hillocky sands. In southern part of the range prefers vast sand massifs, in northern part prefers small sand areas separated by takyrs and salines. Sometimes found at oasis borders. Permanent summer and winter burrows ae on open speces, while shelter burrows are usually under bushes. Burrows are usually up to 60 cm deep (up to 80 in Balkhash region), with many exits. Feed mainly on seeds, except spring (April - May), when green plant parts are significant part of the diet. Hibernation is up to 6 months. One litter per year, 3-8 young per litter.	eng
7995	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Usually not abundant, up to 3 individuals per ha in Balkhash Basin, but more abundant in Kyzylkum. Population size fluctuates, rapidly decreasing once in 10-12 years.	eng
7995	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
8004	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Emmons, L. & Timm, R., 2008	North American porcupine habitat falls within several protected areas within Canada, the U.S., and Mexico which has allowed the species to reestablish its populations.	eng
8004	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Emmons, L. & Timm, R., 2008	Southern half of Canada, and northern and western United States, as well as scattered populations elsewhere in the eastern U.S. On the northern boundary of Mexico from the lower-middle Baja Peninsula east to the eastern border of mainland Mexico in a relatively straight line, but not in Baja or the Yucatan (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
8004	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Emmons, L. & Timm, R., 2008	Porcupines are found in a variety of habitats including dense forests, tundra, grasslands and desert shrub communities. <br/><br/>The diet is also generalized, but shows a marked difference between winter and summer seasons. Winter foods are primarily the bark, cambium and phloem of trees such as eastern and western hemlock, sugar maple, and Douglas fir. Porcupines will often feed heavily on a single tree, causing extensive damage or death. In the spring the diet shifts as porcupines begin feeding on roots, steams, leaves, berries, seeds and grasses. This species is primarily nocturnal and does not hibernate (Woods 1973). <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs during fall or early winter. Following a relatively long gestation, females give birth to one young in spring or early summer. Litters of more than 1 are uncommon (Woods 1973). An individual North American porcupine may have as many as 30,000 quills, measuring 7.5 cm long, which are used for defense purposes. Typical defense behavior is backing up towards the predator, swinging the tail, which has a high concentration of quills.	eng
8004	population	Linzey, A.V., Emmons, L. & Timm, R., 2008	The North American porcupine is common and widespread. Local population densities range from 1 individual/km<sup>2</sup> - 9.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, with cyclical population peaks every 12-20 years (Woods 1973).	eng
8004	threats	Linzey, A.V., Emmons, L. & Timm, R., 2008	No major threats to the species as a whole. <br/><br/>However, because of the damage caused to property, including trees, crops and car tires, porcupines are often hunted or trapped. In Mexico, it is considered in danger of extinction due to hunting (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). More effective population controls may be the management of a healthy population of fishers, the porcupine's main predator. Mortality is also known to be caused by collisions with automobiles (Woods 1973).	eng
8005	conservation	Mortimer, J.A & Donnelly, M., 2008	<p>The measures briefly described below are dealt with in greater detail in the Regional Overviews (see attached PDF).</p>  <ul><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Treaties      and Agreements.</u><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; Hawksbills benefit globally      from inclusion in CITES, the Convention on International Trade in      Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (listed on Appendix I) and <st1:stockticker u4:st="on">CMS</st1:stockticker>,<strong>      </strong>the Convention on Migratory Species (listed on Appendices I and      II).&#160; Regional agreements also help to conserve Hawksbills and their      habitats (see Regional Summaries, Appendix II).</li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Public      Awareness.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160;Interest      in Hawksbills and other species of marine turtles is at an all-time high      around the world.&#160; Interest in ecotourism is growing.</li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Capacity      building.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> &#160;</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Increasing      numbers of biologists and conservationists focusing on sea turtles around      the world<strong> </strong>benefit hawksbills.</span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Protected      Areas.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; </strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Nesting      and foraging sanctuaries protect Hawksbills although effective enforcement      remains an elusive goal in many.</li><li><span times="" new="" roman=""></span><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Legislation and Enforcement.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; </strong>Numerous<strong> </strong>countries have temporarily or permanently banned all exploitation of sea turtles and their eggs and are attempting to improve enforcement of international bans on the tortoiseshell trade.</li></ul>	eng
8005	distribution	Mortimer, J.A & Donnelly, M., 2008	<p>The Hawksbill has a circumglobal distribution throughout tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place>. Hawksbills are migratory and individuals undertake complex movements through geographically disparate habitats during their lifetimes. Hawksbill nesting occurs in at least 70 countries, although much of it now only at low densities. Their movements within the marine environment are less understood, but Hawksbills are believed to inhabit coastal waters in more than 108 countries (Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989, Baillie and Groombridge 1996; see Regional Overviews in attached PDF).</p>	eng
8005	habitat	Mortimer, J.A & Donnelly, M., 2008	<p><strong>Habitats </strong></p>  <p>Hawksbills nest on insular and mainland sandy beaches throughout the tropics and subtropics. They are highly migratory and use a wide range of broadly separated localities and habitats during their lifetimes (for review see Witzell 1983). Available data indicate that newly emerged hatchlings enter the sea and are carried by offshore currents into major gyre systems where they remain until reaching a carapace length of some 20 to 30 cm. At that point they recruit into a neritic developmental foraging habitat that may comprise coral reefs or other hard bottom habitats, sea grass, algal beds, or mangrove bays and creeks (Musick and Limpus 1997) or mud flats (R. von Brandis unpubl. data). As they increase in size, immature Hawksbills typically inhabit a series of developmental habitats, with some tendency for larger turtles to inhabit deeper sites (van Dam and Diez 1997, Bowen <em>et al.</em> 2007). Once sexually mature, they undertake breeding migrations between foraging grounds and breeding areas at intervals of several years (Witzell 1983, Dobbs <em>et al.</em> 1999, Mortimer and Bresson 1999). Global population genetic studies have demonstrated the tendency of female sea turtles to return to breed at their natal rookery (Bowen and Karl 1997), even though as juveniles they may have foraged at developmental habitats located hundreds or thousands of kilometers from the natal beach. While Hawksbills undertake long migrations, some portion of immature animals may settle into foraging habitats near their beaches of origin (Bowen <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Roles in the Ecosystem</strong>&#160;&#160; </p>  Like other species of sea turtles, Hawksbills contribute to marine and coastal food webs and transport nutrients within the oceans (Bouchard and Bjorndal 2000).&#160; Hawksbills are important components of healthy coral reef ecosystems and are primarily spongivorous in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> (Meylan 1988), but more omnivorous in the Indo-Pacific (review by Bjorndal 1997). They consume relatively large amounts of algae in northern Australia (Whiting 2000 cited in S. Whiting in litt. to J. Mortimer 4 Jun 2007), soft corals in the Great Barrier Reef region (C. Limpus unpublished data), and other combinations of forage depending on habitat (in Seychelles, J. Mortimer and R. von Brandis unpublished data; in Barbados, B. Krueger unpublished data). At sites where they are primarily spongivorous, Hawksbills have been found to support healthy reefs by controlling sponges which would otherwise out-compete reef-building corals for space (Hill 1998, León and Bjorndal 2002, Bjorndal and Jackson 2003).	eng
8005	population	Mortimer, J.A & Donnelly, M., 2008	<p><strong>Generation Length</strong></p>  <p>Generation length is defined as the age to maturity plus one half the reproductive longevity (Pianka 1974). Hawksbills mature very slowly, taking 20 to 40 years, and so are long-lived (Chaloupka and Musick 1997). In the Caribbean and <st1:place w:st="on">Western Atlantic</st1:place>, Hawksbills may mature in 20 or more years (Boulon 1983, 1994; Diez and van Dam 2002; Krueger <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt</span><em>.</em> 2006). Age to maturity in the Indo-Pacific requires a minimum of 30-35 years (Limpus 1992; Limpus and Miller 2000; Mortimer <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2003). In northeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, first breeding is estimated to occur at 31-36 years for females and 38 years for males (Limpus and Miller 2000). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Data on reproductive longevity in Hawksbills are limited, but becoming available with increasing numbers of intensively monitored, long-term projects on protected beaches.&#160; During the last decade, numerous individual <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> Hawksbills have been recorded actively nesting over a period of 14-22 years (C.E. Diez <em>in litt</em>. 2006, Z. Hillis-Starr <em>in litt.</em> 2006, Parrish and Goodman 2006). In the Indo-Pacific&#160; Mortimer and Bresson (1999) and Limpus (1992) have reported nesting over 17-20 years, comparable to other Chelonid turtles which range from 20 to 30 years (Carr <em>et al.</em> 1978, FitzSimmons <em>et al.</em> 1995). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Given estimated ages to maturity of 25 years in the Caribbean and 35 years in the Indo-Pacific, with half of reproductive longevity estimated at 10 years, a conservative generation length of 35 years (25 + 10 years) is calculated for the Caribbean and Western Atlantic, and 45 years (35 + 10 years) in the Indo-Pacific. In analyzing the data, declines over three generations are therefore measured for up to 105 years in the Caribbean and <st1:place w:st="on">Western Atlantic</st1:place> and up to 135 years in the Indo-Pacific. In fact, generation length may well have been longer in the days when population density was higher (Bjorndal <em>et al.</em> 2000).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Nesting Population Size and Fecundity</strong></p>  <p>Sea turtle population trends are best diagnosed using in-water abundance estimates coupled with estimates of demographic parameters such as survival and recruitment possibilities (Chaloupka and Limpus 2001, Bjorndal <em>et al. </em>2005). However, these data rarely exist for sea turtle populations and so most assessments are based on evaluating nesting trends, which assumes a close correlation between population trends and nesting activity (Bjorndal <em>et al.</em> 2005).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  For this assessment the size of a nesting population is defined as the average number of individual females nesting per year. In some cases, population numbers can be determined by saturation tagging of nesting females or by recording the total number of slaughtered nesters. More often, however, population estimates need to be derived from records of the total number of egg clutches laid during a season. Saturation tagging of nesting females indicates that at most sites the average female Hawksbill lays between three and five egg clutches during a single nesting season (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 1999, Mortimer and Bresson 1999), with indications that newly recruited females lay fewer egg clutches (Mortimer and Bresson 1999, Beggs <em>et al.</em> 2006), and possibly fewer clutches in the Arabian/Persian Gulf (Pilcher 1999). Following the pattern of earlier status reviews, the present assessment calculates the annual number of nesting females by dividing the total number of egg clutches recorded, by three to five to produce a bracketed population estimate.<br/><br/>    <p><strong>Population Trends and Conclusions</strong></p>  <p>In many parts of the world, Hawksbill populations have continued to decline since the publication of the previous Red List Assessment (Meylan and Donnelly 1999). Continuing losses in <st1:place w:st="on">southeast  Asia</st1:place> are of particular concern. Hawksbills face multiple, severe threats. The volume of the tortoiseshell trade has diminished, yet it remains active and substantial, and the Japanese bekko industry remains intact.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In 2001 the IUCN Red List Standards and Petitions Subcommittee upheld the Critically Endangered listing of the Hawksbill, based on ongoing and long-term declines in excess of 80% within the time frame of three generations and ongoing exploitation (IUCN 2001b). The Subcommittee review cited “convincing evidence of reductions in excess of 80% over the last three generations at many, if not most of the important breeding sites throughout the global range of the species”. Not surprisingly, those declines reflect the intensity of the tortoiseshell trade in the 20<sup>th</sup> Century. Although some relatively large populations still exist, especially in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, this is not inconsistent with long-term global or even regional population reduction over three generations (a point noted by the Subcommittee). Unlike previous reviews of the status of the Hawksbill, the present assessment is quantitative and provides a numerical basis for the global listing of the species as Critically Endangered<em>.</em> The 2001 findings of the IUCN Red List Standards and Petitions Subcommittee are as valid today as they were six years ago.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The current assessment clearly demonstrates the importance of protection in both terrestrial and marine habitats. With protection, some populations have stabilized, and others are now increasing, most notably in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place>. The increases documented in the Caribbean coincide with dramatic reductions in take on the foraging grounds of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cuba</st1:country-region></st1:place> which have, in effect, spared tens of thousands of large Hawksbills since the early 1990s. Such increases provide hope for the future, but unfortunately are still the exception rather than the rule. Similar results are needed elsewhere.</p>	eng
8005	threats	Mortimer, J.A & Donnelly, M., 2008	<p><strong>Threats:&#160; <u1:p></u1:p></strong></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">The most important threats to Hawksbill turtles, described here, are dealt with in greater detail in the section entitled Regional Overview (see attached PDF).<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <ul><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Tortoiseshell      Trade.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </strong><span times="" new="" roman="">R<span times="" new="" roman="">ecent and historical tortoiseshell      trade statistics are key to understanding the enormous and enduring effect      that trade has had on Hawksbill populations around the world (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5, PAC-Table 5 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF). Within the last 100 years, millions of Hawksbills have      been killed for the tortoiseshell markets of Europe, the <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">United States</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Asia</st1:place></st1:place>. The global plight of the      Hawksbill in the latter half of the 20th Century has been      recognized by the inclusion of the species in the most threatened category      of IUCN’s Red List since 1968 and the listing of all Hawksbill populations      on Appendix I of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in      Endangered Species, since 1977. Nevertheless, trade continued at exceptionally      high levels for years as major trading countries acceded to CITES and      Japan, the world’s largest consumer of bekko (tortoiseshell), continued to      import shell under a CITES reservation (exception) until 1993. During the period 1950-1992, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>’s      bekko imports were the equivalent of 1,329,044 large turtles (1,408,787      kg). Conservatively estimating&#160;that&#160;30% of the      turtles&#160;taken&#160;for the trade were&#160;nesting      females,&#160;nearly 400,000 adult female Hawksbills were killed for the Japanese      market&#160;in those years, a time frame that approximates a single      Hawksbill generation. Significant domestic trade in Hawksbill      products continues to be a major problem in many countries and, despite      international and domestic prohibitions and the lessening of the volume in      the last decade, trade remains an ongoing and pervasive threat in the      Americas and southeast Asia (Fleming 2001, Chacón 2002, TRAFFIC Southeast      Asia 2004, van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, Brautigam and Eckert 2006).<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Egg      Collection.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Intense      levels of egg exploitation continue in many parts of the world (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table 7 in      attached PDF), especially <st1:place u2:st="on">southeast Asia</st1:place>,      where it approaches 100% in many areas (see PAC-Tables 4 and 5 in attached      PDF).<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Slaughter      for Meat.</u><span times="" new="" roman=""> Adult and juvenile      Hawksbills are still killed for meat in many areas (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5, PAC-Table 5 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF).&#160; In some places the meat is used by fishermen as      shark bait (J. Mortimer unpubl. data, C. Lagueux, unpubl. data). Fishermen who target lobster and reef fish will commonly take whatever      hawksbills they encounter (Carr and Meylan 1980).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Destruction      of Nesting Habitat.</u><span times="" new="" roman=""> Tropical coastlines are      rapidly being developed for tourism which often leads to destruction of      nesting habitat (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5, PAC-Table 5 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF). Because Hawksbills prefer to nest under      vegetation they are particularly impacted by beach-front development and      clearing of dune vegetation. Daytime nesting Hawksbills in the      <st1:place w:st="on">Western Indian Ocean</st1:place> are particular      sensitive to disturbance from human activity on the coast and in nearshore      waters (Mortimer 2004). In other parts of the world such as the      Middle East and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Western        Australia</st1:place></st1:state> gas and oil refineries seriously      disrupt nesting habitat (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5 and PAC-Table 5 in attached PDF).<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Destruction      of Foraging Habitat.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Hawksbills      are typically associated with coral reefs, which are among the world’s      most endangered marine ecosystems (Wilkinson 2000). Climate change      has led to massive coral bleaching events with permanent consequences for      local habitats (Sheppard 2006) (<st1:stockticker u2:st="on">see IND</st1:stockticker>-Table      5, PAC-Table 5 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Hybridisation      of Hawksbills with Other Species.</span></u><span times="" new="" roman=""> At certain sites where Hawksbill numbers are particularly low, they      regularly hybridise with other species of sea turtles (see <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Entanglement      and Ingestion of Marine Debris - including Fishing Gear.</u><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""> </strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Hawkbills are particularly      susceptible to entanglement in gill nets (<st1:stockticker u2:st="on">see      IND</st1:stockticker>-Table 5, PAC-Table 5 and<st1:stockticker u2:st="on">ATL</st1:stockticker>-Table      7 in attached PDF) and capture on fishing hooks (Mortimer 1998). Juvenile      Hawksbills comprised 47% of all turtles entangled in derelict fishing nets and other debris in      northern Australian waters (Kiessling 2003, White 2004). Ingestion      of marine debris by Hawksbills is also significant (White 2004).<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><u><span times="" new="" roman="">Oil      Pollution.</u><span times="" new="" roman=""> <span times="" new="" roman="">There is evidence oil pollution has a greater      impact on Hawksbills than on other species of turtle (Meylan and Redlow      2006). In some parts of the world (especially the <st1:place w:st="on">Middle       East</st1:place>) oil pollution is a major problem (<st1:stockticker u2:st="on">see      IND</st1:stockticker>-Table 5 in attached PDF).</li></ul>    <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""><br/> </span></strong></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""><u>Tortoiseshell Trade Overview<u1:p></u1:p></u></strong><u></u></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></strong></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">History of the Trade<u1:p></u1:p></strong></p>    <p><span times="" new="" roman="">Tortoiseshell, the beautiful scutes of the carapace and plastron of the Hawksbill turtle, has been prized since ancient times. Surrounded by legend, tortoiseshell has been described as “one of the romantic articles of commerce, not only because of where it comes from, but because of the creatures from which it is obtained and the people engaged in the trade” (quoted in Parsons 1972). Jewellery and other tortoiseshell objects have been unearthed from pre-dynastic graves of the Nubian rulers of <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Egypt</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and excavated from the ruins of the Han Empire which ruled <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place> in pre-Christian times. Over 2,000 years ago Julius Caesar considered the warehouses of <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:city u2:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alexandria</st1:place></st1:city></st1:city></st1:place> brimming with tortoiseshell to be the chief spoil of his triumph. By the early years of the 9th Century, caravans of Arab traders carried rhinoceros horn, ivory, and tortoiseshell throughout the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place></st1:place>. For the next 1,000 years, the tortoiseshell trade flourished (Parsons 1972). Around 1700, during the Edo Period, the bekko (tortoiseshell) artisans of <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> established themselves at <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:city u2:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nagasaki</st1:place></st1:city></st1:city></st1:place> (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987).<u1:p></u1:p></span></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">The tortoiseshell trade has been closely linked to European discovery, conquest, and commerce around the world. The Portuguese, Dutch, French and English played major roles in the global trade; exploitation occurred throughout the world’s tropical oceans, and especially in the East Indies (i.e., modern day <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, Indo <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>). The <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">East Indies</st1:place></st1:place> were a major source of the shell of antiquity, and these rich waters fittingly have been called the world’s most productive seas for tortoiseshell (Parsons 1972). In the insular Pacific international trade did not develop until the mid 19th Century, but once established, it took a tremendous toll on the region’s Hawksbills. For the next 150 years, tortoiseshell was a prized commodity in the Pacific, first with the sandal-wooders and then with the whalers (McKinnon 1975).<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; <u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">European Hawksbill fishing in the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place></st1:place> began in the mid-17th Century and intensified throughout the 18th Century as demand increased (McClenachan <em>et al.</em> 2006). As they decimated local Hawksbill populations in one area after another, turtle fishermen moved from one site to the next. The plentiful Hawksbill resources of Central America were exploited for more than 100 years by traders, including Americans, who established the town of Bocas del Toro on the coast of Panama in 1826 (Parsons 1972). Turtling was still a lucrative business in <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cuba</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> in 1885 when the <st1:placetype u2:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">village</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> of <st1:placename u2:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cocodrilos</st1:placename></st1:placename> on the Isle of Pines was settled by turtle fishermen who emigrated from the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cayman Islands</st1:place></st1:place> after its Hawksbills were gone (Carrillo <em>et al.</em> 1999). Over the next 100 years, many tens of thousands of Hawksbills were captured in the rich foraging grounds of the Cuban shelf.<u1:p></u1:p></span></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">20th Century Trade<u1:p></u1:p></strong></p>    <p><span times="" new="" roman="">Tortoiseshell trade statistics are key to understanding the enormous and enduring effect that trade has had on Hawksbill populations around the world. &#160;In the early 20th Century, tortoiseshell was imported for luxury markets in Europe, the United States and Asia as the manufacture of combs and brushes, jewellery boxes, and tortoiseshell ornaments was “an established industry in almost every civilized country” (Seale 1917). Declines in Hawksbill populations were obvious in many areas by the first part of the century, as exemplified by expressions of “wanton destruction” in the Virgin Islands (Schmidt 1916) and over exploitation in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) (Dammerman 1929). Although existing records document an extensive trade in many countries, such as the 8,000 Hawksbills (8,000 kg) taken annually in the Philippines for the shell trade to Japan during World War I (Seale 1917) and 160,700 Hawksbills killed between 1918-1927 in the Dutch East Indies for export to Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands (Dammerman 1929),<strong> </strong>records for many other areas are incomplete.<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></span></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">During the 20th Century, <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place> was the world’s largest importer of tortoiseshell (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987, Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989). Although data are not available for imports in the first half of the century, Japanese statistics document the import of shell equivalent to more than 1.3 million large Hawksbills from around the world between 1950-1992 and more than 575,000 stuffed juveniles from <st1:place u2:st="on">Asia</st1:place> between 1970-1986 (Milliken and Tokunaga 1987, Groombridge and Luxmoore 1989). Local trade in stuffed Hawksbills also flourished in the Indian Ocean, the Pacific and the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Americas</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>, especially in tourist areas. When Japanese, European, American and other Asian imports are considered along with the large quantities of tortoiseshell used locally in places like <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>, it is readily apparent that some millions of Hawksbills were killed for the tortoiseshell trade in the last 100 years.<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Hawksbills and CITES&#160; &#160;<u1:p></u1:p></strong></p>    <p><span times="" new="" roman="">In 1975, in recognition of its threatened status, the Hawksbill was included on Appendices I (Atlantic population) and II (Pacific population) of<strong> </strong>CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, when the Convention came into force. By 1977 the entire species was moved to Appendix I to prohibit all international trade. Nevertheless, the global trade continued for a number of years, in large part driven by Japanese demand.&#160; At the end of 1992, Japanese imports ceased, but the industry continues to operate with stockpiled material.<u1:p></u1:p></span></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <ul><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      the late 1970s more than 45 countries were involved in exporting and      importing raw shell, with annual Japanese imports the equivalent of about      37,700 turtles (40,000 kg).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Export      and import levels remained exceptionally high until the mid-1980s as major      trading nations slowly joined CITES. When they acceded to CITES in      1978, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>      and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      took reservations (exceptions) to the Appendix I Hawksbill listing; these      reservations were withdrawn in 1984 when they joined the      EU.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">When      <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      acceded to CITES in 1980, it also took a reservation on the Hawksbill and      reduced its annual quota to the equivalent of 28,300 turtles (30,000 kg),      based solely on the needs of its bekko industry.<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      1985 CITES proposals by <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Seychelles</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      to place their Hawksbill populations on Appendix II to allow trade failed      at the 5<sup>th</sup> CITES Conference of the Parties (<st1:stockticker u2:st="on">COP</st1:stockticker>      5). A similar Indonesian proposal at <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">COP</st1:stockticker>      6 in 1987 was withdrawn before the vote.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">A      comprehensive report on the Japanese sea turtle trade by Milliken and      Tokunaga in 1987 documented significant amounts of bekko trade with CITES      countries. From 1980 to 1985, between 42% and 58% of all bekko imports      originated in CITES countries, without proper export documents.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      1989 a detailed report commissioned by the CITES Secretariat found that      Hawksbill populations were depleted or declining in 56 of 65 geopolitical      units for which data were available and estimated that the annual global      nesting population was a minimum of 15,000-25,000 Hawksbills. The authors      concluded that the listing of the species on Appendix I was      “unquestionably appropriate and must be maintained” (Groombridge and      Luxmoore 1989).<strong> </strong></li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">On      <st1:date year="1990" day="1" month="4" u2:st="on">1 April 1990</st1:date>,      <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      reduced its annual bekko quota to the equivalent of 18,870 turtles (20,000      kg,).&#160; In 1991, in an effort to avoid a <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">U.S.</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> embargo of its      fish and fishery products, <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      agreed to further reduce its annual quota to the equivalent of 7,075      turtles (7,500 kg) by August 1991, to establish a zero quota on <st1:date year="1993" day="1" month="1" u2:st="on">1      January 1993</st1:date>, and to drop its Hawksbill reservation in July      1994. <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      also agreed to support the re-training of hundreds of bekko      artisans. In the early 1990s, in response to the end of the Japanese      trade, <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cuba</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      reduced its annual Hawksbill fishery quota from 5,000 turtles to 500.<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Since      1994, officials in <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Seychelles</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:city u2:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:place></st1:city></st1:city></st1:place>      have acquired tortoiseshell stocks from local artisans and subsequently      burned them to demonstrate a commitment to ending the tortoiseshell trade <strong>(</strong>Khatib      <em>et al.</em> 1996, Mortimer 1999).<strong> </strong><st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cape Verde</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      has shown similar commitment (Fretey <em>et al.</em> 2002).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      1997 and 2000, at CITES <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">COP</st1:stockticker>      10 and <st1:stockticker u2:st="on">COP</st1:stockticker> 11, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cuba</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> proposed to sell      its stockpiled tortoiseshell to <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>,      and also proposed a continuation of the international trade in      tortoiseshell taken from the 500 Hawksbills still captured each      year. All these proposals failed.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      response to regional disagreement generated by Cuban interest in moving <st1:place u2:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place>      Hawksbills from Appendix I to II, the CITES Secretariat convened two      regional Hawksbill dialogues in 2001 and 2002. The Dialogues encouraged      regional cooperation by helping to establish Hawksbill priorities. As a      result, resources for research, management and conservation have been generated.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Although      the tortoiseshell trade continues to threaten Hawksbills in numerous      places, overall volume is substantially reduced. Thirty years after      CITES came into force, the ban on international trade demonstrates its      value over time in protecting Hawksbills. Above all, nesting      increases in the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place></st1:place>      coincide with the enormous reduction in Hhawksbill fishing in Cuban      waters.</span></li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      June 2007, <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cuba</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      informed CITES COP 14 that it would voluntarily institute a moratorium on      its sea turtle fisheries in 2008. Although <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cuba</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      has a CITES Hawksbill reservation (exception) and reserves its right to      dispose of its tortoiseshell stockpile, most nations are members of CITES      and therefore cannot legally trade in tortoiseshell.</li></ul>  <u1:p></u1:p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">The Japanese Tortoiseshell Trade<u1:p></u1:p></strong></p>    <p><span times="" new="" roman="">Twenty years ago, in their landmark report on Japan’s sea turtle trade, Milliken and Tokunaga (1987) focused on providing estimates of the numbers of Hawksbills (and other species of sea turtles) represented by trade data so that the effect of Japanese exploitation around the world could be assessed. In particular, they cautioned that past exploitation is relevant to understanding and predicting current sea turtle population trends.<u1:p></u1:p></span></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">Estimates of the numbers of Hawksbills involved in the tortoiseshell trade are based on conversion factors calculated for each region by Milliken and Tokunaga (1987). Globally, the average Hawksbill produces 1.06 kg of tortoiseshell; but regionally, conversions are 0.74 kg in the Indian Ocean; 0.75 kg in Asia; 0.88 kg in Oceania; and 1.34 kg in the <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place></st1:place>. A combination of factors likely accounts for these differences, including regional variation in average adult size, as well as the relative proportion of adult and immature turtles represented in the trade. Some reports indicate that in the past the average turtle produced more shell than in recent decades. Adult turtles that survive long enough will continue to grow, so it follows that the average size of nesting animals tends to decline in an over-exploited population. In other cases, once nesting populations have been destroyed, hunters may shift their focus to foraging turtles which usually include immature animals. In the absence of specific historical information documenting the size classes of animals killed, the conversions we use in the present assessment are based on estimates provided by Milliken and Tokunaga. <span times="" new="" roman="">Based on the trade through 1992 (when legal Japanese imports ceased), the following information reveals the extent of the Japanese exploitation of global Hawksbill populations and the percent contribution of different regions to overall imports during 1950-1992.<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman="">&#160; <u1:p></u1:p></span></p>  <ul><li><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Caribbean      and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Latin America</st1:place></st1:place>      (44.2%)</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: 29 countries provided the shell of      460,220 turtles (616,695 kg). Exports from <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Panama</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cuba</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> were the      equivalent of 152,070 and 106,948 turtles (203,774 kg and 170,047 kg,      respectively), making them the most important sources of bekko in the      world for <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>.      <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Panama</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      hosted the region’s largest nesting Hawksbill assemblages until the latter      part of the 20th Century. After 1961, Hawksbills in the Cuban      trade were captured only at sea, but comprised adult and large immature      animals.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Asia</strong></st1:place></st1:place><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">      (20.8%)</span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: 9 countries provided the shell of      387,020 turtles (290,265 kg). Exports from <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> were the      equivalent of 155,654 turtles (116,741 kg), making it the most important      source in the region and the third largest global supplier to <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>.      Much of the shell exported from <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Singapore</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> to <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      was probably of Indonesian origin (118,535 turtles, 88,901 kg). Asia      was nearly the sole source of <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>’s      stuffed juvenile Hawksbill imports, as discussed      below.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">North      America (15.1%)</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: the <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">United States</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> provided      <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      with the shell of 199,490 turtles (211,463 kg) in two very large      shipments, 142,241 kg in 1951 and 68,402 in 1954. The countries of      origin are unknown, but in all likelihood some quantity originated in U.S.      Caribbean and Pacific territories.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Indian      Ocean and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">East Africa</st1:place></st1:place>      (8.7%)</span></strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: 15 countries provided the shell of      164,828 turtles (121,973 kg). <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>,      regional collection points, were the major exporters. Countries in      the <st1:place u2:st="on">northwestern <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place></st1:place>      are notably absent from Japanese import statistics. As a non-CITES      country, <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Maldives</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      figured prominently in the trade after 1984 despite its national      legislation protecting Hawksbills. Japanese imports therefore were in      contravention of CITES Conf. Res. 4.25, which requires a nation with a      reservation to treat an Appendix I species as Appendix II, with valid      export documents from the country of origin.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Oceania</strong></st1:place></st1:place><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">      (5.8%)</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: 6 countries provided the shell of      92,124 turtles (81,069 kg). A significant proportion of this trade      is attributed to <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      until 1977 (29,109 turtles; 25,616 kg). <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Solomon Islands</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Fiji</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      were also important suppliers, especially in the final years of trading,      with 40,982 and 14,490 turtles (36,064 and 12,751 kg, respectively). <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Fiji</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      banned all tortoiseshell exports in January 1991 (Daly, 1991) but domestic      tourist trade in Hawksbill curios and whole carapaces continues (see PAC-Table      5 in attached PDF).<strong> </strong></span></li><u1:p></u1:p><li><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">Europe      and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">West Africa</st1:place></st1:place>      (5.4%)</strong><span times="" new="" roman="">: 10 countries provided the shell of      70,560 turtles (74,793 kg). The <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Netherlands</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      was the largest exporter with the equivalent of 44,775 turtles (47,461      kg), but the source of this shell is unknown.<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In      the 1970s, small lacquered Hawksbills became popular in <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      as symbols of long life. From 1970-1986 Japan imported 576,702 juvenile      Hawksbills, mostly from Indonesia and Singapore but also from Taiwan,      Province of China (32,075), the Ryukyus (13,438), Philippines (8698), Viet      Nam (1195), Hong Kong (3549), and small quantities from a handful of other      nations. <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      subsequently prohibited the trade, but continued to allow dealers to sell      stocks acquired before July 1994. In December 1999, the dealers reported      that they had a total of 135 stuffed sea turtles (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan      2000).<strong><u1:p></u1:p></strong></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Numerous      irregularities in bekko imports occurred in the final years of <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>’s      trade under its CITES reservation. These included imports of shell from      non-CITES countries that did not legally allow export of shell, as well as      imports from countries known to have had too few turtles to supply the      shell attributed to them. Based on these data, Japanese bekko      imports from 11 of the 14 countries reported by the dealers in 1989 were      illegal.<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">The      bekko stockpile in <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      includes raw shell and finished products. After <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      banned all imports in January 1993, annual Japanese domestic sales from      stockpiled supplies remained high. Between July 1995 and July 1998 the      stockpile was reduced from 188.4 to 102.73 tonnes (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan      2000). Information on subsequent annual sales and use is not available,      but supplies would now be exhausted if utilization had continued at 28      tonnes a year after July 1998.</li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Today,      however, the bekko industry is intact, and Japanese consumer demand      remains high. In January 2000, the valuable raw shell from abdominal      plates ranged in price from JPY 30,000 per kg to JPY 150,000 per kg (US $      294-$1470 at that time) (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000).<u1:p></u1:p></li></ul>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></strong></p>  <p><strong><span times="" new="" roman="">21st Century Global Trade <u1:p></u1:p></span></strong></p>    <p><span times="" new="" roman="">Significant domestic trade in Hawksbill products is a major problem in many countries and, despite prohibitions on international trade and a reduction in its volume in the last decade, international and domestic trade remains an ongoing and pervasive threat in the Americas, Asia, and parts of Africa (Fleming 2001, Chacon 2002, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia 2004, van Dijk and Shepherd 2004, Brautigam and Eckert 2006, Reuter and Allan 2006).<u1:p></u1:p></p>  <p><span times="" new="" roman=""><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <ul><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Some      Japanese dealers have continued to import shell illegally as evidenced by      numerous bekko shipments intercepted en route to or in Japan since the ban      took effect (TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan 2000) and ongoing underground trade      in southeast Asia to Japan and other destinations (van Dijk and Shepherd      2004, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia 2004).</li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">More      than a decade after the Japanese prohibition on bekko imports took effect,      van Dijk and Shepherd (2004) reported the interest of the Japan Bekko      Association in acquiring <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>’s      remaining stockpiles of bekko.</span></li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Although      the volume of trade in <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      diminished significantly between 1991 and 2001, it is still substantial.      The collection of tortoiseshell still occurs in numerous places, with most      of the trade appearing to be disorganized and underground. <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Western Sumatra</st1:place></st1:place>, Nias, and Papua are      areas where significant exploitation and trade are known or suspected (van      Dijk and Shepherd 2004).</li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Those      familiar with the trade warn that Indonesian stockpiles should be seized      “as any indication of resumption of international trade of bekko could      lead to requests from Indonesian traders to be allowed to sell their      stockpiles” (van Dijk and Shepherd 2004).</li><u1:p></u1:p><li><span times="" new="" roman="">Surveys      in <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>      in 2002 revealed an active international trade in tortoiseshell that had      increased since 1999.&#160; Shell was purchased by tourists and foreigners      buying in bulk for export to <st1:city u2:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hong       Kong</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">South Korea</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> (<st1:placetype u2:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> of <st1:placename u2:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">China</st1:placename></st1:placename>), <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and Asian      communities in North America and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place></st1:place>. <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region>      subsequently instituted full protection for the Hawksbill (van Dijk and      Shepherd 2004, TRAFFIC <st1:place u2:st="on">East Asia</st1:place>      2004).<u1:p></u1:p></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">In&#160;      recent reviews of the Lesser Antilles, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Dominican Republic</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:city u2:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Central America</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Venezuela</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>,      researchers provided evidence of extensive clandestine trade in sea turtles,      including Hawksbills.&#160; Management and law enforcement are inadequate      throughout the region (Brautigam and Eckert 2006, Reuter and Allan 2006).<u1:p></u1:p></span></li><li><span times="" new="" roman="">On      1 February 2007, the Kyodo News of Japan reported that Cuba would not seek      to re-open the international tortoiseshell trade at the upcoming CITES      meeting and noted Japanese disappointment given the long term support      provided for the bekko industry. During 1991-2006, the Japanese      government spent 735 million yen (US $6M) for research on Hawksbill resources      and 140 million yen (US $1.1M) for projects to resume international trade,      including trade with <st1:place u2:st="on"><st1:country-region u2:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cuba</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:country-region></st1:place>. The article also reported that the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry      will support the bekko industry for another five years.<br/>      <br/>      </li></ul>    <p>&#160;</p>  <span times="" new="" roman="">	eng
8010	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Bearded seals are protected by various laws in their range countries and by treaties internationally.  Subsistence hunting by Native People of the Arctic is generally for personal use and not regulated, for example, as in Canada and the United States (Cleator 1996, Angliss and Outlaw 2005).<br/><br/>Vessel-based commercial hunting in the former Soviet Union ended in 1975 and the harvest continues at much lower levels, more like a subsistence harvest.  Prior to the end of commercial harvesting, the Soviet Union used a system of quotas to regulate the take in an attempt to manage the population (Kelly 1988).  Licensed hunters can take bearded seals in Svalbard, but not in nature reserves or during the breeding season (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8010	conservation	Kovacs, K. & Lowry, L., 2008	Bearded Seals are protected by various laws in their range countries. Subsistence hunting by indigenous people of the Arctic is generally for personal use and not regulated unless populations are depleted (<em>e.g.</em>, Cleator 1996, Angliss and Outlaw 2005).<br/><br/>Vessel-based commercial hunting in the former Soviet Union ended in 1975; after that time the harvest has taken place at much lower levels (similar to a subsistence harvest). Prior to the end of commercial harvesting, the Soviet Union used a system of quotas to regulate the take of Bearded Seals in an attempt to manage the population (Kelly 1988). Licensed (sport) hunters can shoot bearded seals in Svalbard, outside protected areas and not during the breeding season (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8010	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Bearded seals have a circumpolar distribution in the Arctic and sub-Arctic south of 85 degrees North, usually in water less than 200 m deep (Kelly 1988). A disjunct population inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, ranging south to Hokkaido, Japan (Rice 1998). They reach the southern Bering Sea and Bristol Bay to the limit of seasonally ice covered waters (Kelly 1988). They also occupy all of Hudson Bay, and range south to Southern Labrador, and northern Iceland and Norway (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Bearded seal vagrants have been reported from many locations outside the Arctic including Portugal in the eastern North Atlantic (van Bree 2000), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, northern Newfoundland, and Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the western North Atlantic (Gosselin and Boily 1994).<br/><br/>The ranges of the two subspecies are divided near the central Canadian Arctic in the Western Hemisphere, and Laptev Sea in the Eastern Hemisphere, with the Atlantic subspecies barbatus occurring from the central Canadian Arctic east to the central Eurasian Arctic, and Pacific subspecies nauticus occurring from the Laptev Sea east to the central Canadian Arctic, including animals in the Sea of Okhotsk (Rice 1998).	eng
8010	distribution	Kovacs, K. & Lowry, L., 2008	Bearded Seals have a patchy circumpolar distribution throughout much of the Arctic and sub-Arctic, south of 85ºN (Kelly 1988). A disjunct population inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, ranging south to Hokkaido, Japan (Rice 1998). Bearded Seals reach the southern Bering Sea and Bristol Bay to the limit of seasonally ice covered waters regularly (Kelly 1988). They also occupy all of Hudson Bay, are found throughout much of the eastern Canadian Archipelago, both coasts of Greenland and south to southern Labrador. They can also be found along the north shore of Iceland, within the Svalbard Archipelago and across much of the north within the Russian Federation (Kovacs 2002). Bearded Seal vagrants have been reported from many locations outside the Arctic including Portugal in the eastern North Atlantic (van Bree 2000), the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, northern Newfoundland, and Cape Cod, Massachusetts in the western North Atlantic (Gosselin 1994).<br/><br/>The ranges of the two putative subspecies are divided near the central Canadian Arctic in the West and the Laptev Sea in the East, with the Atlantic subspecies <em>barbatus</em> occurring from the central Canadian Arctic east to the central Eurasian Arctic and the Pacific subspecies <em>nauticus</em> occurring from the Laptev Sea east to the central Canadian Arctic, including animals in the Sea of Okhotsk (Rice 1998). Geographical variation does exist in the calls of Bearded Seals across their range, suggesting some population substructure (Risch <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
8010	habitat	Kovacs, K. & Lowry, L., 2008	Bearded Seals are the largest northern phocid seal. Adults reach lengths of 2-2.5 m and weights of 250-300 kg (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1999) with females typically being slightly larger than males (Kovacs 2002). In the Bering Sea, males have been recorded to reach 390 kg and females 361 kg (Kelly 1988). Weight fluctuates dramatically during the year and bearded seals are typically at their lowest weight from mid-summer to autumn, after which they regain lost weight lost during breeding and moulting (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Alaskan waters, sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 years in females, with 80% of females having had a pup by age 6. Males reach sexual maturity at 6-7 years (Kelly 1988). Final body size is reached at approximately 9-10 years (McLaren 1958), and they can live 20-25 years (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Bearded Seal pups are born on small floes of annual ice and they swim within hours of birth (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1996). Peak birthing occurs between late March and mid-May, varying somewhat across the bearded seal’s range (Kovacs 2002). Pups in the Bering Sea average 132 cm and 34 kg in weight at birth and are weaned in an estimated 12-18 days when they weigh around 85 kg (Kelly 1988). Gjertz <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated that in Svalbard pups are weaned in approximately 24 days. Prior to weaning their aquatic skills have developed to the degree that they spend about half their time in the water, diving for up to 5.5 minutes to depths of up to 84 m (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Adult females spend over 90% of their time in the water while caring for a dependent pup; about half this time is spent away from the neonate, presumably in foraging dives. Most female dives are relatively short and shallow. On average, there are 3 nursing bouts per day accomplished during the brief times the mother is out of the water. The amount of time mothers spend in the water is thought to be an adaptive response to polar bear predation, making the pair less conspicuous to hunting bears (Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Mating takes place at the end of lactation similar to other phocid seals. Males court females and display using elaborate downward trilling vocalizations that can travel many kilometers (Cleator <em>et al</em>. 1989). Individual males use distinct songs, and occupy the same territories over a series of consecutive years within constraints imposed by variable ice conditions, or they show a roaming pattern (VanParijs <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003, 2004). In captivity singing males are attended by other satellite males similar to the male groups that have been observed for Harbour Seals in the wild (Davies <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Bearded Seals feed primarily on or near the bottom and most diving is to depths of less than 100 m (though dives of adults have been recorded up to 300 m and young-of-the-year have been recorded diving down to almost 500 m; Gjertz <em>et al</em>. 2000). They use their elaborate whiskers to search for prey on and in soft bottom substrates (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2007, 2008). Because of their benthic feeding habits they live primarily in waters overlying the continental shelf, in shallow regions such as the Bering and Barents Seas (Burns 1981, Kovacs 2002). The availability of sea ice is a major habitat determinant for bearded seals. They are typically found in regions of broken free-floating pack ice; in these areas bearded seals prefer to use small and medium sized floes, avoiding large floes (Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003). They rarely haul out more than a body length from water and they use leads within shore-fast ice only if suitable pack ice is not available (Kovacs 2002). Bearded Seals naturally occur at quite low densities (<em>e.g.</em>, Bengtson <em>et al</em>. 2005); they are typically solitary animals, but will form small, loose aggregations when ice availability is limited, such as at the time of moulting in midsummer.<br/><br/>The diet of Bearded Seals varies by age, location, season, and possibly also changes in prey availability in marine communities (Kelly 1988). Their primary foods live on or near the bottom, but also include some infauna as well as schooling and demersal fish (Burns 1981, Hjelset <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the Kara and Barents seas, the diet is dominated by crustaceans (shrimps) and molluscs (gastropods and bivalves). Cod, other demersal fish, and worms are also regular components of the diet. A wide variety of prey has been reported from the Sea of Okhotsk with crabs and shrimps accounting for 87% of the total intake for animals in the north, and clams, worms, and gastropods making up 40%, 23%, and 12% respectively of the intake for animals in the south near Sakhalin Island. In the Bering and Chukchi Seas, snow crab was the most important prey, followed by the crab <em>Hyas coarctatus</em>, while the reverse was true farther north. Shrimp species, gastropods, and octopus are important in both the northern and southern Bering Sea and the Chukchi Sea. The diet is similar in the Beaufort Sea with the addition of Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) (Burns 1981). Antonelis <em>et al</em>. (1994) found that 86% of Bearded Seals examined in the central Bering Sea in early spring, had fish in their stomachs. In order of importance these were capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>), codfishes (<em>Gadidae</em>), and eelpouts (<em>Lycodes</em> spp.). Lowry <em>et al</em>. (1980) reported similar findings on percentage of the occurrence of fish in stomachs, but reported that fish as a percent of total volume was 16% from May through September, and dropped to 5% for October through April. In the eastern Canadian Arctic, Bearded Seals in the summer consumed a minimum of 12 fish species, dominated by sculpins (<em>Cottidae</em>) and Arctic cod with fish prey accounting for greater than 90% of the wet weight of the stomach contents (Finley and Evans 1983). At Svalbard, Bearded Seals eat a wide variety of prey (>50% of collected stomachs had 5 or more prey species). Polar cod (<em>Boreogadis saida</em>), sculpins (<em>Cottidae</em> spp.), spider crab (<em>Hyas araneus</em>), and the crustaceans <em>Sabinea sptemcarinatus</em> and <em>Sclerocrangon boreas</em> were the most frequent prey items (Hjelset <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In June, following the pupping and breeding season, Bearded Seals undergo their annual moult. During the moult they spend much of their time hauled out and are reluctant to enter the water (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2004). Animals can be found moulting from April to August with a peak in May to June (Burns 1981). Bearded Seals usually haul out on ice when it is available, but will haul out on land in the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, along the Laptev, White, and Kara Sea coastlines and at Svalbard (Burns 1981, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
8010	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Bearded seals are the largest phocids in the Arctic. Adults reach lengths of 2-2.5m and weights of 250-300 kg (Andersen <em>et al.</em> 1999) with females typically being slightly larger than males (Kovacs 2002). In the Bering Sea, males have been recorded to reach 390 kg and females 361 kg (Kelly 1988). Sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 years in females, with 80% of females having had a pup by age 6. Males reach sexual maturity at 6-7 years (Kelly 1988).  Physical maturity occurs at approximately 9-10 years (McLaren 1958), and they can live 20-25 years (Kovacs 2002). Bearded seal pups are born on the sea ice, but they swim within hours of birth (Kovacs 2002), and before they are weaned they are spending about half their time in the water. <br/><br/>Bearded seals primarily feed on or near the bottom, and most diving is to depths of less than 100m (Kovacs 2002).  Therefore they live primarily in waters overlying the continental shelf, like much of the relatively shallow Bering Sea when it is seasonally covered with ice (Burns 1981).  Adults have been recorded to dive to nearly 300 m, and young pups to over 488 m (Kovacs 2002).<br/><br/>Ice is also a determinant of habitat. Bearded seals are typically found away from shore-fast ice and unbroken heavily covered ice fields, preferring areas with moving ice where ice movement, currents, weather and land features interact to create broken ice fields, leads, polynas, and other open areas (Burns 1981).  They rarely haul out more than a body length from water (Kovacs 2002).  Bearded seals are typically solitary animals, but will form loose aggregations when ice availability is low (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The diet of bearded seals varies by age, location, season, and possibly changes in prey availability in marine communities over long time periods (Kelly 1988).  Their primary foods live on or near the bottom, but also include some infauna and schooling and demersal fish (Burns 1981). At Svalbard, bearded seals took a wide variety of prey and over half of the stomachs examined had 5 or more species. Arctic cod, found in 44% of the animals, sculpins (Cottidae spp.) in 44%, spider crab (<em>Hyas araneus</em>) in 59%, and the crustaceans <em>Sabinea sptemcarinatus</em> 59% and <em>Sclerocrangon boreas</em> 46%, were the most frequently found prey items (Hjelset <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>In June, following the pupping and breeding season, bearded seals undergo their annual molt. During the molt they spend much of their time hauled out, and are reluctant to enter the water (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004). Animals can be found molting from April to August with a peak in May to June (Burns 1981). Bearded seals usually haul out on ice when it is available, but will haul out on land in the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, along the Laptev, White, and Kara Sea coastlines (Burns 1981), and at Svalbard (Kovacs <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Important natural predators of bearded seals include polar bears (Burns 1981), as well as killer whales, walruses, and Greenland sharks (Kovacs 2002).	eng
8010	population	Kovacs, K. & Lowry, L., 2008	The size of the global population of Bearded Seals is not known (Kovacs 2002). Crude published estimates for parts of the bearded seal’s range include: 200,000-250,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk, including 60,000-75,000 off eastern Sakhalin Island (1968 to1990) and 250,000-300,000 in the Bering Sea, including 83,000-87,000 in the western Bering Sea (Fedoseev 2000). A minimum estimate for Canadian waters of 190,000 animals was suggested by Cleator (1996), based on data collected over a 35-year period. Angliss and Outlaw (2005) state that there are no current reliable population estimates for the Bering Chukchi stock of Bearded Seals. No estimates exist for the population in the Atlantic Ocean (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993), or the region from the Barents to the Chukchi Sea. Population trends are not known.	eng
8010	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The worldwide population of bearded seals is unknown (Kovacs 2002). Portions of the range have the following abundance estimates: 200,000-250,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk, including 60,000-75,000 off eastern Sakhalin Island for the period 1968 to 1990, and 250,000-300,000 in the Bering Sea, including 83,000-87,000 in the western Bering Sea (Fedoseev 2000). A minimum estimate for Canadian waters of 190,000 animals was suggested by Cleator (1996), based on data collected over a 35-year period. Angliss and Outlaw (2005) state that there are no current reliable population estimates for the Bering Chukchi stock of bearded seals. No estimates exist for the population in the Atlantic Ocean (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993), or Barents to Chukchi seas area.	eng
8010	threats	Kovacs, K. & Lowry, L., 2008	Indigenous peoples of the Arctic have hunted Bearded Seals for subsistence for thousands of years, a practice that continues today. However, levels of subsistence harvest are not well known. Subsistence harvests of Bearded Seals in the United States were estimated to be approximately 6,800 in 2000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Subsistence harvest levels are not closely monitored in Canada, but Cleator (1996) estimated that roughly 2,400 bearded seals were taken per year. Approximately 500-1,000 Bearded Seals are taken annually in Greenland (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Rates of struck-and-lost are high for bearded seals in most months of the year, likely about 50% for gun-based harvests; these are not generally accounted for in hunting statistics.<br/><br/>The former Soviet Union historically had commercial harvests of Bearded Seals in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering, Chukchi, Barents and White Seas, with high harvest levels at times. Harvests grew from 9,000 to 13,000 from 1957 to 1964, and were 8,000 to 10,000 per year for the Bering and Okhotsk Seas combined from 1964-1967 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992). This level of commercial harvesting was very likely unsustainable and in all probability depleted these populations (Kelly 1988). Bearded Seals are now harvested more on a subsistence basis for local use in Russia. Harvests in the Bering Sea of 1881 and 1418 were reported for 1988 and 1989 respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Fisheries interactions are low. Logbooks maintained by U.S. fishermen indicate 14 Bearded Seals killed and 31 injured in 1991 in the Bristol Bay, Alaska salmon drift net fishery. There were several incidents of incidental take, serious injury, or mortality in the Alaskan Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands flatfish and pollock trawl fisheries from 1999-2003, when annual mortality was estimated at 1.6 seals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Kelly (1988) mentions fisheries for snow/Tanner crabs (<em>Chionoecetes opilio</em>) and pink shrimps (<em>Pandalus</em> borealis), as possible sources of fisheries conflicts in the future, especially if these fisheries are renewed or expanded because both of these species are important foods for Bearded Seals.<br/><br/>Oil spills from offshore extraction and transportation could negatively affect bearded seals through direct contact with oil and damage to foraging areas and stocks of prey, particularly benthic invertebrates, which are vulnerable to oil contamination (Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Global climate warming is currently causing major reductions in the extent and duration of sea ice cover in the Arctic, creating a threat to many species of marine ice-associated mammals. Pinnipeds, such as the Bearded Seall that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, moulting, resting and access to foraging areas, may be especially vulnerable to such changes (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favourable conditions for Bearded, Harp, Harbour Seals and Walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and extends the summer open water period.<br/><br/>An increase in human-created noise in the arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including Bearded Seals which are very vocal during their breeding season (VanParijs <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003), to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). A reduction in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and disturbance of marine mammals (Pagnan 2000).<br/><br/>Harp Seals, Hooded Seals, and Ringed Seals from the Canadian Arctic, where they overlap range with Bearded Seals, were all determined to carry antibodies to phocine distemper virus (PDV), with harp seals constituting the population with the largest percentage (83%) of positive tests. Although the disease has not been identified in Bearded Seals, the opportunity for exposure exists (Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Important natural predators of Bearded Seals include Polar Bears (Burns 1981), as well as Killer Whales, Walruses, and Greenland Sharks (Kovacs 2002).	eng
8010	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Native Peoples of the Arctic have hunted bearded seals for subsistence for thousands of years, a practice that continues today (Burns 1981). Overall levels of subsistence harvest are not well known. The former Soviet Union had commercial harvests in the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering, Chukchi, Barents, and White Seas historically, and harvest levels were at times high. Harvest levels grew from 9,000 to 13,000 from 1957 to 1964, and were 8,000 to 10,000 per year for the Bering and Okhotsk Seas combined from 1964-1967 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992).  This commercial over-harvesting probably depleted the population (Kelly 1988).  Bearded seals are now harvested more on a subsistence basis for local use in Russia, although some seals are killed as food for fur-farm animals (Kelly 1988), and are primarily taken from the Bering Sea where harvests of 1,881 and 1,418 were reported for 1988 and 1989 respectively (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/>Fisheries interactions appear to be low. Logbooks indicate 14 bearded seals killed and 31 injured in 1991 in the Bristol Bay, Alaska salmon drift net fishery. There were several incidents of incidental take, serious injury, or mortality each in the Alaskan Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands flatfish and pollock trawl fisheries respectively from 1999-2003, when annual mortality was estimated at 1.58 seals (Angliss and Outlaw 2005).  <br/><br/>Oil spills from offshore extraction and transportation could negatively affect bearded seals through direct contact with oil, and damage to foraging areas and stocks of prey, particularly benthic invertebrates, which respond poorly to oil contamination (Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Arctic climate change that is currently leading to reduction in the extent and duration of sea ice cover is a threat to many species of marine mammals.  Patterns of Arctic primary productivity and population levels of prey species important to Arctic marine mammals may be altered as a consequence of Arctic warming and changes in sea ice. Pinnipeds, such as the bearded seal that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, molting, resting, and access to foraging areas, may be especially vulnerable to such changes (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). In contrast, Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favorable conditions for bearded, harp, and harbor seals, and walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and the summer open water period to lengthen.<br/><br/>An increase in human-created noise in the Arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including bearded seals which are very vocal during their breeding season, to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997).  A reduction in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and disturbance of marine mammals (Pagnan 2000).  <br/><br/>Harp seals, hooded seals, and ringed seals from the Canadian Arctic, where they share habitat with bearded seals, were all determined to carry antibodies to phocine distemper virus (PDV), with harp seals constituting the population with the largest percentage (83%) of positive tests.  Although the disease has not been identified in bearded seals, the opportunity for exposure exists (Duignan <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
8032	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.	eng
8032	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it is known only from a few montane localities. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,300 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
8032	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species has been recorded in montane tropical rainforest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has only been collected in relatively undisturbed forest. It is generally considered to be a terrestrial species (G. Musser pers. comm.) and folivorous.	eng
8032	population	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	It is an infrequently collected species, but it may not be rare (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
8032	threats	Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although there is some deforestation of suitable habitat in the south of the species range.	eng
8033	conservation	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
8033	distribution	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Bahamas, and Cayman Islands (Simmons, 2005).	eng
8033	habitat	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	The species normally roosts in large colonies in cooler portions. It begins foraging later than many other bats (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet typically contains some combination of insects, nectar, and fruit. It has a litter size of one and probably gives birth just once each year in spring (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8033	population	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This bat is apparently locally common; it can form colonies of thousands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
8033	threats	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Threats to the caves - mining, guano (Mancina pers. comm.).	eng
8035	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to five counties in California, U.S.A.	eng
8035	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Streams and rivers.	eng
8035	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
8035	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	This subspecies has a very restricted range in one of the most highly populated parts of the United States.	eng
8070	conservation	Leuteritz, T., Kuchling, G., Garcia, G. & Velosoa, J., 2008	<em>Erymnochelys</em> has been listed in CITES Appendix II since 1978 (UNEP-WCMC 2007) and is fully protected by Malagasy Law (Kuchling 1993a, 1997; Kuchling and Mittermeier1993). Most major populations of <em>Erymnochelys madagascariensis</em> occur outside protected areas. Most of the small populations inside protected areas (PN Ankarafantsika 65,520 ha, PN Baie de Baly, RNI Bemaraha 152,000 ha) are also under exploitation pressure and declining or depleted or locally extirpated (CBSG 2001).<br/><br/>Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Conservation International have been working collaboratively on a conservation strategy for this species since 1997/98. This includes population field studies, captive breeding, and community education (Garcia 1999, 2006; Kuchling 2000; Kuchling and Garcia 2003).<br/><br/>Kuchling (1997) suggested three conservation actions: an education campaign for fishermen, a captive breeding programme, and the establishment of additional protected areas. Recommendations from the 2001 CAMP workshop suggest additional measures which include enforcing protection for the species in protected areas and recovery management of depleted protected populations, establishment of monitoring and recovery strategies for the populations at Manambolomaty (a Ramsar site with the largest and most important <em>Erymnochelys</em> poulation), and public education range-wide (CBSG 2001).	eng
8070	distribution	Leuteritz, T., Kuchling, G., Garcia, G. & Velosoa, J., 2008	<em>Erymnochelys madagascariensis</em> is endemic to the western lowland river basins of Madagascar from the Mangoky River in the south to the Sambirano region in the North (Iverson 1992, Glaw and Vences 1994, CBSG 2001, Pedrono 2008).The species ranges up to about 500 m altitude (Pedrono 2008). Two genetically distinct forms have been noted. It is sympatric with <em>Pelomedusa subrufa</em> and <em>Pelusios castanoides</em>.<br/><br/>The species' extent of occurrence was estimated at the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop as over 20,000 sq. km, with an area of occupancy of less than 500 sq. km. (CBSG 2001).	eng
8070	habitat	Leuteritz, T., Kuchling, G., Garcia, G. & Velosoa, J., 2008	<em>Erymnochelys</em> habitat consists of slow-moving rivers, lakes, and swamps. Its preferred habitat is that of permanent open wetlands (CBSG 2001) and favours basking sites like rocks, logs, etc. (Kuchling and Garcia 2003). Garcia (1999, 2006) and Garcia and Lourenco (2007) carried out on fecal and stomache content analyses and found that juveniles feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates and adults feed on molluscs, plant material (leaves, seeds and fruit), and dead animals.<br/><br/>This turtle has a carapace length of 50 cm or more (Garcia 1999, 2006). Females are sexually mature at carapace lengths of 25-30 cm (Kuchling 1988). The sex ratio in various populations varies from 1:2 to 1.7:1 (Kuchling 1988, Gracia 2006). Age at maturity and longevity are not known, but a generation time of 25 years was estimated at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).<br/><br/>These turtles nest between September and January (most prevalent October-December) and appear to have a biennial ovarian cycle, with individual females only nesting in alternate years. They can lay up to two or three clutches with an average of 13 eggs (range 6-29) in a reproductive season (Kuchling 1988, 1993a and b; Garcia 2006; Pedrono 2008).	eng
8070	population	Leuteritz, T., Kuchling, G., Garcia, G. & Velosoa, J., 2008	The best available information in 2001 generated an estimate of at least 10,000 animals making up some 20 subpopulations (CBSG 2001). Individual popuations comprise tens to a few hundred animals based on mark-recapture studies (Garcia 2006). The species is universally reported to be in widespread serious non-cyclical decline (CBSG 2001).	eng
8070	threats	Leuteritz, T., Kuchling, G., Garcia, G. & Velosoa, J., 2008	<em>Erymnochelys</em> turtles are exploited for food at the local subsistence level and also taken as incidental catch in regular fishing (Kuchling 1993a, 1997; Kuchling and Mittermeier 1993; CBSG 2001; Garcia and Goodman 2003).<br/><br/>The habitat is fragmented by agricultural and deforestation practices. Siltation is a problem because of the conversion of lakes to rice fields (CBSG 2001). No information is available on the predicted impacts of hydrological changes to Madagascar's rivers in the context of agricultural development, infrastructure development (dams/reservoirs) and climate change. Most populations occur outside protected areas, and even those inside protected areas are under exploitation pressure (Garcia and Goodman 2003).	eng
8073	conservation	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II and as Class B under the African Convention. It is recorded from many protected areas across its range. Laikipia District holds the largest population of <em>E. patas</em> in Kenya today. All patas groups in this area occur outside protected areas and make use of cattle ranches which provide large areas of <em>Acacia drepanolobium</em> woodland and artificial watersources (Isbell and Chism 2007; De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8073	distribution	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species ranges from north of the equatorial forests and south of the Sahara from western Senegal through to Ethiopia, south to northern, central and southern Kenya (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press) and north-central Tanzania as far as the Acacia woodlands east of Lake Manyara (4 deg S). Found at low densities in the Serengeti National Park and the Grumeti River Corridor, Tanzania (De Jong <em>et al</em>. 2007). Outlying subpopulations are also found on the Air and Ennedi massifs. Recorded to 2,000 m asl (De Jong <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
8073	habitat	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is found in vegetation types ranging from open grassland, to wooded savannas, to dry woodland. It is commonest in thinly bushed Acacia woodland, and appears to have a preference for woodland-grassland margins. It is largely terrestrial, and although it can climb trees when alarmed, it usually relies on its speed on the ground to escape from danger. This species feeds primarily on grasses, gum, berries, fruits, beans, and seeds, and preferred species include common savanna trees and shrubs such as <em>Acacia</em>, torchwood (<em>Balanites</em> sp.), <em>Euclea</em> and num-num (<em>Carissa</em> sp.). It is relatively adaptive, however, and also feeds on invasive alien species such as prickly pear and Lantana, as well as cotton and food crops. Visits to water are frequent in the dry season.<br/><br/>Patas Monkeys often use artificial water sources and fences to sit on and scan from. In all areas in which they were encountered in Kenya, they were somewhat habituated to humans, mainly to pastoralists, farmers and 'monkey chasers' in crop fields. In Busia District (Kenya), they have adapted to an area with a high human population with little to no natural vegetation left, and included maize and other crops in their diet (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/><em>E. patas</em> is a diurnal species which lives in groups averaging 15 individuals, with an extensive home range (e.g., 51.8 sq. km for one group of 31 individuals). Burnham (2004) reported longer day journey lengths for all-male groups compared with social groups in the same area of Laikipia (mean for males: 7.3 km; females: 4.7 km), with male home ranges approximately twice the size of social groups. At night, groups may be spread over an area of 250,000 m², and so is protected from severe loss to predators.	eng
8073	population	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This is a widespread species, although densities are generally low across the range. The optimum density is estimated to be approximately 1.5 animals/km², and Hall's (1968) studies recorded 110 patas in a 311,200 ha area. In Kenya, the geographic range has declined from ca. 88,800 km² in 1995 to roughly 48,200 km², and the gaps among populations has increased. The current geographic range is ca. 54% of the known historic (pre-1995) range (De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press). In Tanzania, the geographic range has decreased from ca 30,500 km² (pre-1995) to roughly 19,000 km² (decline of ca. 38%; De Jong <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8073	threats	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is occasionally hunted for food, and is also persecuted as a crop pest in several range countries. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss due to increasing desertification as a result of land-use practices (e.g., overgrazing by cattle, clearance of savanna for crops etc.).	eng
8097	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Gray whales have been protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since its establishment in 1946. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for the eastern gray whale and catch limits have been set since the 1970s on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee (most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure) and a needs request from the relevant governments (Russian Federation and US). The current (2003-07) catch limit for the eastern stock is 620 for five years, subject to a maximum of 140 in any single year. This meets the needs request and is considerably below the estimated level (over 400) that would be sustainable (IWC 2005). <br/><br/>Three gray whale breeding lagoons in Mexico (Laguna Ojo de Liebre, L. San Ignacio and L. Guerrero Negro) enjoy some protection in the form of limitations on boating, fishing and coastal development, originally as National Gray Whale Refuges, now through their inclusions in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, which is also listed internationally as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a Ramsar protected wetland (Hoyt 2005).<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS.	eng
8097	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The gray whale is regionally extinct in European waters, so there are no conservation measures for this species in the region. Gray whales have been protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission since its establishment in the 1946. Limited aboriginal subsistence whaling is permitted by the IWC for the eastern gray whale and catch limits have been set since the 1970s on the basis of advice from its Scientific Committee.	eng
8097	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The gray whale was once found in the North Atlantic. Sub-fossil remains, the most recent dated at around 1675, have been found on the eastern seaboard of North America from Florida to new Jersey, and on the coasts of the English Channel and the North and Baltic seas. There are historical accounts of living gray whales from Iceland in the early 1600s and possibly off New England in the early 1700s (Rice 1998). Gray whales are now only found in the North Pacific and adjacent waters.	eng
8097	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The gray whale was once found in the North Atlantic. Sub-fossil remains, the most recent dated at around 1675, have been found on the eastern seaboard of North America from Florida to New Jersey and on the coasts of the English Channel and the North and Baltic seas. There are historical accounts of living gray whales from Iceland in the early 1600s and possibly off New England (USA) in the early 1700s (Rice 1998).<br/><br/>Gray whales are now only found in the North Pacific and adjacent waters. The larger eastern North Pacific population summers and feeds mainly in the shallow waters of the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, and the northwestern Bering Sea; a few also summer and feed along the Pacific coast from Vancouver Island (Canada) to central California (US). The population migrates in autumn along the coast to winter breeding grounds on the west coast of Baja California (Mexico) and the southeastern Gulf of California. Some calves are born during the southward migration but most are born in shallow bays and lagoons on the west coast of Baja California (Jones and Swartz 2002).<br/><br/>The much smaller western subpopulation summers in the Okhotsk Sea. The major known feeding grounds are off the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island (Russian Federation), but some animals are occasionally seen off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (Russian Federation) and in other coastal waters of the northern Okhotsk Sea. Its migration routes and winter breeding grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of Japan and along the Chinese coast (Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002; see separate listing of this subpopulation for more information).	eng
8097	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Gray whales are primarily bottom feeders and are thus restricted to shallow continental shelf waters for feeding. They are largely coastal although they do feed at greater distances from shore on the shallow flats of the Bering and Chukchi seas. <br/><br/>Gray whales feed primarily on swarming mysids, tube-dwelling amphipods, and polychaete tube worms in the northern parts of their range, but are also known to take red crabs, baitfish, and other food (crab larvae, mobile amphipods, herring eggs and larvae, cephalopods, and megalops) opportunistically or off the main feeding grounds.<br/><br/>Most groups are small, often with no more than three individuals, but gray whales do sometimes migrate in pods of up 16, and larger aggregations are common on the feeding and breeding grounds. ‘Aerial’ behaviour such as breaching and spyhopping are common, especially during migration, and in and near the breeding lagoons of Baja California and mainland Mexico.	eng
8097	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Gray whales are primarily bottom feeders and are thus restricted to shallow continental shelf waters for feeding. They are largely coastal although they do feed at greater distances from shore on the shallow shelf of the Bering and Chukchi seas. <br/><br/>Gray whales feed primarily on swarming mysids, tube-dwelling amphipods, and polychaete tube worms in the northern parts of their range, but are also known to take red crabs, baitfish, and other food (crab larvae, mobile amphipods, herring eggs and larvae, cephalopods, and megalops) opportunistically or off the main feeding grounds.	eng
8097	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Genetic studies and differential recovery patterns (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2002) suggest that the small western North Pacific subpopulation is isolated from the larger eastern subpopulation. The former is listed as Critically Endangered (see separate account).<br/><br/>Both eastern and western gray whales were hunted in prehistoric times, but aboriginal catches declined to relatively low levels by the early 20th century due to depletion of the stocks by commercial whaling and the general decline of the traditional aboriginal economies (Mitchell and Reeves 1990). <br/><br/>Eastern gray whales were rapidly depleted by commercial whalers operating in the breeding lagoons when they were discovered in the mid-19th century, estimated peak catches (averaging over 480 whales per year) occurring between 1855 and 1865. Lagoon whaling ended by about 1875, apparently due to exhaustion of the lagoon populations, but shore-based whaling in California continued at a lower level until the late 19th century (Henderson 1984; IWC 1993). In the 20th century, there were some pelagic catches off California and Mexico by Norwegian and American vessels in the 1920s and 1930s, and in the 1930s and 1940s by a Soviet pelagic fleet in the Bering and Chuckchi Seas (Donahue and Brownell 2001; Brownell and Swartz 2006). A further 320 gray whales were taken under scientific permit in the 1960s (Rice and Wolman 1971), and 138 illegal Soviet catches occurred in the 1960s (Doroshenko 2000). Substantial “aboriginal subsistence” whaling in the Bering and Chukchi seas off Chukotka (Russian Federation) resumed in 1948 and has continued into the present, apart from an interruption in the early 1990s during the collapse of the USSR. Catches during the last 50 years (1956-2005) have averaged around 150 per year. Very small numbers have also been taken by aboriginal whalers in Alaska (US), and, in recent years, by the Makah tribe in Washington State, (US) (Donahue and Brownell 2001; IWC 2005). <br/><br/>Despite the continuing catches, the eastern subpopulation has recovered strongly from past over-exploitation, increasing by 2.5% per annum during 1967-96 (Buckland and Breiwick 2002). The subpopulation seems to have peaked around 1997/98 when a census on the southward migration indicated a population of 24,000-36,000; it may have declined since the most recent estimate is 15,000-22,000 for 2001/02 (Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, there are a number of unresolved possible explanations for the downturn, <em>inter alia</em> related to an ‘overshoot’ of carrying capacity (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2001) and/or unusual environmental conditions around the turn of the millennium resulting in poor calf production, high stranding rates and relatively high numbers of emaciated animals (e.g. LeBouef <em>et al.</em> 2000, IWC 2003, Rugh <em>et al.</em> 2005). Perryman <em>et al.</em> (2002) showed that calf production was related to the proportion of feeding habitat free of sea ice in the preceding summer. Since 2002, calf production has recovered, and mortality and the occurrence of emaciated whales have declined (IWC 2004). The population has probably reached a size where it exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment in years where food availability is below average and is likely to fluctuate around some environmentally determined average level (IWC 2003).<br/><br/>The western Pacific subpopulation remains at a small fraction of past levels and is estimated to number about 100 individuals, of which 20-30 are mature females (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005), based on analysis of photo-identification data (see separate listing for the western Pacific subpopulation for more information).	eng
8097	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is extinct in the North Atlantic. In the North Pacific, the eastern stock has recovered strongly from past over-exploitation, and the most recent population estimate is 15,000-22,000 for 2001/02. The western Pacific stock remains at a small fraction of past levels and is estimated to number about 100 individuals, of which 20-30 are mature females (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is considered Critically Endangered.	eng
8097	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Gray whales have been subject to hunting since prehistoric times, due to their slow swimming speeds and coastal distribution. The North Atlantic population was extinct by the early 1700s although the causes are unclear. Overexploitation was though to have caused the extinction of the western gray whale until Soviet scientists in the 1980s reported a small remnant group summering off Sakhalin Island, Russia. The eastern North Pacific population had reached such low numbers by the end of the 19th century that commercial whaling ceased, but has now recovered to at or near carrying capacity, its abundance showing some fluctuation in response to environmental conditions. <br/>The eastern North Pacific population is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2002), disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants (Moore and Clarke 2002).  However, these do not appear to be important for the demography of the population.	eng
8097	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Gray whales have been subject to hunting since prehistoric times, due to their slow swimming speeds and coastal distribution. The North Atlantic population was extinct by the early 1700s, although the causes are unclear. Over-exploitation was thought to have caused the extinction of the western gray whale until Soviet scientists in the 1980s reported a small remnant group summering off Sakhalin Island. The eastern North Pacific subpopulation had reached such low numbers by the end of the 19th century that commercial whaling ceased, but it has now recovered to at or near carrying capacity, its abundance showing some fluctuation in response to environmental conditions.<br/> <br/>The eastern North Pacific subpopulation is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2002), disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants (Moore and Clarke 2002). However, these do not appear to be having a significant effect on the demography of the population.	eng
8099	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>International Whaling Commission (IWC) regulations protect western gray whales from commercial and aboriginal subsistence whaling; the range states of the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russian  Federation</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, are members of the IWC (but as noted above, some limited illegal hunting may continue). Oil and gas companies operating off <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> have implemented some voluntary measures to reduce their impacts on gray whales, such as speed restrictions on their vessels (Anon. 2006). At present, one oil company is co-operating with the IUCN Western Gray Whale Advisory Panel (WGWAP) although it is not bound by the panel’s recommendations (<a href="http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/sakhalin/">http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/sakhalin/</a>). </p>	eng
8099	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The western gray whale summers in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>, mainly off the northeastern coast of <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:place></st1:country-region>). There are also occasional sightings off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Russian Federation</st1:country-region>) and in other coastal waters of the northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Vladimirov 1994, Weller <em>et al.</em> 1999). Its migration routes and wintering grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kato <em>et al</em>. 2006) and along the Chinese coast (Zhu and Yue 1998). Until 1966, there was a whaling ground off <st1:city w:st="on">Ulsan</st1:city> (southeastern <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype>), where whales were taken during November to April, with two peaks (in December/January and March/April), suggestive of south- and northbound migrations respectively through the <st1:place w:st="on">Sea  of Japan</st1:place> (Kato and Kasuya 2002). However, no gray whales have been recorded in the Korean whaling grounds since 1968. The great majority of recent Japanese records are on the Pacific side, suggesting that this is now the more important migration route. The few modern records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> are scattered along virtually the entire Chinese coast from the northern Yellow Sea to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hainan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype></st1:place> in the south (Zhu and Yue 1998). The calving grounds are unknown but may be around <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hainan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, this being the southwestern end of the known range (Brownell and Chun 1977). </p>	eng
8099	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The main feeding habitat of this subpopulation is the shallow (5-15 m depth) shelf of northeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, particularly off the southern portion of Piltun Lagoon, where the main prey species appear to be amphipods and isopods (Weller <em>et al.</em>, 1999).&#160; In some years the whales have also used an offshore feeding ground in 30-35m depth southeast of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chayvo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype></st1:place> where benthic amphipods and cumaceans are the main prey species (Fadeev 2003). Some gray whales have also been seen off western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place> but to date all whales photographed there are also known from the Piltun area (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recently whales have also been seen, apparently feeding, in <st1:placename w:st="on">Severnaya</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype> on the north coast of <st1:place w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:place> (IUCN 2006).&#160; </p>	eng
8099	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Western gray whales were thought to be extinct as recently as 1972 (Bowen 1974), but a small number are now known to survive (Berzin 1974, Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002); the best estimate for 2006 is 113-131 animals, of which 26-35 are reproductive females, based on an analysis of photo-identification data (Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2006). The figures include adjustments for the photo-identified whales that are likely to have died and for the estimated number of living whales that have yet to be catalogued. In the absence of additional new mortality in excess of the estimated rate over 1994-2004, the population size is projected to increase at 2-4% per annum (Cooke <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, even a very small number of additional annual female deaths will cause the subpopulation to decline.</p>	eng
8099	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>  Western gray whales were hunted by aboriginal people in the northern part of their range since prehistoric times but to an unknown extent (Mitchell, 1979). They were taken by Japanese hand-harpoon whalers in the <st1:place w:st="on">Sea of Japan</st1:place> since at least the 16<sup>th</sup> century, and by net whalers on the Pacific coast in the 17<sup>th</sup> to 19<sup>th</sup> century (Omura 1984, 1988).&#160; Western gray whales were also taken by European and American whalers, mainly in the Okhotsk Sea, from the late 1840s to perhaps the start of the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Henderson 1984), and by Russian steam whalers on the Russian far eastern coast at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Andrews 1914, Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002). Quantitative information is scarce, but it is possible that the subpopulation was already depleted by the start of modern whaling at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. During 1890-1966 an estimated 1,800 – 2,000 gray whales were taken off the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region> peninsula and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kato and Kasuya 2002). Apart from the main grounds off southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region>, whales were also taken in the <st1:place w:st="on">Yellow Sea</st1:place> in the early part of this period. Occasional catches are recorded from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> during 1916-58 (Zhu and Yue 1998). It is not known whether any whales have been taken by the Democratic People’s <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Korea</st1:placename></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Three western gray whales, all females, were fatally entangled in net-traps on the Pacific coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 2005 (Kato <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Subpopulation projections show that if this level of mortality continues, the subpopulation would decline towards extinction (Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2006, IWC 2007). Most recently, a female yearling (9.1 m) was killed in <st1:placename w:st="on">Yoshihama</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sanriku</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:place> on 19 January 2007. The stranding of a dead western gray whale in Japan with a hand harpoon lodged in it of the kind used by porpoise hunters (Brownell and Kasuya 1999) is of concern, as is the finding of gray whale meat on domestic whale meat markets on the Pacific coast of Japan (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2002). Incidental catches of cetaceans in the extensive coastal net fisheries off southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> are also of concern (Zhou and Wang 1994). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The substantial nearshore industrialization and shipping congestion throughout the migratory corridors of this subpopulation represent potential threats by increasing the likelihood of exposure to ship strikes, chemical pollution, and general disturbance (Weller <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Offshore gas and oil development in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> within 20 km of the primary feeding ground off northeast <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakhalin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Okhotsk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> is of particular concern. Activities related to oil and gas exploration, including geophysical seismic surveying, pipelaying and drilling operations, increased vessel traffic, and oil spills, all pose potential threats to western gray whales. Disturbance from underwater industrial noise may displace whales from critical feeding habitat. Physical habitat damage from drilling and dredging operations, combined with possible impacts of oil and chemical spills on benthic prey communities also warrants concern (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2005)</p>	eng
8110	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occupies five tributaries of the south bend of the Tennessee River: Buffalo River and upper Shoal creek in Lawrence County, Tennessee; and Flint River (Madison County), Swan Creek (Limestone County), and Cypress Creek (Lauderdale County, northern Alabama.	eng
8112	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs in the Arkansas River drainage from Arkansas to Colorado.	eng
8113	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em>, however, it was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criterion D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species. Conservation measures need to be taken to protect key recharge sources for springs in which this species occurs, with additional efforts to alleviate pollution and other pressures on this species habitat. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
8113	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em> encompasses the upper and middle Coosa River system in the Ridge and Valley Province above the Fall Line in northeastern Alabama, northwestern Georgia, and extreme southeastern Tennessee (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004). This range description relates to the <em>Etheostoma ditrema</em> complex which may eventually be split into multiple taxa. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,634 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
8113	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species typically occurs in amongst aquatic vegetation and coarse organic debris in limestone springs and slow-flowing spring runs at depths of a metre or less. It is most abundant in vegetation-filled spring ponds with growths of aquatic moss, watercress, and water milfoil. It may perch on clumps of vegetation well off the bottom (Page 1983, Kuehne and Barbour 1983, Utter 1984, Etnier and Starnes 1993, Catchings 1994, B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.).	eng
8113	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 32 collection sites in Alabama; many of these are closely adjacent within a single stream; probably at least 15 are distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown. This species is locally abundant in spring habitat (Etnier and Starnes 1993), but overall it is not very common. Populations are "very fractionated" (Boschung and Mayden 2004). <br/><br/>Etnier and Starnes (1993) noted that several populations "have doubtless been eliminated by habitat alterations."<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size may be declining, but the rate of decline probably is less than 30% over three generations or 10 years. Status in Alabama has not improved over the past several decades (Boschung and Mayden 2004).	eng
8113	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Several subpopulations of this species have been eliminated by habitat alteration (Etnier and Starnes 1993). Spring habitats are being altered by a number of factors such as chemical use to remove native plants and animals allowing "home water gardens" to be constructed, construction of fishing ponds with introduced species, and as drinking water sources (Boschung and Mayden 2004). These habitats have also been lost and degraded by groundwater depletion (abstraction), and siltation and pollution associated with urbanisation (e.g. Birmingham, Alabama) (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Dispersal has been impeded by construction of structures such as impoundments (Kuhajda pers. comm. 1998). Warmer summer-month, water temperatures in surrounding springs, is also believed to prevent dispersal due to specific temperature requirements (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm. 1998). This species is of conservation concern in all three states in which it occurs.	eng
8116	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in the New River system of Virginia and North Carolina.	eng
8118	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has small scattered populations in a narrow range in the Ohio River basin (Indiana, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia).	eng
8120	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in the upper Little Red River drainage in Arkansas.	eng
8121	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in the Osage River system, Missouri.	eng
8122	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found only in a few springs of the upper Black Warrior River system in Alabama.	eng
8123	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to six adjacent stream systems draining into Choctawhatchee Bay, Okaloosa and Walton counties, Florida. 90% of the total range is within Eglin Air Force Base.	eng
8124	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in New River drainage, Virginia and West Virginia.	eng
8125	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in a portion of the Ouachita River system in Arkansas.	eng
8127	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to the Bayou Pierre River and its tributaries in western Mississippi.	eng
8130	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em>;&#160;however, <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, distribution range, and habitat status of this species is needed. Conservation efforts should seek to improve agricultural practice within this species range.	eng
8130	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The distribution of <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> is restricted to small tributaries of the Duck River in the Tennessee River drainage. It can be found in Bedford, Coffee, Lewis, Marshall and Maury counties within Tennesse (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Burr<em> et al.</em> 1993). The area in which this species is distributed is probably less than 10,000 km². In a directed survey of the species, it was only found at 10  sites in the entire Duck River system. It was also found to be absent from 6 sites from which it was previously known (Cook, Taylor and Burr 1996). <span class="copy">Burr<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1993) found the species in 10 locations representing probably 9 distinct subpopulations.	eng
8130	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Etheostoma striatulum</em> typically occurs in bedrock pools of low-gradient headwaters and creeks with large slab stones (Page 1980, Etnier and Starnes 1993). Adults use the stones for shelter but may also use under cut banks and tree roots. Small individuals occur in gravel substrate pools and along vegetated or rocky stream margins. Eggs are laid on the underside of large slab stones (Page 1983).	eng
8130	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Burr<em> et al.</em> (1993) found this species in 10 of the 28 known historical collection sites, probably representing nine distinct subpopulations. Etnier and Starnes (1993) reported that efforts to collect this species in four of the dozen creeks from which the species is known were not successful. The current population trend is not known, but habitat extent and quality are thought to be in a state of decline.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. Reports of current populations have been described as rare by Page (1980) and Page and Burr (1991), and uncommon by Etnier and Starnes 1993. In the study by Cook, Taylor and Burr (1996) this species was always found in low numbers (<6/site, most yielded 1 or 2 specimens/site).	eng
8130	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Habitat degradation due to agricultural activity, poses the greatest threat to population numbers of <em>Etheostoma striatulum</em>. Nutrient enrichment from cattle manure being dumped directly into streams, and siltation from non-point agricultural sources are well known threats faced by this species (D.A. Etnier 1995 pers. comm.). These threats pose a significant threat to this restricted range species.	eng
8132	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species habitat requires protection from further development and degradation. Monitoring of the habitat status, population numbers and distribution range is needed to assess trends in rate of decline. Further research is needed to resolve taxonomic issues.	eng
8132	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species range encompasses springs along the southern bend of the Tennessee River in northern Alaska (Boschung and Mayden 2004) and formerly through south-central Tennessee (Etnier and Starnes 1993). The extent of occurence is thought to be less than 10,000 km², with an area of occupancy less than 200 km²<em></em>, assuming there are fewer than 20 extant populations averaging less than 10 km² of occupied habitat.	eng
8132	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species habitat is restricted to vegetated spring pools and runs with slow current and high water quality. It is usually associated with watercress (<em>Nasturtium officionale</em>) or other aquatic plants or algae, over clean substrates of fine gravel, sand, and silt. Water temperatures range between 15 –17°C (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Jones <em>et al</em>. 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004). Although the species has been found around small (four to five feet high) dams, and small impoundments (beaver ponds), larger structures pose a barrier to dispersal (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.). Warm summer month temperatures in surrounding spring waters are also thought to preclude dispersal (B.R. Kuhajda 1998 pers. comm.). Due to the habitat requirements of this species, it has a severely fragmented distribution.	eng
8132	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 25 collection sites and indicated that the species has been extirpated in 12 of those sites.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. This species can be locally numerous in favorable habitat.<br/><br/>This species has evidently been extirpated from roughly 50% of the known collection localities (Etnier and Starnes 1993, Boschung and Mayden 2004).	eng
8132	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The primary threat to the population of this species is human modification of spring heads. Extirpations have occurred in Alabama as a result of vegetated spring heads being converted to fishing ponds or treated with herbicides to remove vegetation (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Former habitat in Tennessee was inundated by the construction of  Pickwick Reservoir (Etnier and Starnes 1993).	eng
8136	conservation	Alves, N., Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is listed as a threatened species across much of its range. It is protected in South Australia, listed as vulnerable in the Australian Capital Territory and threatened in Victoria. In New South Wales (NSW), this species occurs in the "Lower Murray River Endangered Ecological Community" and so is normally given the status of a threatened species across a large proportion of its range. Despite this, recreational fishing is permitted within the Endangered Ecological Community boundaries (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Nationally, the conservation status was “indeterminate” due to a lack of knowledge at the time of the scoping report by Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). </p>  <p>Fishing for this species is prohibited in the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia (PIRSA 2008, TAMS 2007).</p>  <p>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the more than 35 <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species in NSW attain that size (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus sulcatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus spinifer</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus valentulus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span>), so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these four species. </p>  <p>The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in Victoria from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992), but the current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90 mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120mm OCL) (DPI 2007). </p>  <p>Any future conservation measures or efforts for this species as a whole (i.e. throughout its range) are likely to be complicated, disjointed or hindered by the fact the species is distributed over three states and one territory, all of which have differing legislation and regulations regarding this species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Ideally a holistic and collaborative approach including all stakeholders (i.e. all relevant states and territories) should be adopted in any future research or conservation efforts for this species in order to maximize research outputs, conservation outcomes, and minimise duplication of effort, and thus domestic outlays.</p>  <p>The known and potential threats facing this species need to be more thoroughly investigated, documented, and monitored over time, as do subpopulations of this species. A systematic and thorough investigation of the species' contemporary distribution, and quantification of the population status (including any declines) is recommended urgently, as such data is essential for objective assessment against IUCN Catagories and Criteria.</p><p>Monitoring of&#160;this&#160;species is essential to guarantee its survival.&#160;Despite&#160;the awareness of the&#160;species&#160;through angling, little is known of its ecology and threats (S. Lawler, pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>	eng
8136	distribution	Alves, N., Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia and is recognised as the 2<sup>nd</sup> largest species of crayfish in the world (Van Praagh 2003). The species is found from near sea-level to over 700 m above sea level, and its distribution extends into New  South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. The species range covers a distance north to south of 450 km, and a distance east to west of 800 km, rendering it the most widespread species in the genus (Morgan 1997). This species Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) was estimated to exceed 150,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>    <p>This distribution includes waterways in the Murrumbidgee, Murray, Mitta Mitta, Kiewa, Ovens and Goulburn River catchments. Although there were still commercial catches of this species reported in the Murray River in South   Australia until the 1960s, this species is now considered rare or absent from this area downstream of Mildura in New South Wales (approximately 1,000 km of river) (Van Praagh 2003, Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Absence from this part of the river appears to be the most appreciable documented reduction in the distribution, estimated to be around 10% of its natural distribution (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). However, there has been no recent targeted sampling for this species in the South Australian reaches of the Murray River to confirm their continued absence (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). </p>	eng
8136	habitat	Alves, N., Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span> occupies a range of habitats from small upland streams to large lowland rivers. The average size of individuals increases with the amount of habitat available. Important habitat characteristics include flowing water, clay banks, woody debris, deep holes, and boulders as these provide shelter (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species is tolerant of temperatures up to 27°C and moderate salinities (<16 parts per thousand), but is intolerant of low dissolved oxygen concentrations (Gilligan et al. 2007).</p>  <br/>This species is a k strategist, meaning it is long lived when not disturbed and slow to reach maturity.&#160; The size of this species at sexual maturity varies widely between locations, and its age at sexual maturity may also vary (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>species<em>&#160;</em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).<br/>  <br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
8136	population	Alves, N., Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>The species is considered extinct or very rare in several of the lowland reaches of the rivers it inhabits (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Subpopulations of this species have been identified as declining due largely to exploitation, inappropriate management of waterways (resulting in habitat degradation) and pollution (Gilligan  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).   Since the 1940s, this crayfish species has also been steadily declining in the Murrumbidgee (particularly in the lower reaches) and Murray  Rivers.&#160;However, this information is based solely on recreational fisher reports, as no primary data has thus far been collected to support these claims (N. Alves pers. comm. 2008).&#160;Recently there is some evidence of continued decline in the lower Murray River (McCarthy 2005).</p>	eng
8136	threats	Alves, N., Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>This species is thought to have been affected by a number of threat processes, including habitat modification, pollution and pesticides, exploitation (i.e. recreational fishing) and the effects of introduced species (Van Praagh 2003, Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p>  <p>      </p><p>The construction of weirs and resulting river regulation and seasonal flow reversal, and the widespread use of agrochemicals in the 1940s and 50s are likely to be the two primary threatening processes responsible for the decline in the range and abundance of this species, mainly through perturbation of&#160;breeding cycles and the timing of the release of young&#160;(S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Furthermore, the avoidance of weir pool environments in this species has been reported (Gilligan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Agrochemicals, and even cow dung in the river water, have an impact on the abundance and health of this species symbionts (Temnocephalans) but the role they play in the health of the crayfish remains unknown (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p><p></p><p></p><p>Exotic species (foxes, goats, cats, pigs, fish) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d, &#160;Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p>    <p>Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Barker (1992) reported considerable variation in catch rates and sizes across different sites for this species.</p>    <p>Although widespread and less specific in its habitat requirements than most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>species, it will potentially be impacted upon by the effects of climate change, as are other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>. A predicted drier climate will lead to decreased run-off, soil moisture and decreased environmental flows: particularly in areas of increasing demand for agricultural water supplies (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes, 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).</p><p>This species is most threatened in the lower Murray River, where the extinction boundary seems to be moving east from Mildura (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>In particular, given that the species occurs in the heavily degraded Murray-Darling system, it is conceivable that population declines will continue into the future, therefore, continued monitoring of the species and threats is required (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
8137	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however its distribution range coincides with the nature reserve. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <br/></p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus bindal</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
8137	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia and known only from the type locality, near the peak of Mount Elliot in Queensland (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). There is no other suitable habitat within 250 km (Morgan 1989). The extent of occurrence for this species is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008); area of occupancy is almost certainly less than the extent of occurrence. It is only known from a single location (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p><p> &#160;</p>	eng
8137	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits cool, clear, fast-flowing waters in areas of tropical rainforest (Morgan 1989), and is known from a single isolated pocket of rainforest at approximately 1,000 m above sea level on Mount Elliot (Morgan 1989).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>	eng
8137	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
8137	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  Although this species occurs within National Parks it is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors.&#160; 2. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, increased potential for bushfires (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001, Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007, Laurance and Curran 2008). 3.&#160; Potentially large scale threats from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. 4.&#160; Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d). These exotic species could have localised impacts on <em>E. bindal</em>, which given the species highly restricted distribution could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance.	eng
8138	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>The range of the species coincides with several national parks. This species is listed as threatened under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, and an Action Statement under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988) has been prepared (Van Praagh 2003). In South Australia there is no minimum legal length (i.e. size) for this species, but a bag limit of five individuals applies (PIRSA undated). The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in Victoria from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992). The current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90 mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120 mm OCL) (DPI 2007). Only three of the 11 Victorian species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Euasta armatus, E. bispinosus and E. kershawi</span>) attain 90 mm OCL, so the regulations may increase pressure on these species.</p>    <p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008) &#160; </p>	eng
8138	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is recorded from the Glenelg River system and its tributaries, in western Victoria, and in Ewens Ponds south of Mount Gambier, South Australia. It is found from close to sea level to altitudes of 320 m and probably higher (Riek 1969; Morgan 1986). There has been an   apparent disappearance from Rocklands Reservoir (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
8138	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is found in streams, rivers and ponds. The vegetation at lower altitude sites includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptospermum</span> species, bracken, with wet sclerophyll forest and pine plantations in areas (Morgan 1986). This species prefers streams with shaded, well vegetated banks, and an abundance of woody debris (Morgan 1983). <br/></p><p>    </p><p>This is a slow-growing species taking up to 12 years to reach sexual maturity (Van Praagh 2003). It reproduces annually, has a low dispersal rate, and is typically found at low densities (Honan and Mitchell 1990 a,b,c).</p>  <p></p>	eng
8138	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Population data for this species was documented by Barker (1992), and various aspects of growth, reproduction and general biology have also been studied (Honan and Mitchell 1995a,b,c; Honan 1998), making this one of the better understood species in the genus. It is a slow-growing and late-maturing species, and its population attributes appear unsuited to exploitation (Honan and Mitchell 1995a,c). This species is thought to exhibit extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2009). This species is the least abundant of the three spiny crayfish species (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007).</p>  <p></p>	eng
8138	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  Climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (IPCC 2007, Westoby and Burgman 2006) is a potential threat to this species. Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2002). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006).<br/><br/>The Glenelg River catchment has been      extensively cleared, and modified, and river regulation, de-snagging,      channelization and increased sedimentation have impacted in-stream      habitat (Van Praagh 2003, O'Brien 2007). Construction of the Rocklands Reservoir      is thought to have caused the local extinction of this species, which was recorded at the site prior to      the dam's construction (Horwitz 1990).<br/><br/>The abundance      of this species has been      reduced through inappropriate levels of exploitation (Jones and Morgan 1994). Morgan (1983)      observed evidence of heavy fishing activity in the Glenelg River      system, and noted that populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>      could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Barker (1992) found considerable      variation in catch rates and sizes of this species across different sites. Recreational fishing (in particular      the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far      reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population      phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in      females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<br/><br/>Exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region, potentially are a large scale threats for this species (Horwitz 1990, Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c) and could have localised impacts on this species, leading to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.	eng
8139	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, however this species range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Eungella</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Nationa</st1:placetype></st1:place>l Park.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to effects of exotic species.<p>All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially 'no take' species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</p>	eng
8139	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is found in the rainforested headwaters in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Clarke</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype>, approximately 65 km west of Mackay in <st1:place w:st="on">Central Queensland</st1:place> (Morgan 1988). The nearest suitable highland habitat is either 500 km to the south, or 240 km to the north (Morgan 1988). This species is restricted to localities above 740 m above sea level (Morgan 1988).   Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of different drainage basins, and therefore the species distribution is clearly severely fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006). This species' extent of occurrence is estimated at 80 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/></p>	eng
8139	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species inhabits cool, fast flowing, well shaded streams of montane rainforests in an area of exceptionally high rainfall (Morgan 1988, Horwitz 1990, Ponniah and Hughes 1998).	eng
8139	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There is no population data available for this species. Recent (Coughran 2008a unpublished data) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies in and around the type locality suggested this species is relatively uncommon, and at some sites co-occurs with a more abundant species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span>. </p>	eng
8139	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The species is susceptible to the following threats: 1. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es and severe weather events. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change modeling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007); 2. The alteration of hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es is likely to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006); 3. Over-exploitation. This restricted range species is susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors and illegal fishing pressure (O’Brien 2007); 4. Exotic fish. Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <em>et al</em>. 2008); 5. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <em>et al. </em>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts on <em>E. eungella</em> and contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p></p>  Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted   range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),   global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This   species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and  degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats  on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be   significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J.   Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
8140	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however this species range coincides with the Northern Queensland World Heritage Area  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Further research on the possible threats to this species is needed to determine to what degree they are impacting the population.<br/><p>All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed   and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). </p>	eng
8140	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from a small highland area (more than 900 m above sea level) west of Mossman (north <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>), between and including <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Lewis</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Spurgeon</st1:placename></st1:place> (Morgan 1988). The species inhabits numerous gullies and headwaters of different streams within this area. This species extent of occurrence is approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>  (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, and therefore the species distribution is severely fragmented (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
8140	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is known to inhabit cool, clear, fast-flowing headwater streams within rainforest (Morgan 1988). As is the case for most <em>Euastacus</em> species, this species<em> </em>prefers well oxygenated, heavily shaded sites. Individuals like to burrow either under rocks or logs (Horwitz 1990). Unlike other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> in northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland,</st1:place></st1:state> this species is very large exceeding 100 mm Orbital Carapace Length (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>	eng
8140	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no population data available for this species although it is relatively common within its small range (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8140	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species may be threatened by over-exploitation due to recreational fishing (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>) especially as this species is over the 90 mm OCL catch limit that has been imposed for spiny crayfish.<br/>  <p>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, and an increased potential for bushfires could all cause population declines (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001, Chiew and McMahon 2002,Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007, Laurance and Curran 2008).</p>      <p>This species is also potentially threatened by the introduced Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b), although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d). Large areas of stream habitat within the species distribution have been totally rooted by feral pigs (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>).&#160;</p>	eng
8141	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species, however its distribution coincides with several national parks and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Furthermore, All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
8141	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from the Maleny Plateau and streams flowing from it, in the upper reaches of Yabba Creek, and from a tributary of the upper <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane River</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1988). Furthermore, this species is known only from sites approximately 475 m above sea level (Morgan 1988, Smith<em> et al.</em> 1998). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>.   The distribution and habitat are limited (Morgan 1988), and all sites fall within 0.5° latitude and 0.5° longitude. There are few places within this EOO that are above 475m, so the area of occupancy is likely to be very low (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Though this species occurs in a number of streams, the distribution is restricted to headwater reaches above 475 m, and therefore the distribution is severely fragmented as intervening lowland areas have been identified as barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
8141	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species<em> </em>inhabits cool, clear, flowing headwaters in montane areas, in both wet sclerophyll and rainforest (Morgan 1988). Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks. Smith<em> et al.</em> (1998) recorded the species in deep pools, runs, riffles and glides. <br/></p>	eng
8141	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Smith<em> et al.</em> (1998) recorded details about growth, habitat and abundance of juveniles in two creek catchments in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Conondale</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The distribution of this species is severely fragmented as intervening lowland areas have  been identified as barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and  Hughes 2006).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
8141	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific data on the impact of this threat on this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).     <p>Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus hystricosus</span> is a large species that would be appealing to recreational fishers.   Illegal harvesting is a potential threat (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Morgan (1983) observed evidence of heavy fishing activities in the Conondale region, and noted that populations of <em>Euastacus</em> could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008).	eng
8142	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>  Although the range of this species coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Mistake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.  All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that some <em>Euastacus</em> species such as this species are not spiny (Morgan 1988, Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). <br/></p>    <p></p>	eng
8142	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, and is known only from the type locality in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mistake</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype>, southeastern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). The range of this species is drained by tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 10 km² (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008); its area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence, and is thus also less than 10 km².</p>	eng
8142	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species inhabits tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008) within a highland (920 m above sea level) rainforested site in the Mistake Mountains (Morgan 1988).	eng
8142	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be rare as it is known only from six specimens (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8142	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>      <p></p>	eng
8143	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution is wholly within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Queensland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Wildlife Service property. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into environmental tolerances and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus maidae</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</span></p>	eng
8143	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. The only published records of this species are from the type locality in the upper reaches of Currumbin Creek in southeast Queensland (Riek 1956, Morgan 1988), and it has not been collected below approximately 150 m above sea level   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8143	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species is known to occur in the Currumbin Creek, which is characterized by cool, clear, fast-flowing water in a rainforested area (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). This species is restricted to heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters in rainforest where it can burrow under logs and rocks. Furthermore, it co-occurs with the much larger <em>Euastacus valentulus</em> and <em>Euastacus sulcatus </em>(J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8143	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species is believed to be extremely rare within its highly restricted distribution (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Despite various extensive targeted surveys (J.M. Furse pers. obs. 2000, 2001 and 2002, J. Coughran pers. obs. 2007 and 2008) only three specimens of this species were captured (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8143	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007.   Land use management on private properties situated at the top of the catchment (on the Springbrook Plateau), could lead to declines in habitat/water quality due to pesticides, pathogens, pollution, siltation, and eutrophication. Given the highly restricted distribution of this species, these impacts could lead to significant population declines, or extinction.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
8144	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however its distribution range coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kroombit</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Tops</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus monteithorum</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1989; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.<p></p>	eng
8144	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em> This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known only from the type locality, Kroombit Tops, a single isolated mountain peak in <st1:place w:st="on">central Queensland</st1:place>. The nearest suitable highland habitat is either 280 km to the south, or 425 km to the north (Morgan 1989).   The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 10 km², and the area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence.	eng
8144	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits cool, clear fast flowing headwaters in rainforested areas at approximately 860 m above sea level (Morgan 1989). Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
8144	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species is thought to be rare. Recent (Oct 2008) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies in and around the type locality failed to locate any specimens of this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse 2008).	eng
8144	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, goats, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
8145	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas including the Northern Queensland World Heritage Area, Cape Tribulation National Park and Cedar Bay National Park (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, all 'spiny crayfish' (Euastacus) species in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>    <p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and the impacts of threats within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
8145	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from two sites (approximately 40 km apart), the type locality (Mount Finnigan) and Thornton Peak, South of Cooktown, North Queensland (Morgan 1988). Both sites are above 1,000 m above sea level, and should be considered as severely fragmented given that intervening lowland areas are barriers to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009).&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
8145	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>      <p>This species inhabits cool, clear, fast-flowing waters in areas of tropical rainforest (Morgan 1988). It is found in streams and pools where it burrows in the bank or shelters in natural crevices for shelter (Monroe 1977). Specimens have been collected during the day from under rocks or in leaf litter, and at night this species has been observed just inside the burrow entrance (Monroe 1977). The burrows of this species have been observed to have one or two entrances (Monroe 1977).</p>	eng
8145	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.</p>	eng
8145	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em>Euastacus robertsi</em> has low dispersal capabilities through non-continuous rainforest which will result in problems in the future as more and more and more of the surrounding rainforest is harvested (Ponniah and Hughes 1998). This species also has a very limited range which means the effects of habitat degradation will be more pronounced. Agriculture within their range and a loss of riparian vegetation is also having a detrimental effect on the species (Horwitz 1990, 1995). In addition the species is susceptible to the following potential threats:1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat, increased potential for bushfires (Hilbert<em> et al.</em> 2001; Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007; Laurance and Curran 2008); 3. </span> There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.   Other exotic species (cats and pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c) and given this species highly restricted distribution and rarity, could have serious impacts on <em>E.&#160;robertsi </em>by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance.</span>	eng
8146	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Maiala</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus setosus</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</span></p>  <p></p>	eng
8146	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from a limited number of sites proximal to the type locality, in headwater tributaries of the Pine River near Mount Glorious, northwest of Brisbane (Riek 1969, J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It is thought to possibly occur elsewhere in the D'Aguilar Range, although rainforest in the area has been extensively cleared and persists only in some gullies of state forests and national parks (Morgan 1998).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 10 km² (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009); its area of occupancy is almost certainly less than 10 km². </p>	eng
8146	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species inhabits cool, running headwater creeks in rainforested areas above 500 m (Morgan 1988). Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (Horwitz 1990).</p>	eng
8146	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>The species is known to be rare (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
8146	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given the restricted range of this species, it is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, it is also susceptible to climate change impacts such as increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). In addition, the Cane Toad (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) also poses a threat (DEH 2004b), although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic introduced species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution and rarity, could have serious impacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
8147	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it does occur in the Conondale and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mapleton</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Falls</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, population genetics, investigations into the species thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as <em>Euastacus urospinosus</em> are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <em>Cherax</em> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers.</p>  </p><p><br/></p>	eng
8147	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is restricted to a tributary of Obi Obi Creek, between Maleny and Mapleton in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Blackall</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>, and other sites in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Conondale</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Morgan 1988, Borsboom 1998). Individuals were collected at altitudes greater than 240 m above sea level (Horwitz 1990). The species distribution consists of two geographically separate areas around 15 km apart (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). However, the rainforest has been largely cleared throughout the area and only persists in pockets (Morgan 1988), and the two localities should be regarded as severely fragmented (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
8147	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species inhabits cool, clear fast flowing headwaters in rainforested areas. Like other species of <em>Euastacus</em>, this species prefers heavily shaded, well oxygenated waters where it can burrow under logs and rocks (Horwitz 1990). <br/></p>	eng
8147	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>  Few specimens have been collected of this species from the Maleny and Mapleton localities, but in a more intensive, long-term study in the Conondale Ranges, Borsboom (1998) collected it in high numbers (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
8147	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>Given the apparently restricted range of each population, the species is susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management, practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given the restricted distribution, could have impacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998) considered the potential threat of illegal recreational fishing for the larger <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus hystricosus</span> in the Conondale area, and this may also be a threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. urospinosus</span>.   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats,&#160; foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>	eng
8148	conservation	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>Within Victoria, this species is listed as threatened under The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. The Scientific Advisory Committee determined that this species was particularly 'vulnerable' to future threats which are likely to result in extinction (Van Praagh 2003). <br/></p>    <p>As a result of the action statement developed in 2003 by Van Praagh, the following actions were suggested: a) determine distribution and abundance of the species, b) protect instream and riparian habitat, c) determine key habitat parameters. Further research should also be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160; </p>    <p>In Victoria, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish, and as this species does not attain that size, it is indirectly protected by this restriction. Apart from a ban on <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus armatus</span>, there are no recreational fishing regulations for freshwater crayfish in the Australian Capital Territory (TAMS 2007).</p>	eng
8148	distribution	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is present in the <st1:state w:st="on">Australian Capital Territory</st1:state>, especially in the high country west of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Snowy</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> and into the eastern semi-alpine country of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state> as far as the Mount Beauty-Mount Hotham region (Morgan 1997). The range extends from northeast to southwest approximately 210 km (Morgan 1997). This species is restricted to the upper reaches of several drainages, and the range can thus be considered severely fragmented due to the isolating effects of unsuitable lowland habitat and the barriers of mountain ridges (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). It inhabits sites greater than 640 m above sea level. The range is extremely narrow, and the overall extent of occurrence (EOO) for the species is approximately 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). The primary determinant of this species' distribution is elevation, so even within this EOO there will be places below 1000 m where other crayfish species are found (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;<br/><br/>&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
8148	habitat	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>  This species typically occupies cool, clear upland streams in alpine and sub-alpine regions. In Morgan's (1997) description of the type locality, he describes an abundance of ferns, granitic substrate, with dry sclerophyll forest and heath. He also notes that this species has a patchy distribution in the Australian Capital Territory occurring in high streams where vegetation is relatively undisturbed.<br/><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).<br/></p>	eng
8148	population	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.   The species is considered rare (Van Praagh 2003, O'Brien 2007), although may be common in very localized situations (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8148	threats	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	Habitat modification is a major threat to this species. The habitat has been impacted by agriculture, burning, river regulation and in-stream structures (i.e. Snowy River Hydro-electric Scheme) (O'Brien 2007).  Although this species occurs within national parks there are numerous other potential threats such as exotic fish and other exotic species, climate change, over-exploitation for food and bait (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/> <br/>Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region may impact this species (Davies and McDowall 1996; Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised impacts on this species by contributing to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.<br/>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/>        Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable alpine habitat and increased potential for bushfires could pose a threat to this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, cats, foxes, trout and perch) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
8149	conservation	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species<em>,</em> however in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length applies (DPI 2007); as this species <em></em>does not attain that size, it is indirectly protected by this restriction.    <p><br/></p><p>There are plans to establish some protected habitat areas at sites where <em>E. diversus</em> has been recorded. If implemented these will be Linear Reserves consisting of an undisturbed buffer of approximately 100m on each bank of the stream 1km upstream and downstream of sites where <em>E. diversus </em>&#160;were recorded (Murray 2003). Land use management practices will apparently be managed or restricted within and nearby these Linear Reserves (i.e. no road construction, and any fuel reduction or regeneration burning in the vicinity will be strictly controlled to ensure that the reserves themselves are not burnt (Murray 2003)). </p>  <p>When established these protected habitat areas should be monitored to evaluate the efficacy of the threat mitigation measures implemented therein. Existing populations should also be monitored to identify if any dramatic decreases in numbers occurr. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, population genetics, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
8149	distribution	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It has a very restricted distribution, having been found at only seven localities on, and around the Erinundra Plateau in <st1:place w:st="on">East  Gippsland</st1:place>, Victoria. The type locality is approximately 50 km north of Orbost (Morgan 1986). The species was then rediscovered in Ferntree, Ellery, Jungle and Lilly-Pilly Creeks, all in the headwaters of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brodribb</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River </st1:placetype></st1:place>  (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In 1995 a subpopulation was located in Yandown Creek, in the headwaters of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Queensborough</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>. This is the only subpopulation known outside the Brodribb River Catchment (Murray 2003). The terrain is rugged, and its restriction to headwater streams at elevations between 350 - 1,050 m above sea level warrants that the distribution of this species be considered as highly fragmented (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated at approximately 500 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;    </p>	eng
8149	habitat	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	The habitat and ecology of this species is not well known. However, the streams present within its range are cool, perennial and highly oxygenated, flowing through wet or damp forest or rainforest. The substrate is usually cobbles, pebbles, or gravel and there is an abundance of instream debris (Murray 2003).	eng
8149	population	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	The species was considered rare by Horwitz (1990), and is still uncommon at the sites it inhabits. Some of these sites are also inhabited by the larger and dominant <span style="font-style: italic;">E. kershawi</span> (Coughran 2008 unpublished data).   This species is common enough at the site 30 miles north of Orbost, with several caught within a few minutes (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8149	threats	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	This species faces various serious threats associated with land use management and ongoing forestry practices within its limited range (Murray 2003). These threats include increased sedimentation of waterways from construction of logging roads, clear felling of vegetation, and associated prescribed burning for vegetation regeneration purposes (Murray 2003). In addition, stream flow regimes and various water quality parameters (i.e. temperature, organic material and nutrient loads, and oxygenation levels) are likely to be influenced by land use practices within its small range (Murray 2003). These threats are likely to become more pronounced as the logging activities encroach on waterways inhabited by this crayfish (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).  As a result, timber harvesting and burning of the forest to manage timber is the largest threat to this species with its entire distribution in a logging zone (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Localised catastrophic events, such as a prolonged drought or large sediment pulses could drastically affect populations of this species. Roads alongside, or across, streams are the most likely source of a sediment pulse. Road works can also cause an increase in sedimentation immediately downstream of the works, causing a decline in the quality of both the water and the substrate (Murray 2003). <br/><br/> As a high altitude species, climate change poses a threat, including increased temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable highland habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).    <p>Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats, brown trout) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, Murray 2003, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e), and given this species restricted distribution and apparent rarity, could have serious impacts on this species<em>&#160;</em>by contributing to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>	eng
8150	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>      <p>This species is listed as Threatened under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>. Furthermore, this species range coincides with the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wilson's</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Promontory</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm Orbital Carpace Length (OCL) applies (DPI 2007); this species   does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p>Future conservation efforts need to focus on describing key habitat parameters for this species and protecting critical habitat. Research should also be initiated into the population status of this species and to what extent impacts such as forestry, invasive species and climate change are having upon it.   Research should also be initiated into population genetics of the species and biological and life history information, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species  (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Local awareness programs would benefit this species: at present there is a lack of awareness of this endemic species in this area (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
8150	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found on Wilsons Promontory and in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Strzelecki</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype> of southern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state> at elevations of 50-600 m above sea level (Morgan 1986). The species has a severely fragmented range, with the unsuitable lowland habitat of the Yanakie Isthmus forming a barrier between the Wilson's Promontory population and the remaining mainland sites (Morgan 1986, J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recent surveys of the Strzelecki ranges have failed to&#160;locate&#160;a single individual of this species (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 1,500 km<sup>2 </sup> (J. Coughran and J. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
8150	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species is typically found in narrow and shallow waters with a temperature range of 7-15<sup>o</sup>C and high dissolved oxygen content (Van Praagh 2003). It is more commonly seen in streams with pool habitat and little or no aquatic vegetation (Van Praagh 2003). Riparian vegetation reflects the altitudinal differences of sites within its fragmented range (Morgan 1986, Van Praagh 2003).	eng
8150	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>This species has a restricted, fragmented distribution and is considered to be rare (O'Brien 2007). This&#160;species&#160;is&#160;further&#160;regarded to be rare within the&#160;Wilson&#160;Promentary (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>	eng
8150	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>A considerable amount of land within the potential range of this species has been converted to pine plantations. However, quantitative studies on the impact of forestry practises on these crayfish are few and far between. Many studies have shown direct effects of timber harvesting on the macro-invertebrates of streams due to decreased water quality and quantity (Campbell and Doeg 1989). Forestry activities may pose direct and indirect threats to&#160;<em></em>this species by changing the flow characteristics of the stream, run-off, the amounts and type of organic debris entering the stream, temperature regimes, and the amount and rate of in-stream sediment (Van Praagh 2003). The deposition of sediment in streams coats the substrata, fills interstitial spaces and is detrimental to young crayfish. These areas are of value in protecting juvenile crayfish from predators. A study recently showed a negative relationship between the presence of this species and levels of instream silt (Koster <em>et al</em>. 1999). Wildfires are another major threat to this species, of which there have been a few in the last decade (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). <br/><p>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this rare species may be susceptible to over-collection and fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008).<br/></p>Other potential large scale threats that occur within the range of this species, include the threat of predation by exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<em> et al.</em> 2008). Future potential threats include climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).	eng
8151	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range may coincide with the Koombooloomba Forest Reserve (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>All species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this species are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Short and Davie 1993; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (unprotected) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
8151	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is currently known from a single site in O'Leary Creek, a tributary of the upper Tully River above Koombooloomba Dam, North Queensland (Short and Davie 1993).   This species has an extent of occurrence of around 10 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>	eng
8151	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species is known to occur in river and creeks, and has been found under rocks in shallow water. They prefer rock/sand substratum, fringing simple notophyll vine forest with high water clarity (Short and Davie 1993).	eng
8151	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is apparently rare (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recent (Oct 2008) targeted surveys in a number of streams and gullies proximal to the type locality failed to locate any specimens of this species, although the habitat was apparently suitable (Coughran 2008a unpublished data<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>	eng
8151	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p></p><p>  Given the apparently restricted range of each population, the species is susceptible to localized <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts, including bush fires, forest management, practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors. Cl<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological reg<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given the restricted distribution, could have <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts on this species by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>	eng
8153	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Right whales have been protected internationally from commercial hunting since 1935, but this has only been fully respected since the early 1970s, when the presence of international observers ended illegal catches by Soviet fleets, and land stations in South America also stopped taking right whales. Although several countries have designated marine protected areas that include right whale breeding habitat, it is not always clear what additional level of protection is offered over and above that applying to whales in the country’s waters generally. Those protected areas with specific management measures aimed at protecting the right whales in their calving grounds include the Area de Proteção Ambiental de Baleia Franca (Right Whale Environmental Protection Area) off Catarina State in Brazil, the Golfo San José Provincial Marine Park (Parque Marino Golfo San José) in Argentina, and the Great Australian Bight Marine Park in South Australia.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and CMS.	eng
8153	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Southern right whales have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Hemisphere. The distribution in winter, at least of the breeding component of the population, is concentrated near coastlines in the northern part of the range. Major current breeding areas are nearshore off southern Australia, New Zealand (particularly Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands), Atlantic coast of South America (Argentina and Brazil), and southern Africa (mainly South Africa). Small numbers are also seen off central Chile, Peru, Tristan da Cunha (British Overseas Territory), and the east coast of Madagascar (IWC 2001, Rosenbaum <em>et al</em>. 2001). In summer right whales are found mainly in latitudes 40-50°S (Ohsumi and Kasamatsu 1986) but have been seen, especially in recent years, in the Antarctic as far south as 65°S (IWC 2007, Bannister <em>et al</em>. 1999) and around South Georgia (Rowntree <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
8153	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Southern right whales have been well-studied on their winter breeding grounds, especially at Peninsula Valdés, Argentina, and in Australia and South Africa. Researchers have used callosity patterns to identify individuals on these grounds, and have learned much about the southern right whale's behavior, communication, and reproduction. Females produce calves at 3-5 year intervals, usually three years but with a lengthening of the cycle to five years when feeding conditions are poor (Leaper <em>et al.</em> 2006). Calves are born from June to October with a peak in August after a 12-13 month gestation period (Best 1994). Where feeding occurs north of 40°S the diet consists mainly of copepods, south of 50°S mainly euphausiids (krill), and varying proportions of the two food items at intermediate latitudes (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
8153	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The IWC conducted its last major review of southern right whales in 1998 (IWC 2001), from which most of this information is taken.<br/><br/>Following severe historical depletion by commercial whaling, several breeding populations (Argentina/Brazil, South Africa, and Australia) of southern right whales (<em>E. australis</em>) have shown evidence of strong recovery, with a doubling time of 10-12 years (Bannister 2001, Best <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cooke <em>et al</em>. 2001). The other breeding populations are still very small, and data are insufficient to determine whether they are recovering. Estimated total population size as of 1997 was 7,500 animals (of which 1,600 were mature females, including 547 from Argentina and 659 from South Africa), and the three main populations have continued to increase at a similar rate since then (Best <em>et al.</em> 2005, Cooke <em>et al.</em> 2003, IWC 2007). Illegal Soviet catches (mainly in the 1960s) temporarily inhibited recovery, but overall the population appears to have grown strongly since then (see below).<br/><br/>There appears to be substantial interchange between breeding grounds off the same continent, e.g. between Argentina and Brazil (Groch <em>et al.</em> 2004), but a much smaller rate of interchange between land masses, e.g. between Australia and New Zealand (Anon. 2004) and Argentina and Tristan da Cunha (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
8153	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Southern right whales were hunted extensively by pre-modern whaling starting in the early 17th century, but especially in the 18th and 19th centuries by American and European whalers. Not all records have survived, and furthermore there is uncertainty over the numbers of animals killed but not caught. The total number processed between 1770 and 1900 is conservatively estimated at about 150,000, of which 48,000-60,000 were taken in the 1830s alone. By the start of modern whaling at the beginning of the 20th century, the species was already rare, and catches thereafter until right whales were legally protected in 1935 totalled only about 1,600 individuals. Over 3,000 were taken illegally by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998). The hemispheric population in 1770 is estimated at 55,000-70,000 and is estimated to have been depleted to a low of about 300 animals by the 1920s. The species presumably began to recover following protection in 1935, but the illegal Soviet catches in the 1960s are estimated to have removed over half of the remaining population and delayed recovery (IWC 2001).<br/><br/>Like their congeners in the Northern Hemisphere, southern right whales are subject to mortality due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with shipping (IWC 2001). However, this does not seem to have impeded their recovery, at least in some areas. The lower average density of human populations and thus fishing, shipping and other potentially harmful activities in the Southern Hemisphere, compared with the western North Atlantic, probably makes this species less affected by such activities than is the North Atlantic right whale.<br/><br/>Parasitism by kelp gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em>, which gouge skin and blubber from the whales’ backs, has been increasing rapidly in the Península Valdés calving ground and may eventually drive the whales elsewhere (Rowntree <em>et al.</em> 1998). This appears to be a learned behaviour that has spread through the gull population, and which is likely exacerbated by the elevated gull populations provisioned by the prevalence of uncovered disposal sites for fishery and other waste.<br/><br/>Observed correlations between breeding success off Argentina and sea surface temperature anomalies at South Georgia suggest that as Antarctic feeding grounds warm up, the average calving rate of southern right whales can be expected to decline (Leaper <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
8162	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, the species is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws because it occurs within protected areas; however, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Approximately 44% of it's range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. It was listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987; MNE 1997) and was recently regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A3c in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In China, this species occurs in Ejinahuyanglin Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas.  There are no known conservation measures in place in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
8162	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> (1996) reported it from ten localities in desert habitats of the Trans Altai Gobi Desert and Alashani Gobi Desert. Mongolia represents the northern limit of its global distribution. In China, it is known from the arid regions of Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Nei Mongol, and Ningxia provinces (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
8162	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, this species is found in desert habitats, with most records from sandy valleys with low shrub cover, associated with pea shrubs (<em>Caragana spp.</em>), <em>Kalidum foliatum</em>, tamarisk (<em>Tamarix ramossima</em>) and saxaul (<em>Haloxylon ammodendron</em>). Its range overlaps with the Gobi jerboa (<em>Allactaga bullata</em>), midday gerbil (<em>Meriones meridianus</em>), hairy footed jerboa (<em>Dipus sagitta</em>) and Gobi hamster (<em>Cricetulus obscurus</em>) (MNE 1997). <br/><br/>The most important biological feature of this species is its insectivory, insects comprise 95% of its diet (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996).  This nocturnal species has large ears and elongated feet, a long tail with a white tip and black mid-section, and a grey coat with a white underside. It is one of the larger jerboa species in Mongolia, males weigh 23.7-37.8 g, with head-rump measurements of 95-107 mm, an average tail length of 147-180 mm, a hind foot length of 44-46 mm, and an ear length of 39-45 mm. Females generally weigh less (27.4-33 g) and have slightly shorter body and tail lengths (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>In China, it is an inhabitant of sandy desert regions; usually found in sand hills on the edge of desert oases or in sandy valleys with sparse vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008). Green plants constitute the bulk of its diet, but it may consume insects and lizards (Smith and Xie 2008).  Parturition occurs in early spring, with litter sizes of 2-6 (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
8162	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, surveys of the Trans Altai Gobi Desert in 1975 found three individuals in the Zuun-Mod oases using 200 pitfall traps per day, five individuals during night surveys in the Hatan suudal Mountain over a 46 km transect, and six individuals over a 50 km transect in the Zam Bilkhiin Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1978). Studies in the desert zones between 1979 and 1983 found an average of 0.5 ± 0.2 individuals per hectare. A survey of five biomes found this species to be ubiquitous in the extra-arid and true deserts of the Trans-Altai Gobi (Kulikov and Rogovin 1980).	eng
8162	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
8166	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Research actions. Habitat conservation. The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
8166	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	SW Canada and Montana (USA) to Queretaro (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
8166	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Spotted bats have been found foraging in many different habitats, especially in arid or Ponderosa Pine forests, and marshlands. Because of the low frequency of their echolocation calls large open habitat is predicted to be preferred. However, it is believed that the distribution of suitable diurnal roosting sites is cause for the patchy distribution of this species. Spotted Bats roost in the small cracks found in cliffs and stony outcrops. They have been found as high as 3,000 m above sea level, and even below sea level in the deserts of California (Pierson and Rainey 1998; Poche 1981; Watkins 1977).<br/><br/>The female gives birth to one young weighing 20% of her body weight usually around June. Young do not have the spots of the adults, nor fully developed ears at birth. Juveniles have been caught in mist nets in July. Lactating females have been caught as late as August (Watkins 1977).	eng
8166	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Very little is known about this species. It was once thought to be rare In the 100 years from the time of its discovery to 1990 only 14 individuals, for example, were collected in California. Since then the number of locations where spotted bats have been found in that state has tripled, and their range is now known to extend from Montana south to central Mexico, including in western US into arid parts of Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah that were previously unrecognized. While the distribution is very patchy over this range, the species may be locally common. Typically at a given site usually only one is caught per night, and individuals are well dispersed, separated by distances of 750-1,000 m of each other. They use vocalizations to communicate with neighbours. There is at least one recorded account of an apparent territorial dispute involving vocalization and direct contact. Only in one study has this species been seen foraging in groups (Hussain 2000). It is considered as very rare in its South range of its distribution (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
8166	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Very little is known about the distribution of the population of this bat. Because the Spotted Bat seems to forage in various habitats, conservation of diurnal roosts, rocky cliffs that have snug cracks for roosting, seem to be the best way to protect this species. However, large open foraging sights, where their echolocation is most effective, are important to the conservation of this species, as well as the availability of large moths as prey.<br/><br/>In general, the long term persistence of North American bat species is threatened by the loss of clean, open water; modification or destruction of roosting and foraging habitat; and for hibernating species, disturbance or destruction of hibernacula (Chambers and Herder, 2005)	eng
8168	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
8168	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in northern Lao PDR (Osgood 1932), one location in central Myanmar (Yoma survey area, Bates <em>et al</em>. 2000), one location in central Thailand (Kock and Kovac 2000), and one location in southern Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).	eng
8168	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been found roosting in internodal spaces of bamboo stems. In Myanmar, it has been found in hilly forest (P. Bates pers. comm.) and in lowland bamboo forest in Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). In Thailand is found in mixed deciduous forest with bamboo (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
8168	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It was recorded from one location in Thailand with a population of around seven individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). A single specimen was collected in Viet Nam. It is unclear why the species is not more common in bamboo habitat, or whether it is dependent on a particular type of bamboo.	eng
8168	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Major threats to this species are not known.	eng
8172	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
8172	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage: Tisza and Timis systems (Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary).	eng
8172	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Ammoecoetes feed on detritus and insect larvae; they usually metamorphose in July-August. Metamorphosis lasts 1-5 months and feeding starts in the following March. Spawns in spring, usually after one year of predatory life, in April-June in uppermost reaches of brooks. Dies after spawning. Adults feed on live and dead fish; they usually kill their prey and feed on body tissues or swallow the whole fish.	eng
8172	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Suspected to be slowly declining.	eng
8172	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.	eng
8173	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
8173	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Tributaries of Baltic (Odra, Vistula, Neman drainages), northern Black (Danube to Kuban drainages) and Caspian Seas (River Sura, Volga drainage). In Danube, restricted to tributaries below Iron Gate; a single record from upper Morava system (Czechia).	eng
8173	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland, piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in September-December, overwinters and spawns in late April-early May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 11-16°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form aggregations. Dies after spawning.	eng
8173	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in Poland and Ukraine, but suspected to be gradually declining overall.	eng
8173	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.	eng
8174	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
8174	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Upper and middle Danube drainage (Sava and Drava systems and upper Danube north and west of Drava). Locally in Timis and Olt systems (lower Danube drainage). Absent from Tisza and Cerna systems.	eng
8174	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Clear, well oxygenated brooks in piedmont and montane zones. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3.5-4.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in July-September, overwinters, and spawns in March-May, later at higher elevations, when temperatures reach 7-10°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with moderate current. Dies after spawning.	eng
8174	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Suspected to be radually declining.	eng
8174	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by damming in headwaters and pollution.	eng
8199	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in three special reserves (Analamerana, Ankarana, and Forêt d’Ambre) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is also in Montagne de Francais Classified Forest, which is not protected. It has also been observed in forests of the Daraina region, which is now part of a protected area to be created for Golden-crowned Sifaka (<em>Propithecus tattersalli</em>). Expansion of the highly successful awareness campaign in Daraina to Analemarana and Ankarana is recommended. There is a small worldwide captive population.	eng
8199	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs in extreme northern Madagascar. It is the only species found on the Cap d’Ambre Peninsula, the most northerly point on the island. From there its range extends south, east of the Mahavavy River beyond Ambilobe. The eastern part of its range extends south in Daraina to the Manambato River. Ranges from sea-level to 1,250 m.	eng
8199	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits dry and humid forests, and is reported to inhabit all levels of the forest (though is most likely to be found in lianas, thick cover and terminal branches). It also readily descends to the ground to eat fallen fruit, lick earth or travel. Group size does not appear to differ significantly between habitat types, the average group being five or six and the maximum size about 15 individuals. According to Freed (1996), this species is cathemeral, remaining active both day and night throughout the year. In Ankarana and Montagne d’Ambre, mating occurs in late May and June, and births take place from mid-September through October (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
8199	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Several estimates of population density have been made: 77 individuals/km² in the Analamerana Special Reserve; 104 individuals/km² in the humid forests of Montagne d’Ambre; and 221 individuals/km² in the Ankarana Special Reserve (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). <br/><br/>More recently, in Analamerana, Crowned Lemurs reached high densities of 21-25 individuals/km² and in Ankarana encounter rates were 1.7 groups per km² in Anilotra, but at other sites there were only 0.4 groups per km² (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8199	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Forest loss due to slash-and-burn practices, charcoal production, mining for sapphires and gold, and illegal logging, as well as hunting for food, are the principal threats to this species.	eng
8201	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The subspecies <em>E. m. macaco</em> occurs in two strict nature reserves (Lokobe and Tsaratanana) and in the Manongarivo Special Reserve. It is protected on the island of Nosy Komba where the local people consider it sacred and the animals serve as a major tourist attraction (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The southern limit of the subspecies’ range extends into a soon to be established protected area (Aire Protégée Marine et Cotière Sahamalaza – Iles Radama) (Schwitzer and Lork 2004). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.<br/><br/><em>E. m. flavifrons</em> is present in the recently established Parc National de Sahamalaza – Iles Radama (Aire Protégée<br/>Terrestre, Marine et Côtière) which is part of the Malagasy protected area network managed through the Association<br/>Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées (ANGAP). This area has already been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. There is a small worldwide captive population.	eng
8201	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar ranging from sea level up to 1,600 m. There are two subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>E. m. macaco</em> is distributed from the Mahavavy River in northern Madagascar, east to the vicinity of Ambilobe. The southern boundary of its distribution is marked by the Andranomalaza River. To the south-east <em>E. m. macaco</em> seems to intergrade with <em>E. m. flavifrons</em> in the Manongarivo Special Reserve (Meyers <em>et al.</em> 1989). The Black Lemur is found in the forests of the Ampasindava Peninsula, on the islands of Nosy Be (Lokibe) and Nosy Komba, in the coastal forests northeast of Ambanja, including the peninsula leading to Nosy Faly, and has been introduced to the small island of Nosy Tanikely (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein). The populations close to the <em>E. m. macaco</em>/<em>E. m. flavifrons</em> subspecies’ boundary differ considerably in fur colouration and pronounciation of ear tufts from those populations living further north (Schwitzer and Lork 2004) and the heads of the females are almost completely white.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>E. m. flavifrons</em> has a very limited distribution of less than 3,000 km² in northwestern Madagascar. It occurs on the Sahamalaza peninsula as well as in a narrow stretch of forest on the adjacent mainland, extending from around Befotaka in the south to the Manongarivo mountains in the north. The Maevarano river serves as the southern boundary of the subspecies’ range, the Sandrakota river as the eastern boundary and parts of the Andranomalaza river as the northern boundary, although it also occurs north-east of the latter, just east to the Manongarivo Special Reserve. As noted above, a zone of hybridization or intergradation with <em>E. macaco</em> has been identified north of the Andranomalaza River in the Manongarivo Mountains and the foothills of the southern Sambirano, including part of the Manongarivo Special Reserve.	eng
8201	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>E. m. macaco</em> is considered to be quite adaptable and has been reported from a wide variety of habitats that include primary forest, secondary forest, forest-agricultural mosaics, and timber plantations. The subspecies is considered cathemeral, group size ranges from two to 15 animals, and females give birth to a single young, usually between September and November (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).<br/><br/><em>E. m. flavifrons</em> inhabits more or less primary and secondary subtropical moist and dry forests in a transition zone between the Sambirano region to the north and the western dry deciduous forests to the south; it also occurs in adjacent plantations. A recent study investigating habitat use of this subspecies in forest fragments confirmed that they are able to use different types of habitat, but that home range size and use differs between primary and secondary forest fragments having larger home ranges and lower densities in secondary forest compared with primary. These findings suggest that the former is less suitable, and that its occurrence in secondary forest and forest-agricultural mosaics may depend on access to primary forest (Schwitzer <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
8201	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	In <em>E. m. flavifrons</em>, mean density was calculated to be 24 indviduals/km² in the eastern part of the subspecies’ range (Andrianjakarivelo 2004). Densities of between 25 and 35 individuals /km² seem typical (C. Schwitzer pers. comm.). Schwitzer <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimated the population on the Sahamalaza peninsula at between 2,780 and 6,950 individuals.	eng
8201	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Slash-and-burn agriculture is a persistent threat to north-western Madagascar’s remaining forests, where <em>E. m. macaco</em> is also hunted for food or killed as a crop pest in some areas. Hunting with traps seems to kill females preferentially, as they tend to lead groups in travel. There is also a small, but persistent, trade in this subspecies as pets, particularly on Nosy Be.<br/><br/>The principal threats to <em>E. m. flavifrons</em> are forest destruction due to slash-and-burn agriculture and selective logging, continued hunting and trapping, especially by the Tsimihety in the eastern part of its distribution, and live capture for the local pet trade (C. Schwitzer pers. comm.). Andrianjakarivelo (2004) found a density of up to 570 traps/km² in certain areas.	eng
8202	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is protected by law in the Comores. It is known to occur in a single protected area, Ankarafantsika National Park. Unprotected populations are found in the forests of Anjamena, Antrema (at Katsepy), Mariarano, and Tsiombikibo (near Mitsinjo) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.	eng
8202	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in north-western Madagascar and in the Comores on the islands of Moheli, Anjouan and Gran Comoro, where they were almost certainly introduced by human agency. On Madagascar, it is known from the region of Ambato-Boéni and Ankarafantsika; the northern limit of its distribution appears to be near Analalava on the Bay of Narindra, and it has been seen south and west of the Betsiboka River at Katsepy and on the shores of Lac Kinkony, on both sides of the Mahavavy River and in the Tsiombikibo forest near Mitsinjo (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 400 m.	eng
8202	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in dry deciduous forests in western Madagascar, more typically in humid forests in the Comores, and can survive in secondary forest. In Madagascar it lives in small cohesive family units of an adult male-female pair with one to four offspring; larger groups have been recorded on Mohéli in the Comoros. A cathemeral species, with fruit predominating in the diet. The birth season appears to be around mid-October on Anjouan and in Madagascar, and females give birth each year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
8202	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Muller <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded densities of 16 groups/km² and 45 individuals/km² in Anjamena, using transect line sampling.	eng
8202	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Forests of western Madagascar inhabited by mongoose lemurs are already highly fragmented and continue to be cleared for pastures, crops, and charcoal production. Hunting using traps is also considered to be a threat. While previously under less threat on Anjouan and Mohéli, this species is now more often regarded as a crop pest, especially by an influx of Malagasy who do not adhere to local customs that have historically provided lemurs in the Comores a greater degree of protection (Tattersall 1998).	eng
8203	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is found in four national parks (Andringitra, Mantadia, Marojejy, Ranomafana and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana and Zahamena), and seven special reserves (Ambatovaky, Analamazaotra, Anjanaharibe-Sud, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, Marotandrano, and Pic d’Ivohibe) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population	eng
8203	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The range of E. rubriventer extends from northern Madagascar’s Tsaratanana Massif south along the thin strip of east coast rain forest to the Pic d'Ivobe and the Manampatrana River (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005), although at one time it ranged further south. It does not occur on the Masoala Peninsula. Ranges from 70-2,400 m.	eng
8203	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species appears to be restricted mainly to primary forest habitats, as high as 2,400 m on the Tsaratanana Massif. Its activity pattern is characterized as cathemeral, and group size varies from two to 10 individuals, the typical group containing an adult pair and their offspring. Home range size has been estimated at 12-15 ha. Young are born in September and October; usually one infant is born per year to each group and mortality is approximately 50%. They are very specialized frugivores, and an important seed disperser (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
8203	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Not common. In Ranomafana, densities were 5.25 individuals per km² (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8203	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The main threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn practices and illegal logging. Also subject to hunting, which can be heavy in certain areas, such as Mantadia.	eng
8204	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is found in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, and Masoala), in the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve, and in two special reserves (Anjanaharibe-Sud and Nosy Mangabe) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Control of hunting within the range is urgently required. There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.	eng
8204	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found throughout most of the rainforest that remains in north-eastern Madagascar, occurring from the Bemarivo River, near Sambava, south to the region of Mananara Nord, including the Masoala Peninsula. There is an isolated population in the Betampona Nature Reserve, and they have been introduced to Nosy Mangabe. Distribution south of Mananara remains to be clarified as there is significant hybridization with <em>E. fulvus</em> occurs over a wide area (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 1,670 m.	eng
8204	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is an arboreal species found in tropical moist forest. It is believed to be cathemeral, active both day and night throughout the year. Females are reported to feed more heavily than males on flowers during the dry season, typically a time of resource abundance during which they also are more likely to give birth. Fecundity has been measured at 0.2 – 0.7 babies per adult female per year, with most adult females producing offspring each year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
8204	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population density has been estimated at around 15 individuals/km² on the Masoala Peninsula (Rakotondratsima and Kremen 2001).	eng
8204	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Destruction of Madagascar’s eastern rain forests, primarily through slash-and-burn practices (but also through mining for quartz), is the principal threat to the survival of <em>E. albifrons</em>. The species is also hunted for food in many parts of its range. This was the most heavily hunted species in Makira (using both traps and firearms, although the latter are very few in the region), where it was the most heavily hunted of all lemurs (Golden 2005).	eng
8205	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Manombo Special Reserve; animals in the Andringitra National Park are mostly hybrids with <em>E. rufifrons</em>. Recent surveys have identified populations in unprotected forests (Vevembe and Lambohazo) that could be added to existing parks and reserves (Johnson and Overdorff 1999). Preservation of the corridor between Andrinitra and the current range, which includes the hybrid zone between <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em>, is a priority. The Missouri Botanical Garden is also presently active in managing and upgrading the protected status of the littoral forest of Mahabo. As of 2007, this species was reported from four zoological collections (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
8205	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs only in south-eastern Madagascar in a thin strip of forest that runs from the Manampatrana River south to the Mananara River. An isolated population of this species occurs in the Manombo Special Reserve and in Mahabo Forest south of Farafangana. Recent analyses of Landsat imagery estimate that total habitat remaining within this species’ range is less than 700 km² (Johnson and Wyner 2000; Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). South-east of the Andringitra Massif, there is a 60 km wide hybrid zone between what is now <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em> at the Iantara River (headwaters of the Manampatrana), characterized by high density of figs and a high density of hybrid lemurs (58 /km²; Irwin <em>et al</em>. 2005). Ranges from 20-1,500 m.	eng
8205	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in forest habitats. Three social groups with six to 11 individuals were identified at Mahabo, and two social groups of four to eight individuals were recorded at Manombo (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). According to Johnson (2002), it is mainly frugivorous, its diet supplemented with leaves, flowers, and fungi. Flowers are an especially important food item late in the dry season. Their low densities are probably related to the poor availability of suitable fruit trees. This species more than others appears to have a more fission-fusion grouping pattern.	eng
8205	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	In the Manombo Special Reserve and Manombo Classified Forest, there are an estimated 60 mature individuals (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) give a density estimate in Vevembe of 10 individuals/km²; however, south of this there is blackwater, white sand, low-productivity forest where densities will be lower. These authors determined a maximum population estimate of 7,265+/-2,268 individuals.	eng
8205	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Selective logging, hunting and the continued conversion of rain forest habitat to agricultural land are the greatest threats to the survival of the white-collared lemur. It is trapped easily by hunters during the fruiting season of the strawberry guava (<em>Psidium cattlianum</em>) in Manombo (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). In the rest of its range it is hunted with shotguns, snares and slingshots particularly when it comes into coffee plantations.	eng
8206	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in two national parks (Andohahela and Midongy du Sud), the Kalambatritra Special Reserve, and the Saint Luce Private Reserve. In addition, surveys have documented its presence in the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). A small group was introduced about 20 years ago into the Berenty Private Reserve where it hybridized with introduced <em>E. rufifrons</em>. There is a small worldwide captive population.	eng
8206	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This lemur is found in south-eastern Madagascar from Tolagnaro north to the Mananara River (being replaced by <em>E. cinereiceps</em> to the north of this), including the Kalambatritra Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Ranges from sea level to 1,875 m.	eng
8206	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	An inhabitant of moist tropical forest. It is believed to be largely frugivorous and cathemeral, remaining active both day and night throughout the year. Social groups tend to be multi-male / multi-female (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
8206	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It appears to be common where it occurs. In Midongy du Sud, densities were recorded at 14 individuals/km² (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8206	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The principal threat to the survival of <em>E. collaris</em> is habitat destruction, due to charcoal production and some slash-and-burn agriculture. It is also reported to be widely hunted for food and trapped occasionally for the local pet trade.	eng
8207	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in four national parks (Ankarafantsika, Mantadia, Andringitra, and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana and Zahamena), and seven special reserves (Ambatovaky, Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra, Bora, Mangerivola, Manongarivo, and Tampoketsa-Analamaitso) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008)). There is a relatively large worldwide captive population.	eng
8207	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in Madagascar in three populations: in the west, north of the Betsiboka River, where it lives on the high plateau in scattered forest fragments; in eastern Madagascar, to the north of the Mangoro River to the Onive River (generally north-east of Antananarivo as far as the Ambatovaky Special Reserve); and in an isolated population in Ambohitantely Special Reserve, a small reserve of no more than 3,000 ha. They are also on the island of Mayotte in the Comores, where it apparently was introduced by human agency (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/><br/>The western populations can be divided into two subpopulations, a southern one extending from the Betsiboka River/Ankarafantsika National Park to the Maverano River, and a northern one ranging from the Andranomalaza River and Manongarivo Reserve to the Mahavavy du Nord River south of Ambilobe. Animals in the northern reaches of this range may also be found throughout the moister forests of the Sambirano region, as well as on the slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif, and are very similar in coloration to the brown lemurs found on the island of Mayotte (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). Ranges from sea-level to 400 m.	eng
8207	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Occurs in the tropical/subtropical dry forest in the west, and tropical moist lowland and montane forest in the east. Groups vary in size from 3-12 (larger on Mayotte) and home ranges on Madagascar vary from approximately seven to 20 ha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
8207	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population densities range from 40-60 individuals/km² (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
8207	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Forest destruction, due primarily to slash-and-burn practices, charcoal production and illegal logging, is the principal threat, but hunting is increasingly becoming a significant threat (including with blowpipes, firearms, bow-and-arrows and traps) and sometimes entire groups are captured.	eng
8209	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Llisted on CITES Appendix I. It is found in three national parks (Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Bemaraha, and Tsingy de Namoroka), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, three special reserves (Bemarivo, Kasijy, and Maningoza), and the Tsiombokibo Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The status of this species in captivity is difficult to determine at this time, owing now to taxonomic confusion with <em>E. rufifrons</em>.	eng
8209	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Red Brown Lemur is found in western and north-western Madagascar, where it is known from the Betsiboka River south to the Tsiribihina River.	eng
8209	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
8209	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information available. Until recently, the more widespread <em>E. rufifrons</em> was considered synonymous with <em>E. rufus</em>, and most studies to date have been in areas that fall within the range of the former.	eng
8209	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The major threats are likely to be habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, burning to clear pastureland, fuelwood gathering, and illegal logging, as well as hunting.	eng
8210	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in two special reserves (Analamerana and Ankarana). The forests of Daraina, where it is also found, are slated to become a protected area. The species is also represented in captivity.	eng
8210	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a restricted range in northern Madagascar, the southerly limit being Manambato River. The distribution range is centred on Ankarana, Anamalerana and Montagne d'Ambre, with a disjunct population in Daraina to the southeast. Ranges from sea level to 1,400 m.	eng
8210	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in moist montane, such as on Montagne d'Ambre, and dry deciduous forests. In Ankarana National Park, it appears to favor secondary forest and is active both day and night. These lemurs are absent from very dry forests such as those of Cap d’Ambre, north of Antsiranana, but it is present in those of Daraina, to the south-east. In Ankarana groups may include up to 15 animals, significantly larger than those observed in Montagne d’Ambre, which range from three to nine animals. Mating occurs in late May and births usually take place in late September or early October (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Often found associating with <em>E. coronatus</em>, especially in the wet season (Freed 1996).	eng
8210	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Sanford’s Brown Lemur occurs at higher densities on the slopes of Montagne d’Ambre and in other evergreen forests than it does in dry deciduous forests of the region, such as those of the Analamerana Special Reserve. On Montagne d'Ambre they are particularly common between 800 and 1,000 m (Freed 1996). In two sites in Analamerana, densities have been recorded at 3.5-5.5 individuals/km²; this species is less abundant and occurs at lower density than Crowned Lemurs in both Analamerana and Ankarana (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8210	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The primary threat to the survival of Sanford’s Brown Lemur is habitat destruction, due to mining for sapphires and slash-and-burn practices, although it does appear to survive in degraded habitats. They are also hunted and commonly kept as pets.	eng
8218	conservation	Conyers, J. & Wingate, D., 1996	There is no legislation to specifically protect this species, however, there have been campaigns to raise awareness amongst the public. The preparation of the Bermuda Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan will hopefully lead to a Management Plan being developed for this species.  Attempts are also being made to establish a captive population. In order to safeguard the last remaining viable subpopulation on Southampton Island it is essential that efforts are made to minimise any human impacts on the island, and that introductions of predatory species are prevented.	eng
8218	distribution	Conyers, J. & Wingate, D., 1996	The Bermuda Rock Skink is the only endemic terrestrial vertebrate on the isolated archipelago of Bermuda. It is a relatively primitive 'relict' species and is identifiable from Pleitocene deposits on Bermuda.	eng
8218	habitat	Conyers, J. & Wingate, D., 1996	Not much is known about the ecology of this species, but it appears that it may have a long generation length. It is thought that some individuals from a toe-clipping study were still being observed 27 years later.  Hatchlings are believed to be strictly insectivorous, but the diet then switches to carrion, which is primarily collected from seabird nests (includes broken eggs, dead chicks, and regurgitated fish and squid) (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
8218	population	Conyers, J. & Wingate, D., 1996	The largest remaining subpopulation appears to be that on Southampton Island which comprises about 400 individuals (about 240 mature individuals). Other subpopulations include those on Nonsuch Island (23 individuals), Inner Pear Island (52), Charles Island (123), Palm Island (44) and a mainland reserve site at Spittal Pond (124) (see Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001 for further details).	eng
8218	threats	Conyers, J. & Wingate, D., 1996	The major threat has undoubtedly been habitat loss due to expanding agriculture (17% of the area) and homes and gardens (50% of the area).  However, there has also been evidence of sharp declines in reserve areas with restored vegetation.  These declines have been attributed to predation by introduced and reintroduced species. These include kiskadees (<em>Pitangus sulphuratus</em>, lizard-eating birds deliberately introduced in 1957 to control anoles), night herons (<em>Nyctanassa violacea</em>, reintroduced to replace long-extinct native herons in 1976–78), Jamaican anoles (<em>Anolis grahami</em>, introduced in 1905 to control scale insects on crops), and cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>, a predatory species introduced to control cockroaches). <br/> <br/>On islands not impacted by introduced species but easily accessible to people, high mortaility has been attributed to the large number of discarded bottles and drink cans. Lizards are attracted to the bottles and cans, and then become trapped and are killed by the heat of the sun; their carcasses in turn attracting more lizards (see Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
8239	conservation	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	The Steller Sea Lion is protected in the United States and Canada, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia) is proposing to add it to their “red” species list. In the United States the Steller Sea Lion is listed as Depleted under the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act. The species was listed as Threatened in 1990 with the Western Population moved to Endangered in 1997 under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. A draft recovery plan for Steller Sea Lions was prepared in 1992, and a new assessment team was initiated in 2001. A draft and publication are planned for spring 2008. Critical habitat was designated in 1993, including no entry zones near rookeries and management of fisheries activity in the vicinity of rookeries. A groundfish management that strategically disperses fisheries over areas and time was put in force in 2003. Extensive funding has been applied to Steller Sea Lion research to develop information on ecology, behaviour, genetics, population dynamics, and movements to assist in the development of management activities, to attempt to understand the reasons for the decline and to promote recovery of the species.	eng
8239	distribution	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Steller Sea Lions are found from central California (formerly southern California), north along the west coast of North America to the Aleutian Islands, and west along the Aleutian chain to the Kamchatka Peninsula, and from there south along the Kuril Islands to northern Japan, the Sea of Japan, and possibly to both Koreas. Steller Sea Lions also occur in the Sea of Okhotsk, west of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. From the Aleutians they range north across the Bering Sea to the Bering Strait. Vagrants have been recorded in China, and at Herschel Island in the Beaufort Sea (Rice 1998).	eng
8239	habitat	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Steller Sea Lions are the largest otariids and the fourth largest pinniped. Both sexes are robust and powerfully built at all ages. They are sexually dimorphic, with adult males weighing three times as much, and growing 20-25% longer than adult females. Pups are born with a thick blackish-brown lanugo that is moulted by about 6 months of age. The maximum length of adult males is about 3.3 m and average weight is 1000 kg. The maximum length for adult females is about 2.5 m and average weight is 273 kg. Pups are born at an average of about 1 m and 18-22 kg.<br/><br/>The age of maturity is 3-6 years for females, and 3-7 years for males (Calkins and Pitcher 1982). Males are not able to defend territories before they are 9 years old (L. Lowry pers. comm.). The annual pregnancy rate of mature females declined during the 1970’s and 1980’s and was estimated to be 55% in the 1980’s based on collections at sea (Pitcher <em>et al</em>. 1998). Recent age-structured modelling based on population counts from the central Gulf of Alaska indicates that the birth rate in 2004 was 36% lower than in the 1970’s (Holmes <em>et al</em>. 2007). Gestation lasts one year, including a delay of implantation of about 3 months. Females may live up to 30 years old and males to about 20 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions are highly polygynous and breed in the late spring and summer. Adult males arrive before females and those that are nine years or older establish themselves on territories, which they aggressively and vociferously defend. Steller sea lions have deep voices and produce powerful low-frequency rolling roars and can be heard for long distances over the noise of wind and waves.<br/><br/>Pups are born from May through July, and females stay continuously ashore with their newborns for the first week to ten days after giving birth. Following this period of attendance, females make foraging excursions, primarily at night for periods of 18-25 hours, followed by time ashore to nurse their pup. Females come into estrous and mate about two weeks after giving birth. Weaning can occur before the next breeding season, but it is not unusual to see females nursing yearlings or older juveniles.<br/><br/>Throughout their range, Steller Sea Lions are primarily found from the coast to the outer continental shelf and slope. However, they frequent and cross deep oceanic waters in some parts of their range. Steller Sea Lions occasionally leave haulouts in very large groups; however, sightings at sea are most often of groups of 1-12 animals. They aggregate in areas of prey abundance, including near fishing vessels, where they will feed on netted fish and by-catch. Steller sea lions are known to haulout on sea ice.<br/><br/>They are not considered migratory; juveniles and subadults make the longest distance trips. Adults usually forage and live near their natal colonies and return to these sites to breed. The area used by adult females for foraging in winter increases dramatically over the area used in the summer and females tend to dive deeper in winter than summer. Diving is generally to depths of 200 m or less and dive duration is usually two minutes or less, with both parameters varying by season and age of the animal  Diving ability of pups and juveniles increases with age, and they routinely dive to depths of around 140 m for periods of two minutes as yearlings. The diving of adult males has not been studied.<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions feed on many varieties of fish and invertebrates. Much of the information on diet comes from animals living in Alaska, where Steller Sea Lions feed on walleye pollock, Pacific Cod, Atka Mackerel, herring, sand lance, several varieties of flatfish, salmon and rockfish, and invertebrates such as squid, octopus, bivalves and gastropods (Sinclair and Zeppelin 2002, Trites <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adult females with young pups feed extensively at night, switching to foraging at any time after the breeding season. Steller sea lions are known to kill and consume young and small northern fur seals at the Pribilof Islands, and also have been reported to kill and consume Harbour and Ringed seals, and possibly Sea Otters.<br/><br/>The primary predators of Steller Sea Lions are Killer Whales. Sleeper Sharks in Alaska have been found with Steller Sea Lion remains in their stomachs, but it is unknown whether the prey was scavenged and in any case they are not believed to be primary predators. Great White Sharks presumably take Steller pups within the areas where their range overlaps.	eng
8239	population	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	The worldwide population of Steller Sea Lions declined by 64% during the period from 1960 to 1989, and is currently estimated to be between approximately 105,800-117,800 animals. The decline has been most dramatic in the large populations from the Gulf of Alaska (-54%), west throughout the Aleutian Island chain (-81%), to the moderately-sized Russian population (-74%). The most recent estimates, derived from the last complete surveys of pups (2005) and non pups (2004) in western Alaska (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005), Russia (Burkanov and Loughlin 2005), and the population known as the “Eastern Stock” which includes all Steller Sea Lions east of 144° (Pitcher <em>et al</em>. 2007) suggest an overall decline from the mid 1970s in excess of 50%.<br/><br/>Several population viability analyses conducted on Steller Sea Lions (e.g. York <em>et al</em>. 1996, Gerber and Van Blaricom 2001, Winship and Trites 2006, NMFS Steller Sea Lion Final Draft Recovery Plan 2008). Results have been consistent and indicate that the western segment of the population has a high probability of declining to a low level. Even the most conservative of the analyses found that the probability of quasi-extinction of the western segment within 100 years was approximately 10%.	eng
8239	threats	Gelatt, T. & Lowry, L., 2008	Steller Sea Lions have been important to the subsistence cultures of people living near them for long periods. Native Alaskans currently take about 300 a year for food and other products. The reasons for the large declines in the population, which were especially acute in some portions of the range during the period 1960 to 1989 are unclear, but are the subject of intensive ongoing investigations. Factors hypothesized include: the direct and indirect effects of large-scale commercial fisheries on key Steller sea lion prey species, long-term ecosystem shifts, and changes in behaviour by a primary predator, the killer whale.<br/><br/>Steller Sea Lions are killed in nets in fisheries off Alaska. An unknown number may be shot during commercial fishing operations. Tissue contaminant levels are generally low in most parts of their range. Deliberate killing by fishermen, disease, incidental take by fisheries, and reduced food supply have been suggested as factors which may have contributed to the current decline (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1989, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Loughlin and York 2000). The Steller Sea Lion Recovery Team identified and ranked threats to recovery of the western stock and used a weight of evidence approach to assess the relative impact. The team recognized three threats as “potentially high”: environmental variability, competition with commercial fisheries and killer whale predation. Similarly, Atkinson <em>et al</em>. (2008) recently reviewed the suspected anthropogenic sources of mortality for the same stock of Steller Sea Lions and concluded that competition with fisheries and the potential impacts of contaminants could not be excluded as continuing threats to recovery.	eng
8241	conservation	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
8241	distribution	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is found from Oaxaca and Yucatán (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, the Guianas, Trinidad, and Jamaica (Simmons 2005). There is no valid records for Belize (Miller pers. comm.).	eng
8241	habitat	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>E. auripendulus</em> is an insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993). Occurrs in dense forests, in coastal plains, desciduous forests, chacos, but have been found in human-disturbed areas and in a savanna (Best <em>et al</em>. 2002). They fly up to 1,200 m height (Barquez 1999). On the Yucatan Peninsula, Shaw’s mastiff bat has been observed at dusk over a highway (Ingles 1959; Jones <em>et al</em>. 1973). In Panama, individuals tended not to hang head down but instead tended to crawl into cracks and small recesses. When disturbed, they almost never flew but tried to escape by running on all fours (Bloedel 1955). In Trinidad, <em>E. auripendulus</em> was encountered at the same site as <em>M. ater</em> and <em>M. molossus</em> (Genoways <em>et al</em>. 1973). In Mexico it has been found in tropical moist forests under 1,000 m (Arita, 2005)	eng
8241	population	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>E. auripendulus</em> occurs at elevations of 25–100 m in Venezuela and from lowlands to 1,800 m in Peru (Best <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its seldom captured in mist nets.	eng
8241	threats	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	In Mexico it could be threatened by deforestation.	eng
8242	conservation	Barquez, R., Gonzalez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research activities. Hard to identify with acoustic methods as for the others Eumops.<br/>Listed as special protection status by the Mexican NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Eumops nanus</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
8242	distribution	Barquez, R., Gonzalez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Veracruz (Mexico) to northwest Peru, northwest Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). Also found in Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas and Surinam. There are no records to Guatemala and Costa Rica <em>Eumops</em> in Venezuela probably is not this species (Gonzalez and Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
8242	habitat	Barquez, R., Gonzalez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>E. bonariensis</em> occurs in forests and occur in association with man-made structures (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). Peters’ mastiff bat is an insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993; Mares <em>et al.</em> 1989). Reproduction in october-november (Barquez 1999). Low flying bats (Barquez 1999). In Mexico it has been found under 40 m (Arita, 2005)	eng
8242	population	Barquez, R., Gonzalez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	These bats live in groups that usually consist of 10-20 bats at least 6 meters off the ground. (Nowak 1999, Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Mexico pregnant females were present from late March to late June, with parturition synchronous in mid- to late June (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). Lactating females were present over 7 weeks from early June to late July (Hunt <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Argentina, a pregnant female was present in November (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1981). In Paraguay, pregnant females were present 17–21 October (Baud 1981). Very rare species in some parts of Mexico but abundant in Yucatan (Arita, 2005).	eng
8242	threats	Barquez, R., Gonzalez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
8243	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Taxonomic revision and improve details in species distribution.	eng
8243	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, N Argentina (Simmons 2005). Distribution for Bolivia included from Williams (2002).	eng
8243	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>E. dabbenei </em> tends to roost in the holes of trees and in buildings in Neotropic areas (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993; Novak 1999; Fioramonti 2001). Iti is insectivorous (Barquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). Found in savannas and dry forests (Barquez 1999). Found in low altitudes (Barquez 1999).	eng
8243	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>E. dabbenei</em> is a species poorly known relative to most other <em>Eumops</em> species. (Nowak 1999). It is a rare species (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
8243	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	None.	eng
8244	conservation	Barquez, R., Mancina, C., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
8244	distribution	Barquez, R., Mancina, C., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is found from Jalisco (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina and Brazil; Jamaica; and Cuba (Simmons 2005). Southern portion of western distribution expanded (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no valid records from Belize (Miller pers. comm.).	eng
8244	habitat	Barquez, R., Mancina, C., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	A typical inhabitant of subtropical forests but found in a variety of habitats in various geographic regions. <em>E. glaucinus</em> is frequently found in urban areas throughout its range (Brand 2002). Each colony of <em>E. glaucinus</em> consists of one male and several females. Members of this species become inactive in cooler climates but they are not known to hibernate. <em>E. glaucinus</em> is carnivourous insectivore (Brand 2002). Found to inhabit holes in trees (Barquez 1983). Also colected in the transition of tropical to template forest (Sanchez-Hernandez, 1978).	eng
8244	population	Barquez, R., Mancina, C., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This bat roosts in colonies (Goodwin 1946). Belwood (1981) suggested that a colony consists of a male and its harem. In Cuba, there's evidence of reproductive activity troughtout most of the year (Best <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Mexico pregnant females were observed from March to late june (Best <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is common in Cuba (Mancina pers. comm.). Found from lowlands up to 900 m.	eng
8244	threats	Barquez, R., Mancina, C., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Listed as least concern in Argentina. No major threats are known.	eng
8245	conservation	Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Occurs in protected areas throughout the range.	eng
8245	distribution	Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species is found in Central and South America. This bat is known from Mexico, northwest Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). It occurs at elevations 45 m in French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998), 155 m in Venezuela (Eisenberg, 1989; Handley, 1976), and at 320 m in Peru (Graham and Barkley, 1984). In Belize is known from colections (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
8245	habitat	Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	<em>E. hansae</em> flies in the upper levels of the canopy (Fenton, 1972); occurs in tropical forests off coastal areas (Alvarez-Castañeda and Alvarez, 1991); in the eastern Brazilian highlands, and coast and in the Amazon Basin and Atlantic Forest biomes (Koopman, 1982; da Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Venezuela, it has been observed over ponds, large clearings, and evergreen forests; roosting inside a cavity located in a dead standing tree in a large lagoon (Handley, 1976). In Peru, <em>E. hansae</em> flew over a small river bordered by tall, tropical, lowland forest in hilly terrain (Graham and Barkley, 1984). In Bolivia, this bat occurred in a savanna area near the edge of a forest (Ibañez and Ochoa, 1989). The stomach of a specimen from Bolivia contained Orthoptera (Anderson, 1997).	eng
8245	population	Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to their high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Need acoustic surveys as for all molossids (Miller pers. comm.). Rare in Mexico.	eng
8245	threats	Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
8246	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Not cited, maybe research actions.	eng
8246	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat occurs in the northern Amazon Basin (Koopman, 1982). It is known only from Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam (Eger, 1977; Koopman, 1994; Reid <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 1992). It is present at an elevation below 500 m (Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 1992; Reid <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
8246	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. In Venezuela, a female was present in a 15-year-old pine (<em>Pinus caribaea</em>) plantation; original vegetation at this locality corresponds to grass (<em>Trachipoqum</em>) savannas, in association with swamps dominated by the palm<em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>, gallery forests, and swampy evergreen forests (Sanchez <em>et al.</em>, 1992). In Ecuador, this bat was collected in the tropical evergreen forest (Reid <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is insectivorous; may feed on large insects likes other species of <em>Eumops</em>.	eng
8246	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This is one of the rarest Neotropical bats; know from a few individuals taken from less than ten localities in humid lowland areas. It is probably declining through habitat loss. The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to its high flying and roosting behaviours (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
8246	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
8247	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid loss of drinking sites and habitat. Found in protected areas.	eng
8247	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	California to Texas (USA), south to Zacatecas and Hidalgo (Mexico); western Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Cuba (Simmons 2005). Include Misiones in Argentina and all of Paraguay and exclude southern tip of distribution in Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Cuban material may be misidentified (Mancina pers. comm.).Include south Colombia.	eng
8247	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat consists of extensive open areas with potential roost locations having vertical faces to drop off from and take flight, such as crevices in rock outcropings and cliff faces, tunnels and tall buildings. This species inhabits various types of open, semi-arid to arid habitats (Ahlborn 2000, Cockrum 1960, Allen 1987, Best <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em>E. perotis</em> is insectivore (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
8247	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is non-migratory (Best <em>et al.</em> 1996), although in Mexico apparently is a migratory species (Aragon, 2005). It's a common species (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
8247	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It uses only select drinking sites and is severely limited by the availability of drinking water. Because its wing structure is unable to drink from water sources less than 30 m long. As a consequence, western mastiff bats are no longer found in many previously occupied areas and populations may be in decline (Acker, 2001).	eng
8248	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
8248	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from Arizona (USA) to Nicaragua (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). There are registers for Costa Rica (Pineda pers. comm.).	eng
8248	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found usually in dry forest and arid regions, sometimes in semideciduous forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It has been caught over ponds or watering holes in deserts. In Arizona, single young are born in June or July (Barbour and Davis, 1969). It is a fast, high-flying bat that captures large insects, including large (up to 60 mm) beetles and grasshoppers. Mainly in arid and dry forest regions, but also from areas where moist forest occurs. Flight speed reported at least 43 km/h, but is probably an underestimate. (LaVal and Rodriguez-H, 2002).  Found in pine-oak forests in Mexico (Iniguenz, 2005)	eng
8248	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is uncommon to rare (Reid, 1997). The southern populations (in Central America) are poorly known and limited; the northern populations (in USA) are locally common and but limited (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to their high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
8248	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Not known.	eng
8256	conservation	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in Tierra del Fuego National Park (Argenina) and in Rio las Minas (Chile)	eng
8256	distribution	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina on Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, neighbouring islands, and parts of southernmost Chile (Magallanes); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
8256	habitat	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found at the north of the Island (steppe) and in some forest areas.	eng
8256	population	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a rare species, not frequent to catch in tramps.	eng
8256	threats	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Overgrazing by exploitation of sheep.	eng
8257	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is included in several protected areas in Chile and Argentina.	eng
8257	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in west-central Argentina (Mendoza, Rio Negro and Neuquen Provinces) and adjacent regions of Chile (Santiago, Bío-Bío, and Araucanía Provinces), apparently at higher elevations (1740-3000 m); range limits unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
8257	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Highland meadows/"vegas" in the high southern Andes region (Barquez <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
8257	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. It is considered as an uncommon species.	eng
8257	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
8258	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
8258	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in west-central Argentina (from Mendoza until Neuquen Province) and central Chile (Santiago to Magallanes area) southwards to extreme southern Argentina and adjacent Chile, excluding Tierra del Fuego; limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
8258	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Rocky areas from sea level into mountains of Patagonian steppe.	eng
8258	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
8258	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
8261	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in the South Pacific. The list of countries of occurrence may not be complete.	eng
8261	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The worm lives in the shallow waters in the coral reefs. During its main breeding season, which occurs on the second or third day after the third quarter of the moon in October or November, the worms produce segments which are engorged with sperm or eggs. These segments break off at sunrise, rise to the surface, and release their gametes into the sea. The local villagers and fishermen collect these segments in large quantities as it is a popular delicacy. The gelatinous mass of worms is baked or fried and then eaten.	eng
8261	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Over-harvesting appears to have resulted in local extinction e.g., in northwestern Upolu (Samoilys and Carlos 1990).	eng
8265	conservation	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon, and is presumed to occur in a number of the region's other protected areas.	eng
8265	distribution	Bearder, S., 2008	This species ranges between the Sanaga River in Cameroon and the Congo and Ubangui Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is present in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Congo and possibly in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
8265	habitat	Bearder, S., 2008	The Southern Needle-clawed Galago lives in primary and secondary lowland moist forests. This species primarily feeds on gums and resins. It gives birth to a single young annually.	eng
8265	population	Bearder, S., 2008	This is a common species. It is more abundant in seconday forest where gum and resin food trees are more common.	eng
8265	threats	Bearder, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range through habitat loss.	eng
8266	conservation	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in protected areas including the Cross River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park, and Banyang - Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (Cameroon), and the Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (Bioko).	eng
8266	distribution	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is patchily distributed from the Niger River in Nigeria to the Sanaga River in Cameroon, and is also present on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>E. p. pallidus</em> is endemic to Bioko Island, while <em>E. p. talboti</em> occurs on the mainland.	eng
8266	habitat	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is largely found in the mid to high canopy of tropical moist forest including secondary forest. This species feeds on tree gum and resins; they appear to be largely confined to lower elevations, perhaps due to a paucity or absence of gum-producing trees at higher elevations (above 1600 m asl) (J. Oates pers. comm.). It gives birth to a single young annually.	eng
8266	population	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	There have been no careful assessments of population status of this species.	eng
8266	threats	Bearder, S., Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The species may be threatened by fragmentation of its habitat through conversion of forest to agriculture and extraction of timber.	eng
8269	conservation	Zahler, P., 2010	In Pakistan, habitat destruction was the most immediate threat to the survival of the woolly flying squirrel. The Wildlife Conservation Society has launched a community conservation initiative, the Northern Areas Conservation Project. This project is aimed at helping local communities protect the high mountain pine forest ecosystem that the woolly flying squirrel depends upon for its survival. The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
8269	distribution	Zahler, P., 2010	The species was originally known from a few specimens collected in extreme northern Pakistan in the portion of Kashmir under Pakistani control and from northern Sikkim, India (Nowak 1999). The range possibly extends to China (Agrawal and Chakraborty 1969, Roberts 1977). Corbet and Hill (1992) report that two skins have been collected from Yunnan, however, the species is not reported from China by Smith and Xie (2008). The presence of the species in Sikkim, India as reported by Agarwal and  Chakraborty (1970) is based on a single skin. However, due to the lack of  osteological and other distinguishing characteristics of the species, and the  lack of subsequent records from Sikkim, the distribution of the species in  Sikkim is doubtful. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eupetaurus cinereus</span> is currently known only from a very small region in northern Pakistan, in Diamer and southern Gilgit districts and (Zahler and Woods 1997) and there is currently no evidence that the species exists in India or other nearby countries.	eng
8269	habitat	Zahler, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eupetaurus cinereus</span> is currently known to live only in caves and crevices on steep cliffs in the dry conifer forest zone of northern Pakistan. This region was historically well-forested with blue pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus wallichiana</span>), chilgoza pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. gerardiana</span>), juniper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>sp.), and scattered deodar cedar, spruce and fir in higher and moister side valleys. It is bound in this region to between 2,400 and 3,800 m in elevation, as below this minimum there is only scattered dry scrub or arid rock desert and above this maximum is the alpine zone (Zahler and Woods 1997). It is strictly nocturnal, and dietary analysis suggests that it is highly dependent upon pine needles in its diet (Zahler and Khan 2003).<br/><em></em>	eng
8269	population	Zahler, P., 2010	Until 1994 there had been no confirmed sightings of this species since 1924 (Zahler 1996).  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region> the vast majority of recent sightings have been in Diamer and southern Gilgit Districts (Zahler and Woods 1997). Estimates in 1996 based on potential available habitat and local knowledge suggest a population in the core region of Diamer of between 1,000 and 3,000 (Zahler and Woods 1997). There is no current information available on the population abundance of this species elsewhere in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
8269	threats	Zahler, P., 2010	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to large-scale clear-cutting of forests (Zahler and Woods 1997). It is also threatened to a lesser extent by expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging, infrastructure development, and human settlements (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
8306	conservation	Medri, I.M. Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is present in many protected areas.	eng
8306	distribution	Medri, I.M. Superina, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is present in a wide area of South America, from southern Suriname and adjacent Brazil to Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina (Redford and Wetzel 1985). It does not occur in Buenos Aires Province (Flores <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). For over 20 years, it was thought that a disjunct population existed on the border between Brazil and Suriname (Wetzel 1985). However, recent studies in northern Brazil confirmed the occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> in Maranhão (Silva Junior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), Amapá (Silva Junior and Nunes 2001), and parts of northern (Silva Junior <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a, b), northwestern (Oliveira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), and eastern Pará (Andrade <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Most of these records are located in the cerrado. The presence of this species in Peru needs to be confirmed.</p>	eng
8306	habitat	Medri, I.M. Superina, M., 2009	This omnivorous species is found in open areas, savannas, shrubland and dry, semi-deciduous forest. It can be found in secondary forests, and may also occur in primary Amazonian forest (Redford and Wetzel 1985).	eng
8306	population	Medri, I.M. Superina, M., 2009	&#160;It is a common species (Redford and Wetzel 1985).	eng
8306	threats	Medri, I.M. Superina, M., 2009	There are no major threats. However, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. sexcinctus</span> is hunted extensively, mostly for local use.	eng
8327	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Maningoza Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Ankarafansika National Park, Baie de Baly National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park and Ranomafana National Park. Further studies into the ecology, distribution, taxonomy and exploitation of this little-known species are needed.	eng
8327	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from the eastern, northwestern, and western forests. The elevational range is from sea level to 1,025 m.	eng
8327	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species occurs in wetlands or near wetlands within either dense humid rainforests (east) or dry deciduous forests (west) (Albignac 1973). It is a largely solitary, nocturnal and crepuscular species; although diurnal sightings have been recorded, animals generally spend the day under logs, in crevices and under similar ground cover. The species feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, but occasionally takes amphibians, insects or their larvae. The females give birth to one or two young, which are very well developed at birth. Seldom found far from intact forest.	eng
8327	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is very uncommon across its range, and is seldom found using standard trapping techniques, which could be due to its specialized diet of earthworms. Only in Amber Mountain National Park and Andohahela National Park have individuals been seen regularly.	eng
8327	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	The major threats to this species are deforestation of its habitat through conversion of forest to cultivated land, logging and charcoal production. It appears that this species is also selectively hunted for its meat by local people (Schneider 1989). Further studies are needed to quantify the impact of this hunting on <em>Eupleres</em> populations. Where present, predation by feral cats and dogs threaten this species, especially on the periphery of forests.	eng
8371	conservation	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive; it is also protected by regional legislation (Regional Law n. 23/1998 (art. 5, c. 3)). The Gola di Gorroppuu has been designated as a Site of Community Importance under the Habitats Directive. In addition, a number of populations live in established and planned protected areas, including Parco Regionale Sette Fratelli, Parco Nazionale Gennargentu-Golfo di Orosei, and Parco Regionale Monte Limbara. Programmes to remove trout from the species' habitat would assist in the recovery of populations.	eng
8371	distribution	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is endemic to Sardinia, Italy, where it is found only in the eastern part of the island between the Limbara Mountains in the north and the Sette Fratelli Mountains in the south. There are a few very old records from western Sardina (i.e. Linas Mount) (Lecis and Norris 2003), but these are very doubtful (it is believed the location was misreported). Further information is needed on the range of the species in the south-west of the island. It is found at elevations of between 50 and 1,800m asl, although it is most often found at elevations of 400-800m asl.	eng
8371	habitat	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is a montane species of permanent and temporary stagnant and running waters, which prefers calm areas of small or large rivers. Its terrestrial habitats are generally restricted to riverine scrub or woodland, and the species may also be found in cave systems. Its breeding sites are permanent pools, water holes, small lakes and streams. The eggs are deposited between stones or are buried in sand; the larvae develop in the streams (Griffiths 1996; Rimpp 1998). The species is quite adaptable and can be found in artificial pools.	eng
8371	population	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, 2008	This is generally a rare species that can be locally common in suitable habitat (e.g. over 400 specimens may be found in a single pool). The largest population of the species is in the Gola di Gorroppu. In one well-studied population the sex ratio is largely male. The number of subpopulations is declining. Between 1999 and 2001 it was found in 14 sites, whereas around 1991 it was present in 30 sites (and even in 1991 it was absent from nine other sites where it had been previously observed). The northern population near Mount Limbara is close to extinction.	eng
8371	threats	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, 2008	The major threats to the species are pollution of waterbodies, habitat fragmentation, predation by introduced trout, and prolonged drought (often caused by excessive water abstraction). During the 1950s, many populations were lost through the application of DDT to waterbodies. Recently, the Gola di Gorroppu population has become threatened through damage to its habitat caused by tourist activities. At least one population is known to be affected by chytridiomycosis and is declining.	eng
8375	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The island where this species occurs is currently protected by the Isla Mocha Reserve, although people live within this reserve; improved management of the existing protected area is required, as is close monitoring of the surviving populations.	eng
8375	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Isla Mocha (38° 22'S; 73° 54'W), 40km from the coast of Chile near Concepción. Its altitudinal range is from 20-250m asl.	eng
8375	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It can be found under logs in mixed temperate forest. It lays its eggs in small, terrestrial, water-filled holes on hillsides. The larvae develop in the same places.	eng
8375	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The population of this species is very small. The most recent records are of three individuals collected in August 2001.	eng
8375	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat destruction caused by subsistence wood collecting and cattle ranching.	eng
8376	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for formal protection of its native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest in its range. Further survey work is also needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
8376	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Mehuin, Valdivia Province, Chile. It has an altitudinal range of 50-80m asl.	eng
8376	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It can be found under logs close to forest streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. It lays eggs in small, water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.	eng
8376	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It was abundant in the 1970s but is now rare; a few individuals were found in 2003.	eng
8376	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting and cattle ranching.	eng
8385	conservation	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is known to be present in protected areas, such as Nikko National Park. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
8385	distribution	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is known from just a few isolated montane areas on Honshu. In the western part of the range, it is present at higher elevations (usually above 400 m asl, sometimes lower), and in the northern parts at lower elevations.	eng
8385	habitat	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary forest at low to high elevations; also in alpine grassland.	eng
8385	population	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is rare across much of its range, occurring in small localized pockets.	eng
8385	threats	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	Habitat destruction is a threat in the western part of the range.	eng
8386	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
8386	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>E. parvidens</em> is known from three widely separated sites: the Di Linh Plateau (type locality) in Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam; Rakho in Bac Kan Province, northern Viet Nam; and southern Yunnan, China, near the border with Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It almost certainly occurs more widely, especially in places between the currently known locations.	eng
8386	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This is a poorly known species. The holotype was collected near a stream at 800 m elevation. It is likely to be associated with forested habitats, but this is not certain.	eng
8386	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
8386	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
8391	conservation		Its range is protected at both the state and federal level. It is listed as Threatened by the state of Texas and Threatened by the Federal government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
8391	distribution		This species is known only from a pool at the source of the San Marcos River (San Marcos Springs, Spring Lake), Hays County, Texas, United States, and a short distance downstream (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). A second, smaller population of this species was thought to occur in the Comal River (Springs), slightly to the west in Comal County; however, this population recently was determined not to be <em>E. nana</em> (Chippindale, Hillis and Price 1994, Chippindale, Price and Hillis 1998, Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
8391	habitat		It can be found in shallow alkaline springs carved out of limestone. They have been found in mats of blue-green algae (<em>Lyngbya</em> sp.), under rocks, and in gravel substrate at water depths of less than 1m to several metres. The species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Eggs have never been observed in the wild. In captivity, ovipositioning has occurred on aquatic moss, filamentous algae, rocks, and glass marbles.	eng
8391	population		It is abundant within its limited range, where the population is stable. Population densities were estimated to be about 116-129 individuals per m² in vegetation mats (Tupa and Davis 1976; Nelson 1993). The entire population has been estimated as about 53,200 individuals in vegetation mats and suitable rocky substrates (USFWS 1996).	eng
8391	threats		It is vulnerable to alterations in water level and water quality that may result from agricultural and residential development.	eng
8392	conservation		Barton Springs is in Zilker Park, which is owned and operated by the City of Austin. City property is managed as a park and pool. Various agencies of the state of Texas have committed to expedite developing and implementing conservation measures needed for the species and the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer, as set forth in the "Barton Springs Salamander Conservation Agreement and Strategy," signed 13 August 1996 (see Federal Register 61(172):46608-46616, 4 September 1996, for details). The City of Austin has established a captive breeding program for this species. This species is listed as Endangered by both the state of Texas and the Federal Government.	eng
8392	distribution		This species can be found in Barton Springs, Edwards Aquifer, Austin, and Travis County, Texas, USA; it occurs in four hydrologically connected spring outlets (see Chippindale <em>et al.</em> [1993] for further details). Barton Springs is fed by the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer; this segment occurs in portions of Blanco, Hays, and Travis counties.	eng
8392	habitat		It is a spring dweller, occurring in the fourth largest spring in Texas. It inhabits spring outlets impounded/retained by concrete structures. Evidently, this species occurs primarily in non-subterranean waters; they are unlikely to range extensively underground but can live in subterranean waters (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). They are usually found under rocks or in gravel in about 0.1-5m of water; it also takes refuge among aquatic vascular plants, vegetative debris, and algae when such habitat is available (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Spring habitat flows throughout the year and maintains a fairly constant temperature of 20 degrees celsius. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding is unknown in the wild; some other spring-dwelling species of central Texas <em>Eurycea</em> are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrate. Captive breeding has been achieved at the Dallas Aquarium and the City of Austin facility. Females appear to deposit the eggs randomly on cobble, gravel, aquatic macrophytes, and the glass sides and bottom of the aquaria (L. Ables, D. Chamberlain pers. comm.).	eng
8392	population		The total population size is unknown. The observable population in Eliza Pool was dozens or hundreds in the 1970s, 15 in November 1992, 0 from December 1993 to May 1995, 0-28 between June 1995 and July 1996. They were reportedly abundant in Barton Springs Pool in 1946, about 150 were seen in November 1992, and survey counts between April 1995 and April 1996 ranged from 3-45 individuals. No more than 20 have been observed during any one survey of the Sunken Garden Springs outlet, but this site is difficult to survey. See population updates by Chippindale and Price (2005). They declined during the 1970s and 1980s, probably due in part to cleaning procedures used by the City of Austin at Barton Springs Pool; new maintenance procedures at Barton Springs resulted in habitat recovery (e.g., re-establishment of vascular plants) and salamander population increases in the early 1990s, although the number of individuals located has been highly variable from year to year and the most recent data suggest a decline in numbers in 2000. The current population trend is unknown.	eng
8392	threats		It is vulnerable to extinction due to its very limited distribution within a sensitive habitat; the primary threat is contamination of the waters that feed Barton Springs. The Barton springs Aquifer has been designated by the Texas Water Commission as one of the aquifers most vulnerable to pollution in Texas (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Excessive groundwater withdrawal is a potential threat. Under pool maintenance procedures in place as of 1992, human use of the Barton Springs Pool for swimming did not conflict with the continued existence of the salamander (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 1993). Recreational swimming in the Barton Springs Pool does not pose a threat.	eng
8393	conservation		Listed as Threatened by the state of Texas, but not currently listed federally. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
8393	distribution		This species can be found on the south-eastern margin of Edwards Plateau of central Texas, in the Cibolo Sinkhole Plain region of Comal, Bexar, and perhaps Kendall counties, USA (Chippindale, Hillis and Price 1994, Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) listed at least seven apparently separate occurrences.	eng
8393	habitat		It is found on rock and mud substrates of limestone caves. It is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown.	eng
8393	population		The total adult population size and trends are unknown. Individuals of this species appeared scarce during visits to the type locality in the early 1990s (Chippindale 2005), although earlier collectors were able to collect fairly large series at this site.	eng
8393	threats		Potential threats include land development and pollution.	eng
8407	conservation	Sorensen, M.& Vincent, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> may be found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Philippines as well as Australia. No other conservation measures are known.	eng
8407	distribution	Sorensen, M.& Vincent, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is the most widely distributed of the five sea moth species. It occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).	eng
8407	habitat	Sorensen, M.& Vincent, A., 2009	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is most commonly found in bays and estuaries (Grant 1978) and has been collected at depths as shallow as 3 m but is most often found between 37–91 m (Palsson and Pietsch 1989). Herold and Clark (1993) found that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>were associated with fine to coarse pebble substrate or vast stretches of sandy bottom, sometimes with the seagrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila stipulacea</span>, and only occasionally with patches of corals.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Reproduction</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>are broadcast spawners and observations of the species <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ </span>suggest that it is monogamous. Pairings of individuals were maintained for at least 22 days (Herold and Clark 1993). After two spawnings in captivity, there were 253 and 236 eggs collected respectively (Herold and Clark 1993). Spawning by pairs has been observed to occur at dusk <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>when pairs travel up the water column to release and fertilise eggs. Spawning activities may occur daily during the summer breeding season. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>do not appear to be territorial or site attached (Herold and Clark 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>is an opportunistic feeder and the most common items found in its diet include copepods, isopods, polycheates, nematoades, trematodes, pistol shrimp, post-veliger mollusks, foraminifera and stones up to 1 mm in diameter (Herold and Clark 1993).	eng
8407	population	Sorensen, M.& Vincent, A., 2009	The lack of data for population sizes of sea moths such as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis </span>that was highlighted by Vincent (1997) still exists. <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurypegasus draconis </span>is found in low densities (Herold and Clark 1993, Vincent 1997) and breeding pairs do not show site fidelity.	eng
8407	threats	Sorensen, M.& Vincent, A., 2009	Sea moths may possess characteristics that make them unsuited to heavy exploitation, such as low population densities and established long-term pair bonds of one male and one female that mate repeatedly (Kuiter 1985, Herold and Clark 1993, Vincent 1997).<br/><br/>Threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> include being taken as bycatch in fishing gears that collect fish from near the bottom. Bycatch of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> has been reported in China (Vincent 1997), the Philippines (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and Australia (Stobutzki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A review of species taken as bycatch in the Australian prawn fishery rated <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> as having high susceptibility to capture by trawls (Stobutzki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In the Philippines, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> was taken as bycatch in modified Danish seines more often than in otter trawls and it was estimated that in the Danajon Bank, approximately 132,480 individuals were caught, on average, annually as bycatch (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Sea moths caught as bycatch in China often enter the medicinal trade (Vincent 1997).<br/>&#160;<br/>Sea moth species began appearing in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in the 1980s, and are now traded by several South East Asian countries, including southern China and Hong Kong, although the scale and impact of the trade remains unclear (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999, Vincent 1997). While <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> individuals are found in TCM they are used less often than other sea moth species (Vincent 1997).<br/><br/>Extraction of live specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> for the aquarium trade is performed by compressor divers (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Collections have also been performed with hand nets (Herold and Clark 1993). Since <span style="font-style: italic;">E. draconis</span> lives in deeper waters, it is collected less often for the aquarium trade than other sea moths.	eng
8408	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>may occur in a number of Hawaiian marine protected areas including Ahihi-kinau, Hanauma Bay, Manele-Huloppe and Waikiki (Wood 2007), but the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio</span> in these protected areas is yet to be determined. &#160;</p>	eng
8408	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>is known only from the Hawaiian Islands (Tinker 1978).</p>	eng
8408	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">E. papilio </span>inhabits moderately deep benthic environments (Palsson and Pietsch 1989). Larvae and juveniles are often collected in neuston and plankton nets, and midwater research trawls (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).</p>	eng
8408	population	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
8408	threats	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
8418	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in Caparao National Park. Surveys are required to determine whether the species is synonymous with E. subspinosus and to determine necessary conservation measures.	eng
8418	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in southern and eastern Brazil, northeastern Argentina, and Paraguay (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has been recorded in Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul States and one record for Espirito Santo State (Christoff, A. pers. comm.).	eng
8418	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in moist grasslands of the southern cerrado and pampas habitats of Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Lacher and Alho, 2001). It is also found in forest, at forest edges and in introduced grasslands in Atlantic Forest from Espirito Santo south to Argentina and Paraguay (Christoff, A. pers. comm.).	eng
8418	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
8418	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
8436	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas across its range.	eng
8436	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is found only in the Mindanao Faunal Region and has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Samar, and Siargao islands (Heaney 1985; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) at an elevational range from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
8436	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is a lowland and montane primary and secondary forest species, its highest abundance is at middle elevations in small clearings (Heaney 1985; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
8436	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This is a locally moderately common species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It was not encountered in a recent survey between 100-400 m in primary forest on Samar (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006).	eng
8436	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Deforestation may affect the species to some extent, but this is not considered a major threat (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
8437	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	It occurs in various protected areas but many of these may support only small populations as they may be above this species' main altitudinal range (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).	eng
8437	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo. It occurs also on Banggi island (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
8437	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species inhabits predominantly lowlands and lower hills.	eng
8437	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
8437	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is threatened by the massive habitat conversion of lowland and lower hill forest in Borneo. It is unclear whether the species can use replacement plantations (W. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.).	eng
8438	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species has been recorded in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and Bukit Sarang Conservation Areas in Sarawak (Han and Giman pers. comm.).	eng
8438	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	IThis species is endemic to Borneo, where it is confined to the central mountain ranges (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges in East Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. Some records are reported from West Kalimantan (upper Kapuas River and possibly from the area near Sambas).	eng
8438	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This is a lower sub-montane species that can be found up to 3,000 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005; Giman pers. comm.). It feeds on mosses, and is often found on tree trunks, it has been recorded once from peat swamp forest (Han pers. comm.).	eng
8438	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is not easily trapped in cage traps, but more often caught in mist nets (Han and Giman pers. comm.). This species might be rare, though the lack of records could be due to difficulty in trapping (Han pers. comm.).	eng
8438	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
8488	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
8488	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Chickasawhay and Escatawpa river basins in Alabama and Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1987).<br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 12000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8488	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and burrows in Sarracenia bogs (Schuster and Taylor 2004).	eng
8488	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
8488	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no immediate threats to this species, however the removal of peat bogs may pose a future threat (NatureServe 2009). Destruction of pitcher plant bogs due to road construction, development, or forest management practices have caused fragmentation within populations (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010). However, the species exists in all pitcher plant bogs sampled within its range (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010).	eng
8489	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, as well as population trends. Furthermore, site protection is needed to prevent further development within its range.</p><p></p>	eng
8489	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from Jackson, Harrison, Stone and Lamar counties, Mississippi, and Mobile County, Alabama with new records just into Baldwin County (Hobbs 1975). The exact range and relationships of several populations of this species, and the closely related and environmentally equivalent species <span style="font-style: italic;">F. burrisi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. byersi</span> need to be determined (NatureServe 2009). Theses species look very similar and there is a possibility of misidentification (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010). This species has a distribution of approximately 6,700 km².	eng
8489	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and occurs in pitcher plant bogs with <span class="copy">dominant vegetation including <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarracenia</span> sp., and <span style="font-style: italic;">Drosera</span> sp. (NatureServe 2009).	eng
8489	population	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
8489	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is impacted by draining of its habitat for urban development (NatureServe 2009), which is thought to be impacting a significant part of this species' range (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
8490	conservation	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
8490	distribution	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Pine Bluff next to the Cleveland County line and Jefferson County, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989). This species has been documented from six sites in Jefferson County and from two sites in Cleveland County (Hobbs and Robison 1989, Robison and Wagner 2005). The estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 3,800 km<sup>2</sup>.  <br/><br/><span class="copy"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
8490	habitat	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in roadside ditches away from standing water (Hobbs and Robison 1989).	eng
8490	population	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. <span class="copy">	eng
8490	threats	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <em>Fallicambarus</em> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). The more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009). However these are general threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> species; the precise threats to this species are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
8491	conservation	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>This species has been awarded some protection through a Candidate Conservation Agreement between the US Forest Service, Mississippi National Guard, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks, and the Fisheries and Wildlife Service (NatureServe 2009). As a result, the Mississippi National Guard have removed all activities from within its range (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). In addition, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
8491	distribution	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is largely restricted to five locations in pitcher plant bogs (40 m by 500 m) in the Upper Cypress Creek watershed, and a small portion of Beaumont Creek watershed in the Camp Shelby Training site, DeSoto National Forest, Pascagoula River Basin, Perry County, Mississippi, USA (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 442 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8491	habitat	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and is found in wetland habitats where it is dependent on the maintenance of an open bog habitat for survival (Johnston and Figiel 1997). Burrowing activities are limited between autumn and winter when the habitat is wet (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In summer, burrow depth increases as the habitat dries (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In the summer months this species aestivates (Johnston and Figiel 1997). The burrows are complex with multiple openings and escape tunnels (Johnston and Figiel 1997). Furthermore, this species is short lived, with a longevity of between two and three years (Johnston and Figiel 1997).	eng
8491	population	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	In one life-history study, catch per unit effort (CPUE) ranged from 0.02-0.17 (active season) and 0.0 (inactive season) suggesting that simply counting burrow structures will not give you an accurate population estimate (Johnston and Fiegiel 1997); a total of 87 individuals were counted from one population. Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) recorded a CPUE of 0.75 (active season) and 0.75 (inactive season), but they excavated deeper than Johnston and Fiegiel (1997). Because the species has both active and inactive seasonal periods, the relationship between the amount of surface evidence (i.e. burrow mounds and openings) and crayfish estimates must include both the active number of surface openings and average number of burrow nodes. When surface openings and burrow nodes are counted during summer an averaged per burrow ration of 13:1 is obtained. When this is applied to data collected in 2004, average burrow density was fopund to be 2.7 +- 0.69 within open canopy pitcher plant bogs, and when corrected for the 75% burrow occupancy, crayfish averaged 2.0 +- 0.52 m<sup>-2</sup> (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). There is no population data for Beaumont Creek. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
8491	threats	Crandall, K.A., Eversole, A.G. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is dependent on maintenance of open-bog habitat for its survival, so it is vulnerable to activities that either compact the soil (destroy burrows) or alter the hydrology of the area (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999). Silviculture and troop and tank manoeuvres in Camp Shelby previously impacted upon this species, however, these threats have been removed due to a Candidate Conservation Agreement between the US Forest Service, Mississippi National Guard, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks and the Fisheries and Wildlife Service (NatureServe 2009).	eng
8492	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
8492	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was known from only two localities, both in the Ouachita River basin in Pike County, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1985). However, it is now known to occur in 12 sites in Garland, Hot Spring, Montgomery, and Pike counties (Robison and Crump 2004, Robison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8492	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, located in low lying seepage areas in pastures, yards and lawns (US Forest Service 2008).	eng
8492	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
8492	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <em>Fallicambarus</em> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. Lastly, competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
8493	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is being impacted upon by threats within its range.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
8493	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from 2 sites (Williams and Bivens 2001) on a tributary of Cypress Creek (in the Hatchie River drainage) in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">McNairy   County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Fitzpatrick 1970).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 80 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8493	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This is a burrowing species that was described from a roadside ditch, and is known to occur within a tributary of Cypress Creek (Hobbs and Fitzpatrick 1970). It is also known to burrow in sandy soil on herbaceous shrubland (NatureServe 2009).	eng
8493	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The type colony of this species probably does not exceed 100 adults (Williams and Bivens 2001).	eng
8493	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from a tributary of the Hatchie River system. The Hatchie has undergone a significant decline in water quality as a result of sedimentation, contaminants, and alteration to its hydrology. Most of these threats originate from previous channelisation of many tributaries (The Nature Conservancy 2009). Furthermore, sedimentation rates have been exacerbated by intensive cotton farming and deforestation in the surrounding catchment (US Fish and Wildlife Service 2009).<br/><span class="610302316-22072003">	eng
8494	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
8494	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Hobbs and Robison (1989) described this species from a single locality in western Union County, Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995). Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) have since described it as rare and known from another single locality in Columbia County.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of between 4 - 20 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8494	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in sandy loam soil (Hobbs and Robison 1989) and in shrub dominated wetland (NatureServe 2009).	eng
8494	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is at present known from only 18 specimens, from two collections at the type locality, and an undetermined number of specimens at a second locality in Columbia County (Robinson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; Furthermore, this species has always been regarded as rare and never abundant locally (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
8494	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007, NatureServe 2009).</p>	eng
8495	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, some sites are known from the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160; Further research is needed to detrmine the abundance and possible threats impacting this species.</p>	eng
8495	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Saline River basin in Sevier, Howard, and Pike Counties, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
8495	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in marshes, and is a primary burrower. Its preferred substrate is sandy-clay; nearby streams are clear, fast-running, shallow and with rocky substrate (Reimer 1966). <span class="copy">It is also known from seeps in elevated areas in pine woods (NatureServe 2009).	eng
8495	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
8495	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species.</p>	eng
8539	conservation	Sanderson, J., Mallon, D.P. & Driscoll, C., 2010	Listed on CITES Appendix ii (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis&#160;bieti</span>).	eng
8540	conservation	Global assessment by IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Thailand and Turkey (Nowell and Jackson 1996). This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. It is considered possibly extinct in Georgia.	eng
8540	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The jungle cat is listed on CITES Appendix II.  It is protected from hunting in some range states (India), but in many receives no legal protection outside protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The ecology and status of the jungle cat is poorly known (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Southwest and Southeast Asia, where it is considered rare and declining, more research needs to be undertaken to gain knowledge of current distribution, both in and outside of protected areas (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Some farmers consider the jungle cat a pest which takes poultry (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003), and conservation measures should include better protection for domestic fowl and halting of indiscriminate poisoning and trapping.  The jungle cat would also benefit from improved protection of natural wetlands and reedbeds, particularly in the more arid parts of its range, and improved legislation prohibiting fur trade.	eng
8540	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Sanderson, J. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The jungle cat is listed on CITES Appendix II.  It is protected from hunting in some range states (India), but in many receives no legal protection outside protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species now receives legal protection from all hunting and trading within Afghanistan after being placed on the country’s 2009 Protected Species List. Furthermore, given the amount of habitat loss occurring in riparian and wetland areas in Afghanistan, this species should be considered a research priority.<br/><br/>The ecology and status of the jungle cat is poorly known (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Southwest and Southeast Asia, where it is considered rare and declining, more research needs to be undertaken to gain knowledge of current distribution, both in and outside of protected areas (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Some farmers consider the jungle cat a pest which takes poultry (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003), and conservation measures should include better protection for domestic fowl and halting of indiscriminate poisoning and trapping.  The jungle cat would also benefit from improved protection of natural wetlands and reedbeds, particularly in the more arid parts of its range, and improved legislation prohibiting fur trade.	eng
8540	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Sanderson, J. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The jungle cat has a broad but patchy distribution.  In Africa, it is found only in Egypt, along the Nile River Valley south to Aswan, and in El Faiyum, Farafara, Dakhla and Kharga oases (Glas in press).  Into southwest Asia, it occurs through Israel, southern Lebanon, northwestern Jordan, western Syria, and into Turkey and western Iraq (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em>, 2003).  In this region its occurrence is highly localized around riparian vegetation and permanent water sources.  In central Asia, it is found in the Caucasus mountains (up to 1,000 m), around the Caspian and Aral Seas and associated river valleys, and through Iran west to Pakistan.  It occurs widely in tropical and sub-tropical Asia, including almost all of India as well as Sri Lanka, ranging up to 2,400 m in the Himalayan foothills, and through Southeast Asia to southern China, but absent from Malayan peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  Its range in Indochina is poorly known, especially in Myanmar.  Duckworth <em>et al.</em> (2005) review the few historical distribution records from Indochina and add several recent ones from Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.	eng
8540	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The jungle cat has a broad but patchy distribution.  In Africa, it is found only in Egypt, along the Nile River Valley south to Aswan, and in El Faiyum, Farafara, Dakhla and Kharga oases (Glas in press).  Into southwest Asia, it occurs through Israel, southern Lebanon, northwestern Jordan, western Syria, and into Turkey and western Iraq (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em>, 2003).  In this region its occurrence is highly localized around riparian vegetation and permanent water sources.  In central Asia, it is found in the Caucasus mountains (up to 1,000 m), around the Caspian and Aral Seas and associated river valleys, and through Iran west to Pakistan.  It occurs widely in tropical and sub-tropical Asia, including almost all of India as well as Sri Lanka, ranging up to 2,400 m in the Himalayan foothills, and through Southeast Asia to southern China, but absent from Malayan peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  Its range in Indochina is poorly known, especially in Myanmar.  Duckworth <em>et al.</em> (2005) review the few historical distribution records from Indochina and add several recent ones from Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.	eng
8540	distribution	Global assessment by IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The jungle cat has a very broad range, from Southeast Asia west through India, Southwest and Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and finally into Africa along the Nile River Delta.	eng
8540	habitat	Global assessment by IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with closed forest, but rather with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments. It is able to satisfy these requirements in a variety of habitats, from desert to scrub woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
8540	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Sanderson, J. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with the classic rainforest "jungle" habitat, but rather with wetlands - habitats with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments.  Hence its other common and more applicable name, the swamp cat. Water and dense ground cover can be found in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert (where it is found near oases or along riverbeds) to grassland, shrubby woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Areas with extensive deciduous dipterocarp forest and at least scattered surface water are the species predominant known habitat in Indochina. However, areas such as the Nakai Plateau which support other forms of savanna-like vegetation may support the species. It is probably absent from all closed canopy forests, including rainforest. The species may make use of agricultural areas with a low intensity of human use and which retain patches of scrub (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>Jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation, having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations throughout their range, such as sugar cane plantations in India.  In Israel they can be found around pisciculture ponds and irrigation ditches.  Vereschagin (1959) noted that the jungle cat's use of the semi-arid plains of Azerbaijan increased with the development of a local irrigation system and decreased with its abandonment.  However, mowing the seasonally flooded riverine tugai vegetation (trees and shrubs with dense stands of tall reeds and grasses) of this region for livestock fodder, as well as plowing it under for agriculture, is known to be associated with the decline of jungle cat populations in the European-central Asian parts of its range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  <br/><br/>Jungle cats feed mainly on prey that weighs less than one kilogram.  Small mammals, principally rodents,  are the prey most frequently found in feces and stomach contents.  A study in India's Sariska reserve estimated that jungle cats catch and eat three to five rodent per day (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Birds rank second in importance, but in southern Russia waterfowl are the mainstay of jungle cat diet in the winter.  With overwintering populations of waterfowl congretating in large numbers on unfrozen rivers and marshes, the jungle cat hunts among reeed beds and along edges of wetlands, searching for injured or weakened birds.  Other prey species are taken more opportunistically, including hares, nutria, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and fish.  In India, they have been seen to scavenge kills of large predators such as the Asiatic lion.  In a study in southern Uzbekistan, the fruits of the Russian olive made up 17% of their diet in winter.  While jungle cats specialize on small prey, they are large and powerful enough to kill young swine, subadult gazelles, and chital fawns (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br/><br/>Density estimates from natural tugai habitat in central Asia range from 4-15 individuals per 10 km², but where this vegetation type has declined due to development density does not exceed two cats per 10 km² (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).	eng
8540	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The jungle cat, despite its name, is not strongly associated with the classic rainforest "jungle" habitat, but rather with wetlands - habitats with water and dense vegetative cover, especially reed swamps, marsh, and littoral and riparian environments.  Hence its other common and more applicable name, the swamp cat. Water and dense ground cover can be found in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert (where it is found near oases or along riverbeds) to grassland, shrubby woodland and dry deciduous forest, as well as cleared areas in moist forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Areas with extensive deciduous dipterocarp forest and at least scattered surface water are the species predominant known habitat in Indochina. However, areas such as the Nakai Plateau which support other forms of savanna-like vegetation may support the species. It is probably absent from all closed canopy forests, including rainforest. The species may make use of agricultural areas with a low intensity of human use and which retain patches of scrub (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>Jungle cats have adapted well to irrigated cultivation, having been observed in many different types of agricultural and forest plantations throughout their range, such as sugar cane plantations in India.  In Israel they can be found around pisciculture ponds and irrigation ditches.  Vereschagin (1959) noted that the jungle cat's use of the semi-arid plains of Azerbaijan increased with the development of a local irrigation system and decreased with its abandonment.  However, mowing the seasonally flooded riverine tugai vegetation (trees and shrubs with dense stands of tall reeds and grasses) of this region for livestock fodder, as well as plowing it under for agriculture, is known to be associated with the decline of jungle cat populations in the European-central Asian parts of its range (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  <br/><br/>Jungle cats feed mainly on prey that weighs less than one kilogram.  Small mammals, principally rodents,  are the prey most frequently found in feces and stomach contents.  A study in India's Sariska reserve estimated that jungle cats catch and eat three to five rodent per day (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Birds rank second in importance, but in southern Russia waterfowl are the mainstay of jungle cat diet in the winter.  With overwintering populations of waterfowl congretating in large numbers on unfrozen rivers and marshes, the jungle cat hunts among reeed beds and along edges of wetlands, searching for injured or weakened birds.  Other prey species are taken more opportunistically, including hares, nutria, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and fish.  In India, they have been seen to scavenge kills of large predators such as the Asiatic lion.  In a study in southern Uzbekistan, the fruits of the Russian olive made up 17% of their diet in winter.  While jungle cats specialize on small prey, they are large and powerful enough to kill young swine, subadult gazelles, and chital fawns (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br/><br/>Density estimates from natural tugai habitat in central Asia range from 4-15 individuals per 10 km², but where this vegetation type has declined due to development density does not exceed two cats per 10 km² (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).	eng
8540	population	Global assessment by IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	It is a relatively common species throughout much of the range. In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There have been no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).	eng
8540	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Sanderson, J. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The jungle cat is considered common in some parts of its range, primarily in India (Mukherjee 1988), but also Pakistan and Bangladesh (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  <br/><br/>In southern China and southeast Asia (with the exception of northeastern Cambodia),  however, it appears quite rare in comparison to sympatric small cats (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005).  This rarity appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon associated with unselective trapping and snaring, especially in Lao PDR and Thailand as well, where it was described as common by Lekagul and McNeely (1977) but has since suffered drastic declines and is rarely encountered (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005; Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment 2003).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There was no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. In Northern Ossetia (Russian Federation) only about 150 animals were recorded (Kuryatnikov and Varziev 1983). Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species in this region, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).  This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (IUCN 2007).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia the species is also considered rare and threatened (Abu-Baker <em>et al</em>. 2003, Habibi 2004).	eng
8540	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The jungle cat is considered common in some parts of its range, primarily in India (Mukherjee 1988), but also Pakistan and Bangladesh (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  <br/><br/>In southern China and southeast Asia (with the exception of northeastern Cambodia),  however, it appears quite rare in comparison to sympatric small cats (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005).  This rarity appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon associated with unselective trapping and snaring, especially in Lao PDR and Thailand as well, where it was described as common by Lekagul and McNeely (1977) but has since suffered drastic declines and is rarely encountered (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2005; Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment 2003).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is of marginal occurrence, with small populations in Cis-Caspian region and the Caucasus along the Caspian Sea. The European population has been rapidly declining since the 1960s. There was no records of this species in Astrakhan State Reserve (Russian Federation) since the 1980s. In Northern Ossetia (Russian Federation) only about 150 animals were recorded (Kuryatnikov and Varziev 1983). Marked population fluctuations are characteristic of this species in this region, probably because of absence of adaptations to cold winters. Despite these fluctuations the long-term trend in Europe is of decline in both population and area of occupancy. Data from Russia suggest that there are about 500 animals left in the wild (Prisazhnyuk and Belousova 2007). A very small population persists in Georgia (I. Macharashvili pers. comm. to K. Tsysulina 2007).  This species is considered threatened in a number of range states in Europe and the Caucasus, and is included in the Red Books of the Russian Federation, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (IUCN 2007).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia the species is also considered rare and threatened (Abu-Baker <em>et al</em>. 2003, Habibi 2004).	eng
8540	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Sanderson, J. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	Jungle cats can do well in cultivated landscapes (especially those that lead to increased numbers of rodents) and artificial wetlands. However, reclamation and destruction of natural wetlands, ongoing throughout its range but particularly in the arid areas, still pose a threat to the species, as density in natural wetlands is generally higher (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Unselective trapping, snaring and poisoning around agricultural and settled areas have caused population declines in many areas throughout its range (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  India formerly exported large numbers of jungle cat skins before the species came under legal protection (over 300,000 were declared as being held by traders there when export was banned in 1979), and some illegal trade continues there (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), as well as in Egypt (Glas in press) and Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).	eng
8540	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Jungle cats can do well in cultivated landscapes (especially those that lead to increased numbers of rodents) and artificial wetlands. However, reclamation and destruction of natural wetlands, ongoing throughout its range but particularly in the arid areas, still pose a threat to the species, as density in natural wetlands is generally higher (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Unselective trapping, snaring and poisoning around agricultural and settled areas have caused population declines in many areas throughout its range (Abu-Baker <em>et al.</em> 2003, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).  India formerly exported large numbers of jungle cat skins before the species came under legal protection (over 300,000 were declared as being held by traders there when export was banned in 1979), and some illegal trade continues there (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), as well as in Egypt (Glas in press) and Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).	eng
8540	threats	Global assessment by IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Jungle cats do well in cultivated landscapes (especially those that lead to increased numbers of rodents) and artificial wetlands. However, reclamation and destruction of natural wetlands, ongoing throughout its range but particularly in the arid areas, still pose a threat to the species, as density in natural wetlands is generally higher (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Thousands of jungle cat furs have been confiscated in illegal trade in India (Mukherjee 1998). In Europe, population and range declines since the 1960s have been attributed to illegal hunting and artificial landscape change.	eng
8541	conservation	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Algeria, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Mauritania, Niger, Pakistan and Tunisia (Nowell and Jackson 1996). On the African continent, Sand Cats are recorded from several protected areas, including Tassili n? Ajjer and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria), Aïr and Tenere National Reserve (Niger), and Djebel Bou-Hedma Biosphere Reserve (Tunisia) (Sliwa in press). In Saudi Arabia, a study is underway in the Mahazat As-Sayd and Saja/Umm Ar-rimth Protected Areas (Strauss <em>et al.</em> 2007), while records also exist from the ?Uruq Bani Ma?arid Protected Area (Strauss pers. obs.)  In Iran it has been reported from the Moteh and Touran protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>There is a need for more fine-scale distribution studies and estimates of home range and density.	eng
8541	distribution	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	The Sand Cat is the only felid found primarily in true desert, and has a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia. It is not clear whether the gaps in known range are due to a lack of records or truly reflect species absence (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/>For example, sightings have been reported in Libya and Egypt west of the Nile (Sliwa in press), but there are no historical records despite intensive collecting effort (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976).  <br/><br/>In north Africa, Sliwa (in press) has summarized what is known of its distribution: the Sand Cat occurs marginally in western Morocco, including former Sahara Occidental, Algeria, and from the Sinai peninsula to the rocky deserts of eastern Egypt.  Although there have been sightings, no specimens have been collected from Tunisia, Libya, or in Egypt, west of the Nile River.  There are sight records from Mali and both specimens and sightings in Niger. In Mauritania, it is supposed to occur in the Adrar mountains and Majabat al Koubra. Thought to be present, but currently no specimens available, in Senegal and Chad, where spoor have been found, and also Sudan. <br/><br/>In Asia, there is a recent new country distribution record for Syria, around the area of Palmyra (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). It is not known if the small populations of Sand Cats in Pakistan?s Balochistan province are connected to the central Asian population via Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).  It has been recorded from the desert regions west of the Caspian Sea (in northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), but it is not known if the distribution is or was continous to the Arabian peninsula (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
8541	distribution	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	The Sand Cat is the only felid found primarily in true desert, and has a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia. It is not clear whether the gaps in known range are due to a lack of records or truly reflect species absence (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996). For example, sightings have been reported in Libya and Egypt west of the Nile (Sliwa in press), but there are no historical records despite intensive collecting effort (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976).  <br/><br/>In North Africa, Sliwa (in press) has summarized what is known of its distribution: the Sand Cat occurs marginally in western Morocco, including former Sahara Occidental, Algeria, and from the Sinai peninsula to the rocky deserts of eastern Egypt.  Although there have been sightings, no specimens have been collected from Tunisia, Libya, or in Egypt, west of the Nile River.  There are sight records from Mali and both specimens and sightings in Niger. In Mauritania, it is supposed to occur in the Adrar mountains and Majabat al Koubra. Thought to be present, but currently no specimens available, in Senegal and Chad, where spoor have been found, and also Sudan. <br/><br/>In Asia, there is a recent new country distribution record for Syria, around the area of Palmyra (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). It is not known if the small populations of Sand Cats in Pakistan's Balochistan province are connected to the central Asian population via Afghanistan (Habibi 2004).  It has been recorded from the desert regions west of the Caspian Sea (in northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), but it is not known if the distribution is or was continous to the Arabian peninsula (Hemmer <em>et al.</em> 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
8541	habitat	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	Sand Cats are specialists of sandy desert, where they are unevenly distributed, localized around sparse vegetation which can support small rodent prey.  They are also found in stony desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  With thickly furred feet, the Sand Cat is well adapted to the extremes of a desert environment, living in areas far from water, and tolerant of extremes of hot and cold temperatures (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Sliwa in press), largely because of their fossorial (burrowing) behavior (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).  They are absent from areas where the soil is compacted (Heptner and Sludskii 1972).<br/><br/>Small rodents are their primary prey, with records from Africa including including Spiny Mice (Acomys spp), Jirds (Meriones spp), Gerbils (Gerbillus spp), and Jerboas (Jaculus spp. and Allactaga tetradactyla), but also young of Cape Hare, Lepus capensis. They have also been observed to hunt small birds like Greater Hoopoe Lark Alaemon alaudipes, Desert Lark Ammomanes deserti, and consume reptiles such as Desert Monitor Varanus griseus, Fringe-toed lizards, Acanthodactylus spp., Sandfish Scincus scincus., Short-fingered Gecko Stenodactylus spp., and Horned and Sand vipers of the genus Cerastes, and insects (De Smet 1988, Abbadi 1993, Dragesco-Joffé 1993, Sliwa in press).  Sand-dwelling rodents made up the majority (65-88%) of stomach contents from carcasses collected in Turkmenistan and Uzebekistan in the 1960s (Schaenberg 1974).  In Arabia the sand cat's distribution coincides with that of sand skinks and Arabian toad-head lizards; both reptiles are thought to be an important source of food for the cat (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>They are capable of rapid digging to extract the latter prey items (Schauenberg 1974). Sand Cats may cover kills with sand and return later to feed. Independent of drinking water they are capable of satisfying their moisture requirements from their prey, but drink readily if it is available (Sliwa in press).   They appear to be primarily nocturnal (Abbadi 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Sand cats have been recorded to move long distances in a single night (5-10 km), and a radio telemetry study in Israel suggests large home ranges, with one male using an area of 16 km² (Abbadi 1993).  Annual ranges from the ongoing study in Saudi Arabia are larger, up to 40 km² (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8541	population	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	There are relatively few records of sand cats and they are often reported as rare (Sliwa in press). The only available density estimates come from a telemetry study in southern Israel, where 11 cats were caught in the study area of 15 x 25 km (375 km²) (M. Abbadi, in Sliwa in press).  In Saudi Arabia, a study is underway in the Mahazat As-Sayd and Saja/Umm Ar-rimth Protected Areas.  In the former, sand cats appear to occur at far lower densities than Rüppell's fox (Strauss <em>et al.</em> 2007 and pers. comm. 2008). In low-quality habitat, such as shifting sand dunes, densities may be very low (Sliwa in press).  Numbers may fluctuate in response to environmental conditions leading to prey declines and recoveries (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
8541	threats	Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A. & Strauss, M., 2008	Habitat degradation is the major threat to the sand cat.  Vulnerable arid ecosystems are being rapidly degraded by human settlement and activity, especially livestock grazing (Allan and Warren 1993, Al-Sharhan <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The sand cat's small mammal prey base depends on having adequate vegetation, and may experience large fluctuations due to drought (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), or declines due to desertification and loss of natural vegetation.<br/><br/>Other localized threats include the introduction of feral and domestic dogs and cats, creating direct competition and through predation and disease transmission (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  They also may be killed in traps laid out by inhabitants of oases targeting foxes and jackals or in retaliation for killing their chickens (De Smet 1989; Dragesco-Joffé 1993). There are occasional reports of animals shot in south-east Arabia (M. Strauss pers. comm.).	eng
8542	conservation	Sliwa, A., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I and protected by national legislation across most of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Hunting of this species is banned in Botswana and South Africa.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include more fine scale distributional studies particularly in Namibia and Botwana, as well as  a second ecological study in a different habitat than Sliwa (2004), preferably in areas of lower rainfall more typical of the current predicted range (A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is recorded from several protected areas, including Karoo National Park, Mountain Zebra National Park, and Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa, and Makgadikgadi Pans (Botswana). To date, there are no confirmed records for the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) or Central Kalahari Game Reserve (Botswana) (A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).	eng
8542	distribution	Sliwa, A., 2008	The black-footed cat is endemic to southern Africa. The species is found primarily in Namibia and South Africa, but also Botswana (where there are historical records but no recent ones), and marginally in Zimbabwe and likely marginally in extreme southern Angola (Sliwa 2008, B. Wilson and A. Sliwa pers. comm. 2007).	eng
8542	habitat	Sliwa, A., 2008	The black-footed cat is a specialist of open, short grass areas with an abundance of small rodents and ground-roosting birds. It inhabits dry, open savanna, grasslands and Karoo semi-desert with sparse shrub and tree cover and a mean annual rainfall of between 100 and 500 mm at altitudes of 0-2,000 m.  It is not found in the driest and sandiest parts of the Namib and Kalahari Deserts (Sliwa 2008).<br/><br/>During a 6-year field study on the game farm in central South Africa, 1725 prey items were observed consumed by 17 free-ranging habituated black-footed cats.  Average prey size was 24.1 g. Eight males fed on significantly larger prey (27.9 g) than 9 females (20.8 g). Fifty-four prey species were classified by their average mass into 8 different size classes, 3 for mammals, 3 for birds, 1 for amphibians/reptiles, and 1 for invertebrates. Small mammals (5-40 g) constituted the most important prey class (39%) of total prey biomass followed by larger mammals (> 100 g; 17%) and small birds (< 40 g; 16%). Mammals and birds pooled comprised 72% and 26% of total prey biomass, respectively, whereas invertebrates and amphibians/reptiles combined constituted just 2% of total prey mass consumed. Heterotherm prey items were unavailable during winter, when larger birds and mammals (> 100 g) were mainly consumed. Small rodents like the large-eared mouse (Malacothrix typica), captured 595 times by both sexes, were particularly important during the reproductive season for females with kittens. Male black-footed cats showed less variation between prey size classes consumed among climatic seasons. This sex-specific difference in prey size consumption may help to reduce intra-specific competition (Sliwa 2006).  In terms of interspecific competition, Sliwa <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that black-footed cats captured smaller prey on average than African wildcats, although both captured approximately the same number (12-13) of prey species per night.<br/><br/>Black-footed cats are solitary, except for females with dependent kittens, and during mating. Males have larger annual home ranges (20.7 km²; n=5) than females (10.0 km², n=7) (Sliwa 2004). Adults travel an average of 8.42+/- 2.09 km per night - more distance than the African wildcat (5.1 +/- 3.35 km per night) depite their smaller size, although some wildcats travelled very far (17.37 per km longest distance, as opposed to the black-footed at's 14.61 km) (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Male ranges overlap those of 1-4 females. Intra-sexual overlap varies from 12.9% for three males to 40.4% for five females. Home-range size is likely to vary between regions according to resources available to the individuals (Sliwa 2004).  Kittens are independent after 3-4 months, but remain within the range of their mother for extended periods (Sliwa 2008).<br/><br/>The black-footed cat is one of the world's smallest cats, with females weighing an average of 1.3 kg and males larger at 1.93 kg (Sliwa 2008).  The conspecific and more common African wildcat is considerably larger (females - 3.9 kg; males - 5.1 kg) (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8542	population	Sliwa, A., 2008	The black-footed cat is rare compared to the other small cats of southern Africa (Sliwa 2008).  There has been only one field study of the black-footed cat, on a game farm in central South Africa, with the research period spanning more than a decade (Sliwa <em>et al.</em> 2007), and over 17,000 fixes and 1,600 hours of observation of radio-collared and habituated cats.  In his 60 km² study area, Sliwa (2004) found the density of adult cats to be 0.17 per km².  In low-quality habitat densities are possibly very much lower (Sliwa 2008).	eng
8542	threats	Sliwa, A., 2008	Black-footed cats are threatened primarily by habitat degradation by grazing and agriculture, as well as by poison and other indiscriminate methods of pest control (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sliwa 2008).	eng
8543	conservation	Mathias Herrmann, Andrew Kitchener, Holger Meinig, Michael Stubbe, Margarida Fernandes, Jim Conroy, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Andreas Kranz, Agnieszka Olszanska, 2006	Included on CITES Appendix II. The species is fully protected across most of its range in Europe and eastern areas of Central Asia, but is only protected in part of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats & Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states.	eng
8543	conservation	Driscoll, C. & Nowell, K. , 2009	Included on CITES Appendix II.  Wildcats are fully protected across most of its range in Europe and Asia, but only some of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states (IUCN 2007). In China, the Chinese Alpine Steppe cat is protected as a separate species under Category II.  The 1992 meeting of the Cat Specialist Group in Beijing recommended upgrading to Category I, which requires permission of national, rather than provincial, authorities to hunt or trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but this has not yet been done. The species is legally protected in Afghanistan having been placed on the country?s first Protected Species List in 2009, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan. With so little information or data known on this species in Afghanistan, it is also proposed as a priority species for future study. <br/><br/>The main conservation need is to identify populations of genetically pure wildcats and attempt to prevent hybridization by neutering and removing feral domestic cats.  However, such efforts are complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing wildcats from domestic cats, especially when some hybridization has already taken place (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8543	conservation	Nowell, K., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II.  Wildcats are fully protected across most of its range in Europe and Asia, but only some of its African range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is listed on the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex IV) and the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It is classed as threatened at the national level in many European range states (IUCN 2007). In China, the Chinese mountain cat is protected as a separate species under Category II.  The 1992 meeting of the Cat Specialist Group in Beijing recommended upgrading to Category I, which requires permission of national, rather than provincial, authorities to hunt or trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but this has not yet been done.<br/><br/>The main conservation need is to identify populations of genetically pure wildcats and attempt to prevent hybridization by neutering and removing feral domestic cats.  However, such efforts are complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing wildcats from domestic cats, especially when some hybridization has already taken place (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8543	distribution	Driscoll, C. & Nowell, K. , 2009	The Wildcat has a very broad distribution, found throughout most of Africa, Europe, and southwest and central Asia into India, China, and Mongolia.  Five subspecies (following Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007   and Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press) are distributed as follows:<br/><br/>The African Wildcat <em>F. s. lybica</em> occurs across northern Africa and extends around the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula to the <st1:place w:st="on">Caspian Sea</st1:place> (Driscoll <em>et al. </em>2007). This extremely wide distributional range is accompanied by a very broad habitat tolerance, being apparently only absent from closed tropical forest. Although thinly distributed in true deserts such as the Sahara, they do occur, especially in association with hill and mountain country, such as the Hoggar. In North Africa they occur discontinuously from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and into Egypt. It has an extensive distribution across the savannas of West Africa from Mauritania on the Atlantic seaboard, eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Sudan and Ethiopia; southwards it is present in all East and southern African countries (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) where it is replaced by the Southern African Wildcat subspecies <em>F.s. cafra </em>(Driscoll <em>et al</em>. 2007). At present the boundary between the two cannot be determined by available genetic samples, but morphological evidence suggests the break to occur in the south-east, in the area of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mozambique</st1:country-region> (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>2004a,b; <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kitchener</st1:place></st1:city> and Rees 2009).  <br/><br/>Asiatic Wildcat <em>F. s. ornata</em> occurs from the eastern Caspian into western India, and north to Kazakhstan, and into western China and southern Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat <em>F. s. bieti</em> was previously considered a separate species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wozencraft 2005), but here classified as a Wildcat subspecies based on genetic analysis (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Based on a small sample size, Garcia-Perea (2000) described cranial characteristics from two skulls as similar to <em>F. silvestris</em>.  Endemic to western China and primarily found in Qinghai province, and possibly also northwestern Sichuan province (He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  He <em>et al.</em> (2004) considered records from other parts of China (Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xingjian, Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces) to be other subspecies of <em>Felis silvestris</em>.<br/><br/>European Wildcat <em>F. s. silvestris</em> was formerly very widely distributed in Europe and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local exirpations occured in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). It is extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (  IUCN 2007).  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).<st1:state w:st="on"> Sicily</st1:state> is the only Mediterranean island populated by European wildcats; populations on other islands (including Sardinia, Corsica and possibly <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place>) are probably feral domestics stemming from Neolithic times (Gippoliti and Amori 2006, Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press, T. Viago in litt. 2009).	eng
8543	distribution	Nowell, K., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The wildcat has a very broad distribution, found throughout most of Africa, Europe, and southwest and central Asia into India, China, and Mongolia.  Five subspecies (following Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007) are distributed as follows:<br/><br/>African wildcat <em>F. s. cafra</em>:  Occurs wholly, or in part, in nearly all African countries (Nowell and Jackson 1996). This extremely wide distributional range is accompanied by a very broad habitat tolerance, being apparently only absent from closed tropical forest. Although thinly distributed in true deserts such as the Sahara, they do occur, especially in association with hill and mountain country, such as the Hoggar. In North Africa they occur discontinuously from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and into Egypt. It has an extensive distribution across the savannas of West Africa from Mauritania on the Atlantic seaboard, eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Sudan and Ethiopia; southwards it is present in all East and southern African countries (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Near Eastern wildcat <em>F. s. lybica</em>:  Mixes with <em>F. s. cafra</em> in northern Africa, and extends around the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula to the Caspian Sea (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Asiatic wildcat <em>F. s. ornata</em>:  From the eastern Caspian into western India, and north to Kazakhstan, and into western China and southern Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Chinese alpine steppe cat <em>F. s. bieti</em>:  Previously considered a separate species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wozencraft 2005), but classified as a wildcat subspecies based on genetic analysis (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007, Eiziirik <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Based on a small sample size, Garcia-Perea (2000) described cranial characteristics from two skulls as similar to <em>F. silvestris</em>.  Endemic to western China and primarily found in Qinghai province, and possibly also northwestern Sichuan province (He <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wozencraft <em>et al.</em> in press).  He <em>et al.</em> (2004) considered records from other parts of China (Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xingjian, Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces) to be other subspecies of <em>Felis silvestris</em>.  If <em>Felis silvestris bieti</em> is accepted as a subspecies of wildcat, then there may be a gradation in form, and the geographic range may be modified accordingly.<br/><br/>European wildcat <em>F. s. silvestris</em> (IUCN 2007):  In Europe it was formerly very widely distributed and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local exirpations occured in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). It is extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (EMA Workshop 2006).  Populations of wildcats occur on Sicily, Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, as well as numerous other small Mediterranean islands.  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).	eng
8543	distribution	Mathias Herrmann, Andrew Kitchener, Holger Meinig, Michael Stubbe, Margarida Fernandes, Jim Conroy, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Andreas Kranz, Agnieszka Olszanska, 2006	The wildcat has a very wide distribution stretching across Europe (<em>F. silvestris</em>, silvestris group), South West and Central Asia (F. <em>silvestris</em>, ornata group), and Africa (<em>F. silvestris</em>, lybica group) (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Europe it was formerly very widely distributed and absent only from Fennoscandia. Severe declines and local extirpations occurred in Europe between the late 1700s and mid 1900s, resulting in a fragmented relict distribution (Stahl and Artois 1991, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Peichocki 2001). Previously considered extinct in the Netherlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but it may be recolonizing from populations in the Eifel or Ardennes forests (Canters <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It was considered regionally extinct in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), but vagrants still occur and the Italian population is spreading northwards into Austria (Lapini and Molinari 2006). It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic (EMA Workshop 2006). Wildcats (silvestris group) occur on Sicily, and populations of cats assigned to the libyca group occur on Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands. Feral domestic cats are also found on numerous other small Mediterranean islands.  It occurs from sea level to 2,250 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In some parts of the wildcat's distribution (e.g. Scotland, Stromberg in Germany) it is possible that, as a result of hybridization with the domestic cat, very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Herrmann and Vogel 2005).	eng
8543	habitat	Mathias Herrmann, Andrew Kitchener, Holger Meinig, Michael Stubbe, Margarida Fernandes, Jim Conroy, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Andreas Kranz, Agnieszka Olszanska, 2006	European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>As with other wildcats, rodents are the staple of the diet of European wildcats across much of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005) However, rabbits are a major prey where they occur (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lozano <em>et al.</em> 2006). Birds (both passerine and ground-dwelling) are of secondary importance (Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005). The composition of the diet shows only minor seasonal variations: rabbits or rodents are the major year-round food items. In Italy, historical (1968-1983) and recent (1994-2004) diets of wildcats show highly significant differences in composition,  with an overwhelming occurrence of arthropods, reptiles and murines in the most recent period; the change appeared to be directly correlated to the expansion of wood vegetation and growth of atmospheric temperature over the last twenty years (Ragni 2006). Wildcats will also scavenge food and cache their kills, especially in winter (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The overlap in trophic niche between wildcats and feral domestic cats is large (Biro <em>et al.</em> 2005), indicating the potential for competition between these two taxa. Age at sexual maturity is 10-12 months for females and 9-10 months for males, interbirth interval is typically one year (although females may exceptionally breed twice in a year if the first litter is lost), and longevity is exceptionally up to 15 years, but more typically up to 5-6 years  (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8543	habitat	Driscoll, C. & Nowell, K. , 2009	Wildcats are found in a wide variety of habitats, from deserts and scrub grassland to dry and mixed forest, absent only from rainforest and coniferous forest.  European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided. African wildcats are found everywhere outside tropical rainforest, although thinly distributed in true desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Chinese alpine steppe cat is restricted to the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, and is found primarily in alpine meadow habitats from 2,500 to 5,000 m (He <em>et al.</em> 2004). Yin<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al.</em> (2007) obtained the first camera trap photos of a wild individual at 3,700 m.  Asiatic wildcats have a different elevational range (up to 2,000?3,000 m), and are most typically associated with scrub desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Rodents and rabbits are the staple of the wildcat's diet across its range, with birds of secondary importance, although a variety of small prey is taken, and wildcats also scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Phelan and Sliwa (2006) found large home ranges (52.7 km² for a radio-collared female) in desert habitat in the United Arab Emirates, larger than home ranges reported elsewhere in more optimal haibtat - 6?10 km² for females in South Africa's Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Herbst and Mills 2005 in Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and 1?2 km² for females in Scotland and France (Stahl <em>et al.</em> 1988, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8543	habitat	Nowell, K., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Wildcats are found in a wide variety of habitats, from deserts and scrub grassland to dry and mixed forest, absent only from rainforest and coniferous forest.  European wildcats are primarily associated with forest and are found in highest numbers in broad-leaved or mixed forests with low densities of humans. They are also found in Mediterranean maquis scrubland, riparian forest, marsh boundaries and along sea coasts. Areas of intensive cultivation are avoided. African wildcats are found everywhere outside tropical rainforest, although thinly distributed in true desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Chinese alpine steppe cat is restricted to the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, and is found primarily in alpine meadow habitats from 2,500 to 5,000 m (He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Yu <em>et al.</em> (2007) obtained the first camera trap photos of a wild individual at 3,700 m.  Asiatic wildcats have a different elevational range (up to 2,000-3,000 m), and are most typically associated with scrub desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Rodents and rabbits are the staple of the wildcat's diet across its range, with birds of secondary importance, although a variety of small prey is taken, and wildcats also scavenge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Phelan and Sliwa (2006) found large home ranges (52.7 km² for a radio-collared female) in desert habitat in the United Arab Emirates, larger than home ranges reported elsewhere in more optimal haibtat - 6-10 km² for females in South Africa's Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Herbst and Mills 2005 in Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and 1-2 km² for females in Scotland and France (Stahl <em>et al.</em> 1988, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
8543	population	Mathias Herrmann, Andrew Kitchener, Holger Meinig, Michael Stubbe, Margarida Fernandes, Jim Conroy, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Andreas Kranz, Agnieszka Olszanska, 2006	One of the major barriers to the effective conservation of the wildcat in Europe is the lack of information regarding its current status and population trends (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process, information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented here, but this is by no means a comprehensive review. A review of the status of the wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: Recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005). If so, this putative subspecies would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005). The Scottish wildcat is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: The population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: In some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: Evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: The population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Switzerland</strong>: The wildcat persists in the Jura Mountains in northwestern Switzerland, adjacent to the French population. It was very rare in the 1970s, but records started to increase in the late 1980s (Doetterer and<br/>Bernhart 1996) and are now reported on a low, but regular frequency over the whole of the Swiss Jura Mountains. No population estimation available. <br/><strong>Italy</strong>: The estimated number of wildcats is between 750 and 1000 individuals (Ragni 1981, Ragni <em>et al.</em> 2001), which remains unchanged due to the slight range expansion in the middle and north-east, accompanied by extinction in the north-western peninsula (Ragni 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: The population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: Estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: The estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: There are large populations along the southern Danube (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: The species is widespread (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: The wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: The population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: There are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><strong>European Russia</strong>: The population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic nethods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, becuse it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) should help to resolve these problems.	eng
8543	population	Nowell, K., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The world's population of domestic cats was estimated at 400 million twenty years ago (Legay 1986), making Felis silvestris one of the world's most numerous animals.  However, domestic cats hybridize readily with wildcats, and genetic analysis of wildcat samples found that most showed evidence of hybridization (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There are probably very few populations remaining of genetically pure wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Chinese alpine steppe cat, F.s. bieti, apparently has a very restricted range, and is the least numerous of the wildcats, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In the Near East region, wildcats occur at low density, and are threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and egradation as well as hybridization (Phelan and Sliwa 2006).<br/><br/>Most detailed population information is available about the European subspecies, F.s. silvestris, although there is still a lack of information regarding its current status and population trends (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process (IUCN 2007), information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented here, but this is by no means a comprehensive review.  A review of the status of the wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: Recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005). If so, this putative subspecies would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005). The Scottish wildcat is currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: The population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: In some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: Evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: The population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: The population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: Estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: The estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: There are large populations along the southern Danube (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: The species is widespread (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: The wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: The population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: There are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/>European Russia: The population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006).<br/><br/>Introduced populations of F. silvestris occur on Crete, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, as well as numerous other small Mediterranean islands (Vigne 1992, Hemmer 1999, Gippoliti and Amori 2006). However, the wildcat of Sicily is generally considered to be an autochthonous population of <em>F. s. silvestris</em>, given its genetic distinctness from the mainland Italian population (Randi and Ragni 1991, Gippoliti and Amori 2006).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic methods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Outside Europe, the extent of hybridization is considered likely to be lower, but still significant, by Nowell and Jackson (1996), noting reports from Pakistan, central Asia and India.  Evidence of hybridization has been found in southern Africa (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and North Africa (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, becuse it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) and genetic markers recommended by Driscoll <em>et al.</em> (2007) should help to resolve these problems.	eng
8543	population	Driscoll, C. & Nowell, K. , 2009	The world's population of domestic cats was estimated at 400 million twenty years ago (Legay 1986), making the domesticated form of <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis silvestris</span> one of the world's most numerous animals.  However, domestic cats hybridize readily with wildcats, and genetic analysis of wildcat samples found that most showed evidence of hybridization (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There are probably very few populations remaining of genetically distinct wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat, <span style="font-style: italic;">F.s. bieti,</span> apparently has a very restricted range, and is the least numerous of the wildcats, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In the Near East region, Wildcats occur at low density, and are threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation as well as hybridization (Phelan and Sliwa 2006).<br/><br/>Most detailed population information is available about the European subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">F.s. silvestris</span>, although there is still a lack of information regarding its current status and population trends. There have been no recent large-scale surveys or European regional reviews of the status of the species (Macdonald <em>et al. </em>2004). During the European Mammal Assessment process (IUCN 2007), information (ranging from detailed national surveys to expert opinion) was collated for a number of European range states and is presented below, but this is by no means a comprehensive review.  A review of the status of the Wildcat in Europe in the 1980s and early-mid 1990s can be found in Stahl and Artois (1991) and Nowell and Jackson (1996).<br/><br/><strong>Scotland (UK)</strong>: recent estimates have varied between 1,000 and 4,000 (compared to 1.2 million feral cats in Britain), but as few as 400 cats with classical wildcat pelage may survive, and it is possible that very few genetically pure wildcats remain (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Battersby 2005, Macdonald <em>et al</em>. in press). If so, this population would be Critically Endangered (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys show that 30% of populations have declined, whilst only 8% are increasing (Battersby 2005).<br/><strong>Portugal</strong>: the population is suspected to be decreasing (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines reaching 30% over three generations in the past or future (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><strong>Spain</strong>: in some places it is increasing and others decreasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Considered Vulnerable at the national level, on the basis of suspected declines of over 30% over the last three generations (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><strong>Belgium</strong>: evidence from wild cats found dead on roads indicated that the species is gradually expanding its range to the north and west. There are no data on population size (Libois 2006).<br/><strong>Germany</strong>: the population was recently estimated at 1,700-5,000 individuals (Knapp <em>et al.</em> 2000). The population is increasing and occupying new areas (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Slovenia</strong>: the population is estimated (on the basis of density and habitat suitability) at no more than 2,000; it is stable. Recently expanded highways possibly pose some threat in south-east part of its high density range. (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006)<br/><strong>Poland</strong>: estimated number of wildcats in Poland is between 100 and 150 individuals, estimated density is 1-1.3 per 1000 ha (Okarma <em>et al.</em> 2002). The current distribution of wildcat in the Polish Carpathians, mainly along the borders with Slovakia and Ukraine, shows that the Polish population forms a continuum with Slovak and Ukrainian populations. Together they constitute the northernmost part of the larger Carpathian population of this species. The species is decreasing and is considered endangered (EN) in Red Data Book of Poland (Wolsan <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><strong>Slovakia</strong>: the estimate of the Slovakian population in 2000 was about 1,500 individuals (unpublished data of the Slovak Environmental Agency: A. Olszanska pers. comm. 2006). <br/><strong>Serbia</strong>: there are large populations along the southern Danube (IUCN 2007).<br/><strong>Macedonia</strong>: the species is widespread (IUCN 2007).<br/><strong>Greece</strong>: the wild cat is widespread in continental Greece with sightings in all forested areas and many wetlands. There are apparently more sightings in north and north-east Greece, where the population density seems to be higher. The population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable. On Crete it occurs at low densities (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006).<br/><strong>Romania</strong>: the population is estimated to number c.10,000 individuals, but this is not based on quantitative data (Red Data Book of Romania). <br/><strong>Bulgaria</strong>: there are no quantitative data, but the species is considered relatively abundant (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">European Russia</span>: the population size and trend have not been quantified, but there are thought to be large, relatively stable populations (IUCN 2007).<br/><br/>In Scotland, 88% of wild-living cats may be hybrids or feral domestic cats (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in Italy and Hungary the proportion of hybrids is estimated at 8% and 25-31% respectively (using genetic methods: Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003, Lecis <em>et al.</em> 2006). On the basis of museum specimens, the proportion of hybrids in Bulgaria was estimated at 8-10% (Spassov <em>et al.</em> 1997), but the extent of hybridization may have increased since specimens were collected. Wild cats of mixed origin have also been found in Belgium, Portugal, Germany (only one animal) and Switzerland (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). In general the genetic distance to the domestic cat is larger in the north of the range than in the south (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eastern European populations are generally considered to be relatively pure (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Outside Europe, the extent of hybridization is considered likely to be lower, but still significant, by Nowell and Jackson (1996), noting reports from Pakistan, central Asia and India.  Evidence of hybridization has been found in southern Africa (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press) and North Africa (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press). Assessing the status of the wildcat is difficult, because it is a cryptic species and, moreover, because it may be difficult for some experts to distinguish between specimens of European wildcat and domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Morphological critera established by Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2005) and genetic markers recommended by Driscoll <em>et al.</em> (2007) should help to resolve these problems.	eng
8543	threats	Mathias Herrmann, Andrew Kitchener, Holger Meinig, Michael Stubbe, Margarida Fernandes, Jim Conroy, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Andreas Kranz, Agnieszka Olszanska, 2006	Habitat loss and persecution by humans caused the dramatic decline of this species in Europe in the 18th to mid 20th centuries. Today, the main threats are hybridization, disease transmission, and competition with feral domestic cats. There is ongoing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation in some areas (e.g., Mediterranean bushland); although in some other parts of Europe forest cover is increasing as a result of abandonment of extensive agricultural land. The fact that wildcats have failed to recover across much of their former European range, despite decades of strict legal protection, indicates that although persecution has largely ceased, other factors are now limiting populations of this species.<br/><br/>European wildcats suffer from hybridization with domestic cats, which descend from African wildcats. The process of domestication began thousands of years ago in North Africa and Southwest Asia, and domestic cats are now found in large numbers throughout the world, living in peoples' homes as well as feral in the wild.  Feral cats compete with wildcats for prey and space, and there is also interbreeding or hybridization, which is leading to a strong decline in genetically pure wildcats in some areas. There is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Fromont <em>et al.</em> 1998, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999), with some infections being maintained permanently in wildcat populations by transmission from domestic cats, when otherwise the diseases would die out (Fromont <em>et al.</em> 1998). A further risk is presented by the selective resistance of silvestris x catus  hybrids to viral disease infection (Ragni and Possenti 1991, Ragni 1993). <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted. Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch. In Europe at least, the species has never been commercially exploited for its fur (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Introduced feral domestic cats cause serious harm to native species in many parts of the world, and there have been suggestions that virus-vectored immunocontraception should be developed as a control method (Courchamp and Cornell 2000). Any such development should take into account potential risks to wildcats. In recent years there have been a number of cases of people taking young wildcats from the wild in the mistaken belief that they would make good pets (8 cases in two years in two areas in Germany, and another cat that was introduced from France into the Netherlands: Canters <em>et al.</em> 2005, Simon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8543	threats	Driscoll, C. & Nowell, K. , 2009	Wildcats are most threatened by domestic cats.  Hybridization is widespread; there may be very few genetically pure populations of Wildcats remaining (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Phelan and Sliwa 2006, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Of all Wildcat subspecies analyzed, only the Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. bieti,</span> showed no evidence of genetic introgression of domestic cat genes, but the sample size was small (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Feral cats compete with Wildcats for prey and space, and there is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and Wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, in Europe, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004). Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch.  Wildcats are also killed as pests in southern Africa although this does not seem to have resulted in population declines (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).  In the past Asiatic Wildcats have been trapped in large numbers for their fur, although at present there is little international trade in Asian wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Large-scale poisoning campaigns to try to control populations of small mammals such as pikas, voles and moles have been conducted in the habitat of the Chinese Alpine Steppe Cat.  Several different types of chemicals are in use which have been found to have adverse effects on predators. Although ecological methods of pest control have been urged by Chinese scientists, such campaigns continue and have eradicated potential prey such as pikas from large areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996, He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Skins of Chinese mountain cats have been encountered in small numbers in the illegal wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996, He <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, habitat loss led to dramatic declines in Europe and Russia in the 18<sup>th</sup> to mid-20<sup>th</sup> centuries (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  However, wildcats can do well in cultivated landscapes which increase rodent densities (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although these are the areas where hybridization with domestic cats occurs and spreads.	eng
8543	threats	Nowell, K., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Wildcats are most threatened by domestic cats.  Hybridization is widespread; there may be very few genetically pure populations of wildcats remaining (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004, Phelan and Sliwa 2006, Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Of all wildcat subspecies analyzed, only the Chinese alpine steppe cat <span style="font-style: italic;">F. s. bieti</span> showed no evidence of genetic introgression of domestic cat genes, but the sample size was small (Driscoll <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Feral cats compete with wildcats for prey and space, and there is also a high potential for disease transmission between domestic cats and wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Daniels <em>et al.</em> 1999, Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Other threats include significant human-caused mortality, in Europe, especially road kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Lüps <em>et al.</em> 2002, Schulenberg 2005). The species is still considered a pest in Scotland and is illegally persecuted (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004). Predator control measures in a number of European countries may result in this species being killed as bycatch.  Wildcats are also killed as pests in southern Africa although this does not seem to have resulted in population declines (Stuart <em>et al.</em> in press).  In the past Asiatic wildcats have been trapped in large numbers for their fur, although at present there is little international trade in Asian wildcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Large-scale poisoning campaigns to try to control populations of small mammals such as pikas, voles and moles have been conducted in the habitat of the Chinese mountain cat.  Several different types of chemicals are in use which have been found to have adverse effects on predators. Although ecological methods of pest control have been urged by Chinese scientists, such campaigns continue and have eradicated potential prey such as pikas from large areas (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; He <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Skins of Chinese mountain cats have been encountered in small numbers in the illegal wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; He <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, habitat loss led to dramatic declines in Europe and Russia in the 18th to mid 20th centuries (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2004).  However, wildcats can do well in cultivated landscapes which increase rodent densities (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although these are the areas where hybridization with domestic cats occurs and spreads.	eng
8548	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
8548	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This poorly known species has been recorded from Mauritania, western Mali and northeastern Senegal.	eng
8548	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from rocky habitats, where it lives in crevices and rock fissures. Animals have been recorded from the edge of very dry tropical forest (George 1974). A captive female gave birth to four litters with a single young each.	eng
8548	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There is little information on the abundance of this species, but population densities of up to 25 per hectare in central Senegal have been suggested (Nowak 1999).	eng
8548	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The threats to this species are generally not well known. Schlitter (1989) suggested that general desertification and deforestation of the Sahel represented a threat to the species.	eng
8550	distribution	Davis, G.S., 1996	Recorded from Lake Dali (Erhai), Yunan Province.	eng
8551	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of potential threats on this species.	eng
8551	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This is a tropical/subtropical species that inhabits oceanic waters around the globe generally between 40°N and 35°S. It does not generally approach close to shore, except in some areas where deep, clear waters are very close to the coast (such as around oceanic archipelagos like Hawaii). Reports of its occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea, while common in the literature, are not supported by authenticated records. It is also doubtful whether it occurs regularly in the Red Sea or Persian Gulf (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1991). A few high-latitude strandings and sightings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water (Ross and Leatherwood 1994; Donohue and Perryman 2002; Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
8551	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The pygmy killer whale occurs in deep, warm waters, generally beyond the edge of the continental shelf, and rarely close to shore (except near some oceanic island groups where the water is deep and clear). This species is mainly tropical, but occasionally strays into warm temperate regions.<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, although it is known to eat fish and squid. It has occasionally been recorded attacking dolphins, at least those involved in tuna fishery interactions in the eastern tropical Pacific (Perryman and Foster 1980).	eng
8551	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although there is little information on the population biology of this species, the pygmy killer whale appears to be naturally uncommon. Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated that there were about 38,900 (CV=31%) of these whales in the eastern tropical Pacific. There are estimated to be 817 (CV=112%) in the Hawaiian portion of the US EEZ, and 408 (CV=60%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Barlow 2006; Mullin and Fulling 2004).	eng
8551	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Because of their relatively low abundance, even small takes in localized areas could be significant. Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of pygmy killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect pygmy killer whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006) and have been a part of multi-species unusual stranding events in Taiwan (Wang and Yang, 2006).<br/><br/>Pygmy killer whales have been killed directly in both harpoon and driftnet fisheries (Caribbean islands, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Indonesia) and incidentally in various types of fishing gear (most areas of the species’ range). <br/><br/>A few individuals are known to be taken in drives and in driftnets in various regions, most notably Japan and Sri Lanka (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). Reports on the small-cetacean fisheries of St Vincent and Lamalera suggest that pygmy killer whales form a very small proportion of the catch and that catches probably have little impact on the subpopulations in those areas. In Sri Lanka, there is mortality of this species due to harpooning of dolphins for use as bait on long-lines for sharks, billfish, and other oceanic fishes (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). <br/><br/>Although they comprise less than 2% of all cetaceans in monitored by-catches in gillnet fisheries in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka and in villages on the south-west coast of Sri Lanka, this may amount to 300 - 900 pygmy killer whales each year (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). The numbers of animals killed incidentally in net fisheries, such as those in Sri Lanka, may be much higher than is so far documented, because monitoring of these widespread activities is incomplete. In the long term, such takes may have a significant impact on pygmy killer whales where their distribution overlaps with extensive gillnetting operations (Ross and Leatherwood 1994). Small incidental catches are known in fisheries in other areas including the Philippines and Taiwan (Ross and Leatherwood 1994, Dolar 1994, J. Wang pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>This species does not appear to be particularly abundant anywhere that it has been sighted. In Hawaii, subpopulations appear to be small, and this, along with their limited movements, suggests the species may be particularly vulnerable to human impacts regionally.	eng
8553	conservation	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	It has been recorded from protected areas such as Eravikulam National Park in Kerala, India (Pradhan <em>et al.</em> 1997) and Horton Plains National Park in Sri Lanka (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2005). Taxonomic and population studies of the two populations are urgently recommended. The Indian and Sri Lankan populations might represent two distinct species (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
8553	distribution	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	This species is restricted to Sri Lanka (central mountain hillsides) and southern India (largely the Western Ghats of Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Upper Bhavani in Tamil Nadu Pradhan <em>et al.</em> (1997)). It has been recorded from 1,850 to 2,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
8553	habitat	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	This species inhabits montane forest, montane swamp and marshes. It has been recorded amongst weeds and a dense undergrowth in wet ravines. Initially this species was considered to be a water shrew but it has since been considered as a semi-fossorial species (Nowak 1999). In India, it is found in montane rain forest, collected from shola-grassland ecosystem (montane swamps and marshes) at altitudes between 2,200 and 2,400 m asl (Pradhan <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
8553	population	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	In India it has been trapped only twice recently. Either it is an extremely trap shy animal or its population densities are low compared to other shrews.	eng
8553	threats	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	The restricted habitat of this species is threatened by human encroachment and development activities.	eng
8556	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from the Werribee River, Victoria.	eng
8642	habitat	Social Insects Specialist Group, 1996	Found mostly in coniferous forests, but also in alpine grasslands.	eng
8668	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Montagne d’Ambre, Masoala, Marojejy, Zahamena, Ranomafana and Andohahela National Parks, and Ankarana Special Reserve.	eng
8668	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern forests and the Sambirano Region in the north-west of Madagascar (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is present as far north as Montagne d'Ambre National Park and as far south as Andohahela National Park in the south-east. Strongholds include the Masoala Peninsula, rainforests at Mananara, Ambatovaky and Zahamena, and the Andohahela forest region. The altitudinal range is sea level to at least 1,600 m, but the species seems much scarcer above 1,000 m.	eng
8668	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This nocturnal and terrestrial species is found in humid tropical lowland, mid-altitude and littoral forests, and is sometimes associated with streams or marshy areas in these habitats (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003). It seems that this species does not adapt to secondary habitats (Kerridge <em>et al</em>. 2003). During the daytime, animals shelter in hollow trees, under fallen logs, or amongst rocks. The gestation period is around 82 and 89 days (Albignac 1973). Young are born well developed, and sexual maturity is attained at about two years of age.	eng
8668	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species has been found to be locally common (Kerridge <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
8668	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land, selective logging and charcoal production. This species is also threatened by hunting, and the taste is most preferred among the native carnivores (Golden 2005). Introduced species including dogs, cats, and the small Indian civet <em>Viverricula indica</em> are competitors, and dogs are also likely predators.	eng
8700	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province. Survey, taxonomic research and captive breeding for species recovery are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8700	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic and restricted to central and southwestern Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/>A record of this species from India is considered to be erroneous. Its distribution in India is based on a single juvenile, which was probably an individual of <em>Funambulus sublineatus</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
8700	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in montane evergreen and rainforests. It has been found to occupy in low country wet zone to mid montane wet zone and lowland rainforest (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Results of a survey of the area in and around the Sinharaja forest, Sri Lanka showed the species preferred unlogged areas (six specimens); an additional four specimens were captured in logged areas, whereas none were taken in abandoned areas or plantation (Wijesinghe and de L. Brooke 2005). Generation time likely to be ~3 years judging by similar species.	eng
8700	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is rare in museum collections and may be rare in the wild. The population is declining perceptibly at a rate of over 20% over the last three generations and more than 30% predicted over the next three generations due to habitat loss (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8700	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to large wood plantations, selective logging and forest fires have been observed to be the major threats. Habitat loss has been estimated at 20-50% over the last 10 years and is predicted at 30% over the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8701	conservation	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary, Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary, Pulicat Bird Sanctuary, Siwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Sri Lankamalleshwara National Park and Sri Venkateshwara National Park in Andhra Pradesh; Kanha National Park and Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh; Indravathi National Park in Chhattisgarh; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa; Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic research is recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8701	distribution	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is widely distributed found at elevations from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8701	habitat	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a very adaptable species. It is a diurnal and semi-arboreal. This species occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest, mangrove forest, grasslands, scrublands, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. In Sri Lanka, found throughout the island except in deep jungles (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8701	population	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
8701	threats	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
8702	conservation	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India -  Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National Park, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary, Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary and Siwaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa; Balaram-Ambaji Wildlife Sanctuary, Jessore Wildlife Sanctuary, Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Taxonomic research is recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8702	distribution	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has a wide distribution ranging from Iran, through Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India to Nepal at elevations of 0 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
8702	habitat	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a very adaptable species. It is diurnal and semi-arboreal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forest, montane forests, grasslands, scrublands, plantations, arable land, rural gardens, urban areas, introduced vegetation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8702	population	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Common locally. The range is retracting in parts of India due to displacement by the larger <em>Funambulus palmarum</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
8702	threats	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
8703	conservation	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Silent Valley National Park, Thekkadi Bird Sanctuary, Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. In Sri Lanka it is reported from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province and Adam’s Peak Wildlife Sanctuary in Sabaragamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, limiting factor research and captive breeding for species recovery are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005).	eng
8703	distribution	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to southern India and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005) at elevations of 200 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
8703	habitat	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is restricted to riparian habitats, especially reedbeds, in tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest. In Sri Lanka, it is associated with these wetlands in low country wet to mid montane wet zone (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005) and in bamboo jungles. In the Western Ghats it is associated with <em>Ochlandra</em> sp. Reedbeds in moist forests (N. Rajamani pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8703	population	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a very rare squirrel in the Western Ghats, with very few sightings reported. The population trend indicates a quantitative decrease at a rate of 20% or more in last 10 years and a similar trend in the future is predicted due to habitat loss in the two countries (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). This is one of the rarest and most shy <em>Funambulus</em> species that is usually confused with <em>Funambulus layardi</em> in Sri Lanka and <em>Funambulus tristriatus</em> in India (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8703	threats	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging, collection of non-woody vegetation (reeds), and forest fires have been observed to be the major threats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Forest fragmentation and pesticide spraying is affecting the species in some parts of its range, while collecting reeds for construction purposes is also threatening its habitat (N. Rajamani pers. comm.).	eng
8704	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is however, known from the following protected areas in India - Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Maharashtra; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve, Srivilliputur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu; and Nagarahole National Park in Karnataka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Taxonomic studies, survey, habitat management and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8704	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to Western Ghats in India, seen in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs at elevations of 700 to 2,100 m asl and is widely distributed in the mountain ranges (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
8704	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is diurnal and semi-arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, moist deciduous forests, plantations and pasturelands. It is found to occupy tea, cardamom and coffee estates (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species breeds year round with an average litter size of 2.6 offspring. Generation time is likely to be three years.	eng
8704	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a locally common species. A population decline at >10% in 20 years has been observed and the predicted decline is >10% in 10 years due to persecution and loss of habitat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8704	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to agro-industry farming, large wood plantations, small-scale logging, increase in<br/>human settlements, pest control by means of pesticides and poisoning have been observed to be the major threats. Habitat loss of 10% more than in the last twenty years and predicted to increase to more than 10% in the next 20 years due to major damming projects (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Native shade tree species in coffee and cardamom plantations are being systematically replaced with exotic shade trees. The squirrel seems to avoid exotic shade trees (S. Molur pers. comm.)	eng
8709	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em>;&#160;however, its habitat is indirectly protected by Critical Habitat of Lake Waccamaw for the federally Threatened <em>Menidia extensa</em> (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1999). <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> was also previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Conservation efforts are needed to ensure migration routes to the canal system surrounding Lake Waccamaw are not obstructed (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Maintaining high water quality within the canals is also critical for the conservation of this species (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Monitoring of the population numbers is also needed.	eng
8709	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is restricted to Lake Waccamaw and its associated tributaries in Columbus County, North Carolina (Menhinick 1991, Shute, Shute and Lindquist 1981). This species has been reported from Phelps Lake in Washington County, North Carolina where it may have been introduced via bait bucket. However this population appears to be more morphologically similar to <em>F. diaphanus </em>than <em>F. waccamensis</em> (W.C. Starnes 2004 pers. comm, Krabbenhoft <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 196 km².	eng
8709	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is a near-surface to mid-water species, occurring in large schools over sandy bottoms in open water or near emergent vegetation. Throughout summer this species inhabits inshore areas, often near submerged vegetation (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008) and during the winter months, it is commonly seen in swamps and canals surrounding Lake Waccamaw (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980, Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008). Spawning occurs from April until August in shallow (< 1 m) water (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008) and individuals spawn on silty or sandy substrate and possibly on vegetation (Shute<em> et al.</em> 1979, Shute <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983).	eng
8709	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is represented by a single population (Menhinick 1991).<br/><br/>The total adult population size was estimated by Lindquist and Yarbrough (1982)  at one to ten million individuals.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
8709	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> is threatened by water temperatures in shallow areas of the lake which are frequently above lethal limits, thus restricting available breeding habitat. It is also possible that eutrophication could exacerbate this problem (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by upland deforestation and concomitant siltation in the lake which threatens development of demersal eggs (Krabbenhoft <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Fundulus waccamensis</em> may also be impacted by residential septic tank run-off which is increasing into Lake Waccamaw (P.W. Shute pers. comm. 2010).	eng
8755	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	It is known to occur in Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), Kibira National Park (Burundi) and other protected areas.	eng
8755	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the montane forests of the Ruwenzori Mountains (Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Albertine Rift mountains (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda) at 1,500 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
8755	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is associated with montane forests, being especially found in stands of <em>Prunus africanum</em> (a dominant tree in the region) and, at the upper reaches of its altitudinal range, in forests of <em>Hagenia abyssinica</em>. Populations are usually found in areas of forest with a broken canopy where trees are smothered in climbers, and undergrowth is densely tangled. It does not adapt well to cultivated areas. This species is diurnal, arboreal, and primarily solitary, although they are occasionally seen in pairs.	eng
8755	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	The abundance is difficult to assess because these squirrels are very shy and inhabit dense vegetation. It is apparently common in <em>Prunus africanum</em> stands, but less common in higher reaches of montane forest.	eng
8755	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	The primary threat within the Albertine Rift has been the mass conversion of primary forests to agricultural land, as well as the extraction of forest resources (fuelwood, bushmeat) by local people. Nonetheless, these activities do not appear to be significantly affecting this species at present, and there are not considered to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
8756	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is probable that it occurs in some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of West African populations.	eng
8756	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded in from Benin and Nigeria in West Africa, with a seemingly disjunct second population distributed from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and northern Gabon, into Central African Republic and much of the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
8756	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is generally found in lowland tropical moist forest throughout much of the range, but has also been reported from gallery forest. It can be found in secondary habitats. Animals are usually found singly or in pairs	eng
8756	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It is not uncommon.	eng
8756	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
8757	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
8757	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from the southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo and adjacent parts of northern and north-eastern Angola.	eng
8757	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	All localities from which this species have been recorded are outside of the main Central African forest block. It is believed to be a moist savanna species, although this needs to be confirmed. There is little additional information available on the natural history of this species.	eng
8757	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from only around fifteen collecting localities (with perhaps no more than 30 specimens collected). It has probably not been collected since the 1950s or 1960s, owing to the recent limits on survey effort within the species range.	eng
8757	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
8758	conservation	Grubb, P. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Known to occur in a number of protected areas including some well managed reserves in Namibia (Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld National Park). There is a need for additional surveys in the northern parts of the species range.	eng
8758	distribution	Grubb, P. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This largely Central African species ranges from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, south of the Congo River, through western Angola (including on the Angolan Esscarpment) to northern Namibia (Brandberg is the southernmost limit at about 20 deg S). It has been recorded to altitudes of more 2,000 m asl.	eng
8758	habitat	Grubb, P. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is largely associated with dense woodland, where trees attain a larger size with more luxuriant canopies, such as along watercourses and on rocky outcrops (Shortridge 1934). In Namibia, the species is associated with vegetation on granite outcrops, and not with the thinner woodland of the more open areas. It is diurnal and arboreal, but spend much time foraging on the ground. Animals rest in holes in trees lined with leaves and grass or in dreys of twigs, leaves and grass constructed in the forks of branches; it has been suggested that they use dreys during the summer months and holes in trees during the winter. They average a litter of two young.	eng
8758	population	Grubb, P. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is fairly well represented by museum specimens. It is relatively common in north-western Namibia.	eng
8758	threats	Grubb, P. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
8759	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in some protected areas.	eng
8759	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This Central African species is widely distributed the montane regions of the Cameroon Highlands, through Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to Central African Republic, ranging as far south as western Congo. There is an additional specimen of this species from Brazzaville in southern Congo. It has not yet recorded from Nigeria or the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has a wide altitudinal range from lowland to montane forest.	eng
8759	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is typically associated with lowland and montane forest habitats. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest or other modified habitats.	eng
8759	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
8759	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
8760	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
8760	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), much of Gabon, western Congo, possibly the Cabinda enclave of Angola and southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
8760	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is typically associated with lowland forest habitats. There is very little natural history information available, but it is considered to be a largely terrestrial species.	eng
8760	population	Grubb, P., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
8760	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range it is presumably threatened by general habitat loss.	eng
8761	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is likely to occur in protected areas through the range, and has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
8761	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species ranges from eastern Ghana (east of the Volta Basin), westwards through Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon to extreme southwestern Central African Republic and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and on Bioko Island).	eng
8761	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal species (Rosevear 1969). There are few additional details on the natural history of this species.	eng
8761	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It is probably a fairly common species.	eng
8761	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. In Benin, the bones of this species are used for traditional medicinal purposes, while the tails are used as ornaments (M. Ekue pers. comm.).	eng
8762	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It is probable that this species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
8762	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been widely recorded in West Africa and Central Africa. It has a disjunct distribution range, and is found in four main areas. It ranges from The Gambia to southern Ghana, west of the Dahomey Gap; from southern Nigeria to Central African Republic and south to Gabon (including Equatorial Guinea); from the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, north of the Congo to Uganda and Rwanda; with the fourth population in southern Congo and northern Angola. It has been recorded from sea level to at least 1,650 m asl on Mount Bintamane (Sierra Leone).	eng
8762	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitat, but populations are also found in coastal scrub and savanna in parts of the range (e.g. Ghana). It can be found in forest edge habitats, clearings and secondary growth formations. Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) state that in Sierra Leone the replacement of forest with farm bush and farms appears to have been favoured by the species. This is considered to be a pest species on some on farms and cocoa plantations. It is diurnal, and predominantly arboreal (apparently favouring palm trees such as <em>Raphia</em>), although animals are also seen foraging on the ground.	eng
8762	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is generally considered to be a quite common species.	eng
8762	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
8763	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species probably occurs in some protected areas, but this has not been confirmed. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
8763	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This West African species is found in Ghana (north of the forest and east of the Volta River), Togo and Benin, extending northwards into southern areas of Burkina Faso and Niger (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
8763	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is found in both savanna and drier forest formations, including gallery forest. There is little information available on the biology or habits of this species.	eng
8763	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
8763	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
8764	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
8764	distribution	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	<em>F. campani</em> is endemic to Madagascar. It is restricted to the central highlands between Andringtrs and Antananarivo (Brygoo 1971 and 1978, Nicoll and Langrand 1989) where it has been recorded at an altitudinal range of 1,850–2,300 m above sea level (Anonymous 1999).	eng
8764	habitat	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	The species has been found in residual high altitude forests and degraded areas (IUCN/SSC Trade Specialist Group <em>et al.</em> 1993). Local collectors have also reported taking specimens from grassy/shrubby savanna (Ravoninjatovo and Rabemananjara 1999) and Le Berre (1995) describes the species as being found "on prairies of high plateaus, near the edge of primary forest".	eng
8764	population	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	No quantitative density estimates are available and baseline surveys that specifically target this species and its habitats are urgently required (Brady and Griffiths 1999).	eng
8764	threats	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	This species is collected for western pet markets, however, there is currently insufficient data to reliably estimate the impact of this trade on wild populations of <em>F. campani</em> (Brady and Griffiths 1999). The most important factor affecting the future survival of this and other species of chameleon in Madagascar is habitat loss as primary vegetation is removed for land conversion to subsistence agriculture (Brady and Griffiths 1999).	eng
8765	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
8766	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
8766	distribution	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	<em>F. minor</em> is restricted to southern central Madagascar (Brady and Griffiths 1999). Altitudinal range has been recorded as extending from 1,000-1,650 m above sea level (Anonymous 1999).	eng
8766	habitat	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Very little published information is available on the habitat preferences of this species (Brady and Griffiths 1999). Although described as a "forest species that frequents water edges" (IUCN/SSC Trade Specialist Group <em>et al</em>. 1993), it has also been found in coffee plantations in Itremo (Ramanantsoa 1974). However, it is not known whether such disturbed habitats are typical since local collectors claim that the species occurs in nearby gallery forest (Ravoninjatovo and Rabemananjara 1999).	eng
8766	population	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Quantitative density estimates for the species are unavailable (Brady and Griffiths 1999).	eng
8766	threats	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Pre-1993 trade levels were considered to be insignificant (IUCN/SSC Trade Specialist Group <em>et al.</em> 1993), with only five animals reported in trade to CITES. Although this previous assessment considered that there was little evidence to suggest that levels of trade would increase, the peak CITES reported net imports for <em>F. minor</em> occurred in 1994 when 1,257 animals are known to have been exported from Madagascar. Given the relatively narrow distribution range of this species, Brady and Griffith (1999) suggest that such levels of collecting from local populations may be unsustainable and recommend that baseline survey work targeted specifically at <em>F. minor</em> and its habitats should be undertaken before any trade restrictions are lifted. <br/>The most important factor affecting the future survival of this and other species of chameleon in Madagascar is habitat loss as primary vegetation is removed for land conversion to subsistence agriculture (Brady and Griffiths 1999).	eng
8767	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has been given Vulnerable status in Queensland. Parts of this species' range coincides with protected areas. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and monitoring of both its population and habitat is recommended. The establishment and management of protected areas is suggested to provide a refuge for this species from habitat degradation.	eng
8767	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is endemic to the Southern Brigalow Belt in the south east interior of Queensland. The range extends from Yeppoon and the Expedition Range in the north, southwards to Oakey, Inglewood and Glenmorgan (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993). This species can be found between 200 to 500 m above sea level.	eng
8767	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits areas with Brigalow such as woodlands and dry sclerophyll forests.	eng
8767	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is uncommon in its range. Covacevich (1995) describes how this reptile has suffered serious declines and highlights it as needing conservation attention.	eng
8767	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Vegetation clearing within central Queensland has been estimated at around 43-46% over the past 40 years (Fensham and Fairfax 2003) and the Brigalow Belt has experienced rates of vegetation clearance comparable to those found in the tropics (Seabrook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). 60% of the original vegetation in the Southern Brigalow Belt has been cleared (Accad <em>et al</em>. 2006), mostly for agriculture. However, the remaining habitat is also threatened by other processes such as fires, both wild and human induced. The habitat degradation and fragmentation of the Brigalow Belt has lead to dispersal problems for this species (Wilson 2003).	eng
8771	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Caves in central Brazil are threatened and need conservation measures to assure persistence. Need data on population (census) to evaluate trends. Conservation of cerrado habitats.	eng
8771	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found in Central and South America. This species occurs from Costa Rica south to Peru, the Guianas, and eastern Brazil; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).	eng
8771	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species' natural history is very poorly known, and it is infrequently collected. This bat is strongly associated with moist habitats in Venezuela (Handley 1976), especially in lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer 1997). Roosts in small clusters in colonies of up to at least 60 in caves, horizontal fallen logs, and deep cracks between rocks; one such roost was among large boulders in a riverbed, which were exposed during the dry season (LaVal 1977). A group of four found under a hollow log in Ecuador immediately vacated the roost when approached, then circled nearby and attempted to re-enter (Reid 1997). This small bat forages for insects, Lepidoptera in particular, flying close to the ground with a slow, fluttering, moth like flight (LaVal 1977). It is seldom caught in mist nets (Reid 1997). One pregnant female was captured in Colombia in September (Camargo and Tamsitt 1990). Five fossil specimens were recovered from Toca da Boa Vista, Bahia, Brazil (Czaplewski and Cartelle 1998).	eng
8771	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Apparently rare and local, but widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997). Patchily distributed in Central America and northern South America. Sexes may roost separately during part of the year (Camargo and Tamsitt 1990). In Costa Rica were found more than 59 males occupying a hollow log in May (LaVal 1977).	eng
8771	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Associated with caves and karstic environments and may be vulnerable to some habitat loss.	eng
8785	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is recorded from Cross River National Park (Nigeria), as well as from Afe Mountain, Korup and Banyang-Nbo National Parks (Cameroon), and the major protected areas on Bioko.	eng
8785	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is present on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and on the mainland of Africa between the Niger River in south-eastern Nigeria and the lower Sanaga River, Cameroon.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: the subspecies <em>S. a. alleni</em> is endemic to Bioko, while <em>S. a. cameronensis</em> is present in Nigeria and Cameroon including Oban, Mamfe, Obrura and Mkpani.	eng
8785	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Found in lowland and montane primary and secondary forest; also recorded in farmbush. A nocturnal species that forages on the ground and low and mid-canopy.	eng
8785	population	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	Locally common in appropriate habitat. Highest density in montane forest, and lower densities in primary lowland forest (Ambrose 2003).	eng
8785	threats	Oates, J.F. & Bearder, S., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss.	eng
8786	conservation	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Meru and Shaba National Parks and Arawale National Reserve, Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004). Further studies into the geographic distribution, taxonomy and ecology of this species are needed.	eng
8786	distribution	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is present in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia (may extend into north-eastern Uganda and possibly south-eastern Sudan, but no confirmed records as yet). It is distributed between the Webi Shebeli River valley in the north-east and the Tana River valley in the south-west, towards Lake Turkana (at least as west as South Horr) and the Ethiopian Rift Valley in the north-west. The species distribution limits in the Ogaden area are not certain. It has a known altitudinal range of 150 to 1,200 m asl (see Butynski and De Jong 2004). Narrowly sympatric with <em>Galago senegalensis</em> in Meru National Park, Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004).	eng
8786	habitat	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species living in drier, thornier habitat than any other galago, or indeed any other African primate. It may be found in all strata within Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland and thicket. It is absent from open woodland and bushland. It can be found in Acacia dominant bushland and thicket in severely degraded habitat. This species is either solitary or found in small groups. There is no information available on reproduction in this species, but it is likely that a single infant is born.	eng
8786	population	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	It is patchily distributed, but locally common, throughout its range. Over much of the range, the density is probably less than one animal per hectare, but densities are much higher at some sites (e.g., >4 animals per ha in Meru N.P.; Butynski and De Jong 2004).	eng
8786	threats	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	A number of subpopulations in Somalia may be threatened by habitat loss or degradation. However, this species has been recorded in severely degraded habitat (through overgrazing; Butynski and De Jong 2004).	eng
8787	conservation	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Budongo Forest Reserve and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), and Kahuzi-Biega National Park (DR Congo). Additional surveys on population numbers and range are required, and taxonomic work to elucidate the status of the Itombwe populations.	eng
8787	distribution	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	This species occurs in the Albertine Rift region, and in the Itombwe Massif in Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south. There is a narrow eastward range extension to just west of the Nile, where they occur in forest patches such as Mabira and Mpanga. There is also a record from Moroto in north-east Uganda (Nash <em>et al.</em> 1999). There is a possibility that this species has been sighted in the Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda (Ambrose 2002), but this recourd could well have been <em>Galagoides thomasi</em> (that do occur there).	eng
8787	habitat	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	It is found in all strata within both primary and secondary tropical lowland and submontane forest; especially where Parinari excelsa is the dominant tree. It usually occurs in the lower levels of the forest. This species is presumed to give birth to between one and four young annually.	eng
8787	population	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	Fairly common in some sites, such as Kibale, Bwindi Impenetrable and Mpanga Forest Reserve.	eng
8787	threats	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y. & Bearder, S., 2008	There are no major range-wide threats, but it may be threatened in parts of its range by localised deforestation, mainly due to agriculture (e.g., maize, potatoes, pyrethrum, bananas) and pasture (for grazing cattle).	eng
8788	conservation	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
8788	distribution	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has a wide distribution, ranging from northern Namibia and Angola, eastwards through south-eastern Democatic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe and northern Botswana to western Tanzania, Malawi, eastern Mozambique and the northern and north-eastern parts of South Africa. The northern limits of the distribution range of this species are not well defined; although the range as shown here includes Rwanda and Burundi, where their presence requires confirmation.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>G. m. moholi</em> ranges from the eastern part of the species distribution to south-eastern Botswana, and is found throughout Zambia and intergrades with <em>G. m. bradfieldi</em> in the Western Province of Zambia; <em>G. m. bradfieldi</em> has been recorded from the Waterberg, Namibia, northwards into southern Angola, and eastwards to northern and northeastern Botswana and the Makgadikgadi Pan, and the Western Province of Zambia (Meester <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
8788	habitat	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found in all strata in savanna woodland (being particularly associated with <em>Acacia</em> spp, which provide a source of gum). They also occur in miombo and Mopane woodland, riverine gallery forest and at the edges of wooded areas. Acacia and mopane trees provide holes and the latter often have hollowed out trunks which are used as resting and breeding sites. They are independent of water, obtaining their moisture requirements from food. They rest in groups of 2-7, but disperse to forage alone. This species gives birth to twins twice per year.	eng
8788	population	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is a common and widespread species. Found in highest densities in association with <em>Acacia karroo</em>.	eng
8788	threats	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats. The range of the species is expanding in some parts, particularly in the south (e.g., it has been recorded from areas in Gauteng where it was not previously known). Arable farming is giving way to game ranching and regeneration of natural vegetation.	eng
8789	conservation	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range including Tsavo West National Park, Tsavo East National Park, Mt. Kenya National Park, Meru National Park, Kora National Park, Samburu National Reserve, Shaba National Reserve, Buffalo Springs National Reserve in Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from Grumeti Game Reserve, Serengeti National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, Tarangire National Park, and Mikumi National Park (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
8789	distribution	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Possibly the most widespread galago species, ranging from Senegal in the west, through the savanna and open woodland of Africa, to Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia in the east and Kenya and Tanzania in the south. The southern limit of distribution is probably the Rufiji River. The area of sympatry with <em>G. moholi</em> in central and southern Tanzania and with <em>G. gallarum</em> in central Kenya has yet to be defined and requires investigation.<br/><br/>There are four subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>G. s. senegalensis</em> ranges from Senegal in the west through to Sudan and western Uganda. <br/><br/><em>G. s. braccatus</em> is known from a number of districts in Kenya, and from north-east and north-central Tanzania (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>G. s. dunni</em> is found in Somalia and the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. <br/><br/><em>G. s. sotikae</em> is confined to the southern shores of Lake Victoria (Tanzania) where it is found from western Serengeti, to Mwanza (Tanzania) to Ankole (southern Uganda).<br/><br/>In general, the limits of distribution between the four subspecies are not well known, and not indicated on the map.	eng
8789	habitat	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is found in all strata of savanna woodland (e.g. Miombo), in dense to open bushland areas, in montane forest (e.g. Mau Forest, Kenya, and Harenna Forest, Ethiopia), and in secondary and/or highly fragmented forest and woodland, including cultivated areas (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). It avoids areas of grassland. Found in forests where no other galagos are present. <em>G. senegalensis</em> is sympatric with <em>Galago gallarum</em> (Butynski and De Jong 2004), <em>Galago moholi</em>, <em>Galagoides cocos</em>, <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>, <em>O. crassicaudatus</em> and likely with <em>Perodicticus potto</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species builds nests in dense thorn trees or nest in tree holes (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Group size is 1-5, though they forage separately at night. Presumed to give birth to between one and two young annually (Nash 1983).	eng
8789	population	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This is a common and widespread species. In Kenya, <em>G. s. braccatus</em> was encountered at rates of: 0.1 individuals/km (1.0 individuals/h) by vehicle in the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Laikipia Plateau (1,800-1,900 m asl), 1.1 ind/h by foot in Makindu (960 m asl), 1.2 ind/km (1.4 ind/h) by foot in Kajiado, southern Kenya (1,500 m asl), and 1.1 ind/km (3.4 ind/h) by vehicle in Kora National Park (500 m asl). On the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya, <em>G. s. braccatus</em> densities can locally be as high as 300 to 500 individuals/km² (Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Tanzania, the encounter rates with <em>G. s. braccatus</em> were 0.1 ind/km (2.4 ind/h) by vehicle in Tanga (10 m asl), 0.9 ind/h by foot in Meia meia (1,330 m asl), 4.1 individuals/km (3.5 individuals/h) by foot near Mikumi National Park (470 m asl), and 4.0 individuals/h by foot at Mto wa Mbu, Lake Manyara National Park (970 m asl; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>G. s. sotikae</em> was encountered at the rate of 2.5 individuals/km (7.1 individuals/h; 1,480 m) in Grumeti Game Reserve, western Serengeti, Tanzania (Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.).	eng
8789	threats	Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
8790	conservation	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in a nmber of protected areas. There is a need for better information on the range of this species.	eng
8790	distribution	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is known from Zanzibar Island, Tanzania (the nominate subspecies), with the form <em>udzungwensis</em> recorded from the lowland Udzungwa Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains and the Usambara Mountains, all in Tanzania. Recorded from sea level to 1100 m asl (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has also recently been recorded from Mafia Island (A. Perkin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
8790	habitat	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Honess, P., 2008	This species occurs in the mid to high canopy of tropical coastal forest, submontane and lowland tropical forest. It may prefer secondary to primary forest. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.<br/><br/>Sympatric with <em>Otolemur garnettii</em> and <em>Galagoides orinus</em> and narrowly sympatric with <em>Galagoides cocos</em>. Parapatric with <em>G. granti</em>, meeting at the Rufiji river.	eng
8790	population	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Honess, P., 2008	<em>G. zanzibaricus</em> is the most abundant and widespread galago in the coastal forests of Tanzania. The density varies greatly from site to site. In the Udzungwa Mountains (for example, Matundu Forest Reserve), <em>G. z. udzungwensis</em> is estimated to occur at densities of more than 500 individuals/km², whereas <100 individuals/km² occur at many other sites (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Although <em>G. z. zanzibaricus</em> is confined to Unguja Island, it is widespread over the eastern and southern parts of the island, and is common in at least some places (e.g., >200 individuals/km² in Jozani–Chwaka Bay National Park (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
8790	threats	Butynski, T.M., De Jong, Y., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is threatened through the loss of indigenous forests by replacement with exotic conifers. It is presumably also threatened by a general loss of its forest habitat through conversion to agricultural land and timber extraction.	eng
8808	conservation	Wager, R., 1996	Between 1991 and 1992, to save the species, 31 fish were moved into Lake Oberon, a remote fish-free lake in south-west Tasmania. The Pedder Galaxias are thriving in this new habitat and in 2001 some were moved to a second artificial habitat.	eng
8808	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	The Pedder Galaxias previously occurred only in Lake Pedder and its tributaries and surrounding swamps in Tasmania. It is no longer found within its native range. Since 1996 its distribution has been limited to a remote highland lake in south-west Tasmania (Lake Oberon), where it was introduced (a benign introduction) in a successful attempt to rescue the species from extinction.	eng
8808	habitat	Wager, R., 1996	The Pedder Galaxias lives in the ea-coloured water of lakes and streams. The last known natural habitat occupied was slow-flowing meandering sections of tributaries to the Lake Pedder impoundment. Pools with roots and overhanging banks providing shelter were preferred. The Pedder Galaxias live for 5 to 6 years. They breed once a year in spring and females produce up to 1,200 large eggs that are about 2.5 mm in diameter. Eggs are laid under rocks, plants and wood. The Pedder Galaxias feed mainly on terrestrial and aquatic insects and crustaceans.	eng
8808	threats	Wager, R., 1996	They declined rapidly from the late 1970s due to destruction of habitat by the flooding of Lake Pedder for a hydro-electric scheme. At the same time, predatory brown trout were introduced for recreational fishing. Since the flooding, another aggressive competitor, the native climbing galaxias, which did not previously occur in Lake Pedder, has also become abundant. Pedder Galaxias were last seen in their remaining natural habitat in 1996. Their survival in their introduced places depends on keeping their habitats free of introduced fish species.	eng
8810	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	Occurs in the Goulburn River.	eng
8816	conservation	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	This species complex has always been assessed as a single species, and therefore no conservation actions specifically target this species. Some of the taxa within this complex will benefit from river health monitoring and the planned river rehabilitation programs on the Krom and Rondegat Rivers (Cederberg) and the Krom River (Eastern Cape).	eng
8816	distribution	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Mountain, coastal and lowland streams of the Cape Floristic Region from tributaries of the Gamtoos and Krom River systems in the east to the Cederberg Mountains (Olifants River system) in the west (Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa).	eng
8816	habitat	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Some of the taxa seems to prefer clear oligotrophic mountain streams with low dissolved minerals, whilst others prefer lowland stream that can be turbid with high levels of dissolved minerals.	eng
8816	population	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	No information is available on population trends and it is unclear how many populations of this species complex exists and which populations forms part of which taxon.	eng
8816	threats	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Alien invasive species is probably the major threat for all the different taxa. In addition agricultural activities such as unsustainable water extraction and insecticides probably plays a critical role in their conservation status. Not enough is known about the different taxa to understand specific threats.	eng
8823	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent has been collected in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park. Additional research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
8823	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil. It has been rarely recorded across its known range, which is estimated on known localities. The type locality possibly is Minas Gerais, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is found at least up to 1,700 m asl (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
8823	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Its habitat and ecology is poorly known. It is found in Savannah scrub and may require specific habitats, such as Cerrado Rupestre. Further studies are required to determine whether the species occurs in other habitats. It is found in rocky outcrops at higher elevations and on plateaus. Available habitats are patchy (Weklser pers. comm.).	eng
8823	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There is no information on population trends or abundance. The species has been collected rarely as there is a potential problem with the trapping techniques used in surveys undertaken so far (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
8823	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species at this time. The species' specific habitat is not highly threatened (although fires may affect some areas); however, surrounding areas are heavily used (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
8824	conservation	Dunnum, J., Pardina, U., Zeballos, H. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
8824	distribution	Dunnum, J., Pardina, U., Zeballos, H. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in southern Peru, throughout much of Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay and northeastern Chile. This rodent is found through an enormous altitudinal range: in the Andes it occurs up to 5,000 m asl, whereas in Paraguay it is found in the low Chaco. In Argentina it is found as low as 20 m asl.	eng
8824	habitat	Dunnum, J., Pardina, U., Zeballos, H. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is primarily diurnal and terrestrial. It is found in a wide variety of drier habitats. In Salta Province, Argentina, it is most common in moist areas such as stream edges and croplands. In Peru this species may associate with <em>Ctenomys</em>, as <em>Galea</em> uses its burrows and appears to respond to the alarm calls of <em>Ctenomys</em> by seeking cover. The home range of a female was 4,275 square metres. Males mark females during courtship using chin gland secretions. In captivity the gestation period is 53 days, litters size is 2.7 (range 1 to 5), and neonates average 37 g. Lactation lasts about three weeks, and the age of first reproduction is one to three months. Females may have up to seven litters per year (Cabrera, 1953; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Kleiman, 1974; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Rood, 1972).	eng
8824	population	Dunnum, J., Pardina, U., Zeballos, H. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is a common species that is patchily distributed.	eng
8824	threats	Dunnum, J., Pardina, U., Zeballos, H. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
8825	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas in its range in areas of open habitat.	eng
8825	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs eastern Bolivia to northeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). The type locality is restricted to Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
8825	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in open areas, in savanna and in the semi arid Caatinga region, in primary and disturbed habitats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It does not have specific habitat requirements; it does not occur in forest (Lacher pers. comm.). In northeastern Brazil, Greater Grisons (<em>Galictis vittata</em>) are major predators of rock cavies.	eng
8825	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is extremely abundant throughout its geographic range (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
8825	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no information on major threats to the species, but it is unlikely that there are any major threats.	eng
8826	conservation	Fernandes, M., Herrero, J., Aulagnier, S. & Amori, G., 2008	It is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annexes II and IV). Part of the range falls within the Parc National des Pyrénées Occidentales and Parque Nacional de Covadona, and possibly the Parque Nacional de Aiguas y Lago de San Mauricio and the Parque Nacional de Ordesa. This species' conservation has been the topic of an international conference that has drawn up an action plan that includes priority actions. There is also an action plan for the species in Portugal. Actions proposed include appropriate management of water courses, habitat restoration, improvement of knowledge of the threatened populations, and use of the desman as a flagship species to promote river conservation (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the species is considered Vulnerable because populations have disappeared from the formerly known range (L.J.P. Muñoz pers. comm. 2007).	eng
8826	distribution	Fernandes, M., Herrero, J., Aulagnier, S. & Amori, G., 2008	The Pyrenean desman is restricted to the Pyrenees mountains (Andorra, France and Spain), as well as parts of northern and central Spain and northern Portugal. In France it occurs along the Aude, Agly, Salat, Aspe, Ossau, Ariège, Ardour, Tet and Tech rivers. In Portugal it occurs along the Minho, Ancora, Lima, Neiva, Cavado, Ave, Leca, Douro, Vouga, Mondego, and Tejo rivers (Queiroz <em>et al.</em> 1998) In Spain it is found in the upper reaches of rivers in the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian mountains, the Sistema Central, the Picos de Europa and along the Deva River. It also occurs in the Sierra de Guarra north of Huesca and Infiesta, Oviedo, and Burguete, Navarro (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). It is found at altitudes between sea level and 2,500 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Spain, the river systems that the species occurs in flow to three different seas: Mediterranean, Atlantic and Cantabrian; hence the populations are all separated from each other.	eng
8826	habitat	Fernandes, M., Herrero, J., Aulagnier, S. & Amori, G., 2008	The desman's preferred habitat is fast flowing mountain streams, although it is occasionally found in slow moving water bodies such as canals, lakes and marshes. It favours perennial rivers where the margins offer some shelter, and it requires clean and well oxygenated water. <em>G. pyrenaicus</em> is specialised to an aquatic environment. It feeds nocturnally on a diverse array of crustaceans and insect larvae, including stoneflies and caddis fly larvae (Queiroz 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8826	population	Fernandes, M., Herrero, J., Aulagnier, S. & Amori, G., 2008	The population has declined in recent years, but it is hard to obtain precise estimates of population size and decline rate for this shy and secretive species (González-Esteban <em>et al.</em> 2003). The desman has been radio-tracked in Portugal following successful capture of animals using underwater traps (care is required to check these traps regularly to prevent drownings: M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006). In favourable habitats population densities may be 5-10 individuals per kilometre, but other studies indicate much lower densities (Quaresma <em>et al.</em> 1998, Chora 2001, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Portugal it is estimated that there are less than 10,000 mature individuals divided into small and isolated subpopulations due to the existence of physical (e.g. dams) and ecological barriers (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the species has undergone marked declines in the central system (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006), and the desman has disappeared from some sites where it was previously known (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In the Spanish Pyrenees and Cantabrian regions densities range from 2.8 to 7.3 animals per km of river (Palomo and Gisbert 2002); however, in the Sistema Central population densities are lower (P. García pers. comm. 2007). In France the population is also declining (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>As well as population declines, range contractions have been observed along the western, southern, and eastern edges of the desman's range in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
8826	threats	Fernandes, M., Herrero, J., Aulagnier, S. & Amori, G., 2008	This species is confined to a very vulnerable habitat in a restricted area. The most potent threats are from water pollution, and habitat fragmentation caused by the construction of hydro-electric plants, water extraction, and dam and reservoir construction (Queiroz 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other threats are direct persecution from fishermen who incorrectly believe this species to be a threat to fish stocks, especially trout, or from over-eager collectors. Poison and explosives are used as fishing methods in Portugal, which would kill the desman (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). The escape of North American mink (<em>Neovison vison</em>) from fur farms in northern Iberia might be negatively impacting populations in Galicia. It is predated by otters in Galicia (forming up to 5% of their diet) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).<br/><br/>Climate change is anticipated to be a serious threat to the desman in the near future. The species tends to occur only in areas with annual rainfall superior to 1,000 mm and, given climate change scenarios for Spain, by 2060 the species may be virtually extinct from central Spain and also in most of its important areas from northern Iberia (P. García pers. comm. 2007).	eng
8827	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Sajama in Bolivia, and from Zona Reservada Aymara Lupaca in Peru. Further studies are needed to determine whether the species is still present within the known range, and to better understand the major threats to the species.	eng
8827	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southern Peru and adjacent Bolivia. It may be present in northern Chile, although there appear to be no records from this country. It generally occurs above 3,000 m.	eng
8827	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a habitat specialist, largely restricted to open sandy areas with some grasses. It is not found in agricultural habitats. It both burrows into the soil and uses abandoned burrows, or shares burrows, with other rodent species.	eng
8827	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is generally believed to be a rare species. There are no records of this species during recent surveys. It was last collected in 1975.	eng
8827	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened in Bolivia by indirect mortality during ongoing eradication of <em>Ctenomys</em> species in pastoral land through flooding of burrows.	eng
8833	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Marojejy, Masoala, Zahamena and Ranomafana National Parks. Further studies into the ecology of this little-known species are needed.	eng
8833	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widely distributed in the eastern humid forests from the lowlands to around 700 m asl (Goodman, 2003). There is only one record of this species over 700 m, at 1,500 m asl (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
8833	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This is a nocturnal, and largely terrestrial, species of lowland tropical humid forest. It appears to be limited to forests on lateritic soils, and is seldom encountered outside of the forest, although there are apparently records from degraded forest (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). There are few details available on reproduction in this species (Goodman 2003). Its morphology indicates that it is capable of predating species at or possibly above its body weight.	eng
8833	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	The population status of this species is not well known, although it generally appears to occur at low densities (Goodman 2003) and is detected very rarely (F. Hawkins pers. comm.). This is supported by trapping data in some eastern forest sites (L. Dollar, unpubl.). A survey in 1994 in Masoala, recorded only a single individual over the course of 2.5 months (Razafimahatratra pers. comm.).	eng
8833	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land and logging. There are no data on hunting, but the species is probably killed by dogs accompanying hunters in the forest. A minor threat may be competition with the introduced <em>Viverricula indica</em> and feral cats and dogs may threaten this species.	eng
8834	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	The only protected area within range is Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species, as well as the extent of threats.	eng
8834	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is restricted to the Lac Tsimanampetsotsa region of south-western Madagascar. It has been recorded from the edge of the Mahafaly Plateau north and further south to near the Linta River (Goodman 2003; Mahazotahy <em>et al.</em> 2006). The altitudinal range is 35-145 m (Mahazotahy <em>et al</em>. 2006). A recent model calculated the range at 442 km² (Mahazotahy <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
8834	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This nocturnal, terrestrial species is found in dry spiny tropical forest and shrubland and at the edge of the forest in areas disturbed by cattle grazing. Animals spend daylight hours asleep in burrows or holes that are prevalent in the fissured limestone substrate characteristic of its habitat. While little is known about reproduction in this species, it appears to breed continously (Goodman 2003).	eng
8834	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	Described only in 1986, this species appears to be locally common in pristine forest (Goodman 2003). The population size of this species is estimated at between 2650 and 3540 individuals (including juveniles) (Mahazotahy <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
8834	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species has a limited range, and its habitat is threatened by livestock grazing and clearance for maize cultivation. The western part of the area in which it is found is reasonably inhospitable to human encroachment (Goodman 2003). It is probably at risk of predation by non-native carnivores, especially dogs.	eng
8881	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	A recovery plan for this species has been developed, and captive-breeding and reintroduction programmes are in place. The species was successfully reintroduced to the Roque Chico de Salmor in 1999, and subsequent reintroductions have taken place at Julan and at la Dehesa. Continued control of feral cats should be resumed to allow population recovery. This species is protected by national and international legislation. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Both la Fuga de Gorreta and the Roque Chico de Salmor are protected areas.	eng
8881	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of El Hierro in the Canary Islands (Spain). The species was once present throughout much of the island and on the small offshore Roque Chico de Salmor. It is currently restricted to the southern end of the Risco de Tibataje, in la Fuga de Gorreta, located between Guinea and the so-called Paso del Pino (an area of about four hectares), with reintroduced populations on the Roque Chico de Salmor, and at Julan and la Dehesa on El Hierro. The species ranges between 350 and 500m asl.	eng
8881	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is now confined to a small areas of cliff with sparse vegetation. The species is believed to have once occurred throughout much of El Hierro, being only absent from areas of laurel forest. It is a largely herbivorous species. It has two clutches of five to thirteen eggs.	eng
8881	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The population of this species is about 300 to 400 animals in the wild (including re-introduced populations)..	eng
8881	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The major threat to this species is predation by feral cats, and possibly also by dogs and rats. A remnant population was extirpated from the Roque Chico de Salmor in the 1930s through the overcollection of animals for scientific institutions and commercial interests. Control of feral cats stopped in in 2002.	eng
8892	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to impounded headwaters (Wilkinson Springs) of Upper Clear Creek (San Saba River system) on the Clear Creek Ranch, 16 km west of Menard, Menard County, central Texas.	eng
8895	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found in the Pecos River basin of Texas and New Mexico.	eng
8902	conservation	Lang, B. & Pollock, C.M., 2000	<em>G. desperatus</em> is currently listed Endangered in New Mexico and is a Federal species of concern.	eng
8902	distribution	Lang, B. & Pollock, C.M., 2000	Historically, Noel's amphipod was known from three subpopulations in New Mexico.	eng
8902	habitat	Lang, B. & Pollock, C.M., 2000	Gammarid amphipods are generally found in small streams, ponds and springs where the freshwater habitat is cool and well-oxygenated.  They are light sensitive and are most active at night. Diet includes algae and submergent vegetation and detritus with juveniles feeding mainly on microbial foods.	eng
8902	population	Lang, B. & Pollock, C.M., 2000	Two subpopulations became extinct during the twentieth century (one in the 1950s, the other in the 1980s). The remaining population exists in Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge where current management practices are maintaining population stability.	eng
8902	threats	Lang, B. & Pollock, C.M., 2000	Gammarid amphipods are particularly sensitive to changes to their environment caused by pollutant contamination.  Regional groundwater pumping and oil/gas industry operations are ongoing in the Pecos River Valley and such activities are known to deplete groundwater aquifers and to contaminate ground- and surface-waters.  Residential development within aquifer recharge-discharge areas along the western bounds of Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge also bring the threat of further contamination through domestic sewage.  Natural events such as prolonged drought may also threaten the extant population by reducing water levels and increasing salinity and contaminant concentrations.	eng
8905	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Occurs in only four springs in Jeff Davis and Reeves Counties, Texas.	eng
8916	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
8951	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
8951	conservation	Hammerson, G., Freyhof, J., Kottelat, M. & Lukey, J.R., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>.	eng
8951	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	North Sea coasts of Scotland and Scandinavia, coasts of Iceland and White Sea, Atlantic coasts from Ireland northward, southeastern shore of Baltic Sea and its basin (Odra and Vistula drainages), shores of Black Sea and its northern basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). Almost absent inland in Finland, except north of 68°N. Hybrid zone with G. gymnurus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to northern Italy.	eng
8951	distribution	Hammerson, G., Freyhof, J., Kottelat, M. & Lukey, J.R., 2008	The range of <em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> encompasses the coastal waters of Eurasia, Iceland, eastern Asia and Northern America. In North America, this fish ranges from Alaska to Baja California on the west coast, from Baffin Island and the west side of Hudson Bay to Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, along east coast, and it occurs also in inland areas (including Lake Ontario) along both coasts.  Sometimes this species occurs in the open ocean. This species has been introduced and is established in certain areas of California, Massachusetts, and the Great Lakes (Lakes Huron, Michigan, Erie and Superior) (Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1999; Stephenson and Momot 2000). In Eurasia it is found along North Sea coasts of Scotland and Scandinavia; coasts of Iceland and White Sea; Atlantic coasts from Ireland northward; southeastern shore of Baltic Sea and its basin (Odra and Vistula drainages); shores of Black Sea and its northern basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). Almost absent inland in Finland, except north of 68°N. There is a hybrid zone with <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gymnurus</span> in the English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. It has been introduced to northern Italy.	eng
8951	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea: shallow coastal areas. In freshwaters, prefers small streams, but may be found in a variety of habitats including lakes and large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, with numerous resident populations in brackish or pure freshwater, rarely in marine waters. Usually forages at sea until two years old, then moves to lower part of rivers in March-April to reproduce. Freshwater populations usually spawn for the first time at one year. In spawning season, males develop a bright orange to red belly and blue-green flank and eyes. They defend territories, in which in April-June they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas, very rarely attached to plants. They make a depression up to 14 × 10 cm to which they bring plant materials (especially filamentous algae), which are glued together with kidney secretions. Several females are individually led to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour is very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in 7-8 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days after which male abandons the nest. Anadromous individuals usually die of exhaustion after spawning cycle while freshwater individuals are able to complete several cycles within one year or sometimes over several years. Juveniles move to sea (anadromous populations) or to deeper, larger water bodies (freshwater populations) in July-August where they form large feeding schools. Feeds on small aquatic invertebrates, especially insects and crustaceans.	eng
8951	habitat	Hammerson, G., Freyhof, J., Kottelat, M. & Lukey, J.R., 2008	This species is typically found in quiet weedy pools and backwaters. It is also found in the marginal vegetation of streams, over sand and mud bottom substrates. Marine populations are pelagic, and usually found inshore along the coast, in estuaries and coastal lagoons. In some lakes, two morphologically and ecologically distinct forms may occur, differing in habitat (one littoral, the other mainly limnetic). Eggs are deposited in freshwater in a nest of plant material made by the male on the bottom in shallow water. The female will typically lay a few hundred eggs and may lay eggs in several nests over a period of several days (Morrow 1980).<br/><br/>Anadromous, with numerous resident populations in brackish or pure freshwater, rarely in marine waters. Usually forages at sea until two years old, then moves to lower part of rivers in March-April to reproduce. Freshwater populations usually spawn for the first time at one year. In spawning season, males develop a bright orange to red belly and blue-green flank and eyes. They defend territories, in which in April-June they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas, very rarely attached to plants. They make a depression up to 14 × 10 cm to which they bring plant materials (especially filamentous algae), which are glued together with kidney secretions. Several females are individually led to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour is very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in 7-8 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days after which male abandons the nest. Anadromous individuals usually die of exhaustion after spawning cycle while freshwater individuals are able to complete several cycles within one year or sometimes over several years. Juveniles move to sea (anadromous populations) or to deeper, larger water bodies (freshwater populations) in July-August where they form large feeding schools. Feeds on small aquatic invertebrates, especially insects and crustaceans.	eng
8951	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
8951	population	Hammerson, G., Freyhof, J., Kottelat, M. & Lukey, J.R., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
8951	threats	Hammerson, G., Freyhof, J., Kottelat, M. & Lukey, J.R., 2008	No major widespread threats known. However, the species has been listed as threatened in some of its range states, for example it is listed as Endangered in Croatia.	eng
8951	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major widespread threats known. However the species has been listed as threatened in some of its range states such as Endangered in Croatia   where the species does not occur naturally.	eng
8955	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.	eng
8955	habitat	Kaufman, L., 1996	Occurs inshore over a variety of substrates, amongst emergent vegetation, over exposed sandy beaches and some distance offshore over a mud bottom.	eng
8957	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
8957	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
8957	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.	eng
8957	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
8957	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
8966	conservation	Choudhury, B.C., Singh, L.A.K., Rao, R.J., Basu, D., Sharma, R.K., Hussain, S.A., Andrews, H.V., Whitaker, N., Whitaker, R., Lenin, J., Maskey, T., Cadi, A., Rashid, S.M.A., Choudhury, A.A., Dahal, B., Win Ko Ko, U., Thorbjarnarson, J & Ross, J.P., 2007	Conservation programs for Indian Gharial have been undertaken in India and Nepal, based on the establishment of protected areas and restocking these with animals born in captivity. <br/> <br/>From one perspective it could be argued that over 5,000 juvenile Gharial were released into largely inhospitable habitats in Indian and Nepali rivers and left to their fate. In Chitawan National Park, Nepal, where about 300 gharials were released, there were 16 nests in 1977 and in 2006 there were six. So reintroduction didn't work so well there (though it is argued that at least total extinction has been averted by supplementation), thanks largely to growing and uncontrolled anthropogenic pressures, including depletion of the fish resources. Gharial are generally grown for two to three years and average about one meter TL when released. While the programme calls for monitoring, it has not been consistently carried out and little research on adaptation, migration and other key aspects have been conducted. <br/> <br/>In the Girwa River (Katerniaghat Sanctuary), where 909 Gharial were released (including 112 in 2006), there were four nests recorded in 1977 and 20 in 2006, so 16 nesting females (2% of the total pre-2006 releases) resulted from 30 years of reintroductions. This is seemingly not a great achievement for the money and effort spent, and as several knowledgeable researchers have suggested, perhaps carrying capacity has been reached there. <br/> <br/>In the third, and most important remaining Gharial breeding habitat, the Chambal River (the tri-state, National Chambal Sanctuary) where 3,552 Gharial were released (Whitaker and Andrews 2003) (plus 224 in 2006), there were 12 nests recorded in 1978 and 68 in 2006. While nesting has increased by over 500%, these recruited mature, reproducing females are only about 2% of the total number released. As has been pointed out many times, the linear, riverine habitat of the Gharial is an extreme disadvantage with annual monsoonal flooding when the newly hatched young are especially prone to being flushed downstream out of the protected areas. <br/> <br/>With recruitment or retention of reintroduced Gharial (plus natural recruitment) over the last 30 years being as low as 0.02% (Mahanadi River, Orissa) and averaging 3% to 10% elsewhere, the entire reintroduction strategy needs to reassessed. Scarce conservation funds and human resources need to be also focused on other rigorous actions such as habitat assessment, fisheries enhancement and conflict mitigation, educating river people concerning conservation efforts in order to improve the survival odds of the Gharial. It should be noted that the four places where Gharial are still breeding today all had residual populations when the restocking programmes began. Nowhere has restocking re-established a viable Gharial population. <br/> <br/>The Gharial is listed on CITES Appendix I and on CMS Appendix I.	eng
8966	distribution	Choudhury, B.C., Singh, L.A.K., Rao, R.J., Basu, D., Sharma, R.K., Hussain, S.A., Andrews, H.V., Whitaker, N., Whitaker, R., Lenin, J., Maskey, T., Cadi, A., Rashid, S.M.A., Choudhury, A.A., Dahal, B., Win Ko Ko, U., Thorbjarnarson, J & Ross, J.P., 2007	The western-most historic occurrence of the Gharial was the Indus River in present day Pakistan and the eastern-most (albeit from only two records in the scientific literature) was the Irrawaddy River in present day Myanmar (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). Today three widely separated breeding subpopulations are left in India (Chambal River, Girwa River and Son River) and one in Nepal (Rapti/Narayani River) (see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).	eng
8966	habitat	Choudhury, B.C., Singh, L.A.K., Rao, R.J., Basu, D., Sharma, R.K., Hussain, S.A., Andrews, H.V., Whitaker, N., Whitaker, R., Lenin, J., Maskey, T., Cadi, A., Rashid, S.M.A., Choudhury, A.A., Dahal, B., Win Ko Ko, U., Thorbjarnarson, J & Ross, J.P., 2007	Indian Gharial nest in seasonally exposed sandbanks along slow moving sections of large to medium sized rivers. Gharials congregate for mating and nesting during the dry season in these highly seasonal rivers. When concentrated in these areas they are highly vulnerable to impacts from fishing and malicious killing. The nests are also vulnerable as they traditionally are laid in the same beaches year after year and in some habitats (Girwa River in India and Rapti/Narayani River in Nepal) the eggs are relished by tribal people.	eng
8966	population	Choudhury, B.C., Singh, L.A.K., Rao, R.J., Basu, D., Sharma, R.K., Hussain, S.A., Andrews, H.V., Whitaker, N., Whitaker, R., Lenin, J., Maskey, T., Cadi, A., Rashid, S.M.A., Choudhury, A.A., Dahal, B., Win Ko Ko, U., Thorbjarnarson, J & Ross, J.P., 2007	See Justification (above).	eng
8966	threats	Choudhury, B.C., Singh, L.A.K., Rao, R.J., Basu, D., Sharma, R.K., Hussain, S.A., Andrews, H.V., Whitaker, N., Whitaker, R., Lenin, J., Maskey, T., Cadi, A., Rashid, S.M.A., Choudhury, A.A., Dahal, B., Win Ko Ko, U., Thorbjarnarson, J & Ross, J.P., 2007	Alteration of habitat: throughout all of the present range of the Gharial their rivers have been dammed; diverted for irrigation and other purposes leading to seasonal drying of once perennial rivers (unlike many other crocodilians gharial cannot walk overland to find water nor can they tunnel to escape the summer drought; sand mined for construction on a huge scale; and looming ahead is a mega-project to interlink all of India's major rivers which will be a catastrophe for all river life. <br/> <br/>Fishing: intensity of fishing is increasing and use of gill nets is rapidly killing many of the scarce adults as well as many subadults. This danger is prevalent throughout most of the present gharial habitat, even the protected areas. <br/> <br/>Agriculture and grazing: riparian people are some of the poorest in India and depend almost entirely on local resources and their own agriculture to survive. During the dry months when the river is down, planting gourd crops and herding livestock for drinking and grazing on the sand banks and river edges has become prevalent all along the Chambal River in particular. These are the very sand banks used by gharial for nesting and basking and these anthropogenic activities take place in the breeding season. <br/> <br/>Utilization: Use of the ghara (narial excrescence in adult male Gharial), penis and fat for medicines has been traditional and is still reported from Nepal and occasionally in India. Considering the fact that there may be below 20 adult males left in the wild, continued use is a major threat. <br/> <br/>Gharial eggs are sought by tribal people to eat and in the Girwa River (the Katerniaghat Sanctuary) it was reported that almost all the nests had been raided by humans during the nesting seasons of 2001 to 2005. The reported high hatchling rates in 2006 are attributed to the enforcement efforts carried out this year by the Wildlife Warden and his staff.	eng
8967	conservation	Mallon, D.P. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected in all range states. <br/><br/>Important protected areas across the range include Saharan Atlas N.P., Belezma N.P. and Mergueb N.R. in Algeria, and Djebel Chambi N.P. in Tunisia. Mallon and Kingswood (2001) highlighted Djebel Chambi as of outstanding importance as it holds the largest population in Tunisia and is of key importance for the recolonization of the Dorsale range. However, no reintroductions are currently planned (K. De Smet pers. comm.). Mallon and Kingswood (2001) also called for stringent protection from hunting for all populations in Morocco and Algeria, and the establishment of a number of new protected areas that had been proposed in Morocco (including Western Sahara) and Algeria. A captive population, originating from animals in Western Sahara, is maintained in Almeria, Spain (Abáigar and Cano 2005). Offspring of these animals were reintroduced in Bou Kornine N.P. in Tunisia in 2002 (K. de Smet pers. comm.). In Toubkal National Park in Morocco, animals were reintroduced in a fenced enclosure in 1997 (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
8967	distribution	Mallon, D.P. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Endemic to mountains and hills of the Atlas and neighbouring ranges of north-west Africa. Over hunting and habitat degradation have greatly reduced the former range and led to fragmented populations.<br/><br/>In Morocco, populations are highly fragmented, but recent reports suggest relatively substantial and increasing populations in the western Anti-Atlas, and range extensions in eastern Morocco (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In Algeria, the distribution is limited to the northern part of the country: it is no longer found either north of the Tell Atlas or to the south of the Saharan Atlas (De Smet and Smith 2001). The species has only recently disappeared from a few localities, mainly in the north. The populations of the western Tell Atlas, Batna-Biskra, and the Aurès mountains are no longer contiguous, and some groups of the Saharan Atlas and the Ugartha mountains were recently extirpated (K. de Smet pers. comm.). The most recent information indicates that some of these populations are growing. The most eastern populations are found in the Aurès, the Némentcha mountains, and the hills near the Tunisian border (Beudels-Jamar <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Tunisia, numbers and distribution declined steeply due to overhunting by the 1970s, but  the population then began to increase as a consequence of efficient conservation measures implemented in and around Chambi National Park (Kacem <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
8967	habitat	Mallon, D.P. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Inhabits open semi-arid Mediterranean forests, maquis, and steppes, from sea level to 2,600 m (Cuzin 2003). Movements of this species are highly variable: it may be sedentary, or attitudinally migrant, migratory, or nomadic (Cuzin 2003); locally, individuals from the same population may exhibit different movement patterns (F. Cuzin pers. comm.)	eng
8967	population	Mallon, D.P. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The total population is estimated at 1,750 – 2,950 (Morocco: 900 to 2,000; Algeria: 560; Tunisia: 300 to 400. The figure for Algeria was taken from De Smet (1991), for Tunisia from Kacem <em>et al</em>. (1994), and for Morocco from Cuzin <em>et al.</em> (in press).	eng
8967	threats	Mallon, D.P. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major threats to the species are overhunting and habitat degradation, mainly due to the transformation of habitat into cropland and pastures for livestock, and for charcoal (Cuzin 2003; Beudels-Jamar <em>et al</em>. 2005). Predation by dogs, on young gazelles at least, is also a threat, and dogs foiled an attempt to introduce Cuvier’s Gazelle into Souss-Massa N.P. in Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
8968	conservation	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The Réserve partielle de faune du Bahr-el-Ghazal (Chad), west of the present Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim N.R., and the Aïr-Ténéré N.P., harbour the remaining viable Dama Gazelle populations. Both reserves have suffered from military unrest resulting in the collapse of conservation infrastructure (Scholte in press; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Dama Gazelle are present in captivity, but the number of founders is limited (Sausman 1998; Thuesen 1998). Animals from Almeria breeding facility in Spain were introduced to an enclosure (R?mila Royal Reserve) in Morocco (130 present in 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press) and gazelles from München Zoo (originally bred at Almeria) were released into an enclosure in Souss-Massa N.P. (12 animals in 2006); these semi-captives are intended to form part of a reintroduction programme in Morocco. All of the animals from Almeria stock originate from Western Sahara. Elsewhere, Dama Gazelle were released into the 2,000-ha Bou-Hedma N.P. in Tunisia in the early 1990s (Abaigar <em>et al</em>. 1997) where around 17 were present in 2006 (T. Wacher pers. comm.); gazelles have also been reintroduced to Guembeul Faunal Reserve in Senegal (Cano <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a reintroduction programme in Ferlo North Reserve is underway (7 animals).	eng
8968	conservation	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I, and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>The Réserve partielle de faune du Bahr-el-Ghazal (Chad), west of the present Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim N.R., and the Aïr-Ténéré N.P., harbour the remaining viable Dama Gazelle populations. Both reserves have suffered from military unrest resulting in the collapse of conservation infrastructure (Scholte in press; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Dama Gazelle are present in captivity, but the number of founders is limited (Sausman 1998; Thuesen 1998). Animals from Almeria breeding facility in Spain were introduced to an enclosure (R?mila Royal Reserve) in Morocco (130 present in 2007; Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press) and gazelles from München Zoo (originally bred at Almeria) were released into an enclosure in Souss-Massa N.P. (12 animals in 2006); these semi-captives are intended to form part of a reintroduction programme in Morocco. All of the animals from Almeria stock originate from Western Sahara. Elsewhere, Dama Gazelle were released into the 2,000-ha Bou-Hedma N.P. in Tunisia in the early 1990s (Abaigar <em>et al</em>. 1997) where around 17 were present in 2006 (T. Wacher pers. comm.); gazelles have also been reintroduced to Guembeul Faunal Reserve in Senegal (Cano <em>et al</em>. 1993) and a reintroduction programme in Ferlo North Reserve is underway (7 animals).	eng
8968	distribution	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Formerly widespread in the Sahara and Sahel zones, but their range and numbers have been extremely reduced. In North Africa, Dama Gazelle are now probably extinct, although they may survive in the Drâa (where observations were made by nomads in 1993) (Cuzin 1996; Aulagnier <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is also possible, though increasingly unlikely, that they may survive in very small numbers along the border between southern Morocco and Mauritania (Cuzin <em>et al</em>. in press). They may also survive in the Tassili de Tin Rehror in southern Algeria (K. De Smet pers. comm.). In Tunisia, they are believed to have occurred in the south and to have disappeared before the 20th century (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>South of the Sahara, Dama Gazelle are still present in eastern Mali, Air and Termit/Tin Toumma in Niger, and in the Chadian Manga and Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim Nature Reserve in Chad (Scholte in press, and references therein); however, aerial and ground surveys of Termit-Tin Toumma in 2007 failed to record any Dama Gazelles (Wacher <em>et al</em>. 2007). They are now thought to be extinct in Mauritania, and are probably extinct in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, and Libya (see Scholte in press for summary, and references therein). There are no recent confirmed records from the Sudan, although East (1999) mentioned it could still occur at low densities in Northern Darfur and Northern Kordofan.	eng
8968	habitat	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Inhabits Sahelian grasslands, sparsely wooded savanna and sub-desert steppes with <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Panicum</em> vegetation; usually avoids really sandy areas, but will frequent low mountains and mountain plateaus, probably as refugia. In southern Morocco, it was found in areas without any <em>Acacia</em>, but with dense shrub cover (Cuzin 2003).	eng
8968	population	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Numbers of Dama Gazelle have declined drastically since the 1950s and 1960s. The early 1970s population in the Ouadi Rime - Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in Chad, one of the former strongholds of the species, was estimated at 10,000-12,000 individuals, but today the species is very rare in this reserve (J. Newby, in Scholte in press). Known remnant populations are all very small and extremely fragmented; the only known populations of any size are in Manga (Chad), eastern Air (Niger), and the Mali/Niger border area. In all areas surveyed, numbers have been very low and the size of observed gazelle groups very small (range=1-5 individuals) (Lamarque <em>et al.</em> 2007). Subpopulations probably number around 20 individuals in all cases, are separated by hundreds of kilometers, and the total current wild population is certainly less than 500 individuals (J. Newby pers. comm.).	eng
8968	threats	Newby, J., Wacher, T., Lamarque, F., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	The main threats to this species include uncontrolled hunting (by nomads, military and by Arab hunting parties), and habitat loss and degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock (and the impact of expanded livestock rearing due to well construction in preferred habitats). Prolonged drought is also having an impact on pasture quality (Lafontaine <em>et al.</em> 2005; Scholte in press).	eng
8969	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected or partially so in several range states. Dorcas Gazelle occur in many protected areas throughout their range, including: M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve (Morocco); Tassili and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria); Bou-Hedma, Sidi Toui, Dghoumes, Oued Dekouk and Djebil National Parks (Tunisia); New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, Surman and El-Kouf National Park (Libya); Elba National Park and Saint Catherine Protectorate (Egypt); Banc d?Arguin National Park (Mauritania); Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim Reserve (Chad); and Mille-Sardo Wildlife Reserve (Ethiopia) (Scholte and Hashim in press). In Libya, the New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, and Surman populations are enclosed, whereas the El-Kouf National Park is free-living (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). There are several other populations in protected areas in Morocco, but the populations listed above (M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve) are particularly valuable as they are known to be of local origin (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle do well in captivity, and are particularly common in several privately owned, captive collections in the Middle East (most originating from Egypt, the horn of Africa and Sudan) (Scholte and Hashim in press). Additionally, there is a well-managed captive population in Almeria (Spain), originating from Western Saharan stock.	eng
8969	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Listed on CMS Appendix I and included in the CMS Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes Action Plan. Legally protected or partially so in several range states. Dorcas Gazelle occur in many protected areas throughout their range, including: M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve (Morocco); Tassili and Ahaggar National Parks (Algeria); Bou-Hedma, Sidi Toui, Dghoumes, Oued Dekouk and Djebil National Parks (Tunisia); New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, Surman and El-Kouf National Park (Libya); Elba National Park and Saint Catherine Protectorate (Egypt); Banc d?Arguin National Park (Mauritania); Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim Reserve (Chad); and Mille-Sardo Wildlife Reserve (Ethiopia) (Scholte and Hashim in press). In Libya, the New Hisha Nature Reserve, Sabratha, and Surman populations are enclosed, whereas the El-Kouf National Park is free-living (T. Jdeidi pers. comm.). There are several other populations in protected areas in Morocco, but the populations listed above (M?Sabih Talâa Reserve and El Kheng Reserve) are particularly valuable as they are known to be of local origin (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle do well in captivity, and are particularly common in several privately owned, captive collections in the Middle East (most originating from Egypt, the horn of Africa and Sudan) (Scholte and Hashim in press). Additionally, there is a well-managed captive population in Almeria (Spain), originating from Western Saharan stock.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix III (Algeria, Tunisia).	eng
8969	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred over the entire Sahelo-Saharan region, from the Mediterranean to the southern Sahel and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and extending into southern Israel, Syria and Jordan (marginal occurrence).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle became extinct in Senegal (where they probably only occurred as a vagrant or seasonal visitor; East 1999), and were subsequently reintroduced to protected areas although there is no recent information on their status; they are possibly extinct in Nigeria, and their current status in Burkina Faso is unclear (Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8969	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Formerly occurred over the entire Sahelo-Saharan region, from the Mediterranean to the southern Sahel and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and extending into southern Israel, Syria and Jordan (marginal occurrence).<br/><br/>Dorcas Gazelle became extinct in Senegal (where they probably only occurred as a vagrant or seasonal visitor; East 1999), and were subsequently reintroduced to protected areas although there is no recent information on their status; they are possibly extinct in Nigeria, and their current status in Burkina Faso is unclear (Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8969	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits a wide range of arid and semi-arid habitats, but avoids extensive areas of dunes and hyperarid areas (Cuzin 2003; Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8969	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Inhabits a wide range of arid and semi-arid habitats, but avoids extensive areas of dunes and hyperarid areas (Cuzin 2003; Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8969	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) compiled figures that suggested a sub-Saharan population of 35,000 to 40,000 and a total population somewhere in the tens of thousands. Numbers were declining generally, except where hunting pressure was low (East 1999).<br/><br/>Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. (2005) report recent declines in almost all range states and say it has disappeared from many regions and is seriously reduced in numbers where it survives. The largest current populations are in Chad (especially in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve), Niger (Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve and the Termit Massif-TinToumma), and the horn countries (Scholte and Hashim in press, and references therein). In Morocco, the wild population is estimated at 800- 2,000 individuals (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press). The population in Israel was estimated at >2,000 and stable (Clark and Frankenberg 2001).	eng
8969	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	East (1999) compiled figures that suggested a sub-Saharan population of 35,000 to 40,000 and a total population somewhere in the tens of thousands. Numbers were declining generally, except where hunting pressure was low (East 1999).<br/><br/>Lafontaine <em>et al</em>. (2005) report recent declines in almost all range states and say it has disappeared from many regions and is seriously reduced in numbers where it survives. The largest current populations are in Chad (especially in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve), Niger (Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve and the Termit Massif-TinToumma), and the horn countries (Scholte and Hashim in press, and references therein). In Morocco, the wild population is estimated at 800- 2,000 individuals (Cuzin <em>et al.</em> in press). The population in Israel was estimated at >2,000 and stable (Clark and Frankenberg 2001).	eng
8969	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threats include overhunting, and habitat degradation due to overgrazing by livestock and drought.	eng
8969	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major threats include overhunting, and habitat degradation due to overgrazing by livestock and drought.	eng
8970	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Mountain Gazelle are legally protected in Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, but enforcement is not always effective. They occur in the following protected areas: <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia: Uruq Bani Ma?arid (5,500 km²); Al Khunfah (34,225 km²); and Ibex Reserve (2,370 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle). The Farasan Islands (600 km²) have been a nature reserve under the control of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) since 1988, and aerial censuses are carried out by NCWCD on the Farasan Islands, at 2-3 yearly intervals.<br/><br/>Oman: Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (24,785 km²); Wadi Sareen Tahr Reserve (800 km²); Jebel Samhan NR (4,500 km²), As Saleel NP (220 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle).<br/><br/>Israel: En Gedi (14 km²); Ya?ar Yehudia (62 km²); Mezukai Herev (23 km²). The current habitat in the Arava Valley is protected, and supplementary feed is provided and natural vegetation irrigated. However, an evaluation of predator control in the area is recommended.	eng
8970	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Mountain Gazelle are legally protected in Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, but enforcement is not always effective. They occur in the following protected areas: <br/><br/>Saudi Arabia: Uruq Bani Ma’arid (5,500 km²); Al Khunfah (34,225 km²); and Ibex Reserve (2,370 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle). The Farasan Islands (600 km²) have been a nature reserve under the control of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) since 1988, and aerial censuses are carried out by NCWCD on the Farasan Islands, at 2-3 yearly intervals.<br/><br/>Oman: Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (24,785 km²); Wadi Sareen Tahr Reserve (800 km²); Jebel Samhan NR (4,500 km²), As Saleel NP (220 km²) (all Arabian Mountain Gazelle).<br/><br/>Israel: En Gedi (14 km²); Ya’ar Yehudia (62 km²); Mezukai Herev (23 km²). The current habitat in the Arava Valley is protected, and supplementary feed is provided and natural vegetation irrigated. However, an evaluation of predator control in the area is recommended.	eng
8970	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Formerly occurred across most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to southern Syria and extending westwards into Sinai. The last confirmed records for Egypt were in 1932 though there have been some recent unconfirmed reports (Saleh 2001). There have been no records in Syria since the 1970s (Kingswood <em>et al.</em> 2001), although they may survive on Jabal Hermon and perhaps in upper Galilee (Masseti 2004). In Lebanon, the species was believed to have become extinct after 1945, but three were seen in 1998 in the Barouk Mountains (Kingswood and Khairallah 2001). The last record from Jordan was in 1986 (Kiwan <em>et al.</em> 2001), although Masseti (2004) notes that they were reintroduced into Shaumari Wildlife Reserve.<br/><br/>Their current range includes: Israel (widely distributed); Saudi Arabia (occurs on the Farasan islands, in three protected areas, and as scattered populations in the west); Oman (widely distributed, with the largest population in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates and Yemen, mainly from the west and south. There is also a small introduced population on Farur Island (Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).	eng
8970	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred across most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to southern Syria and extending westwards into Sinai. The last confirmed records for Egypt were in 1932 though there have been some recent unconfirmed reports (Saleh 2001). There have been no records in Syria since the 1970s (Kingswood <em>et al.</em> 2001), although they may survive on Jabal Hermon and perhaps in upper Galilee (Masseti 2004). In Lebanon, the species was believed to have become extinct after 1945, but three were seen in 1998 in the Barouk Mountains (Kingswood and Khairallah 2001). The last record from Jordan was in 1986 (Kiwan <em>et al.</em> 2001), although Masseti (2004) notes that they were reintroduced into Shaumari Wildlife Reserve. <br/><br/>Their current range includes: Israel (widely distributed); Saudi Arabia (occurs on the Farasan islands, in three protected areas, and as scattered populations in the west); Oman (widely distributed, with the largest population in the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates and Yemen, mainly from the west and south. There is also a small introduced population on Farur Island (Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).	eng
8970	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits a range of desert and semi-desert habitats. They often occur in steep terrain, but avoid rocky areas, and can withstand severe climatic conditions, living in the hot and dry Jordan Valley, the Negev Desert, and the Nafud and Dhofar Deserts (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1995). <br/><br/>In Israel, the gazelles of the Arava Valley (<em>Gazella gazella acaciae</em>) are found in arid habitats dominated by acacia (<em>Acacia raddiana</em> and <em>A. tortilis</em>); Palestine Mountain Gazelle (<em>G. g. gazella</em>) are found in hilly regions with good vegetative cover, especially in areas near irrigated cultivation.<br/><br/>The gazelles on Farasan Island inhabit areas of broken coral ravines and flat gravel. They apparently emerge to feed at night mainly on <em>Cyperus</em>., and obtain water mainly from dew (Flamand <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
8970	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Inhabits a range of desert and semi-desert habitats. They often occur in steep terrain, but avoid rocky areas, and can withstand severe climatic conditions, living in the hot and dry Jordan Valley, the Negev Desert, and the Nafud and Dhofar Deserts (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1995). <br/><br/>In Israel, the gazelles of the Arava Valley (<em>Gazella gazella acaciae</em>) are found in arid habitats dominated by acacia (<em>Acacia raddiana</em> and <em>A. tortilis</em>); Palestine Mountain Gazelle (<em>G. g. gazella</em>) are found in hilly regions with good vegetative cover, especially in areas near irrigated cultivation.<br/><br/>The gazelles on Farasan Island inhabit areas of broken coral ravines and flat gravel. They apparently emerge to feed at night mainly on <em>Cyperus</em>., and obtain water mainly from dew (Flamand <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
8970	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Total numbers are currently estimated at less than 15,000: Israel (approximately 3,000); Oman (approximately 13,000 were estimated in the late 1990s, with 10,000 on the Jiddat al Harasis, although this population has been declining since then; Saudi Arabia (1,500-1,700, but up to 1,000 of these are on the Farasan Islands, with over half of them on Farasan Kebir); Yemen (no estimates but generally described as rare). Numbers of gazelles in Israel and the West Bank (usually considered to be <em>G. g. gazella</em>) were estimated at 10,000 in the late 1990s (Clark and Frankenberg 2001). Since then they have declined sharply and there are currently estimated to be about 3,000 in total.	eng
8970	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Total numbers are currently estimated at less than 15,000: Israel (approximately 3,000); Oman (approximately 13,000 were estimated in the late 1990s, with 10,000 on the Jiddat al Harasis, although this population has been declining since then; Saudi Arabia (1,500-1,700, but up to 1,000 of these are on the Farasan Islands, with over half of them on Farasan Kebir); Yemen (no estimates but generally described as rare). Numbers of gazelles in Israel and the West Bank (usually considered to be <em>G. g. gazella</em>) were estimated at 10,000 in the late 1990s (Clark and Frankenberg 2001). Since then they have declined sharply and there are currently estimated to be about 3,000 in total.	eng
8970	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The major threats are illegal hunting for meat and live capture for pets and private collections, particularly in Oman, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Habitat loss through agricultural development, fencing pasture for cattle, construction of roads and settlement is also a major threat.<br/><br/>In the Arava Valley, the major threat to the Acacia Gazelle is habitat deterioration: the water table is falling due to abstraction of underground water sources for agriculture causing acacia trees, bushes and perennial plants to disappear. Predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and jackals (<em>C. aureus</em>) has also increased. The small size of the remnant population means that inbreeding is a threat and leaves the taxon vulnerable to stochastic factors. <br/><br/>The Palestine Mountain Gazelle was formerly hunted under license in Israel and was regarded in places as an agricultural pest. Shooting was legally halted in 1993 due to declining numbers.<br/><br/>There are no natural predators on the Farasan Islands so overgrazing is a potential future problem if the population increases. Hunting (killed for meat) and live trapping (for sale as pets on the mainland) are the main threats but the effect of these has fallen since the islands were declared a reserve.	eng
8970	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major threats are illegal hunting for meat and live capture for pets and private collections, particularly in Oman, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Habitat loss through agricultural development, fencing pasture for cattle, construction of roads and settlement is also a major threat.<br/><br/>In the Arava Valley, the major threat to the Acacia Gazelle is habitat deterioration: the water table is falling due to abstraction of underground water sources for agriculture causing acacia trees, bushes and perennial plants to disappear. Predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and jackals (<em>C. aureus</em>) has also increased. The small size of the remnant population means that inbreeding is a threat and leaves the taxon vulnerable to stochastic factors. <br/><br/>The Palestine Mountain Gazelle was formerly hunted under license in Israel and was regarded in places as an agricultural pest. Shooting was legally halted in 1993 due to declining numbers.<br/><br/>There are no natural predators on the Farasan Islands so overgrazing is a potential future problem if the population increases. Hunting (killed for meat) and live trapping (for sale as pets on the mainland) are the main threats but the effect of these has fallen since the islands were declared a reserve.	eng
8971	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About 30% of the population occurs in protected areas. The largest surviving populations occur in Omo-Mago-Munrle-Chew Bahir and Borana (Ethiopia), the northern rangelands, Kajiado, Mara, Tsavo and Laikipia (Kenya) and, in particular, Serengeti and Tarangire (Tanzania); the bulk of the Serengeti Grant’s Gazelle population occurs well away from the western boundary of the protected area where most poaching activity occurs. Most of these protected populations are in gradual decline (East 1999). The status of the population in Boma N.P. (where numbers were estimated at about 3,000 in the southern section of the park in the 1970s and 1980s) in southern Sudan is not known.	eng
8971	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Grant's Gazelle inhabits the Somali-Masai Arid Zone, from southern Sudan and Ethiopia to central Tanzania; and from the Kenya/Somali coast to Lake Victoria (East 1999; Siegismund <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
8971	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits subdesert, lowland thorn bush, savanna woodland, open plains, and montane grassland up to 2500 m.  Capitalizing on its water-independence, Grant's Gazelle makes a living in areas beyond reach of herbivores that need to drink. Some even migrate to short-grass plains in the dry season and the savanna woodland during rains - opposite to the main migration. But large herds also share wet-season range and mix with the more numerous Thomson's Gazelle (Estes 1991).	eng
8971	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Recent population estimates are available for most of this species’ current range, mainly from aerial surveys. Summation of these estimates gives a total of about 140,000, but this is probably an underestimate of the species’ total numbers because of undercounting in aerial surveys and the lack of population estimates for some areas. Citing various East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated from aerial surveys range from <0.04/km² in areas such as Borana and South Karamoja to 0.5-0.6/km² in Sibiloi and Tarangire, 1.0/km² in Serengeti-Mara and 3.8/km² in Amboseli. Estimates obtained by ground counts in areas where the species is common range from 1.0 - 3.7/km² in Nairobi and Lake Nakuru National Parks and Ngorongoro Crater. Assuming an average correction factor of 2.5 for undercounting bias in aerial surveys (which may be conservative), and that areas for which population estimates are unavailable support an average density of 0.1/km², East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 350,000. Kenya continues to support the largest numbers, although estimated total numbers have decreased by >50% since the 1970s (East 1999). Population trend is downward, with some exceptions such as Sibiloi and Marsabit National Parks, some of Kenya’s northern rangeland districts, Laikipia, Masai Mara National Reserve, Amboseli, Serengeti, Tarangire and Mkomazi.	eng
8971	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Grant's Gazelle remains widespread within and outside protected areas, despite the loss of parts of its range to the expansion of agriculture and the decline of some populations because of poaching and competition with increasing numbers of livestock. It is nevertheless of concern that its numbers appear to be in decline over large parts of its range (e.g., Tsavo) and that populations which are known to be stable or increasing comprise only about 25% of the species’ total numbers (East 1999).	eng
8972	conservation	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is listed on CMS Appendix I and is included in the CMS Action Plan for Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. <br/><br/>Known to occur in Djebil National Park and Senghar National Park in Tunisia, Tassili des Ajjers National Park in Algeria (where reported from the Erg of T'im Merzouga; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), and possibly the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve (Niger). The species is present in about 20 collections in North Africa, Europe and North America (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total number in captivity is <200.	eng
8972	conservation	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is listed on CMS Appendix I and is included in the CMS Action Plan for Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. <br/><br/>Known to occur in Djebil National Park and Senghar National Park in Tunisia, Tassili des Ajjers National Park in Algeria (where reported from the Erg of T'im Merzouga; K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), and possibly the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve (Niger). The species is present in about 20 collections in North Africa, Europe and North America (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total number in captivity is <200.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
8972	distribution	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs across the Sahara, west of the River Nile. Distribution coincides with the larger ergs, though rare or absent on the south-east periphery and apparently absent from the western dune complexes (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has disappeared from most of its former range in Egypt’s Western Desert (Saleh 2001, El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). A single report from Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>The center of its distribution is found in the Great Western Erg, the Great Eastern Erg, the sandy zone which stretches from the Hamada de Tinrhert in Algeria to the Fezzan in Libya, and the smaller ergs in the periphery of the central Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers (Beudels and Devillers, in press).<br/><br/>It is believed that the slender-horned gazelle was very widely distributed in the Sahara until relatively recently. In the last 10 years, its presence has been confirmed only in the Great Ergs of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the extreme Western desert of Egypt. No reports to the south of these locations have been supported by any hard evidence (Beudels and Devillers, in press).	eng
8972	distribution	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs across the Sahara, west of the River Nile. Distribution coincides with the larger ergs, though rare or absent on the south-east periphery and apparently absent from the western dune complexes (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has disappeared from most of its former range in Egypt's Western Desert (Saleh 2001, El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). A single report from Morocco (Loggers <em>et al</em>. 1992) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>The center of its distribution is found in the Great Western Erg, the sandy zone which stretches from the Hamada de Tinrhert in Algeria to the Fezzan in Libya, and the smaller ergs in the periphery of the central Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers (Beudels and Devillers, in press).<br/><br/>It is believed that the slender-horned gazelle was very widely distributed in the Sahara until relatively recently. In the last 10 years, its presence has been confirmed only in the Great Ergs of Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the extreme Western desert of Egypt. No reports to the south of these locations have been supported by any hard evidence (Beudels and Devillers, in press).	eng
8972	habitat	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Favours areas of dunes (ergs) and interdunal depressions. Ranges widely in search of ephemeral vegetation.	eng
8972	population	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Numbers are believed to have undergone a serious decline due to uncontrolled hunting (Mallon and Kingswood 2001, Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005). East (1999) estimated that the sub-Saharan Africa population could be as low as a few hundred and was unlikely to exceed a few thousand. Numbers are still declining in some areas mainly due to unregulated hunting. The size of the current population in Egypt and Libya is unknown, but is described as small (El Alqamy and Baha El Din 2006). All populations are reportedly small or very small. There is no recent survey information for several areas of the known range, and other areas of potential habitat such as the sand seas of Libya and western Algeria that have been poorly surveyed.	eng
8972	threats	Mallon, D.P., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The main threat is hunting/poaching, though disturbance and degradation of natural habitats (especially erg vegetation) through desertification also has a negative impact (Devillers <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
8973	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Approximately 15% of the total population of this species occurs in protected areas (East 1999), in particular W N.P. (Niger, Burkina Faso, Benin), Waza N.P. (Cameroon) and Zakouma N.P. (Chad) (East 1999; Scholte and Hashim in press). Heuglin's Gazelle is protected in Dinder N.P. in Sudan, but East (1999) noted that it does not receive effective protection here, as the sites that it prefers are utilized intensively by camel herders who trespass into the park in the dry season and destroy the gazelle’s favourite shade trees to feed their camels and goats.<br/><br/>The extension of effective protection and management to additional populations besides those in areas such as Zakouma, Waza and Dinder National Parks is necessary. Development and implementation of land use plans which allow for the needs of wildlife outside protected areas in countries such as Chad and Sudan would also be of major benefit to many of the remaining populations of this species (East 1999).<br/><br/>A limited number of Red-fronted Gazelles are maintained in captivity, but without formal breeding programmes.	eng
8973	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species formerly occurred throughout dry grasslands and sahelian bushlands from Mauritania and northern Senegal to the western side of the Nile River in Sudan, with Heuglin's Gazelle (<em>E. r. tilonura</em>) ten ranging east of the Nile between the southern part of the Red Sea hills in Sudan and the southern foothills of the Ethiopian massif in western Eritrea and north-western Ethiopia (East 1999; Scholte and Hashim in press; Hashim in press). It is likely to be extinct in Ghana.	eng
8973	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly widespread in the Sahel zone in the sahelian grasslands, savannas and savanna woodlands, and shrubland. They range up to 1,400 m in the savannas of north-western Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is able to adapt to human occupation of its habitat to some extent, e.g., it is known to re-occupy fallow land if sufficient cover is available. It occurs locally in small to moderate numbers in areas of largely unexploited rangeland. They are known to make seasonal movements, although these are increasingly restricted by human settlement.	eng
8973	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The available information on this species’ numbers is based mainly on informed guesses. East (1999) produced an estimated total population of about 25,000, which includes an estimated 3,500-4,000 Heuglin’s Gazelles. At the time of East's (1999) estimate, large numbers were known to survive in Niger (ca, 4,000) and Mali (ca. 3,000). Population trends are generally downwards.	eng
8973	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Red-fronted Gazelle populations have been reduced to scattered remnants over most of its range by illegal hunting, competition with domestic livestock, and habitat degradation resulting from drought, overgrazing of livestock and clearance of land for agriculture.	eng
8974	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8974	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species is known only from three male specimens bought in markets in Algeria towards the end of the 19th century. There are no records from the wild. The place of origin of these specimens is unknown and it is likely they had been traded across the Sahara. This kind of trade still occurs in 2007 (K. de Smet pers. comm., F. Cuzin pers. comm.). One original specimen has been recently examined and identified as <em>G. rufifrons</em> (K. de Smet pers. comm. to ASG, May 2008).	eng
8974	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	According to Lavauden (1930), this species inhabited forests and bushes in the region of Saida. However, this is purely speculative and based on the vegetation in the area around Oran.	eng
8974	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8974	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8975	conservation	Heckel, J.-O., Amir, O.G., Kaariye, X.Y. & Wilhelmi, F., 2008	There are no functioning protected areas or active field conservation programmes within its range. Its conservation status is therefore likely to decline further unless effective protection and management or representative populations and their habitat can be developed and implemented. Populations of Speke's Gazelle are maintained in captivity.	eng
8975	distribution	Heckel, J.-O., Amir, O.G., Kaariye, X.Y. & Wilhelmi, F., 2008	Endemic to the Horn of Africa. Inhabits the 20 to 40 km wide grassland plain that extends along the Indian Ocean coastline of Somalia (hunting pressure has eliminated Speke?s Gazelle from coastal grasslands south of 2°30'N latitude). Northern limit delimited by steep hills of the Gulis Range. Scattered groups of Speke's Gazelle were still rarely encountered in the northern Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia in the mid-1980s, but extreme hunting pressure was on the verge of eliminating the species from the Ogaden at that time. Attempts to evaluate the possible occurrence in the north-eastern Ogaden (Ethiopia) are planned, but the current security situation makes efforts to get there difficult. Interviews with local people have revealed that it is infrequent or absent from this region.<br/><br/>Speke?s Gazelle were formerly widespread in the open barren grasslands of north-central and north-eastern Somalia and the central coastal region. It occurred widely within its historical range in the 1980s, although its numbers had been reduced greatly by hunting, drought and overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock. It was common on the central coastal plain in the mid-1980s (Thurow, in press).	eng
8975	habitat	Heckel, J.-O., Amir, O.G., Kaariye, X.Y. & Wilhelmi, F., 2008	Most common on semi-arid grasslands, but also found in dwarf shrub (e.g. Indogofera intricata) and barren rangelands, at altitudes below 2,500 m. The presence of a biting tabanid fly (<em>Haematopota</em> sp.) during the mid-growing season prompts movements to the coast or large inland sand dunes where the breeze disperses the flies. They also move to these areas in the late dormant season because the sparse vegetation stays green longer on these sites, possibly because the roots access soil moisture stored deeper in the dunes (Thurow, in press).	eng
8975	population	Heckel, J.-O., Amir, O.G., Kaariye, X.Y. & Wilhelmi, F., 2008	East (1999) estimated that the population may number in the tens of thousands. It was traditionally not hunted by many local people who regarded it as ?the devil?s livestock? but had been eliminated along roads by soldiers in areas of conflict (Thurow in press). However, numbers have been falling steadily for over 20 years due to uncontrolled hunting. The former strongholds in the Coastal and Nogaal plains of Somalia have been under severe pressure during the past two decades of civil war and there is no evidence that it still occurs in Ethiopia. A recent survey to the southern Nogaal region in Somaliland revealed that the species still exists in this area, but sightings are rather scarce.	eng
8975	threats	Heckel, J.-O., Amir, O.G., Kaariye, X.Y. & Wilhelmi, F., 2008	Extreme political instability and periodic civil and military conflicts over the past 20 years (and continuing) in Somalia, combined with a lack of any central government control, has resulted in a prevalence of weapons, over-exploitation of wildlife, and lack of protection for wildlife. There are no functioning protected areas within its range. An illegal wildlife trade, including in antelopes, has developed in Somalia during the last few years (Amir 2006).  <br/><br/>Drought and overgrazing due to increasing numbers of domestic livestock have negatively affected habitat.	eng
8976	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Legally protected in most range states, although enforcement is not universally effective. The species occurs in many protected areas across its range. The species has been reintroduced to various parts of its former range (e.g., Al Talila, 30 km south of Palmyra in Syria; Masseti 2004), and reintroduction of the nominate form is under consideration in Georgia.<br/><br/>The Arabian Sand Gazelle occurs in several protected areas, including: Al-Khunfah, Harrat al-Harrah, Mahazat as-Sayd, Uruq Bani Ma?arid (Saudi Arabia); Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (Oman); and South Bahrain Island (Bahrain); although not formally designated as a PA, access to Hawar Island is restricted.	eng
8976	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Legally protected in most range states, although enforcement is not universally effective. The species occurs in many protected areas across its range. The species has been reintroduced to various parts of its former range (e.g., Al Talila, 30 km south of Palmyra in Syria; Masseti 2004), and reintroduction of the nominate form is under consideration in Georgia.<br/><br/>The Arabian Sand Gazelle occurs in several protected areas, including: Al-Khunfah, Harrat al-Harrah, Mahazat as-Sayd, Uruq Bani Ma?arid (Saudi Arabia); Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (Oman); and South Bahrain Island (Bahrain); although not formally designated as a PA, access to Hawar Island is restricted.	eng
8976	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Occurs from the south of the Arabian Peninsula across the Middle East and Asia to Mongolia, China and Pakistan. Their historical range has contracted greatly, and they are now extinct in Kuwait, Georgia, and perhaps Kyrgyzstan (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). <br/><br/>The historical range of Arabian Sand Gazelle (the only subspecies assessed here) covered the Arabian Peninsula north to southern Iraq and Kuwait. The taxon is currently found in Bahrain (Hawar Island and southern part of Bahrain Island); Oman (Dhofar, edge of Rub al Khali to Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates (Umm al Zummur area); Saudi Arabia (four populations, all in protected areas); Jordan (north-east); Syria, Iraq and Yemen. It is now extinct in Kuwait (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).	eng
8976	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occurs from the south of the Arabian Peninsula across the Middle East and Asia to Mongolia, China and Pakistan. Their historical range has contracted greatly, and they are now extinct in Kuwait, Georgia, and perhaps Kyrgyzstan (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). <br/><br/>The historical range of Arabian Sand Gazelle (the only subspecies assessed here) covered the Arabian Peninsula north to southern Iraq and Kuwait. The taxon is currently found in Bahrain (Hawar Island and southern part of Bahrain Island); Oman (Dhofar, edge of Rub al Khali to Arabian Oryx Sanctuary); United Arab Emirates (Umm al Zummur area); Saudi Arabia (four populations, all in protected areas); Jordan (north-east); Syria, Iraq and Yemen. It is now extinct in Kuwait (Mallon and Kingswood 2001).	eng
8976	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Inhabits a wide range of semi-desert and desert habitats. Ascends into foothills and penetrates mountain valleys in Central Asia, to altitudes of 2,700 m in Mongolia (Bannikov 1954). They migrate seasonally in search of pasture and water. Arabian Sand Gazelle prefers areas of dunes and sandy desert in the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
8976	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Inhabits a wide range of semi-desert and desert habitats. Ascends into foothills and penetrates mountain valleys in Central Asia, to altitudes of 2,700 m in Mongolia (Bannikov 1954). They migrate seasonally in search of pasture and water. Arabian Sand Gazelle prefers areas of dunes and sandy desert in the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
8976	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Numbers were estimated at 120,000-140,000 in Mallon and Kingswood (2001), but populations throughout the range have decreased since then and are subject to continuing illegal hunting and habitat loss. The former population in Turkmenistan has virtually disappeared. A large former population (c. 15,000) in Kazakhstan has also drastically declined in recent years. Small numbers occur in south-east Turkey (Ceylan Pinar, ca. 200 individuals in an enclosure; M. Masseti pers. comm. 2007), and c. 4,000 in Azerbaijan. In Iran, numbers were estimated at a little over 4,000 in 2001, virtually all in protected areas. In some of these poaching is still a factor and numbers are still declining. Drastically reduced in Pakistan, and may be on the verge of extinction there. Mongolia is thought to contain the largest remaining population of the species (estimated at 60,000 in the early 1990s; Amgalan 1995), so holding an estimated 40-50% of the global population (Lkhagvasuren <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, this population has been heavily reduced by poaching in the last 2-3 years and this decline is continuing.<br/><br/>The total population of Arabian Sand Gazelle is estimated to be less than 10,000 and certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals, with country population estimates as follows: Saudi Arabia (2,650-3,050 in four populations); United Arab Emirates (up to 1,000); Oman (no information on population size); Bahrain (350-400 on Hawar; 450-500 on Bahrain Island); Yemen (no information); Syria (approximately 100 seen in southern Syria in 1998 (Habibi 1998)); Jordan (rare); Iraq (up to 1,000 were reported by Al-Robaae and Kingswood (2001)).	eng
8976	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Numbers were estimated at 120,000-140,000 in Mallon and Kingswood (2001), but populations throughout the range have decreased since then and are subject to continuing illegal hunting and habitat loss. The former population in Turkmenistan has virtually disappeared. A large former population (c. 15,000) in Kazakhstan has also drastically declined in recent years. Small numbers occur in south-east Turkey (Ceylan Pinar, ca. 200 individuals in an enclosure; M. Masseti pers. comm. 2007), and c. 4,000 in Azerbaijan. In Iran, numbers were estimated at a little over 4,000 in 2001, virtually all in protected areas. In some of these poaching is still a factor and numbers are still declining. Drastically reduced in Pakistan, and may be on the verge of extinction there. Mongolia is thought to contain the largest remaining population of the species (estimated at 60,000 in the early 1990s; Amgalan 1995), so holding an estimated 40-50% of the global population (Lkhagvasuren <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, this population has been heavily reduced by poaching in the last 2-3 years and this decline is continuing.<br/><br/>The total population of Arabian Sand Gazelle is estimated to be less than 10,000 and certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals, with country population estimates as follows: Saudi Arabia (2,650-3,050 in four populations); United Arab Emirates (up to 1,000); Oman (no information on population size); Bahrain (350-400 on Hawar; 450-500 on Bahrain Island); Yemen (no information); Syria (approximately 100 seen in southern Syria in 1998 (Habibi 1998)); Jordan (rare); Iraq (up to 1,000 were reported by Al-Robaae and Kingswood (2001)).	eng
8976	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The main threats are illegal hunting (for meat and to a lesser extent for trophies) and habitat loss (due to economic development, conversion to agriculture, increasing numbers of domestic livestock). In Central Asia the species is susceptible to the effects of severe winter weather. In Arabian Peninsula some are live-caught for private collections.	eng
8976	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The main threats are illegal hunting (for meat and to a lesser extent for trophies) and habitat loss (due to economic development, conversion to agriculture, increasing numbers of domestic livestock). In Central Asia the species is susceptible to the effects of severe winter weather. In Arabian Peninsula some are live-caught for private collections.	eng
8978	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occur in more than 80 protected areas in India, 5 in Pakistan and 9 in Iran. In parts of western India Chinkara are protected by villagers for religious reasons. The species is fully protected by law in India, Pakistan and Iran.	eng
8978	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Range covers much of western and central India, extending through Pakistan, south-western Afghanistan into north-central Iran. The Thar Desert of western India remains a stronghold. Distribution in Pakistan has been greatly reduced by overhunting and although still widespread, populations are scattered (Habibi 2001b). In Iran, distribution is also scattered extending to Kavir NP in Tehran Province (Hemami and Groves 2001).	eng
8978	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Inhabits arid areas, including sand deserts, flat plains and hills, dry scrub and light forest. Ranges to 1,500 m in Pakistan (Habibi 2001b). They are facultative drinkers, and so can live in very arid areas. They sometimes raid fields cultivated with rape seed and sorghum in desert regions (Habibi 2001b).	eng
8978	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Numbers in India have been estimated at more than 100,000 with 80,000 in the Tahr Desert (Rahmani 2001). Numbers in Pakistan have declined due to overhunting, but no current estimate is available (Habibi 2001b). Current status in Afghanistan is unknown but they are also believed to be very rare (Habibi 2001a). Around 1300 were estimated for Iran (Hemami and Groves 2001).	eng
8978	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Indiscriminate hunting has adversely affected gazelles in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan (hunted for meat and to a lesser degree for trophies). Habitat loss through overgrazing, conversion to agriculture and industrial development is also a factor.	eng
8980	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Hammond <em>et al.</em> (2001) showed that three captive populations of putative <em>G. saudiya</em> are of little relevance to future conservation of the taxon and that surveys of privately owned populations provided no evidence of surviving <em>G. saudiya</em>.	eng
8980	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred in the Arabian Peninsula from Kuwait to the borders of Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). Most records are from the western part of Saudi Arabia. Reports of occurrence in Iraq are unconfirmed and doubtful (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). A record from Amman, Jordan, cited by Harrison and Bates (1991) relates to a specimen found in archaeological excavations and the species was not included in the list of antelopes occurring in the country by Kiwan <em>et al.</em> (2001).	eng
8980	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred on gravel and sandy plains (Harrison and Bates 1991). It was a species of open Acacia country, occurring singly or in groups of up to 20.	eng
8980	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It was reported to be Extinct in the wild in the 1980s and subsquent reports of captive specimens in collections in the Arabian Peninsula have been shown to refer to other taxa or to hybrids (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
8981	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8981	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This enigmatic antelope is known only from a single male specimen in the Berlin Museum, apparently collected in 1825 and attributed to the Farasan Islands in the Red Sea. However, there is some doubt as to whether the specimen in fact originated from the Farasans and its former distribution and status may never be known (Mallon and Kingswood 2001). Skull characteristics distinguish the specimen from all other gazelles. It is highly unlikely that the specimen represents a former wild population of gazelles on the Farasan Islands. The gazelles that now occur on the Farasan Islands are a subspecies of <em>G. gazella</em> (Thouless <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
8981	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There is no detailed information available, but this species presumably inhabited desert environments.	eng
8981	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8981	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The reasons for the decline of this species are not known.	eng
8982	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Thomson's Gazelle occur in a number of protected areas in their range, with core areas of the Serengeti-Mara population protected by the Serengeti N.P. and Masai Mara N.R., where wildlife tourism is the only permitted land use (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press).	eng
8982	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Thomson?s Gazelle occurs widely within its historical range in the grasslands of southern and central Kenya. The largest populations occur in the Mara ranches, Masai Mara National Reserve and the Laikipia and Kajiado rangelands. In Tanzania, the species occupies about half of its former range in Acacia savannas and grasslands in the north (East 1999).	eng
8982	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Thomson's Gazelle live in the short grasslands of Kenya and Tanzania (East 1999). They are primarily grazers, although they may include more forbs and fruits in their diect in the dry season; Thomson's Gazelle are relatively drought resistant, enabling them to remain out on the dry plains, long after most other ungulates have moved off to find wetter habitats (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press). Thomson's Gazelle in the Serengeti follow a broadly similar pattern of seasonal movements to the Serengeti?s migratory wildebeest and zebra populations, but remain for longer in the wet season range on the open plains in the south-east of the ecosystem and do not migrate as far north as the Masai Mara reserve in Kenya during the dry season (East 1999).	eng
8982	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the population size of Thomson's Gazelle at around 550,000 animals. The migratory population of the Serengeti ecosystem, which is Africa?s largest and most spectacular gazelle population, has been estimated at 174,015 (± 37,406 S.E.), based on data from the 2003 wet season (Mduma 2003), which is indicative of a steep decline since the estimate of 500,000 in the early 1980s (Sinclair and Norton-Griffths 1982). This would be consistent with a loss of large wild herbivores in the Masai Mara ecosystem in Kenya, where there are estimated to be ca. 40,000 in the Masai Mara reserve, a decline from ca. 100,000 in 1977 (Ottichilo <em>et al.</em> 2000). Likewise, Estes <em>et al.</em> (2006) report a decline of 60% from 1978-2005 in the Ngorongoro Crater. There are also reports of declines in the Ewaso Nyira basin, where numbers were estimated at ca. 33,000 in 1977, but at one-third of this in 1997 (Muchoki 2000).	eng
8982	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Although there do not appear to be any major threats to Thomson's Gazelle, there is evidence that several populations have undergone declines (FitzGibbon and Wilmshurst in press). In Ngorongoro Crater, these declines have been attributed to availability of water, tourist impacts, habitat modification due to exotic plant invasion, fire management, and road development (Estes <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
8987	conservation	Participants at the 4th International Conservation Workshop for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, 2008	Extinct.	eng
8987	distribution	Participants at the 4th International Conservation Workshop for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, 2008	This species was described on the basis of five specimens collected in 1951 in mountains near Ta’izz. Localities included Wadi Maleh, Usaifira, and Jabal Zarba (Groves and Lay 1985; Greth <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
8987	habitat	Participants at the 4th International Conservation Workshop for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, 2008	Seen in small groups of 1-3 on Euphorbia-covered hillsides at altitudes of 1,230 - 2,150 m; not seen in cultivated areas or near roads (Sanborn and Hoogstraal 1953).	eng
8987	population	Participants at the 4th International Conservation Workshop for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, 2008	The population was described as very common in 1951, but there have been no records since the 1950s and the species is now believed extinct (Mallon and Al Safadi 2001). During surveys conducted in 1992 in the mountains south of Ta'izz, local people reported that gazelles had not been seen in the area for several decades (Greth <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
8987	threats	Participants at the 4th International Conservation Workshop for the Threatened Fauna of Arabia, 2008	This species was hunted for food by army officers in 1951 (Sanborn and Hoogstraal 1953); there is no other information available.	eng
8992	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Mongalla Gazelle is present in Boma National Park and in Mongalla Game Reserve, although seasonal movements cause very large fluctuations in numbers (Hashim in press).	eng
8992	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Mongalla Gazelles inhabit the flood plains and flat savanna grasslands in southeast Sudan, east of the Nile, but not reaching the Ugandan and Kenyan borders. They have been recorded from the Omo region in south-west Ethiopia, but there is no recent information on its occurrence in this country (Hillman and Fryxell 1988; East 1999; Hashim in press).	eng
8992	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Mongalla gazelle inhabits floodplain and savanna grasslands in Sudan (East 1999). This gazelle is adapted to following a nomadic annual cycle over the eastern Sudd floodplains, an ecologically peculiar region where extensive floods are followed by extreme aridity (Hashim in press). During the wet season, the Mongalla Gazelle aggregates in high population densities with other migratory species such as White-eared Kob and Tiang (Hillman and Fryxell 1988).	eng
8992	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) guessed that the total population of Mongola Gazelle could number 100,000, but numbers are known to fluctuate substantially in this area and the central parts of its range are particularly inaccessible. An aerial survey carried out by WCS in 2007 produced a population estimate for part of South Sudan of 278,000 (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
8992	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no clear major threats at present. The population in the Boma ecosystem is apparently stable and not exposed to serious hunting pressure. Part of the Mongalla Gazelle range is devoid of water, making access to this part of their range by poachers difficult (Hashim in press).	eng
8994	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	In Ethiopia, only three National Parks are likely to support populations of the Ethiopian Genet: Yangudi-Rassa, Awash and Simien Mountains (Gaubert in press). There is a need for further survey work to better understand the habitat requirements and population status of the species.	eng
8994	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Patchily distributed in Ethiopia, northern Somalia, Eritrea, Djibouti and south-eastern Sudan (Gaubert in press). Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey (2002) observed animals up to 3,750 m in the Abune Yosef massif, in Ethiopia.	eng
8994	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although the habitat requirements of this species are not well known, it appears to have a wide altitudinal and ecological range, from coastal plains and open dry lowlands to montane heather moorlands and Afroalpine grasslands (Gaubert in press). Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey (2002) provide records of this species in montane dry forest (where dominant species include Tree Heath <em>Erica arborea</em>, Curry Bush <em>Hypericum revolutum</em> and Abyssinian Rose <em>Rosa abyssinica</em>), and recorded them to 3,750 m asl. Haltenorth and Diller (1980) state that the Ethiopian Genet is sometimes found near urban areas, but for such a poorly known species this requires confirmation.	eng
8994	population	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The current population status is not known, but they are evidently rare (Gaubert in press). Yalden <em>et al.</em> (1996) considered them very uncommon. Known from fewer than 20 museum specimens (Diaz Behrens and Van Rompaey 200).	eng
8994	threats	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Major threats to this species are unclear. Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1996) mentioned habitat loss due to felling and cultivation in <em>Acacia</em> woodland and thornbush, together with pressures of herds of domestic stock in both arid lowlands and high plateaux.	eng
8997	conservation	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Although present in several protected areas, several of these require improved protection since hunting is intense even within protected areas, such as Mt. Nimba, Ziama Classified Forest and Taï N.P. Further survey work is necessary to determine whether secondary growth and moist woodland areas provide suitable habitat for this species (Dunham and Gaubert in press).	eng
8997	distribution	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Largely restricted to the forests of the Upper Guinea rainforest block, having been recorded from Liberia, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana (Gaubert <em>et al</em>. 2002, Dunham and Gaubert in press).	eng
8997	habitat	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	An inhabitant of dense rainforest. In Taï N.P., frequently observed in wetland areas including swamp forest (poor drainage areas dominated by prop-root trees and raffia palms) and riverine habitat (Dunham and Gaubert in press). However, one specimen collected in a region of moist woodlands and savanna in Guinea makes its restriction to rainforest questionable (Gaubert <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
8997	population	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Little is known about the population status of this species, but it may be locally abundant, at least in protected areas of suitable habitat (Dunham and Gaubert in press).	eng
8997	threats	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Major threats to this species include habitat loss, due to the intensive deforestation resulting from agriculture, logging, and mining pressures in the Upper Guinean forest zone. Severe hunting pressures may also be affecting populations, and animals are hunted for both meat and skins (Dunham and Gaubert in press).	eng
8998	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas, but it may occur in the Cross River National Park. There are none in the Niger Delta.	eng
8998	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to Nigeria and Cameroon. Has been recorded as ranging from the Niger R. eastwards to the Sanaga R., but there are also records of the species from west of the Niger Delta (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The region between the Niger Delta and the Cross R. is heavily populated and a mosaic of forest patches and cultivated land, but recent records do exist: for example, one was recently bought at the roadside near Azumini (Angelici and Luiselli 2005). Gaubert <em>et al.</em> (2006) give records that show this species ranging more than 500 km south of the Sanaga R. to southern Cameroon, Gabon and Republic of Congo, as well as 180 km west of the known range in Nigeria between Oni and Epe (but these are not mapped). Ranges to more than 1,000 m asl.	eng
8998	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits scrub, low tangled vegetation, and bare ground below trees in high deciduous forest. Occasionally, also present in secondary and montane forest (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In Nigeria, Angelici and Luiselli (2005) found that the presence of this species was statistically correlated to the presence of primary dry forest and bush-mango plantations inside the forest, and to a lesser extent secondary dry forest, and primary flooded forest but negatively influenced by the presence of suburban areas, pineapple plantations, bushlands, and oil palm plantations.	eng
8998	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	In the Niger Delta area the Crested Genet seems common where it occurs, but there is no information on its abundance  east of the Cross R. (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
8998	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Habitat loss is probably a major threat, since the Cross River State forests are rapidly being converted into farms or wastelands and the Niger Delta is exploited as an oil-production area. They are also believed to suffer from high hunting pressure (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
9001	conservation	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas, however, little enforcement is in place and refuges do not prevent threats such as introduced mongoose.	eng
9001	distribution	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs in Jamaica (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Very little current information is available for it.	eng
9001	habitat	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This hutia is now restricted to remote karstic areas, hills and mountainous regions, where there is an abundance of natural crevices and tunnels. It is almost exclusively nocturnal, emerging at night to forage over a wide area on exposed roots, bark, shoots, fruits, and foliage of a large variety of plant species. This species lives in social family groups of two to six individuals. Smaller families, pairs, and single individuals apparently inhabit smaller or more accessible holes. Little is known of reproduction in the wild. In captivity, this species bears one or two, rarely three, young at a time. Triplets have been recorded in only 3 of 47 parturitions. The gestation period is approximately 123 days with an average interbirth interval of 168 days (n = 27). The earliest primiparous birth recorded was at the age of one year. In captivity, breeding has occurred throughout the year (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
9001	population	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is still relatively widespread on Jamaica, but patchily distributed. Known from 16 population sites where it is fairly abundant in some areas - however, these sites are severely fragmented. Some populations are very small and threatened while larger populations remain as a stronghold.	eng
9001	threats	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Ongoing human-induced habitat loss and degradation, as well as hunting continue to be major threats to this species. Introduced mongoose is a threat to the species, as well as predation by dogs.	eng
9002	conservation	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There are no known conservation measures.	eng
9002	distribution	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known from the type locality (East Plana Keys, Bahamas) and introduced populations on Little Wax Cay (1973) and Warderivk Wells Cay (1981), Bahamas. (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
9002	habitat	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is found on coral atolls with semi-arid woody scrub and thicket; it is the most terrestrial of the hutias. It is herbivorous and is known to eat the fruits, leaves and trunks of island vegetation, and occasionally seaweed.	eng
9002	population	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is poorly known. It has been extirpated from much of its range; it may be locally abundant on the three small islands where it remains. Population estimates are outdated but are exist: East Plana Key (12,000 individuals), Little Wax Key (1,200) (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1991, Clough 1972).	eng
9002	threats	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Populations remain stable on the few islands where the species persists, however, these islands are susceptible to being wiped out by stochastic events such as hurricanes. All populations are threatened by the possibility of a feral cat arriving to the islands.	eng
9003	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
9003	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Little Swan Island, Honduras.	eng
9003	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Scrub thicket on coral atoll.	eng
9003	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct, although formally plentiful.	eng
9003	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Driven to extinction through predation by introduced cats, which were released onto the islands prior to 1960. Local people report a very strong a hurricane in 1955 which may have added to the population decline.	eng
9004	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
9004	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Cuba.	eng
9004	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Unknown, but likely ground dwelling by analogy with <em>Capromys</em> species.	eng
9004	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
9004	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Unknown, possible due to introduction of rats.	eng
9007	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9008	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9010	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9011	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
9013	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9014	conservation	Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S., 2008	Very little research has been done on this species and most of it only in the last ten years.<br/><br/>The species is protected nationally under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960). Internationally, the Radiated Tortoise was listed as Category A of the African Conservation Convention of 1968, and, since 1975, it has been listed on Appendix I of CITES, which affords species the highest level of protection (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hilton-Taylor 2000).<br/><br/>Four protected areas and three additional sites (Lac Tsimanampetsotsa National Park 43,200 ha, Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve 67,568 ha, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve 1,750 ha, Andohahela National Park 76,020 ha, and Berenty Private Reserve 250 ha, Site of Biological Interest – (1) Hatokaliotsy 21,850 ha and (2) PK3 north of Tulear 12,500 ha) fall within the range of this species. A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty.<br/><br/>In August 2005, an international meeting of the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) group produced an alarming prediction that without immediate and significant intervention, viable populations of Radiated Tortoises will likely be extirpated from the wild within one tortoise generation, that is, 45 years (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). It was suggested that a systematic monitoring program be established. This will have to involve the training of local people so that the programme can be viable. This and other recommended conservation measures are detailed in the PHVA workshop report (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). In addition, monitoring of exploitation trends at the wholesale and consumer parts of the trade chain (surveys of markets, traders and restaurants in Madagascar; monitoring international pet trade) is important.<br/><br/>Additionally, ensuring adequate coverage of Radiated Tortoise populations as Madagascar expands its protected area network is essential. Research on habitat usage, specifically the impacts and benefits from <em>Opuntia</em> and other invasive vegetation, is desirable.	eng
9014	distribution	Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S., 2008	Radiated Tortoises are found in the dry spiny forests of southern and southwestern Madagascar, from the area of Amboasary in the south across the Karimbola and Mahafaly plateaus north of Tuléar (where the habitat is highly fragmented and tortoises may be close to extinction) to Morombe. They are usually found in a narrow band within about 50 to 100 km from the coast (Glaw and Vences 1994, Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005). Is sympatric with <em>Pyxis arachnoides</em>. The species' core range compries about 10,000 square km.	eng
9014	habitat	Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S., 2008	The Radiated Tortoise is found in low irregular rainfall areas with xerophytic spiny vegetation dominated by Didiereaceae and <em>Ephorbia</em> (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989). They can be found on the high plateaus inland and also on the sandy dunes close to the coast (Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Radiated Tortoises are herbivores feeding predominantly on grasses and in some areas on the alien invasive <em>Opuntia</em>. On occasion they are also known to ingest animal matter. During the rainy season wild tortoises drink from water that collects on rocks after it rains (Leuteritz 2003).<br/><br/>Adult female tortoises range in carapace length from 24.2 - 35.6 cm and males ranged in from 28.5 - 39.5 cm (Pedrono 2008). Males exhibit distinct secondary sexual characteristics by about 26 cm carapace length (Leuteritz 2002). Mature females produce up to three clutches per season with 1–5 eggs per clutch (Leuteritz and Ravolanaivo 2005), leading to an estimated average production of two clutches of four eggs each per breeding female; an estimated 82% of mature females breed in an average year (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). No solid data exists on longevity but estimated life span is believed to be up to 100 years (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). A detailed overview of natural history is presented by Pedrono (2008).	eng
9014	population	Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S., 2008	Historically this species has been quite abundant, often being found along roadways and has served as symbol of Madagascar's south. This is not the case anymore. Tortoises are not found along major roadways but may be locally abundant in certain areas. According to O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) the species is declining, with its range having contracted by one fifth over the last 25 years. Lewis (1995) reports density estimates based on line distance sampling of 262.2 to 1,076.7 tortoises/km², from which he extrapolated a conservative total population size of 1.6–4 million. Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported densities of 27–5,744 tortoises/km² with a total population estimate of 12 million. Rioux Paquette <em>et al</em>. (2006) undertook a microsatellite genetic analysis, which identified three distinct conservation units with relatively high assignments rates. The study supported the role of the Menarandra and Manambovo Rivers as major barriers to the dispersal for most Radiated Tortoises.<br/><br/>Population models were calculated at the 2005 Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) workshop based on a number of variables including estimated population size and annual harvest intensity. Depending on the variables selected, the species was predicted to reach extinction at various times, with most estimates clustering around 45 years into the future (range 20-100+ years) (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
9014	threats	Leuteritz, T. & Rioux Paquette, S., 2008	Threats to the tortoise’s survival include collection and habitat loss (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Nussbaum and Raxworthy, 1998, O’Brien 2002, O’Brien <em>et a</em>l. 2003). “Collection” can be subdivided into two further categories: collection for the international wildlife trade and collection for utilization by local people.<br/><br/>International collection has been documented with Asian smugglers collecting tortoises for the pet trade and for their livers (Behler 2002).<br/><br/>However, domestic utilization of this species is of greater concern. Within Madagascar, the Mahafaly and the Antandroy, whose land covers the range of the Radiated Tortoise do not utilize the tortoise. They have a taboo (teremed a 'fady') against eating or touching the tortoises (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998, Lingard <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, large quantities of Radiated Tortoises are gathered by people from other areas of Madagascar who recently moved into this region, or by Malagasy people who are passing through. O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated that up to 45,000 adult Radiated Tortoises are harvested each year. Anecdotal information indicates that annual harvest numbers have increased since then; estimates calculated at the 2005 PHVA workshop ranged from 22,000 to 241,000 tortoises collected annually. Tortoise meat is especially popular around Christmas and Easter (Lewis 1995). Declared protected areas are insufficiently patrolled and resourced to deter large-scale collection right inside these nominal strongholds.<br/><br/>Besides being used as food, the Malagasy often keep the tortoises as pets and in pens with chickens and ducks as a means of warding off poultry diseases (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Leuteritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss includes deforestation for use as agricultural land, the grazing of livestock, and the burning of wood for charcoal (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998). Recent analyses by Conservation International (May 2007) of the state of the spiny forest biome, using aerial imagery, indicate that deforestation rates have significantly increased over the last five years (compared with the period 1990-2000) (H. Crowley pers. comm. to Leuteritz). The 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop estimated habitat loss at 21-50% during the period 1990-2000, and forecast a habitat loss rate of 51-80% for the period 2001-2010. Harper <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented a consistent annual forest loss rate of 1.2% for the spiny forest (primary Radiated Tortoise habitat) throughout the period 1970-2000, and measured an overall reduction from 29,782 to 21,322 sq km over this period, a 29% reduction in less than one tortoise generation.<br/><br/>Invasive plant species affecting habitat suitability were considered a significant threat at the 2001 CAMP workshop.	eng
9016	conservation	Leuteritz, T. & Pedrono, M., 2008	The species is protected under Madagascar national law and is also included in CITES Appendix I (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The species' area of occurrence at Soalala (area west of Baly Bay; 113,000 ha) was considered a "Site of Biological Interest" but it held no legal protection status (Nicoll and Langrand 1989), until in 1997 the Baly Bay area was gazetted as a national park (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005). The parks authority have had a permanent presence (eight personnel) at Soalala since 2001. There is also a network of 40 village ‘para-rangers’ who actively watch out for possible smugglers (and outbreaks of fires).<br/><br/>Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust established a conservation program for the Ploughshare Tortoise in 1986 that strongly integrated local people (Durbin <em>et al</em>. 1996). A summary of early research concerning the species was provided by Bour (2007). The history of Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust’s Project Angonoka  was described by Lewis <em>et al</em>. (2005): Project Angonoka began in 1986 as a project to safeguard <em>A. yniphora</em>. The project was established as collaboration between Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (then known as Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust) and the Water and Forests Department of the Government of Madagascar, together with support from the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). Given the extreme rarity of the species, the initial goal was the establishment of a captive-breeding project. This was successfully achieved. In December 2004, the captive project had 224 captive-bred juveniles from 17 founder adults (10 males, 7 females). From the 1990s, work progressed to ecological research on the species in the wild, and developing conservation strategies with the surrounding local communities. The latter work formed the basis of community-led firebreaks and with the communities themselves proposing the creation of a park to safeguard the tortoise and the remaining forests.<br/><br/>Ongoing monitoring of the species' occurrence in the global pet trade is needed, along with effective enforcement and repatriation and/or safe, conservation-oriented maintenance of confiscated animals in appropriate facilities.	eng
9016	distribution	Leuteritz, T. & Pedrono, M., 2008	This species has a very small distribution and is known from a 25 to 60 sq. km range around Baly Bay in northwestern Madagascar (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Glaw and Vences 1994, Bour 2007). The area of suitable habitat may extend up to 70-92 sq.km. (DWCT survey results 1999-2000), while the area of occupancy may be restricted to just 12.4 sq. km (Pedrono 2008).	eng
9016	habitat	Leuteritz, T. & Pedrono, M., 2008	The species is found in the Baly Bay region (over an area of approximately 700 km², though only 66 km² of this is considered suitable habitat). This region is comprised of dry deciduous forest, savanna, and mangrove swamps. The climate is tropical with a distinctly seasonal rainfall patterns. Angonoka utilize bamboo-scrub habitat, which is considered to be a secondary stage of the dry deciduous forest (Curl <em>et al</em>. 1986). Bamboo-scrub habitat consists of a mosaic of shrubs, bamboo, savanna grasses, and open, non vegetated areas. The shrubs are generally under 2 m and the dominant species include <em>Bauhinia</em> sp. and <em>Terminalia</em> sp. Bamboo (<em>Perrierbambos madagascariensis</em>) occurs in dense thickets within the habitat. Andrianandrasana (2000) estimates there are 7,975 ha of suitable habitat of which 6,669 ha have tortoises occupying them. Elevation is less than 50 m above sea level (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999a and b).<br/><br/>Adult male tortoises are larger and heavier than females. Mean adult male length and weight is 414.8 mm (range 361-486 mm) and 10.3 kg (range 7.2-18.9 kg) respectively. Mean adult female length and weight is 370.1 mm (range 307-426 mm) and 8.8 kg (range 5.5-12 kg) respectively (Pedrono and Markwell 2001).<br/><br/>According to Smith (1999) grasses and forbs in open rocky areas of bamboo scrub habitat appeared to be important food items. Feeding was observed from October through May. Tortoises were observed to feed upon herbs, forbs and shrubs (<em>Bauhinia</em> sp. and <em>Terminalia</em> sp.) rather than grasses. Tortoises were never observed feeding on live bamboo, however, on several occasions they consumed leaf litter that included dead bamboo leaves. Angonoka were also observed feeding on dried carnivore and African bush pig feces (Smith 1999).<br/><br/>Smith (1999) estimates sexual maturity at a minimum of 15 years old. A study by Pedrono <em>et al</em>. (2001) showed the reproductive period was from 15 January to 30 May and tortoises produced 1-6 eggs (mean 3.2) per clutch and up 4 (mean 2.45) clutches per season. Despite low densities the egg fertility rate was 71.9% and resulting hatching success was 54.6% (Pedrono <em>et al</em>. 2001). This yields an estimated annual production of 3.2x2.45x54.6% = 4.3 hatchlings per reproducing female. By analogy with <em>Astrochelys radiata</em>, the average age of reproducing animals per generation time is estimated as being 42 years (Madagascar WS 2008).	eng
9016	population	Leuteritz, T. & Pedrono, M., 2008	It was estimated that the total wild population is about 600 individuals (440 to 770). These are found within five subpopulations: two to the east of the Andranomavo river (Sada and Beheta) and three to the west of the river (Ambatomainty, Betainalika, Andrafiafaly) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pedrono 2000). Based on distance sampling surveys and the extent of suitable habitat (by 2005), DWCT estimated a maximum of 800 wild animals. Recent impacts (illegal collection for the international pet trade) have reduced the estimated population substantially, and the wild population is currently estimated to possibly be as low as 400 individuals, of which 200 adults (G. Pedrono pers.comm., 2008).<br/><br/>Based on the Population Viability Analysis performed for this species (Pedrono <em>et al</em>. 2004), and recent level of poaching for international trade, the Angonoka is at extreme risk of extinction in the wild within 10 to 15 years, less than one generation time of 42 years.	eng
9016	threats	Leuteritz, T. & Pedrono, M., 2008	The tortoise’s restricted distribution and threatened status are believed to result from exploitation in historical times and from frequent human-caused fires, which were deliberately started to create and improve grazing conditions for Zebu cattle (Juvik <em>et al</em>. 1981, Curl <em>et al</em>. 1985). According to Lewis <em>et al</em>. (2005) "since 1995, the local communities, with the assistance of the Water and Forests Department and Durrell Wildlife, have annually burnt the savannah fringes during the wet season creating a system of natural firebreaks". Outbreaks of fires within tortoise habitat have continued to decrease annually. There was less than 50 ha of tortoise habitat burnt in 2004, but larger areas of Angonoka habitat were burnt in other years.<br/><br/>The other major and ongoing threat comes from illegal collection for the international pet trade (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pedrono 2008); marked wild animals have been recorded from pet trade in Asia and despite some successful enforcement and confiscation actions, the species remains in extremely high demand in the global illegal pet trade which severely threatens the remaining wild animals.	eng
9029	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	On CITES Appendix I.	eng
9029	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Traded in some numbers in international consumption trade despite listing on CITES Appendix I.	eng
9031	conservation		Several conservation measures have been put in place for this species, including: a) fenced populations on cleared farmland; b) establishment of new reserves; c) regulated burning regime; d) annual population surveys; e) and a population viability assessment (according to which, the species has low risk of extinction in 100 years). Its range includes Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park and Forest Grove and Witchcliffe State Forests.	eng
9031	distribution		This is an Australian endemic known from north and west of the Blackwood River between Margaret River and Augusta, in extreme south-west Western Australia (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is known from Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park and Forest Grove and Witchcliffe State Forests (Tyler 1997). The greater portion of this species' range occurs on privately owned land (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 130km² and the area of occupancy is less than 2.5km² (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.	eng
9031	habitat		The species inhabits swamp systems of the coastal, high rainfall zone (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Males call from small depressions beneath leaf-litter or moss in the peaty soil of broad drainage lines (Driscoll 1998). Females lay eggs inside burrows where the eggs develop directly (Driscoll 1998). There is no free-swimming tadpole stage (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1990). Breeding takes place in spring and early summer (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
9031	population		Most of the 56 subpopulations are small, with less than 50 adult male frogs (Wardell-Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Long term population monitoring data, based on calling males, is available for three populations for the period 1992-1997. Populations varied in size over this period with a maximum number of approximately 110 individuals being recorded in 1994 at Forest Grove South (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999). Current population size is approximately 3,000 and declining. There is no movement between the 56 subpopulations.	eng
9031	threats		Clearing, grazing, and repeated fires are all major threats. Approximately 70% of creek systems suitable for breeding have been cleared since European settlement and consequently populations have been lost. The species' small native range has been radically reduced and severely fragmented.	eng
9032	conservation		Conservation measures in place for the species at present include: a) extended fuel reduction burn cycle; b) checks for pig activity; c) population presence/absence checked annually; d) protection within State Forest; and e) most of the species range has been recommended for gazetting as a Nature Reserve as part of the Regional Forest Agreement.	eng
9032	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is confined to a 6.3km² area east of the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge in the extreme south-west of Western Australia (Tyler 1997).	eng
9032	habitat		This species occurs in permanently moist sites in relatively dry and seasonal climatic zones in mixed Jarrah/marsh forest. It is found in undisturbed areas of riparian vegetation and seepages along broad creeks on Mosa side of Blackwood River, at an elevation of 120m asl in broad U-shaped valleys where there is marked topographic relief. It is a summer breeder. Males call from small depressions in clay under dense vegetation cover. Eggs are deposited in small depressions and are often associated with calling males. Eggs hatch and the tadpoles develop in a jelly mass with no free-swimming or feeding stage.	eng
9032	population		Only six populations of this species are known (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). Population estimates are available for Spearwood North and South from 1992 to 1998 (Driscoll 1998, 1999; Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999) and Geo Creek from 1993 to 1994 (Driscoll 1998, 1999). Estimates of calling males for the three locations varied between approximately 30 and 160 individuals (Driscoll 1998, 1999; Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). Populations at Spearwood varied in size over the survey period with no obvious decline or increase at either site (Roberts, Wardell-Johnson and Barendse 1999). In 1994 the maximum total number of adults of the species was estimated at 2,230 frogs (Wardell-Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1995 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
9032	threats		There are a number of potential threats to the species, including: fire and changes to water seepages; high visitation rates by tourists to the Blackwood River system; and the impacts of feral pigs. The genetic structuring of the populations indicates that movement is extremely limited with little or no migration. However, the population of the species appears to be stable, and it is probably able to withstand these threats at present.	eng
9038	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	<em>Geoemyda silvatica</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats area of India.	eng
9038	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This omnivorous, freshwater species is found on the floor of evergreen forest.	eng
9042	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Primarily terrestrial, occasionally entering freshwater.	eng
9042	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Populations are judged to be badly declining on Okinawajima, with two small isolated populations on Kumejima, and no status data for Tokashikijima.	eng
9048	conservation	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from over five protected areas including Ankarafantsika National Park, Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Tsimanampetsotsa RNI and Zombitse National Park. It has also been found in the private concession of Kirindy CFPF.	eng
9048	distribution	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in north-western, western, and southern Madagascar. The easternmost occurrence of this species was recorded recently in south-eastern Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1999). Although this species is not known from many sites, it likely occurs in appropriate habitat in between the known localities.<br/><br/>This species was not found during a recent survey of the environs of Fénérive (Rakotondravony <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9048	habitat	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in dry deciduous forest, gallery forest, and spiny bush. Undergoes daily and seasonal torpor, not active during austral winter. This species has been captured in open savanna (many kilometres from forests) - this is a termite specialist that could be reliant on termite mounds even if there are no forest. It is adaptable to some habitat disturbance.	eng
9048	population	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is rarely found, but is common in owl pellets at some sites.	eng
9048	threats	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species was previously thought to be dependent on forest, though recent work has revealed that it is present in grasslands. Thus, habitat loss may be less a factor than previously surmised.	eng
9054	conservation	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	A protected population occurs on White Sands National Monument, but it is vulnerable to droughts (D. Hafner pers. comm.). Inventory needs are as follows: 1. Determine distribution and long-term dynamics of isolated populations located between the established populations (Rio Grande, White Sands, and Gran Quivera). 2. Evaluate the effect of grazing and fire suppression on intermediate populations. 3. Monitor established populations periodically to determine population dynamics (Hafner, in press). 4. Determine if additional populations exist in Texas and Mexico.	eng
9054	distribution	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution (D. Hafner pers. comm.), and is restricted to a narrow area of south-central New Mexico, a small section of the north-western Trans-Pecos in Texas (several localities in El Paso and Hudspeth counties), and bordering areas in Chihuahua, Mexico. <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>arenarius</em>: narrow strip of bottom land along the upper Rio Grande Valley from Porvenir, Chihuahua, north to Las Cruces, New Mexico (Williams and Baker 1974). Subspecies brevirostris: Tularosa Basin and adjacent Jornada del Muerta of New Mexico in the vicinity of White Sands National Monument, Gran Quivira (Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument), and south-east of San Antonio (Williams and Baker 1974; Hafner and Geluso 1983).	eng
9054	habitat	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	This fossorial species occurs in loose soils of disturbed areas or sandy areas near open water; it is often common along edges of rivers, ponds, or irrigation canals (Schmidly 1977; Davis and Schmidly 1994).	eng
9054	population	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	According to Hafner (pers. comm.), it is difficult to estimate the number of occurrences because populations occur in small patches of appropriate habitat. However, there are probably more than 100 occurrences or subpopulations rangewide (D. Hafner pers. comm.). The total adult population size is estimated at over 10,000 individuals occupying over 50,000 acres (D. Hafner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species is common within its small range in Texas and New Mexico (Schmidly 1977; Davis and Schmidly 1994). Populations are dense in areas along the Rio Grande, and large populations occur on Gran Quivera and White Sands National Monuments (Hafner, in press). The scant information that is available regarding population trends indicates populations may fluctuate greatly and that intermediate populations may be slightly declining (D. Hafner pers. comm.). In 1981 populations were locally abundant in pinon-juniper habitat at and near Gran Quivera National Monument, along the margins and interior basins of White Sands National Monument, and along the banks of the Rio Grande near Las Cruces. After a prolonged drought in 1982, no pocket gophers were found at White Sands National Monument and only old mounds could be located at Jornada del Muerta (a potentially ephemeral population). On the other hand, activities in the Las Cruces vicinity have improved gopher habitat, and populations are dense in areas in the Rio Grande Valley (Hafner, in press).  <br/><br/>According to Hafner (in press), it appears that secure but isolated populations persist along the Rio Grande, at White Sands National Monument, and at Gran Quivera National Monument. However, continued grazing and fire suppression, coupled with warming and drying trends, may result in the extirpation of intermediate, ephemeral populations (Hafner, in press). Some intermediate populations may be lost as drying trends continue, but with the return of wet periods populations are expected to expand (D. Hafner pers. comm.)	eng
9054	threats	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	The interior valleys of New Mexico have experienced extensive desertification and an increase in shrub cover during this century due to overgrazing and fire suppression, perhaps accelerated by a warming and drying trend. A reduction in quality and expanse of grassland has apparently resulted in increased fragmentation and isolation of <em>G. arenarius</em> populations, which already have a patchy distribution dictated by the availability of appropriate friable soil. Continued grazing and fire suppression, coupled with warming and drying trends, may further isolate the Rio Grande and Tularosa Valley populations temporarily eliminating intermediate, ephemeral populations (Hafner, in press). <br/><br/>Habitat in the Las Cruces area has apparently been improved by Army Corps of Engineers activities. Populations are dense along the Rio Grande and adjacent agricultural fields and pasturelands in areas where the river has been channelized and the natural bosque eradicated (Hafner, in press; D. Hafner pers. comm.). According to Williams and Baker (1974), <em>Cratogeomys castanops</em> may have replaced <em>G. arenarius</em> some areas. In contrast, Hafner and Geluso (1983) found <em>Geomys</em> to be abundant in the White Sands area, while they caught relatively few <em>Cratogeomys</em>. Davis and Schmidly (1994) stated that this species faces no known threats but should be monitored in view of its small distribution. Hafner (pers. comm.) indicated that this species is not very threatened or is unthreatened; it is threatened only in the sense that it occupies a somewhat small range.	eng
9055	conservation	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs is a few protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed on the subspecies of <em>G. personatus</em>, specifically to determine whether any of the subspecies warrant full species status.	eng
9055	distribution	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	The Texas pocket gopher has a patchy distribution throughout south Texas and the adjacent north-eastern portion of Tamaulipas, Mexico (Williams 1982).	eng
9055	habitat	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	The Texas pocket gopher prefers loose, sandy soils in open or sparsely wooded areas, with dense soils acting as a barrier to dispersal. They are fossorial animals, spending most of their lives underground. These pocket gophers apparently live alone with each animal having its own burrow system, which includes up to 30 m of tunnels. Diet consists of underground vegetation (roots, bulbs, and rhizomes), occasionally eating surface vegetation within easy reach of the burrow entrance. Breeding occurs between October and February with females producing two litters of 3-4 young each year (Williams 1982).	eng
9055	population	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common to abundant throughout much of its range. It can also be uncommon in some parts of its range, and is patchily distributed due to its association with specific soil types.	eng
9055	threats	Hafner, D.J., Timm, R. & Lacher, T., 2008	At the species level, <em>G. personatus</em> appears secure. However, the small, restricted populations of three subspecies (<em>maritimus</em>, <em>fuscus</em>, <em>streckeri</em>) are vulnerable to the detrimental effects of habitat modification from agriculture.	eng
9056	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	In Mexico, this species is listed in the highest threat category.	eng
9056	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from the south-eastern Tamaulipas region of coastal Mexico (Baker and Williams 1974). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 150 km<sup>2</sup> (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).	eng
9056	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Geomys is described as preferring loose, deep, sandy soils in open or sparsely wooded areas. They are fossorial animals, spending most of their lives underground. These pocket gophers apparently live alone with each animal having its own burrow system. Diet consists of underground vegetation (roots, bulbs and rhizomes), although they occasionally eat surface vegetation within easy reach of the burrow entrance.<br/><br/>It is very restricted to certain habitats (regosol and cambosol).	eng
9056	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
9056	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat preference (Baker and Williams 1974). The habitat of this species is severely fragmented by agriculture and industrialization, and it is vulnerable to further encroachment. This species range is dominated by three growing cities. It is also threatened by intrinsic factors relating to its small range size.	eng
9062	conservation	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.	eng
9062	distribution	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The range of this species is limited to central and south-central Texas (Davis and Schmidly 1994, Smolen <em>et al.</em> 1993, Cramer and Cameron 2001, Schmidly 2004).	eng
9062	habitat	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This fossorial species inhabits deep, brown loamy sands or gravelly sandy loams; it is isolated from other <em>Geomys</em> by shallow stony to gravelly clayey soils (Schmidly 2004). Subspecies <em>texensis</em> inhabits live oak-mesquite-Ashe juniper habitats; subspecies <em>bakeri</em> occurs in mesquite-blackbrush-desert hackberry habitats (Cameron, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Subspecies <em>bakeri</em> is associated with nearly level Atco soil, which is well drained and consists of sandy surface layers with loam extending to as deep as two metres (Smolen <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
9062	population	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is represented by at least several distinct occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. The subspecies <em>texensis</em> is locally abundant (Schmidly 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined by less than 25% compared to the historical situation.	eng
9062	threats	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
9066	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from Rodrigues Island where it was discovered in 1879.	eng
9066	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in damp woods.	eng
9077	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Giant's Castle Nature Reserve in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. Further studies into the taxonomic status of the KwaZulu-Natal populations are needed.	eng
9077	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species occurs in mesic regions of South Africa (above 500 mm rainfall). It has a disjunct distribution in southwestern Cape north to Citrusdal and Nieuwoutdwal, and eastwards to Port Elizabeth and the Transkei. There are isolated populations in KwaZulu-Natal close to the border with Lesotho (the species possibly once ranged along the coast; Taylor 1998), and in Mpumalanga (specifically Belfast, Wakkerstroom and Ermelo).	eng
9077	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a subterranean species that is found in most sandy soils, coastal sand dunes and sandy alluvium both along river systems and in the montane regions of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape. Specimens from Wakkerstroom have been collected in red clay and black turf soils amidst montane grassland on the edge of a small vlei (a marshy area) (Bronner 1990). It has also been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats, such as golf courses (for example, at the Nottingham road locality in the Kamburg region), gardens, and even at the University of Cape Town campus. The areas where the species occurs generally receive in excess of 500 mm per annum. It is a largely solitary species that may have two litters of four to ten young per year. The species has a generation length of four years.	eng
9077	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is an uncommon, localized species. Population densities may exceed 30 animals per sq km in the area of Cape Town.	eng
9077	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, and it is often an agricultural and horticultural pest.	eng
9089	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
9089	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in central and southern Chile (see Saavedra and Simonetti, 2001, for northern range extension), including Mocha and Chiloe Islands, to Straits of Magellan, and southern Argentina (Neuquén to Santa Cruz Provinces) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
9089	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	Valdivian forest and subantartic, including shrubs associated.	eng
9089	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
9089	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
9092	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range.	eng
9092	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is found in southern and southwestern Africa, including Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa, the western edge of Zimbabwe and part of southern Mozambique.	eng
9092	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is found in sandy ground or sandy alluvium with a grass, scrub or light woodland cover (Nowak 1999). It is a commensal species that can be found in houses. It is a nocturnal species that lives in a warren with many entrances. The diet consists mostly of seeds. It appears to breed throughout the year.	eng
9092	population	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
9092	threats	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9093	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Most of the populations of this species (more than 90%) are found in protected areas.	eng
9093	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species has a narrow range in southwestern Angola and northwestern Namibia.	eng
9093	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is found in gravel plains, sand flats and dry river beds.	eng
9093	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
9093	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9094	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The whole population is within protected areas.	eng
9094	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is endemic to western Namibia.	eng
9094	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is largely found in high dune areas (dunes up to 300 m high). It is also found in dunes and dune hummocks.	eng
9094	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The populations of this species fluctuate naturally, but are generally stable.	eng
9094	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9095	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place, however, the species does occur in some protected areas.	eng
9095	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found in western South Africa and southwestern Namibia.	eng
9095	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is associated with gravel plains, consolidated sand and dry river beds.	eng
9095	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a very common species, with naturally fluctuating populations.	eng
9095	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is potentially threatened by increasing overgrazing of arid vegetation.	eng
9096	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9096	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is known only from the unspecified type locality and a few additional records in northern Somalia, including Berbera, Bulhar and Burao. This species ranges from sea level to at least 1,000 m asl (Burao).	eng
9096	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.	eng
9096	population	Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9096	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9097	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
9097	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Morocco. It is found from the southeastern slopes of the Rif Mountains and the Gharb plain, to Chaouia and southwards to Jbilets. This species' range is limited in the east by the Middle Atlas.	eng
9097	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in rocky and clay areas, and it is also found in abandoned fields. It is not found in actively cultivated areas, forests or matorral habitat.	eng
9097	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This is a relatively common species.	eng
9097	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9099	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus muriculus</em> is a valid species, and to better understand where the species is distributed.	eng
9099	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This poorly-known taxon has been reported from a number of localities in Sudan, however, because of considerable taxonomic confusion it is uncertain as to which of these records refer to <em>Gerbillus muriculus</em>. Only the approximate type locality of '80 miles (129 km) northeast of El Fasher, Madu, Darfur, Sudan' is mapped here.	eng
9099	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The ecological requirements of this taxon are unclear, however, populations reported to be this species have been recorded from irrigated agricultural land and dry grassland with compacted soils.	eng
9099	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance or trends for this species.	eng
9099	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this taxon are not known.	eng
9100	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9100	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is presently known only from few localities in Mali, Niger and Sudan; however, it is believed to occur more widely in arid areas between these sites.	eng
9100	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This is a species of sandy to sand-clay soils, fallow areas and millet fields.	eng
9100	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9100	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9101	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9101	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a small number of localities in Sudan and Somalia.	eng
9101	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been found in dry grassland. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
9101	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9101	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9102	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus agag</em> is a valid species, and where it is distributed.	eng
9102	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The distribution of <em>Gerbillus agag</em> is very unclear. Populations of <em>Gerbillus agag</em> have been reported from Mali, Nigeria, and Niger to Chad, Sudan and Kenya (Musser and Carleton 2005); however, because of considerable taxonomic confusion, it is uncertain as to which of these populations should be allocated to <em>Gerbillus agag</em>. The type locality is Agageh Wells, Kordofan, Sudan (not mapped here).	eng
9102	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is little information available on this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.	eng
9102	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9102	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9104	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
9104	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in Libya and Egypt. The distribution is split in two, with an eastern range and a western range, with no suitable habitat in between.	eng
9104	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	All types of habitats in Libya ranging from dense vegetation (in oasis and wadis) to barren areas.	eng
9104	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This is considered to be a common species.	eng
9104	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9105	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9105	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species has been recorded in the coastal plains of North Africa and the Middle East where it ranges from Tunisia and northern Libya, to Egypt (the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta south to El Faiyum), Israel and southwestern Jordan.	eng
9105	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This is a little-known species of coastal plains and littoral deserts. It is generally associated with solidified coastal dunes.	eng
9105	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	A common species in suitable habitats.	eng
9105	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	No major threats known at present. Overgrazing may be a problem in some parts of the range.	eng
9106	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known from any protected area (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Further studies are needed into the natural history of this little known species.	eng
9106	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This little known species has been recorded in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan (Musser and Carleton 2005; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Detailed distribution information in South Asia is not known.	eng
9106	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal/crepuscular, terrrestrial, gregarious species, occurs in temperate forests and grasslands near water sources (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9106	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9106	threats	Molur, S., 2008	No threats have been recorded for this taxon or its habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9109	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9109	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This little-recorded species is known only with certainty from Sudan; there are also possible records of the species occurrence in northern Kenya.	eng
9109	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in arid areas.	eng
9109	population	Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9109	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9110	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9110	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This poorly known species has only been recorded from type locality, Burao, in northern Somalia.	eng
9110	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	There is little information available for this species. The type locality is in dry hilly country.	eng
9110	population	Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9110	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9111	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if it is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus burtoni</em> is a valid species, and where it is distributed.	eng
9111	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This taxon is known only from the indistinct locality of Dharfur, Sudan. No additional details appear to be available. No distribution map is provided	eng
9111	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	Thereappears to be no information available on the natural history of this taxon.	eng
9111	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9111	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this taxon are not known.	eng
9113	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
9113	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Amr, Z., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
9113	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	Arabian Peninsular, Iraq and Iran. The species also occurs marginally in Syria (one record: D. Kock pers. comm.) and Jordan. Found from sea level to c.450 m asl.	eng
9113	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Amr, Z., 2008	Arabian Peninsular, Iraq and Iran. The species also occurs marginally in Syria (one record: D. Kock pers. comm.) and Jordan. Found from sea level to <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span>. 450 m asl.	eng
9113	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This nocturnal, solitary species is found on sandy soils and mud flats in eastern deserts. In Saudi Arabia the species is associated with <em>Haloxylon</em>, <em>Calligonum</em>, <em>Ephera alata</em> and <em>Artemesia</em> bushes (Qumsiyeh 1996) which provide shelter. It is mainly gramnivorous but becomes omnivorous in response to available resources (Scott and Dunstone, 2000). Information on reproduction is limited but suggests an extended reproductive season in the Arabian Peninsular (Harrison 1972), up to eight young are born.  In Jordan, the species is found in sand dunes (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
9113	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Amr, Z., 2008	This nocturnal, solitary species is found on sandy soils and mud flats in eastern deserts. In Saudi Arabia the species is associated with <em>Haloxylon</em>, <em>Calligonum</em>, <em>Ephera alata</em> and <em>Artemesia</em> bushes (Qumsiyeh 1996) which provide shelter. It is mainly gramnivorous but becomes omnivorous in response to available resources (Scott and Dunstone, 2000). Information on reproduction is limited but suggests an extended reproductive season in the Arabian Peninsular (Harrison 1972), up to eight young are born.  In Jordan, the species is found in sand dunes (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
9113	population	Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	A common species. It was considered 'Least Concern' in the United Arab Emirates by Hornby (1996). It is known from many localities in Saudi Arabia. In Jordan, the species' density ranges from 2.71 and 3.75 individuals/ha (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
9113	population	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Amr, Z., 2008	A common species. It was considered 'Least Concern' in the United Arab Emirates by Hornby (1996). It is known from many localities in Saudi Arabia. In Jordan, the species' density ranges from 2.71 and 3.75 individuals/ha (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
9113	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	No major threats.	eng
9113	threats	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Amr, Z., 2008	No major threats.	eng
9114	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9114	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is largely found in northwestern Kenya and northeastern Uganda, especially around Lake Turkana.	eng
9114	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This is a semi-desert species found in areas of open, sandy, gravel plains with sparse vegetation.	eng
9114	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The population abundance is unknown, but historical records suggest that it is uncommon.	eng
9114	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9116	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas in Israel (G. Shenbrot pers. comm. 2006).	eng
9116	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas in Israel (G. Shenbrot pers. comm. 2006).	eng
9116	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Middle East, Arabian Peninsular and marginally into eastern desert of Egypt. In the Mediterranean it occurs in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey. Occurs up to 2,000 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
9116	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Middle East, Arabian Peninsular and marginally into eastern desert of Egypt. In the Mediterranean it occurs in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey. Occurs up to 2,000 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
9116	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This solitary, burrowing species occurs in a variety of arid habitats including desert, semi-desert, and rocky habitats in hill country.	eng
9116	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This solitary, burrowing species occurs in a variety of arid habitats including desert, semi-desert, and rocky habitats in hill country.	eng
9116	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A common species.	eng
9116	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A common species.	eng
9116	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No major threats.	eng
9116	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No major threats.	eng
9119	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
9119	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This little known species is found in eastern Ethiopia, central Somalia, Djibouti, and Eritrea.	eng
9119	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from sandy areas in bare, or sparsely vegetated, rocky plains, low grassland and dry savanna.	eng
9119	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
9119	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9120	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
9120	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to Yemen in the southwest Arabian Peninsula. The limits of its geographic range are not yet clear.	eng
9120	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This is a social burrowing species which occurs in <em>Euphorbia</em> wooded hillsides, sometimes inhabiting the buurows of other species (Harison and Bates 1991). It has also been trapped in fallow fields. Little is known of its biology and ecology.	eng
9120	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is little information on this species, but it is believed to be common in suitable habitats.	eng
9120	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There are believed to be no major threats to this species, which is believed to be adaptable.	eng
9121	conservation	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species and it is not known if it is present in any protected areas.	eng
9121	distribution	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is present in northeastern Egypt from eastern fringes of Nile delta to the Sinai Peninsula (south of El Arish). It was previously believed to be restricted to the type locality, however, recent chromosome data has clarified the extent of this species range (L. Granjon pers. comm.). Also recorded extralimitally from Israel and Palestine (Happold in press).	eng
9121	habitat	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in rocky desert, sandy coastal plains, grassy valleys, and also within palm tree groves and cultivated areas.	eng
9121	population	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is a common species, sometimes found in high densities.	eng
9121	threats	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9123	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	There are no conservation measure in place, however, in view of its wide range it is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
9123	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species is found throughout the desert and semi-desert regions of northern Africa. It also occurs marginally in Israel and Jordan.	eng
9123	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species is typically found in dry sandy or rocky areas, sometimes with sparse and coarse vegetation. It is also found in in areas close to palm groves.	eng
9123	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
9123	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9124	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2009	It is known from Desert National Park, Rajasthan. Field surveys, habitat management and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9124	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Pakistan (Sindh) and India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) in South Asia. It occurs at elevations of 750 to 800 m, and is widely distributed in the region (Agrawal 2000, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
9124	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2009	It is a nocturnal, fossorial, terrestrial and gregarious species occurs in desert, semi-desert regions and agricultural lands has been found to occupy interdunal grasslands, shifting sand dunes, uncultivated fields. Although all species of rats and mice (family Muridae) are considered pests by the Indian government, only a few of these, including <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gleadowi</span>, are actually detrimental to crops (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
9124	population	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2009	There has been a quantitative decrease in the population at the rate of <10% in the past five years, with a future decline at the rate of <10% predicted in the coming 10 years due to habitat loss because of livestock grazing and changes brought over by the construction of irrigation canals (S. Chakraborty pers. comm. 2005).	eng
9124	threats	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2009	The major threat for the habitat is the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal. Initially the species might benefit due to grazing as the habitat structure improves for it (sand becomes loose) but later due to heavy grazing the plant productivity (seed production) will be affected and hence the population will decline. Grazing also breaks up the mounds which affect the burrowing behaviour. The species will probably be more patchily distributed as a result of the canal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Other threats to the species include: habitat loss and degradation due to small-holder farming, livestock grazing; presence of alien species and predators; pollution due to excessive use of pesticides and disturbance due to human activities and transport.	eng
9125	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is required to clarify the status of this species.	eng
9125	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, and it may be restricted to coastal parts of Libya (Durna). It is likely to be a population of <em>G. amoenus</em> occurring in Libya.	eng
9125	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from coastal sand dunes.	eng
9125	population	Schlitter, D. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or trend of this species.	eng
9125	threats	Schlitter, D. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.	eng
9126	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
9126	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern Kenya (the Rift valley) and northern and central Tanzania.	eng
9126	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It occurs in open, dry woodland, savanna, on gravel or pebbly soils.	eng
9126	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The population abundance of this species is variable and it may be considered common to uncommon.	eng
9126	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9127	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	Found in many protected areas. No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
9127	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species occurs in arid and semi-desert areas surrounding the Sahara Desert. It has been recorded in central Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia, northern Libya, northern Egypt, Sudan, central Chad, central Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, south Mauritania and northern Senegal. Outside Africa there are records from Israel, Jordan and the western Arabian peninsula.	eng
9127	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	A semi-desert and desert species.	eng
9127	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	This species is relatively abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
9127	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Amr, Z., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9128	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9128	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	A Moroccan endemic, this species is restricted to around 30 km of sandy habitats near to Essaouira (north of high Atlas).	eng
9128	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in sandy habitats close to the coastline.	eng
9128	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The population size is unknown, but it is probably naturally small (due to the restricted habitat). It is likely to be declining as a result of habitat loss and disturbance.	eng
9128	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The species is threatened by disturbance of its coastal habitat by tourism, especially during the summer months. In addition, the development of infrastructure for the tourist industry is leading to habitat loss for this species.	eng
9129	conservation	Aulagnier, S. &  Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Souss Massa National Park, Morocco.	eng
9129	distribution	Aulagnier, S. &  Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Morocco, where it is restricted to sand habitats in the Souss plain and along the coast between the high Atlas and the Anti-Atlas Mountains.	eng
9129	habitat	Aulagnier, S. &  Hutterer, R., 2008	It is found in low sand dunes and generally sandy areas.	eng
9129	population	Aulagnier, S. &  Hutterer, R., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
9129	threats	Aulagnier, S. &  Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by disturbance and habitat loss caused by increasing tourism and agricultural use (with irrigation) in the Souss plain.	eng
9130	conservation	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
9130	distribution	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Known only from type locality; east coast of Tunisia (between Bou Ficha and Enfidaville).	eng
9130	habitat	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Unknown.	eng
9130	population	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Unknown (only holotype known).	eng
9130	threats	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9131	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9131	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from several areas in southern Somalia, and a single record in northern Somalia (the type locality of Bulhar).	eng
9131	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found from semi-desert, coastal gravel plains, to dry savanna and open grassland with sparse shrub.	eng
9131	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9131	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9132	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
9132	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is present in southern Tunisia and northwestern Libya.	eng
9132	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is associated with desert edge and subdesert habitats. Occurs on plataeus and small dunes (Aulagnier, S. pers. comm.).	eng
9132	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There is nothing known about population abundance and trends of this species.	eng
9132	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9133	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9133	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is only known from type locality of Jebel Marra in the Dharfur region of Sudan.	eng
9133	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is presumed to be found in the arid, rocky habitats of Jebel Mara.	eng
9133	population	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends for this species.	eng
9133	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9134	conservation	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
9134	conservation	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
9134	distribution	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S, 2008	This species is known from the type locality in Wadi Alagi, Egypt (eastern desert of Nubia), and has also been recorded from parts of southeastern Egypt and northeastern Sudan.	eng
9134	distribution	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is known from the type locality in Wadi Alagi, Egypt (eastern desert of Nubia), and has also been recorded from parts of southeastern Egypt and northeastern Sudan.	eng
9134	habitat	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S, 2008	This species is found in open areas of bare soil in rocky plains. Also found in agricultural areas. Found in abandoned villages up to 750 m.	eng
9134	habitat	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in open areas of bare soil in rocky plains. Also found in agricultural areas. Found in abandoned villages up to 750 m.	eng
9134	population	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S, 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends of this species, although further surveys may reveal it to be common.	eng
9134	population	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends of this species, although further surveys may reveal it to be common.	eng
9134	threats	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9134	threats	Schlitter, D., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9135	conservation	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It almost certainly requires the conservation of appropriate habitat in the face of agricultural expansion. Research is needed to gain more information on threats and conservation needs.	eng
9135	distribution	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	This species occurs in the valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun Rivers (see Lay and Nadler 1975). The bulk of its range is in Iraq, but it extends into southwestern Iran (in the Karun valley) in Khuzistan Province, and into eastern Syria in the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributary, the Khabur (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
9135	distribution	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	This species occurs in the valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun Rivers (see Lay and Nadler, 1975). The bulk of its range is in Iraq, but it extends into southwestern Iran (in the Karun valley) in Khuzistan Province, and into eastern Syria in the valleys of the Euphrates and its tributary, the Khabur (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
9135	habitat	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	This species is adapted to the boundary zone between alluvial valley bottoms and dry desert, where it lives in colonies in burrows in areas with sparse vegetation (Lay and Nadler, 1975). It is crepuscular and nocturnal. It appears that reproduction occurs throughout the year. Two to eight young are born (mean 5). Predadors include the domestic cat, jackals and mongoose. Unlike most gerbils, this species only occurs adjacent to rivers in fluvial soils, which also tend to be used for intensive arable land in which the species cannot survive. As a result, the species is patchily distributed.	eng
9135	population	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	It is believed to be common in suitable habitat. In 1970 the species was common along the banks of the Euphrates River.	eng
9135	threats	Kock, D. & Amori, G., 2008	The specific habitat in which the species occurs is under pressure from the expansion of intense, irrigated agriculture.	eng
9136	conservation	Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Scott, D., 2008	This species is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
9136	distribution	Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Scott, D., 2008	Occurs in the western part of the Sahara and Sahel (from Morocco to Tunisia in the north and from Mauritania through northern Mali and Niger to Chad in the south). Also present in the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East through Afghanistan and Pakistan to northwest India.	eng
9136	habitat	Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Scott, D., 2008	Found in desert, semi-desert, arable land and gardens. Mostly found in parts of the desert with relatively deep soil and abundant vegetation, such as wadis, oases, sebkhas edges and sand-clay plains or basins.	eng
9136	population	Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Scott, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
9136	threats	Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Scott, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9137	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	The species is present in the Banc d'Arguin National Park, Mauritania, and it may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9137	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This largely West African species ranges from western Mauritania in the west, through Mali, Niger and northern Nigeria to extreme western Chad. It is also found in the sandy islands of Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania.	eng
9137	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in various sandy habitats and agricultural areas in the Sahel region.	eng
9137	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a very abundant, agricultural pest species.	eng
9137	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9138	conservation	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	None in place. Further research into taxonomy, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
9138	distribution	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the coastal sandy habitats south of the Anti-Atlas Mountains, Morocco. The eastern and southern limits of the species distribution are not known.	eng
9138	habitat	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is associated with sparsely vegetated coastal sand dunes.	eng
9138	population	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	The population abundance and trends of this species are not known.	eng
9138	threats	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9140	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Schlitter, D. &  Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9140	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Schlitter, D. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in northern Egypt west of the Nile. It is found as far west as the Qatara Depression, however, it is not found in the depression.	eng
9140	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Schlitter, D. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is known from consolidated coastal sand dunes and other sandy habitats, including sandy areas close to fields and vegetation, but not within agricultural land.	eng
9140	population	Aulagnier, S., Schlitter, D. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is common within its restricted distribution.	eng
9140	threats	Aulagnier, S., Schlitter, D. &  Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9141	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
9141	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to the coastal mountain ranges of the Red Sea and the westernmost part of the Gulf of Aden in western and southern Yemen and in southwestern Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991).	eng
9141	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This heavily built gerbil prefers sandy areas near villages, stores and cultivated areas. It appears to be less adapted to arid areas than most of its counterparts. Breeding is thought to occur throughout the year, the peak seasons being autumn and winter. Little is known of its biology.	eng
9141	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is believed to be abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
9141	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
9142	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine if <em>Gerbillus principulus</em> is a valid species, and to better understand where the species is distributed.	eng
9142	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This poorly-known taxon has been reported from the type locality of 'El Malha, Jebel Meidob' (approximate distribution mapped), and an additional locality to the west of Khartoum (F. Dieterlen pers. comm.).	eng
9142	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded in rocky plains with scrub vegetation.	eng
9142	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9142	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9143	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Omo National Park, Ethiopia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9143	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from Djibouti, southwestern Ethiopia, northwestern Kenya and possibly southeastern Sudan.	eng
9143	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in a range of dry habitats, from rocky plains to open grassland.	eng
9143	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This is an uncommon species.	eng
9143	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9144	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
9144	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This East African species has been recorded from localities in eastern Ethiopia and south Somalia (including Awash), southeastern Sudan, Kenya and northern Tanzania.	eng
9144	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in open grasslands or bare, rocky plains.	eng
9144	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This is an uncommon species.	eng
9144	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9145	conservation	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9145	distribution	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in the Nile valley and oases of Egypt and northern Sudan. From Sudan, it ranges westwards through Chad and Niger to Mali, and possibly Mauritania.	eng
9145	habitat	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species is associated with sandy habitats in desert and semi desert areas.	eng
9145	population	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
9145	threats	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats are known to this species. The species occurs in the Nile Valley where there is extensive agriculture, but the effects of this on the species are not known at present.	eng
9149	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9149	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species has a disjunct range. It is found from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the high plateaus of Algeria, eastwards through Tunisia to northwestern Libya. The species is also present in coastal parts of northeastern Libya and Egypt west of the Nile River. It is a lowland species.	eng
9149	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species occurs in rich steppe grassland vegetation and cultivated areas, especially arable cropland. Unlike many other <em>Gerbillus</em> species, <em>G. simoni</em> is not found in sandy habitats.	eng
9149	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is not common, and is collected in traps less frequently than other <em>Gerbillus</em> species.	eng
9149	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
9150	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9150	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This little-known species is known only from two records, the type locality of Upper Sheikh, Somalia, and a single record from Djibouti (Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is likely to occur in the uniform, and presumably suitable, habitat between these two localities.	eng
9150	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in deserts, areas of bare soil, open gravel plains and grasslands with very sparse vegetation.	eng
9150	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The population abundance and trends of this species are not known.	eng
9150	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
9151	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9151	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The type locality of this poorly-known species is Khartoum, Sudan. It is only known from three localities to the west of the White Nile in Sudan.	eng
9151	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded in areas of rocky plains and open grassland on consolidated sands.	eng
9151	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9151	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9153	conservation	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it occurs in protected areas over much of its range.	eng
9153	distribution	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This species ranges throughout much of northwest Africa. It is found in the arid and desert areas of Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Chad, Niger, Mali and Mauritania.	eng
9153	habitat	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in sandy desert and semi-desert areas. Also occurs in steppes in coastal zones (S. Aulagnier pers. comm.)	eng
9153	population	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
9153	threats	Aulagnier, S. &  Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9155	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
9155	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded at a number of separate localities in Sudan and Djibouti.	eng
9155	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded from consolidated soils in gravel plains, semi-desert and desert.	eng
9155	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance and trends for this species.	eng
9155	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9178	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
9180	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Recorded from a small area in the Alvord River basin.	eng
9180	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found in springs and spring-fed streams.	eng
9182	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to Borax Lake basin, and outflow waters in Alvord Basin, Harney County, south-central Oregon.	eng
9184	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to the Colorado River system.	eng
9194	conservation	Fennessy, J. & Brown, D., 2010	East (1999) estimated that around 40% of the total population survived in and around protected areas, with the main strongholds including: Waza National Park and the hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon); Zakouma National Park (Chad); Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda); Boma National Park (Sudan); South Luangwa National Park (Zambia); and, in southern Africa, Etosha National Park (Namibia), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park (South Africa) (East 1999; Ciofolo and Pendu in press). Some of the major protected populations have decreased during the 1990s in national parks such as Serengeti (Tanzania) and Tsavo (Kenya).<br/><br/>In Niger, conservation projects have facilitated the Niger Giraffe’s population recovery in an area outside any formal protected park or reserve. However, poaching and habitat loss and degradation as a result of increased aridity, and expansion of human activities remain threats (Ciofolo and Pendu in press). This small population survives only in the wild, since the Giraffes held in captivity in the Vincennes Zoo, France, which were long considered to represent <em>peralta</em>, in fact belong to the subspecies <em>antiquorum</em> (Hassanin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Rothschild's Giraffe is one of the most imperilled Giraffe subspecies remaining. Exact numbers of giraffes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Murchison</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Falls</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> are approximate due to lack of surveys but are most recently estimated at approximately 240 individuals. Determining exact population numbers and conservation status of the Murchison Falls National Park Rothschild's Giraffe population is a priority for long-term conservation of this subspecies. Wildlife Conservation Society are planning a survey in 2010.	eng
9194	distribution	Fennessy, J. & Brown, D., 2010	The Giraffe formerly occurred in arid and dry-savanna zones of sub-Saharan Africa, wherever trees occur. Today, its range has contracted markedly with the expansion of human populations, especially in West Africa. <br/><br/>In West Africa, Giraffe formerly ranged from Senegal to Lake Chad, but the only viable surviving population within this entire area is a small population in south-western Niger with a range of about 15,000 km² (Boulet <em>et al.</em> 2004). This represents the only surviving wild population of <em>G. c. peralta</em>; a small population observed in the Ansongo-Menaka Partial Faunal Reserve in Mali, on the border of Niger, is presumed to be extinct.<br/><br/>Giraffe are still present in northern Cameroon, southern Chad, Central African Republic and in Garamba National Park in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (East 1999); there is limited information on their occurrence in Sudan, west of the Nile (where they were not recorded at all during the course of recent surveys), but they do still occur in the south-east (in Boma National Park) (Fay <em>et al</em>. 2007). In East and north-east Africa, Giraffe still occur in relatively large numbers in northern Kenya, mainly outside protected areas, in south-western and southern Ethiopia, Somalia, and in small numbers in a few protected areas in Uganda; they are now extinct in Eritrea. Giraffe remain relatively widely distributed through southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Of some concern is the status of Rothschild’s Giraffe, for which the only remaining naturally occurring population occurs in Murchison Falls National Park, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Uganda</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Rothschild's Giraffes have been re-introduced to six sites in Kenya (Ruma National Park; Mt Elgon National Park; Murgor Farm, Iten; Sergoit-Kruger Farm, Iten; Kitale Area Farm; Nasalot Reserve) and one site in Uganda (Kidepo Valley National Park) within the native range. Six extralimital introductions have also taken place in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  <br/><br/>There is an isolated population of Giraffe (Thornicroft’s Giraffe <em>G. c. thornicrofti</em>) in the Luangwa Valley (Zambia).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, having been reintroduced to many parts of the range from which they were eliminated, Giraffes are currently common both inside and outside a number of protected areas in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa. In Angola, the Giraffe is now assumed to be extinct. A few animals are reported to still survive in Sioma Ngwezi National Park in south-western Zambia, while in Mozambique, a few individuals still occur in the area adjacent to Kruger National Park. Giraffe have been introduced to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Swaziland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Giraffe Conservation foundation pers. obs., J. Fennessy pers. obs., Ciofolo and Pendu in press).	eng
9194	habitat	Fennessy, J. & Brown, D., 2010	Typically associated with <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Commiphora</em> and <em>Combretum</em> savannas, but they also occur marginally in miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoberlina</span> woodland, in Cameroon (Ciofolo and Pendu in press). Giraffes are selective browsers, with Acacia species forming the bulk of their diet throughout the range, but also species of the genera <em>Balanites</em>, <em>Commiphora</em>, <em>Detarium</em>, <em>Boscia</em>, <em>Combretum</em>, <em>Ziziphus</em> and <em>Grewia</em> (Ciofolo and Pendu in press).	eng
9194	population	Fennessy, J. & Brown, D., 2010	East (1999) estimated the total population at about 140,000 animals, predominantly in areas dominated by Acacia woodlands and shrublands. More recent preliminary estimates put the total population at less than 80,000 animals (  International Giraffe Working Group and Giraffe Conservation Foundation pers. comm.); efforts are currently under way to census the continent’s populations more accurately (Fennessy 2007) which will enable a more thorough determination of the conservation status of the species and subspecies. <br/><br/>The population in Niger estimated to number 79 animals in 1999 (Ciofolo <em>et al.</em> 2000), has since increased to more than 200 animals in 2007 (  J Suraud pers. obs.).   <br/><br/>In 1998 there was an estimated population of more than 500 Rothschild’s (and Nubian) giraffe, with the populations from Sudan unknown (East 1999). There were an estimated 2,500 individuals in Murchison Falls National Park in the 1960s, declining sharply to 350 in 1982–1983 and 250 in 1995–1996. The current population in Murchison Falls National Park is estimated to be of 240 individuals and stable.   The reintroduced population in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Ruma National Park</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region></st1:place>, is estimated to be of 130 individuals and is declining due to poaching. Numbers at each of the other five reintroduction sites are of 10-20 individuals and some of these are unlikely to be viable. In sum, Rothschild’s Giraffe is estimated to number less than 470 individuals in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, with an unknown (but likely small) number in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
9194	threats	Fennessy, J. & Brown, D., 2010	While southern populations are increasing in abundance, northern populations have been decreasing due to habitat degradation and poaching. For example, poaching and armed conflict across the range of the Reticulated Giraffe in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya has reduced numbers to perhaps fewer than 5,000 individuals (  Giraffe Conservation Foundation pers. obs., Fennessy 2007).	eng
9240	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
9240	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in Texas, Kansas, and Minnesota in the United States, east to Quebec and Nova Scotia in Canada (uncommon to rare in these provinces) and eastern United States; there are montane populations scattered from northwestern Mexico to Honduras (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
9240	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers deciduous and mixed forests, particularly beech-maple, oak-hickory and poplar. Also occurs in old orchards. In New Hampshire, preferentially used areas with large shagbark hickories and beeches; males tended to use areas with large oaks, females tended to use areas with abundant snags (Fridell and Litvaitis 1991). Favours small, abandoned woodpecker holes for den sites; also uses nest boxes and abandoned bird and squirrel nests outside tree cavities. <br/><br/>Births peak April-May and late summer in the north, late February-March and September-October in the south. Litter size usually is about 2-3 in the south, 3-4 in the north. Young first breed in spring after birth in the north, may breed late in first summer in the south. Two distinct breeding periods in New Hampshire, February-March and June-July. Females produce two litters per year.<br/><br/>This species is highly sociable, particularly in winter, when communal nesting peaks; communal nesting aggregations occur in both northern and southern populations (Layne and Raymond 1994). May be ousted from cavities by some large cavity-nesting birds; may kill or oust some small cavity-nesting birds. Home ranges of <em>G. volans</em> varied from 5-13 hectares, mean 7.4 hectares (Weigl and Osgood 1974).<br/><br/>Diet includes plant and animal foods. Feeds on insects in spring; nuts, seeds, and fruits through the rest of the year. May eat birds (especially eggs and young) and carrion. Caches food for winter. In South Carolina, acorns were most important throughout year; pine seeds, other plant material, and a few insects also consumed (Harlow and Doyle 1990). Active at night throughout the year, except during extreme winter cold. Will enter a state of torpor in cold periods.	eng
9240	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common throughout most of range (NatureServe). Population density was estimated at 31-38/ha in southeastern Virginia (Sawyer and Rose 1985), 10-14/ha in Maryland, 1.5-2.5/ha in Michigan-Massachusetts (Layne and Raymond 1994).	eng
9240	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall. Localised threats include loss of habitat and loss of cavity-bearing and mast-producing trees. In Arkansas, a seed-tree harvest regime, particularly without retained overstorey hardwoods, produced a level of disturbance and resource depletion that was too severe for flying squirrel persistence (Taulman <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
9245	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The species has been recorded from some protected areas. Studies on distribution, abundance, and ecology are needed for this species.	eng
9245	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	Little is known about this species range. It has been collected from the Amazonian regions of Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru (Gardner, 2007), and Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The species is found up to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000; D. Tirira pers. comm.). The disjunct distribution is likely a sampling artifact.	eng
9245	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	There is a lack of information on the ecology of this species. Four specimens were taken by animal dealers from dense, humid tropical forests. The diet probably consists of insects, seeds, fruits and eggs. This species is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It is known from rainforest and dry forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). There are no records from outside of the forest.	eng
9245	population	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is apparently extremely rare; it is known only from nine individuals, each from a different locality (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The rarity of known individuals is likely due to difficulty sampling.	eng
9245	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	Parts of its Brazilian range are likely threatened by deforestation, although the connectivity of these range outliers makes the extent of this threat difficult to measure.	eng
9246	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It was designated a natural monument in Japan in 1975. It is present in protected areas.	eng
9246	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Dogo Island (Oki Islands).	eng
9246	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species is found in mature primary and secondary forests in lower montane to subalpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is mostly arboreal and nocturnal, and eats insects, fruits, birds eggs and other small animals (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
9246	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	A widespread species, but not common. The local population density is estimated to be 0.8/ha in some areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
9246	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9247	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species has been collected by A. Suyato from Gunung Halimun National Park (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). Further research to determine the species' range, population status, habitats and threats is needed.	eng
9247	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species, described in 1939, is known only from two neighbouring localities on Mt Pangeango in western Java, Indonesia.	eng
9247	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	There is no information specific to this species. Members of the genus, are sometimes recorded in bamboo, and often cope with cultivated habitats. A. Suyanto collected a specimen in bamboo (U. Sinanga pers. comm.). It is not usually dependent on water and it probably lives in small colonies.	eng
9247	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It has been collected only twice, seventy years apart.	eng
9247	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss in the lowland regions could be a threat, assuming its reliant on primary habitat.	eng
9248	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
9248	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Francis, C., 2008	The species occurs in Myanmar, through Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Moluccas Islands (Indonesia), Borneo, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines. In the Philippines there are records from Palawan Island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9248	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Francis, C., 2008	This species roosts in rock crevices, in hollow bamboo, and in banana leaves in Peninsular Malaysia (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Habitat and ecological requirements are unknown in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9248	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Francis, C., 2008	The species is uncommon throughout most of its range although it can sometimes be locally common.	eng
9248	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
9249	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of potential threats on this species.	eng
9249	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Short-finned pilot whales are found in warm temperate to tropical waters of the world, generally in deep offshore areas (Reilly and Shane 1986; Olson and Reilly 2002). They do not usually range north of 50°N or south of 40°S. There is some distributional overlap with their long-finned relatives (G. melas is the only other species currently recognized), which appear to prefer cold temperate waters of the North Atlantic, Southern Hemisphere, and previously the western North Pacific. Only short-finned pilot whales are currently thought to inhabit the North Pacific, although distribution and taxonomy of pilot whales in this area are still largely unresolved (Kasuya 1992). The two geographic forms of short-finned pilot whale off Japan have different, but partially-overlapping, distributions. The range includes the Sea of Japan. This species is not thought to inhabit the Mediterranean Sea, but it does occur in the Red Sea. Records from the Persian Gulf may be considered extralimital.	eng
9249	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	These animals are found in deep waters, typically in highest densities over the outer continental shelf or continental slope. They occur in tropical to cool temperate waters. In 1982-83, a strong El Niño event brought about major ecosystem changes off the southern California coast. Pilot whales avoided the area (presumably due to the absence of spawning squid) for much of the next 10 years.<br/><br/>This species feeds on vertically migrating prey, with deep dives at dusk and dawn following vertically migrating prey and near-surface foraging at night (Baird <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/><br/>Although they also take fish, pilot whales are thought to be primarily adapted to feeding on squid. One of the main forms taken off the California coast is the market squid (Loligo sp.). Short-finned pilot whales show the tooth reduction typical of other squid-eating cetaceans.	eng
9249	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Estimates of abundance exist for several areas. The northern form off Japan has a subpopulation estimated at 4,000–5,000, and the southern form has an estimated subpopulation of about 14,000 in coastal waters (Miyashita 1993). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated abundances in the Philippines: eastern Sulu Sea - 7,492 (CV = 29%); Tañon Strait - 179 (CV = 96%). There are an estimated 589,000 (CV=26%) short-finned pilot whales in the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002), and an estimated 304 (CV=102%) in waters off the North American west coast (Barlow 2003). In Hawaiian waters, there are estimated to be 8,846 (CV=49%) (Barlow 2006). The Gulf of Mexico contains at least 2,388 (CV=48%) animals (Mullin and Fulling 2004), and 31,139 (CV=27%) pilot whales of both species are estimated to occur in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Trend data are not available throughout the range of the species; however, abundance estimates of short-finned pilot whales in the eastern tropical Pacific significantly increased from 1986-1990 to 1998-2000 (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002). There is no information on global trends in the abundance of this species.	eng
9249	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The short-finned pilot whale has been exploited for centuries in the western North Pacific. The largest catches have recently occurred off Japan, where small coastal whaling stations and drive fisheries take a few hundred annually. In recent years, the southern form continues to sustain a higher kill than the northern form and is considered depleted The current annual national quota is 50. In 1982, the drive fishery at Taiji expanded and harpooning of the northern form was resumed off Sanriku and Hokkaido. Between 1982 and 1985, 1,755 whales of the southern form were killed, and 519 of the northern form were taken during this same period. The current annual national quota is 450. From 1985 to 1989, Japan took a total of 2,326 short-finned pilot whales. The drive fisheries in Japan, as well as the Japanese harpoon fishery continue today. In 1997, Japan recorded a catch of 347 short-finned pilot whales (Olson and Reilly 2002). <br/><br/>A small, intermittently active fishery takes around 220 pilot whales per year at St. Vincent, and there are reports of a small fishery at St. Lucia (Bernard and Reilly 1999). Reliable catch data are not available for these Caribbean hunts. The species is also hunted in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, also with no regular reporting of catch levels.<br/><br/>Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported on directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Hunters at four of the seven investigated fishing villages took cetaceans for bait or human consumption, including short-finned pilot whales. These are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Around 800 cetaceans are taken annually by hunters at the sites investigated, mostly during the inter-monsoon period of February-May. Dolphin meat is consumed or sold in local markets and some dolphin skulls are cleaned and sold as curios. Although takes and possession were banned in December 1992, the ban did not stop dolphin and whale hunting, but it seems to have decreased the sale of dolphin meat openly in the market.<br/><br/>In US Atlantic waters, pilot whales have been taken in a variety of fisheries (Olson and Reilly 2002). Based on preliminary data, the squid round-haul fishery in southern California waters is estimated to have taken 30 short-finned pilot whales in one year. In the California drift gill net fishery between 1993 and 1995, the mean annual take of short-finned pilot whales was 20 (Bernard and Reilly 1999). About 4 individuals/year are killed in the Hawaii-based long-line fishery (Forney and Kobayashi 2005). Such interactions have also been recorded in the western tropical Indian Ocean (Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, unpublished data). On the other side of the Pacific Ocean, an estimated 350 - 750 <em>G. macrorhynchus</em> die annually in passive nets and traps set in a Japanese fishery (Bernard and Reilly 1999) and an unknown number are taken incidentally by the large-mesh pelagic driftnets off eastern Taiwan. The most common human-related cause of death observed in waters off Puerto Rico and the US and British Virgin Islands were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by gunshots and spear wounds (Mignucci <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for short-finned pilot whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006). Around Taiwan and adjacent areas, a series of unusual strandings of short-finned pilot whales coincided with large-scale military exercises in 2004 but whether these strandings were related to the exercises is unknown (Wang and Yang 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect short-finned pilot whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
9250	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations have been listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. <br/><br/>One of the areas with regular confirmed presence of long-finned pilot whales in the Mediterranean, the western section of the Ligurian Sea, is included within the marine Sanctuary dedicated to cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin, created by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco (Pelagos Sanctuary, SPAMI). No management or conservation measures have been taken as yet specifically for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>A SPAMI (Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance) under the Barcelona Convention has been proposed for the northern half of the Alborán Sea and Gulf of Vera in southern Spain (Cañadas <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it has not yet been designated or even evaluated by the Spanish administration. This proposed area includes the “hot-spots” for long-finned pilot whales in the Mediterranean.	eng
9250	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations have been listed in Appendix II of CMS. However, recent data on movements in the northwest and northeast Atlantic suggest that these subpopulations should also be included in Appendix II of CMS. Attention should also be paid to the western North Atlantic subpopulation(s), in particular those migrating between United States and Canadian waters, formerly depleted by over-hunting and now facing increasing incidental mortality in trawl fisheries (Reyes 1991).	eng
9250	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Long-finned pilot whales occur in temperate and subpolar zones (Olson and Reilly 2002). They are found in oceanic waters and some coastal waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and North Sea. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs in deep offshore waters, including those inside the western Mediterranean Sea (where is thought to be the only species of pilot whale found there), North Sea, and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Abend and Smith 1999). Long-finned pilot whales tend to follow their prey (squid and mackerel) inshore and into continental shelf waters during the summer and autumn (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the western North Atlantic, they occur in high densities over the continental slope in winter and spring months.  In summer and autumn months, they move over the shelf.  Long-finned pilot whales were previously found in the western North Pacific as well, but appear to be absent there today.  The circum-antarctic subpopulation(s) in the Southern Hemisphere occur as far south as the Antarctic Convergence, sometimes to 68°S.  They are apparently isolated from those of the Northern Hemisphere (Bernard and Reilly 1999).	eng
9250	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Long-finned pilot whales occur in temperate and subpolar zones (Olson and Reilly 2002). They are found in oceanic waters and some coastal waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea and North Sea. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs in deep offshore waters, including those inside the western Mediterranean Sea (where it is thought to be the only species of pilot whale found), North Sea, and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Abend and Smith 1999). Long-finned pilot whales were previously found in the western North Pacific as well but appear to be absent there today. The circum-Antarctic subpopulation(s) in the Southern Hemisphere occur as far south as the Antarctic Convergence, sometimes to 68°S. They are apparently isolated from those of the Northern Hemisphere (Bernard and Reilly 1999).	eng
9250	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Long-finned pilot whales are highly social; they are generally found in pods of about 20-100, but some groups contain over 1,000 individuals.  These large pods are generally dispersed in smaller subgroups of 10-20.  Based on photo-identification and genetic work, pilot whales appear to live in relatively stable, maternally-based pods like those of killer whales, and not in the fluid groups characteristic of many smaller dolphins.<br/><br/>This is one of the species most often involved in mass strandings (Olson and Reilly 2002).  Strandings are fairly frequent, for instance, on Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA) beaches from October to January.  Their tight social structure also makes pilot whales vulnerable to herding, and this has been taken advantage of by whalers in drive fisheries off Newfoundland, the Faroe Islands, and elsewhere.  <br/><br/>Primarily squid eaters, pilot whales will also take small medium-sized fish, such as mackerel, when available (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Other fish species taken include cod, turbot, herring hake, and dogfish.  They will sometimes also ingest shrimp.  Pilot whales are deep divers, most feeding appears to take place at depths of 200-500 m.	eng
9250	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Long-finned pilot whales tend to follow their prey (squid and mackerel) inshore and into continental shelf waters during the summer and autumn (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the western North Atlantic, they occur in high densities over the continental slope in winter and spring months. In summer and autumn months, they move off the shelf.<br/><br/>The typical temperature range for the species is 0 - 25°C (Martin 1994). The Alboran Sea is one of the most important areas for this species in the Mediterranean (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000); in this area, the average depth of encounters was about 850 m (ranging from 300 to 1,800 m), reflecting the distribution of their preferred diet, pelagic cephalopods. Around the Faroe Islands, tracking studies show a preference for waters over the border of the continental shelf (Bloch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Off the coast of Chile, Aguayo <em>et al</em>. (1998) mainly sighted G. melas near the edge of the continental shelf. Goodall and Macnie (1998) reported on sightings in the south-eastern South Pacific, which were clustered from 30-35°S, 72- 78°W, at a maximum of about 160 nm from shore. In the southwestern South Atlantic, sightings were clustered in two areas, 34- 46°S and off Tierra del Fuego, 52-56°S, where schools were found up to 1,000 n. mi. from shore. Fifteen sightings were from waters south of the Antarctic Convergence, from December to March. Only one sighting was made south of 44°S in winter, probably due to lack of effort in southern seas during the colder months.<br/><br/>Primarily squid eaters, long-finned pilot whales will also take small medium-sized fish, such as mackerel, when available (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Other fish species taken include cod, turbot, herring hake, and dogfish. They will sometimes also ingest shrim.	eng
9250	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Sighting surveys in 1987 and 1989 generated an abundance estimate of more than 750,000 pilot whales in the central and northeastern North Atlantic (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are estimated to be about 200,000 long-finned pilot whales in summer south of the Antarctic Convergence in the Southern Hemisphere and approximately 31,000 (CV = 0.27) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), but some of these are short-finned pilot whales. There is no information on global trends in abundance. There is little information on subpopulations within the species (Donovan <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
9250	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There is little information on stocks within the species (Donovan <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the north-eastern Atlantic the number of pilot whales inhabiting the area between East Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Faroe Islands and off the western coasts of the British Islands and Ireland was estimated at around 778,000 (CV=30%) by Buckland <em>et al.</em> (1993). The removals by drive hunting at the Faroes (see below) have therefore been considered sustainable (NAMMCO 2000, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
9250	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Drive fisheries for long-finned pilot whales in the Faroe Islands date back to the Norse settlement in the 9th century.  Catch statistics exist from the Faroes since 1584, unbroken from 1709-today, show an annual average catch of 850 pilot whales (range: 0 - 4,480) with a cyclic variation according to the North-Atlantic climatic variations (Bloch and Lastein 1995). This level of offtake has been considered sustainable (NAMMCO 2000, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental catches are reported from Newfoundland, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of France. In British waters, long-finned pilot whales are accidentally caught in gillnets, purse seines and in trawl fisheries. A 1990 workshop to review mortality of cetaceans in passive nets and traps documented an annual kill of 50-100 <em>G. melas</em> off the Atlantic coast of France. Furthermore, pilot whales are also known to be taken incidentally in swordfish driftnets in the Mediterranean (Olson and Reilly 2002). <br/> <br/>Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of  large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g. Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al.</em> 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g. Jackson <em>et al.</em> 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of long-finned pilot whales are unknown but could result in population declines. Commercial fisheries for squids are widespread in the western North Atlantic. Target species for these fisheries are squids eaten by pilot whales, again raising the possibility of prey depletion. <br/><br/>Long-finned pilot whales off the Faroes, France, UK and the eastern USA appear to have high levels of DDT and PCB in their tissues. Heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury also have been found in pilot whales from the Faroes. Because these contaminants accumulate in tissues over time, older animals and especially adult males tend to have the highest concentrations (Caurant and Amiard-Triquet 1995). <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. Sometimes this may happen when animals are already ill and incapable of finding/catching normal prey (e.g. Gomercic <em>et al.</em> 2006), or they may be healthy and eat it by accident and it then contributes to blockage of the digestive tract and eventual death (e.g. Scott <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Globicephala melas</em> may also be at risk.<br/><br/>While impacts of high levels of anthropogenic sound have been well documented for beaked whales (Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991, Frantzis 1998, Balcomb and Claridge 2001, US Dept of Commerce and US Navy 2001, Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005), there are examples for a number of other species of odontocetes of potential impacts. While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, strong avoidance reactions, embayments or mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for short-finned pilot whales (Hohn <em>et al.</em> 2006), killer whales, melon-headed whales (Southall <em>et al.</em> 2006), Atlantic spotted dolphin (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), striped dolphins, dwarf sperm whales (Hohn <em>et al.</em> 2006), pygmy sperm whales, and Dall’s porpoise (Balcomb pers. comm.). As such, it should be recognized that high levels of anthropogenic sound have the potential to impact other deep diving odontocete species. <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect long-finned pilot whales, and may induce changes in the species’ range, abundance and/or migration patterns (Learmonth<em> et al.</em> 2006).	eng
9250	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The only current fishery for long-finned pilot whales is undertaken in the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Although this fishery has been actively pursued since the 9th century, catch levels have apparently not caused stock depletion, such as occurred off Newfoundland. Catch statistics exist from the Faroes since 1584, unbroken from 1709 to today, showing an annual average catch of 850 pilot whales (range: 0 - 4,480) with a cyclic variation according to the North-Atlantic climatic variations (Bloch and Larstein 1995). The IWC, ICES and NAMMCO have concluded, that with an estimated subpopulation size of 778 000 (CV=0.295) in the eastern North Atlantic and approximately 100 000 around the Faroes (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993; NAMMCO 1997) the Faroese catch is probably sustainable. In Greenland, catches are relatively small. <br/><br/>Incidental catches are reported from Newfoundland, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of France. In British waters, long-finned pilot whales are accidentally caught in gillnets, purse seines and in trawl fisheries. Very few are reported taken incidentally in fisheries in the Southern Hemisphere (Reyes 1991). However, according to Bernard and Reilly (1999), there are probably more pilot whales taken incidentally than are presently documented. On the east coast of the USA, the foreign Atlantic mackerel fishery was responsible for the take of 141 pilot whales in 1988. This fishery was suspended in early May of that year as a direct result of this anomalously high take. A 1990 workshop to review mortality of cetaceans in passive nets and traps documented an annual kill of 50-100 <em>G. melas</em> off the Atlantic coast of France. Long-finned pilot whales are also known to be taken incidentally in trawl and gillnet fisheries in the western North Atlantic, and in swordfish driftnets in the Mediterranean (Olson and Reilly 2002).<br/><br/>Zerbini and Kotas (1998) reported on cetacean-fishery interactions off southern Brazil. The pelagic driftnet fishery is focused on sharks (families Sphyrnidae and Carcharinidae) and incidentally caught at least 15 <em>Globicephala melas</em> in 1995 and 1997. The authors conclude that the driftnet fishery may be an important cause of cetacean mortality in that region. <br/> <br/>Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of long-finned pilot whales are unknown but could result in population declines. Commercial fisheries for squids are widespread in the western North Atlantic. Target species for these fisheries are squids eaten by pilot whales, again raising the possibility of prey depletion.<br/> <br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect long-finned pilot whales, and may induce changes in the species’ range, abundance and/or migration patterns (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
9251	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.	eng
9251	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to the Upper Guinea rain forests of western Liberia (Bong, Lofa, and Mesurado Counties) and Guinea, and is presumably also found in the forested parts of Sierra Leone which lie between these two populations.	eng
9251	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The tree hole crab inhabits water-filled holes in trees in closed canopy rainforest in the Upper Guinea forest of West Africa.	eng
9251	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In pre civil war Liberia (before 1989) the population levels were estimated to be about 5-10 per km² of closed canopy rainforest, but may well be declining as deforestation progresses. This species would appear to be restricted to rainforest and requires a specialized habitat - rainwater filled natural holes found in suitably-sized trees at a height of  between 1 to 2 meters above the ground.	eng
9251	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Loss/degradation (human induced) of its rainforest habitat is ongoing due to human population increases, deforestation, regional wars, and political instability, and these most likely represent the major present and future threats to this species.	eng
9266	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
9266	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
9266	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from the eastern Africa coastal zone.	eng
9266	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is common throughout the intertidal areas of the Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the eastern Africa coastal zone.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its African distribution extends as far south as East London, South Africa.	eng
9266	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	An epibenthic, intertidal species, not uncommon in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986).	eng
9266	habitat	Skelton, P., 1996	Inhabits intertidal areas, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (common in mangroves and occasionally penetrates the lower reaches of freshwater streams).	eng
9266	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This is an epibenthic, intertidal species, not uncommon in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986).	eng
9266	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
9266	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
9266	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
9266	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
9267	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species range falls entirely within the boundaries of Ankarana National Park.	eng
9267	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
9267	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	A hypogean species: restricted to subterranean waters.	eng
9267	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Other than its naturally restricted range, no current threats are known to be affecting the population.	eng
9268	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>G. incisus</em> is endemic to Lake Sentani and its tributaries.	eng
9268	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat is approximately 30 km long and 2-5 km wide.	eng
9268	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The human population around the lake is increasing and was estimated at around 25,000 in 1996.  The resultant pollution from domestic waste entering the lake is threatening the species living there.  A further threat comes from the introduction of exotic species into the habitat, including carp, tilapia, walking catfish, barbs, and gouramies.	eng
9272	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>G. wannamesis</em> is endemic to Lake Wanam, west of Lae.	eng
9272	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater habitat of this species is a small (2-3 km diameter) lake.	eng
9272	population	Allen, G., 1996	The species was reportedly abundant when first collected in the 1970s. However, the fish was difficult to find during searches carried out in 1994-1995.	eng
9272	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The introduction of exotic species such as tilapia and carp into the lake over the last few decades have posed a threat to this species.	eng
9273	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
9273	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Sinaloa (Mexico) to Panama; southeastern Colombia; eastern Ecuador; eastern Peru; and northwestern Brazil (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997). Also in Guyana.	eng
9273	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat occurs in evergreen forest, dry forest, banana groves, and clearings (Reid, 1997). It roosts in hollow trees, caves, and tunnels (Reid, 1997). The diet includes nectar and pollen of bananas and Mucuna, fruit of Acnistes, and moths (Howell and Burch, 1974). Birth peaks have been recorded January to April and July to August (Webster and Jones, 1993).	eng
9273	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is common in most of its range in rainforest; less common in dry forest (Reid, 1997). In rainforest often it is more numerous than <em>G. soricina</em>. In Ecuador is rare, known for just one record (Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
9273	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None.	eng
9274	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
9274	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Costa Rica north to Jalisco, Michoacan, Morelos, Tlaxcala, and Colima (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
9274	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in thorn scrub, deciduous and pine-oak forest; occasionally recorded in evergreen forest and agricultural areas (Reid, 1997). Its biology probably is similar to <em>G. soricina</em>, a species better known. The roosts include caves, buildings, and culverts. Flowers visited by this species include <em>Pseudobombax</em> and <em>Ipomeas</em>. The reproduction does not appear to be seasonal (Webster and Jones, 1984; Reid, 1997).	eng
9274	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is fairly common (Reid, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.). Not so common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
9274	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss, human induced fire, persecution are localised threats.	eng
9275	conservation	Tavares, V. & Soriano, P., 2008	Review taxonomic status. Avoid habitat loss.	eng
9275	distribution	Tavares, V. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Venezuela (including Margarita Island), north Brazil (only in Roraima -Webster and Handley 1986), Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, St Vincent, Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba (Lesser Antilles). The records from Dominica and Ecuador are erroneous (Simmons, 2005). 0-2,250 meters (Lew pers. comm.).	eng
9275	habitat	Tavares, V. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species forms maternal colonies in shelters such as caves and hollow trees. Several hundred females and their young can roost together. Normally a single young is born. The time of reproduction can be strongly seasonal in habitats with pronounced rainfall cycles, but females are polyestrous and can bear two or three young per year. Though fully capable of hovering in flight while taking nectar from flowers, this bat is also to some extent a foliage-gleaning insectivore (Howell, 1983). Activity periods are bimodal, just before dawn and just after dusk. During the period of nectar production by Agave, individual bat will defend the plants against conspecifics to ensure an exclusive supply of nectar and pollen (Lemke, 1984; Willig, 1983). Seems resticted to dry habitat types and open areas (Soriano pers. comm.)	eng
9275	population	Tavares, V. & Soriano, P., 2008	The taxonomy is poorly undestood and difficult to extrapolate across current subspecies organizations. Not common in Trinidad and Tobago (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961)	eng
9275	threats	Tavares, V. & Soriano, P., 2008	As currently defined taxonomically, this species is not threatened. There is some localised destruction of some habitat. It may be composed of several unique species with more restricted ranges.	eng
9276	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in at least five protected areas (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
9276	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Chiapas to Michoacan and Tlaxcala (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (usually below 300 m and close to sea level) (Reid, 1997; Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
9276	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in thorn scrub and dry, pine-oak forest, often near water (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves, hollow trees, culverts, wells, and buildings. It has been caught in mist nets set over rivers and creeks in arid regions and was recorded in Chiapas with the 3 other <em>Glossophaga</em> species found in Mexico (Webster and Jones, 1985; Reid, 1997). Habitat loss between 0 - 1% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
9276	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Inside its wide distribution it is found in few localities, and in these localities it is considered common (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
9276	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
9277	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. Needs taxonomic revision. Found in protected areas.	eng
9277	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Tamaulipas, Sonora and Trés Marías Isls (Mexico) south to the Guianas, Southeastern Brazil, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru; Margarita Isl (Venezuela); Trinidad; Grenada (Lesser Antilles); Jamaica (Simmons 2005).	eng
9277	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in forests (south), rural and urban areas (north). Nectarivorous. Found in caves, tunnels, and houses. Co-inhabit with <em>Carollia</em>. Willig (1983) found more than 2,000 individuals in an abandoned house in Brazil.	eng
9277	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is scarce on the south and abundant in the north. In Argentina they face many threats (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
9277	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. Deforestation is a localised threat. Populations are scarce in south.	eng
9281	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	In 2001, the Indian government banned the landing of all species of chondrichthyan fish in its ports, although shortly afterwards, this ban was amended and now the Ganges shark <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> is one of  just ten species of chondrichthyans protected under Schedule I, Part II A of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests 2006). However, the effectiveness of this measure is unknown and these regulations may be difficult to enforce, with a diffuse but widespread artisanal fishery on a major river system for local consumption as well as international trade.	eng
9281	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	This species is known only from the lower reaches of the Ganges-Hooghli river system, West Bengal, India. It possibly occurs in other river systems in the area. Could also occur in shallow marine estuaries although there are no verified marine records of this species to date.  <br/> <br/>Traditionally, this species has been assigned a wide range in the Indo-West Pacific, but this was found to be mostly based on other species of requiem sharks, particularly members of the genus <em>Carcharhinus</em> (Compagno 2005).	eng
9281	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	This is a little known species that is yet to be adequately described (Martin 2005). Size at maturity is estimated at about 178 cm TL (Compagno 2005), maximum size at about 204 cm TL and size at birth at 56 to 61 cm TL (Compagno 2005). The habitat of this species is thought to be fresh water in the lower reaches of the Ganges-Hooghly River system, possibly also shallow marine estuaries but there are no verified marine records of this species. The small eyes and slender teeth of this shark suggest that it is primarily a fish-eater and is adapted to turbid water such as occurs in the Ganges River and the Bay of Bengal (Compagno 1997). The eyes of <em>G. gangeticus</em> are tilted dorsally rather than laterally or ventrally, as in most carcharhinids, suggesting that this species may swim along the bottom and scan the water above it for potential prey back-lit by the sun (Compagno 1984). However, Roberts (2005) reports that <em>G. gangeticus</em> in the Bay of Bengal feed heavily on dasyatid stingrays, which spend much of their time on the bottom. <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> is probably viviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been nominally implicated in numerous attacks on humans in the Ganges but since <em>C. leucas </em>occurs in the same river system this cannot be proven at present and it is possible that <em>C. leucas</em> was involved in most of, if not all, of the attacks (Compagno in prep).	eng
9281	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	Originally known only from three museum specimens (one each in the Museum National d?Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Humboldt Museum, Berlin and Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta), all of which were collected in the nineteenth century. There were no records between 1867 until 1996, although 1996 records have not been confirmed as <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em>. A specimen collected 84 km upstream of the mouth of the Hooghli River, at Mahishadal in 2001 has been identified as <em>Glyphis gangeticus</em> but on photographs of the jaw only (Compagno in prep).	eng
9281	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	Historically, and is currently fished in the Ganges-Hooghly river system, although the details are not well known (Compagno 2005). It is caught by gillnet and appears in the international trade in shark jaws as curios (M. Harris pers. comm.), and probably also in the oriental fin trade and is consumed locally for its meat (Compagno 2005). There are major fisheries for sharks in India and large inshore carcharhinids, including <em>Glyphis</em> species, are readily targeted (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs). Other probable threats include overfishing, habitat degradation from pollution, increasing river utilization and management, including construction of dams and barrages (Compagno 1997). A few jaws of what is apparently this species have been observed in international trade during recent years (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs.), to testify that it is not extinct, however there is no information to suggest that the population status of this species has changed. There is an urgent need for a detailed survey of the shark fisheries of the Bay of Bengal.	eng
9283	conservation	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
9283	distribution	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), from 1,000 to 1,700 m.	eng
9283	habitat	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species inhabits montane forest.	eng
9283	population	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
9283	threats	Lunde, D., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9289	distribution	Smith, B., 2000	<em>G. kooringensis</em> is endemic to Australia, occurring in suitable habitat in South Australia.	eng
9289	habitat	Smith, B., 2000	This terrestrial species is found on heavily grazed slopes hidden in fissures in boulders.	eng
9289	threats	Smith, B., 2000	The main threats to the species stem from habitat deterioration caused by fire and overgrazing.	eng
9294	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
9294	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Gökdere stream in southern Turkey.	eng
9294	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
9294	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
9294	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The stream is not polluted at present. Restricted range is the main threat.	eng
9295	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9295	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Caspian basin (Volga, Ural).	eng
9295	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other larger benthic invertebrates.	eng
9295	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
9295	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution and river engineering.	eng
9297	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9297	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dniestr and tributaries of lower and middle Danube drainages (Black Sea basin); upper Vistula drainage in Poland (Baltic basin).	eng
9297	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast-flowing piedmont rivers with large areas of sand bottom. Spawns in shallow water over gravel, sand or plant material in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Most fish spawn 1-2 years, from late May-early June until late August-September. Eggs are released in successive portions. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Eggs drift with current, sink to bottom and stick to substrate. Juveniles and adults are active during day. Feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates, usually catching drifting food organisms.	eng
9297	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant, but expected to decline in the future.	eng
9297	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by water pollution and dam construction.	eng
9298	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	EU Natura 2000 Species.	eng
9298	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage (absent from Danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current).	eng
9298	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riffles of small, fast-flowing rivers and bottom of large rivers with water velocities of 0.7 m/s and more, stone bottom, in submontane zone. Young individuals prefer slow currents and shallow shoreline habitats with sand bottom. Spawns in shallow habitats with very high current (about 1 m/s). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In laboratory, spawns several times between late May and mid-September, at temperatures above 11°C. Males wait for females at spawning sites. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Eggs drift with current, sink to bottom and then stick to substrate. Adults are nocturnal and solitary, juveniles are active at day. No data on food in the wild.	eng
9298	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Still frequent in suitable habitats in the Danube drainage. Though the population has declined, it is extirpated from the upper Danube (1830s).	eng
9298	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened. The population is expected to continue to decline with on-going economic development.	eng
9303	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is reported from several protected areas in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
9303	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species has a very wide distribution ranging from Iran to India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Within India it is known from Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. In Pakistan from North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh. It is present in Jammu and Kashmir. In Sri Lanka it is known from Central Province, North Central Province, Southern Province and Western Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been recorded from southeastern Iran by Misonne (1990)	eng
9303	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a partially diurnal, fossorial also terrestrial, semi-arboreal,not particularly gregarious, herbivorous species. It is found in varied habitat conditions from tropical dry deciduous, dry wood, shrub, tropical thorn forests and grassy clumps, may venture in to cultivated lands, bushes, orchards,scrublands, grasslands close to streams, tropical dry deciduous, except cold deserts. Also found near granite hills with sandy loam and silty soil. In Sri Lanka, this species is found in low country, dry zone and mountain wet zone, low country semi evergreen forests, wet patana grasslands. It has been found to occupy rocky and hilly tracts, burrows, grassland close to streams, build nests on thick bush, shrubs (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). This can be a serious agricultural pest species (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
9303	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
9303	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread species. It is harvested for local consumption in parts of its range and is an important prey base species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9308	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Occurs in Cheraw State Park, Campbell Lake State Park, and the Savanna River Plant in South Carolina.	eng
9308	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States: Piedmont area of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee. The species is known from 11 counties within these states.	eng
9308	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Boggy trickles, slow, small streams and lakes, all with part sand, part silt bottoms, and <em>sphagnum</em> moss margins (Dunkle 2000).	eng
9308	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Maybe 1,000 or more at each location. Known from 11 locations in four states.	eng
9308	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	No specific threats known. Potential threats include forestry and development.	eng
9311	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	In Florida, occurs in Blackwater River State Park, Blackwater River State Forest, and Apalachicola National Forest, and in Conecuh National Forest in Alabama.	eng
9311	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from 15 counties within the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi. Current population size is unknown.	eng
9311	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Clean sand-bottomed streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000).	eng
9311	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
9311	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Usual threats of development, forestry, and pollution.	eng
9312	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	No management plans are formally operative; for their formulation, Tennessen urged cooperation with land owners, habitat restoration, and regular Odonata surveys (Bick 2003).	eng
9312	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States: 60 square miles in south central Tennessee.	eng
9312	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Third order streams, 10 to 60 ft wide, with a highly variable rate of flow, and with bottoms a mix of small gravel and sand; silt, mud, organic debris are minor (Tennessen 1994).	eng
9312	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
9312	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Streams subject to pesticides, organic pollution, cattle trampling of banks.	eng
9313	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States.	eng
9313	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Medium to large, clean, rocky rivers with muddy and silty reaches.	eng
9313	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
9313	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Northern population (form, subspecies, or species) occurs in the Delaware River National Recreation Area. Little Cahaba River, Alabama, population is on Nature Conservancy Preserve (Krotzer 2002).	eng
9400	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9401	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9402	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is protected under Mexican law and is included in CITES Appendix I. A substantial part of the southern area of occurrence of the species is effectively protected by the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (3,424 sq. km., IUCN Category VI) in Durango; a substantial northern population is protected through cooperative agreement with Rancho Sombreretillo in Chihuahua (Trevino <em>et al</em>. 1997); and a number of ranches in the area afford private protection. <br/> <br/>Research concerning the species have led to good understanding of the species' biology. Local awareness projects combined with enforcement of legal protection have had very positive local effects (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). Some <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> captive groups exist and some conservation breeding successes have occurred, and headstarted juveniles have been released (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989, Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Reintroduction / relocation of the species into Big Bend NP (Texas, US) has been proposed (Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 1997) but has found little support with US authorities to date. <br/> <br/>Further intensive <em>in situ</em> conservation action for the species is warranted, with ongoing public awareness and outreach and perhaps continuing operation of captive insurance colonies.	eng
9402	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Occurs restricted to a series of disjunct isolated basins collectively known as the Bolson de Mapimi of south-eastern Chihuahua, western Coahuila and northern Durango, Mexico (Aguirre in Groombridge 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989, Iverson 1992). <br/> <br/>The Bolson de Mapimi covers about 40,000 sq. km; the total geographic range of <em>G. flavomarginatus</em> measures about 150 km across, and the area of occupancy is about 7,000 sq. km (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).  <br/>The past distribution of the species was much wider - Pleistocene fossils indicate occurrence as far away as south-western Arizona and Oklahoma, US, and Aguascalientes, Mexico (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
9402	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Bolson Tortoises prefer low grade slopes (0.5% to 2%) of fine textured soil (averaging 48% sand, 32% silt, 10% clay, 10% gravel), vegetated by mixed sclerophyll shrub and desert bunch grass. These areas generally fringe basin floodplains. The area of occurrence is between 1,000 and 1,400 m altitude. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Bolson Tortoises dig burrows up to 8 m long and 2 m deep as refuge from predators and extremes of climatic and weather conditions, and surface activity is correlated with rainfall and temperature. Aguirre <em>et al</em>. (1989) calculated that adult Bolson Tortoises spend less than 1% of their entire lives on the surface, either basking or feeding along well-established trails near the burrow. Burrows are constructed in social aggregations, and clusters show social structuring of individuals. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). Radiotracked juveniles preferred to excavate (or opportunistically use) burrows under <em>Opuntia</em> cacti (Tom 1994). <br/> <br/>Bolson Tortoises are exclusively herbivorous, feeding on a variety of grasses, shrubs and herbs (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>This is the largest North American tortoise species, approaching 40 cm CL (fossils indicate past size more than double this). Both sexes reach similar size. Sexual maturity probably occurs at CL over 25 cm and 15 to 20 years of age. Females outnumber males, at male/female ratios of 0.43 to 0.83 in different populations. Wild females produce 1 or 2 clutches (average 1.3) averaging 5.2 eggs; infertility rate averages 35%. Thus, an average female will produce only 3.4 offspring in an 8-year period of her reproductive period. With perhaps a survivorship of less than 5% to maturity, replacement time is over half a century.	eng
9402	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Populations are localized and disjunct. Three major populations sustain large reproducing populations, and three further minor populations exist. Total number of adults was estimated at a maximum of 7,000 to 10,000 in 1989. (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Maximum known recent density is seven animals per hectare, but normal density is at the order of one animal per hectare. (Morafka 1982, Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
9402	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The extreme reduction of the species' range in geological time has been attributed to a combination of climatic change, seismic activity eliminating whole populations by collapsing burrows, and overexploitation by paleoindians (Morafka<em> et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>In recent decades, Bolson Tortoises have been overexploited for food by local residents (particularly resettled people in ejidos) and particularly by railroad workers since the 1940s construction of railroads; tortoises were also collected and shipped by rail to coastal Pacific cities for gourmet consumption. Tortoises are now absent from a 10 km strip on either side of the railroad, and from the vicinity of roads. (Morafka 1982; Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Ongoing threats include habitat degradation and destruction by overgrazing, ploughing and irrigation, which have apparently contributed to the extirpation of large tortoise colonies through direct mortality and reduced juvenile survival and thus recruitment (Morafka <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
9403	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9404	conservation	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Oates, J.F., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Gatti, S., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn. A., 2008	National and international laws controlling hunting or capture of gorillas exist in all habitat countries, but enforcement of protective legislation is almost non-existent. <em>G. gorilla</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention. Conservation areas exist in most gorilla range states and several National Parks have been created recently specifically to protect great apes and other large mammals. Strongholds identified as exceptional priority areas for ape conservation and not yet affected by Ebola are: the Dja Conservation complex and Boumba-Bek/Nki complex in Cameroon, the Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba complex in Gabon, the Lac Télé Likouala complex in RoC, and the Sangha Trinational complex of the Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). National Parks offer no protection from Ebola and only one of these remaining gorilla strongholds (Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba) is remote from recent epidemics (P. Walsh, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Urgent conservation needs include the effective implementation of protection laws. Conservation areas must be adequately protected and managed, and some additional areas should be gazetted. Surveys of outlier populations in Cameroon, Cabinda and the Democratic Republic of Congo are needed, as are conservation education programmes. Extensive resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola. A better understanding of the spatial and temporal spread of the disease between and within species may allow development of a pro-active campaign to protect at-risk great ape and human populations through vaccination and/or the reinforcement of effective physical barriers (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recommendations for reducing the negative impacts of selective logging on large mammals, including gorillas, have been formulated and applied in pilot zones (Elkan <em>et al</em>. 2006, Morgan and Sanz 2007), but considerable efforts are needed to establish partnerships with the logging industry such that protective measures are enforced, and concessions bordering National Parks are a priority. Finally, the poor understanding of the current size of the population of western gorillas must be addressed. Much of the western lowland gorilla's range has not been surveyed recently and survey methods have not been consistently reliable. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola and commercial hunting are known to have caused dramatic and rapid declines in affected areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods as well as regular monitoring of populations in protected areas are urgently needed throughout the western gorilla's range. This will enable the conservation community to design and implement optimal conservation strategies in the face of this potent cocktail of threats.<br/><br/>A series of three workshops has identified priority actions for the conservation of <em>G. g. diehli</em>, and these have been formulated into an IUCN Action Plan (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007). There are several cross-cutting actions which require attention throughout Cross River gorilla range, notably increasing conservation education and awareness, fostering improved community participation in conservation issues, increasing trans-boundary conservation activities such as joint patrols to control timber and bushmeat between the two countries, and further research. The most urgently-needed actions identified, which must be undertaken for any longer-term measures to be effective, are habitat protection and the control of hunting. In Nigeria the majority of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population occurs within formal protected areas (Cross River National Park and Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary), but in Cameroon none of the population is as yet protected in this way (although two areas are in process of establishment: Takamanda National Park and Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary). Further areas, including migration corridors, need to be brought under conservation management to increase the chances for the long-term survival of a viable population of Cross River gorillas, and the effectiveness of existing management improved.	eng
9404	distribution	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Oates, J.F., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Gatti, S., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn. A., 2008	The western gorilla <em>Gorilla gorilla</em> is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic (CAR), mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo (RoC), Cabinda (Angola), and possibly in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The core population had until recently an almost continuous distribution in suitable habitat from southern CAR to the Congo River and west to the coast. Small outlying populations remain on the Nigeria-Cameroon border at the headwaters of the Cross River and in the Ebo/Ndokbou forest in Cameroon, just north of the lower Sanaga River. The species may also persist in the Maiombe region of Democratic Republic of Congo contiguous with Cabinda.<br/><br/>Two subspecies are currently recognized. <em>G. g. gorilla</em> (Savage and Wyman, 1847) occurs in Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), south to the Congo River mouth, and east across the Sangha River, to the Oubangi River. The subspecies <em>G. g. diehli</em> (Matschie, 1903) occurs in a small area on the Nigeria-Cameroon border, extending a short distance on either side of the border in the forests on the upper drainage of the Cross River.	eng
9404	habitat	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Oates, J.F., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Gatti, S., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn. A., 2008	Found primarily in lowland tropical forest, particularly where there is dense ground-level herbaceous growth, and in swamp forests. Staple foods are pith, leaves and shoots. Fruit component of the diet is generally high but varies with seasonal availability (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Gorillas live in groups averaging 10 and occasionally over 20 individuals, composed of at least one adult male, several adult females and their offspring. Each group?s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. The few precise life-history data available for <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> in the wild come from six years of observation of habituated groups at Lossi (prior to the Ebola epidemic) and from 6.5 years of observation at Mbeli Bai in the Nouabalé-Ndoki NP (RoC). Birth rates at Lossi and Mbeli Bai averaged 0.18 and 0.2 respectively with inter-birth-intervals of 4 to 6 years for six females whose first infant survived (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Infant mortality up to three years of age, in populations not affected by Ebola, was 22% and 65%, respectively, for Lossi and Mbeli (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Compared with the much larger demographic datasets from almost three decades of observation of mountain gorillas (<em>Gorilla beringei beringei</em>), it appears that western lowland gorillas reproduce more slowly due to longer inter-birth-intervals and higher infant mortality. Patterns of male and female emigration appear to be similar, but large groups (>20) containing more than one adult male are relatively uncommon in <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Two studies of <em>G. g. diehli</em> (at Afi and Kagwene) demonstrated flexible grouping patterns with groups ranging in size from 2 to 20. These grouping patterns likely occur for several reasons, including restricted habitat, feeding competition related to fruit consumption, high hunting pressure, and limited opportunities for male migration between nuclei (McFarland 2007). Each group?s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. Today, Cross River gorillas are restricted mostly to hilly areas, and range from lowland to submontane forest (Allen 1932, Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sunderland-Groves <em>et al</em>. 2003), although they occasionally use lowland areas between hills (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bergl 2006).	eng
9404	population	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Oates, J.F., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Gatti, S., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn. A., 2008	<strong><em>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</em></strong><br/>Previous assessments have focused on habitat availability as the major predictor of gorilla abundance. Thus, the commonly cited figure of 95,000 western gorillas (Harcourt 1996) is based on an assumption that all intact habitat in Western Equatorial Africa contains gorillas at densities that were typical of Gabon in the early 1980s. However, habitat loss is not the major driver of ape decline in this region. Rather, recent surveys suggest that since the early 1980s, commercial hunting and outbreaks of the Ebola virus have virtually extirpated gorillas from a great deal of otherwise intact forest. Technical problems with the conversion of ape nest density to estimates of gorilla density preclude a rigorous estimate of range-wide gorilla abundance.<br/><br/><strong><em>Gorilla gorilla diehli</em></strong><br/>Although gorillas in the Cross River region first became known to science in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, little attention was paid to their conservation status until the late 1980s (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1989). Early reports had referred to their precarious situation, but little had been done to thoroughly examine their distribution and abundance, or to protect the remaining population and habitat (Anon 1934, Critchley 1968, March 1957). Intensive surveys over the last decade have found that approximately 250 to 300 <em>G. g. diehli</em> persist in a forested area of roughly 8,000 km². This estimate is of uncertain accuracy and is based primarily on nest counts and estimated range size. The gorillas are found in at least 10 localities (Groves 2002, Beamont 2004, Bergl 2006, Bergl and Vigilant 2007). Though the localities where the gorillas are found are geographically distinct, the majority of these areas are connected by forested land. Recent genetic evidence suggests that three subpopulations are present, but that these subpopulations do have limited reproductive contact (Bergl and Vigilant 2007). These localities are primarily rugged highlands, typically in areas relatively less disturbed by human activity. While there may be an ecological component to this distribution, the gorilla?s concentration in highland areas is almost certainly strongly influenced by human hunting pressure, which is more intense in the lowlands. Ebola has not been reported in the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population, but their close proximity to dense human populations puts them at high potential risk of acquiring human pathogens (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
9404	threats	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Oates, J.F., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Gatti, S., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn. A., 2008	<strong><em>Gorilla gorilla gorilla</em></strong><br/>There are two primary drivers of rapid western lowland gorilla decline: commercial hunting and the Ebola virus. Until the early 1980s, the interior of western lowland gorilla range included a series of vast, road-less blocks of forest where hunting access was extremely difficult and gorilla densities were high. Since then improvements in transportation infrastructure, devaluation of the regional currency, declining oil stocks, and timber depletion in other tropical regions have led to an explosion in mechanized logging. Regional timber production nearly doubled between 1991 and 2000 (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vast tracts of previously inaccessible forest have recently been penetrated by logging roads, which provide commercial hunters ready access to remote areas with high ape densities, and to markets. Logging vehicles are also used to transport bushmeat, and logging employees eat more bushmeat than do local villagers.<br/><br/>The gorillas? very low reproductive rates (3% maximum observed rate of population increase, Steklis and Gerald-Steklis 2001) mean that even low levels of hunting are enough to cause population decline. Consequently, the logging boom has caused a rapid crash in gorilla numbers. For example, Gabon experienced an estimated 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000, most of which was attributed to hunting (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Given that Gabon is the least heavily human populated country in the region, hunting impact is likely as high or higher in other range states. The threat posed by logging promises to continue and even intensify in the foreseeable future. Rates of timber production in the region are increasing (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002), in the case of Gabon exponentially (Figure 1). Profits in the industry are derived largely through exploitation of previously unlogged areas rather than sustainable harvesting in older concessions. The current trajectory predicts that the last remaining tracts of inaccessible forest will be opened to logging in the next 10 to 20 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Roundwood production in Gabon (1980-2005).<br/><br/>The second major driver of rapid gorilla decline is disease, specifically the Ebola virus. Since the early 1990s, Ebola has caused a series of massive gorilla and chimpanzee die-offs in remote forest blocks at the heart of their range. Outbreaks were first noted in 1994 in the Minkébé forest block of northern Gabon (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003). Before Ebola?s arrival, what is now Minkébé National Park held what was probably the second largest protected gorilla and chimpanzee population in the world. In 1996 Ebola emerged in the Lopé Reserve (now National Park) in central Gabon, in 2001 in the Mwagné forest block of eastern Gabon, in 2002 to 2003 in the adjoining Lossi forest block of north-west Congo, and in 2003 to 2005 in the Odzala National Park in north-west Congo (Figure 2). The Ivindo forest block of central Gabon was not monitored during the outbreak period, but it lies directly adjacent to the 1996 human outbreak zone around Booué and recent observations suggest an ape die-off there too.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 2</strong>: Protected areas with important western lowland gorilla populations.<br/><br/>Both phylogenetic analyses of the Ebola virus genome and analyses of the spatio-temporal pattern of outbreaks in humans and wild apes (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that these outbreaks were not isolated events but part of a spreading epizootic of Ebola in its reservoir host (probably bats, Leroy <em>et al</em>. 2005). Moving at about 40 to 45 km/year, this epizootic has for the last decade spread in an east/north-easterly direction across the region. Although continued spread is not guaranteed, the epizootic?s past spread rate has been highly consistent, making it possible to accurately predict the timing of the Odzala die-off well before it occurred (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>During Ebola outbreaks, gorilla mortality rates have been extremely high. During three different outbreaks at two different study sites, individually known social groups containing almost 600 gorillas were monitored. In all three outbreaks about 95% of known individuals died (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Higher survival rates amongst solitary individuals suggest that most of the remaining 5% may be individuals who were never infected rather than resistant survivors (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nest surveys at four different sites exhibit an ?all or none? pattern of Ebola impact. Areas of 10,000 km² or more showing 95% declines in abundance transition abruptly into areas with little or no mortality (Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007, WCS and Government of Congo MEF unpublished data). These low ape densities are not reasonably attributed to hunting pressure as most of the remote survey zones had high ape densities just a few years before the declines were detected and because densities of other preferred target species (e.g., elephants and duiker) were still high after the Ebola outbreaks (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The proportion of habitat in the 95% mortality class varied amongst outbreak sites, from little or none at Lopé to the entire Mwagné survey zone (Table 1a). In Odzala National Park, which held what were by far the largest protected populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in the world, the outbreak zone covered about 58% of the park. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1a</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in six survey zones.<br/><br/>Table 1a contains estimates of the percent decline in gorilla abundance in each survey zone. In the Lossi and Odzala zones, extensive survey data allowed a fairly precise mapping of outbreak and non-outbreak zones. Therefore, the number presented for these two zones is based on the proportion of the survey zone in each outbreak class (Outbreak vs. NonOutbreak) and the assumption of 95% mortality in outbreak areas. This approach was not possible for the Mwagné and Minkébé sites where virtually the entire populations were wiped out, or for the Ivindo site where survey intensity was not high enough to precisely map outbreak and non-outbreak zones. For these sites, nest encounter rates for surveys conducted before Ebola emergence are compared with nest encounter rates after Ebola emergence (Pre-Ebola vs. Post-Ebola). No attempt was made to estimate % decline for Lopé because it was the only zone to be logged before Ebola arrival and the only area in which a substantial proportion of the survey zone has experienced high rates of hunting. This makes it difficult to discriminate Ebola impact from hunting impact. Therefore, for the purposes of this analysis, Ebola is assumed to have had zero impact at Lopé. Estimated declines in gorilla abundance for the five zones for which estimates have been made range from 56% at Odzala to more than 95% at Mwagné and Minkébé. When decline rates are averaged across all six zones (with the contribution of each zone weighted by its surface area) the mean decline is 74% (weighting by relative abundance makes no significant difference; see Table 1b). The assumption of zero impact at Lopé has a conservative effect on this mean value (see Table 1a and 1b for comparison).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1b</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in five survey zones.<br/><br/>These six protected areas account for 45% of the total protected area habitat (67,250 km²) in which significant western lowland gorilla populations were found before Ebola emergence (Table 2). If we assume that all major protected areas had the same pre-Ebola density, this implies that 33% of the total protected area population of western lowland gorilla (100*(0.45*0.26+0.55*1) = 33%) has been killed by Ebola just over the last 13 to 14 years. This estimate is highly conservative in that pre-Ebola density estimates for protected areas with Ebola impact were typically much higher than for protected areas without recorded Ebola impact.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Protected areas holding significant pre-Ebola outbreak populations of western lowland gorilla, and Ebola-induced declines. <strong>Note: more detailed tabular data to support the calculations are available upon request</strong>.<br/><br/>If the Ebola epizootic continues at the same rate and trajectory, it could reach most of the remaining protected areas with large populations of western lowland gorillas within the next 5 to 10 years. Six major protected areas (Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobéké Reserves in Cameroon, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in C.A.R., Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and Lac Télé Reserve in Congo) lie in the wave?s path and account for 44.6% of the protected area habitat where Ebola outbreaks have yet to be documented. All six areas lie inside a 275 km radius from the 2004 Lossi outbreak site at Odzala National Park. Thus, if the epizootic wave continues to spread at its past rate it may move through all six sites by about 2011 (calculated as 2004 + (275 km/43 km/yr)). If all sites suffered declines of a magnitude similar to previous parks (i.e. 74%), this would represent a 32.6% decline in the unaffected protected area population (calculated as: 100*((area of habitat affected*mortality rate)/total habitat)). Combined with previous impact, this would constitute a 45.4% Ebola-induced decline of Western Gorilla abundance in all protected areas (Table 2) in a period of just 20 years (i.e., from 1992 to 2011), or about one generation length*. This estimate is conservative in that these six protected areas are more remote than the other unaffected parks and are, therefore, likely to hold a higher proportion of the western gorilla population than is predicted by their area. The decline estimate is also independent of any decline caused by other factors (e.g., hunting), which, as already noted, was the primary reason for a 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000 in Gabon alone.<br/><br/>Timber extraction is the major source of forest clearance in western lowland gorilla range, which retains the highest percentage of forest cover in equatorial Africa (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Logging is selective, regional deforestation rates average only about 0.4% per year (FAO 2001), and gorillas do well in secondary forest if hunting is controlled. Thus, forest clearance alone should not become a major threat to western lowland gorillas for at least two or three decades, by which time other causes, if left unchecked, will already have greatly depleted populations. Forest clearance for agriculture is a major threat in heavily populated coastal regions, particularly in Cameroon. However, these areas harbour only a tiny fraction (probably <5%) of remaining western lowland gorillas. <br/><br/>Finally, there are hints that climate change may pose a serious future threat. Most of the western gorilla range receives rainfall only slightly higher than the amount necessary to maintain closed canopy forest. The last few decades have seen a decline in mean rainfall and a lengthening of dry seasons (Giannini <em>et al</em>. 2003), which increase the risk of forest fires. If this drying trend continues, there is a risk that large scale forest fires will cause dramatic forest loss, as seen recently in Southeast Asia and South America (Cochrane 2003). This risk will be magnified if regional climate trends are reinforced by local scale forest clearance for agriculture and timber (Baidya Roy <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on calculation of generation time can be found in Appendix 1 (follow the link below for <strong>Appendix 1</strong>).<br/><br/><strong><em>Gorilla gorilla diehli</em></strong><br/>The remaining population of <em>G. g. diehli</em> is small and fragmented, occurs mostly outside of protected areas (especially in Cameroon) and is surrounded by some of the most densely populated human settlements in Africa. This subspecies is at risk from its small size and associated increases in inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. The lack of strictly protected areas throughout much of the range of <em>G. g. diehli</em> makes the future of sizeable portions of gorilla habitat uncertain. Conversion of forest for agriculture and grazing is occurring rapidly in many parts of the gorillas? range and the largest current protected area in which Cross River gorillas occur (the Okwangwo Division of Nigeria?s Cross River National Park) contains enclaves of human settlements whose farmlands have spread beyond their legal boundaries and threaten to divide the park into two. The construction and improvement of roads in both Cameroon and Nigeria also threatens to increase subdivision of the population. Though legal prohibitions against the killing of gorillas exist in Nigeria and Cameroon, enforcement of wildlife laws is often lax, and most protected areas suffer from poorly-controlled poaching. Although recent conservation efforts have reduced hunting of Cross River gorillas to a low level, the threat remains and the small size of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population means that almost any level of hunting off-take is likely to be unsustainable and have a significant negative effect on population size.	eng
9406	conservation	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J. & Gatti, S., 2008	National and international laws controlling hunting or capture of gorillas exist in all habitat countries, but enforcement of protective legislation is almost non-existent. <em>G. gorilla</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES and in Class A of the African Convention. Conservation areas exist in most gorilla range states and several National Parks have been created recently specifically to protect great apes and other large mammals. Strongholds identified as exceptional priority areas for ape conservation and not yet affected by Ebola are: the Dja Conservation complex and Boumba-Bek/Nki complex in Cameroon, the Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba complex in Gabon, the Lac Télé Likouala complex in RoC, and the Sangha Trinational complex of the Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). National Parks offer no protection from Ebola and only one of these remaining gorilla strongholds (Loango/Moukalaba-Doudou/Gamba) is remote from recent epidemics (P. Walsh, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Urgent conservation needs include the effective implementation of protection laws. Conservation areas must be adequately protected and managed, and some additional areas should be gazetted. Surveys of outlier populations in Cameroon, Cabinda and the Democratic Republic of Congo are needed, as are conservation education programmes. Extensive resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola. A better understanding of the spatial and temporal spread of the disease between and within species may allow development of a pro-active campaign to protect at-risk great ape and human populations through vaccination and/or the reinforcement of effective physical barriers (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recommendations for reducing the negative impacts of selective logging on large mammals, including gorillas, have been formulated and applied in pilot zones (Elkan <em>et al</em>. 2006, Morgan and Sanz 2007), but considerable efforts are needed to establish partnerships with the logging industry such that protective measures are enforced, and concessions bordering National Parks are a priority. Finally, the poor understanding of the current size of the population of western gorillas must be addressed. Much of the western lowland gorilla’s range has not been surveyed recently and survey methods have not been consistently reliable. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola and commercial hunting are known to have caused dramatic and rapid declines in affected areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods as well as regular monitoring of populations in protected areas are urgently needed throughout the western gorilla’s range. This will enable the conservation community to design and implement optimal conservation strategies in the face of this potent cocktail of threats.	eng
9406	distribution	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J. & Gatti, S., 2008	<em>G. g. gorilla</em> (Savage and Wyman ,1847) occurs in Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), south to the Congo River mouth, and east across the Sangha River, to the Oubangi River.	eng
9406	habitat	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J. & Gatti, S., 2008	Found primarily in lowland tropical forest, particularly where there is dense ground-level herbaceous growth, and in swamp forests. Staple foods are pith, leaves and shoots. Fruit component of the diet is generally high but varies with seasonal availability (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Gorillas live in groups averaging 10 and occasionally over 20 individuals, composed of at least one adult male, several adult females and their offspring. Each group’s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. The few precise life-history data available for <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> in the wild come from six years of observation of habituated groups at Lossi (prior to the Ebola epidemic) and from 6.5 years of observation at Mbeli Bai in the Nouabalé-Ndoki NP (RoC). Birth rates at Lossi and Mbeli Bai averaged 0.18 and 0.2 respectively with inter-birth-intervals of 4 to 6 years for six females whose first infant survived (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Infant mortality up to three years of age, in populations not affected by Ebola, was 22% and 65%, respectively, for Lossi and Mbeli (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004). Compared with the much larger demographic datasets from almost three decades of observation of mountain gorillas (<em>Gorilla beringei beringei</em>), it appears that western lowland gorillas reproduce more slowly due to longer inter-birth-intervals and higher infant mortality. Patterns of male and female emigration appear to be similar, but large groups (>20) containing more than one adult male are relatively uncommon in <em>Gorilla g. gorilla</em> (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
9406	population	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J. & Gatti, S., 2008	Previous assessments have focused on habitat availability as the major predictor of gorilla abundance. Thus, the commonly cited figure of 95,000 western gorillas (Harcourt 1996) is based on an assumption that all intact habitat in Western Equatorial Africa contains gorillas at densities that were typical of Gabon in the early 1980s. However, habitat loss is not the major driver of ape decline in this region. Rather, recent surveys suggest that since the early 1980s, commercial hunting and outbreaks of the Ebola virus have virtually extirpated gorillas from a great deal of otherwise intact forest. Technical problems with the conversion of ape nest density to estimates of gorilla density preclude a rigorous estimate of range-wide gorilla abundance.	eng
9406	threats	Walsh, P.D., Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J. & Gatti, S., 2008	There are two primary drivers of rapid western lowland gorilla decline: commercial hunting and the Ebola virus. Until the early 1980s, the interior of western lowland gorilla range included a series of vast, road-less blocks of forest where hunting access was extremely difficult and gorilla densities were high. Since then improvements in transportation infrastructure, devaluation of the regional currency, declining oil stocks, and timber depletion in other tropical regions have led to an explosion in mechanized logging. Regional timber production nearly doubled between 1991 and 2000 (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vast tracts of previously inaccessible forest have recently been penetrated by logging roads, which provide commercial hunters ready access to remote areas with high ape densities, and to markets. Logging vehicles are also used to transport bushmeat, and logging employees eat more bushmeat than do local villagers.<br/><br/>The gorillas’ very low reproductive rates (3% maximum observed rate of population increase, Steklis and Gerald-Steklis 2001) mean that even low levels of hunting are enough to cause population decline. Consequently, the logging boom has caused a rapid crash in gorilla numbers. For example, Gabon experienced an estimated 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000, most of which was attributed to hunting (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Given that Gabon is the least heavily human populated country in the region, hunting impact is likely as high or higher in other range states. The threat posed by logging promises to continue and even intensify in the foreseeable future. Rates of timber production in the region are increasing (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002), in the case of Gabon exponentially (Figure 1). Profits in the industry are derived largely through exploitation of previously unlogged areas rather than sustainable harvesting in older concessions. The current trajectory predicts that the last remaining tracts of inaccessible forest will be opened to logging in the next 10 to 20 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Roundwood production in Gabon (1980-2005).<br/><br/>The second major driver of rapid gorilla decline is disease, specifically the Ebola virus. Since the early 1990s, Ebola has caused a series of massive gorilla and chimpanzee die-offs in remote forest blocks at the heart of their range. Outbreaks were first noted in 1994 in the Minkébé forest block of northern Gabon (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003). Before Ebola’s arrival, what is now Minkébé National Park held what was probably the second largest protected gorilla and chimpanzee population in the world. In 1996 Ebola emerged in the Lopé Reserve (now National Park) in central Gabon, in 2001 in the Mwagné forest block of eastern Gabon, in 2002 to 2003 in the adjoining Lossi forest block of north-west Congo, and in 2003 to 2005 in the Odzala National Park in north-west Congo (Figure 2). The Ivindo forest block of central Gabon was not monitored during the outbreak period, but it lies directly adjacent to the 1996 human outbreak zone around Booué and recent observations suggest an ape die-off there too.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 2</strong>: Protected areas with important western lowland gorilla populations.<br/><br/>Both phylogenetic analyses of the Ebola virus genome and analyses of the spatio-temporal pattern of outbreaks in humans and wild apes (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that these outbreaks were not isolated events but part of a spreading epizootic of Ebola in its reservoir host (probably bats, Leroy <em>et al</em>. 2005). Moving at about 40 to 45 km/year, this epizootic has for the last decade spread in an east/north-easterly direction across the region. Although continued spread is not guaranteed, the epizootic’s past spread rate has been highly consistent, making it possible to accurately predict the timing of the Odzala die-off well before it occurred (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>During Ebola outbreaks, gorilla mortality rates have been extremely high. During three different outbreaks at two different study sites, individually known social groups containing almost 600 gorillas were monitored. In all three outbreaks about 95% of known individuals died (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Higher survival rates amongst solitary individuals suggest that most of the remaining 5% may be individuals who were never infected rather than resistant survivors (Caillaud <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nest surveys at four different sites exhibit an “all or none” pattern of Ebola impact. Areas of 10,000 km² or more showing 95% declines in abundance transition abruptly into areas with little or no mortality (Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007, WCS and Government of Congo MEF unpublished data). These low ape densities are not reasonably attributed to hunting pressure as most of the remote survey zones had high ape densities just a few years before the declines were detected and because densities of other preferred target species (e.g., elephants and duiker) were still high after the Ebola outbreaks (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The proportion of habitat in the 95% mortality class varied amongst outbreak sites, from little or none at Lopé to the entire Mwagné survey zone (Table 1a). In Odzala National Park, which held what were by far the largest protected populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in the world, the outbreak zone covered about 58% of the park. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1a</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in six survey zones.<br/><br/>Table 1a contains estimates of the percent decline in gorilla abundance in each survey zone. In the Lossi and Odzala zones, extensive survey data allowed a fairly precise mapping of outbreak and non-outbreak zones. Therefore, the number presented for these two zones is based on the proportion of the survey zone in each outbreak class (Outbrk vs. NonOutbrk) and the assumption of 95% mortality in outbreak areas. This approach was not possible for the Mwagné and Minkébé sites where virtually the entire populations were wiped out, or for the Ivindo site where survey intensity was not high enough to precisely map outbreak and non-outbreak zones. For these sites, nest encounter rates for surveys conducted before Ebola emergence are compared with nest encounter rates after Ebola emergence (Pre-Ebola vs. Post-Ebola). No attempt was made to estimate % decline for Lopé because it was the only zone to be logged before Ebola arrival and the only area in which a substantial proportion of the survey zone has experienced high rates of hunting. This makes it difficult to discriminate Ebola impact from hunting impact. Therefore, for the purposes of this analysis, Ebola is assumed to have had zero impact at Lopé. Estimated declines in gorilla abundance for the five zones for which estimates have been made range from 56% at Odzala to more than 95% at Mwagné and Minkébé. When decline rates are averaged across all six zones (with the contribution of each zone weighted by its surface area) the mean decline is 74% (weighting by relative abundance makes no significant difference; see Table 1b). The assumption of zero impact at Lopé has a conservative effect on this mean value (see Table 1a and 1b for comparison).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1b</strong>: Estimates of percent decline in gorilla abundance in five survey zones.<br/><br/>These six protected areas account for 45% of the total protected area habitat (67,250 km²) in which significant western lowland gorilla populations were found before Ebola emergence (Table 2). If we assume that all major protected areas had the same pre-Ebola density, this implies that 33% of the total protected area population of western lowland gorilla (100*(0.45*0.26+0.55*1) = 33%) has been killed by Ebola just over the last 13 to 14 years. This estimate is highly conservative in that pre-Ebola density estimates for protected areas with Ebola impact were typically much higher than for protected areas without recorded Ebola impact.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Protected areas holding significant pre-Ebola outbreak populations of western lowland gorilla, and Ebola-induced declines. <strong>Note: more detailed tabular data to support the calculations are available upon request</strong>.<br/><br/>If the Ebola epizootic continues at the same rate and trajectory, it could reach most of the remaining protected areas with large populations of western lowland gorillas within the next 5 to 10 years. Six major protected areas (Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobéké Reserves in Cameroon, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in C.A.R., Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and Lac Télé Reserve in Congo) lie in the wave’s path and account for 44.6% of the protected area habitat where Ebola outbreaks have yet to be documented. All six areas lie inside a 275 km radius from the 2004 Lossi outbreak site at Odzala National Park. Thus, if the epizootic wave continues to spread at its past rate it may move through all six sites by about 2011 (calculated as 2004 + (275 km/43 km/yr)). If all sites suffered declines of a magnitude similar to previous parks (i.e. 74%), this would represent a 32.6% decline in the unaffected protected area population (calculated as: 100*((area of habitat affected*mortality rate)/total habitat)). Combined with previous impact, this would constitute a 45.4% Ebola-induced decline of Western Gorilla abundance in all protected areas (Table 2) in a period of just 20 years (i.e., from 1992 to 2011), or about one generation length*. This estimate is conservative in that these six protected areas are more remote than the other unaffected parks and are, therefore, likely to hold a higher proportion of the western gorilla population than is predicted by their area. The decline estimate is also independent of any decline caused by other factors (e.g., hunting), which, as already noted, was the primary reason for a 56% decline in ape abundance from 1983 to 2000 in Gabon alone.<br/><br/>Timber extraction is the major source of forest clearance in western lowland gorilla range, which retains the highest percentage of forest cover in equatorial Africa (Minnemeyer <em>et al</em>. 2002). Logging is selective, regional deforestation rates average only about 0.4% per year (FAO 2001), and gorillas do well in secondary forest if hunting is controlled. Thus, forest clearance alone should not become a major threat to western lowland gorillas for at least two or three decades, by which time other causes, if left unchecked, will already have greatly depleted populations. Forest clearance for agriculture is a major threat in heavily populated coastal regions, particularly in Cameroon. However, these areas harbour only a tiny fraction (probably <5%) of remaining western lowland gorillas. <br/><br/>Finally, there are hints that climate change may pose a serious future threat. Most of the western gorilla range receives rainfall only slightly higher than the amount necessary to maintain closed canopy forest. The last few decades have seen a decline in mean rainfall and a lengthening of dry seasons (Giannini <em>et al</em>. 2003), which increase the risk of forest fires. If this drying trend continues, there is a risk that large scale forest fires will cause dramatic forest loss, as seen recently in Southeast Asia and South America (Cochrane 2003). This risk will be magnified if regional climate trends are reinforced by local scale forest clearance for agriculture and timber (Baidya Roy <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on calculation of generation time can be found in Appendix 1 (follow the link below for <strong>Appendix 1</strong>).	eng
9416	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari S., 2008	The species has been recorded in at least a few protected areas.	eng
9416	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari S., 2008	This species is known only from around six localities in southeastern Peru through northwest Bolivia. The localities include the type locality the Aceramarca River (tributary of the Unduavi River in Yungas) in La Paz, Bolivia (Gardner, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,600 to 3,290 m (Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
9416	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari S., 2008	This species inhabits tropical forests (elfin forest). It is likely that <em>G. aceramarcae</em> is arboreal, although it may forage for fruit, insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor. There are no records outside of forest.	eng
9416	population	Patterson, B. & Solari S., 2008	Unknown. There is difficulty sampling this species due to its arboreal habits.	eng
9416	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari S., 2008	There is very little known about threats, although deforestation rates in the species’ range are not currently suspected to be high.	eng
9417	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species and effect of possible threats.	eng
9417	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is found in the southeast of Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina; also, in eastern Peru and eastern Bolivia.	eng
9417	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Nocturnal; arboreal; frequents the forest understory, where they use slender branches and vines. Found in evergreen and gallery forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). <em>G. agilis</em> is a characteristic inhabitant of the gallery forest of southern South America but has broad habitat tolerance. It has been caught under fallen trunks, in tree holes, and in moist woodland. It is reported to be an adept climber, and nests made of vegetation have been found 1.6 m off the ground. One such nest contained seven individuals. In eastern Paraguay it has usually been captured in vegetation but sometimes has been caught on the ground. This marsupial is found throughout the Brazilian cerrado, usually associated with mesic areas such as gallery forests. This mouse opossum is reported to have up to twelve young. Females lack a true pouch, and the teats remain hidden when the female is not lactating (Massoia and Fornes, 1972; Nitikman and Mares, 1987).	eng
9417	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Locally common to rare. May be present but very rare throughout western Amazonia, but common in dry forests to the south (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
9417	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	No major threats. In some areas, especially along the Andean foothills, the species is declining due to deforestation.	eng
9418	conservation	Soriano, P. & Lew, D., 2008	The species has been recorded from some protected areas.	eng
9418	distribution	Soriano, P. & Lew, D., 2008	This species has been found in the mountains of Mérida and the Paramo de Tama on the Venezuela/Colombia border in western Venezuela (Gardner, 2007). In the mountains of northern Venezuela, it is replaced by Gracilinanus marica. There are reports of the species from Cundinamarca in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). This species is found at high elevations from 1,100 to 4,000 m in Venezuela (D. Lew and P. Soriano pers. comm.).	eng
9418	habitat	Soriano, P. & Lew, D., 2008	This species inhabits tropical forests. It is likely that <em>G. dryas</em> is arboreal, although it may forage for fruit, insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor. This species is found in cloud forests and secondary forest. The species has not been recorded outside of forest.	eng
9418	population	Soriano, P. & Lew, D., 2008	This species is rare. There is difficulty in trapping the individuals due to its arboreal habits.	eng
9418	threats	Soriano, P. & Lew, D., 2008	The major threat is deforestation, which has severely fragmented much of the remaining forest in the region. The lower elevations have the highest fragmentation from 1,000 to 2,000 m, with both human settlements and farming, especially coffee and cattle. The higher elevations are within protected areas.	eng
9419	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
9419	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is only known for several locations across a broad area of northern South America and its true distribution is unknown. Eastern Columbia through eastern Venezuela, southern Guyana, and northern Suriname, northern French Guiana, through to eastern Brazil. There are several other published references for this species that are unreliable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
9419	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Poorly known. This species inhabits tropical forests, and has been recorded in dense secondary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is likely that G. emiliae is arboreal, although it may forage for fruit, insects and other small invertebrates on the forest floor.	eng
9419	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Extremely rare, known only from five individuals (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
9419	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats. Locally, habitat loss is an issue.	eng
9420	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
9420	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is confined to the north of Colombia and the northern coast of Venezuela (Gardner, 2007). There is an isolated record from Las Marimondas (1,450 m), Sierra de Perijá, La Guajira, Colombia (Hershkovitz, 1992). It is found up to sea level to 1,700 m.	eng
9420	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is associated with humid environments, frequently using the ecotone between forest and grasslands, mainly in riparian forest. This species is arboreal, and is found in lowland to montane rainforest, deciduous forest, and secondary forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Its diet consists of mainly fruit and insects. There are records from coffee plantations.	eng
9420	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is probably naturally rare (D. Lew and P. Soriano pers. comm.).	eng
9420	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There is some threat from habitat loss, though not as severe since it uses secondary habitats.	eng
9421	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas. More research is needed to define to true range of this species.	eng
9421	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is known only from southeastern Brazil, and from Misiones province in Argentina (Davis, 1947; Massoia, 1980; Vieira, 1949). Costa <em>et al.</em> (2003) demonstrated that this species occurs north into Minas Gerais state. Brown (2004) provided records south of Porto Alegre in Rio Grande do Sul state. Gardner (2007) does not recognize the localities in Misiones (Argentina) or Porto Alegre (Brazil), and the range needs clarification.	eng
9421	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Found in wet evergreen Atlantic coastal forest in eastern Brazil. <em>G. microtarsus</em> was regularly caught on the ground as well as in trees, in both virgin and second-growth forest, though its morphology suggests extensive arboreality. It will probably found be found to be confined to areas of moderate to high rainfall (Davis, 1947; Stallings, 1988; Tate, 1933).	eng
9421	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Restricted range. Not as abundant as G. agilis, although it is not rare (L. Costa pers. comm.).	eng
9421	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No presumed major threats. There is extensive deforestation in parts of its range.	eng
9422	conservation	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species has been recorded from some protected areas, and likely occurs in many protected areas.	eng
9422	distribution	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found from Peru eastwards to southern Guyana, northern French Guiana, and Brazil (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Gardner, 2007; Astua, 2005). The known distribution is patchy, however, the species likely opccurs across the northern Amazon but is difficult to capture. This species is known from 13 localities (Astua, 2005). It is found up to 1,000 m in elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
9422	habitat	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is nocturnal, and probably mostly arboreal, although some were captured in pitfall traps. It occurs in lowland and lower montane evergreen forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
9422	population	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	The rarity of this species is probably due the difficulty in trapping it (Astua, 2005). This species is known from 13 specimens (Astua, 2005).	eng
9422	threats	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is presumed not to have major threats, especially since deforestation rates are not extremely high throughout its range.	eng
9450	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. There may be a need to establish protected areas to conserve this species.	eng
9450	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is known only from the upland location of Jebel Marra, a large inselberg in the savanna environment of western Sudan.	eng
9450	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It inhabits arid woodland in rocky areas of valleys on the western side of Jebel Marra. It is not known if the species is present in modified habitats.	eng
9450	population	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9450	threats	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9451	conservation	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and thrreats of this little-known species.	eng
9451	distribution	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This West African species has been recorded from southern Senegal (two locations), southern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte D'Ivoire. It is known from very few localities.	eng
9451	habitat	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, coastal scrub and Guinea woodland (Rosevear 1969; Grub <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species nests in small shrubs and trees. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
9451	population	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It appears to be a very rare species.	eng
9451	threats	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9452	conservation	Boitani, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
9452	distribution	Boitani, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from Malindi in Kenya and along coastal parts of southern Somalia.	eng
9452	habitat	Boitani, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been collected in coastal dry shrubland. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
9452	population	Boitani, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9452	threats	Boitani, L. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9453	conservation	Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
9453	distribution	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is found in southern Mozambique, eastern Zimbabwe and northern South Africa. It is possibly present in Swaziland, although this requires confirmation.	eng
9453	habitat	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is found in dense evergreen forests in southern Africa. Animals have also been reported from drier bushveld or coastal forest (Taylor 1988; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
9453	population	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is common in the localities where it is found.	eng
9453	threats	Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9454	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
9454	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species ranges from southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan, southwards through much of East Africa to eastern parts of South Africa. It also ranges eastwards from Angola to Mozambique.	eng
9454	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species inhabits forest areas (dry forest and moist lowland forest), dry, moist, and high altitude shrubland, as well as anthropogenic habitats such as arable land, pasture land and urban areas.	eng
9454	population	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
9454	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	In view of the species adaptability, there are presumably no major threats.	eng
9455	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas, including Kibira National Park, Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Ruwenzori Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Improvements are needed to the management of protected areas for the conservation of this species.	eng
9455	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift region of Africa. It has been recorded from a number of localities including the Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda), Kibira National Park (Burundi) and Kahuzi-Biega National Park (eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo).	eng
9455	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to montane tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
9455	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is not a rare species	eng
9455	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.	eng
9456	conservation	Agwanda, B. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in the Mount Kenya National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The population of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.	eng
9456	distribution	Agwanda, B. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Kenya, in Kenya, where it has been collected at 2,750 m asl.	eng
9456	habitat	Agwanda, B. & Boitani, L., 2008	This arboreal species is found in moist montane tropical moist forest and high altitude shrubland.	eng
9456	population	Agwanda, B. & Boitani, L., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9456	threats	Agwanda, B. & Boitani, L., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
9457	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	The are no conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The population of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Improvements are needed in the management of protected areas towards the conservation of this species.	eng
9457	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from scattered localities in Uganda, southern Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, northeastern Zambia, Malawi and is possibly present in Mozambique. It is always found at high altitude, and has been recorded between 1,900 and 3,600 m asl on Mount Elgon (Uganda and Kenya).	eng
9457	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is found in dense moist evergreen montane forests and thickets at high altitude. This species is arboreal and nocturnal.	eng
9457	population	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is fairly common.	eng
9457	threats	Dieterlen, F., Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is presumably threatened in parts of its range by conversion of land for agricultural use and logging operations.	eng
9458	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
9458	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The limits of the distribution of this species are uncertain. It has been recorded from southern Sudan, the Central African Republic, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, south Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. There are disjunct records from Sierra Leone.	eng
9458	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits forests (including riverine forests and forest edges), swamps with trees, and grasslands with trees. It is also found in the roofs of huts and houses. It is an arboreal and nocturnal species.	eng
9458	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The abundance, and population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9458	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are presumably no major threats as a whole to this species.	eng
9459	conservation	Boitani, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from Nechisar National Park. Improvements are needed to the management of this protected areas for the conservation of this species.	eng
9459	distribution	Boitani, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is known only from two locations in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. It has been found close to the forest edge at 1,800 m asl.	eng
9459	habitat	Boitani, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species are not well known. As animals were collected at the edge of montane forest, it may be a forest species.	eng
9459	population	Boitani, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9459	threats	Boitani, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The highland areas in Ethiopia surrounding its known localities are heavily impacted by agriculture.	eng
9460	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is presumed that the species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
9460	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West Africa, Central Africa and western parts of East Africa. It occurs from Liberia eastward through Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (Grubb <em>et a</em>l. 1998), and Togo to southern Nigeria, then south through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon to northern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998); also found on Bioko. It is also found in most of the eastern Congo Basin in southern Central African Republic, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as forest patches in western Uganda (Delany 1975). The full geographic limits are unresolved.	eng
9460	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found in both moist, and semi-dry, montane and lowland rainforest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitats.	eng
9460	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It appears to be a common species.	eng
9460	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats as a whole to this widespread species.	eng
9461	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations are included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species.	eng
9461	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. The North and Baltic Sea subpopulations are included in Appendix II of CMS.<br/><br/>This is a circumglobal species, which migrates between summering and wintering grounds. Off California, where these movements are best known, they may cross between US and Mexican waters. Data on abundance, bycatch, and behavior needed in order to develop conservation measures that will enable protection of the natural habitat of the species	eng
9461	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This is a widely-distributed species, inhabiting primarily deep waters of the continental slope and outer shelf (especially with steep bottom topography), from the tropics through the temperate regions in both hemispheres (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). It also occurs in some oceanic areas, beyond the continental slope, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific. It is found from Newfoundland, Norway, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and Gulf of Alaska in the north to the tips of South America and South Africa, southern Australia, and southern New Zealand in the south. Its range includes many semi-enclosed bodies of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sea of Japan, and Mediterranean Sea.	eng
9461	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is a widely-distributed species, inhabiting primarily deep waters of the continental slope and outer shelf (especially with steep bottom topography), from the tropics through the temperate regions in both hemispheres (Kruse <em>et al.</em> 1999). They also occur in some oceanic areas, beyond the continental slope, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific.  They are found from Newfoundland, Norway, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and Gulf of Alaska in the north to the tips of South America and South Africa, southern Australia, and southern New Zealand in the south. Their range includes many semi-enclosed bodies of water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of California, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Sea of Japan, and Mediterranean Sea.	eng
9461	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Risso’s dolphins inhabit deep oceanic and continental slope waters, generally 400-1,000 m deep (Baird 2002; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993), mostly occurring seaward of the continental slope. They frequent subsurface seamounts and escarpments, where they are thought to feed on vertically migrant and mesopelagic cephalopods. In Monterey Bay, California, Risso's dolphins are concentrated over areas with steep bottom topography (Kruse 1989). Currents and upwelling causing local increases in marine productivity may enhance feeding opportunities, resulting in the patchy distribution and local abundance of this species worldwide (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). Davis <em>et al</em>. (1998) and Baumgartner (1997) reported that in the Gulf of Mexico, Risso's dolphins were mostly found over deeper bottom depths, concentrating along the upper continental slope, which may reflect squid distribution. Most records of <em>Grampus griseus</em> in Britain and Ireland are within 11 km of the coast. In certain areas, such as in the southwest English Channel, Risso’s dolphins are known to occur seasonally in shallow coastal waters to feed on cuttlefishes <em>Sepia officinalis</em> (Kiszka <em>et al</em>., 2004).<br/><br/>Long-term changes in the occurrence of Risso’s dolphins in some areas (e.g., off Catalina Island and in central California) have been linked to oceanographic conditions and movements of spawning squid (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). Risso's dolphins feed on crustaceans and cephalopods, but seem to prefer squid. Squid bites may be the cause of at least some of the scars found on the bodies of these animals. In the few areas where feeding habits have been studied, they appear to feed mainly at night.	eng
9461	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Risso’s dolphins inhabit deep oceanic and continental slope waters, generally 400-1000 m deep (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Baird 2002), mostly occurring seaward of the continental slope. They frequent subsurface seamounts and escarpments, where they are thought to feed on vertically migrant and mesopelagic cephalopods. Currents and upwelling causing local increases in marine productivity may enhance feeding opportunities, resulting in the patchy distribution and local abundance of this species worldwide (Kruse <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most records of this species in Britain and Ireland are within 11 km of the coast. <br/><br/>Risso's dolphins feed on crustaceans and cephalopods, but seem to prefer squid. Squid bites may be the cause of at least some of the scars found on the bodies of these animals. In the few areas where feeding habits have been studied, they appear to feed mainly at night.	eng
9461	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no estimates of global abundance, but there are some estimates for specific areas. Forney and Barlow (1998) observed that the estimated abundance of Risso's dolphins off California was almost an order of magnitude higher in winter (N= 32,376) than in summer (N= 3,980). However, the California, Oregon, Washington subpopulation is now estimated at only 16,066 (CV=28%) whales (Barlow 2003). Hawaiian waters are estimated to contain 2,351 (CV=65%) Risso’s dolphins (Barlow 2006). Abundance estimates off Sri Lanka ranged from 5,500 to 13,000 animals (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated the abundance at 1514 (CV=55%) individuals. There are an estimated 20,479 (CV=59%) Risso’s dolphins off the eastern United States (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), 2,169 (CV=32%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004), 83,300 (CV=17%) in three areas of concentrated occurrence off Japan (Miyashita 1993), and 175,000 in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). <br/><br/>In relative terms, there are several examples of long term changes in abundance and distribution, e.g. in the Southern California Bight (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the late 1950s, Risso's dolphins were rarely encountered in this area, and between 1975 and 1978 they were still considered to be a minor constituent of the cetacean fauna of the Bight, representing only 3% of the cetaceans observed. After the El Niño of 1982/83, however, numbers of Risso's dolphins increased, especially around Santa Catalina Island where they came to be considered common (Shane 1995). There is no information on global trends in the abundance.	eng
9461	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are no regional estimates of abundance for this species. Although Risso’s dolphins are regularly sighted in the western Mediterranean, they are considered scarce (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Line-transect abundance estimates for the western central Mediterranean in 2001-03 gave 493 Risso’s dolphins (95% C.I. 162-1,498) in an area of 32,270 km<sup>2</sup> (Gómez de Segura <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
9461	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	In the Mediterranean Sea, Risso’s dolphins are among the cetacean species frequently found entangled in<br/>fishing nets. Bycatches in longlines and gillnets have been reported in Spain (Valeiras and Camiñas 2001) and Italy (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990). Sound pollution is a threat to deep-diving pelagic cetaceans, including Risso’s dolphins. Evidence consistent with a syndrome related to exposure to high-intensity sonar has been described in this species in the UK (Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Risso’s dolphins in the Mediterranean have been found to carry substantial contaminant burdens (see references in Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
9461	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Occasional direct killing of Risso’s dolphins has occurred. This is generally as a result of the dolphins removing fish from longlines, or in multi-species small cetacean fisheries, such as those that occur in Sri Lanka, the Caribbean, and Indonesia. One regular hunt occurs in Japan, where about 250-500 are taken per year in a drive fishery. Some Risso’s dolphins have been captured for live display in oceanaria, although there are not many of them in oceanaria.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, Risso's dolphins are apparently the second most commonly taken cetacean in fisheries, providing fish and meat for human consumption and fish bait; subpopulations there may be adversely affected (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1991). An estimated 1,300 Risso's dolphins may be landed annually as a result of this fishery, and abundance estimates in these waters range only from 5,500 to 13,000 animals (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Japan, Risso's dolphins are taken periodically for food and fertilizer in set nets and as a limited catch in the small-type whaling industry (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999), with reported catches in recent years ranging from about 250–500. They are also a major target of artisanal hunting, and are taken often in gillnets and other fishing gear in the Philippines (Dolar 1994, Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Off eastern Taiwan, Risso’s dolphins are also taken by harpoon opportunistically and oceanic large-mesh driftnets for large pelagic fish appear to take considerable numbers incidentally (Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are reports of bycatches from the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, the southern Caribbean, the Azores, Peru, and the Solomon Islands. They are also a rare bycatch in the US tuna purse seine industry, and are taken occasionally in coastal gill net and squid seining industries off the US coast, or shot by aggravated fishermen (Kruse <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales that are also deep-divers that feed on squid, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
9465	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Diaz, M., Pardinas, U. & Jayat., J.P, 2008	It is present in at least three protected areas in Bolivia and at least one national park in Argentina.	eng
9465	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Diaz, M., Pardinas, U. & Jayat., J.P, 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of Andes in south-central Bolivia and northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 3,700 m.	eng
9465	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Diaz, M., Pardinas, U. & Jayat., J.P, 2008	In Salta province, Argentina, this species is limited to transitional forest, occurring on very low mountains in the central part of the province, but it also may occur in drier portions of the subtropical forest. It was trapped in thick grass along road cuts and from areas of second growth (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1981). Anderson (1997), states that in general the limited data available for Bolivia fits with the habitats described in Argentina by Mares <em>et al.</em> (1981). In Bolivia, it is also known from pre-Puna grassland and Tucumano Boliviano forest habitats.	eng
9465	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Diaz, M., Pardinas, U. & Jayat., J.P, 2008	It is an uncommon species, however, can be locally common (i.e. in portions of Bolivia).	eng
9465	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Diaz, M., Pardinas, U. & Jayat., J.P, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
9466	conservation	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The species is not present in any protected areas.	eng
9466	distribution	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Catamarca Province, Otro Cerro, 3000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
9466	habitat	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Highland grasslands.	eng
9466	population	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is not information on populations. All information of the species comes from the type locality.	eng
9466	threats	Ojeda, R., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9467	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in several protected areas in Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina.	eng
9467	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in south-central Bolivia, western Paraguay, and nearby Brazil, south through western Argentina to nothern Santa Cruz Province (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
9467	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in wet Chaco, shrubby areas.	eng
9467	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
9467	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
9480	conservation	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
9480	distribution	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	A species is apparently known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, with an isolated population present in southern Cameroon.	eng
9480	habitat	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This little-known species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can persist in secondary or degraded habitats.	eng
9480	population	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
9480	threats	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, however, it has been recorded over a wide area of seemingly suitable habitat.	eng
9481	conservation	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Recorded at least from Mount Nimba forest Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire and Okajakrom Forest Reserve in Ghana. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
9481	distribution	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire (in Mount Nimba Reserve), Ghana, Togo, Nigeria and Cameroon; it was mentioned from Bioko Island by Rosevear (1969). It has yet to be recorded from Sierra Leone. There is an unidentified specimen of <em>Graphiurus</em> in the British Museum from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo that is often thought to be this species, but likely represents a distinct species (P. Grubb pers. comm.).	eng
9481	habitat	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, but may also enter cultivated areas and buildings, as reported by Rosevear (1969) who summarises the little information available on this species.	eng
9481	population	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is very rarely collected.	eng
9481	threats	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. It is possibly threatened by ongoing deforestation within its range, however, it has seemingly been recorded from modified habitats such as agricultural land. In Benin (where the species is not recorded from the wild), this species has reportedly been found on sale in markets for medicinal purposes, but this requires confirmation.	eng
9483	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed to better determine the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
9483	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout much of Subsaharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and Gambia, through much of West Africa (including a seemingly disjunct record from Niger), with few records in Central Africa north of Angola, to East Africa where it is found from Ethiopia and Somalia southwards to northern Tanzania. It is found as far south as eastern Zimbabwe, Malawi and central Mozambique. It is found up to at least 2,400 m asl.	eng
9483	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from a range of moist and dry savanna habitats and tropical dry forests or woodland.	eng
9483	population	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	It is generally a common species.	eng
9483	threats	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
9484	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is probably present in several protected areas.	eng
9484	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This is a widely distributed species, ranging from Sierra Leone in West Africa, possibly to Uganda in the east. It ranges throughout much of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, reaching extreme northwestern Zambia in the south.	eng
9484	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This is a largely a lowland forest species, but may also be found in in savanna. Jeffrey (1973) noted it was present in most habitats, though not in high forest, including houses and disused buildings. Often found in oil palms in Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Tree-dwelling, spends much time on the ground (Rosevear, 1969).	eng
9484	population	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	In Sierra Leone, apparently common and widespread in the forest area, and quite frequently lives and nests in buildings and houses (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9484	threats	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
9485	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Taita Hills and Mount Kenya National Park.	eng
9485	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Subsaharan Africa, from southern Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia, through East Africa and parts of eastern Central Africa, to Angola and northern South Africa. It has been recorded to 2,600 m asl.	eng
9485	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is present in a range of savanna and woodland habitats. It is commonly found in as a commensal with people.	eng
9485	population	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	This is probably a common species.	eng
9485	threats	Schlitter, D. & Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
9486	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
9486	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from eastern Angola and northwestern Zambia. Ansell (1978) states that is known only from a few localities and is rarely collected.	eng
9486	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is generally associated with moist savanna habitats. There is little additional information available on the species natural history.	eng
9486	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is only known from a very few specimens.	eng
9486	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9487	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	It is presumably present within some protected areas.	eng
9487	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is widely distributed in much of East Africa and Southern Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia, through much of East Africa (and marginally in western Central Africa) to South Africa (reaching as far west as the Western Cape) and Lesotho.	eng
9487	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is found in woodland, savanna, grassland and rocky areas (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In parts of its range it is foun in either Afromontane forest or riverine forest dominated by <em>Combretum</em>. The can persist in secondary habitats, and are sometimes found in various types of buildings.	eng
9487	population	Baxter, R., 2008	Densities have been estimated at about 10 animals per hectare, especially in riverine forest (where they can be the dominant small mammal) (R. Baxter pers. comm.).	eng
9487	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
9488	conservation	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	This pecies is present in several protected areas.	eng
9488	distribution	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa, where it occurs widely in Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, and  Western Cape provinces, with a single record from the North West province. The occurrence of <em>G. ocularis</em> in KwaZulu-Natal, due to a single skin collected in 1915 some 400 km from its known range, is doubtful (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
9488	habitat	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	The species is associated with the sandstone formations of the Cape, which have many vertical and horizontal cracks and crevices in which to shelter and nest (Channing 1984).	eng
9488	population	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	The current population size is not known, but they are not common.	eng
9488	threats	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
9491	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas. Additional studies and surveys are needed to better determine the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
9491	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This African species has been recorded from Zambia, southern Malawi, much of Zimbabwe, central Mozambique, eastern Botswana, northeastern South Africa and the highveld of Swaziland.	eng
9491	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	They generally occur in rocky terrain, and live in rock crevices and in piles of boulders. In parts of their distributional range, they live in trees (Ansell 1960; Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976). Occasionally they are found in buildings.	eng
9491	population	Grubb, P., 2008	Based on collections, the species is probably not uncommon.	eng
9491	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
9492	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. The relationship of this species to <em>G. angolensis</em> requires investigation.	eng
9492	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This little-known species is largely distributed in Namibia and South Africa, in a narrow strip from Karibib and Mount Brukaros in Namibia south to Port Nolloth and Eenriet in South Africa. There is a single possible record from central Angola.	eng
9492	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Shortridge (1934) refers to this species as a nocturnal rock dormouse, inhabiting mountainous and entirely treeless situations.	eng
9492	population	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Fairly plentiful among rocky hills around Karibib (Shortridge 1934).	eng
9492	threats	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
9493	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is possibly present in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
9493	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and Gabon (Belinga 1.09 N; 13.12 E). There are also two records from central Democratic Republic of Congo (Inkongo 4.55 S; 23.15 E; Masako 0.36 N; 25.13 E). Additional survey work will probably reveal the distribution of this species to be more continuous.	eng
9493	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Few additional details are available concerning the species natural history.	eng
9493	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is known only from around 20 museum specimens.	eng
9493	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitats.	eng
9497	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Recorded on the Guadalupe River system of south-central Texas (segments of the Guadalupe and San Marcos rivers in Kerr, Kendall, Comal, Guadalupe, Gonzales, Dewitt, Hays, and Victoria counties).	eng
9497	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Occurs in riverine habitat with river beds mostly silt and gravel, and with gravel bars connecting long pool areas with a shallow average depth and a muddy moderate flow; optimal habitat appears to include both riffles and pools; males may spend much of their time in gravel bar riffles and transition areas between pools and riffles; basking sites include fallen trees and shrubs, logs, rocks, and cypress knees.	eng
9498	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Confined to the Pascagoula River system, including the Leaf, Chickasawhay, and Escatawpa rivers, in southern Mississippi.	eng
9498	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	River sections with moderate current, sand and clay bottom with many sand bars, or rocky bottom with limestone ledges along banks.	eng
9499	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Recorded fin the Pearl River system, in Mississippi and adjacent Louisiana.	eng
9499	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Most abundant in streams with moderate to fast current, numerous basking logs, nearby sand and gravel bars, and channel wide enough to allow sun to reach basking logs.	eng
9502	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Below the Fall Line in the Alabama, Tombigee, Black Warrior, Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Cahaba rivers of Alabama and northeastern Mississippi.	eng
9502	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Rivers and streams with moderate current, sand or clay bottom, and logs and other basking sites. Eggs are laid in nests dug on sandy beaches along streams and rivers.	eng
9503	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Recorded from the Colorado River drainage, primarily on the Edwards Plateau of west-central Texas.	eng
9503	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Found in rivers with moderate current, abundant aquatic vegetation, and basking logs; also associated oxbows and lakes.	eng
9509	conservation	Seddon, M., 2009	No conservation actions specifically for this species.&#160; In some regions, it is considered rare.	eng
9509	distribution	Seddon, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana lacheineri </span>has an alpine distribution and is found in Switzerland (Turner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998), Austria (Reischütz, 2009) and Slovenia (Radoman, 1983). According to Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (<a href="www.faunaeur.org/">Fauna Europea website</a>), the range extends to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
9509	habitat	Seddon, M., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters and freshwater springs.	eng
9509	population	Seddon, M., 2009	The species is abundant at spring sites across the range.	eng
9509	threats	Seddon, M., 2009	Although there maybe localised threats to populations of this species through the use of springs, the range is so extensive that it will not lead to extinction in the near future.	eng
9510	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	There are no conservation actions needed for this species.	eng
9510	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana pupula </span>is restricted to north-east Italy and western Slovenia (Haase 1994; Gloer 2002, p. 115). It is widespread in region, with many records from Italy (see Checklist and Maps of Italian Fauna, version 5.3.8).	eng
9510	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	This widespread species is found within springs.	eng
9510	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	This is a widespread species, even though there is no specific population data available.	eng
9510	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	There are no known threats of this species.	eng
9530	habitat		Found in relicts of tall grass prairie.	eng
9530	threats		This species was once much more widespread, but most of its former habitat has been converted to agriculture.	eng
9533	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The preservation of the primary forest habitat at Grand Bois, dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Vateriopsis seychellarum</span>, and prevention of further invasion by alien plant species is imperative for the survival of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. thomasseti</span> (Gerlach 2002).	eng
9533	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles (Mahé island), with an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 80 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 0.01 km². It was originally known from Cascade Estate on Mahé island, Seychelles (Sykes 1909). The species was thought to have been lost after high altitude forest habitat in the area was cleared for cinnamon plantations. However, the species was rediscovered in 2002 in Grand Bois, Mahé. It is also found in mist forest at Congo Rouge, Mahé.	eng
9533	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	The type specimen was collected from "mountain forest" (Sykes 1909). The rediscovered specimen was collected from leaf litter in a relict fragment of primary forest (Gerlach 2002); it is now known from mist forest. It is thought that the species is restricted to primary forest habitat. A tropical forest species, this snail is predatory on small invertebrates.	eng
9533	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals.	eng
9533	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Currently, the main threat to the species is habitat degradation caused by invasive cinnamon trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Small-holder farming and small-holder wood plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past, but these threats have since ceased.	eng
9554	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	Out of a total of 10 forest fragments surveyed (73 sampling sites from all forests), <em>G. taitensis</em> was recorded in five forests only: Mbololo; Ndiwenyi; Fururu; Ngangao; Vuria.	eng
9554	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	Species preferences include the most intact forest areas characterized by deep forest floor litter, dense moss growing on dead fallen wood or tree trunks, high % canopy cover, huge trees, dead fallen wood.	eng
9554	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Habitat loss and disturbance due to human activity.	eng
9561	conservation	Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C., 2009	The wolverine has been petitioned twice for listing under the federal Endangered Species Act in the conterminous United States, but the most recent petition was denied citing lack of information on distribution, habitat requirements, and threats (United States Fish and Wildlife Service 2003). In North America, the eastern wolverine population continues to be Endangered, and the western population remains Special Concern.<br/><br/>The wolverine is recorded from a number of protected areas. However, due to its spatial requirement, very few reserves will contain the full home ranges of more than a small number of individuals (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).<br/><br/>European range states have different monitoring and management regimes varying from strict protection in Finland and Sweden, licensed harvest and control measurements in Norway to legal harvest year round in Russia.<br/><br/>In North America, wolverine management issues include regulating trapper harvest, preventing human disturbance at denning sites, and mitigating for habitat loss and fragmentation (Krebs <em>et al.</em>, 2004).<br/><br/>Key conservation measures that need to be implemented revolve around minimizing conflicts resulting from depredation of livestock, reducing legal and illegal hunting of wolverines, establishing well-planned conservation areas and carrying out surveys to gain a better understanding of the population and ecology of the wolverine. <br/><br/>Farmers and local communities should be educated in and encouraged to adopt husbandry practices that will minimize depredation of livestock thereby reducing conflicts. Economic incentives could encourage farmers to conserve wolverines on their land instead of hunting them. A compensation and education program has been implemented in Sweden with reindeer herders where the herders profit financially from identifying dens on their land and protecting them; similar programs could be applied in more areas of the species range. <br/><br/>Governments and researchers require a more solid knowledge of population dynamics, wolverine-prey relationships, habitat-use and distribution of the wolverine. This information is needed to ensure that legal, government-permitted hunting quotas are appropriate and small, localized, endangered populations are protected. Better enforcement of laws that prohibit hunting of wolverines is required in applicable parts of the species range, with higher penalties to discourage poachers. Governments need also improve coordination between wildlife conservation and agriculture programs to ensure that conservation areas are established in regions with little risk of conflict with farmers and herders.<br/><br/>The wolverine is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. European range states have different monitoring and management regimes varying from strict protection in Finland and Sweden, licensed harvest and control measurements in Norway to legal harvest year round in Russia.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The Scandinavian wolverine population is covered by both Swedish and Norwegian management regimes, which are quite different. However, both Norwegian and Swedish populations are monitored through annual counting of active natal dens (Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998b) and non-invasive faecal DNA surveys (in southern areas). There is cooperation and data exchange between the two national programmes. The Swedish national interim goal is to reach minimum 90 annual wolverine reproductions (approximately 575 individuals >1 yr of age) (Riksdagen 2000). Sweden has international obligations through the Bern Convention for the conservation of the European wildlife and habitats, the regulation of trade through the European Council Regulation on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora, and the EU habitat directive. The wolverine is in Sweden is officially listed as endangered and is not subject to hunting. However, recently a few family groups have been killed in the purpose of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer herding industry in northern areas. Norway was recently (2003) divided into 6 different management regions with politically appointed management boards (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). The Norwegian national goal is to control the total population within the limits of 39 yearly active reproductions (21 within the Norwegian part of the Scandinavian wolverine population) (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). The total of 39 breedings equals approximately 250 individuals >1 yr of age. Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine distribution and predation on unattended sheep during summer and domestic reindeer all year around. Wolverines in Norway are covered by the Bern Convention (Bern 1979). The wolverines in Norway are officially listed as vulnerable (new official listing is expected by the end of 2006). <br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: Norway was recently (2003) divided into 6 different management regions. The national goal is to control the Southern Norwegian population (including North Trøndelag County) at maximum 18 yearly active reproductions (approximately 115 individuals >1 yr of age) (Miljøverndepartementet 2003). Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine distribution and predation on unattended sheep during summer in southern Norway. Wolverines in Norway are covered by the Bern Convention (Bern 1979). The wolverines in Norway are officially listed as vulnerable (new official listing is expected by the end of 2006). <br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: Totally protected, also see description for the Scandinavian wolverine population for further details. <br/><br/>4. Finnish – western Russian wolverine population: Management differs in Finland and Russia. In Finland the species is monitored through a national fauna monitoring programme based on tracks crossing fixed 4x4+4 km triangles. Wolverines have been fully protected in Finland since 1982. In Russia the wolverine is monitored via tracking surveys and numbers are estimated based on daily pats and a calculation coefficient (Novikov 1994, Novikov 2005). In Russia wolverines are considered a game/pelt species.<br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: Wolverines have been fully protected in Finland since 1982. In western Finland, the small introduced subpopulation seems to function without the presence of semi-domesticated reindeer, wolf, or lynx. A research project where nutritional ecology of wolverines within the three areas of wolverine distribution within Finland will be compared has been initiated. A future aim is to develop non-invasive molecular genetic monitoring of the wolverines within Finland similar to the one conducted in Scandinavia (Kojola 2005).	eng
9561	conservation	Arild Landa (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe), 2006	The wolverine is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. European range states have different monitoring and management regimes. The species is strictly protected in Finland and Sweden, but is subject to licensed harvest and control measures in Norway.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>Wolverines are subject to both de facto hunting and government organised lethal control activities in Norway. The Norwegian national goal is to control the total population within the limits of 39 yearly active natal dens. Control measurements, killing of family groups in early spring and licensed harvest is used as a management tool to restrict wolverine predation on unattended sheep during summer and domestic reindeer all year around. The national goal in Sweden is to reach a minimum of 90 annual reproductions which equals approximately 550 individuals. Wolverines in Sweden are protected, although there is some limited use of lethal control following acute depredation events. The Norwegian and Swedish population is monitored through annual den inventories and there is cooperation and data exchange between the two national programmes. In Finland the species is monitored through a national fauna monitoring programme based on tracks crossing fixed 4x4+4 km triangles. <br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>Wolverines are protected in Finland and Russian Karelia.	eng
9561	distribution	Arild Landa (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe), 2006	In addition to their circumpolar distribution across Siberia and North America, wolverines once occurred throughout the European part of Russia, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and north-east Poland. During the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of these areas in Europe mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human impacts. In Europe the species is now found in Norway, Sweden, Finland and European part of Russia. Within these countries wolverines are mainly found north of 60ºN. According to the Guidelines for Population Level Management Plans for Large Carnivores (LCIE 2007) two populations are recognized in Scandinavia and Karelia:<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>This population is distributed mainly along the border of Norway and Sweden, with extensions into the southern Norwegian mountains, and the northern Norwegian county of Finnmark and adjacent areas of northwest Finland (the region of Lappland). Within this range there are three population segments, the south Norwegian, the central population segment along the Norwegian/Swedish border, and a few animals breeding in the boreal forest areas of eastern Sweden.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>This population extends across southern and central Finland (all Finland excluding Lappland) and the Russian oblasts of Murmansk and Karelia. The main distribution appears to be continuous, but there is a relatively isolated population segment in western Finland.	eng
9561	distribution	Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C., 2009	The species has a circumpolar distribution, corresponding with the Boreal zone of the northern hemisphere (Kvam <em>et al.</em> 1988). The range of the wolverine reaches from Scandinavia through the Russian Federation and Siberia to Alaska, Canada and the western lower states of the United States south to California. The range includes territory of the following countries: Canada, China (Heilongiang, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia), Estonia, Finland, Mongolia, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, and United States (Alaska, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Washington, Oregon and California) (Whitman 1999).<br/><br/>During the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of these areas in Europe mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human developments. In Europe the species is now found in Norway, Sweden, Finland and European part of Russia. Within these countries wolverines are mainly found north of 60ºN. Based on geographic connectivity and genetic surveys the wolverines in Europe likely consist of five populations/occurrences.	eng
9561	habitat	Arild Landa (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe), 2006	Wolverines inhabit a variety of habitats in the alpine, tundra, taiga, and boreal forest zones. They are found in coniferous, mixed, and deciduous woodlands, bogs, and open mountain and tundra habitats. Sometimes known as “hyaenas of the north”, wolverines have evolved to scavenge from the kills of wild ungulates abandoned by more efficient predators such as wolves and lynx, as well as victims of accidents and disease. However, wolverines also prey on hares, rodents and occasionally animals as large as moose given certain snow conditions. They can also prey heavily on domestic sheep and semidomesticated reindeer. The wolverine has vast home-ranges (Landa <em>et al.</em> 1998a) and good dispersal abilities. Faecal DNA sampling has detected dispersal distances of more than 500 kilometres (Flagstad 2005, Flagstad <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
9561	habitat	Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C., 2009	Wolverines inhabit a variety of habitats in the alpine, tundra, taiga, and boreal forest zones. They are found in coniferous, mixed, and deciduous woodlands, bogs, and open mountain as well as tundra habitats (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Snow is generally regarded as an important component of the wolverine's seasonal habitat requirements (Banci 1987, Hatler 1989). Wolverine habitat selection is negatively affected by human activity, including roads, infrastructure, and backcountry recreation (May <em>et al.</em> 2006; Krebs <em>et al</em>. 2007). The wolverine has vast home-ranges (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1998), vary from 100 to 500 km<sup>2</sup> for males and 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup> for female, and good dispersal abilities. Faecal DNA sampling has detected dispersal distances of more than 500 kilometres (Flagstad 2005, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006). Hornocker <em>et al</em>. (1983) consider this species as solitary, which influences the large home ranges and extensive seasonal movements.This species is nocturnal with some daylight activity and it is considered as opportunistic feeder. Wolverines prey on hares, rodents and occasionally animals as large as moose given certain snow conditions. They can also prey heavily on domestic sheep and semi-domesticated reindeer.<br/><br/>The wolverine is a nocturnal species (Whitman 1999) with an average life expectancy of 4 to 6 years in the wild, with a maximum of about 13 years (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995). The species reaches its sexual maturity at 2.5 years, breeding occurs in early spring to late fall with litters of 1-5 young (mean litter size is 3 young) born between February and April (Whitman 1999). <br/><br/>Wolverines are thought to have evolved to scavenge from the kills of wild ungulates abandoned by other carnivores such as the lynx and wolf, as well prey animals felled by disease or injury. Wolverines also actively hunt smaller animals such as rodents, hares, musk deer, roe deer and wild sheep; given the appropriate snow conditions they will also hunt larger animals such as moose. Conflicts arise when wolverines prey on domestic livestock such as sheep or semi-domesticated reindeer. Given their dependence on other hunters for much of its scavenged food, wolverines are able to carry and cache large amounts of meat for later consumption.	eng
9561	population	Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C., 2009	North America: The distribution and abundance of the species has been notably reduced in the 20th century in United States (Pasitschniak-Arts and Larivière 1995) and during the 19th century, wolverines disappeared from the southernmost of its European distribution mainly due to persecution, but also due to deforestation and other human developments. However, although there has been substantial range reduction, there is evidence of resurgence in some places of his historical distribution (Rowland <em>et al.</em> 2003). Throughout their range, wolverines occur at relatively low densities and require large home ranges varying from at least 100 km² to upwards of 600 km² (Whitman 1999). In Europe, the species is relatively rare. Densities of this species are never high, and it has been found to be less abundant than wolves, even in optimal habitats (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995). Densities range from one per 500 km² in Scandinavia to one per 65 km² in Montana, USA (Pasitschniak-Arts and Lariviere 1995).<br/><br/>Substantial populations occur in northern Canada and Alaska. Outside of Alaska, the population in Montana is considered to be the largest and most stable population of wolverines, given its close proximity to healthy populations in Canada (Cegelski <em>et al</em>. 2003). Densities of wolverines are never high (Aubry <em>et al</em>. 2007, Makridin 1964). Many wolverine populations appear to be relatively small and isolated (Ruggiero <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>In North America, population density estimates range from one wolverine per 65 km<sup>2</sup> in Montana (Hornocker and Hash 1981) to one per 200 km<sup>2</sup> in northern British Columbia (Quick 1953), Alaska (Becker and Gardner 1992), and the Northwest Territories (Lee and Niptanatiak 1993). Lofroth and Krebs (2007) estimated densities for wolverines in British Columbia using existing wolverine distribution, wolverine food, ecosystem mapping and human development data. Density estimates range from 6.2 wolverines/1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in high-quality habitat to 0.3/1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in rare-quality habitat. Their predicted population estimate for British Columbia was 3,530 wolverines.<br/><br/>Europe: The European population of <em>Gulo gulo</em> is currently estimated to be approximately 2,260 individuals: 1,400 in European Russia (Novikov 2005), 150 in Finland, and 1998–2000 were 326 (±45) individuals in Sweden and 269 (±32) individuals in Norway (Sæther <em>et al</em>. 2005). The southern Norwegian population was naturally re-established during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legalisation (Landa and Skogland 1995). To the east, the Eastern Russian wolverine population is believed to comprise more than 18,000 individuals (Novikov, 2005). The species is not abundant in Mongolia, but still relatively widespread: it is only found in northern taiga habitats in Hentii and Hövsgöl mountain ranges (Bannikov 1954, Dulamsteren 1970), northern parts of Hangai Mountain Range and Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989).The European distribution is connected to the East Russian population along the Urals. The overall European population forms a relatively continuous distribution with a few geographically and genetically distinct subpopulations and constitutes a smaller fraction of the large Eurasian population. <br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The Scandinavian wolverine has shown a low genetic variability and subdivision among populations indicating that the wolverine in Scandinavia has lost variation due to a previous bottleneck event and that the current populations are the result of a recent common genetic background (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2001, Flagstad <em>et al.</em> 2004). The current population estimate is 580 individuals (>1 yrs of age) with approximately 200 in Norway and 380 in Sweden (Larsson 2005, van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2005). The population has a continuous distribution and is narrowly connected to the Finnish – Western Russian population along the border of Finnmark County in the northernmost parts of its distribution. However, an initial genetic analysis has indicated a clear genetic distinction between these populations (Ø. Flagststad pers. comm.). In its southern distribution, the Scandinavian wolverine population provides as a source for the Southern Norwegian wolverine population (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2001, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2004, Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006) as well as a source for the Swedish forest wolverine population(s) close to the Gulf of Bothnia in Southern Sweden (Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: The southern Norwegian population was naturally reestablished during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legalisation (Landa and Skogland 1995). This population has recently increased in numbers and distribution, but is currently kept at around 100 individuals by various control measurements (Flagstad <em>et al</em>. 2006). Genetic surveys have shown that the Southern Norwegian wolverine population is genetically distinct from the Scandinavian population, but the geographic gap between the southern and the main Scandinavian population to the north and east has decreased from 100-200 km by the early 1990s to virtually connectivity by 2006. However, exchange of individuals still is limited and the Southern Norwegian population seems to form a sink with a few individuals emigrating from the northern continuous population (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Flagstad 2006).<br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: The Swedish forest wolverine occurrences were naturally established, during the mid 1990s (Hedmark 2006). These new occurrences were likely established by as few as 2 and 2-4 individuals and are currently consisting of  2 and 10 individuals, respectively (Hedmark 2006). Non-invasive genetic surveys has showed that these occurrences have little, if any, contact with the main Scandinavian wolverine population (Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>4. Finnish – western Russian wolverine population: During the last decades, there has been an increase in population numbers and distribution of wolverines in Finland, but decreasing trends in Russia (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000a). The western Russian population is estimated to be approximately 1,400 individuals (Novikov 2005). Relationships with other populations: to the west the distribution of the Finnish – Western Russian wolverine population is narrowly connected to the Scandinavian population along common borders with Norway and Sweden. An initial genetic analysis has indicated a clear genetic distinction between the Scandinavian population and the wolverines living in northern parts of Finland (Ø. Flagststad pers. comm.). It is also unclear how the western part of the wolverine distribution within this population (Finland, Kola, Karelia) connects along the narrow isthmus between the White Sea and Lake Onega in Western Russia. This area is judged as an extremely important connection for the northern element of the taiga fauna (Lindén <em>et al</em>. 2000) and these concerns should be further investigated. To the east, the European Russian wolverine population has a wide connection to the much larger East Russian population adjoining along the Urals in western Siberia. The Eastern Russian wolverine population is believed to comprise more than 18,000 individuals (Novikov 2005). <br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: This population was established by translocating animals from domestic reindeer herding areas in the north during the 1980s-1990s. The population is estimated to consist of about 10-15 individuals and now seems to reproduce naturally (Kojola 2005). The gap between this and the Karelia distribution is about 200-300 km and little is known about exchange between these populations. This population/occurrence should therefore be judged as isolated from other populations until further knowledge is gained.	eng
9561	population	Arild Landa (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe), 2006	The European population of <em>Gulo gulo</em> is currently estimated to be approximately 2,300 individuals. The European distribution is connected to the Asian Russian population along the Urals. The overall European population forms a more or less continuous distribution with a few geographically and genetically distinct units, and constitutes a smaller fraction of the large Eurasian population. During the last decades, there has been a increase in population numbers and distribution of wolverines in the Fennoscandian countries, but decreasing trends in Russia.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>Population size: 750 wolverines. Genetic surveys for the Scandinavian population have shown a low genetic variability and subdivision among populations indicating that the wolverine in Scandinavia has potentially lost variation due to a previous bottleneck event and that the current populations are the result of a recent common genetic background. The southern part of the population seems to form a sink with a few individuals emigrating from the northern continuous population. The southern Norwegian population segment was naturally re-established during the late 1970s and was a result of protective legislation. This population segment has recently increased in numbers and distribution, but seems to have stabilized at around 100 individuals. Genetic surveys have shown that the southern Norwegian population segment is genetically distinct from the northern population segments (about 220 individuals in Norway), but the geographic gap between the southern population and the main population to the north and east has decreased from 100-200 km by the early 1990s to virtually connectivity by 2006. There are an estimated 380 individuals of 1 year and older in the Swedish portion of the central population segment. Recently, during the 1990s a small and distinct reproducing population became established in the southern boreal region of the country. Population data for the past 9 years (1996-2004) suggest a fairly stable over all population trend, with a slight increase during the past 5 years.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>Population size: 450 wolverines.	eng
9561	threats	Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C., 2009	Within the current range, extensive human activities continue to pressure wolverine populations and habitat (Krebs <em>et al.</em> 2004). Overexploitation through hunting and trapping, as well as predator poisoning programs and resource extraction likely caused wolverine populations to contract in the eastern and south-western portions of their historical range in North America since the early 1900s (Banci 1994).<br/><br/>The wolverine is threatened by fragmented distributions, presumed low genetic diversity, as well as “population control” hunting and conflicts with human settlements resulting from depredation of livestock. While this species inhabits a zone that is particularly affected by climate change (IPCC International Climate Report 2005), habitat change or even loss is not taking place at such a rate to be considered a major threat to the wolverine. Ample forested lands and tundra with suitable prey stocks are available throughout much of its range. The problem is the low rate of human land use expansion into this range, increasing the frequency of interaction with human populations and conflict over livestock depredation. Given the remoteness of these locations, tolerance of wolverines taking livestock is low and in some areas “population control” hunting is used as a proactive means to avoid loss of animals. In Norway, where almost 10,000 sheep are believed to be killed by wolverines each summer, government committees have instituted annual harvest quotas in an effort to control livestock losses; however, these quotas may not be sustainable as they are set very high even in relation to the most liberal estimate of wolverine population size, and it is unclear whether this hunt actually reduces the numbers of sheep and semi-domestic deer lost to predators. <br/><br/>Wolverines are scarce in Europe today. Their continued survival is threatened due to their small and fragmented distribution, and the potential for their future survival may be weakened by the likelihood of low genetic diversity. Habitat loss per se is not a substantial threat to wolverine conservation. Large areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland are still covered by forests and mountains that offer a suitable prey base and habitat for wolverines. The problem is that these are not wilderness areas, and wolverines come into conflict with a low, but crucial, number of human land uses. The fact that there are no large areas within their distribution where there is no conflict potential with sheep or semi domestic reindeer means that human tolerance for wolverines is low. This results in a difficult situation for wildlife managers who are forced to try and balance wolverine conservation with the conflicts they create with livestock. In Norway, farmers no longer use traditional sheep-herding methods that once deterred depredation, so wolverines are often controlled in an effort to protect livestock. Poaching also occurs. In Russia, overharvesting and declines in key prey species are major threats.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population: The species is subject to illegal killings due to depredation conflicts (sheep, domestic reindeer). The scope of this is difficult to quantify. Furthermore wolverines are sensitive to human disturbance (settlements, public and private roads etc.) especially in the vicinity of their denning areas (May <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>2. Southern Norwegian wolverine population: The Southern Norwegian wolverine population is subject to illegal killings due to depredation conflicts on sheep. The scope of this is difficult to quantify. Most people in Norway are settled in southern Norway and the wolverines are sensitive to human disturbance (settlements, public and private roads, etc.) especially in the vicinity of their denning areas (May <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>3. Swedish forest wolverine population/occurrence: A high degree of genetic similarity among individuals in the two areas indicates inbreeding, possibly including brother-sister matings (Hedmark 2006). Inbreeding depression and demographic stochasticity are therefore likely to be the main threats (Pimm <em>et al</em>. 1988). These forest dwelling wolverines live outside the distribution of “domestic” reindeer, which form the most common prey for wolverines (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997). Establishment of wolverines in the forest landscape is judged to be a way of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Hedmark <em>et al</em>. unpubl. ms, Hedmark 2006).<br/><br/>4. Finnish – Western Russian wolverine population: About half the Finnish wolverine population are living within the reindeer management area in the north (Kojola 2005), thus creating conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000b) with associated illegal killings. The scope of this is unknown. The Russian economic depression during the 1990s is believed to have led to widespread poaching of ungulate game species. Furthermore, it led to a reduction of the domestic reindeer herding industry due to large calf/breeding losses. This is believed to have indirectly negatively affected the wolverine’s populations in the European and most human populated part of Russia. The wolverine's main prey base (wild and domestic reindeer) became less abundant and the population has faced a decrease in numbers and distribution during the last few decades (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997, Landa <em>et al</em>. 2000a, Novikov 2005). In Russia the wolverine is harvested for fur, and to the best knowledge of the assessors, there are no harvest restrictions. Russia has not yet ratified the Bern Convention. <br/><br/>5. Finnish western wolverine population: It is likely that this small and presumably isolated population will face inbreeding problems (Hedmark 2006) as well as being exposed to demographic stochasticity (Pimm <em>et al</em>. 1988). Inbreeding depression and demographic accidents are therefore main threats. These forest dwelling wolverines live outside the distribution of semi domesticated reindeer, which form the most common prey for wolverines (Landa <em>et al</em>. 1997). Establishment of wolverines in the forest landscape is judged to be a way of reducing conflict with the domestic reindeer industry (Hedmark <em>et al</em>. unpubl. ms, Hedmark 2006).	eng
9561	threats	Arild Landa (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe), 2006	Wolverines are scarce in Europe today. Their continued survival is threatened due to their small and fragmented distribution, and the potential for their future survival may be weakened by the likelihood of low genetic diversity. Habitat loss per se is not a substantial threat to wolverine conservation. Large areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland are still covered by forests and mountains that offer a suitable prey base and habitat for wolverines. The problem is that these are not wilderness areas, and wolverines come into conflict with a low, but crucial, number of human land uses. The fact that there are no large areas within their distribution where there is no conflict potential with sheep or semidomestic reindeer means that human tolerance for wolverines is low. This results in a difficult situation for wildlife managers who are forced to try and balance wolverine conservation with the conflicts they create with livestock. In Norway, farmers no longer use traditional sheep-herding methods that once deterred depredation, so wolverines are often controlled in an effort to protect livestock. Poaching also occurs. In Russia, overharvesting and declines in key prey species are major threats.<br/><br/>1. Scandinavian wolverine population<br/>High levels of depredation on domestic sheep in Norway, and on semi-domestic reindeer in Norway, Sweden and Finland, generate large conflicts. These lead to pressure for population reduction through both legal and illegal killing. Finding ways to reduce depredation on sheep is crucial. It is unclear if the existing levels of harvest, especially in Norway, are sustainable. With respect to depredation on semi-domestic reindeer solutions are harder to find as wolverines depend heavily on semi-domestic reindeer for food.<br/><br/>2. Karelian wolverine population<br/>The Russian economic depression during the 1990s is believed to have led to widespread poaching of ungulate game species. Furthermore, there has been a reduction of the semi-domestic reindeer herding industry due to large calf/breeding losses. This is believed to have indirectly negatively affected wolverine populations in western Russia. The wolverine's main prey base (wild and domestic reindeer) became less abundant and the population has faced a decrease in numbers and distribution during the last decades.	eng
9564	conservation	Menkhorst, P., 2008	Leadbeater's Possum occurs in a number of protected areas and is listed as a threatened species both nationally and within Victoria. A recovery plan for the species was prepared (Macfarlane <em>et al.</em> 1998), as well as several conservation strategies (e.g., Smith 1982; Smith <em>et al.</em> 1985; Macfarlane and Seebeck 1991; Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 1991; Lindenmayer and Possingham 1994), but these are now largely out of date. Populations of this species have been monitored over the last several years conducted by numerous volunteers and public awareness of the plight of this species is high (Smith and Harley 2008). Research into the effects of fire and ways to improve timber harvesting techniques are important.<br/><br/>The species’ dependence on tree hollows that resulted from burnt remnant trees from the 1939 fires has led to dire predictions about its population trend over the next 30 years as these trees continue to collapse. The use of nest boxes as a management tool that has received a lot attention as one way to possibly ameliorate the imminent cavity shortage. Research in the central highlands suggests that nest boxes receive a low rate of occupancy and would be ineffective as a large-scale solution to the problem (Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 2003). This result, however, has been questioned as nest box occupancy rates are much higher at Yellingbo (Beyer and Goldingay 2006; Harley 2006). Although the habitats are very different between the Yellingbo outlier and the central highlands the discrepancy in occupancy rates is thought to have more to do with box dimensions and placement than the difference in location, thus leaving open the possibility of nest boxes as a useful management tool for the species (Beyer and Goldingay 2006; Harley 2006). <br/><br/>Approximately 31% of its Ash forest habitat is protected, while about 69% is allocated for timber production. Timber harvesting is obviously a major factor of any recovery plan for Leadbeater's Possum (Lindenmayer 1996). Large-scale clear-cutting and even-aged stand management is detrimental to the species, and there have efforts to adopt harvest practices that are compatible with the conservation of the species. The preservation of more large trees with hollows and a dense habitat structure with an understorey of Acacias is essential (Smith and Lindenmayer 1992; Smith and Harley 2008). Recently management recommendations for timber harvesting for Leadbeater's Possum has become very sophisticated, including, for instance, detailed recommendations for post fire timber salvage that protects patches of tall trees (Lindenmayer and Ough 2006). Further research is needed into timber management practices, and much work will be required to have these implemented.	eng
9564	distribution	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a limited distribution (<3,500 km²) near the western limit of Victoria's eastern highlands from 500-1,500 m asl. There is a small, isolated population that occupies swamp forest at Yellingbo Conservation Nature Reserve at around 80 m (Smith and Harley 2008).	eng
9564	habitat	Menkhorst, P., 2008	Leadbeater's Possum is a nocturnal, arboreal species that spends its day in tree hollows. Its diet mainly consists of exudates from trees and to a lesser extent arthropods (Smith 1984).<br/><br/>Optimum habitat for Leadbeater's Possum is a regenerating or uneven-aged Ash forest with a dense understorey of Acacia trees and an ample supply of old hollow trees. The occurrence and quality of habitat is primarily determined by patterns of successional change and stand development resulting from disturbance, such as past wildfires and timber harvesting operations. Regrowth from the 1939 wildfires, combined with fire-killed remnants of mature forest, has provided abundant feeding and nesting habitat during the last 30 years.<br/><br/>Older aged and mixed aged forest containing live hollow-bearing trees also support populations of Leadbeater's Possum, although not in the same high densities that can be found in suitable regrowth forests. The role, however, of these suboptimal forests in the medium-term will be critical for conservation of the species. These forests are not subject to a rapid decline in habitat suitability that is predicted to occur in current high value habitat regrowth forests. Older aged forest and mixed aged forest with hollow-bearing trees and a low occurrence of wattles are defined as potentially optimum habitat because of their potential to become optimum in the short term (<30 years), as a result of natural or deliberate disturbance.	eng
9564	population	Menkhorst, P., 2008	There are about 200 individuals at Yellingbo, and the main population is estimated at around 2,000 mature individuals. There is a predicted to be a decline of approximately 90% over the next 30 years due to loss of den trees and suitable nesting habitat (Smith and Lindenmayer 1992).	eng
9564	threats	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is heavily dependent on old trees, and fire-killed remnants that are rapidly decaying and falling over. Recruitment of suitable hollows, used for shelter and breeding, is very slow. The long-term viability of habitat in mature and mixed aged forests is threatened by wildfires and some timber harvesting practices. The species and its remnant habitat also are closely tied to a narrow set of climatic conditions that could be severely affected by global warming (Lindenmayer <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
9565	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9565	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage.	eng
9565	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open sand and mud bottom of large rivers with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, nocturnal. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in April-June. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Females attach eggs to stones. Larvae are benthic. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. Feeds on small invertebrates, especially molluscs.	eng
9565	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
9565	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
9566	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9566	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Basin of northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov: Dniestr, South Bug, Dniepr, Don and Kuban drainages. In Dniepr up to Belarus.	eng
9566	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Flowing waters, also lakes with clear water; in summer in rapids; over sand and gravel bottom but prefers hard compact sand. Spawns in river stretches with heavy current and sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, 120-160 mm SL. Spawns in small schools. Female lays slightly sticky eggs in several portions: first at 6-8°C, second at 12-14°C. Eggs hatch in 6-8 days at 14-16°C. Newly hatched larvae first lie on bottom; at 9 days (when pectorals are developed), they actively move to middle water layers and drift downstream. At 12 days (6.5 mm SL), they start active feeding on small invertebrates in shallow shoreline habitats. A benthic species that aggregates in small schools. Usually crepuscular but feeds also during daytime. In September, starts forming large schools and moves to deeper places and remains inactive until ice melts. Does not migrate for long distances. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs), rarely on small fish.	eng
9566	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
9566	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
9567	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9567	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube (from delta to Bavaria), Dniestr and Dniepr (from delta to Kiev) drainages.	eng
9567	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open sand and muddy bottom in backwaters, large rivers with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-3. Migrates from river mainstreams to backwaters to spawn. Nocturnal, benthic, feeding on small invertebrates.	eng
9567	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
9567	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
9568	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
9568	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
9568	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian, Black, Baltic and North Sea basins; Great Britain. North to about 69°N in Scandinavia. In Asia, Aral Sea basin, Arctic Ocean basin eastward to Kolyma drainage. Introduced or invasive in France west of Rhine, northern Italy, northern Great Britain and Greece. Introduced to Great Lakes region, North America.	eng
9568	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian, Black, Baltic and North Sea basins; Great Britain. North to about 69°N in Scandinavia. In Asia, Aral Sea basin, Arctic Ocean basin eastward to Kolyma drainage. Introduced or invasive in France west of Rhine, northern Italy, northern Great Britain and Greece. Introduced to Great Lakes region, North America.	eng
9568	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Eutrophic lakes, lowland and piedmont rivers. Prefers still or slow-flowing water with soft bottom, without vegetation. Most abundant in estuaries of large rivers, brackish lakes with salinities up to 10-12? and reservoirs. Generally increases in abundance with increased eutrophication. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to 10 years, males up to seven. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years, males one year earlier than females. Spawns in March-May, until July in the north, on a variety of substrates at depths of about 3 m or less. Spawns at temperatures above 6°C in the north and above 10°C in the south. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Eggs become adhesive on contact with water and stick to stones or plants. Females may spawn intermittently, laying eggs in two or more portions, usually separated by about 30 days in summer. Eggs of first portion are larger than those of second portion. Larvae without, or with only a brief, pelagic larval stage, switching early to benthic life, secretive and solitary, not forming schools. Survival of larvae is poor below 10°C and above 20°C. Crepuscular or nocturnal. The well-developed cephalic lateral line system and tapetum lucidum in eyes makes it an efficient predator at night and in turbid waters. Usually feeds on benthic chironomid larvae and amphipods, which can be detected in the top layers of the substrate by sensory canals on head. Pelagic in coastal lakes and tidal estuaries, feeding on zooplankton and fish. When they coexist in deep lakes, <em>Perca fluviatilis</em> and <em>G. cernuus</em> partly occur at different depths, <em>G. cernuus</em> being more abundant in deeper layers.	eng
9568	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Eutrophic lakes, lowland and piedmont rivers. Prefers still or slow-flowing water with soft bottom, without vegetation. Most abundant in estuaries of large rivers, brackish lakes with salinities up to 10-12‰ and reservoirs. Generally increases in abundance with increased eutrophication. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to 10 years, males up to seven. Spawns for the first time at 1-3 years, males one year earlier than females. Spawns in March-May, until July in the north, on a variety of substrates at depths of about 3 m or less. Spawns at temperatures above 6°C in the north and above 10°C in the south. Usually, a single female spawns with several males. Eggs become adhesive on contact with water and stick to stones or plants. Females may spawn intermittently, laying eggs in two or more portions, usually separated by about 30 days in summer. Eggs of first portion are larger than those of second portion. Larvae without, or with only a brief, pelagic larval stage, switching early to benthic life, secretive and solitary, not forming schools. Survival of larvae is poor below 10°C and above 20°C. Crepuscular or nocturnal. The well-developed cephalic lateral line system and tapetum lucidum in eyes makes it an efficient predator at night and in turbid waters. Usually feeds on benthic chironomid larvae and amphipods, which can be detected in the top layers of the substrate by sensory canals on head. Pelagic in coastal lakes and tidal estuaries, feeding on zooplankton and fish. When they coexist in deep lakes, <em>Perca fluviatilis</em> and <em>G. cernuus</em> partly occur at different depths, <em>G. cernuus</em> being more abundant in deeper layers.	eng
9568	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
9568	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
9568	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
9568	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
9581	conservation	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas including Analamazaotra and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserves, and Mantadia, Marojejy, Ranomafana, and Andringitra National Parks. As with other predominantly forest living rodents on Madagascar, suitable tracts of pristine habitat should be conserved. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
9581	distribution	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands south to the southern limits of the Anosyennes Mountains. It has a wide elevational range and has been recorded from around 500 to 1,800 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
9581	habitat	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This is a nocturnal, terrestrial species found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It generally occurs in areas with sparse understory vegetation. Animals may be found in ground burrows, up to a meter deep, located under fallen logs and other ground cover. The biology of this species is not well known. This species appears to be able to tolerate some habitat modification, as individuals have been captured in intact secondary forest mixed with introduced tree species (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
9581	population	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	On the basis of standard trapping techniques, this species is never common (S.M. Goodman and D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.).	eng
9581	threats	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance for cultivation and fire. It may be suffering increased competition from the introduced Black Rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
9608	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only found in one location, on Cerro Pelón (2,080 to 2,650 m) in the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca (México) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
9608	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in cloud forest.	eng
9608	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There is only one known population.	eng
9608	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation within its very restricted range.	eng
9609	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is only known from Cerro Zempoaltepec (above 2,500 m), in Oaxaca (Mexico) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002; Ceballos and Olivia 2005).	eng
9609	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from above 2,500 m in cloud forest. It prefers cool, wet climates with fern and lichen vegetation.	eng
9609	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is considered rare.	eng
9609	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation within its restricted range.	eng
9610	conservation	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas in Mexico. Research about the species biology and ecology is needed.	eng
9610	distribution	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is known from the highlands of Chiapas, México, to central Guatemala, and northwestern El Salvador (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,950 to 3,110 m (Musser 1969). The species has not been found in El Salvador since the 1960s.	eng
9610	habitat	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rodent occurs in wet montane forest in the pine-oak belt. It favors mature oak forest with numerous epiphytes, mosses, and fallen trees (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and semiarboreal; it is usually trapped on fallen logs or low branches. Females were nonreproductive in December in Guatemala (Reid 1997).	eng
9610	population	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
9610	threats	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	Deforestation is a threat; the species is limited to high elevation areas that are quickly being degraded.	eng
9611	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	More research is needed into its population status and extent of occurrence.	eng
9611	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from two locations on the eastern, middle slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental, México (1,830 to 2,000 m): south Hidalgo and central Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005). Musser and Carleton (2005) also list the species as occurring in extreme north-western Oaxaca, but this is not mapped because it is thought to represent a separate species (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
9611	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. Like its congeners, this species is arboreal and lives in moist high elevation cloud and pine/oak forests (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
9611	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There is no recent information about its abundance.	eng
9611	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by timber extraction and human settlements.	eng
9618	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected area. Survey, monitoring and life history studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9618	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to northeastern India recorded only from the three locations of Angarakhata in Kamrup district, Assam (Agrawal 2000), and Bishnupur and Senapati in Manipur (Agrawal 2000) at elevations ranging between 900 and 1,300 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a relictual species which ranged much more widely in the Pleistocene (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
9618	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species occuring in in tropical evergreen, moist deciduous forests. Also found in secondary forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9618	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species	eng
9618	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss and fragmentation from general encroachment on its habitat, hunting and fire (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
9630	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded from Gunung Niut Penrisen Nature Reserve. Further survey work involving the appropriate techniques (e.g. pitfall traps) is needed to investigate the distribution range and population status of the species.	eng
9630	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is recorded only from the type locality, Penrisen Hills in Sarawak, and a second locality (Bettotan) in Sabah, Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is very likely to occur more widely in Borneo than current records suggest.	eng
9630	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is an arboreal species, it inhabits forest, and not necessarily restricted to primary formations.	eng
9630	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known only by the holotype and the specimen from Bettotan. It is very difficult to trap, and there is no recent information on its population status.	eng
9630	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is likely to be affected by habitat loss.	eng
9631	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and from the slopes of Gunung Soputan, which is formally designated as a protection forest (although the management effectiveness of this area is unknown). Further survey work is needed to better determine the geographic range and current population status of this species.	eng
9631	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species has been recorded only from the north east tip of the northern peninsula (three localities) and the central core of Sulawesi, Indonesia, between 75 and 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Although known only from three disjunct locations, it is likely that with additional survey work this species will be shown to range more widely through northern Sulawesi than current records suggest. Another undescribed form of <em>Haeromys</em> occupies montane forest formations on Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
9631	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	A frugivorous species, inhabiting tropical lowland evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). All localities from which specimens have been collected to date were from forested regions, although this does not preclude its presence in lightly degraded habitats.	eng
9631	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information on the population status of this species. It is rarely encountered and collected during surveys, partially due to its arboreal habits, diminutive size, and patchy distribution (Musser 1990), and also because most surveys do not involve the use of the appropriate techniques for capturing this species.	eng
9631	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and expanding agricultural activities.	eng
9632	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
9632	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species have been recorded in Borneo and in Palawan and Calawit islands (Philippines). However, it is very likely extinct on Calawit and it has not been found on Palawan in most recent survey. So, probably the Borneo population is the only remaining.	eng
9632	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It inhabits lowland forest.	eng
9632	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
9632	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
9660	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Numerous countries have invoked protective measures to limit grey seal harvests, culls, disturbance, and by-catch (Bonner 1981, ICES 2005). Pollutant loads in Baltic gray seals have declined in step with regulations banning of the use and/or discharge of toxic pollutants such as DDT and PCBs beginning in the 1970s, and the reproductive health of female grey seals has improved as has the population level in the Baltic (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001). Establishment of coastal marine reserves for seals in Norway have been more effective in protecting harbor seals than grey seals because the latter are more likely to travel outside the areas closed to fisheries and become entangled in nets (Bjore <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
9660	conservation	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Numerous countries have invoked protective measures to limit Grey Seal harvests, culls, disturbance and by-catch (Bonner 1981, ICES 2005). Pollutant loads in Baltic Grey Seals have declined following regulations banning the use and discharge of toxic pollutants such as DDT and PCBs beginning in the 1970s. Although the prevalence of colonic ulcers has increased over the last decades, the reproductive health of female Grey Seals has improved as has the population level in the Baltic (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Establishment of coastal marine reserves for seals in Norway have been more effective in protecting harbour seals than Grey Seals because the latter are more likely to travel outside the areas closed to fisheries and become entangled in nets (Bjorge <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
9660	distribution	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Grey Seals have a cold temperate to sub-Arctic distribution in North Atlantic waters over the continental shelf (Hall 2002). There are three populations isolated both geographically and by timing of reproduction (Bonner 1981); mtDNA variations are large between these three breeding areas, though the Baltic and East Atlantic populations are much closer to one another than to the West Atlantic population (Boskovic <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the western Atlantic, the population is centred in north-eastern North America from the Gulf of Maine to southern Labrador, including the Gulf of St Lawrence. The eastern Atlantic population is concentrated around the United Kingdom (UK)  and Ireland but is also found around Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and along the European mainland coast from the Kola Peninsula south to southern Norway, and from Denmark to Brittany in France. The Baltic Sea stock is confined to the Baltic Sea (Bonner 1981, Hall 2002). Vagrants are known from as far south as New Jersey in the western Atlantic and Portugal in the eastern Atlantic (Rice 1998).	eng
9660	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Grey seals have a cold temperate to sub-Arctic distribution in the North Atlantic waters over the continental shelf (Hall 2002). There are three populations isolated both geographically and by timing of reproduction (Bonner 1981). In the western Atlantic, the population is centered in northeastern North America from the Gulf of Maine to southern Labrador, including the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The eastern Atlantic population is found at Iceland, the Faroe Islands, from the Kola Peninsula south to southern Norway, around most of the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in Brittany in France.  The Baltic Sea stock is entirely confined to the Baltic Sea (Bonner 1981, Hall 2002). Vagrants are known from as far south as New Jersey in the western Atlantic and Portugal in the eastern Atlantic (Rice 1998).	eng
9660	habitat	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Grey Seals are a large sexually dimorphic phocid. Western Atlantic Grey Seals are significantly larger than eastern Atlantic animals. In the UK, adult males are on average 2 m long and weigh 233 kg, with a maximum of 310 kg. Adult females average 1.8 m and 155 kg. At birth, pups are 90-105 cm, with male pups averaging 15.8 kg and female pups averaging 14.8 kg in weight (Bonner 1981). Weaning weights average 40 kg for males and 35.8 -39.6 kg for females. In the western Atlantic adult males average 2.25 m and 300-350 kg with maximum weights over 400 kg. Adult females average 2 m and 150-200 kg with maximum weights over 250 kg (Mansfield 1988, Hall 2002). Pups are heavier at birth than pups born in the UK and are 25% heavier at weaning. Male pups average 56.2 kg and females 51.6 kg, measured for pups born on the ice near Amet Island (Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Male pups weigh 51.6 and females weigh 50.5 kg for those born on land at Sable Island (Baker <em>et al</em>. 1995). Baltic Grey Seal pups weigh about 12 kg at birth, but weaning mass differs between (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008)  48.3 (± 8.1 kg) for pups born on ice to 37.4 (± 7.8 kg) for pups on land. <br/><br/>Lactation lasts around 15-18 days on average, with ice breeders having slightly shorter lactation periods; weaning is abrupt (Kovacs 1987, Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Pre-weaning mortality of Grey Seal pups varies widely between colonies, usually between 5 and 20% but can be as high as 30%. Pup mortality rates are influenced by habitat quality, birth site, quality of maternal care, injuries resulting from male-male aggression and to a lesser extent predation by Greater and Lesser Black-backed Gulls (<em>Larus marinus</em> and <em>L. fuscus</em>) on weakened, unprotected, pups, or pups born on the periphery of a colony (Baker and Baker 1988, Twiss <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In the Baltic pre-weaning mortality is low for pups born on ice, but varies between 5 and 30% on land, depending on pupping density (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008). Main predators are White-tailed Eagles (<em>Haliaeetus albicilla</em>) and Greater Black-backed Gulls.<br/><br/>In the UK, females give birth on land and show considerable site fidelity (Pomeroy <em>et al</em>. 1994). Mothers typically stay with their pups until weaning, but are rarely more than a few meters away from water (Twiss <em>et al</em>. 1994). In the Gulf of St Lawrence, lactating females that give birth on the ice spend about 72% of their time hauled out, nursing the pup every 2-3 hours. They are hauled out significantly more in darkness than during daylight hours. From the time of birth until weaning, females lose about 5.7 kg per day (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 1994). Females in the UK lose an average of 65 kg over the lactation period (Fedak and Anderson 1982), whereas the somewhat larger females in the West Atlantic lose an average of 75 kg (Haller <em>et al</em>. 1996). Females come into estrus around the time of weaning (Boness <em>et al</em>. 1982). Females are at their lowest weight following the moulting period, averaging 126.2 kg; by the beginning of the next pupping period they again average 210 kg (Beck <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Adult male Grey Seals do not typically come ashore until the first pups are born, unlike most other pinnipeds where males arrive before the females (Bonner 1981). Their average age when first returning to their breeding colonies is 9-10 years (Manske <em>et al</em>. 2002). Males spend large amounts of time out of the water fasting during the breeding season. Some males go to sea for periods of 2-3 days while others remain hauled out for the entire breeding season (Lidgard <em>et al</em>. 2003). Males do not defend a fixed territory, but stay near a particular group of females. Breeding age males lose less weight per day than lactating females, but because they are ashore for an average of 36 days, up to an extreme of 57days, they can experience considerable loss of mass (Anderson and Fedak 1985, Tinker <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Pupping dates differing significantly between populations: peak dates in the western Atlantic are in January; in eastern Atlantic peak dates vary between September and December in different subpopulations; and in the Baltic Sea peak pupping is in late February to early March, which coincides with the annual maximum ice coverage. The differences in pupping seasons probably keep the groups reproductively isolated (Bonner 1981). Pups are born on land in the eastern North Atlantic, and can be born on either on ice or land in the western North Atlantic and the Baltic (Bonner 1981, Baker <em>et al</em>. 1995). Pups are born with a woolly white lanugo that is moulted around the time of weaning. Pups usually stay on land from birth until the moult is finished, although some pups on small exposed beaches often swim for short periods even before moulting (Kovacs 1987). During the post weaning fast pups lose up to 25% of their body weight (Mansfield, 1988). In the United Kingdom, adult females moult from mid-January to mid-February, and males moult from mid-February through until early April. In Canada, the moult is later in the spring (Bonner 1981). Peak moulting season for Baltic seals is the last week of May to the second week in June.<br/><br/>Grey Seals are shallow, short-duration divers. Most adult diving is shallower than 120 m and less than 8 min. Females dives are on average slightly longer (5.5 min.) than those of males (4.9 min.), although males tend to dive a little bit deeper (57 m compared to 49 m). In the Gulf of St Lawrence, maximum dives recorded were 412 m for males, and 354 m for females (Beck <em>et al</em>. 2003). Typically in the United Kingdom, dives are shorter and shallower (average 4-10 min., max. 30 min.). In European waters gray seals are primarily demersal feeders, diving to the sea bed during most dives (usually 60 m, but down to 200 m in some areas; Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are not long-distance migrants. In Europe, they often haulout on land, especially on outlying islands and remote coastlines exposed to the open sea. Tracking of individual seals has shown that they can feed up to several hundred kilometres offshore during short foraging trips lasting 2.3 days on average (McConnell <em>et al</em>. 1999). Individual Grey Seals, based at specific haulout sites, often make repeated trips to the same region offshore but will occasionally move to a new haulout and begin foraging in a new region. Movements of Grey Seals between haul-outs in the North Sea and the Shetland Isles, Outer Hebrides and Faeroe Islands have been recorded. During foraging trips Grey Seals often target areas with fine gravel/coarse sandy sea-bed sediments, which are the preferred habitat of sandeels, an important part of the Grey Seal’s diet. Satellite telemetry data from Canada shows that Grey Seals there perform much longer foraging trips and often travel much larger distances than European seals. In the Baltic Sea, Grey Seals make short trips, spending roughly 75% of their time within 50 km of haulout sites (Sjoberg and Ball 2000).<br/><br/>Grey Seal diet varies by location, though they are largely demersal or benthic feeders, (Hall 2002). In some areas, the food consumed can be over 70% sandeels (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.). In Iceland, where 15 species make up the majority of the diet, the most common stomach contents by weight are Atlantic Cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>) 24%, sandeels 23%, catfish (wolf-fish, <em>Anarhichas lupus</em>) 15%, and saithe (<em>Pollachius virens</em>) 11% (Hauksson and Bogason 1997). At the Faroes, adults feed on cod and catfish, subadults feed on sandeels and saithe and juveniles consume sandeels (Mikkelsen <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the United Kingdom, sandeels, cod and Dover Sole (<em>Solea solea</em>) accounted for 56% of the diet by weight. Gray seals also eat other flatfish, including Dab (<em>Limanda limanda</em>), Flounder (<em>Platichthys plessus</em>) and plaice (<em>Pleuronectes platessa</em>) (Prime and Hammond 1990). In the Outer Hebrides, gadids account for 40% or more of the diet (ling (<em>Molva molva</em>), Atlantic Cod and Whiting (<em>Merlangius merlangus</em>)); sandeels are less important in this area (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 1994). In Canada, 15 species of fish occur regularly in the diet (Mansfield 1988). Atlantic Cod, Herring (<em>Clupea herringus</em>) and Capelin (<em>Mellotus villosus</em>) account for 72% of prey by weight (Murie and Lavigne 1992).	eng
9660	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Grey seals are large sexually dimorphic phocids. In the United Kingdom, adult males are on average 2.07 m long and weigh an average 233 kg, with a maximum of 310 kg.  Adult females are smaller, averaging 1.79 m and 155 kg. At birth, pups are 90-105 cm, with male pups averaging 15.8 kg and female pups averaging 14.8 kg in weight (Bonner 1981). Adults in the western Atlantic are larger, with males averaging 2.25 m and 300-350 kg, and females averaging 2 m and 150-200 kg (Mansfield 1988), with males reaching a maximum of over 400 kg and females over 250 kg (Hall 2002).<br/><br/>Pupping occurs from September to March with peak dates differing significantly between populations: in the western Atlantic, January; eastern Atlantic, September-December; and in the Baltic Sea, late February to early March, which probably reproductively isolates each group (Bonner 1981).  Pups are born on ice or land in the western North Atlantic, land in the eastern North Atlantic, and ice in the Baltic (Bonner 1981).  Pups are born with a woolly lanugo that is molted several weeks after weaning. The pup stays on land from birth until the molt is finished, losing up to 25% of its body weight from fasting (Mansfield 1988). In the United Kingdom, pups molt before weaning; adult females molt from mid-January to mid-February, and males molt from mid-February to early April (Bonner 1981).<br/><br/>Grey seals not known for being long-distance migrants. In one study, they spent 43% of their time within 10 km of frequently used haul-out sites, traveling to sandy areas, or gravel sea-bed sediments, the preferred habitat of sandeels, an important part of the grey seal’s diet. Short trips away averaged 2.3 days (McConnell <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Canada, tagging revealed that some animals travel 350-800 km, and in the United Kingdom, they took short-range trips. Occasionally, long treks of up to 2,100 km were made, crossing deep water from northern England to the Shetlands or Orkneys, and from the Faroes into the North Sea.  In the Baltic Sea, grey seals make short trips, spending roughly 75% of their time within 50 km of haul-out sites (Sjoberg and Ball 2000).<br/><br/>Grey seals' diet varies by location, though they are largely demersal or benthic feeders (Hall 2002).  In some areas, the food consumed can be over 70% sandeels (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.). In the United Kingdom, sandeels, cod and Dover sole accounted for 56% of the diet by weight (Prime and Hammond 1990).	eng
9660	population	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Grey Seal numbers are increasing at most locations, but are declining in a few localities. The Grey Seal population in the UK is one of the most intensively monitored large mammal populations in the world. Pup production of all the major breeding colonies is monitored regularly, annually in the UK and less frequently but regularly in Canada and other range states. However, because of differences in estimation methods and changes in population dynamics it is difficult to estimate the total global population size. For ease of comparison the most recent pup production estimates for all Atlantic populations are given in Table 1 in the linked PDF document, which forms an integral part of this assessment.<br/><br/>Baltic Grey Seals alternate between land- and ice-breeding, and the proportion of pups born on land vary from 5% to 95%, so it is not easy to use typical pup production counts to enumerate Grey Seals in the Baltic. Surveys in the Baltic count the number of seals hauled out during peak moulting season (late May-to early June), which represents approximately 80% of total population size (Hiby <em>et al</em>. 2007). Counted numbers hauled out in 2007 was estimated at 22,000.<br/><br/>Pup production figures can be used to derive approximate total population estimates. In Canada the “all age” population is approximately 250 000 divided into two main herds, one largely located in the southern Gulf of St Lawrence and the other at Sable Island (DFO 2006). The Sable Island colony has been increasing at a rate of 13% per year, but has recently showed signs of slowing (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Gulf of St Lawrence population is decreasing (Hammill <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the UK the different subpopulations show differing dynamics (SCOS 2006). In the Hebrides and Northern Isles pup production has stabilized while in the central and Southern North Sea production is still increasing exponentially. The total population is estimated to be between 117,000 and 171,000 at the start of the breeding season, i.e. excluding pups. Overall the UK population is increasing at approximately 2.5% p.a. (SCOS 2007).<br/><br/>Total population estimates for other regions are: USA - 7,300 – increasing (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005); Iceland – 11,600 – declining (Hauksson 2007); Norway - 3,100 – trend unknown (Wiig 1986); Ireland - 2,000 – increasing; Russia - 1,000-2,000- unknown; Baltic Sea - 22,000- increasing (2007, Helcom portal).	eng
9660	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Grey seal numbers are increasing at some locations while declining in others. The total world population is not completely known. Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans estimates its present population at 250,000 divided into in two herds, mainly in the southern Gulf of St Lawrence, and at Sable Island (Anon. 2006). Aerial surveys in 1997 provided an abundance estimate for the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Sable Island populations at 195,000 animals. The Sable Island population is increasing by 13% per year. The Gulf of St. Lawrence population is decreasing by and unspecified amount. There are approximately 7,300 gray seals in United States waters, where its numbers are increasing (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population estimates for areas in the eastern North Atlantic are: Iceland, 11,600 (Hauksson 1987), Norway, a minimum of 3,100 (Wiig 1986), Ireland 2,000, the White Sea 1,000-2,000, and the United Kingdom 110,000 and increasing at 6% per year (Hall 2002). The Baltic Sea population is given as 17,640 (ICES 2005).	eng
9660	threats	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Grey Seals have been important in subsistence harvests in coastal areas within their range throughout history. They have been hunted in the Baltic Sea for more than 10,000 years (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Commercial harvesting has been ongoing in many areas for hundreds of years, and at times Grey Seals have been important to local economies (Mansfield 1988). Over-harvesting in the Baltic in the early 20th century led to a large decline; this population once numbered somewhere between 80,000 and 100,000, but was reduced to about 20,000 in the 1940s. A further decline to 1,500-2,000 seals was caused by high loads of PCB (Harding and Härkönen 1999).<br/><br/>Government culls, bounties and licensed kills for protection of fishing gear have been put into effect in many countries and continue to be used to control Grey Seal numbers and reduce their impact on commercially important coastal fisheries (i.e. salmonid fisheries). Grey Seals feed on a number of commercial species, and by damaging nets and traps they are in direct conflict with fisheries. They also are vectors for parasites that can have an impact on the economy of some fisheries (see ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Entanglement in commercial fishing nets causes by-catch mortality in most parts of the Grey Seals’ range (Woodley and Lavigne 1991). By-catch levels are approximately 300 per year in Swedish fisheries in the Baltic (ICES 2005). A Norwegian study from 1975-1998 reported the death of 259 seals, representing 7% of the tagged animals, primarily juveniles less than a year old (Bjorge <em>et al</em>. 2002). Among 528 deaths of tagged seals in the UK, 148 were attributable to fishing nets. However, this may overestimate the rate of entanglement-related mortality due to the high rate of tag returns from fisheries. Woodley and Lavigne (1991) suggested that 1-2% of animals less than a year old die in fishing gear. Finally, in the United States’ Northeast sink-gillnet fishery there was an average annual mortality of 141 Grey Seals reported for the period 1999 to 2003 (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are known carriers of the morbillivirus, known as phocine distemper virus (PDV), in all populations (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1992, Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1995, Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, they have suffered almost no mortality from the disease, in marked contrast to Harbour Seals. Harkonen <em>et al</em>. (2006) report Grey Seal mortality of approximately 230 (equal to 1% of the harbour seal mortality) in the 1988 epizootic in Europe and the death of 30 Grey Seal pups in the Baltic were attributed to PDV. Because Grey Seal haulout with Harbour Seals in the Wadden Sea and are known to travel more widely than the sedentary Harbour Seal, it is presumed that they had a role in the outbreak and spread of the 2002 epizootic of PDV in Harbour Seals (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Grey Seals are exposed to agricultural pollutants through the food chain in their coastal ranges. PCBs and DDT contaminant loads are extremely high in Baltic Grey Seals, despite the fact that tissue burdens have declined since the 1970s. Analysis of samples collected from 1996 to 1998 indicated that Grey Seals still have a very heavy load of contaminants when compared to other seals outside the Baltic (ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Health effects on Grey Seals have been suggested to be linked to their high exposures to PCBs and DDT. Baltic Grey Seal have a relatively high rate of colonic ulcers associated with hookworm infestations, which are sometimes fatal. This condition occurs in Baltic Ringed Seals as well, but is not found elsewhere in either species (ICES 2005). Uterine stenosis and a host of other pathologies in other organs have been attributed to long-term exposure to environmental toxics, particularly in older Baltic Grey Seals. These are specifically linked to reproductive and population declines for this subspecies and are conditions not seen in other populations (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001). However, no negative effects have been attributed to heavy metal contaminants in Baltic Grey Seals (Bergman <em>et al</em>. 2001, ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Grey Seals live close to human population centres and shipping lanes and spend much of their time in the vicinity of favourite haulout locations. Spilled oil from vessel accidents and other sources have fouled gray seal sites since at least the 1940s (St. Aubin 1990). Despite numerous records of oiled animals and occasional reports of dead animals coated in oil, or animals having ingested oil, it has not been determined whether these mortalities are attributable to contact with oil in this species (St. Aubin 1990). <br/><br/>Grey Seals are generalist predators and their population has increased in recent decades during periods of declines of some commercial fish stocks that are important Grey Seal prey. The risks of over-fishing induced declines of fish stocks on gray seals are unclear at this time. One potential threat is the risk of a demand for larger culls and control of Grey Seal populations to help rebuild fisheries stocks that are affected by, or are presumed to be affected by, gray seals.<br/><br/>The potential effects of climate change on Grey Seals are not well known. Although not a high Arctic species, some Grey Seals pup on ice and are seasonally associated with ice in parts of their range (Bonner 1981). It is unknown how decreases in sea-ice cover might affect Grey Seals, although Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) identify the Grey Seal as a species that will probably undergo a decrease in its range because of climate change. Since Baltic Grey Seal pup mortality on land breeding sites is considerably greater compared with pups born on ice, and weaning weights much lower on land, a scenario with less ice will reduce the mean long-term growth rate in this population (Jussi <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
9660	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Grey seals have been important in subsistence harvests throughout the history of their contact with humans. They have been hunted by peoples of the Baltic Sea coast for more than 10,000 years (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 2005). Commercial harvesting has been ongoing in many areas for hundreds of year, and at times grey seals have been important to local economies (Mansfield 1988). Overharvesting in the Baltic in the early 20th century led to a large decline, from a population that once numbered an estimated 30,000 to perhaps as high as 200,000 to a low of 1,500-2,000 by the early 1980s (Kokko <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Government culls, bounties, and licensed kills for harvest and protection of fishing gear have been put into effect in many countries, and continue to be used in some in efforts to control grey seal numbers and reduce their impact on commercially important fisheries. Grey seals feed on a number of commercial species, and by damaging nets and traps, they are in direct conflict with fisheries. Indirectly, grey seals are a vector for seal worm, also known as cod worm, a destructive parasite of Atlantic cod (Mansfield 1988, ICES 2005). <br/><br/>Entanglement in commercial fishing nets causes bycatch mortality in most parts of the grey seals’ range (Woodley and Lavigne, 1991). Bycatch levels are approximately 300 per year in Swedish fisheries in the Baltic (ICES 2005). Of 528 deaths of tagged seals in the United Kingdom, 148 were attributable to fishing nets. However, this may overestimate the rate of entanglement-related mortality due to the high rate of tag returns from fisheries. It was also estimated that 1-2% of animals less than a year old die in fishing gear (Woodley and Lavigne 1991). <br/> <br/>Grey seals are known carriers of the morbillivirus known as phocine distemper virus (PDV), in all populations (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1992, Duignan <em>et al.</em> 1995, Harkonen<em> et al.</em> 2006).  However, they have suffered almost no mortality from the disease.  Harkonen <em>et al.</em> (2006) report grey seal mortality of approximately 230 (equal to 1% of the harbour seal mortality) in the 1988 epizootic in Europe, and the death of 30 gray seal pups in the Baltic were attributed to PDV.  Because grey seals haul out with harbour seals in the Wadden Sea, and are known to travel more widely than the sedentary harbour seal, it is presumed that they had a role in the outbreak and spread of the 2002 epizootic of PDV in harbour seals.<br/><br/>As a coastal species, grey seals are exposed to and ingest industrial and agricultural pollutants through the food chain.  PCBs and DDT contaminant loads are extremely high in Baltic gray seals, despite the fact that tissue burdens have declined since the 1970s.  Analysis of samples collected from 1996 to 1998 indicated that gray seals still have a very heavy load of contaminants when compared to other seals outside the Baltic (ICES 2005). Health effects on grey seals have been suggested to be linked to very high exposures of PCBs and DDT. Baltic grey seals have a relatively high rate of colonic ulcers, sometimes fatal, associated with hookworm infestations. This condition occurs in Baltic ringed seals as well, but essentially not found elsewhere in either species (ICES 2005). Uterine stenosis and a range of pathologies in other organs have been attributed to long-term exposure to environmental toxins, particularly in older Baltic gray seals. These are specifically linked to reproductive and population declines for this subspecies, and are conditions not seen in other populations (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, no negative effects have been attributed to heavy metal contaminants in Baltic gray seals (Bergman <em>et al.</em> 2001, ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Grey seals are generalist predators, and their population has increased in recent decades during periods of declines of some commercial fish stocks that are important grey seal prey. The risks of overfishing or climate-induced declines of fish stocks on grey seals are unclear at this time. One potential threat is the risk of a demand for larger culls and control of grey seal populations to help rebuild fisheries stocks that are affected by, or are presumed to be affected by, grey seals. This would be similar to the efforts to manage harp seals after the collapse of the Atlantic cod fishery, as discussed by DeMaster <em>et al.</em> (2001).  Despite the fact that the collapse of the cod fishery is probably not attributable to seal predation, there has been ongoing pressure to cull the populations of harp seals and gray seals (Yodzis 2001).<br/><br/>The potential effects of climate change, either warming or cooling, on gray seals are not well known. Although not a high Arctic species, some grey seals pup on ice and are seasonally associated with ice in parts of their range (Bonner 1981).  It is unknown how decreases in sea-ice cover might affect gray seals, although Learmonth <em>et al.</em> (2006) identify the gray seal as a species that will probably undergo a decrease in range because of climate change.<br/><br/>None of the above is thought to be a major threat to the species as a whole at present.	eng
9672	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A. Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I. It is known to occur in only two protected areas (Ranomafana National Park and Andringitra National Park).The entire corridor between the two existing areas has been proposed as a Conservation Site. A captive breeding programme was set up at Parc Tsimbazaza from a founder population of two individuals that have reproduced four times. However, the programme has since collapsed. Setting up a micro-propagation program to generate new stands of bamboo has been recommended as a needed conservation measure.	eng
9672	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A. Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is known from the rain forests of southeastern Madagascar, at elevations of 600-1,400 m asl, where it can be found in and around Ranomafana National Park (where discovered in 1983 and not known from north of Miaronony), Andringitra National Park (discovered in 1993), to the north-east possibly to the region of Betsakafandrika, and in a forest corridor that connects Ranomafana with Andringitra National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
9672	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A. Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found in humid forests and marshes with bamboo and reeds. The golden bamboo lemur is a diurnal species with a distinct midday rest period. It lives in small groups, usually of three to four individuals, that maintain home ranges of up 30 ha. Females typically give birth to a single young in November and December. The young are born in an altricial state and are kept safe in dense vegetation for the first two weeks of life. Based on studies at Ranomafana National Park, as much as 90% of this lemur’s diet may consist of bamboo, the majority of which is the giant bamboo (<em>Cathariostachys madagascariensis</em>) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
9672	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A. Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution and typically occurs at low densities. Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) commented that the population size, if uniformly distributed, would be 5,916 individuals, but that since the species is so patchily distributed, actual population size is likely much smaller, perhaps 25% of this estimate.	eng
9672	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A. Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture and harvesting for bamboo for building houses, carrying water, making baskets and other local uses. Hunting is also a threat in some parts of the range.	eng
9673	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas: five national parks (Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Mantadia, and Ranomafana), one strict nature reserve (Tsingy de Bemaraha) and five special reserves (Bemarivo, Kasijy, Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra, and Mangerivola) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The bamboo lemurs in Kalambatitra presumably are now presumably <em>H. meridionalis</em>, but this requires confirmation; likewise, animals in Andringitra National Park, Pic d’Ivohibe and Manombo may represent either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids with <em>H. griseus</em>. Further work is now needed to ascertain the limits of distribution of species and the described subspecies.	eng
9673	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. In the wake of the study of Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007), this species has a more restricted distribution in the eastern rainforests than previously believed, being found from about Lake Aloatra south to about Ranomofana (where it is then gradually replaced by <em>H. meridionalis</em>). Further, based on the findings of Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007), animals in western Madagascar from the Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsiombikibo, Baie de Baly, Tsingy de Namoroka and Bongolava regions between the Mahavavy du Sud and the Tsiribihina Rivers also are <em>H. griseus</em> (they were formerly considered to be <em>H. occidentalis</em>). Upper elevation limit unclear as animals from 1,600 m on the Andringitra Massif are now either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids between <em>H. griseus</em> and <em>H. meridionalis</em>).	eng
9673	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs in various types of eastern forest, but is found at its highest densities near stands of bamboo and bamboo vines. Bamboo constitutes at least three-quarters of the diet, primarily new shoots and leaf. Group size varies between two and seven, and groups can contain more than one breeding female. Reports of home range size vary from 6-10 ha at Analamazaotra to as much as 15-20 ha at Ranomafana. The birth season for this species is essentially October through January, and a single young is the rule; the inter-birth interval is typically one year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
9673	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common. Pollock (1979) estimated population density at 47-62 individuals/km² at Périnet.	eng
9673	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Hunting is a major threat to this species, and it also commonly kept as a pet. Habitat loss due to slash-and-burn practices and due to clearing of bamboo stands is also a threat.	eng
9674	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Remnant populations now receive protection in Ranomafana National Park and Andringitra National Park. Torotorofotsy is a RAMSAR wetland site. Surveys in unstudied classified forests and forest reserves in eastern Madagascar may eventually turn up new populations, but in the meantime continued monitoring of existing populations is required.<br/><br/>Wright <em>et al.</em> (2008) propose several immediate research and conservation recommendations. Further study of dietary breadth in populations other than Ranomafana is crucial to developing an understanding of this species? ecological flexibility, and eventually understanding its patchy distribution.<br/><br/>Only 39 <em>P. simus</em> individuals have been kept in captivity. As of 2007, there were 22 in seven institutions (five in Europe and two in Madagascar) (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
9674	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Subfossil remains confirm that this species once had a widespread distribution in Madagascar that covered the northern, north-western, central and eastern portions of Madagascar, including Ampasambazimba in the Itasy Basin (west of Antananarivo), the Grotte d?Andrafiabe on the Ankarana Massif, and the Grottes d?Anjohibe near Mahajanga and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). <br/><br/>Today, the species has a much diminished range in the south-eastern and south-central rainforests of Madagascar. Wright <em>et al</em>. (2008), who estimated that <em>P. simus</em> now occupies only about 1-4% of its historical range, reported confirmed sightings of Greater Bamboo Lemurs in only 11 of 70 survey localities with a latitudinal range of 18°52' to 22°26'S. Five of these sightings were in or around the protected areas of Ranomafana National Park (Miaranony, Talatakely and Ambatolahy Dimy), and Andringitra National Park (Manambolo, Camp 2). An additional unconfirmed observation occurred here (Korokoto). Another five sightings were in unprotected forests at Kianjavato and Karianga, and outside Evendra, Morafeno and Mahasoa. Finally, they were observed in Torotorofotsy, the only locality north of Ranomafana National Park situated about 10 km north-west of Andasibe. The elevation range for confirmed sightings is 121?1,600 m (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
9674	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is associated with forests abundant in giant bamboo. It subsists predominantly on bamboo, but its diet includes seven plant species representing three different families. In Ranomafana National Park, the bamboo <em>Cathariostachys madagascariensis</em> can account for as much as 95% of the diet, with shoots, young and mature leaves, and pith being consumed (Tan 1999, 2000). The patchiness of this bamboo species may be one factor limiting the current distribution and population continuity of <em>P. simus</em>, as this key food species is not found in all forest microhabitats, and is apparently limited to forest near large rivers. The availability of drinking water could also be a limiting factor, as during dry months in Ranomafana National Park, <em>P. simus</em> was the only lemur species seen regularly coming to streams to drink water (Wright <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Observations of wild populations and animals in captivity suggest that this species is cathemeral, active both during the day and at night throughout the year. They live in polygamous groups that can occupy home ranges of 40-60 ha or more. Mating begins in May or June, with infants typically born in October and November. Females usually give birth to a single young each year (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).	eng
9674	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	On current evidence, this species may have the smallest population size of any lemur on the island. Only about 12 groups, totaling less than 100 individuals, have been documented in over 20 years of regional surveys. During 400 days of census work in Ranomafana, only three groups in total have been detected (with a maximum of 20 individuals confirmed) (Wright <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
9674	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The greater bamboo lemur is threatened by slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, the cutting of bamboo and hunting with slingshots and snares, the latter exacerbated by their movements into the rice paddies.	eng
9676	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Lac Alaotra was declared a Ramsar site in 2003, and covers the entire watershed, 722,5000 ha, with the aim of conserving biodiversity and the wetland ecosystem. Plans at present are to create a strict conservation area of close to 8,000 ha and an adjacent 5,200-ha zone where controlled activities (e.g., fishing) are permitted. Public awareness campaigns have focused on the benefits of habitat conservation to the half million or more people who live by the lake erosion control, the biological filtering of agricultural pollutants, flood prevention. A regional fishing convention bans lemur hunting and marsh burning. There is a small, but self-sustaining, captive population in a number of European zoos.	eng
9676	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is known only from the papyrus and reed beds surrounding Lac Alaotra, Madagascar?s largest lake located in the eastern rain forest region (Mutschler and Feistner 1995). The species occurs as two subpopulations, a small one in the northern part of the lake around the Belempona Peninsula and a larger one in the adjoining marshlands along the lake?s southwestern shores bounded by the villages of Anororo, Andreba and Andilana-Sud (Mutschler <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its entire range appears to be rather less than 200 km² and it occurs only up to elevations of 750 m.	eng
9676	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	In its unique marshland habitat (this is the only primate to live in marsh habitat) this lemur feeds principally on four food items: the pithy stems of papyrus (<em>Cyperus madagascariensis</em>), tender shoots of reeds (<em>Phragmites communis</em>), and two types of grasses (<em>Echinocochla crusgalli</em> and <em>Leersia hexandra</em>) (Mutschler 1999). Active mainly during daylight hours, <em>H. alaotrensis</em> also exhibits significant nocturnal activity. They live in family groups of up to a dozen members and defend territories ranging in size from less than one hectare to eight hectares. Young are born from September through February and twins are common (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
9676	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The most recent population estimates for <em>H. alaotrensis</em> put numbers (using encounter rate) at about 2,500 individuals in 2002 (Ralainasolo 2004), representing a decline of more than 50% in less than a decade. A survey in 2004 using distance sampling resulted in a population estimate of around 5,000 animals (J. Ratsimbazafy pers. comm.). In 1994, the population was estimated at 7,500-11,000 also based on encounter rate. The northerly population has not been censused, but probably has also been significantly reduced.	eng
9676	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Conversion of marsh habitat to rice fields has been the most severe threat to the survival of this species, although the remaining marsh habitats are difficult to convert due to regular flooding. However, a major drainage project would pose a major threat if this were realized in the region. Burning of the remaining marshlands takes place to catch fish and to graze cattle. The resulting increase in aquatic plants is choking fishing areas and driving further burning and may also limit marsh regeneration after flooding. <br/><br/>Hunting for food and capture for pets also have reduced its numbers through the years. A variety of hunting and trapping methods are employed by local people. Direct pursuit by dogs is the most common, but they may also be captured by using a harpoon, a snare, a stick to knock them out or into the water, or by burning their reed bed habitat, causing them to flee into the hands of waiting hunters. More than 1000 lemurs have been hunted annually in some years (Mutschler <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
9678	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in four national parks (Masoala, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, and Zahamena), three strict nature reserves (Tsaratanana, Betampona and Zahamena), and six special reserves (Manongarivo, Analemarana, Ankarana, Anjanaharibé-Sud, Ambatovaky, Marotandrano). However, recent surveys did not encounter any animals in Analamerana or Ankarana, just in a single patch of unprotected forest in the corridor that connects these reserves (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
9678	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Following the recent study of Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007), this species is known from the Ankarana and Analamerana region in the north of Madagascar (although see Banks <em>et al</em>. 2007 who did not record it there), and throughout the Sambirano region in the north-west (and the Ampasandava Peninsula). Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007) also found evidence that the range of this species extends further south in the eastern rainforests than previously believed, occurring in Maraonsetra in the north-east at least to Zahamena, east of Lake Aloatra. Whether these populations are contiguous remains to be determined. Animals from the central-western parts of Madagascar, formerly attributed to <em>H. occidentalis</em>, are now provisionally assigned to <em>H. griseus</em> following Rabarivola <em>et al</em>. (2007).	eng
9678	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Little is known about this species. Apparently, it has a preference for forests that contain bamboo or bamboo vines, but it also has been reported from degraded habitats in the Sambirano River valley, as well as in patches of bamboo surrounded by agricultural land (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). It is reported as being active mainly at night, with groups of six individuals recorded (Mutschler and Tan 2003).	eng
9678	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	A single group of <em>H. occidentalis</em> was observed during a visit to Ambery, a secondary forest site supporting patches of giant bamboo (Valiha sp.) in the north of Madagascar. The encounter rate was 0.06 groups per km, a useful step towards assessing the population status of this species, because there have been few studies where the local population levels of this species have been estimated from survey methods (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
9678	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by the regular burning of its habitat to clear pasture for livestock; charcoal production in the west and mining in Ankarana are also leading to degradation of habitat. Hunting is also a major threat; in Makira, hunting takes place using slingshots, machetes, and firearms (Golden 2005).	eng
9679	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam. There is a need to protect remaining stands of natural undisturbed bamboo where the species has been recorded, and to conduct additional surveys to locate any additional remaining patches of habitat. Further studies in general are needed into this species.	eng
9679	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species has a patchy distribution in northern Lao PDR, Viet Nam and China (southern Yunnan, Guangxi and Hainan island) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Wang (2003) recognized two subspecies in China: <em>H. d. delacouri</em>, Thomas, 1927, occurring in mainland China; <em>H. d. marmosa</em>, Allen, 1927, occurring on Hainan island.<br/>It is probably now patchily distributed because of habitat loss.	eng
9679	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species occurs in montane tropical wet and dry forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is highly arboreal and probably restricted to bamboo habitats between 1,200 and 1,500 m (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It appears to be sensitive to disturbance and is not present in modified habitats.	eng
9679	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is difficult to trap and is only represented in musuems by a few specimens. It is probably never abundant (D. Lunde pers. comm.).	eng
9679	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species appears to be associated with natural stands of bamboo, a habitat of which very little remains within the known range of the species (D. Lunde and K. Aplin pers. comm.). Remaining stands of this bamboo are being cut for building materials and other uses. The human population of Lao PDR is growing rapidly and any remaining habitat in this country can be expected to be disturbed within the near future.	eng
9680	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in the Cameron Highlands (Malaysia) and is likely to be present in the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary, however, this needs to be confirmed. There is a need to protect remaining stands of natural undisturbed bamboo where the species has been recorded, and to conduct additional surveys to locate any additional remaining populations in habitat patches.	eng
9680	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The species has a patchy distribution, it has been recorded from Myanmar and western Thailand, however, it may be extirpated from these countries as little natural vegetation remains. An extant population occurs in Peninsular Malaysia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Specimens of <em>H. longicaudatus</em> reported from Yunnan by Wang (2003) probably represent <em>H. delacouri</em>.	eng
9680	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from natural stands of bamboo in evergreen lowland rainforest. It is a lowland species in the northern part of its range; it is recorded from around 500 m in Malaysia. The diet of this species is restricted to various parts of bamboo.	eng
9680	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It was formerly recorded as being common in Myanmar, but all of the natural habitat within the known range has now been cleared.	eng
9680	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species appears to be associated with natural stands of bamboo, a habitat of which very little remains within the known range of the species (D. Lunde and K. Aplin pers. comm.). Remaining stands of this bamboo are being cut for building materials and other uses. It is possibly extirpated in Myanmar and Thailand.	eng
9686	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.	eng
9686	habitat	Kaufman, L., 1996	Occurs mainly in the vicinity of or amongst marginal vegetation, only rarely over exposed sandy beaches away from rooted plants. Does not enter deeply into the marginal swamps and is rarely recorded at the swamp ends of inlets.	eng
9687	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9687	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9687	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is an epiphytic algae grazer.	eng
9687	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
9687	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9688	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
9688	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9688	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is an epiphytic algae grazer.	eng
9688	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
9688	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
9689	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.	eng
9690	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Ramayla, S., 2008	<em>H. fischeri</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
9690	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Ramayla, S., 2008	<em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It is widespread through most of the country, excluding the Camiguin, Palawan, and Batanes/Babuyan faunal regions. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Catanduanes, Cebu (Cebu Cloud Forest Reserve) Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Albay, Aurora, Bataan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, Quirino, Tarlac, and Zambales provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Palaui, and Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The record from Palawan reported by Kock (1969) is probably erroneous, which is supported by recent failure to record this species on Palawan Island despite extensive netting there (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). Records are from 150-2,250 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9690	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Ramayla, S., 2008	The Philippine pygmy fruit bat inhabits lowland and montane, primary and secondary habitats, including mossy forest, and mixed agricultural habitats and second-growth forest. It exhibits an eight month delay in embryo development which gives a gestation period of 11.5 months, the longest known in bats (Heideman 1989). Females can become pregnant at the age of three to five months (Heideman 1989). The species is an important seed distributer.	eng
9690	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Ramayla, S., 2008	This is one of the most common fruit bats in primary forest, especially at middle elevations; <em>H. fischeri</em> is often moderately common in secondary forest, and is also present in mixed agricultural habitats and second-growth forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Within forest the species abundance usually increases with elevation up to about 1,200-1,500 m asl, and then declines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1991, 1998, 2006; Heideman and Heaney 1989, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). Patterns of abundance on Luzon are similar to those on other islands, but they are less abundant there overall. In a 2003 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Haplonycteris fischeri</em> was common at lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).	eng
9690	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D. & Ramayla, S., 2008	There are no major threats to <em>H. fischeri</em>, although populations, particularly those in the lowlands, have declined in recent decades as a result of habitat destruction by logging, and conversion to intensive agriculture, whereas highland populations have not been so badly affected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
9696	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
9714	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9714	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9714	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
9714	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9714	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9717	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9717	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9717	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
9717	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9717	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9718	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9718	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9718	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
9718	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9718	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9719	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9719	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9719	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
9719	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9719	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9721	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9721	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9721	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. The species could be a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>), however this is not certain. It may also be a prawn-eater.	eng
9721	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9721	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9725	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9725	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9725	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
9725	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 46% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
9725	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9726	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
9726	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
9726	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.	eng
9726	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
9726	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
9727	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
9727	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in Lake Kyoga, Uganda.	eng
9727	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>H. worthingtoni</em> is a benthopelagic species.  The females are mouth brooders.	eng
9727	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
9727	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Nile perch were introduced into Lake Kyoga in 1955 and 1956.  Stocks of the Nile perch have increased rapidly since 1965, and these increases have been concurrent with a reduction of native species (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1993), however, no information exists relating specifically to a decline in this species.	eng
9729	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Victoria.	eng
9736	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia.	eng
9736	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from southern South Asia, through parts of southern China to insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), recorded from 475 to 750 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This taxon may probably also occur in Bhutan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guangdong, Fujian, and is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from a few scattered localities on the mainland, and from Indonesia (the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok and Ambon) and the Philippines with insular Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, it has only been recorded from the islands of Luzon (Cagayan and Camarines Sur province and Laguna province), Leyte, Negros, and Panay from 475 to 750 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
9736	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests and valleys with tall trees in the vicinity of water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It feeds on beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997). There is little information on the natural history of this species in China (Smith and Xie 2008). It has been recorded only from tall and hill forest in Peninsula Malaysia. In Philippines, the species is known from primary and disturbed lowland forest (Ingle and Heaney 1992; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993) and is believed to probably be dependent on lowland forest.	eng
9736	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not well known. It has not been collected in Kerala (southern India) in surveys between 1990 and 1999 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
9736	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is affected by deforestation in parts of its range.	eng
9737	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Taxonomy and field surveys are needed for this species throughout its range. It has been recorded from some protected areas in Malaysia.	eng
9737	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species appears to range from South Asia, to mainland Southeast Asia and the island of Borneo. In South Asia, some specimens earlier identified as <em>H. mordax</em> were reassigned as <em>H. harpia</em>, and it is not currently possible to clearly identify the distribution range of this species in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been patchily recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (reported from Taman Negara [Aik and Akbar 2002] and from Temengor Forest Reserve, Perak by [Francis 1995]) and Borneo (Sabah [Malaysia]).	eng
9737	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appears to be little information available on the natural history of this species. It appears to be a species of mature forest.	eng
9737	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There is little information available on the population of this species.	eng
9737	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but probably include degradation of forested areas.	eng
9740	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D., Paguntalan, L.M. & Ramayla, S., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
9740	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D., Paguntalan, L.M. & Ramayla, S., 2008	<em>H. whiteheadi </em>is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread excluding the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes/Babuyan group of islands. It has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur; there are no records from northern Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006)), Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Southern Cotabato, Suriago del Sur and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Negros, and Samar. Its elevation range is from sea level to 1,800 m.	eng
9740	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D., Paguntalan, L.M. & Ramayla, S., 2008	<em>H. whiteheadi</em> occurs in lowland and montane forest, in primary, lightly disturbed and secondary habitats. It has been found in montane ultramafic forest on limestone, and in mosaic habitats of second-growth forest and agriculture. These are fairly large bats that fly moderately high and are known to roost in trees, but not caves. They might depend on the fruits of viney pandans (<em>Freycinetia</em> spp.) (Heaney 1984; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
9740	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D., Paguntalan, L.M. & Ramayla, S., 2008	Populations of the harpy fruit bat are considered to be stable at present; their main habitat is montane forest, which is mostly intact (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is unlikely that there has been a substantial population decline in the past and although this species is not abundant it is considered uncommon to common in lowland forest and moderately common in montane forest (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In a 2003 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Harpyionycteris whiteheadi</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al.</em> unpublished report).	eng
9740	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C., Balete, D., Paguntalan, L.M. & Ramayla, S., 2008	<em>H. whiteheadi </em>is rarely if ever hunted. Although not considered to be a major threat this species is vulnerable to deforestation (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), which has occurred particularly in the lowlands rather than in the species' preferred montane habitat.	eng
9743	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span> is nationally protected. Its habitat (8310-4) is protected under the Habitat Directive. However more research is needed at the taxonomy level.	eng
9743	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	No type locality is given by Draparnaud for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span>, but the author suggests that the locality is in France. It is present in France (Jura, Doubs, Ain) and in Switzerland (cantons of Neuchatel and Berne) (Bernasconi 1975; Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001)	eng
9743	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span> lives in subterranean waters and possibly in the waters flowing under the river beds.	eng
9743	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta.</span>	eng
9743	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.<br/><br/>Hyporheic habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption is another important threat for small stream that may become completely dried out in summer, thus affecting directly the species. Casual droughts, and therefore climate change, are also a potential threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia minuta</span>.	eng
9744	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is protected by law in Austria. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). There are no known species specific recovery plans and it is not known to be present in any protected areas.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.<p></p>	eng
9744	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria, where it occurs in the limestone Alps in the Lower Austria region.	eng
9744	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This is a freshwater species that inhabits groundwater ecosystems and springs and lives on the roots of trees (Resichutz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
9744	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is considered to be very rare and has recently experienced a population decline.	eng
9744	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are abstraction for drinking water and the lowering of ground water levels. There are also threats from pollution, mainly from agricultural practices and habitat destruction from the building of power plants.	eng
9746	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species, although population monitoring and habitat monitoring are recommended.&#160; Awareness that there are endemic species restricted to the groundwaters would also be beneficial for planners and environment agencies.	eng
9746	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wienerwaldensis</span> is endemic to Austria, where it was first found in wells at Klamm near Wienerwald (Haase 1992).&#160; Glöer (2002) notes that the range now extends to Klamm, Pressbaum and Baden, all south of Vienna (Wien). Reischutz (1996) found it in the outflow of water storage reservoir beside road between Lindhutten and Alland (Weinberg).	eng
9746	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	The species occurs in the groundwater systems within the karst area and is collected from outflow springs where shells are found in debris.	eng
9746	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
9746	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wienerwaldensis</span> is threatened by declining water quality, partly from agricultural sources (nitrates, pesticides) and partly from human settlements, as well as habitat degradation, as the result of cleaning of the spring sites and formation as reservoirs to take-off water for settlements, and to abstract water from groundwater system (Reischutz & Resichutz, 2009).	eng
9759	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in both Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
9759	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This Central African species is known from southern Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and southern Central African Republic. It is found at elevations of between 100 and 620 m asl (in Gabon).	eng
9759	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in primary lowland forest. This is a habitat specialist and is not found in disturbed forests.	eng
9759	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is relatively uncommon and is usually trapped in fairly small numbers. This species does not enter traps easily which could possibly explain why they are perceived to be uncommon. They have been shown to be more abundant when trapped using pitfall traps.	eng
9759	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for both timber and wood, and for the conversion of land to subsistence agriculture close to villages.	eng
9760	conservation	Fredriksson, G., Steinmetz, R., Wong, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Killing of sun bears is strictly prohibited under national wildlife protection laws throughout their range. However, little enforcement of these laws occurs. The sun bear has been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1979. <br/><br/>Conservation measures and priorities vary by country. None of the range countries have established specific conservation measures for sun bears, and some taking is permitted (Servheen 1999).  General measures to reduce forest loss and poaching would help conserve the species. The most beneficial conservation measure in Indonesia and Malaysia would be protection of remaining forests from conversion to other land-uses, eliminating unsustainable logging practices, and prevention of forest fires. Establishment of new and effectively managed protected areas in Indonesia and Malaysia should be promoted in order to preempt land conversion (Augeri 2005, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006).<br/> <br/>Reducing the trade in bear parts would be highly beneficial for the survival of the species in mainland Southeast Asia. However, given available resources, the patrolling and monitoring of entire protected areas is currently an overwhelming task. To make this problem more manageable, a network of small bear recovery zones (100–200 km²) could be established within key protected areas. The patrolling efforts of rangers could then be focused on these zones. Recovery zones should be locations with plentiful bear foods such as trees from the families Lauraceae, Moraceae, Burseraceae, Myrtaceae and Fagaceae. Such zones would provide a biologically meaningful, geographically focused, and logistically realistic way for the efforts of protected area staff to be translated into population recovery for bears (and other wildlife species). <br/><br/>Recently, the Bear Specialist Group mapped the current, range-wide distribution of sun bears. Important habitat blocks for long-term survival of sun bears were identified (Bear Conservation Units-BCUs). Anti-poaching efforts within these BCUs should be a high priority. Trends in bear occurrence and relative abundance within BCUs could be monitored using standardized sign surveys and camera trapping. Results of such monitoring could indicate which management or ecological conditions promote successful bear conservation, and which do not, and provide a means to assess the results of conservation efforts (e.g., future range expansion and/or increased bear density being indicative of effective conservation efforts).  Additional field studies also would be helpful in this regard; few intensive studies have been conducted on this species.	eng
9760	distribution	Fredriksson, G., Steinmetz, R., Wong, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Sun bears occur in mainland Southeast Asia as far west as Bangladesh and northeastern India (Chauhan 2006), as far north as southern Yunnan Province in China, and south and east to Sumatra and Borneo, respectively. It now occurs very patchily through much of its former range, and has been extirpated from many areas, especially in mainland southeast Asia. Its current distribution in eastern Myanmar and most of Yunnan is unknown. Reports of sun bears formerly occupying Nepal appear to be erroneous. Sun bear fossils from the Pleistocene have been found much further north into China and on the island of Java (Erdbrink 1953), but sun bears did not occur there in historical times. <br/><br/>Sun bears are uncommon at the northern and western edges of their range (southern Yunnan province, southeastern Tibet, northeast India, and Bangladesh; (Chauhan 2006, Gong and Harris 2006); this lower abundance was apparent in historical times (e.g., in India; Higgins 1932) so is probably a natural gradient unrelated to human exploitation.	eng
9760	habitat	Fredriksson, G., Steinmetz, R., Wong, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Sun bears rely on tropical forest habitat. Two ecologically distinct categories of tropical forest occur within its range, distinguished by differences in climate, phenology, and floristic composition. Tropical evergreen rainforest is the sun bear’s main habitat in Borneo, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia. This aseasonal habitat receives high annual rainfall that is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Tropical evergreen rainforest, includes a wide diversity of forest types used by sun bears, including lowland dipterocarp, peat swamp, freshwater swamp, limestone/karst hills, hill dipterocarp, and lower montane forest. <br/><br/>In contrast, sun bears in mainland Southeast Asia inhabit seasonal ecosystems with a long dry season (3–7 months), during which rainfall is <100 mm per month.  Seasonal forest types are usually interspersed in a mosaic that includes semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp (<1,000 m elevation), and montane evergreen forest (>1,000 m). The range of sun bears overlaps that of Asiatic black bears (<em>Ursus thibetanus</em>) in this seasonal forest mosaic. <br/><br/>Sun bears also have been reported in mangrove forest, although their occurrence in this forest type probably depends on proximity to other, more favored habitats. Sun bears use selectively logged areas (Wong <em>et al.</em> 2004, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005), and oil palm plantations near forest edges (Nomura <em>et al</em>. 2004).  However, there is no evidence that sun bears can survive in deforested or agricultural areas in the absence of nearby forest (Augeri 2005).<br/><br/>Sun bears occur from near sea level to over 2,100 m elevation, but appear to be most common in lower elevation forests. In Indonesia and western Thailand, for example, sun bears occur primarily below 1,200 m (Augeri 2005, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Sun bears have been observed up to 2,100 m in Myanmar (Saw Htun 2006), 1,600 m in Lao PDR (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999), and 2,143 m in Sumatra (Augeri 2005). <br/><br/>Sun bears are omnivores, feeding primarily on termites, ants, beetle larvae, bee larvae and honey, and a large variety of fruit species, especially figs (<em>Ficus</em> spp.), when available (McConkey and Galetti 1999, Wong <em>et al</em>. 2002, Augeri 2005, Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Occasionally, growth shoots of certain palms and some species of flowers are consumed (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006), but otherwise vegetative matter rarely occurs in the diet. In Bornean forests, fruits of the families Moraceae, Burseraceae and Myrtaceae make up more than 50% of the fruit diet (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006), whereas in western Thailand fruits of Lauraceae and Fagaceae are the most commonly consumed (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Thailand sun bears and Asiatic black bears use many of the same habitats and have extensive overlap in diet.  However, in montane forests >1,200 m elevation (where ground cover is sparse) Asiatic black bears are more abundant than sun bears (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Little is known about social structure or reproduction in sun bears.  Except for females with their offspring, sun bears are usually solitary. They may congregate to feed from large fruiting trees, but this behavior appears to be rare. Sun bears do not seem to have a defined breeding season anywhere in their range and usually give birth to only one cub (less commonly two; Schwarzenberger <em>et al</em>. 2004). Female bears use cavities of either standing or fallen large hollow trees as birthing sites. As sun bears occur in tropical regions with year-round available foods, they do not hibernate.	eng
9760	population	Fredriksson, G., Steinmetz, R., Wong, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Reliable estimates of sun bear populations are lacking. However, rapid loss of forests throughout their range and an active trade in wild bears and their parts is strong evidence of a declining trend. Attempts to extrapolate population size (e.g., Meijaard 2001) from anecdotal information on bear density (derived from occasional bear sightings and sign surveys, e.g. Davies and Payne 1981) have led to unreliable estimates (Garshelis 2002). Augeri (2005) used occupancy modeling (based on camera trapping) to estimate proportions of Indonesian Protected Areas that were occupied by sun bears.  The proportion of an area occupied (occupancy) is likely correlated with population size, so finer-scale population trends might be gleaned from changes in occupancy.	eng
9760	threats	Fredriksson, G., Steinmetz, R., Wong, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	The two major threats to sun bears are habitat loss and commercial hunting. These threats are not evenly distributed throughout the range of the species. In areas where deforestation is actively occurring, sun bears are mainly threatened by the loss of forest habitat and forest degradation arising from: clear-cutting for plantation development, unsustainable logging practices (Augeri 2005, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006), illegal logging both within and outside protected areas (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2004), and forest fires (Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2007). These threats are prevalent in Indonesia and Malaysia on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Sundaland), where large-scale conversion of forest to oil palm (<em>Elaeis guineenis</em>) or other cash crops is proceeding at the rate of 1,000s of km² per year (Holmes 2002). <br/><br/>Human-caused fires in parts of Sundaland are also diminishing habitat quality for sun bears.  These fires are more extensive during El Niño-related droughts. On Borneo, periods of prolonged drought have disrupted fruiting patterns (e.g., Harrison 2000), which in combination with reduced habitat availability due to logging and fires, resulted in starvation among sun bears, even in primary forest areas (Wong <em>et al</em>. 2005, Fredriksson <em>et al</em>. 2006b). <br/><br/>Commercial poaching of bears for the wildlife trade is a considerable threat in most countries (Meijaard 1999, Nea and Nong 2006, Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006, Saw Htun 2006, Tumbelaka and Fredriksson 2006, Wong 2006), and is the main threat where deforestation is currently negligible (for example in Thailand where nearly all remaining forest is within protected areas; Vinitporsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Killing bears is illegal in all range countries but is largely uncontrolled.  In Thailand, local hunters in one area estimated that commercial poaching reduced the abundance of sun bears by 50% in 20 years (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2006).   <br/><br/>In Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam, sun bears are commonly poached for their gall bladders (i.e., bile) and bear-paws; the former is used as a Traditional Chinese Medicine, and the latter as an expensive delicacy.  In China and Viet Nam, bile is milked from commercially-farmed bears; however, as there are few sun bears in China, farms there contain mainly Asiatic black bears.  Conversely, both sun bears and Asiatic black bears are farmed in Viet Nam, in small private enterprises. Bears are routinely removed from the wild to stock or restock these small farms (Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006, B. Long, MOSAIC and WWF-Viet Nam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Other motivations for killing bears include: preventing damage to crops (Fredriksson 2005), subsistence use, fear of bears near villages, and capture of cubs for pets (the mother being killed in the process). Although few sun bears exist in India, villagers there still kill sizeable numbers (Chauhan and Singh 2006).<br/><br/>Despite significant poaching within extant forest areas, sun bear populations appear to persist longer than some other heavily-exploited large carnivores. For example, tiger (<em>Panthera tigris</em>) populations have been severely reduced or extirpated in 12 of 15 protected areas surveyed in Myanmar, whereas sun bears were still encountered relatively frequently in 13 of these areas (Lynam 2003, Saw Htun 2006). Similarly, in Thailand tigers are close to extirpation in the Khao Yai forest complex, but sun bears and their signs are still consistently encountered there (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2006, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
9763	conservation		It is protected by Western Australian Legislation, which prevents collecting. R.A. Davis has done detailed surveys of the central Wheat belt. Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
9763	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest arid zone of Western Australia. It is most common along the wheat belt and adjacent gold fields from the Murchison River south to Tambellup and east to Jerramungup and Frank Hann National Park and Lort River. It can also be found along the eastern side of Jarrah Forest, Wandoo Forest, and Salmongum Woodlands. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
9763	habitat		Adults are active on the surface during summer and autumn nights. It burrows in the banks or under stones on the bed of sandy shallow, ephemeral watercourses in swamps or at the vertical edges of clay pans. Calling begins with winter rains in April or May. Terrestrial egg deposition occurs in burrows in a foam nest and tadpoles are aquatic. Between 250-700 eggs are laid and hatch 10 days to 4 weeks later. Tadpoles have been found in ponds of milky and clear water.	eng
9763	population		It is a common species. There are numerous records from CALM salinity surveys from pit traps and hearing calling males.	eng
9763	threats		It might have been affected by vegetation clearing and resultant dry land salinity, but is still widespread.	eng
9772	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Understanding and quantifying threats scored the highest priority for conservation research on this species. In addition, any information on demography of adults or tadpoles would be very valuable. Taxonomic revision of the whole genus is necessary. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and the maintenance of its remaining breeding and non-breeding habitat is essential. There is also a need for continued monitoring of known populations, survey work for other populations and&#160;invasive species control. Agreements need to be drawn up with private land owners for the management and long term protection of sites.	eng
9772	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species appears to be restricted to four perennial rivers (Geelhoutboom, Martin's, Klein and Diepkloof) with their headwaters in the Elandsberg mountains, and a fifth site in the Cockscomb mountains, all in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Its altitudinal range is 400-550 m asl.	eng
9772	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of fynbos heathland and grassy fynbos. Only very small remnants of fynbos survive within its range, so very little non-breeding habitat survives. It breeds in fast-flowing perennial rivers and streams with rocky beds in the upper reaches of the Elandsberg and Cockscomb mountains. Females lay up to 200 eggs. Adults and tadpoles are found beneath submerged and partly submerged rocks in these streams, and occasionally at the edge of small waterfalls and cascades. The tadpoles take two years to develop.	eng
9772	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No numerical population information is currently available for this species, tadpoles are seen regularly and adults rarely, fitting their cryptic life history. The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one site (Elandsberg) holds >50% of individuals and the 30 km distance between subpopulations is considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.</p>	eng
9772	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats are loss of suitable non-breeding and breeding habitat as a result of afforestation with exotic pine plantations, fires, erosion, siltation of streams, dams, and road building. Introduced predatory fish are probably also a threat.	eng
9773	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The whole of this species' range is incorporated in the Table Mountain National Park, part of the Cape Floristic Region World Heritage Site, and&#160;Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens. High priorities for conservation research were set to determine the dispersal of this species and the highest priority to estimate population size. Perceived threats need to be evaluated and management plans need to be properly implemented and integrated between properties. Current monitoring of tadpoles could be expanded to make population estimates.	eng
9773	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species has a very restricted range (Extent of Occurrence: 9 km<sup>2</sup>) being endemic to the southern and eastern slopes of Table Mountain, in the Western Cape province, extreme south-western South Africa. Within this, the Area of Occupancy (around 4.5 km<sup>2</sup>) is believed to be suffering ongoing decline. It occurs between 240 and 1,060 m asl.	eng
9773	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It lives in forest and fynbos heathland, breeding in clear perennial streams in gorges, valleys and ravines on Table Mountain. Non-breeding adults have been found in damp, sheltered habitat well away from streams, including in caves. The tadpoles require longer than 12 months to complete metamorphosis, and so it is important that there is perennial water to allow the larvae to develop. The habitat on some of these streams is deteriorating due to abstraction and soil erosion.	eng
9773	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a rare and elusive species that survives in low population densities. The number of tadpoles in the Skeleton Gorge decreased by around 50% from 1980 to 2000, but monitoring of tadpoles suggest that this subpopulation is stable.	eng
9773	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats are the spread of alien vegetation, frequent fires, and water storage reservoirs on the mountain which can affect the consistency of stream-flow. Intensification of tourism is also a threat through soil erosion around some of the streams. Water abstraction from streams has resulted in habitat loss and may limit the vertical movement of tadpoles in summer.	eng
9828	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, including Nyika National Park (Malawi) and Kasunga National Park (Malawi).	eng
9828	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In Kenya, it is only known from the Kapiti plains, Taita Hills and south coastal Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from south of Biharamulo in the northwest, throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains, and by a record from the Ufipa Plateau in southwestern Tanzania. It is widespread in Malawi, but has only been recorded from eastern Zambia. It is also present in northern Mozambique and the southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Reports of this species from Zimbabwe are in error as it has not been recorded from south of the Zambezi River. It is found at elevations of up to 2,200 m asl.	eng
9828	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a subterranean species of open or wooded savanna, including Combretum-Brachystegium woodlands. It is present in a wide variety of habitats including rocky hillsides and submontane grasslands. The species uses a wide range of soil types from well-drained sandy soils to cotton soils that are very hard when dry and sticky and water-looged when it rains. It is a solitary species of which little is known about its biology.	eng
9828	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	There is little information on the population abundance of this species. Population densities are known to be low on the Kapiti plains of Kenya, but the species occurs at higher densities in Malawi.	eng
9828	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. It is considered to be an agricultural pest in some parts of its range, but it is also regarded as a common and excellent source of protein.	eng
9830	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. <em>Heliosciurus gambianus</em> probably represents a complex of several similar species. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.	eng
9830	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species has been widely recorded over Subsaharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia eastwards through West Africa to Cameroon, through southern Chad and Central African Republic, to southern Sudan (with an isolated population on Jebel Marra), Ethiopia, and northwards to Eritrea with a southerly extension into Uganda and northwestern Kenya. In the south of its range, the species occurs in central Angola, Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southwestern Tanzania. It has been recorded to elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
9830	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is typically associated with savanna woodland. Populations have also been observed within riparian forest and in savanna areas. It is generally absent from closed forest habitats. This species is commonly found in agriculural areas, especially oil palm plantations. Animals are diurnal, solitary and predominantly arboreal.	eng
9830	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This is considered to be a common and widespread savanna species (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
9830	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
9831	conservation	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Liwonde National Park, Malawi).	eng
9831	distribution	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This largely East Africa species ranges from Tanzania south to southern Mozambique (Maputo), and westwards in the Chimanimani Highlands of Zimbabwe, south-central Zambia and Malawi.	eng
9831	habitat	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	In Zimbabwe and Mozambique, this species is associated primarily with lowland or montane evergreen forest, but also occurs in riverine forest and thickets within the <em>Brachystegia</em>/<em>Julbernardia</em> woodland association (Skinner and Smithers 1990). They nest in holes in trees or in dense clumps of vines high in forest trees. The species is diurnal, and is either solitary or found in pairs. A female taken in eastern Zimbabwe in August had four foetuses (Smithers and Wilson 1979).	eng
9831	population	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is common in museum collections and is believed to also be common in the wild.	eng
9831	threats	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In Mozambique, the removal of forest to make way for agricultural development has reduced the habitat available to them, although in certain areas, such as in the Inhambane, Manica and Sofala provinces, they are still to be found even in the relic forest patches (Skinner and Smithers 1990).	eng
9832	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Survey work to determine the status of numbers of this species, and to investigate whether it can persist in degraded or agricultural habitats.	eng
9832	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to West Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone and most of Liberia eastwards in a narrow band in lowland forest formations through Côte d'Ivoire to western Ghana. There is no confirmed record of this species from Guinea, but it is likely to occur in this country.	eng
9832	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, although animsla have apparently also been recorded in farmbush (Rosevear 1969).	eng
9832	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is common in museum collections, and is presumably also common in the wild.	eng
9832	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are not well known. Much of the species preferred habitat has been extensively logged and converted to plantations and agricultural land. However, the species might be able to persist in modified habitats, and further research is needed to confirm this.	eng
9833	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It is known to occur in several protected areas throughout the range.	eng
9833	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This widespread Subsaharan species is distributed from Senegal and the Gambia In West Africa, eastwards through Sierra Leone and Liberia to southern Togo, Benin, Nigeria, and from here into southern Cameroon and southern Central African Republic, to Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania in East Africa. Not yet recorded from south of the Congo River. It is also present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
9833	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, but it is not limited to this habitat, and can be found within savanna formations and drier gallery forest. In Sierra Leone, the species was apparently recorded in <em>Avicennia</em> mangrove swamps (Rosevear 1969; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is also recorded from agricultural lands, especially cocoa plantations and oil palm plantations (kernels of oil palm fruits are a favoured food). The species is apparently usually found nesting in taller trees using holes in the trunk or larger branches (Rosevear 1969). It breeds twice a year with a litter size of two young.	eng
9833	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It is likely to be common, but little is known about the species abundance.	eng
9833	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
9834	conservation	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Known from a number of protected areas, including the Rwenzori Mountains (Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo), Kahuzi-Biega (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (Uganda).	eng
9834	distribution	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift, ranging from the Blue Mountains (west of Lake Albert) south to Itombwe (west of Lake Tanganyika) and Kabira National Park (Burundi). It is found in montane regions between 1,600 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
9834	habitat	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Montane forest habitats, although Kingdon (1997) notes that the species has adapted to secondary growth and cultivation mosaics.<br/>Arboreal, although likely to feed near the ground.	eng
9834	population	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is regularly captured, but only in small numbers.	eng
9834	threats	Grubb, P. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats as a whole to this widespread species. The primary threat within the Albertine Rift is the conversion of primary forests to agricultural land, as well as the extraction of forest resources (eg. fuelwood) by local people. Other threats include fire and mining for coltan.	eng
9835	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Jozani Forest on Zanzibar (Tanzania) and Aruboke-Sokoke (Kenya). There is a need to undertake more research into the natural history of this species, especially whether it can persist in modified habitats such as plantations.	eng
9835	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is distributed in southeastern Kenya to northeastern Tanzania largely in coastal forest, although it has also been recorded from Mount Kilimanjaro below 2,000 m asl (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995), suggesting a wide altitudinal range. It is present on Zanzibar and Mafia Islands, but not Pemba.	eng
9835	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has generally been recorded from coastal forest formations, and riverine associations. Little additional information is available on the species natural history.	eng
9835	population	Grubb, P., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
9835	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The coastal forests of eastern Africa are under threat from expanding agriculture, charcoal burning and fuel wood extraction, uncontrolled fires, unsustainable logging, human settlement, and destructive mining practices. To what degree these factors have specifically affected this species is not known.	eng
9864	conservation	Canseco Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened), and it has been recorded from several protected areas. In Guatemala it is protected by national legislation, with part of the species range within protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. <span style="font-style: italic;">Heloderma horridum charlesbogerti</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I. Additional research is needed into the taxonomic status, distribution and threats to this species.	eng
9864	distribution	Canseco Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	This species is found in at low to moderate elevations in the Pacific foothills of Mexico from southern Sonora to Chiapas, and along the Pacific drainages in southeastern Guatemala (Departamento de Santa Rosa). It has an elevational range of around 400 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
9864	habitat	Canseco Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	This lizard is most regularly encountered in tropical deciduous forest, but can also be found in thorn forest, tropical scrubland, and low elevation oak forest. It does not seem to be present in disturbed areas.	eng
9864	population	Canseco Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
9864	threats	Canseco Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	In general, the species is threatened by various forms of deforestation and by human persecution.	eng
9865	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Collection of Gila monsters is prohibited by laws and regulations throughout the range in the United States and Mexico. Sizable areas of habitat are protected from development in national parks and monuments and in federal wilderness areas (Brown and Carmony 1999). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9865	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The Gila Monster occurs in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It ranges from extreme southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, and adjacent southeastern California south through southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and much of Sonora to extreme northern Sinaloa, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). The core of the range is in Arizona and Sonora. Its elevational range extends from near sea level in Sonora and 30 m in Arizona to at least 1,545 m in southeastern Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), and 1,180 to 1,950 m in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
9865	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Occupied vegetation types include desert grassland, Mohave and Sonoran desert scrub, and thorn scrub (Sonora); less often oak or pine-oak woodland. In Mexico, it occurs on lower mountain slopes and adjacent plains and beaches (Stebbins 2003), sometimes in irrigated areas. Canyon bottoms, arroyos (dry creeks), and rocky slopes may support relatively dense populations in some parts of Arizona and Sonora. In southern Arizona, the Gila Monster is more abundant in wetter and rockier palo verde-sahuaro desert than in drier and sandier creosote-bursage desert, where it occurs mainly in or near rocky buttes or mountains (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In New Mexico, the species is most commonly associated with desert scrub vegetation in rocky regions of mountain foothills and canyons; sometimes it is found along the lower fringes of pinyon-juniper woodland or oak woodland; rarely encountered in agricultural areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Gila monsters are mainly terrestrial but infrequently climb into vegetation. Refuges include spaces under rock, dense shrubs, burrows, or woodrat nests. Sub-surface shelters are important components of the habitat, and certain ones are used with a high degree of fidelity (particularly in winter), sometimes by multiple individuals concurrently (Beck and Jennings 2003). In Arizona, Gila monsters spend about 98% of the year under cover (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In Utah, individuals spent over 95% of active season underground; occasionally they basked near shelters in spring; shelters were burrows or crevices in rocky areas; hibernacula faced south (Beck 1990).	eng
9865	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is never very abundant, but its abundance varies greatly. It is represented by well over 100 collection/observation sites that are well distributed throughout the range (e.g., see Campbell and Lamar 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand; the species is fairly common in at least some parts of the range. Lowe <em>et al</em>. (1986) stated that Gila monsters are infrequently seen but not rare or uncommon in Arizona. In New Mexico, the species is commonly encountered in the Redrock Wildlife Area in Grant County and at Granite Gap in Hidalgo County; a density of approximately five individuals per sq. kilometre was estimated for one area (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Populations are declining over most of the United States range (Campbell and Lamar 2004), but the rate of decline is unknown (probably less than 30% over the past three generations). Beck (1985) estimated that the population in Utah included 450 to 800 individuals, down from an estimated 2,000 to 5,000 before the 1930s. It is probably declining even more seriously in Mexico.	eng
9865	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Populations have been exploited (illegally) by commercial and private collectors, and they have suffered from habitat destruction due to urbanization and agricultural development (New Mexico Department of Fish and Game 1985). Concrete-lined canals are barriers to movement (Brown and Carmony 1999), as are busy highways. Mortality on roads likely is increasing as traffic volume increases on established highways and new roads are built. The most important reason for the decline is habitat loss resulting from development (Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is probably decreasing in southern Sonora due to expanding commercial agriculture.	eng
9869	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Recommended actions include monitoring its distribution and abundance, and studying its habitat requirements and population dynamics.	eng
9869	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Lemuroid Ringtail Possum occurs in Australian rainforests in two distinct localities: one is above 450 m elevation between Ingham and Cairns, north Queensland, and a smaller population above 1,100 m asl occurs on the Mt. Carbine Tableland, west of Mossman (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). The area of occupancy has declined as a result of clearing and fragmentation of rainforest.	eng
9869	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species that prefers cool, wet, primary rainforest, typically in the core rather than on the margins of suitable habitat. It rests in tree hollows, and feeds on the foliage of trees, often high in the canopy (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species appears to be very sensitive to the effects of fragmentation and disappears from isolated rainforest patches of 40-80 ha or less (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008). It does not use narrow forest corridors.	eng
9869	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
9869	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species at present. Selective logging was a past threat, but now much of its range is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage area. It is very sensitive to canopy removal, and is adversely affected by the construction of wide roads and clearing for power lines resulting in open areas within its habitat. It is likely to be sensitive to global warming as it is found at high elevations (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
9870	conservation	Reid, J.W., 1996	Is recorded from a protected area.	eng
9870	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	This copepod is known only from Lake Powell, between Albany and Denmark, in the Warren region of south-west, Western Australia.	eng
9872	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Research into the life history and taxonomy of this species is required, as is its current status regarding population size and trend.	eng
9872	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	This species endemic to the Okinawa islands and Amami islands (Ryukyu archipelago, southwest Japan).	eng
9872	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits ponds, swamps, slow streams, artificial dams and ponds.	eng
9872	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
9872	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The habitat is being lost to agricultural practices, which is also contributing to water pollution, along with domestic and industrial expulsions.	eng
9884	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from a pool near Lake Ilgaz.	eng
9889	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
9889	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is currently known only from Eregili marsh. It used be present in Lake Gölcük near Isparta and Lake Akgöl near Konya.	eng
9889	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A marsh species. The fish is used for mosquito control.	eng
9889	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
9889	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat loss as a result of the water supply to the marsh being restricted by the construction of a dam across the stream inlet. The marsh has been partly drained and water is extracted from the marsh for agricultural purposes. The marshes are also sometimes burned.	eng
9891	conservation	Hawking, J., 2008	The Wilsons Promontory and Mt William populations are in National Parks and are covered by government legislation.	eng
9891	distribution	Hawking, J., 2008	Endemic to Australia. This species is known from only six scattered localities from near  Alexandra, Yea and Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, and from King Island to Mt William  National Park, Tasmania (Trueman <em>et al</em>. 1992, Endersby 1993, Watson  1995).	eng
9891	habitat	Hawking, J., 2008	Inhabits riverine lagoons, permanent ponds and swamps that may dry out in the summer (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
9891	population	Hawking, J., 2008	Known from only six scattered populations. The populations are very scattered. The Alexandra and Yea populations are in Central-east Victoria and have specimens have not been seen since January 2001, when 10 specimens were seen (Hawking and Dunkle unpublished data 2001). Adults were last seen at Wilsons Promontory population is in the south of Victoria, in January 2003 (Smith and Paulson unpublished data 2003). The populations on King Island and two populations near Mt William, Tasmania have not been surveyed since 1995. The adults are very hard to find as they are very small and their metallic green colour allows them to blend in with the surrounding vegetation.	eng
9891	threats	Hawking, J., 2008	The Yea and Alexandra populations are threatened by lack of water coming onto  the floodplain, due to agricultural practices and river regulation. The Wilsons  Promontory population was severely threatened when the Park staff destroyed the  reeds, which were the <em>H. mirabilis</em> habitat, by burning.	eng
9917	conservation	Alempath, M. & Rice, C., 2008	The Nilgiri tahr is fully protected (Schedule I) by the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, although this protection is rarely enforced and illegal hunting is a major threat (Kannery, 2002; IUCN, 2004).<br/><br/>The creation of Eravikulam and Silent Valley National Parks, Mukurti, Anamalai, and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary and the Kalakadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, together offer an important degree of protection to the Nilgiri Tahr. Eravikulam National Park and its surroundings has been cited as having nearly 1,000 individuals (Kannery, 2002), although others have questioned this figure, believing it to be too high (Abraham <em>et al</em>. 2006, M. Alembath pers. comm., 2008). <br/><br/>The Tamil Nadu Forest Department is removing exotic monocultures along the periphery of the Mukurti National Park. In addition, institutions such as the Nilgiri Wildlife Association, High Range Wildlife Association, Ramnad District Wildlife Association, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Bombay Natural History Society and the Wildlife Institute of India, are active in promoting conservation of Nilgiri tahr. Conservation measures proposed: The Nilgiri tahr requires continuous study and monitoring, because its small and isolated populations are extremely vulnerable. With proper conservation, including habitat maintenance and minimising mortality due to hunting, it is possible that with time, the species could be considered no longer threatened, if the following are accomplished: 1) Establish the proposed Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. This would include the Bandipur, Nagarhole and Silent Valley National Parks, the Mudumalai, Mukurti and Wynad Wildlife Sanctuaries, the Bolampatti Reserved Forest and the proposed Karipuzha National Park (WCMC, 1988c), and encompass a Nilgiri tahr population of 400 to 450 individuals (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1984). An extension to such a reserve has also been proposed (Rice, 1990) to include peripheral cliffs used by tahr as escape and birthing terrain. A revised biosphere reserve design of these conservation units has been suggested by Rodgers and Panwar (1988). 2) Enact management proposals that include the systematic monitoring of tahr populations, as well as possible re-introductions (Rice, 1988a, 1990; Rai and Johnsingh, 1992). There is good potential for re-introductions in areas such as the Kalakadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve where several highlands had small populations of tahr some 20 to 40 years ago, but today are very small or non-existent (Rai and Johnsingh, 1992). 3) Consider low impact recreational use (e.g. trekking, fishing) of suitable areas, especially where such activities would benefit (and compensate) the local economy for restrictions on traditional activities such as hunting by local inhabitants. 4) Co-ordinate Nilgiri tahr with other wildlife and habitat conservation efforts, because the Western Ghats are one of India’s major wildlife areas.	eng
9917	distribution	Alempath, M. & Rice, C., 2008	The present distribution of the Nilgiri tahr is limited to approximately 5% of the Western Ghats in southern India, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in southern India (Shackleton, 1997; Grubb, 2005), although not along the border between these two states (M. Alembath pers. comm. 2007). At the beginning of this century the range of tahr probably extended northward at least to the Brahmagiri hills of southern Karnataka (Shackleton, 1997).  The animals are more or less confined to altitudes of 1,200 to 2,600 meters (Nilgiri Tahr Trust); populations as low as 900 m may or may not represent pre-human extent of occurrence in elevation (Rice, 1984).	eng
9917	habitat	Alempath, M. & Rice, C., 2008	The Nilgiri tahr is found at high elevations on cliffs, grass-covered hills, and open terrain (Nilgiri Tahr Trust, retrieved 03 January 2007).  Females gestate for about 180 days, and usually give birth to one kid per pregnancy (Rice, 1984). Animals are sexually mature in the wild at around three years of age (Wilson, 1980; Rice, 1990), though they are only expected to live three or 3.5 years on average, their potential life span is at least 9 years (Rice, 1988; Rice, 1990). The species is diurnal, but are most active grazing in the early morning and late afternoon (Prater, 1971; Nowak, 1991).	eng
9917	population	Alempath, M. & Rice, C., 2008	Total numbers were estimated at between 2,000 and 2,500 individuals in the 1970s-1980s, and were thought to be stable (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1988a, 1990). More recently Daniels <em>et al</em>. (2008) estimated the total population at no more than 1,800-2,000 individuals. An overall decline in the species was suggested by Daniels <em>et al</em>. (2008), although some populations appear to have remained stable in recent decades (Mishra and Johnsingh 1998). The species current populations are estimated to be Nilgiri hills (450, though now reduced to 75-100), Silent Valley (30), Siruveni Hills (20), Elival Mala (60), Nelliampathi Hills (30), Top Slip and Parambikulam (120), Eastern Slopes of Ananmala (125), Grass Hills of Anamala (250), Swamaimala (130) Eravikulam National Park (760), High Range (30), Palani Hills (60), Highwavy mountains (100), Mudaliar oothu (70), Vellakaltheri (90), Ashambu Hills (70), and Thiruvannamalai peak (40) (Nilgiri Tahr Trust, retrieved 02 January 2007).	eng
9917	threats	Alempath, M. & Rice, C., 2008	Principal threats are habitat loss (mainly from domestic livestock and spread of invasive plants) and poaching (Daniels <em>et al</em>. 2008). The general trends of decline even in the best managed Tahr habitats indicate that the total population of the species does not exceed 2000 at present and a conservative estimate would place the numbers within the 1,800-2,000 range (Daniels <em>et al</em>., 2006). Currently, the only populations with more than 300 individuals are in Eravikulam National Park and in the Grass Hills in Anamalai. The most recent information from the Nilgiri hills (Mukurti Wildlife Sanctuary), which previously had more than 300 tahr (Davidar, 1978; Rice, 1984; Schaller, 1971), indicates that only between 75 and 100 individuals remain. Wattle (<em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) plantations and cattle apparently no longer threaten the Mukurti population, so their decline is probably due solely to illegal hunting. The status of the other smaller populations (many of which are less than 100 individuals), which are also subject to continued illegal hunting, can be considered precarious. Similar population decreases and threats to the species were reported in a survey in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Rai and Johnsingh, 1992).<br/><br/>Populations of these animals are small and isolated, making them vulnerable to local extinction. Habitat patches for Nilgiri tahr are naturally discontinuous, but some habitat fragmentation may have anthropogenic causes (C. Rice pers. comm., 2008). The species faces competition from domestic livestock, whose overgrazing has allowed for the invasion of graze-resistant weedy species into preferred meadows, thus in competition with the native grasses that tahr prefers (Mishra and Johnsingh, 1998).  Continued conversion of tahr habitat to agricultural land has resulted in a present distribution that is about one-tenth of its historical range (Mishra and Johnsingh, 1998; Kannery, 2002; IUCN, 2004).	eng
9918	conservation	Insall, D., 2008	It has been illegal to kill or capture tahr in Oman since the Royal Decree issued in 1976 (Ministry of Diwan Affairs, Ministerial Decision No. 4), but the terrain and distribution make this difficult to enforce. Following two years of field study from 1973, a special wildlife guard force, administered by the Diwan of the Royal Court, was established in 1975 to protect Arabian tahr in a 200 km² area in the mountainous region of the Jabal Aswad escarpment 45 km south of Muscat, encompassing the watershed of the Wadi As Sareen. A number of tahr guards (“mushrafin”) were appointed from local tribes originally to patrol just the Wadi As Sareen Nature Reserve, but subsequently their jurisdiction was extended to include Jabal Sa’atari 20 km to the north. The area patrolled by the guards was further extended, and by 1992 they protected tahr and Arabian gazelle in an area of about 2,350 km², including the mountains near Nakhl 70 km south-west of Muscat and the Jabal Bani Jabir about 120 km south-east of Muscat. In addition, a number of villagers are retained to report any poaching attempts. All the patrolled areas contain good quality habitat, but tahr populations are small and isolated, and thus vulnerable to diseases introduced by domestic stock, and other stochastic events. <br/><br/>In 1979 an agreement was made with three local families to keep their domestic livestock out of a 16 sq km area of the Jabal Aswad cliff overlooking Wadi Qiyd, an area of particular importance for the tahr.  <br/><br/>In 1993 the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment (now Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs) established a small wildlife ranger unit in the Ja’alan to guard a population of Arabian gazelle at As Saleel, near Al Kamil. The following year this was expanded to look after a substantial tahr population in Jabal Qahwan. Further units were established elsewhere in Oman, those in the north specifically tasked with identifying and monitoring further tahr populations. They now operate in all areas of the tahr’s range.<br/><br/>Tahr is one of the species kept in the Omani Captive Breeding Centre for Mammals at Bait al Barakah in northern Oman, where it has reproduced in captivity. The species has proved difficult to rear in captivity when compared with other native ruminants, so none have yet been released into the wild.  <br/><br/>In the future it is intended that surplus animals will be used for re-introductions and for supplementing existing populations. Conservation measures proposed: 1)  Establish a network of reserves already identified, which, where possible, encompass core zones free of domestic livestock. The proposed reserves are designed to protect around 1,750 animals, and would include the majority of the known populations. 2) The captive breeding program should continue to gather more information on the species and its genetics, and provide a source for re-introductions which could be especially important if disease struck wild populations. 3) Consider establishing a second captive breeding group outside the region. 4) Maintain and extend the present enforcement of conservation measures. Along with censuses and gathering further data on distributions, more ecological research on the species is required, including studies on competition with livestock. Active habitat management will be required to ensure the continued survival and conservation of Arabian tahr (Munton, 1985). 5) The seed bank being established under the Oman Botanic Garden will include those of the tahr’s major forage species so that overgrazed areas can be re-vegetated. This would also be valuable for reestablishment of forage for domestic livestock, and help reduce competition for tahr. 6) Continue to enforce the traditional laws which restrict tree cutting in the Sultanate as another important component of habitat management (Munton, 1985). 7) Re-instate the traditional conservation areas such as the Hamiyat and establish new ones (Munton, 1985) 8) Co-operate with the Ministry of Agriculture in measures to give better protection and management of rangelands and forests throughout Oman.	eng
9918	distribution	Insall, D., 2008	The entire world population of Arabian tahr occurs in the mountains of northern Oman and the United Arab Emirates, where it prefers north facing slopes between 1,000 and 1,800 m, which are characterized by relatively high rainfall, cooler temperatures and diverse vegetation. <br/><br/>There are small scattered populations throughout a 600 km crescent in northern Oman, from the limestone massifs of the Musandam, through the Hajar mountains as far as Jebel Qahwan due south of Sur. Sightings in the Musandam, the United Arab Emirates and the northern Batinah Region of Oman are sporadic and rare, mainly due to depleted numbers and the inaccessibility of the tahr’s preferred habitat. <br/><br/>Further south the tahr is reported to be thriving in areas of preferred habitat where it has effective ranger protection and competition from domestic goats is limited. The most important populations occur near Nakhl, the Wadi As Sareen Nature Reserve and Jebel Qahwan in the Ja’alan. In addition to the well-vegetated limestone escarpments, tahrs range through the lower altitude ophiolite mountains which form nearly 60% of its former habitat. Although the vegetation here is sparser and less diverse, there are more open pools and perennial springs due the lower permeability of the rock.<br/><br/>Insall (1999) noted that, of the historic range of 19,413 km², recent occurrence was noted in hectads totalling 8,863 km². In a further 6,924 km² of hectads the species' occurrence was unclear, and it was reported as extinct in the remaining 3,653 km² of its historic distribution.	eng
9918	habitat	Insall, D., 2008	Optimum tahr habitat comprises north facing slopes between 1,000 and 1,800 m, that are characterized by relatively high rainfall, cool temperatures and diverse vegetation. They have been seen at altitudes down to sea level, especially during the rut when males are known to move long distances between known populations to find females. In captivity births have occurred in all months of the year, but in the wild the season is from September to November. A second rut, known as ‘Lia’ah adh dhubab’, is reported to occur in February in years when there is good forage after early rainfall (Wood 1992; Insall 1999).<br/><br/>Tahrs live in small family groups of two or three animals, and are entirely herbivorous. The species is diurnal, grazing in the early morning and late afternoon. Although it can survive long periods without drinking if good vegetation is available, in summer it will come down to drink every two or three days. There is widespread anecdotal evidence of tahrs drinking at night from the sources of the ‘falaj’ channel irrigation systems.	eng
9918	population	Insall, D., 2008	There is no recent estimate of total population, though there are probably fewer than 5,000 animals. Although some populations may have increased through protection, overall it is likely that the species continues to decline,<br/><br/>The global population was estimated to be less that 2,000 animals by Munton (1985), although the extremely rugged terrain, low densities and small group size, make accurate censuses very difficult. In a three-month follow-up survey in 1987, Munton calculated that there had been a 6% increase in tahr populations where hunting had ceased. This suggested that the population in Wadi Sarin area had doubled between 1978 and 1987 from around 360 to 700 individuals. In a three-month zoological survey in the Ru’us Al Jibal mountains of the United Arab Emirates in 1995, C. Stuart (pers. comm. to S. Lovari) made only one sighting of tahr (a female and 2-3 month-old young) in the Hajar Mountains.	eng
9918	threats	Insall, D., 2008	The greatest threat to the survival of the species is loss of habitat (Insall 1999). Although within guarded areas its status is sound, elsewhere problems include restricted available habitat, poaching, and most importantly, competition with livestock, primarily domestic goats. In some areas of prime habitat there has been a steady increase in domestic livestock numbers, where new road networks make it easy to transport animals to new pasture or to bring in supplementary food and water. These areas include the high plateaux of the Eastern Hajar Range, the Jabal Al Akhdhar and Jabal Kawr in the Western Hajar. In most other areas of the tahr’s range there is strong anecdotal evidence that domestic livestock numbers have decreased. However, active shepherding of livestock has all but ceased, increasing the occurrence of stray animals which become feral and then breed in areas of tahr habitat. <br/><br/>In times of severe drought tahrs have been found in poor condition in a number of areas of its range, some of which have died. There is evidence that they are susceptible to diseases that affect domestic goats. This will remain an ongoing threat until vaccination of domestic animals against clostridial diseases becomes <em>de rigueur</em>. Cases of warble fly strike occurred in the Tanuf area of the south-facing cliffs of the Jabal Al Akhdhar in early 2000. Illegal hunting remains a significant threat in some areas. This is exacerbated by the burgeoning network of graded secondary roads which are fragmenting the tahr’s habitat throughout its range. Further ahead, a prospective increase in mineral mining, especially in the ophiolite mountains, threatens to degrade both vegetation and groundwater supplies upon which the tahr depends.	eng
9919	conservation	Bhatnagar, Y.V. & Lovari, S., 2008	Listed as Category I species in China. It is not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>Within China, it occurs in Qomolangma Nature Reserve on the Sino-Nepal border. Conservation measures proposed for China include undertaking a survey and census to determine the species’ distribution and status. <br/><br/>In India, protected areas with Himalayan tahr (Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983; Green, 1987b; Kathayat and Mathur 2002) include: Jammu and Kashmir – Kishtwar National Park (locally threatened); Himachal Pradesh - Great Himalayan National Park (confirmed), and Daranghati (locally threatened), Gamgul Siahbehi, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Manali (locally threatened or extinct), Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttarakhand -Nanda Devi and (probably) Valley of Flowers National Parks, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park. Himalayan tahr occurs in a very narrow band along timberline areas in the Himalaya, and although still present over much of its historical range, the lack of population data precludes a satisfactory status designation within its relatively restricted range. It appears, however, that the species is capable of using rugged forested slopes with temperate oak and pine forests, well below the timberline area where it is now found. This suggests that it current range distribution may reflect displacement from formerly used lower elevation areas.  As well, much of its current distribution lies outside the network of protected areas. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Extend the Great Himalayan National Park as proposed. 2) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh) 3) Devise innovative community based reserves for the species outside Pas (these need to include community based protection, tourism, awareness, etc).<br/><br/>Probably a significant proportion of Nepal’s tahr populations occur within protected areas, but it is also believed to be widespread in smaller, scattered populations outside reserves. The species is known to occur in Langtang, Lake Rara, Sagamartha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area) and Shey-Phoksundo National Parks, in the Annapurna Conservation Area, and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. It may also occur in Khaptad National Park in the Midlands (Bauer, 1988). Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: As with blue sheep, 1) maintain the current, closely controlled, legal hunting program, and 2) consider a regulated program of low-level subsistence hunting by local villagers. 3) It will also be necessary to study the impact of the increasing fragmentation of tahr populations. The first steps to address this issue would be to begin in selected areas by mapping tahr habitat features such as cliffs (using 1:50,000 topographic maps), followed by ground surveys to validate the species’ presence/absence.	eng
9919	distribution	Bhatnagar, Y.V. & Lovari, S., 2008	This species is found in the Himalayas including China (southern Tibet), north India (Jammu and Kashmir to Sikkim), and Nepal.  It is introduced in New Zealand and Western Cape Province (South Africa) (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>In China, tahr appear to be found in only in a few spots along the southern Tibet border near Qubuo river, extending south into the Himalayas and can be expected in extreme western Tibet adjacent to known populations in India (Wang 1998, Smith and Xie 2008). In India, the Himalayan tahr occurs in timberline regions across the southern forested slopes of the Himalaya from Jammu and Kashmir to Sikkim (Sathyakmuar 2002). It is patchily distributed from south-central Kashmir, eastward through the southern part of Kulu District (Himachal Pradesh) between 2,000 and 3,270 m (Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983), and more widely present at similar elevations through northern Uttarakhand to the Nepalese border. Small numbers are also found in east and west Sikkim near the borders with Nepal and Bhutan. Formerly the Himalayan tahr had a continuous distribution throughout Nepal between 1,500 and 5,200 m, but this is now being increasingly disrupted by activities related to human encroachment (Green, 1978, 1979). Tahr inhabits temperate to sub-alpine forests up to treeline, between 2500 and 5,200 m. Schaller (1977) mapped fourteen locations of tahr, and there are undoubtedly more. There are no recent, credible reports of tahr from Bhutan (T. Wangchuk pers. comm., 2008), though it possibly occurs in the extreme west of the country.	eng
9919	habitat	Bhatnagar, Y.V. & Lovari, S., 2008	The Himalayan tahr inhabits steep rocky mountain sides, especially between 3,000-4,000 m asl, with woods and rhododendron scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). The species eats grass, other herbs and some fruits. The Himalayan tahr is diurnal, and lives in small groups of 2-20 individuals, excluding older solitary males. Mating occurs from October to January. One or occasionally two kids are born in June and July after a gestation of 180-242 days depending on delayed implantation. The age at sexual maturity is 1.5 years, with captive animal lived up to 22 years (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
9919	population	Bhatnagar, Y.V. & Lovari, S., 2008	There is no global population estimate, nor knowledge of rates of change.<br/><br/>For China, there are no estimates of numbers, but the population is thought to be small, and only a few have been observed in the field (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). Wang (1998) thought that perhaps 400-500 occurred within China. No total population estimate is available for India, although recent counts include about 130 individuals in the Kanawar Wildlife Sanctuary and greater than 100 in the Great Himalayan National Park, both in Himachal Pradesh (Gaston <em>et al</em>., in press; S. Pandey pers. comm.). Density estimates include 2.3/km² in the Daranghati Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh) (S. Pandey pers. comm.), and 17/km² in part of Kedernath Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttar Pradesh) (S. Sathyakumar pers. comm.). It is probably declining in India (Y. V. Bhatnagar pers. comm. 2008). There is evidence to suggest that considerable local extinctions have taken place. The species may be close to extirpation in the western limit of its distribution in Jammu and Kashmir. The entire population reported north of the Chenab River from Kisthwar to the Banihal pass is believed to be extinct. Very small populations survive in the Bani-Sarthal areas of the Kathua district and the Kisthwar NP in Kisthwar-Doda districts. There are no available estimates for the total Nepalese population of tahr. Green (1978) estimated their ecological density in Langtang National Park to be between 6.8 to 25.0 tahr/km², and Bauer (1988) estimated a combined minimum number of 1,000 tahr for Sagamartha, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area) and Langtang National Parks.	eng
9919	threats	Bhatnagar, Y.V. & Lovari, S., 2008	The major threats in China are uncontrolled hunting and deforestation. In India, Himalayan tahr is sometimes hunted for meat, and there is apparently significant competition with livestock for summer grazing in some areas. Nevertheless, many areas of prime tahr habitat are sufficiently isolated, rugged and seasonally snow-covered, that the degree of disturbance, livestock grazing and habitat alteration by humans is minimized. In Nepal, threats come from an expanding human population and accompanying increases in livestock, habitat loss, poaching and access. As a result of these factors, tahr populations are becoming increasingly isolated. Avalanches during winters with high snowfall also can be a significant mortality factor for tahr.	eng
9942	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9942	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
9942	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Detailed monitoring of trade and status is urgently required; known trade volumes of the species have declined by about 50% in Indonesia recently despite high demand in the food trade. It is restricted to small and isolated populations over much of its range, although there is a lack of data for some areas.	eng
9943	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
9943	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
9944	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>H. adamsoni</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.	eng
9944	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.	eng
9944	threats	Allen, G., 1996	Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced on the lake since the 1980s.  Adamson's grunter is one of the largest fish species in the lake and therefore has become one of the main targets of net fishermen.  Oil drilling and logging have also developed in the area over the past ten years.	eng
9948	conservation	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. Populations of Central and North America are CITES Appendix I. The species is protected across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay, United States and Venezuela, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats. Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of the higher ocelot densities (Oliveira pers. comm.). This species is often perceived as not threatened due to its visibility (it is diurnal) and use of open habitats.	eng
9948	distribution	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The jaguarundi occurs from the eastern lowlands of Chipinque National Park in Nuevo Leon, MX (NE limit) and the western lowlands of Mexico, all the way to southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay (Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007) and south through central Argentina at ca. 39ºS. This is predominantly a lowland species ranging up to 2,000 m, but in Colombia has been reported up to 3,200 m (Cuervo <em>et al.</em> 1986)  It is probably extinct in the US (south Texas) (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, A. Caso pers. comm. 2007).	eng
9948	habitat	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The jaguarundi occupies a broad range of both open and closed habitats, from Monte desert, semi-arid thorn scrub, restinga, swamp and savanna woodland to primary rainforest (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  However, in open areas it sticks to vegetative cover, including secondary growth habitat, disturbed areas, and human induced grasslands (Mexico), open areas with some protection, provided forest or other dense cover is present (Oliveira 1994, A. Caso pers. comm.). This felid is perceived as more tolerant of human disturbance due to its use of open habitats. <br/><br/>This small-sized felid (5 kg) body shape suggests the species to be mostly terrestrial. However, it moves about easily in trees (Oliveira 1994). Its litter size is 1.9 kittens (1–4). Because it is mostly diurnal, it tends to be the most easily seen Neotropical felid, which lead to the false assumption it was common. Diet includes mostly small mammals, birds and reptiles, with a mean prey mass of 380 g. However, larger sized prey (>1 kg) are not unusual (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005, Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Home range size varies greatly, ranging up to 100 km², larger than for any other Neotropical small cat (Konecny 1989).  The species is not the dominant small cat species in most areas, even in most areas of open habitats. Additionally, jaguarundi is also negatively impacted by ocelots (the “ocelot effect”) (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in press).  It has several colour morphs - brownish-black, grey and reddish yellow - which can even be found in the same litter (Oliveira 1998).	eng
9948	population	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Contrary to earlier characterizations of this species as relatively common and abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996), research indicates that the jaguarundi is an uncommon, low density species.  Densities are very low everywhere it has been sampled, and jaguarundis are more commonly found at 0.01-0.05/km² or lower (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission), but reaching up to 0.2/km² in a few and restricted high density areas (A. Caso pers. comm.).  The jaguarundi’s density/numbers are negatively impacted by those of the larger sized ocelot (the “ocelot effect”) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Considered Near Threatened in Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000) and Threatened in Mexico (SEMARNAP 2001).	eng
9948	threats	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The species is generally not exploited for commercial trade, although jaguarundis are doubtless caught in traps set for commercially valuable species and may be subject to low intensity hunting pressure around settled areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Its main threats are however, habitat loss and fragmentation, especially for large scale agriculture and pasture. Jaguarundis are commonly killed for killing poultry (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
9975	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Banks, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
9975	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Banks, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found from east of Moulmein, Tenasserim (Myanmar), extending to Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records also from Cambodia (P. Banks pers. comm.), Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Sabah where it is only known from two localities (the Witti Range and Sepilok), and east Kalimantan (one specimen, A. Suyanto pers. comm.) in Borneo. In Lao PDR the species is reported, by Robinson and Webber (1998), from Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, and from Xe Pian in southern Lao PDR by Robinson (1998). In Viet Nam the species is known from Don Nai province.	eng
9975	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Banks, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, from lowland wet forest to dry dipterocarp forest and hill forest, and also limestone caves. It is usually associated with small rivers and streams. It usually lives in small colonies, with less than 10 individuals.	eng
9975	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Banks, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is uncommon throughout its scattered distribution through mainland Southeast Asia and Borneo.	eng
9975	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Banks, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species is apparently tolerant to a broad range of habitats.	eng
9976	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
9976	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is recorded from Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak in Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
9976	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	All specimens were recorded from lowland localities. There is little information available for this species. In Ulu Gombak, it was found roosting in a group of less than five, on leaves of a palm tree, by the side of forest stream.	eng
9976	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from five localities with only a handful of specimens (around six).	eng
9976	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although habitat loss is a probable threat.	eng
9977	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The type locality is located within Morowali Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
9977	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality at central Ranu Ri, Sulawesi (01°51'S, 121°30'E), Indonesia.	eng
9977	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The single specimen was caught in a small clearing on a covered (with vegetation) path at the edge of primary forest.	eng
9977	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known from only one specimen.	eng
9977	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
9978	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. General habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas and no direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
9978	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread in South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is widely distributed species and is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka Division), Bhutan (no exact location) (Koopman 1993; Simmons 2005), India (Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Mid Western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Anuradhapura, Northern, Northwestern, Sabaragamuva, Southern, Central and Uva provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand (including Sunate Karnphum), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Cambodia (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001), and is probably more widespread than is currently known.	eng
9978	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts solitary or in small groups of a few individuals among dense canopied trees. It is found in lowlands, hills and near seashores (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).The species forages in open areas among paddy fields, grasslands, with a steady and slow flight, and mostly feeds on beetles, termites and other insects. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, it is considered to be a forest edge species that can be found close to degraded areas (such as agricultural land).	eng
9978	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although it is a widely distributed species the abundance, population size and trends for this species are presently not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is widespread and relatively common in Southeast Asia, although it often flies at between nine and twelve metres above the ground and so is not regularly captured in surveys (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
9978	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human settlements. It is also threatened in some areas by hunting for local consumption and for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
9979	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found in protected areas. It is known from Sapagaya Forest Reserve and the Lumerau River in Tabin Widlife Reserve (Hill and Francis 1984). On the Malay Peninsula there are four specimens in Taman Nagara National Park (Lim Boo Liat pers. comm.). The one known locality in Thailand is in Kangkachan National Park.	eng
9979	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found on Borneo (Sabah) and Peninsular Malaysia. It has recently also been recorded from one locality in Kangkachan National Park in Phetchaburi Province in northern peninsular Thailand (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
9979	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This is thought to be a forest dependent species. One pair was found netted in Sabah flying along a stream in lowland dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985). In Peninsular Malaysia the species is found in lowland primary forest in Taman Negara and Krau Game Reserve (T. Kingston pers. comm.). In Thailand the only known locality is in undisturbed lower evergreen montane forest (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
9979	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	There is limited information on population size, but this species is likely to be rare.	eng
9979	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, plantations, agriculture and forest fires is a major threat to this species.	eng
9980	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to establish extent of occurrence and habitat preferences, population density, and ecology. Much of the forest within the species' range has already been cleared for coffee and cattle.  <br/> <br/>There is a recent (1993) record of the species from a protected area (Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, Mexico).	eng
9980	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Chiapas in Mexico, Baja Veracruz and Alta Veracruz in Guatemala.	eng
9980	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Forest streams at 1,700–2,000 m.	eng
9980	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Unknown.	eng
9980	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
9981	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
9981	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in El Salvador, Guatemala (Chiquimula), Honduras (Comayagua) and Nicaragua (Jinotega).  The following includes collection notes from the locations:<br/>Guatemala: Chiquimula, 3 km NE Ermita, 5 km E Concepción las Minas, 1,100 m (Donnelly 1965)<br/>Guatemala: Zacapa, La Unión, 850 m (R. W. Garrison collection)<br/>Honduras: Comayagua, ca 10 mi SW Siguatepeque, 1,600 m (DRP collection)<br/>Nicaragua: Jinotega, Cerro Kilambé, 1,250 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)	eng
9981	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers upland forest streams and has an elevation range 850 - 1,600 m.	eng
9981	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Population size and trend is not known for <em>H. eboratum</em> although it is found in small numbers at the five known localities.	eng
9981	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is not enough data available to suggest any problems at present, but its preference for forest streams could be under threat from deforestation in the future.	eng
9982	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species presence in protected areas has not been documented. Continued monitoring of at least some populations is advised.	eng
9982	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Baja Verpaz) and four states in Mexico.	eng
9982	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes low to middle elevation small to moderate-sized wet-forest streams. Most records are at an elevation range of 500 - 760 m, with one at 1,700 m.	eng
9982	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. tricellulare</em> is presumed to be locally common in many populations, but has received little surveying recently.	eng
9982	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. tricellulare</em> habitat continues to undergo deforestation but it is at a low level so as not to cause concern to the population numbers.	eng
9987	conservation	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species occur in several protected areas throughout the range, including Tsavo, Meru, and Samburu National Parks in Kenya. This species is also common in a number of zoological gardens across the world, and procedures for maintaining captive colonies are well established (Jarvis and Sherman 2002).	eng
9987	distribution	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This species is found throughout most of Somalia, central Ethiopia, and much of northern and eastern Kenya, extending as far south as the eastern border of Tsavo West National Park and the town of Voi (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species has also been recorded from Djibouti (e.g. Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001) suggesting that the species has a wider range than is presently known. It has an altitudinal range of 400 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
9987	habitat	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	Naked mole-rats live in arid habitats, characterized by high temperatures and low and irregular rainfall, which generally average 200-400 mm/year. They are found most frequently in hard, consolidated, lateritic loams, although they<br/>can live in fine sand, pure gypsum, and laterite (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species is subterranean and eusocial, living in colonies averaging between 75 and 80 animals per colony (but may be as many as 290). The colonies are extended family groups, with overlapping generations. Reproduction is restricted to a single reproductive female, and at most three breeding males (usually one or two). Non-breeders (which are sociologically suppressed by aggressive behaviours of the dominant female) help care for and defend the reproductive animals and young. The non-breeding animals maintain and defense of the colony burrow system (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). The species has a gestation length of 66 to 74 days, after which between one and 28 young are born. Females can bear litters every 76 to 84 days, and wild females regularly bear more than 50 pups per year in four or five litters (Jarvis and Sherman 2002). In captivity, this is a relatively long-lived species; females lived to 23 years, and males to 28 years.	eng
9987	population	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
9987	threats	Maree, S. & Faulkes, C., 2008	According to Jarvis and Sherman (2002), naked mole-rats live in areas with little agriculture and minimal development, such that they do not pose a significant agricultural pest. However, they do eat crops such as casava and sweet potatoes, both important agricultural produce, and expansion of agricultural activities into the range of the species could lead to the species being regarded as a pest. Jarvis and Sherman (2002) also note that, given the patchy distribution of naked mole rat colonies, and their population genetic structure, extirpation of local, genetically distinct subpopulations is possible. In general, however, there are no immediate threats to this species.	eng
9997	conservation	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Bush Hyrax are found in many protected areas across their range. The taxonomic and population status of isolated populations should be assessed.	eng
9997	distribution	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in Africa from the northern parts of South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces) northwards to Ethiopia and Sudan; there is a disjunct population in the west-central Angola (<em>H. b. bocagei</em>) (Barry and Shoshani 2000; Barry and Hoeck in press) and an apparently isolated population in south-western Democratic Republic of Congo (<em>H. b. chapini</em>). References to this species in Algeria and Egypt are in error, and both relate to confusion with <em>P. capensis</em> (Hoffmann, M., Hoeck, H.N. and De Smet, K. unpubl.).	eng
9997	habitat	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Habitat consists of rocky kopjes (small hills or outcrops), sheer cliffs or precipices, and piles of large boulders, commonly in association with Rock Hyrax <em>Procavia capensis</em> (Barry and Shoshani 2000; Barry and Hoeck in press). They are found to elevations of 3,800 m in East Africa (Kingdon 1971). Predominantly a browser, feeding on leaves, fruits, stems and bark (Barry and Shoshani 2000). A comprehensive review can be found in Barry and Shoshani (2000) and Barry and Hoeck (in press).	eng
9997	population	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Widespread and abundant in East Africa, but more localized and at lower population densities in parts of southern Africa. Densities in the Matobo N. P. in Zimbabwe ranged from 0.5-1.1 individuals per ha from 1992-1996 (Barry and Mundy 1998). Rainfall, through its effect on fecundity, appears to be the factor primarily responsible for annual fluctuations in abundance (Barry and Mundy 1998).	eng
9997	threats	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, the species may be hunted.	eng
10004	conservation	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas (R. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
10004	distribution	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs across the Caribbean coast and northern foothills of Colombia and Venezuela (including Margarita Island), and Trinidad and Tobago. It ranges in elevation from sea level typically up to around 1,500 to 1,600 m (Anderson 2003).	eng
10004	habitat	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This is one of the best-studied species of the genus. It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests. It is also found in deciduous and moderately mesic evergreen tropical forests, as well as in subsistence agricultural areas (Anderson 2003). In parts of the tropics that experience extended dry periods it exists in gallery forest in association with streams. <br/><br/>This pocket mouse is nocturnal and terrestrial, but can climb in small shrubs. It digs an extensive burrow system in which it constructs a nest. The species prefers moist forests of tropical and subtropical mountains. It feeds on seeds, some fruit, grains, succulent vegetation and insects. Young mature to independence within fifty days of birth and may be caught near the maternal burrow. They subsequently disperse to establish a new burrow system (Eisenberg 1989; Lord 1999).	eng
10004	population	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is common (Lord 1999). It can exist at densities of up to 2.2 individuals per hectare (Eisenberg 1989). This species is often collected in large numbers.	eng
10004	threats	Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is a forest obligate species but can live in disturbed forest (R. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
10005	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.), and probably in Colombia (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
10005	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs from eastern Panama to southwestern Colombia and northwestern Ecuador, including both slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central and western slope of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. A disjunct population is present in the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela (Anderson and Soriano 1999; Anderson 1999). It ranges from sea level to around 2,500 m in sufficiently wet areas (Anderson 1999).	eng
10005	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D. & Samudio, R., 2008	The species inhabits wet, unseasonal areas of the Choco and adjacent western slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Anderson and Jarrin-V. 2002). This species occurs in disturbed forests (Anderson and Jarrin-V. 2002)	eng
10005	population	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is common to abundant in evergreen forest (Reid 1997).	eng
10005	threats	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D. & Samudio, R., 2008	No threats are known.	eng
10006	conservation	Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
10006	distribution	Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs from southeastern Tabasco and the southern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, south to northwestern Colombia (Patton 2005). It occurs in lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997).	eng
10006	habitat	Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in evergreen and semideciduous forest and good second growth. At low elevations it is usually found in mature, wet forest, and it favors areas with abundant palms (Reid 1997). It is seen on the ground in wet, lowlands forest at night. <br/><br/>This mouse makes burrows under tree roots or in open areas on the forest floor. Burrow entrances are usually vertical, unlike those of deer mice (<em>Peromyscus</em> spp.). Its nest is located in burrows or under logs. It feeds on palm nuts (<em>Welfia georgii</em>, <em>Socratea durissima</em>, <em>Euterpe macrospadix</em>, <em>Geonoma</em> sp., and <em>Iriartea gigantean</em>), other seeds (<em>Meliosma</em> spp., <em>Pentaclethra macroloba</em>, and <em>Virola sebifera</em>), fruit, and insects (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989). Seeds may be stored in burrows or in caches above ground (Fleming 1983). Breeding occurs year-round, and a female have 5 litters per year. Litter size is usually 3. These mice live longer than many rodents of similar size, and some may survive 2 or 3 years in the wild (Fleming 1983; Reid 1997).	eng
10006	population	Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is common and widespread (Reid 1997). Population density can reach 18 mice per hectare in suitable forest; individuals’ home ranges overlap extensively (Fleming 1983).	eng
10006	threats	Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	None known.	eng
10007	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in the Yucatan. It has been well studied.	eng
10007	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico, north Belize, and north Guatemala) (Patton 2005). It occurs only in lowlands (Reid 1997).	eng
10007	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This rodent occurs in semideciduous forest, thorn scrub, and second growth. <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and terrestrial, but occasionally travels on low, horizontal logs. Its habits are solitary; individuals fight viciously if introduced in captivity and probably maintain exclusive territories in the wild. Breeding occurs mainly in the wet season, from April to January, and litter size is 2 to 5 young (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1974; Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
10007	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Widespread; common to abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
10007	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is adversely affected in parts of its range by increasing human populations, via agricultural expansion.	eng
10009	conservation	Cuarón, A., Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in a newly-named national park, Tacana, in Mexico.	eng
10009	distribution	Cuarón, A., Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known only from southeastern Chiapas (Mexico) and bordering parts of western Guatemala (Patton 2005). It is found from 2,500 to 2,800 m (Reid 1997). The Guatemalan population may have been severely affected  by Hurricane Stan in 2006.	eng
10009	habitat	Cuarón, A., Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is found on cold, wet slopes of montane forest with numerous epiphytes, mosses, and fallen trees. Its biology is poorly known (Reid 1997).	eng
10009	population	Cuarón, A., Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This rodent is rare and local (Reid 1997).	eng
10009	threats	Cuarón, A., Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The main threat to this species is the significant forest loss in its habitat. Habitat fragmentation, landslides, and floods are additional threats.	eng
10010	conservation	Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	It occurs mainly within protected areas.	eng
10010	distribution	Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is known from the Talamanca Range of Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from 1,800 to 2,600 m (Reid 1997).	eng
10010	habitat	Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	It is found in wet, montane oak forest, with numerosous fallen trees (Reid 1997). It has been found within secondary forest. Most of its biology is unknown (Reid 1997).	eng
10010	population	Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	It is quite common within the appropriate habitat (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
10010	threats	Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, it faces intrinsic threat due to its limited range.	eng
10025	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
10025	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Puerto Rico and Vieques Island.	eng
10025	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
10025	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
10025	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Possibly rats.	eng
10030	conservation	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L. J.V., 2005	None.	eng
10030	distribution	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L. J.V., 2005	This species is widely but disjunctly distributed in temperate and tropical seas of the continental and insular shelves of the Pacific, Atlantic (including the type locality in the Mediterranean Sea) and Indian Oceans. It occurs from the surface to at least 2,000 m, on continental and insular shelves and upper slopes (including sea mounts).	eng
10030	habitat	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L. J.V., 2005	A capable predator, the Bluntnose Sixgill Shark feeds on a wide variety of animals including other sharks (it is known to attack hooked conspecifics, which it sometimes follows to the surface from depth), skates, rays, chimaeras, dolphinfish, small swordfish and marlins, herring, grenadiers, antimoras (codlings), rockfishes, cod, lingcod, hake, flounders, halibut, turbot, gurnards and anglerfish, as well as many types of invertebrates including squid, crabs, sea cucumbers and shrimp. It also eats carrion and sometimes seals (Ebert 1994). The bluntnose sixgill shark has not been involved in shark bite incidents on humans, but has been known to swim up to and examine divers (off southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada) and rarely surfers (Cannon Beach, Oregon, USA) without threat or physical contact (C. Bond pers. comm. 1985). Small specimens thrash and snap when captured, but large individuals offer little resistance. This shark appears to become increasingly sensitive to light with increasing size. Adults may become highly agitated when exposed to even moderately intense light. However, this phenomenon needs much more investigation, since the species has been observed and/or photographed from research submersibles off Bermuda and California in well-lighted situations (floodlights) without undue agitation or avoidance of lighted areas (B. Lea pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is ovoviviparous, bearing very large litters numbering from 22?108 young, size at birth 65?74 cm. Males mature at about 315 cm and females at about 420 cm. Longevity, pupping interval and mating behaviour are unknown. Pupping grounds apparently occur on the upper slopes and outer continental shelves. Since this species preys on conspecifics opportunistically, some mechanism of separation of larger and smaller individuals undoubtedly occurs (Ebert 1994). Young tend to be found in shallow waters often just off the shore, but as they grow they move into successively deeper waters. Adults tend to follow diurnal patterns of vertical distribution, sitting deep on the bottom by day and coming toward or to the surface at night to feed. As for many species of deep-water sharks, it is unknown whether this species segregates by sex.	eng
10030	threats	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L. J.V., 2005	Due to its broad depth range and relative sluggishness, this shark has often been captured incidentally in fisheries for other species. It is taken by handline, longline, gillnet, traps, trammel net, and both pelagic and bottom-trawls. When captured it is often smoked in the Pacific Northwest U.S. (Washington State) and Italy to produce a fine cured product, usually for export to European markets. It is occasionally used for meat and liver oil in Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Additionally, it has been used for salted and dried food products, as well as fish meal and pet foods. Uses of fins may exist but are unreported. This species has been sought for sport fisheries in deeper parts of San Francisco Bay, California, USA (beneath the Golden Gate Bridge), as well as in deeper bays of Oregon and Washington States (Compagno in prep. a). This species is widely believed not to be capable of sustaining either sport or commercial fisheries efforts. Attempts to develop directed fisheries for the bluntnose sixgill shark have rapidly collapsed in California waters, usually lasting less than three years (Compagno in prep. a). Attempts to manage the sport fishery for the hexanchids in San Francisco Bay have been hampered by unusual rules that did not regulate the catch of these sharks per boat, but rather set the quotas at fish per person-pole. It has not been uncommon to see boats on the Bay loaded "to the gunwales" with fishermen to justify the number of poles aboard. The sixgill shark population in San Francisco and Humboldt Bays of California and Puget Sound complex of Washington was considered to be in serious decline in 1995 as a result of fishery activity. Development of a fishery for bluntnose sixgill in British Columbia is being explored, as a replacement for other traditional bony fish and elasmobranch fisheries that are now in decline. This has proceeded despite strong concerns voiced by fishery biologists as to the unsustainability of such fisheries historically (K. Wolf pers. comm.).	eng
10032	conservation	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The species is included on Appendix II of CITES (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hexaprotodon liberiensis</span>). It is fully protected legally in all countries. It is protected in Liberia under the Wildlife and National Park Act of 1988, but enforcement of the regulations is loose except in Sapo National Park, where protection is good.<br/><br/>A vital area for the Pygmy Hippo's protection is the Sapo forest in eastern Liberia. A 509-square-mile block of this forest was chartered as Sapo National Park in 1983, establishing its only national park. Another key area in which the species occurs is in the Tai National Park in western Côte d'Ivoire. Tai is now subject to poaching, agricultural encroachment and gold mining in the park's river beds.<br/><br/><strong>Captive Breeding</strong><br/>As of the end of 2004, the latest edition of the International Studbook for the Pygmy Hippopotamus recorded some 303 animals (290 captive-born) from a founder population of 70, in 135 zoos in captivity (Hlavacek <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species breeds freely in captivity and most, if not all, of the specimens listed have been born in zoos to captive-bred parents. The world population of captive born animals has more than doubled since 1970.<br/><br/>Whilst the future of the species in captivity seems assured, the conditions under which it is kept need reconsideration given that most collections consist of a pair that are kept permanently together in a pool of water. Evidence from the wild suggests that Pygmy Hippopotamus come together infrequently and do not spend much time immersed in the water. The causes of death mentioned in the Studbook include many references to attacks by mates, maternal neglect and injuries inflicted by the mother. It is possible that many of these deaths are due to stress from the artificial conditions of captivity and greater attention to the way of life in the wild might help to reduce this mortality.<br/><br/>There are no current research projects investigating Pygmy Hippo ecology or conservation in the wild. In addition, there is little action being taken to protect Pygmy Hippo habitat or populations.<br/><br/>Objectives:<br/><br/>1. To ensure, as a first priority, that the species can continue to survive in the Liberian forests without further reduction or fragmentation of its range.  <br/><br/>2. To establish more precisely the distribution and numbers of the species throughout its range but more particularly in Liberia, where the bulk of the population occurs.<br/><br/>3. To identify secure regions where conservation action can be concentrated. <br/><br/>4. To establish whether or not the isolated population reported from Nigeria still exists and if it does, to develop plans for its enhanced future protection. <br/><br/>(The alleged population in Guinea-Bissau is so improbable that the time and money that would be involved in an attempt to establish its existence are unlikely to be justified.)<br/><br/><strong>Priority Projects</strong><br/>1. Establish a reliable method for assessing the sizes of the various populations.  <br/><br/>It is unlikely that such an elusive creature can be counted accurately and attention should be paid to developing indirect techniques that will provide an index of density, as has been done with forest elephants. These may include, for example, counts of dunging areas, trails or nest sites.<br/><br/>2. Identify and give special protection to areas containing adequate populations of the species and which appear free from the threat of deforestation. <br/><br/>This does not necessarily mean according them national park status, which might be difficult to achieve. In any case, even if new parks were created they might not be large enough to contain viable populations. As the only national park in Liberia, however, special attention should be given to Sapo National Park particularly as the species was recently recorded there.<br/><br/>3. Monitor the species in protected areas on a permanent basis using techniques developed for census purposes. <br/><br/>4. Identify potential threats to the species in each area and take steps to remove them.  <br/><br/>Apart from the obvious problem of deforestation, attention should be paid to possible threats from meat hunting and the trophy trade. Education should play a prominent role in such projects in making local people aware of the rarity and uniqueness of the pygmy hippopotamus.<br/><br/>5. Mount expeditions to those regions of Nigeria where the species was last reported in order to look for evidence of its continued existence. <br/><br/>If it is shown to survive there, special efforts should be made to assist the development of management strategies for its enhanced future protection and to determine the taxonomic as well as the conservation status of this population. <br/><br/>6. Coordinate the international captive breeding effort to take advantage of recent computer programmes for analysing stud book data and to ensure that maximum use is made of the genetic potential of the existing captive population. <br/><br/>7. Study the behaviour of the species under a variety of captive conditions in order to generate information of benefit to their enhanced future husbandry, with particular reference to the habits of the animals in the wild.	eng
10032	distribution	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Pygmy Hippo is endemic to West Africa. Known populations (of the nominate subspecies, <em>H. l. liberiensis</em>) occur in four African countries (in order of ascending population sizes): Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia. A record from the Corubal River in Guinea-Bissau by Cristino (1958), who claimed to have shot an individual, almost certainly represented a young Common Hippopotamus. The overall past distribution of the Pygmy Hippo was not very different from what it is today, but the populations have become much more fragmented and have disappeared from many former sites. The distribution of the species is centered on Liberia, which includes the bulk of the population (Anstey 1991), with occurrence in the other three countries mainly close to the shared borders with Liberia. Sierra Leone has remnant Pygmy Hippo populations in the Gola Forest region bordering Liberia, Tiwai Island, and the Loma Mountains. Populations reported from other forests in Sierra Leone in the late 1960s are now presumed to be extinct, leaving the Gola Forest as the country’s last main refuge. The Republic of Guinea contains fragmented Pygmy Hippo populations along the Liberian and Ivoirian border in the Reserve de Ziama. There were also reports of Pygmy Hippopotamus populations in Dere Forêt, but more recent reports suggest that this area has been degraded and converted into farmland. However, there was evidence of Pygmy Hippo found in Diécké Forest Reserve, south-east of Ziama (Alonso <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 1994, populations in Ziama and Diécké forests were estimated at 32–96 and 18–54 individuals, respectively (Butzler 1999). Côte d'Ivoire has lost most of its historical forest cover and is likely to be home to fragmented Pygmy Hippo populations along its border with Liberia in the Fresco region; populations are likely found throughout Tai National Park and may occur in Cavally Forest Reserve (north-west of Tai N.P.), Mount Nimba Reserve, N’Zo Forest Reserve, Taipleu Forêt, Tatigbo Lagoon, and along the Dagbe, Bolo, and Niouniourou Rivers. In Côte D'ivoire, it has previously been recorded as far east as between the Sasandra and Bandama Rivers (Dekeyser 1954), but Bosman and Hall-Martin (1989) reported it from the Azagny National Park in the south-east corner of the country. Whether it naturally occurs there or has been introduced is not clear. The largest Pygmy Hippo populations are believed to be in central and south-eastern Liberia, although population sizes are unknown. Liberian Pygmy Hippo populations are believed to occur in Sapo National Park, the Cestos-Senkwehn Forests, Krahn-Bassa National Forest, Gbi National Forest, Grebo National Forest and in Grand Kru County. No recent information is available on the populations of north-west Liberia, which may still sustain a substantial number of Pygmy Hippos.<br/><br/>The second subspecies, <em>H. l. heslopi</em>, is known only from the Niger Delta east to the vicinity of the Cross River in Nigeria (Corbet 1969). This second, isolated population in Nigeria is some 1,800 km to the east of the known populations, on the other side of the Dahomey Gap. Such a discontinuous distribution is very rare amongst forest vertebrates in West Africa and Robinson (1970) considers that there is insufficient evidence to confirm that the species ever existed in Nigeria, despite the account by Heslop (1945), who shot one near Omoku in the vicinity of the Niger Delta. This putative Pygmy Hippo subspecies was identified in 1945 based on morphological features of skulls collected in the late 1930s in Nigeria. Others have been equally skeptical, but Ritchie (1930) gave measurements of two skulls that were obtained in 1928 from the Niger Delta so there seems little doubt that the species did once occur in the country. It may be extinct, but Oates (in litt. 1993) reported that residents in the Niger Delta still knew of the species. Although the 1993 Action Plan posits that <em>H. l. heslopi</em> individuals may still occur in the Niger Delta, the existence of this subspecies has not been confirmed or reported. There is little possibility that this Niger delta population still survives, although it is surprising that the existence was so poorly known or documented.	eng
10032	habitat	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Pygmy Hippo is rarely seen because of its secretive, nocturnal habits and consequently not much is known of its ecology. The most detailed field study is that of Robinson (1970) and a general account of its biology is given by Lang (1975). The Pygmy Hippo is much less gregarious than the larger species, being usually found either solitary or in pairs. As it is largely nocturnal it tends to spend the day hidden in swamps, wallows or rivers and sometimes in hollows under the banks of streams, which it is said to enlarge. It favors heavily forested regions, but it is dependent on water and usually remains close to streams. It also used to frequent forests fringing the rivers that extend into Transitional Woodland and the southern Guinea savanna, further inland. However, it seems likely to have been hunted out of most of these areas. Within the forest it follows well defined trails or tunnel-like paths through swamp vegetation, which it marks by spreading its dung by vigorously wagging its tail while defecating, like its larger relative. <br/><br/>The species is exclusively vegetarian, feeding on leaves and roots of forest plants (including semi-aquatic plants and forest herbs) as well as on fallen fruit. The stomach has four chambers (Langer 1988). The first three are covered with tough keratinized epithelium, only the last containing glandular epithelial tissue. There is evidence that microbial breakdown of plant material takes place in the first three stomach chambers, no caecum being present in this species. This mode of digestion  is usually considered an adaptation to a highly fibrous, generally "low-quality" vegetable diet. The droppings are poorly formed and similar to those of the common hippo.<br/><br/>It is not known how far individual Pygmy Hippos roam in the wild, or whether they keep to well-defined home ranges, but their habit of fecal marking implies they may be at least partly territorial in defending particular areas against incursions from other members of the species. However, during the rainy season (May–September), animals are reported by hunters to disperse over wide areas in the forest zone. The effects of predators on pygmy hippo populations are unknown, but the principal carnivore capable of attacking an animal this size is the leopard.<br/><br/>No accurate data on reproduction, including breeding season, have been published for the wild populations. Sexual maturity occurs at  about four to five years of age. From studies of captive animals (Lang 1975; Tobler 1991), the oestrous cycle has been shown to average 35.5 days with oestrus itself being 24–48 hours long. The average gestation length is 188 days after which a singleton young is born weighing about 5.7 kg. Twins are born very rarely, the incidence being approximately one in every 200 births. The young are born on land (although can readily swim), and there is no evidence from captive births that a nest constructed. A survey of over 800 births indicates that these occur throughout the year (Tobler 1991).	eng
10032	population	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The 1993 Action Plan estimated that there were approximately 2,000–3,000 individuals remaining across all the four countries (Sierra Leone, Republic of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia). The 1993 population estimate for Sierra Leone, the only country with an estimated population size, was 80-100 individuals. Subsequent reports of habitat loss and hunting suggest that the 1993 estimate may be high given current conditions.	eng
10032	threats	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The range of this species has changed dramatically in the past 100 years, but most acutely in the past 30 years. Forests within the Pygmy Hippo’s historical range have been steadily logged, farmed and settled. Human development activities have caused the retreat of Pygmy Hippo into diminishing parcels of forest, which are becoming increasingly fragmented and insular. Although Pygmy Hippo are unlikely to be a primary target for subsistence hunting, they are likely taken opportunistically by bushmeat hunters. In addition, the effects of national and international conflicts in eastern Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia are unknown, but lessen the probability of Pygmy Hippo persistence. The border area between the Guinea and Liberia has been under increasing pressure from the impacts of Liberian war refugee settlements.  Although protection level for Pygmy Hippo in Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Sierra Leone was described as complete, the level of enforcement is unknown. Reports from Côte d'Ivoire suggest that enforcement is limited due to lack of resources and civil unrest. Along the Côte D'ivoire-Liberian border, poaching and intense logging appear linked as logged forests are more easily accessible (Alonso <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Liberia, where the majority of remaining Pygmy Hippos are believed to reside, legal protection is described as incomplete, and the level of enforcement of protection is described as poor. Pygmy Hippo protection has historically been most effective in the Sapo National Park. However, recent reports from Flora and Fauna International suggest that current legal protection has been suspended and Pygmy Hippos are being hunted for meat in the Park. Liberia’s Cestos-Senkwehn Rivershed, located in south-central area of the country, was believed to be home to substantial numbers of Pygmy Hippos based on a forest survey conducted in 1998. Since that time, Cestos-Senkwehn area has been largely logged and developed (Robinson and Suter 1999). In 1999, almost 190 million cubic meters of wood was exported from Liberia. The scope of the deforestation has alarmed Liberian government officials. In April 2000, Liberia's Minister of Agriculture, Roland Massaquoi, in criticizing the way logging companies were operating stated "it is evident that most of the country's natural rainforests has been depleted without reforestation". This alarming rate of deforestation has been confirmed by Friends of Liberia (FOL), Society for the Renewal of Nature Conservation in Liberia, and independent researchers. <br/><br/>The evidence suggests that habitat in protected areas in all resident countries is under siege. Pygmy Hippos, by nature of their habitat requirements, are extremely sensitive to this loss. The current population threats—deforestation for logging and human settlement, hunting, and regional conflicts—continue to threaten remaining Pygmy Hippo individuals. The conservation status of the Pygmy Hippo in Liberia is poor. At the present rate of habitat loss, only small insular populations will remain and, in the total absence of any regional conservation plans, effective protection or conservation actions, viability of this species should be considered extremely poor.	eng
10034	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
10034	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Hispaniola.	eng
10034	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
10034	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
10034	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
10041	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10041	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
10041	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is threatened due to trade exploitation in Cambodia, Lao and Viet Nam. Habitat loss remains a contributing factor throughout its range.	eng
10048	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Cook, S.F., 2005	The precipitous decline of riverine stingrays in Thai fresh waters led the Thai government to implement an experimental programme for captive propagation to try to stabilise levels of biodiversity while they attempt to solve problems with degradation of river habitats. The authors observed the operations at Chai Nat, Suppraya Province, Central Thailand in December 1993, where healthy individuals of <em>H. chaophraya</em> ranging in size from 0.45?1.6 m DW and ranging from an estimated 50?500kg were observed. In the South Alligator (and possibly East Alligator) River which runs through the Kakadu National Park, Australia, concern has arisen for both the Giant Freshwater Stingray and riverine populations of the Bull Shark (<em>Carcharhinus leucas</em>). These are related to possible adverse effects of silt carrying heavy metals and radio¬isotopes from experimental mines (operated by international conglomerates) that are gearing up to extract and process an estimated A$100 billion (US$80 billion) in uranium ore believed to be in the area around Coronation Hill and along the Alligator Rivers in the Park (Compagno and Cook 1995a,b). Further research is very much needed to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia).	eng
10048	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Cook, S.F., 2005	The Giant Freshwater Stingray was only formally described in 1990, though its existence has been known for some years (Compagno and Roberts 1982, Monkolprasit and Roberts 1990). It is known from highly disjunct localities including: fresh waters in Thailand in the Chao Phraya (the type locality), Nan, Mekong, Bongpakong, Tachin and Tapi Rivers. It is also recorded from Mahakam Basin in Kalimantan (Borneo) (Monkolprasit and Roberts 1990), the Kinabatangan River, Sabah (Borneo), the Fly River Basin (New Guinea) and from Australia in the Gilbert River (Queensland), the Daly and South Alligator Rivers (Northern Territory), Pentecost and Ord Rivers (Western Australia) (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1991, Taniuchi <em>et al.</em> 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 2000). It may occur in most of the large rivers of tropical Australia. It has also been recorded in estuarine waters. The specimen collected in Sabah differs greatly in disk shape from the two Australian specimens. This suggests that these specimens, at least, represent two distinct subpopulations. Despite records of this species from estuarine waters, and the possibility that it may be able to transit marine waters between riverine systems, most of its populations could be geographically isolated. The species has been previously misidentified in Australia as the Estuary Stingray (<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em>, Ogilby 1908) (Merrick and Schmida 1984, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a) and may have been listed under the old name of <em>Himantura polylepis</em> (Bleeker) in Indonesia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
10048	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Cook, S.F., 2005	This is mainly a freshwater species, but there have also been records of the species from estuarine waters. It is possible that it may be able to transit marine waters between riverine systems. It reaches a size up to 200 cm disc width (DW) and 600 kg in weight (Thailand and most other locales in range). However, Australian specimens are reported as only reaching slightly more than 100 cm DW. Males mature by 110 cm DW. Young (a single pup) are born at about 30 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). Other life history parameters (age at maturity, average generation period and maximum lifespan in the wild) are unknown.	eng
10048	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Cook, S.F., 2005	The Giant Freshwater Stingray has been taken by fishermen on the rivers in Central Thailand, as a small portion of larger fisheries for bony fishes, including notably Giant Gouramy (<em>Osphrenemeus gouramy</em>) and giant river catfishes (<em>Pangasius</em> spp). In 1992 Thai fishermen reported 25 individuals of this species in their catch, but by 1993 the reported landings had dropped to three specimens, a decline of 88% in one year (Cook and Compagno 1994). The species is similarly occasionally caught incidentally in artisanal fisheries on the Kinabatangan River and presumably elsewhere over much of its range. Although the large adults are not taken for food, they may be killed, or at least maimed (tails removed) before being distangled from fishing gear and returned to the river. Due to a complex series of factors causing degradation or habitat alteration in riverine habitats in the region, only about 30?31 of the 190 species of indigenous Thai freshwater fishes are thought to reproduce in the wild in the Chao Phyra River (S. Pimbolboot pers. Comm.). It is likely that a somewhat higher biodiversity exists in backwater habitats where small, isolated pockets of endemism undoubtedly occur (T. Roberts pers. Comm.). Factors causing degradation of riverine environments in Thailand and elsewhere in Southeast Asia include: over-harvesting of forest leading to drought upstream and flooding downstream during monsoon conditions, which further leads to excess silt deposition; dam building to control flooding which again leads to silt build-up and retention of agrochemicals behind impoundments; and development of lands adjoining river habitats, which facilitates degradation and destruction of ray habitats with deposition of broad-spectrum wastes. The dams effectively isolate portions of the reproductive populations of all riverine stingrays (Giant Freshwater Stingray (<em>H. chaophraya</em>), Longnose Marbled Stingray (<em>H. oxyrhyncha</em>), White-edge Freshwater Stingray (<em>H.signifer</em>) and Mekong Freshwater Stingray (<em>Dasyatis laoensis</em>)) from intermixing during mating, cutting the diversity of the gene pool for any given species dramatically. In the case of some very low density riverine elasmobranch species, like the sawfishes, a combination of fisheries and habitat changes have effectively eliminated them from the Chao Phraya and adjoining freshwater habitats, where they have not been reported for some 40 years (Cook and Compagno 1994, also unpubl.data).	eng
10053	conservation	Barrio, J. & Ferreyra, N., 2008	The species is included on CITES Appendix I and occurs in several protected areas across its range. Recommended conservation actions include: systematic surveys to determine status and extent of geographic distribution; support continued ecological studies of the species throughout its range; strengthen protected areas management; exclude domestic stock from protected areas with physical barriers and law enforcement; reduce numbers of livestock; improve livestock management through farmer education demonstration projects.	eng
10053	distribution	Barrio, J. & Ferreyra, N., 2008	The taruka occurs as scattered populations with very little contact areas among them, a distribution explained by the specialized habitat it uses. Its distribution can be regarded as almost continuous along the highlands of the Andes from the north of Peru to northeastern Chile, but we should be aware that the habitat type used is isolated in some areas, and human density is high between patches. The taruka occurs in heavily fragmented populations throughout the high Andes of Bolivia—with no records in the southwest—, and in northwest Argentina. The historical distribution was probably the same as the actual one, but populations might have been less fragmented then. Contrary to several publications (Geist 1998; Weber and Gonzalez 2003; Wemmer 1998), the taruka has never occurred in Ecuador. It is unlikely that the taruka has ever crossed north of the Huancabamba depression in north Peru, even during the Pleistocene, when the habitat type it currently uses was lower than present altitude. Then, the high Andes were populated by other deer genera (Hoffstetter 1986; Wheeler <em>et al.</em> 1976). The asseveration of the former presence of taruka in Ecuador was based on doubtful records (Tirira 2001). One specimen in the Buenos Aires museum and another in the Field Museum, Chicago, were marked as coming from Ecuador (Voss 2003), but both have disappeared and could have come from anywhere else, for example Peru or Chile, if they were correctly identified. Another two specimens were deposited in the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales in Madrid (Voss 2003). These were authentic records from Ecuador, as the collector, the collection site and the year were identified (Voss 2003), but both specimens were also lost and there is no way to verify the species.	eng
10053	habitat	Barrio, J. & Ferreyra, N., 2008	Tarukas have been found at 2,000-3,500 above sea level in the southern portion of their distribution in Argentina (Cajal 1983), at 2,500-4,000 m in northern Chile (Sielfeld <em>et al.</em> 1988), and at 3,500-5,000 m in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia (Barrio 1998, 2004; Jungius 1974; Merkt 1985; Yensen <em>et al</em>. 1994). Tarukas live in areas with wet weather on the eastern Andes (Barrio 2004; Jungius 1974) as well as areas with dry weather on the western Andes (Barrio 1998; Merkt 1985; Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 1988). Tarukas are usually found above the treeline on mountain slopes characterized by rock and cliff-like outcrops amid grassland vegetation (Barrio 2004; Jungius 1974; Merkt 1985, 1987). Tarukas seem to prefer rocky areas of sparse vegetation with nearby water sources—usually a small ravine, lagoon or marsh (Barrio 2004; Merkt 1985), however, they have been observed in dense shrubbery near rivers and inside Polylepis sp. forests (Barrio, in prep). In several sections of the distribution, taruka populations live in fragmented portions of the range (Barrio 1999; Cajal 1983). The taruka shares its habitat with domestic stock, which might compete with taruka and decrease the area available to them (Barrio 1999, 2004).	eng
10053	population	Barrio, J. & Ferreyra, N., 2008	Based on known densities and censuses for Argentina, Chile and Peru, and estimations for Bolivia, the total population is estimated to be around 12,000–17,000 individuals. Taruka population in Chile might be around 1,000 individuals, based on census data from Sielfeld <em>et al.</em> (1988). Based on calculated densities including all potential areas and on extent of distributional range, total taruka population in Peru may be around 9,000-13,000 individuals, of which—based on known age structure—at least 75% are mature individuals (7-10,000 individuals).	eng
10053	threats	Barrio, J. & Ferreyra, N., 2008	Threats include competition with domestic stock, habitat destruction, trophy hunting, and predation by domestic dogs (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1973; Merkt pers. comm.). In Bolivia, antlers are used in traditional medicine to cure facial paralysis (Tarifa pers. comm.) and dried meat is used by rural populations (CDC 1987).	eng
10054	conservation	Jiménez, J., Guineo, G., Corti, P, Smith, J.A., Flueck, W., Vila, A., Gizejewski, Z., Gill, R., McShea, B. & Geist, V., 2008	As 63% of all subpopulations are outside of protected areas (and another 9% are partially outside), there is an urgent need to establish management plans for most of the remaining huemul subpopulations. The huemul is classified as endangered in the Chilean and Argentinean Red Data Books of Vertebrates (Glade 1988, Díaz and Ojeda 2000) and is also listed in the Appendix I of CITES and UNEP/CMS Conventions. This species has been protected by law since 1929 in Chile and 1989 in parts of Argentina (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). In order to promote huemul conservation, five Binational Workshops have been conducted since 1992. In 2001, both countries developed their national huemul conservation plans (Chile began with an update in 2007), but funding constraints have thus far impeded their implementation. The species occurs in 13 Chilean national parks and reserves (Corti <em>et al.</em> 2005), and populations occurring outside of protected areas are either barely known or unknown. In Argentina, huemul occur in 5 national parks plus several provincial reserves. Both countries also have some private reserves with huemul populations. Nevertheless, only 28% of the 101 identified subpopulations in both countries were found within existing protected areas, 63% were located outside of protected areas, while 9% were found partially within protected areas (Vila <em>et al</em>. 2006). Moreover, most protected areas in both countries are ‘paper parks': financial constraints result in insufficient personnel and infrastructure and prevent adequate inventorying, monitoring and protective measures. For instance, problems are such that field-based national park wardens in Argentina often do not receive fuel for transportation, for 2 month periods (2007/2008). A man on horseback with 5 dogs, another roaming dog, and a group of 3 horseback riders were seen in the course of one day, on visiting an area classified as Critical due to huemul presence in an Argentina national park reserve. (C. Chehebar 2007, report to national park administration). Furthermore, management plans, if prepared, are based on limited data, and are hardly, if at all, implemented (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Rusch 2002). In remote national parks of Chile, cattle introductions and poaching of huemul are common due to lack of infrastructure for enforcement (Frid 2001, Corti 2006). Other important limitations result from socioeconomic and political interests which prevent the implementation of conservation measures, such as removal of cattle from national parks, which utilize up to 56% of park areas (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the other hand, the public system of protected areas contains extensive habitat formerly and currently still used by huemul, making it a prime candidate for contributing significantly to huemul recovery (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). An urgent task is thus to find ways to extend the implementation and control of existing policies established for protected areas (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Rusch 2002). <br/><br/>Some conservation measures currently prioritized by government agencies of both countries include: increase efforts to obtain more information on huemul subpopulations such as the current distribution, abundance, and threats; encourage more effective protection of the identified subpopulations (emphasizing an increase of protection in the VIII and XI regions of Chile and in the Province of Chubut of Argentina); promote the creation of private protected areas with presence of huemul (or suitable habitat) to facilitate connectivity and dispersal; promote training to improve local skills in wildlife management and monitoring techniques; and encourage educational activities and media campaigns to raise awareness about the huemul´s status. Achieving these measures would be more likely through coordination (also binationally) between the several administrative jurisdictions, private owners, and local communities.<br/><br/>The present state of huemul with its high degree of fragmentation, small subpopulation sizes, and low total number (Vila <em>et al</em>. 2006) indicates that the situation is not viable, and may be less so in Argentina with only a few hundred remaining huemul. The trend follows a continued loss of subpopulations, i.e. a reduction in numbers and area of occupancy, even within national parks (Franke 1949, Povilitis 1998, Serret 2001). In 1936, the Argentine National Parks created a captive breeding station in order to repopulate park areas already devoid of huemul, and in 1971 the 'Operativo Nacional Huemul' was launched to prevent huemul from extinction, although the program never crystallized. The goal today is the species’ recovery (e.g. Argentina National Huemul Conservation and Recovery Plan), which implies an increase in numbers and distribution to a viable level. For recovery to succeed, threats to individual remaining huemul subpopulations need to be understood (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005). Making decisions about corrective measures should be based on understanding these threats, and would take conservation beyond the creation of protected areas. Basic information on the species and on most subpopulations is very scarce, which complicates interpretations of some observations. If sufficient data are lacking to make informed management decisions, they likely are insufficient to build a realistic PVA model which would be premature or even misleading; urgent management needs and research priorities can be identified without constructing a quantitative model (Ralls <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus, a fundamental need is to increase well-founded knowledge about the ecology and biology of the species and factors preventing the recovery of individual subpopulations. It is important to study detrimental factors with a holistic approach since the factors acting on a given subpopulation are multi-factorial, and the importance of factors may change over time. In-situ studies are recommended; however, a recovery strategy for huemul must also include ex-situ tools, as for many of the questions, the most efficient, and sometimes only, approach would be controlled studies of semi-captive animals (captive center in Chile since 2005). It would also provide opportunities to study re-introduced groups (stemming from the captive breeding center), taking an adaptive management approach (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a, Armstrong and Seddon 2007). In consequence, several additional conservation measures surfaced that need to be incorporated:<br/><br/>1. Scientific research, as performed in similar situations worldwide, should be facilitated by all agencies involved and for any existing huemul subpopulation<br/>2. Management decisions for any subpopulation should be made acknowledging the limitations imposed by socioeconomic and political constraints and the gaps of information, and should take the approach of the Precautionary Principle until better information is available<br/>3. Centres with semi-captive huemul for studies and re-introductions function as a valuable recovery tool and should be facilitated, particularly if non-competing funds are available. Efforts should be directed to gain a maximum of information through research under controlled conditions and through reintroductions <br/>4. Once subpopulations are known to be recovering numerically and spatially, they should become a research focus in order to determine the reasons for the recovery success.	eng
10054	distribution	Jiménez, J., Guineo, G., Corti, P, Smith, J.A., Flueck, W., Vila, A., Gizejewski, Z., Gill, R., McShea, B. & Geist, V., 2008	The huemul is endemic to Chile and Argentina and currently only inhabits the Andes of Southern Chile and Argentina (Vila <em>et al.</em> 2006). The subpopulation in the Nevados de Chillán area (VIII Region of Chile) has the greatest degree of spatial isolation, with a distance of about 425 km from the nearest subpopulation to the south in Nahuel Huapi national park (Argentina, 40º30'S, Dirección Nacional de Fauna Silvestre). The southern part of Lanin national park (Argentina) may still have a subpopulation, but this needs to be confirmed (Roberto Nogara pers. comm.). The remainder of the current distribution also has a high degree of fragmentation apparently mainly due to past human activity, with the coastal populations in Chilean Patagonia presenting the lowest fragmentation, with the most continuous stretch of populations in areas that are nearly void of human presence due to the remoteness of a rugged terrain and the extreme weather conditions (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005).. The degree of isolation of subpopulations within much of the region, or its effects, are, however, unclear. <br/><br/>The historical distribution range of huemul covered a latitudinal range of 20 degrees along about 2,000 km. In southern Patagonia huemul reached the Atlantic, and whereas they occurred in the Patagonian steppe to the north, it is presently uncertain how far east they might have reached (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000).	eng
10054	habitat	Jiménez, J., Guineo, G., Corti, P, Smith, J.A., Flueck, W., Vila, A., Gizejewski, Z., Gill, R., McShea, B. & Geist, V., 2008	Habitat:<br/>At present, the huemul occurs mainly in the Andes mountains, from close to sea-level up to 3,000 m elevation, and is found mainly at the forest edge and forests of southern beech (<em>Nothofagus spp.</em>). Locally, huemul are still found in a variety of habitats: from valley flats to steep mountain slopes; from open grasslands to closed shrubby or forested habitats, inclusive of post-fire or mixed habitats. The pattern of using different habitat components has been found to vary and depends on availability, season, presences of other herbivores and predators, or disturbances, and is reflected in the broad dietary spectrum (see below). In the past, however, huemul occurred also in completely treeless areas of the Patagonian grasslands (Diaz 1993, also see Frid 1994). Annual home range size in some currently used habitat has been estimated to be about 350-650 ha with daily travel distances of up to 8 km, but rarely more than 5 km (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000, Gill <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Group size:<br/>Recent reports show group sizes of huemul ranging from single males to mixed groups of 11, whereas, group sizes in the past have exceeded 100 huemul in open grassland areas, likely as winter congregations (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). The large group sizes mentioned in the past, and the characteristics of current areas still containing medium-sized groups indicate that past densities were likely higher in most places. Pefaur <em>et al</em>. (1968) stated that densities had diminished. Steffen (1900) reported that after his crew ran out of food, they continued living off huemul for weeks.<br/><br/>Predators:<br/>Predators of the huemul include man, puma (<em>Puma concolor</em>), culpeo fox (<em>Pseudalopex culpaeus</em>) and domestic dogs. A fawn was observed being killed by a fox, then chased off by the huemul mother (Wensing 2005, Paulo Corti unpubl.). Saucedo and Gill (2004) reported several fawns being killed by foxes. Hershkovitz (1972) described the several species of foxes, like culpeo fox, as dog-like or coyote-like in general appearance and habits. Puma have been shown to be an important ultimate mortality factor in one subpopulation (Smith-Flueck and Flueck 2001). Huemul will escape persistent pursuers by trying to out run them, by seeking refuge on cliffs or by using lakes, being very efficient swimmers. When threatened by predators, huemul may attempt avoidance by first remaining motionless or hiding, a strategy that is not optimal when fire arms are present. However, when discovered at close range they will flee, and rapidly. Huemul are known to snort, stomp the ground, or run effortlessly uphill or downhill; they also bound like mule deer and take to water. During captures conducted near Tortel in Chile, if the threat came from below, the huemul ran rapidly uphill, however, individuals were also observed to run quickly downhill, distancing themselves such that the capture team, using dogs, often lost the animals (O. Guineo pers. comm.). Huemul have the capacity to learn and have been observed to increase their flight distance in relation to disturbance activity, for instance, becoming flighty at 300 m when approached by people and/or their dogs (pers. comm. from M.L. Thomas and O. Guineo, Frid 2001). Krieg found in the 1920's that huemul in north-eastern areas was were considered very shy, whereas those in the southwest were extremely trusting (Krieg 1925:593). <br/><br/>There are no studies showing a negative impact from dogs on huemul populations, although in very reduced populations a loss from any factor is very significant. In fact, dogs have been shown to kill 36% of marked fawns and also adults (Corti 2006), which would place great pressure on mid-sized subpopulations and could result in local extinctions of reduced or declining subpopulations as an stochastic event rather than as a constant factor (P. Corti, unpubl.). It has been assumed that huemul are easy prey to dogs based on anecdotal accounts mentioning that they can become paralyzed after reaching a state of panic. This reaction has been explained by the absence of native cursorial predators. However, the evolutionary history of huemul included cursorial predators in North and South America, including Canis, which became extinct in South America only in the Holocene.<br/><br/>Documented interactions of huemul with dogs are rare, and thus the following accounts recorded by M.L. Thomas are instructive (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). Case 1: an adult huemul male ran down a logging trail, bounding side to side to navigate tree logs while trying to outrun 3 dogs. Case 2: a female and her fawn calf were chased by 2 dogs; they did not run to water but contoured a hill for about 1.5 km and then climbed to the higher ground, outrunning the dogs. Case 3: a radio- collared female huemul and her week-old fawn were observed. The doe suddenly went in front of several approaching dogs and away from the bedded fawn. The barking dogs circled away from the area to about 500 m and continued barking for 20 minutes. About 4 hours later, just at dusk the female approached the fawn from the other direction, nursed it and then headed back the same way she had come, taking the fawn about 500 m out of the area. Adult huemul have been observed to apparently become exhausted after relatively short chases (P. Corti, unpubl.), reasons for which should be studied. All 8 dead males described by M.L. Thomas (pers. comm.) in that area (which area?) died in winter just before antler shedding, which often indicates males that died from low physical condition and thus were susceptible to predation. <br/><br/>Feeding behavior:<br/>Studies so far of individual wild subpopulations showed the number of plant species in the diet as low as 11 and as high as 120 in Torres del Paine (Guineo and Garay 2008, in press), which is dependent on the vegetation community, pressure from other herbivores, predators and disturbances. On the other hand, females spent 93 % of foraging time on only two plant species during the summer-fall season at Fiord Tempano in O’Higgins National Park (van Winden 2006). Graminae in the summer diet for instance was as low as 0.1% (Smith-Flueck 2003) or as high as 16% (D. Sierralta, unpubl.). The results of these and other studies shows that the diet of huemul can vary substantially from one subpopulation to another (also see Smith-Flueck 2003, Galende <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The Zoo in Buenos Aires kept huemul from 1936 to at least 1942, and, being 1500 km from natural huemul habitat, likely maintained huemul on an artificial diet (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). Huemul utilizing the Patagonian steppe in the past (Diaz 1993, Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000) certainly had a different diet, maybe more like taruca (H. antisensis) given that the puna vegetation is very closely related to that of the Patagonian steppe, and many of the dominant genera are frequent in both regions and few of the Puna's genera are absent in Patagonia (Fernández and Busso 1997). It is interesting to note that  two species, Maytenus sp. and Alstroemeria sp., were highly preferred in several fecal diet studies, yet were only accepted at a medium and low level, respectively, by captive-fed huemul. Instead these huemul preferred a native willow (Salix humboldtiana) above all other species (Drouilly 1983), which suggests that this plant species might have been a main staple of their winter diet, back when huemul were able to migrate to the river valleys before the arrival of settlers. Considering the consumption of at least 120 plant species in Torres del Paine, the completely different environments elsewhere used currently and historically, and the successful rearing in the Buenos Aires zoo indicate that the huemul is using an even larger number of plant species, is flexible in its diet which is to be expected of a ruminant, and is a mixed feeder overall.<br/><br/>Seasonal movements:<br/>In other migrating cervids, several factors are known to affect migratory behavior, such as snow depth and consistency and availability of food as stimuli to seek lower elevations, population density, age and sex structure, and behavior of the predator. A consistent pattern among temperate cervids in mountains is that after the initial arrival of a population (through dispersal, re-introduction, invasion) it begins with a resident population, occupying winter ranges (McCullough 1985, Haller 2002). Huemul in some areas moved to 1,000 m elevation in winter and to 3,000 m in summer in the past (Housse 1953)<br/><br/>Past descriptions of huemul reveal that both resident and migratory behaviors existed. Krieg (1940) indicated the existence of all-year resident huemul in quiet valley bottoms, comparing them to the phenomena of the ‘forest chamois' (Rupicapra rupicapra) as opposed to chamois moving to high elevation Alps during the summer. On the eastern side of the Andes, seasonal migrations of medium distances are still remembered by older people living in intermountain valleys, usually from many decades earlier, but longer migrations are only known from a few reports by early explorers (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b) and would be a movement pattern similar to cervids inhabiting the Rocky mountains and adjoining prairies of North America.<br/><br/>The distance of migration depends on the steepness of an area. As the animals take advantage of phenological changes (Atzler 1984), steep terrain requires little lateral displacement to gain altitude. Thus, huemul in steep terrain in Chile had short migration distances, ‘migrations’ were mainly reflected as an altitudinal shift; in the study areas of Gill <em>et al</em>. (2007), huemul undertook either a modest seasonal migration or none at all as summer and winter areas overlapped. Winter severity is important in determining actual migratory behavior; other cervids, for instance, commonly remain at higher altitudes during winters with less snow (Brown 1992, Sabine <em>et al</em>. 2002). On the other hand the reverse situation represents a trap for several huemul populations, when during harsher winters they do go to lower areas that have been settled, and where they could die from hunting or dogs.	eng
10054	population	Jiménez, J., Guineo, G., Corti, P, Smith, J.A., Flueck, W., Vila, A., Gizejewski, Z., Gill, R., McShea, B. & Geist, V., 2008	The species occurs in fragmented subpopulations with reported densities ranging from 0.02 - 5.66 deer/km² and averaging 1.25 (n=17) (reviewed in Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000), however, some estimates included unoccupied areas. Wensing (2005) measured 8.64 huemul/km² in coastal Chile. It has been estimated that no more than 1,000 animals survive in Chile (Drouilly 1983) and 500 in Argentina (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a), resulting from reductions of over 99% in population size and of over 50% in distribution (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Argentina, the remaining huemul reside along 1,850 km of Andes in about 50 subpopulations, which are mostly fragmented (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a). There are an estimated 101 subpopulations of huemul, but 50 of these only live within 8x8 km squares whereas another 15 live within 8x16 km squares. Of these 65 subpopulations, 67% are outside of protected areas (Vila <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Chile, most huemul populations are concentrated in coastal Patagonian where extensive habitat is present in almost a continuous form. However, fragmentation increases northwards on the mainland.	eng
10054	threats	Jiménez, J., Guineo, G., Corti, P, Smith, J.A., Flueck, W., Vila, A., Gizejewski, Z., Gill, R., McShea, B. & Geist, V., 2008	The widespread reduction in numbers and distributional range across the full extent of the historic range (Redford and Eisenberg 1992) was likely due to a combination from overkill, overstocking with domestic livestock (feral and controlled animals), and land conversion for agricultural purposes. This process started before the arrival of Spaniards and peaked before the first systematic accounts were made (Miller 1980), and details remain to be elucidated. Based on the chronology of human settlement, the impact was earlier in the northern than in the southern portion of the distribution, and earliest possibly in the northwestern portion, which is the central valley of Chile. Krieg (1925: 593) having surveyed the area of huemul distribution, noted that few people on the west side of the Andes had seen huemul as they only remained in the highest and remotest areas.<br/><br/>The major reduction in numbers and distribution resulted in an increased fragmentation of the population. The resulting subpopulations continue to experience a variety of factors, which keep their numbers low or decreasing. When an isolated subpopulation becomes very small (10-30 huemul, a common feature of the present situation), then ANY loss of individuals is important (Caughley 1994), including from natural predators. It is under these very local circumstances that many different biophysical factors can become crucial: logging, mining, construction of roads, water reservoirs and other infrastructure, livestock grazing, farming, poaching, new diseases, uncontrolled and/or feral dogs, or unregulated tourism. Huemul subpopulations from such a large variety of habitats and circumstances can be expected to be of different average physical condition, and thus might respond differently to a given factor.<br/><br/>One important omnipresent threat is that both Chile and Argentina have weak mechanisms to protect huemul in non-protected areas, and even inside protected areas, from inadequate responses by authorities due to financial and other constraints. Thus, other national interests may override the presence of a huemul subpopulation, and major public constructions are realized instead (e.g. related to hydroelectric power, pipelines, freeways, new towns, development of tourism, etc.). The many economic activities tolerated are mainly related to livestock production, forest products, and tourism of all types including hunting.<br/><br/>Another omnipresent and continuous threat is the virtual elimination of suitable winter range. Whereas some subpopulations have access to a sufficient altitudinal range within a small area (due to steepness of terrain), others would need to migrate over much longer distances, particularly on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In all cases, if the winter range is basically occupied by settlers, farmers or livestock producers, uncontrolled hunting and uncontrolled dog populations might prevent a subpopulation from recovering. Most if not all historical winter ranges on the eastern slopes are private and are used intensely for livestock production and/or hunting. This includes many protected areas including the national reserves of national parks. Besides the loss of winter ranges, the migratory behavioural patterns have also been eliminated, because huemul reaching those winter ranges were regularly killed. Migration behaviour in other cervids has been shown to be an acquired trait which can be eliminated through hunting or barriers (Baker 1978, Hjeljord 2001, Berger 2004, Bolger <em>et al.</em> 2008). Thus, habitat loss, deterioration of winter habitat and loss of traditional migratory behaviour may be some of the more common factors in many of the subpopulations.<br/><br/>An omnipresent continuous threat is the vulnerability towards humans, due to an initial lack of wariness which provides easy killing opportunities as has been reported consistently since the 1800s. Thus there are few opportunities for a huemul to learn to increase the flight distance. Losses from illegal hunting continue and might have an important effect on the viability of very reduced subpopulations. Populated areas result in losses of huemul from hunting and from dogs, and thus they contribute to undermining the reformation of original migratory behavioural patterns.<br/><br/>There are several threats which might take importance at a local situation, but cannot be considered to represent an omnipresent problem. The local circumstances of a given subpopulation would determine the need for specific research to address the problems and to find adequate counter measures (Corti <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Food competition from other herbivores: currently, but certainly in the past, huemul formed part of a natural multi-herbivore system. As in any such system, it is the combined herbivore pressure on forage which is of interest. Like other ruminants, huemul have a plastic feeding behaviour (see under Habitat and Ecology). Diets in other cervids have been shown to change according to intraspecific changes in density or changes in the combined density or mixture of a herbivore community. For instance, it was shown that huemul and red deer diets in a lenga forest habitat overlapped between 42 and 62% (Smith-Flueck 2003). Whereas several studies like this one show that different herbivores (native and exotic) eat the same plant species as huemul, there are no studies to show that this foraging by other herbivores affects huemul performance, such as a decrease in reproduction or increase in mortality, thus reducing the population growth rate lamda. In fact, huemul still have remained, even in the presence of cattle production lasting over 110 years (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). Meanwhile huemul have disappeared in areas with no cattle, sheep, nor exotic red deer (Smith-Flueck 2003). Krieg, already in 1940, observed that forage in winter range areas produced a large quantity of domestic and wild exotic herbivores with superb body development. Thus he considered that a lack of forage could not explain the absence of native herbivores like huemul. Overgrazing, by definition, through excessive livestock or uncontrolled wild exotic herbivore density in huemul areas would be expected to affect all herbivores present in that area.<br/><br/>Diseases: When other herbivores (native, exotic wild or domestic) use the same range as huemul, diseases can be transmitted. In Argentina, records from local government agricultural research institutions (INTA), animal health authorities (SENASA) and livestock veterinarians are available to indicate the presence of dangerous diseases near huemul populations, as the raising of livestock is the major economy for the region. Brucellosis could be a concern for reduced huemul populations. In Chile, ongoing research is showing new findings of diseases transmitted from cattle (P. Corti, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Anecdotal accounts by settlers are cited who claimed that foot and mouth disease (FMD) was responsible for decimating huemul over huge areas 60-70 years ago, and that they are very susceptible (König 1952, Simonetti 1995). FMD outbreaks in the UK resulted in experimental studies of five cervid species which were all susceptible to FMD to some degree. Based on natural behaviour of these free-living deer in the UK, they are considered unlikely to be an important factor in the maintenance and transmission of the virus during an epidemic of FMD in domestic livestock (Thrusfield and Fletcher 2002, Fletcher 2004). At normal densities of cervids, FMD is considered a self-limiting disease (Morgan <em>et al</em>. 2003). The low densities of huemul and reactions of other cervids to FMD render those early anecdotal accounts by settlers doubtful. Additionally, at the possible rate of increase in deer with one young per year, a population would have recovered by 300% in only a few years. Some, citing Texera of 1974, believe diseases like <span style="font-style: italic;">Cysticercus tenuicollis</span> to be fatal to huemul when transmitted by livestock (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006b). However, Texera stated that he did not consider the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. t.</span> to be the cause of death, rather that the condition of the female deteriorated after a premature parturition, aggravated by very little space and little variety of food provided. Furthermore, in other cervids and ungulates the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. t.</span> is considered of little significance and usually does not result in any clinical signs (Leiby and Dyer 1971, Prestwood <em>et al</em>. 1976, Mason 1994, Letkova and Lazar 2006). The adult stage is cosmopolitan in distribution and occurs in the small intestine of dogs, foxes, and other wild carnivores including puma (Rausch <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>A recent study (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2008) reports on bone disease based on dead huemul. Osteopathology was found in 52% of adults, 63% showed mandibular, 100% maxillary and 78% appendicular lesions. These skeletal lesions would affect the capacity for predator avoidance, suggested as an explanation for the low average adult age (3.1 years) and lack of population recovery. Compared to other ungulate studies, huemul were affected at young ages and with more compounded and severe pathologies. It was hypothesized that the generalized chronic alveolar osteomyelitis and osteoarthritis in huemul was secondary and related to nutritional ecology.<br/><br/>Invasive species: no studies are available showing any direct effects on huemul, neither through competition, predation nor diseases. Invasive species potentially threatening huemul include <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus, Dama dama, Sus scrofa, Lepus europaeus</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryctolagus cuniculus</span>, but it is unclear if they contributed to the present situation as huemul subpopulations disappeared frequently before the arrival of these species. Feral livestock with the same potential impacts include cattle, sheep, horses, and goats. Similar effects result from extensively run livestock and dog use, which is a widespread land use throughout the huemul distribution. Additional wild species with a potential to affect huemul are currently held in fenced areas, thus representing potential sources of future escapees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Capreolus capreolus, Capra ibex</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemitragus jemlahicus</span> (Flueck and Smith-Flueck 2006a).<br/><br/>Predation: this poses an important threat to reduced subpopulations of huemul as each loss is the more important as the size of the subpopulation diminishes: a demographic stochasticity problem.  If it is suspected as a mayor mortality cause, it should be confirmed through studies and eliminated with all means possible. One study based on tagged animals showed that 36% of fawns and also adult huemul were killed by dogs (Corti 2006). Depending on other factors affecting mortality and recruitment, dog predation can be enough to prevent recovery or even precipitate a decline. Other subpopulations though have declined in the absence of dogs, and the nature of local threats has to be determined for each subpopulation. It is also possible that reduced huemul subpopulations cannot recover, and thus are threatened with extinction from predation by native species. In such cases it might be necessary to temporarily reduced the pressure from native predators.<br/><br/>Logging and silviculture: extraction of wood should not by itself create a problem, as huemul do well in post-fire landscapes. Negative impacts would be expected from secondary issues, like hunting, presences of dogs, new roads providing access, and likelihood of new settlers and livestock. Marked huemul have been shown to leave areas disturbed by logging (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pure plantations, especially of exotic conifers, would likely make habitat unsuitable. The subpopulation at Cerro Castillo (Chile) appears to be expanding to areas which had been reforested with exotic pine trees to stop erosion (J. Jimenez pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Genetic problems: inbreeding may affect various components of fitness, but it is poorly understood in natural populations (Coulson <em>et al</em>. 1998). They looked at two measures, birth weight and neonatal survival in red deer, and neither inbreeding coefficient nor individual heterozygosity was consistently related to these fitness components. China's population of Pere David's Deer, once extinct in its native habitat in China, has grown to over 2,000 from 12 founders, with few signs of genetic retrogression after generations of inbreeding. To measure occurrence of inbreeding on a genetic basis might be difficult in general (Pemperton 2004), and very impractical for most remaining huemul subpopulations. Detection of a reduced fitness component with or without specific underlying causes might still be an indication of a problem related to inbreeding. On the other hand some species have been show to be apparently resistant to inbreeding possibly from purging of deleterious alleles (Windig <em>et al</em>. 2004). As there is no apt information on huemul, the precautionary principle indicates that increasing the size of subpopulations by all means should be a mayor major objective.<br/><br/>Small population size: this is the most important aspect in terms of extinction risk due to demographic and environmental stochasticity, and emphasis should be on determining the population size and monitoring the trend (O'Grady <em>et al</em>. 2004). Only a few subpopulations in Chile seem to be stable (Tamango and Castillo National Reserves, Torres del Paine National Park, some southern coastal subpopulations). One subpopulation in central Chile has been declining (Povilitis 1998), but trends for most subpopulations are unknown, or became only clear when local extinctions were evident. Although sightings in both countries have increased in recent times for some localities, it has not been shown to be due to a numeric response. Any factor known or suspected to prevent the numeric recovery should be eliminated. In the case that this is impossible, another valid option is a possible total capture of the group and to use it to reinforce other subpopulations, to re-introduce the animals to a site where negative factors are judged sufficiently reduced, or to stock a semi-captive centre. <br/><br/>Infrastructure development: both countries are experiencing rapid economic growth and are promoting its continuation. Several important huemul subpopulations face construction of the  largest ever energy project of Chile, major dams and reservoirs and 1,600 km of transmission lines, whereas smaller scaled hydro electric projects in Argentina will also affect several populations. Inundations of fertile valley bottoms will be a major loss of important habitat, whereas construction and later maintenance will increase the human contact with these huemul and thus result in losses from poaching, dogs and illegal releases of domestic livestock. The current environmental approach in Chile leans towards “the one who does the damage pays”, resulting principally in trying to mitigate by reducing damage, repair or compensation (pay if damage is irreversible).<br/><br/>Other<br/>Some factors are not commonly listed as threats, yet they contribute substantially to the probability of achieving a recovery, or not. Some countries are obligated by law to spend the money necessary to address issues determined important for an endangered species. This appears not to apply to Chile nor Argentina. The National priorities regarding an endangered species or other National interests, like building dams, pipelines, roads, etc. differ, thus the adequacy of laws pertaining to huemul need to be confirmed. For instance, as of 1995, Chilean laws contained flaws, were inconsistent, and the mining code in Art. 17 permits mining exploration and exploitation within the Protected Wilderness Areas (Diaz and Smith-Flueck 2000). Also, the adequacy of enforcing the existing laws has direct implication on the potential to achieve a recovery, and should be explicitly analyzed.<br/><br/>Socio-economic and political interests often override what conservation biology would recommend, and thus might limit the potential for recovery. Settlers within National parks raise livestock (Martin and Chehebar 2001), utilizing up to 56% of park areas (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2003), but commonly run several fold more livestock than permitted (Serret <em>et al</em>. 1994). Although areas of Reserves in National Parks were declared as ‘Critical Areas’ due to huemul presence, 90% of such an areas is are still exclusively used by cattle and only 10% by huemul, and  'intangible' Park areas are exploited mainly through unauthorized livestock and hunting. Reducing livestock is hampered by lack of control, fencing and prevailing policies (Martin and Chehebar 2001, Sabatini and Iglesia 2001).<br/><br/>Thus, other threat categories to consider include:<br/>- inadequacy of laws<br/>- inadequacy of enforcement of laws<br/>- lack of government obligation to finance endangered species measures<br/>- socio-economic and political realities which have little chance to be modified, yet prevent huemul recovery<br/>- chronic under-funding of responsible agencies, affecting law enforcement, monitoring, etc.<br/>- lack of public awareness of the huemul situation.	eng
10056	conservation	Lockyear, J., 2000	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10057	conservation	C.M.C. Woods, Morgan, S.K., Martin-Smith, K., Pogonoski, J.J., Paxton, J.R., Pollard, D.A. & Morgan, A.J., 2006	<strong>Globally</strong> <br/>CITES Appendix II-listing for entire genus (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). Australia and New Zealand are CITES parties. <br/> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>1. Listed as Data Deficient by Environment Australia. <br/>2. In Australia, all syngnathids have been subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> since 1 January 1998 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>3. All syngnathids and solenostomids were gazetted as marine species under s248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) Act 1999 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002), with implementation effective in 2001 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2001, Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). <br/>4. Protection under the relevant fisheries laws in NSW, SA, Tas and Vic. <br/>5. No ASFB Listing (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/>6. Present in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas: Jervis Bay Marine Park, southern NSW.  Suspected to be in most NSW Aquatic Reserves within its range (Pogononski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>1. Seahorses cannot be targeted by commercial fisheries, but can be sold to Licensed Fish Receivers as regulated quantities of bycatch (see Threats section). <br/>2. Big bellied seahorses are present in the following New Zealand marine reserves, where legislation protects all wildlife from extraction or harm: Kapiti Island reserve (2,167 ha area), Kokomohua reserve, Te Angiangi reserve, Te Wharawhara (1,075 ha area) (Woods pers.obs). They may also be present in other existing marine reserves but their presence has not been documented. There are many more marine reserve areas currently under review around New Zealand, which may include seahorses in their fauna.	eng
10057	distribution	C.M.C. Woods, Morgan, S.K., Martin-Smith, K., Pogonoski, J.J., Paxton, J.R., Pollard, D.A. & Morgan, A.J., 2006	<em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> occurs in the marine waters of south-eastern Australia and all around New Zealand (Kuiter 2001, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004); populations have also been recorded from estuaries in Australia (Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005) and may also occupy similar sites in New Zealand. All populations fall within FAO Fisheries Areas 57 and 81 (Indian Ocean eastern and southwest Pacific). <br/> <br/><em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> is known in Australia from Newcastle, New South Wales (NSW) southwards throughout Victoria (Vic), Tasmania (Tas) and westwards as far as the northern Great Australian Bight in South Australia (SA) (Kuiter 2001). It has been found to depths of at least 35 m (Kuiter 2001). <br/> <br/>In New Zealand the species is widespread within the 200-mile Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ), from the Three Kings Islands in the north, to the Snares Islands in the south, and at the Chatham Islands (Scrimgeour 1986, Paulin and Roberts 1992). In New Zealand, depth distribution varies considerably where sightings have been recorded from the intertidal to a maximum depth of 104 m (Amaoka <em>et al</em>. 1990); occurrences from the surface to 40 m are more common (Paulin and Roberts 1992, Francis 1998, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stevenson and Beentjes 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records (Australia)</u> <br/>19 specimens (height 46–250 mm), captured from depths of 0–32 m, ranging in geographical distribution from Newcastle (32°52’S, 151° 75' E) to the northern Great Australian Bight (approx. 32°24’S, 133°30’E) Specimens were collected between 1916 and 1996. There are additional specimens from NSW in various fish collections around Australia, but the identifications of these specimens have not yet been verified [Pogonoski, 2002 #3720]. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for Figure 2: known extent of distribution in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence for <em>H. abdominalis</em> includes the seawaters of south-eastern Australia and New Zealand (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Lourie <em>et al</em>., 2004). Within New Zealand waters, <em>H. abdominalis</em> are known from the Three Kings Islands in the north, the Snares Islands in the south, and at the Chatham Islands to the east (Scrimgeour 1986, Paulin and Roberts 1992). <br/> <br/>Area of occupancy is generally unknown but there is assumed to be suitable habitat throughout the geographic range. Populations of <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been reported from Sydney Harbour, NSW; Lakes Entrance, Port Phillip Bay, Western Port, Vic; Tamar, Derwent and Huon River Estuaries, Tas; Spencer Gulf and Yorke Peninsula, SA (Kuiter 2000 & 2001, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005, K. Martin-Smith pers. comm., J. Manna pers. comm.), Whangateau Harbour (Kuiter 2000) and Wellington Harbour North Island NZ (Woods 2002).	eng
10057	habitat	C.M.C. Woods, Morgan, S.K., Martin-Smith, K., Pogonoski, J.J., Paxton, J.R., Pollard, D.A. & Morgan, A.J., 2006	Generally, there is little known about the <em>in situ</em> ecology of <em>H. abdominalis</em>. In Australia, there is on-going research on populations in the Derwent Estuary, Tasmania and Sydney Harbour, NSW (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Most NZ research has focused on aspects of diet and reproduction, conducted <em>ex situ</em> on wild individuals from Wellington Harbour (Woods 2002 and 2005, Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adult <em>Hippocampus abdominalis</em> have been recorded from harbours, protected coastal bays and deep waters with sponges (Kuiter 1993, Kuiter 2001). Depth range varies considerably from the surface down to 104 m (Amaoka <em>et al</em>. 1990, Paulin and Roberts 1992, Francis 1998, Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stevenson and Beentjes 2001). Habitat varies from intertidal rock pools to, more commonly, amongst shallow macroalgal stands (e.g., <em>Ecklonia</em>, [Kuiter 2000]), submerged rocky outcrops, exposed open sea floor and artificial structures (Francis 1998, Woods 2003). In Tasmania, <em>H. abdominalis</em> are reported as common near the entrances of large estuaries on muddy bottoms, or near reef edges, feeding on small crustaceans (Last <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is not definitively known whether they occupy home ranges or are free-ranging, although some evidence suggests certain populations may exhibit site fidelity (Van Dijken 2001). Unlike most seahorse species, <em>H. abdominalis</em> is a relatively strong swimmer and has been known to swim over hundreds of meters in the course of a day (Vincent 1990). Adults are also known to occur in open water and to raft on macroalgal rafts (Kingsford and Choat 1985) and seagrass (J. Manna, pers. comm.): this occurs at all times of the year in at least New Zealand (Kingsford and Choat 1985, Kingsford 1986). Artificial structures appear to be important habitats for <em>H. abdominalis</em>: in particular, jetties, nets and salmon cages. For example, hundreds of individuals have been observed on anti-predator nets surrounding salmon aquaculture pens in the Huon Estuary, Tasmania (Marshall 2004, K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Similarly, <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been observed in reasonably large numbers on the net of a swimming enclosure in Sydney Harbour since 2003 (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong>: <br/>As with other members of the seahorse and pipefish family, males incubate eggs in an abdominal pouch and eventually release young that look like miniature replicas of adults (Edgar 1997). The pouch is developed at about six months of age, but first breeding occurs closer to 12 months (R. Kuiter, pers comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Spawning occurs mainly from (the Austral) spring to summer, where Woods (in press) found brooding males present throughout the year, but with an apparently lower incidence of brooding in winter. Similarly, Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. (2004) examined the reproductive biology of female <em>H. abdominalis</em>, looking at ovarian morphology, reproductive condition and sex steroid levels.  Using these indices, they found that females were capable of reproductive activity throughout the year, presenting the potential for a protracted spawning season (Poortenaar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The number of juveniles (mean ± 1 SE) released per brood in a New Zealand population was 271.2 ± 27 (Woods, in press), whereas the maximum reported brood size for the species in aquaculture is 1,116 (R. Hawkins pers comm. in Lourie <em>et al</em>., 2004). Juveniles 16–19 mm in standard length, are released from the pouch after about thirty days. Larger males produce more juveniles (Woods, in press). Juvenile length and weight are not correlated with the number of juveniles per brood, parent male size or parent male pouch volume. The percentage of pouch contents that are non-viable (i.e., premature or non-viable eggs) upon juvenile release tends to be low (1.1 ± 0.2%; mean ± 1 SE of the total pouch contents) (Woods, in press). Following release from the parent male, juveniles are believed to be pelagic, at least for several weeks, Juveniles up to 8 cm in length have been collected in surface waters of the open ocean over the Chatham Rise in New Zealand (Woods, pers. obs.) and adult <em>H. abdominalis</em> have been captured near-shore associated with floating seaweed and debris (Kingsford and Choat 1985). The propensity for rafting presents a possible large-scale dispersal mechanism for this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Diet</strong>: <br/>The diet of wild adult <em>H. abdominalis</em> consists largely of crustaceans, in particular amphipods, caridean shrimp, and peracarids (Woods 2002). There are no differences in diet between male and female seahorses. Smaller seahorses consume relatively more crustaceans than larger seahorses, where a greater proportion of their gut contents are comprised of amphipods when compared with adults. There is evidence for seasonal differences in diet, with amphipod consumption peaking in spring and summer, and decapod consumption lowest in autumn (Woods 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour</strong>: <br/>This species is reported to be more active at dusk and at night than during the day in New Zealand (Paulin and Roberts 1992). In Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> has been observed aggregating in groups at night (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.).	eng
10057	population	C.M.C. Woods, Morgan, S.K., Martin-Smith, K., Pogonoski, J.J., Paxton, J.R., Pollard, D.A. & Morgan, A.J., 2006	Unknown, but see Range for known populations. At most reported locations in Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> appears to be rare or scarce. Mean peak densities in the Derwent Estuary, Tasmania were 0.12–1.11 individuals per 100 m² in 2000–2002, but subsequently declined significantly. In Tasmanian macroalgal (<em>Ecklonia</em>) habitats, densities of fewer than one individual per 500 m² are generally recorded (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). Numbers from trawls (NZ) suggest that on soft bottoms, the species may be widespread if scarce, but further documentation is needed. <br/> <br/>Exceptions to sparse populations are aggregations on some artificial structures and one documented report of large numbers aggregated on rafting seagrass (J. Manna, pers. comm.)	eng
10057	threats	C.M.C. Woods, Morgan, S.K., Martin-Smith, K., Pogonoski, J.J., Paxton, J.R., Pollard, D.A. & Morgan, A.J., 2006	The main global threats to <em>H. abdominalis</em> include: <br/> <br/>1. Bycatch in commercial demersal fisheries. <br/>2. Unregulated take (recreational, domestic or for export). <br/>3. Intrinsic life history parameters. <br/>4. Natural predation. <br/>5. The appearance of protection under CITES international trade legislation; a 10 cm size limit is likely to provide inadequate protection for this large species of seahorse. <br/> <br/>1. <u>Bycatch and Commercial Fisheries</u> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>Legislation requires that all interactions of commercial export fisheries with any syngnathid, including <em>H. abdominalis</em>, are recorded. However, there are few documented examples of commercial bycatch of <em>H. abdominalis</em> suggesting either low compliance or few interactions. Given the nature of Australian commercial fisheries operating in the geographic range of <em>H. abdominalis</em> (i.e., gear type, depth range, target species) it is probably unlikely that significant numbers are caught as bycatch. All of these commercial fisheries have been assessed against sustainable fishing guidelines by the Department of Environment & Heritage and certified as not having unacceptable impacts on syngnathids in either the short-term (Wildlife Trade Operation) or long-term (Exempt fishery). <br/> <br/>However, despite mandatory reporting of syngnathid exports since 1998, Australian figures differed considerably from import statistics elsewhere. Official Australian government international trade data for the period 1998–2002 showed that declared exports of dried <em>H. abdominalis</em> were minimal (<10 kg) and sourced from aquaculture operations only. However recorded imports of seahorses (potentially including other Australian <em>Hippocampus</em> species) to China, Hong Kong and Taiwan over the same period were over 700 kg. It seems probable that other species of syngnathid (particularly pipehorses, <em>Solegnathus</em> spp.) from Australia were recorded as seahorses when they were imported into Hong Kong and Taiwan through misidentification, translation and data coding errors (Martin-Smith and Vincent in press). Nonetheless, species identities need to be verified in these jurisdictions. <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>In New Zealand, seahorses cannot be targeted by commercial fishing (1983 Fisheries Act). As such, they are not part of the New Zealand fisheries Quota Management System (QMS) that regulates the total amount of commercial catch in New Zealand.  However, <em>H. abdominalis</em> caught as incidental bycatch during commercial fishing, may be legally sold to Licensed Fish Receivers (LFR) (section 67 of the 1983 Fisheries Act) limited to <10 kg wet weight per 24 hr period (section 67(2)) (Woods 2000). Bycatch has historically been solicited by New Zealand companies with strong Asian connections for domestic medicinal use and for export to countries such as Hong Kong and Taiwan for traditional medicinal (TM) usages (Vincent 1996). Seahorses caught as bycatch, but not sold for TM use, are sometimes kept as aquarium pets or dried as a curio. Seahorses are not known to be used as a food in New Zealand. <br/> <br/>Only a short recorded catch history of <em>H. abdominalis</em> in New Zealand is available. Data from the Ministry of Fisheries databases (follow the link below to see Table 1.1) shows the total estimated catch (estimated actual catch by vessel skippers on day of fishing) of <em>H. abdominalis</em> from 1989 through 2005 was 240 kg, whereas the landed catch (recorded at factory/processing plant) for these years was 1,625 kg. It should be noted that because of the difference between the ways in which fishing year is recorded between estimated and landed catch data, estimated catch data appears one fishing year ahead of landed catch data, yet estimated catch and landed catch forms are filled out in the same calendar year. There are obvious disparities between estimated and landed catches, which may indicate either that estimated catch data is underestimated or that landed catch data is incorrect due to reasons such as species miscoding or data entry error. Miscoding of <em>H. abdominalis</em> (SHO) as Silver Dory (SDO – <em>Cyttus novaezelandiae</em>), a fish taken irregularly as bycatch has been known to occur within the fisheries database. The large pipehorse <em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> (SDR) is also sometimes misidentified by fishers as seahorses. <br/> <br/>Detailed examination of individual Catch Effort Landing Return data (CELR, submitted by quota holders documenting total catch and fishing effort), reveal that the single largest catch of seahorses reported by one fisher was 60 kg in the Nelson/Marlborough dredge fishery. This is the exception in terms of catch size, as the majority of individual CELR’s reported seahorse catches <1 kg. Statistical areas of catch are on the Eastern side of New Zealand and central New Zealand, effectively within Fisheries Management Areas (FMA) 1 (Auckland East), 2 (Central East), 7 (Nelson Marlborough) and 20 (Kapiti Coast). The majority of seahorses were caught in statistical areas 010–011 (south of Auckland, North Island) and the Nelson Marlborough FMA (follow the link below to see Figures 3 & 4). However, the 010–011 data should be queried because of the purported catch method (see below for discussion on purported catch method of bottom long lining). Estimated catch by fishing method is summarised in Table 1.2 (follow the link below). <br/> <br/>Seahorses were caught using a variety of methods. However, seahorses were probably not attracted to the fishing equipment through bait action. In the case of set nets, fish traps and cod traps, seahorses probably attach to the fishing equipment to use it as substratum and are then hauled onboard the fishing vessel still attached (Woods, pers. obs). In the case of dredging, seahorses are probably caught by the dredge whilst foraging over shellfish habitat following settlement on suitable near-surface substratum as juveniles (e.g., mussel spat-catching lines). <br/> <br/>In the case of the bottom long line (BLL) data, this is probably incorrect and likely to be a species miscoding or data entry error. Bottom long lining for snapper is particularly popular around northern North Island and Bay of Plenty regions (010–011 statistical areas). Seahorses should not get hooked on long lines as the hooks used should be too large (usually size 5–15 hooks) for the seahorse’ small mouth, and seahorses are not attracted to large, non-moving bait. If the BLL data is correct, this leaves the possibility that the seahorses are rapidly colonising and attaching (using their prehensile tails) to set long lines, which in turn implies a very dense mobile surrounding population. This is unlikely given the limited information available on population densities for seahorses. From reviewing the catch data, dredging numbers appear generally feasible given the catch sizes, gear used, and observation of seahorse settlement on substratum above the dredged seafloor. <br/> <br/>2. <u>Unregulated take (Recreational, Domestic or for Export)</u> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>As <em>H. abdominalis</em> is protected by legislation throughout its geographic range, unregulated take should not pose a threat to populations. In State waters (<2 nautical miles from the coast) relevant laws in NSW, SA, Vic and Tas require that all recreational and domestic fishers hold a permit, which should ensure that the take is sustainable. Illegal take has been reported sporadically (D. Harasti, pers. comm.). However, there is little evidence of systematic IUU (illegal unregulated and unreported) fishing of <em>H. abdominalis</em>. Similarly, in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (2 nm to the edge of the EEZ), all syngnathids are protected as listed marine species by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC), where under this legislation it is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Under the former Australian Wildlife Protection Act (Regulation of Exports and Imports (WPA) (1 and the present EPBC (effective for syngnathids 2001), syngnathids have had the same level of protection since 1998. <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand</strong> <br/>As a non-QMS species, the recording of accurate export data for <em>H. abdominalis</em> has historically not taken place. Dried seahorses were either included in the export category 0305.59.00 (Other fish, whether or not salted but not smoked), or 0301.10.00 (Ornamental fish). Therefore, reconciliation of exports with estimated and landed catches is not historically possible. There are no catch limits for the amateur-take of seahorses in New Zealand in terms of numbers or sizes. <br/> <br/>3. <u>Intrinsic Life History Traits</u> <br/>By virtue of their life history characteristics, seahorses are generally regarded as being particularly vulnerable to direct over-exploitation, indirect fishing pressure through non-selective fishing gear or other disruptions such as habitat loss/degradation and environmental pollution around their coastal habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bell <em>et al</em>. 2003, Foster and Vincent 2004, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2005). Some of these traits apply to <em>H. abdominalis</em>, while other aspects of their life history may confer resilience. <br/> <br/>Records from Australia and benthic trawls in New Zealand suggest that like other seahorses, populations are generally sparse (therefore individuals might have difficulty finding a mate in affected areas). However, mark-recapture studies in Tasmania and NSW have shown no evidence of mate fidelity as has been observed in other seahorse species (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.). It should be noted that trawled soft bottom may represent marginal habitat for the species, and populations may be more abundant in areas with greater rugosity or diverse benthic structure. <br/> <br/>In fishes, a particular suite of life history traits is correlated with high recovery rate (Hutchings and Reynolds 2004); this includes rapid growth, short life span, small body size and low age at maturity (Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2001).  It appears that at least some of these traits may be relevant to <em>H. abdominalis</em>. <br/> <br/>The age and growth rates of wild <em>H. abdominalis</em> are not well documented. The only <em>in-situ</em> data on growth for <em>H. abdominalis</em> (northern New Zealand) reports rates of 2.8 mm per month increases in standard length (SL) for small seahorses, and rates of up to 14.9 mm per month for 16 cm SL seahorses (Van Dijken 2001). Based on operculum ageing and length/weight relationships in wild animals, Lovett (1969) estimated that for <em>H. abdominalis</em> in Tasmania, seahorses from 9.1 to 11 cm in length were one year old; those 9.1–16.1 cm were 1–2 years old; those 14.4–19 cm were 2–3 years old; those 18–22 cm were 3–4 years old; and finally, those over 22 cm in length were 4+ years old. It is difficult to contextualize <em>in situ</em> growth rates or lifespan of <em>H. abdominalis</em> relative to other seahorse species because these data are generally not yet available. However, longevity is short when compared with families such as, for example, scorpaenids, serranids and lutjanids that live >25–40 years (Coleman <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>If Lovett’s age/growth estimates are broadly applicable across the species’ range, then <em>H. abdominalis</em> reaches first sexual maturity at around one year of age (wild <em>H. abdominalis</em> 10 cm in length from Wellington Harbour were capable of brooding embryos, Woods, in press). Reproductive output of male <em>H. abdominalis</em> increases in terms of brood number, with size (Woods, in press). Seahorses show a relationship between maximum size and the appearance of reproductive characteristics (inferred to represent size at first reproduction) typical of other bony fishes (Foster and Vincent 2004), suggesting that they be not more vulnerable to exploitation than other teleosts. <br/> <br/>Low fecundity is also cited as a life history trait that may confer risk to a species, although other authors point out that there is no relationship between fecundity and a population’s potential for recovery (Hutchings and Reynolds 2004). Seahorses have small brood sizes relative to other fishes with parental care (Foster and Vincent 2004). However, seahorses also mate iteratively which increases their overall reproductive output. <em>H. abdominalis</em> in particular appears to be reproductive year around, with the greatest proportion of juveniles occurring in the Austral summer (M. Hickford, unpublished data). Seahorses are also released from the male brood pouch fully metamorphosed, such that although numerically small relative to many other teleosts, broods of <em>H. abdominalis</em> may experience greater survivorship than other young. <br/> <br/>4. <u>Natural Predation</u> <br/>Natural predators of <em>H. abdominalis</em> include fishes such as skates (<em>Dipturus</em> spp.), red cod (<em>Pseudophycis bachus</em>), trumpeter (<em>Latris lineata</em>), blue cod (<em>Parapercis colias</em>), ling (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>), sea perch (<em>Helicolenus percoides</em>) (Graham 1974), and banded wrasse (<em>Notolabrus fucicola</em>) (Denny and Schiel 2001) in NZ. In Australia, <em>H. abdominalis</em> is taken by flathead (<em>Platycephalus</em> spp.), Australian salmon (<em>Arripsis truttacea</em>), striped anglerfish (<em>Antennarius striatus</em>) and birds such as cormorants (<em>Phalacrocorax</em> spp.) and fairy penguins (<em>Eudyptula minor</em>) (Kuiter 2000, K. Martin-Smith pers. comm.). No research has yet addressed the effects of predation in any species of seahorse. Presumably <em>H. abdominalis</em> should have evolved to sustain natural predation rates, but the effects of predation in combination with exploitation remain unknown. <br/> <br/>5. <u>The Appearance of Protection Under CITES Appendix II legislation</u> <br/>All seahorse species are listed on CITES Appendix II, which, although still permitting trade, requires that such trade is determined to be non-detrimental to exploited populations. To issue a Non-Detriment Finding (NDF) the relevant CITES regulatory body must have a reasonable knowledge of the biology and ecology of the seahorse species concerned. In lieu of NDFs, a minimum seahorse height, such as the 10 cm minimum height (mHT) recommended by CITES may be used. The 10 cm mHT size restriction is an across-species compromise that provides one value for all species in the genus. For the majority of seahorse species that are similarly sized, such a minimum size restriction may well be applicable. However, the 10 cm mHT might not be applicable to seahorse species that are markedly different from an average seahorse size. For brooding male <em>H. abdominalis</em> from Wellington Harbour, when the CITES 10 cm mHT size restriction is translated to length (11.56 cm SL) and plotted against recorded brood sizes, it appears that this size restriction is not an adequate protective measure for <em>H. abdominalis</em> at this location (Woods, in press) as the data suggest that males appear to begin brooding just before the proposed minimum 10 cm mHT size and produce relatively low numbers of juveniles, leaving the most productive males (number of juveniles produced) open to exploitation. A larger minimum size restriction to allow sustainable exploitation of this species would appear to be required. Reproductive output should be modeled in light of <em>in situ</em> survivorship data in order to understand the implications of the 10 cm size limit for population persistence. Australia’s legislation should enable NDFs through appropriate management of permits at the State level and assessment of commercial export fishing operations under the EPBC.	eng
10060	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004. Environment Australia lists the conservation status of <em>H. bargibanti</em> as Data Deficient (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  Very few data are available for this species.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10060	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	Very little is known about the ecology of this species.  It is one of the smallest seahorse species, measuring less than 2 cm in height (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).  It has a specific habitat, being found only on gorgonian corals <em>Muricella plectana</em> (Gomon 1997, Tackett and Tackett 1997, Whitley 1970) at depths ranging from 16–40 m (Tackett and Tackett 1997).  <em>Hippocampus bargibanti</em> appears to form pairs and may be monogamous (Tackett and Tackett 1997).	eng
10060	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	Major threats to the species are currently unknown, however, their attractive colouration makes it possible they could be collected for the aquaria trade.	eng
10061	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10061	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	Known from the eastern Indian Ocean around East Africa and Madagascar. Genetic research suggests that this species may be part of the <em>kuda</em> complex (S. Casey, in litt. in Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further research is required.	eng
10061	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (A. Holley, pers. comm. in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10061	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus borboniensis</em> is found in the traditional medicine and curios trades (Vincent and Perry in prep.), however, the numbers of animals traded are unknown.  Its habitat may also be threatened by degradation – the Mauritius and La Reunion coral reefs are being degraded by sedimentation and nutrient pollution (Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998, Cuet <em>et al</em>. 1988, Naim 1993).	eng
10063	conservation	Morgan, S.K., Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	Listed as a genus (<em>Hippocampus</em>) on Appendix II of CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). <br/> <br/>1. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>2. The Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995 prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders, since Sept. 1994). <br/>3. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 from 1 January 1998. <br/>4. Australian <em>H. breviceps</em> populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the EPBC Act in 2001. <br/>5. No Australian Society of Fish Biology Listing. <br/>6. Likely to inhabit the Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve (Marine Protected Areas) in Spencer Gulf, Southern Australia.	eng
10063	distribution	Morgan, S.K., Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	<em>H. breviceps</em> is a temperate, southern Australian endemic seahorse, which is most common in the Port Philip Bay region of Victoria (Kuiter 1993).  It is also known from Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf in South Australia, and Forsters Inlet southward to Port Arthur in eastern Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from Bass Strait (Last <em>et al</em>., 1983). Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that its occurrence in Western Australian waters is, at this stage, unclear. Lourie <em>et al</em>. (2004) note that some specimens from Western Australia have significantly longer, narrower snouts and may represent a separate species. This slender-snout form has only been seen in the northern portion of the species’ range, and is called <em>H. tuberculatus</em> (knobby seahorse) by Kuiter (1993).  The range of <em>H. breviceps</em> falls within FAO fisheries area 57.<br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence includes Southern Australia, Victoria,Tasmania, and Western Australia.  Area of occupancy includes documented populations in Port Philip Bay region of Victoria (Moreau and Vincent 2004), Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf in South Australia, Forsters Inlet southward to Port Arthur in eastern Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) and from the Bass Strait (Last <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/>Likely to inhabit the Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve (Marine Protected Area) in Spencer Gulf, Southern Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10063	habitat	Morgan, S.K., Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	<em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> occurs in sheltered coastal reefs in macroalgal beds (<em>Sargassum</em> spp.) (Moreau and Vincent 2004), within (Kendrick and Hyndes 2003) and at the edge of seagrass patches (Kuiter 2000). Individuals have also been found on floating macroalgae (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994), associated with rock reef and jetty habitats (Coleman 1980) and observed on sponge reefs at depths below 15 m (Kuiter 2000). <em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> are more normally found at depths of approximately 5 m, although may be difficult to see because of good camouflage (Edgar 1997). Specimens found in <em>Sargassum</em> usually have long fronds or appendages on the head and back. <em>Hippocampus breviceps</em> feeds close to the sand or rubble during the day and is carnivorous, targeting mysids (Kuiter 2000). <br/> <br/>In Port Philip Bay animals occur in small to large aggregations (Kuiter 1993) with male;female sex ratios of 1:1 (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Group (2–5 individuals) occurrence coincides with particular seaweed areas that are the site of early morning social encounters (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Kuiter (2000) suggests that small groups congregate in safe places at night, often high in macroalgae to keep away from crabs on the substrate. Adults exhibit variable site fidelity, with 12 of 38 individuals remaining within a focal study area for five weeks of observation (Moreau and Vincent 2004). Females use significantly larger area than males (Moreau and Vincent 2004). <br/> <br/><em>H. breviceps</em> is thought to breed on an approximately monthly cycle throughout the Austral summer, producing 50–100 young per brood (Kuiter 2000). Males have large pouches that they inflate when courting females. <em>In situ</em> observations indicate that adult seahorses display and interact with potential partners, although not every day, and not necessarily with the same partner at each encounter (Moreau and Vincent 2004).  Females transfer batches of eggs (1.6 mm diameter (Vincent 1990) to males during copulation which can take from a matter of minutes to 2.5 days, in <em>ex situ</em> conditions (Kuiter 1993). Kuiter (1993) reports that in captivity, males may accept eggs from more than one female, although this has yet to be observed in natural wild pairs. Larvae have been observed swimming to the surface upon release, where they grasp small bits of weed or debris in surface waters (Kuiter 2000).  Kuiter (2000) reports size at settlement to be 25 mm. <br/> <br/>Longevity in aquaria is at least 3–5 years (P.Quong, pers. comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002), but lifespan in the wild is unknown.	eng
10063	population	Morgan, S.K., Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	No quantitative data exist on the estimated size of <em>H. breviceps</em> populations or subpopulations. Densities of 0.21 adults per square meter have been reported in the only studied population in Port Philip Bay. Research is required to determine the species’ genetic population structure and connectivity.	eng
10063	threats	Morgan, S.K., Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	The biggest threat facing <em>H. breviceps</em> is likely to be increasing development and population pressure in coastal waters leading to the degradation of shallow inshore habitat (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Such threats remain unquantified for this species at present.  Additional threat may be posed by collection for the marine aquarium fish trade, as <em>H. breviceps</em> can be brilliantly coloured (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Current removal rates (estimated at <100 wild caught individuals annually) need to be assessed in light of population abundance data that is not presently available. Prawn trawling in Spencer Gulf South Australia (Tanner 2003) poses an unknown threat to populations and/or habitat.	eng
10064	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10064	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et a</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10064	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus camelopardalis</em> is caught for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria in Tanzania, but not elsewhere in its range (J. McPherson, unpublished data).  A few traders interviewed during trade surveys conducted by Project Seahorse between 2000–2001 noticed local declines in seahorse populations over the last 10–30 years, but most had noticed no change (J. McPherson, unpublished data). The authors conclude that the trade: (1) probably poses no danger to seahorses in Kenya; (2) may be a cause for concern in Tanzania; and (3) is insufficiently known to draw conclusions in South Africa or Mozambique.	eng
10065	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002. Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.	eng
10065	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus coronatus</em> are found among Sargassum, close to shore (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984).  The breeding season of this species is June to July (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984).  <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10065	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 indicated that the trade in <em>H. coronatus</em> appears to be quite small (B. Kwan, unpublished data). It is only found in Japan (from Hokkaido to Kyushu; Nakabo 2000), and while it is not targeted in any fishery, it may be caught incidentally in other fisheries (B. Kwan, unpublished data).	eng
10066	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full monitoring of the trade is underway in the United States, however this is dependent on traders’ declarations.  Seahorses are listed under Title 68 (Rules of the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission) of the Florida Administrative Codes.  The targeted fishery for the aquarium trade in Florida is monitored and regulations are in place, such as a limitation on the number of commercial harvesters, however the non-selective exploitation is not monitored in any state.  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> are considered threatened in the states of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.  Their status has not been evaluated in the other states	eng
10066	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> occurs from the southern tip of Nova Scotia in Canada, along the east coast of the USA, and south to Mexico, the Caribbean, and Venezuela. Small specimens from Brazil appear to be genetically distinct from the north Atlantic specimens and may prove to be a separate species (S. Casey, in litt. in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Further research is needed.	eng
10066	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> occur in water up to 73 m, and are associated with aquatic vegetation such as mangroves, seagrass, sponges, and floating Sargassum, as well as sponges (Lieske and Myers 1994, and McAllister 1990 in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Fish and Mowbray 1970).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> can be found at the surface and bottom of both shallow water and deeper areas of channels in bays, along beaches, in or near salt marshes, and over oyster beds and weed-covered banks (Hardy 1978). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10066	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 indicated that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined in the Western Atlantic (Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico), with fishers reporting decreases in catch of seahorses (proportion of declines that can be attributed to <em>H. erectus</em> is unknown).  On the coast of Mexico 21/29 fishers in five locations reported declines in seahorses due to the shrimp trawl fishery.  Of the 14 fishers who provided quantified catch estimates, eight estimated declines between 75–90% in the past 10–30 years (J. Baum  unpublished data).  In Brazil 25/29 fishers surveyed reported declines in seahorse catches due to heavy fishing pressures (I. Rosa, unpublished data).  In Honduras 70% of interviewed fishers (n=9) believed there has been a decline in abundance (J. Baum, unpublished data).  While we recognize that these surveys and reported population declines do not encompass the global range of <em>H. erectus</em>, we have chosen to take the precautionary approach of assigning VU.	eng
10066	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus erectus</em> is traded dried as traditional medicine (TM), curios and live for aquariums (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  This is a popular aquarium fish in North America.  In Florida alone, thousands of <em>H. erectus</em> are collected each year for the aquarium trade (P. LaFrance, unpublished data).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> is Brazil’s 6th most important marine ornamental export (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al</em>. 2000).  In addition to being sold as TM, <em>H. erectus</em> are sold as curios in Mexico along the Caribbean coast (J. Baum, unpublished data).  <em>Hippocampus erectus</em> are often brought up as bycatch by shrimp trawling operations in Florida (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in Mexico seahorse population declines are attributed to indirect harvesting by the shrimp trawl fishery (J. Baum, unpublished data).  In Central America <em>H. erectus</em> are brought up in the shrimp trawls in Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua, and are exported as TCM, or sold on both coasts as curios (J. Baum, unpublished data).  Similarly in South America <em>H. erectus</em> are among the bycatch of shrimp trawls in Mar del Plata, Argentina (L. Magnasco in litt. to A. Vincent 23 May 1999), and in Brazil (I. Rosa and J. Baum, unpublished data).   <br/> <br/>The preferred habitat of <em>H. erectus</em> is also declining due to coastal development, pollution, and increased sedimentation.  For example, in NE Brazil the development of shrimp farms has destroyed much of the coastal mangrove habitats where seahorses live (J. Gomezjuardo in litt. to A. Vincent Sept. 1999).	eng
10068	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade, with full monitoring of the dried syngnathid trade underway.  This monitoring is dependent on traders’ declarations.  A permit or license is required to export dried or live syngnathids from South Africa.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10068	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> are found in eelgrass beds (<em>Zostera</em> sp.) in lagoons at depths of 50 to 200 cm (N.A.M. Pathirana in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).   <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (N.A.M. Pathirana in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998)	eng
10068	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> is traded for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria (Vincent and Perry, in prep.). The volume of the trade in this species is unknown, but without appropriate management the trade might pose a threat to the species.  <em>Hippocampus fuscus</em> is collected for the aquarium trade in Sri Lanka (Vincent 1996).  In interviews conducted as part of Project Seahorse trade surveys between 2000–2001, half of the 160 fishers surveyed in India reported decreases in their catch of seahorses, while 36% reported no change and 14% reported an increase (A. Perry, unpublished data). However, the proportion of <em>H. fuscus</em> in this trade is unknown, so we need more information to properly categorize the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow eelgrass habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries.	eng
10069	conservation	Project seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  <em>Hippocampus hippocampus</em> is listed in the Red Data Book of Portugal, but this listing has no obvious management implications (Vincent 1996).  Full declaration of the trade in live and dead syngnathids is required in the European Union, and full monitoring of the dried trade is underway there.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10069	habitat	Project seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus hippocampus</em> is found in shallow, muddy waters; estuaries; inshore among algae; rocky areas (Whitehead 1986).  They may overwinter in deeper water (Whitehead 1986).  The breeding season for <em>H. hippocampus</em> extends from April to October (Wheeler 1985, Whitehead 1986). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow, inshore areas (Whitehead 1986) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10069	threats	Project seahorse, 2003	Seahorses are caught both intentionally and incidentally in Portugal, and sold for curiosities (J. Curtis, in litt to P. LaFrance July 2001). They are also caught incidentally in Italy, France, Spain, Turkey and Croatia (pers. comms. to P. LaFrance).  Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 revealed that seahorses are caught in, and exported from, a number of African countries within the range of <em>H. hippocampus</em> (Egypt, Guinea, Senegal; J. McPherson, unpublished data). The volume and impacts of this capture and trade are unknown, but without appropriate management this might represent a threat to the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries.	eng
10070	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10070	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	Found at depths of at least 6 m. <em>H. histrix</em> is often associated with sponges and sea-squirts, or is found in areas of sparse or no seagrass (R.H. Kuiter in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species primarily lives at moderate depths of about 15 m or deeper, on soft bottom with soft corals and sponges, but it is occasionally found inhabiting shallower algae-rubble reef zones in about 10 m depth (Kuiter 2000). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and in many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995) and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10070	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	Current threats to the species are unknown. Spiny seahorses are less desirable for traditional Chinese medicine, although their use is increasing with the rise in patent medicines (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). <em>H. histrix</em> is rarely seen in the aquarium trade.	eng
10072	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  In Panama, <em>H. ingens</em> are included under the Ministry of Agriculture’s decree 19.450, which regulates the extraction of coral reef fishes	eng
10072	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species' range extends from California, USA, south to Peru. <em>Hippocampus ingens</em> are apparently only found at the higher latitudes (for example, California) during periods of increased water temperatures, such as during El Niño (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
10072	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus ingens</em> occurs at depths of 1–20 m (maximum 60 m) (J. Gomezjuardo in litt. in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999), and is often found among gorgonians or black coral (Humann 1993 in Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).   <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow areas (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10072	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 have indicated that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined in the Eastern Pacific, with fishers reporting decreases in catch of <em>H. ingens</em>.  In Mexico, 18/21 fishers surveyed on the Pacific coast reported that substantial declines in seahorse catch rates had occurred (J. Baum, unpublished data).  In Ecuador shrimp fishers (n=12) reporting a decline in bycatch in the 1990s, with may citing heavy fishing pressure as the cause for the declines (J. Baum, unpublished data), and estimated declines in catch in Guatemala from past catches of 100–150 seahorses per trip, in comparison to average catch estimates of four to 15 seahorses per trip in 2000 (J. Baum, unpublished data).	eng
10072	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus ingens</em> is traded dried as traditional medicine (TM), curios and live for aquariums (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  They are caught as bycatch by shrimp trawling operations along the Pacific coasts of Mexico, Ecuador, Peru, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Panama (J. Baum, unpublished data).  In Ecuador seahorse population declines are attributed to indirect harvesting by the shrimp trawl fishery (J. Baum, unpublished data).   <br/> <br/><em>Hippocampus ingens</em> is also likely threatened by damage to its habitats.  In Mexico this is the result of coastal development for tourism.  In Panama, the Panama Canal has increased the freshwater output, thereby harming the reefs due to increased sedimentation and lowered salinity	eng
10074	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.	eng
10074	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus jayakari</em> has been caught at depths of 2–3 m.  It is found in beds of seagrasses such <em>Halophila</em> spp. (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
10074	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	During Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001, eight of the 11 fishers surveyed in Pakistan reported a 50% decrease in seahorse catch in 1999, while the remaining three fishers had noticed no change (A. Perry, unpublished data). However, it is unknown how much of this catch, if any, is comprised of <em>H. jayakari</em>.	eng
10074	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	Trade surveys conducted by Project Seahorse between 2000–2001 indicated that the trade of seahorses in Pakistan appears to be relatively small, and is mostly limited to local collection for aquarium use (A. Perry, unpublished data).  Israel reported that there is no trade of seahorses in the country, nor are there exports (<a href=http://www.cites.org/eng/cttee/animals/18/E18-18-1.pdf">CITES AC18 Doc 18.1</a>).  The size of the trade in this species in Oman, if any, is unknown. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries	eng
10075	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade. In Singapore, <em>H. kuda</em> is recognized as being threatened by habitat destruction and harvesting for medicinal use and the aquarium trade and harvest is not allowed except by permit. They are listed as vulnerable in the National Red Data Books in Singapore and Viet Nam.  In France it is illegal to import seahorses under the name <em>H. kuda</em>.	eng
10075	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus kuda</em> occur throughout south east Asia, Australia, Japan, and some of the Pacific islands, including Hawaii (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
10075	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species is found in shallow inshore waters up to 40–50 m deep; mangroves; seagrass beds; estuaries; and on steep mud slopes (R. Kuiter, pers. comm. in Lourie<em>et al</em>. 1999). It has also been recorded from open water and attached to drifting <em>Sargassum</em> up to 20 km away from land (Kuiter and Debelius 1994).  <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow areas (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10075	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	While exact population numbers for <em>H. kuda</em> remain unknown, Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 have inferred that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout its range.  For example, in Hong Kong traders reported that local seahorses, while common 30 years ago, were rarely found in 2000, with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In India half of the surveyed fishers (n=80/160) reported decreases in catch of seahorses (A. Perry, unpublished data), while in the Philippines fishers targeting seahorses specifically (n=7) reported declines of between 50% and 95% from as early as 1980 and as recently as 1997 (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  The fishers in the Philippines cited overfishing, the increasing population of fishers and indiscriminate catch of seahorses, including pregnant and immature seahorses, as causes of the decline in catch (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).	eng
10075	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus kuda</em> is caught and traded for traditional medicines, aquaria and curios throughout its range (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  It is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional Chinese medicine (Vincent and Perry, in prep.), is a popular aquarium fish (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) and is caught in India for the traditional medicine trade (Marichamy <em>et al</em>. 1993).  In general, indiscriminate catch, habitat degradation and exploitation are potential threats to this species. <br/> <br/>For example, in Hong Kong seahorses are threatened by habitat degradation and pollution, and may be susceptible to incidental catch in the shrimp trawl fishery (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In China seahorses are caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes.  In the Philippines declines in seahorse availability are attributed to overfishing, an increasing number of fishers, and non-selective catch of seahorses (e.g., taking pregnant or immature seahorses) and habitat destruction (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).	eng
10077	conservation	Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	The following information is taken from Lourie <em>et al</em>. (2004): <br/>1. Entire genus listed on Appendix II of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), effective May 2004. <br/>2. Australian populations were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998 and placed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001 (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>3. Listed by Environment Australia as Data Deficient <br/> <br/>Information below is taken from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>2. The <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders, since Sep 1994). <br/>3. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998. <br/>4. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>5. No Australian Society of Fish Biology Listing.	eng
10077	distribution	Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	Unknown. Known only from four museum specimens collected at depths of 64–110 m off Eden (approximately 37°S) NSW, southwards to central Bass Strait (38°56’S), Victoria, between the Australian mainland and Tasmania (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Kuiter 2000). Collected between <em>circa</em> 1927 and 1981 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>H. minotaur</em>.	eng
10077	habitat	Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	<em>Hippocampus minotaur</em> has been trawled from depths of 64 to 110 m on fine sandy or hard bottoms, possibly in association with gorgonian corals (Gomon 1997). Noticeable bud-like processes are present on the dorsal surface of the tail of <em>H. minotaur</em>, reminiscent of those on the body of <em>H. bargibanti</em> that are used for camouflage in soft coral fans. This may suggest that they inhabit gorgonians, but collection information to date has given scant habitat information (Gomon 1997).	eng
10077	population	Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	Unknown.	eng
10077	threats	Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Paxton, J.R., 2006	Trawling presents an unknown threat.	eng
10082	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The export of syngnathids from Mexico is effectively banned. Permits or licenses are required to export dried syngnathids from Honduras and Nicaragua, and to export live syngnathids from Panama, Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10082	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	Vari (1982) reports <em>H. reidi</em> at depths as great as 55 m.  Small individuals tend to be found in shallower water than large animals (Dauwe 1993).  It has been found on gorgonian corals, seagrass, mangroves and Sargassum (Lieske and Myers 1994). <em>Hippocampus reidi</em> are pair-bonded in the wild (B. Dauwe and M. Nijhoff in litt. to Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10082	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	During Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001, fishers in Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama reported decreases in the catch of seahorses both in trawls (as bycatch) and by divers (J. Baum and I. Rosa, unpublished data), but the portion of these declines attributable to <em>H. reidi</em> is unknown.	eng
10082	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus reidi</em> are collected and traded in the Americas as aquarium fishes, folk medicine, curiosities and for religious purposes (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2002). The volume of this trade is unknown, as there is confusion between this species and a similar one, <em>H. erectus</em>. Without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. <em>H. reidi</em> are also taken as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in the U.S., Mexico and Central America (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2002).  A study of bycatch in Florida found that most seahorses in bycatch were <em>H. erectus</em>; this suggests that <em>H. reidi</em> may not be as susceptible to trawling as <em>H. erectus</em>, possibly because of habitat differences. <br/> <br/><em>Hippocampus reidi</em> is considered threatened in the United States by the American Fisheries Society (AFS) (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). They cite the species' rarity and degradation of its seagrass habitats in South Florida as reasons for this listing. While this status may apply on a national level, we did not find information that would justify such a listing for the species as a whole.	eng
10083	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K. & Sorensen, M., 2009	<em>Hippocampus sidonis</em> has been listed under CITES appendix II ensuring that international trade of this species is monitored. This species may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology, threats and population trends of this species.	eng
10083	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K. & Sorensen, M., 2009	<em>Hippocampus sindonis</em> is endemic to Japan. It is known off Hamamatsu, Totomi Bay, Sagami, Misaki, Shizuoka Prefectures.	eng
10083	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K. & Sorensen, M., 2009	There is no information available for the life history and habitat of <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em> (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Males carry eggs in brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10083	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K. & Sorensen, M., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em>.	eng
10083	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K. & Sorensen, M., 2009	The are no known major threats to <em>Hippocampus sindonis</em>. <br/><br/>Seahorses are vulnerable to a number of threats. This species is not known for any commercial trade, however it maybe taken as by-catch, susceptible to coastal habitat degradation, or exploited for the Chinese medicine trade or ornamental trade.<br/><br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Vincent <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).	eng
10084	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004. The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.	eng
10084	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> are found in areas with muddy or sandy bottoms and on coral reefs (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10084	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	Fishers in the central Philippines report declines in the abundance of seahorses (Vincent 1996), but <em>H. spinosissimus</em> is a relatively small portion of the total seahorse catch in this area (pers. obs.).  In the early and mid-1990s, fishers and buyers in Indonesia also reported declines in seahorse abundance (Vincent 1996), but the portion of this decline that can be attributed to <em>H. spinosissimus</em> is unknown.	eng
10084	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> is traded for traditional medicines, curiosities, and aquaria (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  Spiny seahorses such as <em>H. spinosissimus</em> are generally less desirable for traditional Chinese medicine, but their use is increasing with the rise in patent medicine use (Vincent 1996). The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management the trade might pose a threat to the species.  <em>Hippocampus spinosissimus</em> is also caught quite commonly as bycatch by trawlers in Thailand (S. Lourie in litt.). <br/> <br/>This species is also threatened by damage to its habitats. Damage to coral reef ecosystems by dynamite and cyanide fishing have been well documented, particularly in the Philippines. Land-based activities such as forestry often lead to increased siltation in surrounding marine waters, thereby smothering corals. The decline in and fragmentation of this species’ habitats throughout its range raise the possibility of declines in populations in addition to those caused by the fisheries and trade.	eng
10087	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  All seahorses are listed on Schedule I of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, banning their capture and trade. This species is also included in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book.	eng
10087	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species is known from southwest Asia and Australia.  Specimens from north-west Australia may represent a separate species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Further research is needed.	eng
10087	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus trimaculatus</em> has been trawled from depths of less than 20 m. In Viet Nam it has been found in gravel and sandy bottom habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow habitats (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10087	population	Project Seahorse, 2003	While exact population numbers for <em>H. kuda</em> remain unknown, Project Seahorse trade surveys conducted between 2000–2001 have inferred that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout the range of <em>H. trimaculatus</em>.  For example, in Hong Kong traders reported that local seahorses common 30 years ago were rarely found in 2000, with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In India half of the surveyed fishers (n=80/160) reported decreases in catch of seahorses (A. Perry, unpublished data), while in the Philippines fishers targeting seahorses specifically (n=7) reported declines of between 50% and 95% from as early as 1980 and as recently as 1997 (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  The fishers in the Philippines cited overfishing, the increasing population of fishers and indiscriminate catch of seahorses, including pregnant and immature seahorses, as causes of the decline in catch (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).	eng
10087	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus trimaculatus</em> is caught and traded for traditional medicines, and curios throughout its range (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  It is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional Chinese medicine, and is found as an ingredient in kanpo, Japan’s traditional medicine.  In general, indiscriminate catch, habitat degradation and exploitation are potential threats to this species.  For example, in Hong Kong seahorses are threatened by habitat degradation and pollution, and may be susceptible to incidental catch in the shrimp trawl fishery (B. Kwan, unpublished data).  In China seahorses are also caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes.  In the Philippines declines in seahorse availability are attributed to overfishing, an increasing number of fishers, and non-selective catch of seahorses (e.g., taking pregnant or immature seahorses) and habitat destruction (M. Pajaro, unpublished data).  In Taiwan <em>H. trimaculatus</em> are observed in the dried trade and are landed as bycatch (A. Perry, unpublished data).	eng
10088	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  The Australian populations of this species were moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998, so export permits are now required.  The permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive bred animals.  Such management was transferred under the new Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 2001.  Many states also place their own controls on the capture and/or trade of syngnathid fishes.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10088	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	A single specimen was found in the Solomon Islands, which is outside the probable normal range of this species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
10088	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus whitei</em> are found to depths of 25 m in shallow, weedy, inshore areas, in <em>Zostera</em> spp. seagrass beds, on sponges, and often under jetties on kelp holdfasts (Kuiter 1997).  They are also found on manmade objects such as shark nets (A.C.J. Vincent, pers. obs.).  <em>Hippocampus whitei</em> breed from October to April.  Within this breeding season, they are site-faithful to a home range (averaging 8 m² for males, 12 m² for females: Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review) and are faithful to a single mate (Vincent and Sadler 1995).   <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline.  The limited information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow sea-grass beds (Kuiter 1997) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10088	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus whitei</em> is caught for the aquarium trade, and mostly sold on the domestic market (Vincent 1996).  The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. Small numbers of <em>H. whitei</em> are probably also taken as bycatch in the southeast trawl fishery (Australian Fisheries Management Authority 1999).	eng
10089	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full monitoring of the trade is underway in the United States, however this is dependent on traders’ declarations.  Seahorses are listed under Title 68 (Rules of the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission) of the Florida Administrative Codes.  The targeted fishery for the aquarium trade in Florida is monitored and regulations are in place, such as a limitation on the number of commercial harvesters, however the non-selective exploitation is not monitored in any state.  The take of seahorses for the aquarium trade is prohibited in the USVI and Puerto Rico.  Stock assessments are needed in order to evaluate the sustainability of the fishery and establish appropriate management guidelines.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
10089	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus  zosterae</em> is a species from the Gulf of Mexico (Florida Keys and Texas) and the Bahamas (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
10089	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species is found in shallow seagrass flats, especially in association with <em>Zostera</em> and other seagrass, and is found in floating vegetation (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow seagrass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10089	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus zosterae</em> are one of the more popular seahorses in the aquarium trade (Vincent 1996, Wood 2001).  Florida has a small directed trawl fishery in shallow grass beds off the west coast for <em>H. zosterae</em> where they are landed in a live bait trawl fishery.  In this fishery alone, tens of thousands of <em>H. zosterae</em> are collected each year for the aquarium trade (Vincent and Perry, in prep.).  <em>Hippocampus zosterae</em> occupies the 2nd rank of the top 10 fishes exported from Florida for the aquarium trade (Wood 2001).   <br/> <br/>The American Fisheries Society (AFS) lists the United States populations of <em>H. zosterae</em> as Threatened due to habitat degradation (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000).  While this status may apply on a national level, we did not find information that would justify such a listing for the species as a whole.	eng
10103	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	There are numerous protected areas across the countries where Common Hippos are found. Although in most countries the official level of protection is good, the level of enforcement of these regulations is poor in many countries. In some countries, Common Hippos are still found outside of protected areas.	eng
10103	conservation	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/>There are numerous protected areas across the countries where Common Hippos are found. Although in most countries the official level of protection is good, the level of enforcement of these regulations is poor in many countries. In some countries, Common Hippos are still found outside of protected areas.	eng
10103	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Common Hippos are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and were previously found in virtually all suitable habitats. The species still occupied much of its former range in 1959, although it had disappeared from most of South Africa except for the Kruger National Park (Sidney 1965). They occur in rivers throughout the savanna zone of Africa, and main rivers of forest zone in Central Africa, in Angola, Benin, northern Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, southern Chad, Côte d?Ivoire, Dem. Rep. Congo, Egypt (extinct; formerly along Nile to its Delta), northern Eritrea, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea (Mbini), Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia (only two records), Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia (Caprivi Strip, Okavango River), Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, South Africa (now only in northern and eastern Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga Province, and northern KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>The Common Hippopotamus was already rare in Egypt by the time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire up until towards 1700 at the latest, the Hippo was still present in two well disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile. Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius 2000).	eng
10103	distribution	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	Common Hippos are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and were previously found in virtually all suitable habitats. The species still occupied much of its former range in 1959, although it had disappeared from most of South Africa except for the Kruger National Park (Sidney 1965). They occur in rivers throughout the savanna zone of Africa, and main rivers of forest zone in Central Africa, in Angola, Benin, northern Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, southern Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Dem. Rep. Congo, Egypt (extinct; formerly along Nile to its Delta), northern Eritrea, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea (Mbini), Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia (only two records), Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia (Caprivi Strip, Okavango River), Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, South Africa (now only in northern and eastern Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga Province, and northern KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>The Common Hippopotamus was already rare in Egypt by the time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire up until towards 1700 at the latest, the Hippo was still present in two well disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile. Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius 2000).	eng
10103	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	As its name suggests, the Common Hippopotamus is an amphibious creature, which spends the day in water and emerges at night to feed. The hippopotamus uses the water only as a retreat and it does not eat aquatic vegetation to any extent. Open water is not essential and the animal can survive in muddy wallows but it must have access to permanent water to which it can return in the dry season. The essential factor is that the skin must remain moist for it will crack if exposed to the air for long periods. The skin physiology is complex and not fully understood but is clearly adapted for an amphibious existence. A curious feature is the red secretion from modified sweat glands, which is thought to have an antibiotic function. <br/><br/>The water body must be large enough to accommodate a number of animals for the Common Hippo is highly gregarious when resting by day. The social habits of the species have been studied by Klingel (1991), who found that the "schools" are unstable groups of females and bachelors. The social system is based on mating territoriality. Common Hippos are gregarious, social, polygymous animals. Females become sexually mature between the ages of 7?9, and males 9?11. Females typically bear a single offspring every other year as lactation can extend for 18 months. Territorial males monopolize a length of the shoreline of the river or lake but tolerate bachelors within the territory provided they behave submissively. Non-breeding males also settle outside territorial areas, especially seasonal wallows. Fights for the possession of a territory can be fierce and the animals may inflict considerable damage on each other with their huge canines but minor conflicts are usually settled by threat displays, of which the "yawn" is the most conspicuous. Territorial males do not normally fight each other and severe fights usually occur only when a bachelor challenges a territorial male for control of its territory. There is little association between animals when they are feeding at night, except between females and their dependent young, and the males do not then behave in a territorial fashion. <br/><br/>The male Common Hippopotamus, rarely the female, spreads its dung by wagging its tail vigorously while defecating, both in the water and on land, where it is thought to have a signalling rather than a territorial function. The dung piles may serve for orientation. <br/><br/>Vocalizations take the form of complex bellows and grunts, which presumably have a signalling function. Sounds may be made either on land or in the water and may be transmitted simultaneously through air and water. This is the only known case of amphibious calls in a mammal.<br/><br/>It is probable that the need to avoid the direct rays of the sun has determined the nocturnal feeding habits of the animal. It leaves its wallow soon after sunset and spends the night grazing on short grass swards for up to several kilometres from water. These swards, which are kept short by the activities of the hippopotamus, are known as hippo lawns. Although the hippopotamus grazes every night, except for mothers with very young calves, there are usually animals present in the water all night, as some return after a few hours and others leave later. The animal feeds by plucking the grass with its wide, muscular lips and passing it to the back of the mouth to be ground up by the molars. The front teeth (incisors and canines) play no part in feeding. The amount of food ingested is small relative to the size of the animal but its resting habits by day reduce its energetic demands. The stomach is a complex four-chambered structure with a ruminant type digestion although the animal does not chew the cud.<br/><br/>The ecological requirements for hippopotamus, therefore, include a supply of permanent water, large enough for the territorial males to spread out, and adequate grazing on open grassland within a few kilometres of the daytime resting sites.	eng
10103	habitat	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	As its name suggests, the Common Hippopotamus is an amphibious creature, which spends the day in water and emerges at night to feed. The hippopotamus uses the water only as a retreat and it does not eat aquatic vegetation to any extent. Open water is not essential and the animal can survive in muddy wallows but it must have access to permanent water to which it can return in the dry season. The essential factor is that the skin must remain moist for it will crack if exposed to the air for long periods. The skin physiology is complex and not fully understood but is clearly adapted for an amphibious existence. A curious feature is the red secretion from modified sweat glands, which is thought to have an antibiotic function. <br/><br/>The water body must be large enough to accommodate a number of animals for the Common Hippo is highly gregarious when resting by day. The social habits of the species have been studied by Klingel (1991), who found that the "schools" are unstable groups of females and bachelors. The social system is based on mating territoriality. Common Hippos are gregarious, social, polygymous animals. Females become sexually mature between the ages of 7–9, and males 9–11. Females typically bear a single offspring every other year as lactation can extend for 18 months. Territorial males monopolize a length of the shoreline of the river or lake but tolerate bachelors within the territory provided they behave submissively. Non-breeding males also settle outside territorial areas, especially seasonal wallows. Fights for the possession of a territory can be fierce and the animals may inflict considerable damage on each other with their huge canines but minor conflicts are usually settled by threat displays, of which the "yawn" is the most conspicuous. Territorial males do not normally fight each other and severe fights usually occur only when a bachelor challenges a territorial male for control of its territory. There is little association between animals when they are feeding at night, except between females and their dependent young, and the males do not then behave in a territorial fashion. <br/><br/>The male Common Hippopotamus, rarely the female, spreads its dung by wagging its tail vigorously while defecating, both in the water and on land, where it is thought to have a signalling rather than a territorial function. The dung piles may serve for orientation. <br/><br/>Vocalizations take the form of complex bellows and grunts, which presumably have a signalling function. Sounds may be made either on land or in the water and may be transmitted simultaneously through air and water. This is the only known case of amphibious calls in a mammal.<br/><br/>It is probable that the need to avoid the direct rays of the sun has determined the nocturnal feeding habits of the animal. It leaves its wallow soon after sunset and spends the night grazing on short grass swards for up to several kilometres from water. These swards, which are kept short by the activities of the hippopotamus, are known as hippo lawns. Although the hippopotamus grazes every night, except for mothers with very young calves, there are usually animals present in the water all night, as some return after a few hours and others leave later. The animal feeds by plucking the grass with its wide, muscular lips and passing it to the back of the mouth to be ground up by the molars. The front teeth (incisors and canines) play no part in feeding. The amount of food ingested is small relative to the size of the animal but its resting habits by day reduce its energetic demands. The stomach is a complex four-chambered structure with a ruminant type digestion although the animal does not chew the cud.<br/><br/>The ecological requirements for hippopotamus, therefore, include a supply of permanent water, large enough for the territorial males to spread out, and adequate grazing on open grassland within a few kilometres of the daytime resting sites.	eng
10103	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	There are clear regional differences in population size and distribution. Eastern African countries (including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia) form the conservation stronghold for this species and are where the largest numbers of Common Hippos occur. Although common hippos are found in many West African nations, overall population sizes tend to be much smaller, either because of less available habitat or the higher density of human populations. Populations appear to be decreasing in many countries. The largest populations are found in East Africa. A country-by-country assessment conducted in 1993?1994 found that there were approximately 160,000 Common Hippos across their range, although this was considered to be an overestimate. A more recent assessment suggests that there are likely between 125,000 and 148,000 Common Hippos remaining. In contrast with the 1994 estimate, this range is not likely to underestimate the populations size. Of the 29 countries in which Common Hippos are found, confirmed population declines have been reported in half. The largest declines have occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a country once thought to have the largest populations.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa</strong><br/>The species is not common in West Africa and the population is split into a number of small groups totalling about 7,000 spread over 19 countries. Populations most at risk are those in West Africa, where the distribution is particularly fragmented. <br/><br/>Hippopotamus are absent from the rain forests except near large rivers. They are most abundant in estuarine habitats and on the lower reaches of rivers. Some are found in the sea in the Archipelago of Bijagos off Guinea Bissau. Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Senegal probably contain the bulk of the West African Common Hippopotamus, with total numbers likely to be in the region of a few thousand. Although small in area, Guinea Bissau supports a substantial population, which is particularly abundant on the islands of the Bijagos Archipelago and along the numerous inland rivers. The species is common on most of the rivers in Guinea and in the east and south of Senegal with an estimated country-wide population of between 500 and 700. The Gambia contains no more than about 40 animals. There are probably less than 200 in Sierra Leone or Mali and none at all in Liberia or Mauritania.<br/><br/>The group of contiguous countries, Côte d?Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso, contain a total of, at most, two thousand Common Hippopotamus with the majority in Burkina Faso. There have been no recent counts except on the Comoe River on the border with the Côte d?Ivoire, where 720 were recorded in 1989. A further group is found on the Pendjari River system bordering Benin. This numbered about 500 in 1979 but only some 280 remained in 1987. The Mono River between Benin and Togo supported a small but stable population of 53 in 1986. Only remnant populations remain in Ghana. <br/><br/>Nigeria and Niger between them contain at least 400. No recent information was obtained for Chad but according to Sidney (1965) the species was common in the vicinity of Lake Chad during the 1950s. Common Hippopotamus were also once numerous in Cameroon but the only information obtained during the present survey was from the Korup National Park, where signs of the species are common around the confluence of the Miri and Bake Rivers although sightings are few. It is likely that the species does not occur in the Bake River much further upstream than Bajo although some traces were found as far up as Bakut. At least 150 Common Hippopotamus (possibly as many as 1,500) are known to exist in the Central African Republic in addition to an unknown number in Bamimgui-Bangoran National Park, where 136 were counted in 1973 although now there are probably only 20 to 30 present. Common Hippopotamus occur along most of the coastline of Gabon and for a considerable distance up the Ogooue River and although there are no recent estimates of numbers, they are said to be abundant in places. A few are found in neighbouring Equatorial Guinea on the Campo River. No counts have been made in the Congo, but the species is reported by one correspondent to be widely distributed and numerous on suitable rivers but another reports its presence on only one, the Nyanga River. The entry for the Congo in the IUCN Directory (IUCN/UNEP, 1987) lists Odzala National Park, Lefini Reserve (Louna and Lesio Rivers), and Nyanga North Reserve as containing hippopotamus. Zaire will be considered with East Africa as most of the hippopotamus are in the east of the country.<br/><br/>The total number of Common Hippopotamus in the nineteen west African countries considered here cannot be assessed with any accuracy because of the absence of recent counts but the figure is likely to be in the region of 7,000.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong><br/>East Africa holds substantial numbers with 30,000 in eastern DR Congo and populations numbering tens of thousands in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania. Several thousand also occur in Kenya and Uganda bringing the total for East Africa as a whole to about 70,000.<br/><br/>Many of the Common Hippopotamus in Africa are found in the east, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and DR Congo. The Common Hippopotamus occurs in the southern Sudan on the Rivers Nile, Sobat and Jur south of Malakal and in several national parks and reserves. Other localities include the Sudd and tributaries of the Nile. There is no information on population sizes but it is said to occur in good numbers in most places. The species is also abundant between altitudes of 200 and 2,000 m in neighbouring Ethiopia, where its main strongholds appear to be the Omo, Awash and Great Abbi (Blue Nile) Rivers. It also occurs in most of the larger lakes and as isolated populations in smaller swamps and pools. The few that occur in the dry south-east are confined to the Webi, Shebeli and Ganale Rivers. The northern limit of the species is the Setit River. No precise counts have been made recently but the Common Hippopotamus is said to be numerous throughout its range. The total for the two countries combined is probably to be numbered in tens of thousands. Very few animals remain in neighbouring Somalia although some small groups have been reported on the lower Shebeli River and along the Juba River, where they are rather more numerous. No Common Hippopotamus have been reported from Djibouti.<br/><br/>The species occurs in most of the many suitable habitats throughout Kenya and some recent counts have been made in the Mara River area (2,132 in 1980), Lake Naivasha (220 in 1988) and along part of the Tana River between Osako and Adamson's Falls (220 in 1983) (Coe and Collins 1986, Karstad <em>et al.</em> 1980, Smart, in litt). The Mara figure includes some from over the border in Tanzania. Elsewhere in Tanzania, Common Hippopotamus are common in the Selous Game Reserve, where 1,894 were counted on 115 km of the River Rufigi in 1987 (Samuels, in litt). An estimate for the total population of the Selous in 1986 was 16,900 (with a standard error 6,307) from an aerial sample count made by I. Douglas-Hamilton. Independent aerial counts in the Selous reported by Games (1990) returned figure of 15,483 in 1986, 24,169 in 1989 and 20,589 in 1990. The last total is a rather crude extrapolation from an observed figure of 6,866. A large population occurs on the Akagera River and associated lakes on the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, but no recent count has been made. The total counted from the air in 1969 was 671 (Spinage <em>et al.</em> 1972). Common Hippopotamus are found in most other national parks and reserves of Tanzania and although not present anywhere in large numbers, the total probably amounts to several thousand more. <br/><br/>The principal concentrations of the species in Uganda are in the two large national parks, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth. At one time the population in the latter park reached 21,000, but this was reduced to about 14,000 in the culling programme of the 1950s. Counts in the early 1970s returned about 11,000 but heavy poaching during the Amin years had left only a couple of thousand by 1989 when 2,172 were estimated from an aerial sample count. Similar numbers were found in the Murchison Falls National Park in the past but there, too, heavy poaching has reduced the population to remnant numbers although a recent count has not been made. The latest appears to have been in 1980 when 1,202 were recorded on the Nile between the falls and Paraa Lodge. The total for the whole park is probably about the same as in Queen Elizabeth National Park i.e., a few thousand. Other regions in Uganda where substantial numbers of hippopotamus occurred include the Semliki River and lakes Victoria and Kyoga. An educated guess of about 7,000 for the present total population of hippopotamus in the whole country is probably not far wrong.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus have a wide distribution in DR Congo including some in the north-west of the country although the bulk is in the east, where they occur around Epulu and Wamba and along some of the larger rivers in the Ituri Forest. Other populations occur on the Zaire River (Yangabi), Bomu River and elsewhere in several national parks including Garamba, Kundelungu, Salonga, Upemba and Virunga. The latter contains the greatest concentration with a total of 22,875 estimated from a 1988 aerial count made by C. Mackie, who with K. Hillman Smith also recorded 2,851 in Garamba National Park in 1988. In round figures, these counts suggest a total of some 26,000 Common Hippopotamus for the two parks. Numbers elsewhere in DR Congo probably do not amount to more than a few thousand, perhaps bringing the country-wide total up to about 30,000.<br/><br/>There are not many Common Hippopotamus in the remaining East African countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Numbers on the Akagera River have been mentioned above in the section on Tanzania and there are probably still a few in wallows within the Akagera National Park or Mutara Game Reserve but no recent information has been received. Common Hippopotamus occur in Burundi on the Malagarazi, Ruvubu and Rusizi Rivers but there are conflicting reports over numbers. P. Chardonnet reports good populations numbered in hundreds and P. C. Trenchard puts the total on these rivers as over 1,000 as a conservative estimate. K. M. Doyle, however, casts doubt on these figures, for along a 120 km stretch of the Ruvubu River where several hundred were reported by P. Chardonnet, he recorded only 39 animals, all but two within the Ruvubu National Park, although there may have been more in wallows etc. away from the river, which were not surveyed.<br/><br/>Although there are many gaps in the data, the above analysis suggests that there could be as many as 70,000 Common Hippopotamus in the east African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong><br/>Southern Africa also has flourishing populations, with Zambia containing the biggest population, 40,000, of any country in Africa. Others with large numbers include Mozambique (16,000?20,500), Malawi (10,000), Zimbabwe (6,900) and South Africa (5,000). The total in the whole of the region may be around 80,000. <br/><br/>No information has been received from Angola. According to Sidney (1965), the Common Hippopotamus was widespread throughout Angola particularly in the east on the Cunene, Cubango, Cuando, Cuanza, Longa and Zambezi Rivers.  <br/><br/>There are probably more Common Hippopotamus in Zambia than in any other single country. F. E. C. Munyenyembe puts the country-wide total at 40,000 with 20-25,000 in the Luangwa Valley according to R. H. V. Bell. They are reported to be widespread on the Kafue Flats and in Lochinvar National Park. Neighbouring Malawi, although small, is also densely populated with Common Hippopotamus, which occur on all rivers and lakes of sufficient size. The main concentrations are at Elephant Marsh (lower Shire River), the south-west arm of Lake Malawi, Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe in Liwonde National Park. R. H. V. Bell makes a guess that there are some 10,000 Common Hippopotamus in the whole of Malawi. Further south in Zimbabwe, the species is still common. It is found on most of the large rivers particularly the Limpopo. Zambezi and the Sabi/Lundi systems. It is also found in smaller rivers and dams where there is permanent water. Some wander over long distances to provide isolated records. The only estimate for the country-wide total is that made by R. B. Martin on the basis of some limited counts, which have revealed some dense populations e.g. 2,000 on a 50-km section of the Zambezi. His estimate is 6,900, of which 5,530 occur in national parks or reserves, 1,020 on communal lands and 350 elsewhere.<br/><br/>A surprising number of Common Hippopotamus appear to have survived in Mozambique, at least up to 1986, despite the recent civil strife. The species is still widely distributed throughout the country and is present on most river systems. Several national parks and reserves contain hippopotamus although only Gorongosa, with about 2,000, has a sizeable population. L. Tello's estimate made in 1986 year puts the total at between 16,000 and 20,500 for the country as a whole with most (10,000 -12,000) in the Zambezi Wildlife Utilization Area, which includes Marromeu Reserve and four safari hunting blocks. It is also contiguous with the Gorongosa National Park. This is the only region where numbers have increased (by some 20% since 1974). Elsewhere there has been a decline, except in Tete Province, whose population of between 1,500 and 2,500 is said to be stable.<br/><br/>Namibia is too dry to support many Common Hippos except in the north, where the species is present in some numbers on the Cuando and Zambezi Rivers in the Caprivi Strip. Elsewhere it occurs along the boundary with Angola on the Okavango River. Botswana is also too dry, except in the north of the country, where some animals occur in the Okavango Delta and in the Chobe/Linyati River system. A few (18+) exist on the Limpopo in the east. Outside this area, a small population may still exist near Ghanzi although some observers think this is unlikely. C. A. Spinage puts the total in northern Botswana at 1,600 in the wet season and 500 in the dry.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus are confined to the north-east of the country in the Republic of South Africa, mainly in the Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces and the northern tip of KwaZulu-Natal. Most of them are in the Kruger National Park in perennial rivers, dams and the larger pools of seasonal rivers. The total counted in the park in 1989 was 2,761 with 2,575 in rivers and 191 in dams and pools. R. H. Taylor gives a total (for 1986) of 1,264 for KwaZulu-Natal, with the largest concentration (595) on Lake St Lucia, but he suggests a better estimate of 1,423 averaged over the five years 1982-1986. Those in kwaZulu-Natal outside the Kruger National Park are mainly confined to the large rivers in the eastern and northern regions of the province. These figures suggest that there are approaching 5,000 Common Hippopotamus in the country as a whole.<br/><br/>It is not possible to provide a total for the whole of southern Africa because of the lack of data from Angola, which used to support large populations and may do so still, although the disturbed political situation in the country makes it more likely that most hippopotamus have been shot. Assuming the worst and that only a few hundred remain in Angola, a very rough estimate for the regional total would be 80,000.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.	eng
10103	population	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	There are clear regional differences in population size and distribution. Eastern African countries (including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia) form the conservation stronghold for this species and are where the largest numbers of Common Hippos occur. Although common hippos are found in many West African nations, overall population sizes tend to be much smaller, either because of less available habitat or the higher density of human populations. Populations appear to be decreasing in many countries. The largest populations are found in East Africa. A country-by-country assessment conducted in 1993–1994 found that there were approximately 160,000 Common Hippos across their range, although this was considered to be an overestimate. A more recent assessment suggests that there are likely between 125,000 and 148,000 Common Hippos remaining. In contrast with the 1994 estimate, this range is not likely to underestimate the populations size. Of the 29 countries in which Common Hippos are found, confirmed population declines have been reported in half. The largest declines have occurred in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a country once thought to have the largest populations.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa</strong><br/>The species is not common in West Africa and the population is split into a number of small groups totalling about 7,000 spread over 19 countries. Populations most at risk are those in West Africa, where the distribution is particularly fragmented. <br/><br/>Hippopotamus are absent from the rain forests except near large rivers. They are most abundant in estuarine habitats and on the lower reaches of rivers. Some are found in the sea in the Archipelago of Bijagos off Guinea Bissau. Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Senegal probably contain the bulk of the West African Common Hippopotamus, with total numbers likely to be in the region of a few thousand. Although small in area, Guinea Bissau supports a substantial population, which is particularly abundant on the islands of the Bijagos Archipelago and along the numerous inland rivers. The species is common on most of the rivers in Guinea and in the east and south of Senegal with an estimated country-wide population of between 500 and 700. The Gambia contains no more than about 40 animals. There are probably less than 200 in Sierra Leone or Mali and none at all in Liberia or Mauritania.<br/><br/>The group of contiguous countries, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Burkina Faso, contain a total of, at most, two thousand Common Hippopotamus with the majority in Burkina Faso. There have been no recent counts except on the Comoe River on the border with the Côte d’Ivoire, where 720 were recorded in 1989. A further group is found on the Pendjari River system bordering Benin. This numbered about 500 in 1979 but only some 280 remained in 1987. The Mono River between Benin and Togo supported a small but stable population of 53 in 1986. Only remnant populations remain in Ghana. <br/><br/>Nigeria and Niger between them contain at least 400. No recent information was obtained for Chad but according to Sidney (1965) the species was common in the vicinity of Lake Chad during the 1950s. Common Hippopotamus were also once numerous in Cameroon but the only information obtained during the present survey was from the Korup National Park, where signs of the species are common around the confluence of the Miri and Bake Rivers although sightings are few. It is likely that the species does not occur in the Bake River much further upstream than Bajo although some traces were found as far up as Bakut. At least 150 Common Hippopotamus (possibly as many as 1,500) are known to exist in the Central African Republic in addition to an unknown number in Bamimgui-Bangoran National Park, where 136 were counted in 1973 although now there are probably only 20 to 30 present. Common Hippopotamus occur along most of the coastline of Gabon and for a considerable distance up the Ogooue River and although there are no recent estimates of numbers, they are said to be abundant in places. A few are found in neighbouring Equatorial Guinea on the Campo River. No counts have been made in the Congo, but the species is reported by one correspondent to be widely distributed and numerous on suitable rivers but another reports its presence on only one, the Nyanga River. The entry for the Congo in the IUCN Directory (IUCN/UNEP, 1987) lists Odzala National Park, Lefini Reserve (Louna and Lesio Rivers), and Nyanga North Reserve as containing hippopotamus. Zaire will be considered with East Africa as most of the hippopotamus are in the east of the country.<br/><br/>The total number of Common Hippopotamus in the nineteen west African countries considered here cannot be assessed with any accuracy because of the absence of recent counts but the figure is likely to be in the region of 7,000.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong><br/>East Africa holds substantial numbers with 30,000 in eastern DR Congo and populations numbering tens of thousands in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania. Several thousand also occur in Kenya and Uganda bringing the total for East Africa as a whole to about 70,000.<br/><br/>Many of the Common Hippopotamus in Africa are found in the east, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and DR Congo. The Common Hippopotamus occurs in the southern Sudan on the Rivers Nile, Sobat and Jur south of Malakal and in several national parks and reserves. Other localities include the Sudd and tributaries of the Nile. There is no information on population sizes but it is said to occur in good numbers in most places. The species is also abundant between altitudes of 200 and 2,000 m in neighbouring Ethiopia, where its main strongholds appear to be the Omo, Awash and Great Abbi (Blue Nile) Rivers. It also occurs in most of the larger lakes and as isolated populations in smaller swamps and pools. The few that occur in the dry south-east are confined to the Webi, Shebeli and Ganale Rivers. The northern limit of the species is the Setit River. No precise counts have been made recently but the Common Hippopotamus is said to be numerous throughout its range. The total for the two countries combined is probably to be numbered in tens of thousands. Very few animals remain in neighbouring Somalia although some small groups have been reported on the lower Shebeli River and along the Juba River, where they are rather more numerous. No Common Hippopotamus have been reported from Djibouti.<br/><br/>The species occurs in most of the many suitable habitats throughout Kenya and some recent counts have been made in the Mara River area (2,132 in 1980), Lake Naivasha (220 in 1988) and along part of the Tana River between Osako and Adamson's Falls (220 in 1983) (Coe and Collins 1986, Karstad <em>et al.</em> 1980, Smart, in litt). The Mara figure includes some from over the border in Tanzania. Elsewhere in Tanzania, Common Hippopotamus are common in the Selous Game Reserve, where 1,894 were counted on 115 km of the River Rufigi in 1987 (Samuels, in litt). An estimate for the total population of the Selous in 1986 was 16,900 (with a standard error 6,307) from an aerial sample count made by I. Douglas-Hamilton. Independent aerial counts in the Selous reported by Games (1990) returned figure of 15,483 in 1986, 24,169 in 1989 and 20,589 in 1990. The last total is a rather crude extrapolation from an observed figure of 6,866. A large population occurs on the Akagera River and associated lakes on the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, but no recent count has been made. The total counted from the air in 1969 was 671 (Spinage <em>et al.</em> 1972). Common Hippopotamus are found in most other national parks and reserves of Tanzania and although not present anywhere in large numbers, the total probably amounts to several thousand more. <br/><br/>The principal concentrations of the species in Uganda are in the two large national parks, Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth. At one time the population in the latter park reached 21,000, but this was reduced to about 14,000 in the culling programme of the 1950s. Counts in the early 1970s returned about 11,000 but heavy poaching during the Amin years had left only a couple of thousand by 1989 when 2,172 were estimated from an aerial sample count. Similar numbers were found in the Murchison Falls National Park in the past but there, too, heavy poaching has reduced the population to remnant numbers although a recent count has not been made. The latest appears to have been in 1980 when 1,202 were recorded on the Nile between the falls and Paraa Lodge. The total for the whole park is probably about the same as in Queen Elizabeth National Park i.e., a few thousand. Other regions in Uganda where substantial numbers of hippopotamus occurred include the Semliki River and lakes Victoria and Kyoga. An educated guess of about 7,000 for the present total population of hippopotamus in the whole country is probably not far wrong.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus have a wide distribution in DR Congo including some in the north-west of the country although the bulk is in the east, where they occur around Epulu and Wamba and along some of the larger rivers in the Ituri Forest. Other populations occur on the Zaire River (Yangabi), Bomu River and elsewhere in several national parks including Garamba, Kundelungu, Salonga, Upemba and Virunga. The latter contains the greatest concentration with a total of 22,875 estimated from a 1988 aerial count made by C. Mackie, who with K. Hillman Smith also recorded 2,851 in Garamba National Park in 1988. In round figures, these counts suggest a total of some 26,000 Common Hippopotamus for the two parks. Numbers elsewhere in DR Congo probably do not amount to more than a few thousand, perhaps bringing the country-wide total up to about 30,000.<br/><br/>There are not many Common Hippopotamus in the remaining East African countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Numbers on the Akagera River have been mentioned above in the section on Tanzania and there are probably still a few in wallows within the Akagera National Park or Mutara Game Reserve but no recent information has been received. Common Hippopotamus occur in Burundi on the Malagarazi, Ruvubu and Rusizi Rivers but there are conflicting reports over numbers. P. Chardonnet reports good populations numbered in hundreds and P. C. Trenchard puts the total on these rivers as over 1,000 as a conservative estimate. K. M. Doyle, however, casts doubt on these figures, for along a 120 km stretch of the Ruvubu River where several hundred were reported by P. Chardonnet, he recorded only 39 animals, all but two within the Ruvubu National Park, although there may have been more in wallows etc. away from the river, which were not surveyed.<br/><br/>Although there are many gaps in the data, the above analysis suggests that there could be as many as 70,000 Common Hippopotamus in the east African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong><br/>Southern Africa also has flourishing populations, with Zambia containing the biggest population, 40,000, of any country in Africa. Others with large numbers include Mozambique (16,000–20,500), Malawi (10,000), Zimbabwe (6,900) and South Africa (5,000). The total in the whole of the region may be around 80,000. <br/><br/>No information has been received from Angola. According to Sidney (1965), the Common Hippopotamus was widespread throughout Angola particularly in the east on the Cunene, Cubango, Cuando, Cuanza, Longa and Zambezi Rivers.  <br/><br/>There are probably more Common Hippopotamus in Zambia than in any other single country. F. E. C. Munyenyembe puts the country-wide total at 40,000 with 20-25,000 in the Luangwa Valley according to R. H. V. Bell. They are reported to be widespread on the Kafue Flats and in Lochinvar National Park. Neighbouring Malawi, although small, is also densely populated with Common Hippopotamus, which occur on all rivers and lakes of sufficient size. The main concentrations are at Elephant Marsh (lower Shire River), the south-west arm of Lake Malawi, Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe in Liwonde National Park. R. H. V. Bell makes a guess that there are some 10,000 Common Hippopotamus in the whole of Malawi. Further south in Zimbabwe, the species is still common. It is found on most of the large rivers particularly the Limpopo. Zambezi and the Sabi/Lundi systems. It is also found in smaller rivers and dams where there is permanent water. Some wander over long distances to provide isolated records. The only estimate for the country-wide total is that made by R. B. Martin on the basis of some limited counts, which have revealed some dense populations e.g. 2,000 on a 50-km section of the Zambezi. His estimate is 6,900, of which 5,530 occur in national parks or reserves, 1,020 on communal lands and 350 elsewhere.<br/><br/>A surprising number of Common Hippopotamus appear to have survived in Mozambique, at least up to 1986, despite the recent civil strife. The species is still widely distributed throughout the country and is present on most river systems. Several national parks and reserves contain hippopotamus although only Gorongosa, with about 2,000, has a sizeable population. L. Tello's estimate made in 1986 year puts the total at between 16,000 and 20,500 for the country as a whole with most (10,000 -12,000) in the Zambezi Wildlife Utilization Area, which includes Marromeu Reserve and four safari hunting blocks. It is also contiguous with the Gorongosa National Park. This is the only region where numbers have increased (by some 20% since 1974). Elsewhere there has been a decline, except in Tete Province, whose population of between 1,500 and 2,500 is said to be stable.<br/><br/>Namibia is too dry to support many Common Hippos except in the north, where the species is present in some numbers on the Cuando and Zambezi Rivers in the Caprivi Strip. Elsewhere it occurs along the boundary with Angola on the Okavango River. Botswana is also too dry, except in the north of the country, where some animals occur in the Okavango Delta and in the Chobe/Linyati River system. A few (18+) exist on the Limpopo in the east. Outside this area, a small population may still exist near Ghanzi although some observers think this is unlikely. C. A. Spinage puts the total in northern Botswana at 1,600 in the wet season and 500 in the dry.<br/><br/>Common Hippopotamus are confined to the north-east of the country in the Republic of South Africa, mainly in the Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North West provinces and the northern tip of KwaZulu-Natal. Most of them are in the Kruger National Park in perennial rivers, dams and the larger pools of seasonal rivers. The total counted in the park in 1989 was 2,761 with 2,575 in rivers and 191 in dams and pools. R. H. Taylor gives a total (for 1986) of 1,264 for KwaZulu-Natal, with the largest concentration (595) on Lake St Lucia, but he suggests a better estimate of 1,423 averaged over the five years 1982-1986. Those in kwaZulu-Natal outside the Kruger National Park are mainly confined to the large rivers in the eastern and northern regions of the province. These figures suggest that there are approaching 5,000 Common Hippopotamus in the country as a whole.<br/><br/>It is not possible to provide a total for the whole of southern Africa because of the lack of data from Angola, which used to support large populations and may do so still, although the disturbed political situation in the country makes it more likely that most hippopotamus have been shot. Assuming the worst and that only a few hundred remain in Angola, a very rough estimate for the regional total would be 80,000.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.	eng
10103	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The primary threats to Common Hippos are illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. Illegal or unregulated hunting of Common Hippos has been found to be particularly high in areas of civil unrest (Kayanja 1989; Shoumatoff 2000; Hillman Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). A recent field survey found that Common Hippo populations in DR Congo have declined more than 95% as a result of intense hunting pressure, during more than eight years of civil unrest and fighting (Hillman Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003). Widespread poaching for meat has also been reported from Burundi and Ivory Coast (Associated Press 2003; H. Rainey pers. comm.). In many countries were Common Hippos are found, populations are not confined to protected areas; some of these unprotected areas are included in Table 1. Although it is likely that the majority of the total Common Hippo population occurs in some form of protected area (national park, biosphere, game or forest reserve, sanctuary, conservation area), the proportion of protected Common Hippos likely varies among countries. For countries with a high proportion of Common Hippo populations outside protected areas, the likelihood of persistence is much lower as there is no impediment to hunting or incentive for habitat protection.<br/><br/>Estimates of the amount of Common Hippo ivory illegally exported have also increased. A 1994 assessment by TRAFFIC, the monitoring agency of international trade for the IUCN, reported that illegal trade in hippo ivory increased sharply following the international elephant ivory ban in 1989. Between 1991-1992, approximately 27,000 kg of hippo canine teeth were exported, an increase of 15,000 kg from 1989?1990 estimates (Weiler <em>et al</em>. 1994). In 1997, more than 1,700 hippo teeth en route from Uganda to Hong Kong were seized by customs officials in France (TRAFFIC 1997). Five thousand kilos of hippo teeth (from an estimated 2,000 hippos) of unknown origins were exported from Uganda in 2002 (New Vision 2002).<br/><br/>Common Hippo?s reliance on fresh water habitats appears to put them at odds with human populations and adds to their vulnerability, given the growing pressure on fresh water resources across Africa (WWC 2004). Habitat loss stems from water diversion related to agricultural development (Cole 1992; Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993; Viljoen 1995; Viljoen and Biggs 1998) as well as larger-scale development in and around wetland areas (Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993). Reports of human mortalities from Common Hippo interactions have also increased in recent years. Ten countries reported growing numbers of hippo-human conflicts, in several cases exacerbated by drought conditions.<br/><br/>Although there are several ongoing research projects in captive facilities and with wild populations, little research has focused directly on common hippo conservation. Mwanika <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the genetic consequences of the intense unregulated hunting that occurred in Uganda in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Based on both nuclear and mitochondrial data, they conclude that although populations were reduced to 70% of initial population size, their current levels of genetic diversity are substantial and not a cause for concern. This suggests that for some populations, once the hunting disturbance is removed, recovery from intense hunting is likely and may not result in detrimental long-term population effects.<br/><br/>Lewison (2007) evaluates the relative impacts of the known threats to persistence?habitat loss (from agricultural or larger-scale development) and hunting pressure?on a model population. While accounting for rainfall variability and demographic stochasticity, the model results suggest that combinations of habitat loss and even moderate levels of adult mortality from hunting (1% of adults) can lead to a relatively high probabilities of population declines over the next 30?40 years.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.	eng
10103	threats	Lewison, R. & Oliver, W., 2008	The primary threats to Common Hippos are illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. Illegal or unregulated hunting of Common Hippos has been found to be particularly high in areas of civil unrest (Kayanja 1989; Shoumatoff 2000; Hillman Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). A recent field survey found that Common Hippo populations in DR Congo have declined more than 95% as a result of intense hunting pressure, during more than eight years of civil unrest and fighting (Hillman Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003). Widespread poaching for meat has also been reported from Burundi and Ivory Coast (Associated Press 2003; H. Rainey pers. comm.). In many countries were Common Hippos are found, populations are not confined to protected areas; some of these unprotected areas are included in Table 1. Although it is likely that the majority of the total Common Hippo population occurs in some form of protected area (national park, biosphere, game or forest reserve, sanctuary, conservation area), the proportion of protected Common Hippos likely varies among countries. For countries with a high proportion of Common Hippo populations outside protected areas, the likelihood of persistence is much lower as there is no impediment to hunting or incentive for habitat protection.<br/><br/>Estimates of the amount of Common Hippo ivory illegally exported have also increased. A 1994 assessment by TRAFFIC, the monitoring agency of international trade for the IUCN, reported that illegal trade in hippo ivory increased sharply following the international elephant ivory ban in 1989. Between 1991-1992, approximately 27,000 kg of hippo canine teeth were exported, an increase of 15,000 kg from 1989–1990 estimates (Weiler <em>et al</em>. 1994). In 1997, more than 1,700 hippo teeth en route from Uganda to Hong Kong were seized by customs officials in France (TRAFFIC 1997). Five thousand kilos of hippo teeth (from an estimated 2,000 hippos) of unknown origins were exported from Uganda in 2002 (New Vision 2002).<br/><br/>Common Hippo’s reliance on fresh water habitats appears to put them at odds with human populations and adds to their vulnerability, given the growing pressure on fresh water resources across Africa (WWC 2004). Habitat loss stems from water diversion related to agricultural development (Cole 1992; Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993; Viljoen 1995; Viljoen and Biggs 1998) as well as larger-scale development in and around wetland areas (Jacobsen and Kleynhaus 1993). Reports of human mortalities from Common Hippo interactions have also increased in recent years. Ten countries reported growing numbers of hippo-human conflicts, in several cases exacerbated by drought conditions.<br/><br/>Although there are several ongoing research projects in captive facilities and with wild populations, little research has focused directly on common hippo conservation. Mwanika <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the genetic consequences of the intense unregulated hunting that occurred in Uganda in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Based on both nuclear and mitochondrial data, they conclude that although populations were reduced to 70% of initial population size, their current levels of genetic diversity are substantial and not a cause for concern. This suggests that for some populations, once the hunting disturbance is removed, recovery from intense hunting is likely and may not result in detrimental long-term population effects.<br/><br/>Lewison (2007) evaluates the relative impacts of the known threats to persistence—habitat loss (from agricultural or larger-scale development) and hunting pressure—on a model population. While accounting for rainfall variability and demographic stochasticity, the model results suggest that combinations of habitat loss and even moderate levels of adult mortality from hunting (1% of adults) can lead to a relatively high probabilities of population declines over the next 30–40 years.<br/><br/>Follow link below for Table 1: country information including population status, trend, etc.	eng
10107	conservation	Helgen, K., 2008	Protection of the known sites may be a helpful conservation measure for Biak horseshoe bats, as would additional surveys to determine if the species has a wider range on the island of New Guinea.	eng
10107	distribution	Helgen, K., 2008	Biak horseshoe bats are endemic to Indonesia where they occur on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Gebe, Biak, Supiori, and Numfoor; they have also been reported from the Vogelkop Peninsula on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It has been recorded from 100-300 m asl. in New Guinea (Flannery 1995b).	eng
10107	habitat	Helgen, K., 2008	The Biak horseshoe bat is a cave roosting species recorded from areas of primary tropical moist forest.	eng
10107	population	Helgen, K., 2008	It can be relatively common.	eng
10107	threats	Helgen, K., 2008	Biak horseshoe bats species appear to be restricted to caves for roosting. Disturbance of these sites is a potential threat to this species.	eng
10108	conservation	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.); there are records from G'Niut National Park.	eng
10108	distribution	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore (Botanic Gardens), and northern Borneo where it is only confirmed in Brunei Darussalam and Sabah (Malaysia), but probably also occurs in Kalimantan (Indonesia).	eng
10108	habitat	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species inhabits primary forest, all known records are from lowland areas (C. Francis, T. Kingston and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Malaysia, the species has been reported roosting in small groups of up to 15 individuals, in very large fallen trees with deep hollows (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is found at 100 m asl in lowland areas near to water in Thailand, and is also reported as roosting in trees, not caves (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
10108	population	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It is rare in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), and uncommon in the remainder of its range (C. Francis and T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
10108	threats	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This forest dependent species is affected by deforestation as a result of logging, fires, plantations and agriculture; it does not do well in degraded areas (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
10109	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place, but it occurs in Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. and presumably also in other protected areas across its wide range.	eng
10109	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in a range which extends from Guinea-Bissau in west Africa (also the most northerly record) to northern Uganda (also the most eastern and southerly record) (Simmons 2005). It is a lowland species found below 1,000 m. There are records from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, and it is to be expected in Mali, Benin and Chad.	eng
10109	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is found in the Guinea savanna zone extending southwards into derived savanna and areas of destroyed rainforest (Koopman, Mumford and  Heisterberg 1978; Happold 1987). It does not occur in closed rainforest. It roosts in caves and rocky crevices or on the undersides of boulders, but apparently not in houses (Happold 1987).	eng
10109	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There is little information. The Aba roundleaf bat is thought to be sparsely distributed throughout its range, and to roost in small colonies (approximate group size in the dozens, not hundreds).	eng
10109	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It appears to have taken advantage of forest clearance by moving into formerly forested land.	eng
10110	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Mahanandi Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal. In Southeast Asia, it occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In parts of its range further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10110	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from India and Nepal, eastwards into central and southeastern China, and from much of peninsular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been reported from India (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central, Eastern and Western Nepal) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it is distributed south of the Yangtze river, and has been recorded in Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macao, Guangxi, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Guizhou, Fujian and the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. In South Asia, it has been recorded at elevations of 1,000 to 2,031 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10110	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	In South Asia, this usually low flying species is generally a high altitude species found in montane and bamboo forests (Mistry 1995). It has been recorded roosting either singly or in colonies of several individuals and shares its roosts with other species of bats in subterranean caves, lofts of houses, verandahs of old houses, old temples. It breeds once a year and gives birth to two young (Bates and Harrison 1997). In China, it is considered to be a species found in a variety of habitats. They are known to inhabit caves and a variety of man-made structures. Colonies can number in the hundreds of individuals, and they co-occur with species of <em>Rhinolophus</em> and other bats. In Southeast Asia, the species has been primarily recorded near caves but occurs in quite distant areas from the roosts when foraging.	eng
10110	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	It appears to be fairly common throughout its range.	eng
10110	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural purposes, from mining activities, and disturbance to roosting sites in caves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, cave disturbance is occurring throughout the species' range and it is hunted (presumably for food) in Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand.	eng
10111	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., McKenzie, N. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites for this species. In South Asia, additional studies into the threats to this species are needed.	eng
10111	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., McKenzie, N. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This very widespread species ranges from India, through much of Southeast Asia, to the islands of New Guinea and Australia. In South Asia this species is very widely distributed. It is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands, Orissa and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, North Central, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2006). In Southeast Asia it is distributed from Myanmar, into Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, and from here ranges to Sumatra (Indonesia), northern parts of Borneo (Brunei [possibly], Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines (found throughout with records from Balabac [Hill, 1963], Bohol, Catanduanes, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon [Abra, Benguet (Taylor, 1934), Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, Tarlac provinces], Marinduque [Lawrence, 1939], Maripipi, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan [Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998].), Sulawesi (Indonesia), the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the islands of New Britain and New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from northern and central parts of Australia. It has been recorded up to 1,700 m asl in (New Guinea).	eng
10111	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., McKenzie, N. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in small colonies in lofts of old thatched houses, old disused buildings, disused areas of buildings, mines, tunnels, culverts, wells, hollows of large trees in forested areas, large crevices in walls, caves on sea shores. It is a late flyer with a low, fast and fluttering flight and feeds on small sized coleopterans and mosquitoes. A single young is born after a gestation period of 150-160 days (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from lowland and montane primary and secondary forest, over or associated with limestone (L. Heaney and Balete pers. comm.), where it usually roosts in caves (L. Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Esselstyn and L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) although there is a record from a human-constructed tunnel in lowland secondary forest (Sedlock, 2001). The species is only very rarely found in agricultural areas near to forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea and Australia, it forages in a wide variety of habitats including rainforest, dry woodland, mangroves, dry scrub, euclypt woodland and secondary growth. It roosts in caves and abandoned tunnels. Animals largely roost in small groups but can sometimes be found in groups of several hundred individuals (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). The female gives birth to a single young.	eng
10111	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., McKenzie, N. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is common in its range in South Asia and has been recorded in small colonies of few individuals. Although there are no long-term studies on this species, informal observations reveal that the populations are stable in many localities (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In the Philippines, the species has not been found to be common (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.). It is widespread, but never especially common in the remainder of Southeast Asia (Bates pers. comm.). In Australia, it appears to be a generally uncommon species.	eng
10111	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., McKenzie, N. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia and Australia the species is locally threatened by the disturbance of maternity caves. In the Philippines, the species has probably declined as a result of destruction of lowland forest and disturbance of caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). In the Philippines, as with other cave dwelling bats, there is likely to be some localized hunting for food (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.), however, it is unlikely to be taken for food throughout most of its southeast Asian range (Francis pers. comm.).	eng
10112	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It occurs in the Mount Allen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Garamba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
10112	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	The Benito roundleaf bat has been recorded from Sierra Leone eastwards across the forest zone west and central Africa, as far east as the Sudan/Democratic Republic of Congo border. There are records from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan. A previous report of this species in Central African Republic is in error, though it might occur in the south of that country. In Nigeria, it is widely distributed in the rainforest zone (Happold 1987).	eng
10112	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It can be characterised as a true lowland rainforest species. It roosts singly, in pairs or in very small groups in the cavities of fallen logs, in holes of living trees close to the ground and in road culverts (Happold 1987). It exhibits a definite preference for waterways, rivers and swamps. It does not occur in cleared areas outside forest.	eng
10112	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It has a patchy distribution, typically found in small familial groups, but can be found in groups of up to 20 individuals. There is no information on overall abundance.	eng
10112	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	Habitat loss is the major threat to this species.	eng
10113	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Gumal, M., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
10113	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is found from Thailand to Timor. In the Philippines, the few individuals referred to this species are from Luzon (Camarines Sur province) and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). A specimen from Palawan reported by Allen (1922) was recently re-identified as <em>Hipposideros ater</em>, which is the only report of the species from the island (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
10113	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Gumal, M., 2008	A forest species preferring primary forest, it is not common in disturbed forest areas. It roosts in caves in Peninsular Malaysia (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
10113	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is common in the southeast Asia region and probably widespread in Borneo, although there are no records (C. Francis pers. comm.). The status of the Philippines population is unknown (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10113	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Gumal, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is sensitive to deforestation.	eng
10114	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The single record for <em>H. breviceps</em> is not within a protected area. Survey work is a priority for this species.	eng
10114	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality (described in 1941) on North Pagai in the Mentawai Islands, Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
10114	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is colonial and live in caves in forested areas. It is probably insectivorous.	eng
10114	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known; it is only known from one specimen.	eng
10114	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
10115	conservation	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No specific conservation measures in place. Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10115	conservation	Kock, D., Palmeirim, J., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No specific conservation measures in place. Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10115	distribution	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A very wide ranging species, occurring from the south-western Arabian Peninsula (including Yemen) and across most of sub-Saharan Africa (except for central forested regions) (Simmons 2005). This species has also been recorded in southern Algeria, central Niger, eastern Chad, the Senegal/Mauritania border. <em>H. caffer tephrus</em> is confined to the coastal areas of northern Morocco. A supposed record from southern Algeria requires confirmation. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,500 m in this area.	eng
10115	distribution	Kock, D., Palmeirim, J., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A very wide ranging species, occurring from the south-western Arabian Peninsula (including Yemen) and across most of sub-Saharan Africa (except for central forested regions) (Simmons 2005). This species has also been recorded in southern Algeria, central Niger, eastern Chad, the Senegal/Mauritania border. <em>H. caffer tephrus</em> is confined to the coastal areas of northern Morocco. A supposed record from southern Algeria requires confirmation. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,500 m in this area.	eng
10115	habitat	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species occurs in savanna, bushveld and coastal forest, and is usually associated with rivers and other water resources (Taylor 2000), provided there are caves or buildings where it can roost during the day (Happold 1987). Colony size varies from small to medium-sized groups of tens or hundreds of individuals (Taylor 2000), exceptionally up to 500,000 (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).	eng
10115	habitat	Kock, D., Palmeirim, J., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species occurs in savanna, bushveld and coastal forest, and is usually associated with rivers and other water resources (Taylor 2000), provided there are caves or buildings where it can roost during the day (Happold 1987). Colony size varies from small to medium-sized groups of tens or hundreds of individuals (Taylor 2000), exceptionally up to 500,000 (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).	eng
10115	population	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A common and numerous species. Sundevall's roundleaf bats are extremely gregarious and capable of forming huge colonies where there is adequate roosting space. At Shagunu (Menzies 1973) a colony of about 1,000 individuals inhabited a cave five meters wide, 1-2 m high and 10-15 m deep. In Gabon they live in colonies of 200-1,000 and one exceptionally large cave contained an estimated 500,000 bats (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).	eng
10115	population	Kock, D., Palmeirim, J., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A common and numerous species. Sundevall's roundleaf bats are extremely gregarious and capable of forming huge colonies where there is adequate roosting space. At Shagunu (Menzies 1973) a colony of about 1,000 individuals inhabited a cave five meters wide, 1-2 m high and 10-15 m deep. In Gabon they live in colonies of 200-1,000 and one exceptionally large cave contained an estimated 500,000 bats (Brosset 1966; Happold 1987).	eng
10115	threats	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Human disturbance to roosting sites (caves) could have a negative effect.	eng
10115	threats	Kock, D., Palmeirim, J., Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Human disturbance to roosting sites (caves) could have a negative effect.	eng
10116	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	A significant population of this species is present in the Balek Wildlife Sanctuary, and it has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.). Additional important roosting sites should be protected to ensure the security of the species.	eng
10116	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This widespread species is present on Yapen Island (Indonesia); part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Louisade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea); and throughout many of the Solomon Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It is predominantly found in the lowlands from 0-600 m asl., but has been found up to 1,000 m (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
10116	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species has been recorded roosting in many caves and tunnels. It forms populations of tens of animals to several thousand individuals. The population at the Balek Wildlife Sanctuary in Madang Province (Papua New Guinea) consists of several thousand animals (Bonaccorso 1998). Females are presumed to give birth to one or two young annually. The foraging habitats are unknown, but cave roosts have been found in forested areas and foraging may occur along rivers (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
10116	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
10116	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
10117	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	None conservation measures are currently in place. It is not known from any protected areas. Taxonomic studies are urgently needed to determine whether or not the three recorded localities all refer to the same species.	eng
10117	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	On the basis of current knowledge, this species is known only from three localities: Buea in Cameroon (type locality); Shabunda in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; and at the Kakamega Forest in western Kenya close to Lake Victoria. If it is a single species, then it is likely to be found in future in intervening locations. Its elevational range is from sea-level to 500 m, and probably higher.	eng
10117	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Little known about this species. The Kakamega specimen was captured in 'Intermediate Evergreen Forest' (Schlitter <em>et al.</em> 1986). The original specimens were taken from a hollow tree (Eisentraut 1963).	eng
10117	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Very little known about the species. It is known form  only three records in a general region that is not widely surveyed.	eng
10117	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	If it is a forest-dependent species, then it is probably suffering from ongoing forest loss. If future taxonomic studies show it to be restricted to Mount Cameroon, then it could be seriously threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
10118	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	In view of its wide range it is presumed to be present in some protected areas. In the Philippines, there is a need for further appropriate surveys on Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Protection of forest around cave complexes is required and particularly so in Borneo.	eng
10118	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This widespread species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (where it is possibly extinct), through the island of Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands (Indonesia), to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines, Sulawesi (Indonesia), a number of the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Kai Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), Yapen Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), in scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), through the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), on Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, through Vanuatu (Jenkins and Hill 1981) to the Cape Peninsula in northeastern Queensland, Australia. In the Philippines records are from Mindanao (Davao del Sur and Maguindanao Provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and Palawan (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
10118	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Found at low elevation habitats between sea level to 1,400 m asl (K. Helgen pers. comm. 2006). The species is typically tied to caves, but can be found in a variety of habitat types (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest and also from open forest habitats. It roosts in caves (especially large caves), abandoned mines and in hollow trees. Many hundreds of individuals may be encountered at a single roost. The females give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10118	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is generally a common species. In the Philippines, the populations are unknown, the only known records being from the 1946 Philippine expedition on Mindanao (Sanborn 1952), since then there have been no appropriate surveys there (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and probably elsewhere in Borneo the species is a cave dweller in forests and it can be locally abundant in suitable areas.	eng
10118	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by mine visitation and habitat loss in parts of its range, although it is tolerant to a certain level of disturbance.	eng
10119	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas in India such as the Kalakkad Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2006) and from Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). Detailed studies on taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, threats and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, although it is present in a number of protected areas further protection of suitable forest habitat is needed.	eng
10119	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is widely distributed from South Asia into much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species occurs in India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Haryana, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal and Pakistan (Punjab) at elevations ranging from 62 to 1,480 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although it has only been recorded from only a few locations in the region, it is quite widespread (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is found from Myanmar in the west, through parts of Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly Cambodia (presence here needs to be confirmed, G. Csorba pers. comm.) to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here has been recorded on the islands of Sumatra (Indonesia) and parts of Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia). Although there are reports of this species from Philippines, there appears to be no conclusive evidence of the species presence here (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
10119	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. In Southeast Asia, it seems to be a largely lowland species that has been recorded roosting in caves (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia this species roosts in hollows of trees in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The young are born after a gestation period of 180 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10119	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Thailand has been found roosting in groups of up to 30 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is usually captured in small numbers in surveys in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
10119	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is threatened over much of its range by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations for conversion of land to agriculture and as human settlements. It is also facing threat due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10120	conservation	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas (Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National d’Isalo, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre, Parc National de Kirindy-Mite) as well as other forest that are actively managed for conservation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ifticene <em>et al</em>. 2005; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Ranivo and Goodman 2007).	eng
10120	distribution	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it occurs from sea-level to at least 1,350 m above sea level.	eng
10120	habitat	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of vegetation types, including dry deciduous, littoral and gallery forests (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). It roosts in large colonies in caves and in solitary settings on the peripheral branches of large trees (Cardiff 2006; Goodman 2006; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). In sites with extensive networks of underground cavities, <em>H. commersoni</em> only occupies a few of the potential roosting caves (Cardiff 2006) and in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana used rather narrow caves within 100 m of water (Cardiff 2006). It often uses buildings as night roosts or feeding perches. This species is known to use the edge and interiors of relatively intact forest, but has also been caught feeding in and around small villages (Ifticene <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008). Further study is therefore required on its forest dependency, but there is evidence that mature forest trees are an essential habitat resource for <em>H. commersoni</em> in areas without caves (Raharinantenaina <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>It is a specialist beetle predator and appears to be inactive during the austral winter (Razakarivony <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and may even be migratory (Ranivo and Goodman 2007). Males are significantly larger than females and the latter sex show latitudinal variation in morphology (Ranivo and Goodman 2007).	eng
10120	population	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There is little information available on population size, but this species can roost in colonies of many thousand individuals.	eng
10120	threats	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	Besides habitat loss, it is also threatened by hunting and is particularly vulnerable at roosting sites where bats are hunted as they emerge at dusk (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008; Jenkins and Racey in press). In the extreme south-west of Madagascar, there were an estimated 140,000 individuals harvested for food annually between January and March (Goodman 2006). This hunting is thought to be occur throughout western Madagascar in areas where local people live in close proximity to roosting colonies of <em>H. commersoni</em> (Jenkins and Racey in press).	eng
10121	conservation	Gomez, R., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Bennett, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further surveys for the large Mindanao leaf-nosed bat to determine its distribution, including in the vicinity of the type locality, as it is possible that this species is seriously threatened.	eng
10121	distribution	Gomez, R., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Bennett, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The large Mindanao leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines. It is known for certain only from the holotype (now destroyed (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002)) from Mainit, Surigao del Norte province, Mindanao (Peters 1871). One individual, believed to refer to this, species was captured in the lowland dipterocarp forest, to the south of the type locality, on Mount Hilong-hilong (Cantilan, Surigao del Sur) (Gomez in litt. 2007). There are records that might refer to this species from Polillo, with recent records (6 captures) from a cave near the town of Burdeos, Polillo Island, and a specimen (no. 4491) exists in the Philippines National Museum (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10121	habitat	Gomez, R., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Bennett, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The habitat and ecology of <em>H. coronatus</em> are not well known. The records from Mindanao and Polillo Island were from a cave in lowland forest over limestone (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002; Gomez in litt. 2007).	eng
10121	population	Gomez, R., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Bennett, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The population status of <em>H. coronatus</em> is unknown as it was known only from the holotype (Peters 1871) until early 2000s when several individuals were found on Polillo island (Bennett <em>et al.</em> 2002), and more recently on Mindanao. Surveys using harp traps, mist nets and bat detectors in caves across the island have not located further records of the species (D. Bennett pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10121	threats	Gomez, R., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Bennett, D. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The vicinity of the type locality is mostly deforested, although there is some secondary-growth forest (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006). The recent records from a cave on Polillo Island are in an area where there are continuing threats from human disturbance to the roost and surrounding habitat. Habitat has been lost at a high rate in the past and it is inferred that deforestation will continue, these are likely to cause local population extinctions. <em>H. coronatus</em> is believed to be subject to hunting pressure in parts of its range.	eng
10122	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
10122	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from five localities in the Telefomin area of Sandaun and Western Provinces, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has also been collected in the Tembagapura area of Papua Province, Indonesia (K. Helgen pers. comm.). Animals in the Telefomin area have been collected up to 1,800 m asl. Occurs down to 1,400 m asl, and the Snow Mountains record is from 2,700 m.	eng
10122	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded in deep limestone cave complexes. It may be a solitary animal, or it may aggregate in small groups (Bonaccorso 1998). The species probably forages in forested habitat (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
10122	population	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Bonaccorso (1998) states that it is a rare species, but Flannery (1995) suggests that it is common in deep caves at 1,600 to 1,800 m asl. It is likely to be locally common.	eng
10122	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is currently known from very few roosting sites, and it is unclear if there are any threats to these localities.	eng
10123	conservation	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Gumal, M., 2008	There is a need for survey and research work to improve the understanding of ecology and population biology of these bats.	eng
10123	distribution	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Gumal, M., 2008	The type locality for <em>H. coxi</em> is at 1,280 m asl on Mount Penrisen, south west Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia (Simmons 2005).	eng
10123	habitat	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Gumal, M., 2008	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
10123	population	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Gumal, M., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
10123	threats	Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Gumal, M., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
10124	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known whether this species is present in any protected areas. Knowledge of this species is extremely poor, additional taxonomic and survey work are required.	eng
10124	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is recorded from Timor, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).	eng
10124	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Csorba, G., 2008	There is little information available about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species. Presumably, it is found in primary forest.	eng
10124	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Csorba, G., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10124	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Csorba, G., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10125	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any important roosting sites, and to maintain suitable foarging habitat in the vicinity of these. Further field surveys are needed to locate additional populations of this species, and to determine if the species is present in Nigeria.	eng
10125	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species is restricted to southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (both Bioko island and Rio Muni). The species might be present in Nigeria, however, this needs confirmation. It is a lowland species is found at elevations from sea-level to 500 m.	eng
10125	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This little known species is associated with tropical lowland moist forest, and is not present in areas of cleared forest. It is a cave roosting species.	eng
10125	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species has been rarely recorded and is known only from a few locations.	eng
10125	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	Threats to this species include ongoing forest loss, and disturbance of cave roosting sites. A number of the few known roosts have already been deserted presumably because of disturbance.	eng
10126	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	The roosting habits of this bat requires very large hollow trees, so conservation of these must be a priority. It is found in some protected areas, for example Kwamgumi Forest Reserve in Tanzania, and the Udzungwa Mountains National Park of Tanzania.	eng
10126	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This species has been widely recorded over much of West Africa and Central Africa, with a few scattered records from East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most countries in West Africa, to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic and Rwanda, being recorded from East Africa in southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya, with an isolated population in southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania (Decher and Fahr 2005). It has been collected at Tongwe Forest near Tanga and Kwamgumi Forest Reserve in Tanzania (K. Howell pers. comm. 2004). There is a dubious record from the border area of Chad and the Central African Republic. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,000 m.	eng
10126	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	Although this bat is often considered to be a forest species (Happold 1987), it can be found far into the forest–savanna mosaic in many parts of its range (Decher and Fahr 2005). In Nigeria, it has only been recorded from tropical moist forest. It does not occur in heavily degraded areas. The species roosts singly, in pairs or in small groups of up to 12 individuals in cavities in hollow standing trees. They prefer cavities as high as possible above the ground and sometimes share these with flying squirrels (Happold 1987).	eng
10126	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	It is a reasonably common species in some areas.	eng
10126	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	Although not threatened throughout its range, the species may disappear from many areas that are threatened by deforestation, especially on the extreme limits of its distribution (Decher and Fahr 2005).	eng
10127	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	A suitable conservation measure for Makira horseshoe bats would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
10127	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	The Makira horseshoe bat is restricted to the island of Makira (also called "San Cristobal") in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995).	eng
10127	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	It roosts in caves and may occur in great numbers at some sites (Flannery 1995).	eng
10127	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	It appears to be a common species on Makira (Flannery 1995).	eng
10127	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is restricted to relatively few maternity caves (Flannery 1995), which are susceptible to disturbance. Cyclones are a threat in the eastern Solomon Islands and because this species is only known from one island, a single storm event could have a large impact on the species.	eng
10128	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this taxon in India. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Protection of roost site from edible swift nest collectors is highly recommended (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia and Australia it is present in a number of protected areas. Important maternity roosts should be identified and protected. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
10128	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J. & Heaney, L., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Nicobar Islands of India through Southeast Asia to Australia. On the Nicobar Islands, the endemic subspecies <em>H. d. nicobarensis</em> is present on the islands of Bompuka, Katchal, Tillangchong, Tressa and Trinket (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from southern Myanmar, into Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern Lao PDR, to Peninsular Malaysia, and from here to much of Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Sulawesi), East Timor, the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it is found in all regions (sea level to 900 m asl) except the Batanes/Babuyan region. Specimens have been collected from the Philippines islands of Bohol, Busuanga, Calauit, Catanduanes, Cebu (Lawrence, 1939), Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon [Benguet (Taylor, 1934), Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Laguna, Nueva Vizcaya, Pampanga, Quezon, Rizal (Taylor, 1934) provinces], Mindanao [Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, South Cotabato (Sanborn, 1952), Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur (Taylor, 1934)], Mindoro (Lawrence, 1939), Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Samar, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). There are some records from the island of Tawi-tawi (K. Helgen pers. comm.). On the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) it is found in scattered localities and it is present throughout much of the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). The species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville and Buka (Papua New Guinea), and from many of the Solomon Islands. It is present in Australia where it is largely restricted to the rainforests of northern Queensland (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found from sea level to 1,300 m asl.	eng
10128	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J. & Heaney, L., 2008	On the Nicobar Islands it is colonial and roosts in small to large colonies, hanging singly from high chambers in cave roofs and roosts with other Hipposideros spp. (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It feeds on beetles. It is a low flier in gallery forests, over water pools and also found in disturbed forests (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). A single young is born in a separate maternity roost (Bates and Harrison 1997), and pregnant females have been observed in the month of March (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia, the species occurs in primary forest and disturbed lowland forest areas, including riparian areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). And roosts in hollow trees, caves and man-made tunnels (Heaney <em>et al.</em> in press; Lepiten, 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Sanborn, 1952). Animals have been collected from trees within agricultural areas (J. Esselstyn and L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea and Australia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, dry open woodland, rural gardens and plantations (Bonaccorso 1998). The species roosts in caves, disused mines, hollow trees and old buildings. The females give birth to a single young (Bonaccorso 1998). Maternity colonies may consist of several thousand animals (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10128	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J. & Heaney, L., 2008	The Nicobar subspecies, <em>H.d. nicobarensis</em>, is very common and has been found to roost in large colonies of over 500 bats to small colonies of over 30 bats on four islands of Nicobar Islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).  It was first recorded from a cave on Trinket Island, but it does not occur on that island anymore (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003), the reason for this disappearance is unknown. In the Philippines this species is considered to be locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). There can be large roosts or thousands or more individuals, though the species often roost in small numbers (K. Helgen and L. Heaney pers. comm.). In New Guinea it is a relatively common species (Flannery 1995).	eng
10128	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J. & Heaney, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species. The Nicobar subspecies is threatened by edible swiftlet nest collection activities in caves; although the reason for its disappearance from one cave is unknown (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Southeast Asia it is likely to be locally threatened by hunting and cave exploitation. In the Australian range some threats include habitat loss due to disturbance, loss of roosting sites, and loss of foraging habitat to agriculture (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
10129	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, population numbers, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
10129	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	The fierce leaf-nosed bat is present on the islands of Boungainville (Papua New Guinea), Guadacanal, Malaita, New Georgia, San Jorge, and Santa Isabel (all in the Solomon Islands). On Bougainville Island it is found from sea level to 400 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10129	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	This is a cave roosting species. Animals may be found roosting singly or in small groups of up to 12 individuals (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10129	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	The fierce leaf-nosed bat appears to be uncommon, found in a few sites, and with few individuals at each site (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10129	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	Threats to this species include lowland deforestation and cave disturbance.	eng
10130	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas within its range.	eng
10130	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	The species occurs in Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. It is recorded from Sabah (Yasuma and Andau 2000), and was recently found in the Crocker Range, Sabah (E. Meijaard pers. comm.). All known specimens are from Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo, but it is probably widespread across the island.	eng
10130	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	It occurs at low densities in primary forest and is not known from disturbed areas.	eng
10130	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	It is known from only a few locations, the species appears to be widespread but occurs at very low densities.	eng
10130	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	Populations have declined with ongoing forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires.	eng
10131	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is a need to protect roost sites for this species, and overall habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. The viability of establishing captive-breeding colonies for this species should be assessed. Public awareness campaigns need to be taken up to mitigate further threats to this highly restricted range species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10131	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to India and is known only from the villages of Katangi, Katanga and Richhai in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh (Khajuria 1970). Surveys in the early 1990s in Madhya Pradesh by the Zoological Survey of India did not record this species in places other than the above (M.K. Ghosh and Tarapada Bhattacharyya  pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. The extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² based on the likely foraging radius of 10 km² and roost fidelity of similar sized hipposiderid species (Brosset 1966, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10131	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is colonial, roosting in colonies of several individuals in caves both small and large and is also found beneath large granite boulders and shares its roost with other species of bats. The foraging habitat is dry tropical forest. It feeds on beetles, crickets, and other small insects (Khajuria 1970, Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10131	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Khajuria (1970) reported it to be uncommon and reported this species from six different roosts in three different villages in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh.	eng
10131	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely due to stone quarrying operations (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October 2007). It might additionally be threatened by general disturbance of roosting caves.	eng
10132	conservation	Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas.	eng
10132	distribution	Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs throughout Borneo and much of Peninsular Malaysia (Simmons 2005). The type specimen was collected from Mount Mulu, Baram, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo.	eng
10132	habitat	Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland rainforests. It roosts in limestone caves, under rocks and in hollow trees (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
10132	population	Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in small numbers.	eng
10132	threats	Francis, C. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation as a result of logging, expanding agriculture and plantations, and fires, as well as limestone extraction represent threats to this species.	eng
10133	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	A suitable conservation measure for this poorly-known species would be the protection of the few known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
10133	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This recently described species has been recorded from three nearby localities in the Bewani Mountains of Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been found at elevations of 200 to 300 m asl.	eng
10133	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species roosts in caves in low hills and has been observed foraging for insects in rural villages and gardens (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).	eng
10133	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
10133	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is currently known from only a few sites. It is unclear whether or not it is threatened at these localities.	eng
10134	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this bat, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. There is a specific need to maintain large trees as roosting sites for the species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and possible additional threats to this species.	eng
10134	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	Populations of bats allocated to this species have been recorded in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, and has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. In Central Africa it is distributed in southern Cameroon, with scattered records from Gabon, Central African Republic, northern parts of Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. It is generally a lowland species, being recorded up to 500 m asl.	eng
10134	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	This species is associated with primary tropical lowland moist forest. It does not appear to be present in degraded forest. Animals have been found roosting in hollow trees.	eng
10134	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	There is little information on its overall abundance. It is usually found in small groups, but sometimes in congregations of up two hundred bats.	eng
10134	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation or degradation of its habitat. Presumably this is largely a result of logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
10135	conservation	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India including the Bhimashakar Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra and is very likely to be found in other protected areas too in the range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness is needed to mitigate future threats to populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10135	distribution	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is very widely distributed in South Asia in Afghanistan (Laghman and Nangarhar provinces), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh), Nepal (Central Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,600 m asl. It has been recorded from western Yunnan in China (Smith and Xie 2008). Records of this species from Viet Nam from are probably erroneous, based on misidentified <em>Hipposideros pomona</em> (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).	eng
10135	habitat	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species can be found in a variety of habitats from arid regions to thick forests. It roosts in colonies of a few to large number of individuals in old dilapidated buildings, temples, cellars, caves and old wells. It is a late flyer with a slow, fluttering and low flight and feeds on cockroaches and coleopterans. A single young is born after a gestation period of 150-160 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10135	population	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widespread and common throughout its range and the population seems to be stable and doing well.	eng
10135	threats	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	Some populations of this species are affected by habitat loss largely due to tourism related developmental activities such as fumigation and cave sealing in the Ajanta-Ellora Cave Complex, and from stone mining and quarrying (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10136	conservation	Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Banks, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This has been recorded from a number of protected areas. In India, the species has been recorded from the Melghat Tiger Reserve, Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu, 2004). In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness is needed to mitigate future threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10136	distribution	Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Banks, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Sylhet and Rajshahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). It is very widely distributed and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). On mainland Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from western and southern Thailand (including Terutau Island), Cambodia (four specimens have been recorded but no exact localities are available [Borissenko and Kruskop 2003]), southern Lao PDR (Francis pers. comm.), southern Viet Nam, and Peninsular Malaysia (including Penang Island). Within insular Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Bangka and Java (all to Indonesia), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and from the island of Sanana in the Sula Islands (Indonesia) (Flannery 1995). There is a record from the island of Bali (Indonesia) but it may be erroneous (Kock and Dobat 2000).	eng
10136	habitat	Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Banks, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in dry to wet lowland forests, but have also been recorded from rubber estates in Southeast Asia. This species roosts in small colonies or family units in old mines, cracks, culverts and crevices in old buildings, caves, among large boulders, overhanging ledges, tunnels, dungeons, forts, temples and churches. On Borneo it has been found roosting in caves in small groups with <em>H. cervinus</em>, as well as in colonies of hundreds of animals (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998). On Sanana Island it has been found in a colony of several hundred individuals sharing a large cave with six other bat species (Flannnery 1995). It is a low flier and feeds on beetles and other insects (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Sri Lanka, the species is observed to change roost sites frequently (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.).	eng
10136	population	Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Banks, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species, though widespread throughout its range in South Asia, is not very common as the localities are scattered and the colony size is small. The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Bates and Harrison (1997) call this a comparatively rare bat as only isolated individuals have been recorded. In Southeast Asia this species is never abundant, but is widespread and not rare.	eng
10136	threats	Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Banks, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the foraging grounds of this species are threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and  conversion of land for agriculture. It is also threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites and disturbance to caves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10137	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Walston, J., 2008	Surveys are required to determine if the species occurs in additional locations, and areas of suitable habitat require protection (S Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
10137	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Walston, J., 2008	This species is known from a few localities in central and southern Thailand (Lop Buri, Tha Woong, Khao Sa Moa Khan), further surveys are required to determine if it is in more locations. The two southern localities on the range map may be historical as the entrances to the caves have been blocked, however, it is not known whether the species currently occurs in nearby caves (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
10137	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Walston, J., 2008	The species requires a very specific roosting habitat of caves with small entrances which are underground, and this type of cave is rare (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species does not travel more than 2 km from the cave to forage. It is unlikely that there is any mix between the known populations as the areas between them are rice fields which are unsuitable for the species. The closest populations are more than 150 km apart (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10137	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Walston, J., 2008	The current total population estimate for the species for the known colonies is 1,000-1,400 individuals (Waengsothorn <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10137	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Walston, J., 2008	There has been a loss of limestone habitat in the area due to limestone mining (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In addition most known populations are outside protected areas and the forest habitat is highly disturbed due to livestock and deforestation (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Known localities are surrounded by rice fields where pesticide use is high. The roosts of the species are disturbed due to harvesting of guano and the species is sensitive to this. It is hunted in some parts of its range for food.	eng
10138	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Studies in taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and population monitoring are required immediately. There is a need to identify and protect key roosting caves for this species, and general habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration is also needed. Public awareness about the endemicity and status of this species is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10138	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to India and is presently known only from the two localities of Hanumanahalli and Theralli, in Kolar District, Karnataka State (Kock and Bhat 1994). It has not been recorded from additional nearby localities despite surveys by K.S. Sreepada (surveys from 1993 to 1997) and R. Krishnan (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). It has been recorded from 500 to 570 m asl. The extent of occurrence is 101-5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km² because of a likely foraging radius of 10 km² based on foraging ecology and roost fidelity of similar sized hipposiderid species (Brosset 1966, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10138	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it roosts in granite caves in subterranean habitats and shares its roosts with other hipposiderid species such as <em>H. ater</em>, <em>H. fulvus</em> and <em>H. speoris</em> (Kock and Bhat 1994, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10138	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10138	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by mining activities and loss of foraging habitats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10139	conservation	Kingston, T., 2008	It might occur in protected areas, particularly Dumoga Bone National Park situated to the east of Gorontalo. This species is a priority for survey work to determine its range and current population status.	eng
10139	distribution	Kingston, T., 2008	The type specimen of this species was collected from Poso in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Laurie and Hill 1954). It is only known from two more localities in northern Sulawesi: these were collected by Gorontalo in 1875 and Minahassa in 1877 (Feiler 1981).	eng
10139	habitat	Kingston, T., 2008	This species belongs to the <em>diadema</em> species group (Simmons 2005) and is likely to have similar biology to other bats in this group.  It probably roosts in caves or large colonies and may forage in more open areas (Flannery 1995).	eng
10139	population	Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Both specimens from northern Sulawesi reported by Feiler 1981 were collected in the 1870s. The date of the collection of the holotype is not known but pre-dates 1925 (Laurie and Hill 1954). No more recent records are known.	eng
10139	threats	Kingston, T., 2008	There is no information about threats to this species.	eng
10140	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve important roosts for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10140	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This West African endemic is closely association with caves. It has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Nigeria (Hayman, 1947; Rosevear, 1965; Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>., 1998). It is found between sea level and 1,400 m asl.	eng
10140	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is associated with caves and similar roost sites, including boulder caves, true caves, and mine shafts. It has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats ranging from tropical moist forest to arid Sahel vegetation, and from lowland areas into montane regions.	eng
10140	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species forms roosts of only a few animals, usually in the dozens rather than hundreds. There is a pronounced geographic morphological variation between populations, suggesting that there may be little movement of animals between populations.	eng
10140	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is generally threatened by the disturbance of roosting caves, and might additionally be threatened by subsistence hunting although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
10141	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is present within the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve World Heritage Site. There is a need to enforce the protection of this area. Additional surveys are needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10141	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Nimba in the border area of Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. On Mount Nimba it has been recorded from the localities of Grotte de Blandé and Pierré Richaud in Guinea. Former records from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon were misidentified (see Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995). It has been recorded between 500 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
10141	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The natural history of this species is still quite poorly known. It has only been recorded with certainty from two localities on Mount Nimba, one in lowland tropical moist forest, and a second in afromontane savanna. It has been collected roosting within a natural cave (Grotte de Blandé) and a small, abandoned mining tunnel (Pierré Richaud). It is not known with certainty if the species mainly, or exclusively, roosts in caves and similar habitats (J. Fahr pers. comm.).	eng
10141	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Only six specimens are currently known from two localities.	eng
10141	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is believed to be highly threatened because of extensive iron ore mining activities underway, and planned, within its limited range on Mount Nimba. It is probably additionally threatened by general deforestation in parts of its range. Indiscriminate subsistence hunting of bats for food occurs in caves on Mount Nimba and likely impacts this species.	eng
10142	conservation	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place. The species has been recorded from protected areas in India including the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Srinivasulu and Nagulu 2002) and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Harshey and Chandra 2001). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Public awareness campaigns are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10142	distribution	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia where it is widely distributed. It is presently known from Bangladesh (Khulna division) (Khan 2001), India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan Tripura and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).  It has been recoded from sea level to an elevation of around 1,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10142	habitat	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a colonial species that roosts in small (50 individuals) to very large (several thousand individuals) colonies in caves, old disused tunnels, old temples and cellars under old buildings. It has been recorded sharing its roosting sites with <em>Megaderma lyra</em>, and other species of bats (Bates and Harrison 1997, C. Srinivasulu per. obs. 28.9.07). The species has been found in association with other bats including <em>Hipposideros fulvus</em>, <em>H. galeritus</em>, <em>H. speoris</em>, <em>Miniopterus schrebersii</em>, <em>Rhinolophus rouxi</em> and <em>Rousettus leschenaulti</em> in Sri Lanka (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.). In Meghalaya it is found in mixed colonies of <em>Hipposideros armiger</em>, <em>Ia io</em>, <em>Miniopterus schrebersii</em>, <em>Myotis blythii</em>, <em>Rhinolophus pearsonii</em> and <em>Rousettus leschenaulti</em> (A. Tabah pers. comm.). It occurs in southern dry zone, lower foothills and wet zone hills of Sri Lanka (Phillips 1980).  It is an early and high flyer, and feeds on large beetles (coleopterans) and other large and hard bodied insects. This species breeds once a year and gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of 260 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10142	population	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although widely distributed, it is known from only a few locations spread across India and Sri Lanka (Bates and Harrison 1997).  Population and trends are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Roost counts in Sri Lanka indicated 11,350 individuals at a single study area (W. Yapa and P.C.M.B. Digana pers. comm.) and around 6,000 individuals in Meghalaya (A. Tabah pers. comm.)	eng
10142	threats	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land for agricultural use, for plantation of cash crops and for human settlements. It is very sensitive to disturbance to roosting sites and is hunted for local consumption and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10143	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. In South Asia, it has been recorded from protected areas in India like Orang National Park in Assam. Surveys, habitat management, population monitoring are important recommendations. In areas where this taxon is facing threat due to mining activities public awareness is needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.	eng
10143	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species complex is widely distributed, ranging from northeastern South Asia, throughout much of southern China and mainland Southeast Asia, into several islands within insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions) and India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Hainan island, Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008). On mainland Southeast Asia, it is distributed widely across Myanmar (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), ranging into Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. In insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from numerous islands including the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Java, Bali, the Kangean Islands (all to Indonesia) and the southern part of the island of Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia] and possibly Sarawak [Malaysia]). This species has been taken from sea level up to around 2,000 m asl.	eng
10143	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Myanmar it  is found in a variety of habitats from highly disturbed agricultural land to secondary forest, in dry zones and humid areas (P. Bates pers. comm.; K.M. Swe pers. comm.; Bates and Harrison 1997). It is often associated with limestone caves in Myanmar and Indonesia (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). On Peninsular Malaysia, the species has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest (Frances pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species roosts in caves, mine shafts, pagodas and buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found roosting in human habitations (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
10143	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	As currently defined this is a common bat throughout much of its range (Bates and Francis pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species is distributed across three northeastern states of India, but the sightings are sparse and few between. Only two colonies of less than 100 individuals have been recorded in the last decade (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In northern Myanmar, it is one of the more common bats living in big colonies. However, there is a decline in their numbers due to mining and it is estimated to have declined by 10% over the last 10-15 years (K.M. Swe pers. comm.).	eng
10143	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species in northeastern India. The situation in Bangladesh is not known. However, disturbance to roosting sites such as caves by humans may pose a threat to this species as observed in Meghalaya (A. Tabah pers. comm.). In neighbouring Myanmar mining activities in limestone caves for manufacture of cement is a threat to some populations of this species (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It may be affected by hunting in some parts of its range (Francis pers. comm.).	eng
10144	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Recommended actions include prevention of cave disturbance (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10144	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it is recorded only from one individual from Luzon (Isabela province) and one from Mindoro (Balete <em>et al</em>. 1995; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are unverified and poorly documented records of this species from other islands in the Philippines. In Thailand it is usually found below 400 m asl.	eng
10144	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	All known sites are limestone cave areas; the species can survive in degraded forest and a population is known from a forest fragment within a sugar cane plantation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The two known specimens from the Philippines were collected close to sea level in ultrabasic forest, and in an agricultural area near a river (Balete <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
10144	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population status in Malaysia is unknown. In Thailand, two thirds of the known populations are outside protected areas, colonies comprise groups of up to three hundred individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006). A Thai population has undergone a decline from a few hundred individuals to 30 over a 20 year period (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
10144	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is affected by tourism and religious disturbance to the caves, they are also hunted.	eng
10145	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	It is known to occur in some protected areas.	eng
10145	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is found in Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Viet Nam. It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
10145	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	It is associated with caves in limestone areas, the species can occur in disturbed and fragmented areas, including agricultural areas (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
10145	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	This species tends to have small populations at each location. In Thailand, populations are typically comprised of less than a hundred individuals. The species is usually caught as individuals (S. Bumrungsri and P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
10145	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although cave disturbance affects the species throughout its range. In addition it is hunted at least in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
10146	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species possibly occurs in protected areas. Further taxonomic study, especially comparative work with <em>H. pomona</em>, is required to determine the status of this species.	eng
10146	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from three localities in Indonesia: Kangean, southwest Sulawesi and Seram (Simmons 2005).The type locality of <em>H. macrobullatus</em> is Talassa (near Maros) on Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
10146	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is thought to roost in caves and tree hollows. It probably forages in woodland. The altitudinal range is unknown.	eng
10146	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10146	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging and human disturbance of caves represent a threat to this species.	eng
10147	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. Additional survey work is required for this species.  Some of these bats roost in a cave in central Java protected by the government as a tourist attraction.	eng
10147	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is known from the eastern half of Java and Madura below 1,000 m asl. The type locality is Sampang, Madura Island, Indonesia (Simmons 2005). Some survey work has been conducted to the west but this species was not found; it is possible the range may extend further eastward (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).	eng
10147	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is known to roost in limestone caves, in small colonies. It presumably forages in the surrounding forest.	eng
10147	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is common in central Java and is probably stable (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
10147	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	Limestone extraction and forest loss due to logging represent a threat to this species.	eng
10148	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	The protection of major cave roosting sites would be a suitable conservation measure for this species.	eng
10148	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. Within Papua New Guinea it has been recorded in Central, East New Britain, East Sepik, Gulf, Madang, Morobe, New Ireland, Oro, Southern Highlands and Western Provinces. In the Province of Papua, Indonesia it has been recorded from Sorong and Jayapura Districts and is presumed to occur in other areas close to the border with Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b). It ranges from sea level to 380 m asl (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
10148	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species forages by gleaning for insects around dense vegetation in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, sclerophyll forests, and rural gardens. It roosts in groups of up to 50 animals in caves, mines, tunnels, and sometimes in tree hollows.	eng
10148	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
10148	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
10149	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is present within the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve World Heritage Site. There is a need to protect important roost sites and areas of suitable forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
10149	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This West African species has been recorded from seven localities in Guinea, Liberia (central and western uplands), and Côte d'Ivoire. It may range into Sierra Leone and Ghana, however, there are no records from this country (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is a lowland species recorded between sea level and 650 m asl.	eng
10149	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Although the natural history of this species is little-known, it appears to be a associated with undisturbed tropical moist forest. Roost sites include natural caves, boulder caves and overhanging cliffs.	eng
10149	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is generally considered to be a very rare species.	eng
10149	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is threatened by general deforestation, mining operations on Mount Nimba and the disturbance of roosting caves. It is likely harvested for subsistence use as food.	eng
10150	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
10150	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from only a few localities. It has been reported from Eritrea (including the type locality of Keren [Heuglin 1862]), Ethiopia (including Sidamo in southern Ethiopia [Meester and Setzer 1971]), Kenya (where it has been recorded from the localities of Kinangop and Nakuru [Hayman 1954]), Somalia, Djibouti [Legendre 1982; Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2001] and from Jeddah in Saudi Arabia (Gaucher and Brosset 1990). Animals have been reported at elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
10150	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has typically been recorded in dry savanna, coastal shrub and desert, or semi-desert habitats. It is possibly a cave roosting species, however, a number of animals were found in a house at Nakuru, Kenya, by Hayman (1954).	eng
10150	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Little is known about the population of this species. Very few animals have ever been recorded.	eng
10150	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The threats to this species remain poorly known. Its is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and by disturbance of roosting sites.	eng
10151	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Protection of the known sites would be a helpful conservation measure for this species. Additional surveys are needed to determine if the species has a wider range, and whether it occurs in cave habitats. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
10151	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Central, Chimbu, Gulf, Sandaun, and Western Provinces. In the Papua Province, Indonesia it has been recorded from the Lorentz River in Fak-fak District (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It is a lowland species, found from sea level to 1,500 m asl.	eng
10151	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species inhabits lowland tropical forest. It is not known from caves and small groups have been found roosting in hollow trees (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).	eng
10151	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is rarely encountered.	eng
10151	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is currently known from only a few sites. It is unclear whether or not it is threatened at these localities.	eng
10152	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The one specimen was not collected within a protected area. Further studies are needed to determine the taxonomic validity of this species, and if validated, its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats need to be documented.	eng
10152	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality Klang, Selangor, Malaysia.	eng
10152	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	Nothing is known about the habitat preferences and ecology of this species.	eng
10152	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	Known only from a single specimen in Malaysia, which is now unfortunately damaged.	eng
10152	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10153	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Gomez, R., 2008	<em>H. obscurus</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
10153	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Gomez, R., 2008	The Philippine forest leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines. There are records from the islands of Bohol, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Luzon (Benguet, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Pampanga, and Tarlac provinces, though it probably occurs through the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, and South Cotabato provinces), Negros, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, on Mindanao it has recently been more widely: a) in lowland forest on Mount Hamiguitan (Mati, Davao Oriental); b) lowland forest at Cantilan and Carrascal on Mount Hilong-hilong (Surigao del Sur); and c) montane forest on Mount Hilong-hilong (Agusan del Sur) (Gomez in litt. 2007). It is usually found from sea level to 850 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and up to 1,100 m asl on Mount Katanglad (Mindanao) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10153	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Gomez, R., 2008	<em>H. obscurus</em> is dependent on primary and disturbed lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is generally a cave-roosting species although an individual has been recorded roosting in a mine shaft, one in a dark cavity in a tree buttress (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Taylor 1934), and another in a hollow tree (Sanborn 1952; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10153	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Gomez, R., 2008	It is a locally uncommon to common species in primary and disturbed secondary forest (Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the past surveys used mist nets and are likely to have under-recorded the number of individuals, but new research using harp traps and bat detectors has found <em>H. obscurus</em> to be more common than previously detected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). This species seem to be more common at the lowland forest of Carrascal in Surigao del Sur in comparison with other sites surveyed.	eng
10153	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Gomez, R., 2008	Its populations in lowland forest have probably been seriously reduced due to forest clearance, but it is able to survive in secondary forest. Given its wide range and adaptability, the species is probably not seriously threatened, even though there is continuing deforestation.	eng
10154	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. Research into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, population monitoring and habitat management are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10154	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This very widespread species ranges from South Asia, through southern China, and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Hunan, and Hainan island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges through Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and northern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
10154	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although <em>Hipposideros pomona</em> is widespread, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it roosts in small colonies of a few individuals in caves and crevices in subterranean habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002, Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia it roosts predominantly though not exclusively in caves, and is considered to be very tolerant modified habitats and can even occur in urban areas.	eng
10154	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia the species is common throughout its range. In northern Myanmar, the population seems to be stable (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10154	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is under threat from human activities in Nepal. In northern Myanmar some colonies are threatened by hunting for local consumption as food and medicine, and due to tourism related developmental activities (K.M. Swe pers. comm., Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
10155	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10155	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The species is recorded from southern China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008) and Viet Nam (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2003). According to Huynh <em>et al</em>. (1994), this species was reported in Viet Nam only from Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province), however, there is evidence for the presence of this species considerably further south, in Phong Na (Quang Binh Province), where it possibly occurs together with related <em>H. lylei</em>. It is widespread in southern China.	eng
10155	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	It is a cave-roosting species, and has been found roosting in the same caves as <em>H. armiger</em>.	eng
10155	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10155	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10156	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	<em>H. pygmaeus</em> species occurs in a number of protected areas. More adequate protection of known sites is important. Surveys are required on this species to determine its ability to survive in degraded areas.	eng
10156	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The Philippine pygmy leaf-nosed bat is endemic to the Philippines and has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. There are records from Bohol, Luzon (Camarines Sur and Rizal provinces, though it possibly occurs through all of southern Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), Marinduque, Negros, and Panay (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A few individuals have recently been captured in Surigao del Sur, eastern Mindanao (Gomez in litt. 2007). It is likely that future surveys will show this species to be more widespread than current records suggest (L. Heaney, D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10156	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	Specimens have been taken in limestone caves, within or near to lowland forest (Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934). It might be more tolerant to cave disturbance than was once thought. Forest is regenerating in some parts of this leaf-nosed bats range (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).	eng
10156	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This is a widespread species which is generally thought to be rare (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, surveys in moderately to heavily disturbed caves on Bohol during 2006 have shown <em>H. pygmaeus</em> to be abundant there (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10156	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	In the past, much of the species lowland habitat has been destroyed and deforestation continues. There is widespread exploitation of limestone areas for quarrying (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006). Surveys in 2006 on Bohol suggest that <em>H. pygmaeus</em> may be more tolerant to moderate and heavy habitat disturbance than previously thought (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It is probable that the species is hunted for food in parts of its range (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10157	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In view of its wide range it seems likely that the species is present in a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the Manga Forest Reserve of Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
10157	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This widespread African bat has been recorded throughout much of West, Central, and East Africa and part of southern Africa including Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern and eastern Zambia, southern Malawi and north-western Mozambique. It is found between sea level and 2,300 m asl.	eng
10157	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Mostly a lowland tropical moist forest species but can also found in relic and riverine forests in dry savanna (Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Roost in caves, rocky crevices and abandoned mineshafts (Happold, 1987). Animals have also been found under a bridge, in a hollow kapok tree and in derelict buildings (M.N. Morton in Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10157	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This is one of the most common bats in Africa, with some colonies containing up to 500,000 individuals.	eng
10157	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is locally threatened by the loss and conversion of suitable habitat. It is also threatened in parts of its range by collection for subsistence use.	eng
10160	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Hall, L. & Thomson, B., 2008	A Recovery Plan has been developed for this species in Australia (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is found in a number of protected areas in Australia (L. Hall pers. comm.), and is listed by the Australian government as a threatened species. Further studies are needed into the distribution (particularly within New Guinea), abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
10160	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Hall, L. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species is present in south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in the Cape York Peninsula of Australia. There are also reports of disjunct occurrence from Kroombit Tops National Park in Queensland, Australia. It ranges from 200 to 1,400 m asl. In Australia, the range has receded northwards considerably (<em>c.</em>30% of Australian range) over the last 60 years (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
10160	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Hall, L. & Thomson, B., 2008	This little-known species is found in rainforest, savanna forest, and dry open areas. It roosts in caves, mines, old buildings, culverts under roads, and tree hollows (Bonaccorso 1998; Hall 2008). Its generation length is likely to be around 3-4 years (G. Richards pers. comm.).	eng
10160	population	Bonaccorso, F., Hall, L. & Thomson, B., 2008	It is a rare species (Hall 2008) that is believed to be declining, at least at Iron Range (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
10160	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Hall, L. & Thomson, B., 2008	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. Loss of roost habitat in old mines that are destroyed or collapse is a threat (L. Hall pers. comm.). Roost disturbance is another problem (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
10161	conservation	Maryanto, I., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species has been recorded from Pangandaran Nature Reserve.	eng
10161	distribution	Maryanto, I., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species is known only from one location in west central Java, in Gua Karmat (7°41' S, 108°40' E), Pangandaran, in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). Despite targeted surveys of the surrounding caves, the species has not been found elsewhere on Java. Its altitudinal range is below 1,000 m asl.	eng
10161	habitat	Maryanto, I., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species roosts inside caves in large colonies. The habitats surrounding the roosting caves are rice paddies and plantations.	eng
10161	population	Maryanto, I., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is very common locally and the population is probably stable (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
10161	threats	Maryanto, I., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	Limestone extraction represents a possible threat to this species.	eng
10162	conservation	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread, but sensitive species. This species has been recorded from protected areas in India like the Nagarjuansagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, but is very likely to occur in many other protected areas (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).	eng
10162	distribution	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Aisa and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,385 m asl.	eng
10162	habitat	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in dry plains to forested hillsides in caves, caverns, underground cellars, old forts, palaces, under bridges, old disused buildings, temples, tunnels (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It roosts in colonies ranging from a few to several hundreds of individuals (K.S. Sreepada, H.R. Bhat and W. Yapa pers. comm.). In India, individuals do not usually congregate in clusters and tend to be scattered, while in Sri Lanka they tend to be in close contact in roosts (Bates and Harrison 1997, K.S. Sreepada, H.R. Bhat and W. Yapa pers. comm.). It has a slow and low flight and hunts for insects close to the ground. The diet consists of coleopterans, dipterans, mosquitoes and other insects. A single young is born after a gestation period of 135-140 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10162	population	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread and common in its range. It has been recorded from many locations in peninsular India and over 75 locations in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In a study, W. Yapa (pers. comm.) has observed more than 600 individuals in a cave in Sri Lanka. Similarly, K.S. Sreepada and H.R. Bhat (pers. comm.) observed between 50 and 1,000 individuals at several locations in Karnataka, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10162	threats	Molur, S., Yapa, W. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In India, this species is locally threatened in parts of its range because of hunting for local consumption and medicinal purposes, persecution by fumigation, roost disturbance due to tourism related activities, stone quarrying, developmental activities such as tearing down old disused buildings leading to loss of roosting sites; no threats have been identified for Sri Lankan populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Tamil Nadu, roosts are often under threat from collection of bats for food and medicine (G. Marimuthu and J. Vanitharani pers. comm.), and in Maharashtra the species is threatened by disturbance from tourism and other human interferences (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
10163	conservation	Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
10163	distribution	Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it has been recorded from northern Western Australia, Northern Territory, and north-western Queensland (Milne and Hall 2008). It has been recorded on the Boulanger Islands, Bathurst Island, Boongaree Island, and Koolan Islands.	eng
10163	habitat	Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is found in areas of sandstone cliffs, escarpments and boulder country, gorges, and waterholes bordered by paperbark trees (Milne and Hall 2008). It roosts in boulder piles, crevices, old mines, and shallow caves. The species is only found singly or in twos (N. McKenzie and B. Thomson pers. comm.).	eng
10163	population	Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is rare; recent surveys of Kakadu National Park (within the region where most records have occurred) only found the species at one location (Milne and Hall 2008).	eng
10163	threats	Thomson, B. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
10164	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is possibly present in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10164	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is present on the Indonesian islands of Sumba, Rote, Sumbawa, Flores, Semau and Savu (Simmons 2005). The type locality is a cave (9°55' S, 120°41' E) on eastern Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.	eng
10164	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is found below 1,000 m asl in caves and the roofs of houses. It is insectivorous and probably lives in large colonies. It is not dependent on water.	eng
10164	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
10164	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	Limestone extraction represents a threat to this species.	eng
10165	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	In Japan the areas around some sites are national forests. There has been pressure to protect important roost sites and associated habitat. Fences were erected at the cave entrances to control tourists, and a small area originally designated for development was proposed as a reserve (Hutson <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam three of the five known sites are protected and a new site is proposed (N. Furey pers. comm.).	eng
10165	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species has a very disjunct distribution, with one subspecies (<em>H. t. turpis</em>) on the Yaeyama (Sakishima) Islands of Japan, including Iriomote, Ishigaki, Yonaguni, and Hateruma (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005) and is not likely to occur more widely, and the other subspecies (<em>H. t. pendleburyi</em>) in southern Thailand and Viet Nam. The systematic status of the two subspecies remains unclear in view of its unusual distribution. Surveys have not found the species in areas between known locations.	eng
10165	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	During the day this species is found roosting in caves, often in large colonies of up to 1,000 individuals (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005), and at night it forages in the surrounding woodland. The larger <em>H. armiger</em> feeds on large insects such as beetles (especially scarabeids), but smaller sympatric species take softer prey such as crickets, moths, <em>Diptera</em>, flying termites and <em>Hymenoptera</em> (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Four of the five known localities in central and northern Viet Nam are at karst sites and in protected areas (N. Furey pers. comm.), and it also occurs in karst areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The species uses disturbed forest, and it may persist in fragments of suitable habitat.	eng
10165	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	In Japan, there are at least five colonies on Iriomote Island, with at least half of the total estimated population in a single colony that occurs on private land; on Yonaguni, there are no more than 1,000 individuals; on Ishigake, there are around 10 colonies, estimated at around 10,000 bats; and on Hateruma, there is no record of population size (this population is very distinct from other populations).<br/>A study will be undertaken by Thong in Viet Nam. The population is locally common in Cuc Phuong and Cat Ba island National Parks in Viet Nam (N. Furey pers. comm.). Populations in Thailand are scattered (S. Bumrungri pers. comm.).	eng
10165	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	In general, human disturbance at roosting sites is the main threat. In Japan on the island of Iriomote the main breeding colonies are concentrated in two caves; most caves are subject to the risk of disturbance. The areas surrounding these caves are National Forest, but there has been pressure to develop the areas around the caves which would involve forest clearance. A nursing colony of 1,000 individuals in the western part of Iriomote Island has been disturbed by tourists since 2005. Development for agriculture and logging would remove key foraging areas and result in potential isolation of the cave roosts, causing declines of these principal populations. Similar declines and even extinctions have already been observed in other nearby islands. There has been similar pressure on Ishigaki to build an airport and holiday resort. Publicity about the plight of these bats resulted in increased public interest, including increased tourism to the breeding caves.<br/>The species is affected by deforestation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), and in Viet Nam there is ongoing decline in the quality of habitat through disturbance from tourism and habitat destruction (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Cat Ba in Viet Nam, tourism disturbance is heavy (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Thailand areas around protected areas are deforested and the areas themselves are degraded.	eng
10166	conservation	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	A suitable conservation measure for this species would be the protection of the known roosting sites. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed. During the 1997 El Niño there was a large fire in the oak forest habitat of this species, and surveys to confirm the status of this species are needed. The species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.).	eng
10166	distribution	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Gulf, Sandaun, and Central Provinces. In Papua Province, Indonesia it has been recorded from the Utakwas River, Fak-fak District (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It ranges between 30 and 1,600 m asl.	eng
10166	habitat	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This cave-roosting species has been reported from oak forest habitats between 1,400 and 1,600 m asl. At lower elevations it has been recorded in primary forest on limestone (T. Leary pers. comm.). It is generally found in caves with high humidity or water.	eng
10166	population	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is locally common in the Tabubil-Telefomin region, but rare in other parts of its range.	eng
10166	threats	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to caves for roosting. Disturbance of these sites is a potential threat to this bat. During the 1997 El Niño there was a large fire in the oak forest habitat of this species that may have caused population declines.	eng
10167	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	At present, about one-third of the species’ total population occurs in protected areas. The largest surviving populations occur in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d'Ivoire), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), Waza National Park and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Moyowosi-Kigosi and Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania), the Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Nyika National Park (Malawi) and northern Botswana. Most of these populations are stable or increasing but some, e.g., in Comoe, Arly-Singou and Cameroon’s North Province, are in decline.	eng
10167	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Roan Antelope formerly occurred very widely in the savanna woodlands and grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa, but has been eliminated from large parts of its former range. Remarkably, the species remains locally common in West and Central Africa, while in East and southern Africa, the traditional antelope strongholds, the species is now very rare. The species is now locally extinct in Burundi, Eritrea and possibly Gambia. It was also eliminated from Swaziland and later reintroduced to the privately owned Mkhaya Nature Reserve (East 1999; Chardonnet and Crosmary in press).	eng
10167	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Savannah woodlands and grasslands, and the bushveld and lowveld of southern Africa, with the cover of high grasses and woody plants playing an important role for both grazing and calving (Chardonnet and Crosmary in press). A water-dependent grazer/browser.	eng
10167	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that summation of the available population estimates suggests a total population of about 40,000 Roan, but this does not allow for undercounting bias in aerial surveys or the extensive areas of the species’ current distribution for which estimates are unavailable. Accounting for these biases, East (1999) gives an estimated total population of 76,000, with the largest populations in Burkina Faso (>7,370), Cameroon (>6,070), Zambia (>5,080) and Tanzania (>4,310). However, large numbers are also believed to survive in southern Sudan. Despite the fact that Roan are generally common in West and Central Africa, some populations are in decline, such as that in Comoé N.P. where numbers have declined by about 70% between 1978 and 1998 to around 500 animals (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001).<br/><br/>Density estimates are summarized by East (1999) and Chardonnet and Crosmary (in press). Overall population trend is generally stable or decreasing in protected areas and decreasing elsewhere, apart from the small numbers on private land in southern Africa which are increasing.	eng
10167	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Roan Antelope has been eliminated from large parts of its former range because of poaching and loss of habitat to the expansion of settlement, and now survives mainly in and around protected areas and in other areas with low densities of people and livestock. Its persistence in West Africa is probably due to its ability to withstand illegal hunting pressures better than many other large herbivores, especially the more water dependant and more sedentary species which are more exposed to poaching (East 1999; Chardonnet and Crosmary in press).<br/><br/>Different explanations have been provided for the decline of Roan and its lack of subsequent recovery in the Kruger N.P. in South Africa (450 animals in 1986 to around 30 in 2001; Harrington <em>et al.</em> 1999; Grant <em>et al</em>. 2002). The most likely reason is increased predation pressure following the influx of grazers from artificial waterpoints (Knoop and Owen-Smith 2006).	eng
10168	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
10168	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This endemic South African species was restricted to the southern coastal areas from about Caledon to Plettenberg Bay. The last individual Bluebuck was shot around 1800, the first African antelope to be hunted to extinction by European settlers (Klein 1974). Detailed reviews of the species are provided by Mohr (1967), Klein (1974), and Smithers (1983).	eng
10168	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
10168	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Extinct.	eng
10169	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippotragus niger variani </span>is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
10170	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Sable sunrvive in good and generally stable numbers in areas such as Moyowosi-Kigosi, Katavi-Rukwa and the Ruaha and Selous ecosystems (Tanzania), Kafue (Zambia), Liwonde (Malawi), Okavango and Chobe (Botswana), Hwange, Matetsi, Sebungwe and the Middle Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe) (East 1999). The population in Kruger N.P. (South Africa) has been in decline (Grant and van der Walt 2000). In addition, there are relatively large, increasing numbers on private farms and conservancies in Namibia (extralimital), Zimbabwe and South Africa (East 1999). <br/><br/>Luando Reserve and Cangandala N.P. are the essential strongholds for Giant Sable (East 1999). There have been calls for the establishment of a Giant Sable National park to encompass both these protected areas (Walker 2002).<br/><br/>Sable are held in captivity, although no individuals of the Giant Sable subspecies are held captive.<br/><br/><em>Hippotragus niger variani</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
10170	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Sable Antelope formerly occurred widely in the savanna woodlands of southern and eastern Africa, with an isolated population (Giant Sable) in central Angola, between the Cuanza and Luando Rivers and immediately north of the Luando. They have been eliminated from large areas of their former range by meat hunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of agricultural settlement and livestock (East 1999). This range reduction has been most marked in Mozambique, where they survive only in good numbers in Niassa in the north, and in the western Gaza province, southeast DR Congo, and north-east Tanzania (East 1999; Estes in press). Sable have been reintroduced to many parts of their former range, but have also been introduced to areas where they never naturally occurred, including to Swaziland (East 1999).	eng
10170	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	A savanna woodland species, very closely associated with the miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland zone. The Sable is an “edge” species that frequents the woodland/grassland ecotone; it spends the wet season in woods open enough to support an understory of grasses no more than 30 cm high on well-drained soils, and in the dry season emerges onto the grasslands in search of green grass and forbs (Estes in press). They are both gramivorous and folivorous, although grass makes up the bulk of their diet (Estes in press, and references therein).	eng
10170	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Summation of available population estimates gives a total population of about 54,000 Sable, but this does not allow for undercounting bias in aerial surveys or parts of the species’ range for which estimates of numbers are unavailable. East (1999) estimated the total population at 75,000, of which about half occurs in and around protected areas and one-quarter on private land. The population in the Selous ecosystem probably represents the largest free-ranging population in Africa. Overall population trends are more or less stable in protected areas, increasing on private land and decreasing etsewhere (East 1999).<br/><br/>Total numbers of the Giant Sable surviving are estimated (2007) at 200-400 (P. vaz Pinto in litt to ASG, 2007).<br/><br/>Like other ungulates of the miombo woodlands, the Sable occurs at low density in comparison with ungulate densities in semi-arid savanna. Wilson and Hirst (1977) estimated density at 4/km² in the Matetsi area of SW Zimbabwe, which they considered the best Sable habitat in southern African.	eng
10170	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Sable have been eliminated from large areas of their former range by meat hunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of agricultural settlement and livestock. Poaching and armed conflict have been a major threat, specially for the Giant Sable (<em>H. n. variani</em>) and Sable populations in Mozambique. Further decline in the distribution and numbers of the Sable Antelope may occur in the more northerly parts of its range in future, unless the expansion of human populations and livestock is countered by the implementation of higher levels of protection and management of wildlife in countries such as Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique (East 1999).<br/><br/>The survival of the Giant Sable through more than 20 years of civil war is highly encouraging, but its survival remains precarious as many Angolans who fled the Luando Reserve during the mid-1970s flood back to areas they had formerly evacuated. There have been recent incidents of hybridization of Giant Sable with Roan Antelope in the Cangandala N.P. (Vaz Pinto 2006).<br/><br/>Inbreeding, evidenced by increased calf mortality, is a major risk in many of the smaller, privately owned herds (Grobler and van der Bank 1994).	eng
10188	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
10188	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from isolated site from Mfipa, Mtosi and Kipili Islands (Tanzania), and Mpala (DRC).	eng
10188	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found in rocky substrate at moderate depths 5-20 m.	eng
10188	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
10188	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is possible that in Tanzania sedimentation could threaten the species.	eng
10189	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
10189	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from Ufipa and Mtossi (Tanzania) on the south-eastern shore (Michel <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
10189	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is confined to rocky substrates at moderate depths, 5-20 m.	eng
10189	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
10189	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is possible that in Tanzania sedimentation could threaten the species.	eng
10190	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Annex V of the Habitats Directive.	eng
10190	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The medicinal leech has been recorded throughout Europe as far east as the Ural mountain range. It has a patchy distribution.	eng
10190	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in naturally occurring freshwater lakes, ponds, streams, and marshes. Usually rests at air/water interface near the shore. <br/> <br/>Has been used medicinally for the purpose of phlebotomy (drawing blood) for millennia, and was popularized for this use in the nineteenth century. Currently used in microsurgery to reduce postoperative haematomas is quite effective. The species is commercially available for medical purposes. Several anticoagulants, such as the antithrombin compound hirudin, have been extracted from salivary tissues and have biomedical/pharmacological use.	eng
10190	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is scarce in France and Belgium, and is thought to occur in more than 20 scattered subpopulations in the UK.	eng
10190	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The medical use of leeches might explain their wide distribution across Europe, as they are thought to have been released into ponds once they had been used for bleeding patients. It is also thought that in the past over-collecting reduced their numbers in some areas. Over-collecting for medical purposes is unlikely to be a threat today, given the protected nature of this species and the ability to breed leeches commercially at leech farms. Perhaps a more significant issue is the conversion of grazing marshes (the prime habitat of the species) to arable cultivation - resulting in lowering of water levels, pollution, and fewer host species. Invasion of scrub around ponds has also been a problem in places.	eng
10200	conservation	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Not known.	eng
10200	distribution	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	SE Brazil (Simmons 2005). Known just from type locality.	eng
10200	habitat	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
10200	population	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
10200	threats	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Not known.	eng
10201	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
10201	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Chile, Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Peru and Bolivia.	eng
10201	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Normally inhabits mines, but can be found in houses.	eng
10201	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is relatively common.	eng
10201	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
10202	conservation	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
10202	distribution	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	N Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, W Bolivia, S Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, N Peru and S Brazil (Simmons 2005).<br/>In Ecuador, Colombia e Venezuela, high altitude in mountain ranges (+2,000 m) (Gonzalez com pess).	eng
10202	habitat	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Insectivorous. Found in houses, caves, hollow trees. Colonies with until 20 individuals. They may hibernate.	eng
10202	population	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Abundant.	eng
10202	threats	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10203	conservation	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
10203	distribution	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	E Brazil, Bolivia, NW Argentina (Simmons 2005). Not cited for Paraguay (Lopez- Gonzalez 2004)	eng
10203	habitat	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species is insectivorous, there is only very few information about this bat. Found in forests and buildings (Gonzalez com pess)	eng
10203	population	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	In Argentina is scarce. In Brazil is abundant.	eng
10203	threats	Gonzalez, E. & Barquez, R., 2008	Deforestation	eng
10205	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), due to a  restricted range, habitat modification or declining range.<br/>Further research is needed to determine abundance, life history and the existence of any major threats.	eng
10205	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic; background-color: black;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This species is found in 5 lo</span>calities the Pearl River drainage system, including five localities in Winston County and one in Neshoba County, Mississippi (Black 1969). Further information on this species and its distribution is expected  from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks.       <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 4,300 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
10205	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal roadside ditches comprising of lentic water conditions and abundant emergent aquatic vegetation (Black 1969). It is presumed to be a secondary burrower (Black 1969).	eng
10205	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
10205	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, and water pollution such as agricultural run-off   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Paving of roadside ditches may be a threat to this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10206	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>Further research on this species is required to determine its abundance, life histories and major threats.	eng
10206	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in the Tombigbee and Pascagoula River basins in Kemper, Lauderdale, Lowndes, and Noxubee Counties, Mississippi, USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species is currently known from fewer than 5 localities. Further information on this species and its distribution is expected from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
10206	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is located in small streams and roadside ditches with turbid water. It is presumed to be a secondary burrower and burrows to depth of 0.3 - 0.5 m (Fetzner 2008).	eng
10206	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
10206	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown wheather<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, alteration to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, paving of roadside ditches may reduce available habitat of this species.	eng
10207	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007) based on a loss of habitat quality, and a restricted range.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends for this species is needed.	eng
10207	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species was known only from Lowndes, Oktibbeha, and Webster counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). Many of the sand creek accounts may not still be in existence   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). The distribution of this species is severely fragmented   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Following recent surveys of this species distribution between 2007 and 2009, it is&#160;believed&#160;to only occur in the Sand Creek drainage in&#160;Oktibbeha County, despite reports from two other counties (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). As such this species is currently believed to exist at only two locations less than 216&#160;m apart (R.L &#160;Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;One of these is a tributary of Sand Creek and the other is a ditch and pond along the side of a dirt road.&#160;<p>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at around 291 km<sup>2 </sup>(R. L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). The area of occupancy is calculated at 13 km<sup>2</sup>. It is possible that this species may be known from other localities, but this would not more than double or triple the area occupied (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
10207	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species occurs in lentic habitat such as ponds, puddles, ditches, and also in lotic habitats such as streams (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). It is further found in association with emergent vegetation and littoral zones (Fitzpatrick and Payne 1968). This species burrows during the summer dry periods and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989).Currently this species has only been found in two locations: a&#160;moderately&#160;flowing&#160;creek approximately two meters wide, 30 cm deep, with a sand and clay bottom, and a roadside ditch approximately 1 m wide and 30 - 40 cm deep with a silt bottom and some aquatic vegetation (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).	eng
10207	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Fitzpatrick (2002) describes the species as never abundant but moderately plentiful at the type locality. Seeing as the type locality is now completely devoid of this species, the more abundant of the two remaining locations is the creek, in which it is not common (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010). &#160;<br/></p>	eng
10207	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is threatened by habitat degradation through residential and urban developments at its type locality, from which it is now believed to have been extirpated. These developments&#160;result usually in complete destruction of the small streams which this species requires (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;In addition, development over intermittent ponds is known to remove habitat   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009,&#160;R.L. Jones pers. comm 2010). &#160;Due to its restricted distribution and occurrence in one area (two locations 216 metres apart) this species is&#160;extremely&#160;susceptible to threats.	eng
10208	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) corresponding to a restricted range and decline in habitat quality.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the range of this species, as well as its presence at known localities   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10208	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to Itawamba, Lee, and Monroe Counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick 1977). The accounts of this species in Oktibbeha County need to be confirmed as there is some overlap with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hobbseus orcenectoides</span>, although this is unlikely (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Its presence in Clay County has been claimed by Fitzpatrick (1977) but no subsequent specimens exist to corroborate this. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 3,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
10208	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in sluggish, shallow (< 30 cm deep) streams, flowing through dense sedges over a silty bottom (Fitzpatrick 1977). In addition, this species can be found in roadside ditches and a nearby slough (S. Adams pers. comm.).	eng
10208	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.Recent survey of the type locality of this species and two other locations nearby have found no individuals   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Further information on this species and its distribution is expected from Bob Jones of Mississippi Fisheries, Wildlife and Parks.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
10208	threats	Adams, S., 2010	Threats to this species have been identified as urbanisation, and the drainage and conversion of ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). At sites that are heavily urbanised, no specimens have been found   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10209	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;Both the Pearl River&#160;and Noxubee localities of this species are within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010), and may thus be given some protection under the area's conservation remit.&#160;</st1:placetype></st1:place><br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and distribution of this species.	eng
10209	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is restricted to the upper Pearl River watershed,  from a few localities in Attala, Choctaw, and Kemper counties, Mississippi, USA (Fetzner 2008, R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010)). In addition, this species has been collected from the upper headwaters of the Noxubee River (Tombigbee River drainage) in Winston County, Mississippi (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;The latter locality is approximately 4.6 km northeast of the <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl River</st1:place> locality record.&#160;The records from the Noxubee drainage are clustered in an area of less than two square kilometres (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species' presence in Webster County, although a neighbouring county, is uncertain as no voucher specimens exist to support this part of the range. Kemper County lies within the Tombigbee drainage but is still regarded as possibly containing specimens of this species   (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently only known from four collection localities (Adams 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at approximately 2,450 km².	eng
10209	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small, permanent streams comprising of sand, silt and gravel beds (Fitzpatrick 1967). Typically the water flow in these habitats is between sluggish and moderately flowing with emergent vegetation (Fitzpatrick 1967). There are, however, not many gravel bed habitats in Mississippi, mainly due to the&#160; geology of the area   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). This species has&#160;additionally&#160;been collected from narrow headwater streams (some less than 1 m in width), ephemeral ponds and in roadside ditches (R.L. Jones pers. comm. 2010).	eng
10209	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is not common and is not particularly well known in collections, having last been collected in 2002   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). It must be noted that the last collection was not to be taken literally as most surveys focus on stream habitat rather than ditches and ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009), although current information suggests that this species is rare.	eng
10209	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by siltation and agricultural run-off (Fitzpatrick 1967). In addition, in Choctaw County a transmission line route is being constructed (TVA 2006). During a survey, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was identified as either within the right-of-way or immediately downstream from the construction site (TVA 2006). This will cause disturbance and increased siltation of the streams in this area (TVA 2006). Previous to this, Fitzpatrick (1996) stated this species did not seem to be imminently threatened.	eng
10210	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), based on a restricted range, and modification or reduction of the species range.<br/><br/>Further research on site specific threats is needed.	eng
10210	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in the streams and headwaters of the Yalobusha River in Calhoun, Chickasaw and Webster counties, Mississippi, USA (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989, USFS 2009). This species represents the only known member of this genus in the Mississippi River drainage   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). There have been recent collections of this species from the Topashaw  Creek drainage (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). These sites have been recently  sampled, confirming this species persistence   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). <span class="copy">The species is no longer present in the type locality and was recently found to be absent from several previously known localities (NatureServe 2009).    <p>The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been described as severely fragmented within its range due to the barrier effects of unsuitable habitat (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
10210	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent small and shallow streams with firm, clay bottoms in the head waters of the Yalobusha River (Fitzpatrick 1996). These rivers flow through agricultural land. This species is not considered a primary burrower   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10210	population	Adams, S., 2010	The species is not regarded as rare, but its range is probably restricted to extreme headwater streams   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
10210	threats	Adams, S., 2010	The threats to this species include channelization, head-cutting of streams, and loss of riparian strips (NatureServe 2009). Channelization along with headcutting are thought to be affecting the global population of this species (S. Adams pers.comm. 2010). It is thought that this has increased fragmentation of the headwater habitat (S.Adams pers.comm. 2010).	eng
10211	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are several protected areas located within the range of this species.	eng
10211	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from south Sinaloa to Oaxaca; it is found in interior México along basins of Río Balsas to central Puebla and Río Tehuacán to north Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
10211	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be found on the lower wooded slopes and the adjacent dry grounds that are covered with mesquite. <br/><br/>Its burrows are at the base of trees and under other available cover. Numerous trails have been noted leading from these burrows onto the wooded hillside. It prefers the foot of low cliffs and rocky ledges on the hillsides, and it is noted that it inhabits dense patches of agave (Genoways and Birney 1974). <br/><br/>A female captured in February had a single embryo; and a lactating female accompanied by two young was found in September (Genoways and Birney 1974).	eng
10211	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is relatively common to locally abundant in suitable habitat (Genoways and Birney 1974).	eng
10211	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
10215	conservation		The range of the species is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, and continued conservation and maintenance of its habitat is necessary. More exhaustive searches for this species are needed, in order to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild. If it is found, then further conservation measures, including a conservation management plan, will be needed.	eng
10215	distribution		This species is restricted to the highlands of the Itatiaia Mountains, in south-eastern Brazil. It occurs from 2,400-2,600m asl.	eng
10215	habitat		This species occurs on the ground, under mulch and leaves, which is also where the eggs are laid. It hides under stones and in terrestrial bromeliads in open grassland, and probably breeds by direct development.	eng
10215	population		This species was found frequently up until the 1970s, but has not been found for more than 10 years even though there have been extensive searches of the area for many years. It was last collected in 1976.	eng
10215	threats		The species has been heavily impacted by habitat degradation due to touristic activities and fire, and is also affected by extreme frosts.	eng
10217	conservation	Weksler, M., Queirolo, D., Brito, D., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
10217	distribution	Weksler, M., Queirolo, D., Brito, D., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil, throughout Uruguay, and east central Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
10217	habitat	Weksler, M., Queirolo, D., Brito, D., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This is a semi aquatic rodent occurring in low marshy areas and gallery forests where it feeds tender parts of plants (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Timing of reproduction is influenced by rains but usually falls between spring and the end of summer producing 3-6 young (Gonzalez 2001).	eng
10217	population	Weksler, M., Queirolo, D., Brito, D., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	The species can be a pest in sugarcane and rice fields.	eng
10217	threats	Weksler, M., Queirolo, D., Brito, D., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
10218	conservation	Weksler, M., Brito, D., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
10218	distribution	Weksler, M., Brito, D., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). Provinces of Tucuman, Salta, Jujuy, Formosa, Chaco, Cordoba in Argentina).	eng
10218	habitat	Weksler, M., Brito, D., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	Wetlands in several biomas including the Chaco - is not found in Yungas. This is a semi aquatic rodent.	eng
10218	population	Weksler, M., Brito, D., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is uncommon to common.	eng
10218	threats	Weksler, M., Brito, D., Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species in Paraguay (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
10219	conservation	Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
10219	distribution	Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in Rio Grande do Sol, southeast Brazil and southern Uruguay (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005, Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).The type locality comes from a fossil in Lagoa Santa (Brazil).	eng
10219	habitat	Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in areas with aquatic vegetation near streams and rivers (Gonzalez 2001). This is a nocturnal and semi aquatic species, observed in tall grasses and reeds also in marshy areas. Voss and Carleton (1993) report recent populations where grasslands, marshes, gallery forests and open woodlands form complex mosaics of subtropical pampas habitats (Voss and Carleton, 1993). It is mainly vegetarian (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The species builds nests in reeds above water.	eng
10219	population	Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species was reported as 'rather common' in 1929 along the Rio Cebollati and in marshes in Trienta y Tres, Uruguay (Voss and Carleton, 1993). Results of a 1963 expedition suggest that L. molitor is less abundant than sympatric H. brasiliensis. Not abundant, difficult to locate, only three point localities in Uruguay (Queirolo pers. comm.).	eng
10219	threats	Gonzalez, E., D'elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Destruction of wetlands and marshlands.	eng
10220	conservation	Weksler, M. Queirolo, D. & Brito, D., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
10220	distribution	Weksler, M. Queirolo, D. & Brito, D., 2008	This species is broadly distributed, it reaches the Orinoco and Amazon River basins: Venezuela (including an isolated locality in the Maracaibo Basin, northwest of the Andes; see Linares, 1998), the Guianas, northern and central Brazil, and Amazonian regions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Suriname (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
10220	habitat	Weksler, M. Queirolo, D. & Brito, D., 2008	During a survey along the Rio Juruá of the western Amazon of Brazil, the species was found in grass patches along the river margins and agricultural areas close to rivers (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Some female specimens examined from August to November were either pregnant or lactating; young were also observed during these months (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
10220	population	Weksler, M. Queirolo, D. & Brito, D., 2008	This rodent is uncommon to common.	eng
10220	threats	Weksler, M. Queirolo, D. & Brito, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species at this time.	eng
10238	conservation	Branch, W.R., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10241	conservation	Branch, W.R., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10246	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10249	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Is is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10250	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10251	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10252	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10253	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10254	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
10259	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
10259	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs from east central Honduras to northwestern Ecuador (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
10259	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	The Armored Rat usually is found near creeks or streams in lowland evergreen forest, or in low-lying areas such as palm swamps. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. <br/><br/>During the day it occupies burrows, usually located on steep banks near water. Burrows are roughly horizontal and extend about 2 m to a nest chamber lined with shredded vegetation. This large rat can be easily detected at night as it has good eyeshine, and, when disturbed, it usually runs swiftly to a burrow. It may remain at the burrow entrance, where it can be closely observed or even captured by hand. The diet includes fruit, insects (beetles and orthopteran remains have been found in its burrows), and some green plant matter. Litter size is one to three; young are precocious at birth and have soft fur. Spines develop after one month (Reid 1997).	eng
10259	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is uncommon to locally abundant in evergreen, lowland forest (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).	eng
10259	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P., Emmons, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
10260	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
10260	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
10260	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
10260	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The shallow sand stations where this species used to occur were rarely sampled after 2002. However, during the past decade this species was also very rare or absent in other suitable habitats.	eng
10260	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
10261	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in wells.	eng
10264	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Restocking, fishing regulations. A EU LIFE project in Austria to improve habitat conditions (now finished and seems to have been successful). Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
10264	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Native only in the Danube drainage, where it has a very fragmented distribution. Very locally introduced in some headwaters of Odra, Vistula (Poland), Lake Constance (Germany), Tagus (Spain), Rhône (France) and probably other drainages where it apparently maintains only by stocking.	eng
10264	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Montane and submontane reaches of large streams and swift rivers with gravel beds, well oxygenated, fast-flowing water and temperatures rarely above 15°C. Prefers deep pools and shady water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in very clean gravel in fast-flowing water, usually in small river tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 20 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years and about 1 kg, females at 4-5 years and 2-3 kg. Spawns every year in early spring, usually March-April, rarely early May, when temperatures reach 6-10°C. Commonly migrates upriver for spawning in upper reaches of tributaries. Males arrive first at spawning sites. Males guard females against other males. Both sexes excavate a redd about 1.2-3.0 m in diameter, 10-20 cm deep, and defend a small territory in spawning grounds against other individuals. Usually spawns during daytime. During spawning act, both sexes cover the eggs with substrate. Both sexes may defend the spawning site up to two weeks after spawning. Eggs usually hatch after 25-40 days. Larvae remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed after 8-14 days. Juveniles inhabit fast-flowing waters and feed on drifting invertebrates, becoming piscivorous after 1-3 years. Adults feed on fishes as well as small terrestrial vertebrates. Juveniles and adults are territorial.	eng
10264	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species has undergone a massive decline starting over 100 years ago. More recently the majority of the stocks rely upon re-introductions (from farmed stock and ranched) for angling and conservation. It is almost impossible to identify if any stocks are self sustaining.	eng
10264	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Historically overfshing, pollution and dam construction caused the decline of the species. Currently the main the threats are hydropower stations which heavily regulate flow regime (which impacts upon their prey and habitat), and pollution in some countries (Bosnia and Croatia).	eng
10268	conservation	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically were directed to control local and national fisheries. Commercial sturgeon fishing was prohibited in the Soviet Union during the periods 1923-1930, 1958-1976 and from 1984 to the present (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). The Kaluga Sturgeon was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1998.	eng
10268	distribution	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	The Kaluga Sturgeon inhabits the entire Amur River basin from the estuary to the river’s upper reaches. It occurs in tributaries - the Shilka, Onon, Argun, Nerch, Sungari, Nonni and Ussuri and Neijiang Rivers (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997). It rarely occurs in Lake Khanka. Young specimens also appear in the coastal waters of the Sea of Okhotsk, near the northeastern part of the Tatar Strait, and in the Sea of Japan near the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There are two separate populations in the Amur River tributaries - Zeya River and Bureya River (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Chen 2007).	eng
10268	habitat	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	Habitat: All types of benthic habitats in large rivers and lakes of the Amur River basin. <br/><br/>Biology: Semi-anadromous (anadromous fishes spend at least part of their life in salt water and return to rivers to breed). The Kaluga Sturgeon spawns in lower reaches of the Amur River in strong-current habitats in the main stream of the river on gravel or sandy-gravel bottom. Spawning peaks from the end of May to July. Adults spawn many times during their life cycle. Spawning periodicity is 4-5 years in females and 3-4 years in males. The generation length of the species is not less than 20 years (Krykhtin and Svirskii 1997, Berg 1948).	eng
10268	population	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	Currently, complete population data based on results of direct counts and fishery statistics do not exist for this species. A decline of catches has been observed since the end of the 19th century (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Towards the end of the 19th century, annual catch was approximately 500 tonnes. Before 1992 the annual catch was 92 tonnes. This indicates a greater than 80% decline in catches over 90 years (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007).<br/><br/>A hatchery is located in Luchegorsk at Khabarovsk district which contains a living collection of eight species of sturgeons (including the Kaluga Sturgeon) and hybrids. In 2007, this hatchery attempted the first re-stocking of juveniles of this this species into the Amur River.	eng
10268	threats	Ruban, G. & Qiwei, W., 2009	The causes of the population decline are still overfishing, both legal and poaching (Vaisman and Fomenko 2007). Recently, environmental pollution in the Amur River basin threatens the habitat and reproduction of this species (Shmigirilov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Chen 2007).	eng
10269	conservation	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998. Restocking programmes are ongoing. However the programmes do not compensate for the loss of natural reproduction and the populations continue to decline (CITES 2000). <br/><br/>The annual number of fingerlings released into the Volga show 0.4 million in 1951; 13.1 million between 1966-70 (average per year); 19.4 million between 1981-85; 11.3 million between 1996-2000; and 3 million between 2001-2005 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The Report of the 28th Session of Caspian Bioresource Commission states that the total fingerling release of beluga in 2008 was 7.02 million from Russia, Iran and Khazakstan. <br/><br/>Some natural reproduction of the species remains in the Volga and Ural Rivers. However, at present the abundance of Beluga is extremely low. Since 2000 in Russia, it has only been caught for the purposes of reproduction (for hatcheries) and science. The protective measures at the feeding grounds are necessary to maintain the population of beluga, as well as the preservation of natural spawning and juveniles breeding at hatcheries.<br/><br/>In the Danube the release of recruitment size (over 15 cm long) from Romania into the Danube has risen from 12,500 in 2006, to 15,130 in 2007 and 20,000 in 2008 (Suciu pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Iran, in work with the World Bank, are increasing the rate of release of Beluga; in 2003, 6,000 individuals (CWT tagged and visible tagged) were released. The size of the released individuals has been increased from 3-5 g to 10-25 g to increase survival rates (Pourali <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hatchery experts (which are state owned) are given financial incentives upon the delivery of individuals ready to be released. Iran has also developed beluga farming to supply meat and caviar production to minimize the impact to the wild population (Pourkazemi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is not fully protected in any range state, though fishing licences are required in most countries and Iran has banned private sturgeon fisheries. Overall however, enforcement measures seem to be lacking. In 1996, fishing in the open sea for the species was banned through an agreement between the countries bordering the Caspian Sea. Artificial spawning grounds have been attempted below Volgograd dam, which has shown some success (Ruban pers. comm.). In the Sea of Azov commercial fishing was banned in 1986.<br/><br/>Gene banks, DNA and tissue cryopreservation exists in Iran and Russia.<br/><br/>Azerbaijan have voluntarily proposed a zero quota for Caviar export for 2009 to CITES.<br/><br/>Range states are also encouraged to provide protection to the species spawning and feeding grounds.	eng
10269	distribution	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	This species has been recorded in the basins of the Caspian, Black, Azov, and Adriatic Seas, however its current native wild distribution is restricted to the Black Sea (in the Danube only) and the Caspian Sea (in the Ural only). It is one of the largest anadromous fish in the Caspian Sea, where at least three Beluga populations have been identified by microsatellite technique (Pourkazemi 2008). It does occur in the Azov Sea, and Volga River but these are stocked fish.	eng
10269	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	At sea, this species is found in the pelagic zone, following food organisms. It migrates further upriver to spawn than any other sturgeon; however this migration has now been disrupted due to river regulation (in the Danube drainage up to Morava River). It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 10-15 years, females at 15-18 years, with an estimated generation length of 20-25 years. This species spawns every 3-4 years in April-June. A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes one peak in late winter and spring and one in late summer and autumn. In spring, it migrates from the sea before spawning. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the rivers until the following spring. Spawning occurs at temperature from 6 to 14 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at a current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. Spawners the late winter/spring run dominate the spawners in the Volga River (80%), whereas the late summer/autumn&#160; run dominates in the Ural River. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 7-8 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. <br/><br/>In the past this species was the largest fish of the Caspian Sea, reaching lengths of more than 5 m and a weight of 1,000 kg. The lifetime of such large specimens, apparently, exceeded 100 years. Currently there are individuals up to 280 cm, weighing up to 650 kg. Average length of females is 240, males is 220 cm, weight respectively is 130 and 65 kg. The maximum age of 53 years was observed in 2003. <br/>&#160;<br/>Various environmental factors influence the distribution of the species in the Caspian Sea. One factor is water temperature, as mature Beluga prefer water temperatures not exceeding 30°C. They spend the spring and summer mostly in the northern and middle parts of the Caspian Sea and then move southwards to spend the winter in the southern areas, which coincides with highest densities of food organisms. The diet includes roach   (<em>Rutilus</em>), carp (<em>Cyprinus</em>), herrings (<em>Alosa</em>), kilka (<em>Clupeonella</em>), crayfish (<em>Astacus</em>), gobies (Gobiidae), pike-perch (<em>Sander </em>), birds, sturgeons (Acipenseridae), and even seals (Phocidae) (Khodorevskaya <em>et al</em>., 1995).  Mature individuals of Beluga are less sensitive to low temperature than the immature, as they feed in the northern part of the Caspian Sea under the ice. With water temperatures decreasing, Belugas reduce the range of depths at which they feed. In spring and autumn immature individuals prefer the more desalinated sea areas. In summer the highest concentrations occur at the salinity of 3 to 7%. The largest concentrations of Beluga in the northern Caspian occur during the migration of its main prey organisms (herrings, kilka, gobies, roach, etc.).	eng
10269	habitat	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	At sea, this species is found in the pelagic zone, following food organisms. It migrates further upriver to spawn than any other sturgeon; however this migration has now been disrupted due to river regulation (in the Danube drainage up to Morava River). It spawns in strong-current habitats in the main course of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom. <br/><br/>This species is anadromous (spending at least part of its life in salt water and returning to rivers to breed). Males reproduce for the first time at 10-15 years, females at 15-18 years, with an estimated generation length of 20-25 years. This species spawns every 3-4 years in April-June. A complicated pattern of spawning migrations includes one peak in late winter and spring and one in late summer and autumn. In spring, it migrates from the sea before spawning. Individuals migrating in autumn remain in the rivers until the following spring. Spawning occurs at temperature from 6 to 14 °C in the channel and spring flooded spawning grounds at a current speed of 0.8-1.2 m / sec. Spawners the late winter/spring run dominate the spawners in the Volga River (80%), whereas the late summer/autumn&#160; run dominates in the Ural River. Yolk-sac larvae are pelagic for 7-8 days and drift with current. Juveniles migrate to sea during their first summer and remain there until maturity. <br/><br/>In the past this species was the largest fish of the Caspian Sea, reaching lengths of more than 5 m and a weight of 1,000 kg. The lifetime of such large specimens, apparently, exceeded 100 years. Currently there are individuals up to 280 cm, weighing up to 650 kg. Average length of females is 240, males is 220 cm, weight respectively is 130 and 65 kg. The maximum age of 53 years was observed in 2003. <br/>&#160;<br/>Various environmental factors influence the distribution of the species in the Caspian Sea. One factor is water temperature, as mature Beluga prefer water temperatures not exceeding 30°C. They spend the spring and summer mostly in the northern and middle parts of the Caspian Sea and then move southwards to spend the winter in the southern areas, which coincides with highest densities of food organisms. The diet includes roach <span style="font-style: italic;">Rutilus rutilus</span> (L.), common carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>&#160;L.), herrings (Clupeidae), kilka (Clupeonella), crayfish (Astacus), gobies (Gobiidae), pike-perch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sander lucioperca</span> (L.)), birds, sturgeons (Acipenseridae), and even seal (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 1995). Mature individuals of Beluga are less sensitive to low temperature than the immature, as they feed in the northern part of the Caspian Sea under the ice. With water temperatures decreasing, Belugas reduce the range of depths at which they feed. Immature individuals in spring and autumn prefer the more desalinated sea areas. In summer the highest concentrations occur at the salinity of 3 to 7%. The largest concentrations of Beluga in the northern Caspian occur during the migration of its main prey organisms (herrings, kilka, gobies, roach, etc.).	eng
10269	population	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Global fisheries statistics show that there has been a 93% decline in catch from 1992 (520 tonnes) to 2007 (33 tonnes) (FAO 2009).<br/><br/>The number of Beluga annually entering the Volga dropped from 26,000 (1961-65) to 2,800 (1998-2002), a decline of 89% in 33 years (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Only 2,500 migrated up Ural in 2002 (Pikitch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <br/><br/>Currently it is thought that nearly 100% of Beluga in the Volga are hatchery reared, but there is evidence of spawning elsewhere in its distribution (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Despite intensive restocking in the Caspian Sea (91% of each generation is estimated to come from hatchery stock), the annual catch in the northern Caspian Sea has drastically fallen. Catches in the Caspian were: 1945-55 average of 1,380 tonnes; 1956-65 average of 1,283 tonnes; 1966-75 average of 1,623 tonnes; 1976-85 average of 849 tonnes; 1986-95 average of 506 tonnes; 1996-2003 (latest data) average of 60.8 tonnes (in Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> accepted). This shows a decline of 95%. The official catch statistics support this trend, as they show that the species was abundant in 1938 and then stable to the late 1980s, with the major decline starting from 1990 to the present showing over a 90% decline in the past 60 years (see Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The agreed Beluga catch quota for all of the Caspian Sea (2007/8 - 28th session of the Commission) was 99.8 tonnes; this quota was not achieved. The proportion of Beluga (to other sturgeon species) in trawl catches of the northern Caspian Sea in all seasons of observations was at an average of 11%. Over the recent years, this percentage has decreased to 8.3%, and the catch of beluga during trawl surveys did not exceed 31 specimens per year&#160;(Khodorevskaya&#160;<em>e</em><em>t al</em>. 2009).<br/><br/>Spawning numbers for the Volga from 1961-65 was 26,000, whilst in 1996/1997 it was 1,800 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), with 2,800 in 1998-2002 (Khodorevskaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>In the Sea of Azov, between 1979-1981 it is estimated that 551,000 individuals existed (from stocked, and dominated by sub-adult and juveniles); in 1988-1993 there were 25,000 and after 1994 they were only caught sporadically, despite banning of commercial fishing of Beluga in 1986. After 1986 the major threat was from bycatch. Since 1994, 98% of individuals recorded in the Azov Sea have been juvenile. In 2001 the first individuals were produced from captive bred individuals and released (Chebanov and Koziritskaya 2007).<br/><br/>Catches in the Danube have also declined. In the mid-Danube the annual catch was 23 tonnes (average between 1972-76) which dropped to 7.5 tonnes (average between 1985-89), a decline of 67% in around 12 years (CITES 2000). In 2002, 21.3 tonnes were caught in Romania, whilst only 8.4 tonnes were caught in 2005, showing a 60% decline in three years. The percentage of catch quota achieved in Romania was 85% in 2002, 84% in 2003, 46% in 2004, and 34% in 2005. In 2006 the catching of Beluga was banned in the Danube (Paraschiv <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10269	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Overfishing at sea and poaching in estuaries and rivers for meat and caviar is a major threat to the species. Overharvesting and a sharp increase in poaching has led to the largest and most mature specimens being removed from the population and reducing natural reproduction to almost zero (Krassikov and Fedin 1996). In the Ural river current fishing rates are 4 to 5 times sustainable levels (F Max) (Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. accepted). <br/><br/>Bycatch is also a threat to the species. The species caviar is very high value (8,000 USD per kilo in 2009).<br/><br/>Impoundment of rivers has destroyed most of the species spawning grounds. The Volgograd dam, built in 1955, has decreased the area of available spawning grounds by 88-100% in the Volga river, similar areas have been reduced in the Terek and Sulak rivers from 132 ha and 202 ha, respectively. The Don river dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban river led to the loss of 140,000 ha (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Due to the longevity of the species pesticide contamination, leading to many problems including reduced reproductive success is also suspected (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee effect could also be a threat to the species.	eng
10269	threats	Kottelat, M., Gesner, J. Chebanov, M. & Freyhof, J., 2009	Overfishing at sea and poaching in estuaries and rivers for meat and caviar is a major threat to the species. Overharvesting and a sharp increase in poaching has led to the largest and most mature specimens being removed from the population and reducing natural reproduction to almost zero (Krassikov and Fedin 1996). In the Ural river current fishing rates are 4 to 5 times sustainable levels (F Max) (Doukakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. accepted). <br/><br/>Bycatch is also a threat to the species. The species caviar is very high value (8,000 USD per kilo in 2009).<br/><br/>Impoundment of rivers has destroyed most of the species spawning grounds. The Volgograd dam, built in 1955, has decreased the area of available spawning grounds by 88-100% in the Volga river, similar areas have been reduced in the Terek and Sulak rivers from 132 ha and 202 ha, respectively. The Don river dam removed 68,000 ha of spawning ground and flow regulation in the Kuban river led to the loss of 140,000 ha (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Due to the longevity of the species there is evidence of pesticide contamination, leading to many problems including reduced reproductive success (Gessner, J. pers comm.).<br/><br/>The Allee effect could also be a threat to the species.	eng
10272	distribution	Sturgeon Specialist Group, 1996	In the Caspian Sea and the tributaries that flow into it.	eng
10274	conservation	Arumugam, R., Wagner, A. & Mills, G., 2008	Striped Hyaena are present in numerous protected areas across their vast range. Because they exist outside of formally protected areas in regions where pastoralism is the norm and the potential for human-carnivore conflict is very high (for example, in Egypt and Kenya), particular attention should be paid to identifying ways to reduce human-carnivore conflict through promotion of methods that ensure adequate numbers of prey persist and/or methods that reduce livestock killing by carnivores (Wagner in press).	eng
10274	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Striped Hyaena are present in numerous protected areas across their vast range. Because they exist outside of formally protected areas in regions where pastoralism is the norm and the potential for human-carnivore conflict is very high (for example, in Egypt and Kenya), particular attention should be paid to identifying ways to reduce human-carnivore conflict through promotion of methods that ensure adequate numbers of prey persist and/or methods that reduce livestock killing by carnivores (Wagner in press).	eng
10274	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Striped Hyaena has a very large, albeit now patchy distribution, extending from Africa, north of and including the Sahel, and including much of east and northeast Africa south to about central Tanzania, through the Middle East and Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, though not reaching Assam, Bhutan or Myanmar. They may have recently expanded into Nepal (Hofer and Mills 1998a).<br/><br/>Although historically present, there are no reliable recent records of occurrence in Sudan, Eritrea, or Somalia in Africa, or in Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, or Afghanistan in the Asian range (Hofer and Mills 1998a). Although the latter authors could find no recent records for Syria, there are recent records from the Palmyra area and elsewhere (Masseti 2004, G. Serra pers. comm.). Kasparek <em>et al.</em> (2004) discuss the recent distribution of the species in Turkey.	eng
10274	distribution	Arumugam, R., Wagner, A. & Mills, G., 2008	The Striped Hyaena has a very large, albeit now patchy distribution, extending from Africa, north of and including the Sahel, and including much of East and North-east Africa south to about central Tanzania, through the Middle East and Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, though not reaching Assam, Bhutan or Myanmar. They may have recently expanded into Nepal (Hofer and Mills 1998a). <br/><br/>Although historically present, there are no reliable recent records of occurrence in Sudan, Eritrea, or Somalia in Africa, or in Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, or Afghanistan in the Asian range (Hofer and Mills 1998a). Although the latter authors could find no recent records for Syria, there are recent records from the Palmyra area and elsewhere (Masseti 2004; G. Serra pers. comm.). Kasparek <em>et al.</em> (2004) discuss the recent distribution of the species in Turkey.	eng
10274	habitat	Arumugam, R., Wagner, A. & Mills, G., 2008	In most of its range the Striped Hyaena occurs in open habitat or light thorn bush country in arid to semi-arid environments (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). It avoids open desert (such as the centre of the Arabian desert and the Sahara, though they may occur at low density in the central Saharan massifs), dense thickets and forests, and also avoids high altitudes; however, it has been recorded to 3,300 m in Pakistan (Roberts 1977), 2,700 m in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003), and at least to 2,300 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Striped Hyaena are sometimes found close to dense human settlements (e.g., Israel and Algeria). Individuals have been recorded 19 km south of Tel Aviv, 5 km east of the international airport and on the Tel Aviv-Haifa highway near Mount Carmel (Hofer 1998; and references therein), and in the suburbs of Algiers (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007). Striped Hyaenas are unafraid of humans and frequently forage on garbage and carrion near to human habitation (K. de Smet, F. Cuzin and M. Masseti pers. comm.). Young animals are even kept as pets in some areas.	eng
10274	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In most of its range the Striped Hyaena occurs in open habitat or light thorn bush country in arid to semi-arid environments (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). It avoids open desert (such as the centre of the Arabian desert and the Sahara, though they may occur at low density in the central Saharan massifs), dense thickets and forests, and also avoids high altitudes; however, it has been recorded to 3,300 m in Pakistan (Roberts 1977), 2,700 m in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003), and at least to 2,300 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Striped Hyaena are sometimes found close to dense human settlements (e.g., Israel and Algeria). Individuals have been recorded 19 km south of Tel Aviv, 5 km east of the international airport and on the Tel Aviv-Haifa highway near Mount Carmel (Hofer 1998; and references therein), and in the suburbs of Algiers (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007). Striped Hyaenas are unafraid of humans and frequently forage on garbage and carrion near to human habitation (K. de Smet, F. Cuzin and M. Masseti pers. comm.). Young animals are even kept as pets in some areas.	eng
10274	population	Arumugam, R., Wagner, A. & Mills, G., 2008	Hofer and Mills (1998b) estimated the total population of Striped Hyaena at 5,000 to 14,000 individuals (see Table 5.2 in Hofer and Mills 1998b). Such an assessment of the current population trends of the Striped Hyaena is complicated by a number of problems (they are nocturnal, solitary, occur at low densities often in rugged country, sightings are infrequent, and surveys difficult to carry out). Moreover, in areas where the range of the Striped Hyaena overlaps with that of the Spotted Hyaena and the Aardwolf, few people acknowledge or recognize a difference between the three hyaenid species. Nonetheless, even if the overall population is larger than this estimate, based on their questionnaire survey, Hofer and Mills (1998b) found that the Striped Hyaena is already extinct in many localities and that populations are generally declining throughout its range.<br/><br/>As noted, Striped Hyaenas occur at low population densities. A large study in Laikipia District, central Kenya, estimated the minimum regional density at 0.03 adults/km² (Wagner 2006), while van Aarde <em>et al.</em> (1998) more than 0.016/km² in the Negev Desert (see also Table 5.1 in Hofer and Mills 1998b).	eng
10274	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Hofer and Mills (1998b) estimated the total population of Striped Hyaena at 5,000 to 14,000 individuals (see Table 5.2 in Hofer and Mills 1998b). Such an assessment of the current population trends of the Striped Hyaena is complicated by a number of problems (they are nocturnal, solitary, occur at low densities often in rugged country, sightings are infrequent, and surveys difficult to carry out). Moreover, in areas where the range of the Striped Hyaena overlaps with that of the Spotted Hyaena and the Aardwolf, few people acknowledge or recognize a difference between the three hyaenid species. Nonetheless, even if the overall population is larger than this estimate, based on their questionnaire survey, Hofer and Mills (1998b) found that the Striped Hyaena is already extinct in many localities and that populations are generally declining throughout its range.<br/><br/>As noted, Striped Hyaenas occur at low population densities. A large study in Laikipia District, central Kenya, estimated the minimum regional density at 0.03 adults/km² (Wagner 2006), while van Aarde <em>et al.</em> (1998) more than 0.016/km² in the Negev Desert (see also Table 5.1 in Hofer and Mills 1998b).	eng
10274	threats	Arumugam, R., Wagner, A. & Mills, G., 2008	The major reasons for the apparent decline include persecution (especially poisoning), decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores (wolf, cheetah, leopard, lion, tiger) and their prey, and changes in livestock practices (Hofer 1998). Humans are consistently indicated as the major source of mortality throughout the evaluated range, largely because the hyaena is loathed as a grave robber, and because of incidents of damage to agriculture (e.g. in Israel) and livestock (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). Striped Hyaena are very susceptible to accidental or targeted poisoning as it readily accepts strychnine-poisoned bait. For example, along the Mediterranean coast in Israel, the Striped Hyaena was exterminated by strychnine poisoning during the rabies eradication campaign administered by the British government between 1918 and 1948. The Striped Hyaenas ate poisoned donkey carcasses that were provided to control golden jackals, then the main carrier of rabies. Further large-scale poisoning occurred between 1950 and 1970 (Hofer 1998). In the Palmyra area in Syria, the species is heavily persecuted (including destruction or blockage of dens, poisoning carcasses, or the use of the fire to chase animals out of dens). There is also illegal trade in skins, and body parts for use in traditional medicine (as there is elsewhere in the range), and they are often kept in cages for display purposes (G. Serra pers. comm.). The species is commercially hunted in Morocco for use in traditional medicine, with various parts being used (especially the brain) and may fetch very high prices. Hunters may travel hundreds of kilometres to capture this species (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
10274	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major reasons for the apparent decline include persecution (especially poisoning), decreasing natural and domestic sources of carrion due to declines in the populations of other large carnivores (wolf, cheetah, leopard, lion, tiger) and their prey, and changes in livestock practices (Hofer 1998). Humans are consistently indicated as the major source of mortality throughout the evaluated range, largely because the hyaena is loathed as a grave robber, and because of incidents of damage to agriculture (e.g. in Israel) and livestock (Hofer 1998; Wagner in press). Striped Hyaena are very susceptible to accidental or targeted poisoning as it readily accepts strychnine-poisoned bait. For example, along the Mediterranean coast in Israel, the Striped Hyaena was exterminated by strychnine poisoning during the rabies eradication campaign administered by the British government between 1918 and 1948. The Striped Hyaenas ate poisoned donkey carcasses that were provided to control golden jackals, then the main carrier of rabies. Further large-scale poisoning occurred between 1950 and 1970 (Hofer 1998). In the Palmyra area in Syria, the species is heavily persecuted (including destruction or blockage of dens, poisoning carcasses, or the use of the fire to chase animals out of dens). There is also illegal trade in skins, and body parts for use in traditional medicine (as there is elsewhere in the range), and they are often kept in cages for display purposes (G. Serra pers. comm.). The species is commercially hunted in Morocco for use in traditional medicine, with various parts being used (especially the brain) and may fetch very high prices. Hunters may travel hundreds of kilometres to capture this species (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
10276	conservation	Wiesel, I., Maude, G., Scott, D. & Mills, G., 2008	Brown Hyaena occur in a number of large conservation areas, including: Namib-Naukluft, Skeleton Coast, Sperrgebiet and Etosha National Parks (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (South Africa, Botswana), Pilanesberg N.P. (South Africa), and the Central Kalahari G.R. (Botswana). However, Brown Hyaenas are still often recorded outside protected areas: in an ongoing survey of nearly 50 landowners in South Africa's North-West Province between October 2006 and May 2007, 67% of interviewees reported sightings of Brown Hyaena on their property with the preceding 12 months (D. Scott, R. Yarnell and M. Thorn pers. comm.).	eng
10276	distribution	Wiesel, I., Maude, G., Scott, D. & Mills, G., 2008	Endemic to southern Africa except for a marginal extension into the arid parts of south-western Angola. The range of the Brown Hyaena has shrunk significantly since the end of the 18th century when it was last recorded from Table Bay in the extreme south-west of the continent (Hofer and Mills 1998a; Mills in press). They remain widespread in southern Africa, and in recent years in South Africa have been recorded from the extreme south in the Western Cape (Gansbaai and Bredasdorp) where it was believed to be extirpated, so it may be recolonizing some of these areas (Hofer and Mills 1998a), although it seems more likely that these were vagrants. Records from Malawi are erroneous (see discussion in Ansell and Dowsett 1988).	eng
10276	habitat	Wiesel, I., Maude, G., Scott, D. & Mills, G., 2008	The Brown Hyaena is found in desert areas with annual rainfall less than 100 mm, particularly along the coast, semi-desert, open scrub and open woodland savanna with a maximum rainfall up to about 700 mm. It shows an ability to survive close to urban areas. It is independent of drinking water, but needs some type of cover in which to lie up during the day. For this it favours rocky, mountainous areas with bush cover in the bushveld areas of South Africa (Skinner 1976). It is primarily a scavenger of a wide range of vertebrate remains, which is supplemented by wild fruits, insects, birds’ eggs and the occasional small animal which is killed; their impact on domestic livestock is usually small (Mills 1998; in press). Along the Namib Desert Coast, Brown Hyaenas are successful hunters of Cape Fur Seal pups (e.g, Wiesel 2006).	eng
10276	population	Wiesel, I., Maude, G., Scott, D. & Mills, G., 2008	The total population size on the continent has been estimated as at a minimum of 5,000 to 8,000 individuals, with Botswana having the largest population (an estimated 3,900 animals) (Hofer and Mills 1998b). A recent national population estimate for Namibia (undertaken in 2004) puts the number of Brown Hyaenas at 522 - 1187 animals (Hanssen and Stander 2004).	eng
10276	threats	Wiesel, I., Maude, G., Scott, D. & Mills, G., 2008	Outside protected areas, the Brown Hyaena may come into conflict with humans, and they are often shot, poisoned, trapped and hunted with dogs in predator eradication or control programmes, or inadvertently killed in non-selective control programmes (Mills 1998). In an ongoing survey of land-owners in the North-West province of South Africa, it was apparent that there are still strong negative attitudes towards Brown Hyaenas: nearly half of ~50 interviewees used lethal control in the form of ‘call-in’ and shooting, poisoning or live trapping, with 127 Brown Hyaenas reported to have been killed within the land held by the interviewees (an area of 1613 km²) (D. Scott, R. Yarnell and M. Thorn pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Although used in traditional medicine and rituals, it is not nearly as sought after in this regard as the spotted hyaena (Hofer and Mills 1998b).	eng
10277	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Historically occurred in the Rio Grande and Pecos River systems, Texas, New Mexico (US) and Mexico; range now drastically reduced, occurs only in perennial sections of the Rio Grande in New Mexico.	eng
10278	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are two protected areas on the island, but neither of these are effectively managed and it is not certain if the species occurs or ocurred in either of these.	eng
10278	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the highland areas of the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. It occurs from 450 m (Bonyoma) up to about 2,000 m asl (Refugium).	eng
10278	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It has been collected at forest edges bordering farms. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
10278	population	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is known only from 36 animals collected in the early 1960s. There is no current information on population size or trends, but it is probably declining.	eng
10278	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Much of the montane forest habitat of this species has been destroyed by logging, clearing for cocoa plantations, and other agricultural activities (crops and cattle).	eng
10279	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Amori, G. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to effectively conserve remaining areas of montane forest in Cameroon.	eng
10279	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Amori, G. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found only on Mount Cameroon, Mount Oku and Mount Lefo, Cameroon.	eng
10279	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Amori, G. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is associated with tropical montane forest.	eng
10279	population	van der Straeten, E., Amori, G. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
10279	threats	van der Straeten, E., Amori, G. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There is deforestation on the lower slopes of the species mountain habitat through conversion of land to agricultural use, and the extraction of timber for firewood and building materials.	eng
10280	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It has been recorded from the Ruwenzori National Park. There is a need to monitor populations of this species and to record any potential changes in habitat loss.	eng
10280	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the Ruwenzori Mountains in western Uganda and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been recorded at elevations between 1,830 m and 2,440 m asl.	eng
10280	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is a diurnal species found in tropical montane forest.	eng
10280	population	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
10280	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is only known from a very restricted area which is currently not under any major threat. Deforestation is a potential future threat should protection of the area be changed or not enforced.	eng
10281	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Pic de Fon in Guinea).	eng
10281	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This West African species occurs in the 'Liberian Forest Zone' being found in northern and eastern Sierra Leone, Liberia, the southern half of Guinea and the parts of Côte d'Ivoire west of the Sassandra River. It is found from the lowlands up to 2,250 m asl.	eng
10281	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in moist lowland and moist montane forests, but also occurs in the dry forests at Pic de Fon (Guinea). This species does not appear to tolerate any disturbance.	eng
10281	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
10281	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There is some deforestation in parts of its range, but plenty of suitable habitat still remains.	eng
10282	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in a number of protected areas including Tai Forest National Park and Cavally Forest Reserve, both in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
10282	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This West African species is found from Sierra Leone westwards to southwestern Nigeria west of the Niger River. It is mostly a lowland species.	eng
10282	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in moist primary and secondary tropical moist forest.	eng
10282	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is fairly common in good habitat (moister conditions), in other places it is not so common. Historically, the range would have been much wider (and presumably the population larger), but it has been reduced due to deforestation (especially in Côte d'Ivoire).	eng
10282	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There is some deforestation in the area, and historically the species has been impacted by this (but most of this would have happened mainly more than ten years ago).	eng
10283	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Decher, J., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. The taxonomy urgently needs to be addressed as this is a species complex with between at least three to five distinct species (based on chromosomal data and biometrics).	eng
10283	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Decher, J., 2008	This largely Central African species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria (on the east side of the Cross River), through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, southern Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and extreme northwestern Zambia to southern Uganda and western Rwanda and Burundi. It is also found in the Cabinda portion of Angola. This species is found up to 2,500 m asl and may even occur higher.	eng
10283	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Decher, J., 2008	It is generally found in primary moist forest along streams. The species is also found in secondary forest, and even extends into drier forests in West Africa. The species does not go above the forest line in East Africa. Is a diurnal species.	eng
10283	population	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
10283	threats	van der Straeten, E., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. There is some deforestation of its habitat, but this species is still so widely distributed that this is not considered to be a major problem.	eng
10300	conservation	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E. & Reid, F., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10300	distribution	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is wide ranging from Colombia and Venezuela into northern Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
10300	habitat	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E. & Reid, F., 2008	The species occurs only in habitat close to water including marshes, estuaries, and along rivers and streams (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Depending on habitat and hunting pressure, they are found singly or socially. They are diurnal or nocturnal depending on hunting pressure and the season (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). In Venezuela and the Brazilian Pantanal, the species breeds throughout the year, usually with a single breeding cycle. Gestation lasts up to 120 days after which an average of 3.5 young are born (range, one to seven), the peak birth period is during February in the Brazilian Pantanal (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
10300	population	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E. & Reid, F., 2008	It is locally common and widespread, but uncommon or rare in populated areas of the Amazon (Emmons and Feer 1999). Populations in the rainforest are small and narrowly restricted to open watersides (Emmons and Feer 1999). In the Brazilian Pantanal, densities reached a maximum of 12.5 animals per hectare (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
10300	threats	Queirolo, D., Vieira, E. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is severely threatened by hunting; some local populations have been extirpated (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Capybara leather is valued in South America and from 1976 to 1979 almost 80,000 skins were exported from Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). There is a large internal market for the skins.	eng
10303	conservation	Domning, D., Anderson, P.K. & Turvey, S., 2008	This species is now extinct.	eng
10303	distribution	Domning, D., Anderson, P.K. & Turvey, S., 2008	Steller's Sea Cow was known from the Bering Sea. The last population was discovered by a Russian expedition wrecked on Bering Island in 1741. It is likely that a population also persisted in at least the western Aleutian Islands into the 18th century (Domning <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>A catalogue of osteological specimens of <em>H. gigas</em> in the world’s museums, with a history of their collection, was published by Mattioli and Domning (2006).<br/><br/>In the Pliocene and Pleistocene, <em>Hydrodamalis</em> occurred from Japan to Baja California, Mexico (Domning 1978; Domning and Furusawa 1995), a range that coincided with that of the Sea Otter <em>Enhydra lutris</em>.	eng
10303	habitat	Domning, D., Anderson, P.K. & Turvey, S., 2008	When discovered, Steller's Sea Cow inhabited the shallow cold waters around the Commander Islands in the Bering Sea, grazing on kelps.	eng
10303	population	Domning, D., Anderson, P.K. & Turvey, S., 2008	Steller's Sea Cow was discovered in 1741 in the shallow waters around the uninhabited Commander Islands. The relict Bering Island population was studied by Georg Steller (a naturalist and physician onboard Vitus Bering's ship wrecked on the island in 1741). The sea cow was an easily available source of meat and the islands became a regular stop-over and stocking up point for Russian fur hunters until 1762–1763. Ruthlessly hunted, Steller's Sea Cow was probably extinct by 1768. Turvey and Risley (2006) presented a preliminary mathematical model of its extinction dynamics, providing evidence that the initial Bering Island sea cow population must have been higher than higher than the 1,500 animals suggested by Stejneger (1887) to allow the species to survive even until 1768.	eng
10303	threats	Domning, D., Anderson, P.K. & Turvey, S., 2008	<em>Hydrodamalis</em> was slaughtered for its meat and leather. Anderson (1995) discussed the ecological interaction between sea cows, sea otters, <em>Strongylocentrotus</em> sea urchins, and kelp, and suggested that human predation on sea otters (resulting in a nearshore community dominated by sea urchins, which largely eliminate shallow-water kelps leading to their replacement by chemically defended deep-water species) was a major factor, along with hunting, in sea cow extinction. Turvey <em>et al.</em> (2006) assessed whether hunting alone would have been sufficient to wipe out the sea cow, and showed that the speed of sea cow disappearance on Bering Island indicates that hunting alone was more than sufficient to exterminate the species without having to invoke any additional ecological pressures.	eng
10304	conservation		Limestone Salamander Ecological Reserve (LSER) protects 120 acres of habitat. The Bureau of Land Management has designated an additional 1,600 acres as the Limestone Salamander Area of Critical Environmental Concern (LSACEC) (encompasses both confirmed and potential habitat) (California DF&G 1990). The species is listed as Threatened by the Department of Fish and Game, under the State of California Endangered Species Act.	eng
10304	distribution		This species can be found in the Lower Merced River drainage, Mariposa County, California, USA. In the vicinity of Briceburg: it occurs at the confluence of Bear Creek and Merced River, along tributaries of Bear Creek, along North Fork of Merced River, and at Hell Hollow about 4 miles above Lake McClure and at the confluence of Hell Hollow Creek with Lake McClure (Stebbins 1985b, California Department of Fish and Game 1990). The elevational range is from 300-760m asl.	eng
10304	habitat		It inhabits moss-covered limestone outcroppings and talus rubble generally in Gray Pine (<em>Pinus sabiniana</em>)-Oak (<em>Quercus wizlizenii</em>, <em>Q. chrysolepis</em>, and <em>Q. dumosa</em>) woodland, with relatively few pine but numerous California Buckeye (<em>Aesculus californica</em>). It also (but less often) occurs in chaparral; typically under rocks and logs near streams or seepages. It stays underground (rock crevices, caves, mines, etc.) in dry weather. It is a terrestrial breeder, presumed to lay large yolky eggs and it is known to lack a larval stage. It disappears from cleared areas, but otherwise adaptability to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
10304	population		It is uncommon in favourable habitat, but not rare.	eng
10304	threats		A proposed gold mine operation in Hell Hollow poses the most serious threat; other potential threats include highway construction (the type locality is along the main access road to Yosemite National Park) and quarrying for limestone (California Department of Fish and Game 1990) as well as dam building.	eng
10305	conservation		Many of the known populations occur on U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management land; Shasta-Trinity National Forest has developed a management plan (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). The Shasta Salamander is listed as Threatened under the State of California Endangered Species Act and is protected on federal lands under the survey and management mitigation of the Northwest Forest Plan.	eng
10305	distribution		This species is restricted to a small area in northern California, in the headwaters of Shasta Reservoir drainage, Shasta County, California, USA. As of 1990, there were 12 known populations (California Department of Fish and Game 1990), including those at Backbone Ridge, Mammoth Butte, Hirz Mountain, Potter and Low Pass creeks, McCloud River, Brock Mountain, Samwell Cave, and near Ingot. Since 1990, researchers have expanded the number of populations to 61, thought to represent 16-17 population centres (Nauman and Olson 2004). Populations are now known from Green Mountain (Lindstrand 2000) and the Calaveras Cement Quarry. It has an elevational range of 300-975m asl (Stebbins 1985b, Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).	eng
10305	habitat		It is commonly, but not always, found near limestone outcrops; usually in cool, wet ravines and valleys; most commonly in oak-Gray Pine (<em>Pinus sabinianus</em>) woodland, also in Douglas-fir woodland and ponderosa/Jeffrey pine-oak at higher elevations; in moist limestone fissures or caves, sometimes under nearby logs and talus in wet weather (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). Little is known concerning breeding activity; eggs are probably laid underground or in cave crevices and fissures during early summer months (May-July) with young hatching in late summer/early fall. During non-breeding seasons animals can be found using limestone or the forested slope habitat. Susceptibility to habitat degradation is difficult to assess because no long-term studies have been conducted.	eng
10305	population		It can be locally abundant within its small range. Populations are believed to be stable.	eng
10305	threats		Road construction, quarrying for limestone, and raising the elevation of Lake Shasta are potential threats (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Impoundment of Lake Shasta has destroyed some habitat; a rise in water level could wipe out some extant populations. Timber harvesting and human recreational activities are additional threats.	eng
10309	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
10310	conservation	Aplin, K., Copley, P., Robinson, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Ellis, M. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas in Australia and New Guinea. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
10310	distribution	Aplin, K., Copley, P., Robinson, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Ellis, M. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is present on Obi Island in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia, the Kai Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), it is found over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on the D’Entrecasteaux Islands and the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), and ranges through parts of northern, eastern, south-eastern and south-western Australia, including the island of Tasmania and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Bernier Island, Western Australia). It ranges from sea level to 1,900 m asl.	eng
10310	habitat	Aplin, K., Copley, P., Robinson, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Ellis, M. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is associated with a wide variety of permanent aquatic habitats. It can be found in most types of freshwater habitats, including artificially irrigated sites, and can also occur in mangrove and estuarine areas (Flannery 1995a,b; Olsen 2008). Animals nest in bankside tunnels or logs, and while most food is taken from the water, they may forage in riparian vegetation (Olsen 2008). Females may annually have up to five litters (usually one or two) of three or four young (Olsen 2008).	eng
10310	population	Aplin, K., Copley, P., Robinson, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Ellis, M. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is generally a common, but sparsely distributed, species. There have been some declines in parts of Australia.	eng
10310	threats	Aplin, K., Copley, P., Robinson, T., Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Ellis, M. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In New Guinea, some populations are locally threatened by aquatic pollution resulting from mining activities. In south-western Western Australia, populations have declined likely due to increased salinity from clearing in agricultural areas. Extinction in the Montebello Islands (Western Australia) was probably due to a high density of introduced black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) and cats.	eng
10311	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species may be present in a protected area (i.e., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
10311	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is known only from a small area between Lake Habbema and Mount Wilhelmina in Papua Province, Indonesia. It is possibly widespread in a small number of wetland localities in the Snow Mountains. It has been recorded from between 2,800 and 3,600 m asl.	eng
10311	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Modern records of this species have been from subalpine habitat. It is presumably associated with wetland areas. Little else is known about this species.	eng
10311	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not commonly found.	eng
10311	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. People generally do not enter its montane habitat.	eng
10312	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Occurs in the Enarotali Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10312	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is known from only a single locality in the isolated Wissel Lakes region of Papua Province, Indonesia. It may be a restricted range species. It has been recorded from 1,765 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
10312	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is an aquatic species, found in rivers, lakes, and streams in montane forests. Little else is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
10312	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	In view of 53 specimens being caught from the region during a single expedition, it is believed to be relatively common in the Wissel Lakes region. However, it has not been seen since 1959.	eng
10312	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It appears to have a restricted range, however, it lives at high elevations and the habitat is not under threat. In the long-term climate change may pose a threat.	eng
10313	conservation	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	There are some protected areas on the island of unknown status. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
10313	distribution	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. It may also occur on the island of Umboi, but surveys are needed to confirm this. Elevation ranges from sea level to 500 m asl.	eng
10313	habitat	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is a lowland species. Like other Hydromys species, it is associated with streams, rivers, or other wetland habitats.	eng
10313	population	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is known from only three specimens.	eng
10313	threats	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	New Britain has been severely deforested through logging which may be impacting water quality and hence this species. There is also clearance of land for oil palm plantations.	eng
10314	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
10314	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), where it is found between the Hagen Mountain Range in the west and the Wau area in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,600 m asl.	eng
10314	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is found in forest rivers and streams, and is not really found in lakes. Several individuals usually inhabit the same burrow, which is often located in a stream bank. It feeds along stream banks and also within the water.	eng
10314	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
10314	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	The range of this species overlaps with the area of highest human population density on Papua New Guinea, and the species appears to be resilient to this. It may be hunted for food, but this is unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
10329	conservation	Harris, R.B. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is listed on the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A2bcd, and is on China Key List II.  <br/><br/>This species occurs in Poyang Lake Nature Reserve and Yancheng Nature Reserve, where around 1,000-1,500 animals are present in isolated subpopulations, each with less than 100 animals (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, nature reserve designation at Yancheng has evidently not prevented continued habitat loss and fragmentation (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). Poyang Lake Nature Reserve has a management plan and is regularly patrolled. A small captive population has been established in Yancheng Nature Reserve, but the justification for this is unclear (Zhang 1994, Hu <em>et al</em> 2006)<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions in China include:<br/>1. Poyang Nature Reserve: Enlarge the reserve and improve its protection. The reserve covers only a small part of <em>H. inermis</em>? range in the Jiangxi region, and it is recommended that this be increased in size and that protection be extended to nocturnal patrols when the majority of poaching takes place.<br/>2. Yancheng Nature Reserve: Establish habitat corridors to link small, isolated populations.<br/>3. Strengthen existing protected areas management: increase staffing levels and improve communications and equipment supply; introduce anti-poaching patrols; develop community-based management strategies and an education program in response to human encroachment and poaching; and introduce training program for reserve staff in wildlife management techniques.<br/>4. Create new protected areas (only a small proportion of the total population is currently protected).<br/><br/>In the Koreas, measures are needed to control poaching and to provide extensive areas of secure habitat for the species.	eng
10329	distribution	Harris, R.B. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is occurs in China (formerly from Liaoning to Guangxi including the lower Yangtze Basin) and Korea; it has been introduced to England and France (Whitehead 1993).<br/><br/>The Chinese population was originally found in Jilin and Liaoning provinces in the northeast of the country, in the eastern Yangtze Basin and islands at the mouth of this river, and in the southeast of the country in northwestern Guangdong, southern Hunan and central and eastern Guangxi (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). According to Hu <em>et al</em>. (2006) it is now restricted in China to the central portion of that distribution in the eastern Yangtze Basin, and populations in northeastern and southeastern China are now extinct. <br/><br/>Currently, the species' distribution in both Koreas may be substantially reduced, but little specific information is available. It is reported as being ?relatively widespread? in the Republic of Korea (N. Moores pers. comm., 2008), particularly along the west coast. It apparently remains relatively widespread in the lower-lying parts of DPR Korea, but assessing the true status is confounded by repeated reports of widespread and frequent releases of captive-bred stock. It is unclear at what levels these occurred in the past; since the mid-1990s they are likely to have been only at low, if any, levels in all except a few high profile areas. It is possible that Chinese stock have been included in the captive populations within DPR Korea, although this has not been confirmed (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
10329	habitat	Harris, R.B. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Water deer are evidently an ?edge? species, preferring habitats characterized by shrubs and small trees (Rhim and Lee (2007). They prefer coastal plains, salt marshes, and riparian areas, and are negatively affected by human presence (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). It is unclear whether the species persists in Korea in purely agricultural areas away from the semi-natural riparian vegetation associated with large rivers and coastal plains (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). However, further south in Korea, where unmodified waterways and patches of fallow habitat persist, water deer appear capable of living in rice-paddies (N. Moores pers. comm., 2008). As suggested by their name, water deer can swim (Guo and Zhang 2002), but appear unlikely to colonize areas > 20 km from a source population.   <br/><br/>Other than during the mating season, it is in general a solitary species; stable pairs or small groups have been reported in places with high population densities. The rut, in England, starts in late November and extends through December and occasionally into January. From May to July, females will deliver litters of up to six fawns although the most common figure is only from one to three). Offspring mortality is high, with up to 40% of juveniles dying during their first four weeks.	eng
10329	population	Harris, R.B. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Population densities have been said to be rather low in most places within its native range (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Won and Smith 1999, Hu <em>et al</em>. 2006), but few if any primary data have been presented in support of this. Signs (footprints, faeces) and sightings suggest high densities persist in semi-natural habitats of at least the lower (tidal) Chongchon plain of west-central DPR Korea (Pyongan North and Pyongang South provinces) in 2000?2004 although, as indicated above, some supplementation by released stock cannot be ruled out (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). At another area holding the species in DPR Korea, Mount Kuwol (Hwanghae South province), signs were difficult to find in 1999 despite specific searches, although local farmers reported that significant numbers were still present. Repeated searches in the Myohyang mountains (Pyongan North, Pyongang South and Chagang provinces) in 1999?2004 found no evidence of the species but suitable habitat was marginal. Water deer are readily observed in the outskirts of Pyongyang but are presumably releases and/or the descendents of releases. Reasonable numbers are reported to persist elsewhere in the DPR Korea lowlands (Ju Jong Sil, Academy of Sciences, verbally 2003 to J.W. Duckworth). <br/><br/>Water deer occur in the Republic of Korea and it said to be ?moderately widespread?, particularly along the west coast, as well as within the demilitarized zone between the two Koreas (Kim and Cho 2005), but its population cannot be estimated. <br/><br/>Within China, Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) estimated fewer than 10,000 individuals in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River; 1,200-1,500 in coastal areas of Jiangsu; 600-800 in the Zhoushan Islands of Zhejiang; and 1,000 in the Poyang Lake (Jiangxi) region. More recently, Sheng (1998) estimated 500-1,1000 in the coastal areas of Jiangsu (see also Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998), 1,500 in the Zhoushan Islands, around 1,000 in the Poyong Lake region, and an additional ~ 500 individuals in Anhui. <br/><br/>Hu <em>et al</em>. (2006) present a map showing a considerable reduction in the current distribution of <em>H. inermis</em> compared with its known, historical range, and describe population declines of the species as ?drastic?. Their map suggests that the species no longer occurs in Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shaanxi, Shandong, Henan, or Fujian provinces, and has become rarer in Hubei, Hunan, and Zhejiang provinces. However, the time period over which this range reduction is not known with any precision. Hu <em>et al</em> (2006) also provide data suggesting that <em>H. inermis</em> in the eastern-most (and densest) populations within China in Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces retain a relatively high amount of genetic diversity, although populations on the Zhoushan archipelago displayed some divergence from those on the mainland. Within Yancheng Nature Reserve, their geographic distribution decreased and became markedly more fragmented between the 1980s and 2001 (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
10329	threats	Harris, R.B. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Poaching and habitat destruction are major threats to this species (Won and Smith 1999). The species is valued for its meat, and for the semi-digested milk found in the rumen of unweaned fawns, which is used in traditional medicine as a cure against indigestion in children (Won and Smith 1999). It is sometimes trapped as a pest in China, and is reported to be a low-concern pest of rice fields in DPR Korea (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Hunting is carried out at night with dogs (Sun Lixing pers. comm. 1990). Most hunting in DPR Korea is probably with snares; guns are highly restricted and active hunting with dogs, although doubtless occurring to some extent, is too publicly visible to be the preferred choice. Snares for deer are at very high density in forest hill areas; no assessment has been made of their usage in the lower Chongchon plain where water deer remain common. It is not therefore possible to speculate on the species? resilience to such hunting (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In Yancheng Nature Reserve, poaching is reported as severe, and there is high mortality during periods of flooding. Fawns have been bought from local people to establish and support the captive population, where the mortality rate is reportedly high (Zhang 1994). Water deer have evidently been reduced or extirpated in most of the reserve, remaining only in the relatively small core area (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998, Zhu <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Habitat loss through reclamation for agriculture and urban development is a major threat to water deer in eastern China (Xu <em>et al</em>. 1998). Formerly widespread areas of appropriate habitat north of the Yangtze River delta have been lost and the remaining areas fragmented, leaving remaining populations of water deer vulnerable. <br/><br/>The Korean populations, at least in DPR Korea, are highly threatened by habitat loss, on the assumption that wild population will not persist in fully agricultural landscapes. It is reported, however, to be ?moderately widespread? at least in the Republic of Korea. In DPR Korea, agricultural policies have led to a large-scale land rezoning programme which involves the canalisation of streams, removal of damp hollows and generally the conversion to active farmland of all areas within the plains which have retained semi-natural vegetation to date. This programme is ongoing. Coastal habitats have so far fared better but there are ambitious plans for the reclamation of large proportions of the intertidal areas on the west coast, and this will involve major loss of the currently extensive suitable habitat present in natural coastal plains. With no empirical information on the use of purely agricultural regions by water deer in Korea, the precise effects of these ongoing and planned habitat changes are unclear; field study is required. Ground-dwelling mammals in DPR Korea are under heavy snaring pressure, at least in forest areas. The extent of snaring in the non-forest habitats occupied by this species and the effects of snaring on local populations are unclear. The situation in the lower Chongchon plain, an area with high human population densities and heavy conversion of plains land to agriculture (although retaining a largely natural coastal zone and channel profile for the river itself) suggest that either snaring levels are not so high in these areas or water deer are resilient to them (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
10335	conservation	Ledesma, M., Brown, R., Sy, E. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Populations have been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to better regulate the collection of this species from the wild, as populations are generally considered to be susceptible to overharvesting. There is also a need for improved regulation to prevent contamination of waterways used by this species with agrochemicals.	eng
10335	distribution	Ledesma, M., Brown, R., Sy, E. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, however its distribution is unclear because of confusion in identification between <em>Hydrosaurus amboinensis</em> and <em>H. pustulatus</em>. Populations of <em>H. pustulatus</em> have been reported from the islands of Luzon (with recent records from Bicol), Polillo, Mindoro, Negros, Cebu, Guimaras, Panay, Masbate, Tablas, Romblon, Sibuyan, and Catanduanes. It may be present on the island of Bohol but this requires confirmation.	eng
10335	habitat	Ledesma, M., Brown, R., Sy, E. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This semi-aquatic species is generally restricted to riparian vegetation present in lowland tropical moist forests (both primary and secondary) to open cultivated areas. It is probably omnivorous, and is associated with certain food trees. It appears to have a preference for particular shrubs and trees as resting places (often overhanging water), and is usually collected from these. This is an oviparous species that buries eggs within river banks.	eng
10335	population	Ledesma, M., Brown, R., Sy, E. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Animals can be very common in appropriate habitat (such as silty, lowland rivers). The density of the species is also considered to vary between islands; field surveys indicate that it is common on Guimaras and Romblon, but rarer on Negros and Cebu.	eng
10335	threats	Ledesma, M., Brown, R., Sy, E. & Rico, E.L., 2007	The threats to the two species of <em>Hydrosaurus</em> in the Philippines are generally very similar. Populations appear to be principally threatened by habitat loss, often the conversion of wooded land to alternative uses (including agriculture), and through logging operations. In addition, animals (especially hatchlings) are heavily collected for both the pet trade (national and possibly international) and local consumption. Because of inter-island trade, there is some possibility of introduced animals mixing with indigenous populations. In some parts of is range it is additionally threatened by water pollution resulting from the use of agrochemicals and increased sedimentation.	eng
10340	conservation	Southwell, C., 2008	The leopard seal is not listed as endangered or threatened. Leopard seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and any future commercial harvest would be regulated by these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
10340	distribution	Southwell, C., 2008	Leopard seals are widely-distributed in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters of the southern Hemisphere, occurring from the coast of the Antarctic Continent north throughout the pack ice and at most sub-Antarctic islands. There is a seasonal presence of juveniles at Kerguelen and Macquarie Islands with the greater numbers being sighted in September and October (Borsa 1990, Rounseveld and Eberhard 1980). Vagrants regularly reach warm temperate latitudes. They haulout on ice and on land, often preferring ice floes near shore when these are available (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).	eng
10340	habitat	Southwell, C., 2008	Adult males are 2.8 to 3.3 m long and weigh up to 300 kg. Adult females are 2.9 to 3.6 m, with very large animals possibly reaching 3.8 m, and weights of 260 to upwards of 500 kg. Pups are 1 to1.6 m in length and weigh 30 to 35 kg at birth. The age at sexual maturity is probably 4 years for females and 4.5 years for males. Longevity is estimated to be over 26 years (Kooyman 1981, Rogers 2002). <br/><br/>Pups are born on the ice from early November to late December and the period may be as long as early October to early January (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2003). Births at South Georgia occur from late August to the middle of September. Pups are probably weaned at four weeks old, and female estrous occurs at or shortly after weaning. Unlike crabeater seals, male leopard seals do not haulout with female-pup pairs. Mating is believed to occur in the water.<br/><br/>At sea and on the ice, leopard seals tend to be solitary. They are well known for their habits of preying upon penguins. However, their diet is in reality highly varied and changes with seasonal and local abundance of prey. Leopard seals will consume krill, fish, squid, penguins, a variety of other types of seabirds, and juvenile seals including crabeater, southern elephant, and fur seals. They also occasionally scavenge from carcasses of whales. Most prey is caught in the water. Penguins are regularly held in the teeth by one end and slung in an arc with a rapid snap of the head and neck and smashed on the surface of the water and torn open. Smaller pieces are then swallowed. Young, newly fledged naïve penguins are most vulnerable, but adult birds are taken as well. Leopard seals patrol and regularly station themselves just off penguin rookeries and wait to ambush and chase penguins transiting to and from the colonies.	eng
10340	population	Southwell, C., 2008	This is a widespread species and, similar to the other Antarctic seals that inhabit the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Published global population estimates range from 100,000-300,000 (Scheffer 1958) up to 220,000-440,000 animals (Laws 1984). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global leopard seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean of 300,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990). This estimate is likely to have considerable uncertainty associated with it, and only very large changes in leopard seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys (Southwell <em>et al</em>. In Press).	eng
10340	threats	Southwell, C., 2008	There are currently no threats from human activity throughout the species’ normal range. Small numbers of leopard seals have been taken for research purposes and some were previously killed for dog food, but otherwise there is no current or past significant catch of leopard seals (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) list the effects of global climate change as unknown on leopard seal. However, loss of sufficient areas of pack ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators, availability of preferred prey such as penguins, other ice seals, krill, and fish that could all possibly decline, could all effect leopard seals directly or indirectly to an unknown degree. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming, or sea level rises on Antarctic ocean circulation and productivity, and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown. <br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seal, leopard and crabeater, tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies, and Ross seals were not tested. The effects of an outbreak of this or other diseases on leopard seals either as a disease within this species or repeatedly transmitted to it from an outbreak in a prey species such as the crabeater seal are unknown. Leopard seals are generally solitary except when with a pup or mating, so transmission of disease within the species would likely be slow or only seasonally significant. CDV is believed to have arrived in the Antarctic with sled dogs before the advent of vaccines. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, with many animals displaying viral illness symptoms prior to death, however, the exact cause of death is unknown (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all-time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage and close approach by people in small boats and on land on leopard seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is also a risk of injury to a small number of animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessels passing through ice fields.<br/><br/>There are no reports of significant fisheries interactions. Commercial harvest of krill may pose direct or indirect threats to leopard seals, if conducted on a large scale.	eng
10341	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Water Chevrotains occur in several protected areas, including: Sapo N. P. and Grebo National Forest (Liberia), Tai N. P. (Côte d’Ivoire), Lobeke N. P. (Cameroon), Lope N. P. and Minkebe N.P. (Gabon), Maiko N.P. Kahuzi-Biega N.P. and Okapi Faunal Reserve (DR Congo) and Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki (Congo Republic) (East 1999).	eng
10341	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Endemic to West and Central Africa, ranging across the forest belt from Sierra Leone and south-eastern Guinea, through Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire into south-west Ghana. Then ranges in southern Nigeria, east of the Niger River, through the central forest block, across southern Cameroon, Gabon, Cabinda (Angola), Congo and DR Congo to extreme western Uganda, where now believed extirpated (East 1999; Hart in press). A record from Angola's Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River, is the southernmost record of the species from the continent (Crawford-Cabral and Veríssimo 2005).	eng
10341	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Chevrotains are confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat, they only occupy areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. However, the Water Chevrotain is not a swamp specialist, and often ranges in mature upland forest areas (Hart in press).	eng
10341	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In the Ituri Forest, densities of 1.5-5.0/km²have been recorded (Hart in press). Higher densities (28/km²) have been reported in Gabon (Dubost 1978). East (1999) estimated the total population size at around 278,000 animals, with populations generally in decline.	eng
10341	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and bushmeat hunting. In the central Ituri Forest, chevrotains are regularly caught by the Mbuti net hunters, and consistently represent about five percent of total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years (Hart in press).	eng
10350	conservation		Many populations on public lands provide good opportunities for conservation management of this species. For example, it occurs in 16 sites within the Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge in Chesterfield County, South Carolina (Garton and Sill 1979; Brown 1980). In New Jersey, the greatest density of tree frogs, and the largest numbers of colonies, are found in protected areas within Lebanon and Wharton State Forests and Greenwood and Pasadena wildlife management areas (Freda and Morin 1984). Most occurrences in the Florida and Alabama populations are on protected lands, specifically Eglin Air Force Base and Blackwater River State Forest in Florida, and Conecuh National Forest in Alabama (Jackson pers. comm.).	eng
10350	distribution		This species is found in eastern USA including the Pine Barrens of New Jersey; the upper Coastal Plain and parts of lower Coastal Plain of North and South Carolina; and western Florida panhandle and adjacent Alabama, some 750km south-west of the nearest South Carolina population. It is also known in Georgia from an old record of a single specimen (Means and Mohler 1979; Gosner and Black 1967; Conant and Collins 1991). There are numerous occurrences throughout its range. The largest populations occur in New Jersey (Freda and Morin 1984). Discovery of this species in Florida was fairly recent (Christman 1970). Palmer (1977) suggested that the current distribution reflects relicts from a considerably more widespread distribution in the past.	eng
10350	habitat		The non-breeding habitat is generally pine-oak areas adjacent to breeding habitat. Activity is terrestrial and arboreal. Important egg-laying and larval habitats include open cedar swamps and sphagnaceous, shrubby, acidic, seepage bogs on hillsides below pine-oak ridges. It is intolerant of closed-canopy conditions.	eng
10350	population		Its total adult population size is unknown but it is relatively common where it occurs. Its population is relatively stable overall, but it is probably experiencing local declines due to habitat loss.	eng
10350	threats		It is apparently secure in most of the range, although relative scarcity and specialized habitat requirements justify continued monitoring and protection. The primary threat in the New Jersey Pine Barrens is habitat destruction or alteration from residential, agricultural, and industrial development (Palmer 1977; Freda and Morin 1984). Development pressures within the Pine Barrens place isolated populations outside protected areas at increased risk of elimination. The early successional shrub bogs, seeps, and sphagnum ponds selected as breeding sites are very acidic and nutrient-poor ecosystems and any changes in the chemistry of the waters in these habitats (as, for example, from storm water runoff) would likely cause the disappearance of the characteristic flora and fauna (Ehrenfeld 1983; Morgan <em>et al.</em> 1983; Freda and Morin 1984). The sandy soils of the Pine Barrens are very porous and allow pollutants to quickly enter the ground water, which is the major water source for the wetlands upon which the tree frog depends. Development can also lower the water table, which would have dramatic effects on the hydrology of bog wetlands. Garton and Sill (1979) reported that the specific habitat requirements of the species made it susceptible to local extirpation. Unlike other sympatric tree frog species, it generally does not breed in temporary waterbodies such as natural rain pools or in human-made areas such as roadside ditches and borrow pits. However, Bullard (1965) reported chorusing males along a roadside ditch in North Carolina. As is true for other Sandhills species, plant succession due to fire suppression appears to be a significant threat in South Carolina (Cely and Sorrow 1986).	eng
10351	conservation	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in many countries, it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and it is present in many protected areas. It has been reintroduced to Latvia (Gaua National Park, Riga District) in 1987-1992 from Belarus and from captive bred individuals raised at Riga Zoo. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in southern Turkey is needed. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.<br/><br/>In Sweden, a "restocking program" has successfully has increased the population from 2,000 (1980) to 50,000 (2008) in about 900 breeding ponds and the species has been repopulated to its historic range. The species benefits from pond creation programs in several areas of Central Europe. This is often a flagship species for numerous restoration programs.	eng
10351	conservation	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in many countries, it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and it is present in many protected areas. It has been reintroduced to Latvia (Gaua National Park, Riga District) in 1987-1992 from Belarus and from captive bred individuals raised at Riga Zoo. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in southern Turkey is needed. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.<br/><br/>In Sweden, a "restocking program" has successfully has increased the population from 2,000 (1980) to 50,000 (2008) in about 900 breeding ponds and the species has been repopulated to its historic range. The species benefits from pond creation programs in several areas of Central Europe. This is often a flagship species for numerous restoration programs.	eng
10351	distribution	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This is a widespread Palearctic species occurring from Iberia (where there are scattered populations within its range) and France, eastwards to western Russia and the Caucasian region, and southwards to the Balkans and Turkey (except extreme eastern, southeastern parts). It is mostly absent from Scandinavia (except southern and eastern Denmark and extreme southern Sweden), and has been introduced to the UK (New Forest) but is now thought to be extinct there and is not mapped. This is a lowland species that has been recorded at a maximum altitude (in Europe) of 2,300m asl. (Bulgaria), although this requires reconfirmation.	eng
10351	distribution	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This is a widespread Palearctic species occurring from Iberia (where there are scattered populations within its range) and France, eastwards to western Russia and the Caucasian region, and southwards to the Balkans and Turkey (except extreme eastern, southeastern parts). It is mostly absent from Scandinavia (except southern and eastern Denmark and extreme southern Sweden), and has been introduced to the UK (New Forest) but is now thought to be extinct there and is not mapped. This is a lowland species that has been recorded at a maximum altitude (in Europe) of 2,300m asl. (Bulgaria), although this requires reconfirmation.	eng
10351	habitat	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is generally associated with open, well-illuminated broad-leaved and mixed forests, bush and shrublands, meadows, gardens, vineyards, orchards, parks, lake shores and low riparian vegetation. Dark and dense forests are avoided. Populations can tolerate periods of dryness and can be encountered in dry habitats (Dan Cog?lniceanu pers. comm., October 2008). Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant waters such as lakes, ponds, swamps and reservoirs, and sometimes in ditches and puddles. The species has been reported from anthropogenic landscapes, including large cities (e.g., Kiev). It sometimes occurs in sympatry with <em>Hyla meridionalis</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).	eng
10351	habitat	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This species is generally associated with open, well-illuminated broad-leaved and mixed forests, bush and shrublands, meadows, gardens, vineyards, orchards, parks, lake shores and low riparian vegetation. Dark and dense forests are avoided. Populations can tolerate periods of dryness and can be encountered in dry habitats (Dan Cog?lniceanu pers. comm., October 2008). Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant waters such as lakes, ponds, swamps and reservoirs, and sometimes in ditches and puddles. The species has been reported from anthropogenic landscapes, including large cities (e.g., Kiev). It sometimes occurs in sympatry with <em>Hyla meridionalis</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).	eng
10351	population	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	While the species is common in suitable habitats in parts of its range, it is reported to be fragmented and in significant decline over much of its Western European distribution (e.g., Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Baker, 1997; Fog, 1995).	eng
10351	population	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	While the species is common in suitable habitats in parts of its range, it is reported to be fragmented and in significant decline over much of its Western European distribution (e.g., Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Baker, 1997; Fog, 1995).	eng
10351	threats	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	The species is quite sensitive to changes in habitat, including loss and fragmentation of forests, bush groves and meadows (with the isolation of populations), and the drainage and pollution of wetlands (industrial and agricultural) and predatory fish species. These impacts on metapopulations have led to declines in parts of Europe, and possible local declines in Turkey. The species is collected for the pet trade, and in some parts of its range (western Europe) this might be leading to local population declines.	eng
10351	threats	Ugur Kaya, Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	The species is quite sensitive to changes in habitat, including loss and fragmentation of forests, bush groves and meadows (with the isolation of populations), and the drainage and pollution of wetlands (industrial and agricultural) and predatory fish species. These impacts on metapopulations have led to declines in parts of Europe, and possible local declines in Turkey. The species is collected for the pet trade, and in some parts of its range (western Europe) this might be leading to local population declines.	eng
10355	conservation		The current known range of the species is not within any protected area. Further survey work is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality, and if it even still persists at the type locality.	eng
10355	distribution		This species is known only from Rubião Júnior, Botucatu, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.	eng
10355	habitat		It was originally found on vegetation or on forest leaf-litter near streams. The type specimen was found in a temporary pond, which has subsequently disappeared. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
10355	population		Surveys to locate this species in recent years have not found any individuals.	eng
10355	threats		The type locality of the species has been destroyed by agriculture and human settlement.	eng
10356	conservation		Its entire range is in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi.	eng
10356	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Marumbi, in Paraná State, Brazil, at approximately 500m asl, although it perhaps occurs elsewhere.	eng
10356	habitat		It lives in humid forest and is associated with streams. Its reproductive habits are not known, but breeding is likely to take place in water.	eng
10356	population		There is no information regarding the population status of this species, which is known from three specimens collected in 1953. Many researchers have revisited the type locality since 1986, where extensive forest remains, but have not relocated it.	eng
10356	threats		This species is possibly threatened by touristic activities.	eng
10357	conservation		The taxonomic identity of this species clearly needs to be resolved.	eng
10357	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in south-eastern Brazil: Barro Branco, Duque de Caxias, in the state of Rio de Janeiro (the type locality); and Linhares, in the state of Espírito Santo.	eng
10357	habitat		It is presumed to live in the rainforest and to breed in water.	eng
10357	population		Its population status is unknown because of the taxonomic problems associated with this species.	eng
10357	threats		There is no information on this species' major threats.	eng
10459	conservation		It occurs in Carrasco, Amboro, and Tariquia National Parks in Bolivia. In Argentina, it occurs in Baritú National Park.	eng
10459	distribution		This species is found east of the Andes from central Bolivia to northern Argentina. In Bolivia, it occurs from 450-2,000m asl in the Departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Tarija, and Santa Cruz (Duellman <em>et al.</em> 1997, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Argentina, it is found at 500-1,500m asl.	eng
10459	habitat		It is an arboreal species from forest and open areas and it inhabits Amazonian rainforest, inter-Andean valleys, Bolivian-Tucumano montane forest, and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Köhler (2000) points out that this species occurs in semi deciduous forest, in dry valleys, and in humid and cloud forest. It can be found near streams and ponds. It lays its eggs underwater. Some larvae were observed in slow streams, inside small pits (15cm) (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
10459	population		It is common in Bolivia. It is rare in Argentina, where it was last collected in 2000.	eng
10459	threats		There are no major threats to this species in Bolivia. In Argentina, selective logging, and the clear cutting of primary forests, trout introduction and the alteration of watersheds are threats to this species. It is also possibly threatened in the future by mining and dams.	eng
10543	conservation	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	Agile gibbons are protected throughout their range by local laws as well as by listing on CITES Appendix I, although the extent to which national or international laws actually protect the species is uncertain.<br/><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Bukit Barisan National Park, Kerinci Seblat National Park, Selantan National Park, and Way Kambas National Park in Indonesia; Mudah Wildlife Reserve in Malaysia; and Hala Bala Sanctuary in Thailand. Unfortunately, many of these are merely proposed or gazetted, and their actual protected status is uncertain. Moreover, many of the Sumatran reserves are in montane regions where the species occurs only at low densities. In Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in southwestern Sumatra, populations are presently secure and healthy but will depend on the regaining of control by the Indonesian government over illegal deforestation of its parks for their continued survival (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>As the validity of the subspecies is questionable, a research priority is to clarify this issue so that the species can be further assessed.	eng
10543	distribution	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species is found in Sumatra (Indonesia) (southeast of Lake Toba and the Singkil River), Peninsular Malaysia (from the Mudah and Thepha Rivers in the north to the Perak and Kelanton Rivers in the south) and south Thailand (near the Malaysian border, east of the Thepha River watershed (Gittins 1978; Groves 2001; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986; W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
10543	habitat	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species occurs at highest densities in dipterocarp-dominated forests, but their known habitat ranges from swamp and lowland forests to hill, submontane, and montane forests (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). Additionally, populations in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in Sumatra do not seem to avoid forest edges near human habitations (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). In southern Sumatra, populations were found up to 1,400 meters (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>These arboreal and diurnal primates are primarily frugivorous (preferring fruits high in sugar, such as figs), but they will consume immature leaves and insects as well (Gittins 1979, 1982). An average home range size of 29 ha has been determined in a study at Sungai Dal (Gunung Bubu Forest Reserve) on the Malayan peninsula (Gittins 1979, 1982; Gittins and Raemaekers 1980).	eng
10543	population	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	O'Brien <em>et al.</em> (2004) performed a population assessment in 2002 on agile gibbons in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. Using calling counts in both forest edge and interior habitats, and basing their estimate on forest cover area in the park, they calculated a population of 4,479 agile gibbons (CV = 30%) (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Peninsular Malaysia, Belum and Ulu Muda are strongholds. Portions of the population in Thailand likely number a few thousand individuals, located in approximately three forests fragments/reserves (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Density estimates for this species range from 1.4-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Bukit Barisan Seletan (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004), and 6-11.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Kerinci-Seblat (Yanuar 2001) to 5.5-18.9 individuals (2-5 groups)/km<sup>2</sup> in Sungai Dal on the Malay peninsula (Gittins 1979). Recent surveys in south Thailand reveal the density to be 2 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in parts of Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (W. Brockelman pers. comm.)	eng
10543	threats	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	On Sumatra, this species is threatened by conversion of their forest habitats by humans and a subsequent opportunistic capture for the pet trade. These threats extend to populations within national parks and forests, including illegal agricultural development inside the parks. In Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in southwestern Sumatra, deforestation rates are linked to the coffee market; coffee plantations serve to completely strip arboreal primates of their canopy habitats (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). The expansion of oil palm plantations is a major cause of forest loss on Sumatra. In nearby Java, agile gibbons are one of the most commonly seen gibbons in the wildlife markets (Nijman 2005). <br/><br/>The species? status in West Malaysia is uncertain; in Indonesia, it was certainly affected by fires and deforestation of the 1990s. There has been a probable 50%-plus range reduction in last 10 years (C. Groves pers. comm.), and oil palm plantations are expanding rapidly in the country. In Thailand there is extensive conversion of forests to rubber plantations and other crops (even inside protected areas), as well as hunting for the pet trade.	eng
10547	conservation	Whittaker, D. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by Indonesian law. More than half of the remaining Kloss's gibbons reside in Siberut National Park, a government protected area. Whittaker (2005b, 2006) suggested the following conservation actions: 1) increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, 2) formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, 3) protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971, 4) conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and 5) the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies (Whittaker 2006).	eng
10547	distribution	Whittaker, D. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is endemic to the four Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Sipora, North Pagai and South Pagai) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Geissmann 1995; Groves 2000; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986).	eng
10547	habitat	Whittaker, D. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is arboreal, diurnal, and omnivorous, though predominantly frugivorous (Whitten 1982a). Although disturbance levels in <em>H. klossii</em> habitat on the different islands are variable, a recent survey detected similar population densities in un-logged forests, forests logged 10 years ago, and those logged 20 years ago (Whittaker 2005; Paciulli 2004).<br/><br/>Gibbons in the Siberut area studied by both Tenaza (1974, 1975) and Tilson (1980) had unusually small average home ranges of 7-11 ha. A gibbon group studied in a different area on Siberut had a home range size of 32 ha, similar to that in other species of the genus <em>Hylobates</em> (Whitten 1980, 1982b).	eng
10547	population	Whittaker, D. & Geissmann, T., 2008	Whittaker (2005a,b) gathered population estimates on all four Mentawai Islands, using loud-call monitoring and forested area estimates to census the animals. The species population is estimated at 20,000 to 25,000 individuals remaining on the Mentawai Islands, where they are endemic (Whittaker 2005b, 2006), which amounts to a reduction in numbers of up to 50% since the last survey in 1980 (World Wildlife Fund 1980; MacKinnon 1986, 1987). Throughout the Mentawai Islands, density averaged 12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Whittaker 2005a, b). The largest remaining population, 13,000-15,000 individuals, is found in Siberut National Park (Whittaker 2005b, 2006).	eng
10547	threats	Whittaker, D. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006). It is also threatened by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of increased access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos which formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat to this species (Whittaker 2006). Although this may be a greater threat to this species than to other gibbons (D. Whittaker pers. comm.), it is rarely seen in the pet-trade in Java (Nijman 2005).<br/><br/>The extent of the threats from logging, hunting, and the pet trade faced by this species varies depending on location. The very large population in Siberut National Park, on central Siberut, lives in a protected area but is subject to moderate hunting pressure from local people. In the Peleonan forest, northern Siberut, the habitat was logged 20 years prior but faces low hunting pressure. This area is significant because four of the endemic Mentawai primates (<em>H. klossii, Simias concolor, Presbytis potenzian</em>i and <em>Macaca siberu</em>) exist here in high densities. Populations in Saureinu, Sipora are subject to traditional use by locals but limited logging. In South Pagai, forest plots are selectively logged but there is high hunting pressure. Animals on North Pagai were not censused, but logging and hunting occurs there as well (Whittaker 2005b).	eng
10548	conservation	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	<em>Hylobates lar</em>, like all gibbons, is a nationally protected species in all the countries across its range, and is listed under CITES Appendix I. In most of its range it is confined to protected conservation areas (for example in Thailand, where no significant populations survive outside of protected areas). However, in most countries, these areas are not well patrolled, even if they are well managed for tourism. There is an urgent need for improved protection of these areas, ideally involving local communities that should benefit from as well as participate in management. Illegal use of forest products, as well as poaching, is common in most protected areas. Inadequate management and protection, rather than forest destruction, are the main long-term threats and conservation efforts must seek to identify the hunters and incorporate them into new management priorities.<br/><br/>Further survey work is needed to determine current population numbers within protected areas across the range. One such priority area is southwest Yunnan, where it is unclear whether the species still survives (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
10548	distribution	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	The species as a whole is found in northern Sumatra (Indonesia), throughout Peninsular Malaysia (except for a narrow strip between the Perak and Mudah Rivers, where <em>H. agilis</em> occurs), north through southern and eastern Myanmar (east of the Salween River), most of Thailand (though not in the north-east), and marginally into southern China. The break in distribution between Perak and Muda/Thepa Rivers on the Malaysian Peninsula is genuine (T. Geissmann pers. comm.). The species also occurs in a small area of northwestern Lao PDR (west of the Mekong River). The range formerly extended into southeastern Thailand, where it was parapatric with <em>H. pileatus</em> (Brockelman 1978; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986; Marshall <em>et al.</em> 1972; T. Geissmann pers. comm.). It is unclear whether the population on Phuket (Thailand) is native, but they certainly have been introduced or reintroduced. <br/>In China, the species is currently known only from Nangunhe Nature Reserve in the Prefectury of Lincang, south-west Yunnan (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
10548	habitat	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is found in evergreen, semi-evergreen, and mixed evergreen-deciduous forest (sometimes known as ?dry evergreen? forest, in the northern parts of its range), and is known to utilize regenerating secondary forest and selectively logged forest (Johns 1985). In northwestern Thailand, white-handed gibbons utilize patches of dry evergreen, mixed deciduous, and bamboo forest near Karen settlements if they are not hunted (Yimkao and Srikosamatara 2006). This is predominantly a lowland species (below 1,000-1,500 m).<br/><br/>Like most other species of gibbon they consume a largely frugivorous diet that includes mainly figs, as well as young shoots, leaves, some flowers, and insects. Gibbons, unlike most macaques and leaf monkeys that often share their habitats, swallow nearly all the seeds that they ingest, making them potentially important as seed dispersers. Certain species of fruits that require the consumer to remove a tough outer cover appear to rely almost entirely on gibbons for seed dispersal (Bartlett 1999; Ellefson 1974; Gittins and Raemaekers 1980; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Palombit 1992, 1997; Ungar 1995).<br/><br/>Generation length in white-handed gibbons is on the order of 15 years. They mature late, with females maturing at 8-10 years and males at 8-12 years, and have one offspring every 3 to 5 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998; W. Brockelman pers. comm.). If a female loses a baby she may come into estrus sooner, but the average inter-birth interval in a population at carrying capacity is about 3.5 years (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). Average group size in <em>H. lar</em> generally increases with latitude, illustrating that group size is not a very useful species-specific character in gibbons. This reflects a general trend of increasing birth rate with latitude found in many vertebrate groups. Average group size has been reported at 2.7 (Chivers 1978) and 3.3 (Ellefson 1974) in Peninsular Malaysia, 3.7 in central Thailand (Brockelman and Srikosamatara 1993), and 4.4 (Carpenter 1940) and 4.9 (Yimkao and Srikosamatara 2006) in northern Thailand. The average home range sizes are 44-54 ha on the Malayan peninsula (Ellefson 1974; Gittons  and Raemaekers 1980; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980) and about 16 ha in the Khao Yai National Park in Thailand (Chivers 1984).	eng
10548	population	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	Population densities for this species range from 2.4 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Ketambe, Sumatra (Palombit 1992) to 0.7-2.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Kuala Lompat and Tanjong Triang on the Malayan peninsula (Ellefson 1974; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980; Raemaekers 1977) to 6.5 groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (Brockelman cited in Chivers 2001). A few smaller, fragmented populations survive in southern Peninsular Thailand and northwestern Malaysia, perhaps together numbering in the low thousands. There are no recent estimates of the populations in the Tenasserim section of Myanmar, northern Sumatra and in southern Peninsular Malaysia (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, during the 1960s, there were estimated to be 200 individuals on both sides of the Nangunhe River. In 1988, the date of last sighting, it was estimated that there were less than 10 groups. And in 1992, the last survey date, the authors did not find any direct evidence for the species? persistence, but estimated that three groups may remain with about 10 individuals in total. Although not specified in the original publications, this estimate appears to be based on interview data (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006; Guo and Wang 1995; Lan and Wang 2000).<br/><br/>No population estimates are currently available for Indonesia, Malaysia, and Myanmar. While for Lao PDR, there are no reliable estimates, but for Nam Poyi National Protected Area (which is the only protected area from which they are recorded), the species is uncommon to rare, perhaps numbering in the mid- to high-hundreds (Boonratana 1997). In some parts of Thailand there are several populations where numbers are at least in the thousands, though in northern Thailand they are now very rare. The largest population is in Kaeng Krachan National Park, which probably has on the order of 3,000-4,000 individuals. The Western Forest Complex may well have on the order of 10,000 animals, and likely upwards of 1,000 survive in the western part of Khao Yai National Park, as well as in Phukhieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Nam Nao National Park. A few smaller populations survive in the south, for example Khao Sok (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
10548	threats	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	The major threat to this species is hunting (having replaced even forest clearance as the top threat); they are hunted both for subsistence food use and for the pet trade. Hunting pressure varies across the range, but takes place even within protected areas. Much of the hunting is done by villagers exploiting <em>Aquilaria</em> spp. trees prized for their aromatic wood, and other forest products (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Construction of roads through protected areas (for example, the Security Highway through Nam Poyi in Lao PDR, the north-south highway in Peninsular Malaysia) may also pose a threat since it promotes forest clearance and strip development, possibly increases fragmentation, and increases access by hunters into protected areas. Ongoing localized forest loss due to shifting agriculture and commercial plantations of palm oil poses a threat. On northern Sumatra, most of the lowland forests have been logged out and the threat of Ladia Galaskar, a network to link the west and east coasts of Aceh province, means that much of the remaining forest is at risk.	eng
10550	conservation	Andayani, N., Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	Javan gibbons have been protected throughout their range by Indonesian law since 1924, and are listed under CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Three of the 15 locales that support the largest populations of silvery gibbons surveyed by Nijman are in national parks, while five are part of, or the entirety of, so-called “strict nature reserves”. The remaining seven locales are unprotected; approximately half of the remaining populations collectively reside here. In the interest of this species, it is these areas that require some level of increased protection (Nijman 2004). The second largest population of this species (for example in the Dieng Mountains) is not in a protected area.<br/><br/>In 2003, 56 Javan gibbons were maintained at eight Indonesian zoos, 15 at four Indonesian wildlife rescue centers, with five potential breeding pairs. There is no evidence that the species has bred successfully in captivity in Indonesia. Outside the range country, 48 Javan gibbons were maintained at ten institutions in nine countries, with six breeding pairs. The total <em>ex-situ</em> population is some 120 individuals, the majority of which are wild-caught (Nijman 2006).	eng
10550	distribution	Andayani, N., Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	<em>Hylobates moloch</em> is endemic to Java (Indonesia). It is mostly confined to Java’s western provinces (Banten and West Java), but is also present in central Java (as far east as the Dieng Mountains).	eng
10550	habitat	Andayani, N., Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	<em>Hylobates moloch</em>resides in floristically rich patches of relatively undisturbed lowland to lower montane rainforest mostly below 1,600 m, but sometimes up to 2,000–2,400 m (Nijman 2004). It can also tolerate moderately disturbed forest.<br/><br/>The species is strictly arboreal and diurnal, and mainly frugivorous (Kappeler 1981, 1984). Home ranges in Ujung Kulon cover about 17 ha (Kappeler 1981, 1984). Inter-birth intervals in wild gibbons are typically 3-3.5 years (Leighton 1987; Palombit 1992), and age of sexual maturity and/or the age of dispersal in wild gibbons is about 8-10 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998; Geissmann 1991), but the age at first reproduction may be about 10-12 years (Brockelman <em>et al</em>. 1998)	eng
10550	population	Andayani, N., Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	From 1994-2002, Nijman (2004) assessed the entirety of the silvery gibbon’s population in its known areas of occurrence by using fixed-point counts and forest transect walks, as well as by a review of literature. Their presence was detected by listening for gibbon song, and affirmed by local park officers and residents. He estimates that between 4,000–4,500 individuals remain in over 15 different locations. Over 95% of the gibbons are in populations of more than 100 individuals, and the four largest areas support populations of more than 500 individuals each (Nijman 2004). Asquith (2001) reported that in 1995 nine local populations had gone extinct, though Nijman found two of these locales to still harbor silvery gibbons. This is attributed to the effects of habitat disturbance and low population density on calling frequency, and suggests an under-representation of gibbon abundance and number of remaining populations (Nijman 2004). Small populations of the species are likely to go extinct; however, this will not impact the overall population estimate in the immediate future (Nijman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Median population density ranges are 2.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 9.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in lowland forest (<500 m), 2.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 8.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> for hill forest (500-1,000 m), and 0.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 1.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> for lower montane forest (1000-1,750 m) (Geissmann and Nijman 2006; Nijman 2004).	eng
10550	threats	Andayani, N., Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	The historical deforestation that affected Java in colonial times still maintains an overriding presence on the landscape, effectively restricting the arboreal silvery gibbon to continuous tracks of forest around mountain and volcano tops. However, habitat disturbance today is relatively slow, and populations of gibbons, while isolated, are substantial in size. Wildlife trade exerts an as yet un-quantified effect on <em>Hylobates moloch</em> (Nijman 2005). Populations seem to have become more or less stabilized in recent years as overall loss of habitat reached a climax some time ago. Though habitat loss continues, it is at a much slower rate today.	eng
10551	conservation	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, including Betung-Kerihun National Park, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Kutai National Park, Sungai Wain Protection Forest, Tanjung Puting National Park (Indonesia); Lanjak-Entimau Sanctuary, Semengok Forest Reserve (Malaysia) (Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
10551	distribution	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	The species as a whole occurs throughout Borneo except for the southwest (where <em>H. albibarbis</em> is found), from the north bank of the Kapuas River clockwise around the island to the east bank of the Barito River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri muelleri </em><br/>This taxon is found in southeast Kalimantan, Indonesia, approximately south of the Mahakam River and west of the Barito River (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri funereus </em><br/>This taxon is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It ranges from the northeast of Borneo (Sabah) south to the Mahakam River and perhaps west to the Baram District and the IV Division of Sarawak (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Hylobates muelleri abbotti</em> <br/>This taxon is found in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak). It occurs north of the Kapuas River and east as far east as the Saribas District of Sarawak (Groves 2001).	eng
10551	habitat	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	The species is found in tropical evergreen forests of primary, selectively logged and secondary forest types. Mueller?s gibbons are arboreal and diurnal, and frugviorous (preferring fruits high in sugar), but will also eat immature leaves and insects (Leighton 1987; Rodman 1978). They have been recorded from forests up to 1,500 m (Leighton 1987) or 1,700 m in Sabah (Yasuma and Andau 2000), with densities decreasing at higher elevations (V. Nijman pers. comm.). In Kutai National Park, average home range size was 36 ha (Leighton 1987).	eng
10551	population	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species is generally common in areas where good forest remains (J. Hon pers. comm.). Densities estimated using various techniques at three Indonesian sites ranged from 9-14.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at Kutai National Park, to 6.9-9.9 at Kayang Mentarang National Park, and 7.9-9.5 at Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Nijman and Menken 2005). Out of 11 studies on the effects of logging, 6 reported decline and 3 were neutral (Meijaard <em>et al.</em> 2005). Meijaard and Nijman (unpubl. data) conservatively estimate the total population to be approximately 250,000-375,000 individuals.	eng
10551	threats	Geissmann, T. & Nijman, V., 2008	Deforestation and trade in illegal pets are the predominant threats, and in interior areas hunting is also a threat (Mejiaard <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nijman 2005). From 2003-2004, Nijman (2005) recorded 54 individuals in markets in Kalimantan. Much habitat is being lost due to expanding oil palm plantations and logging.	eng
10552	conservation	Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Timmins, T. & Traeholt, C., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Cambodia the major stronghold is three contiguous protected areas, including Samkos and Aural Wildlife Sanctuaries, and the Central Cardamom Protected Forest. This last area contains about 3,350 km<sup>2</sup> of gibbon habitat and a population of nearly 7,000 groups. This potentially could ensure the long-term survival of the species if effectively managed. The Cambodian Forestry Administration in collaboration with Conservation International is developing a management plan for this area, and ranger units have been established to stop illegal poaching and logging. Gibbons also occur in Bokor National Park (1,220 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat), which is generally well managed. As in Thailand, numerous smaller fragmented areas also contain pileated gibbons, most with low long-term prospects. In Cambodia there is a need to strengthen protected area administration and protection activities, and to halt logging and development activities in important conservation areas (Brockelman pers comm.; Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In southeast Thailand, all populations are included within protected areas, but more effort needs to be made to change the behavior of local villagers who hunt. The largest protected forest areas are the Tab Lan National Park, Pang Sida National Park, Ta Phraya National Park, Khao Ang Ru Nai Sanctuary, and Khao Soi Dao Sanctuary, totaling greater than 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest habitat in three blocks (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpubl. data).	eng
10552	distribution	Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Timmins, T. & Traeholt, C., 2008	The range of this species includes southeastern Thailand, a portion of southwestern Lao PDR (west of the Mekong), and western Cambodia (west of the Mekong). In Thailand, the western limit may once have been the Bang Pakong River, extending north to Khao Yai National Park, east of the Lam Takhong watershed, and all forested areas east and south of the Moon River (Geissmann 1995; Groves 2001; Marshall and Sugardjito 1986). In Khao Yai, the limit is Khao Rom Mountain and the upper reaches of the Lam Takhong river on the north side (Brockelman 1975; Marshall <em>et al.</em> 1972).	eng
10552	habitat	Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Timmins, T. & Traeholt, C., 2008	This species is found in moist, seasonal evergreen and mixed deciduous-evergreen forests and have been recorded to about 1,500 m in Cambodia, and to around 1,200 m in Thailand. This species is similar to <em>H. lar</em> in diet and general ecology, consuming mostly fruits, shoots, and some immature leaves, as well as insects (Srikosamatara 1980, 1984). Researchers find the species somewhat shyer and more elusive than <em>H. lar</em> (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Average group size in Thailand is four individuals (Brockelman and Poonjampa unpubl. data). There has been no long-term study of behavior and life history.	eng
10552	population	Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Timmins, T. & Traeholt, C., 2008	In Cambodia, the primary area of importance is the Cardamom Mountains, in the south-western part which is relatively intact, where densities are on the order of 1-2 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an estimated 20,000 individuals (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Populations in the north, where the habitat is similar but more open, with a very small percentage of evergreen forest, are smaller. Bokor National Park in southwestern Cambodia has an estimated 1,000 groups and is likely to be isolated from the remainder of the range (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pileated gibbons might number more than 35,000 individuals in Cambodia in total (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR the population is significantly smaller, mainly since it comprises a smaller part of the range (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Thailand, there are an estimated 12,000 individuals (3,000 breeding groups) surviving in the four largest forest areas including five major protected areas (Khao Yai National Park, Thap Lan National Park, Khao Ang Ru Nai Sanctuary and Khao Soi Dao Sanctuary), based on an auditory census in 2004–2005, plus around 1,000 to 2,000 individuals in 15 other scattered and highly fragmented smaller protected areas (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpub. data). Population densities are generally low, averaging close to one group (average 4 individuals)/km<sup>2</sup>, with pockets of higher density populations in some remote mountain areas (Brockelman and Srikosamatara 1993). An earlier study generated a total population estimate of 30,000 pileated gibbons for Thailand (Tunhikorn <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
10552	threats	Brockelman, W., Geissmann, T., Timmins, T. & Traeholt, C., 2008	This species is threatened by both hunting, primarily for subsistence, and severe habitat fragmentation and degradation (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Thailand all populations are now within protected conservation areas and the era of logging and slash-and-burn agriculture (Brockelman 1983) is now mostly over. Nevertheless, severe encroachment has occurred in eastern Khao Yai Park and other major protected areas, and subsistence hunting by minor forest product collectors is still uncontrolled (Phoonjampa and Brockelman unpubl. data). In Cambodia, however, habitat destruction is a more immediate threat than poaching, especially in remote areas. Most populations are not yet secured in protected areas, and the main threats are habitat loss due to logging, agricultural conversion, hydroelectric development, and new human settlements (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
10566	conservation		There is an urgent need to establish a monitoring programme to determine whether or not it is in decline in areas of suitable habitat. The reported decline in apparently suitable habitat in the Serra das Cabras is reminiscent of declines and disappearances of other high-altitude, stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and the possibility of chytridiomycosis should be investigated. This species occurs in Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
10566	distribution		This species from south-eastern Brazil is known from the Serra das Cabras, Campinas, in the state of São Paulo, east to Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, Itatiaia Municipality, Itamonte, in the state of Minas Gerais. It might be more widely distributed, and is here assumed to occur beween the two known localities. Its altitudinal range is 800-1,700m asl.	eng
10566	habitat		This is a species of primary and secondary forest, associated with fast-flowing streams in which it breeds. The males are diurnal and frequent shaded places on rocks, in rock crevices, and under rocks and boulders.	eng
10566	population		It is very abundant in Itatiaia, but it is decreasing in the Serra das Cabras for unknown reasons.	eng
10566	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, tourism and fire.	eng
10588	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in Jianfengling Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in Jiaxi and Wuzhishan Nature Reserves. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
10588	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is endemic to China, and is restricted to the island of Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
10588	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is recorded from tropical rainforest and subtropical evergreen rainforest (Stone 1995). It was formerly known from subterranean habitats, now thought to be used for burrows (Stone 1995). Little is known about the ecology of this species (Stone 1995).	eng
10588	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species has been characterized as very rare (Wang 1998).  here are currently no data regarding the population status of this species. It is inferred that the population is declining due to habitat loss.	eng
10588	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	Its evergreen forest habitat is under threat from clearance for timber and agricultural expansion (Stone 1995).	eng
10589	conservation	Lunde, D., van Strien, N.J. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution in the surrounding highlands, abundance, and threats to this species, in particular on its ability to adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
10589	distribution	Lunde, D., van Strien, N.J. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is endemic to the slopes of Mount Kerinci, and surrounding mountains to the north and south, in the central part of the mountain chain in western Sumatra, Indonesia (Ruedi <em>et al</em>. 1994). It has been found at elevations between 2,000-3,000 m asl.	eng
10589	habitat	Lunde, D., van Strien, N.J. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It appears to be confined to montane forests. Its ecological requirements are very poorly known.	eng
10589	population	Lunde, D., van Strien, N.J. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It appears to be commonly found in suitable habitat within its small range.	eng
10589	threats	Lunde, D., van Strien, N.J. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species are not known occurs in a region where there is extensive loss of forest, especially for small-holder agriculture, and this is likely to be a threat to the species, and to cause increasing fragmentation of its populations. There are also increasing human populations within its range, and extraction of timber from the remaining forests.	eng
10590	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It occurs in Wolong, Ailaoshan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) in China, and may be present in additional protected areas in China. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
10590	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in south-central China, northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam (Hutterer 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). In China it is known from the provinces of Guizhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 300-2,700 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992). Its distribution in Myanmar and Viet Nam is marginal. In China, its distribution appears to be allo- to parapatric with <em>Neotetracus suillus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It could also occur in northern Lao PDR and extreme northeastern India, but so far there are no records.	eng
10590	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species inhabits subtropical evergreen forest at altitudes between 1,500 and 2,700 m asl, close to and away from streams (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known to what extent it might also be able to live in degraded habitats. It is strictly nocturnal and is associated with burrows.	eng
10590	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is not uncommon in suitable habitat, though numbers vary from place to place.	eng
10590	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It might be affected by habitat loss, but this depends on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats. However, given its wide range, there are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
10591	conservation	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It has been recorded in Bimpong Forest Reserve, Ghana. There is a need to survey for this species in suitable habitat within the Atewa Hills, Ghana.	eng
10591	distribution	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This poorly-known West African species has been recorded from Côte d'Ivoire (one record), Ghana (two records) and a disjunct record from Sierra Leone. It is a lowland species occurring up to about 500 m asl.	eng
10591	habitat	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is a tropical lowland forest species. This is a very distinctive species which would not be missed during collecting or in collections.	eng
10591	population	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is known only from four collections despite intensive collection in these areas. It may be very scarce.	eng
10591	threats	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Deforestation is probably a major threat to the species; one of the localities in Ghana (Kade) has suffered intense deforestation.	eng
10592	conservation	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in Odzala National Park and possibly others.	eng
10592	distribution	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is found in southwestern Central African Republic, northern Gabon, northern Congo and southern Cameroon. It probably also occurs in Equatorial Guinea, as has been found very close to the country border. There is a disjunct record further to the east in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which may indicate that the species is more widespread than is currently thought. It occurs at low elevations.	eng
10592	habitat	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs in wet forest, generally near rivers.	eng
10592	population	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is reasonably common, but not as abundant as other species.	eng
10592	threats	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10593	conservation	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in many protected areas.	eng
10593	distribution	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This largely Central African species occurs from Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island) to Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda, northwestern Burundi and Rwanda; but precise distribution limits are unknown. It is generally a lowland species occurring to about 1,200 m elevation (West Africa), but in Burundi occurs from 1,670 to 2,100 m asl.	eng
10593	habitat	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs in mixed scrubby forest vegetation and montane forest (primary forest with climbing vines), it is ground dwelling but also climbs into trees to about 3 m.	eng
10593	population	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
10593	threats	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Although there is some deforestation in parts of its range this is not enough to impact this species.	eng
10594	conservation	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in many protected areas (e.g., Pic de Fon in Guinea).	eng
10594	distribution	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This West African and Central African species has been recorded from Guinea (Mount Nimba) to Gabon and Cameroon, and from Cameroon, into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is present in the Cabinda enclave of Angola. It is a lowland species occurring up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
10594	habitat	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in moist to dry deciduous forest.	eng
10594	population	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
10594	threats	Schlitter, D., van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10595	conservation	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It possibly occurs in Kisama Reserve, Angola. Further field surveys are needed to confirm the conservation status of this species.	eng
10595	distribution	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known only from western and central Angola. Records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Crawford-Cabral 1998) are not generally accepted. The species is found up to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
10595	habitat	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is widespread in dry forested areas, and also survives in disturbed areas.	eng
10595	population	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There is no information about abundance or population status.	eng
10595	threats	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10596	conservation	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It occurs in a large number of protected areas.	eng
10596	distribution	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from montane forest islands in western and central  Angola, extreme eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, western Rwanda, and Kenya through Tanzania to northeast Zambia. It may possibly also occur in Malawi, but no there are records to date. On Mount Elgon it occurs over 2,000 m (even up to 4,400 m in Ruwenzori Mountains) but elsewhere in East Africa it is generally found above 1,500 m asl. Moving further south into Angola and Zambia, the lower altitudinal range drops to 1,000 m asl. The species is not found above the forest in the afroalpine grasslands.	eng
10596	habitat	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species found in afromontane forest, but is not present in afroalpine grasslands.	eng
10596	population	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	it is extremely common in places (certainly in Kenya).	eng
10596	threats	Schlitter, D., Decher, J. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10597	conservation	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
10597	distribution	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This Subsaharan African species has been recorded from southern and southeastern Nigeria, Gabon, Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, southern Sudan to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and western Kenya to east central Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda; the precise distribution limits are unknown. It has been recorded to elevations of 2,250 m asl.	eng
10597	habitat	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in lowland moist rain forest, and also in bamboo habitats. The species occurs in secondary forest, but rarely in cultivated areas. This species is partly aboreal.	eng
10597	population	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
10597	threats	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10598	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
10598	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from west Panama to Nayarit and Veracruz (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid, 1997). It is documented from Panama, Costa Rica and Nicaragua (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 1993). There are unreported specimens from Honduras (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
10598	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in evergreen forest and opening on the Caribbean Slope, especially at middle elevations. It occasionally is recorded in deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in small caves and culverts. Pollen, fruit and insects are taken in addition to nectar (Gardner, 1977). In Costa Rica, birth peaks occur in the dry season, February to April, and in the wet season, August to November (Wilson, 1979). In Mexico it has been recorded selva mediana (cities forest) (Coates and Coates-Estrada, 1986). It is also been reported in template forest (Sanchez and Romero, 1995 -- Alvarez-Castaneda and Alvarez, 1991). Also reportet in tropical moist montaine forest (Emmons, 1997). Do not have important habitat reduction (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
10598	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is fairly common (Reid, 1997). Not common in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
10598	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
10600	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and is known from Namdapha National Park, in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species in Southeast Asia.	eng
10600	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern and central China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from mountainous regions of Nepal, Bhutan (distribution in this country is unclear) and northeastern India up to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China it has been recorded from Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Zhejiang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR (only three localities known), Viet Nam and marginally in Cambodia.	eng
10600	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	This is an arboreal and nocturnal species, found in tropical and subtropical montane forests, and in more temperate oak and rhododendron forests at middle to high elevations (1,500 to 3,400 m asl). Populations can be found in primary forests as well as secondary, degraded forests and scrubby habitat. Two to three young are born in each litter.	eng
10600	population	Duckworth, J.W., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population of this species is believed to be declining in South Asia, but the rate of decline is not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
10600	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Tizard, R.J. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss due to shifting (Jhum) agriculture, small wood plantations, mining activities, infrastructure development, establishment of human settlements, construction of dams and forest fires (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In certain parts of northeastern India this species is hunted for food (S. Molur pers. comm.). The threats to the species in Southeast Asia and China are unclear.	eng
10602	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species is likely to occur in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10602	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species is known only from Mt. Pangrango, west Java, Indonesia (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
10602	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species is found in primary forest.	eng
10602	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10602	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10603	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10603	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species occurs in northern Borneo and Java (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
10603	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	It has been recorded in forested habitat but its ecology its poorly known.	eng
10603	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10603	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10604	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. More information is needed on this species' abundance, ecology and tolerance to disturbance. Improved forest conservation and protection measures are needed to stop or reduce illegal logging and clearing for agriculture.	eng
10604	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is only found in the Palawan Faunal Region on Palawan, and Bancalan islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Survey efforts have not encountered it on Dumaran island (P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10604	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is nocturnal and arboreal and is found in primary and secondary lowland forest, where it nests in cavities of large trees (Taylor 1934; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Recent records also show that it occurs in secondary and selectively logged forest (P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10604	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is widespread and moderately common in mature forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). Presence of this species can be determined from spotlighting efforts and by listening for its characteristic vocalizations (Esslestyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; P. Widmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10604	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	Deforestation is a potentially very serious threat in light of this species' reliance on tree cavities. It is also occasionally hunted for food and captured for pet trade but this is estimated to have a minimal impact on the population.	eng
10605	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	In China, this species occurs in Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, and Bawangling Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is likely to be present in many other protected areas within its distribution. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
10605	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	According to Nowak (1999) the range of this species is Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, northwestern Viet Nam, Guizhou, and possibly Fujian provinces in China. According to Smith and Xie (2008), it occurs on Hainan Island and in the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, and Fujian in China. The 1999 Status Report for Wildlife of Lao PDR indicates that no historical specimens have been confirmed and that the distribution within Lao PDR is provisional (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species occupies an elevational range of 0-1,500 m asl (Duckworth 2004).	eng
10605	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in lower montane forests and mixed deciduous forests (Smith and Xie 2008). It can exist in partly cleared forests near cultivation. They are nocturnal, staying in hollow trees by day and foraging on (cultivated) fruit at night (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
10605	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
10605	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10606	conservation	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.	eng
10606	distribution	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is only known from Sipura island, in the Mentawai Archipelago, south west of Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
10606	habitat	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This is a lowland species living in primary forest.	eng
10606	population	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10606	threats	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
10607	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
10607	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species occurs from Myanmar, through Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and northern Borneo. It is also found in Lao PDR, southern Viet Nam, and Singapore.	eng
10607	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	These squirrels are known from pirmary forests, degraded secondary forest and scrub, and cultivated areas up to 1,500 m.	eng
10607	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10607	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
10608	conservation	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
10608	distribution	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen, recorded from Baleg, East Aceh Province, northern Sumatra.	eng
10608	habitat	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The preferred habitat of this species is primary forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
10608	population	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10608	threats	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
10613	conservation		One site with suitable habitat in Hidaka Town, Hyogo Prefecture, was designated in November 1998 as a protected area. Designated as a "domestic endangered species of wild fauna and flora" under the Law for Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. In Kyoto, the species is totally protected as a 'natural monument'.	eng
10613	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, occurring in central Honshu, and known only from several localities on the Tango Peninsula, the Tajima region of Hyogo, and the northern part of Fukui.	eng
10613	habitat		It occurs in secondary broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous forest, and bamboo forest. It breeds in pools, ditches and springs and the larvae develop in these waterbodies.	eng
10613	population		All populations of this species are known to be small.	eng
10613	threats		The species' habitat is steadily becoming unsuitable for survival. In one case, construction of a road destroyed the habitat of a population and resulted in its extirpation. It is currently illegally traded in Japan as a pet.	eng
10614	conservation		It is present in several national and quasi national parks, and two populations are designated as natural monuments. There is a need to monitor and control the offtake of this species for the pet trade. Further survey work is needed to determine its current population status.	eng
10614	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, with a very restricted distribution in Kyushu (around the cities of Oita, Kumamoto, Miyazaki) and Shikoku (around the city of Kochi).	eng
10614	habitat		It occurs in paddy fields, secondary forest and bamboo in hilly areas. It breeds in pools, ponds, paddy fields at forest edges, ditches, and brooks, where the larvae also develop.	eng
10614	population		There is no information available on the current population status of this species.	eng
10614	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, due in particular to infrastructure development for human settlement. It is also threatened by water pollution, and is often found in the pet trade.	eng
10615	conservation		It is likely to occur in several protected areas, and has been designated as a natural monument by Hakuba village. There is a need to carefully monitor and control the level of offtake in this species for the pet trade.	eng
10615	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, being known from Gifu Prefecture and Toyama Prefecture, and from Hakuba village, Nagano Prefecture, in the central region of Japan.	eng
10615	habitat		It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest and larch plantations in montane areas. Wetlands and streams are required for breeding and larval development.	eng
10615	population		It is believed to be declining.	eng
10615	threats		Habitat loss is an important threat; for example, the habitat around Hakuba village is being destroyed as a result of the rapid construction of villas. Other threats include the shrinkage and drying of wetlands, pollution, and the pet trade.	eng
10616	conservation		It is not known whether or not the species occurs in any protected areas, but formal protection of remaining habitat on the Oki Islands is urgently needed. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species. Further survey work is required to determine its current population status.	eng
10616	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, being entirely confined to the island of Dogo in the Oki Islands in Shimane Prefecture.	eng
10616	habitat		It occurs from sea level to the top of the mountains, inhabiting evergreen forest and coniferous plantations. It breeds in streams by larval development, like most other members of the genus.	eng
10616	population		The population status of this species is unknown, but several local populations are extinct, and there is a continuing decline in numbers.	eng
10616	threats		The major threats to the species include habitat degradation and loss, largely as a result of road construction, deforestation, alteration of river courses, and pollution.	eng
10617	conservation		It is designated a natural monument by Kumamoto Prefecture. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.	eng
10617	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, and is distributed in Kyushu (Kumamoto, Miyazaki, and Kagoshima Prefectures).	eng
10617	habitat		It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest and mixed forest. It breeds in upstream areas, where the larvae also develop.	eng
10617	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
10617	threats		The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, due to the construction of roads and logging, and water pollution. This species is also harvested for medicine and food.	eng
10618	conservation		This species is designated as a natural monument by Hakui City (Ishikawa Prefecture), and conservation and population recovery efforts are already under way in this area.	eng
10618	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, and is known from Ishikawa Prefecture and Toyama Prefecture.	eng
10618	habitat		It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forests, and conifer plantations on low mountains. Breeding takes place in springs, streams, ponds and ditches where the larvae also develop.	eng
10618	population		Most populations are believed to be in decline.	eng
10618	threats		Major threats include water pollution, predation by introduced predators, and destruction of breeding habitat from infrastructure development.	eng
10632	conservation	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The range includes the Lorentz National Park, and it is probably in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.	eng
10632	distribution	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has been recorded from the Arfak Mountains in the west, and on the Central Cordillera from the Weyland range in the west to the Mount Hagen region in the east (Flannery 1995). It is possible that the species may occur further north in suitable habitat than is currently known. Animals have been recorded between 1,400 and 2,800 m asl.	eng
10632	habitat	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a largely terrestrial species known from tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats, and old gardens. Animals live in burrows in the ground. It is considered to be a relatively slow breeder for a rodent species; Flannery (1995) reports the capture of a female with a single dependant young.	eng
10632	population	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is neither abundant, nor scarce; not commonly collected.	eng
10632	threats	Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is a favoured food animal that is hunted with dogs by local people.	eng
10633	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.	eng
10633	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is found on the island of New Guinea from the Hagen area of the central highlands in the west to the extreme south-east of the island, also on the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an elevational range of 1,400 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
10633	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a largely terrestrial species known from tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats, old gardens, and regrowth areas of forest close to villages. Animals live in burrows in the ground. It is considered to be a relatively slow breeder, and usually gives birth to a single young.	eng
10633	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	Although many specimens of this species have been collected, it is generally not considered to be very common, but also not rare.	eng
10633	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, despite its slow breeding. This species is a favoured food animal that is hunted with dogs by local people.	eng
10634	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica de Una.	eng
10634	distribution		This species is known only from two nearby localities in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil, Ilhéus and Una, where occurs up to 60m asl. It probably occurs more widely, but its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
10634	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, and is probably an explosive breeder in temporary pools.	eng
10634	population		In 1999, after an absence of records for 50 years, it was rediscovered at Una, where many specimens were found. However, there is still no clear picture of its overall population status, and it is probably a very hard species to detect when it is not breeding.	eng
10634	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, tourism and human settlement.	eng
10635	conservation	Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
10635	distribution	Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is restricted to mountains of central Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005), at altitudes between 1,400 and 2,300 m.	eng
10635	habitat	Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a terrestrial vermivore species living in primary montane forest.	eng
10635	population	Ruedas, L., 2008	This species occurs at extremely low densities in suitable habitat.	eng
10635	threats	Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10636	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Species range broadly overlaps with the proposed: Kelompok Hutan Buol Toli-toli Nature Reserve, Gunung Sojol Nature Reserve, and Pegunungan Buol Toli-toli Game Reserve.	eng
10636	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is restricted to lowland and hill forest in northern peninsula of Sulawesi (Indonesia).	eng
10636	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known from primary forest as well as degraded, secondary forest and scrub at altitudes up to 1,700 m.	eng
10636	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>H. ileile</em> is rare across its range.	eng
10636	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss from human disturbance.	eng
10642	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	Ecological and population studies along with effects of long-term livestock grazing on the species is recommended. The species has not been recorded from any protected area.	eng
10642	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	It is endemic to northern India (Jammu and Kashmir) and Pakistan (North Western Frontier Province) occurring at an elevational range of 2,450 to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has a wide range of distribution, but is estimated to have a restricted area of occupancy based on available habitat in the region. It is found in more than 15 fragmented locations in the region.	eng
10642	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	It is a diurnal, terrestrial, semi-fossorial, herbivorous and gregarious vole. It is seen in temperate forests where it inhabits subalpine scrub forests and meadows above the tree line (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
10642	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
10642	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	Overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock and the expansion of human settlements are some of the major threats to the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
10643	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
10643	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is restricted to Sardalla in Jammu and Kashmir, India (Agrawal 2000) and to Murree hills in Punjab and five locations in North Western Frontier Province, Pakistan (Roberts 1997) at elevations of 1,800 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated to have a very wide distribution in the region (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
10643	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal, crepuscular, herbivorous and gregarious vole. It is seen in temperate forests where it inhabits the grassy slopes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
10643	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
10643	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of intensive farming, planting of apple orchards and potato crops. It is also threatened by increasing human settlement in the region (Roberts 1997).	eng
10644	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Obtaining accurate information on threats was given the highest priority on conservation research for this species. Determining the status of all sites and estimating population size also receive high research priorities. Research is still required to determine population sizes, life history and ecology (in particular dispersal potential), followed by appropriate&#160;monitoring of&#160;both population and habitat. In addition, land owner agreements need to be drawn up for protection and management of all sites for conservation management. This species occurs in the&#160;iSimangaliso&#160;Wetland Park, the&#160;Umlalazi Nature Reserve, and the Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site.	eng
10644	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the coast of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, ranging from&#160;Warner Beach&#160;in the south to St Lucia village in the north. It is found within 20 km of the coast up to 380 m asl. Although the Extent of Occurrence is 2,303 km<sup>2</sup>, the Area of Occupancy has been calculated to be only 9km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
10644	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of coastal mosaic bushland and grassland, breeding in stagnant, usually temporary to semi-permanent, water, rarely exceeding 50 cm in depth, surrounded by dense sedges. It is seldom found at the same breeding sites as the abundant <em>Hyperolius marmoratus</em>.	eng
10644	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as >50% of individuals are in small and isolated patches and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.&#160;It is secretive and so is under-recorded, but appears to be a rare species.	eng
10644	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is confined to a small area subject to urbanization, habitat fragmentation, afforestation, and drainage for agricultural and urban development. Some breeding sites are being polluted by DDT, which is used for controlling malarial mosquitoes. The spread of alien vegetation, in particular eucalyptus, is responsible for the drying out of some breeding sites.	eng
10707	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The northern bottlenose whale is said to have been twice overexploited by Norwegian hunting, in the periods 1880-1920 and 1938-1973. It was included in the International Whaling Commission schedule in 1977, with recommendations that northern bottlenose whales be granted Protected Stock status with zero catch limit (Klinowska 1991). It is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species as well as in Appendix I of CITES. Populations or stocks are not defined; this, together with estimates of present abundance as well as present levels of catches (Faroe Islands), should be the focus of future studies (Reyes 1991, Culik 2004, Dalebout <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
10707	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is included in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The species was included in the International Whaling Commission schedule in 1977, with recommendations that northern bottlenose whales be granted Protected Stock status with zero catch limit (Klinowska 1991). Populations or stocks are not defined; this, together with estimates of present abundance), should be the focus of future studies (Culik 2004; Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10707	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Northern bottlenose whales are found only in the North Atlantic, from New England, USA to Baffin Island and southern Greenland in the west and from the Strait of Gibraltar to Svalbard in the east (c. 38ºN to 72ºN: Mead 1989, Gowans 2002).  There are reports from the Mediterranean Sea, and some extralimital records from the Baltic Sea. Bottlenose whales are occasionally observed off the Azores (Steiner <em>et al.</em> 1998), and have been seen as far south as the Cape Verde Islands (15ºN: Ruud 1937). The pelagic distribution extends from the ice edges south to approximately 30°N. Historic catch distributions indicated the existence of at least six centres of abundance, each potentially representing a separate stock (Benjaminsen 1972): i) the Gully; ii) northern Labrador-Davis Strait; iii) northern Iceland; iv) and v), off Andenes and Møre, Norway, and vi) around Svalbard, Spitzbergen. Anecdotal reports from whalers suggest a north/south seasonal migration could occur in some regions but there is little strong evidence for this. They inhabit the most northerly waters of the Barents and Greenland seas in summer (May to August). The northern bottlenose whale forms an antitropical species pair with the southern bottlenose whale, <em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em>.	eng
10707	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Northern bottlenose whales are found only in the North Atlantic, from New England, USA to Baffin Island and southern Greenland in the west and from the Strait of Gibraltar to Svalbard in the east (c. 38ºN to 72ºN; Mead 1989; Gowans 2002). There are reports from the Mediterranean Sea (Cañadas and Sagarminaga 2000), and some extra-limital records from the Baltic Sea. The best-known subpopulation of the northern bottlenose whale, the best known of all beaked whales, occurs in the waters over “The Gully,” a large submarine canyon off Nova Scotia, Canada (44ºN, 59ºW; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, there have been strandings and at least one sighting as far south as North Carolina in the western Atlantic (Mead 1989). The Gully is the southernmost area of consistent northern bottlenose whale presence in the western Atlantic (Wimmer and Whitehead 2004). In the eastern Atlantic, bottlenose whales are occasionally observed off the Azores (Steiner <em>et al</em>. 1998), and have been seen as far south as the Cape Verde Islands (15ºN; Ruud 1937). The pelagic distribution extends from the ice edges south to approximately 30°N.	eng
10707	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The behavior and ecology of northern bottlenose whales have been better studied than that of any other species in the family Ziphiidae.  Most groups contain at least four whales, sometimes with as many as 20, and there is some segregation by age and sex. These deep divers can remain submerged for an hour, possibly as long as two, and can reach depths of well over 1,400 m (Hooker and Baird 1999). They are known for their curiosity, often approaching and swimming around boats for some time, as well as their habit of "standing by" injured companions; these behaviours permitted whalers to kill large numbers of whales at the same site (Gray 1882). Although capable of travelling long distances, their movement patterns are generally quite localized (Hooker <em>et al.</em> 2002, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>These cold temperate to subarctic whales are found in deep waters, mostly seaward of the continental shelf (and generally over 500-1,000 m deep) and near submarine canyons.  They sometimes travel several kilometres into broken ice fields, but are more common in open water.  Few whales were caught in shallow waters over the continental shelf off Labrador and in waters less than 1000 m deep off the west coast of Norway. In the surrounding waters of Iceland, the whales were sighted in waters with surface temperature between -1.3°C and +0.9°C (Reyes 1991).<br/><br/>Northern bottlenose whales occupy a very narrow niche; their primary food source is squid of the genus <em>Gonatus</em> (Hooker <em>et al.</em> 2001, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 2003) These whales may also occasionally eat fish (such as herring and redfish), sea cucumbers, starfish, and prawns. They do much of their feeding on or near the bottom in very deep water (>800 m, and as deep as 1,400 m: Hooker and Baird 1999). Longevity is at least 37 years, possibly much longer (Christensen 1973).	eng
10707	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	These cold temperate to subarctic whales are found in deep waters, mostly seaward of the continental shelf (and generally over 500-1,500 m deep) and near submarine canyons. They sometimes travel several kilometers into broken ice fields, but are more common in open water. Few whales were caught in shallow waters over the continental shelf off Labrador and in waters less than 1000 m deep off the west coast of Norway.<br/><br/>The species occupies a very narrow niche; the primary food source is squid of the genus <em>Gonatus</em> (Hooker <em>et al</em>. 2001; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 2003). The whales may also occasionally eat fish (such as herring and redfish), sea cucumbers, starfish, and prawns. They do much of their feeding on or near the bottom in very deep water (> 800 m, and as deep as 1,400 m; Hooker and Baird 1999).	eng
10707	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Global abundance has not been estimated. A rough estimate open to questions is that about 40,000 occur in the eastern North Atlantic (NAMMCO Annual Report 1995), including an estimated 5,827 (CV=16%) in the high latitudes of the eastern North Atlantic (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990). Estimates for Icelandic and Faroese waters were 3,142 and 287 whales respectively, although allowance was not made in the surveys for animals not observed because of their long dives. A subpopulation of c. 163 individuals (95% CI 119-214) occurs in the Gully (Scotian Shelf). About 57% of this subpopulation is found in a 20 x 8 km core area at the entrance of the canyon at any time. Mark-recapture analysis of fifteen years of data suggest that this population is stable (Whitehead and Wimmer 2005). Most subpopulations of the species are probably still depleted, due to large kills in the past; over 65,000 animals were killed in a multinational hunt that operated in the North Atlantic from c. 1850 to the early 1970’s (Mitchell 1977; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A study by Christensen and Ugland (1983) resulted in an estimated initial (pre-whaling) population size of about 90,000 whales, reduced to some 30,000 by 1914. The population size by the mid-1980s was said to be about 54,000, roughly 60% of the initial stock size. <br/><br/>Historic catch distributions indicated the existence of at least six centers of abundance, each potentially representing a separate stock (Benjaminsen 1972): i) the Gully; ii) northern Labrador-Davis Strait; iii) northern Iceland; iv) and v), off Andenes and Møre, Norway, and vi) around Svalbard, Spitzbergen. Anecdotal reports from whalers suggest a north/south seasonal migration could occur in some regions but there is little strong evidence for this and whales are reported in the Gully year round. They inhabit the most northerly waters of the Barents and Greenland seas in summer (May to August). <br/><br/>The small resident population in the Gully is largely isolated from populations to the north (Labrador) and northwest (northern Iceland); the whales there are smaller and appear to breed at a different time of year (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997b and are genetically distinct at both mitochondrial and nuclear markers, refuting the hypothesis of seasonal migrations between these regions (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2006). Little is known about populations in central and western North Atlantic (Reyes <em>et al</em>. 1993). For statistical consideration, Christensen (1975) assumed that all the bottlenose whales caught east of Greenland belonged to a single subpopulation, while Mitchell (1977) defined Cape Farewell (Greenland) to divide west and east North Atlantic catches (Culik 2004).	eng
10707	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Global numbers of northern bottlenose whales are largely unknown. There are estimated to be more than 5,000 in the waters around Iceland and the Faroe Islands. An estimated 40,000 occur in the eastern North Atlantic (NAMMCO Annual Report 1995), including approximately 5,827 (CV=16%) in the high latitudes of the eastern North Atlantic (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990). Estimates for Icelandic and Faroese waters are 3,142 and 287 whales respectively, although allowance was not made in the surveys for animals not observed because of their long dives (Reyes 1991). Most populations of the species are probably still depleted, due to large kills in the past; over 65,000 animals were killed in a multinations hunt that operated in the North Atlantic from c.1850 to the early 1970s (Mitchell 1977, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1993). A study by Christensen and Ugland (1983) resulted in an estimated initial (pre-whaling) population size of about 90,000 whales, reduced to some 30,000 by 1914. The population size by the mid 1980s was said to be about 54,000, nearly 60% of the initial stock size.	eng
10707	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is one of only a few species of beaked whales to be hunted commercially on a large scale. Hunts occurred from the 1850s to the 1970s, and over 65,000 whales were killed (with many more struck but lost: Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1993). By far the major bottlenose whaling nation has been Norway, though some hunting was also done by the UK and Canada. The northern bottlenose was sought after for its oil (including a form of spermaceti oil in the head) and later for pet food. No hunting of this species has been conducted by Norway since 1973 (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Reyes 1991). The species has been essentially unexploited for almost 30 years, with only a few animals taken in some years in the Faroe Islands. The aggregate population was certainly reduced by whaling, and the extent of recovery is uncertain (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Mitchell (1977) considered that the population was severely depleted in both the early and modern whaling periods. Very few incidental catches have been reported (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>Pollutant levels in this species are usually low (Reyes 1991). There are no major fisheries for squid in the Northeast Atlantic, but future developments could represent some threat for subpopulations as heavily depleted as those of the bottlenose whale (Culik 2004). This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
10707	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This is one of only a few species of beaked whales to be hunted commercially on a large scale. Hunts occurred from the 1850s to the 1970s, and over 65,000 whales were killed (with many more struck but lost; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). They have also been hunted in a drive fishery in the Faroe Islands, with over 800 taken there (Bloch <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>By far the major bottlenose whaling nation has been Norway, though some hunting was also done by the UK, Canada and Denmark (Faroes). The northern bottlenose was sought after for its oil (including a form of spermaceti oil in the head) and later for pet food. No hunting of this species has been conducted by Norway since 1973 (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Reyes, 1991. The species has been essentially unexploited for almost 30 years, with only a few animals taken in some years in the Faroe Islands (on average 2.2 whales per year in the period 1709-2002). The aggregate population was certainly reduced by whaling, and the extent of recovery is uncertain (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mitchell (1977) considered that the population was severely depleted in both the early and modern whaling periods. Few incidental catches have been reported (Reyes 1991). <br/><br/>There are no major fisheries for squid in the Northeast Atlantic, but future developments could represent some threat. This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10708	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES. Commercial whaling of this species would be regulated by the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. <br/><br/>There is very little information about this species, its biology, abundance, bycatch rates or migratory patterns (Dixon <em>et al</em>. 1994). More research is clearly needed.	eng
10708	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Southern bottlenose whales have a circumpolar distribution in the southern Hemisphere, south of about 30°S (Mead 1989; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Most sightings are from about 57°S to 70°S. There are known areas of concentration between 58°S and 62°S in the Atlantic and eastern Indian Ocean sectors of their range. They are found in Antarctic waters during the summer.	eng
10708	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	<em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em> is most common beyond the continental shelf and over submarine canyons, in waters deeper than 1,000 m. It is rarely found in water less than 200 m deep. In summer, this species is most frequently seen within about 100 km of the Antarctic ice edge, where it appears to be relatively common. Cockcroft <em>et al</em>. (1990) reported sightings in the steep thermocline between the Agulhas current and cold Antarctic water masses.	eng
10708	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Southern bottlenose whales are the most common beaked whales sighted in Antarctic waters, and are clearly abundant there. Kasamatsu and Joyce (1995) estimated an abundance of 599,300 (CV=15%) beaked whales south of the Antarctic Convergence in January, most of which were considered to be southern bottlenose whales. This estimate of abundance is likely underestimated because the methods used did not account for the fact that beaked whales dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
10708	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No significant exploitation of southern bottlenose whales is known, and they have never been hunted on a large scale. Although never taken commercially, some southern bottlenose whales have been killed during whaling for research purposes. Some have also been incidentally killed in driftnets (Croxall and Nicol 2004). Recently several of this species have been recorded as bycatch of driftnet fishing in the Tasman Sea. Numbers taken annually are not known, however, (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Developing high-latitude fisheries, such as that for Antarctic toothfish, have the potential to reduce food available for large predators, such as <em>Hyperoodon planifrons</em>. That this fishery has a significant illegal component is an additional concern. <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect southern bottlenose whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10713	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In part of its European range, this species depends on specific woodland management.  In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Estonia, France and Germany, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.	eng
10713	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in several separate areas: southeast of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. Locally in the north and southeast of of Germany, north of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and further eastwards and southwards to the north of Greece. In France in Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Yonne, Nièvre, Allier, Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or, Haute-Marne and Haute-Saône. 200-1,000 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Siberia up to Transbaikalia and Yakutia in the east and to northwest of China and Mongolia in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
10713	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Scarce Fritillary occurs in clearings, where young ash trees are growing in open, mixed woodland. The eggs are laid in one batch on a leaf of Ash (<em>Fraxinus excelsior</em>) or Aspen (<em>Populus tremula</em>), preferably at a height of 4 to 10 m. The butterfly generally has a slow, gliding flight but can speed up when necessary. The caterpillars build a nest of silk and leaves and feed together at first, while still quite small. They go into hibernation, remaining in the nest, which usually falls to the ground onto the woodland floor. In spring, they leave the nest and separate, spreading out in search of food. They use a variety of larval foodplants at this stage, including honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.), plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), or privets (<em>Ligustrum</em> spp.). They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year although some of the caterpillars hibernate a second time before pupating. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (18%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).	eng
10713	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, France, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
10713	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a typical species of open woodlands and coppice, mostly threatened by changes in woodland management or the felling or destruction of the forests.	eng
10714	conservation	Durbin, J. & Goodman, S., 2008	The new Menabe-Antimena protected area has temporary protection order and covers the entire range of the species. A successful captive-breeding programme for this species has been established by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (see Wright <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is ongoing research on potential pathogens, and there is a need to control feral dogs and cats.	eng
10714	distribution	Durbin, J. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to the west of the island in a narrow coastal zone. The southern limit is now the Tomitsy River (until recently it ranged south to the the Andranomena River) up to the Tsiribihina River in the north (Sommer 2003). In the last century, the species ranged from the Morondava River to the Tsiribihina in the north, but the species has lost significant portions of its range, and is now found in two isolated range segments (separated by the Mandroatra River). The total range is estimated to be less than 200 km². The species is found from 60-100 m asl.<br/><br/>Subfossil remains indicate that over the past 1400 years, the range of <em>H. antimena</em> extended at least 475 km further south (Goodman and Rakotondravony 1996).	eng
10714	habitat	Durbin, J. & Goodman, S., 2008	This is the largest extant rodent on Madagascar. It inhabits dry deciduous coastal forest (mixed with baobabs) with a sandy floor permanently covered by dry leaf-litter. Animals live in monogamous social units and both sexes are territorial. The animals occupy a family burrow with a complex of tunnels. They are nocturnal, and forage on the forest floor for fallen fruit, seeds and leaves. It is also known to dig for roots and tubers and to strip bark from saplings. Mating takes place in the rainy season, and the females give birth to one young per litter; females can give birth twice within the reproductive period. Males leave the parental burrow and territory at the age of around one year (before the next breeding period) and can reproduce immediately. However, female offspring show delayed dispersal and stay with their parents for two reproductive seasons. Females are probably not sexually mature before the age of two years (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 2002; Sommer 2003).	eng
10714	population	Durbin, J. & Goodman, S., 2008	Within the largest forest fragment in the southern forest area, the Kirindy Forest/CFPF, field studies between<br/>1990 and 2000 documented a rapid population decline. Whereas the population size was constant between 1992 and 1996 (54 animals/100 ha), the population density declined by about 40% between 1997 and 1999 (33 animals/100 ha) and in 2000 by about 60% of the original density (22 animals/100 ha) (Sommer and Hommen 2000).<br/><br/>In a population viability analysis, Sommer <em>et al.</em> (2002) used a calculated median of 23 active burrows per 100 ha in suitable habitat to estimate the southern subpopulation (15,000 ha) with 6,900 adults and the northern subpopulation<br/>(4,000 ha) with 18,40 adults.	eng
10714	threats	Durbin, J. & Goodman, S., 2008	The historical decline of this species has been partly through climatic change leading to increased aridification of south-western Madagascar, and also the extensive modification of suitable habitat by humans since their arrival on the island. Current areas of habitat are threatened by slash and burn agriculture, charcoal production, burning for cattle pasture and logging (Sommer 2003). There is a road that now cuts through the middle of the species' range, and has divided the range. Throughout its range, increasing visits by hunters and their dogs have targeted this species. Also, this species has declined with the introduction of feral dogs and cats, by predation and also potentially transmission of lethal toxoplasmosis. This species could be susceptible to hantavirus, which has been shown in some rodents in eastern Madagascar.	eng
10734	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and in view of its wide range, is presumably present in some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
10734	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is widespread in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea-Bissau in the west, to northwestern Angola in the south, and as far east as western Ethiopia and western Kenya (near Lake Victoria). It has been recorded to at least 1,800 m asl.	eng
10734	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including lowland tropical moist forest, riverine forest, swamp forest, mangroves, palm forest, and less commonly in moist savanna. This bat has a lek mating system at many locations, but not at all known sites (e.g.. at Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). The males gather into groups (leks) of a few hundred animals and attempt to attract females. The species roosts 20 to 30 metres up in the forest canopy (Bradbury 1977), usually on exposed branches beneath a cover of dense vegetation. It feeds The diet is primarily figs and other fruit, including cultivated crops.	eng
10734	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is a locally common species. Roosts can contain as many as 25 bats, but the average roost size is fewer than five animals.	eng
10734	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is locally threatened by habitat destruction, particularly the loss of riverine forests. In parts of its range it is hunted for subsistence food.	eng
10744	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
10744	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	An amphidromous species.	eng
10744	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	No threats are known to currently be affecting the population.	eng
10746	conservation	Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari, 2006	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and has been protected under Italian national law since 1974.	eng
10746	conservation	Grubb, P., Amori, G., de Smet, K. & Bertolino, S., 2008	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and has been protected under Italian national law since 1974. It is found in several protected areas throughout its range. The species is a favoured food item in many parts of its range, and investigations are needed into harvest levels in these areas, including North Africa and West Africa. In Morocco it is considered Endangered (Cuzin 2003).	eng
10746	distribution	Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari, 2006	The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe, it is restricted to mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, where it occurs from sea level to over 1,500 m. It is sometimes asserted that the porcupine was introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains indicate its presence in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene (Amori and Angelici 1999).	eng
10746	distribution	Grubb, P., Amori, G., de Smet, K. & Bertolino, S., 2008	The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. In the Mediterranean it is known from mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia; there are also records from Libya, and along the Egyptian coast (Osborn and Helmy 1980). It has been recorded from sea level to 2550 m in Moroccan Anti Atlas (Cuzin 2003). It is sometimes asserted that the porcupine was introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains suggest it was possibly present in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene (Amori and Angelici 1999).	eng
10746	habitat	Grubb, P., Amori, G., de Smet, K. & Bertolino, S., 2008	In the Mediterranean it inhabits dry Mediterranean shrubland, maquis, abandoned farmland, steppe, forest and dry rocky areas. In West Africa, it is found in both woodland savanna and forest formations. Its den is in a deep burrow or a cave. Its diet consists of roots and tubers (including cultivated crops), bark, and fallen fruit (Nowak 1999, S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006). This is a mainly nocturnal animal, living and breeding in burrows or dens. It is a solitary forager, known to travel long distances in search of food.	eng
10746	habitat	Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari, 2006	It inhabits dry Mediterranean shrubland, maquis, abandoned farmland, and dry rocky areas. Its den is in a deep burrow or a cave. Its diet consists of roots and tubers (including cultivated crops), bark, and fallen fruit (Nowak 1999, S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006).	eng
10746	population	Grubb, P., Amori, G., de Smet, K. & Bertolino, S., 2008	In mainland Italy, population densities are increasing, and the species is expanding its range northwards. On Sicily, the porcupine is widespread, and the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Amori and Angelici 1999). Outside Europe, there is little published information on population trends, but there have been declines in at least some areas, probably as a result of persecution and exploitation for its meat and quills (Nowak 1999). In Africa, it is generally common throughout the range, although it is becoming increasingly rare in North Africa (where there has been a decline in range and population). In Morocco, it is declining and clearly threatened (Cuzin 2003). The species may have been extirpated in Egypt since 1980, and has been extinct in heavily-settled parts of Uganda since the 1970s (Nowak 1999).	eng
10746	population	Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari, 2006	In mainland Italy, population densities are increasing, and the species is expanding its range northwards. On Sicily, the porcupine is widespread, and the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Amori and Angelici 1999). Outside Europe, there is little published information on population trends, but there have been declines in at least some areas, probably as a result of persecution and exploitation for its meat and quills (Nowak 1999). The species may have been extirpated in Egypt since 1980, and has been extinct in heavily-settled parts of Uganda since the 1970s (Nowak 1999).	eng
10746	threats	Giovanni Amori, Sandro Bertolino, Sandro Lovari, 2006	Despite being strictly protected under international and domestic legislation in Europe, the porcupine is still illegally hunted for meat (often with dogs). This occurs both in Europe and Africa (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In parts of the range it is considered a pest species and it is sometimes illegally controlled with poison baits because of the damage it may do to crops (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), a practice which continues (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). However, at present these are not thought to be major threats to the survival of the species in Europe.	eng
10746	threats	Grubb, P., Amori, G., de Smet, K. & Bertolino, S., 2008	Despite being strictly protected under international and domestic legislation in Europe, the porcupine is still illegally hunted for meat (often with dogs). This occurs both in Europe and Africa (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In parts of the range it is considered a pest species and it is sometimes illegally controlled with poison baits because of the damage it may do to crops (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), a practice which continues (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). However, at present these are not thought to be major threats to the survival of the species in Europe.<br/><br/>It is collected for human consumption in most parts of its range (including Italy, North Africa, and West Africa). It is also an agricultural pest causing damage to crops and fields. In Morocco, it is widely used for traditional medicine / witchcraft, and sold very commonly in local markets (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
10748	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas, most of which are very well managed.	eng
10748	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This widespread African species occurs from Kenya and southern Uganda in the north, through Tanzania, Rwanda, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, extreme southwestern Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique, and then south throughout the southern African Subregion (although it is absent from much of central Botswana). There is no confirmed evidence that they occur on The island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. It is found from sea level to over 2,000 m asl.	eng
10748	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	It is found in most of the types of vegetation encountered in southern Africa. They are generally absent from forest, and are only found here marginally. They have  been recorded in the coastal parts of the Namib Desert in Namibia. Day-time shelters may take the form of rock crevices, caves and abandoned Aardvark (<em>Orycteropus afer</em>) burrows or other types of holes in the ground. Holes are often modified to their own requirements, but they also dig their own burrows as they do in East Africa. It is a nocturnal, territorial and mostly solitary forager, although it can occasionally be found foraging in groups of two to three animals. This species is monogamous and live in groups comprising either an adult pair, an adult pair and their offspring from consecutive litters, or an adult male and young of the year (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The species has a gestation period of 93 to 94 days, after which one to three young are born. There is a single litter per year.	eng
10748	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is fairly common, although hunting pressure may account for its absence in some areas.	eng
10748	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Porcupines have benefited from agricultural development and their destructive feeding habitats have led to them being considered as a problem in some farming areas, especially where root crops, potatoes, groundnuts and maize are grown. Porcupines are also notorious for ring-barking trees, which exposes the tree's heartwood and increases susceptibility to fungal infections.	eng
10749	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. It is known from the following protected areas in South Asia,  Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India, Lang Tang National Park in Central Nepal, and  Sagarmatha National Park in Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In South Asia it is protected by Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act.	eng
10749	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species ranges from Nepal, through northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005), to central and southern China (Xizang, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Fujian, Jianxi, Zhejiang, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Gansu) (Smith and Xie 2008), throughout Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam, through Peninsular Malaysia, to Singapore, Sumatra (Indonesia) and throughout Borneo (Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei). It is also present on the island of Penang, Malaysia. It can be found from sea level to at least 1,300 m asl.	eng
10749	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It can be found in various forest habitats, and in scrubby, open areas close to forest. It can be found in agricultural areas, but needs to have rocky outcrops or other areas in which it can create a den or dig burrows. Burrows are generally occupied by family groups. Following a gestation period of about 110 days, two or three young are born. Two litters may be produced annually.	eng
10749	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
10749	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	In Southeast Asia, it is hunted for food but this not thought to impact populations. In South Asia, it is threatened by habitat loss due to construction of dams, human settlements and other infrastructure development. It is harvested for subsistence food and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
10750	conservation	Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas. No immediate conservation actions are needed for this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
10750	distribution	Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is widespread over much of the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) (Musser and Carleton 2005; Van Weers 1978).	eng
10750	habitat	Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in a wide vartiety of habitats ranging from natural forest to cultivated areas, from sea level to at least 1,200 m.	eng
10750	population	Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common.	eng
10750	threats	Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this may not be impacting populations.	eng
10751	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species is found in protected areas. No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
10751	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Recorded in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean through southwest and central Asia (including Afghanistan and Turkmenistan) to Pakistan, India, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka. In the Himalayan mountains they reach altitudes of up to 2,400 meters (Gurung and Singh 1996).	eng
10751	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Recorded in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean through southwest and central Asia (including Afghanistan and Turkmenistan) to Pakistan, India, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka. In the Himalayan mountains they reach altitudes of up to 2400 meters (Gurung and Singh 1996).	eng
10751	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species has a broad habitat tolerance, occupying rocky hillsides, tropical and temperate shrubland, grasslands, forests, arable land, plantations, and gardens.	eng
10751	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	A very widespread species. Status varies in different parts of the range, but in at least parts of the range it is common enough to be considered a pest.	eng
10751	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Porcupines are considered agricultural pests by locals who trap and use them for food (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
10752	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumably present in several protected areas.	eng
10752	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found on Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores, Lombok, Madura, and Tonahdjampea (Indonesia) (Van Weers 1979, 1983; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Recorded to 1,600 m on Flores (Van Weers 1979, 1983). There is a record from Sulawesi dating back to the late 1800s, where it had probably been introduced from Flores, but this seems to have been a one off event involving the transfer of a living animal to that island (Van Weers 1979).	eng
10752	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Primarily a lowland species, found in secondary and degraded habitats.	eng
10752	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
10752	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats.	eng
10753	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas. It is also one of the focal species monitored by wildlife wardens to record the extent of hunting in the Culasian Managed Resources Protected Area in Rizal (southern Palawan) and in Omoi Cockatoo Reserve in Dumaran (I. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
10753	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines being restricted to the Palawan Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from Palawan, and Busuanga islands.	eng
10753	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species occurs in lowland primary and secondary forest, with movements into grassland, scrubland, and cultivated areas (I. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
10753	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	It can be a locally common species, but populations are decreasing rapidly in many areas. Interviews with local hunters have confirmed these declines (I. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
10753	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is affected by forest clearance and is hunted for food. It is an important game species for some ethnic communities (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>It is also traded nationally as a pet, private collectors in the Philippines and also occasionally within Palawan but it is unlikely that it enters the wildlife trade in larger numbers (I. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
10754	conservation	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Amori, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is presumably present in several protected areas.	eng
10754	distribution	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Amori, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is found throught most of the island from sea level to elevations of at least 300 m.	eng
10754	habitat	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Amori, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. It may occur at higher densities in secondary or disturbed habitats than primary habitats.	eng
10754	population	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Amori, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
10754	threats	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Amori, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. It is hunted for food, but this does not appear to be a significant threat to the species.	eng
10755	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10755	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from northern South Asia, much of southern and central China, and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Assam and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Yunnan, Shaanxi and Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, eastwards into Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been recorded at elevations of 200 m to 1,700 m asl.	eng
10755	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is associated with tropical moist forest, where it is exclusively a cave roosting species. It has been found in areas of pristine mixed and deciduous forest (Thailand), wet evergreeen forest (Viet Nam). It has often been reported from limestone karst areas, however, it is found in non-limestone areas in Viet Nam (Thong pers. comm.).	eng
10755	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The largest known population is of close to a hundred animals in Nepal (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In Thailand the known populations are up to about 20 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
10755	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened by general habitat degradation. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened by disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10761	conservation	Soriano, P. & Tirira, D., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela. In Colombia, it occurs in Munchique National Park (Voss, 1988). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed.	eng
10761	distribution	Soriano, P. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of west Venezuela, Colombia, and north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is occurs from 600 to 2,700 m.	eng
10761	habitat	Soriano, P. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species occurs in tall rainforest, cloud forest, or secondary forest; it is nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Voss, 1988).	eng
10761	population	Soriano, P. & Tirira, D., 2008	This is not a rare species, yet it is difficult to collect.	eng
10761	threats	Soriano, P. & Tirira, D., 2008	The major threats to this species outside of the protected areas in which it occurs are loss of habitat due to deforestation and agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
10762	conservation	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas (J. Ochoa and M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
10762	distribution	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Central, north Venezuela (Linares, 1998) up to Serrenia de Bobare (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). It occurs from 800 to 1,100 m.	eng
10762	habitat	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	The species occurs in tall rainforest and montane cloud forest; it is nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Voss, 1988).	eng
10762	population	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This is not a rare species where habitat remains, yet it is difficult to collect (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
10762	threats	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	In the western part of the distribution there is habitat destruction caused by deforestation and conversion to pasture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). This species is susceptible to water pollution and contamination.	eng
10763	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the geographic range, habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
10763	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in Jatun Yacu river area, Napo Province, in eastern Ecuador and from Chanchamayo near Tarama, Junin Department in Peru. There may be an additional record for this species from southern Ecuador, however, this needs to be confirmed (D. Tirira pers. comm.). It is presumed to occur at sites between the widely disjunct Ecuador and Peru localities, but the distribution is difficult to determine. In Ecuador it is believed to have an elevational range of 900 to 1,700 m; in Peru it has been recorded at 920 m.	eng
10763	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is probably nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on crabs, other aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae and occasionally small vertebrates. It is found near to freshwater, and appears to require clear, fast-flowing narrow streams. It has been found in hilly terrain, with primary forest, and the streams are presumed to have rocky beds. It has not been found outside of primary forest.	eng
10763	population	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
10763	threats	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	The type of forested areas from which the species has been recorded are experiencing expanding human population growth, with fragmentation of suitable habitat taking place. This species is susceptible to water pollution and contamination.	eng
10764	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the geographic range, habitat and ecology of this species. Monitoring of the species and further information regarding threats are also needed. It is listed as critically endangered by Panamá.	eng
10764	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in western Ecuador and central Panamá. In Ecuador, this species occurs from 900 to 1,700 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
10764	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	The species occurs in tall rainforest, cloud forest, or secondary forest; species of this genus are nocturnal, terrestrial and semiaquatic, and feed on crabs and other aquatic invertebrates (Emmons and Feer 1997; Voss 1988). In Panamá, a few specimens were taken from a hilly region where streams passed through moist forest, scrubby secondary growth, and coffee groves (Reid 1997)	eng
10764	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is rare and local along fast-flowing stream forests. In Panamá, only a few specimens have been found.	eng
10764	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to deforestation, agriculture, and urban development. The species is also threatened by water pollution.	eng
10788	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from a pool at Itapura.	eng
10790	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	At least four protected occurrences exist in Utah: Canyonlands National Park, Capitol Reef National Park, Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, and Natural Bridges National Monument (George Oliver pers. comm., 1998), and at least a few additional protected occurrences are in Arizona (e.g., Grand Canyon National Park) and New Mexico. Occurrences in several national forests and in national wildlife refuges do not necessarily result in much protection for this species. Increased efforts are needed to improve our knowledge of the distribution and abundance of this species throughout its range.Most aspects of the ecology of this species need further study.	eng
10790	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs from Distrito Federal and Michoacan (Mexico) to south Utah and south Nevada (USA) (Simmons, 2005).<br/>The range encompasses the southwestern United States and part of Mexico, from southern Utah and southern Nevada south through Arizona (northwestern, central, southeastern; Hoffmeister 1986) and New Mexico (Mogollon Plateau and western Soccoro County in the San Mateo and Magdalena mountains (Frey 2004) to Distrito Federal and Michoacan in southern central Mexico (Simmons, 2005), including the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra Madre Oriental, and Sierra Volcanica Transversal. The range closely approaches California and Colorado, but as of 2005 no records were available for those states. The winter range is not known. The elevational range extends from 403 to 3,225 meters, with most records at 1,100-2,500 meters. Subspecies <em>hualapaiensis</em>: southern Nevada, southern Utah, and northern Arizona (Mohave County and Coconino County north of the Grand Canyon); subspecies <em>phyllotis</em>: remainder of range (Tumlison 1993).	eng
10790	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The biology of this species is poorly known. It occurs in a variety of wooded habitats including especially ponderosa pine forest, pinyon-juniper woodland, riparian woodland, encinal (oak woodland), pine-oak woodland, and fir forest. Others come from more arid habitats, including desert shrub, mesquite grassland with scattered oaks, xeric scrub, and tropical deciduous forest. The species is a highly adapted insect predator using a sophisticated combination of sonar signals and flight maneuvers to forage for and intercept its nocturnal prey. It feeds on small moths; other known prey include soldier beetles, dung beetles, leaf beetles, roaches, and flying ants (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/>Habitat is primarily mountainous wooded areas (e.g., ponderosa pine, pinyon-juniper, Mexican woodland, oak brsuh) but also includes riparian (e.g., cottonwood) woodland and ranges from Mohave desert scrub of low desert ranges to white fir forest (Hoffmeister 1986). Typically this bat is found near rocks: cliffs, boulders, lava flows, etc., and it is frequently netted along streams or over ponds. Maternity colonies of 30 to 150 individuals have been found in mine shafts, boulder piles, sandstone crevices, lava beds, and beneath the loose bark of large ponderosa pine snags (Bat Conservation International, Western Bat Working Group, Czaplewski 1983, Rabe <em>et al.</em> 1998, Adams 2003).	eng
10790	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is uncommon in USA (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species is represented by several dozen occurrences or subpopulations in the United States. Occurrence information is not available for the bulk of the range in Mexico.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Up to 100 individuals per roost have been observed in six roosts in the Coconino National Forest, Arizona (Mammal Diversity Review Notes 1996).<br/><br/>Population trends are not definitely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined substantially compared to the historical situation. Barbour and Davis (1969) and Hoffmeister (1986) pointed to the paucity of pre-1955 records for Arizona and discussed the possibility that this species has only recently expanded its range to Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. Hoffmeister (1986) found no factor (e.g., habitat change) that might account for this possible change. Population trends are unknown in Utah and Nevada (G. Oliver and C. Carreno pers. comm., 1998). Possibly stable in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm., 1998).<br/><br/>In Mexico are considered uncommon (Ceballos and Oliva 2005)	eng
10790	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size apparently have declined but probably at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/>Threats include recreational entry into occupied caves/mines, active mining in occupied tunnels, vandalism or closure of abandoned mines used as maternity roosts, and timber management practices that reduce the availability of large pine snags for roosting. The Western Bat Working Group categorized the threat as "High" throughout the Rocky Mountain region (Adams 2003). The Arizona and Nevada natural heritage programs considered the degree of threat to be moderate (Sabra Schwartz and Carrie Carreno pers. comm., 1998). Lack of adequate information for Mexican populations prevents range-wide assessment of the scope of threat. An important mine roost was destroyed by relocation of a nearby highway (Western Bat Working Group 1998).  Maternity colonies are easily disturbed, often resulting in abandonment (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). Limited data suggest that this bat may abandon mines that have been gated to prevent recreational entry, even if the gates are permeable to other bat species (Western Bat Working Group).	eng
10794	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further research into population trends and abundance is needed.	eng
10794	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species has been recorded throughout West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Nigeria, and from here into Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is a historical record from south of Lake Victoria in Tanzania. It is suspected that the species is more continuously distributed throughout its range than is currently known.	eng
10794	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This nocturnal species occurs in lowland and mid-elevation tropical moist forest, but might also be found in dense woodland. It is a gregarious species; Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) mention two small groups of between six and 10 animals in Sierra Leone.	eng
10794	population	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	In a 75 ha area in central Gabon, Julliot <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the density for this species as 164-437/km².	eng
10794	threats	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats overall to this widespread species. It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by general deforestation.	eng
10796	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is presumed to occur in several protected areas. Further research on population trends and abundance is needed.	eng
10796	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This Central African species has been reported from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) in the west of its range, Ngotto forest on the border of the Central African Republic and Congo; and then in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possibly present in extreme western Uganda. The species possibly occurs more widely between the known populations. There is a population on Mount Cameroon (Cameroon), that is believed to be separate from the remainder of the range.	eng
10796	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This nocturnal and gregarious species is associated with lowland and montane tropical moist forest. Rosevear (1969) remarked that this species is a more true inhabitat of the older closed forest than the genus <em>Anomalurus</em>, it is not present in the secondary regrowth in which oil palms are grown.	eng
10796	population	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. Sanderson (1940) recorded a total of around 100 individuals of both species of <em>Idiurus</em> living together in the same tree.	eng
10796	threats	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	There are possibly no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It seems probable that deforestation may constitute a localised threat to the species in parts of its range.	eng
10797	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Interstitial species.	eng
10798	conservation	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	<p>                  </p><p>Further research is needed to confirm its presence and range, given the nature of the record, as it is currently only known from one location and with a second pre-1950 location. However, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris, flushed from karst fissures it is difficult to establish population trends or range. The abstraction of groundwater water may pose a threat as this could cause the loss of the species' habitats.&#160;Further research is needed to confirm its presence and range, given the nature of the records. As it has been previously listed, it is maintained at the national assessment on a precautionary basis, rather than listing as Data deficient. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the past, this species has been classified as Possibly Extinct (IUCN 1994). Further research is recommended to ascertain whether this species still exists, and if it does then to clarify the extent of its distribution and identify any threat processes impacting upon it.</p><p></p>	eng
10798	distribution	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Austria</st1:country-region> <span lang="EN-GB">and it was first described from<span lang="EN-GB"> the flotsam <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">of the Mürz</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Steiermark (Boeters, 1988) and in Salzerbad (Glöer 2002). These two localities are probably in separate groundwater systems, but Reischutz & Reischutz (2009) show that it is currently only known from one location and with a second pre 1950 location (Murz River). However, as the shells were retrieved from floodline debris&#160; it is difficult to establish population trends or range (Haase, 1995).	eng
10798	habitat	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica gratulabunda </span>is recorded from floodline debris within freshwater rivers and is most probably present in subterranean waters, like other representatives of this genus.</p>	eng
10798	population	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	<p>There is no population information available for this species.</p>	eng
10798	threats	Reischutz, P. & Haase, M., 2009	<p>It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by threat processes.</p>	eng
10799	conservation	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica kleinzellensis</span> is listed as Critically Endangered on the Austrian National Red List, as well as the Lower Austria List as A1.&#160; Further research is required to know if the species is still extant in the groundwaters of the region, although sampling these sites is very difficult, and possibly only habitat monitoring will reveal changes to that would impact the species.<br/><br/>               <em></em>	eng
10799	distribution	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica kleinzellensis</span> is known from a small area and has only been found as dead-shells in the outflow of springs from karst groundwaters.  This sites are springs north of Ortstrand, near Kleinzell im Halbachtal, Niederosterreich.&#160; Gloer (2002) notes that in addition to the type locality, it is known from <span id="result_box" class="medium_text">two other springs in the immediate vicinity near Kleinzell<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> (Kalter Brunnen 500m s. of town) and a temporary karst spring at Gutenbach near to the Hisrchkogel. Sites lie in the valleys of Turnitz and Traisen (Haase pers, comm 1996).	eng
10799	habitat	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is known as dead shells from freshwater springs, and is presumed to live in the groundwater feeding the springs.	eng
10799	population	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	It has never been collected as living specimens, it is only known from dead shells (P. Reischutz pers. comm. 2009)	eng
10799	threats	Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats are changes to the groundwater system, either through over abstraction of water (leading to drying of the outflow springs) or pollution of groundwater from agricultural sources.	eng
10800	conservation	Breuil, M., Day, M. & Knapp, C., 2010	<p>  </p>  <p>  </p><p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is legally protected from hunting throughout much of its range (it is listed in CITES Appendix II), but enforcement of these regulations is extremely difficult and therefore limited. In Dominica, the species is not formally listed as protected and there is a need to amend the Forestry and Wildlife Act to include provisions for the iguana. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is found in several nationally protected areas including the four national parks in Dominica, Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (Guadeloupe), the Quill and the Boven (St. Eustatius), and Îlet Chancel and the Reserve Biologique Domaniale de la Montagne Pelée (Martinique). A number of satellite islets around Anguilla, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Martinique<em>,</em><span lang="EN-GB"> St. Martin and St. Barthélemy offer significant potential to be established as protected areas. <br/></span></p>  <p>In 2007, the French government commissioned an action plan to propose conservation measures in a concerted effort to protect this species (Maillard and Breuil 2007, Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007, Legouez 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">Since 2007, extensive fieldwork has been conducted in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Although the action plan was approved in June 2010, funding remains absent for the majority of specified actions. <br/></p>  Research on the population biology and ecology of iguanas throughout the Lesser Antilles is ongoing, but further survey work is required in many parts of the range.&#160; Anguilla has not been surveyed in more than ten years and several offshore cays offer potential for introduction. Iguanas are believed extinct on Antigua (where mongooses are present), but there are a number of offshore cays that should be surveyed. In St. Martin, the most recent survey from 2000 found no Lesser Antillean Iguana present; the Dutch side (Sint Maarten) has not been surveyed recently, although it is known that Green Iguana is present on both sides. Two islets offshore from St. Martin, Tintamarre, and Pinel were surveyed in 1996 by M. Breuil. Tintamarre is a potential site for translocation whereas Pinel is not suitable because of the presence of<em> </em>Green Iguana. There are recent reports that Lesser Antillean Iguana may have re-colonized Barbuda following a hurricane, but this is unconfirmed. The north of Grande-Terre in Guadeloupe requires survey work. A small island with suitable habitat, Kahouanne, north of Basse-Terre, was surveyed in 2007 by GECIPAG and is a potential site for introduction, as is the east of Marie-Galante. Îlet Pigeon (also offshore from Basse-Terre) is unsuitable because of the presence of Green Iguana (GECIPAG, pers. comm. 2007-2009). The north of the main island of Martinique requires further survey work as well as the small island of Ramier where nine individuals were re-introduced in 2006. Many cays off the cost of Chancel should be surveyed as potential sites for re-introduction. The east coast of Dominica and several offshore islets on the east coast also are under-surveyed.<p>Education and public outreach efforts are necessary throughout the range. In Dominica there is a critical need to develop an identification guide to assist officials in distinguishing Lesser Antillean Iguana from Green Iguana in order to ensure the latter species is not introduced to Dominica.</p>Captive Lesser Antillean Iguana originating from Dominica are currently maintained at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and Chester Zoo (UK), and Fresno’s Chaffee Zoo (US). Reproduction has occurred but with variable success (M. Goetz pers. comm. 2009). As the Dominican population is presently healthy, these individuals and their future offspring should remain in captivity in order to gather husbandry expertise, as well as growth and reproductive data which can be applied to future <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> captive conservation efforts. Captive-raised iguanas could be used for reintroduction to suitable offshore islands and other protected areas, or for augmenting depleted populations. Reintroductions should originate with iguanas from the same geographic region whenever possible (as was the reintroduction at Ramier).    <p></p>       <p></p>	eng
10800	distribution	Breuil, M., Day, M. & Knapp, C., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Historically, this species is believed to have existed throughout the northern Lesser Antilles, from Anguilla to Martinique. Its range included (main islands only): Anguilla; Saint-Martin (French West Indies and Netherlands Antilles); St.-Barthélemy, including the island of Île Fourchue and its two small satellites (Îlet au Vent and Petite Islette), Îlet Frégate and Îlet Chevreau (or Bonhomme); St. Eustatius (Netherlands Antilles); St. Kitts and Nevis; Antigua and Barbuda; Guadeloupe, including the islands of Grande-Terre, Basse-Terre, Îles de la Petite Terre (comprising Terre de Bas and Terre de Haut), La Désirade, Les Îles des Saintes (comprising Terre-de-Bas, Terre-de-Haut, and Ilet à Cabrit), and Marie-Galante; Dominica; and Martinique, including Îlet Chancel and Îlet à Ramiers (introduced in 2006).</p><span lang="EN-GB">The Lesser Antillean Iguana has since been extirpated from Saint-Martin (French and Dutch sides), Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis, and Marie-Galante (Powell 2004). Ongoing surveys conducted on Guadeloupe since 2007 by Groupe d’Étude et de Conservation de l’Iguane des Petites Antilles en Guadeloupe (GECIPAG) suggest that populations have been extirpated recently from Grande-Terre and Les Îles des Saintes. It is also likely that iguanas have been extirpated from the islands of Îlet Frégate and Îlet Chevreau in <span lang="EN-GB">Saint-Barthélemy (M. <span lang="EN-GB">Breuil pers. comm. 2009).<br/>     <p></p>	eng
10800	habitat	Breuil, M., Day, M. & Knapp, C., 2010	<p>  </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The Lesser Antillean Iguana occupies islands of the northern Lesser Antilles from sea level to approximately 1,000 m (on Dominica). The species exists in xeric scrub, dry scrub woodland, littoral woodland, and mangrove, as well as lower and mid-altitude portions of transitional rainforest. The present condition of these habitats varies from island to island. Iguanas are able to survive in extremely xeric degraded habitats (less than 1,000 mm annual rainfall) to mesic forests (3,000-4,000 mm annual rainfall) in the absence of introduced predators or competitors. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Both hatchlings and juveniles live predominantly among bushes and low trees, usually in thick vegetation offering protection, basking sites, and a wide range of food.&#160; With age they climb higher and inhabit larger trees. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is a generalist herbivore, feeding primarily in the morning, with a diet that includes leaves, flowers, and fruits of a wide range of shrubs and trees. Seasonal variation in feeding ecology exists, with folivory during the dry season shifting to folivory and frugivory during the wet season. Feeding is selective with fresh leaf growth, flower buds, and ripe fruits preferred. Seed dispersal by iguanas may be significant for a number of coastal forest plant species, especially those with large or unpalatable fruits which are not dispersed by small birds or bats. Differences in feeding ecology between populations reflect local variation in plant species composition (either natural or as a result of introduced browsers). Like its congener the Green Iguana, the species has been observed to be opportunistically carnivorous (Lazell 1973). <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Sexual maturity is reached at approximately two to three years, although breeding in young males is likely limited due to their inability to achieve dominance and defend a suitable territory. Longevity studies have yet to be conducted, but recent data suggest that individuals could reach 25 years in age. Generation length is estimated to be 11-14 years (C. Knapp pers. comm. 2009). Nest sites occur in sandy but also in clayish, well-drained soils exposed to prolonged sunlight. Clutch size, which may vary geographically, ranges from 8-18. Anecdotal evidence suggests an incubation period of approximately three months.</span></p>       <p></p>	eng
10800	population	Breuil, M., Day, M. & Knapp, C., 2010	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Formal surveys using transect techniques have been conducted for Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (Guadeloupe) and by mark-recapture for Î<span lang="EN-GB">let Chancel (Martinique). Rough population estimates for the remaining islands are based on limited surveys designed predominantly to locate iguanas for morphometric and genetic data collection. These population estimates are based subjectively on comparisons of observed density of iguanas and the extent of their range within each island. The population from Dominica is also estimated using site-specific mark-recapture data from 2007-2009 (C. Knapp pers. comm. 2009). Qualitatively, Dominica is believed to support the largest population (10,000-15,000 adults) due to the extent of available coastal habitat and known distribution, while Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre support the highest population density. However, many populations have been reduced to extremely low levels and limited areas such that their long-term viability is uncertain.</span></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Guadeloupe, since 2001, populations are now extirpated from Grande-Terre (Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007), and Terre-de-Haut, Terre-de-Bas, and Îlet à Cabrit (Les Saintes) where Green Iguana (<span lang="EN-GB"><em>Iguana iguana) </em><span lang="EN-GB">is now common. Individuals are still present in small numbers on Basse-Terre though their persistence is likely to be short-lived since Green Iguana <em></em><span lang="EN-GB"> and hybrids are now also present (Breuil <em>et al.</em><span lang="EN-GB"> 2007, M. Breuil and GECIPAG pers. comm. 2009). Green Iguana is absent from La Désirade and thus large concentrations of Lesser Antillean<em> </em><span lang="EN-GB">Iguana persist at various sites. Lesser Antillean<em> </em><span lang="EN-GB">Iguana is now extirpated from Marie-Galante. The first estimation of the population of Les Î<span lang="EN-GB">les de la Petite Terre (4,000–6,000 adults) was conducted in 1992-1993, three years after Hurricane Hugo (Breuil 1994a, Breuil <em>et al.</em> 1994). A second estimate was conducted by Lorvelec <em>et al.</em> (2007), but the results are questionable because of sampling methodology (Breuil and Ibéné 2008). Nonetheless, there seems little doubt that the two small islands are home to several thousand individuals (M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009). <br/></span></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The population of Chancel in Martinique has been monitored since 1993. In 1994, the population was estimated at approximately 250 adults (Breuil 1994b). More recent estimates using mark-recapture suggest a population size between 650 (Ourly 2006) to 950 adults (Legouez 2007). Estimates from 2009 suggest that the population now numbers more than 1,000 adults (M. Breuil pers. comm.). The increase is likely due to a decrease in hunting, an increase in tree cover from ~20% in 1947 to ~50% today, improvement and protection of the two historical nesting sites (Breuil 2000a,b; Legouez 2007), and control of domesticated, free-roaming dogs.&#160; Elsewhere in Martinique, nine adults were reintroduced to a small island, Ramier, in 2006 (Ourly 2006) and in 2008 a nest was found with hatched eggs. A few subpopulations of Lesser Antillean Iguana persist on the main island of Martinique and are protected, however introduced Green Iguana is also present (Breuil 2000a). <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The current status of populations in Saint Barthélemy is unclear. On the main island, Lesser Antillean Iguana is found in a few areas, some of which support high densities; however, Green Iguana and hybrid individuals are also now known. Surveys in the early 2000s found a few lone individuals on Île Fourchue and its two small satellite islands (Îlet au Vent and Petite Islette) <span lang="EN-GB">and it is not known if reproduction is occurring (Breuil 2001). Though reported by Lazell (1973), iguanas were not found recently on Îlet Frégate or Îlet Chevreau (Bonhomme)<span lang="EN-GB">. <br/></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, the species is now believed extirpated on Saint-Martin (where Green Iguana is now present) and from St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and Barbuda.</p>     <p></p>	eng
10800	threats	Breuil, M., Day, M. & Knapp, C., 2010	<p>  </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Habitat loss and fragmentation were historically most extensive on the least mountainous islands, which have been systematically cleared for agriculture, especially sugarcane. On these islands, the species has either become extinct (for example, St. Kitts and Nevis) or remains only in tiny remnant populations (for example, St. Eustatius). As tourism has superseded agriculture in importance, coastal development has further reduced the remaining habitat and significantly affected already limited communal nesting sites. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Road casualties occur regularly along coastal roads which bisect iguana habitat in Dominica, Basse-Terre and La Désirade (Guadeloupe), and St. Barthélemy.&#160; In Dominica, casualties peak late in the dry season when numerous gravid females are killed while migrating to coastal nest sites and early in the wet season when hatchlings disperse inland from nests.&#160; On La Désirade, there has been an increase in the number of off-road vehicles and a corresponding increase in deaths. <br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">The species is impacted by a range of non-native introduced predators. Feral and pet cats are believed to be significant predators of juvenile iguanas on Anguilla, and predation by cats and dogs is a problem on Dominica.&#160; On St. Barthélemy, feral predators are few, but adult iguanas are known to be killed by guard dogs that run free within fenced properties where iguanas move to feed.&#160; Hatchlings and juveniles are within the prey range of mongooses (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> [=<em>auropunctatus</em><span lang="EN-GB">]) and the species is either extinct or highly threatened on all islands where mongoose occurs (for example, Antigua and Barbuda). However, it is unclear how significant the impact of the mongoose is compared with other factors such as cats since Green Iguana remains common in mongoose-inhabited islands. Finally, raccoons (<em>Procyon lotor)</em><span lang="EN-GB"> may pose a problem on La Désirade and other parts of Guadeloupe. <br/></span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">Free-ranging and feral browsing competitors are present among almost all iguana populations, with the notable exceptions of Iles de la Petite Terre and most of Dominica. Goat and sheep populations are particularly large and of most concern on Anguilla, La Désirade, St. Eustatius, and the islets of Saint-Barthélemy (Fourchue, Bonhomme, Frégate) where extensive over browsing continues to cause a shift in plant species composition and habitat structure (Breuil 2002). <br/></p>  Displacement through competition and hybridization with Green Iguana appears to be the dominant factor in the disappearance of the species from islands throughout the Guadeloupe Archipelago. Hybridization between <em>Iguana</em> species has been confirmed through both molecular and morphometric analyses from Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe), Les Îles des Saintes (Day and Thorpe 1996), and elsewhere throughout their range (Breuil 2000c, 2002; Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007; M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009). Post-invasion displacement is rapid and population extirpations have been recorded from several islands in the French West Indies (Breuil <em>et al.</em> 2007, M. Breuil pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Presently, only Dominica, Les Îles de la Petite Terre, La Désirade, and Îlet Chancel remain free of Green Iguana. The threat is critical on Saint-Barthélemy due to the recent arrival of Green Iguana<em> </em>to the island. Hybridization and aggressive displacement of this species by Green Iguana should be considered potentially serious threats to all remaining populations.<br/><br/>Historically, hunting occurred throughout the range of the species since  the time of the Amerindians. Hunting is now illegal throughout the  species’ range. However, St. Eustatius has recently experienced a  dramatic rise in iguana hunting, causing a crash in the population.  Increased hunting has been linked to an influx of construction workers  for the expansion of oil storage facilities on island and economic  problems caused by changes in European Community regulations. Despite  recent local legislation, iguana meat continues to be sold locally and  transported to restaurants in nearby St. Martin. Hunting also remains  locally prevalent in parts of Dominica, where certain populations have  experienced rapid unsustainable exploitation (A. James pers. comm.  2009).<br/><p></p>	eng
10803	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Sumatera, Indonesia.	eng
10809	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are in place. The area of La Reserve-Brullee should receive legal protection, and invasive species must be controlled.	eng
10809	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found only on Mahé island. It has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 70 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 6 km².	eng
10809	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail inhabits high altitude forest, from 450-700 m.	eng
10809	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated at 23,500 individuals.	eng
10809	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which impact this snail's habitat. Small-scale wood plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past.	eng
10824	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10825	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10826	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia and Zahamena), two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and five special reserves (Analamazaotra, Mangerivola, Ambatovaky, Anjanaharibe-Sud, and Marotandrano) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The corridors between Mantadia and Zahamena is being proposed as a Conservation Site. Anosibe An-ala Classified Forest in the south should be proposed as a protected area. A major region wide conservation education campaign to eliminate hunting, with the Indri as the flagship species, is recommended.	eng
10826	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This highly distinctive lemur is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it inhabits the eastern rain forests from Anjanaharibe-Sud in the north south to Anosibe An-ala Classified Forest. It has not been found on the Masoala Peninsula or in Marojejy (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Usually at low eleveations, but ranges up to 1,800 m (Goodman and Ganzhorn 2004).	eng
10826	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The Indri inhabits tropical moist lowland and montane forests. It lives in groups of two to six individuals, normally consisting of a monogamous adult pair (they seek new partners only after a mate dies) and their offspring. Groups in fragmented habitat tend to be larger than those in more extensive, undisturbed areas (Pollock 1979, Powzyk 1997). The diet consists primarily of immature leaves supplemented by flowers, fruit, seeds and bark, which vary in proportion according to season. They occasionally descend to the ground to eat earth, perhaps to detoxify seeds that have also been consumed (Powzyk 1997, Britt <em>et al.</em> 2002, Powzyk and Thalmann 2003). Home ranges average 18 ha in the fragmented forests of Analamazaotra, but have been estimated as large as 40 ha in the more pristine forests of Mantadia. Females give birth every two to three years. Reproduction is highly seasonal, with the birth of a single offspring occurring in May or June. Reproductive maturity is reached between seven and nine years of age (Pollock 1977).	eng
10826	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population densities are low, typically ranging from 5.2-22.9 per km² (Powzyk and Thalmann 2003).	eng
10826	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Indris are threatened by the loss of rain forest habitat to supply fuel and timber and to make way for slash-and-burn agriculture. Hunting of the Indri was considered taboo by many local people (and still is in some areas), but fady has broken down in many regions and hunting pressure is now quite significant in some areas. Studies of villages in the Makira Forest indicate that Indri have also been hunted in the past for their skins, which were worn as clothing, that the meat is prized and fetches a premium price, and that current levels of hunting are unsustainable (Golden 2005).	eng
10830	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	An anchihaline species (occurs in brackish water).	eng
10831	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Research is needed to evaluate better the impact of threats, and to design effective conservation measures.	eng
10831	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Botos occur throughout the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, from the deltas upstream to where impassable rapids, waterfalls, lack of water, and possibly low temperatures block their movement (Best and da Silva 1989a,b). Three geographic populations have been recognized as subspecies: <em>I. g. geoffrensis</em> in the Amazon basin, except for the Madeira drainage in Bolivia above the Teotonio rapids, <em>I. g. boliviensis</em> in the upper Madeira drainage, and <em>I. g. humboldltiana</em> in the Orinoco basin (Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Besides the Amazon mainstem, <em>I. g. geoffrensis</em> has been recorded in the Tocantins (and das Mortes and Verde affluents), Xingu, Tapajós, Madeira (below the Teotonio rapids), Purus, Juruá, Ucayali, and Marañon (and Samiria affluent) tributaries flowing generally north, and in the Negro, Caqueta (Japurá), Apaporis, Putumayo, Napo, and Tigre tributaries flowing generally south (partial list from Best and da Silva 1989a,b; Leatherwood 1996). <br/><br/>In addition to the Madeira mainstem above the Teotonio rapids, <em>I. g. boliviensis</em> has been reported from the Beni (and Orton and Madre de Dios affluents), Iténez or Guaporé (and Verde and Iporuporé affluents), and Mamoré (and Ibaré and Ichilo affluents) tributaries (Pilleri and Gihr 1977). <br/><br/>In the Orinoco system, besides the mainstem, <em>I. g. humboldtiana</em> has been recorded in the Apuré (and Portuguesa and Guanmar affluents), Capanaparo, Cinaruco, Meta, Bita, Vichada, Tomo, Tuparro, Guaviare (and Guayabero affluent), Inírida, and Atabapo (and Temi affluent) tributaries flowing south and east, and in the Aro, Caura, Parquaza, Ventauri (San Juan affluent) tributaries flowing north and west, as well as in the Casiquiare Canal, which connects the Orinoco with the Negro River (a tributary of the Amazon), above and below the two sets of rapids at Puerto Ayacucho, which are the principal barriers that may (or may not) separate the Amazon and Orinoco populations (as summarized in Pilleri and Gihr 1977; Best and da Silva 1989a,b; Meade and Koehnken 1991). Botos have been seen crossing the first set of rapids at Puerto Ayacucho (Atures) during high water (Fernando Trujillo pers. comm. to B.D. Smith).	eng
10831	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Botos swim into flooded forests in the high-water season and often search for prey among the roots and trunks of partially submerged trees. Mark/recapture studies have shown that some individuals are resident to specific areas year-round (Martin and da Silva 2004a), whereas others move several tens to hundreds of kilometers within the rivers, but there does not appear to be any actual seasonal migration (Martin and da Silva 2004a).<br/><br/>Botos are generally concentrated below channel confluences (Magnusson <em>et al</em>. 1980; Mead and Koehnken 1991; Leatherwood 1996; Vidal <em>et al</em>. 1997; Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 2000), with mixing of white and black waters (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004). Their affinity for confluences diminishes during the high water season, probably because the animals move into appended lakes and flooded forests (Leatherwood 1996; Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 2000; Martin and da Silva 2004b). They occur most often within 150 m of the edges of rivers, with lower densities in the centers of large rivers (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Botos feed on a large variety of fishes (over 43 species), generally near the bottom (see Best and da Silva 1993; da Silva 2002).	eng
10831	population	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	In the Amazon basin, data are available on abundance and encounter rates for only a few river segments: 107 individuals counted (0.19 dolphins/km; ± 0.06) in a 490-km segment of the Solimões River, Brazil in August 1979 (Magnusson <em>et al.</em> 1980); 0.22 dolphins/km (± 0.04) observed in a 1525-km segment of the Solimões River, Brazil during four surveys in March 1983- February 1984 (Best and da Silva 1989b); 78 individuals counted and 346 individuals estimated (CV=0.12) using line and strip transect methods in a 120-km segment (ca. 250 km²) of the Amazon River bordering Peru and Colombia, including the Atacuari, Loretoyacu, and Amacayacu tributaries, and the Caballo Cocha and Tarapoto-El Correo lake systems in June 1993 (Vidal <em>et al</em>. 1997); 0.147 dolphins/km (± 0.121) observed in a 232-km segment of the Amazon-Marañon River, Peru during 11 surveys in March-August 1991-1993 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1995a); 0.41-0.50 dolphins/km observed in a 95-km segment of the Tigre River, Peru during 14 surveys in March-August 1991-1994 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1995b); and 260 ± 50 individuals in 225 km² of the Mamirauá Lake system of Brazil - extrapolated to about 13,000 individuals in the 11,240 km² Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (Martin and da Silva 2004a). <br/><br/>Counts and encounter rates for segments of the Orinoco basin include: 122 individuals counted (1.16 dolphins/km) in a 105-km segment of the Apuré River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982); 0.20 dolphins/km observed in a 201-km segment of the Apuré River, Venezuela in July-August 1989 (Schnapp and Howroyd 1992); 14-15 individuals counted (0.024 dolphins/km) in a 450-km segment of the Orinoco River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982); 8 individuals counted (0.025 dolphins/km) in a 340-km segment of the Casiquiare River, Venezuela in 1981 (Pilleri <em>et al</em>. 1982).	eng
10831	threats	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear, deliberate killing for fish bait and attractant and for predator control, damming of rivers (although this is, at present, less of a problem than for the river cetaceans in Asia), and environmental pollution from organochlorines and heavy metals (see da Silva 2002; IWC 2007; Reeves <em>et. Al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>The Mura Indians hunted botos near Barro do Rio Negro, Brazil during the nineteenth century (Pilleri and Arvy 1981) and the Tucuna and Cocama Indians may have killed them in the Amazon near Leticia (Allen and Neil 1958; Layne and Caldwell 1964) and the lower Ucayali River (Mohr 1964), respectively, until at least the 1950s. <br/><br/>Between 1956 and the early 1970s, more than 100 botos were live-captured and exported mostly to the U.S. and Europe (Brownell 1984) and (a few) to Japan (Tobayama and Kamiya 1989). However, in recent decades, there have been no reported live-captures and exports.<br/><br/>Incidental mortality has not been studied systematically in most areas. However, similar to other small cetaceans, botos are vulnerable to entanglement in a variety of nets (lampara seine nets, fixed gill nets, drifting gill nets; Best and da Silva 1993; Martin <em>et al</em>. 2004) as well as to drop traps intended to catch large fish or manatees in the flooded forest in Peru (Leatherwood 1996)<br/><br/>There is an emergent, but already large-scale, problem involving the deliberate killing of botos in Brazil for fish attractant (IWC 2007). Botos are also killed deliberately in some areas because fishermen regard them as competitors and because the dolphins damage fishing nets (F. Trujillo pers. comm. to B.D. Smith).<br/><br/>Fishing with explosives, although illegal in most areas, is common in some areas of the Amazon Basin (Goulding 1983; Smith 1985). This fishing technique threatens botos due to the concussive effects of explosions. Fishermen also reportedly attempt to kill dolphins that are attracted to prey on the stunned or dead fish (Best and da Silva 1989a). <br/><br/>Water development projects have not been as extensive in the Amazon and Orinoco basins as in Asian rivers inhabited by cetaceans. A population of botos was isolated above the Tucuruí dam in the Tocantins River, but there is no information on their current status. The Balbina dam in the Uatuma River may have isolated botos but there is no information on historic or current occurrence of dolphins in this river. Both of these dams in the Amazon basin, and the Guri dam in the Caroní, an Orinoco tributary, have probably degraded downstream habitat due to their effects on flow and temperature regimes (see Ward and Stanford 1989; Ligon <em>et al</em>. 1995; Kondolf 1997). There are many more proposed dams, especially for northward flowing Amazon tributaries that, if built, would restrict dolphin movements (Best and da Silva 1989a) and probably degrade their habitat. <br/><br/>Mercury is often used to separate gold from soil and rock in mining operations along the Amazon (Pfeiffer ,i>et al. 1993). In the Madeira River almost 60% of children under five years old had accumulated levels of mercury, presumably from eating contaminated fish, high enough to cause neurological damage (Boischio and Henshel 1996). A study of mercury in the sediments and floating plants in the Tucuruí Reservoir of the former Tocantins River, Brazil, emphasized the risk of mercury accumulation in the bed of non-flowing waters (Aula <em>et al</em>. 1995). The effects of the bioaccumulation of mercury in botos are unknown but the high levels recorded in the Amazon ecosystem give reason for concern.	eng
10832	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It does not occur in any protected area, and there remains a need for much improved protection and maintenance of the Valdivian temperate forests in its range. The status of this species should be closely monitored.	eng
10832	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known only from around the type locality, Mehuin, Valdivia Province, Chile. It has not been found elsewhere, despite survey work. Its altitudinal range is from 50-200m asl.	eng
10832	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs in small streams and under stones in temperate forest. At night, it feeds on the margins of streams. Breeding takes place in streams, and the species is characterized by free-swimming tadpoles.	eng
10832	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is locally common, and was last recorded in 2003.	eng
10832	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from clear cutting and afforestation with pine plantations.	eng
10838	distribution	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	This species was found in Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama. Formerly widespread across the entire catchment of the Tennessee River above Muscle Shoals Alabama.	eng
10838	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	Rapid well oxygenated waters of shoals and riffles of rivers, but not in slack water below shoals.  Feeding on algal coating of rocks.  Water depth up to 1.5 m.  Lays between 20-100 eggs, which begin to hatch after 15 days.	eng
10838	population	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	In 1983 it was restricted to three populations.	eng
10845	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is listed as protected in Indonesia and it occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
10845	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo (Lekagul and McNeely 1988; Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It has also been recorded from Singapore, Tioman, and Penang.	eng
10845	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	These squirrels occur up to 1,000 m in primary forests, secondary, degraded forests and scrub, as well as cultivated areas. They can be a pest in plantations. It is nocturnal, and uses tree hollows.	eng
10845	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common in Malaysia. In Singapore, these animals are listed as rare.	eng
10845	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
10846	conservation	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
10846	distribution	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is restricted to two islands Mentawai Archipelago (Sipura and North Pagai islands), Indonesia.	eng
10846	habitat	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species lives in primary forests up to 500 m.	eng
10846	population	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
10846	threats	Ruedas, L., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	Habitat loss on the two islands represents a threat to this lowland species.	eng
10847	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	<em>I. phlegethontis</em> is restricted to the Bonneville River basin, Utah.	eng
10847	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	This species may be adversely affected by predation, competition , and hybridization with introduced fish species such as Speckled Dace <em>Rhinichthys osculus</em>.	eng
10849	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
10851	conservation	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
10851	distribution	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in central and southern Chile (see Saavedra and Simonetti 2000, for northern range extension), including Chiloe and Guaitecas Islands, and adjacent Argentina (Neuquén to Chubut Provinces.—see Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2003; Pearson 1995).	eng
10851	habitat	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is endemic to forest steppe ecotones and Andean forests; in Argentina it is found closely associated with <em>Nothofagus spp</em>. forests (Pardinas <em>et al.</em> 2004). Saavedra and Simonetti (2000) have reported isolated populations in central Chile in coastal maulino forest patches.	eng
10851	population	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in high local abundances (i.e. in Bariloche has been caught in large numbers in camera-tramps). (Cofre and Marquet 1999). In other areas is an uncommon species.	eng
10851	threats	Pardinas, U., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	The species is very associated to forests, so deforestation can be considered a threat for it.	eng
10858	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA. It possibly extends north-south beyond the Bay Area (Bick 2003), with a total range area probably less than 500 square miles.	eng
10858	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Temporary urban pools at new construction (Garrison and Hafernik 1981).  Also in depressions at the foot of steep hillsides where water seeps down (D.R. Paulson pers. comm.).	eng
10858	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
10858	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Small range, development.	eng
10859	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
10859	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Hispaniola.	eng
10859	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not known.	eng
10859	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is extinct.	eng
10859	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Likely extinct due to rats, however, this is not known.	eng
10860	conservation	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	None.	eng
10860	distribution	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species was known from Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) and offshore islands. It was introduced to Puerto Rico, Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, and Mona Islands. It was the only known hutia on La Gonave island (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
10860	habitat	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species was poorly known, although a wide range of habitats has been reported.	eng
10860	population	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	MacPhee and Flemming (1999) consider this species to be extinct. This species likely went extinct after 1500 AD (estimated at 1525 AD on Mona Island by Nieves-Rivera and McFarlane 2001) following European settlement although some reports exist suggesting possible survival to approximately 1800 AD.	eng
10860	threats	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	The main threat in the past which led to the decline of this population was probably predation by introduced mongooses and <em>Rattus rattus</em>. The species was historically hunted by Arawak Indians, however, this likely did not lead to the decline of the species as it went extinct following European settlement.	eng
10861	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
10861	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Scattered collection localities are known for <em>Isomma hieroglyphicum</em>, in eastern Madagascar from the north to the south of the island.	eng
10861	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Small streams and rivers. Specimens in southeastern Madagascar were observed along running waters in forested areas.	eng
10861	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
10861	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	The species may be affected by deforestation in the region, but more data are required to confirm this.	eng
10863	conservation	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	The Golden Bandicoot is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in a number of protected areas and a recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2009 period (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Recommendations from this plan include: monitoring the species to determine population trends; translocating individuals from Marchinbar Island to other suitable islands; determining the threatening processes on the mainland and working to ameliorate them; and communicating with stakeholders.	eng
10863	distribution	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	The Golden Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. This species used to be very widespread in the interior of the country, but now it is confined to the high rainfall areas of the north-western Kimberley (including Augustus and Uwins Islands) (Western Australia), Barrow and Middle Islands off the Pilbara coast (Western Australia), and Marchinbar Island (Northern Territory) (McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
10863	habitat	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is known from a variety of habitats including rainforest margins, coastal scrub, heath, sandstone with spinifex, and tussock grasslands and with an overstorey of acacia or eucalyptus. Individuals maintain overlapping home ranges of from 12-35 ha. Their diet comprises a broad range of invertebrates.	eng
10863	population	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	The Golden Bandicoot is sparsely distributed within the mainland Western Australia and recent population declines have occurred here. It is abundant on Barrow Island, being the most common mammal, with at least 20,000 individuals (McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are estimated to be 1,000 on Middle Island. There have been no recent declines on Barrow or Middle Islands. No population estimates are available for Uwins or Augustus Islands, but the species is said to be relatively common on the former and sparse on the latter. From surveys conducted in 1994-1995, 1,400 individuals were estimated to occur on Marchinbar Island (Southgate <em>et al.</em> 1995), and a re-survey (June 2006) indicated that population levels have remained about the same (Palmer and Woinarski 2006).	eng
10863	threats	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	On mainland Kimberley, Golden Bandicoots are threatened by changing fire regimes and cats. These two threats work synergistically to the detriment of the species, whereby groundcover reduced by fire makes bandicoots more susceptible to predation (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Feral dogs on Marchinbar may have been a minor threat, but these were eradicated in 2004-2005 (Palmer and Woinarski 2006). There is a serious risk of introduced predators establishing on Barrow and Middle Islands. Lower densities on Middle Island (relative to Barrow Island) may have been due to competition from the introduced Black Rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), however, these were eradicated in 1993 and since then numbers appear to have increase (Morris 2002; McKenzie <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The reasons for past declines of the Golden Bandicoot are unknown. It declined in south-western and eastern Kimberley soon after the spread of pastoralism (Friend 1990). Rapid decline in the desert regions may have been due to introduced predators and changed fire regimes. The species became extinct on Hermite Island (near Barrow and Middle) shortly before 1912, probably due to predation by feral cats (Burbidge 1971).	eng
10878	conservation	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
10878	distribution	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed in western Amazonia, from southeastern Colombia south along the base of the Andes to northern and eastern Bolivia, east on both sides of the Rio Solimoes to at least the Rio Madeira and Rio Negro, Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
10878	habitat	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Its habitat is described as 'seasonally inundated forest, either igapo or varzea'. This species occurs in canopies and nests in tree holes (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The litter size is thought to be two or less, breeding season has not been determined (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
10878	population	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This is species is not common, it is an arboreal species and is difficult to observe and collect (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
10878	threats	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
10879	conservation	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The species has not been reported from any protected areas, although its distribution range includes a number of protected areas (Patton, J. pers. comm.).	eng
10879	distribution	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent occurs in the Amazon Basin of Central Brazil from Río Madeira east to Río Tapajoz and north to lower Río Negro (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999, Woods, 1993).	eng
10879	habitat	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in Terra Firme forests, associated with black water rivers.	eng
10879	population	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance.	eng
10879	threats	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats identified at this time.	eng
10886	conservation	Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It found within several protected areas including La Amistad National Park. More information is needed about this species' taxonomy, natural history, populations, and conservation status.	eng
10886	distribution	Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is known form intermediate elevations in western Panamá (Chiriquí region) and on the Azuero Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from 1,000 to 1,500 m (Carleton 1989).<br/><br/>The species is known from two disjunct populations, which are being looked at taxonomically (Timm pers. comm.).	eng
10886	habitat	Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is found in mature forest. Its biology is poorly known; it is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997).	eng
10886	population	Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is apparently rare and local (Reid 1997). It may no longer occur in the Azuero Peninsula, where it has been looked for recently without success (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
10886	threats	Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, this species may be subject to threats from deforestation, roads, and agriculture.	eng
10887	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	The majority of the species range is in a protected area.	eng
10887	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in the easternmost Panama and Serranía del Darién, and extreme northwest Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). In Colombia the species has been found between 100 to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
10887	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in montane and cloud forest.	eng
10887	population	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rat is uncommon to locally common in a small geographic range (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).	eng
10887	threats	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	No major threats to this species at this time.	eng
10911	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	The species has been recorded in protected areas in Iran. In South Asia the species is not protected by any legislation. It has been recorded from Zangi Nawar Game Reserve,  Baluchistan in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
10911	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs from the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea, through to the Kyzylkum Desert, central Uzbekistan: Turan lowland, most probably with a disruption in the south-west of the Karakum desert, and from Usturt to Messeran Plato in the west to Central Kyzylkum desert n the east, and in old deltas of Murgab and Tedjent Rivers (to south from Karakum channel) in the south-east (Kuznetsov 1965; Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995), the west part of Kavir Namak in East of Kashmar (North East of Iran, Darvish in litt.), east and south Iran (Lay 1967), south, west and north Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973; Habibi 2003) and southwest Pakistan (Roberts 1997). In South Asia it is found at elevations of 700 to 1,250 m asl.	eng
10911	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Very little known of the biology and ecology in of this species in Iran and Pakistan, though it is better known in Turkmenistan. This burrowing species occurs in desert, where it prefers clay soil, although occurs on gravel desert with relatively sparse vegetation, including small shrubs. It is a solitary species that undergoes a period of hibernation.<br/><br/>In Turkmeniston they stick to clay-sandy areas and avoid big sand masses. They make burrows in takyrs, on the borders of salines, in rubbly desert areas, usually on the borders of hilly and ridgy sands. Permanent burrows are simple, 1.5-2 m long. At the end of a single passage there are one or two nests. They feed mainly on green parts of plants and seeds. Overwintered females give up to 3 litters per year, litter size is 5 on average.	eng
10911	population	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	The local population density is typically of the order of one individual per hectare. It is common in Turkmenistan, population density can be up to 10 individuals per 1 km of tracking.	eng
10911	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	In Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, the species' populations are declining due to agricultural expansion, much of which happened prior to 1990 in southern Uzbekistan. The species is declining slightly in the northern part of its range due to irrigation. In Syria, this species is used in falconery (Mike Jordan pers. comm.)	eng
10912	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10912	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10912	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found throughout North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula as far east as southwestern Iran. It is found in desert and semi-desert with patchy records from Senegal and Mali through Mauritania and Morocco to Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Eritrea and Somalia (though absent from the Nile Delta). The distribution is likely somewhat more continuous, though nevertheless dependent on suitable habitat. The species has been recorded to elevations of 1,500 m asl (Egypt).	eng
10912	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found throughout North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula as far east as southwestern Iran. It is found in desert and semi-desert with patchy records from Senegal and Mali through Mauritania and Morocco to Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Eritrea and Somalia (though absent from the Nile Delta). The distribution is likely somewhat more continuous, though nevertheless dependent on suitable habitat. The species has been recorded to elevations of 1,500 m asl (Egypt).	eng
10912	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The habitat of this species varies across the range, from sand dunes to rocky substrates, however, it is always found near to vegetation. It is a strictly nocturnal species, and its remains are commonly found in owl pellets. The species has a litter size of four to five young.	eng
10912	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The habitat of this species varies across the range, from sand dunes to rocky substrates, however, it is always found near to vegetation. It is a strictly nocturnal species, and its remains are commonly found in owl pellets. The species has a litter size of four to five young.	eng
10912	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A widespread species, although somewhat patchily distributed in parts of its range. Reported to be common in a number of range states (e.g. Qatar, Jordan), but not considered an abundant species in African parts of the range.	eng
10912	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	A widespread species, although somewhat patchily distributed in parts of its range. Reported to be common in a number of range states (e.g. Qatar, Jordan), but not considered an abundant species in African parts of the range.	eng
10912	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	In some areas in Jordan, the species is spotlighted and hunted for food and bait for falconry. Locally eaten by humans, since they are easily caught through their burrow systems. Can be trapped during grooming outside the burrow and are considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan and the Negev (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night), and the species is sold to falconers for food (G. Serra pers. comm.). In Africa there are no major threats to the species.	eng
10912	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Palomo, L.J. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	In some areas in Jordan, the species is spotlighted and hunted for food and bait for falconry. Locally eaten by humans, since they are easily caught through their burrow systems. Can be trapped during grooming outside the burrow and are considered edible by several tribes of Bedouin in Jordan and the Negev (Qumsiyeh 1996). In Syria, there is massive capture (using spotlights at night), and the species is sold to falconers for food (G. Serra pers. comm.). In Africa there are no major threats to the species.	eng
10913	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Aulagnier, S. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas, and are the focus of ongoing research (especially related to the physiology of hibernation).	eng
10913	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Aulagnier, S. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	<em>Jaculus orientalis</em> has a distribution extending from Morocco, east through Algeria and Tunisia, to Libya, and Egypt. Extralimitally to the African continent, the species also occurs in the Sinai (Egypt) and from the northern Negev desert and western Judean Desert in Israel. The species is found from sea level to 600 m in Israel, although it is found at much higher elevations in Africa.	eng
10913	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Aulagnier, S. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is found in a range of habitats including deserts, semi-deserts, coastal sand dunes and marshes, meadows, and cultivated fields. It is a nocturnal rodent which may move considerable distances each night in search of food. Its diet includes roots, shoots, seeds, grains and cultivated vegetables. J. orientalis is a sociable species and is often found in small groups.	eng
10913	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Aulagnier, S. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	It is widely distributed and abundant. In Algeria, the species is apparently very common in Hauts Plateaux (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991).	eng
10913	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P., Aulagnier, S. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is reported as being a pest species of barley and grain fields  and in parts of its range. Bedouin farmers often catch and eat the species, however, they are not eaten in the Maghreb.	eng
10939	habitat	Acero, A., 1996	Non-anadromous species.	eng
10946	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is considered to be extinct.	eng
10946	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species was described in 1965 and is known only by type locality: Central Brazil, Federal District, Brasilia, Parque Zoobotanico, at 1,030 m (Musser and Carleton, 1993).	eng
10946	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	A semi-fossorial species first discovered in 1960 on the site of the capital, Brasília, which at the time was under construction; the species has not been collected since even after many attempts specifically to locate remaining populations.	eng
10946	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Many studies have attempted to collect this species in the wild but no individuals have been recorded in the last 48 years (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
10946	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species has not been seen since discovered and is presumed to be extinct, as the entire region where it was discovered has been converted to a city and more recently urban sprawl.	eng
10949	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nest sites.	eng
10950	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
10950	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This is an extremely rare species known from only a few animals. It apparently occurs scarcely in scattered localities. The forest stream habitat is being impacted by conversion to tea plantations.	eng
10952	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Deep flowing rivers with terrestrial nest sites.	eng
10952	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Could possibly be extinct considering that no animals have been reliably recorded since 1935 despite mass trade of riverine turtles from Myanmar to China.	eng
10953	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
10953	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Has disappeared over much of its former range in India and is severely threatened in Bangladesh.	eng
10954	conservation	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It was collected in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
10954	distribution	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from a single collection in the 1930s at the type locality at 1,000 m in the lower part of Gunung Pangrango-Gede, western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present at other locations but it has not been collected from other sites to date.	eng
10954	habitat	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is an arboreal species that was collected in bamboo habitat within forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the forest that it was collected in was disturbed or modified.	eng
10954	population	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It was reportedly common at the time the type series was collected. It has not been caught during subsequent collections within the area.	eng
10954	threats	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10957	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas. Ongoing studies are being conducted by Emerson Vieira and Sergio Lucena.	eng
10957	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in south eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and Misiones province in northeast Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
10957	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This is a nocturnal and arboreal species which occurs in moist tropical forests, in bamboo thickets near to water. Stallings <em>et al.</em> (1994) conducted surveys in the Biological Reserve of Poço das Antas, Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil and determined a home range can reach up to 1,000 m², with densities up to 1.47 per km².	eng
10957	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Species is naturally very rare. The ecological density is about 4.28 individuals per km² in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil (Silva 2005).	eng
10957	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is locally threatened by habitat destruction in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.	eng
10958	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Known only from Table Mountain, Cape Town, Western Cape.	eng
10960	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from Nightingale Island in the Tristan da Cunha group. Was found in 1937.	eng
10960	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in the upper littoral zone, just above the tide level.	eng
10966	conservation	Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It has been recorded from Morogoro (presumably within the Morogoro State Forest Reserve) and Genda Genda (possibly in a Forest Reserve). There is a need to prevent further loss of coastal forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species to locate additional populations.	eng
10966	distribution	Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Tanzania, where it has only been recorded from Morogoro; the Genda Genda coastal forest; and the Tong'omba coastal forest (Matschie 1895; Swynnerton and Hayman 1951; Cockle <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10966	habitat	Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It has been recorded from tropical coastal forest.	eng
10966	population	Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Very little is known about the population of this rarely recorded species.	eng
10966	threats	Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It is threatened by the loss of coastal forests, largely through conversion of land to subsistence agriculture and harvesting of timber and firewood for local use.	eng
10967	conservation	Hutson, A.M., 2008	The taxonomic validity of this species needs to be determined.	eng
10967	distribution	Hutson, A.M., 2008	The type locality is recorded as "South Africa", however, there is significant doubt regards the origin of the only two syntypes of this species, and somewhere in Southeast Asia may be more plausible.	eng
10967	habitat	Hutson, A.M., 2008	There is no information known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
10967	population	Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is only known from two syntypes collected over a century ago.	eng
10967	threats	Hutson, A.M., 2008	There is no information known about threats to this species.	eng
10968	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into this species and its natural history are needed. Research efforts are needed to assess whether this species occurs on Normanby and Goodenough (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
10968	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from the islands of Fergusson, Misima, Sudest, and Woodlark in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It occurs from sea level to 700 m asl.	eng
10968	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is found in tropical lowland forest and hill forest, and is presumed to be a foliage gleaning insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998). It is likely to forage in disturbed areas (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
10968	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is known from a few specimens, and has not been collected since the 1950s (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
10968	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss is presumably a threat.	eng
10969	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996), and seems likely to be present in a number of protected areas within its range. Further studies are needed to determine if the species is truly present in Angola.	eng
10969	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is distributed in East Africa and southern Africa, with some records in southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and possibly northern Angola in Central Africa (records are uncertain from this country). In East Africa it has been recorded from Kenya and Tanzania in the north, through Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. In southern Africa, it appears to be widespread in Zimbabwe, with additional scattered records from northeastern South Africa and central Namibia.	eng
10969	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is generally associated with moist savanna habitats (including bushveld) (Taylor 2000). Roosting sites include deserted weaver bird nests, among clusters of leaves, on the bark of trees, and on traditional houses (rondavels) (Roberts 1951; Smithers and Wilson 1979; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
10969	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Although this species is rarely encountered, it is not thought to be especially uncommon.	eng
10969	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
10970	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from protected areas (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006). It also appears on a checklist for the Bukit Barisan National Park in South Sumatra (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996), but this record is questionable.	eng
10970	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known to occur in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra (Indonesia), and Sabah in Malaysian Borneo. It is found below 400 m asl. This species may be more widespread and common than is currently known.	eng
10970	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This is a forest dependent species. Lekagul and McNeely (1977) reported that the type specimens were found roosting in an abandoned bird's nest (broadbill) in heavy forest on the bank of a river. A recent collection was found in Thailand in disturbed forest at 150 m asl which was adjacent to a large patch of pristine evergreen forest (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10970	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is not common. It occurs at low densities in primary forest in Malaysia, generally less than 1% of captures in harp traps (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
10970	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires represents a major threat to this species.	eng
10971	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is unclear if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.	eng
10971	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	There are scattered records of this poorly known bat from West and Central Africa. It has apparently been reported from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, possibly Ghana (though see Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (though see Hayman and Hill 1971). It is found up to 600 m asl. A record of this species from Kenya was based on a specimen subsequently re-identified as <em>Kerivoula smithii</em> (J. Fahr pers. comm.).	eng
10971	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This is a species of moist lowland rainforest, tropical dry forest, and swamp forest. Other members of the genus have been found to roost in vegetation.	eng
10971	population	Fahr. J., 2008	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species.	eng
10971	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. In parts of its range it is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat loss resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use, and harvesting of timber and firewood.	eng
10972	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the systematic status, distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
10972	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This poorly known species has only been recorded at the type locality of 'between Semian and Wogara, Belegaz Valley, Ethiopia'.	eng
10972	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.	eng
10972	population	Fahr. J., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
10972	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
10973	conservation	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic review is required to determine species and range limits.	eng
10973	distribution	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The current distribution of this species appears to be very disjunct; being found in Borneo, Lesser Sundas, Bali, Sumbawa and Sumba in Indonesia (Corbet and Hill 1992), and possibly in Kon Kha Kinh and Pu Mat, Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, the specimens from mainland Southeast Asia may be a distinct, unrecognized species. Many of these records could also be <em>K. hardwicki</em>. This species is not found in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is south Flores, Lesser Sundas, Indonesia.	eng
10973	habitat	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in primary forest.	eng
10973	population	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population information is probably confused due to misidentifications. If this species is like <em>K. hardwickii</em>, with which it is probably being confused, then it is probably not uncommon. However, it is also known to be locally common (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
10973	threats	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation due to logging and agriculture is a major threat to this species.	eng
10974	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Siju Wildlife Sanctuary in Meghalaya. It has been recorded from protected areas in parts of Southeast Asia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
10974	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species ranges from southern and northern South Asia, southern China, and throughout continental and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (no exact location) (Das, 2003, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central Province) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). In China, it is widely distributed in the southeast of the country, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, it is found throughout the mainland, in insular Southeast Asia it ranges from Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands [Siberut and Sipura], Sumatra, Java, Bali, Kangean, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Sumba, Sulawesi, Pelang, Banggi, Karakelang), to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Biliran, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur Province), Mindanao (Bukidnon Province), Palawan, and Samar (Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Over its range, it has been recorded between 60 and 2,100 m asl.	eng
10974	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is found in warm valleys in northeast India and near paddy fields in Sri Lanka and known to roost in caves and buildings in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is found in subtropical and tropical areas, and has been collected in both forested and agricultural localities. Animals sometimes forage around houses and villages, and roost in buildings and under tile roofs on occasion (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are records from primary forest in Cambodia (G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006), dry forest including disturbed sites in Lao PDR, and hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia (Francis pers. comm. 2006). On Banggi Island (Indonesia) the species was found roosting in the axil of a rattan vine leaf. In the Philippines, it has been recorded in lowland, montane, and ridgetop mossy forest (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). On Palawan Island, there are records from a bamboo thicket at 60 m and primary lowland forest at 650 m (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
10974	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia it is a moderately common species in primary forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.). The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10974	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this somewhat adaptable species.	eng
10975	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	It occurs in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>, 2006).	eng
10975	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is recorded from Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. It was described by Yasuma (1997) from Brunei and Bukit Suharto in East Kalimantan, Borneo, and also is known from Maliau Basin and Lumerao in Sabah (unpubl. survey report) and from the Sebangau peat swamps in Central Kalimantan, Borneo (Husson and Morrogh-Bernard 2003). It can be expected to also occur in Thailand, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
10975	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The species is common in primary forest, and may not do well in highly disturbed forest (C. Francis pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from the Sebangau peat swamps in Central Kalimantan (Husson and Morrogh-Bernard 2003). Roosting habits are unknown (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10975	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The species may be widespread and relatively common in suitable habitat, but it is difficult to trap without harp traps, and is often overlooked in Borneo. It is extremely common in Krau Wildlife Reserve Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
10975	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.	eng
10976	conservation	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
10976	distribution	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is widespread throughout Southeast Asia including mainland Thailand (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006), Viet Nam (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006), Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999), Indonesia (found on Bali, Borneo, Java and Sulawesi), and the Philippines (known only from Samar) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It can be expected in northern Cambodia, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
10976	habitat	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is associated with primary and moderately disturbed semi-evergreen forest in limestone karst areas. It has been recorded from primary forest in Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2003) and disturbed forest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10976	population	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The status of the species is unknown in the Philippines and it is uncommon but widespread elsewhere.	eng
10976	threats	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range, although deforestation may be affecting the species in parts of its range.	eng
10977	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to better understand the taxonomic status of <em>Kerivoula lanosa</em>.	eng
10977	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This bat is widely recorded across sub-Saharan Africa, from Liberia and Guinea in the west, to Ethiopia and Kenya in the east, and ranging as far south as southern South Africa.	eng
10977	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, to dry woodland, and both dry and moist savanna. Animals have often been encountered roosting in abandoned bird nests (Roberts 1951; Taylor 1998).	eng
10977	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appears to be little information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
10977	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
10978	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species needs taxonomic revision, however, it appears to be distinct according to local scientists (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). It does occur in a few protected areas within its range.	eng
10978	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is found in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and southern Thailand. The record from Thailand requires confirmation (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) as it may not be this species. The species is easily confused with <em>K. intermedia</em>, with which it is probably conspecific.	eng
10978	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species inhabits the understorey of dipterocarp forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is found also in lowland and secondary forest (A. Suyanto pers. comm.).	eng
10978	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs at low densities. As with <em>K. intermedia</em>, the species is difficult to catch unless harp traps are used.	eng
10978	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations, forest fires and coal and limestone mining are threats to this species.	eng
10979	conservation	Hamilton, S. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It has been recorded from Varirata National Park, Central Province (Flannery 1995). Further surveys with harp traps are needed to determine the full range of this species.	eng
10979	distribution	Hamilton, S. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from a number of widely distributed sites. It is also probably present in Papua Province, Indonesia although this requires confirmation. It ranges from sea level to 1,600 m asl, but is probably predominantly a lowland species.	eng
10979	habitat	Hamilton, S. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is found in both primary tropical moist forest and disturbed habitats. Animals roost in hollow tree limbs as solitary individuals or in small groups (Bonaccorso 1998). It forages for insects at a low level in the forest.	eng
10979	population	Hamilton, S. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is known from relatively few specimens collected from less than 10 sites.	eng
10979	threats	Hamilton, S. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat destruction in the lowlands is presumably a problem. As they are found as solitary individuals or in small colonies, they are unlikely to be as threatened as species that roost together in large numbers.	eng
10980	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Kingston, T., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is a priority for survey work to determine its population numbers and status, because it has a limited distribution and may be in decline. Testing tissues of recently captured bats for pesticide levels is recommended (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Further research is required to confirm the identity of the specimen from Wetar.	eng
10980	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Kingston, T., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species occurs on New Britain, Duke of York, Umboi, and Manus Islands of Papua New Guinea. A specimen from Wetar Island, Indonesia reported by Hill and Rozendaal (1989) may represent <em>K. hardwickii</em> (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level to 500 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10980	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Kingston, T., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species has been captured along watercourses in disturbed environments and secondary regrowth, but these were recently converted areas and it is not known whether the species can persist in these habitats (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
10980	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Kingston, T., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Presently thought to be uncommon. The use of mist-nets, currently the main means of collection, might not be the best way to capture the species, and this could have led to the species being under-reported (Flannery 1995).	eng
10980	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Kingston, T., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Oil palm development is likely to have removed much habitat for this species. Pesticides in oil palm plantations are probably a threat to this species (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
10981	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range including, Gunung Halimun National Park on Java, Danau Sentarum National Park in West Kalimantan (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), and Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
10981	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Buton in Indonesia, and northern Borneo.	eng
10981	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	On Buton and Malaysia, this species roosts in groups of 1-14 individuals in small tree hollows in lowland mixed-deciduous dipterocarp forest.	eng
10981	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is thought to be reasonably common throughout its range.	eng
10981	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no major threat to this species, although deforestation is occurring through many parts of its range.	eng
10982	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., Lunney, D. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas, at least in Australia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
10982	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., Lunney, D. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is found in both East and West New Britain Island (Papua New Guinea) (S. Hamilton pers. comm.), and along the coastline of eastern Australia where it ranges from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland to southern New South Wales (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Woodside <em>et al.</em> 2008). It also has been recorded on the island of Biak (Indonesia), and at a few scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea only) (Flannery 1995a,b). Within Papuan New Guinea it has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,300 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
10982	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., Lunney, D. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of tropical moist forest types, dry and wet sclerophyll woodland, riparian Casuarina forest and coastal Meloleuca forest. It has been found in secondary growth forest. This species roosts as solitary individuals or as small groups of animals (up to about 20 individuals) in dead palm fronds, dense foliage, tree hollows, birds nests, caves, and buildings. It is insectivorous, gleaning invertebrates from vegetation (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998; Woodside <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Australia, <em>c.</em>95% of its diet is web-weaving spiders (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
10982	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., Lunney, D. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is difficult to find this small, cryptic bat which roosts in foliage, consequently it is poorly represented in museums. The recent use of harp traps indicates that they are more common than previously thought in both Papua New Guinea and Australia. Historically, there have been periods of little to no collections of this species in Australia, for reasons that are not clear (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
10982	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., Lunney, D. & Hamilton, S., 2008	In Australia it is suspected that this species is threatened by clearance of suitable forest habitats for timber and agricultural purposes. It is also believed to be threatened by changes in fire regimes and predation by domestic and feral cats (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The threats to the species outside of Australia are not known.	eng
10983	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Nusalawo, M., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
10983	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Nusalawo, M., 2008	The species occurs on Borneo, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, extremem southern Thailand, Sumatra, and the Philippines. In the Philippines, there are records from Jolo (Taylor 1934), Mindanao (Davao del Norte Province) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
10983	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Nusalawo, M., 2008	In Malaysia the species is generally dependent on primary forest (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). There are records of two groups roosting in dead leaves on small shrubs in lowland forest in the Philippines (Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan Island, there are records from secondary lowland forest at 80 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
10983	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Nusalawo, M., 2008	This is a common species in primary forests on Sumatra (M. Nusalawo  pers. comm. 2006), and in Peninsular Malaysia it is fairly common in the understorey of primary forest. Harp and tunnel traps are required to survey this species. It is inferred that the population in Malaysia has undergone a decline of at least 30% in 15 years (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10983	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Nusalawo, M., 2008	This species is dependent on primary forest which is being lost due to logging, plantations, conversion to agriculture and forest fires.	eng
10984	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little known species.	eng
10984	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This African bat has been recorded from Guinea, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa; and from Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to western Uganda in Central Africa.	eng
10984	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	In general the species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, but has been encountered in both montane tropical moist forest and tropical dry forest. Rosevar (1965) indicates that the species is present in closed high forest. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitats. It may roost in tree hollows and similar habitats, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
10984	population	Fahr. J., 2008	It appears to be a rare species that is known only from 14 localities.	eng
10984	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. Koopman (1995) mentions that this one of seven bat species from Liberia that have not been recorded from the lowland since 1965, and that it might have declined because of deforestation, although this may instead just indicate vagaries of collection within this country.	eng
10985	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh and Orang National Park in Assam, and Chitwan National Park in Nepal. Studies on preference to and survival in alternate habitats by this species is needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10985	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from southern and northeastern South Asia, southern China, most of mainland Southeast Asia and some major islands in insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is known from Bangladesh (Dhaka division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Mid-western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Sabargamuwa, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it has been recorded from much of southeast China, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, it ranges throughout the mainland, and has been recorded from the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Ambon, Halmahera and Ternate. In South Asia it has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10985	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded in dry deciduous forests and found among dried leaves of banana, dry grass, flowers, weaver bird nests and in sugar cane fields. It flies close to bushes with a fluttering flight (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is reported to roost in foliage, frequently amongst dried leaves or flowers that allow it to blend in well. They apparently aestivate during the day, as they are relatively sluggish when disturbed. In Southeast Asia, it is considered to be a poorly known species that probably roosts singly or in small groups in leaves of trees, and in bird nests, and is known to roost in old dead banana leaves (P. Bates pers. comm.). It has been collected in tall grass, flowers, among leaves of vines, and in sugar cane.	eng
10985	population	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is generally an uncommon species.	eng
10985	threats	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to this species. In South Asia this species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also threatened by conversion of plantation lands to make way for human settlements and changes in cropping pattern (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
10986	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and general ecology of this apparently rare species.	eng
10986	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This African bat is known from scattered records in a distribution band ranging from Nigeria and Cameroon in the west, through the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to Uganda and Kenya in the east. Earlier records from Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia (Happold 1987; Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995) appear to be in error (J. Fahr pers. comm. in Simmons 2005). It has been recorded at elevations of 900 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
10986	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been recorded from several forest types including lowland and montane tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest and swamp forest. Happold (1987) reported that in Nigeria, the species is found in 'the rainforest zone east of the Niger River'. It may use the nests of weaver birds and sunbirds, and tree cavities as roosting sites (Happold 1987). It is not known if the species is adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
10986	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been very rarely recorded (Happold 1987).	eng
10986	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this little known species.	eng
10987	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of some populations.	eng
10987	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species occurs in southern Thailand, Borneo, and the Philippines. In Malaysian Borneo, the species is known only from two localities in Sarawak (Mulu and Usun Apau) and from Sabah (Kinabatangan). In the Philippines, records are from Luzon Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte Provinces), Palawan, and Panay (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Taylor 1934) and Polillo (Alviola 1999).	eng
10987	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	In the Philippines, the species has been found in disturbed forest and agricultural areas (Sanborn 1952). On Palawan island, it has been reported from cogon grassland at around 60 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in secondary forest beside a creek at 450 m asl on Mt. Makiling (Laguna, Luzon) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Sedlock 2001).	eng
10987	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Originally this species was considered to be extremely rare but this was probably due to inappropriate survey methodology and an inadequate number of surveys. Surveys using harp traps in montane forest on mount Isarog (Camarines Sur Province, Luzon) have found the species to be common at high elevations (1,400 m asl) (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). It is known only from isolated records in Malaysia, and it is not certain whether this reflects genuine rarity for this species or if it is a sign of the sampling difficulties associated with it.	eng
10987	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In the Philippines, the species is locally threatened at higher elevations in montane forest on ultramafic soils through activities associated with mining (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).	eng
10988	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas which have suitable habitat.	eng
10988	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Brazil, from Piaui State to north Minas Gerais State, excluding coastal areas (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The rock cavy was successfully introduced to Fernando de Noronha in 1967 (Oren, 1984).	eng
10988	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent inhabits dry rocky areas with low scrub vegetation where they shelter in crevices (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Its range is not restricted by elevation (Lacher pers. comm.). It feeds on leaves. The average gestation period is 75 days with an average litter size of 1.5, up to three litters of two young can be produced annually (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can reproduce throughout the year in captivity.	eng
10988	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There have been no detailed population studies; however, it is probably stable where it occurs (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
10988	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is heavily hunted for food throughout its range, although protected areas offer refuge from hunting for this species. There are probably no major threats throughout its range.	eng
11002	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
11003	conservation	Luiselli, L., Politano, E. & Lea, J., 2006	1). It is important to plan the management of this species by collecting as much information as possible on the cultural interactions between local human communities and tortoises, because it may be possible to create a mosaic of protected areas linking all the forested zones in which people traditionally worship tortoises. This strategy is certainly possible in some areas of southern Nigeria (Bayelsa State), e.g., around the towns of Sagbama and Brass.  <br/> <br/>2). Although <em>K. homeana</em> is on CITES Appendix II, thus banning the import of wild individuals into Europe (EC regulation number 338/97), it nevertheless seems necessary to develop further conservation legislation in favor of this species both at the international and national levels. At the national and sub-national level it is necessary to include this species among the protected fauna in all the countries of occurrence. At present, there is virtually no country that can reliably preserve this species, and we have seen several specimens traded for food or traditional medicine even inside protected areas (e.g., Upper Orashi Forest Reserve in Rivers State, southeastern Nigeria). Another serious problem is represented by the high rates of export of these tortoises to western markets from such countries as Ghana and Togo (e.g., see Lawson 2000). The exports of these specimens should be seriously controlled to prevent free-ranging specimens being taken, especially considering that it is often unclear how these specimens are obtained because tortoise farms are very underdeveloped in these countries. Harris (2001), for instance, found that most <em>Python regius</em> exported from Togo to Europe were claimed to come from farms but were actually newborns of wild-caught females (who were killed after oviposition). Close control should be exercised on these farms to prevent the tortoise trade from being conducted in the same way.  <br/> <br/>3). The field ecology of <em>K. homeana</em> has been studied intensively only in southern Nigeria and in western Cameroon. These studies should be continued in these two countries to achieve a very detailed dataset, but should also be urgently expanded into other countries of this species’ range for comparative purposes. The same is true also for the studies on the relationship between humans and tortoises. <br/> <br/>4). There is a strong need to establish protected areas that include populations of these tortoises, and perhaps a very promising initiative would be to create protected corridors by linking areas where local people traditionally protect tortoises.  <br/> <br/>5). Potential attempts at trade management have been undertaken (see Table 2 in the atached PDF). However, these should be developed more to reduce impact of export trade on wild-caught animals.	eng
11003	distribution	Luiselli, L., Politano, E. & Lea, J., 2006	<strong>Historical Distribution Data</strong> <br/> <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is a forest tortoise with considerable range over the continuous Guinea-Congo rainforest region. The most reliable account of its distribution is provided by Iverson (1992), although comments are available also in later literature (e.g., Vetter 2002). However, it should be taken into account that for this species as well as for many Afrotropical reptiles, the picture of the distribution is based on an indiscriminate list of all the reliable locality records collected also during the colonial age (i.e., often in areas which have been drastically modified by humans during the last decades). As a result, these maps are often little more than "ideal maps", a reflection of a species’ previous distribution rather than its current status. Because of this, the distribution map of <em>K. homeana</em> (and virtually of all other medium to large size vertebrates) is a great overestimation of its real distribution. <br/>  <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is found in Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and in the Democratic Republic of Congo (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/><u>Liberia</u> - was found throughout the whole country: known in the north-west provinces as well as in the extreme southeast, around Harper (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Cote d'Ivoire</u> - Recorded in the forests around Aboisso in the south (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Ghana</u> - Reported to be widespread in the southern territories (Iverson 1992).  <br/><u>Togo</u> - No localities are presented in Iverson (1992), but see under Present Range below.  <br/><u>Benin</u> - No localities are presented in Iverson (1992), but see below. <br/><u>Nigeria</u> - Found only in the southern regions (Iverson 1992), in the continuous rainforest vegetation zone.  <br/><u>Cameroon</u> - Found throughout the coastal regions and also in the Southern Province (Iverson 1992); its presence has also been well documented in the Southwest Province in recent years (e.g., Lawson 1993, 2000, 2001).  <br/><u>Equatorial Guinea</u> - Found both on Bioko Island and in Rio Muni (Iverson 1992). <br/><u>Gabo</u> – Not recorded by Iverson (1992), but likely present because of a very few specimens exported in recent years to international markets. <br/><u>The Democratic Republic of Congo</u> - Isolated subpopulations are known from the easternmost forests, close to the political borders with southern Sudan and western Uganda (Iverson 1992). These subpopulations should be accurately studied to understand if they are an isolated subspecies or typical <em>homeana</em>.  <br/> <br/><strong>Present Range</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Liberia</u> - No recent survey on the distribution of this species in Liberia has been published. Several specimens (>50) were found by our research staff in the bush-meat markets of Monrovia, Buchanan, and Gbarnga during July 2000. According to the sellers, the tortoises were captured in the nearby surroundings. We also captured (and marked) 14 specimens in the coastal forest around Greenville, in July 2002, during a period of 8 consecutive days of research (a total of 68 hours spent in the field). <em>K. homeana</em> is reported by villagers to be locally common (e.g., around Gbarnga), and the pilot surveys in Greenville established an average sighting frequency of 1.75 tortoises/day, which is intermediate between those observed in southern Nigeria in (i) a harvest area (0.84 tortoises/day) and (ii) a non-harvest area (2.98 tortoises/day) (Luiselli 2003a). Based on interviews with local hunters and on our preliminary data, we believe that <em>K. homeana</em> is still widespread in Liberia, although likely declining due to over-exploitation by people. In particular, the civil war which has raged throughout Liberia in recent years has had serious consequences for several populations of this species. <em>K. homeana</em> became a common food item for people displaced into forests or bushlands to escape the fighting. Indeed, several interviewees confirmed that tortoises were one of the main protein sources not only for people escaping war but also for soldiers operating in forested zones. <br/><u>Cote d'Ivoire</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Historical records (summarized in Iverson 1992) showed that it is found only in the south. <br/><u>Ghana</u> – <em>K. homeana</em> has been found recently in Onyadze and Ony-Winn (two sites of Muni-Pomadze Lagoon, southern Ghana) in secondary forest and grass/thicket habitats (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000). Our staff did not capture any free-ranging specimen of this species during some pilot surveys conducted in the years 1995, 1996, and 1998 in the coastal bushland in the Great Accra region, but we did capture a single male in a bush-plantation area around Cape Coast (southwestern Ghana). Additional surveys in October–November 2003 in the markets around Accra and Koforidua (southern Ghana) indicated several specimens traded, and a very few specimens found in the field (which would likely mean a very low population density; see Table 1 in the attached PDF). Based on data provided by Raxworthy and Attuquayefio (2000), plus our surveys (and from comparisons with other geographic regions like Liberia and Nigeria), and on interviews with local people, we consider this species to have become increasingly uncommon in Ghana. The numbers of free-ranging tortoises captured for the international pet trade should also be monitored, because it cannot be excluded that, as in Togo (Harris 2001), several traded specimens do not come from tortoise farms. <br/><u>Togo</u> - Found only in the remnant forests around the towns of Kpalime and Badou (southwestern Togo) (Harris 2001).  <br/><u>Benin</u> – Although no records are available in Iverson (1992), the species is certainly present in Benin Republic, where it is heavily exploited and also exported to western countries (see Figure 1, and Tables 1 and 2 in the attached PDF). <br/><u>Nigeria</u> - The current distribution is well known because the species has been studied intensively by ourselves and associates during the last ten years (e.g., Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2003; Luiselli 2003a,b,c, 2005). This species has been observed by our staff in several States:  <br/>Lagos -- presumably rare; several specimens were only found in the forest fragments and bush around Maryland, and around Lekki Lagoon. <br/>Oyo -- presumably declining (according to several interviewees); we found it in the forest patches around Ibadan, where it has been collected also in the past (Blackwell 1968), and is actively hunted (Butler and Shitu 1985). <br/>Edo -- locally common in mature forest fragments, but presumably extirpated from the many recently deforested areas. Based on random surveys throughout 13 potential sites of occurrence in 1999–2000, we verified its presence in only 4 sites (30.8%). <br/>Delta -- very endangered due to severe habitat loss (potential habitat for tortoises covers approximately 0.1% of the state area) and hunting for subsistence. For instance, it was found along the riverine swamp-forests of the Etiope River in 1982, but not found again in 2001 (Lea <em>et al</em>. 2003).  <br/>Bayelsa and Rivers -- found in some swamp-forest patches of both these states (e.g., Powell 1993, Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000) and is locally common in a few areas where it is worshipped by indigenous communities (Luiselli 2003a). However it is actively persecuted for both subsistence and traditional medicine ("ju-ju") in most areas, where it is very likely to be declining (see data in Luiselli 2003a). In addition, it is severely threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) due to expanding petrochemical development.  <br/>Anambra -- extremely rare, it is found only in a few riverine forest patches in the southernmost part of this state and surrounding Oguta (in AGIP oilfield forest site). Most of the state landscape is characterized by plantations and cultivations, not suitable habitat for this tortoise. <br/>Akwa-Ibom -- severely fragmented populations are found in a few riverine forests (e.g., along the banks of the River Kwa-Ibo) and in the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve; many specimens are traded for "ju-ju" and food in Uyo market, but it seems that a good proportion of them may have come from the adjacent Cross River State (Eniang unpublished data). In addition, it is severely threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) due to petrochemical expansion in coastal areas. More common at the border with Cross River State (surroundings of Itu). <br/>Cross River -- common in lowland forests (e.g., in the Ikpan Forest block, see Eniang and Luiselli 2002), it is replaced by <em>Kinixys erosa</em> in hilly and mountainous forests. In the Cross River National Park, for instance, it is much less common than <em>K. erosa</em>, but this is probably due to natural ecological constraints. <br/><u>Cameroon</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Lawson (2000) reported a very strong hunting pressure on this species in the Western and South-West Provinces. Lawson (1993) recorded its presence in 7 different sites (Abat, Mundemba, Baro, Besingi, Ekundu Kundu, Pamol Palm Plantations, Nfainchang). Additional known localities are Bipindi, Dibongo, Jengwe, Kribi, Déhané, Nkolembembe, Nko’olong, and Akom II (van Dijk 1994, LeBreton 1999). <br/><u>Equatorial Guinea</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. <br/><u>Gabon</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. Its distribution is unknown but likely extremely reduced (for instance it has not found during two very extensive field surveys in the ‘Monts de Cristal’, and in the ‘Massif du Chaillu’; see Pauwels <em>et al</em>. 2002a,b), although very few specimens were traded and exported (see Table 2 in attached PDF). <br/><u>The Democratic Republic of Congo</u> - No recent surveys made by ourselves or associates. <br/> <br/><strong>Extent of Occurrence</strong> <br/>According to our calculations, based on maps in Iverson (1992) modified by data reported in other sources published before 1992, and on original data made available to us (referring to distributions in 1980–90), the entire range of <em>K. homeana</em> had a potential extent of occurrence of about 788,843 km² in 1992 (see Table 3 in the attached PDF). The country comprising the highest percentage of the potential range was Nigeria (23.4% ), followed by Cameroon (20.3%). <br/> <br/>Because Nigeria and Cameroon comprise the greatest proportion of this species’ potential range (43.7%) they are appropriate to assess the current global status of <em>K. homeana</em> in the absence of firm data from the other countries. <br/> <br/><strong>Area of Occupancy</strong> <br/>Because few fieldwork-based data on the area of occupancy exist for <em>K. homeana</em>, the area of occupancy is simply defined as 10% of the area of extent of occurrence as applied in the Red List Criteria (IUCN 2001), yielding an estimate of 78,843 km². In Nigeria, where the human population density is expanding rapidly (currently about 120 million people) and where the remnant proportion of forests is very low (about 1% of that found in the 1950s; Geomatics 1996), it is almost certain that the current tortoise range is far less than the 10% of former range expected according to IUCN (2001) criteria. We would suggest that a more appropriate estimate of the current range of <em>K. homeana</em> in Nigeria is approximately 5% of that in 1992 (i.e., approximately 9,235 km², and this is certainly an overestimation). A current occupation of only 5% of the 1992 range would translate to an assessment, for the Nigerian populations, as Critically Endangered under criteria A2c. Of course this does not include reduction in occupancy in other range states, and so we could not be sure about the soundness of any generalization of this assessment as CR. However, it has not been reported anywhere that the species survives significantly better in other countries, and there is little cause for optimism. Hence, based on these calculations, the status of <em>K. homeana</em> is clearly becoming vulnerable due to the considerable extent of habitat loss in addition to subsistence hunting.	eng
11003	habitat	Luiselli, L., Politano, E. & Lea, J., 2006	Most of the data available on the habitat preferences of <em>K. homeana</em> populations are based on anecdotal observations and not on sound data. It is generally reported that this species occurs in forests all throughout its range, generally of a drier type than the forests inhabited by <em>K. erosa</em> (Ernst and Barbour 1989). According to Broadley (1989) it inhabits the lowland evergreen forest, and a similar habitat has been described in western Cameroon (Lawson 1993), where it is locally threatened by clearance of forest for cultivation (e.g., around Nfainchang; Lawson 1993). <br/> <br/>The most detailed study on the habitat preferences of <em>K. homeana</em> has been done in southern Nigeria. At a landscape scale, a statistical study (based on logistic regression of presence/absence data) revealed that Nigerian populations of <em>K. homeana</em> are habitat specialists, being linked to zones of secondary dry forest around mangroves and in zones with secondary swamp-forest (Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2000). Considering that in the Delta states these habitat types have declined dramatically during the last decades, falling from 2% of state area in 1976–78 to only 0.2% in 1993–95 (Geomatics 1996) due primarily to petrochemical expansion, it may be inferred that habitat loss represents a very serious reason of decline for these tortoises at a global scale. This supposition is reinforced by evidence that <em>K. homeana</em> needs closed forest canopy and shady microhabitats to avoid overheating, and shows behavioral thermoregulation in its avoidance of overheating (Luiselli 2005), i.e. allowing only short periods of exposure to the sun during movements between sunlit and shaded areas (Hailey and Coulson 1998, Luiselli 2005). Another potential limitation factor of habitat occupancy by <em>K. homeana</em> may be a potential for interspecific competition for food with the closely related <em>K. erosa</em>, which exhibits a wide overlap in terms of spatial use (Luiselli 2003b). <br/> <br/>At a local scale, Luiselli (2003a) demonstrated that the type of attitude of human communities towards tortoises may have very serious consequences on the habitat preferences of these animals, so that any generalization can be difficult. Luiselli (2003a) studied tortoise population ecology at six study areas with similar habitat characteristics in the eastern axis of the Niger Delta. In three areas, the tortoises had been worshipped by local communities for a long time as holy animals, whereas in three other areas they were actively hunted for subsistence. The habitat use by tortoises varied depending on the type of treatment by the indigenous people (hunting vs. veneration): in the veneration areas the tortoises were frequently found in disparate habitats (i.e., dense dry bush, sparse dry bush, riparian vegetation, swamps, and plantations; Luiselli 2003a). In the hunting areas the tortoises were found almost exclusively inside dense bush, and always avoided plantations. It seems likely that the different habitat usage reflects extirpation from easier hunting areas (Luiselli 2003a). This study may have important global consequences for this species' status, because it demonstrates that wherever they are hunted for subsistence (which is a common occurrence in West and Central Africa, e.g., see Fa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lawson 2000, Fa and Garcia Juste 2001, Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2003), the habitat in which they are still found is just a fraction of the potential habitat. They are limited to forest patches with very dense vegetation where access for human hunters is difficult. Forest habitat loss is an enormous problem in West Africa because of the rate of destruction (Oates 1999), and concomitant with this, human overpopulation and increasing hunting pressure (e.g., Luiselli 2003a,c; Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2003) means that the long-term viability of these tortoises is at high risk. <br/> <br/>Clearance of forest for cultivation is also considered a cause of decline for <em>K. homeana</em> in Cameroon (e.g., around Nfainchang; Lawson 1993). Although we do not have quantitative data for other countries it is obvious that the same is happening almost everywhere in the range of this tortoise, since in all these countries human population density is growing, forest loss is rapid, and hunting for subsistence is rampant (e.g., see discussion in Oates 1999).	eng
11003	population	Luiselli, L., Politano, E. & Lea, J., 2006	There are no available data on the global population size and density of <em>K. homeana</em> at the continental scale. We therefore need to use the few data available on the density and home ranges of these tortoises from some specific localities to generate estimates of population size at the continental scale. <br/> <br/>In the Niger Delta (southern Nigeria), during 1995–2002, we radiotracked 33 adults (20 males and 13 females) for 40 continuous days, and measured mean home range size (quantified via minimum convex polygon) of 0.37 km² for males and 0.24 km² for females, with some specimens (especially males) exhibiting home ranges as large as 0.46 km². Lawson (2000) also stated that, in western Cameroon, male home range may exceed 0.5 km²; his data are very similar to our own despite the different study regions and environmental conditions. Moreover, both in Nigeria (Luiselli and associates unpublished data) and in Cameroon (Lawson 2000), male tortoises are highly territorial, and usually drive other males away from their core home ranges. Thus, the density of these tortoises is low in most places even in highly suitable environments. Luiselli (2003a) presented some data on population structure and abundance of <em>K. homeana</em> that can be useful for calculating a rough density of these tortoises under natural conditions. During 20 consecutive field days of research in southern Nigeria (10 days in the wet season and 10 days in the dry season, from February 2001 to January 2002) ten people independently searching a 20 ha area found an average density of 1.4 tortoises/ha at six localities. The density ranged from 0.15 to 0.9 tortoises/ha in harvest areas, and from 1.65 to 2.85 tortoises/ha in veneration areas (density values calculated from Table 1 in Luiselli, 2003a). <br/> <br/><em>K. homeana</em> is known to inhabit similar habitats across its entire range, and data from separate regions (Cameroon and Nigeria) showed a clear similarity also in home range size and territoriality. Hence we may use the above population density of approximately 1.4 individuals/ha for <em>K. homeana</em> in Nigeria to extrapolate estimates for the whole species range. Calculating population size from the population density estimates (Luiselli 2003a), we expect approximately 140 tortoises in an area of 1 km², which would give a figure of about 1,300,900 tortoises in all of Nigeria according to the most optimistic view (i.e., assuming that in 50% of the occupied sites there is veneration, and no hunting pressure). However, since our data show that veneration occurs in less than 1% of the occupied sites, the total tortoise population figure would be much lower. With an average density (calculated from Luiselli 2003a for harvest areas) of 0.53 individuals/ha this gives 53.33 tortoises/km², and about 500,000 tortoises in all of Nigeria. This latter figure is probably a much more accurate population estimate. If we apply the above reasoning to the whole of this species’ range we calculate a total population size for <em>K. homeana</em> of at best 4,205,000 tortoises. <br/> <br/>Lawson (2000), studying the harvest rates of <em>K. homeana</em> in three protected areas of Cameroon (Korup National Park, Banyang-Mbo Sanctuary, and Nta-Ali Reserve), estimated an overall mean annual harvest rate of 0.3 animals/km² in these areas with good habitat conditions and relatively low human density. Then, if 100% of the species’ range was protected and under relatively low human density, and extrapolating harvest data by Lawson (2000), the expected annual harvest rate would have been 236,532 tortoises, i.e., 5.6% of the total surviving tortoise population. However, the percent of protected territory is less than 3% of the species’ range, and the human population density is much higher in several regions of the species’ range than in the three protected areas of Cameroon studied by Lawson (2000), and hence we may conclude that the annual harvest rate is certainly much higher than the calculated 5.6%, but not quantifiable on the basis of current data. Also acknowledging the theoretical limits of our calculations, which are simply estimates, it is still very likely that the free-ranging populations of this species cannot sustain the current pressure (combination of continuing habitat loss and hunting) for more than 2–3 generations (<em>sensu</em> IUCN 2001), with each generation being about 15 years. Based on the above assumption, <em>K. homeana</em> meets at least the IUCN Red List criteria for Vulnerable status, but a case for an even higher category of risk can be made.	eng
11003	threats	Luiselli, L., Politano, E. & Lea, J., 2006	<em>K. homeana</em> is currently experiencing a very serious decline in much of its range, due mainly to habitat loss (through agricultural and industrial expansion and deforestation) and intensive harvesting for subsistence and traditional medicine ("ju-ju") by local people in desperately poor economic condition, as well as for the international pet trade (further details on all these threats are given above). <br/> <br/>Although <em>K. homeana</em> is still found in nearly all the forest-zone protected areas in Nigeria (see Table 4 in the attached PDF) and in Cameroon (Lawson 2000), there is no doubt that hunting is still rampant in all these protected areas, as testified by harvest data provided by Lawson (2000) and the observations of Luiselli (2003c) of hunted specimens inside two protected areas in the Niger Delta. Hence, a crucial point to be addressed by future studies is the impact that illegal hunting activities may have on populations of <em>K. homeana</em> inside formally established protected areas. At present, it is clear that protected area populations are not free of exploitation.	eng
11004	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
11005	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - shallow swamps	eng
11006	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. creaseri</em> occurs in a few protected natural and archaeological sites, including Calacmul and Siankaane BR. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas would be desirable.	eng
11006	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occurs on the Yucatan Peninsula in the Mexican states of Yucatan, Quintana Roo and northern Campeche (Iverson 1992). It has been recorded close to the border with Belize but not confirmed within that country.	eng
11006	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species is restricted to the mesic parts of the rather arid northern Yucatan Peninsula, where no surface streams exist and the aquatic habitat is restricted to cenotes (pools in limestone sinkholes) and temporary pools (Duellman 1965 in Smith and Smith 1979, Iverson in Groombridge 1982, Buskirk 1997). Artner (2004) found animals in surface rainpools but not in cenotes, at water depths of 5 to 30 cm (exceptionally 80 cm); they shared these waters with <em>Rhinoclemmys areolata</em> and <em>Kinosternon scorpioides cruentatum</em>. The distribution of <em>K. creaseri</em> is complementary to that of <em>K. acutum</em> and <em>K. leucostomum</em> and broadly sympatric with <em>K. scorpioides cruentatum</em>. <br/> <br/>Artner (2004) thought the natural diet to consist of aquatic insects and their larvae, fallen insects and freshwater snails, which has been confirmed by faecal data. It is tolerant of moderate habitat disturbance, although very intensive habitat modification, not found within its range at present, would be a problem. <br/> <br/>Apparently active only during the rainy season, June to October, spending the rest of the year in aestivation (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). Estimated to take 10 to 15 years to maturity. Females may produce multiple clutches each consisting of a single egg (Iverson, 1989). Artner (2004) recorded a captive female producing 2 to 4 clutches of 1 to 2 eggs per year (3 to 6 eggs annually). No information is available on longevity.	eng
11006	population	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	No detailed information available; the species was thought to be rare in the 1982 Red Data Book (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). It is now thought to be locally abundant in suitable habitat (Iverson 1989, Lee 1996).	eng
11006	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	No threats specifically recorded. Very few animals have been recorded in international pet trade, but they are collected in small numbers and eaten by locals. The blood and meat are locally used to treat respiratory illness.	eng
11008	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - small streams	eng
11009	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Canseco-Marquez, L., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. Not likely to occur in the coastal Lagunas de Chacahua NP or Huatulco NP. <br/> <br/>All basic biological and status information needs to be collected for this species.	eng
11009	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Canseco-Marquez, L., 2007	Southern Oaxaca, Mexico, and presumably into eastern Guerrero (Iverson 1992, Carr 1993). The species is known from between 100 and 800 m elevation (Berry and Iverson 1980).	eng
11009	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Canseco-Marquez, L., 2007	Inhabits still, turbid waters, including seasonal pools, permanent ponds, marshlands and muddy ponds, but animals are occasionally encountered in rivers (Iverson, 1986). It may be washed onto the coastal plain by seasonal upland flooding (Ernst and Barbour 1989). <br/> <br/>The animals are active apparently mainly during the rainy season (June to October) and rarely bask (Iverson 1986). <br/> <br/>The species is probably an opportunistic feeder; recorded diet is dominated by plant matter, but animal matter (beetles, shrimp, tadpoles, fish) is also taken (Iverson 1986). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is 175 mm in males and 157 mm CL in females. Males reach maturity between 113 and 125 mm CL, at an age of about 7 to 10 years, while females mature at about 115 mm CL and 8 to 9 years of age (Iverson 1986).  <br/>Nesting likely occurs from after mid-July, and hatching probably occurs after the rainy season but the hatchlings likely remain in the nest until next rainy season (Iverson 1986).	eng
11009	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Canseco-Marquez, L., 2007	This is generally understood to be an uncommon species, although is apparently very common in southern Oaxaca and adjoining easternmost Guerrero (Buskirk in litt. 2 Jan 2007).	eng
11009	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Canseco-Marquez, L., 2007	Carr (in litt. 11 Jan 2007) reported to have found it as a road kill, and obtained a series of shells from locals that were presumably eaten, so there may be some localized subsistence use as food; the significance of these levels of mortality is unknown. Small numbers of juveniles in the international pet trade, apparently derived from captive breeding in Mexico and elsewhere, pose no threat to the species at present trade levels.	eng
11010	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
11011	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
11021	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Further searches for <em>K. ballochi</em> in more remote areas surrounding the type locality have been proposed for August 2007 (Jenkins, pers. comm.). There are no conservation measures in place at present.	eng
11021	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from a few small creeks along a 15-20 km stretch of the Ok Tedi Mine supply road between Kiunga and Tabubil which is part of the Upper Fly River system, Papua New Guinea.  Most specimens have been collected from tributaries of the Ok Smak River.  It is probably restricted to tributaries of the Ok Smak River and tributaries to adjacent rivers within the upper Fly River basin (Jenkins, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Ok Smak River lies within the upper Fly River basin, but as <em>K. balloch</em>i is not likely to be found in the main stem of the Fly River, it is therefore restricted to an area which covers 15,283 km².	eng
11021	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>K. ballochi</em> is a demersal species that inhabits narrow, clear creeks flowing through rainforest in generally flat terrain.  Species from the family Pseudomugliidae normally congregate in schools.	eng
11021	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	When it was first discovered in 1982, the species was reported as being moderately common. Attempts to locate the fish at the type locality in 1994-1995 were unsuccessful.  The species has not been found in the wild for over ten years in the type or adjacent localities (Jenkins, Pers. comm.).	eng
11021	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	It is suspected that <em>K. ballochi</em> has been severely impacted by habitat degradation.  The type locality of this species and adjacent suitable habitats have been extensively damaged by associated activities of the Ok Tedi copper and gold mine (Jenkins, pers. comm.).  Not only has the freshwater habitat of this species been altered through the construction of a road leading to Ok Tedi mine, but its proximity to the mine means that it is likely to be affected by pollution.  Sedimentation and toxic runoff has greatly reduced fish catches from the Ok Tedi and Fly River systems.  It has been reported that even after the mine is closed in approximately fifteen years, recovery may take another twenty years.  Exotic fish species are also a concern in this region, which may be affecting <em>K. ballochi</em> (WWF 2001).	eng
11026	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	There is localised conservation as some springs are included within protected areas. However, protection is at the site level with no protection of the actual watershed.	eng
11026	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to north-eastern Italy.	eng
11026	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in springs and cold clean streams on the flat plains.	eng
11026	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It was previously believed to exist in only a few places but it has recently been found to be more widespread.	eng
11026	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution.	eng
11027	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention as <em>Gobius thessalus</em>.	eng
11027	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Pinios River catchment in Thessaly in Central Greece. Formerly, it was common in lake Karla, which has since been almost drained leaving only a few remaining isolated subpopulations.	eng
11027	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in springs and well-oxygenated streams rich in aquatic vegetation. It is also found in creeks, in brackish water, and in irrigation channels. It does not appear to need well-oxygenated waters.	eng
11027	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Unknown	eng
11027	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
11028	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
11028	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is only known from a single spring on Corfu island, Greece. Recent attempts in the late 1990's have failed to find it (Kottelat, M. pers comm.).	eng
11028	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in freshwater springs.	eng
11028	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data	eng
11028	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, which has possibly led to increased salinity in the springs, and pollution.	eng
11029	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This is a Natura 2000 Site, which is apparently providing no effective protection as there are plans to drain part of the area.	eng
11029	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the River Acheron delta in western Greece.	eng
11029	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is found in fresh and brackish waters, often with abundant vegetation, and sand or mud substrates.	eng
11029	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining and the local people have been draining the area.	eng
11029	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Land reclamation: local authorities are planning to reclaim approximately 50% of the swamp. Water pollution - in particular from the local village.	eng
11030	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11030	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
11030	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Saline, fresh and estuarine waters along coasts of Black, Azov; Caspian and Aegean Seas west to Aliakmon drainage (Greece); identity of populations from along the eastern shore of Adriatic questionable. Has been recorded from freshwater lakes and lowland rivers more than 100 km from coast. Introduced in Aral Sea (but now extirpated).	eng
11030	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Saline, fresh and estuarine waters along coasts of Black, Azov; Caspian and Aegean Seas west to Aliakmon drainage (Greece); identity of populations from along the eastern shore of Adriatic questionable. Has been recorded from freshwater lakes and lowland rivers more than 100 km from coast. Introduced in Aral Sea (but now extirpated).	eng
11030	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to hypersaline waters (salinity up to 5.5 ‰) of lakes, estuaries and lagoons. Most abundant in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20-23 mm SL. Spawns in March-July, up to four portions of eggs. Eggs are attached to the roof of a cavity under stones, plant material or shells and are defended by male. Postlarvae are pelagic. Feeds on small invertebrates. In Trichonis Lake: on mud to gravel bottom, at depths less than 2 m; feeds mainly on copepods and larvae of the mussel <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>.	eng
11030	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to hypersaline waters (salinity up to 5.5   %o) of lakes, estuaries and lagoons. Most abundant in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20-23 mm SL. Spawns in March-July, up to four portions of eggs. Eggs are attached to the roof of a cavity under stones, plant material or shells and are defended by male. Postlarvae are pelagic. Feeds on small invertebrates. In Trichonis Lake: on mud to gravel bottom, at depths less than 2 m; feeds mainly on copepods and larvae of the mussel <em>Dreissena polymorpha</em>.	eng
11030	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11030	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
11030	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
11030	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
11031	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
11031	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the karstic River Matica, Neretva and Lake Bacina (Polje Jezero) in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.	eng
11031	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the freshwater karstic Matica river, its upper part drys out in summer. It can be found also in the brackish Lake Bacina. Spawning season in February.	eng
11031	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
11031	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Eutrophication, water pollution and extraction and alteration of the habitat.	eng
11032	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention and in the Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive.	eng
11032	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Adriatic catchment. It has been introduced in the Tyrrhenian catchment in Italy. In Greece it is only known from the Evinos delta.	eng
11032	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A eurihaline species found in fresh and brackish waters	eng
11032	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
11032	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
11033	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Today, Lechwes survive mainly in and around protected areas and game reserves. <br/><br/>Red Lechwe occur in the Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), Sioma Ngwezi, Liuwa Plains and Kafue National Parks, and the West Zambezi and Kasonso-Busanga Game Management Areas (Zambia), Kameia N.P. and the Luando, Mavinga and Luiana Game Reserves (Angola), and the Western Caprivi G.R. and the Mahango Game Park (Namibia) (Jeffery and Nefdt in press). <br/><br/>Kafue Lechwe occur only in Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks, both Ramsar sites, and the Kafue Flats Game Management Area in Zambia (Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>Black Lechwe occur only in the Bangweulu Game Management Area, and the Kalasa-Mukoso Game Management Area, while the Upemba National Park is the only known protected area refuge for the Upemba Lechwe (Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>The long-term survival of the lechwe in the wild is totally dependent on the effective protection and management of its remaining populations and their wetland habitats in a few critical areas, in particular Bangweulu (Black Lechwe), Kafue Flats (Kafue Lechwe), Okavango, Linyanti, Busanga and Caprivi (Red Lechwe), and Upemba N.P. (Upemba Lechwe). A significant proportion of the species’ total numbers occurs outside national parks and game reserves (>80% for the Red Lechwe). It is therefore likely that both revenue generation through sustainable offtake by sport hunters which capitalises on the species’ value as a trophy animal and the development of sustainable harvesting to provide meat for local people, e.g., in Bangweulu and Kafue Flats, will play an increasingly important role in the conservation of lechwe populations (East 1999).<br/><br/>Populations of Lechwe are maintained in captivity.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
11033	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The distribution of the Lechwe is discontinuous, with major populations restricted to extensive wetlands in Botswana, Namibia, Angola and Zambia, and remnants of populations in south-east DR Congo. Present distribution is much the same as its historical distribution, except that range has contracted, particularly over the last century (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press). The ranges of the four subspecies are as follows (from Jeffery and Nefdt in press):<br/><br/>The Kafue Lechwe is confined to the Kafue Flats in central Zambia.<br/><br/>The Black Lechwe is confined to the southern half of the Bangweulu Swamps of northern Zambia. It is unlikely to survive in its former range on the Chambeshi floodplains along the upper Luapula floodplain that forms the common frontier between Zambia and south-eastern DRC.<br/><br/>Red Lechwe are found in the Okavango Delta, and the Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe system of northern Botswana; the Okavango, Kwando/Linyanti/Chobe, Mashi, and Zambezi River systems of north-east Namibia; and the upper Zambezi and middle Kafue of Zambia.<br/><br/>The extinct Robert’s Lechwe was reportedly restricted to within the Luongo and Kalungwishi drainage systems of the lower Luapula locality of north-east Zambia.<br/><br/>The Upemba Lechwe is restricted to the Upemba wetlands, Kamalondo depression, in the Katanga<br/>Province of south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Cotterill 2005).	eng
11033	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Lechwe are associated with wetlands, preferring the shallow water margins of floodplains and swamps (less than a metre deep), although they may occasionally swim across deep-water areas. They typically frequent light woodlands and termitaria grasslands on the periphery of inundated floodplains, floodplain grasslands and water-meadows among seasonally inundated floodplains, shallow water meadows of permanently inundated swamps and lagoons, and occasionally papyrus and reed beds of permanent deep-water swamps (Jeffery and Nefdt in press). Southern Lechwe are grazers, feeding mainly on floodplain and aquatic grasses. Nefdt (1996) discusses an instance in which Lechwe adapted their reproductive behaviour to changes in ecology including those induced by human activities.	eng
11033	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population estimates based on aerial surveys are available for all of the major surviving Lechwe populations. East (1999), correcting for undercounting biases, produced a total population estimate of 98,000 Red Lechwe (85% in the Okavango Delta), 78,000 Kafue Lechwe and 36,000 Black Lechwe. Overall population trends are stable or increasing for the Black and Kafue Lechwes and for the Red Lechwe in protected areas, but are decreasing for the Red Lechwe outside protected areas (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Kafue Lechwe population has been monitored for many years, and has the most reliable time-series of population records. In the early 1970s, estimates consistently put the population at between 90,000 and 110,000. By the early 1980s the population had been reduced to between 40,000 and 45,000, but has increased thereafter slowly to between 50,000 and 70,000 (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press, and references therein).<br/><br/>Black Lechwe increased from 16,000-17,000 in the late 1960s to about 40,000 in 1980 and subsequently decreased to 30,000, where it seems to have stabilised since the late 1980s (East 1999; Jeffery and Nefdt in press).<br/><br/>The Upemba Lechwe population of DR Congo has declined from about 20,000 to less than 1,000 since the 1980s (Cotterill 2005).<br/><br/>Roberts Lechwe is extinct.	eng
11033	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Lechwes have been eliminated from large parts of their former range by poaching for meat. Poaching is implicated in apparent large-scale changes in the dry season distribution of Black Lechwe, with a dramatic decrease in the numbers occupying the western end of the main Bangweulu Swamps where poaching is intense. In contrast, its numbers appear to be stable or increasing in the central section of the main swamp, and there has been a steady increase in the dry season population on the 100 km² Chimbwi Plain in south-eastern Bangweulu (East 1999). Commercial poaching is also the primary reason for the dramatic decline in numbers of the Upemba Lechwe (Cotterill 2005).<br/><br/>Droughts and disruption of the natural flooding regime are significant causes of population decline. For example, water flow on the Kafue floodplain has been regulated almost entirely by human needs since the construction of hydroelectric dams at the eastern and western ends of the Flats in the 1970s. The Kafue Flats are also used for livestock grazing and the peripheral area is densely settled, particularly in the south. As already noted, the population of Kafue Lechwe decreased from 90,000-100,000 in the early 1970s, before the closure of the dams, to 40,000-50,000 in the early to mid-1980s (East 1999).	eng
11034	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In the Sudan, populations of Nile Lechwe occur in three nominal protected areas: Zeraf, extending over 9,700 km² along the Bahr-el-Zeraf; Fanyikang, over 480 km², north of Bahr-el-Gazal, which separates them from the Zeraf Reserve; and Shambe, over 620 km², along Bahr-el-Gebel. However, Nile Lechwe move in and out of these nominally protected areas and most occur in areas that are shared seasonally with huge herds of cattle. In Ethiopia, they occur in the Gambella N.P., which has yet to be officially gazetted (see Falchetti in press).<br/><br/>Falchetti (1998) outlined priorities for both <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species. The urgent need to address these priorities as opportunity permits is underlined by plans to resuscitate the construction of the Jonglei canal, introduce irrigation and exploit oil reserves in southern Sudan (in the Sudd and in Zeraf; Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007), which could result in a dramatic deterioration of the Nile Lechwe's status (East 1999).<br/><br/>There is an increasing population of Nile Lechwe held in captivity (Falchetti 1998).	eng
11034	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Found only in Sudan and Ethiopia. In Sudan, the bulk of the population is found in the Sudd swamps, with smaller numbers in the Machar marshes near the Ethiopia border. In Ethiopia, the Nile Lechwe occurs marginally in the south-west, in the Gambella National Park, where its survival is probably highly precarious because of expanding human activities (Hillman and Fryxell 1988; East 1999; Falchetti in press).	eng
11034	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Nile Lechwe is confined to seasonally flooded swamps and grasslands within the Sudd and Machar-Gambella wetlands of southern Sudan and south-western Ethiopia. They are almost always in shallow waters on the edge of deeper swamps where the water is between 10 and 40 cm deep (Mefit-Babtie 1983).	eng
11034	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Aerial surveys of the Sudd region conducted in the early and late dry season of the Jonglei area in southern Sudan in 1980 yielded estimated counts of ~12,000 and ~32,000 animals, respectively. Most animals were concentrated mainly within the swamps on the west bank of the Nile (Mefit-Babtie 1983). Probably less than 1,000 animals were present in Machar-Gambella (Hillman and Fryxell 1988). An aerial survey carried out by WCS in the early dry season in southern Sudan in 2007 yielded an estimate of 4,291 animals, and identified the Zeraf Reserve as the most important protected area for this species (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
11034	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The wildlife of the Sudd and Machar-Gambella wetlands of southern Sudan and south-western Ethiopia has been severely affected by civil war, the displacement and resettlement of human populations, proliferation of firearms and increased hunting for meat (Falchetti in press). Nile Lechwe are likely to be very strongly constrained by large numbers of cattle that penetrate deep into the Sudd during the dry season and they are commonly very close to dense herds of cattle during the day, but always in water that is too deep for the latter to graze in (Falchetti in press).	eng
11035	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	More than half the population survives in protected areas, with about 60% of Defassa in protected areas, and more than half of Common in protected areas (plus 13% on private land) (East 1999).<br/><br/>Important populations of the Defassa Waterbuck persist in areas such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d'Ivoire), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Moukalaba (Gabon), Garamba and Virunga (Congo-Kinshasa), the Awash Valley and Omo-Mago-Murule (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls and Queen Elizabeth National Parks (Uganda), Serengeti, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Ugalla River and Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania) and Kafue (Zambia), but about half of these populations are in decline because of poaching (East 1999).<br/><br/>Important populations of the Common Waterbuck occur in areas such as Tsavo, Laikipia, Kajiado, Lake Nakuru and the coastal rangelands (Kenya), Tarangire and Selous-Mikumi (Tanzania), the Luangwa Valley (Zambia), and Kruger, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and private land (South Africa) (East 1999).	eng
11035	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Waterbuck formerly occurred throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been eliminated widely within its former range, but survives in many protected areas and in some other areas which are sparsely populated by humans. <br/><br/>The Defassa Waterbuck is found west of the western Rift Valley and south of the Sahel from Eritrea in the east to Guinea Bissau in the west; its most northerly point of distribution is in southern Mali. A population still exists in Niokola-Koba in Senegal. Defassa also range east of the Congo Basin forest, spreading west below the basin’s southern limit through Zambia into Angola. Another arm extends north, west of the Congo Basin to the Zaïre R. in Congo Republic. Defassa are extinct in Gambia (though vagrants may enter from Senegal) (Spinage in press).<br/><br/>East of the eastern Rift Valley, the Defassa is replaced by the Common Waterbuck, which extends southwards to about the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi N.P. in KwaZulu-Natal, and to central Namibia. Common Waterbuck are extinct in Ethiopia (though Defassa remain) (Spinage in press).	eng
11035	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits savanna woodlands and forest-savanna moasics near permanent water (East 1999). Defassa generally are limited to areas receiving at least 750 mm annual rainfall, whereas Common persist in drier regimes (Spinage in press). They have been recorded to at least 2,100 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Waterbuck are able to exploit a range of habitats to which its congeners are specifically adapted, albeit only to a varying degree, being not as aquatic as the Lechwe, nor as independent of water as the Kob (Spinage in press). Waterbuck are classified as grazers, but also browse.	eng
11035	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that population densities can reach high levels within localized areas of favourable habitat, e.g., >10.0/km² in Lake Nakuru National Park. More typical density estimates obtained by aerial surveys of areas where the species is reasonably common are of the order 0.05-0.15/km². Higher densities of 0.2-0.9/km² have been recorded in aerial surveys of a few areas. Ground sun/eys have provided density estimates of the order 0.4-1.5/km² in areas where the species is common. <br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 200,000. This includes approximately 95,000 Defassa Waterbuck and 105,000 Common. Overall population trend is decreasing for both subspecies.	eng
11035	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Waterbuck have been eliminated widely within their former range mainly due to hunting, due to their sedentary nature and fondness for cultivation (Spinage in press). Even though they remain well represented in protected areas, several populations have undergone steep declines (especially those of the Defassa Waterbuck), including those in Queen Elizabeth N. P., Murschison Falls N.P., Akagera N.P., Lake Nakuru N.P., and Comoe N.P. (Spinage in press; and references therein).	eng
11036	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	While the kob is highly susceptible to hunting, loss of habitat and disruption of the natural flooding regime, it has the ability to recover its numbers rapidly from very low levels with effective protection. For example in Cameroon, the population of Waza National Park decreased from 25,000 in 1962 to 2,000 in 1988-94. This resulted from a general drying out of its habitat caused by droughts and disruption of the natural flooding regime from 1979 by the construction of the Maga dam on the Logone floodplain, which formed Lake Maga. Additional mortality of the Waza population was caused by poaching and the 1982-83 rinderpest outbreak. Since 1994, the Netherlands-funded IUCN/CML Waza-Logone project has investigated rehabilitation of the floodplain by release of excess water from Lake Maga and the Logone River. By 1997, the Kob population was increasing in response to the reflooding activities of this project. While large-scale rehabilitation of the Waza-Logone floodplain is contemplated, this may not be possible unless increasing security problems and a degenerating social climate in the region are overcome (Scholte <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>Protected areas important for the survival of Buffon’s Kob, include: Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Côte d’Ivoire), Arly-Singou (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), Waza and Benoué and Faro National Parks of the North Province (Cameroon), Zakouma  (Chad), and Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris and Sangba (Central African Republic) (East 1999; Fischer in press).<br/><br/>Less than 1% of the total population of White-eared Kob occurs in protected areas, such as the Boma and Badingilo National Parks in south-east Sudan (East 1999). Recent surveys in south-eastern Sudan suggest that, despite the civil war, the white-eared kob populations still survive in good numbers. Further surveys are urgently required to clarify the white-eared kob’s current status and investigate possible conservation actions.<br/><br/>The Uganda kob survives in good numbers in Garamba and Virunga National Parks (DR Congo), and Murchison Falls-Aswa Lolim, Queen Elizabeth and Tore-Semliki (Uganda) (East 1999). The status of this subspecies is likely to improve as the rehabilitation of other areas of Uganda proceeds in the next few years, e.g., Aswa-Lolim and Toro-Semliki, although political disturbances in DR Congo may adversely affect the important populations of Garamba and Virunga National Parks.<br/><br/>A few Uganda Kob are held in captivity (East 1999).	eng
11036	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Kob have a patchy distribution ranging from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau to Uganda, southern Sudan, and south-east Ethiopia. The ranges of the three subspecies are as follows (following East 1999 and Fischer in press):<br/><br/><em>K. k. kob</em> (Buffon’s or Western Kob) has the widest distribution range, from Senegal to Central African Republic and DR Congo. They are now extinct in the Gambia and Sierra Leone and most likely in southern Mauritania.<br/><br/><em>K. k. thomasi</em> (Uganda Kob) occurs in north-east DR Congo, south-west Sudan and widely throughout Uganda. They once ranged into south-west Kenya, and lakeside areas of north-west Tanzania, but are now extinct there.<br/><br/><em>K. k. leucotis</em> (White-eared Kob) have the most restricted range of the three subspecies, occcurring in Sudan, south-west Ethiopia and extreme north-east Uganda.	eng
11036	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Typical habitat includes riverine grasslands and floodplains of major rivers; grasslands; seasonal floodplains and grasslands near water within savanna woodlands (East 1999). Kobs are almost exclusively grazers, and confined to regions that have year-round access to water (Fischer in press). Social organization in the Kob is dependent on density and includes two discrete mating systems, changing from a lek system at high densities (>14 animals/km²) to a resource-defence system at lower densities (Fischer in press; and references therein).	eng
11036	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated numbers of Buffon's Kob at 95,000 and generally declining (with the exception of a few protected areas). For example, Kob numbers in the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire declined by more than 80% within 20 years (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). Estimated total numbers of this subspecies exceeded 225,000 in the late 1980s (East 1999).<br/><br/>Similarly, the population of the White-eared Kob has been estimated at more than 100,000 (East 1999). An aerial survey of part of Southern Sudan carried out by WCS in 2007 produced a population estimate of >753,0000 (Fay <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Numbers of Uganda Kob within parks and reserves may be more stable, with an estimated total population size of 100,000 (East 1999). <br/><br/>Today, Kob live in many isolated populations, most of which are smaller than 1,000 animals. In the late 1990s only two regions in West Africa contained populations of more than 10,000 individuals (in Senegal and Cameroon), while only the Uganda population of <em>K. k. thomasi</em> contained more than 10,000 animals (East 1999).<br/><br/>Kobs can reach high densities when well protected in areas of favourable habitat, ranging from 15-40 animals/km² (Fischer in press; and references therein); however, in areas of heavy hunting pressure, densities decline to less than 1/km² (Fischer 1998). The highest densities of Kob (1,000/km²) have been reported around drinking sites in the dry season (Fryxell 1987).	eng
11036	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The sedentary nature of Kobs and their tendency to occur in relatively large concentrations make them highly susceptible to hunting. Buffon's Kob, in particular, has been eliminated from large parts of its former range by poaching for meat and now survives mainly in and around protected areas. Poaching has caused large-scale declines of key populations in areas such as Comoe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and northern and eastern Central African Republic during the 1990s (East 1999; Fischer in press). <br/><br/>Loss of habitat to the expansion of settlements, agricultural development and livestock is another major cause of population reduction. For example, the Uganda Kob formerly occurred in south-western Kenya and north-western Tanzania in grasslands alongside Lake Victoria, but was exterminated by the spread of settlement and agricultural development.<br/><br/>Droughts, disruption of the natural flooding regime (e.g. the construction of the Maga dam on the Logone floodplain, Cameroon), and outbreaks of rinderpest have also been cited as significant causes of population decline (East 1999; Fischer in press).	eng
11037	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated that about one-third of the population survives in protected areas. Besides Kilombero Valley, key areas for the survival of Puku include: Katavi-Rukwa (Tanzania), Kafue, the Luangwa Valley and Nsumbu-Tondwa-Mweru Wantipa (Zambia), and the smaller populations in Kasungu N.P. (Malawi) and Chobe N.P. in Botswana (East 1999). Jenkins (in press) discusses priority actions to conserve Puku across their range.	eng
11037	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Puku formerly occurred widely in grasslands near permanent water within the savanna woodlands and floodplains of south-central Africa. It has been eliminated from large parts of its former range and reduced to fragmented, isolated populations, but some of these are still numerous. Large numbers now occur in only two countries, Tanzania and Zambia (East 1999). Populations of Puku still occur in northeast Botswana on the Chobe River floodplain (Dipotso and Skarpe 2006), and they occur as vagrants in the middle Zambezi valley of Zimbabwe and the eastern Caprivi of Namibia.	eng
11037	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Puku are obligate grazers, occupying grasslands near permanent water within the savanna woodlands and floodplains of south-central Africa. Although associated with wet areas and swamp vegetation, Puku avoid deep standing water, and in that sense are ecologically distinct from Lechwe (Jenkins in press). The high population growth rate of Puku has been suggested to explain the rapid recovery of some populations following cessation of unsustainable poaching levels (Goldspink <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
11037	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population size at 130,000. A recent aerial survey of the Kilombero Valley, Africa's largest Puku population, employed two complimentary methods to assess the population size of Puku. When surveyed using the same methods as used on previous counts, the population was estimated as 23,301± 5,602 SE, a notable decrease from the previous estimates of 55,769 ± 19,428 SE in 1989 and 66,964 ± 12,629 in 1998. However, a more intensive survey was also undertaken (using 2.5 km transect spacing as opposed to 10 km) specifically to count the Puku and this resulted in a population estimate of 42,352 ± 5,927 SE (see Jenkins in press, and references therein). The small population in the Selous G.R. has been extirpated.<br/><br/>The population of Puku on the floodplains along the Chobe River was believed to be in decline since the last census in 1965-1967; however, the population has shown a strong increase in numbers compared with the 1960s, although the concentration of the population has shifted eastwards (Dipotso and Skarpe 2006).	eng
11037	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Habitat fragmentation caused by expanding human settlements and cultivation is a major threat to Puku populations. The social/breeding system is particularly vulnerable to disruption by habitat fragmentation and hunting with the longer term impact of a collapse of population recruitment (Jenkins in press). In the Kilombero Valley, Jenkins <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that the major threat to Puku came from the expansion of cattle herds onto the floodplain boundary and damage to wet season habitat by farmers who cleared miombo woodland.<br/><br/>Puku are relatively easy to approach during the dry season, when densely aggregated on floodplains, and are consequently very vulnerable to illegal hunting. Unsustainable hunting and especially heavy poaching appear to have extirpated Puku across their range (East 1999).	eng
11047	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of threats on this species.	eng
11047	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species seldom occurs in European waters and thus there are no specific conservation measures at the regional level.	eng
11047	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Pygmy sperm whales are known from deep waters (outer continental shelf and beyond) in tropical to warm temperate zones of all oceans (McAlpine 2002).  They appear to be especially common over and near the continental slope, although they also occur in very deep oceanic regions.  This species appears to prefer somewhat more temperate waters than does the dwarf sperm whale.  The range of <em>Kogia breviceps</em> is poorly known, though a lack of records of live animals may be more due to inconspicuous behaviour rather than rarity. Most information stems from strandings (especially females with calves), which may give an inaccurate picture of the actual distribution at sea (Culik 2004). There are very few records of this species from European waters (Reid <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
11047	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Pygmy sperm whales are known from deep waters (outer continental shelf and beyond) in tropical to warm temperate zones of all oceans (McAlpine 2002). This species appears to prefer somewhat more temperate waters than does the dwarf sperm whale. The range of <em>Kogia breviceps</em> is poorly known, though a lack of records of live animals may be more due to inconspicuous behaviour rather than rarity. Most information stems from strandings (especially females with calves), which may give an inaccurate picture of the actual distribution at sea (Culik 2004).	eng
11047	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	<em>Kogia breviceps</em> has records from nearly all temperate, subtropical, and tropical seas. It is rarely seen at sea; it tends to live a long distance from shore and has inconspicuous habits. According to Caldwell and Caldwell (1989) <em>K. breviceps</em> lives in oceanic waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf while <em>K. sima</em> lives over or near the edge of the shelf. However, this separation of both species was not apparent in the study of Mullin <em>et al.</em> (1994) who, by aerial observation, found both species over water depths of 400-600m in the north-central Gulf of Mexico.	eng
11047	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	<em>Kogia breviceps</em> is rarely seen at sea; it tends to live a long distance from shore and has inconspicuous habits. According to Caldwell and Caldwell (1989) <em>K. breviceps</em> lives in oceanic waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf while <em>K. sima</em> lives over or near the edge of the shelf. However, this separation was not apparent in the study by Mullin <em>et al</em>. (1994) who, by aerial observation, found both species over water depths of 400-600 m in the north-central Gulf of Mexico. These waters of the upper continental slope were also characterized by high zooplankton biomass (Baumgartner <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Studies of feeding habits, based on stomach contents of stranded animals, suggest that this species feeds in deep water, primarily on cephalopods and, less often, on deep-sea fishes and shrimps (dos Santos and Haimovici 2001; McAlpine <em>et al</em>. 1997). In South Africa, they take at least 67 different prey species and appear to feed in deeper waters than do dwarf sperm whales (Ross 1979).	eng
11047	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no estimates of global abundance. Abundance of this and similar whales is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). The frequency with which they strand in some areas (such as Florida and South Africa) suggests that they may not always be as uncommon as sightings would suggest. Recent genetic studies suggest the there is some gene flow between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans (S. J. Chivers pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Delineations between stocks are often difficult to determine, therefore assessments should be considered ongoing processes. In the case of the pygmy sperm whale, concern that sightings may be confused with the cogener <em>K. sima</em> (the dwarf sperm whale) further complicates the estimation of abundance. There are estimated to be about 247 (CV = 106%) off California, Oregon, and Washington (Barlow 2003); 7,251 (CV=77%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006); 742 of both species of Kogia (CV=29%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin <em>et al</em>. 2004); and 395 of both species (CV=40/75%) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11047	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are no estimates of global abundance for pygmy sperm whales. The frequency with which they strand in some areas (such as Florida and South Africa) suggests that they may not always be as uncommon as sightings would suggest. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).	eng
11047	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Although they have never been taken in large numbers and have never been hunted commercially, small numbers have been taken in coastal whaling operations off Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Lesser Antilles, and Sri Lanka (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Perez <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported occasional bycatch in fisheries in the northeast Atlantic (mostly gillnet and purse seine operations). Noise pollution may also be a problem.	eng
11047	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although they have never been taken in large numbers and have never been hunted commercially, small numbers of the species have been taken in coastal whaling operations off Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Lesser Antilles, and Sri Lanka (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A few have been killed in gillnet fisheries of Sri Lanka, Taiwan and California, and it is likely they are killed in gillnets elsewhere as well (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Barlow <em>et al</em>. 1997). Perez <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported on occasional bycatch in fisheries in the northeast Atlantic (mostly gillnet and purse seine operations). However, although it is taken in small numbers both directly and incidentally in fisheries, Baird <em>et al</em>. (1996) found no serious threats to its status.<br/><br/>A young male pygmy sperm whale stranded alive on Galveston Island, Texas, USA and died in a holding tank 11 days later. During necropsy, the first two stomach compartments (forestomach and fundic chamber) were found to be completely occluded by various plastic bags (Laist <em>et al</em>. 1999). Such ingestion of plastics, with associated gut-blockage, appears to be a common issue in this species.<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In 2005, a large series of unusual stranding events over about 3 weeks in and around Taiwan included several Kogia (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008) with at least 2 pygmy sperm whales (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is unknown if military, seismic or other loud noise-producing human activities resulted in these strandings.<br/><br/>There are high levels of unexplained strandings in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect pygmy sperm whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11048	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of threats on this species.	eng
11048	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species seldom occurs in European waters and thus there are no specific conservation measures at the regional level.	eng
11048	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The dwarf sperm whale, like the pygmy sperm whale, is known mostly from strandings (Nagorsen 1985, Caldwell and Caldwell 1989, McAlpine 2002). It is generally not a commonly-seen species at sea, although this may have more to do with its cryptic appearance than actual rarity.  It appears to be distributed widely in tropical to warm temperate zones, apparently largely offshore. Their distribution shows somewhat more of a preference for warmer waters than does that of the pygmy sperm whale, and this species probably does not range as far into high-latitude waters.  There is no evidence of migrations.  A single record exists for the Mediterranean, and this is considered extralimital.	eng
11048	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species appears to be distributed widely in offshore waters of tropical and warm temperate zones, apparently preferring warmer waters, and perhaps more offshore waters (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989). A single record exists for the Mediterranean; this is considered extralimital. The species occurs in the Sea of Japan and in the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>Its distribution shows somewhat more of a preference for warmer waters than does that of the pygmy sperm whale; this species probably does not range as far into high-latitude waters. <br/><br/>There are two problems in trying to establish ranges for <em>Kogia</em> spp.. First, members of this genus are only rarely identified at sea (and then usually not to species), and second, it is only recently that the two species have been clearly recognized as separate. As a consequence, most reliable records of either species are based on stranded individuals or occasionally on those taken in small fisheries for small cetaceans (Nagorsen 1985; Caldwell and Caldwell 1989; McAlpine 2002).	eng
11048	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Dwarf sperm whales appear to feed primarily on deep-water cephalopods, but also take other prey types (dos Santos and Haimovici 2001). About 38 different prey species are known from South African waters (Ross 1979).	eng
11048	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There is very little known of the ecology of this species (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989, McAlpine 2002).  Much of what is known comes from records of strandings. Group sizes tend to be small, most often less than about six individuals (although groups of up to 10 have been recorded). Dwarf sperm whales appear to feed primarily on deep-water cephalopods, but also take other prey types (see dos Santos and Haimovici 2001).	eng
11048	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No estimates of global abundance exist.	eng
11048	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No estimates of global abundance exist. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999). Delineations between stocks are often difficult to determine, therefore assessments should be considered ongoing processes. In the case of the dwarf sperm whale, concern that sightings may be confused with or for the congener <em>K. breviceps</em> (the pygmy sperm whale) further complicates interpretation of past estimates of abundance.<br/><br/>There are estimated to be about 19,172 (CV=66%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006); 742 of both species of <em>Kogia</em> (CV=29%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2003); 395 of both species (CV=40/75%) in the western North Atlantic (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006); and about 11,200 (CV=29%) in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). Using corrections for missed animals, Ferguson and Barlow (2001) re-estimated the abundance as approximately 150,000 of both species in the eastern tropical Pacific. There is evidence of site fidelity for individuals off the island of Hawaii (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2006), suggesting that within-basin population structure may exist.	eng
11048	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although never hunted commercially, these animals were sometimes harpooned by 19th-century whalers. Dwarf sperm whales were taken in a small harpoon fishery for pilot whales at St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles, in Japan, and occasionally in an aboriginal fishery on Lamalera Island in Indonesia, and have also been reported from fish markets in Sri Lanka (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). This species is also taken occasionally by harpoon off Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A few dwarf sperm whales are known to have died incidentally in fisheries throughout their range. When taken in commercial fisheries the numbers are so few that it is considered a rare bycatch. Zerbini and Kotas (1998) reported some bycatch in the Brazilian driftnet fishery.<br/><br/>Both <em>Kogia</em> species have been reported with plastic bags in their stomachs that may have prevented digestion of food and ultimately brought death. Perhaps the textural or visual quality of the plastic was similar to that of squid and thus enticed the whales to devour it (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989).<br/><br/>In general, there are not known to be any serious human impacts, and subpopulations are probably relatively less affected by human activities than are those of most other cetaceans (Caldwell and Caldwell 1989).<br/><br/>While impacts of high levels of anthropogenic sound have been well documented only for beaked whales (Simmonds and Lopez-Jurado 1991; Frantzis 1998; Balcomb and Claridge 2001; US Dept of Commerce and US Navy 2001; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2005), there are examples for a number of other species of odontocetes of potential impacts. While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, strong avoidance reactions, embayments or mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for short-finned pilot whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006), melon-headed whales (Southall <em>et al</em>. 2006), Atlantic spotted dolphin (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), dwarf sperm whales (Hohn <em>et al</em>. 2006), and Dall’s porpoise (Balcomb pers. comm.). It should be recognized that high levels of anthropogenic sound have the potential to impact all deep diving odontocete species.<br/><br/>In 2005, a large series of unusual stranding events over about 3 weeks in and around Taiwan included at least 13 dwarf sperm whales, many of which were live strandings (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is unknown if high-intensity anthropogenic sounds resulted in these strandings. However, “bubble-like lesions” were reported in some individuals by Yang <em>et al</em>. (2008). There are high levels of unexplained strandings in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida that warrant concern (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect dwarf sperm whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11048	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Primary threats that could cause widespread declines include vulnerability to high-level anthropogenic sound sources, especially military sonar and seismic surveys, and bycatch. Hunting is localized and has not had a high impact on the status of the species globally.	eng
11050	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Musser, G., 2008	Rintja and Padar are included in Komodo National Park. Renewed trapping efforts are needed to determine whether this species occurs on Flores. Recent surveys failed to find the species, but these were conducted only in forest habitats not in drier habitat.	eng
11050	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is known only from the islands of Rintja, Padar, Lomblen and Pantar in the Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It probably occurs on other islands in the Lesser Sunda chain (e.g. Komodo) (Musser and Carleton 2005; K. Aplin pers. comm.). It is represented only by subfossil material from Flores, recovered from sediments 4000-3000 years old (Musser 1981).	eng
11050	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species have been trapped on the rocky ground under tall thickets and beneath the gallery forest along water courses; the rocks and crevices among the rocks, might provide refuges for the rats (B. Boeadi pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It seems to be in dry, thorny scrub habitats (B. Boeadi pers. comm.), not a habitat well-represented on Flores itself.<br/><br/>Sub-fossil record may be from past environmental conditions when appropriate habitat was more widespread. It is quite tolerant of humans, and found around garden areas.	eng
11050	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is believed to be relatively abundant as the type series was relatively large.	eng
11050	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Musser, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is possible that competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em> may be a threat. The habitat on these islands is relatively degraded, yet they seem adaptable and are still trapped.	eng
11054	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
11054	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
11054	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Trewavas <em>et al.</em> (1972) noted that <em>Konia dikume</em> spends much of its time at depths of 20 m or more. When brought to the surface, freshly caught specimens are covered with a thin film of bright red blood, gills are deep red with gas bubbles enmeshed in the filaments, and swollen capillaries fill the gill cover with blood. <em>Konia dikume</em> mainly feeds on mosquito larvae; possesses elevated levels of haemoglobin in its blood as an adaptation to reduced oxygen levels at great water depth (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
11054	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
11054	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
11055	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
11055	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
11055	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Konia eisentrauti</em> It feeds on algae, small insects and fish eggs (Lamboj 2004). It is also a kleptoparasite of freshwater crabs (Dominey and Snyder 1988). This species is a ovophilic mouth-brooder with both sexes as possible incubator (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
11055	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
11055	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
11061	conservation	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2008	The species occurs in at least two protected areas (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
11061	distribution	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species occurs from west central Brazil (Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sol, and Rodonia States) to northeast Bolivia (Santa Cruz and Beni Departments).	eng
11061	habitat	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2008	The species is a habitat specialist occurring in wet grasslands. The species is adapted for burrowing and it spends most of the day in underground tunnels, except during the wet season when it moves above ground (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It feeds on roots and grasses (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
11061	population	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species is not common and is patchily distributed (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
11061	threats	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2008	The major threat is habitat destruction of the grasslands due to agriculture and livestock (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
11062	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	The unique living population known it is inside a protected area.	eng
11062	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in isolated localities in northeastern Argentina, and east-central Brazil; range poorly documented (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Brazil, one of the records is a fosil (Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais) so its current occurrence is there is not verified. The last recent records were found in 1993 in Planantina, Aguas Enmendadas National Park  (Marinho-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
11062	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in marshlands (Pires-Avila 1972).	eng
11062	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is known from three historical specimens. There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species, but is considered as very rare.	eng
11062	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	Unknown.	eng
11070	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Surveys to confirm the suspected extinction of <em>L. fisheri</em> (Wikramanayake, 1990) are recommended.	eng
11070	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found only in the mid to upper reaches of the Mahaveli River basin, Sri Lanka, with an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 4,385 km².	eng
11070	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. fisheri</em> is a benthopelagic species that only inhabits deep, fast-flowing sections of the river.  It has not been recorded from unshaded, silty or turbid waters.  It moves fast through the water, staying close to the bottom.  Juveniles have been observed picking algae off submerged rocks.  It occurs sympatrically with (and possibly mistaken for) <em>Puntius</em> sp. 'martenstyn' throughout its known range.	eng
11070	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been reported that <em>L. fisheri</em> may already be extinct, as a result of habitat loss following the Mahaveli River Development Project (Wikramanayake 1990), see Major Threats.	eng
11070	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are a number of threats to the habitat of <em>L. fisheri</em>.  The Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, initiated in 1979, included developing the Mahaweli River to provide irrigation facilities for dry zone agriculture and generate hydro-electric power, by constructing four new dams  (Asian Development Bank 2006).&#160; In addition, the rainforests of Sri Lanka are rapidly being depleted by agriculture, mining, logging and urbanization.  Between 1956 and 1980, total forest cover had been reduced from 44 to 25 percent.  One result of this deforestation is stream degradation due to increased erosion, siltation, extreme flow fluctuations and decreased shade cover (Wikramanayake 1990).	eng
11071	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The healthiest and most secure population is mostly within the Oorlogskloof Nature Reserve. Remaining populations are on privately owned land. The species is listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance, preventing capture of the species. The most important rivers for this species have been identified as priority freshwater environments for fish conservation (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). A State of River report has been written to the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in 2006 for the Olifants-Doring River system within which is a dedicated section on freshwater fish management issues.	eng
11071	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Olifants River system (Skelton 2001). It seems to have gone extinct in the Upper Olifants branch of this system, but still occurs in mainstream areas of the Doring River.	eng
11071	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	It favours deeper pools (2 to 5 m) of the mainstreams and larger tributaries. The biology of this species is poorly studied. It co-exists with <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> and <em>Barbus serra</em> in the larger rivers. It is a bottom feeder, feeding on algae, detritus and small invertebrates and it spawns in spring and summer (Skelton 2001).	eng
11071	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	This species is reasonably common only in the Oorlogskloof-Kobee River, representing about 5% of original distribution range. Small numbers of adult fish also occur in the Doring and Groot rivers, but recruitment is absent due to the presence of alien predatory fishes.	eng
11071	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The major threats are invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> have had a major effect on recruitment, and instream dams prevent adults from reaching spawning grounds.	eng
11074	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
11074	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
11074	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
11074	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
11074	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
11075	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
11075	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
11075	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
11075	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
11075	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
11076	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
11076	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
11076	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
11076	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 11% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 76% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
11076	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
11077	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
11077	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
11077	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
11077	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
11077	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
11113	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas. There has been an EU-Life project for this species in Portugal.	eng
11113	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is largely restricted to the northwestern and central mountain systems of Spain, and northern and western Portugal, with a number of isolated populations in the mountains and coastal areas of southern Portugal and Spain. It can be found from close to sea level to 2,100 m asl (Central Mountain System).	eng
11113	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species lives in humid, bushy areas of shrubland, woodland edges, open woodland (deciduous, mixed and pine), along river and stream sides, overgrown sites and close to fences in pastureland. It is especially tightly linked to streams in the southern part of its distribution. On average the females lay clutches of 11 to 18 eggs.	eng
11113	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be common in optimal habitat, but some fragmented populations are very rare, and overall it appears to be in significant decline. The southern population isolates in both Spain and Portugal are all very rare, and the one on Sierra Morena in Spain is possibly extinct.	eng
11113	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is sensitive to habitat alteration. Populations in the south of Spain are threatened by habitat loss, largely through deforestation, forest fires and alteration of streamside habitats.	eng
11117	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This rare species is included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984) - category 3. It has been recorded from a protected area in Turkey, but it is not known if it is found within a protected area in Georgia. Further research is needed into the natural history, range and threats to this species. Habitat maintenance is needed in areas of overgrazing.	eng
11117	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is known from the Black Sea coastal region of Turkey (eastwards from Giresun Province to Hopa in Artvin Province) and Georgia (Adzharia), and is also present in Armenia (Baran and Atatur, 1998).  The main distribution range of the species occupies the northern spurs of the East-Pontic mountains in the north-east of Turkey. A small isolated part of the distribution is within the western slopes of the mountain Mtirala in the vicinity of the town of Batumi in southwestern Ajaria (Georgia). It ranges from 1500 to 2200m asl.	eng
11117	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Animals are found in damp and bushy areas close to streams, generally with large stones and rocks (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It can be encountered in mountains meadows with rocky outcrops, pine and talus slopes.	eng
11117	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This is a naturally very rare species.	eng
11117	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (cattle and sheep).	eng
11120	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this species have been recorded from the Caucasus and Teberda Reserves. Additional studies are needed into the impact of climate change on this species, with trends in population numbers regularly monitored.	eng
11120	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to a narrow belt of subalpine meadows in the Great Caucasus Range of Georgia and Russia. Populations have been recorded from Mount Elbrus and the Baksan River in the east to the Fisht and Osten mountains in the west. Further to the west it is widely distributed in the upper reaches of the Kuban', Teberda, Zelenchuk, Belaya, Laba rivers and other waterbodies flowing to the north. Populations have also been recorded from the southern slopes of the Caucasus, in the upper reaches of the Bzyb' River and its tributaries in Abkchazia and in the upper reaches of the Mzymta River from the slopes of Mount Aibga. It has been recorded between 1,650 and 2,800m asl.	eng
11120	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species inhabits the subalpine and alpine belt, where it prefers open areas of alpine meadows with rocks or piles of stones. The number of eggs in the clutch varies from two to six, averaging four or five.	eng
11120	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is generally rare. Populations are predominantly found on southern slopes, with north facing populations becoming increasingly rare as they are considered to be susceptible to climate change. The species is most abundant between 1,800 and 2,200m asl where the most suitable habitat is available.	eng
11120	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by general habitat loss within its narrow elevational range. In addition to modification of areas by people for tourism and other activities, the habitat of this species appears to be impacted by climate change. Longer, warmer summers are reducing the survival rate for eggs, and increasingly colder winters are reducing the number of young animals surviving hibernation. A continuing cycle of hot summers and cold winters can lead to a sharp reduction in the number of animals.	eng
11130	conservation	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) have established regulations for removal of <em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> for both commercial and recreational purposes. These include a maximum landing size of 30.5 cm, gear restrictions, and a daily bag allowance of five hogfish per day for recreational fishers. There are a number of no-take zones in the Caribbean and total fishing is restricted to just over 300,000 ha of the wider Caribbean.&#160;<br/><br/>Ault <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggest restricting recreational fishing in particular areas by limiting the use of SCUBA gear with spear fishing and/or limiting the amount of time during a year that spear fishing may be undertaken. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed to ensure that any future population declines are noted.<br/><br/>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was much lower (half or less) in the fished zone when compared to a lightly-fished or protected zone. CPUE of hogfish decreased with increasing distance from the reserve, which suggests that spillover from the protected area can enhance the local fishery yields outside its boundaries. This indicates increasing the area covered by protected zones would benefit this species (Tupper and Rudd 2002).	eng
11130	distribution	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is present in the Caribbean and north to Bermuda and the Carolinas and extends southwards to the northern region of the Brazilian Coast. <br/><br/>This species is present in the following countries: Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Aruba; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Bermuda; Canada; Cayman Islands; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; Dominican Republic; French Guiana; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guyana; Haiti; Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Mexico; Montserrat; Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao); Nicaragua; Panama; Puerto Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks and Caicos Islands; United States; Venezuela; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S., NE Brazil (Floeter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
11130	habitat	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is found on coral reefs at 3-40 m depth, especially sandy outer reef slopes. Juveniles are most common in shallow seagrass, and inshore reef habitats.<br/><br/>It is a monadric protogynous hermaphrodite (McBride and Johnson 2007) with a very slow rate of sex change (several months that occurs post spawning). It has an extended spawning season from January to May. In Florida, females attain sexual maturity at two years 26.0 cm (FL), sexual transition at three to five years but recorded in individuals up to 13 years. Reproductive aggregations have been observed in Los Roques (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). &#160;<br/><br/>There is considerable variation in growth and age structure over the geographic range of this species. The most detailed account (McBride and Richardson 2007) compared growth and age structure of populations from the eastern Gulf of Mexico and southern Florida (Easten Gulf of Mexico - max. age 23 years; max. size 82.4 cm (FL); <span class="bodytext">von Bertalanffy Growth Function Linf 91.7 cm;&#160; k .014; mortality rate 0.35, and South Florida -&#160; max. age 13 years; Max size 62.2 cm (FL); <span class="bodytext">von Bertalanffy Growth Function Linf 42.8 cm;&#160; k .045 mortality rate 0.4).<br/><br/>A broader survey of&#160; four Atlantic locations revealed the following: (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) Margarita (Venuezula) -&#160; max. age five years, max. size 35.3 cm; Los Roques (Ven) - max. age10 years, max. size 68.7 cm; Belize - max. age seven years max. size 55.4 cm; Bermuda - max. age 16 years, max. size 84.4 cm. In addition, mortality rates estimates from catch curves from Margarita and Belize (0.8, 0.7) both heavily fished, were double those from Los Roques and Bermuda where only light fishing occurs. <br/><br/>All populations examined for age distribution in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, South Florida, (McBride and Richardson 2007)&#160; Belize, Los Roques, Bermuda, Margarita (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) revealed that distribution was strongly skewed to the younger age classes varying from one to four years. Abundance estimates by Underwater Visual Census in Belize and Los Roques (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008) revealed low densities (0.81-0.95 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>). No counts of aggregations were made.	eng
11130	population	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	In the past <span style="font-style: italic;">Lachnolaimus maximus</span> had moderate abundance over shallow west Atlantic coral reefs, but is now depleted in many areas due to fishing. Large populations are maintained at only a few sites including Los Roques (Venezuela), Bermuda and at some sites in the Florida Keys (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Overall the population has declined over most of its range. <br/><br/>Ault <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) report high harvesting rates for Florida with declining returns of 272 metric t in 1987 to 154 metric t in 1993 and averaging 93 metric t from 1998-2001. This represents a decline of approximately 60% over a period of 14 years. The declines are still continuing (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Considering together all catch and census data on the species from throughout its geographic range, it is clear that declines of at least 30% must have occurred within the last few generations (Y. Sadovy pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is another of the large hypsigenyine labrids that reaches a large size but has very low population densities. At Los Roques aggregations of approximately 50 large individuals were found on shallow sandy slopes (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
11130	threats	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is harvested as a food source although is of minor commercial importance and is mainly caught using hook and line. It is marketed as the 'Hog Snapper'. This species has been implicated in ciguatera (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1986). The 2005 total landings of <em>L. maximus</em> were 13% lower than the average landings over the previous five years (2000-2004) and were 42% lower than the historic average landings (1982-2005) (FWRI 2006). The latest stock assessment (SEDAR and SAFMC 2004) indicated that the hogfish fishery was severely overfished and has been for the last two decades in Florida waters (FWRI 2006). This has impacted upon the growth and recruitment of this species.<br/><br/>Coral reefs of the Caribbean had been heavily damaged by disease, coastal development, coral bleaching, and over-fishing. It is predicted that reefs away from population centres will remain healthy in the future, unless the adverse predictions for global climate change, of more tropical storms and bleaching occur (Andrews <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Lachnolaimus maximus</em> is also a common species within the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on this species has increased since the 1970s (Bohnsack <em>et al</em>. 1994) it is possible the size at maturity could decrease over time (McBride 2001). This species is currently in decline around Puerto Rico (Ojeda-Serrano <em>et al</em>. 2007). The estimated number of hogfish landed between 1980 and 1992 in the Monroe County area fell from 180,917 to 21,813 (Bohnsack <em>et al</em>. 1994). These figures fluctuated in this time period but demonstrated an overall decline.<br/><br/>Tupper and Rudd (2002) found that fishing pressure and depth had a marked influence on hogfish length, density and biomass, with these attributes being significantly higher on deeper reefs. In fished areas the length, density and biomass of hogfish were all significantly lower when compared to a nearby protected area. Catch per unit effort (CPUE) was much lower (half or less) in the fished zone when compared to lightly-fished or protected zones.<br/>Although there is evidence of exploitation across this species' range the reasons behind them are understood and reversible (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009). Also, overfishing does not seem to have had an impact on recruitment (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).	eng
11133	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and is protected by a Presidential Decree No 67/1981 of the Greek State. It has been the focus of a European Union Life Project.	eng
11133	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to streams on Rhodes Island.	eng
11133	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Inhabits most of the island's freshwater systems, including streams, springs, reservoirs, and pools.	eng
11133	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population is generally stable but fluctuates in the short-term, depending on levels of rainfall.	eng
11133	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and summertime drought.	eng
11135	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and potential threats to this poorly known species.	eng
11135	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known species is known from two localities in Angola (including the type locality of Tyihumbwe [Chiumbe], 15 km west of Dala) and a single locality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Mumeme, East of Likasi, Shaba Province). Hill and Carter (1941) suggest that the species may occur throughout eastern Angola, but more sampling is needed here.	eng
11135	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This appears to be a moist savanna species. Further details are needed about the species natural history.	eng
11135	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The populations abundance is not well known, however, 25 specimens were collected at one locality.	eng
11135	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
11136	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, it is possible that given the species wide range, that it is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and possible threats to this species.	eng
11136	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known from several apparently disjunct locations in Southern and East Africa. It has been recorded from Huila in Angola; northeastern Namibia and adjacent Botswana; central and southern Zimbabwe and adjacent northeastern South Africa; northern Zambia and extreme southern Democratic Republic of the Congo; Malawi (and possibly adjacent Mozambique); and from a single locality in southern Tanzania.	eng
11136	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	Animals have been recorded from dry and moist savanna, and heathland habitats. It is often found in the vicinity of rivers. This species is prefers habitats at higher elevations (Happold and Happold 1997). It is reported to occur under the bark of trees, usually in pairs (Ansell 1960; Ansell and Dowsett 1988).	eng
11136	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known. It seems to be rarely collected, and may be naturally rare.	eng
11136	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
11137	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	Much of the range of this species is protected within the Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia. Further studies are needed into the distribution and general natural history of this species.	eng
11137	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from a few localities in Namibia (Kuiseb River, Gobabeb, Zwartmodder, Klein Aus and Helmeringshausen), and a single area in South Africa (Algeria in the Cedarberg Mountains of the Western Cape) (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005).	eng
11137	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	In general, this species has been recorded from temperate desert and dry savanna, with individuals most often found in close proximity to water. A specimen has been taken from a roost under exfoliating rock (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005).	eng
11137	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	Although the species appears to be naturally rare in the Namib desert, it is rather commonly captured in mist-nets set around water tanks outside of the Namib.	eng
11137	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
11138	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It has been recorded from the Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and may be present in additional protected areas. Additional studies into the population abundance and distribution are needed.	eng
11138	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from Ethiopia in the north of its range, south through parts of Kenya (including Nyeri, Mount Kenya) and Tanzania (Mazumbai Forest Reserve, West Usambara Mountains [Kock and Howell 1988]; Kebebe Farms, Iringa district [Stanley and Kock 2007]), southern Zambia, Lesotho (including Sehlabathebe National Park), and South Africa (the Clarens district in the eastern Free State; from the Game Valley Estates [Hella Hella] near Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal [Skinner and Chimimba 2005]).	eng
11138	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	Inhabits dry savanna, mediterranean like shrubby vegetation, and high altitude grassland. The specimen from Game Valley Estates (Hella Hella) was recorded in valley bushveld (Taylor, 1998).	eng
11138	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	This seems to be an uncommon species, possibly having large population fluctuations. Multiple animals have been caught at most localities surveyed in South Africa, however, in East Africa it is known from many localities, but as one or two animals only (Schlitter pers. comm.).	eng
11138	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
11140	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species in the European region.	eng
11140	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>The Southeast Asian subpopulations are listed in Appendix II of CMS. Subpopulation structure and the impact of direct and incidental takes require further investigation.	eng
11140	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The exact distribution of this species is poorly known.  Fraser's dolphin has a pantropical distribution, largely between 30°N and 30°S in all three major oceans (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994, Dolar 2002).  Strandings in temperate areas may represent extralimital forays connected with temporary oceanographic anomalies such as the world-wide El Niño phenomenon in 1983-84, during which a mass stranding occurred in France (Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1994). Bones <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported on a stranding on the coast of Scotland.	eng
11140	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The exact distribution of this species is poorly known. Fraser's dolphin has a pantropical distribution, largely between 30°N and 30°S in all three major oceans (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994; Dolar 2002). Strandings in temperate areas (Victoria in Australia, Brittany and Uruguay) may represent extralimital forays connected with temporary oceanographic anomalies such as the world-wide El Niño phenomenon in 1983-84, during which a mass stranding occurred in France (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Bones <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported on a stranding on the coast of Scotland.	eng
11140	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	It is an oceanic species that prefers deep offshore waters, but it can be seen near shore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1994). Fraser's dolphins feed on midwater fish (especially myctophids), squid, and crustaceans (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Physiological studies indicate that Fraser’s are capable of quite deep diving (and it is thought that they do most of their feeding deep in the water column in waters up to 600 m deep), but they have been observed to feed near the surface as well (Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
11140	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	It is an oceanic species that prefers deep offshore waters, but it can be seen near shore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (such as the Philippines, Taiwan, and some islands of the Caribbean and the Indo-Malay archipelago) (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>In the eastern tropical Pacific, it occurs more often in Equatorial - southern subtropical surface water and other waters typified by upwelling and generally more variable conditions (Au and Perryman 1985). Off South Africa, records are associated with the warm Agulhas Current that moves south in the summer (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Fraser's dolphins feed on midwater fish (especially myctophids), squid, and crustaceans (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2003). Physiological studies indicate that Fraser’s are capable of quite deep diving (and it is thought that they do most of their feeding deep in the water column – in waters up to 600 m deep), but they have been observed to feed near the surface as well (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
11140	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are estimated to be about 289,300 (CV=34%) Fraser’s dolphins in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994), and 16,836 (CV=11%) in Hawaiian waters (Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated a total abundance of 13,518 (CV=27%) Fraser’s dolphins. About 726 (CV=70%) were estimated present in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11140	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species does not appear to be particularly abundant anywhere (with the possible exception of some areas in the Philippines).	eng
11140	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Small numbers of Fraser's dolphins are taken regularly or opportunistically by harpoon in the Lesser Antilles, Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Kahn 2004), the Philippines, Taiwan and probably elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994). A few have been taken in drive fisheries in Taiwan and Japan (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) investigated directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Some of the hunters take only dolphins, for bait or human consumption and the species taken include Fraser's dolphins. Around 800 cetaceans are taken annually by hunters at the seven sites, mostly during the inter-monsoonal period of February-May. <br/><br/>Some Fraser’s dolphins are killed incidentally in the tuna purse-seine fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific (Gerrodette and Wade 1991): 26 were estimated taken during the period 1971 - 75. A few are also taken in gill nets in Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and likely in other tropical gillnet fisheries as well. Some are killed by anti-shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Cockcroft 1990). Other incidental catches in purse seines (Philippines), gillnets, driftnets (Taiwan), and trap nets (Japan) are also known (Jefferson and Leatherwood 1994).	eng
11140	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species very seldom occurs in European waters, and there are no known major threats in the region.	eng
11141	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries (Morizur <em>et al.</em> 1999, NMFS Stock Assessment Report: Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico). The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.	eng
11141	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries (Morizur <em>et al.</em> 1999; Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.	eng
11141	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found in cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from about 38°N (south of Cape Cod) in the west and the Brittany coast of France in the east, north to southern Greenland, Iceland, and southern Svalbard (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cipriano 2002). The range includes the U.K. and the northern coasts of Scandinavia, although they rarely enter the Baltic Sea. They also sometimes move quite far up the Saint Lawrence River of eastern Canada, and they have been seen as far south as Strait of Gibraltar (Hashmi and Adloff 1991, 1992).	eng
11141	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found in cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from about 38°N (south of Cape Cod) in the west and the Brittany coast of France in the east, north to southern Greenland, Iceland, and southern Svalbard (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999, Cipriano 2002). The range includes the U.K. and the northern coasts of Scandinavia, although they rarely enter the Baltic Sea. They also sometimes move quite far up the Saint Lawrence River of eastern Canada, and they have been seen as far south as Strait of Gibraltar (Hashmi and Adloff 1991, 1992).	eng
11141	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Atlantic white-sided dolphins are found primarily in waters of the continental shelf and slope, but they also occur in oceanic waters across the North Atlantic. Along the continental slope of North America, they seem to associate with high sea-bed relief along the continental shelf (Palka <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/>Calves are born over an extended period around the summer season, with apparent peaks in June and July.  These dolphins often associate and feed with large baleen whales (fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with pilot whales and a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and white-beaked dolphins). Atlantic white-sided dolphins feed mostly on small schooling fish (such as herring, mackerel, cod, smelt, hake, and sandlance), shrimp, and squid.	eng
11141	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The Atlantic white-sided dolphin is found primarily in waters of the continental shelf and slope, but it also occurs in oceanic waters across the North Atlantic. Along the continental slope of North America, it seems to associate with high sea-bed relief along the continental shelf (Palka <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/>These dolphins often associate and feed with large baleen whales (fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with pilot whales and a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and white-beaked dolphins). Atlantic white-sided dolphins feed mostly on small schooling fish (such as herring, mackerel, cod, smelt, hake, and sandlance), shrimp, and squid.	eng
11141	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This species is quite abundant throughout its range. There are an estimated 51,640 (CV=38%) Atlantic white-sided dolphins off the eastern North American shoreline (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006) and about 96,000 (CV=54%) off the west coast of Scotland (MacLeod 2004). The number of Atlantic white-sided dolphins in the western North Atlantic, from the southern Gulf of Maine and north-eastward on the continental shelf and slope to Cabot Strait was about 27,000 in July - September 1995 (Palka <em>et al</em>. 1997) and was at least 11,740 (CV = 47%) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Kingsley and Reeves, 1998). There is currently little evidence for separate subpopulations (Mikkelsen and Lund 1994).	eng
11141	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is quite abundant throughout its range.There are an estimated 51,640 (CV=38%) Atlantic white-sided dolphins off the eastern North American shoreline (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006), and about 96,000 (CV=54%) off the west coast of Scotland (MacLeod 2004). There is currently little evidence for separate subpopulations (Mikkelsen and Lund 1994).	eng
11141	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Some hunting for this species occurred in the past, especially in Norway. Some dolphins are still taken in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and eastern Canada (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). Recent catches in Faroe Islands were 333 and 310 in 2004 and 2005, respectively (NAMMCO 2005). No assessment is associated with the Faroese hunting of white-sided dolphins, but there is no evidence that this aspect of the drive fishery has a long history, such as that of the pilot whale component (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental mortality in fishing gear has been documented off Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Gaskin (1992) judged Atlantic white-sided dolphins to be less vulnerable to capture in pelagic near-surface drift nets and fixed groundfish gill nets than are many other small cetaceans. They may, however, be especially susceptible to capture in midwater trawl nets (Addink <em>et al</em>. 1997). Substantial numbers have been bycaught in pelagic trawl fisheries for horse mackerel and mackerel south-west of Ireland (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Morizur <em>et al</em>. (1999) investigated marine mammal bycatch in 11 pelagic trawl fisheries operated by four different countries in the Northeast Atlantic. One of the main marine mammal species identified in bycatches was <span style="font-style: italic;">L. acutus</span>. Mean dolphin catch rate for all fisheries combined was 0.048+0.013 per tow (one dolphin per 20.7 tows), or 0.0185+0.0019 per hour of towing (one dolphin per 98 h of towing). All dolphin by-catches occurred during the night. White-sided dolphins were observed feeding around the net during towing; this behaviour may make them more vulnerable to capture. Operational difficulties in observing bycatch and potentially significant annual fluctuation in catch rates warrant further observer studies of these and other trawl fisheries. Substantial numbers have been by-caught in trawl fisheries south-west of Ireland (Couperus 1997a, b), and takes have also been recorded in gill-net and trawl fisheries along the US Atlantic coast (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.	eng
11141	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Some hunting for this species occurred in the past, especially in Norway. Some dolphins are still taken in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and eastern Canada (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). Recent catches in Faroe Islands were 333 and 310 in 2004 and 2005, respectively (NAMMCO Annual Report 2005). <br/><br/>Incidental mortality in fishing gear has been documented off Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Gaskin (1992) judged Atlantic white-sided dolphins to be less vulnerable to capture in pelagic near-surface drift nets and fixed groundfish gill nets than are many other small cetaceans. They may, however, be especially susceptible to capture in midwater trawl nets (Addink <em>et al.</em> 1997). Substantial numbers have been bycaught in pelagic trawl fisheries for horse mackerel and mackerel south-west of Ireland (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors	eng
11142	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Although known to occur, bycatch rates seem to be poorly documented and warrant more intensive research. The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.	eng
11142	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Existing direct takes are currently not regulated by any hunting quotas. Although known to occur, bycatch rates seem to be poorly documented and warrant more intensive research. The impact of combined anthropogenic removals should be assessed.	eng
11142	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This is the most northerly member of the genus <em>Lagenorhynchus</em>, and it has a wide distribution (Kinze 2002). White-beaked dolphins inhabit cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from Cape Cod and France, north to central Davis Strait, southern Greenland, Svalbard, and east to Novaya Zemlya. The range includes Iceland, Faroe Islands, the U.K., and most Scandinavian waters (but apparently does not include the Baltic Sea, although there are a few extralimital records there).	eng
11142	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is the most northerly member of the genus <em>Lagenorhynchus</em>, and it has a wide distribution (Kinze 2002).  White-beaked dolphins inhabit cold temperate to subpolar waters of the North Atlantic, from Cape Cod and Portugal, north to central Davis Strait, southern Greenland, Svalbard, and east to Novaya Zemlya.  The range includes Iceland, Faroe Islands, the U.K., and most Scandinavian waters (but apparently does not include the Baltic Sea, although there are a few extralimital records there).	eng
11142	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	White-beaked dolphins inhabit continental shelf and offshore waters of the cold temperate to subpolar zones, although there is evidence suggesting that their primary habitat is in waters less than 200 m deep. The species is found widely over the continental shelf, but especially along the shelf edge. A change in habitat use has been documented in U.S. waters, where white-beaked dolphins were observed primarily on the continental shelf prior to the 1970s, but mainly occurred over slope waters during the 1970s.  This shift was associated with changes in finfish abundance and a shift in the distribution of Atlantic white-sided dolphins, <em>L. acutus</em> (Katona <em>et al.</em> 1993, Kenney <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>The ecology of white-beaked dolphins has received little detailed study (Kinze 2002).  Calving peaks in summer to early autumn (May to September), but not much else is known about reproduction in this species (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). White-beaked dolphins feed on variety of small pelagic schooling fishes, but also demersal species (such as cod, haddock, poorcod, bib, hake, and whiting), squid, and crustaceans (for review, see Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999). They sometimes associate, while feeding, with large whales (such as fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and Atlantic white-sided dolphins) (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
11142	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	White-beaked dolphins inhabit continental shelf and offshore waters of the cold temperate to subpolar zones, although there is evidence suggesting that their primary habitat is in waters less than 200 m deep. The species is found widely over the continental shelf, but especially along the shelf edge. A change in habitat use has been documented in U.S. waters, where white-beaked dolphins were observed primarily on the continental shelf prior to the 1970s, but mainly occurred over slope waters during the 1970s. This shift was associated with changes in finfish abundance and a shift in the distribution of Atlantic white-sided dolphins, <em>L. acutus</em> (Katona <em>et al</em>. 1993; Kenney <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>The ecology of white-beaked dolphins has received little detailed study (Kinze 2002). They feed on variety of small pelagic schooling fishes but also demersal species (such as cod, haddock, poorcod, bib, hake, and whiting), squid, and crustaceans (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999). They sometimes associate, while feeding, with large whales (such as fin and humpback whales), and are known to form mixed groups with a number of other dolphin species (including bottlenose and Atlantic white-sided dolphins) (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
11142	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	<em>Lagenorhynchus albirostris</em> is reasonably abundant. There are few actual estimates of abundance, but there may be a hundred thousand or more throughout their range (Øien 1996, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>At least a few thousand white-beaked dolphins inhabit Icelandic waters and up to 100,000 are found in the northeastern Atlantic including the Barents Sea, the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea north of 56°N (Øien 1996). A survey of the North Sea and adjacent waters in 1994 provided an estimate of 7,856 (CV=0.30) white-beaked dolphins (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002). In 2005 there were an estimated 22,700 (CV=0.42) in the European Atlantic continental shelf waters, including 10,600 (CV=0.29) in the same area surveyed in 1994 (P. Hammond pers. comm. 2007). Kinze <em>et al.</em> (1997) maintained that the white-beaked dolphin is much more common in the North and Baltic Seas than its relative, the Atlantic white-sided dolphin and Northridge <em>et al.</em> (1997) found that white-beaked dolphins are relatively common in European waters compared with white-sided dolphins, or compared with US waters.	eng
11142	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are few actual estimates of abundance, but there may be a hundred thousand or more throughout their range (Øien 1996, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Published estimates indicate there are at least several thousand white-beaked dolphins in portions of the north-western Atlantic, shoreward of the 200-m contour between St. Anthony, Newfoundland, and Nain, Labrador (Alling and Whitehead 1987) and in coastal and offshore waters east of Newfoundland and south-east of Labrador. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, white-beaked dolphins (2,500 in 1995 and 1996) occurred only in the Strait of Belle Isle and the extreme north-eastern Gulf (Kingsley and Reeves 1998). <br/><br/>At least a few thousand white-beaked dolphins inhabit Icelandic waters and up to 100,000 the northeastern Atlantic including the Barents Sea, the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea north of 56°N (Øien 1996). A survey of the North Sea and adjacent waters in 1994 provided an estimate of 7,856 (CV=0.30) white-beaked dolphins (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002). In 2005 there were an estimated 22,700 (CV=0.42) in the European Atlantic continental shelf waters, including 10,600 (CV=0.29) in the same area surveyed in 1994. Kinze <em>et al</em>. (1997) maintained that the white-beaked dolphin is much more common in the North and Baltic Seas than its relative, the Atlantic white-sided dolphin, and Northridge <em>et al</em>. (1997) found that white-beaked dolphins are relatively common in European waters compared with white-sided dolphins, or compared with US waters. A 2006 survey in an area from the Georges Bank to the upper Bay of Fundy to the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence estimated 2,003 animals (CV=0.94) (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008)	eng
11142	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Although not a target of any large commercial fisheries, there has been a long history of small-scale hunting for white-beaked dolphins in some countries, such as Norway, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Labrador, mostly for food (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); hunting in some areas continues today (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993), e.g. some hunting continues off the south-west coast of Greenland (Kinze 2002) and opportunistically off the coast of Canada (Lien <em>et al.</em> 2001). During the early 1980s an estimated 366 white-beaked dolphins were taken annually by the residents of 12 Labrador harbours (Alling and Whitehead 1987). <br/><br/>White-beaked dolphins are known to be taken in a range of fishing gear throughout the range of the species (Dong <em>et al.</em> 1996, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).  In Norwegian waters where the species is abundant and fishery effort is high, bycatches of white-beaked dolphins are too rare to be detected in fishery operations monitored for marine mammal bycatches (A. Bjørge pers. comm. 2006). In the UK bycatch observer programme, no white-beaked dolphins have been recorded (S. Northridge pers. comm. 2006). Thus, recent bycatch monitoring programmes support the conclusion of Jefferson <em>et al.</em> (1993) that although known to be occurring, incidental catches are not thought to be high enough to represent a serious threat to this species.<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, white-beaked dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.	eng
11142	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Although not a target of any large commercial fisheries, there has been a long history of small-scale hunting for white-beaked dolphins in some countries, such as Norway, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and Labrador, mostly for food (Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999); hunting in some areas continues today (Jefferson <em>et al<em>. 1993), e.g. some hunting continues off the south-west coast of Greenland (Kinze 2002) and opportunistically off the coast of Canada (Lien <em>et al<em>. 2001). During the early 1980s an estimated 366 white-beaked dolphins were taken annually by the residents of 12 Labrador harbours (Alling and Whitehead 1987). <br/><br/>White-beaked dolphins are known to be taken incidentally in a range of fishing gear throughout the range of the species (Dong <em>et al<em>. 1996; Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999). In Norwegian waters where the species is abundant and fishery effort is high, bycatches of white-beaked dolphins are too rare to be detected in fishery operations monitored for marine mammal bycatches (A. Bjørge pers. comm.). In the UK bycatch observer programme, no white-beaked dolphins have been recorded (S. Northridge pers. comm.). Thus, recent bycatch monitoring programmers support the conclusion of Jefferson <em>et al<em>. (1993) that although known to be occurring, incidental catches are not thought to be high enough to represent a serious threat to this species.<br/><br/>Like other North Atlantic marine mammals, white-beaked dolphins are contaminated by organochlorines, other anthropogenic compounds and heavy metals (Reeves <em>et al<em>. 1999); although the effects of pollutants are not well understood in this species, they may affect reproduction or render them susceptible to other mortality factors.</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
11143	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is on Appendix II of CITES. <br/><br/>Recommended actions for conservation include cooperative research on biology and abundance, more comprehensive statistics on the use of Peale’s dolphin as bait and continued development of alternative sources of bait (the availability of legal bait has already diminished considerably the potential impact of crab-fisheries). Critical neritic habitat should be identified and protected for this species.	eng
11143	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Peale's dolphins are apparently confined to South America, from the southern tip to about the latitudes of Santiago, Chile (33°S), and northern Argentina (38°S) (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Goodall 2002). The distribution may extend south well into Drake Passage. They are regularly seen around the Falkland Islands.	eng
11143	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Peale’s Dolphin occupies two major habitats: open, wave-washed coasts over shallow continental shelves to the north; and deep, protected bays and channels to the south and west. In the channels, this is an 'entrance animal', associated with the rocky coasts and riptides at the openings to fjords, where the highest water temperature recorded was 14.7°C. Peale's dolphins show a high degree of association with kelp beds (Macrocystis pyrifera), especially in the channel regions (Viddi and Lescrauwaet 2005). They swim and feed within, inshore and offshore of the kelp forests, using natural channels for movement. Over much of its range Peale's dolphin is sympatric with the dusky dolphin although their usages of habitats are slightly different. These two species are often difficult to differentiate at sea (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997b; de Haro and Iniguez 1997). Throughout the northern part of their range, they inhabit the waters of the wide continental shelf off Argentina and the narrower shelf off Chile. Although Peale's dolphins have been observed in waters at least 300 m deep, they appear to prefer shallower coastal waters (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Very little is known about the biology of this species. Peale’s dolphins associate with other cetacean species, especially Commerson’s dolphins. Calves have been reported from spring through autumn. The few stomachs that have been examined contained mostly demersal fish, octopus, and squid species that occur in shallow waters and in kelp beds. Some shrimps have also been found in stomachs.	eng
11143	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	No information is available about the abundance of <em>L. australis</em>. However, this species is reportedly the most common cetacean found around the coast of the Falkland Islands and some parts of Chile (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). The dolphins in Beagle Channel, the Magallanes, and southern Tierra del Fuego have been harpooned for crab bait since the 1970s. The scale of this killing was great enough to cause reduced abundance by the late 1980s (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994).	eng
11143	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There is considerable concern about numbers of Peale's Dolphins that are hunted with harpoons in the Strait of Magellan and around Tierra del Fuego, where the meat is used as bait in crab traps (Lescrauwaet and Gibbons 1994). Although direct hunting of dolphins has been prohibited in Chile since 1977, crab traps for centolla (southern king crab) <em>Lithodes antarctica</em> and centollon (false king crab) <em>Paralomis granubosa</em>, are still set with dolphin meat. Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. (1977) estimated some 2,350 dolphins, including both <em>L. australis</em> and <em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii</em>, were killed during the 1976/1977 crab-fishing season to bait crab traps used in the Strait of Magellan and the Chilean part of the Beagle Channel; this level of take across a number of years could have had a significant impact on the population. No recent estimates are available on the number of marine mammals killed for bait (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lescrauwaet pers. comm.), but it is thought to be lower than in the past (Goodall 2002). Dolphin takes in the Argentinean sector stopped after the early 1980s (Goodall 2002).<br/><br/>Peale's dolphins are incidentally entangled and drowned in nets (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are reports from Queule and Mehuin (Chile), southern Patagonia, northeastern Tierra del Fuego and southern Santa Cruz (Argentina) that local fishermen may incidentally catch Peale's dolphins (Reyes 1991; Brownell <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the northern part of their Pacific range, however, Peale's dolphins seem to be rarely taken (Goodall 2002). Their close dependence on kelp forests may render them vulnerable to habitat loss (Viddi and Lescrauwaet 2005).	eng
11144	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.	eng
11144	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Hourglass dolphins are distributed in a circumpolar pattern in the higher latitudes of the southern oceans (Goodall 1997; Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1997; Brownell and Donahue 1999). They range to the ice-edges in the south, but the northern limits are not well-known (they are found to at least 45°S, although some occasionally reach 33°S). The most southerly sightings are from near 68°S, in the South Pacific (Goodall 1997; Brownell and Donahue 1999). This is the only small delphinid species regularly found south of the Antarctic Convergence.	eng
11144	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Normally seen far out to sea, <em>L. cruciger</em> has also been observed in fairly shallow water near the Antarctic Peninsula and off southern South America. It occurs within 160 km of the ice edge in some areas in southern part of the range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Most sightings of these dolphins are in an area around the Antarctic Convergence, between South America and Macquarie Island. The species seems to prefer surface water temperatures between 0.6° - 13°C (mean 4.8 °C; Goodall 1997) or even down to -0.3°C (Goodall 2002). <br/><br/>The stomach contents of the five specimens of hourglass dolphins that have been examined contained small fish (including myctophids), squids, and crustaceans. They often feed in aggregations of seabirds and in plankton swarms.	eng
11144	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	In the only abundance estimate for this species, Kasamatsu and Joyce (1995) combined data gathered in sighting surveys conducted from 1976/77 to 1987/88 to produce an abundance estimate of 144,300 (CV =17%) for waters south of the Antarctic convergence.	eng
11144	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
11145	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The most significant international conservation measure for this species was the United Nations (U.N.) moratorium on high-seas driftnet fishing implemented in 1993. In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S drift gillnet fishery has been required since 1996 to use acoustic warning devices (pingers) to reduce cetacean bycatch; however, low levels of bycatch of <em>Lagenorhynchus obliquidens</em> have continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
11145	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Pacific white-sided dolphins inhabit temperate waters of the North Pacific and some adjacent seas (Sea of Japan, southern Okhotsk Sea, the southern Bering Sea and southern Gulf of California) (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999; Van Waerebeek and Würsig 2002). Their range includes continental slope waters of the Western North Pacific as far south as southern China, shelf and slope waters of the eastern North Pacific from the Gulf of Alaska southward to Baja California, Mexico, and deep offshore waters of the North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N latitude (Hobbs and Jones 1993).	eng
11145	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Pacific white-sided dolphins inhabit temperate oceanic waters across the North Pacific, as well as shelf and slope waters of the North Pacific continental margins (see distribution plots in Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in some inland waterways (e.g. British Columbia; Heise 1997). <br/><br/>Pacific white-sided dolphins feed on a wide variety of small pelagic schooling fish (e.g., lanternfish, anchovies, saury, horse mackerel, and hake), as well as cephalopods. They are commonly associated with other marine mammal species, particularly northern right whale dolphins, Risso's dolphins, and California sea lions (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
11145	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Two separate estimates of abundance have been made for waters of the central North Pacific, suggesting that 900,000-1,000,000 Pacific white-sided dolphins may inhabit this oceanic region (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993; Miyashita 1993); however, precision was low for both studies, and vessel attraction probably resulted in a substantial overestimation of population size (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the eastern North Pacific, the distribution of this species has been documented to vary dramatically with oceanographic conditions (Heise 1997, Forney and Barlow 1998), and abundance estimates along the U.S. West Coast have ranged from about 13,000 to 122,000 (Forney <em>et al</em> 1995, Barlow and Forney, in press). The average abundance in this region during 1996-2001 was estimated to be about 24,000 (Barlow and Forney, in press).<br/> <br/>Separate subpopulations have been identified in the southern portions of the species range, off the west coast of North America (Lux <em>et al</em>. 1997) and in Japan (Hayano <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
11145	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Historically, the greatest threats to Pacific white-sided dolphins were the high-seas drift gillnet fisheries for salmon and squid, which operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N (Hobbs and Jones 1993). Effort in these fisheries increased during the 1970s and peaked during the 1980s before an United Nations moratorium went into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for a subset of the total fishing effort. The Japanese squid driftnet fishery killed an estimated 6,100 animals during 1989, and all fisheries combined killed an estimated 5,759 during 1990 (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed on the order of 100,000 Pacific white-sided dolphins. Although there is great uncertainty in the total population size, these bycatch levels may have caused some, but not substantial, population depletion (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Smaller catches (e.g. at least 194 in 1987) are reported from the Japanese land-based salmon drift net fishery, and small numbers are taken yearly in seines, set nets, and trap nets around Japan (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pacific white-sided dolphins have never been primary targets of Japanese drive fisheries, but they were harpooned in Japanese waters during the 1940s, and cull programs killed at least 466 Pacific white-sided dolphins in Japanese waters between 1976 and 1980. The Japanese government is currently (2007) considering a renewed direct harvest of this species (Kasuya pers. comm.). The potential for renewed directed takes in Japanese waters, coupled with evidence for population substructure, particularly at the southern ends of this species' range, may require the re-examination of the threat to this species.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific, a total of 424 Pacific white-sided dolphins were estimated killed in the U.S. West Coast shark and swordfish driftnet fishery between 1988 and 2002 (Perkins <em>et al</em>. 1994; Julian and Beeson 1998, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). Additional low levels of mortality have been documented for bottom-set gillnets in California coastal waters, for drift gill nets in British Columbia and Alaska, and for trawl fisheries in Alaska; however, no overall mortality estimates are available for these fisheries. Pacific white-sided dolphins are rarely taken in the tuna purse seine fishery in the eastern tropical Pacific, because most of the fishing takes place south of the range of these dolphins (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 1999). None of these sources of eastern North Pacific mortality appears of a sufficient magnitude to have caused a population decline in this region.	eng
11146	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Subpopulation definitions and numbers are unknown for New Zealand and other areas, and intensive photo-identification, genetic and survey studies are recommended. <br/><br/>Bycatch in gillnets occurs at an unknown level and needs to be investigated.	eng
11146	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Dusky dolphins are widespread in the southern Hemisphere (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). They occur in apparently disjunct subpopulations in the waters off Tasmania, southern Australia, New Zealand (including the Chatham and Campbell Islands), central and southern South America (including the Falkland Islands), and southwestern Africa. They also occur around some oceanic island groups (e.g., Tristan da Cunha, Prince Edward, Amsterdam, and St. Paul Islands).	eng
11146	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This coastal species is usually found over the continental shelf and slope (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1998). The distribution of dusky dolphins along the west coast of South Africa and both coasts of South America is associated with the continental shelves and cool waters of the Benguela, Humboldt and Falkland Currents. Around New Zealand, these dolphins are associated mainly with various cold water currents (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggested that dusky dolphins may be limited to water shallower than 200 m. Off Argentina, dusky dolphins have been sighted from the coast to almost 200 nautical miles offshore, but the present information does not allow us to conclude whether this species' distribution tends to be more coastal than offshore or vice versa due to the bias in coastal effort (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997). They seem to prefer waters with sea surface temperatures between 10°C and 18°C (Brownell and Cipriano 1999). Inshore/offshore shifts in abundance have been noted for Argentina and New Zealand. They do move over deep waters in some areas (e.g., New Zealand), but always along continental slopes.<br/><br/>Dusky dolphins take a wide variety of prey, including southern anchovy near the surface in shallower waters, as well as midwater and benthic prey, such as squid, hake, and lanternfishes. They may also engage in nocturnal feeding, in association with the deep scattering layer. New Zealand dolphins appear to engage in feeding deeper in the water column than do those from Argentine waters (Cipriano 1992; Würsig <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
11146	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are few abundance estimates available for any significant portion of the range (Brownell and Cipriano, 1999). The total number of dusky dolphins in the one area off the Patagonian cost was estimated to be close to 7,252 individuals (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997), and the number given by Schiavini <em>et al</em>. (1999) for the area between Punta Ninfas and Cabo Blanco, Argentina is 6,628. Some subpopulations are thought to have been seriously depleted by human activities (e.g., those off Peru, Van Waerebeek 1994.).<br/><br/>There is a hiatus in distribution spanning about 1,000 km along the Chilean coast, and the animals off Patagonia are smaller than those off northern Chile and Peru, suggesting that the subpopulations in western and eastern South America are separate. It remains uncertain whether the groups around oceanic islands in the western South Pacific (Campbell, Auckland, and Chatham), South Atlantic (Gough and the Falklands), and Indian Ocean (Amsterdam, Prince Edward, and St. Paul) are discrete or regularly mix with animals in other areas (Brownell and Cipriano 1999).	eng
11146	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Dusky dolphins are known to be taken directly in the multi-species small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile. An expanded directed fishery for dolphins and porpoises may have started in Peru after the demise of the anchoveta fishery in 1972. Although most dusky dolphins are taken in the directed net fishery they are also taken by a harpoon fishery (Brownell and Cipriano, 1999). It has been calculated that the fishing industry from just one port kills more than 700 dusky dolphins each year. <br/><br/>Large catches (approximately 10,000) of small cetaceans were reported from the coastal waters of central Peru in 1985 (Read <em>et al</em>., 1988). In the 1991-1993 period, an estimated 7,000 dusky dolphins were captured per year, a level thought to be unsustainable. Of 722 cetaceans captured mostly in multi-filament gillnets and landed at Cerro Azul, central Peru, in 87 days during January- August 1994, 82.7% were dusky dolphins. The total kill estimate for a seven- month period, stratified by month, was 1,567 cetaceans. Data collected at 16 other ports showed that high levels of dolphin and porpoise mortality persisted in coastal Peru at least until August 1994. It is believed, but not confirmed, that this level of exploitation has diminished since dolphin hunting was banned by law in 1996, due in part to depletion of the regional population (Van Waerebeek and Würsig 2002). The current level of takes is unknown. The absence of abundance data precludes any assessment of impact on subpopulations (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In New Zealand, some dusky dolphins are entangled in gill nets. Incidental mortality at one fishing port was estimated to be 100 to 200 animals per year (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). The highest rates of incidental catches off the Patagonian coast mostly occur in mid-water trawling for shrimp. At present, this fishery is declining in use, but in 1984, it reached a peak and the number of dolphins caught was estimated at between 442-560, decreasing during the following years. Mortality estimates for 1994 reached a minimum value of 36 dolphins per year, mostly females and young adults. Thus, incidental mortality during 1984-86, would have led to a maximum annual mortality close to 8% of the present estimated regional population size. The effect would have been severe, considering that the catches affected mostly females of the highest reproductive value (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Incidental mortality in mid-water trawls off Patagonia in the mid-1980s was estimated at 400–600 dolphins per year, primarily females, declining to 70–215 in the mid-1990s (Dans <em>et al</em>. 1997). Several hundred continue to die each year in various types of fishing gear off Argentina (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2000). The estimated annual incidental kill of dusky dolphins in fishing gear around New Zealand was within the range of 50–150 during the mid-1980s (Würsig <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
11147	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar E. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in many protected areas (at least 21). Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed.	eng
11147	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar E. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs in the central and south Peru, and northern Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It may occur in adjacent parts of Bolivia, surrounding Lake Titicaca, although this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at 300 m at the coast, close to Lima, up to 5,000 m asl.	eng
11147	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar E. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is associated with very rocky areas, and can be found in a wide variety of habitat types wherever suitable rocky sites exist. It chooses shelters in rocky crevices, usually with one entrance. It is an herbivorous species. The gestation period is 140 days, and the usual litter size is one. Lactation takes about eight weeks. In Peru mating takes place from October through November (Kleiman <em>et al.</em>, 1979; Pearson, 1948).	eng
11147	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar E. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
11147	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar E. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is locally hunted for food but populations are generally not declining, and this is not considered to be a major overall threat to the species.	eng
11148	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N.,  Zeballos, H., Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. & Bidau, C., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
11148	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N.,  Zeballos, H., Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. & Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in southern Peru, southern and western Bolivia, northern Chilie and western Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It occurs between 2,500 m asl to 5,100 m asl. The distribution limit of this species in western Bolivia needs to be revised. This species is not present in southern Peru (H. Zeballos pers. comm.).	eng
11148	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N.,  Zeballos, H., Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. & Bidau, C., 2008	Species is a habitat generalist (Cofre and Marquet 1999). Inhabits rocky mountain areas as well as rock outcrops in steppe habitat (Galende and Trejo 2003). This herbivorous species is specialized and restricted to rocky habitats where it colonizes rock crevices. Available habitat is patchy (Walker <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It occurs up to 4,800 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
11148	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N.,  Zeballos, H., Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. & Bidau, C., 2008	Species occurs in low local abundances (Cofre and Marquet 1999). It is a very common species although it has a patchy distribution, populations may fluctuate in relation to extreme seasonal weather.	eng
11148	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N.,  Zeballos, H., Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. & Bidau, C., 2008	It is locally hunted by people for meat and fur although, in general, this does not significantly impact populations  (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006). There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
11149	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Listed as Endangered in Argentina. It occurs in a few protected areas, more or less half of the known distribution is protected in park.	eng
11149	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern Argentina and adjacent Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
11149	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It occurs up to approximately 4,000 m asl. It is found in rocky outcrops in mountainous areas. Very little is known about this species	eng
11149	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Very little is known about this species	eng
11149	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species has been traditionally hunted for food and its fur. This is a continuing threat to the species.	eng
11160	conservation	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	None.	eng
11160	distribution	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	This endemic Australian species is known only from a single skull found in the Lake Mackay area on the Western Australia – Northern Territory border. It has not been recorded since the collection of this specimen in 1932. There are oral history records presumed to be of this species up to the early 1960s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
11160	habitat	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	It inhabited desert sand plains and dunes with spinifex (<em>Triodia</em>) hummock grassland (Burbidge <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
11160	population	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
11160	threats	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	Important factors in the decline of hare-wallabies are predation by introduced cats and foxes, and possibly changed fire regimes (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
11161	conservation	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The populations that are in the decline, such as in the Pilbara and those in central Queensland, require close monitoring to ensure that they do not decline in the future at a major rate.<br/><br/>There is no existing management program for the Spectacled Hare-wallaby in the Northern Territory (Langford and Pavey 2002). Management priorities for this region and others include: increase protection of vegetation types poorly represented in the reserve system (e.g., Lancewood/Bullwaddy thickets of Northern Territory, <em>Eucalyptus</em> woodland of northern and central Northern Territory and central Queensland); enter into protective agreements with landowners having populations of <em>L. c. leichardti</em> on their properties; determine locations, size and factors threatening populations, particularly in Western Australia and Queensland; more detailed ecological studies of the species e.g., habitat requirements, home range, dispersal patterns, social organisation, reproductive physiology, natural cycles in population size; determine response to different fire regimes and to different land management practices (e.g., grazing, clearing, burning, dingo baiting) in order to establish appropriate management techniques and conservation options, especially on pastoral land; assess current population densities and viability in different parts of the range; study effects of introduced predators (particularly cats and foxes) on population size and distribution; detailed study of population genetics required to clarify taxonomic status of various populations and extent of genetic variation within populations. This species has also been recorded from Kakadu National Park, and probably occurs in Katherine Gorge National Park (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> is present within the Barrow Island Nature Reserve, where it appears to be secure (Burbidge and Johnson 2008).	eng
11161	distribution	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is found mainly in Australia, where it is occurs as two distinct subspecies: <em>Lagorchestes conspicillatus conspicillatus</em> and <em>L. c. leichardti</em>. The species has been recorded on New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) (Hitchcock 1997), but little is known about its presence there.<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> is restricted to Barrow Island, Western Australia. It is extinct from Hermite and Trimouille Islands, of the Montebello Islands (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. c. leichardti</em> formerly occupied almost half of the Australian continent, and was found as far south as the MacDonnell Ranges (Northern Territory, 24°S) and Rockhampton (Queensland) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Its distribution is now extremely patchy. In Western Australia it is now rare and reduced to a few isolated populations in the Pilbara and Kimberley regions (very rare in the latter) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Northern Territory it still occurs sparsely in the Tanami bioregion; near Newcastle Waters it is found in Acacia woodland, whereas near Borroloola in the Gulf Coastal bioregion it occurs in savanna woodland (Langford and Pavey 2002). It has disappeared from the southern-most parts of its range, now rarely occurring south of 21°S – a range contraction of more than 200 km. <em>L. c. leichardti</em> is common in suitable habitat between 16<sup>o</sup>-18<sup>o</sup> S (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Queensland it is widespread, recorded from Weipa on Cape York west to Dajarra and south to Rolleston near Rockhampton. Its extent of occurrence has not altered markedly in Queensland, although there is strong evidence of a marked decline in abundance in the south-eastern parts of its range (i.e, the central highlands area), and area of occupancy may have declined 20-30% due to broadscale clearing and development (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
11161	habitat	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	<em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> occurs throughout Barrow Island and shelters in large <em>Triodia</em> hummocks (Burbidge and Johnson 2008; A. Burbidge pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. c. leichardti</em> occupies a wide variety of habitat types including: open forests, open woodland, tall shrublands, tussock grasslands and hummock grasslands. In the central part of its range in Northern Territory, it particularly favours <em>Acacia shirleyi</em>/<em>Macropteranthes kekwickii</em> thickets (Lancewood/Bullwaddy) with an open understorey. In the drier southern parts of its range it commonly occupies spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) sandplains interspersed with low shrubs and a diversity of either soft grasses, sedges, or forb species. In the northern part of its range in Northern Territory and in Queensland it occupies open woodlands or open forests (generally <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp., <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em>, <em>Terminalia canescens</em> or <em>Lysiphyllum cunninghamii</em>), with a tussock grass understorey. Predominant grass species in central and northern Queensland include <em>Themeda triandra</em>, <em>Bothriocloa ewartiana</em> and <em>Heteropogon contortus</em>. This species frequently feeds in areas regenerating after fire (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>It is generally a solitary species, but up to three may be seen feeding together. Breeding occurs throughout the year. Young leave the pouch at about five months, and females become reproductively active at twelve months (Langford and Pavey 2002).	eng
11161	population	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is patchily distributed, but common in some parts of its range (uncommon elsewhere). It is rare in the Pilbara and Kimberly regions of Western Australia.	eng
11161	threats	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The reasons for decline of <em>L. c. leichardti</em> are probably many and varied in different parts of the range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There is little direct evidence to determine the exact factors, but these probably include introduced predators (foxes in southern parts of the range and possibly cats), and competitors, the pastoral industry (particularly sheep in the Pilbara and cattle in the central southern Kimberley and Queensland) and changes in fire regimes (central Australia). In central Queensland, intensive land use coupled with the effects of the long drought conditions have led to a decrease in the number of shelter sites (tussock grasses reduced in structure) and thereby increasing the probability of predation by dingoes (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Here, too, the species seems to be stable where stocking rates are conservative: property sizes in the area are large enough to have flexible stocking rates and allow for paddock spelling. Fire is also used as a management tool – summer mosaic burns of which the stock and wallabies take advantage. Properties in the area have been managed in a constant manner for the last 60 years (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). In the Northern Territory, spectacled hare-wallaby populations seem secure in the belt of Lancewood/Bullwaddy woodland extending between 16<sup>o</sup> and 18<sup>o</sup> S. However, clearing of woodland for grazing, uncontrolled burning and logging of <em>Acacia shirleyi</em> forests are considered threatening processes for the species in this region (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. c. conspicillatus</em> on Barrow Island has a limited range and is potentially threatened by the introduction of predators (e.g., feral cats).	eng
11162	conservation	Richards, J., Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Rufous Hare-wallaby is listed both country-wide and in the Northern Territory.<br/>Australia: Endangered (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999).<br/>Northern Territory: Extinct in the Wild. (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000).  <br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.  <br/><br/>There have been a couple of Recovery Plans for this species (Lundie-Jenkins 1995; Langford 1999), as well as an update (Richards 2005). Specific objectives for the recovery of the species within the 2005-2010 period come directly from Richards (2005), and include:<br/><br/>1. Protect the wild Bernier and Dorre Island populations and their habitat;<br/>2. Maintain captive breeding populations;<br/>3. Maintain the introduced Trimouille Island population;<br/>4. Reintroduce to mainland and island sites;<br/>5. Conduct a population viability analysis of wild and reintroduced populations;<br/>6. Research taxonomic status and genetic structure;<br/>7. Enhance community participation and education; and<br/>8. Secure ongoing funding for the implementation of the Recovery Plan.<br/><br/>The primary success of these will depend, in part, on preventing introduced predators from disrupting reintroduced populations and the prevention of large fires in areas where this species is present because they have the potential to destroy whole populations (Richards 2005).	eng
11162	distribution	Richards, J., Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Rufous Hare-wallaby was formerly found throughout spinifex deserts of central Northern Territory and Western Australia and north-western parts of South Australia. There are four recognised taxa:<br/><br/><em>Lagorchetes hirsutus hirsutus</em> formerly occurred only in the south-west of Western Australia. It is extinct. <br/><br/><em>L. h. bernieri </em> is restricted to Bernier Island, Western Australia. <br/><br/><em>L. h. dorreae</em> is restricted to Dorre Island, Western Australia. Whether there are separate subspecies on Bernier and Dorre Islands is a moot point; Western Australian scientists do not recognise two subspecies for the purposes of listing, <em>bernier</em> is considered to have priority (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). <br/><br/>An unnamed subspecies of <em>L. hirsutus</em> from the Tanami Desert on the Australian mainland is now limited to captive colonies and as experimental reintroduction/translocation programs (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This undescribed subspecies was once widespread in central Australian deserts. Captive colonies of this subspecies exist in Dryandra Conservation Reserve (south-east of Perth) and at Shark Bay. There is also a colony on Trimouille Island (520 hectares), Western Australia as a consequence of a translocation from the Tanami Desert to that site in 1998; the subspecies now ranges throughout the island (Langford and Burbidge 2001; Johnson and Burbidge 2008).	eng
11162	habitat	Richards, J., Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The mainland habitat was mainly in spinifex (<em>Triodia</em> spp.) hummock grasslands of the central deserts (Northern Territory, Western Australia, and South Australia). Tanami Desert colonies formerly associated with saline palaeo-drainage system, sand dunes, and tight fire patterns. Large areas of spinifex desert appear suitable provided that exotic predators and rabbits are at low densities or controlled and fire is properly managed (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>The species typically carries a single young, usually two per year, with a pouch life of approximately four months (J. Richards pers. comm.). The species can survive up to five years in captivity (Langford and Burbidge 2001).	eng
11162	population	Richards, J., Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no recent population estimates for Dorre and Bernier Islands. There were estimated to collectively hold 4,300 - 6,700 animals prior to 1994 (Richards 2005). Populations on these islands fluctuate with environmental conditions (Johnson and Burbidge 2008).<br/><br/>The translocated population on Trimouille Island began as 30 individuals in 1998, and were last estimated to number more than 120 (although this estimate was made not from trap data, but from tracks and droppings) (Richards 2005).	eng
11162	threats	Richards, J., Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species declined on the mainland through habitat alteration due to rabbits, grazing and frequent and extensive wildfire. Predation by cats and foxes has acted to drive remnant populations to extinction. Island populations have a limited distribution and are threatened by the potential introduction of predators.	eng
11163	conservation	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.	eng
11163	distribution	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This species was endemic to south-eastern Australia. The last specimen was collected in 1890 (Strahan 2008).	eng
11163	habitat	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This little-known species appears to have inhabited open grassland plains (Strahan 2008).	eng
11163	population	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
11163	threats	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	It has been suggested that an important factor in the decline of hare-wallabies has been the alteration of grassland habitat through trampling and grazing by sheep and cattle. The removal of aboriginal Australians from large areas by European settlers may also have contributed to loss of hare-wallabies by resulting in the removal of regular winter burning regimes and increasing the likelihood of devastating lightening-caused fires in summer months.	eng
11170	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The are no conservation measures in place and it seems that none are needed at present.	eng
11170	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in northern, central and eastern Argentina, southern and western Paraguay, and southeastern Bolivia (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
11170	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is native to the pampas and adjoining semiarid Monte and Chaquenean regions of Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Te species is tolerant to some degree of habitat modification.	eng
11170	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Due to extensive hunting and pest control measures, concern has been expressed about this species (Weir 1974). However, it seems that although some populations have been eliminated, other ones have expanded into areas recently cleared for grazing.	eng
11170	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	In Argentina this species was classified as a national plague in 1905 and was eradicated from many areas (Godoy, 1963). It is also hunted commercially for meat and fur, as a result it has disappeared from most prime grasslands and agricultural areas in Argentina (Jackson 1996).	eng
11171	conservation	Richards, J., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier and Dorre Islands are both protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Regular monitoring of populations is needed (annually or biannually). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations; use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). Some of these, like the reintroduction to Arid Recovery, should be established "in different regions where climatic fluctuations may be out of synchrony" (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
11171	distribution	Richards, J., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it was formerly present on the mainland from south-western parts of the country to the lower Murray River region. It is now restricted to the offshore Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Prince and Richards 2008). A small population was recently reintroduced to Faure Island (Prince and Richards 2008).	eng
11171	habitat	Richards, J., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	It is found in areas of dense scrub and bushes, beneath which it forms runs and shelters (Prince and Richards 2008). <br/>Females generally give birth annually to a single young (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2001). Males and females can reach sexual maturity within their first year, but typically not until the second year (Prince and Richards 2008). In the wild, Banded Hare Wallabies can live at least six years (Prince and Richards 2008).	eng
11171	population	Richards, J., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	There are no recent population estimates for this species. Surveys in 1988/89 indicated a total population of about 7,700 animals, equally divided between the two islands (Short and Turner 1992), and 9,700 in 1991/92 (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is a reasonably long lived species. The population fluctuates with rainfall. Two recent translocation attempts to the mainland failed due to cat predation and drought (Prince and Richards 2008). A small population was recently reintroduced to Faure Island, and it is showing signs of success (Prince and Richards 2008).	eng
11171	threats	Richards, J., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	The current major threats to the populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). With weather events becoming ever more unpredictable and all locations for the species being located in Shark Bay, these fluctuations are a cause for concern. The species presumably was extirpated from mainland Australia by a combination of habitat loss and predation by introduced feral cats.	eng
11175	conservation	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P., Stevenson, P., Di Fiore, A. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Present in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Juami-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu National Natural Park (293,000 ha) (INDERENA, 1989; Defler 2004)<br/>La Paya National Natural (442,000 ha) (Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al</em>. 1999; Defler 2004 )<br/>Cahuinarí National Natural Park (575,500 ha) (Defler 2004)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete National Natural Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range) <br/>Nukak National Natural Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
11175	distribution	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P., Stevenson, P., Di Fiore, A. & de la Torre, S., 2008	In Colombia, <em>Lagothrix lagotricha</em> is known throughout the Amazon lowlands north-east to the Río Uva, a left bank affluent of the Río Guaviare in Vichada (Defler 2004). It extends east to the Río Orinoco and it may occur in Venezuela to the south of the Orinoco between the Ríos Orinoco and Cassiquiare (Linares 1998). Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) reported that <em>Lagothrix</em> had never been collected in Venezuela, but that it should be found in the Territorio Federal Amazonas to the south of the Ventuari. It extends part way up the Rio Negro in Brazil – to the north at least as far the Ro Carauari. It does not occur in the eastern part of the Negro-Solimões interfluvium, but the exact boundaries of its occurrence there are not known. In Ecuador and Peru, it occurs north of the Rio Amazonas – Napo (<em>L. poeppigii</em> occurs to the south) (Tirira 2007). In Ecuador, the altitudinal range is 200 m to 1,400 m above sea level (Tirira 2007).	eng
11175	habitat	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P., Stevenson, P., Di Fiore, A. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Occurs in lowland primary <em>terra firma</em> forest, and occasionally also in secondary and disturbed/fragmented habitats. The enter flooded forests at certain times of the year to feed on fruits.<br/><br/>Izawa (1975, 1976) and Nishimura and Izawa (1975) studied this species on the Río Peneya, a tributary of the Río Caquetá, Colombia. Nishimura and Izawa (1975) observed a group from 42-43 individuals (11 adult males, 15 adult females, 11 or 12 juveniles, and 6 dependant infants) at Puerto Japó, Río Peneya, using home ranges greater than 400 ha. At another site (Puerto Tokio) they saw six groups which they believed ranged in size from 25-70 animals. They estimated a home range of 1,100 ha for the Puerto Japón group. Defler (1989, 1995, 1996, 1999; Defler and Defler 1996) studied a group on the Río Apaporis, Colombia. It ranged over 760 ha, largely (90%) overlapping with three neighbouring groups. Nishimura (1990b) studied the ranging and social behavior of two groups at Puerto Tokio. Group A had 45 individuals and ranged over 450 ha, ands group B had 13 individuals and used a home range of 350 ha over about 10 months of his observations. Other studies of woolly monkeys have shown that their diet consists mainly of fruits, but includes also young leaves, petioles, and flowers (Ramirez 1988).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 9.0 kg (8.0-10.0 kg, n=3); adult female weight mean 5.75 kg (5.0-6.5 kg, n=6) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
11175	population	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P., Stevenson, P., Di Fiore, A. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Common, but naturally at low densities. Nishimura and Izawa (1975) estimated a density of 5.5 individuals/km² on the Río Peneya, Colomibia. Defler (1989) recorded the same density on the Rio Apaporis.	eng
11175	threats	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P., Stevenson, P., Di Fiore, A. & de la Torre, S., 2008	Relatively wide-ranging, susceptible to hunting, but still occurs in a number of very remote regions. There is also some habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (including illegal crops).	eng
11179	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	It is an abundant species throughout most of the distribution area, but is listed as Critically Endangered in Ukraine where it partly inhabits protected areas.	eng
11179	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I., Batsaikhan, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It is an abundant species throughout most of the distribution area, but is listed as Critically Endangered in Ukraine where it partly inhabits protected areas. Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
11179	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Distributed in plain and mountain steppes and semi-deserts in Eurasia from Dnepr River to Tuva and to Tien Shan in the south. Occurs from sea level to 2,800 m.	eng
11179	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I., Batsaikhan, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	<em>Lagurus lagurus </em>are recorded in Ukraine, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, China and Mongolia, mainly distributed in plain and mountain steppes and semi-deserts from Dnepr River to Tuva and to Tien Shan in the south. Occurs from sea level to 2,800 m. Regional distribution: Dzungarian Govi Desert, Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Trans Altai Govi Desert and Uvs Lake Depression in northern Great Lakes Depression (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).	eng
11179	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I., Batsaikhan, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits steppes and semi-deserts, where it forms large colonies that dig branched burrows extending over hundreds of square meters. Feeds on narrow-leaved cereals and absinths. Also consumes bulbs, tubers and sometimes insects. Breeds up to six times a year, typically with 5-6 young in each litter (maximum 14). Marked population fluctuations are a characteristic feature of this species; during population peaks it is nomadic.	eng
11179	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Inhabits steppes and semi-deserts, where it forms large colonies that dig branched burrows extending over hundreds of square meters. Feeds on narrow-leaved cereals and absinths. Also consumes bulbs, tubers and sometimes insects. Breeds up to six times a year, with 5-6 young in each litter (maximum 14). Marked population fluctuations are a characteristic feature of this species; during population peaks it is nomadic.	eng
11179	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	A typical steppe rodent. Very abundant at the beginning of the 20th century in Ukraine (Migulin 1938), but now restricted to easternmost regions. In Russia populations are fragmented, but the species remains a considerable pest of arable and pasture land. Declines in some populations may be related to climate change, specifically to increasingly moist conditions. Since the 1960s, irrigation and planting of trees to protect fields has changed the microclimate for this species.	eng
11179	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I., Batsaikhan, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	A typical steppe rodent. Very abundant at the beginning of the 20th century in Ukraine (Migulin 1938), but now restricted to easternmost regions. In Russia populations are fragmented, but the species remains a considerable pest of arable and pasture land. Declines in some populations may be related to climate change, specifically to increasingly moist conditions. Since the 1960s, irrigation and planting of trees to protect fields has changed the microclimate for this species.	eng
11179	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Destruction and alteration of habitats by humans (including climate change); pesticides.	eng
11179	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I., Batsaikhan, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Destruction and alteration of habitats by humans (including climate change); pesticides. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock, and possible competition for resources with other rodent species in some areas. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. None of the above are thought to constitute a major threat to the species at present, although they may have a negative impact on local populations.	eng
11186	conservation	Baldi, B., Lichtenstein G., González, B., Funes, M., Cuéllar, E., Villalba, L., Hoces, D. & Puig, S. , 2008	The species is found in a number of protected areas and is included in the appendix II of CITES, thus regulating international trade of products derived from the guanaco. <br/><br/>Chile: Species protected by the Ley de Caza, Criaderos y Uso <em>in situ</em>(Law on hunting, breeding and <em>in situ</em> use).  However, personnel for law enforcement are insufficient. Only 4% of the habitats of guanaco have effective protection (8354 sq. km., in 8 National Parks and 4 Reserves). Additionally there are fiscal and private areas in which hunting is prohibited, either with relict populations (7750 sq. km.), or to protect the species (1212 sq. km.). A National Management Plan does not exist.<br/><br/>Peru: Recent legislation ratifies the classification of the guanaco in Peru as "Endangered" as of 2004. Active management of populations is carried out by CONACS (Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos National Council for South American Camelids), and local communities. <br/><br/>Bolivia: A team of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) is working with the government, local authorities and local people to strengthen the management of protected areas. The government has issued an official notice to law enforcement offices in the region concerning the protection of guanaco. The main conservation aim has been achieved thanks to the permanent presence of trained indigenous parabiologists in the remaining range of the species (Cuéllar, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Argentina: A National Management Plan (Plan Nacional de Manejo del Guanaco) has been prepared and endorsed by the provinces with the highest guanaco densities. This plan was coordinated by the Dirección de Fauna Silvestre (Federal Wildlife Agency), with the participation of various local institutions, and has a main focus towards Patagonia.  The federal wildlife conservation law (Ley Nacional de Conservación de la Fauna) and various provincial acts provide a legal basis for the protection and use of the species. In Patagonia, guanaco conservation activities include sustainable use of the species in the wild, regulation of hunting quotas, and closing of some access routes and oil trails. Protected areas in the Patagonian steppe would encompass 10% of the guanacos if effective, but most of the protected areas are rather nominal as they contain livestock, there are no wardens and poaching is common. The percentage of the area under effective protection in the Patagonian steppe was estimated to be less than 1% (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the central provinces there are 11 protected areas (either national, provincial or private). However, the progress made in legislation and management tools, implementation of actions is needed.	eng
11186	distribution	Baldi, B., Lichtenstein G., González, B., Funes, M., Cuéllar, E., Villalba, L., Hoces, D. & Puig, S. , 2008	Guanaco is a widespread species with an extensive, though discontinuous, range from the north of Peru to Navarino Island in southern Chile. Most of guanacos are found in Argentina. Although its range covers most of Patagonia, guanaco populations appear to be more scattered towards the north of the region (Chubut, Río Negro, Neuquén and southern Mendoza provinces) than in Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego (Walker <em>et al.</em>, unpublished data). Through northern Patagonia, guanaco distribution extends highly fragmented in relict populations in La Pampa and southwestern Buenos Aires provinces. Through central and northern Argentina guanaco distribution is restricted to the western half of the country, along the pre-Andes and Andean mountains up to the border with Bolivia (Baigún <em>et al.</em> 2007), although a relict population has been recently reported in the arid Chaco of northwestern Córdoba (Schneider <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). In Chile, the largest guanaco populations are concentrated in the Magallanes and Aysén regions in the south (with the highest numbers on the Tierra del Fuego island) and Tarapaca region in the north. In Bolivia, a relict population of guanaco persists in the Chaco region (Cuéllar and Fuentes 2000) and recent observations of guanacos have been reported in the southern highlands between Potosi and Chuquisaca (Nuñez, unpublished data). Although Pinaya (1990) reported the presence of guanacos in southeastern Tarija, these records need to be confirmed. In Paraguay, a relict population has been reported in the northwestern Chaco (Villalba 2004). Peru is the northernmost part of guanaco distribution at approximately 8°30'S, at the Calipuy National Reserve in La Libertad department. To the south, populations reach the Salinas Aguada Blanca National Reserve in Arequipa and Moquegua departments (16°10'S). A guanaco population was recorded in the Nevado Salcantay area, in the Anta district (Wheeler 2006, Veliz and Hoces 2007).	eng
11186	habitat	Baldi, B., Lichtenstein G., González, B., Funes, M., Cuéllar, E., Villalba, L., Hoces, D. & Puig, S. , 2008	Most of the guanacos are distributed across the phytogeographic provinces of the Monte and Patagonia, arid and semi-arid shrublands and grasslands comprising over 700,000 km². Guanacos are also found in the Puna, pre-Puna, Andean steppe, Chacoan grasslands and shrublands, Espinal and the southern Pampa. There are both migratory and sedentary populations across the guanaco range.<br/><br/>Adult guanacos weigh 80-120 kg and their breeding system is a resource defense polygyny. An adult male defends a territory where a group of females and their offspring (chulengos) feed, from the intrusion of other males (Franklin 1982, 1983). In a recent study, it was shown that vigilance and foraging accounted for almost 90% of the diurnal time budget of territorial male and female guanacos, but guanacos benefited from living in groups as individual foraging time increased with group size as well as collective vigilance against pumas, suggesting that predation risk is a strong component modeling guanaco social structure (Marino and Baldi 2008). <br/><br/>Guanacos are generalist herbivores of intermediate selectivity (i.e. they include a large proportion of both grasses and shrubs in their diets) (Raedeke and Simmoneti 1988, Fraser 1998, Puig <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2001, Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The domestic sheep was the main ungulate species introduced across the guanaco range, reaching 22 million heads within 50 years in the Argentine Patagonia. Both guanacos and sheep largely overlap in their forage preferences. Over 80% of their diets are identical (Puig <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although both species can include over 100 plant species in their diets, only 17 species made up 80% of the diets, and in Patagonia two grass species represented 40% of both guanaco and sheep diets (Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Across the extensive Patagonian rangelands, competition with sheep, hunting, and habitat modification have resulted in guanacos occupying marginal, low quality lands in terms of vegetation cover and the availability of the most important plant species in their diet, since sheep ranching monopolized the most productive areas (Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2001). A preliminary study in the Bolivian Chaco showed that the guanaco is a generalist feeder, responding to the seasonal availability of fruits, flowers and leaves, including a variety of cacti (Cuéllar, unpublished data). In this region guanacos compete for forage and spatial resources mainly with cattle and horses (Cuéllar, unpublished data).	eng
11186	population	Baldi, B., Lichtenstein G., González, B., Funes, M., Cuéllar, E., Villalba, L., Hoces, D. & Puig, S. , 2008	Although in the Argentine Patagonia guanaco distribution is rather continuous, densities are typically low (<5 guanacos/km²) or very low as in many parts of Chubut, Rio Negro and Neuquén (<2 guanacos/km²) while higher density populations are scarce and spatially structured (Baldi <em>et al.</em> 2001, Baldi <em>et al.</em> in press, Novaro <em>et al.</em> 2007, Puig <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2003). A global estimate for continental Patagonia was reported by Amaya <em>et al.</em> (2001) after aerial censuses, but the numbers are used as a reference as the errors associated to sampling were too large to be conlclusive about the results. For the rest of Argentina, population densities are below 1 guanaco/km² and the population is highly fragmented (Baigún <em>et al.</em> 2007, Puig and Videla 2007), with some relict populations in La Pampa, Córdoba and Buenos Aires provinces. Other high-density populations occur in southern Chile reaching up to 43 guanacos/km² at Torres del Paine National Park (Sarno and Franklin 1999) but in the rest of the range populations are small and highly scattered.<br/><br/>The global estimate for the guanaco population is below 600,000 animals, and almost 90% of the population is found in Argentina. However, differences in survey methodology and effort invested across such a vast area make necessary to be cautious about the figures, and these should be taken as a reference. In particular, a more reliable estimate is needed for the continental Argentine Patagonia, as most of the guanacos are found in that region and its number greatly affects global population size. Also for Chile the estimate is rather speculative as it results from scattered information instead of planned surveys (B. González, unpublished data). As a general rule, it is recommended to use the distance sampling method, either for ground or aerial surveys, as it is based on more realistic assumptions than the fixed-width strip transect methods which tend to underestimate population numbers (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, where numbers are too low as in relict populations, total counts or less systematics methods can be appropriate. Also, extrapolation of local densities to larger areas must be careful and made according to sampling effort. Accurate estimates of local densities are not sufficient at the time to estimate abundance for larger areas unless the sampling effort is properly disseminated throughout the region. <br/><br/>Country: Guanaco population<br/>Argentina: 466,000–520,000 <br/>Bolivia: 150-200<br/>Chile: 66,000<br/>Paraguay: 100<br/>Peru: 3500<br/>TOTAL: 535,750–589,750.	eng
11186	threats	Baldi, B., Lichtenstein G., González, B., Funes, M., Cuéllar, E., Villalba, L., Hoces, D. & Puig, S. , 2008	Guanacos are still numerous and widely distributed but continued the precipitous decline initiated in the 19th century. Over-hunting, range degradation either due to overstocking with domestic livestock or extractive activities, and interspecific competition for forage have all played a significant role in the demise of guanacos all across the distributional range (Raedeke 1979; Franklin 1982, Miller <em>et al.</em> 1983, Cunazza <em>et al.</em> 1995; Cuellar and Fuentes 2000, Puig <em>et al.</em> 2001, Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2001; Baldi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Bolivia the current major threat is habitat loss after the sport hunting was halted in 2001 (Cuéllar, unpublished data). In Chile, recreational hunting and poaching are major threats, while in Argentina they are still widely spread. Also in Peru guanacos are seriously affected by poaching and subsistence hunting. In addition, health studies conducted in mainland Patagonia have shown that guanaco populations are relatively disease-free but are themselves susceptible to common diseases of domestic livestock (sheep, cattle, and horses) (Karesh <em>et al</em>. 1998; Beldomenico <em>et al</em>. 2003; Uhart <em>et al</em>. unpublished. data). Castillo (2006) came to a similar conclusion based on the study of parasite load in free ranging Peruvian guanacos.<br/><br/>Today the guanaco occupies only 40% of its original range (Puig 1995; Franklin <em>et al</em>. 1997) and the distribution has become fragmented into smaller, relatively isolated populations. Although the species is not threatened with demographic extinction at a continental scale, it is ecologically extinct in most of its remaining range (Novaro <em>et al</em>. 2000), and some southern populations are under serious risk of local or even regional extirpation (Cunazza <em>et al</em>. 1995), and it has been predicted that the northern subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">L. guanicoe cacsilensis</span> will become extinct in Peru within 30 years if current hunting off-take rates are not curtailed (www.conopa.org). Spatial fragmentation is a threat to guanaco populations. Human activities such as hunting, mining, oil exploration and extraction, fencing, and the development of infrastructure and habitat loss often impose barriers to animal movements and prevent travel by individuals between populations. The loss of connectivity results in small, closed and isolated populations under increasing risk of collapse due to either loss of genetic variation, environmental or demographic stochasticity – the latter highly relevant to the very small populations in the Chaco region (Cuéllar <em>et al.</em> 2001). Recent findings are showing that low genetic variation may lead to reproductive failure and congenital malformations (Franklin and Grigione 2005, Zapata <em>et al.</em> 2008, Marin <em>et al.</em> in preparation).<br/><br/>Increasing pressure by private landowners in Patagonian rangelands may result in a threat to the remaining high-density guanaco populations if management is not properly planned and implemented. Live-shearing and subsequent release of wild guanacos could contribute to their conservation only if the effects of this activity are properly assessed and management is applied accordingly. If not ecologically sustainable, the viability of the most important guanaco populations will be taken into risk and hence the global population might collapse. Since 2003, around 11,000 guanacos have been captured at 7 ranches in just one Patagonian province (Baldi <em>et al</em>. in press). Careful evaluation of current management practices involving live shearing is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Land desertification due to overgrazing coupled with more severe and frequent droughts associated to climate change are threats requiring urgent attention as they can have global, major effects on guanaco abundance throughout the range. Severe droughts can have drastic effects on local guanaco populations as it was documented for eastern Patagonia (R. Baldi, unpublished data). In addition, models on climate change predict a sharp decrease in rain precipitation within the next 50 years in the arid Southern South America (Nohara <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore, it is crucial to favour the ecological functionality of guanaco populations through adequate management as a step to mitigate additional effects of climate change in the near future.	eng
11200	conservation	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E., Domingo, A. & Francis, M., 2006	<strong>International</strong>:  <br/>The porbeagle shark is included on Annex 1 (Highly Migratory Species) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which lists ?Family Isurida? (former name for Family Lamnidae) among other oceanic sharks. The UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks establishes rules and conservation measures for high seas fisheries resources and has been in force since 2001. It directs States to pursue co-operation in relation to listed species through appropriate sub-regional fisheries management organisations or arrangements. No progress with implementation of shark fisheries management appears to have been achieved. <br/> <br/>In 2004, the EU rejected a proposal from Germany for the EU to submit an Appendix II listing proposal to the 13<sup>th</sup> Conference of Parties to CITES, with the objective of ensuring the sustainability of fisheries supplying international trade. There is no regulation of the international trade demand for meat that is driving many fisheries. However, the porbeagle is one of the subjects of CITES Decision 13.42, directed to Parties, which states that Parties should take note of the species-specific recommendations in document CoP13 Doc. 35 Annex 2 with a view to ensuring that international trade is not detrimental to the status of these species (<a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a>). The relevant section reads: ?The Animals Committee concluded that North Atlantic populations have been severely depleted and noted that quotas in EU waters apply only to non-EU fleets through access agreements. As these quotas are far higher than can be supported by the stock and do not restrict fishing effort they are not considered to be an effective management measure in this case?. The Animals Committee recommended the following: <br/> <br/>a) ICCAT members are encouraged to collect and report data on catches and discards of porbeagle sharks, as per ICCAT Resolution 95-2, which has yet to be complied with, and undertake stock assessments in order to develop management recommendations. Other relevant Regional Fishery Management Organizations are encouraged to establish and implement similar programmes.  <br/> <br/>b) The US and Canada are encouraged to enhance existing management for their shared porbeagle stock by establishing a cooperative, bilateral research and fisheries management programme. <br/> <br/>c) The World Customs Organization (WCO) is encouraged with urgency to establish a harmonized international code for porbeagle sharks. <br/> <br/>Two Regional Fisheries Organisations, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 1,500 t for porbeagle in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). The porbeagle TAC was reduced to 1,000 t in 1997 (O?Boyle <em>et al</em>. 1998), then to 1,700 t during the two years 2000 to 2001 while additional scientific information was collected (DFO 2001b). As a result of these studies, it was concluded that the population was seriously depleted (to 10 to 20% of virgin biomass) and would require a greatly decreased fishing mortality if recovery is to occur. An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth. However, annual catch levels of about 1,000 t would be sustainable over the long term once the population has recovered. These DFO analyses, which are the basis for the regional assessment, are contested by COSEWIC (2004), who notes that the quota for 2002 to 2007 of 200 to 250 t represents a substantial reduction from catches in the mid-1990s, but even this amount now corresponds to a high exploitation rate because of the low population abundance. It is highly uncertain if this quota reduction will be sufficient to halt the porbeagle decline, and if so, to what extent the population will recover, given that there is uncertainty in estimating FMSY and the quota, the low number of mature animals remaining in the population, that at its current low abundance the population may experience depensation (Allee effects), and that reduction in fishing pressure is not always sufficient for population recovery (Hutchings 2001). COSEWIC (Committee on the status of endangered wildlife in Canada) designated porbeagle as Endangered in 2004 (COSEWIC 2004). <br/> <br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas in the US EEZ for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Norway is allocated a quota of 200 t of porbeagle in European Community (EC) waters, reduced in 1985 from the 500 t established in 1982 (Gauld 1989). Since 1985, the Faeroe Islands can also take 125 t from EC waters (originally 300 t in 1982, 150 t in 1984a). These quotas currently exceed total landings from shelf areas in the region and yield no management benefit.  <br/> <br/>Annex V of the Convention on the Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area [also called OSPAR (Oslo-Paris) Convention] requires OSPAR to develop a list of threatened and/or declining species and habitats in need of protection or conservation in the OSPAR maritime area (Northeast Atlantic). OSPAR member states were invited in 2001 to submit proposals for inclusion on this list. In response, Portugal ? on behalf of the Azores, proposed to list porbeagle <em>Lamna nasus</em> in the wider Atlantic because of its biological sensitivity, keystone importance and the severe decline in its population. This proposal has not yet been adopted. <br/> <br/>The status of the largely unmanaged, unmonitored Northeast Atlantic stock is likely worse than the seriously depleted Northwest stock, with stringent conservation and management action (fisheries closure and stock assessment) needed urgently to enable stocks to rebuild to levels where sustainable commercial and recreational fisheries are possible.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The species is listed on Annex III, ?Species whose exploitation is regulated? of the Barcelona Convention Protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the Mediterranean, signed in 1995 but not yet ratified. The Mediterranean population of this species was also added in 1997 to Appendix III of the Bern Convention (the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) as a species whose exploitation must be regulated in order to keep its population out of danger. No management action has yet followed these listings. The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) has identified porbeagle as a species that urgently needs development of a management programme for sustainable fisheries.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Oceans</strong>:  <br/>In 1991, Australia brought in legislation that prevented Japanese longliners fishing in the EEZ from landing shark fins unless they were accompanied by the carcass. Since 1996, these vessels have not fished in the Australian EEZ.  <br/> <br/>The Southern African population of porbeagles is largely unmonitored and little data is available on bycatch levels in the longline fisheries of this region. However, all foreign flagged vessels in the South Africa fishery are required to have 100% observer coverage, whereas domestic vessels are required to have 20% observer coverage (C. Smith, pers.comm). The bycatch must be monitored and this porbeagle assessment reviewed within five years of the opening of this fishery. <br/> <br/>A small, regulated fishery is permitted by New Zealand, which included porbeagles in its quota management system in October 2004, with a TAC set at 249 t (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are no other management measures applicable to the Antarctic and Southern Ocean, since CCAMLR appears not to be monitoring or managing this species.	eng
11200	distribution	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E., Domingo, A. & Francis, M., 2006	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Figure 1: Distribution map for <em>Lamna nasus</em>.	eng
11200	habitat	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E., Domingo, A. & Francis, M., 2006	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December to February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Table 1: summary of life history parameters for <em>Lamna nasus</em>.	eng
11200	population	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E., Domingo, A. & Francis, M., 2006	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of subpopulations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figures 1 to 7 (catch rates and landings data).	eng
11200	threats	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E., Domingo, A. & Francis, M., 2006	This section is taken primarily from the review in Anonymous 2004, which refers in detail to other key sources.  <br/> <br/>The main threat to the porbeagle shark is unsustainable fisheries (target and bycatch) utilising its very high value meat. It is also a valued target game fish species for recreational fishing in Ireland and UK. The low reproductive capacity and high commercial value of both mature and immature age classes makes this species highly vulnerable to over-exploitation and population depletion. Well documented declines in this extremely valuable species during the past fifty years in the North Atlantic, which is the major reported source of world catches, has taken place during a period of rising fishing effort and market demand, and improved fisheries technology.  <br/> <br/>Porbeagles are a valuable secondary target of many fisheries, particularly longline fisheries, also gill nets, driftnets, pelagic and bottom trawls, and handlines. Examples include the demersal longlines for Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides in the southern Indian Ocean and by the Argentinean fleet (Victoria Lichtstein, CITES Management Authority of Argentina, in litt. to TRAFFIC Europe, 27 October 2003), and longline swordfish and tuna fisheries in international waters off the coasts of Argentina and Uruguay (Domingo undated). Despite the large amount of fishing activity capturing porbeagles in the Southern Hemisphere, New Zealand is the only country that reports landings to FAO, indicating that the southern catch is largely unreported.  <br/> <br/>The high value of porbeagle shark meat means that most ?bycatch? is exploited. The exception is in those high seas tuna and billfish fisheries where vessels? holding space is too limited to enable even valuable shark carcasses to be retained; in these cases the fins alone may be retained (e.g., the Japanese longline fishery for southern bluefin tuna off Tasmania and New Zealand, the pelagic fishing fleets of other countries in the southern Indian Ocean and probably elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere (Compagno 2001)). Northeast Atlantic. <br/> <br/>Porbeagle has been fished in this region by many European countries, principally Denmark, France, Norway and Spain. There has never been any restriction on fishing effort on this stock. The Northeast Atlantic fishery began when Norway started targeting porbeagle in the 1930s using longlines. Norwegian landings first reached a peak of 3,884 t in 1933. About 6,000t were taken by the Norwegian fleet in 1947, when the fishery reopened after the Second World War, followed by a progressive drop in landings to between 1,200 and 1,900 t from 1953 to 1960. The collapse of this fishery led to the redirection of fishing effort by Norwegian and Danish longline shark fishing vessels into the Northwest Atlantic. Norwegian landings from the Northeast Atlantic subsequently decreased from 160 to 300 t per annum in the early 1970s to only 10 to 40 t per year in the late 1980s/early 1990s, while average Danish landings fell from over 1,500 t in the early 1950s to less than 100 t throughout the 1990s (DFO 2001a, Gauld 1989).  <br/> <br/>French and Spanish longliners have operated directed fisheries for porbeagle since the 1970s. Reported landings from the main French fishing grounds in the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay decreased from over 1,092 t in 1979 to 3 to 400 t in the late 1990s. Spanish vessels appear to have taken porbeagle opportunistically both in the early and late 1970s and since 1998. Landings off Spain tend to be greater during the spring and autumn, with a drop in the summer (Mejuto 1985, Lallemand-Lemoine 1991). It is unclear, however, whether the very variable early landings data from the Spanish fleet (from nil to nearly 4,000 t per year) represents huge variations in catches, possibly the result of ?boom and bust? fisheries removing different segments of the stock, or differences in catch reporting. Bonfil (1994) estimated that 50 t of porbeagle were taken as a supplementary catch in the Spanish longline swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic during 1989. The long line fishery in the Bay of Biscay (ICES Area VIII), directed at the more abundant blue shark, also landed about 30t of mainly porbeagle and some shortfin mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em> during 1998 to 2000. ICES data (Heessen 2003) indicate that annual landings from Area IXa into mainland Portugal peaked at almost 3,000 t in 1987 to 1988 and have since declined (these records do not appear in the FAO statistics). <br/> <br/>Reported landings from the historically most important fisheries, around the UK and in the North Sea and adjacent inshore waters have decreased to very low levels during the past 30 to 40 years, while catches from the offshore ICES sub-regions west of Portugal, west of the Bay of Biscay and around the Azores have increased since 1989. This is attributed to a decline in heavily fished and depleted inshore populations and redirection of effort to previously lightly exploited offshore stocks. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species has virtually disappeared from Mediterranean records. In the North Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Sea Serena and Vacchi (1997) reported only 15 specimens of porbeagle during a few decades of observation. Soldo and Jardas reported only nine records of this species in the Eastern Adriatic since the end of 19<sup>th</sup> century until 2000. Recently two new records were reported (A. Soldo unpublished data). Orsi Relini and Garibaldi (2002) reported two newborn porbeagles were caught as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery in the Western Ligurian Sea. A young porbeagle, considered to be very recently born was reported in the central Adriatic Sea (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). A young specimen was also caught in the central Adriatic during big-game fishing. On the basis of its length, it is suggested to be of an age 1 to 17 months (Marconi and De Maddalena 2001). These records indicate a possible nursery area in Central Mediterranean. During research of bycatch in the western Mediterranean swordfish longline fishery no porbeagles were caught (De La Serna <em>et al</em>. 2002). Only 15 specimens were caught during research conducted in 1998 to 1999 on bycatch of sharks in large pelagic fisheries: catches were reported only in the southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea, mainly by driftnets (Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Official statistics for Mediterranean area show that the only landings in the Mediterranean were reported in 1996 by Malta: 1 t (FAO 2002). Porbeagles are also popular as recreational species (big game fishing) in some areas of Mediterranean.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle fishing in the Northwest Atlantic started in 1961, when the fleet of Norwegian shark longliners began operating off the coast of New England and Newfoundland after the Northeast Atlantic stocks had been depleted. Catches increased rapidly from about 1,900 t in 1961 to more than 9,000 t in 1964. By 1965 many of the vessels had switched to other species or moved to other grounds because of the population decline. The fishery collapsed after only six years, landing less than 1,000 t in 1970. Smaller landings were also reported by Faeroese fishing vessels from around the same time and throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Norwegian and Faeroese fleets have been excluded from Canadian waters since the establishment of Canada?s EEZ in 1995. Canadian and US authorities reported all landings after 1995. Porbeagle sharks are now taken almost exclusively by a Canadian directed longline fishery. Bycatch in swordfish longline fisheries and various inshore fisheries are minimal, rarely exceeding 40 t in recent years (DFO 2001a). <br/> <br/>Following the collapse of the fishery in the 1960s, it took ~25 years for recovery to ~30% of virgin biomass to take place. Three Canadian vessels entered the targeted Northwest Atlantic fishery in 1994. Catches of 1,000 to 2,000 t per year throughout much of the 1990s reduced population levels to a new low in under ten years: the average size of sharks and catch rates (number/hook) were the smallest on record in 1999 and 2000. By 2000, catch rates of mature sharks were reduced to 10% of the 1992 peak, and immature catch rates to 30% of the 1991 peak. The biomass in 2000 was estimated as 11 to 17% of virgin biomass and fully recruited F estimated as 0.26 (DFO 2001a). The current porbeagle population is seriously depleted and will require a greatly reduced fishing mortality if recovery is to occur (DFO 2001). The 2001 stock assessment by the Canadian Department of Fisheries states: ?An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth.? Following this advice, the Canadian quota was reduced to 250 t for the period 2002?2007 to allow population growth and recovery. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle in the US EEZ.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Oceans</strong>: <br/>Little information is available for southern ocean porbeagles. Landings from the Southern Hemisphere are only reported to FAO by New Zealand in the Pacific southwest. New Zealand reported landings were 150 to 300 t per year between 1998 and 2003 (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>Records of captures of porbeagle by the Uruguayan pelagic tuna longline fleet declined significantly during 1981 to 1998 (A. Domingo undated). During the 1980s, only the two most valuable shark species were retained for their meat: porbeagle and mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>, representing about 10% of the total longline catch and peaking at 150 t and 100 t landed, respectively, in 1984. By the early 1990s, landings of these two species had fallen to around 10% of that peak, although shark fin prices were rising and blue sharks Prionace glauca and eight other species of large sharks were now also being retained in large quantities. This was accompanied by a decrease in CPUE from 110 kg/1,000 hooks (1988) to 1 kg/1,000 (1999) in the Uruguayan tuna and swordfish fleet. This is not, however, necessarily due to population decrease but to changes in fleet operating maneuvers (area and depth) and an increase in mean temperatures of water masses in the area (A. Domingo pers. comm.). There is bycatch of porbeagle shark in the Chilean artisanal and industrial longline swordfish Xiphias gladius fishery within and outside the Chilean EEZ, between 26 and 36°S (E. Acuña unpublished data; Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2002). There are no good estimates for captures in the Southeastern Pacific off Chile; several times porbeagle has been included as <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>. Acuña <em>et al</em>. (2002) determined during a one year sampling period that <em>L. nasus</em> catches were around 3.5% of the total catch of fishes (in numbers) in the Chilean swordfish fishery, with a size range between 75 and 245 cm TL.  <br/> <br/>Porbeagles recently showed up as bycatch of demersal longlines for the Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides in the southern Indian Ocean (Compagno 2001). Porbeagles are rarely seen in South African waters; being occasionally caught in research vessel longline cruises (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm). An experimental tuna longline fishery operated in South African waters from 1997 until March 2005. Porbeagles were seldom caught in the experimental fishery. Catches were mainly along the southwest coast of South Africa and observed catch rates were approx. 0.014 sharks per 1,000 hooks. Since March 2005 the fishery has been commercialized with the allocation of 17 swordfish-directed vessels and 26 tuna-directed vessels. The current foreign flagged vessels in the commercial fishery target yellowfin tuna in the warm Agulhas current and are unlikely to catch significant quantities of porbeagle. In contrast, foreign flagged vessels, especially Japanese, which target Southern Bluefin Tuna to the south of South Africa, land substantially more quantities of porbeagle as bycatch (C. Smith, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for table 1: bycatch of porbeagle in South African pelagic longliners; and table 2: seasonal trend in bycatch.	eng
11202	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Further research is needed into population abundance, the species range, biology, ecology, threats, and conservation measures. There is a need to monitor the species to record changes in population abundance and distribution. There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species.	eng
11202	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Oku, Cameroon, at elevations of 2,100 to 2,900 m asl.	eng
11202	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This little-known species appears to be endemic to the montane rainforest of Mount Oku.  Only about 100 km² of suitable forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
11202	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is known only from four specimens. The population size and the species abundance is not known.	eng
11202	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The restricted range of this species is threatened by continuing habitat loss, through clearance of land for agricultural use (including grazing) and presumably through some logging activities.	eng
11206	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11206	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland, Great Britain north to Scotland, Atlantic coast of France, North Sea north to Scotland and about Bergen (Norway), North and Baltic Sea basins; Mediterranean along French and western Italian coasts. Occasional records in Adriatic and Ionian Seas and along coasts of Iberian Peninsula. Migrates into rivers of this area. Landlocked populations known from Lakes Ladoga and Onega (Russia), Loch Lomond (Scotland), some lakes in Finland and possibly Lough Neagh (Ireland).	eng
11206	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in coastal waters and estuaries and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predatory, with anadromous and landlocked populations. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to spring. Migration is mainly nocturnal and ceases at low temperatures. Spawning season starts when water temperature rises above 9°C, which depends on latitude, starting in late March in France and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig shallow nests in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2½-3½ years. Ammocoetes feed on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis (from late summer to late autumn), most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea in spring. At sea, adults prey on a wide variety of fish species, mostly Clupeidae and Gadidae. Feeds on body tissues of prey, which is usually killed while its flesh is excavated. Adults feed for 2 (rarely 1) summers before migrating to the spawning grounds. Individuals feeding for only a single summer before breeding are smaller. Landlocked population of Loch Lomond feeds for only one summer, then stops feeding and migrates in autumn to spawning grounds in River Endrick.	eng
11206	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11206	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
11209	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2004	Formerly thought to be endemic to Miller Lake (16 km northeast of Mt. Thielson), Klamath County, Oregon. Recent surveys documented subpopulations in Miller Creek, Jack Creek, and the upper sections of the Williamson and Sycan rivers (Lorion <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
11213	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11213	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Great Britain north to Scottish highlands, rivers draining to North Sea north to Scotland and about Stavanger (Norway), Baltic Sea basin, Atlantic as far south as Adour drainage (France, Spain) and an isolated population in Tagus (Portugal), Mediterranean basin in France and western Italy (south to about Tevere drainage). Locally in Ireland, upper Volga, upper Danube and some of their tributaries, and Pescara drainage on Adriatic coast of Italy.	eng
11213	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: F<br/>Found in the lowland, piedmont and montane zone in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depends on latitude when temperature exceeds 9°C, starting in February in Italy and mid-June in Finland. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Dies after spawning. Single individuals may survive until September. Ammocoetes stage usually lasts 21/2-31/2 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, starts metamorphosis in June-July (fully transformed individuals usually found in September), overwinters and spawns following spring. There are indications that <em>L. planeri</em> might be an heterogeneous (polyphyletic) assemblage of several lineages evolved independently from different populations of <em>L. fluviatilis</em> (see family introduction).	eng
11213	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11213	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
11227	conservation	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with the Karoo National Park. Further research is needed on the distribution, population numbers and potential threats of this species.	eng
11227	distribution	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is known from a few widely scattered localities in the Great Karoo in western South Africa (Branch 1998). However, its exact distribution throughout this region is unknown.	eng
11227	habitat	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits karooid sandy vegetation, where it can often be found underground in burrows (Branch 1998).	eng
11227	population	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
11227	threats	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. Agricultural expansion may threaten this species through habitat loss and degradation.	eng
11244	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Found in the Ozark Mountains where it is restricted to the upper Little Red River. There have been recent collections from several places in the catchment.	eng
11244	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Occurs in coarse to muddy sand in water depths of up to 1.3 ft in flowing water.	eng
11244	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Species is threatened by reservoir construction, limited range and low population numbers, water pollution and channel modification.	eng
11279	distribution	Brown, D.S., 1996	Recorded from the Wami River.	eng
11280	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
11280	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes bicarinatus</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known from the Lower Zaire River and near Libenge in Ubangi region.	eng
11280	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
11280	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
11280	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
11281	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	The estimated extent of occurrence is mainly unprotected area though it appears to comprise part of the Shimba Hills and Tsavo West national parks.	eng
11281	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is believed to be restricted to south east coastal region of Kenya, between Mombasa and Taita.	eng
11281	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found in residual pools in drying stream beds.	eng
11281	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11281	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	The cited area of occurrence experiences frequent severe drought which is a threat to the regional wetlands. The Taita Hills forests (located to the north of the species extent of occurrence) which probably forms the regional water catchment has been undergoing destruction which is detrimental to the sustainability of the regional streams/wetlands and their biodiversity.	eng
11283	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11283	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in streams in the Usambara Mountains, Kyngani and Wami Rivers and Muhaza (North of Pangani). An estimate of the total range including Zanzibar suggests this species has an extent of occurrence of 13,000 km. It is found in streams in five river basins. Records for Malagarasi streams and delta are discounted. Brown believes there has been a decline in the species to the extent that the distribution is now severely fragmented.	eng
11283	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species thrives in streams.	eng
11283	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11283	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Threats to this species include pollution by sedimentation, agricultural run-off and deforestation in the water-shed around the river.	eng
11284	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
11284	conservation	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
11284	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been reported from tributaries and swamps near Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its distribution extends over much of Africa.	eng
11284	distribution	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality in the Ituri river basin with a doubtful record for Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Lanistes graueri</em> is likely endemic to central Africa, where it is known from DRC. The species has also been reported from Tanzania, but his occurrence should be checked. The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are difficult to determine, however these may be much larger than the thresholds used in the criteria because the species can utilize a range of habitats.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from tributaries and swamps near Lake Tanganyika.	eng
11284	habitat	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
11284	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Noted to thrive in tributaries and swamps.	eng
11284	population	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
11284	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
11284	threats	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
11284	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Primary pollution and sedimentation in Burundi.	eng
11285	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. There is insufficient survey data available for the species and more information on its range and population status would be useful.	eng
11285	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes intortus</em> is known from only three localities on the lower Zaire River. The sites are distant from each other, but suitable habitat does not occur throughout the river. The two localities in the lower reaches of the river are separated by areas of rapids between these, but it is likely to occur in more areas between Kinshasa and Banana, a distance of at least 300 km. The species was last recorded in 1970.	eng
11285	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is present in the lower Zaire River; occurs in swampy margins of the river.	eng
11285	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
11285	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available. The species occurs in the lower Zaire River, and it is unlikely to be under serious threat across its whole range at present. Threats are likely to be localised because the species occurs in the margins of this large river.	eng
11286	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
11286	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
11286	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	It is found in soft substrate, dredged from depths of 46-82m.	eng
11286	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
11286	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is likely to be impacted by general habitat threats to Lake Malawi benthos (such as sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen).	eng
11287	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Appropriate surveys are required at appropriate times using appropriate techniques.	eng
11287	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. Appropriate surveys are required at appropriate times using appropriate techniques.	eng
11287	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes neavei</em> occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. The species is cryptic and may have a more extensive range than currently known. There are insufficient surveys to confirm its range in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
11287	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Lanistes neavei</em> occurs in DRC and Zambia. The species is cryptic and may have a more extensive range than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It has been recorded in southeast DRC (Lubembe region) and Lac de Retenue. There are insufficient surveys to confirm its range in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in Zambia (Ndola area).	eng
11287	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in seasonal pools and lake fringes (Brown 1994).	eng
11287	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in seasonal pools and lake fringes (Brown 1994).	eng
11287	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
11287	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
11287	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Specific threats are unknown. It is likely that threats will be localised.	eng
11287	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Specific threats to this species are unknown. It is likely that threats will be localised.	eng
11288	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Protecting the river basin from deforestation or pollution events.	eng
11288	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes neritoides</em> is endemic to the Republic of the Congo. At present it is known only from the type locality on Kouilou River between the Crystal Mountains and coast.	eng
11288	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is apparently adapted for a life at or above the surface of rapidly flowing water. This species is recorded from small river less than 50 km in length. Highly oxygenated waters required. It lives clinging to rocks within the river. This habitat is unusual for the genus, as most other species are from lakes, seasonal pools and swamps.	eng
11288	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is unlikely to be abundant at its type locality. In the initial survey, it was looked for at other sites on river but was not found.	eng
11288	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This is a range restricted species only known from the type locality in the Congo Republic. It requires good water quality; it is vulnerable to any pollution (mining, logging, oil pollution) upstream of the site.	eng
11289	distribution	Brown, D.S., 1996	Endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
11290	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11290	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi, with a fragmented distribution (Brown 1995).	eng
11290	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	This is a freshwater species. It has been dredged from 10 to 90 feet.	eng
11290	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11290	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is vulnerable to the changing habitats at edge of lake margin and pollution.	eng
11291	conservation	Lange, C., Smith, K. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11291	distribution	Lange, C., Smith, K. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to east Tanzania. It is found at Dar-es-Salaam, Mahenge and Ifakara (Brown 1994)	eng
11291	habitat	Lange, C., Smith, K. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11291	population	Lange, C., Smith, K. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11291	threats	Lange, C., Smith, K. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation as a result of agricultural and domestic activities.	eng
11304	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
11304	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species ranges from the mountains of Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), and northern East Kalimantan.	eng
11304	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	These animals are found in primary forests up to 1,000 m.	eng
11304	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
11304	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber.	eng
11305	conservation	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is found in severak protected areas, including Gunung Gading National Park, Pasoh Forest Reserve, and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Han pers. comm.), as well as Kuiburi National Park (Steinmetz pers. comm.). It is protected in Indonesia.	eng
11305	distribution	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This lowland species is found on Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and southern Thailand, probably below 500 m (Giman and Han pers. comm.), as well as Sumatra and Java (Lekagul and McNeely 1988) and adjacent islands. This species has been recorded up to 1,500 m.	eng
11305	habitat	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species (Saiful and Nordin 2004; Saiful <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is found mostly in tall, primary forest, but can tolerate secondary habitat (Han and Steinmetz pers. comm.). In Gunung Gading it probably feeds on the buds of Raffleisa flower (Han pers. comm.). It is found in limestone hills in Kanthan Ipoh in Peninsular Malaysia (Han pers. comm.). There is a recent record from lowland evergreen forest in Kuiburi National Park at about 300 m (Steinmetz pers. comm.). It is believed that they have a specialized diet, preferring cool areas (Han pers. comm.).	eng
11305	population	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species is not common (Han pers. comm.). This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful <em>et al</em>. (2001) at the Field Studies Centre of the University of Malaya, Ulu Gombak, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. The vegetation at this site is lowland dipterocarp forest that has been logged twice thus it is a mixture of primary and secondary forest.	eng
11305	threats	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species can tolerate secondary forest (but not all secondary habitats), thus there are no major threats to this species (Han pers. comm.).	eng
11306	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a protected species in Indonesia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
11306	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is recorded from the mountains of western Sumatra, and eastern Java on Idjen Mts. (Indonesia).	eng
11306	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a ground squirrel living in primary and secondary forests and scrub.	eng
11306	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
11306	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
11307	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a protected species in Indonesia and probably occurs in Siberut National Park.	eng
11307	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found only on Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
11307	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There is no information available for this species, but close relatives are diurnal and terrestrial, prefer secondary forests and are probably found in scrub and forest edge They live in burrows or nest in fallen trees.	eng
11307	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is probably abundant on Siberut island.	eng
11307	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, although degraded forests may provide suitable habitat. Further, <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus tiomanicus</em> may compete with this species.	eng
11339	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).<br/>Found in protected areas.	eng
11339	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	S Canada, USA (including SE Alaska, and except extreme southern parts), NE Mexico, Bermuda (Simmons 2005)	eng
11339	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Silver-haired bats prefer temperate, northern hardwoods with ponds or streams nearby. The typical day roost for the bat is behind loose tree bark. Silver-haired bats appear to be particularly fond of willow, maple and ash trees (most likely due to the deeply fissured bark). Hollow snags and bird nests also provide daytime roosting areas for silver-haired bats. Less common daytime roosts include buildings, such as open sheds and garages; however, due to their solitary nature and adaptation to woodland roosts, these bats rarely invade buildings in large enough numbers to cause alarm. During the winter months, silver-haired bats that hibernate find shelter in northern areas inside trees, buildings, rock crevices, and similar protected structures (Naumann 1999).<br/>ourtship and mating of silver-haired bats occurs in autumn when both sexes congregate for migration. Fertilization is delayed until the next spring. Births occur after a gestation period of 50 to 60 days. At parturition, the female roosts with her head facing upward. The tail membrane is bent forward to form a basket, in which the young are caught as they leave the birth canal. Two young are produced, usually between late June and early July (Naumann 1999).<br/>Silver-haired bats are insectivorous. Their diet mainly consists of flies, beetles, and moths. However, these bats feed opportunistically on any concentration of insects they come across. They have a short-range foraging strategy, traveling over woodland ponds and streams. Silver-haired bats do not always feed in mid-flight; they have been caught in mouse traps, suggesting ground foraging, and they have been reported to consume larvae on trees (Naumann 1999).	eng
11339	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Silver-haired bats have been reported to be one of the earliest fliers in the evening, sometimes appearing in broad daylight. However, other sources claim that these bats are late-evening fliers. The flying time of silver-haired bats is believed to be adjusted by the bat so that it will not conflict with the flying times of the red, hoary, or big brown bats. Silver haired-bats are believed to be one of the slowest flying bats in North America (possibly second to western pipistrelles), with a flight speed of 4.8-5.0 m/s (Naumann 1999).<br/>The adults usually appear singly, but can occasionally be found in pairs or small groups. During the summer, the bats are believed to segregate by sex. During late summer and autumn, however, silver-haired bats join in groups containing both sexes to migrate to the southern parts of their range. Some silver-haired bats are also known to hibernate in the northern locations (Naumann 1999).<br/>It is rare in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
11339	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Silver-haired bats have no special endangered or threatened status; however, activities such as logging and deforestation may pose a threat for the bat in the future (Naumann 1999).	eng
11340	conservation	Avirmed, D., Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Legal Status: Approximately 4% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
11340	distribution	Avirmed, D., Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Inhaits open landscapes (steppes, grasslands) on planes and mountains (up to 2000 m asl) in Russian Federation, NE China, and C and E Mongolia.	eng
11340	habitat	Avirmed, D., Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Inhabits steppe, forest and semi-desert habitats in Mongolia, associated with poa-wormwood and poa vegetation. Known to inhabit grasslands in China and and dry steppes and grasslands in Russia around the borders of the country. The density and height of vegetation influences habitat selection in this species, and they will favour short vegetation between 30 and 130 mm in height.  It has been shown that population growth rates are slower in areas of short grass where little food is available. However, if vegetation is too long, this can disrupts social interactions and predator detection, causing a lowered growth rate. This is a keystone species in the steppe ecosystem, aerating soil through burrowing and encouraging plant diversity. This diurnal species lives in dens with many entrances and separated chambers. Family den might be up to 30 m long. Feed on vegetative and underground parts of plants, and may hoard more than 10 kg of those per family.	eng
11340	population	Avirmed, D., Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	This species experiences cyclic population outbreaks every 3-14 years. The frequency of outbreaks varies regionally, for example, in eastern regions it occurs roughly every 4 yrs. In the last 50 years, 17 severe outbreaks have been recorded in Inner Mongolia (written in 2004), and the frequency of outbreaks has increased over the past 20 years compared to the previous 20 years, co-inciding with a 5 fold increase in livestock numbers. They are also prey for many carnivores including foxes, Pallas' cats and polecats, but predation pressure doesn't influence population size except during low density years.	eng
11340	threats	Avirmed, D., Batsaikhan, N. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Considered a pest as population outbreaks of this species can compete with livestock for resources and spread disease. However, such outbreaks are more likely to occur in overgrazed areas, so they cause little additional environmental damage. Poisoning campaigns using Bromadiolone are being phased out because they have little effect on this species, but impact significantly on non-target species, e.g. livestock and humans. Underwent a major range expansion during the twentieth century, and experiences population fluctuations cycling over 9-11 years (Dawaa <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
11341	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed, as poisoning of small mammals on the Tibetan Plateau may have negatively impacted populations of this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
11341	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the southern region of Qinghai province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,700-4,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
11341	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It inhabits moist meadows in high mountain grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
11341	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
11341	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. Poisoning of voles and other small mammals on the Tibetan Plateau may have reduced the density of this species but new surveys are required to confirm this.	eng
11342	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Approximately 1% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia is abundant and listed as Least Concern. Conservation measures required. Further research and management of habitats is recommended.	eng
11342	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in three main areas. Westernmost form <em>L. m. vinogradovi</em>, distributed in Buryatia (Russian Federation) and Northern Mongolia (recorded along the Orkhon and Selenge rivers in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range and parts of Valley of the Lakes (Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989). Central area is the biggest, in NE and C China (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997). Easternmost area is in Korean peninsula.	eng
11342	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits rocky lowland and mountain steppe up to 3,000 m and meadows in forest-steppe habitats.  Usually found away from woods but near water sources.  They are especially common in dense brush along the banks of lakes, rivers and streams.  Feeds on the underground parts of plants, in Buryatia mostly on fat roots of Stellera chamaejasme. Sometimes uses green plants and herbs. They are highly social and live in extended family groups.  Members occupy a common burrow to which they remain strongly attached.  In summer groups consist of one breeding male for every one to two breeding females plus the young of 1-3 generations.  Total numbers of individuals per burrow averages 8.7, but ranges between 3-22.  Reproduction occurs between March and August yielding litters of 2-4 young.	eng
11342	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
11342	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species at present.	eng
11343	conservation	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Horsup, A., 2008	This species is listed as a threatened species by Queensland and by Australian law. Its entire range is within the Epping Forest National Park. The Recovery Plan for this species is in its third edition (see Horsup 2004). The following management actions are underway or planned:<br/><br/>1) Control threats and manage habitat. Predator control ? A 20-km predator fence was built in 2002 to prevent a repeat of dingo predation that killed at least 15 wombats in 2000. Monitor and control competitors ? The Eastern Grey Kangaroo is the major competitor for food and its numbers are being monitored. Habitat management ? Introduced buffel grass is regularly slashed to promote green growth and native species. Fire management ? Annual burns are undertaken to reduce fuel loads and promote plant diversity. Supplementary feed and water provisioning ? Feed and water stations are now being used by wombats, particularly in dry times (Treby <em>et al.</em> 2007). Permanent management presence on Epping Forest National Park ? A volunteer caretaker program ensures twice daily monitoring of the dingo fence.<br/><br/>2) Accurately monitoring wombats. Population censuses ? Three censuses each year minimize disturbance and maximize the accuracy of the result and involve collecting wombat hair on sticky tape to extract DNA (see Banks <em>et al.</em> 2003). Burrow monitoring ? This is undertaken every six months and monitors activity levels at burrows as an ?early warning system?. Trapping ? This was the major means of censusing prior to development of the DNA technique and is now only undertaken when necessary (e.g., to attach radio-collars).<br/><br/>3) Translocation. Locate sites for the establishment of future Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat colonies and develop translocation techniques on Epping Forest National Park.<br/><br/>4) Develop captive techniques on other wombat species. Southern Hairy-nosed Wombats are being used to improve wombat captive breeding and reproductive monitoring techniques. There are no Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats in captivity.<br/><br/>5) Monitor wombat biology and ecology. This includes ongoing studies of diet, reproduction, habitat utilization, behavior, and burrow architecture.<br/><br/>6) Manage the recovery team. A full-time Recovery Manager is responsible for coordinating and implementing the Recovery Plan, making all relevant information available to recovery personnel, obtaining funding for the Recovery Plan, and undertaking research and monitoring.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
11343	distribution	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Horsup, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it formerly ranged from Deniliquin in south-central New South Wales north to Mount Douglas in central Queensland. It is currently restricted to Epping Forest National Park, 120 km north-west of Clermont in central Queensland (Horsup and Johnson 2008). The species' range at Epping Forest National Park covers 500 ha, or less than one sixth of the park (Horsup 2004; Horsup and Johnson 2008). Fossils of this species have been found as far south as Victoria.	eng
11343	habitat	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Horsup, A., 2008	It is found in areas of deep alluvial soils and open eucalypt woodlands along inland river systems. The species requires a supply of perennial native grasses near to its burrows (Horsup 1999).	eng
11343	population	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Horsup, A., 2008	The current population of Northern Hairy-nosed Wombats is 115 animals (Horsup and Johnson 2008). The population had fallen as low as 30-40 individuals in the early 1980s, but the exclusion of cattle from its range in 1982 led to a steady increase in numbers. Periods of drought can greatly reduce the population (as in the mid 1990s) (Horsup and Johnson 2008). In 2000 Dingoes eliminated 15-20 individuals and a 20-km-long fence now encompasses the entire population (Horsup and Johnson 2008).	eng
11343	threats	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Horsup, A., 2008	The species declined through extensive broad-scale habitat destruction and competition with cattle and sheep, particularly during droughts (Horsup 2004). It is currently threatened by its small colony size, making it vulnerable to local catastrophes (disease or wildfire), demographic and environmental stochasticity, inbreeding and subsequent loss of genetic variation, and by native competitors and introduced predators (Horsup 2004). Introduced buffel grass is taking over its natural habitat within Epping Forest National Park.	eng
11345	conservation	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Research actions. This species is found in protected areas.	eng
11345	distribution	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Colombia and Venezuela; Central Chile, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Central Argentina; Hawaii (USA); Guatemala and Mexico throughout the USA to Southern British Columbia, Southeastern Mackenzie, Hudson Bay and Southern Quebec (Canada); Galápagos Islands (Ecuador) (Simmons 2005). Panama (Samudio pers. comm.). Also in Brazil.	eng
11345	habitat	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Insectivorous, migratory. Poorly known. Authorities disagree as to the bat's preference for coniferous versus broadleaf trees. Hoary bats are thought to prefer trees at the edge of clearings, but have been found in trees in heavy forests, open wooded glades, and shade trees along urban streets and in city parks (Anderson 2002).	eng
11345	population	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Common. Hoary bats are solitary. They roost 3 to 5 m above ground during the day, usually in the foliage of trees. They prefer dense leaf coverage above and an open area below. They also prefer trees that border clearings. They have been seen roosting in a woodpecker hole in British Columbia, in the nest of a gray squirrel, and under a driftwood plank. Occasionally they are found clinging to the overhangs of buildings and in caves in the latter part of the summer. They often have trouble finding their way out of the caves and die there (Anderson 2002).<br/>Hoary bats reach their peak activity at about five hours after sunset, although they may occasionally be seen flying on warm winter afternoons. Their flight is strong and direct, reaching speeds of thirteen miles/hr. While hunting, they soar and glide. They forage about the tree tops, along streams and lake shores, and in urban areas where there are lots of trees. These bats stop to rest between meals at night. Feeding is the only time that hoary bats appear to associate with other bat species. Hoary bats often form groups when hunting for insects (Anderson 2002).	eng
11345	threats	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Hoary bats are widespread and secure over much of their range (Anderson 2002). Deforestation and human disturbance are threats in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
11346	conservation	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Miller, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
11346	distribution	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Miller, B., 2008	Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil to Western North America; Trinidad and Tobago; Galápagos (Ecuador) (Simmons 2005). Not in Chile (Barquez pers. comm.). Cozumel Island (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
11346	habitat	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Miller, B., 2008	Insectivorous. Found in cities, trees. Probably a migratory species.	eng
11346	population	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Miller, B., 2008	Solitary, but sometimes can be found in large groups (Acosta and Lara 1950). Common and widespread. Because avoid mist nets can be underrepresented. Easily detected by acoustic methods.	eng
11346	threats	Gonzalez, E., Barquez, R. & Miller, B., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
11347	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas in Mexico.	eng
11347	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Eastern North America, Bermuda (Simmons 2005). Northeastern Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
11347	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	They tend to choose habitats that are sparsely to moderately populated by humans and are rare in heavily urbanized areas. Mating takes place in flight and copulation usually occurs in August or September. The sperm is stored until the spring, usually March or April. Female red bats possess four mammary glands while most other chiropterans have two. Female red bats give birth to one litter of twins each year, unlike most bats which give birth to single young. Newborn bats are hairless and weigh approximately 1.5 g. The young learn to fly at about five weeks old. Like all mammals, female red bats nurse their young until the young are able to fend for themselves. It takes young red bats about five weeks to learn how to fly and forage on their own (Myers and Hatchett 2000).<br/>Lasiurus borealis choose roosting sites in dense foliage. They may be visible hanging from branches or leaves but their coloration helps to camouflage them from predators. Their red coat is particularly helpful at camouflaging them in sycamore, oaks, elm, and box elder trees and they seem to prefer these trees as roost sites (Constantine, 1996). Sites that have been used as roosting areas range from 2 to 40 feet off the ground. The roosting sites of solitary bats have not been as well studied as those of more gregarious bats. Some field workers believe that red bats defend feeding territories. (Constantine, 1966; Fenton, 1985)<br/>Red bats are insectivorous. They capture insects while flying like many other insectivorous bats (Myers and Hatchett 2000).	eng
11347	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Red bats are migratory, arriving in the northern climates in mid-April and leaving in late October. There are records of bats hibernating in the northern parts of their range, but they typically migrate to warmer regions. When red bats hibernate they choose hollow trees. They maintain body temperatures just above freezing and cannot withstand prolonged periods of below freezing temperatures. They may lose up to 25% of their pre-hibernation weight by spring, severely depleting fat reserves (Fenton, 1985).	eng
11347	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Red bats are secure over most of their range and are not considered threatened (Myers and Hatchett 2000).	eng
11348	conservation	Pineda, W., Rodriguez, B., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Found in protected areas in Panama, research actions.	eng
11348	distribution	Pineda, W., Rodriguez, B., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Restricted to Panama and Costa Rica. One locality for Costa Rica (Dinerstein 1985). Captures in Central Amazonia (Sampaio <em>et al.</em> 2003). A record from French Guiana was subsequently reidentified as atratus (Handley, 1996).	eng
11348	habitat	Pineda, W., Rodriguez, B., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
11348	population	Pineda, W., Rodriguez, B., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
11348	threats	Pineda, W., Rodriguez, B., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Not known.	eng
11349	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The type locality is in Parque Estadual da Ilha do Cardoso. Further surveys are needed in the surrounding area, using appropriate methodology, to improve understanding of the species distribution and ecology and to clarify its relationship to other species of <em>Lasuriurus</em>.	eng
11349	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Known only from type locality: Brazil, eastern Sao Paulo, Parque Estadual da Ihla do Cardoso (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
11349	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is poorly known. Probably its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus<em>. As an aerial insectivore of uncluttered space, sampling methodology needs to be appropriate.</em></em>	eng
11349	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare. Nowak (1999) reports that <em>Lasiurus ebenus</em> is known only from a single specimen from the vicinity of Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil, in a region that is undergoing intensive human habitat destruction.	eng
11349	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The region of Sao Paulo is undergoing intensive human habitat destruction.	eng
11350	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Belize and Mexico	eng
11350	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Southern Texas, Eastern and Southern Mexico south to Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Also found in Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas and Suriname.	eng
11350	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Bats of the genus <em>Lasiurus</em> generally occur in wooded areas and roost in foliage. Occasionally these bats roost in tree holes or buildings. In the U.S. <em>L. ega</em> is associated with introduced palms, which is thought to be a reason for its recent expansion northward. They can be found alone or in groups with up 20 individuals. They can be found in degradeted areas and roofs made with palm (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
11350	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Common. They disappeared from the native trees (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
11350	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
11351	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Research is required on distribution, abundance,  basic ecology and threats.	eng
11351	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Known only from a few localities. This species occurs in extreme southeastern Panama, but the extent of its range into northwestern Colombia is unknown; also occurs in southern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Lowlands only (Reid, 1997).	eng
11351	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	This bat is poorly known. Caught in a mist net set across a stream through tall evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Probably its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus</em>. It is assumed to be an aerial insectivore of uncluttered space on the basis of its morphology.	eng
11351	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Rare; known only from a few specimens (Reid, 1997). As an aerial insectivore this species is difficult to capture using current survey methodologies and so may be more abundant than currently thought.	eng
11351	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
11352	conservation	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Research actions. It is found in some protected areas.	eng
11352	distribution	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs from Honduras to Sinaloa (Mexico) and through Texas to Florida and New Jersey (USA) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,600 m (Reid, 1997). Found in Costa Rica.	eng
11352	habitat	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species can be found in coniferous and broadleaf forest and dry thorn scrub (Reid 1997). It roosts in Spanish moss, under dead palm leaves or dry corn stalks. This species appears to be more social than other <em>Lasiurus</em> species, and may form nursery colonies. It usually forages 3 to 4 m above ground over open, grassy areas, and 100 or more bats may aggregate when feeding (Barbour and Davis 1969). Northern populations reproduce in May to June, and litter size is 2 to 4 (Reid 1997).	eng
11352	population	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common in suitable habitat (Reid, 1997; Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
11352	threats	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	No major threats.	eng
11353	conservation	Timm, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Research actions.	eng
11353	distribution	Timm, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Florida and Texas to Oklahoma and Virginia; Pennsylvania and New York (USA); Bermuda. N Veracruz (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).	eng
11353	habitat	Timm, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Seminole bats are insectivorous. They feed at dusk, while in flight, on flies, beetles, dragonflies, bees, wasps, and crickets. They are quick and direct when flying, feeding mostly near the tops of trees at about 6 to 15 m. However, it is not uncommon to see them over open ponds, along forest edges, or near lights, presumably where insects accumulate. Like most microchiropterans, seminole bats find their insect prey through echolocation (Genoud, 1990).<br/>Generally, seminole bats are found in lowland forest stands of mixed deciduous and pine trees. Although several bats may be found hanging together, roosting alone is more common. They hang 1.5 to 6.1 m above the ground on the southwest side of trees, clinging to the inside of clumps of Spanish moss (<em>Tillandsia usneoides</em>), leaves, or loose bark. The area directly below the moss where they hang is clear of other branches. This allows these bats to drop down to begin their flight. The ground beneath them is covered with leaf litter and other organic debris. This reduces the amount of sunlight that is reflected on them when hanging.<br/>Roosting is more common in pine trees, especially during parturition and lactation. The trees that are selected for roosting are taller and larger in diameter than other trees near the roost area. Selected trees are also tend to be near forest edges that permit easy flight paths. (Constantine 1958 and 1966, Barbour and Davis 1969, Menzel <em>et al.</em> 1998)	eng
11353	population	Timm, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	<em>L. seminolus</em> is a solitary bat species. Individuals usually roost alone and remain in the roost whenever the temperature is below 21°C. If the relative humidity increases, they are able to fly at lower temperatures. A sighting was reported at 20°C when the relative humidity was 38%. They do not hibernate, but do go into torpor. These bats fly throughout the year and have been spotted on warm days in the middle of winter. Seasonal migration does occur within their range in the southeastern United States. There are fewer seminole bats in the northern portions of their range during the winter, but in the south they are one of the most abundant bats active at that time of year. They have been known to join groups of migrating birds on southward migrations. No studies have yet been done to determine how they navigate their migration route. The possibilities include visual landmarks, smells, or winds. (Constantine 1958, Neuweiler 2000)<br/>There have been no longevity studies on seminole bats. It has been noted that more females than males have been recorded in the older age class, which indicates a higher male mortality rate. If seminole bats survive the perils of youth, it is likely that they will live for many years. (Kunz and Racey 1998).	eng
11353	threats	Timm, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Since these bats roost primarily in Spanish moss, the gathering of this moss could affect roosting behaviour. No studies have been done to determine whether there has been an impact, but educating moss collectors about these roosting requirements could help seminole bats (Walker 2002).	eng
11369	conservation	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Its range is protected within a World Heritage Site. Conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> snakes should take into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.	eng
11369	distribution	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Te-Nggano of Rennell Island, Solomon Islands (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). The total extent of occurrence of this species is about 155 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
11369	habitat	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is believed to be viviparous and highly seasonal in reproduction, but data supporting this is limited (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1987).  It has never been observed on land, suggesting that it may be completely aquatic (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987). Unlike other members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda,</span> it eats fish of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris</span> (gobies). The species is sexually dimorphic with larger and heavier females. The lake has a depth of 44 m, and is a mixture of brackish, fresh and salt water. The average distance from the lake shore to the ocean is 2 km.	eng
11369	population	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no known population information for this species, but its range is restricted to a small geographic area. There have been no surveys for this species since 1987.	eng
11369	threats	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	As this species inhabits a single lake, any threats or disturbance to this lake may have serious consequences for it. At present there is little information on current threats. The main threats to this species may be anthropogenic threats in the near future, such as coastal development, pollution and harvesting, or natural events such as extreme weather leading to influx of sea water into the lake.	eng
11374	conservation	Molur, S. & Vanitharani, J., 2008	This is the only fruit bat to be accorded the highest form of protection under the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, amended in 2006 (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). The species has been recorded from protected areas including Kalakkad-Mundunthurai National Park in Tamil Nadu and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala. Thorough survey, ecology, population monitoring, habitat assessment, foraging distances and public awareness among the local tribal people is urgently recommended. There is a need to identify key roosting sites and to protect these localities.	eng
11374	distribution	Molur, S. & Vanitharani, J., 2008	This species is endemic to India and is presently known from localities in Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala State and in Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve, Kardana Coffee Estate, Megamalai, High Wavy Mountains in Tamil Nadu State (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its occurrence in Uppinangadi in Karnataka reported by R. Krishnan and A. Chakravorty (pers. comm. to Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) requires verification and is therefore not considered here for the assessment. It has been recorded from elevations of 800 m to 1,100 m asl. The extent of occurrence of this species is 101-5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 501-2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). More specifically, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) calculate the extent of occurrence as being around 1,100 km² based on the location of roosts, while they calculate the area of occupancy as 10.05 km² based on the estimate by Singaravelan and Marimuthu (2003) of a foraging distance of 0.8 km from the roost	eng
11374	habitat	Molur, S. & Vanitharani, J., 2008	It is a cave dwelling bat that is very sensitive to disturbance (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is found in montane evergreen forest and coffee/cardamom plantations (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fig it eats has been identified as <em>Ficus racemosa</em>, but Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) infer from nuts from the roost that the bat also feeds on the fruits of <em>Eleaocarpus serratus</em>, <em>E. tuberculatus</em> and <em>Dichapetalum gelanioides</em>.	eng
11374	population	Molur, S. & Vanitharani, J., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are poorly known. However, Agoramoorthy (2000) and Singaravelan and Marimuthu (2003) note populations of 250-350 individuals of this species in the caves they observed. Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> (2004) report counting 50-400 bats in day and night roosts. In the recent past there has been observed a significant decline in its population (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
11374	threats	Molur, S. & Vanitharani, J., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for local consumption as traditional medicine, for extraction of oil to cure asthma and disturbance to roosting sites by humans in High Wavy Mountains (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al. </em>2004). Tree cutting in coffee estates where permanent roosts are identified is a major threat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Singaravelan and Marimuthu 2003).	eng
11375	conservation	Musick, J.A., 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I	eng
11375	distribution	Musick, J.A., 2000	Known as the "living fossil", this species occurs in the Indo-West Pacific in the vicinity of the Grand Comoro and Anjouan islands, the coast of South Africa, Madagascar, and Mozambique.	eng
11375	habitat	Musick, J.A., 2000	<em>L. chalumnae</em> is a nocturnal hunter, sheltering within caves throughout the day and foraging at night on squid and other fish species.	eng
11378	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g.. Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo). Other than studies into the possible effects of human activity on population dynamics of this bat, and additional research into the range of this species, no conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
11378	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This widespread African bat is broadly distributed south of the Sahara from Gambia (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Senegal, through much of West and Central Africa, to southern and central Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996) and Somalia in the east (Funaioli and Simonetta, 1966); from here it ranges southwards as far as northern Zambia (Ansell 1978) and northern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988; Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It is typically a lowland species found below 2,000 m asl.	eng
11378	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is widespread in riparian habitats in low lying acacia woodland, thorn scrubland and savanna (Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It is generally associated with open habitats and is probably absent from undisturbed rainforest (Koopman pers. comm. in Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999). It usually roosts as individual animals in tree hollows, but has been recorded roosting in buildings (Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987; Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999).	eng
11378	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it is probably uncommon (Vonhof and Kalcounis 1999).	eng
11378	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	While Vonhof and Kalcounis (1999) state that the effects of human activity on population dynamics of this bat are unknown, there do not appear to be any major threats to the species.	eng
11379	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11379	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on shores of Tanzania, DRC, Zambia, but not Burundi. There are 36 known sites and it is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.	eng
11379	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found among rocks and boulders in wave swept zone, especially 0-5 m, but found as deep as 20 m.	eng
11379	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Population densities on order of 1-10 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> on appropriate substrates (large boulders in shallow water) (E. Michel pers. comm.).	eng
11379	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	The species is recognized as being threatened by sedimentation in Tanzania; exclusion from Burundi possibly due to sedimentation.	eng
11380	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11380	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. The type locality is at Ujiji. It is present on all shores, and known from 56 locations. It is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.	eng
11380	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is abundant in the littoral zone of the lake, where it browses on algae on wave-beaten rocks.	eng
11380	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
11380	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Sedimentation is the most crucial threat to the species.	eng
11381	conservation		It is considered rare in Queensland and is protected by state legislation. Some sites from where it is known occur in National Parks.	eng
11381	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs south from Mistake Mountains (southeastern Queensland) to Gosford (northeastern New South Wales).	eng
11381	habitat		The species has a marked preference for mesic forests in areas of high rainfall and deeper soils on mid slopes or plateaux. It hides amongst leaves and other ground cover on the forest floor, and is largely terrestrial. It breeds in ephemeral waterbodies in these areas. It lays about 300 eggs in a foam nest. Tadpoles are cannibalistic.	eng
11381	population		It is widespread, and abundant in suitable habitat. There is no information on population size, structure, dynamics or genetic variation.	eng
11381	threats		In the past clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest significantly reduced the habitat of the species and much of its remaining habitat has been logged. Logging of wet sclerophyll forest continues to be a threat. It is considered rare in Queensland because of its restricted distribution.	eng
11384	conservation	Morris, K., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas, including the Kadadu National Park and the Thevenard Island Nature Reserve.	eng
11384	distribution	Morris, K., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it occurs from Cape York in the east to the Pilbara, in Western Australia, although the distribution is discontinuous (Moro and Kutt 2008). There are populations present on Thevenard Island and Serrurier Island (the latter is a translocated population – intentionally introduced for conservation purposes), both in Western Australia (Lee 1995; Moro and Kutt 2008).	eng
11384	habitat	Morris, K., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in areas of open tussock and hummock grassland, acacia shrubland, and savanna woodland, on alluvial clay or sandy soils (Lee 1995; Moro and Kutt 2008). Females give birth to two litters annually. Litters contain up to four young and the gestation period lasts about 30 days (Moro and Kutt 2008).	eng
11384	population	Morris, K., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	The population is rare and scattered on the mainland with large annual fluctuations (Moro and Kutt 2008). It is common on islands (Moro and Kutt 2008). On islands, populations rise and fall in relation to rainfall and climatic conditions, but this may not be true of mainland populations. A study of the species at Kakadu showed that large population fluctuations had little to do with environmental factors (Moro and Kutt 2008).	eng
11384	threats	Morris, K., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species. The Thevenard Island form is threatened by possible competition with the House Mouse (<em>Mus musculus</em> or <em>Mus domesticus</em>, there in not total agreement about which represents the House Mouse in Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.)) (Lee 1995). A recently constructed oil base has also been constructed, covering about 10% of the island, and it appears to be a threat.	eng
11385	conservation	Robinson, T. & Read, J., 2008	It is present in some protected areas.	eng
11385	distribution	Robinson, T. & Read, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the arid and semi-arid areas of central Australia, from the plains of Lake Eyre Basin to the Northern Territory. It is absent from the Central Desert. It is also not found continuously throughout range; patchy distribution.	eng
11385	habitat	Robinson, T. & Read, J., 2008	This nocturnal species is found in arid areas where it is associated with tussock grasslands, cracking clay plains, and low shrublands on plains with loam, clay, or stony soils (Reid 2008). It is rarely recorded from mulga woodlands, spinifex grasslands, rocky-hills, and areas of sand dune (Reid 2008). Females give birth to a litter of between three and four young, and reproduction is believed to be generally related to rainfall (Reid 2008).	eng
11385	population	Robinson, T. & Read, J., 2008	Population levels fluctuate with rainfall.	eng
11385	threats	Robinson, T. & Read, J., 2008	There are no major, widespread threats to this species. High levels of grazing, particularly by sheep, is a localized threat. Feral cats and red foxes may be a localized threats.	eng
11387	conservation	van der Straeten, E. &  Schlitter, D., 2008	The type locality is not within a protected area. Research to establish the species extent of occurrence, population status and habitat requirements is urgently needed.	eng
11387	distribution	van der Straeten, E. &  Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Bismarckburg, Togo. It probably also occurs in Ghana as the type locality is very close to the border. The elevational range is not known. <em>Leimacomys</em> was first collected by R. Büttner or his local assistant in 1890 and the locality given as Bismarckburg, which was the colonial district headquarter located east of the modern town of Yegué, about 20 km east of KRNP in Togo (08°15'N; 00°40'E). Only two specimens were preserved at the Humboldt Museum in Berlin and were subsequently described as a new species, but they remain the only known specimens today (Dieterlen 1976; Denys 1993; Misonne 1966). In the 1990s, two expeditions attempted to rediscover <em>Leimacomys buettneri</em> but without success (Decher pers. comm.).	eng
11387	habitat	van der Straeten, E. &  Schlitter, D., 2008	The type locality is in the forest zone. The dentition and stomach contents point to a partially insectivorous diet the short tail suggests a terrestrial life style (D. Kock pers. comm.). Nothing else is known of habits or habitat.	eng
11387	population	van der Straeten, E. &  Schlitter, D., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known. The species has not been recorded since it was first described. There have not been surveys using appropriate techniques, hence it is difficult to draw any conclusions because of the poor capture rate.	eng
11387	threats	van der Straeten, E. &  Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although it occurs in a remote region that is not known to be threatened at present.	eng
11450	conservation		The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC) through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan administers conservation management of the species and permits appropriate research, including a collaborative program with Auckland Zoo which has recently established a new facility for breeding and maintaining the species. Recent declines and the positive identification of chytrid fungus has stimulated urgent research and management of the species, including pathology, population monitoring, captive management and molecular research. This involves DOC and Canterbury, Massey, Otago and Victoria Universities.	eng
11450	distribution		This species occurs in the Whareorino range in the west and Coromandel ranges in the east on North Island, New Zealand. Ranges from 400-1,000m asl.	eng
11450	habitat		A terrestrial and nocturnal species, it occurs mostly at higher altitudes in forested ranges and more open sub-alpine scrub. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which undergo direct development without a larval stage.	eng
11450	population		Formerly, this species was recorded in the tens of thousands, but declines since 1996 have reduced the numbers throughout their range. The decline was first noted in 1996; one study population on the Tapu Ridge declined by 88% (433 frogs down to 53 frogs) over the period 1996-2002.	eng
11450	threats		The definitive cause of the decline of this species is still not known, though disease of some kind is the most likely cause, in particular chytridiomycosis. Chytrid fungus infection was first identified in this species in September 2001 (specimen collected June 2001 at Te Moehu). Declines of species were documented through most of its range-central Coromandel (1996-1998), northern Coromandel (2000-2001) and Whareorino (2001).	eng
11451	conservation		A tuatara-proof fence has been constructed around the frog's habitat. Regular population monitoring is also in place, and an island habitat restoration programme is under way. The prevention of accidental colonization by introduced mammalian predators is necessary. Translocation of some frogs to a second island is under consideration. The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC) through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan administers conservation management of this species and permits appropriate species research.	eng
11451	distribution		This species is confined to a single rock stack on Stephens Island in New Zealand. Translocation to an adjoining man-made rock stack on Stephens Island has been attempted but with limited success.	eng
11451	habitat		It is found on boulder banks near the summit of Stephens Island. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which undergo direct development without a larval stage.	eng
11451	population		The total population numbers less than 300 individuals.	eng
11451	threats		The major threats to the species are introduced mammalian predators (e.g. <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and possibly disease (chytridiomycosis has been recently identified in the closely related <em>L. archeyi</em>). Tuatara (<em>Sphenodon punctatus</em>) also prey on the species.	eng
11452	conservation	Ben Bell, Mandy Tocher, Philip Bishop, Bruce Waldman, 2009	The NZ Department of Conservation (DOC), through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan, administers conservation management of this species and permits appropriate species research. Possible declines, and the identity of chytrid fungus in <em>Leiopelma archeyi</em>, have stimulated urgent research and management of the two species, including studies on pathology, population monitoring, captive management and molecular research. This involves DOC and Canterbury, Massey, Otago, and Victoria Universities. Recent studies have suggested that this species might comprise cryptic species, and hence taxonomic research is recommended to resolve this taxonomic issue.	eng
11452	distribution	Ben Bell, Mandy Tocher, Philip Bishop, Bruce Waldman, 2009	This species is known from numerous localities in northern North Island, New Zealand.	eng
11452	habitat	Ben Bell, Mandy Tocher, Philip Bishop, Bruce Waldman, 2009	This semi-aquatic species can be found alongside forested creeks and watercourses, mostly in native forest, but surviving to some extent in modified habitats such as farmland and exotic forest. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which then undergo direct development without a larval stage.	eng
11452	population	Ben Bell, Mandy Tocher, Philip Bishop, Bruce Waldman, 2009	It is a common species.	eng
11452	threats	Ben Bell, Mandy Tocher, Philip Bishop, Bruce Waldman, 2009	Disease (chytridiomycosis) will most likely be a major threat to this species in the near future, as it has recently been identified in the related <em>L. archeyi</em>. This species co-exists with introduced mammalian predators (such as <em>Rattus rattus</em>, <em>Mustela erminea</em>), but their long-term impact on the species is uncertain. Habitat loss, due to the conversion of native habitat to pine plantations, is certainly a threat, as is the siltation of breeding streams that takes place as a result of logging and road building activities.	eng
11454	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The Prince Regent is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve; a protected area managed to combine both conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (UNESCO 2005).	eng
11454	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Prince Regent and upper Roe Rivers, in the Kimberley region (Western Australia).	eng
11454	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>L. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits clear, flowing streams over sandstone bottoms.  It is also common in open rocky pools with minimal aquatic vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Not much is known about its biology, but breeding presumably takes place during the dry season (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
11454	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	It is reasonably common within its range, and is one of the most abundant species in Camp Creek, a tributary of the lower Prince Regent River (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
11454	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
11469	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Found on the Madeiran Island of Porto Santo. Currently found at seven sites on the island, one at the west end, four sites on the summits of the hills in the east, one near the coast behind the harbour.	eng
11469	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs among small stones, on dead wood and amongst leaf litter around summits.	eng
11470	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Found on the Madeiran islands of Porto Santo and Ilheu de Baixo.	eng
11470	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	On grassy ledges and in rock crevices just above the spray zone.	eng
11480	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Protected by law, listed as rare species in Red List of Russian Far East. Occurs in protected areas.	eng
11480	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Larch taiga of E Siberia; from the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma Rivers southeastward onto the Kamchatka Peninsula, and southward through the Verkhoyansk and Cherskogo Mtns and the Omolon River to the upper Amur River basin and region east of Lake Baikal; also on islands in the New Siberian Arch (Novosibirskiye Ostrova).	eng
11480	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Found mostly near marches in larch taiga. In Southern Yakutia (Chulman River) prefer open mild and ovemoisured areas with moss, grass and shrubs (Revin, 1983). In Kolyma found in herb and cereal meadow near larch forest and in ling near lakes. In Kamchatka found in tundra on old vulcano Uzon (Kronotsky State Reserve) and on western coast in shrub habitats. Feeds mostly on green mosses (Dicraium, Drepanocladus, and Hyloomnium). Also consumes lings, cotton grass, and insects during summer. Gives 2-4 litters per year, under snow reproduction has not been recorded. Litter size in overwintered females is 5-9, in young females 3-6.	eng
11480	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare, but widespread species. Doesn't have population outbreaks as other lemming species.	eng
11480	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare species with sporadic distribution and low reproduction rate. Major threats are unknown.	eng
11481	conservation	Henttonen, H., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
11481	distribution	Henttonen, H., 2008	The Norway lemming is endemic to Norway, western and northern Sweden, northern Finland, and the Kola peninsula (Russia). It is found on at least some islands. During population outbreaks, it may migrate as far as the Baltic (Hansson 1999). The southern border of the range is not stable due to large migrations that occur occasionally.	eng
11481	habitat	Henttonen, H., 2008	It inhabits a variety of alpine and subarctic habitats including peat bogs, dwarf shrub heaths, and sparsely-vegetated slopes and ridges. Habitat use varies seasonally: in summer it prefers very moist habitats, whereas in winter it must use other habitats as wet areas freeze. During mass outbreaks, it can be found in forests, farmland, and even on frozen lakes. Large numbers of migrating lemmings may accumulate next to rivers and lakes that bar their passage, and many drown attempting the crossing (Hansson 1999).	eng
11481	population	Henttonen, H., 2008	It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. The species declined in Sweden in the last decades of the 20th century, but it is thought to have remained stable in other parts of its range (Hansson 1999). It is typical for northern lemmings to have population booms every 20-30 years. In Sweden, intensive grazing was thought to be a problem for the species, but perceived population declines may have been a result of natural population fluctuation: long low phases are common for populations in Sweden, and some large populations have been found in Sweden in recent years (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
11481	threats	Henttonen, H., 2008	It has been speculated that heavy grazing by semi-domesticated reindeer may have a negative impact on the species' habitat in Sweden (Hansson 1999). Climate change may threaten the species in the future (Nowak 1999). At present, the species is not under major threat.	eng
11482	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
11482	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
11482	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed across the Palaearctic tundra zone from the White Sea to Kolyma (Russian Federation); also found on New Siberia Island and Wrangel Island.	eng
11482	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed across the Palaearctic tundra zone from the White Sea to Kolyma (Russian Federation); also found on New Siberia Island and Wrangel Island.	eng
11482	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	An abundant species in tundra habitats. Populations reach maximum densities in lowland tundra with substantial moss and sedge cover. Also distributed in wetlands on shrubby tundra foothills, and in wetlands at the edge of the forest zone (Arkhangelsk, Northern Urals, Gyda peninsula, Taimyr). Lives in burrows, forming large colonies. Digs its own burrow, or occupies existing burrows of other species. In winter makes tunnels under snow cover and builds large spherical nests. Feeds on sedges, cotton-grass, green mosses and various shrubs. Reproductive peak starts in June and ends in August, however, during periods of low population density reproduction is extended and starts immediately after snowmelt. Animals that have overwintered die off by the end of the following breeding season. During summer produces 4-5 litters with 5-6 young in each. Like <em>Lemmus lemmus</em>, this species has large population fluctuations with a 3-4 year cycle; however, migrations are less pronounced. In summer dispersal occurs and preferred foraging habitat changes.	eng
11482	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	An abundant species in tundra habitats. Populations reach maximum densities in lowland tundra with substantial moss and sedge cover. Also distributed in wetlands on shrubby tundra foothills, and in wetlands at the edge of the forest zone (Arkhangelsk, Northern Urals, Gyda peninsula, Taimyr). Lives in burrows, forming large colonies. Digs its own burrow, or occupies existing burrows of other species. In winter makes tunnels under snow cover and builds large spherical nests. Feeds on sedges, cotton-grass, green mosses and various shrubs. Reproductive peak starts in June and ends in August, however, during periods of low population density reproduction is extended and starts immediately after snowmelt. Animals that have overwintered die off by the end of the following breeding season. During summer produces 4-5 litters with 5-6 young in each. Like <em>Lemmus lemmus</em>, this species has large population fluctuations with a 3-4 year cycle; however, migrations are less pronounced. In summer dispersal occurs and preferred foraging habitat changes.	eng
11482	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	A widespread and common species; has marked population cycles with periodicity of 3-4 years.	eng
11482	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	A widespread and common species; has marked population cycles with periodicity of 3-4 years.	eng
11482	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to this species known at present. Climate change may be a problem in the future.	eng
11482	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species known at present. Climate change may be a problem in the future.	eng
11483	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	This species is limited to high/intermediate elevations on ledges on high crags, usually under leaf litter on ledges or behind <em>Sempervivum</em>.	eng
11485	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in Portugal; Porto Santo (Madeiran Archipelago).	eng
11485	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in crags and grassy slopes, under sand on stones.	eng
11485	threats	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Changes to the habitat quality through grazing, land improvement schemes, increased tourist traffic and habitat destruction threaten this species.	eng
11486	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The area in which this species has been recorded is not protected. There is a need to monitor population trends of this species within its high elevation distribution.	eng
11486	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known from ten specimens collected by Eisentraut in the 1960s at Lake Oku on the Banso Highlands, on Mount Oku, western Cameroon at 2,100 to 2,300 m asl. Collections in similar habitats in Nigeria have failed to find this species.	eng
11486	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in sub-Afroalpine grassland above the forest line. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
11486	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
11486	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to the species at present in its high elevation habitat, although it may be locally affected by livestock grazing of grasslands. It is plausibly threatened by future climate change related events.	eng
11487	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It may occur in some very small protected areas, but this would need to be confirmed.	eng
11487	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a Mediterranean endemic species. It is mostly confined to a narrow coastal strip in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, northwest and north of the Atlas Mountains (Carleton and Van der Straeten, 1997). There are also two records from the base of the Atlas Mountains. It occurs from sea level to the Plateau Central, at least up to 1,000 m (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
11487	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in Mediterranean scrubland and woodland (Carleton and Van der Straeten 1997), and is also found in arable lands. The species has been recorded from rocky outcrops in vegetated coastal dunes, juniper scrub, argon sage grassland and argon savanna. It is also found in agricultural areas and in open forest. The species is active during the day and is therefore rarely found in owl pellets.	eng
11487	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	In some years the species is very common, but in other years densities are very low.	eng
11487	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is an attractive rodent that is kept by some people as a pet, but although some animals are collected from the wild and exported for the pet market, it is also very easy to breed in captivity so this trade is not considered a serious threat to the species.	eng
11488	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within the species range (e.g., Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, and Mole National Park, Ghana)	eng
11488	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded in the 'Guinea and Doka woodland' of central Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana (Van der Straeten 1975; Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002); it possibly also occurs in Sierra Leone. The distribution area is probably larger than is currently known.	eng
11488	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a dry savanna species. Presumably the species can persist in areas with some disturbance.	eng
11488	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is not abundant, but is regularly found in suitable habitat.	eng
11488	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
11489	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in the Kameia and Luanda protected areas of Angola.	eng
11489	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs in Angola with its range extending into northwestern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
11489	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a savanna species (Miombo Woodland). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
11489	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is widespread across Angola, and is presumed to be common.	eng
11489	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
11490	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
11490	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This species is known only from a single locality and one specimen collected at Paloich, 12 miles north of Niayok, Upper Nile Province in eastern Sudan.	eng
11490	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is a moist savanna species. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
11490	population	van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
11490	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
11491	conservation	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This species occurs in Comoe National Park in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
11491	distribution	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This species occurs in northern Côte d'Ivoire, a few sites in Mali and it is known from a single record in Senegal. The species is presumed to occur in Ghana and Guinea but no specimens have been recorded to date. In Mali it has been recorded from 500 to 700 m asl; it probably is present at higher elevations in Guinea.	eng
11491	habitat	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is found in dry savanna in northern Côte d'Ivoire. The species is associated with the 'Sudan Savannah Zone'. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
11491	population	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is locally common in Côte d'Ivoire in suitable habitat, and is reported to be common in Mali.	eng
11491	threats	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
11492	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Lavrenchenko, L. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is likely to occur in a large number of protected areas.	eng
11492	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Lavrenchenko, L. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and quite possibly Rwanda; the precise range limits are not well known. It has an altitudinal range of 500 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
11492	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Lavrenchenko, L. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is found in semi-arid areas, such as dry river beds, open grasslands with Acacias and <em>Euphorbia candelabra</em>, and rarely in dense grasslands. In southeastern Sudan, it occurs in regions where rainfall is 800 to 1,200 mm per annum. It may also favour rocky outcrops. In moister areas, this species is found in fire climax grasslands and moist savanna. This is a granivorous species.	eng
11492	population	van der Straeten, E., Lavrenchenko, L. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	In Uganda where it is parapatric with <em>L. striatus</em>, <em>L. macculus</em> is less numerous. In northern parts of the range (e.g., Ethiopia) it is very common (L. Lavrenchenko pers. comm.) , but it is certainly less common than other species, and there are not as many specimens from this area in museums	eng
11492	threats	van der Straeten, E., Lavrenchenko, L. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
11493	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Monadjem, A. & Corti, M., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. There is an urgent need to resolve the taxonomy of this species complex; it may comprise at least two species based on chromosonal data (Castiglia <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
11493	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Monadjem, A. & Corti, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from northern Namibia, South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North-West Province and Limpopo Province), Swaziland, Zimbabwe, central and northern Botswana, Angola, Mozambique, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and southern Kenya; the range is not fully resolved. The species has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,200 m asl, but it is mostly found below 1,000 m.	eng
11493	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Monadjem, A. & Corti, M., 2008	This species tolerates a wide range of savanna habitats, but tall grass is essential. It vacates recently burnt areas, but returns as soon as the grass recovers. It often occurs in agricultural areas, especially fallow fields. It is absent from montane grasslands and forests. This species is terrestrial and predominantly crepuscular, it forms nests at the base of grass clumps.	eng
11493	population	van der Straeten, E., Monadjem, A. & Corti, M., 2008	It is relatively common to very common, and occurs in high densities in suitable habitat (15 animals per hectare, but even higher if there is supplementary food available [A. Monadjem pers. comm.]).	eng
11493	threats	van der Straeten, E., Monadjem, A. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
11494	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no protected areas in this region. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.	eng
11494	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality (Zambezi) and Solwezi in Zambia, but it is quite probably more widespread and presumably ranges into Angola.	eng
11494	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in dry <em>Cryptocephalum</em> Forest (a very dense type of forest). This unique habitat extends into Angola, but it is not found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
11494	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known, but there are specimens in several collections.	eng
11494	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The forest is being cleared, particularly near urban areas, for charcoal production.	eng
11495	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Corti, M. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed as this is a species compex.	eng
11495	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Corti, M. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	This taxon has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Burkina Faso west to Ethiopia and south into northern Angola, through Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania into northeastern Zambia and northern Malawi. It has been expanding its distribution in response to habitat change, and the current range is therefore larger than it would have been historically. It is found from sea level to high altitudes (1,700 m asl and possibly higher).	eng
11495	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Corti, M. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It does not occur in closed high forest, but in areas of former forest that have been cleared for agriculture, or by logging, the taxon is present. It occurs in open places in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, secondary forest, open dry forest and savanna; also found in cultivated lands.	eng
11495	population	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Corti, M. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	It is very common in open areas.	eng
11495	threats	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Corti, M. & Abdel-Rahman, E.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this taxon.	eng
11496	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in a number of protected areas including six national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Isalo, Kirindy-Mitea, Tsimanampetsotsa, Zombitse, and Vohibasia), three special reserves (Beza Mahafaly, Kalambatritra and southern Pic d'Ivohibe), and the Berenty Private Reserve. It has also been reported recently from the unprotected forests of Ankoba, Ankodida, Anjatsikolo, Bereny, Mahazoarivo, Masiabiby, and Mikea (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Many of the best remaining forest patches within the range of <em>L. catta</em>, and where it appears to occur at the highest densities, are found on sacred lands (Sussman <em>et al</em>. 2003)	eng
11496	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The Ring-tailed Lemur is found in the dry forests and bush of southern and south-western Madagascar. The north-western boundary is north of the Mangoky River at Belo sur Mer or Mahababoky and slightly more inland within the Kirindy-Mitea National Park. The south-eastern limit ends at the divide between the western and eastern watersheds, which is aligned with the division between western dry and eastern humid vegetation types. All records from the Andohahela National Park are from the extreme western portion, at the ecotone between dry and humid forests. The north-eastern limit is more complex; the most north-easterly site is Ankafina, but this is from an animal collected in 1881 (see Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). A seemingly isolated population also occurs at altitudes up to 2,600 m in the mountains of Andringitra on the south-eastern plateau (Goodman and Langrand 1996; Yoder <em>et al</em>. 1999). Throughout the range of this species, its distribution is best described as patchy. Sussman <em>et al</em>. (2003) consider that the overall geographical distribution of Ring-tailed Lemurs has not changed much over the past 50 years, and may even be wider than previously thought.	eng
11496	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits many habitat types throughout its range in the southern third of Madagascar, including spiny bush, lowland gallery forest, anthropogenic savanna, dry deciduous forest, rock canyons and upland inland areas. Indeed, at the upper portion of its elevation range on Andringitra, the species occurs in a zone above the forest line and in a vast expanse of vertical rock, with up to 400-m tall talwegs, surrounded by ericoid savanna. It encounters the most extreme climatic conditions on the island from the hottest and driest to the coldest (Andringitra Massif). It has a varied diet, and does not seem to be constrained by available water sources (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is the best-studied of Madagascar's lemurs; its biology and ecology have been summarized most recently by Jolly (2003) and Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. (2008).	eng
11496	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population densities vary with habitat type, but are generally low, ranging from 100 individuals/km² in the dry forests of the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve to 250 individuals/km² and 600 individuals/km² in the gallery forests and secondary forests of the Berenty Private Reserve, respectively (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
11496	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Sussman, R., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Habitat loss and hunting are the greatest causes of concern. The Ring-tailed Lemur has a strong preference for gallery forests and for Euphorbia bush, but these habitats are already restricted in southern Madagascar and continue to diminish due to annual burning practices that help create new pasture for livestock. Subsequent over-grazing and the felling of trees for charcoal production further impact wildlife populations. This species is also hunted for food in certain areas and frequently kept as a pet.	eng
11498	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park, and may be present in other protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine both the distribution limits of this species, and whether it can persist in modified habitats.	eng
11498	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it is found in northern, central, and southwestern parts of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005). There are no specimens from the southeastern peninsula, but it may occur there.	eng
11498	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is terrestrial species that lives in burrows in the ground, but may climb. It is present in upper lowland to upper montane tropical moist forest. It has only been trapped in intact forest, it is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. It is a folivorous species. It has small litters, possibly with only a single young.	eng
11498	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known from very few specimens. It may be difficult to trap as it is folivorous. However, it is possible that the species has a naturally low population density.	eng
11498	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Populations are generally secure in at higher elevations, however, lowland populations are threatened by habitat loss resulting from human settlement, timber and firewood extraction and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
11499	conservation	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas including Gunung Palung National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Mount Kinabalu National Park (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
11499	distribution	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	On the island of Borneo this species is known from Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and southwest Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is also occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Penang island, and Tuangku island (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded from Brunei, but this is presumably due to sampling effort rather than the species absence.	eng
11499	habitat	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This is a primarily arboreal species occupying a wide variety of lowland and foothill secondary and primary forests. It has been recorded from rubber plantations and other disturbed wooded areas. It has been taken at 550 m on the slopes of Mt Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001).	eng
11499	population	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It appears to be a common species over much of its range. It is considered a common species in primary rain forest in a Mount Kinabalu National Park Survey (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
11499	threats	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as it is relatively common and widespread, and seems to be able to adapt to disturbed wooded habitats.	eng
11500	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in two protected areas in Bolivia, Madidi and Apolobamba National Parks, and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. No direct conservation measures for this species are currently needed.	eng
11500	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in southeast Peru and west central Bolivia (La Paz Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of about 1,100 to 2,500 m (N. Bernal pers. comm.).	eng
11500	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary moist forest along the eastern slopes of the Andes where a lot of leaf litter is present. The species does not occur in cultivated areas.	eng
11500	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
11500	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by temporary slash and burn agriculture (including coca) growing, although it can successfully colonize these areas once they have been abandoned and secondary growth has occurred.	eng
11503	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the states of Paraná (Brazil, Paraná SEMA, 1995), and São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo SMA, 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Considerable efforts are being devoted to environmental education and also research, management and protection of the Superagüi National Park.<br/><br/>There is no captive breeding programme for the species (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
11503	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	The Black-faced Lion Tamarin occupies the southernmost limits of the distribution of the callitrichids. The type locality is on the north-eastern part the island of Superagüi, on the coast of the state of Paraná. Other groups have been found elsewhere on the island, except in the extreme north and some higher elevations in the south-west (Persson and Lorini 1991, 1993). These authors found <em>L. caissara</em> on the mainland, in parts of the valleys of the Rio Sebuí and the Rio dos Patos, limited in the north by the Rio Varadorzinho, and to the west by the Serra da Utinga, Morro do Bico Torto, Morro do Poruquara, and Serra do Gigante. Persson and Lorini (1991, 1993; Lorini and Persson 1994a,b) estimated that its entire range is less than 300 km². Four groups have been found to the north, also on the coast, in the municipality of Cananéia in the state of São Paulo (Persson and Lorini 1993). Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) reported four localities in the extreme south-east of São Paulo, two in the basin of the Rio do Turvo (Rio do Turvo and Morro do Teixeira, localities 1 and 3, map p.922), and two further north in the region of Itapitangui (localities 13 and 14, map, p.922), opposite the Ilha Cananéia. As a result of interviews of local people, Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) also indicated that <em>L. caissara</em> may occur further inland, at two localities: the Rio Taquari (locality 11, map p.922) and the Rio Ipiranguinha (locality 12, map p.922). The latter may refer to Jacupiranga State Park (100,000 ha, although a large part of it is no longer forested), but none of these localities have been confirmed. Field surveys by Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) in the municipalities of Jacupiranga and Pariqueraçu failed to obtain any evidence of the existence of <em>L. caissara</em>. However, they were able to confirm its presence between the villages of Ariri and Taquari, in the municipality of Cananéia, as had been reported by Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992), and Valladares Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) have suggested that its range may extend only a short distance north.<br/><br/>The distirbution of <em>L. caissara</em> is reviewed by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002b).	eng
11503	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil with rainfall of about 2,000 mm a year, sub-xeromorphic <em>restinga</em> (sandy soil forest), low (8-10 m) inundated forest (<em>caxetais</em>), and secondary forest (Rylands 1993). Golden lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads.<br/><br/>Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). In the Superagüi National Park, <em>L. caissara</em> have been found to use very large home ranges (321 ha), travelling from 1,082 to 3,398 m a day (Prado 1999).<br/><br/>The first bevioural ecological study of this study of this species was carried out by Prado (Prado and Valladares-Padua 1997; Prado 1999; Prado <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.	eng
11503	population	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Lorini and Persson (1994a,b) estimated a total population not exceeding 260 animals, divided into three subpopulations: that on the island of Superagüi (about 120 individuals), and two on the adjacent mainland, in the valleys of the Rios Patos and Branco (estimated at 35 individuals), and the valleys of the Rios Varadouro and Araçauba (estimated 100 individuals). As noted already, the northern limits to the range of <em>L. caissara</em> identified by Lorini and Persson (1990) were extended north into the state of São Paulo to the Serra do Cordeiro through the surveys of Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992), but many localities were based on reports, which have yet to be confirmed (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000). The northernmost confirmed localities to date are those in the region Ariri, municipality of Cananeia (Rodrigues 1998), and Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) indicated that under any circumstances the populations there are extremely scarce. Both Martuscelli and Rodrigues (1992) and Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000) found difficulties in surveying the region using interviews as a guide (people knew little or confused the species, felt intimidated, and in some cases were hostile).<br/><br/>A more recent population estimate for the Island of Superagui, based on transect work between 2000 and 2002, is 183 animals (Amaral <em>et al.</em> 2003); there are no recent population estimates for the mainland. The total current population is therefore for unlikely to exceed 400 animals at present.<br/><br/>Population densities are in the order of 1.5 individuals/km² or 0.30 groups/km² (Lorini and Persson 1994a). Amaral <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported an individual density of 1.66 individuals/km² or 0.38 groups/km² on Superagui.	eng
11503	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	With a very restricted distribution and few individuals known to exist, this species is perhaps the rarest and most threatened of all the callitrichids, despite the fact that part of the island of Superagüi, along with the Ilha de Peças, was decreed a national park (without knowledge of the existence of the lion tamarins) of 21,400 ha in 1989. The threats to, and conservation strategies for, surviving <em>L. caissara</em> populations have been discussed by Câmara (1993, 1994) and Vivekenanda (1994). The main threats come from forest destruction and degradation due to agriculture, squatters, hunting and extractivism, especially for palm hearts, and, most seriously, from burgeoning human occupation through land speculation and tourism (see Vivekananda 2001).<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. caissara</em>, most notably on the mainland.	eng
11505	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo SMA, 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The species is recorded from Morro do Diabo State Park (34,441 ha, of which 23,800 ha is forest), and Caetetus State Ecological Station (2,178 ha). A new (federal) Ecological Station of 5,500 ha was decreed in July 2002 – Mico-Leão-Preto Ecological Station in São Paulo. It covers three forest fragments containing Black Lion Tamarins.<br/><br/>The isolation and small size of the existing populations is being addressed through metapopulation management, which includes the captive population founded on individuals taken from the Morro do Diabo State Park, in the 1970s and later, in 1983-1985 as part of the rescue operation in the inundation area of the Rosana hydroelectric dam (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 2002a). Current efforts are focussing on the genetic health of these populations (translocation, managed dispersal and re-introduction) (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002), environmental education (Pádua and Valladares-Padua 1997; Pádua <em>et al</em>. 2002), the preservation of remaining forest fragments, with and without lion tamarins, and the creation of corridors to link forest patches to establish larger areas of continuous forest (Pádua and Valladares-Padua 1997; Cullen Jr. <em>et al</em>. 2001; Valladares-Padua <em>et al</em>. 2000; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valladares-Padua, Padua <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There is a well-managed captive breeding programme, although it has not been as successful as those for <em>Leontopithecus rosalia</em> and <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, probably because of a very reduced founder stock (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, it is growing and, despite having few founders, is now also contributing significantly to the metapopulation management programme currently udnerway by Valladares-Padua and his team (Valladares-Padua and Ballou 1996; Valladares-Padua and Martins 1996; Valladares-Padua 1997; Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000; Medici 2001; Valladares-Padua, Ballou <em>et al</em>. 2002). The first translocation of a wild <em>L. chrysopygus</em> group was carried out in 1995, and the first experimental re-introduction, was carried out in July 1999 by combining an adult male born in the Jersey Zoo, UK, with two wild females (Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
11505	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species formerly occurred along the north (right) margin of the Rio Paranapanema, west as far as the Rio Paraná, and between the upper Rios Paranapanema and Tieté in the state of São Paulo (Coimbra-Filho 1976a,b; Hershkovitz 1977). Today, it is known only from 11 widely separated forest patches covering 444 km². <em>L. chrysopygus</em> occurs in two state protected areas, the Morro do Diabo State Park, municipality of Teodoro Sampaio, and the Caetetus State Ecological Station, municipality of Gália, (Coimbra-Filho 1970a,b, 1976a,b; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973, 1977; Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> 1994). All surviving populations are in the central to western part of its former range and concentrated in the region called the Pontal de Paranapanema, except for Buri, municipality of Buri, discovered in recent surveys in the eastern part, approximately 200 km east of the Caetetus Ecological Station, by Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2000). Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002b) reviewed the distributions of all four lion tamarins.	eng
11505	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Seasonal rain forest of the inland extension of Atlantic forest in the state of  São Paulo, at altitudes up to 900 m (Coimbra-Filho 1976b; Rylands 1993; Valladares-Padua 1997). Lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending only on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Coimbra-Filho (1970a,b, 1976a; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1977) studied their bevaviour in the wild, and Rylands (1993) and Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the ecology, diet and behaviour of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. For <em>L. chyrsopygus</em>, Carvalho and Carvalho (1989) obtained a mean group size of 3.6 (range 2-7, n=9) in the Morro do Diabo State Park. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). In the Morro do Diabo State Park, they have been found to have ranges exceeding 100 ha (113-199 ha: Valladares-Padua 1993; Valladares-Padua and Cullen Jr. 1994). Passos (1997) recorded a home range for his study group in the Ceatetus State Ecological Station of 277 ha.<br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male 575 g (n=4) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984).	eng
11505	population	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Leontopithecus chrysopygus</em> is now known to survive in 11 localities in the state of São Paulo. The population in the Morro do Diabo State Park contains 23,800 ha of forest and a population estimated at approximately 820 animals (Valladares-Padua and Cullen Jr. 1994). The Caetetus Reserve contains about 2,000 ha of forest (population estimated at about 40 individuals), but the other nine localities consist of fragments of between 400 and 800 ha, and together harbour about 114 individuals. The total population is estimated at about 1,000 animals spread through 11 isolated forests, 10 of which are certainly too small to be viable in the mid- to long-term.	eng
11505	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B., Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species is now highly fragmented occurring in 11 populations, only one of which is ostensibly viable – the Morro do Diabo State Park. The key threat for this species is the isolation and small size of the existing populations. A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. chrysopygus.</em>*	eng
11506	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>. 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of Rio de Janeiro (Bergallo <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The first conservation initiatives for <em>Leontopithecus rosalia</em> began with field surveys and initiation of a breeding programme for the species by Adelmar Coimbra-Fillho and Alceo Magnanani in the late 1960s (Coimbra-Filho and Magananini 1972; Magnanini and Coimbra-Filho 1972; Coimbra-Filho 1976a,b). Kleiman (1972) set up an international breeeding programme and studbook for the captive populations in 1972, and initiated the The Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program (GLTCP) of the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, in 1983. The GLTCP is still active and includes field research, reintroduction, environmental education, and habitat restoration programmes, centered on the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, created in 1972 in Rio de Janeiro (Magnanini 1978).<br/><br/>Golden Lion Tamarins occur in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,500 ha, of which 2,760 ha is forested), União Biological Reserve (3,260 ha, of which 2,400 ha is forested), Bacia do Rio São João / Mico-leão-dourado Environmental Protection Area (150,700 ha), and Taquara Municipal Natural Park (19,000 ha) (Burity <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>There is active management of the Poço das Antas and União Biological Reserves, and a stable, managed population in captivity maintained at about 490 animals. However, there is little room for expansion for the population, considering the extreme fragmentation and reduced forest cover within its range. Current and future conservation efforts are attacking this problem with reforestation and the establishment of corridors.<br/><br/>There is an International Committee for the Conservation and Management of lion Tamarins, set up in 1990 by the Brazilian Government (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade of the Ministry of the Environment) (see Rambaldi <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Reviews of the conservation measures and programmes in place and underway for the lion tamarins are provided by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2002a), Rambaldi <em>et al.</em> (2002), Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002b), Beck <em>et al.</em>  (2002), Valladares-Padua <em>et al.</em> (2002), Padua <em>et al.</em> (2002), and Kleiman and Rylands (2002b).	eng
11506	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	The centre of the range of <em>L. rosalia</em> is the basin of the Rio São João, state of Rio de Janeiro. The original distribution was first clarified by Coimbra-Filho (1969, 1976) and Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1973, 1977). It covered the majority of the lowland coastal region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, below 300 m above sea level. The easternmost record for the species is Mangaratiba, on the coast in the south-east of the state. The original distribution included all or parts of the following municipalities: Mangaratiba, Itaguai, Nova Iguaçú, Nilópolis, São João do Meriti, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Magé, São Gonçalo, Niterói, Itaborai, Maricá, Araruama, Silva Jardim, Saquarema, Rio Bonito, Cachoeiras de Macucu, São Pedro da Aldeia, Cabo Frio, Casimiro de Abreu, Macaé, Conceição de Macabu, Campos, and São João da Barra.<br/><br/>From his surveys carried out between 1962 and 1969, Coimbra-Filho concluded that <em>L. rosalia</em> was extinct in all but seven (Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, Aruarama, Casimiro de Abreu, Rio Bonito, and São Pedro da Aldeia) of the 24 municipalities of its original range. The exhaustive survey by Kierulff (1993a,b; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996; Kierulff and Rylands,2003) which covered the entire range of the species during 18 months between 1990 and 1992, showed that they remain in only 104.5 km² of forests in three regions: 1) near the coast (the Centro Hípico de Cabo Frio, with an estimated 29 individuals, and Campos Novos, with an estimated 36 individuals); 2) the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and adjacent forests (with an estimated 360 individuals); and 3) on the hillsides of the Serra do Mar (with an estimated 74 individuals), there largely restricted to lowland forest patches. A further nine localities contained 12 isolated groups, totaling 60 individuals. These subpopulations were registered in just four of the municipalities reported by Coimbra-Filho (1969): Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Aruarama, the latter two, however, maintaining only a single group each (Kierulff 1993a).<br/><br/>Burity <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported the occurrence of <em>L. rosalia</em> in the municipality of Duque de Caxias, near the Rio Taquara, in the Taquara Municipal Natural Park (19,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro, a westward extension of its current known range.	eng
11506	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	An inhabitant of lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, with an average annual rainfall of around 1,500 mm a year (Rylands 1993). Golden lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending only on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callitrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. For <em>L. rosalia</em>, Dietz and Kleiman (1986) recorded a mean group size of 5.8 (range 3-11, n=21) at the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). At the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, <em>L. rosalia</em> groups use home ranges that average 45 ±16 ha (range 21-73 ha) (Dietz <em>et al.</em> 1997). At the União Biological Reserve, home ranges average 150 ±72 ha (range 65-229 ha) (Kierulff 2000).<br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.	eng
11506	population	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	In 2003, the species was downlisted from Endangered from Critically Endangered, as a result of nearly thirty years of conservation efforts, involving numerous institutions, through the Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program (GLTCP) of the National Zoological park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, and the Associação Mico-Leao-Dourado, Rio de Janeiro. Conservation efforts have included the establishment of a new population through translocation of 47 individuals in six groups, each isolated and evidently otherwise doomed in tiny isolated forests elsewhere, to a new protected area, the União Biological Reserve. Currently, about one-third of the wild population are descendants of a reintroduction programme. The re-introduction of captive-born Golden Lion Tamarins has contributed significantly not only to the numbers of living in the wild, but also to the protection 3,100 ha of forests within their range (Beck <em>et al.</em> 1986, 1991, 1994; Stoinski <em>et al.</em> 1997; Beck and Martins 1999, 2001).<br/><br/>Early estimates of population size ranged from 200-600 (Coimbra-Filho 1969; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973, 1977), but it was only in 1991-1992 that a full and thorough census was carried out by Kierulff (1993a,b; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996). Not including the population in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, the total number of individuals estimated was 272 in 55 groups. They were divided amongst 14 forests - four main subpopulations with six or more groups each and 12 groups isolated in 10 forest fragments each of 200 ha or less in area. The total area of forest containing Golden Lion Tamarins was 104.5 km². The majority of groups (29) were located in the municipality of Silva Jardim (53%), 24 groups were located in Cabo Frio (43%), and one group each were found in the municipalities of Saquarema and one in Araruama. At the time, the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve was known to harbor about 290 lion tamarins (Kierulff 1993a), giving a total population of 562 (range 470-631), close to the estimate of Coimbra-Filho in 1969.<br/><br/>During Kierulff?s (1993) census, the population of re-introduced lion tamarins was 118 individuals, but by December 2000, the number had risen to 359 (Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a,b). A translocation programme, begun in 1994, established a new and thriving population in the União Biological Reserve, with six introduced groups resulting in a population of over 120 lion tamarins in the Reserve by mid-2001 (Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a). The forests targeted for re-introduction are now believed to be at carrying capacity, and Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira (1996) estimated that the União Biological Reserve (at 2,400 ha the second largest single block of lowland forest in the state, after the marginally larger Poço das Antas Biological Reserve with 2,760 ha of forest) can hold no more than about 158 lion tamarins (33 groups).<br/><br/>Since 1997, the numbers in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve have been declining due to predation, and only 220 lion tamarins were recorded in December 2000 (see Franklin and Dietz 2001).<br/><br/>The current estimate of <em>L. rosalia</em> in the wild is now over 1,000. There are only very few forests available for further expansion of the population: Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira (1996) identified a further four areas (two forest blocks, Rio Vermelho with 9 km², and the Morro de São João with 16 km², and two areas of fragmented forests, one of 16 km² along the BR101 at Gaviões and the other of 12 km² bordering the municipalities of Casimiro de Abreu and Silva Jardim) totalling 7,500 ha which could hold a further 500 lion tamarins (about 100 groups). Occupying all the habitat available, the Golden Lion Tamarin population as a whole would still remain below the minimum viable of 2,000 argued by Seal <em>et al.</em> (1991) and Ballou <em>et al.</em> (1998). Metapopulation management and reforestation are key strategies for the continued survival of this species in the wild (Kierulff 1993a; Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996).<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include:<br/>Poço das Antas Biological Reserve - 12 individuals/km² or 1.96 groups/km² (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1994)<br/>Adjacent to Poço das Antas Biological Reserve - 5.1 individuals/km² or 1.17 groups/km² (Kierulff 1993a,b)<br/>União Biological Reserve - 3.5 individuals/km² or 0.46 groups/km² (Kierulff 2000)<br/>Campos Novos - 8.5 individuals/km² or 2.35 groups/km² (Kierulff 1993a,b).	eng
11506	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	In the past, major threats included forest loss and fragmentation along with a capture for pets and trade. Today, the main factor is reduced numbers and limited possibilities for growth in the few fragmented and degraded forests that remain in their restricted range.<br/><br/>Deforestation in the state of Rio de Janeiro began in the 16th Century, with successive cycles of development supporting sugar cane plantations, coffee plantations, and in the last century particularly cattle breeding, besides persistent logging, charcoal production, and clearing for urbanization. The state is one of the most populous regions of Brazil, and today <em>L. rosalia</em> is limited to some few and isolated forest patches. Approximately 20% of the original range of <em>L. rosalia</em> is still forested, but 60% of this total is comprised of patches of 1,000 ha or less, 96% of which are less than 100 ha. The average size of the forest patches is 35 ha: smaller than the home range of a single lion tamarin group (Kierulff and Procópio de Oliveira 1996). Fires, set by cattle farmers adjacent to the remaining forest patches in the region, are a constant threat.<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et al</em>. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third.	eng
11509	conservation	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. The species is protected across most of its range, with hunting banned in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Trinidad, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Part of the species range includes protected areas, including some capable of maintaining long-term viable populations (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission).	eng
11509	distribution	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The ocelot is widely distributed from Mexico through Central and South America south to NE Argentina and southern Brazil and Uruguay, found in every country except Chile.  Only a small remnant population is found north of the Rio Grande in the United States, estimated at 80-120 animals (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In Mexico it has disappeared from much of its historic range on the west coast.  There are report of the species up to 3000 m but there are likely outliers.	eng
11509	habitat	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The species occupies a wide spectrum of habitats including mangrove forests and coastal marshes, savanna grasslands and pastures, thorn scrub, and tropical forest of all types (primary, secondary, evergreen, seasonal and montane, although it typically occurs at elevations below 1,200 m) (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and shows a higher level of habitat plasticity than previously thought (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The ocelot is a medium sized felid (11 kg), with a litter size of 1.4 kittens (1–4), and typically nocturno-crepuscular activity, but that could also be active during daytime (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005, Oliveira 1994). Throughout much of its range (including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and Belize) this tends to be the most abundant cat species. The ocelot also reaches higher density estimates than its sympatric smaller species, usually >>0.15/km², and also negatively impact its small guild members. Its diet includes small mammals, birds and reptiles, but larger sized prey (>800 g), such as agoutis, armadillos, pacas, etc. are vital for the species persistence in an area. Average mean weight of mammalian prey is 1.4 kg (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
11509	population	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Ocelot population densities throughout its entire range from 5 to 100/100 km², and are typically much higher than other small sympatric felids (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Ocelots exert a negative effect on the population of the smaller sympatric species (the ocelot effect) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Vulnerable in Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006) and Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000). In Brazil, populations outside the Amazon are listed as VU (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
11509	threats	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The ocelot has been described as being tolerant of disturbed habitat and persists in wooded patches near human settlements. However, recent studies have depicted a more specialized animal operating under rather harsh environmental constraints (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Although widespread commercial harvests for the fur trade ceased decades ago, some illegal trade still persists. At present the major threats are habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal trade (pets and pelts), and retaliatory killing due to depredation of poultry (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
11510	conservation	de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Schipper, J., Valderrama, C., Leite-Pitman, R. & Payan, E., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. Hunting of the species is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the Amazon, field records suggest that populations are extremely low - therefore these areas should not be perceived to be safeguards for the species as it is for other felids (Oliveira 2004). Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of higher ocelot (<em>L. pardalus</em>) densities (Oliveira pers. comm.). Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats. This species needs to be evaluated at the subspecies level due to genetic diversity within the species. A reassessment on the taxonomy of this species is an urgent research priority as the northern portion of the population might be a distinct species (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
11510	distribution	de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Schipper, J., Valderrama, C., Leite-Pitman, R. & Payan, E., 2008	The oncilla is distributed from Costa Rica (north) to southern Brazil and NE Argentina (30 degrees south) (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are records from the Amazon basin, but the distribution could be discontinuous and patchy, and the species extremely rare (Oliveira 2004). The species is absent from the Colombian Llanos and the Paraguayan Chaco (Payan <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded from Costa Rica and northern Panama, but not from the remainder of the Darien Peninsula connecting Central America to South America. Although the species has been collected as high as 4,800 m (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986), this is likely an outlier, as there are very few records at or slightly above 3,000 m (T. Oliveira, per. comm.).	eng
11510	habitat	de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Schipper, J., Valderrama, C., Leite-Pitman, R. & Payan, E., 2008	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, but is especially associated with denser cover (Oliveira pers. comm.). In Costa Rica the species is almost entirely confined to montane forests along the flanks of Volcanos and other high mountains from 1,000 m up to the treeline (paramo) and occupy cloud forest and high elevation elfin forests (J. Schipper pers. comm.). Their distribution pattern in Costa Rica and Panama closely resembles that of the oak (<em>Quercus</em> sp.) dominated forests (J. Schipper pers. comm.). While in Central America and parts of northern South America it may be most common in montane cloud forest, it is mostly found in lowland areas in Brazil, being reported from rainforests to dry deciduous forest, savannas, semi-arid thorny scrub, and degraded secondary vegetation in close proximity to human settlement (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 2008). The use of lowland Amazonian forests is practically unknown and requires attention. <br/><br/>The little spotted cat is a small-sized (2.4 kg) solitary felid, with an average litter size of 1.12 kittens (1–4) (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005). Diel activity pattern is mostly nocturno-crepuscular, but with considerable amount of daytime activity. However, it could also be highly diurnal in some areas of Brazil. Prey base consists mostly of small mammals, birds and lizards, with average prey size at <100 g, but does include larger sized prey (>1 kg). Home range data from the few studies that have been carried out suggests that they are small - 0.9-2.8 km² for females and 4.8-17 km² for males (although studies from Brazil’s Emas National Park suggests ranges can be larger).  However, these ranges are larger than would be expected from body size (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press).  Densities vary 1-5/100 km², and in the Amazon may be as low as 0.01/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). Little spotted cat occurs at low population densities throughout most of its range, especially on what would be expected by a felid of its size. Its numbers/densities are negatively impacted by the larger ocelot, its potential intra-guild predator/competitor (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2008, in press, in submission).	eng
11510	population	de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Schipper, J., Valderrama, C., Leite-Pitman, R. & Payan, E., 2008	Estimated population densities vary greatly. In the Amazon density is very low, expected at approximately 0.01/100 km². Camera-trap surveys in other portions of its range indicates that the species generally occurs in densities between 1-5/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). In Central America the species rarely shows up in camera traps even where they are known to occur, suggesting that they either avoid traps or are naturally rare and elusive in that area (Schipper pers. comm.). A similar trend is also found in several areas in Brazil, where authors found it in most areas as in intrinsically low numbers, not camera-trap shyness (Oliveira pers. comm.) The oncilla is negatively impacted by ocelot numbers and does not seem to attain effective population size for long term persistence in any Conservation Unit possibly due to the “ocelot effect” (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Thus, it is found mostly outside protected areas in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes, which are both under severe threats, and where ocelots are absent or have declined (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in submission). It seems that where ocelots are rare or absent the average population density ranges from 5-20 indiv/100 km² but expected to be much lower than 5/100 km² where ocelots are present (high density estimates, ca. 20/100 km², are obtained only in very few and isolated areas) (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. in submission).  This species is vulnerable in Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000), Brazil (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in Colombia (MAVDT, 2005; Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
11510	threats	de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Schipper, J., Valderrama, C., Leite-Pitman, R. & Payan, E., 2008	The oncilla was heavily exploited for the fur trade decades ago, following the decline of the ocelot trade. Although international trade ceased, there is still some localized illegal hunting, usually for the domestic market. Current threats to this species include habitat loss, fragmentation, roads, illegal trade (pets and pelts), retaliatory killing due to depredation of poultry. Populations are severely fragmented and are being reduced severely by habitat conversion to plantations and pasture. Change in native species dynamics (predator/competitor) could represent another previously undetected potential threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007). There is hybridization with Geoffroy's cat in the southernmost part of its range and with the pampas cat in central Brazil; this may be a natural or anthropogenic process and the extent of this as a threat is unknown (Eizirk <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
11511	conservation	Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. This species is protected across most of its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Populations in protected areas are expected to be very low, likely because of the impact of the higher ocelot densities (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press, in submission).  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats.	eng
11511	distribution	Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The margay ranges from the tropical lowlands of Mexico south through Central America and the Amazon basin and southern Brazil and Paraguay (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs marginally in northern Argentina and in Uruguay along riverine forest (Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).  It generally occurs from 0-1,500 m; however, it has rarely been recorded up to 3,000 m in the Andes (Oliveira 1994).	eng
11511	habitat	Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The margay is strongly associated with forest habitat/tree cover, both evergreen and deciduous, although it has been occasionally reported outside forested areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It seems to be absent from the semi-arid scrub of the Caatinga domain in Brazil, with the possible exception of some evergreen forest enclaves (Oliveira pers. comm.). It appears to be less tolerant of human settlement and altered habitat than its close relatives, the ocelot and oncilla, but does make use of it. This species is thought to be more arboreal and better adapted to live in trees than other cat species. Margay will use highly disturbed forest, abandoned plantations and other agroforestry systems which provide sufficient tree cover (Schipper pers. comm.; Oliveira pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The margay is a small-sized (3.3 kg) solitary felid, with an average litter size of 1.09 (1–2) (Oliveira and Cassaro 2005). Activity pattern is predominately nocturno-crepuscular, with few records of daytime activity. Prey base consists mostly of small mammals, birds and reptiles, with average prey size at <200 g, but does include larger sized prey (>1 kg). Although margays are highly arboreal, most prey recorded are terrestrial (Oliveira 1998). The limited information on home range size varies from 1 to 20 km².  The margay occurs at low population densities throughout most of its range, and its numbers/densities are negatively impacted by the larger ocelot, its potential intra-guild predator/competitor (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press, in submission).	eng
11511	population	Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	This species is predominantly rare throughout their range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In general, margays occur at densities <5 indiv/100 km², but have been estimated as high as 20 indiv/100 km² in some highly localized areas (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission).  Where ocelots co-occur, margay densities are expected to be much lower than 5 per 100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission). The margay is negatively impacted by ocelot numbers and does not seem to attain effective population size for long term persistence in any Conservation Unit outside the Amazon basin possibly due to the “ocelot effect” (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in press). Thus, viable populations are expected to occur mostly outside protected areas or where ocelot numbers are low.  With the exception of the Amazon mega-reserves, it is not expected to be adequately protected anywhere else.  Margays are undergoing a continuing decline due primarily to habitat loss to deforestation (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Considered Vulnerable in Brazil (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005) and Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000), and Near Threatened in Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006) and Threatened in Mexico (SEMARNAT 2002) and Costa Rica (MINAE).	eng
11511	threats	Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The margay has been one of the most heavily exploited Latin American cats decades ago. Margays began to appear in international trade at a time of concern over the level of exploitation of the ocelot, and species of spotted cats in trade were rarely verified. Illegal hunting for domestic markets or for the underground skin trade has been reported to be a continuing a problem in some areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Current threats to this species include habitat loss, fragmentation, roads, illegal trade (pets and pelts - animals sometimes enter the pet trade), and retaliatory killing (animals are often shot due to depredation on poultry). Populations, especially outside the Amazon basin, are severely fragmented and are being reduced by habitat conversion to plantations and pasture. The species is susceptible to disease outbreaks (in Tamaulipas, MX there is an ongoing threat from disease). In Brazil, populations of the Atlantic forest are more threatened than those of the Amazon (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007)	eng
11518	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas over its wide range (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
11518	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species ranges from northeastern South Asia, into central and southern China, and parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and West Bengal in India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from Guizhou to Zhejiang and Guangdong, Sichuan, south Gansu, south Shaanxi, Hubei and Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Lao PDR, northern and central Viet Nam, with an isolated population present in northern Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded from close to sea level to around 1,400 m asl.	eng
11518	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This mainly terrestrial large species is found in both primary and secondary closed canopy moist lowland evergreen and montane forest. It has been recorded at the forest edge and can be found in disturbed habitats close to forested areas. It generally occurs at higher altitudes than <em>Leopoldamys sabanus</em> where they are sympatric (Marshall 1977). Lives in burrows on the forest floor and has been recorded inside hollow logs.	eng
11518	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
11518	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted, but this seems unlikely to be causing any population declines. In South Asia, the species may be affected by habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale logging, non-farmland management and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
11519	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary and may be present in Phu Hin Rong Kla National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
11519	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species has been recorded from a few locations in limestone areas of northern and south western Thailand, north of the peninsular region. The range may extend into adjacent areas of Myanmar and Viet Nam, however, these populations might represent a seperate species (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has a rough elevational range of 100 to 800 m.	eng
11519	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Of the few specimens collected, some have been taken from wooded limestone cliffs and others from lowland bamboo forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
11519	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The population abundance is not well known. According to Wiles (1981) this species is rare in lowland bamboo forest in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary in southwestern Thailand.	eng
11519	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are possibly no major threats to the limestone areas where this species is found. There may be some trapping, but probably not a level that would threaten the species.	eng
11520	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Rueda, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas across its range. There is a need for further research to elucidate the taxonomic status of this species complex. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, it is not known from any of the protected areas and surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
11520	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Rueda, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, and is widespread in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been reported from only two locations, one each from Bangladesh (exact location unknown) and India (Gandhigram in Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh) at about 300 m elevation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from Thailand, northern Viet Nam, Lao PDR, southern and south-western Cambodia, southern Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, and smaller islands off the Sunda Shelf [except Bali]) and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It can be found up to 3,100 m asl on the slopes of Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
11520	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Rueda, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is generally found in lowland forest habitats (infrequently in montane habitats), and probably at lower altitudes than <em>L. edwardsi</em> (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is similar to <em>L. edwardsi</em> in ecology, being semi-arboreal (Gorog <em>et al</em>. 2004), and foraging on the ground as well as in the canopy (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2004). The diet consists of insects, fruit, and other vegetable matter (as well as snails) (Lim, 1970). In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and subterranean species, occurs in tropical, subtropical, wet montane temperate forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
11520	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Rueda, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This is generally a common species over most of its range. Md Nor <em>et al</em>. (2001) recorded 103 specimens between 500 and 1,350 m on Mount Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor, Malaysia, making it by far the most abundant species found during the survey.	eng
11520	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Rueda, L. & Molur, S., 2008	In Southeast Asia, There are no major threats, although it may be susceptible to forest loss in some parts of its range. It is also hunted, and is one of the most common murids in markets in Lao PDR. In South Asia, the species could be affected by habitat loss and degradation due to shifting agriculture, small-scale logging and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
11521	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is possibly present within Siberut National Park, however, about 40% of suitable habitat at this site has been disturbed (A. Suyanto pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to determine the current status of this species.	eng
11521	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mentawai Archipelago Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found on the islands of North Pagai, South Pagai, Sipora, and Siberut (Musser and Newcomb 1983).	eng
11521	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is an arboreal species that needs large trees in tropical lowland rain forest. It seems probable that only small patches of suitable habitat remain on these islands.	eng
11521	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It was formerly common, but the population status is now unclear.	eng
11521	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	The habitat of this species has been extensively deforested through extraction of timber and firewood and conversion to agricultural land, much of the area is now mixed fruit plantations.	eng
11522	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	The majority of the specimens were collected from the Reserva Biologica de Monte Cano, however, as livestock can be found throughout the reserve, it is not thought that this offers much protection to the species. Improved area management is therefore required. More research is needed into the threats and habitat status of this species. Monitoring of population trends is recommended.	eng
11522	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known from the Paraguana Peninsula, Estado Falcon, Venezuela. The species may be restricted to the tropical dry forest areas on the peninsula, which is predominantly desert scrub habitat, hence its distributional area is likely to be smaller than the 2,500 km²<sup></sup> estimated.	eng
11522	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	Most individuals of this species were collected from the Monte Cano area, where the vegetation is tropical dry forest and thorn scrub, in contrast to the desert scrub which dominated most of the peninsula. The species was only found in shaded areas within the dry forest, and most specimens were collected close to creek-beds.	eng
11522	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species has been reported as not abundant, with a low fecundity and hence reproductive rate.	eng
11522	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	Markezich and Taphorn (1994) see the greatest immediate threat to this species as habitat fragmentation resulting from goat and cattle intrusion into the reserve. Furthermore, petroleum refineries are becoming a major industry on the Paraguana Peninsula, resulting in increased human population in the area, and associated infrastructure development. Pollution from the refineries may also pose a threat to the species.	eng
11533	habitat	Marine Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
11534	conservation	Abreu-Grobois, A. and Plotkin, P., 2008	<p>Most of the conservation actions on behalf of the Olive Ridley at national and international levels have been based on the species’ listing under the <strong><em>Endangered</em></strong> category in the IUCN Red List. As an Appendix I species under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) the international trade of skins from the species, which fuelled the large scale commercial exploitation of the Olive Ridley from the 1960s into the 1980s was effectively halted. Other relevant international instruments that list the Olive Ridley as threatened and hence obligate its conservation by member states include: the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC). CMS-promoted Memoranda of Understanding for the conservation and management of marine turtles and their habitats have been signed by the Olive Ridley’s range states in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia (known as IOSEA) as well as in other regions such as the Atlantic Coast of Africa under the Memorandum of Understanding concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa where 21 out of 26 range states participate. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>On the basis of the species’ classification in the IUCN Red List or in national endangered species lists, local legislatures of range states confer protection to the Olive Ridley. Although this sanctions law-enforcement, the implementation remains patchy at the global scale because of paucity in enforcement capabilities. Successful conservation has usually relied on well-coordinated national programs in combination with local and non-governmental organizations incorporating public outreach. Statutory use and enforcement of the Turtle Excluder Devices in the shrimp trawlers has also proven critical in some areas with high levels of interaction with this fishery.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Despite the legislative efforts to protect the Olive Ridley, human impacts continue to be significant. In some areas (such as West Africa and South East Asia), extensive monitoring needs to be implemented to identify regions and stressors requiring priority actions. Bycatch and illegal take particularly from the coastal, artisanal fisheries need to be evaluated through adequate on-board observer programs and properly addressed. The beetle infestation of the Escobilla rookery must be adequately evaluated and acceptable measures of biological control of the insect need to be implemented. The impact from the increasing development of much of the range state’s coastline has to be evaluated and suitable mitigation measures implemented.</p>	eng
11534	distribution	Abreu-Grobois, A. and Plotkin, P., 2008	The Olive Ridley sea turtle has a circumtropical distribution, with nesting occurring throughout tropical waters (except the Gulf of Mexico) and migratory circuits in tropical and some subtropical areas (Atlantic Ocean – eastern central, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest, western central; Indian Ocean – eastern, western; Pacific Ocean – eastern central, northwest, southwest, western central) (Pritchard 1969). Nesting occurs in nearly 60 countries worldwide. Migratory movements are less well studied than other marine turtle species but are known to involve coastal waters of over 80 countries (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below). With very few exceptions they are not known to move between ocean basins or to cross from one ocean border to the other. Within a region, Olive Ridleys may move between the oceanic and neritic zones (Plotkin <em>et al.</em> 1995, Shanker <em>et al</em>. 2003) or just occupy neritic waters (Pritchard 1976, Reichart 1993).	eng
11534	habitat	Abreu-Grobois, A. and Plotkin, P., 2008	<p><strong>Habitats</strong></p>  <p>Like most other sea turtles, Olive Ridleys display a complex life cycle, which requires a range of geographically separated localities and multiple habitats (Márquez 1990). Females lay their nests on coastal sandy beaches from which neonates emerge and enter the marine environment to continue their development. They remain in a pelagic phase, drifting passively with major currents that disperse far from their natal sites, with juveniles sharing some of the adults’ habitats (Kopitsky <em>et al.</em> 2000) until sexual maturity is reached (Musick and Limpus 1997). Reproductively active males and females migrate toward coastal zones and concentrate near nesting beaches. However, some males appear to remain in oceanic waters and mate with females en route to their nesting beaches (Plotkin <em>et al.</em> 1996, Kopitsky <em>et al.</em> 2000). Their post-breeding migrations are complex, with pathways varying annually (Plotkin 1994) and with no apparent migratory corridors, swimming hundreds or thousands of kilometers over large ocean expanses (Morreale <em>et al.</em> 2007), commonly within the 20°C isotherms (Márquez 1990). In the East Pacific, they are present from 30°N to 15°S and often seen within 1,200 nautical miles from shore although they have been sighted as far as 140°W (IATTC 2004). Western Atlantic Olive Ridleys appear to remain in neritic waters after breeding (Pritchard 1976, Reichart 1993).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Demographic features / Reproduction</strong></p>  <p>The species displays three modes of reproduction: arribada, dispersed nesting, and mixed strategy (Bernardo and Plotkin 2007). The first mode represents a synchronous, mass nesting behaviour that may include hundreds to thousands of females over a period of days and occurs in fewer than a dozen places worldwide. The more common form of nesting is dispersed or “solitary” with no apparent synchronicity between individual events. At some localities, a mixture of these two forms of nesting can also occur. In general, individual Olive Ridleys may nest one, two or three times per season, with approximately 100–110 eggs per clutch (Pritchard and Plotkin 1995). For this assessment we have used an average number of 2.5 nests/female/season and 105 eggs/nest. In contrast to other sea turtle species, the reproductive cycle is nearly annual (over 60% of turtles nest every year; Márquez 1990). Solitary nesters oviposit on 14 day cycles whereas arribada nesters approximately every 28 days (Pritchard 1969, Kalb and Owens 1994, Kalb 1999). Kalb (1999) found that within a nesting season solitary nesters use multiple beaches for oviposition but arribada nesters display nest site fidelity. There are extreme variations in hatching rates between nesting beaches, however, in general they are much higher in solitary nesting beaches where around 80% is common and sometimes even higher (Gaos <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is widely recognized that survivorship is extremely low on high-density arribada nesting beaches because of density-dependent mortality (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 1991) leading to hatching rates as low as 1 to 8% (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 1991). Moreover, turtles return approximately every month during a discrete nesting season (three to six months) and nests that remained intact during the previous month are again at risk when new waves of turtles crawl ashore. On solitary nesting beaches, where density-dependent mortality is not a factor, hatching rates are significantly higher (Castro 1986, Gaos <em>et al.</em> 2006). Post-hatching survivorship is unknown and there is no information available on recruitment rates. Presumably, like other sea turtles, Olive Ridleys experience high mortality in their early life stages. Juveniles are believed to occur in similar habitats as the adults (i.e,. pelagic waters) where they forage on gelatinous prey such as jellyfish, salps and tunicates (Kopitsky <em>et al</em>. 2004).</p>	eng
11534	population	Abreu-Grobois, A. and Plotkin, P., 2008	<p>For the purposes of Red List assessments, generation length is defined as the “average age of parents” (IUCN 2001). Since this information is not available from direct observation of sea turtle species we derived a comparable value from estimates of age at which 50% of the breeders are expected to have survived, using information for age at sexual maturity and adult survival rates. An important caveat is that, while it is known that different populations of the same species can attain sexual maturity at different ages (Heppell <em>et al.</em> 2003) and therefore different values would need to be taken into account for different regions, the information is only available for a single region and we have had to assume the estimated values are generally applicable on a global scale. The only published study on growth and age for Olive Ridleys (Zug <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates a mean age at sexual maturity for North-central Pacific Ridley sea turtles of around 13 years (range of 10-18 years). We calculated the time it would take for a cohort of breeders to reach 50% of its original size from S<sup>n</sup> =50%, where <span times="" new="" roman="">n is years since age at first reproduction, and S is annual survival. Solving for n, n = ln(0.5)/ln(S). As extensive estimates of annual survival rates for female nesters are only available from the better studied sister taxon, <em>Lepidochelys kempii</em>, (TEWG 2000) we used these, which have a range of 85-92% per year. Thus, n<sub>50% </sub>= 4-9 yrs and our derived average age of female Olive Ridley parents is 17-22 years. We additionally assumed that this value would be the same for male parents. For simplicity, we have used a value of 20 yrs for the species’ generation length in this assessment.</p>	eng
11534	threats	Abreu-Grobois, A. and Plotkin, P., 2008	<p>Like other long-lived species, Olive Ridleys are prone to population declines because of slow intrinsic growth rate in combination with anthropogenic impacts. These can accumulate over a protracted development through various life stages, multiple habitats (nesting beaches, migratory routes and pelagic foraging zones) and vast geographic expanses.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Targeted exploitation</strong></p>  <p><em> </em></p>  <p><em>Egg harvest</em>. Olive Ridleys and their eggs have been harvested, mostly unsustainably, worldwide. However, the current impact is difficult to evaluate because of other simultaneous factors such as incidental take in commercial fisheries. Nonetheless, there is documentation of recent egg use causing declines (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). From México to Colombia, Olive Ridley eggs have been and still are used for personal and commercial use (Lagueux 1989, Arauz 2000, Campbell 2007, Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). Laws regulating turtle egg use vary among countries, and even where laws prohibit egg use, illegal use of Olive Ridley eggs is believed to be widespread because enforcement is either non-existent or insufficient. On unprotected solitary nesting beaches (most are unprotected), egg extraction often approaches 100%. Human use of turtle eggs for consumption and domestic animal consumption historically was widespread in the Indian Ocean and continues today largely wherever Ridleys nest (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). Egg use has been reported in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Andaman Islands, Pakistan and Malaysia and is believed to have caused the decline of Olive Ridleys in these countries (Cornelius <em>et al</em>. 2007). Even at monitored beaches a proportion of the eggs are still lost to poaching.</p>  <p><em>&#160;</em></p>  <p><em>Directed take of adults.</em><strong> </strong>In the East Pacific, although Olive Ridley turtle fisheries are now closed, illegal take of adult turtles still occurs widely with an unknown level of impact. There is evidence that thousands of Olive Ridleys are still taken each year along the Pacific coast of México (Frazier <em>et al.</em> 2007). In the West Atlantic, the direct take of adults has diminished over time to negligible levels (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). In the Indian Ocean, the use of adult Olive Ridleys and their eggs for personal use has been and continues to be widespread (Frazier 1982, Frazier <em>et al.</em> 2007), and market-driven harvesting of eggs and females from nesting beaches are considered the greatest threat (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). Personal, subsistence use of adult Olive Ridley turtles is widespread worldwide (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007, Frazier <em>et al.</em> 2007). Olive Ridleys and/or their eggs are used along the entire coast of West Africa (including Macaronesia) and sold in local and regional markets (Fretey 2001).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Bycatch in fisheries</strong></p>  <p>The incidental capture of Olive Ridleys occurs worldwide in trawl fisheries, longline fisheries, purse seines, gill net and other net fisheries and hook and line fisheries (Frazier <em>et al</em>. 2007). The impact of the incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in fisheries has been well documented for some regions but not for others. In some locations where by-catch statistics are unavailable from fisheries, cause and effect has been used to implicate a fishery in the decline of Olive Ridleys. The incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in the shrimp trawl fishery in the western Atlantic, is believed to be the main cause of the significant population decline observed there since the 1970s and currently the number of Olive Ridleys by caught in trawl fisheries off the coasts of Surinam and French Guiana is believed to be approximately a couple of thousand turtles annually (Godfrey and Chevalier 2004, Frazier <em>et al</em>, 2007). Gillnets and other fishing methods in this region also capture Olive Ridleys incidentally but to a lesser extent than shrimp trawl fishery (Frazier <em>et al</em>, 2007). Bycatch in trawl fisheries off Sergipe State in Brazil is considered the most pressing threat to that population (Thomé <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the eastern Atlantic, the incidental capture of Olive Ridleys by commercial fisheries is thought to be a significant threat but very little systematic data is available (Frazier <em>et al.</em> 2007). Incidental mortality of Olive Ridleys is worst along the coast of Orissa, India with arribada Olive Ridleys gathering to nest were fishing effort is high. Every year since the early 1980s, thousands or tens of thousands of Olive Ridleys have stranded dead on the Orissa beaches, presumably as a result of incidental capture in shrimp trawls (Pandav 2000). A gill net fishery also operates in the region and contributes to the ridley mortality along this coastline. Incidental capture in fisheries is also believed to be a serious threat in the eastern Pacific (Frazier <em>et al</em>. 2007) where Olive Ridleys aggregate in large numbers off shore from nesting beaches (Kalb <em>et al</em>, 1995, Kalb 1999), but the information available is incomplete (Pritchard and Plotkin 1995, NMFS/USFWS 1998). Incidental capture of Olive Ridleys in this region has been documented in shrimp trawl fisheries, longline fisheries, purse seine fishery and gill net fisheries (Frazier <em>et al.</em> 2007). Incidental capture of sea turtles in shrimp trawls is a serious threat along the coast of Central America, with an estimated annual capture for all species of marine turtle exceeding 60,000 turtles, most of which are Olive Ridleys (Arauz 1996). Recent growth in the longline fisheries of this region are also a serious and growing threat to Olive Ridleys and have the potential to capture hundreds of thousands of Ridleys annually (Frazier <em>et al.,</em> 2007). Bycatch of Olive Ridleys is high in Indonesian tuna long-lines and shrimp trawls although mortality appears to be low (WWF Indonesia, unpublished data).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Habitat impacts</strong></p>  <p>Degradation, transformation and destruction of natural conditions at nesting beaches from coastal developments continue to threaten the long-term survival of many Olive Ridley rookeries. Transformation of nesting habitat comes from the construction of new aquaculture ponds, fishing harbours and tourist facilities, as well as growth of existing coastal villages which are increasing in many parts of the world within the range of the Olive Ridley, particularly along the east coast of India (Pandav and Choudhury 1999) and in some zones in coastal México to Central America (Cornelius <em>et al.</em> 2007). These impacts contribute stress directly through the loss of nesting habitat or indirectly through changes in the thermal profiles of the beach, increased light pollution (Witherington 1992) and sewage effluents. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Global warming has the potential to impact the habitats and ecosystems of Olive Ridley populations worldwide (Hays <em>et al.</em> 2003, Weishampal 2004) but the specific impacts are purely speculative at this time. Most accounts have focused on the impact of global warming on incubation temperatures of eggs, which influence the sex ratio of the embryos (Hays <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><strong>Diseases and predation</strong></p>  Extremely little is known about diseases and their effects on Olive Ridley abundance. The only disease identified in the literature for Olive Ridleys is fibropapilloma, a herpes-virus found in sea turtles nearly worldwide (Herbst 1994). The incidence of fibropapilloma is not believed to be high in Olive Ridleys but has been observed in Olive Ridleys nesting in Costa Rica (Herbst 1994) and in México (Vasconcelos <em>et al.</em> 2000). At some individual rookeries, the predation by wild pigs and/or feral dogs can be substantial (e.g., in the Andaman Islands; Andrews <em>et al.</em> 2001). Infestation of developing eggs by fly and beetle larvae can cause significant mortality of embryos. In an extremely worrying case, the beetle larvae (<em>Omorgus suberosus fabricius</em>) has become a plague in the world’s largest arribada rookery in Escobilla, México where it is provoking steep drops in the hatching efficiency of the clutches laid, from a typical 30% for this colony (Márquez 1990) to less than 5% in some areas (López-Reyes and Harfush 2000). When combined with the relatively low hatching rates of high-density arribada beaches and the destruction of eggs laid by previous nesters, this problem could provoke the rookery’s decline.	eng
11576	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to a few springs on the White River system in one small area of Nevada.	eng
11579	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	East Clear, Chevelon, and Nutrioso creeks have all been designated as Critical Habitat. Much of this species habitat is under federal ownership. The remaining localities fall under the ownership of the Bureau of Indian Affaris - Hopi Reservation, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service - Apache Sitgreaves and Coconino National Forests, Arizona Game and Fish Department - Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Area and Wenima Riparian Corridor along with areas of private ownership.<br/><br/>The lower reach of Chevelon Creek, the White Mountain Hereford Ranch (through which Rudd Creek flows), and the Wenima property (through which the Little Colorado River flows) are currently owned and managed by the Arizona Game and Fish Department. <br/><br/>Genetic data indicate the importance of maintaining all remaining populations (Tibbets <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Future management needs to be directed to conserving exisiting populations and their watersheds, establishment of refugium sites within historical habitats, ameliorate the effects of non-native fishes in spinedace habitats, and clearly delineate key management areas.<br/><br/><em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria D2) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.	eng
11579	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lepidomeda vittata </em> formerly occurred throughout the upper sections of the Little Colorado River system in eastern Arizona (Minckley 1973; Lee <em>et al. </em>1980, Page and Burr 1991). At present it occurs in the mainstem Little Colorado River and in its north-flowing tributaries, including portions of East Clear, Chevelon, Rudd, and Nutrioso creeks, in Coconino, Navajo, and Apache counties (USFWS 1987; Federal Register, 23 September 1994, p. 48899). Recent surveys could not locate this species in Silver Creek, and very few were found in Nutrioso and Rudd creeks. This species is considered rare in the East Clear Creek watershed, Chevelon Creek, and the mainstem Little Colorado River (USFWS, Arizona Ecological Services Field Office). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 8,532km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
11579	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> habitat types include rocky and sandy, runs and pools of creeks and small rivers. Water clarity ranges from clear to turbid with substrate types including sand, gravel, silt, and bedrock (Minckley 1973; Rohde cited in Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980). Water temperature is equivocal to that of the trouts habitat. This species is most commonly found in slow to moderate water currents, with fine gravel substrates. It prefers unshaded pools with rocks and undercut banks, as oppose to deep, heavily shaded poools and shallow open areas (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1989; Minckley 1984). During dry periods, these fishes retreat to springs and pools in intermittent streambeds (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
11579	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> is represented by four extant occurrences (subpopulations).<br/><br/>At present, the total adult population is unkown. It has been described as uncommon and highly localized (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Historical distribution is similar to the current distribution except that the species possibly may have occurred in the Zuni River watershed south of Gallup, New Mexico (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1989). The species was last captured in Silver Creek during 1997, and so may be extirpated from Silver Creek and its tributaries.<br/><br/>Genetic data has not yet shed any light on the nature or timing of the decline that appears to have occurred (Tibbets <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>Populations fluctuate dramatically from year to year, probably reflecting periodic drought and varying water availability. Overall, however, populations are thought to be on the decline.	eng
11579	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The decline in population numbers of <em>Lepidomeda vittata</em> is attributed to habitat loss and alteration due to dam and road construction, water extraction, stream channelisation, introduction and spread of exotic competitive and predatory species (Blinn <em>et al.</em> 1993), and chemical manipulation of fish populations in native streams (USFWS 1987). Within the Nelson Reservoir in eastern Arizona, introduction of brown trout is likely to pose more of a threat than the the rainbow trout (Sweetser <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Long-term drought in addition to current and planned water acquisitions, are limiting the amount of water available for the fish. Additionally, non-native fishes (rainbow trout, green sunfish) and crayfish compete with spinedace and predate upon them (USFWS, Arizona Ecological Services Field Office; Bryan <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
11616	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in the Manongarivo Special Reserve, and probably also in the Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
11616	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found in the Sambirano region of north-western Madagascar, its distribution centering on Ambanja. The limits of the range with the recently described <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> to the south are unclear.	eng
11616	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This lemur has been the subject of only brief field studies. It inhabits humid forests that are subject to a short dry season each year, as well as subhumid forests that are subject to a long dry season. In dense primary forest it appears to favor tree holes for daytime sleeping, but will seek out vegetation tangles in more open deciduous forest. Births occur from August through November, mothers typically producing a single young.	eng
11616	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common, more so in secondary forest than in primary forest.	eng
11616	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The main threats are believed to be habitat loss due to rice and coffee cultivation, as well as illegal logging. This species is sometimes hunted for food.	eng
11617	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is currently known to occur in Ankarafantsika National Park.	eng
11617	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in the dry deciduous forests of western Madagascar. As here understood, the range extends north of the Betseboke River to the Mahajamba River (with the newly described <em>L. otto</em> occurring north of the Mahajamba apparently in the Bongolava Massif to the Maeverano).	eng
11617	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Home ranges appear to be about one hectare in size. Several individuals can be found sleeping in the same shelter during the day, but they tend to be solitary foragers during the night (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
11617	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common where found. This species has been studied in the dry deciduous forests in and around the Ankarafantsika National Park, where it has been reported at an approximate density of 60 individuals/km² (Warren and Crompton 1997).	eng
11617	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to fires set to create new pasture for livestock, and it is also hunted for food in some areas.	eng
11618	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Protected areas in which it is known to occur include one national park (Andohahela) and the Berenty Private Reserve. Consideration should be given to the establishment of protected areas in the middle of the species' range. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
11618	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found in the Didiereaceae (spiny forests) and gallery forests of southern Madagascar. As here understood, with the description of lemurs west of the Menarandra and Linta Rivers as <em>L. petteri</em>, <em>L. leucopus</em> is now confined to the region between the Menarandra River and the Mandrare River. Sea level to 300 m.	eng
11618	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has been studied principally in gallery and Didiereaceae dry forests near the Berenty Private Reserve (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
11618	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common. Population densities in both spiny and gallery forest of the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar have been estimated at several hundreds of animals per square kilometre.	eng
11618	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to annual burning practices to create new pasture for livestock, and subsequent over-grazing and the felling of trees for charcoal production.	eng
11619	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Occurs at least in Ranomafana National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
11619	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	With the recent descriptions of several new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> from eastern Madagascar, the range of <em>L. microdon</em> has become unclear. Based on the interpretation of the distributions of Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species now occurs south of the Namorona River perhaps to the Manampatrana where replaced by <em>L. jamesi</em>, but this remains unclear.	eng
11619	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of eastern rainforests.	eng
11619	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The population status of this species is now unclear, in light of major taxonomic reshuffling in the genus <em>Lepilemur</em>. Whereas L. microdon formerly was a widespread taxon in Madagascar's eastern rainforests, under current arrangements its range is much more restricted.	eng
11619	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although slash and burn agriculture is the main cause of forest loss in the eastern forests. Hunting pressure is also known to be high, and includes hunting with spears, and by chopping down trees known to have nest holes.	eng
11620	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in two national parks (Mantadia and Zahamena), two special reserves (Analamazaotra and Mangerivola), and two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
11620	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	With the recent descriptions of several new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> from eastern Madagascar, the range of <em>L. mustelinus</em> has become unclear. Based on the interpretation of the distributions of Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species now occurs north of the Mangoro and Onive Rivers (with <em>M. betsileo</em> apparently occurring to the south) north at least to the Onibe, and possibly further. Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) assigned the sportive lemurs from Mananara-Nord, south of the Antainambalana River, to <em>L. seali</em>. In the past these have been attributed to <em>L. mustelinus</em>. The Maningory is here arbitrarily assigned as the limit between L. mustelinus and L. seali, but clearly this requires further investigation.	eng
11620	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests. Given the taxonomic confusion that exists between this species and other newly described species of <em>Lepilemur</em>, it is difficult to ascribe particular biological paramaters to one or the other forms with any certainty.	eng
11620	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Based on current understanding of the species' range, the taxon remains widespread and apparently common to uncommon throughout its eastern rain forest range.	eng
11620	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to slash and burn agriculture. Hunting pressure in this region is high, and includes hunting with spears, and by chopping down trees known to have nest holes.	eng
11621	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in the Andranomena Special Reserve and the Analabe Private Reserve, and may also be found in the Kirindy-Mitea National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
11621	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found in the dry forests of western Madagascar. As here understood, the species occurs north of the Mangoky (with <em>L. hubbardi</em> occurring south of this river) north to the Tsiribihina River where its range apparently meets that of <em>L. randrinanasoli</em>.	eng
11621	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found in the dry forests of western Madagascar.	eng
11621	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The population status of this species is now unclear in light of recent taxonomic reshuffling in the <em>Lepilemur</em> species of western Madagascar.	eng
11621	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but habitat lost to expanding livestock populations is likely to be a threat.	eng
11622	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species exists only as small populations in the Sahafary region and is not in any protected areas. The Andrahona Forest, a small mountain rising out of the lowlands, is apparently a sacred forest, but it is tiny and showing signs of incursions. Additional survey work further north may reveal the presence of the species in other remaining forest patches.	eng
11622	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs in Madagascar?s far northern regions, north of the Irodo River, where it is now believed restricted to the small remaining patches of forest near the villages of Madirobe and Ankarongana in the Sahafary region, and in the immediate vicinity of Andrahona, a small mountain emerging out of the surrounding lowlands about 30 km south of Antsiranana (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Below 300 m.	eng
11622	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
11622	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, but the population is unlikely to number more than a few hundred individuals.	eng
11622	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is forest loss due to charcoal production and hunting (particularly by charcoal burners).	eng
11633	conservation	Robinson, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.	eng
11633	distribution	Robinson, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species formerly ranged widely through central and western Australia (Robinson 2008). The last specimen was collected near Mount Crombie in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Lands (Robinson 2008). No current location for the species is known.	eng
11633	habitat	Robinson, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It was found in arid areas of central Australia. The species made large nests of sticks in caves and overhangs (these persist today) (Robinson 2008). There may have been stick nests also in more open areas.	eng
11633	population	Robinson, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is probably extinct, but if it does persist its numbers would almost certainly be very small. There are no confirmed reports of this species since 1933, however, there is a reliable record from 1970 and continued, occasional reports of fresh vegetation being added to old stick-nests (Robinson 2008).	eng
11633	threats	Robinson, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species appears to have been a herbivore that was unable to compete with grazing by introduced sheep, cattle, and rabbits (Robinson 2008). Feral cats may have been a threat.	eng
11634	conservation	Morris, K. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas. Translocated populations have been established on suitable islands and on the mainland (mainland populations are within fenced areas). Remaining populations are monitored. A captive-breeding programme is in place. Other island translocations are recommended. Cataracts are a problem among captive populations, and are the subject of population genetics studies, the results of which have shown that this is a single-locus disorder (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Other genetic studies include the genetic fitness of translocated populations. These studies show that most of the measurable variation in the relict has been transferred to most of the introduced populations (B. Sherwin pers. comm.). There are recommendations for augmentation of some populations (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in prep.), and a population viability analysis has been performed to assess the optimal rates of transfer between populations (Barclay <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
11634	distribution	Morris, K. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally on the Franklin Islands, Western Australia. It was formerly distributed throughout much of the southern, semi-arid Australia, from the west coast of Western Australia to western New South Wales (Lee 1995). There are several translocated populations: Salutation Island (introduced/translocated), Heirisson Prong (reintroduced) (Western Australia); St. Peter Island (introduced/translocated), Reevesby Island (reintroduced), the Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs (reintroduced), Venus Bay Conservation Park (reintroduced) (South Australia); Scotia Sanctuary (reintroduced) (New South Wales).	eng
11634	habitat	Morris, K. & Copley, P., 2008	It is found in areas of perennial succulent and semi-succulent shrubland. Animals shelter in seabird burrows and amongst rocks (Lee 1995). On islands, the species lives in family groups of 10 to 20 individuals in large nests constructed of sticks. Females give birth to between one and three young after a gestation period of 44 days (Robinson 2008). Reintroduced populations on the mainland live in family groups of about 5-6 individuals.	eng
11634	population	Morris, K. & Copley, P., 2008	There are about 600 individuals on Salutation Island, probably about 1,000 on the Franklin Islands, and 1,000 on St. Peter Island. There are about 300 in the Arid Recovery Reserve (but it is uncertain whether this population is viable), a small number in Scotia Sanctuary, and less than 10 at Heirisson Prong (J. Richards pers. comm.). Total population size may be (about 4,000 individuals including juveniles).	eng
11634	threats	Morris, K. & Copley, P., 2008	Island populations are relatively secure (no introduced predators), but the threat of an accidental arrival of an introduced predator is a major concern as is severe drought and the possibility of an extensive fire and disease. Feral cats and foxes are a threat on the mainland, but these are excluded from the reintroduction sites. Introduced rodents may present a threat.<br/><br/>This species declined on the mainland due to habitat destruction by introduced herbivores (sheep and rabbits), and the effects of severe drought. It is also presumed to have declined as a result of predation by introduced cats and foxes (Lee 1995).	eng
11638	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa (Cape province only), and Tunisia, and hunting regulations apply in Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Zaïre and Zambia (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Servals occur in a number of protected areas across their range, including: El Kala N.P. (Algeria), Feidja N.P. (Tunisia), Ifrane N.P. (Morocco), Comoé N.P. (Côte d?Ivoire), WAPO complex (Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo), Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks (Ethiopia), Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Aberdare Mountains N.P. (Kenya), Serengeti and Selous National Parks (Tanzania), Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), and Kruger N.P. and Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (South Africa) (Hunter and Bowland in press). Odzala N.P. in Congo Republic could be a key site for protecting serval as it is the only currently known protected population in the Gabon-Congolian savanna region, which are isolated from the Miombo woodlands south of the Congo River (P. Henschel pers. comm.).	eng
11638	conservation	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa (Cape province only), and Tunisia, and hunting regulations apply in Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Zaïre and Zambia (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Servals occur in a number of protected areas across their range, including: El Kala N.P. (Algeria), Feidja N.P. (Tunisia), Ifrane N.P. (Morocco), Comoé N.P. (Côte d’Ivoire), WAPO complex (Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo), Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks (Ethiopia), Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda), Aberdare Mountains N.P. (Kenya), Serengeti and Selous National Parks (Tanzania), Moremi G.R. and Chobe N.P. (Botswana), and Kruger N.P. and Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (South Africa) (Hunter and Bowland in press). Odzala N.P. in Congo Republic could be a key site for protecting serval as it is the only currently known protected population in the Gabon-Congolian savanna region, which are isolated from the Miombo woodlands south of the Congo River (P. Henschel pers. comm.).	eng
11638	distribution	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	The serval occurs widely through sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of tropical rainforest and the Saharan desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). North of the Sahara, there are recent records from Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and from northern Algeria (K. De Smet pers. comm.). They went extinct in Tunisia, but a population has been reintroduced into Feijda N.P. (K. De Smet, in Hunter and Bowland in press), with animals of East African stock (F. Cuzin pers. comm.).	eng
11638	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The serval occurs widely through sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of tropical rainforest and the Saharan desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). North of the Sahara, there are recent records from Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and from northern Algeria (K. De Smet pers. comm.). They went extinct in Tunisia, but a population has been reintroduced into Feijda N.P. (K. De Smet, in Hunter and Bowland in press), with animals of East African stock (F. Cuzin pers. comm.).	eng
11638	habitat	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	In sub-Saharan Africa, servals are found in well-watered savanna long-grass environments and are particularly associated with reedbeds and other riparian vegetation types. They also range up into alpine grasslands, up to 3,800 m on Mount Kilimanjaro (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Hunter and Bowland in press). Servals can penetrate dense forest along waterways and through grassy patches, but are absent from the rainforests of Central Africa, and from desert environments. In North Africa, they are found from semi-desert to cork oak forest on the Mediterranean coast (De Smet 1989; Cuzin 2003). Servals are able to tolerate agricultural areas provided cover is available (Hunter and Bowland in press), and may also benefit from forest clearance and the resulting encorachment of savanna at the edges of the equatorial forest belt (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). Serval specialize on small mammals, in particular rodents, with birds of secondary importance (Hunter and Bowland in press).	eng
11638	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In sub-Saharan Africa, servals are found in well-watered savanna long-grass environments and are particularly associated with reedbeds and other riparian vegetation types. They also range up into alpine grasslands, up to 3,800 m on Mount Kilimanjaro (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Hunter and Bowland in press). Servals can penetrate dense forest along waterways and through grassy patches, but are absent from the rainforests of Central Africa, and from desert environments. In North Africa, they are found from semi-desert to cork oak forest on the Mediterranean coast (De Smet 1989; Cuzin 2003). Servals are able to tolerate agricultural areas provided cover is available (Hunter and Bowland in press), and may also benefit from forest clearance and the resulting encorachment of savanna at the edges of the equatorial forest belt (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). Serval specialize on small mammals, in particular rodents, with birds of secondary importance (Hunter and Bowland in press).	eng
11638	population	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Outside northern Africa, where it is considered to meet the Red List criteria for Endangered (Cuzin 2003) and the Sahel, where it is rare (Clement <em>et al.</em> 2007), the serval is commonly recorded from most major national parks and reserves. Their status outside reserves is uncertain, but they are inconspicuous and may be common in suitable habitat as they are tolerant of farming practices provided there is cover and food available (Hunter and Bowland in press). The minimum density of servals in optimal habitat in Ngorongoro Crater was 0.42 animals/km² (Geertsema 1985).	eng
11638	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Outside northern Africa, where it is considered to meet the Red List criteria for Endangered (Cuzin 2003) and the Sahel, where it is rare (Clement <em>et al.</em> 2007), the serval is commonly recorded from most major national parks and reserves. Their status outside reserves is uncertain, but they are inconspicuous and may be common in suitable habitat as they are tolerant of farming practices provided there is cover and food available (Hunter and Bowland in press). The minimum density of servals in optimal habitat in Ngorongoro Crater was 0.42 animals/km² (Geertsema 1985).	eng
11638	threats	Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E., 2008	The major threat to serval is wetland habitat loss and degradation. Wetlands harbour comparatively high rodent densities compared with other habitat types, and form the core areas of serval home ranges. Of secondary importance is degradation of grasslands through annual burning followed by over-grazing by domestic hoofstock, leading to reduced abundance of small mammals (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>International legal commercial trade is generally declining (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although skins are still traded in large quantities in some countries, such as Senegal, Gambia and Benin (O. Burnham and I. Di Silvestre, in Hunter and Bowland in press), and exported to North Africa (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Serval pelts seen in trade in Morocco could come from elsewhere, or could indicate the species continued existence in that country (Arce and Prunier 2006).  Trade in West Africa appears to be primarily for ceremonial or medicinal purposes. For example, they are highly valued for traditional medicine in Nigeria, where, among markets surveyed in five south-west Nigerian towns in 1994, servals were the second most commonly offered mammalian species (Sodeinde and Soewu 1999 in Hunter and Bowland in press). <br/><br/>Although serval very rarely prey upon livestock (and indeed may even be beneficial to crop farmers due to their predilection for rodents), in rural areas throughout Africa, they are sometimes persecuted for taking poultry and indiscriminate predator control methods practiced by pastoralists frequently kill them (Hunter and Bowland pers. comm.).	eng
11638	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The major threat to serval is wetland habitat loss and degradation. Wetlands harbour comparatively high rodent densities compared with other habitat types, and form the core areas of serval home ranges. Of secondary importance is degradation of grasslands through annual burning followed by over-grazing by domestic hoofstock, leading to reduced abundance of small mammals (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>International legal commercial trade is generally declining (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although skins are still traded in large quantities in some countries, such as Senegal, Gambia and Benin (O. Burnham and I. Di Silvestre, in Hunter and Bowland in press), and exported to North Africa (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Serval pelts seen in trade in Morocco could come from elsewhere, or could indicate the species continued existence in that country (Arce and Prunier 2006).  Trade in West Africa appears to be primarily for ceremonial or medicinal purposes. For example, they are highly valued for traditional medicine in Nigeria, where, among markets surveyed in five south-west Nigerian towns in 1994, servals were the second most commonly offered mammalian species (Sodeinde and Soewu 1999 in Hunter and Bowland in press). <br/><br/>Although serval very rarely prey upon livestock (and indeed may even be beneficial to crop farmers due to their predilection for rodents), in rural areas throughout Africa, they are sometimes persecuted for taking poultry and indiscriminate predator control methods practiced by pastoralists frequently kill them (Hunter and Bowland pers. comm.).	eng
11663	conservation		The known range of the species is partly within a high security military area, which affords its habitat good protection. Maintenance of its habitat, since it is only known from one area, is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality, as is currently assumed.	eng
11663	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Restinga da Marambaia, in Rio de Janeiro State, southern Brazil. It has only been recorded around sea level.	eng
11663	habitat		This species occurs on the ground, near ponds on sandy bank vegetation. It creates foam nests on the ground next to temporary pools, and the tadpoles then develop in the pools. It also occurs in sandy dunes along the coast with low vegetation.	eng
11663	population		It is a common species.	eng
11663	threats		The restricted range of this species makes it more susceptible to threatening processes. Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism is a significant threat.	eng
11689	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.	eng
11689	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan and confined to the Yaeyama islands (Ishigaki-jima and Iriomote-jima).	eng
11689	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species is found in mountain-hill streams with sandy bottom.	eng
11689	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
11689	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The development of dams and altering of land for agricultural purposes is causing habitat loss for this species, as is the associated pollution from these procedures.	eng
11691	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
11691	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only). Specimens allocated to this species have been recorded from the Owen Stanley Range, Mount Dayman, Mount Sisa, and Mount Victory in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 400 to 1,600 m asl.<br/><br/>There is also a record from 1,000 m in the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Provice, Indonesia, but this likely represents an undescribed species and is not included here.	eng
11691	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded in secondary forest and old rural gardens; presumably it is also found in primary tropical forest habitats. This species is both insectivorous and carnivorous, and the mean litter size is 1.75 young (Flannery 1995).	eng
11691	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is not known from many specimens. It is not believed to be very common, but it may be locally common in certain places and in certain years.	eng
11691	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted by local people, presumably for food, although this is not considered to be a major threat to the species.	eng
11692	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, taxonomy, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
11692	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from the Eastern Highlands and the Huon Peninsula. It is found between 1,200 and 2,800 m asl.	eng
11692	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been found in mature and late-regrowth tropical forest. Animals have been collected from a burrow close to a stream (Flannery 1995).	eng
11692	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is rarely collected, so it may not be that common.	eng
11692	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is eaten, but this is not a major threat.	eng
11693	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and population status of the species.	eng
11693	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), where it is known from the type locality close to Sturt Island Camp on the lower Fly River. It has recently been collected by Tanya Leary on the Darai Plateau, and is known now from the slopes of north-western Basavi (collection in the Bishop Museum, Hawaii). It has been collected from sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
11693	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appears to be nothing known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Collected in lowland hill forest on limestone karst.	eng
11693	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species may be more common than previously thought. The type series consisted of four females. Tanya Leary collected a pregnant female and a subadult male.	eng
11693	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to the species. It may have a restricted range.	eng
11696	conservation	Gelatt, T. & Southwell, C., 2008	The Weddell seal is not listed as endangered or threatened.  Weddell seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and any future commercial harvest would be regulated by these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).	eng
11696	distribution	Gelatt, T. & Southwell, C., 2008	Circumpolar and widespread in the Southern Hemisphere, Weddell seals are the world’s southern-most breeding mammal and occur in large numbers on fast ice, right up to the shoreline of the Antarctic continent. They also occur offshore in the pack ice zone north to the seasonally shifting limits of the Antarctic Convergence. A small population lives all year on South Georgia. Weddell seals are present at many islands along the Antarctic Peninsula that are seasonally ice-free. Vagrants have been recorded in many areas north of the Antarctic in South America, New Zealand and southern Australia (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).	eng
11696	habitat	Gelatt, T. & Southwell, C., 2008	Adult males reach 2.9 m in length, while females reach 3.3 m. Adults in their prime weigh 400 to 450 kg, with females being somewhat heavier than males. Adult female weight fluctuates dramatically during the year with significant weight loss occurring after birth during lactation. Newborns are about 1.5 m long and average 29 kg. Females become mature at 3-6 years of age and males at 7-8 years. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 70-80%. Gestation lasts 11 months, including a delay of implantation of 2 months. Longevity is approximately 25 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Weddell seal pups are born from September through November and nursed for seven to eight weeks. Animals at lower latitudes pup earlier than animals living at higher latitudes. Males set up territories in the water around holes in the ice used by females to enter and leave the water. The only copulation that has been observed occurred underwater. The behavior of animals breeding in the pack ice or in the sub-Antarctic is not well known.<br/><br/>Weddell seals are not very social when out of the water, avoiding physical contact most of the time. However, they are loosely social; when in the shore-fast ice habitat they tend to congregate in groups along recurrent cracks, leads, and near access holes to the water. There is debate over whether or not this species is migratory or if there is just dispersal of weaned pups, juveniles and some older animals. Some individuals remain in residence year round in the fast ice at latitudes as high as 78°S in McMurdo Sound. Others, particularly newly weaned and subadult animals, move north from the continent and spend the winter in the pack ice. Seals living in fast ice areas or facing freezing over of access holes and leads, abrade and grind the ice to maintain access to and from the water. They bite at the ice and then rapidly swing the head from side to side to grind away the ice with their teeth. Seals living in areas where extensive grinding of ice is necessary for much of the year have accelerated wearing down of their teeth and decreased life expectancy. Predators include killer whales and leopard seals.<br/><br/>Weddell seals are prodigious divers, reaching over 600 m depth, and can undertake dives of at least 82 minutes. Deep dives are regularly used for foraging on Antarctic cod, and long dives occur when the animals are searching for new breathing holes, cracks and leads. In addition to Antarctic cod, the diet of Weddell seals primarily consists of <em>Notothenid</em> fishes. Squid and other invertebrates are also taken as small percentages of the diet.	eng
11696	population	Gelatt, T. & Southwell, C., 2008	The global population of Weddell seals has been variously estimated at 500,000 to one million or more (Erickson and Hanson 1990). This is a widespread species and, as with other Antarctic seals inhabiting the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Also, most past surveys do not account for seals in the water and unavailable for counting. To date a circumpolar survey has not been completed and reported. Published reports are limited to ship-based surveys of seals that produced a density estimate that is later extrapolated for the amount of land-fast sea ice present at the time (Erickson and Hanson 1990).	eng
11696	threats	Gelatt, T. & Southwell, C., 2008	Weddell seals served as an important source of food for men and dogs throughout the early periods of Antarctic exploration. They continued to be taken to feed sled dogs at one base in to the 1980s. Local populations of seals no doubt suffered declines from these harvests, but in the case of the population in McMurdo Sound the population has recovered in the 20 years since the harvest ended. At present, there are no immediate or significant threats to the Weddell seal.<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>., (2006) suggest that Weddell seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of fast ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators (possible), and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of Weddell seals. This is in contrast to a paper by Proffit <em>et al</em>. (2007), which reports that the localized cooling and increased sea ice extent in the Ross sea is associated with decreased reproduction and lower weaning mass of Weddell seals in McMurdo Sound. Thus, the overall effects of global climate change on Weddell seals is unknown.<br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seal, the leopard and crabeater tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies, and Ross seals were not tested. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, and many animals displayed viral illness symptoms prior to death (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage, and close approach by people in small boats and on land or ice on Weddell seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is also a risk of injury to a small number of animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessel passage through and disruption of ice fields. There are no reports of significant fisheries interactions.	eng
11697	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	A protected population exists at Emory Peak, Big Bend National Park, Texas (USFWS 2000). Further regular surveys are needed to determine important roost sites, abundance, and trends. Conservation of this bat will require maintenance of relatively large areas of wild Agave. Identification and protection of currently and formerly occupied roost sites and protection of foraging habitat in at least several areas throughout the range are important conservation needs. Populations need to be defined, and movement patterns need to be better understood. Accurate censusing methods need to be developed.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001, and is priority species of the Bat Conservation Program (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
11697	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from southeast Arizona, south New Mexico, and west Texas (USA) to south Mexico and Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,500 m (mostly 1,000 to 2,200 m) (Reid, 1997).<br/>The range includes medium to high elevations in northern and central Mexico, southwestern Texas (southern Brewster and Presidio counties), and southwestern New Mexico, at elevations of about 500 to 3,000+ meters. Most occurrences in Mexico are at elevations of 1,000-2,200 meters, but this bat been captured at an elevation of 3,780 meters (Arita 1991), and the type specimen was caught near snow line at 17,816 feet (5,747 meters) on Mt. Orizaba, in Veracruz, Mexico (USFWS 2000). In Texas, the species is known from the Big Bend National Park and Chinati Mountain area. Two specimens of <em>Leptonycteris </em>taken in Hidalgo County, New Mexico (in 1963 and 1967), were determined to be <em>L. nivalis</em>. The presence of this species in New Mexico was reconfirmed in Hidalgo County in 1992 (Hoyt <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species formerly was thought to occupy a much larger area, extending into southern Mexico and Guatemala, but specimens collected from those areas have been assigned to <em>L. yerbabuenae</em> (Arita and Humphrey 1988). The only colonial roost in the U.S. is a cave at Emory Peak, at an elevation of 2,290 meters, in the Chisos Mountains, Texas. Simmons (2005) described the range of <em>L. nivalis</em> as extending to southern Mexico and Guatemala, and she also included southeastern Arizona in the range. However, no actual records for Arizona are known, and Arita (1991) showed the range as extending only as far south as Puebla and northern Guerrero.	eng
11697	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in pine-oak and deciduous forest and desert scrub (Reid, 1997). This species usually favors higher and cooler regions than <em>L. yerbabuenae</em> (Arita, 1991). It usually roosts in large groups (up to 10,000) in caves or mines; occasionally found in buildings, hollow trees, or culverts. Emerges well after sunset and feeds on pollen and nectar, principally of agaves and various cacti. Bombax, Ceiba, Ipomoea, Calliandra, Pinus, and grasses are also important food sources in Central Mexico (Gardner, 1977). Fruit and insects are sometimes taken. Northern populations migrate south in winter; numbers found in caves fluctuate greatly from year to year, indicating eruptive movements in addition to seasonal migration. Single young are born in May or June (Hensley and Wilkins, 1988; Reid, 1997).<br/>Single known U.S. roost at Emory Peak (Texas): 10,650 bats in 1967, 5,000 in 1968, 3,900 in 1969, 0 in 1970, 8025 in 1971, 1000 in 1983, 4,942 -5,990 in 1988, 5,000+ in 1991, 0 in 1992, and 2,859 in 1993 (Matthews and Moseley 1990, see USFWS 2000); number fluctuates widely from one year to the next; fluctuation may be in part due to some counts being made before or after the main period of bat occupation of the cave (Cockrum and Petryszyn 1991). Texas population may be a "spill-over" colony present during years of high population or reduced food supply. See Arita (1993) for general information on conservation status and population size in Mexico. Reliable estimates for Mexican populations are not available, but Arita and Prado rated this species as widespread and scarce in Mexico.<br/>Long-term trend is unclear. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy probably have not changed much, but the number of occurrence or subpopulations and population size may have dramatically decreased in some locations during the last three decades. Wilson <em>et al.</em> (1985) found that this species was either completely absent or present in reduced numbers in known roosts. The number of bats found represented only a fraction of the total reported in previous studies. For example, in an abandoned mine in Nuevo Leon, Mexico, where an estimated population of 10,000 was observed in 1938, no individuals of <em>L. nivalis</em> were found in 1983 (Wilson 1985). Another mine in Nuevo Leon had a ceiling covered with newborn bats in 1967, but only one bat was found in 1983. A few other roosts had reduced numbers of bats compared to findings during previous surveys. These changes could indicate a decline in the overall population, but they might reflect movement of bats among different roosting sites in different years, or they could result from seasonal changes in bat distribution (survey dates varied). <br/><br/>Abundance at one of the two known roosting sites in the United States (a cave in Big Bend National Park) fluctuates widely from year to year (0 to 10,000+ individuals). No significant trend can be ascertained from these data, which are the best available for the species. Reasons for the fluctuations are not understood, but they could reflect annual variations in food resources in different parts of the range (USFWS 2000).<br/>Habitats include desert scrub, open conifer-oak woodlands, and pine forests in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones, generally arid areas where agave plants are present (USFWS 2000). Colonies roost in caves (or similar mines and tunnels), sometimes in culverts, hollow trees, or unused buildings. Roosting habitat requirements are not well known.	eng
11697	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is uncommon or rare (Reid, 1997). The number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but probably exceeds 20; Arita (1991) mapped a few dozen collection sites in Mexico. One known colonial roosting site exists in the United States, but there could a one or more additional sites that have not yet been detected. The number of occurences or subpopulations with good viability is unknown but likely there are not very many. Several caves in central Mexico were known to contain considerable numbers in the past but now contain only small colonies or none at all (see USFWS 2000). Probably declining in number of occurrences or subpopulation and in overall population size, but the rate of decline is unknown; better information is need.	eng
11697	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Primary threats include disturbance of roosts, loss of food sources through clearing of land for agriculture and human exploitation of agaves (e.g., for production of alcoholic beverages), and direct killing by humans. Other threats may include negative effects of ingestion of pesticides applied to plants, competition for roosts and nectar, natural catastrophes, disease, and predation; however, these are not believed to be major limiting factors, though some of them could become significant for populations reduced to small size by other factors (see USFWS 2000). These bats are sensitive to disturbance in their roosting sites (they often quickly take flight upon human entry; Wilson 1985, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1985) and, in general, roosting caves are becoming increasingly subject to human destruction and disturbance. Human disturbance and destruction of roost sites is a common occurrence in Mexico. The availability of roost sites free from disturbance may be a significant limiting factor. Special precautions should be taken when mine and cave surveys are conducted. In June and July when the young are very small, disturbance can cause them to lose their grasp on the rock and fall to their death. During hibernation, disturbance will cause an increase in metabolism; this use of fat reserves may cause starvation prior to spring (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). A major problem for bats all over Mexico is that uninformed citizens frequently destroy all bats in a roost, believing them to be vampire bats. Foraging habitat can be degraded or destroyed by harvesting of agave (an important food resource). It has been estimated that bootleg mescal makers are eliminating between 500,00 and 1,200,000 wild paniculate agave a year in Sonora alone. Agave plant parts are harvested just before they bloom; this prevents flowering and can prevent reproduction by the affected plant (an agave plant grows for 10 to 20 years, flowers only once, then dies). However, there are few places in Sonora or elsewhere in Mexico where wild Agave harvesting has eliminated a significant percentage of nectar-producing genets, and plants harvested by indigenous people generally produce vegetative offshoots that may eventually produce flowers (Nabhan and Fleming 1993). Populations of unharvested plants persist in many areas that are not easily accessible to humans. The negative impact of agave harvest probably is not as great as was previously believed. On the other hand, reduced pollination resulting from decreased bat populations may eventually lead to a reduction in agave distribution and abundance. Some foraging habitat has been degraded or destroyed by expansion of agriculture and other land uses. Large areas of both the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental and the Mexican Plateau have been converted to agriculture or rangeland. This species may experience predation from owls, hawks, snakes, and mammals, but natural levels of predation likely are inconsequential to the overall status of the species. However, increased populations of domestic and feral cats and other predators near human habitations may affect the survival of colonies, particularly maternity colonies (USFWS 2000).	eng
11699	conservation	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	Needs conservation of maternity caves and habitat type.	eng
11699	distribution	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species occurs in dry areas in northeast Colombia, north Venezuela, Margarita Island, Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
11699	habitat	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	This bat roosts in caves and mines, often in colonies of several thousand. It emerges about an hour after sunset to feed on nectar and pollen. It lands on the flowers or may hover for short periods to feed. Night roosts, including buildings, are used after feeding (Reid, 1997). Asociated with thorn scrub with columnar cactus and Agave plants (Soriano and Mantilla pers. comm.). The ecosystem is rare and dispersed throughout its range. This species is "keystone" in its ecosystem as a pollinator and seed disperser of agave and cactus (and other plants associated with the habitat type). The species is migratory and colonies are sexually seperated. Breeds on islands and resricted to specific breeding caves.	eng
11699	population	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	It is generally uncommon (Reid, 1997) and restricted to narrow habitat types.	eng
11699	threats	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	Conversion of the ecosystem, which is rapidly being developed. Narrow range of habitat type, which is coastal - where much human expansion is occurring. Caves are very specific and threatened by vandalism. Maternity colonies are extremely vulnerable.	eng
11700	conservation		It is found in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park, which is at least well managed for biodiversity conservation.	eng
11700	distribution		This species is endemic to south-eastern South Africa in the southern KwaZulu-Natal Province highlands, and marginally in Eastern Cape Province. It is not found on the steep slopes of the escarpment, and is usually found between 1,000 and 1,830m asl. Only a few localities are known, but it might be more widespread.	eng
11700	habitat		It occurs in grassland, keeping to areas away from trees, and breeds in upland bogs, grassy wetlands and marshes, generally using semi-permanent water. Eggs are presumably laid in a nest on the ground near water.	eng
11700	population		It is a rare species.	eng
11700	threats		It has a small range, and lives in a habitat that is threatened by afforestation, fire, and the spread of alien plants that lower the water table (leading to drying out of breeding sites).	eng
11790	conservation	Cervantes, F.A., Lorenzo, C., Farías, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The Tehuantepec jackrabbit is listed as critically endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.  Conservation laws are not enforced by local authorities in Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
11790	distribution	Cervantes, F.A., Lorenzo, C., Farías, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	According to Chapman <em>et al.</em> (1983) this species existed only from Salina Cruz, Oaxaca to the extreme west of the State of Chiapas, Mexico.  Recently, Tehuantepec hares have not been found in Chiapas (Retana and Lorenzo 2002).  The area occupied in the past was apparently 150 km², but increasing clearance for agriculture is destroying most of its habitat.  The former distribution of the Tehuantepec jackrabbit is not documented in detail, but Nelson (1909) estimated the leporid's historic range along the Mexican Pacific Coast on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Salina Cruz in Oaxaca to Tonalá in Chiapas, as an area of perhaps only 5,000 km².  Four populations of Tehuantepec hare persist, and the extent of occurrence is perhaps only 520 km².  This hare inhabits altitudes at no more than 500 m.	eng
11790	habitat	Cervantes, F.A., Lorenzo, C., Farías, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	At present, this jackrabbit is restricted to grasslands with open shrub and tree cover, and coastal grassy dunes which never exceed a 4-5 km wide strip along the shores of salt water lagoons on the north side of the Gulf of Tehuantepec.  It co-exists with the eastern cottontail <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> and is crepuscular and nocturnal.  Tropical dry savannas of native grasses with an over story of sparse bushes (<em>Byrsonima crassifolia, Opuntia decumbens, Opuntia tehuantepecana</em>), and scattered trees (<em>Crescentia</em> spp.) are the vegetation communities selected by Tehuantepec jackrabbits.  Tehuantepec jackrabbits are also found in coastal grassy dunes with <em>Sabal mexicana</em>.  Grasses in savannas and coastal dunes are dominated by <em>Paspalum</em> and <em>Bouteloua</em>.  Annual home range and core area sizes averaged 55.5 ha (range 27.6-99.7 ha) and 8.5 ha (range 2.1-13.3 ha) for adult jackrabbits of both sexes (n=10) using the 95% and 50% fixed kernal isopleths, respectively.  Similar home range size between sexes and home range overlap with more than one individual suggest that Tehuantepec hares have a polygamous mating system and a non-territorial social organization.  The length of the breeding season may extend from February to December, with a peak in reproduction during the rainy season (from May to October).  Mean litter size is two, with a range of one to four embryos (Farías pers. comm.).  Data are from museum specimens of Tehuantepec jackrabbits at the Colección Nacional de Mamíferos from the Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México of females that were pregnant (Farías pers. comm.).  The total length is 59.5 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  This species reaches maturity at six to seven months for both sexes (Farías 2004).	eng
11790	population	Cervantes, F.A., Lorenzo, C., Farías, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Population size is estimated as less than 1,000 individuals.  The four populations are rare and all are isolated from each other.	eng
11790	threats	Cervantes, F.A., Lorenzo, C., Farías, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The species' habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture as the local human population expands.  In addition, the species is shot by numerous parties of hunters coming from cities up to 200 km away to shoot deer by spotlighting at night.  The extent of occurrence of Tehuantepec jackrabbits is jeopardized by habitat alteration and degradation by introduction of exotic grasses, human-induced fires, agriculture, cattle-raising activities, and human settlements in savannas.  Predation was the major cause of mortality for radio-marked jackrabbits and accounted for 94% of juvenile deaths and 67% of adult deaths during a 29 month study.  Human-induced fires in the savanna accounted for 20% of adult deaths.  Poaching accounted for 13% of adult deaths, and for 6% of juvenile deaths. There is also low genetic variation.  Habitat reduction has been estimated at 8-29% over the last 24 years (Cuáron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
11791	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Regional declines in <em>L. timidus</em> populations suggest that research be conducted to determine the cause(s).  Several areas have been suggested: interspecific competition with <em>L. europaeus</em>, pathogenic impact, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003).  In Ireland, the cause(s) of population declines require investigation (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  The current situation of the endemic Irish hare (<em>L. t. hibernicus</em>) needs to be investigated specifically (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  In China, it occurs in Honghe, Xingkaihu, and Sanjiang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).<br/><br/>This species is listed under the Bern Convention, Appendix III as well as the European Union Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  This species is regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11791	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H., 2008	Regional declines in <em>L. timidus</em> populations suggest that research be conducted to determine the cause(s).  Several areas have been suggested: interspecific competition with <em>L. europaeus</em>, pathogenic impact, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003).  In Ireland, the cause(s) of population declines require investigation (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  The current situation of the endemic Irish hare (<em>L. t. hibernicus</em>) needs to be investigated specifically (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  In China, it occurs in Honghe, Xingkaihu, and Sanjiang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).<br/><br/>This species is listed under the Bern Convention, Appendix III as well as the European Union Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  This species is regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11791	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	The species occurs in a number of protected areas within its European range. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the Habitats and Species Directive. In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> is proven or suspected to be declining, research should be carried out to determine the potential causes. Monitoring is required to determine if the species is declining in the Alps.  Monitoring of the endemic Irish hare (<em>L. t. hibernicus</em>) is already underway. Genetic investigations into the taxonomic status of this subspecies are also underway. A number of reasons for decline have been suggested: interspecific competition with <em>L. europaeus</em>, the impact of pathogens, and the effects of hybridization (Thulin 2003). In Ireland, the cause(s) of population change require further investigation, but agricultural intensification appears to be one of the main concerns.	eng
11791	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	Mountain hares range from Fennoscandia, the Baltic and east Poland to the Pacific Ocean, from 75°N in the far north of Russia and Scandinavia, south to 40-50°N. There are isolated populations in the Alps from France to Slovenia, Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, Italy, the Kurile Islands, and Hokkaido, Japan. It has been introduced into the Faeroes, England, and various Scottish Islands; some introduced on Spitzbergen later died out. It occurs at altitudes of 250 to 3,700 m (Sulkava 1999).	eng
11791	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>L. timidus</em> extends from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the eastern edge of Poland and Scandinavia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The northern most populations can be found at 75°N in Russia and Scandinavia, extending south to 40-50°N (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Isolated populations are located in Hokkaido (Japan), Ireland, the Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990), and the Alps regions of Austria, Italy, Germany, France, Slovenia, and Switzerland (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Introduced populations can be found in England, the Faeroes (Denmark), several Scottish islands (Flux and Angermann 1990).  On Spitsbergen Island, introduced populations failed to persist (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
11791	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>L. timidus</em> extends from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the eastern edge of Poland and Scandinavia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The northern most populations can be found at 75°N in Russia and Scandinavia, extending south to 40-50°N (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Isolated populations are located in Hokkaido (Japan), Ireland, the Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990), and the Alps regions of Austria, Italy, Germany, France, Slovenia, and Switzerland (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Introduced populations can be found in England, the Faeroes (Denmark), several Scottish islands (Flux and Angermann 1990).  On Spitsbergen Island, introduced populations failed to persist (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
11791	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>L. timidus</em> inhabits tundra and taiga, particularly pine, birch, and juniper (Flux and Angermann 1990). Moors and bogland are the preferred habitats for this species in Ireland and Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990).  However, <em>L. timidus hibernicus</em> will also utilize cultivated land, rich agricultural area, in Ireland (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> occupies lowland woodlands of open steppe in southern Russia along with reed belts around lakes (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Mongolia, it occurs in forests located on the Altai, Hingan, Hentei, Hovsgol, and Hangai mountain ranges (Mallon 1985). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>L. timdus</em> varies in relation to the type of habitat it occupies (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>Calluna</em> (heather) constitutes the bulk of the diet in Scotland, while birch, juniper, poplar, willow, and <em>Vaccinium</em> are selected in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  If present, <em>L. timidus</em> will consume palatable grasses and clovers (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/><em>L. timidus</em> is a nocturnal species that will increase daytime activity during summer months (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Home range for this species ranges according to locality (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Scotland, home ranges as small as 10 ha have been observed, while in Finland it was reported that home ranges could be as large as 305 ha (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> coexist, <em>L. timidus</em> will retreat to areas of higher elevation (Thulin 2003).  The reason for this is believed to be competitive exclusion, <em>L. timidus</em> yields habitat to <em>L. europaeus</em> (Thulin 2003).<br/><br/>Litter size of <em>L. timidus</em> is variable (two to six) according to the number of litters and the latitude (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  Gestation time is between 47-55 days (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  The breeding season is February to August (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).   <em>L. timidus</em> reaches maturity at one year of age.  Longevity for <em>L. timidus</em> is nine years (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Natural mortality for juveniles is 80%, while adult mortality is 58% (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Total length of this species is 45.7-61.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).<br/><br/><em>L. t. hibernicus</em> is the only endemic hare of Ireland (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  Contrary to other mountain hare populations, this subspecies "occurs at all altitudes and can be found in most habitats throughout Ireland" (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> typically forages on grasses (Reid and Montgomery 2007).	eng
11791	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H., 2008	<em>L. timidus</em> inhabits tundra and taiga, particularly pine, birch, and juniper (Flux and Angermann 1990). Moors and bogland are the preferred habitats for this species in Ireland and Scotland (Flux and Angermann 1990).  However, <em>L. timidus hibernicus</em> will also utilize cultivated land, rich agricultural area, in Ireland (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> occupies lowland woodlands of open steppe in southern Russia along with reed belts around lakes (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Mongolia, it occurs in forests located on the Altai, Hingan, Hentei, Hovsgol, and Hangai mountain ranges (Mallon 1985). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>L. timdus</em> varies in relation to the type of habitat it occupies (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>Calluna</em> (heather) constitutes the bulk of the diet in Scotland, while birch, juniper, poplar, willow, and <em>Vaccinium</em> are selected in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  If present, <em>L. timidus</em> will consume palatable grasses and clovers (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/><em>L. timidus</em> is a nocturnal species that will increase daytime activity during summer months (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Home range for this species ranges according to locality (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In Scotland, home ranges as small as 10 ha have been observed, while in Finland it was reported that home ranges could be as large as 305 ha (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> coexist, <em>L. timidus</em> will retreat to areas of higher elevation (Thulin 2003).  The reason for this is believed to be competitive exclusion, <em>L. timidus</em> yields habitat to <em>L. europaeus</em> (Thulin 2003).<br/><br/>Litter size of <em>L. timidus</em> is variable (two to six) according to the number of litters and the latitude (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  Gestation time is between 47-55 days (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  The breeding season is February to August (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).   <em>L. timidus</em> reaches maturity at one year of age.  Longevity for <em>L. timidus</em> is nine years (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Natural mortality for juveniles is 80%, while adult mortality is 58% (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Total length of this species is 45.7-61.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).<br/><br/><em>L. t. hibernicus</em> is the only endemic hare of Ireland (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  Contrary to other mountain hare populations, this subspecies "occurs at all altitudes and can be found in most habitats throughout Ireland" (Reid and Montgomery 2007).  <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> typically forages on grasses (Reid and Montgomery 2007).	eng
11791	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	Mountain hares occupy tundra and open forest, particularly of early successional stages. In Scotland and Ireland heather moors and bogland are favoured habitats, and in southern Russia copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes. The diet varies with the habitat. In Scotland and Ireland much heather, <em>Calluna</em>, is eaten, but this is not a major food item elsewhere in Europe where willow, aspen, birch, juniper, poplar, and <em>Vaccinium</em> are favoured (Flux and Angermann 1990). Palatable grasses and clovers are taken when available. Mountain hares are nocturnal, but there is increased daylight activity in summer when nights are short, or in winter when food is scarce (Flux and Angermann 1990). In areas where <em>L. timidus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> coexist, <em>L. timidus</em> retreats to areas of higher elevation, presumably as a result of competitive exclusion (Thulin 2003).	eng
11791	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>L. timidus</em> is an abundant species within its range (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Populations appear to be stable across much of its geographic distribution, with fluctuations occurring in northern Europe and possible declines in the Alps (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Population declines have been observed in Russia and in the extreme, southern portions of Sweden, <em>L. timidus</em> has disappeared entirely (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> is found at low densities in tundra areas (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Northern Ireland, historical game bag records indicate that there has been a substantial decline in hare abundance (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  Populations of <em>L. timidus</em> are subject to periodic crashes where the cause is potentially parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995).	eng
11791	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H., 2008	<em>L. timidus</em> is an abundant species within its range (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Populations appear to be stable across much of its geographic distribution, with fluctuations occurring in northern Europe and possible declines in the Alps (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Population declines have been observed in Russia and in the extreme, southern portions of Sweden, <em>L. timidus</em> has disappeared entirely (Thulin 2003).  <em>L. timidus</em> is found at low densities in tundra areas (Angerbjorn pers. comm.).  In Northern Ireland, historical game bag records indicate that there has been a substantial decline in hare abundance (Dingerkus and Montgomery 2002).  Populations of <em>L. timidus</em> are subject to periodic crashes where the cause is potentially parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995).	eng
11791	population	Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	Long-term population trends in Europe appear generally stable, with fluctuations in population density occurring over a multi-year cycle (typically peaking every 4 or 7-8 years in Scandinavia and every 10 years in Scotland and northern Russia). Periodic population crashes occur, potentially as a result of disease (tularaemia, a bacterial infection), parasitism, predation, or starvation (Angerbjorn and Flux 1995, Sulkava 1999). Population densities of 1-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are typical in range states (e.g., Scotland and Finland). Population declines have occurred in Russia, and in the far south of Sweden the species has completely disappeared (Thulin 2003). The isolated Alpine population may be declining (Sulkava 1999).	eng
11791	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	It is hunted as game, but current hunting rates appear to be sustainable in most parts of its European range. <em>L. timidus</em> has successfully hybridized with <em>L. europaeus</em> in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003). The pathogens European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and tularemia may be problematic, but research is required to determine how great an impact they have on wild populations (Thulin 2003). Competitive exclusion of the mountain hare by the European brown hare may restrict the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003), and anthropogenic climate change may affect competitive relationships between these two species. The discovery of an introduced population of <em>L. europaeus</em> to Ireland could pose a threat to the Irish subspecies <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> (N. Reid pers. comm. 2006).	eng
11791	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are several potential threats identified for this species.  <em>L. timidus</em> has successfully hybridized with <em>L. europaeus</em> in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003).  The pathogens, European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and Tularemia, are considered problematic, but require research to determine how great an impact they inflict (Thulin 2003).  Competitive exclusion occurring between the mountain hare and the European brown hare could be restricting the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003).  The discovery of an introduced population of <em>L. europaeus</em> to Ireland could pose a threat to <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
11791	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H., 2008	There are several potential threats identified for this species.  <em>L. timidus</em> has successfully hybridized with <em>L. europaeus</em> in areas where the latter has been introduced (Thulin 2003).  The pathogens, European Brown Hare Syndrome (EHBS) and Tularemia, are considered problematic, but require research to determine how great an impact they inflict (Thulin 2003).  Competitive exclusion occurring between the mountain hare and the European brown hare could be restricting the distribution of the former (Thulin 2003).  The discovery of an introduced population of <em>L. europaeus</em> to Ireland could pose a threat to <em>L. t. hibernicus</em> (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
11792	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Research should be concentrated on determining population numbers and range, as well as efforts to establish trends and monitoring.  Population decline in New Mexico prompted the listing of <em>L. callotis</em> as threatened in 1975 by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2006).  Efforts have been made to monitor population status and trends in New Mexico, as well as, encouraging shrub control and non-detrimental grazing practices by local landowners within <em>L. callotis</em> habitat (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2006).  Range reduction, indicated by climate change models, is expected to be more severe in the northern portion of this species' range.  Is it suggested that assessments be made of the population density of <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> and habitat transformation, to determine that impact future changes will have on its survival (Martinez-Villeda 2006).	eng
11792	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Lepus callotis</em> is nearly endemic to Mexico, distributed from southwestern New Mexico (USA) to northern Oaxaca (Mexico) (Hall 1981, Best and Henry 1993, Villa-Ramirez and Cervantes 2003).  <em>L. callotis</em> has been observed at an elevation of 2,550 m in Puebla and 750 m in Morelos (Best and Henry 1993).  <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> has a discontinuous distribution that extends from southwestern New Mexico, USA to north-central Durango, Mexico (Best and Henry 1993).  In Mexico, there are two isolated populations, one in central Chihuahua and the other extending from south-central Chihuahua into Durango (Martinez-Villeda 2006).  Its distribution in southwestern New Mexico is restricted to two locations in Hidalgo County at elevations between 1,500-1,600 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In 1950, there was a potential sighting of two <em>L. c. gaillardi</em> on the west side of the Huachuca Mountains in Arizona (Hoffmeister1986).  The total range in the USA is estimated to be 120 km² (Bednarz and Cook 1984).  <em>L. c. callotis</em> is distributed from the central part of east Durango toward the plains of the central part of Mexico, along the axis Neovolcanic to northern Guerrero and Oaxaca (Best and Henry 1993, Villa-Ramirez and Cervantes 2003).	eng
11792	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>L. callotis</em> is restricted to high grasslands in New Mexico (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In the area surrounding the valleys inhabited by this species, overgrazing has caused the presence of shrub to increase, resulting in the increase of <em>Lepus californicus</em> and exclusion of <em>L. callotis</em> (Bednarz and Cook 1984).  This problem has been identified in parts of Mexico, as well (Best and Henry 1993).  In Zacatecas (Mexico) it lives in plains of open grasslands. In Queretaro (Mexico) it is associated with cultivated areas and corrals (potreros). <br/><br/>Breeding season varies from the middle of April to August and the average litter size is 2.2 (range 1-4) (Anderson 1972; Bogan and Jones 1975; Bednarz 1977).  <em>L. callotis</em> is capable of producing at least three litters per year during the breeding season (Bednarz 1977).  It is common to observe individuals in pairs, particularly in the breeding season.  <em>L. callotis</em> is strictly nocturnal (Flux and Angermann 1990).  An average total length for this species is 55.0 cm (Best and Henry 1993).  Their diet is almost exclusively grasses, but may consist of roots during dry seasons (Bednarz 1977).	eng
11792	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	In 1976, the density of <em>L. callotis</em> was estimated at 1/31.6 ha in New Mexico, producing a maximum population of 340 hares (Bednarz 1977).  Between 1976 and 1981, the restricted population in New Mexico has experienced a nearly 50% decline due to habitat change (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This decline has been accompanied by an increase in the presence of <em>L. californicus</em> and <em>Sylvilagus audubonii</em> (Best and Henry 1993).  <br/><br/>Population information for Mexico is scarce (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There has been an observed decline in population numbers for Durango (Best and Henry 1993).  A survey conducted from 1998-1999 on the semi-desert and plains grasslands habitats in Chihuahua, Mexico determined <em>L. callotis</em> densities of 0.01/ha and 0.06/ha, respectively (Desmond 2004).	eng
11792	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Changes in habitat due to overgrazing negatively impact <em>L. callotis</em> resulting in <em>L. californicus</em> encroachment (Flux and Angermann 1990, Desmond 2004).  In some places, there is competition with <em>L. californicus</em>.  Additional threats are hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation.  In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fires represent important threats for their populations.  A model generated for climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% range reduction from the current potential range for this species (Martinez-Villeda 2006).	eng
11793	conservation	Lazell, J., Lu, W., Xia, W., Li, S.Y. & Smith, A.T., 2008	A China Key List - II protected species in China as of 1991, but as of 1995 there was no apparent law enforcement.  No habitat has been conserved for this species.  Recovery management is needed to reverse population declines (Luo 1988).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2cd+3cd; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
11793	distribution	Lazell, J., Lu, W., Xia, W., Li, S.Y. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus hainanus</em> is endemic to the island of Hainan, China (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Formerly, L. hainanus occupied most of the lowlands of Hainan Dao, except possibly in the northeast.  In 1995 it was located only at Bang Xi and Da Tien deer ranches in the central west coastal zone.  Historic locations of <em>L. hainanus</em> specimens were found from sea-level and approximately 300 m (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
11793	habitat	Lazell, J., Lu, W., Xia, W., Li, S.Y. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus hainanus</em> inhabits grasslands of the western regions on Hainan (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The eastern region of the island is not considered suitable for this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In 1995, <em>L. hainanus</em> was found only at deer ranches close to ranger stations, which provide some protection from poaching.  They are also found on flat, dry farm land that is scattered with second growth scrub or plantains (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species is characterized as tame, probably the result of few native carnivores present within its range (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).  <em>L. hainanus</em> is predominantly a nocturnal species, but is known to forage during the day (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is exclusively a ground-dweller (Luo 1988).  <em>L. hainanus</em> reaches a maximum length of 40.0 cm (Lazell <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
11793	population	Lazell, J., Lu, W., Xia, W., Li, S.Y. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Formerly characterized as abundant, <em>Lepus hainanus</em> is now experiencing population declines (Lazell <em>et al.</em> 1995).  In 1995 it was estimated at 157 ±68 km² at Da Tien and 62 (no replicates) per km² at Bang Xi.  There are probably no more than two km² of optimal habitat remaining, so that total population may be no more than 250-500.	eng
11793	threats	Lazell, J., Lu, W., Xia, W., Li, S.Y. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Over harvesting and the expansion of agriculture present a major threat to Lepus hainanus (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Greater than 90% of its original habitat has been destroyed.  Artificially cleared deer ranches provide nearly all the extant habitat.  As of 1995, poaching for meat and skins continued.	eng
11794	conservation	Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>L. insularis</em> is listed in the Mexican official norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.  Other has been checked off on the conservation measures list regarding research actions and has been identified as "genetic."	eng
11794	distribution	Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>L. insularis</em> is known only from Espiritu Santo Island in the Gulf of California (Thomas and Best 1994). It occupies elevations ranging from sea level to 300 m (Nelson 1909).  The Nature Conservancy states that the island has 23,383 acres or approximately 95 km², the total extent of occurrence for this species .	eng
11794	habitat	Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	This species prefers open areas and is common on rocky slopes, mesetas, dunes and sandy valleys (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <em>L. insularis</em> inhabits tropical scrub of cactus (<em>Pachycerus, Stenocereus, Opuntia</em>) and shrubs (<em>Prosopis, Ambrosia</em> and <em>Acacia</em>) in dunes with grasses and halophytic plants (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  Most active during crepuscular hours, but is known to be active at all hours of the day (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <em>L. insularis</em> forages on a wide variety of grasses, herbs, forbs, and will consume "the fleshy part of short cacti (<em>Stenocereus</em>) and young stems of shrubs (<em>Prosopis</em>)” (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>The total length is 57.4 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).	eng
11794	population	Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The species is common on the island. The population is considered stable (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
11794	threats	Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The major threats associated with <em>L. insularis</em> are disturbance by humans, loss and disturbance of habitat by exotic fauna, and competition with domestic fauna.	eng
11795	conservation	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of this species in relation to <em>L. arcticus</em> and <em>L. timidus</em>.  Research should also be conducted in the areas of habitat and population status, harvest levels, and trends.  There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
11795	distribution	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The geographic range of <em>L. othus</em> consists of west and southwest Alaska (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occupies elevations from sea level to approximately 660 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Previously, distribution included the Chukotkan region of Russia; however, molecular phylogeny suggests that this population of hare is more closely allied with <em>L. timidus</em> (Waltari <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The Alaskan hare has not been studied extensively, probably because of its restricted and isolated distribution along the Arctic tundra region of western Alaska.  The distribution is almost entirely north of treeline, including the North Slope of Alaska, although verifiable records of this range extension are lacking.	eng
11795	habitat	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>L. othus</em> normally occupies open tundra (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet is likely to be the same as that of other arctic hares: dwarf willow, grasses, sedges and heath plants.<br/><br/>The total length is 56.5-69.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  <em>L. othus</em> produces one litter per year (Best and Henry 1994).  It averages 6.3 young per litter (Anderson and Lent 1977).  Gestation length is approximately 46 days (Anderson and Lent 1977).	eng
11795	population	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Population is more or less continuous and is thought to be stable and healthy.  Populations may undergo cyclic fluctuations.  However, little/no monitoring of populations is ongoing.	eng
11795	threats	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Southern populations may be subject to habitat loss, perhaps climate change as well, although this is highly speculative.	eng
11796	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Talimuhuyanglin (Tarim), Aerjinshan, and Luobupoyeluotuo Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Due to increased human activity, it is suggested that efforts be made to conserve habitat and that harvesting limits be implemented (Smith and Xie 2008).  Additionally, the lack of gene flow between isolated populations raises concern with regard to genetic variability.  This issue should be monitored to avert inbreeding depression.  This species is regionally listed in China as Vulnerable under criteria A1cd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
11796	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus yarkandensis</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  "The Yarkand hare is restricted to the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, between latitudes 36-42°N and longitudes 76-92°E (Flux and Angermann 1990)."  This species relies on oases of vegetation that are supported by streams descending from the surrounding mountains of the Taklamakan desert (Gao 1983; Luo 1988).  This habitat preference produces a ring shaped distribution around the Taklamakan desert (Gao 1983; Luo 1988).	eng
11796	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Lepus yarkandensis prefers habitat that consists of "Chinese tamarisk or poplar forest and brushwood along the margins of the rivers, which produce 'islands' of vegetation as they run into the desert (Flux and Angermann 1990)." It will utilize reedy meadows within its range as well (Flux and Angermann 1990). However, this species tends to avoid agricultural fields (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet consists of grass and crops. There is no information on home range.  Total length of this species is 28.5-43.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season extends from February possibly into September (Smith and Xie 2008).  Litter sizes range from two to five young, with two to three litters per year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
11796	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is considered locally common (Smith and Xie 2008).  However, it is suspected that it is experiencing population declines as human activity increases within its range.	eng
11796	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus yarkandensis</span> is a game species and between 1958 and 1981 about 10,000 furs were produced annually (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Increasing human activity (petroleum exploration and local development) within its range is resulting in population declines (Li <em>et al.</em> 2005).  A recent study of population genetic structure found low gene flow among three sampled populations (Li <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is inferred that increasing isolation of hare populations will exacerbate this situation, potentially resulting in genetic drift and inbreeding depression.	eng
11797	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Recommended conservation actions are (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996):<br/>- Research to determine the effects of habitat change, predation pressure, and illegal hunting.<br/>- Develop a global hunting plan for all regional reserves and private hunting areas, accommodating specific characteristics of the situation for the species.<br/>- Avoid any restocking with other hare species within the extent of occurrence of <em>L. castroviejoi</em>.<br/>- Development of direct or indirect predator control, especially in conjunction with foxes and domestic dogs and cats.<br/>- Restoration of altered habitat that is no longer suitable for <em>L. castroviejo</em>i.<br/><br/>The establishment of corridors among local populations should be considered to bolster interbreeding within the metapopulation (Acevedo <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Research should also be conducted to improve knowledge of reproduction and genetic structure (Alves pers. comm.).  Although <em>L. castroviejoi</em> is listed as endangered in Spain, it is still hunted as a game species in some regions (Cantabria and Leon) (Alves per. comm.).<br/><br/>The ability to implement policies to manage and conserve this species should be easy, because a substantial portion of its area of occupancy lies within reserves (Ballesteros <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
11797	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The distribution of <em>L. castroviejoi</em> is limited to the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest of Spain (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occupies elevations of 1,000 to 1,900 m between Sierra de los Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (Flux and Angermann 1990, Ballesteros 2003).  The total distribution is approximately 25 - 40 km from north to south, 230 km east to west (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is estimated that the extent of occurrence is 5,000 km² (Ballesteros 2003).  This species is considered fragmented, as it occupies highly specialized patches of habitat that is scarce (Ballesteros, in press).	eng
11797	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Little is known about the home range, population density, and food preferences, but they are likely to be similar to those of European hares in comparable habitat.  No information is available on reproduction (Alves pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>L. castroviejoi</em> occupies an elevational range of 1,300-1,900 m, descending in winter to 1,000 m to avoid snow.  This habitat consists of heathland where the dominant vegetation forms are <em>Erica, Calluna</em>, and <em>Vaccinium</em> and shrub where the cover consists of <em>Cytisus, Genista</em>, and <em>Juniperus</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990, Alves and Niethammer 2003).  A habitat suitability model determined that <em>L. castroviejoi</em>, "selects areas characterized by a high percentage of broom and heather scrublands, high altitude and slope, and limited human accessibility (quantified as distance to roads variable) (Acevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Its habitat also includes cleared areas of mixed deciduous forest of <em>Fagus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> (Palacios 1977).  <em>L. castroviejoi</em> also selects habitat that has been burned and areas where broom has been cleared within Somiedo Natural Park (Ballesteros <em>et al</em>. 1996).  Nocturnal censuses with spotlights in Somiedo Natural Park determined average densities of 6.83/100 ha (Gonzalez-Quiros <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
11797	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>L. castroviejoi</em> is experiencing a decline in relation to specific portions of its distribution that are disturbed by human activities and excessive hunting (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Fragmentation, resulting from the patchy distribution of suitable habitat, has produced a dispersed metapopulation of this species (Ballesteros, in press).  A habitat suitability model indicated that <em>L. castroviejoi</em> was experiencing a decreasing population trend of 16.67% and a 4.17% increase within its metapopulation structure, with no appreciable change for 70.82% of the populations (Acevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
11797	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There has been excessive hunting at the western edge of its distribution where hares are isolated from the rest of the population during the summer (Palacios and Ramos 1979). <br/><br/>In addition to over harvesting, this species is subject to predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides) and habitat change (Ballesteros <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
11798	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Abiata-Shalla Lakes National Park and Gambela National Park (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).  There are few data available on this species.  It is therefore recommended, that research be conducted on population numbers/range, biology, and ecology for <em>Lepus fagani</em>.	eng
11798	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus fagani</em> extends across the western region of the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1986).  The distribution of <em>L. fagani</em> is allo- or parapatric with that of <em>L. microtis</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>L. fagani</em> can be found at elevations ranging from 500-2,500 m (Happold pers. comm.).	eng
11798	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no actual data on the habitat or ecology of this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is assumed that <em>Lepus fagani</em> inhabits steppes, grasslands, and grassy sections of woodlands, within its distribution (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Total length of this species is 45.0-54.0 cm (Happold pers. comm.).	eng
11798	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data currently available regarding the population status of <em>Lepus fagani</em>.	eng
11798	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
11856	conservation	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Occurs in several protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of the species.	eng
11856	distribution	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Restricted to southern and central Argentina (Gardner . Ranging from the province of  Mendoza in the north to Santa Cruz in the south, the species is found in xeric environments of the Patagonia and Monte phytogeographic provinces.	eng
11856	habitat	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Inhabits treeless, grassland (pampas) areas. The diet probably consists of mice, small birds, and, where present, insects and fruit. Anatomical features of this opossum, such as the skull, suggest that it is more carnivorous than its relatives. One specimen was caught in a trap with a bird in its mouth.	eng
11856	population	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	L. halli, is known from a few skeletons of captured animals and several isolated fragments recovered from owl pellets in Argentina. Recently, more than 300 remains were found in owl pellets and associated bones, comprising the largest known collection of L. halli (Martin 2005).	eng
11856	threats	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are threatened by livestock and agriculture.	eng
11871	distribution	Bonham, K., 2006	The species is reliably known from three islands in Furneaux Group, which is a cluster of hundreds of islands surrounding a main island, Flinders Island (c. 60x20 km). Flinders Island is one of the three. It is likely to be present on many of the smaller islands but very few of the islands have been searched for snails at all (K. Bonham, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>There are 12 recorded localities: two recorded from the 19th century (locality has not been resampled by collectors <br/>capable of finding species since then), and the remainder post-1950, mostly post-1980 (K. Bonham unpub. data, Australian Museum collections). There are likely to be many more discovered, probably hundreds, with further searching. Extent of occurrence (EOO) estimated at 2,050 km². The species occurs throughout a group of islands; the approximate total area of land on island group has been used as the EOO. Area of occupancy is difficult to estimate due to species’ unreliable population densities and lack of searching. It is likely to exceed 200 km²  but this is a very rough “guesstimate” (K. Bonham, pers. comm). There is no knowledge of any range decline.	eng
11871	habitat	Bonham, K., 2006	Coastal scrub, scrub forests, gullies in wet forests. The species is very small (<em>ca</em>. 2 mm). It also persists in narrow bush areas which have been surrounded by houses, pastures etc for 50+ years.	eng
11871	population	Bonham, K., 2006	It is impossible to estimate population size. The species sometimes occurs in extremely dense subpopulations, while others are of low density. Possibly there are millions of individuals. <br/> <br/>Some population decline is probable through land clearance, but the extent of this is unknown due to difficulty of predicting inland habitat.	eng
11871	threats	Bonham, K., 2006	Unknown. Possible threats include land clearance and, in more disturbed places, replacement by introduced snails.	eng
11873	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11873	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
11873	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	From lower Rhine and northern Germany eastward to southern Baltic basin; Black Sea basin south to Rioni drainage, northern and western Caspian basin (south to Kura drainage); Aegean Sea basin (from Maritsa to Nestos). Absent in Italy, Adriatic basin, Great Britain and Scandinavia (except southernmost Sweden). Widely introduced in France, upper Rhine drainage, locally in Great Britain and Switzerland and invasive in western Siberia (Ob basin in Russia and Kazakhstan).	eng
11873	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	From lower Rhine and northern Germany eastward to southern Baltic basin; Black Sea basin south to Rioni drainage, northern and western Caspian basin (south to Kura drainage); Aegean Sea basin (from Maritsa to Nestos). Absent in Italy, Adriatic basin, Great Britain and Scandinavia (except southernmost Sweden). Widely introduced in France, upper Rhine drainage, locally in Great Britain and Switzerland and invasive in western Siberia (Ob basin in Russia and Kazakhstan).	eng
11873	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland riverine habitats especially oxbows and other water bodies only connected to rivers during floods. Often found in ponds, steppe lakes and small water bodies not connected to rivers. May occur in any habitat with few or no predators. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at one year; spawns only for a single season. Spawns in May-September, when temperature reaches 16°C. Females may spawn about once every three weeks. Males are territorial; they clean the spawning site and guard the eggs, which are attached in strings around roots, reeds, aquatic vegetation or any material drifting on the water surface. Feeds mostly on zooplankton and terrestrial insects. Stunted populations may form in predator-free habitats. Often quickly reaches newly-created water bodies by still unknown mechanisms. Scales were used to produce Essence d'Orient, which was used for coating artificial pearls.	eng
11873	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland riverine habitats especially oxbows and other water bodies only connected to rivers during floods. Often found in ponds, steppe lakes and small water bodies not connected to rivers. May occur in any habitat with few or no predators. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at one year; spawns only for a single season. Spawns in May-September, when temperature reaches 16°C. Females may spawn about once every three weeks. Males are territorial; they clean the spawning site and guard the eggs, which are attached in strings around roots, reeds, aquatic vegetation or any material drifting on the water surface. Feeds mostly on zooplankton and terrestrial insects. Stunted populations may form in predator-free habitats. Often quickly reaches newly-created water bodies by still unknown mechanisms. Scales were used to produce Essence d'Orient, which was used for coating artificial pearls.	eng
11873	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11873	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
11873	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drainage of wetlands	eng
11873	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Drainage of wetlands	eng
11884	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11884	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
11884	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic, Black, northern Caspian and North Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Seine and lower Loire drainages (France). Absent in Scandinavia north of 69°N. In Asia, eastward to Lena drainage and Aral basin. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy.	eng
11884	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Baltic, Black, northern Caspian and North Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Seine and lower Loire drainages (France). Absent in Scandinavia north of 69°N. In Asia, eastward to Lena drainage and Aral basin. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy.	eng
11884	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in large lowland rivers and nutrient-rich lakes. Migrates to tributaries for spawning in moderate current on gravel or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 10°C. Females spawn only once each season. Adults often undertake long spawning migrations. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females. Females attach the sticky eggs to gravel or submerged plant material. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for deeper waters when growing. Reaches up to 130 mm SL during first year. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animals and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Sometimes hybridises with <em>Aspius aspius</em>.	eng
11884	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in large lowland rivers and nutrient-rich lakes. Migrates to tributaries for spawning in moderate current on gravel or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 5-6 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 10°C. Females spawn only once each season. Adults often undertake long spawning migrations. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females. Females attach the sticky eggs to gravel or submerged plant material. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for deeper waters when growing. Reaches up to 130 mm SL during first year. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animals and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Sometimes hybridises with <span style="font-style: italic;">Leuciscus </span><em>aspius</em>.	eng
11884	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11884	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
11884	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
11884	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
11887	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
11887	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North, Baltic, White and Barents Sea basins; Caspian basin, in Volga and Ural drainages; Black Sea basin, from Danube to Dniepr drainages; Atlantic basin, in Seine drainage; Mediterranean basin from Rhône to Arc drainages (France). Only very localised in Danube main river in Romania, in Scandinavia north of 69°N and most of central Finland.	eng
11887	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Moderate to fast-flowing large streams to large rivers with rock or gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on shallow gravel beds, often in small tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons during life. Migrates often some tens of km to spawning sites, which are often situated in tributaries. Spawns in March-April when temperature reaches 9°C. Males form large aggregations, each male defending a small territory. Females spawn only once a year and, in some populations, during a very short period (3-5 days). Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae live along shores. Early juveniles are benthic and inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. When growing, they leave the shores for faster-flowing waters. They reach up to 85 mm SL during first year. Year class strength is closely related to high spring temperatures and absence of spring floods. Juveniles overwinter in cavities along the shores. Adults form dense swarms during winter in lower parts of rivers or in backwaters. Often migrates to spawning streams in autumn and overwinter there. Feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
11887	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
11887	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
11911	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	On the FHH-list in the EU, protected in some European countries.	eng
11911	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need local action. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.	eng
11911	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Leucorrhinia albifrons</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to Scandinavia and to southwestern France. The species is scarce to fairly common in eastern and northeastern Europe (including southern Scandinavia). It has strongly declined in Germany, the Netherlands (one population left), Austria, Switzerland, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Ukraine (two localities). The species is rare in these countries and most remaining populations are isolated.	eng
11911	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	South Fennoscandia, Central Europe, and Russia to Siberia.	eng
11911	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>L. albifrons</em> is found in acid peaty lakes and pools and mesothrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes. The species has a preference for habitats that are largely unshaded but surrounded by forest. The species can co-exist with fish, however, it is either found in acidic waters, which are non-suitable for fish, or in habitats with abundant floating and emergent vegetation, which gives shelter to predation by fish.	eng
11911	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Many kinds of mostly shallow waters with floating vegetation, not in too nutrient-rich waters.	eng
11911	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is fairly common in northern Poland, the Baltic states, Russia, Sweden and Finland. However, it is very rare and has strongly declined to the west and south of this area. The populations seem to be stable at a low level in parts of western Europe, but are still declining in other areas (e.g. France).<br/>The northern and eastern populations are frequently large, but the western and southern populations are relatively small.	eng
11911	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Very large: a common species.	eng
11911	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	Habitat loss due to eutrophication.	eng
11911	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The major decline in western Europe was largely caused by the large-scale conversion of peat bog systems for agricultural purposes (mainly first half of the 20th century) and the eutrophication of mesothrophic lakes (mainly second half of the 20th century). Other smaller or more regional threats are/were pollution by pesticides, fish farming, drainage of and/or tree plantations in peaty areas, development of tourism infrastructure. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased but it is likely that the species is still declining in parts of its range.	eng
11912	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	On the FHH-list in the EU, protected in some European countries.	eng
11912	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be mapped and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has decreased. Most of the remaining threats are more local and need a local actions. In a large part of its range only isolated populations are found. It is needed to increase the amount of available habitat at these locations in order to secure the presence of this species in the long term.	eng
11912	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Leucorrhina caudalis</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and eastern Europe including parts of southern Fennoscandia. The species experienced a strong decline in western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated.	eng
11912	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	Southern Fennoscandia, Central Europe, and eastwards to Western Siberia.	eng
11912	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Leucorrhinia caudalis</em> is most frequently found at oligotrophic to weakly eutrophic lakes or bogs in forest with a rich vegetation of aquatic plants and often with floating leaves. In west and Central Europe the species is often found in oxbows, fishponds, peat excavations, gravel pits or quarries. Unlike the other <em>Leucorrhinia</em> species it often occurs in waters that are rich in fish.	eng
11912	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Normally woodland waters with abundant floating vegetation.	eng
11912	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is very rare in western and parts of central Europe and has strongly declined. However, it is moderately represented to the northeast of these areas. The species is nowhere really common and at many sites only small numbers are found but abundance can be high at suitable habitats.	eng
11912	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Very large.	eng
11912	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	Habitat loss due to eutrophication and acidification.	eng
11912	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The decrease in the number of suitable habitats due to intensive water management, eutrophication and pollution was the main threat to this species. It seems that the major decline of this species largely ceased and in some parts of its range it seems to be slowly increasing being able to colonize oxbows, peat excavations, old quarries, and gravel pits.	eng
11928	conservation	Inoue, K., 2006	The Ministry of Environment started to protect this species in 1993, and collection is prohibited by law. But this is not enough for the protection of habitats from destruction. Some NGOs have begun to conserve this insect and its habitats, for example at Okegaya Pond, Shizuoka Pref., Imuta Pond, Kagoshima Pref. and Noyori-shin Pond, Oita Pref.	eng
11928	distribution	Inoue, K., 2006	China (central and north), Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and offshore islands) and Korea.	eng
11928	habitat	Inoue, K., 2006	Old and stable ponds with a moderate growth of emergent vegetation in lowland hill areas. An area of open water is also necessary.	eng
11928	population	Inoue, K., 2006	Current population size is estimated at < 5,000.	eng
11928	threats	Inoue, K., 2006	Filling up of ponds to build houses and factories, and reforming to artificial ponds with concrete banks have much diminished the habitats. Destruction of grassy fields caused decrease of this species because the females and immature males need such fields as refuges. Introducing alien animals like <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (Crustacea) and <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> (carnivorous fish) is a serious problem because of direct predation and habitat destruction.	eng
11929	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The best-known population of <em>L. jesseana</em> is protected in Gold Head Branch State Park, but most other lakes of historical occurrence are not protected.<br/><br/>Research is urgently needed to determine the present extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. Surveys in appropriate habitats would be quite feasible and perhaps could be conducted during one flight season. Research is also needed on habitat needs of larvae, in comparison with other <em>Libellula</em>, although larvae may be indistinguishable from those of <em>L. auripennis</em>. Should be sought in ecologically similar lakes all over north Florida and in adjacent Georgia and Alabama.<br/><br/>The Palm Beach County record is quite anomalous, as <em>L. jesseana</em> habitat is not typical of that area, and should be confirmed or discredited.	eng
11929	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has been found in the following areas in Florida in the United States of America:<br/>- Washington County, lake 2.1 mi N Bay County on hwy 77, 1980 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods, University of Texas collection)<br/>- Bay County, 3.5 mi E Crystal Lake, 1992 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Bay County, 0.5 mi E Crystal Lake, 1990 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Bay County, pond on hwy 388, 1975 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, Sheeler Lake (J. Daigle collection 1986, University of Texas collection 1992, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 1995, D.R. Paulson collection 2004)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, Pebble Lake, 1986 (J. Daigle collection, S. Dunkle collection)<br/>- Clay County, Gold Head Branch State Park, 1950, 1951, 1986, 1989 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, lake E of S-21 on S-20, 1974 (University of Texas collection), 1979 (Dunkle collection, Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, Morris Lake (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 1975, University of Texas collection 1976)<br/>- Putnam County, Clear Lake, 1974, 1976 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods, University of Texas collection)<br/>- Putnam County, near Interlachen, 1969 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Putnam County, Minnow Lake, 1969 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Volusia County, Enterprise, 1921 (Williamson 1922)<br/>- Seminole County, no locality, 1939 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Lake County, no locality, 1958 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Apopka, Lake Alma, 1976 (J. Daigle collection)<br/>- Orange County, Winter Park, 1935 (D.R. Paulson collection, Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Windemere, 1939 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Orange County, Maitland, 1935 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods)<br/>- Palm Beach County, no locality, 1937 (Florida State Collection of Arthropods) (perhaps in error)	eng
11929	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in clear sandy lakes and ponds with little aquatic vegetation but with a shoreline belt of tall maidencane (<em>Panicum hemitomon</em>) and/or sedges and St. John's Wort (<em>Hypericum</em>).	eng
11929	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Even at optimal habitats, populations of <em>L. jesseana</em> seem small and the population trend remains unknown.	eng
11929	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Eutrophication and other types of water pollution from human settlement at and near lakes, ongoing in much of <em>L. jesseana</em> range in Florida, continue to threaten the habitat. Ground-water depletion because of irrigation could dry up some of the shallower ponds, which is also continuing to happen on the sandy ridges of Florida.	eng
11930	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
11930	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Libellulosoma minuta</em> is known, recorded from "Eastern Madagascar" but without the precise locality information.	eng
11930	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
11930	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
11930	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
11933	conservation	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	They are known to be present in Tai N.P., although their presence in Sapo N.P. in Liberia requires confirmation. Further research is needed to more accurately determine the limits of their distribution, particularly as to whether they occur in neighbouring Guinea, and to better understand the threats facing this species (Taylor and Dunham in press).	eng
11933	distribution	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Known only from north-eastern Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. They are likely to occur in suitable habitat in S Guinea (Taylor and Dunham in press).	eng
11933	habitat	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Occurs in primary and secondary forests, and are found mainly in swamp forest and streambeds with deep sandy soils where earthworms are abundant. Although present in secondary forests, the lack of den sites may restrict their distribution (Taylor and Dunham in press).	eng
11933	population	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Reliable information on their population status is not available (the first live specimen was only taken in 1989 from Nimbo When), but they are declining in many areas. Populations in Taï N.P. estimated at approximately 1.5/km² (Taylor and Dunham in press).	eng
11933	threats	Dunham, A. & Gaubert, P., 2008	Threats include habitat loss from agriculture, logging and mining, and hunting with dogs, shotguns, and snares. They may also be vulnerable to the use of pesticides in forest plantations, as worms are known to accumulate toxins at levels dangerous to mammalian predators (Taylor and Dunham in press).	eng
11966	conservation	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Conservation of forest. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
11966	distribution	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs from Chiapas, Mexico, south through eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, Honduras, the Isthmus of Panama, through western Venezuela and Guianas, to northern Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil (Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Lowlands to 1,000 m (Reid, 1997). A disjunct population occurs in southestern Brazil. In Bolivia known up to 500 m (Aguirre pes comm), in Ecuador to 900 m and in Peru to 800 m.	eng
11966	habitat	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Poorly known. Usually recorded in lowland evergreen forest and plantations (Reid, 1997). This bat visits flowers and probably feeds on nectar, pollen, and insects (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Tschapka 2004). Known from lowland moist forest (Ochoa pers. comm.). In Bolivia occurs in montane forests (Aguirre pers. comm.).	eng
11966	population	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This is a naturally rare species throughout its range. Rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
11966	threats	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	In Bolivia considered vulnerable. Conversion of forests to pasture (deforestation). The disjunct population in southeast Brazil is threatened by deforestation.	eng
11979	conservation	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is only known from two protected areas, Ranomafana National Park and the Andringitra National Park. The vulnerability of benthic prey communities to sedimentation implies that prevention of erosion and sedimentation is of paramount importance for conservation of this species. New and existing sites for the species must be protected from the effects of sedimentation wherever possible, either by inclusion of forested catchments in the protected areas network or by other means (e.g., effective terracing of agricultural fields and maintenance of vegetated riparian zones) (Benstead <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
11979	distribution	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs in the eastern humid forest and central highlands. This species has only been recorded from a few localities in Madagascar (10 sites listed in Benstead and Olson 2003), including the Antsanpandrano Forestry Station on the Ankarata Massif, a site 15 km north of Antanifotsy village (Andringitra), a site 10 km north of Andekaleka, one specimen was caught in an eel trap at Ranomafana Est, 60 km east of Fianarantsoa; and a site 35 km south of Antsirabe. Its amphibious lifestyle is an impediment to the study of its distribution, which is poorly known. The altitudinal range is 450–2,000 m. There have not been many appropriate surveys in the intervening areas between the known localities, though it is likely present in appropriate habitat.	eng
11979	habitat	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is a semi-aquatic carnivore, occurring along streams and rivers. The main habitat requirements are permanent, clean and fast flowing water. This species is thought to feed on freshwater crayfish, aquatic insect larvae and small crustaceans. However, it has once been found in streams within a pine plantations (which potentially keep siltation down similar to native vegetation), although this does not seem to be the case in other areas within its range (S. M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
11979	population	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is only known from a few sites. Only two sites (Antsanpandrano and Ramonafana) have had repeated survey work.	eng
11979	threats	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species apparently requires clean and fast flowing water and is therefore vulnerable to siltation and soil erosion caused by deforestation. Agricultural expansion is fragmenting the upland forests, thereby isolating fast-flowing riverine habitat. Previously, collection and removal of the plant <em>Aponogeton</em>, which <em>L. mergulus</em> is closely associated with, was thought to cause an adverse reaction from the population (Nowak 1999); however, this has since been refuted (Benstead and Olson 2003). Accidental capture in fish traps has also been recorded.	eng
11980	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is found in Mt. Kitanglad Nature Park.	eng
11980	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to Mindanao island (Philippines) where it is restricted to high elevations from 2,000 to 2,800 m. It has been recorded from Mt. Apo, Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Malindang (Musser and Heaney 1992; Musser 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
11980	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in primary montane and mossy rainforest (Musser 1994; Musser and Heaney 1992) and has some elevational sympatry with <em>L. bryophilus</em> though <em>L. sinuanus</em> occurs in drier and slightly more disturbed habitats.	eng
11980	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is a common species in high-elevation forest (L. Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data).	eng
11980	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The habitat of this species is not under threat.	eng
11982	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
11982	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species occurs in all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).	eng
11982	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It is found in silt and sand at 4-30 meters.	eng
11982	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No data, but fairly uncommon even on appropriate habitat.	eng
11982	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation is a potential threat.	eng
11987	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found on the east coast of North America from Nova Scotia (Canada) south to the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico).	eng
11990	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In 1996 this species was assessed as EN B1 + 2c.	eng
11990	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. nigricauda</em> is endemic to China, and is found only in Lake Dianchi, Yunnan Province.  The lake is approximately 300 km².	eng
11990	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. nigricauda</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
11990	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
11990	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	An explosion in the human population around Lake Dianchi beginning in the 1950s has caused high levels of water pollution, from both industry and human settlement.  There was also extensive land reclamation at this time.	eng
11995	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
11995	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the San Pedro de Atacama Valley in Antofagasta, Chile, Salta in Argentina, and probably also in the state of Potosi, Bolivia.	eng
11995	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is omnivorous and is found in the interior desert and into the puna shrubland.	eng
11995	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
11995	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
12000	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
12000	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the eastern desert zone of Antofagasta, Chile.	eng
12000	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in hot coastal desert habitat.	eng
12000	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
12000	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.	eng
12009	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Is a sand dune obligate.	eng
12073	conservation	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
12073	distribution	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is known from central Panama, principally the Pacific versant (Patton 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid 1997).	eng
12073	habitat	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in dry, deciduous forest, thorn scrub, and weedy fields. Appears to tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>Most of its ecology is similar to <em>L. salvini</em> (Reid 1997). It eats palm nuts (<em>Scheelea rostrata</em> and <em>Bactris balanoides</em>), other seeds, green plant material, and insects. Breeding occurs from December to May in central Panama (Reid 1997).	eng
12073	population	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is common to abundant (Reid 1997). Population density may reach 11 mice per hectare (Fleming 1970).	eng
12073	threats	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	No major threats known. However, it could be subject to agrochemicals in part of its range (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
12074	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
12074	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From extreme south Texas, United States (just north of the Rio Grande River) southward throughout most of central Mexico (Patton 2005).	eng
12074	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It prefers dry shrubland habitat. Occupies dense brushy areas along ridges that are remnants of old banks of Rio Grande.<br/><br/>Like other pocket mice, it forages for seeds and stores them in the fur-lined cheek pouches. In southern Texas, its diet includes seeds of hackberry, mesquite, and other shrubs. It is nocturnal, staying in burrows during the day. The entrance to the burrow is often covered with leaves or other vegetation, or with a small mound of soil. This species breeds throughout the year, but peak reproductive period appears to be during the fall or winter. The number of young varies from two to eight, with an average litter size of four (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
12074	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is common but limited (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
12074	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
12075	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
12075	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is known from the west central coast of Mexico, from Sonora to Chiapas, and from the east coast of Mexico in Veracruz, and from the extreme northwest Guatemala (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,000 m (in Chiapas and Guatemala) (Reid 1997).	eng
12075	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It occurs in dry, deciduous forest, thorn scrub, and brush. It is often found among cacti and acacia, or along streams in otherwise dry areas (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal, solitary, and terrestrial. The diet includes seeds (of <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Ficus</em>, <em>Convolvulus</em>, <em>Liepenus</em>, <em>Prosopis</em>, and <em>Alicarpus</em>), green plant material, and arthropods (spiders, beetles, crickets, and moths). Seeds about the size of garden peas are preferred. The relative proportion of vegetable and animal foods in the diet varies widely among different populations, which suggests opportunistic feeding (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984, in Reid 1997). Breeding occurs almost year-round, except early in the dry season (Reid 1997)	eng
12075	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
12075	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is threatened by the decline in deciduous forest habitat.	eng
12076	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
12076	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is known from Chiapas (Mexico) south to central Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
12076	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It occurs in deciduous forest, brush, and weedy fields; often near rocks or walls (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This mouse constructs elaborate burrow systems with several entrances; seeds transported in the cheek pouches are stored in the burrow or in shallow pits nearby (Fleming and Brown 1975). In Costa Rica, the large seeds of the Buttercup Tree (<em>Cochlospermum vitifolium</em>) are favored; other seeds, including poisonous seeds of Guanacaste (<em>Enterolobium cyclocarpum</em>), and insects (bettle pupae) are also eaten (Fleming 1974). This species detects seeds by odor and can locate seeds buried in dung (Reid 1997). Individuals are solitary and fight fiercely if placed together in captivity, but in wild home ranges may overlap. Breeding occurs from January to June in Costa Rica, with females producing 1 or 2 litters per year. Mean litters size is 3.8 young. Life span is usually less than a year in the wild; a few individual may survive for 18 month (Reid 1997).	eng
12076	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is common and widespread (Reid 1997). Population density may be as high as 9 individuals per hectare (Reid 1997).	eng
12076	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species range.	eng
12077	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is protected under Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOl-2001).	eng
12077	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from southeast Jalisco (Mexico) (Patton 2005). Its altitudinal range is 960 to 1,615 m (Genoways 1973 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).	eng
12077	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be found in xerophytic montane areas and pine-oak forest (Genoways 1971 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Weeds, low brush, cornfields, grass, and several trees compose the typical habitat of the Jaliscan spiny pocket mouse (Genoways 1973 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Some specimens were caught in the immediate vicinity of a highway (Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003). Current agricultural use has greatly modified the landscape (Genoways 1971 in Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).<br/><br/>The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known.	eng
12077	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from few localities and is considered rare due to a low numbers of specimens (Dominguez-Castellanos and Ortega 2003).	eng
12077	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The species is reported as having a small range that is subject to increasing habitat disruption (Nowak 1999). The pine-oak forest in this region is severely fragmented due to timber extraction.	eng
12078	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Conservation of caves and karstic habitats in forested areas.	eng
12078	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	South America but enters Panama near the Colombian border, south to northern Bolivia, and the southern Amazon Basin of Brazil, east to Belem. To 1,400 m elevation (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12078	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Roosts include caves and crevices and is found in rainforest, gardens, and plantations. Also recorded in secondary forest and savanna in South America. The diet has not been recorded, but is probably similar to that of genus <em>Lonchophylla</em> (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
12078	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Widely distributed and relatively uncommon, however, can be locally common near rock outcrops and caves.	eng
12078	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Samudio, R. &  Pino, J., 2008	Disturbance of caves and rock outcrops, and deforestation in some parts of the species range, however, this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
12112	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
12112	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
12112	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
12112	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
12112	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
12114	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.	eng
12115	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.	eng
12117	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Victoria.	eng
12118	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa.	eng
12119	conservation	Smith, B.D., Zhou, K., Wang, D., Reeves, R.R., Barlow, J., Taylor, B.L. & Pitman, R., 2008	The baiji is designated in the First Category of National Key Protected Wildlife Species and has full legal protection throughout its range. Protection from deliberate killing or injury appears to be effective but, as noted above, prohibitions on harmful fishing methods are generally not very effective and there is no evidence that baiji are protected in any way from the mortality, injury, and health impairment caused by the other threats listed above.<br/><br/>Since the late 1980s, the primary strategy to prevent the baiji's extinction was to capture as many dolphins as possible and to introduce them into "semi-natural reserves", one of which (Tongling) was approved by the Chinese government in the 1980s, and the other (Shishou) in the 1990s. The approach of using semi-natural reserves as components of a broad-based conservation strategy was endorsed by international panels of scientists in 1986 (Perrin and Brownell 1989) and 1993 (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1993, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1994). It was premised on the assumption that the total dolphin population in the 1980s was approximately 300 and declining. Importantly, it was also premised on the expectation that an <em>ex situ</em> breeding population, preferably housed at two or more sites, would provide surplus animals for replenishment or reestablishment of the wild population, and not be viewed as an end in itself (Perrin and Brownell 1989, Ralls 1989, Perrin 1999).<br/><br/>However, the expectation that sufficient numbers of baiji could be caught and placed in the reserves to establish a viable <em>ex situ</em> population has proven unrealistic. Six capture expeditions, each lasting 2 to 3 months, were conducted between Chenglingji and Gongan in the 1990s. In 1995 a female baiji was caught and released in the Shishou reserve, a 21 km oxbow channel of the Yangtze River (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1998). Less than seven months later her carcass was found entangled in the escape-prevention net at the outlet of the reserve. At that time, one other baiji was in captivity - a male (Qi Qi) that had been rescued from fishing gear and rehabilitated in 1980. This animal remained in its dolphinarium tank at the Institute of Hydrobiology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Wuhan until it died in 2002. At the time of this writing (August 2004; update in April 2007), no Baiji were in either of the semi-natural reserves or in the dolphinarium at Wuhan.<br/><br/>Scientific opinion has been divided on how to proceed with baiji conservation efforts. The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission reviewed the status of the baiji in 2000, but members were unable to reach consensus on whether further attempts at live-capture should or should not be made (IWC 2001). The IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group recommended in 2003 that: (1) available resources should be devoted to eliminating the known threats to the species in its natural habitat; (2) immediate action should be taken at national, provincial and local levels to fully enforce the bans on rolling hooks and electric fishing; and (3) if the capture/translocation effort continues, capture operations should be improved to prevent dolphin injury or mortality, water quality in the reserve should be kept at a high standard and finless porpoises should be removed to ensure against deleterious interactions between them and the dolphin(s) (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003). The Chinese Ministry of Agriculture has developed a baiji conservation plan emphasizing the <em>ex situ</em> approach (Ministry of Agriculture 2001, Wang and Zhang 2002).<br/><br/>With the intention of improving the status of fishery resources, the central Chinese government has, since 2001, banned fishing in the entire middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (including appended lakes and tributaries) between 1 April and 30 June. This measure, if effective, could give some seasonal relief to baiji from one of the more serious lethal threats to their survival. In addition, serious efforts have been made in recent years to protect baiji and improve their habitat in the Xin-Luo National Baiji Reserve (established in 1992) and in two smaller reserves run by provincial governments (Zhenjiang and Tongling sections). In the Xin-Luo Reserve patrol boats monitor fishing activity, collect baiji sightings, rescue injured animals, and investigate dolphin deaths. Several shore-based monitoring sites have been established in the reserve to observe baiji. Perhaps the most important work carried out by reserve staff is that of enforcing the ban on electric fishing.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
12119	distribution	Smith, B.D., Zhou, K., Wang, D., Reeves, R.R., Barlow, J., Taylor, B.L. & Pitman, R., 2008	In recent times, this species has been endemic to the Yangtze River of China. Some individuals were seen in the Fuchun River, immediately south of the Yangtze, during the great flood of 1955 but disappeared from that area after construction of a hydropower station in 1957 (Zhou 2002). Baiji also occurred historically in Dongting and Poyang Lakes, both appended water bodies of the Yangtze (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1977, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1980), but apparently do so no longer (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2000, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Their upstream limit in the Yangtze changed from the Three Gorges area approximately 35 km above Gezhouba Dam near Yichang in the 1940s to approximately 170 km below the dam site near Jingzhou (formerly called Shashi) in the 1990s (Zhou 2002, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). These dolphins were once observed as far downstream as the river mouth near Shanghai (Zhou and Li 1989). No dolphins were found downstream of Jiangyin, located 256 km upstream of the mouth, during surveys in 1997-99 (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF showing the Yangtze River and the locations used to describe the distribution of the baiji).	eng
12119	habitat	Smith, B.D., Zhou, K., Wang, D., Reeves, R.R., Barlow, J., Taylor, B.L. & Pitman, R., 2008	Generally found in eddy counter-currents below meanders and channel convergences (Hua <em>et al</em>. 1989, Zhou and Li 1989, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Baiji prey on fish of many sizes and various species, including both surface and bottom feeders (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
12119	population	Smith, B.D., Zhou, K., Wang, D., Reeves, R.R., Barlow, J., Taylor, B.L. & Pitman, R., 2008	The first estimate of abundance based on quantitative survey data (1979-81) was made by Zhou (1982), who guessed that there were only about 400 animals all told. On the basis of surveys conducted in 1985-86, Chen and Hua (1989) made an educated guess that the total population was around 300. Surveys by Zhou and Li (1989) between 1982 and 1986 suggested that there were 100 baiji in a 770 km segment of the lower Yangtze from Hukou to the river mouth, compared with 78 to 79 dolphins counted by Chen and Hua (1989) in the same segment in 1985-86. Repeated surveys of a 500 km segment of the lower Yangtze (Nanjing-Hukou) in 1989-91 produced a maximal count of 12 individuals, leading Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1998) to infer a total abundance of about 30 baiji in that river segment. Those authors reasoned that if the species still inhabited its historical range of about 1,700 linear kilometers of river, with a density similar to that found in their study area, the total population in the early 1990s would have been only about 100. Attempted comprehensive surveys of the entire species' range in 1997-99 resulted in a maximal count (November 1997) of 13 dolphins (including one calf), leading to the generally accepted view that abundance had continued to decline and that the total population was by that time very small. The sighting rate in the three years of surveys declined at an annual rate of about 10% (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). Informed guesses in the early 2000s were that there could be only "a few dozen" (Zhou 2002) and "very likely ? less than a hundred" (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003) baiji left (also see Wang 2000, IWC 2001, Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although no credible time series of counts or abundance estimates is available to provide a rigorous evaluation of trends, there is an overwhelming consensus that the baiji population declined rapidly over the past several decades.<br/><br/>During surveys in the late 1990s baiji were found mainly in several segments of the Yangtze between Tongling and Dongting Lake, such as the Tongling section, the Poyang Lake mouth area, and the Honghu section (Wang 2000, Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>More recent evidence suggests that this species might already be extinct. The last documented sighting (supported by photographic evidence) was in 2002 and the last confirmed stranding was in 2001 (Turvey <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In November and December 2006 a comprehensive visual and acoustic survey failed to find a single baiji in the Yangtze River (Turvey <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Two research vessels covered the known habitat of baiji from Yichang to Shanghai in both the upstream and downstream directions (for quadruple coverage). In addition, one vessel towed a hydrophone to listen for baiji whistles and clicks during the downstream survey. Although Dongting and Poyang Lakes were not covered in the 2006 Yangtze mainstem survey, no baiji have been seen since 2000 by researchers studying finless porpoises in those lakes. A few undocumented sightings have been reported since 2004, but there are no photographs or physical evidence for the species? continued existence. The preponderance of evidence indicates that the baiji is very close to extinction or might already be extinct.	eng
12119	threats	Smith, B.D., Zhou, K., Wang, D., Reeves, R.R., Barlow, J., Taylor, B.L. & Pitman, R., 2008	The range contraction and the decline in baiji abundance were caused by a combination of factors, including: possibly some level of direct exploitation historically; incidental mortality from interactions with fisheries; vessel traffic, management of navigation channels, and harbor construction; and loss or degradation of habitat by water development, land use practices, and pollution.<br/><br/>During China's "great leap forward" the baiji's traditionally venerated status as "goddess of the river" was denounced and baiji skin was used to produce handbags and gloves (Zhou and Zhang 1991).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear was estimated in the 1970s to 1980s to have been responsible for at least half of observed mortality (Lin <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhou and Li 1989, Chen 1989, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Longlines with thousands of unbaited hooks used for snagging bottom fish ("rolling hooks") accounted for 7 of 13 entanglement deaths recorded in the lower Yangtze between 1978 and 1985 (Zhou and Li 1989) and 15 of 28 in the middle reaches between 1973 and 1983 (Zhou and Wang 1994, also see Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Additional deaths from entanglement in rolling hooks were documented in the 1990s (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998). Baiji often have scars and open wounds from rolling hooks, and hook remains are sometimes found in the stomachs of dead animals (Lin <em>et al</em>. 1985, Zhou and Li 1989). Deaths also result from entanglement in gill and fyke nets (Zhou and Wang 1994). According to Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1998), both rolling hooks and fyke nets are banned in the Yangtze "because both are harmful to fisheries resources, and because of incidental killing of Baiji", but enforcement of these prohibitions is "very difficult" and therefore incidental mortality is likely to continue. <br/><br/>Electric fishing, although "strictly banned" in the Yangtze (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998), is widely practiced, particularly in the centre of the baiji's distribution (IWC 2001). By the early 2000s this fishing method had come to be viewed as the most important and immediate direct threat to the baiji's survival (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003). The electric shocks kill baiji outright (Chen and Hua 1989, Wang Ding in IWC 2001: 276) and unselectively kill other aquatic organisms, including the baiji's prey.<br/><br/>Propeller strikes have killed and injured baiji (Zhou and Zhang 1991, Chen <em>et al</em>. 1997) and are considered an increasing threat in view of the rapid industrial and economic growth of China, with its associated expansion of traffic on the Yangtze (Chen 1989, Chen and Hua 1989, Zhou and Li 1989, Zhou 1992, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>Explosives, used to deepen or widen river channels or for fishing, are another cause of baiji mortality (Lin <em>et al. 1985, Zhou and Li 1989, IWC 2001).<br/><br/>Water development has transformed the baiji's habitat in important ways, e.g., by interrupting their movements upstream of dams, eliminating their access to tributaries and appended lakes, and reducing fish productivity (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000). A dead baiji found at the bottom of a gate for a ship lock in a Yangtze tributary may have been killed accidentally by the structure (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000). Chen and Hua (1987) predicted that the controversial Three Gorges Dam, completed in the early 2000s, would eliminate counter-current habitat for approximately 200 km downstream and degrade the existing counter-current systems for another 160 km downstream. Further, stratification in the reservoir will cause the water released below the dam to be cooler than previously, potentially affecting baiji and their prey. The downstream effects of Gezhouba Dam were not as extreme as those predicted for Three Gorges Dam because the former is a low-head, run-of-the-river structure (Zhong and Power 1996), meaning that sediment is allowed to pass through (which allows the formation of the counter-currents where baiji are generally found - see above) and no reservoir forms. Another effect of Three Gorges Dam will be to facilitate large ship traffic in the upper reaches of the Yangtze and thereby increase the amount of underwater noise and the incidence of vessel collisions with baiji (Chen and Hua 1989).<br/><br/>Industrial expansion and intensified agriculture (both facilitated by water development) have already caused major ecological problems in the Yangtze system. For example, Dongting and Poyang Lakes have become much shallower because of siltation from deforestation and agricultural development; in fact, it has been suggested that Dongting Lake could disappear altogether within a decade (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Pollutant loads in the Yangtze are expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of modern agricultural practices. Approximately 40% of China's industrial and agricultural output comes from the Yangtze basin, with more than 16 billion cubic meters of wastewater discharged into the river annually, of which more than 12 billion cubic meters is industrially polluted and largely untreated (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 1998).</em>	eng
12124	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12124	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is traded in substantial numbers in East Asian food markets.	eng
12125	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>The most significant conservation measure for this species was the United Nations (U.N.) moratorium on high-seas driftnet fishing. In the eastern North Pacific, the U.S drift gillnet fishery has been required since 1996 to use acoustic warning devices (pingers) to reduce cetacean bycatch, although low levels of bycatch of Lissodelphis borealis have continued (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
12125	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The northern right whale dolphin is found in deep, temperate waters of the North Pacific Ocean, between about 30°N and 50°N.	eng
12125	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The habitat of this species includes deep oceanic waters from the outer continental shelf across the temperate North Pacific. They are sometimes seen nearshore, especially where deep water approaches the coast (such as underwater canyons), and apparently prefer "coastal-type" waters in the California Current system (see Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ferrero (1998) observed in the central North Pacific that sea surface temperature was the most influential habitat parameter, with <em>L. borealis</em> occupying warmer waters than either Phocoenoides dalli or Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. <br/><br/>Groups of northern right whale dolphins mixed with other marine mammals, especially Pacific-white-sided dolphins (with which they share a nearly identical range) and Risso’s dolphins, are not uncommon (Baird and Stacey 1991). <br/><br/>Although market squid and lanternfish are the major prey items for northern right whale dolphins off southern California, a variety of other species are taken by this species throughout the range. These include various species of cephalopods, hakes, sauries, and several species of surface and midwater fishes.	eng
12125	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Estimates of abundance are available for a subset of the range of northern right whale dolphins. Across the oceanic North Pacific, Buckland <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated 68,000 (CV=71%) and Miyashita (1993) estimated 307,000 northern right whale dolphins, with wide confidence limits, from sighting data, whereas Hiramatsu (1993) estimated about 400,000 dolphins for the same region based on bycatch data. All estimates have high uncertainty, and Buckland (1993) considered the two higher estimates to be positively biased. In the eastern North Pacific, the distribution of this species has been documented to vary seasonally (Forney and Barlow 1998), and abundance estimates along the U.S. West Coast have ranged from about 9,000 to 21,000 dolphins (Forney 1995, Barlow and Forney, in press). The average abundance in this region during 1996-2001 was estimated to be about 11,000 (CV = 26%); Barlow and Forney, in press).	eng
12125	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<em>Lissodelphis borealis</em> experienced very high levels of fishery-induced mortality in international high-seas, large-scale driftnet fisheries, from about 38°N to 46°N and 171°E to 151°W. Assessing the impact of this mortality is complicated by the possible existence of a coastal population off California and the Pacific Northwest that is separate from offshore populations that were subject to high levels of bycatch (Dizon <em>et al</em>. 1994). Total numbers killed by the North Pacific squid driftnet fleets of Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea in the late 1980s were estimated at about 15,000-24,000 per year, and this mortality is considered to have depleted the oceanic population by an unknown amount. Using a variety of assumptions about population estimates, growth rates, and bycatch levels, Mangel (1993) presented a range of analyses that indicate declines of less than 30% were most likely, although more severe declines of up to 45-75% could not entirely be ruled out under certain scenarios, including a few biologically unrealistic ones. The UN moratorium on large-scale high-seas driftnets that came into effect in 1993 relieved this pressure to a considerable extent, but the continued use of driftnets to catch billfish, sharks, squid, and tuna inside the exclusive economic zones (EEZ) of North Pacific countries and some continued illegal fishing on the high-seas results in the killing of unknown numbers of northern right whale dolphins each year.<br/><br/>Incidental catches have also occurred in Japanese and Russian purse seines, Japanese salmon driftnets, and U.S. shark and swordfish driftnets. Small numbers have been killed in commercial and experimental salmon drift-net operations in the western and central Pacific (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). An estimated 386 northern right whale dolphins were killed between 1990 and 2002 in U.S. driftnets targeting sharks and swordfish off the California, Oregon and Washington (Julian and Beeson 1998, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2005). A short-lived Canadian experimental driftnet fishery for flying squid killed a total of 13 in 1986 and 1987 (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Northern right whale dolphins have also been observed entangled in net debris in the western Pacific. The total reported take of northern right whale dolphins by Japan in 1987 was 261 individuals, of which 254 were discarded as bycatch (Government of Japan 1989).<br/><br/>Northern right whale dolphins have never been subject to extensive directed hunt, although they have sometimes been taken in Japan’s small-cetacean fisheries. In the western Pacific, coastal fisheries off Japan have taken them for many years, with 465 reported killed in the harpoon fishery in 1949. Although this fishery mainly targets other small cetaceans, northern right whale dolphins continue to be taken (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
12126	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Because no population estimates are available, mortality rates and their effect on the population(s) are unknown. More research is clearly needed.	eng
12126	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The distribution of this species is poorly known, though it appears to be circumpolar and fairly common throughout its range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Lipsky 2002). Southern right whale dolphins are found only in cool temperate to subantarctic waters of the Southern Hemisphere, mostly between about 30°S and 65°S. The southern limit appears generally to be bounded by the Antarctic Convergence. The range extends furthest north along the west coast of continents, due to the cold counter clockwise currents of the Southern Hemisphere. The northernmost record is at 12°S, off northern Peru.	eng
12126	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Southern right whale dolphins are observed most often in cool, deep, offshore waters with temperatures of 1-20°C. They are only occasionally seen nearshore, and this is generally where deep water approaches the coast (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rose and Payne 1991).<br/><br/>The southern right whale dolphin feeds primarily on squid and fish (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
12126	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance for the southern right whale dolphin, and virtually nothing is known of the subpopulation structure or status of the species. Preliminary boat surveys and the rapid accumulation of stranding and fishery interaction records in northern Chile suggest that the southern right whale dolphin may be one of the most common cetaceans in that region (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>., 1991). Aguayo <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported that <em>L. peronii</em> are very common between Valparaiso and 76°W, i.e. just off the Chilean coast.	eng
12126	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Southern right whale dolphins have been directly taken in recent years in Peru and Chile for crab bait and for human consumption (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are no estimates of the mortality levels.<br/><br/>The only incidental catch of any magnitude that is known is in the swordfish gillnet fishery off Chile. There is concern that large numbers are being killed in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>) that began in northern Chile in the early 1980s (Reyes and Oporto 1994). They are also known to be taken incidentally in driftnets along the coasts of Peru (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
12142	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About 10% of the population is in protected areas. Important protected-area populations occur in areas such as Mago National Park (Ethiopia), Sibiloi, Tsavo and Meru National Parks and Samburu Game Reserve (Kenya) and Mkomazi Game Reserve and Tarangire N.P. (Tanzania). However, the northern subspecies remains poorly represented in protected areas.	eng
12142	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Gerenuk formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid bushland of North-east Africa, reaching the northern limit of its continental distribution in the arid thornbush of southern Djibouti. It apparently still occurs in this area in stable numbers. It still occupies large parts of its historical range in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, but little information is available on its current distribution in Somalia (East 1999).	eng
12142	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits bushland, thickets, semi-arid and arid thornbush (below 1,600 m), avoiding dense woodlands and very open grass-dominated habitats. One of the most exclusive browsers, Gerenuk are largely independent of water (Leuthold in press).	eng
12142	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Recent population estimates are available for substantial parts of the Gerenuk’s range, mainly from aerial surveys. Summation of the available estimates gives a total of 24,000. Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that this is probably a substantial underestimate of actual numbers, because of undercounting from the air and the lack of population estimates for regions such as the Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia. Estimates of population density obtained by aerial surveys are generally low, e.g., 0.01-0.06/km² in areas such as the Awash Valley, Borana and Chew Bahir, Tsavo, and Mkomazi; and 0.2-0.3/km² in Sibiloi, Samburu and Murule. Ground surveys in areas where the species is common have produced density estimates of 0.3-l.4/km².<br/><br/>Assuming an average correction factor of 3.5 for undercounting bias in aerial surveys, and that areas for which population estimates are unavailable support an average density of 0.5/km² where the species is known to be common and 0.05/km² elsewhere, East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 95,000. The largest surviving populations occur in south-western Ethiopia and the northern and eastern rangelands of Kenya. Population trend is generally stable in protected areas, with a few notable exceptions such as the declining population of Tsavo National Park, and gradually decreasing elsewhere.	eng
12142	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Gerenuk’s shyness and preference for cover enable it to withstand hunting pressures to some degree, and it can be favoured by the spread of thickets which occurs when grasslands are overgrazed by livestock. These attributes have enabled it to survive widely in regions such as the Ogaden in the complete absence of protection. Nevertheless, it cannot persist indefinitely as human and livestock populations increase and subsistence hunting pressure escalates. If current trends continue, it may eventually disappear from large parts of its present distribution until it is largely restricted to effectively protected and managed areas of suitable habitat. Such areas currently comprise only a small part of its remaining range. The largest protected population, in Tsavo National Park, has been reduced by rinderpest and drought (East 1999).	eng
12143	conservation		There has been a lot of research into threats to the species and movement towards a conservation strategy. Its range includes several protected areas. As an introduced species in New Zealand it has the potential to spread chytridiomycosis to areas inhabited by native frogs. There is a cooperative program between Taronga Zoo and a range of NSW agencies and NGO’s, involving breeding and release at a number of sites close to Sydney. This program is currently under review.	eng
12143	distribution		This Australian species has been recorded along the south-east coast from East Gippsland in Victoria, north to approximately Byron Bay in north-east New South Wales (Gillespie 1996; White and Pyke 1996). Most records are from elevations below 100m asl. North of Sydney, there were a few high-elevation records of the species and almost all records were east of the Great Divide (the only discrepant records are from Armidale and Ebor) (White and Pyke 1996). On the Southern Tablelands, the species does not appear to occur above 800m asl (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996) and in Victoria the species does not appear to occur above about 670m asl (Gillespie 1996). Populations occur on two offshore islands in New South Wales, Bowen Island in Jervis Bay (Osborne and McElhinney 1996) and Broughton Island north of Port Stephens (New South Wales NPWS Atlas 1998). It remains unknown whether or not these populations are relictual or the result of assisted translocation (Mahony 1999). It has been introduced to New Zealand and is widespread across northern North Island, and pet traders have moved it between the North and South Islands. It is also introduced to New Caledonia and New Hebrides (Tyler 1979).	eng
12143	habitat		The natural habitat requirements of the species have proved difficult to define because it has been associated with almost every type of water body except fast-flowing streams (Pyke and White 1996). There also appears to be some confusion over whether or not forested habitats are utilized by the species (Lemckert 1996; Gillespie 1996). Pyke and White (1996) examined sites where <em>L. aurea</em> is known to have been present, and compared the habitat at sites where breeding was identified with that at locations where breeding was not identified, in New South Wales. Sites which supported breeding populations were found to contain waterbodies which are still, shallow, ephemeral, unpolluted, unshaded, with aquatic plants and generally free of <em>Gambusia</em> and other predatory fish (but not always); adjacent terrestrial habitats consisted of grassy areas and vegetation no higher than woodlands, and a range of diurnal shelter sites. Breeding occurred in a significantly higher proportion of sites with ephemeral ponds rather than sites with fluctuating or permanent ponds, and where predatory fish were absent. Mahony (1999) commented on the limitations of the study and suggested that the results do not necessarily identify the requirements of the species prior to declines. It is worthy to note that the use of ephemeral breeding sites was not a feature associated with members of the bell frog group in earlier habitat descriptions (Mahony 1999). Pyke and White (1996) suggest that the habitat requirements of <em>L. aurea</em> in New South Wales and Victoria differ. In New South Wales the species occupies disturbed habitats and breeding largely occurs in ephemeral ponds (Pyke and White 1996). However, in Victoria it occupies habitats with little human disturbance and commonly breeds in permanent ponds as well as ephemeral ponds (Pyke and White 1996). Goldingay (1996) argued that this is because most natural habitats are degraded or lost in New South Wales. In Victoria the species is predominantly found on the coastal plains and low foothills of the hinterland where it has been recorded in a range of lentic and terrestrial habitats (Gillespie 1996). Breeding has been documented from dams in both forested and cleared areas, swamps in farmland, gravel pits, billabongs, marshes, coastal lagoon wetlands, wet swale herb lands and isolated stream-side pools (Gillespie 1996). These habitats are mostly permanent, but include some ephemeral waterbodies (Gillespie 1996). All habitats are characterized by stationary water (Gillespie 1996). Virtually all isolated waterbodies are free of native fish species and typically have dense emergent vegetation (Gillespie 1996). It can be found in a variety of terrestrial habitats including lowland forest, banksia woodland, wet heath land, riparian scrub complex, riparian shrubland, riparian forest, damp forest, shrubby dry forest and cleared pastoral lands (Gillespie 1996). It is seasonally active and has been observed from September to early May (Daly 1995). Males call between September and March. Spawn is laid amongst aquatic vegetation and has been observed in December, January and February (Daly 1995). Counts of eight egg masses ranged from 2,463-11,682 eggs (van de Mortel and Goldingay 1998). Eggs hatch within three days and metamorphosis can take from 2-11 months (Daly 1995); however, six weeks appears to be an average duration for the field (R. Goldingay pers. comm.).	eng
12143	population		This species was formerly considered to be common throughout its range (Tyler 1992). Since about 1960, declines in the distribution and abundance of the species have been observed to the extent that it may now be regarded as rare (White and Pyke 1996). In New South Wales, the species has disappeared completely from all highland areas above 250m asl and coastal populations have been reduced in number and are more isolated from other populations (White and Pyke 1996). Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson (1996) observed that the species had declined in the Australian Capital Territory and had not been recorded from the Southern Tablelands since 1980. Declines in abundance have been observed in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory (White and Pyke 1996; Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996; Lewis and Goldingay 1999; Goldingay and Lewis 1999), although no similar decline in distribution and abundance in Victoria is so far apparent (Gillespie 1996). Recent censuses of populations throughout the distribution of the species indicate that many are small, with most estimates being less than 20 adults (White and Pyke 1996). In New Zealand, where the species has been introduced, there are many thousands of individuals, but local declines have been observed with chytridiomycosis and introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish being implicated.	eng
12143	threats		The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, <em>Gambusia</em> (Mahony 1999). It is also possible that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Hoskinstown and Homebush Bay in Sydney, New South Wales.	eng
12144	conservation		Protection of breeding sites in state forests, national parks and other conservation parks and reserves is in place. However, a management plan for the conservation of this species is needed.	eng
12144	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from Cordalba State Forest in south-east Queensland south to Ourimbah, approximately 100km north of Sydney in New South Wales. The Darkes Forest records are erroneous. They have been recorded from sea level up to at least 150m asl, and possibly a little higher. The area of occupancy is thought to be less than 500km².	eng
12144	habitat		It inhabits the leaf-litter and low vegetation of forests and prefers wetter forest types in the southern half of its range, but extends also into open and drier forests in north-east New South Wales and south-east Queensland (Lemckert <em>et al.</em> 2006). It breeds after heavy rains anywhere from September to May (spring to autumn in the southern hemisphere), preferring larger temporary pools, and flooded areas for breeding (Lemckert and Slatyer 2002). Eggs (about 500-600) are laid in loose clumps among waterweed. The larvae are free swimming.	eng
12144	population		It has decreased at Ourimbah on the central coast of New South Wales, but elsewhere there have been no reports of declines or disappearances. It is still found throughout the Ourimbah Valley. Additional populations have been found in Queensland as a result of increased surveying. It is listed as rare in Queensland and New South Wales.	eng
12144	threats		Recently, the development of an extensive highway system and rapidly expanding coastal lowland development has increased threats to this species. Several populations have been directly affected by road construction and fragmentation by roads and housing is probably significantly restricting movements between populations.	eng
12145	conservation		Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still survives, particularly in the southern tablelands, and in areas of suitable habitat between the northern and southern populations. Research into possible causes of this species' disappearance and the decline of similar species (<em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em>) is urgently needed.	eng
12145	distribution		Some uncertainty surrounds the taxonomic status of the northern (<em>L. flavipunctata</em> of Courtice and Grigg 1975) and southern populations of <em>Litoria castanea</em>. Thomson <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggest that the northern and southern populations represent one species consisting of two disjunctive isolates separated by a distance of about 500km (see also map in Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996). The northern population was known from a relatively restricted distribution centred around the town of Guyra on the New England Tableland at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,500m asl (White and Ehmann 1997a; Mahony 1999). It occupied the headwaters of the west flowing Booroolong Creek and to a lesser extent those of the east flowing Anne River and Sarah River (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). Near Armidale, the species has been recorded from Commissioners Waters, a tributary of the east flowing Gara River (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). There are 13 known sites in the region (most above 1,000m asl) all of which have been verified by examination of museum specimens or photographs (Mahony 1999). The southern population has a restricted distribution between Canberra and Bombala on the Southern Tablelands at altitudes between 700 and 800m asl (Mahony 1999). The southern population was broadly sympatric with <em>L. aurea</em> in the north of its range and with <em>L. raniformis</em> in the south-west of the region (Mahony 1999).	eng
12145	habitat		<em>Litoria castanea</em> occupies similar habitat to <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em> which includes permanent ponds, swamps, lagoons, farm dams and the still backwaters of rivers usually with tall reeds present (Courtice and Grigg 1975; White and Ehmann 1997a, b). The species was also found in ponds or slow moving streams with overhanging grassy banks in the absence of reed beds (Courtice and Grigg 1975). <em>Litoria castanea</em> was found to over-winter in the hollow centres of rotting logs and in the earth surrounding the roots of uprooted trees (Courtice and Grigg 1975), and in the base of sedge tussocks (Humphries 1979). Little is known about the biology of this species; however, it is likely to be similar to that of <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. raniformis</em> (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Individuals reach sexual maturity at three years and live for six years.	eng
12145	population		There are no verified records of the northern population after 1975 (White and Ehmann 1997a) and the last specimen to be placed in the museum was collected in 1973 (Australian Museum Register in Mahony 1999). The southern tablelands population suffered an extensive decline, with no confirmed records since 1980 (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996; Mahony 1999). It is not yet considered extinct because of the lack of surveys of potential habitat, especially in areas between the northern and southern populations.	eng
12145	threats		The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995), although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, Gambusia, which is native to southern and eastern USA (Mahony 1999). However, it is likely that disease, such as chytrid fungus ora viral infection, contributed to the decline of this species (W. Osborne pers. comm.).	eng
12146	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
12146	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs on the coast and in adjacent upland areas of New South Wales and southern Queensland, up to 800m asl.	eng
12146	habitat		This species occurs in various habitats. It is often around swamps and lagoons, especially paperbark (Melaleuca) swamps behind coastal sand hills. It is also common in wet and dry sclerophyll forests and urban bush land. It tends to occur on the ground or in low vegetation. By day it hides under rocks or loose bark on trees. It breeds after heavy spring and summer rains in still ephemeral waters (mostly). Males call from low vegetation and the ground near the edge of water. Spawn is entangled in vegetation in very shallow water; larvae are free swimming.	eng
12146	population		This is a common species.	eng
12146	threats		Development along the New South Wales and Queensland coasts is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
12147	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Recently it has sometimes been bred in captivity in Melbourne Zoo.	eng
12147	distribution		This species is endemic to southeast Australia, from southeastern New South Wales to eastern Victoria.	eng
12147	habitat		Mostly found in a wide range of habitats, usually along rocky streams. Males are often found some distance from water. It also utilizes pastoral lands. Males begin calling late in August (end winter) through to the end of February (summer), in warmer climates they may call through to the beginning of May. Oviposition occurs in streamside pools and backwaters. Eggs adhere to submerged rocks and sediment; larvae are free-swimming.	eng
12147	population		It is locally abundant. However, declines were recorded in high-altitude forests of northeastern New South Wales.	eng
12147	threats		Fairly resilient to alterations in habitat as they are frequently found along streams bordering urban and farming areas. Specimens have, however, been found infected with a chytrid fungus.	eng
12148	conservation		There is a need for continued and strengthened protection of habitat in the Wet Tropics, including an improved management plan that involves dealing with the threat posed by feral pigs. Further research into the reasons for the decline of this species in pristine habitat is necessary.	eng
12148	distribution		This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion in north Queensland, from Paluma to Cooktown (Hero and Fickling 1994; Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) at altitudes between 180 and 1,300m asl (McDonald 1992). It includes three deeply divergent mitochondrial DNA lineages, distributed from Paluma to Tully River, Tully River to Lamb Range, and Mount Lewis to Big Tableland (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998).	eng
12148	habitat		<em>Litoria nannotis</em> is a habitat specialist, restricted to rocky stream habitats in rainforest or wet sclerophyll forest where there is fast-flowing water, waterfalls and cascades (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). It is a stream dwelling and breeding species (Hodgkison and Hero 2001), but, unlike most stream-breeding frog species that live in the adjacent forest and use the stream habitat for breeding, the stream is the primary habitat for both male and females throughout the year (Hodgkison and Hero 2001, 2002). On several occasions the adults and juveniles were noted to form small aggregations (4-6 individuals) amongst large boulders behind waterfalls (Liem 1974b; J-M. Hero pers. obs.). Gravid females and males with nuptial pads are encountered all year round (Martin and McDonald 1995). Unpigmented eggs numbering 136-216 (1.98-3.4mm in diameter) are laid in gelatinous egg masses under rocks in water (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1996). Liem (1974b) described the larva and noted that it is one of the few species of frog known to exhibit larval adaptations to torrent environments of Australia, such as a streamlined body shape, large suctorial mouthparts and a muscular tail. Richards (1992) also provided information on the larvae of the <em>L. nannotis</em> group.	eng
12148	population		This species was first noted to have declined in 1990 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993), since it had apparently disappeared from most upland sites south of the Daintree River. The species occurred at all lowland sites, and at upland sites north of the Daintree River during summer surveys in 1991-1992. In 1994 it was sighted at several locations above 600m asl on Mount Father Clancy. Lowland populations surveyed in Tully Gorge appeared to be relatively stable between 1995 and 1998 (J.-M. Hero pers. comm.). At the southern end of its range it was last observed in Mount Spec State Forest in 1991 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993); however, adults occurred at a lower elevation site in a different creek system (Crystal Creek Stone Bridge, 300m asl) from January 1994 to September 1995 (J.-M. Hero pers. comm.). This species is currently known to have stable populations at lowland sites (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998; McDonald and Alford 1999).	eng
12148	threats		The reason(s) for the decline are unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988, and habitat destruction is no longer a major threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyattt 1999). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>L. nannotis</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
12149	conservation		The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988. This species is a priority for immediate survey work to determine whether or not it still survives at the localities from which it has previously been recorded. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis or some other disease, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
12149	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, formerly occurred across two thirds of the Wet Tropics from Douglas Creek near Cardwell to Alexandra Creek, Thornton Peak north-east Queensland (Hero and Fickling 1994) at altitudes between 380 and 1,020m asl (McDonald 1992).	eng
12149	habitat		This species is a rainforest specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) found in upland rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest along fast-flowing streams where there is white water from riffles and cascades (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). It is usually found perched on rocks or overhanging vegetation adjacent to the water (Liem 1974b). Little is known about the life history of this species. Mating calls have been heard from October to March (Liem 1974b). From 86-90 large unpigmented eggs (1.9-2.5mm diameter) are laid under rocks in riffles (Richards 1993a; Hero and Fickling 1996). Richards (1992) described the tadpole and noted that it is one of the few species of tadpole known to exhibit adaptations to torrent environments of Australia, including a streamlined body shape, large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tail. Tadpoles commonly overwinter in upland streams, although those hatching in early summer can metamorphose before the next autumn (Richards 1992).	eng
12149	population		It was once moderately common in suitable habitat, but it has undergone a catastrophic decline. Adults were last recorded in April 1990, and tadpoles and metamorphs were last recorded in November 1990 on the Carbine Tableland (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, this species had apparently disappeared from sites on the Atherton Tableland much earlier (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It was recorded from various sites on the Atherton Tableland prior to 1973 (Liem 1974b), but was not encountered in Danbulla State Forest during 1989-1992 or at any Atherton Tableland site during surveys conducted between 1991 and 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). No information is available on population structure or genetic variation (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). The species might now be extinct.	eng
12149	threats		The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown, although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction, or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
12150	conservation		It is listed as Endangered in Queensland, and a few protected areas cover parts of its range.	eng
12150	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from the Kadanga State Forest in south-east Queensland to Gibraltar Range in north-eastern New South Wales. There is also an isolated population (genetically distinct, which also exhibits call differences) at Kroombit Tops in Queensland. It has been recorded from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
12150	habitat		This species occurs in shaded rainforest gullies and closed forest in association with fast-flowing rocky streams. It hides amongst rocks and thick vegetation, or is active at night on the ground and on low shrubs bordering streams. In winter adults form aggregations under rocks. Breeding occurs in spring and summer, and oviposition occurs in shallow water in quiet pools. About 360-730 eggs are laid cemented to rocks, twigs or the pool floor. The larvae metamorphose after 2-2.5 months.	eng
12150	population		Some declines have occurred in south-east Queensland (Brisbane Forest Park and Conondale Ranges). It occurs at low densities at some sites where seemingly suitable habitat exists.	eng
12150	threats		Large areas of habitat have been and continue to be degraded by introduced stock (cattle and pigs), invasion of weeds, and timber harvesting. Upstream clearing and urban development have affected downstream flow regimes and water quality. Sick and dead individuals infected by chytrid fungus have been found at Main Range, Conondale Range and Kroombit Tops in Queensland, and this might be the major cause of declines in suitable habitats.	eng
12151	conservation		It is recognized as Endangered in Queensland and New South Wales, and therefore protected by state legislation. Its range includes Gara River Nature Reserve and Mount Mitchell State Forest. This species is a priority for immediate further survey work to determine whether or not it might possibly still survive at the localities from which it has previously been recorded, and both taxonomic and survey work is required to determine the status of the possible northern populations. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis or some other disease, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
12151	distribution		This Australian endemic was formerly known from five streams draining the east of the Northern Tablelands, from 800-1,120m asl, from Gibraltar Range to Armidale, northern New South Wales (Tyler and Davies 1985a). The distribution map does not include northern populations that might belong to this species (see additional information under Notes on Taxonomy).	eng
12151	habitat		This species is known to occupy open forest and wet sclerophyll forest (Heatwole <em>et al.</em> 1995). Little is known about the breeding biology of this species. However, morphological similarity to <em>Litoria pearsoniana</em> and <em>L. phyllochroa</em> suggests that ecological similarities are likely (Gillespie and Hines 1999).	eng
12151	population		Despite searches of the historic localities and other streams with similar habitat within the region (Mahony 1997), the species has not been seen since 1973. If the northern populations do not belong to this species (see Notes on Taxonomy), then it is possible that it is extinct.	eng
12151	threats		The causes of the apparent declines are unknown. However, most of the historic sites and other streams in the region have undergone substantial alteration and suffered significant habitat disturbance through clearance of vegetation, grazing and timber harvesting (H.B. Hines pers. comm.). Introduced predatory fish species (Eastern Gambusia <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and salmonids) occur in streams formerly occupied by the species and might have displaced frog populations by predation upon larvae (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Given the vulnerability of other members of the <em>L. citropa</em> group to trout predation, these fish are likely to have had a significant impact on populations of this species. In addition, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the decline.	eng
12152	conservation		This species is protected by state legislation. As an introduced species in New Zealand it has the potential to spread chytrid to areas inhabited by native frogs. Its range includes several protected areas. In Tasmanian legislation the species is listed as "Vulnerable". Werribee Open Range Zoo is supporting ongoing field monitoring of a naturally occurring population, in conjunction with the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment. Melbourne Zoo also maintains a breeding population in captivity.	eng
12152	distribution		This species was formerly distributed across a large area of south-east Australia, including Tasmania, from 0-1,300m asl (Osborne, Littlejohn and Thomson 1996). In New South Wales and the Australia Capital Territory its range was centred on the Murray and Murrumbidgee River valleys and their tributaries. It occurred throughout the Southern Tablelands and was also recorded on the Central Tablelands as far north as Bathurst (Ehmann and White 1997). It was widespread across Victoria, absent only from the west desert regions and the east alpine regions (Littlejohn 1963, 1982; Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991). In South Australia the species is known to occur along the lower Murray River valley, the lower south-east to near Keith, and a small introduced population, in the Adelaide Hills (Tyler 1978). In Tasmania, the species occurred broadly across the north and east of the island and on the Bass Strait Island (Brook 1979), and in pockets in the south of the state. This species has also been introduced to New Zealand, where it is widespread across North and South Islands and on Great Barrier and Stewart Islands.	eng
12152	habitat		This species is usually found in association with dams, ponds and marshes, either amongst sedges and other semi-aquatic vegetation, or sheltering under logs and rocks up to 1300m asl (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). It appears to be associated with permanent waterbodies though it is unclear whether, like <em>Litoria aurea</em>, the species also utilizes ephemeral pools (Mahony 1999). It occurs both in woodland and areas of improved pasture (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Little is known about the biology of this species; however, it is likely to be similar to that of <em>L. aurea</em> (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Males call from August to April (Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991). The species breeds in permanent ponds or swamps, usually with extensive areas of sedges and rushes from which adults call (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). About 1,700 eggs are laid in a loose clump (Hero, Littlejohn and Marantelli 1991, Hero and Warrell unpubl.). The larvae are free swimming and develop over summer and autumn (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Metamorphosis takes place between late summer and autumn, although larvae may overwinter and metamorphose the following season (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995).	eng
12152	population		It was once a common species, but serious declines have occurred in sections of the range (Mahony 1999). Ehmann and White (1997) noted that in New South Wales the species had disappeared from sites in the central and southern highlands. It is currently widespread throughout the Murray River valley but has disappeared from a number of sites along the Murrumbidgee River (Mahony 1999) and there are no recent records from the Monaro District near the Victorian border (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). It persists in isolated populations in the greater Melbourne area, and isolated populations are known from a few sites in central Victoria and Gippsland. A similar decline has been noted in Tasmania, and it is now almost absent from the midlands of Tasmania. In New Zealand, where the species is introduced, there are many thousands, although local declines due to chytridiomycosis and/or introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish have been observed.	eng
12152	threats		The cause(s) of the apparent declines observed in populations of all taxa within the <em>L. aurea</em> complex are unclear (Gillespie, Osborne and McElhinney 1995). Investigations of disappearances among the group have primarily focused on <em>L. aurea</em> and <em>L. castanea</em> and two major directions in research have been pursued: the role of increased ultraviolet radiation; and the impact of the introduced fish, <em>Gambusia</em> (Mahony 1999). As for <em>L. aurea</em>, <em>L. raniformis</em> has disappeared from sites where <em>Gambusia</em> is present (Mahony 1999; W. Osborne pers. comm.). The dates of introduction of <em>Gambusia</em> to many regions are not well documented and this lack of information has hampered research into declines (Mahony 1999). Introduced <em>Gambusia</em> fish are also a threat to the introduced populations in New Zealand. It is also possible that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of some species (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Mount Compass, South Australia, but was first identified in New Zealand from populations of this species in Christchurch. The drainage of wetlands in Tasmania is a particular threat.	eng
12153	conservation		Listed as endangered in Queensland, and therefore protected by state legislation. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988. A recovery plan is in place.	eng
12153	distribution		This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) and occurs from Broadwater Creek National Park to Amos Bay, north Queensland, at altitudes between sea level and 1,180m asl (McDonald 1992). Three genetic lineages of <em>Litoria rheocola</em> have been identified, based on mitochondrial DNA, distributed from Kirrama Range to Palmerston National Park; Bartle Frere to Harris Peak; and from Mt Lewis to Big Tableland (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998). Each of these lineages carries substantial genetic variability (Schneider, Cunningham and Moritz 1998).	eng
12153	habitat		This is a rainforest specialist, restricted to fast-flowing rocky creeks and streams in rainforest as well as wet sclerophyll forest (Liem 1974b; McDonald 1992). Within these streams they are often found in the slower more open sections, away from waterfalls (Hodgkison and Hero 2002). Individuals can be found on rocks, logs and vegetation in or adjacent to streams (Hero and Fickling 1994). There are differences in habitat use between males and females of the species. Females and juveniles use streamside vegetation more frequently than males. In contrast, males display strong fidelity to the rocky stream environment. Calling males and gravid females have been observed throughout the year (Liem 1974b). Breeding has been observed in most months, except during cold winter nights, and seems to reach a peak between November and March (Liem 1974b; Dennis and Trenerry 1984). Males call from rocks or boulders in creeks or from vegetation overhanging water along streams and creeks (Liem 1974b). The males also appear to display inter-male spacing, with males rarely found within 1m of each other, which is possibly a territorial response to low availability of females (Hodgkison and Hero 2002). A number (46-63) of unpigmented eggs (2.4-2.6mm in diameter) are laid in compact gelatinous clumps under rocks in water (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1996). Larvae can be found in fast-flowing sections of streams and adjacent pools in highly oxygenated water, clinging to rocks and other substrates (Liem 1974b; Hero and Fickling 1994). Liem (1974b) described the larvae of this species as torrent dwelling, having flattened bodies, large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tails. Richards (1992) and Hero and Fickling (1994) also provided detailed information on the larvae of this species.	eng
12153	population		This species was first noted to have declined in 1989 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). In 1990 several sites were sampled between the Kirrama Range and Cooktown. <em>L. rheocola</em> was common at all foothill and lowland sites and was recorded at some upland sites in the Kirrama Range in April and on the Carbine Tableland in January of that year (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It was abundant in Danbulla State Forest (at 700m asl) in September 1982, but was not recorded there during monitoring between 1989 and 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). It has since disappeared from most upland sites south of the Daintree River (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reported only two adults at Bobbin Falls on the Atherton Tableland, although the species has been found regularly in that area between 1998 and February 2000 (R. Retallick pers. comm.) and 2001-2002 (K.R. McDonald pers. comm.). At O’Keefe Creek, Big Tableland, this species has occasionally reappeared near a 400m asl site, but has not established resident populations and is absent at another monitoring site at  600m asl (McDonald and Alford 1999). Adults and larvae remained common at upland sites north of the Daintree River (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) but disappeared in 1993 (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). Interestingly, the lowland populations still exist (McDonald and Alford 1999).	eng
12153	threats		The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). In recent experiments involving the translocation of larvae and adult frogs to sites previously occupied by the species, a clear pattern was evident in the disease results, and nearly all of the animals found dead showed signs of chytridiomycosis (Retallick 1999, 2000, 2001). It is unknown as to whether this disease was solely responsible for the disappearance of <em>L. rheocola</em> at these sites. Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>L. rheocola</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
12154	conservation		The range of the species is within a few protected areas. It is listed as Endangered in Australian legislation. A monitoring programme for this species has been established, but further research is required to determine the reasons for the observed declines. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, the establishment of a captive-breeding programme might be required, while <em>in situ</em> conservation measures should include control of invasive trout species at least within protected areas.	eng
12154	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted predominantly to the western fall of the Great Divide, from Lake Eildon in the Central Highlands of Victoria to Mount Kosciuszko in New South Wales, at altitudes of 200-1,100m asl (Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Victorian Wildlife Atlas unpublished data). The area of occupancy of this species is believed to be less than 5km².	eng
12154	habitat		This species is associated with a range of vegetation communities from montane forest at high altitudes to wet and dry forest at moderate to low altitudes, respectively (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The extent of riparian forest at known localities ranges from virtually non-existent, with scattered riparian tree or shrub species, to a dense canopy of <em>Leptospermum</em> spp. shading the stream (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The species is found almost exclusively in association with rock habitats along streams and occurs along sections of streams with steep banks, invariably in steeply dissected country or gorges with numerous rapids and waterfalls (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). <em>L. spenceri</em> is restricted to riffle and cascade stream sections with exposed rock banks, resulting in a highly patchy distribution along most streams (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Adults and juveniles most likely remain in the vicinity of the stream, rarely venturing far from riparian zone (Gillespie 1997). Frogs have been seen basking on rocks mid-stream (Ehmann, Ehmann and Ehmann 1993). Adults have been found between September and May, and calling males have been heard in October, November and early December (Hero 1990, 1991; Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1993) and February (G. Gillespie, in Hero, Watson and Gillespie 1995). Clutches consist of 200-1,000 eggs (Gillespie 1997). Oviposition sites are in narrow spaces beneath large river stones within the stream and eggs are hidden as they adhere to the underside of the rock (Gillespie 2001b). The seasonal distribution of size classes of frogs and breeding activity (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1993) suggest that eggs are laid in late spring/early summer and tadpoles reach metamorphosis in late summer/autumn (Hero, Watson and Gillespie 1995). Hero, Watson and Gillespie (1995) described the tadpole. At lower altitudes, sexual maturity is reached 18 months and 3.5 years after metamorphosis by males and females, respectively (Gillespie 2001a). At higher altitudes, sexual maturity is reached at least 3.5 and 4.5 years by males and females, respectively (Gillespie 1997).	eng
12154	population		Despite extensive systematic surveys throughout eastern Victoria and southern New South Wales (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991; Gillespie 1992; Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Hunter and Gillespie 1999) this species has only ever been found in 19 streams, and has always been considered rare (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991). The species is now believed to be extinct in four of these streams, and has declined substantially in distribution and abundance along most others (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). The remaining streams comprise 12 discrete isolated populations (Gillespie and Hollis 1996; Hunter and Gillespie 1999). Two populations are known to have died out over the past five years. Monitoring has been conducted at eight populations since 1994 and has recently been expanded to include 15 streams (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). With the exception of the historic site on Buffalo Creek, Mount Buffalo National Park, monitoring of sites where it is extinct ceased in 1998 (G. Gillespie pers. comm.). Most extant adult populations have remained relatively stable since 1993; however, a population at Bogong Creek, Mount Kosciuszko National Park suffered a precipitous decline in 1996 (Gillespie 1997). It is at a higher elevation than other populations and was the only high-density population known prior to the decline (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Gillespie and Hines (1999) estimate the largest population to contain approximately 1,000-1,500 adults in the Upper Goulburn River with the sizes of all other populations comprising less than 1,000 adults.	eng
12154	threats		Declines occurred in the 1970s and early 1980s (Watson <em>et al.</em> 1991). Gillespie and Hollis (1996) suggest that, based upon the known demography of the species, this species probably suffered population declines over a wider area earlier in the 20th century, and possibly late in the 19th century. Human disturbances to streams, such as gold dredging, forest roads and recreational pressures are correlated with the general pattern of decline of this species (Gillespie and Hollis 1996). Trout species (Rainbow Trout <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and Brown Trout <em>Salmo trutta</em>) occur throughout the geographic range and are able to exert significant predation pressure on larvae (Gillespie 2001a). Trout are believed to be a major cause of population declines of this species (Gillespie 2001a). Several moribund frogs have been located from four populations (Gillespie and Hines 1999) and recently identified as being infected with the chytrid fungus (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998; Gillespie and Hines 1999). However, the role of the fungus in the population dynamics of this species remains to be resolved (Gillespie and Hines 1999).	eng
12155	conservation		The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. verreaux</span> includes several protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. alpina</span> is listed as endangered; therefore, it is protected by State and National legislation. Most of its habitat is within National Parks.	eng
12155	distribution		This is an Australian endemic species. The subspecies L.v. verreaux occurs in eastern Australia, from mid southeast Queensland to the northern Tablelands of New South Wales and the central and southern coast of New South Wales. It is also in the eastern corner of Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the subspecies is approximately 236,400km2. It occurs from near sea level (below 50m asl) to probably at least 800m asl. Museum and field notes indicated that the subspecies L.v. alpina was once widespread and abundant throughout much of the high country of southeast Australia. Recent searches have been conducted for the subspecies at 150 locations, including historical locations, throughout Alpine National Park (Victoria), Kosciuszko National Park (New South Wales), Bimberi Nature Reserve (New South Wales) and Namadgi National Park (Australian Capital Territory). The extent of occurrence of the subspecies is approximately 3,200km2 (map in Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
12155	habitat		The subspecies L.v. verreaux is common in a wide variety of habitats including coastal swamps and lagoons, wet and dry sclerophyll forest. It is most often associated with permanent water, ie. ponds, dams, lakes, creeks and waterholes. It calls year round. Males call from ground up to several metres from water or on vegetation near water. About 500-1,000 eggs are laid in jelly clumps attached to submerged vegetation in ponds. L.v. alpina occurs mainly in woodland, heath, grassland and herb field at montane, sub alpine and alpine altitudes (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Breeding populations occur on plains or open valleys where there are stream side pools, fens and bogs (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995) but are also be associated with artificial waterbodies such as small dams and reservoirs (e.g. four of the seven extant populations of L. v. alpina located in Kosciuszko NP) (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the non-breeding season, individuals may be found amongst litter, under logs, beneath flat stones in streambeds or in rocky areas near streams (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Calling occurs from late winter to early summer (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1991). An average of 328 eggs (Hero unpublished) are laid in pools around submerged vegetation in large jelly-like clumps (Gillespie <em>et al.</em> 1995). Free-swimming larvae hatch within a few days and complete development in pools (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). Tadpoles have been recorded from Nov. to Jan. and metamorphosis from Dec. to Jan (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
12155	population		The subspecies L.v. verreaux is locally abundant, although some declines have been recorded in the Canberra region in the past 20 years. L. v. alpina was once abundant, but is now known only from seven locations in New South Wales with most sites between 1,200m and 1,500m asl. No L. v. alpina were recorded from Baw Baw Plateau, Davies Plain, and Bogong High Plains in Victoria (Hunter and Osborne unpublished data), but several small populations were encountered to the southeast of Mount Hotham and a more extensive population was recorded on the Dargo High Plains, all between 1,300 and 1,600m asl. Surveys at numerous locations in the Bimberi Range (ACT) failed to locate this species and no tadpoles were observed.	eng
12155	threats		The nominal subspecies, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. verreauxii</span>, is threatened by drought and loss of habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. v. alpina</span> is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibians, including, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudophryne corroboree</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pengilleyi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Philoria frosti</span>, which have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species, which stands out as a feature in common, that might help explain the declines (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudophryne pengilleyi</span> is still widespread and abundant at lower altitudes, but there are few remaining substantial populations of the other three species (Osborne <em>et al.</em> 1999). Osborne <em>et al.</em> (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
12156	conservation		The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected within protected areas since 1988. This species is a priority for immediate survey work to determine whether or not it still survives at the localities from which it has previously been recorded. Research is also needed into the possible reasons for the decline of the species. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
12156	distribution		This species was first located in 1976 and later described by Davies and McDonald (1979). It is known from four localities-Alexandra Creek (TR165); Hilda Creek (near Thornton Peak, Cape Tribulation National Park); Roaring Meg Cascades (via Mount Sorrow TR165); and Bluff Creek (Mossman Gorge Daintree National Park), north-east Queensland (Hero and Fickling 1994; M. Cunningham pers. comm.).	eng
12156	habitat		This species is known to be a rainforest specialist endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001). As a stream-dwelling/stream-breeding species (Hero and Fickling 1994) it prefers fast-flowing streams in upland rainforest between 640 and 1,000m asl (McDonald 1992), although it might be present at lower altitudes (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). It has been found on granite boulders in notophyll vine forest in the splash zone near turbulent fast flowing water (Davies and McDonald 1979). There is no information on breeding season, timing of reproduction, or egg deposition sites. The tadpoles of the species have not been described but are thought to be torrent-adapted and similar to that of a sympatric species, <em>Litoria nannotis</em> (Davies and McDonald 1979). Unpigmented eggs (M. Cunningham unpubl.) are presumably laid in water under rocks in the stream.	eng
12156	population		It was once moderately common in suitable habitat, but it has undergone a dramatic decline. Despite recent efforts to locate the species, it has not been seen since 1991 (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002), and it might now be extinct. However, few searches for the species have been undertaken at historical sites (J-M. Hero and M. Cunningham pers. comm.).	eng
12156	threats		The reason(s) for the decline of this species are unknown, although chytridiomycosis must be strongly suspected. The habitat of the species in the Wet Tropics has been protected since 1988; therefore, habitat destruction is no longer a threat (McDonald and Alford 1999). Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral and infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Feral pigs have been suggested as a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, feral pigs are unlikely to have a direct impact due to the close association of this species with rocky cascades in streams (M. Cunningham pers. comm.).	eng
12241	conservation	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place for the species. It would benefit from population monitoring and education of local people to increase awareness of the species. This species was listed as 'Near Threatened' in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Atlas de los Invertebrados Amenazados de España </span>(Verdú and Galante 2009).	eng
12241	distribution	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	This is a restricted range species that is present in France and Spain.&#160;&#160;Originally described from a type locality of Ascain,&#160; Arconada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) give records from France (Pyrénées-Atlantique; Grottes de Sare (close to Ascain) UTM grid square XN37) and Spain (Province Navarra; UTM Grid square XN37).&#160;V. Prie confirms it is present in another 5 localities in France (pers. comm. 2009), and that it is present in subterranean groundwaters.&#160;In Spain, the species was recorded from the south entrance to Valcarlos, Province Navarra in two sites in a pipe and trough.	eng
12241	habitat	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	Freshwater groundwater systems and in the outflow points such as springs, water-pipes and troughs. In Spain, in province Navarra, this species is known from sites which are exploited for water from the freshwater spring.	eng
12241	population	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	Population trends are not known.	eng
12241	threats	Arconada, B. & Prie, V., 2009	The habitats of the species are vulnerable to groundwater pollution and to exploitation for water, and at least one location is currently undergoing exploitation.&#160; These outflow sites where the species has been recorded are vulnerable to improvement of the water sources, concreting and capping the site, hence destroying or degrading the habitat. &#160;The major threats for the future threats include over-abstraction of water and potentially in future years, drought events drying the entire springs, if groundwater recharge to the aquifer is reduced.	eng
12242	habitat	Bouchet, P., 1996	Shore species - littoral zone	eng
12245	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is protected by law in Austria. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as Endangered (EN). It is also present in the National Park Donauauen.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.<p></p>	eng
12245	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	The species is endemic to Austria. It occurs in the Pannonian hills and flats regions, specifically from the River Danube in Austria and has been recorded from six sites.	eng
12245	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This is a freshwater species that occurs in river deposits and gravel beds as well as in groundwater sources.	eng
12245	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is considered to be rare and has recently experienced a population decline.	eng
12245	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are the abstraction of ground water for drinking, the lowering of ground water levels and pollution, mainly from agricultural practices. The building of power stations and hydrological dams may also degrade this species' habitat.	eng
12246	conservation	Southwell, C., 2008	The crabeater seal is not listed as endangered or threatened. Crabeater seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals and any future commercial harvest would have to be regulated through these international agreements (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
12246	distribution	Southwell, C., 2008	The distribution of crabeater seals is tied to seasonal fluctuations of the pack ice. They can be found right up to the coast of Antarctica, as far south as McMurdo Sound, during late summer ice break-up. They occur in greatest numbers in the seasonally shifting pack ice surrounding the Antarctic continent. As vagrants they travel as far north as New Zealand and the southern coasts of Africa, Australia, and South America. Crabeaters have been known to occasionally wander far inland and die in the dry valleys adjacent to McMurdo Sound. A live animal was found 113 km from open water at an elevation of 920 m above sea level, and carcasses have been found as high as 1,100 m above sea level (Kooyman 1981, Rice 1998, Bengtson 2002).	eng
12246	habitat	Southwell, C., 2008	Adults reach 2.6 m in length and weigh an estimated 200-300 kg. Neonates are thought to be at least 1.1 m and 20-40 kg. The mean age of sexual maturity in females varies from 2.5 to 4.2 years and these variations may be related to changes in food abundance (Bengtson and Laws 1985). Births occur mainly during the second half of October. Annual mortality is about 14.5% (Laws 1977b).<br/><br/>There are no specific rookeries and females haul-out singly on ice to give birth. Adult males attend female-pup pairs and stay with the female until her estrous one to two weeks after the pup is weaned. Mating has not been witnessed and presumably occurs in the water. Females are reported to bite males around the mouth and flippers and this may account for the abundant small scars on the faces of older males.<br/><br/>Pups are born from September to December (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2003) in a soft woolly coat that is greyish-brown in colour and has been described as light, milk coffee brown, with darker colouring on the flippers. They are weaned in approximately three weeks (Southwell 2004) at which time they are moulting or just beginning their moult from the lanugo coat. The pup sheds into a sub-adult pelage similar to that of the adult.<br/><br/>Mortality is high in the first year, possibly reaching 80%. Much of this mortality is attributed to leopard seal predation, and up to 78% of crabeaters that survive through their first year have injuries and scars from leopard seal attacks. The presence of long scars and sets of parallel scars which are readily visible on the pale, relatively unmarked pelage of crabeaters, are testimony to the frequency of these attacks on young of this species. Leopard seal attacks appear to fall off dramatically after crabeaters reach one year of age.<br/><br/>Recent research has revealed that crabeater seals can dive to 430 m and stay submerged for 11 minutes, although most feeding dives were to 20-30 m, and shorter in duration. Foraging occurs primarily at night, and instrumented seals have been recorded to regularly dive continuously for periods up to 16 hours. Dives at dawn and dusk are deeper than at night, and indicate that crabeater feeding activity is also tied to the daily vertical migrations of krill. They have a general pattern of feeding from dusk until dawn, and hauling-out in the middle of the day.<br/><br/>Crabeater seals feed primarily on Antarctic krill, <em>Euphausia superba</em> and 95% of their diet is made up of this species. Small amounts of fish and squid are also part of the diet. All of the post-canine teeth are ornate, with multiple accessory cusps that interlock to form a network for straining krill from the seawater. A ridge of bone on each mandible fills the gap in the mouth behind the last upper post-canine teeth and the back of the jaw, which helps prevent the loss of krill from the mouth when feeding. Crabeater faeces are routinely a pinkish red, from their krill diet and reddish stains are frequently seen on the ice near where they are hauled-out.<br/><br/>Crabeaters are frequently encountered alone or in small groups of up to three on the ice or in the water. However, much larger groups of up to 1,000 hauled-out together have been observed. They can be seen swimming together in herds estimated to be up to 500 animals, breathing and diving almost synchronously. They are the only Antarctic phocid species that is highly gregarious. The moult is in January and February. A large proportion of the animals in an area are thought to be hauled-out during the annual moult.	eng
12246	population	Southwell, C., 2008	The crabeater seal is a widespread species and, and as is the case for other Antarctic seals inhabiting the pack ice, population assessments are very difficult and expensive to conduct and therefore infrequently undertaken. Published global population estimates range from 2 million (Scheffer 1958) up to 50-75 million animals (Erickson <em>et al</em>. 1971). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global crabeater seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean of 7,000,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990). But, the authors acknowledged this estimate was negatively biased due to inadequate correction for haulout and suggested a more reasonable estimate was likely to be in the order of 11-12 million. This estimate is likely to have considerable uncertainty associated with it. A recent regional survey in East Antarctica between 64-150°E indicated a 95% confidence interval of 700,000-1,400,000 around a point estimate of 950,000 animals (Southwell <em>et al</em>. in press). Given this uncertainty, only large changes in crabeater seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys.	eng
12246	threats	Southwell, C., 2008	Crabeater seals are considered to be the most abundant seal species and one of the most numerous large mammals on earth.<br/><br/>A mass die-off was reported from an area near a base on the Antarctic Peninsula in 1955. About 3,000 animals were trapped in areas 5-25 km from open water and most died over a two to three month period. None of the animals examined appeared to be starving, and numerous abortions of foetuses were noted. A disease outbreak was suspected, but never identified. In the 1980s a study revealed antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV) in crabeater seals from this area. Leopard seals have also tested positive for antibodies to CDV. Weddell seals have been tested, but thus far there has not been a positive result. Ross seals have not been tested. Outbreaks of a similar distemper virus in the North Atlantic led to mass die-offs of harbour seals in the 1980s (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>Several brief episodes of commercial harvesting of crabeaters ended when they were determined to be economically unsuccessful. Commercial harvest of krill may pose a threat to crabeater seals, if it ever becomes established at a large scale. There are currently no direct threats from human activity throughout most of the species’ normal range (Bengtson 2002).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that crabeater seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of pack ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators (possible) and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of crabeater seals. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming, or sea level rise on Antarctic ocean circulation and productivity and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown.<br/><br/>Seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic has increased steadily in the last 30 plus years, and is currently at all-time high levels. The effects of increased vessel noise, disturbance from vessels passage, and close approach by people in small boats and on land on crabeater seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are unknown. There is a small risk of injury to animals from collision with boats or crushing from large vessel passage through ice fields.<br/><br/>There are no reports on significant fisheries interactions.	eng
12263	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	More biological research is required. The species has been recorded from Ilha Grande state park in Rio de Janeiro state. It is important that the species habitat is protected.	eng
12263	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The type locality is Minas Gerais, Brazil, at Jaboticatubas, Serra do Cipo. It is also found in Rio de Janeiro State. The species is apparently confined to southeastern Brazil (Dias <em>et al</em>. 2002, Brito <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
12263	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known. The species is a nectarivore, and may be an important pollinator. This is the only <em>Lonchophylla</em> species that is found in both the Cerrado and in the Atlantic Forest, in the transition between the two. The species has not been found in more humid areas and may have a disjunct distribution (Aguiar pers. comm.). It roosts in small colonies of two to five  individuals (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
12263	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is rare. Since the description of this species in 1978, it has not been recorded in Minas Gerais (cerrado) despite surveys (Aguiar and Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). Subsequent collections have all been from Atlantic Forest. The species has been collected from several localities in Rio de Janeiro State.	eng
12263	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The region of the type locality in the Atlantic Forest has seen severe deforestation and fragmentation and the Cerrado region has suffered severe and rapid habitat change in recent years.	eng
12264	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	An action plan is in preparation for this species (Aguiar pers. comm.). The species cerrado habitat, including karstic environments and areas of calcareous soils, needs to be protected. Rabies control programs need to be modified to reduce threats to the species. Rabies control teams need to be trained to recognize the species. Local awareness programs should emphasize the ecological role of the species. Additional surveys are required to confirm the species distribution.	eng
12264	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	<em>Lonchophylla dekeyseri</em> is the only endemic bat species of the cerrado habitat in Brazil. Type locality is given as eight kilometres north of Brasilia, Federal District (Coelho, 1998; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). While the species appears to be fairly widespread, the distribution appears to be patchy within its geographic range.	eng
12264	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species lives in caves in dry forests associated with calcareous outcrops and appears to require caves to roost. In a study, population sizes changed throughout the year; the population of Dois Irmãos cave was larger in September and October, probably due to the recruitment of young, and in March and April, due to the return of pregnant females. In all populations the number of females exceeded that of males and the number of adults was greater than that of young. The species is closely associated with karstic environments (Aguiar and Machado, 2004). <br/><br/>Young individuals were captured from July to November and adults were captured throughout the year. Lonchophylla dekeyseri occurred in relatively small populations and demonstrated fidelity to the shelter, remaining for at least one year in the same cave. The reproductive pattern presented by the species was seasonal monoestry, with young being born in the dry season, probably due to the greater food availability at this time of the year. A nursery system seems to occur, as the females were never observed carrying their young. Females were found to occur in greater numbers than males, suggesting harem formation. Emergence from the shelter occurred in the first hours after dusk; returning just before dawn during the rainy season and returning around midnight and just before dawn during the dry season. The activity pattern observed was unimodal, changing to bimodal in the dry season. Activity period could be related to the blossoming and nectar production patterns of the flowers visited by <em>L. dekeyseri</em>. The females carry the young with them (Aguiar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Diet is primarily pollen and insects; seeds were found less frequently in the feces analysis. Lonchophylla dekeyseri feeds upon pollen in the dry season, when this resource is more plentiful, and consumes more insects and fruits in its diet during the rainy season, when nectar is scarce and insects are abundant. Bat hair analysis showed 7 types of pollen, mainly from Pseudobombax sp., Bauhinia sp. and Lafoensia sp. Bat-pollinated plants flowered during the dry season with sequencial peaks, probably a mechanism which may avoid competition for pollinators by other plants maximizing pollinator efficiency. The occurrence of more than one type of pollen in the same bat hair sample was common, indicating visits to several plant species during only one night (Coelho, 1998).	eng
12264	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Expected to decline in response to increasing habitat destruction. Between September 1997 to August 1998, Coelho (1998) captured 152 specimens in 46 nights in three caves located in the Apa do Cafuringa, in the northwestern region of the Federal District of Brazil. The populations appear to be patchily distributed.	eng
12264	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species distribution is patchy as cerrado habitat is severely and rapidly being degraded and destroyed . Calcereous soils are among the most threatened. The species appears to require caves to roost and is thus associated with karstic environments which are threatened by mining. Roosts are threatened by rabies control programs.	eng
12265	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Cave conservation.	eng
12265	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in east Ecuador, northeast Peru (Simmons, 2005), and records from Colombia are erroneous (Davalos pers. comm.).	eng
12265	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves. It is found in mature and secondary rainforest but not in secondary or disturned forests.. Occurs in caves (Hill 1980).	eng
12265	population	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is uncommon to rare (Tirira, in prep.). Expected to decline in response to increasing human habitat destruction.	eng
12265	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Cave destruction. Associated with tropical humid forests which are rapidly being converted within its range.	eng
12266	conservation	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2009	Occurs in a few protected areas in Northern Peru.	eng
12266	distribution	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2009	This species occurs in northwest Peru, and southwest Ecuador (Simmons 2005).	eng
12266	habitat	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2009	Very little is known about this species. It does not eat fruit (Solari pers. comm.).	eng
12266	population	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2009	It is rare, known from approximately 10 individuals (Solari pers. comm.). It is expected to decline in response to increasing human habitat destruction.	eng
12266	threats	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2009	Habitat conversion to agriculture is a primary threat.	eng
12267	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species specific habitats, especially in the northeastern part of the range, need to be protected.	eng
12267	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Southeastern Brazil (Simmons 2005). The species is widespread in Brazil.	eng
12267	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. Probably roosts in small groups in hollow trees and in small caves. Found in the rainforest and deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found in tall, humid forest. In the northeastern part of its range, it occupies very specific habitats - high plateaus that sustain humid forest in generally semi-arid regions.	eng
12267	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known. It is common throughout its range or locally common.	eng
12267	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species specific habitats in the northeastern part of the range are severely threatened.	eng
12268	conservation	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
12268	distribution	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout Nicaragua to Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
12268	habitat	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This bat feeds on nectar, insects (including beetles and moths), and probably fruit and pollen. It roosts in small groups in caves and cave-like structures. A roost was reported under a jungle of huge boulders along a stream. It is one of the most common long-tongued bats in parts of the Amazon basin. It is found in rainforest, gardens, and plantations (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Reid, 1997; Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Gestation period between March and April (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
12268	population	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is common to rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997). In mid-elevation (600 to 800 m) it is fairly common (Reid, 1997).	eng
12268	threats	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
12269	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Maintain habitat. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12269	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is distributed in South America and occurs in Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyana Shield, eastern Peru, Ecuador, and northern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Principally it was caught below 850 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976). Also Panama (Handley 1976).	eng
12269	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is strongly associated with streams and moist areas. Although tolerant of man-made clearings, this species prefers multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It feeds on nectar, insects, and probably fruit and pollen. This species probably roosts in small groups in hollow trees and in small caves (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12269	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known though may be relatively common.	eng
12269	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation, although not a major threat.	eng
12270	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Conservation of caves and karstic habitats. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In Mexico is listed as trheatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). It is found in protected areas in Belize (Miller pers. comm.).	eng
12270	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This species is broadly distributed from Oaxaca  and Veracruz(Mexico) south to SE Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador; Trinidad; perhaps New Providence Isl (Bahama Isls), see Jones and Carter (1976) (Simmons 2005). Lowlands, it was not taken above 1,500 m elevation (Reid, 1997). Occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al.</em> , in press).	eng
12270	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and is most frequently encountered in multistratal tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Usually found in mature, evergreen forest, occasionally deciduous forest and agricultural areas (Reid, 1997). This bat is an aerial and gleaning insectivore, it occasionally consumes fruits. It roosts in caves or tunnels, such as mine tunnels and forms colonies of 12 to 25, sometimes up to hundreds (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961; Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Activity begins well after sunset, in full darkness. This bat is an extremely agile flier and may stop and hover in front of a mist net or escape through small gasps. It is sometimes caught in nets across streams or paths through forest (Reid, 1997).	eng
12270	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon; widespread. These bats may be geographically limited to areas with caves or rocks (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Can be locally abundant near caves where roosting occurs with up to 500 individuals (Lassier and Wilson, 1989).	eng
12270	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Associated with cave and karstic habitats which may be threatened by disturbance within forests. In Bolivia this species is considered Vulnerable (it is not known from a protected area and it is in a fragile ecosystem).	eng
12271	conservation	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	Cave conservation - cease non disriminant vampire controle.	eng
12271	distribution	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	This species occurs is restricted to a relatively small region to the extreme northwestern portion of Amazonian Venezuela, south of the Orinoco (Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
12271	habitat	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). No more information is known of this species, but it is probably similar to <em>Lonchorhina aurita</em>. Habitat is gallery forest through savanna.	eng
12271	population	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	This species might be rare. Only males are known - and in an area rapidly being converted to cattle ranching. Species is endemic and restricted. Form large colonies in caves, and tunnels in rocks (which makes them susceptible to persecution).	eng
12271	threats	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	Vampire bat control has had a profound effect on populations of this species. Destruction of caves and tunnels is a problem. Vampire bat control is not species specific and effects many species of non-vampire bats.	eng
12272	conservation	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Conservation of grantic outcrop formations (In Chiribiquete).	eng
12272	distribution	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is found in the southeast of Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Known from two localities in Colombia. One specimen is from 200 m elevation (Camacho and Cadena 1978).	eng
12272	habitat	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associated with tropical humid forests which are undisturbed. This species is extremely rare. Associated with Amazon Basin (Chiribiquete) (Muñoz and Mantilla pers. comm.). Lives in cave formations, in grantic outcrops and tepui like formations.	eng
12272	population	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Expected to decline in response to habitat destruction.	eng
12272	threats	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The habitat type where this species occurs is rapidly being converted (Muñoz and Mantilla pers. comm.). Illicit crops and armed conflict are a problem in the area.	eng
12273	conservation	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	Recorded from a few protected areas, but most of its range is unprotected.	eng
12273	distribution	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	This species occurs in southern Venezuela, and southeast Colombia (Simmons, 2005). 80-300 m asl (Ochoa pers. comm.)	eng
12273	habitat	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	Resticted to lowland rainforests and gallery forests in savanna (Ochoa pers. comm.). This species appears to be confined in rocky areas where trees occur in savanna. It apparently roosts in rock crevices during the day. It feeds on insects (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associated with caves in grantic formations (Ochos pers. comm.). Cave dwelling.	eng
12273	population	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	In Venezuela it is frequent (Linares, 1998). Where the species is found is it common, but occurs sporadically throughout its range.	eng
12273	threats	Ochoa, J. &  Molinari, J., 2008	Cave persecution. Habitat loss due to gold mining and logging.	eng
12274	conservation	Patton, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are several protected areas within its range, although it presence has not been reported from any of these.	eng
12274	distribution	Patton, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil, south of Amazon River (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The species has also been reported from Peru. J. Patton (pers. comm.) however, considers the Peruvian report as invalid identification of the species.	eng
12274	habitat	Patton, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species has been collected at Alter do Chao, Santarem, within white sand grassland and gallery forest (J. Patton pers. comm.). Further information is not available.	eng
12274	population	Patton, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no information on the population or abundance of this species.	eng
12274	threats	Patton, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	The main threat to<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. emiliae </span>is deforestation (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
12302	conservation	Sefass, T. & Polechla, P., 2008	The species is included in CITES Appendix II. Additional research is needed to clearly delineate the impact that various forms of water pollution, agricultural and other development along riparian habitats, industrial and housing development in coastal areas, cumulative impacts related to loss or alterations of wetlands, large flood control structures, and interactions that these and other factors have on otter populations.	eng
12302	distribution	Sefass, T. & Polechla, P., 2008	L. canadensis currently occurs throughout the United States of America and Canada. Originally this species is thought to have ranged from 250-700 N latitude and from 530 to 1660W longitude. In the USA, this species is present in states bordering the Great Lakes, Atlantic ocean and Gulf of Mexico, and in the forested regions of the Pacific coast in North America (Lariviere and Walton 1998). It is also present throughout Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands and the north slope of the Brooks Range (Magoun and Valkenburg 1977). Urbanization and pollution caused reductions in range area and are now absent or rare in Arizona, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, and West Virginia (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Park 1971; Polechla 1990). Reintroductions have expanded the distribution of this species in recent years, especially in the Midwestern United States (Melquist and Dronkert 1987). In Canada, North American river otters occupy all provinces and territories, except for Prince Edward Island (Melquist and Dronkert 1987).	eng
12302	habitat	Sefass, T. & Polechla, P., 2008	Historical records indicate that river otters were well established throughout most major drainages in the continental United States and Canada prior to European settlement (Hall 1981). The continent’s largest otter populations occurred in areas with an abundance and diversity of aquatic habitats such as coastal marshes, the Great Lakes region, and glaciated areas of New England (Nilsson 1980; Toweill and Tabor 1982; Melquist and Dronkert 1987). In addition, riverine habitats in interior regions supported smaller, but viable, otter populations (Nilsson 1980). <br/><br/>North American river otters prefer bog lakes with banked shores containing semi-aquatic mammal burrows and lakes with beaver (Castor canadensis) lodges, and they avoid water bodies with gradually sloping shorelines of sand or gravel (Reid <em>et al.</em> 1994b). In Maine, use of watersheds by river otters is negatively associated with the proportion of mixed hardwood-softwood stands in forested areas adjacent to waterways and positively associated with the number of beaver flowages, watershed length, and average shoreline diversity (Dubuc <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Idaho, river otters prefer valley over mountain habitats, and they select valley streams over valley lakes, reservoirs, and ponds (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). Logjams are used intensively where present (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). In Florida, abundance of North American river otters is lowest in freshwater marshes, intermediate in salt marshes, and highest in swamp forest. During the dry season, L. canadensis will retreat from marshland and move to permanent ponds where water is available and food is more concentrated (Humphrey and Zinn 1982). In Idaho and Massachusetts, habitat features preferred for latrine sites include large conifers, points of land, beaver bank dens and lodges, isthmuses, mouths of permanent streams, or any object that protrudes from the water (Melquist and Hornocker 1983; Newman and Griffin 1994).<br/><br/>The diet of the North American river otter is comprised mostly of fish that are abundant, midsized, and close to shore (Larsen 1984; Stenson <em>et al</em>. 1984), as well as amphibians (mostly frogs) and crustaceans (mainly crayfish) (Knudsen and Hale 1968; Reid <em>et al</em>. 1994a; Sheldon and Toll 1964). Small mammals, mollusks, reptiles, birds, and fruits are consumed opportunistically (Gilbert and Nancekivell 1982; Greer 1955; Hamilton 1961; Morejohn 1969; Verbeek and Morgan 1978; Wilson 1954). North American river otters have few natural predators in the water: alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus), and killer whales (Orcinus orca). They are considerably more vulnerable on land or ice where bobcats (Lynx rufus), cougars (Felis concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), dogs (Canis familiaris) and wolves (Canis lupus) can kill adults (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Melquist and Hornocker 1983; Route and Peterson 1991; Toweill and Tabor 1982). Most mortality, however, is human-related and includes trapping, illegal shooting, road kills, and accidental captures in fish nets or set lines (Jackson 1961; Melquist and Hornocker 1983).<br/><br/>North American river otters can reach 13 years of age in the wild and up to 25 years of age in captivity (Melquist and Dronkert 1987; Stephenson 1977). Females usually do not reproduce until 2 years of age, although yearlings occasionally produce young (Docktor <em>et al</em>. 1987; Hamilton and Eadie 1964). Males are sexually mature at 2 years of age (Hamilton and Eadie 1964). North American river otters usually breed from December to April (Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Liers 1951), gestation lasts 61-63 days, and young are born between February and April (Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Melquist and Hornocker 1983). Litter size may reach five (Park 1971) but usually ranges from one to three (Docktor <em>et al</em>. 1987; Hamilton and Eadie 1964; Tabor and Wight 1977).	eng
12302	population	Sefass, T. & Polechla, P., 2008	By the early 1900’s, unregulated trapping, water pollution, and other degradations of aquatic and riparian habitats had caused otter populations to decline throughout most of their historic range (Nilsson 1980; Toweill and Tabor 1982; Melquist and Dronkert 1987). Improvements in water quality and furbearer management strategies, including implementation of reintroduction projects, have enabled the reestablishment of otter populations to various aquatic habitats in portions of their former range. Reintroduction projects have been especially useful in restoring otter populations to riverine habitats in interior regions. <br/><br/>Methods for determining relative abundance of North American river otters include track counts in the snow (Reid <em>et al.</em> 1987; St-Georges <em>et al.</em> 1995), radioactive isotopes (Knaus <em>et al</em>. 1983; Testa <em>et al</em>. 1994), catch/unit effort (Chilelli <em>et al</em>. 1996), and scent-station surveys (Humphrey and Zinn 1982). Density estimates of river otters range from 1 otter/1.25-3.60 km of coastline in Alaska (Testa <em>et al</em>. 1994) to 1 otter/3.9 km of waterway in Idaho (Melquist and Hornocker 1983).	eng
12302	threats	Sefass, T. & Polechla, P., 2008	Threats to otter populations in North America vary among regions and are influenced by type, distribution, and density of aquatic habitats and characteristics of human activities. Prior to settlement of North America by Europeans, otters were widespread among aquatic habitats throughout most of the continent (Hall 1981). Unregulated trapping and loss or degradation of aquatic habitats through filling of wetlands and development of coal, oil, gas, tanning, timber, and other industries resulted in extirpations or declines in otter populations in many areas (Toweill and Tabor 1982, Melquist and Dronkert 1987). Nilsson (1980) reviewed the status of otters in the United States and determined that populations were extirpated in 11 states and had experienced severe declines in 9 other states. The most severe population declines occurred in interior regions where fewer aquatic habitats supported smaller fewer otter populations. Although the distribution of otters became reduced in some regions of southern Canada, the only province-wide extirpation occurred on Prince Edward Island (Polechla 1990). <br/><br/>During the 1970’s, improvements in natural resource management techniques coincided with increased concern about otter declines in North America (Endangered Species Scientific Authority 1978). Consequently, many wildlife management agencies developed strategies to restore or enhance otter populations, including the use of reintroduction projects (Ralls 1990; Serfass <em>et al.</em> 1993). Since 1976 over 4,000 otters have been reintroduced among 21 states. Also, 29 states and all Canadian provinces except Prince Edward Island have viable populations that sustain annual harvests. Annual harvest numbers of Northern river otters are similar for Canada and the United States (Obbard 1987), with most pelts being used in the garment industry (Toweill and Tabor, 1982). In the late 1970s, annual harvest in North America reached ca. 50,000 pelts, for a value of U.S. $3 million (Melquist and Dronkert, 1987). Otters are incidentally harvested by traps set for beavers (Toweill and Tabor, 1982), and therefore management plans should consider both species simultaneously (Polechla, 1990). While current harvest strategies do not pose a threat to maintaining otter populations, harvest may limit expansion of otter populations in some areas (Lariviere and Walton 1998). <br/><br/>Oil spills present a localized threat to otter populations, especially in coastal areas. Water pollution and other degradation of aquatic and wetland habitats may limit distribution of otters and pose long-term threats if enforcement of water quality standards are not maintained and enforced. Acid drainage from coal mines is a persistent water quality problem in some areas that eliminates otter prey prevents thereby inhibits recolonization or expansion of otter populations. Recently, there has been discussion of the long-term genetic consequences of reintroduction projects on remnant otter populations (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1998). Similarly, many perceived threats to otters such as pollution and habitat alterations have not been rigorously evaluated. <br/>The threat of disease to wild otter populations is poorly understood and has received little study (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1995). Lontra canadensis may be victim of canine distemper (Harris 1968; Park 1971), rabies (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1995), respiratory tract disease, and urinary infection (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984; Route and Peterson 1991). In addition, North American river otters can contract jaundice, hepatitis, feline panleucopenia, and pneumonia (Harris, 1968). North American river otters host numerous endoparasites such as nematodes (Hoberg <em>et al</em>. 1997), cestodes (Greer 1955), trematodes (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984), the sporozoan Isopora (Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984), and acanthocephalans (Hoberg <em>et al</em>. 1997; Hoover <em>et al</em>. 1984). Ectoparasites include ticks (Eley 1977; Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1992), sucking lice Latagophthirus rauschi (Kim and Emerson 1974), and the flea Oropsylla arctomys (Serfass <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
12303	conservation	Alvarez, R. & Medina-Vogel, G., 2008	It is listed in Appendix I of the CITES (Nowak 1991). The marine otter is protected in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.	eng
12303	distribution	Alvarez, R. & Medina-Vogel, G., 2008	The marine otter <em>Lontra felina</em> lives along the Pacific coast of South America from 6°S to 56°S along the Chilean coast to Cape Horn, Straits of Lemaire and Isla de Los Estados in Argentina (Brack Egg 1978, Brownell 1978, van Zyll de Jong 1972). It is also present in isolated populations in the Strait of Magellan and on Staten Island in Argentina (Cabrera 1957, Parera 1996).	eng
12303	habitat	Alvarez, R. & Medina-Vogel, G., 2008	Lontra felina is the only species of the genus Lontra that is found exclusively in marine habitats. It uses coastlines with range extending approximately 30 m inland and 100-150 m of sea offshore (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979). The species inhabits marine areas exposed to heavy seas and strong wind (Cabello 1978; Ostfeld <em>et al.</em> 1989) and prefers rocky shores with caves that are above water at high tide, as well as areas with large algae communities offering a wide abundance and diversity of prey species (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979). Sandy beaches offer marginal habitat (Sielfeld 1989) and typically are used only for travel between dens and water (Ebensperger and Castilla 1992). Marine otters are, for the most part, restricted to marine waters, but may occasionally travel up freshwater rivers in search of prey (Brownell 1978; Cabello 1978; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). Because not all coastlines are suitable, marine otters are found in disjunct populations throughout their distribution range (Redford and Eisenberg 1992).<br/><br/>The marine otter diet is composed mostly of invertebrates, including crustaceans (decapods, shrimps, and crabs) and mollusks (bivalves and gastropods), and vertebrate prey, including fish from the families Blennidae, Cheilodactylidae, Gobiesocidae, and Pomacentridae, and occasionally birds and small mammals (Cabello 1978; Castilla and Bahamondes 1979; Ostfeld <em>et al</em>. 1989; Sielfeld 1990a). Along the Valdivian coast in the south of Chile the diet of marine otter consisted of 25 species; 52% (13/25) of the species identified were crustaceans, 40% (10/25) were fish, and 8% (2/25) were mollusks. Crustaceans were found in 78% of 475 spraints, 100% of 929 prey remains, and 90.8% of prey determined by direct observation, fish in 20% of spraints and 9.0% of prey determined by direct observation, and mollusks in 2% of spraints and 0.2% of prey determined by direct observation. Observed seasonal variation in prey availability was reflected in the otter diet. Fourteen prey species were trapped; 43% (6/14) were crustaceans and 57% (8/14) fish, crustaceans were 93% of 566 trapped individuals, fish 7%. L. felina showed opportunistic feeding behavior, selecting prey seasonally according to their availability rather than to their energy input (Medina <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Some analyses have found that fruits (Greigia sphacelata, Fascicularia bicolor) may also be consumed on occasion (Brownell 1978; Cabello 1978; Medina 1995). Marine otters may compete with gulls (Larus) and the South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) for similar species of prey fish (Cabello 1978). The most important natural predator of the marine otter is the killer whale (Orcinus orca; Cabello 1978), but adults also may be killed by sharks (Parera 1996) and birds of prey may capture juveniles when on land (Cabello 1983). <br/><br/>The marine otter is most likely a monogamous species. Mating typically occurs during December or January (Caballo 1978) with gestation of 60-65 days (Housse 1953; Sielfield 1983). Parturition usually occurs from January to March. It takes place in a den or on shore between rocky outcroppings and vegetation. The litter size varies from two to four young, with two being observed most frequently. Young marine otters remain with their parents for approximately ten months. Adults transport their young by carrying them in their mouths or resting the young on their bellies as they swim on their backs. Both adults in the monogamous pair bring prey back to the den to feed their young (Parera 1996). When not breeding, marine otters are mostly solitary. The group size is seldom more than two to three individuals. Its activity pattern is generally diurnal, with peaks of activity noted in early morning, mid-afternoon, and evenings. Marine otters are much more agile in the water than on land.	eng
12303	population	Alvarez, R. & Medina-Vogel, G., 2008	The population of Lontra felina probably consisted of <1,000 individuals (Nowak 1991). Its largest population remains in the west coast of Chiloe Island and in southern parts of Chile (Cabello 1978). During 1999-2000, in southern Chile, an average of 3.8 observable otters/km were recorded, with significant differences between sites but no systematic trends with regard to seasons. Observable pups were recorded year-round (Medina-Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2006). Along the Peruvian coast the population is estimated to be 200-300 marine otters (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979).	eng
12303	threats	Alvarez, R. & Medina-Vogel, G., 2008	Habitat destruction, pollution, and poaching/excessive hunting are the major threats to marine otters in South America (Castilla and Bahamondes 1979; Chehebar 1990; Estes 1986; Iriarte and Jaksic 1986). The original range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lontra felina</span> has decreased considerably because of excessive hunting (Redford and Eisenberg 1992) and the species has been nearly exterminated from the regions of Cape Horn and southern Tierra del Fuego (Brownell 1978) as well as from the northern extremities of its former range (Chehebar 1990). Illegal trade in pelts was still relatively frequent in southern Chile in the 1990s (Macdonald and Mason 1990), as the price paid for a single pelt was equivalent to the wages an unskilled worker could earn in 2-3 months, and the probability of being caught and fined for poaching was very low (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1983). The largest populations of marine otters remain along the west coast of Chiloé Island and in southern parts of Chile, where there is not only very little information about hunting, habitat conservation, and the status and distribution of otter populations, but little enforcement of otter protection measures. In Argentina, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. felina</span> is on the verge of extinction and may persist only on the eastern coast of Tierra del Fuego and on Staten Island (Chehebar 1990; Parera 1996).<br/><br/>In addition to hunting, marine otters may be killed incidentally by fishing activities (Brownell 1978), or persecuted and killed directly for alleged damage to local fish, bivalves, and shrimp populations (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1983; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). Fishery overexploitation of crabs and mollusks in some regions of the coast may be a major threat to otters due to the reduction of available food sources.	eng
12304	conservation	Waldemarin, H.F. & Alvarez, R., 2008	<em>Lontra longicaudis</em> is listed as endangered in the Appendix I of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Emmons, 1990) and by the Mexican Ministry of Ecology (Ceballos and Navarro 1991). It is also listed as endangered by the United States Department of Interior. The neotropical otter is listed as a priority species by the Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina (Bertonetti and Parera 1994). This species is currently protected in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad, Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela (Aranda 1991; Brack-Egg 1978; Chehebar 1990; Mondolfi and Trebbau 1978). Neotropical otters are not legally protected in Guyana and Honduras, and no information is available on the distribution or legal status of neotropical otters in Belize, El Salvador, French Guiana, and Guatemala (Chehebar 1990). <br/><br/>Conservation priorities for the neotropical otter should focus on field surveys of current populations, identification of key habitats, protection of areas where high populations remain, and stricter regulations to prevent release of toxic waste in riverine systems (Mason and Macdonald 1990).	eng
12304	distribution	Waldemarin, H.F. & Alvarez, R., 2008	Lontra longicaudis occurs from northwestern Mexico south to Uruguay (Gallo 1991), Paraguay, and across the northern part of Argentina to Buenos Aires province (Chehebar 1990; Cockrum 1964; Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It is widespread in the northern and central parts of Argentina (Bertonatti and Parera 1994).	eng
12304	habitat	Waldemarin, H.F. & Alvarez, R., 2008	The Neotropical river otter lives in variety of habitats including natural systems such as deciduous and evergreen forests, warm and cool climate rainforests, and coastal savanna swamps (Emmons 1990). Habitat requirements include ample riparian vegetation (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Redford and Eisenberg 1992), and abundant potential den sites (Soldateli and Blacher 1996). It favours clear, fast-flowing rivers and streams, and may be rare or absent from sluggish, silt-laden lowland rivers. It occurs mostly from 300 to 1,500 m of altitude, but has been found up to 3,000 m (Eisenberg 1989; Emmans 1990; Melendres 1978; Redford and Eisenberg 1992) and in Costa Rica and Uruguay it occurs below 300 m. The greatest abundances of Neotropical otters are in areas with extensive aquatic networks, low chemical and organic pollution, and low human density (Bardier 1992; Blacher 1987). However, this is a versatile species that tolerates environmental modifications well, and has been found occupying areas close to human activity such as irrigation ditches, rice fields and sugar cane plantations (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Macdonald and Mason 1992). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on fish, with crustaceans and mollusks contributing to large portions of diet in some areas (Bardier 1992; Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Gallo 1986; Helder-Jose and Ker De Andrade 1997; Passamani and Camargo 1995; Soldateli and Blacher 1996). Fish consumed are mostly from the families Cichlidae, Anostomidae, Characidae, and Pimelodidae (Passamani and Camargo 1995; Spinola and Vaughan 1995). Small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects are consumed opportunistically (Bertonatti and Parera 1994; Parera 1993; Passamani and Camargo 1995). <br/><br/>It may compete with sympatric Pteronura brasiliensis, however, competition effects may be buffered by use of different habitat, denning sites, size of prey, and by the more crepuscular habits of L. longicaudis (Carter and Rosas 1997; Duplaix 1978). Known predators include anacondas (Eunectes) and jaguars (Panthera onca) (Duplaix 1978; Parera, 1996a), but caimans (Caiman), dogs, and birds of prey may also prey on neotropical otters (Dunstone and Strachan 1988; Parera 1996b). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs mostly in spring, but may occur throughout the year in certain localities (Parera 1996a). Gestation is 56 days (Bertonatti and Parera 1994), and litter size varies from one to five young ones (Bertonatti and Parera 1994), usually two or three (Parera 1996a).	eng
12304	population	Waldemarin, H.F. & Alvarez, R., 2008	The species seems to be widespread, and its range does not seem to have changed, but there is no data available about population size, composition or distribution, so changes cannot be determined.	eng
12304	threats	Waldemarin, H.F. & Alvarez, R., 2008	Excessive hunting of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. longicaudis </span>for its pelt in the period 1950-1970 resulted in local extinction over parts of its former range (Brack-Egg 1978; Donadio 1978). Although current hunting and population status are unknown (Emmons 1990), continued illegal hunting (Chehebar 1991), habitat destruction through mining and ranching, and water pollution are likely to be responsible for its rareness (Alho and Lacher 1991; Alho <em>et al.</em> 1998; Chehebar 1990; Gallo 1986; Melendres 1978). Neotropical otters show little fear of humans (Parera 1993), and are sometimes killed incidentally in fishing operations (Dunstone and Strachan 1988) or kept in captivity by fishermen who use trained otters to aid in fishing practices (Parera 1996a).	eng
12305	conservation	Sepulveda, M., Franco, M., Medina, G., Fasola, L. & Alvarez, R., 2008	<em>Lontra provocax</em> is listed in Appendix I of the CITES. The Chilean Red Data Book of Vertebrates lists the species as being in danger of extinction. It is also listed as Threatened in the Argentine National Wildlife List (Consejo Asesor Regional Patagonico de la Fauna Silvestre) (Porro and Chehebar 1995). Recommended conservation measures include population monitoring, enforcement of anti-poaching legislation, habitat maintenance to conserve abundant mature plant cover along shorelines and establishment of water use restrictions for fishing and boating access (Chehebar 1985; Porro and Chehebar 1995, 1996). <br/><br/>Reintroduction of southern river otters into areas where they were previously exterminated due to excessive hunting could be successful in the above mentioned enforcement of legislation and monitoring programs are carried out (Porro and Chehebar 1995; Medina 1996a). Conservation of the southern river otter will require better education, time allowance for populations to recover, and re-establishment of populations in native habitat (Medina 1996a, 1996b).	eng
12305	distribution	Sepulveda, M., Franco, M., Medina, G., Fasola, L. & Alvarez, R., 2008	L. provocax occurs in Argentine and Chilean Patagonian region, between 36°S and 52°S latitude (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986). In Chile, the southern river otter is found from Mahuidanche river (39°S) in the province of Colchagua to the Strait of Magallanes. L. provocax once had an extensive distribution from the Cauquenes and Cachapoal Rivers to the Magellan region in Chile. Currently, the distribution of L. provocax is limited by habitat degradation and human disturbance (Medina 1996). In Argentina, the southern river otter is present along the Andes from the southern part of the province of Neuquen down to Tierra del Fuego (Cabrera 1957; Redford and Eisenberg 1992).	eng
12305	habitat	Sepulveda, M., Franco, M., Medina, G., Fasola, L. & Alvarez, R., 2008	<em>L. provocax</em> is predominantly a freshwater species occurring in freshwater lakes and in rivers and streams. Rest and den sites are found in areas with dense vegetation and an abundance of above-ground roots, small rocks or broken stones, which provide suitable crevices from which the animal can view the adjacent water without being exposed. In the Nahuel Huapi National Park, there were significant heterogeneities in its distribution between river basins, between habitats, between lakes relative to dispersal routes and topography. Their distribution is governed by the distribution of crustacean prey, absence of human habitation, and the presence of introduced American mink Mustela vison, because although there was a positive relationship between the occurrence of mink and huillin in Lake Nahuel Huapi, there was a negative relationship in their occurrence between other lakes. <br/><br/>It also occurs in marine habitats along southern Chile (Sielfeld 1983). Habitat in the Patagonian archipelago consists mainly of rocky coasts and canals protected from waves, where coastal strips of vegetation such as Drimis winteri, Notofagus betuloides, and Maytenus magellanica are present; these features, as well as reduced human disturbance, are thought to be favorable for the establishment of dens (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986; Medina 1996a, 1996b; Sielfeld 1983). In Argentina, L. provocax is associated with dense mature forest with thick undergrowth extending close to shore. Both the above-ground root systems of mature or fallen trees and the dense vegetation cover are important components of L. provocax habitat; absence of these key features may result in absence of otters, even if abundance of prey is not limiting (Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986). <br/><br/>The southern river otter diet consists mainly of fish including such species as Cheridon australe, Cyprinus carpio, Galaxias, Notothenia, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Percichthys trucha, Percillia gillissi, Salmo trutta, as well as some crustaceans including Aegla, Camilonotus, Lithodes antartica, Munida, Paralomis granulosa, Parastacus pugnax, and Sammastacus spinifrom. Opportunistic consumption of mollusks (Diplodon chilensis, Fissurela) and birds has also been reported (Chehebar 1982; Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Medina 1996a, 1996b, 1997; Sielfeld 1983). <br/><br/>Breeding is thought to occur in July and August, and young are born in September and October (Housse 1953). In parts of the species? southern range, young can be observed all year (Parera 1996). Litter size average one or two young, but may litters of up to four young have been observed (Sielfeld 1983).	eng
12305	population	Sepulveda, M., Franco, M., Medina, G., Fasola, L. & Alvarez, R., 2008	L. provocax is rare in Lanin, Puelo, and Los Alerces National Parks (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986). Only three core populations remain in the species range: Nahuel Huapi National Park, the coast of Beagle Canal in the Tierra del Fuego National Park, and on Staten Island (Chehebar 1985; Porro and Chehebar 1995). Density of southern river otters averages 0.73 individuals (range 0.71-0.75) per km of coastline in southern Chile (Sielfeld 1992).	eng
12305	threats	Sepulveda, M., Franco, M., Medina, G., Fasola, L. & Alvarez, R., 2008	The southern river otter population has been confirmed from seven isolated areas all of which are threatened by a variety of factors. It has been exterminated through much of its Chilean range by habitat destruction and disturbance through removal of riverbank vegetation, dam construction, river and stream canalization, drainage for agriculture and dredging, as well as excessive hunting practices (Chehebar <em>et al.</em> 1986; Housse 1953; Medina 1996a, 1996b; Porro and Chehebar 1995). Populations have been confirmed in only seven isolated areas all of which are threatened by the above-listed concerns, especially dredging impacts on coastal morphology and the large scale of forest destruction in southern Chile that may be affecting several of the freshwater habitats through severe flooding and deposition of soil on the river beds. While illegal, hunting continues to be prevalent in Chile, particularly south of the Chiloe region, as a single otter pelt may pay the equivalent of 2-3 months wages for an unskilled worker (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1983). Otters are also harvested illegally with shellfish-baited hooks, puyero nets, lances, shotguns, foothold traps, and dogs (Medina, 1996b). Introduction of salmonid species may have an impact on otter diet as they may out compete native fish species and salmonids may be too fast for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. provocax </span>to catch (Chehebar 1985; Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Medina 1996a). Impacts of this shift in prey fish species require further research. <br/><br/>Concern about competition for food and space between <span style="font-style: italic;">Lontra provocax</span> and the introduced American mink <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela vison</span> was raised when otter abundances were noted to be lower in areas where American mink were present (Chehebar 1985; Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986). It has been concluded, however, that competitive effects are unlikely to pose a major threat to the otter as the two species exhibit low overlap in diet (<26%) and habitats used (5-22%), suggesting that they may coexist with little competition (Chehebar and Benoit 1988; Chehebar <em>et al</em>. 1986; Medina 1997). Large scale destruction of forests in southern Chile may be affecting several of its freshwater habitats through severe flooding and deposition of soil on the river beds.	eng
12308	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Agwanda, B., 2008	Further research in to the ecological requirements of the species is needed.  Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
12308	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species is known from fragmented localities across eastern Africa in Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m asl.	eng
12308	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This is a nocturnal species found in a wide variety of habitats including forest, semi-desert, dry and moist savanna or woodland. It is often found in rocky areas. It is unclear as to whether the species has a single or two to three young in a litter.	eng
12308	population	Schlitter, D. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
12308	threats	Schlitter, D. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
12309	conservation	Oates, J.F., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II and as Class B under the African Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
12309	distribution	Oates, J.F., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is primarily found in central Africa, from the Cross River, Nigeria, through to the Nile, north of the Congo River and the Lualaba River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its range encompasses south-east Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, south-western Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Uganda, western Kenya, and extreme north-western Tanzania. Although primarily a lowland species, it can be found up to 1,600 m in strictly equatorial zones.	eng
12309	habitat	Oates, J.F., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is found in both primary and secondary forest. It is arboreal, spending most of the time in the upper canopy (Waser 1977; Shah 2003). Diet consists mainly of fruit and seeds; preferred species include false nutmeg (<em>Pycnanthus</em>), breadfruit (<em>Treculia</em>), dwarf dates (<em>Phoenix</em>), <em>Erythrophleum</em> fruit and seeds, and oil palm (<em>Elaeis</em>) (Waser 1977; Olupot <em>et al.</em> 1998; Poulson <em>et al</em>. 2001; Shah 2003). This species has non-territorial home ranges of approximately 2-4 km², and there is extensive overlap between groups (Waser 1977; Olupot <em>et al</em>. 1998; Shah 2003).	eng
12309	population	Oates, J.F., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is widespread and common throughout much of its range. Densities are estimated to be between 18 and 77 animals per sq km, and 10-20 individuals per sq km are usual in the mixed primate communities of Cameroon and Gabon. The highest density (77/km²) was recorded in a Ugandan gallery forest, where only two marginally sympatric species were present.	eng
12309	threats	Oates, J.F., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	Habitat loss through agricultural expansion, and hunting for bushmeat, are the major threats to this species.	eng
12310	conservation	Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and as Class B according to the African Convention. It is present in Salonga National Park, Lukuru Community Reservation and the proposed Lomako conservation area.	eng
12310	distribution	Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is found south of the Congo River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in rainforest in lowland areas of the south-west Congo Basin and into Angola (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>There are two subspecies (following Grubb <em>et al</em>. 2003): <em>L. a. aterrimus</em> is found in the central Congo basin; <em>L. a. opdenboschi</em> is found in north-eastern Angola and south-western Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
12310	habitat	Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is found in primary and secondary moist forests. In Salonga National Park, it has been observed in swamp forests, but does not occupy swamp in Lomako (McGraw 1994). It utilizes all forest levels (especially the middle canopy layers), but seldom descends to the ground (Horn 1987; McGraw 1994). Its diet consists largely of fruits and seeds, with high rates of nectarivory in some months of the year in Salonga; foraging activity is concentrated in the early morning (Horn 1987; McGraw 1994; Gautier-Hion and Maisels 1994).	eng
12310	population	Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	Although widespread, its population size is not really known and further details are needed. Densities of 70 individuals/km² have been recorded in some localities.	eng
12310	threats	Hart, J., Groves, C.P. & Ehardt, C., 2008	Little is known about the status of this species. However, it is subject to intensive, uncontrolled hunting for its meat in most parts of the range, and it is also vulnerable to loss of forest habitat.	eng
12349	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is known from a National Park but the degree to which this helps to conserve the species is not certain.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of other protected areas.	eng
12349	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Marais Mukaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs above 2,000 m asl.	eng
12349	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in montane <em>Cyperus latifolius</em> swamps and relatively dry short grasslands with <em>Hagenia abyssinica</em> and <em>Kotschya africana</em> trees. It has not been recorded in modified habitats.	eng
12349	population	Boitani, L., 2008	Only five specimens have ever been captured. This species may be very rare, however, the region is not well surveyed.	eng
12349	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through logging and directed fires.	eng
12350	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Although the species is found in several protected areas, its conservation is not secured.  Further research into population numbers, range, threats, and conservation measures is needed. This species needs to be monitored. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
12350	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found on both sides (west and east) of Lake Kivu (Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo) between 1,800 and 2,500 m asl. There is also a single record from Bwindi (Uganda).	eng
12350	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits montane rainforests and swamps. It is not believed to occur in modified habitats.	eng
12350	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is thought to be very rare.	eng
12350	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The species is presumably threatened by habitat loss, resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
12351	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is protected by the Bale Mountain National Park. Research into potential conservation measures is needed. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
12351	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is endemic to southern and central Ethiopia, west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Dieterlen, 1987), and in the Bale Mtns, east of the Rift Valley, where it is found at elevations of 3,100 to 4,300 m asl.	eng
12351	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It inhabits high altitude grasslands. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12351	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is abundant where it is found, but it has a very restricted range.	eng
12351	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is susceptible to habitat degradation due to overgrazing of vegetation by domestic livestock and fires.	eng
12352	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The species has been recorded from Bwindi National Park in Uganda. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
12352	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found in the Albertine Rift Valley of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda around Lake Kivu, at elevations of 1,900 to 2,500 m asl. It has also been recorded from Bwindi National Park in Uganda.	eng
12352	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits dense primary montane forest, especially in <em>Albizia gummifera</em> - <em>Carapa grandiflora</em> - <em>Parinari excelsa</em> forest. It has also been recorded in secondary forest and sparse bamboo stands covered with grass. Areas with little streams may be preferred.	eng
12352	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is thought to be extremely rare.	eng
12352	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The major threats to this species are poorly known. It seems probable that habitat destruction by logging and burning is a threat to this species, particularly at lower elevations of its range.	eng
12353	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is within a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of many populations currently allocated to this species.	eng
12353	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species has a broad distribution, ranging from north-east Angola, through the Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania, Kenya and southern Sudan, south to Malawi, northwest and northeast Zambia, and northern Mozambique (Dieterlen 1976). There is an isolated range in Ethiopian highlands north and west of the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found up to 4,500 m asl.	eng
12353	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in wet, montane secondary forests and grassy areas close to forests. This species is terrestrial and omnivorous.	eng
12353	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is common and abundant.	eng
12353	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Isolated populations may be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
12354	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
12354	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is only found in the lowland forests of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Medje, Irangi, Bafwasende, and Tungula [Dieterlen 1987]). The range limits are not known. It has been recorded from 700 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
12354	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary lowland forests, and also in cultivated areas. This species is insectivorous.	eng
12354	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
12354	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is found in many different habitat types, and presumably habitat degradation is unlikely to have a severe effect on this species.	eng
12355	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
12355	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits west central lowland rainforest to the north and west of the Congo river and Ubangi river, westwards to the Sanaga river. It is found in Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island) and Cameroon southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including Bioko Island), Gabon, Congo, southwest Central African Republic, and northern Democratic Republic of Congo (between the Ubangi River in the west and the Aruwimi River in the east; Basoko (01*13'N, 23*35'E), near the confluence of the Aruwimi River with the Congo River, is the easternmost record). The species is not found on the right side of the Congo River, where intensive surveys have been carried out between the mouth of the Aruwimi River and Kisangani to the southeast); elsewhere it occurs only on right side of Congo River. Typically found below 700 m	eng
12355	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits lowland rainforests, preferring the grassy open areas in the forest belt. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12355	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
12355	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
12356	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; in vieew of its wide range it is probably present in some protected areas.	eng
12356	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is largely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It is found from Sierra Leone in West Africa to Tanzania and Kenya in East Africa and southward to northern Angola. The eastern range limits are not well resolved. In Tanzania its distribution is patchy, and it is found around high mountains in the appropriate altitudinal and climatic habitat.  At Mount Nimba (Guinea) it occurs up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
12356	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species inhabits dense, moist grasslands, secondary growth, agricultural fields, abandoned farmlands, swamps and grassy plantations where there is abundant low cover. In primary and secondary forests, it occurs only in patches of grassland and herbaceous cover, most especially in open areas. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal, crepuscular species. This species has both an insectivorous and omnivorous diet.	eng
12356	population	Boitani, L., 2008	It is common and abundant.	eng
12356	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12357	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
12357	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species has a discontinuous distribution in the western Rift Valley and bordering mountains in western Uganda, Burundi (Bururi Forest), Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been recorded from Ruwenzori in the north to the Itombwe massif (Congo). It is confined to forested mountains on both sides of the Rift Valley, at elevations of 1,600 to 3,880 m asl.	eng
12357	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits undergrowth in montane forests, cleared areas in forests, old and new bamboo forests, and it is found amongst rocks in afro-alpine vegetation (Senecio, Lobelia). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12357	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, and is often the most numerous of small rodents surveyed.	eng
12357	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
12361	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of the species.	eng
12361	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Flannery (1995) states that it is found along the Central Cordillera from the Lake Habbema region (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Owen Stanley Range (Papua New Guinea) in the east; it has also been recorded from the Torricelli Mountains. It ranges from 80 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
12361	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is found in tropical forest. Animals have been recorded using arboreal nests in tree ferns, and in moss nests among rocks (Flannery 1995). The female probably gives birth to between two and four young.	eng
12361	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a common species in parts of its range.	eng
12361	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
12375	conservation	Nekaris, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and is protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance Act No. 2, 1937 and subsequent amendments including Act No. 49, 1993 at the species level (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><em>L. t. tardigradus</em> exists in Sinharaja World Heritage site and seven nature/forest preserves, as well as one proposed forest reserve, while at least one population of <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em> resides in Horton Plains National Park. Despite living in these areas, the survival of the species depends on reduction of habitat loss and the concurrent establishment of corridors between forest fragments. The eradication of local reliance on lorises for traditional “medicine” and use as superstitious scapegoats can only be achieved through education (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). Reliable population estimates and a monitoring program are needed for all Sri Lankan loris populations.<br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following necessary research actions for this species: genetic and taxonomic, life history, population surveying, epidemiology, trade, population genetics, limiting factors, behavior and ecology.  Also listed are the following needed management actions: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, public education, limiting factor management, work in local communities, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.	eng
12375	distribution	Nekaris, A., 2008	This species is endemic to central and south-western Sri Lanka, and is typically found in the southern “wet zone” of the island, up to the central “intermediate zone” (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004).<br/><br/><em>L. t. tardigradus</em> <br/>Found in south-western Sri Lanka, from Colombo (although no known population still exists in this city) in the north to Ranna on the south coast. The subspecies has recently been recorded at several locations in Sri Lanka: Maimbulakanda Nature Reserve in Gampaha District, Western Province; Oliyagankele Forest Reserve, Masmullah, Kakanadura, Dandeniya Proposed Forest Reserve, Matara District; Kanneliya, Polgahaivalakande, and Kottawa Forest Reserves and Pitigala forest patches, Galle District, Southern Province; and in Godakawela, Ratnapura District, and Sinharaja World Heritage site.<br/><br/><em>Loris tardigradus nycticeboides </em><br/>Found in central Sri Lanka, where it is known from the Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya District, Central Province. Extent of occurrence is less than 300 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
12375	habitat	Nekaris, A., 2008	<em>Loris tardigradus tardigradus</em> is found in wet lowland forests (Schulze and Meier 1995), tropical rain, swampy coastal and evergreen forests, and wet zone lowland forest up to 470 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Loris t. tardigradus</em> has only been observed to eat animal prey. Although they will eat fruit in a captive setting, they will always choose animal prey first. In addition to insects (including moths, stick insects, dragonflies, beetles, cockroaches, grasshoppers), they relish lizards and geckos. At Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve, lorises were found in high abundance in areas characterised by <em>Humboldtia laurifolia</em>, a tree that has a mutualistic relationship with ants, providing abundant food for lorises. Lorises occurred at densities of 0.08-0.55 animals/ha across 15 separate sites. Loris abundance was positively associated with vines and branches providing continuous passage, branches of small size (<5 cm) and trees providing a number of potential sleeping sites. Vicinity to human populations negatively impacts this species; it is not found in home gardens, and seems to require continuous canopy to move between forest patches.<br/><em>Loris t. nycticeboides</em> may possibly be more carnivorous than the lowland subspecies. As is this case with other primates at high altitudes, it also may occur at lower densities. The forest where it occurs has been classified as cloud forest, montane forest and evergreen forest at altitudes greater than 1,500 m (Schulze and Meier 1995), from 1,650 to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Of actual sightings, the highest was at 2,134 m and the lowest at 1,829 m altitude. Temperatures in its habitat have been recorded from 15.4°C (May/June) to -4°C (Dec/Jan) (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003; Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nekaris and Bearder 2006).	eng
12375	population	Nekaris, A., 2008	All populations are thought to be in decline. Population estimates suggest that there are approximately 1,500 animals of <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> in 3,000 ha of extremely fragmented forests, and about 80 animals in Horton Plains of <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em>. According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) the total population of <em>L. t.</em> nycticeboides is unknown, yet this species has declined by greater than 80% in the last 200 years and is predicted to decline by >20% in the next 10 years. <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> is predicted to decline by greater than 10% in the next 5 years (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). These declines are based on the 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. The country has lost 97% of its forest cover (Mill 1995; Myers <em>et al</em>. 2000), thus dramatically reducing the population.	eng
12375	threats	Nekaris, A., 2008	The threats imposed by humans on Sri Lankan <em>Loris</em> include habitat loss, road kill, and hunting for the pet trade, traditional “medicine,” and superstitious killing. Also, lorises have been electrocuted on un-insulated power lines. <em>Loris t. tardigradus</em> exists in few isolated forest patches that are also under severe encroachment by humans. Recent population studies estimate low numbers in forest patches and it is evident that both subspecies are in decline (Nekaris 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following threats for <em>L. t. nycticeboides</em>: “land and water pollution, habitat loss due to agriculture, dairy husbandry, and vegetable cultivation, as well as local and commercial trade for eyes and meat by tea plantation workers, and possible village level trade for folk medicine”. While for <em>L. t. tardigradus</em> major threats are: “deforestation due to urbanization, and local, domestic, and commercial trade for meat” (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12383	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place, not found in a protected area.	eng
12383	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cameroon: Known only from three specimens from two locations in Edea and Yabassi.	eng
12383	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12383	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12383	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12392	conservation	Blanc, J., 2008	The African Elephant has been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1989, but the populations of the following Range States have since been transferred back to Appendix II with specific annotations: Botswana (1997), Namibia (1997), South Africa (2000) and Zimbabwe (1997). These annotations have been recently replaced by a single annotation for all four countries, with certain specific sub-annotations for the populations of Namibia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>The African Elephant is subject to various degrees of legal protection in all Range States. Although up to 70% of the species range is believed to lie in unprotected land, most large populations occur within protected areas. <br/><br/>Conservation measures usually include habitat management and protection through law enforcement. Successful management at the site level can result in the build-up of high elephant densities. This is often perceived as a threat to their local habitats, as well as to other species and to elephant populations themselves. Management interventions to reduce elephant numbers and local densities have been limited and most recently been undertaken through contraception or translocation. Large-scale culling has not been performed as a population management option since Zimbabwe discontinued the practice in 1988 and South Africa did likewise in 1994.<br/><br/>The sport hunting of elephants is permitted under the legislation of a number of Range States, and the following countries currently (2007) have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies: Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Some community-based conservation programmes in which revenue from the sport hunting of elephants reverts directly to local communities have proved effective in increasing tolerance to elephants, and thus indirectly in reducing levels of human-elephant conflict.<br/><br/>An increasing number of transboundary elephant populations are co-managed through the collaboration of relevant neighbouring Range States. Large-scale conservation interventions are also planned through the development of conservation and management strategies at the national and regional level.	eng
12392	distribution	Blanc, J., 2008	African Elephants currently occur in 37 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (see accompanying map, sourced from Blanc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). They are known to have become nationally extinct in Burundi in the 1970s, in The Gambia in 1913, in Mauritania in the 1980s, and in Swaziland in 1920, where they were reintroduced in the 1980s and 1990s.<br/><br/>Although large tracts of continuous elephant range remain in parts of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, elephant distribution is becoming increasingly fragmented across the continent. <br/><br/>The quality of knowledge available on elephant distribution varies considerably across the species' range. While distribution patterns are well understood in most of Eastern, Southern and West Africa, there is little reliable information on elephant distribution for much of Central Africa.	eng
12392	habitat	Blanc, J., 2008	The African Elephant is very catholic in its range, and tends to move between a variety of habitats. It is found in dense forest, open and closed savanna, grassland and, at considerably lower densities, in the arid deserts of Namibia and Mali. They are also found over wide altitudinal and latitudinal ranges – from mountain slopes to oceanic beaches, and from the northern tropics to the southern temperate zone (approximately between 16.5° North and 34° South). See also the list of habitats.	eng
12392	population	Blanc, J., 2008	Although elephant populations may at present be declining in parts of their range, major populations in Eastern and Southern Africa, accounting for over two thirds of all known elephants on the continent, have been surveyed,and are currently increasing at an average annual rate of 4.0% per annum (Blanc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, 2007). As a result, more than 15,000 elephants are estimated to have been recruited into the population in 2006 and, if current rates of increase continue, the number of elephants born in these populations between 2005 and 2010 will be larger than the currently estimated total number of elephants in Central and West Africa combined. In other words, the magnitude of ongoing increases in Southern and Eastern Africa are likely to outweigh the magnitude of any likely declines in the other two regions.	eng
12392	threats	Blanc, J., 2008	Poaching for ivory and meat has traditionally been the major cause of the species' decline. Although illegal hunting remains a significant factor in some areas, particularly in Central Africa, currently the most important perceived threat is the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by ongoing human population expansion and rapid land conversion. A specific manifestation of this trend is the reported increase in human-elephant conflict, which further aggravates the threat to elephant populations.	eng
12398	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	One location in limestone sink with water of salinity 4.6 ppt at one meter below surface.	eng
12399	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
12400	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
12401	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
12419	conservation	Jim Conroy, Andreas Kranz, Paulo Cavallini, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Tikhonov, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	It is strictly protected under international legislation and conventions: CITES Appendix I (Reservation by Russian Federation), Bern Convention Appendix II, EU Habitats and Species Directive Annexes II and IV, and EC 338/97 Annex A. Additionally it is protected under national law in many range states. A European Breeding Programme (EEP) for self-sustaining captive populations was started in 1985. Monitoring programmes have been established in many range states in Europe. Road barriers and tunnels under roads are required to reduce the impact of road kills (especially in countries like Germany where road kills are the main threat). Much more monitoring is required, but also better survey techniques are required. For example, the population on the Shetlands is well-surveyed, and survey results show no indications of decline, but evidence from other sources (breeding holts, changes in diet, etc.) indicate that declines are in fact happening (J. Conroy pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12419	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Eurasian otter is strictly protected under international legislation and conventions. It is listed in Appendix I of the CITES, Appendix II of the Bern Convention, Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directives and Appendix I of the Bonn Convention  (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) which recommends highest degree of protection to it. It is also listed as endangered species in many of its range countries in Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand. The species is listed as Critically Endangered in Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>A European Breeding Programme (EEP) for self-sustaining captive populations was started in 1985. Monitoring programmes have been established in many range states in Europe. Several reintroduction programme has been initiated in Europe such as in UK, Sweden and Netherlands which was successful in bringing back the otters into its former habitats.	eng
12419	conservation	Ruiz-Olmo, J., Loy, A., Cianfrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., de Silva, P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. & Zemanova, B., 2008	The Eurasian otter is strictly protected under international legislation and conventions. It is listed in Appendix I of the CITES, Appendix II of the Bern Convention, Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directives and Appendix I of the Bonn Convention  (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) which recommends highest degree of protection to it. It is also listed as endangered species in many of its range countries in Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand. The species is listed as Critically Endangered in Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>A European Breeding Programme (EEP) for self-sustaining captive populations was started in 1985. Monitoring programmes have been established in many range states in Europe. Several reintroduction programme has been initiated in Europe such as in UK, Sweden and Netherlands which was successful in bringing back the otters into its former habitats.	eng
12419	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Eurasian otter has one of the widest distributions of all Palaearctic mammals (Corbet, 1966). Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Its current distribution in Europe is marked by a large corridor, reaching from Central Denmark, via the Western parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Eastern parts of France, Switzerland, the Western pmts of Austria to Central Italy, where the otter is extinct or reduced to small and sometimes isolated populations. Information for Russia, which forms a link between Europe and Asia, is fragmented. It seems that the otter is distributed throughout the country with the exception of the tundra and the northern regions with permanent frost. The southern border of the Eurasian otter's range in the Near and Middle East is formed by Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Iran. It is also reported from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in Africa in the north of Sahara. In south Asia the species has been reported from all most all the countries especially from Himalayan River systems of Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar and eastward throughout South East Asia up to Japan where it believed to be extinct. <br/><br/>There are several open questions for the Southeast Asian region. It seems that the Eurasian otter reached the island of Sumatra but, did not reach the island of Java. Conroy <em>et al.</em> (1998) are not sure if the evidence of otters on the island of Borneo really relates to the Eurasian otter. Its occurrence has been confirmed from South Korea, Southern China, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Bangladesh (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988, Hussain 1999). In India it occurs in Northern, North East and from Southern India. Formerly widely distributed in Japan, it is now believed to be extinct (Ando <em>et al</em>. 2007). Once widespread in the rivers of northern Mongolia (Mallon 1985), along the rivers of Mongol Altai Mountain Range, and along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Bannikov 1954; Dulamtseren 1970; Sokolov and Orlov 1980). It has also been reported from downstream of the Tengis River in northern parts of Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Tsagaan 1975; 1977) and around the Eröö River Basin in western Hentii Mountain Range (Tsendjav 2005). The Eurasian otter can also be found occasionally along the Tes River in northern Hangai.	eng
12419	distribution	Ruiz-Olmo, J., Loy, A., Cianfrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., de Silva, P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. & Zemanova, B., 2008	The Eurasian otter has one of the widest distributions of all Palaearctic mammals (Corbet, 1966). Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Its current distribution in Europe is marked by a large corridor, reaching from Central Denmark, via the Western parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Eastern parts of France, Switzerland, the Western pmts of Austria to Central Italy, where the otter is extinct or reduced to small and sometimes isolated populations. Information for Russia, which forms a link between Europe and Asia, is fragmented. It seems that the otter is distributed throughout the country with the exception of the tundra and the northern regions with permanent frost. The southern border of the Eurasian otter's range in the Near and Middle East is formed by Israel, Jordan, Iraq and Iran. It is also reported from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in Africa in the north of Sahara. In south Asia the species has been reported from all most all the countries especially from Himalayan River systems of Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar and eastward throughout South East Asia up to Japan where it believed to be extinct. <br/><br/>There are several open questions for the Southeast Asian region. It seems that the Eurasian otter reached the island of Sumatra but, did not reach the island of Java. Conroy <em>et al.</em> (1998) are not sure if the evidence of otters on the island of Borneo really relates to the Eurasian otter. Its occurrence has been confirmed from South Korea, Southern China, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Bangladesh (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988, Hussain 1999). In India it occurs in Northern, North East and from Southern India. Formerly widely distributed in Japan, it is now believed to be extinct (Ando <em>et al</em>. 2007). Once widespread in the rivers of northern Mongolia (Mallon 1985), along the rivers of Mongol Altai Mountain Range, and along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Bannikov 1954; Dulamtseren 1970; Sokolov and Orlov 1980). It has also been reported from downstream of the Tengis River in northern parts of Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Tsagaan 1975; 1977) and around the Eröö River Basin in western Hentii Mountain Range (Tsendjav 2005). The Eurasian otter can also be found occasionally along the Tes River in northern Hangai.	eng
12419	distribution	Jim Conroy, Andreas Kranz, Paulo Cavallini, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Tikhonov, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	The Eurasian otter has the widest distribution of all otter species. Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Originally the species was widespread throughout Europe, but it declined dramatically in the 1960s and 1970s, and has disappeared from parts of central and northern Europe (it is probably extinct in Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, and Switzerland: Prigioni 1999). It is not found on most of the Mediterranean islands due to the lack of appropriate habitat, although it is found on Corfu (Greece). Little is known about the original distribution in Africa and Asia. Otters have been found in brackish waters below sea level in the Netherlands, and up to 2,400 m in the Pyrenees. Outside Europe they have been recorded up to 4,120 m in Tibet (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004).	eng
12419	habitat	Jim Conroy, Andreas Kranz, Paulo Cavallini, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Tikhonov, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	It is known from a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas. It is very adaptable, using saltwater as well as freshwater habitats, and even sewerage systems in urban areas. In most parts of its range otter distribution is correlated with presence of riverbank vegetation. Otters in different regions may depend upon different features of the habitat, but the important component of otter habitat, for breeding purposes, is the presence of holes in the river bank, including cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otter avoids deep water. Their distribution in coastal areas is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater. The location of breeding holts is not confined to river banks; there is evidence to indicate that sometimes the species breeds well away from water and the pups are moved to holts on the river banks once they are a few months old (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004).	eng
12419	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Eurasian otter live in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas independent of their size, origin or latitude (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In Europe they are found in the brackish waters from the sea level up to 1,000 m in the Alps (Ruiz-Olmo and Gosalbez 1997) and above 3,500 m in the Himalayas (Prater 1971) or 4,120 m in Tibet (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In the Indian sub-continent, the Eurasian otters occur in cold hill and mountain streams. During summer (April - June) in the Himalayas they may ascend up to 3,660 m. These upward movements probably coincide with the upward migration of the carp and other fish for spawning. With the advent of winter the otters come down to lower altitudes (Prater 1971). In a study conducted in Thailand in Huai Kha Khaeng where the Eurasian, smooth-coated and small-clawed otters live sympatrically, Kruuk <em>et al</em>. (1994) found that the Eurasian otters used rapidly flowing upper parts of the river. In Sri Lanka the Eurasian otter was live in the headwaters of all the five river systems but not in the estuaries (de Silva 1996).<br/><br/>In most parts of its range, its occurrence is correlated with bank side vegetation showing importance of vegetation to otters (Mason and Macdonald 1986). Otters in different regions may depend upon differing features of the habitat, but to breed, they need holes in the river bank, cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otters are closely connected to a linear living space. Most portion of their activity is concentrated to a narrow strip on either side of the interface between water and land (Kruuk 1995). Otter distribution in coastal areas especially the location of holts, is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989, Beja 1992). <br/><br/>Within the group home range, shared by resident adult females, each had her own core area. Resident males had larger home ranges in more exposed parts of the coast which overlapped with other males and with at least two female group ranges. Male and female transients moved through group ranges, relegated to less favoured holts, habitat and food. In freshwater home ranges are longer for both sexes (Kruuk 1995). Erlinge (1969) suggested that males were hierarchical and territorial, influenced by sexual factors, while female ranges were influenced by food and shelter requirements of the family group. Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) and Kruuk (1995) found that adult males spent most of their time along the main rivers, whereas adult females occupied tributaries or lakes, as they did in Austria (Kranz 1995). Rosoux (1995) found no sexual differences in habitat utilization and considerable overlaps in range. Young animals usually occupied peripheral habitat, but Green and Green (1983) found differences between immature and mature young males, the later having access to all available habitat and the other restricted to marginal habitat, supplemented by visits to the main river when vacant, temporally or spatially. While males generally have larger ranges than females in the same habitat, sizes vary according to the type and productivity of the habitat, and methods of measuring ranges vary from study to study. <br/><br/>Like most <em>Lutra</em> species, fish is the major prey of Eurasian otters sometimes exceeding more than 80% of their diet (Erlinge 1969, Webb 1975, Ruiz-Olmo and Palazon 1997). In addition to fish a whole range of other prey items have been recorded in their diet in variable proportions. These include aquatic insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and crustaceans (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 1980, Adrian and Delibes 1987, Skaren 1993). In a study conducted in Sri Lanka, Silva (1996) reported that the overall diet of the Eurasian otters consisted of 81.2% of crab, 37.5% fish and 8.7% frog. In addition to these the diet also included small quantities of water snakes, birds, small mammals and insects. <br/><br/>The percentage of crab in the diet of the Eurasian otters in Sri Lanka varied from 72% to 85%, and fish from 25-31%. There was significant seasonal variation in the diet in different habitats. The relative importance of fish in the diet was significantly higher in the reservoirs and lakes than the rivers and streams. Crabs were more important to otters inhabiting streams than those inhabiting rivers and lakes. Crabs were eaten more than fish during the monsoon (de Silva, 1997).  However, in Huai Kha Kheng, Thailand 76% of the spraint had fish, 64% amphibians and 7% crab (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994). The Eurasian otter is capable of taking fish as large as 9 kg (Chanin 1985), however, many studies in Europe have revealed that the fish consumed by the Eurasian otters are relatively small with a median length of 13 cm (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter is largely solitary and the adult otters tend not to associate with other adults except for reproduction. The family group of mother and offspring is the most important unit of otter society. In Shetland, where several adult animals used the same stretch of coast, encounters between adults were rare (Kruuk 1995) and the species was strikingly non-social. Kranz (1995) found evidence of social group formation beyond the occasional associations of two or more family groups, which suggests that under some circumstances otters of all ages and sexes may form temporary mutually tolerant gatherings.<br/><br/>In most of its range the Eurasian otter is predominantly nocturnal (Green <em>et al</em>. 1984). The exception is Shetland, where otters were entirely diurnal (Kruuk 1995). Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) found that activity was largely circumscribed by the solar rhythm so that the duration of activity varied through the year with night length. The reverse situation was found in Shetland with activity restricted by the day length (Kruuk 1995). Some workers have found a break in activity in the middle of longer nights or days and single peak around midnight or midday in shorter nights or days, although up to four activity periods per night has been recorded. Kruuk (1995) links otter activity to that of prey species, with the favoured marine species more vulnerable in daylight and those in freshwater easier to catch at night. In coastal habitats, tidal patterns influence otter activity, with significant preference shown for feeding at low tide, both in Shetland and on the Scottish west coast (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter attains sexual maturity at around 18 months in males and 24 months in the case of females, but in captivity it is usually 3 to 4 years (Reuther 1991). They are non-seasonally polyoestrous (Trowbridge 1983), mating in captivity has been observed at all times of the year (Reuther 1999). The gestation period is approximately 63-65 days, the litter size varies from 1 to 5, and the life expectancy is around 17 years (Acharjyo and Mishra 1983).	eng
12419	habitat	Ruiz-Olmo, J., Loy, A., Cianfrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., de Silva, P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. & Zemanova, B., 2008	The Eurasian otter live in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas independent of their size, origin or latitude (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In Europe they are found in the brackish waters from the sea level up to 1,000 m in the Alps (Ruiz-Olmo and Gosalbez 1997) and above 3,500 m in the Himalayas (Prater 1971) or 4,120 m in Tibet (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In the Indian sub-continent, the Eurasian otters occur in cold hill and mountain streams. During summer (April - June) in the Himalayas they may ascend up to 3,660 m. These upward movements probably coincide with the upward migration of the carp and other fish for spawning. With the advent of winter the otters come down to lower altitudes (Prater 1971). In a study conducted in Thailand in Huai Kha Khaeng where the Eurasian, smooth-coated and small-clawed otters live sympatrically, Kruuk <em>et al</em>. (1994) found that the Eurasian otters used rapidly flowing upper parts of the river. In Sri Lanka the Eurasian otter was live in the headwaters of all the five river systems but not in the estuaries (de Silva 1996).<br/><br/>In most parts of its range, its occurrence is correlated with bank side vegetation showing importance of vegetation to otters (Mason and Macdonald 1986). Otters in different regions may depend upon differing features of the habitat, but to breed, they need holes in the river bank, cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otters are closely connected to a linear living space. Most portion of their activity is concentrated to a narrow strip on either side of the interface between water and land (Kruuk 1995). Otter distribution in coastal areas especially the location of holts, is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989, Beja 1992). <br/><br/>Within the group home range, shared by resident adult females, each had her own core area. Resident males had larger home ranges in more exposed parts of the coast which overlapped with other males and with at least two female group ranges. Male and female transients moved through group ranges, relegated to less favoured holts, habitat and food. In freshwater home ranges are longer for both sexes (Kruuk 1995). Erlinge (1969) suggested that males were hierarchical and territorial, influenced by sexual factors, while female ranges were influenced by food and shelter requirements of the family group. Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) and Kruuk (1995) found that adult males spent most of their time along the main rivers, whereas adult females occupied tributaries or lakes, as they did in Austria (Kranz 1995). Rosoux (1995) found no sexual differences in habitat utilization and considerable overlaps in range. Young animals usually occupied peripheral habitat, but Green and Green (1983) found differences between immature and mature young males, the later having access to all available habitat and the other restricted to marginal habitat, supplemented by visits to the main river when vacant, temporally or spatially. While males generally have larger ranges than females in the same habitat, sizes vary according to the type and productivity of the habitat, and methods of measuring ranges vary from study to study. <br/><br/>Like most <em>Lutra</em> species, fish is the major prey of Eurasian otters sometimes exceeding more than 80% of their diet (Erlinge 1969, Webb 1975, Ruiz-Olmo and Palazon 1997). In addition to fish a whole range of other prey items have been recorded in their diet in variable proportions. These include aquatic insects, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and crustaceans (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 1980, Adrian and Delibes 1987, Skaren 1993). In a study conducted in Sri Lanka, Silva (1996) reported that the overall diet of the Eurasian otters consisted of 81.2% of crab, 37.5% fish and 8.7% frog. In addition to these the diet also included small quantities of water snakes, birds, small mammals and insects. <br/><br/>The percentage of crab in the diet of the Eurasian otters in Sri Lanka varied from 72% to 85%, and fish from 25-31%. There was significant seasonal variation in the diet in different habitats. The relative importance of fish in the diet was significantly higher in the reservoirs and lakes than the rivers and streams. Crabs were more important to otters inhabiting streams than those inhabiting rivers and lakes. Crabs were eaten more than fish during the monsoon (de Silva, 1997).  However, in Huai Kha Kheng, Thailand 76% of the spraint had fish, 64% amphibians and 7% crab (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994). The Eurasian otter is capable of taking fish as large as 9 kg (Chanin 1985), however, many studies in Europe have revealed that the fish consumed by the Eurasian otters are relatively small with a median length of 13 cm (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter is largely solitary and the adult otters tend not to associate with other adults except for reproduction. The family group of mother and offspring is the most important unit of otter society. In Shetland, where several adult animals used the same stretch of coast, encounters between adults were rare (Kruuk 1995) and the species was strikingly non-social. Kranz (1995) found evidence of social group formation beyond the occasional associations of two or more family groups, which suggests that under some circumstances otters of all ages and sexes may form temporary mutually tolerant gatherings.<br/><br/>In most of its range the Eurasian otter is predominantly nocturnal (Green <em>et al</em>. 1984). The exception is Shetland, where otters were entirely diurnal (Kruuk 1995). Green <em>et al</em>. (1984) found that activity was largely circumscribed by the solar rhythm so that the duration of activity varied through the year with night length. The reverse situation was found in Shetland with activity restricted by the day length (Kruuk 1995). Some workers have found a break in activity in the middle of longer nights or days and single peak around midnight or midday in shorter nights or days, although up to four activity periods per night has been recorded. Kruuk (1995) links otter activity to that of prey species, with the favoured marine species more vulnerable in daylight and those in freshwater easier to catch at night. In coastal habitats, tidal patterns influence otter activity, with significant preference shown for feeding at low tide, both in Shetland and on the Scottish west coast (Kruuk 1995).<br/><br/>The Eurasian otter attains sexual maturity at around 18 months in males and 24 months in the case of females, but in captivity it is usually 3 to 4 years (Reuther 1991). They are non-seasonally polyoestrous (Trowbridge 1983), mating in captivity has been observed at all times of the year (Reuther 1999). The gestation period is approximately 63-65 days, the litter size varies from 1 to 5, and the life expectancy is around 17 years (Acharjyo and Mishra 1983).	eng
12419	population	Jim Conroy, Andreas Kranz, Paulo Cavallini, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Tikhonov, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	Expanding throughout most of its European range following historic declines up until the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s; although in the European part of Russia there have been recent marked declines, and isolated populations in countries like Turkey, Italy, Georgia, Armenia are still declining. The UK population started to recover in the 1960s (Battersby 2005). The population in Portugal is stable and did not show much decrease historically (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Norway, although the range is increasing on the south-western coast, the population appears to have declined again since the mid 1990s (T. Heggberget pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12419	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In spite of several studies, the status of its population is not known from many parts of its range, particularly from Africa and Asia. The overall estimate of the population in United Kingdom was 10395 individuals in 2004 (JNCC 2007). The status of its distribution has been reviewed by Conroy and Chanin (1998) which gives a complete picture of its occurrence, though information on its abundance is lacking in this review. As far as its abundance is concerned limited information is available so as to get a clear picture of its status. In Shetland, otters averaged 1/km of shore, but each otter used several, overlapping km of shore. An estimated nine adult female produced a mean of total 5.6 litters/year. The estimated juvenile female per 100 female attaining the first reproduction was 33.7 individuals in Shetland (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989). In central Finland between 1985 and 2003 the temporal and spatial variation in the density of otter population was 52 otters, including 16 cubs in 11 litters in an area of 1,650 km² in 2002?2003. Harris <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated the density of otters in England as one adult per 27 linear km of river (1/24 km in the ?high density? area of Scotland. However, such information is lacking from other range countries. There is absolutely no information about its population status from Asia where it is believed to be under tremendous pressure because of poaching.	eng
12419	population	Ruiz-Olmo, J., Loy, A., Cianfrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., de Silva, P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. & Zemanova, B., 2008	In spite of several studies, the status of its population is not known from many parts of its range, particularly from Africa and Asia. The overall estimate of the population in United Kingdom was 10395 individuals in 2004 (JNCC 2007). The status of its distribution has been reviewed by Conroy and Chanin (1998) which gives a complete picture of its occurrence, though information on its abundance is lacking in this review. As far as its abundance is concerned limited information is available so as to get a clear picture of its status. In Shetland, otters averaged 1/km of shore, but each otter used several, overlapping km of shore. An estimated nine adult female produced a mean of total 5.6 litters/year. The estimated juvenile female per 100 female attaining the first reproduction was 33.7 individuals in Shetland (Kruuk <em>et al.</em> 1989). In central Finland between 1985 and 2003 the temporal and spatial variation in the density of otter population was 52 otters, including 16 cubs in 11 litters in an area of 1,650 km² in 2002–2003. Harris <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated the density of otters in England as one adult per 27 linear km of river (1/24 km in the ‘high density’ area of Scotland. However, such information is lacking from other range countries. There is absolutely no information about its population status from Asia where it is believed to be under tremendous pressure because of poaching.	eng
12419	threats	Jim Conroy, Andreas Kranz, Paulo Cavallini, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Tikhonov, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, abstraction of water for irrigation, draining of wetlands, agricultural activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations. Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. In addition, major causes of mortality from several countries are drowning, road kills, and poaching. Fyke nets set for eels and other fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans are very attractive to otters, and many that try to enter these traps are entangled and drowned. A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004). Illegal killing for the trade of pelts is on the increase in Ukraine and Danube Delta, and probably in the eastern parts of its global range (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006).	eng
12419	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, draining of wetlands, aquaculture activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004). In South and South East Asia, the decrease in prey species from wetlands and water ways had reduced the population to an unsustainable threshold leading to local extinctions. The poaching is one of the main cause of its decline from South and South East Asia, and possibly also from the North Asia.<br/><br/>Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. <br/><br/>In addition, major causes of mortality from range countries are drowning and road kills. Fyke nets set for eels or for fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans have a great attraction to otters and a high risk to those that successfully try to enter these traps. <br/><br/>A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor, 2004).<br/><br/>There is an ongoing discussion about the problem of reintroduction of otters. In recent years it is feared that it may contaminate the genetic structure of the native population (Mason 1992, Reuther 1998).	eng
12419	threats	Ruiz-Olmo, J., Loy, A., Cianfrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., de Silva, P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. & Zemanova, B., 2008	The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, draining of wetlands, aquaculture activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor 2004). In South and South East Asia, the decrease in prey species from wetlands and water ways had reduced the population to an unsustainable threshold leading to local extinctions. The poaching is one of the main cause of its decline from South and South East Asia, and possibly also from the North Asia.<br/><br/>Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. <br/><br/>In addition, major causes of mortality from range countries are drowning and road kills. Fyke nets set for eels or for fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans have a great attraction to otters and a high risk to those that successfully try to enter these traps. <br/><br/>A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters (Reuther and Hilton-Taylor, 2004).<br/><br/>There is an ongoing discussion about the problem of reintroduction of otters. In recent years it is feared that it may contaminate the genetic structure of the native population (Mason 1992, Reuther 1998).	eng
12420	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Spotted-necked Otter is present in a number of protected areas across its range.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrictis&#160;maculicollis</span>).	eng
12420	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Spotted-necked Otter ranges from Guinea Bissau, the most westerly recorded range limit (Reuther <em>et al.</em> 2003), eastwards to south-west Ethiopia, and then southwards, in the west, to the northern border of Namibia, north-west Botswana and north-west Zimbabwe, and in the east, through west Kenya and Tanzania, Malawi, part of Mozambique, to eastern South Africa (Rowe-Rowe and Somers 1998; d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). They are absent from Swaziland, and apparently locally extinct in Burundi, Ghana, Togo, and Lesotho (although they may never have occurred in this country) (d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). The distribution of the species in West Africa, and possible presence on Bioko Island, is discussed by d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe (in press).	eng
12420	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Spotted-necked Otter inhabits freshwater habitats where water is unsilted, unpolluted, and rich in small fishes (d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). While common in the great lakes of central and East Africa, they are also found in streams, rivers and impoundments up to altitudes of 2,500 m (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Adequate riparian vegetation in the form of long grass, reeds, or bushes is essential to provide cover during periods of inactivity. Unlike African Clawless Otter, they do not occur in marine or estuarine waters.	eng
12420	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Abundance and density appear to be dependent on the availability of fish; consequently, this species is common or fairly common in the fish-rich central African lakes, but generally uncommon or rare in the rest of Africa where fish faunas tend to be poor (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1995; d'Inzillo Carranza and Rowe-Rowe in press). In an area that included a highland stream and man-made lakes in South Africa, Perrin <em>et al.</em> (2000) estimated 1 otter/1-2 km of stream, while in less suitable habitat Rowe-Rowe (1992) estimated 1 otter/6-11 km.	eng
12420	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Spotted-necked Otter is decreasing throughout its range, mainly as a result of the alteration or degradation of freshwater habitats and riparian vegetation, exacerbated by the loss of habitat as a consequence of increased agricultural activity (Rowe-Rowe 1990, 1992, 1995). Bioaccumulation of organochlorines and other biocontaminants has been recorded in Spotted-necked Otters (Mason and Rowe-Rowe 1992).<br/><br/>Otters are also killed for food or skins, as a perceived threat to poultry, or as a competitor for fish (Rowe-Rowe 1990). Occasionally, they are accidentally caught and drowned in gill nets and fish traps (Stuart 1985; Rowe-Rowe 1990). Introduction of alien fish species that out-compete the smaller indigenous fish was identified as a main threat for the Lake Victoria population (Kruuk and Goudswaard 1990).	eng
12421	conservation	Hussain, S.A., Kanchanasakha, B., de Silva, P.K. & Olson, A., 2008	<em>Lutra sumatrana</em> is listed in Appendix II of the CITES. It is legally protected in all the range countries. In Thailand all the otter species have been protected since 1961 under Wild Animals Preservation and Protection Act and are listed as endangered species in Thailand Red Data Book (Nabhitabhata and Chan-ard, 2005). In Viet Nam, otters are protected and their hunting and use is strictly banned. In Cambodia, the hairy-nosed otter is listed as ?Rare? and is fully protected. In Sarawak all otter species are protected by the First Schedule [Section 2(1)] PART II on Protected Animals from the Wild Life Protection Ordinance, 1998.	eng
12421	distribution	Hussain, S.A., Kanchanasakha, B., de Silva, P.K. & Olson, A., 2008	The hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana, Gray 1865) is the rarest and least known among the five species of otters occurring in Asia. It is endemic to South Asia. The type specimen came from Sumatra. Once believed to be extinct, the hairy nosed otter has been rediscovered from many parts of Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. Historically, it occurred from southern Indochina to Malaysia (Sebastain 1994, 1995) and Thailand (Lekagul and Mcneely 1988, Kanchanasaka 2000). In Thailand it has been reported from Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998). From Viet Nam it has also been reported from U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta (Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2001, Nguyen 2005, Nguyen <em>et al</em>. 2007) and from Cambodia it has been reported from Tonle Sap wetlands (Long 2000, Poole 2003, Olsson 2007). It has been reported from Malaysia at Terengganu in 2003 and from Maur in 1995. It has been recently reported in Sumatra, Indonesia (Lubis 2005). Historical records of its occurrence comes from the coast off of Penang Island (Harrison 1984), and from accidental road kill in Brunei in 1997 (Sasaki 2006). Historically it has also been reported from Myanmar as evident from the skin present in the British museum. From this, the possible range of hairy-nosed otter can be worked out which is eastward from Northeast India (Indo-china), Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia.	eng
12421	habitat	Hussain, S.A., Kanchanasakha, B., de Silva, P.K. & Olson, A., 2008	In Thailand it lives in Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forests (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Viet Nam it has also been reported from the low lying peat swamp forests of U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Mekong Delta (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sage <em>et al</em>. 2004) and from Cambodia it has been reported from Tonle Sap wetlands (Poole 2003, Heng 2007). It inhabits freshwater and coastal areas, especially mangroves in Indonesia. Wayre (1974, 1978) considered that the Hairy-nosed otter mainly inhabited mountain streams above 300 m, Medway (1969) recorded it in the sea off Penang. <br/><br/>The hairy nosed otter principally predate on fish (85.5%) followed by water snake and they also supplement their diet with frog, lizard, turtle, crab, mammal and insect, although these may not be that important in its diet (Kanchanasaka 2007). Fish belonging to the families Channidae, Belontiidae, Anabantidae, Notopteridae, Synbranchidae, Clariidae, Nandidae, were identified in the fecal samples from Thailand. The main prey selected were three-spot gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus), common climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), and snakeheads (Channa sp) (Kanchanasaka 2007).<br/><br/>Not much is known about its breeding behaviour but there is indication that it breeds in November-December in the Mekong delta. Kanchanasaka <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that gestation was around 2 months as with other otters, and cubs were seen in December to February, and one family observed consisted of both parents and a cub.	eng
12421	population	Hussain, S.A., Kanchanasakha, B., de Silva, P.K. & Olson, A., 2008	In its distribution range the species is considered as rare. It has been studied in Phru Toa Daeng Peat Swamp Forest in Thailand (Kanchanasaka <em>et al.</em> 1998), U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve in Viet Nam (Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sage <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in Tonle Sap from Cambodia (Poole 2003, Heng 2007). However, their abundance or group sizes are relatively not known. In U Minha National Park though it was estimated that there were around 50-230 individuals. The species is believed to be extremely rare in Peninsular Malaysia (Sebastian 1995) and reported from scattered localities in the Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
12421	threats	Hussain, S.A., Kanchanasakha, B., de Silva, P.K. & Olson, A., 2008	The hairy-nosed otter has limited distribution range. In Thailand, the otters are found in the Toa Daeng peat swamp forests, and also from near the mouth of the Bang Nara River which is low lying and tidal. In Viet Nam, the species have been reported from low lying peat swamp forests dominated by Melaleuca cajuputi in lower Mekong. In Cambodia, the species mainly live around the Tonle Sap Lake where the otters live mainly in the flooded forest and scrub surrounding the lake. Like many predators the hairy-nosed otter occurs in low density and the number and frequency of sightings are very few. <br/><br/>In recent years, the tropical peat swamp forests are under severe threat due to fire and other anthropogenic activities such as plantation for oil palm, food crops such as rice, corn and soyabean, and fish farming. In Viet Nam the entire Mekong Delta has been converted into rice fields reducing the habitat of otter and other wildlife species into few pocks. In Malaysia, fire reduced 70% of the Binsulok Forest Reserve and 10% of the Klias Forest Reserve. This has affected the surrounding environment and the biodiversity. In Indonesia over the last 20 years, the ecosystem has been reduced from almost 30 million hectares to only about 15 million hectares, and most of what remains has already been logged selectively. Such levels of habitat modification have profound effect on the native biodiversity.<br/><br/>In its entire range the hairy-nosed otter is under increasing pressure due to intensive poaching (Yoxn 2007). In Cambodia, around the Tonle Sap Lake, poaching of otters and other wildlife are common practice (Somanak 2007). In Viet Nam otters are hunted for illegal wildlife trade, and also for meat and medical use. Similar is the case in other range countries.<br/><br/>The principal threat to the fauna of Southeast Asian region is the burgeoning human population, and resultant biomass demand which puts pressure on natural resources. Unavailability of adequate prey species and suitable undisturbed habitat are putting additional pressure on all wildlife species including hairy-nosed otter.	eng
12427	conservation	Hussain, S.A., de Silva, P.K. & Mostafa Feeroz, M., 2008	Since 1977, the smooth-coated otter is listed on Appendix II CITES. However, most range countries are not able to control the clandestine trade leading to extensive poaching. Nevertheless, it is a protected species in almost all the range countries which prohibits its killing.<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter, once common in the wetlands and low lying areas of South Asia, is now restricted to a few protected areas. Creation of networks of Protected Areas, identification of sites as wetland of national and International importance under Ramsar Convention has to some extent halts the degradation of its habitat. <br/><br/>Over the years the IUCN SSC Otter Specialist Group has developed a cadre of biologist across Asia to conduct field surveys and has popularize otter conservation by promoting otter as ambassador of the wetlands. However, concerted effort to conserve this species is needed. For the long term survival of the species, policy based action, research on factors affecting its survival, habitat based action on creation and where required expansion of protected areas and communication and awareness building actions are needed.	eng
12427	distribution	Hussain, S.A., de Silva, P.K. & Mostafa Feeroz, M., 2008	The smooth-coated otter is distributed throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia. Its distribution is continuous from Indonesia, through Southeast Asia, and westwards from southern China to India and Pakistan, with an isolated population in Iraq (Pocock 1941, Medway 1969, Hussain 1993). Though its current status in the Middle East is not known, its presence has been confirmed from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Southwest China, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Mason and Macdonald 1986, Corbet and Hill 1992, Wozencraft 1993).	eng
12427	habitat	Hussain, S.A., de Silva, P.K. & Mostafa Feeroz, M., 2008	The smooth-coated otter is essentially a plain?s otter. In the Indian subcontinent they are adapted to live even in the semiarid region of north-western India and Deccan plateau (Prater 1971). Generally, it uses large rivers and lakes, peat swamp forests, mangroves and estuaries, and it even uses the rice fields for foraging (Foster-Turly 1992). In south-east Asia rice fields appear to be one of the most suitable habitats in supporting its viable populations (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, they were more abundant in the mangroves of Kuala Gula, Malaysia as compared to the rain forest rivers (Shariff 1984). <br/><br/>Along the large rivers in India, the smooth-coated otters prefer rocky stretches since these stretches provide sites for den and resting. River stretches with bank side vegetation and marshes are used in proportion to their availability especially in summer as they provide ample cover while travelling or foraging. Open clayey and sandy banks are largely avoided as they lack escape covers (Hussain 1993, Hussain and Choudhury 1995, 1997). In the Tarai areas of the upper Gangetic plains the smooth-coated otters use seasonally flooded swamps during monsoon (July-September) and in early winter (October-February). Winter being the breeding season, the swamps are extensively used as natal den sites and nursery. By February-March the swamps begin to dry and the fish biomass appears to be depleted, consequently the otters move to the perennial rivers (Hussain 1997). In west Java, the smooth-coated otters prefer mangroves and tidal stretches of the rivers and rice fields. Freshwater swamps and coastal stretches lacking vegetation are avoided (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In rice fields and pond areas they prefer sites having moderate diversity of vegetation. Rivers with moderate to slow or stagnant water and water bodies having a width of 10-40 m are preferred. In Huai Kha Khaeng, Thailand, the smooth-coated otters extensively use the slowly meandering river near the dam and the dam itself (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter is predominantly a fish eater, but supplements its diet with shrimp/crayfish, crab and insects, and other vertebrates such as frog, mudskippers, birds and rats (Prater 1971, Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain and Choudhury 1998).  In general, its diet is similar to that of Eurasian otter. The range of fish in the diet varies from 75% to 100% (Tiler <em>et al</em>. 1989, Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993, Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hussain and Choudhury 1998).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otters exhibit the typical opportunistic feeding behaviour similar to the Eurasian otter. Along the major rivers in India they eat more fish, often making up to 94% of the total diet (Hussain and Choudhury 1998), while along the coast in mangrove habitats and in rice fields it ranges between 75-100% (Foster-Turly 1992, Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In west Java otters inhabiting mangrove areas eat more of crustaceans, around 22% of the scats contain remains of crab and shrimp where as in the paddy fields in Malaysia, along with fish they tend to eat more rice field rats Rattus argentiventer,  represented in 23% of the spraints (Foster-Turly 1992). <br/><br/>Hussain (1993) identified 12 fish species from the spraint of smooth-coated otter from Chambal river, of which seven species were eaten throughout the year. Rhinomugil corsula (Mugilidae) and Rita rita (Bagaridae) were the preferred species. At least eight species of fish were identified from the spraints from Malaysia (Foster-Turly 1992).  Some of these include Gourami (Trichogater spp.), climbing perch (Anabis testudineus), catfish (Clarius spp.), snakehead (Channa spp.) and mudskipper (Gobioidei). Along the rice field they ate large amount of most common fish (Trichogater and Anabis spp.). The size of the fish consumed varied from 5-46 cm, often ranging between 15-30 cm (Wayre 1978). No significant relationship was found between the calorific values of the fish and the quantities consumed. Thus, the prey selection by smooth otter is mainly influenced by its availability (Hussain 1993).<br/><br/>The smooth-coated otter attains sexual maturity at twenty-two months in captivity (Desai 1974). Yadav (1967) observed first litter at four years of age. In captivity they mate during August to October in water followed by prolonged playful bouts between partners (Desai, 1974, Naidu and Malhotra 1989). Copulation takes place several times daily. Males are polygamous mating with up to four females (Desai 1974). In the wild in northern India mating occurs in August-September and littering in November-December (Hussain 1993). Desai (1974) observed litter size of 2-5 (mean = 3.25). Similarly, Naidu and Malhotra (1989) observed litter size 1-5. The breeding schedule of smooth otters in the wild in India corresponds with the captive records (Hussain 1993, 1996). Evidences of littering have been recorded in October and the cubs were seen out of the den in February. The mean litter size along the Chambal river was three (Hussain 1996).<br/><br/>Based on the percentage of active telemetry recordings, Hussain (1993) observed that the overall activity pattern of smooth-coated otters along the Chambal River in India was in the form of a bimodal curve in which two period of high activity were separated by a period of relative inactivity. This pattern of activity varied considerably among seasons. In summer, the relative period of inactivity was greater than in winter or monsoons. A significant difference was also found between day and night time activities in different seasons. Otters were more diurnal during winter than in summer or monsoon. <br/><br/>Hussain (1993) observed daily movements of four radio-implanted smooth otters of different age and sex within their home range. Two types of movements were identified; small-scale movements associated with foraging in a restricted area close to dens, and more extensive travels between dens and foraging sites. Most of the movement was restricted between 250 to 1500 m. A typical group of smooth-coated otter consisting of male, female, and up to four young ones require 7 to 12 km of river for their territory and an even longer stretch of shoreline if living along the coast (Wayre 1974). During a radio-tracking study along the Chambal River, India, the home range of all the otters tracked overlapped intensively. Among the radio-implanted otters, the maximum home range was observed in sub-adult male and the minimum in juvenile female and male. Among the non-tagged otters, the home range of female with cubs was estimated as 5.5 km. In case of the adult male it was estimated to be approximately 17 km (Hussain 1993). Along the Chambal River, the home range length and area of smooth-coated otter was less than that of Eurasian otter, in Perthshire, Scotland and Northern river otter Lutra candensis in Idaho (Melquist and Hornocker, 1983), but larger than that of Eurasian otter (Erlinge 1967) in Sweden.	eng
12427	population	Hussain, S.A., de Silva, P.K. & Mostafa Feeroz, M., 2008	Because of secretive and nocturnal behaviour of smooth-coated otter, reliable estimates of its population are not available. In Southeast Asia it is found in large groups (Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993, Hussain, 1996) where the basic family group consisted of adult female and her offspring, father and older siblings often join the group (Lekagul and McNeely 1988, Hussain 1995). The group size of otters varies considerably between months and seasons, the group being large during the monsoon (Hussain 1996). Along the Chambal river in Central India the group size ranges from 1-9 individuals (mean=4.62). During a study conducted in the Corbett Tiger Reserve, in North India an estimate of 41 individuals (35 adults and 6 juveniles) with a mean of 5.1±1.55 was recorded from the 85 km of river stretch within the Reserve (Nawab and Hussain 2007).	eng
12427	threats	Hussain, S.A., de Silva, P.K. & Mostafa Feeroz, M., 2008	Major threats to Asian otter population are loss of wetland habitats due to construction of large-scale hydroelectric projects, reclamation of wetlands for settlements and agriculture, reduction in prey biomass, poaching and contamination of waterways by pesticides. In most Asian countries increased human population during the last century, inadequate and ineffective rural development programmes have not been able to address the problems of poverty, forcing people to be more and more dependent on natural resources (Badola, 1997). Consequently, most of the wetlands and waterways do not have adequate prey base for sustaining otter populations. Wetlands and waterways are polluted by eutrophication and accumulation of persistent pesticides such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates through agricultural runoffs. Increased pesticide use is not only regarded as a major obstacle to the development of rice-fish culture, but also poses a danger to all predators feeding on aquatic prey in the area (Melisch 1996). In the entire south and southeast Asia there is severe conflict between otters and humans, because of poverty and recent increase in aquaculture activities leading to indiscriminate killing of otters. Many important habitats of smooth otter have been lost to development activities. In south east Asian countries, there does not seem to be any intentional otter trapping (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996) though it is prevalent in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
12433	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.	eng
12433	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Locally but widely distributed in central Europe as far north as southern Finland, and across to Asia. Divided into three races: <em>dispar</em> formerly in Britain, <em>batavus</em> in the Netherlands (both single brooded), and <em>rutilus</em> (double brooded). The latter is declining in many European countries while <em>batavus</em> is reduced to two sites.	eng
12433	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from eastern England via the Netherlands and northern Germany to Finland, southwestern France and from the north of Italy to Turkey. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate and subtropical parts of the palaearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
12433	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Grows in a wide range of damp habitats (wetlands).	eng
12433	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Copper occurs in marshy habitats and on the peaty banks of lakes, rivers and streams and more to the East also on waste lands. Nectar plants are important, especially for the females. Eggs are laid on large sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.) like <em>R. crispus</em>, <em>R. obtusifolius</em> and Water Dock (<em>R. hydrolapathum</em>), but never on Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>) or Sheep's Sorrel (<em>R. acetosella</em>). The young caterpillars first eat from the underside of the leaves, making the characteristic ?windows?.  Later caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They hibernate when half-grown between withered leaves at the base of the foodplant. They are sometimes associated with ants (<em>Myrmica rubra</em> and <em>Lasius niger</em>). The Large Copper has several sub-species in Europe. The largest of them, <em>L. d. batava</em>, is confined to the extensive wetlands in the north of the Netherlands. The males of this subspecies occupy territoria in the warmest places in depressions in the vegetation. Their caterpillars feed only on Water Dock (<em>Rumex hydrolapathum</em>). There are two smaller subspecies, <em>L. d. rutila</em> and <em>L. d. carueli</em>, that use other large sorrels as foodplants. The subspecies <em>L. d. batava</em> has one generation a year and the other subspecies two or sometimes even three. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), blanket bogs (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).	eng
12433	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. The species has several subspecies, some of them being extremely local and endangered (e.g. <em>L. dispar batavus</em>) or even extinct (<em>L. dispar dispar</em> is reported extinct in United Kingdom). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece, Italy and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
12433	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Where the species lives in marshland, it is threatened by reclamation, groundwater extraction or desiccation. Grassland and wasteland habitats become unsuitable if they are abandoned and become invaded by shrubs and trees.	eng
12436	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The species is not listed on CITES.<br/><br/>Wild dogs are legally protected across much of their range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and wild dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal protection. Outside reserves, legal protection may have questionable value when it concerns a species that comes into conflict with people, often in remote areas with poor infrastructure. Under such circumstances, legal protection may serve only to alienate people from conservation activities.<br/><br/>The occurrence of wild dogs in protected areas is described in detail in Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> (1997). The largest populations inside protected areas occur in Tanzania: Selous Game Reserve and Ruaha National Park; South Africa: Kruger National Park; Botswana: Chobe National Park and Moremi Wildlife Reserve; and Zimbabwe: Hwange National Park.<br/><br/>Virtually no conservation measures have been implemented specifically for wild dogs. The establishment of very large protected areas (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Kruger National Park), as well as conservancies on private and communal land, has ensured wild dogs' persistence in parts of eastern and southern Africa, and maintenance of such areas remains the highest priority for wild dog conservation. Attempts are underway to re-establish wild dogs in a network of very small reserves in South Africa, but this approach will demand intensive management in perpetuity and need not, at present, be used as a model for wild dog conservation elsewhere.<br/><br/>Conservation priorities include: (i) to maintain and expand connectivity of habitat available to wild dogs, particularly in northern Botswana/eastern Namibia/western Zimbabwe, South Africa/western Mozambique/south-east Zimbabwe, northern South Africa/south-east Botswana/south-west Zimbabwe and southern Tanzania/northern Mozambique; (ii) to work with local people to reduce deliberate killing of wild dogs in and around these areas, and also in smaller populations in Senegal, Cameroon and Kenya; (iii) to establish effective techniques for protecting small wild dog populations from serious infections such as rabies and distemper; (iv) to carry out surveys to establish the status of other potentially important populations, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan, and (v) to continue long-term monitoring of 'sentinel' populations to identify emerging threats. Re-establishment of extinct populations through reintroduction currently has a low priority in most areas, although natural recolonizations should be encouraged.<br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>There are more than 300 wild dogs in captivity in 55 zoos, as listed on ISIS and as many as 200 additional animals occur in zoos and private collections, particularly in South Africa.<br/><br/>Early attempts to reintroduce captive-bred animals to the wild were hampered by the dogs' poor hunting skills and naive attitudes to larger predators. However, recent reintroductions have overcome this problem by mixing captive-bred dogs with wild-caught animals and releasing them together. This approach has been very valuable in re-establishing packs in several fenced reserves in South Africa, but is not considered a priority in other parts of Africa at present. Nevertheless, captive populations have important roles to play in developing conservation strategies for wild populations, through research (e.g., testing of vaccination protocols), outreach and education.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Several pieces of information are needed to enable more effective conservation of African wild dogs. These include: 1) establishing which techniques will be most effective and sustainable for protecting wild dogs from disease, including whether vaccinating wild dogs against rabies and distemper can ever be safe and effective, and whether other methods (including control or vaccination of domestic dogs) can reduce the risks to wild dogs; 2) determining the true impact of wild dogs on livestock under different conditions of husbandry, and the effectiveness of techniques to reduce this; 3) establishing the true impact of wild dogs on managed wild game and the effectiveness of techniques to resolve conflicts with game ranchers; 4) surveys of wild dog distribution and status are also required, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan; 5) genetic research would be valuable to establish the distinctiveness of wild dog populations remaining in west, central and north-east Africa; and 6) the reasons for and degree of fluctuation in packs and populations need to be better understood. In addition, several aspects of wild dogs' basic biology require further study, particularly: 1) mechanisms of ranging and dispersal; 2) causes of increased mortality among dispersers; 3) reasons for large home range; 4) mechanisms of sex-ratio biasing; 5) paternity; and 6) communication.	eng
12436	conservation	McNutt, J.W., Mills, M.G.L., McCreery, K., Rasmussen, G., Robbins, R. & Woodroffe, R., 2008	The species is not listed on CITES.<br/><br/>Wild dogs are legally protected across much of their range. However, this protection is rarely enforced and wild dogs are extinct in several countries despite stringent legal protection. Outside reserves, legal protection may have questionable value when it concerns a species that comes into conflict with people, often in remote areas with poor infrastructure. Under such circumstances, legal protection may serve only to alienate people from conservation activities.<br/><br/>The occurrence of wild dogs in protected areas is described in detail in Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> (1997). The largest populations inside protected areas occur in Tanzania: Selous Game Reserve and Ruaha National Park; South Africa: Kruger National Park; Botswana: Chobe National Park and Moremi Wildlife Reserve; and Zimbabwe: Hwange National Park.<br/><br/>Virtually no conservation measures have been implemented specifically for wild dogs. The establishment of very large protected areas (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Kruger National Park), as well as conservancies on private and communal land, has ensured wild dogs' persistence in parts of eastern and southern Africa, and maintenance of such areas remains the highest priority for wild dog conservation. Attempts are underway to re-establish wild dogs in a network of very small reserves in South Africa, but this approach will demand intensive management in perpetuity and need not, at present, be used as a model for wild dog conservation elsewhere.<br/><br/>Conservation priorities include: (i) to maintain and expand connectivity of habitat available to wild dogs, particularly in northern Botswana/eastern Namibia/western Zimbabwe, South Africa/western Mozambique/south-east Zimbabwe, northern South Africa/south-east Botswana/south-west Zimbabwe and southern Tanzania/northern Mozambique; (ii) to work with local people to reduce deliberate killing of wild dogs in and around these areas, and also in smaller populations in Senegal, Cameroon and Kenya; (iii) to establish effective techniques for protecting small wild dog populations from serious infections such as rabies and distemper; (iv) to carry out surveys to establish the status of other potentially important populations, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan, and (v) to continue long-term monitoring of 'sentinel' populations to identify emerging threats. Re-establishment of extinct populations through reintroduction currently has a low priority in most areas, although natural recolonizations should be encouraged.<br/><br/>Occurrence in captivity<br/>There are more than 300 wild dogs in captivity in 55 zoos, as listed on ISIS and as many as 200 additional animals occur in zoos and private collections, particularly in South Africa.<br/><br/>Early attempts to reintroduce captive-bred animals to the wild were hampered by the dogs' poor hunting skills and naive attitudes to larger predators. However, recent reintroductions have overcome this problem by mixing captive-bred dogs with wild-caught animals and releasing them together. This approach has been very valuable in re-establishing packs in several fenced reserves in South Africa, but is not considered a priority in other parts of Africa at present. Nevertheless, captive populations have important roles to play in developing conservation strategies for wild populations, through research (e.g., testing of vaccination protocols), outreach and education.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Several pieces of information are needed to enable more effective conservation of African wild dogs. These include: 1) establishing which techniques will be most effective and sustainable for protecting wild dogs from disease, including whether vaccinating wild dogs against rabies and distemper can ever be safe and effective, and whether other methods (including control or vaccination of domestic dogs) can reduce the risks to wild dogs; 2) determining the true impact of wild dogs on livestock under different conditions of husbandry, and the effectiveness of techniques to reduce this; 3) establishing the true impact of wild dogs on managed wild game and the effectiveness of techniques to resolve conflicts with game ranchers; 4) surveys of wild dog distribution and status are also required, particularly in Algeria, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mozambique and Sudan; 5) genetic research would be valuable to establish the distinctiveness of wild dog populations remaining in west, central and north-east Africa; and 6) the reasons for and degree of fluctuation in packs and populations need to be better understood. In addition, several aspects of wild dogs' basic biology require further study, particularly: 1) mechanisms of ranging and dispersal; 2) causes of increased mortality among dispersers; 3) reasons for large home range; 4) mechanisms of sex-ratio biasing; 5) paternity; and 6) communication.	eng
12436	distribution	McNutt, J.W., Mills, M.G.L., McCreery, K., Rasmussen, G., Robbins, R. & Woodroffe, R., 2008	Historical data indicate that African Wild Dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from desert (Lhote 1946) to mountain summits (Thesiger 1970), and probably were absent only from lowland rainforest and the driest desert (Schaller 1972). They have disappeared from much of their former range – 25 of 39 former range states no longer support populations (Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is virtually eradicated from West Africa, and greatly reduced in central Africa and north-east Africa. The largest populations remain in southern Africa (especially northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, eastern Namibia, and Kruger National Park, South Africa) and the southern part of East Africa (especially Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Details of current distribution and status are in Woodroffe <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
12436	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Historical data indicate that African Wild Dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from desert (Lhote 1946) to mountain summits (Thesiger 1970), and probably were absent only from lowland rainforest and the driest desert (Schaller 1972). They have disappeared from much of their former range: 25 of 39 former range states no longer support populations (Fanshawe <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is virtually eradicated from West Africa, and greatly reduced in central Africa and north-east Africa. The largest populations remain in southern Africa (especially northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, eastern Namibia, and Kruger National Park, South Africa) and the southern part of East Africa (especially Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Details of current distribution and status are in Woodroffe <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
12436	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	African Wild Dogs are generalist predators, occupying a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannas and upland forest. While early studies in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, led to a belief that wild dogs were primarily an open plains species, more recent data indicate that they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania; Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe; and northern Botswana). Several relict populations occupy dense upland forest (e.g., Harenna Forest, Ethiopia: Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). African Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert (Lhotse 1946), although they appear unable to establish themselves in the southern Kalahari (M.G.L. Mills, unpubl.), and montane habitats (Thesiger 1970; Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001), although not in lowland forest. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than by the loss of a specific habitat type.<br/><br/>African Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. Whereas they weigh 20?30 kg, their prey average around 50 kg, and may be as large as 200 kg. In most areas their principal prey are Impala (<em>Aepyceros melampus</em>), Greater Kudu (<em>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</em>), Thomson's Gazelle (<em>Gazella thomsonii</em>) and Common Wildebeest (<em>Connochaetes taurinus</em>). They will give chase of larger species, such asCommon Eland (<em>Tragelaphus oryx</em>) and African Buffalo (<em>Syncerus caffer</em>), but rarely kill such prey. Small antelope, such as dik-dik (<em>Madoqua</em> spp.), Steenbok (<em>Raphicerus campestris</em>) and duiker (tribe Cephalophini) are important in some areas, and warthogs (<em>Phacochoerus</em> spp.) are also taken in some populations. Wild dogs also take very small prey such as hares, lizards and even eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet.	eng
12436	habitat	McNutt, J.W., Mills, M.G.L., McCreery, K., Rasmussen, G., Robbins, R. & Woodroffe, R., 2008	African Wild Dogs are generalist predators, occupying a range of habitats including short-grass plains, semi-desert, bushy savannas and upland forest. While early studies in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, led to a belief that wild dogs were primarily an open plains species, more recent data indicate that they reach their highest densities in thicker bush (e.g., Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania; Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe; and northern Botswana). Several relict populations occupy dense upland forest (e.g., Harenna Forest, Ethiopia: Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001; Ngare Ndare Forest, Kenya). African Wild Dogs have been recorded in desert (Lhotse 1946), although they appear unable to establish themselves in the southern Kalahari (M.G.L. Mills, unpubl.), and montane habitats (Thesiger 1970; Malcolm and Sillero-Zubiri 2001), although not in lowland forest. It appears that their current distribution is limited primarily by human activities and the availability of prey, rather than by the loss of a specific habitat type.<br/><br/>African Wild Dogs mostly hunt medium-sized antelope. Whereas they weigh 20–30 kg, their prey average around 50 kg, and may be as large as 200 kg. In most areas their principal prey are Impala (<em>Aepyceros melampus</em>), Greater Kudu (<em>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</em>), Thomson's Gazelle (<em>Gazella thomsonii</em>) and Common Wildebeest (<em>Connochaetes taurinus</em>). They will give chase of larger species, such asCommon Eland (<em>Tragelaphus oryx</em>) and African Buffalo (<em>Syncerus caffer</em>), but rarely kill such prey. Small antelope, such as dik-dik (<em>Madoqua</em> spp.), Steenbok (<em>Raphicerus campestris</em>) and duiker (tribe Cephalophini) are important in some areas, and warthogs (<em>Phacochoerus</em> spp.) are also taken in some populations. Wild dogs also take very small prey such as hares, lizards and even eggs, but these make a very small contribution to their diet.	eng
12436	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	African Wild Dogs are rarely seen, even where they are relatively common, and it appears that populations have always existed at very low densities. Ginsberg and Woodroffe (1997) used population densities in well-studied areas to estimate the size of remaining populations. These estimates suggest that between 3,000?5,500 free-ranging wild dogs remain in Africa.<br/><br/>Estimated sizes and trends of national wild dog populations in Africa, updated from Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> (1997), can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
12436	population	McNutt, J.W., Mills, M.G.L., McCreery, K., Rasmussen, G., Robbins, R. & Woodroffe, R., 2008	African Wild Dogs are rarely seen, even where they are relatively common, and it appears that populations have always existed at very low densities. Ginsberg and Woodroffe (1997) used population densities in well-studied areas to estimate the size of remaining populations. These estimates suggest that between 3,000–5,500 free-ranging wild dogs remain in Africa.<br/><br/>Estimated sizes and trends of national wild dog populations in Africa, updated from Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> (1997), can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
12436	threats	McNutt, J.W., Mills, M.G.L., McCreery, K., Rasmussen, G., Robbins, R. & Woodroffe, R., 2008	The principal threats to African Wild Dogs are conflict with human activities and infectious disease. Both of these are mediated by habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wild dogs, people and domestic dogs. The important role played by human-induced mortality has two long-term implications. First, it makes it likely that, outside protected areas, wild dogs may well be unable to co-exist with the increasing human population unless better protection and local education programmes are implemented. This will be a serious problem for wild dog populations outside protected areas. Second, wild dog ranging behaviour leads to a very substantial "edge effect", even in large reserves. Simple geometry dictates that a reserve of 5,000 km² contains no point more than 40 km from its borders – a distance well within the range of distances travelled by a pack of wild dogs in their usual ranging behaviour. Thus, from a wild dog's perspective, a reserve of this size (fairly large by most standards) would be all edge. As human populations rise around reserve borders, the risks to wild dogs venturing outside are also likely to increase. Under these conditions, only the very largest unfenced reserves will be able to provide any level of protection for wild dogs. In South Africa, proper fencing around quite small reserves has proved effective in keeping dogs confined to the reserve (although fencing has costs, as well as benefits, in conservation terms).<br/><br/>Even in large, well-protected reserves, or in stable populations remaining largely independent of protected areas (as in northern Botswana), wild dogs live at low population densities. Predation by lions, and perhaps competition with hyaenas, contribute to keeping wild dog numbers below the level that their prey base could support. Such low population density brings its own problems. The largest areas contain only relatively small wild dog populations; for example, the Selous Game Reserve, with an area of 43,000 km² (about the size of Switzerland), contains about 800 wild dogs. Most reserves, and probably most wild dog populations, are smaller. For example, the wild dog population in Niokolo-Koba National Park and buffer zones (about 25,000 km², larger than the state of Israel) is likely to be not more than 50–100 dogs. Such small populations are vulnerable to extinction. "Catastrophic" events such as outbreaks of epidemic disease may drive them to extinction when larger populations have a greater probability of recovery – such an event seems to have led to the extinction of the small wild dog population in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Problems of small population size will be exacerbated if, as seems likely, small populations occur in small reserves or habitat patches. As discussed above, animals inhabiting such areas suffer a strong "edge effect". Thus, small populations might be expected to suffer disproportionately high mortality as a result of their contact with humans and human activity.<br/><br/>There are no commercial uses for wild dogs, other than non-consumptive ecotourism.	eng
12436	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The principal threats to African Wild Dogs are conflict with human activities and infectious disease. Both of these are mediated by habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wild dogs, people and domestic dogs. The important role played by human-induced mortality has two long-term implications. First, it makes it likely that, outside protected areas, wild dogs may well be unable to co-exist with the increasing human population unless better protection and local education programmes are implemented. This will be a serious problem for wild dog populations outside protected areas. Second, wild dog ranging behaviour leads to a very substantial "edge effect", even in large reserves. Simple geometry dictates that a reserve of 5,000 km² contains no point more than 40 m from its borders ? a distance well within the range of distances travelled by a pack of wild dogs in their usual ranging behaviour. Thus, from a wild dog's perspective, a reserve of this size (fairly large by most standards) would be all edge. As human populations rise around reserve borders, the risks to wild dogs venturing outside are also likely to increase. Under these conditions, only the very largest unfenced reserves will be able to provide any level of protection for wild dogs. In South Africa, proper fencing around quite small reserves has proved effective in keeping dogs confined to the reserve (although fencing has costs, as well as benefits, in conservation terms).<br/><br/>Even in large, well-protected reserves, or in stable populations remaining largely independent of protected areas (as in northern Botswana), wild dogs live at low population densities. Predation by lions, and perhaps competition with hyaenas, contribute to keeping wild dog numbers below the level that their prey base could support. Such low population density brings its own problems. The largest areas contain only relatively small wild dog populations; for example, the Selous Game Reserve, with an area of 43,000 km² (about the size of Switzerland), contains about 800 wild dogs. Most reserves, and probably most wild dog populations, are smaller. For example, the wild dog population in Niokolo-Koba National Park and buffer zones (about 25,000 km², larger than the state of Israel) is likely to be not more than 50?100 dogs. Such small populations are vulnerable to extinction. "Catastrophic" events such as outbreaks of epidemic disease may drive them to extinction when larger populations have a greater probability of recovery ? such an event seems to have led to the extinction of the small wild dog population in the Serengeti ecosystem on the Kenya-Tanzania border. Problems of small population size will be exacerbated if, as seems likely, small populations occur in small reserves or habitat patches. As discussed above, animals inhabiting such areas suffer a strong "edge effect". Thus, small populations might be expected to suffer disproportionately high mortality as a result of their contact with humans and human activity.<br/><br/>There are no commercial uses for wild dogs, other than non-consumptive ecotourism.	eng
12471	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
12471	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is distributed in northern, central and eastern Thailand and neighbouring Laos (Moravej and Böhme 2008). In Thailand it has been found in the provinces of Chachoengsao, Chaiyaphum, Chanthaburi, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Nong Khai, Phetchabun, Phitsanulok, Nakhon Ratchasima, and Loei.	eng
12471	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is found in tropical deciduous dry forests, but it is not an obligate forest-dweller as it has also been found in cultivated areas.	eng
12471	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
12471	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species does not seem to be affected by any major threat. Habitat destruction of the forests in which this species inhabits is likely to be taking place. However, this species seems to be able to survive in agricultural areas as well. Therefore deforestation cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
12472	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but monitoring of this species should be carried out because it is restricted to one mountain range.	eng
12472	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is a Thai endemic from the Saraburi and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces, and is found along the Dong Phaya Fai mountains (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
12472	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species inhabits various environments including montane evergreen rainforests and low limestone hills. It has also been found in intensively cultivated and degraded areas (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
12472	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
12472	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	Although deforestation is taking place in Thailand, this species is not a forest obligate and therefore this is not a major threat to this species.	eng
12518	conservation	Nowell, K., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II.  In Canada, the national and provincial governments manage harvests by region (Govt of US 2007b), using closed seasons, quotas, limited entry and long-term trapping concessions (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the US, trapping takes place only in Alaska, and harvest quotas are increased during periods of population increase and decreased during periods of cyclic decline (Govt of US 2007b).<br/><br/>The population of the contiguous US was listed as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2000, requiring the US government to develop a recovery plan and identify critical habitat for lynx (Nordstrom 2005).  Critical habitat designations only apply to federal lands or federally funded or permitted activities on private lands, but not to private activities on private lands.  This designation gives the federal government the authority to manage activities that affect the designated habitat. In February 2008, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed a revised designation of  critical habitat of 42,753 square miles of critical lynx habitat as follows:<br/><br/>Maine:  Approximately 10,633 square miles in portions of Aroostook, Franklin, Penobscot, Piscataquis and Somerset Counties.<br/><br/>Minnesota:  Approximately 8,226 square miles in portions of Cook, Koochiching, Lake, and St. Louis Counties, and Superior National Forest.<br/><br/>Northern Rocky Mountains:  Approximately 11,304 square miles in portions of Boundary County in Idaho; and Flathead, Glacier, Granite, Lake, Lewis and Clark, Lincoln, Missoula, Pondera, Powell and Teton Counties in Montana.  This area includes the Flathead Indian Reservation, National Forest lands and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands in the Garnet Resource Area.<br/><br/>North Cascades:  Approximately 2,000 square miles in portions of Chelan and Okanogan Counties which includes BLM lands in the Spokane District.<br/><br/>Greater Yellowstone Area:  Approximately 10,590 square miles in Gallatin, Park, Sweetgrass, Stillwater, and Carbon Counties in Montana; and Park, Teton, Fremont, Sublette, and Lincoln Counties in Wyoming.<br/><br/>The Kettle range of Washington state was not included due to lack of recent evidence of reproduction, and the reintroduced population of Colorado and Utah in the southern Rockies was also not included due to lack of evidence that it is self-sustaining.  The designation is proposed but not final, and significantly increases a 2006 designation of  1,841 square miles of critical habitat for the lynx within the boundaries of Voyagers National Park in Minnesota, Glacier National Park in Montana, and North Cascades National Park in Washington (US FWS 2008).<br/><br/>To reduce accidental taking of lynx in traps set for other furbearers, the Fish and Wildlife Service has recommended various measures to trappers (e.g., avoid using hares or rabbits as bait) (Goldman and Krauze 2003).	eng
12518	distribution	Nowell, K., 2008	Throughout North America, Canada lynx are generally considered to be distributed in two broad spatial and demographic patterns.  The contiguous Northern Taiga population covers most of Canada east from Newfoundland and Labrador to Alaska.  The southern Boreal population consists of small, widely isolated populations south of the 49 degree parallel in the "Lower 48" states of the US, and in Canada including northwestern New Brunswick and Cape Breton island in Nova Scotia (Parker 2001).  Its range is coincident with that of their main prey, the snowshoe hare <em>Lepus americanus</em> (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  While still occurring in 95% of their historic range in Canada (with the exception of far eastern Canada) (Poole 2003), in the contiguous United States, lynx historically occurred in 24 states (McKelvey <em>et al.</em> 2000), possibly ranging as far down the Rocky mountain chain to include a 25th, New Mexico (Frey 2006).  Widely extirpated, the US Fish and Wildlife Service has identified six "core" areas for recovery where there is evidence of lynx reproduction within the last 20 years: northern Maine and New Hampshire; northeastern Minnesota; northwestern Montana and northeastern Idaho; the Kettle and Wedge mountain ranges of Washington state; the northern Cascade range of Washington state; and the Greater Yellowstone area of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho.  A reintroduced population in the southern Rocky mountains of Colorado state is another core area; 204 lynx from Canada and Alaska have been released since 1999, and there is evidence of reproduction (Nordstrom <em>et al.</em> 2005) and lynx have ranged up to 4,310 m, with an average elevation of 3,170 m (Wild <em>et al.</em> 2006).  A reintroduction in northern New York state was not successful (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
12518	habitat	Nowell, K., 2008	Canada lynx are found only in boreal forest, and their main prey species, the snowshoe hare Lepus americanus, depends largely on patches of sucessional growth (Buskirk <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Hares make up 60-97% of their diet, at an average rate of one every 1-2 days (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). The lynx-hare cycle was first discovered from harvest records of the Hudson’s Bay Company dating back to the early 1800's. Numbers of snowshoe hares peak approximately every ten years in the northern part of their range, and lynx numbers follow the same pattern with a short lag, typically 1-2 years. The fluctuations can be drastic, with hare abundance reaching 2,300/km² during the peaks, and crashing to 12/km² during the lows.  While the populations of many prey and predator species are cyclic and roughly synchronous in the northern latitudes, the hare-lynx correlation is particularly close (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Three primary variables drive the cycle: vegetation quality, and both hare and lynx numbers.  Historically, lynx trapping pressure also influenced the amplitude of the cycle (Gamarra and Sole 2000).<br/><br/>In the southern parts of their range, predator and prey communities are more diverse, and snowshoe hares are less important as prey species (Buskirk <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Ungulates to not figure prominently in the lynx's diet other than as carrion, although they preyed on caribou calves in Newfoundland after the hare population crashed (Bergerud 1983).<br/><br/>Lynx home ranges average 15-50 km², although they can be much larger, and tend to be larger on the southern periphery of their geographic distribution, suggesting that these areas are marginal habitat.  Average lynx densities range from 1-45 animals (including young) per 100 km², and fluctuate with hare abundance (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
12518	population	Nowell, K., 2008	The Canada lynx is primarily found in Canada, where it is managed and trapped for its fur.  It is considered endangered only in New Brunswick, and has been extirpated from Prince Edward Island and maiinland Nova Scotia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Parker 2001).  In the US, the Canada lynx is abundant in Alaska, but in the "Lower 48" states populations are small and threatened.  Lynx were reintroduced apparently unsuccessfully in northern New York state in the late 1980s, and more recently, apparently successfully, in Colorado (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>In the northern parts of their range, lynx populations undergo dramatic fluctuations roughly every ten years, following apparently regular cycles of increase and decline of their primary prey, the snowshoe hare Lepus americanus, a pattern evident in lynx fur trade records dating back to the early 1800s (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In the southern parts, lynx and hares appear to maintain a relatively stable but low density (Parker 2001).<br/><br/>Schwartz <em>et al.</em> (2003) documented reduced genetic variation in lynx populations from the peripheral areas of its distribution.	eng
12518	threats	Nowell, K., 2008	In most of Canada and the US state of Alaska, trapping of Canada lynx is managed for the fur trade.  Trapping can reduce lynx populations and have the greatest impact when hare populations cyclically crash.  In response to concerns about over-harvest during the cyclic low of the lynx-hare cycle in the 1980s, most Canadian provinces and Alaska implemented management measures which led to reduced harvests (Mowat <em>et al.</em> 2000).  In the early 1980 (1980-1984), an average of 35,669 Canada lynx pelts were exported from the US and Canada.  That fell to in the late 1980s (1986-1989) to an average annual export of 7,360.  Exports have trended lower and fluctuated less severely since then, with annual exports from 2000-2006 averaging 15,387 (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  Historical information suggests that, despite minimal harvest controls for much of the last century, lynx-hare cycles have been largely stable in the northern part of their range and no permanent range decrease has been detected (Mowat <em>et al.</em> 2000, Poole 2003).  <br/><br/>In eastern Canada where lynx are rare and protected, the primary threat is considered to be interspecific competition from the eastern coyote, which expanded its range into eastern North America in the last few decades (Parker 2001).<br/><br/>In the contiguous US, the primary threat is habitat fragmentation.  Logging practices and fire suppression can reduce hare and lynx abundance.  Lynx are also threatened by interspecific competition from other predators whose populations have increased in recent decades, and may be killed accidentally in snares set for other species, or on roads.  Maintenance of connectivity with the abundant northern population is considered essential for recovery (Ruediger <em>et al.</em> 2000, Nordstrom 2005).  Hybridization with bobcats has been found by genetic analysis in Minnesota (Schwartz <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12519	conservation	IUCN Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment team, 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III).  Hunting for commercial purposes (other than sport hunting) is permitted only by Russia, according to a recent survey of 37 range states (Govt of US 2007).  While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007).  Detailed recommendations for conservation of European subpopulations are given in IUCN (2007).	eng
12519	conservation	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III).  Hunting for commercial purposes (other than sport hunting) is permitted only by Russia, according to a recent survey of 37 range states (Govt of US 2007).  While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007).    Since 2009, the Lynx is a legally protected species in Afghanistan, banning all hunting and trading of this species within the country. Detailed recommendations for conservation of European subpopulations are given in IUCN (2007).	eng
12519	conservation	Manuela von Arx (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Cat Specialist Group), 2006	Included on CITES Appendix II, protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix III) and strictly protected under the EU Habitats & Species Directive (Annexes II and IV). Conservation measures in place and recommended for the European populations are as follows:<br/><br/>1. Jura.<br/>Lynx is legally protected in both countries. Stock-raiding animals can however be removed. For this, similar criteria have been established in France and Switzerland. In practice, depredation is much more pronounced in the French than in the Swiss Jura. The Ministries of Environment are responsible for the management of the species. There is co-operation on scientific and administrative level, but no systematic common monitoring and no common management plan for the entire population. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Continuation and improvement of monitoring, genetic surveillance of the population, law enforcement, improve connectivity to other lynx populations or occurrences.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>In France as well as in Germany, lynx is fully protected by law. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Improve potential corridors, mitigate the problem of illegal killings, continue monitoring and cross-border co-operation.<br/><br/>3. Alpine. <br/>Lynx is at present protected in all Alpine countries. In Switzerland, Slovenia, and France lynx causing too much damage to livestock can be removed. With the exception of Austria, national environmental agencies have the authority for  lynx management. In Austria, the owners of the hunting grounds are responsible for the management of the species, but are supervised by the states (Bundesländer), which have the legal power. With the exception of Switzerland, national management plans are lacking. Current management practices: In the early 1990s, scientists from all Alpine countries formed an expert group to survey the status of and co-ordinate actions for the Alpine lynx population. The SCALP (Status and Conservation of the Alpine Lynx Population) defined common standards to interpret the monitoring data collected, and has developed a Pan-Alpine Conservation Strategy (PACS, Molinari <em>et al.</em> 2003), which was adopted by the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Promote the expansion of the area occupied, improve law enforcement, continue monitoring of demographic and genetic parameters, increase acceptance of lynx by local people. To prevent genetic problems, conservation priority should be given not only the expansion of the range (fusion of the two subpopulations), but also the genetic exchange of individuals between different populations, e.g. between all reintroduced populations and the source population.<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Lynx of the Bohemian-Bavarian population are fully protected by law. Co-operation and exchange of information amongst scientists has started some years ago, and the establishment of a discussion platform for management issues was suggested (CELTIC – Conservation of the European Lynx: Management and International Cooperation). However, there is no common management approach yet. In Germany and Austria, wildlife management is in the responsibilities of the federal states (Bundesländer), and as there are no national management strategies for lynx, it is difficult to implement international co-operation. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Find solutions against the widespread illegal killing, improve connectivity first within the population, but then also to neighbouring occurrences, get a clear commitment and a more strenuous involvement of the authorities.<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Lynx was granted legal protection in Croatia in 1998. By becoming a member state of the European Union in 2004, Slovenia has ratified the EU Habitats Directive and hence legally protected lynx. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, no proper legislation exists. National management plans are in place in Croatia (since 2005) and in preparation in Slovenia, however a coherent strategy for the entire population is missing. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Develop a cross-border conservation strategy (including defining the legislation in Bosnia-Herzegovina), improve and continue the monitoring of lynx and prey, increase prey base. A specific survey in southern Bosnia-Herzegovina is required to clarify whether there is a connection between the Dinaric and the Balkan population. This knowledge would be of great importance for the assessment of the Balkan lynx, which might be considered a different subspecies.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>In all countries but Romania, lynx is completely protected by law, though since only recently in Slovakia (2001). Until 2000, the annual legal harvest was almost 15 animals in Slovakia and considered a threat to the population. In Poland, lynx received full protection in 1995. Of the Carpathian population, Romania is therefore the only country left were lynx is legally hunted. Yet the number of lynx shot has been very modest compared to the number of lynx estimated and the potential quota set per year. It is however assumed that there is no control over the real extent of hunting, as numbers differ in the literature found. The 2003 Carpathian Workshop on Large Carnivore Conservation aimed to start the elaboration of a Carpathian Action Plan for large carnivores, a measure recommended by the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention. According to this action plan the countries are then requested to draft and implement national action plans. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Improve the monitoring and census systems, habitat conservation, public education, conduct field research in different parts of the Carpathians to find out more about the species' biology in this region, develop a general strategy for the lynx in the entire Carpathians.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>The Nordic countries apply more or less the same census methods and management regime, namely the controlled hunting of the species in certain areas where livestock depredation is considered too high. As a matter of fact, depredation is intense: Up to 10,000 sheep and several ten thousands of reindeer have yearly been killed by lynx from 1996-2001 in the area of the Nordic population. Whereas in Norway, sheep depredation is the most extensive, reindeer is the species mainly affected in Sweden. In both countries, the state pays for domestic animals killed. Sweden has implemented a management plan in 2000, Norway a government white paper in 1997, which sets the management guidelines (a new edition is in place since 2004). The harvest numbers in each of the two countries were around 90 lynx per year in 1996-2001. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Change sheep husbandry in Norway, set the hunting quotas at sustainable level.<br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>The lynx is protected in Finland since 1995. Complete protection can however be derogated in accordance with article 16 of the EU Habitat Directive (resulting in a kind of quota hunting). Finland maintained the same level of harvest throughout the 1990s, with no change after 1995. The level (59 lynx annually in 1996-2001) is however considered sustainable. A management plan has been implemented in Finland in 1996. In Russia, lynx is a game species. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Establish a monitoring system in Russia, find solutions to mitigate human-livestock-carnivore conflicts in Finland, set the annual quotas on the basis of good census data, establish co-operation between the countries.<br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Lynx is only hunted in Estonia and Latvia (reservation for including the lynx in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive) as well as in Russia, in all other countries the species is fully protected. Legislation has in most of the countries strongly improved in the past few years due to harmonizing national laws with requirements of the European Union during the process of accession. Both Estonia and Latvia have prepared and implemented a lynx management plan. Such a plan is also planned for Lithuania. Furthermore, a cross-border network of researchers, conservationists, state officials and other stakeholder representatives from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania was created in 2000 under the umbrella of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe LCIE: the Baltic Large Carnivore Initiative. A report on the status of the large carnivore conservation in the Baltic States including an action plan for the Initiative for 2001-2005 has been published. The report focuses on how the national management plans fulfil the guidelines and recommendations in the European Action Plan. There is however no such framework and strategy yet that would include all countries sharing the population. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Expand the population towards the south (southern half of Latvia and Lithuania), improve the connectivity within the population in the south-western part and create a broad corridor towards the occurrences in north-eastern Poland across Lithuania along the border with Belarus, improve and coordinate the monitoring of the species, develop a comprehensive conservation strategy based on a metapopulation concept and considering habitat quality and connectivity, continue with the Baltic Large Carnivore Initiative.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>The species is fully protected by law in all range countries. No national management plans exist, however it is one of the aims of an ongoing cross-border conservation project to develop a recovery strategy for the Balkan lynx from which national actions can be derived. <strong>Most important conservation measures needed:</strong> Conduct a systematic field survey covering the whole potential distribution area, establish a standardised monitoring of lynx and prey species, research the ecology and life history of the Balkan lynx, define taxonomic status, raise public awareness, law enforcement, habitat and prey base enhancement.	eng
12519	distribution	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The Eurasian lynx has a very broad distribution from western Europe through the boreal forests of Russia, and down into central Asia and the Tibetan plateau (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Populations in the southeast of its range (Europe and southwest Asia) are generally small and widely separated, whereas the bulk of its historic range from Scandinavia through Russia and Central Asia is largely intact.<br/><br/>In Europe, it was probably absent from some of the larger islands such as Ireland and Sicily and from countries with few forests. It was also absent from the Iberian Peninsula, where the smaller Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> occurs. Lynx have been extirpated from most of western Europe. In central Europe, they survive only in the Carpathian Mountains and a small area of the south Dinaric Mountains in Greece, Macedonia and Albania, although larger populations persisted in Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, and European Russia. Lynx have been released in several areas of Europe in an effort to reintroduce this elusive predator including in Switzerland, Slovenia, Italy, Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and France (IUCN 2007).	eng
12519	distribution	IUCN Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment team, 2008	The Eurasian lynx has a very broad distribution from western Europe through the boreal forests of Russia, and down into central Asia and the Tibetan plateau (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Populations in the southeast of its range (Europe and southwest Asia) are generally small and widely separated, whereas the bulk of its historic range from Scandinavia through Russia and Central Asia is largely intact.<br/><br/>In Europe, it was probably absent from some of the larger islands such as Ireland and Sicily and from countries with few forests. It was also absent from the Iberian Peninsula, where the smaller Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> occurs. Lynx have been extirpated from most of western Europe. In central Europe, they survive only in the Carpathian Mountains and a small area of the south Dinaric Mountains in Greece, Macedonia and Albania, although larger populations persisted in Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, and European Russia. Lynx have been released in several areas of Europe in an effort to reintroduce this elusive predator including in Switzerland, Slovenia, Italy, Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and France (IUCN 2007).	eng
12519	distribution	Manuela von Arx (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Cat Specialist Group), 2006	The Eurasian lynx is one of the widest ranging of all cat species. It was once distributed throughout Russia, central Asia and Europe. It was probably absent from some of the larger islands such as Ireland and Sicily and from countries with few forests. It was also absent from the Iberian Peninsula, where the smaller Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> occurs. From this extensive distribution, lynx were exterminated from almost all of western Europe. In western and central Europe, they survived only in the Carpathian Mountains, the southern Dinaric Mountains in Macedonia and Albania, and parts of Fennoscandia and the Baltic (where populations were heavily reduced), although larger populations persisted in European Russia. Human activities reduced the lynx to its minimum numbers in the 1950s. Lynx have been released in several areas of Europe in an effort to reintroduce this elusive predator, including in Switzerland, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and France. Lynx occurring in Europe can be viewed as belonging to a number of distinct populations (LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Jura.<br/>Countries: France and Switzerland. Description: This population stretches across the Jura Mountains from central-eastern France north of the Rhone to western Switzerland between Geneva and Basel.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>Countries: France and Germany. Description: Distributed along the French Vosges Mountains and in the German Palatinian Forest and its surroundings.<br/><br/>3. Alpine (comprising two segments - Western Alps and Eastern Alps).<br/>Countries: Switzerland, Slovenia, France, Italy, Austria. Description: Two main extant populations can be identified: One in the western to central Swiss Alps (mainly in the cantons of Valais, Vaud, Fribourg and Berne), stretching into the French Alps, and the western Alps in Austria (Vorarlberg); the other one in the western part of Slovenia (west of the Jesenice-Ljubljana-Triest highway), stretching into the adjacent regions of Italy (Tarvisiano) and Austria (Carinthia). Outside these two sub-populations, a more scattered distribution with no permanent lynx presence exists in France (south-east of the country, from the lake of Geneva as far south as to the department of Hautes-Alpes), eastern Italy (Friuli VG, Veneto (Bellunese), and Austria (northern Kalkalpen, Upper Carinthia, Niedere Tauern).<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Countries: Czech Republic, Germany, Austria. Description: The population stretches in the triangle of the three range countries: in the western Czech Republic (Sumava Mts., NW-part of the Cesky les Mts. = Oberpfälzerwald, the Sumava foothills, S-Novohradske Mts.; in the north more isolated, small but constant occurrence in the Brdy highlands in connection with the core population), eastern Germany (Bayerischer and Oberpfälzer Forest, Fichtelgebirge, Frankenwald), and northern Austria (Böhmerwald, Mühlviertel, Waldviertel).<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Countries: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Description: From central-southern Slovenia (S and SE of the Jesenice-Ljubljana-Triest highway) over Croatia (Gorski Kotar and Lika) up to West Bosnia (no data available for sporadically present areas).<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>Countries: Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria. Description: The distribution area covers at present almost the entire mountain chain of the Carpathians, and is further expanding into Serbia, and most probably south into Bulgaria.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>Countries: Sweden, Norway. Description: Lynx occur from central-south to north-east Norway and almost all over Sweden. <br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>Countries: Finland, Russia. Description: The population stretches from the Republic of Karelia over to Finland where it is only permanently present in the south-east of the country. The occasional presence in northern Finland is consistent with the situation in Murmanskaya Oblast, where indications are also much more scarce compared to Karelia. <br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Countries: Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Russia. Description: In the north (Estonia, north-eastern Latvia, and northern Belarus) the distribution is coherent with Russia. The rest of the range (southern Latvia, Lithuania, main parts of Belarus, Poland, the Ukraine, and Kaliningrad) is highly fragmented.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>Countries: Albania, FYR Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, potentially Greece. Description: Scattered distribution. Lynx occurs in the Albanian Alps and central-central east Albania, in western FYR Macedonia (mainly in the areas in and between the national parks Mavrovo, Galicica and Pelister, but most probably also in the Shar Planina Mts. bordering with Kosovo), as well as in Serbia (Kosovo and Metohija province) and Montenegro. From time to time single, unconfirmed observations in the border regions of Greece with FYR Macedonia and Albania.	eng
12519	habitat	IUCN Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment team, 2008	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia lynx occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. The species probably occurs throughout the northern slopes of the Himalayas, and has been reported both from thick scrub woodland and barren, rocky areas above the treeline. On the better-forested southern Himalayan slopes, there are only a few records from Nepal (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Karan Bahadur Shah pers. comm. 2008).  Lynx occur sporadically throughout the Tibetan plateau, and are found throughout the rocky hills and mountains of the Central Asian desert regions (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Eurasian lynx is the largest lynx, and the only one to primarily take ungulate prey, although they rely on smaller prey where ungulates are less abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In European Russia and western Siberia, where roe deer are absent, mountain hares and tetraonids form the basic prey base. Hares and birds are important prey also in other Central Asian regions where habitats are dryer and less forested (Breitenmoser and Breitenmoser-Würsten 2008, Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Lynx kill ungulates ranging in size from the 15 kg musk deer to 220 kg adult male red deer, but show a preference for the smallest ungulate species in the community (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Home range size varies widely (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), but averaged 248 km² for males (n = 5) and 133 km² for females (n = 5) in a radio telemetry study in Poland?s Bialowieza forest (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Densities are typically 1-3 adults per 100 km², although higher densities of up to 5/100 km² have been reported from eastern Europe and parts of Russia (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
12519	habitat	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia lynx occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. The species probably occurs throughout the northern slopes of the Himalayas, and has been reported both from thick scrub woodland and barren, rocky areas above the treeline. On the better-forested southern Himalayan slopes, there are only a few records from Nepal (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Karan Bahadur Shah pers. comm. 2008).  Lynx occur sporadically throughout the Tibetan plateau, and are found throughout the rocky hills and mountains of the Central Asian desert regions (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The Eurasian lynx is the largest lynx, and the only one to primarily take ungulate prey, although they rely on smaller prey where ungulates are less abundant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In European Russia and western Siberia, where roe deer are absent, mountain hares and tetraonids form the basic prey base. Hares and birds are important prey also in other Central Asian regions where habitats are dryer and less forested (Breitenmoser and Breitenmoser-Würsten 2008, Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Lynx kill ungulates ranging in size from the 15 kg musk deer to 220 kg adult male red deer, but show a preference for the smallest ungulate species in the community (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Home range size varies widely (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), but averaged 248 km² for males (n = 5) and 133 km² for females (n = 5) in a radio telemetry study in Poland’s Bialowieza forest (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 1997).  Densities are typically 1-3 adults per 100 km², although higher densities of up to 5/100 km² have been reported from eastern Europe and parts of Russia (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
12519	habitat	Manuela von Arx (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Cat Specialist Group), 2006	Throughout Europe and Siberia, lynx are associated primarily with forested areas which have good ungulate populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Central Asia they occur in more open, thinly wooded areas. Small ungulates are the lynx's primary prey (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). In Europe, the lynx's preferred diet includes roe deer and chamois. Lynx will also take larger ungulates such as red deer, moose, or wild boar occasionally. Where ungulates are not available, birds, hares and rodents form important prey. In Norway, Sweden and Finland, lynx also kill significant numbers of semi-domesticated reindeer. Depredation on sheep is also a problem in some countries.	eng
12519	population	Manuela von Arx (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Cat Specialist Group), 2006	Lynx in Europe were widely extirpated within the past several hundred years, reaching a nadir in the 1950s. Populations were reintroduced from the late 1970s onward, and the total number of lynx in Europe (excluding European Russia) is c.8,000. Populations in central and southern Europe remain very small and fragmented, although there are larger populations in Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, and European Russia (Breitenmoser <em>et al</em>. 2000). The lynx's stronghold is a broad strip of southern Siberian woodland stretching through eastern Russia from the Ural mountains to the Pacific.  There is little information on population status and trends from the lynx's wide Asian range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). For the European populations, detailed status and trend information can be found on <ahref="http://www.kora.unibe.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html">ELOIS</a> (the Eurasian Lynx Online Information System for Europe).	eng
12519	population	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The European lynx population (excluding Russia) has been estimated at 8,000.  Populations in central and southern Europe are small and fragmented, although there are larger populations in Fennoscandia and the Baltic states (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2000). Lynx in Europe occur in ten distinct subpopulations (IUCN 2007).  Detailed status and trend information can be found on www.kora.unibe.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html (ELOIS, the European Lynx Online Information System).<br/><br/>The lynx's stronghold is a broad strip of southern Siberian woodland stretching through eastern Russia from the Ural mountains to the Pacific, and the Russian lynx population has been estimated at 30,000-35,000 (Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Although large portions of its range lie in China, status there is poorly known, and the government considers the population to be decreasing in a recent global survey of lynx status (Govt of US 2007).  While lynx presence in the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia is uncertain, in the country of Mongolia Matyushin and Vaisfeld (2003) estimate the lynx population at 10,000.<br/><br/>In a survey of 37 lynx range state governments, 30% considered their national populations to be decreasing, 35% stable, 14% stable to slightly increasing, 16% increasing, and 8% unknown (Govt of US 2007).  The population in Afghanistan is considered to have decreased (Habibi 2004).	eng
12519	population	IUCN Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment team, 2008	The European lynx population (excluding Russia) has been estimated at 8,000.  Populations in central and southern Europe are small and fragmented, although there are larger populations in Fennoscandia and the Baltic states (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2000). Lynx in Europe occur in ten distinct subpopulations (IUCN 2007).  Detailed status and trend information can be found on www.kora.unibe.ch/en/proj/elois/online/index.html (ELOIS, the European Lynx Online Information System).<br/><br/>The lynx's stronghold is a broad strip of southern Siberian woodland stretching through eastern Russia from the Ural mountains to the Pacific, and the Russian lynx population has been estimated at 30,000-35,000 (Matyushkin and Vaisfeld 2003).  Although large portions of its range lie in China, status there is poorly known, and the government considers the population to be decreasing in a recent global survey of lynx status (Govt of US 2007).  While lynx presence in the Chinese region of Inner Mongolia is uncertain, in the country of Mongolia Matyushin and Vaisfeld (2003) estimate the lynx population at 10,000.<br/><br/>In a survey of 37 lynx range state governments, 30% considered their national populations to be decreasing, 35% stable, 14% stable to slightly increasing, 16% increasing, and 8% unknown (Govt of US 2007).  The population in Afghanistan is considered to have decreased (Habibi 2004).	eng
12519	threats	Manuela von Arx (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Cat Specialist Group), 2006	Lynx are vulnerable to destruction of their ungulate prey base. Hunting pressure may also play a role in lynx population declines. Habitat destruction through clear-cutting can have a negative effect on lynx abundance. There is no information beyond harvest reports on which to base an assessment of the biological impact of commercial trapping for furs, and thus its significance as a threat is difficult to judge (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cat Specialist Group 2002). The lynx's disappearance in lowland Europe was due to human persecution, deforestation, loss of prey species, expansion of agriculture and an increase in human populations. Although the lynx is not endangered, these threats still affect it today throughout Europe. Habitat loss, loss of prey due to logging and hunting, and human population pressures have serious negative impacts. Humans still present a major threat to the lynx, particularly to small or reintroduced populations. These groups can be devastated by traffic accidents or by unsustainable hunting and poaching. In Norway in 1998, licensed hunters killed 112 lynxes out of a total population of just 400-500. This scale of hunting may be unsustainable, particularly when compounded by illegal hunting. Threats to specific European populations are detailed below:<br/><br/>1. Jura<br/>Illegal killing, traffic accidents, limited dispersal.<br/><br/>2. Vosges-Palatinian.<br/>Illegal killing in the Vosges Mts., in general small population size with a rather limited potential to expand.<br/><br/>3. Alpine.<br/>Threats include illegal killing, infrastructure development (especially road constructions), vehicle and train collisions, and limited dispersal. A potential threat for the population in the Alps is the narrow genetic base: all of the relatively few founder animals came from the same region and some of them were probably closely related. First genetic analysis indicated that the Alpine population has a reduced allelic diversity compared to the Carpathian source population, and that it has today the smallest level of heterozygosity of all European lynx populations.<br/><br/>4. Bohemian-Bavarian.<br/>Illegal killing, habitat fragmentation due to road constructions.<br/><br/>5. Dinaric.<br/>Legal and illegal shooting, collisions with vehicles/trains, limited prey base.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian.<br/>Potentially illegal killing and habitat fragmentation due to infrastructure developments and wood cutting.<br/><br/>7. Scandinavian.<br/>Illegal killing, potentially legal harvest.<br/><br/>8. Karelian.<br/>Potentially harvest.<br/><br/>9. Baltic.<br/>Population fragmentation (in the south-west of the range), potentially illegal killing.<br/><br/>10. Balkan.<br/>Small population number, limited prey base and habitat degradation (especially in Albania), probably illegal killing.	eng
12519	threats	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007a, IUCN 2007).	eng
12519	threats	IUCN Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment team, 2008	While China and Russia had annual commercial exports of thousands of skins in the 1970s and 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996), this trade has ended in recent years (UNEP-WCMC 2008).  However, illegal skin trade remains the leading threat to the species, together with habitat loss and prey base depletion (Govt of US 2007a, IUCN 2007).	eng
12520	conservation	Von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	<em>Lynx pardinus</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix I, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is also fully protected under national law in Spain and Portugal, and is classed as Critically Endangered on the national Red Lists of both countries (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Public awareness and education programs have helped change attitudes towards the lynx particularly among private landowners in lynx areas. Two international seminars have been held, in 2002 and 2004, to establish a coordinated strategy to save the Iberian lynx from extinction (Olszanska and Breitenmoser 2004). A captive breeding programme has been started in Spain. In Portugal, the National Action Plan foresees a re-introduction programme. The construction of facilities for breeding and reintroduction has been prepared (ICN 2003, Sarmento <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the short term, <em>in situ</em> conservation efforts must concentrate on preserving the last two breeding populations in Coto Doñana and Andújar-Cardeña. Priority must also be given to maintaining several large areas (of at least 500 km²) of suitable habitat to harbour new lynx populations. The central and western regions of Sierra Morena and the Toledo Mountains, as well as other areas in Spain and Portugal naturally rich in rabbits, will be vital for this purpose. All lynx habitat must be strictly protected from further destructive infrastructure projects. Captive breeding is of critical importance for lynx recovery. In addition to providing a vital gene bank for the survival of the species, captive lynxes will be needed to recolonise the many areas where populations have collapsed. Efforts to stimulate rabbit recovery must also be intensified. Without sufficient prey density, lynx populations will continue to decline and reintroductions will not be feasible (in spite of recent rabbit conservation measures in Doñana National Park, such as restocking, protection of burrows and vegetation management, rabbit numbers remain low). An adaptive conservation process based on careful monitoring of the last populations and the results of the measures implemented is necessary to facilitate the survival of the Iberian lynx. Recovery plans in all regions where the lynx has occurred over the past decade also need to be rapidly implemented (IUCN 2007).	eng
12520	distribution	Von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The Iberian lynx is restricted to the Iberian peninsula, confined to scattered groups in the southwestern quadrant of the Iberian peninsula as a result of the fragmentation of their natural habitat by agricultural and industrial development. Only two or three groups in Spain are considered to have populations which could be viable in the long term.  It is possibly extinct in Portugal (IUCN 2007).	eng
12520	habitat	Von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The Iberian lynx occurs in Mediterranean woodland and maquis thicket. It favours a mosaic of dense scrub for shelter and open pasture for hunting rabbits (ICONA 1992). Palomares <em>et al.</em> (1991) examined habitat preferences of lynx in the Coto Doñana area of south-western Spain, including the national park and environs. Lynx were generally absent from cropland and exotic tree plantations (eucalyptus and pine), where rabbits were also scarce. In the park, radiotelemetry showed that more than 90% of daytime resting spots used by lynx were located in thick heather scrub (Beltrán <em>et al.</em> 1987). <br/><br/>The Iberian lynx is a specialised feeder, with rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>) accounting for 80-100 per cent of its diet. Other species occasionally taken include rodents, hares, partridges, ducks, geese, juvenile deer, and fallow deer, but these do not form an important part of the lynx's diet. Lynx often kill other carnivore species, including those regarded as pests by humans, such as feral cats and foxes, but do not eat them. The lynx's highly specialised diet makes it a naturally vulnerable species and the rapid decline in rabbit populations since the 1950s has had a direct impact on lynx numbers (IUCN 2007).	eng
12520	population	Von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The Iberian lynx occurs only in isolated pockets of Spain and possibly Portugal. The latest survey results from Spain suggest a minimum of 84 and a maximum of 143 adults surviving in two breeding populations: iin the Coto Doñana and near Andújar in the eastern Sierra Morena. The Doñana population numbers 24-33 adults and the Sierra Morena is the stronghold of the species with an estimated 60-110 adults. These populations are isolated from one another making them even more vulnerable. None of the remaining potential populations in East Montes de Toledo, West Sistema Central and some areas of central and western Sierra Morena is thought to include animals that breed regularly. Current numbers are not sufficient for the survival of the species in the long term and experts agree the cat is now on the brink of extinction. The latest population estimates represent a Spanish decline of more than 80 per cent since the last survey (1987-1988) suggested as many as 1,136 lynxes. A similar decline of 80 per cent was estimated in Spain for the period 1960-1978 (IUCN 2007). <br/><br/>In Portugal a sign search, camera trapping and box trapping survey conducted in 2002 by the Instituto da Conservacao da Natureza failed to detect a single lynx (Sarmento <em>et al.</em> 2004). The most recent evidence of the presence of lynx in Portugal comes from the discovery of a scat in the Guadiana area in 2001, which was identified by molecular analysis (Pires and Fernandes 2003). During the 1990s, a national survey based on personal interviews and dead animal records suggested a population of about 40 lynxes fragmented in small subpopulations in five different areas: Algarve mountains, Sado Valley, Guadiana, S. Mamede and Malcata. However, further local field surveys indicated the absence of resident animals, pointing to a pre-extinction scenario (Pinto 2000, Fernandes <em>et al.</em> 2001, Sarmento <em>et al.</em> 2004)	eng
12520	threats	Von Arx, M. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The Iberian Lynx is a naturally vulnerable species because of its dependence on only one prey species, the rabbit, and its narrow habitat spectrum. The dramatic decline in rabbit populations, caused by habitat changes and myxomatosis since the 1950s and Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) since the late 1980s, has therefore had a direct impact on lynx numbers. Over-hunting of rabbits and other human activities have further compounded the problems of prey scarcity. In recent years, prey scarcity has been compounded by high rates of non-natural mortality and habitat destruction and fragmentation. <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction, deterioration and alteration have impacted negatively on the lynx for centuries. Notable examples since the middle of the 20th century include the planting of Mediterranean scrublands with pines and eucalyptus and more recently the over stocking of deer and livestock on private estates and the opening up of roads and forest tracks in previously remote areas. The lynx's preferred habitat mosaic has also suffered at the hands of afforestation and scrub clearance schemes, road building, dam construction, and the building of holiday homes. New infrastructure projects continued to fragment lynx populations and created new barriers in corridor areas between the remaining populations in the 1960s. More than forty separate lynx populations in Spain and Portugal appear to have collapsed since the early 1980s. WWF Spain/Adena has identified 53 different public works that will affect important areas for the Iberian lynx. Heavier and faster traffic is also taking an unacceptably high toll on lynx each year as juveniles venture away from their areas of birth in search of new habitats. This high mortality has been an important factor in the decline of the species, particularly in the areas surrounding Doñana National Park. <br/><br/>The Iberian Lynx received protection against hunting in the early 1970s and since then hunting has dropped off. However, some lynxes are still shot and killed in traps and snares set for smaller predators, particularly on commercial hunting and shooting estates (IUCN 2007).	eng
12521	conservation	Kelly, M., Caso, A. & Lopez Gonzalez, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II.  The Mexican subspecies <em>L. rufus escuinapae</em> was listed on CITES Appendix I until 1992, when it was downlisted to Appendix II on the grounds that it is not a valid taxa (Govt of US 2007).  Bobcats are legally harvested for the fur trade in 38 US states, and in seven Canadian provinces.  In Mexico, the bobcat is legally hunted in small numbers as a trophy animal (Govt of US 2007). There appears to be little illegal international trade (Govt of US 2007), although within the US Millions and Swanson (2006) used molecular forensics techniques to determine that skins reported as originating from an area wiith a higher bag limit were probably illegally taken from an area with a lower limit.	eng
12521	distribution	Kelly, M., Caso, A. & Lopez Gonzalez, C., 2008	Bobcats occur mostly in the United States, but also into southern Canada and northern Mexico.  Historically, bobcats ranged throughout the contiguous US, but were extirpated from parts of the midwest and East coast (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), although they appear to be recolonizing or becoming more abundant (Govt of US 2007).  Their range in Canada has been expanding northward with forest clearance (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  While generally favoring low and mid-elevations, in the western US they have been trapped at elevations up to 2,575 m (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Mexico, radio-collared bobcats were located at 3,500 m on the Colima Volcano in western Mexico (Burton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12521	habitat	Kelly, M., Caso, A. & Lopez Gonzalez, C., 2008	In the US, the bobcat ranges through a wide variety of habitats, including boreal coniferous and mixed forests in the north, bottomland hardwood forest and coastal swamp in the south-east, and desert and scrubland in the south-west. Only large, intensively cultivated areas appear to be unsuitable habitat. Areas with dense understory vegetation and high prey density are most intensively selected by bobcats (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The requisite features of bobcat habitat typically include areas with abundant rabbit and rodent populations, dense cover, and shelters that function as escape cover or den sites (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In Mexico, bobcats are found in dry scrub and grassland, as well as tropical dry forest including pine, oak and fir (Monroy-Vilchis and Velazquez 2003, Arzate <em>et al.</em> 2007, C. Lopez-Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).  <br/><br/>Like its close relative <em>Lynx canadensis</em> the bobcat preys primarily on lagomorphs (rabbits), but is much less of a specialist.  Rodents are commonly taken, and bobcats are capable of taking larger prey, including young ungulates (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Home ranges vary with ecological setting, from 6 km² for female bobcats in southern California to 325 km² for male bobcats in upstate New York.  Bobcats in northern and western portions of the United States are consistently larger than those in the south, possibly because the warmer climates provide a less variable prey base (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Density estimates include 48/100 km² in Texas (Heilbrun <em>et al.</em> 2006); 25/100 km² in Arizona (Lawhead 1984); 25-30/100 km² in NW Mexico (Moreno <em>et al.</em> in press); <9/100 km² in Idaho (Knick 1990);  and 11/100 km² in Virginia (minimal estimate, M. Kelly pers. comm. 2007).  Bobcat densities in the northern parts of their range are generally lower than in the south (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  However, the first density estimate for bobcats in Mexico is low, at five individuals per 100 km² (Arzate <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
12521	population	Kelly, M., Caso, A. & Lopez Gonzalez, C., 2008	In the early 1980s, state wildlife authorities estimated the total US bobcat population at 725,000 to 1 million (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  There have been no subsequent national population estimates, but bobcats are considered to be increasing by the national governments of both the US and Canada (Govt of US 2007).  In a few midwestern US states bobcats have a limited distribution.  The population in Mexico is not well known; it appears to be very rare in some areas in central Mexico (A. Caso pers. comm. 2007).	eng
12521	threats	Kelly, M., Caso, A. & Lopez Gonzalez, C., 2008	World demand for bobcat fur rose gradually in the late 1960's and early 1970's and jumped in the mid-1970's after CITES entered into force, when the pelts of cats listed on Appendix I became legally unobtainable for the commercial fur trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The bobcat is now the leading felid in the skin trade, with most exports coming from the US.  From 1990-1999, annual exports averaged 13,494; in 2000-2006 the average climbed to 29,772, with an all-time high of 51,419 skins exported in 2006 (UNEP-WCMC 2008).<br/><br/>The US government has found that trade is not detrimental to bobcat survival and is well-managed by state authorities.  They have petitioned CITES numerous times, most recently in 2007, to remove the bobcat from the CITES Appendices, arguing that the bobcat does not meet the biological criteria for CITES listing and that their research indicates that importing governments should be able to reliably distinguish bobcat skins from other species to prevent illegal trade (Govt of US 2007).  However, the proposal was rejected by majority vote of the Parties to CITES (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat loss is viewed as the primary threat to bobcats in all three range countries.  There is concern in the northeastern US about interspecific competition with expanding coyote populations (Moruzzi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Litvaitis and Harrison 1989, Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006).  However, in Florida, where coyotes have also increased, Thornton <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that bobcats and coyotes favoured different prey species, with coyotes taking larger ungulates and bobcats rodents and smaller mammals.<br/><br/>In localized areas bobcats take domestic livestock and are persecuted as pests (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
12525	conservation	Wilson, K., 2006	Protection of forests is needed.	eng
12525	distribution	Wilson, K., 2006	Bangladesh, Burma, China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan), India, and Japan (Ryukyus).	eng
12525	habitat	Wilson, K., 2006	Montane forests.	eng
12525	population	Wilson, K., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12525	threats	Wilson, K., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
12548	conservation	Htun, S., Timmins, R.J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J., 2008	Internationally, this species is listed under Appendix II in CITES. Regionally, India lists it as schedule II under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001) amended up to 2002. The species is also protected in national wildlife acts of Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Myanmar.<br/><br/>Stump-tailed macaques are found in a number of protected areas throughout their range, including: Balpakram National Park, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park (India); Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand). They may possibly occur in Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary (India), and in Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR).	eng
12548	distribution	Htun, S., Timmins, R.J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J., 2008	This species is found in Cambodia, south-western China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces), north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura provinces), Lao PDR, north-western Peninsular Malaysia, northern Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. It appears to be absent from most of Myanmar and Thailand; records are only from the far north of Myanmar and from the border ranges between the two countries south into the peninsula, with a few dubious records in central and north-western Thailand. It was formerly found in eastern Bangladesh as well, but may now be extinct there. In China it is found south of 25°N. The species has been introduced to Hong Kong. In north-eastern India, it has long believed to be restricted to the south bank of the Brahmaputra River (Choudhury 1988), yet Srivastava and Mohnot (2001), J. Das (pers. comm.) and Chetry <em>et al.</em> (2003) report possible records of this species from Namdapha National Park, though they were morphologically distinct from other representatives of the species, and could represent an undescribed subspecies.	eng
12548	habitat	Htun, S., Timmins, R.J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J., 2008	This species ranges from tropical semi-evergreen forest to tropical wet evergreen forest and tropical moist deciduous forest. It prefers dense evergreen forests (Choudhury 2001). Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) report it from lowland semi-evergreen forests to monsoon and montane forests. In India it occurs at elevations of 50-2,700 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; Choudhury 2001, 2002; Srivastava and Mohnot 2001), between 200 and 2,200 m in Myanmar (Htun pers. comm.), and up to 2,400 m in China (X. Jiang pers. comm.); in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia it is predominantly found above 400 m, while in karst limestone environments it is found in much lower elevations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is considered arboreal as well as terrestrial, and is diurnal. It feeds primarily on seeds and fruits. It has a generation time of 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It eats fruit, insects, small vertebrates, and immature leaves, and will also raid crops for potatoes and rice. It occurs widely in the hill and mountain areas of Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Thailand it is widespread but discontinuous, in forests associated with limestone, and other forest habitats (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). In China it is found in broadleaved evergreen forests, and sometimes in secondary forests close to farmlands (X. Jiang pers. comm.)	eng
12548	population	Htun, S., Timmins, R.J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J., 2008	Populations in South Asia and in Myanmar are few and fragmented (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; S. Htun pers. comm.). This species is suspected to be extinct in Bangladesh, having last been recorded there in 1989 (M. Feeroz pers. comm.). It is very scarce all over its range in north-eastern India (Choudhury 2001). However, it is common in the mountains of Nagaland, Manipur, and eastern Mizoram (Choudhury 2001). In China the species is still common in Yunnan, though the populations are thought to be lower in the eastern portions of its range (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002); there is an estimated 3,500 individuals remaining in the country, but in many places, the populations have gone extinct locally (Chang pers. comm.). There are no available population estimates for this taxon in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand (R. Boonratana pers. comm.), although the population is likely to be large, as the species is frequently encountered throughout the range of distribution in these countries. <br/><br/>Populations of this species are critically threatened in India, declining in Myanmar, stable in Thailand, and declining rapidly in China and Viet Nam. There are some declines in Lao PDR and Cambodia. Future declines are predicted to be faster in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, India, Myanmar and China due to habitat loss and/or hunting.	eng
12548	threats	Htun, S., Timmins, R.J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J., 2008	Habitat disturbances affecting this species' survival include selective logging, timber and firewood collection for charcoal, building roads, dams, power lines and fisheries, deliberately set fires, fragmentation, and soil loss/erosion. These animals are hunted and traded for food, sport and traditional “medicine,” and accidental mortality due to trapping occurs. There is a local trade for bones, meat for food and the live animals as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>In India much of its habitat is affected by Jhum cultivation (shifting or slash-and-burn) (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). It has also been indiscriminately hunted to the brink of extinction over almost its entire distribution in this country (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, this species is heavily targeted for use in traditional “medicine,” both in country and for trade with China. Within Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia, hunting levels for food is also very high. Habitat loss is a relatively lower threat compared to hunting (R. Timmins pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, logging and timber extraction are major threats. Commercial rubber plantations, hunting, and trade of animals parts with China are all major threats to this species.<br/><br/>In China, hunting and habitat loss have reduced in population of this species, and it is locally extinct in some places.<br/><br/>In Thailand, habitat loss is a major threat, while hunting is prevalent, but not a significant threat to the species (R. Boonratana pers. comm.).	eng
12549	conservation	Boonratana, R., Chalise, M., Das, J., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed in Appendix II of CITES (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is legally protected in all countries of occurrence. For the populations that reside in India, the species is listed under Schedule II, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002) (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Bangladesh it is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. In Myanmar it is legally protected according to the 1994 Wildlife Protection Law. In Thailand the species is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act, 1960.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from at least 41 protected areas in northeastern India, and maybe four others (Choudhury 2001), and may also be found in the following protected areas: Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR); Langtang National Park, Makalu Barun National Park (Nepal); Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Khieo Widlife Sanctuary (Thailand); Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam).	eng
12549	distribution	Boonratana, R., Chalise, M., Das, J., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	<em>M. assamensis</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, southwestern China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Tibet and Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northwestern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam. It is found from central Nepal east into northern Myanmar and southeast through southernmost China to the upper Mekong in Tibet, and in the east into southern Guizhou to Hoi Xuan in Viet Nam and Thateng in Lao PDR; the range continues south through the Myanmar/Thailand border ranges as far as Chongkrong, as well as to the Sunderbans in Bangladesh. There is a gap in northeastern India between the two main population pockets, specifically between central Bhutan and the south side of the Brahmaputra; the east bank of its upper course, the Dhibang, marks the division between the two subspecies (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. a. assamensis</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bhutan, southwestern China (Guangxi, Guizhou, Tibet, and Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura), northern Lao PDR, Myanmar, northwestern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam. Found north along the Dihang River and its Tibetan tributary the Ngagong (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>M. a. pelops</em><br/>This taxon occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, northern India (Assam, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Nepal. Found from central Nepal through Sikkim and northernmost West Bengal into central Bhutan and the Sunderbans; apparently occurs as well north of the Himalayan crest in the Bhong Valley (Groves 2001).	eng
12549	habitat	Boonratana, R., Chalise, M., Das, J., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is diurnal and omnivorous, and at times both arboreal and terrestrial. It prefers dense forest (Choudhury 2001), and does not usually occur in secondary forest. <br/><br/>It is found in tropical and subtropical semi-evergreen forests, dry deciduous and montane forest (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001; R. Boonratana pers. comm.). Particular habitats and niches vary some depending on the subspecies. This species is found from the floodplains to the high mountains, up to 2,800 m, and sometimes 3,000 m in the summer (Choudhury 2001), and perhaps up to 4,000 m (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is generally an upland species, and usually associated with hill areas above 1,000 m. In the wetter east the species may also frequent areas that do not or only marginally reach 1,000 m and may occur even in the lowlands. In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species is predominantly associated with high altitudes, usually above 500 m. In forests on limestone karst the species occurs in much lower elevations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). The generation of this species is 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003)	eng
12549	population	Boonratana, R., Chalise, M., Das, J., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	There is little information available on the global population, but it is thought to be relatively high. There is decline in the wild populations in certain countries, but not throughout the distribution. It is probably the most common macaque species in Lao PDR, where it is widespread through hill and mountain forest ranges, though no population estimate is available (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Nepal the taxon is also restricted to less than 300 mature individuals, distributed in eight subpopulations, with no subpopulation having more than 50 mature individuals. There is no information on population estimates from Thailand (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). In northern Myanmar it is a very common species, but information from the eastern part of the country is not available (S. Htun pers. comm.). Due to hunting pressure, macaques in Viet Nam are scarce. However, there is no precise information for this species on population and status (R. Timmins pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>M. a. assamensis</em> is relatively widespread in its extent of occurrence (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India, the population was found to have a group density of 1.11/km<sup>2</sup>, and an average group size of 13.93 individuals (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is the most abundant monkey in the mountains of Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury 2001). In China, there are estimated to be over 3,000 individuals (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>M. a. pelops</em> is only found in adjacent populations in India, Bhutan, and adjacent China. There are likely less than 1,000 individuals remaining (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>A subpopulation of <em>M. assamensis</em> is endemic to Nepal and relegated to a single population there, and is considered as a possible new subspecies (M. Chalise pers. comm.). However, further taxonomic clarification is needed.	eng
12549	threats	Boonratana, R., Chalise, M., Das, J., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The threats to this species' habitat include selective logging and various forms of anthropogenic development and activities, alien invasives, and hunting and trapping for sport, “medicine,” food, and the pet trade. Additionally, hybridization with adjacent species poses a threat to some populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although it has a wide distribution, the species is considered to be threatened in most parts of its range. Habitat destruction is the primary cause of the decline. <br/><br/>Habitat destruction poses the greatest risk to this species in northeastern India (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001). However, it has been hunted in the Himalayan regions of North Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, where it frequently invades crops (Srivistava and Mohnot 2001). Locals use skulls as an “evil eye” in front of houses in northeastern India (Das pers. comm.). There has been extensive habitat loss over the last 15 years in several states of northeastern India (from 30-60%), with major impacts on <em>M. a. assamensis</em>. <br/><br/>The Nepal population of <em>Macaca assamensis</em> is threatened due to its restricted distribution of less than 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> extent of occurrence and 914 km<sup>2</sup> area of occupancy and continuing decline in area, extent and quality of habitat, the number of locations and in the number of mature individuals—the latter two conditions being inferred from threats to habitat and population from degradation and hunting, respectively. Given its restricted extent of occurrence, threats on its population and habitat, and small numbers in fragmented patches, the Nepal population of this macaque is categorized as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Thailand habitat loss is the primary threat, hunting for food less so (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). It is protected only in temples.  <br/><br/>In eastern Myanmar habitat loss is the primary threat, but hunting is presumed to occur. They are hunted to make footwear, and the skins are taken to Tibet as it is more profitable than taking it to Yunnan province of China. In northern Myanmar, hunting and habitat loss due to conversion are the major threats. There is more than 30% decline in forest cover over the last 30-35 years. The combination of habitat loss and hunting heavily impacts the subpopulations, and the threats are likely to continue in the next three decades if the demand for this continues in Tibet (S. Htun pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the primary threat is hunting for food and for bones to make balm and/or glue. The bones are not used within Lao PDR, but sold to Viet Namese and traders within Lao PDR. The balm is used for pain relief and other speculative “medicinal” purposes. The trade also goes into China (R. Boonratana pers. comm.). This species has declined in Viet Nam and Lao PDR in the last 30-35 years by more than 30%, and is expected to continue to decline in the future.<br/><br/>In Tibet the habitat is good, but there is some hunting, and no detailed data exists for <em>M. a. pelops</em> from that region of China (Z. Zhou <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.). For <em>M. a. assamensis</em>, hunting is a major threat. Logging has ceased, but was a major threat for the last 30 years. Conversion to pastures is still ongoing, but not a significant threat. There are extensive habitats still left for this subspecies and the taxon is relatively safe.	eng
12550	conservation	Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed as CITES Appendix II. In Taiwan it is listed as a category II (rare and valuable) protected species and is protected by Wildlife Conservation Law. The species occurs in 5 national parks and 12 nature reserves/protective areas, and 11 major wildlife habitats/refuges provide less disturbed habitats for the species. <br/>Recent conservation measures appear to be working, with numbers believed to be on the rise; however, this increase is also contributing to the level of conflict with humans (for example crop raiding, and even a few instances of monkey attacks on people). Elsewhere, the species is becoming dependent upon food handouts (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
12550	distribution	Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan. The main distribution rests on the central mountain range, with some local subpopulations scattered in peripheral lowland forest remnants. The extent of occurrence, estimated by the total forested area in Taiwan, was 19,501 km<sup>2</sup>. Although once thought to have once been associated with coastal areas, it is now largely confined to inland hills owing to human activity.<br/> <br/>Introduced feral subpopulations have become established at four localities in Japan: Oshima (south of Tokyo), Nojima (south of Nagoya), Wakayama prefecture (south of Osaka, where it has hybridized with <em>Macaca fuscata</em>), and the Shimokita Peninsula (northern Honshu) (Fooden and Wu 2001).	eng
12550	habitat	Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	The primary habitat of the species is broadleaved evergreen forest. It also inhabits mixed broadleaf-coniferous forest, coniferous forest and bamboo forest (Fooden and Wu 2001). The species is adaptable and, though always associated with forested areas, can be found in secondary forest and remnant forest patches, and can enter agricultural areas for food (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006). The species ranges in elevation from sea level to 3,600 m although in a survey the species was found most often in broadleaved forest at 1,000-1,500 m elevation (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>It is terrestrial and arboreal, diurnal, and feeds on fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates.<br/><br/>Reproduction is strongly seasonal in this species. Birth occurs between February and August, with birth frequency peaking during April and June (Fooden and Wu 2001; Hsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Females first give birth at 4 or 5 years of age. Annual birth rate is around 0.70 (Fooden and Wu 2001), in lowland broadleaved forest, it is reported to be 0.69 in a wild troop (Wu and Lin 1992) and 0.78 in a provisioned subpopulation (Hsu <em>et al. </em>2006). Annual birth rate may be lower in troops inhabiting higher elevation (Fooden and Wu 2001).	eng
12550	population	Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	In a survey done along 37 routes (1,211.8 km in total), the estimated density was higher in broadleaved forest, and the estimated island-wide population was approximately 10,000 ± 5,000 troops (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2002). The local density is highly variable, depending on forest disturbance and hunting. In recent years, the species has been reported as increasing, but the reason for this is unknown and could be an artefact due to increased survey work in natural areas (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006). There has not been extensive monitoring, but the global population does not appear to be significantly declining (Hai Yin Wu pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>At one time it was found in large groups of up to 100, in recent years average group size has become much smaller (typically 2-10) owing to human pressures (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
12550	threats	Hai Yin, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	There are no major threats. However, the local populations species may be impacted by habitat loss for agriculture and development, especially in lower elevations. Also, there is some illegal hunting and non-target trapping, but not at a level to constitute an overall threat to the species. Monkey-human conflict in agricultural fields and around villages can be intense against the species and its protected status.	eng
12551	conservation	Ong, P. & Richardson, M., 2008	The species is included in Appendix II of CITES. It is listed on Schedule I, Part I, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002, and Schedule III, Bangladesh Wildlife (Protection) Act A 1974 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Myanmar it is a “normally” protected species. It is a protected on Appendix 2B on Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range and is relatively common in captivity (M. Richardson pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is a need for further survey work to assess the current population status of the various island forms. In particular, following the Indian Ocean Island tsunami of December 2004, a targeted survey is required to establish their current status on the Nicobars.	eng
12551	distribution	Ong, P. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, India (Nicobar Islands), Indonesia (including Bali, Bangka, the Batu Islands, Bawean, Belitung, Java, Kalimantan Borneo, the Kangean Islands, Karimata, Karimunjawa, Lingga, Lombok, the Natuna Islands, Nias, Nusatenggara, the Riau Archipelago, Simeulue, Sumatra, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor), Lao PDR, Malaysia (including the Peninsula as well as Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), the Philippines (Balabec, Basilan, Cagayan Sulu, Culion, Jolo, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palawan, and Samar), Singapore, Thailand (including offshore islands), Timor-Leste and Viet Nam. On mainland Southeast Asia, there is a hybrid zone with <em>Macaca mulata</em> in central areas that makes it difficult to determine the northern limits of its range. The species has been introduced to Kabeana Island, Indonesia, the Pacific island of Palau, Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, and to New Guinea (Groves 2001) (these introduced populations are not included in the distribution map). <br/><br/><em>M. f. fascicularis</em>  <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (including Bali, Bangka, the Batu Islands, Bawean, Java, Kalimantan Borneo, Karimata, Lingga, the Natuna Islands, Nias, Nusatenggara, the Riau Archipelago, Sumatra, Sumba, and Timor), Malaysia (including the peninsula as well as Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), the Philippines (western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago), Singapore, southern Thailand (including offshore islands), and southern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. aureus</em> <br/>Occurs in southernmost Bangladesh, Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago) and west-central Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. umbrosus</em> <br/>Occurs on Nicobar Islands of India (Little Nicobar, Great Nicobar and Katchall), where it is found up to 600 m (Umapathy <em>et al</em>. 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>M. f. fuscus</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Simeulue, off the northwestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. condorensis</em>  <br/>Occurs on Con Son Island, off the coast of southern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. tua</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Maratua, east of Borneo, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. philippensis</em><br/>Occurs in the Philippines. Found on the islands of Balabac, Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Busuanga, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Culion, Leyte, Luzon, northeastern Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Palawan, Samar and Sibuyan (Groves 2001; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/><em>M. f. lasiae </em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Lasia, off the northewestern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. karimondjawae</em><br/>Occurs on Pulau Karimunjawa and (probably) nearby Pulau Kemujan, Java Sea, Indonesia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>M. f. atriceps</em><br/>Occurs on Khram Yai Island, off the southeastern coast of Thailand (Groves 2001).	eng
12551	habitat	Ong, P. & Richardson, M., 2008	The species is extremely tolerant of a range of habitats, including mangrove and swamp forests, and can be found in agricultural areas near forest (secondary growth, secondary forest, and primary forest) (Thomas 1898; Fooden 1991, 1995; Rabor 1986; Goodman and Ingle 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994). On the Nicobars, <em>M. f. umbrosus</em> is found in mangroves and coastal forests dominated by <em>Pandanus</em> species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <em>M. f. aureus</em> is found in evergreen forests and coastal mangroves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species has been reported as occurring to elevations of up to 1,000 m on Java, Borneo, and Sumatra (Indonesia), and up to 1,800 m in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). On the mainland, it generally occurs at lower elevations: up to 700 m in Thailand, while in Cambodia and Viet Nam it generally occurs below 300 m. This species is semi-terrestrial, diurnal, and omnivorous (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
12551	population	Ong, P. & Richardson, M., 2008	This is a widespread and often abundant species, and is sometimes commensal with humans. In the Philippines, it ranges from being locally common to uncommon, though this is largely dependent upon hunting pressure. In Bangladesh, the population has been estimated at less than 100 total individuals, and a population on the Teknaf Peninsula has been completely decimated due to development activities (ship-building) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/>There is a paucity of information available on the population status of several island forms. Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated about 4,800 individuals of <em>M. f. umbrosus</em>, but nothing is known about the status following the December 2004 tsunami. The islands of Katchall and Little Nicobar were submerged during the tsunami, and it is believed to have affected the habitat of this taxon; on the other hand, Shankaran <em>et al</em>. (2005) state that these macaques were not affected seriously on Greater Nicobar Island. The disaster could have impacted their populations on these two islands due to the fruiting <em>Pandanus</em> being affected by the tsunami (M. Singh pers. comm.). The population on Con Son (<em>M. f. conderensis</em>) likely numbers less than 1,000 individuals, and a number of other island forms probably have a similar status.	eng
12551	threats	Ong, P. & Richardson, M., 2008	Across much of the range, the major threat to the species is hunting. In mainland Southeast Asia, such as in Cambodia and Viet Nam, females are taken into breeding facilities and males are exported internationally primarily for use in laboratory research. A potential related issue is the release of confiscated long-tailed macaques from the border area of Viet Nam and China (which is where most of the current international trade is being recorded) into the native range of other macaque species. In the Philippines, the species is subject to a high level of hunting, where it is taken for local consumption and hunted for sport. It is also persecuted as a pest. Habitat loss is also a localised threat, but the species can persist in a variety of habitats and very adaptable.	eng
12552	conservation	Watanabe, K. & Tokita, K., 2008	This species is listed under CITES – Appendix II, and had been officially protected from hunting in Japan since 1947. It is known from most of the National and Quosi-National Parks in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu: Ashizuri-Uwakai NP, Aso NP, Bandai-Asahi NP, Chubu-Sangaku NP, Daisetsuzan NP, Fuji-Hakone-Izu NP, Hakusan NP, Jo-shin-Etsu Kogen NP, Karishima-Yaku NP, Minami Alps NP, Nichinan Kaigan Quasi NP, Nikko NP, San-In Kaigan NP, Seto Inland Sea NP, Seto Naikai NP, Takasakiyama NP, Towada-Hachimantai NP (M. Richardson pers. comm.). The species is quite common in captivity (ISIS, 2007).	eng
12552	distribution	Watanabe, K. & Tokita, K., 2008	This species is present in Japan on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the islands of Awaji, Shodo, Yaku, Kinkazan (Miyagi Prefecture), Kojima (Miyazaki Prefecture) and others. It was previously found on Tane Island, where it is now extinct (Abe 2005).	eng
12552	habitat	Watanabe, K. & Tokita, K., 2008	This species occurs in broad-leaved deciduous and evergreen forest, from subtropical lowlands to sub-alpine regions of up to 1,500 m asl (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on fruit, leaves, berries, seeds, small animals, insects, and cultivated crops, and bark (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
12552	population	Watanabe, K. & Tokita, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan.  It is common, widespread and increasing in recent years, although a few populations in Tohoku District are threatened (Ministry of the Environment, 2007). Population density is usually larger in broad-leaved evergreen forests than in broad-leaved deciduous forests (Abe 2005). On Yaku Island, a survey conducted in 1991 and 1992 (Yoshihiro <em>et al.</em> 1998) estimated 131 troops containing 2,000-3,850 individuals in a coastal area of 12.7 km².	eng
12552	threats	Watanabe, K. & Tokita, K., 2008	There are no major threats at the species level. There are two localities where hybridization with the introduced <em>Macaca</em> spp. is known to occur: Taiwanese Macaque (<em>Macaca cyclopsis</em>) in Wakayama Prefecture; and Rhesus Macaque (<em>M. mulatta</em>) in Chiba Prefecture (Abe <em>et al.</em>  2005). However, in the former case, most individuals have been removed (Watanabe pers. comm.). Each year, over 10,000 individuals are killed to prevent agricultural damage (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005), and this situation may require more careful population management.	eng
12553	conservation	Supriatna, J., Shekelle, M. & Burton, J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in 4 protected areas (Bantimurung National Park, Bulu Saraung National Park, Hasanuddin National Park, Karaenta Nature Reserve); however, the total protected area in the extent of occurrence is only 87 km<sup>2</sup>. There is an urgent need to address the cement mining of karst areas as this and other species have been protected by the prior inaccessibility of these formations.	eng
12553	distribution	Supriatna, J., Shekelle, M. & Burton, J., 2008	This species occurs only on the south-western peninsula (Selatan) of Sulawesi Island (Okamoto <em>et al.</em> 2000), south of the Tempe depression, in Indonesia.	eng
12553	habitat	Supriatna, J., Shekelle, M. & Burton, J., 2008	In the north of its range this species is found in rainforest as well as deciduous forests and karst islands, while in the southern parts it tends to occur in mosaics of forest with some grasslands, probably due primarily to habitat availability. They occur below 2,000 m. It is diurnal and frugivorous, but will also consume leaves and arthropods. Females reach sexual maturity in 6-7 years, and inter-birth intervals averaged 32 months (Okamoto <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
12553	population	Supriatna, J., Shekelle, M. & Burton, J., 2008	From 1983 to 1994 population estimates for moor macaque apparently went from 56,000 individuals to under 10,000 (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2001), but they may or may not still be in decline. However, the survey methods used in these two population estimates were different, and the level of decline over three generations is more likely to be between 50 and 80%, than greater than 80% (J. Burton pers. comm.). The well-studied population that lives in Karaenta Nature Reserve reached a density of 70 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> as of 1998 (Okamoto <em>et al</em>. 2000). In 1992, Supriatna <em>et al.</em> (1992) conducted an extensive survey and found only 3,000-5,000 individuals (2,500 mature) of the species. They estimated densities to be 25-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (18.7SD).	eng
12553	threats	Supriatna, J., Shekelle, M. & Burton, J., 2008	The major threat to moor macaques and other Sulawesi macaques seems to be habitat disturbance and fragmentation (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is poisoned and trapped by local farmers where they are considered crop raiders. Increasing human settlement has marginalized the species to karst areas that cannot be developed. However, cement mining is destroying these areas and may be a serious threat to all species persisting in karst in the near future. These animals are frequently kept as pets by local people.	eng
12554	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Richardson, M., Chhangani, A. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is also listed in Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 and in Schedule I, Part I in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002), on Category II of the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act (1989), and is protected with all other primates in the Nepalese National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. Protection status varies widely throughout the species range. <br/>Rhesus macaques reside in a large number of protected areas throughout their range.	eng
12554	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Richardson, M., Chhangani, A. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	The species as a whole is found throughout most of southern Asia, in eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, central and southern China (Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Tibet, and Yunnan, as well as the island of Hainan), northern and central India (in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, northern Pakistan, northern Thailand, and Viet Nam. <br/><br/>It occurs to the north of the Krishna River in central and eastern India and to the north of the lower Tapti River in western India, north into Afghanistan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and northeast into China, where it extends to the Yangtze and north of its middle course to about 33°N, 110°E. It is absent north of the lower Yangtze, but there is an additional, possibly introduced population in northern China north of the lower Hwang He (Yellow River), formerly occurring as far as Beijing (Groves 2001). <br/>    <br/>There are introduced populations (mostly not mapped) in areas within this region as well as outside it, for instance south of the Krishna River in India; Kowloon and a few small islands near Hong Kong; and to various other locations worldwide, including parts of Florida, USA and on Cayo Santiago island near Puerto Rico (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
12554	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Richardson, M., Chhangani, A. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is diurnal and omnivorous, and alternatively arboreal and terrestrial. It resides in a range of habitats, including temperate coniferous, moist and dry deciduous, bamboo, and mixed forests, mangroves, scrub, rainforest, and around human habitations and developments, including cultivated areas, temples, and roadsides (Choudhury 2001; Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). In Pakistan this monkey remains in mountainous regions with forest cover; it is typically associated with Himalayan moist temperate forest (Roberts 1997). It is found at elevations up to 4,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Due to hunting in Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species does not occur in commensal situations there, and is restricted to forest areas where it is generally associated with riverine environments over a range of altitudes (Timmins pers. comm.). In western and northern parts of its range it seems to occur in a wider array of environments. It is highly adaptable to man-made habitat. Its generation time is 12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12554	population	Timmins, R.J., Richardson, M., Chhangani, A. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is widely distributed in south, southeast and east Asia. Populations are sizable, but increasingly commensal with humans, resulting in some fragmentation of the distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It can be abundant in many places, including in cities. Hunting of this species in Lao PDR and Viet Nam has severely depressed populations in these countries although it still remains widespread. In Namdapha National Park, India, this species was found to have a group density of 0.44 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 12.3 individuals (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003). The average group size in other parts of India is much higher (Siddiqui and Southwick 2004). Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) consider this species to be rare in the forests of north-eastern India.	eng
12554	threats	Timmins, R.J., Richardson, M., Chhangani, A. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is generally unthreatened, though its original habitat is increasingly being lost to development. While <em>M. mulatta</em> exists easily around humans, the increasing level of cohabitation has been associated with waning levels of human tolerance for the animals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Confiscation for laboratory testing is a mostly localized threat, but it is considerable in certain areas (A. Kumar pers. comm.). Capture and release of laboratory and “problem monkeys” from rural and urban areas into natural forests is a major threat to wild macaques.<br/><br/>In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the major threat to the species is hunting, although loss of forest in river valleys has also likely impacted the species (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Indochina hunting pressure is high, and thus tolerance to human disturbance is low.<br/><br/>Introduction, through release of confiscated <em>M. fasicularis</em>, is at least a localized threat in parts of the species' Viet Namese range (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Tolerance of the species varies locally, from heavily hunted and persecuted, to worshipped and fed.	eng
12555	conservation	Richardson, M., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Konstant, B., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.	eng
12555	distribution	Richardson, M., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Konstant, B., 2008	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Kalimantan Borneo, and Sumatra), Malaysia (including the Malay Peninsula and Sabah and Sarawak Borneo), and southern peninsular Thailand. There are small, introduced populations on Singapore and in the Natuna Islands (Groves 2001). The precise geographic boundary between <em>M. nemestrina</em> and <em>M. leonina</em> is not well defined. There are populations of the two taxa found on either side of the distribution limit in the Isthmus of Kra, but many of these populations are the result of release by humans. The two species hybridize in a small area of southern peninsular Thailand, as well as on the islands of Phuket and Yao Yai (Groves 2001).	eng
12555	habitat	Richardson, M., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Konstant, B., 2008	This is a predominantly terrestrial animal, although it readily climbs and forages in the forest canopy. It is diurnal and frugivorous. It occupies lowland primary and secondary forest, as well as coastal, swamp and montane forest. It prefers dense rainforest at all elevations, but is equally at home in agricultural land.	eng
12555	population	Richardson, M., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Konstant, B., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range, but numbers have been severely reduced in many places due to hunting and habitat loss.	eng
12555	threats	Richardson, M., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Konstant, B., 2008	These animals are threatened by loss of habitat, which is very serious in many parts of its range. There is extensive loss of lowland forest in Malaysia and Indonesia to expanding oil palm plantations, as well as to logging and agricultural expansion. This species is also frequently shot as a crop pest (M. Richardson pers. comm.) and hunted for food.	eng
12556	conservation	Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas (Gunung Lokon, Gunung Amban,Tangkoko Batuangus, Dua Saudara, and Batu Putih). However, there is urgent action needed to stop the encroachment into protected areas especially Tangkoko, which represents the most likely viable natural remaining population of the species to survive. <em>M. nigra</em> is relatively common in captivity.	eng
12556	distribution	Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N., 2008	This species occurs on northeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia and the adjacent islands of Pulau Manadotua and Pulau Talise. It was historically found on Pulau Lembeh as well but has probably been extirpated from there. On Sulawesi it is found on the northern arm east of the Onggak Dumoga River and Mount Padang to the tip of the peninsula (Groves 2001). There is a sizeable introduced population on Pulau Bacan in the Maluku Islands (Indonesia).	eng
12556	habitat	Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N., 2008	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations. It is frugivorous, but will also eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).	eng
12556	population	Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N., 2008	Density is estimated to be approximately 3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, except in Tangkoko Batuangus where it is approximately 60 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (J. Supriatna pers. comm.). The introduced population on the island of Pulau Bacan in the Moluccas probably numbers at least 100,000 individuals (Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 1998), but is not considered in this assessment.	eng
12556	threats	Supriatna, J. & Andayani, N., 2008	There is extensive habitat loss within its range. Hunting for bush meat is a major threat, so although the habitat appears to be intact in many places much of it is currently unoccupied. Some animals are also caught for the live animal trade. Extensive illegal ?small scale? open area mining for gold, using mercury, within the parks is a regional threat. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing threat. This is probably the most threatened primate species on Sulawesi (J. Burton pers. comm.).	eng
12557	conservation	Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata ochreata</em> occurs in the following protected areas: Rawa Aopa Watomahai, Padang Mata Osu, Tanjung Peropa, Tanjung Batikolo and Faruhumpenai Nature Reserve (Riley <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Macaca ochreata brunnescens</em> occurs in the following protected areas: Buton Utara, Buton Lambusango Nature Reserve, and Napabalano.	eng
12557	distribution	Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is found on Sulawesi, Indonesia, and on the adjacent islands of Muna and Butung; it possibly occurs on the islet of Palau Labuan Blanda, as well. <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata ochreata </em><br/>Occurs on Sulawesi. Found on the whole of the southeastern peninsula, extending to the north of the lakes region. In the east, the border between <em>M. o. ochreata</em> and <em>M. tonkeana</em> is the La River; in the west, <em>M. o. ochreata</em> extends west along the coast, across the Karaena River in its lower course, but does not reach into the uplands further inland (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Macaca ochreata brunnescens </em><br/>Occurs on Muna, Butung, and possibly the neighbouring islet of Palau Labuan Blanda (Groves 2001).	eng
12557	habitat	Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations, up to 800 m. It is frugivorous, but will eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).	eng
12557	population	Supriatna, J., 2008	Density estimates from four locations range from 10 to 40 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (J. Supriatna pers. comm.). Group size ranges from 12 to 30 individuals.	eng
12557	threats	Supriatna, J., 2008	There is extensive habitat loss within its range. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing threat, as are oil palm and cacao plantations, as well as cotton cultivation, are displacing the natural habitat. Expanding human settlements are also a problem. There is extensive illegal ?small scale? open area gold mining, using mercury, within protected areas. All of these factors are combining to increase the rate of habitat loss. Animals are also poisoned for crop raiding.	eng
12558	conservation	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II.  Conservation strategy for commensals would be to protect patches of scrub forests in hilly terrains with temples (M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, including: Aralam Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Bannerghatta National Park, Bhadra Sanctuary, Bondla Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Chinnar Sanctuary, Dandeli Sanctuary, Eturnagaram Sanctuary, Gundlabrahmeshwaram Sanctuary, Idukki Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Lanja Madugu Sivaram Sanctuary, Mollem National Park, Mollem Sanctuary, Mudumalai NP, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Mukurthi National Park, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Nagarahole National Park, Nagarjuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Nellapattu Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Radhanagari Sanctuary, Ranganthitu Sanctuary, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Silent Valley National Park, Sri Venkateswara National Park, Tansa Sanctuary, Thattekkad Sanctuary, Wynaad Sanctuary, and others (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. r. diluta</em> occurs in Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Point Calimere Sanctuary and Shendurney Sanctuary(Molur <em></em>et al. 2003)	eng
12558	distribution	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). It is found from the southern tip of India up to the southern banks of Tapti River in the north, and to the Krishna River in the northeast. <br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em><br/>It occurs in peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). It is found in the major portion of the species’ range south to the Palni Hills and southeast as far as Timbale, inland of Pondicherry.<br/><br/><em>M. r. diluta</em><br/>It occurs in southeastern coastal India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu). It is found from the south tip and southeastern coast of India, north to Kambam in the Western Ghats, at the southwestern foot of the Palni Hills in the centre and Pondicherry in the east.	eng
12558	habitat	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is both arboreal and terrestrial. It is found in all forest types from scrub to evergreen and deciduous forest, plantations, agricultural lands, and urban areas, and is tolerant of disturbed habitats (Corbet and Hill 1992; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It prefers elevations below 2,000 m, but may be found up to 2,600 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. r. radiata</em> is widely distributed and is mostly commensal, while <em>M. r. diluta</em> is more restricted in its distribution, is mostly forest-dwelling, and does not occur as abundantly as the nominate subspecies (A. Kumar pers. comm.). This species is mainly frugivorous, preferring ripe fruits, but will also eat leaves, insects, and cultivated crops such as potatoes, carrots, peas, radishes, beans, cauliflowers, grain, rice, peanuts, squash, coconuts, and coffee beans.	eng
12558	population	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	There is a very high global population, and the species is locally abundant, including in anthropogenic habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species is largely commensal and densities in forests are quite low. There has been a significant decline reported around Mysore in recent years: 41% in the last 20 years in certain habitats and an overall 21.5% decline in 20 years in commensal areas (Singh and Rao 2004; M. Singh pers. comm.). Decines have also been noted at Dharwad (M. Singh pers. comm.). This declining trend could be true in other parts of its range due to increased intolerance by humans (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).	eng
12558	threats	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is locally hunted, with an active local trade in live animals for research and road shows (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Human-animal conflict in agricultural and urban areas is an increasing threat to the species.	eng
12559	conservation	Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	There should be management of private lands, which hold perhaps a quarter of the remaining populations: this would ideally include maintaining coffee and cardamom plantations where populations remain (the species cannot persist on tea plantations). The second major need is to improve the remaining fragments that are not in conflict with agriculture. Further management of this species requires the remediation of the effects of habitat disturbance and fragmentation, including the linking of forest fragments and the manipulation of demographic structures. Because females often choose new males as mates, and the dispersal of new males is restricted due to habitat isolation, such mating opportunities should be offered through the translocation of males between groups. Small populations might also be receptive to certain tree species that, while offering shade to the farmers who grow coffee, also offer fruits and seeds on which these monkeys can subsist (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Areas where lion-tailed macaques occur consist of protected areas, nominally-protected areas, and unprotected areas. In Karnataka the list of protected areas includes the Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Mookambika Sanctuary, Pushpagiri Sanctuary, Sharavathi Valley Sanctuary, Someshwara Sanctuary, and Talakaveri Sanctuary. In Kerala the protected areas include the Aralam Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, and Silent Valley National Park, and in Tamil Nadu protected areas include Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a proposed Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (Megamalai), in which the species occurs.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES, and Schedule I, Part I, of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The following are recommended research actions (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003): genetic research, life history, epidemiology, and limiting factor research. Management actions recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) are: limiting factor management, wild population management and monitoring, public education, captive breeding, and captive management (research and preservation of live genome).	eng
12559	distribution	Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats hill ranges in southwestern India from the Kalakkadu Hills (8°25’N) north to Anshi Ghat (14°55’N) (Fooden 1975), in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Although the species has a relatively wide range, its area of occupancy is small and severely fragmented (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12559	habitat	Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	Mainly arboreal, this species prefers the upper canopy of primary tropical evergreen rainforest (Singh <em>et al</em>. 2002) but may also be found in monsoon forest in hilly country and in disturbed forest. It is even known to persist in areas with human-planted fruit trees such as Jack fruit, guava, passion fruit, and others, although populations fluctuate based on fruit tree availability within a forest fragment. They range in elevation from 100 to 1,800 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). They are frugivorous/insectivorous.<br/><br/>The species seems largely to be a seasonal breeder, with births temporally clumped along with the fruiting season dictated by monsoonal climate (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the wild females first give birth at about 80 months, and have an inter-birth period of about 34.3 months. The generation length is approximately 13 years.	eng
12559	population	Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	The total wild population is estimated to be less than 4,000 individuals, made up of 47 isolated subpopulations in seven different locations; these subpopulations tend to be small and in forest fragments that are isolated from each other (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Singh <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Few subpopulations have the structure and habitat suitable for self-sustainment, where 10-15 groups share or connect their home ranges and interbreed. In the Sirsi-Honnavara rainforests of the northern Western Ghats in Karnataka, for instance, a subpopulation consisting of 32 groups in a contiguous tract of habitat exists where less than 6 groups survived 20 years prior in the early 1980s (Kumara and Singh 2004). The forests of Kerala host up to 1,216 adult lion-tailed macaques, according to a large study using estimates from forest sightings (Easa <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Tamil Nadu, the Anaimalai Hills support about 500 individuals, though only two subpopulations there are composed of more than 2 groups, one has 7, the other 12 (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2002). Overall the species is declining in forest fragments, and stable in protected areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12559	threats	Kumar, A., Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	The major threat to this species today is habitat fragmentation, with many of these fragments being further decreased. In the past, habitat loss was due mainly to timber harvest and the creation of exotic plantations such as tea, eucalyptus and coffee. Habitat degradation seems to the biggest threat to the conservation of lion-tailed macaques wherever they occur in Kerala (Easa <em>et al</em>. 1997). In private forests and plantations, change in land use is a problem for the species. Hunting is a second major threat, especially in certain parts of its range. In one location, Coorg, with a large area of remaining wet evergreen habitat, the species is highly threatened by non-subsistence and subsistence hunting for food (Kumara and Singh 2004). In some areas, primate meat is preferred as food, and so the animals face serious hunting threats (Kumara and Singh 2004). A local trade exists for pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in Coorg the animals were often hunted in the past for “medicinal” uses. Certain features of the reproductive biology and ecology of this species (such as large inter-birth periods, seasonal resource availability, and female competition for mating opportunities) combine to make it intrinsically rare in the wild. The populations already reduced to low numbers are in special need of active management (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
12560	conservation	Dittus, W., Watson, A. & Molur, S., 2008	Although protected internationally under CITES Appendix II, this is the only endemic species not protected by law in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/><em>M. s. sinica</em> and <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> are known to occur in numerous protected areas, including: Attidiya-Belanwila Sanctuary, Buddaragala Sanctuary, Dombagaskande Forest Reserve, Elehara Forest Reserve, Flood Plains National Park, Gal Oya National Park, Kanthale Naval Sanctuary, Kaudulla National Park, Kitulgala Sanctuary, Kurulukelle Sanctuary, Madura Oya National Park, Menikdena Archaelogical Reserve, Minneriya-Giritale National Park, Moragaswewa National Park, Muthurajawela S. Polonnaruwa Sanctuary, Remmalakanda Forest Reserve, Rendenigala Sanctuary, Ritigala Nature Reserve, Ruhuna National Park, Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sirigiriya Sanctuary, Somawathie National Park, Thangamalai Sanctuary, Udawalawe National Park, Udawattekele Sanctuary, Wasgamuwa National Park, Wilpattu National Park, Yala National Park (Sri Lanka). <em>M.  s. opisthomelas</em> is not found in any protected areas, though it formerly occurred in Horton Plains National Park.	eng
12560	distribution	Dittus, W., Watson, A. & Molur, S., 2008	The species as a whole is endemic to Sri Lanka. The subspecies <em>M. s. sinica </em>is found in the north and east of the island, <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> in the south-west, and <em>M. s. opisthomela</em>s in the central part. The species and the subspecies are very fragmented in their distribution, with the wet zone form, <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> being highly restricted to less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> in extent of occurrence and less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> in area of occupancy (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
12560	habitat	Dittus, W., Watson, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in a variety of forest types (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003) at all altitudes up to about 2,100 m (Corbet and Hill 1992). <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> is found in lowland and midland tropical rainforest and wet zone lowland forests, <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> in montane tropical rainforest, and <em>M. s. sinica</em> in dry evergreen forest near water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is mainly arboreal and diurnal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is frugivorous, but also consumes flowers and insects, and has been known to raid crops and garbage dumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12560	population	Dittus, W., Watson, A. & Molur, S., 2008	Studies on <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> suggest that the animals live in smaller troops as forests become increasingly disturbed in the wet zone, and the home range becomes much wider.<br/><br/>Very little is known about the population of <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em>, though some studies exist for <em>M. s. sinica</em> (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>M. s. sinica</em> has been affected in the past by stochastic events.	eng
12560	threats	Dittus, W., Watson, A. & Molur, S., 2008	The chief threat to this species is habitat loss owing to the encroachment of plantations, and fuel wood collection. Other threats include shooting, snaring and poisoning of the animals, as they are considered to be crop pests (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><br/>According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country lost 50% of its forest cover and more than 50% if the last 10 years (1994-2003) are included. There is a 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. Therefore, the species is reduced numerically minimally by 50% (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). Much of the original forested habitat of <em>M. s. aurifrons</em> in the southwest rainforest areas has been converted to agriculture, home gardens and plantations. These habitats are inimical to macaque survival because the animals are not tolerated by humans (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition, 80% of hill country forests were lost to tea plantations during the 19th century. <em>M. s. opisthomelas</em> has been reduced numerically by >80% over 200 years. This trend is continuing as high elevation natural forests are being converted to agriculture (vegetable plots and dairy pasture) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003) The Mahaweli Development Scheme has destroyed much dry-zone forest habitat of <em>M. s. sinica</em> (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. s. aurifrons </em>and <em>M. s. sinica</em> are kept as pets, which is a threat in the dry zone (Nekaris pers. comm.). The animals are increasingly being used as target practice by the Sri Lankan and Tamil armies (Santiapillai and Wijeymohan 2003).	eng
12561	conservation	Butynski, T.M., Cortes, J., Waters, S., Fa, J., Hobbelink, M.E., van Lavieren, E., Belbachir, F., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K., Mouna, M., de Iongh, H., Menard, N. & Camperio-Ciani, A., 2008	<em>M. sylvanus</em> receives some protection under national and international legislation. Collection and export of <em>M. sylvanus</em> are regulated by a system of permits in Morocco, but enforcement of the legislation is inadequate. Deag (1977) mentions a maximum quota for trade of 100 macaques per year in Morocco. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (EC 338/97, Annex B). In 2000, the European Community suspended imports of <em>M. sylvanus</em> from Algeria and Morocco under the provisions of Article 4.6b of EC Regulation 338/97 because such trade was deemed to have a harmful effect on the species' status. <br/><br/>Over the last few decades there have been repeated surveys of the species in the wild, mainly carried out by scientists from outside the range states. The national authorities are aware of these surveys but do not always support or agree with the outcome (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). The Moroccan authorities initiated studies on the ecology, demography and genetics of the Moroccan Middle Atlas population to run from 2006-2008 (M. Mouna pers. comm. 2006, N. Menard pers. comm. 2008). These studies are conducted by N. Menard’s team and will provide new information on population demographics and density.<br/><br/>In both Morocco and Algeria, the national forestry departments are responsible for the management and the protection of flora and fauna. There has been much debate about appropriate management of M. sylvanus. The national forestry department in Morocco contends that there are too many macaques in the region (due to the disappearance of predators such as the leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>), and that they are responsible for the degradation of cedar forests through their bark stripping behaviour. Consequently culls and translocations have been carried out in some areas (F. Cuzin pers. comm.  2007). However, field studies and surveys indicate that the population is declining and that bark stripping behaviour is potentially induced by water shortage (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2003), although the latter assertion is controversial as bark-stripping has been observed to occur when drinking water is freely available and water content in bark is lower than that found in other available food resources (Menard and Qarro 1999). An alternative hypothesis is that Barbary Macaques strip cedar bark when some nutrients they search for are unavailable in other food resources (N. Ménard unpubl. data).<br/><br/>A number of activities have been undertaken to increase public awareness and reduce illegal trade in this species. AAP (a Netherlands-based sanctuary for exotic animals) has initiated a project to combat illegal trade of Barbary Macaques into Europe, involving inter alia awareness raising among potential buyers, cooperation with authorities in the consuming countries and training of customs officers in Spain (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). In Algeria, the ecological association Amazer-N’-Kefrida carried out public education and awareness raising campaigns in 2006 and 2007, against illegal trade, commercial uses, and improper artificial feeding of Barbary Macaques, closely collaborating with the Gendarmerie Nationale (National Gendarmery), the Algerian Customs, the Laboratory of Ecology and Environment of the Université de Béjaïa, the General Forests Directorate, and the National Parks (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Most habitats of <em>M. sylvanus</em> in Algeria have national park status. This is not the case for all the habitats in Morocco. A part of the Rif mountains has national park status, and there are plans to make the cedar/mixed forest in the central Middle Atlas a national park, but a large part of the species' habitat in Morocco lies outside protected areas. Protected areas containing populations of this species include the Toubkal National Park, Eastern High Atlas N.P., Ifran N.P., Talassemtane N.P., Bou Hachem Reserve and Djebel Moussa N.P. in Morocco, and the Djurdjura, Taza, Chréa, and Gouraya National Parks in Algeria. However, the parks in Algeria and Morocco suffer from significant human impact, and all these areas required much stricter protection than is currently in place. Barbary Macaques breed well in captivity. The possibility of reintroducing animals to northern Tunisia, where they went extinct in the 1900s, should also be studied.	eng
12561	conservation	Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani, 2006	<em>M. sylvanus </em>receives some protection under national and international legislation. Collection and export of <em>M. sylvanus</em> are regulated by a system of permits in Morocco, but enforcement of the legislation is inadequate. The National forestry department Eaux et Forets is the responsible authority (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). Deag (1977) mentions a maximum quota for trade of 100 macaques annually in Morocco. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (EC 338/97, Annex B). In 2000, the European Community suspended imports of <em>M. sylvanus</em> from Algeria and Morocco under the provisions of Article 4.6b of EC Regulation 338/97 because such a trade was deemed to have a harmful effect on the conservation status of the species. These import suspensions remain in force under the most recent EC suspensions regulation (EC252/2005). <br/><br/>Over the last few decades there have been repeated surveys of the species in the wild, mainly carried out by scientists from outside the range states. The national authorities are aware of these surveys but do not always support or agree with the outcome (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). The Moroccan authorities have planned a new survey on the Moroccan Middle Atlas population in 2007 (M. Mouna pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>Most habitats of <em>M. sylvanus</em> in Algeria have national park status. This is not the case for all the habitats in Morocco. A part of the Rif mountains has national park status, and there are plans to make the cedar/mixed forest in the central Middle Atlas a national park, but a large part of the species' habitat in Morocco lies outside protected areas. In both Morocco and Algeria, the national forestry departments are responsible for the management and the protection of flora and fauna. There has been much debate about appropriate management of <em>M. sylvanus</em>. The national forestry department in Morocco believes that there are too many macaques in the region (due to the disappearance of predators such as the leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>), and that they are responsible for the degradation of cedar forests through their bark stripping behaviour. There has even been talk of culling or translocating a part of the population (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). However, field studies and surveys indicate that the population is declining, and that bark stripping behaviour is probably induced by water shortage (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2003). The forestry department plans to start a new research project on the status of the Barbary macaque in the central Middle Atlas region, but some scientists have expressed concern that this is not necessary and may postpone the action needed to protect the species (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). AAP (a Netherlands-based sanctuary for exotic animals) has initiated a major project to combat illegal trade of Barbary macaques into Europe, involving <em>inter alia </em>awareness raising among potential buyers, cooperation with authorities in the consuming countries and training of the customs officers in Spain. This project is carried out in collaboration with IUCN Netherlands, who are currently working to protect cedar forests in Morocco (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The Gibraltar population is intensively managed, receiving supplementary food and vetinary care (Hodges and Cortes 2006).	eng
12561	distribution	Butynski, T.M., Cortes, J., Waters, S., Fa, J., Hobbelink, M.E., van Lavieren, E., Belbachir, F., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K., Mouna, M., de Iongh, H., Menard, N. & Camperio-Ciani, A., 2008	The Barbary Macaque is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert, the only native species of primate to occur in Europe, and the only member of the genus Macaca that can be found outside Asia. The species was once an inhabitant of parts of Europe and all of North Africa (Delson 1980; Camperio Ciani 1986). In historic times it was it was widespread throughout north Africa from Libya to Morocco, but its current distribution is limited to small relict patches of forest and scrub in Algeria and Morocco (Fa 1984; Camperio Ciani 1986; Menard and Vallet 1993; Scheffrahn <em>et al.</em> 1993). A semi wild population lives in Gibraltar, which is a long established introduced population (Fa 1981; von Starck 1990; Hodges and Cortes 2006). <br/><br/>In Morocco, <em>M. sylvanus</em> can still be found in the Rif mountains (northern Morocco) and the Middle and High Atlas mountains (central and southern Morocco). In Algeria, it is found in the Tellian Atlas (Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie mountains, and an isolated population in the Chréa National Park) (northern Algeria). More specifically, in Morocco the High Atlas populations (two anciently separated populations) are found in the Bou Tferda valley to Demnat region and around the Ourika Valley, respectively; the Rif populations are primarily on Mounts Lakraa, Tissouka, Tazoute, Bouhacham, and Djebel Moussa. In Algeria, from west to east, Barbary Macaque populations are distributed as follows: (a) Chiffa gorges (Chréa National Park); (b) Djurdjura forests and rocky cliffs (Djurdjura National Park, Grande-Kabylie); (c) Akfadou forests, including a small ‘subpopulation’ recently settled in degraded forests and maquis, near El-Kseur (Grande-Kabylie and Petite-Kabylie); (d) Cap Carbon, Aiguades and Pic des Singes (Gouraya National Park; Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (e) Chaabet-el-Akhra Gorges (Kherrata; Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (f) ‘Massif des Babors’ forests (Sétif and Béjaïa, Petite-Kabylie); (g) Guerrouch forest (Taza National Park; Jijel, Petite-Kabylie). Additionally, a Barbary Macaque population might still occur in Djebel Bouzegza (Boumerdes, Grande-Kabylie) (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007).    <br/><br/>The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Cuzin 2003), but in Morocco at least it is most common at altitudes above 1,000 m (F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
12561	distribution	Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani, 2006	The Barbary macaque is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert, the only species of primate to occur in Europe (apart from <em>Homo sapiens)</em>, and the only member of the genus <em>Macaca</em> that can be found outside Asia. The species was once an inhabitant of parts of Europe and all of North Africa (Delson 1980, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1986) but the current distribution of the Barbary macaque is limited to relict forest areas in Algeria and Morocco (Fa 1984, Camperio Ciani 1986, Menard and Vallet 1993, Scheffran <em>et al.</em> 1993). A semi wild population lives in Gibraltar, which is a long established population that is almost certainly introduced (see discussion below) (Fa 1981, von Starck 1990, Hodges and Cortes 2006). In Morocco, <em>M. sylvanus</em> can still be found in the Rif mountains (northern Morocco) and the Middle and High Atlas mountains (central and southern Morocco). In Algeria, it is found in the Petit and Grande Kabylie mountains (northern Algeria) (Taub 1977). It occurs from sea level to 1,900 m, but in Morocco at least it is most common at altitudes above 1,600 m (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In mainland Europe, macaques were widespread during the Pleistocene, but disappeared thereafter. However, there are no fossil or subfossil remains known from Gibraltar, suggesting that the species is not native to this promontory (Hodges and Cortes 2006). It has been speculated that macaques may have been introduced to Gibraltar in early historic times, by the Phoenicians, Romans, or Moors, who kept these animals as pets (von Starck 1990), but there is no conclusive evidence to support this (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The first definite records date from the 1700s onwards, when the island was occupied by the English (Hodges and Cortes 2006). The population was driven close to extinction by disease or persecution on a number of occasions, but each time was replenished by animals imported from North Africa (von Starck 1990). Genetic studies have confirmed that the current population are descendants of a mixture of Algerian and Moroccan stock (Modolo <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
12561	habitat	Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani, 2006	In Algeria, occupied habitats include mixed cedar and oak forests, humid Portuguese oak (<em>Quercus faginea</em>) and cork oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) mixes and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation (Taub 1977). Moroccan habitats include high cedar forests (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>), cedar/holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) mixtures, pure holm oak forests and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation. In the High Atlas mountains the population of Barbary macaques is restricted to the Ourika valley, where only a small relict population survives (Taub 1977) in a habitat of holm oak and juniper (<em>Juniperus phoenica</em>) scrub on steep mountain slopes. The Rif mountains of Morocco contain a few fragmented and small populations in disjunct remnants of mixed woodland (Taub 1975, Deag 1974, Waters <em>et al</em>. 2007). The cedar/oak forests of the Middle Atlas region contain the largest remaining population of <em>M. sylvanus</em>, and are considered to be optimal habitat for the species (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001). In cedar habitats, macaques can reach densities of 25-40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> or greater, whereas in habitats without cedar much lower densities of 5-7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are reported (Fa 1984, Mehlman 1989). All the areas occupied by the macaque are under growing pressure from human activity and the habitat availability for the <em>M. sylvanus</em> has severely decreased over the last decades (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006).<br/><br/><em>M. sylvanus</em> live in social groups of up to 30 individuals of both sexes. Life span in the wild is known to be up to 22 years of age (Lindenfors 2002). Females reach sexual maturity between 2.5 and 4 years of age and males between 4.5 and 7 years of age. Average age at first birth is 4.8 years for females (Lindenfors 2002), and the birth interval is two years (Taub 1974 in Fa 1984).	eng
12561	habitat	Butynski, T.M., Cortes, J., Waters, S., Fa, J., Hobbelink, M.E., van Lavieren, E., Belbachir, F., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K., Mouna, M., de Iongh, H., Menard, N. & Camperio-Ciani, A., 2008	This species shows a preference for high-altitude cedar forests, and is also found in oak forests, coastal scrub, and overgrazed rocky slopes with vestigial vegetation.  It is confined to inaccessible rocky areas, gorges, and montane areas (from sea level up to approximately 3500 m) due to habitat use conflicts with humans in more favourable areas. All the areas occupied by the macaque are under growing pressure from human activity and habitat availability for M. sylvanus has decreased markedly in recent decades (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006). <br/><br/>In Algeria, occupied habitats include mixed cedar (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>) and oak forests; humid zen oak (<em>Quercus canariensis</em>) and cork oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) mixes; Algerian fir (<em>Abies numidica</em>), cedar  and zen oak mixed forests; and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation (Taub 1977; F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). Moroccan habitats include high cedar forests (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>), cedar/holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) mixtures, pure holm oak forests and cliffs and gorges dominated by scrub vegetation. The cedar/oak forests of the Middle Atlas region contain the largest remaining population of <em>M. sylvanus</em>, and are considered to be optimal habitat for the species (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2001). In habitats with cedar, macaques can reach densities of 25-40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> or greater, whereas in habitats without cedar much lower densities of 5-7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> are reported (Fa 1984; Mehlman 1989). In all occupied habitats, there is a species of oak available (F. Cuzin pers. comm., 2007). <br/><br/>Its diet is primarily composed of cedar (<em>Cedrus atlantica</em>) and the oak (<em>Quercus</em> sp.), which make up over 50% of its total intake. It eats fruits (33% of its intake), tree leaves (16%), and other plant parts (24%). <br/><br/><em>M. sylvanus</em> lives in social groups of up to 80 individuals of both sexes with a modal size of 40 individuals (Ménard 2002). Life span in the wild is known to be up to 22 years (Lindenfors 2002). Females reach sexual maturity between 3.5 and 4 years of age and males between 4.5 and 7 years of age. In the wild, average age at first birth is 5.3 years for females (Ménard and Vallet 1993, 1996; Lindenfors 2002), and the birth interval is 1.3 years (Taub 1974 in Fa 1984; Ménard and Vallet 1993, 1996).	eng
12561	population	Butynski, T.M., Cortes, J., Waters, S., Fa, J., Hobbelink, M.E., van Lavieren, E., Belbachir, F., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K., Mouna, M., de Iongh, H., Menard, N. & Camperio-Ciani, A., 2008	In 1999 the total number of remaining macaques was estimated at around 15,000 individuals (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999), although this estimate was based on incomplete data. The Moroccan population was more recently estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Ross 2004), whereas in 1975 it was about 17,000 (Taub 1975). In Algeria, the population was estimated at 5,500 30 years ago (Taub 1977) but may currently be less, although exact numbers are unknown (Hodges and Cortes 2006). On Gibraltar, the population has been maintained at c.200 individuals in recent years (Hodges and Cortes 2006). <br/><br/>According to Moroccan authorities the number of macaques has increased over the last decade (van Lavieren 2006). However, a number of detailed surveys have documented marked declines in population density, along with losses of a number of sites (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999; Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2005; van Lavieren 2006). The remaining subpopulations in the Rif mountains and High Atlas mountains of Morocco are fragmented and sometimes small. Fourteen isolated populations were identified in the High Atlas (Cuzin 2003). Algerian subpopulations are also fragmented (Mehlman 1989; Fa 1984; Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999). In 1999, just seven widely separated isolated populations existed, whereas 35 years ago they were found in at least six additional localities in Algeria (Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999). The remaining isolated populations are now completely separated by distances of 50-100 km, with no corridors. The only area where <em>M. sylvanus</em> is thought to occur in relative abundance is the cedar forest area of the central Middle Atlas, which represents the largest refuge of the North African forest ecosystem. In the 1980s it was estimated that 65-75% of the world's remaining population of <em>Macaca sylvanus</em> lived in this area (Camperio Ciani 1986). The populations in the Middle Atlas outside the central region were found to be much lower in density (Taub 1975). The central region of the Middle Atlas thus has a crucial role in the survival of the species. In the mid-1970s, population densities in the central Middle Atlas cedar forest were variously estimated at 60-70 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Deag 1974) or 43 per km<sup>2</sup> (Taub 1975). Subsequent studies showed that the population density in this region declined from 44 to 25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> over the last two decades of the 20th century (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 1999). In 2005, surveys in the Middle Atlas showed an average density of 15 to 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (van Lavieren 2006), in some areas dropping to an average density of 7-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Camperio Ciani <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys conducted in 2006-2007 show that some habitat fragments contained only one or a few small groups. The population density in these fragments was little more than 0 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> and local extinction appears imminent (N. Ménard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>These data indicate that, in the central Middle Atlas (the global stronghold of the species), average population density has declined by c.50-80% over the last 30 years. Because of political unrest, many other macaque populations have not been censused since 1990 (K. de Smet pers. comm. 2007), so the population trend in these areas cannot be quantified but a declining trend is suspected.	eng
12561	population	Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani, 2006	In 1999 the total number of remaining macaques was estimated at around 15,000 individuals (Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999), although this estimate was based on incomplete data. The Morocco population was more recently estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Ross 2004), whereas in 1975 it was about 17,000 (Taub 1975). In Algeria, the population was estimated at 5,500 30 years ago (Taub 1977), but is currently much less, although exact numbers are unknown (Hodges and Cortes 2006). On Gibraltar, the population has been maintained at c.200 individuals in recent years (Hodges and Cortes 2006). Consequently, the global population of <em>M. sylvanus</em> is now estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals (Hodges and Cortes 2006). According to Moroccan authorities the number of macaques has increased over the last decade (van Lavieren 2006). However, a number of detailed surveys have documented marked declines in population density, along with losses of a number of sites (Von Segesser <em>et al</em>. 1999, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005, van Lavieren 2006). The remaining subpopulations in the Rif mountains and High Atlas mountains of Morocco are fragmented and small. The same can be said for the Algerian subpopulations (Mehlman 1989, Fa 1984, Von Segesser <em>et al.</em> 1999). In 1999, just seven widely separated isolated populations existed, whereas only 35 years ago they were found in at least 6 additional localities in Algeria (Von Segesser <em>et al</em> 1999). The remaining isolated populations are now completely separated by distances of 50-100 km, with no corridors. The only area where <em>M. sylvanus</em> is thought to occur in relative abundance is the cedar forest area of the central Middle Atlas (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1995, van Lavieren 2006), which represents the largest refuge of the North African forest ecosystem. It was estimated that 65-75% of the world' s remaining population lived in this area (Camperio Ciani 1986). The populations in the Middle Atlas outside the central region are much lower in density (Taub 1975). The central region of the Middle Atlas thus has a crucial role in the survival of the species. In the mid-1970s, population densities in the central Middle Atlas cedar forest (the stronghold of the species) were variously estimated at 60-70 individuals per km<sup>2 </sup>(Deag 1974) or 43/km<sup>2</sup> (Taub 1975). More recent surveys showed that the population in this region declined from 44 to 25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> over the last two decades of the 20th century (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1999) - a decline of 43% over 20 years. The most recent surveys in the Middle Atlas show an average density of 15 to 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (van Lavieren 2006), in some areas dropping to an average density of 7-10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2005). Thus over the last 30 years a decline of 53-79% in the average population density is apparent, with declines in some areas being even greater.	eng
12561	threats	Thomas Butynski, John Cortes, Sian Waters, John Fa, Maria Elisa Hobbelink, Mohamed Mouna and Andrea Camperio-Ciani, 2006	Major threats to <em>M. sylvanus</em> include habitat destruction and degradation (including dessication) and illegal live trade (Fa 1984; Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2005; van Lavieren 2004; Hodges and Cortes 2006). Severe habitat loss and degradation have been caused by domestic and industrial consumption of wood, use of fire, clearing for cultivation and overgrazing by sheep and goat herds (Taub 1977, Fa <em>et al.</em> 1984, Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 1986, Menard and Vallet, 1993). Additionally, in the last ten years the drought in Morocco has prompted shepherds to settle near water sources. As shepherd tribes move into the forest region, they often enclose open water sources with cement wells so they can extract water for their herds. As a result, macaques and other wildlife have been excluded from water sources in areas where it was previously accessible to them (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Live trade is the second largest threat to the wild <em>M. sylvanus</em> population. Most of the specimens taken from the wild are for the international pet trade. In comparison with the international trade, offtake for local purposes is low. <em>M. sylvanus</em> seems to be rarely used for food, except for some reports in Algeria (Deag 1977). In the 1960s, a large number of macaques was captured for the use in laboratories in Casablanca, Tangier and Spain (Deag 1977), but this is no longer permitted in Morocco (A. Camperio Ciani pers. comm. 2003). <em>M. sylvanus</em> are kept fairly frequently as pets in Morocco (van Lavieren 2004). Reports of capture for the international pet trade date back to 1977 (Deag 1977). Since then, the trade has increased markedly (van Lavieren 2004). Sanctuaries and zoos in Europe have become overstocked with Barbary macaque infants offered to them by authorities and ex-owners, most infants coming straight from the wild (van Lavieren 2004). Infant <em>M. sylvanus</em> are very “cute” and are offered openly and covertly for sale on markets all over Morocco (van Lavieren 2004), resulting in frequent impulsive purchases mainly by tourists. Prices of up to 200 Euro per animal have been recorded (van Lavieren 2004). This problem has become so severe that there is only one animal sanctuary in Europe that continues to accept Barbary macaques, leading to many confiscated animals being euthanised (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). It is estimated that 300 infants are taken annually from the Moroccan habitats (van Lavieren 2004). According to van Lavieren (2004) the maximum sustainable annual offtake of macaques in the Central Middle Atlas region lies between 200 and 250 individuals. If the estimate of 300 macaques taken from the wild is more or less correct (van Lavieren 2004) the offtake exceeds sustainability by up to 50% annually. Further potential threats include persecution, and predation by feral dogs (E. van Lavieren pers comm. 2006). The shooting of monkeys as a result of crop raiding and cedar bark stripping was reported by Deag (1977), but the current status of this activity is unknown.	eng
12561	threats	Butynski, T.M., Cortes, J., Waters, S., Fa, J., Hobbelink, M.E., van Lavieren, E., Belbachir, F., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K., Mouna, M., de Iongh, H., Menard, N. & Camperio-Ciani, A., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to intensive logging, charcoal-burning, firewood-collecting, and land clearance for agriculture at lower altitudes. Habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by livestock (a problem which is exacerbated by drought) is particularly likely to affect the long-term future of this species. Illegal live trade is also a serious problem. Additional threats include persecution, predation by feral dogs, inappropriate artificial feeding with sweet or salty foods by tourists and local inhabitants, and pollution of the wadis (rivers) associated with forests (E. van Lavieren pers. comm. 2006, F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). The shooting of monkeys as a result of crop raiding and cedar bark stripping was reported by Deag (1977), but the current extent of this activity is unknown. Conflicts with local people have been reported in Algeria, as a result of crop-raiding by macaques (e.g., villages in Djurdjura National Park in the Grande-Kabylie region: F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). The importance of different threats varies in different parts of the species' range; it is difficult to generalize. <br/><br/>The destruction and degradation of the macaque’s forest habitat is the most serious threat to the species. Severe habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation have been caused by domestic and industrial consumption of wood, use of fire, clearing for cultivation and overgrazing by sheep and goat herds (Taub 1977, Fa 1984, Camperio Ciani 1986, Menard and Vallet, 1993). This is exacerbated by poor forestry management (often <em>Cedrus atlanticus</em> is favoured and efforts are made to reduce <em>Quercus ilex</em>, but the latter is a crucial resource for macaques: Ménard and Vallet, 1986, 1997).). Additionally, in recent years shepherds have increasingly settled near water sources. As shepherd tribes move into the forest, they often enclose open water sources with cement wells so they can extract water for their herds. As a result, macaques and other wildlife have been excluded from water sources in areas where it was previously accessible to them (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Live trade is also a significant threat to the wild <em>M. sylvanus</em> population. Most of the specimens taken from the wild are for the international pet trade. In comparison with the international trade, offtake for local purposes is relatively low, although <em>M. sylvanus</em> are kept fairly frequently as pets in Morocco (van Lavieren 2004) and local commercial use (remunerated photography in tourist areas and restaurants) has been reported in Algeria (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). <em>M. sylvanus</em> seems to be rarely used for food, except for some old reports in Algeria (Deag 1977). Reports of capture for the international pet trade date back to 1977 (Deag 1977), and since then the trade has increased markedly (van Lavieren 2004). Sanctuaries and zoos in Europe have become overstocked with Barbary Macaque infants offered to them by authorities and ex-owners, most infants coming straight from the wild (van Lavieren 2004). Infant <em>M. sylvanus</em> are offered openly and covertly for sale on markets all over Morocco, and prices of up to 200 Euro per animal have been recorded (van Lavieren 2004). Prices of about 100 Euros per animal have been recorded in Algeria, with Chaabet-el-Akhra gorges (Béjaïa) and Yakouren (Akfadou) being critical locations where illegal trade occur (F. Belbachir pers. comm. 2007). It is estimated that up to 300 infants are taken annually from the Moroccan habitats (van Lavieren 2004). The maximum sustainable offtake of macaques in the Central Middle Atlas region has been estimated at between 200 and 250 individuals per year (van Lavieren 2004). If the estimate of 300 macaques taken annually from the wild is correct, then the offtake exceeds sustainability by up to 50% per year in this population.	eng
12562	conservation	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. There is little information available regarding its status in protected areas, although L. Yongcheng (pers. comm.) reports that it is found in at least 60 nature reserves within its range in China. It is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia, and is quite rare in zoos even there (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
12562	distribution	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	<em>Macaca thibetana</em> occurs in east-central China (Anhui, Fujian, southern Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, northern Sichuan, Tibet, northern Yunnan, and Zhejiang). It is found in China from 25-33°N, 102°30’-119°30’E; the range extends south into Guangxi at 23°48’N, about 110°E, and as far west as the Yangtze Gorge in western and north-western Sichuan (Groves 2001). Reports from Arunachal Pradesh, India appear to be based on misidentifications (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
12562	habitat	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found mainly in broadleaf evergreen forest, both primary and secondary, as well as subtropical and deciduous forest. The species ranges from 1,000 to 2,500 m in elevation (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is predominantly terrestrial (Corbet and Hill 1992) and diurnal, and prefers to sleep in caves. It is frugivorous, but will also consume flowers berries, seeds, leaves, stems, stalks, and invertebrates.	eng
12562	population	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	The global population of this species is very large, and in some regions it is very common.	eng
12562	threats	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	There has been serious deforestation across its range, but recent measures seem to have stabilized the situation, and the future decline of the species will probably not be as serious as its past decline. Locally, non-targeted hunting is a minor threat, as is trapping.	eng
12563	conservation	Supriatna, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It exists in a number of protected areas, including: Lore Lindu National Park (2,290 km<sup>2</sup>); Morowali Nature Reserve (2,250 km<sup>2</sup>); Peg. Faruhumpenai (900 km<sup>2</sup>); Towuti Nature Recreation Park (687 km<sup>2</sup>); and Danau Matano Nature Recreation Park (331 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
12563	distribution	Supriatna, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs on Sulawesi and the Togian Islands, Indonesia. It is found in the central part of Sulawesi south to Latimojong, southwest to the base of the Toraja highlands (where it interbreeds with <em>M. maura</em>), southeast to the lakes region of the southeastern peninsula, and northwest to the isthmus between Palu and Parigi (where it interbreeds with <em>M. heck</em>i) (Groves 2001).	eng
12563	habitat	Supriatna, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in rainforests at moderate elevations from sea level up to 2,000 m. It is frugivorous, but will eat immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize).	eng
12563	population	Supriatna, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is common in appropriate habitat. Densities are estimated at 3-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (WCS unpubl. data).	eng
12563	threats	Supriatna, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	The species is often poisoned and trapped as an agricultural pest. Other threats include hunting for food, collection for use as pets and habitat conversion, especially due to oil palm and cacao plantations, and human settlements, all of with are projected increase in the coming decade.	eng
12568	conservation	Sugardjito, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and has been protected by national law since 1970. It occurs in at least one protected area, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, and perhaps others.	eng
12568	distribution	Sugardjito, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Indonesia. Animals are limited to the central section of the northern peninsula, from Gorontalo in the south and between Baroko and Bolaangitang in the north, east to the Onggak Dumoga River and the Mount Padang region.	eng
12568	habitat	Sugardjito, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in rainforest at moderate elevations, and in hill forest up to 2,000 m. It is mainly frugivorous (70% of its diet), but it also eats immature leaves, arthropods, stalks of newly flowering plants, and cultivated crops (fruits, vegetables, and maize) (Kohlhaas 1993).	eng
12568	population	Sugardjito, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	Very little is known of the population of this species. A density of 25-30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (WCS unpubl. data) was observed within a national park.	eng
12568	threats	Sugardjito, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	Hunting for bush meat is a major threat, particularly during Christmas when the meat is frequently given as a gift; thus, although the forest habitat appears to be intact, much of it is currently unoccupied. Shifting cultivation by local communities is an increasing problem, and there is some decline in habitat quality. There is extensive illegal “small scale” open area mining for gold, using mercury, occurs even within protected areas.	eng
12570	conservation	Supriatna, J. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in at least 6 protected areas: Dolangan Reserve, Mas Popaya Raja Reserve, Panua Reserve, Pangi Binanga Reserve, Pinjam/Tanjung Mantop Reserve, Tangale Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a need to expand existing protected areas. There are no specimens reported in captivity.	eng
12570	distribution	Supriatna, J. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is restricted to northwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia, from the base of the northern peninsula (Isthmus of Palu) northeast to just east of Gorontalo (Groves 2001).	eng
12570	habitat	Supriatna, J. & Shekelle, M., 2008	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species (this is one of the least studied of the Sulawesi macaques). It is presumably diurnal and frugivorous, semi-arboreal and occurs in primary and secondary tropical rainforest.	eng
12570	population	Supriatna, J. & Shekelle, M., 2008	Very little is known of the populations of this species. Densities are estimated to be 20-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, with group sizes of approximately 10-20 (Supriatna and Hendras 2000). Density is 6.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in forest areas (WCS unpubl. data).	eng
12570	threats	Supriatna, J. & Shekelle, M., 2008	The greatest threat to the species is loss of habitat, which is increasingly fragmented. Additionally, the species is captured, poisoned, shot and persecuted by local farmers who consider the animals crop raiders.	eng
12573	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	Historically, this species was widely distributed in the Clarence, Richmond and Brisbane River systems of coastal north-eastern New South Wales and southern Queensland, but naturally occurring populations were probably near to extinction in the Richmond and Brisbane River systems by the end of the 1930s. The last authenticated capture of an Eastern Cod from the Richmond River system was in 1971. Since the late 1960s small numbers have been caught from tributaries including the Nymboida, Little Nymboida, Boyd and Mann Rivers, where some pristine habitats remain. They have also been reported from the Guy Fawkes River. The Mann-Nymboida sub-catchment of the Clarence River harbours the only wild naturally reproducing population of this species. [All this information was obtained from: Department of the Environment and Water Resources (2007)].	eng
12573	habitat	Wager, R., 1996	This species prefers clear rocky streams and rivers with slow flow and abundant instream cover.	eng
12576	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	Found throughout most of the Murray-Darling River system of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, except for the upper reaches of the southern tributaries. Has been introduced into many lakes and dams throughout Victoria and New South Wales.	eng
12576	habitat	Wager, R., 1996	Live in a wide range of habitats, from clear, rocky streams to slow flowing, turbid rivers and billabongs.	eng
12576	population	Wager, R., 1996	Their abundance has been drastically reduced across their natural range and they are now considered rare in many Victorian tributaries.	eng
12589	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Take is prohibited in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Missouri, Tennessee, but allowed with the necessary permit in Alabama, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix III (United States of America).	eng
12589	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	The Alligator Snapping Turtle is endemic to the US occurring in rivers that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
12589	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Some natural habitat has been drained and replaced by agriculture in recent years, however, actual habitat loss, in terms of loss of rivers and their banks, may be small (Ewert 1997). The turtle has been found in reservoirs throughout their range and dyking of rivers to create winter waterfowl refuges has increased potential habitat in Arkansas and the lower Mississippi Valley and may offset some of the degraded habitat (Ewert 1997).	eng
12589	population	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	The species range is greater than 10,000 km² but population densities are likely to be low throughout this area (Ewert 1997), It is naturally rare in northern extremes of its range. Klemens and Behler (1997) report that there is good anecdotal evidence that the species is undergoing a long-term, non cyclical decline throughout much of its range.	eng
12589	threats	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	The main threats include habitat alteration; exploitation by trappers for a large domestic market and a growing international market for its meat; pollution and pesticide accumulation (Holt and Tolson 1993).	eng
12590	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	The majority of known colonies occur in protected areas (e.g., national parks or heritage listed mine sites), however, there are a number of notable exceptions. The mine roosts the species relies on for breeding in the Pilbara region of Western Australia are not protected and no formal monitoring plan has been implemented (Armstrong and Anstee 2000; K. Armstrong pers. comm). The breeding populations at Claravale Station, Northern Territory and Kings Plains Station, north Queensland occur on private pastoral property with no conservation status (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Current management activities take into account the results of population genetic studies, which have shown that colonies constitute separate metapopulations (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1994, 1999). Activities include a captive breeding programme, long-term population studies and monitoring in Queensland, and population studies in Western Australia. In the late 1980s, a massive international campaign to prevent destruction of caves used by this bat at Mount Etna failed and this population has subsequently declined. <br/><br/>The species was evaluated in a Recovery Outline published in "The Action Plan for Australian Bats" (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). That Action Plan downgraded the category of threat from Vulnerable to Lower Risk (near threatened) due to supposed uncertainty regarding the genetic boundaries for many of the known maternity sites and the inability to match <em>Macroderma gigas</em> to IUCN criteria. In 2001, apparently in response to the comments in the Action Plan, the species was delisted from the category of Vulnerable by the Australian federal government Threatened Species Scientific Committee, and no longer falls under the protection of the Commonwealth Government’s endangered species legislation. Legislation, however, in at least two of the three range states (Western Australia and Queensland) maintains <em>Macroderma gigas</em> in threatened or vulnerable categories (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is a need for increased regulation of cave tourism and visitation (B. Thomson pers. comm.). Mining companies are increasingly inserting non-barbed wire fences in crucial sections to avoid mortality (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Identification and direct protection of unprotected maternity colonies is a priority. More ecological research and particularly identification of maternity sites is necessary (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
12590	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. Its current range is discontinuous with geographically disjunct colonies distributed across northern tropical and subtropical coastal and inland regions (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.). There are scattered historical records through arid Western Australia, southern Northern Territory, northern South Australia, and western and south-western Queensland.	eng
12590	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	Although it occurs in rainforest areas, the Ghost Bat is mainly found in the arid zone near rock outcrops, and roosts in caves, mines, and rock clefts. The species also occurs throughout the tropical savanna, in savanna woodlands, and in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It generally forages within 1-2 km of the roost site. Most of the prey are large invertebrates such as beetles, but it is also known to take small vertebrates including other bats, birds, lizards, and snakes (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 1985). In captive feeding experiments some fruit will be eaten only when no animal food is available (Douglas 1967). Most prey is taken to a feeding perch in trees, rock overhangs, or cave entrances (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Ghost bats move between a number of caves seasonally or as dictated by weather conditions. Thus they require a range of cave sites (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Most maternity sites appear to require multiple entranced caves (L. Hall pers. comm.). Maternity colonies are limited within the range of this species, and include mines, especially in the Pilbara. Generation length is probably around four years and recruitment is very low (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
12590	population	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	Current total population estimates are between 7,000 and 9,000 individuals, and varies in each of the three range states. The population in Queensland is located in only 4-5 highly disjunct localities and is estimated at less than 1,000 animals, with its major colony at Mount Etna having declined in the last 10 years. The Northern Territory population is thought to be more or less stable at 2,500-3,500 individuals and is distributed among at least 6-7 main population centres, but the largest colony (at Kohinoor Mine, Pine Creek) is potentially threatened by mine collapse. In Western Australia Ghost Bats occur in two separate regions: in the Pilbara, there are <em>c.</em>600 individuals (N. McKenzie pers. comm.), whereas the Kimberley population is inferred to be about 3,000-4,000 individuals (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Population Structure:<br/>The species has undergone a major population genetic analysis, with nearly all major known localities included with the exception of the Kimberley, Western Australia and some Northern Territory populations. These studies have shown that <em>Macroderma gigas</em> populations are highly structured, being genetically distinct at both regional and local scales (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1994, 1999; Armstrong <em>et al.</em> in prep).  Populations at the southern limits of the species range are geographically isolated separated by a minimum distance of 300 km. This geographic isolation is reflected in the genetic data with populations at Mt Etna, Cape Hillsborough, and Camooweal in Queensland and the Pilbara in Western Australia being highly divergent genetically and implies virtually no movement of individuals among these sites (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1999). Recently expanded studies within the Pilbara have revealed strong structure between eastern and western populations (Armstrong <em>et al.</em> in prep).  Populations within the Northern Territory and far north Queensland are also highly distinct from each other and other population centres, however, there is less structure among populations within these regions with the data implying greater connectivity occurring via male mediated gene flow (Worthington-Wilmer <em>et al.</em> 1999). While only two samples were obtained from the Kimberley region, one caught in the far west (Tunnel Creek) the other in the east (Cave Springs near Kununurra), sequence data showed the Kimberley bats were distinct not only from all other Australian populations but also from each other (Worthington-Wilmer 1996).	eng
12590	threats	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is very vulnerable to disturbance in its roost sites. Cave tourism has been identified as a problem, but the most serious threat is from quarrying and reworking of old mine areas. In some cases, the collapse of disused mines may also be a threat. Habitat modifications for livestock may be a problem in some areas, as may competition for prey with introduced foxes and feral cats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Barbed wire fences on cattle stations and lantana cause some direct mortality (Armstrong and Anstee 2000). For the populations at the southern limits of the species' range, the general paucity of suitable roost sites, the geographic distance between existing colonies, and the evident complete lack of gene flow indicates that these populations are totally isolated and will not be rescued by immigration or recolonised should local extinctions occur (J. Worthington-Wilmer pers. comm.).	eng
12592	conservation	Meijaard, E., MacKinnon, J., Jennings, A.P. & Veron, G., 2008	The Sulawesi palm civet is known from several protected areas including Rawa Aopa National Park, Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve, Mangolo Recreation Forest, and Lore Lindu National Park (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12592	distribution	Meijaard, E., MacKinnon, J., Jennings, A.P. & Veron, G., 2008	The Sulawesi palm civet is endemic to Sulawesi (Wozencraft 2005), where it was previously thought to occur only in north and central parts of the island. It is now known to occur also in the southeast of Sulawesi, as individuals were recorded at Rawa Aopa National Park, Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve and Mangolo Recreation Forest (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
12592	habitat	Meijaard, E., MacKinnon, J., Jennings, A.P. & Veron, G., 2008	The ecology of the Sulawesi palm civet remains to be fully studied. It has been recorded in lowland forest, lower and upper montane forest, grasslands and near farms (Wemmer and Watling 1986; Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987; Musser, 1987; Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003; Maneros pers. comm.). This species does not appear to be a habitat specialist as it is not restricted by elevation or disturbance regime, although all sites where it has been recorded in savanna, grassland, or agricultural areas surrounded by forest. It is, nevertheless more commonly found in forested as opposed to agricultural areas (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species feeds on small mammals, fruit, and occasionally takes birds and farm animals, as well as grass. It is also suggested that they have a home range of about 150 ha (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12592	population	Meijaard, E., MacKinnon, J., Jennings, A.P. & Veron, G., 2008	The population status of the Sulawesi palm civet is unknown. Records of this species are scarce due to its solitary nature and nocturnal habits (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2003) compounded by a lack of spotlighting surveys, that would presumably find the species. It is known from 28 individuals, 14 of which were recorded in the 19th century, while the most recent records are from Mount Klabat in North Sulawesi and Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi (Wemmer <em>et al</em>. 1983; Wemmer and Watling 1986). It appears to be more common in forests than in agricultural areas (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12592	threats	Meijaard, E., MacKinnon, J., Jennings, A.P. & Veron, G., 2008	Little is known of threats to the Sulawesi palm civet but it is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, as Sulawesi has one of the highest rates of forest loss in the world (Myers 1992). Between 1985 and 1997 the northern peninsula of Sulawesi experienced a forest loss of 58.5%, 72.3% for the central peninsula, and 67.3% for the southeastern peninsula (World Bank 2001). Although this species appears to be a generalist that can probably tolerate some degree of disturbed habitat, there is no good evidence that populations can survive independent of tall forest. The fragmentation of forested lands will likely limit movement (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2003) and could expose these animals to greater mortality through increased interaction with humans as road kill and conflicts over taking small livestock (Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
12594	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., McKenzie, G. & Richards, N., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12594	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., McKenzie, G. & Richards, N., 2008	This widespread species ranges from Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, to the Natuna Islands, Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), the Philippines, the island of Sulawesi to the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and through much of the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia) including the islands of Halmahera, Buru, Seram and Ambon. It is present on the Kai Islands and the Aru Islands and throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) and Fergusson Island (Papua New Guinea). It is present on the island of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and is found throughout much of the Solomon Islands. It ranges across much of northern Australia (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). <br/>In the Philippines this species was recorded from Batu-bato, Biliran, Bohol, Boracay, Busuanga, Cagayan de Sulu, Calauit, Caluya, Camiguin, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Albay, Aurora, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Kalinga, La Guna, Quezon, Rizal, Sorsogon, Tarlac provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi , Masbate, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Reinard, Sanga-sanga, Seimirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibutu, Sibuyan, Simunul, and Siquijor (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Catibog-Sinha 1987; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
12594	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., McKenzie, G. & Richards, N., 2008	It is found in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, it has also been reported from paperbark woodlands, mangroves, swamp forest, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. In the Philippines, it occurs in virtually every habitat from sea level up to at least 2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), preferring disturbed habitats.<br/>It usually roosts as single animals, or in small groups, under large leaves (such as palm fronds), under branches and loose bark, in bamboo or in abandoned buildings. The females give birth to a single young three times per year (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
12594	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., McKenzie, G. & Richards, N., 2008	It is a common species (Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is abundant in disturbed areas but rare in old growth forest. In the Philippines, it is abundant and widespread, with populations stable or increasing (Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
12594	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., McKenzie, G. & Richards, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12595	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T., Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are needed as a whole. Within India, it is considered to be vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The species has been recorded from protected area in India namely Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh. Survey, population monitoring, habitat management and awareness to policy makers are critical recommendations for India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12595	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T., Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia and southern China, to much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is found in India (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it is found in Mengla, Xishuangbanna and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, possibly Cambodia (reports of this species from Cambodia cannot be confirmed [Kock 2000]) and Peninsular Malaysia, and from here occurs in Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra and Java). It has been recorded from elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
12595	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T., Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found to prefer lowland and montane forest. It occurs in secondary habitats and also in old fruit orchards, villages, and banana plantations, rarely recorded in mangroves also common in association with humans, particularly under roofs of houses. Roosts singly or as a few animals, commonly in rolled up banana leaves. Not recorded roosting in caves (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
12595	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T., Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is generally a locally common species. Nothing much is known of its population in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12595	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T., Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is inferred to be locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial extraction of bamboo and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12596	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Further studies on biology and threats are needed.</p>	eng
12596	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span> is widely distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Present in most of the Ganges drainage, but scarcer in numbers in Nepal.	eng
12596	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. aral</span> occurs in running and stagnant waters. Found in fresh and brackish waters and deltas of large rivers, common in ponds and slow flowing rivers with vegetation in plains. Inhabits still waters with silt or mud substrate. Believed to be common in rice paddy fields. Nocturnal feeder, on insects and worms.in lowland habitats and at moderate elevation in all the larger river systems of the Indian subcontinent.	eng
12596	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No information available. The species is present in a number of drainages.<br/></p>	eng
12596	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There are unlikely to be wide-ranging threats that impact the entire population.	eng
12597	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The occurrence of <em>M. margarita</em> in protected areas is not well known but does occur in national forests in several states. More effort is needed to search for the species within its range and peripheries. Any survey for it should involve catching as many <em>Macromia</em> as possible throughout a day.	eng
12597	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in six states in the United States of America and Donnelly (2004) approximated its extent of occurrence to be 8,000 km², with an estimated area of occupancy of more than 2,000 km².	eng
12597	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes clear mountain or Piedmont streams and rivers in eastern United States of America (Dunkle 2000).	eng
12597	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Probably small populations of <em>M. margarita</em> are scattered through its range, but numbers and details are poorly known.	eng
12597	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	No obvious threats known except general lowering of water quality within its range. Preferred habitat and scarcity may indicate that it is more susceptible to siltation and pollution than other species of <em>Macromia</em>.	eng
12598	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Necessary conservation measures include the control of water pollution and use by humans and the prevention of the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish. Establishments of nature reserves are recommended.	eng
12598	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species shows a disjunct distribution with the largest populations in southern France and northwest Iberia. Only single and old records are known from these two distribution centres. The whole area inhabited by this species reaches about 470,000 km². The two main distribution centres cover about 92,000 km² in France and 64,000 km² in northwest Spain (Galicia) and north Portugal.	eng
12598	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	It is found in streams and rivers at the slowly or nearly standing parts, even when induced by hydroelectric dams. Hydroelectric dams can support good populations when they are elongated and look like large rivers. The species is very scarcely reproducing in completely standing waterbodies.	eng
12598	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species has been reported with certainty from 14 departments in south and southwest France, but it is currently known only in 12 of these. Only in four departments it is not uncommon. In Iberia, flourishing populations are known in Galicia and north Portugal. In the rest of the western half of the Iberian Peninsula it is known from scattered and often isolated localities were it is found in low numbers. <em>Macromia splendens</em> is often difficult to find and is fairly rare. However, new findings (Chelmick 2006, Cordero Rivera 2000, Malkmus 2002, French INVOD inventory 2007) show that it is considerably less rare than previously believed.	eng
12598	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution, drought and introduction of non-indigenous crayfish (J.-L. Dommanget pers. comm. 2008). The dramatic droughts of which Iberia now suffers repeatedly, that convert river barrage in lake-like habitats, will inevitably lead to the reduction of many populations in this area in the next decade. In addition, the introduction of exotic crayfish in the Tarn river in France led apparently to a significant decrease of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia</span> population during the last decade and this will probably continue in the future (J.-L. Dommanget pers. comm. 2008). Places where the species occurs are often favoured by tourists for swimming. A general degradation of water quality is noted almost everywhere throughout the species' range.	eng
12602	distribution	Wilson, K., 2006	China (Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan and Vietnam.	eng
12602	habitat	Wilson, K., 2006	Small forested streams with gravel and sandy substrates.	eng
12615	conservation	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as thretened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
12615	distribution	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Tabasco (Mexico) south to Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Venezuela, Guianas and Suriname.	eng
12615	habitat	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Live in colonies with until 70 individuals. Feed on aquatic insects. The species is water dependent (Meyer <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
12615	population	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.) and Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
12615	threats	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Deforestation is a localised threat.	eng
12616	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
12616	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
12616	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
12616	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 69% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The shallow sand stations where this species used to occur were rarely sampled after 2002. However, during the past decade this species was also very rarely observed or was absent in other suitable habitats.	eng
12616	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
12620	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is present within Kakadu National Park. Recommended actions include: the estimation of the global population of this species and assessing the relationship of it to the one possible major threat, changes to the fire regime, by monitoring of the abundance of the species across a range of sites of varying fire history.	eng
12620	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	The Black Wallaroo is restricted to the sandstone escarpment and plateau of western Arnhem Land in Australia's Northern Territory. Its range is about 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which is unusually small for a mammal of its size (Telfer and Calaby 2008). Much of its range lies within Kakadu National Park.	eng
12620	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	The Black Wallaroo occurs in a range of vegetation types from closed forests and Eucalyptus open forests to heaths and hummock grasslands, but almost always in areas characterized by large boulders (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
12620	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	There are no estimates of total population numbers, however, neither is there any evidence of a decline in range or abundance. Its elusive behaviour and habitat of rugged terrain make it a difficult species to survey (Telfer and Calaby 2008). This species is common within suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Telfer and Calaby 2008). Aboriginal informants have provided information that suggest the population is stable.	eng
12620	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	Recent changes in fire regimes may have led to alteration of vegetation structure or floristic composition in the sandstone massif (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). This is a cause for concern (Telfer and Calaby 2008) as there is no information on how this might affect populations of this species (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There are minor levels of ongoing Aboriginal hunting, but this is not considered a threat to the species.	eng
12625	conservation	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be investigated to determine whether it is possibly still extant.	eng
12625	distribution	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This species was endemic to Australia, where it was generally restricted to south-eastern South Australia. The last wild individuals were recorded in 1924, although a few captives survived until around 1937. Surveys conducted by the South Australia National Parks and Wildlife Service suggest that the species persisted until the early 1970's (Smith and Robinson 2008).	eng
12625	habitat	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This species was found in areas of open country. It lived at the edge of Stringy-bark heath in grassy areas too wet in winter to support eucalypt cover (Smith and Robinson 2008).	eng
12625	population	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
12625	threats	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	Introduced predators, competition from livestock, bounty and sport hunting, and direct killing for the animal's pelt have resulted in the extinction of the species.	eng
12626	conservation	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. There have been few detailed biological studies. Continued fox control is crucial to maintaining their populations. There is a need to monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range.	eng
12626	distribution	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to south-western Australia.	eng
12626	habitat	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is found in open forest and woodland, mallee, heathland, low open grasses, and scrubby thickets (Morris and Christensen 2008). The species avoids pastureland and forests with dense undergrowth (Morris and Christensen 2008).	eng
12626	population	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species was very common in the early days of settlement and at times very large numbers were traded commercially for skins (for example, 122,000 in 1923, 105,000 in 1924). They remained common in the larger uncleared areas until the 1970s, when fox populations began to increase dramatically (Morris and Christensen 2008). Spotlight surveys in 1970 and 1990 within the jarrah forests of the Darling Range suggested a decline from around 10 per 100 km of transect to approximately 1 per 100 km (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Clearance for agriculture has severely fragmented the population and reduced its range. The population has increased in the last ten years or so due to fox control. The global population is on the order of 100,000 individuals.	eng
12626	threats	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance for agriculture has severely fragmented the population and reduced its range. Foxes reduced Western Brush Wallaby numbers, and the species increases in abundance in areas where foxes have been controlled (overall the species has increased in number over the past 10 years or so due to fox control).	eng
12627	conservation	Lunney, D. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is present in protected areas. Advisable conservation measures include the completion and implementation of a Recovery Plan, studies to determine optimal survey methods, a detailed survey of populations, and the targeted fox control programs.	eng
12627	distribution	Lunney, D. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in New South Wales, Australia (formerly as far south as the Illawarra). It is present in suitable forests scattered throughout the escarpment, but it is no longer found in coastal forests. Upper altitudinal sites include the Dorrigo Plateau, Gibraltar Range, and Barrington Tops. It occurs up to 1,000 m asl. Feral populations exist on Kauwau Island, New Zealand (Maynes 2008).	eng
12627	habitat	Lunney, D. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is found within wet sclerophyll forest with dense understorey, but with access to forest with a grassy understorey. The species is often found in dry sclerophyll forests and rainforest (Maynes 2008). It is nocturnal and usually solitary (Maynes 2008).	eng
12627	population	Lunney, D. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is rare and patchily distributed. There are no recent population estimates. In 1992, the total number of adults was estimated at between 1,000 and 10,000 individuals. There appears to be no evidence of a decline.	eng
12627	threats	Lunney, D. & McKenzie, N., 2008	Forest fragmentation combined with predation from foxes appear to be the principal reasons for the decline of the species. Grazing and burning regimes that affect availability of shelter are a disadvantage to populations (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Reintroductions of the species have been unsuccessful due to fox predation.	eng
12643	conservation	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas. Because of the very minor conservation problems facing this taxon, no conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.	eng
12643	distribution	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	A widespread species occurring in Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
12643	habitat	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The Round-Eared Sengi occupies arid areas, such as deserts, dry grasslands and shrublands (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Home range areas can be up to one square kilometer. The presence of this sengi is often indicated by long, straight trails composed of small oval bare spots where it lands while racing along the paths. The trails are used to swiftly travel between preferred areas within its home range (Sauer and Sauer 1972).	eng
12643	population	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	It is believed that over much of its range its numbers are relatively low (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). There are no data on population dynamics of this species, but it is expected that populations will vary greatly in the arid habitats that it occupies, and there are no reasons to believe that these variations, if they indeed occur, are abnormal.	eng
12643	threats	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. Habitat modification to relatively small areas may occur near rivers and human population centres due to small-holder and industrial agriculture, mineral extraction, and urban development. Changes in habitats due to desertification and bush encroachment may adversely alter habitats for sengis, but at present these changes do not appear widespread or serious.	eng
12644	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cocteau’s Skink was found on the desert islands of Brancho and Razo in the Atlantic Ocean.	eng
12644	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species has not been recorded since the early 20th century.	eng
12644	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	This species was hunted by the human inhabitants of neighbouring islands who reportedly used this reptile as food.  The fat was used in medicine.  Severe and prolonged droughts have also been listed as a possible contributing factor in the extinction of this species.	eng
12646	conservation	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species is present in the Ankarafantsika National Park. There is a need to manage the habitat of this species, undertake further studies of the species natural history and implement control measures for feral cats and dogs in the species range.	eng
12646	distribution	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Dollar, L., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to Madagascar where it is known only from Ankarafantsika National Park and its immediate surrounds (Carleton and Goodman 2003). It has possibly been sighted at Bongolava, although this requires confirmation (D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of about 100 to 400 m asl.	eng
12646	habitat	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Dollar, L., 2008	The species has been recorded from dry deciduous forest in Ankarafantsika. It is a nocturnal and almost completely arboreal species, which lives in burrows during the day time (Carleton and Goodman 2003). It can be found in slightly degraded forest.	eng
12646	population	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Dollar, L., 2008	It is common within its restricted range, although trapping success is low.	eng
12646	threats	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species is threatened by predation by feral cats and dogs (L. Dollar pers. comm.), loss of habitat to wildfires and selective logging.	eng
12647	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This widely distributed species has been recorded from at least six protected areas including Kirindy Mitea, and Tsimanampetsotsa, Andohahela, and Ankarafantsika National Parks. Further research into the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
12647	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is endemic to western and southern Madagascar where it is widely distributed in the dry deciduous forests and grasslands. It ranges from sea level up to around 915 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
12647	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This nocturnal, terrestrial species is found in spiny forests and dry deciduous forests. It can occur in heavily moified habitats outside of forests. Animals spend the day in burrows excavated under rocks, tree stumps and other ground cover. A litter of two to three young are born after a gestation period of around 24 days (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
12647	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It appears to be a relatively common species.	eng
12647	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	The major threat to this species is wildfires in the region.	eng
12650	conservation	Friend, T., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	The Bilby is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a number of protected areas. A national recovery plan was completed for the species, and the conservation measures which follow are adapted, and/or taken directly, from it (Pavey 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>The recovery plan stresses the need to survey for the species to achieve an accurate extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. Methods need to be developed to improve the monitoring of distribution and abundance in order to compile trends. There should also be a monitoring program for exotic Bilby predators, and control measures of these species should be intensified, especially at priority sites. Research into threats such as predators, altered fire regimes, and habitat degradation in various forms is needed to determine their relative importance. <br/><br/>Management of captive populations and reintroductions into predator-free or predator-controlled sites should continue. Captive programs need to maintain the current levels of genetic diversity. Further research into husbandry should proceed. Finally, the Bibly recovery team needs to continue its efforts to improve recovery management and promote awareness of Bilby recovery among stakeholders and the public.	eng
12650	distribution	Friend, T., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	The Bilby formerly occurred over 70% of the mainland Australia. Wild populations are now restricted predominantly to the Tanami Desert (Northern Territory), the Gibson and the Great Sandy Deserts (Western Australia), and one outlying population between Boulia and Birdsville (south-west Queensland) (Johnson 2008). It has gone extinct from portions of southern Queensland within the last few decades.<br/><br/>There are reintroduced populations in: Currawinya National Park (Queensland); Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales); Arid Recovery at Roxby Downs, Venus Bay Conservation Park, Thistle Island, Yookamurra Sanctuary (South Australia); Dryandra Woodland, François Peron National Park (Western Australia).	eng
12650	habitat	Friend, T., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	Habitat of the extant populations includes tall shrublands and open woodlands of the semi-arid regions, and the hummock grasslands and sparse forblands in the arid areas of Australia (Pavey 2006). However, from its former range, the Bilby appears able to live in habitats from the driest desert areas to the temperate areas such as those found in the south, east, and west of the country (Pavey 2006). This species is dependent on fire, as it feeds on many disturbance (e.g., fire) promoted plants, such as seed from <em>Yakirra australience</em> (R. Southgate pers. comm.). It is also able to occupy recently burnt areas, as it uses burrows for refuge (R. Southgate pers. comm.).	eng
12650	population	Friend, T., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	About 500 individuals on Thistle Island, 500 in Arid Recovery, 100 in Venus Bay, 200 in Peron, 40 in Scotia, 200-500 in Queensland. There are fewer than 1,000 individuals in the Northern Territory and 5,000-10,000 in non-reintroduced Western Australia. The global population might be under 10,000 individuals. The species is wide-ranging and patchily distributed. The population estimates of Bilbies in the Northern Territory and Western Australia are very approximate, as there are no published numbers in peer-reviewed journals (R. Southgate pers. comm.). It is known from aerial surveys that Bilby signs (diggings) in the areas where Bilbies are persistent occur less than 15 to 20 km apart (R. Southgate pers. comm.).	eng
12650	threats	Friend, T., Morris, K. & van Weenen, J., 2008	The current Bilby distribution is associated with a low abundance or absence of foxes, rabbits, and livestock. Major threats relate to predation from foxes, habitat destruction from introduced herbivores, and changed fire regimes (Pavey 2006). Predation pressures from feral cats and dingoes occurring in association with pastoral practices may be a threat to the Bilby. Feral cats have affected the success of reintroduced populations. Additional threats to the Bilby include mining and other development, and road mortality (Pavey 2006).	eng
12651	conservation	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
12651	distribution	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species was endemic to the deserts of central Australia. The last confirmed collection of a specimen was in 1931 near Cooncherie in north-eastern South Australia (Johnson 2008). A skull of unknown age was found in 1967 in a Wedge-tailed Eagle's nest south-east of Alice Springs (Johnson 2008). Aboriginal oral history suggests survival possibly into the 1960s (Johnson 2008).	eng
12651	habitat	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species occurred in sandy and loamy deserts with Triodia hummock grassland and sparse low trees and shrubs (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
12651	population	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is presumed to be extinct. It died out completely only about 35 years after Hedley Finlayson considered it to be common (Johnson 2008).	eng
12651	threats	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Predation from introduced species such as cats and foxes, as well as competition with rabbits for food and degradation of habitat is thought resulted in the extinction of this species. They were also possibly affected by changes in fire regime.	eng
12652	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in seeral proteced areas, such as Sierra del Pinacate Reserve and Vizcaino protected area.	eng
12652	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known from north Sinaloa and southwest Chihuahua (Mexico) north to south Nevada and south California (USA); Baja California and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
12652	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species feeds at night primarily on moths and immobile diurnal insects such as butterflies and katydids, which it locates by vision, even at low ambient light levels. It uses warm diurnal roosts in caves, mines, and buildings. Depending on the season, the bats roost singly or in groups of up to several hundred individuals, hanging separately from the ceiling rather than clustering. Females congregate in large maternity colonies of about 100 to 200 individuals in the spring and summer, utilizing different mines or different areas within mines from those occupied in the winter. A few males are found in these colonies, although large male-only roosts also form. The single young is born between mid-May and early July, following a gestation of almost nine months (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
12652	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This bat is locally common in restricted localities (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
12652	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Human entry into mines or cave roosts and closure of mines for hazard abatement and renewed mining are the primary threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrotus</span>. Loss of desert riparian habitat (as in the development of golf courses and housing areas in the Coachella Valley) are also responsible for population declines. At North east of Mexico there is one subpopulation isolated to their range that could be in risk (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
12653	conservation	Mancina, C. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
12653	distribution	Mancina, C. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	This species is known from Sonora and Hidalgo (Mexico) south to Guatemala; Bahamas Islands; Jamaica; Cuba; Cayman Islands (northwest of Jamaica); Hispaniola and Beata Islands (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,400 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
12653	habitat	Mancina, C. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	This species is found in dry areas, rarely in evergreen, lowlands forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in large caves and mine tunnels, occasionally in buildings, in groups of 1 to 500. Individuals hang by one or both feet from high ceilings near the roost entrance and do not cluster. This species does not crawl on feet and thumbs like many bats, but can walk rapidly in an upside-down position. Activity starts 1 to 2 hours after sunset; when foraging, flight is slow and maneuverable, usually within 1 m of the ground. Fruit and insects are eaten; animal prey is gleaned by mouth from the ground or vegetation and carried to a night roost  (Reid, 1997). A second foraging flight occurs about 2 hours before sunrise (Reid, 1997).	eng
12653	population	Mancina, C. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	This bat is rare and local in southeastern Mexico and possible north Central America; large aggregations are found in parts of west Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Very common in Cuba and Dominican Republican (Mancina and Inchaustegui pers. comm.).	eng
12653	threats	Mancina, C. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	None.	eng
12654	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation. The entire island of Polyaigos is protected and southern Milos is also protected by the European network of protected areas. The species has been monitored for many years. Snake tunnels have been constructed at four sites, and more are planned; studies have showed that these are an effective method to reduce road kills in this species. Agreements have been reached with the mining company to reduce road traffic, especially at night.	eng
12654	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, 2008	This species is endemic to the western Cyclade Islands (Milos, Syphnos, Kimolos and Polyaigos) of Greece. It is found from sea level up to 400m asl (the highest point on the islands).	eng
12654	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, 2008	It can be found throughout the islands on dry, sunny hillsides and in traditionally cultivated land, in densely vegetated areas close to water with rocky outcrops, and also in pools of water. Its most important habitat is small creeks. The female lays a clutch of between four and 11 eggs.	eng
12654	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, 2008	The population probably totals around 3,000 individuals, with about 2,500 of these on western Milos. Subspecies <em>syphnoensis</em> (from island of Syphnos) is very rare, with only occasional specimens recorded. The population is now more or less stable, but over the last 30-40 years there have been significant declines as a result of collecting and road kills.	eng
12654	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, 2008	It is threatened by illegal collection of animals, direct persecution when encountered, accidental mortality on roads and ongoing habitat loss through mining and quarrying concessions. Illegal collection, mortality and mining are still ongoing, but at a lower level than before as a result of regulation and conservation measures. Fires (caused by humans) and tourist development are also important threats. In the species' stronghold in western Milos there are tourist developments causing habitat loss and increased shortage of water.	eng
12655	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys of the original collection site are needed to gather more information about this species.	eng
12655	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from the type series collected on Mount Kunupi in the Weyland Range, Papua Province, Indonesia, by Georg Stein in 1931. It is possibly restricted to the Weyland Range (Flannery 1995). It was collected between 1,400 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
12655	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is not known, but it presumably lives in montane forest.	eng
12655	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known only from the type series of four animals.	eng
12655	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats known.	eng
12656	conservation	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but may occur in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.	eng
12656	distribution	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from many scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has an altitudinal range of between 660 and 1,900 m, but is most common between 1,200 and 1,550 m asl.	eng
12656	habitat	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to areas of mid-montane tropical forest (Flannery 1995). Usually collected on the ground along creeks and rivers. Animals live in burrows on the forest floor. It may be intolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
12656	population	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a naturally scarce species, and is thought to occur at low population densities, which makes it difficult to determine whether it has undergone any recent population declines. This species is common in the Holocene fossil record and probably underwent significant declines (Flannery 1995), but that was probably a long time ago and the population is now considered to be stable.	eng
12656	threats	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is over-exploited in parts of its range from hunting by local people, presumably for food.	eng
12659	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. <em>P. arion</em> is one of the best investigated butterfly species in Europe. Ecological demands are relatively well known especially in Western Europe, but special attention for the species in habitat management is only given in a few, mainly Western European countries (e.g. United Kingdom). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Belgium, Denmark and in the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species and its habitat are legally protected in many countries. <em>P. arion</em> has been reintroduced in the United Kingdom. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008).	eng
12659	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	From notthern Spain and eastwards to Italy, Greece and southern Scandinavia. Extinct in the United Kingdom due to the loss of the short turf habitat when rabbits died out during the myxamotosis crisis. Recently successfully reintroduced to a dozen or so sites in southwestern England.	eng
12659	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Central Europe from north and central Spain via France to Denmark, south of Sweden and south of Finland and from the south of Italy and Greece to Siberia, Mongolia, China and Japan. Re-introduced successfully into a number of areas in southern England. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
12659	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Found in grassy places with flowers, especially thyme (<em>Thymus</em>) the larval food plant. Usually in dry habitats which, presumably, favours species of the the ant genus <em>Myrmica</em> on which the larvae also feed. Frequently amongst bushes or woodland edges.	eng
12659	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Blue occurs locally on dry, open grasslands on limestone. It is one of the larger, more conspicuous blues. The females lay their eggs on different species of thyme (<em>Thymus</em> spp.), but also on Marjoram (<em>Origanum vulgare</em>). The caterpillars feed on the buds and flowers of the foodplant. After a few weeks they leave their foodplant and allow themselves to be taken by workers of the antspecies <em>Myrmica</em> <em>sabuleti</em> and sometimes of <em>M. scabrinodis</em>, to the ants nest. The caterpillars feed on the ant grubs, hibernating and pupating there as well. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), heath and scrub (6%).	eng
12659	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). Based on the European Grassland Butterfly Indicator (Van Swaay & Van Strien 2008), this species has declined in European grasslands, one of its main habitats, since 1990 as well as in the last ten years by more than 90%.	eng
12659	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In many parts of Europe this species is restricted to nature reserves. Here the main threat is inappropriate management, as this species is very susceptible to small changes in grazing pressure or other changes in management. Where the species is more widespread, loss of habitat by agricultural intensification and abandonment, as well as afforestation, are the main threats.	eng
12662	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Ukraine and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. Like for other <em>Phengaris</em> (former <em>Maculinea</em>)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.	eng
12662	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in one or two small areas of northwest Spain with the main distribution area being from central eastern France, Switzerland, Germany (absent from the north) and eastwards.	eng
12662	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs especially in Central Europe: some populations in the north of Spain, east of France, north of Switzerland, south and central Germany, south of Poland, the north of the Balkans. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to central and southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
12662	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in damp habitats where the foodplant Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>) is found.	eng
12662	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dusky Large Blue occurs on damp, moderately nutrient-rich grassland and rough vegetation. The butterflies are usually found on or near the foodplant Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>). Having lived on the flowerheads of this plant for a few weeks, the small caterpillars go down to the ground, in order to be carried away usually by workers of the ant Myrmica rubra to an ant nest. There, they remain feeding on ant grubs, hibernating and pupating in the early summer. The newly-emerged butterflies leave the nest. The Dusky Large Blue is one of the most specialized of the “ant blues” being most adapted to one species of host ant. Populations adapted <em>Myrmica scbrinodis</em> as main host ant are very rare. It has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (36%), water-fringe vegetation (15%), blanket bogs (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).	eng
12662	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
12662	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threats on a European scale come from agricultural improvements (like drainage) and abandonment. As the species also occurs a lot along roadverges, changes to the roads and the management of the verges can have a negative impact as well.	eng
12664	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. As the species in not mobile, it needs areas with large and well connected patches of habitat. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In France and Germany, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. The species has been re-introduced in the Netherlands in 1990. The habitats of <em>P. teleius</em> are legally protected in many countries, but since many populations are not in nature reserves no special attention is given to the habitat demands. Like for other <em>Phengaris</em> (former <em>Maculinea</em>)-species, the ecological demands of this species are relatively well known.	eng
12664	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in widely scattered populations in Central Europe: in France, north of Switzerland, north of Italy, south and central Germany, south of Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary and further eastwards to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. 0-1,600 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
12664	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Scarce Large Blue can be found in moderately nutrient-rich meadows whit Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>). In northern Europe, it occurs in open, short vegetation, but in the warm, southern regions, it is also found in rough vegetation. The butterflies tend to keep near the foodplants. The small caterpillars only feed on the flowerheads for two or three weeks. They then go down to the ground where they wait to be picked up by worker ants of the genus <em>Myrmica</em> and carried off to the ants' nest. There they feed on ant grubs. The caterpillars also hibernate and pupate in the ants' nest. The species of host ant varies in different parts of its range. The Scarce Large Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (38%), mesophile grasslands (16%), blanket bogs (12%), water-fringe vegetation (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%).	eng
12664	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
12664	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in agricultural management, like drainage, improvement or abandonment.	eng
12667	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and no animals are held in captivity. The decline of this species can only be reversed by the establishment of secure protected areas within its range and/or the establishment of a secure, self-sustaining captive population (East 1999). Given the recent discovery of this species in the Ogaden, further surveys to better understand the range of this species are required.	eng
12667	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The range of the Silver Dik-dik is usually given as being confined to the central coastal plain of Somalia, where its range does not appear to extend for more than 10 km inland from the coast (Simonetta 1988; East 1999). Recently, this species has been reliably reported (and photographed) further up the Shebelle River valley and in the valley bottoms of its seasonal tributaries in the Ogaden of Ethiopia (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
12667	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Silver Dik-dik occurs in very low, dense thickets growing along the central Somali coastal littoral on fertile, sandy soils under a powerful offshore wind which has a cooling and moisturising effect (Kingdon 1997). In the south-eastern part of the Ethiopian Ogaden, Silver Dik-dik have been observed in dense to semi-dense Acacia-Commiphora bushland (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
12667	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced an estimated total population of 30,000, perhaps an overestimate, since hunting pressures and other disturbances are relatively high within the Silver Dik-dik’s restricted range. In the Ethiopian Ogaden, where this species is probably on the very edge of its range, a density of 1–2 individuals was estimated in an area of less than 2,000 m² (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
12667	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The habitat of the Silver Dik-dik is threatened by increased human presence and activity, e.g., during the worst period of the civil war many people fled along the coastal roads which were also used by large numbers of heavily armed fighters and their vehicles. Its skins are highly valued for handcraft products.	eng
12668	conservation	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A. & Amir, O.G., 2008	The species occurs in a few protected areas (e.g., Awash and Yangudi Rassa National Parks in Ethiopia).	eng
12668	distribution	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Endemic to north-east Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia) with marginal occurrence in north-east Sudan and possibly the border region of north-east Kenya (East 1999; Yalden in press).	eng
12668	habitat	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Found in various types of semi-desert scrub. Occurs from sea level to 1,500 m and perhaps up to 2,000 m (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1984, Künzel <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
12668	population	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A. & Amir, O.G., 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population at 485,600 individuals, based on an average density of two individuals per km² over an area of occupancy of 242,800 km² and suggested that the order of magnitude could be in the hundreds of thousands, and that the population was generally stable. Several authors have reported much higher local densities. Laurent and Laurent (2002) said that Salt’s dikdik is still widespread in Djibouti, but has declined over the last 20 years. Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. (2006) found this species quite common in surveyed areas of the Ogaden (Ethiopia).	eng
12668	threats	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A. & Amir, O.G., 2008	Subsistence hunting is a factor across the range. Hunting pressure is no doubt heavier in areas of civil and military conflict. In Somalia, hunting of all dikdik species is more intensive, with meat, skins and live animals exported to the Gulf states (Amir 2006). Habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by domestic livestock affects areas across north-east Africa, but is not reported to be a significant adverse factor for this species.	eng
12669	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Guenther's Dik-dik occurs in a number of protected areas, such as Omo, Mago, Yabelo and Nechisar (Ethiopia), Kidepo Valley (Uganda) and Sibiloi, Marsabit, Samburu and Meru (Kenya), in which it is common. The bulk of its population occurs in unprotected rangelands.	eng
12669	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The range of Guenther’s dikdik is centred on the driest, hottest arid and semi-arid scrublands in North-east Africa. The distribution includes northern and southern Somalia, the eastern and southern lowlands of Ethiopia, south-eastern Sudan (east of the Nile R.), north-eastern Uganda, and north and western Kenya, north of the Tana River (East 1999; Hoppe and Brotherton in press).	eng
12669	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Guenther's Dik-dik inhabitats dry, hot arid and semi-arid scrublands, and suitable cover seems to be an important habitat requirement as they are seldom seen far from cover (Hoppe and Brotherton in press). They range from sea level to about 2,100 m asl (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996)	eng
12669	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Guenther’s dikdik is common throughout most of its range. Estimates of this species’ population density obtained from road counts were 0.7-1 .1/km² in the Haud Plateau, Somalia and the Ogaden region, Ethiopia (various authors in East 1999). In Omo N.P., Ethiopia, a higher density of 23.8 per km² was observed in 1988 within a 75-ha study area (Ono <em>et al.</em> 1988). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 511,000 animals. The population trend is generally stable.	eng
12669	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats are reported in spite of the fact that the species is hunted and part of its range is found in countries with a recent history of armed conflict.	eng
12670	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The range of Kirk's Dik-dik includes protected areas such as Bush Bush N.P. (Somalia), Samburu, Meru, Tsavo, Masai Mara, Amboseli and Lake Nakuru National Parks (Kenya), Serengeti, Arusha, Tarangire and Mkomazi (Tanzania) and Etosha (Namibia). It is also common on private farmland in Namibia (East 1999). The most urgent research action required is a thorough evaluation of the taxonomic status of the identified cytotypes; if these are confirmed to represent distinct species, then the status of the various forms will require reassessment.	eng
12670	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Kirk’s dikdik occurs in two separate regions, from southern Somalia to central Tanzania and in northern Namibia and adjoining south-western Angola (Kingswood and Kumamoto 1997; East 1999; Brotherton in press).	eng
12670	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from dry scrubland to thickets within moister savanna woodlands and grasslands. (East 1999).	eng
12670	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population density estimates of Kirk’s dikdik were reviewed by Kingswood and Kumamoto (1997), East (1999) and Brotherton (in press). East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 971,000 animals. This suggests that its total numbers may be in the hundreds of thousands or millions. The population trend is stable over large parts of the range, but is decreasing in some densely settled areas.	eng
12670	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no obvious major threats to Kirk's Dik-dik, although they have been affected by the expansion of agricultural settlement and excessive hunting in some areas (East 1999). However, their ability to exist in scrub and over-grazed areas has made their populations resilient to the vegetation changes that have accompanied human population growth, and may have even favoured them in the short-term (Brotherton in press).	eng
12695	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - brackish waters of coastal marshes, estuaries, tidal flats and lagoons.	eng
12696	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12702	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
12702	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in Liberia (possibly), Côte D'Ivoire and southern Ghana.	eng
12702	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in primary tropical evergreen rainforest, where it prefers damper places such as valley bottoms, moist lower slopes, stream banks and areas of wet mud. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12702	population	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is uncommon but regularly found.	eng
12702	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	The major threats to this species are not well known.	eng
12703	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
12703	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This species ranges through West Africa from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west to Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Togo or Benin.	eng
12703	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	It is found in moist lowland rainforest and moist shrubland. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12703	population	Boitani, L., 2008	This species is common.	eng
12703	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12704	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
12704	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species range appears to be divided into two main areas. It is found from Nigeria to central Congo and central Gabon; and from western Congo to northern Angola and Uganda. There is also a single record from Zambia. The range of this species may be contiguous between the two main areas, and the current distribution may reflect a lack of collecting in central Congo. The species is found up to 2,230 m asl, although it prefers low and middle elevation forests.	eng
12704	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is found in all lowland rainforest habitats. This species favours stream edges and muddy basins where it can be extremely common. It is much less common in well drained forest (J. Kerbis). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12704	population	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
12704	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12712	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
12712	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is known from north and central South Africa, south-western Botswana, most of Namibia, and into very southern Angola.	eng
12712	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This nocturnal species inhabits a wide range of habitats including dry savanna, subtropical dry shrubland, hot and temperate desert.	eng
12712	population	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is generally an uncommon species, but can also be locally abundant. It is rarely captured.	eng
12712	threats	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	Overgrazing by small holder and nomadic livestock can threaten this species in some areas.	eng
12721	conservation	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
12721	distribution	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea. It is widespread along the Central Cordillera, to south-eastern Papua New Guinea and the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
12721	habitat	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, degraded forest, areas of re-growth, and old rural gardens. Animals live in dens or burrows, sometimes amongst rocks. Females give birth to a single young, which probably has a long period of dependency (Flannery 1995).	eng
12721	population	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not an uncommon species.	eng
12721	threats	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in some parts of its range by hunting dogs.	eng
12722	conservation	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is found in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
12722	distribution	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is restricted to the Maokop section of the New Guinea Central Cordillera (Papua Province, Indonesia), where it has been recorded from two localities between the Mount Wilhelmina area in the east and Mount Carstensz in the west. It is possible that it will be recorded from more locations, however, there are likely to be relatively few sites within the high altitude range of this species. It has been recorded from 3,500 to 4,050 m asl (a fossil record was found in a cave at around 2,950 m asl) (Flannery 1995).	eng
12722	habitat	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in alpine grasslands and barren areas above the tree line. Animals live in terrestrial dens (e.g., amongst piles of rocks), and it is thought to be a slow breeding species. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
12722	population	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known only from a few modern specimens, but is very common in the Holocene fossil record.	eng
12722	threats	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This high altitude species is threatened by hunting for food by local people, predation by wild dogs, and by global warming (increasing fire frequency).	eng
12723	conservation	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it is probably in Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
12723	distribution	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea, from the Bele River and Gunung Ki in Papua Province, Indonesia, to Mount Victoria in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It is sympatric with <em>M. rothschildi</em>, but not with <em>M. aroaensis</em>, which occurs at lower elevations. This species is found between 2,450 and 3,850 m asl.	eng
12723	habitat	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is restricted to upper montane forest, subalpine herbfield and grassland (Flannery 1995). Animals form nests in terrestrial burrows and dens (piles of rocks, etc.). A female has been recorded with a single young (Flannery 1995).	eng
12723	population	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not abundant and probably found only at low densities.	eng
12723	threats	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people and predation by hunting dogs (it is a large species - over 2 kg).	eng
12724	conservation	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded at Baiyer River Sanctuary, Papua New Guinea and in Lorentz National Park, Indonesia. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, and ecology of this species.	eng
12724	distribution	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges along the Central Cordillera from the Weyland Range (Papua Province, Indonesia) to the mountains of the southeast (Papua New Guinea); it is absent from the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has an altitudinal range of 1,200 to 3,700 m asl.	eng
12724	habitat	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This largely arboreal, or scansorial, species is found in tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded inside a cave (Flannery 1995). It lives in tree hollows and feeds on plant shoots. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
12724	population	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is commonly found, although it is not very abundant.	eng
12724	threats	Helgen, K., Bonaccorso, F., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people, however, this does not seem to have caused appreciable declines in populations of this species.	eng
12751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
12753	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Listed under Appendix I of CITES and as Class B under the African Convention. This species is found in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and the Cross River National Park (Nigeria). It is also found in the southern, nominally-protected part of Bioko. Any area containing adequate populations should be immediately protected, and all populations need to be rigorously protected against hunting - for example, the drills inhabiting the forests of the Mbe Mountains and on the Obudu Cattle Ranch, Nigeria. A number of animals are held in captivity, but all of the mainland subspecies.	eng
12753	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	The distribution on the Drill is uncertain, but it appears to have a very restricted distribution in western and south-western Cameroon (including Korup National Park) and south-eastern Nigeria, between the Cross River and Sanaga River. There is one record from just south of the lower Sanaga at Ongue Creek (Grubb 1973). It is also present in the south-western corner of Bioko Island.<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>M. l. leucophaeus</em> occurs on the mainland, between the Cross River and Sanaga River valleys; <em>M. l. poensis</em> occurs only on Bioko Island.	eng
12753	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Drills are a semi-terrestrial species, found in lowland, submontane rainforest up to 1,000 m. They occur in mature secondary forest, but only infrequently in young secondary forest. Drills are omnivorous and forage extensivly on the ground probably consuming a large variety of invertebrates. They have a flexible social organization, and live in harems of up to 25 individuals which periodically come together to form bands consisting of up to 200 animals.	eng
12753	population	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	They are not common in any part of their range, but they manage to persist in a number of areas where they were presumed to be extinct. On Bioko, Drills have declined by a little over 30% over the period 1986-2006; fewer than 5,000 are estimated to remain on Bioko (Hearn <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
12753	threats	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species occupies a relatively small range, and is severely threatened by habitat loss. They have been totally displaced in the heart of their range, in Cameroon between Douala and Edea, due to clear-felling for chipboard factories and settlement. Reafforestation has involved the planting of non-palatable exotic species such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Gmelina arborea</em>. Logging roads open areas to cultivators, causing further habitat loss, and allowing increased access by hunters. They are hunted for their meat, and all members of a harem are often shot en masse. Excessive hunting has resulted in a particularly marked declines in Nigeria and on Bioko. They are also frequently killed in defence of crops such as bananas, cocoa, and manioc, and this is likely to increase as cultivation expands.	eng
12754	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Mandrills are listed under Appendix I of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. Several reserves are located within the Mandrill's range, the most important of which is Lope National Park in Gabon. Other areas containing Mandrills need immediate protection, both legal and practical, against logging and hunting. Surveys are urgently needed to determine where viable populations exist.	eng
12754	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is found in moist evergreen rainforest in central west Africa, south of the Sanaga River (Cameroon) through to mainland Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon, and south-western Congo (Brazzaville) to the Kouilou River, and down to the Congo River. Inland, the Ivindo River and Ogooue River in Gabon limit its distribution to the east. In Cameroon, it is not known to occur east of the Dja river. It does not occur in the forests of south-east Cameroon or east of the Congo River. Telfer et al's (2003) study indicate that the Ogooué River, Gabon, bisects the range of the two populations, seperating them into two distinct populations 1) Cameroon and northern Gabon and 2) southern Gabon.	eng
12754	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Mandrills are found in evergreen rainforest, stretching between 100 and 300 km inland from the Atlantic coast, as well as in montane forest, and thick secondary forest. Mandrills are known to stretch to forest fragments in savanna and have been known to go into plantations. They are semi-terrestrial and forage primarily at less than 5 m off the ground. They are omnivorous and diets are diverse, including fruits, buds, leaves, roots, insects, fungus, and seeds. Mandrills prefer fruits when they are available, although in their primary forest habitat the fruiting of trees and lianas is irregular, leading to periodic fruit shortages: when this occurs they are highly reliant on having abundant herbaceous growth to eat. When food is scarce (e.g. during and at the end of the dry season), they also raid crops from farms.<br/>Mandrill home ranges may be 30-50 sq km.	eng
12754	population	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Total numbers of this species are unknown, but it has undoubtably declined in recent years. It is generally rare, and in some places has been locally exterminated. The largest remaining populations are probably to be found in Gabon.<br/>In the mid-1970s, numbers in the Wonga-Wongue National Park were said to be "fair-sized". Mandrills live at relatively low densities.	eng
12754	threats	Oates, J.F. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is affected by the destruction of its evergreen forest habitat since this reduces the capacity of environments to support Mandrill populations. However, the most immediate threat is posed by hunting for their meat (which is highly prized in Gabon). Commercial bushmeat hunters pose a particular threat to populations which are located close to main roads and towns. Mandrills appear to be most seriously threatened in Congo (Brazzaville).	eng
12761	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. A zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national legislation in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. This widespread species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need for further research into current population levels of this species throughout its known range.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, all pangolins are legally protected.<br/><br/>In India, this species is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.<br/><br/>In Pakistan, this species is protected under the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation, and Management) Ordinance, 1979 and the North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation, and Management) Act, 1975.<br/><br/>Hunting of this speices is prohibited in Sri Lanka (Broad <em>et al</em>. 1988) and Nepal (Gaski and Hemley 1991).	eng
12761	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in South Asia from parts of eastern Pakistan through much of India (excluding northeastern portions of the country) south of the Himalayas, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (CITES 2000; Schlitter 2005). There have been dubious records in Myanmar (sources quoted in Allen 1938) and southern China (Yunnan) which almost certainly refer to <em>Manis javanica</em> (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, this species was historically found throughout the country, excluding the coastal parts of Khulna, Barisal, Pauakhali, Noakhali and Chittagong Districts. The species is presumed extinct in Kushtia, Jessore, Pabna, Bogra, Rangpur, Dinajpur, Rajshahi, and most parts of Dhaka and Comilla (Khan 1985).<br/><br/>In India, this species is widely distributed from the plains and lower hills south of the Himalayas to extreme southern India (Tikader 1983). There have been recent records from Kerala and Kanyakumari; Tamil Naidu; Delhi; Gwalior and Achanakur Wildlife Sanctuaries (Madhya Pradesh); Bandipur, Bhadra, Dalma and Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuaries; Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka); Buxa Tiger Reserve (West Bengal); Catugao Wildlife Sanctuary (Goa); Chambal National Park (Madhya Pradesh); Gir National Park (Gujarat); Keolodeo Ghana Wildlife Sanctuary (Rajasthan); Kotgarh and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries and the Sunabedh Plateau (Orissa); Singalila Wildlife Sanctuary (West Bengal); Achanakuar Wildlife Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh); and the Himalayan foothills of Uttar Pradesh (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>This species is very locally distributed in Pakistan, where it has been recorded in Sialkot, Jhelum and Gujrat Districts in the northwest of the Punjab, extending across the Salt Range into Kohat District, and from Campbellpur District up to Mardan and Peshawar in the North West Frontier Province (Roberts 1977; CITES 2000). It was found in the Potwar Range upwards into the Rawalpindi foothills (up to 750 m asl). Further south, the species appears to be absent from the Indus River floodplain, however, there are records from the right bank of the Indus in the hilly regions in the western part of the Dadu and Larkana deserts (Baluchistan) and extended southward through Las Bela and Mekran. It also occurs east of the Indus in Hyderabad district and Tharparkar, extending eastwards to Kutch (Roberts 1977; CITES 2000). The species was described in 1986 as rare (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, this species is locally found throughout the lowlands, up to 1,100 m asl in hill regions, coinciding with the range of termites (Phillips 1981; WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
12761	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	There is little known about the natural history of this species, but records are from various types of tropical forests, open land, grasslands, in addition to in close proximity to villages (Zoological Survey of India, 1994). The species is thought to adapt well to modified habitats, provided their termites and ants that are their primary food source remains abundant and they are not hunted. The species is a specialist feeder on termites and ants (Prater 1971; Roberts 1977; Tikader 1983). It is generally solitary and nocturnal (Roberts, 1977). Animals live in burrows often under large rocks, with the entrance to the burrow often hidden with dirt (Roberts, 1977). Females usually give birth to one young, although twins are apparently not unknown, with a gestation length of 65-70 days (CITES 2000). Longevity in the wild is unknown, although the record longevity in captivity is 13 years 2 months (Jones, 1982).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal, and solitary, except during mating season, when adult males and females share the same burrow. The species is mainly terrestrial, but in some habitats is arboreal, using its prehensile tail and claws to climb trees.	eng
12761	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is virtually no information available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000).<br/><br/>This species is thought to occur in small numbers in Bangladesh, where this species was described as rare in 1986 (Khan 1985). In India, the overall status the species is not well known (Tikader 1983). This species was relatively uncommon in Pakistan (Roberts 1977). It is reportedly of variable abundance in Sri Lanka, but nowhere common (Phillips 1981). Overall, the species is thought to be in significant decline due to hunting for food and medicine.	eng
12761	threats	Molur, S., 2008	The species can adapt to modified habitats, although a large proportion of its range has high human population density. The principal factor affecting the species is exploitation, largely for meat and for medicinal purposes, with the scales thought to have aphrodisiac properties. Trade in <em>Manis crassicaudata</em> parts appears to be mostly at a subsistence or local level, with little international trade currently reported. Records of trade in this species outside of the confirmed range states are presumed to be misidentifications of other <em>Manis species</em> (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Throughout Asia, pangolin meat is highly favoured as a local source of food. In addition, pangolin skins are used to manufacture leather goods such as boots and shoes. Scales are used whole, or in powdered form, in preparing traditional medicines. In Bangladesh, the species is regularly collected in hill forest areas for the scales and as a source of meat, and possibly disappeared in many parts of Bangladesh due, in a large part, to hunting (Khan 1985; CITES 2000).<br/><br/>There is limited evidence of trade, either legal or illegal, in <em>Manis crassicaudata</em>, but very little is known about its status across its range, its life history, or how well it adapts to human threats (CITES 2000). There is evidence that the species is being severely impacted by hunting in India and at the same time its status in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka appears to be decreasing. Given the level of trade that appears to be occurring in other Asian pangolin species (especially <em>Manis javanica</em> and <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>), it is reasonable to assume that as these two species become rarer and more difficult to obtain, that more trade could shift to <em>Manis crassicaudata</em> (CITES 2000).	eng
12762	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g. Ituri Forest Reserve and the Salonga National Park, in Democratic Republic of Congo, National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea, and Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire) (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.	eng
12762	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Discontinuously distributed in humid forests in West and Central Africa. Recorded from Senegal (though there is no evidence of its presence in Gambia) eastwards through Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana; there is no information from Guinea Bissau or Togo (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). Sayer and Green (1984) recorded the species from Batia on the border of the Pendjari N.P. in the north of Benin, and referred to sightings in neighbouring Burkino Faso and Niger (although the species is not included in Lamarque 2004). The presence of this species in Nigeria is unclear, but it may occur in the south. Occurs on the island of Bioko (Kingdon and Hoyt in press).<br/><br/>From the eastern bank of the Sanaga River in Cameroon the species is fairly continuously distributed throughout the Congo Basin to Uganda (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). In Kenya, it has been observed on the lakeshore in west Kenya, close to the Uganda border (see Kingdon 1971). The latter author also published an authenticated record from the Mahale Mts, where their presence has been confirmed recently by camera-traps (C.A.H. Foley pers. comm.). There are no records from Sudan or Burundi (Kingdon and Hoyt in press), and they are believed extinct in Rwanda (Brautigam <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
12762	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in lowland tropical moist and swamp forest, and in forest-savanna-cultivation mosaic habitats. It is also found in some areas in the uplands of Itombwe, where soils are suitable for its digging. It feeds on ants, termites and other insects. A terrestrial species, animals spend the daytime resting under piles of plant debris, in thicket, under fallen tree roots, in partially opened termitaries, or in burrows (Kingdon and Hoyt in press). The females give birth to a single young.	eng
12762	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is mostly a solitary, nocturnal species which is difficult to census, and there is no reliable information on population abundance or densities.	eng
12762	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	As with other pangolins, this species is subject to widespread exploitation for bushmeat and traditional medicine (Bräutigam <em>et al.</em> 1994). Fa <em>et al</em>. (1995) noted that survey records of Giant Pangolin meat in the markets of Bioko were misleading as only 10% made it to market. The species is occasionally recorded in international trade: between 1996 and 2005, CITES trade reports documented a single animal exported from Cameroon in 1999 and another from Gabon in 2004 (Kingdon and Hoyt in press).	eng
12763	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Newton, P. & Nguyen Van Nhuan, 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II; a zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national legislation in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. It is found in protected areas in its range, but has been hunted out of some protected areas in its range, especially in Thailand (Anak pers. comm.). Much more effective enforcement of existing laws is critical for the conservation of this species (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Some protected areas in Viet Nam are heavily trapped for this and other species.<br/><br/>In Singapore, the species is protected under the Wild Animals and Birds Act (Domestic Law) 1904 and Endangered Species Act (Import/Export, CITES Law).<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Viet Nam for <em>Manis javanica</em>.<br/><br/><em>Manis javanica</em> has been protected in Indonesia since 1931, under Wildlife Protection Ordinance No. 266 of 1931 (promulgated by the Dutch administration), as well as under Act. No. 5 of 1990, regarding Conservation of Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems; Decree of the Minister of Forestry No. 301/kpts-II/1991 and Decree of the Minister of Forestry No. 822/kpts-II/1992.<br/><br/><em>Manis javanica</em> is completely protected in west Malaysia under the Protection of Wild Life Act, 1972; a protected species, banned from local trade, in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998; and protected in Sabah under the Wildlife Conservation Bill, 1997.<br/><br/>In accordance with the Protection of Wildlife, Wild Plant and Conservation of Natural Areas Act 15(A), <em>M. javanica</em> is categorized as a Completely Protected Animal in Myanmar.<br/><br/>In Thailand, all <em>Manis</em> spp. are classified as Protected Wild Animals under the 1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535.<br/><br/>The legal status of pangolins in Lao PDR is unclear, as a result of internal contradictions in Lao PDR laws applicable to wildlife and wildlife trading. However, Provincial and District Agricultural and Forestry Offices in Lao PDR have been confiscating large numbers of pangolins, so there is evidently a perceived legal basis for doing so (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
12763	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Newton, P. & Nguyen Van Nhuan, 2008	This species ranges over much of mainland Southeast Asia, from southern Myanmar through central and southern Lao PDR, much of Thailand, central and southern Viet Nam, Cambodia, to Peninsular Malaysia, to Sumatra, Java and adjacent islands (Indonesia) to Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei) (Schlitter 2005). The northern and western limits of its range are poorly known. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,700 m asl.<br/><br/>This species is distributed in southern Myanmar (Corbet and Hill 1992; Salter 1983), but is absent from lowland areas due to human agricultural expansion and hunting (Duckworth pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>The species historically occurred throughout Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Bain and Humphrey 1982; WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999), but has since been lost from much of the lowland areas due to human agricultural expansion and hunting (J.W. Duckworth and R. Steinmitz pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, there are records from throughout the central and southern parts of the country. There are older records from Kontum Province, Tay Ninh Province and Quang Nam Province (Bourret 1942; Peenen <em>et al</em>. 1969). There are more recent records (summarised by (Newton 2007)) from: Ha Tinh Province (Timmins and Cuong 1999); Kein Giang and Ca Mau Provinces (in U Minh Thuong National Park) (CARE, 2004); Dong Nai, Bin Phuoc and Lam Dong Provinces (Cat Tien National Park) (Murphy and Phan 2001); Quang Binh (Le <em>et al</em>. 1997b); and Dak Lak (Le <em>et al</em>. 1997a; Dang <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>The species is evidently widespread in Lao PDR, with recent records from a wide range of areas below around 600 m altitude, with the possibility that in Lao PDR the species is restricted to the Mekong plain and adjacent foothills to around 900 m, with a possible occurrence on the Bolaven Plateau, including Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area in the south at least as far north as Nam Kading (Deuve and Deuve 1963; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is widespread in Peninsular Malaysia, primarily in forest, but also in gardens and plantations, including rubber (Medway 1977). It is also found on the island of Penang.<br/><br/>The species is still found in the wild in Singapore (CITES 2000; Lim and Ng 2007).<br/><br/>This species is reportedly widespread on Borneo, from sea level to 1,700 m on Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985), although it appears to be absent from the extensive peat swamp forests of Sarawak (CITES 2000). In Sabah, the species is rarely seen, although is evidently widely distributed, being known by local people throughout Sabah (Davies and Payne 1982). The species is presumably present in Brunei (Medway 1977).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, the species is widespread on Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Kiau and Lingga archipelago, Bangka and Belitung, Nias and Pagi islands, Bali, and adjacent islands (Corbet and Hill 1992).<br/><br/>In the northern part of the range, the species probably does not occur not above 600 m asl (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). In Sabah it has been recorded up 1,700 m asl (Giman pers. comm. 2006). In Sumatra and Java it is found only up to about 400 m asl (Boeadi pers. comm. 2006), though there is a specimen in the Natural History Museum (London) at 1,500 m asl from Lombok (P. Newton pers. comm.). In the northern parts of its range, the species overlaps with the range of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, which is generally said to occupy higher altitudinal habitats, though recent interviews with in Viet Nam suggest that they can be found in the same areas of forest, and that the differences between them are ecological, relating to diet and habitat use, rather than altitude (P. Newton pers. comm.).	eng
12763	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Newton, P. & Nguyen Van Nhuan, 2008	This species is found in primary and secondary forest, and is found in cultivated areas including gardens and plantations, including near human settlements. ). Hunters interviewed in Viet Nam reported that they are found in a variety of habitats, though areas with primary forest support more pangolins, probably because they contain more older, larger trees with hollows suitable for sleeping and for use as den sites (P. Newton pers. comm.).  In Sabah, they may be able to survive in forest remnants for up to 7 or 8 years, and they have been known to forage on human rubbish (Han pers. comm. 2006). The population in Singapore is in very low quality forest, in which they have been able to survive for decades and become very abundant (Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>As with other pangolins, this species is nocturnal, solitary and a specialized feeder on ants and termites. Inference from other species indicates that one young is born at a time, after a gestation period of at minimum 130 days.<br/><br/>Hunters in Viet Nam consistently reported that <em>Manis javanica</em> is a more arboreal species than <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, and that they are adept climbers, with prehensile tails. They often climb to access ants nests in trees. They sleep in hollows either in, or at the base of, trees, rather than excavating their own burrows in soil (as <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> does).<br/><br/>Lim and Ng (2007), recorded the activity budget of a radio-tracked individual, with the following results: maternal care following the birth of a single offspring was for approximately 3-4 months. Three natal dens were used, all associated with hollows in large trees (>50 cm DBH). Home-range size was estimated as being 6.97 ha. Daily activity was 127 +-13.1 minutes, with peak activity between 03h00 and 06h00.	eng
12763	population	Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Newton, P. & Nguyen Van Nhuan, 2008	Virtually no information is available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). There appear to be no comprehensive population estimates available, although records are reportedly rarer in many range states.<br/><br/>It is extremely rare in the northern part of its range (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.), less so in the southern part (Boeadi pers. comm.). There have been massive declines in the northern part of its range (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is very common in parts of Singapore (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.), where Lim and Ng (2007) estimated the range size of one individual, but made no estimate of total population size or density. In Sabah it is relatively common (Han and Giman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In three areas of Viet Nam where interviews were conducted (Khe Net Protected Area, Ke Go Nature Reserve and Song Thanh National Park), hunters reported that populations had massively declined in the last few decades, but particularly since about 1990 when the commercial trade in pangolins began to escalate (Newton 2007). In all three areas, the species was described as now being extremely rare. The intense biodiversity survey effort and extremely limited number of confirmed records of pangolins throughout Viet Nam?s protected areas adds weight to this observation (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In three separate areas within the range of <em>Manis javanica</em> in Lao PDR (Xe Pian, Dong Phou Veng and Khammouan Limestone NBCA), villagers have recently reported that pangolin populations have declined, in some areas to as little as one percent of the level 30 years ago due to hunting (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>There is no recent data on the status of this species in Myanmar (WCMC <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/><em>M. javanica</em> is considered threatened and becoming increasingly rare in Thailand (Bain and Humphrey 1982; Steinmitz pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12763	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Newton, P. & Nguyen Van Nhuan, 2008	Threats to Asian pangolins include rapid loss and deterioration of available habitat and hunting for local use and for international trade in skins, scales, and meat. Evidence suggests that pangolins, in general, are able to adapt to modified habitats (e.g., secondary forests), provided their termite food source remains abundant and they are not unduly persecuted. However, whilst secondary habitats may be suitable, on the basis of hunters? reports in Viet Nam and the evidence of Lim and Ng (2007) in Singapore, it seems that the availability of tree hollows, which is higher in undisturbed forest, is also extremely important for this species (P. Newton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species is intensively used, for its skin, meat and scales, and is evidently subject to heavy collection pressure in many parts of its range. The species may be harvested for local (i.e. national-level) use, as well as for international export either before or after processing. Observations in mainland Southeast Asia indicate that there is very heavy unofficial, or at least unrecorded, international trade in pangolins and pangolin products, although it is not possible at present to disentangle this trade from local use (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). The majority of utilization and trade data on pangolins in Asia do not distinguish reliably between the Asian species of pangolin (<em>Manis crassicaudata</em>, <em>Manis culionensis</em>, <em>Manis javanica</em>, <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>). The two most commonly traded species (<em>Manis javanica</em>, <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>) have significant populations in some of the same countries (especially Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Viet Nam), and because both species are imported into China, it is often not possible to determine which species is referred to in both local use and export (WCMC<em>et al</em>. 1999). The lack of accurate population and harvest data across this species? range, makes it difficult to assess the level and impact of harvest. The total from national use and international trade indicate that, at a minimum, several tens of thousands of animals were harvested and traded annually during the 1990s (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999). Figures, discussed in detail in Broad <em>et al</em>. (1988) and WCMC and IUCN SSC (1992), indicate that trade of this magnitude also took place at least up until the mid-1980s (e.g. over 185,000 skins reported in international trade by CITES in the period 1980-85 alone). An estimate in the late 1950s and early 1960s indicates that scales of some 10,000 pangolins (<em>Manis javanica</em>) per year were exported from Borneo (Harrison and Loh 1965).<br/><br/>The trade routes and degree are both sophisticated and extensive occurring over land and by sea. Most of the trade concerns <em>Manis javanica</em>, but traders do not distinguish between the species. Scales are used medicinally and the skins are used as a leather, but the medicinal use is greatest. In the past animal parts were used to cure skin diseases, but now it is used in China to cure cancer. The increased wealth in China is leading to a large increase in rates of exploitation of this species. In all of Lao PDR, the population crashed more than 90% in the last 10 years (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). More recently, since Lao PDR and Thailand populations have greatly reduced, hunted animals are brought in from Indonesia and large numbers of live animals to be exported to China have been seized (GMA, Indonesia Workshop 2006). Indonesia has been illegally exporting great numbers of live animals, some of which come from east Kalimantan (Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>The population in the southern part of Thailand crashed because of trade, however, in the western part of Thailand it is more stable due to presence in protected areas (Anak pers. comm. 2006). In the last few years many animals have been confiscated from illegal traders (Han pers. comm. 2006).  This species is hunted by specially trained dogs, which can smell it out, making hunting much more effective ? such pangolin dogs are highly valued (up to USD 2000)  (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Every hunter interviewed in Viet Nam (n = 84) reported that they now sell all pangolins that they catch (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices are so high that local, subsistence use of pangolins for either meat or their scales has completely halted in favour or selling to the national/international trade (P. Newton pers. comm.). The only occasions on which a hunter might eat a pangolin is if it is already dead when they retrieve it from a trap ? then they would use the meat and sell the scales (P. Newton pers. comm.). The price per kg of pangolin (in Viet Nam, at least) has escalated rapidly (at a rate greater than that of annual inflation) since the commercial trade in wild pangolins began to expand in about 1990 (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices paid to hunters now exceed US$95 per kg (Viet Nam,  P. Newton pers. comm.); US$45 per kg (Cambodia, C. Phallika pers. comm. to P. Newton) and US$17 per kg (Indonesia, D. Martyr pers. comm. to P. Newton).	eng
12764	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmitz, R., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Newton, P., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II; a zero annual export quota has been established for specimens removed from the wild and traded for primarily commercial purposes. It is protected by national or subnational legislation in Bangladesh, China, India, Lao, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Viet Nam. This wide ranging species is present in some protected areas, but protected area designation alone is not sufficient to protect this species. Greater enforcement and management to prevent poaching in protected areas is urgently needed. Large seizures of illegal animals do occur, but the trade continues largely unabated.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, all pangolins are legally protected.<br/><br/>On Taiwan, all Manis species have been protected since August 1990 under the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Law. <br/><br/>This species is listed as a Class II protected species in China?s Wild Animal Protection Law (1989), and also as a Class II protected species in China in the Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals (1987).<br/><br/>In Thailand, all Manis species are classified as Protected Wild Animals under the 1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2535.<br/><br/>In India, this species is completely protected, as it is included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.<br/><br/>Hunting of this species is prohibited in Nepal (Gaski and Hemley 1991).<br/><br/>The legal status of pangolins in Lao PDR is unclear, as a result of internal contradictions in Lao PDR laws applicable to wildlife and wildlife trading. However, Provincial and District Agricultural and Forestry Offices in Lao PDR have been confiscating large numbers of pangolins, so there is evidently a perceived legal basis for doing so (WCMC <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
12764	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmitz, R., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Newton, P., 2008	This species occurs in the Himalayan foothills in eastern Nepal, Bhutan and northern India, northeastern Bangladesh, across Myanmar to northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, northern and northeastern Thailand, and through southern China (south of the Chiangjiang) to Hainan and Taiwan. The limits of its range are poorly known, and complicated by high levels of exploitation. The species exists at high altitudes, especially in the southern and western parts of its range, possibly occurring at much lower altitudes in northeast. Its latitudinal range is thought likely to overlap considerably with that of <em>Manis javanica</em>, with <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> tending to occur in hills and mountains and the latter more generally found at lower altitudes, though recent interviews with in Viet Nam suggest that the two species can be found in the same areas of forest, and that the differences between them are ecological, relating to diet and habitat use, rather than altitude (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species has been recorded in northeastern India from Sikkim eastward (Tikader 1983). The species occurs in eastern Nepal and Bhutan at the foothills of the Himalayas, apparently confined to elevations below approximately 1,500 m in Nepal (Frick 1968; Mitchell 1975).<br/><br/>The species has been recorded in north and central Lao PDR, however, there are too few locality records to determine the geographic and altitudinal range of the species in the country with any accuracy (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Evans 1996).<br/><br/>The species occurs throughout southeast China from the southern border as far north as Changjiang (the Yangtze River), including on the island of Chusan at the mouth of the Changjiang (Allen and Coolidge 1940). This species is distributed widely in China in the provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, and Fujian, and in the Autonomous Regions of Hainan Island, Guangxi Zhuang, and Tibet (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is recorded in several sites in central and northeast New Territories, as well as on Hong Kong (Lantau Island), although not on the smaller outlying islands (Reels 1996).<br/><br/>On Taiwan, the species occurs on the periphery of the Central Mountain Range, the Western Foothill Range, the Taoyuan Tableland, the Ouluanpi Tableland, the East Coast Mountain Range, the Tatun Volcano Group, Taipei Basin, Puli Basin, and the Pingtun Plain (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Chao Jung-Tai <em>et al</em>. 2005). The upper limit of occurrence is around 2,000 m asl (Chao Jung-Tai 1989).<br/><br/>The species is probably widespread in northern Myanmar, although there are few records and the exact distribution is not well known (Salter 1983; Corbet and Hill 1992; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The only records of the species in Thailand are from: Doi Inthanon (formerly Doi Angka) in Changwat, Chiang Mai (northern Thailand), sometime in 1937 and 1939 (Allen and Coolidge 1940); Doi Sutep, Chiangmai (northern Thailand) in 1901; and Mukdaharn in northeastern Thailand.<br/><br/>All records of the species in Viet Nam are from the northern half of the country, as far south as Quang Tri Province, up to 1,000 m asl (Bourret 1942; Peenen <em>et al</em>. 1969; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006; P. Newton pers. comm.).	eng
12764	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmitz, R., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Newton, P., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including primary and secondary tropical forests, limestone forests, bamboo forests, grasslands and agricultural fields, and grasslands (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Gurung 1996). The species digs its own burrows, or enlarges passages made by termites. Indications are that home range is relatively large, although concrete data are lacking (Heath and Vanderlip 1988). Hunters interviewed in Viet Nam indicate that <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> digs its own, long burrows underground, which they use both to eat termites and in which to sleep (P. Newton pers. comm.). The main way in which they catch this species is to dig them out of these burrows, so this evidence is probably reliable (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is solitary, nocturnal (sometimes crepuscular), and largely terrestrial although it is fully capable of climbing trees and, like other pangolins, swims well (Heath and Vanderlip 1988; Chao Jung-Tai 1989). In addition, little is known of the species? life history, although in China and Taiwan, young (normally one, occasionally two) are reportedly born in spring (Allen and Coolidge 1940; Chao Jung-Tai 1989). Hunters in Viet Nam reported that they never find this species in trees, and so it seems likely that it is far more terrestrial than the more arboreal <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The diet consists of ants and termites (Heath and Vanderlip 1988). It has been noted that in China, there appears to be a close correlation between the its distribution and the distribution of two termite species (Coptotermes formosanus and Termes (Cyclotermes) formosanus) that are assumed to form a major component of its diet (Allen and Coolidge 1940).	eng
12764	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmitz, R., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Newton, P., 2008	Virtually no information is available on population levels of any species of Asian pangolins. These species are rarely observed due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). There have been few documented records, and therefore there is very little information available on the population status anywhere in the species' range, but it appears to be decreasing over much of its range. <br/><br/>A 1993 survey conducted in the Royal Nagarjung Forest in Kathmandu, Nepal, determined that there was a healthy population there, however, the general trend elsewhere in Nepal was dramatically declining, due to increased access to hunting areas and loss of habitat (Gurung 1996). <br/><br/>This species was reported in the 1980s as common in the undisturbed hill forests of Arunachal Pradesh, however, little is known about the total population in India (Tikader 1983; Zoological Survey of India 1994).<br/><br/>Reports from the late 1980s and early 1990s suggest that the total population of this species in Taiwan was decreasing due to poaching and habitat destruction (Chao Jung-Tai 1989; Chao Jung-Tai <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The species is very rare in Viet Nam (Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). There is a ?confirmed record? we found is for Ba Na National Park, which straddles the provinces of Quang Nam and Da Nang (Frontier Viet Nam, 1994). Hunters in Viet Nam reported that they still find <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> in Cuc Phuong National Park (in Quang Binh province), in Khe Net Nature Reserve, and in Ke Go Nature Reserve (Ha Tinh province) (P. Newton pers. comm.). However, all hunters reported that the species is extremely rare, and that populations have declined dramatically in the last two decades (P. Newton pers. comm.). In 2007, P. Newton (pers. comm.) found recent (i.e., less than 1 month old) signs of pangolin activity (recently-dug burrows) in Cuc Phuong National Park ? these were almost certainly those of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em>, as the park is well outside of the range of <em>Manis javanica</em>. In Khe Net and Ke Go, hunters reported that numbers of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> were lower than those of <em>Manis javanica</em>, probably because the former is easier to hunt. If this is the case, then in places where both species occur, populations of <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> are likely to be more heavily depleted.<br/><br/>The species has been so heavily hunted in Lao PDR that field sightings are exceptionally rare, and the only recent field sightings (during 1994-1995) was of an individual in Nam Theun Extension PNBCA (Proposed National Biodiversity Conservation Area) and one seen in a village in Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA during the same period (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Manis pentadactyla is less often recorded in trade in Lao PDR than Manis javanica, perhaps due to its lower abundance in the wild (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
12764	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmitz, R., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc & Newton, P., 2008	Threats to Asian pangolins include rapid loss and deterioration of available habitat and hunting for local use and for international trade in skins, scales, and meat. Evidence suggests that pangolins, in general, are able to adapt to modified habitats (e.g., secondary forests), provided their termite food source remains abundant and they are not unduly persecuted. The species is intensively used, for its skin, meat and scales, and is evidently subject to heavy collection pressure in many parts of its range. The species may be harvested for local (i.e. national-level) use, or for international export either before or after processing. Observations in mainland Southeast Asia indicate that there is very heavy unofficial, or at least unrecorded, international trade in pangolins and pangolin products. The species trade levels are significant across its range, although precise estimates are unknown (CITES 2000).<br/><br/>Of particular significance is that <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> is reported to be an easier species to locate and hunt in the wild (P. Newton pers. comm.). This is because it is more terrestrial, and is thus: a) easier to track their scent using specialised hunting dogs (the scent of <em>Manis javanica</em> is often lost at points at which the animal climbed a tree); and b) has conspicuous soil burrows that are more easily accessed than the tree hollows favoured by <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.). For these reasons, the hunting threat to <em>Manis pentadactyla</em> is perhaps even greater than that to <em>Manis javanica</em> (P. Newton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Every hunter interviewed in Viet Nam (N = 84) reported that they now sell all pangolins that they catch (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices are so high that local, subsistence use of pangolins for either meat or their scales has completely halted in favour or selling to the national/international trade (P. Newton pers. comm.). The only occasions on which a hunter might eat a pangolin is if it is already dead when they retrieve it from a trap ? then they would use the meat and sell the scales (P. Newton pers. comm.). The price per kg of pangolin (in Viet Nam, at least) has escalated rapidly (at a rate greater than that of annual inflation) since the commercial trade in wild pangolins began to expand in about 1990 (P. Newton pers. comm.). Prices paid to hunters now exceed US$95 per kg (Viet Nam,  P. Newton pers. comm.).	eng
12765	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although it has been locally exterminated in some areas, it occurs in many national parks and other protected areas (e.g. Kruger National Park, South Africa). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and is protected in a number of range states (e.g. Botswana), there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation over much of its distribution.	eng
12765	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is distributed from eastern Chad from north of the forest block through parts of southern Sudan and most of East Africa to southern Africa (to about 30 degrees south). Also recorded from north-eastern Central African Republic and from south-western Ethiopia (though not from Somalia) (Swart in press). It is unclear if the distribution of this species overlaps with the range of the Giant Pangolin <em>S. gigantea</em> in the mosaic forest savanna north and south of the forest blocks.	eng
12765	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is a mostly solitary, terrestrial species that is present in various woodland and savanna habitats, often with thick undergrowth, and also in floodplain grasslands. The range is largely determined by an abundance of ants and termites of a few specific types. It can be found in farmed areas. Animals spend the daytime in underground dens. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation of approximately 140 days; females give birth to one young per year (Swart in press).	eng
12765	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is very widely but patchily distributed. Given its nocturnal and secretive nature, their abundance is probably underestimated. Density in the Kruger N. P. region has been estimated at 0.24/km² (Swart in press).	eng
12765	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is selectively hunted for meat and scales (for charms), and is used for traditional medicine in a number of countries (Bräutigam <em>et al.</em> 1994; Swart in press). Other recorded threats to the species include poisoning with pesticides and electric fences (Swart 1996; in press).	eng
12766	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g. Ituri Forest Reserve). While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.	eng
12766	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species occurs in the forested regions of West and Central Africa, from Sierra Leone eastwards through south-eastern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and south-west Ghana, there being an apparent gap in distribution until west Nigeria. They then occur eastwards through southern Cameroon, and much of the Congo Basin forest block to the Semliki valley (and thus, just possibly, into Uganda) (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Their presence in Cabinda (Angola) is possible (J. Crawford-Cabral pers. comm.).	eng
12766	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is the most arboreal of the African pangolin species, found in tropical moist riverine and swamp forest, never far from water (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). In Nigeria, it has been recorded both in secondary rainforests, in altered forests (bush), and in farmlands (agricultural areas of former lowland rainforests) (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999). It feeds on ants, termites and other invertebrates. The gestation period is about 140 days, after which the females give birth to a single young. Breeding is almost continuous.	eng
12766	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no quantitative data available on densities or abundance. This is the least frequently recorded of all African pangolins, though it may be less rare than available records suggest. The species is extremely shy, almost strictly arboreal, and mainly restricted to little-known and little-penetrated habitats (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
12766	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is threatened by selective hunting for meat, medicinal and cultural use, although to a far lesser degree than <em>Phataginus tricuspis</em> or <em>Smutsia gigantea</em>. According to CITES trade reports for the period 1996-2005, trade in live animals, specimens or skins is reported in nearly every year, with 40 specimens exported from the Central African Republic in 2000 (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
12767	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. While it is listed on Appendix II of CITES, there is a need to develop and enforce protective legislation in many range states.	eng
12767	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species ranges from Guinea in West Africa through Sierra Leone and much of West Africa to Central Africa as far east as southwestern Kenya and north-western Tanzania and as far south (west of Lake Tanganyika) as north-western Zambia and northern Angola; also on Bioko (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). There are no confirmed records from Senegal, The Gambia or Guinea-Bissau (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
12767	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This largely nocturnal and semi-arboreal species is found in lowland tropical moist forest (primary and secondary), and savanna/forest mosaics; also favours cultivation and fallow land where not hunted (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Sodeinde and Adedipe (1994) noted that Tree Pangolins were often reported caught on abandoned or little-used oil palm trees in secondary growth. This suggests that the species can adapt to at least some degree of habitat modification. It feeds on ants, termites and other invertebrates. The gestation period is about 150 days, after which the females give birth to a single young, which are carried by the female (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
12767	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is the most common of the African forest pangolins, reaching relatively high densities in suitable habitat (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
12767	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Tree Pangolins are subject to widespread and often intensive exploitation for bushmeat and traditional medicine, and are by far the most common of the pangolins found in African bushmeat markets. For example, during the course of six months fieldwork in Cameroon in 2002-2003, this species was the fourth most harvested species across 47 sites sampled, after the Brush-tailed Porcupine <em>Atherurus africanus</em>, Blue Duiker <em>Philantomba monticola</em> and Giant Pouched Rat <em>Cricetomys emini</em> (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2006). Tree Pangolins are commonly recorded in international trade: according to CITES trade reports, during the period 1996 to 2005, 30 live animals were exported from Togo in 1996 and 16 in 2002, and five each in two successive years (1999 and 2000) from Cameroon (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
12774	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12775	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12776	conservation		Limits on exportation of animals have been imposed, and the trade has been  greatly reduced. Plans to implement a controlled, sustainable trade through a  trade quota should be encouraged, and would help ensure the survival of its  habitat, as well as probably being more effective than complete trade bans. This species is being maintained in captivity by about 35 zoos  and other institutions and is being bred in captivity by public institutions and  many private individuals.  It  does not occur in protected areas, but it is found near to the Réserve Spéciale  d'Analamazaotra. The species was recently recorded from a cluster of unprotected forest localities to the south of Moramanga. These forests are under severe pressure and should be considered as conservation priorities for protection (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12776	distribution		This species has a very restricted distribution in east-central Madagascar, centred on the Torotorofotsy area (c. 7km north-west of Andasibe) and the Andromena Forest at the Samarirana River. Several other small forest fragments north and south of Moramanga are populated by the species as well. Its recorded altitudinal range is 920-960 m asl.	eng
12776	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary rainforest only, and usually found in damp, swampy areas, often associated with screw pine (<em>Pandanus</em>) forest. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are flushed by rain into swamps, temporary ponds, and flooded forest, where they develop further.	eng
12776	population		It is extremely localized, being very abundant in tiny areas, often of just a few hectares.	eng
12776	threats		It is restricted to a fragment of forest surrounded by degraded land, and the remaining forest is under threat from subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, fires, and expanding human settlements. Recent surveys indicate that the habitat is being degraded in all the areas where the species occurs, and in 2001 a significant amount of the remaining suitable habitat at Torotorofotsy was affected by fire (although three years later the species was still common in the affected areas). However, the remaining habitat for the species is now severely fragmented. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but so far such harvesting has not had a visible effect on its populations.	eng
12795	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from the Lore Lindu National Park, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine both the full extent of the species range, and its tolerance to habitat disturbance.	eng
12795	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in central and northeastern Sulawesi (Indonesia), where it occurs from near sea level to 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only known from a few areas but it may be quite widespread outside of the known locations.	eng
12795	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This arboreal species is found in lowland tropical evergreen rain forest (Musser 1990; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been collected from naturally disturbed riverside forest, but it is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.	eng
12795	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is a fairly common species, but it is difficult to trap without targetted effort (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
12795	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is believed to be threatened by habitat degradation, resulting from deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
12796	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Gunung Nokilalaki is in Lore Lindu National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it does occur more widely in central Sulawesi.	eng
12796	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is known to occur from 1,600-2,285 m on Gunung Nokilalaki and from a single specimen farther south in the Mamasa Area (02°56'S, 119°22'E). It is likely to occur in other montane regions of central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12796	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This arboreal species appears restricted to montane rainforest, such as on the steep slopes of Gunung Nokilalaki, and has not been found in lowland forest (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known whether it might survive in slightly degraded habitats.	eng
12796	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is common on Gunung Nokilalaki.	eng
12796	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at higher elevations.	eng
12797	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The known range of the species is within Lore Lindu National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005). Further research is needed to determine if the species is more widely distributed.	eng
12797	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia, where it has been recorded at elevations of between 1,800 and 2,272 m on the slopes of Gunung Nokilalaki. It probably occurs elsewhere in mountainous areas of central Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12797	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This arboreal species is found in montane rain forest, but has not been recorded from lowland tropical evergreen forest (Musser 1981; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
12797	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is presumably a fairly common species, but it is arboreal and difficult to trap without targeted effort (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
12797	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at higher elevations.	eng
12798	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This species is protected in France and in Spain. It is listed in the Annex 4 of the Habitat Directive and the Annex II of the Bern Convention. Species Action Plans have been elaborated in France (2009) and Spain (2005). <br/><br/>It is necessary to take major actions if we want to ensure the survival of this species: surveys in southwest France will allow to discover remaining populations, research on the ecology (water quality requirement, host fish, population genetics), management of the habitat, in particular of the dams and water quality, the restoration of host fish populations, designation of special protected areas and captive breeding programmes.	eng
12798	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species was originally known to be widespread in Europe extending in the north to Denmark, east to Italy and to Portugal in the West. Nowadays, it only occurs in France and Spain and is extinct in the rest of Europe (Araujo and Ramos 2001). The current range of this species is recorded from part of the rivers Charente, Vienne and Creuse in France and part of the Ebro river in Spain. Therefore, the species is known from four locations, namely the Charente, Vienne, Creuze and Ebro rivers, with a possible fifth one which has to be confirmed (Dronne river in France). In parts of the range the species has been extinct for hundreds of years (UK), whereas in other regions the decline and disappearance happened in the last century.	eng
12798	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species occurs in slow-flowing large rivers. It is dependent on well-oxygenated gravel substrate for juvenile development. It relies on the presence of its fish host (which is believed to be the Common sturgeon<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acipenser sturio</span>, nearly extirpated in most western European rivers). Nevertheless, the Mediterranean populations (Ebro river) may reproduce thanks to an other fish host (River Blenny <span style="font-style: italic;">Salaria fluviatillis</span>).	eng
12798	population	Prie, V., 2010	Currently in France, reproduction is very scarce in the Ebro and Vienne rivers and therefore these subpopulations are decreasing. In the other rivers, no recruitment is observed at all and most of the subpopulations will have disappeared in the next 20-50 years. The subpopulation from the Oise river (France) was probably extirpated in the last few years.	eng
12798	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Main threats are/were due to human activities, either by direct killing of individuals or by habitat modification. In particular, dams seriously threat this species, both through habitat modification (siltation) and impeding the migration of the host fish. River regulation, dredging, water pollution and pesticides (there are very large irrigated fields along the banks of the Ebro) and water availability are among the most important reasons for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. auricularia</span>’s decline. Irrational water use in the area is behind all these problems and represents the main threat to the species (Araujo and Ramos 1989).	eng
12812	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	The species has not been recorded from a protected area; although, Manu National Park is between the two known records. There is a need to research its distribution, especially to determine the range limits. Additionally, there is a need to research potential threats in the vicinity of the known localities.	eng
12812	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species has only been recorded from two localities (Cuzco, Peru) (Gardner, 2007).	eng
12812	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It is nocturnal and may be arboreal. The diet of Marmosa is largely comprised of insects and fruits but also lizards, bird eggs and small rodents. The second locality where was captured this species is a mixture of forest and bamboo (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
12812	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Unknown. The species is known only from the holotype and six additional individuals (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
12812	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	There are no major threats. In the one western locality, there are natural gas fields in the Camisea region which are being extracted; however, this is localized. Within the projected range, there is not a high rate of deforestation. In the vicinity of the eastern locality, there are threats including expanding coca crops.	eng
12813	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F. & Vazquez, E., 2008	Found in multiple protected areas.	eng
12813	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This species is found in Mexico from southern Sonora to Oaxaca and Chiapas, the Yucatán, and the Tres Marías Islands (Garder 2005).  It occurs from lowlands to 2,100 m (Reid 1997). Armstrong and Jones (1971) implied that this species occurs in Guatemala, but there are no published records to vouchered Guatemalan records.	eng
12813	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This marsupial can be found in desert scrub, deciduous forest, and dry hills. It is semiarboreal and may spend more time on the ground than other mouse opossums. It is known to eat insects, figs, and probably cactus fruits. This species nests in dry leaves and stems, lined with plant down in forks of small trees and bushes (Wilson, 1991). Other nest sites include hollows in cacti or tree limbs, abandoned birds’ nests, and a single record of a nest among litter at the base of a fig tree (Armstrong and Jones, 1971). In western Mexico, the breeding season is from August to October, and litters of 8 to 13 have been recorded (Reid, 1997).	eng
12813	population	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
12813	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F. & Vazquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats, however, its main habitat, deciduous forest, is being deforested.	eng
12814	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
12814	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found from Surinam, Brazil, eastern Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Colombia (Gardner, 2007). The species is likely more widely found between known records, but there are very few records. It has an altitudinal range of 100 to 1,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
12814	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in the lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997), where it presumably feeds on insects and fruit. The species is forest dependent.	eng
12814	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is rare, but widespread. It is known from 10 localities and 20 specimens (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12814	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats. There is deforestation in some of its range.	eng
12815	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	In Venezuela, the species has not been recorded from Cerro Santa Ana National Monument, though it is not very well protected. The few other protected areas within its distribution in Venezuela do not contain the appropriate habitat. In Colombia, it may occur in Macuira National Park.	eng
12815	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is restricted to dry areas around the mouth of Lake Maracaibo in northwestern Venezuela, and in the northeast of Colombia at elevations less than 90 m (Eisenberg, 1989; Gardner, 2007). In Colombia, this species is found up to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
12815	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Little is known about this species. It is usually found in dry thorn shrubs. It is nocturnal; likely both terrestrial and scansorial. The diet of Marmosa is largely comprised of insects and fruits but also lizards, bird eggs and small rodents.	eng
12815	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	It is relatively common in appropriate habitat.	eng
12815	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The northern part of its Venezuelan range has a large pressure of human settlements, especially on Paraguana Peninsula. In the rest of the region, the habitat is dry and not subject to intense human land use. In Colombia, there is small scale agriculture, but there is relatively secure on Guajira Peninsula.	eng
12816	conservation	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	All three places are National Monuments, and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation.	eng
12816	distribution	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in the Guyanan highlands of southern Venezuela (Gardner, 2007). The species is restricted to three isolated tepuis (Duida-Marahuaca, Jaua- Sarisariñama, and Auyantepui). The species is not suspected to occur on the Serrania de Maigualida (northwest of its known distribution) and on Sierra de Lema (eastwards of its known distribution), as both have different vegetation. East of the known localities, on Roraima, which has similar vegetation. This species was first found on Mount Duida above 2,000 m (Eisenberg, 1989). It is found in humid forest at 1,400 m.	eng
12816	habitat	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species inhabits highland tepuis. The female has only four teats, indicating one of the smallest litter sizes for any species of Marmosa. It is nocturnal and crepuscular, arboreal and terrestrial (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
12816	population	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is rare; there have been many surveys in the Guyanan highlands of southern Venezuela with no records of this species.	eng
12816	threats	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	No major threats.	eng
12817	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12817	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is almost exclusively restricted to the state of Falcon in Venezuela. This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, near La Pastora, 14 km ENE of Miremire, elevation 150 m (Gardner, 2005).	eng
12817	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Marmosops mainly inhabit either lowland or montane tropical forest. They are nocturnal and arboreal, feeding on insects and fruit. The type specimen was found on moist north slope of an isolated mountain near La Pastora, in mature evergreen forest.	eng
12817	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12817	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12819	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
12819	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found from the eastern Andes of Colombia (Cundinamarca Department), to the northern mountains of Venezuela and Island of Trinidad (Gardner, 2007). It ranges up to 2,400 m.	eng
12819	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species mainly inhabits montane forest and cloud forest above 1,000 m, but can occur at lower elevations. It is found in evergreen forest and clearings (Emmons and Feer, 1997), often near water. This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial. It probably feeds on insects and fruit. In northern Venezuela, reproduction commences in April with the onset of the rainy season and lasts until November; no reproduction occurs from December to March (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
12819	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is locally common in some areas (Emmons and Feer, 1997), and relatively rare in other places (Lord, 2000).	eng
12819	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation (human induced).	eng
12820	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species. This species does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
12820	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known only from the neighbourhood of the type locality in Antioquia, Colombia, 9 km south of Valdivia (Gardner, 2007). This species was found at 1,400 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
12820	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Marmosops species mainly inhabit either lowland or montane tropical rainforest. They are nocturnal and arboreal, feeding on insects and fruit.	eng
12820	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens. Nothing is known about populations except that the species is suspected to be restricted to that region as the surrounding environs have been converted to agriculture.	eng
12820	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The type locality and surrounding areas where this species are suspected to occur are threatened by conversion of forest habitat to agriculture and to pasture.	eng
12821	conservation	Weksler, M., Reid, F., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
12821	distribution	Weksler, M., Reid, F., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found from Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, western Brazil, and Bolivia (lowlands of Pando Department only) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Gardner, 2005). This species is primarily found above 1,500 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12821	habitat	Weksler, M., Reid, F., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species inhabits rainforest and cloud forests above 2,300 m, although they may be found at less than 1,000 m. This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, closed canopy, evergreen forest. It is not usually found in disturbed or secondary forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12821	population	Weksler, M., Reid, F., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, yet occasionally locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12821	threats	Weksler, M., Reid, F., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
12822	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
12822	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Endemic to eastern Brazil, where it is found from Bahia to São Paulo (Gardner, 2007).	eng
12822	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Nocturnal; probably uses ground and low understory. This species has been trapped arborally and terrestrially, in both primary and secondary forests. It includes fruit and insects in its diet. Found in humid lowland Atlantic coastal forests, montane coastal forest to 800 m, and semi-deciduous forests of the cerrado and caatinga of the Brazilian Plateau. During an annual cycle there is a complete turnover in the male population. Since there is one breeding season per year, they conclude that the males exhibit a nearly semelparous breeding strategy (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). To 800 m elevation on coastal mountains and to 1,300 m on the Brazilian Plateau; possibly confined to forests of southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12822	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	A common species.	eng
12822	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	No major threats to this species.	eng
12823	conservation	Sarmiudo, R. & Reid, F., 2008	In Darien National Park, Chagres National Park, and Fortuna forest reserve.	eng
12823	distribution	Sarmiudo, R. & Reid, F., 2008	The species is only known from 3 locations in western Panama, the Darien in Panama, and the Panama Canal mid-elevation forest, from 600 to 1,500 m.	eng
12823	habitat	Sarmiudo, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found in mid-elevation evergreen forest and second growth, and is usually encountered between 500 and 1,300 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It inhabits the jungle understory and is frequently found in fallen trees. This marsupial appears to be more terrestrial than other species, and is usually trapped on the ground in moist areas, near or under logs or among rocks. It is occasionally caught on logs 1 to 2 m above ground. The diet includes insects and plant material. A lactating female was noted in March (Reid, 1997).	eng
12823	population	Sarmiudo, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Very common in its limited range.	eng
12823	threats	Sarmiudo, R. & Reid, F., 2008	No major threats exist at this time. Very limited range, so if the protected areas are deforested, it would be a severe threat for this species.	eng
12824	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12824	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	It occurs across the Guiana Shield in Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana and south through northern Brazil (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Gardner, 2007).	eng
12824	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	This marsupial is strongly associated with moist habitats, and prefers moist tropical forest. It is nocturnal; arboreal and terrestrial; solitary. Feeds on insects and fruit. This species appears to forage both in the trees and on the ground in the forest understory usually in tall, open-understory, terra firme forest. They are slower-moving than most other mouse opossums and they are often found sitting still perched on a low shrub or a branch of a treefall. When disturbed they run a few feet up into a sapling, where they stop and can be caught by hand. Found in mature, closed canopy, evergreen forest, not often in disturbed or secondary forest. Embryo counts vary from six to seven (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Found at elevations up to 1000 m asl in Venezuela, although it can reach 2000 m asl.	eng
12824	population	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	Usually uncommon to rare; occasionally locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
12824	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
12825	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and is known from Khunjerab National Park in Kashimir (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). Survey, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended for this species  (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
12825	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in Central Asia, northwestern South Asia and western China. In Central Asia, it is present in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, possibly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. In South Asia, it is found in much of Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and northwestern India (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is present in Xinjiang (Tian Shan mountains) (Smith and Xie 2008). It ranges from 3,200 to 4,850 m asl.	eng
12825	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is crepuscular, diurnal, semi fossorial and gregarious species. It is found to occupy alpine scrub and meadows, and rocky areas with dwarf juniper (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
12825	population	Molur, S., 2008	In the 1960s, populations were estimated at about 600,000 including: 200,000 in the Pamirs, 170,000 in Central and Western Tien Shan, 130,000 in Alai, and 100,000 in Gissaro-Darvaze (Bibikov 1996). There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
12825	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The habitat is locally threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock, conversion of lands for agriculture and civil unrest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species has been heavily trapped for the fur trade. In some parts of Nuristan, they are eaten as common fare and in other sections certain parts of the body are used as a medicinal food (Habibi 2003).	eng
12826	conservation	Molur, S. & Shreshtha, T.K., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas. It occurs in Annapurna National Park and three other protected areas in Nepal. The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and listed in Appendix III of CITES (India). Survey, taxonomic research, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
12826	distribution	Molur, S. & Shreshtha, T.K., 2008	This species is present in northwestern South Asia, and western, central and southern China. In South Asia, this species has been recorded widely distributed in the Himalaya of India, Nepal and Pakistan at elevations of 3,500 to 5,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).In China, it is found in Qinghai, Xizang, western Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2005).	eng
12826	habitat	Molur, S. & Shreshtha, T.K., 2008	This species is adapted to alpine meadows, grassland and desert conditions with very low rainfall, typically inhabiting steep bush-dotted slopes and gentle slopes where soil can be readily excavated (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in small or large colonies, depending on local resources (Smith and Xie 2008). They excavate unusually deep burrows, which are shared by colony members during hibernation. Litter size is reported to be two to eleven young, after a gestation period of one month. Females become reproductively active only in their second spring.	eng
12826	population	Molur, S. & Shreshtha, T.K., 2008	This species is often common.	eng
12826	threats	Molur, S. & Shreshtha, T.K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is locally threatened by hunting for food and medicinal use, mortality from domestic predators, habitat disturbance resulting from civil unrest, and overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
12827	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed in Red list of Uzbekistan, harvesting is prohibited. Two State Reserves (Aktash and Aksu-Dzhabagly) were established to protect the species. Reproduction in captivity with following return to nature did not succeed.	eng
12827	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distribution is limited to western Tian Shan, where the range is separated into two parts. First area is in the west of Talass Alatau (both northern and southern slopes), in upper Pskem, Ugam and Badam rivers to Sairamsu river basin in the east. In the upper Sairamsu river distributed together with <em>Marmota caudata</em>. Second area is in western part of Chatkal Range (upper Angren River, right feeders of Tersy River, Big Chimgan etc) and north-eastern part of Kuraminsky Range. The separation between two areas is more than 100 km (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
12827	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed from mid- and high mountain steppe belt to alpine meadows, from 2000 to 3400 m. Also found in light juniper cover. In more dry part of the range (Chatkal Range) lives near ground water exits and snow patches. Life cyle timing depends on the altitude and aspect. Hibernation starts in different parts of the range from from mid-August to first decade of September. Hibernation ends depending on snow melting time. Burrows are up to 2.5 - 3 m in length and have 3-4 exits. There are about 4-5 temporary (feeding) burrows that have only 1 exit. Feeds mainly on underground plant parts, but sometimes consume insects. Mating occurs in burrows or right after spring emerging. Litter size is 2-7 young in northern part of the range and 1-4 in southern.	eng
12827	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Total population size was less than 60,000 in 1990s, but declining due to agricultural activity. Average density was up to 50 individuals per 1 km sq. in northern part of the range and 10 individuals per 1 km sq. in southern part of the range (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). In 1998 was estimated as 22,000 (Anon. 1998).	eng
12827	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss due to agricultural activity.	eng
12828	conservation	Nagorsen, D.W., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is listed as Endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act (23Jan1984) and by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) it is listed as Endangered (01 May 2000). <br/><br/>There is a recovery plan that recommends captive breeding and introductions as a means of restoring the species. One occurrence is partially protected by an Ecological Reserve and a Critical Wildlife Area (Wildlife Management Area).<br/><br/>Key marmot colonies should be protected by designation as Wildlife Management Areas or by landowner agreements. The draft recovery plan (Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team 1990) states that "current known population size and distribution, together with available genetic and demographic data, suggest that direct management may be required to reduce the vulnerability of the species to extinction. However, a complete inventory may show intensive management is not essential and therefore a high priority."<br/><br/>Detailed research is needed on dispersal characteristics, hibernacula requirements, and survivorship and reproduction in natural and logging clearcut habitats.	eng
12828	distribution	Nagorsen, D.W., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This marmot is endemic to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Historical and confirmed modern distribution records are confined to mountains in the central and southern part of the island, with occurrence in natural habitat typically at elevations of 900-1,450 m asl (Nagorsen 1987), although populations in clearcuts may extend to lower elevations. Occurrences are concentrated on a few mountain ridges in the Nanaimo-Cowichan Lake region of Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team 1990). There is some evidence that marmots have disappeared from some parts of their historical range, but huge areas of potential habitat have never been formally surveyed. Opinion is divided on the likelihood of discovering new, significant populations.	eng
12828	habitat	Nagorsen, D.W., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Subalpine herbaceous communities with steep slopes support the largest populations (Nagorsen 1987). Common tree species in these communities are <em>Abies lasiocarpa</em>, <em>Tsuga mertensiana</em>, and <em>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</em>; shrubs and herbs include <em>Vaccinium</em> spp., <em>Luetkea pectinata</em>, <em>Alnus sinuata</em>, <em>Erigeron peregrinus</em>, <em>Rhododendron albiflorum</em>, <em>Phlox diffusa</em>, <em>Anaphalis margaritacea</em>, <em>Aster foliaceus</em>, <em>Lupinus arcticus</em>, and <em>Pteridium aquilinum</em> (Milko 1984). Preferred lush forb/grass meadows are relatively rare on Vancouver Island; they generally are restricted to steep, south-facing slopes where avalanches and snow creep inhibit the growth of trees (Nagorsen 1987). Fire also creates favourable meadow habitat on subalpine slopes. Most marmot occurrences are on south- and west-facing slopes (Bryant and Janz 1996). Colonies have also been found in coniferous forest, logging clearcut slash, road banks, and cleared ski runs. In fact, half of the world's <em>M. vancouverensis</em> were living in clearcuts in 1997, compared to about 25% in the mid-1980s and none prior to high elevation logging that began in the late 1960s. Individual marmots occasionally take up residence in valley-bottom gardens (Munro 1985). <br/><br/>Marmots prefer areas with sufficient soil for burrowing, and with large rocks or stumps for burrowing under and for lookout sites. Burrows are usually below rocks in or near meadows. Young are born in underground burrows.<br/><br/><em>M. vancouverensis</em> is colonial. Colonies are relatively small and inhabit small habitat patches. Most are made up of one to three family units, and the average size before the young-of-the-year emerge is about eight individuals (Bryant 1990). Meta-populations of this species consist of a patchwork of colonies, each of which experiences periodic extinctions and recolonizations (Bryant and Janz 1996). Dispersal is a key ingredient of this pattern; the appearance of individual marmots in unusual habitats far from known colonies indicates that<em>M. vancouverensis</em> is capable of extensive dispersal through forested lands (Munro 1985). Year-to-year persistence of family groups has been measured at 43% in natural sites and at 13% in logging slash sites (Bryant 1990). Most mortality apparently occurs during hibernation. Survivorship varied dramatically from year to year in Bryant's (1990) study, but a small sample size prevented any accurate determination of a mean rate. <br/><br/>Predation on <em>M. vancouverensis</em> has not been studied, but potential predators include <em>Canis lupus, Martes americana, Gulo gulo, Felis concolor, Ursus americanus, Buteo jamaicensis, Aquila chrysaetos, Accipiter gentilis</em>, and <em>Bubo virginianus</em> (Bryant 1990).<br/><br/>Grasses and sedges are the most important food in early spring; forbs make up the bulk of the summer diet. Small fruits are also eaten. Hibernates from early October to early May.	eng
12828	population	Nagorsen, D.W., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Bryant (2005) reported the following: "Population counts began in 1979 and have continued, with variable coverage and intensity, until the present. Marmots expanded into new habitats created by clearcut logging of high-elevation primary forests during the 1980s; numbers increased to an estimated 300-350 individuals by 1986, with about half of these living in clearcuts (Bryant and Janz 1996). The temporary population expansion was followed by precipitous decline and near-extinction in the wild (Bryant 2000). Fewer than 130 marmots were known to be alive by 2004, including 93 in captivity and about 35 in the wild (unpublished minutes, Vancouver Island Marmot Recovery Team, November 2004)."<br/><br/>Since 1972, the species has been found at 47 sites on 15 mountains (Bryant and Janz 1996). However, only four occurrences are known to be extant.<br/><br/>Population trends are difficult to determine because estimates of numbers and sizes of colonies before the 1970s are not available and only one or two relatively thorough censuses have been done (these only in the central part of the range). Numbers of adults were above average during the early 1980s and were reported as near or below average since 1990 by Bryant and Janz (1996). Recent data indicate a significant decline during the 1990s. Data for 1997 indicated a 60% decline in numbers during the past decade and a similar reduction in geographic range in the last several decades (Bryant <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>A thorough and systematic inventory of all of Vancouver Island, especially the western and northern mountains, is needed to determine the actual present status.	eng
12828	threats	Nagorsen, D.W., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No obvious threats have been identified, although long-term environmental changes, prehistoric hunting, and recent forestry activities could have impacted populations. Predation on so small a population is considered as a significant threat.<br/><br/>Logging activities adjacent to colonies have created temporarily attractive habitat to marmots and have undoubtedly resulted in an increase in marmot populations. Bryant (1990), however, feared that logging clearcuts may be deleterious in the long run; there is evidence that, although they provide attractive summer habitat, they offer poor conditions for successful hibernation. They may thus act as "sinks" preventing dispersing marmots from reaching adjacent mountain ridges (Bryant 1996). This would decrease genetic outcrossing as well as preventing former colony sites from being recolonized. More research is needed. Bryant (1990) concluded that the known population of <em>M. vancouverensis</em> is not viable using existing criteria.<br/><br/>Bryant and Page (2005) concluded that predation was the proximate cause of recent declines in wild Vancouver Island marmot populations, that losses were highly concentrated in late summer, and that previous studies exaggerated the importance of winter mortality. We suggest that high predation rates were associated with forestry and altered predator abundance and hunting patterns.	eng
12829	conservation	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N. & Shar, S., 2008	Hunting is permitted between August 11th and October 15th (MNE, 2005). Occurs within some protected areas (approximately 16% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research, legislation and education is recommended.	eng
12829	distribution	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N. & Shar, S., 2008	Distributed in mountain (up to 4000 m) steppes and alpine meadows in W Siberia, and Tuva (Russia), W Mongolia (Mongol Altai Mountain Range), E Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China (Xinjiang).	eng
12829	habitat	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N. & Shar, S., 2008	Inhabits mountain steppes and alpine meadows (up to 4000 m) spreading over gentle slopes.  Fewer live in stony mountain steppes strewn with boulders. Where the Gray Marmot lives in sympatry with the Siberian Marmot, the Gray Marmot occupies only tips of ridges characterized by alpine vegetation while the Siberian Marmot inhabits productive highland valleys. This species, like most marmots, is highly social, and lives in colonies with many burrows.  Summer and winter burrows are usually separate; winter burrows are deeper, while summer burrows are just as long, but not as deep; both types may hold 2-3 marmots, but in winter, up to 10. Marmots eat a wide variety of food plants, which vary with season. Early spring foods include Artemisia frigida; by late spring and early summer their diet consists mainly of grasses; and by late summer, herbaceous vegetation. Sometimes can eat animals.  Mating begins in early May and ends by the beginning of June.  Gestation lasts 40 days. Reproduces once a year, litter size is 2-6 pups.  Hibernation is initiated at different times in different places, from August to October, and appears influenced by local weather and food resources. Hibernation lasts 7-8 months.  Enemies include large raptors, wolves and other smaller predators such as foxes, steppe polecats, and Pallas’ cats.	eng
12829	population	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N. & Shar, S., 2008	Not abundant in northern parts of the range. In 1990, the Mongolian population size was estimated to be 600,000 (Demberel and Batbold, 1991).	eng
12829	threats	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N. & Shar, S., 2008	Unsustainable hunting for meat and for use in traditional medicines, although no international trade is believed to be occurring at present. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock.	eng
12830	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	At present, there are no special conservation measures except hunting prohibition. In the early 1980s re-introductions were carried out in a number of locations. In the European part of the range the bobak marmot occurs in protected areas, where it survived during the period of severe population decline in the early to mid 20th century.	eng
12830	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	At present, there are no special conservation measures except hunting prohibition. In the early 1980s re-introductions were carried out in a number of locations. In the European part of the range the bobak marmot occurs in protected areas, where it survived during the period of severe population decline in the early to mid 20th century.	eng
12830	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	At the beginning of the 20th century the species was distributed along whole steppe zone from W Ukraine through Russia and Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River. However, in the first half of the 20th century hunting and habitat loss (ploughing of steppes and conversion to arable land) significantly reduced the range of bobak marmot in the European steppes.  By the 1940s the European range of the bobak marmot had become fragmented into isolated populations in unused land and protected areas. Currently the majority of the range is in the Urals and N Kazakhstan.	eng
12830	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	At the beginning of the 20th century the species was distributed along whole steppe zone from W Ukraine through Russia and Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River. However, in the first half of the 20th century hunting and habitat loss (ploughing of steppes and conversion to arable land) significantly reduced the range of bobak marmot in the European steppes.  By the 1940s the European range of the bobak marmot had become fragmented into isolated populations in unused land and protected areas. Currently the majority of the range is in the Urals and N Kazakhstan.	eng
12830	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	It inhabits a variety of steppe habitats, including lowland, mixed grass, arid, and wormwood (<em>Artemisia</em>) steppes. Forms colonies consisting of several families. Burrows are complex, and may be up to 4-5 m in depth. There are summer and winter burrows, both with pronounced mounds. Does not stock up for winter; instead hibernates for at least six months a year. Enters hibernation at different times in differents parts of the range, leaves hibernation in late March-April. Feeds on green parts, bulbs, flowers and shoots of grasses. Sensitive to moisture in food and in overly dry conditions enters estivation. Reproduces once a year with litter size of 4 to 7 young.	eng
12830	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It inhabits a variety of steppe habitats, including lowland, mixed grass, arid, and wormwood (<em>Artemisia</em>) steppes. Forms colonies consisting of several families. Burrows are complex, and may be up to 4-5 m in depth. There are summer and winter burrows, both with pronounced mounds. Does not stock up for winter; instead hibernates for at least six months a year. Enters hibernation at different times in differents parts of the range, leaves hibernation in late March-April. Feeds on green parts, bulbs, flowers and shoots of grasses. Sensitive to moisture in food and in overly dry conditions enters estivation. Reproduces once a year with litter size of 4 to 7 young.	eng
12830	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Formerly the species was common and abundant along the whole steppe zone from W Ukraine to the Irtysh River. By the 1940s the European population and range had declined dramatically, and the species was restricted to isolated fragments of habitat in uncultivated areas and nature reserves. In the 1960s in both Russia and Ukraine hunting was prohibited, and marmot populations in these countries subsequently increased and are now considered stable. In N Kazakhstan, by contrast, the population has not recovered and remains at low density, but in central Kazakhstan the population is increasing. The species was reintroduced to a number of locations in the early 1980s, and the species has also naturally recolonised many areas.	eng
12830	population	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Formerly the species was common and abundant along the whole steppe zone from W Ukraine to the Irtysh River. By the 1940s the European population and range had declined dramatically, and the species was restricted to isolated fragments of habitat in uncultivated areas and nature reserves. In the 1960s in both Russia and Ukraine hunting was prohibited, and marmot populations in these countries subsequently increased and are now considered stable. In N Kazakhstan, by contrast, the population has not recovered and remains at low density, but in central Kazakhstan the population is increasing. The species was reintroduced to a number of locations in the early 1980s, and the species has also naturally recolonised many areas.	eng
12830	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Severe population and range reductions in the early to mid 20th century were caused by excessive hunting and habitat loss (cultivation of steppe grassland). Some illegal hunting continues.	eng
12830	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Severe population and range reductions in the early to mid 20th century were caused by excessive hunting and habitat loss (cultivation of steppe grassland). Some illegal hunting continues.	eng
12831	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">M.c. doppelmayri</span> (distributed in Baikal Region) is protected by National Law. Also occurs in some protected areas. Further research, legislation and hunting management is recommended.	eng
12831	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in mountain (up to 1900 m) and arctic tundras in E Siberia. The range consist of three isolated areas: Baikal Region, Verkhoyanskoe and Kolymskoe Highlands, and Kamchatka.	eng
12831	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits meadows with low mountain forest. Lives in colonies with many burrows. Winter burrows have depth up to permafrost. Nesting cell has big amount of grass to keep warmth. Before hibernation makes a layer of silt up to 25 cm above wintering cell; exits close with soil and grass plugs. Hibernation starts in September-October, and lasts till May. Two - three families (20-30 animals) hibernate together. Feed on a wide variety of plants, and also consumes invertebrates. Mating occurs before they emerge in spring, and reproduction in May - June. Litter size is 3-11 young.	eng
12831	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Not abundant across the range.	eng
12831	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unsustainable hunting for meat, although no international trade is believed to be occurring at present. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock.	eng
12832	conservation	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	In Mongolia hunting is permitted between August 10th and October 15th depending on population size (MNE, 2005). Hunting was completely banned during 2005 and 2006 by the Ministry of Nature and Environment. <br/>Occurs within protected areas across the range (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia). <br/>Listed as Rare species (EN) in Russia and protected by law.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place<br/>•This species is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws and Hunting Laws. However, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. <br/><br/>Conservation measures required<br/>•Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature.  <br/>•Conduct further ecological research and monitor population trends, in order to develop a sustainable harvest management programme. <br/>•Protect habitat through community based initiatives.<br/>•Develop a public awareness programme to highlight the threat status and protective legislature in place for this species.<br/>•Review and assess the effectiveness of reintroductions into areas of its former range.	eng
12832	distribution	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Distributed in piedmont and mountain steppes and alpine meadows (up to 3800 m) in Tuva, and Transbaikalia (Russia), Mongolia, and China (Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang). In Mongolia M. s. sibirica is distributed in eastern steppe habitats and Hentii Mountain Range, <em>M. s. caliginosus</em> occurs in northern, western and central Mongolia, including Hangai, Hövsgöl and Mongol Altai mountain ranges (Adiya, 2000).	eng
12832	habitat	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Inhabit open steppe, semi-desert, forest-steppe, mountain slopes and valleys. Siberian marmots are a keystone species in the communities they inhabit, living in large colonies. The Tarbagan Marmot resembles the Bobak Marmot of E Europe and C Asia in mode of life and habits.  Marmots of all ages forage on grasses, but also on 10-15 species of herbs and a few woody plants such as sagebrush.  Autumn hibernation is initiated in September, but is influenced by summer food conditions and fall weather.  Both Bobak and Tarbagan marmots hibernate in groups from 5-20 in a single burrow.  Enemies include wolves, red foxes, and several species of large eagles and hawks.  The Tarbagan Marmot may carry and transmit bubonic plague, and is therefore subject to stringent control measures in many parts of its range. Mating begins in April, after they have aroused from hibernation.  Gestation lasts 40-42 days.  Young appear above ground in June; typical litter size is 4-6, occasionally 8.  Molting of winter hair in adults occurs about 2.5-3 weeks after the birth of young. Light brown in coloration, with dark guard hairs on the head and on the tail tip. Adults have a head-rump measurement of 50-60 cm and typically weigh 6-8 kg, reaching a maximum of 9.8 kg (Adiya, 2000). During hot summers can migrate looking for fresh vegetation, in mountains has vertical migrations for 800-1000 m.	eng
12832	population	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Once common in Mongolia, hunting has fragmented its distribution and led to an estimated 70% decline in population size during the 1990s (Batbold, 2002). Numbers are believed to have since declined even further (K. Olson pers. comm.). In Russia the species is rare and declining.	eng
12832	threats	Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K. & Sukhchuluun, G., 2008	Hunting records from 1942-1960 indicate that illegal trade reached a peak of 2.5 million individuals killed during 1947 (Stubbe, 1965). At least 104.2 million marmot skins were prepared in Mongolia between 1906 and 1994 (Batbold, 1996). Recent surveys estimate that actual trading numbers presently exceed hunting quotas by more than three times, and over 117,000 illegally traded marmot skins were confiscated in 2004 (Zahler <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Outbreaks of plague also constitute a threat, and human plague cases are known to have occurred as a result of marmot hunting (Batbold, 2002). However, outbreaks are becoming less frequent as the population size declines.	eng
12835	conservation	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	The species occurs in a number of national parks within its range. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected under national law in a number of range states (e.g., Slovenia). Subspecies <em>latirostris</em> requires strict protection in Slovakia and Poland.	eng
12835	distribution	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	The Alpine marmot is endemic to Europe. Its core range extends through the Alps of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Isolated subpopulations are found in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, Appenines, High Tatras, and Romanian Carpathians. A number of these isolated subpopulations (those in the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Vosges, Black Forest, and Appennines, and eastern Alps) are the result of introductions. The marmot has inhabited the Alps and High Tatras continuously since the end of the last Ice Age, and was reintroduced to the Romanian Carpathians (three attempts in 1973, the third attempt was successful) and Slovenia (in 1953). It occurs as two subspecies: <em>M. m. marmota </em>in the Alps (and most introduced subpopulations) and <em>M. m. latirostris </em>in the High Tatras. A hybrid population exists in the Low Tatras, the result of introductions of both subspecies. Likewise populations in the Appenines are hybrids of both subspecies. It occurs at altitudes of 600-3,200 m (Preleuthner 1999).	eng
12835	habitat	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It inhabits alpine meadows and high-altitude pastures, typically on south-facing slopes from 1,200-3,000 m (although it is occasionally found at lower altitudes). Colonies inhabit deep burrow systems in alluvial soil or rocky areas (Preleuthner 1999). It has a herbivorous diet, primarily composed of green parts of grasses, sedges, and herbs (Krapp 1978).	eng
12835	population	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	<em>M. m. marmota </em>is abundant in at least parts of its core range in the Alps, although some subpopulations may be under threat (e.g. in the Jura and in Germany). Reported population densities for <em>M. m. marmota </em>range from 24-36 individuals per 100 hectares (Gran Paradiso, Italy) to 40-80 individuals per 100 hectares (Tessin, Switzerland). In Romanian Carpathians, the population is estimated at 1,500 individuals. It is known from three areas in Romania: Retezat, Fagaras and Rodna. In Retezat and Fagaras the populations are stable; in Rodna the population is very small and is threatened by poaching (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). The population is Slovenia is expanding (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). Subspecies <em>M. m. latirostris </em>has a restricted range (it occurs at higher elevations in a small region of the High Tatras) and is considered to be rare and threatened (Preleuthner 1999).	eng
12835	threats	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	Marmots were previously hunted for meat, fur, and fat (which was used for cosmetics and medicines). Hunting continues today, but is primarily a leisure activity (Preleuthner 1999). In Slovenia and Austria, hunting levels are sustainable, but in Austria at least populations living below the timberline are threatened by loss of open habitats through abandonment of high-altitude cattle grazing (Spitzenberger 2002, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with introduced <em>M. m. marmota</em> is a potential future threat to remaining pure-bred populations of <em>M. m. latirostris</em> in the High Tatras.	eng
12835	threats	Herrero, J., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	Marmots were previously hunted for meat, fur, and fat (which was used for cosmetics and medicines). Hunting continues today, but is primarily a leisure activity (Preleuthner 1999). In Slovenia and Austria, hunting levels are sustainable, but in Austria at least populations living below the timberline are threatened by loss of open habitats through abandonment of high-altitude cattle grazing (Spitzenberger 2002, B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with introduced <em>M. m. marmota</em> is a potential future threat to remaining pure-bred populations of <em>M. m. latirostris</em> in the High Tatras.	eng
12842	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
12842	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on shores of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).	eng
12842	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in mixed rock and sand substrates. Leloup collected dead shells in dredged material (soft substrates) however also seen on hard substrates such as cobbles or boulders and firm substrates such as Phragmites roots.	eng
12842	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
12842	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is likely to be sensitive to sedimentation and pollution.	eng
12847	conservation	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The nilgiri marten is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and Appendix III of CITES (India). <br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas. Some of these include Rajamala Eravikulam National Park (Madhusudan 1995), Mukkurthi National Park (Yoganand and Kumar 1995, 1999), Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley National Park (Christopher and Jayson 1996), Sholayar (Vijayan 1979), Upper Bhavani (Gokula and Ramachandran 1996), Brahmagiri (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989), Kalakkadu-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa, 2001), Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kurup and Joseph, 2001), and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Balakrishnan, 2005). It was also sighted in Silent Valley National Park, Attappadi Reserve Forest, Muthikkulam South Reserve Forest, and Nilambur South Reserve Forest by Balakrishnan (2005).<br/><br/>Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) recommended field surveys to locate remaining populations and determine if existing reserves give adequate protection. Accordingly, a systematic survey has been conducted following the recommendation of the action plan. Although poaching incidents are not frequent in protected areas, measures to regulate hunting outside of these areas are ineffective, especially in lowland forests (Balakrishnan 2005). There is a need for more survey work, and more protected areas, especially in the lower altitudes of its range, and in particular the forests contiguous to Silent Valley National Park (Balakrishnan 2005).	eng
12847	distribution	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The nilgiri marten is endemic to the Western Ghats of India (Balakrishnan 2005). The species is habitat specific and localized within its distribution. This species has been recorded across a wide range of elevations from 300 to 1,400 m with an average of around 990 m for preferred habitat (Mudappa 1999; Balakrishnan 2005). Most of the records known for this species are from protected areas (Muddapa pers. comm.).	eng
12847	habitat	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The nilgiri marten has been reported from moist tropical rainforests (Mudappa 1999), montane evergreen forests (Yoganand and Kumar 1999), and moist deciduous forests adjoining wet evergreen forests (J. Joshua pers. comm.), as well as somealtered habitats such as coffee and cardamom plantations (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989) and acacia plantations (Yoganand and Kumar 1999). The majority of sightings have come from areas with little canopy and sub-canopy cover, far from human paths and in relative proximity to water (Balakrishnan 2005). <br/><br/>This species is partly frugivorous and insectivorous (Balakrishnan 2005), but will prey opportunistically on almost any small bird or mammal (Pocock 1941), including Indian chevrotain and monitor lizards (Varanus bengalensis; Mudappa 1999), mouse deer (Moschiola memmina; Mudappa 2002), and it occasionally even feeds on nectar (Hutton, 1944).	eng
12847	population	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The population trend for the nilgiri marten is unknown, but it is thought to naturally occur at low densities, or indeed lower densities than the closely related yellow throated marten (Duckworth pers. comm.). This species was considered rare by Pocock (1941), but more recently was seen regularly (12 sightings) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in India between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa 2002).	eng
12847	threats	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The nilgiri marten is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation throughout its area of occupancy. These threats, as well as hunting, are all detrimental to this species, especially in the lower altitudes of its range (Balakrishnan 2005).	eng
12848	conservation	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, and it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In The United Kingdom it is listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act. Hunting controls need to be implemented and enforced across its range.	eng
12848	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, and it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In The United Kingdom it is listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act. Hunting controls need to be implemented and enforced across its range.	eng
12848	conservation	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Abramov, A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, and it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. In The United Kingdom it is listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act. Hunting controls need to be implemented and enforced across its range.	eng
12848	distribution	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	The pine marten has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, being found throughout most of Europe, Asia Minor, northern Iraq and Iran, the Caucasus, and in westernmost parts of Asian Russia (Western Siberia). It is widespread in continental Europe, with the exception of most of Iberia and Greece, and parts of Belgium and the Netherlands (Bright 1999, Matos and Santos-Reis 2003). It is found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily (Bright 1999). It was introduced historically to the Balearics (S. Roy pers. comm. 2006). It was formerly widespread in the British Isles, but is now restricted to northern Britain and Ireland, where it is still locally common (Battersby 2005, S. Roy pers. comm. 2006). Altitude ranges from sea-level to the timber line (2,300 m in the Pyrenees: Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
12848	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The pine marten has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, being found throughout most of Europe, Asia Minor, northern Iraq and Iran, the Caucasus, and in westernmost parts of Asian Russia (Western Siberia). It is widespread in continental Europe, with the exception of most of Iberia and Greece, and parts of Belgium and the Netherlands. It is found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.  It was introduced historically to the Balearics (S. Roy pers. comm.). It was formerly widespread in the British Isles, but is now restricted to northern Britain and Ireland, where it is still common (S. Roy pers. comm.). Altitude ranges from sea-level to the timber line (2,300 m in the Pyrenees).	eng
12848	distribution	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Abramov, A., 2008	The pine marten has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, being found throughout most of Europe, Asia Minor, northern Iraq and Iran, the Caucasus, and in westernmost parts of Asian Russia (Western Siberia). It is widespread in continental Europe, with the exception of most of Iberia and Greece, and parts of Belgium and the Netherlands. It is found on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.  It was introduced historically to the Balearics (S. Roy pers. comm.). It was formerly widespread in the British Isles, but is now restricted to northern Britain and Ireland, where it is still common (S. Roy pers. comm.). Altitude ranges from sea-level to the timber line (2,300 m in the Pyrenees).	eng
12848	habitat	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understorey vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation after 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) it can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable <em>M. zibellina</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12848	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understory vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable  <em>Martes zibellina</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12848	habitat	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Abramov, A., 2008	It inhabits deciduous, mixed, and coniferous woodlands, as well as scrub. Optimal habitat appears to be woodlands with an incomplete canopy and dense understory vegetation. Pine martens have a predominantly carnivorous diet, consuming voles, mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, and amphibians. Carrion is a major food source in the winter. Bee nests, mushrooms, and berries are also sometimes eaten. Solitary, but not highly territorial. The home ranges very often overlap partially or even totally. Female may mate with several males while on heat. There is delayed implantation 165-210 days. In the eastern parts of distribution area (Ural Mts) can hybridize with sympatrically distributed sable  <em>Martes zibellina</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12848	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it remains widespread, and it is fairly abundant owing to its large range. Population declines and range contractions occurred in many parts of its distribution, yet it was difficult to quantify these population declines because historical data were lacking for many range states. Hunting bags in Russia were 80% lower in the late 20th century than they were in the 1920s (Grakov, 1993), and Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. The pine marten has also declined in the Netherlands, and has become extinct in many parts of the British Isles where it formerly occurred. In northern and central Europe, this species declined from the 1950s to the 1980s, but has since stabilized and is now regionally increasing due to implementation of hunting controls. Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. Since 1990, in the Russian Federation the population has been increasing again in forested areas; in 1999 the number was estimated as 170,000 (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In the United Kingdom the range is extending southwards again, but population numbers are lacking.	eng
12848	population	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Abramov, A., 2008	In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it remains widespread, and it is fairly abundant owing to its large range. Population declines and range contractions occurred in many parts of its distribution, yet it was difficult to quantify these population declines because historical data were lacking for many range states. Hunting bags in Russia were 80% lower in the late 20th century than they were in the 1920s (Grakov, 1993), and Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. The pine marten has also declined in the Netherlands, and has become extinct in many parts of the British Isles where it formerly occurred. In northern and central Europe, this species declined from the 1950s to the 1980s, but has since stabilized and is now regionally increasing due to implementation of hunting controls. Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. Since 1990, in the Russian Federation the population has been increasing again in forested areas; in 1999 the number was estimated as 170,000 (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In the United Kingdom the range is extending southwards again, but population numbers are lacking.	eng
12848	population	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it remains widespread, and it is fairly abundant owing to its large range. Population declines and range contractions occurred in many parts of its distribution, yet it was difficult to quantify these population declines because historical data were lacking for many range states. Hunting bags in Russia were 80% lower in the late 20th century than they were in the 1920s (Grakov 1993), and Russia constitutes a large part of the species' range. The pine marten has also declined in the Netherlands (Bright 1999), and has become extinct in many parts of the British Isles where it formerly occurred (Battersby 2005). In northern and central Europe, this species declined from the 1950s to the 1980s, but has since stabilized and is now regionally increasing due to implementation of hunting controls. Since 1990, in the Russian Federation the population has been increasing again in forested areas; in 1999 the number was estimated as 170,000 (A.Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In the United Kingdom, the species' range has increased in Scotland in recent years, but the population trend has not been quantified (Battersby 2005).	eng
12848	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Major threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping, incidental poisoning, and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats. The marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range. Its decline in Britain was due to persecution, and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected. Efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths.	eng
12848	threats	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Abramov, A., 2008	Major threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping, incidental poisoning, and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats. The marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range. Its decline in Britain was due to persecution, and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected. Efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths.	eng
12848	threats	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, 2006	Threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping, incidental poisoning, and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats. The marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range. Its decline in Britain was due to persecution, and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected. Efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths.	eng
12855	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	The species is recorded from a number of protected areas, including the massive Hoggar - Massif National Park, Algeria.	eng
12855	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species occurs on the central Sahara regions of Algeria (Tassili n'Ajiers, Hoggar, Tefedest and Mouydir), and around the plateau of Tademait and the Mzab Valley. It is also present in northeastern Mali, northern Niger, and northwestern Chad. The species was reported from Libya by Wilson and Reeder (2005).  It inhabits montane regions and high plateaux of Algeria, from 500 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
12855	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is only found in rocky habitats, where it lives in rock fissures. Colonies are generally situated on the slopes of mountains or on the borders of wadis. According to Kowalsi and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991), the terrain in which this species is found usually has a relatively rich vegetation cover, which develops in places where water accumulates during rains. The species is diurnal, and solitary, but pairs come together to breed. Of five litters studied, four had two young each, while the fifth had five young. There are two litters a year.	eng
12855	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There is little known about the population of this species, but it is generally thought to be fairly common throughout its range. Colonies are apparently widely dispersed, and population densities of less than 1 per ha have been given (Nowak, 1999).	eng
12855	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	While there are no major threats to this species the overgrazing of vegetation could be a potential threat. Extended periods of drought could also be a threat, as the species apparently shows limited physiological adaptation to its arid environment, requiring plants with more than 50% water content, and relying on its behavioural patterns to avoid dry conditions.	eng
12860	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from Lake Amatitlan.	eng
12863	conservation	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E., Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are protected areas in the region that this species might occur in (e.g., Akagera Park in Rwanda).	eng
12863	distribution	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E., Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	Published records for this species are from southwestern Kenya, northern Tanzania and Rwanda. The Rwanda records are from owl pellets (six to seven specimens). It is a lowland species.	eng
12863	habitat	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E., Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is found in moist savanna. This does not appear to be a commensal species.	eng
12863	population	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E., Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is known from very few specimens, and from the low trapping success, it appears to be uncommon to rare, however, this may be an artefact of the methodology used.	eng
12863	threats	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E., Corti, M. & Agwanda, B., 2008	The habitat is being fragmented, but not enough to consider this a major threat. Likewise, fire is part of the natural cycle and not a major threat (one of the areas where this species was recorded was burnt, completely transforming the habitat and the fauna).	eng
12865	conservation	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Granjon, L., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
12865	distribution	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is largely endemic to southern Africa. It is found in South Africa (Eastern, Northern and Western Cape Provinces, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North-West Province and Limpopo Province), Lesotho, southern and western Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, central and northern Namibia to southern Angola. There are disjunct subpopulations in Angola-Namibia and Zimbabwe-Mozambique. The species is found from sea level to 1,600 m asl.	eng
12865	habitat	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Granjon, L., 2008	This nocturnal species occurs in a wide range of habitats: semi-desert, Karoo shrublands, highveld grasslands, dry savanna to moist savanna. It is also found in cultivated fields and is a commensal species. Known to be a transmitter of plague and bilharzia.	eng
12865	population	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
12865	threats	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12866	conservation	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas, no other measures are needed.	eng
12866	conservation	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas, no other measures are needed.	eng
12866	distribution	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species occurs mostly in subsaharan northern Africa, but there is an isolated subpopulation in west central  Morocco. The main range is Gambia, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sudan, Ethiopia, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, western Uganda and northern Kenya. It is mainly a lowland species but can be found up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
12866	distribution	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species occurs mostly in subsaharan northern Africa, but there is an isolated subpopulation in west central  Morocco. The main range is Gambia, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sudan, Ethiopia, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, western Uganda and northern Kenya. It is mainly a lowland species but can be found up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
12866	habitat	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, mainly moist and dry savannas and dry forest in the west, also moist and dry shrublands. It is a commensal species found in close association with human habitation and also in gardens and cultivated lands.	eng
12866	habitat	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, mainly moist and dry savannas and dry forest in the west, also moist and dry shrublands. It is a commensal species found in close association with human habitation and also in gardens and cultivated lands.	eng
12866	population	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is very common.	eng
12866	population	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is very common.	eng
12866	threats	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12866	threats	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12868	conservation	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M., Coetzee, N. & Abdel Rahman, E., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
12868	distribution	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M., Coetzee, N. & Abdel Rahman, E., 2008	This species is widespread in subsaharan Africa, except for the southwestern portion of continent. It has a very wide elevational range.	eng
12868	habitat	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M., Coetzee, N. & Abdel Rahman, E., 2008	In Central Africa it is very commensal, only occurring in areas where there are people. It tends to follow roads and is transported around Africa accidentally by vehicles.	eng
12868	population	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M., Coetzee, N. & Abdel Rahman, E., 2008	It is an extremely common, commensal species.	eng
12868	threats	Granjon, L., Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M., Coetzee, N. & Abdel Rahman, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12869	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
12869	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from the extreme northwestern parts of Botswana and northeastern Namibia (Caprivi area) in the region of the confluence of the Okavango and Kwito rivers. It is also found in eastern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998). It is a lowland species found up to 400 m asl.	eng
12869	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species apparently inhabits reedbeds, grassy swamps and marshes (de Graaff 1981; Skinner and Smithers 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12869	population	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is locally common.	eng
12869	threats	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12876	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
12891	conservation	Helgen, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Kinabalu National Park. Survey work is necessary to assess whether this species does occur more widely in northern Borneo.	eng
12891	distribution	Helgen, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is known from Mt. Kinabalu (Md Nor 2001) and Gunung Trus Madi (Musser and Carleton 2005) in Sabah, northern Borneo (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely through the northern mountain block on Borneo.	eng
12891	habitat	Helgen, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a terrestrial species living in lower and upper montane tropical forest, the highest part of the species range reaches subalpine areas (Md Nor 2001).	eng
12891	population	Helgen, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known from many specimens, suggesting it may be common in suitable habitat.	eng
12891	threats	Helgen, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although this is less severe at the very high elevations.	eng
12892	conservation	Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
12892	distribution	Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is known from a few scattered localities in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), on the island of Borneo. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently known. It occurs between 900 and 1,400 m on Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001).	eng
12892	habitat	Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a poorly-known species for which little is known about the habitat or ecology. In general it is a terrestrial species living in primary rain forest, it may show a preference for microhabitat with a high number of large trees (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
12892	population	Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known. It has only been collected a few times.	eng
12892	threats	Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but it may be threatened by deforestation at lower elevations.	eng
12893	conservation	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Helgen K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It it present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
12893	distribution	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Helgen K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is endemic to montane forests on volcanoes of west and central Java. The type locality is at 1,830 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that the species could be found on adjacent peaks after appropriate surveys, however, its presence here needs to be confirmed.	eng
12893	habitat	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Helgen K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It has been recorded from tropical montane forest. It is relatively disturbance-tolerant and can be found at the forest edge.	eng
12893	population	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Helgen K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is common and abundant, and easily trapped.	eng
12893	threats	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Helgen K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There appear to be no immediate threats to this species.	eng
12894	conservation	Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine the geographic range and population status of this species.	eng
12894	distribution	Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from two localities: the type locality in central Sulawesi (Rantekaroa, Quarles Mts. at 1,829 m); and Gunung Tanke Salokko at 1,500 m in the south-east peninsula of Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005). It probably occurs in a few other parts of Sulawesi.	eng
12894	habitat	Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a scansorial species found in montane primary evergreen forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12894	population	Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known only from one specimen at the type locality, but from a larger series at Gunung Tanke Salokko where it may be common.	eng
12894	threats	Ruedas, L., 2008	A major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to shifting agriculture at high elevations.	eng
12895	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park and presumably is also present in a number of other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species, and tolerance to habitat modification.	eng
12895	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species occurs throughout Sulawesi, Indonesia, from sea level to 1,006 m (Musser and Holden 1991).	eng
12895	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This terrestrial species occurs in tropical lowland evergreen rain forest (Musser 1991). It can be found in disturbed habitats close to forested areas.	eng
12895	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
12895	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is threatened to some degree by habitat degradation. It may possibly be threatened by hunting in the northern peninsula.	eng
12896	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park, and may be found in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
12896	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This poorly-known species is known only from the central portion of the western mountain range of Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality, Korinchi Peak, is at 2,225 m.	eng
12896	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in primary upper montane or moss forest, and possibly in subalpine or shrubland vegetation. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
12896	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population abundance is not well known. The species is known from relatively few specimens.	eng
12896	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	No direct effects of human disturbance, aside from the secondary knock-on effects of habitat degradation at lower altitudes.  Lower montane forest will act as a buffer zone, helping to protect this species.	eng
12897	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Selangor Wildlife Reserve, and probably occurs in several other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
12897	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the Malay Peninsula (and possibly peninsular Thailand, south of the isthmus of Kra), and rarely occurring below 900 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12897	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is found only in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12897	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Md Nor (2001) recorded 13 specimens from Mt. Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor province.	eng
12897	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
12898	conservation	Lunde, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park.	eng
12898	distribution	Lunde, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from the mountains of western Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). At the type locality, Korinchi peak, it has been recorded at elevations between about 900 and 1,500 m, but was apparently not recorded at higher elevations during the course of survey work (Robinson and Kloss 1916, 1918).	eng
12898	habitat	Lunde, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting tropical evergreen forest, at low to middle montane regions.	eng
12898	population	Lunde, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is common at the time of collection (Robinson and Kloss 1916), and perhaps even locally abundant.	eng
12898	threats	Lunde, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are unlikely to be any threats at the highest elevations at which it occurs, but forest loss due to logging is certainly a major threat at lower elevations.	eng
12899	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although there are some within the distribution range.	eng
12899	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the highlands of southern Viet Nam and adjacent southern Lao PDR between 190 and 1,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Bergmans (1995) reported a possible specimen from Ayun, Lao PDR, which would extend the range further north, however, the identity of this specimen needs to be confirmed.	eng
12899	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary broad-leafed evergreen forest (Adler <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been reported also from scrubby areas, but it has not been found at disturbed sites by K. Aplin (pers. comm.) and is believed to be sensitive to habitat degradation.	eng
12899	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
12899	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is considered to be threatened at lower elevations by forest degradation resulting from shifting cultivation.	eng
12900	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park and Morowali Nature Reserve and probably several other protected areas.	eng
12900	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found throughout Sulawesi (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12900	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is found in most forest formations on Sulawesi, from coastal lowland up to montane summits (Musser 1987; Musser and Carleton 2005), and has been recorded from secondary and slightly disturbed forest. It is terrestrial, and feeds on fruit, insects, and snails (Musser 1982).	eng
12900	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a common species (Durden 1986).	eng
12900	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be affected by extensive habitat loss, but seems able to survive in lightly degraded habitats.	eng
12901	conservation	Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Kinabalu National Park and probably in several other protected areas. However, there is little enforcement and management of many of these, and several are susceptible to deforestation. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species does occur more widely in hill forest regions of Borneo.	eng
12901	distribution	Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in Sabah and Sarawak (northern Borneo), and East Kalimantan (eastern Borneo), below 1,700 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) gave records from Gunung Kinabalu and near the lower S. Padas in Sabah, and from the Kalebit uplands, upper S. Tinjar, Gunung Dulit and Gunung Sidong in Sarawak, as well as from Labuhan Kelambu and the upper S. Belayan in East Kalimantan. It probably occurs more widely in hill forests at elevations higher than about 300 m.	eng
12901	habitat	Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is terrestrial (Md Nor 2001) and is apparently restricted to hills occurring in dipterocarp and lower montane forests.	eng
12901	population	Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is no reliable population information. Md Nor (2001) recorded 16 specimens from Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo.	eng
12901	threats	Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be affected by extensive habitat loss.	eng
12902	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	Part of Siberut is protected as the Siberut National Park, but it is not clear if this species is present in this reserve. There is an urgent need for improved habitat protection on the Mentawai Islands. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.	eng
12902	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of South Pagai, North Pagai, Sipora, and Siberut in the Mentawai Archipelago, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12902	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This is a terrestrial species in tropical primary lowland forest.	eng
12902	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There is no current information on the population status of this species.	eng
12902	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	The major threat is forest loss due to logging.	eng
12903	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Widmann, P. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12903	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Widmann, P. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2008	This species is endemic to the Palawan Faunal Region, Philippines (Balabac, Palawan, Busuanga, Calauit, and Culion islands), from sea level to 1,550 m (Esslestyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; P. Widmann pers. comm.; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).	eng
12903	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Widmann, P. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2008	It occurs in forested lowland and lower montane habitats, including primary, secondary, agricultural areas, and also tree plantations (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1972/1973; Hoogstraal 1951; Musser <em>et al</em>. 1979; Sanborn 1952).	eng
12903	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Widmann, P. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2008	The species is common in forested habitats and plantations.	eng
12903	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Widmann, P. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
12904	conservation	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
12904	distribution	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in peninsular Thailand south of the Isthmus of Kra, Peninsular Malaysia, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra, and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,100 m.	eng
12904	habitat	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in primary and disturbed lowland evergreen tropical forest. It is not present outside of forest areas.	eng
12904	population	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is common in appropriate habitat. Md Nor (2001) recorded 34 specimens between 500 and 1,100 m on Mt. Nuang, Hulu Langat, Selangor province (Malaysia).	eng
12904	threats	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
12905	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
12905	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is widespread throughout Southeast Asia including, southern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, southern and southwestern Cambodia, throughout Viet Nam (including Thom and Phu Qoc Islands off the south coast), extreme southern Yunnan, China, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and many smaller islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is a lowland species that ranges from around sea level to 1,680 m asl (Mount Kinabalu) (Nor 2001).	eng
12905	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This is generally a lowland, exclusively terrestrial species. It is present in primary forest and forest edge habitats (including adjacent gardens (Marshall, 1977)), but does not appear to be present in secondary forest (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2006). It lives in burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It is a nocturnal species that feeds on roots, fallen fruit, insects, and small vertebrates (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size ranges from 2-5 (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
12905	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	The abundance of this species ranges from locally common to quite rare depending on the population surveyed (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Nor (2001) recorded 17 specimens between 700 and 1,200 m asl on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo, Sabah, Malaysia. Wells <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded nine specimens in Kinabalu National Park.	eng
12905	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
12906	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The only known locality is apparently in a protected area (Morowali Nature Reserve), although it is possible that it also occurs outside this protected area.	eng
12906	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found only on Gunung Tambusisi, central Sulawesi, from 1,430-1,830 m (Musser 1991; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12906	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is found in upper and lower montane forest (Musser 1991).	eng
12906	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known from eleven individuals trapped on the forested slopes of Gunung Tambusisi during the period March 5-15, 1980 (Musser 1991). There is no information on current population status.	eng
12906	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and logging activities.	eng
12907	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is recorded from several protected areas, such as Mt. Kinabalu National Park.	eng
12907	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in peninsular Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra), the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and other islands off the northern coast of Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12907	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is a terrestrial species found in forest, as well as in rice paddies (but only where surrounded by forest) (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is mostly a lowland species on Borneo, but can be found as high as 2,100 m (Md Nor 2001; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12907	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is common in appropriate habitats.	eng
12907	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat to this species is widespread habitat loss in the lowlands of Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
12908	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it is probably in Lorentz National Park (Indonesia). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
12908	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it has been recorded from scattered localities ranging from the Lake Habbema area (Indonesia) in the west to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between altitudes of 1,200 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
12908	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is found in montane moss forest habitat. Animals have been captured under logs (Flannery 1995).	eng
12908	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known from only a few animals, but is probably not uncommon. It is likely a species that is difficult to trap.	eng
12908	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is a small species that is not sought by hunters. It may be somewhat threatened in parts of its range by forest disturbance.	eng
12913	conservation	Rumiz, D.I. & Barrio, J., 2008	This taxon needs to be locally and regionally recognized as a potentially threatened species; for this, more field surveys, ecological studies and educational and management work with communities focusing on habitat destruction and hunting are needed.  Monitoring of use by local communities may yield more specimens and show its contribution to subsistence. Since its distribution range coincides with the Vilcabamba-Amboró Conservation Corridor, the species may become a symbol or conservation object for this initiative. In Peru, the species can be found in the appropriate habitat in Otishi and Manu National Parks, as well as in Machu Picchu Historic Sanctuary. In Bolivia it has been found in six protected areas: Madidi, Apolobamba, Pilón Lajas, Cotapata, Isiboro Secure and Carrasco, but probably also occurs in Amboro.	eng
12913	distribution	Rumiz, D.I. & Barrio, J., 2008	The species is known from southern Peru (Junin, Cuzco, and Puno) and northern Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba). Recent published accounts from Peru only reported its presence in the Cordillera of Vilcabamba (Emmons <em>et al.</em> 2001), in the S of Manu (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1993), and in Machu Picchu (ParksWatch 2004). An ongoing survey in Peru has found the species in eleven new localities, within and outside protected areas of the southeastern Andes. Recent surveys in Bolivia found the species in a number of locations within protected areas along the Andes from La Paz to Cochabamba. Extent of occurrence extends for 83,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Ongoing geographic surveys in Peru (Barrio in prep.) will define more precisely the actual range, but most probably it will not increase significantly its extent of occurrence.	eng
12913	habitat	Rumiz, D.I. & Barrio, J., 2008	Records from Bolivia include ‘ceja de selva’ elfin forest and grasslands (3,600 m), cloud montane forest ‘Yungas’ forests, and sub Andean forests (1,400 m), although local reports may extend that from 4,000 to 1,000 m (Rumiz <em>et al.</em> 2007). Records from Peru include the same vegetation types as in Bolivia, but without records in grasslands or over 3,500 m (Barrio in prep.). Details on its ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active at day as well at night, and expected to be a browser frugivore in the forest understorey. Oxalis sp. has been identified among plant species eaten by Mazama chunyi. Nothing is known of reproduction or life in captivity	eng
12913	population	Rumiz, D.I. & Barrio, J., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance, population size or subpopulation ranges. Points from Bolivia may be grouped into 5 to 7 locations distributed in Madidi, Apolobamba, Cotapata and Carrasco, and marginally (needing confirmation) in Pilón Lajas, Isiboro Secure and Amboró. Points from Peru can be grouped in 7 to 9 locations distributed in Sandia, Carabaya, Quispicanchi, Paucartambo, Calca, Urubamba, La Convención, and Satipo, but include old collecting / report sites that are currently densely settled and degraded. Several sites of potentially good habitats recently surveyed in Peru showed its presence in most available habitat studied. Current distribution and abundance need to be further assessed. Decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction.	eng
12913	threats	Rumiz, D.I. & Barrio, J., 2008	Habitat destruction occurs due to small scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrublands. Coca plantations may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of La Paz and Cochabamba in Bolivia, and in Puno and Cuzco in Peru. Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at local level but needs assessment. A grid analysis of the conservation status of habitats within the extent of occurrence estimated in Bolivia suggest that 58,6% of the extent of occurrence is in good and very good status; and 41.4 % suffers degradation (25.5% regular, 15.9 % critical and very critical). On going assessments in Peru (Barrio in prep.) suggest a similar situation.	eng
12914	conservation	Lizcano, D. & Alvarez, S.J., 2008	Some populations are present in Colombian Central Andes protected areas and Ecuadorian Andean national parks and ecological reserves, but hunting still occurs and its effect on the populations is unknown. Brocket deer are a highly preferred hunting trophy and its meat is considered a delicacy by campesinos and indigenous groups in the Andes.  M. rufina is considered a near threatened species in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000, Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in Ecuador (Tirira 2001). M. rufina is protected under the Colombian law according to “Decreto 2811 de 1974”. This species is not included in the CITES appendices. This taxon needs to be locally and regionally recognized as a potentially threatened species; for this, more field surveys, ecological studies and educational / management work with communities focusing on habitat destruction and hunting are needed.	eng
12914	distribution	Lizcano, D. & Alvarez, S.J., 2008	Following (Czernay 1987) M. rufina is restricted to the Andes. It was originally found in montane forest and paramos at altitudes between 1500-3500 m.a.s.l. (Eisenberg and Redford 1999), from the Central Andes in Colombia to Huancabamba valley in northern Peru. It is currently restricted to remnant forest patches and paramos in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Colombia it occurs in the states of Nariño, Huila, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Tolima, Risaralda, Quindío, Caldas, and Boyacá (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). M. rufina has not been recorded for the Oriental Andes of Colombia (Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986, Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although M. rufina is not included in the list of mammals of Antioquia state (Cuartas-Calle and Muñoz-Arango 2003), photographic evidence of its presence and of its being hunted was recorded at the “Páramo de Belmira” in the Central Andes of Antioquia (Delgado-V. Obs. Pers. 2003), which is the northern most record for this species. In Ecuador it was recorded in the western and eastern Andes along the Chimborazo region axis (Tirira 2001). In Peru it is distributed on the eastern flank of the Andes in the watersheds of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The southern limit of M. rufina is the Huacabamba valley which also acts as a biogeographical barrier for other mammal species (Hershkovitz 1959, 1982, Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The northern limit of their distribution is not well known.	eng
12914	habitat	Lizcano, D. & Alvarez, S.J., 2008	Records from Ecuador include ‘ceja de selva’, elfin forest, and grasslands (3,600 m), cloud forest / montane ‘Yungas’ forests, and sub Andean forests (1,400 m). Records from Peru include the same vegetation types as in Ecuador and Colombia, but without records in grasslands or over 3,600 m. The main habitat of M. rufina is paramos and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. The paramos are high altitude grasslands (Boom <em>et al.</em> 2001), which are dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants from the genus Espeletia (Luteyn 1992). The tropical montane cloud forest is a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions causing cloud and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest vegetation (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas 1998). These forests support ecosystems of distinctive floristic and structural forms with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1963). <br/><br/>Along its distribution, M. rufina shares the same habitat with the northern pudu (Pudu mephistophiles) (Hershkovitz 1982); the mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) (Lizcano <em>et al</em>. 2002); and the Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus) (Peyton 1999). Details of its ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active by day as well as at night, and expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understorey. They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They live either alone or in pairs and normally within a small territory. They usually defecate in latrines probably located at the boundaries of their territories. <br/><br/>The Brocket deer is a frequent visitor of salt licks (Lizcano and Cavelier 2004). In the Central Andes of Colombia its diet is composed of 40 species of plants mainly herbs, from which it prefers plants of Solanum spp. and Begonia umbellata (Lizcano 2006). They rely on their small size and knowledge of the habitat in which they live to escape predators, diving into thick vegetation when detected. Occasionally they present freezing behavior before escaping. Nothing is known of reproduction or life in captivity. Oxalis sp. has been identified among plant species eaten by Mazama rufina. No research has been conducted to study the home range.	eng
12914	population	Lizcano, D. & Alvarez, S.J., 2008	Its density is low ranging from 0.06 (individuals/km²) in mature forest to 0.3 (individuals/km²) in ecotone paramo-montane forest. Its preferred habitats are paramo and forest-paramo ecotone over secondary and mature forest (Lizcano 2006). Collection sites in Colombia may be grouped into 3 to 5 locations distributed in the National Park Los Nevados, Las Hermosas, Nevado del Huila, and Doña Ana, and potentially in Pichachos, Macarena, Sumapaz, and Chingaza. Collection sites of Ecuador correspond to locations at Sangay and Podocarpus National Parks. In Peru collection sites are in and around Tabaconas – Namballe (Maravi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Current distribution and abundance need to be further assessed. A decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction..	eng
12914	threats	Lizcano, D. & Alvarez, S.J., 2008	Habitat destruction occurs due to small scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrublands. Illegal plantations of opium and Coca may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of Colombia (Alvarez 2007). Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Climate change might also result in area or quality decrease of available habitat for the species in the future, since cloud forests and paramos are broadly affected by atmospheric temperature increase (Foster 2001). Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at the local level but needs assessment. They are preyed on by a small number of South American predators, such as puma and feral dogs.	eng
12920	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Parana states in Brazil.	eng
12920	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Atlantic rain forest; breed in bamboo internodes (Lencioni in prep.).	eng
12920	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12920	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
12921	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	There is an urgent need to survey forests in the vicinity of the type locality. Then studies are needed to establish the species' range of distribution, biology, population trends and to evaluate threats.	eng
12921	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Espirito Santo state in Brazil.	eng
12921	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Atlantic rain forest.	eng
12921	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12921	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
12922	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Mecodema punctellum</em> is known only from Stephens Island, New Zealand.	eng
12922	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A large, lightless, black ground beetle, 38.5 mm long and 11.7 mm wide (Britton 1949). Habitat unknown. Possibly sheltered under large logs (McGuinness 2001).	eng
12922	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species has not been seen since 1931 (Gibbs 1999) despite searches in 1961 (P. Johns, pers. comm. 1999), 1971, 1974/5, 1976, 1981, 1990 (Gibbs and Allen 1990) and 1996. D’Urville Island was searched in 1997 without success (I. Millar, pers. comm. 2000).It is now believed to be extinct.	eng
12922	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Possibly habitat loss led to the extinction of this species. No large logs are left on Stephen’s Island (J.I. Townsend, pers. comm. 1999).	eng
12928	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species inhabits large creeks to medium sized rivers in sand and gravel substrates and with slow to moderate currents.	eng
12929	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	It is only known from the Ochloknee River system.	eng
12929	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species inhabits large creeks to medium sized rivers in sand with some gravel and moderate current.	eng
12937	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The type locality is within Bale Mountains National Park, the other locality is not protected. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
12937	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The species is known from two localities; the type locality south of Goba, in the Bale Mountains, and also from Mount Badda in the Chilalo Mountains, both in Ethiopia. Both of the known localities occur at 3,300 m asl.	eng
12937	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is an inhabitant of high elevation shrubland.	eng
12937	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is only known from the holotype, and one other specimen, and owl pellets from the second locality (Yalden, unpublished).	eng
12937	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There is some grazing and human caused fires in the Bale National Park which is threatening the species' habitat.	eng
12938	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India including Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve and Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Orang National Park in Assam, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from several protected areas. In South Asia populations of this species should be monitored. Captive breeding techniques are known for this species and captive stocks exists in Germany. Public awareness to mitigate threats to this species is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12938	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This very widely recorded species ranges through much of South Asia, southern and Central China, and throughout the Southeast Asian mainland. In South Asia it is known from Afghanistan (Qachcar and Darunta [Habibi 2003]), Bangladesh (Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Khulna and Rajsahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Northern, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded in Fujian, Sichuan, Guangdong, Hainan, Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia the species occurs in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,000 m asl.	eng
12938	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in variety of habitats ranging from dry arid lands to hot humid forests to coastal areas. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a single individual to several hundred individuals in caves, old buildings, thatched huts, old disused wells, temples, forts, tunnels, mines, cow sheds. It flies rather silently and close to the ground and feeds on a variety of insects that vary seasonally, also small vertebrates and also other bat species. It breeds once in a year. Usually a single young is born after a gestation period of about 150 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
12938	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Overall this is a common species. Its population status is stable in Sri Lanka (W. Yapa pers. comm.), increasing in Bihar (Y.P. Sinha pers. comm.), decreasing in certain parts of northern India such as Rajasthan (colonies recorded in 1970s missing in the 1990s [as observed by I. Prakash pers. comm. and by Senacha pers. comm.]) (Molur <em>et al</em> 2002).	eng
12938	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range due to disturbance and loss of roosting sites due to renovation of old temples, buildings and old forts. Populations are also threatened by mining activities and hunting for local consumption (medicine and food) in India and Viet Nam.	eng
12939	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place, however, the species may occur in many protected areas, but the few protected areas it has currently been recorded from include Tadoba Tiger Reserve, Melghat Tiger Reserve, Pench National Park in Maharashtra and Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal. It is presumably present within a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities are needed to mitigate threats to this taxon (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12939	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is very widely distributed over much of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is predominantly distributed in the Western Ghats and northeastern parts of India, and in Sri Lanka. It is known from Bangladesh (Khulna division), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Southern and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)  In Southeast Asia, it ranges throughout virtually the entire mainland, and most of insular Southeast Asia, including the major islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and Halmahera (all to Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and throughout Philippines except for the Batanes/Babuyan region. There are records in the Philippines for Biliran, Bohol, Busuanga, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra [Lawrence 1939)], Aurora, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna Province [Taylor 1934; Ingle 1992], Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental [Sanborn 1952], Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). In South Asia this species has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,600 m asl.	eng
12939	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in humid areas and dense tropical moist forest. It roosts in small colonies in caves, old and disused buildings, temples, lofts of thatched huts, tiled roofs, hollows in large trees and disused mines (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has a low and fast flight and feeds on Lepidopterans, coleopterans, hymenopterans and other insects but does not feed on vertebrates. One young is born between April to the month of June (Bates and Harrision 1997). Rarely occurs in the same location with <em>M. lyra</em>. Individuals hang separately until disturbed, when they huddle together (S. Molur pers. obs.). In the Philippines, it is found in lowland primary and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991). Known to roost in caves, tree-hollows, and hollow logs (Taylor 1934; Lawrence 1939; Rabor 1986; Ingle 1992; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Lepiten 1995). On Palawan, the species occurs in bamboo thickets, secondary forest, and primary forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
12939	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is a common species in South Asia. In the Philippines, the species is widespread and locally common to uncommon in primary and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is always encountered in small groups, though sometimes cumulative numbers are in the hundreds (L. Heaney, Esselstyn, and Balete pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12939	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Esselstyn, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Over much of the species range there are no major threats to populations as a whole. In Southeast Asia, there are localized threats to caves, especially due to guano mining and limestone quarrying. In South Asia, the primary forest habitats of this species are under threat, usually deforested for timber, firewood and agricultural purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Roosts in large hollow trees and old buildings are under threat due to human interference from being cut down or broken down or cleaned up. Populations in some areas are also under threat from being exploited for medicinal purposes where the bat oil is used for massaging ailing newborns and infants (S. Molur pers. obs.).	eng
12940	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is considered endangered by Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
12940	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from the highlands of north Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found between 2,400 and 3,500 m.	eng
12940	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is found in highland cloud and pine-oak forests, between 2,400 - 3,500 m.  It generally observed in leaf litter and humus on the forest floor. Apparently, its diet consists of berries (Nowak 1999).	eng
12940	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is not common.	eng
12940	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation, primarily from timber extraction.	eng
12941	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law.	eng
12941	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from eastern slopes of Sierra Madre Oriental (2,000 - 3,500 m), from south-eastern Hidalgo to central Veracruz, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12941	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found in cloud and pine-oak forest.	eng
12941	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no information on the population.	eng
12941	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is severely threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from deforestation for agriculture.	eng
12942	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is protected by Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
12942	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from the high Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero, México, at 3,000 - 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
12942	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in cloud forest from 3,000 - 3,500 m.	eng
12942	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is considered rare.	eng
12942	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss from timber extraction within its range.	eng
12945	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12945	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from Java, although recent records from Bali and Lombok are attributed to this species (Maharadatunkamsi and Maryanto 2002).	eng
12945	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	<em>M. kusnotoi</em> is found in montane tropical evergreen forest. The type locality is at 700 m, but the species is probably known from higher elevation (e.g. recorded from Gunung Kelatakan). It is probably a foliage roosters, and lives either singly or in small groups.	eng
12945	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is not common throughout its range.	eng
12945	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	Habitat loss, due to logging and mining, is a major threat to this species.	eng
12946	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
12946	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	This species occurs in Borneo, Sumatra, Malaysia, and Thailand. It probably occurs also in northeastern India (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
12946	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	It is a forest associated species found in a variety of habitats from lowland evergreen forest to disturbed secondary forest. In Peninsula Malaysia the species moves roosting sites to follow food availability (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
12946	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is widespread but uncommon (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) throughout its range.	eng
12946	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation is occurring in some parts of its range.	eng
12947	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. It is classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. There is a debate over the taxonomic status of two species of the genus Megaerops, with additional taxonomy, survey, ecological studies needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12947	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and West Bengal) at an altitude range of 100 to 2,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), from Thailand (Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Amphoe Pak Thong Chai, Sakaerat Environmental Research Station), Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Some previous records of <em>Megaerops ecaudatus</em> may actually represent <em>M. niphanae.</em>	eng
12947	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Thailand it is found from 140 to 240 m asl in a variety of habitats including pristine forest and farmland adjacent to forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia, little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumably it is found in deciduous forests, coniferous forests, bamboo forests and subtropical mixed forests across the foothills of Himalaya.	eng
12947	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Thailand the species is locally rare and is possibly nomadic (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). The population size and trends for this species are not known in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
12947	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It may be locally affected by deforestation in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Threats to this species not known in India.	eng
12948	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ramayla, S., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, it appears to be present in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park on Sumatra.	eng
12948	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ramayla, S., 2008	This species is found from southwestern Peninsular Malaysia to northern Borneo (Francis 1989) and the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), where it has been recorded only on Mindanao Island (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces). Maharadatunkamsi and Maryanto (2002) also list this species from two localities, Jambi and Riau districts in Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
12948	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ramayla, S., 2008	It is known only from primary and lightly disturbed lowland forest from 800 to 1,200 m asl, this species is probably absent from montane and mossy forest above 1,500 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), although it is found in upper lowland forest. However, on Mindanao, there is not much suitable habitat remaining and where it does occur, it is in areas of human conflict (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Malaysia the species is found in primary forest foraging in the canopy (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). In Sumatra it has been found in mixed gardens (U. Sinanga pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12948	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ramayla, S., 2008	Limited information is available on the species’ population status and trends. On Mount Katanglad (Mindanao) individuals were found in second growth forest at 875 m asl, where it was reported that "a fair number were caught". It is considered to be moderately common in suitable habitat and is probably widespread in suitable habitat in Borneo (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12948	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Ramayla, S., 2008	In the Philippines, the species is confined to rapidly-disappearing lowland forest on Mindanao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is also subject to forest loss in Malaysia and Sumatra due to agricultural expansion, plantations, logging and fire (T. Kingston and D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm. 2006).	eng
12949	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forest by state management.	eng
12949	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Endemic to the island of Kauai, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12949	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Moist gullies in boggy upland plateau.	eng
12949	population	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12949	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	No pressing threats in current range.	eng
12951	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forest habiitats by state and federal management.	eng
12951	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Endemic to the island of Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12951	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Breeds in the phytotelmata of <em>Astelia</em> and <em>Freycinetia</em> plants in wet upland forests.	eng
12951	population	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12951	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	No pressing threats in current range.	eng
12953	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Was known from the Hawaiian islands of Lanai and Maui.	eng
12953	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Upland ridges.	eng
12953	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Feral ungulates; ants.	eng
12954	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forests and streams by state management.	eng
12954	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12954	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Headwater stream pools in mountainous terrane.	eng
12954	population	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	There probably are less than 1,000 individuals remaining at present.	eng
12954	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Degredation of watershed by feral ungulates and introduced Poeciliid fishes.	eng
12958	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Protection of forests and streams by state management.	eng
12958	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12958	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Swift midreach sections of rocky upland streams in mountainous terrain.	eng
12958	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Probably less than 1,000 individuals remain at present.	eng
12958	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Degradation of watershed by feral ungulates, and introduced poeciliid fishes.	eng
12959	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Protection of forests and streams by state management.	eng
12959	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Endemic to the islands of Molokai, Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12959	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Seepage fed side pools along mid and terminal reach overflow channels of rocky upland streams.	eng
12959	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12959	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Degradation of watershed by feral ungulates; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture; introduced poeciliid fishes.	eng
12960	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Protection of wetlands by state and federal management.	eng
12960	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Endemic to the islands of Oahu, Lanai, Molokai, Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12960	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Coastal wetlands and stream terminal reaches.	eng
12960	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Current population size is unknown.	eng
12960	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Destruction of wetlands by resort development; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture; introduced poeciliid fishes.	eng
12961	conservation	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Protection of forest by state management.	eng
12961	distribution	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Islands of Lanai and Maui, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
12961	habitat	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Upland ridges.	eng
12961	population	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Unknown.	eng
12961	threats	Odonata Specialist Group, 1996	Feral ungulates; ants.	eng
12977	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, in view of the species wide range it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
12977	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species ranges throughout much of West and Central Africa. It is distributed from Sierra Leone in the west, through southern West Africa, to Cameroon and from here south and east into Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and western Uganda.	eng
12977	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is typically associated with lowland tropical moist forest, although it has also been recorded from swamp forest, moist savanna and mosaic forest-grassland habitats (Bergmans 1997). It appears to be confined to forest with a closed canopy, but within this habitat it has been recorded suspended from plantain leaves, shrubs and inside human habitations (Rosevear 1965). In Cameroon, it is common within commercial banana plantations (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). Little is known about roosting behavior, however, it does not seem to roost in groups. This is the obligate nectivorous bat species in Africa.	eng
12977	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is a locally abundant species.	eng
12977	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation, often resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use or the harvesting of timber and firewood.	eng
12980	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
12980	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Martinique.	eng
12980	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Very little known, possibly occurred in forest and plantations in the 19th Century.	eng
12980	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
12980	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Most likely extinct due to the introduction of mongoose - although it has been suggested that the eruption of Mt. Pele in 1902 might have played a role in its final decline.	eng
12981	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
12981	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from St. Lucia.	eng
12981	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
12981	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
12981	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Presumably went extinct due to mongoose introductions, as the last historical record slightly predates the introduction of the mongoose.	eng
13006	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Humpbacks have been protected from commercial whaling in the North Atlantic by the IWC since 1955, in the Southern Hemisphere since 1963 (although spatial and temporal regulation of catches in the Antarctic occurred prior to this), and in the North Pacific since 1966. The last substantial catches occurred in 1968. Despite having been severely depleted to a world population in the low thousands at that time, humpbacks have since recovered strongly to a world population that is estimated at over 60,000 animals and is increasing. <br/><br/>Humpback whales enjoy additional protective measures, such as sanctuaries, in a number of countries. The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.	eng
13006	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Humpbacks have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since 1963, and there have been very few catches after 1967.  Despite having been severely depleted to a world population in the low thousands at that time, humpbacks have since recovered strongly to a world population which was at least 60,000 in the mid-1990’s and has been increasing since. Humpback whales enjoy additional protective measures in some countries, such as sanctuaries.	eng
13006	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all the major ocean basins (Clapham and Mead 1999), and all but one of the subpopulations (that of the Arabian Sea) migrate between mating and calving grounds in tropical waters, usually near continental coastlines or island groups, and productive colder waters in temperate and high latitudes. <br/><br/>Humpbacks in the North Atlantic range in summer from the Gulf of Maine in the west and Ireland in the east, and up to but not into the pack ice in the north; the northern extent of the humpback?s range includes the Barents Sea, Greenland Sea and Davis Strait, but not the Canadian Arctic. They occur mainly in specific feeding areas, as noted below. In the winter the great majority of whales migrate to wintering grounds in the West Indies, and an apparently small number use breeding areas around the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>In the North Pacific their summer range covers shelf waters from southern California, to the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and southern Chukchi Sea, the Aleutian chain and Kamchatka, Kurile Islands, Okhotsk Sea and northeastern Japan. Wintering grounds are off the coasts of Mexico and Central America, around the Hawaiian Islands, the Bonin Islands, Ryukyu Islands and the northern Philippines, and possibly around additional island groups in the western North Pacific.<br/><br/>Humpbacks are abundant throughout the Antarctic in summer south to the ice edge, but not within the pack ice zone. In the winter, Southern Hemisphere whales aggregate into specific nearshore breeding areas in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific, two of which extend north of the equator, i.e. off Colombia in the eastern Pacific and in the Bight of Benin in the Atlantic. Some wintering grounds are fairly localized, e.g. around island groups, and some are more diffuse, e.g. along the western coast of southern Africa and the southern coast of West Africa. <br/><br/>There is a resident year-round population in the Arabian Sea, which is genetically distinct from that of the southern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Humpbacks rarely enter the Mediterranean and are considered only visitors there (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
13006	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all the major ocean basins (Clapham and Mead 1999), and all but one subpopulation (that of the Arabian Sea) migrate between mating and calving grounds in tropical waters, usually near continental coastlines or island groups, and productive colder waters in temperate and high latitudes.  <br/><br/>Humpbacks are abundant throughout the Antarctic in summer south to the ice edge, but not within the pack ice zone. In the winter, Southern Hemisphere populations are aggregated into specific nearshore breeding areas in the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific, two of which extend north of the equator, e.g. off Colombia in the eastern Pacific and in the Bight of Benin in the Atlantic. Some wintering grounds are fairly localised, for example around island groups, and some are more diffuse, for example along the western coast of Southern Africa and the southern coast of west Africa. <br/><br/>In the North Atlantic, they range in summer from Gulf of Maine in the west and Ireland in the east, and up to but not into the pack ice in the north; the northern extent of the humpback’s range includes the Barents Sea, Greenland Sea and Davis Strait, but not the Canadian Arctic. They occur mainly in specific feeding areas.  In the winter the great majority of whales migrate to wintering grounds in the West Indies, while an apparently small number of animals still utilize a historical breeding area around the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>Humpbacks rarely enter the Mediterranean and are considered vagrant there.	eng
13006	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	With a few exceptions, such as the Arabian Sea population, humpback whales undertake long migrations between breeding grounds in tropical coastal waters in winter to feeding grounds in middle and high latitudes, mainly in continental shelf waters.  <br/><br/>In the Southern Hemisphere, humpbacks appear to feed mainly in the Antarctic, where the diet consists almost exclusively of krill (<em>Euphausia superba</em>), although some feeding in the Benguela Current ecosystem on the migration route west of South Africa has been observed (suspected prey species are <em>E. lucens</em> and <em>Themisto jaudichaudi</em>). <br/><br/>Limited data on diet in other areas is available.  Humpback whales caught off Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1950s and 1960s were found to be consuming mainly capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>). Those caught off California in the early 20th century were eating mainly euphausiids and sardines.  In areas of Alaska and the North Atlantic, humpback whales have also been observed feeding co-operatively on schools of herring (<em>Clupea harengus</em>), sand lance (<em>Ammodytes</em> spp.) and (more rarely) mackerel (<em>Scomber scombrus</em>), by herding the school together with bubble nets, clouds or curtains.	eng
13006	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	With few exceptions, such as the Arabian Sea population, humpback whales undertake long migrations between breeding grounds in tropical coastal waters in winter to feeding grounds in middle and high latitudes, mainly in continental shelf waters (Clapham 2002).<br/><br/>In the Southern Hemisphere, humpbacks appear to feed mainly in the Antarctic, where the diet consists almost exclusively of krill (<em>Euphausia superba</em>) (Mackintosh 1970), although some feeding in the Benguela Current ecosystem on the migration route west of South Africa has been observed (Best <em>et al</em>. 1995; suspected prey species are: <em>E. lucens</em> and <em>Themisto gaudichaudii</em>).<br/><br/>Limited data on diet in other areas is available. Humpback whales caught off Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1950s and 1960s were found to be consuming mainly capelin (<em>Mallotus villotus</em>) (Mitchell 1973). Those caught off California in the early 20th century were eating mainly euphausiids and sardines (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 1997). In areas of Alaska and the North Atlantic, humpback whales have also been observed feeding co-operatively on schools of herring (<em>Clupea harengus</em>), sand lance (<em>Ammodytes</em> spp.) and (more rarely) mackerel (<em>Scomber scombrus</em>), by herding the school together with bubble nets, clouds or curtains (Hain <em>et al</em>. 1982).<br/><br/>The timing of acquisition of tooth rake marks attributable to killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>) indicates that humpback whale calves, but usually not subadults and adults, are subject to predation by this species (Mehta <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13006	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The humpback whale is better studied than other balaenopterid species, and migratory destinations are well known for some subpopulations. <br/><br/><strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of North Atlantic humpback whales was completed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 2002, from which most of the information below is drawn.<br/><br/>Six distinct feeding aggegrations have been identified: Gulf of Maine; Gulf of St Lawrence; Newfoundland/Labrador; West Greenland; Iceland; North Norway (including Bear Island and Jan Mayen).  Genetic and photo-ID data indicate that the six feeding aggregations represent relatively discrete subpopulations, fidelity to which is determined matrilineally.  However, because whales from different feeding grounds all mix in a common breeding area in the West Indies, there is male-mediated nuclear gene flow between the subpopulations.<br/><br/>Humpbacks were heavily exploited in the past by pre-modern whaling in their breeding grounds in both the West Indies and the Cape Verde islands, and by modern whaling in their feeding grounds, especially off Iceland and off Norway in  the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Catches of pre-modern whaling are estimated primarily from trade records.  Catches of early modern whaling also need to be estimated, because most of the catch records were not divided by species. <br/><br/>An estimated 3,200 were taken from Iceland and 2,000 from northern Norway during 1880-1916.  About 1,500 humpback whales are reported killed in the North Atlantic since 1916, from a variety of areas including the British Isles, Faeroes, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and eastern Canada, as well as Norwegian pelagic catches.<br/><br/>Population modelling exercises show that the recent abundance and increase rate of humpback whales in the North Atlantic are too large to represent a recovery from depletion by the estimated past kills.  This suggests that either:<br/>(i) past kills have been substantially underestimated; or<br/>(ii) there has been some increase in the environmental carrying capacity for humpback whales; or<br/>(iii) whaling had a negative impact on the population, over and above the effects of the actual removals, in ways that are not understood; or<br/>(iv) some combination of the above factors.<br/><br/>Whichever of the above hypotheses pertains, the increase rate of 3% per annum implies that humpbacks are considerably more abundant in the North Atlantic today than they were in 1940.  This is consistent with anecdotal evidence of the relatively low numbers observed prior to 1960.<br/><br/><strong>Generation time</strong><br/>Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimate mean generation time at 22 years.	eng
13006	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The humpback whale is better studied than other balaenopterid species, and migratory destinations are well known for some subpopulations. <br/><br/><strong>North Atlantic</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of North Atlantic humpback whales was completed by the IWC Scientific Committee in 2002, from which most of the information below is drawn (IWC 2002, 2003). <br/><br/>There is a distinct but relatively small winter aggregation in the east around the Cape Verde Islands ? the site of fairly extensive 19th century Yankee whaling (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2002). The major present-day North Atlantic breeding and calving area in the West Indies extends from Cuba in the west down the island chain as far as Venezuela; the largest breeding aggregations occur on Silver and Navidad Banks near the Dominican Republic, with much lower concentrations in Samana Bay (Dominican Republic), off the northwest coast of Puerto Rico, and around the Virgin Islands and the eastern Antilles. Some humpback whales have also been sighted in high-latitude waters during the winter, indicating that not all individuals migrate to the southern wintering grounds every year. <br/><br/>Six distinct feeding aggregations have been identified: Gulf of Maine, Gulf of St Lawrence, Newfoundland/Labrador, West Greenland, Iceland, North Norway (including Bear Island and Jan Mayen). Genetic and photo-identification data indicate that the six feeding aggregations represent relatively discrete subpopulations, fidelity to which is determined matrilineally. However, because whales from different feeding grounds all mix in a common breeding area in the West Indies, there is male-mediated nuclear gene flow between the subpopulations.<br/><br/>The best available abundance estimate for the West Indies group of breeding aggregations is 10,752 in 1992-93 (CV 0.068) with an estimated annual rate of increase of 3.1% (SE 0.5%) (Stevick <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is no estimate of abundance for the Cape Verde Islands breeding aggregation, but to date a total of 72 individuals have been identified there (J. Allen pers. comm. 2007). As of 2007, only one photographic match has been made from the Cape Verde Islands to a feeding ground (off Iceland), but the matching exercise is only partially complete.<br/><br/>Animals from the West Indies breeding area are found in all six known feeding aggregations. However, genetic evidence suggests that part of the Icelandic and Norwegian feeding aggregations consists of whales that winter outside the West Indies. Though some of these likely migrate to the Cape Verde Islands, the population found there in winter is too small relative to the number of animals thought to be breeding somewhere other than the West Indies, and at present the identity of this additional breeding area (or areas) remains unresolved. <br/><br/>Higher rates of increase have been estimated in some feeding areas (e.g. 6.5% for the Gulf of Maine; Barlow and Clapham 1997). <br/><br/>Humpbacks were heavily exploited in the past by pre-modern whaling in their breeding grounds in both the West Indies and the Cape Verde Islands, and by modern whaling in their feeding grounds, especially off Iceland and Norway in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Catches by pre-modern whaling are estimated primarily from logbook and trade records. Catches by early modern whaling also need to be estimated because most of the catch records during the first few decades were not divided by species. <br/><br/>Catches in the West Indies (including Bermuda) are documented from 1664 to the present day, but the main period was 1826-1928, during which about 8,600 whales were estimated to have been killed. Whaling in the Cape Verde Islands occurred primarily during 1850-1912 with a total estimated kill of about 3,000 animals. An estimated 3,200 were taken from Iceland and 2,000 from northern Norway during 1880-1916. About 1,500 humpback whales are reported killed in the North Atlantic since 1916, from a variety of areas including the British Isles, Faeroes, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and eastern Canada, as well as Norwegian pelagic catches.<br/><br/>Population modeling exercises show that the recent abundance and increase rate of humpback whales in the North Atlantic are too large to represent a recovery from depletion by the estimated past kills. This suggests that either:<br/>(i) past kills have been substantially underestimated; or<br/>(ii) there has been some increase in the environmental carrying capacity for humpback whales; or<br/>(iii) whaling had a negative impact on the population, over and above the effects of the actual removals, in ways that are not understood; or<br/>(iv) some combination of the above factors.<br/><br/>Whichever of the above hypotheses pertain, the increase rate of 3% per annum implies that humpbacks are considerably more abundant in the North Atlantic today than they were in 1940. This is consistent with anecdotal evidence of the relatively low numbers observed prior to 1960.<br/><br/><strong>North Pacific</strong><br/>The following subpopulations have been identified (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2008):<br/><em>Eastern North Pacific</em>. Winters off the coast of Mexico (Baja California, Gulf of California, mainland) and summers off the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington. <br/><em>Central North Pacific</em>. Winters in the central North Pacific and Hawaiian Islands; summers in Alaska (Prince William Sound) and British Columbia. <br/><em>Western North Pacific</em>. Winters in the western North Pacific, in the Bonin Islands, Ryukyu Islands and the Philippines, and possibly in other island areas in the southwestern North Pacific; summers off Kamchatka, in the Bering Sea and along the Aleutian Islands, west of the Kodiak Archipelago.<br/><br/>There are two additional subpopulations, one that winters off Central America and summers off California, the other that winters around the Revillagigedo Islands and summers in unknown areas but possibly in the Bering Sea or near the Aleutian Islands (Urbán <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/><br/>Some interchange of individuals between the known North Pacific breeding grounds has been documented (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2008).<br/><br/><em>Abundance: Eastern North Pacific</em>. Recent information is summarized in the NOAA stock assessment report (Anon. 2005a). The abundance of humpbacks was estimated from shipboard line transect surveys in the waters of California, Oregon and Washington during 1996-2001 to be 1,314 (CV 0.30) animals. Mark-recapture from photo-identification in the same area yielded an estimate of 1,391 whales in 2002/03, with an increase of about 8% per year over the period 1991-2003. Mark-recapture from photo-identification in the Mexican Pacific yielded an estimate of 1,813 (CI: 918-2505) for the Mainland Mexico and Baja California subpopulation, and 914 (CI: 590-1193) for the Revillagigedo subpopulation (Urbán <em>et al</em>. 1999). The recently completed SPLASH (Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpback Whales in the North Pacific) project resulted in estimates by various methods of ~1,400-1,700 for the California-Oregon feeding area and ~6,000-7,000 for the Mexican wintering areas (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/><em>Abundance: Central North Pacific</em>. Based on mark-recapture analysis of photo-identification data in the Hawaiian wintering ground, the abundance was estimated at 4,005 (CV 0.095) whales in 1993 (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 1997). Older mark-recapture estimates for this stock exist, but their lack of comparability renders their use for estimating an increase rate questionable. Aerial surveys designed to be comparable across years yielded a trend estimate of 7% per year from 1993-2000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). SPLASH yielded wintering estimates for the Hawaii wintering ground by various methods of 7,120-10,425 (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Summer feeding areas for this stock have been identified in Prince William Sound (Alaska), southeastern Alaska and off British Columbia, but the abundance estimates for the known feeding grounds total only about 2,000 (Angliss and Outlaw 2005a). This suggests that more feeding areas are yet to be found. In view of their current high abundance in the Hawaiian Islands, the sparseness of historical accounts of humpback whales in Hawaii prior to the 20th century is surprising. It may be a relatively new wintering ground (Herman 1979). The SPLASH estimates for the combined Southeast Alaska and British Columbia feeding areas are around 3,000-5,000 (Calambokidis <em>et al.</em> 2008)<br/><br/><em>Abundance: Western North Pacific</em>. Abundance in 1991-93 was estimated at 394 (CV 0.084) from photo-identification data (Angliss and Outlaw 2005b). Humpback whale sightings from Japanese cetacean surveys in the western North Pacific, including those conducted in conjunction with the Japanese scientific whaling programme (JARPN), have not yet been analyzed to provide abundance estimates. The recent SPLASH survey covered the range more broadly and resulted in estimates by various methods of 938-1,107 (Calambokidis <em>et al</em>. 2008) <br/><br/>Humpback whales were severely depleted by whaling throughout the North Pacific until they were protected by the IWC from 1966 onwards. Illegal Soviet catches continued until 1971 (Doroshenko 2000). Humpbacks were taken by pre-modern whalers in Japan before the 20th century, but so far no series of catch estimates have been compiled for the pre-modern period. About 21,000 humpback whales are recorded caught by modern whaling in the North Pacific in the 20th century, of which about 14,000 were in the eastern North Pacific and 7,000 in the west (IWC 2006a). Included in these figures are about 2,500 humpbacks taken illegally by USSR fleets during 1961-65, that were concealed at the time, mainly in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea (Doroshenko 2000). In addition, nearly 20,000 unspecified whales were caught in the early 20th century, of which a substantial number probably were humpbacks. The latter were taken primarily in the eastern North Pacific, except that the locations of about 9,000 unspecified whales taken by American pelagic whalers during 1911-1919 have not yet been ascertained.<br/><br/>No comprehensive assessment of North Pacific humpback whales has been conducted by the IWC Scientific Committee. The evidence suggests that North Pacific humpback whales have been increasing, following depletion by whaling, but that this recovery is not yet complete. Given catches of nearly 7,500 during 1961-65, a minimum estimate for the 1960 population would be about 8,000, but the population level in 1940 was probably lower than today. A large-scale international collaboration (the SPLASH project) involving photo-identification and genetic sampling was conducted across the entire North Pacific in 2004-06. The results have been recently analyzed and yielded a best estimate for the entire North Pacific of  18,302 (average of estimates of 17,558 for wintering and 19,056 for summer feeding areas). A 4.9% annual increase is suggested for the period since 1991-93.<br/><br/>The low SPLASH population estimate for the western North Pacific subpopulation of around 1,000 is a cause for concern. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Indian Ocean</strong><br/>A resident stock, which apparently does not migrate, is found in the Arabian Sea. Genetic differences, and the lack of photographic matches with other areas, suggest that this is an isolated subpopulation; in addition, analysis of illegal Soviet catch data from the 1960s indicates that this population has a distinctly boreal reproductive cycle (Mikhalev 1997). A population estimate of 56 animals (95% CI 35-255) from photo-identification data may be negatively biased due to incomplete coverage (IWC 2005). A total of 242 whales was taken illegally by Soviet whalers in 1965-66 (Mikhalev 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Hemisphere</strong><br/>A comprehensive assessment of Southern Hemisphere humpback whales by the IWC Scientific Committee is nearing completion (IWC 2005, 2006b, 2007). Traditionally the IWC managed humpback whale stocks on the basis of the six Antarctic Areas (I through VI) but the Scientific Committee now recognizes seven major breeding stocks, A through G, some of which are tentatively further subdivided into substocks. <br/><br/>The wintering grounds of these are: <br/>A (Southwest Atlantic): coast of Brazil <br/>B (Southeast Atlantic): the coast of West Africa from the Gulf of Guinea down to South Africa <br/>C (southwestern Indian Ocean): coasts of eastern South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar (southern, western and eastern coasts), Mayotte, the Comoros and other western Indian Ocean island groups;<br/>D (southeastern Indian Ocean): northwestern Australia<br/>E (southwest Pacific) northeastern Australia, New Caledonia, Tonga and Fiji.<br/>F (central South Pacific): Cook Islands and French Polynesia<br/>G (southeast Pacific): Ecuador, Galápagos, Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.<br/><br/>Apart from stocks A and D, there is evidence of substructure within the stocks, with subunits that are spatially and genetically isolated to varying degrees. <br/><br/>The extent of mixing of the C stock wintering off the coasts of Mozambique (the C1 substock), Madagascar (the C3 substock) and the western Indian Ocean island groups (the C2 substock) remains unclear.<br/><br/>The structure of stocks E and F is particularly unclear: there appear to be at least six separate subpopulations (eastern Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Cook Islands, and islands further east), and it is unclear how these should be grouped if at all. <br/><br/>The structure of stock B is also unclear: there appears to a northern substock (B1) wintering off the coast off Gabon, the Congos and Cabinda (Angola) and in the Bight of Benin, and a southern substock (B2) with a diffuse or ill-defined wintering area off southern Angola, Namibia, and western South Africa, although animals seen in the southern area may include those on migration to and from wintering grounds to the north. Feeding occurs in the Benguela Current area; this may include animals wintering there but also animals stopping to feed during their migration. <br/><br/>The winter distribution of the G stock extends into the Northern Hemisphere, and may overlap with the distribution of North Pacific stocks; several photo-id matches have been made between the Antarctic Peninsula and Central America, although whether there is temporal overlap between these whales and their northern conspecifics is unclear. Tourist observations of mother-calf pairs around the Galápagos during January to March, if confirmed, suggest that North Pacific animals may also use this area. Phylogenetic analyses (Baker <em>et al</em>. 1994) reveal that maternal lineages in the eastern Pacific cross between the Northern and Southern Hemisphere populations, such that there has been some interchange between the hemispheres, but not necessarily in recent times.<br/><br/>For most of the breeding stocks, recent estimates of abundance on their wintering grounds have been obtained from line-transect surveys and/or capture-recapture analyses using photo-identification data. For some stocks, direct estimates of the rate of increase are available from recent time-series of abundance data. The available estimates of recent abundance and trends for wintering grounds are listed in Table 1 (see attached PDF). The total estimate of 36,600 for the Southern Hemisphere is negatively biased, because no abundance estimate is available for stock F, and the estimate for stock B covers only part of the wintering range for a discrete period. Furthermore, it is possible that the entire population does not migrate to the wintering grounds, as evidenced by, for example, an apparent excess of males in winter censuses. Rate of increase estimates are available for five stocks, ranging from 4.6% p.a. to 10.5% p.a.<br/><br/>The abundance of humpback whales during summer in the Antarctic south of 60°S has also been estimated from data from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) (later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research, SOWER) programme surveys. A part of the Antarctic has been surveyed each year since 1978/79, yielding 3 sets of circumpolar surveys. The abundance estimates for each circumpolar survey are listed in Table 2 (see attached PDF). All three circumpolar estimates are probably underestimates of the hemispheric population, because not all humpback whales will have been south of 60°S during the surveys, and major summer concentration areas north of 60°S in the South Atlantic (to the east of South Georgia and in the vicinity of the South Sandwich Islands and around Bouvet Island) are not included. <br/><br/>The summer feeding areas of each stock cannot be delineated with much precision, but a combination of photo-identification, genetic, satellite tracking and old Discovery mark data suggest the following relationships: Breeding stock A (Brazil) feeds in the South Georgia/South Sandwich area in Area II (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006); breeding stock D (W. Australia) feeds in Antarctic Area IV ands perhaps eastern Area III; breeding stock G (southeast Pacific) feeds along the Antarctic Peninsula and around the South Shetlands, and in the Magellan Strait; breeding stock E (eastern Australia and at least some island groups of western Oceania) feeds in Antarctic Area V. The feeding areas of the other stocks could not be delineated at this stage.<br/><br/>Humpback whale stocks were heavily depleted throughout most the Southern Hemisphere in the early 20th century by a combination of coastal catches in their wintering grounds and catches from land stations and by pelagic fleets in their Antarctic feeding grounds. Approximately 220,000 humpback whales were taken in total, of which about 100,000 since 1940; almost half of these latter consisted of illegal takes by the USSR (Zemsky <em>et al</em>. 1996, Allison 2006). <br/><br/>During 1908-1963, recorded catches outside the Antarctic (north of 40°S) have been: about 30,000 off the western coasts of southern Africa (primarily Gabon and Angola); nearly 20,000 off the eastern coasts of southern Africa (Natal, Mozambique and Madagascar) and in the western Indian Ocean; 28,000 off western Australia; about 15,000 off eastern Australia, New Zealand and southwest Pacific Islands; and about 2,000 each from the western and eastern coasts of South America. After 1904, a further approximately 27,000 whales were taken from land stations in South Georgia and over 12,000 from the South Shetlands. Pelagic whaling fleets operated during 1925-66, taking over 83,000 humpbacks. This includes more than 48,000 animals taken by the USSR, of which all but 2,710 were taken illegally (primarily from Areas IV and V); of this total, some 25,000 Soviet catches were taken in just two whaling seasons (1959/60 and 1960/61).<br/><br/>Due partly to the difficulties of assigning feeding areas, and hence past catches, to breeding stocks, the IWC Scientific Committee has completed population assessments only for stocks A, D, and G. The assessment of D was considered preliminary due to likely mixing in the feeding grounds with stock E and possibly other stocks. <br/><br/>The A stock (southwest Atlantic) is estimated to have been depleted rapidly from an initial level of 25,000 in 1904 to less than 2,000 in the 1920s, by catches from South Georgia land stations. Continued catches from South Georgia and pelagic fleets further depleted the stock to a few hundred animals by the mid-1960s when whaling ceased. The stock has recovered strongly since then to over 6,500 today.<br/><br/>The B stock (southeast Atlantic) was depleted by large catches in its wintering grounds off Gabon, Congo, Angola, Namibia and western South Africa, with open-boat whaling beginning in the 19th century and modern whaling beginning in 1909. Catches in Gabon and Congo were not continuous, but occurred in bursts as the stock(s) apparently began to recover between periods of intensive whaling. Nearly 30,000 humpbacks are recorded caught off the western coasts of sub-Saharan Africa during 1909-1960. The last large catches were made by Norwegian and French whalers off Gabon and São Tomé who took over 4,000 humpbacks during 1951-54. A final attempt at commercial exploitation in 1959 off Gabon caught just 160 whales.<br/><br/>After an initial burst of heavy catching off Mozambique and South Africa totalling nearly 8,000 whales during 1908-15, the C stock (southwest Indian Ocean) was subject to continuous but relatively low catches from Natal, South Africa between 1920 and 1962 and two discrete episodes (1937-39 and 1949-50) off Madagascar (Angot 1951). While catches off Natal remained relatively low after 1915, catches were far higher during the two episodes off Madagascar. Catches by pelagic expeditions in and outside the Antarctic probably also had an impact on this stock.<br/><br/>The D stock (southeast Indian Ocean) is estimated to have been reduced from a pre-whaling population of about 20,000 in 1910 to about half this level by 1940, mainly by catches from and off western Australia. Following a brief respite during WWII, the stock was further depleted (notably by illegal Soviet catches) to perhaps fewer than 1,000 animals by the mid-1960s, but recovered to about 10,000 by 1999. The current population size is very likely more than the 1940 level, and very likely more than half the pre-whaling level, subject to a caveat over the potential for mixing of stock D and other stocks in the feeding grounds (IWC 2007).<br/><br/>The E stock (eastern Australia/western Oceania) was heavily affected not only by catches totalling nearly 15,000 during 1909-62 from shore-station whaling in eastern Australia and elsewhere, but also by Soviet illegal pelagic catches of over 30,000, taken in Area V during the late 1950s and early 1960s.<br/><br/>The F stock (Oceania) was not subject to whaling in its wintering grounds but was probably affected by illegal Soviet catches in Areas V and VI. However, because the migratory destinations of this stock are unclear, assignment of these catches to the F stock has been difficult.<br/><br/>The G stock (southeast Pacific) is estimated to have been rapidly depleted from a pre-whaling level of about 10,000 animals in 1910 to a few hundred animals by the mid 1920s, mainly by catches from land stations on the South Shetland Islands. Pelagic catches in the putative feeding ground of this stock (Antarctic Area I) were relatively few, because of its distance from ports of approach, and because pelagic whaling was prohibited in Antarctic Areas I and VI (the then-Sanctuary) from 1935-55. The stock is estimated to have increased during 1925-55, but to have been knocked back down to the low hundreds by a new wave of pelagic catching that followed the opening of the Sanctuary in 1955. The stock is estimated to have increased since the end of humpback whaling in the mid-1960s, to its current level of about 4,000, which is well above the 1940s level but well below the pre-whaling level.<br/><br/><em>Generation time</em>: 22 years (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The time window for applying the reduction criterion (A1) for a threatened category is 1941-2007.<br/><br/><em>Global population</em>. All the new assessments of humpback whale stocks conducted by the IWC Scientific Committee to date indicate that the stocks concerned have recovered to levels at or above their 1940 level. Because the IWC Scientific Committee has not yet conducted assessments for the North Pacific and for four of the seven recognized Southern Hemisphere stocks, it is not yet possible to formally gauge the world population level relative to the 1940 level. However, given the increase rates observed in several of the unassessed North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere stocks (Table 1; see attached PDF), there is little reason to suppose that the world population is still below 50% of the 1940 level (the threshold for Vulnerable status under the reduction criterion) <br/> <br/>Despite the encouraging global status, concern remains about apparently discrete and small subpopulations of humpback whales for which information about their status is lacking; these include the Arabian Sea (isolated from the southern Indian Ocean), the western North Pacific, and South Pacific subpopulations in portions of Oceania (breeding stocks E and F).	eng
13006	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Although commercial whaling seriously depleted all humpback populations, the species has demonstrated remarkable resilience, and most populations have increased since the end of whaling, although there are several populations that remain small and for which no increase has yet been detected, such as the population in the Arabian Sea, the population breeding near South Pacific islands, and the western North Pacific population. Humpback whales have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since 1966, and there have been few catches since 1968. <br/><br/>Today, small numbers only are taken by a ?subsistence? whaling operation off St Vincent (1-2 animals per year); it is possible that other small unreported catches occur elsewhere.<br/><br/>The government of Japan announced plans to resume humpback whaling in the Antarctic from the 2007/08 season, starting with an experimental catch of 50 animals per year under scientific permit (Government of Japan 2005). The impact of these catches on small unrecovered stocks of humpbacks in Oceania that feed in the whaling grounds of Area V is not clear.<br/><br/>Also, in humpback habitat off the coasts of Brazil, Gabon, Angola, Mozambique and Madagascar (Breeding Stocks A, B, and C), there is a great deal of ongoing and planned offshore oil and gas development, with potential impacts. <br/><br/>Humpback whales are subject to entanglements, often fatal, in fishing gear. They are also vulnerable to injury by ship strikes, which can also be fatal. The documentation of such incidents is best for US waters. For the Atlantic coasts of the US during 1999-2003, there were 19 reports of death or serious injury caused by entanglements and 7 cases of death or serious injury due to ship strikes (Anon. 2005b). For US Pacific waters (mainly Alaska) during 1999-2001 there were 13 reports of deaths and serious injuries due to entanglement and 3 reports of deaths due to ship strikes (Anon. 2005a).<br/><br/>Japanese Annual Progress Reports submitted to the IWC during 2003-06 listed 3-5 humpback whales caught annually in fishing gear, mainly coastal trap nets (Miyashita and Kato 2006). <br/><br/>In most areas, the observed increases in humpback whale abundance in recent times implies that human-caused mortality is not sufficient to threaten the populations concerned. However, the situation should be kept under review for populations that are still small and for which no increase has been detected, such as the in western North Pacific and parts of Oceania.	eng
13006	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Although commercial whaling seriously depleted all humpback populations, the species has demonstrated remarkable resilience, and most populations have increased since the end of whaling, although there are several populations which remain small and for which no increase has yet been detected, such as the populations breeding near South Pacific islands, and the western North Pacific population.  Humpback whales have been protected from commercial whaling worldwide since c.1963, but illegal catches by Soviet fleets continued in the Antarctic and North Pacific until 1973. <br/><br/>Today, small numbers only are taken by a “subsistence” whaling operation off St Vincent (1-2 animals per year); it is possible that other small unreported catches occur elsewhere. However, the government of Japan has announced plans to resume humpback whaling in the Antarctic from the 2007/08 season, starting with an experimental catch of 50 animals per year under scientific permit. The species is not currently hunted in European waters.<br/><br/>Humpback whales are subject to entanglements, often fatal, in fishing gear. They are also vulnerable to injury by ship strikes, which an also be fatal.  The documentation of such incidents is best for US waters.  For the Atlantic coasts of the US during 1999-2003, there were 19 reports of mortality or serious injury caused by entanglements and 7 cases of mortality or serious injury due to ship strikes.  For US Pacific waters (mainly Alaska) during 1999-2001 there were 13 reports of mortalities and serious injuries due to entanglement and three reports of mortalities due to ship strikes.	eng
13032	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas, including: Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park, and from Periyar Tiger Reserve.	eng
13032	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, where it is known only from three sites: Kalakad in the Agasthyamala Hills; the Indira Ghandi National Park in the Anaimalai Hills, Tamil Nadu; and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala. The altitudinal range of the species is reported to be 900-1,200m asl.	eng
13032	habitat		It is terrestrial and associated with leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover of moist evergreen tropical forest; it has been collected in patches of degraded tropical forest close to primary forest. It breeds in pools in streams where calling males have been observed (Daltry and Martin 1997). There is little further information on its breeding biology or larval ecology.	eng
13032	population		This is an extremely rare species that was only recently rediscovered. The population is fragmented and is presumed to be declining.	eng
13032	threats		The major threat to this species is conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including eucalyptus, coffee, and tea plantations); the development of dams within the region may pose an additional threat.	eng
13038	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
13038	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Fully terrestrial	eng
13046	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13046	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in the Central American lowlands from easternmost Honduras through Panama; in South America, from  north and west Colombia, including the Chocó (Cadena <em>et al.</em> 1998), to southwest Ecuador and northwest Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13046	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Timm, R., 2008	Occurs in overgrown fields, brushy second growth, and edges of evergreen and semideciduous forest (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This rodent is partially diurnal activite; it is terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on fruit, seeds, and insects. This rat is generally most common in areas of dense undergrowth and around fallen logs. It is usually a dominant part of the rainforest’s small mammals. It runs about actively on the ground or on fallen logs; if frightened, it may bounce away with a series of high jumps (Emmons and Feer 1997). This rat is easily observed during the afternoon or early evening around buildings in forest clearings (Reid 1997). Captives are voracious insect eaters, eagerly pursuing and catching butterflies, moths, beetles, and cicadas (Gardner 1983). Breeding appears to occur year-round, but probably peaks in wet season; litter size is 1 to 6 young, averaging 3.5 (Reid 1997).	eng
13046	population	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is common to abundant.	eng
13046	threats	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Timm, R., 2008	No major threats at this time.	eng
13047	conservation	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The species occurs in one protected area (Tirira, in prep).	eng
13047	distribution	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the southeast Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 400 to 1,200 m (Tirira in prep.).	eng
13047	habitat	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in tropical lowland rainforest. It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
13047	population	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
13047	threats	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	No major threats at this time.	eng
13048	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to try to determine whether this species still persists.	eng
13048	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is known only from the Lomas de Atocongo, a group of low lying hills close to Lima in the west central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It was recorded between 600 to 800 m.	eng
13048	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is known only from the distinct Coastal Lomas ecosystem (with desert or dryland habitat). It has not been recorded from modified habitats. It is terrestrial and probably nocturnal.	eng
13048	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has not been recorded since 1949 despite intense searches for the species. The population is believed to have significantly declined, and the species (if it is still extant) is considered to be still declining because of extensive habitat loss within its small range.	eng
13048	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The area that the species is known from has been heavily disturbed through pastoral (goats) grazing and mining activities. The very specific habitat that the species was recorded from is considered to be almost entirely converted.	eng
13053	conservation	Ross, J.P., 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Brazil, which is included in Appendix II, and the population of Ecuador, which is included in Appendix II and is subject to a zero annual export quota until an annual export quota has been approved by the CITES Secretariat and the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group).	eng
13053	habitat	Ross, J.P., 2000	Found in the Amazon River basin. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
13057	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. arfakensis</em> is possibly endemic to the Prafi River valley, 20–30 km west of Manokwari, Irian Jaya.	eng
13057	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The habitat of this species has been drastically altered due to the development of an oil palm industry.  The introduction of at least one exotic species, the walking catfish, may also pose a threat to the population.	eng
13058	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. boesmani</em> is endemic to the Ayamaru Lakes in the central Vogelkop Penninsula, Irian Jaya.	eng
13058	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	This species' freshwater habitat consists of three lakes, the largest of which is 7 km long and 2 km wide.	eng
13058	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The habitat of this species is subject to broad fluctuations in water levels.  It is thought that these fluctuations have become more severe in recent years.  However, the main threat to the species is harvesting of individuals (mainly males) for the international aquarium fish trade.  It has been estimated that up to 1 million fish per annum have been captured.	eng
13065	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. lacustris</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.	eng
13065	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.	eng
13065	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The introduction of gill nets and outboard motors on the lake along with the development of oil drilling and logging in the area over the last ten years are the main threats to this species.	eng
13070	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. oktediensis</em> is endemic to Ok Tedi River and its tributaries in western Papua New Guinea.	eng
13070	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The main threat to the species is pollution of its habitat by effluents discharged from Ok Tedi copper mine.	eng
13072	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. parva</em> is endemic to Lake Kurumoi which is situated in the narrow neck of land at the base of the Vogelkop Penninsula, Irian Jaya.	eng
13072	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater habitat of this species consists of a small lake of about 500 x 800 m.	eng
13072	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The main threat to the population comes from severe habitat alteration caused by an infestation of introduced tilapia.	eng
13079	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park. Further research is needed into  the distribution of this species and whether it can persist in modified or disturbed habitats.	eng
13079	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Rano Rano at 1,830 m (1°30'S, 120°28'E), and Gunung Nokilalaki between 1,950 and 2,286 m (1°16'S, 120°10'E), in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is probably also occurs in upper montane forest on other mountains in the central core of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13079	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This diurnal and terrestrial species is found in cool, wet, and mossy habitats within tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It feeds mostly on earthworms and fungus gnats (Durden and Musser 1992). It has not been recorded from modified habitats.	eng
13079	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species has been recorded once at the type locality, and 35 times from Gunung Nokilalaki (Durden and Musser 1992). It appears to be common within suitable habitat (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
13079	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no immediate threats within the known range. It is possible that it is threatened in other mountain areas where it occurs, but this requires verification.	eng
13110	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	The species is currently listed on the Sabah Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 as Melogale personata not as Melogale everetti, and this needs to be updated. The species was recorded from Mount Kinabalu National Park in 2002 (Dinets 2003), but given that all records are from this area, surveys are needed to look for additional populations.	eng
13110	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	The Bornean ferret badger is endemic to the island of Borneo, where it is suspected to occur in Kalimantan, Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak (Wozencraft 2005) However, the only confirmed records seem to be from Mount Kinabalu and surrounds in Sabah (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985) with only one subsequent sighting reported from there by Dinets (2003) at 1,950 m. Museum individuals have been determined to have been from two other points outside the massif, in Penem Pang and Tuaran. However, the age of these specimens, how they were acquired, and therefore the reliability of the two locations, is unknown. This species is considered high montane, found from 900 to 3,700 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), and these outlying locations are near low-lying coastal areas.	eng
13110	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	it is mostly carnivorous, but will eat some plant matter; it feeds on earthworms, lizards, small birds and rats, and reportedly eat fruit as well. It was recorded foraging in a small roadside garbage dump in montane broadleaf forest (Dinets, 2003). This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes, rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989). It is nocturnal and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms, snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994).	eng
13110	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Nothing is known about the Bornean ferret badger population status or size within the massif.	eng
13110	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	The only recorded sightings of Bornean ferret badgers have occurred on the Kinabalu massif, near and within the National Park. Much of the massif has been converted to other uses, e.g. agriculture, but it is unclear to what level, if any, this species depends upon extensive, old-growth, or any sort of forest; some other Melogale spp. are very adaptable to forest fragmentation and degradation (see account for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. moschata</span>), but the same cannot be assumed for this species. If it truly extends down to the lowlands and if it is in any way dependent upon extensive or old-growth forest, then it will have lost a large part of its recent habitat through the heavy conversion of natural forests in Sabah lowlands in the last few decades. There is no information on its susceptibility to whatever hunting levels occur in its range. It is not significantly traded, but it is no doubt caught in non-selective traps. In sum, several plausible threats operate but it is unclear if any are threats at the population level.	eng
13114	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	All three present known localities are in Manusela National Patk. Additional survey work is needed to determine whether this species might be present at lower elevations.	eng
13114	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Seram island (Indonesia), where it is found from 650 to 1,830 m, and is known from three localities: Mt. Manusela (type locality), Mt. Hoaulu, and near Kanikeh (Helgen 2003). It Is likely to occur more widely in other montane areas in Seram, but most of these areas are poorly surveyed	eng
13114	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was orginially recorded, in 1920, in primary rainforest, but two specimens were also recorded in a banana plantation by Kitchener in 1987, indicating the species might be able to tolerate disturbed habitat (Helgen 2003). This is an aroboreal species that descends to the ground to forage at night (Helgen 2003).	eng
13114	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known from 10 specimens in three localities (Helgen 2003).	eng
13114	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be deforestation due to logging. It is also likely to be impacted by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
13115	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species. There is also some doubt as to whether or not it is distinct from <em>M. rufescens</em>, and further taxonomic research is a priority.	eng
13115	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea, and from Choiseul Island in the Solomon Islands. The elevational range of the species is unknown.	eng
13115	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	The natural history of this species has not been recorded. It is suspected to have similar habits to <em>M. rufescens</em>, and occur in disturbed habitats, rural gardens, and possibly within houses (Flannery 1995).	eng
13115	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
13115	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13116	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
13116	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is present in coastal areas of northern and central eastern Australia including many offshore islands. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m asl. This species is also present in the Trans Fly region of New Guinea (in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea).	eng
13116	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in areas of tall grassland, sedgefields, open woodland, grassy glades within tropical moist forest, swamps, mangroves and vine thickets (Kerle 2008). It is a common pest of sugarcane fields. It breeds throughout the year with litters of up to five young (Kerle 2008).	eng
13116	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a very abundant species.	eng
13116	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13117	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is present in protected areas. Taxonomic work to resolve the status of Cape York Melomys is required.	eng
13117	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Cape York Peninsula, including the McIlwraith and Iron Ranges, and some offshore islands of Queensland, Australia (Leung 2008).	eng
13117	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a largely scansorial species of tropical moist forest. Animals nest in tree hollows during the day. The species breeds throughout the year producing a number of litters; females usually give birth to two young (Leung 2008).	eng
13117	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, but suitable habitat is limited (Leung 2008).	eng
13117	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13118	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine whether this is a species complex.	eng
13118	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from tropical forests of north-eastern Queensland south to central coastal New South Wales (Moore and Burnett 2008).	eng
13118	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is found in closed tropical moist forest, semi-deciduous vine thicket, bottle tree scrub, and wooded swamps in Queensland, but in the south of its range it also occurs in wet sclerophyll forest and coastal woodlands; also in mangrove forest. The species can breed throughout the year, with females giving birth to up to three young after a gestation period of about 38 days (Moore and Burnett 2008).	eng
13118	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is common and often abundant where it occurs. It is less common in New South Wales where habitat for the species is limited (Moore and Burnett 2008).	eng
13118	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13119	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
13119	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs in the Central Cordillera Range. It ranges in altitude  from 1,800 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
13119	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded from high altitude moss forest (Flannery 1995).	eng
13119	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is fairly common at most of its known localities.	eng
13119	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Its high altitude habitat lies above the agricultural zone and is not threatened by conversion to cultivated land. It is, however, locally threatened in the west of its range by loss of habitat through mining operations (gold, silver, copper, etc.).	eng
13120	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from the Manusela National Park. Further information in general is needed into this species, particularly details are needed into any threats to the species or its habitat.	eng
13120	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly known species is endemic to Seram island, Indonesia, where it is known only from the type locality of Mt. Manusela at 1,830 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present at other locations, although this needs to be confirmed, but the species is almost certainly restricted to suitable habitat at elevations above 1,800 m.	eng
13120	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is thought to be arboreal, and has been found in upper montane, mossy forest in limestone country (Helgen 2003). It is unlikely to occur in heavily modified areas.	eng
13120	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1920 (Helgen 2003).	eng
13120	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is presumed to be threatened by logging operations; desiccation of montane forest through clearance of lowland habitats, and competition, and possible disease transmission from the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
13122	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas (e.g., top end of the Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13122	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to the mountains of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from Lake Habbema (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Huon Gulf and to Mount Kemp in the southeast (Papua New Guinea) in the east. It has been recorded at elevations between 1,000 and 3,200 m asl.	eng
13122	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been collected in mid-montane primary and disturbed moss forest (Flannery 1995). The species has a small litter size.	eng
13122	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It can be locally abundant.	eng
13122	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13123	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Probably occurs in some protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
13123	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is confined to the south side of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Northern records of the species are isolated, however, this area has not been well-surveyed and the species may have a more extensive range, but all the specimens north of the Cordillera need to be examined critically. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,400 m asl.	eng
13123	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This scansorial species has been found living in tree hollows in tropical moist forest. Menzies (1996) reports that it is found on tree-less offshore islands. It can also occur in disturbed habitats. The female gives birth to two young.	eng
13123	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It can be locally very abundant.	eng
13123	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Much of the lowland habitat is being logged, but this is not a severe threat to it.	eng
13124	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2009	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species' distribution, abundance, natural history, and sensitivity to logging.	eng
13124	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2009	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is patchily distributed from the Gobe on the southern highlands gulf border east to Milne Bay, on the southern side of the Central Cordillera. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl.	eng
13124	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2009	This species is found in lowland, swamp, and hill forest. It is tolerant of some degree of disturbance.	eng
13124	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2009	It is an uncommon species.	eng
13124	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2009	The range of this species is currently being logged and at least half of it is concessioned to be logged, which will presumably be a major threat, although its sensitively to that level of disturbance is also unknown (the species is tolerant of some degree of disturbance).	eng
13125	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The range falls within the Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed to determine its sensitivity to logging.	eng
13125	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is present on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from the Mimika River in the west to the Darai Plateau and Mount Bosavi area in the east. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,500 m asl.	eng
13125	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in lowland and gallery forest (these are remnant forest patches in the savanna). It is not known if this species is sensitive to habitat disturbance or not.	eng
13125	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13125	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is extensive logging already happening or proposed for much of the southern watershed, but it is not clear if this poses a major threat or not.	eng
13126	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13126	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has been recorded from scattered localities throughout the Central Cordillera, from the Arfak Mountains in the west to the Mount Dayman area in the southeast (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
13126	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded from montane tropical forest and old rural garden plots (Flannery 1995). This species has a low reproductive rate; females give birth to a single young (Flannery 1995).	eng
13126	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13126	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
13127	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species, and to determine its sensitivity to heavy disturbance.	eng
13127	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from the lowlands in the south-eastern and north-eastern portions of the country. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 700 m asl.<br/><br/>There is a record from Yapen Island and two more from Papua Province, Indonesia (Flannery 1995a,b), but these are not mapped here and require further examination (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13127	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a largely terrestrial species confined to lowland tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). It occurs in disturbed areas. A captive female gave birth to two young.	eng
13127	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13127	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Much of the habitat is being lost due to oil palm expansion, logging, and nickel mining. These may not be major threats, however, as the species tolerates disturbed areas.	eng
13128	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is currently not present in protected areas, although a protected area has been proposed for Obi. There is clearly a need for more effective habitat protection, and for additional survey work on both islands to determine its current status.	eng
13128	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is known only from Obi and Bisa islands, south of Halmahera, Indonesia (Flannery 1995; Helgen 2003). All known specimens have been taken from lowland areas.	eng
13128	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Flannery (1995) collected this species in secondary growth along Durian Creek near Madupolo on the island of Bisa. Surrounding slopes were covered with either gardens or young regrowth, although some forest persisted in the creek valley. Flannery (1995) observed it feeding on fruit of <em>Piper aduncu</em>, up to 3 m above ground; some individuals were trapped on the ground, among rocks and ferns on a creek bank.	eng
13128	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known by the holotype from Obi, and a small series from Bisa. Flannery (1995) noted it was common around their camp on Bisa.	eng
13128	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, although it seems somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
13129	conservation	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Flannery, T. & Aplin, K., 2008	This widespread species is presumed to occur in some protected areas.	eng
13129	distribution	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Flannery, T. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widespread over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and has been recorded from a number of islands in Cenderawasih Bay (Indonesia), the Bismarck Archipelago, and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
13129	habitat	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Flannery, T. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that is common in disturbed forest habitats and close to villages. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
13129	population	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Flannery, T. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
13129	threats	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Flannery, T. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13130	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and possible threats to this species.	eng
13130	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is present on the island of New Guinea, where it is found from north-western Papua Province, Indonesia to eastern Papua New Guinea. Within this area it has been recorded from the Mamberamo River, Wau area, Cyclops Mountains, and localities in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea. It has also been recorded on the island of Yapen in Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia. It has an elevational range of 320 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
13130	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is found in lowland forest habitats. It nests in burrows and appears to be solitary (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
13130	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is common.	eng
13130	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13131	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and possible threats to the separate populations.	eng
13131	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is widespread along the Central Cordillera, Huon Peninsula, and the Torricelli Mountains (Flannery 1995; Menzies 1996). It has an altitudinal range of 900 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
13131	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a partly terrestrial species that is found in primary tropical forest and disturbed areas including old rural gardens (Flannery 1995). The species appears to have a low rate of fecundity; females generally give birth to two young (Flannery 1995).	eng
13131	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a common species; abundant in some areas.	eng
13131	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13132	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	Bramble Cay is not currently a protected area. A recovery plan has been drafted by Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service (Latch in prep.) Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is currently monitoring the population and assessing cay dynamics. Recovery objectives include: establish a Bramble Cay Melomys monitoring program; clarify the extent of, and manage threats to, the Bramble Cay Melomys; improve understanding of Bramble Cay Melomys taxonomy, biology and ecology; respond to any sharp decline in the Bramble Cay Melomys population; facilitate community participation in Bramble Cay Melomys recovery. (P. Latch pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Additional studies include: clarify taxonomy of Bramble Cay Melomys; undertake surveys on other Torres Strait islands to locate any further populations; develop a captive breeding and reintroduction proposal if needed and identify possible new introduction site/s. Additional management actions needed, include:  monitor the dynamics of Bramble Cay at regular intervals; investigate the feasibility of stabilising Bramble Cay; monitor for presence of exotic pests and disease; reduce the risk of exotic species establishing on the cay; engage the Traditional Owners in all aspects of the recovery process; promote Bramble Cay Melomys recovery to the Torres Strait and wider Australian communities (P. Latch pers. comm.).	eng
13132	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species is endemic to Bramble Cay, a small coral cay in the Torres Strait, Australia (Lee 1995; Dennis 2008). It has not been located on other islands despite intensive surveys (Lee 1995).	eng
13132	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	<em>Melomys rubicola</em> is nocturnal (P. Latch pers. comm.). It lives amongst the vegetation on the cay and uses burrows as refuges (P. Latch pers. comm.). The cay, as measured in 2004, is approximately 5 ha in size with a vegetated portion 2.2 ha (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). It has one of the most restricted distributions of any mammal species. Little is known of the species' biology and ecology (P. Latch pers. comm.).	eng
13132	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	No recent, published information is available (P. Latch pers. comm.), but there are probably less than 50 mature individuals.	eng
13132	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	The main threat is to its habitat. The island is eroding through natural processes (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, unpublished data), and it is possible that a major storm could eliminate all suitable habitat (Lee 1995). The introduction of any exotic plant, predator, or disease is also a significant threat to this very small, isolated population. Inbreeding depression, while potentially a threat to a small population such as this, is considered a lower risk than natural disasters or invasive species (Dickman <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
13133	conservation	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies into the differences between populations of this taxon are needed.	eng
13133	distribution	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and  Papua New Guinea), Salawati and Misool islands (Indonesia), and the Bismarck Archipelago (including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland). It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,400 m asl.	eng
13133	habitat	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This largely arboreal species ranges from primary forest (where it is generally rare), into secondary and degraded forest, areas of cane grass, rural gardens and villages. The species can be found living in houses. Females give birth to between one and four young.	eng
13133	population	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is common in disturbed habitat and in primary forest.	eng
13133	threats	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13139	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There are no recommended conservation measures for this species.	eng
13139	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from the islands of Duke of York, Mioko, New Britain, Tolokiwa, Umboi, Dyal, and New Ireland (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It is found from sea level up to 1,600 m asl. It may also occur on Sakar and Lavongai.	eng
13139	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from disturbed forest and gardens (including stands of banana trees) and cocoa plantations. It "thrives in close association with humans where cultivated bananas occur in much higher density than do wild bananas in primary forest" (Bonaccorso <em>et al.</em> 2005). It appears to be rare in primary tropical forest. The species roosts primarily in foliage, but also on rocky outcrops. Individuals have home ranges of about 5 hectares and are highly territorial (Bonnacorso <em>et al.</em> 2005). It probably has two litters of a single young annually  (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).	eng
13139	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a common and widespread species.	eng
13139	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13140	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The population numbers of this species should be assessed.	eng
13140	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is present in Solomon Island chain (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands). The subspecies <em>Melonycteris woodfordi woodfordi</em> is found on the islands of Bougainville and Buka of Papua New Guinea, and the islands of Oblari, Alu, Choisel, Fauro, Mono, and Santa Ysabel in the Solomon Islands. The subspecies <em>M. w. aurantius</em> is found on Nggela and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). The species occurs from sea level to 1,100 m asl.	eng
13140	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is known from primary tropical forest, but is also commonly found in disturbed habitats including secondary forest, rural gardens, and coconut plantations (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It roosts in foliage in small groups or individually and likely forages over a relatively small home range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
13140	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
13140	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats, although habitat loss due to deforestation may adversely affect the species. Because this species does not require caves and does not roost in large colonies, it is immune to many of the threats faced by cave roosting bats of the region (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
13141	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Further studies are needed into the population status, distribution, and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
13141	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from Guadalcanal, Kolombangara, Malaita, New Georgia, the Russell Islands, San Cristobal, Vangunu, and Vella Lavella (Flannery 1995).	eng
13141	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It has been recorded from primary montane tropical forest (Mount Makarakomburu, Guadalcanal) and in many other habitat types (e.g., lowland forest, disturbed areas).	eng
13141	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Flannery (1995) reports that it is moderately common at some localities, but quite rare at others. The species is widespread.	eng
13141	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Although this species is known from a variety of habitats including disturbed forest, habitat degradation due to logging and agricultural expansion probably threaten this species in parts of its range.	eng
13143	conservation	Garshelis, D.L., Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, N.P.S., 2008	Sloth bears are reported to exist in 174 Protected Areas in India, which include 46 National Parks and 128 Wildlife Sanctuaries (Chauhan 2006).  Populations appear to be reasonably well protected inside these PAs, but faced with deteriorating habitat conditions outside PAs (Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990, Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Reduced cover and food resources outside PAs (Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004) have led to increased bear–human conflicts, including frequent maulings (Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated that half to two-thirds of the sloth bears in India live outside protected areas. About half the occupied range in Sri Lanka is outside protected areas (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>Sloth bears are listed in Appendix I of CITES and are completely protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act.  They are also protected to varying degrees by national laws in the other range countries.  However, they can be killed to protect life or property.  Given the aggressive nature of this animal, and the increasing number of encounters between bears and people, these bears are widely feared.  Although education may help to reduce bear-human conflicts and enhance a conservation ethic among locals, the root of the problem is largely related to deteriorating habitat, which increases the chance of interaction between people and bears.  Thus, habitat improvements (government or community-based reforestation) would be helpful in alleviating such conflicts.	eng
13143	distribution	Garshelis, D.L., Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, N.P.S., 2008	Sloth bears are present in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan.  Until recently they were also known to occur in Bangladesh, but their continued existence there is uncertain: the last documented records are from the late 1990s. In historic times, sloth bears never ranged further west than Gujarat, India, and probably no further east than the states of northeastern India, although some unverified reports suggested that they once occurred in the southwestern corner of present day Myanmar (Erdbrink 1953). Although still widely present in its former range, its distribution is now highly fragmented.	eng
13143	habitat	Garshelis, D.L., Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, N.P.S., 2008	Sloth bears subsist primarily on termites, ants, and fruits. This is the only species of bear adapted specifically for myrmecophagy (ant and termite-eating; Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004).  The ratio of insects to fruits in the diet varies seasonally and geographically (Baskaran <em>et al</em>. 1997, Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2004,  Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2002). <br/> <br/>Sloth bears occupy a wide range of habitats on the Indian mainland including wet or dry tropical forests, savannas, scrublands, and grasslands (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2002, Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004, Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. in press).  They are primarily a lowland species. Most sloth bear range in India and Nepal is limited to habitats below 1,500 m, although the species may occur as high as 2,000 m in the forests of the Western Ghats (Johnsingh 2003).  In Sri Lanka, sloth bears are confined to the remaining dry forests in the north and eastern parts of the island, mostly below 300 m (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In areas where cover is sparse, and where daytime temperatures are high (a large part of the range), the bear is largely nocturnal or crepuscular and will shelter in rock outcrops, thickets, and tree cavities during the heat of the day.  Although sloth bears may be active during the day in protected areas, they tend to be almost exclusively nocturnal in disturbed and fragmented forests interspersed with human habitations (Akhtar <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Studies in Nepal and Sri Lanka suggest that sloth bears avoid areas where human disturbance is high, so crop depredation by sloth bears is typically rare (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. in press).  Conversely, in some parts of India, sloth bears routinely raid peanut, maize, and fruit crops (e.g., Changani 2002).  Chauhan (2006) suggests that such crop depredations may occur because these habitats are severely affected by human exploitation, including the extraction of several food sources for bears.  <br/><br/>Sloth bears typically breed during June-July, and females give birth, usually to one or two cubs, during November –January (Laurie and Seidensticker 1977, Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1999, Chauhan <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Cubs typically ride on the mother’s back during their first nine months, presumably to reduce the risk of predation.  Cubs remain with their mothers for 1.5–2.5  years.	eng
13143	population	Garshelis, D.L., Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, N.P.S., 2008	A mark-resight based population estimate is available for one park in Nepal; density was estimated at 27 bears/100 km² for the whole park, and as high as 72 bears /100 km² in a core area (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999a).  Other population estimates (guesstimates) exist for many other parks and reserves, but these were based on uncertain methodology (mainly just expert opinion gleaned from interviews and questionnaires).  Good information is available on area of occupied range in India (Chauhan 2006, Yoganand <em>et al.</em> 2006), Nepal (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999a), and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some attempts have been made to apply estimated densities in various protected areas to occupied area to obtain a rangewide population estimate.  Depending on methods and data employed in this process, rangewide estimates vary from <10,000 to somewhat >20,000 (Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b, Chauhan 2006, Yoganand <em>et al</em>. 2006).  None of these estimates are considered reliable enough to track changes in population size.	eng
13143	threats	Garshelis, D.L., Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, N.P.S., 2008	Major threats to this species are habitat loss and poaching (Johnsingh 2003, Chauhan 2006). Habitat has been lost, degraded, and fragmented by overharvest of forest products (timber, fuel wood, fodder, fruits, honey), establishment of monoculture plantations (e.g., teak, eucalyptus), settlement of refugees, and expansion of agricultural areas, human settlements, and roads (Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990).  Poaching, mainly for the commercial trade in bear parts, has been reported (Servheen 1990, Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 1999b), but its current extent and impact on bear populations is uncertain.  Poaching also occurs for local use (e.g., male reproductive organs used as aphrodisiac; bones, teeth and claws used to ward off evil spirits; bear fat used for native medicine and hair regeneration; Santiapillai and Santiapillai 1990, Chauhan 2006).  Capture of live cubs for use as "dancing bears" remains a significant threat in some parts of the range (Seshamani and Satyanarayan 1997).  Also, in some parts of the range, encounters between people and sloth bears have led to numerous human injuries and many deaths (Rajpurohit and Krausman 2000, Bargali <em>et al</em>. 2005, Chauhan 2006).  Such incidents tend to occur where people frequently use bear habitat, and where the habitat has thus become severely degraded.  Bears that attack or threaten to attack people may be destroyed.  <br/><br/>The only natural threats to sloth bears are tigers (<em>Panthera tigris</em>) and possibly leopards (<em>P. pardus</em>).  In fact, the threat of tiger predation may account for the very aggressive nature of sloth bears (Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Sloth bears have been observed fending off approaches by tigers, but they have also occasionally been observed as a prey item of tigers (e.g., Gopal 1991).	eng
13144	conservation	Walston, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
13144	distribution	Walston, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is widespread in suitable habitat in Cambodia, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000), Thailand, Viet Nam, Myanmar and China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In China it is found in southern Yunnan, while in Myanmar it occurs west to the Irrawaddy river and north to approx 20 degrees according to Moore and Tate (1965), but probably also further north to Yunnan.	eng
13144	habitat	Walston, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This squirrel forages on the ground in forests and along the forest edge, it also frequents cultivated areas. It lives at elevations up to 1,200 m. It is known to enter rice and corn fields in order to dig up and eat the planted grain. It is often caught in traps baited with bananas. Although this species spends most of its time on the ground, occasionally it may be seen running along railings or up and down slanting or broken bamboos, but never far from the ground.	eng
13144	population	Walston, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is extremely abundant in suitable habitat (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
13144	threats	Walston, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is threatened at only the very local scale by total habitat conversion due to agriculture, but it can tolerate disturbed habitat (R. Timmins and W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
13145	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in ponds of varying salinity.	eng
13146	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Endemic to Lake Waccamaw, a shallow coastal plain lake in Columbus County, southeastern North Carolina.	eng
13159	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
13159	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern sands of the Rub al Khali in Saudi Arabia and Oman. It probably also occurs in the southern part of the United Arab Emirates. Its distribution is poorly known and the map should be considered provisional.	eng
13159	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It occurs in sandy deserts. It is a very poorly known species.	eng
13159	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on its abundance.	eng
13159	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is very little information on this species, but it occurs in an inhospitable location where there are unlikely to be any significant threats.	eng
13160	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
13160	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the eastern region of Xinjiang province (Turfan Basin) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations usually above 1,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13160	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in semi-desert or xeric grasslands and mountainous areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It creates multiple burrows, usually at the base of shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13160	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
13160	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
13161	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
13161	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kry?tufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
13161	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>Meriones crassus</em> occurs across north Africa from Morocco to Egypt south to Sudan; also in Asia through the Arabian Peninsula north to Turkey and east to western Pakistan. There are also records of this species from Niger and the headwaters of the Nile, Sudan. The species also possibly occurs in Mali (L. Granjon and S. Aulagnier pers. comm.).	eng
13161	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kry?tufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	<em>Meriones crassus</em> occurs across north Africa from Morocco to Egypt south to Sudan; also in Asia through the Arabian Peninsula north to Turkey and east to western Pakistan. There are also records of this species from Niger and the headwaters of the Nile, Sudan. The species also possibly occurs in Mali (L. Granjon and S. Aulagnier pers. comm.).	eng
13161	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	A nocturnal species (Amr 2000), prefering dry habitats in sandy or hammada deserts, and absent from mountain areas with a Mediterranean climate, where it inhabits burrows.  It can be gregarious or solitary (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species feeds on various plant species and dung from camels and donkeys; desert locusts and crickets amongst other insects are also eaten. Foraging can take place up to 10 km from the burrow. The breeding season occurs from November to June, gestation lasts upto 31 days and one to five young are born (mean 3.3) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000). The species' peak elevation is under 1,000 m. A habitat generalist in deserts, not found in rocky microhabitats.	eng
13161	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kry?tufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	A nocturnal species (Amr 2000), prefering dry habitats in sandy or hammada deserts, and absent from mountain areas with a Mediterranean climate, where it inhabits burrows.  It can be gregarious or solitary (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species feeds on various plant species and dung from camels and donkeys; desert locusts and crickets amongst other insects are also eaten. Foraging can take place up to 10 km from the burrow. The breeding season occurs from November to June, gestation lasts upto 31 days and one to five young are born (mean 3.3) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000). The species' peak elevation is under 1,000 m. A habitat generalist in deserts, not found in rocky microhabitats.	eng
13161	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
13161	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kry?tufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
13161	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13161	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kry?tufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13162	conservation	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Krystufek, B., 2008	In Turkey, the species is not in any protected areas, but there is one nearby (Agri Mountain N.P.). Listed as rare species in Red List of Armenian SSR (1990). In 1958 nature reserve "Gorovanskie peski" was established where <em>Meriones dahli</em> is one of the major protected species. More conservation measures for this species are urgently needed.	eng
13162	conservation	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Turkey, the species is not in any protected areas, but there is one nearby (Agri Mountain N.P.). Listed as rare species in Red List of Armenian SSR (1990). In 1958 nature reserve "Gorovanskie peski" was established where <em>Meriones dahli</em> is one of the major protected species. More conservation measures for this species are urgently needed.	eng
13162	distribution	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species is known only from local sandy habitats in the border area of Armenia and Turkey. Possibly Azerbaijan, because it was found near Sadarak village, which is near the border of Armenia and Republic of Nakhichevan (a part of Azerbaijan). In Turkey it is known from only one location (on the plain north of the Ağri Mountain) in Turkey (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007, Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006).The range consists of several separated areas. <br/><br/>In 1960s total area of occupancy was less than 300 ha (Adamyan <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In 1970-80 the area of occupancy sharply declined due to agricultural activity.	eng
13162	distribution	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Krystufek, B., 2008	This species is known only from local sandy habitats in the border area of Armenia and Turkey. Possibly Azerbaijan, because it was found near Sadarak village, which is near the border of Armenia and Republic of Nakhichevan (a part of Azerbaijan). In Turkey it is known from only one location (on the plain north of the A?ri Mountain) in Turkey (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007, Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006).The range consists of several separated areas. <br/><br/>In 1960s total area of occupancy was less than 300 ha (Adamyan <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In 1970-80 the area of occupancy sharply declined due to agricultural activity.	eng
13162	habitat	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Krystufek, B., 2008	Inhabit areas of hillocky, slightly fixed sands from 600 to 1000 m. In coastal sands lives among tamarisk shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. In piedmont area dominate <em>Calligonus</em> and <em>Achillea</em> shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. Feed on green parts and seeds of various plants. Winter supplies consist mainly of seeds. <br/>There are two types of burrows: permanent and shelter. Shelter burrows are simple and shallow, consist of one passage without widening. Permanent burrows are more complex, with 4-5 exits, passage length could be up to 7 m. Nest is at 0,5-2 m below the ground. In wintering burrow up to 5 individuals can hibernate.<br/>Reproduction starts at the end of March - beginning of April. Gestation is 20-22 days. There are two reproduction peaks, in April and in July, however, adult females can have 3 litters per season. Litter size is 2-7, more often 4-6.	eng
13162	habitat	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Inhabit areas of hillocky, slightly fixed sands from 600 to 1000 m. In coastal sands lives among tamarisk shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. In piedmont area dominate <em>Calligonus</em> and <em>Achillea</em> shrubs with mixed grasses and herbs. Feed on green parts and seeds of various plants. Winter supplies consist mainly of seeds. <br/>There are two types of burrows: permanent and shelter. Shelter burrows are simple and shallow, consist of one passage without widening. Permanent burrows are more complex, with 4-5 exits, passage length could be up to 7 m. Nest is at 0,5-2 m below the ground. In wintering burrow up to 5 individuals can hibernate.<br/>Reproduction starts at the end of March - beginning of April. Gestation is 20-22 days. There are two reproduction peaks, in April and in July, however, adult females can have 3 litters per season. Litter size is 2-7, more often 4-6.	eng
13162	population	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Krystufek, B., 2008	In Armenia, estimates in the 1960s found 20 to 90/ha and in the 1990s, 2-5/ha in the 1990s. It is rare in Turkey (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Armenia total number used to fluctuate from 500 to 6000 individuals (Dyatlov <em>et al.</em>, 1987). More recently, Saakyan (Biodiversity Centre <http: www.biodiversity.ru="" programs="" rodent="" species="" meriones_dahl.html="">) noticed extensive habitat loss due to agricultural activities and estimates that current population size in Armenia is not more than 500-1000 individuals in total. Population size is still declining due to human activities.	eng
13162	population	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Armenia, estimates in the 1960s found 20 to 90/ha and in the 1990s, 2-5/ha in the 1990s. It is rare in Turkey (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Armenia total number used to fluctuate from 500 to 6000 individuals (Dyatlov <em>et al.</em>, 1987). More recently, Saakyan (Biodiversity Centre <http: www.biodiversity.ru="" programs="" rodent="" species="" meriones_dahl.html="">) noticed extensive habitat loss due to agricultural activities and estimates that current population size in Armenia is not more than 500-1000 individuals in total. Population size is still declining due to human activities.	eng
13162	threats	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Krystufek, B., 2008	This is a rare animal restricted to sandy habitats with sparse, shrubby vegetation. It is susceptible to cutting of vegetation for firewood. Overgrazing and agricultural expansion are likely to threaten the population.	eng
13162	threats	Kefelioglu, H. Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This is a rare animal restricted to sandy habitats with sparse, shrubby vegetation. It is susceptible to cutting of vegetation for firewood. Overgrazing and agricultural expansion are likely to threaten the population.	eng
13163	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species has been reporetd from Desert National Park, Rajasthan, India. Life History studies are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13163	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded in the Thar desert of India, Iran and Pakistan. Within India it is seen in Gujarat, Haryana, and Rajasthan, while in Pakistan known from Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges from 75 to 300 m in elevation and is very widely distributed in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is questionably present in Afghanistan at Kelat-i-Ghilzai between Ghazni and Kandahar (Habibi 2004).	eng
13163	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a diurnal, fossorial, social and colonial (5-20 individuals) species. The species forms superficial to deep burrows in plains, prefers hammocky landscapes on sandy plains with higher density of bushes  (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Typical habitats include alluvial plains, uncultivated clay flats, sandy plains, interdunal regions, gravelly depressions with grasses and other vegetation (S. Chakraborty in litt. 2005). The species can also be found in acacia forest and hedges. It has been found to occupy the edges of cultivated fields (S. Chakraborty in litt. 2005).	eng
13163	population	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13163	threats	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, small-scale logging operations, invasions of alien plant species directly impacting the habitat, collection of fuel wood. It is also threatened by pest control programmes,  natural disasters (such as drought and floods) and harvest for local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13164	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place. The species is found in many protected areas. No specific conservation measures are recommended for this species.	eng
13164	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	<em>Meriones libycus</em> has a wide global range, occurring in North Africa (from Western Sahara and Mauritania to Egypt) and in Asia (from the Arabian peninsula east to China). Occurs up to 1,700 m (Roberts 1997).	eng
13164	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	<em>M. libycus</em> occupies desert habitats, generally in areas with stabilized dunes (desert and semi-desert habitats). It becomes most abundant in unflooded river plains and it is often found close to wadis and dayas. It is sometimes found in arable land. It is a highly mobile species, frequently changing burrows or even migrating should forage conditions deteriorate.	eng
13164	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	It is a common species across its range.	eng
13164	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is considered a pest in some areas, as it may feed on crops.	eng
13165	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in different parts of its range.	eng
13165	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in different parts of its range. Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
13165	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in sand deserts in the western Caspian Sea region (Russian Federation), Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Iran, northern Afganistan, northern China and Mongolia.	eng
13165	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species is distributed in sand deserts in the western Caspian Sea region (Russian Federation), Kazakhstan, Central Asia, northeastern Iran, northern Afghanistan, northern China and Mongolia. In Mongolia, the species occurs throughout southern Mongolia and in Great Lakes Depression in the west of the country.	eng
13165	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in sand deserts, including fragmented alluvial and deluvial sands. Most abundant in hilly deserts and sandy areas with shrub cover, including small sand tracts in the steppe zone in the western part of the range. In spring and summer it is nocturnal, but in autumn (while foraging for winter) it remains active all day. Burrows are usually excavated under the roots of shrubs. Congregates in large colonies with pronounced social structure. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes on insects. Breeding period differs in northern and southern parts of the range. In northern parts it lasts from April til September, with two peaks in spring and autumn. In southern parts the reproductive period occurs from February or March til beginning of October, and in favourable conditions it may last throughout the year. Females that are at least a year old usually give birth to three litters per year; young females give birth once, rarely twice a year. Litter size is about 6 young.	eng
13165	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in sand deserts, including fragmented alluvial and deluvial sands. Most abundant in hilly deserts and sandy areas with shrub cover, including small sand tracts in the steppe zone in the western part of the range. In spring and summer it is nocturnal, but in autumn (while foraging for winter) it remains active all day. Burrows are usually excavated under the roots of shrubs. Congregates in large colonies with pronounced social structure. Feeds mostly on seeds, sometimes on insects. Breeding period differs in northern and southern parts of the range. In northern parts it lasts from April until September, with two peaks in spring and autumn. In southern parts the reproductive period occurs from February or March until beginning of October, and in favourable conditions it may last throughout the year. Females that are at least a year old usually give birth to three litters per year; young females give birth once, rarely twice a year. Litter size is about 6 young.	eng
13165	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. Depending on winter weather conditions and the availability of essential fodder crops, density could fluctuate by ten times or more. Like other gerbil species, <em>Meriones meridianus</em> is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases. Population size in this species is monitored by plague control agencies.	eng
13165	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	It is a widespread and generally common species within much of its range, although populations undergo major fluctuations in density. Depending on winter weather conditions and the availability of essential fodder crops, density could fluctuate by ten times or more. Like other gerbil species, <em>Meriones meridianus</em> is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases. Population size in this species is monitored by plague control agencies.	eng
13165	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threat to this species.	eng
13165	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threat to this species.	eng
13166	conservation	Eken, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas (eg. Hazar Ganji antional Park, Baluchistan, Pakistan). In South Asia, field surveys, life history studies, habitat management and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13166	distribution	Eken, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species ranges from the Caucasus (including the southeastern foothills of the lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Plateau in Azerbaijan) in the west, through northeastern Iraq and Iran to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan (Habibi 2004) to Pakistan where it is widely distributed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges up to 3,250 m asl.	eng
13166	habitat	Eken, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal, terrestrial, gregarious, omnivorous species. It generally occurs in arid, rocky, mountainous region, favouring dry stone embankment in highlands. It has been found to occupy dry stone embankments of upland cultivation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13166	population	Eken, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in semi-deserts and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes. There is little information available for the remainder of the species range.	eng
13166	threats	Eken, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species, although some populations might be threatened by prolonged periods of drought (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
13167	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
13167	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of the southwestern Arabian Peninsula, from near Mecca in Saudi Arabia south to near Aden in Yemen (Al-Jumaily, 1998; Harrison and Bates, 1991). In Saudi Arabia the species has been reported from 1,350 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
13167	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This jird occurs lives in large burrows amongst bushes, prefering raised areas bordering agricultural land, though it can be found in a variety of habitats. It is active in the evening and early morning. Burrows are shared with other rodents and lizards.	eng
13167	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is apparently common in the Yemen mountains.	eng
13167	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is reported to cause damage to agricultural fields, and also acts as a disease reservoir of human infections.	eng
13168	conservation	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G. & Yom-Tov, Y., 2008	Found in protected areas in southern Israel.	eng
13168	distribution	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G. & Yom-Tov, Y., 2008	<em>Meriones sacramenti</em> is endemic to the Negev and the coastal region of northern Sinai (Egypt) and Israel, including Palestine.	eng
13168	habitat	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G. & Yom-Tov, Y., 2008	The species lives in coastal dunes with limited vegetation cover, it lives in small family groups. They have also been reported to be more generalist, inhabiting clay and sandy deserts, bush country, arid steppes, low plains, cultivated fields, grasslands, and mountain valleys. They are terrestrial and construct burrows in soft soil. Their diet consists of green vegetation, roots, bulbs, seeds, cereals, fruits and insects. More folivorous than other <em>Meriones</em> species.	eng
13168	population	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G. & Yom-Tov, Y., 2008	Little information is known. The species tends to occur at relatively low densities.	eng
13168	threats	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G. & Yom-Tov, Y., 2008	The eastern sections of the species' range are under threat from urbanization, which has caused a reduction in available habitat of around 10 to 15% over the last ten years (G. Shenbrot pers. comm. 2005). Habitat has also been lost through conversion to agricultural areas, particularly in southern Israel. Much of the species range also falls within a politically unstable area.	eng
13169	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	This species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
13169	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). Approximately 23% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
13169	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed from cis-Caucasia through Kazakhstan to Tajikistan, Mongolia, and N Xinjiang and Nei Mongol regions of China (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
13169	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species global distribution extends from CIS-Caucasia (Russian Federation) through Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, to Tajikistan, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, and northern Xinjiang and Nei Mongol regions of China (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>Within Mongolia, its regional distribution has been recorded from the lower drainage of the Bodonch and Bulgan rivers in Dzungarian Govi Desert, and north-western Aj Bogd Mountain Range in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).	eng
13169	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits shrubby thickets in flood-plains and forest belts (in Astrakhan semidesert); also oases and shrubby semi-deserts with some grass cover. In NW parts of the range it is expanding its range and occupying new lands that have appeared as the Caspian Sea  has dried out; however, in the Aral Sea region the species' range has stayed the same despite the availability of new lands. Lives in family groups, occasionally forming small colonies without social structure. Besides seeds, a considerable proportion of its diet is made up of vegetative parts of plants. Reproduction starts in February to March (western parts of the range) or March to April (eastern parts of the range) and lasts for about six months. Breeding intensity decreases during hot months. Females that have overwintered usually give birth to three litters per year; young females generally start reproduction in June. Litter size is about 4-5 young.<br/><br/>Tamarisk gerbils have head-rump measurements averaging 15-18 cm and a tail length of approximately 15 cm (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Dorsal coloration varies from yellow through to sandy or grey, in some cases it may be dark brown, with a white or pale underside. The hairs on its back have black tips, giving the sides of the body a lighter appearance. The tail hairs become long and bushy towards the tip (Nowak, 1991).	eng
13169	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits shrubby thickets in flood-plains and forest belts (in Astrakhan semidesert); also oases and shrubby semi-deserts with some grass cover. In NW parts of the range it is expanding its range and occupying new lands that have appeared as the Caspian Sea  has dried out; however, in the Aral Sea region the species's range has stayed the same despite the availability of new lands. Lives in family groups, occasionally forming small colonies without social structure. Besides seeds, a considerable proportion of its diet is made up of vegetative parts of plants. Reproduction starts in February to March (western parts of the range) or March to April (eastern parts of the range) and lasts for about six months. Breeding intensity decreases during hot months. Females that have overwintered usually give birth to three litters per year; young females generally start reproduction in June. Litter size is about 4-5 young.	eng
13169	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It is a common species within much of its range, although populations undergo fluctuations in density every 2-3 years. Usually does not form colonies, but in Kazakhstan density could reach 30-50 individuals per hectare. A considerable pest of grain-crops, melons and gourds. In Central Asia population density considerably increase during cereals ripening. Same as other gerbil species is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases agents. Population size is under observation of plague control services.	eng
13169	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	It is a common species within much of its range, although populations undergo fluctuations in density every 2-3 years. Usually does not form colonies, but in Kazakhstan density could reach 30-50 individuals per hectare. A considerable pest of grain-crops, melons and gourds. In Central Asia population density considerably increases during the time of year when cereals ripen. Like other gerbil species it is a natural carrier of plague and other diseases agents. Population size is under observation of plague control services.	eng
13169	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
13169	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No major threats to this species are known. In parts of the range (e.g. in Mongolia) habitat degradation, particularly through trampling and browsing of tamarisk by domestic camels may be a local problem. Low levels of human disturbance, and competition for tamarisk with domestic camels, may also constitute local threats. Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
13170	conservation	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Found in many protected areas. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13170	conservation	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Found in many protected areas. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13170	distribution	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Meriones tristrami</em> has a global range that extends from Anatolia and the Caucasus south to Jordan, Syria, Israel, northwest Iran and Iraq. Although it has been recorded on the Greek Island of Kos, it has not been recorded there over the last ten years despite repeated surveys (G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007).	eng
13170	distribution	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Meriones tristrami</em> has a global range that extends from Anatolia and the Caucasus south to Jordan, Syria, Israel, northwest Iran and Iraq. Although it has been recorded on the Greek Island of Kos, it has not been recorded there over the last ten years despite repeated surveys (G. Mitsain pers. comm. 2007).	eng
13170	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Occurs on the island of Kos (Greece); also in Asia Minor, the Middle East, Transcaucasia and northwestern Iran (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.	eng
13170	habitat	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Found in steppe and semi-desert habitats. The distribution of this species is reported to be limited to areas receiving more than 100 mm rainfall annually, though there are some exceptions including northeast Jordan and eastern Syrian desert habitats. Occurs in the edges of cereal fields (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). It inhabits a variety of soil types and the burrows vary in complexity, it does not store food so always leaves its burrow to feed on grain, seeds, and green plant parts (Harrison and Bates 1991). Breeding occurs through the year peaking between April and September with a gestation period of 25-29 days and one to seven young born (average 3.6) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000).	eng
13170	habitat	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Found in steppe and semi-desert habitats. The distribution of this species is reported to be limited to areas receiving more than 100 mm rainfall annually, though there are some exceptions including northeast Jordan and eastern Syrian desert habitats. Occurs in the edges of cereal fields (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). It inhabits a variety of soil types and the burrows vary in complexity, it does not store food so always leaves its burrow to feed on grain, seeds, and green plant parts (Harrison and Bates 1991). Breeding occurs through the year peaking between April and September with a gestation period of 25-29 days and one to seven young born (average 3.6) (Qumsiyeh 1996). The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000).	eng
13170	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Prefers deserts and dry steppes.	eng
13170	population	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	In 1996, the species was reported to be common in Israel and one of the most common jirds in the hills with Mediterranean climate in the region, it may become a pest in some regions  (Qumsiyeh 1996). During surveys in 1996 and 1997 in suitable habitat at Badia, Jordan, this species was the least commonly encountered species (Scott and Dunstone, 2000), although Amr (2000) describes the species as common in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-deserts and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes and the plateau of the Talysh. Population numbers fluctuate greatly and the species may become a minor agricultural pest in some areas. The species' density was less than 1/ha in Jordan (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
13170	population	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	In 1996, the species was reported to be common in Israel and one of the most common jirds in the hills with Mediterranean climate in the region, it may become a pest in some regions  (Qumsiyeh 1996). During surveys in 1996 and 1997 in suitable habitat at Badia, Jordan, this species was the least commonly encountered species (Scott and Dunstone, 2000), although Amr (2000) describes the species as common in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-deserts and numerous in foothill and mountain steppes and the plateau of the Talysh. Population numbers fluctuate greatly and the species may become a minor agricultural pest in some areas. The species' density was less than 1/ha in Jordan (Scott and Dunstone, 2000).	eng
13170	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	One of the most common jirds throughout much of its global range.	eng
13170	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	No major threats are known.	eng
13170	threats	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no serious threats affecting this species at present.	eng
13170	threats	Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G., Scott, D., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no serious threats affecting this species at present.	eng
13171	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Abundant species, that occur in many protected areas (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research on population size and trends is recommended.	eng
13171	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in dry steppes of SE Mongolia and adjacent territories of Russia and China. In Mongolia: Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, southern Hangai Mountain Range, along the Orhon and Selenge river basins in north eastern Hangai Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Northern Govi, and Eastern Mongolia. In N China: Nei Mongol, Liaoning, Hebei, N Shanxi, N Shaanxi, E Gansu, Ningxia. In Russia: southern Transbaikalia and south of Tuva.	eng
13171	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits steppe, semi-desert and desert habitats, frequently occurring in areas with clay soils, or cultivated fields, at railroad mounds, and other grasslands. Not found in mountainous terrain. Active during both day and night, although primarily diurnal during winter. Does not hibernate or estivate. Density of the Mongolian Gerbil is quite variable over its range, but it can occur at extremely high densities under some conditions.  Colonial, its normal social unit is the family group.  Families live together and mutually defend their burrow system, and all members contribute to gathering food stores (which can weigh as much as 20 kg).  Burrow structure is not complicated.  Burrows can extend 5-6 m in length and have nest chambers situated at 45 cm in depth (summer) or 150 cm in depth (winter).  Diet consists of seeds and greens, but they also consume fruits of desert plants. If food conditions significantly worsen, can migrate up to 50 km. Reproduction time differs around the range, in northern parts (Russia) it is shorter (March to August), while in southern parts (China) it is from February until September; litter size 2-11 (average about six).	eng
13171	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
13171	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Persecuted as a pest, also threatened by wildfires and possibly by habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. These are not considered to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
13172	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
13172	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Meriones vinogradovi</em> has a limited range from Turkey through Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, through to Iran. In the Mediterranean region it is known from eastern Turkey (from Aralik and Dogubeyazit (Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006)) and one record from Syria (A. Karatas unpublished data). Some existing records are problematic and the species' distribution needs to be clarified (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
13172	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Meriones vinogradovi</em> has a limited range from Turkey through Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, through to Iran. In the Mediterranean region it is known from eastern Turkey (from Aralik and Dogubeyazit (Demirsoy <em>et al</em>. 2006)) and one record from Syria (A. Karatas unpublished data). Some existing records are problematic and the species' distribution needs to be clarified (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
13172	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	A variety of habitats are occupied by this social, burrowing jird, including semi desert, bare mountains and wastelands. It is diurnal in spring and winter becoming more nocturnal in summer. Diet consists of seeds and grasses. After a gestation period of 21-23 days, in captivity seven or eight young are born, females mature at three months and may produce up to five litters annually (Harrison and Bates 1991).	eng
13172	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	In 1957, it was abundant in Syria and numerous in Nakhichevan Republic (Azerbaijan). Turkey population is seldom found with surveys.	eng
13172	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
13173	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known ifthe species is present within any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
13173	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	It ranges from northeastern Iran (map provisional for this country), the arid steppes of northern Afghanistan (Hassinger 1973; Habibi 2004) and southern Turkmenistan (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13173	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Presumably it lives in somewhat dry or even arid habitats. Hassinger (1973) collected a specimen at a threshing platform, riddled with burrows, and a second specimen amongst a set of ruins.	eng
13173	population	Molur, S., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13173	threats	Molur, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13198	conservation	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Sako Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, 2008	In Georgia, the species occurs in two protected areas (Borejomi-Haragauli NP and Kintrish Reserve); three national parks are present within the Turkish range. The species is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Georgia.	eng
13198	distribution	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Sako Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is restricted to north-east Anatolia (the cities of Ordu Giresun, Rize, Trabzon, Artvin, Kars, Bayburt, and Gumushane), Turkey, and the western spurs of the Trialeti Mountain Ridge, Meskhetian and Lazistanian ridges, Georgia. It is present at altitudes of sea level-1,800m asl.	eng
13198	habitat	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Sako Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, 2008	It is a habitat specialist, found mainly in beech (<em>Fagus orientalis</em>), coniferous (<em>Abies nordmanniana</em> and <em>Picea orientalis</em>), box forest (Buxus sp.), in Mediterranean shrub forest, mixed forests, the subalpine belt and in alpine meadows. The species tends to avoid large streams and lives mainly in the tributaries of rivers, usually no more than 1-1.5m in width and about 20-30cm in depth in spring. These brooks flow in dense shade and their banks are covered with dense arboreal and herbaceous vegetation (including the large fern <em>Mateuccia strutiopteris</em>). The banks contain a thick layer of leaf and branch litter, dense moss, and grass. It breeds in the streams. In general, this salamander avoids anthropogenically altered landscapes.	eng
13198	population	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Sako Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, 2008	It is generally rare (but can be locally common) within suitable habitat. Populations of this species in Georgia display significant fluctuations, and the population in Turkey has probably declined significantly over the past decade. In Karst streams are locally abundant and occur is small "caves" along stream edges.	eng
13198	threats	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Sako Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, 2008	Habitat destruction is a major threat across the species range. In Georgia, the destruction of forests (tree felling), use of brooks as roads for the transportation of cut trees, and destruction of habitats by cattle are known causes of population declines. In Turkey, only around 12% of suitable forest habitat remains within the species range (Özhatay, Byfield and Atay 2003), and suitable subalpine and alpine meadows are being degraded through road construction and "summer house" tourism in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains (Magnin and Yarar 1997). Additionally, several dams are being constructed on streams used by this species. This species is collected for the pet trade.	eng
13209	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in Dongzhai niaolei, Jiyuanmihou, Taibaishan, Foping, Jinfoshan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Vulnerable A2cd (Wang and Xie 2004).  Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.	eng
13209	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is an endemic species of China known from Shaanxi, Shanxi, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Henan (CSIS 2008). The subspecies <em>Mesechinus hughi hughi</em> occurs in southern Shaanxi and Sichuan, <em>M. h. miodon</em> occurs in Shaanxi and Gansu, and <em>M. h. sylvaticus</em> occurs in Shanxi and is known only from the Zhongtiao mountain region (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13209	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	It inhabits dry steppe (Stone 1995). There is no information regarding the ecology of this species (Stone 1995).	eng
13209	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species, however, it is probably experiencing a decline resulting from overharvesting.	eng
13209	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Lunde, D., 2008	Harvesting for food and medicine is thought to constitute a threat to this species.	eng
13211	conservation	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas including Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park, and Gurig National Park. In Western Australia, targeted surveys are needed into the distribution and abundance of the species. In Western Australia and Queensland, there is a need to resolve taxonomy.	eng
13211	distribution	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed discontinuously in the northern coastal regions of Western Australia (Kimberlies region), Queensland, and Northern Territory. It is present also on the offshore island of Melville, Northern Territory (Lee 1995). Found from sea level to 700 m asl.	eng
13211	habitat	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This is a nocturnal, mostly terrestrial, species found in eucalypt forest, tropical moist forest, and open coastal forests (Lee 1995; Rankmore and Friend 2008). It nests in trees and is generally found in forest with a dense understorey. It can be found in eucalyptus open forest and woodland and can also be found in nut orchards. The female gives birth to a litter of between one and three young after a gestation period of 43-44 days (Rankmore and Friend 2008).	eng
13211	population	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is uncommon and patchily distributed throughout its range. It is particularly rare in Queensland and Western Australia.	eng
13211	threats	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Lee (1995) suggests that grazing by introduced ungulates and changes in fire regimes since European settlement may have reduced the abundance of food trees and shrubs in the forest understorey. Habitat fragmentation is a major threat, especially on Melville Island, where there are plans to clear much of the forest in the next five years. The species is particularly sensitive to fire throughout its range and the subsequent changes to forest understorey and the loss of tree holes. Feral cats are a localized threat.	eng
13212	conservation	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is present in Prince Regent River Nature Reserve, Western Australia (Lee 1995). Further studies into the distribution, population, natural history, and threats to this species are needed. Populations should also be monitored.	eng
13212	distribution	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is now restricted to coastal areas in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and the offshore islands of Carlia, Conilurus (Margaret), Hidden, Uwins and Wollaston (Lee 1995). The species was formerly distributed across much of northern Australia. It was last recorded from Northern Territory in 1969.	eng
13212	habitat	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical rainforest (including vine thickets), eucalypt-dominated woodlands over tussock grasslands (McKenzie and Kerle 2008). This species has also been found in rugged sandstone screes, beaches, and blacksoil plains with pandanus (Woinarski 2005). Its diet consists of seeds, fruits, invertebrates, grass, and leaves, as it forages both arborealy and on the ground (Woinarski 2005). Females give birth usually to two, but sometimes three young (Lee 1995; McKenzie and Kerle 2008).	eng
13212	population	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is sparsely scattered, but not rare (and possibly underestimated) (McKenzie and Kerle 2008). Large population declines occurred in the past due to habitat loss. The current population trends are unknown.	eng
13212	threats	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It has declined through habitat degradation caused by cattle, black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), and changes in fire regime. Current threats may include grazing by cattle, feral cats, and changes in fire regime.	eng
13215	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Occurs in the Wildlife Refuge Cayos Anamaria.	eng
13215	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is known from Cayos de Ana Maria, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Another population exists on the coastal mainland at Jucaro Este (Soy pers. comm.)	eng
13215	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is reported as being restricted to swamps, marshland and small islands off the southern coast of Cuba (Nowak 1999). This species builds communal shelters in mangrove trees (Nowak 1999).	eng
13215	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is locally common where there is adequate shelter (mangrove roots or ground cover), but is restricted to a small area (Soy pers. comm.).	eng
13215	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The primary threat to this species is hunting; the species is accidentally captured in traps designed to catch the larger <em>Capromys pilorides</em> by fisherman who frequent the islands (Soy pers. comm.). There is some level of competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>, however, the extent of this threat is unknown.	eng
13216	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The entire island where this species is found is completely protected by the Lanzanillo-Pajonal-Fragoso Wildlife Refuge.	eng
13216	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Cayo Fragoso (22°41’N, 79°27’W), Archipiélago de Sabana, Villa Clara, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
13216	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is reported as being restricted to mangrove areas where roots provide shelter. This species builds communal shelters in mangrove trees (Nowak 1999).	eng
13216	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is locally common on Cayo Fragoso, Cuba. However, the total number of mature individuals is not over 2,500.	eng
13216	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The primary threat to this species is illegal hunting by fishermen who frequent the islands (Soy pers. comm.). There is some level of competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>, however, the extent of this threat is unknown.	eng
13217	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Occurs in PN Cienaga de Zapata.	eng
13217	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species occurs in Ciénega de Zapata, Matanzas Province, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
13217	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known. It may live on dry islets and forest outcrops in the Zapata Swamp, however, the inaccessibilty of this region has made it very difficult to study in the past.	eng
13217	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species was last seen in 1937 (Soy pers. comm.), although unconfirmed tracks and droppings have been reported in the Zapata Swamp (Alvarez and Gonzalez 1991).	eng
13217	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Threats include introduced fauna (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and others) and accidental fires, which pose a major threat to the habitat where this species is presumed to be found.	eng
13218	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The islands where this species occurs is a Faunal Refuge (Cayos de San Felipe Faunal Refuge).	eng
13218	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is known from specimens collected at the type locality: Cayo Juan Garcia (21°59?N, 83°31?W), Archipiélago de los Canorreos, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It was last seen in 1978 when 43 animals were collected from the island.	eng
13218	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Very little is known about this species. It seems to prefer coastal forests.	eng
13218	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Very little is known of the populations. Intensive trap surveys have not captured any individuals in recent efforts (Soy pers. comm.).	eng
13218	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	It has been suggested that the reasons for the Little Earth Hutia's decline may have been hunting by humans, competition with introduced rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>), and habitat loss from fires (Alvarez and Gonzales 1991). A military installation was previously located on these islands and it is believed that during this time hunting was intensive from military personnel. Today fisherman use the island and many accidental fires have resulted from their cooking fires (Soy pers. comm.).	eng
13219	conservation	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No conservation measures in place. Research is required to determine population trends and conservation requirements.	eng
13219	distribution	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The main distribution area of the golden hamster is the fertile, agricultural and densely populated Aleppinian plateau in Syria, 280-380 m above sea level. The plateau area covers c.10,000-15,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The Turkish and Syrian sites may form a connected distribution area, but data to confirm this cannot easily be obtained because of restricted access to the military-protected border zone between Syria and Turkey (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
13219	habitat	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is mainly found in arable fields with annual crops such as wheat, barley, chickpeas, lentils, and vegetables (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Records of steppe populations probably result from confusion with the Turkish hamster <em>Mesocricetus brandti </em>(Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). The golden hamster is a solitary, nocturnal and omnivorous (Qumsiyeh, 1996) species inhabiting burrows which can reach up to nine metres long (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). Anecdotal evidence from farmers indicates hibernation might occur between November and February (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reproductive activity possibly begins in February. A female with two to three week old juveniles was recorded in late March (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
13219	population	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Reported to be much rarer than the grey hamster (Qumsiyeh, 1996). During two short expeditions to the main distribution area in Syria only a limited number of individuals were found (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Distribution is presumably patchy but the hamsters may be locally abundant based on biological surveys and observations of local farmers; data are insufficient for confirmation (Gattermann <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
13219	threats	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Habitat loss caused by increasing human settlements is the main threat to the golden hamster in Syria. The impact of natural predators on hamster populations is probably negligible. Golden hamsters are considered one of the most important agricultural pests and animals are trapped or poisoned in February as soon as burrow entrances become visible. Farmers apply large quantities of rodenticides provided by the government. In May and June most fields are harvested, burnt and ploughed; sheep feed on remaining plants making it increasingly difficult for hamsters to find cover, nutrition or sufficient food for winter storage (Gattermann <em>et al.</em>, 2001). This species is considered a pest in Syria.	eng
13220	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
13220	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	Brandt's Hamster has the largest distributional area in the genus <em>Mesocricetus</em>. It occurs in Anatolia, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan; Šidlovskij 1967), southeastern Daghestan (Russian Federation) (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em> 2002). and northwest Iran (Qazvin in the east, Lurestan in the south; Lay, 1967). Reports for north Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and north Israel (Musser and Carleton, 2005) are erroneous (Shehab <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is found from sea level to 2,600 m, however, the primary range is above 1,000-2,200 m.	eng
13220	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	The Turkish hamster has the largest distributional area in the genus <em>Mesocricetus</em>. It occurs in Anatolia, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan; Šidlovskij 1967), SE Daghestan (Russian Federation) (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995, Pavlinov <em>et al.</em>, 2002). and northwest Iran (Qazvin in the east, Lurestan in the south; Lay, 1967). Reports for north Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and north Israel (Musser and Carleton, 2005) are erroneous (Shehab <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is found from sea level to 2,600 m, however, the primary range is above 1,000-2,200 m.	eng
13220	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	The species occurs in dry open steppe habitat with cereals and wormwoods, or cereals and herbs. Also can also be found in agricultural lands. Feeds on herbs and cereals, sometimes consumes insects and other invertebrates. Hibernates and make supplies for winter. Those supplies include cereals, herb roots, bulbs, and leaves. Depending on the type of ground burrows can be from 50 cm to 2 m deep, and from 6 to 10 m long. Burrows have several passages, nesting cell, supply cell and toilet cell. Often has burrows within colonies of Microtus arvalis and Microtus socialis. Reproduces 2-3 times per year. In good years up to 4 litters at foothills have been registred. Litter size is 4 to 20 young, 10 on average. Pregnancy is 16-17 days.	eng
13220	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in semi-deserts, foothills, mountain steppes and mountain grasslands (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is included in the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) as rare/endangered (Biodiversity Assessment for Georgia, 2000). In Georgian lowlands it is more rare than in the highlands; in Turkey it is always rare. Lately in the Caucasus populations have decreased due to anthropogenic factors (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008)..	eng
13220	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	Locally controlled as a pest. The species is widespread but rare and although habitat is grazed there is no evidence that overgrazing affects the species at present (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). Agriculture in Turkey is destroying much natural steppe habitat (Yigit, N. pers. comm. 2007).	eng
13221	conservation	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this poorly-known species; if there is evidence of declines, appropriate conservation measures should be instated (Nechay 2000). The species is included on the Red Lists of Romania and Bulgaria, and is protected by Romanian legislation.	eng
13221	distribution	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Mesocricetus newtoni </em>is a European endemic. It is restricted to lowlands (up to 460 m) along the right bank of the lower Danube river in northern Bulgaria and Romania, Dobrudja (Vohralík 1999). Its extent of occurrence is small (<50,000 km<sup>2</sup>), but its area of occupancy is unknown.	eng
13221	habitat	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It is found in relatively dry habitats including barren, rocky steppe and steppe grassland, <em>Medicago, Taraxacum </em>and cereal fields, vineyards, gardens, and scrubby slopes (Vohralík 1999). Its diet is probably similar to that of other hamster species.	eng
13221	population	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It is uncommon throughout its small range. Population densities fluctuate, but outbreaks are localised and infrequent. Long-term population trends have not been quantified but are believed to be declining. In Romania, the population was estimated at around 3,000 mature individuals (Murariu 1995).	eng
13221	threats	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of intensive agriculture. The agricultural utilisation of abandoned fields and steppe-like habitat is very likely to have a negative impact on the species (V. Vohralik pers. comm. 2006), although the species does inhabit some anthropogenic habitats. In Dobrudja intensive agriculture is ongoing (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), and agricultural intensification may have increased since the accession of Romania to the European Union.	eng
13221	threats	Coroiu, I. & Vohralík, V., 2008	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of intensive agriculture. The agricultural utilisation of abandoned fields and steppe-like habitat is very likely to have a negative impact on the species (V. Vohralik pers. comm. </em>2006), although the species does inhabit some anthropogenic habitats. In Dobrudja intensive agriculture is ongoing (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), and agricultural intensification may have increased since the accession of Romania to the European Union.	eng
13222	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Doesn't require any conservation measures.	eng
13222	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Russia, dry steppes along the northern slopes of Caucasus from Dagestan to Don River and Sea of Azov. Known only from one record in Georgia.	eng
13222	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits dry cereal and cereal and herb steppes, agricultural places, especially forest lines between fields. Avoids callows and real forests. Active mostly in dusk and night, but in spring and summer also diurnal. Makes deep burrows with one ore several exits. Hibernates from 4 to 6 months depending on the altitude and winter temperatures. In spring and beginning of summer feeds on green herbal parts, in autumn switches to seeds, beens, and root vegetables. Makes supplies for winter up to 16 kg. In mountains reproduces usually twice a year, in lowlands 3-4 times per year. Litter size is 4 to 24 young, 12 on average.	eng
13222	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Abundant, population is stable. Significant crop pest.	eng
13222	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats. Important agricultural pest.	eng
13223	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Found only in Lake Bemapaza on Détroit Isle, near Nosy Bé island.	eng
13227	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	It is found in leaf litter on rock ledges on cliffs and under rocks in rock slide.	eng
13232	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
13232	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
13232	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black and Azov Seas; lower South Bug and freshwater Lake Siut Giol on Romanian coast.	eng
13232	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black and Azov Seas; lower South Bug and freshwater Lake Siut Giol on Romanian coast.	eng
13232	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons on sand or rock bottom. Often very deep in summer (down to 100 m). Rarely in pure freshwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in February-May, only once a year. Eggs large, deposited under or between stones. Feeds predominantly on fish.	eng
13232	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons on sand or rock bottom. Often very deep in summer (down to 100 m). Rarely in pure freshwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in February-May, only once a year. Eggs large, deposited under or between stones. Feeds predominantly on fish.	eng
13232	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant along the coast.	eng
13232	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very abundant along the coast.	eng
13232	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by periods of hypoxia following algal blooms.	eng
13232	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened by periods of hypoxia following algal blooms.	eng
13233	conservation	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Catzeflis, F. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	It is found in several protected areas, including Madidi National Park in Bolivia.	eng
13233	distribution	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Catzeflis, F. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and Bolivia (J. Patton pers. comm.). Emmons (1993) limits the range of Makalata didelphoides to the Guiana region, including that part of Amazonian Brazil north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro and south of the Amazon from at least the Rio Xingu eastward to the border of Bolivia (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
13233	habitat	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Catzeflis, F. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The species prefers lowland seasonally flooded tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999) and is common in secondary forest and gardens (J. Patton pers. comm.). It is strictly nocturnal, nests in hollow trees and feeds on seeds (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). The maximum litter size is two (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
13233	population	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Catzeflis, F. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is not uncommon throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
13233	threats	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Catzeflis, F. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
13234	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13234	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is considered to be widespread throughout northern and western Amazonia (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It occurs in two large overlapping areas: the first in northern Peru to northern Bolivia and eastward to the middle reaches of the Rio Jurua; the second in central Amazonia, Brazil, from the middle part of the Rio Jurua eastward to the upper Rio Urucu, and then north of the Rio Solimoes to the Rio Jau west of the Rio Negro. It is also known French Guiana, Suriname from three single localities in northern Bolivia, southern Venezuela and northern Guyana (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,000 m asl (Orlando <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
13234	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in evergreen forest and low cloud forest. This species is most common around tree falls or disturbed areas and around villages where they inhabit house rafters (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Reproduction occurs through the year with litter size ranging from 1 to 3, with the majority producing a single young (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
13234	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The spiny tree rats of the genus Mesomys are common components of the arboreal fauna (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
13234	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
13235	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has been recorded from the Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo. Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
13235	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Yambrasbamba (1,980 m asl), in the Andean foothills in northern Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
13235	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is found in montane tropical cloud forest. Nothing further is known about its habitat or ecology.	eng
13235	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
13235	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	The habitat type that this species has been recorded from is under a lot of pressure from human encroachment. The species has been found in one of the most deforested areas in Peru.	eng
13236	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There is a need to confirm the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
13236	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is known only from the type description, and the locality is not known (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005), however, is somewhere in Brazil.	eng
13236	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
13236	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
13236	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
13237	conservation	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This rodent has been not collected from any protected areas, but several occur in its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
13237	distribution	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is known from Xingu, south of the Rio Amazonas, Amazonas State, in eastern Brazil (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Additional records include Patton <em>et al.</em> (2000) and Orlando <em>et al</em>. (2003) which exclude the range north of the Amazon.  It has been recorded in lowlands only, below 300 m asl (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
13237	habitat	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	It occurs in Terra firme forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997); little else is known about the ecology of the species.	eng
13237	population	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
13237	threats	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There are no known threats, though based on the range map, the portion in the northern part of its range would be impacted by agricultural expansion/forest conversion.	eng
13240	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Reduce loss of forests habitats.	eng
13240	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Central, and South America. This species occurs from Nicaragua south through Panama to Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil; also Trinidad. Lowlands to 1,100 m (Reid, 1997). Includes Venezuela, Guianas, and Suriname.	eng
13240	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Poorly known. Usually recorded in mature evergreen forest in Venezuela (Handley, 1976); also in disturbed lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It makes leaf tents in young bifid palms and arums (Kunz <em>et al.</em>, 1994), a group of three bats was roosting under a tent made from a single broad palm leaf about 150 cm high; the leaf had been cut in a broad V from its opposite edges to the midrib. Often found in low-lying areas with numerous palms; and has also been found roosting in a hollow tree (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). Roosts in at least six different species of plants (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.).	eng
13240	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Not uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
13240	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.	eng
13241	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13241	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species is poorly known. However, its distribution spans most of the North Atlantic and strandings do occur on the west and east coasts of the Atlantic ocean. Range states should be encouraged to conduct more coordinated research efforts (Culik 2004).	eng
13241	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Sowerby's beaked whales are known almost exclusively from the colder waters of the North Atlantic, from at least Massachusetts, USA to Labrador, Canada in the west, and from Iceland to Norway in the east (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This is the most northerly distributed of the Atlantic species of <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and most records are north of 30°N.  Based on unconfirmed records, the range may include (probably as a stray) the Mediterranean Sea.  Records from the shallow Baltic Sea are considered extralimital.  The species appears to be more common in the eastern North Atlantic than in the western.  Based on strandings, the area of northern Europe appears to be the center of abundance.  There is a single record from Florida in the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to represent an extralimital wandering.  As with other members of the genus, they occur almost exclusively in deep waters past the continental shelf edge.	eng
13241	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Sowerby's beaked whales are known almost exclusively from the colder waters of the North Atlantic, from at least Massachusetts, USA to Labrador, Canada in the west, and from Iceland to Norway in the east (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). This is the most northerly distributed of the Atlantic species of <em>Mesoplodon</em>, with most records north of 30°N. There are a number of strandings or sightings considered to be extralimital in the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Gulf of Mexico side of Florida.	eng
13241	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	As with other members of the genus, these whales occur almost exclusively in deep waters past the continental shelf edge. Although it is one of the most commonly stranded <em>Mesoplodon</em> species, there have been few sightings at sea, and it is poorly known. De Buffrénil (1995) mentioned that two sightings were north of Scotland and west of the Orkney Islands, in waters several 100 m deep. Hooker and Baird (1999) observed groups of Sowerby's Beaked Whales in the Gully, a submarine canyon off eastern Canada, on four occasions. Sightings were in water depths of between 550 m and 1,500 m.<br/><br/>Ostrom <em>et al</em>. (1993) evaluated the diet of Sowerby's beaked whales, based on isotopic comparisons among northwestern Atlantic cetaceans. They feed on squid and fish, including Atlantic cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>).	eng
13241	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Very little is known of the natural history of this species beyond what has been learned from occasional sightings and strandings (see Pitman 2002), which have generally involved singles and pairs.  However, in several sightings observed at sea off Nova Scotia, groups ranged in size from 3-10 and some were of mixed composition.  Mass strandings of up to six individuals of this species have been recorded.  Recorded dives lasted 12-28 minutes (Hooker and Baird 1999).  These whales often bring their heads up out of the water at a 45° angle when surfacing, and often arch their backs relatively high when diving.  Breaching, spy-hopping, and fluke-slapping have been observed in sightings at sea.  There have also been some instances in which the animals approached vessels.<br/><br/>Although it is one of the most commonly stranded <em>Mesoplodon</em> species, there have been few sightings at sea, and it is poorly known. De Buffrénil (1995) mentioned that two sightings were north of Scotland and west of the Orkney Islands, in waters several hundred metres deep. Hooker and Baird (1999) observed groups of Sowerby's beaked whales in the Gully, a submarine canyon off eastern Canada, on four occasions. Sightings were in water depths of between 550 and 1500 m. Sowerby's beaked whales feed on squid and small fish, including Atlantic cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>).  Ostrom <em>et al.</em> (1993) evaluated the diet of Sowerby's beaked whales, based on isotopic comparisons among northwestern Atlantic cetaceans.	eng
13241	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Very little is known of the population biology of this species. It is one of the most commonly seen mesoplodonts in some parts of its range.	eng
13241	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Very little is known of the subpopulation biology of this species, other than the fact that it is not rare.  It is one of the most commonly seen mesoplodonts in some parts of its range. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).	eng
13241	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There is little specific information on the status or threats to this species (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, some are known to have been incidentally killed by whalers in Newfoundand, Iceland, and in the Barents Sea.  A few entanglements in fishing gear (e.g. driftnets) have been documented. Like other beaked whales, this species is likely to be  susceptible to acoustic trauma caused by loud anthropogenic sounds like those generated by navy sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
13241	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There is little specific information on the status or threats to whales of this species (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, some are known to have been incidentally killed by whalers in Newfoundland, Iceland, and in the Barents Sea. A few entanglements in fishing gear (e.g., driftnets) have been documented. Waring <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported that for 1989-1998 observed bycatch in pelagic drift gillnets along the US East Coast amounted to 24 Sowerby's beaked whales. These were caught exclusively in the area from Georges Canyon to Hydrographers Canyon, along the continental shelf break and continental slope during July-October. This fishery has now been closed. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13242	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13242	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	To date, Andrews' beaked whale is known only from a few dozen stranding records between 32°S and 55°S; most of these have come from the South Pacific and Indian oceans (well over half are from New Zealand – Mead 1989; Baker 2001). Strandings have occurred in southern Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Tristan de Cunha, the Falkland Islands, Macquarie Island, Argentina and Uruguay. The overall range may be circumpolar in the Southern Hemisphere; however, there is a gap in the known distribution between the Chatham Islands, east of New Zealand and the west coast of South America.	eng
13242	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Essentially nothing is known of the biology of this species, other than the few facts that have been gleaned from stranded individuals (Baker 2001). It is presumed to be a creature of deep, offshore waters (Pitman 2002).<br/><br/>Andrews' beaked whales are assumed to feed primarily on cephalopods, like other members of the genus (Baker 2001). Based on the concentration of stranding records in this area (Baker 2001), the waters around New Zealand may represent an area of concentration for the species.	eng
13242	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There have been no confirmed sightings at sea, and no population genetic analyses have been done. As such, nothing is known of the population status of Andrews' beaked whale.	eng
13242	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No threats are known (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003), but there are a number of potential threats.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13243	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13243	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Apparently limited to the North Pacific Ocean, Hubbs' beaked whale is known from central British Columbia to southern California in the east, and from Japan (including the Sea of Japan) in the west (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although the vast majority of records are of strandings, sightings have been made off the coast of Oregon and Washington (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982, Heyning 1984). This is an oceanic species, and the range is thought to be continuous across the North Pacific, although this is not confirmed (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13243	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Very little is known about the biology of this species (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982, Heyning 1984; Mead 1989; Pitman 2002), as only a few reliable sightings at sea have been made. Aside from their distribution in the North Pacific, the specific habitat preferences of Hubbs' beaked whales are not known with any certainty. However, like other members of the genus, the species is found in deep oceanic waters (Pitman 2002).<br/><br/>Hubbs' beaked whales feed on squid (including the genera <em>Gonatus</em>, <em>Onychoteuthis</em>, <em>Octopoteuthis</em>, <em>Histioteuthis</em>, and <em>Mastigoteuthis</em>) and some deepwater fishes (Mead <em>et al</em>. 1982).	eng
13243	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no abundance estimates.	eng
13243	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Hubbs' beaked whale has occasionally been taken by Japanese whalers in several small cetacean fisheries. Whale meat products from this species are occasionally found for sale on the Japanese market (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2001). Incidental catches in drift gillnets occur sporadically off the coast of California. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13244	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The species is poorly known with respect to abundance, migratory patterns, bycatch and direct catch rates. It should be ensured that artisanal whale fisheries operate within sustainable limits and do not export products illegally.	eng
13244	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species is poorly known with respect to abundance, migratory patterns, by-catch and direct catch rates. Range states should be encouraged to conduct more coordinated research efforts.	eng
13244	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Blainville's beaked whales (also referred to as densebeaked whales) occur in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans (Mead 1989). This species has the most extensive distribution of any species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and is also the most tropical of the genus (Pitman 2002; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Sightings are common around some oceanic archipelagos, like the Hawaiian (USA) and Society Islands (French Polynesia). They occur in many enclosed seas with deep water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Sea of Japan. However, there are only rare records of this species occurring in the Mediterranean, and therefore the species is considered to be a vagrant there.	eng
13244	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Blainville's beaked whales occur in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans (Mead 1989). This species has the most extensive distribution of any species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, and is also the most tropical of the genus (Pitman 2002, MacLeod<em> et al.</em> 2006). Like other beaked whales, they are found mostly offshore in deep waters, but they  may sometimes occur reasonably close to shore (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Sightings are also common around some oceanic archipelagos, like the Hawaiian (USA) and Society Islands (French Polynesia).  They occur in many enclosed seas with deep water, such as the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and the Sea of Japan.  However, there are only rare records of this species occurring in the Mediterranean, and therefore the species is considered to be a vagrant there.	eng
13244	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Like other beaked whales, these whales are found mostly offshore in deep waters, but they may sometimes occur reasonably close to shore (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). A detailed analysis of habitat preferences in the Bahamas, where this species is commonly encountered, indicated that Blainville’s beaked whales were found preferentially in waters of intermediate depth gradients and depths between 200 and 1,000 m (continental slope waters). These may be areas of increased prey availability caused by interactions of currents and local topography (MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Observations around Hawaii seem to indicate that animals prefer water depths of 700-1,000 m (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ritter and Brederlau (1999) sighted <em>Mesoplodon densirostris</em> 24 times between September 1995 and August 1997 off La Gomera, Canary Islands. Of the seven sightings for which such information was recorded, mean depth was 320 m (SD = 270 m), and mean distance from shore was 4.39 km (SD = 1.85 km).<br/><br/>Squid are apparently the main food items, but some deepwater fish may be taken as well. Like most other ziphiids, they are thought to be suction feeders (Heyning and Mead 1996).	eng
13244	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There is more information available on the behavior and ecology of Blainville’s beaked whale than for any other species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a subpopulation of this species that is being studied in detail in the Bahamas (Balcomb 1981, MacLeod and Zuur 2005). Individual whales have been identified, based on natural marks. This represents only the second case that a beaked whale subpopulation has undergone long-term behavioral and ecological study (the other case is northern bottlenose whales in the Gully). Groups of 3-7 Blainville's beaked whales have most often been recorded, although singles or pairs are most common.  In the Bahamas, adults are generally grouped into what appear to be ‘harems’, with a single adult male accompanying several adult females.  Subadults appear to stay in separate groups.  The harems tend of occur in more productive waters over the continental shelf canyon walls, while subadults tend to occur in less productive waters inshore and offshore of these areas.<br/><br/>Although there is not a great deal know of habitat preferences for beaked whales, there is more known for this species than for any other in the genus.  A detailed analysis of habitat preferences in the Bahamas, where this species is commonly encountered, indicated that Blainville’s beaked whales were found preferentially in waters of intermediate depth gradients and depths between 200 and 1,000 m (continental slope waters).  These may be areas of increased prey availability caused by interactions of currents and local topography (MacLeod and Zuur 2005).  Observations around Hawaii seem to indicate that animals prefer water depths of 700 - 1000m  (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dives of up to 1,400 m and over 54 minutes have been recorded in Hawaiian waters (Baird <em>et al.</em> 2006). Squid are apparently the main food items, but some deepwater fish may be taken as well. Like most other ziphiids, they are thought to be suction feeders (Heyning and Mead 1996) .	eng
13244	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Overall, the species appears to be fairly common in most tropical seas, and it is one of the most common of all the species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Estimates of abundance are generally not available for most areas, but there are estimated to be 2,138 (CV=77%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2003). In the northern Gulf of Mexico, an estimated 106 (CV=41%) mesoplodonts occur, and these are considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Mullin and Fulling 2004). Ferguson and Barlow (1999) estimate a total abundance of 32,678 beaked whales in the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> in the eastern Pacific (corrected for missed animals). The majority of these are <em>M. peruvianus</em> and <em>M. densirostris</em> (Pitman and Lynn 2001).	eng
13244	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Overall, the species appears to be fairly common in most tropical seas, and it is one of the most common of all the species of <em>Mesoplodon</em> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Estimates of abundance are generally not available for most areas, but there are estimated to be 2,138 (CV=77%) in Hawaiian waters (Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006). Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).	eng
13244	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No incidental or directed catches of this species have been recorded in European waters, although they have been recorded elsewhere in the species' global range. <br/><br/>Like other beaked whales, this species appears to be highly vulnerable to mortality associated with naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006). Subadult whales, found in more offshore waters, may be more susceptible (Anonymous 2001).  At least one animal died in September 2002 during a naval exercise conducted around Gran Canaria, Canary Islands (Vidal Martin pers. comm.). Another two specimens live stranded during a naval exercise off the Bahamas in March 2000 (Rowles <em>et al.</em> 2000). High intensity Low Frequency Active Sonar (LFAS) was used by US and NATO vessels in both these areas, respectively, which apparently led to a multi-species mass stranding in the Bahamas, including both <em>M. densirostris</em> and <em>Ziphius cavirostris</em> (Balcomb and Claridge 2001).<br/><br/>Concerns regarding the impact of man-made debris in the marine environment are increasing. Pollution in the form of plastic debris has been recently recognised as a major threat to marine wildlife, in terms of ingestion and entanglement. On 27 February 1993, a 419 cm adult female Blainville's beaked whale was found washed ashore in an advanced state of decomposition at Mar Grosso Beach (32°07'S, 52°02'W), Sao Jose do Norte, southern Brazil (Secchi and Zarzur 1999). Stomach analysis revealed the presence of a blueish bundle of plastic threads occupying a large part of the main stomach chamber. Both stomach and intestines were completely free of parasites, as well as food remains and faeces, indicating that the whale had not fed for some time.	eng
13244	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Some Blainville's beaked whales have been taken incidentally by Japanese tuna boats off the Seychelles and Western Australia, as well as directly by small cetacean hunters in various areas. Dolar (1994) investigated directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines from archived reports and visits to sites where such fisheries are conducted. Hunters at Pamilacan Island take some small whales, including <em>Mesoplodon densirostris</em>. Dolphins and whales are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Jefferson <em>et al</em>. (1993) reported that some specimens have been incidentally taken in the North Pacific by Taiwanese fishermen, and accidentally by Japanese tuna fishermen in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>In 1993, an adult Blainville's beaked whale was found washed ashore in southern Brazil (Secchi and Zarzur 1999). Stomach analysis revealed the presence of a bluish bundle of plastic threads occupying a large part of the main stomach chamber. Both stomach and intestines were completely free of parasites, as well as food remains and faeces, indicating that the whale had not fed for some time. The ingested plastic may have resulted in a false sensation of satiation for the animal, which could have reduced the whale's appetite and meal size and, in turn, led to the death of the whale. This form of pollution may be increasing and could be a threat to the species.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of Blainville’s beaked whales (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). A stranding of two Cuvier’s beaked whales in the Gulf of California was also closely correlated with a seismic survey (Malakoff 2002). The mechanistic cause of the strandings is not well understood, but gas bubble formation (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2005) from a behaviourally mediated response to sound has been proposed (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13245	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
13245	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13245	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although sometimes depicted as a North Atlantic endemic, this species is probably continuously distributed in deep waters across the tropical and temperate Atlantic Ocean, both north and south of the equator (Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most records are from the east and Gulf coasts of North America, from New York to Texas, but Gervais' beaked whales are also known from several of the Caribbean islands. This is the most commonly-stranded beaked whale in the southeastern United States. In the eastern Atlantic, they are known from Ireland to Guinea-Bissau in West Africa. There is only one record of this species entering the Mediterranean, and it is considered a vagrant (Podesta <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are also strandings at Ascension Island in the central South Atlantic (Mead 1989), and along the coast of Brazil (de Oliveira Santos <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is speculation that its Southern Hemisphere distribution could extend to Uruguay and Angola .	eng
13245	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Although sometimes depicted as a North Atlantic endemic, this species is probably continuously distributed in deep waters across the tropical and temperate Atlantic Ocean, both north and south of the equator (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Most records are from the east and Gulf coasts of North America, from New York to Texas, but Gervais' beaked whales are also known from several of the Caribbean islands.  This is the most commonly-stranded beaked whale in the southeastern United States.  In the eastern Atlantic, they are known from Ireland to Guinea-Bissau in West Africa. There is only one record of this species entering the Mediterranean, and it is considered a vagrant there (Podesta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13245	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Gervais' beaked whales have only been reliably identified alive in the wild on a few occasions (Pitman 2002), mostly in the eastern Atlantic, although many <em>Mesoplodon</em> sightings in the Gulf of Mexico are thought to have been of this species.  Around the Canary Islands, they sometimes lift their heads out of the water upon surfacing.  Live-stranded individuals have been held in captivity for short periods of time.<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, the species prefers deep waters based on the presence of prey from such habitats in stomach contents and a lack of sightings near shore (Mead 1989). Strandings and the few possible sightings suggest that the species prefers tropical and subtropical waters (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, Gervais’ beaked whales are known to feed primarily on squid, although some fish may be taken as well (Norman and Mead 2001).  Growth layer group counts in the teeth of one specimen suggest they live to at least 48 years of age (Mead 1984).	eng
13245	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The favored habitat of Gervais' beaked whales appears to be warm temperate and tropical waters (Norman and Mead 2001). Like other members of the genus, the species prefers deep waters based on the presence of prey from such habitats in stomach contents and a lack of sightings near shore (Mead 1989). Strandings and the few possible sightings suggest that the species prefers tropical and subtropical waters (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, Gervais’ beaked whales are known to feed primarily on squid, although some fish may be taken as well (Norman and Mead 2001). There is also a record of a mysid shrimp found in the stomach of a stranded specimen. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than this latter species (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13245	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No estimates of abundance exist for the species; however, estimates indicate that 106 (CV=41%) beaked whales of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico, considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Mullin and Fulling, 2004). Based on the frequency with which they strand, they are presumed to be relatively common in waters along the east coast of North America.	eng
13245	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No specific estimates of abundance exist; however estimates indicate that 106 (CV=41%) mesoplodonts occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico, which are considered to be either <em>M. densirostris</em> or <em>M. europaeus</em> (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006). Based on the frequency with which they strand, they are presumed to be relatively common in waters along the east coast of North America. Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).	eng
13245	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Specimens of Gervais’ beaked whale have been entangled and killed in pound nets off New Jersey. Like other beaked whales, this species is highly sensitive to disturbance and mortality from loud anthropogenic sounds such as naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006). Several  atypical mass strandings of beaked whales, including Gervais' beaked whales, were associated with naval activities: mid to late 1980s on the Canary Islands (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006), in March 2000 on the Bahamas (Rowles <em>et al.</em> 2000, Anonymous 2001) and again in September 2002 during a naval NATO maneuver involving low frequency sonar around the Canaries (Vidal pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Finally, all beaked whales seem to be susceptible to the ingestion of plastic bags, which are of widespread occurrence at sea and have been linked to detrimental health effects in several cetacean species.	eng
13245	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In particular, several atypical mass strandings of beaked whales, including Gervais' beaked whales, were associated with naval activities: mid to late 1980s on the Canary Islands (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), in March 2000 on the Bahamas (Rowles <em>et al</em>. 2000, Anonymous 2001) and again in September 2002 during a naval NATO manoeuvre involving low frequency sonar around the Canaries (Vidal pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several species, including <em>Mesoplodon europaeus</em>, indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13246	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13246	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The ginkgo-toothed beaked whale is known from only a few dozen widely-scattered strandings and captures (no confirmed sightings) in temperate and tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean, from Sri Lanka east to the shores of North America (California) and the Galápagos Islands (Mead 1989; Pitman 2002). There have been a few records from New Zealand and Australia, indicating that this species also inhabits the southern Indo-Pacific. Most records are from the seas around Japan. Sightings of what may have been this species were also made in the Arabian Sea. It is generally hypothesized that the range is continuous across the Pacific and at least to the eastern Indian Ocean, but until the species can be reliably identified at sea, its true distribution will probably remain unknown (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13246	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Ginkgo-toothed whales are found in the tropical and warm temperate waters of the Indo-Pacific. Like other species in the genus, ginkgo-toothed beaked whales are thought to occur primarily in deep, offshore waters.<br/><br/>These whales are presumed to be primarily squid eaters but may also take some fish.	eng
13246	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance, but the species does not appear to be very common anywhere. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
13246	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Ginkgo-toothed beaked whales have occasionally been taken by Japanese and Taiwanese whalers, and some have been caught in deepwater drift gillnets. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of ginkgo-toothed beaked whales (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13247	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13247	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Gray’s beaked whale is primarily a southern Hemisphere cool temperate species, which is apparently circum-Antarctic in occurrence (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most records are from south of 30°S. There are many sighting records from Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters, and in summer months they appear near the Antarctic Peninsula and along the shores of the continent (sometimes in the sea ice). Many of the stranding records are from New Zealand, southern Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. The area between the south island of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands has been suggested to be a “hot spot” for sightings of this species (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is one record of a Gray’s beaked whale straying into the Northern Hemisphere, a stranding record in the Netherlands (Boschma 1950). This was almost certainly an extralimital occurrence.	eng
13247	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Gray's beaked whale primarily occurs in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Some sightings have been made in very shallow water; usually of sick animals coming in to strand (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002, Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Like other mesoplodonts, Gray’s beaked whales are thought to feed mainly on cephalopods in deep waters.	eng
13247	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species may not be as rare as some other species of the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em>, based on the number of records. In particular, they seem to be fairly common around New Zealand based on the frequency of strandings (Baker 1999). However, there are no estimates of abundance. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
13247	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold water species, Gray’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.	eng
13248	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13248	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Hector's beaked whale is considered to be a Southern Hemisphere cool temperate species (Mead 1989). The records (mostly strandings) are from southern South America, South Africa, southern Australia, and New Zealand. The single confirmed sighting record is from southwestern Australia (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been speculated that the species has a continuous distribution in the Atlantic and Indian oceans at least from South America to New Zealand. Although there are no current records from the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, the range may prove to be circumpolar. These animals may be relatively common around New Zealand.<br/><br/>Previously, it was supposed that this species may also be vagrant in southern California, where there were several strandings and a possible sighting from 1975 to 1979 (Mead 1981, Mead and Baker 1987, Rice 1998). However, the California specimens were recently recognised as a new species <em>Mesoplodon perrini</em>, which is found in the eastern North Pacific (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 1998; Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
13248	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	In the only known confirmed identification of this species alive at sea, a single individual was observed in shallow waters, nearshore in Western Australia – almost definitely atypical for the species (Gales <em>et al</em>. 2002). Hector's beaked whale presumably occurs in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf, as do other members of the genus.<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet, but Hector's beaked whales are known to feed on squid, like most other beaked whales.	eng
13248	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There is no information on populations of this species.	eng
13248	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might have an impact on this species.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, Hector’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.	eng
13249	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13249	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Strap-toothed beaked whales apparently have a continuous distribution in cold temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere, mostly between 35° and 60°S; there have been strandings in South Africa, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and the Falkland Islands (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). The seasonality of strandings suggests that this species may migrate. Like all beaked whales, they occur mostly in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. There is some evidence of sexual segregation in distribution.	eng
13249	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Like all beaked whales, these whales occur mostly in deep waters beyond the edge of the continental shelf. The diet is comprised nearly entirely of oceanic squids, some occurring to great depths (Sekiguchi <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
13249	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There is little information available on the status of the strap-toothed whale, but based on the number of strandings, it is probably not a rare species compared to its congeners. <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
13249	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this group of naturally rare cetaceans.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold to temperate water species, the strap-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13250	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No conservation measures for this species are known.	eng
13250	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13250	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	True's beaked whales appear to have a disjunct, anti-tropical distribution (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Northern Hemisphere, they are known only in the North Atlantic, from records in eastern North America (Nova Scotia to Florida), Bermuda, Europe to the Canary Islands, the Bay of Biscay, and the Azores. They also occur at least in the southern Indian Ocean, from South Africa, Madagascar, southern Australia and the Atlantic coast of Brazil (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species does not generally occur within 30° north or south of the equator, which may indicate that the northern and the southern subpopulations are isolated from one another. This is supported by morphological and coloration differences (Ross 1969, Ross 1984).	eng
13250	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	True's beaked whales appear to have a disjunct, antitropical distribution (Mead 1989, MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In the Northern Hemisphere, they are known only in the North Atlantic, from records in eastern North America (Nova Scotia to Florida), Bermuda, Europe to the Canary Islands, the Bay of Biscay, and the Azores. They also occur at least in the southern Indian Ocean, from South Africa, Madagascar, southern Australia and the Atlantic coast of Brazil (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species does not generally occur within 30° north or south of the equator, which may indicate that the northern and the southern subpopulations are isolated from one another. This is supported by morphological and coloration differences (Ross 1969, Ross 1984). This peculiar disparate distribution pattern suggests that there may actually be separate species or subspecies in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; however, this is not confirmed.	eng
13250	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	<em>M. mirus</em> is probably a deep water pelagic species, like other ziphiids (Houston 1990).<br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, stranded animals have had squid (mostly <em>Loligo</em> spp.) in their stomachs. They may also take fish, at least occasionally. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale and the northern bottlenose whales which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than these latter species (MacLeod 2005).	eng
13250	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Since True’s beaked whale has rarely been identified alive in the wild, and is not one of the most commonly-stranded species, there is little information available on its natural history (see Pitman 2002). Groups observed at sea have consisted of up to three individuals. They may show their beaks when surfacing. Known mainly from stranded specimens, <em>M. mirus</em> is probably a deep water pelagic species, like other ziphiids (Houston 1990). <br/><br/>Like other members of the genus, stranded animals have had squid (mostly <em>Loligo</em> spp.) in their stomachs.  They may also take fish, at least occasionally. Stable isotope analysis has found that this species feeds at a similar trophic level to other <em>Mesoplodon</em> species with which it is sympatric, but at lower trophic level than Cuvier’s beaked whale and  the northern bottlenose whales which suggests that it feeds on smaller prey than these latter species (MacLeod 2005).	eng
13250	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Until recent years, True’s beaked whales had been only rarely identified at sea, and there are no estimates of abundance. The species is not rare, however, at least in the North Atlantic. Abundance of beaked whales is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow 1999).	eng
13250	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Until recent years, True’s beaked whales have been only rarely identified at sea, and there are no estimates of abundance. However, the species is not thought to be rare in the North Atlantic. <br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
13250	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Almost no information is available on the threats and status of this species. It appears never to have been hunted. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, the strap-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of <em>Mesoplodon mirus</em> indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. This may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
13250	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Almost no information is available on the threats and status of this species.  It appears never to have been hunted.  Mesoplodonts have been taken occasionally by whalers but are not presently the main targets of any hunt. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g. for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. Like other beaked whales, this species is likely to be sensitive to disturbance and mortality from loud anthropogenic sounds such as naval sonar exercises (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>As a temperate water species, True's beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its prefered water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al.</em> 2006).  <br/><br/>Finally, all beaked whales seem to be susceptible to the ingestion of plastic bags, which are of widespread occurrence at sea and have been linked to detrimental health effects in several cetacean species.	eng
13251	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13251	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The pygmy beaked whale is known from a handful of specimens and several dozen sighting from the eastern tropical/warm temperate Pacific, including the Gulf of California (Urban-Ramirez and Aurioles-Gamboa. 1992, MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). These records extend from about 30°S to 28°N, and suggest that the species may be an eastern Pacific endemic. However, there is a single record of a stranding in New Zealand (Baker and Van Helden 1999), possibly suggesting that this species may have a more extensive distribution than previously believed. Alternatively, the New Zealand record may be an extralimital wandering.	eng
13251	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Like other members of the genus, it occurs in deep waters beyond the continental shelf.<br/><br/>The diet consists of small mid-water fishes, oceanic squids, and shrimps. Presumably these are taken at moderate to great depths.	eng
13251	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no estimates of global abundance for this species. Ferguson and Barlow (1999) estimate a total abundance of 32,678 beaked whales in the genus <em>Mesoplodon</em> in the eastern Pacific (corrected for missed animals). The majority of these were Mesoplodon peruvianus and Mesoplodon densirostris (Pitman and Lynn 2001).	eng
13251	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Some pygmy beaked whales are caught incidentally in drift gillnets for sharks off Peru (Reyes <em>et al</em>. 1991).. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>There is no information on global abundance or trends in abundance for this species. It is not believed to be uncommon but it is potentially vulnerable to low-level threats and a 30% global reduction over three generations cannot be ruled out<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in mass strandings of a number of beaked whales including several <em>Mesoplodon</em> species and <em>Indopacetus pacificus</em> (Balcomb and Claridge 2001, Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006, Wang and Yang 2006). Sound impacts may be important for all ziphiid species.<br/><br/>Pygmy beaked whales have been recorded ingesting plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13252	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
13252	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Stejneger's beaked whales are found in continental slope and oceanic waters of the North Pacific Basin, from southern California, north to the Bering Sea, and south to the Sea of Japan (presumably including at least the southern Okhotsk Sea – Mead 1989; MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). This appears to be primarily a cold temperate and sub-arctic species, and this is probably the only species of the genus common in Alaskan waters. It is most commonly stranded in Alaska, especially along the Aleutian Islands. Also, there have been a large number of strandings (at least 34) from along the Sea of Japan coast of Japan, and many fewer along the Pacific coast. The large peak in strandings in this area in winter and spring suggests that the species may migrate north in summer (Mead 1989; Yamada 1997).	eng
13252	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Stejneger's beaked whale ranges in subarctic waters, mostly beyond the edge of the continental shelf, in slope and oceanic waters (Houston 1990; Loughlin and Perez 1985). They are presumably deep divers, feeding in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones, mainly on squids of the families Gonatidae and Cranchiidae. Examination of stomach contents supports this idea (e.g., Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
13252	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance, but the species does not seem to be rare, especially off the Aleutian Islands and in the Sea of Japan. It has been hypothesized that there may be a resident subpopulation in the Sea of Japan and southern Okhotsk Sea (Yamada 1997, Kakuda and Yamada 2001).	eng
13252	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Stejneger's beaked whales were hunted in a Japanese fishery, along with Cuvier’s beaked whales. They are not presently the main targets of any hunt. <br/><br/>In the past, some individuals were taken in the Japanese salmon driftnet fishery in the Sea of Japan and in driftnets off the west coast of North America. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water, is probably the most significant threat.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a cold water species, Stejneger’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.	eng
13254	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
13254	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threat is habitat fragmentation and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
13257	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Removal of riparian invasive alien plants is beneficial for this species. Currently it is known only from a site where alien invasive trees have been removed. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
13257	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species is endemic to the Western Cape, South Africa. Until recently, this species was thought to be possibly extinct, having not been recorded since 1920. However, it was rediscovered in December 2003 in Dutoitsrivier, near Villiersdorp (Samways and Tarboton 2006) at one site which had been restored through the removal of alien invasive trees.	eng
13257	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Bush-fringed pools in river braids (Samways 2006 in press) with the water weed <em>Aponogeton</em>.	eng
13257	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Its current population size is not known, however it is possibly stable at present.	eng
13257	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	The streams in the Ceres area (where it was recorded in 1920) have been radically transformed and indeed some no longer flow due to over-extraction of water for the fruit industry. Other threats come from shading of the habitat by alien invasive trees (<em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) and damming of streams. Alien fishes, especially the rainbow trout (<em>Onycorhynchus mykiss</em>), may also be a threat.	eng
13296	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research is needed on the distribution of this species	eng
13296	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found from eastern Central America from Belize to Panamá and adjacent Caribbean islands (Gardner, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,600 m (Reid, 1997). There has been 1 specimen from Guatemala in 1930s, and very few records from Belize.	eng
13296	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This marsupial can be found in evergreen forest, second growth, and gardens. It is mainly arboreal and is active in subcanopy or understory levels (Reid, 1997). It sometimes descends to the ground to feed or travel from tree to tree. It feeds on insects, small vertebrates, and fruit (Reid, 1997). This species may invade houses near forested areas and is sometimes found in groups (Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989 in Reid, 1997), although most records are of solitary individuals. Leaf nests are built in vine tangles. A female suckling 11 young was noted (Tate, 1933 in Reid, 1997).	eng
13296	population	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
13296	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	None.	eng
13297	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species. This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13297	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs from eastern Bolivia (Anderson, 1997) and the surroundings of the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso and northwestern Argentina in the Province of Salta (Gardner, 2007).	eng
13297	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in moist forests, including montane mossy forest and ecotones between the Yungas and the Chacoan (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989). It is nocturnal and arboreal. This species forages in trees and on the ground (Nowak 1999).	eng
13297	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The status of its populations is unknown (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13297	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
13318	conservation		Agulhas National Park is the only statutory protected area in which it occurs, although it is also present in various other local authority and private nature reserves. Further survey work is needed to monitor the population status of the species carefully.	eng
13318	distribution		This species occurs only in the coastal lowlands in the south-western part of Western Cape province, South Africa, where it formerly ranged from Cape Town east to the Agulhas Plain. However, it is now extinct on the Cape Flats near Cape Town, except for at one locality at Kenilworth Race Course. Its eastern distribution is much more fragmented than is shown on the map, since it occurs only in very isolated localities. It is found at very low altitudes.	eng
13318	habitat		This species lives in sandy, coastal fynbos heathland, and it is not generally found in anthropogenic habitats. It is associated with semi-permanent seepage pools and seasonal vleis, and depends on black peaty waters for breeding. Providing that the water remains of this quality, it can tolerate very limited habitat disturbance. When their wetland habitat dries up, they bury themselves and estivate through the dry season. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation, and larval development is slow.	eng
13318	population		It occurs at high densities at breeding sites, which are few and far between.	eng
13318	threats		It has a very restricted range in an area that is subject to the impacts of urbanization, agricultural expansion, the spread of alien vegetation (leading to drying out of breeding pools), and drainage of breeding habitats.	eng
13319	conservation	Pardinas, U. & Ojeda., R., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13319	distribution	Pardinas, U. & Ojeda., R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina between Jujuy and Santa Cruz Provinces, and in Chile in Aisen Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
13319	habitat	Pardinas, U. & Ojeda., R., 2008	It occurs in arid and semiarid lowlands and valleys (Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 2001). In south western Argentina, it prefers riparian habitats, forested areas, or sandy forested flats (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). In Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, the species lives in areas without ground vegetation cover where thornbushes (<em>Schinus fasciculatus, Condalia microphylla</em>) are the predominant vegetation (Rood 1970). In the Monte Desert of Mendoza Province, Argentina, species burrows were found near plants with low branches (Ojeda and Mares 1989; Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 1995) and specifically with the plant species <em>Condalia microphylla</em> (Tognelli <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>It reproduces from August to April with the majority of litters born between September and October (Rood 1970).<br/>In captivity, the mean gestation period was 54-60 days (Rood 1970) with a  mean litter size of three (range 1-5; Rood 1972).	eng
13319	population	Pardinas, U. & Ojeda., R., 2008	Locally it can occur in high abundance (Cofre and Marquet 1999).	eng
13319	threats	Pardinas, U. & Ojeda., R., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. Several local extinctions were reported due to over-predation by the minor grison (<em>Galictis cuja</em>), a small native mustelid (Rood 1970, 1972).	eng
13320	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is present in several protected areas, like Sahama National Park in Bolivia. No immediate conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
13320	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in the Altiplano of southwest Bolivia and northeast Chile (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has not been collected from southern Bolivia and bordering northern Argentina but it is expected to occur there. It has an elevational range of 3,500 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
13320	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is usually found in flat areas of Puna grassland. In Chile it has been recorded exclusively from boggy habitat. The species lives in colonies in burrows, which it may excavate itself or it may utilize abandoned <em>Ctenomys</em> burrows. It has been recorded from areas with some habitat disturbance caused by low-density traditional grazing.	eng
13320	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is locally common where there are colonies. It has been recorded in colonies of 15 to 30 individuals occupying small areas (Marquet <em>et al.</em>, 1993).	eng
13320	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
13321	conservation	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species occurs in at least two protected areas.	eng
13321	distribution	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in north western Argentina in Tucuman, Catamarca, and Salta Provinces between 3,000 to 4,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
13321	habitat	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in grasslands, in rocky areas in the Andean Highlands.	eng
13321	population	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
13321	threats	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Overgrazing of grassland by goats and sheep is a major threat.	eng
13323	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is present in seven national parks (Andohahela, Ankarafantsika, Baie de Baly, Isalo, Tsingy de Namoroka, Vohibasia, and Zombitse), five special reserves (Andranomena, Bemarivo, Beza-Mahafaly, Kasijy, and Maningoza), the Berenty Private Reserve, and other privately-protected forests within the Mandena Conservation Zone. Also occurs in Kirindy Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). According to ISIS (2007), this species is maintained in a number of captive collections in Europe and the United States, the international studbook held by the Duke University Primate Center.	eng
13323	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is distributed from about the Onilahy River along the entire west coast to the north perhaps as far as Ankarafantsika National Park. A disjunct population is also found in the southeast up to the littoral forests of the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
13323	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>M. murinus</em> inhabits lowland tropical dry forest, sub-arid thorn scrub, gallery forest, spiny forest and secondary forest formations. They are also present in plantations. Studies at Ampijoroa also indicate that individuals may take shelter in three to nine different tree holes within their range and remain in a given shelter for several days in succession. Females tend to share nests with several conspecifics, while males tend to sleep alone (Radespiel <em>et al.</em> 1998). After a gestation of approximately 60 days, typically two young are born.	eng
13323	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>M. murinus</em> is adaptable, widespread, and abundant, making it one of the least threatened of Madagascar’s lemurs. Recent density estimates range from 167 individuals/km² (Ampijoroa forestry station adjacent Ankarafantsika National Park) to 712 individuals/km² (Kirindy Forest/CFPF), suggesting that this species remains one of Madagascar’s most abundant small mammals (Radespiel 2000; Eberle and Kappeler 2001).	eng
13323	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Although <em>M. murinus</em> is reported to inhabit secondary forests and degraded habitats, there is some evidence that decreased habitat quality may have adverse effects on population dynamics. According to Ganzhorn and Schmid (1998), fewer large tree holes in secondary forests result in fewer opportunities to save energy through periods of torpor, and may increase levels of stress and mortality. In the west of the range, habitat is being lost due to yearly burning for slash-and-burn and cattle grazing. There is some limited offtake for the pet-trade, especially in Fort-dauphin.	eng
13324	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is present in eight national parks (Andohahela, Andringitra, Mananara-Nord, Marojejy, Masoala, Midongy du Sud, Montagne d’Ambre, and Ranomafana) and six special reserves (Ambatovaky, Ambohitantely, Manombo, Nosy Mangabe, Pic d’Ivohibe, and Tampoketsa-Analamaitso) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
13324	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	For the present time, the range of this species is tentatively considered to include much of the eastern rainforest, at least from Tolagnaro in the south to Tsaratanana in the north. The <em>Microcebus</em> recorded from Daraina is currently assigned to this species pending further taxonomic investigation. Ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
13324	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>M. rufus</em> is reported to occur in rain forests, and also in secondary forest formations, bamboo forests, old plantations and even eucalyptus groves. They have also been recorded in the marsh around Lake Alaotra. This species sleeps in tree holes and leaf nests during the day, and has even been observed to use old bird nests. Mating takes place in September and October, and 1-3 young are born following a two month gestation period (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
13324	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Reported to occur at high densities.	eng
13324	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	No major threats, although habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture may be leading to some localized declines.	eng
13325	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in two national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha and Tsingy de Namoroka) and a nature reserve (Tsingy de Bemaraha). There are no specimens reported in captivity at this time (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Research priority is surveying between known points of distribution, and whether the species occurs more widely in mangroves requires further investigation.	eng
13325	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is reported to have a disjunct distribution range between the northern banks of the Tsiribihina River north to Baie de Baly in western Madagascar and to occur in the forests of Belo sur Tsiribihina and Aboalimena, the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Nature Reserve, and the Tsingy de Namoroka National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Also possibly recorded from Besalampy (which is mangrove habitat). Ranges from sea-level to 900 m.	eng
13325	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has been collected from dry deciduous forest in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve and the Andramasy forests north of Belo sur Tsiribihina, as well as along the border of heavily degraded deciduous forest and savanna at Aboalimena (Rasoloarison <em>et al.</em> 2000). They have been recorded in mangroves in two localities, neither of which were near primary deciduous forest (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 1998; J. Ganzhorn pers. comm.). Its ecology and behavior remain to be studied.	eng
13325	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species. It is probably not as common as <em>M. murinus</em>.	eng
13325	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat. It is currently known mainly from protected areas.	eng
13332	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
13332	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is currently known only from three disjunct localities in Somalia, although it is probably much more widely distributed both in Somalia and in suitable habitat in adjacent parts of Ethiopia and Kenya.	eng
13332	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded in rocky plains and open, sparse semi-desert grassland. The species is nocturnal and takes refuge in burrows during the daytime (Nowak, 1999).	eng
13332	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is infrequently caught in traps.	eng
13332	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although it is possible that overgrazing of its habitat by nomadic livestock might be a threat in parts of its range.	eng
13340	conservation	Vololomboahangy, R. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It has been recorded from a numer of protected areas including the Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Marojejy National Park, Ankarafantsika National Park, Bora Special Reserve and de Manongarivo Special Reserve. It is also present in Kirindy CFPF. Further studies into the taxonomy, biology, ecology, population and distribution of this species are needed.	eng
13340	distribution	Vololomboahangy, R. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is present in south-western, western, north-western and north-eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 30 and 950 m asl.	eng
13340	habitat	Vololomboahangy, R. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This terrestrial species occurs in a wide range of forest types including lowland humid forests, western deciduous forests, gallery forests and at the edge of the spiny bush. It has been recorded from secondary forest and at the edge of agricultural areas.	eng
13340	population	Vololomboahangy, R. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	In certain places it can be locally common.	eng
13340	threats	Vololomboahangy, R. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is threatened by mining, clearance of forests for conversion to pasture and agricultural land and fire (for forest clearance).	eng
13343	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is present in the protected areas of Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Ranomafana National Park, and Marojejy National Park. Further research is needed into the abundance and range of this species.	eng
13343	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the montane humid forest zone of eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 2,100 m asl.	eng
13343	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that shows a marked preference for higher-altitude montane forests. It has been collected in significantly degraded habitat close to the forest edge (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Based on morphology, it is probably a semi-fossorial species.	eng
13343	population	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. It may be difficult to trap.	eng
13343	threats	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, or its habitat, within its elevational range.	eng
13344	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park and Andohahela National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.	eng
13344	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is widespread in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar, ranging from Montagne d'Ambre in the north south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of 645 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
13344	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a scansorial species that is present in eastern tropical humid forest, from lowlands to high-elevation rainforest. It may be found in slightly degraded forest.	eng
13344	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a relatively common species, especially at higher elevations.	eng
13344	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
13349	conservation	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve and Andohahela National Park. No further conservation measures are needed at present.	eng
13349	distribution	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is widespread in the eastern humid forests of Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambdre south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
13349	habitat	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a terrestrial species of tropical humid forest. It is generally restricted to relatively intact forest.	eng
13349	population	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
13349	threats	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
13350	conservation	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of reserves including the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve and Midongy du Sud National Park. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.	eng
13350	distribution	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern humid forests of Madagascar from Marojejy in the north south to Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of 440 to 1,950 m asl	eng
13350	habitat	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is an scansorial species that is present in eastern tropical humid forest. It may be found in slightly degraded forest.	eng
13350	population	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a relatively common species.	eng
13350	threats	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
13355	conservation	Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of proteceted areas including the Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Mantadia National Park; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park and Ranomafana National Park. Further studies into the population, biology and ecology of this species are needed.	eng
13355	distribution	Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the tropical humid forests of eastern Madagascar from Zahamena south to around Andohahela. It has an altitudinal range of between 440 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
13355	habitat	Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It occurs in tropical humid forest where it is adaptable to some habitat modification (e.g., grazing by cattle within the forest).	eng
13355	population	Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is a relatively common species.	eng
13355	threats	Rakotondravony, D. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
13356	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Andrianjakavelo, V., 2008	It has been recorded from two protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. It has been recorded in the future protected area of Makira. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, population, biology, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
13356	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Andrianjakavelo, V., 2008	This species is known from only a few sites in north-eastern Madagascar. There is some doubt about a record from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve as it was collected from an owl pellet. It has been recorded between 500 and 940 m asl.	eng
13356	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Andrianjakavelo, V., 2008	It is a poorly-known species that has only been recorded in the eastern lowland rain forests. It is possibly a a semi-fossorial species which is believed to be forest dependent. The ecology of the species is not known.	eng
13356	population	Jenkins, P. & Andrianjakavelo, V., 2008	It is known from only a few specimens and has been rarely recorded.	eng
13356	threats	Jenkins, P. & Andrianjakavelo, V., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation, through conversion to cultivated areas and general logging activities.	eng
13369	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, population status, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
13369	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This rarely-recorded species is known from several separate localities in central and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is unknown whether the species exist between the known sites. It ranges between 380 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
13369	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	Animals have been captured in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and in secondary forest – Eucalyptus savanna mosaic habitat. While it is believed to be terrestrial, little more is known about this species.	eng
13369	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from six specimens collected from different localities. This species is considered to be difficult to trap and is not thought to be abundant.	eng
13369	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is suspected that this species ranges more widely than is currently known, and that there are no major threats to this species.	eng
13373	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range. In Japan, the species is listed as threatened in a number of prefectures.	eng
13373	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range. In Japan, the species is listed as threatened in a number of prefectures.	eng
13373	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
13373	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, northeast India, Myanmar and Vietnam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999). It is present in Japan and on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2006). In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, the southern part of Italy and the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altutudes of up to 1,700 m in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
13373	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, the Korean peninsula, northeast India, Myanmar and Viet Nam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999); also Japan and Taiwan. It is present on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, southern part of Italy, the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altitudes of up to 1,700 m asl in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).<br/><br/>It is restricted to the northern parts of Mongolia, including Mongol Altai, Hövsgöl, Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia.<br/><br/>In Japan, the species is found on Honshu (Miyagi and Niigata Prefectures southwards), Shikoku, Kyushu, as well as the Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishinoshima, and Nakanoshima), Awaji, Teshima, Innoshima, Osaki-kamishima, Tsushima, Shimoshima (Amakusa Islands), Fukue (Goto Islands), and Kuchinoerabu (Osumi Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is likely found more widely on small islands in the vicinity of the known distribution in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is found from sea level up to 1,200 m asl in Japan.	eng
13373	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	The harvest mouse has a large range in the Palaearctic and Indomalayan regions, where it occurs from northern Spain and Great Britain through Europe, eastern Fennoscandia, and Russia to northern Mongolia, China, the Korean peninsula, northeast India, Myanmar and Viet Nam (Corbet 1978, Panteleyev 1998, Spitzenberger 1999); also Japan and Taiwan. It is present on the border between southern Sweden and south-east Norway, where it is regarded as possibly introduced (van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005, van der Kooij <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>In Europe, it is largely absent from Iberia, southern part of Italy, the Alps, and it occurs only sporadically in the Balkans. It is typically a lowland species, although it occurs at altitudes of up to 1,700 m asl in Europe (Spitzenberger 1999).<br/><br/>It is restricted to the northern parts of Mongolia, including Mongol Altai, Hövsgöl, Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia.<br/><br/>In Japan, the species is found on Honshu (Miyagi and Niigata Prefectures southwards), Shikoku, Kyushu, as well as the Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishinoshima, and Nakanoshima), Awaji, Teshima, Innoshima, Osaki-kamishima, Tsushima, Shimoshima (Amakusa Islands), Fukue (Goto Islands), and Kuchinoerabu (Osumi Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is likely found more widely on small islands in the vicinity of the known distribution in Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species is found from sea level up to 1,200 m asl in Japan.	eng
13373	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is found in wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003).	eng
13373	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	Present in a wide variety of habitats, including alpine grasslands, tall grass fields, bamboo stands, wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and grain or rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). Their diet includes seeds, green vegetation, insects, and bird's eggs.	eng
13373	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	Present in a wide variety of habitats, including alpine grasslands, tall grass fields, bamboo stands, wetlands, reedbeds, and clearings and edges of humid forest. It has also adapted to a variety of anthropogenic habitats, including gardens and arable land (in the wetter north-western parts of its range), drainage ditches, and grain or rice paddies (Spitzenberger 1999). It has a high tolerance of disturbed habitats (Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). Their diet includes seeds, green vegetation, insects, and bird's eggs.	eng
13373	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Juškaitis, pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13373	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kryštufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Juškaitis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is considered to be common in South Asia.	eng
13373	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	Population declines have been noted in many parts of Europe. However, populations of this species fluctuate drastically, and some reported declines may in fact have been part of a natural fluctuation (Trout 1978, Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). The species is hard to trap and is often not recorded even when it is present (Haberl and Kry?tufek 2003). However, nests may be found quite easily by experienced observers (R. Ju?kaitis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is considered to be common in South Asia.	eng
13373	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species here, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
13373	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Krystufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
13373	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Batsaikhan, N., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H. & Henttonen, H., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. In Europe the species is common in wetlands (e.g. rice fields) and other habitats (e.g. abandoned agricultural land). There are no serious threats to the survival of the species, although local population declines have occurred in some areas as a result of loss and degradation of wetland habitats (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
13375	conservation	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conservation of habitat and research is necessary to understand the basic ecology of this species.	eng
13375	distribution	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species inhabits the cerrado and shrub savanna regions of west-central Brazil and Bolivia and the Amazon forests of Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
13375	habitat	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known. This genus feeds mostly on insects and small fruits and sometimes insects.	eng
13375	population	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Known from very few (6) specimens/records.	eng
13375	threats	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conversion of cerrado habitats to agriculture may be affecting the species.	eng
13376	conservation	Ochoa, J., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce habitat loss and protect from disturbance. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
13376	distribution	Ochoa, J., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, through the Isthmus, across northern South America and south to Amazonian Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is found in lowlands to 700 m altitude; most specimens have been caught below 150 m asl in Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). In Brazil it reaches the SE part of the country (TAVARES pers. comm.).	eng
13376	habitat	Ochoa, J., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist evergreen and deciduous lowland habitats (Reid, 1997). This bat roosts in the hollow trunks of trees, caves, mines, and old buildings. Group size is usually small; a colony may contain up to ten individuals; although a sea cave in Veracruz, Mexico, contained about 300 individuals; one male may occur with nine females, suggesting a polygynous mating system (Medellin <em>et al.</em>, 1985). Greatest activity occurs in the first 2 hours after sunset, with a second activity peak after midnight. Bonaccorso (1979) caught twice as many in subcanopy mist nets than in ground-level mist nets. About equal amounts of fruit and arthropods (spiders, beetles, ants, bugs, and flies) are eaten (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1983). Although occasionally caught in secondary forest and clearing, this species appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance: the large group in Veracruz disappeared as the surrounding forest was cut and burned (Medellin <em>et al</em>. 1985). Births usually coincide with the onset of rainy season, and a second pregnancy may follow later in the year (Reid, 1997). Occurs in moist forest and gallery forests in lowlands. Omnivorous. (Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
13376	population	Ochoa, J., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This is a rare species throughout its range. Rather uncommon and local (Reid, 1997). Widely distributed but not common in Trinidad (Goodwin and Greenhall,1961). Locally common in dry forests in Costa Rica (Bernal Rodiguez and Pineda pers. comm.). Rare in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.)	eng
13376	threats	Ochoa, J., Lew, D., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. Habitat loss is a localised threat given its strong association with forests and apparent sensitivity to habitat disturbance.	eng
13377	conservation	Ochoa, J. & Velazco, P., 2008	Found in protected areas. Conservation of habitat (primary forests). The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13377	distribution	Ochoa, J. & Velazco, P., 2008	Occurs througout Honduras south to Peru, the Guianas, Brazil, and Bolivia; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). May be present in Colombia. Range is confined to eastern flanks of the Andes. Known from 0-300 m asl (Ochoa pers. comm.), and in Ecuador up to 500 m (Pine <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
13377	habitat	Ochoa, J. & Velazco, P., 2008	Forest interior species. Poorly known; probably restricted to mature, evergreen forest. Roosts in hollow trees; occasionally caught in harp traps or mist nets set across forest trails. These bats feed on large insects and occasionally fruit; they forage by gleaning large insects such as cockroaches, dragonflies, and katydids from the vegetation or ground, and they carry their prey back to a feeding roost before eating (Emmons and Feer, 1997). A small spotted frog was found in the stomach of one individual from Panama (Reid, 1997).<br/>Has been found in secondary forested areas near primary forest (Ochoa pers. comm.), but seems to prefer primary forest. Roost in hollow trees. Record of males, females and juveniles roosting together (Solari pers. comm.). Some records of ecoparasites (Solari pers. comm.).	eng
13377	population	Ochoa, J. & Velazco, P., 2008	This species is relatively rare, which could be either an artifact of sampling methodology or local fluctuations in abundance. Apparently very rare and patchily distributed (Reid, 1997).	eng
13377	threats	Ochoa, J. & Velazco, P., 2008	In Bolivia this species is considered vulnerable as it occurs in fragile ecosystems (montane forests and flood plains Aguirre 1998). Loss of primary forest, and reduction and fragmentation of habitat are localised threats, but there are no major threats throughout its range at present.	eng
13378	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13378	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species ranges from eastern Honduras south through the Central America to Amazonian Peru and Brazil; also along Atlantic Coast to Espirito Santo, Brazil (Peracchi and Albuquerque, 1993); also Trinidad. It prefers lower elevations, below 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also Ecuador.	eng
13378	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species is associated with primary forest. Its activity is concentrated near streams or moist areas (Eisenberg, 1989). It roosts in hollow trees, buildings, and under bridges and feeds on insects, mainly katydids, cockroaches, June beetles, and Lepidoptera larvae, which are gleaned from vegetation. Fruit is taken during the dry season only (Whitaker and Findley, 1980; Wilson, 1971). This bat is attracted to katydid calls and is much more likely to be caught in mist nets baited nets (where it is seldom captured). Equal numbers of male and female (noncalling) katydid remains have been found at roosts, indicating that the bats can find prey using cues other than male songs.	eng
13378	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Apparently rare (Reid 1997) and with a scattered distribution. Locally common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (Rodriguez-Herrera, Pineda and Medina pers. comm.)	eng
13378	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation, although this is not considered as a major threat.	eng
13379	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conservation of intact forest habitat. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13379	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador (Simmons, 2005), Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Suriname and Trinidad.	eng
13379	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is broadly tolerant of both multistratal evergreen forests and dry thorn forests. This bat forages near streams, and it roosts in hollow trees, logs, caverns, or houses in groups of up to twelve. It is a mixed feeder, taking fruit when in season as well as insects (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
13379	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Relatively uncommon and widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
13379	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation although this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
13380	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Pineda, W., 2008	Retention of forest. This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13380	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Honduras to Bolivia and southern Brazil; also in Trinidad. Lowlands to 800 m (Reid, 1997). It is broadly distributed over northern South America (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
13380	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Pineda, W., 2008	It is found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest, however, has been found  in agricultural areas with scattered trees. Roosts singly or in small groups in hollow trees or caves, often with other species of bats (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); occasionally found in caves or mines. The diet includes insects (76%) and plant material (24%), like fruits (Flemming <em>et al.</em>, 1972). Pregnant females have been recorded in March and April in Costa Rica (Reid, 1997).	eng
13380	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Pineda, W., 2008	Uncommon.	eng
13380	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Pineda, W., 2008	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.	eng
13381	conservation	Tavares, V. & Burneo, S., 2008	Occurs in protected areas - but always rare and at low densities.	eng
13381	distribution	Tavares, V. & Burneo, S., 2008	This species occurs throughout Belize to north Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Amazonian and northeastern Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; It is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005). In Bolivia found to 1,000 m (Aguirre pers. comm.). Found in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Also occurs in central forest of western pacific in Panama (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
13381	habitat	Tavares, V. & Burneo, S., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen and dry deciduous lowland forest. Its roosts include hollow trees and buildings. This species seems to be most active for an hour after sunset and an hour before dawn (Reid, 1997). In Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela found also in secondary forests though seems to prefer primary habitats (Velazco pers. comm.)	eng
13381	population	Tavares, V. & Burneo, S., 2008	It is apparently rare and local in Central America (Reid, 1997) and South America (Tavares pers. comm.). In Ecuador it is rare (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
13381	threats	Tavares, V. & Burneo, S., 2008	No major threats throughout its range. Considered Vulnerable in Bolivia.	eng
13382	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Lim, B., 2008	Conservation of locations for type locality and surrounding forests.	eng
13382	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Lim, B., 2008	This species is found from northwestern Brazil to adjacent Colombia (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
13382	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Lim, B., 2008	This genus is mainly insectivorous (Gardner, 1977), however, nothing else is known of the ecology of this species.	eng
13382	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Lim, B., 2008	It has a rare and restricted distribution (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Known from only two specimens and has not been seen since the 1940's.	eng
13382	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Lim, B., 2008	Only known from two specimens, so it may have a restricted range in which it is affected by deforestation.	eng
13383	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Forest retention. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
13383	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in Cozumel Island, Mexico; eastern Chiapas and southern Yucatan Peninsula, northern Guatemala, and Belize through Central America to Venezuela, northeastern Peru and Brazil. Lowlands only (Reid, 1997). Has not been recorded from either Suriname or Guyana. Also found in Northern Peru and Bolivia (Aguirre pers. comm.)	eng
13383	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known. It is found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest and forest edge. Small groups roost in hollow trees. Moths are includes in the diet (Howell and Burch, 1974).	eng
13383	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is apparently rare and with a scattered distribution.	eng
13383	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.	eng
13384	conservation	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Conservation of caves and karstic regions. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13384	distribution	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Patchily distributed in Central, and South America - and occurs in two disjunct populations. The northern area of occupancy occurs from Nayarit and Veracruz, Mexico, south through Central America to Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Suriname, Venezuela, and Trinidad. A second area of occupancy occurs in southeast Brazil around Sao Paulo and Parana. It prefers low elevations, below 800 m (Reid, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).<br/>In Venezuela know up to 1,100 m (Lew pers. comm.). Known from one yet unpublished point in Bolivia (Aguirre pers. comm.) (Aguirre and Tennan pers. comm.). Occurs in Panama (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
13384	habitat	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Poorly known. Found in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest. Roosts in hollow trees and caves in groups of up to 75, it is capable of tolerating other species (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Occasionally caught in mist nets or harp traps set over streams (Reid, 1997). These bats feed on large insects and occasionally fruit; they forage by gleaning large insects such as cockroaches, dragonflies, and katydids from the vegetation or ground, and they carry their prey back to a feeding roost before eating (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This is a rare and poorly known species. Occurs in moist tropical forests and also know from secondary forests nearby (Ochoa pers. comm.)	eng
13384	population	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This seems to be a very rare species throughout its range. Not common and local (Reid, 1997). Gleaning insectivore - sampling bias may underestimate populations.	eng
13384	threats	Zortea, M., Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Associated with caves and karstic habitats, the southern disjunct population is severely threatened by habitat loss.	eng
13388	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13388	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs throughout the mountains of central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Arfak mountains (Indonesia). It ranges from 1,000 to 3,950 m asl.	eng
13388	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Striped Bandicoot occurs in mid-montane and montane tropical moist forests and subalpine grasslands. It can be found in both primary and secondary forest. Females have been recorded with three or four young (Flannery 1995).	eng
13388	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is a very abundant species.	eng
13388	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food, especially with dogs. It is also threatened by predation by feral dogs.	eng
13389	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is not known if Mouse Bandicoots are present in any protected areas. Further studies into the range, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
13389	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is only known with certainty from a single locality and a series of three specimens collected (by George Stein in 1931) from Gunung Sumuri in the Weyland range of Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea (Stein 1932). It is likely to be a restricted to a small area, however, it is not known how many mountain tops the species occurs on. The type locality has not been revisited since the initial collection. It was collected at 2,500 m asl.	eng
13389	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Mouse Bandicoot is a montane tropical moist forest species.	eng
13389	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The population abundance of this species is unknown.	eng
13389	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	No threats to this species are known.	eng
13390	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
13390	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the mountains of south-eastern Papua New Guinea, from Fane in the west to Mount Simpson in the east (Flannery 1995). It ranges from 1,200 to 2,650 m asl.	eng
13390	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Papuan Bandicoot has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest in rugged montane areas. Females typically have a single young.	eng
13390	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is locally abundant, but it can be uncommon at some collecting localities.	eng
13390	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Papuan Bandicoot is hunted for food by local people, but this is probably not a major threat as it is a small animal and not likely to be highly sought after.	eng
13391	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Currently no conservation actions are in place for this species.	eng
13391	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	This pipefish is known only from a juvenile specimen collected in the Tawarin River, northern Irian Jaya, Indonesia in 1903 (Dawson 1985, Kuiter 2000).	eng
13391	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Size at maturity and maximum length are presently unknown. The single collected specimen was a juvenile and measured 67.5 mm standard length (Dawson 1985).	eng
13391	population	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
13391	threats	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Current or potential threats to this species are not known.	eng
13392	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
13392	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microphis spinachioides</span> is known only from the type locality in Papua New Guinea (Kuiter 2000). It has been found in the Sepik and May rivers and is also known from the Ramu River (Coates 1993).	eng
13392	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	This is a poorly known species. It reaches at least 150 mm standard length (Dawson 1985). Presently it is known from 35–100 km upstream from the mouth of the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea (Dawson 1985).	eng
13392	population	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
13392	threats	Sorensen, M. & Allen, G., 2009	Current or potential threats to this species are not known.	eng
13393	conservation	Vogel, P., 2008	This species is present in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in Guinea, and the Mont Nimba Strict Nature Reserve in Côte d'Ivoire. The full extent of the impact of mining and bycatch (in fish traps and nets) on the species is not known and requires investigation. Research on basic biology and conservation needs will determine the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.	eng
13393	distribution	Vogel, P., 2008	Endemic to a small region of West Africa. Known only from the Nimba mountains of Liberia, Guinea (Kuhn 1964) and Côte d'Ivoire (Vogel 1983), and the mountains of the Putu Range, Liberia (Kuhn 1971). This is a very restricted area, with the most distant recorded localities only 380 km apart.	eng
13393	habitat	Vogel, P., 2008	It is a nocturnal and semi-aquatic species. Very small creeks, larger streams and small swamps in primary and secondary rain forest in hilly country (Vogel 1983). Also occurs in regions where primary and secondary forest has been replaced by cocoa and coffee plantations, provided dense vegetation remains along streams. May occur in rice cultures (Kuhn 1964).<br/><br/>Efficient swimmer and diver, even though tail and feet are not specially adapted for aquatic life (Guth <em>et al</em>. 1959). Nimba Otter-shrews can remain underwater for over 10 minutes (when escaping from danger) by lowering the metabolic rate. The strong sensitive vibrissase are used for locating underwater prey. The less specialised feet and tail probably allows exploitation of a broader ecological niche compared with other species of otter-shrews. Foraging occurs along the river-banks and also in open water. The diet is mainly crabs and catfish, with a few insects (Kuhn 1964) and tadpoles; small mammals were not consumed (Vogel 1983). Otter-shrews carry captured crabs onto the land before eating them; the crab is then attacked from behind, minimising the chances of being bitten by the pincers, and the skeleton is crushed at the junction of the cephalothorax and abdomen (Vogel 1983). In captivity, the daily consumption was about 40 g fish per otter-shrew.<br/><br/>Evidence from the rare captures, and from predatory behaviour, suggest that the Nimba Otter shrew is rather solitary and territorial. However, a pair kept over several months in the same enclosure did not exhibit aggressive behaviour (Vogel 1983). Mean litter size (births and embryo numbers): 2.6 (range 1–4, mode = 2, n = 11) (Kuhn 1971, Vogel 1983, P. Vogel unpubl). Gestation: >50 days. The birth of a pup allowed the following observations (P. Vogel, unpubl): at birth, young naked, but whiskers present. Dorsal pelage on day 11, eyes open on day 23, and first solid food eaten on day 40.	eng
13393	population	Vogel, P., 2008	Generally uncommon, with local density usually low; very rare where hills not present. In the Nimba region, a census of drowned animals from fish bow nets resulted in about one otter-shrew per 10 km² per year. In 1970, otter-shrews were frequently found close to village; by 1990, rarely found within 3–5 km of villages (P. Vogel pers. obs.).	eng
13393	threats	Vogel, P., 2008	Suitable habitat is threatened by mining, agricultural development and increased human activities. Mining activities in Liberia have devastated large regions of suitable habitat (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990) and wetland rice agriculture introduced in 1980 to the Nimba region has resulted in large-scale habitat destruction (P. Vogel, unpubl). Habitat conservation is considered to be ineffective. The increased use of fish traps and nets are a serious problem as human density increases.	eng
13394	conservation	Vogel, P., 2008	Present in the Virunga National Park. Basic biology and conservation research will determine the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.	eng
13394	distribution	Vogel, P., 2008	Endemic to central Africa. Found only in the Rwenzori region (Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo), and west of Lake Edward and Lake Kivu (Democratic Republic of Congo) (Rahm 1966; Bronner and Jenkins 2005).	eng
13394	habitat	Vogel, P., 2008	Found in streams and small rivers of varying size in the rainforest zone from 800 to 900 m (n=4) and in montane forest up to 2,200 m (n=4) (Rahm 1960). Also recorded in streams in gallery forest surrounded by secondary savanna (elephant grass) from 1,000 to 1,200 m. It digs tunnels and constructs hay or grass sleeping chambers within them. <em>Micropotamogale</em> spp. have been recorded eating insects, insect larvae, worms, crabs, fish and small frogs.<br/><br/>Within the Potamogalinae, the webbed feet of <em>M. ruwenzorii</em> reveal a peculiar strong adaptation for aquatic life: even the forefeet are proportionally very big, the thumb and little finger elongated (Verheyen 1961). Similar morphological adaptations are found in only a few other insectivorous small mammals such as <em>Limnogale mergulus</em> (Tenrecidae), <em>Nectogale elegans</em> (Soricidae) and <em>Galemys pyrenaica</em> (Talpidae) which are always separated from species without webbed feet on generic level. Swimming is done according to the paddling mode including pectoral and pelvic stroke (as in polar bear) in cross gate. Only when diving the feet may be used synchronously (Rahm 1961) as observed in the Pyrenean Desman (Niethammer 1970). The tail seems not to be use for propulsion. There are several periods of activity each night; grooming occurs after each activity period (Rahm 1961).<br/><br/>Foraging occurs in water. The preferred prey are crabs with a carapace width <5 em, aquatic insects, oligochaete worms and fish (<em>Clarias</em>, etc.). An otter-shrew weighing 135 g eats an equivalent of 80 g of food per night. Manipulation of food is performed only with the mouth, not with the forefeet. Faecal pellets (<em>ca</em>. 2-5 em long, diameter 0.9 em) contain fragments of chitin from the crab and insect prey (Rahm 1961).<br/><br/>No information exists on social or reproductive behavior. Embryo number: 1 (n=2) or 2 (n=1) (Rahm 1960, Stephan pers. comm).	eng
13394	population	Vogel, P., 2008	Little quantitative information; locally not rare.	eng
13394	threats	Vogel, P., 2008	This species is susceptible to getting caught in fish traps. The main threat, however, is loss of habitat in its restricted range through human activities.	eng
13401	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to locate populations of this species, and to record additional details on natural history and possible threats.	eng
13401	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This little known species has only been recorded from four localities in northern Angola (the type locality of Dundo) and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Luluabourg, Banana/Netonna, and Thysville).	eng
13401	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is generally associated with moist savanna and forest mosaic habitats. Populations most probably remain south of the Central African rain forest block. Whether or not it does occur in woodlands to the south, which seems more likely, remains to be discovered (Bergmans 1989). The specimen from Thysville was found roosting under a rock near the entrance to a cave (Bergmans 1989).	eng
13401	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is currently only known from four specimens. Some of these records are old, and the species does not appear to have been recorded since the 1950s.	eng
13401	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but may include general habitat loss through ongoing deforestation.	eng
13402	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. In general, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
13402	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is distributed in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia, throughout much of West Africa to Cameroon, from here it is distributed into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Uganda and western Ethiopia and Kenya. It is found as far south as central Angola.	eng
13402	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. Populations are typically found in savanna woodlands, but can be encountered in tropical moist forest, swamp forest, bushland, edaphic grasslands and mosaics of these habitats. Animals usually roost in small numbers amongst dense vegetation. This species is an opportunistic forager of fruits and flowers, travelling widely each night to find food, and could be of economic importance for pollination.	eng
13402	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is generally considered to be one of the most common African bats. Large numbers are often recorded from fruit trees.	eng
13402	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
13407	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas in the southern distribution but only one in the northern distribution.	eng
13407	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, mostly 2,500 to 4,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
13407	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in the subalpine and páramo formations (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other member of the genus (<em>M. minutus</em>).	eng
13407	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Delgado, C., 2008	It can be locally common.	eng
13407	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Delgado, C., 2008	Major threats are deforestation and agriculture in páramo areas in some parts of its range (R. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
13408	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13408	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs from north Venezuela, through Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, to west central Bolivia (Musser and Carletob, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 4,000 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em> 1999; Tirira, in prep.).	eng
13408	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species inhabits in lower montane, subalpine forest (Musser and Carleton, 2005) and paramo (B. Rivas pers. comm.). This species is terrestrial and arboreal, it is found in high mountain habitats, frequently near rocks, especially in cloud forest. Presumably it feeds on seeds and vegetation (Lord, 1999).	eng
13408	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This mouse is common throughout the range.	eng
13408	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	Major threats are deforestation in some parts of its range (R. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
13409	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Emmons, L., Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	Occurs in Monteverde National Park, Talamanca National Park and other protected areas.	eng
13409	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Emmons, L., Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	Southern Nicaragua south through western Colombia (Emmons and Feer 1997). Lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid 1997).<br/>Only one specimen from Nicaragua in 1917, but may not be actually have been found there.	eng
13409	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Emmons, L., Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	Mainly in evergreen forest.	eng
13409	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Emmons, L., Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	Locally abundant. In Panama, not common, but nor is it rare; it has been seen throughout its range in Panama in recent years.	eng
13409	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Emmons, L., Timm, R., McCarthy, T. & Samudio, R., 2008	No major threats known. However, it does not tolerate heavy deforestation.	eng
13410	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Further work to assess the conservation status of this species is needed.	eng
13410	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in the Amazon basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil west of Rios Negro and Jurua (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)	eng
13410	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
13410	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
13410	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The major threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
13411	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. Needs taxonomic research.	eng
13411	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in northwest Ecuador, northern Colombia, and western Panama (800-1600 m in Panama) including the Darien (Reid 1997).	eng
13411	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is poorly known. Generally found in evergreen forest, in Panama only above 800 m, and in Colombia and Ecuador in the lowlands (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
13411	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	Very common in its range in Panama.	eng
13411	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	Parts of its range are extensively deforested (Emmons and Feer 1997), although this does not appear to be a major threat at present.	eng
13412	conservation	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Research is needed into its taxonomy, distribution, populations status, and threats.	eng
13412	distribution	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in Colombia, between the Magdalena River and the Cordillera Oriental. It is possibly also in Panama and Venezuela.	eng
13412	habitat	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is poorly known.	eng
13412	population	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
13412	threats	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13417	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is not known whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. Ideally conservation measures would involve protection of Muskeget Island by direct purchase or management agreements with landowners.	eng
13417	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species' range is limited to Muskeget Island, off the west coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, United States (Tamarin and Kunz 1974). Historically this vole also occurred on nearby Adams and South Point islands, which can be regarded as part of Muskeget Island in the broad sense. Muskeget Island has changed shape, size, and position over time; it has moved more than 1,000 feet eastward since the 1800s (Surfrider Foundation, State of the Beach 2005; www.surfrider.org).	eng
13417	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The principal habitat for these voles are meadows dominated by beach grass (<em>Ammophilia breviligulata</em>) and poison ivy (<em>Rhus radicans</em>) (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). They burrow in coarse loose sand, also on loose soil under or near any shelter (e.g., driftwood). Young are born in nests in underground burrows or under other cover. They breed from spring to fall. Gestation lasts about one month. Individual females produce up to several litters of four to five young per year. Most live probably less than one year.<br/><br/>Home range is less than one acre. Cats, short-eared owl, northern harrier, and common garter snake are predators. Beach voles feed on beach grass stalks. They may also utilize seeds, and leaves of various plants and some insects. They are probably chiefly diurnal.	eng
13417	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs only on one island. The population reportedly fluctuates between about 3,000 and 10,000 individuals but evidently does not exhibit regular long-term (3-4 year) cycles (Tamarin 1977). Density is about 12 per acre in low years, 37 per acre in peak years (density varied 5.8 fold over five years in another study).	eng
13417	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to the species at present, but its very restricted range makes it vulnerable to threatening processes. Potential threats include introduced predators, habitat disruption by humans, and island erosion.	eng
13418	conservation	Fernandes, M., Pita, R. & Mira, A., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas in both Portugal and Spain. It is protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Annex II and Annex IV).	eng
13418	distribution	Fernandes, M., Pita, R. & Mira, A., 2008	<em>Microtus cabrerae</em> is endemic to the Iberian peninsula (Portugal and Spain), where it has a fragmented range (Palomo 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from 0 to 1,500 m, although it is most common below 1,200 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, R. Pita unpublished data).<br/><br/>In Spain, populations in the south have recently disappeared (Muñoz, L.J.P. pers. comm.2007).	eng
13418	habitat	Fernandes, M., Pita, R. & Mira, A., 2008	It occurs in pastures, fields and open clearings in woodland, tending to prefer damper areas than the common vole. It is often found in proximity to water (Palomo 1999) and on road verges (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2006, Pita <em>et al.</em> 2006). Meadows and perennial grassland communities are the most favourable microhabitats for this species (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13418	population	Fernandes, M., Pita, R. & Mira, A., 2008	Many subpopulations are small, fragmented, and subject to major inter-annual fluctuations  (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Mira <em>et al.</em> 2005). Subfossil remains have been found outside the species' current distribution, suggesting a range contraction (Palomo 1999), and it is considered that the species occupies a relict distribution (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Population densities are moderate by comparison with other arvicoline rodents, typically varying between 17 and 350 individuals per hectare (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is often found in isolated patches inhabited by a few individuals, often an adult couple and its offspring.	eng
13418	threats	Fernandes, M., Pita, R. & Mira, A., 2008	Agricultural intensification, including overgrazing, has presumably contributed to range contractions and fragmentation over the last few decades (Palomo 1999). There is increased pressure on streams and other wetland areas the species occurs in. There is suspicion that interspecific competition with <em>Arvicola sapidus</em> may be a problem (Pita <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
13425	conservation	Frey, J., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Surveys are recommended to determine the nature and extent of any threats to the population  of <em>M. abbreviatus</em> (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations on both islands are fully protected. Both St. Matthew Island and Hall Island are included in the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.<br/><br/>The population is not currently being monitored. Factors affecting population size and distribution are unknown. Current research needs include: 1) population size and trend estimates 2) habitat preferences 3) reproductive capacity 4) long-term population viability assessment 5) further assessment of taxonomic status.	eng
13425	distribution	Frey, J., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from Hall Island (subspecies <em>abbreviatus</em>) and St. Matthew Island (subspecies <em>fisheri</em>), in the Bering Sea, Alaska, United States. Its range on each of the islands is not known.	eng
13425	habitat	Frey, J., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	On St. Matthew Island, this vole is most abundant in moist lowlands and on lower slopes; also in the <em>Elymus</em> community along beach ridges and the driftwood zone; it has been found up to about 240 m asl in moist, well-drained areas as well as around ponds and seepages. Burrows are in well vegetated rocky outcroppings. The species is not found in dry lowlands or in areas with much standing water (Rausch and Rausch 1968).<br/><br/>On Hall Island, limited data indicate a mean litter size of seven, with most females producing only one litter (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Diet on St. Matthew Island includes <em>Deschampsia</em>, <em>Artemesia, Rumex, Salix, Sedum</em>, and <em>Saxifraga</em>. Insular voles are important prey for such predators as long-tailed jaeger, snowy owl, glaucous gull, and arctic fox, they are occasionally preyed on by polar bears.	eng
13425	population	Frey, J., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is represented by two occurrences or subpopulations on different islands. Populations fluctuate widely. Beals found the voles "abundant everywhere" in 1944 (Rausch and Rausch 1968). The population was apparently at near maximum density in 1954 but was "very low" in 1957 (Klein 1959). The numbers were also low, and concentrations dispersed, in 1963 (Rausch and Rausch 1968). On the mainland, Batzli and Henttonen (1990) reported moderate tundra vole densities of 4-50 per hectare. The total area of St. Matthew Island is approximately 31,475 hectares (this area includes Pinnacle Island) and the total area of Hall Island is 1,443 hectares (Brewer 1996). The estimated population based on these densities would be between 131,672 - 1,645,900 individuals.<br/><br/>The long-term population trend is unknown but appears to be stable. On a short-term basis, populations fluctuate from very low to very high (Rausch and Rausch 1968), but no predictable trend has been documented.	eng
13425	threats	Frey, J., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No immediate threats are known, but the restricted range of this species increases its vulnerability to outside threats. <br/><br/>Fay noted that previously occupied habitat was destroyed by reindeer introduced in 1944 on St. Matthew Island (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Reindeer population numbers increased to approximately 6,000 in 1963, but by the summer of 1966 only 42 remained and by the 1980s the population had completely died out.<br/><br/>The Arctic fox (<em>Alopex lagopus</em>) is native to St. Matthew. According to Rausch, predation appears to take place during years of high vole populations rather than when vole numbers are low; however, additional studies are needed to verify this pattern (Rausch and Rausch 1968). Predation by long-tailed jaegers and snowy owls occasionally occurs (Rausch and Rausch 1968). In any event, such predation is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the long-term viability of the vole population.	eng
13426	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	The species is present in a large number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are required.	eng
13426	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The species is present in a large number of protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are required.	eng
13426	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	The field vole is a widespread Palaearctic species, ranging from western Europe eastwards through Russia to Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia. In Europe, it is present in Great Britain and western, central and northern parts of the continent, but absent from Iceland, Ireland and southern Europe (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13426	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The field vole is a widespread Palaearctic species, ranging from western Europe eastwards through Russia to Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia. It is present in Great Britain, central and northern parts of the continent (Portugal, Spain, France, Switzerland, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovenia and Serbia), but it is absent from Iceland, Ireland southern Europe (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). The Mediterranean populations may be a separate species, but more taxonomic work is needed to confirm this. It occurs from sea level to 2,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13426	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, woods, upland heaths, dunes, marshes, peat-bogs and river-banks, tending to prefer damp areas.  It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, field-margins and young forestry plantations, but is absent from heavily grazed areas (Zima 1999). The field vole is predominantly herbivorous, feeding on grasses and herbaceous plants, and gnawing bark in the winter. Exceptionally, animal prey (e.g. dipteran larvae) are taken (Krapp and Niethammer 1982).	eng
13426	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including grasslands, woods, upland heaths, dunes, marshes, peat-bogs and river-banks, tending to prefer damp areas.  It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats including meadows, field-margins and young forestry plantations, but is absent from heavily grazed areas (Zima 1999). The field vole is predominantly herbivorous, feeding on grasses and herbaceous plants, and gnawing bark in the winter. Exceptionally, animal prey (e.g. dipteran larvae) are taken (Krapp and Niethammer 1982).	eng
13426	population	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	It is generally common, although it may be locally rare in marginal parts of its range in western and central Europe. In some areas, population density fluctuates markedly over a cycle of approximately three to four years. In peak years it can cause damage to pastures, orchards and forestry plantations (Zima 1999).	eng
13426	population	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is generally common, although it may be locally rare in marginal parts of its range in western and central Europe. In some areas, population density fluctuates markedly over a cycle of approximately three to four years. In peak years it can cause damage to pastures, orchards and forestry plantations (Zima 1999).	eng
13426	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	There appear to be no major threats to this species over much of its range.	eng
13426	threats	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species over much of its range.	eng
13427	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><em>M. c. scirpensis</em> is a federally Endangered species in the United States, with an extant recovery plan. In California, there are several subspecies of conservation concern: <em>M. c. mohavensis</em>, <em>M. c. sanpabloensis,</em> <em>M. c. scirpensis</em>, <em>M. c. stephensi</em>, and <em>M. m. vallicola</em>.	eng
13427	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Occurs from southwestern Oregon through central and western California (United States), and south into northern Baja California (Mexico). There are two disjunct populations in the Mohave Desert and White Mountain/Panamint ranges (California, USA).	eng
13427	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Inhabits grasslands and wet meadows at low elevations. Also, coastal wetlands and open oak savanna with good ground cover.	eng
13427	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Populations tend to be stable in coastal areas (around 200 individuals/ha), but in more strongly seasonal habitats densities vary dramatically over 2 to 5-year cycles, ranging from virtual absence to typical peaks of 450 individuals/ha.	eng
13427	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	None to the species as a whole. <br/><br/>However, 4 subspecies (2 disjunct populations previously mentioned, one in northern Baja California, and one in the Los Angeles area) are of conservation concern.	eng
13428	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is found in many protected areas.	eng
13428	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is found from the northern Caucasus Mountains (southern Russia) and southern Caucasus from Georgia south through southern Armenia and Azerbaijan (Achverdjan <em>et al.</em>, 1992) and in adjacent east Black Sea Mountains of northeast Turkey (Krystufek and Vohralík, 2001). The species also possibly occurs in northwest Iran.	eng
13428	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Populates alpine meadows at about 2,000 m. In Turkey, elevation ranges from 2,200-2,600 m. It can be found in grazing pastures.	eng
13428	population	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is common.	eng
13428	threats	Kryštufek, B., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13429	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare species, protected by local law.	eng
13429	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Known only from Evoron-Chukchagyr voog (lower Amur River, Russia).	eng
13429	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly studied species. Inhabits flood plains with dominance of lings and herbs.	eng
13429	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data available.	eng
13429	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13430	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Common species in China and Russia; listed nationally as Least Concern.	eng
13430	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in moist meadows of forest and forest-steppe zones in Trans-Baikal region, Amur River Basin (Russian Federation), NE Mongolia, E China and Korea. In Mongolia, around the Ulz River Valley, Hustai Mountain Range in Mongol Daguur Steppe, and around Eröö River Valley in western Hentii Mountain Range. Also distributed in Eastern Mongolia and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range.	eng
13430	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common to wet environments, especially lakeshores, riverbanks and streams surrounded by heavy vegetation.  Although favoring waterside habitats they may invade adjacent agricultural areas and undeveloped lands when over crowded or forced out by rising water levels in spring and early summer.  Reproduction occurs from April-November with up to six litters of five offspring per litter in favorable years.  Gestation lasts about 20 days, and the interval between litters is 40-45 days.  Females reach sexual maturity by 3.5-4 months, with males maturing a little later.	eng
13430	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data are available at present. In some parts of the range recorded acute population fluctuations.	eng
13430	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Possibly threatened by habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
13431	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13431	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13431	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in several separated regions: in tundra and forest-tundra from White Sea to Kolyma River; in Alaska peninsula; in steppes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgizia, SW Siberia, Yakutia, Mongolia and Northern China. It occurs at altitudes of up to 4,000 m.	eng
13431	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in several separated regions: in tundra and forest-tundra from White Sea to Kolyma River; in Alaska peninsula; in steppes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgizia, SW Siberia, Yakutia, Mongolia and Northern China. It occurs at altitudes of up to 4,000 m.	eng
13431	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits tundra, plains and mountain steppes and meadows. In the forest zone (including mountain forests) and semideserts it occupies open grassy areas. It reaches maximum density in cereal and grass steppes, and alpine and water meadows. Lives in groups, during periods of high population density may form colonies. Feeds on various wild and cultivated plants, tends to prefer legumes. Reproductive period lasts throughout the warmer months of the year; in tundra zones reproduction often starts under snow cover (in Karsk tundra in February-March). Has up to 5 litters per year in southern parts of the range, and up to 4 in mountains and northern areas. Litter size is usually up to 12 young. Considerable pest of crops in Siberia and Kazakhstan and pastures in Central Asia. A natural carrier of several diseases including encephalitis, plague and rabbit fever.	eng
13431	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits tundra, plains and mountain steppes and meadows. In the forest zone (including mountain forests) and semideserts it occupies open grassy areas. It reaches maximum density in cereal and grass steppes, and alpine and water meadows. Lives in groups, during periods of high population density may form colonies. Feeds on various wild and cultivated plants, tends to prefer legumes. Reproductive period lasts throughout the warmer months of the year; in tundra zones reproduction often starts under snow cover (in Karsk tundra in February-March). Has up to 5 litters per year in southern parts of the range, and up to 4 in mountains and northern areas. Litter size is usually up to 12 young. Considerable pest of crops in Siberia and Kazakhstan and pastures in Central Asia. A natural carrier of several diseases including encephalitis, plague,and rabbit fever.	eng
13431	population	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Populations undergo fluctuations in density; in mountainous areas populations are patchy and density varies.	eng
13431	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Populations undergo fluctuations in density; in mountainous areas populations are patchy and density varies.	eng
13431	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
13431	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
13432	conservation	Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the western portion of the Sierra de la Pinas National Park, which has a much higher level of protection than Laguna Magdalena National Park.	eng
13432	distribution	Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in highland meadows of central Chiapas, México, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,600 to 3,100 m (Reid 1997).	eng
13432	habitat	Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This rodent can be found in montane forest and pasture. It favors low-lying, damp areas in pine-oak forest and small clearings (Reid 1997). It is possibly diurnal or crepuscular, and terrestrial. Unlike most voles, which travel on runways through grassy areas, this species can be found in deep forest and does not appear to use runways. It probably eats plant material, although details of the diet have not been reported. A pregnant female, caught in January, had one embryo (Smith and Jones 1967; Reid 1997).	eng
13432	population	Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
13432	threats	Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	Habitat modification is a big threat to this species in Laguna Magdalena protected area in Guatemala, mainly due to overgrazing by sheep.	eng
13433	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
13433	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in piedmonts and mountains in NE Yakutiya from lower Yenisei River to upper Indigirka and Kolyma Rivers (Yano-Oymyakon and Yukagiri highlands) (Russian Federation).	eng
13433	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit dry steppe areas on river slopes without forests, among cereal and mixed grass vegetation on sandy an stone-sandy soils. Colonial. Burrows are shallow, always above permafrost. Wintering burrows with one ore several nests. In summer feed mostly on grasses, when those dry out, switch to lings and horstails. Store roots. Reproduction is very intensive, by mid-summer adult females can give up to 5 litters.	eng
13433	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
13433	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13434	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	This species needs taxonomic work and perhaps further surveys.	eng
13434	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The species is restricted to the type locality and a series of around four specimens. A second survey was conducted in the same area and failed to find the species although found closely related to <em>Microtus socialis</em> (Krystufek and Kefeliojlu, 2002). The type locality was in a garden within the city of Shiraz (Iran) described over 80 years ago, and so the species may be threatened if it is restricted to the vicinity of the type locality (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
13434	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	Very little information is available; the species is known only from the type locality in a city garden.	eng
13434	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13434	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13435	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao, Wanglang, Wolong, Changshanerhai, Nujiang (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), and is likely to occur in Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
13435	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies high mountains within its range (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13435	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in alpine meadows and shrubby mountainsides (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13435	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
13435	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
13436	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13436	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Central Asia, northwestern South Asia and western China. In Central Asia, it is present in eastern Tajikistan, southwestern Kyrgyzstan and western Uzbekistan. In South Asia, it is found in Afghanistan (Habibi 2003) and north western Pakistan (Roberts 1997) at elevations of 3,000 to 3,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from northwestern Xizang and southwestern Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13436	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a diurnal, terrestrial and herbivorous, that is found in temperate forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) and mountain steppe habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13436	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13436	threats	Molur, S., 2008	Threats to the species are not known.	eng
13438	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
13438	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a widespread species, occurring in northwest China (Xinjiang province), Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan,  Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13438	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in forest, forest-steppe and scrub meadow (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13438	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
13438	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
13439	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.	eng
13439	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northern South Asia, and much of western China. In South Asia, it is present in India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir) and Nepal (Western and Eastern Nepal) at altitudes above 4,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is found on the Tibetan Plateau of Xinjiang, Xizang and Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13439	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is a diurnal and fossorial vole that inhabits temperate forests, and high altitude grassy habitats, especially along watercourses. It prefers high rocky mountains with scattered patches of grassland completely covered in snow part of the year. It lives in colonies, digs deep burrows, especially in the banks of streams and lakes. It has also been recorded living among rocky crevices (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13439	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13439	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia it is locally threatened by loss of habitat (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
13440	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, approximately 24% of the species' range occurs within protected areas. In China, it occurs in several nature reserves including Qinghaihuniaodao, Taibaishan, Wanglang, and Wolong (CSIS 2008). In Mongolia this species was regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Further studies are needed to determine the distribution of this species.	eng
13440	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The distribution limits of this species are uncertain, as it is difficult to distinguish it from <em>M. oeconomus</em>.  It occurs in the provinces of Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Ningxia in China (CSIS 2008).  Its range in Mongolia encompasses the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Gobi Desert, and Trans Altai Gobi Desert regions (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).	eng
13440	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In China, this species occurs in saline desert and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). A survey conducted in southern Gansu recorded highest trap rate of this species in rocky areas within habitat characterized as intermediate between shrubland and shrubland/grassland (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Mongolia, its habitat includes desert and semi-desert regions.	eng
13440	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
13440	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In Mongolia, there is possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Also, the drying of water sources and droughts also affect this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. In China, this species is considered a pest in southern Gansu (Giraudoux <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13442	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Approximately 38% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China listed as NE. In Russia common species. Conservation measures required. Further research is recommended.	eng
13442	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in open forest and steppe habitats to east from Baikal Lake Basin (Russia), in NE Mongolia (Mountain Range and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range), NE China and Amur River Basin.	eng
13442	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occupies densely vegetated mountain foothills and riverbanks.  Especially active in early morning and late evening.  Digs burrows in dense vegetation, leaving obvious heaps of discarded soil around the entrance to its burrow with mounds 50-100 cm across and 15-20 cm high.  The passage to the burrow is only 20-30 cm long and leads directly to a round, 35 cm diameter nest chamber that is about 25 cm high.  They construct special food storage chambers, which they fill with roots and bulbs before winter. Feeds on grass vegetation. Reproduction little known, females with seven and nine embryos have been reported.	eng
13442	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
13442	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No available data, although habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires may constitute a threat (but probably not a major one).	eng
13443	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13443	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Reid, F., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution in mountains from the extreme south of Utah and Colorado, through central Arizona and New Mexico, USA, and throughout the interior of north and central México in the Sierra Madre mountains, as far south as central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). It ranges in elevation from 1,200 to 4,115 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005; Reid 2006).	eng
13443	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Reid, F., 2008	This rodent is associated with coniferous forest, occurring in “islands” of mountain-top forest habitat surrounded by a "sea" of inhospitable lower-elevation desert. Some of these mountain-top populations have been isolated from other populations since the end of the last ice age (about 20,000 years ago). <br/><br/>The species uses grass for food and cover; it can eat the green vegetable portion (leaves and stems). It is well adapted for dry conditions. It occurs in some of the driest habitats of any species of vole. This rodent has one of the lowest reproductive potentials of any North American vole (although pregnant females may have up to six embryos), averaging only about 2.4 embryos. This small number is not surprising in light of the fact that <em>M. mexicanus</em> has only two pairs of mammary glands rather than four pairs as found in most other voles. Limited data suggest that most reproduction occurs during the warmer, wetter months and that unlike many other species of <em>Microtus</em>, reproduction may cease during the winter (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
13443	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Reid, F., 2008	The overall population trend is unknown, but many populations are isolated and some are declining.	eng
13443	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, but many of the populations are isolated and declining.	eng
13444	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13444	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13444	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Arctic and subarctic waterlogged tundra from the Ural Mountains to the Kolyma lowlands (Russian Federation).	eng
13444	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Arctic and subarctic waterlogged tundra from the Ural Mountains to the Kolyma lowlands (Russian Federation).	eng
13444	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits waterlogged tundra, sedge and <em>Sphagnum</em> marshes, waterlogged banks; avoids anthropogenic landscapes. Lives in colonies with shallow burrows in dry areas. Nest chambers are usually sited on hillocks, on the ground, or on shrub branches. The species feeds on sedges, leaves and stalks in summer and roots in winter. Reproduction occurs from May to August, in favourable years from March til October. Females that have overwintered give birth to up to 3 litters per year. In the Urals fecundity is lower than in Yakutia.	eng
13444	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits waterlogged tundra, sedge and <em>Sphagnum</em> marshes, waterlogged banks; avoids anthropogenic landscapes. Lives in colonies with shallow burrows in dry areas. Nest chambers are usually sited on hillocks, on the ground, or on shrub branches. The species feeds on sedges, leaves and stalks in summer and roots in winter. Reproduction occurs from May to August, in favourable years from March til October. Females that have overwintered give birth to up to 3 litters per year. In the Urals fecundity is lower than in Yakutia.	eng
13444	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Data on population size are lacking, but as in most rodent species populations fluctuate. Severe springs may cause population reduction; heavy rains and floods cause short-distance migrations.	eng
13444	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Data on population size are lacking, but as in most rodent species populations fluctuate. Severe springs may cause population reduction; heavy rains and floods cause short-distance migrations.	eng
13444	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13444	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13445	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Approximately 12% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia abundant and listed as Least Concern. Further research is recommended to establish status and conservation measures required.	eng
13445	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distribute in lower and middle mountain zones up to 3000 m asl in Transbaikalia, Mongolia, and NE China (N Nei Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Jilin). In Mongolia found in Mönkh Saridag Mountain in Hövsgöl Mountain Range. Also distributed in Hentii Mountain Range, parts of Hangai Mountain Range, Mongol Daguur Steppe, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Mongolia and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989).	eng
13445	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Inhabits forest and forest-steppe habitats feeding on green vegetation. Feeds on both green and underground parts of plants. Sometimes makes supplies of bulbs and roots up to 2 kg.	eng
13445	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	This species is abundant in its range, and characteristically displays boom-bust population structure dynamics.	eng
13445	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No available data, although habitat loss through human-caused and natural wildfires may constitute a threat.	eng
13446	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is present in protected areas.	eng
13446	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Sado Island, and Notojima Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species occurs from lowland to high alpine areas (e.g., found at most elevations on Mount Fuji).	eng
13446	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	The primary habitat includes cultivated fields (including rice paddies), immature conifer plantations, riverine areas, pastures, and natural pine forests (<em>Pinus pumila</em>) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13446	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
13446	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
13447	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed as Endangered in Russia and protected by law.	eng
13447	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Known only from vicinity of the type locality: Muya Valley, Vitim River Basin, Buryatia, Russia (Meyer <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
13447	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits meadows and boggy forests. In meadows lives near shrubs. Also found in cut-over lands and fire-sites. Avoids forests with mosses. Reproduction season is from April to September. Average litter size is 8 young.	eng
13447	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
13447	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Major threats are unknown. Very small distribution area.	eng
13448	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
13448	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in piedmont steppes in E Transcaucasia.	eng
13448	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly studied, habitat preferences and ecology similar to those of Microtus daghestanicus.	eng
13448	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available. Population density is high enough for the species to be considered as crop pest.	eng
13448	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
13449	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Not known to be present in any protected areas. It is included on the Mexican Red List of 2001.	eng
13449	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is found in north central Oaxaca, Mexico, on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Juárez (1,500 to 2,500 m), including Vista Hermosa, Santiago Comaltepec, La Esperanza (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13449	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species can be found in evergreen rainforest; it also has been recorded in dense cloud forest and disturbed vegetation consisting of various grasses and wild strawberry (<em>Fragaria</em> sp.) within cloud forest, pine forest (<em>Pinus</em> sp.), and an ecotone of cloud and pine forest (Frey and Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Captive specimens ate grasses but preferred the stems and leaves of wild strawberry (Frey and Cervantes 1997). A female taken in February was lactating. Litter size may be limited to a single young (Frey and Cervantes 1997).	eng
13449	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	There is no information about population status.	eng
13449	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is losing habitat to deforestation in parts of its range. It is estimated to have lost 1-5% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
13451	conservation	Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>arenicola </em>(from the Netherlands) is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and both <em>M. oe. arenicola</em> and <em>M. oe. mehelyi  </em>(the latter from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia) are listed on Annex IV.  Recommended conservation measures include conducting surveys to determine the size and distribution of the isolated population, and defining management plans to maintain and improve the habitat (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006)	eng
13451	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Juškaitis, R., Sheftel, B., Meinig, H., Amori, G. & Henttonen, H., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>arenicola </em>(from the Netherlands) is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and both <em>M. oe. arenicola</em> and <em>M. oe. mehelyi  </em>(the latter from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia) are listed on Annex IV. In North America, the following subspecies are regarded as being of conservation concern (all are island forms): <em>M. o. punakensis</em> (S1); <em>M. o. amakensis</em> and <em>M. o. elymocetes</em> (S2); and <em>M. o. innuitus</em>, <em>M. o. popofensis</em>, <em>M. o. sitkensis</em>, and <em>M. o. unalascensis</em> (S3).	eng
13451	distribution	Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	<em>Microtus oeconomus </em>is a Holarctic species, with a wide range extending from north-west Europe in the west to Alaska in the East. In Europe, its main range extends from eastern Germany and northern Fennoscandia through Poland, Belarus, and northern and central European Russia. Isolated relict populations are found in the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, the Finnish coast, and Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (van Apeldoorn 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). A lowland species (occurs up to at least 1,300 m: EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
13451	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Juškaitis, R., Sheftel, B., Meinig, H., Amori, G. & Henttonen, H., 2008	<em>Microtus oeconomus </em>is a Holarctic species, with a wide range extending from north-west Europe in the west to Alaska in the East. In North America, restricted to Alaska and northwest Canada. In Europe, its main range extends from eastern Germany and northern Fennoscandia through Poland, Belarus, and northern and central European Russia; isolated relict populations are found in the Netherlands, southern Norway and northern Sweden, the Finnish coast, and Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (van Apeldoorn 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In China found in northern Xinjiang and northern Nei Mongol. In Mongolia found in northern areas including Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl Hentii and Ikh Hyangan mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985).	eng
13451	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Juškaitis, R., Sheftel, B., Meinig, H., Amori, G. & Henttonen, H., 2008	It typically inhabits damp, densely-vegetated areas along the edges of lakes, streams and marshes; may be found in tundra, taiga, forest-steppe, and even semi-desert. Wet meadows, bogs, fens, riverbanks and flooded shores are all important habitats (Tast 1982, van Apeldoorn 1999). Feeds on green vegetation.	eng
13451	habitat	Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It typically inhabits damp, densely-vegetated areas, in close proximity to water. Wet meadows, bogs, fens, riverbanks and flooded shores are all important habitats (Tast 1982, van Apeldoorn 1999).	eng
13451	population	Linzey, A.V., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Juškaitis, R., Sheftel, B., Meinig, H., Amori, G. & Henttonen, H., 2008	A widespread and abundant species, although in some areas (e.g. parts of Europe, some North American islands) its status is less favourable.	eng
13451	population	Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Range and population declines are evident in parts of Europe, although the species is stable or increasing in other areas. The species' range is contracting along its south-west edge in Poland, and relict populations in Hungary, Austria, Slovakia and the Netherlands are diminishing (van Apeldoorn 1999). In other areas, populations are stable (albeit with cyclic fluctuations in Fennoscandia and central Europe), and in Lithuania the population is increasing and expanding into new areas (van Apeldoorn 1999, L. Balciauskas and R. Juškaitis pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13451	threats	Linzey, A.V., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Juškaitis, R., Sheftel, B., Meinig, H., Amori, G. & Henttonen, H., 2008	At the global level this species faces no major threats.	eng
13451	threats	Rimvydas Juškaitis, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	In the Netherlands, population declines have been attributed to a combination of habitat degradation and competitive exclusion (van Apeldoorn 1999). The population in Slovakia has shown population declines which are attributed to habitat destruction caused by the construction of the Danube River Dam (EMA Workshop 2006). Degradation of wetlands due to agricultural expansion is a further threat.	eng
13452	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
13452	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs throughout most of Canada and Alaska (United States), south through the northern half of the United States, to Oregon, northern Utah, central New Mexico, Kansas, northern Missouri, Georgia, and South Carolina; also disjunctly (by 500 km) in Florida and in Chihuahua, Mexico (Hall 1981). Its range has expanded southward in the Great Plains since the mid-1960s as the climate has become cooler and more mesic (Frey 1992).	eng
13452	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of habitats from dry pastures and wooded swamps to marshes and orchards. Needs loose organic soils for tunneling. Builds extensive underground tunnels. Nests in these tunnels under rocks or logs, and in self-constructed grassy clumps. Breeds throughout year. Peak breeding activity occurs April-October. Gestation lasts about 21 days. Litter size is 1-9 (average 4-5). Litter size is smaller in fall than in spring/summer, there may be 5-10 litters per year.<br/><br/>Home range seldom exceeds 0.25 acres (Banfield 1974). Successful homing of 11 of 848 voles displaced 1.2 km indicates that dispersal distance probably is more than 1 km (Ostfeld and Manson 1996). Diet consists mainly of vegetable matter, such as grasses, roots and seeds. Active day and night throughout the year. <br/><br/>This species can an affect old-field succession through seedling predation (Ostfeld and Canham 1993). It may inflict serious damage on apple trees by feeding on bark and vascular tissues of lower trunks and roots (Tobin and Richmond 1993). Expanding populations apparently are displacing the southern bog lemming via competitive exclusion in southeastern Kentucky (Krupa and Haskins 1996).	eng
13452	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread in North America and common in many areas. In recent decades, its range has expanded southward in Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky (Krupa and Haskins 1996). High densities of 50-60 per acre are not unusual; average densities are probably closer to 8-10 per acre (Baker 1983).	eng
13452	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13453	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species' range falls partially into several protected areas within its distribution. It is considered vulnerable under Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
13453	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species occurs on eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental (from 500 to 2,150 m), from southeast San Luis Potosi to northern Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13453	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species can be found in cloud forest, grassland, and agricultural lands. Typical habitat has been described as marshy meadows and grassy swales (Ramirez-Pulido <em>et al.</em> 1991). <br/><br/>These voles live in habitats similar to their northern congeners but have a much reduced litter size. Jalapan pine voles feed mainly on roots and the bases of stems of annual plants and possibly some grasses (Hall and Dalquest 1963).	eng
13453	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. However, a population in Xalapa has become extinct due to urbanization within this area (Ceballos and Olivia 2005).	eng
13453	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2009	Major threats to this species are habitat loss from urbanization and agriculture.	eng
13454	conservation	Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
13454	conservation	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
13454	conservation	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek , B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
13454	distribution	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek , B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and southeastern Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. Generally a lowland species, recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm.).	eng
13454	distribution	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and south-east Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. Generally a lowland species, recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.).	eng
13454	distribution	Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Microtus levis </em>has a large range extending from east and south-east Europe eastwards across Russia and Asia Minor to Lake Baikal in Siberia. It has been introduced to the Svalbard (Zima 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). In Europe, its range includes the Balkan peninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic and southern Finland. A lowland species, it is recorded from 60 m to 1,100 m (Petrov and Ružić 1982).	eng
13454	habitat	Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It occurs in a range of habitats including farmland, meadows, and open woodland. In southern parts of its range it tends to occur in damp habitats in close proximity to rivers and lakes (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	habitat	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a range of habitats including farmland, meadows, and open woodland. In southern parts of its range it tends to occur in damp habitats in close proximity to rivers and lakes (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	habitat	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek , B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It occurs in a range of habitats including farmland, meadows, and open woodland. In southern parts of its range it tends to occur in damp habitats in close proximity to rivers and lakes (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	population	Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is a relatively common species. Population densities fluctuate on an annual basis, and peak densities of as high as 200,000 burrow openings per hectare have been recorded in F. Y. R. Macedonia (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	population	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is a relatively common species. Population densities fluctuate on an annual basis, and peak densities of as high as 200,000 burrow openings per hectare have been recorded in F. Y. R. Macedonia (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	population	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek , B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is a relatively common species. Population densities fluctuate on an annual basis, and peak densities of as high as 200,000 burrow openings per hectare have been recorded in F. Y. R. Macedonia (Zima 1999).	eng
13454	threats	Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	No major threats are known.	eng
13454	threats	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
13454	threats	Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek , B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
13455	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
13455	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic to Sakhalin Isl. Found only in northern and central parts of the island.	eng
13455	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Lives in colonies. Inhabits open landscapes or places with small number of trees. Also found in peatmoss bogs in mountain larch forests and tundra light forest. In dry places digs burrows, in wet areas uses small burrows in hillocks. In winter nests above ground were found. Can swem. Feeds on marsh and meadow herbs and shrubs. Also consumes molluscs and bird eggs. Stores supplies up to 10 kg. Reproduces in warm time of the year. Usually has 1 or 2 litters with 4-7 young in each.	eng
13455	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
13455	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Recent oil related infrastructure development may influence the area of occupancy.	eng
13456	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species has been found in one reserve in Azerbaijan (Zuvandinskiy Nature Sanctuary), and has several other protected areas in its range.	eng
13456	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species is found only in forest zone of mountains bordering the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, in southern Azerbaijan (Talysh Mountains) and northwestern Iran (Elburz Mountains). The species could potentially be found somewhat further east in the forests south of the Caspian Sea.	eng
13456	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is found in humid subtropical forest of piedmont and lower mountain zone (600 - 1000 m), and prefers forest clearings in early successional stage. The species has not been recorded outside of forest, and is likely to be dependent on forest. In Talysh found only in beech and hornbeam forests, with <em>Parrotia persica</em> and <em>Quercus castanefolia</em>. Inhabit steep slopes and deep ravines coverd with shrubs, ferns and mosses. Leads semi-subterranean life. In contrast to many other vole species doesn't make passes between exits of the burrows. Feeds on underground plant parts. Most probably lives in family groups. Family area is small, limited to a single burrow with several exits (2 to 6). Reproduction starts in the end of March, litter size is 1-4 young.	eng
13456	population	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Population size is slightly declining due to forest clearance, overgrazing.	eng
13456	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	There is deforestation in this area.	eng
13457	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected under any legislation in South Asia. It has been recorded from Lang Tang National Park and Kanchanjunga National Park in Nepal. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for the species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13457	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northern South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, this species has been recorded in Bhutan, India (West Bengal and Sikkim) and Nepal (Central, Eastern and Western Nepal) at altitudes above 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it is present in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008) at 2,100 to 3,700 m asl.	eng
13457	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is a diurnal, fossorial, gregarious vole, living in groups of up to 20 individuals. It inhabits alpine meadows and dense vegetation growing at the edges of rhododendron and coniferous forest. It lives under rocks, bushes or leaf litter on the forest floor. It rarely ventures out in the open and is mostly found in tunnels (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005; Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><br/>[[[From Mammals of China (Andrew Smith), Copied verbatim…<br/><br/>Inhabits alpine meadows and dense vegetation growing at the edges of rhododendron and coniferous forest between 2,100-3,700 m.  Eats green vegetation and seeds to a lesser extent.  Pregnant females reported with 2-3 embryos. ]]]<br/><br/>It is a diurnal, fossorial, gregarious vole, living in groups of up to 20 individuals. It lives in tropical, sub tropical, temperate forests and grasslands, specifically in rhododendron and coniferous forests and in upland meadows. It lives under rocks, bushes or leaf litter on the forest floor. It rarely ventures out in the open and is mostly found in tunnels (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13457	population	Molur, S., 2008	Little is known about the abundance of this species.	eng
13457	threats	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale logging, invasive alien species, and to some extent predation by domestic dogs and cats pose as threats to this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13458	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	There are no special conservation measures, however the species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13458	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas. There are no special conservation measures.	eng
13458	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	"The species is distributed in plains and low mountain dry steppes from the Dnepr River and Crimea east to Lake Balkhash and NW Xinjiang in China, south through Caucasus and E half of Turkey (Kizilirmak River may be W boundary) to NW Syria, Lebanon (restricted to Mt Lebanon), N Iraq, and NW Iran" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented. All the isolated populations are represented by separate subspecies. In the European part of the range two subspecies are present: <em>Microtus socialis nikolajevi</em> Ognev, 1950 from left bank of Dnepr to the Crimea and SE Rostov district; <em>Microtus socialis parvus</em> Satunin, 1901 in cis-Caucasia, Stavropol region, Krasnodar Territory and Dagestan.	eng
13458	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	"The species is distributed in plains and low mountain dry steppes from the Dnepr River and Crimea east to Lake Balkhash and NW Xinjiang in China, south through Caucasus and E half of Turkey (Kizilirmak River may be W boundary) to NW Syria, Lebanon (restricted to Mt Lebanon), N Iraq, and NW Iran" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented. All the isolated populations are represented by separate subspecies. In the European part of the range two subspecies are present: <em>Microtus socialis nikolajevi</em> Ognev, 1950 from left bank of Dnepr to the Crimea and SE Rostov district; <em>Microtus socialis parvus</em> Satunin, 1901 in CIS-Caucasia, Stavropol region, Krasnodar Territory and Dagestan. Elevation sea level up to 2,480 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm.)	eng
13458	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Found in steppe habitats. Lives in complex colonies formed by polygynic families. Burrows are complex but shallow, with a number of entrances and living and storage chambers. Above-ground activity is limited, especially in summer. This species mainly feeds on cereals and legumes. In autumn seeds predominate in the diet. May occasionally feed on insects and molluscs. Reproduction occurs year round, females produce up to five litters with 6-8 young in each.	eng
13458	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Lives in complex colonies formed by polygynic families. Burrowes are complex, but shallow, with a number of entrances and living and storage chambers. Above-ground activity is limited, especially in summer. This species mainly feeds on cereals and legumes. In autumn seeds predominate in the diet. May occasionally feed on insects and molluscs. Reproduction occurs year round, females produce up to five litters with 6-8 young in each.	eng
13458	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	It is a common species with relatively stable populations, with some population fluctuation from year to year. Considered as one of the main pests in agricultural landscapes. However high population densities are recorded only in long-fallow lands, winter crops and herbs, and in natural sites with dry-steppe vegetation. Population peaks tend to occur in years with humid summers and repeated warm winters (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).	eng
13458	population	Tsytsulina, K., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	It is a common species with relatively stable populations, with some population fluctuation from year to year. Considered as one of the main pests in agricultural landscapes. However, high population densities are recorded only in long-fallow lands, winter crops and herbs, and in natural sites with dry-steppe vegetation. Population peaks tend to occur in years with humid summers and repeated warm winters (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995).	eng
13458	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Widespread and abundant in the most of the range. However, several isolated populations (e.g. <em>M.s. gorensis</em> and <em>M.s. astrachanensis</em>) are declining because of desertification and landscape degradation due to overgrazing (Shilova 1995). These changes can be reversed through steppe vegetation restoration (Kasatkin <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13458	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Widespread and abundant with no major threats in the most of the range. <br/><br/>Several isolated populations (e.g. <em>M. s. gorensis</em> and <em>M. s. astrachanensis</em>) are declining because of desertification and landscape degradation due to overgrazing (Shilova 1995). These changes are reversible with restoration of steppe vegetation (Kasatkin <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13459	conservation	Shenbrot, G., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
13459	distribution	Shenbrot, G., 2008	This species is found on isolated mountains in Central and Western Kopet-Dag Mountains in SW Turkmenistan, mountains in Iran in the northeast (Khorassan Province, 5 km N Kashmar, USNM) and south (Kuh-e Laleh-Zar and Kuh-e Hazar Mtns south of Kerman), and the Hindu Kush of northern Afghanistan (Parvan Province, Shibar Pass, FMNH). Records in Afghanistan are possibly <em>Microtus ilaeus</em>.	eng
13459	habitat	Shenbrot, G., 2008	Dry montane steppe habitats. In Turkmenia found along river valleys, at moist areas with trees and shrubs (poplar, willow, elm, and dewberry). Elevation ranges from 300 to 2000 m. Feed on green parts of different plants. Colonial, family area is 3-5 m square with 2-5 exits (Malygin, 1983). Pregnant females were found starting from April. It is possible that there is summer break in reproduction. Overwintered females give 2-3 litters per year. Average number of embryos is 6 (Marinina, 1981).	eng
13459	population	Shenbrot, G., 2008	No data available.	eng
13459	threats	Shenbrot, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species. Range reductions could occur due to further climate aridification.	eng
13461	conservation	Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V., 2008	The single site at which the species is known to occur is not protected, although the species has been legally protected under the local Tyrolean provincial law since 2006. There is no current national or EU legislation, but the species is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There are currently no management plans in place (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Recommended conservation actions include the following: conduct surveys to determine the size and distribution of the rediscovered population; continue searching similar sites in the German and Austrian Alps to look for other populations; protect habitat at the rediscovery site.	eng
13461	distribution	Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Microtus bavaricus</em> is endemic to the Northeastern Alps. Previously it was known from only one location in the district of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria, Germany. The last record of the species at this site was in 1962. A population discovered in Northern Tyrol, Austria in 1976/1977 was much later (2000) assigned to <em>Microtus bavaricus</em> based on genetic and karyological analysis (Haring <em>et al.</em> 2000, Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2000). This population was confirmed to exist there still in 2004. Genetic and karyological analyses of both captured individuals and museum specimens have confirmed that the Austrian population belongs to <em>Microtus bavaricus</em> (Haring <em>et al.</em> 2000, Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2000, Martínkova <em>et al.</em> 2007). Intensive surveys in Germany have failed to find the species, and both of the former known sites have been lost (one as a result of urbanization, the other due to deforestation and the replacement of natural vegetation with fertilized pasture)(H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). The species is now known only from Rofan Mountain, Northern Tyrol, Austria where it occurs in altitudes between 730 and 1,100 metres a.s.l. Given the extensive surveys that have been carried out, the species is unlikely to be found elsewhere (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13461	habitat	Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V., 2008	The original site was in an area of Alpine meadows. However, the species was rediscovered in an open mixed forest dominated by spruce with abundant brooks (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13461	population	Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V., 2008	Fewer than 50 individuals have been collected (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13461	threats	Spitzenberger, F., Zima, J., Meinig, H. & Vohralík, V., 2008	Habitat at the type locality was lost following the construction of a hospital. The forests in which <em>M. bavaricus</em> lives in Northern Tyrol were used probably since medieval times as cattle pasture. This practice stopped in 2005, when in parts of the valleys the forest was replaced by fertilized and fenced cattle pastures. Through this <em>M. bavaricus</em> lost large parts of its known habitat. Habitat loss is expected to go on, as the open forests will become denser through lack of cattle browsing and intensification of forestry practices (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13462	conservation	Mitsain, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Some of the known records are from protected areas. Research on population status and trends, habitat requirements and ecology are required.	eng
13462	distribution	Mitsain, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Microtus felteni</em> occurs in southern Serbia, F. Y. R. Macedonia, Albania and northern Greece (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005), where it has been recorded from 360-2,050 m (Kryštufek 1999). The species occurs in a relatively narrow range.	eng
13462	habitat	Mitsain, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is primarily known from mountain forests, although it is very occasionally found on arable farmland at lower altitudes (Kryštufek 1999). This species is poorly known, but is likely to have a broad habitat tolerance (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13462	population	Mitsain, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is a little-known and rare species throughout its relatively small range. Population trends are not known. There is some evidence of range shrinkage in the south of its range indicating population declines (Greece) (C. Stamatopoulos unpublished data). The species has been rarely collected and is known from only around fifteen localities.	eng
13462	threats	Mitsain, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats are known. The species is not likely to be affected significantly by habitat loss (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13463	conservation	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	A lowland species, therefore across most of its range it does not occur in protected areas. In some parts, however, it does occur in protected areas (for example in Greece, and in Libya where most of the species' range lies within the Kouf National Park). No conservation measures are required - this species is considered an agricultural pest.	eng
13463	conservation	Boris Sheftel, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	A lowland species, therefore across most of its range it does not occur in protected areas. In some parts, however, it does occur in protected areas (for example in Greece). No conservation measures are required - this species is considered an agricultural pest.	eng
13463	distribution	Boris Sheftel, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	<em>Microtus guentheri </em>is restricted to the south-east Balkans and Turkey and Northern Libya. Within Europe, it has a discontinuous range in southern Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro), F. Y. R. Macedonia, parts of southern and eastern Greece, southern Bulgaria, and Turkish Thrace, and has been recorded from 150 m to 500 m above sea level (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005).	eng
13463	distribution	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus guentheri</em> occurs from the south-east Balkans and Turkey through Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, with an isolated range segment in northern Libya. Within Europe, it has a discontinuous range in southern Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro), F. Y. R. Macedonia, parts of southern and eastern Greece, southern Bulgaria, and Turkish Thrace, and has been recorded from 150 m to 500 m above sea level (Kryštufek 1999, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). The relict population occurring in the Cyrenaican Plateau of Libya is found at altitudes of up to 1,500 m, and is considered by some authors to be a separate species <em>M. mustersi</em>. For the current assessment <em>M. mustersi</em> is considered part of <em>Microtus guentheri</em>.<br/><br/>Taxonomic difficulties with this species mean the geographic distribution needs further work and should be considered as provisional at this stage.	eng
13463	habitat	Boris Sheftel, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It inhabits dry grasslands with sparse vegetation on well drained soil. These include both natural and man-made habitats (e.g. dry meadows and pastures) (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13463	habitat	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits dry grasslands with sparse vegetation on well drained soil. These include both natural and man-made habitats (e.g. dry meadows and pastures) (Kryštufek 1999). Around the type locality it prefers grassy meadows and riverbanks.<br/><br/>In Libya, it occurs in montane valleys of grassland in isolated pockets of the Cyrenaican Plateau, as well as in agricultural areas such as maize fields. This population is zoogeographically distinct, as there are no populations known from coastal Egypt, the only region where this species could have dispersed through (Ranck, 1968). The population in the Plateau is likely a Pleistocene relict, existing here due to the remaining boreal conditions at this high elevation, the only suitable habitat remaining for <em>Microtus</em> species.	eng
13463	population	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	A common species in south-west Asia; populations fluctuate due to rainfall. In Europe, it occurs in scattered subpopulations which often undergo large fluctuations with steep declines. However, local extinctions have not been recorded. The species is considered locally common in parts of the Balkans. In Asiatic Turkey, very high population densities have been recorded in peak years (Kryštufek 1999). In some localities (e.g. in Israel) it is a serious pest species (B. Kryštufek pers. comm.2007).	eng
13463	population	Boris Sheftel, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	In Europe, it occurs in scattered subpopulations which often undergo large fluctuations with steep declines. However, local extinctions have not been recorded. The species is considered locally common in parts of the Balkans. In Asiatic Turkey, very high population densities have been recorded in peak years (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13463	threats	Boris Sheftel, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	No major threats.	eng
13463	threats	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13464	conservation	Zima, J., Vohralík, V. & Martínková, N., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. The core range of the species' range in Slovakia and Poland falls within protected areas. Habitat and population monitoring is required to ensure that the species is stable and not declining.	eng
13464	distribution	Zima, J., Vohralík, V. & Martínková, N., 2008	The Tatra vole is a European endemic. It is restricted to the Carpathian mountains of Slovakia, Poland, Romania and Ukraine, where it is found at altitudes of 650 to 2,350 m (Martínková and Dudich 2003, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its extent of occurrence is 18,322 km², and its area of occupancy is approximately 840 km<sup>2</sup> (Martínková and Dudich 2003).	eng
13464	habitat	Zima, J., Vohralík, V. & Martínková, N., 2008	The Tatra vole is found in two types of habitat: first, humid areas in climax upper montane forest (usually located in inverse valleys); and second, humid rocky meadows in the subalpine zone. The species is never found outside natural habitats (e.g. in agricultural land). No population fluctuations or population outbreaks are known (Jurdíková <em>et al.</em> 2000, Martínková <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
13464	population	Zima, J., Vohralík, V. & Martínková, N., 2008	It is a rare species that occurs in isolated subpopulations. However, there is no evidence to suggest that range or numbers are decreasing at present. The total population has been estimated to number 200,000-250,000 individuals (Martínková and Dudich 2003), and is probably stable (N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006). There is very little information on the current status of subspecies <em>M. t. zykovi</em> in the Eastern and Southern Carpathians. Populations are severely fragmented. This is partly natural, as the species is restricted to an intrinsically fragmented habitat type (high mountains), but fragmentation may have been exacerbated by the loss of woodland in mountain valleys through human activities in historical times.	eng
13464	threats	Zima, J., Vohralík, V. & Martínková, N., 2008	There are not thought to be any major threats causing significant declines at present. The species requires old, mature forests below the timberline, hence any logging in those areas would be harmful. Its habitat in the subalpine zone, above the timberline should be safe in the near future. Much of its range in the Slovak and Polish mountains falls within protected areas, and there are not thought to be any major developments planned in this area in the near future. However, forest habitat is sometimes lost through natural events (e.g. in 2004 a big storm in the High Tatras destroyed a large 1-2 km wide belt of forest at about 1,000 m above sea level, within the range of the vole: N. Martínková pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13486	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Not legally protected under international legislation. Known to occur in protected areas within Greece.	eng
13486	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Microtus thomasi </em>is endemic to the south-eastern Balkans, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, mainland Greece, and the island of Euboea (Greece) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Its occurrence in Albania has now been confirmed (E. Giagia pers comm. 2007). Occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
13486	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It prefers open areas with deep soil, in which it digs extensive burrows. Recorded habitats include meadows and pastures on karst limestone, and high mountain pastures. It is also found on arable farmland (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13486	population	Kryštufek, B. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is sporadic, but is considered locally common in at least parts of its range. Densities of 383 individuals per hectare have been recorded in Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina) (Kryštufek 1999). In some parts of its range it is considered a pest.	eng
13486	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Mitsain, G., 2008	No major threats.	eng
13487	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
13487	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges from Triangle Island, British Columbia in Canada, south to Humbolt Bay, California in the United States; east in British Columbia to Chilliwack; in Washington to Sauk, Nisqually Flats, and Clark County; in Oregon to Salem, Eugene, and Prospect. It occurs from sea level to about 1,830 m asl in Olympic Mountains, to about 915 m asl in Cascades, Oregon.	eng
13487	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occupies a variety of habitats, but typically occurs in salt and fresh marshes, moist meadows (sometimes dry grass), wetlands along streams; alpine and subalpine meadows. Constructs extensive underground burrow systems and runways through grass. Burrow entrance may be underwater. <br/><br/>Nests may be on or below soil surface. The length of breeding season depends on stage in multiannual abundance cycle. Gestation lasts 21-24 days. Litter size averages 4-7 in different areas. In captivity, young are weaned at 15-17 days, first estrus at 35-80 days (Cornely and Verts 1988). Diet includes various kinds of green vegetation; grasses, sedges, and forbs, mint bulbs.	eng
13487	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Densities as high as 800 per hectare have been recorded, but populations fluctuate widely.	eng
13487	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13488	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops.	eng
13488	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops.	eng
13488	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	The species is present in many protected areas. It is often considered a pest as it damages crops. On Orkney, despite recent declines the vole remains abundant, and simulation modelling suggests that the population is likely to remain viable without requiring specific conservation measures (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).	eng
13488	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus arvalis</em> has a large range extending from Spain across much of western, central and eastern Europe to the Middle East and central Russia (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Isolated populations exist in Iberia, Guernsey and the Orkney Islands. It is absent from much of southern Europe, Fennoscandia, northern Russia, Iceland and the British Isles (with the exception of the Orkney Islands, where it was introduced prehistorically). The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13488	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Microtus arvalis</em> has a large range extending from Spain across much of western, central and eastern Europe to the Middle East and central Russia (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Isolated populations exist in Iberia, Guernsey and the Orkney Islands. It is absent from much of southern Europe, Fennoscandia, northern Russia, Iceland and the British Isles (with the exception of the Orkney Islands, where it was introduced prehistorically). The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13488	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Microtus arvalis</em> has a large range extending from Spain across much of western, central and eastern Europe to the Middle East and central Russia (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). Isolated populations exist in Iberia, Guernsey and the Orkney Islands. It is absent from much of southern Europe, Fennoscandia, northern Russia, Iceland and the British Isles (with the exception of the Orkney Islands, where it was introduced prehistorically). The species occurs from sea level to 2,600 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13488	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Found in a wide variety of open habitats including moist meadows, forest steppe, moist forest and sometimes agricultural areas.  It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).	eng
13488	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Found in a wide variety of open habitats including moist meadows, forest steppe, moist forest and sometimes agricultural areas.  It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).	eng
13488	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is typically found in dry, open habitats such as natural alpine grassland above the timber line (Spitzenberger 2002), grazed pastures, arable land, field margins and meadows. Wet grassland and tall grasses are avoided. It feeds mainly on the green parts of grasses and herbaceous plants, and is a serious agricultural pest in some areas (Zima 1999).	eng
13488	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year.	eng
13488	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year.	eng
13488	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is a common species throughout much of its range, with population densities of over 1,000 individuals per ha reported in peak years. Population densities may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In most areas, populations are apparently stable, although the Orkney subspecies <em>Microtus arvalis orcadensis</em> has declined in recent years (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001).	eng
13488	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	The decline on Orkney has been attributed to land-use changes (Macdonald and Tattersall 2001). Elsewhere it is not under threat.	eng
13488	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species is not under threat.	eng
13488	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The species is not under threat.	eng
13489	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
13489	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
13489	conservation	Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
13489	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	<em>Microtus subterraneus</em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	<em>Microtus subterraneus </em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	distribution	Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	<em>Microtus subterraneus</em> occurs primarily in Europe, where it occupies central regions from the Atlantic coast of France to European Russia, and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations are found in Estonia and near St Petersburg, Russia. Outside Europe, its range extends into western Asia Minor (Turkey) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). There are records of this species from sea level to 2,300 m (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
13489	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	habitat	Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is found in a broad range of habitats including broadleaf and coniferous woodlands, meadows and pastures, and rocky areas in the high mountains. It tolerates both dry and damp conditions (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
13489	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	population	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13489	population	Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is widespread and common throughout most of its range. Despite fluctuations, the long-term population trend appears to be stable (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
13489	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	No major threats.	eng
13489	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2006	No major threats.	eng
13489	threats	Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V., Zima, J. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	No major threats.	eng
13490	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13490	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus multiplex </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in the southern part of the Alps, from southeast France through Switzerland to northern Italy (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,800 m (Hausser 1995, Kryštufek 1999). Populations further east (e.g. in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia) are now referred to as a separate species, <em>Microtus liechtensteini</em> (Spitzenberger 2002, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
13490	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs in dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Hausser 1995). The species eats roots and bulbs, and can feed on grasses (le Louarn and Quéré 2003). The number of young averages 2.7 in Switzerland (Salvioni 1986).	eng
13490	population	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline. The local abundance can be high, up to 100 individuals per hectare in southern France (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).	eng
13490	threats	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
13491	conservation	Amori, G., 2008	The species is found in protected areas. The Sicilian subspecies (<em>nebrodensis</em>) needs more genetic investigation to determine its taxonomic status.	eng
13491	distribution	Amori, G., 2008	<em>Microtus savii </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found throughout northern Italy (with the exception of the extreme north-east, but including Sicily). It occurs marginally in southern Switzerland. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m. Some southern Italian populations previously ascribed to this species have been described as a new species, <em>Microtus brachycercus</em> (Contoli 1999, Castiglia <em>et al.</em> 2008). The distribution limits between <em>M. savii</em> and <em>M. brachycercus</em> require clarification.	eng
13491	habitat	Amori, G., 2008	It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas (Contoli 1999).	eng
13491	population	Amori, G., 2008	It is a widespread and abundant species, dominating small mammal communities within its range, and providing a key food source for many predators. Periodic population booms occur in cultivated areas, and the species is considered an agricultural pest. The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Contoli 1999).	eng
13491	threats	Amori, G., 2008	No major threats.	eng
13493	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
13493	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in the Iberian Peninsula (everywhere except the north-west) and southern France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,250 m (Palomo 1999).	eng
13493	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in open habitats with relatively deep, loose soil, where it constructs underground burrows (Palomo 1999). It occurs in a number of anthropogenic habitats, including pastures, arable land, and orchards. It is also found in shrubland (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).	eng
13493	population	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is widely distributed throughout its geographic range, and can reach high enough densities in some areas to be considered an agricultural pest (particularly in orchards). Population densities of 400-600 individuals per ha exceptionally have been recorded, but lower densities are more typical (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).	eng
13493	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Pest control can cause very significant local population declines (Palomo 1999). However, there is no evidence of global declines as a result of this.	eng
13494	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13494	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus lusitanicus </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs in central and northern Portugal, northwest Spain, and in the extreme south west of France. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,050 m (Palomo 1999, Mira and Mathias in Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13494	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is found in a diverse range of habitat types, including natural habitats (borders of small rivers, chestnut and oak woodland) and agricultural areas (pastures, arable land, rice fields, and orchards). It requires soft and humid soils with dense vegetal cover, where it constructs its burrows. It is often found near to small stone walls (Palomo 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). There are 2.2 young per litter (le Louarn and Quéré 2003).	eng
13494	population	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is very abundant, and is considered an agricultural pest in orchards in some parts of its range. Population densities appear relatively constant, with no cyclic fluctuations. In Spain, there have been no studies on population dynamics in natural habitats, but in orchards population densities of 100-200 individuals per hectare are typical (and exceptionally densities greater than 300 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
13494	threats	Aulagnier, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. Pest control measures can cause local population declines (Palomo 1999).	eng
13522	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species has been reported from the Desert National Park, Rajasthan. Survey, epidemiology and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13522	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from India (Gujarat, Rajasthan) and Pakistan (Baluchistan, North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is widespread.	eng
13522	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in thorny scrub in hot deserts, and semi deserts. It has been found to occupy dry sandy and rocky areas away from cultivated lands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13522	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13522	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	No major threats have been identified for this species.	eng
13523	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	Mt. Popa is designated a protected area, although the species probably only occurs on the lower slopes of this mountain.	eng
13523	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to central Myanmar (Ellerman 1961; Musser and Carleton 2005). It was recorded recently at Mt. Popa near the type locality of Pagan, but was absent from surrounding areas (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13523	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in sandy plain area with degraded, scrubby vegetation.	eng
13523	population	Aplin, K., 2008	It is suspected to be locally common in the central dry zone of Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13523	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, as although the habitat of this species is heavily degraded, this does not seem to have had a major impact on the species and may even have had a beneficial effect in expanding its range.	eng
13524	conservation	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected areas. Survey, limiting factor research, habitat management and captive breeding are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13524	distribution	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to India, known only from the small Singharh plateau (about one km²), near Pune in Maharashtra (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). No specimens of this new species were collected by Mishra and Dhanda (1975) from the other nearby sample areas (Khandala, Bhor, and Mulshi). It has been reported from an elevation of about 1,270 m asl and is restricted to a single location based on surveys and available habitat (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mishra and Dhanda (1975) observed the species using burrows.	eng
13524	habitat	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub. It has been found to occupy bushy scrub and sometimes found to build nests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13524	population	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
13524	threats	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The major threats to the species are general loss of habitat, overgrazing of vegetation and disturbance from tourism (the area contains important archaeological sites) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13525	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded in several protected areas in South Asia. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13525	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is widely distributed, endemic South Asian field rat, known from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It is found from sea level up to 2,670 m asl altitude (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13525	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous forests,tropical grasslands, irrigated croplands and grasslands with gravel. Agriculture lands, water courses, embankments, dry rocky hills. It has been found to occupy gravelly areas, bunds of fields and largely cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13525	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is one of the most common rats trapped in agricultural fields closer to the plains in Coorg (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
13525	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Although several factors could affect the species, major threats are not identified.	eng
13556	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional research into the taxonomy of this species is needed.	eng
13556	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is widespread over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa and Central Africa (although seemingly absent from much of the Congo basin), to southern Sudan and western Ethiopia in the east, from here it ranges southwards through East Africa to Zambia and Angola, with the southernmost record from south-central Mozambique. It is found at elevations of up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
13556	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	Animals are generally associated with forest-savanna mosaic habitats. This species can, however, be encountered in tropical moist forest that is close to savanna areas (Happold 1987). Small colonies of nine to twelve individuals have been found roosting in cracks beneath the bark of dead trees, and within houses (Rosevear 1965; Kingdon 1974; Brosset 1966; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998)	eng
13556	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	Although the species is difficult to catch, it is not considered to be especially rare.	eng
13556	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
13559	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss and roost disturbance. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13559	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs from northern Colombia, then in the north coastal region of Venezuela to the Guianas, and follow the coast of Brazil to southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989). In Brazil, it occurs in Distrito Federal, Goias and Matto Grosso do Sul.	eng
13559	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Poorly known. This species inhabits in dry and semideciduous forest, and mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997) and cerrado (Aguiar pers. comm.). Usually roosts in groups of 2 to 20 in wet limestone caves (most captures are made in or around roosts). Also has been reported in hollow logs (LaVal, 1977). It probably gleans prey from vegetation. Whitaker and Findley (1980) found remains of large scarab beetles and a bird in feces of 4 individuals. Small lizards and katydids are also taken. Single young are born at the onset of the rainy season (Reid, 1997).	eng
13559	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare to locally common in central Brazil (Zortea and Aguiar pers. comm.),  but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13559	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss and roost disturbance. Studies show that Phyllostominae are particularly sensitive to disturbance (Fenton <em>et al</em>. 1992; Medellin <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
13560	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce habitat loss, a systematic taxonomic review is necessary as are ecological studies. Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
13560	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from Campeche and Chiapas, Mexico, south over most of the Neotropics, including northeastern Brazil, northern Peru and northern Bolivia; also in Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Lowlands only. In Brazil, it has been recorded in Esprito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais states (Zortea and Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
13560	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Poorly known. It is found in dry deciduous, semideciduous and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, also in plantations, and clearings near forest (Reid, 1997). Also in Cerrado (Aguiar and Zortea pers. comm.). It frequently forages in natural openings or man-made fields, and it roosts in hollow tree trunks, rotting logs, and hollow tree stumps, prefering humid areas; it is occasionally found in buildings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997). Small groups cluster together in the roost. Probably gleans insects from vegetation, the diet consisting mainly of beetles, with some flies, moths, spiders, whipscorpions, and small lizards (Humphrey <em>et al.</em>, 1983; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant females have been recorded in April in Costa Rica (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1970; LaVal, 1977). Mimon crenulatum is often mist-netted in male-female pairs, suggesting that pairs forage together (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13560	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Rare in Guatemala and Belize (Perez and Miller pers. comm.).	eng
13560	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range although this is not a major threat.	eng
13561	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In Europe, it is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.<br/><br/>The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>Care is required when fencing caves to minimise mortality. Further research is required into the causes of the recent mass mortality events.	eng
13561	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	In Europe, it is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.<br/><br/>The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>Care is required when fencing caves to minimise mortality. Further research is required into the causes of the recent mass mortality events.	eng
13561	conservation	Tony Hutson, Stephane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation. There have been a number of  LIFE-funded projects for this species in Spain, Italy, Romania and Germany.	eng
13561	distribution	Tony Hutson, Stephane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	A southern Palaearctic species; patchily distributed over its range in some huge and vulnerable colonies. It typically occurs at altitudes of up to 1,400m (commuting up to 2,600m).	eng
13561	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Occurs from south-western Europe and north and west Africa through Anatolia and the Middle East to the Caucasus. In Africa it is known from records in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya), and west Africa (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Cameroon).  It is patchily distributed over its range in some huge and vulnerable colonies.<br/><br/>It typically occurs at altitudes of up to 1,400 m asl (commuting up to 2,600 m asl).	eng
13561	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Occurs from south-western Europe and north and west Africa through Anatolia and the Middle East to the Caucasus. In Africa it is known from records in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya), and west Africa (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Cameroon).  It is patchily distributed over its range in some huge and vulnerable colonies.<br/><br/>It typically occurs at altitudes of up to 1,400 m asl (commuting up to 2,600 m asl).	eng
13561	habitat	Tony Hutson, Stephane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines, often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large and warm caves are preferred. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). Schreiber's bat is a migrant species which changes its roosts frequently, long-distance movements occur occasionally (longest recorded distance 833 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13561	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies. It is a colonial species that roosts mostly in caves and mines (although it can also be found in man made tunnels, ruins and other buildings), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large warm caves are preferred during the nursing season. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). Schreiber's bat is a migrant species which changes its roosts several times during the year; long-distance movements occur occasionally (longest recorded distance 833 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13561	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies. It is a colonial species that roosts mostly in caves and mines (although it can also be found in man made tunnels, ruins and other buildings), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large warm caves are preferred during the nursing season. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). Schreiber's bat is a migrant species which changes its roosts several times during the year; long-distance movements occur occasionally (longest recorded distance 833 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13561	population	Tony Hutson, Stephane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	In southern Europe and Asia Minor it is widely distributed and common, but it has lost the northern parts of its range since the 1960s. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 80,000 animals in Bulgaria and 100,000 in India). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals (exceptionally up to 33,000 animals in Spain and Romania). Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in most of south-east Europe and the Middle East it appears to be stable, whereas very significant recent declines have occurred in northern parts of the European range. In south-west Europe there have been recent mass mortality events.<br/><br/>Extinction has occured in Germany and Ukraine. In Switzerland the species has declined since the 1960s and is now close to extinction, and in Austria the hibernating population has declined from 2,500 to 1-2 individuals and all maternity colonies have been lost. In Romania, half of the roosts have disappeared since the 1960s. However, no decline has been recorded in large colonies in Croatia and Bulgaria. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal; there are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy and Australia and a possible incidence in Iran. A herpesvirus was found but not identified as the cause of the die offs. Hundreds of individuals were found dead in spring. Mortality up to 60% in one year (2002) was reported in France (Roué and Némoz 2002), and 40% mortality occurred in Spain during the same period including 1,000 dead individuals out of 6,000 in one colony. A number of sites were subsequently deserted. Outside Europe, it is the second most common bat species in Turkey and Iran, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatash and M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The population in Iran is probably stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Populations in the Caucasus are considered Near Threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
13561	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In southern Europe and Asia Minor this species is widely distributed and common, but it has lost the northern parts of its range since the 1960s. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 80,000 animals in Bulgaria). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals (exceptionally up to 33,000 animals in Spain and Romania). Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in most of south-east Europe and Turkey it appears to be stable, whereas very significant recent declines have occurred in northern parts of the European range. In south-west Europe there have been recent mass mortality events.<br/><br/>Extinction has occured in Germany and Ukraine. In Switzerland the species has declined since the 1960s and it is now close to extinction, and in Austria the hibernating population has declined from 2,500 to 1-2 individuals and all maternity colonies have been lost. In Romania, half of the roosts have disappeared since the 1960s. However, no decline has been recorded in large colonies in Croatia and Bulgaria. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal; there are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy. A herpesvirus was found but not identified as the cause of the die offs. Hundreds of individuals were found dead in spring. Mortality up to 60% in one year (2002) was reported in France (Roué and Némoz 2002), and 40% mortality occurred in Spain during the same period including 1,000 dead individuals out of 6,000 in one colony. A number of sites were subsequently deserted. Outside Europe, it is the third most common bat species in Turkey, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). Populations in the Caucasus are considered Near Threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
13561	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	In southern Europe and Asia Minor this species is widely distributed and common, but it has lost the northern parts of its range since the 1960s. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 80,000 animals in Bulgaria). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals (exceptionally up to 33,000 animals in Spain and Romania). Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in most of south-east Europe and Turkey it appears to be stable, whereas very significant recent declines have occurred in northern parts of the European range. In south-west Europe there have been recent mass mortality events.<br/><br/>Extinction has occured in Germany and Ukraine. In Switzerland the species has declined since the 1960s and it is now close to extinction, and in Austria the hibernating population has declined from 2,500 to 1-2 individuals and all maternity colonies have been lost. In Romania, half of the roosts have disappeared since the 1960s. However, no decline has been recorded in large colonies in Croatia and Bulgaria. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal; there are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy. A herpesvirus was found but not identified as the cause of the die offs. Hundreds of individuals were found dead in spring. Mortality up to 60% in one year (2002) was reported in France (Roué and Némoz 2002), and 40% mortality occurred in Spain during the same period including 1,000 dead individuals out of 6,000 in one colony. A number of sites were subsequently deserted. Outside Europe, it is the third most common bat species in Turkey, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). Populations in the Caucasus are considered Near Threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
13561	threats	Tony Hutson, Stephane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	Disturbance and loss of underground habitats and pesticide use may threaten this species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The cause of recent mass mortality events is unknown. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.	eng
13561	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In Africa there are no known threats to the species. In Europe, the disturbance and loss of underground habitats and pesticide use may threaten this species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>The cause of recent mass mortality events is unknown. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal. There are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy, Australia and a possible incidence in Iran. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.	eng
13561	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Benda, P., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	In Africa there are no known threats to the species. In Europe, the disturbance and loss of underground habitats and pesticide use may threaten this species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>The cause of recent mass mortality events is unknown. In 2002 mass mortalities of this species were reported for populations in France, Spain and Portugal. There are also historical records for such mortalities in Italy, Australia and a possible incidence in Iran. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.	eng
13562	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Pennay, M., Thomson, B., Reardon, T., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	In view of its wide range, it is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas.	eng
13562	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Pennay, M., Thomson, B., Reardon, T., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Philippines through the island of Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), Sulawesi (Indonesia), Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia to eastern Australia, including several Torres Strait Islands. It occurs throughout the Philippines except Babuyan/Batanes group with specimens recorded from Bongao, Bohol, Capiz, Catanduanes, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Bulacan, Kalinga (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Maguindanao, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Negros, Panay, Polillo, and Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) being found from sea level to about 925 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species has also been recorded from Samar (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006), Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) and on Isarog at 1,450 m asl (Sedlock unpubl. data). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl in New Guinea. Given that specimens of this species may have been misidentified as another species, it may be found to range more widely than is currently known (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
13562	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Pennay, M., Thomson, B., Reardon, T., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	This species roosts in colonies in caves and tunnels, and may also be found roosting in tree holes. It forages for insects in rainforest, <em>Meleleuca</em> swamps and dry sclerophyll forests (Strahan 1995; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).  It has a gestation period of about four and a half weeks after which a single young is born. The species may migrate seasonally.<br/>In the Philippines, the species is often dependent on caves (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it forages over the canopy in secondary and primary lowland areas, including agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934). It has also been documented in montane forest on Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
13562	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Pennay, M., Thomson, B., Reardon, T., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	It is generally a common species. Maternity colonies of hundreds of thousands of individuals may be encountered (Flannery 1995). In the Philippines, the species is common in appropriate habitat with caves (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is also common in Sabah and elsewhere in Indonesia.	eng
13562	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Pennay, M., Thomson, B., Reardon, T., Kingston, T. & Sinaga, U., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is presumably locally threatened by disturbance of maternity caves. In the Philippines, limestone quarrying is destroying roosting habitat and it is also threatened by disturbance caused by guano mining there, however, individuals reoccupy caves once the disturbance ceases.	eng
13563	conservation	Schlitter, D., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. In Tanzania it is present in the Manga Forest Reserve of Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further studies are needed to better define the range of this species.	eng
13563	distribution	Schlitter, D., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	This species is present in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It is known from a number of discrete ranges, the largest of which stretches down south-eastern Africa, from Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, down to South Africa (where is extends along the south coast). It is also known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo near the borders with Uganda and Rwanda (although this population needs to be confirmed as <em>Miniopterus fraterculus</em>), and recorded from localities in Tanzania, Zambia, and Kenya. A small recorded range in Kenya near the border with Tanzania probably does not represent <em>Miniopterus fraterculus</em>.	eng
13563	habitat	Schlitter, D., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	The species' distribution in KwaZulu-Natal indicates a wide range of habitats from drier Valley bushveld and Lowveld to moister Mistbelt (including forest habitats), where suitable cover is present in the form of caves, overhangs, and unused mine and railway tunnels (Taylor, 1998). Roosts in caves, overhangs, disused mines, railway tunnels and similar habitats (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In KwaZulu-Natal it has been found in damp sandstone caves, a solution cave of poorly consolidated glacio-fluvial boulder clay, a rocky overhang over a forest stream, a rock fissure, a railway tunnel as well as from unused mine adits (Taylor, 1998).	eng
13563	population	Schlitter, D., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	It is common and widespread.	eng
13563	threats	Schlitter, D., Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species on the African mainland.	eng
13564	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	No breeding colonies are known from protected areas. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
13564	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan where it is known from Amami-Oshima, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Okinawa Island, Kume Island, Ishigaki, and Iriomote (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In 1933, the species was collected from Kii Peninsula (Honshu), but it now appears to be extinct there (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13564	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	It roosts in caves and mines, with colonies numbering over several hundred bats. They forage over forests.	eng
13564	population	Maeda, K., 2008	There were many large maternity colonies in the past , but now many appear to have become small or extinct. On Okinawa Island, one maternity colony of 1,000 females in the southern district, and three winter colonies of 100, 500 and 1,000 individuals in the northern district were observed until several years ago, but now the maternity colony has disappeared. On Iriomote Island there are only two colonies (3,000 and 100 individuals respectively) known (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). There may be one breeding colony on Tokunoshima, but there is no information for Amami-Oshima. There is no known breeding colony on Ishigaki.	eng
13564	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	Roost disturbance from humans/tourists (e.g., some caves have electricity lined in for tourist activities), and the threat of development around caves represent the main threats.	eng
13565	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a need to limit disturbance of important roosting caves. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species in West Africa.	eng
13565	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa, It has been reported from Liberia and Guinea in West Africa; from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa; from Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa; and from Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique in southern Africa. The distribution of this species is somewhat unclear due to confusion with records of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em> (Simmons 2005).	eng
13565	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	Although this species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, Skinner and Cimimba (2005) suggest that the availability of roosting sites (caves and similar habitats) and a plentiful food supply are more important to this species than the vegetational association. It roosts in small numbers, with Churchill <em>et al.</em> (1997) reporting a cluster of 50 animals.	eng
13565	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	This is generally considered to be a locally rare species, although it can be common in some areas.	eng
13565	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species. Some roosting caves are disturbed by tourism activities.	eng
13566	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded it in Viet Nam at Pu Mat National Park, Cuc Phuong National Park, and at Toong Ching. The urgent priority with this species is to resolve Miniopterus taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it. There is a need to protect important roosting and foraging sites of this species.	eng
13566	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species appears to be widely distributed from Myanmar in the west (recorded from Hpo-an and Mawlamyine; Bates <em>et al.</em> 2000), through southern China (including Hainan Island) and much of Southeast Asia, as far east as the island of New Guinea. Within this range it has been recorded from many island localities including Sumatra (a single locality; Indonesia), western Java (Indonesia), northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia and Kalimantan, Indonesia), Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and Seram (Indonesia). A number of records of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em> have been reidentified as <em>Miniopterus magnater</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.). It has been recorded from sea level to 2,100 m asl, but this is not clear given identification problems.	eng
13566	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This is a cave roosting species, often found roosting with other bat species. It possibly forms large colonies. It has been recorded foraging generally above the canopy in primary and secondary tropical forest, and also close to human settlements. Bonaccorso (1998) and Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) noted that they may be seen hawking insects around street lights, but this is not certain given identification problems.	eng
13566	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
13566	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is presumed to be threatened by cave disturbance and degradation in some parts of its range.	eng
13567	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. The urgent priority for this species is to resolve Miniopterus taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it.	eng
13567	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species ranges from southern Thailand and the Malay Peninsula, to Java, with scattered localities on the islands of Borneo and New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), as far east as Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It is perhaps also present in the Solomon Islands. On Borneo, there are three records from Sabah (Tepadong caves, Batu pute and Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary; Lackman-Ancrenaz and Ancrenaz 1997), and at least two records from Kalimantan -  Betung Kerihun National Park (Soedjito 1999) and from Gunung Niut Nature Reserve, West Kalimantan (Simons 1987). On Java, it has been recorded from the Cibodas Botanical Gardens, Mount Gede Pangrango National Park. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,600 m. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
13567	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species roosts in limestone caves, tunnels, and rock crevices. It is frequently found as tightly packed groups in clusters of mixed bat species. Bonaccorso (1998) mentions a mixed colony of 10,000 bats, containing this species, on the island of New Britain. It is an aerial insectivore that forages in lowland tropical dipterocarp forest. One of the five adult females captured at the Ulatawa Plantation in January 1997 was in early term pregnancy (Bonaccorso 1998). However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
13567	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is locally abundant in the highlands of the western half of Papua New Guinea, and in lowland areas with caves on the islands of New Britain and New Ireland (Bonaccorso 1998) However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
13567	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Limestone extraction and human disturbance of roosting caves may adversely affect the species in some areas.	eng
13568	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
13568	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known African species has been recorded from very few locations over a wide area. It has been reported from a small area on the border between Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a single locality in southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from a small area of coastal Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
13568	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.	eng
13568	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are very few records of this species.	eng
13568	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
13569	conservation	Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13569	distribution	Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species is distributed from patchy records in South Asia, into much of mainland Southeast Asia, and part of Insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Nicobar Islands) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Aul and Vijayakumar 2003, Korad <em>et al. </em>2007, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2006). In China it has been recorded from Hong Kong, Guangdong, Hainan and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from southern Myanmar, through Thailand (including the island of Terutau), Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northern Cambodia. In Insular Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from Indonesia (Java Sulawesi, West Timor, Ambon, Seram and Batjan) and possibly from East Timor. In South Asia it has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13569	habitat	Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species roosts in limestone caves, under culverts, in crevices in trees in colonies comprising up to 700 individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Nicobar Islands, it is observed to roosts in forest caves in large numbers (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In Myanmar it has been recorded roosting in limestone caves, and in both degraded forest and agricultural areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
13569	population	Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South east Asia, this species is widespread and locally common. There are large colonies in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), it is common in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.), and there are probably a few hundred in Viet Nam (Borissenko <em>et al. </em>2003). In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13569	threats	Bumrungsri, S., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species. In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also threatened by disturbance and loss of roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13570	conservation	Brescia, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are required into the distribution, ecology, possible threats, and current status of this species.	eng
13570	distribution	Brescia, F., 2008	The Loyalty Bent-winged Bat is known only from the islands of Lifou and Maré in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia (Flannery 1995). This is a narrow distribution for species in the genus <em>Miniopterus</em> (Flannery 1995).	eng
13570	habitat	Brescia, F., 2008	There is nothing recorded about the natural history of this species (Flannery 1995).	eng
13570	population	Brescia, F., 2008	The population abundance of Loyalty Bent-winged Bats is not known (Flannery 1995).	eng
13570	threats	Brescia, F., 2008	This species is threatened by destruction and human disturbance at roost sites (Kirsh <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13571	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This wide ranging species is presumably present in some protected areas. Important roosting and foraging sites should be identified and protected. An urgent priority is to resolve <em>Miniopterus</em> taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and ecology of this species.	eng
13571	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	The species occurs from the Philippines to the islands of Sulawesi and Sanana (Indonesia), and from there east to the islands of Biak-Supiori and Yapen (Indonesia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), a number of islands in Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands (Nendo, Nggele Sule, Rennell and San Cristobal islands), and as far south as the islands of Espiritu Santo and Efate in Vanuatu (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has also been recorded also on Buton Island (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006) and Sanana Island, Sulawesi (Simmons 2005). However, some of these may be erroneous, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).<br/>It is found throughout the Philippines with records from Bohol, Cebu, Guimaras, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon, Palawan, Mindanao (Maguindanao, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Samar, and Tablas (Hollister 1912; Lawrence 1939; Peterson 1981; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it occurs from sea level up to 430 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been recorded between sea level and 1,600 m over its entire range.	eng
13571	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	Apparently this bat roosts only in caves and forages in agricultural areas and disturbed lowland forest near sea level (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan it has been recorded in old growth forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is an aerial insectivore that catches insects above the forest canopy, in open areas, in disturbed forest and in some agricultural areas.	eng
13571	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	It is locally abundant where cave systems are available in lowland, hill or lower montane forest (Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines, this is a moderately common species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found roosting in large colonies in caves on Buton Island (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13571	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range, however, locally it is affected by disturbance of caves.	eng
13572	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed under Appedix II of CITES, and as Class B under the African Convention. It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
13572	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The Southern Talapoin is found in the coastal watersheds south of the Congo River, notably the Mebridege River, Loge River, Cuanza River, Nhia River, and Cuvo River (but spilling over into the upper reaches of the Cuango River). According to Groves (2001), this species is found on the coast of Angola, south to about 13'S, and into the Democratic Republic of Congo as far as the Cuango River and both sides of the Kasai River.	eng
13572	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This is a strictly riverine species that is limited to dense evergreen vegetation on the banks of rivers that often flow through Miombo (Brachystegia) woodland or, increasingly, cultivated areas. The home ranges of this species are likely to be larger, and densities lower, than is the case with <em>M. ogouensis</em> because forest strips are narrower and resources scarcer. Climatic fluctuations have likely reinforced this species' primary adaptation to 'strip living'. Longer dry seasons and less extensive flooding under generally cooler and drier climates may have favoured more terrestrial habits than are apparent in <em>M. ogouensis</em>. It mainly feeds on fruits, but also on seeds, young foliage, and invertebrates.	eng
13572	population	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Very little is known about the population status of this species, but it is not likely to be threatened.	eng
13572	threats	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
13581	conservation	Campagna, C., 2008	Northern elephant seals are fully protected on their Mexican and US rookeries, and when they are within the 200 mile EEZ of the United States and Mexico.	eng
13581	distribution	Campagna, C., 2008	Northern elephant seals are found in the eastern and north central North Pacific. Breeding takes place on offshore islands and at a few mainland localities from central Baja California to Northern California. The species breeds at over fifteen discrete locations, of which a dozen are well-known and distributed mostly in islands of southern California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Condit <em>et al</em>. in press). A few pups are born in Oregon, Washington and southern British Columbia. Año Nuevo, in Central California, is a major breeding site.<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals migrate to and from their rookeries twice a year, returning once to breed from December to March and again later for several weeks to molt, at different times depending on sex and age. They also show up at additional coastal sites as far north as southern Oregon for moulting. Their post-breeding and post-moult migrations take most seals north and west to oceanic areas of the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska twice a year. Adult males tend to travel further north and west than adult females. Wanderers have been found as far away as Japan and the Midway Islands.	eng
13581	habitat	Campagna, C., 2008	Northern elephant seals are huge and imposing animals. Significant sexual dimorphism exists in size and secondary sexual characteristics. Males are three to four times heavier, and nearly 1.5 times the length of adult females. Adult males reach 4.2 m in length and a maximum weight of 2,500 kg. Mean length for males is 3.85 m and mean weight is 1,844 kg. Maximum weight is seen when the bulls are newly arrived for the breeding season after a summer and fall largely spent feeding.<br/><br/>The mean length of adult females is 2.65 m, and they can reach a length of 2.82 m. Mean mass is 488 kg, with a maximum recorded mass of 710 kg, both values are from shortly after females give birth. Newborn pups are about 1.25 m long and weigh 30-40 kg. Pups are born in a long woolly black lanugo coat that is shed without the epidermis starting at about 4-5 weeks and usually lasting several weeks until after the pup is weaned. After molting, the newly weaned juvenile’s coat is made up of short hairs like those found on adults and they are counter shaded dark gray above and silver gray below.<br/><br/>Body weight of adults fluctuates dramatically due to the demands of fasting during the breeding season. Adult females can lose almost half their mass during lactation, when they take their single pup from birth to weaning in approximately 25 days. The situation is similar for breeding males, which also lose about half their mass while ashore for periods that can exceed three months.<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 years and males at 7-9 years. Gestation lasts 11.3 months, including a delay of implantation. The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is 95 %. Longevity is above 14 years for males and 21 years for females (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals are highly polygynous, but not strictly territorial. Males compete for access to females by ranking themselves in a hierarchy. There is much male-male fighting, vocalizing, and displaying during the breeding season, when bulls may be ashore for months at a time. One of the most impressive displays occurs when a male rears up on his hindquarters, thrusts one half to two-thirds of his body upward and produces a distinctive clap threat vocalization as a challenge to other bulls. The sound is a rolling, resonant, metallic-sounding series of backfire like sounds punctuated with pauses.<br/><br/>Females give birth within a few days of coming ashore, from late December to March. Females have a throaty sputtering growl, made with the mouth wide open, which is used as threat gesture. Females and pups have a warbling scream call that they use to call to each other, and in the case of the pup, to notify its mother when it is disturbed. Mother and pup form a strong bond immediately after birth, and females aggressively bite other pups that approach them, occasionally killing them with bites to the head. However, bulls are a greater source of pup mortality as they regularly crush pups when they charge through aggregations of mothers and pups to chase off or fight encroaching males, or when approaching females for mating. Occasionally, bulls suffocate pups by stopping on top of them and not moving again soon enough.<br/><br/>Northern elephant seals hold the record as the deepest-diving pinniped. Time-depth recording devices have documented dives to an astounding 1580 m by an adult male. They also have extreme breath holding ability and have been recorded to dive for as long as 77 minutes. Rest intervals at the surface are usually short, lasting only several minutes between routine dives that last 20-30 minutes and reach 300 to 800 m in depth. After leaving the rookeries, most of these seals spend 80-90% of their time underwater, helping explain why they are infrequently seen at sea.<br/><br/>During migration, females travel further west, but males travel further north. Most of the males go all the way up to the coast of Alaska and the Aleutians, while females move into the deep waters of the Pacific.<br/><br/>Fifty-three species of prey have been identified in the diet of northern elephant seals. More than half of these species are squid. Other prey includes various fishes, such as Pacific whiting, several species of rock fish, and a variety of small sharks and rays. They have also been reported to feed on pelagic red crabs. Approximately 70% of their prey comes from mid and deep water zones in open ocean habitat far offshore.<br/><br/>Great white sharks and killer whales are predators on northern elephant seals. Recent work at the Farallon Islands off of central California has revealed that large great white sharks aggregate around the islands in the fall when juvenile elephant seals return for their annual moult. Seals that swim at or near the surface as they are approaching or departing the islands are particularly vulnerable to ambush attacks by fast-rising sharks that patrol near the bottom in waters seven to ten meters deep.	eng
13581	population	Campagna, C., 2008	The northern elephant seal population continues to expand rapidly (R. Condit <em>et al</em>. in press). In 2005, 42,589 pups were counted, an increase of 14,699 (53%) over the number observed in 1991. Based on pup production, total population size in 2005 was estimated to be 171,000, compared to 113,000 in 1991. This is a mean annual growth rate of 3.0% yr1. In 1977, fewer than 14,000 pups were born (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1994), so annual growth from 1977 to 1991 was 5.2% yr-1.<br/><br/>Population growth was due primarily to growth at colonies in southern California. Three colonies accounted for 88.2% of the growth in pups produced: increases in pup production of 5,683 for San Nicolas Island, 4,096 for Santa Rosa Island and 3,459 for Piedras Blancas.	eng
13581	threats	Campagna, C., 2008	The northern elephant seal was hunted to the brink of extinction in a surge of commercial exploitation in the late 1800s. Estimates are that as few as 20 animals survived the period of commercial harvesting. Fortunately, for the species, their pelagic nature and the fact that most seals spend 80% or more of their lives at sea, and that they all do all not return to their rookeries at the same time, ensured that enough seals were at sea to support continuation of the species when sealers undertook wholesale slaughters at rookery sites. Following a slow recovery in the early 1900s, northern elephant seals began to recolonize formerly used sites throughout the 1980s.<br/><br/>Incidental take in a variety of coastal net fisheries does occur, but at low levels. This is assumed to be because northern elephant seals move offshore rapidly after leaving colonies to minimize their risk of shark predation. Most of the prey of the northern elephant seal is either of low commercial value or minimally harvested in fisheries. If the population continues to expand there will likely be new rookeries on mainland beaches, and there will be additional challenges to keep conflicts with humans and domestic and feral animals to a minimum. The risk of transfer of diseases, such as morbillivirus from domestic animals to northern elephant seals, is unknown, but the species is considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of disease outbreaks because of their rapidly expanding population and environmental changes associated with global warming (Lavigne and Schmitz 1990). Tourism at several mainland locations in the United States is extremely popular but highly regulated and is not considered a major threat to the species. Tourist access to nearly all of  the islands occupied by elephant seals is controlled by law or otherwise regulated in the United States and Mexico, although a number of Mexican islands are inhabited either year round or most of the year by fishermen and their families.<br/><br/>As the species has now recovered from a very small number of survivors, it has likely lost a considerable amount of diversity from passing through this genetic bottleneck, and may now be at greater risk from disease outbreaks and environmental change.	eng
13583	conservation	Campagna, C., 2008	Any future exploitation within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60ºS) would be regulated by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, while north of this area the Convention on Antarctic Marine Living Resources and various national measures for the islands and continental areas on which the species breeds and occurs apply. The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance provides protection for southern elephant seals on South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
13583	distribution	Campagna, C., 2008	Southern elephant seals have a nearly circumpolar distribution in the southern Hemisphere. Although they reach the Antarctic continent and even very high latitude locations such as Ross Island, they are most common north of the seasonally shifting pack ice, especially in Subantarctic waters where most rookeries and haul-outs are located. Notable exceptions include the northern breeding colonies at Peninsula Valdés, in Argentina and on the Falkland-Malvina Islands.<br/><br/>Some pups are also born on the Antarctic continent. Southern elephant seals prefer sandy and cobble beaches, but will haul-out on sea ice, snow and rocky terraces and regularly rest above the beach in tussock grass, other vegetation, and mud wallows. At sea, females and males tend to disperse to different feeding grounds. Wandering and vagrant southern elephant seals reach southern Africa, southern Australia, New Zealand and Brazil in South America. An Indian Ocean record at Oman on the Arabian Peninsula represents a northernmost record.	eng
13583	habitat	Campagna, C., 2008	The southern elephant seal is the largest pinniped species. Adult males typically reach 4.5 m and a maximum of 5.8 m in length, and weigh 1,500-3,000 kg, with a maximum weight of about 3,700 kg. The literature contains numerous accounts of much larger males, with maximum lengths of 6-7 m, but these dimensions usually include hind flippers, whereas the standard length in use today is from tip of nose to tip of tail. Adult females are similar in size and weight to northern elephant seal females weighing 350-600 kg with exceptionally large females reaching 800 kg. Newborn pups are about 1.3 m and 40-50 kg. Pups are born in a long woolly black lanugo coat that is shed at about 3 weeks of age, to reveal a silver gray counter-shaded coat that is yellowish gray ventrally.<br/><br/>Females reach sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years and males reach sexual maturity at an age of 4 years. However, few males breed until they reach the age of least 10 years (Jones 1981). Ninety percent of males die before the age of 10 years while 90% of females die before the age of 14 years (McCann 1980, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Pregnant females arrive from September to October, and usually give birth within five days of their return. Pups are nursed for an average of 23 days and then are abruptly weaned when the female departs to sea. Females come into estrous about four days before they wean their pup and mate, starting a new reproductive cycle before completing their current effort. Pups remain on the breeding beaches for eight to ten weeks, during which time they complete the moult of their lanugo coat, before departing to sea.<br/><br/>Elephant seals have an annual cycle with two well-defined pelagic phases, with transitions being marked by moult and reproduction. Adult males and females come ashore to reproduce from August to October. This species provide one of the most extreme examples of polygyny among mammals. The social units are harems, each held by a single dominant male that monopolizes access to up to 120-150 sexually receptive females for a period of approximately two months. Early in the breeding season males establish dominance hierarchies on beaches via impressive displays, which include rearing up on the hindquarters and lifting almost  two-thirds of the body straight up to fight with a peer or issue vocal challenges to nearby bulls.<br/><br/>Vocalizations include a booming, loud call of the adult male in the breeding season, variously called a bubbling roar, a harsh rattling sound, and a low pitched series of pulses with little variation in frequency. Adult females have a high-pitched yodeling call which they use when distressed, and to call their pups. They will also utter a low pitch, sputtering growl. Pups call to their mothers with a sharp bark or yap, which is also used when interacting with other seals.<br/><br/>Southern elephant seals spend a large percentage of their lives at sea and only return to land to give birth, breed and moult. At sea, they range far from their rookeries and predominantly feed between the Subantarctic convergence and the northern edge of the pack ice, south of the Antarctic convergence. Adult males typically venture further south than females, and are known to forage at the seaward edge of the Antarctic continental shelf.<br/><br/>Foraging elephant seals combine exceptionally deep diving with long-distance traveling, covering millions of square kilometers while traversing a wide range of oceanographic regions during periods of up to seven months at sea. The seals spend most of their at-sea time in particular water masses that include frontal systems, currents and shifting marginal ice-edge zones. Studies of foraging locations suggest that seals are sensitive to fine-scale variation in bathymetry and ocean surface properties (sea-ice concentration, sea surface temperature).<br/><br/>Southern elephant seals are prodigious divers and routinely reach the same depths as their northern counterparts. Dive depth and duration vary during the year and between the sexes, but normally range from 300 to 500 m deep and from 20 to just over 30 minutes in duration. A maximum depth of 1430 m was recorded for a female, following her return to sea after the moult. Another post-moult female dove for an astonishing 120 minutes, which is by far the longest dive ever recorded for a pinniped.<br/><br/>Prey consists of approximately 75% squid and 25% fish. Antarctic <em>Notothenia</em> fishes are thought to be important prey when these seals are near the Antarctic continental shelf. Most feeding by females occurs in deep ocean areas at mid-water depths. Adult males pass through female feeding areas on their way south to Antarctic continental slope and shelf waters, where their diving activity suggests they pursue more benthic prey.<br/><br/>Killer whales, and in lower latitudes, large sharks are predators on this species. Leopard seals are also known to kill southern elephant seals.	eng
13583	population	Campagna, C., 2008	No recent integrated estimate is available throughout the entire distribution. The worldwide population of southern elephant seals was estimated to be 650,000 in the mid 1990s. Colonies in the South Atlantic, which include the largest breeding aggregation located at South Georgia, are stable or growing, while those in the Southern Indian and Pacific Oceans have decreased by up to 50%. There is some evidence that weaning mass is lower at Macquarie, Heard and Marion Islands, and Iles Kerguelen, than in the South Georgia and Peninsula Valdés (Argentina) populations, suggesting that the Indian and Pacific Ocean populations may have a reduced food supply.<br/><br/>Traditionally, three distinct populations have been distinguished: South Georgia, Macquarie and Iles Kerguelen. However, elephant seals breeding at Península Valdes on the mainland of South America and at the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands are thought to be a distinct population from those at South Georgia. Similarly, the elephant seal populations at the Prince Edward Islands and Iles Crozet are also considered to be distinct from those at Iles Kerguelen and Heard Island, and the small populations in the Tristan de Cunha Islands and Gough Island may also be distinct. Additionally, some colonies have unknown affiliations (e.g. Bouvet). Thus, there may be at least five and perhaps more, distinct breeding populations, although their foraging areas overlap quite extensively at sea (SCAR 1991, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Bailleaul 2007, Biuw 2007).<br/><br/>The most important southern elephant seal populations in the world have been either stable or decreasing sharply in the last 50 years (Hindell and Burton 1987, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1992, Pistorius <em>et al</em>. 2004). Today, some of those that were in decline are apparently returning to a positive trend (Boyd <em>et al</em>. 1996, Guinet <em>et al</em>. 1999).The Valdés population has grown and now is stable (Campagna and Lewis 1992, Lewis <em>et al</em>. 1998). The reason for the differences in the trends in various areas is not known with certainty, but different levels of food availability associated with various oceanographic features seems to have played a role.	eng
13583	threats	Campagna, C., 2008	Southern elephant seals were hunted for thousands of years by aboriginal and native peoples in Australia and South America. More recently, they were subjected to intensive commercial harvests starting in the early 19th century and not ending until 1964 at South Georgia. They were prized for their large quantity of blubber that could be rendered to fine, valuable oil.<br/><br/>There are few threats and conflicts today, as southern elephant seals live far from human population centres and have minimal interactions with commercial fisheries. Intensive fishing could potentially deplete important prey stocks. However, relatively little is known about their feeding habits. There is no evidence that recent declines for animals breeding in the Indian and Pacific Oceans are related to fisheries in the Southern Ocean (SCAR 1991). However, development of new fisheries at high latitudes in the future could have a significant impact on elephant seal populations (SCAR 1991, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>In the South Orkney Islands a few young male elephant seals were killed for dog food in the 1950s and early 1960s when they were ashore moulting. Southern elephant seals that haul out at mainland sites could come in contact with feral dogs and other terrestrial carnivores and be exposed to a variety of diseases including morbiliviruses.<br/><br/>The possible effects of global climate change on southern elephant seals are not well known. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that while the effects of global climate change are uncertain, that the species is likely to decline as a result of habitat and ecosystem changes.	eng
13584	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Roos, C., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is believed to be present in five national parks (Isalo, Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namaoroka, Vohibasia, and Zombitse), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, the Andranomena Special Reserve, the Analabe Private Reserve, the Kirindy Forest (now Kirindy-Mitea National Park), and the Ampataka Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
13584	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Roos, C., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Coquerel’s Giant Mouse Lemur is found in lowland dry forests of western Madagascar, from sea level to 700 m. One nucleus is in the south-west between the Onilahy River to the south and the Tsiribinha River to the north, including Vohibasia and Zombitse National Parks and Isalo National Park. To the north of the Tsiribihina River, it has also been reported from the the Andranomena Special Reserve and Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, and recent sightings confirm its presence in Tsingy de Namoroka National Park and in the region of Sahamalaza (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). Farther north, the newly described <em>M. zaza</em> inhabits the Sambirano region	eng
13584	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Roos, C., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits dry deciduous forest, and is found near rivers and ponds in dense forest. <em>M. coquereli</em> is adaptable and can survive in secondary forest. The species is typically solitary, choosing to forage alone, but tends to nest communally; it spends daytime hours in a spherical nest of up to one-half meter in diameter, usually placed 2-10 m high in the fork of a large branch or among dense lianas. Reproductive activity of <em>M. coquereli</em> in the Kirindy Forest begins in November. Gestation lasts about three months and two infants (occasionally one) leave the nest after about three weeks (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein).	eng
13584	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Roos, C., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population densities reported from Marosalaza range from 30 to 50 individuals/km² but, in the latter study, reached as high as 210 individuals/km² in forests running along rivers (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008 and references therein). In Kirindy, Kappeler (1997) recorded 120 individuals/km², but the population underwent an inexplicable decline after being steady for several years.	eng
13584	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Roos, C., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Although this species occurs in fairly high densities in some parts of its range, its western dry deciduous forest habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented where habitat loss has been marked due to slash-and-burn agriculture and charcoal production, and it may be taken for food in some parts of its range in western Madagascar.	eng
13595	conservation	Gillespie, G., Robertson, P., Hines, H., Lemckert, F. & Hero, J.-M., 2004	Disease protocols are in place. A Recovery Plan is being developed for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas and it is protected wherever it occurs in State Forests. There is a cooperative program between Melbourne Zoo and the NSW North-East Threatened Frog Recovery Team to develop husbandry protocols for the species. It is now thought that this species encompasses more than one taxonomic form. The Zoo has frogs from northern and southern populations and has bred the former.	eng
13595	distribution	Gillespie, G., Robertson, P., Hines, H., Lemckert, F. & Hero, J.-M., 2004	This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to the eastern slopes of the Great Divide, from the Cann River catchments in far East Gippsland, Victoria, to tributaries of the Timbarra River near Drake, New South Wales (Gillespie and Hines 1999). It occurs from 20 to over 1,400 m asl, from low to high altitudes from south to north (Gillespie and Hines 1999).	eng
13595	habitat	Gillespie, G., Robertson, P., Hines, H., Lemckert, F. & Hero, J.-M., 2004	This species is typically found in association with permanent streams through temperate and sub-tropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest, and rarely in dry open tableland riparian vegetation (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), and also in moist gullies in dry forest (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The ecological requirements of adults and larvae are poorly known. In northeast New South Wales, statistical modelling was used to investigate the relationship of this species with 24 environmental predictors (NSW NPWS 1994, in Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species showed a preference for the interiors of large forest tracts in areas with relatively cool mean annual temperatures. These sites are typically free from any disturbance with a thick canopy and relatively simple understorey (Gillespie and Hines 1999). <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> occurs in first order streams and occasionally springs; it is not associated with ponds or ephemeral pools (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Calling has been recorded from September to April (F. Lemckert pers. comm.). Males call from beside small streams, often from under leaf-litter or within holes (Lemckert and Morse 1999). Reproductive biology is very similar to that of <em>Mixophyes fleayi</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Both species construct a nest in shallow running water that occurs between pools in relatively wide, flat sections of mountain streams (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998), and 500-550 pigmented eggs (2.8 mm diameter) are deposited in a shallow excavation in the streambed or pasted directly onto bed-rock (Watson and Martin 1973, Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The stream microhabitats used by this species for oviposition are limited (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The free-swimming tadpole of the species has been described by Watson and Martin (1973) and Daly (1998). Tadpoles develop in pools and shallow water with the aquatic phase of the life cycle lasting approximately one year (Daly 1998).	eng
13595	population	Gillespie, G., Robertson, P., Hines, H., Lemckert, F. & Hero, J.-M., 2004	<em>Mixophyes balbus</em> was formerly more frequently encountered in the northern part of its range than south of Sydney, although this might reflect limited historical searches in the region (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species has only been found in Victoria on three occasions (Tennyson Creek, Cann River and Jones Creek) and is now thought to be extinct in that state (Gillespie and Hines 1999). The species has declined and disappeared from a number of locations in New South Wales where it was previously common (Mahony 1993, Anstis and Littlejohn 1996, Anstis 1997). Surveys in southeast New South Wales since 1990 have located individuals at only a few sites (Lemckert <em>et al.</em> 1997, Daly 1998). The estimated population number is less than 10,000, and where populations have been recorded recently, the species appears to be in low numbers (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).	eng
13595	threats	Gillespie, G., Robertson, P., Hines, H., Lemckert, F. & Hero, J.-M., 2004	Several potentially threatening processes have operated at sites where this species has been found, or up-stream in catchments. Logging and associated forest management practices have been carried out in some catchments where <em>M. balbus</em> historically occurred, or currently occurs (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). The health and stability of extant populations in these disturbed catchments is unknown. Forest grazing and land clearance for pasture upstream have also occurred in some catchments (Mahony <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). Mahony <em>et al.</em> (1997) report that the species is not known from any localities with disturbed riparian vegetation or significant human impacts upstream. This might indicate that the species is highly sensitive to perturbations in the environment. However, populations of this species have also disappeared in catchments with seemingly minimal human disturbance (Mahony <em>et al.</em> 1997). Also, Lemckert (1999) was unable to detect a negative impact of selective logging on this species. Trampling by domestic stock is likely to have deleterious impacts on oviposition sites of the species (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, different degrees of suspended sediments have not been found to affect growth and survivorship of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> tadpoles (Green <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> tadpoles have been found in sympatry with native fish, and probably have survival strategies to avoid predation by them (Gillespie and Hines 1999). However, the impact of introduced fish, such as Eastern Gambusia (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>), carp (<em>Cyprinus</em> spp.) and salmonids is unknown (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Mahony <em>et al.</em> (1997) did not observe introduced fish at any sites where they found <em>M. balbus</em>. In other reports though, introduced fish (salmonids) have been recorded at sites where <em>M. balbus</em> has declined (Anstis 1997). However, <em>M. balbus</em> has also disappeared from many streams that do not contain introduced fish species (Gillespie and Hines 1999), and so disease, such as chytridiomycosis, might also be a factor in its decline.	eng
13596	conservation		There are no conservation methods in place specifically for this species, but it is protected where it occurs in National Parks, for example in Lamington National Park. It is often bred in captivity in Australian zoos.	eng
13596	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from the Clarke Range in mid-eastern Queensland to Gosford in mid-eastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 214,000km2.	eng
13596	habitat		The species is usually associated with wet sclerophyll or rainforest. It frequents disturbed and artificial habitat including adjacent farmland. It appears to be quite resilient to disturbance, perhaps due to its broad habitat utilisation. However it does not tolerate complete forest clearing. It breeds in late spring and eggs are deposited among leaf-litter and on rocks/undercut banks overhanging water. Hatchling larvae fall, wriggle or are washed into pools. It has been found breeding in farm dams near forested areas.	eng
13596	population		The species appears to be stable and has suffered no known decline within its range.	eng
13596	threats		Clearing of forest is a threat to the species' habitat. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to this species, and the chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Mount Glorious, Queensland.	eng
13597	conservation		This species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of its habitat is protected within national parks and state forests. Further research and monitoring is needed. It is bred in captivity in Australia.	eng
13597	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is narrowly and disjunctly distributed in wet forests from the Conondale Range in south-east Queensland, south to Yabbra Scrub in north-east New South Wales (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). While the majority of records for the species are from altitudes above 400m asl, it is also known from lowland rainforest (200m asl, Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999; 90 and 150m asl, H. Hines and L. Shoo unpubl.).	eng
13597	habitat		Fleay’s barred-frog is associated with montane rainforest (Corben and Ingram 1987) and open forest communities adjoining rainforest (H. Hines pers. comm.). It occurs along stream habitats from first to third order streams (i.e. small streams close to their origin through to permanent streams with grades of 1 in 50) and is not found in ponds or ephemeral pools (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997). However, larvae may be found in isolated pools in dry creek beds, and adults may also be found in the vicinity of these pools. At some locations where the species has been recorded, riparian vegetation has been disturbed and replaced by weeds, although this is considered marginal habitat (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997). Breeding has been recorded in all months between July and March (Corben and Ingram 1987; H. Hines unpubl.). Males call from under leaf-litter, from exposed rocks in streambeds or from the edges of pools beside streams (Corben and Ingram 1987). Calling activity is related to temperature and stream conditions (W. O’Reilly and H. Hines unpubl.). Reproductive biology is very similar to that of <em>Mixophyes balbus</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Both species construct a nest in the shallow running water that occurs between pools in relatively wide, flat sections of mountain streams (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). Between 652 and 1290 (C. Morrison pers. comm.) eggs are deposited in a shallow excavation in the streambed or pasted directly onto bedrock (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species does not appear to breed during and immediately after heavy rain when water flow is high, presumably due to the lack of suitable oviposition sites and the threat of nests and larvae being washed downstream (W. O’Reilly and H. Hines unpubl.). Larvae are described in Meyer, Hines and Hero (2001) and Anstis (2000).	eng
13597	population		Corben (in McDonald 1991) reported declines in the Conondale Range in the late 1970s. Ingram and McDonald (1993) reported that the species has not been seen in the Conondale Range since the summer of 1990-1991. Since Ingram and McDonald’s (1993) review, targeted surveys have been undertaken (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). In Queensland, populations are currently known from the Conondale Range, Lamington Plateau and the northern section of Main Range, the Mount Barney area and Currumbin and Tallebudgera Creek below Springbrook Plateau (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Despite targeted surveys, there have been no records of the species from the extensively developed Mount Tamborine area since 1976 (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). There is a museum specimen of this species collected from Bunya Mount in 1970 (H. Hines unpubl.); however, recent surveys have failed to locate the species in this area (H. Hines pers. comm.). In New South Wales the species is known from Lever’s Plateau (Border Ranges), Yabbra and Tooloom Scrubs, Mount Warning, Terania Creek in Nightcap Range and Sheepstation Creek in the Border Ranges (Mahony, Knowles and Pattinson 1997; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). This species has disappeared from some locations, though whether populations have declined at other locations is difficult to assess due to a lack of information on the abundance of the species at historical sites (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The very low numbers recorded from many well-surveyed sites suggests that declines in abundance may have occurred (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999).	eng
13597	threats		The reason(s) for declines or disappearance of populations are not known. Large areas of the species’ habitat have been, and continue to be, degraded by feral animals (e.g. pigs in the Conondale Range), domestic stock, and invasion of weeds (i.e. Mistflower, <em>Ageratina riparia</em> and crofton weed <em>A. adenophora</em>) (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Upstream clearing, timber harvesting and urban development (e.g. Mount Tamborine) are all likely to have affected flow regimes and water quality (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). A chytrid fungal infection has been identified as the cause of illness and death of this species on Main Range and Lamington Plateau (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations tend to be characterized by low density and are often isolated from other populations (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). The stability of small populations and the effect of isolation on genetic variation within each population are unknown.	eng
13598	conservation		This species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of its habitat is protected within national parks and state forests. Research and monitoring protocols are in place for this species.	eng
13598	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is distributed from Belli Creek near Eumundi, south-east Queensland, south to Warrimoo in mid-eastern New South Wales (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). It is currently known from mid to low altitudes below 610m asl. In south-east Queensland, it is currently known from scattered locations in the Mary River catchments downstream to about Kenilworth, Upper Stanley River, Caboolture River and Coomera River (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999).	eng
13598	habitat		This species occurs in upland and lowland rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest, and adjacent farmland (Ingram and McDonald 1993). Populations have been found in disturbed areas with riparian strips including cattle farms and regenerating logged areas (Hero and Shoo pers. obs.). They have also been recorded from eucalypt plantations (Lemckert and Morse 1999) and in streams within partially to nearly completely cleared lands (Lemckert and Brassil 2000; Lemckert 2002). It is a stream-breeding species. Eggs are deposited out of water, under overhanging banks or on steep banks of large pools (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). The stream microhabitats used by the species for oviposition are limited (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 1998). Hero and Fickling (1996) and Morrison and Hero (2002) reported clutch sizes for the species as 4184 (n=1) and 1343-3471 (n=13), respectively, and egg diameter ranges between 1.7 and 1.8mm (n=5) (Morrison and Hero 2002). Larvae are described in Meyer, Hines and Hero (2001) and Anstis (2000).	eng
13598	population		During the early 1980s, the giant barred-frog declined and disappeared from at least two streams in the Conondale Range (Corben, in McDonald 1991). The Bunya Mount (Straughan 1966) and Cunningham’s Gap (Straughan 1966) previously supported this species, but these and nearby sites have recently been the subject of targeted surveys and intensive monitoring without locating the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Assessing the extent of the decline is difficult because of the lack of baseline data on its distribution and abundance (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species has suffered major declines in the southern portion of its range in the Sydney Basin Region (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999; White 2000) where extant populations were recorded at only two of the 14 historical sites surveyed (White 2000). There are no recent records from the Blue Mountains and the species is currently only known from five populations in the Watagan Mountains area (White 2000). A population was recently located in the southern Nambucca River catchments (NSW NPWS 1994). North of this there is currently a large population in the Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour area, North Washpool and Bungawalbin State Forest (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In far north-east New South Wales, it is known from only three broad areas (Mebbin, Whian Whian and Richmond Range), despite intensive surveys (Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999). Goldingay, Newell and Graham (1999) reported that the density of these populations was relatively low with an average abundance of 4.2 individuals per 100m of stream transect between 1997 and 1998 and an average of 3.4 individuals over the same transects in 1999 (Goldingay, Newell and Graham 1999).	eng
13598	threats		Many sites where this species occurs are the lower reaches of streams, which have had major disturbances such as clearing, timber harvesting and urban development in their headwaters (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In the Dorrigo area, Lemckert (1999) found that it was less abundant in recently logged areas and sites where there was little undisturbed forest. The impacts of feral animals, domestic stock, weed invasion and disturbance to riparian vegetation, all potential threats to current populations, are unknown (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Populations now generally exist in small, isolated patches of forest. The effect this may have on genetic variation within populations and the general health of individuals is unknown. The species does colonize and use plantations and vegetated streams in otherwise cleared agricultural lands. This is positive for the survival of the species, but also indicates that such sites can be of some significance and any clearing of this vegetation may be of some significance.	eng
13602	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to a few springs in Nevada (Muddy River system).	eng
13603	conservation	Abe, H. & Hashimoto, T., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Quasi National Park on the island is primarily for shoreline habitats. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
13603	distribution	Abe, H. & Hashimoto, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it occurs only on Sado Island at most elevations on the island.	eng
13603	habitat	Abe, H. & Hashimoto, T., 2008	It is present in a range of habitats, including temperate forest, shrubland, grassland and cultivated fields (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13603	population	Abe, H. & Hashimoto, T., 2008	It is a common species, and its population is currently thought to be stabilising.	eng
13603	threats	Abe, H. & Hashimoto, T., 2008	The species mainly occurs in alluvial plain with deep soil, where agricultural reclamation has been carried out since the 1970s and consequently the species' preferred habitats have decreased. The habitat alteration continues but the pace is currently slowing down. Therefore, it is expected that their population is stabilizing although still in decline. Unlike the situation with <em>Mogera etigo</em>, there are no competitors, and therefore the species is probably not in decline as with the conspecific on the Etigo Plain.	eng
13604	conservation	Hashimoto, T. & Abe, H., 2008	It is not recorded from any protected area, although it occurs adjacent to Quasi National Park. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
13604	distribution	Hashimoto, T. & Abe, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found only on the Echigo Plain (Niigata prefecture) on Honshu. The main range is the region surrounded by the line connected with Shibata, Gosen, Niitsu, Kamo, Sanjo, Yahiko and Niigata, excluding coastal areas with sandy soils (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). The elevational range is from sea level up to 30 m asl.	eng
13604	habitat	Hashimoto, T. & Abe, H., 2008	The range is confined to the low alluvial plain of some 870 km² with deep, soft soils.	eng
13604	population	Hashimoto, T. & Abe, H., 2008	It is common within its range, though it is thought to be declining.	eng
13604	threats	Hashimoto, T. & Abe, H., 2008	Populations and habitats are diminishing due to the conversion of ridges of cultivated fields (the species preferred habitat), through the increasing use of agricultural machines, to inappropriate habitats with hard soils. The use of agricultural pesticides also damages the habitat.	eng
13610	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Lake Kutubu is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar 2004).  Mesh-size regulation and no-fishing zones have been implemented within the lake (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
13610	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. furva</em> is known only from Lake Kutubu, Papua New Guinea.  Lake Kutuba has a surface area of 51.3 km².	eng
13610	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. furva</em> is a benthopelagic, solitary species, that tends to bury itself in the mud.  It inhabits the narrow vegetated margins of the lake.	eng
13610	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species has probably the lowest natural population densities of any fish species within its only known habitat, based on population estimates done by Jenkins (1997).	eng
13610	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Lake Kutubu is threatened by overfishing and nearby oil development; gill netting and outboard motors were introduced in the 1980s and commercial oil production commenced in June 1992.  Road links and regular flights, associated with the development of oil and logging, have increased the potential for urbanisation and tourism in the area, which is likely in the future.  The increase of these industries have also caused an increase in agriculture and fisheries production.  Invasive aliens have been introduced to waterbodies in the area, and there is a worry that these could be harmful to the endemic species in the lake (Ramsar 2004).	eng
13619	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. spilota</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system of Papua New Guinea.	eng
13619	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater habitat of this species is about 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.	eng
13619	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The introduction of gill netting and outboard motors on the lake since the 1980s, and the development of oil drilling and logging in the area over the last ten years are the main threats to the population.	eng
13620	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Lake Kutubu is a Ramsar site.  Mesh size regulation and no-fishing zones in place in the lake (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
13620	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. variegata</em> is known only from Lake Kutubu, Papua New Guinea.  Lake Kutuba has a surface area of 51.3 km², but as <em>M. variegata</em> is restricted to a narrow band of vegetation around the lake margins, its actual Extent of Occurrence is probably much smaller.	eng
13620	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. variegata</em> is a benthopelagic species restricted to vegetation at the lake margins (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
13620	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species is found in only one location and the quality of this habitat is declining, causing a decline in the global population of <em>M. variegata</em>, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
13620	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Lake Kutubu is threatened by overfishing and nearby oil development; gill netting and outboard motors were introduced in the 1980s and commercial oil production commenced in June 1992.  Road links and regular flights, associated with the development of oil and logging, have increased the potential for urbanisation and tourism in the area, which is likely in the future.  The increase of these industries have also caused an increase in agriculture and fisheries production.  Invasive aliens have been introduced to waterbodies in the area, and there is a worry that these could be harmful to the endemic species in the lake (Ramsar 2004).	eng
13621	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>M. vitta</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kikori River system.	eng
13621	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is approximately 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.	eng
13621	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The lake supports six villages on its shore with a human population estimated at 2,000-3,000 in 1996.  Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced on the lake since the 1980s.  There has also been rapid economic development in the form of oil drilling and logging in the area in recent years.	eng
13629	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected in France. More research on the population, distribution and threats is needed.	eng
13629	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Moitessieria juvenisanguis</em>&#160;is endemic to France and is restricted to the type locality in the&#160;department&#160;Aude (France) and to the Douctdouyre bassin in&#160;departement&#160;Ariège.	eng
13629	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
13629	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
13629	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Groundwater recharge maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited combined with droughts in the region, as domestic water supplies from villages and towns are largely taken from springs and aquifers.	eng
13631	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> is listed as a protected species in France.	eng
13631	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> is endemic to France, where is is found widely in the departments of Ardèche, Gard, Vaucluse, Drôme, Var, Alpes de Hautes-Provence, Alpes Maritimes and Alpes de Haute-Provence.	eng
13631	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span> inhabits subterranean waters.	eng
13631	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria locardi</span>.	eng
13631	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
13633	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is listed as a protected species in France. There are currently no known conservation actions. However habitat monitoring and    further survey to determine the  geographical range of this species would    be recommended.	eng
13633	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Spiralix rayi</em>&#160;is considered to be endemic to France and has been recorded from four Departments (Côte d'Or, Nièvre, Haute-Marne and Yonne), where it is present in scattered localities.	eng
13633	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
13633	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
13633	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
13634	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by law in France.	eng
13634	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is present in Southern France where it is recorded widely from both the Mediterranean and Atlantic drainages.	eng
13634	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters and underneath the riverbeds, where it is mostly collected alive.	eng
13634	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species, but it seems common at least under the riverbeds.	eng
13634	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
13635	conservation	Prie, V., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is nationally protected in France. In Italy is is considered to be Least Concern, given the number of locations.	eng
13635	distribution	Prie, V., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	In France, it is known from four departments, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales, Ariège, Tarn and in Italy it is known from 17 locations in the NW regions of Liguria and&#160; Piemonte, but the distribution is not continuous.	eng
13635	habitat	Prie, V., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters, and possibly in the water flowing under the riverbeds.	eng
13635	population	Prie, V., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There are no population data available.	eng
13635	threats	Prie, V., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is living in subterranean waters and is sensitive to water pollution and reduction in the groundwater table through extraction. Gradual eutrophication of the rivers may affect sub populations living underneath the riverbeds.&#160; In the long term increased frequency of seasonal droughts may impact the species through falling levels of groundwater degrading habitat.	eng
13636	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There is no conservation actions for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population size, distribution and threats of this species.	eng
13636	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Spiralix corsica</em> was originally described from France, based on records from a single site on Corsica. Its distribution is doubtful as it has not been found again since and further research is required to confirm the presence of the species is maintained at the reported location.	eng
13636	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
13636	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
13636	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Falls in the water levels in the aquifer degrading the habitat maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
13637	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat conservation. There have been no recent studies of this species. Must define the area of occurrence.	eng
13637	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Also Colombia.	eng
13637	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Hight and dense forests in Argentina. Restricted to forests.	eng
13637	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Open air insectivores (López-González 2004).There are not enough captures to southern cone (Barquez - pers. comm.).In Paraguay it is found near floodable lands (López-González 2004).	eng
13637	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
13638	conservation	Burneo, S. & Valezco, P., 2008	More information on habitat and ecology required to determine necessary conservation measures (Burneo pers. comm.)	eng
13638	distribution	Burneo, S. & Valezco, P., 2008	This species is known only from west central Ecuador (Simmons, 2005). Known from two localities (Burneo pers. comm.).	eng
13638	habitat	Burneo, S. & Valezco, P., 2008	This species is poorly known. It feeds on insects (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
13638	population	Burneo, S. & Valezco, P., 2008	This bat is rare, known from only two localities (Tirira, in prep.). Difficult to sample (Burneo pers. comm.)	eng
13638	threats	Burneo, S. & Valezco, P., 2008	The species occurs in swamp area which is under threat from agriculture and aquaculture (Burneo pers. comm.). Both localities where the species was found have been converted to agriculture (Burneo pers. comm.).	eng
13639	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Avoid loss of forest habitats.	eng
13639	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is found in Central and South America. This bat is distributed through Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guianas, Surinam, and northestern Brazil, and Trinidad (Simmons 2005). This species appears to occupy the northern portions of the range of South America, and is replaced by <em>C. abrasus</em> farther south (Eisenberg 1989). Lowlands to 1,500 m.	eng
13639	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It occurs at low elevations in association with multistratal tropical forest in Venezuela (Handley 1976); present in deciduous and evergreen forest and clearings, often near water (Reid 1997). It has been found roosting in small groups (Reid 1997) or in colonies of fifty to seventy-five (Goodwin and Greenhall 1961) in hollow branches and buildings (Reid 1997). Activity begins soon after sunset; most records are from individuals caught in mist nets set over streams or ponds (Gardner <em>et al.</em> 1970; Valdez and LaVal 1971).	eng
13639	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is indistinguishable in the field from <em>C. paranus</em>. Aerial insective, appears to be rare but may be a relict of sampling bias.	eng
13639	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
13640	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Roost sites should be protected from disturbance.	eng
13640	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The distribution of <em>Neoplatymops mattogrossensis</em> is not especially well documented. It is known to occur in five general areas from southeastern Venezuela and southwestern Guyana southward to eastern and central Brazil, in Rio Branco and from Mato Grosso to Bahia (Willig and Jones 1985; Emmons and Feer 1997). There is also one record from Itaituba in Para state in the central Amazon. (Bernard pers. comm.), and also in Paraiba (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is one Colombian record.	eng
13640	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This molossid is a microhabitat specialist (Willig, 1983). In Venezuela its local distribution is restricted to areas containing rocky outcrops where it roosts close to the ground in narrow horizontal crevices beneath granitic exfoliations (Handley, 1976; Peterson, 1965; Sazima and Taddei, 1976). The geographic distribution of flat-headed bats may be in part determined by presence of appropriate roost sites (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Small holometabolous insect taxa compose the diet of this species; coleopterans were the predominant food items; Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, and Balttodea have also been found. The peculiar aerodynamic characteristics of Neoplatymops result in low agility for a volant mammal and increased foraging maneuverability for a molossid (Freeman, 1981). As a result, this flat-headed bat occupies an atypical molossid niche (Willig and Jones, 1985). It is an aerial insectivore that exploits uncluttered space.	eng
13640	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is widespread and may be locally common to rare in different parts of its range. Within its range, its distribution is highly scattered.	eng
13640	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Given its dependence on specialised roost sites, it is vulnerable to disturbance at these sites.	eng
13641	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in Parque Nacional Iguacu, which is a protected area.	eng
13641	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Colombia, Venezuela, Guyanas, Surinam, Amazonian Brazil, Peru, northern Argentina. Also found in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil (Lim and Gregorin pers. comm.) (Simmons 2005). Distribution in Paraguay excluded (Simmons 2005). Distribution in southern Brazil corrected according to Reis <em>et al.</em> (2006).	eng
13641	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
13641	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is uncommon in the southern portion of its distribution (Barquez pers. comm.)	eng
13641	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Populations found in the Atlantic Forest are subject to habitat loss.	eng
13642	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
13642	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Panama to Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, French Guiana, Surinam, Venezuela, and Guyana (Simmons 2005). Distribution expanded to include Espirito Santo in Brazil (Reis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Excluded from dry chaco in Paraguay (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999; Lopez 2004)	eng
13642	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Most capures in forests and rivers (Barquez pers. comm).	eng
13642	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
13642	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
13643	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
13643	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina, Uruguay (Simmons 2005). Distribution in most of Uruguay excluded according to Gonzalez (pers. comm.), it is found only in western Uruguay.	eng
13643	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Insectivorous, may be found in human dwellings and live in small groups. In Argentina reproduction beween october and November (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
13643	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
13643	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13644	conservation	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.	eng
13644	distribution	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is found from Tamaulipas, Michoacan, and Sinaloa (Mexico) to Peru, northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Venezuela, Surinam and Guianas; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).	eng
13644	habitat	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Roosts in buildings, hardly captured outside the roosts. Found in tropical deciduous forests, evergreen, shrubs, oak forest and secondary vegetation(Santos and Castro-Arellano, 2005).	eng
13644	population	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	In a study carried out in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, found that the colonies in this species can exceed more than five hundred, being present both sexes. Between April to July the proportion of males overcome the females, while in other months the females prevailed. <em>M. rufus</em> have seasonal reproduction. Females arrived by July and the number increases until November. Pregnant females were captured between September, October, November and February. Lactating females were observed in August, October, November, December and February. Active males were observed in all months, being overcome by males with abdominal testes only in July (Esberard 2002).	eng
13644	threats	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
13645	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Perez, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
13645	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Perez, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs from Jalisco (Mexico) to Nicaragua; Cozumel Island (Mexico); and southern Venezuela (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). The species does not occur in Honduras and El Salvador.	eng
13645	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Perez, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It can be found in dry, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest and towns. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Found in mesophyllum forests, pine, pine-oak and oak forests (Santos and Castro-Arellano, 2005)	eng
13645	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Perez, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
13645	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Perez, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	In southern Mexico the species is estimated to had 45% of habitat reduction (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.). Overall there are no major threats at this time.	eng
13646	conservation	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
13646	distribution	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species occurs from Honduras to Costa Rica; eastern Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela; Brazil; Paraguay; Uruguay; and northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
13646	habitat	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>M. currentium</em> primarily is a forest dweller. Its distribution closely follows tropical rainforest habitat along the Caribbean lowlands in Central America as far as northern Honduras, where forest becomes restricted on the coast (Burnett <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is insectivorous (Muñoz Arango 1990).	eng
13646	population	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Poorly studied. Poorly known. Relatively common.	eng
13646	threats	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
13647	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Check the taxonomy in Central America.	eng
13647	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs from Chiapas (Mexico) south to Venezuela, Peru and Mato Grosso (Brazil) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid, 1997). Because of the taxonomic issues the distribuition is not certainly known in Central America. There are no records for Colombia, Ecuador.	eng
13647	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It can be found in dry, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest and towns. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
13647	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
13647	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
13648	conservation	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
13648	distribution	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species occurs from Sinaloa and Coahuila (Mexico) to Peru, northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Surinam and Guianas; Greater and Lesser Antilles; Florida Keys (USA); Margarita Isl (Venezuela); Curaçao and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles); Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005).	eng
13648	habitat	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in urban areas. Large colonies found in palm leaves, refuges (Barquez pers. comm.). They roosts in attics on the islands (Rodriguez Duran pers. comm.).	eng
13648	population	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant species (Barques and Diaz pers. comm.).	eng
13648	threats	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13649	conservation	Pineda, W. & Medina, A., 2008	Avoid habitat loss, found in protected areas.	eng
13649	distribution	Pineda, W. & Medina, A., 2008	This species occurs from Guerrero, Oaxaca (Mexico); Nicaragua and Costa Rica; Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).	eng
13649	habitat	Pineda, W. & Medina, A., 2008	This species can be found in dry and semideciduous forest. It roosts in caves, buildings, and hollow trees (Marinkelle and Cadena, 1972). Eats insects, including beetles and moths. A large group was flying from riparian forest at dusk; the bats appeared in single file, flying about 20 m above ground (LaVal, 1977).  <em>M. pretiosus</em> usually is a nonforest dweller that occupies open areas such as grassland savannas, dry woodlands, and cactus and thorn scrub (Dolan, 1989; Dolan and Carter, 1979). In Nicaragua, Miller’s mastiff bats have been observed flying over streams, foraging high over trees in a coffee plantation, flying over a concrete water tank, and emerging from a hollow tree over a stream (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). In Costa Rica, <em>M. pretiosus</em> was active over a watering hole in a stream (La Val, 1977). Four Miller’s mastiff bats had an average of 631 moth scales per gram of fecal material; parts of coleopterans also were present (Freeman, 1979).	eng
13649	population	Pineda, W. & Medina, A., 2008	This bat apparently is uncommon (Reid, 1997). <em>M. pretiosus</em> is polyestrus (Dolan, 1989). In Nicaragua, three females were pregnant in March, three were pregnant on April, one was pregnant on July, and three were pregnant and flying juveniles were present in mid-August (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). In Costa Rica, some females were pregnant in May, July, and October, and subadults were present in July and October (La Val, 1977; La Val and Fitch, 1977). Lifespan is unknown (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
13649	threats	Pineda, W. & Medina, A., 2008	None known. Seems more associated with tropical dry forests than the other <em>Molossus</em>.	eng
13650	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
13650	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from Sinaloa and Michoacan (Mexico) to Colombia, Guyana, Surinam, and French Guiana; Trinidad (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands to 2,400 m (usually below 1,000 m).	eng
13650	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Aerial insectivore. This species can be found in evergreen and dry deciduous forest, pasture, and populated areas (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and houses, often in large groups. In Costa Rica, 76 individuals were captured from a single roost (Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989). A long-term study in Yucatan, Mexico, found this species to be the most commonly encountered molossid in the region (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1990). Individuals are most active during the first 2 hours after sunset and again before dawn. The diet consists mainly of moths, with some beetles and other insects taken. In Yucatan, pregnant females have been recorded from March to June (Reid, 1997). A large colony in Puerto Viejo contained at least some pregnant females in most months of the year round reproduction. However, a far large percentage were pregnant in May than in later months. (LaVal and Rodriguez-H., 2002). May be found in rural and urban areas.	eng
13650	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997). Need acoustic survey, not as abuntant as <em>M. rufus</em> (Miller pers. comm.)	eng
13650	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None known.	eng
13653	conservation	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	The Mediterranean monk seal is legally protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established specifically for monk seals in the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Archipelago and the Northern Sporades Islands National Marine Park in Greece. There are plans to set up additional nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br/><br/>Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the local human population towards monk seal conservation, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most adverse fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientist and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Currently, there is in force a UNEP/Mediterranean Action Plan (issued first in 1978 and revised in 1988) for the conservation and management of monk seals in the Mediterranean and a CMS plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic (issued in 2005).<br/><br/>However, all of the above actions have been insufficient to change the overall declining trend of this species. Most conservation initiatives occur only on paper and do not translate into real and effective conservation action in the field. As a consequence, most of the small subpopulations that survived three decades ago, when conservation of the species was already identified as being a priority are now extinct (Aguilar 1999). Today, human encroachment of haulout habitat, adverse interactions with fisheries and impoverished genetic variability are the main threats affecting the species. Unless there is urgent ion action, the extinction risk of the species is high (van Blaricom <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
13653	conservation	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	The Mediterranean monk seal is legally protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established specifically for monk seals in the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Archipelago and the Northern Sporades Islands National Marine Park in Greece. There are plans to set up additional nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br/><br/>Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the local human population towards monk seal conservation, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most adverse fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientist and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Currently, there is in force a UNEP/Mediterranean Action Plan (issued first in 1978 and revised in 1988) for the conservation and management of monk seals in the Mediterranean and a CMS plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic (issued in 2005). The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>However, all of the above actions have been insufficient to change the overall declining trend of this species. Most conservation initiatives occur only on paper and do not translate into real and effective conservation action in the field. As a consequence, most of the small subpopulations that survived three decades ago, when conservation of the species was already identified as being a priority are now extinct (Aguilar 1999). Today, human encroachment of haulout habitat, adverse interactions with fisheries and impoverished genetic variability are the main threats affecting the species. Unless there is urgent ion action, the extinction risk of the species is high (van Blaricom <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
13653	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The Mediterranean monk seal is protected throughout its range. Two protected areas have been established for monk seals, the Desertas Islands in the Madeira archipelago, and the Northern Sporades Islands national marine park in Greece. There are future plans to set up nature reserves to protect more habitat for monk seals in the region.<br/><br/>Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties are in force to protect monk seals internationally, and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientists and managers to discuss monk seal conservation issues and problems. Israels (1992) summarizes 30 years of this conservation history, and provides details on accomplishments and failures to meet objectives. Other measures in place include Action Plans completed in 1978 and 1988 for the conservation and management of monk seals, and the 2005 plan for the recovery of the monk seal in the eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>Many actions have been taken on a local scale including outreach and education programs, restrictions on gear and location for fisheries, development of monitoring programs and protocols, and increasing the capability to rehabilitate sick and injured animals (Gonzalez 2004).	eng
13653	distribution	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	Mediterranean monk seals were once widely and continuously distributed in the Mediterranean, Black and adjacent seas, and in the North Atlantic waters from Morocco to Cap Blanc, including the Canary Islands, Madeira Islands and the Azores (Aguilar 1999). A few individuals, possibly vagrants, have been recorded in Senegal, the Gambia and the Cape Verde Islands in the south end of the distribution range, as well as in Portugal and Atlantic France in the northern end (Ronald and Healey 1982, Israels 1992, Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Today the distribution is widespread, but fragmented into an unknown but probably relatively large number of very small breeding subpopulations. In the Mediterranean, the stronghold for the species is on islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, and along the coasts of Greece and western Turkey. The two surviving colonies in the south-eastern North Atlantic are at Cabo Blanco (also known as Cap Blanc or Ras Nouadhibou) on the border of Mauritania and Western Sahara, and the small colony at the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Islands group (Aguilar 1999, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Many locations where seals are infrequently or regularly seen, or were seen in the recent or historic past, are reported in the literature and catalogued in reviews and status updates, see Sergeant <em>et al</em>. (1978), Israels (1992) and UNEP/MAP (2005).	eng
13653	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Mediterranean monk seals were once widely and continuously distributed in the Mediterranean, Black and adjacent seas, in North Atlantic waters off northwest Africa south to Cap Blanc, and possibly Senegal and Gambia. They also were found at the Cape Verde Islands, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands and Azores, and north as vagrants to Portugal (Ronald and Healey 1982), and Atlantic France (Israels 1992).  <br/><br/>Today the distribution is wide but extremely fragmented with three surviving small breeding populations located at opposite ends of the historic range. In the Mediterranean, the stronghold for the species is on islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, and along the coasts of Greece and western Turkey. The two surviving colonies in the southeastern North Atlantic are at Cabo Blanco (also known as Cap Blanc or Ras Nouadhibou) on the border of Mauritania and Western Sahara, and the small colony at the Desertas Islands in the Madeira Islands group (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Many locations where seals are infrequently or regularly seen, or were seen in the recent or historic past, are reported in the literature and cataloged in reviews and status updates, see Sergeant <em>et al.</em> (1978), Israels (1992), UNEP/MAP (2005).	eng
13653	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Mediterranean monk seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg, and newborns 15-26 kg (Boulva 1979, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002), with records of a male reaching 400 kg and a pregnant female reaching 302 kg (Sergeant <em>et al.</em> 1978). <br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals once hauled out on open beaches, but this is now rare, and throughout their range they use caves with sea entrances for hauling out and pupping (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Sea caves used by seals often have submerged entrances or some other barrier to provide protection from waves. In a study that covered 250 km of coastline inhabited by monk seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Turkey, 282 caves were searched. Of these, 39 showed evidence of monk seals, including 3 that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively being used. Use of these caves increased in October coincident with the autumn pupping season in Turkey (Gucu <em>et al. </em>2004). The maximum number of seals from this small Turkish population found in a cave in at one time was 3 (Gucu <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Sea caves are also used extensively at Cabo Blanco, particularly northwest of the cape. Two caves separated by 1.1 km accounted for 84% of the births in the area from 1993-1997 (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 1999).  In contrast to the situation in Turkey, counts at one cave in the Las Cuevecillas section of the Cabo Blanco colony recorded up to 89 seals hauled out at one time, and never less than 5 animals present (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Female Mediterranean monk seals probably become sexually mature at three to four years. One female at Cabo Blanco became pregnant at 2.5 years and gave birth at 3.7 years, the youngest age known for this species (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 2000b). Females can give birth in successive years. The annual reproductive rate in Mediterranean monk seals is very low at 0.3-0.43 pups to each sexually mature female (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 1999). Pup survival is low (Gazo <em>et al.</em> 2000a). <br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals take a wide variety of prey primarily from shallow water habitats (Sergeant <em>et al.</em> 1978, Kenyon 1981). In the eastern Mediterranean, they have been reported to take a variety of fish, octopus and loggerhead sea turtles (<em>Caretta caretta</em>) (Margaritoulis <em>et al.</em> 1996). Examination of two seals from the Aegean Sea yielded five species of prey. By weight 94% of the contents were cephalopods including musky octopus (<em>Eledone moschata</em>) and globose octopus (<em>Bathypolypus sponsalis</em>) (Salman <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
13653	habitat	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	Mediterranean monk seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m in length (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Based on a large number of seals examined after a mass mortality at Cabo Blanco, average adult lengths were estimated at 2.42 m in females and 2.6 m in males. Pups up to 3 months of age averaged 1.08 m with a range of 0.74-1.38 m (Samaranch and Gonzalez 2000). In the Mediterranean, a study on a limited sample size produced somewhat larger lengths for adult females (2.65 m) than for adult males (2.41 m); newborn pups averaged about 99 cm (Boulva 1979). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg, and newborns 15-26 kg (Boulva 1979, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002), with records of a male reaching 400 kg and a pregnant female reaching 302 kg (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978).<br/><br/>In islands or mainland areas devoid of terrestrial predators, Mediterranean monk seals once hauled out on open beaches; it is unclear whether they ever used locations along the northern African coast, where large predators, like lions or hyenas, occurred. Today, they use caves with sea entrances for hauling out and pupping throughout their range, although adults, particularly males, may also sporadically haulout on open beaches (Gilmartin and Forcada 2002). Sea caves used by seals almost always have submerged entrances to avoid entrance by terrestrial predators, but the use of particular caves probably changes periodically if their structure is altered as a consequence of variations in the shape of the inside beach or of rock slides , as has been seen to occur at Cabo Blanco (González <em>et al</em>. 1997). Maximum counts at one cave in the Cabo Blanco colony had up to 89 seals hauled out at one time, and never less than 5 animals present (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>. 1997). In a study that covered 250 km of coastline inhabited by monk seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Turkey, 282 caves were searched. Of these, 39 showed evidence of monk seals, including 3 that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively being used at the time of the survey. Use of these caves increased in October coincident with the autumn pupping season in Turkey (Gucu <em>et al</em>. 2004). The maximum number of seals from this small Turkish subpopulation found in a cave in at one time was 3 (Gucu <em>et al.</em> 2004). The numbers in caves are highest at low and rising tides.<br/><br/>Pups are born all year-round, but in the Cap Blanc colony most are born from summer to early winter, with a small peak of births in October; 84% of the births took place in only two caves separated by 1.1 km (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pastor and Aguilar 2003). In Turkey?s Cilician Basin, 11 newborns observed, 10 of which were born between August and November, and another 6 documented births in Turkey fall in this same time period. While pups may be born throughout the year, this definition may mask more restricted birthing periods on a smaller geographic scale.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seal pups moult an average 64 days after birth in the case of females and an average 82 days in the case of males; the moult occurs partly in the water and takes an average of 15 days to be completed (Badosa <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pups begin to catch fish toward the end of their nursing period (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). Pups are weaned when they are around 4 months old, with up to 5 months reported (Pastor and Aguilar 2003, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fostering and milk stealing are common patterns. At the Cabo Blanco colony, in 26.6% of the suckling episodes observed in mother?pup pairs of known identity, pups suckled from females other than their mothers. Some females nursed more than one pup, at least occasionally, and in some cases a pup was fostered long-term by an alien female (Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2007). Pups enter the water and begin diving during their first week and from that point onwards spend 55-74% of their time at sea. Three pups tagged with time depth recorders spent more time at sea and diving at night than during the day; most dives were to the bottom for relatively long periods, probably indicating foraging. The mean depth of dive was 11.6 m and its mean length was 149 seconds (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Females caring for pups will go off to feed for up to 17 hours, with an average time of 9 hours (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Female Mediterranean monk seals probably become sexually mature at three to four years of age. One female at Cabo Blanco became pregnant at 2.5 years and gave birth at 3.7 years, the youngest age known for this species (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 2000b). In males, the process of developing the mature pelage pattern of bulls is gradual; it involves at least two annual moults and can be completed by the age of 4 years (Badosa <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females can give birth in successive years. Although birthing is not seasonal, individual females have been documented to give birth close to the same time in successive years, within a 15 day span (Pastor and Aguilar 2003). The annual reproductive rate in Mediterranean monk seals is extremely low at 0.25-0.43 pups to each sexually mature female, both in the Cabo Blanco colony and the Turkey coast (Gazo <em>et al</em>. 1999, Gucu <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Pup survival is low; just under 50% survive their first two months to the onset of their moult, and most mortalities occurred in the first two weeks. Survival of pups born from September to January is 29%. This very low survival rate is associated with mortality caused by severe storms, and high swells and tides, but impoverished genetic variability and inbreeding may also be involved. Pups born during the rest of the year had a survival rate of 71% (Gazo, <em>et al</em>. 2000a). Few pups are successfully weaned in the winter. Adult females moult an average of 134 days after parturition, and sometimes begin the moult prior weaning their pup (Pastor and Aguilar 2003).<br/><br/>Little is known about adult diving. The maximum depth and duration of diving for one lactating female was 78 m and 15 minutes, respectively (Gazo and Aguilar 2005). Neves (1998) observed two types of diving in shallow near shore waters, which were thought to be associated with spot feeding and transit feeding. When spot feeding, seals dove as though headed into a current for 8-12 minutes, surfaced at about the same location, and usually repeated this pattern for approximately 3 hours. Transit feeding dives lasted 5-7 minutes, during which the seal moved continuously along a shoreline apparently foraging.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals take a wide variety of prey primarily from shallow water habitats (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978, Kenyon 1981). In the eastern Mediterranean, they have been reported to take fish such as striped red mullet (<em>Mullus surmuletus</em>), seabream (<em>Dentex</em> spp.), bogue (<em>Boops boops</em>), flathead mullet (<em>Mugil cephalus</em>), octopus (<em>Octopus</em> spp.) (Sergeant <em>et al</em>. 1978), and even loggerhead sea turtles (<em>Caretta caretta</em>) (Margaritoulis <em>et al</em>. 1996). Examination of two seals from the Aegean Sea yielded five species of prey; by weight, 94% of the contents were cephalopods including musky octopus (<em>Eledone moschata</em>) and globose octopus (<em>Bathypolypus sponsalis</em>) (Salman <em>et at</em>., 2001). In the Atlantic, at the Desertas Islands off Madeira, visual observations of monk seals with prey at the surface included seals eating golden-grey mullet (<em>Liza aurata</em>), parrot fish (<em>Sparisoma cretense</em>), barred hogfish (<em>Bodianus scrofa</em>), salema (<em>Sarpa salpa</em>), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>) and crabs (<em>Pachygrapsus</em> spp.). Other prey reported includes eels (<em>Anguilla</em> spp.), limpets (<em>Patella</em> spp.) and rays (<em>Raja</em> spp.) (Neves, 1998).	eng
13653	population	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	The Mediterranean monk seal is the most endangered pinniped species in the world, with an estimated total population size of 350-450 animals, with 250-300 in the eastern Mediterranean within the largest subpopulation, of which about 150-200 are in Greece and about 100 in Turkey (Güçlüsoy 2004). Approximately 130 seals currently inhabit the Cabo Blanco area (Western Sahara-Mauritania); in the early 1990s this subpopulation was estimated at about 317 seals but a mass mortality event in 1996 reduced numbers to nearly a third (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1999, Aguilar 1999). Approximately 20-23 inhabit the Desertas Island, Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, UNEP/MAP 2005). The subpopulation at Cabo Blanco is the only large extant aggregation of the species and is unique in that it still preserves the structure of a colony (Aguilar 1999); the other subpopulations are composed of loose groups of extremely reduced size (usually less than 5 individuals). A recent review of monk seal occurrences reported from 1999-2005 suggests that at all other locations and countries about 14 additional seals can be accounted for (10 of the 14 in Algeria, plus an unspecified number of vagrants (UNEP/MAP, 2005)).	eng
13653	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The Mediterranean monk seal is the most threatened pinniped species in the world, with an estimated population of 350-450 animals. The largest remaining population is that of the eastern Mediterranean, with 250-300 individuals, of which c.100 occur in Turkish waters (Güçlüsoy 2004). Approximately 100 to 130 seals are found at Cabo Blanco in Western Sahara and Mauritania, and approximately 20-23 at Desertas Island, Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, Gilmartin and Forcada 2002, UNEP/MAP 2005). The population at Cabo Blanco was estimated at 317 seals before the loss of an estimated 70% in a mass mortality event in 1997 (Forcada 2000).  Following this event, 24 pups were born at Cabo Blanco in 1997, comparable to the rate of births in 2004 and 2005, but this number rose significantly in 2006 to 46 births (Cedenilla and de Laminoa 2006). A recent review of monk seal occurrences reported at all other locations and countries from 1999-2005 yielded a minimum of 14 additional seals, with 10 of the 14 in Algeria, plus an unspecified number of vagrants (UNEP/MAP 2005).	eng
13653	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Mediterranean monk seals have a long history of interaction with humans that includes exploitation for subsistence needs, commercial harvest, and persecution as a competitor for fisheries resources. Once abundant, monk seals were written about and illustrated in the literature and depictions of classical antiquity. They became the target of a commercial harvest for skins and oil by the Portuguese as early as the 15th century along the coast of northwest Africa (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Reasons given for the recent population decline include increased human population displacing seals from their habitat, mortality due to fisheries bycatch and persecution, and the possible effects of toxics and pollutants (Boulva 1979).  Exacerbating these factors are political instability and wars, the challenge of implementing effective conservation for a species in a complex multi-national environment, weak enforcement of agreements and international laws, diseases, genetic consequences of inbreeding, and other catastrophes such as oil spills and collapse of occupied pupping caves (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Interactions with fisheries are of great conservation concern, particularly for the population in the eastern Mediterranean, where seals are killed through net entanglement and deliberately killings by fishermen. They possibly suffer from depletion of fish stocks, anti-seal methods designed to protect aquaculture facilities, and illegal dynamite fishing (Güçlüsoy 2004). Monk seals have been entangled in a wide variety of fisheries gear including set-net, trawl net, and long-line. They seem most vulnerable to set-nets placed on the bottom, and can also become entangled in abandoned and discarded nets (Tudela 2004).<br/><br/>The deaths of 130 seals over a 10-year period ending in 1999 highlighted the significance of deliberate killing as a source of mortality (Tudela 2004). Deliberate killing of monk seals by humans was attributed to 1/3 of all mortalities of 79 stranded animals in Greece, and is considered the single most important source of mortality (Androukaki <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The genetic diversity of Mediterranean monk seals is amongst the lowest found in pinnipeds. Only Hawaiian monk seals and northern elephant seals have lower diversity. The consequences of mating between closely-related individuals include congenital defects leading to stillborn pups and a decreased reproductive rate, both of which have been documented in the Cabo Blanco colony. Additionally, low fitness and increased susceptibility to disease may be a problem (Pastor <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Morbillivirus was isolated from Mediterranean monk seals after the mass mortality at Cabo Blanco in 1997. The virus most closely resembled dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) that was previously implicated in the 1991 mass mortality of striped dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea (Osterhaus <em>et al.</em> 1992, Van de Bildt <em>et al.</em> 1999). Although this virus was already circulating in monk seals prior to the mass mortality, there is doubt that it caused the deaths.  Dinoflagellate-produced saxitoxins were found in tissues from animals that died during the 1997 event, and the suddenness of death of the animals and other symptoms suggest that the cause of death was from the toxins rather than an epidemic of morbillivirus. Additionally, toxic algal blooms (red tides) are favored by oceanographic conditions near Cabo Blanco, and were reported from nearby Morocco the southeastern North Atlantic during a 25-year period leading up to the mass mortality. Canine distemper virus is present in stray dog populations in Aegean Turkey at a level of approximately 9% in the population. This may be a source for future infections of wild carnivores, including monk seals through contacts in harbors and along shorelines (Gencay <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Contaminant burdens have always been suspected to be a threat to the Mediterranean monk seal, and should be investigated and routinely monitored (Boulva 1979, Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993). Tissues collected during the 1997 mass mortality and analyzed for PCBs and DDT detected levels of pollutants comparable to those found in other marine mammals not believed to be experiencing contaminant related health or reproductive effects (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals are at an unknown but suspected high level of risk from oil tanker and other ship accidents, spills and groundings. Animals could be oiled or coated in fuels and lubricants, exposed to other toxic or environment-altering chemicals or products, and experience disturbance at haul outs or coastal feeding areas. Mauritania is planning to explore offshore oilfields which would lead to increased vessel traffic in the area, and greater chance for accidents, disturbance, and collisions near important habitat. Three accidents or spills have occurred near monk seal habitat in the recent past, including a supertanker that spilled oil off of Morocco in 1989 (Israels 1992), an oil spill in the Madeira Islands in 1994 (UNEP 2005), and the grounding of a bulk carrier near Cabo Blanco in 2003 (UNEP 2005). None of these spills or accidents had any known impacts on monk seals, but they underscore the threat of significant impacts from a major maritime accident near an important monk seal site (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Human disturbance has been identified as a primary factor in the decline in numbers of monk seals through displacement of animals from habitat. Traditionally, this was the result of expanding human populations and coastal development. Since the 1970s, a new threat has emerged in the form of people seeking out monk seals to view at the few remaining locations. Tourism has grown to become one of the most significant hazards faced by monk seals, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean (Johnson and Lavigne 1999). Besides disturbance, tourist activities increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, transmission of disease, and the discharge of pollutants and waste near the seals.	eng
13653	threats	Aguilar, A. & Lowry, L., 2008	The Mediterranean monk seal is one of the most endangered species of mammals (IUCN, 1996), and was ranked as a marine mammal species in imminent peril of extinction in a recent analysis (Vanblaricom <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals have a long history of interaction with humans that includes exploitation for subsistence needs, commercial harvest and persecution as a competitor for fisheries resources or because it produced damage to fishing gear. Once abundant, monk seals were written about and illustrated in the literature and depictions of classical antiquity. Along the coast of northwest Africa, they became the target of a commercial harvest for skins and oil by the Portuguese as early as the 15th century (Israels 1992).<br/><br/>Reasons for the recent population decline leading to the species status as critically endangered include increased human pressure displacing seals from their habitat, destruction of caves used for hauling out and breeding, continued mortality due to fisheries by-catch, deliberate aggression by fishermen to eliminate a competitor, even in countries and areas where the species is legally protected, disease, pollution and impoverished genetic diversity (Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Interactions with fisheries are of great conservation concern, particularly for the subpopulation in the eastern Mediterranean, where seals are killed through net entanglement and deliberately killings by fishermen. They could also suffer from depletion of fish stocks in this area as well as being harassed by anti-seal methods designed to protect aquaculture facilities. Illegal dynamite fishing might also kill seals (Güçlüsoy 2004, 2004). Monk seals have been entangled in a wide variety of fishing gear including set-nets, trawl nets and long-lines. They seem most vulnerable to set-nets placed on the bottom and can also become entangled in abandoned and discarded nets (Tudela 2004). The deaths of 130 seals over a 10-year period ending in 1999 pointed out the significance of deliberate killing as a source of mortality (Tudela 2004). Deliberate killing of monk seals by humans was responsible for 1/3 of all mortalities of 79 stranded animals in Greece and is considered the single most important source of mortality for this species (Androukaki <em>et al</em>. 1999). Adverse fishing interaction is not a source of concern for the Atlantic subpopulations (Aguilar 1999).<br/><br/>Analyses of 42 DNA microsatellite loci have show that, as a consequence of a severe bottleneck, all subpopulations have suffered a dramatic decrease in genetic variability over the last few centuries. Indeed, the genetic diversity of Mediterranean monk seals is amongst the lowest found in pinnipeds; it is comparable to Hawaiian monk seals and northern elephant seals. The potential consequences of mating between closely-related individuals include congenital defects leading to stillborn pups and a decreased reproductive rate, both of which have been documented in the Cabo Blanco colony. As a consequence, extremely low genetic variability and inbreeding have been pointed out as the main cause for the non-recovery of subpopulations that are not subject to significant human pressure, such as that in Cabo Blanco (Pastor <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2007). Additionally, low fitness and increased susceptibility to disease may be an effect of genetic erosion that can compromise a population and lead to extinction. The mass mortality event of 1997 may have decreased the genetic diversity in the Cabo Blanco seals by 12% (UNEP 2005), and reduced the subpopulation?s genetic diversity to a point where it cannot reproduce fast enough to overcome random events that effect survival (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1999). Unless this factor is taken into account, usual conservation measures may prove ineffective.<br/><br/>Morbillivirus was isolated from Mediterranean monk seals after the mass mortality at Cabo Blanco in 1997. The virus most closely resembled dolphin morbillivirus (DMV) that was previously implicated in the 1991 mass mortality of striped dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea (Osterhaus <em>et al</em>. 1992, Van de Bildt <em>et al</em>. 1999). Canine distemper virus is present in stray dogs in Aegean Turkey at a level of approximately 9% in the population and this might be a source for future infections of monk seals through contacts in harbours and along shorelines (Gencay <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, although this virus was already circulating in monk seals prior to the mass mortality, there is some doubt as to whether it was responsible for the deaths that occurred. Indeed, the active virus was found in pups that went into a rehabilitation centre because their mothers had died, and none of them showed clinical signs and all survived the event without specific treatment. Dinoflagellate-produced saxitoxins were found in tissues from animals that died during the die-off and the suddenness of death of the animals and the general clinical symptoms suggest that the cause of death was from the toxins rather than a morbillivirus epidemic (Hernández <em>et al</em>. 1998). Toxic algal blooms (red tides) are favoured by oceanographic conditions near Cabo Blanco and were reported from nearby Morocco the south-eastern North Atlantic during a 25-year period leading up to the mass mortality. Toxic algal blooms are unpredictable and following the catastrophic loss of monk seals in 1997 must be considered a serious threat to the species (Reyero <em>et al</em>. 2000, UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Contaminant burdens have always been suspected to be a threat to the Mediterranean monk seal and thus monitoring pollutants has been considered a high priority (Boulva 1979, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, information is only available on organochlorine pollutants, which were analyzed in the blubber of individuals collected during the 1990s from the Cabo Blanco and the Greek subpopulations. Residue levels were found to be very low in the former subpopulation and moderate to high in the latter (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2007); the toxicological implications of these residues at the population level are unknown.<br/><br/>Mediterranean monk seals are at an unknown but suspected high level of risk from oil tanker and other ship accidents, spills and groundings. Animals could be oiled or coated in fuels and lubricants, exposed to other toxic or environment-altering chemicals or products and experience disturbance at haulouts or coastal feeding areas. Mauritania began oil extraction in offshore fields located about 400 km south of Cabo Blanco in 2006. This leads to increased tanker traffic in the area, and a greater chance for accidents, disturbance and collisions near important habitat. Three accidents or spills have occurred near monk seal habitat in the recent past, including a supertanker that spilled oil off of Morocco in 1989 (Israels 1992), an oil spill in the Madeira Islands in 1994 (UNEP 2005), and the grounding of a bulk carrier near Cabo Blanco in 2003 (UNEP 2005). None of these spills or accidents had any known impacts on monk seals, but they underscore the threat of significant impacts from a major maritime accident near an important monk seal site (UNEP 2005).<br/><br/>Human disturbance has also been identified as a primary factor in the decline in numbers of monk seals through displacement of animals from habitat. Traditionally, this was the consequence of expanding human populations and coastal development, but since the 1970s ?eco-tourism?, with organized or spontaneous tours of people seeking out monk seals to view at the few remaining locations, has grown to become one of the most significant hazards faced by monk seals in the eastern Mediterranean (Johnson and Lavigne 1999). Besides disturbance, tourist activities increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, transmission of disease, and the discharge of pollutants and waste near the seals.<br/><br/>Additional risks to Mediterranean monk seals come from political instability and wars in some parts of their range, the challenge of implementing effective conservation for a species in a complex multi-national environment, weak enforcement of agreements and international laws, collapse of occupied pupping caves and reduction of the carrying capacity of the environment as a consequence of fishing overexploitation (Aguilar 1999).	eng
13654	conservation	Lowry, L. & Aguilar, A., 2008	The Hawaiian monk seal has been listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act since 1976. That law contains a number of provisions to protect the seals and their critical habitat. They are also covered by a general prohibition against unpermitted taking by the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1973. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Virtually all of the land and waters in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands is included in one or more protected areas (the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands State Marine Refuge, the Kure Atoll State Wildlife Refuge, the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve and the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument) where human activities that could effect the seals or their habitats are either prohibited or strictly controlled.<br/><br/>Numerous efforts have been undertaken to identify sources of mortality for monk seals and to take management actions to mitigate factors that may be causing the continued population decline and preventing recovery (NMFS 2007). Important management efforts include: 1) cleaning up of marine debris and toxic chemicals; 2) minimizing human activities that could disturb seals hauled out on beaches; 3) removal of sharks suspected to be preying on seals; 4) translocation of adult males to adjust the sex ratio where mobbing was a problem; and 5) regulating fisheries to reduce the likelihood of direct and indirect interactions. In spite of these efforts the population has continued to decline. With the current low abundance, low survival rates, and declining trend there is a real chance that this species will go extinct in the foreseeable future. For that reason plans are being made to develop a facility where young seals can be cared for in captivity for a period of time in hopes that when they are released back to the wild they may have a better chance for survival.	eng
13654	distribution	Lowry, L. & Aguilar, A., 2008	Hawaiian monk seals occur throughout the Hawaiian Island chain. Their six main reproductive sites are in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands at Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisianski Island, Laysan Island, and French Frigate Shoals (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007). While sightings were previously rare in the main Hawaiian Islands, monk seals are now regularly seen there and births have been documented on all of the major islands (Baker and Johanos 2004). Sightings outside of the main range have occurred at Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Wake Island (Ragen and Lavigne 1999).<br/><br/>Hawaiian monk seals are non-migratory, and tend to remain near the atoll where they were born. However, some seals will relocate temporarily or permanently to other sites in the island chain, and long distance wanderers have been recorded.	eng
13654	habitat	Lowry, L. & Aguilar, A., 2008	Adult Hawaiian monk seals reach lengths of about 2.1 to 2.4 m and weigh 170-240 kg with females being somewhat longer and heavier than males. Pups are about 1 m and 16-18 kg at birth and when weaned 6 weeks later they weigh 50-100 kg (Kenyon 1981, Antonelis <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Monk seals are generally solitary, both on land and at sea. Even when seals gather together on land, they are not normally gregarious and only mothers and pups and recently weaned seals regularly make physical contact. On land, Hawaiian monk seals haul-out and breed on substrates of sand, coral or volcanic rock. Sandy beaches with shallow protected water near shore appear to be preferred for pupping (Westlake and Gilmartin 1990).<br/><br/>At-sea movements and habitat use of Hawaiian monk seals have been investigated using satellite-linked dive recorders and animal-born video cameras that have been put on seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Results show that they forage within atolls, in the shallow waters surrounding atolls and islands and farther offshore at submerged banks and reefs (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seals carrying cameras searched for and preyed on benthic fish and invertebrates in areas of rubble and consolidated bottom material, along areas of transition of benthic habitat types, and also in deepwater coral beds (Parish <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002).<br/><br/>Most dives that have been recorded have been less than 150 meters deep, although some individuals dove to more than 550 m (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 2006). Monk seals are known to eat a variety of fishes, eels, cephalopods and crustaceans (Goodman-Lowe 1998).<br/><br/>While the habitats of the Hawaiian monk seal are distributed over thousands of kilometers, the terrestrial habitat available for their use in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands is very limited. The total area of emergent land is only about 13.5 km² and only a fraction of that is suitable for use by seals (Ragen and Lavigne 1999).	eng
13654	population	Lowry, L. & Aguilar, A., 2008	Monk seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands are well studied, with nearly all animals individually identifiable (through natural marks or flipper tags) and observed each year (Baker 2006). Less is known about the population biology of seals in the main Hawaiian Islands. The status of the Hawaiian monk seal through to 2006 was reviewed in detail in the recently revised Recovery Plan for the species (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007). For this IUCN review process, the Plan?s data were updated to include all information from 2007 and additional analyses were conducted by scientists from the National Marine Fisheries Service?s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (Albert Harting, Thea Johanos-Kam, and Jason Baker, personal communication).<br/><br/>Female monk seals first give birth at five to ten years old. Births occur during all months of the year, with a peak in March-April. Age specific fecundity rates for mature animals are relatively low, 50-70%, and appear to differ among atolls (Harting <em>et al</em>. 2007). Males in this polygynous species patrol the water adjacent to rookeries, or haul-out near females with pups. Male dominated sex ratios have occurred at some colonies, and that has resulted in mobbing of estrus females that have been severely injured or killed in such events (NMFS 2007).<br/><br/>The generation time for Hawaiian monk seals, estimated as the average age of reproducing individuals, is 15 years. The best estimate of the total number of seals of all age classes in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands in 2007 is 935, with 546 of them being sexually mature. Adding to this a minimum estimate of 77 seals of all ages in the main Hawaiian Islands (not including Niihau) indicates a total population size of approximately 1,012, of which approximately 591 are sexually mature (assuming the age structure is similar in the northwestern and main Hawaiian Islands). <br/><br/>The earliest information on monk seal abundance comes from 1958 (Kenyon and Rice 1959, Rice 1960). These early data were not an estimate of total population size. They were counts of animals (not including pups) on beaches at a particular time, summed. Seals that were not hauled out at the time researchers visited the islands were not enumerated. Comparing the 1958 count (916 animals) to a beach count using similar methods in 2007 (293) suggests that the population has declined by 68% in 49 years.<br/><br/>Since 1983 the abundance of monk seals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands has been estimated each year by having researchers spend enough time at each atoll to individually identify and count all, or nearly all, seals using that location. The total abundance estimate for 1983 was 1,488, which when compared to the total abundance estimate of 935 for 2007 indicates a decline of 37% in 24 years. <br/><br/>Since 1999 the population has been declining at a rate of 4.1% per year. Because detailed data are available on survival, reproduction, and age-structure of the population it is possible to use a stochastic simulation model (Harting 2002) to project likely abundances in the future. Using the model to project abundance three generations forward from the 1983 estimate (to 2028) predicts an overall reduction of 86% (from 1,488 to 201). Projecting abundance three generations forward from the most recent estimate (from 2007 to 2052) predicts a decline of 96% (from 935 to 37). These projections are derived using estimates of demographic rates from recent years and assume that those rates are representative of future conditions. Any changes in those rates (whether positive or negative) will of course alter the predicted trajectories.<br/><br/>Based on recorded births of pups, monk seal numbers in the main Hawaiian Islands appear to have increased in recent years (Baker and Johanos 2004). However, the number of animals in the main Islands is small, and the current status of the species depends primarily on the situation in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.	eng
13654	threats	Lowry, L. & Aguilar, A., 2008	Recovery of Hawaiian monk seals has been affected to an unknown degree by disturbance from military activities in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands including the alteration, development and occupation of bases on several key islands that started before World War II (Ragen and Lavigne 1999). However, the military has left the area and the vast majority of monk seals live where they are isolated from most direct human contact. The only permanent structures remaining in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands are U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service facilities at Tern Island and Midway Atoll and remnants of former Coast Guard facilities at Kure Atoll.<br/><br/>Current threats to monk seals are thoroughly reviewed and analyzed in NMFS (2007). The most crucial threats in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands at this time are: 1) food limitation that could be due to changes in oceanographic conditions, competition with fisheries, or competition with other predators; 2) entanglement in marine debris, largely fragments of net and line discarded by North Pacific fisheries; and 3) predation by sharks, especially on pre-weaned and recently weaned pups. An emerging threat in this region may be the loss of terrestrial habitat due to sea level increases resulting from global warming (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2006). The situation in the main Hawaiian Islands is somewhat different, with the main threats there being: 1) interactions with recreational fishing gear especially hookings and entanglements in gillnets; 2) possible transmission of diseases from domestic pets and livestock to seals; and 3) disturbance of seals that haul out on beaches heavily used by people.	eng
13655	conservation	Kovacs, K., 2008	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
13655	distribution	Kovacs, K., 2008	The Caribbean Monk Seal once inhabited the Caribbean Sea, northwest to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as from the Bahamas to the Yucatan Peninsula, south along the Central American coast and east to the northern Antilles. Extralimital records and fossil remains from the southeastern United States also exist.	eng
13655	habitat	Kovacs, K., 2008	The species occupied a marine environment, with rocky or sandy coastline and islands being used for shelter and breeding areas. Their diet included eels, lobsters, octopus, and other reef fish. Like other true seals, the Caribbean Monk Seal was sluggish on land. Its lack of fear for man and an unaggressive and curious nature also contributed to its demise. Very little is known about the reproduction and longevity of this animal. Live pups were probably born in early December because several females killed in the Yucatan during this time of the year had well-developed fetuses.	eng
13655	population	Kovacs, K., 2008	The species was first discovered by Columbus in 1494, and early records testify to its abundance in several parts of the Caribbean (The Extinction Website 2007). It was not until 1850 that a specimen was collected and a scientific description made. By 1887, the species was rare, though the Triangle Keys west of Yucatan remained a stronghold of the species until 1915, when about 200 animals were killed there (The Extinction Website 2007). The last record from Texas was in 1932, and the last reliable records from anywhere were of a small colony at Seranilla Bank, a group of tiny coral islands halfway between Jamaica and Honduras, in 1952. An aerial survey in 1973, conducted by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, found extensive fishing activity throughout the former range of this seal. A later cruise through the Gulf of Mexico and around the Yucatan Peninsula failed to find any <em>M. tropicalis</em> in the area. Unconfirmed sightings of Caribbean Monk Seals by local fishermen and divers (see for example Boyd and Stanfield (1998)) almost certainly refer to wandering Hooded Seals, which have been positively identified on Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.	eng
13655	threats	Kovacs, K., 2008	Intensive exploitation began during the voyages of Columbus, and continued for centuries afterwards, as the seals were killed for their skins and oil. In more recent years, the seal was also subject to persecution from the fishing industry.	eng
13692	conservation	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13692	distribution	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Found in eastern Brazil from the states of Pará south to Santa Catarina (Gardner 2007).	eng
13692	habitat	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	In the Atlantic forest of Brazil this species was found to make nests in the forks of trees or in bushes. In the Brazilian cerrado it is restricted to gallery forest and is found to be terrestrial and active during the day. Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Found usually near water. Feeds on insects; in captivity will voraciously kill and eat small vertebrates (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13692	population	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	It is uncommon.	eng
13692	threats	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	No major threats.	eng
13693	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas in Brazil.	eng
13693	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Uruguay, southern Brazil and northeast Argentina (Gardner 2007).	eng
13693	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Pastures, wetlands, pampas grasslands, and riparian areas next to waterways.	eng
13693	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species can be common in the appropriate habitats. Remaining populations of this species have been reduced to isolated fragments of their former range.	eng
13693	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats occur to the species, although numerous populations are threatened by habitat conversion to agriculture.	eng
13694	conservation	Patton, J.L. & Percequillo, A.R., 2008	Presumed to occur in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
13694	distribution	Patton, J.L. & Percequillo, A.R., 2008	Found discontinuously south of the Amazon in eastern Peru and central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).	eng
13694	habitat	Patton, J.L. & Percequillo, A.R., 2008	Found only in terra firme forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Found from sea level to 300 m (Patton pers. comm.). Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Found around fallen logs in lowland evergreen rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13694	population	Patton, J.L. & Percequillo, A.R., 2008	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population. Apparently rare, known from only a few individuals and localities (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13694	threats	Patton, J.L. & Percequillo, A.R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
13695	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is likely to occur in several protected areas, however, more surveys to establish range of occurrence and occupation, and ecology are needed in order to assess it.	eng
13695	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is endemic to southeast Brazil, where it is found in Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Espírito Santo (Gardner, 2007).	eng
13695	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Rain and subtropical forests of the Atlantic Coast.	eng
13695	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Very little is known of populations of this species. A population reduction is suspected based on a severe drop reduction in extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat by deforestation.	eng
13695	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The loss of habitat is suspected to have caused a decline in various populations.	eng
13696	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas.	eng
13696	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known from Bolivia, Brazil and northern Argentina (Gardner, 2007). This species is found from lowlands up to 1,500 m.	eng
13696	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species seems to prefer moderately disturbed habitats (Anderson, 1982). It is found in a variety of habitats, including forest and cerrado. No information available on habits, behaviour, food or reproduction (Anderson, 1997).	eng
13696	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is estimated to be widespread with locally low densities.	eng
13696	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats. However, there is local habitat destruction which might be reducing some populations.	eng
13697	conservation	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Does not occur in any protected areas and surveys are needed to establish the extent of occurrence, ecology, and abundance.	eng
13697	distribution	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	This marsupial is known from northeastern Brazil on Ilha Marajó, Pará, and possibly one small island to the west, Ihla Caldeirão (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).	eng
13697	habitat	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Habitat and behaviour is not known, but is possibly is similar to <em>Monodelphis domestica</em>.	eng
13697	population	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Apparently rare, known only from several individuals.	eng
13697	threats	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population.	eng
13698	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in protected areas in both Peru and Bolivia.	eng
13698	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found on the eastern Andes slopes of southeastern Peru and western Bolivia (Gardner, 2007). It is found from 1,900 to 3,200 m (Solari and Tarifa, in prep.).	eng
13698	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found only in montane forest, no records either in secondary forest or outside of forest. This species is among the least arboreal of the Didelphids, and is usually found on the ground, though it can climb (Nowak, 1999). It is nocturnal, and its diet consists of small rodents, insects, carrion, seeds, and fruit (Nowak, 1999). This is a montane species (Solari, 2004).	eng
13698	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	Unknown. There are not many records.	eng
13698	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats. The forest in much of its range is under protection, although there is localized forest loss.	eng
13699	conservation	Astua de Moraes, D. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species is suspected to occur in at least one protected areas. More information is needed about habitat protection, ecology, extent of occurrence and occupation, and abundance in order to assess this species.	eng
13699	distribution	Astua de Moraes, D. & Vieira, E., 2008	The species has been recorded from east central Brazil including the states of Goiás, Mina Gerais, and São Paulo (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).	eng
13699	habitat	Astua de Moraes, D. & Vieira, E., 2008	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular.	eng
13699	population	Astua de Moraes, D. & Vieira, E., 2008	Apparently uncommon or rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
13699	threats	Astua de Moraes, D. & Vieira, E., 2008	The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population, however, the extent of this decline is unknown.	eng
13700	conservation	Vieira, E. & Brito, D., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
13700	distribution	Vieira, E. & Brito, D., 2008	Found in the Southeast of Brazil, including the States of Espiritu Santo (southern portion), Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Santa Catarina and is reported from Argentina (Gardner, 2007).	eng
13700	habitat	Vieira, E. & Brito, D., 2008	Found in lowland Atlantic humid coastal forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular.	eng
13700	population	Vieira, E. & Brito, D., 2008	Uncommon (GMA Brazil). The species may be more common than surveys suggest due to inadequate sampling (Viera and Brito pers. comm.).	eng
13700	threats	Vieira, E. & Brito, D., 2008	No major threat. Habitat loss is a threat in parts of the species' range and some populations are in decline.	eng
13701	conservation	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13701	distribution	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	The species is confined to southeastern Brazil, from Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do Sul, through southeastern Paraguay to Misiones province, northeastern Argentina (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007).	eng
13701	habitat	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Found in Atlantic coast rainforest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular.	eng
13701	population	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Uncommon, although the population may be larger than thought as surveys have been inadequate.	eng
13701	threats	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, the loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in some populations.	eng
13702	conservation	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	This species may be in a protected area. Further research is known on the ecology, distribution and threats to populations.	eng
13702	distribution	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	This species is known from only five specimens and is only found in eastern Brazil, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais (Gardner, 2007). The Peruvian distribution referred to in Gardner, 1993 referred to a similar, undescribed species (Gardner, 2005).	eng
13702	habitat	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Unknown but presumed to occur in Atlantic forests.	eng
13702	population	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Unknown, known only from 5 specimens.	eng
13702	threats	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Unknown, but the region is suffering from deforestation which might impact populations.	eng
13703	conservation	Soriano, P. & Teta, P., 2008	Surveys to establish range of occurrence and occupation, ecology, and abundance are needed prior to assessing this species against the numerous possible threats.	eng
13703	distribution	Soriano, P. & Teta, P., 2008	Known only from São Paulo State, Brazil and Provincía Misiones, Argentina (Gardner, 2007).	eng
13703	habitat	Soriano, P. & Teta, P., 2008	Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular. Habitat and behaviour is not known.	eng
13703	population	Soriano, P. & Teta, P., 2008	Previously known only from a single individual collected prior to 1842 (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Apparently known only from two individuals (Gardner, 2007). The loss of habitat will most probably have caused a decline in the population.	eng
13703	threats	Soriano, P. & Teta, P., 2008	Habitat loss is a threat, however, the magnitude is unknown.	eng
13704	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The narwhal is actively hunted only in Canada and Greenland. In Canada, the quota system that had been in place since the 1970s was replaced by a community-based management system implemented in the late 1990s and early 2000s (COSEWIC 2004). The hunt is managed by local hunter and trapper organizations with harvest limits established in some communities.  Compliance has been questionable (COSEWIC 2004). Under this system, removals from some summering aggregations are probably sustainable, however there is concern that removals from other summering aggregations may not be (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Greenland, a quota system was introduced in 2004 by the Greenland Ministry of Fisheries and Wildlife. The quota was set at 300 narwhals (of which 294 were taken), divided among municipalities of West Greenland. Compliance has reportedly been good (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Narwhals are legally protected in Russia and Norway. The species is listed in Appendix II of CMS.	eng
13704	conservation	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES and CMS Appendix II.<br/><br/>The European Union (EU), with stronger CITES rules than other countries, has established an import ban on tusks (active since December 2004). Although Denmark belongs to the EU, it is unclear whether the ban on trade in narwhal ivory between Greenland and Denmark is being enforced.	eng
13704	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Narwhals primarily inhabit the Atlantic sector of the Arctic and are rare in the Pacific sector. The principal distribution is from the central Canadian Arctic (Peel Sound – Prince Regent Inlet and northern Hudson Bay), eastward to Greenland and into the eastern Russian Arctic (around 180°E). They are rarely observed in the far eastern Russian Arctic, Alaska, or the western Canadian Arctic. In summer, narwhals spend approximately two months in high Arctic ice-free shallow bays and fjords and overwinter in offshore, deep, ice-covered habitats along the continental slope (Heide-Jørgensen and Dietz 1995). These disjunct seasonal distributions are connected by extensive annual migrations (over 1,000 km) which last approximately two months (Koski and Davis 1994, Dietz <em>et al.</em> 2001, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2002, Innes<em> et al.</em> 2002, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
13704	distribution	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Narwhals primarily inhabit the Atlantic sector of the Arctic. The principal distribution is from the central Canadian Arctic (Peel Sound – Prince Regent Inlet and northern Hudson Bay) eastward to Greenland and into the eastern Russian Arctic (around 180°E). They are rarely observed in the far eastern Russian Arctic, Alaska, or the western Canadian Arctic. In summer, narwhals spend approximately two months in high Arctic ice-free shallow bays and fjords; they overwinter in offshore, deep, ice-covered habitats along the continental slope (Heide-Jørgensen and Dietz 1995). The whales migrate annually between these disjunct seasonal areas of concentration, with the migratory periods lasting approximately two months (Koski and Davis 1994; Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2002; Dietz <em>et al</em>. 2001; Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
13704	habitat	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	In all areas of their occurrence, narwhals prefer deep or offshore waters (Hay and Mansfield 1989). Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland have high site fidelity to the winter pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in regions along the continental slope with high gradients in bottom temperatures, predictable open water (< 5%) and relatively high densities of Greenland halibut (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2004a). The wintering grounds may be the most important habitat for narwhals. Intense benthic feeding behavior has been documented between November and March in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003; Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a), in contrast to low feeding activity during the summer period. This suggests a major portion of the annual energy intake is obtained in winter (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2004a; Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a). This may also be true for the Greenland Sea, but has yet to be documented.<br/><br/>Fish, squid, and shrimp make up the narwhal’s diet (Hay and Mansfield 1989; Heide-Jorgensen 2002), especially Arctic fish species, such as Greenland halibut, Arctic cod, and polar cod (the latter of which are often associated with undersides of ice) (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005a). Narwhals feed mostly in deep water and possibly at or near the bottom. Dives of up to nearly 1,500 m and 25 minutes are documented (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003), and there are some seasonal differences in the depth and intensity of diving (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2002; Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2003). Predators include killer whales, polar bears, and possibly occasionally Greenland sharks and walruses (Hay and Mansfield 1989).	eng
13704	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	In all areas of their occurrence, narwhals prefer deep or offshore waters (Hay and Mansfield 1989). Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland have high site fidelity to the winter pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay in regions along the continental slope with high gradients in bottom temperatures, predictable open water (< 5%), and relatively high densities of Greenland halibut (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>Fish, squid, and shrimp make up most of the narwhal diet (Hay and Mansfield 1989, Heide-Jørgensen 2002), especially Arctic fish species, such as Greenland halibut, Arctic cod, and polar cod (the latter of which are often associated with undersides of ice) (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005).  Narwhals feed at times in deep water and possibly at or near the bottom.  Dives of up to nearly 1,500 m and 25 minutes are documented (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2003), and there are some seasonal differences in the depth and intensity of diving (Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2002, Laidre <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
13704	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The global population is probably in excess of 80,000 animals. The narwhals that summer in the Canadian High Arctic constitute the largest fraction, probably in excess of 70,000 animals (Innes <em>et al.</em> 2002, NAMMCO/JCNB 2005).	eng
13704	population	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The global population is probably in excess of 80,000 animals. The narwhals that summer in the Canadian High Arctic constitute the largest fraction, probably in excess of 70,000 animals (Innes <em>et al</em>. 2002; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In addition, some thousands of narwhals probably summer in the bays and fjords along the East Baffin Island coastline (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Another summering aggregation, centred in northern Hudson Bay, numbers about 3,500 animals (COSEWIC 2004). Two summering aggregations in West Greenland (Inglefield Bredning and Melville Bay) total over 2,000 animals (Heide-Jørgensen 2004; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005) and in East Greenland a rough estimate of the total number of animals in the summering aggregations is >1,000 (Gjertz 1991; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). Surveys in Central West Greenland in late winter estimated 2,800 animals in 1998 and 1999 (Heide-Jørgensen and Acquarone 2002), however, these surveys covered unknown proportions of whales from different summering aggregations in West Greenland (likely Inglefield Bredning) and possibly Canada. Some areas in Canada with summering aggregations remain unsurveyed, although these likely contain small numbers.<br/><br/>The estimated generation length for the narwhal according to Taylor <em>et al</em>. (2007) is 24 years, which means that the 3-generation window is 1936-2008.	eng
13704	threats	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Narwhal populations are potentially threatened by hunting, climate change, and industrial activities. Narwhals were never the targets of large-scale commercial hunting except for a brief period of perhaps several decades of the early 20th century in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Mitchell and Reeves 1981). They were hunted opportunistically by commercial whalers, explorers and adventurers in many areas. For many centuries, narwhals have been hunted by the Inuit for human food, dog food and tusk ivory (Born <em>et al</em>. 1994). The mattak (skin and adhering blubber) is highly prized as food and provides a strong incentive for the hunt (Reeves 1993), but in recent years the cash value of ivory and the need for cash to buy snowmobiles have both greatly increased. Potential future threats include habitat degradation from oil exploration and development (e.g., in West Greenland) and increased shipping in the high Arctic (NW and NE passages), all of which is bound to increase with the dramatic, ongoing reduction in sea ice.<br/><br/>In West Greenland, catches have declined since 1993 with no significant sex bias. Heide-Jorgensen (2002) estimated the annual catch rate at 550 between 1993 and 1995. In 2004, the estimated catch in West Greenland was 294 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005), including whales that were struck and lost. In contrast to West Greenland, there has been an 8% increase in catches in East Greenland since 1993 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). <br/><br/>The narwhal is actively hunted only in Canada and Greenland. In the eastern Canadian Arctic, the average reported landed catch per year from selected communities was 373 between 1996 and 2004 (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Canada the majority of the communities take a greater proportion of males than females throughout the seasons. Annual catch statistics in Canada substantially underestimate the total numbers of narwhals killed due primarily to the incomplete reporting of whales that are struck and killed but lost (IWC 2000; NAMMCO/JCNB 2005; Nicklen 2007). <br/><br/>Narwhals supplied various staples in the traditional subsistence economy. Today the main products are mattak and ivory (Reeves 1993; Reeves and Heide-Jørgensen 1994; Heide-Jørgensen 1994; Nicklen 2007). Narwhal tusks from Canada and Greenland are sold in specialty souvenir markets domestically and also have been exported. However, in Greenland, the export of tusks is currently banned. In Canada, the quota system that had been in place since the 1970s was replaced by a community-based management system implemented in the late 1990s and early 2000s (COSEWIC 2004). The hunt is managed by local hunter and trapper organizations with harvest limits established in some communities. Compliance has been questionable (COSEWIC 2004). Under this system, removals from some summering aggregations are probably sustainable, however, there is concern that removals from other summering aggregations may not be (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005). In Greenland, a quota system was introduced in 2004 by the Greenland Ministry of Fisheries and Wildlife. The quota was set at 300 narwhals (of which 294 were taken), divided among municipalities of West Greenland. Compliance reportedly has been good (NAMMCO/JCNB 2005) although there is concern that catch limits may be set too high (IWC 2007, p. 52). <br/><br/>The effects of climate change on narwhals are uncertain. Narwhals are well adapted to a life in the pack ice as indicated by the fact that there is very little open water in their winter habitat (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005b). They spend much of their time in heavy ice and are vulnerable to ice entrapments where hundreds can become trapped in a small opening in the sea ice (savssat) and die. This occurs when sudden changes in weather conditions (such as shifts in wind or quick drops in temperature) freeze shut leads and cracks they were using. When entrapped whales are discovered by hunters, they normally are killed. A recent assessment of the sensitivity of all Arctic marine mammals to climate change ranked the narwhal as one of the three most sensitive species, primarily due to its narrow geographic distribution, specialized feeding and habitat choice, and high site fidelity (Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
13704	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Narwhal populations may be limited or threatened by hunting, climate change, and industrial activities such as commercial fishing and oil exploration. Narwhals were never the targets of large-scale commercial hunting except for a brief period of perhaps several decades of the early 20th century in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Mitchell and Reeves 1981). They were hunted opportunistically by commercial whalers, explorers and adventurers in many areas. Narwhals have been hunted by the Inuit for human food, dog food and tusk ivory (Born <em>et al.</em> 1994). The mattak (skin and adhering blubber) is highly prized as food and provides a strong incentive for the hunt (Reeves 1993, Heide-Jørgensen 1994).  <br/><br/>The effects of climate change on narwhals are uncertain. Narwhals are well adapted to a life in the pack ice as indicated by the fact that there is very little open water in their winter habitat (Laidre and Heide-Jørgensen 2005).  Narwhals spend much of their time in heavy ice and are vulnerable to events called ice entrapments where hundreds of whales become trapped in a small opening in the sea ice and die.  This occurs when sudden changes in weather conditions (such as shifts in wind or quick drops in temperature) freeze shut leads and cracks they were using.  When live entrapped whales are discovered by Inuit hunters, they normally take advantage of the event by killing the animals. A recent assessment of the sensitivity of all Arctic marine mammals to climate change ranked the narwhal as one of the three most sensitive species, primarily due to its narrow geographic distribution, specialized feeding and habitat choice, and high site fidelity (Laidre <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
13719	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Fond in protected areas.	eng
13719	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known from Lesser Antilles from Anguilla to St. Vincent and Barbados. There are fossils records from Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005). It is known from sea level to 550 m (Schwartz and Jones, 1967). It is not found in Puerto Rico (Rodriguez-Herrera pers. comm.).	eng
13719	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species has been collected in a variety of situations. The area where it occurs was described as a steep and wooded ravine near sugar cane fields; also it was trapped in banana groves, across a trail that separated wood-lands from a Theobroma grove, and in dense rainforest. It roosts in caves. Females taken on Dominica between March and April were gravid (Homan and Jones, 1975).	eng
13719	population	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
13719	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Mining and tourism in the caves.	eng
13720	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Mancina, C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
13720	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and southern Bahamas Islands (Simmons, 2005).	eng
13720	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Mancina, C., 2008	The species forms large colonies containing up to a few hundred thousand individuals. It rest in hot caves during the day, where it normally roost in association with, but spatially separated from, bats of other species (Rodriguez-Duran, 1998; Silva-Taboada, 1979). This bat begins to leave its roost after dark. It is morphologically specialized for consumption of nectar; also include pollen. In some dry areas, this bat visit columnar cacti that bloom at night. In addition, it also consumes insects and occasionally ingests fruit. Dates on reproduction are scarce; births apparently occur at two different times during the year. On Puerto Rico, pregnant females are known from February through July and again in September and October (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13720	population	Rodriguez, A. & Mancina, C., 2008	It is common and broadly distributed on Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13720	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Mancina, C., 2008	Mining, human disturbance (recreation and tourism).	eng
13721	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Research into the range, ecology, and population of this species has been recommended.	eng
13721	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in of the Western Ghats around Mumbai (Bombay), India, with an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 9,847 km².	eng
13721	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. indicus</em> is a demersal species, found in coastal brackish waters, swamps and lower reaches of rivers. It possesses pharyngeal pouches for breathing.	eng
13721	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
13721	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This area of the Western Ghats is under threat owing to deforestation, agriculture, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on soil and water quality.	eng
13837	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13837	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This sub-Saharan bat species ranges widely from West Africa to the East African coast. In West Africa, it is distributed from the Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west, through to Nigeria and Cameroon in the east. From Cameroon, it occurs patchily eastwards through the Congo Basin to Uganda, and to coastal parts of Kenya, Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) and Mozambique in the south.	eng
13837	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species appears to be associated with tropical lowland forest. It appears to be quite adaptable and can be found roosting in trees, buildings and similar sites (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13837	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13837	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation, presumably mostly through logging and mining activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
13838	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
13838	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This bat is widely distributed over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, the Gambia and Mali in the west, to the Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia in the east; from here it ranges southwards through much of eastern and southern Africa, as far south as eastern South Africa and Swaziland. The species appears to be largely absent from the Congo Basin.	eng
13838	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is largely associated with savanna habitats (both moist and dry), although it may sometimes be encountered at the edges of woodland. It is commonly found roosting in buildings, hollow trees and rock crevices.	eng
13838	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13838	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Some colonies roosting within buildings are possibly threatened by general persecution.	eng
13839	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
13839	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded in Central Africa. It is found from southern Cameroon, east into the northern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda. Earlier records of this species from Ghana and Nigeria are now allocated to <em>Tadarida trevori</em> (Simmons 2005).	eng
13839	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is associated with mature tropical lowland moist forest. Colonies roost in hollow trees.	eng
13839	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species has been rarely collected. While a single large colony of approximately several dozen bats has been reported, it is suspected to generally occur in much smaller roosts.	eng
13839	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely resulting from logging activities and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
13840	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Freeman, 1981), and may be present in additional protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable large roosting trees in savanna. Further research is needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and major threats to this species.	eng
13840	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This African bat has been patchily recorded from West Africa (Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Burkina Faso) and Central to East Africa (Cameroon, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda and Sudan). A record from the Gambia appears to be in error (Koopman 1989; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13840	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is found in open and dry savanna and Saharan grasslands. It might be associated with large rivers, especially in the north eastern part of the range. Animals often roost in fissures and cracks of tree trunks (including <em>Vitex doniana</em> [Freeman 1981]) and large branches of savanna trees.	eng
13840	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is rarely recorded. Animals are usually found singly or as small groups of up to 12 bats.	eng
13840	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In part of its range this species is threatened by habitat loss, mostly the cutting of larger roosting trees from savanna. It may also be threatened by encroaching desertification in the northern limits of its range..	eng
13841	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W.,Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	There is a need to protect large trees and other known roosting sites for this species (this does not apply to populations on Madagascar). In Madagascar, it is known from Beza Mahafaly and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Parks.	eng
13841	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W.,Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This widespread lowland, savanna species ranges from West Africa eastwards to East Africa and southwards into southern Africa. It has been recorded from the Arabian Peninsula (found in hollow trees). It is present on Madagascar, where it is generally distributed in the drier western and southern habitats of the island below 150 m asl (Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
13841	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W.,Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This is an open aerial species of woodland and lowland savanna, with most records from the southern part of its range associated with major rivers and extensive swamps (Smithers 1983; Dunlop 1999). In Madagascar it is found in dry woodland and savanna habitats (Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species prefers roosting in total darkness as evidenced by a roost in Maun, Botswana that was located in an attic (Smithers 1983). It has also been observed roosting in long, narrow cracks in trees and in the joints of a concrete bridge (Smithers 1983; Dunlop 1999). In Madagascar, captures of this species have been from roosts in buildings (within crevices between cement walls or bricks), within the leaves of coconut palms, in large tree hollows and shallow rock crevices, and it does not appear to be associated with deep cave day-roosts (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Ratrimomanarivo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
13841	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W.,Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is generally considered to be rare. In southern Africa it is gregarious, and occurs in colonies numbering hundreds (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Roosts of this species in West and Central Africa are unknown. In Madagascar, no large colonies have been found and it is thought to be a locally common species with a patchy distribution. The maximum recorded colony was near Amboasary of 600 individuals.	eng
13841	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W.,Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is thought to be locally threatened by general persecution, collection for food and habitat loss.	eng
13842	conservation	Francis, C., 2008	This species has been found in protected areas and occurs in the Betung Kerihun National Park in Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo (E. Meijaard pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
13842	distribution	Francis, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo and perhaps Java (Indonesia) (Simmons 2005). It is probably found throughout Borneo (C. Francis pers. comm.). It has been recorded at many localities in Sarawak (M. Gumal pers. comm.).	eng
13842	habitat	Francis, C., 2008	This species is often found near rivers but it is not wholly dependent on them. The primary habitat for this bat is forest, it roosts in tree hollows and has been observed to fly high in/above the canopy and has been captured over rivers (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found in lowland forest in Thailand and Indonesia.	eng
13842	population	Francis, C., 2008	This species is rare in Thailand. Its population status elsewhere is unknown.	eng
13842	threats	Francis, C., 2008	Deforestation for logging, agriculture, and plantations represents a major threat to this species, as well as forest fires.	eng
13843	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13843	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This sub-Saharan bat is widely, but patchily, recorded in West, Central and East Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone and Guinea in the west, through West Africa to Cameroon, and from here east to southern Sudan, Uganda, and western Kenya with an additional record from western Ethiopia. It ranges as far south as the southern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is a lowland species.	eng
13843	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is generally associated with tropical lowland forest habitats. It can be found roosting in small numbers in tree cracks or within man made structures such as thatched houses and sheds (Sanderson 1940; T.S. Jones in Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
13843	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13843	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In general there are no threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by habitat loss, primarily deforestation resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
13844	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.	eng
13844	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This little known species was collected from "Niangara, northeastern Belgian Congo" (Democratic Republic of the Congo near the border with Sudan) (Allen <em>et al</em>. 1917; Lang and Chapin 1917).	eng
13844	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It is currently unclear whether the holotype was collected in savanna or tropical moist forest (Freeman, 1981), however, it appears to have been reported to roost in tree hollows (Lang and Chapin 1917).	eng
13844	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
13844	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
13845	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and systematics of this species.	eng
13845	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species is present in Central Africa and parts of Southern Africa. It has been recorded from eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Zambia, Rwanda, northern Mozambique and possibly from Malawi. Previous records from Madagascar and Botswana are now considered to be erroneous (Simmons 2005).	eng
13845	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species is associated with mature Miombo woodland. Roosting takes place in hollow trees and buildings.	eng
13845	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This is a locally common species that can be found in large colonies of up to hundreds of individuals within buildings, but is more often present in smaller numbers.	eng
13845	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range, often through general deforestation and the conversion of suitable habitat by shifting agricultural practices.	eng
13846	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2009	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest within the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this bat.	eng
13846	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2009	This little-known species has only been recorded from Ghana and Cameroon (with type locality of '15 km S Kumba'), with no records from the intervening countries of Togo, Benin and Nigeria. Koopman (1993) included "perhaps Sierra Leone" as part of the distribution, however, J. Fahr (pers. comm. 2004) indicates that there is no evidence of the species' presence.	eng
13846	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2009	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitats. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
13846	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2009	It is considered to be a very rare species.	eng
13846	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2009	The species is considered to be threatened by loss and degradation of forest habitats within its known range, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use and the extraction of firewood and timber.	eng
13847	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	Legislation to conserve this species is being established at a national level but needs to be implemented. Further research to understand this species population and ecology is required.	eng
13847	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	The species is found in Indonesia (Sulawesi) and the Philippines (Simmons 2005). In the Philippines, records are from  Mindanao (South Cotabato, and Misamis Oriental provinces), and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also been collected on Buton (T. Kingston pers. comm. 2006). The record from Luzon, Benguet province, represents an undescribed species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
13847	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	Habitat and ecology of this species are mostly unknown, although it is probably found in lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It forages over water and also cultivated areas.	eng
13847	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	The population status and trends are unknown. Surveys for this species in the Philippines have been inadequate and inappropriate, given that it is a high flying forager. It is known from very few records scattered over a large area.	eng
13847	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., McKinnon, J., Kingston, T. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation through felling of trees and agriculture. Mining and encroachment of industrial development are also threats.	eng
13848	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
13848	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species ranges through parts of West and Central Africa. It occurs from Sierra Leone in the west, through Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Togo, to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), the Central African Republic with a record from the eastern part of The Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possibly present in other countries, such as Benin, Nigeria and Congo, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
13848	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	In general this is a lowland tropical moist forest species that roosts in hollow trees. There is little information on the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.	eng
13848	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	Within Central Africa this is a very common species, and is believed to have quite large colonies.	eng
13848	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is locally threatened by deforestation, often through conversion of land to agricultural use or by extraction of timber and firewood.	eng
13849	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
13849	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	This widespread bat species has been recorded from much of Western and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa (where it has been recorded from most countries) to Cameroon, and from here south into southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and east into Uganda, Rwanda and western Kenya. It is present on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
13849	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest (both primary and secondary), and has also been recorded from cocoa plantations. Usually found roosting as small groups in hollow trees, under roof or in road culverts and drains (Happold, 1987).	eng
13849	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	It appears to be quite abundant in parts of its range.	eng
13849	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Juste, J. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is locally threatened by habitat destruction, often through conversion of land to agricultural use or timber extraction.	eng
13850	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, however, it has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known bat.	eng
13850	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded in parts of West and Central Africa. In West Africa It has been recorded from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Comoe in Ghana, and Agege in Nigeria; in Central Africa it has been recorded from the Central African Republic, parts of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.	eng
13850	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland forest, and may be a forest-savanna mosaic specialist. In Nigeria, they have been observed flying over a fish pond close to tropical moist forest (Happold 1987). Colonies roost inside hollow trees (Lang and Chapin 1917; Jeffrey 1975).	eng
13850	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	Little is known about the abundance of this apparently rare species, but it is presumed that colony size is likely to be small.	eng
13850	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is generally threatened by habitat loss, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and the extraction of firewood and timber.	eng
13873	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
13873	population	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Population trend is considered to be declining based on food market turnover. In 1996–97 this species represented 10 tons/day during the peak season, but then disappeared from markets in 1998.	eng
13874	population	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	The population is considered to be declining. A commonly traded species In east Asian food markets, where supply reached peaks of 30 tons/day in April–May of 1996–97, but disappeared from markets by 1998.	eng
13877	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Protect the caves. Found in protected reas. Only one protected hot cave in Jamaica (Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
13877	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in the Greater Antilles, and adjacent small islands (Simmons, 2005). Presence of fossilized specimens indicates that at one time the range of this species extended from the Bahamas as far south as Antigua and Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles (Lancaster and Kalko, 1996). Today, this bat is known only from the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/>Locally extinct from Abaco, Exuma and New Providence (Bahamas), Gonave (Haiti), Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda (Lesser Antilles) (Turvey pers. comm.).	eng
13877	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species roosts mostly in hot caves, where each bat typically hangs by itself from ceiling. Individuals occasionally gather in small clusters in cooler sections of caves, and sometimes solitary bats are found in an apparent state of shallow torpor in places where air temperature may fall as low as 20 Celsius degrees. This bat normally begins to exit the cave after dark, between 22 and 55 min after sunset (Silva-Taboada, 1979). It is insectivorous, but foraging behavior has not been studied in detail. Moths are by far the most common food, in addition to moths, beetles are also eaten. It appears to hunt along forest edges and around the crowns of trees. It typically gives birth only once each year to a single offspring. On Cuba, pregnant females are found from March to June (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13877	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is locally common; in hot caves it can attain high densities (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13877	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Breeding sites are rare. Threats to hot caves. In Puerto Rico is urban development (Rodriguez pers. comm.). In Jamaica is guano collection (Davalos pers. comm.). In Dominican Republic is mine exploration (Inchaustegui pers. comm.).	eng
13878	conservation	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Conservation and protection of cave habitat, although this will not guarantee protection of the species (Davalos pers. comm.). Found in protected areas.	eng
13878	distribution	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species is found throughout south Texas, south Arizona (USA), and Baja California (Mexico) south to northwest Peru and north Venezuela; Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles); It is also found on Trinidad; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons, 2005). It is discontinuous throughout its range in localised colonies (Molinari pers. comm.).<br/>As a species complex was previously much more widespread, local extinctions have occurred throughout most of its range (Davalos pers. comm.). Its area of occupancy is relatively small (Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
13878	habitat	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Occurs in specialised roosts in deep caves of karstic regions, this habitat is very rare (Molinari pers. comm.). A minimum population is required to maintain the temperature of the cave at around 40 centigrade, once the minimum threshold of individuals required to maintain the temperature. If the temperature is reduced, offspring do not survive (Molinari pers. comm.). In Ecuador occurs in cloud forest. At around 3,000 m in the Andes (Molinari pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This bat feeds on insects, chiefly moths, its prey usually has body lengths of 5 to 6 mm. It often forages over water, on forest edges, gaps, or open spaces. It roosts in deep caves, where it hangs singly, separated from their neighbors, in colonies of up to several thousand, but usually of only a few individuals. In north Amerca, large concentrations are found in caves in October and November, but disappear by January - such movements are not always seasonal.  Females produce one young per year, between April to June. Nursing females roost separately for males and non-reproductive females (Ceballos and Galindo, 1984; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997; Rezsutek and Cameron, 1993; Villa-R., 1966).	eng
13878	population	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is locally common, and it is rarely in large groups (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997). The population of Venezuela is likely to occur in only ten caves (Molinari pers comm.). Found in hot caves (Rodriguez pers. comm.).	eng
13878	threats	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Cave collapse can cause localised extinctions, cave vandalism occurs in many countries, they are very sensitive to disturbance (Davalos and Molinari pers. comm.). In Belize tourism in caves is causing problems (Miller pers. comm.). In Guatemala there are problems with fire in caves (Jose Cajas pers. comm.).	eng
13879	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect cave roosts of this species in Mauritius by re-grilling important sites.	eng
13879	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species occurs on the islands of Mauritius and Rèunion. There is a single doubtful record for Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995), two old records for South Africa (both near Durban in 1833 and undated), and an old record from taken between the district of Shoa and Lake Rudolph in southern Ethiopia (Hayman and Hill 1971; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It is now considered most likely that specimens taken outside of the Mascarene Islands were vagrants, and that the species should be considered endemic to Mauritius and Rèunion (Skinner and Chimimba 2005; Goodman 2007).	eng
13879	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from scrubland, woodland and agricultural areas. It is a cave roosting species.	eng
13879	population	Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Goodman (2007) found bats allocated to this species to be common at several sites on Mauritius and La Réunion.	eng
13879	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is threatened by disturbance of roosting caves, and the removal of protective grills over the caves for landfill purposes.	eng
13880	conservation	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park, Australia, as well as Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Western Province, Papua New Guinea). Species boundaries need to be checked to assess difference between Australian and New Guinea/Moluccan populations, which appear to have different bone structures and weights (T. Reardon and N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
13880	distribution	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species ranges from the islands of Halmahera and Ambon in the Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), through New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and a single location in Papua Province, Indonesia), on the islands of Fergusson and New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and throughout much of northern Australia. It is found from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
13880	habitat	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats ranging from arid and semi-arid areas, through savanna type habitats to forested areas, including tropical moist forest. It seems to use fragmented habitat remnants (M. Pennay pers. comm.). It can be found in urban areas (Bonaccorso 1998). This species roosts in tree hollows and caves, and has been found roosting in buildings in colonies of up to 50 animals (Bonaccorso 1998; McKenzie and Bullen 2008).	eng
13880	population	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
13880	threats	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13881	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is doubtful that the type locality is in a protected area. Survey work is required to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
13881	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Soekaranda, Deli, northern Sumatra, Indonesia, below 250 m asl. It has not been recorded again since its description in 1907.	eng
13881	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	Nothing is known of the ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other <em>Mormopterus</em> species.	eng
13881	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population status and trend are unknown.	eng
13881	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
13882	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	As this species is more commonly found roosting in buildings than natural settings it is not found in many of the protected areas in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, there is no need for any conservation measures at present as this species appears to be widely distributed and is locally abundant.	eng
13882	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995) and very widespread across the island with a known distribution extending from the coast up to the high plateau at 1,400 m in Anjozorobe (J. Ranivo pers. comm.).	eng
13882	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is usually found roosting in synanthropic settings but also uses caves and rock fissures (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006). A nursery colony with over 1,000 young bats was observed in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In eastern Madagascar it feeds mainly on coleopterans and hemipterans (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006) and forages in open areas (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the south-east it has been netted near water in gallery and spiny forest (Goodman 1999). It frequently shares synanthropic roosts with other molossid species (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
13882	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no quantitative data available on populations of this species; however, it is assumed to have a high population size because it is widespread and roosts in large colonies in buildings.	eng
13882	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is not threatened by loss of native forests because it forages in open areas associated with agriculture. It is locally persecuted when roosting in buildings although this is not yet a major threat. Some colonies are subject to hunting and although this is though to have resulted in abandonment in at least two cases (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008), harvest levels do not appear a major threat.	eng
13883	conservation	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It occurs within three protected areas in Peru (Solari pers. comm.). Research actions.	eng
13883	distribution	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Peru, Northern Chile (Simmons 2005).	eng
13883	habitat	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	May be found in small numbers in urban areas (Solari pers. comm.). It flies relatively low compared with other molossus, some were predated by cats (Solari pers. comm.).	eng
13883	population	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
13883	threats	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
13884	conservation	Mancina, C. & Silva, G., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. Research in population, threats, habitats.	eng
13884	distribution	Mancina, C. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Cuba (Simmons, 2005).	eng
13884	habitat	Mancina, C. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Found in Cuban dry forests (McGinley 2007). Found disturbed habitats and secundary forests (Mancina pers. comm.).	eng
13884	population	Mancina, C. & Silva, G., 2008	Is really abundant, more than 1,000 individuals per colony (Mancina pers. comm.).	eng
13884	threats	Mancina, C. & Silva, G., 2008	Habitat loss, degradation (human induced).	eng
13885	conservation	Richards, G. & Pennay, M., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species, particularly on the effects of habitat loss to it.	eng
13885	distribution	Richards, G. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland through eastern New South Wales. The type specimen is supposedly from Norfolk Island, but it has never been recorded since (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
13885	habitat	Richards, G. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from dry eucalypt forest and over rocky rivers in rainforest and wet schlerophyll forest habitats (Hoye <em>et al.</em> 2008), particularly in complex habitats (G. Richards pers. comm.). There is a record of a small colony in a house (T. Reardon pers. comm.). One generation is approximately 5-7 years (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Its call is very distinctive, and rarely recorded despite extensive survey (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
13885	population	Richards, G. & Pennay, M., 2008	It has only been recorded as scattered individuals, and they appear to be genuinely rare. There have been just 120 reliable records of this species since 1914. Its range is approximately 90% in New South Wales in areas that are well surveyed. This would suggest a population of less than 10,000 mature individuals (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
13885	threats	Richards, G. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is suspected to be threatened by habitat loss including harvesting of timber, coastal development, and possibly inappropriate fire regimes.	eng
13887	conservation	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Type locality is within a protected area.	eng
13887	distribution	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Urubamba River, San Miguel Bridge, Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
13887	habitat	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Very little known on habitat and ecology, may prefer montane forest based on habitat at type locality (Davaros pers. comm.). Occurs at 3,000 m and may roost in caves (Velazco pers comm.).	eng
13887	population	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is rare - only nine or ten specimen collected,  areas with suitable habitat in a neighbouring national park surounding the locality have been surveyed using a range of methodolgies and failed to find the species (Velazco pers. comm.). May be micro endemic (Aguirre pers. comm.). The species is considered 'endangered' in the national red list of Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).	eng
13887	threats	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Known only from one location.	eng
13888	conservation	Hall, L., Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas throughout Australia. The most urgent research need is to assess the species limits within this complex and formally describe species that are likely within it.	eng
13888	distribution	Hall, L., Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. It occurs from eastern Queensland south to Victoria and across much of the southern and central portions of the country to south-western Australia, with the exception of the Nullarbor Plain.	eng
13888	habitat	Hall, L., Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats including forests, open woodland, mallee, and shrubland. It is often more common in wet habitats. It forages predominantly on insects at canopy level or over open land. These bats roost in tree-hollows, roof cavities, lengths of waterpipe, as well as other man made structures. Colonies contain up to about 100 animals. Captive individuals have been known to live for 15 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Females usually give birth to a single young.	eng
13888	population	Hall, L., Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is a common species. However, in portions of its range it is uncommon (e.g., in the north-east and parts of its westernmost range).	eng
13888	threats	Hall, L., Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Reardon, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In portions of its range, however, it is threatened by habitat destruction. In the eastern parts of its range clearance of forest for agriculture and coastal development are threats (L. Hall and M. Pennay pers. comm.), and in parts of the west clearing for agriculture, degradation of woodland habitat, and salinification of habitat adversely affect the species (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
13891	conservation	Wilson, K., 2006	Protection of coastal breeding sites is needed.	eng
13891	distribution	Wilson, K., 2006	Known from Japan (Honshu) and Hong Kong.	eng
13891	habitat	Wilson, K., 2006	Brackish streams and marshes.	eng
13891	population	Wilson, K., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
13891	threats	Wilson, K., 2006	Coastal development.	eng
13894	conservation	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A1cd, B1c), and on the China Key List. Captive breeding, primarily for commercial musk production, occurs in various places in China, and might have some conservation benefit. However, to date, there is little evidence that the availability of musk from captive-bred animals has had a positive conservation impact in terms of reducing poaching pressure (Parry-Jones and Wu 2001, Green <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007).	eng
13894	distribution	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is widely distributed in central and southern China (Shaanxi, Gansu and Henan, south to southeastern Tibet, Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiangxi; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003; Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2004). It extends to the eastern Himalayas and into northeastern Viet Nam, and perhaps northern Lao PDR (there is unresolved historical information that this species also used to exist in Lao PDR (Chebinaud 1942; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
13894	habitat	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species inhabits coniferous or broad-leaved forests, or mixed forests and shrublands at high elevations (2,000-3,800 m). In Viet Nam it is found in karst habitats (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Animals are most active between dusk and dawn, alternately resting and feeding. Forest Musk Deer eat leaves, grasses, moss, lichens, shoots, twigs. These animals are shy, sedentary, and remain within a defined home range throughout the year. Males utilize their large musk gland to defend their territory and attract mates. When alarmed they make great leaps with wild changes of direction. They can adroitly jump into trees to forage. Their main predators include leopard, marten, fox, wolf, lynx and especially humans. Gestation lasts 6.5 months, after which one or two young are born. During the first two months, the young deer lie hidden in secluded areas, independent of their mothers except at feeding times. They are weaned within 3-4 months and reach sexual maturity by 24 months.  Animals may live up to 20 years. Home ranges of <em>M. berezovskii</em> were reported to be 5-10 ha in China by Sheng and Liu (2007).	eng
13894	population	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated in China by uncertainty over taxonomy). The population in China was guessed at over one million in the 1960s; in 1978-1980 at less than 600,000; and in 1992 at 100,000 to 200,000 in 1992 (Sheng 1998). However, the basis for these estimates is unclear, though the strong declining trend is likely to be correct. In the late 1990s, the population in Viet Nam was estimated at 200, but it is now very rare (Do Tuoc pers. comm.).	eng
13894	threats	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of a brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007). Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Viet Namese population is heavily hunted by local people for medicinal use, and is thought to persist in the country in only four localities (Do Tuoc pers. comm.).	eng
13895	conservation	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species listed on CITES Appendix II in China, and on Appendix I in the other countries within its range.  It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A1d+2cd+3cd), and was recently changed from category II to category I on the China Key List in February 2003. Captive breeding, primarily for commercial musk production, occurs in various places in China, and might have some conservation benefit. However, to date, there is little evidence that the availability of musk from captive-bred animals has had a positive conservation impact (Parry-Jones and Wu 2001, Green <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007).	eng
13895	distribution	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species occurs from the highlands of central China (the Helan mountains form the northern edge of the distribution), south and west to the Himalayas, extending to eastern Nepal, Bhutan, and northeastern India (Sathyakumar 2002; Wemmer 1998). Records from Afghanistan, Pakistan, northwestern India and western Nepal refer to <em>Moschus cupreus</em> and <em>M. leucogaster</em>. This species is found at elevations of 2,000-5,000 m asl.<br/><br/>Within China, which comprises the bulk of its range, it is found in southern Gansu, southern Ningxia, Qinghai, western Sichuan, southern Tibet, and northern Yunnan.	eng
13895	habitat	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests.  In western Sichuan, where it overlaps the distribution of <em>M. berezovskii</em>, the alpine musk deer inhabits the higher elevations (above 2,000 m asl, usually above 3,00 m asl), compared with the 1,000-2,500 m altitudinal range of <em>M. berezovskii</em>. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). Its main predators include yellow-throated marten, fox, wolf, and lynx. It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs primarily in November-December, with the resulting offspring being born from May to June. After birth, young deer lie hidden in secluded areas, essentially independent of their mothers except at feeding times. This hiding period may last up to 2 months. Gestation is variously reported at from 150-195 days (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993) and give birth to one offspring (twins are sometimes reported by documentation is lacking).  Fawns wean at 3-4 months, are sexually mature at 16-24 months. <br/><br/>Alpine musk deer are sedentary, tending to remain within defined home ranges. In females these are about 125 acres in size, while male musk deer will control a territory which encompasses the ranges of several females, possibly defending it against other males. The species is not known to migrate. Communication between individuals is thought to be based primarily on their sense of smell, due to the high development of the glands of musk deer. It is primarily silent, musk deer will emit a loud double hiss if alarmed. Population densities can reach 3-4 animals per square kilometer (Smith and Xie 2008), but are not always this high.	eng
13895	population	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated by uncertainty over taxonomy). A widely repeated but poorly documented estimate is that there were 180,000 individuals in the 1960s and 1970s (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003, Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2004), but Sheng (1998) reported no more than 100,000 within China in the 1990s.<br/><br/>Liu and Sheng (2002) estimated population sizes in three Chinese nature reserves in the mid 1990s using extrapolations from counts of pellet groups, but provided few details. They estimated 183-227 in the Helan Mountain Nature Reserve in Ningxia, 131-160 in the Shoulu Mountain Nature Reserve in Gansu, and 4,717-5,798 in the Xinglong Mountain Nature Reserve in Gansu. More recent reports suggest that musk deer have become very rare in the Helan Mountains (Liu, Z.S., East China Normal University pers. comm., 2006).<br/><br/>Anecdotal evidence points to a continued decline in abundance within China. Although population estimates contained in Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) are unreliable, data on musk purchased by local Traditional Chinese Medicine companies probably reflect real trends, and these suggested dramatic declines in musk deer populations during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in Sichuan, Yunnan, Qinghai, Tibet, and Shaanxi.	eng
13895	threats	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 1991; 2007).<br/><br/>Musk deer also appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
13896	conservation	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II in China, and on Appendix I in the other countries within its range. It is on the China Red List as Endangered (A2cd+3cd), and the China Key List as category II. This species has become nominally protected in Myanmar with the creation Khakaborazi National Park, but enforcement of hunting has a long way to go (Than Zaw and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
13896	distribution	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species occurs in China (northwestern Yunnan and southeastern Tibet), northern Myanmar, northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh), Bhutan, and eastern Nepal (Grubb 2005). It is reported at elevations of 2,600-4,200 m. Within Yunnan, China, it is distributed in Gongshan, Fugong and Bijiang counties (Wang, Y.X., unpublished data, 2008).	eng
13896	habitat	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is found near the tree line in rhodendron and coniferous forests, forest-edge and rocky ridges at high elevations (2,600-4,200 m). This is a poorly-known form; all life-history attributes are likely similar to those of the Alpine Musk Deer (<em>M. chrysogaster</em>).	eng
13896	population	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	Estimating population sizes or trends for musk deer is very difficult, and has rarely been done satisfactorily. Population estimates over large-scale areas are subject to considerable uncertainty (and this is exacerbated by uncertainty over taxonomy). No rigorous population estimates exist within China. According to Wang (1998), the species is very rare, making up less than 10% of musk deer found even within Yunnan, with even fewer reported from Tibet. Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) considered the species quite rare, perhaps on the verge of extinction. This species is very rare within Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.). Musk glands were exported from Myanmar, and there have been many skin samples from Myanmar as well. There is one recent camera trap record from Khakaborazi National Park, Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm.).	eng
13896	threats	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007). There is hunting and illegal trade for musk glands from Myanmar to China (Than Zaw pers. comm.). The threat from trade is increasing (Than Zaw pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
13897	conservation	Nyambayar, B., Mix, H. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. The Sakhalin subspecies (<em>M. m. sachaliensis</em>) is listed in Red List of Russian Federation as Category I (Critically Endangered). It is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000). Hunting in mongolia has been prohibited since 1953, and it is protected as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE, 1996). It is listed in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). It is also on the Chinese Red List as Endangered A1cd, and is included on the China Key List - II.<br/><br/>In Russia it is present in a number of protected areas. Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. The following conservation measures are in place in Mongolia:<br/>• More than 1.5 million hectares of the range of this species is included within Horgo Terkhiin Tsagaan Nuur National Park (Hangai Mountain Range), Hövsgöl Nuur National Park (Hövsgöl Mountain Range), and Gorkhi Terelj National Park, Bogd Khan Uul Strictly Protected Area, and Khan Hentii Strictly Protected Area in Hentii Mountain Range (Wemmer, 1998).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed through its range (Wang <em>et al</em> 1993; Wemmer <em>et al</em> 1998):<br/>• Enhance enforcement of existing protective legislature, particularly relating to trade in musk through increased vigilance within protected areas and by customs agents at border crossings.<br/>• Conduct further ecological research and monitor population trends, including on population dynamics, dispersal, and the effects of harvesting. No national surveys of Siberian musk deer population size have been conducted for over 30 years (Homes, 2004).<br/>• Regulate illegal logging and human-caused fires within its range (R. Reading pers. comm.).<br/>• Organise a workshop including representatives from Mongolia, China, Russia and the Koreas to focus international efforts on conservation and to agree upon realistic yet effective solutions to threats faced by this species (Homes, 2004).<br/>• Identify substitutes for musk which would be acceptable in traditional forms of East Asian medicine (Homes, 2004).<br/><br/>The species is successfully bred in captivity at musk deer farms, especially in Russua (in the Altai and Moscow regions) and China.	eng
13897	distribution	Nyambayar, B., Mix, H. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species occurs widely in the Russian Federation (Siberia and the Far East), extreme eastern Kazakhstan, northeastern and northwestern China, Mongolia, Republic of Korea and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Tsendjav, 2002). Records from Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Viet Nam refer to other species in the genus <em>Moschus</em>. Four subspecies occur in Russia: <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> (Siberia); <em>M. m. turovi</em> (Russian Far East); <em>M. m. arcticus</em> (Verkhoyansk Ridge); and <em>M. m. sachalinensis</em> (Sakhalin Island). In Mongolia, <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> is found regionally in the forested habitats in the northern Mongol Altai mountain range (Togtokhbayar <em>et al</em>., 2000), Hangai mountain range (Sosorburam, 1970; Dulamtseren, 1977; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989), Hentii and Hövsgöl mountain ranges, and possibly around Han Höhii Mountain in the western Hangai mountain range (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Wemmer, 1998; Tsendjav, 2002). Two subspecies are found in China: <em>M. m. moschiferus</em> in Xinjiang (Altai mountains), Nei Mongol, and Heilongjiang; and <em>M. m. parvipes</em> along the border with North Korea in the Lesser Xing’an and Changbai mountain ranges, as far west as Ordos Plateau. <em>M. m. parvipes</em> occurs widely in both North and South Korea.	eng
13897	habitat	Nyambayar, B., Mix, H. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabiting mountainous taiga (broadleaf and needle forest), these animals are typically found in forests of dense birch (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and larch (<em>Larix</em> spp.), and shrub-covered slopes in sub-alpine zones (Dulamtseren, 1977; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Tsendjav, 2002). In Russia it inhabits the mid-mountain belt where it prefers dark coniferous forest with dense shrubs and rocky outcrops, using such rocky areas to escape from predators (Prohod’ko, 2002). However, lichens are the main part of Siberian musk deer diet, accounting for up to 99% of the food intake in winter. During the rest of the year the percentage of lichen in the diet is still high, but these deer also consume grasses, leaves and mushrooms. When feeding it is able to climb on inclined trunks up to 3-4 m above ground. Population density is highly correlated with the availability of food and hiding places. The average population density is about 0.6 animals per square kilometre, although under favourable conditions this may be as high as 4-8.5 animals per square kilometer (Prohod’ko, 2002). It has a thick coat for insulation and is well adapted for walking through deep snow.  They are preyed upon by a suite of predators including lynx, wolverine, yellow-throated marten, and rarely wolf, tiger, and bear. When chased, musk deer head for rocky terrain, and will try to reach an inaccessible crag or a shelter. If neither is available, the animal begins to run in circles. Although they can run exeptionally fast, musk deer tire after only 200-300 metres.<br/><br/>They are solitary, though they sometimes occur in small groups (no more than 3 individuals) of a female with her young. In the Altai, family groups consist usually of an adult permanent couple and the young of the year. The territory of female and young lies within the territory of a male. Sometimes the group includes young males up to 2 years old, that are submissive to the adult male, but actively participate in making and protecting common territory (Prohod’ko, 2002). They are primarily active at dusk and dawn. While foraging, a musk deer may travel 3-7 km per night, generally returning to the same spot (a "lair") every morning. Individuals inhabit home ranges between 200 and 300 hectares in size, sticking to the boundaries steadfastly. The size of the home range decreases markedly during the second half of winter. Seasonal migrations are minimal if present at all. Reproduction starts in December, although some females do not mate until March (Prohod’ko, 2002). Females gestate for just over 6 months, and give birth to 1-3 offpsring, usually in May and June. Young wean at 3-4 months, and are mature at 15-17 months. Animals live in the wild for 10-14 years.	eng
13897	population	Nyambayar, B., Mix, H. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	During the 1920s and 1930s numbers were sharply reduced through hunting. In the 1970s the Mongolian population size was estimated to be between 60,000 and 80,000 animals (Dulamtseren, 1977). In 1986, the Institute of Biology of the Mongolian Academy of Science assessed musk deer population sizes in over 53,000 hectares across 63 units of six provinces, resulting in an estimate of approximately 44,000 individuals. The population size in Mongolia continued to decrease: between 1990 and 2000, densities fell from six per 5 km², to one per 5 km² in one observed population (Tsendjav and Bujinkhand, 2000; Tsendjav, 2002). Likewise, all populations in Russia are considered declining. Population estimates from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in 1999 put the Sakhalin population at about 600-650 individuals (still declining), the Eastern Siberian population at about 27,000-30,000 individuals, and the population in the Russian Far East at up to 150,000 individuals (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). Equivalent data appear not to be available for China or the Koreas, but these species is believed to be declining heavily there also. It is believed to be contracting in range in China, and had apparently disappeared from Xinjiang by the end of the 19th century.	eng
13897	threats	Nyambayar, B., Mix, H. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	As the common name suggests, males secrete musk from a preputial gland (the “musk-pod”). This musk forms the basis for many perfumes, and is highly valued for traditional medicines (Wemmer, 1998). Each male produces only around 25 g of musk (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989; Tsendjav, 2002). Although this musk can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac.  <br/><br/>Illegal, unsustainable hunting for musk is the principal threat to this species. An estimated 25,000 adult males were killed through harvesting and illegal hunting between 1990 and 2001 (Homes, 2004). As hunting is often indiscriminate of sex and age, four to five Siberian musk deer are estimated to be killed per musk-pod harvested (Green, 1987). As cheaper, synthetic alternatives for making perfumes are becoming more popular, use of musk in the perfume industry is decreasing, but its value for cardiac, circulatory and respiratory traditional medicines remains high. During the 1970s, the international market value of musk reached up to $45,000 USD per kg. Between 1995 and 2001, the number of traders in musk increased six-fold, following a similar increase in the market price of musk-pods (Zahler <em>et al</em>., 2004). Resource extraction such as mining is not causing a substantial loss of habitat at present, but the resulting human disturbance from this activity does constitute a threat. Habitat fragmentation may also threaten the species (Tsendjav and Bujinkhand, 2000).	eng
13901	conservation	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II (China) and Appendix I (all other countries), but this does not prevent rampant trade in musk deer. It is considered to be rare in China. Perhaps through taxonomic uncertainties, it is on the China Red List as Not Evaluated, and the China Key List - II. The high value of the parts in trade mean that conservation requires effective hand-on anti-poaching activity. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
13901	distribution	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species occurs in the Himalayas of Bhutan, northern India (including Sikkim), Nepal, and China (southwest Xizang) (Groves <em>et al</em>. 1995; Grubb 2005). Its occurrence in China is almost marginal (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003, where treated as <em>M. chrysogaster</em>).	eng
13901	habitat	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species inhabits high alpine environments, with Groves <em>et al</em>. (1995) recording a lowest altitude of 2,500 m asl. It is poorly known, but its natural history is likely to be similar to that of <em>M. chrysogaster</em>. <em>M. chrysogaster</em> is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).	eng
13901	population	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Little is known of the species’s current status. There are very few in China, reflecting the small range there (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is believed to be declining throughout its range because of over-harvesting.	eng
13901	threats	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	There is a high trade in musk deer parts, particularly pods, into China and elsewhere in north-east Asia (see accounts for other <em>Moschus</em> species). Many relatively high-volume illicit wildlife trade links pass through <em>M. leucogaster’s</em> range, so it is certain to be under some level of threat from trade. The unstable taxonomy hampers abilities to assess threat levels directly to species, especially as parts like pods are not readily identifiable to species anyway.<br/><br/>Besides hunting for meat, which is considered a delicacy locally, hunting of the muskdeer is primarily for trade of musk glands. The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S.$45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means.<br/><br/>There is also some forest loss within its range for agriculture, timber and human settlement.	eng
13904	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is presumably known from many protected areas, including the Kau Wildlife Management Area, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
13904	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This widely-distributed species has been recorded from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. In Indonesia, it has been recorded from many islands including Sulawesi, Halmahera, Morotai, Ambon, Buru, Seram, Salawati and Biak, and is present in Fak-fak, Jayapura, Manokwari and Merauke Districts of Papua Province. In Papua New Guinea, it has been recorded in Chimbu, East New Britain, East Sepik, Eastern Highlands, Gulf, Madang, Manus, Milne Bay, Morobe, New Ireland, North Solomons (Bougainville and Nissan Islands), Oro, Sandaun, Southern Highlands, West New Britain and Western Provinces. In the Solomon Islands, it has been recorded on the islands of Fauro, Guadacanal, Malaita, New Georgia, Nggela Sule, Pavuvu, San Cristobal, Davo, Shortland, Uki Ni Masi, and Vella Lavella (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995a; Flannery 1995b; Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
13904	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	Lesser Sheath-tailed bats roost under palm leaves and in limestone caves, under rock overhangs and house roofs. They forage in a wide-variety of primary and secondary habitats, including tropical broadleaf forest, mangroves, coconut groves, rural gardens, and villages (Bonaccorso 1998). The species is insectivorous. Females are believed to give birth to two young annually.	eng
13904	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is locally common and widespread (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
13904	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13916	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from the upper Dan River system of the Roanoke drainage in the Blue Ridge and outlying mountains in Patrick County, Virginia; recently found in the Little Dan River in North Carolina.	eng
13922	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas, such as the National Park of Upper Niger in Guinea and Niokola-Koba National Park in Senegal.	eng
13922	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to West Africa, occurring from Gambia and Senegal west and south through Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, and Nigeria (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). A record from Cameroon (Jeannin 1936), presumably results from confusion with Banded Mongoose (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). The Niger R. presumably forms the eastern limit.	eng
13922	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of Guinea woodland (Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). In Gambia, this species is associated with denser coastal woodland (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998) and dry parts of dense, partly swampy riverine forest (T. Wacher, in Van Rompaey and Sillero-Zubiri in press). Insectivorous.	eng
13922	population	Van Rompaey, H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has been considered the most abundant carnivore in the Guinea savanna (Booth 1960). In Senegal, the day-time frequency of observations along roads was 0.08/100 km (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino 1997).	eng
13922	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Sillero-Zubiri, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no known major threats, although they are sometimes recorded sold as bushmeat (e.g., Ziegler <em>et a</em>l. 2002).	eng
13923	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is present in the Central Menabe provisional protected area, Kirindy Mitea National Park, and Andranomena Special Reserve (at extremely low densities).	eng
13923	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is endemic to the dry decidous forests of the central and southern Menabe regions of western Madagascar from sea level to about 125 m asl. It is found between the Tsiribihina River in the north to south of the Manombo River (Razafimanantsoa 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). The precise southern limits of the range of the nominate subspecies remain unclear (Woolaver <em>et al</em>. 2006), but it does not extend south of the large Mangoky river, a significant biogeographical boundary. <em>M. d. lineata</em> has recently been rediscovered south of this river (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and further research is necessary to clarify the species limits of the two forms	eng
13923	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This is a diurnal, terrestrial and arboreal species found in dry deciduous forest. During the night, animals sleep in burrows, or holes in both fallen and standing trees and in similar shelters. This is a social species usually found in family groups of 6-8. The gestation period for this species is between 74 and 106 days after which a single young is born (Razafimanantsoa 2003).	eng
13923	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This can be a locally common species. In central Menabe, densities range from 0.25- 2.9 /ha (Rabeantoandro 1997; Razafimanantsoa 2003). From live-trapping and village surveys, Woolaver <em>et al.</em> (2006, 2006) found <em>M. d. decemlineata</em> to be distributed throughout the largest area of connected forest in central Menabe and most of the larger forest fragments in southern Menabe; these authors estimated a minimum of 2,000–3,400 adults in central Menabe and 6,400–8,650 adults in southern Menabe. The species seems to occur at much lower densities between the Mangoky and Fiherenana Rivers, in the range of <em>M. d. lineata</em>.	eng
13923	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is threatened by conversion of its forest habitat to cultivated land and pasture, selective logging and also by incidental mortality caused by hunting dogs (Razafimanantsoa 2003). Feral dogs are known predators of this species.	eng
13924	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	<em>M. crinifrons</em> is listed on Appendix I of CITES. On the Chinese Red List this species is termed Endangered A2bcd (Smith and Xie 2008), and it protected by the 1988 Chinese National Wildlife Law under category I. It presumably exists in some protected areas, but no active conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Recommended conservation actions include initiation of research to determine status and threats throughout the species' range. Activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies and investigations into human use of the animals. The highest priority is to conserve the forest habitat of this species, and to bring poaching under strict control.	eng
13924	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is now restricted to eastern China (in southeastern Anhui, northern Fujian, northeastern Jiangxi, and western Zhejiang (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Wu <em>et al</em>. 2007), with a few outlying records from eastern Zheijiang. Its range formerly extended from the coastal region of Ningbo at the mouth of the Yangtze River, westward to Guangdong province (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Records from Yunnan and Myanmar refer to <em>Muntiacus gongshanensis</em>. Animals are restricted to altitudes of 200-1,000 m asl.	eng
13924	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species occurs mostly in heavily forested mountain areas, with abundant undergrowth (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990), as well as mixed forest and scrub (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi, East China Normal University pers. comm.). The species appears to be a generalist browser/frugivore, its diet includes a wide variety of tree leaves and twigs, forbs, grasses, and fruits. Zheng <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that most sign of <em>M. crinifrons</em> in a study area in Suichang county, Zhejiang province was found in mixed forests, although conifer forests increased in importance during winter. <em>M. crinifrons</em> seemed to prefer relatively high tree canopy cover in relatively high elevation (> 800 m) zones with little human disturbance. They apparently display rather limited dispersal capability (Wu <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>The reproductive cycle is aseasonal, and some females conceive new litters while still lactating. Young are born throughout the year. Gestation is 210 days, and mothers give birth to single fawns. Sexual maturity is reached at one year (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993).	eng
13924	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is endemic to China. In 1989 the total Chinese population was estimated around 5,000-6,000 individuals by Ohtaishi and Gao (1990); Sheng (1998) estimated the population to number approximately 7,000 to 8,500. However, the basis for these population estimates is not known. Hunting and habitat destruction have negatively affected its geographic distribution and abundance (Sheng, 1998). A possible decrease in numbers during the late eighties was inferred by Ohtaishi and Gao (1990). Among the three main distribution centers of this species in eastern China there has developed a degree of genetic differentiation that Wu <em>et al</em>. (2006) attributed to the reduction of female-mediated gene flow stemming from habitat fragmentation. Although Wu <em>et al</em>. (2007) found a comfortingly large degree of nuclear genetic diversity; they nevertheless confirmed the earlier conclusions of Wu <em>et al</em>. (2005, 2006) based on mtDNA that the species had been fragmented into subpopulations. The species is believed to be in decline because of hunting and habitat loss.	eng
13924	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	Numbers of this species continue to decline due to deforestation, expanding agriculture, hunting, and other human disturbances. The species is hunted for venison and skin. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) reported that 500 animals were being killed annually for skins which were sold to local markets during the 1980s. Sheng (1998) reported that yearly harvest may have exceeded this figure. There are no current data available regarding human predation on the species, but considering the chronic nature of the poaching problem in China there is no reason to assume that the species is not affected by it.<br/><br/>The species is hunted for venison and skin. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) reported that 500 animals were being killed annually for skins which were sold to local markets during the 1980s. Sheng (1998) reported that yearly harvest may have exceeded this figure. There are no current data available regarding human predation on the species, however, considering the chronic nature of the poaching problem in China there is no reason to assume that the species is not affected by it.	eng
13926	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	This species has been found within two large protected areas in Myanmar, Hkakaborazi National Park and Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006); other areas of suitable habitat exist outside the protected area system in Myanmar but have not been surveyed using suitable methods. Neither have tracts of potentially suitable highlands in other proposed or declared protected areas such as Hukaung Tiger Reserve and Bumphabum Wildlife Sanctuary. The protected areas of Myanmar’s ‘Northern Forest Complex’ are evolving their management and full support is needed to ensure their success. This needs to tackle the issue of professional hunting parties as an urgent priority, and hunting by local inhabitants with sensitivity. It is known from two protected areas, Nujiang and Gaoligong reserves, in China, although it is not protected as a species there (Wang 1998).<br/><br/>A immediate need is to dispel the confusion surrounding this species' taxonomic validity, generated through inspection of part of its mtDNA, compounding the, to date, only weak discussions of its morphological distinctiveness, and to establish and communicate the diagnostic characteristics of the species. This requires re-evaluation of the types and other specimens in China, a review of as much modern material is available in Myanmar (specimens and photographs), and analysis of specimens held in internationally-accessible institutions (most or all of which are still catalogued under earlier names).<br/><br/>An analysis of sensitivity to hunting is needed, which should focus on the relative abundance of this and other muntjac species within heavily hunted areas.	eng
13926	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	<em>Muntiacus gongshanensis</em> was described from Yunnan province, south-western China (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1990), within which its distribution spans the latitudinal range of about 25°–28°10′N (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1994). It also occurs in Kachin state, northern Myanmar: there are several specimens over the latitudinal range of 26°46′N–28°10′N in NHM and FMNH (note specimens are not catalogued under the name <em>M. gongshanensis</em>; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Recent reports by Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1998) and Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999b, 2000), where <em>M. gongshanensis</em> was considered synonymous with <em>M. crinifrons</em>, presumably refer to this species (Grubb 2005), although insufficient morphological characters are given to allow a firm identification. However, from the same area come many recent camera-trap photographs morphologically consistent with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, specifically from Hkakaborazi National Park and Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, which lie within the specimen-validated latitudinal range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). <br/><br/>Gongshan muntjac also probably inhabits southeastern Tibet: Chen <em>et al</em>. (2007) reported animals from Modog and Damu counties, close to the China, India and Myanmar border, in the range 28°33′–29°29′N, 95°20′–97°05′E. They based their identification (as <em>M. crinifrons</em>) solely on mtDNA and no morphological voucher seems to be available (small pieces of pelt may have been preserved), and no characters were discussed other than that the pelt was dark. Specimen-based records, again as <em>M. crinifrons</em> with <em>M. gongshanensis</em> explicitly considered a synonym, from this general area were reported by Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004), from the rivers Pailong and Yigong (30°07′N, 95°02′E) and the Modog are to the south, and from near Zayu at 29°56′N, 94°48′E; again, no morphological characters were given sufficient to allow identification to species. Gongshan muntjac or another species (but not <em>M. vaginalis</em>) may also occur much further to the west, in India: Inglis (1952) referred to melanistic (“very dark brown”) muntjacs, sometimes almost black, in the Darjeeling district (27°02′N, 88°16′E); one was at this time mounted in the Darjeeling museum. Whether this specimen is still extant is unclear, and no analysis more substantial seems to have been published on these animals. Also in India, Johnsingh (2004) stated that <em>Muntiacus crinifrons</em> was discovered in Arunachal Pradesh; the actual location and basis for identification remain unpublished, but this seems more likely to refer to <em>M. gongshanensis</em> than to <em>M. crinifrons</em> (but again could also potentially refer to some other taxon such as one of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex). <br/><br/>Camera-trapping studies in Lao PDR and Viet Nam have many images not referable to northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em> or to large-antlered muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>. Many are certainly of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex of species, but given the external similarity of some specimens of the later to <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, some photographs may in fact be <em>M. gongshanensis</em> or a closely related taxon (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on extensive examination of various camera-trapping programmes’ images). No certain specimen evidence has yet come to light which would support this.<br/><br/>In sum, if these records in Tibet, India and even Lao PDR and Viet Nam do refer to <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, they indicate a much wider geographic range than the so-far specimen-validated distribution in Gaoligongshan (Yunnan, China) and Kachin state (Myanmar).	eng
13926	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	<em>M. gongshanensis</em> has been camera-trapped between 1,250 and 2,750 m asl in Northern Myanmar (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A paratype was collected at 3,000 m asl in northwestern Yunnan (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1990). Specimens in the NHM and FMNH from northern Myanmar were reportedly taken between 900 and 1,850 m asl. Wang (1998) gave the species' elevation as 2,000 m asl, in alpine broadleaf forests, coniferous forests and mixed forests, and in Tibet it occurs at 1,800–2,600 m asl. Camera-trapped animals in Myanmar have been found from subtropical forests through temperate thick mountain forests up to Himalayan alpine shrubland (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The Darjeeling area of India (where the species is not confirmed to occur) contains many rugged mountains, as do all other sites where the species is known or expected to occur. It is uncertain if <em>M. gongshanensis</em> is widely syntopic with other muntjac species. Camera-trap results from northern Myanmar suggest that it occurs largely above the altitudinal ranges of other species there (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). No ecological separation between Gongshan and northern red muntjacs in the Gaoligongshan was discussed by Ma <em>et al</em>. (1994), but Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004) considered that red muntjac generally lived at lower altitudes than Gongshan muntjac in south-east Tibet. Gongshan muntjac’s use of degraded and fragmented forest has not been assessed.	eng
13926	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	<em>M. gongshanensis</em> has been regularly captured by camera-trapping studies in appropriate habitat across a wide spread of sites within two protected areas in Kachin state, northern Myanmar; capture rates appear roughly equivalent for those of other muntjac species elsewhere in Myanmar and Asia, suggesting a large population which is well above criteria for threatened status (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS Myanmar Programme unpublished data). Moreover, substantial areas of Kachin state in the altitudinal range known to be occupied by this species have not been surveyed by methods appropriate to find the species since the Vernay–Cutting Expedition (Anthony 1941). Overall population status depends to a significant degree on the geographic range of the taxon, which is poorly clarified at present, but is likely to be significantly larger than has so far been documented (see Distribution). There is no empirical evidence of population trends.	eng
13926	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	The major threat appears to be from hunting throughout the known range of the species. In Myanmar the species is hunted (non-specifically within general ungulate hunting) for meat, but also for skins which are used widely for clothing. In Hkakaborazi National Park, some hunting is by the relatively small number of permanent inhabitants of the park, who trade wildlife and plant products for basic livelihood support, such as salt. More serious are organised non-local heavily armed parties of professional poachers who enter the protected area for months at a time and hunt intensively to supply the wildlife trade. The numbers of such groups per year seem to be increasing. Hunting patterns in other areas supporting the species are not well known, but it is likely that anywhere in this region with a large population of ungulates remaining attracts heavy hunting from outsiders (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rabinowitz and Saw Tun Khaing 1998; Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Heavy hunting pressure from hill tribes was reported from Yunnan Province (R. Wirth pers. comm. 1990), and although there are no current data available from China, hunting is thought to remain a major threat there. The Chinese population has been considered rare and small, and threatened by hunting (Wang 1998), but this assumes a far more limited distribution than is likely. Much of the Myanmar range is within an area which has seen remarkable stability of forest cover (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this healthy situation may change in the near future, as some other forests of northern Kachin state (which have not been surveyed for the species, and so may hold, or have held, it) have recently been devastated (Eames 2007). Although habitat needs, and thus the effects of forest fragmentation and degradation are essentially unknown, it is unlikely that viable populations can survive outright forest conversion. It is also likely that in areas where forest is being fragmented, negative effects of hunting on populations of this muntjac are compounded and so populations decline, whatever intrinsic ability the species has to use fragmented areas. Protected area coverage, and retention of little-encroached habitat, is also relatively good in the Gaoligongshan of China at high altitudes (Lan and Dunbar 2000).	eng
13927	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Pattanavibool, A. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The species is reasonably well protected within its presumed breeding season in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The species is presumed to be found within protected areas throughout its range; in Thailand, it is largely confined to protected areas (because most suitable habitat is now within protected areas), but it almost certainly will be found to persist both in and out of them in Myanmar.<br/><br/>There is a need for taxonomic work, including a re-evaluation of recent field and captive animals (there is a small captive population within Thai zoos) presumed to be <em>M. feae</em> with reference to the holotype, to determine that such animals are indeed this species. Diagnostic characters for the species also need to be clarified in light of recent discoveries of other muntjacs superficially similar in various morphological characteristics. Confirmation in particular is needed of camera trap records from Thailand and Myanmar as referring to this species rather than to any other darkish muntjac, and suggestions of the species' occurrence in China and far northern Myanmar need to be investigated (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). The species' status, habitat associations, and elevational limits need to be established (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>.	eng
13927	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Pattanavibool, A. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Although the distribution of this species is usually given as from the Isthmus of Kra north and east through southern Myanmar and the adjacent Thai borderlands (Groves and Grubb 1990; Grubb 2005), there was until recently scant evidence of clearly identifiable records (i.e. those accompanied by information on diagnostic characters) from either country (i.e. some range localities appear to be based solely on reports from local people; Tun Yin 1967). Recent discoveries of new species of muntjac and extensions of known range for other muntjac species mean that some previous Thai and Myanmar localities for ‘<em>M. feae</em>’ (see Groves and Grubb 1990) should be viewed with caution. The presence in China remains unconfirmed (see taxonomic note). This leaves only the type locality of east of Moulmein, Myanmar; Muang district (9.08°N, 99.14°E), Surathani Province; and Raheng, Pangna Province (northeast of Phuket island), based on the origin of Thai captive animals and a Gairdner specimen in the Natural History Museum (NHM), London. Two other Gairdner specimens in the NHM, London are incomplete lacking skulls and heads (one of these was reportedly obtained at 300 m asl) and therefore cannot morphologically be confirmed as being this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).  <br/><br/>Photographs of several muntjacs from Kaeng Krachan National Park (Thailand) appear to be of this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Dusit Ngoprasert/WCS unpublished data). Camera-trapping in the western forest complex of Thailand has apparently documented the species on several further occasions, and animals have also been observed in the field (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008), but identification of these animals could be considered provisional because it has been assumed that only two muntjac species inhabit this part of Thailand (<em>M. feae</em> and <em>M. vaginali</em>s); this might not be the case. Animals have usually been identified on the basis of dark pelage and especially the blackish tail (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008), but such characters do not rule out some other muntjac species confirmed from neighbouring areas, including ,i>M. gongshanensis</em> and some animals in the ,i>M. rooseveltorum</em> species complex (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most northerly of the recent records assigned to this species is from Mae Wong National Park in montane forest at 1,450 m asl (16° 4' 46'' N, 99° 7' 4'' E) (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).  <br/><br/>One photograph from 1,250 m asl in Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Myanmar shows a male with some features similar to <em>M. feae</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data), and may refer to this species, particularly in the light of suggestions that the species is in China (see taxonomic note). This site lies far from the generally accepted Myanmar range of <em>M. feae</em> and raises the possibility that the species might have a much wider range in Myanmar than generally assumed. This record is not included in the distribution map (which should be considered highly provisional in any case). This record would also indicate sympatry with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>.	eng
13927	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Pattanavibool, A. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The limited information available suggests that the species is tied to evergreen forests of the hills and mountains of western Thailand and adjacent Myanmar (and perhaps further afield). The elevational range of the species is uncertain. In Myanmar evergreen forests are found down to the lowlands because of a relatively wet climate throughout the year, but on the more seasonal eastern Thai side lower elevations are predominantly clothed in drier often deciduous forest types. Its ecology appears to be similar to other muntjacs and it seems to share some of the widespread socio-ecological traits of other muntjacs, i.e. is predominantly solitary and favours fruits and leaves in its diet (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>Towards the centre of their known Thai range, in Kuiburi National Park, Fea’s appears to be relatively common in evergreen forest, being camera-trapped more frequently than northern red muntjac even at elevations of 300 m asl. In open forest types, however, northern red muntjac clearly dominates, and Fea’s doesn’t appear to use deciduous forest types much (if at all), for example in Kuiburi NP they come right to edge of open habitat but don’t cross the line out of evergreen forest. In contrast, northern red muntjac overlaps with Fea’s in evergreen forest, including high elevation, although Fea’s may be the more common in montane evergreen forest above 1000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; but see note under Distribution about provisional status of such records). Further north in Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary the species appears to be commoner (based on cameras, sightings and interviews) than northern red muntjac in forest habitats up to at least 1,000 m asl (there has been little survey work at higher altitudes), although sign abundance of muntjac species certainly declines with increasing altitude, especially above 1,000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). In contrast within Huai Kha Khaeng WS which lies at a similar latitude to Thung Yai WS, but further east, Fea’s muntjac is rare even in montane evergreen forest. This may be due to a rain shadow effect which leaves forest in the east drier than forests in Myanmar or close to the border in westernmost Thailand (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).	eng
13927	population	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Pattanavibool, A. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Taking Thai records assigned to <em>M. feae</em> as truly representing the species, it is not infrequently camera-trapped and observed in evergreen forests of the mountains in Western Thailand, especially the Klong Saeng forest complex, Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuiburi National Park; and at least in the latter two areas, in evergreen forest, appears as or more common than northern red muntjac (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; but see note under Distribution about provisional status of such records).	eng
13927	threats	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Pattanavibool, A. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The species may be threatened at some level by a decrease in available habitat and by hunting. Most remaining habitat for the species in its presumed Thai range is now effectively protected and many of the surviving forest blocks are large. Therefore it seems unlikely that the species is in serious threat from either factor at the present there (but note the uncertainty over range and the identification of many records) (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). The apparent commonness of Fea’s muntjac at low elevations in Kuiburi National Park, where hunting of this and northern red muntjac occurs, suggests a similar degree of tolerance to hunting pressure as the later species (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).<br/><br/>The Thanintharyi (= Tensasserim) region of Myanmar is currently relatively intact, but the ongoing and projected conversion of forests to oil palm plantation in southern Myanmar (Leimgruber <em>et al</em>. 2005) is some level of threat. Such conversion could destroy all large blocks of forest in the lowlands and adjacent lower hills, which includes some of the elevation range of the species. Forest and thus deer at higher elevations would probably remain secure. Altitudinal distribution of the species is too little understood to allow adequately assessment of this threat.<br/><br/>In northern Myanmar (not confirmed to be within the species' range), muntjacs are commonly hunted, particularly for pelts (Than Thaw pers. comm. 2006); hunting levels in the known Myanmar range can also be assumed to be high. In Thailand, Feas’ muntjac is apparently not specifically targeted by hunters, perhaps because of scarcity relative to <em>M. vaginalis</em> in many of the areas supporting most of the hunting, and its primary range in higher elevations which are not visited frequently by hunters (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008).	eng
13928	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	Taxonomic uncertainties within this species-complex forestall any analysis of conservation needs for the individual species. Populations of this species-complex occur in probably most protected areas of the Annamite range and northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). The species-complex also occurs in several protected areas in Myanmar (Schaller and Rabinowitz 2004). If there are localised taxa within this species-complex then conservation measures additional to support and consolidation of the existing protected area system may be warranted.<br/><br/>Whatever actual taxonomic pattern is found within the species-complex, management of hunting will need to recognise that hunters cannot be expected to recognise muntjacs to species in the field: some methods are non-selective (e.g. snares) while active projectile hunting (e.g. guns, bows, blow-pipes) would be severely reduced in their harvest efficiency if identification had to precede shooting. The only realistic site-based management tool for this species-complex is likely to be the declaration of suitably-sized ‘core areas’, site in ecologically appropriate areas, where all hunting using methods suitable for muntjacs, including under hitherto traditional rights, is prevented. Lao protected area legislation apparently provides for ‘core areas’ within each national protected area although few if any have yet been declared. Each protected area within the species-complex’s range should therefore have at least one large (several hundred km², in the absence of any empirical knowledge of muntjac spatial ecology) core zone declared and enforced. This measure implemented in conjunction with well considered hunting management in peripheral forest areas might also benefit the ongoing dietary needs of local people, who could harvest in a controlled manner animals outside core zones, and who, in parts of montane Lao PDR that have been effectively studied, are being forced into involuntary veganism because the lack of effective wildlife management and sensible hunting quotas, has meant wildlife stocks have fallen severely (Krahn and Johnson 2007).	eng
13928	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The distribution of this species is very unclear (see taxonomic note). The type was collected in 1929 at Ban Muangyo (=Muong Yo, now locally known as Ban Yo) in northern Lao PDR, in Phongsali Province (Osgood 1932). The only additional localities pertain to a few specimens proposed by analysis of mtDNA to refer to <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, found at 19°49’N, 103°45’E in northern Lao PDR (Amato <em>et al</em>., 1999a, 2000), and even these cannot be taken as certain, in case more than one species shares similar mtDNA. A female found in the Xe Sap NPA in southern Lao PDR by R. Steinmetz and Tanya Chanard in the late 1990s shows many morphological similarities to <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Published range descriptions (e.g. Groves and Schaller 2000; Grubb 2005) are hypothetical because under current uncertainty, there is no way objectively to determine the range of any taxon within this species-complex, including of <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> itself (see taxonomic note).<br/><br/>Many incomplete specimens, predominantly skulls and partial skins (largely not mutually associated), and camera-trap photos, all of which present characters apparently diagnostic or characteristic of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex, have been collected over a large range of northern Indochina highlands (Lao PDR and Viet Nam), the northern and central Annamite range of Indochina (Lao PDR and Viet Nam), and northern Myanmar. A few specimens at the Viet Nam National University, Hanoi, suggest a presence east of the Red River. Records of <em>M. putaoensis</em> from northeastern India (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003), initially identified morphologically, have been confirmed by recent genetic analysis of five specimens as <em>M. putaoensis</em> (James <em>et al</em>. press). There has been insufficient work in the southern Annamites of Viet Nam and in northern parts of Thailand to rule out presence of the species-complex there, which is possible (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) listed <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for China (seemingly for the first time) with the following statement '<em>M. lachrymans teesdalei</em> described by Lydekker (1915) as having relatively small preorbital pit and premaxillae separated from nasals should be <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>'. Although Lydekker's animal is definitely <em>M. reevesi</em>, Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) were correct in <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> having the said features. Thus, some records identified as <em>M. reevesi teesdalei</em> in southern China may in fact not be of that taxon and could, given the features of this 1986 description, refer to animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex. Presence of the species-complex in southern China is extremely likely as specimens and photographs of animals in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam have been obtained close to the Chinese border (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/>The camera-trap and specimen evidence suggests that in some, perhaps many, areas of Indochina two (or more) taxa within this species-complex are sympatric, or at least parapatric in a mosaic pattern. The situation is less clear in Myanmar, although the presence of multiple taxa there is also possible (see account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>). Contrary to various statements in the literature (e.g. Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b) animals of this species-complex are not highly localised, but rather appear to be widespread, although this does not rule out that there might be individual species with small ranges. <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> may yet be found to occur throughout the range of the complex, but equally it could be much more localised. Specifically, despite the molecular genetic analysis of a relatively large number of specimens from Myanmar and adjacent India (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999a; James <em>et al</em>. press), there is no suggestion of animals with DNA similar to the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> holotype in these countries. <br/><br/>There have been various unsubstantiated claimed localities for species-level identifications of both <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> and <em>M. truongsonensis</em> in the grey literature. Notably, an animal observed in captivity at ‘Lak Sao’ (= Ban Lak-20), Lao PDR, 18°20'N, 106°00'E and identified by Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999a) as <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, should not at present be identified; this animal presented several key external characteristics at variance with the holotype of <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> (Timmins 1996; Amato <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> may well occur in this area, because there are camera-trapped animals and one sight record, with distinctive reddish pelage (rather than the darker, less red, and more contrasting pelage assumed to be shown by <em>M. truongsonensis</em>; but note that the pelage of the nominal taxon <em>M. puhoatensis</em> is unknown), from a number of localities in the Northern Annamites of both Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Ma <em>et al</em>. (1986) listed <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for China, but the identification was revised to <em>M. reevesi</em> by Groves and Grubb (1990) who apparently examined four purchased skins of this species in the Kunming Institute of Zoology (thus extending this species range significantly to the west). There is no description of the skins in the above sources, and given the current understanding of muntjac systematics it would likely be hard to diagnose the specific identity of the skins (especially if heads and tails were incomplete or missing) without molecular analysis, their species identity is thus probably best treated as indeterminate at present.<br/><br/>The type localities for available names in this species-complex are:<br/>1. <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>: Ban Muangyo, Phongsaly Province, Lao PDR, ca. 21°31'N, 101°51'E (Osgood 1932).<br/>2. <em>M. truongsonensis</em>: Viet Nam, "in the west of Quang Nam province"; "collected from four houses in three locations in Hien District, West Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. The three locations are: Hien, the district capital, A Tin village, and A Plo village (15°56'59''N, 107°34'18''E)" (P. M. Giao <em>et al</em>. 1998). Although this information is not given in the original description (Nguyen An Quang Ha 1997) it can reasonably be used to restrict the more general indications in the original description because there is no doubt that the two sources refer to the same collected material.<br/>3. <em>M. puhoatensis</em>: the Pu Hoat area in Que Phong District, Nghe An Province, Viet Nam (Binh Chau 1997).<br/>4. <em>M. putaoensis</em>: “purchased … at Atanga village, 30 km east of Putao (27°21'N, 97°24'E), northern Myanmar” (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b).	eng
13928	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	In Lao PDR this species-complex is probably restricted to higher elevations (over 1,000 m asl) and forests at the evergreen end of the spectrum; it may be absent from forest even above 1,000 m asl in drier western areas. In Viet Nam it occurs also down to lower altitudes (perhaps to the foothills) especially on the eastern slope of the Annamites and probably also in northeastern areas (east of the Red River) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Myanmar the species-complex appears to occur between at least 700 and 1,250 m asl (see <em>M. putaoensis</em> 2008 account). Social ecology is likely to be similar to other species of muntjac, which are generally solitary and territorial.<br/><br/>The complex is widely sympatric with northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em>, although at high elevations over about 1,500 m asl that species appears to become scarce or naturally absent within Indochina, whereas the <em>rooseveltorum</em> complex ascends to over 2,000 m asl in at least northern Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on photographs and other unpublished data of S. Swann/FFI).	eng
13928	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	Over 50 specimens (not all now extant) and close to 100 camera-trap photographs of the species-complex are known to R.J. Timmins from Indochina (pers. comm. 2008), suggesting it is relatively common in both Lao PDR and especially Viet Nam. Camera-trapping in northern Myanmar suggests that the species-complex is also at least locally common there (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data). Results from camera-trapping in Lao PDR (Nan Et–Phou Louey NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data A. Johnson/ WCS; Nakai-Nam Theun NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Watershed Management Protection Agency unpublished data; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Viet Nam (Hoang Lien Son mountain range: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data S. Swann/FFI) show that the species-complex is at least locally common at these sites, and it could be so over much of its range. In other areas, mostly south of the previous list of areas, such as Pu Mat NR; Thua-Thien Hue province; and Quang Nam province (Viet Nam), and Bolikhamsai province (Lao PDR), the species-complex has been camera-trapped less frequently than <em>M. vaginalis</em> in each area, but this may reflect ecological factors of sampling areas, such as habitat and altitude range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on various unpublished datasets; SFNC 2000; Robichaud and Stuart 1999).	eng
13928	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The main threat to the species-complex is hunting. Especially within Lao PDR and Viet Nam, there is indiscriminate snaring throughout its known range, for local meat consumption and a thriving bushmeat trade (see Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the best protection from hunting at present is the ‘cushioning’ effect of large forest blocks, where the costs of extracting wildlife of low to medium commercial value from the centre are higher than the income from selling it, and where habitat is so extensive it is simply more difficult to hunt out cryptic, non-gregarious species, than it is in smaller forest blocks. Because most such blocks within the complex’s geographical range are centred on rugged terrain, with higher elevations forming the core of such areas, these muntjacs are likely to be significantly less threatened than are sympatric ground-dwelling mammals with altitudinal ranges limited to lower elevations. <br/><br/>In localized areas, especially of northern Indochina, the species-complex is likely to be affected by habitat loss. Here, most ethnic groups practice shifting cultivation and in recent decades there has been a clear net loss and fragmentation of forest: such shifting cultivation is not now in a balanced cycle (for rotational systems), or never was (frontier systems). The adaptability of the species-complex to degraded or fragmented habitats is not well known, although evidence from northern Lao PDR suggests that animals there persist in landscape-scale mosaics including extensive secondary, degraded forest fragments and cultivation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In general it appears that muntjacs (particularly <em>M. vaginalis</em> and <em>M. reevesi</em>) adapt well to secondary and degraded habitats and in fact may reach higher densities in such areas than they do in unencroached habitats. More serious than losses to shifting cultivation, in the most recent years and the immediate future, is likely to be the large-scale replacement of natural forests (albeit mostly heavily degraded) with rubber plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market. This is affecting large areas of the northern highlands of Lao PDR and elsewhere, and will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of habitat (it is unlikely that rubber plantations will support even mediocre densities of this species-complex, although this is not yet known), decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect.	eng
13930	conservation	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Short-furred Dasyures occur in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and natural history of this species.	eng
13930	distribution	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The Short-furred Dasyure has a wide distribution across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present in the Aru Islands (Indonesia) and on the island of Yapen (Indonesia). It occurs from sea level to about 1,800 m asl.	eng
13930	habitat	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The Short-furred Dasyure is largely dependent on mature tropical hill forest, and other reasonably intact forest types (it does not occur in secondary forest). Short-furred Dasyures are found in lower to mid-montane forests below 1,800 m (Van Dyck 2002). They are known to use both arboreal and subterranean nests (Woolley 1989). This species breeds throughout the year and females carry up to four young in the pouch (Woolley 2003).	eng
13930	population	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is fairly common.	eng
13930	threats	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Predation by feral dogs are believed to be the only threat to this species, however, it is not considered a major threat.	eng
13931	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	Broad-striped Dasyures are not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
13931	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is endemic to areas on the southern side of the Central Cordillera in south-eastern Papua New Guinea (Van Dyck 2002). It ranges between 600 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
13931	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is found in hill forest to lower montane mature tropical moist forest. They are known to nest underground and are terrestrial and scansorial, and mostly active at night (P. Woolley pers. comm.). Breeding probably occurs throughout the year and females have up to four young in a litter (Woolley 2003).	eng
13931	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Broad-striped Dasyure has a restricted range and it may not be common. The species is known from only approximately 23 wild-caught specimens. Two have been caught in mist nets, but it can be trapped on the ground.	eng
13931	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of forest to cultivated land, and by predation by hunting dogs. A nickel mine has been proposed within the species’ range and oil palm plantations are replacing the rural gardens and expanding into new areas.	eng
13935	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It may occur in protected areas in the region.	eng
13935	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the mountains of Ethiopia, occurring on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is known from only about ten sites. The species has been recorded at elevations of between 1,900 and 3,400 m asl.	eng
13935	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is typically found in upland grasslands, however, it has also been reported as commensal in Simien. It is presumed to be a nocturnal, granivorous species. However, if the species is insectivorous, it may explain the lack of trap records. The dentition of this species indicates that they may dig their own burrows.	eng
13935	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Only thirteen specimens are known, and it appears to be a very rare species. During extensive collecting from 1968 to 1998, Yalden found no specimens in samples totalling over 6,300 rodents. Muller trapped a few in houses in Simien, but it was not recorded in more recent trapping there. Very extensive trapping in the Bale Mountains has failed to record it. Duane Schlitter (pers. comm.) has only ever trapped one in highly grazed grasslands north of Addis Ababa.	eng
13935	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The quality of the habitat may have been affected by conversion to agricultural use (the area is heavily populated and used by farmers), and it is suggested that this species may have declined as a result (it is thought to have become less common in the last 50 years).	eng
13936	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species has been reported from some protected areas, including Krau Wildlife Reserve (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also been recorded from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary and Ton Nga-chang Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
13936	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	There are records of this species from the Malay Peninsula, three localities in Sabah, Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), and two from Thailand (Bumringsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
13936	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It has been caught in lowland dipterocarp forest and hill forest (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). It is found mostly in primary forest. This bat roosts in foliage, not caves. Nothing is known about roost size, but roosts are likely to be small.	eng
13936	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is locally rare and occurs at low densities.	eng
13936	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	The main threats to this species are logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires.	eng
13937	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, N., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from some protected areas. There is a need for additional studies over the range of this little known species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13937	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, N., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southern and central China and eastern mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia it has been recorded from India (Sikkim) and Nepal Himalaya (Mid Western and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Gansu, Hainan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia there are records from Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and possibly northern Cambodia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from 2,000 to around 4,154 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13937	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, N., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known overall about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Sikkim the species was collected at 2,000 m asl in a agricultural area with forest; in Nepal it was collected at 1,154 m asl (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam it has been captured in montane primary forest at 1,800 m asl (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Thailand is has been found in montane areas at around 2,000 m asl (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is believed to be a tree, or foliage, roosting species (Smith and Xie 2008). This species hunts close to ground (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
13937	population	Francis, C., Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, N., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it is known from only a few specimens (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
13937	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, N., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain poorly known. It is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat degradation in Southeast Asia. In South Asia the threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13938	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in Nepal like Royal Chitwan National Park. Population and ecological studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in a number of Southeast Asian protected areas.	eng
13938	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species ranges from southern and northern South Asia, into southern China, most of mainland Southeast Asia, and parts of insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia the species is presently known form India (Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Nepal (Western Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central Province) in South Asia (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Nicobar Islands, it has been recorded from Great Nicobar, Trinket, Nancowrie, Kamorta, Tillangchong, Katchal, Bompuka and Teressa islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). In South Asia, it has been recorded from 250 up to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges in Jiangxi and Hainan, extending to Zhongnan peninsula (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present through nearly all of mainland Southeast Asia and has been recorded from the island of Bali (Indonesia), northern Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Luzon (Camarines Sur province), Mindanao (Bukidnon Province), Sibuyan, and Siqujor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) and has an elevation range from 250 to 1,500 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It has also been recorded from Samar using a tunnel trap at 100 m asl (Gonzales unpublished data 2004); from Negros (Cariño unpublished data 2004), Polillo, and on Panay along a river at 1,140 m asl (Ramayla and Garcia pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13938	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is a forest dweller and roosts among leaves of cardamom plantations in forested tracts and in caves. It roosts in small colonies of two to five individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It hunts for small insects among the cardamom plantations and is a low and agile flyer (Bates and Harrison 1997, Aul and Vijayakumar 2003). In China, it is found in agroforestry areas at intermediate elevations. They roost in foliage, small caves or rock shelters (Smith and Xie 2008). In the Philippines, this species is found in primary lowland forest, lightly disturbed lowland and lower montane forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Lepiten 1995, Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1991, Ruedas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It has also been recorded from secondary forest elsewhere (G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13938	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It is moderately common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13938	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, although it is unlikely to be threatened throughout its range. Although it might be threatened by deforestation (generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses), it has been recorded from some modified habitats and seems to be somewhat adaptable in parts of its range.	eng
13939	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Hall, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Rawa Aopa National Park, Kakanauwe Forest Reserve, and Lambusanga Forest Reserve (Sulawesi, Indonesia), and Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea (D. Wright pers. comm.). Additional information on population numbers and distribution would be beneficial, as the species is generally poorly known.	eng
13939	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Hall, L., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from Flores and possibly the Sumbawa islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands, from south-eastern Sulawesi and on the Peleng Islands, and on the Moluccan Islands of Batjan, Buru, Ambon, Ceram, and Gorong (all Indonesia). It has been recorded from scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and has been recorded from the islands of Umboi and New Britain (both Papua New Guinea). In Australia, it is known from a number of localities in northern Queensland up to the Iron Range area and then south between the Shiptons Flat-Cedar Bay area and Mount Zero near Paluma (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Schulz <em>et al.</em> 2008). It was thought previously to have an altitudinal range of between 400 and 2,800 m asl., but it has recently been found at sea level in West New Britain (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
13939	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Hall, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from a range of tropical moist forest types (including rainforest with a eucalyptus undergrowth), and from dry and wet sclerophyll woodland. It has been found also in degraded forest habitats. It roosts as solitary animals, or in small groups, amongst dead leaves and other foliage, in caves, or in disused buildings (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
13939	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Hall, L., 2008	It is generally not uncommon, but typically occurs at low densities (20-30 per 1 km<sup>2</sup>). Bonaccorso (1998) mentions that only eight specimens were taken on New Guinea between 1959 and 1990.	eng
13939	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Hall, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range (e.g., Sulawesi) by agroforestry practices and clear-cutting of forests. It may additionally be threatened by predation by domestic and feral cats in parts of its range (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
13940	conservation	Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.  Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.	eng
13940	distribution	Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to China and is known only from the type locality in Heilongjiang province (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13940	habitat	Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is often found in hilly areas (Nowak 1991). No further information is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
13940	population	Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
13940	threats	Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13941	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. This species has not been recorded again from the type locality. Taxonomic, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13941	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to India and has presently been recorded from Sairep in Mizoram and Jairipanee in Mussourie, Uttarakhand (Bhattacharyya 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,692 m asl. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not estimated as there is limited information on the species distribution and in taxonomy (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13941	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it has been recorded in thick montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13941	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Bhattacharya 2002; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
13941	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for human settlements in Mussourie (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The threats affecting the species in Mizoram are not known (Bhattacharya 2002).	eng
13942	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies into the natural history of this species are needed.	eng
13942	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widely recorded species largely ranges from northern South Asia, through southern China and northern mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been reported from Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found in northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, much of Lao PDR, parts of Viet Nam, and seemingly disjunctly in Peninsular Malaysia. In South Asia it has been recorded from 1,450 up to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
13942	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests, tropical broadleaved forests and banana plantations. It roosts among banana leaves and bases of banana plants, and under tree bark (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is found at mid-elevations, and appears to be adapted to a variety of habitats (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the natural history is not well known, however, it has been recorded from pristine hill evergreen forest in Thailand and Lao PDR (S. Bumrungri and C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
13942	population	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it is considered to be uncommon to rare.	eng
13942	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and converted for agricultural use and disturbance to roosting sites (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia and China nothing known about the threats to this species (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
13943	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Due to natural rarity conservation measures required. Further research on all aspects of ecology and population trends is strongly recommended.	eng
13943	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	Due to complex taxonomy distribution can not be accurately described. Currently accepted distribution includes NE India, Nepal, S China, W Thailand. Additionally, one specimen has been reported from Pu Mat, Viet Nam (Hendrickson <em>et al.</em>, 2001). A specimen reported by McBee <em>et al.</em> (1986) from Thailand was mis-identified and represents a new species. Many of the specimens reported as this species may represent a separate species (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
13943	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	Very little is known about the ecology of this species. It is found in forests. In China this species is known to roost in caves, in trees, and in houses. It forages in both forested and open areas (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
13943	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	There is no population information available on this species at present.	eng
13943	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Francis, C., Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	No available data, although as logging activity increases, habitat loss may constitute a threat in the future.	eng
13944	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii); D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
13944	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13944	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	It is restricted to temperate forests located within the mountainous regions of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13944	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	It is characterized as uncommon (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13944	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it is restricted to primary forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan.	eng
13945	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Francis (1997) found this species in Krau Wildlife Reserve.	eng
13945	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from the Malay Peninsula and three or four localities in Sabah, Borneo. It can be expected in Thailand, but as yet there are no records (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
13945	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been caught low-flying over streams in lowland dipterocarp forest. Presumably it is a foliage rooster, not known from caves. Nothing is known about roost size, but it is probably small.	eng
13945	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This is a rare species (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
13945	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.	eng
13947	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been recorded from Krau Wildlife Reserve, and Hala-bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) and other protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what may be a species complex.	eng
13947	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, and Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Nias island in Indonesia.	eng
13947	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Primary habitat is lowland dipterocarp forest from sea level up to 1,540 m asl, but also apparently other habitats, having been recorded in banana plantations. It was once netted in the centre of Samarinda City (Yasuma and Andau 2000).	eng
13947	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is locally uncommon (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
13947	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to logging, plantations, agriculture and forest fires may impact some populations, some of which are declining (C. Francis pers. comm.)	eng
13948	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	This species urgently requires additional surveys, covering the entire island (particularly in the fragments of primary forest remaining in the north and south), and ideally using other trapping techniques (mist-netting is not appropriate). This species is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
13948	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen collected in 1962 from Tsushima Island, Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). There is also a possibility that a bat collected on Yaku Island represents the same species (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
13948	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	The type specimen was collected in a cave, although it could be a tree-hollow or foliage dwelling species dependent on large trees.	eng
13948	population	Maeda, K., 2008	Recent surveys on Tsushima Island, including both cave searches in winter (2005; K. Armstrong pers. comm.) and mist-netting efforts about 10 years ago during the summer (Maeda pers. comm.), have not recorded this species. The species could possibly be extinct.	eng
13948	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	There is only a small patch of intact forest remaining on Tsushima, but there are very few caves available for roosting.	eng
13949	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded form any protected areas. Ecological and population studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas.	eng
13949	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is present in northern South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. It does not appear to be present in China. In South Asia this widely distributed species is presently known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and has been recorded from 1,200 m to 2,650 m asl. In Southeast Asia it is present in northern and eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.	eng
13949	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in montane forests on the mountain slopes and roosts among trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). One or two young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997). In northern Myanmar, it has been found altitudes ranging from 615 to 1,230 m asl (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, it appears to have been recorded from somewhat disturbed areas.	eng
13949	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It has only been caught in small numbers in all parts of the range (Francis pers. comm.).	eng
13949	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to habitat loss and disturbance to roosting sites mainly due to human unrest in the areas where it occurs (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, the threats to this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
13950	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species is known from protected areas.	eng
13950	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Resricted to southern part of Russian Far East, the Korean Peninsula, Sakhalin Island, and the Kuriles. Within Japan, it has been recorded from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima Island, Yakushima Island and Iki Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>In China it has been reported from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Jilin and Heilongjiang (Smith and Xie, in press), but this needs verification; it is possible that these records should be attributed to another <em>Murina</em> species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008).	eng
13950	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It roosts mainly in tree hollows, but also roosts in leaves, hollow bark, and in caves.	eng
13950	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is widely distributed but is locally rare. Surveys have only found this species at low density.	eng
13950	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is threatened by the loss of forest throughout its range, although it is unlikely to be a major threat at present.	eng
13952	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within its range (e.g., Digya National Park in Ghana) in which this species is presumed to occur.	eng
13952	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from eastern Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Togo. Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) suspect that the species may be distributed in Ghana or Sierra Leone. It is a lowland species.	eng
13952	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	The species occurs in the 'Guinean Savanna Zone' bordering the tropical rain forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
13952	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is locally abundant. The description is based on a large series of animals.	eng
13952	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13953	conservation	Aplin, K., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic studies to conclusively determine the distribution of <em>Mus booduga</em> and the similar <em>Mus terricolor</em>.	eng
13953	distribution	Aplin, K., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The range of this largely South Asian species is difficult to define, as it is often confused with <em>Mus terricolor</em>. It has been recorded widely in India Sri Lanka, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal, Bangladesh (although distribution here is unclear) and central Myanmar. It is found from sea level up to 4,000 m asl elevation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13953	habitat	Aplin, K., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is common in ricefields and other irrigated croplands in India. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Myanmar, it lives in drier, sandy habitat and scrubby areas, and is a serious pest in cropland areas (such as peanut crops).	eng
13953	population	Aplin, K., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is reported to be a common and abundant species in India. It is also abundant in Myanmar (K. Aplin pers. comm.).	eng
13953	threats	Aplin, K., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
13954	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Ruwenzori National Park, Virunga National Park and Kibali Forest).	eng
13954	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is a montane Albertine Rift endemic occurring in the Kivu region of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and adjacent parts of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. It is normally found above 1,500 to 3,000 m asl. The species has been recorded from (north to south) the Upper Ituri region west of Lake Mobutu and on both sides of the Rift Valley. Specific locations include Ruwenzori (Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda), Virunga Volcanoes, mountains west of Lake Edward (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and on both sides of Lake Kivu (Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi). An extralimital record from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya needs verification (and is not mapped here).	eng
13954	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It occurs in dense moist forest, swampy forest, bamboo forest, and even secondary forest, low afroalpine area. Records of this species from forests below 1,000 m asl need verification, especially those from the Ituri Forest and Irangi (Democratic Republic of the Congo). It is a herbivorous, and occasionally omnivorous, species.	eng
13954	population	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is generally rare in the cultivated zone west of Lake Kivu, and it is less common than <em>M. minutoides</em> on Idjwi Island, Lake Kivu. Population numbers fluctuate, but is normally the second to third most common species of <em>Mus</em> in trap records. It may be locally abundant in certain habitats.	eng
13954	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13955	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The species range may possibly coincide with the Luanda National Park in Angola.	eng
13955	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeastern and central Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998) and southern and western parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The precise extent of the species range is not known. It has been found at elevations of between 900 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
13955	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There is little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumed to occur in savanna, and may possibly be found in forest habitats.	eng
13955	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
13955	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13956	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species probably occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.  In China, it occurs in Changshanerhai and Tongbiguan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008). Research should be conducted to determine the status of a potentially distinct species in central Myanmar. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
13956	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is widespread throughout southern China and south-east Asia. It is known from Okinawa Island, Japan (it is not known whether this population was introduced (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005)) to Taiwan, Province of China, southern China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan Island, and Hong Kong provinces) (Smith and Xie 2008), Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from the Malay Peninsula, and in Indonesia in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Flores Islands in Nusa Tenggara; all places where they may possibly have been inadvertently introduced (Musser and Newcomb 1983), but they may also represent relictual populations (although those on Flores are definitely introductions). The spotty distribution of this species on the Sunda Shelf is best explained by inadvertent human introductions (Musser and Newcomb 1983).	eng
13956	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species inhabits grasslands, scrub and secondary growth as well as other grassy agricultural fields such as rice paddies where it feeds on seeds and invertebrates (Smith and Xie 2008). They are mainly active at night, although they sometimes also are active for brief periods during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13956	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is patchily distributed but locally abundant in suitable habitat (Aplin and Lunde 2006).	eng
13956	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
13957	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas (eg. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal in India). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species.	eng
13957	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is patchily distributed from Pakistan and northern India, through Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern China (Anning and Ruili, both localities in Yunnan [Smith and Xie 2008]) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from northern Sumatra and central and eastern Java, both to Indonesia, where it may represent either introduced or natural, relictual populations (Ken Aplin pers. comm.). It is found from sea level to roughly around 2,000 m asl.	eng
13957	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal, fossorial and sometimes terrestrial species. It occurs in all types of habitats except deserts. It is often found in fields and tall grassland habitat close to rivers. It has been found to occupy irrigated and cultivated fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in secondary growth, grass, brush, rice fields and other agricultural areas (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, this species is found in open areas in deciduous dipterocarp forest, grasslands and paddyfields (Marshall 1977). This species is often sympatric with <em>Mus caroli</em> (Marshall 1977).	eng
13957	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a common species, and can be locally very abundant.	eng
13957	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
13958	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumed to be present in many protected areas. It is possibly present in some protected areas in northeastern India (eg. Namdhapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh), and is almost certainly present in some protected areas in Southeast Asia. It is categorised as a vermin (Schedule V) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. In South Asia, general taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13958	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in two distinct populations, one centered on northeastern South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, northeastern India and Nepal [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]) and northwestern Myanmar, and a second ranging through central and eastern Myanmar, southern China (Yunnan, west of the Salween River [Smith and Xie 2008]), Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. Both populations are widespread but patchily distributed. The northwestern population ranges from around 50 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005), while the southeastern population occurs from about 200 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
13958	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present in a wide variety of primary and secondary forest types. In South Asia it is found in subtropical dry deciduous forests, shola grasslands,temperate coniferous and broadleaved forests, and has been found to occupy arable land near <em>Lantana</em> bushes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Southeast Asia it is only found in forested areas and occasionally in moderately disturbed areas such as upland gardens in forests. In China, it has been reported from upland rice fields and other disturbed habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
13958	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is abundant.	eng
13958	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
13959	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in Kreinci Seblat National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species might occur more widely in the mountains of western Sumatra.	eng
13959	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The species is found only in the mountain chain along western Sumatra. The elevational limits are not well defined, but the type locality is Korinchi Peak at 3,050 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may extend further along the mountain chain in western Sumatra than current records suggest.	eng
13959	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in upper montane rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13959	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There is no information on current population status. The most recent collection is a series from the 1980s.	eng
13959	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats at the high elevations at which it occurs.	eng
13960	conservation	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has been recorded from Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Mukurthi National Park in Tamil Nadu. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). There is a need to develop captive breeding and husbandry techniques for species recovery actions (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13960	distribution	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in India, restricted to four fragmented locations (Eravikulam National Park, Avalanche, Kalapatti and Coonoor) at elevations ranging from 1,540 to 2,400 m asl (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Pradhan 2002; Pradhan and Kurup 2001).	eng
13960	habitat	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical evergreen montane forest and shola grasslands. It has been found to occupy high altitude evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13960	population	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is a very rare species.	eng
13960	threats	Pradhan, M.S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Outside of protected areas the habitat quality is affected due to general human interference (conversion of land to other uses).	eng
13961	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. However, it has been recorded from Yala National Park. Surveys and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13961	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known from one location each in Central Province (Kumbalaghamuwa), North Eastern Province (Kumana), Southern Province (Buttawa in Hambantota and Yala National Park) and Uva Province (Galge in Monaragala) (Phillips 1935; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It is found at about 1,000 m asl.	eng
13961	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry thorny scrub forest. It has been found to occupy low country dry and intermediate zone and semi-evergreen forest (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13961	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13961	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Increased use of pesticides in agriculture, human disturbance and presence of domestic predators have been observed to be major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13962	conservation	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no protected areas within the known range of this species.	eng
13962	distribution	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the vicinity of the type locality close to the Gounda River, Central African Republic.	eng
13962	habitat	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	The species has been recorded from savanna habitat within the lowland rain forest.	eng
13962	population	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
13962	threats	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13963	conservation	Granjon, L. & Is-haquou Daouda, H., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
13963	distribution	Granjon, L. & Is-haquou Daouda, H., 2008	This species has been recorded from Senegal and southern Mauritania, through Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, southern Niger and Benin to northern Nigeria; the eastern range limits are not fully documented and the species may be found in northern Cameroon and Chad, although this needs to be confirmed. The distribution is known to be disjunct. It is a lowland species.	eng
13963	habitat	Granjon, L. & Is-haquou Daouda, H., 2008	It occurs in the 'Sudanian-Sahel Savanna Zone, and it is also a commensal species found in houses and stores.	eng
13963	population	Granjon, L. & Is-haquou Daouda, H., 2008	This is a locally abundant species.	eng
13963	threats	Granjon, L. & Is-haquou Daouda, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13964	conservation	Monadjem, A., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
13964	distribution	Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from northern South Africa (Northern Cape Province, North-West Province, Gauteng and Limpopo Province), western Zimbabwe, Botswana, southwestern Zambia, central and northern Namibia and southern Angola. It generally recorded at elevations close to 1,000 m asl but it has also been found up to 1,600 m in Gauteng, South Africa..	eng
13964	habitat	Monadjem, A., 2008	This species tolerates a wide range of habitats in semi-arid savannas. It generally avoids open microhabitats. Further details are needed on whether this species is present in agricultural land.	eng
13964	population	Monadjem, A., 2008	It is an abundant to very abundant species. This species may undergo population explosions during periods of high food availability, and is considered to be one of the most abundant small mammals in the Kalahari.	eng
13964	threats	Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13966	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13966	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
13966	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Mus macedonicus</em> occurs in the south Balkans, Asia Minor, the Caucasus (Transcaucasia), and the Middle East south to Israel and Jordan and east to Iran (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found from sea level to 500 m (Macholán 1999).	eng
13966	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	<em>Mus macedonicus </em>occurs in the south Balkans, Asia Minor, the Caucasus (Transcaucasia), and the Middle East south to Israel and Jordan and east to Iran (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found from sea level to 500 m (Macholán 1999).	eng
13966	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including cultivated farmland, orchards, olive groves, road verges, sand dunes, arid Mediterranean shrubland, wadis, and densely-vegetated riverbanks. It is absent from dense forests, and avoids areas of human habitation (Macholán 1999).	eng
13966	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It occurs in a wide range of habitats including cultivated farmland, orchards, olive groves, road verges, sand dunes, arid Mediterranean shrubland, wadis, and densely-vegetated riverbanks. It is absent from dense forests, and avoids areas of human habitation (Macholán 1999). In Israel and Jordan it is reported from a few localities east and west of the Jordan River (Qumsiyeh 1996). It is restricted to the Mediterranean areas which receive more than 400 mm of rain per annum (Harrison and Bates 1991).	eng
13966	population	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	It is common throughout its range (Macholán 1999).	eng
13966	population	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	This species can be very common.	eng
13966	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Vladimir Vohralík, 2006	No major threats.	eng
13966	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	No major threats to this species.	eng
13967	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia.	eng
13967	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species occurs on the Ethiopian Highlands at elevations of between 1,500 and 3,400 m asl. The distribution range of this species is incompletely known. It has been recorded from Ethiopia into Eritrea and southwards to southwestern Uganda and southwestern Kenya (Musser and Carleton 2005). The range in Uganda and Kenya is unclear and is not mapped here.	eng
13967	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The species is found in montane forests, scrublands and grasslands on the Ethiopian plateau. It is not a commensal species, but it typically inhabits secondary scrubland and can easily adapt to grasslands that have recently been cleared.	eng
13967	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is common and widespread at middle altitudes in Ethiopia.	eng
13967	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The clearance of forest fuel and cropland appears to be a minor threat to the species habitat.	eng
13968	conservation	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It has been recorded in a number of protected areas including Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal.	eng
13968	distribution	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This form has been recorded from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Ghana. There is currently no evidence that the species occurs in Nigeria, but the eastern limits to the range are unknown. This is a lowland species.	eng
13968	habitat	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	The species occurs in savanna habitat along the Niger River in Mali and has also been recorded in rural gardens.	eng
13968	population	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It appears to be common in suitable habitat.	eng
13968	threats	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13969	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. However, it has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park in Central Province. General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13969	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is endemic to Sri Lanka where it is known from several locations in Central Province, North Western Province, Southern Province, Western  and Uva Province (Phillips 1935; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It occupies an altitutdinal range of 165 to 2,310 m asl and is widely distributed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13969	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical montane, low-land evergreen forest; primary and secondary forest. It has been found to occupy wet undergrowth in low country, wet and mountain wet zones, rainforests, wet patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13969	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13969	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation due to expansion of farmland, human encroachment, and predation by domestic animals (eg. cats) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13970	conservation	Monadjem, A., 2008	It occurs in a large number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed to resolve the northern distribution limits of this species.	eng
13970	distribution	Monadjem, A., 2008	This species appears to range from South Africa and Swaziland northwards into Central Africa and East Africa. The northern limits of the distribution are difficult to define as <em>Mus minutoides</em> appears to form an unresolved species complex with the similar <em>Mus musculoides</em>, and the possible distribution of these taxa between Tanzania, southern Sudan in the north and northern Congo in the west is especially unclear. Typical examples of <em>Mus minutoides</em> have been recorded up to 2,400 m asl (Sinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
13970	habitat	Monadjem, A., 2008	Typical examples of this species have been recorded in Southern Africa from fynbos habitats, savanna, grassland, rocky habitats, vlei and riverine associations, recently burnt grassland, fallow land and suburban areas (though they rarely enter buildings) (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
13970	population	Monadjem, A., 2008	It is abundant to very abundant. Population densities of up to 28 animals/ha recorded and presumably even higher densities in favorable conditions (Ara Monadjem pers. comm.).	eng
13970	threats	Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13972	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas. A highly successful colonist of artificial environments; no conservation measures are required.	eng
13972	conservation	Musser, G., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas. A highly successful colonist of artificial environments; no conservation measures are required.	eng
13972	distribution	Musser, G., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Mus musculus</em> was originally a Palaearctic species, but through its close association with humans it has been widely introduced across the globe (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species is widespread over all continents, except Antarctica, and has become established in North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, and many oceanic islands (Macholán 1999). The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
13972	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Originally a Palaearctic species; through its close association with humans it has been widely introduced and has become established in North and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, northern Australia, and many oceanic islands (Macholán 1999).	eng
13972	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	House mice are typically commensal, and are found in a very wide range of man-made habitats including houses, farm outbuildings, other types of buildings, and even coal mines and frozen meat stores. Sometimes it is feral in areas where it has been introduced, and in some parts of its native range it maintains wild populations in outdoor habitats such as arable land, pastures, coastal sand dunes, salt marshes, and scrubby road verges (Macholán 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). House mice tend not to be found in forests and deserts (Macholán 1999).	eng
13972	habitat	Musser, G., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	House mice are typically commensal, and are found in a very wide range of man-made habitats including houses, farm outbuildings, other types of buildings, and even coal mines and frozen meat stores. Sometimes it is feral in areas where it has been introduced, and in some parts of its native range it maintains wild populations in outdoor habitats such as arable land, pastures, coastal sand dunes, salt marshes, and scrubby road verges (Macholán 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). House mice tend not to be found in forests and deserts (Macholán 1999).	eng
13972	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	A widespread and abundant species; common except in some extreme habitats (e.g. at high altitude) (Macholán 1999).	eng
13972	population	Musser, G., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	A widespread and abundant species; common except in some extreme habitats (e.g. at high altitude) (Macholán 1999).	eng
13972	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	This species faces no major threats.	eng
13972	threats	Musser, G., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	This species faces no major threats.	eng
13973	conservation	Monadjem, A., 2008	It is possible that there are protected areas within the range of this species, but until the distribution is better documented this cannot be confirmed. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
13973	distribution	Monadjem, A., 2008	The distribution of this African species is uncertain, largely because of confusion with <em>Mus minutoides</em>. It is present in southeastern Zambia and Limpopo Province in South Africa, and might be present in southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Zimbabwe, western Mozambique and southern Tanzania although records from these locations require further investigation. The altitudinal range of this species is not known.	eng
13973	habitat	Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is believed to occur in savanna habitat, and has been recorded from rocky montane grassland in Limpopo Province (Newberry and Bronner 2002). Little additional details are available on the natural history of this species.	eng
13973	population	Monadjem, A., 2008	The population abundance of this species is unclear, in part because it is often confused with <em>Mus minutoides</em>.	eng
13973	threats	Monadjem, A., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. It is possible that it could be a widespread species with few or no major threats.	eng
13974	conservation	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in Willem Pretorius Reserve and Golden Gate National Park, South Africa. Further genetic and taxonomic research is recommended for this species.	eng
13974	distribution	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from South Africa (Free State and northern Eastern Cape Provinces) and Lesotho. It has been reported across a wide area. This is a high altitude species.	eng
13974	habitat	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It occurs in high altitude short, open grassland. It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species that nests amongst rock piles or in old termite mounds. The species can tolerate some habitat disturbance, as it is recorded occurring in heavily grazed areas.	eng
13974	population	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The current population size is not known, although specimens formerly allocated to <em>M. minutoides</em> are reportedly not abundant in the Free State.	eng
13974	threats	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13975	conservation	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
13975	distribution	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has only been recorded north of the Oubangui River in the Central African Republic. It is known only from the type series of animals that were collected at three localities. This is a lowland species.	eng
13975	habitat	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded in savanna habitat within tropical moist forest.	eng
13975	population	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	Although the abundance of this species is not known, it may be locally common.	eng
13975	threats	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
13976	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	Globally, it is presumably present in many protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species complex. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram in India. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for the South Asian populations of the species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13976	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widespread from northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal), Bhutan (Putlibir), Myanmar, southern China (southeast Xizang, Yunnan, south Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi), Thailand, southwest Cambodia, Lao PDR, and central and northern Viet Nam (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It is found between 200 and around 2,000 m asl.	eng
13976	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal, semi-arboreal and terrestrial species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species occurs mostly in montane forests (Marshall 1977; Musser and Newcomb 1983), it occurs in both primary and secondary forest. It can be found at the forest edge, but is closely associated with forest habitats. It builds globular nests in dry grass (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith 2008).	eng
13976	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In general, this species seems to be relatively uncommon.	eng
13976	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is present in secondary and modified areas of forest.	eng
13977	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. However, it is known from the following protected areas in India, Sri Lankamalleshwara Wildlife Sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh), Melghat Tiger Reserve and Tadoba Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13977	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to India (recorded from Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is very widely distributed from 500 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
13977	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical thorn scrub forest, plain grassland with sparse vegetation, rocky, semi-arid, scrub,bush, dry forest patches. It has been found to occupy rocky areas with scrub near fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13977	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
13977	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by loss of habitat, overgrazing of habitat, and general development activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13978	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India: Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sri Venkateshwara National Park all in Andra Pradesh and  Mudumulai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13978	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to India, where it is found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra (including Pune), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. It is widely distributed from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; C. Srinivasulu and B. Srinivasulu in litt. 2005).	eng
13978	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial, in some places ruderal species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous, scrub forest. Found in all habitats except cold desert in the northeastern States. It has been found to occupy dry, open areas, gritty and gravelly soil, fields, synanthropic habitats, pasture lands, plantations, dry lands with pulses and oilseed cultivations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13978	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
13978	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
13979	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has not been recorded from any protected area in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
13979	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is endemic to South Asia, where it occurs very widely in India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Southern Nepal), Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sindh) (Agrawal 2000; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It ranges from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
13979	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is a nocturnal and terrestrial, in some places ruderal species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous, scrub forest. It is generally found in all habitats, except cold desert. It has been found to occupy sandy, gravelly, rocky habitat, semi-arid, grassland, dry cultivation, scrub, range land sparse vegetation, intensive agriculture, plain grassland, thorn scrub desert (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
13979	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is common in some areas.	eng
13979	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
13980	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	The range includes a number of protected areas in which the species is believed to occur.	eng
13980	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from Guinea (Mount Nimba) and Sierra Leone; eastwards through Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, possibly Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Haut-Zaïre), southern Sudan, west central and southern Ethiopia. There are unconfirmed records of this species from Senegal. The altitudinal range is not known.	eng
13980	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is associated with grassland clearings in high forest, or more open woodlands. It is not known if this species is commensal.	eng
13980	population	Granjon, L., 2008	In view of its wide range, this species is presumed to have a relatively large population.	eng
13980	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13981	conservation	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	In Namibia, it has been found in the Waterberg and Khadoum protected areas. In Botswana, it has been recorded from the  Okavango and Moremi in Botswana.	eng
13981	distribution	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana (although there is a single record from southern Botswana) and two records from western Zambia. It has been recorded at an elevation of 1,100 m asl.	eng
13981	habitat	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This is a poorly known species. In Botswana it has been recorded from the fringes of pans and wetlands in relatively arid habitats (dry savanna). In Namibia, it occurs in dry savanna and also in short grassland. This may be an insectivorous species.	eng
13981	population	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There is no information available on population status. The species is poorly represented in museum collections, suggesting that it is not abundant, however, this may also reflect a lack of collecting effort.	eng
13981	threats	Monadjem, A. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no threats to this species.	eng
13982	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
13982	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species has a genuinely fragmented distribution in mainland Southeast Asia and is recorded in Myanmar, Thailand, south west Cambodia, central Lao PDR, and north west Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
13982	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in dry grass and pygmy bamboo in dry dipterocarp forest (Marshall 1977). It is tolerant of habitat disturbance, although they require forest cover.	eng
13982	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Although patchily distributed, it can be locally abundant.	eng
13982	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are currently no major threats.	eng
13983	conservation	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are many protected areas in which this species is presumed to occur.	eng
13983	distribution	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania. It occurs up to at least 1,830 m asl (Mount Elgon, Kenya).	eng
13983	habitat	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is associated with open clearings in lowland and montane forest, and also within savanna areas. It is not known if this species is a human commensal.	eng
13983	population	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is presumably a common species.	eng
13983	threats	Granjon, L. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to the species.	eng
13984	conservation	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It occurs in some protected area within its range. The population may be declining and this should be monitored.	eng
13984	distribution	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Mus spicilegus</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring from Lake Neusiedl on the Austro-Hungarian border through Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, and Ukraine, extending eastwards to as far as Rostov in the extreme south-west of Russia. In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Serbia and Bulgaria, with an isolated subpopulation occurring in Montenegro, Greece and Albania. This subpopulation has a fragmented range within a very narrow strip of coastal habitat, and there are only three known localities (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It typically occurs from sea level to 200 m (Macholán 1999).	eng
13984	distribution	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	<em>Mus spicilegus</em> is endemic to Europe, occurring from Lake Neusiedl on the Austro-Hungarian border through Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, and Ukraine, extending eastwards to as far as Rostov in the extreme south-west of Russia. In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Serbia and Bulgaria, with an isolated subpopulation occurring in Montenegro, Greece and Albania. This subpopulation has a fragmented range within a very narrow strip of coastal habitat, and there are only three known localities (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). It typically occurs from sea level to 200 m (Macholán 1999).	eng
13984	habitat	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It occurs in a variety of open habitats including natural steppe grasslands, pastures and cereal fields, orchards, open woodland, woodland edges and clearings. It avoids forests and human settlements. It feeds on grain and seeds, which it hoards in the winter in a soil-covered mound built above its nest chamber; a single mound may be up to 400 cm in diameter (although 100-200 cm is more typical) and contain up to 10 kg of grain (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). Groups of 4-14 mice cooperate to build these mounds (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
13984	population	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It remains common in suitable habitats, but is suspected to be undergoing population decline in some areas. Densities of 1-20 mounds per hectare are typical, but densities of up to 60-100 mounds per hectare may be reached in particularly favourable habitat. On average, each mound is inhabited by five to six individuals (Macholán 1999). In Slovakia the range appears to be expanding.	eng
13984	threats	Coroiu, I., Kryštufek, B. & Vohralík, V., 2008	It is feared that loss of steppe grassland and agricultural intensification may cause population declines (Macholán 1999). However, in Romania at least, this species is considered an agricultural pest (Popescu and Murariu 2001).	eng
13985	conservation	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	Occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific measures are recommended.	eng
13985	conservation	Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, 2006	Occurs in some protected areas within its range. No specific measures are recommended.	eng
13985	distribution	Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Mus spretus </em>is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring in south-west Europe and North Africa from Morocco to Libya (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic islands (Spain), and southern France. Its vertical range is from sea level to 1,800 m (L.J. Palomo pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13985	distribution	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	<em>Mus spretus</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring in south-west Europe (southern France, much of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, Spain) and North Africa from Morocco through northern Algeria and Tunisia to northern Libya (Panteleyev 1998, Macholán 1999). In Europe, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic islands (Spain), and southern France. Its vertical range is from sea level to 1,800 m (L.J. Palomo pers. comm. 2006).	eng
13985	habitat	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	It is found in grasslands, dry shrubland, cereal fields and open woodland. It is absent from dense forest, and tends to avoid human settlements (Macholán 1999). Their limited water requirements (half that of the house mouse) allows them to inhabit drier areas than other mice (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
13985	habitat	Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is found in grasslands, dry shrubland, cereal fields and open woodland. It is absent from dense forest, and tends to avoid human settlements (Macholán 1999). Their limited water requirements (half that of the house mouse) allows them to inhabit drier areas than other mice (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
13985	population	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	It is common throughout its range, and populations are presumably stable. Typical densities are in the region of 3-12 individuals per hectare (Macholán 1999).	eng
13985	population	Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is common throughout its range, and populations are presumably stable. Typical densities are in the region of 3-12 individuals per hectare (Macholán 1999).	eng
13985	threats	Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, 2006	No major threats.	eng
13985	threats	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13986	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
13986	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Sudan, much of Ethiopia, southern Somalia, and southwards through Kenya to central Tanzania (Dodoma), including the lower flanks of Mount Kilimanjaro (Musser and Carleton 2005). The distributional limits are unresolved, and it s possibly also present in Eritrea. The species is found at elevations below 2,000 m asl.	eng
13986	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species occurs in areas of dry savanna. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
13986	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
13986	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13987	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	The species is presumably present within some protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic studies to conclusively determine the distribution of <em>Mus booduga</em> and the similar <em>Mus booduga</em>.	eng
13987	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	The range of this largely South Asian species is difficult to define, as it is often confused with <em>Mus booduga</em>. It is reported from Pakistan, India, southern Nepal and Bangladesh (Comilla District, Chittagong Province); with an introduced population present in a small area of Medan, northern Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
13987	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumably found in a wide variety of habitats.	eng
13987	population	Aplin, K., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
13987	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13988	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It has been recorded from a large number of protected areas (e.g., the Ruwenzori National Park).	eng
13988	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species is widespread in central and eastern Africa. It has been recorded from Ethiopia (Bale Mountains), southern Sudan (Imatong Mountains only), northeastern and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique (Tete Province) and Angola (mainly north and northeast). The species does not appear to occur in Zimbabwe. It has been recorded at elevations of between 1,000 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
13988	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Agwanda, B., 2008	In much of eastern Africa this species is restricted to isolated mountainous and highland areas. It has been recorded in many types of grasslands, scrublands, swampy areas and cultivated areas. Typical habitats of the species include grassy areas and slopes (Imatong Mountains, Sudan), cultivated secondary savanna, Imperata-Hyparrhenia grassland (Ruwenzori National Park) and grasslands in high and moderate rainfall areas (including burnt grasslands). It has also been recorded in wet montane grasslands at higher altitudes. In the Bale Mountains it is confined to forest habitats. On the Zomba Plateau of Malawi, grasslands are preferred and no individuals have been found in forest. It is a terrestrial and mainly noturnal species, but there is some diurnal activity. This species is omnivorous, but it is primarily insectivorous.	eng
13988	population	Dieterlen, F. & Agwanda, B., 2008	In montane grasslands in Malawi, <em>Mus triton</em> is the most abundant rodent. Population numbers of this species remain constant all year.	eng
13988	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
13989	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. There is a need to monitor the population status of this species.	eng
13989	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found only in the mountains of western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at elevations between 2,000 and 3,000 m (Marshall 1977).	eng
13989	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in upper montane tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from alpine scrub above the treeline.	eng
13989	population	Aplin, K., 2008	The last specimens were taken by J. Marshall in the 1970s. The species is probably fairly uncommon, but there is no reason to think it has undergone a decline.	eng
13989	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	It is unclear whether there are any major threats to the species; habitat loss is unlikely to pose a threat at such high elevations.	eng
13992	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In many countries this species is included on national Red Lists.	eng
13992	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In many countries this species is included on national Red Lists.	eng
13992	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	The common dormouse occurs in Europe and northern Asia Minor (Turkey). In continental Europe, it is fairly widespread, although it is absent from Iberia, south-west France, and northern parts of Fennoscandia and Russia. It is also absent from eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Island populations occur in southern Britain and on Corfu and Sicily (Morris 1999, Rossolimo <em>et al.</em> (2001). In the Alps it occurs up to 1,920 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13992	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	The common dormouse occurs in Europe and northern Asia Minor (Turkey). In continental Europe, it is fairly widespread, although it is absent from Iberia, south-west France, and northern parts of Fennoscandia and Russia. It is also absent from eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. Island populations occur in southern Britain and on Corfu and Sicily (Morris 1999, Rossolimo <em>et al.</em> (2001). In the Alps it occurs up to 1,920 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
13992	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	It inhabits deciduous woodland, favouring forest edge, secondary growth, coppices, and other wooded areas with a dense shrubby understorey. It is also found in hedgerows in farmland. It is an arboreal feeder, foraging on flowers, insects and fruit.	eng
13992	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It inhabits deciduous woodland, favouring forest edge, secondary growth, coppices, and other wooded areas with a dense shrubby understorey. It is also found in hedgerows in farmland. It is an arboreal feeder, foraging on flowers, insects and fruit.	eng
13992	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in some areas it is declining, in others it is considered stable. In parts of its northern range (e.g., UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. However in Lithuania it is a common and widespread species, and no decline has been observed (Juškaitis 2003). Population densities may reach c.10 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat, but densities are significantly lower in less favourable habitats (Morris 1999).	eng
13992	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in some areas it is declining, in others it is considered stable. In parts of its northern range (e.g., UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Denmark) populations are declining and fragmented as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, in Lithuania it is a common and widespread species, and no decline has been observed (Juškaitis 2003). Population densities may reach c.10 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat, but densities are significantly lower in less favourable habitats (Morris 1999).	eng
13992	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	In north-western parts of the species' range, habitat fragmentation as a result of forestry, urbanisation and agriculture is a major threat. It was formerly a popular pet in some parts of its range, but this is now illegal in many countries (Morris 1999).	eng
13992	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	In north-western parts of the species' range, habitat fragmentation as a result of forestry, urbanisation and agriculture is a major threat. It was formerly a popular pet in some parts of its range, but this is now illegal in many countries (Morris 1999).	eng
14001	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Occurs in moist organic soils in wet campos.	eng
14002	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Found in perennial marshes and moist organic soils in wet campos.	eng
14003	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). It is found in at least two proteced areas (Cuenca de los Rios Valle de Bravo, Malacatepec, Tilostoc y Temascaltepec and Chamela-Cuixmala Reserve). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14003	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known from Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Guerrero and Morelos (Mexico) (Ceballos y Oliva, 2005). The maximum altitudinal record for the species is over 1,700 m (Alvarez-Castañeda and Lopez-Forment, 1995 in Tellez and Ortega, 1999).	eng
14003	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species has been found roosting in a sheltered, but not secluded, rocky overhang above a stream in a canyon. In addition, this bat was found roosting in a culvert and in a cave. Apparently, its occurrence is restricted to the arid thorn and tropical deciduous forest along the coast. These habitats have a clear summer rainy season (from July to October) and a remarkably dry season (from November to May). During this last period the majority of the trees lose their leaves. The dominant species in these habitats are Cordia alliodora, Caesalpina eriostachys, Lysiloma divaricata, Brosimun alicastrum, Tabebuia donnell-smithi. Reproductive records are limited. Two pregnant females were collected in Colima in September. A female captured in August was lactating (Tellez and Ortega, 1999).	eng
14003	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This bat species was poorly studied until a few years ago, but the German-Mexican team as part of the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) has carried out new studies. It is considered an uncommon species (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). They roost in small groups. They may have to undertake small-scale seasonal migrations in order to find flowering plants. They do not hibernate (Bergstresser 2002).	eng
14003	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss including fires (Arroyo Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14018	conservation	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989).  In the Russian Federation only the <em>Caucasus</em> subspecies is listed (Red Data book of Russian Federation 2001). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spain and France programmes have been started to control the American mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 under the European Zoo Association (the Catalonian Government programme is part of the European breeding programme). An introduction programme to release animals on the island Hiiumaa (Estonia) in the Baltic, where the American species has been excluded, is underway. The reintroduction efforts are also underway in Germany and in the Russian Federation. In France a national action plan for the conservation of the European mink was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and has been coordinated by the SFEPM (French Mammal Society).<br/><br/>Conservation needs vary throughout Europe, and include the following:<br/><br/>National and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient resources for European mink conservation. Otherwise this species will disappear soon.<br/><br/>There is a need for large-scale efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required. <br/><br/>For remaining <em>in situ</em> populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/><br/>The impact of the American mink on local European mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American mink on the local fauna, including the European mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. <br/><br/>Aleutian diseases and other pathologies must be monitored in all remaining <em>in situ</em> populations of the European mink. <br/><br/>·For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression.  The introduction of individuals from <em>ex situ</em> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behavior of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies.  <br/><br/>·The <em>ex situ</em> conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the  species in case <em>in situ</em> efforts fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. <br/><br/>·There is a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding.<br/><br/>·Further studies are needed about the current the status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern part of Europe.	eng
14018	conservation	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989) including the Russian Federation (Alexei Tikhonov pers. comm 2006). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spain and France programmes have been started to control the American mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 by the European Zoo Association (the Catalonian Government's captive breeding programme is part of this European initiative). Efforts are being made to reintroduce European mink to areas where they formerly occurred in Germany and the Russian Federation. An introduction programme is underway on the island of Hiiumaa (to Estonia) in the Baltic, where the American species has been excluded. In France a national action plan for the conservation of the European mink was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and has been coordinated by the SFEPM (French Mammal Society). <br/><br/>Conservation needs vary throughout Europe, and include the following:<br/>·National and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient resources for European mink conservation. Otherwise this species will disappear soon.<br/>·There is a need for large-scale efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required. <br/>·For remaining <em>in situ</em> populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/>·The impact of the American mink on local European mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American mink on the local fauna, including the European mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. <br/>·Aleutian diseases and other pathologies must be monitored in all remaining <em>in situ</em> populations of the European mink. <br/>·For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression.  The introduction of individuals from <em>ex situ</em> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behavior of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies.  <br/>·The <em>ex situ</em> conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the  species in case in situ efforts fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. <br/>·There is a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding.<br/>·Further studies are needed about the current the status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern part of Europe.	eng
14018	conservation	Tiit Maran, Stéphane Aulagnier, Roland Libois, Andreas Kranz, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	Legally protected in all range states (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989) including the Russian Federation (Alexei Tikhonov pers. comm 2006). At least part of the population occurs within protected areas. Studies have been undertaken to determine the mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability of western populations. In Spain and France programmes have been started to control the American mink population. A captive breeding programme was launched in 1992 by the European Zoo Association (the Catalonian Government's captive breeding programme is part of this European initiative). Efforts are being made to reintroduce European mink to areas where they formerly occurred in Germany and the Russian Federation. An introduction programme is underway on the island of Hiiumaa (to Estonia) in the Baltic, where the American species has been excluded. In France a national action plan for the conservation of the European mink was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and has been coordinated by the SFEPM (French Mammal Society). <br/><br/>Conservation needs vary throughout Europe, and include the following:<br/>·National and regional authorities need to increase attention and allocate sufficient resources for European mink conservation. Otherwise this species will disappear soon.<br/>·There is a need for large-scale efforts to secure the survival of the last small remaining populations in different areas inside of the historical range of the species, but also restoration and/or establishment of new populations is required. <br/>·For remaining <em>in situ</em> populations, the maintenance or restoration of sufficiently large areas of suitable habitats has to be secured by designation of new protected areas and improvement of management of existing protected areas. <br/>·The impact of the American mink on local European mink populations has to be monitored and controlled, and whenever possible and feasible the alien mink populations should be removed. Local authorities have to pay more attention to the effects of the American mink on the local fauna, including the European mink. They should support further studies and actions to mitigate the effect of alien mink to the native mink species. <br/>·Aleutian diseases and other pathologies must be monitored in all remaining <em>in situ</em> populations of the European mink. <br/>·For French and Spanish wild populations which appear to be highly inbred further research needs to be carried out to identify whether these seemingly genetically highly uniform populations suffer from inbreeding depression.  The introduction of individuals from <em>ex situ</em> stock from genetically diverse eastern populations has to be considered as a potential conservation measure, if further research confirms the need for this. In addition to genetic studies, comparative studies on ecology and behavior of the disjunct mink populations (Spanish/French, Romanian and eastern European) should also be conducted to support the findings of genetic studies.  <br/>·The <em>ex situ</em> conservation breeding program has to be enhanced and promoted, as it guarantees the survival of the  species in case in situ efforts fail. It also provides opportunities for the restoration of already vanished wild populations and reinforcement of existing populations whenever needed. <br/>·There is a need for developing an all-European conservation breeding program with secured long-term funding.<br/>·Further studies are needed about the current the status of the European mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern part of Europe.	eng
14018	distribution	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	<em>Mustela lutreola</em> is largely restricted to Europe. A century ago it was widespread throughout the continent, with a distribution extending from northern Spain in the west to the river Ob (just east of the Urals) in the east, and from the Archangelsk region in the north to the northern Caucasus in the south (Youngman 1990). However, over the last 150 years it has severely declined and been extirpated or greatly reduced over most of its former range (Maran 1999). The current range includes an isolated population in northern Spain and western France, which is widely disjunct from the main range in Eastern Europe (Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, central regions of European Russia and the Danube delta in Romania). It occurs from sea level to 1,120 m (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
14018	distribution	Tiit Maran, Stéphane Aulagnier, Roland Libois, Andreas Kranz, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	<em>Mustela lutreola</em> is largely restricted to Europe. A century ago it was widespread throughout the continent, with a distribution extending from northern Spain in the west to the river Ob (just east of the Urals) in the east, and from the Archangelsk region in the north to the northern Caucasus in the south (Youngman 1990). However, over the last 150 years it has severely declined and been extirpated or greatly reduced over most of its former range (Maran 1999). The current range includes an isolated population in northern Spain and western France, which is widely disjunct from the main range in Eastern Europe (Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, central regions of European Russia and the Danube delta in Romania). It occurs from sea level to 1,120 m (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
14018	habitat	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	European mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of lakeshores, rivers, streams and marshlands, and are rarely found more than 100 meters away from fresh water. They forage at night, hunting both on land and in water for a wide range of animal prey including small mammals, birds, frogs, molluscs, crabs, fish and insects. The subpopulation in Spain has less specialised habitat requirements. Females become mature at 19 months (Youngman 1990).	eng
14018	habitat	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	European mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of lakeshores, rivers, streams and marshlands, and are rarely found more than 100 meters away from fresh water. They forage at night, hunting both on land and in water for a wide range of animal prey including small mammals, birds, frogs, molluscs, crabs, fish and insects (Youngman 1990, Maran 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Females become mature at 19 months (Youngman 1990).	eng
14018	habitat	Tiit Maran, Stéphane Aulagnier, Roland Libois, Andreas Kranz, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	European mink have specialised habitat requirements. They are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of lakeshores, rivers, streams and marshlands, and are rarely found more than 100 meters away from fresh water. They forage at night, hunting both on land and in water for a wide range of animal prey including small mammals, birds, frogs, molluscs, crabs, fish and insects (Youngman 1990, Maran 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Females become mature at 19 months (Youngman 1990).	eng
14018	population	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Its range has reduced by over 80% since the mid-19th century. The remaining population is small, fragmented and declining. The most viable population in Western Europe is in the Danube Delta. Other viable populations are found in the northeastern part of European Russia. The current European mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitats of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi. Everywhere else populations of European mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localised, and in a greater part of historical range in Russian the European mink is not met any more. The Russian population of European mink has been estimated at c.20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50-70% to 1-10% within the last 5-7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skmatov and Saveljev 2006).<br/><br/>Some estimates of density include:<br/>Spain: 500-1,000 individuals (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/>France: several hundred (S. Aulagnier and R. Libois pers. comm. 2006).<br/>Danube Delta:  <1,000 individuals - in 250 trap nights only 1 animal was caught (2006) compared to 1 in 20 nights in 2003 (A. Krantz pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14018	population	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Since the mid-19th century, this species has undergone dramatic declines throughout its range, and is now extinct in most European countries. It now occupies less than 20% of its original range, and the remaining population is small and fragmented and continues to decline (Maran 1999). Recent population estimates include 500-1,000 individuals in Spain (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003), several hundred individuals in France (Fournier and Maizeret 2003, Stephane Aulagnier and Roland Libois pers. comm. 2006), and <1,000 individuals in the Danube Delta (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). In Ukraine, at the beginning of the 21st century, the population was estimated at 350-400 individuals, with the majority of those found in the Danube Delta (>200 individuals) (Volokh 2004). The most viable population in western Europe is that of the Danube Delta, but even this population may be rapidly declining: in 250 trap nights (2006) only one animal was caught, compared to one in 20 nights in 2003 (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). Other viable populations are found in the northeastern part of European Russia.<br/><br/>The current European mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitats of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi. Everywhere else populations of European mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localised, and in a greater part of historical range in Russian the European mink is not met any more. The Russian population of European mink has been estimated at c.20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50-70% to 1-10% within the last 5-7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skmatov and Saveljev 2006).	eng
14018	population	Tiit Maran, Stéphane Aulagnier, Roland Libois, Andreas Kranz, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	Since the mid-19th century, this species has undergone dramatic declines throughout its range, and is now extinct in most European countries. It now occupies less than 20% of its original range, and the remaining population is small and fragmented and continues to decline (Maran 1999). Recent population estimates include 500-1,000 individuals in Spain (Palazon <em>et al.</em> 2003), several hundred individuals in France (Fournier and Maizeret 2003, Stephane Aulagnier and Roland Libois pers. comm. 2006), and <1,000 individuals in the Danube Delta (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). In Ukraine, at the beginning of the 21st century, the population was estimated at 350-400 individuals, with the majority of those found in the Danube Delta (>200 individuals) (Volokh 2004). The most viable population in western Europe is that of the Danube Delta, but even this population may be rapidly declining: in 250 trap nights (2006) only one animal was caught, compared to one in 20 nights in 2003 (A. Kranz pers. comm. 2006). Other viable populations are found in the northeastern part of European Russia.<br/><br/>The current European mink range in Russia consists of isolated distant habitats of different size. These fragmented populations are scattered across western Russia, the Urals, and the northern Caucasus. The only parts of the range where the American mink is absent are rivers in the Archangelsk Region and Komi. Everywhere else populations of European mink are vanishing or becoming increasingly fragmented and localised, and in a greater part of historical range in Russian the European mink is not met any more. The Russian population of European mink has been estimated at c.20,000 (Tumanov 2003, 2006), but this is not based on quantitative data as no large-scale census has been done. Hunting bags suggest that the European mink is rapidly becoming less abundant by comparison with the American mink: for instance, in Vologda and Kostroma regions the proportion of European mink skins in the hunting bag of the two mink species decreased from 50-70% to 1-10% within the last 5-7 years (to 2006). For the whole of Russia, recent records refer only to the capture of single individuals or to local populations consisting of some ten of individuals (Skmatov and Saveljev 2006).	eng
14018	threats	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat to the European mink. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats is caused by by<em> inter alia</em> hydroelectric developments, channelisation and water pollution. Accidental trapping is also a threat, even though the fur of the European mink is less valuable than that of the American mink <em>Neovison vison</em>. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control coypu (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and small carnivores (e.g. polecat). Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas, and small remnant populations may be driven extinct by threats such as predation by feral dogs and accidental mortality in fish traps (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). Competition and direct aggression from the American mink is a further threat to depleted remnant populations (Maran 1999). The Aleutian disease could also have an impact, but diseased animals have not yet been found. In Spain and France, hybridization with <em>Mustela putorius</em> may be a threat (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14018	threats	Tiit Maran, Stéphane Aulagnier, Roland Libois, Andreas Kranz, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat to the European mink. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats is caused by by<em> inter alia</em> hydroelectric developments, channelisation and water pollution. Accidental trapping is also a threat, even though the fur of the European mink is less valuable than that of the American mink <em>Neovison vison</em>. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control coypu (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and small carnivores (e.g. polecat). Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas, and small remnant populations may be driven extinct by threats such as predation by feral dogs and accidental mortality in fish traps (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). Competition and direct aggression from the American mink is a further threat to depleted remnant populations (Maran 1999). The Aleutian disease could also have an impact, but diseased animals have not yet been found. In Spain and France, hybridization with <em>Mustela putorius</em> may be a threat (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14018	threats	Maran, T., Aulagnier, S., Libois, R., Kranz, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation is a serious threat to the mink in parts of Europe. Ongoing destruction and degradation of freshwater and associated terrestrial habitats is caused by inter alia hydroelectric developments, channelisation and water pollution. Accidental trapping is also a threat, even though the fur of the European Mink is less valuable than that of the American mink, <em>Neovison vison</em>. In France, secondary poisoning and trapping of European mink has occurred as a result of efforts to control coypu (<em>Myocastor coypus</em>) and small carnivores (e.g., polecat). Accidental mortality through vehicle collisions is a problem in some areas.<br/><br/>Historically, habitat loss and over-hunting may have contributed to the decline, and the same causes are still evident today in some regions. Competition with the American mink (an alien invasive species) has been hypothesized as a contributing factor, but this is contraindicated by Youngman (1990).  Another hypothesis for the cause of the decline is that it is natural extinction (Rozhnov, 1993). The Aleutian disease could also have an impact, but diseased animals have not been found. In Spain and France, hybridization with <em>Mustella putorius</em> may be a threat (Davidson <em>et al.</em> 2000). Youngman (1990) notes that decreases could have been initially caused by natural climatic change, and then aggravated by habitat loss (“clearing of forests, draining of swamps, and pollution of waterways”).	eng
14019	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Barney, L. & Abramov, A., 2008	It was recorded from Mt. Dempo in Sumatra (part of a protected area system (MacKinnon, 1997) in 1936 (Lunde and Musser, 2003). According to Boeadi (pers. comm. 1986) this species is found in Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park (15,000 ha) near Bogor, west Java - from where there are historical specimens (van Bree and Boeadi 1978). Schreiber <em>et al</em> (1989) recommends "field work in the mountains of southern Sumatra and Java to locate populations of the mountain weasel and to assess their conservation status and requirements, as well as continuation of conservation efforts on Gunung Slamat in central Java being desirable." Ecology is still too poorly known to recommend conservation measures in the continuing absence of the recommended surveys.	eng
14019	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Barney, L. & Abramov, A., 2008	This species is known only from the highlands of southern Sumatra and Java, Indonesia: it occurs as far east on Java as the Ijang plateau (van Bree and Boeadi 1978, Meri et al.2007). On Sumatra, it is known from Bengkulu Province (Sody 1949), where it was found on Mt. Dempo (Lunde and Musser 2003) and recently was recorded north to Gon Kerinci (Holden 2006). ). The northern and central highlands of Sumatra have not been surveyed well enough to say whether or not it occurs there (Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007). The altitudinal range of this species on Sumatra is 1,000 to 3,000 m (Lunde and Musser 2003, van Bree and Boeadi 1978, Holden 2006).	eng
14019	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Barney, L. & Abramov, A., 2008	This species is restricted to high altitudes of 1,000-2,200 m (Lunde and Musser, 2003), within which habitat use is unclear. Also, there is a recent sighting at 3,000 m, in scrub above the forest line (Holden, 2006).	eng
14019	population	Duckworth, J.W., Barney, L. & Abramov, A., 2008	Nothing is known about this species’s abundance. It is known from 15 specimens (only twelve of which have locality data) and one field sighting: nine records from Java and four from Sumatra (van Bree and Boeadi, 1978, Lunde and Musser, 2003, Holden 2006, Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
14019	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Barney, L. & Abramov, A., 2008	There are no obvious potential major threats to this species: it is not sought for trade; it lives in Sumatra above the altitudes where general snaring and trapping of ground mammals is intense and where deforestation is heavy; natural habitat on Java in this altitudinal band is heavily fragmented but relatively stable; and the species' dependence, if any, on old-growth, extensive, or even any sort of forest is unknown (Meiri <em>et al.</em> 2007). Doubtless on both islands some are fall victim to non-selective hunting methods, but there is no reason to consider these numbers are large.	eng
14020	conservation	Belant, J., Gober, P. & Biggins, D., 2008	The black-footed ferret captive breeding program was initiated in October 1985 by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department in cooperation with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Eighteen black-footed ferrets were captured between 1985 and 1987 from the last-known population in Wyoming to start a captive breeding population (Miller <em>et al.</em>, 1996), with the ultimate goal of reintroduction. Seven of those 18 individuals contributed unique genetic material for captive breeding and are considered founders. There are currently six institutions (one federal facility and five zoos) participating in the propagation program under the supervision of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Beginning in 1985, more than 6,000 black-footed ferrets have been born in captivity. Beginning in 1991, ferrets have been reintroduced at sites in eight Western U.S. states (Montana, South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Kansas, and New Mexico) and one site in Mexico (Bard, 2002; Bronson <em>et al.</em>, 2007). The species is listed on CITES Appendix I and in listed in the U.S. Endangered Species Act.	eng
14020	distribution	Belant, J., Gober, P. & Biggins, D., 2008	Historically, black-footed ferrets were found throughout the Great Plains, mountain basins, and semiarid grasslands of west central North America - from southern Canada to northern Mexico wherever its prey, prairie dogs, were located (Hillman and Clark, 1980). The species was extirpated from most of its former range mainly as a result of prairie dog control programs and sylvatic plague ? an exotic disease which was introduced to wild population. Today, they are known from 18 reintroduction efforts, only 3 of which are self sustaining.  The three self-sustaining populations are in South Dakota and Wyoming; 4 populations of limited success in Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, and Utah; 8 populations of recent initiation in Arizona, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Mexico; and 3 declining or extirpated populations in Montana.	eng
14020	habitat	Belant, J., Gober, P. & Biggins, D., 2008	Black-footed ferrets are limited to open habitat, the same habitat used by prairie dogs: grasslands, steppe, and shrub steppe. It depends largely on prairie dogs: ferrets prey on prairie dogs and utilize their burrows for shelter and denning (Hillman and Clark, 1980). It has been estimated that about 40-60 hectares of prairie dog colony are needed to support one ferret. See Biggins <em>et al.</em> (in Oldemeyer <em>et al</em>. 1993) for information on evaluating areas as potential ferret habitat; factors include size of prairie dog complex, prairie dog population density, spatial arrangement of prairie dog colonies, potential for disease in prairie dogs and ferrets, potential for prairie dog expansion, abundance of predators, future resource conflicts and ownership stability, and public and landowner attitudes.	eng
14020	population	Belant, J., Gober, P. & Biggins, D., 2008	At present there are no known nonintroduced wild populations (Nowak, 2005), and only three of the populations contain mature individuals which were born in the wild. This species nearly went extinct in the late 1980s and existing populations are the success of massive efforts to reintroduce the species back to its native habitat. Captive breeding has been successful. Only several hundred individuals exist in captivity and in reintroduced populations in several US states and Mexico (Bard 2002). <br/><br/>Reintroduction began in 1991 with the release of a group of ferrets into the Shirley Basin of Wyoming. Since 1987, over 6,000 ferret kits have been produced through captive breeding and since 1991, over 2,000 ferrets have been released at 18 sites. All populations are sampled and counted two times a year as part of a management and recovery protocol. There are currently (spring count 2008) nearly 300 ferrets in captivity and approximately 500 breeding adults in the wild, less than 250 of which were actually born in the wild. These minimum population estimates occur in the spring.  Maximum population estimates occur in the fall, include young of the year, and consist of an estimated 1,000 ferrets in the wild and 300 captive adults.	eng
14020	threats	Belant, J., Gober, P. & Biggins, D., 2008	The extreme dependence of this mustelid on prairie dogs (<em>Cynomys</em>) made it especially vulnerable to extinction as its prey were persecuted as agricultural pests during most of the 20th century (Biggins and Godbey, 2003). Populations rapidly declined as a result of widespread extermination of prairie dogs and the spread of canine distemper and plague (Biggins and Godbey 1995, Biggins <em>et al.</em> 1998). Plague is an exotic disease that did not exist in North America prior to 1900.  It can impact the ferret directly via infection and subsequent mortality, and indirectly through mortality to prairie dogs and resultant dramatic declines in the ferrets? prey base.<br/><br/>Populations of black-footed ferrets declined throughout this century to near extinction by the late 1970's (Biggins and Schroeder 1988). A small remnant population (around 100 animals or less; Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989) was discovered in 1981 near Meeteetse, in northwestern Wyoming, but that population was decimated by canine distemper and plague (<em>Yersinia pestis</em>) in 1985 (Forrest <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Another major threat for this mustelid is loss of habitat for conversion of grasslands to agricultural uses; the remaining habitat is now fragmented by great expanses of cropland and human development. In addition, the genetic diversity of the present introduced population is less than 90% of that present in the species prior to their decline in the wild. This decrease in genetic diversity has lead to increased inbreeding and may lead to decreased fitness due to inbreeding depression, including immune system dysfunction and reduced reproductive success (Bronson <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
14021	conservation	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, Robbie McDonald, 2006	This species is found in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Pulliainen 1999), and is protected under national and sub-national legislation in a number of range states (e.g. Sichuan, China: Yi-Ming <em>et al.</em> 2000). Monitoring is required to quantify the population trend in Europe.	eng
14021	conservation	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Pulliainen, 1999), and is protected under national and sub-national legislation in a number of range states (e.g. Sichuan, China: Yi-Ming <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Monitoring is required to quantify the population trend in Europe.	eng
14021	distribution	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, Robbie McDonald, 2006	The weasel has a very large circumboreal distribution, taking in much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and northern North America. An introduced population exists in New Zealand. It is found throughout Europe and on many islands, including the Azores, Britain (but not Ireland), and all major Mediterranean islands. The populations on the Azores and many Mediterranean islands are widely considered introduced (Dobson 1998, R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It is also found on Honshu, Hokkaido, Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Sakhalin Islands (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14021	distribution	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	This species has a circumboreal, Holartcic distribution, taking in much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and northern North America. It has been introduced in New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azore Islands, and apparently also Sao Tome off west Africa (Sheffield and King 1994). It is found throughout Europe and on many islands, including the Azores, Britain (but not Ireland), and all major Mediterranean islands. The populations on the Azores and Mediterranean islands (Malta and Crete) are widely considered introduced (Dobson, 1998; McDonald pers. comm.). It is also found on Honshu, Hokkaido, Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Sakhalin Islands in Japan (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005) and northern Mongolia (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970).	eng
14021	habitat	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, Robbie McDonald, 2006	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King 1994, Pulliainen 1999). This species is a specialist predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds’ eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King 1994). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14021	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King, 1994; Pulliainen, 1999). This species occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It forms dens in crevices among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in abandoned burrows of other species. This species is a specialist diurnal predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds? eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King, 1994). Food may be stored for the winter (Danzig, 1992). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King, 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (McDonald pers. comm.).	eng
14021	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	Weasels tolerate a wide range of habitats, including forests, farmlands and cultivated fields, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows and forests, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, and coastal dunes (Sheffield and King, 1994; Pulliainen, 1999). This species occurs from sea level to at least 3,860 m. It forms dens in crevices among tree roots, in hollow logs, or in abandoned burrows of other species. This species is a specialist diurnal predator of small mammals (especially rodents), although it will also occasionally feed on birds’ eggs, lizards, frogs, salamanders, fish, worms, and carrion (Sheffield and King, 1994). Food may be stored for the winter (Danzig, 1992). Habitat selection is usually determined by local distribution of rodents. Foraging individuals avoid open spaces, where they are most vulnerable to predation by raptors (Sheffield and King, 1994). They prefer dense, rank grassland where microtines (voles and lemmings) are abundant (McDonald pers. comm.).	eng
14021	population	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, Robbie McDonald, 2006	In the European part of its range, there are documented population declines in some areas (e.g. Britain: Battersby 2005), and suspected declines in others. Although it has a wide distribution, it is considered rare in North America (Sheffield and King 1994). In Eurasia, it is relatively common, but not often seen (Sheffield and King 1994). Local densities of 0.2 to 1.0 individuals per hectare can occur in favored habitats when prey are abundant (Sheffield and King 1994).  However, over wider areas, the average density may be as low as 1 to 7 per 100 hectares (Goszczynski 1977). Populations fluctuate both seasonally and annually, sometimes involving large increases of up to 10-fold, concurrently or within 9 months of a population peak of small rodents, and lasting 6 to 18 months (Sheffield and King 1994).	eng
14021	population	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	In the European part of its range, there are documented population declines in some areas (e.g. Britain: Battersby, 2005), and suspected declines in others. Although it has a wide distribution, it is considered rare in North America (Sheffield and King, 1994). In Eurasia, it is relatively common, but not often seen (Sheffield and King, 1994). Local densities of 0.2 to 1.0 individuals per hectare can occur in favored habitats when prey are abundant (Sheffield and King, 1994).  However, over wider areas, the average density may be as low as 1 to 7 per 100 hectares (Goszczynski, 1977). Populations fluctuate both seasonally and annually, sometimes involving large increases of up to 10-fold, concurrently or within 9 months of a population peak of small rodents, and lasting 6 to 18 months (Sheffield and King, 1994). Thought to be rare (though sometimes locally fairly common) throughout the range in the southeastern U.S., but actual status is uncertain (Handley 1991).	eng
14021	threats	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, Robbie McDonald, 2006	Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides (Sheffield and King 1994) and persecution. The weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment) in parts of Europe, as open fields undergo succession.	eng
14021	threats	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R., 2008	Threats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides (Sheffield and King, 1994) and persecution. The weasel prefers open agricultural habitats, which are declining owing to changes in agricultural practices (rural abandonment) in parts of Europe, as open fields undergo succession.	eng
14025	conservation	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) affirm that the tropical weasel may occur in several of the large national parks of Amazonia. It has been reported to occur in the Tambopata Reserve Zone (Emmons pers. comm), and unconfired reports exist from Cocha Cashu and Alto Purus (Emmons pers. comm).	eng
14025	distribution	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is distributed in the Amazon Basin in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, southern Colombia and northern Bolivia. The limits of the range are poorly know as so few specimens have been described.	eng
14025	habitat	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The Amazon weasel has been reported mainly from humid riparian forests (Izor and De la Torre, 1978).	eng
14025	population	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of the populations of this species as it is seldom encountered even where it is known to occur.	eng
14025	threats	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Almost nothing is known of the threats to this species, although it could be inferred that habitat conversion of the Amazonian rain forests is a threat in some portions of its range.	eng
14026	conservation	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	One specimen has been collected near the administrative centre of the Cueva de los Guacharos National Park (9,000 ha; Rodriguez, 1988). The Parque National de Huila (158,000 ha) and Parque National de Purace (83,000 ha) are also close to collecting sites of <em>M. felipei</em> (Liebermann pers. comm.).	eng
14026	distribution	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Since the discovery of the Colombian weasel, only five specimens have been obtained from western Colombia (provinces of Huila and Cauca) and northern Ecuador (Nowak, 2005). The species was thought to be endemic to the Cordillera Central of Colombia, but another specimen was found from Andean Ecuador (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).	eng
14026	habitat	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Hardly anything is known of its habitat preferences (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). The few specimens have been obtained from an altitude, between 1,750 and 2,700 m, where cloud forests predominate. One Colombian weasel was collected in the upper Suaza river valley (Cueva de los Guacharos National Park). This part of the Suaza river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools (Rodriguez, 1988).	eng
14026	population	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is know of populations of this species. Less than 10 specimens are known of this species.	eng
14026	threats	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in a limited area where deforestation is rampant (Nowak, 2005). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) noted that it is among the rarest carnivores in South America. A great majority of the presumed range of the species has been deforested for agriculture.	eng
14027	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Yonzon, P., Abramov, A. & Timmons, R.J., 2008	This species is listed as Endangered on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is protected in Thailand. It is not a targeted species, as it is small and not sought for use for food or medicine, though it is utilized if unintentionally captured (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has been recorded in scattered protected areas across its range and likely occurs in many more unsampled parks and reserves (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). More field research would help determine the status, distribution, and conservation of this species (Grassman <em>et al</em>, 2002).	eng
14027	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Yonzon, P., Abramov, A. & Timmons, R.J., 2008	This species is found in "Myanmar, China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi), India, Lao, Thailand, and Viet Nam" (Wilson and Reeder 2005; Zhang 1997). There are also two old specimens catalogued as from ‘Nepal’, but they probably did not come from within the boundaries of the modern country (Hinton and Fry 1923) and the species has not been found in Bhutan (Yonzon pers. comm.), which lies between Nepal and the species' known range. The occurrence of M. strigidorsa has been confirmed from scattered localities in and around northeastern India, northern and central Myanmar, southern China, northern Thailand, northern and central Lao and Viet Nam (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species has a wide altitudinal range of almost sea-level to 2,500 m (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). In Lao PDR, this species was historically found only at Phongsali (Delacour 1940), however, there are recent records from all but a couple of the remaining blocks of hill semi- and evergreen forest which have had biodiversity surveys exceeding a few weeks (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Tizard 2003, Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008). In India, it has been recorded from Dampa in 1994, and in Namdapha Reserve (Datta 1999). It has been recorded from Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS) and various other sites recently in Thailand (Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2002, Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
14027	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Yonzon, P., Abramov, A. & Timmons, R.J., 2008	The stripe-backed weasel probably lives mainly in evergreen forests in hills and mountains, but has been recorded from other biotopes including dense scrub, secondary forest, grassland and farmland (Abramov <em>et al.</em>, 2008). Most records come from in or near larger extents of high elevation (1,000 m+) terrain. It sometimes occurs well below 1,000 m in such areas (down almost to sea-level in Viet Nam), but there are no records, except in Viet Nam, from at lower elevations in areas away from high altitude terrain (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14027	population	Duckworth, J.W., Yonzon, P., Abramov, A. & Timmons, R.J., 2008	In view of limited survey effort, the number of recent records indicates that the species is less rare than previously believed (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2002, Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Globally, there are several dozen historical specimens, their number significantly under-estimated in various 1960s-1990s texts thereby giving a misleading impression of rarity.	eng
14027	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Yonzon, P., Abramov, A. & Timmons, R.J., 2008	Although usually perceived as a species under threat, there is no real evidence that it is. However, the habitat requirements of tropical Mustela populations remain effectively unknown, and it may be rash to extrapolate from primarily Holarctic information. About 3,000 to 4,000 pelts were harvested annually in China in the 1970s, with 50 skins were purchased in Nanning, Guangxi, in 1973 (Sheng Helin, 1998). The skins/dried corpses of M. strigidorsa were seen “2-5 times” (the middle class of frequency) in a survey of wildlife trade along the Yunnan-Viet Nam border in June-August 1997; the source was said to be Yunnan (Li and Wang, 1999). Outside China, the species is sold at least occasionally in Lao PDR (Hansel and Tizard, 2006) and Viet Nam. Even though this weasel is not known to have high economic value, hunting or harvesting for trade could still drive declines because many harvest methods (notably snares) are non-selective. As remaining natural habitats are yet further encroached, the proportion of the species’ occupied area in which it faces such threats will increase. However, the number of records from areas with already high hunting pressure indicate a resilience to such activities (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14034	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
14034	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
14034	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Myaka myaka</em> prefers open water regions at greater depths, but ventures into the more shallow areas of the lake to spawn. It mainly feeds on phytoplankton and small insects. It is probably ovophilic mouth-brooder (Lamboj 2004). This species is demersal.	eng
14034	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
14034	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
14048	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is not known to occur in any marine protected area. Protected area within the range of this species is needed.	eng
14048	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is found only on the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and was recently reported from the Port Royal reefs off Jamaica indicating that it may be found in other Caribbean localities.	eng
14048	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is common within its restricted range in Venezuela in depths of 5 to 40 m; large adults are caught in 20 to 40 m; juveniles in shallow water over sandy bottoms near and on coral reefs and seagrass beds.	eng
14048	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is locally common in Venezuela and known only from a single specimen in Jamaica. There is no data, but is expected to decline because it is a target of fishery.	eng
14048	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca cidi</em> is targeted by fisheries in Venezuela. There is no data on the significance of this threat	eng
14049	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. The species occurs within the Alto Golfo Biosphere Reserve, however enforcement of that area is severely lacking.	eng
14049	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> occurs in the Eastern Central Pacific from southern La Jolla, California (USA) to Mazitlan (Mexico). There are unconfirmed records of the species from the Revillagigedos Islands (Mexico).	eng
14049	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is found on rocky reefs and in kelp beds (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Large adults are common in shallow water from southern California to Mexico (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967). Juveniles are unknown in California waters and few large adults have been taken there, probably as expatriates from a more southerly breeding population (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Large adults feed on fishes. Reported to prey on juvenile hammerhead sharks (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 1979). Its large size makes it an intense object of game fishing. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Currently there is a skewed sex ratio (males significantly fewer than females) for <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in the Gulf of California, Mexico. <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is an aggregating spawner (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005a) and Rosenblatt and Zahuranec (1967) suggested the breeding populations were restricted to the Mexican northwest.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Presumed to have slow growth rate. Sadovy (1996) suggested <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> could mature at age of six or seven years. Recorded maximum size is 198 cm TL, with a maximum weight up to 91 kg (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
14049	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> has a relatively restricted range and its population is currently in severe decline throughout the Gulf of California, Mexico. Once abundant, this species is now rare and interviews with fishermen indicated a 50 to 70% decline since 1950 in the Gulf of California. Naturally rare in the northern portion of its range.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance: Combined fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Based on historical research, fishers’ anecdotes, systematic documentation of naturalist’ observation and grey literature, Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005a) revealed that <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in central Baja California was abundant in the past and probably dominated the rocky-reef fish community in terms of biomass. <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> declined dramatically in the 1970s and is now scarce and in danger of complete disappearance. Based on changes in the numbers of individuals within spawning aggregations, the population decline from 1940s to present could be greater than 99%. <br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of surveys with <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em>  encountered [n] by the total number of surveys carried out in a particular year [N]). The SF of <em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> in the tropical eastern Pacific ranged from 0.49% in 2002 to 2.97% in 2000, with a mean value of 1.2%  (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 26th May 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <em>M. jordani</em> encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of M. jordani in tropical eastern Pacific) (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 26<sup>th</sup> May 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/><em>Baja California Sur, Mexico</em><br/>According to Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005a) stated <em>M. jordani</em> comprised 45% of the total state finfish production between 1959 and 1960. By early 1972, the percentage had dropped to 6% (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005a). More recent estimates suggest that <em>M. jordani</em> comprises less than 1% of the total finfish catch (Rámirez-Rodriguez 1996). <br/><br/>Based on a questionnaire interview of 108 randomly selected fishers from three generations in 11 fishing communities of central Baja California in 2002, it was found that old (~ 55 years old) fishers caught up to 25 times as many <em>M. jordani</em> as younger (15 to 30 years old) fishers on their best-ever fishing day (regression r2=0.62, p<0.001)  (Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> 2005b). Sáenz-Arroyo <em>et al.</em> (2005b) also suggested a decline in the average size of the largest <em>M. jordani</em>, based on largest catch data: old fishers: 84 kg; middle-aged (31 to 54 years old): 72 kg; young fishers: 63 kg.	eng
14049	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca jordani</em> is heavily targeted by recreational and sub-national fisheries throughout its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also incidentally caught by shrimp-trawlers in the Gulf of California. Recreational fishers from the US are a major contributor to overfishing remaining stocks. Coastal development in northern Gulf of California, in particular, Bahia La Cholla Marina, is predicted to double the number of fishing boats and promote reef habitat destruction.<br/><br/><strong>Status</strong><br/>Classified as vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000) because it is seen, but not abundant and has probable low productivity and spawning aggregations are heavily fished.	eng
14050	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Rocha, L., 2008	The grouper fishery is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Snapper-Grouper Fishery Management Plan. Current regulations include a limited entry fishery where a limited number of commercial fishing permits are available, a seasonal closure during March and April to reduce the commercial catch and minimum size limits. These regulations have helped stocks to recover; the most recent stock assessments show that gag is not overfished or undergoing overfishing in the south Atlantic, but it is overfished in the Gulf of Mexico. Regulations are under consideration that would establish a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the commercial grouper fishery in the southeast.  A TAC will greatly enhance the sustainability of the grouper populations.<br/><br/>There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (<em>Oculina</em> HAPC) where spawning of gag probably occurs. In addition, US Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. This amendment implement protection to Oculina Banks which harbour spawning aggregation of this species. Spawning gag have been collected from several of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.<br/><br/><em>M. microlepis</em>  was included on the Red List of the IUCN in 1996. <br/><br/>Classified as vulnerable by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)’s concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>In 1985,a minimum size limit of 18 inches was enforced in Florida. In 1990, the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council adopted a 20-inch minimum size, five-fish aggregate grouper bag limit for recreational fishers, and a commercial shallow-water quota of 9.8 million pounds in the Exclusive Economic Zone (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). On 19th June 2000, commercial and recreational minimum size limits were increased to 24 and 22 inch TL. At the same time, sales of gag were prohibited 15th February to 15th March, and two marine reserves in which fishing for reef fish and bottom oriented species was prohibited year round were established (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001; http://www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2002-03-26-Gag%20Status%20Change%20Requested.htm; accessed on 15th Feb 2006).<br/> <br/>Based on the 1992-1994 catch curve and the assumption of constant fishing effort, the minimum size limits reduced projected landings in numbers to 86.5% of historical levels for 18 inch TL, 70.9% for 20 inch, and 43.4% for 24 inch TL.  Projected declines in landings weights were 96.8&, 90.7% and 73.7%, respectively (Bohnsack 2000).<br/><br/>Based on the results of the 2001 gag stock assessment and the October 2001 report of the Council's Reef Fish Stock Assessment Panel (RFSAP), the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) had requested since 26th March 2002 that NMFS reclassify the status of the gag stock in the Gulf of Mexico region from "undergoing overfishing" and "not overfished but approaching an overfished condition"; to "not undergoing overfishing" and "not overfished". GMFMC suggested that the stock of gag appeared to meet this classification even under the more conservative guidelines for determining overfished and overfishing status that resulted from the Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996 (SFA) (Tables 11 and 12). In the NMFS annual Report to Congress on the Status of Fisheries of the United States, this would change the status of gag as follows (http://www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2002-03-26-Gag%20Status%20Change%20Requested.htm; accessed on 15th Feb 2006).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 11</strong>: current status of <em>M. microlepis</em>; and <strong>Table 12</strong>: requested change in status.<br/><br/>GMFMC (2001) indicated that a substantial number of undersized <em>M. microlepis</em> was released, some potential regulatory measures might have les effectiveness on actually reducing mortality than would be preferred, due to release mortality. As a result, continued research on the caused of release mortality was recommended.<br/><br/>Goodyear (1996) indicated that large minimum sizes may cause the fishery to harvest the faster-growing component of each year class, thus could induce genetic selection for slow growth, depending on the heritability of growth. Such selection may lead the fish subject to high release mortality.  On the other hand, Johnson <em>et al.</em> (1997) suggested that small size limit would result in killing large fractions of the population before they spawn.<br/><br/>Bacheler and Buckel (2004) found that circle hooks significantly reduced gut hooking, and also suggested a trade between fishing in shallow water to reduce depth-related injuries to grouper and fishing in deeper water to minimize the catch of sublegal grouper.<br/><br/>Boyan (2000 in press) indicated that less than 2% of reported commercial catches occurred in the closed, fishery-protected area, and there was not enough enforcement to keep boast from illegal fishing.  Moreover, Boyan (2000 in press) further pointed out one-month closure failed to largely reduce commercial landings because spawning aggregation lasts for three months. In addition, increased 24 inch size limit only reduced 30-36% and 16% of the recreational and commercial takes, respectively.<br/><br/>Gilmore and Jones (1992) suggested that a closed season would be more likely to protect spawning stocks than size limitations. They also pointed out that the upper size limitations on grouper fisheries may be more effective in shallower waters.<br/><br/>Koenig <em>et al.</em> (2000) emphasized that shelf-edge fishery reserves are necessary to manage the gag fishery and to ensure optimum reproductive capacity.	eng
14050	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a western Atlantic species with a wide, disjunct distribution from North Carolina (USA) (with juveniles occurring as far north as Massachusetts) to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico and southern Brazil. Gag are rare in Bermuda and there is one record in Cuba; otherwise the species is not known from the Caribbean or northeastern Brazil.	eng
14050	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a reef-associated species usually found offshore on rocky bottom (rarely to 152 m),  and occasionally inshore on rocky or grassy bottom. Juveniles occasionally occur in estuaries and seagrass beds. It is the most common grouper on rocky ledges in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Adults are either solitary or in groups of 5 to 50 individuals. Gag appears to prefer habitats characterized by maximum structural complexity, such as living <em>Oculina</em> coral reefs, at depths between 70 and 100 m (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998). In southern Gulf of Mexico, juvenile females were caught inshore at depths of 1 to 10 m, and adult females and males, and transitionals were caught offshore at depths of 33 to 167 m (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Gag usually feed on fishes, some crabs, shrimps, and cephalopods. Juveniles (less than 20 cm) feed mainly on crustaceans that live in shallow grass beds. The principal prey items of estuarine gag included calanoid copepods, mysids, gammaridean amphipods, grass shrimp, penaeid shrimp, and fishes (Mullaney 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, maturity and growth</strong><br/>Gag are protogynous hermaphrodites, and females have been shown to outnumbered males 6:1 or greater in heavily fished areas. Females mature between ages III and VI, and no males less than age V were observed. Analyses of gonad condition suggested that gag spawn from December to May, with peak activity occurring during February and March (Hood and Schlieder 1992).<br/><br/>Maximum age assumed as 17 years by Hood and Schlieder (1992) and 20 years by Collings <em>et al.</em> (1987).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, females reach first maturity at 72.1 cm (FL) (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003) and spawns at depths of 50 to 53 m from early winter to mid-spring (January and March).<br/><br/>Gag have suffered a drop in the proportion of males from 17 to 1% in the last 20 years (Coleman <em>et al.</em> 1996), and McGovern <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported a decrease from 19.6% (1976 to 1982) to 5.5% (1994 to 1995), and also suggests a decrease in the size at first maturity.<br/><br/>51% of females at age IV had mature ovaries. Transitional males ranged in age from V to XI yrs (750 to 950 mm TL) (Collings <em>et al.</em> 1997). A dramatic change in age-size structure of gag population over 11 years (79 to 80 to 1991) and in 1991 minimum size adopted was 51 mm (TL).<br/><br/>Gag forms spawning aggregations in deep reefs built by <em>Oculina</em> coral. The fisheries targeted greater depth, that lead to dramatic change in sex ratio (15:1 female:male).<br/><br/>Collins <em>et al.</em> (1997) stated gag was a multiple and indetermine spawner.<br/><br/>Reproductive season begins in November or December and last till May or June (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/>In the South Atlantic Bight, gag spawned once a year in late winter to early spring, with peak spawning activity occurring in late March and early April (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1987). Spawning aggregations were concentrated at depths of about 80 m (ranged from 50 m to 120 m) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996). Gag were in spawning condition from December to mid-May in southern Florida, January to May in northern Florida, and January to April in South Carolina, with peak spawning activity occurred from March to mid-April in all areas (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998). In southern Gulf of Mexico, gag spawns at depths of 50 to 53 m, from early winter to mid-spring, with peak spawning activity occurring between January and March (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>M. microlepis</em> were found to form large spawning aggregations at depths ranging from 50 to 120 m (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). Gag was documented to form spawning aggregations in the greater Caribbean region (Luckhurst 2003). Coleman <em>et al.</em> (1996) indicated that the status of spawning aggregation in the Gulf Coast was declining. At least one spawning site in the eastern Gulf of Mexico had been reported, where gag were observed to be attracted to high-relief sites for spawning aggregation (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Sexual pattern</strong><br/><em>M. microplepis</em> is a monandric (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003), protogynous hermaphrodite (McErlean and Smith 1964).  Females become sexually mature at five or six years (67 to 75 cm TL) and most change sex to male between 10 and 11 years old (95 to 100 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/>  <br/>In the south Atlantic Bight, the smallest mature female was 600 mm TL, with 28% of age 3 female had mature gonads. In southern Gulf of Mexico, 50% of female (n=161) reached first maturity at 72.1 cm FL (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In eastern Gulf of Mexico, the smallest mature female was 400 mm SL, and all females of size >550 mm SL were mature (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Also in eastern Gulf of Mexico, Hood and Schlieder (1992) found that female matured as early as age two, >70% were mature by age four, and all were mature by age six.<br/><br/>Size range for fish undergoing sex succession was 750 to 950 mm TL, with five transitionals aged five, six, seven, eight and nine years (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1997). In eastern Gulf of Mexico, size ranges of transitionals were reviewed to be 525 to 1,175 mm TL (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 1996). In eastern Gulf of Mexico, 50% of sampled females had changed into males at 103 cm FL; sexual transition seemed to occur at 85 to 111 cm FL (Brule <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Based on 12 out of 1,331 specimens, Hood and Schlieder (1992) found that gonads of age 5 to 13 gag (n=12, five of them were aged eight or nine years) were transforming into testes.<br/><br/>Sex change occurs near the time of spawning aggregation formation (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>McGovern <em>et al.</em> (1998) revealed that female gag might have been maturing at smaller sizes during 1994 to 1995 than during 1976, because this stock was stressed.<br/><br/><strong>Recruitment and fecundity</strong><br/>Based on four hours of a flood tide and sampling on the top 2 m of the water column, the total number of postlarval gag entering Price Inlet, South Carolina, over a 10-week period in 1983 and 1984 was estimated to be 365,400 and 904,050, respectively (Keener et al, 1988).<br/><br/>Fecundity of a 95 cm female was estimated at 1.5 million eggs (Heemstra and Randall 1993). A single <em>M. microlepis</em> at age eight produces as many eggs as 48 <em>M. microlepis</em> at age three (Collins <em>et al.</em> 1998). McErlean (1963) estimated the fecundity to be 655,000 to 1,457,000 eggs.<br/><br/>Sea surface temperatures affected by the Gulf Stream response to the Charleston Bump (a deep, rocky, bottom feature located on the Blake Plateau southeast of Charleston, South Carolina, USA) appeared to play a determining role in recruitment success in gag (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14050	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is a common species found in soft bottom and rocky ledges in the Gulf of Mexico and southeastern and south Brazil. Although heavily fished and presume to be overfished, the current trend and catch data is unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with gag encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of gag in tropical western Atlantic stayed low at <3% from 1993 to 2005, with a mean value of 1.4% (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 2nd Feb 06).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>M. microlepis</em> in tropical western Atlantic.<br/> <br/>According to interviews with grouper fishers in the early 1990s, the northwest Florida grouper fishers reported that there was a steady decline in the landings of gag over the past decades [all Gulf groupers were lumped in the landings data before 1986] (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><em>Florida, USA</em><br/>Based on 64 dives from 1977 to 1982 by manned submersibles on the east of Florida continental shelf, none of gag sized <70 cm SL (Gilmore and Jones 1992).<br/><br/>According to manned submersible videotape observations done on the east coast of Florida, the percentage composition of gag of all reef fish on Jeff’s Reef decreased from 4.774% in 1980 (n=4,375) to 0.07% in 1995 (n=1,399) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><em>South Carolina, USA</em><br/>Based on four hours of a flood tide and sampling on the top 2 m of the water column, the total number of postlarval gag entering Price Inlet, South Carolina, over a 10-week period in 1983 and 1984 was estimated to be 365,400 and 904,050, respectively (Keener <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/><em>North Carolina, USA</em><br/>During a 200-hour hook-and-line fishing 20 to 60 miles offshore in water 12.2 to 42.1 m deep off Onslow Bay, North Carolina, from May to August 2003, 593 groupers were caught (total catch = 1,249) in which gag accounted for 9.3% (n=55) of the grouper catch (Bacheler and Buckel 2004).<br/><br/><em>Mexico</em><br/>From May 1996 to September 1997, <em>M. microlepis</em> comprised 6% in weight and 2% in number of all grouper catches (17 species) from technified boasts on Campeche bank, southeastern Gulf of Mexico (Colas Marrufo <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>During a 19-month survey at the northern coast of Yucantan in 2000 to 2001, 928 specimens of <em>M. microlepis</em> were caught by a small trawl net and all of the fish were found to be sexually immature juveniles (Renin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Available data on the landings of <em>M. microlepis</em> quoted from different studies and sources show that the quantity of commercial and recreational catches of gag increased steadily from 1980 to 2004, with recreational catches comprised with an average of 55% in 1995 to 2004. As a result, both commercial and recreational fisheries have significant impacts on the stock of this grouper species.  <br/><br/><em>Stock assessment (1994) by Schirripa and Goodyear</em><br/>Based on virtual population estimates (VPA) tuned to the percent frequency of age three in recreational catch and natural mortality = 0.20, Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) estimated the abundance of <em>M. microlepis</em> in US Gulf of Mexico ranged from 5.7 million to 9.3 million fish in 1986 to 992.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: stock at age at beginning of year in US Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>Of the seven Virtual Population Analysis models examined, no single model stood out as the best overall view of the stock (Schirripa and Legault 1997). Integrated Populations Analysis was employed to modeling the gag stock. The results suggested that the recruitment of <em>M. microlepis</em> was highly variable and the very young fish suffer little fishing mortality. However, older fish faced increasing fishing pressure with age such that very few fish survive longer than 10 years.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: calculated commercial landings (gutted weight) of <em>M. microlepis</em> from the US waters in the Gulf of Mexico from 1986 to 1992.<br/><br/>On the basis of the uncertainty associated with the sensitivity of the reproductive strategy of <em>M. microlepis</em> to overfishing, Schirripa and Legault (1997) felt that Spawning Potential Ratio (SPR) should be maintained well above the 20% minimum adopted by the Gulf Council in its definition of overfishing.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: estimated population size from VPA using the IPA method.<br/><br/>Turner <em>et al.</em> provided catch statistics for gag from 1986 to 2000.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: calculated commercial landings (gutted weight) of <em>M. microlepis</em> from the US waters in the Gulf of Mexico from 1986 to 2000.<br/><br/>The total catch (landings and discards, in terms of number of fish and metric tonnes) of gag in the Gulf of Mexico by sector for 1986 to 1999 are shown in Table 6 (Turner <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 6</strong>: total catch (landings and discards, in terms of number of fish and metric tonnes) of <em>M. microlepis</em> in the Gulf of Mexico by sector for 1986 to 1999.<br/><br/>Four sets of VPA runs (two catches-at-age by two selectively assumptions) and one set of additional runs contrasted the effects of the different growth curves sued in this assessment about index selectivity, two sensitivity runs were made (recruitment and commercial indices, and recruitment and recreational indices. Modeling results indicated that the catch-at-age used for 2 sets of analyses differed. The recruitment-and-mortality-modulated catches-at-age showed that larger catches of age 0 and lower catches of age 1 to 4 and 5 to 9. The estimated fishing-mortality rates in 1999 from the RMM catches-at-age were higher on age two and lower for age four. In the year-constant selectivity analyses, the selectivity patterns differed between the two catches-at-age. By an large, a wide range of fishing-mortality rates and associated abundances were estimated, concluding that there was uncertainty in the gag stock in 1999 in the Gulf of Mexico. And some of the estimates might be unrealistic based on what might be considered very large changes in abundance.<br/><br/>It was suggested that if the recruitment-and-mortality modulated (RMM) ageing approach is to be used in the future, consideration should be given to incorporating the ageing and assessment phases in the same routine so that a simultaneous solution for all parameters could be obtained in a statistical modeling approach. Recommendations on the use of statistical estimation systems should consider error assumption in catches and other inputs.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Historically, gag in Florida had often been confused with black grouper (<em>M. bonaci</em>), and commercially caught <em>M. microlepis</em> were also included in the “unclassified grouper” statistics before 1986 (GMFMC 2001).<br/><br/>In 1987 to 1997, <em>M. microlepis</em> accounted for an average of 19% (15 to 23%) of the total classified grouper landings (Schirripa 2000).<br/><br/>In 1973, gag from offshore water (>40 m depth) off North Carolina and South Carolina were almost always greater than 800 mm TL (the saturated large adult might prevent recruitment by social exclusion or by intraspecific predation). After 15-year intensive fishing, almost no individuals exceeding 800 mm TL could be taken from headboats in the Cape Lookout (Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>When compared with sex-size data collected before the 1980s, sex-size-frequency data from gag collection in 1991 to 1993 indicated several changes in population structure: reductions in the average size of females and males, and the proportion of males (from about 17% to <2%) (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996). Koenig <em>et al.</em> (1996) also suggested that fishing selection for males during the spawning seasons is highly responsible for the above changes in the population of gag.<br/><br/>Gag accounted for over 80% of the total commercial landings by weight of <em>Mycteroperca</em> species in 1985 in offshore waters of Carolinas (Keener <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>According to the annual commercial fishery landings of the NMFS, the quantity of gag caught in the USA increased steadily from 55.8 mt to 1,616.4 mt in 25 years (Table 7) (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 2nd Feb 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 7</strong>: annual commercial fishery landings (NMFS) of <em>M. microlepis</em> caught in the USA.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, the estimated annual commercial landings were about 0.7 metric tonnes from 1986 to 1992, with size and age ranged from 9 to 55 inch TL, and 0 to 20 years (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).<br/><br/>It was observed that GAG was a large part of the domestic catch of Gulf of Mexico grouper fishermen west of Florida, comprising almost all of the US Gulf of Mexico harvest of this species was from Florida (Schirripa and Goodyear <br/>1994).<br/><br/>Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) estimated the harvest of GAG by recreational fishers from 1979 to 1992 ranged from 0.2 million fish in 1979 to 0.8 million fish in 1985, with size and age ranged from 8 to 58 inch TL, and 0 to 18 years.  Stricter regulations enacted in 1990 reduced harvest to about 0.24 million fish (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994) (Table 8).  <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 8</strong>: the recreational harvest estimates for Gulf of Mexico gag in 1979 to 1990.<br/><br/>According to the NMFS, the annual recreational harvest estimates of both number and weight of <em>M. microlepis</em> increased steadily during the period between 1981 to 2004 (despite of the substantial increase in weight in 1984 [with proportional standard errors (PSE) of 53, which is associated with the annual estimates of landings by number]) (http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/recreational/queries/catch/time_series.html; accessed on 2nd Feb 2006) (Table 9).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 9</strong>: The annual recreational harvest estimates of both number and weight of <em>M. microlepis</em> between 1981 and 2004.<br/><br/>According to NMFS’s statistics on commercial and recreational fisheries landings, an average of 53% of the total landings were caught by recreational fisheries in 1987 to 2004 (Table 10).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 10</strong>: commercial and recreational fisheries landings (1987 to 2004).<br/><br/>In April and July 1996, 27.8% (n=155) of all GAG (N=559) caught by commercial hook-and-line fishery off northwest Florida was considered to be bycatch - undersized (< 508 mm TL) or those discarded by fishers as undersize fish.  Although the legal minimum size limit was 508 mm TL, some undersized fish (9.9% of all GAG) was landed as legal.  In addition, all undersized GAG were found to be immature female (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997).  However, in another study (Bacheler and Buckel 2004), the sublegal grouper caught only accounted for a small percentage of the overall grouper catch (6.8%), and the proportion of sublegal caught per day decrease with depth.<br/><br/>From 1980 to 1999, 15,400 metric tonnes were landed in the southeastern U.S.. Landings per year increased over the period, but effort data are lacking. During this time, gag composed approximately 33 % of commercial landings of grouper, and 15 % of commercial reef fish landings in the Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>In 1985, in off-shore waters of the Carolinas (US), gag accounted for over 80 % of total commercial landings for <em>Mycteroperca</em> species.<br/><br/>The US National Marine Fisheries Service classified gag as approaching a condition of overfishing in 1998. As a result, several actions including increasing the minimum size limit and a periodic closure during the spawning season from 15 February to 15 March was instituted and some marine protected areas were developed that included gag. <br/><br/>The status of the Campeche Bank gag stock remains largely unknown. Data on biology, landings, catch per unit effort, catch composition, and size trends for gag from Mexican waters are not available.<br/><br/>The Gulf of Mexico stock is currently classified as overfished, but the south Atlantic stock appears is in relatively good shape (NOAA Fish Stock Sustainability Index 2006).	eng
14050	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em> is intensively fished by commercial fishermen, sport divers, and anglers particularly at the spawning aggregations.<br/><br/>Other threats include low productivity (Ault <em>et al.</em> 1998), protogyny, spawning aggregation formation, vulnerable to overfishing (Huntsman <em>et al.</em> 1999), and destruction or modification of the nursery areas (Renin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Owing to the very narrow nature of the continental shelf, spawning aggregations are easily accessed and gag off Florida are subject to intense fishing pressure, particularly during late fall through early spring (McGovern <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Juveniles are often caught as a part of by-catch of the bait-shrimp fishery in grass bed habitat (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). From April to July 1996, 155 immature females (representing 75% of all grouper bycatch and 27.8% of all 559 gag) were caught as bycatch from commercial hook-and-line fishery off northwest Florida (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Although the commercial fishery catches larger fish (on an average) than does the recreational fishery, the recreational fishery accounted for about 78% of the total number of gag caught (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994). Schirripa and Goodyear (1994) also suggested that the 20 inch minimum size regulation put on in 1990 had resulted in a marked increase in the numbers of gag subjected to the very uncertain discard mortality rate (Schirripa and Legault 1997).<br/><br/>Schirripa and Legault (1997) suggested that commercial discards were smaller than those from the recreational fishery due to less targeting in conditions where smaller sized fish were vulnerable.<br/><br/>Fitzhugh et al (2003) found that the youngest ages (three and four years) were taken in the recreational sector, followed by commercial hook-and-line (age five and six years) and finally commercial long-line sectors.  Fitzhugh <em>et al</em>. (2003) also supported earlier studies showing larger and older fish tend to be sampled from deeper water depths.<br/><br/>Fitzhugh <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that recruitment variation changes the adult age-structure.<br/><br/>The increase in the estimated total number of <em>M. microlepis</em> caught and released indicated that the regulation had some restrictive effect on the number of fish being kept illegally (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).<br/><br/>Overfishing of adults and juveniles as well as the destruction or modification of their nursery had lead the <em>M. microlepis</em> to be regarded as a vulnerable species (Renin <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The dramatic decrease in the percentage of male in spawning aggregations (17% to 1% in 20 years) had caused concerns about sperm limitation, disruption of sex change processes, and excessive inbreeding (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2000, Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1999, Coleman <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>If spawning sites are traditional and the aggregation sites in northern Gulf of Mexico have been depleted by fishing, it is likely that continued aggregation fishing would eliminate other aggregations sites (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Chapman <em>et al</em>. (1999) commented the size-limited population of <em>M. microlepis</em> suffered from restricted gene flow among genetically differentiated population, reflecting the offsprings would be more likely to be genetically related due to inbreeding.<br/><br/>Fishing mortality of age five fish was estimated to be F (fishing) =0.21 for M (natural) =0.20, and F=0.25 for M=0.15 (Schirripa and Goodyear 1994).	eng
14051	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is present within the Galapagos Marine Reserve, Ecuador. Cocos Island is protected but improved management is needed. There are no measures specific to <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em>.	eng
14051	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is distributed in the eastern Pacific from the Isla del Coco off Costa Rica, Malpello of Colombia and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Reports from Panama and Peru have been discounted.<br/><br/>The species is present in all biogeographical regions of the Galápagos Islands (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004, McCosker and Rosenblatt 1975, Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is rare in other islands within its distribution.<br/><br/>A single specimen has recently been reported from the coast of Ecuador (Bearez and Prado 2003).	eng
14051	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is found among rock walls, rocky reef drop-off, underwater lava ridges, and all kinds of well-structured vertical rock formations (Reck 1983). Juveniles are found in shallow sandy lagoons (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and in seagrass beds, mangrove lagoons, shallow lava reefs and inland lava ponds. Adults are mainly piscivorous, prey size increasing with predator size (Reck 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Maturity</strong><br/>First maturation occurs at 47.5 cm and at four-years of age, with sex inversion at 83.1 cm, possibly at 12 years of age. The species has an annual reproduction cycle, with spawning peaks in October and December (Coello and Grimm 1993).	eng
14051	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> is common in the Galapagos Islands, but rare at other island sites within its range, with the size and the percentage of captured individuals within the fisheries decreasing (Marconi <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Density and Biomass</strong><br/>In the Galapagos, the estimated density of individuals is 2.97/500 m² within the marine reserve area, 2.86/500 m²  in the tourism area and 2.6/500 m² in the fishing zone (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>The biomass (g/150 m²) of <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> in lightly fished areas of the Galapagos was 2,959 (±413/±1SE) and 133 (±79.6), while density in lightly fished areas was 0.76 (+-0.096) and in heavily fished areas was 0.06 (±0.042) (Ruttenberg 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Trends</strong><br/>A decade ago, <em>M. olfax</em> was the most valuable and exploited fish in the Galapagos Islands artisanal fishery (Kasteleijin 1987), comprising over 40% of the catch (Reck 1983). Now, this species comprises <20% of the catch, and fishers indicate that the CPUE and average individual size have declined (Bustamente 1988).	eng
14051	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The restricted range of <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> makes it particularly vulnerable to any threat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Although <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> suffered a decrease from 30% to 11% of the total Galapagos capture fishery in 2000 (Guime, M.P. 2003). Nicolaides <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that the 2000 decrease reflected a change in the targeted resources (from April to December), with a shift in focus to sea cucumber and lobster (more profitable fisheries). Today, <em>Mycteroperca olfax</em> accounts for approximately 5% of the total annual Galapagos catch by value (Nicolaides <em>et al.</em> 2002; Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
14052	conservation	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> was originally included as VU (A1d+2d) on the IUCN Red List in 1996. The species was also classified as Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society, based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s (USFWS) concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000). However, it seems to be represented by only one contiguous population from the information available. It occurs in marine parks in Gulf of California. Due to its rarity and low abundance within its relatively small range, populations appear to be being seriously depleted by sportfishers who target its spawning aggregations. These spawning aggregations must therefore be identified, monitored and protected in marine reserves so that larval replenishment of this vulnerable species can be assured (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
14052	distribution	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is an eastern central Pacific species narrowly distributed from the Gulf of California south to Jalisco (Mexico), including provinces of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco.	eng
14052	habitat	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is a reef-associated species found on rocky reefs at depths of ~8 to 50 m, being more common on fields of large boulders with gorgonians and black corals (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). The maximum size recorded was 68 cm SL (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967) and to around 25 pounds in weight. Heemstra and Randall 1993 state its maximum total length to be 105 cm.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a voracious predator, feeding on crustaceans at night and on small fishes during the day (mexfish.com/fish/sawgrp/sawgrp.htm). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations (0.17±0.17 individuals per 250 m²) occurred at depths from 20 to 40 m over areas of ~ 600 m² at two sites. Fourteen to 100 fish (of sizes ranging from 40 to 90 cm TL) were observed from April 1994 to May 2000 (over seven days) in the Gulf of California, with courtship behavior being noted (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). However these aggregations contain mixed species. Sala <em>et al.</em> (2003) is the only published article about the spawning aggregation and reproductive behaviour of M. prionura in the Gulf of California. Eight females collected from an aggregation in April 2000 were found to have full gonads with hydrated eggs.	eng
14052	population	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is rare and low in abundance within a relatively small distribution range (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is more abundant in the central and northern Gulf of California than the southern gulf. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Its density in rocky habitats in 1999 to 2001 was 0.02±0.01 (mean±SE) individuals per 250 m² (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) dive observations from the tropical Eastern Pacific showed densities to remained very low from 2000 to 2005 (www.reef.org/data).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency in the tropical Eastern Pacific.	eng
14052	threats	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2008	The main threat to <em>Mycteroperca prionura</em> is overfishing, including sportfishing and illegal spearfishing using lights and hooka breathing apparatus at night from La Paz to the Midriff Islands in the Gulf of California.  It is claimed that spawning aggregations are mostly unknown to commercial fishers, although they are targeted by sportfishers (Sala <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is incidentally caught along with other groupers.<br/><br/>The primary risk factors for this species are based on it being rare, a large species, probably with low productivity, probably protogynous, its spawning aggregations being vulnerable to overfishing, and it having a small range (see Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14053	conservation	Craig, M.T. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are two small no-take zones in the Loreto Marine Park - Bajo del Murcielago and Bajo del Cochi (see Figure 3).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 3</strong>: Known marine protected areas within the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn,  unpublished data, University of California, Davis).	eng
14053	distribution	Craig, M.T. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is distributed in the eastern central Pacific, ranging from the southwest coast of Baja California throughout the Gulf of California to Jalisco (Mexico).	eng
14053	habitat	Craig, M.T. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is a reef-associated species that prefers rocky areas in shallow water at depths of about 50 m. The species is also found on seamounts (Buckhorn, M.L., pers. Comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed on schools of the flatiron herring, <em>Harengula thrissina</em>, and anchoveta, <em>Cetengraulis mysticetus</em> when available; if not, on other schooling or non-schooling fishes. Most individuals feed at dawn and dusk, with a peak in activity about 20 minutes after sunset. Juveniles feed throughout the day on a variety of benthic fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>In Loreto, Mexico: Punta Lobos, on the northeast tip (specifically the north facing side of the point) is the “main” aggregation site (see Figure 1). This is considered the “main” site because the size classes and abundances are much higher than the other sites surveyed. Large (60 to 90 cm) leopard grouper on the south facing side have been recorded during the day but not in the afternoons. Surveys of Punta Lobos were conducted 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006. Spawning was observed directly in 2004 to 2006. El Bajo Tijeras is a large, flat sandy seamount to the south of Isla Carmen with a several shallow (45 to 60 ft. depth) rocky pinnacles. Surveys of these pinnacles, in 2001, recorded large leopard groupers in high abundances during the day at one pinnacle in particular. No dives were conducted in the afternoon so it was only presumed that spawning took place at that spot that year. Monitoring in subsequent years failed to record the same size classes and abundances there (COBI surveys) and at other nearby pinnacles. At Punta Coyote, just outside of Puerto Escondido, spawning has been observed directly in 2005 and 2006. Surveys conducted in 2006 recorded another large group (30 to 40 animals) of mature grouper (70 to 90 cm) at Danzante North Punta. Surveys were only conducted in the morning at this site but these grouper exhibited the same pre-courtship behaviour observed during morning surveys at Punta Lobos, so it is only presumed to be a spawning site at this time. (from M. Buckhorn, pers. Comm., University of California, Davis, 1 March 2007).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Known spawning aggregation sites of Mycteroperca rosacea in the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, University of California, Davis).<br/><br/>This species was previously listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite, however, upon further study this species is now known to be gonochoric (Erisman and Hastings, In press).<br/><br/>In Loreto, Mexico, <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> spawns from April through June. The species is an aggregate, broadcast spawner.<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum age thus far recorded is 17 years in a 69 cm male (see Figure 2 and Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for:<br/><br/><strong>Figure 2</strong>: Age-length (total length, x-axis) relationship for Mycteroperca rosacea taken from the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, unpublished data, University of California, Davis).<br/><br/><strong>Table 1</strong>: Life history table of Mycteroperca rosacea from specimens collected in the Gulf of California (courtesy of ML Buckhorn, unpublished data, University of California, Davis).	eng
14053	population	Craig, M.T. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is common throughout the Gulf of California. <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> is one of the most important fishes to the Gulf of California fisheries. Observational data indicate a reduction in population abundance over the past 10 years of approximately 50% of the standing biomass from intense subsistence, artisinal, and recreational fishing throughout the range of the species. There is no indication that this activity (cause for reduction) has ceased. Data have been provided by M. Buckhorn, J. Rupnow, and J. Torre.	eng
14053	threats	Craig, M.T. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	The major threats to <em>Mycteroperca rosacea</em> are subsistence, artisinal, and recreational fishing.	eng
14054	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is presume to occur in several protected areas. In Turkey, there is a 30 cm minimum legal size.	eng
14054	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that occurs throughout the Mediterranean from Portugal to southern Angola; there are some reports from islands that require confirmation. Specimens from Madeira and the Azores (Portugal), Canary Islands (Spain), and Cape Verde have been examined by Heemstra (1991) and are identified to be <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>. The species is replaced by <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> in the western Atlantic. First recorded occurrence in the Adriatic Sea (Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14054	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a demersal species that occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms from 15 to 200 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles were found during construction of a new wharf in Catania harbor (Battiato 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> feeds on mollusks (presumably cephalopods) and small fishes (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003, Freitas 1982).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex reversal for mottled grouper occurs at nine years old, 53 cm TL (Siau and Bouain 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Siau and Bouain (1993) indicated that <em>M. rubra</em> began spawning at the end of spring in the Mediterranean, with sexual maturation and size and age of about 27 to 32 cm (TL) and 4 to 5 years.	eng
14054	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is a widespread, but generally uncommon species. It does appear commonly along the coast of Senegal (Seret 1981), but is rare in Tunisia (Bouain <em>et al</em>. 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Siau and Bouain (1983) report that fewer than two specimens occur in markets at Sfax (Tunisia) annually.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>M. rubra</em> in tropical western Atlantic (REEF data).	eng
14054	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca rubra</em> is found in fisheries throughout its range, but is not commonly captured due to its rarity.	eng
14055	conservation	Tabaranza, B., Ruedas L., Widmann, P. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	There are no local laws protecting this species.	eng
14055	distribution	Tabaranza, B., Ruedas L., Widmann, P. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Palawan Island Group, situated between Borneo and the Philippines (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Since 165,000 years ago, due to rising sea levels, the land connection between the Borneo population and the Palawan population was disrupted (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). This species is found on Palawan Island, Busuanga, and Calauit, and is not found on some of the smaller outlying coral islands like Rasa and Malinau, and also not on the larger land-bridge island of Dumaran (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Corbet and Hill (1992) also list the species as occurring on Iloc island although some experts doubt this.	eng
14055	habitat	Tabaranza, B., Ruedas L., Widmann, P. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	It is found in lowland forests, primary and secondary, disturbed habitat, including mixed grassland and second-growth forest (Hoogstraal  1951, Rabor 1986, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The species can also be found in urban areas (GMA Philippines 2006). Little is known about the ecology of this species, though it is known to be found in a wide variety of habitats (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). "It has been recorded from lowland primary and secondary forest, in shrub- and grasslands, freshwater swamp forest, and even within settlements (Widmann and Widmann, 2004)." Dogs and cats do not seem to bother this species due to its potential to excrete a nauseating chemical from its anal glands (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). The main diet of this species consists of worms and soil arhtropods, requiring areas with soft soil for foraging (grasslands typically have extensive root systems which make digging difficult, and it is seen along small streams during the dry season) (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). This species is not restricted to primary forest, it seems that relatively high population densities can occur in secondary forests and shrublands (Widmann and Widmann, 2004), and it is even known to thrive in cultivated areas (Grimwood, 1976).	eng
14055	population	Tabaranza, B., Ruedas L., Widmann, P. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species is geographically restricted and locally moderately common to uncommon in secondary and primary lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Since then it has been reported to be widespread and common in forest, second growth, and agricultural areas on Palawan Island (Kruuk 2000, Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is common in the lowlands, up to at least 300 m (Widmann and Widmann, 2004).	eng
14055	threats	Tabaranza, B., Ruedas L., Widmann, P. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	It is rarely hunted by native people, due to its ability to excrete a pungent smell when attacked (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Although it probably has not suffered from conversion of primary to secondary forest or shrubland, further alteration to grassland or permanent agriculture may pose a threat to this species (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). Car traffic may also pose a threat to this species (Widmann and Widmann, 2004). It is not known if diseases from domestic animals affect it (Widmann and Widmann, 2004)	eng
14085	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R., Bidau, C. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas.	eng
14085	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R., Bidau, C. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is native to South America, and has been introduced to North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia (not all these introduced locations are mapped here) (Bertolino 2005). It is patchily distributed throughout its historic range in association with mesic habitats and water bodies. Its distribution in the Patagonian steppe is likely the result of human introduction (Ojeda, Lessa, and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
14085	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R., Bidau, C. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species prefers habitats near water, and is rarely observed more than 100 m away from rivers (Bertolino 2005).	eng
14085	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R., Bidau, C. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is increasing in number, and is considered a pest in parts of its range and has been the subject of eradication measures (Bertolino 2005).	eng
14085	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R., Bidau, C. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species (Bertolino 2005). In parts of Argentina, however, it is considered endangered. Cattle ranchers have eliminated it from much of the centre of its native range.	eng
14086	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species. Taxonomic work with fresh material is required to resolve the limits of the species. Westerman <em>et al.</em> (2006), working with limited samples, found that some populations of this species were highly divergent, nearly to a degree to be considered different species.	eng
14086	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is known from scattered localities across the northern and western parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) as well as from the islands of Salawati, Waigeo, and Yapen (Indonesia). It has been recorded from near sea level to 1,800 m asl.	eng
14086	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland and lower montane tropical forests.	eng
14086	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	There is no population information concerning this species.	eng
14086	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be preyed upon by dogs and cats.	eng
14087	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is listed on Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. Surveys are needed to determine if and where the species can still be found, and sites where the species is found should be strictly protected.	eng
14087	conservation	Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is listed on Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention. Surveys are needed to determine if and where the species can still be found, and sites where the species is found should be strictly protected. This species is not found in any protected areas.	eng
14087	distribution	Kryštufek, B., 2008	Endemic to the Mediterranean region. The mouse-tailed dormouse is found in Bulgaria and Turkey (both European and Asian Turkey). It may also occur in eastern Greece. It is mainly a lowland species.<br/><br/>This species is found in southeast Bulgaria through Thrace (Kurtonur and Ozkan, 1990) and western Turkey (Storch, 1978). The exact limits are unknown in western Anatolia, where the species is presently known from only three separate localities. The species was first described as a fossil species in 1937, and was only described as an extant species in the late 1940s. Subfossil information from southern Turkey and Israel indicated a larger range over the last few thousand years. The last published records in Bulgaria are from 1985.	eng
14087	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	The mouse-tailed dormouse is found in Bulgaria and Turkey (both European and Asian Turkey). It may also occur in eastern Greece. It is mainly a lowland species.	eng
14087	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It inhabits scrub and semi-open habitats with trees or bushes such as orchards, vineyards, hedgerows in arable land, and river banks. Although it is found in some extensively managed agricultural habitats, it is absent from intensively farmed areas. It is more terrestrial than other dormice, and its diet consists for the most part of seeds.	eng
14087	habitat	Kryštufek, B., 2008	It inhabits scrub and semi-open habitats with trees or bushes such as orchards, vineyards, hedgerows in arable land, and river banks. Although it is found in some extensively managed agricultural habitats, it is absent from intensively farmed areas. It is more terrestrial than other dormice, and its diet consists for the most part of seeds.	eng
14087	population	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	Little is known about this restricted-range species. In Turkish Thrace there are only definite records from a small number of sites, and none of these records are recent: despite intensive searches, the species has not been found during the last five years (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005). Throughout its distribution the vast majority of suitable habitat has been converted to intensive agriculture, and the species' range is severely fragmented and subject to ongoing losses (Global Mammal Assessment SW Asia workshop 2005).	eng
14087	population	Kryštufek, B., 2008	Little is known about this restricted-range species. In Turkish Thrace there are only definite records from a small number of sites. Until recently, despite intensive searches, the species was not found at all for at least 5 years (SW Asia workshop 2005).  Very recently (within the last three years) there were several specimens collected, but this species remains very difficult to find and collect (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007). <br/><br/>Throughout its distribution the vast majority of suitable habitat has been converted to intensive agriculture, and the species' range is severely fragmented and subject to ongoing losses (SW Asia workshop 2005).	eng
14087	threats	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	The range of this species is in decline. In European Turkey, most of its habitat has been transformed by agriculture. In spite of intensive searches the species has not been found over the last five years. It is clear that the range is shrinking.	eng
14087	threats	Kryštufek, B., 2008	The range of this species is in decline. In European Turkey, most of its habitat has been transformed by agriculture. In spite of intensive searches the species has not been found over the last five years. It is clear that the range is shrinking.<br/><br/>It is very difficult to determine what is happening with the range because it is the exact habitat preferences are not known. It has been declining since the Pleistocene. Only 50 animals are known in collections. The region in European Turkey and Bulgaria is intensively cultivated, with very little natural habitat remaining.	eng
14088	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
14088	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species occurs in the moutains in extreme northeastern Iran, the Kopet-Dag (Sumbar River basin) and Malyy Balkhan Moutains (Turkmenistan) through to Iskander, Uzbekistan. The distributional limits of this species are not well known.	eng
14088	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Inhabit rocky desert in Kopet-Dag piedmonts, at about 1000 m asl, among shrubs, saltwarts, and almond trees. Active in dusk and night. Make shelters among rocks and abundant burrows. Based on data collected in captivity, prefers animal food. Reproduce most probably from end of April.	eng
14088	population	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is apparently very rare, known from a dozen samples and some remains from pellets.	eng
14088	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
14089	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Mitsain, G., 2008	No specific measures are in place; it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. More research is needed.	eng
14089	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The range is very poorly known. Found in eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan and north-west Iran (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Turkey only three localities are known. Elevation ranges from 1,500-2,800 m (Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
14089	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The species has be found in forests of old pines within grasslands and in eastern Turkey in savannas with sparse trees.  Very poorly known species, virtually nothing known about biology or ecology.	eng
14089	population	Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The species is extremely rare. Less than 10 specimens exist in current collections. Last collected was in 1993; majority of information is available from owl pellets.	eng
14089	threats	Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Mitsain, G., 2008	Unknown.	eng
14096	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
14096	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates, 1991; Al-Jumaily, 1998).	eng
14096	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is believed to inhabat bushland in the Yemen Mountains. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
14096	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on its abundance.	eng
14096	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is very little information, but it is thought that it is unlikely that this species is facing significant threats as it occurs in a region of limited human impact.	eng
14097	conservation	Juste, J., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable areas of remaining natural habitat for this species, with additional research required into the persistence of populations in modified habitats (such as cocoa plantations). Further surveys are needed to identify additional localities for this species, and to better understand its natural history.	eng
14097	distribution	Juste, J., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of the uplands of São Tomé Island of São Tomé and Príncipe. It is absent from the northern part of the island. It has only been recorded from three localities, and no colonies have been reported. Animals have been recorded between 300 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
14097	habitat	Juste, J., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from montane and steep rocky, and steep sided areas. Animals have been reported from montane tropical moist forest (at 1,300 m asl), tropical lowland forest (Feiler [1984] recorded a specimen from natural forest at 800 m asl), from an area with remnants of original vegetation (just north of Pico de São Tomé) (Sayer <em>et al.</em> 1992), and from cocoa plantations. The species appears to prefer the forested mountain zones but may be found to live in plantation areas and avoids the coastal zone and the northern dry part of the island. (Bergmans 1997).	eng
14097	population	Juste, J., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It appears to be a naturally rare species.	eng
14097	threats	Juste, J., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Within the species relatively limited range it is threatened by ongoing habitat loss, presumably related to logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
14098	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In Zimbabwe it has been recorded from the Haroni and Rusitu protected areas, but the forest has still been declining at these localities over the past three decades. Further surveys are needed to better determine the full extent of this species range. There is a need to conserve remaining lowland forest throughout much of East Africa,	eng
14098	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Bergmans (1997) reports that the species is known from the Shimba Hills in southeast Kenya, the Usambara and Nguru Mountains in Tanzania, several other unpublished localities in Tanzania and more recently from eastern Zimbabwe. All localities known with some accuracy are in East African Zanzibar-Inhambane costal mosaic: forest patches or in Undifferentiated Afromontane vegetation bordering on East African Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal mosaic (Bergmans 1997). The holotype specimen was caught over the Mukanda River, bordered by big thorn trees and fig trees, in the Shimba Hills, which are covered with a mosaic of open country and forest patches (Bergmans 1997).	eng
14098	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known, however, it has been recorded from lowland forest. The roosting sites are currently not known.	eng
14098	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	There is little known about the population of this species. Nearly all collections have been of single specimens caught in mist nets.	eng
14098	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Although the natural history of this species is little known, there is considerable ongoing habitat loss within the species range (through logging, harvesting of firewood and conversion of land to agricultural use).	eng
14099	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species has been recorded from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and it seems probable that it is present in a number of West African and Central African protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14099	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is widespread in West Africa and Central Africa, ranging into western East Africa. It has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa (with the exception of Benin), to Cameroon and from here ranging into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, extreme northwestern Zambia, Rwanda, Uganda and possibly southern Sudan. It is a lowland species found up to 800 m asl.	eng
14099	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest (both primary and secondary), as may also be encountered in forest-grassland mosaic habitats. It appears to be somewhat adaptable as animals have been recorded from city gardens. It roosts singly or in small groups. Sub-adult males appear to be somewhat migratory.	eng
14099	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Although the species is infrequently caught in ground level nets, it is commonly caught in canopy nets. In Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) its one of the most common fruit bats.	eng
14099	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There are generally no major threats to this species. It is threatened in parts of its range by severe habitat loss, presumably through general logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
14100	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14100	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil north of the Amazon and east of the Rio Branco (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2001).	eng
14100	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This terrestrial species occurs in lowland evergreen tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can exist in altered areas close to natural forest. It scatters and hoards the fruits and nuts it consumes. Captive studies suggest the species could be monogamous (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Gestation is 99 days after which a litter, usually of two, is produced (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
14100	population	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent is abundant in some areas.	eng
14100	threats	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is over-hunted; it has caused local extirpation in some areas of Suriname and French Guiana. Also, this rodent is kept as a pet in some indigenous populations in Brazil.	eng
14102	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this bat.	eng
14102	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded from eight localities in West and Central Africa. It has been reported from Côte d'Ivoire, Central African Republic and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is generally a lowland species, but has been found up to 1,250 m asl.	eng
14102	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Animals have been recorded at the edge of dry forest and dry savanna, and it appears to be a specialist of mosaic gallery forest. Colonies roost in hollow trees (Lang and Chapin 1917).	eng
14102	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This appears to be a rare species, known from very few specimens.	eng
14102	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is generally threatened by habitat loss, especially the removal of potential roost trees.	eng
14103	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the species distribution, natural history, and adaptability to habitat degradation.	eng
14103	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This bat is distributed in West and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Ghana in the west, through parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to western Uganda in the east.	eng
14103	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is associated with tropical moist lowland forest, but possibly marginally occurs in modified habitats. Happold (1987) records that it seems to be solitary and has been found singly clinging to the bark of a tree, among the leaves of plantains and in the roof of a rubber packing shed.	eng
14103	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is generally considered to be a rare species. It is found roosting singly or in small numbers.	eng
14103	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by general conversion of forest to agricultural land and logging activities.	eng
14104	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The species is found in protected areas.	eng
14104	conservation	Henttonen, H., 2008	The species is found in protected areas.	eng
14104	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, 2006	<em>Myopus schisticolor </em>has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, ranging from western Norway, through Sweden and Finland through northern and central Russia to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island (Russia) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs at altitudes from 600 to 2,450 m (Nowak 1999).	eng
14104	distribution	Henttonen, H., 2008	<em>Myopus schisticolor </em>has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, ranging from western Norway, through Sweden and Finland through northern and central Russia to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island (Russia) (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs at altitudes from 600 to 2,450 m (Nowak 1999).	eng
14104	habitat	Henttonen, H., 2008	The species inhabits old spruce forest and taiga forest, where breeding tends to occur in areas with abundant mosses (<em>Pleurozium, Dicranum</em>, and <em>Hylocomium </em>spp.), which provide a critical winter food source. In the summer, marshy areas within forests and pine-bogs with a high dwarf shrub layer are used, and in years of high population density dry forests and even clear-cuts may be occupied (Sulkava 1999). The species is found in the taiga and not above the treeline.	eng
14104	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The species's main habitat is old spruce forest, where breeding tends to occur in areas with a abundant mosses (<em>Pleurozium, Dicranum</em>, and <em>Hylocomium </em>spp.), which provide a critical winter food source. In the summer, marshy areas within forests and pine-bogs with a high dwarf shrub layer are used, and in years of high population density dry forests and even clear-cuts may be occupied (Sulkava 1999). The species is found in the taiga and not above the treeline.	eng
14104	population	Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Population densities in this species are typically very low, although infrequently there may be population irruptions and local migrations. Such events occured in northern Finland in 1910, 1957-58 and 1963 (Sulkava 1999). The sex ratio is female-biased (75% females : 25% males). In Fennoscandia local population declines may have occurred as a result of logging (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14104	population	Henttonen, H., 2008	Population densities in this species are typically very low, although infrequently there may be population irruptions and local migrations. Such events occurred in northern Finland in 1910, 1957-58 and 1963 (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia local population declines may have occurred as a result of logging (Sulkava 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14104	threats	Heikki Henttonen, 2006	There are no major threats. The species may be locally affected by logging of old-growth spruce forest, its main habitat (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14104	threats	Henttonen, H., 2008	There are no major threats. The species may be locally affected by logging of old-growth spruce forest, its main habitat, in some parts of its range (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14105	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species probably occurs in several protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the persistence of this species in modified habitats.	eng
14105	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, northwestern Congo, and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko). The record from Eshobi, is now in Cameroon and not in southeastern Nigeria (Happold, 1987). This species may be more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
14105	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest habitats. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest. It is diurnal, and arboreal, found mainly at lower levels in trees. Primarily solitary, though occasionally seen in pairs. Females with two embryos have been collected in Gabon and on Bioko.	eng
14105	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
14105	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole, general deforestation is presumably a threat in parts of the species range.	eng
14106	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
14106	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex einsentrauti</em> is endemic to the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. This species occurs at elevations over 2,000 m asl; the type locality of Pic Santa Isabel is at 2,400 m asl.	eng
14106	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.	eng
14106	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has not been recorded since 1968. There is a need for more field surveys to be undertaken.	eng
14106	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by continuing habitat degradation and human encroachment for settlement.	eng
14107	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Although <em>M. geata</em> is present in a forest reserve, the only provides effective protection in the highest parts of the Ulugurus, where its habitat is heavily fragmented. There is a need to identify and conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
14107	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex geata</em> is only known from the type collection from the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania. It occurs at elevations between 1,500-2,000 m asl and possibly higher.	eng
14107	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from montane forest.	eng
14107	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Few surveys have been undertaken in the altitudinal range of this species.	eng
14107	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The populations of <em>M. geata</em> that occur at higher elevations are less likely to be threatened by human activities (such as logging and conversion of land to agricultural use) than those living at lower elevations. It is thought that this species is unlikely to be affected by a munitions factory and military activities in the Ulugurus.	eng
14108	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	All forests in South Africa are protected by law, although the degree to which they are protected may vary. This species is also present in protected areas such as the Diepwalle Forest Reserve and Tzutzu Kama Coastal Park.	eng
14108	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex longicaudatus</em> is known from the southeastern parts of the Cape Province, South Africa. This species was only discovered in 1978. This species generally occurs at elevations up to 2,000 m asl. A population of the subspecies <em>Myosorex longicaudatus boosmai</em> from the Langeberg Mountains, occurs at much higher elevations (up to 3,600 m asl) than any other known populations (Dippenaar 1995).	eng
14108	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>M. longicaudatus</em> is found in forests, forests edges, fynbos and boggy grassland. This species needs a moist microhabitat. It is restricted to pristine primary habitat that has not been degraded.	eng
14108	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. The highest numbers of individuals are found at the forest edge<br/>(Dippenaar, 1995). Population numbers seems to fluctuate and there is an example of a survey finding no specimens in an area where a previous survey had caught quite high numbers.	eng
14108	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	Climate change is considered to be the principal threat to this species. Habitat in neighbouring areas is arid and unsuitable for this species which depends on a moist habitat. Because of this <em>M. longicaudatus</em> would not be able to move to other areas if the climate in its current range became unsuitable. It is thought that coastal populations might be at less risk than non-coastal populations. The moist habitat of this species is fragmented.	eng
14110	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
14110	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex schalleri</em> is known from a single specimen from Nzombe (Mwenga) in the Itombwe Mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. No small mammal studies have currently been undertaken in this mountain range.	eng
14110	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>M.schalleri</em> was collected from montane tropical moist forest.	eng
14110	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
14110	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
14111	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Mount Ruwenzori is a National Park which is well protected on the Ugandan side. The Democratic Republic of the Congo side is thought to be less well protected.	eng
14111	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is known from Ruwenzori Mountains of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There is an additional potential locality at Kibale in Uganda which is less than 100 km away, but this is unconfirmed. Its elevational range is approximately 1,800-4,000 m asl.	eng
14111	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	<em>M. blarina</em> inhabits montane forest at Mount Ruwenzori, from the base to the top of mountain. The lower forest zone is severely degraded but forest at higher altitudes is well protected and consists of primary forest. It is also found in bamboo forest, heath and grass tussock bogs.	eng
14111	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	<em>Myosorex blarina</em> is uncommon and when it is found it always occurs in very low numbers.	eng
14111	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is threatened by continuing general habitat decline on the Democratic Republic of the Congo side of the mountains.	eng
14112	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in the Mount Oku Reserve. There is a need to maintain suitable areas of primary forest for this species. Additional research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
14112	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex okuensis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is known from Lake Manenguba, Mount Oku and Mount Lefo on the Bamenda Plateau. It occurs at elevations between approximately 1,800-2,300 m asl.	eng
14112	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>M. okuensis</em> is found on the flanks of volcanoes with patches of primary montane forest. This species does not occur outside primary habitat.	eng
14112	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
14112	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by general habitat loss and degradation resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
14113	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
14113	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex rumpii</em> is known only from the holotype collected in the Rumpi Hills of southwestern Cameroon.  It was recorded at an elevation of approximately 1,100 m asl. There may not have been any further surveys of this area since this time. Mount Kupe has been surveyed more recently and no shrews of the genus <em>Myosorex</em> were found there.	eng
14113	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in remnant montane tropical moist forest.	eng
14113	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is known only from the holotype collected around 1967.	eng
14113	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, presumably largely through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use, and its restricted range.	eng
14114	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is present in some conservation areas in the northern part of its range (such as Lake Saint Lucia). There is a need to maintain suitable habitat within the range of this species. Additional information is needed on the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
14114	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex sclateri</em> is found in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.	eng
14114	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>M. sclateri</em> is found near water in subtropical swamps and coastal forests. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) report that it is present in grassland, wetland and reedbed habitats.	eng
14114	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is not common but is regularly caught during surveys.	eng
14114	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	This species is threatened by the development of human settlements, overgrazing and general habitat destruction.	eng
14115	conservation	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
14115	distribution	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex tenuis</em> is known from Transvaal, South Africa, and is possibly present in western Mozambique.	eng
14115	habitat	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of <em>M. tenuis</em>.	eng
14115	population	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
14115	threats	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
14116	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in protected areas throughout the range (approximately 18% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended.	eng
14116	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Steppes and farmland of Russia on banks of Onon and Ingoda Rivers in the Upper Amur basin, NE Mongolia (eastern parts of Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges and Mongol Daguur Steppe; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and NE China (S Heilongjiang, W Jilin, W Liaoning, E Nei Mongol, N Hebei, and N Shanxi; see Zhang <em>et al.</em>, 1997).	eng
14116	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Found in rich dark soft soil habitats on cereal or mixed herb steppe and meadows, farmland, forest glades, and flood plains (Grehov, 1972).  Spacing between burrow entrances 1-3 m; diameter of the mound of soil demarcating burrows is 50-70 cm.  Burrows reach a depth of 30-50 cm, but may extend to 2 m deep in winter. Feeding passages may exceed 20 m (Schauer, 1987). Diameter of the feeding burrows is 11-12 cm. Each burrow belongs to only one animal, but two burrows could be connected at one point in case of male and female (Bannikov, 1953). Diet normally consists of underground roots. Stores consist mostly of wheatgrass (Agropyron), but also include pulsatilla, poppy, peony, dandelion, ling roots, bluegrass, and wormwood. Stored supplies could be up to 9 kg. Youngs mostly feed on green parts (Bannikov, 1953). Breeds in May-June, with young from a single litter of 1-5 young appearing in July. Youngs live with female and disperse in autumn when they reach 15 cm size.	eng
14116	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Common, sometimes abundant in Russian part of the range.	eng
14116	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	There are unlikely to be an major threats to this species.	eng
14118	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jigongshan (Xinyang) and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and is likely to be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14118	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Shandong (Smith and Xie 2008), Nei Mongol, and Beijing (CSIS 2008).	eng
14118	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in steppe grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008), alpine grasslands and shrublands, agricultural lands, "banks and wasteland" (Zhang 2007). Recent studies suggest that this species acts as an "ecosystem engineer", increasing local environmental heterogeneity at the landscape level, aiding in the formation, aeration and mixing of soil, and enhancing infiltration of water into the soil thus curtailing erosion (Smith and Xie 2008). It is also an important prey base for other species (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Parturition starts in early spring (Smith and Xie 2008). One to seven offspring are produced per litter, with one to three litters each year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14118	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It has been characterized as an abundant small mammal of the Tibetan Plateau (Zhang 2007). Densities in Qinghai, in the 1980s, were estimated at 5-70nanimals/ha (Zhang 2007). In the 1990s as a result of eradication programs in Qinghai, populations were estimated at less than 31.6% of their former abundance (Zhang 2007).	eng
14118	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It was targeted in the 1990's as a pest species in the province of Qinghai, resulting in substantial declines (Zhang 2007). It is not known if the practice occurs in other provinces in which it occurs.	eng
14119	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Secondary commercial species, but recently almost not hunted. Occurs in some protected areas. Further conservation measures in some isolated parts of the range are necessary.	eng
14119	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in E Kazakhstan and south of Western Siberia (Russia). The range is fragmented and declining.	eng
14119	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit steppes, including those with shrubs, rare forests, meadows and sometimes arable fields. Distribution is connected to soft meadow soils and rich grass vegetation. Avoid dry steppes, rocky and rubbly places. In mountains found up to 2750 m. Obligate subterranean species, with exeption of short foraging expeditions and juvenile dispersal. Burrows have several tiers. Upper level is feeding passages on 5-27 cm under the ground. Lower tier is at 40-110 cm, consist of short passages, store, nest and toilet cells. Diameter of the feeding burrows is 8-13 cm. In total passage length is up to 150 m. Individual areas are separated in spring, but later join one another (Mahmutov, 1972). In the burrows there are temporary and permanent (wintering) nests. The latter is always only one and suited at 15-30 cm below ground, near the main exit. Active usually during dusk and dawn. Feed on roots and green parts of several dozen of plants. In anropogenic places feeds on cultivated plants. Winter supplies (up to 8 kg) consist of roots, bulbs, and scions of different plants, mainly herbs. (Mahmutov, 1977). Does not hibernate. Mate from September-November till March-April (Mahmutov, 1970). Has one litter per year with 1-10, usually 3-5 young.	eng
14119	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common, in some parts rare, in other abundant species. Secondary commercial species.	eng
14119	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss due to man-induced activity may significantly influence the area of occupancy in some isolates. Isolated parts of the range are still declining.	eng
14120	conservation	Shar, S., Tsytsulina, K. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.  Listed as a Rare species (category II =  Endangered) in the Red List of Russia (as <em>M. epsilanus</em>). Approximately 31% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
14120	distribution	Shar, S., Tsytsulina, K. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in Transbaikalia, E Mongolia (Halh River and Nömrög River Basin in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range), E and C China, and Russian Far East.	eng
14120	habitat	Shar, S., Tsytsulina, K. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Inhabits arable fields, river valleys with meadows and steppe patches, derelict lands not used for 3-4 years, cereal and herbs meadows near mountain rivers and wells, steppes with oak and birch, foothills with rich vegetation, rare oak, aspen, black birch (Betula daurica) forests on top of hills. Specifically to Mongolia, mountain-steppe, steppe, desert and grassland regions are preferentially selected. Avoids rubbly soils. Burrows have two tiers. Feeding passages are on 12-20 cm under the ground. Lower tier is at 40-110 cm, consist of short passages, storae, nest and toilet cells. Diameter of the burrows of young zokors is 4-5 cm, those of adults is 8-12 cm. Active usually during dusk and dawn. Most intesive digging activity occurs in May-June, where youngs are dispersing. Mate in April - beginning of May (Kostenko, 1970). Has one litter per year with 2-4 pups. In Spring and first half of summer youngs live with female. By october (when the body size is about 20 cm) young start to dig their own burrows nearby mother's. Next spring they become mature and disperse. Feed on cereal roots and green parts. In anthropogenic places feeds on cultivated plants. Winter supplies (up to 10 kg) consist of roots, bulbs, and scions of different plants, mainly herbs. Sometimes consume animal food: in stomach of several animals were found remains of Apodemus and Phodopus (Kostenko, 1970).	eng
14120	population	Shar, S., Tsytsulina, K. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Very rare in the northern and north-eastern (Russian Far East) parts of the range. Elsewhere in the range, no information is available.	eng
14120	threats	Shar, S., Tsytsulina, K. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Agricultural reclamation destroys natural habitats.	eng
14121	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Houhe Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14121	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Hubei, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Henan (CSIS 2008). It occurs at elevations generally ranging from 1,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14121	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in grasslands, scrub, forest, and possibly cropland habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Diet consists of grasses, roots, and sometimes crops (Smith and Xie 2008). One to five offspring are produced per litter, with a single litter produced each year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14121	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
14121	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14122	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Wanglang Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14122	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Ningxia, Sichuan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14122	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies grasslands, steppe, open field, and sometimes cropland (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>IT forages predominantly on grasses (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs between May and September, during which two litters are produced with litter sizes that range from two to eight (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14122	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
14122	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14123	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation.  There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and the species is found in protected areas all over its range. It benefits directly or indirectly from a number of LIFE funded projects in Europe, and there are current research projects focussing on the species. Appropriate habitat management involves leaving old trees in sufficient numbers, as each individual colony uses up to 30 trees in the summer. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this species.	eng
14123	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation.  There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and the species is found in protected areas all over its range. It benefits directly or indirectly from a number of LIFE funded projects in Europe, and there are current research projects focussing on the species. Appropriate habitat management involves leaving old trees in sufficient numbers, as each individual colony uses up to 30 trees in the summer. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this species.	eng
14123	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation.  There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and the species is found in protected areas all over its range. It benefits directly or indirectly from a number of LIFE funded projects in Europe, and there are current research projects focussing on the species. Appropriate habitat management involves leaving old trees in sufficient numbers, as each individual colony uses up to 30 trees in the summer. Monitoring is required to determine population trends in this species.	eng
14123	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	A western Palaearctic species, it occurs in central and southern Europe and temperate south-western Asia (Caucasus region and Asia Minor). It is found on several islands including Bornholm, Corsica, Elba, Capri, Sicily (Baagoe 2001). It has been recorded from sea level to as high as 1,500m in central Spain (Benzal and de Paz 1991).	eng
14123	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A western Palaearctic species, it occurs in central and southern Europe and temperate south-western Asia (Caucasus region and Asia Minor). It is found on several islands including Bornholm, Corsica, Elba, Capri, Sicily (Baagoe 2001). It has been recorded from sea level to as high as 1,500 m in central Spain (Benzal and de Paz 1991).  Although only a single record has been recorded in central Montenegro, it is possibly present in most of the country (Milan Paunovic pers. comm. 2007)	eng
14123	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	A western Palaearctic species, it occurs in central and southern Europe and temperate south-western Asia (Caucasus region and Asia Minor). It is found on several islands including Bornholm, Corsica, Elba, Capri, Sicily (Baagoe 2001). It has been recorded from sea level to as high as 1,500 m in central Spain (Benzal and de Paz 1991).  Although only a single record has been recorded in central Montenegro, it is possibly present in most of the country (Milan Paunovic pers. comm. 2007)	eng
14123	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species has specialised habitat requirements, and is largely dependent on mature natural forests. In the south-west Asia region it is found in broadleaf forest and sometimes mixed forest (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Europe, it tends to prefer mature deciduous woodland of beech and oak with a high proportion of old trees. Densities of this species are highest in forests that are managed according to environmental (rather than strictly economic) principles. It is occasionally found in artificial habitats such as pasture, plantations (especially orchards) and rural gardens. In summer it roosts in tree-holes, or occasionally in buildings; bird and bat boxes are fairly readily accepted (Schlapp 1999). In winter it hibernates in underground habitats, and possibly also in hollow trees. It forages in woodland and along woodland edge for Lepidoptera, Diptera, Planipennia, and also non-flying insects. A sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14123	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species has specialised habitat requirements, and is largely dependent on mature natural forests. In the south-west Asia region it is found in broadleaf forest and sometimes mixed forest (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Europe, it tends to prefer mature deciduous woodland of beech and oak with a high proportion of old trees. Densities of this species are highest in forests that are managed according to environmental (rather than strictly economic) principles. It is occasionally found in artificial habitats such as pasture, plantations (especially orchards) and rural gardens. In summer it roosts in tree-holes, or occasionally in buildings; bird and bat boxes are fairly readily accepted (Schlapp 1999). In winter it hibernates in underground habitats, and possibly also in hollow trees. It forages in woodland and along woodland edge for Lepidoptera, Diptera, Planipennia, and also non-flying insects. A sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14123	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	This species has specialised habitat requirements, and is largely dependent on mature natural forests. In the south-west Asia region it is found in broadleaf forest and sometimes mixed forest (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Europe, it tends to prefer mature deciduous woodland of beech and oak with a high proportion of old trees. Densities of this species are highest in forests that are managed according to environmental (rather than strictly economic) principles. It is occasionally found in artificial habitats such as pasture, plantations (especially orchards) and rural gardens. In summer it roosts in tree-holes, or occasionally in buildings; bird and bat boxes are fairly readily accepted (Schlapp 1999). In winter it hibernates in underground habitats, and possibly also in hollow trees. It forages in woodland and along woodland edge for Lepidoptera, Diptera, Planipennia, and also non-flying insects. A sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14123	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is considered rare throughout its range, although in optimal habitat it may be regularly found, and it is a typical member of central European bat communities. In southern Europe and the Caucasus it is rare (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), and there has been only one confirmed individual in Iran (Sharifi <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are also few records from Turkey, where it has been found in groups of up to six individuals in six localities (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). Breeding colonies are small, numbering up to 10-30 individuals (K. Tsytsulina, J. T. Alcalde, A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). Populations are fragmented as a result of the loss in historic times of the majority of its forest habitat. There is very little information on recent population trends. However, one of the few colonies known from Spain has disappeared in recent years because of human disturbance (J. T. Alcalde and J. Juste pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14123	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is considered rare throughout its range, although in optimal habitat it may be regularly found, and it is a typical member of central European bat communities. In southern Europe and the Caucasus it is rare (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), and there has been only one confirmed individual in Iran (Sharifi <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are also few records from Turkey, where it has been found in groups of up to six individuals in six localities (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). Breeding colonies are small, numbering up to 10-30 individuals (K. Tsytsulina, J. T. Alcalde, A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). Populations are fragmented as a result of the loss in historic times of the majority of its forest habitat. There is very little information on recent population trends. However, one of the few colonies known from Spain has disappeared in recent years because of human disturbance (J. T. Alcalde and J. Juste pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14123	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is considered rare throughout its range, although in optimal habitat it may be regularly found, and it is a typical member of central European bat communities. In southern Europe and the Caucasus it is rare (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), and there has been only one confirmed individual in Iran (Sharifi <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are also few records from Turkey, where it has been found in groups of up to six individuals in six localities (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). Breeding colonies are small, numbering up to 10-30 individuals (K. Tsytsulina, J. T. Alcalde, A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). Populations are fragmented as a result of the loss in historic times of the majority of its forest habitat. There is very little information on recent population trends. However, one of the few colonies known from Spain has disappeared in recent years because of human disturbance (J. T. Alcalde and J. Juste pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14123	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Threats include inappropriate management and development of woodland habitats, intensive agriculture (e.g. use of pesticides on farmland adjacent to woodland occupied by the species) and human disturbance of roost sites. The loss of old trees with hollows is a particular problem. In Germany, infrastructure developments (and associated habitat fragmentation) and forestry are the main threats (Schulenberg 2005).	eng
14123	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Threats include inappropriate management and development of woodland habitats, intensive agriculture (e.g., use of pesticides on farmland adjacent to woodland occupied by the species) and human disturbance of roost sites. The loss of old trees with hollows is a particular problem. In Germany, infrastructure developments (and associated habitat fragmentation) and forestry are the main threats (Schulenberg 2005).	eng
14123	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Tsytsulina, K., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Threats include inappropriate management and development of woodland habitats, intensive agriculture (e.g., use of pesticides on farmland adjacent to woodland occupied by the species) and human disturbance of roost sites. The loss of old trees with hollows is a particular problem. In Germany, infrastructure developments (and associated habitat fragmentation) and forestry are the main threats (Schulenberg 2005).	eng
14124	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range states where that applies. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In some countries (including Spain, Portugal, and Italy) several colonies are protected by closing entrances to caves with fences. More colonies should be protected, however, the emphasis needs to be on better protection of cave sites generally rather than on 'gating' of cave entrances which is often detrimental to bats causing direct mortality and abandonment of caves.	eng
14124	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range states where that applies. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In some countries (including Spain, Portugal, and Italy) several colonies are protected by closing entrances to caves with fences. More colonies should be protected, however, the emphasis needs to be on better protection of cave sites generally rather than on 'gating' of cave entrances which is often detrimental to bats causing direct mortality and abandonment of caves.	eng
14124	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, Zoltan Nagy, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In some countries (including Spain, Portugal, and Italy) several colonies are protected by closing entrances to caves with fences. More colonies should be protected.	eng
14124	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, Zoltan Nagy, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	A south-west Palearctic species, it occurs in southern Europe, southern parts of central Europe, and non-arid parts of southwestern Asia from Asia Minor, the Caucasus region and Palestine to Kashmir, the Altai mountains, Nepal, and parts of China. The subspecies <em>M.b. oxygnathus</em> occurs in Europe and western Anatolia: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Sicily). Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine (including Krym), the Balkan Peninsula and parts of Turkey (Topál and Ruedi 2001). In the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, the Russian Federation and Georgia it is confimed to occur no higher than 1,700m (K. Tsytsulina, M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). However, it is found at altitudes of up to 2,100m in the winter in southern Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
14124	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A south-west Palearctic species, it occurs in southern Europe, southern parts of central Europe, and non-arid parts of southwestern Asia from Asia Minor, the Caucasus region and Palestine to Kashmir, the Altai mountains, Nepal, and parts of China. The subspecies <em>M. b. oxygnathus</em> occurs in Mediterranean Europe and western Anatolia: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Sicily). Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine (including Krym), the Balkan Peninsula and parts of Turkey (Topál and Ruedi 2001). In the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, the Russian Federation and Georgia it is confimed to occur no higher than 1,700 m (K. Tsytsulina, M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). However, it is found at altitudes of up to 2,100 m in the winter in southern Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
14124	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	A south-west Palearctic species, it occurs in southern Europe, southern parts of central Europe, and non-arid parts of southwestern Asia from Asia Minor, the Caucasus region and Palestine to Kashmir, the Altai mountains, Nepal, and parts of China. The subspecies <em>M. b. oxygnathus</em> occurs in Mediterranean Europe and western Anatolia: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Sicily). Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine (including Krym), the Balkan Peninsula and parts of Turkey (Topál and Ruedi 2001). In the Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, the Russian Federation and Georgia it is confimed to occur no higher than 1,700 m (K. Tsytsulina, M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). However, it is found at altitudes of up to 2,100 m in the winter in southern Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
14124	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, Zoltan Nagy, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages in scrub and grassland habitats, including farmland and gardens. Maternity colonies are usually found in underground habitats such as caves and mines, and sometimes in attics of buildings  (particularly in central Europe).<br/>It hibernates in winter in underground sites with a relatively constant temperature of 6-12ºC. The species is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 488 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005; previous reports of 600 km are erroneous).	eng
14124	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in scrub and grassland habitats, including farmland and gardens. Maternity colonies are usually found in underground habitats such as caves and mines, and sometimes in attics of buildings  (particularly in central Europe). In Iberia and in the Balkans it is mainly found in caves and other underground sites (e.g., mines). In Turkey and Syria maternity colonies are found in caves and in very old buildings (castles, inns, etc.). It hibernates in winter in underground sites with a relatively constant temperature of 6-12ºC. The species is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 488 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005; previous reports of 600 km are erroneous).	eng
14124	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages in scrub and grassland habitats, including farmland and gardens. Maternity colonies are usually found in underground habitats such as caves and mines, and sometimes in attics of buildings  (particularly in central Europe). In Iberia and in the Balkans it is mainly found in caves and other underground sites (e.g., mines). In Turkey and Syria maternity colonies are found in caves and in very old buildings (castles, inns, etc.). It hibernates in winter in underground sites with a relatively constant temperature of 6-12ºC. The species is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 488 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005; previous reports of 600 km are erroneous).	eng
14124	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A gregarious species, it congregates in nursery and/or hibernating colonies of up to 500 individuals. There have been large population reductions since the 1950s in several areas, including central Europe, Israel, and central Asia, and there is evidence of ongoing decline in some parts of the range, although in other areas populations appear stable. In parts of its range it remains an abundant species. In Turkey it occurs in large clusters and is the second most common bat species (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). In Iran there is evidence of population decline, although it remains one of the most sighted species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The Spanish population is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 individuals, and is concentrated in the southern part of the country (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is declining, at a rate of one third over the last 10 years in important large colonies in Andalucia (Franco and Rodrigues de los Santos 2001). It is one of the rarest species in Portugal, where its population of c.2,000 individuals is declining (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is uncommon in the northern part of the range (Austria) but seems stable (Spitzenberger 2002). In France, the population of over 20,000 individuals experienced declines since the 1960s, but may now be stable (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans, it is regarded as stable (Mediterranean workshop 2007). In Romania, one well-known colony has declined by 95% as a result of disturbance by speleological tourism (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In South Asia the population is considered stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>It often occurs in mixed colonies with <em>Myotis myotis</em> and identification is sometimes problematic.	eng
14124	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	A gregarious species, it congregates in nursery and/or hibernating colonies of up to 500 individuals. There have been large population reductions since the 1950s in several areas, including central Europe, Israel, and central Asia, and there is evidence of ongoing decline in some parts of the range, although in other areas populations appear stable. In parts of its range it remains an abundant species. In Turkey it occurs in large clusters and is the second most common bat species (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2007). In Iran there is evidence of population decline, although it remains one of the most sighted species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The Spanish population is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 individuals, and is concentrated in the southern part of the country (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is declining, at a rate of one third over the last 10 years in important large colonies in Andalucia (Franco and Rodrigues de los Santos 2001). It is one of the rarest species in Portugal, where its population of c.2,000 individuals is declining (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is uncommon in the northern part of the range (Austria) but seems stable (Spitzenberger 2002). In France, the population of over 20,000 individuals experienced declines since the 1960s, but may now be stable (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans, it is regarded as stable (Mediterranean workshop 2007). In Romania, one well-known colony has declined by 95% as a result of disturbance by speleological tourism (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In South Asia the population is considered stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>It often occurs in mixed colonies with <em>Myotis myotis</em> and identification is sometimes problematic.	eng
14124	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, Zoltan Nagy, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	A gregarious species, it congregates in nursery and/or hibernating colonies of up to 500 individuals. There have been large population reductions since the 1950s in several areas, including central Europe, Israel, and central Asia, and there is evidence of ongoing decline in some parts of the range, although in other areas populations appear stable. It remains an abundant species.  In Turkey it occurs in large clusters and is the second most common bat species (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Iran there is evidence of population decline, although it remains one of the most sighted species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). The Spanish population is estimated to be smaller than 20,000 individuals, and is concentrated in the southern part of the country (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is declining, at a rate of one third over the last 10 years in important large colonies in Andalucia (Franco and Rodrigues de los Santos 2001). It is one of the rarest species in Portugal, where its population of c.2,000 individuals is declining (Rodrigues<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is uncommon in the northern part of the range (Austria) but seems stable (Spitzenberger 2002). In France, the population of over 20,000 individuals experienced declines since the 1960s, but may now be stable (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, one well-known colony has declined by 95% as a result of disturbance by speleological tourism (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). It often occurs in mixed colonies with <em>Myotis myotis</em> and identification is sometimes problematic.	eng
14124	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, Zoltan Nagy, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Changes in land management, especially agricultural pollution and other agricultural activities, can affect populations of this species. Disturbance to roosts in caves and buildings may also be a problem.	eng
14124	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Changes in land management, especially agricultural pollution and other agricultural activities, can affect populations of this species. Disturbance to roosts in caves and buildings may also be a problem.<br/><br/>In some caves used by speleologists in Spain, the disturbance affects more than 90% of the population and some large historical colonies in southern Spain have disappeared as a result. The Andalucian population decreased from 30,000 individuals to 14,000 between 1994 and 2002 (unpublished report submitted to Junta Andalucia government).<br/><br/>In Turkey and Syria caves are often used by herders and their livestock; the herders light fires in the cave entrances which disturb the bats.	eng
14124	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Changes in land management, especially agricultural pollution and other agricultural activities, can affect populations of this species. Disturbance to roosts in caves and buildings may also be a problem.<br/><br/>In some caves used by speleologists in Spain, the disturbance affects more than 90% of the population and some large historical colonies in southern Spain have disappeared as a result. The Andalucian population decreased from 30,000 individuals to 14,000 between 1994 and 2002 (unpublished report submitted to Junta Andalucia government).<br/><br/>In Turkey and Syria caves are often used by herders and their livestock; the herders light fires in the cave entrances which disturb the bats.	eng
14125	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.<br/><br/>Reserach into the distribution range, population size and trends is required.	eng
14125	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.<br/><br/>Reserach into the distribution range, population size and trends is required.	eng
14125	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14125	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A predominantly boreal Palaearctic species, distributed from Great Britain, western and central Europe and Fennoscandia through the Russian Federation and central Asia, including Mongolia and northeast China, to the northern Far East, including Japan,where it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Myotis gracilis</em> Ognev, 1927). It has a scattered distribution in south-east Europe and Anatolia. In Mongolia it is known from the Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and along the Halh and Nömrög river basins in Ikh Halh Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In China, in addition to the distribution in the northeast, there is a disjunct distribution in southwest Xizang. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800 m asl.<br/><br/>This species has a fairly limited range within the Mediterranean region. There is a record from central Italy (the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park; Russo pers. comm. 2006; Agnelli <em>et al.</em>2004), a record from eastern Montenegro close to the border with Serbia, and it is reported to occur in northern Greece and in Bulgaria. Within Turkey the species was primarily known from the Caucasus area in the northeast but recently Benda and Karatash (2006) published a record from central Anatolia. Occurrence of this species in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Macedonia has not yet been confirmed (M. Paunovic and B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14125	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	A predominantly boreal Palaearctic species, distributed from Great Britain, western and central Europe and Fennoscandia through the Russian Federation and central Asia, including Mongolia and northeast China, to the northern Far East, including Japan,where it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Myotis gracilis</em> Ognev, 1927). It has a scattered distribution in south-east Europe and Anatolia. In Mongolia it is known from the Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and along the Halh and Nömrög river basins in Ikh Halh Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In China, in addition to the distribution in the northeast, there is a disjunct distribution in southwest Xizang. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800 m asl.<br/><br/>This species has a fairly limited range within the Mediterranean region. There is a record from central Italy (the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park; Russo pers. comm. 2006; Agnelli <em>et al.</em>2004), a record from eastern Montenegro close to the border with Serbia, and it is reported to occur in northern Greece and in Bulgaria. Within Turkey the species was primarily known from the Caucasus area in the northeast but recently Benda and Karatash (2006) published a record from central Anatolia. Occurrence of this species in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Macedonia has not yet been confirmed (M. Paunovic and B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14125	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Myotis brandtii </em>is a boreal Palaearctic species, distributed from Ireland, central Europe and Fennoscandia through the Russian Federation and central Asia to the northern Far East. It has a scattered distribution in south-east Europe and Anatolia. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m.	eng
14125	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005; Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <em>M. mystacinus</em>. Summer roosts are in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes, but most often in tree holes. In winter it hibernates in caves, tunnels, cellars and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 2005). It hunts near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic insects, breeding in June and July (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).	eng
14125	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005; Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <em>M. mystacinus</em>. Summer roosts are in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes, but most often in tree holes. In winter it hibernates in caves, tunnels, cellars and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 2005). It hunts near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic insects, breeding in June and July (Sokolov and Orlov 1980).	eng
14125	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It inhabits mixed and broadleaf forest, and sometimes coniferous forest, often in close proximity to water (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005, Gerell 1999). It is less often found near human habitation than its congener <em>M. mystacinus</em>. Summer roosts are sited in buildings, tree holes, and bird and bat boxes. In winter it hibernates in caves and mines. It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 618 km recorded (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14125	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	One of the more common species within northern parts of its regular distribution area in Europe. It is decreasing in NE Turkey, at the southern edge of its global range (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Mongolia there is no population data available on this species, but it is thought to be evenly distributed over a wide geographic range.	eng
14125	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	One of the more common species within northern parts of its regular distribution area in Europe. It is decreasing in NE Turkey, at the southern edge of its global range (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). In Mongolia there is no population data available on this species, but it is thought to be evenly distributed over a wide geographic range.	eng
14125	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	One of the more common species within northern parts of its regular distribution area. It is decreasing in Turkey, at the southern edge of its global range (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).	eng
14125	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	There are no major threats known. Localized possible threats include changes in land-use practices (including woodland loss, infrastructure development and pesticide use). Human disturbance to roosts in buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the eastern Black Sea area, it prefers to roost behind window shutters in older buildings, and these sites are not provided in modern buildings. Another popular roost site in this region is barrels hung in trees for honey bee farming, and when the barrels are removed to check for honey, roosting individuals are disturbed (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).	eng
14125	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Coroiu, I., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	There are no major threats known. Localized possible threats include changes in land-use practices (including woodland loss, infrastructure development and pesticide use). Human disturbance to roosts in buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the eastern Black Sea area, it prefers to roost behind window shutters in older buildings, and these sites are not provided in modern buildings. Another popular roost site in this region is barrels hung in trees for honey bee farming, and when the barrels are removed to check for honey, roosting individuals are disturbed (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).	eng
14125	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	There are no major threats known. Localized possible threats include changes in land-use practices (including woodland loss, infrastructure development and pesticide use). Human disturbance to roosts in builidings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the eastern Black Sea area, it prefers to roost behind window shutters in older buildings, and these sites are not provided in modern buildings. Another popular roost site in this region is barrels hung in trees for honey bee farming, and when the barrels are removed to check for honey, roosting individuals are disturbed (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005).	eng
14126	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In Spain, fences are in place to protect several known colonies. Measures needed include protection of colonies (these measures should avoid the blocking of any cave entrances with gates and control of tourist access) and improvement of water quality.	eng
14126	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In Spain, fences are in place to protect several known colonies. Measures needed include protection of colonies (these measures should avoid the blocking of any cave entrances with gates and control of tourist access) and improvement of water quality.	eng
14126	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. In Spain, fences are in place to protect several known colonies. Measures needed include protection of colonies and improvement of water quality.	eng
14126	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis capaccinii</em> is sparsely distributed from eastern Iberia, Spain through the northern Mediterranean to coastal Asia Minor and Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, and also in Mesopotamia from Turkey to Iran and in north-west Africa (limited to the Mediterranean fringe of western Maghreb: north Morocco and northwest Algeria). It occurs from sea level to 900 m.	eng
14126	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Myotis capaccinii</em> is sparsely distributed from eastern Iberia, Spain through the northern Mediterranean to coastal Asia Minor and Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, and also in Mesopotamia from Turkey to Iran and in north-west Africa (limited to the Mediterranean fringe of western Maghreb: north Morocco and northwest Algeria). It occurs from sea level to 900 m.	eng
14126	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Myotis capaccinii</em> is sparsely distributed from eastern Iberia through the northern Mediterranean to coastal Asia Minor and Israel, Lebanon and Jordan, and also in Mesopotamia from Turkey to Iran and in north-west Africa. It occurs from sea level to 900 m.	eng
14126	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over wetlands and waterways (including artifical waterbodies, such as canals and reservoirs), also scrub. It generally roosts in underground habitats (principally caves). In the Balkans it is confined to karst areas. Movements between summer and winter colonies are mostly within a distance of 50 km (maximum 140 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14126	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages over wetlands and waterways (including artifical waterbodies, such as canals and reservoirs), also scrub. It generally roosts in underground habitats (principally caves). In the Balkans it is confined to karst areas. Movements between summer and winter colonies are mostly within a distance of 50 km (maximum 140 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14126	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It forages over wetlands and waterways (including artifical waterbodies, such as canals and reservoirs), also scrub. It generally roosts in underground habitats (principally caves). Movements between summer and winter colonies are mostly within a distance of 50 km (maximum 140 km: Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005)	eng
14126	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Locally it can be abundant. Generally, the population is fragmented, but these "fragments" may constitute robust parts of the overall population. Declines have been reported in many range states. In Spain, the population has declined by 30-50% in the last 10 years to fewer than 10,000 individuals. Only 30 colonies are known that comprise more than 20 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). At least six important colonies are threatened by the construction of buildings nearby and five colonies have disappeared over the last 10 years. In France the population has declined to very low numbers (an estimated 3,800 individuals). Colonies have been lost in the western part of the range in the last 15 years (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Colonies in central Romania known from the 1960s have disappeared, and the species is now restricted to the south. The species is almost absent in winter and probably hibernates in Bulgaria (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The Bulgarian population is estimated at c.20,000. In Croatia there are still some large colonies but these are threatened by pollution of karstic water bodies (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006), and the species is listed as Endangered in the Croatian Red Book of Mammals (Tvrtković 2006). In Turkey it has a decreasing population and is considered vulnerable; it is most often encountered in small groups, very occasionally up to several hundred individuals  (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). The species is naturally rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005) and north Africa (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). The size of colonies is smaller in the western part of the range (several hundreds of individuals in summer) than in the eastern part (up to several thousands in winter).	eng
14126	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Locally it can be abundant. Generally, the population is fragmented, but these "fragments" may constitute robust parts of the overall population. Declines have been reported in many range states. In Spain, the population has declined by 30-50% in the last 10 years to fewer than 10,000 individuals. Only 30 colonies are known that comprise more than 20 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). At least six important colonies are threatened by the construction of buildings nearby and five colonies have disappeared over the last 10 years. In France the population has declined to very low numbers (an estimated 3,800 individuals). Colonies have been lost in the western part of the range in the last 15 years (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Colonies in central Romania known from the 1960s have disappeared, and the species is now restricted to the south. The species is almost absent in winter and probably hibernates in Bulgaria (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The Bulgarian population is estimated at c.20,000. In Croatia there are still some large colonies but these are threatened by pollution of karstic water bodies (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006), and the species is listed as Endangered in the Croatian Red Book of Mammals (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Turkey it has a decreasing population and is considered vulnerable; it is most often encountered in small groups, very occasionally up to several hundred individuals  (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). The species is naturally rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005) and north Africa (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). The size of colonies is smaller in the western part of the range (several hundreds of individuals in summer) than in the eastern part (up to several thousands in winter).	eng
14126	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Locally it can be abundant. Generally, the population is fragmented, but these "fragments" may constitute robust parts of the overall population. Declines have been reported in many range states. In Spain, the population has declined by 30-50% in the last 10 years to fewer than 10,000 individuals. Only 30 colonies are known that comprise more than 20 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). At least six important colonies are threatened by the construction of buildings nearby and five colonies have disappeared over the last 10 years. In France the population has declined to very low numbers (an estimated 3,800 individuals). Colonies have been lost in the western part of the range in the last 15 years (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Colonies in central Romania known from the 1960s have disappeared, and the species is now restricted to the south. The species is almost absent in winter and probably hibernates in Bulgaria (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The Bulgarian population is estimated at c.20,000. In Croatia there are still some large colonies but these are threatened by pollution of karstic water bodies (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006), and the species is listed as Endangered in the Croatian Red Book of Mammals (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Turkey it has a decreasing population and is considered vulnerable; it is most often encountered in small groups, very occasionally up to several hundred individuals  (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2005). The species is naturally rare in Iran (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005) and north Africa (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). The size of colonies is smaller in the western part of the range (several hundreds of individuals in summer) than in the eastern part (up to several thousands in winter).	eng
14126	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Threats include changes in water quality through pollution and dam building, and loss of water bodies and watercourses. Damage or disturbance to caves (tourism, fires and vandalism) used as roosts may also be a problem, as the species is very dependent on caves. The species is collected for medicinal purposes in North Africa.	eng
14126	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Threats include changes in water quality through pollution and dam building, and loss of water bodies and watercourses. Damage or disturbance to caves (tourism, fires and vandalism) used as roosts may also be a problem, as the species is very dependent on caves. The species is collected for medicinal purposes in North Africa.	eng
14126	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Threats include changes in water quality through pollution and dam building, and loss of water bodies and watercourses. Damage or disturbance to caves used as roosts may also be a problem.	eng
14127	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Protected in all European range states, and in some other parts of its global range. In Europe it is included in Annex II of the EC Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 (EC Habitats Directive) requiring full protection and designation of Special Areas of Conservation to maintain it and its habitats. Other international treaties of relevance are the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention 1994), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention 1982) and Bern Convention Recommendation 36 (1992, Conservation of Underground Habitats). Most European range states are party to at least one of these treaties.	eng
14127	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	Protected in all European range states, and in some other parts of its global range. In Europe it is included in Annex II of the EC Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 (EC Habitats Directive) requiring full protection and designation of Special Areas of Conservation to maintain it and its habitats. Other international treaties of relevance are the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention 1994), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention 1982) and Bern Convention Recommendation 36 (1992, Conservation of Underground Habitats). Most European range states are party to at least one of these treaties.	eng
14127	conservation	Tony Hutson, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Protected in all European range states, and possibly in most of rest of range.  In Europe it is included in Annex II of the EEC Council Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 (EEC Habitat Directive) requiring full protection and designation of Special Areas of Conservation to maintain it and its habitats. Other international treaties of relevance are the Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe (Bonn Convention 1994), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention 1982) and Bern Convention Recommendation 36 (1992, Conservation of Underground Habitats). Most European range states are party to at least one of these treaties. Numbers in underground habitats have increased following site protection. Considerable effort has been applied to the conservation of known maternity roosts, but not always with success in view of requirements for renovation and maintenance of buildings used as roosts. Particularly in the Netherlands the use of bat detectors has more clearly demonstrated the distribution of the species and hence allowed more precise definition of foraging habitat requirements and the need for an adequate network of protected flightpaths between roosts and foraging sites. Under the Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats, the species is selected  for examination of its migratory behaviour.The Bern Convention has commissioned a Species Action Plan under its obligations to the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Current (2006) research in the Netherlands and Germany focuses on conservation requirements and migration.	eng
14127	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis dasycneme</em> occurs from north-west Europe (north-western France and southern Scandinavia) south to Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and north Kazakhstan and east to the River Yenisey in central Russia, with a few records from China. Historic or subfossil records exist from Switzerland, Austria and the former Yugoslavia. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m.	eng
14127	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	<em>Myotis dasycneme</em> occurs from north-west Europe (north-western France and southern Scandinavia) south to Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and north Kazakhstan and east to the River Yenisey in central Russia, with a few records from China. Historic or subfossil records exist from Switzerland, Austria and the former Yugoslavia. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m.	eng
14127	distribution	Tony Hutson, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Myotis dasycneme</em> occurs from north-west Europe (north-western France  and southern Scandinavia) south to Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and north Kazakhstan and east to the River Yenisey in central Russia, with few record from China. Historic or subfossil records exist from Switzerland, Austria and the former Yugoslavia. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m.	eng
14127	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species feeds principally over open calm water, particularly canals, rivers and lakes, on small emerging and emergent insects, often taken from the water surface. It prefers water lined by open rough vegetation without trees.  Most of the known summer maternity roosts are in buildings, often in large attics and church steeples, in groups of 40-600. Some tree  and bat box roosts are recorded. It frequently hibernates in underground habitats ranging from natural caves to cellars and bunkers. It is a partial migrant, with winter and summer roosts often separated by more than 100 km (maximum recorded: 350 km, and it may need good habitat links between summer and winter roosts.	eng
14127	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	This species feeds principally over open calm water, particularly canals, rivers and lakes, on small emerging and emergent insects, often taken from the water surface. It prefers water lined by open rough vegetation without trees.  Most of the known summer maternity roosts are in buildings, often in large attics and church steeples, in groups of 40-600. Some tree  and bat box roosts are recorded. It frequently hibernates in underground habitats ranging from natural caves to cellars and bunkers. It is a partial migrant, with winter and summer roosts often separated by more than 100 km (maximum recorded: 350 km, and it may need good habitat links between summer and winter roosts.	eng
14127	habitat	Tony Hutson, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	This species feeds principally over open calm water, particularly canals, rivers and lakes, on small emerging and emergent insects, often taken from the water surface. It prefers water lined by open rough vegetation without trees.  Most of the known summer maternity roosts are in buildings, often in large attics and church steeples, in groups of 40-600. Some tree  and bat box roosts are recorded. It frequently hibernates in underground habitats ranging from natural caves to cellars and bunkers. It is a partial migrant, with winter and summer roosts often separated by more than 100 km (maximum recorded: 350 km), and it may need good habitat links between summer and winter roosts.	eng
14127	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is rarely abundant, and ranks among the rarest bat species in Europe. Summer colonies usually less than 100, but can reach 500. In winter sites, usually roost singly or small groups of up to 10, few sites with more than 200 individuals (maximum 700). Although no quantitative data on population trends are available, the species is reported as seriously declining in much of Europe.	eng
14127	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	It is rarely abundant, and ranks among the rarest bat species in Europe. Summer colonies usually less than 100, but can reach 500. In winter sites, usually roost singly or small groups of up to 10, few sites with more than 200 individuals (maximum 700). Although no quantitative data on population trends are available, the species is reported as seriously declining in much of Europe.	eng
14127	population	Tony Hutson, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It is rarely abundant, and ranks among the rarest bat species in Europe. Summer colonies usually less than 100, but can reach 500. In winter sites, usually roost singly or small groups of up to 10, few sites with more than 200 individuals (maximum 700). Although no quantitative data on population trends are available, the species is reported as seriously declining in much of Europe.	eng
14127	threats	Tony Hutson, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Threatened by habitat change, including renovation and maintenance of buildings with roosts involving the use of chemicals for remedial timber treatment that are toxic to mammals. Few nursery roost sites are known and many of these have been lost, although numbers in hibernation sites have shown a slower decline in the Netherlands. Water pollution may also be a threat; the species already has a relatively restricted foraging habitat of broad, open flat water of canals, rivers and lakes with relatively open banks, with possibly some further  seasonal (summer) restriction within utilised habitat. Such restrictions in summer may be opportunistic rather than enforced, and it may be that the requirements for wider dispersal in spring, and possibly autumn, is more of a conservation problem than concentration in summer in good foraging habitat close to the roost. The requirements during migration are not known and may be a constraint (Limpens <em>et al.</em> 2000, Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
14127	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Threatened by habitat change, including renovation and maintenance of buildings with roosts involving the use of chemicals for remedial timber treatment that are toxic to mammals. Few nursery roost sites are known and many of these have been lost, although numbers in hibernation sites have shown a slower decline in The Netherlands.  Water pollution may also be a threat; the species already has a relatively restricted foraging habitat of broad, open flat water of canals, rivers and lakes with relatively open banks, with possibly some further  seasonal (summer) restriction within utilised habitat. Such restrictions in summer may be opportunistic rather than enforced, and it may be that the requirements for wider dispersal in spring, and possibly autumn, is more of a conservation problem than concentration in summer in good foraging habitat close to the roost. The requirements during migration are not known and may be a constraint (Limpens <em>et al.</em> 2000, Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
14127	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	Threatened by habitat change, including renovation and maintenance of buildings with roosts involving the use of chemicals for remedial timber treatment that are toxic to mammals. Few nursery roost sites are known and many of these have been lost, although numbers in hibernation sites have shown a slower decline in The Netherlands.  Water pollution may also be a threat; the species already has a relatively restricted foraging habitat of broad, open flat water of canals, rivers and lakes with relatively open banks, with possibly some further  seasonal (summer) restriction within utilised habitat. Such restrictions in summer may be opportunistic rather than enforced, and it may be that the requirements for wider dispersal in spring, and possibly autumn, is more of a conservation problem than concentration in summer in good foraging habitat close to the roost. The requirements during migration are not known and may be a constraint (Limpens <em>et al.</em> 2000, Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
14128	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
14128	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
14128	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14128	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	<em>Myotis daubentonii</em> is distributed from Portugal, Ireland and Norway through Europe and northern Asia to the Far East (Korea and Japan). It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus.<br/><br/>In some parts of Europe it is more patchily distributed than the map suggests (e.g., Spain and Turkey). It has a patchy occurrence in Italy and is also not found throughout the Balkans, being absent from Montenegro and much of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania. It is recorded from the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia. In Japan, it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in China it is known from the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Nei Mongol. It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. It is widespread throughout northern Mongolia, associated with rivers and water sources including the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert. Also occurs in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe, northern Middle Halh Steppe, and northern parts of Eastern Mongolia (Stubbe and Chotolchu 1968, Dulamtseren 1970). <br/><br/>There are records from sea level to 1,400 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14128	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	<em>Myotis daubentonii</em> is distributed from Portugal, Ireland and Norway through Europe and northern Asia to the Far East (Korea and Japan). It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus.<br/><br/>In some parts of Europe it is more patchily distributed than the map suggests (e.g., Spain and Turkey). It has a patchy occurrence in Italy and is also not found throughout the Balkans, being absent from Montenegro and much of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania. It is recorded from the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia. In Japan, it is found only on Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in China it is known from the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Nei Mongol. It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. It is widespread throughout northern Mongolia, associated with rivers and water sources including the Bulgan River in northern Dzungarian Govi Desert. Also occurs in Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, Mongol Daguur Steppe, northern Middle Halh Steppe, and northern parts of Eastern Mongolia (Stubbe and Chotolchu 1968, Dulamtseren 1970). <br/><br/>There are records from sea level to 1,400 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14128	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Myotis daubentonii </em>is distributed from Portugal, Ireland and Norway through Europe and northern Asia to the Far East (Korea and Japan). It is absent in Central Asia from the Caspian region to the Altai mountains, and only a few records are known from Asia Minor and the western Caucasus. There are records from sea level to 1,400 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14128	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in tree hollows, caves, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars) in mixed sex colonies. It winters in a wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em>2005).<br/><br/>Due to the distinct foraging niche this species occupies, this species is reliant on water sources. It is highly dependant on aquatic insects for food, hunting over large water bodies and taking prey from the surface waters. It feeds largely on Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera, usually foraging less than 2 meters above ground or water level.  The life span is not known in this species, but capture-mark-release experiments in the Khar Us Nuur region, recorded that the oldest individual recaptured was 4 years old. A ringing programme by the Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions from 1974 up to 2002 found that the oldest individual recaptured was 14 years of age (unpublished data).	eng
14128	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in tree hollows, caves, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars) in mixed sex colonies. It winters in a wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em>2005).<br/><br/>Due to the distinct foraging niche this species occupies, this species is reliant on water sources. It is highly dependant on aquatic insects for food, hunting over large water bodies and taking prey from the surface waters. It feeds largely on Lepidoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera, usually foraging less than 2 meters above ground or water level.  The life span is not known in this species, but capture-mark-release experiments in the Khar Us Nuur region, recorded that the oldest individual recaptured was 4 years old. A ringing programme by the Mongolian-German Biological Expeditions from 1974 up to 2002 found that the oldest individual recaptured was 14 years of age (unpublished data).	eng
14128	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages over natural and artificial water bodies (including fjords), sometimes in woodland or scrub. Summer roosts are in trees, buildings and other artificial structures (e.g. bridges, cellars). It winters in wide range of underground habitats. Seasonal movements between winter and summer roosts are mostly within a distance of 100-150 km (Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005). The longest distance covered is 257 km (Tress <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
14128	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	One of the most abundant bats in many parts of its range, and the only European bat species for which continuing population increase from the 1950s to present has been recorded. A very common species in central and eastern Europe and in northern Asia.	eng
14128	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	One of the most abundant bats in many parts of its range, and the only European bat species for which continuing population increase from the 1950s to present has been recorded. A very common species in central and eastern Europe including the Balkans, and in northern Asia. In Mongolia it is known to have a wide distribution and is commonly found. In Turkey it appears to be rare as there are only 4 known records (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14128	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	One of the most abundant bats in many parts of its range, and the only European bat species for which continuing population increase from the 1950s to present has been recorded. A very common species in central and eastern Europe including the Balkans, and in northern Asia. In Mongolia it is known to have a wide distribution and is commonly found. In Turkey it appears to be rare as there are only 4 known records (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14128	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Changes in water quality may reduce food supply, and loss of or damage and disturbance to roost sites in trees, buildings, other artificial structures, and underground habitats may cause temporary localised losses. However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this abundant and expanding species.	eng
14128	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Changes in water quality may reduce food supply, and loss of or damage and disturbance to roost sites in trees, buildings, other artificial structures, and underground habitats may cause temporary localised losses. However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this abundant and expanding species.	eng
14128	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Coroiu, I., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Changes in water quality may reduce food supply, and loss of or damage and disturbance to roost sites in trees, buildings, other artificial structures, and underground habitats may cause temporary localised losses. However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this abundant and expanding species.	eng
14129	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of roosts and promotion of awareness about the lack of medicinal value of the species is required.	eng
14129	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14129	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	t is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of roosts and promotion of awareness about the lack of medicinal value of the species is required.	eng
14129	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Myotis emarginatus </em>occurs in southern Europe and southern part of western and central Europe and non-arid parts of south-western Asia from Asia Minor, Caucasus region and Palestine to Oman, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; also in north-west Africa. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m, highest records in the Alps are 812 m (maternity colony) and 1,505 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14129	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis emarginatus </em>occurs in southern Europe from Portugal in the west to the Balkans in the east and southern part of western and central Europe and non-arid parts of south-western Asia from Asia Minor, Caucasus region and Palestine to Oman, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; also in north-west Africa (recorded from northern Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia)). In the eastern part of the Mediterranean it occurs in various parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m, highest records in the Alps are 812 m (maternity colony) and 1,505 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14129	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	<em>Myotis emarginatus </em>occurs in southern Europe from Portugal in the west to the Balkans in the east and southern part of western and central Europe and non-arid parts of south-western Asia from Asia Minor, Caucasus region and Palestine to Oman, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan; also in north-west Africa (recorded from northern Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia)). In the eastern part of the Mediterranean it occurs in various parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. It occurs from sea level to 1,800 m, highest records in the Alps are 812 m (maternity colony) and 1,505 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
14129	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It forages over scrub and grassland. Diet unique in Europe as it mainly feeds on spiders and flies. In summer, it roosts in underground habitats and, in central Europe, in buildings (in loft spaces). Sometimes roosts in summer with <em>Rhinolophus</em> species. It winters in underground sites. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species occurs in a variety of habitats, but in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Mainly a sedentary species, but movements of up to 105 km have been recorded (Schunger <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005)	eng
14129	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over scrub and grassland. It has an unusual diet in that it feeds mainly on spiders and flies. In summer, it roosts in underground habitats and in buildings (in attics). Generally roosts in summer with <em>Rhinolophus</em> species. It winters in underground sites. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species occurs in a variety of habitats, but in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Reportedly a sedentary species with movements of up to 105 km recorded (Schunger <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005), but may in fact move longer distances as winter roosts are not known in parts of its range where it occurs in summer.	eng
14129	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	It forages over scrub and grassland. It has an unusual diet in that it feeds mainly on spiders and flies. In summer, it roosts in underground habitats and in buildings (in attics). Generally roosts in summer with <em>Rhinolophus</em> species. It winters in underground sites. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species occurs in a variety of habitats, but in low numbers (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Reportedly a sedentary species with movements of up to 105 km recorded (Schunger <em>et al.</em> 2004 in Hutterer <em>et al. </em>2005), but may in fact move longer distances as winter roosts are not known in parts of its range where it occurs in summer.	eng
14129	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Locally it can be rare or common. The species experienced a significant decline from the 1960s to the 1990s, but in recent time the numbers in several regions have increased and the species has spread into new areas. It lives in large colonies (up to 1,200 individuals in Austria in one maternity colony).	eng
14129	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	Locally it can be rare or common. The species experienced a significant decline from the 1960s to the 1990s, but in recent time the numbers in several regions have increased and the species has spread into new areas. It lives in large colonies (up to 1,200 individuals in Austria in one maternity colony).	eng
14129	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Locally it can be rare or common. The species experienced a significant decline from the 1960s to the 1990s, but more recently the numbers in several regions have increased and the species has spread into new areas. It lives in large colonies (up to 1,200 individuals in Austria in one maternity colony). It is included in the Red List of the Russian Federation as Vulnerable, on the basis of a past population decline of 30% or more inferred from a reduction in range. The species is of marginal occurrence in the Russian Federation.	eng
14129	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	In Europe the species is mainly associated with agricultural landscapes, therefore all agricultural activities can affect populations of this species. Loss of and disturbance to roost sites in buildings and underground sites are also threats.	eng
14129	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In Europe the species is mainly associated with agricultural landscapes, therefore all agricultural activities can affect populations of this species. Loss of and disturbance to roost sites in buildings (including remedial timber treatment in attics) and underground sites are also threats. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is also collected for traditional medicine practices in North Africa.	eng
14129	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Nagy, Z., 2008	In Europe the species is mainly associated with agricultural landscapes, therefore all agricultural activities can affect populations of this species. Loss of and disturbance to roost sites in buildings (including remedial timber treatment in attics) and underground sites are also threats. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is also collected for traditional medicine practices in North Africa.	eng
14132	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Cave protection efforts have led to recent population increases. By 1991, the rangewide population was stable and perhaps growing, apparently due to successful cave protection efforts. Since 1981, the maternity colony population in Oklahoma has increased from 56,000 to almost 150,000 (Hensley 2003).<br/><br/>The recovery plan criteria for change from endangered status to threatened status is documentation of permanent protection of 90% of Priority 1 hibernacula and documentation of stable or increasing populations at 75% of Priority 1 maternity caves during a period of five years; recent studies indicate that these criteria have been met (Harvey and Currie 2002).<br/><br/>The Tennessee Valley Authority sponsored a recovery project that resulted in the protection of two critical maternity sites: the Hambrick and Nickajack caves in Tennessee. Blowing Wind Cave in northern Alabama, the most important summer cave known for gray bats, has been acquired by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and a gate has been placed across the entrance. Fern Cave, the largest known gray bat hibernaculum, has also been purchased by the Fish and Wildlife Service and is being managed for protection of the bats. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also has acquired and protects additional caves in Alabama. To protect habitat, The Nature Conservancy has established six voluntary protection agreements with private landowners for gray bat maternity sites. The National Park Service restricts human access to six gray bat maternity caves on its lands and monitors them for possible disturbance. The Indiana Bat and Gray Bat Comprehensive Plan contains a detailed list of caves that have been protected or are currently being managed.<br/><br/>Identify all caves used for different stages of the life history. Occupied caves should be protected from human disturbance. <br/><br/>A buffer of undisturbed vegetation should be left around the entrances of caves inhabited by gray bats; wooded travel corridors between roosting and foraging sites should be protected; the use of herbicides and pesticides in areas adjacent to foraging and roost sites should be carefully controlled and monitored for unanticipated adverse effects (Alabama Forestry Commission).	eng
14132	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Timm, R., 2008	The range extends from southeastern Kansas and central Oklahoma east to western Virginia and western North Carolina, and from Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana south to southern Alabama and northwestern Florida (Decher and Choate 1995); occurs primarily in the cave region of Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Summer and winter ranges are essentially the same.	eng
14132	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Timm, R., 2008	About 95% of entire known population hibernates in eight or nine caves, over half in one cave. Roost sites are nearly exclusively restricted to caves throughout the year (Hall and Wilson 1966, Barbour and Davis 1969, Tuttle 1976), though only a few percent of available caves are suitable (Tuttle 1979). Winter roosts are in deep vertical caves with domed halls. Large summer colonies utilize caves that trap warm air and provide restricted rooms or domed ceilings; maternity caves often have a stream flowing through them and are separate from the caves used in summer by males. Occasionally non-cave roost sites are used. Hays and Bingman (1964) reported a colony in a storm sewer in Pittsburg, Kansas and, in 1988, a maternity colony was discovered using a storm sewer in Kansas (Decher and Choate 1988). Harvey and McDaniel (1988) located a maternity colony in a storm sewer in downtown Newark, Independence County, Arkansas. There are occasional reports of mines (Sealander 1979, Thom 1981, Brack <em>et al.</em> 1984, Harvey and McDaniel 1988) and buildings (Gunier and Elder 1971) being used as roost sites. Winter caves are deep and vertical and provide a large volume of air below the lowest entrance that acts as a cold air trap (Tuttle 1976). Cold air flows in and is trapped during successive winters, providing mean annual temperatures 6 degrees C or more below the above-ground mean annual temperature (Tuttle 1978). Winter cave temperatures range from 6 to 11 degrees C (Tuttle 1979). In the summer, maternity colonies prefer caves that act as warm air traps or that provide restricted rooms or domed ceilings that are capable of trapping the combined body heat from thousands of clustered individuals (Tuttle 1975, Tuttle and Stevenson 1977). Cave temperatures range from 14 to 24 C. Undisturbed summer colonies may contain up to 250,000 bats, and average 10,000 to 25,000 (Tuttle 1979). Summer caves are nearly always located within 1 km of a river or reservoir over which the bats forage (Tuttle 1979). Tuttle (1979) showed that forested areas along the banks of streams and lakes provide important protection for adults and young. Young often feed and take shelter in forest areas near the entrance to cave roosts (Tuttle 1979). Do not feed in areas along rivers or reservoirs where the forest has been cleared (LaVal <em>et al</em>. 1977; Tuttle and Stevenson, in prep.). <br/><br/>Yearlings and adult males segregate into nomadic summer colonies that tend to roost in caves within a few kilometers of ones selected by adult females (Layne 1978).	eng
14132	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Total population was estimated at 1.5 million in the early 1980s. About 10,000 are thought to occur in Florida in summer, a few hundred in winter (Humphrey 1992). Five gated maternity caves in Oklahoma each include 10,000 or 20,000 bats (Hensley 2003). Since listing, several critical hibernation caves have been gated, leading to stable and growing population in many areas.	eng
14132	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Abundance declined by at least 50% from the 1960s to the early 1980s (Brady <em>et al.</em> 1982). The number of occupied caves has substantially decreased. In Missouri, 26 of 66 caves used historically by this species and surveyed in 1994 showed no evidence of recent use. See Layne 1978 for information on decline in Florida.<br/><br/> Cave disturbance has been the major factor in the decline. Cave protection efforts have greatly reduced this threat.<br/><br/>Although there are apparently few current threats, the use of forestry insecticides and crop pesticides in areas adjacent to riparian corridors where gray bats forage may reduce the prey base or kill bats that ingest contaminated insects (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center). Some maternity and hibernating colonies are susceptible to human disturbance (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center). <br/><br/>Decline began with cave disturbance associated with saltpeter production during the Civil War. Some of the largest colonies were lost as a result of cave commercialization. Some caves were improperly gated.<br/><br/>The species is especially vulnerable due to its high fidelity to particular favoured caves, and it is very sensitive to disturbance, including the mere presence of humans with lights; disturbance may result in bats moving to less favourable roosting places. <br/><br/>Other threats include pesticides, deforestation, and impoundment of waterways (and subsequent cave inundation).	eng
14133	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14133	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range countries where those apply. Included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>In Spain it is recommended that not only should the roosts be protected but also the surrounding countryside - a 20 km zone around the most important colonies should be maintained under traditional agricultural practices.<br/><br/>Research is required into the use of anti-parasitic drugs on livestock and their effect on dung beetles and other invertebrate fauna attracted to dung, as this bat species feeds on these invertebrates.	eng
14133	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	Protected by national legislation in most range states. Also international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in range countries where those apply. Included in Annex II (and (IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>In Spain it is recommended that not only should the roosts be protected but also the surrounding countryside - a 20 km zone around the most important colonies should be maintained under traditional agricultural practices.<br/><br/>Research is required into the use of anti-parasitic drugs on livestock and their effect on dung beetles and other invertebrate fauna attracted to dung, as this bat species feeds on these invertebrates.	eng
14133	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Myotis myotis</em> is a western Palaearctic species; it occurs in western, central and southern Europe (with individual records from southern England and southern Sweden) and in Asia Minor and in the Levant.	eng
14133	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Myotis myotis</em> is a western Palaearctic species; it occurs in western, central and southern Europe (with individual records from southern England and southern Sweden) and in Asia Minor and in the Levant.	eng
14133	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Myotis myotis </em>is a western Palaearctic species; it occurs in western, central and southern Europe (with individual records from southern England and southern Sweden) and in Asia Minor and in the Levant.	eng
14133	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages over woodland edge, open woodland and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly beetles and crickets, gleaned from the ground, also feeds on spiders. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
14133	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages over woodland edge, open woodland and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly beetles and crickets, gleaned from the ground, also feeds on spiders. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
14133	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It forages over woodland edge, scrub, and pasture. It preys on large insects, mainly flightless beetles, gleaned from the ground. It roosts in underground sites all year in much of range, and in buildings (loft-spaces) in summer in northern parts. Occasionally it forms small colonies in trees. It is an occasional migrant; the longest recorded movement is 436 km (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
14133	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	A common species in most of its distributional range, populations of several regions are fluctuating in numbers. During the 1980s and 1990s in central Europe there were increases in numbers following major declines in earlier decades. It forms large nursery colonies (tens to thousands of individuals) in caves, in central Europe also in loft spaces. In Austria the population was estimated to be 76,000 individuals in 1999 and is still increasing (Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In France 37,000 individuals were recorded in summer 1995 (Roué and Groupe Chiroptères 1997); trend data are not available. A small population went extinct in Britain in 1990 (A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006)	eng
14133	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	A common species in most of its distributional range, populations of several regions are fluctuating in numbers. During the 1980s and 1990s in central Europe there were increases in numbers following major declines in earlier decades. It forms large nursery colonies (tens to thousands of individuals) in caves, in central Europe also in loft spaces. In Austria the population was estimated to be 76,000 individuals in 1999 and is still increasing (Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In France 37,000 individuals were recorded in summer 1995 (Roue and Groupe Chiropteres 1997); trend data are not available. A small population went extinct in Britain in 1990 (A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans and in Turkey it is stable.	eng
14133	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	A common species in most of its distributional range, populations of several regions are fluctuating in numbers. During the 1980s and 1990s in central Europe there were increases in numbers following major declines in earlier decades. It forms large nursery colonies (tens to thousands of individuals) in caves, in central Europe also in loft spaces. In Austria the population was estimated to be 76,000 individuals in 1999 and is still increasing (Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In France 37,000 individuals were recorded in summer 1995 (Roue and Groupe Chiropteres 1997); trend data are not available. A small population went extinct in Britain in 1990 (A. Hutson pers. comm. 2006). In the Balkans and in Turkey it is stable.	eng
14133	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	In Europe, it is a typical species of agricultural mosaic landscapes, therefore agricultural activities (e.g., pesticide use, intensification that leads to loss of scrubby patches, hedgerows, and small woods) can affect populations of this species. Loss of or damage to roost sites in underground habitats and buildings is a major problem in places.	eng
14133	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	In Europe, it is a typical species of agricultural mosaic landscapes, therefore agricultural activities (e.g., pesticide use, intensification that leads to loss of scrubby patches, hedgerows, and small woods) can affect populations of this species. Loss of or damage to roost sites in underground habitats and buildings is a major problem in places.	eng
14133	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	In Europe, it is a typical species of agricultural mosaic landscapes, therefore agricultural activities (e.g. pesticide use, intensification that leads to loss of scrubby patches, hedgerows, and small woods) can affect populations of this species. Loss of or damage to roost sites in underground habitats and buildings may also be a threat. However these are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.	eng
14134	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Protection of cave roost sites is required.	eng
14134	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Protection of cave roost sites is required.	eng
14134	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14134	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Myotis mystacinus </em>is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in western and central Europe, southern parts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, Morocco, northern parts of eastern Europe, western parts of the Caucasus and the Urals. The occurrence in south-east Europe is questionable but likely. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,920 m (Gerell 1999).	eng
14134	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis mystacinus </em>is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in western and central Europe, southern parts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, Morocco, northern parts of eastern Europe, western parts of the Caucasus and the Urals. The occurrence in south-east Europe is questionable but likely. It is marginal in Africa, restricted to Moroccan mountains from the Rif in the north to the southern slope of High Atlas in the south. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,920 m asl (Gerell 1999).	eng
14134	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	<em>Myotis mystacinus </em>is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in western and central Europe, southern parts of Scandinavia, the British Isles, Morocco, northern parts of eastern Europe, western parts of the Caucasus and the Urals. The occurrence in south-east Europe is questionable but likely. It is marginal in Africa, restricted to Moroccan mountains from the Rif in the north to the southern slope of High Atlas in the south. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,920 m asl (Gerell 1999).	eng
14134	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It inhabits forest, woodland edge and shrubland. Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14134	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It inhabits forest, woodland edge, shrubland, open meadows, steppe and semi-desert habitats and wooded landscape near to water sources, but is generally more a house-dwelling than woodland bat, and is commonly sighted in parks, gardens and villages. They nest in colonies, living in trees, amongst rocks, and in livestock pens, and are also known to nest in caves, living there year round, and moving further back into the cave to hibernate during winter (Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging to hunt at sunset, but has occasionally been sighted hunting during daylight hours. It hunts exclusively near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic flying insects, such as mosquitoes. Young are born in June/July.	eng
14134	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It inhabits forest, woodland edge, shrubland, open meadows, steppe and semi-desert habitats and wooded landscape near to water sources, but is generally more a house-dwelling than woodland bat, and is commonly sighted in parks, gardens and villages. They nest in colonies, living in trees, amongst rocks, and in livestock pens, and are also known to nest in caves, living there year round, and moving further back into the cave to hibernate during winter (Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Summer maternity roosts are typically sited in trees, buildings, and bird and bat boxes. It hibernates in small groups in underground sites (caves, mines, and cellars). It is an occasional migrant, with movements of up to 240 km recorded (Gerell 1999).  Movements of up to 625 km have been described, although the longest distance covered by a bat with certain species identification is 165 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is a nocturnal species emerging to hunt at sunset, but has occasionally been sighted hunting during daylight hours. It hunts exclusively near inland waters, but feeds on non-aquatic flying insects, such as mosquitoes. Young are born in June/July.	eng
14134	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In Europe it is one of the more common species within the regular distribution area. It is very rare in North Africa, with only 25 specimens in 4 locations.	eng
14134	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	In Europe it is one of the more common species within the regular distribution area. It is very rare in North Africa, with only 25 specimens in 4 locations.	eng
14134	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	One of the more common species within the regular distribution area.	eng
14134	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Although not major threats, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other aspects of land management and development. It is also affected by loss of and damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats.	eng
14134	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Although not major threats, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other aspects of land management and development. It is also affected by loss of and damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats. In the African part of the species' range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. Species are also collected for medicine, but not at a level that constitutes a threat to the species.	eng
14134	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S. & Coroiu, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Although not major threats, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other aspects of land management and development. It is also affected by loss of and damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats. In the African part of the species' range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. Species are also collected for medicine, but not at a level that constitutes a threat to the species.	eng
14135	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of cave roost sites is required.	eng
14135	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Protection of cave roost sites is required.	eng
14135	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.	eng
14135	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	<em>Myotis nattereri</em> is a western Palaearctic species. It is widespread in Europe, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia, eastern Ukraine and much of Russia. Also found in Morocco, western and south-western Asia Minor, Levant, Caucasus region (including northern Iraq), Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenia and Iran, northern Kazakhstan. Its altitudinal range is sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
14135	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis nattereri</em> is a western Palaearctic species. It occurs in north-west Africa (coastal zone of Morocco and Algeria, extending inwards to western Atlas from sea level to 1200 m asl), and Europe from Portugal eastwards through the northern Mediterranean, and Ireland, southern Sweden and Finland into western Russia, Ukraine (including Crimea). Western and south-western Asia Minor, Levant, the Caucasus region (including northern Iraq), the Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenia and Iran, northern Kazakhstan. Its altitudinal range is sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
14135	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	<em>Myotis nattereri</em> is a western Palaearctic species. It occurs in north-west Africa (coastal zone of Morocco and Algeria, extending inwards to western Atlas from sea level to 1200 m asl), and Europe from Portugal eastwards through the northern Mediterranean, and Ireland, southern Sweden and Finland into western Russia, Ukraine (including Crimea). Western and south-western Asia Minor, Levant, the Caucasus region (including northern Iraq), the Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenia and Iran, northern Kazakhstan. Its altitudinal range is sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
14135	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in woodland (including Mediterranean pine and oak forest: Amr 2000), shrubland and parkland, sometimes over water, pasture, and road verges. It occurs in humid areas, and in dry areas it is dependant on water bodies. Summer roosts are in hollow trees, buildings and occasionally underground sites. It hibernates in underground habitats (caves, cellars and mines). It is a sedentary species, movements between summer, autumn and winter roosts are up to 120 km (Masing <em>et al.</em> 1999 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14135	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It forages in woodland (including Mediterranean pine and oak forest: Amr 2000), shrubland and parkland, sometimes over water, pasture, and road verges. It occurs in humid areas, and in dry areas it is dependant on water bodies. Summer roosts are in hollow trees, buildings and occasionally underground sites. It hibernates in underground habitats (caves, cellars and mines). It is a sedentary species, movements between summer, autumn and winter roosts are up to 120 km (Masing <em>et al.</em> 1999 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14135	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It forages in woodland (including Mediterranean pine and oak forest: Amr 2000), shrubland and parkland, sometimes over water, pasture, and road verges. It occurs in humid areas, and in dry areas it is dependant on water bodies. Summer roosts are in hollow trees, buildings and occasionally underground sites. It hibernates in underground habitats (caves, cellars and mines). It is a sedentary species, movements between summer, autumn and winter roosts are up to 120 km (Masing <em>et al.</em> 1999 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14135	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	In Europe it is widespread but everywhere rare (Topál 2001). Colonies can reach 250-300 individuals in Jordan (Z. Amr 2000).	eng
14135	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In Europe it is widespread but never in large numbers. Colonies can reach 250-300 individuals in Jordan (Z. Amr 2000). In North Africa there are very few records, so populations are presumably small.	eng
14135	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	In Europe it is widespread but never in large numbers. Colonies can reach 250-300 individuals in Jordan (Z. Amr 2000). In North Africa there are very few records, so populations are presumably small.	eng
14135	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	No major threats. However, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other changes in land management and development. Loss of or damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is collected for traditional medicinal purposes in North Africa.	eng
14135	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	No major threats. However, the species is affected by loss of woodland and other changes in land management and development. Loss of or damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem. In the African part of the range, cave habitat where the species roosts is being destroyed by fires and vandalism. The species is collected for traditional medicinal purposes in North Africa.	eng
14135	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The species is affected by loss of woodland and other changes in land management and development. Loss of or damage to roost sites in trees, buildings and underground habitats may also be a problem.	eng
14136	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The most important hibernacula are protected, as are many hibernation sites that support fewer numbers of <em>M. sodalis</em>. Maternity roosts generally are not permanent and are not suitable for long-term protection. Summer roosts need to be identified. Hibernacula should be adequately protected from human disturbance. Known maternity roosts should be protected; compatible forest management is most important for ensuring long-term availability of suitable summer habitat (see management information).	eng
14136	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range extends west to the western Ozark region in eastern Oklahoma (Saugey <em>et al.</em> 1990) and Iowa (Clark <em>et al</em>. 1987), north and east to Michigan (Evers 1992, Kurta and Teramino 1994, Kurta 1995), New York, New England, and northern New Jersey, and south to northern Alabama and Arkansas, with accidental/non regular occurrences outside this range. The species has disappeared from or greatly declined in most of its former range in the northeastern United States (e.g., Trombulak <em>et al</em>. 2001). A disjunct population once existed in northwestern Florida, though old Florida records may represent accidental occurrences. <br/><br/>Most known maternity sites have been located in forested tracts in agriculturally dominated landscapes (e.g., Missouri, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999), but maternity colonies also exist to the south in heavily forested regions to at least eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003). In summer these bats are apparently absent south of Tennessee. There is a July 1993 record for South Carolina (South Carolina Heritage Trust), but this record may lack adequate documentation; Menzel <em>et al</em>. (2003) did not report any records for the state.<br/><br/>Northern populations migrate south to Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, and West Virginia for winter. In winter, they are apparently absent from Michigan, Ohio, and northern Indiana where suitable caves and mines are unknown. The most important hibernating caves are: Bat Wing and Twin Domes caves (Indiana); Bat, Hundred Dome, and Dixon caves (Kentucky); and Bat Cave, Great Scott Cave, and Pilot Knob Mine (Missouri); Pilot Knob Mine is the largest colony (Lowe 1990). Half of the total population hibernates in southern Indiana.	eng
14136	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is represented by many maternity occurrences and hibernacula, but the majority of the population hibernates at relatively few sites, including several caves and one mine in Missouri, southern Indiana, and Kentucky (Brady <em>et al.</em> 1983, USFWS 1999). About 85% of the total population hibernates in nine Priority 1 caves, which contain at least 30,000 bats; the remaining 15 percent of the population have been or currently are distributed among 50+ Priority II and III hibernacula (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001). About ninety wintering sites are known.<br/><br/>Maternity colonies consist of small, widely scattered colonies of females (rarely more than 100) and their young. These are more widely distributed and numerous than are major hibernacula. For example, individuals from one hibernaculum in New York used many roost trees (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2006). Captures of reproductively active females or juveniles at 24 sites in 16 counties in Illinois indicate that maternity colonies of this species occur throughout the range of this species in that state (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1996). Maternity sites have been found in 13 counties in Kentucky (Kentucky Bat Working Group; http://www.biology.eku.edu/bats/indianabat.htm).<br/><br/><em>Myotis sodalis</em> hibernates in caves; maternity sites generally are behind loose bark of dead or dying trees or in tree cavities (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001). Foraging habitats riparian areas, upland forests, ponds, and fields (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001), but forested landscapes are the most important habitat in agricultural landscapes (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In hibernation, limestone caves with pools are preferred. Hall (1962) noted that preferred caves are of medium size with large, shallow passageways. Roosts usually are in the coldest part of the cave. Preferred sites have a mean midwinter air temperature of 4-8 C (tolerates much broader range) (Hall 1962, Henshaw and Folk 1966), well below that of caves that are not chosen (Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980). Roost sites within caves may shift such that bats remain in the coldest area (Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980); individuals may move from a location deeper in the cave to a site nearer the entrance as the cold season progresses; they may move away from areas that go below freezing. Hibernation in the coldest parts of the cave ensures a sufficiently low metabolic rate so that the fat reserves last through the six-month hibernation period (Henshaw and Folk 1966, Humphrey 1978). Relative humidity in occupied caves ranges from 66 to 95% and averages 87% throughout the year (Barbour and Davis 1969, Clawson <em>et al</em>. 1980). Because of these requirements, <em>M. sodalis</em> is highly selective of hibernacula. <br/><br/>During the fall, when these bats swarm and mate at their hibernacula, males roost in trees nearby during the day and fly to the cave during the night. In Kentucky, Kiser and Elliott (1996) found males roosting primarily in dead trees on upper slopes and ridgetops within 2.4 km of their hibernaculum. During September in West Virginia, males roosted within 5.6 km in trees near ridgetops, and often switched roost trees from day to day (C. Stihler, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). Fall roost trees tend to be in sunnier areas rather than being shaded (J. MacGregor, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). In summer, habitat consists of wooded or semiwooded areas, often but not always along streams. Solitary females or small maternity colonies bear their offspring in hollow trees or under loose bark of living or dead trees (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992). Humphrey <em>et al</em>. (1977) determined that dead trees are preferred roost sites and that trees standing in sunny openings are attractive because the air spaces and crevices under the bark are warmer. In Illinois, Garner and Gardner (1992) found that typical roosts were beneath the exfoliating bark of dead trees; other roost sites were beneath the bark of living trees and in cavities of dead trees. Kurta <em>et al</em>. (1993) found a large maternity colony in a dead, hollow, barkless, unshaded sycamore tree in a pasture in Illinois. In Michigan, a reproductively active colony occupied eight different roost trees (all green ash), all of which were exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day; bats roosted beneath loose bark of dead trees (Kurta <em>et al</em>. 1993). In western Virginia, a male used a mature, live, shagbark hickry tree as a diurnal roost; the bat foraged primarily among tree canopies of an 80-year-old oak-hickory forest (Hobson and Holland 1995). In Missouri, primary maternity roosts were in standing dead trees exposed to direct sunlight; there were 1-3 primary roosts per colony; alternate roosts were in living and dead trees that typically were within the shaded forest interior (Callahan <em>et al</em>. 1997). See Garner and Garner (1992) for detailed information on summer habitat in Illinois. Though maternity sites have been reported as occurring mainly in riparian and floodplain forests (Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992), recent studies indicate that upland habitats are used by maternity colonies much more extensively than previously reported. Garner and Gardner (1992) reported that 38 of 51 roost trees in Illinois occurred in uplands and 13 trees were in floodplains. Of the 47 trees in forested habitat, 27 were in areas having a closed (80-100%) canopy, and 15 were in areas having an intermediate (30-80%) canopy. A single roost tree was found in the following types of habitat: a heavily grazed ridgetop pasture with a few scattered dead trees, a partially wooded swine feedlot, a palustrine wetland with emergent vegetation, a forested island in the Mississippi river, and a clearcut around a segment of an intermittent stream where dead trees were retained for wildlife. Roosts were not found in forests with open canopies (10-30%) or in old fields with less than or equal to 10% canopy cover. In eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina, several maternity colonies were in sun-exposed conifer snags (roost sites were above the surrounding canopy); some of these snags fell and were not used in subsequent years (Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003). Rarely maternity colonies have been found in crevices in utility poles or in bat boxes (e.g., Ritzi <em>et al</em>. 2005). See Menzel <em>et al</em>. (2001) for a review of forest habitat relationships. Known roost tree species include elm, oak, beech, hickory, maple, ash, sassafras, birch, sycamore, locust, aspen, cottonwood, pine, and hemlock (Cope <em>et al</em>. 1974, Humphrey <em>et al</em>. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992, Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2003, Britzke <em>et al</em>. 2006), especially trees with exfoliating bark.<br/><br/>In Illinois, Indiana bats used the same, evidently traditional, roost sites in successive summers. Recapture of the same individuals within traditional roost sites during subsequent summers suggests site fidelity (Garner and Gardner 1992, Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1996). Relatively few individuals roost in caves at the mouths of which late summer swarming occurs (Cope and Humphrey 1977, Barbour and Davis 1969).	eng
14136	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Total known population at major hibernacula was about 883,720 in 1960/1970, 679,170 around 1980, 473,970 around 1990, and 387,300 in 2003 (Clawson 2004). Census data from 1995-1997 indicate an abundance decline of about 60 percent since population surveys began in the 1960s; the most severe declines have occurred in Kentucky and Missouri, where the decline totals 430,000 individuals over the past few decades (Federal Register, 9 April 1999). In Indiana, bat numbers in 2001 appeared to be stable to slightly increasing. In Kentucky, their numbers appeared to be declining, but not so rapidly as in Missouri, where between 1975 and 1995, the number of Indiana bats at major hibernating sites declined from more than 120,000 to nearly 20,000 (USFWS 2001).<br/>Since 195O, the major winter colonies in caves in West Virginia, Indiana, and Illinois have disappeared. Wintering populations in Vermont have declined dramatically since the 1930s (Trombulak <em>et al.</em> 2001). The overall population at major roosts declined about 56% between 1960/1970 and 2003 (Clawson 2004). Hibernating populations in the southern part of the range have declined by 82% in the past 40 years, while those in the northern Midwest and Northeast have increased by 35% (Clawson 2004).	eng
14136	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	A significant threat is human disturbance at winter caves, which causes aroused bats to deplete energy reserves (Mohr 1972, Engel <em>et al.</em> 1976). Handling of hibernating bats by researchers may result in the bats moving to the use of less suitable hibernacula, causing additional loss of fat reserves (Jones 1971 in Engel <em>et al</em>. 1976). In southern Indiana, Johnson <em>et al</em>. (1998) found that populations subject to high human visitation experienced increased weight loss in winter, but populations in each of two disturbed hibernacula increased in abundance, suggesting that "<em>M. sodalis</em> is affected by limiting factors other than, or in addition to, human visitation in winter." Vandalism and indiscriminate killing have been a problem at some caves. Commercialization of caves may result in excessive disturbance (Mohr 1972) or intentional elimination by cave owners (Hall 1962). Other threats include exclusion of bats by poorly designed gates (as formerly at Long's Cave in Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky), changes in cave temperatures induced by opening additional entrances (Matthews and Moseley 1990) or poorly designed barriers to human access (Richter <em>et al</em>. 1993). Improperly constructed gates can alter the air flow, trap debris, and block the entrance by not allowing enough flight space (Brady <em>et al</em>. 1982). Altered exchange of air with the outside environment can cause significant changes in cave temperature and humidity (Currie pers. comm., 1992) and may cause the bats to abandon the cave. Improperly constructed gates may also subject the bats to severe predation as they attempt to pass through the gates (Tuttle 1977). Despite protection at overwintering sites, populations continue to decrease in several portions of their range, suggesting that the species is being negatively affected by disturbance or loss of summer habitat. Loss and degradation of summer habitat and roost sites due to impoundment, stream channelization, housing development, clearcutting for agricultural use (Herkert 1992), or incompatible forest management practices that result in a shortage of the microhabitats used for maternity roosts may be the primary factors in recent population declines (Gardner pers. comm., 1992; Refsnider pers. comm., 1992; Currie pers. comm., 1992; see also Sparks <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14138	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. It is a poorly known species and further studies into its taxonomy, distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats are needed.	eng
14138	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, the island of Borneo, the Indonesian islands of Java, Sulawesi, Mendanau, Kangean, Flores, the Togian Islands and Karakelong (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995) and Taiwan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are doubtful records of this species by Huynh <em>et al</em>. (1994) from Sa Pa and Hanoi in Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al</em>. 1999). Records of a <em>Myotis</em> species from New South Wales, Australia have been allocated to <em>M. adversus</em> but refer to <em>M. macropus</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.). The Vanuatu record is of unclear taxonomic affinity (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but is included here pending resolution of its taxonomic status.	eng
14138	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	It is presumed to have similar ecological requirements to <em>M. moluccarum</em> in that it is a lowland species associated with streams, lakes and other waterbodies from which it captures fish, frogs and other prey. It presumably roosts in small colonies in caves, man made tunnels and other subterranean habitats.<br/>In Taiwan this species occurs mainly at low to middle elevations, and is known to roost in caves and tunnels (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Extralimitally, they are known to feed over water, where they catch insects.	eng
14138	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is not uncommon throughout its range.	eng
14138	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	There are unlikely to be major threats affecting the species throughout its range. Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is probably affecting some populations.	eng
14139	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14139	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Known for two localities in Southwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
14139	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
14139	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on population (Barquez pers. comm.)	eng
14139	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
14140	conservation	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Samudio, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	The species needs taxonomic review (Braquez pers. comm.). It is found in protected areas.<br/>In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14140	distribution	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Samudio, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Southern Veracruz (Mexico), Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, Equador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia (Simmons 2005).	eng
14140	habitat	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Samudio, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Found in forests, urban habitats, and parks. Insectivorous.	eng
14140	population	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Samudio, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Abundant through out its range. Not common in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14140	threats	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Samudio, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
14141	conservation	Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
14141	distribution	Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is found in southeast China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Fujian, Anhui and Guizhou provinces), extending to Thailand (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). The only location in Thailand is around 1,000 m asl	eng
14141	habitat	Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	All of the known specimens of <em>M. altarium</em> have been collected from caves. Other than this roosting habitat, nothing is known of the natural history of this species.	eng
14141	population	Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
14141	threats	Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
14142	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place, and this species is not recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological and populations studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species has been recorded from protected areas in Cambodia and Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
14142	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges from northeastern South Asia, into southern China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Nagaland and West Bengal) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002); it has been recorded from around 1,100 m asl. In China it is known only from a single record from Yunnan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from northern Thailand (Corbet and Hill 1992), probably through much of Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1999) and in southern Cambodia (Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is unclear if this species is present in Viet Nam.	eng
14142	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in montane forests and valleys (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from wet evergreen forest. In Viet Nam, one specimen has been taken in second growth along a river valley (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14142	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it is widespread but uncommon to moderately common.	eng
14142	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14143	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Protect the sites.	eng
14143	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Southern Peru and Northern Chile (Simmons 2005).	eng
14143	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Probably lives in rock crevices in Chile. This species hibernate.	eng
14143	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
14143	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
14144	conservation	Wiles, G., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and possible threats to this species.	eng
14144	distribution	Wiles, G., 2008	<em>Myotis ater</em> is known from a number of locations over a wide range from Southeast Asia to the Moluccas. The species, however, is difficult to identify externally, and some former records are no longer valid, while others need to be checked. Limits of the species’ distribution would greatly benefit from genetic work and the development of echolocation keys for <em>Myotis</em> in the region.<br/><br/><em>M. ater</em> is easily confused with <em>M. muricola</em>, and has at times been considered to be part of it (Koopman and Gordon 1992; Koopman 1993), but is treated here as distinct following Simmons (2005). Francis and Hill (1998) reviewed specimens from Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia and determined that the two likely occur sympatrically in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sulawesi. However, they did not make direct comparisons with material from Sulawesi, and they expressed some reservations about the identity of <em>M. ater</em> in Peninsular Malaysia (Francis and Hill 1998). <br/><br/>The only confirmed site for Borneo appears to be Mount Kinabalu and records elsewhere reported in Hill and Francis (1984) and Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) are either <em>M. muricola</em> or <em>M. gomantongensis</em> (Francis and Hill 1998). For this reason we conservatively map only this site on the island despite the fact that the species might actually be common throughout the island like <em>M. muricola</em> (Francis and Hill 1998), and because <em>M. ater</em> has not been recorded in recent surveys (Struebig <em>et al.</em> 2006; Suyanto and Struebig 2007). We map the species on Sulawesi, and elsewhere in the Wallacea (e.g., Ambon, Halmahera, Buru, and Seram) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995). Reports of the species inhabiting Papua New Guinea and Australia represent either <em>M. moluccarum</em> or <em>M. adversus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>The species is often said to occur in Sumatra, but there is no reliable information for it on this island. We map <em>M. ater</em> in Siberut off Sumatra, following Corbet and Hill (1992) pending further investigation. <br/><br/>Specimens previously reported to <em>M. muricola</em> from Culion Island, near Palawan and Camarines, Luzon, Philippines are <em>M. ater</em>. Another bat collected in Bukidnon, Mindanao, Philippines might also represent <em>M. ater</em> (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Subsequent records from Peninsular Malaysia confirm its presence (Kingston <em>et al.</em> 2003). There are no records of <em>M. ater</em> from Singapore (Pottie <em>et al.</em> 2005; Lane <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it is thought to have historically occurred here, based on its distribution in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia (Lane <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>The northernmost records of the species are from Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). A series of surveys of protected areas from 1997-2000 found <em>M. ater</em> in four of six of areas; the two where it was not found were the two sites that were surveyed most quickly (i.e., Huu Lien N.R. and Kon Cha Rang N.R.; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>The only genetic study of <em>M. ater</em> in relation to other members of its genus used material from Huai Kha Khang Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand (Bickham <em>et al.</em> 1986). More work is needed to determine the extent of its occurrence in that country (for an overview of bat species distribution in Thailand see, Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Oddly, there have been several subsequent genetic studies of <em>Myotis</em> in the region, but none include <em>M. ater</em> (e.g., Ruedi and Mayer 2001; Bickham <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>With the species occurring in Viet Nam and Thailand it would not be surprising if it also was found in intervening Lao PDR. Although the species has not been recorded from here, Francis <em>et al.</em> (1999) report one specimen that could be <em>M. ater</em>.	eng
14144	habitat	Wiles, G., 2008	Flannery (1995) reports that he observed the species appearing to emerge from village houses, and foraging along flyways within the village on the island of Sanana, Indonesia. It has been captured near fast flowing streams, agricultural areas, and secondary forest in Viet Nam (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hendrichsen <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is insectivorous.	eng
14144	population	Wiles, G., 2008	The abundance, population size, and trends for this species are not known. The species is likely to be common in Viet Nam, but further investigation is needed (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
14144	threats	Wiles, G., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The fact that the species has been recorded in secondary forest, agricultural land, and near villages make it likely that the species is tolerant of human disturbance.	eng
14145	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14145	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in Arizona and New Mexico (USA) to Jalisco and Veracruz (Mexico); Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,200 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
14145	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species has been taken in wet pine-oak forest; also in a variety of habitats including desert scrub, dry forest, and ponderosa pines (Reid, 1997). Day roosts have been reported; night roosts include buildings, mines, and caves (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Activity usually begins 1 to 2 hours after sunset, later than most myotis bats. The food consists mainly of moths gleaned from tree trunks or walls of buildings. In Arizona, single young are born in late June or July (Warner, 1982; Reid, 1997).	eng
14145	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is rare in Guatemala (known from one specimen); more common farther north in other places (Reid, 1997); in USA, it is common in appropriate habitat (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
14145	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14146	conservation	Reardon, T. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species.	eng
14146	distribution	Reardon, T. & Lumsden, L., 2008	The type specimen of <em>M. australis</em> was collected in the nineteenth century from New South Wales, Australia, but may refer to a vagrant individual of <em>M. muricola</em>. A specimen from north-western Western Australia could also belong in this species (Koopman 1984).	eng
14146	habitat	Reardon, T. & Lumsden, L., 2008	The natural history of this species is not known.	eng
14146	population	Reardon, T. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is known only with certainty from the type specimen.	eng
14146	threats	Reardon, T. & Lumsden, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
14147	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are several protected occurrences in Florida; also Bat Cave in Kentucky. Several caves in Jackson County, Florida, are protected due to use by endangered <em>M. grisescens</em>. The species is afforded nominal protection via Florida's Cave Protection Act. Bat Conservation International, TNC, and the state of Florida were instrumental in protecting Judge's Cave; a few other maternity caves on private land in Florida have various levels of protection (Gore and Hovis 1992). South Carolina has used posting and controlled access to roost sites to protect this species (Bunch pers. comm.). One occurrence in Indiana is in a state park and is protected. In Texas, two maternity roosts are in state parks and one is in a national wildlife refuge, and populations are known to exist in other state parks and wildlife management areas, national forests, Big Thicket National Preserve, and Nature Conservancy lands. Determine status and trend in South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Protect roosting sites of all large (> 100) colonies, both breeding and wintering. Protect frequently used foraging habitat in their natural forested state. Obtain more information about summer and winter roosting requirements. Determine viability and importance of small maternity colonies. Develop techniques for monitoring with minimum disturbance. Determine effects of disturbance on survival and reproductive success. Determine dispersal distances and roosting sites for bats when away from the large cave colony sites. Determine importance of hollow trees and other non-cave sites as maternity roosts.	eng
14147	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range of this bat includes the southeastern United States, west to southeastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas (Mirowsky <em>et al.</em> 2004, Schmidly 2004), north in the Mississippi River drainage through Arkansas, Mississippi, western Tennessee, southeastern Missouri, and western Kentucky to southern Illinois (Hofmann <em>et al</em>. 1999) and southern Indiana, and east to southeastern Virginia (Hobson 1998), southern North Carolina, South Carolina (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2003), Georgia, and Florida (Jones and Mamming 1989). Summer and winter ranges are the same. Although widespread in southeast, the vast majority of the known population is concentrated in northern Florida, and the species is rare and local outside the Gulf coastal plain.	eng
14147	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good or excellent estimated viability may be fewer than 30 (more than 50 percent of these are in Florida). Recent surveys (e.g., Hofmann <em>et al.</em> 1999, Mirowsky <em>et al</em>. 2004) suggest that the number of small maternity colonies may be quite large, but these are of uncertain viability. Only two large (more than 100 bats) winter colonies have been reported in recent years, but there are several small colonies throughout the species range. In Florida, large numbers form maternity colonies in caves; the species has been reported a few times in buildings. Maternity colonies also have been found in a small number of caves in Georgia and Alabama. In the rest of the deep south, these bats generally use buildings and other structures, mines, and hollow trees (e.g., water tupelo, black gum, water hickory, bald cypress) for spring and summer roosts. In Louisiana, a hollow water tupelo (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) studied in late summer and early fall contained about 50 individuals (Gooding and Langford 2004). By winter in this region they roost in small groups in outdoor sites, often over water, such as bridges, culverts, storm sewers, and boat houses, as well as in hollow trees (Barbour and Davis 1969). In Florida (and perhaps elsewhere) these bats also roost in caves in winter; apparently they may use different caves for summer and winter roosts (Gore and Havis 1992). In the north, the pattern of cave use is different. Kentucky populations winter in caves (often with <em>Myotis sodalis</em>) but are rare in most caves in the summer, when most roost in large hollow trees. The few old records from Indiana also were mostly from caves in winter. Summer roost sites are poorly known from this part of their range. At least one cave in Indiana had bats every month except May, June, and July (Mumford and Whitaker 1982). Only a few maternity colonies have been reported in this region: one was in the Kentucky cave already mentioned; additional maternity colonies exist in southern Illinois, where one was in a hollow-based water tupelo (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) (Hofmann <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>The key characteristics for maternity sites are high humidity and constant warm temperatures. Foraging habitat is riparian floodplain forests or wooded wetlands with permanent open water nearby (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 1992). These bats may forage primarily over lakes, ponds, or slow-moving streams.	eng
14147	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Considering the total number of maternity roosts, hibernacula, and other occupied roosts and habitat, there are certainly more than 100 occurrences or subpopulations (Gore and Hovis 1992; Horner and Mirowsky 1996; Clark pers. comm.). Total adult population size is unknown but is at least in the 100,000s. This species is still abundant in some places. Florida has at least 18 current or former maternity caves which, in past years, potentially contained 400,000 adult females; a 1991 survey found only eight maternity caves with a total of less than 200,000 adult females (Gore and Hovis 1992). The number of individuals estimated from known tree roosts and man-made structures is much smaller (less than 500; Clark pers. comm.; Gore pers. comm.), but it is difficult to locate such roosts, and undoubtedly there are more.	eng
14147	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Florida populations declined by about 50% from some 400,000 adult females in the 1950s (Rice 1957) to less than 200,000 females in 1991 (Gore and Hovis 1992). Not only did numbers of bats decline, but number of caves used as maternity roosts also declined by nearly 50% (from 15 to 18) in Florida over the same period. There is no indication that the population has stabilized. Some caves occupied in the early 1980s are no longer occupied (Gore and Hovis 1992). However, Brown (1997) reported that this species is adaptable and seems to be holding its own in the southeastern United States. <br/><br/>While the Florida population was thriving in the 1960s, Barbour and Davis (1969) reported that the Ohio River Valley population was steadily declining and apparently nearing extirpation. Current data from this northern range indicates that populations are still present in low numbers, although their status remains largely unknown. Indiana populations had declined considerably by 1980 (Mumford and Whitaker 1982), although populations were always small. Recent extensive searches in Illinois indicated that the population has become more restricted than in the past; only one hibernating colony was located, compared to nine previously known hibernating sites, and the bats were only found in four counties compared to six in the past. Georgia has 12 older records (before 1970), and only one record since 1970, but this change could be due to lack of searching. Recent field studies in coastal North Carolina, South Carolina, and eastern Texas have located populations of this species, but there are no baseline data with which to compare trends. Declines likely have resulted from various factors, especially human disturbance and physical alteration of caves used as hibernacula and maternity sites (Gore and Hovis 1992). Excessive human visitation may awaken bats and cause them to use up fat reserves. In maternity colonies, disturbance may cause females to abandon their young. Heavy collecting or banding may cause a population to vacate a site. Attempts to collect, even in winter, usually result in bats vacating at least temporarily (Mumford and Whitaker 1982). In addition, some caves have been made unavailable or degraded by the closing off of their entrances, installation of bat-impermeable barriers, forest removal around entrances, or by flooding by reservoirs. Loss of upland roosts increases vulnerability to mortality from sudden flooding. One cave formerly used by 11,000 individuals was turned into a public dump and virtually abandoned by bats. Clearing and draining of bottonland hardwood forest wetlands likely have reduced available habitat for summer roosting and foraging. The indirect effects of pesticide use are unknown.	eng
14148	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	It has been recorded from Kruger National Park, South Africa (Sinner and Chimimba 2005), Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001), and from the Manga Forest Reserve in Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999), and in view of the species wide range it is presumed to be present in many more protected areas. There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14148	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is widespread throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It from Sierra Leone and Senegal in West Africa, eastwards through Cameroon and Central Africa, to Ethiopia and East Africa, being recorded as far south as northeastern South Africa. Outside of Africa it has been recorded from southern Yemen.	eng
14148	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from tropical moist forest (Rosevear 1965) and wooded savanna. Populations are often found close to rivers and streams, bordered by forest (Happold, 1987). The species roost singly or in groups of up to eight individuals within hollow trees, and among the leaves of bananas or other plants with broad leaves (Rosevear 1965, Brosset 1966; Happold 1987). Allen <em>et al.</em> (1917) noted that the species tended to avoid villages.	eng
14148	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	Although this species is difficult to catch it is possibly not very rare.	eng
14148	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
14149	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas. Considered Vulnerable in the Japanese Red List.	eng
14149	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is known from Siberia across to the Pacific Coast of Russia, southwards to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the provinces of Heilongjian and Jilin in northeast China, and Japan, where it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Kochinoerabu and Yakushima Islands (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
14149	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It roosts in tree hollows, caves, and also in houses (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and forages in forest.	eng
14149	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Naturally not abundant species.	eng
14149	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Deforestation, loss of old-growth forest, and human disturbance of wintering sites are major threats to the species.	eng
14150	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	Found in protected ares in Mexico, but not in Guatemala.	eng
14150	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	S Alaska Panhandle (USA) to Baja California and higher elevations in the Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts (Mexico); Guatemala (Simmons 2005).	eng
14150	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	California bats have a wide tolerance of habitat including semi-arid desert regions of the Southwest, arid grasslands, forested regions of the Pacific Northwest, humid coastal forests and montane forests (Banfield 1974; Nagorsen and Brigham 1993). There is little documented information available on reproduction and ontongeny in <em>M. californicus</em>. It is known that mating occurs in autumn. A single young is born in late June or early July. The young develop rapidly and can fly about one month after birth. California bats have a potential reproductive lifespan of 15 years (Nagorsen and Brigham 1993; Simpson 1993; Wilson and Ruff 1999). California bats are insectivorous, feeding mainly on flies, moths and beetles. They forage only on insects in flight and are slow, acrobatic flyers, detecting prey at close range (less than 1 meter) and using echolocation calls during approach. Specific diet remains constant throughout the year, but likely varies from area to area. In British Columbia,<em>M. californicus</em> has been observed feeding mainly on Trichoptera and some Coleoptera, while further south, in Oregon, consumption consists primarily of Lepidoptera and Diptera (Banfield 1974; Fenton and Bell 1979; Simpson 1993; Wilson and Ruff 1999).<br/>Found in roofs in Guatemala (Sergio Perez pers. comm.)	eng
14150	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	California bats roost alone or in small groups during the warmer months. They can be found in caves, mines, rocky hillsides, under tree bark, on shrubs, on the ground, and in buildings. Males and females roost separately during the warmer months. Females form small maternity colonies during pregnancy, birth, and lactation. During the winter months the sexes mingle and roost either solitarily or in small groups in caves, mines, and buildings. At high elevations and latitudes, they have been reported to hibernate in mines and caves during winter months, though they have been observed to be active for short time periods at temperatures below freezing, indicating that they occasionally emerge from torpor to feed. In forest populations, considerable switching of roosts has been documented, and a roost will seldom be re-used by the same bat once it has changed to a new one.	eng
14150	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Perez, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14151	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14151	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Central and South Chile; Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
14151	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is insectivore. Found in Patagonian forests, coastal zones in Chile, and rock crevices.	eng
14151	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Common.	eng
14151	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
14152	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species is known to occur in protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
14152	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species occurs in central and southeast China (Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan, Hunan, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces), extending to Thailand, Myanmar and Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not yet been confirmed. In Myanmar it is found between 50-1,000 m asl in elevation (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
14152	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	It is found in a wide range of habitats from lowlands through the hill country. It is known to hibernate in caves (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Most of the recent records in Southeast Asia (Bates <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2001) report it being netted near cave entrances in or adjacent to limestone areas with rivers and streams (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999, 2001).	eng
14152	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This is a relatively common species in at least part of its range, for example Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
14152	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14153	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14153	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	South Alberta and Saskatchewan (Canada) south through Eastern Colorado and Western Kansas (USA) (Simmons 2005) to North and Central Mexico (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
14153	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The Western Small-footed Myotis has a wide ecological range, from rock outcrops on open grasslands to canyons in the foothills to lower mountains with yellow pine woodlands. Day roosts are variable, but include cracks and crevices in cliffs, beneath tree bark, in mines and caves, and occasionally in dwellings of humans. Night roosts are under a variety of natural and human-induced structures. Hibernacula include caves, mines, and tunnels.<br/>They begin to forage well before full dark, but not as early as the pipistrelle (<em>Pipistrellus hesperus</em>). Presently, not much is k nown about reproductive behavior of this species. Pregnant females have been encountered all through June; a single young is probably common. Scrotal (reproductive) males were captured in August and September. Pregnant females have been captured in mid-June.<br/>The western small-footed myotis feeds early in the evening on small flying insects such as flies, small beetles and winged ants. This species is highly maneuverable in flight, often foraging among boulders, along cliffs or shrubs and trees.	eng
14153	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	In New Mexico, the species occurs at low to moderate elevations to as high as 9,500 feet elevation.	eng
14153	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14154	conservation	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	Research actions are needed. The holotype was stored in alcohol and prepared as a skin. Any possible DNA may be compromised. Additional fieldwork appears to support Goodwin's description, but DNA effort is not done (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
14154	distribution	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	This species occurs in central Guatemala (Simmons, 2005), Alta Verapaz, Coban, 1,305 m.	eng
14154	habitat	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	Its biology is unknown; the type specimen was caught in the cathedral in Coban, Guatemala (Reid, 1997).	eng
14154	population	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	Its population is unknown (Reid, 1997).	eng
14154	threats	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	Not known.	eng
14155	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14155	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs in Dominica, and Guadeloupe islands (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14155	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
14155	population	Rodriguez, A. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
14155	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Hurricanes, small distribution.	eng
14156	conservation	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
14156	distribution	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs from San Luis Potosi (Mexico) to Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 750 m (seldom above 150 m). In Guatemala it is known from only two localities in the Peten (McCarthy pers. comm.).	eng
14156	habitat	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen lowland forest and openings (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. Most often caught in harp traps (LaVal, 1977) or in mist nets over water. Activity starts early, soon after sunset (Reid, 1997).	eng
14156	population	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997). Rare if you try to capture in mist nets. Rare in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.), bur recorded with acoustic methods (Pineda pers. comm.).	eng
14156	threats	Miller, B. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	There are no known threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14157	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14157	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Southern British Columbia, Southern Alberta, Southern Saskatchewan (Canada) to New Mexico (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14157	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	<em>Myotis evotis</em> is insectivorous. This bat is found in a wide range of habitats, but is most commonly found in mixed coniferous forests, from humid coastal areas to montane forests.  In southern British Columbia, long-eared myotis roost in tree cavities in dense forests. In adapting to forest management in certain areas of British Columbia, they have recently been found to roost in the stumps of clear-cut stands. Long-eared myotis prefer the stumps of ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine in these areas. In the large uninterrupted forests of the Pacific Northwest, <em>M. evotis</em> uses large snags for day roosts. These bats usually prefer snags that reach high into or above the forest canopy. In the badlands of the South Sasketchawan River Valley in Alberta, <em>M. evotis</em> are mostly found roosting in the crevices of sandstone boulders. Other places which function as day roosts are abandoned buildings, cracks in the ground, caves, mines, and loose bark on living and dead trees. (Chruszcz and Barclay, 2002; Chruszcz and Barclay, 2003; Manning and Jones, 1989; Nagorsen and Brigham, 1993; Vonhof and Barclay, 1996; Vonhof and Barclay, 1997; Waldien, Hayes, and Arnett, 2000)	eng
14157	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Elevation ranges from sea level on the Pacific Coast to 2,830 meters in the mountains of Wyoming.<br/><em>M. evotis</em> is either solitary or roosts in colonies of up to 30 individuals. Both sexes use a variety of roost sites. In the Pacific Northwest, the variety of female roost sites exceeds that of any other bats in that area. In forest populations, these bats usually roost in large snags in canopy gaps, or else in stumps in clear-cut areas. These bats are thought to migrate short distances between summer and winter ranges, although winter ranges for long-eared myotis are unreported. (Manning and Jones, 1989; Vonhof and Barclay, 1996; Waldien, Hayes, and Arnett, 2000).	eng
14157	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss. May be affected by the closure of abandoned mines without surveys, recreational caving, some forest management practices and activities that impact cliff faces or rock outcrops.	eng
14158	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species occurs in Qingliangfeng Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), and is also likely to occur in Yangzie, Tianmushan, Laoshan, and An'jilongwangshan Nature Reserves and may be present in other protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened, nearly meeting the listing for Vulnerable under criteria A4cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14158	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This Chinese endemic species has a wide distribution occurring in Hong Kong and the provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14158	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	It is a cave-dwelling species of bat (Smith and Xie 2008). It presumably forages in the surrounding habitat. Its tolerance of disturbed habitats is not known.	eng
14158	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
14158	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	At present there are no known major threats to this species.	eng
14159	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Islas Marias is a Protected Area (Reserve of the Biosphere).	eng
14159	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs in Tres Marías Islands (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14159	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
14159	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
14159	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Islas Marias is being used as a Federal Prison and there are several problems with the introduction of alien species (rats).	eng
14160	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Surveys, population and habitat monitoring and ecological studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14160	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread in northern South Asia, parts of Southeast Asia and East Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (Sylhet Division) (Khan 2001), India (Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharasthra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal [Das 2003]) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and Bali) and the Philippines (Palawan, Negros, Sibuyan and Luzon). In East Asia, it is present in southern and central China, the island of Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula and the Tsushima Islands of Japan, where there are fewer than ten records and it is most likely a vagrant.	eng
14160	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It inhabits lowland and montane primary forest as well as secondary habitats. It roosts in caves, tree foliage, amongst bushes and in houses. In winter they hibernate in caves. It has been recorded from sea level up to the foothills of the Himalayas (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14160	population	Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although is widely distributed it is a rare species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although it often roosts as only a few animals, in some caves it can be relatively numerous, with up to 40-50 individuals. It is probably only a vagrant in Japan, and is therefore not thought to have breeding colonies on Tsushima Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
14160	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation for timber, firewood and conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14161	conservation	Perez, S., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Research actions. Found in protected areas in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14161	distribution	Perez, S., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs from Sonora and Veracruz (Mexico) to Guatemala (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).	eng
14161	habitat	Perez, S., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species can be found in dry and semideciduous forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997). It roosts in hollow trees and holes in thistle stems (Villa-R., 1966), under palm-thatched roofs (Hall and Dalquest, 1963), and in a coiled heliconia leaf. Group size is small, and individuals are well space when roosting. This species is sometimes seen flying around buildings and may use roofs as night roosts. Foraging flight is slow and erratic, at heights of about 2 to 4 m. It probably eats insects caught in flight, but feeding habitats and diet are unknown. Probably the young are born in May (Reid, 1997). Found in secondary forests in Mexico, can roosts in caves, tunnels, abandoned constructions.	eng
14161	population	Perez, S., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This bat is uncommon to fairly common (Reid, 1997). Only known for the pacific coast in Guatemala (Sergio Perez pers. comm.). Rare in Mexico.	eng
14161	threats	Perez, S., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	There are no known threats throughout its range.	eng
14162	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas throughout the range.	eng
14162	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species ranges from southern Siberia to the Korean Peninsula, and the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang in northeast China (subspecies M. f. frater Allen, 1923), and Japan, where it is found only on Honshu and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found in central and southern China in the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Anhui (subspecies M. f. longicaudatus Ognev, 1927) (Smith and Xie, in press). The area is severely fragmented. Chinese population may represent a distinct species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008).	eng
14162	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In Japan it is found in tree hollows during the day, but also some breeding colonies over 100 individuals have been found in houses (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). One small colony was also found in a cave (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Russia was found in caves (during winter) and rock cracks. The type series collected in China were taken from holes in bamboo stems (Smith and Xie, in press).	eng
14162	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Naturally rare species. There are no data on population size.	eng
14162	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Little information is available. Loss and degradation of forest habitats may be a problem.	eng
14163	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This is a widespread species that is found in many of Madagascar’s protected areas, including those in the east and west of the island (Goodman 1999; Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14163	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Simmons 2005) where it is widely distributed across a range of different vegetation types (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995; Goodman 1999; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14163	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species occurs in a variety of habitat types where suitable roosting cavities are available (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can survive in caves that are located some distance from relatively intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005), but the largest colonies are associated with forest formations and this species probably requires forest or some type of standing vegetation to forage (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
14163	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	Although widespread, there is a paucity of information on the population status of <em>M. goudoti</em>. It is frequently trapped in mist nets during bat surveys and appears to be at least locally abundant in west (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) but is more difficult to net, or is less abundant in the east (Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are few data available on roosting colonies but aggregations of up to 1,000 individuals have been recorded.	eng
14163	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no known threats to this species although additional research is needed to determine the impact of forest degradation on its persistence in cave roosts.	eng
14164	conservation	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Cariño, A., Kingston, T., Maryanto, I., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from protected areas in Southeast Asia (eg. Co-Loa, Viet Nam). In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Ecological studies and population monitoring recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14164	distribution	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Cariño, A., Kingston, T., Maryanto, I., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has a patchily recorded distribution in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Northern, North Central and Southern provinces) and has been recorded up to an elevation of 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species is known from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam (with a record from Co-Loa [Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999]), Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (the Mentawai Islands [Pagai Islands], Riau Archipelago, Sumatra [Bukit Barisan Selatan protected area (Opo pers. comm.)] Java and Sumbawa [Maryanto, pers comm. 2006]) and the island of Borneo (records from Kalimantan [Indonesia] and Sarawak [Malaysia]).	eng
14164	habitat	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Cariño, A., Kingston, T., Maryanto, I., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species prefers dry forests but is also seen in mangrove forests. It roosts either solitary or in groups of few individuals among bamboo, cracks of tree trunks, and in old and ruined buildings. It is a low flyer, hunting over water surfaces even the sea. It feeds on small insects like the mosquitoes, gnats, flies and moths (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, this species is known to feed over open seas, and probably roosts in mangrove forests; it has also been found more inland, where its roosting and feeding habits are poorly known. In view of the species possible association with coastal habitats, it may be the species might be more widespread on Borneo around the islands coasts. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) suggested that bats feeding over open water near Sandakan were probably this species. Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) recorded the species from the Bassac River in Cambodia and from Pnom-Penh, always near large water surfaces. The species has also been recorded from large cities, such as Rangoon and Bangkok, and there is also a locality from near Hanoi (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Rangoon and Bangkok, it is seen hawking for insects and fish over small ponds and lakes within the city. The species was found to roost in caves at Bukit Barisan Selatan (Opo pers. comm. 2006), and has been found roosting in limestone caves in Langkawi Island (Lim Boo Liat pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14164	population	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Cariño, A., Kingston, T., Maryanto, I., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a reasonably common, but locally distributed species. In South Asia, although it is a fairly common bat a declining trend in the population has been observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14164	threats	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Cariño, A., Kingston, T., Maryanto, I., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14165	conservation	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It is known from Pulau Weh Recreation Park and Temenggor Forest Reserve, though the extent of protection offered by these areas is minimal. It is also found in Khuan Kaowang Forest Park in Thailand but this is a very small park. There is a need to determine the distributional limits and population status of the species, as well as potential threats and tolerance to human disturbance.	eng
14165	distribution	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is known from Sabang Island (Indonesia), a single record (Sungai Singgoh in Temenggor Forest Reserve, Perak State) from Peninsular Malaysia (Francis 1995), and a single specimen in Songkhla, Thailand (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
14165	habitat	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This is a poorly known species. It seems to be associated with small streams (so probably somewhat dependent on water) and the understorey of rainforest. Resistance to human disturbance is unknown but it has been found in disturbed old growth forest in Thailand at an altitude of 100-200 m asl (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em>, 2006). It probably feeds outside of fragmented forests (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). All of the known records are from below 500 m asl.	eng
14165	population	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. The species has a distinct morphology, and is unlikely to have been misidentified.	eng
14165	threats	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	Major threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss would be a likely threat to the species.	eng
14166	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L, Gonzalez, J.C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The species has been recorded from many protected areas. Within India, the species has been recorded from the Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006) and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies on distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14166	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L, Gonzalez, J.C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This wide ranging species has been recorded from South Asia, southern China and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands [Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Car Nicobar], Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu) (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to around 800 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China, it is found in Guangdong, Hainan and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore. Within insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (the islands of Java, Lombok and Sulawesi), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded from sea level to 800 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) although there is a record from 1,450 m asl on mount Isarog Camarines Sur Province, in the southeastern portion of Luzon Island. There are records from the Philippine islands of Bohol, Catanduanes, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Cagayan, Laguna, Pampanga, Quezon, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Lanao del Norte Province, Misamis Occidental), Negros, and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Polillo (Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14166	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L, Gonzalez, J.C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in prime forests and tea estates near to water source. It roosts in tunnels, caves, bridges, palm fronds, crevices in old buildings, cracks and hollows between wooden beams (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003) either singly or in small groups of a few individuals (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Myanmar the species has been recorded in lowland forests and agricultural areas adjacent to limestone karst, it has also been collected in a limestone cave in disturbed forest (Bates pers. comm. 2006). In Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.) and the Philippines, it has been recorded near to streams in lowland forest, disturbed forest and agricultural areas. In the Philippines, it sometimes roosts in caves and in tunnels and has been reported roosting beneath a large rock over a stream (Taylor, 1934).	eng
14166	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L, Gonzalez, J.C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a moderately common species over much of its range. The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14166	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L, Gonzalez, J.C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use. It is also threatened through disturbance of roosting sites (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14168	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Found in protected areas in Japan. <em>M. i. Yezoensis</em> is listed as Endangered, <em>M. i. Hosonoi</em> as Vulnerable, and <em>M. i. Fujiensis</em> as Near Threatened on the Japanese Red List.	eng
14168	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This species ranges from the Altai Mountains in Kazakhstan eastwards through Lake Baikal to the Ussuri region of Russia, and southwards in to Mongolia, northeast China (possibly present, see below), northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, and to Sakhalin Island (Russia) and Japan. In Japan, the species is found on Honshu and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In Mongolia it is known from northern mountain habitats in the Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954). In northeast China it is reported from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie, in press); however, these records require confirmation as specimens may have been misidentified (K. Tsytsulina, S. Kruskop, Strelkov and Borissenko pers. comm. 2008).	eng
14168	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Inhabits mountain forests. The species roosts in tree hollows, with occassional breeding observed in houses on Honshu (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In continntal part of the range roosts in rock cracks as well. Hibernates in different underground shelters. It feeds on flying insects low above ground and forest rivers.	eng
14168	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Naturally rare, but widespread species.	eng
14168	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species in most of its range, although in Japan the decline in old-growth forests is a problem.	eng
14169	conservation	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There are no known conservation measures pertaining to this species. However, if there is a way to test the taxonomic validity or geographic origins of the specimen this could be very useful.	eng
14169	distribution	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There is a lot of doubt surrounding the distribution of this species. It is only known from the type specimen, which may be incorrectly labeled (Koopman 1984). It was purportedly collected in Samoa, but this has not been confirmed. Another alternative is that the specimen was a vagrant to Samoa.	eng
14169	habitat	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
14169	population	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
14169	threats	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There is no information about threats to this species.	eng
14170	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. Found in protected areas.	eng
14170	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).	eng
14170	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Insectivorous. Biology poorly know, associated to Andes forests up to 1,100 m (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/>Middle and high areas.	eng
14170	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Locally common.	eng
14170	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14171	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	A maternity colony in British Columbia is protected within Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve. <br/><br/>Weymer Cave and White Ridge Provincial Parks protect areas that support <em>M. keenii </em>hibernacula and roosting habitat. The former park has a draft management plan that identifies the need to protect the bat roosts, but also identifies recreational caving, hiking, and tourism as acceptable park activities (COSEWIC 2003).<br/><br/>Range-wide population surveys are needed. Coordinated surveys should be conducted in Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. See British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection (2004) for specific protection needs and management recommendations.<br/><br/>This species is known only from a limited number of museum specimens. Virtually nothing is known about its biology (van Zyll de Jong 1985). Present research needs include the following: 1. Assess habitat preferences, including roosting and feeding areas, activity patterns, and food requirements. 2. Determine if there is any seasonal movement within the population. 3. Assessing whether this species hibernates, and if so, where and under what conditions. 4. Research the reproductive capacity of the species and evaluate its long-term population viability.	eng
14171	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range includes coastal Washington, British Columbia (including Vancouver Island, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and coastal mainland), and southeastern Alaska (e.g., Hoonah, Wrangell, Ketchikan) (Parker and Cook 1996; Simmons 2005). This species has one of the smallest distributional ranges of any North American bat (Van Zyll de Jong 1985).	eng
14171	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The species is known from 25 locations in Canada, where only a couple maternity colonies have been identified (COSEWIC 2003). The only known hibernacula in British Columbia are on northern Vancouver Island where <em>M. keenii </em>has been found in 8 caves from 3 separate areas (COSEWIC 2003). The species is known from just a few locations in southeast Alaska.<br/><br/>The distributional range suggests an association with coastal forest habitat (van Zyll de Jong 1985; Nagorsen and Brigham, unpubl. manuscript). Apparently this bat is associated with mature forests (COSEWIC report), but it is not restricted to old growth (COSEWIC 2003). Across the range it has been found roosting in southwest-facing rock crevices, among geothermally heated rocks, in tree cavities, in bark crevices, and in buildings (D. Burles pers. comm.; Nagorsen and Brigham 1993; Parker and Cook 1996). Tree cavities and loose bark are important natural roost sites and may be limiting in some parts of the range (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). In British Columbia, one maternity colony (on Hot Springs Island in the Queen Charlotte Islands) is situated within geothermally heated rocks associated with hot spring activity (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). The only other known maternity colony in British Columbia was suspected to be in a tree located in a low elevation, southwest-facing cliff at Knoll Hill near Tahsis, Vancouver Island (COSEWIC 2003). Known maternity roosts and summer feeding areas in British Columbia are at elevations below 240 meters; known hibernation sites occur above 400 meters in caves over 100 meters long (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). These bats have been observed foraging over hot spring pools and clearings above scrubby salal (<em>Gaultheria shallon</em>).	eng
14171	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. A maternity colony in British Columbia included about 40 reproductive females (COSEWIC 2003).	eng
14171	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat quantity and quality are presumed to be declining (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004), but the rate of decline is unknown. Population estimates made at a British Columbia maternity colony during the 1990s indicate that it remained stable between 1991 and 2000 (COSEWIC 2003).<br/><br/>Logging activities and associated road building likely are reducing and fragmenting habitat; mineral extraction, forest fires, and pesticides also may be detrimental (Balcombe, 1988 COSEWIC report; British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). Disturbance during hibernation and while raising young is a major concern; disturbance may result from recreational activities (e.g., caving) or industrial activities (e.g., blasting for road construction) (British Columbia Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection 2004). Current levels of timber harvest could have a detrimental effect on the Alaska population by altering forest structure important to bats  (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1997). Bat activity is rare in clearcuts and second-growth forests of Southeast Alaska (Parker and Cook 1997, Parker <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
14172	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There is a strong conservation easement held by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) on the second largest occurrence. TNC has a management agreement giving limited protection to the largest occurrence and one occurrence with apparently good viability is on National Park Service land in Arkansas. Several occurrences with fair to poor estimated viability in various states are either owned by TNC or are on Federal land.<br/><br/>Summer surveys throughout the species known range should be a high priority for inventory work. Winter hibernacula surveys should continue with emphasis on searching sites which have not been surveyed, improving counts in sites which have not been completely or thoroughly surveyed, and monitoring some portion of the known sites on a regular basis (perhaps every other year as recommended for Myotis sodalis sites) to establish baseline population trend data.	eng
14172	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range extends from New England, southeastern Ontario, and southwestern Quebec south and west to southeastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, northern Alabama, northern Georgia, and northwestern South Carolina (Menzel <em>et al.</em> 2003). Within this range, the distribution is very spotty, and the bulk of the occurrences and largest populations are in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and western Virginia. Hall's (1981) map should be taken as potential range; there are no records of this species ever occurring in some parts of the indicated distribution (e.g., Illinois; Jim Herkert pers. comm.). This species is apparently extirpated in Connecticut and Ohio (where known from only one specimen). Elevational range extends to at least 700-800 meters in several states and to at least 1,125 meters in Kentucky (Best and Jennings 1997).	eng
14172	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is most often detected during hibernation. In recent years, it has been counted at approximately 125 hibernacula. Recent surveys have greatly increased the number of localities above those known historically; the number of hibernacula may be significantly larger than currently known. Intensive cave and mine surveys have been undertaken in most states where the species occurs, but some sites probably remain unsearched in most states.<br/><br/>The total count for all hibernacula is approximately 3,000 individuals, with roughly 60% of the total number from just two sites in New York. Some of the occurrences probably have not been surveyed completely, and some individuals are undoubtedly missed within some sites because they are hibernating in portions of mines or caves that cannot be reached or easily observed.<br/><br/>This bat always has been considered to be relatively rare (Barbour and Davis 1969). Numbers are reduced in a few sites where older counts are available, and a few historical sites are apparently no longer occupied, but whether these observation reflect declines or changes in distribution is unknown. In Vermont, <em>Myotis leibii</em> has been consistently found in very small numbers and often not detected at all during periodic surveys of various hibernacula dating back to 1934 (Trombulak <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Habitat is mostly hilly or mountainous areas, in or near deciduous or evergreen forest, sometimes in mostly open farmland. In Pennsylvania, Mohr (1976) found this species mostly in heavy hemlock forests in the foothills of mountains that rise to 2,000 feet (600 meters). Unpublished data from the Kentucky Heritage Program indicate that summer roosts include caves, coal mines, buildings, and bridges over rivers (in expansion joints). Warm-season roosts include buildings, towers, hollow trees, spaces beneath the loose bark of trees, cliff crevices, and bridges. Tuttle (1964) reported two individuals found in April in Tennessee under a large flat rock at the edge of a quarry surrounded by woods and cow pastures. In Ontario, about 12 of these bats were found in July behind the door of a shed that was kept open (i.e., positioned against the wall) (Hitchcock 1955). They have been seen resting in limestone caves in West Virginia in spring and summer (Krutzsch 1966). <br/><br/>By far most records come from observations of bats hibernating in winter in caves and mine tunnels. Hibernation occurs in solution and fissure caves and mine tunnels (including coal, iron, copper, and talc mines). Situations near the entrance where the air is relatively cold and dry seem to be preferred (Barbour and Davis 1969), though sometimes deeper locations are used (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Roost sites often are deep in crevices, or under rocks on the cave floor, where the bats can be very difficult to find (Davis 1955, Krutzsch 1966, Martin <em>et al</em>. 1966). These bats are usually found singly or occasionally in small clusters, but many may be packed in a crevice; often they hang among other species (Marin <em>et al</em>. 1966). In tight places the body may be horizontal, even belly down. On cave walls, the forearms are somewhat extended rather than parallel to the body axis. Dunn and Hall (1989) noted that 52% of Pennsylvania hibernacula were small caves of less than 150 m (500 feet) in length. Like many other bat species, this one typically forages over ponds and streams.	eng
14172	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Approximately 80% of the known occurrences are of poor estimated viability; just 7% are believed to have good or excellent viability. In most instances, surveys yield very few individuals of this species in any particular location.<br/><br/>Most occurrences have been counted only within the past decade or two and are not revisited regularly, making the assessment of population trend difficult. Many biologists believe that this species is basically stable, having declined little in recent times, but that it is vulnerable, especially in its cave hibernacula. The population at one site in Arkansas has increased in recent years, probably due to reduced winter disturbance following the installation of a cave gate.	eng
14172	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Some mines may be threatened by closure or collapse. Ceiling collapse may kill bats outright or, more significantly, alter cave microhabitat enough to make it unsuitable. A few cave occurrences are threatened or have been reduced in quality due to commercialization for tourism. <br/><br/>Threats to summer sites are unknown, but are likely to be moderate due to alteration of riparian habitats. Conversion of forested habitats to agricultural and residential uses has decreased the amount of preferred habitat in some areas, but the bats do make use of bridges and various other non-natural roost sites.<br/><br/>Improper gating of caves to protect bats may result in site abandonment. For example, the large colony of <em>M. leibii </em>at Fourth Chute Cave, Quebec, was driven out by blocking the flow of cold air (Mohr 1976). In contrast, gating of cave entrances in other locations (e.g., Aitkin Cave, Pennsylvania) has led to increases in <em>M. leibii</em> populations. With its small numbers and spotty distribution, isolated colonies of <em>M. leibii </em>are particularly vulnerable to extirpation by chance events, especially when concentrated during winter months. On the other hand, in contrast to certain other bats that assemble in vast numbers in relatively few sites, the population of <em>M. leibii</em> as a whole is not vulnerable to localized events. <br/><br/>This bat tends to hibernate near cave entrances; hence it may be vulnerable to freezing in abnormally severe winters. THREATS TO BATS IN GENERAL:  Perhaps the most serious threat to cave-dwelling bats is human disturbance during hibernation. Very low levels of noise, light, and heat from lanterns are sufficient to awaken hibernating bats, which then expend energy moving about and deplete critical reserves of body fat. When disturbance is repeated, bats (especially juveniles) are likely to perish. "By the end of the winter energy reserves may be insufficient to meet the demands of the first feeding forays, when emerging insects may be scattered and scarce, or the bats may be too weak to make long flights to their summer territories" (Mohr 1976). Such disturbance is equally lethal, whether caused by vandals, well-meaning spelunkers, or bat researchers. Intentional killing of bats in caves by clubbing, stoning, burning, bombing, etc. has been a significant cause of mortality. Documented examples are numerous (e.g. Tuttle 1979). Bats are sometimes exterminated from commercial caves, or if not, leave or move to suboptimal habitats due to increased disturbance. Poisoning by pesticides, heavy metals, and other environmental contaminants has been and may remain a significant threat. Destruction of roost and foraging habitat by reservoir inundation, strip mining (especially limestone), deforestation, drainage of wetlands, development, etc., and pollution or siltation of waterways with consequent decline in insect production are additional potential adverse impacts (Tuttle 1979).  Hundreds of thousands of bats have been destroyed by natural flooding of caves.	eng
14174	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14174	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Argentina, Southeastern Brazil, Uruguay (Simmons 2005).	eng
14174	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	The species is found in various roosts types. Insectivore.	eng
14174	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
14174	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
14175	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India, such as the Balpakram National Park in Mizoram. Population monitoring and habitat management are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14175	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is largely endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from a few localities in Afghanistan (Lowgar and Nangarhar provinces), India (Jammu and Kashmir, and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). A report from Maharashtra as reported by Molur <em>et al.</em> (2002) is erroneous. It has been recorded from 300 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Wang (2002) records that the species is present in Guizhou, China (Smith and Xie 2008). Records for Viet Nam are generally considered to be dubious (Bates <em>et al.</em> 1999) and are not included here.	eng
14175	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species roosts in large colonies of thousands of individuals in caves, cracks and crevices in old disused buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) and old tunnels and underground canals (Smith and Xie 2008) in primary or secondary forests. It is an early flyer and hunts over water surfaces (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
14175	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the population trends and abundance of this species.	eng
14175	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, it is threatened by habitat loss, disturbance to roosting sites and accidental mortality due to ongoing conflicts within the species' range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14176	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Avoid habitat loss and human disturbance.	eng
14176	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Alaska (USA) to Labrador and Newfoundland (Canada), south to Southern California, Northern Arizona, Northern New Mexico (USA). It is found in Mexico.	eng
14176	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species inhabits forested lands near water, but some subspecies can be found in dry climates where water is not readily available. In those habitats, drinking water is provided by moisture on cave walls or condensation on the fur. Little brown bats live over a wide latitudinal and elevational range. (Havens and Myers 2006)	eng
14176	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The lifespan of this species is extended by their ability to find food and inhabit a variety of roosts. These characteristics allow expansion of their habitat to new ranges, but also contribute to their survival. <em>M. lucifugus</em> live approximately 6 to 7 years and often live well beyond 10 years. A 31 year-old male was discovered in southeastern Ontario. Evidence indicates that males tend to live longer than females (Havens and Myers 2006)<br/>During the winter, hibernation time depends on altitude and location of the roosts. It usually starts between September and November and ends in March to May. They do not migrate long distances for hibernation roosts. Individuals travel only up to 100 miles. This species does not show territoriality at roosts, and large colonies of as many as 300,000 bats have been reported in a single roost. (Havens and Myers 2006)	eng
14176	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	<em></em>There are no major threats to this species at present. It is the target of control measures due to the abundance of the species. These bats inhabit attics, roofs, trees, and other areas in close proximity to humans; therefore, homeowners have spent large amounts of money trying to eradicate <em>M. lucifugus</em> from these areas (Havens and Myers 2006).	eng
14177	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In Russia and Japan occurs in some protected areas.	eng
14177	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is known from the Russian Far East, NE China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan. In Japan, it is known from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Hokkaido, Sado Island, Tsushima Island, and a 1999 record from Tokunoshima Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
14177	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It is found in caves, as well as man-made structures (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Roosts are close to water sourses. Often shares summer and winter roosts with other bat species. Hunt above fast rivers and coastal area. Prey on insects and other invertebrates in flight or catching from water surface.	eng
14177	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In continental part rare, but regulary found species. In Japan it is often found in groups of over 100 individuals.	eng
14177	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14178	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Better regulation of cave use is required for this uncommon and cave dependent species, and comprehensive surveys of populations are required.	eng
14178	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species occurs from Borneo, Balambangam (Nor 1996) and Banggi islands, to the Philippines. It probably occurs throughout the Philippines; there are records from Cebu (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Guimaras, Luzon (Rizal Province and Mount Makiling between Batangas and Laguna provinces (N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006)), Marinduque, Mindanao (Lanao del Norte Province, and Zamboanga Province), Negros, Palawan, Polillo and Tawi-tawi (Hollister 1913; Lawrence 1939; Taylor 1934; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
14178	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	In the Philippines the species has been recorded roosting in caves near sea level (L. Heaney and R. Utzurrum unpubl. data) and foraging over freshwater, rivers and in agricultural areas.	eng
14178	population	Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This is an uncommon species, which occurs in caves or their immediate vicinity (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Palawan Island, the species was captured in small numbers in caves (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004), while surveys on Luzon failed to capture the species and it is considered uncommon there (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). The population is thought to be in decline.	eng
14178	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Cave disturbance is a major threat to the species. In the Philippines, caves can be blocked for example in Misamis Oriental, where the species was once abundant (Warguez pers. comm. 2006), on Negros caves are disturbed by guano miners (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006), they are dammed in other areas, and on Cebu large numbers of people partake in unregulated spelunking and often open up new areas to the sport.	eng
14179	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14179	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species occurs in Martinique, and Barbados (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14179	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
14179	population	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Roosts in caves (Timm and Genoways, 2003). Can be found in anthropogenic habitats (Rodriguez Duran and Kunz, 2001)	eng
14179	threats	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Hurricanes.	eng
14181	conservation	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). Surveys, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas (eg. Vu Quang National Park, Viet Nam [Borissenko and Kruskop 2003]).	eng
14181	distribution	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from South Asia, southern and eastern China, and both mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known only from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram and Tamil Nadu) (Vanitharani 2006, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it ranges through much of southern and eastern, parts of the country (Smith and Xie 2008). In mainland Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, southern Thailand (although there are no published records (Bumrungsri <em>et al.</em>, 2006)), northern Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Peninsular Malaysia (it has been recorded at the Batu caves close to Kuala Lumpur). It is also present on the island of Borneo, where it has been reported from Sabah (Kinabatangan area) (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,100 m asl.	eng
14181	habitat	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Within India, it has been recorded roosting in caves, rocky crevices and subterranean habitats in forested areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Lao PDR, the species has been collected in hill forests at 1,000 m asl and in open forest at 500 m asl (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1996; in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, the species has been recorded in heavily disturbed agricultural landscapes, at about 200 m asl. Animals have been found roosting in small colonies in a crevice of a bridge (Yasuma and Andau, 2000). In southern Thailand the species roosts in small colonies in lowland evergreen forest (S. Bumringsri pers. comm.).  In Myanmar it is known from around 1,850 m asl (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Malaysia it has been recorded in highly disturbed secondary habitat.	eng
14181	population	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is believed to be an uncommon species. In South Asia, the population abundance of this species is not known. There are only a relatively few individuals in each colony and the colonies and localities are scattered (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
14181	threats	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by increase in tourism and habitat loss due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). The threats to the species over the rest of its range are not known, although it has been reported from degraded forest in parts of its range.	eng
14182	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
14182	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has only been recorded from two very disjunct sites, the type locality of 'Didessa River mouth, Walaga' in Ethiopia (Hill and Morris 1971) and from Numan, Adamawa Province, in northeastern Nigeria (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
14182	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Animals have been reported from caves and other subterranean locations in dry and moist savanna habitats. The specimen from Nigeria was 'mist-netted in the Sudan savanna, in a region of short grass and acacia bush, with some silk cotton trees, near the River Benue' (Hill <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
14182	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
14182	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear. It may be threatened by cave disturbance and subsistence harvesting for food.	eng
14183	conservation	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is presumably present in a number of Southeast Asian protected areas.  In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas like the Murree National Park in Pakistan and the Langtung National Park in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further studies are needed on distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring.	eng
14183	distribution	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded throughout much of northern South Asia, central and southern China and most of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is presently known from Afghanistan (Balkh, Faryab, Kabul, Konarha and Kunduz provinces), Bhutan (no exact location, Das 2003), India (Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab), and has been recorded between 1,230 and 2,700 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been found in Xizang, Sichuan, Yunnan in mainland China, and has been reported from the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it appears to be present throughout the mainland and widespread in insular Southeast Asia being recorded from Indonesia (the Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Sulawesi, Ambon and Bunguran), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and throughout the Philippines, with records from Biliran, Busuanga, Leyte, Luzon (Cagayan, Laguna, Rizal and Kalinga Provinces [Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004]), Maripipi, Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Specimens from Culion Island and Camarines Sur Province (Luzon Island) previously referred to this species are now considered to represent Myotis ater (Heaney 2005). The specimen previously reported from Bukidnon, Mindanao is of uncertain identity (Heaney 2005). In the Philippines, it has been recorded from near sea level to 1,600 m asl (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
14183	habitat	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in primary and secondary montane and lowland forests, scrub, secondary growth and gardens. It roosts either singly or in small groups of few individuals among tightly rolled leaves of the broad-leaved trees especially banana, also in caves and tree hollows. It is a fast and early flyer, with bats often encountered in the forest understory and in gaps along streams (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 2004; P. Bates and G. Csorba pers. comm. 2006; Sedlock pers. comm. 2006; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14183	population	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a common bat in Southeast Asia, and is particularly abundant at higher elevations (Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). In South Asia, the localities and the colonies are scattered with small populations per colony. A declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is only a single record of this species from the island of Ambon, Indonesia.	eng
14183	threats	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Bumringsri, S., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, there are no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species as a whole, although some populations are locally threatened by habitat degradation (largely from mining and logging operations, and ongoing human settlement). In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. This species is also considered to be locally threatened at some localities due to scientific collection for research purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14184	conservation	Velazco, P. & Soriano, P., 2008	Needs conservation attention on islands.	eng
14184	distribution	Velazco, P. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species occurs in the northeast Venezuela, and Curaçao and Bonaire Islands (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons, 2005). Maybe in Aruba. Found also in Northeast Colombia.	eng
14184	habitat	Velazco, P. & Soriano, P., 2008	This bat is strongly insectivorous, it especially feeds on small aerial insects (like flies or moths) that catch in open areas. It is generally found in small colonies (Linares, 1998).	eng
14184	population	Velazco, P. & Soriano, P., 2008	It is common, however, it has a restricted range and confined.	eng
14184	threats	Velazco, P. & Soriano, P., 2008	Threatened on islands by conversion to tourist resorts and general development.	eng
14185	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Needs taxonomic revision. Occurs in several protected areas. The northern population in Mexico needs protection - subspecies (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
14185	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Nayarit and Tamaulipas (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad and Tobago; St. Martin, Montserrat, Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14185	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Insectivorous. Low, middle, and higher elevation forests, gardens, agricultural areas; nocturnal; flies in more open areas, along trails, streams, etc.; roosts in trees, rock crevices, buildings.	eng
14185	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant and widespread.	eng
14185	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
14186	conservation	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
14186	distribution	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	<em>M. oreias</em> is known only from the type locality, Singapore. This species is known only from the damaged holotype, redescribed by Francis and Hill (1998), who noted that the type locality is questionable.	eng
14186	habitat	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The ecology and habitat preferences of this species are not known.	eng
14186	population	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
14186	threats	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
14187	conservation	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
14187	distribution	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs from Venezuela to Bolivia, Panama, and Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). In Bolivia found to 3,800 m, 3,100 in Venezuela - down to 1,800. Colombia 1,600-2,600 m . 2,600-3,900 m in Peru. Seems to be restricted to Andean Montane formations.	eng
14187	habitat	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen highland forest and forest edge. Pregnant females have been recorded in February and July (Gardner <em>et al.</em>, 1970; Reid, 1997). Found in montane forests and strongly associated with mountains. Seems to tolerate a range of human disturbance.	eng
14187	population	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is uncommon to fairly common (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
14187	threats	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14189	conservation	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is included in one protected area Reserve of the Biosfere "La Laguna".	eng
14189	distribution	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in south Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14189	habitat	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species can be found in arid tropical and lower Sonoran life zones. It has been reported in desert matorral, tropical deciduous forest, oak forest, and pine-oak forest. It roosts in caves and empty houses; an estimated 5,000 females and young were found in a large cave; also, a maternity colony of 100 females and young were found in the crevices of an abandoned house. This species can be found roosting with other bats species. It mates at the end of summer and during autumn, sometimes into the following spring. Pregnant females were found in May and June, with parturition occurring in late June and early July (Alvarez-Catañeda and Bogan, 1998).	eng
14189	population	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is locally common to uncommon (Alvarez-Catañeda and Bogan, 1998).	eng
14189	threats	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
14190	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species was regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1bcd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14190	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in the provinces of Beijing, Sichuan, Henan, Jiangsu (Smith and Xie 2008), and Anhui (CSIS 2008). It is also known from Shaanxi (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Shaanxi, a captured bat with substantial sequence divergence (6.7%) and smaller size may represent a cryptic species for this taxon (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14190	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This is a cave-dwelling species (Smith and Xie 2008), but has also been recorded roosting in dwellings (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006). Based on wing shape and call design it is presumed that this bat is suited to flying in cluttered habitats (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006), presumably forests.<br/><br/>Moderately long ears, wing shape, and dietary composition suggests that foraging may in part occur by gleaning (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Examination of droppings indicates that this species forages on predominantly beetles (80% by volume), as well as <em>Hemiptera, Lepidoptera</em>, and <em>Diptera</em> (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).  There were single indications of a mite, lepidopteran larva, and dragonfly wing fragment (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14190	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are currently no data on the population status of this species.	eng
14190	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It may be reasonably adaptable to disturbed habitats since it has been recorded roosting in buildings.	eng
14191	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14191	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Zacatecas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). Its extent of occurrence has been calculated between 95 and 465 km² (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm. )	eng
14191	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of <em>Myotis planiceps</em>. Apparently, this species is confined to montane forests. Possibly, it roosts in crevices. It is insectivorous; some stomach contents contained insects. No reproductive data are known (Matson, 1975).  Habitat loss between 16 - 21% over the last ten years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
14191	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is considered at the moment that are less than 250 mature individuals (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
14191	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., S., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss due its very restricted roost habit in yacca trees accompanied by pynion pines (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
14192	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	Some of the recorded localities are from protected areas. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
14192	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and has been recorded from Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It seems to prefer lower mountain forests down to 200-300 m asl.	eng
14192	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	It occupies only primary forest, mainly at low-lying elevations. It roosts only in tree holes so is a microhabitat specialist. It is absent from many areas that lack large trees with hollows.	eng
14192	population	Maeda, K., 2008	This species has been recorded widely within Japan, but most of the localities are from lowland primary intact forest. It is likely that at one time the species was more widespread, but has now been restricted to primary forest enclaves in the face of human encroachment on its habitat. Within the forest patches where they occur, they are somewhat common.	eng
14192	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	Deforestation of the evergreen old-growth forests in warm temperate regions, primarily for agriculture, conversion to conifer plantations, logging and infrastructure development for expanding human settlements, is a major threat.	eng
14193	conservation	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in Tianmushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if the species is present in any other protected areas. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.	eng
14193	distribution	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in China (including Hong Kong and Hainan), Lao PDR, Hong Kong, and Viet Nam (Simmons 2005).  In China, this species occurs in the provinces of Anhui, Beijing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Yunnan, Zhejiang (Smith and Xie 2008), Jiangxi (CSIS 2008), and may be present in Hunan and Jiangsu. The distribution in Lao PDR and Viet Nam is very scattered (Csorba, G. pers. comm.). In 2004, 27 specimens of this species were collected on Hainan, which the authors noted were smaller than those of mainland specimens (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14193	habitat	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is strictly dependent on water since its diet comprises of a large proportion of fish. This is the most specialized, fish eating bat within the region. It has low tolerance to human disturbance (Csorba and Bates 2006).	eng
14193	population	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species. This species is considered rare (Csorba, G. pers. comm.).	eng
14193	threats	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	It is a widely distributed habitat specialist, which has low tolerance to human disturbance. Highly dependent on water sources for its food, water pollution (domestic and commercial/industrial) in China (the bulk of its distribution) is a major threat. In Southeast Asia, water sources are not as degraded and therefore, it does not face a similar threat as it does in China. This species may be hunted for food locally.	eng
14194	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It has been recorded on Borneo from Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997) and is found also in other protected areas throughout its range. This species has only been rarely collected and appears to have an ecology that is different from other <em>Myotis</em> and therefore needs to be studied further.	eng
14194	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and extreme southeastern Thailand (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006), Sabah in northern Malaysian Borneo, and also from Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo (Puri 1997). Specimens from Sumatra were identified as <em>M. annectans</em> by Hill and Topal (1973) and the species may not occur there. The one locality in Thailand is at 100 m asl.	eng
14194	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	It is probably a understorey, forest dependent species. It has been recorded from caves, and found roosting in a small group under a house in forest on Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). They often forage over small streams in forest, and so perhaps it is water dependent. They have also been found roosting under rock near streams and also in fallen logs (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It was collected from pristine lowland evergreen forest in Thailand near a peat swamp, and was also found in peat swamp in Peninsular Malaysia (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006). There are no caves in the vicinity of the locality in Thailand suggesting that it may roost elsewhere (Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
14194	population	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This is a fairly uncommon species.	eng
14194	threats	Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires represents a major threat to this species.	eng
14195	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Needs taxonomic revision (Barquez pers. comm.). Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
14195	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Honduras south to Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia; Trinidad (Simmons 2005).	eng
14195	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Insectivorous. Found in colonies.	eng
14195	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant. Not present in Chaco (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004) Locally common for Mesoamerica.	eng
14195	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
14196	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.	eng
14196	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in Cambodia, Thailand, and possibly Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), and is known from one locality in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
14196	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S. & Bates, P., 2008	This species uses disturbed habitats, in Thailand it is found in tree hollows and house roofs, and bamboo.	eng
14196	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is known from only a small number of individuals in any country.	eng
14196	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S. & Bates, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
14197	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas in Argentina (Barquez and Diaz pers. comm.).	eng
14197	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Southeastern Brazil, Southeastern Paraguay, Northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005). There is one locality in Uruguay (Gonzalez - com pess).	eng
14197	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
14197	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not common.	eng
14197	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Deforestation. Habitat loss.	eng
14198	conservation	Sharifi, M., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly known species with very restricted range and which requires legal protection and a conservation management plan. Research on status and ecology is needed. Public awareness campaigns may also be valuable.	eng
14198	conservation	Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly known species with very restricted range and which requires legal protection and a conservation management plan. Research on status and ecology is needed. Public awareness campaigns may also be valuable.	eng
14198	distribution	Sharifi, M., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	As an extant species known only from southern part of Caucasus region (Armenia) and northwestern part of Zagros Mts. in Iran. Fossil of the species described from Hungary.	eng
14198	distribution	Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	As an extant species known only from southern part of Caucasus region (Armenia) and northwestern part of Zagros Mts. in Iran. Fossil of the species described from Hungary.	eng
14198	habitat	Sharifi, M., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Little known, probably forest and shrubland, and roosting in caves, rock cracs and buildings.	eng
14198	habitat	Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Little known, probably forest and shrubland, and roosting in caves, rock cracs and buildings.	eng
14198	population	Sharifi, M., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Rarely found species (up to ten recorded localities of occurrence).	eng
14198	population	Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Rarely found species (up to ten recorded localities of occurrence).	eng
14198	threats	Sharifi, M., Karatas, A. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Not known. Possibly changes in land management, including development and impact of war, etc, and damage to roost sites in caves and buildings.	eng
14198	threats	Sharifi, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Not known. Possibly changes in land management, including development and impact of war, etc, and damage to roost sites in caves and buildings.	eng
14199	conservation	Benda, P. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There appear to be no conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this bat. Further studies are needed into the abundance, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
14199	distribution	Benda, P. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, where it has been recorded from ten localities between 1,300 and 2,500 m asl.	eng
14199	habitat	Benda, P. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is associated with humid Afromontane forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
14199	population	Benda, P. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It appears to be a rare species that is known from only about 20 specimens.	eng
14199	threats	Benda, P. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The forest habitat of this species is being impacted through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging.	eng
14201	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat management. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14201	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Eastern United States and Canada west to British Columbia, Eastern Montana, Eastern Wyoming; south to Alabama, Georgia, and Florida Panhandle (Simmons 2005)	eng
14201	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Northern bats are associated with boreal forests. In British Columbia they are found in the wet forests of the interior cedar-hemlock biogeoclimatic zone. In areas of North America and Canada these bats choose maternity roosts in buildings, under loose bark, and in the cavities of trees. Caves and underground mines are their choice sites for hibernating. (Trouessart, 1999)	eng
14201	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	During the summer northern bats are commonly found in higher densities around the northern areas of their range, as they are especially reliant upon the richly forested habitats in the north around this time (Altringham, 1996). Occasionally, these bats may be found roosting with other bat species, although they are much less social than other members of the genus <em>Myotis</em>. The sexes roost separately; however, reproductive females may form small maternity colonies of less than 60 individuals (Altringham, 1996).	eng
14201	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Timber harvesting may interfere with these bats' ability to utilize trees for nursery colonies and day roosts. It also may prove detrimental to their foraging habits in forested areas (Thomas, 1993). Use of chemical and biological insecticides is another source of concern affecting their food supply. A less vital, yet very real threat to <em>M. septentrionalis</em> is the disturbance they face in the caves (where recreational "caving" is popular) or mines (which are often closed after being abandoned) where they hibernate. A solution to the problem of disturbance at hibernacula is to put up gates that permit the bats to pass while excluding humans. (Thomas, 1993)	eng
14202	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Annapurna Conservation Area in Nepal. Surveys are needed and habitat management in Nepal is recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14202	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia. It is presently known from India (Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central) at an elevation of around 1,350 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be greater than 20,000 sq km, however, the area of occupancy has been estimated as less than 2,000 sq km based on the likely availability in habitat in the locations it has been recorded in.	eng
14202	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is found in montane forests on hill sides and in valleys (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14202	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There is little information available on the population of this species.	eng
14202	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The habitat where the species occurs is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses, especially in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14203	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston,T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population and habitat monitoring recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14203	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston,T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from northern South Asia, eastern and southeastern China, and parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central) (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from 914 to 2,770 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from much of the east and southeast of the country, including the island of Hainan. In Southeast Asia, the species is widespread on the mainland, being reported from northern and eastern Myanmar, northern and southern Thailand, much of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, possibly Cambodia, and Peninsular Malaysia. It has also been found in Sabah (Malaysia) on the island of Borneo.	eng
14203	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston,T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in caves, and crevices in old buildings in small groups of few individuals. It can be found in the montane forests of Himalayas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is a high flyer and is also seen foraging near human dwellings (Bates and Harrison 1997). In China, the species has been collected in lowland second growth forests over streams and at the mouth of caves. Colonies of up to 1,200 individuals have been reported (Smith and Xie 2008). Duckworth <em>et al.</em> (1999), report that in Lao PDR most records of this species are near limestone. In Viet Nam the species has been recorded from secondary as well as primary forest habitats (N. Furey pers. comm.). In Thailand bats have been found over small streams in dry evergreen forests (S. Bumringsri pers. comm.). It has been found between 1,000 and 1,600 m asl in Myanmar.	eng
14203	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston,T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is generally widespread and not uncommon. In South Asia, the abundance and population size for this species are not known; however, a declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14203	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston,T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appears to be no major threats as a whole to this species, however, there have been some localised declines. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14204	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
14204	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Northern Brazil, Bolivia, Northeastern Argentina, and Paraguay (Simmons 2005).	eng
14204	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is not suficient known. Found in hollow trees.	eng
14204	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very rare.	eng
14204	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
14205	conservation	Hutson, T., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is not believed to be present in any protected areas. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine the status of the species relative to <em>M. macrotarsus</em> from the Philippines. Protection of known roosting sites and important foraging areas is needed.	eng
14205	distribution	Hutson, T., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species has been recorded on the islands of Gebe, Waigeo, Batanta, and Kei Ketjil, Indonesia. It was collected in the Kai Islands in 1907 and in July 1993. It was collected in November 1991 by Flannery from Semingit Cave, on the island of Gebe. In 2000, three males were collected from Lopintol, cave II, Waigeo (Meinig 2002), and this species, or a similarly-bodied one, is reported to also be present on the island of Batanta (2005 <em>in litt.</em> communication from M. Farid to K. Helgen; as it appears in Helgen 2007). It has only been recorded below 250 m asl.	eng
14205	habitat	Hutson, T., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This is a cave roosting species. It is considered to be water dependant, and possibly preys on fish species. The animals found on the Kai Islands in 1993 were in a small colony, and the species was sharing the roost with five other bat species. The colony on Gebe was consisted of about 100 individuals in a limestone cave, surrounded by tall forest. This colony shared the roost with four other bat species. At the time of the collection, one of two adult females was carrying a single young.	eng
14205	population	Hutson, T., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	Small roosting colonies of up to 100 individuals have been observed.	eng
14205	threats	Hutson, T., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but may include disturbance of cave roosting sites.	eng
14206	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in US and Mexico.	eng
14206	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Chiapas (Mexico) to Southwestern South Dakota (USA) and British Columbia (Canada) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14206	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The fringed bat occurs in a variety of habitats from desert-scrub to fir-pine associations. Oak and pinyon woodlands appear to be the most commonly used vegetative associations. Roost sites may be in caves, mines, and buildings. There are periodic changes in roost sites within a maternity roost because of thermoregulatory requirements of the bats; for example, clusters of bats move in response to temperature changes in different parts of the roost. Fringed bats are known to migrate, but little is known about the magnitude of movements. Females prepare physiologically for hibernation during the post-lactation period of late summer and early autumn, prior to migration. Individuals may awake from hibernation periodically throughout winter.<br/>Diet includes beetles and moths. These bats forage close to the vegetative canopy, and have relatively slow and highly maneuverable flight.	eng
14206	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Common. Primarily at middle elevations of 1,200-2,150 m in desert, grassland, and woodland habitats; has been recorded at 2,850 m in spruce-fir habitat in New Mexico, and at low elevations along Pacific Coast. Roosts in caves, mines, rock crevices, buildings, and other protected sites. Nursery colonies occur in caves, mines, and sometimes buildings.	eng
14206	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats throughout the species' range. In South Mexico, it is found the sub species <em>aztecus</em> which has a habitat loss of around 40% (de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
14207	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	It has been recorded from the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Baeten <em>et al.</em> 1984) and in view of its East African range, it seems likely that it is present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the range of this species in West and Central Africa.	eng
14207	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been patchily recorded in sub-Saharan Africa. In West Africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of Liberia (Koopman 1995), while in Central Africa it is known only from a few records in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda (Hayman <em>et al.</em> 1966; Baeten <em>et al.</em> 1984). The species is much more widely recorded in East Africa, ranging from Ethiopia in the north, through Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe through to southern South Africa.	eng
14207	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	In general, animals have been reported from dry and moist savanna, and mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It seems possible that the species is also found in tropical moist forest in Liberia and the Virunga National Park (the Democratic Republic of the Congo), however, this needs confirmation. The species roosts in caves and abandoned mines. It appears to prefer larger caves that are relatively undisturbed, usually ones that contain large pools of water (Herselman and Norton, 1985).	eng
14207	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	This is a common species with colonies often consisting of thousands of animals.	eng
14207	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
14208	conservation	Perez, S., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
14208	distribution	Perez, S., 2008	This species occurs from Honduras to Kansas and southeastern California (USA) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,300 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
14208	habitat	Perez, S., 2008	This species is usually found in evergreen or pine-oak forest and pine forest at mid and high elevations; also at lower elevations in riparian habitats near desert scrub (Reid, 1997). It roosts in tight clusters in caves, mine tunnels, buildings, and under bridges. Colonies number 50 to 15,000 individuals (Reid, 1997). This bat leaves the roost about 30 minutes after sunset and flies directly to water to drink before foraging. It usually forages just above the vegetation, with fast, direct flight. Females return to the day roost within 2 to 3 hours and feed again before dawn. Insects eaten include beetles, flying ants, and moths. Some northern populations hibernate in winter, others migrate. In Kansas, single young are born in June to July. In Veracruz, Mexico, pregnant females were caught in March and December (Hall and Dalquest, 1963; Fitch <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Reid, 1997).	eng
14208	population	Perez, S., 2008	This bat is uncommon in Central America, to common in the southwestern USA (Reid, 1997).	eng
14208	threats	Perez, S., 2008	Cave issues, like mining and tourism.	eng
14209	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There is presence of the species in Las Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve and Isla Rasa Reserve. The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction). The protection of this species is being undertaken by the Program for Mexican Bat Conservation (PCMM).	eng
14209	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs in the coast of Sonora and Baja California (Mexico), chiefly on small islands (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14209	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The most common habitat where this species occurs is interstices in rock slides, but only a few small islands contain large rock slides. Caves and crevices are used regularly. When disturbed, it seeks shelter in a wide variety of places. It has been found under flat stones just above the high tide mark and under turtle shells not exposed to direct sun. Crustaceans comprise the major food for <em>M. vivesi</em>, but this bat may eat either fish or crustaceans. The presence of predators, population pressure, temperature, and relative inclination of roost all are factors that influence the presence or absence of <em>M. vivesi</em> at any locality. Gestation takes 55 to 65 days. Some pregnant females were found in March, April and May. Females from Baja California give birth to a single young between May and June (Blood and Clark, 1998).	eng
14209	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The species was considered as rare in 1994 by the Mexican Government (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its larger population was found in Isla Partida and has being estimated between 12,000 and 15,000 individuals (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
14209	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss and alien species (like rats and cats).	eng
14210	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Forest management practices. Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14210	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Jalisco to Veracruz (Mexico); Alaska Panhandle (USA) to Baja California (Mexico), east to Northern Nuevo León (Mexico), South Dakota (USA), and Central Alberta (Canada) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14210	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	These bats are found in forested regions. They establish roosts in trees, rock crevices, fissures in stream banks, and buildings. Caves and mines are not used in the day, but <em>M. volans</em> can be captured there at night (van Zyll de Jong, 1985). Large nursery colonies, which may number in the hundreds, are formed by this species. These colonies occur most commonly in trees. Mating occurs before the bats enter hibernation in late August or September. Mature females produce one offspring, although it is unknown at what age sexual maturity is reached. Time of parturition varies with latitude. Young are born in late June and July. It is speculated that most juvenile males are sexually active. Banded individuals have been recorded living to 21 years of age (Barbour and Davis, 1969; Nagorsen and Brigham, 1993; van Zyll de Jong, 1985).	eng
14210	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Occurs in colonies of 2,000-5,000 individuals throughout much of its range. Habitats vary from desert floodplains and rocky canyonlands to the cave country from central Texas to southcentral Kansas. In summer, this species congregates in caves, mines, and less often in buildings. Most individuals in populations in Arizona and California appear to be migratory and most in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas appear to be permanent residents that hibernate in caves during winter. Flight is stronger, more direct, and with less flutter than most other bats of the genus. These bats begin emerging from the daytime roost well before dark, fill their stomachs within about 0.5 hour of foraging, and retire to some shelter such as a building, cave, or mine for a night resting period.	eng
14210	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range. Long-legged myotis may be affected by closure of abandoned mines without adequate surveys and certain forest management practices. Residues of DDT and its metabolites have been found in this species in Oregon.	eng
14211	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area and Kruger National Park in South Africa, and seem likely to be present in additional East or southern African protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14211	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded over much of East Africa and southern Africa, parts of southern Central Africa, and with a single West African locality in southeastern Guinea. In East and southern Africa it is distributed from Ethiopia and the Sudan in the north, through Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi, to Zambia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and northeastern South Africa. In Central Africa it is largely confined to southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, Rwanda and Burundi and western Uganda. It has not \been recorded from Namibia or Botswana.	eng
14211	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The species has been recorded from a range of habitats including tropical dry forest, montane tropical moist forest, both dry and moist savanna, shrublands, and high altitude grassland. Animals have been encountered roosting in buildings, caves and dense vegetation (including rolled banana leaves).	eng
14211	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Although this species is widespread, it does not appear to be particularly common.	eng
14211	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
14213	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	At the moment has not been listed in any conservation measure by the Mexican Government (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14213	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Hidalgo, Morelos and Baja California (Mexico) north to British Columbia (Canada), east to Montana and Western Texas (USA) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14213	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats, ranging from juniper and riparian woodlands to desert regions near open water (Nowak, 1991). One is almost guaranteed to find this species wherever there are rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, etc. In fact, it is more closely associated with water than any other North American species of bat (Barbour and Davis, 1969). When not near water over which to forage, these animals can be found in the thousands roosting in caves, attics, buildings, mines, underneath bridges, and other similar structures. Little is known about the migration of this species. However, it has been recorded in Texas as well as in its normal range during the winter season (Allen, 1994). This bat is a very efficient insectivorous feeder that begins foraging at dusk and usually finishes two hours after sunset (Barbour and Davis, 1969).	eng
14213	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Common.	eng
14213	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
14214	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
14214	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
14214	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia and southwestward to eastern Poland. Western coast of Sweden to northern coast of Norway, eastward to White and Barents Sea basins. In Siberia eastward to about Anadyr estuary. Northern North America. Landlocked populations in Sweden, central Finland and Karelia.	eng
14214	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Baltic coast of Sweden, Finland, Russia and southwestward to eastern Poland. Western coast of Sweden to northern coast of Norway, eastward to White and Barents Sea basins. In Siberia eastward to about Anadyr estuary. Northern North America. Landlocked populations in Sweden, central Finland and Karelia.	eng
14214	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold brackish and moderately saline water near coast; enters coastal rivers up to 200 km inland. Also landlocked in lakes. Spawns in shallow waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Diurnal in winter, largely nocturnal in summer. Lives up to 14 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Males are territorial. Spawns on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. After spawning, female leaves the nest. Juveniles move to shallow water in autumn and again to deeper water in spring, where they remain in summer. Feeds on invertebrates and fishes.	eng
14214	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold brackish and moderately saline water near coast; enters coastal rivers up to 200 km inland. Also landlocked in lakes. Spawns in shallow waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Diurnal in winter, largely nocturnal in summer. Lives up to 14 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Males are territorial. Spawns on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. After spawning, female leaves the nest. Juveniles move to shallow water in autumn and again to deeper water in spring, where they remain in summer. Feeds on invertebrates and fishes.	eng
14214	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant	eng
14214	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant	eng
14214	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
14214	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
14222	conservation	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Numbat is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Both of areas where the species occurs naturally as well as the reintroduction sites are protected areas. A recovery plan was prepared and is being implemented (Friend 1994). <br/><br/>In 1985 this species was only known from Dryandra and Perup, but captive breeding and reintroduction programs have greatly helped to reduce the risk to this species (Friend 2008). Fox control programs are seen as essential to the recovery of this species. Objectives for recovering listed by Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) included increasing the number of self-sustaining populations to at least nine and the number of animals to over 4,000. This has not been achieved however, and with the current, mysterious decline at Dryandra, the Numbat is still highly threatened.	eng
14222	distribution	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally Dryandra and Perup in south-western Western Australia. This species was formerly widespread across southern semi-arid and arid Australia. There are reintroduced populations in Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, Batalling State Forest, Tutanning Nature Reserve, and Boyagin Nature Reserve (all Western Australia). There are two fenced, reintroduced populations; Yookamurra Sanctuary (South Australia) and Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales).	eng
14222	habitat	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Numbats formerly occurred in semi-arid and arid woodlands (Eucalyptus and Acacia) and grasslands (Triodia and Plectrachne). Now they are restricted to eucalypt woodlands in the wettest periphery of the former range. This species is generally solitary and is active during the day foraging mostly on termites from dead trees, logs, and in the leaf litter. The presence of hollow logs was probably less important to the species before the introduction of foxes; they are now seen as being of prime importance (Friend 2008). At night shelter is sought from the burrows of other animals or a bed of grass inside a hollow log.	eng
14222	population	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The global population is probably under 1,000. The population at Dryandra has declined drastically, from an estimated peak of approximately 600 in 1992 to 50 today (carrying capacity at the site may be about 300). There have been no declines in Perup (where the habitat is different), and possibly some increase. There are 500-600 reintroduced within the reserves, but none of these is yet considered secure.	eng
14222	threats	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The introduction of the predatory red fox has had a profound impact and continues to be a major threat today (Friend 2008). Changed fire regimes, especially in arid grasslands and habitat destruction in some areas is a concern (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Introduced rabbits and raptors (native species whose numbers are overly elevated in fragmented woodlands) are also threats. Frequent fires can be a threat due to the reduction in the number of logs, which the species uses as shelter. The causes of the declines at Dryandra are unknown; fox control may have increased the number of feral cats in the region; the concentration of raptors may also be a problem.	eng
14224	conservation	Miranda, F. & Medri, I.M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from many protected areas. It is listed on several national red data lists, and is protected as a national heritage species in some provinces in Argentina. There is a need to improve fire management practices, especially in sugarcane plantations and within the regions of grassland habitat occupied by this species.	eng
14224	distribution	Miranda, F. & Medri, I.M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> has been recorded from Honduras in Central America, south through South America to the Gran Chaco region of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. Within Central America, the species has disappeared from much of its range, with recent sightings generally confined to highland regions. The giant anteater is considered the most threatened mammal of Central America; it seems to be extinct in Belize and Guatemala, and probably also in Costa Rica. In South America, this species is extinct in Uruguay (Fallabrino and Castiñeira 2006) and in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil (Cherem <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004); it is classified as Critically Endangered in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Fontana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) but will be categorized as Extinct in the next update of this state's Red List (C. Kasper pers. comm. 2009). Its presence in Ecuador west of the Andes needs to be confirmed.	eng
14224	habitat	Miranda, F. & Medri, I.M., 2010	This terrestrial anteater is found in tropical moist forest, dry forest, savanna habitats and open grasslands; it has also been reported from the Gran Chaco (Meritt 2008, Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008). Animals are generally solitary. Once per year, the female gives birth to a single young. Gestation length is about 190 days. The mother carries the offspring on its back for approximately six months. As it is not possible to determine their age once they reach adult size and long-term population studies on giant anteaters are lacking, there are no data on the longevity, survival rates, or reproductive rates of wild giant anteaters. The generation length is therefore unknown.	eng
14224	population	Miranda, F. & Medri, I.M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is locally uncommon to rare.	eng
14224	threats	Miranda, F. & Medri, I.M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. tridactyla</span> is at risk from habitat loss in parts of its range, and this is a significant threat to Central American populations in particular. Where this species inhabits grassland habitats it is particularly susceptible to fires. Animals are sometimes killed on roads or by dogs. Giant anteaters are hunted for food throughout their distribution, and are additionally  hunted as a pest, for pets or for illegal trade in some parts of their range.	eng
14225	habitat	Social Insects Specialist Group, 1996	This species is a slave-making ant that conducts slave raids with group recruitments and sting fighting. Forms colonies with the host ant <em>Leptothorax unifasciatus</em>. Colonies inhabit narrow galleries between and underneath small stones on rocky hill slopes in deciduous forest (birch and spruce forests).	eng
14254	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The islands where this species is found occur in a mutliple-use protected area (Archipiélago de los Canarreos).	eng
14254	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen from Cayo Maja and from several collections following (Soy pers. comm.).	eng
14254	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known. It has been described as arboreal, living in mangrove trees.	eng
14254	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Very little is known about the populations of this species.	eng
14254	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Although little is know about threats to this species, it can be inferred that hunting has been a serious threat to this species as with other hutia.	eng
14255	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The species occurs in one protected area (La Cañada).	eng
14255	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Known distribution is limited to the northern sector of Isla de la Joventud, Cuba. Its extent of occurrence is less than 480 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
14255	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known.	eng
14255	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
14255	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species has been severely affected by hunting and deforestation for agriculture and cattle.	eng
14256	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas (PN Pico Cristal, PN La Mensura, PN Alejandro de Humbolt, PN Turquino, PN Desembarco del Granma, PN Sierra Maestra).	eng
14256	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is known from the far eastern provinces of Cuba (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
14256	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The species is found only in primarly and secondary forest habitats.	eng
14256	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Populations are extremely fragmented and the species is not abundant anywhere within its range.	eng
14256	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and fragmentation all pose serious threats to this species. The species has been in decline for the last 30 years (Soy pers. comm.)	eng
14257	conservation	Soy, J., Borroto, R. & Silva, G., 2008	The species occurs in one multiple-use protected area (Sur de la Isla).	eng
14257	distribution	Soy, J., Borroto, R. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is restricted to lowland forests southwest of the central savanna of the Isla de la Joventud (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
14257	habitat	Soy, J., Borroto, R. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is poorly known, but is thought to use climbing plants or vines between trees for shelter, nests and substratum (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).	eng
14257	population	Soy, J., Borroto, R. & Silva, G., 2008	In recent expeditions, no evidence of this species has been found (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).	eng
14257	threats	Soy, J., Borroto, R. & Silva, G., 2008	The species is presumably hunted, however, it is unclear if there are many left in the wild to hunt. Introduced species (feral cats, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) are also a major threat.	eng
14258	conservation	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
14258	distribution	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species occurs across the entire mainland Cuba (Soy pers. comm.).	eng
14258	habitat	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	The species is completely arboreal and is a specialized folivore (leaf eater). It is forest dependent, and occurs in both primary and secondary forest.	eng
14258	population	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	This species is locally common. Where appropriate habitat remains, it is reported to be have one of the most dense hutia populations in Cuba (Borroto Paez and Ramos Garcia 2003).	eng
14258	threats	Soy, J. & Silva, G., 2008	Habitat destruction and fragmentation of habitat have affected the species in some portions of its range. It is hunted in some areas, but to a lesser degree than other  hutia. It is often eaten by dogs near human settlements.	eng
14259	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
14259	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found along all four countries shorelines (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC). See West (1999) for locality details.	eng
14259	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It is found in silty and sandy substrates, especially near river deltas. 7-70 meters deep.	eng
14259	population	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
14259	threats	Ngereza, C. & Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation appears to be the most crucial threat to the species according to information from Tanzania.	eng
14260	conservation	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Rats have been eradicated from both Big South Cape (where the species was last seen) and neighbouring Putauhina Island. Following these eradications, there have been several reports of bat sightings from Putauhina, and in 1999 Colin O'Donnell recorded <em>Mystacina</em>-like echolocation calls from the island that do not belong to <em>M. tuberculata</em> (O'Donnell 1999). There have also been two unconfirmed reports of bats being seen on Big South Cape. The identity of the bats being seen still must be confirmed, and although <em>M. tuberculata</em> is thought to have once inhabited these islands, the nearest populations of it or the only other New Zealand bat species (<em>Chalinolobus tuberculatus</em>) are more than 50 km away. For this reason, there is a real possibility that <em>M. robusta</em> still survives in low numbers (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Rats continue to be eradicated from all islands in this group, and more surveys for <em>M. robusta</em> are planned (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).	eng
14260	distribution	O'Donnell, C., 2008	This species is endemic to New Zealand. There have been no confirmed sightings of the species since 1967 when it was found on Big South Cape Island (near Stewart Island). It might still persist here or on other small privately-owned islands near Stewart Island.<br/><br/>It is known from subfossil remains on both North Island and South Island. By the time of European arrival, <em>c.</em>200 years ago, the species was probably already restricted to small islands off the coast of Stewart Island.	eng
14260	habitat	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Although the habitat preferences of this species are incompletely known, it is presumed to have similar requirements to <em>Mystacina tuberculata</em> in that it was a forest species that was largely restricted to undisturbed old-growth forest. Remains of this species in limestone caves suggest that it roosted in caves, and it is possible that the species also roosted in tree cavities, although there is no direct evidence for this (Lloyd 2001).	eng
14260	population	O'Donnell, C., 2008	It has not been recorded since 1967 and is possibly extinct.	eng
14260	threats	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Evidence from owl middens indicates a marked decline in this species following the introduction of the Kiore or Pacific Rat (<em>Rattus exulans</em>) to New Zealand, and it seems probable that this introduction largely resulted in the demise of <em>Mystacina robusta</em> (Lloyd 2001).	eng
14261	conservation	O'Donnell, C., 2008	<em>Mystacina tuberculata</em> is protected by New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953. Conservation is occurring using guidance from a national Bat Recovery Plan (Molloy 1995), with on-going assessments and annual work plans being co-ordinated by the national Bat Recovery Group. Management includes eradications of introduced predators from offshore islands (rats have already been eliminated from islands containing two large offshore populations), predator control at mainland sites (this is just beginning), habitat protection, trial translocations to new habitats, and general advocacy. This species occurs in a number of protected areas. More research is needed to determine the area of occupancy for the species.<br/><br/>There are three subspecies and five evolutionary significant units (ESUs) recognised by the New Zealand Bat Recovery Group and the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Lloyd 2003a,b). The national (non-IUCN) listings for these populations are as follows (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2007):<br/><br/>Northern lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata aupourica</em>, nationally endangered <br/>Eastern lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em>, at risk <br/>North-western lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em>, at risk <br/>Southern North Island lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata tuberculata</em>, nationally critical<br/>South Island lesser short-tailed bat <em>Mystacina tuberculata tuberculata</em>, nationally endangered<br/><br/>Fortunately, the population of <em>Mystacina tuberculata rhyacobia</em> on the central North Island is much bigger than originally thought. Other populations, however, cannot be considered secure such as northern and southern subspecies (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.).	eng
14261	distribution	O'Donnell, C., 2008	New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat is endemic to New Zealand where it was once widespread on North Island and South Island. It now occupies less than 30% of its historical geographic range (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.). The species is currently distributed on North Island in the Omahuta-Puketi Forest, the Waipoua and Warawara Forests, and throughout tracts of indigenous forest remnants ranging from Taranaki to East Cape and south to the Tararuas (Lloyd 2001, 2005). On South Island, populations are known from the Oparara Basin and Eglinton Valley, with calls recorded from Punakaiki (Lloyd 2001, 2005) and the Dart Valley (B. Lawrence pers. comm.). Large populations of this species are also present on the offshore islands of Little Barrier Island and Codfish Island (Lloyd 2001, 2005). Lesser short-tailed bats range from close to sea level to the upper altitudinal limits of forest cover (Lloyd 2001, 2005).	eng
14261	habitat	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Lesser short-tailed bats are associated with old-growth temperate forest, with large trees available for colonial roosts, abundant epiphytes and deep leaf-litter (Lloyd 2005). Colonial breeding trees per colony number only 20-30 and they have very specific physical and microhabitat charcteristics, which are now very rare in New Zealand forests because of the history of logging (Sedgeley 2003, 2006). The species has been recorded at low numbers in logged forest, shrubland, pine plantations, and farmland in areas adjacent to undamaged old-growth forest (Lloyd 2005). Although the species primarily roosts in tree cavities, there are records of the species using caves for roosting (Lloyd 2005). <br/><br/>It is primarily insectivorous but also comsumes nectar, pollen, and fruit (Lloyd 2005). Lesser short-tailed bats undergo periods of torpor and seasonal hibernation (Lloyd 2005). The species is thought to undertake a lek mating system, but this has yet to be proven (C. O'Donnell pers. comm.). Females annually give birth to a single young (Lloyd 2001, 2005).	eng
14261	population	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Large numbers have been recorded in undamaged old-growth forest (Lloyd 2001, 2005). The largest colonial roost recorded consisted of >6,000 animals (Lloyd 2005). The overall population of lesser short-tailed bats probably exceeds 30,000 individuals with several populations containing more than 1,000 bats (Lloyd 2005).<br/><br/>The geographic ranges of the colonies are <em>c.</em>150 km<sup>2</sup> a piece, and only about a dozen subpopulations are known (O'Donnell <em>et al.</em> 1999; Christie 2003; Lloyd 2005). Within these, the range of the 'irreplaceable colonial breeding sites' are much smaller (17 ha in one study; Christie 2003). Colonial breeding trees per colony number only 20-30 and they have very specific physical and microhabitat charcteristics, which are now very rare in New Zealand forests because of the history of logging (Sedgeley 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>The central North Island populations are large, but they are fragmented and we have little understanding of current trends there. Two of the three subpopulations that are being studied continue to decline (i.e., Oparara and Tararua). In fact, the Oparara bats (only 1 of 2 subpopulations in South Island) have not been detected for a few years now, despite considerable survey effort.	eng
14261	threats	O'Donnell, C., 2008	Old-growth roost trees are very important to the species. Lesser short-tailed bats are thought to have declined through forest clearance following human settlement of New Zealand.<br/><br/>Predation by introduced stoats and rats has also been, and continues to be, a major threat to this species. This is evident from the increase in bats on Codfish Island following the removal of Pacific rats, as well as increases in the Eglinton Valley following the initiation of comprehensive rat and stoat control. Stoats and rats are also known to visit colonial roosts, and are suspected as the reason for the critical status of the Tararua, Oparara, and Northland subpopulations in areas where no logging has occurred. Furthermore, these bats disappeared from the southern Titi Islands when ship rats were introduced.  <br/><br/>Populations of this species also appear to be minimally impacted by poisoning through consumption of bait distributed in New Zealand forests to control invasive vertebrate species, and also through secondary poisoning resulting from consumption of invertebrates that have fed on poisoned bait (Lloyd 2005).	eng
14262	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Conservation actions needed for this species include further survey work, research into the life history of the species, PHVA analysis, and increased public awareness of the species is recommended. The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
14262	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is relatively widespread across South Africa and Lesotho. There are no museum records from Swaziland, where extensive trapping for the last 10 years has not detected the species suggesting that it does not occur in this country.	eng
14262	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The species occurs in shrubland and grassland areas. A major requirement of the species is black loam with good vegetation cover. They breed once or twice a year and live up to 6 years.	eng
14262	population	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The current size of the population is not known, however, the low capture rate experienced during surveys suggest that numbers are extremely low. The population is expected to further decrease as a result of habitat loss over the next decade.	eng
14262	threats	Coetzee, N. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The main threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of agriculture. Grazing pressure is also contributing to the loss of habitat for this species.	eng
14264	conservation	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	No specific conservation actions are planned for this species.	eng
14264	distribution	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Several locations exist across Kwaulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Western Cape Provinces from Kosi Bay to the Breede River system (Skelton 2001).	eng
14264	habitat	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Estuarine species with juveniles that require freshwater reaches for growth and safety. Adults breed at sea, after maturing sexually in estuaries (Skelton 2001).	eng
14264	population	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	It inhabits probably all estuaries within its range and therefore has a large overall population size. Very little is known about population trends.	eng
14264	threats	Swartz, E., Impson, D. & Cambray, J., 2007	Instream dams and alien fish have impacted on their range in lower reaches of rivers.	eng
14288	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species has only been recorded from a few protected areas: Parc National de Marojejy (Pont and Armstrong 1990), Tampolo littoral forest (Ifticence <em>et al.</em> 2005) and near to Parc National de Masoala (Russ and Bennett 1999) and Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra (Russ and Bennett 1999). Additional study is needed to develop an understanding of local population densities and precise habitat requirements.	eng
14288	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species and family is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found in the humid zone of eastern and north-eastern Madagascar and appears to be most common at elevations lower than 500 m (Schliemann and Goodman 2003) although it has been recorded at Andasibe (ca. 970 m).	eng
14288	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Numerous studies refer to an association between <em>M. aurita</em> and the <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> plant which it is presumed to use for roosting (Schliemann and Goodman 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, there is only a single account of this reported in the literature (Schliemann and Maas 1978). Additional evidence for this association comes from observations of a captive individual (Göpfert and Wasserthal 1995) and the markedly similar upper elevational limits of both bat and plant species in eastern Madagascar (Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). The distinctive round sucker organs attached to its thumb and hind foot is used for adhering to smooth surfaces (Göpfert and Wasserthal 1995; Schliemann and Goodman 2003). Its foraging habitats are not well documented, but it has been netted inside and outside relatively intact littoral forest (Goodman 1999; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It appears to be able to survive in highly modified habitats and Russell <em>et al</em>. (2008) consider it to have benefited from deforestation.	eng
14288	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Despite its relatively wide distribution and apparent use of highly disturbed habitats there are few population data available. Russell <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated an effective population size of between 100,054 and 132,742 individuals. In some areas, <em>M. aurita</em> is locally common (P. A. Racey pers. comm.), but it is rarely trapped in large numbers during surveys (Russ and Bennett 1999; Ifticene <em>et al.</em> 2005; Rakotondraparany and Medard 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
14288	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is occasionally eaten by people when harvesting <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> plants (H. J. Razafimanahaka pers. comm.)	eng
14290	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
14294	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The red goral is listed on Appendix I of CITES, and as a Class I Protected Species in China. Legally it received total protection in 1987 (Zhang, 1991). It is known in at least four protected areas, all in Tibet: Gangxiang, Muotuo, Xiaca and Medoq. A small herd has been breeding successfully in Shang Hai Zoo. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Enforce the existing protection laws for this species. 2) Establish the proposed protected areas for this species that have not yet been acted on by the government of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). These are: a) an area of 200 km diameter, with its centre at “big turning point of Yarlung Zangbo Jiang” (Zhang, 1987); and b) an “International Mountain Research Centre” in Yegon county with eight nature reserves in the area surrounding Nanjabarva Peak (Mountaineering and Scientific Expedition, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1985). These reserves would include parts of the four counties mentioned above, and contain the core range of red goral, an area that is relatively pristine and has a widespread, complex mountain ecosystem plus a diverse fauna and flora. Obviously efforts should be made to encourage the Government of TAR to make a decision and then to organize the necessary surveys for these proposals.<br/><br/>In India, the red goral is legally protected under Schedule TIT (revised March 1987) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). It occurrence in protected areas in India is not known, and more surveys are needed to determine its conservation needs in this country.<br/><br/>This species is largely or perhaps entirely within protected areas in Myanmar (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006), notably the Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Hkakaborazi National Park.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
14294	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	This species is found in northern Myanmar, China (southeast Tibet and Yunnan), and northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh) (Grubb, 2005, Singh, 2002, Mishra, 2006). This species is found at higher elevations than most gorals, between altitudes of 2,000-4,500 m (Zhang 1987; Rabinowitz 1999; Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/>According to Shackelton (1997), this species, sometimes referred to as <em>N. cranbrooki</em>, has a narrow distribution, and inhabits the largest remaining native coniferous forests up to 4,000 m in the eastern Himalayas of southeastern Tibet. According to summer surveys carried out in this region from 1987 to 1988 (Zhang 1987, Zhang, 1991) the distribution area is between about 27° to 29°30'N and 96° to 98°E, in four prefectures of Tibet (Bomi, Nying, Mainling and Medog; Zhang 1987). This current range in southeastern Tibet is believed to be reduced considerably and is now confined to an area of less than 8,000 km² in Tongmai (Bomi), Dongjiu, Pelung, and Bayu (Linzhi) and Medog, around the junction of the Pelung Zangbo and Yarlung Zangbo rivers (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986; Zhang 1987; 1991). This goral is also known to occur in Gongshan county, southeastern Yunnan (Liu 1987; Wang 2003).<br/><br/>In Myanmar the species is confined to the northernmost part of the country, and in India it is restricted to Arunachal Pradesh, near the Chinese and Myanmar borders.	eng
14294	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The red goral inhabits forest, ragged crags, scrub and meadows from 2,000 m up to 4,500 m in summer (Smith and Xie 2008). The elevation and range where red goral is found supports one of the largest tracts of primary coniferous woodland in Asia, which along with its rocky outcrops, form the species' primary habitat (Zhang, 1987; Wang  1998; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Red gorals migrate seasonally, moving in the winter (typically, November through to March) to lower-elevation mixed deciduous and coniferous forests or glades and thickets below the snow line (Zhang, 1987; Wang 1998; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999; Rabinowitz, 1999).  Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days (Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares during the mating season. This species is typically solitary, but occasionally the animals are seen in small groups of 2-3, typically a female and her offspring, sometimes accompanied with a male, or a female with her offspring from the previous two years (Zhang, 1987; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). Mates in December, and young are born in June after a six month pregnancy (Smith and Xie 2008).  The diet consists primarily of lichens; however, it also feeds on grasses and weeds as well as tender stems, leaves, and twigs from shrubs, although no long term studies on diet have been done (Zhang, 1987; Sheng <em>et al</em>., 1999). The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so.	eng
14294	population	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Random sampling during summer field studies from 1987 to 1988 provided some information on the red goral population in Xizang (Zhang, 1991). Total numbers were estimated to be 810 to 1,370 individuals, distributed as follows: 120 to 180 for Linzhi, 60 to 220 for Bomi, 320 to 380 for Zayu, 220 to 450 Medog, and 90 to 140 for Manling (Zhang, 1991). Wang (1998) suggested that total numbers in China were less than 1,500. The species is rare in Myanmar because of a naturally restricted range, compounded by the effects of trade-driven hunting (Than Zaw and W. Duckworth pers. comm., 2006). There is little information on its status in India. Given its small range, the total population size is probably less than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
14294	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss caused by rapid forestry expansion are the major threats. Since the opening up of and the economic reforms in Tibet, hunting has had a major negative impact on the population of red goral. This is due primarily to the increasing number of immigrants and modern hunting weapons. It was said that in the three provinces of Pelung, Dingjiu and Bayu in the Linzhi county, only about 150 individuals of this species had been hunted annually before the early 1980s. Although a hunting ban was in effect over the last five years, poaching is still common and takes place most often when animals move down to their winter ranges (Zhang, 1991). Hunting is the major threat to the species in Myanmar, reflecting the same factors as listed above for China (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). It is valued when found (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). Horns are valued medicinally in China (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14295	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., MacKinnon, J. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	All gorals are listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/>In Russia, it is listed as Category I of the Russian Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). It is protected in five Nature Reserves: Lazo Reserve harbours some, Sikhote-Alin Reserve has about 200, Zheleznyakovsky Sanctuary about 50, Vasilkovsky Sanctuary about 50, and an unknown but small number in Ussuri Reserve (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). Captive breeding programs are being carried out in Lazo and Sikhote-Alin Reserves. Conservation measures proposed for Russia: 1) Reintroduce goral in appropriate areas formerly inhabited by the species to help restore its range. 2) Enlarge the size of the Sikhote-Alin Reserve to include the area south along the coastline. 3) Prohibit boats from approaching protected shores, keeping a distance of at least 0.5 km. <br/><br/>In North Korea, two areas proposed as Biosphere Reserves (Poore 1986), Mount Myohyung Nature Reserve (37,500 ha) 180 km NE of Pyongyang and Mount Paektu (Paekdu) Biosphere Reserve (132,000 ha; 41°56’N, 128°10’E), are reported to have goral. These proposed reserves lie across the border from the Changbaishan Biosphere Reserve in Jilin (China). Its status within North Korea is Indeterminate. Conservation measures proposed for North Korea: 1) Surveys of population status and distribution, followed by 2) development of conservation actions. <br/><br/>In South Korea, the Amur goral has been designated as a Natural Treasure by the Cultural Property Preservation Law in 1968, while hunting of all species was banned throughout the mainland between 1972 and 1981 (Won, 1979). Mount Seorak National Park, which contains goral, was approved as a Biosphere Reserve in 1982, and is protected by the National Monument Protection Law (No. 2233) of 1910, the law of Forestry (act 67.68) of 1908, and the National Park Law of 1962. Goral is found in two protected areas in South Korea; in Mount Seorak National Park, and rarely in Mount Odae National Park. Goral was designated as Natural Monument No. 217 on 14 November 1968 and theoretically receives full protection. Conservation measures proposed for South Korea: 1) Fully re-evaluate the species’ status. 2) Determine the feasibility of providing adequate protection through enforcing current protection measures, creating additional protected areas, or both. 3) Determine if captive breeding may also be required. However, without adequate habitat protection, this measure would be basically academic.<br/><br/>In China, long-tailed goral are categorized as a Class II species. It occus in most of the nature reserves located within its range in the North China and the Northeast China Regions. These include Taoshan and Jinpuohu (Heilongjiang); Chanbaishan and Zuojia (Jilin); and Suzihe (Liaoning).<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
14295	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., MacKinnon, J. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Long-tailed goral are found in eastern Russia (Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories), northeastern China, the Republic of Korea, and the Democratic People’s Republic (DPR) of Korea (Grubb, 2005). In Russia, long-tailed goral were previously distributed along almost the entire southern half of Sikhote-Alin range, (i.e. the entire Primorsky Territory and southern part of Khabarovsk Territory) and on the southern end of the Bureya range, although its occurrence in this last area is uncertain. In the 1960s and 1970s goral were repeatedly observed along the left tributaries of the Khor river, along the Kafen, Chuken and Sukpay rivers, on the western slopes of Central Sikhote-Alin (approximately 47°N, 137°E) (Dunishenko, 1983). The third part of this species range occupies mostly the eastern slope of Sikhote-Alin along the coast of the Sea of Japan, between 43°40'N and 45°N, and also all the southern end of Sikhote-Alin range (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). The fourth part occurs along the Chinese-Russian border in the Khasan region. A fifth area reportedly exists along the same border south of Khanka lake. Its distribution within these parts is patchy because goral are confined to specific habitat—steep rocky slopes covered with sparse, montane broad-leaved forest, from sea level to about 1,000 m (Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961).<br/><br/>In China the long-tailed  goral is found in the northeast, and stretches along the Xiao Hinggan Ling mountains (Lesser Khingan range), along the lower reaches of Sungari and Amur rivers in eastern Jilin and Heilong Jiang, and eastern Liaoning, and includes the Changbaishan range (Jilin) on the border with North Korea (Wang 2002, Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>In DPR Korea, little is known of the recent distribution of this species (Shackleton, 1997). It is likely that it occurs (or occurred) in the Hamgyong mountains which lie inland from the northeastern coastline, and in the Taebaek mountains in the southwest and which continue into the Republic of Korea. A third area where it may occur is the Nanghim mountains in the north-central part of North Korea. These are extensions of the Changhai mountains from Jilin (China).<br/><br/>In the Republic of Korea, it is restricted to the Seorak mountains at the northern end of the Taebaek range (Won 1997).	eng
14295	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., MacKinnon, J. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species inhabits steep mountainous areas and will sometimes use evergreen forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged, rocky terrain. It inhabits steep and rocky terrain in evergreen and deciduous forests, especially with exposed grassy ridges from about 500-2,000 m asl. It eats a wide range of plant material: grass, herbs and shoots, leaves of small trees, nuts, and even some fruit. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares during the mating season. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals, with older males usually solitary. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. It keeps to steeper slopes where it is very agile over rocky crags and cliffs. The gestation length is 250-260 days (Myslenkov and Voloshina, 1989). Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so. Mating takes place in early winter, and one, or rately two-three, kids born about six months later.	eng
14295	population	Duckworth, J.W., MacKinnon, J. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In 1977, the total number in Russia was estimated at 600 to 750 animals (Bromley, 1977). Myslenkov and Voloshina (1989) indicated no decline in numbers or disappearance of any known local population, and that numbers along the Sea of Japan may have been slowly increasing. Lazo District has about 300 animals, Terneisky District around 250, Olginsky District 80, and Dalnegorsky District 15 to 20 goral. Population density in several places, for example in Sikhote-Alin Reserve, reaches 35 animals/km². In South Korea, less than 50 animals are estimated to remain on Konbong mountain in Konsong-gun, Kangwon Province, near the demilitarised zone (DMZ) (Won, 1988). <br/><br/>There are no estimates for DPR Korea. Won (1997) estimated less than 50 animals, but the basis for this is unclear. There are no reliable populations estimates for long-tailed goral in China. Smith and Xie (2008) considered it to be much reduced in numbers.	eng
14295	threats	Duckworth, J.W., MacKinnon, J. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The threats in Russia are poaching, which may be increasing. In DPR Korea and the Republic of Korea, major threats to its survival include habitat loss due to forestry, agriculture, and poaching. Threats in China include hunting, snaring, habitat degradation, and competition from domestic livestock (Smith and Xie 2008). Hunting is both for traditional medicine, and meat.	eng
14296	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	<em>Naemorhedus goral</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/><em>N. g. goral</em> is listed as a Class II protected species and receives some protection in the Qomolangma Nature Reserve on the border with Nepal. Conservation measures proposed for China: 1) Determine status and distribution before 2) developing a detailed conservation strategy.<br/><br/>Goral in Bhutan are known to occur in Doga, and Royal Manas National Parks (Green, 1987b), and appear to be well protected in Jigme Dorji National Park (Wollenhaupt, 1989d, Johnsingh 2005), and Black Mountains and Thrumsingla National Parks. Although Doga National Park was established mainly to protect this goral, the habitat is so degraded by exploitation that the Park is of almost no conservation value for the species (Blower, 1986; Wollenhaupt, 1989a) and has since been removed from the country’s protected areas system. Conservation measures proposed for Bhutan: Surveys to determine numbers and distribution.<br/><br/>In India, both the Western Himalayan goral (<em>N. goral bedfordi</em>) and the Eastern Himalayan goral (<em>N. g. gopal</em>) are listed as Lower Risk/near threatened, which allows adult male goral to be hunted under special license. This status has essentially been applied to all forms of goral and accepted by all states except Nagaland and in Himachal Pradesh where goral are legally and completely protected. Some 50 protected areas in India are reported to include some goral (Singh, 1985; Rodgers and Panwar, 1988; Pandey 2002), including  Jammu and Kashmir - Kishtwar National Park, Nandni and Surinsar Mansar Wildlife Sanctuaries, and possibly in Limber Game Reserve and Overa-Aru Wildlife Sanctuary (latest surveys fail to document species’ presence); Himachal Pradesh- Great Himalayan National Park, Bandi Churdar, Chail, Daranghati, Darlaghat, Gamgul Siahbehi, Kalatop-Khajjiar, Kanawar, Khokhan, Kugti, Lippa Asrang, Majathal, Manali, Naina Devi, Nargu, Raksham Chitkul, Renuka, Rupi Bhaba, Sangla valley, Sechu Tuan Nala, Shikari Devi, Shilli (locally threatened), Simbalbara, Simla Water Catchment, Talra, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttaranchal (Negi 2002) - Corbett, Nanda Devi, Rajaji and Valley of Flowers National Parks, Askot, Sonanadi, Binsar, Musorriie, Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; Megahalaya - Balphakram National Park; and Assam - possibly in Buxa Tiger Reserve. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh) which includes the range of <em>N. g. bedjordi</em>. 2) Develop a management program for goral living outside protected areas. Habitat alteration and disturbance by heavy grazing and hunting will continue to negatively affect goral populations throughout northern India. However, it is apparently able to survive in areas of substantial human farming and grazing activity, as long as patches of rugged, brush-covered slopes are maintained. 3) Develop a management plan to prevent overhunting in non-protected areas, and to increase effective protection in parks and sanctuaries, if viable populations are to be maintained.<br/><br/>In Nepal, goral occurs in eight National Parks (Khaptad, Lake Rara, Langtang, Makalu-Barun (and Conservation Area), Royal Bardia, Royal Chitwan, Sagarmatha, and Shey-Phoksundo; Wegge and Oli 1997), as well as within the Annapurna Conservation Area, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Parsa Wildlife Reserve. Conservation measures for Nepal include:  1) In some areas, consider a management program for sustainable, low level, subsistence hunting by local villagers and trophy hunting, after goral population censuses and productivity studies have been made. Basic research on the relationship between habitat type and goral abundance is vital if subsistence cropping is to be promoted. 2) DNPWC could perhaps conduct a case study of this relationship within one of the park buffer zones. This would not only provide the much needed data, but also might deflect some of the local concern about crop damage caused by this species). <br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>The subspecies in Pakistan is legally protected, as are all wild mammals in the country, but enforcement of the laws is not satisfactory. A proposal has been made (Green 1993) that Margalla Hills NP should include a 3,100 ha enclosure for captive breeding and reintroductions. In 1988, between 40 and 60 goral were reported in this National Park (Maqsood, 1989). Known protected areas with goral include: NWFP – Haripur (previously Abbottabad) District: Makhunal GR, Surrana GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Mansehra District: Manshi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Mardan District: Sudham GR; Swat District: Giddar Baik WS, Daggar GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Boner District: Totalai GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Nowshera District: Manglot WS or Nizampur GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); ad Jammu and Kashmir - Muzaffarabad District: Salkhala WS, Ghamot GR, Machiara GR, Qazi Nag GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1986); and Federal Capital Territory - Margalla Hills NP (Maqsood, 1989). Conservation measures proposed for Pakistan: 1) Secure the protection of the population in the Margalla Hills NP. 2) Establish several other focal areas (see General conservation measures proposed above). 3) To this end, there is an urgent need to obtain more information about the actual distribution and status of the species. 4) Identify areas suitable for protection at the same time that censuses are made. 5) Develop and implement conservation management strategies, including populations on private lands.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
14296	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The Himalayan goral is found across the Himalayas including Bhutan, China (southern Tibet), northern India (including Sikkim), Nepal, and northern Pakistan (Grubb 2005) and possibly western Myanmar (though in this assessment we treat gorals in Myanmar, and in northeast India east and south of the Brahmaputra, as <em>Naemorhedus griseus</em>, pending further resolution of their taxonomy).<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/>This subspecies, also referred to <em>N. goral hodgsoni</em> in China (Smith and Xie 2008), has a narrow distribution zone in China that is located in the border area of Tibet. Specimens have been collected from Cuona, Gyirong (Zongga) and Zhangmo. In Bhutan, goral occurs throughout the northern third of the country. Goral are also found across most of the southern slopes of the Himalayas of northern India from Jammu and Kashmir to eastern Arunachal Pradesh, as far as the Brahmaputra.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>N. goral bedfordi</em> and <em>N. g. goral</em> are apparently separated by Nepal, with the former occurring in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, and the latter in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Sathyakumar 2002). In India, the Himalayan goral is apparently patchily distributed along the Himalayan mountain ranges in Jammu and Kashmir, with reports of its presence in Dachigam National Park (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>., unpublished data), Kisthwar National Park and possibly in the Limber Wildlife Sanctuary. It is still widely distributed and locally common in the Sutlej and Beas River catchments of Himachal Pradesh (Cavallini 1992; Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986; Gaston 1986; Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981, 1983). Reports also confirm its continued presence between 1,600 and 2,100 m in the Simla Water Catchment Reserve and the Chail and Majathal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuaries in Himachal Pradesh (Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981; Lovari and Apollonio 1993). Goral is also widespread in Uttaranchal Pradesh (Singh 1985; Negi 2002). Goral are present at elevations of 1,800 to 2,000 m in much of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (Green 1985), 1,680 to 3,600 m in Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986), and 1,900 to 2,500 m at Kunj Kharak (northeast of Corbett National Park), Uttaranchal. It is found between 900 and 2,750 m in the eastern Himalayan states of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. <br/><br/>In Nepal, Himalayan goral are widely distributed on the forested slopes up to the timberline (Wegge and Oli 1997). Goral are found in northern Myanmar, although their species status remains uncertain, and no recent distribution data are available. <br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>In Pakistan, this goral occurs in the outer Himalayan foothills that form the western extremity of the species’ range. Roberts (1977) stated that within the Federal Capital Territory and the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab Province, it inhabited the Murree foothills and the Margalla range. However, its present occurrence in Punjab is doubtful (Chaudhry, unpublished data). Roberts (1977) also mentioned the occurrence of the species in Azad Jammu and Kashmir in parts of the Neelum Valley beyond Ath Muqam (District Muzaffarabad), while Qayyum (1985) and the Zoological Survey Department (1986) describe it in the District of Kotli, at three places in the District of Muzaffarabad, and in the region of Poonch. In the NWFP, its range extends from the Districts of Abbottabad, Mansehra, Mardan, Kohistan and Swat, to the areas of Dir, Malakand and Nowshera which possibly still form the western limit of its range. The main surviving population in Pakistan is probably in the Indus Kohistan region between Swat and the Kunhar Valley catchment (Roberts 1977). The gray goral has been recorded from 1,000 up to 4,000 meters.	eng
14296	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The species inhabits steep mountainous areas and will sometimes use evergreen forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged rocky terrain. Himalayan gorals feed on grassy ridges and steep rocky slopes, but hide in forest or rock crevices; it seeks shelter under rock overhangs. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares durring the mating season. Males usually single; otherwise found in pairs or small parties. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals; older males are usually solitary. The diet consists of grasses, leaves, twigs, fruits, and nuts. The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at three, sometimes two years (Hayseen <em>et al</em> 1993), with a lifespan of up to 15 years.	eng
14296	population	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	<em>Naemorhedus goral goral</em><br/>No estimate of population size is available in China, but numbers are thought to be small (Feng <em>et al</em>., 1986). In India, densities have been variously estimated: 2.6/km² in Kedarnath Sanctuary in Uttaranchal (Green 1987a), 1.2/km² in Daranghati Sanctuary, 1.5/km² in Rupi Bhaba Sanctuary, and 4.6 to 10.5/km² in Majathal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary (Lovari and Apollonio, 1993), all in Himachal Pradesh (Pandey 2002). If suitable habitats are available in the absence of excessive hunting - even with moderate human disturbance (e.g. grass and fodder cutting) - goral can occur in good numbers. Its forested habitat makes censusing populations difficult in Nepal.<br/><br/><em>Naemorhedus goral bedfordi</em><br/>There is no total estimate of population size for <em>N. g. bedfordi</em>. Two hundred animals were counted during a wildlife census by the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1987). A total of 233 were estimated in the NWF in 1992 (NWFP, 1992). During this census, no goral were recorded in Abbottabad or Swat Districts. Eight-hundred ninety-three were estimated in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Qayyum, 1986-87). Margalla Hills National Park contains an estimated 40 to 60 goral, and the population was believed to be slowly increasing (Maqsood, 1989).	eng
14296	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	The main threats come from habitat destruction, hunting, and possibly from competition with livestock (Maqsood, 1989).<br/><br/>In China, hunting is probably the main threat to its survival; however, the extent is unknown. It may be limited due to the predominant religious beliefs of Tibetan people, which reduces hunting. In Bhutan, although some parts of the range are in reasonable condition, in other areas, its habitat is being destroyed by overgrazing by livestock, and in the area previously in Doga National Park, by grass burning during the dry season (Blower, 1985a).  <br/><br/>In India, within protected areas, the status of goral populations is probably satisfactory. Nevertheless, they are often hunted for meat even within many of the protected areas. The most significant threat to them is severe habitat disturbance and alteration, particularly in the lower portions of the Himalayas and in northeastern India. However, limited disturbance and habitat alteration that creates or maintains some shrub and forest cover, may not be greatly detrimental to the survival of goral populations. In Nepal, the threats are poaching, and habitat destruction resulting from logging, agriculture and livestock grazing.	eng
14303	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Rattanawat Chaiyarat, 2008	The Chinese goral is listed on Appendix I of CITES<br/><br/>In China, the taxon is a Class II protected species. Protection is not very effective because local people are mostly ignorant of the legislation. It is probably occurs in many protected areas within Yunnan, Guizhou, and eastern Tibet, but the degree of actual protection is unknown. The conservation priority for China is to control hunting so that populations can recover.<br/><br/>Populations in Thailand are all within protected areas and appear to be stable (A. Pattanavibool, R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, goral is believed to occur in only three protected areas: Doi Chiang Dao, Om-Koi/Mae Tun, and Salawin Wildlife Sanctuaries. Conservation measures proposed for Thailand: It is critical to determine the status and distribution of goral immediately so that steps can be taken to protect the remaining populations.  <br/><br/>Some populations are within protected areas within Myanmar where for the most past they are not heavily hunted (Than Zaw pers. comm.2006). However, in the 1980s, poaching was common in the proposed Kyaukpandaung National Park (Blower, 1985b; FAO, 1983a), and also in the proposed Natma Taung National Park (Blower, 1985b; FAO, 1983b).  It probably is found in Tamanthi, or Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuaries and in the proposed Alaungdaw Kathpa Wildlife Sanctuary.<br/><br/>In India is presumably occurs in several protected areas, including the Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh. It is a priority to carry out more surveys for this species in northeastern India to assess conservation needs.<br/><br/>The taxonomic validity of this species, and its relationship to other species in the genus <em>Naemorhedus</em> needs to be assessed.	eng
14303	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Rattanawat Chaiyarat, 2008	This species is found in Myanmar (western and eastern), most of China (except the far north and west), northeastern India (east and south of the Brahmaputra), northwestern Thailand, and extreme northern Viet Nam (Lovari 1997). There have been suggestions that this species is found in central Lao PDR (Shackleton 1997), however, this information is incorrect (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; W. Duckworth, pers comm. 2006). It might possibly occur in extreme northern Lao PDR, and records from Bangladesh require confirmation. In Thailand, it is restricted to hills along the Ping River, including on Doi Mon Chong (1,600 to 1,970 m), Northern Tak Province, to the west of the Bhumibol Dam (Nabhitabhata, 1983; Lovari 1997). The southern extent of this species in Myanmar is also uncertain (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The long-tailed goral is a widespread species found through much of southern, southeastern and central China, in Gansu and Shaanxi, Sichuan, and western Hubei (Smith and Xie 2008). It also occurs in the adjacent mountain ranges of Defan and Weining in northwestern Guizhou, and in Guinan in eastern Qinghai (Li <em>et al</em>., 1989). Isolated populations are scattered through the subtropical deciduous forests of the low mountains and hills of southern Shaanxi, southern Anhui, south of Zhejiang and north of Fujian, in eastern Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan to the northern part of Guangdong and most parts of Guizhou and eastern Guangxi (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997). Long-tailed gorals are also found from the Helan mountains (Ningxia) to include the Luliang and Heng mountain ranges of northern Shanxi, and the Daqinshan north of Hohhot (Inner Mongolia), and east as far as the mountain regions of north Hebei (north and west of Beijing) and the Taiyue mountains south of Yuci (Shanxi).	eng
14303	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Rattanawat Chaiyarat, 2008	The species inhabits steep areas and plateaus in mountainous areas and will sometimes use subtropical mixed forests and evergreen-deciduous forests near cliffs, but primarily stays within rugged rocky terrain. Gorals are diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late evening, but can be active throughout on overcast days. Group home range size is typically around 40 hectares, with males occupying marked territories of 22-25 hectares durring the mating season. They typically live in small groups of 4-12 individuals, with older males usually solitary. The diet consists of grasses, leaves, twigs, and nuts. The gestation length is 170-218 days, with single births. Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately three years, with a lifespan of up to 15 years or so.	eng
14303	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Rattanawat Chaiyarat, 2008	There has been no estimate of total population size, but numbers are believed to be declining in much of its range due to hunting. There is a single local density estimate of ca. 5 goral/km² in Om-Koi Wildlife Sanctuary on Doi Mon Chong mountain, Tak Province, Thailand (Lovari and Apollonio, 1993). It is probably reasonably numerous in places where conservation is effective, though there are few such places through most of its range.	eng
14303	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Rattanawat Chaiyarat, 2008	The decline in numbers is believed to be due to mainly to over-hunting, and goral are frequently hunted or snared by the local people for meat, fur and medicines. These animals are hunted in the northern portion of Myanmar for their pelts (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). The species used to be hunted in Thailand, but not so much now. Populations in Thailand are all within protected areas and appear to be stable (A. Pattanavibool, R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). It is not so much affected by habitat loss as it is largely confined to rugged, inaccessible areas. However, competition with livestock might be a problem in some places.	eng
14316	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Known only from a restricted area from the southern Kaokoveld in northern Namibia.	eng
14316	habitat	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Possibly a hypogean species (living in underground water), collected incidentally in surface springs.	eng
14325	conservation	Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Han, K.H., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary in Sarawak (Han pers. comm.).	eng
14325	distribution	Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is found on Sumatra, Java, Borneo and adjacent islands. It is found up to about 1,070 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14325	habitat	Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Han, K.H., 2008	It prefers mature forest though it is also known to occur in secondary and selectively logged forest in the Malaysian part of Borneo (Han pers. comm.). It feeds on mosses, and is usually found on tree trunks (Han pers. comm.). This species is not easily trapped because it is not attracted to bananas or other fruit (Han pers. comm.).	eng
14325	population	Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is a moderately common species in suitable habitat but it is difficult to trap (Han pers. comm.). It is known from only five specimens from Sarawak (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14325	threats	Francis, C., Gumal, M. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural conversion and logging, though this is not a major threat (Han and Giman pers. comm.).	eng
14326	conservation	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Sozen, M., 2008	Found in protected areas (e.g. Kouf National Park, Libya). No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. Yaxonomic research is required to determine whether this taxon in fact represents a number of different species.	eng
14326	distribution	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Sozen, M., 2008	This species is found in isolated pockets of appropriate habitat in coastal north-east Libya and central coastal Egypt. It is widespread in the eastern Mediterranean and ranges north into Turkey. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
14326	habitat	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Sozen, M., 2008	It occurs in dry steppes, semi-desert, and occurs marginally in desert habitats. It is also found in cultivated fields. Strictly fossorial.	eng
14326	population	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Sozen, M., 2008	It is a widespread, relatively common species that is considered a pest in some areas.	eng
14326	threats	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Kryštufek, B. & Sozen, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Regular ploughing of fields disturb the burrows of this species and may have a negative impact on local populations.	eng
14327	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	It is found in protected areas.	eng
14327	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	May occur on Lesbos (Greece) (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999), also occurs on east Aegean islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada (Turkey) (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Found throughout most of Anatolia, and in Armenia and Georgia. Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.	eng
14327	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	This species occurs in Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia, and also on the east Aegean islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada (Turkey) (Wilson and Reeder 2005). May occur on Lesbos (Greece) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Elevation range is from sea level to over 3000 m.	eng
14327	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	A strictly subterranean species that dwells in open, dry steppe habitat.	eng
14327	population	Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	The species is common.	eng
14327	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Yigit, N. & Amori, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present, although large-scale agriculture is a concern.	eng
14328	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It occurs within protected areas within its range. Taxonomic research is required (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in north-west Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
14328	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in northwest Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
14328	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The lesser mole rat occurs from Hungary and the Balkan peninsula through Moldova and the Ukraine to just east of the Dnestr river in Russia. It may also occur outside Europe in northwest Anatolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
14328	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kryštufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).	eng
14328	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kryštufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).	eng
14328	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The mole rat inhabits steppe grassland, meadows and pastures, in areas with a deep layer of loose, freely-draining soil in which it digs its extensive burrows. It is absent from ploughed land and arable monocultures, although it may be found in agricultural lanscapes where there is a mixture of pastures, small crop-fields and orchards. It has a slow reproductive rate, raising litters of only 2-4 young (Kry?tufek 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).	eng
14328	population	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kryštufek 1999). <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are  well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kryštufek 1999). <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are  well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	It has undergone range contractions and population declines in Europe. However, there are still areas where it is locally quite abundant. Population densities typically fall in the range of 1-13 individuals per hectare, but values of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been reported (Kry?tufek 1999). <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is regarded as a superspecies that contains a number of forms that are  well-differentiated at both a genotypic and phenotypic level, although their taxonomy remains unresolved. Some of these forms have very restricted ranges, and presumably small populations (Kry?tufek 1999, B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14328	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Giovanni Amori, 2006	The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
14328	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
14328	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss and land-use changes related to agricultural intensification and increased urbanisation and infrastructure development. It disappears when natural grasslands or pastures are ploughed up. When it was more common, it was an agricultural pest, and it is still persecuted as such in some areas (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
14331	distribution	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Collected in Roadside Cave (Walsingham Tract), Hamilton Parish.	eng
14331	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Found in a (marine) limestone cave located 110 m inland from Harrington Sound. It has no visible connection with the sea or other caves. Tides in the pool are 57% of those in the open ocean with a lag time of 80 min. The water in the pool is very clear with no visible particles. The cave may serve as a refugium for rare and less competitive species.	eng
14331	population	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Known only from two specimens.	eng
14333	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to determine if there have been any local declines in this species resulting from the loss of food trees.	eng
14333	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and western parts of Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west, through each country in West Africa to Cameroon, with a single record from the southern region of Central African Republic. It is generally a lowland species, but has been recorded up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
14333	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is generally considered a species of lowland rain forest, but has also been recorded from moist savanna (Guinea Savanna), savanna mosaic habitats, and into drier Sudanian woodland and savanna. Populations have also been recorded from gallery forest and isolated forest patches. It seems to be relatively adaptable to cultivated areas, with animals recorded from tree plantations, botanic gardens, farm areas, and rural gardens. The species shows some migratory patterns with both sexes moving between forest and savanna habitats.	eng
14333	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species can be abundant, although this partly depends on migration patterns.	eng
14333	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In general there appear to be no current major threats to this species as a whole. The species is dependent on certain food trees where they visit flowers, and habitat degradation might be a problem in parts of the range.	eng
14352	conservation	Meijaard, E., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by law throughout its range (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). In some portions of its range its legal protection suffers from governmental and institutional deficiencies, including lack of conservation funds and knowledge, and poor and inappropriate management (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). It is known to occur in 16 protected areas: Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, Gunung Palung Nature Reserve, Kendawangan Nature Reserve, Kutai National Park, Lesan Protection Forest, Muara Kaman Nature Reserve, Mandor Reserve, Tanjung Putting National Park (Indonesia); Bako National Park, Gunung Pueh Forest Reserve, Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Klias National Park, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sungei Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Ulu Segama Reserve (Malaysia). It formerly occurred in Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve (Indonesia), but is now extirpated there.<br/> <br/>This species is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia, as, owing to their dietary specialization on particular leaves and other vegetable material, they are hard to keep alive (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).	eng
14352	distribution	Meijaard, E., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo, occurring in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It was orignally found over the whole of coastal Borneo, as well as on the satellite islands of Berhala, Sebatik and Pulau Laut (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>N. l. larvatus </em><br/>It has the same range as the species as a whole, with the exception of northeastern Kalimantan.<br/><br/><em>N. l. orientalis</em><br/>It is restricted to northeastern Kalimantan, Indonesia.	eng
14352	habitat	Meijaard, E., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is associated with riparian-riverine forests, coastal lowland forest, including mangroves, peat swamp, and freshwater swamp forest (Boonratana 2000). It rarely ranges far from its local habitat?s waterway (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). It has been suggested that it is restricted to the coastal areas and areas near rivers because the interior has soils that are low in minerals and salts, which are a necessary part of its diet (Bennett and Sebastian 1988). It is found at low elevations, up to no more than about 350 m asl (Meijaard and Nijman 2000).<br/><br/>The species is mostly folivorous (about 52% of all feedings) and frugivorous (about 40% of all feedings), and prefers young leaves and unripened non-fleshy fruits. Monthly diet of this species changes with availability throughout the year (Yeager 1989). Boonratana (2000) observed this species swimming across the Kinabatangan River in northern Borneo, and frequently across its tributaries. The home range size of a focal one-male group was 220.5 ha (Boonratana 2000). Boonratana (2000) reports that this species never entered agricultural lands, nor areas used intermittently as log dumps for logging operations carried out in the area before and during the study. This species returned to the river every night at the study site of Sukau, moving inland during the day (Boonratana 2000). It avoids areas with heavy deforestation, such as agricultural land (Salter and MacKenzie 1985). Where there is no hunting the species can persist in disturbed forests and secondary habitats.	eng
14352	population	Meijaard, E., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	In Sarawak, less than 1,000 animals are thought to remain in patchily distributed populations. In Sabah, the only remaining large populations are in the Kinabatangan flood plain, and around Dewurst Bay in the Eastern Deltas. Brunei estuaries support one population. The species is in greater abundance in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), where Meijaard surveyed the population. The Indonesian populations range in size from over 1,000 to less than 100, depending on past and current threats (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). The Pulau Kaget Nature Reserve population in South Kalimantan has reportedly been extinct since 1997 (Meijaard and Nijman 2000). Also, the population in the Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan which would have numbered in the thousands up until the early 1990s, has now been decimated due to conversion of the coastal swamps to shrimp farms (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).	eng
14352	threats	Meijaard, E., Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	Because of this species? association with riverine and coastal habitat, the major cause for its recent decline is thought to be habitat destruction. People favour these animals? habitats for logging, cultivation, and settlement. The planned land use for Central Kalimantan cited by E. Meijaard illustrates this tendency, with much of the riverine forest being marked for conversion. Clearing riverbanks and mangroves has a significant impact. Forest fires, especially those along the rivers, have a major impact on distribution. The 1997-1998 Bornean forest fires were thought to have destroyed the greatest proportion of remaining habitat of any primate in Kalimantan.<br/><br/>The species is relatively lethargic and easily hunted; with little effort entire populations can be hunted to extirpation. Opportunistic hunting of <em>Nasalis larvatus</em> for food occurs; the species is also hunted for bezoar stones, an intestinal secretion used in traditional Chinese medicine. Hunting has been felt most significantly in the Bornean interior, but is increasing in coastal areas (Meijaard and Nijman 2000).	eng
14357	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The mountain coati is not included in the species lists of any protected area. The species is protected by game species resolution in Venezuela but is not protected in Ecuador or Colombia (Glatston, 1994).	eng
14357	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The mountain coati is found in the Andes in Colombia, western Venezuela and Ecuador. The species is found from 1,800 m to as high as 4,260 m (Tirira 2007, Linares 1998)	eng
14357	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Very little is known of the ecology of this species. It is known to be a high altitude specialist living in the cloud forest and paramo of the Andes at elevations over 2,000 m. It is assumed that it is similar to other procyonids in that it is somewhat arboreal and omnivorous. Five principal food categories were found in mountain coati's diet: invertebrates, vertebrates, fruits, vegetable remains and undetermined food items (Rodríguez-Bolaños <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14357	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population of the mountain coati is unknown but it is believed that it is not common.	eng
14357	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has limited distribution and is undoubtedly affected by deforestation. In many parts of the Andes the cloud forest is being converted to agriculture and the paramo is being planted with pine forest (Bisbal, 1987).	eng
14358	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
14358	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, and Bahamas Islands (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14358	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). Gervais's funnel-eared bats live in forested tropical lowlands and foothills. They typically roost in large colonies in warm, humid mines or deep caves (Thompson 2004).<br/>The mating system of <em>N. lepidus</em> is not kown. They are thought to be monoestrous, with the breeding season occurring in December and January. They have one large young at a time after an 8 to 10 month gestation period. There seems to be an extended embryonic development and the young are relatively large when born, weighing almost 50% of the mother's weight at birth (Thompson 2004). In Cuba roosts in hot caves wide distribuition in all island (Silva-Taboada, 1979).	eng
14358	population	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	They roost in small to large colonies, which may be sexually segregated while young are developing into maternity roosts and male roosts (Thompson 2004).	eng
14358	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Cave mining and tourism.	eng
14359	conservation	Mancina, C.,  Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
14359	distribution	Mancina, C.,  Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Providencia Islands (Colombia) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14359	habitat	Mancina, C.,  Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This bat is an obligate cave roosting species. Its biology is poorly known. It is insectivorous. A female with an embryo was caught in December; and two lactating females were found in July (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005). 15 to 17 caves used by the species in Cuba.	eng
14359	population	Mancina, C.,  Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This bat is frequent to locally common (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  Not so abundant in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.).	eng
14359	threats	Mancina, C.,  Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Threats to the caves (mining, tourism).	eng
14360	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
14360	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Islands of Lesser Antilles north of St Lucia Chanel: Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Martinique, Montserrat, Nevis, Saba, and Sait Maarten (skeletal remains only) (Tejedor 2006).	eng
14360	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Only found in dark humid caves. Usually in the most remote portions of the cave system. Often capured in xerophitic habitats among dry forest scrub (Pedersen 2005). Ocurs from sea level to middle elevation.	eng
14360	population	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Locally common in at least four islands (L. Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
14360	threats	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Cave issues (mining and tourism), hurricanes, volcanic eruptions.	eng
14361	conservation	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
14361	distribution	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	This species is known from Islands of the Bahamas (Simmons, 2005).	eng
14361	habitat	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). These bats are found exclusively in Bahamian dry-deciduous forests. Deep caves, where hot and moist conditions are maintained continuously, are the single most important habitat requirement. During their active hours Bahaman funnel-eared bats forage for insects in the dense understory of surrounding forests. Nothing is known of the reproduction or mating systems of Bahaman funnel-eared bats, but they are most likely polygynous. (Burns and Yahnke 2006)<br/>Generally colonies of Bahaman funnel-eared bats leave their roost 30 minutes after sundown. Bahaman funnel-eared bats are such agile flyers that they are rarely caught in mist nets. For this reason, little is know about their natural history (Burns and Yahnke 2006).	eng
14361	population	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Females form maternity colonies in which they give birth to and care for their young. Females are completely responsible for the care of their young. Giving birth to just one offspring per event means that females allocate all of their efforts to the single young. (Burns and Yahnke 2006). Nothing is known of the longevity/lifespan of Bahaman funnel-eared bats.	eng
14361	threats	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Restricted to caves. Climatic changes.	eng
14362	conservation	Dávalos, L., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Restricted entirely to cave habitats. Conservation of cave habitats and karstic regions is important for species. The species distribution includes well preserved areas, where it can be abundant in karstic areas or where caves occur. Its population is unlikely to be declining at a rate to qualify it for inclusion in any of the threat categories. This is one of the few bats which is completely (also morphologically) dependent on caves. Caves are also currently threatened by vampire control programs - which are non specific and kill all bats in caves. These are also fragile species and die easily.	eng
14362	distribution	Dávalos, L., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is known from northern Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and French Guiana; also in Trinidad and Tobago, Curacao and Bonaire (Netherlands Antilles) (Simmons 2005). Its  upper elevation range was thought to be around 548 m (Eisenberg 1989) but there are records from 1,000 m.	eng
14362	habitat	Dávalos, L., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The species tolerates both dry and wet habitats, but most specimens are encountered in dry deciduous forest (Eisenberg 1989). Occasionally found in rainforest, but more often in more arid habitats of deciduous or dry forest, and in gardens and plantations (Emmons and Feer 1997). The species feeds on insects. It roosts in the dark recesses of humid caves, where they hang singly or in groups of well-separated individuals, sometimes in colonies of thousands. They may be restricted to regions with caves and karstic environments  (which are absent in much of the Amazon basin). They fly with a fluttering flight low over the ground, and use the large tail membrane to catch insects. Completely cave dependent - and to a specific cave type (Davalos and Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
14362	population	Dávalos, L., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Widespread. The species is an aerial insectivore and as such under sampled by mist netting; the species is known from few specimens.	eng
14362	threats	Dávalos, L., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Destruction and vandalism of caves. If associated with karstic environments, it may be vulnerable. Very little known about general ecology and habits.	eng
14363	habitat	Red List Standards & Petitions Subcommittee, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
14367	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations occur in a number of protected areas (Caucasian Biosphere Reserve, Sochi National Park, Riza Relict National Park, Pitzunda-Mussera Reserve, Gumista Reserve, Lagodechi Reserve and numerous others). There is a strong need to eradicate the raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em> from the region to prevent further declines.	eng
14367	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from south Russia Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey The distribution range covers the western Transcaucasia from the vicinity of the town Tuapse in the west up to the Chorokh River in the south-east. From Tuapse the distribution range crosses the Great Caucasus Range and stretched on the foothills up to the confluence of the rivers Urushten and Lesser Laba. This species is recorded in Turkey (Çamlıhemşin), southwest from Adjaria. Isolated populations are found on the southern slope of the eastern Caucasus in the region of Lagodekhi and Vartashen, as well as on the eastern slope of Adjaro-Imeretinsky Range in the vicinity of the town Borzhomi (Georgia).	eng
14367	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is associated with Colchis type forests with an evergreen underwood. Animals can be found in beech woodlands, chestnut groves, as well as in the cherry-laurel and azalea groves. It has been recorded from modified areas, including recently deforested areas, tea plantations, secondary hornbeam forests. The species is well adapted to living in mountainous fast-flowing streams. The female lays clutches of about 13 eggs in August.	eng
14367	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is common, but not a numerous species (up to three animals per km2).	eng
14367	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species has undergone significant recent declines, largely due to predation from the introduced North American Raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em>; competition with raccoons for prey (fishes); and habitat loss, most especially because of development along the Black Sea coastline (including tourism).	eng
14368	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention; <em>N.n cetti </em>and <em>N.n. corsa</em> are listed on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries. It is present in many protected areas throughout its range. Restoration of habitat in non-protected areas of the Netherlands since ca. 1985, including creating habitat such as ditches for the prey species of frog <em>Rana temporaria</em>, has resulted in significant increases of <em>Natrix natrix</em> and <em>Rana temporaria</em> populations since ca. 2000 (Cornelius C. De Haan pers. comm.). The construction of corridors underneath roads could aid in significantly reducing mortality on roads for some populations (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). The subspecies <em>N.n. natrix</em> is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland; the subspecies <em>N.n. helvetica</em> is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
14368	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	This species ranges throughout most of Europe, being absent only from Ireland, Scotland, northern Scandinavia, southeastern Spain, the Balearic Islands (Spain) and Crete (Greece). It also ranges from European Russia eastwards into Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, China and Mongolia. It occurs in Cyprus (the Troodos Mountains), in most of Turkey, the Caucasus, and in northwestern Syria (only known from a couple of localities where it is very rare). In Iran it has been recorded from Mazandaran Province, Ghilan Province, East Azerbaijan Province and Central province (Latifi, 1991). It is present in North Africa, where it occurs in isolated localities in northern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia. It ranges from sea level up to 3,060m asl.	eng
14368	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is found in humid as well as dry areas with abundant vegetation. It can mostly be found close to water bodies, and is present in woodland (both deciduous and mixed), meadows, hedgerows, coastal areas, and suburban areas (especially gardens). The species can lay between 10 and 52 eggs. Populations recognized as <em>N.n. gotlandica</em> eat marine fish and may be found at sea.	eng
14368	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is a common species but with fragmented populations through parts of its range, especially in southern areas. In some regions it is very common (up to 120 specimens recorded per hectare in the Donetsky Range, Ukraine). The endemic taxa from Sardinia, Corsica, Cyprus and Milos are all very localized and threatened.	eng
14368	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is locally threatened in parts of its range by water pollution impacting prey populations (principally amphibians), drainage of wetland habitats (in Switzerland 90% of wetland habitats have been drained [Andreas Meyer pers. comm.]) and general intensification of agricultural methods. Some subspecies are considered to be threatened. On Milos, the species is threatened also by mining activities (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Roadkill is a threat in many areas, and habitat fragmentation through development.	eng
14378	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (New Zealand).	eng
14386	conservation	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is presumably found in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
14386	distribution	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in Guianas, southeast Venezuela (State of Bolivar), and north Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
14386	habitat	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	The species prefers dense humid forest. It is a nocturnal rodent and occurs in lowland areas where it feeds on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
14386	population	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	The populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Collection data indicate that the species is likely to be common.	eng
14386	threats	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
14387	conservation	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	Found in Darien National Park.	eng
14387	distribution	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is known only from easternmost Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 550 m to 800 m.	eng
14387	habitat	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	This rodent is found in grass and low brush bordering evergreen forest (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and probably nocturnal and solitary (Reid 1997). It is associated more with gaps than with intact forests.	eng
14387	population	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is rare and local (Reid 1997). Very little is known about its population.	eng
14387	threats	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
14388	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
14388	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	The species occurs from west central Brazil to Andean foothills and lowlands of southeast Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, and north and central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
14388	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This is a nocturnal species; it occurs in boundary areas between forest and open spaces in lowland regions. The species feeds on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
14388	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	Populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species is common; it occurs in a wide variety of habitats from garden plots to primary forest (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
14388	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
14473	conservation	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is present in Mariusa National Park and others protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
14473	distribution	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs on Trinidad Island and adjacent mainland area of northeast Venezuela; the exact limits of its distribution are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14473	habitat	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	It occurs in lowland tropical rainforest, in areas of inundated dense tall grass and forest near water (Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is tolerant of secondary habitat, including agricultural areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It makes nests under logs or roots or in dense vegetation (Emmons and Feer 1997). Its home range is 0.3 to 1.6 individuals/ha (Lord 1999).	eng
14473	population	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a common species (J. Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14473	threats	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
14474	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is found in several protected areas in its range.	eng
14474	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs from east Colombia, to northwest and south Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, north and central Brazil, and perhaps lowlands of east Peru; distributional limits need specimen-based verification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
14474	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent inhabits in lowland rainforest, streamside, cerrado, caatinga. It is tolerant to locally disturbed areas and agricultural lands (collected there in the cerrado). It is mainly restricted to areas near water. This species has been found to feed on melons in garden plots (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
14474	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is very common.	eng
14474	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
14475	conservation	Vieira, E., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This rodent occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
14475	distribution	Vieira, E., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs from southeast Brazil (Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul States), to northeast Argentina (Misiones Province), and eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
14475	habitat	Vieira, E., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This is a semi aquatic and insectivorous rodent, strongly associated to water courses inside forests (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
14475	population	Vieira, E., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Locally common (Emerson pers. comm.).	eng
14475	threats	Vieira, E., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Habitat loss is affecting the species in some parts of its range (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
14485	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States: Florida everglades (12 counties). Historically the species also occurred in Texas (Flint 2000), but is no longer recorded from there.	eng
14485	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Within the Everglades it is found in dry limestone hammock sinkholes, sedge marshes and rock pools where it is shade loving (Bick 2003).	eng
14485	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
14485	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Major habitat is the beleaguered Everglades, which is being changed by water diversion, extensive peat fires, and exotic trees and fish. Airboats in a refugia might possibly kill many adults.	eng
14486	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
14486	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from the western part of the Cordillera Transvolcanica, México in south Jalisco and north Michoacán, and from an isolated, disjunct location to the east near Colima.	eng
14486	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. Its range is within high elevation oak and pine forest habitat.	eng
14486	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	No population information could be found. However, it is not considered to be very common.	eng
14486	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss from timber extraction and agriculture.	eng
14487	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is present in at least one protected area within its range, the Michilia Biosphere Reserve. It is protected by Mexican Law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
14487	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from the Sierra Madre Occidental if México, from south Durango to north Jalisco and Aguascalientes. (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14487	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is associated with conifer forest on the western slope of the Sierra Madre.	eng
14487	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	No information on population could be found, although is reported to be uncommon (Glendinning 1992).	eng
14487	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to timber extraction throughout its range.	eng
14489	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Baq-e-Loveh pool.	eng
14489	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A cave-dwelling species.	eng
14494	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
14494	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Europe north of Caucasus, Pyrénées and Alps, from Loire and Rhône drainages eastward; British Isles (except northern Scotland), southern Sweden and Finland (northward to about 66°N); Danube and Vardar drainages. Several similar species in Asia, as far as Japan (including B. toni, which earlier was considered conspecific.	eng
14494	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Usually in flowing stretches of streams and medium-sized rivers with gravel to stone bottom, but also in a variety of other habitats, including sandy canals and lake shores. Spawns on gravel, sand or among aquatic vegetation. Larvae and small juveniles prefer sand bottom and slow current, shifting to gravel bottom and fast current when growing. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time usually at one year in central and southern Europe, 2-3 years in nutrient poor habitats and in northern Europe; most individuals spawn 1-2 seasons. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 10°C, usually early morning. Open substrate, multiple spawner. Eggs are released in open water, often close to surface, drift and adhere to different substrates; they are often covered by sand or detritus. Individual females may spawn every day for a short period. Benthic larvae. Feeds on relative large benthic invertebrates (gammarids, chironomids, insect larvae). Tolerant to moderate organic pollution and stream canalisation, very sensitive to pollution by heavy metals.	eng
14494	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
14494	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
14506	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	New Zealand has only ten per cent of its wetlands remaining. The farmer that owns the Tomarata wetland had not drain ed it, and fenced it to keep stock out. As a result the Black Mudfish has survived.	eng
14506	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Black Mudfish are found from the Mokau River catchment in the south up to Kaitaia in the north (see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish). <br/> <br/>Tomarata wetland where the species was rediscovered is located approximately 60 kilometres northeast of central Auckland, south of Mangawhai Heads. The wetland is private land located adjacent to the Lake Tomarata Scenic Reserve.	eng
14506	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Black Mudfish live primarily in swamps and wetlands. They live up to eight years and can grow up to 124mm long. When the water runs low they aestivate.	eng
14506	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A survey of Black Mudfish (<em>Neochanna diversus</em>) was undertaken in the Te Henga and Tomarata wetlands during September 2004 as part of the Auckland Regional Councils State of Environment monitoring programme. A large and healthy population was found. They are quite abundant in the Waikato region, particularly in Whangamarino Swamp, and also occur on the Hauraki Plains. (For further details see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish).	eng
14506	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Freshwater fish like the Black Mudfish are sensitive to a wide range of environmental impacts such as habitat loss, pollution and sedimentation. In addition to the threat to Black Mudfish from land drainage and development, these fish are also threatened by the presence of Gambusia, an aggressive and prolific introduced fish that have a similar distribution pattern to Black Mudfish. Observations of their behaviour in tanks showed that large Gambusia would readily eat mudfish fry, and that they chased and nipped juvenile mudfish. Adult mudfish were not harassed, and even gave some of their own back to the Gambusia. (For further details on threats from gambusia see the NIWA Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes at http://www.niwascience.co.nz/rc/freshwater/fishatlas/species/black_mudfish).	eng
14507	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Under the New Zealand 'threat of extinction' classification system, <em>N. apoda</em> is ranked as a chronically threatened species in Gradual Decline.  There is now a recovery plan in place for the brown mudfish, along with other <em>Neochanna</em> species.  The long-term goal of this recovery plan is to maintain and improve the geographic range, habitat and genetic diversity of all the species.  It sets in place actions for managing listed key mudfish sites (selected to include large populations, key scientific sites and sites to cover the full geographic range of each species) (Department of Conservation 2003).	eng
14507	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to New Zealand.  It is widespread in the southern half of the North Island, from Opunake (Taranaki) southwards west of the ranges and round from Pahiatua (Wairarapa) southwards east of the ranges.  It is locally common and widespread in the South Island on the West Coast from Karamea to the area around the Saltwater and Okarito Lagoons in South Westland.  It is present at altitudes up to about 200 m.	eng
14507	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. apoda</em> is a benthopelagic, amphidromous species that can be found in a great diversity of habitats; small, gravelly streams, overgrown weedy creeks, weed-choked roadside and farm drains, swamps, sphagnum bogs and small pools of water lying in the floor of lowland podocarp forest.  They are generally found in clear, rather than muddy waters.  This species aestivates in the mud when the water in its habitat dries up, and therefore can be found in ephemeral habitats (McDowall 1990).	eng
14507	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The New Zealand Department of Conservation has stated a "gradual decline" in population numbers of this species over the last few years (Department of Conservation, 2003).  <em>N. apoda</em> has disappeared from many areas and persists in often small fragmentary forest wetlands whose long-term survival is now precarious (McDowall 2007).	eng
14507	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	All mudfish species are threatened by the loss of approximately 85-90% of New Zealand's wetlands.  Loss and degradation of habitat through activities such as drainage schemes, irrigation and land development are the biggest agent of decline for these species (Department of Conservation 2003).  As a result, there are now extensive areas of countryside where former mudfish habitats have been entirely destroyed, and sometimes relict mudfish populations may be found only in tiny wetland remnants that have escaped development (McDowall 2006).    <br/><br/>New threats, the significance of which have yet to be established, include the potential effect of invasive fish species such as <em>Gambusia affinis</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em> on <em>N. apoda</em> (Department of Conservation 2003).	eng
14514	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Found in Pedu Reservoir and mining pools in northwestern Penisular Malaysia.	eng
14515	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from Lake Tempe in south Sulawesi.	eng
14519	conservation	Sanderson, J., Khan, J.A., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I and protected by national legislation over most of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Hunting is banned in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Viet Nam, and hunting regulations apply in Lao PDR (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
14519	distribution	Sanderson, J., Khan, J.A., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P., 2008	The clouded leopard is found from the Himalayan foothills in Nepal through mainland Southeast Asia into China (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The clouded leopard historically had a wide distribution in China, south of the Yangtze, but recent records are few, habitat is fast disappearing, illegal hunting of this species has been prolific and its current distribtution in China is poorly known (Wozencraft <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  The clouded leopard is extinct on the island of Taiwan (Anon. 1996).  It still occurs marginally in Bangladesh: Khan (2004) reported that local people still see clouded leopards in the mixed-evergreen forests of the northeastern and southeastern parts of the country.<br/><br/>The clouded leopards of Sumatra and Borneo were recently diagnosed as a separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis diardi</span> (Buckley-Beason <em>et al.</em> 2006, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2006, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> submitted), the Sundaland clouded leopard.  Sundaland refers to the Malay peninsula and the islands of Sumatra, Borneo and Java.  Clouded leopards do not occur on Java.  Because of limited samples from Peninsular Malaysia, it is unclear which species of clouded leopard occur here - on the basis of a single skin, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2006) ascribed Peninsular Malayasia to the mainland clouded leopard, but indicated that more samples were needed for confirmation.<br/><br/>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).	eng
14519	habitat	Sanderson, J., Khan, J.A., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P., 2008	The clouded leopard is intermediate in size between large and small cats, with wild females from Thailand weighing 11.5 (Austin and Tewes 1999) to 13.5 kg (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005), and males 16 (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005) to 18 kg (Austin and Tewes 1999).  Its coat is patterned with distinctive large cloud shaped markings, its canines are exceptionally elongated, as is its tail - for a large cat, the clouded leopard is highly arboreal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They are strongly associated with forest habitat, particularly primary evergreen tropical rainforest, but there are also records from dry and deciduous forest, as well as secondary and logged forests. They have been recorded in the Himalayas up to 2,500 m and possibly as high as 3,000 m.  Less frequently, they have been found in grassland and scrub, dry tropical forests and mangrove swamps (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Radio-tracking studies in Thailand have showed a preference for forest over more open habitats (Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>A study in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park found that clouded leopards preyed upon a variety of arboreal and terrestrial prey, including hog deer, slow loris, bush-tailed porcupine, Malayan pangolin and Indochinese ground squirrel (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Other observations include mainly primate prey, but also muntjac and argus pheasant (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Clouded leopards are primarily nocturnal, with crepuscular activity peaks (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Two radio-telemetry studies in different parks in Thailand have found that adult male and female clouded leopards had similar home range sizes between 30-40 km² in size (95% fixed kernel estimators), with smaller intensively used core areas of 3-5 km² (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).  While both studies found substantial home range overlap between males and females, as is typical of most felids, Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) also found that the ranges of their two radio-collared males overlapped by a significant amount (39%).  Although both studies found similar home ranges, clouded leopards in Phu Khieu National Park travelled approximately twice the average daily distance (average 2 km) than clouded leopards in Khao Yai National Park (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Clouded leopards may occur at higher densities where densities of the larger cats, tigers and leopards, are lower (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Rao <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14519	population	Sanderson, J., Khan, J.A., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P., 2008	The clouded leopard is most strongly associated with primary tropical forest which is rapidly disappearing across its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and clouded leopard skins have been observed in large numbers in illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia (Nowell 2007).  Increasing use of camera traps has helped to better document its distribution and recent research efforts should help improve understanding of its population status (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
14519	threats	Sanderson, J., Khan, J.A., Grassman, L. & Mallon, D.P., 2008	Clouded leopards prefer closed forest (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Austin <em>et al.</em> 2007), and their habitat in Southeast Asia is undergoing the world's fastest deforestation rate (1.2-1.3% a year since 1990: FAO 2007).  <br/><br/>The clouded leopard is hunted for the illegal wildlife trade - large numbers of skins have been seen in market surveys, and there is also trade in bones for medicines, meat for exotic dishes and live animals for the pet trade.  Wild animals are likely the primary source, but there is also some illegal trade from captive animals (Nowell 2007).	eng
14520	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Jackson, D.R., Bergstrom, B. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia; Everglades National Park, Florida; Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary (National Audubon Society), Florida; Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park, Florida; and other Florida managed areas. It is protected from trapping and hunting in Florida and Georgia.<br/><br/>The precise distribution of all occurrences needs to be determined. Representative subpopulations should be monitored. Occupied marsh habitats, including appropriate upland buffers and incoming drainage systems, are in need of further protection.	eng
14520	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Jackson, D.R., Bergstrom, B. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The round-tailed muskrat has a spotty distribution in Florida and south-central and southeastern Georgia, ranging west to at least the Choctawhatchee River in Walton County, Florida (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). It is apparently most common in the Everglades region of Florida and the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia.<br/><br/>Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> (1994) concluded that the range is fairly continuous within suitable habitat from north-central Florida into south-central Georgia. There seems to be a gap of about 80 km between the Grand Bay population in south-central Georgia and the Okefenokee population to the east, though apparently suitable habitat is present in the gap (Bergstrom). The apparent gaps at the northern range limit may be the result of a combination of the fragmented, isolated distribution of palustrine wetlands and the generally low population densities causing localized extinction (Bergstrom). Habitats in Georgia may be peripheral dispersal sinks, occupied only following periods of exceptionally high densities in more central populations (Bergstrom). New localities in south-central Georgia (mainly the Grand Bay population) are closer to being contiguous to the previously described range of subspecies <em>apalachicolae</em> to the southwest in north Florida than to the range of subspecies <em>exoristus</em>, known from the eastern Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia (Hall 1981).  The possibility exists that a large and viable population survives in the 30,000 ha of wet prairies and islands of the Okefenokee Swamp (only a fraction of which is actually suitable habitat); Harper (1927) estimated the population at 10,000, but Porter (1953) found very few signs of active houses and recent observations by T. Hon conform with Porter's findings. Georgia colonies that were reported in years past from southern Thomas County (W. Baker pers. comm.) and southwestern Lowndes County (T. Hon pers. comm.) were not found in recent aerial surveys (Bergstrom <em>et al</em>. 1994). Harper (1920) documented <em>Neofiber </em>in "prairie" habitats on the eastern side of the Okenfenokee Swamp. Schantz and Jenkins (1950) reported <em>Neofiber </em>skulls in barn owl pellets near Woodbine, Camden County (on the Satilla River, about 20 miles from the Atlantic Coast).	eng
14520	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Jackson, D.R., Bergstrom, B. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Round-tailed muskrats are a semi-aquatic species, preferring heavily vegetated freshwater habitats and restricted to permanent water bodies free of freezing (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998). Typically they occur in shallow grassy salt/freshwater marshes. In Florida, dense stands of maidencane (<em>Panicum hemitomon</em>) and pickerelweed (<em>Pontederia lanceolata</em>) provide preferred habitat (Layne 1978); other habitats include salt marshes on Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge and on Cape Sable (status in salt marshes on the northern Gulf coast needs further study). Pocosins and Carolina bays provide ideal habitat (Bergstrom). At Grand Bay, Georgia, round-tailed muskrats inhabit floating mats of bog like vegetation surrounded by open-water emergent marsh dominated by sedges such as <em>Carex</em> and <em>Eleocharis</em> spp.; these finer sedges are preferred house-building materials, whereas the coarser grass <em>Panicum </em>is preferred in Florida. The species is most abundant in areas with water 6-18 inches deep and a sandy, peaty, or soft substrate deep enough to allow burrowing to water during dry periods (Birkenholz 1972, Porter 1953).<br/><br/>Dome-shaped houses, used for shelter and rearing young, are built among emergent vegetation; most house repair and new construction occur in spring. In south-central Georgia, houses are attached to the surfaces of floating mats of <em>Sphagnum</em> and organic muck or to the bases of shrubs or small trees (Harper 1927; Birkenholtz 1963). In sugarcane fields, houses, if present, are smaller and more rudimentary. Round-tailed muskrats also build extensive tunnel systems in drained muck soils of sugarcane fields and agricultural areas. <br/><br/>These muskrats construct floating feeding stands near house sites. In Georgia, denuded areas usually close to the edge of the mat were used as feeding stations. Round-tailed muskrats are able to disperse between areas of suitable habitat across roads and small expanses of upland habitat and via ditches (Birkenholz 1963).<br/><br/>This species breeds year-round, with a peak in late fall. May-November live-trapping in sugarcane fields yielded the largest number of juveniles and subadults in May (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Gestation lasts 26-29 days. Litter size is 1-4 (average two); 4-6 litters per year. Sexually mature in 90-100 days. Reproductive potential is relatively low.<br/><br/>Round-tailed muskrats are apparently colonial in both marshes and muck fields. There is an average of about two houses for each individual, and generally no more than one adult uses each house. Burrow systems are occupied usually by single adults, a pair, a female and young, or one to two subadults (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Home range is less than 2.5 acres. They are vulnerable to various reptilian, avian, and mammalian predators.<br/><br/>They eat roots and stems of aquatic and semi aquatic vegetation; major food plants include arrowheads, pickerelweed, <em>Nymphaea</em> water lilies, maidencane, cut-grass, sedges, and grasses (<em>Panicum, Sporobolus, and Echinochloa</em>). In sugarcane fields, diet apparently is dominated by the sprouts, stalks, and roots of sugarcane, and by sedges and grasses (see Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). They are primarily nocturnal.	eng
14520	population	Linzey, A.V., Jackson, D.R., Bergstrom, B. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In Florida, this species is locally common on St. Johns marsh in Brevard County, near Hawthorne in Putnam County, and in the Lake Okeechobee region. Highest densities reported are for sugar cane fields in south Florida. In the sugarcane-growing region of Florida, the species is most common in western and northeastern Palm Beach County. It is apparently rare to absent and of spotty occurrence along the upper west Gulf Coast of Florida (Taylor and Suwannee counties south to Hillsborough County), in west-central Florida (Hillsborough, Polk, Manatee, Sarasota, and DeSoto counties), and in northeastern Florida (Nassau and Duval counties, and portions of Baker, Clay, and St. Johns counties); populations may be limited in certain formerly occupied coastal marshes where canals and reduced flows have allowed salt water intrusion (Layne 1978). Porter (1953) found <em>Neofiber </em>to be nearly or completely absent from many areas throughout Florida that previously supported dense populations. See Lefebvre and Tilmant (1992) for further details on the distribution in Florida. <br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but certainly is at least many thousands. This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations throughout much of its former range. Wetlands destruction has slowed in Florida but still occurs. With improved wetland protection, the rate of decline likely is much less than 30% over 10 years or three generations. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992), but the extent of decline is uncertain.<br/><br/>Average density is 50 individuals per acre, although peak densities can reach 100-120 per acre (Birkenholz 1972). On smaller natural marshes in central Florida, may reach maximal densities of 250-300/ha, whereas on larger marshes (>1,000 ha) maximal densities are reported as 50/ha (Birkenholz 1963). Ecological densities in Georgia (1-3/ha; Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> 1994) are much lower than the maximal densities reported for Florida (Bergstrom <em>et al.</em> 1994). <br/><br/>Local populations often fluctuate tremendously, probably in response to water-level fluctuations and changes in habitat conditions (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). May wander or disperse a few or several hundred metres from permanent water.	eng
14520	threats	Linzey, A.V., Jackson, D.R., Bergstrom, B. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The statewide population in Florida probably has declined as a result of wetland loss (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992). Land fills, marsh drainage, and salt water intrusion have reduced the available habitat and further isolated some colonies (Layne 1978). Isolated populations are very vulnerable to extirpation caused by natural fluctuations in water levels (Lefebvre and Tilmant 1992); these receive inadequate protection.	eng
14521	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
14521	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
14521	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Azov and Black Sea basins. Usually close to estuaries. Invasive in rivers of northern Black Sea basin, recorded in 1997 from middle Vistula (Poland), which it reached from Dniepr via a navigation canal. In Danube upriver to Hungary, in Dniepr up to Belarus.   Accidentally introduced in lower Rhine and actually invasive there. Introduced in Lake Balaton (Hungary) around 1970.	eng
14521	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Azov and Black Sea basins. Usually close to estuaries. Invasive in rivers of northern Black Sea basin, recorded in 1997 from middle Vistula (Poland), which it reached from Dniepr via a navigation canal. In Danube upriver to Hungary, in Dniepr up to Belarus. Introduced in Lake Balaton (Hungary) around 1970.	eng
14521	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium sized rivers and streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mostly found on open sand or mud bottom. One of the most abundant fish species in lowland rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July, locally until September, when temperature rises above 13°C. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Males have completely black body with yellow fin margins during spawning season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males excavate nests under any kind of hard substrate and guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.	eng
14521	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium sized rivers and streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mostly found on open sand or mud bottom. One of the most abundant fish species in lowland rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July, locally until September, when temperature rises above 13°C. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Males have completely black body with yellow fin margins during spawning season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males excavate nests under any kind of hard substrate and guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.	eng
14521	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant and expanding range.	eng
14521	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very abundant and expanding range.	eng
14521	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
14521	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
14524	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
14524	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
14524	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins. Invasive in Baltic basin, which it reached via navigation canals. Reached westwards to German Baltic coast in 2002. Recently recorded in lower parts of rivers in Gulf of Gdansk (Poland). Also moving upwards in rivers of its original range; in Volga upstream to Moscow and north to Lake Rybinskoye; in Dniepr up to Belarus, in Danube reached Austria in 2000. Accidentally arrived in North America in 1991 and lowermost Rhine (Netherlands) in 2004 with ballasts water in ships.	eng
14524	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<p>Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins. Invasive in Baltic basin, which it reached via navigation canals. Reached westwards to German Baltic coast in 2002 and to Elbe estuary (North Sea basin) in 2009. Recently recorded in lower parts of rivers in Gulf of Gdansk (Poland). Also moving upwards in rivers of its original range; in Volga upstream to Moscow and north to Lake Rybinskoye; in Dniepr up to Belarus, in Danube reached Austria in 2000 and Germany 2005. Accidentally arrived in North America in 1991 and lowermost Rhine (Netherlands) in 2004 with ballasts water in ships. In 2006 first recorded in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. Meanwhile has colonized the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine and is slowly invading the upper Rhine.</p>	eng
14524	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on sand or rock bottom. To 50-60 m deep in Black Sea during winter. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4, females at 2-3. Spawns in April-September. Males have entirely black body during spawning season. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season every 18-20 days. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until eggs hatch, in 2-3 weeks. Males usually die after spawning season. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish. Egg clutches are supposed to be occasionally transported attached to the hull of ships, facilitating the invasion of new areas.	eng
14524	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on sand or rock bottom. To 50-60 m deep in Black Sea during winter. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4, females at 2-3. Spawns in April-September. Males have entirely black body during spawning season. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season every 18-20 days. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until eggs hatch, in 2-3 weeks. Males usually die after spawning season. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish. Egg clutches are supposed to be occasionally transported attached to the hull of ships, facilitating the invasion of new areas.	eng
14524	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant and expanding range	eng
14524	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very abundant and expanding range	eng
14524	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
14524	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
14528	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into possible future threats to this species from climate change.	eng
14528	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded from the localities of Mount Wilhelm, Mount Erimbari, Mount Kaindi, and Lake Louise. It has been collected between 2,350 and 3,100 m asl.	eng
14528	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from montane areas including forest, dense bracken, and long grass on moss-covered ground (Flannery 1995).	eng
14528	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is abundant in some areas.	eng
14528	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are currently no major threats to this species in its high altitude habitat. However, it could be adversely affected by future global warming because of increased fire frequency.	eng
14530	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Toba in Sumatera.	eng
14541	conservation	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	Speckled Dasyures occur within a number of protected areas. Further studies into the natural history of the species are needed.	eng
14541	distribution	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	The Speckled Dasyure occurs in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,200 and 3,900 m asl, but it primarily is found above 2,000 m (Flannery 1995; Helgen 2007).	eng
14541	habitat	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	Speckled Dasyures occur in montane and moss tropical forest and also in subalpine grassland. It is a diurnal species that is both terrestrial and arboreal (Flannery 1995). There is some evidence which suggests that this species breeds throughout the year; the maximum litter size is four (Woolley 2001).	eng
14541	population	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	Speckled Dasyures have been found to be locally abundant in the past. They are thought to be more common at higher elevations than at lower elevations. An attempt in 1988 to collect this species in the area where a large number were obtained by the Third Archbold Expedition (1938-1939) was unsuccessful (P. Woolley pers. comm.).	eng
14541	threats	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
14549	conservation	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	This species is protected in Australia by State Conservation agencies under numerous independently enacted state laws, the earliest dating back to 1889. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of  1999 provides protection for all pinnipeds in Australia. The Australian Sea Lion was listed as a Threatened species in the Vulnerable category in 2005. In South Australia, it was listed in February 2008 as Vulnerable under the National Parks and Wildlife Act of 1972. Fisheries are regularly monitored for evidence of marine mammal by-catch (Shaughnessy 1999).  Australian fisheries have also attempted to reduce marine mammal by-catch through the development of several action plans and the development of a code of conduct for responsible fishing for at least one fishery. Several NGOs monitor by-catch issues and have prepared publications on ways to reduce marine mammal mortality in Australia?s fisheries (see Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
14549	distribution	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	Australian Sea Lions are found in southern and southwestern Australia from just east of Kangaroo Island west to Houtman Albrolhos in Western Australia. Vagrants have come ashore in Eastern Australia, as far north as the middle of New South Wales. Australian Sea Lions breed on at least 73 islands and at several mainland sites (McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Five sites account for approximately 60% of the annual pup production.	eng
14549	habitat	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	Australian Sea Lions are sexually dimorphic, with adult males reaching 1.25 times the length and 2.5-3.5 times the weight of adult females. Very little information on sizes of adult males is available, and some values in the literature may be overestimates. Adult males reach lengths of at least 2.5 m and weights of 200 to at least 300 kg.  Females are 1.3 to just over 1.8 m and weigh from 61-105 kg.  At birth, pups are approximately 60-70 cm long and weigh 6.4-7.9 kg.  Pups are dark chocolate brown to charcoal in colour at birth and lighten to a smoky gray. The crown is paler than the rest of the body and there is a dark mask across the face. The postnatal moult starts when pups are 8-10 weeks old and is completed in several weeks; pups in their juvenile pelage resemble adult females. <br/><br/>Females become sexually mature at 4.5-6 years of age and males at 6 years or more. The mean age of breeding females is 11 years (McIntosh 2007). The oldest breeding female recorded was aged 24 years, while the maximum longevity recorded is 26 years for females and 21.5 years for males (McIntosh 2007). Age-specific survival probabilities are high (0.98) after six years of age and are similar for males and females (McIntosh 2007).  <br/><br/>Australian Sea Lions are unusual among pinnipeds in having a supra-annual pupping interval (Gales <em>et al</em>. 1994, Gales and Costa 1997), with females producing pups every 17-18 months (mean breeding interval is 17.5 months, range 16.0-19.9).  Females mated about 7-10 following the birth of a pups. Like most other pinnipeds, there is a 4-6 month period of delayed implantation of the blastocyst following conception. This leads to a prolonged (active) placental gestation of up to 14 months, the longest for any pinniped (Gales and Costa 1997). The annual pregnancy rate of mature females is ~71 % (Higgins and Gas 1993). Pups can be born at any time of the year, with females at a given site being loosely synchronous with each other and pupping generally occurring over a 5-7 month period at a given locale (Higgins 1993).  Even neighbouring sites can be on entirely different breeding schedules.  Males are sequentially polygynous, establishing territories around individual females, herding them in an effort to keep them from departing until the onset of estrous.  This pattern is repeated until the male is compelled to go to sea and forage, after which he returns and repeats the strategy.  Males defend their territories with guttural clicking, growling and barking vocalizations, posturing, and by fighting with rivals.  Pups can be trampled when males are fighting or moving rapidly to confront rivals and control females, and killed outright in aggressive acts. <br/><br/>Pups are continuously attended for the first 9-10 days after birth.  Over the next 5 months females make foraging trips that average 48.5 hours in length, followed by pup attendance periods that average 33 hours. Females suckle their pups for 15-18 months, usually weaning them a month before giving birth again. Some females care for their offspring for up to three years, and can be seen with a juvenile and a new pup. Adult female Australian Sea Lions behave aggressively toward pups that are not their own. Pups will play at the shoreline and in tide pools while their mothers are away, and following their postnatal moult, will actively swim on their own.<br/><br/>Adult female Australian Sea Lions are benthic, diurnal foragers (Costa and Gales 2003).  They routinely transit to foraging locations by swimming along the bottom.  Mean depth of dives from a series of lactating females tagged with time depth recorders ranged from 41.5-83.1 m; maximum depth of dives ranged from 60-105 m.  Mean duration of dives ranged from 2.2-4.1 minutes, and the longest dive recorded lasted 8.3 minutes.  Australian sea lions are fast, powerful swimmers and often ?porpoise? out of the water when moving rapidly at the surface.<br/><br/>These sea lions are considered non-migratory and probably spend most of their lives near their natal colony. The greatest distance travelled by a tagged animal is approximately 250 km. Genetic distinctiveness has been reported between nearby colonies, indicating a high degree of site fidelity and female philopatry (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008). At sea, Australian Sea Lions spend nearly all of their time in waters over the continental shelf. <br/><br/>Australian Sea Lions are thought to concentrate their efforts on shallow-water benthic prey, but also take a wide variety of fishes, such as rays, small sharks, Australian salmon, and whiting. Other prey includes squid, cuttlefish, small crabs, and occasionally (perhaps rarely) penguins, flying seabirds and small sea turtles.  Fishermen complain of sea lions robbing lobster traps and fishing nets. Large prey items may be taken to the surface and shaken into portions that can be swallowed.<br/><br/>Predators include Great White Sharks (Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2007) and presumably Killer Whales (Ling 2002).	eng
14549	population	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	The total population of Australian Sea Lions is estimated to be 13,790 individuals based on an estimated total pup production of 3,380 (2,674 in South Australia and 706 in Western Australia) and a multiplication factor of 4.08 pups per breeding cycle (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Goldsworthy and Page 2007).	eng
14549	threats	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	Australian aborigines have taken Australian Sea Lions for subsistence purposes for thousands of years.  Early European colonists also took sea lions for food and other products, although numbers recorded in sealing logbooks were small (Ling 1999).  Harvests by sealers in the 17th and 18th centuries reduced the population and extirpated them from areas around the Bass Strait and Tasmania.  <br/><br/>Although now protected, the population has not rebounded fully in numbers or reoccupied all of its former range. Conflicts and interactions with fisheries exist. A high level of entanglement in abandoned and lost fishing gear and in marine debris has been reported, with a range of 0.2 to 1.3% of the population are entangled in these materials (Shaughnessy <em>et al</em>. 2003, Page <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Other animals become entangled in fishing gear, particularly bottom-set gillnets of commercial shark fishers. A risk assessment of sea lion by-catch in shark gillnets indicated that there is a high risk of subpopulation extinction with even low levels of by-catch (Goldsworthy and Page 2007). A substantial sea lion tourist industry has developed; this activity is regulated at sea lion colonies in parks to minimize disturbance during the breeding season. Extensive disturbance can cause Australian Sea Lions to abandon colony sites.	eng
14550	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES. Management measures are needed to reduce the threats on this species, especially those that result in incidental catches of the species in fisheries.	eng
14550	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The type specimen was supposed to have come from the Cape of Good Hope, but there is reason to believe that report was erroneous (Rice 1998).<br/><br/>In general, the species occurs in a narrow strip of shallow (usually <50 m deep) coastal water around the northern rim of the Indian and western Pacific oceans from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf in the west to the Indo-Malay region in the east and to Java, Indonesia (but apparently not the Philippines, apart from Palawan), northern China, Korea and northern Honshu, Japan. The distribution also includes a few estuaries and rivers (e.g., the <em>N. p. asiaeorientalis</em> subspecies appears to be found exclusively in the Yangtze River system) (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). Human coastal development and other activities already may have substantially reduced and fragmented the distribution of this species (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/><br/><em>N. p. phocaenoides</em> – Coastal marine waters, as well as some river mouths and estuaries, from the Persian Gulf eastwards around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the Taiwan Strait area (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). It is the most tropical and wide-ranging of the three subspecies.<br/><br/><em>N. p. sunameri</em> – Coastal waters from the Taiwan Strait, including the western coast of Taiwan, through the East China Sea north to the Bohai/Yellow Sea in China and the waters of Korea and Japan (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). Korean and Japanese populations are geographically separate (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 1992, Yoshida 2002).<br/><br/><em>N. p. asiaeorientalis</em> – Middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (= Chang Jiang), where it ranges (or did until recently) to 1,600 km upstream, i.e. to the gorges above Yichang (200 m above sea level). The range includes Poyang and Dongting lakes and their tributaries, the Gan Jiang and the Xiang Jiang (Gao 1991, Gao and Zhou 1995). The subspecies is thought to be restricted to fresh water.	eng
14550	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The finless porpoise is found mainly in coastal waters, including shallow bays, mangrove swamps, estuaries, and some large rivers. However, it can also occur in shallow waters (< 200 m deep) quite far from shore (up to 240 km). It appears to have a strong preference for waters with a sandy or soft bottom (Jefferson and Hung 2004).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong waters, groups of finless porpoises spend about 60% of their time at or near the surface (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002a). In Japanese waters, they prefer shallow depths (<50 m) and close proximity to the shore (< 5 km). In the shallow East China Sea, however, proximity to the shore is not as important (Amano 2002). <br/><br/>Small fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans (mainly demersal species) form the diet of finless porpoises (see Jefferson and Hung 2004).	eng
14550	population	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	These porpoises are small and cryptic and therefore difficult to survey. Estimates of abundance have been made for only a few areas (Jefferson and Hung 2004, IWC 2006). Estimates from the early 2000s are available for five subpopulations in Japanese waters, distinguished on the basis of skull morphology and mtDNA variability (Yoshida 2002), as follows: 3,807 (CV=16%) in Ariake Sound/Tachibana Bay (Shirakihara and Shirakihara 2002); 289 (CV=19%) in Omura Bay (Shirakihara and Shirakihara 2002); 3,743 (CV=24%) in Ise/Mikawa Bay (Yoshioka 2002); 3,387 (CV=33%) in Chiba/Sendai Bay (Amano <em>et al</em>. 2003); and 7,572 (CV=17%) in the Inland Sea (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 2007; most of the estimates were summarized in IWC 2006). For the Inland Sea subpopulation, Kasuya <em>et al</em>. (2002) recorded a decline in density of 18-100% for 18 tracklines surveyed in 1976-78 and again in 1999-2000. The declines for 11 of these tracklines were statistically significant. Using abundance indices calculated by multiplying the density indices (no. individuals/cruise distance) and area size of each stratum, an overall decline of 69% is inferred over the 22 years between the two sets of surveys (Toshio Kasuya pers. comm., January 2007, data from Kasuya <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>There were estimated to be at least 217 (CV= 21-150%) finless porpoises in Hong Kong waters (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Surveys in western Korean waters (Yellow Sea) in the early 2000s estimated 21,532 (CV=39%) finless porpoises in offshore waters and 5,464 (CV=20%) in inshore waters (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) viewed these estimates as minima (IWC 2006, p. 223). Smith (2006) estimated that there were 1,382 (CV=55%) finless porpoises in the coastal waters of Bangladesh.<br/><br/>Based on surveys from 1984 to 1991, Zhang <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated that there were about 2,700 porpoises in the Yangtze River, while Zhou <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated that only 700 remained in the lower reaches between Nanjing and Hukou between 1989 and 1992. Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) concluded that finless porpoise abundance in the Yangtze River had declined considerably and that there could be fewer than 2,000 animals (although this was not based on a rigorous assessment).<br/><br/>There are no abundance estimates of finless porpoises in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf, along the Indian Ocean coasts of Iran or Pakistan, or in Chinese marine waters other than Hong Kong (IWC 2006).<br/>.	eng
14550	threats	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Finless porpoises, like other phocoenids (Jefferson and Curry 1994), are extremely susceptible to entanglement in gillnets, and large numbers have been, and continue to be, killed in many parts of their range (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002b). Finless porpoises are caught in nets along the India and Pakistan coasts, and off the Malay Peninsula, although there is no estimate of the magnitude of such catches. In Japan they become entangled in a variety of types of fishing gear. Changes in fishing methods may have reduced the incidental catch in some areas such as western Kyushu (Kasuya 1999), but substantial numbers are still being taken in gill nets and other fishing gear (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., January 2007). A total of 114 specimens were collected in Japan during 1985-1992 from western and north-eastern Kyushu including parts of the western Inland Sea (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 1993): 84 of them had been killed incidentally in fisheries, 25 had been found dead on the beach or in the sea, and there was no information on the other five. Fisheries that killed the 84 porpoises employed bottom-set gill nets (58), surface gill nets (17), trap nets (7), trawl nets (1) and drifting (ghost) nets (1). Such fishing gear is common in Japan and probably kills finless porpoises off other coasts, although usually such catches remain unreported. Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that finless porpoises were the most frequently captured cetaceans in fishing gear along the Chinese coast and estimated that more than 2,000 were taken in 1994, mainly in trawl, gill, and stow nets. In the waters of western Taiwan, including the Matsu and Chinmen Islands (western Taiwan Strait), a considerable number of finless porpoises are taken in trammel nets, trawl nets, stow nets, and other gear (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., January 2007). Given the numbers and types of net fisheries in Chinese coastal waters (<em>e.g.</em>, Zhou and Wang 1994; Yang <em>et al</em>. 1999), there are serious concerns about the level of bycatch of this species. Although illegal, electric fishing has become widespread in the Yangtze River during the last decade, and it probably kills porpoises outright and contributes to the depletion of their prey (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2000). In some parts of their range, there is an aversion to eating finless porpoises (Kasuya 1999; J.Y. Wang pers. comm., January 2007). However, the species is taken as bycatch and sold for human consumption on the Korean peninsula (IWC 2000). From an analysis of the species composition of odontocete products in Korean markets during 2003-2004, it was estimated that the true catch of finless porpoises in Korean waters during this period was probably about four times the officially reported catch of 142 animals (Baker <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a coastal species, the finless porpoise is also affected by habitat loss and degradation, boat traffic, and pollution. The extensive modification of coastlines for shrimp farming and rampant harbor (and other) development throughout Asia (including the Arabian Gulf) means that there is less habitat for finless porpoises (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Porpoise habitat in the Yangtze River system has been degraded by water development, including the Gezhouba and Three Gorges dams and about 1300 smaller dams in tributaries (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). Sand mining is intensive in Poyang Lake, until recently a stronghold for Yangtze finless porpoises (B. Taylor pers. comm., January 2007). Although pathology related to contaminant exposure has not been reported in finless porpoises, pollution is considered a potentially serious threat (Kasuya, 1999; see Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1989; Iwata <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1995; Parsons and Chan 1998; Le <em>et al</em>. 1999; Minh <em>et al</em>. 1999; Parsons 1999; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 2002b). The number of reported small cetacean strandings in Hong Kong has increased in recent years, partly due to increasing public awareness of local cetaceans, but also possibly due to escalating levels of human disturbance and pollution (T.A. Jefferson pers. comm., January 2007). Vessel collisions, especially involving high-speed ferries, may be a particular problem for porpoises in Hong Kong (Parsons and Jefferson 2000). <br/><br/>The causes of an apparent decline in porpoise numbers in the Inland Sea of Japan are not fully understood but include incidental mortality in fisheries as well as various forms of habitat degradation (IWC 2000, 2006). Parts of the coastal regions of the Inland Sea are highly developed and industrialized so the associated threats of habitat loss and pollution are suspected to have had some (undetermined) level of impact	eng
14560	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species has been recorded from Dumoga-Bone National Park.	eng
14560	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from two localities on Sulawesi, Indonesia at 225 and 1,000 m asl.	eng
14560	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	It inhabits primary forest. Two specimens were mist-netted high over a river but there is no other information known.	eng
14560	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is a rare species, known from only 7 specimens (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988; Bergmans 2001). Extensive mist-netting efforts have failed to find the species, although appropriate survey methods may not have been used (the only mist-netted specimens came from above the canopy).	eng
14560	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Helgen, K., 2008	Deforestation due to logging and expanding agriculture is a major threat. Hunting of what appears to be a rare and restricted range species is also a threat, four of the seven known specimens are from markets.	eng
14563	conservation	Yasushi Yokohata, 2008	Survey work, and control of the introduced goats, are the most urgent priorities for this species. Unfortunately, international conflict arose between Taiwan, China and Japan over territorial claims to the Senkaku Islands during the 1970s, when rich mineral sources, mainly petroleum and natural gas, were discovered on the continental shelf surrounding the islands. This conflict has made it nearly impossible to conduct research into the goat problem on Uotsuri-jima (Yokohata <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
14563	distribution	Yasushi Yokohata, 2008	This species is known only from Uotsuri-jima, a small island (3.8 km²) in the Senkaku Archipelago, of the Ryukyus in Japan (Motokawa, <em>et al.</em> 2001). The island rises to 362 m asl.	eng
14563	habitat	Yasushi Yokohata, 2008	The one specimen was collected from coastal grassland. Most of Uotsuri-jima is covered with subtropical forest dominated by <em>Livistona chinensis</em>, and there are cloud forests at higher elevations (Yokohata <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has only recently been described and very little is known about its ecology.	eng
14563	population	Yasushi Yokohata, 2008	Only one specimen has been collected in 1979. However, there has been no recent survey work, and nobody has returned to the island to conduct surveys since 1991 when only a tunnel was found.	eng
14563	threats	Yasushi Yokohata, 2008	In 1978 a pair of goats was introduced to Uotsuri-jima, since when this population has increased dramatically. The species could potentially be seriously threatened by habitat degradation due to the introduction and establishment of these feral goats on the island (Yokohata, 1999) which cause soil erosion by overgrazing.	eng
14564	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is known to occur in the following managed areas: Archbold Biological Station, Hendry Ranch, Ocala National Forest, Tiger Creek Preserve, Saddle Blanket Lakes Scrub Preserve, Lake Arbuckle State Forest and State Park, Lake Louisa State Park, Highland Hammock State Park, and Bok Tower Gardens. However, few localities are protected from future development (Christman 1992).	eng
14564	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range is restricted to central Florida, in the southeastern United States, where the species is locally abundant on high sandy ridges of Lake, Marion, Orange, Polk, Highlands, and Osceola counties (Christman 1992). Formerly this skink was more widespread throughout the Lake Wales Ridge region. It is most common on the Lake Wales and Winter Haven ridges in Highlands, Polk, and Lake counties; uncommon on the Mount Dora Ridge, including sites within the Ocala National Forest (see USFWS 1998).	eng
14564	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs only on Florida's central ridges, at elevations of 27 m or more, in St. Lucie fine and Lakeland yellow sands. It inhabits loose sands of sand pine-rosemary scrub, less often longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill) or turkey oak "barrens" adjacent to scrub, especially high pine-scrub ecotones (Telford, cited in USFWS 1998). Sometimes this lizard occurs in areas with dense undergrowth and extensive canopy closure (Mushinsky, cited in USFWS 1998). It is basically fossorial (usually within 8 cm of surface) but sometimes can be found under logs, leaf litter, and other surface debris (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Well-drained sands in open glades free of rooted plants are optimal, whereas dry, porous sands are unfavourable; moisture under leaf litter is important in regulation of body temperature and for successful egg incubation. Eggs are laid in the sand or under logs or other cover.	eng
14564	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in more than 40 scrub sites, but most are small remnants of once larger tracts of suitable habitat. As of 1997, there were 114 "locality records" (USFWS 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but surely must exceed a few thousand. These lizards can be locally common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The area of occupancy and number of occurrences or subpopulations have been considerably reduced by habitat destruction, with further decreases expected. According to some estimates, 60 to 90% of the scrub ecosystem already has been lost (see USFWS 1998). USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Further decreases in available habitat are expected, but reliable data on trends are lacking (USFWS 1998).	eng
14564	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat destruction for commercial and residential development, agricultural (citrus) development (USFWS 1987), and phosphate mining. Conversion of habitat to citrus production is the primary threat (P. Moler pers. comm. 1995). Habitat degradation due to fire exclusion is another threat (USFWS 1998).	eng
14569	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
14569	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	The only living specimens have been found in Lake Tanganyika. Fossil shells have been recorded from Lakes Edward and Albert basins (potential relict endemic).	eng
14569	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	Individuals found on soft substrate or more commonly in huge shell beds of empty shells and living animals. Reproduction is by brooding one or two very large young, thus estimate population growth rates could be slow and shell beds are result of long-term accumulation. Shells are large, thus individual growth could be slow. This species is found up to 65 meters deep.	eng
14569	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
14569	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
14576	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	None.	eng
14576	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known only from two islands (Todos Los Santos Islands) in Baja California Norte, México (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14576	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The vegetation of Todos Los Santos Island is coastal scrub. It includes open herbaceous areas dotted with clumps a few meters in diameter of <em>Bergerocactus emory</em>, <em>Encelia californica</em>, and <em>Opuntia prolifera</em>. This vegetation is typical for flat areas, including most of the north island, but it is absent at the lighthouse and dwellings on the north island and absent from hilltops, valleys, and low plateaus of the south island. Climate is similar to the adjacent mainland, but with more fog and humidity.<br/><br/>The species is terrestrial, and is considered generalist herbivore (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001). There is little known about the natural history of <em>N. anthonyi</em> (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14576	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	No known population information. Five visits, from 1988 to 1990, produced no evidence of extant individuals (Cortez-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14576	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Predation by feral cats has been cited as the primary reason for extirpation of this species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14577	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None.	eng
14577	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Baja California Sur: Coronados Island (26°06’N, 111°18’W), México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14577	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
14577	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No population information could be found. No extant individuals, midden piles, or other evidence have been observed in recent expeditions (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
14577	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Depletion of food resources and predation by feral cats has been cited as likely causes of the extirpation of this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
14580	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None.	eng
14580	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Baja California Norte, México: San Martín Island (Cortez-Calva <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
14580	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The island is in the Upper Sonoran life zone, and the coastal scrub vegetation includes the succulent <em>Dudleya anthonyi</em> (Crassulaceae), <em>Lycium</em>, lichens, and cacti. The island has no fresh water. The rough volcanic surface of the island has numerous caves, crevices, and cavities that are, or were, occupied by wood rats. This rodent was terrestrial and was a herbivore (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14580	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Some naturalists that visited the island in the past have noted that this species was abundant. However, recent survey efforts have failed to produce the species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
14580	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Predation by feral cats has been cited as a primary threat to the extirpation of this species (Cortes-Calva <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
14581	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Management guidelines resulting in the protection of Allegheny woodrat habitats are needed throughout the range. In particular, attention needs to be given to maintaining dispersal corridors among isolated populations. Continuing research on causes of the decline is also needed.<br/><br/>Examples of protected occurrences include those in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Falls Ridge (a TNC preserve in Virginia), and the Deam Nature Preserve in Indiana. Many populations receive fairly good de facto protection in numerous areas with inaccessible cliffs and caves. Many additional occurrences are in state game areas and national forests and parks; these may afford some protection.<br/><br/>Rangewide surveys are needed to better determine status and trends. Areas with woodrats should be protected from excessive human traffic. Mining and logging operations should not be permitted in areas with woodrat populations.	eng
14581	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	The species' range extends from western Connecticut (formerly (not mapped here)), southeastern New York (virtually extirpated (not mapped here)), northern New Jersey, and northern Pennsylvania southwestward through western Maryland, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and northern and western Virginia (from the Blue Ridge westward) to northeastern Alabama (observed in several cave systems) and northwestern North Carolina (Hall 1981), with isolated populations north of the Ohio River in southern Ohio (where recent surveys failed to locate this species and so are not mapped here; W. Peneston pers. comm., cited by Mengak 2002) and southern Indiana (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). Although Hall (1981) showed <em>N. magister</em> in the northwestern corner of Georgia, the Tennessee River is generally accepted as the southern range limit.	eng
14581	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Typical habitat is rocky cliffs and talus slopes. These woodrats make midden mounds and stick piles among rocks, but secluded nest sites generally are not within stick houses (see Hayes and Harrison 1992).<br/><br/>Throughout its range, this species is associated with extensive rocky areas such as outcrops, cliffs, talus slopes with boulders and crevices, and caves. It occasionally uses abandoned buildings but generally avoids humans. It generally occurs at higher elevations (to about 1,000 m) and is rarely found in lowlands or open areas. Because it is a habitat specialist, geographic range portrayals grossly exaggerate its true distribution. For example, the global range map shows approximately 40% of the land surface of Pennsylvania as included in Allegheny woodrat distribution, when in fact the Pennsylvania surface rock habitat currently occupied by woodrats covers less than one percent (0.77%) of the state (Hassinger pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In southern New York, New Jersey, and adjacent Pennsylvania, woodrat habitat "consists of extensive boulder fields at the base of ridges with rock outcrops. These talus slopes consist of large boulders (10-20 ft. [3-6 m] across) piled in several layers. <em>Neotoma</em> lives among the cave like spaces formed by the piled boulders" (Sciascia 1990). <br/><br/>Referring to the mountainous area of Pennsylvania, Merritt (1987) wrote, "limestone caves, rocky cliffs and accumulations of residual sandstone boulders marked by deep crevices with underground galleries represent favored habitat." Hall (1985) pointed out that good habitat is found "specifically at water gaps where cliff faces and boulder piles are usually abundant." Unpublished data from Pennsylvania Natural Diversity Inventories (eastern and western offices) make frequent references to woodrat occurrences in sandstone, limestone, or shale outcrops and cliffs, usually with crevices or abundant boulders; also solution caves and abandoned limestone quarries and mines. Associated forest is varied, including cove hardwoods, hemlock-birch, oak-pine, and various combinations of oaks, maples, hickories, beech, and yellow poplar (tulip-tree). Grape, mountain laurel, rhododendron and ferns are frequently mentioned. <br/><br/>In West Virginia, woodrats are common in caves, rock shelters, outcrops with deep crevices, and riverbanks with an abundance of sandstone rocks and boulders. <br/><br/>"In Maryland, this species is found predominately in cliffs, caves and rocky areas in the three western-most counties, and along cliffs of the Potomac River to the vicinity of Washington, D.C." (Feldhammer <em>et al.</em> 1984). In western Maryland "Pottsville Sandstone outcrops [provide] massive, blocky boulders and extensive cliffs with numerous crevices and miniature cave-like situations" (Thompson 1984). <br/><br/>In Indiana, extant populations are restricted primarily to south-facing limestone bluffs on the Ohio River, where there are den sites in the rock and dense red-cedar (Cudmore 1983, Scott Johnson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Kentucky, "cliffs with deep crevices, caves, or large boulders piled in such a way as to form numerous retreats and shelters are favored" (Barbour and Davis 1974). In Tennessee, "rocky cliffs, caves and fissures or tumbled boulders on the sides of mountains are the preferred habitat" (Hamilton 1943), and in North Carolina it is "rocky places and abandoned buildings at elevations above 3,000 ft (900 m)" (Adams 1987). Castleberry <em>et al</em>. (2001) suggest that forest clearcutting has minimal impact on woodrat movements, home range, and habitat use, as long as sufficient intact forest is retained adjacent to colonies. They mention, however, that harvesting methods that selectively remove important mast-producing tree species may represent the greatest threat from forest management.<br/><br/>A large house of sticks, leaves, and miscellaneous debris is built, usually within a cave, crevice, or other well-protected place. This may be a mound like a muskrat house (typical construction in the range of other subspecies), but is more often open, giving the impression of a large bird's nest (Poole 1940). Outside diameter is about 35-60 cm (Patterson 1933) and the inner cavity is about 12 cm across (Poole 1940). The nest is lined with shredded bark of grape, red cedar, hemlock, or basswood, grass, fur, rootlets, and sometimes feathers (Poole 1940, Merritt 1987).<br/><br/>Woodrats are basically solitary and unsociable, frequently fighting one another. Each lives alone in its house, except when breeding and raising young. Poole (1949) found "a great deal of individuality" in temperament, behaviour, food preferences, etc., among his captive Allegheny woodrats. When upset, woodrats may chatter their teeth or stomp their hind feet (Wiley 1980). <br/><br/>Near the nests are found piles of sticks and trash called middens. Part of the materials found in woodrat houses and middens appears to be cached food in the form of nuts, seeds, berries, cuttings of vegetation, and mushrooms. But there may also be miscellaneous bits of trash, including rags, bits of metal, bones, pieces of glass, paper, etc. Newcombe (1930) and Poole (1940) compiled lists of such materials. The function of this compulsive collecting is unknown. <br/><br/>Though solitary and territorial, woodrats most often occur in clusters due to patchiness of the rock outcrop, talus, and cave habitat, and conform to the concept of a metapopulation (Hassinger <em>et al</em>. 1996). Home ranges are small, 0.26-0.6 ha (Wright and Hall 1996); usually less than about 90 m across (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Poole (1940) reported movements of 183 m and 92 m by two woodrats in Pennsylvania. Foraging movements, while often focused within rock habitat, may extend beyond the protection of rocks up to 160 m from the den site (Wright and Hall 1996). Den shifts tend be less than 100 m with a median of 40 m (Wright 1998), and woodrats, particularly females, often live their entire lives in the same outcrop (Feller, pers. obs., 1998). There are reports of large unidirectional movements of displaced woodrats, e.g., 1 km and 4 km (McGowan 1993), as well as naturally dispersing individuals, 0.3-1 km (McGowan 1993), 1 km (Feller, pers. obs., 1995), and up to 6 km (Wright pers. comm., 1998). While woodrats can travel long distances between patches, as distances increase, the chance of successful emigration between patches is likely to decrease, particularly in the absence of protective rock crevices. Barriers to dispersal are not clearly known, as woodrats have been documented to traverse seemingly inhospitable terrain, including roads, small streams, and small fields, though movements are largely within rock habitat (Feller, pers. obs.; Mengak pers. comm., 1998; Wright pers. comm., 1998). However, woodrats display unwary behaviour when crossing roads (Feller, pers. obs.), and road kills have been documented (Feller, pers. obs., 1993; McGowan 1993). <br/><br/>Predators include owls, skunks, weasels, foxes, raccoons, bobcats and large snakes. Humans have been killing woodrats for thousands of years - first for food, and much later out of prejudice, because of a resemblance to European rats. <br/><br/>White-footed mice compete with woodrats for food (Rainey 1956), and in Indiana, opossums, raccoons and turkey vultures may compete for den sites (Cudmore 1983). Woodrats support many ecto- and endoparasites, including fleas, ticks, mites, chiggers, botflies, nematodes, and tapeworms (Cudmore 1985). Bubonic plague (Schwartz and Schwartz 1959) and rabies (Dowda <em>et al</em>. 1981) have been reported in wild woodrats. Woodrats are primarily vegetarian, and food preferences vary widely among individuals. Leaves, twigs, fruits, and seeds of many plants are eaten. They are primarily nocturnal.	eng
14581	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but likely is much larger than 10,000. Populations are localized and generally quite small (less than ten), apparently exhibiting a typical metapopulation structure. For example, in Pennsylvania the Allegheny woodrat population consists of 78 disjunct metapopulations (Butchkoski 2004). This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (probably more than 200). The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good viability probably is substantially smaller than the total number of extant occurrences.<br/><br/>Populations in the northeastern United States have declined, while those in the southern portion of the range appear to have remained relatively stable. However, woodrats appear to be rare in Tennessee (Kennedy and Harvey 2001), and few specimens have been reported from Alabama, where present status is poorly known.<br/><br/>The species has disappeared from Connecticut, New York, most of eastern Pennsylvania, and all but one site in New Jersey. This decline has apparently been occurring for many years. Early sources (e.g., Newcombe 1930) remarked on the woodrat's decreasing range and abundance, and the most recent reports from Connecticut date from the 1930s (Goodwin 1935). Such a decline might be expected in the wake of human settlement, but in recent decades woodrat decline has been dramatic in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Apparent extirpation has occurred in at least 100 sites in northern Virginia (Buhlmann pers. comm., 1992). <br/><br/>Since the late 1960s woodrats in Pennsylvania have disappeared from sites where they once occurred, particularly in eastern and northwestern Pennsylvania; surveys of more than 360 sites from which woodrats have been reported yielded 20 metapopulations, but five of these metapopulation areas no longer support woodrats, and seven of them have fewer active colonies than in the past (C. Fergus, no date; www.pgc.state.pa.us, accessed April 2006). The species has disappeared from the southeastern portion of Pennsylvania and has declined in much of the rest of the state; at present, populations exist throughout much of Pennsylvania's south-central and southwestern counties, with a few remnant populations in eastern counties; mapped distribution indicates that the species no longer occurs in roughly half of the historically occupied range (Pennsylvania Game Commission website, woodrat information last updated in 2006).<br/><br/>In New Jersey, several populations have been extirpated for at least 20 years; the single known remaining population has been relatively stable in recent years, based on trapping results in 1999-2001 (New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife).<br/><br/>Woodrats were documented throughout their historical range in southeastern New York as recently as the mid-1960s, when they appeared to occupy all available habitat; those populations were extirpated by 1987; currently, the only woodrats in the state are immigrants that occasionally occupy a small patch of habitat on the New York-New Jersey border (this is the northern extreme of the habitat for the last remaining New Jersey woodrat population) (New York State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2005 revised draft). Reintroductions attempted in the early 1990s were unsuccessful.<br/><br/>This species may be represented by only one population in Ohio, or possibly it is extirpated; recent surveys failed to locate woodrats there (W. Peneston pers. comm., cited by Mengak 2002).<br/><br/>In Maryland, woodrat populations have been in decline for over two decades and continue to decline (Dan Feller, Maryland Natural Heritage Program pers. comm., cited by New York State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2005 draft).<br/><br/>In the early 1980s, extant populations in Indiana were reported from 20 sites (18 bluffs, two caves) adjacent to the Ohio River; in 1991-1992, live trapping surveys at 17 sites yielded a total of 101 woodrats at 12 (11 bluffs, one cave) of the 17 sites (Johnson 2002). Abundance in Indiana appears to have declined in recent decades. Population density for six sites in Indiana averaged 27.5/km of cliff habitat during the early 1980s (Cudmore 1985). During the 1990s density averaged about 11 individuals/km at 12 Indiana sites (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Woodrat populations in the core of the range in West Virginia (Castleberry 2000), Virginia (Mengak 2000), and Kentucky (Thomas 1998) currently appear to be secure.<br/><br/>Cudmore (1983) estimated population densities of 8.3 to 71.9 woodrats per 1,000 m of cliff along the Ohio River in Indiana. According to Burt and Grossenheider (1976), populations of 5-8 adults per hectare are probably high.	eng
14581	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Possibly widespread deforestation and habitat fragmentation contributed to the initial decline of the species, isolating populations and eliminating dispersal and travel corridors (Sciascia pers. comm., 1994). Deforestation and associated reduction/elimination of food resources currently may be a threat to some local woodrat populations. Causes of the continuing decline are not yet fully understood, but some hypotheses have been offered. Probably the explanation lies in a combination of these and other factors that may differ locally in importance (Linzey 1990).<br/><br/>Parasitism by the raccoon roundworm (<em>Baylisascaris procyonis</em>) has been identified as a significant cause of mortality and a probable major factor in the decline in several states (McGowan 1993; Hicks pers. comm., 1994; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1997; LoGiudice 2000). Although rarely fatal to raccoons, infestation may cause cerebrospinal nematodiasis in other species and has caused declines in some populations (Kazacos 1983). New York released and monitored woodrats in formerly occupied areas and all the animals died (50 total, including the released adults and their progeny); 11 of the 13 recovered carcasses were infected by the roundworms (McGowan 1993; Hicks pers. comm., 1994). Stone observed that woodrat decline in New York coincided with a marked increase in raccoon numbers (Linzey 1990). Hayes (unpublished research proposal) suggested that woodrats may be especially vulnerable for two reasons: 1) among other novel items, woodrats are known to carry back to their nests the faeces of other animals, which might include raccoon scats contaminated with <em>B. procyonis</em> eggs, and 2) a "relatively long generation time increases the probability that individuals will become infested prior to reproduction." Both of these reasons recently have been documented (McGowan pers. comm., 1994). Additionally, McGowan (pers. comm., 1994) found that woodrats may colonize areas where an infected woodrat has recently died, thus perhaps maintaining spread of the parasite. <br/><br/>Hall (1988) noticed a correlation between the spread of the gypsy moth (<em>Lymantria dispar</em>) and loss of woodrats in Pennsylvania. "There is a possibility that acorns make up a significant part of the food supply of the species in Pennsylvania. Acorns may be important as a winter food source since they can be stored for long periods of time. Studies conducted by the Pennsylvania Game Commission show that acorn production drops to zero for several years following defoliation. Gypsy moth infestation has resulted in considerable mortality of oaks, especially along the poorer soils of rocky ridge tops. These are the areas where many rocky sites are found, which are ideal woodrat habitats." In support of his argument, Hall noted that at three other sites where woodrats survived, other winter food sources were available. <br/><br/>In a similar theory, McGowan (pers. comm., 1994) speculated that the 1930-1940s permanent loss of the American chestnut (<em>Castanea dentata</em>) may be a factor. This chestnut was extremely hardy and a bountiful producer of mast, and its previous distribution essentially mirrors the historic distribution of the woodrat. Loss of this stable and predictable food source may have led to the continuing woodrat population decline.<br/><br/>Nawrot and Klimstra (1976) argued that the disappearance of a similar species, <em>N. floridiana illinoensis</em>, was likely due to two unusually severe winters. "Despite a tolerance of <em>Neotoma</em> to many environmental conditions, severe winter weather appears to be a major factor in sudden woodrat population declines. Fitch and Rainy (1956) recorded a drastic decline in <em>Neotoma floridiana</em>abundance in Kansas after two winters of below-average temperatures and prolonged snow and ice cover. Significantly, this decimated population was unable to make substantial gains and continued to decline gradually for several years." Weather also has been proposed as a factor in <em>Neotoma magister</em> decline, a view that is supported by the fact that the decline has been in the northern part of the range. Records in Pennsylvania and West Virginia over the past thirty years indicate "below normal" temperatures in critical months accompanying the observed shrinkage in range (Linzey pers. comm., 1994).<br/><br/>In some areas, including caves popular with spelunkers, human disturbance has been implicated in the disappearance of woodrat populations (e.g., Kirkland 1986). These woodrats do seem to avoid areas of human habitation or heavy human use, but many sites where they have disappeared are remote and rarely visited by people. <br/><br/>Habitat is generally inaccessible and undesirable for development, but strip mining of coal and limestone is a potential threat in many areas. Monty and Feldhamer (2002) stated that increased predation by great horned owls has been proposed as a threat, but owl predation seems highly unlikely as a reason for the decline. Populations often are small and isolated, hence highly susceptible to extirpation (Mengak pers. comm., 1994).	eng
14582	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
14582	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Southwestern USA and central and western Mexico, from sea level to 2,500 m. Occurs from extreme southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado south through Arizona, western New Mexico, Sonora, Chihuahua, and into northern Sinaloa. Also in a small area of southeastern California and northeastern Baja California, and on Tiburon and Turner islands.	eng
14582	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Inhabits arid areas, with preferred areas including rocky mountainsides, arid scrublands and cactus flats, pinyon-juniper woodlands on slopes, and desert habitats.	eng
14582	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Reported densities range from 1 - 12.7 individuals/ha, and may be related to the number of suitable nest sites and occurrence of other woodrat species.	eng
14582	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	None known.	eng
14583	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is not protected in Mexico. Part of the population is present within the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
14583	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in the southwestern Tamaulipas and adjacent San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14583	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. This species is likely restricted to a microhabitat. Its range is within cloud forest.	eng
14583	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
14583	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by timber extraction and conversion of forest to coffee plantations.	eng
14584	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	None.	eng
14584	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known only from Cedros Island, Baja California Norte, México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).	eng
14584	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The principal habitat types are coastal scrub, sand dune scrub, chaparral, juniper scrub, and pine forest. It occurs in all vegetation zones and habitat types except sand dunes and the barren slopes near the town of Cedros (Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999). <br/><br/>Nests are composed of dry leaves wedged so tightly into the living leaves that the collector was unable to overturn the nest. Nets materials and construction styles vary greatly in different parts of the island depending upon the plant species available. In April, two females collected were pregnant (Banks 1964 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).	eng
14584	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species apparently is uncommon. Based upon trapping results, this species is more frequent in the dense prickly pear “orchard” at Punta Norta than at other locales. Ten individuals were captured in 560 trap nights of general trapping (Mellink 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Yensen 1999).	eng
14584	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Elimination of shrubs for firewood on the southern part of the island and predation by domestic cats and dogs have been cited as primary threats to this species (Mellink-Bijtel 1992 in Alvarez-Castaneda and Yensen 1999).	eng
14585	conservation	Matson, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	Found in Salaqui National Park in Honduras. More information is required regarding the ecological requirements and possible threats faced by the species.	eng
14585	distribution	Matson, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is known from north-west Nicaragua and north-western Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found up to 2,000 m.	eng
14585	habitat	Matson, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is poorly known. Thought to be found in rock outcrops.	eng
14585	population	Matson, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	Rare and local, known from only a few specimens (Reid 1997).	eng
14585	threats	Matson, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown, but its habitat preference is thought to be for rocky outcrops, which are not under threat.	eng
14586	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, a portion of its range is within protected areas.	eng
14586	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The species' range appears to be uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is mapped to include western Arizona east of the Colorado River, and northwestern Sonora, Mexico. It ranges in elevation from sea level to 2,200 m.	eng
14586	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is primarily restricted to habitats surrounding the Colorado River and its major tributaries, where its dens are typically found at the bases of cliffs and rock outcorppings, and in high desert.	eng
14586	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common.	eng
14586	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats known. It is sympatric with <em>Neotoma albigula</em>, which may limit its population numbers through competition for den sites.	eng
14587	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
14587	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in extreme western United States, from the Columbia River in western Oregon southwards to the inner Coastal Range of west-central California, and north Sierra Nevadas, east-central California.	eng
14587	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	A habitat specialist found in heavy chaparral; hardwood, conifer, and mixed forests, typically in densely wooded areas with heavy undergrowth; riparian woodlands. Builds house of debris on the ground or in a tree; houses tend to be in situations that are shaded, relatively cool, and in good cover, and they may be used by many generations over several years. After breeding, males live in tree dens apart from females. <br/><br/>One study found that each woodrat averaged 1.8 houses/home range. Loosely colonial, with partially overlapping home ranges; several individuals may live in the same area, though individuals (aside from females with young) typically live in separate houses. Adult home range averages around 2,000sqm. Predators include hawks, owls, bobcat, coyote, long-tailed weasel, etc. Stick houses provide cover for many vertebrate and invertebrate commensals. <br/><br/>Most young are born from February (especially in south) to May. Gestation lasts 30-37 days. Usually one litter per year. Litter size is 1-4, usually 2-3. Weaning begins at three weeks (Carraway and B. J. Verts. 1991, Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981). Diet includes a wide variety of plants. Feeds on seeds, nuts, acorns, fruits, green vegetation, inner bark, and fungi. This woodrat stores food. It is primarily nocturnal.	eng
14587	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density is up to about 45/ha in optimal conditions; more typically 1-3 dozen/ha.	eng
14587	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Generally populations are negatively affected by grazing and the removal of undergrowth or shrubby vegetation, but these are not major threats to the species overall.	eng
14588	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.	eng
14588	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is known from Mexican Plateau (from 1,160 to 2,320 m), from southeast Chihuahua to south San Luis Potosí and north Querétaro, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14588	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is restricted to rocky and desert habitats; animals occurs rocky ledges, hidden by cacti and shrubs, along shallow ravines. Nets made of sticks and grasses were noted in deep crevices. <br/><br/>Two pregnant females obtained in late March each carried one embryo; another three pregnant females collected during July and August; two was carrying one embryo each and the other carried two embryos. Lactating females were trapped in July and August (Hrachovy <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
14588	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	No population information was found.	eng
14588	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is estimated to have lost 8-17% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 12 years (C. de Granmont and  A. Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
14589	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. Many of the island populations are considered endangered by Mexican law.	eng
14589	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Arid and semi-arid areas of western United States and southward to northwestern Sonora and through the Baja California peninsula (Mexico), including the islands of Espiritu Santo, San Francisco, San Jose, Danzante, Carmen, Angel de la Guardia, and Margarita. In the US, range includes southern California, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, western Utah, and extreme western Colorado and Arizona.	eng
14589	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in desert scrublands and coastal sage scrub habitats. Requires succulent vegetation, especially <em>Opuntia</em> and <em>Yucca</em>, as a source of water. Nests in these plants or in crevices of nearby rock outcroppings.	eng
14589	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat. On islands with cliffs, it is very common, but on other islands it is considered to be very rare.<br/><br/>Reported densities range from 1.4 individuals/ha (January in the San Gabriel Mountains) to 30 individuals/ha (June-July in coastal sage).	eng
14589	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known threats to the species. However, the <em>Neotoma lepida</em> complex has a number of extinct populations on the islands in the northwestern part of Mexico and many of the remaining island populations are likely vulnerable to habitat change or to introduced species, such as cats.	eng
14590	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Pérez, S., 2008	Taxonomic research is need to determine if there are separate species. There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
14590	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Pérez, S., 2008	This species is known from southeast Utah and central Colorado, USA, southwards through west and interior México, to the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and west Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,100 to 4,000 m (in southeastern Mexico and north Central America) (Reid 1997).	eng
14590	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Pérez, S., 2008	Occurs in rock outcrops, cliffs, and rocky slopes. In the US, the vegetation associated with these habitats includes pinyon-juniper woodland, scrub oak, ponderosa pine, and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest. This species is poorly known in Central America. It is found in highland pine-oak forest and open woodland; favors dry, rocky areas in coniferous forest and forest openings but also occurs in cool, evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and mainly terrestrial, but it climbs well. Individuals are aggressive toward each other and tend to be solitary (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The diet consist in primarily of green plant material (including yucca), supplemented with fruit, seeds, and fungi. Unlike other wood rats, this species seldom constructs large stick nests, although piles of sticks may be found at den entrances. Dens are usually located in rock crevices and house spherical or cup-shaped nest of shredded bark (Finley 1958). Each active nest is occupied by one adult male or an adult female and her young (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The gestation period is about 33 days; and the litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging about 4 (Reid 1997; Wilson and Ruff 1999). Females born early in the year are capable of breeding and bearing young later in the same year. Sexual maturation in males proceeds more slowly (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
14590	population	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Pérez, S., 2008	Common in North America (Wilson and Ruff 1999); generally uncommon and local in Central America (Reid 1997).	eng
14590	threats	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Pérez, S., 2008	None known.	eng
14591	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
14591	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Southern Great Plains of the United States and northeastern Mexico. In the US from southeastern Colorado to south-central Kansas, southward through western Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. In Mexico, the range is primarily northern Chihuahua, northeastern Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, and the northeast sector of San Luis Potosi.	eng
14591	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats charactized by grasses, shrubs, and cactus. Associated with rocky habitats in some parts of the range.	eng
14591	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Populations somewhat variable, ranging from 0-31.1 individuals/ha over a 30-month period. These changes are correlated with cactus density.	eng
14591	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
14592	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is considered endangered by the Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
14592	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Veracruz, Perote, (2,377 m), México (Musser and Carleton, 2005).The total geographic range is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. This species range is limited to the eastern volcanic slopes of Orizaba and Cofre de Perote (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14592	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. The area around Perote is characterized by xeric shurb, pine-oak forest, cloud forest, and tropical rainforest in the deep ravines (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14592	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is rare within a restricted range (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14592	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive conversion to agriculture, which may have already contributed to its decline and the isolation of its populations (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
14593	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are no conservation measures underway.	eng
14593	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14593	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in the valley bottoms, in tropical deciduous forest.	eng
14593	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is not common.	eng
14593	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	In 2007, a very large dam (El Cajon) was built downstream from this species' primary range. It is expected that inundation of the rivers caused by this dam will result in extensive habitat loss for this species.	eng
14594	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	A more accurate estimation of its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population trends are needed.	eng
14594	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs from south-west Sonora and north-west Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from sea level to 150 m (Jones and Genoways 1978).	eng
14594	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species primarily occurs typically in tropical decidious forest. Its nests usually were found along streams in thick brush or low trees. This species is mainly nocturnal. It feeds on fruits and leaves. Some individuals have been reported living in holes near a dry, sandy creek bed. Some pregnant females were reported in January, February and December, all carried two embryos. A female taken in April was both lactating and pregnant with three embryos. Lactating females were found in February, March, April, August, and November (Jones and Genoways 1978).	eng
14594	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
14594	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is estimated that 60% to 70% of this species' range has been converted to agriculture (primarily for tomato and onion crops).	eng
14597	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known. Likely occurs in a number of protected areas within its range.	eng
14597	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	From central and eastern California (United States) south into northwestern Baja California, Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14597	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Habitat preferences are similar to other members of the <em>Neotoma</em> group, prefering areas with dense vegetative cover, including chaparral, coastal scrub, and woodlands (Carraway and Verts 1991). <br/><br/>Like other woodrats, <em>N. macrotis</em> builds large houses of sticks, bark, leaves and man-made objects discovered while foraging. Found on the ground, in trees and on hill slopes. Houses average one meter in diameter by one meter tall and consist of several chambers for food storage and nesting. These stick houses are typically inhabited by a single adult or female with pups.	eng
14597	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Population densities are known from descriptions of <em>N. fuscipes</em> which is significantly more abundant in areas of dense vegetative cover, with estimates of 35 individuals per hectare, compared to 5 individuals/ha in open areas (Cranford 1999).	eng
14597	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	As a specialist in areas of dense vegetative cover, the large-eared woodrat is especially susceptible to habitat clearing caused by fire and livestock grazing.	eng
14600	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas within its range.	eng
14600	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is endemic to the Cordillera Transvolcanica, México. It occurs from west central Michoacán eastwards to central Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005), at an altitudinal range of approximately 2,500 to 4,300 m (Davis and Follansbee 1945 in Williams <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
14600	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is endemic to boreal habitats of the transvolcanic belt of central Mexico, and is restricted to "sacaton" grass and open pine forest (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
14600	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat, however, it is sensitive to changes in habitat.	eng
14600	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by urbanization and deforestation due to timber extraction, agricultural activities, grazing, and human recreational activities.	eng
14601	conservation	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is known from several protected areas in Peru and two in Bolivia. Further general research into this species is needed.	eng
14601	distribution	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This montane species ranges from central Peru (Junín Department), south through northernmost Chile and west Bolivia, to northwest Argentina (see Anderson, 1997; Bárquez, 1983; Pardiñas and Ortiz, 2001; Sanborn, 1947; Musser and Carleton, 2005).  It is mostly found between 2,500 to 4,600 m.	eng
14601	habitat	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is associated with streams and wetlands with dense cover, in the Altiplano grasslands and shrubby steppe. It is not present in disturbed or cultivated areas. Embryo counts from Peruvian specimens ranged from one to two (Bárquez, 1983; Pearson, 1951; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is an herbivorous species. It is very associated to particular wetland areas.	eng
14601	population	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
14601	threats	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is threatened in parts of its range through modification of the species' wetland habitat, for example through extraction of water for irrigation purposes.	eng
14602	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It is well represented in several protected areas, but only a few of the protected areas in which it occurs receive any protection against poaching, logging and agricultural encroachment. Its survival will probably become increasingly dependent on effective protection in protected areas such as Tai National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and the forest parks in Ghana.	eng
14602	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Royal Antelopes ranges from south-western Guinea (the Kounounkan Massif perhaps representing the westerly known limit), Sierra Leone, Liberia, south-eastern Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, to the Volta R., Ghana (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). Records from the forests east of the Volta River in north-east Ghana remain questionable (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Fischer <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported what they considered to be reliable observations of the tracks of Royal Antelopes in Comoé N. P. in north-east Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
14602	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The world’s smallest antelope species is nocturnal, timid and very secretive. It occupies moist lowland forest and secondary vegetation habitats, forest edges and other areas with dense undergrowth; its range extends into forest-savanna mosaic to the north of the main forest block in West Africa. The Royal Antelope is often encountered more in logged forest with some undergrowth than in primary forest and it is frequently encountered in farm bush (it often persists in farming areas, despite heavy hunting pressure).	eng
14602	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Reported to be locally abundant, East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 62,000, perhaps a significant underestimate. Population trend is difficult to assess, but is apparently stable at least in some protected areas. Overall population trend is probably decreasing as human populations and associated pressures on natural habitats and wildlife continue to grow over most of its range (East 1999).	eng
14602	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Major threats are difficult to establish, but they are certainly at risk from bushmeat hunting. However, human attitudes towards this species vary in different parts of its range. For example, in Sierra Leone it is rarely shot, but is occasionally caught in snares set for duikers. In Liberia, where it is regarded as the epitome of cunning by rural people, there are widespread taboos on the hunting or consumption of the royal antelope among the country’s clans and ethnic groups. In contrast, in Côte d'Ivoire, it forms a significant component of bushmeat (East 1999).<br/><br/>Although affected by habitat destruction it can persist in relatively small forest patches within agriculturally developed areas.	eng
14603	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Major protected-area populations include those in Dja and Lobeke-Mongokele (Cameroon), Monte Alen (Equatorial Guinea), Dzanga-Sangha (Central African Republic), Odzala (Congo), Lope (Gabon), Okapi reserve, Maiko and Kahuzi-Biega (Congo-DRC), and Kibale and Semliki (Uganda).	eng
14603	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bates' Pygmy Antelope are found in three disjunct regions: southeastern Nigeria, east of the Niger River to the Cross River; south and southeast Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River) to southwestern Central African Republic (west of the Sangha River), Gabon, and northwestern and southwestern Republic of Congo; and northeastern DR Congo, north and east of the Congo-Lualaba, extending marginally into southwestern Uganda (Feer in press).	eng
14603	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	An inhabitant of moist lowland forest, this species prefers dense, low undergrowth along rivers, tree falls within mature forests, areas regenerating after logging or cultivation, road sides, village-gardens and plantations (Feer in press). They are folivorous, and most often solitary.	eng
14603	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species can reach very high densities within localized areas of favourable habitat, e.g., >35.0/km² in an area of coffee and cocoa plantations bordered by secondary forest in northeastern Gabon (Feer 1979). Typical densities over more extensive areas are in the order 1.5-2.2/km² (East 1999, and references therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated the total population at 219,000. The population trend is stable over extensive parts of its range where human population densities are low, but shows a tendency to decrease in areas where hunting pressures are very high.	eng
14603	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Although hunted for bushmeat, they are not commonly found in urban markets (Feer 1979). The species’ dependence on secondary growth and ability to utilize plantations should enable it to withstand degradation of primary forests better than species which are dependent on undisturbed forests. its long-term survival may nevertheless become increasingly dependent on protected areas.	eng
14604	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Important protected populations occur in areas such as Aberdares N.P. and Mount Kenya N. P. (Kenya), Udzungwa N.P. and Selous G. R. (Tanzania), Lengwe N. P. (Malawi), Maputo G. R. (Mozambique) and Tembe N. P., Mkuzi G. R. and Ndumu G. R. (South Africa).<br/><br/>In 1995, a total of 39 captive-bred suni were released in an area of dense bush in north-eastern Kruger National Park which is believed to comprise suitable habitat, but by early 1998 there was no evidence that this reintroduction had been successful (East 1999).	eng
14604	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Suni formerly occurred widely in forests and thickets in coastal regions and the hinterland from Kenya to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. In Kenya, it occurs about as far north as Mt Kenya and the Aberdares, and, along the coast, as far north as the lower Tana R.; their southerly limit of distribution is around L. St Lucia in NE KwaZulu-Natal (c. 28°S) (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). They probably also occur in Swaziland, although their occurrence is not confirmed (Monadjem 1998). There are no confirmed records from Zambia. Recorded from Zanzibar and some adjacent islands (Mafia and Chapani, the type locality), but not Pemba (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
14604	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	An inhabitant of coastal forests and thickets, dry deciduous thickets, montane forests to 2,700 m and other areas with thick undergrowth. In some areas it probably benefits from the expansion of secondary thicket habitat which has resulted from human activity (e.g. on Zanzibar), and it readily colonises degraded forests.	eng
14604	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species occurs at relatively high population densities in areas where it is common, e.g., ground surveys have revealed densities of 13.0-17.0/km² in areas such as Zanzibar Island and Lengwe National Park; it occurs at lower densities in South Africa, e.g., 0.9/km² in Mkuzi Game Reserve (various authors in East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 365,000 (East 1999). The population trend is probably stable over large parts of its range, but decreasing in settled areas where hunting pressures are very high and in some protected areas with an overpopulation of nyala.	eng
14604	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This is a very resilient species which generally withstands moderately high hunting pressure, although overhunting has probably reduced its numbers over much of its range in Kenya, and localized overhunting causes low densities in areas such as the immediate vicinity of villages. Loss of habitat to the expansion of agriculture and settlement and hunting by poachers and uncontrolled dogs have eliminated the Suni from much of its former range in South Africa where it is now a rare species. It is also threatened by reduction of shrub cover caused by increasing numbers of nyala (<em>Tragelaphus angasii</em>) in some protected areas and private game farms.	eng
14626	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
14626	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Neritilia manoeli</em> is known only from Principe Island, São Tomé Island (collected in 1992), and Cameroon (Bibundi and Victoria, on aquatic plants).	eng
14626	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in freshwater near coasts.	eng
14626	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
14626	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
14627	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
14627	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but more information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.	eng
14627	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
14627	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Neritina cristata</em> ranges from Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon and Gabon. In central Africa, this species has a wide range along coastal region.	eng
14627	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is present from Sierra Leone to Gabon.	eng
14627	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species ranges from Sierra Leone to Gabon..<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species has a wide range along the coast of this region.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal areas, in particular Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
14627	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in coastal areas.	eng
14627	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.	eng
14627	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found mainly in coastal areas.	eng
14627	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
14627	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
14627	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
14627	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats	eng
14627	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
14627	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
14628	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	In southern Africa, ecological impact studies are required for all coastal developments affecting the environment.	eng
14628	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
14628	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
14628	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is known from Somalia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the mangrove swamps and lagoons of East Africa's coastal strip (Kenya and Tanzania). No specific locality in the region is mentioned in the traced literature for where the species has been recorded.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Somalia (at the mouth of the Giuba River).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the coastal lowlands of Mozambique and eastern South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal southwards to Port St Johns in eastern Cape) (Appleton 2002).	eng
14628	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> In the southern region, it is recorded from the coastal lowlands of Mozambique and eastern South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal southwards to Port St Johns in Eastern Cape) (Appleton 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Somalia to South Africa.	eng
14628	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Somalia (mouth of the Giuba River).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is more common  southwards  in  the mangrove swamps of eastern Africa's coastal strip  (till southern Africa).	eng
14628	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It thrives in mangrove swamps.	eng
14628	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Lowest reaches of rivers, particularly at the estuarine/freshwater interface. Usually found on hard substrates.	eng
14628	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species thrives in mangrove swamps and lagoons.	eng
14628	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
14628	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
14628	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread and found at low densities.	eng
14628	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Along the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa residential, recreational and industrial development and dune mining for titanium is degrading estuarine habitats.	eng
14628	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Major threats include Alcoa titanium and dune mining, and sedimentation mainly occurring in the southern African region. Residential and recreational development (marina construction) in South Africa and aquaculture in Tanzania (Rufiji River delta), both of which lead to habitat destruction. In Mozambique, tractor harvesting for prawns is also destroying habitat.	eng
14628	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Possibly some sedimentation in the region.	eng
14629	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution. <br/>Particularly we need to know how this species has been affected by the two dams on this river, which have also had problems of drying up. This species seems to be the only one of the genus which is freshwater - we do not know if it can also live in the brackish habitats that the other species of this genus prefer.	eng
14629	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is present in Côte d'Ivoire, known only from the Bandama River.	eng
14629	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found on rocks in rapids, strong current, in the main flow area of the Bandama River, Cote d'Ivoire. This may be a true freshwater species.	eng
14629	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
14629	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The major threat to this species is water abstraction from the river. Also pollution and dams are likely to be threatening it.	eng
14631	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	As a condition of building Ivie Reservoir, the Colorado River Municipal Water District is required to release water from both Spence and Ivie reservoirs according to a schedule that is intended to maintain suitable watersnake habitat. These water releases include both continuous daily flows and flushing flows designed to maintain stream channels (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). In conjunction with reservoir construction several artificial riffles have been built, and these now support populations of Concho Watersnake. The primary concern is balancing the need for habitat protection with an increasing human demand for the diversion of more water for residential and industrial use.	eng
14631	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is restricted to the Colorado and Concho River drainages in Texas, in the south of the United States (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). The probable historical range is estimated to have included, at a minimum, the Colorado River from Spence Reservoir downstream to the vicinity of Lake Buchanan; Elm, Bluff, and Coyote Creeks (Runnels County); and the entire Concho River (Tom Green and Concho counties) and its headwater tributaries, Dove Creek, Spring Creek, and the South Concho River (Irion and Tom Green counties) (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). The historical range included about 450 stream km. The current range includes 396 stream km and about 25 km of lake (e.g., lakes Spence, Ivie, and Moonen [=Ballinger Municipal Lake]) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998).	eng
14631	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits fast-flowing rocky streams and their margins, particularly shallow riffles and where flat, unshaded and unsilted rocks are at or close to the water's edge; it also occupies the shorelines of lakes, ponds, and impoundments (Werler and Dixon 2000). Individuals take cover under rocks or in vegetation along shore (Conant 1975, Tennant 1984, Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Ernst and Ernst 2004, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Juveniles use medium to large, flat rocks on unshaded shore for hiding, rocky shallows for feeding (species may be absent where juvenile habitat is lacking); adults inhabit rocky riffles as well as wider range of habitats in pools and lakes, and they use woody vegetation and flood debris along stream banks for basking and cover (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). At a large lake, snake presence was associated with rocky low gradient shorelines with silt substrate; retreat sites generally were within three metres of water but up to 15 m for gravid females (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 1997). Hibernation sites include crayfish burrows and rock piles (Werler and Dixon 2000).	eng
14631	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a small number of distinct occurrences (subpopulations) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. As indicated by sample sizes in various field studies, this snake is locally abundant in proper habitat (Greene <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake has been eliminated from a small portion of its historical range (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "stable." This snake is more abundant and more widely distributed than was previously thought (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989, Dixon 1993).	eng
14631	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Reservoirs have flooded many miles of former stream habitat. Below dams, restriction of stream flow and prevention of floodwater scouring have resulted in siltation of rocky streambeds, encroaching vegetation, and loss of riffle habitat required by young snakes (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Habitat fragmentation has left some populations isolated. Populations in reservoirs may not be viable or effectively connect adjacent riverine populations (USFWS, Federal Register, 2 August 1999). However, natural riffle habitat is not as essential as was previously believed; populations have survived for decades along reservoir shorelines. This species also has been found at all six artificial riffles constructed in 1989 in the 17 mile stretch of the Colorado River between the Robert Lee Dam and Bronte (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Diversion of water has reduced water levels and instream flows in some areas, threatening the fish preybase for the snake. An inadequate instream flow regime remains one of the most serious threats to the snake due to the prevalence of drought in Texas (USFWS, Federal Register, 2 August 1999). Pollution and degradation of water quality is a potential threat in certain areas. Non-point source pollution in the vicinity of San Angelo, petroleum production, refining, and transportation in the watershed, treated sewage disposal, pesticide use, and feedlot activities have been identified as water quality concerns that could affect the snake's habitat (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Despite all of these threats, this species has proven to be reasonably adaptable, and there is no evidence of a significant decline in numbers.	eng
14660	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It requires the conservation of appropriate habitat in the face of marshland drainage and agricultural expansion. Research is needed to gain more information on geographic distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
14660	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is endemic to the marshlands of southeastern Iraq in the Tigris and Euphrates Valleys. It has been recorded only from marshes at the confluence of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the vicinity of Al-Qurna, and also downstream near Basra. It possibly occurs in Al-Hawizeh marsh to the east straddling the Iraq-Iran border. It might occur widely in the lower Tigris and Euphrates Valleys, although its range is likely to be limited.	eng
14660	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is poorly known, but it appears to be a terrestrial species which prefer moist habitats, such as marshes and swamps.	eng
14660	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is known from only a few records, so it is apparently a rare species.	eng
14660	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	The marshlands of southern Iraq were extensively drained and destroyed during the years leading up to the Iraq War in 2003 (UNEP 2003). By 2000, the marshes had been all but destroyed (Richardson and Hussain 2006). This has included agricultural expansion. However, by September 2005 the high volume of good-quality water entering the marshes from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, a result of two record years of snowpack melt in Turkey and Iran, allowed 39% of the former marshes to be reflooded (Richardson and Hussain 2006). Although reflooding does not guarantee restoration success, field surveys found a remarkable rate of re-establishment of native macroinvertebrates, macrophytes, fish, and birds in reflooded marshes (Richardson and Hussain 2006). However, the future availability of water for restoration is in question, which suggests that only a portion of the former marshes may be restored (Richardson and Hussain 2006). Also, landscape connectivity between marshes is greatly reduced, causing concern about local species extinctions and lower diversity in isolated wetlands (Richardson and Hussain 2006). There is no information on how these massive land-use changes have affected <em>Nesokia bunnii</em>, but as a species believed to be dependent on marshes, its populations must have suffered significantly.	eng
14661	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. In South Asia, It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
14661	conservation	Boitani, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. In South Asia, It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
14661	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This very widespread species is present in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia and China. In North Africa it has been recorded from Egypt, where it is largely confined to the western part of the Nile Delta (Hoath 2003). In the Middle east it has been recorded from the Jordan Rift Valley, along the plains of the Tigris River in Syria, Iraq, Iran and possibly Turkey (these need verification). It is present as an isolated population at Oqair and Saihat in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is very widespread over much of Iran. In Central Asia, it appears to be mostly associated with river plains, and appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Presence in Kazakhstan needs verification (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) In South Asia, the species is distributed in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, northern India, Nepal and Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.	eng
14661	distribution	Boitani, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This very widespread species is present in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia and China. In North Africa it has been recorded from Egypt, where it is largely confined to the western part of the Nile Delta (Hoath 2003). In the Middle east it has been recorded from the Jordan Rift Valley, along the plains of the Tigris River in Syria, Iraq, Iran and possibly Turkey (these need verification). It is present as an isolated population at Oqair and Saihat in eastern Saudi Arabia. It is very widespread over much of Iran. In Central Asia, it appears to be mostly associated with river plains, and appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Presence in Kazakhstan needs verification (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) In South Asia, the species is distributed in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, northern India, Nepal and Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.	eng
14661	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, arable land, pastures, plantations. It has been found to occupy soft, moist soil for burrows, natural grasslands, cultivated fields, orchards (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Iran, the species typically lives in moist soils near permanent water sources in areas of dense vegetation, for example agricultural areas. In Egypt the species inhabits semi-desert areas. The animal creates a large number of burrows and tunnels. The species is suggested to have a gestation period of 17 days after which a litter of one to 10 young are born. In China, it inhabits mountainous areas where they are especially common in agricultural land (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14661	habitat	Boitani, L. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical and sub tropical dry deciduous forests, scrublands, grasslands, arable land, pastures, plantations. It has been found to occupy soft, moist soil for burrows, natural grasslands, cultivated fields, orchards (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Iran, the species typically lives in moist soils near permanent water sources in areas of dense vegetation, for example agricultural areas. In Egypt the species inhabits semi-desert areas. The animal creates a large number of burrows and tunnels. The species is suggested to have a gestation period of 17 days after which a litter of one to 10 young are born. In China, it inhabits mountainous areas where they are especially common in agricultural land (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14661	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	In general it is locally abundant, and can be an agricultural pest in some areas. In 1996, the species was reported to be common around oases and springs near the Dead Sean and in Wadi Araba. In Israel, Jordan and probably Egypt, the species may have been more widespread in the past, however, as the species is adapted to moist habitats and desert conditions have expanded, it is now found in isolated pockets where suitable habitat remains. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14661	population	Boitani, L. & Molur, S., 2008	In general it is locally abundant, and can be an agricultural pest in some areas. In 1996, the species was reported to be common around oases and springs near the Dead Sean and in Wadi Araba. In Israel, Jordan and probably Egypt, the species may have been more widespread in the past, however, as the species is adapted to moist habitats and desert conditions have expanded, it is now found in isolated pockets where suitable habitat remains. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14661	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Habitat loss has been reported from Israel and Jordan.	eng
14661	threats	Boitani, L. & Molur, S., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Habitat loss has been reported from Israel and Jordan.	eng
14662	conservation	Meijaard, E. & Sugardjito, J., 2008	A conservation plan for <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> had been proposed in the past, but was never funded (Flux 1990). The discovery and protection of a population of rabbits is necessary for conservation, and surveys of the distribution of the rabbit and its presence in reserves and private land (Flux 1990).<br/><br/><em>N. netscheri</em> had been locally reported as fairly common, by locals, in the protected area Gumai Pasemah Wildlife Reserve in Sumatra Selatan (Flux 1990).  However, a return trip to the area discovered that a feral colony of <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> was mistakenly identified as <em>N. netscheri</em> by the locals on the northern side of the reserve (Flux 1990).  It has been caught by camera traps in Kerinci Seblat National Park (Fauna and Flora News 1998) and Bukit Barisan National Park (BBC News 2007).	eng
14662	distribution	Meijaard, E. & Sugardjito, J., 2008	The species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The majority of records are from west-central and southwest Sumatra, with one record from Gunung Leuser NP (Flux 1990). <br/><br/><em>N. netscheri</em> occurs at a minimum elevation of 600 m and maximum elevation of 1,600 m (Flux 1990).	eng
14662	habitat	Meijaard, E. & Sugardjito, J., 2008	Most records of <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> are from land being cleared for coffee or tea plantations, rabbits were noticed as the forest was cleared at elevations between 600 m and 1,600 m (Flux 1990).  The preferred habitat of<em> N. netscheri</em> is montane forest with volcanic soil (Flux 1990).  This species has low tolerance to human disturbance (Meijaard and Sugardjito 2005).  <br/><br/>Its diet consists of understory plants, and it is not seen feeding in clearings (Flux 1990).  It is nocturnal, residing during the day in burrows most likely built by other animals (Flux 1990; Schneider 2001).  HB length is 36.8-41.7 cm (Flux 1990).	eng
14662	population	Meijaard, E. & Sugardjito, J., 2008	Population size and density are unknown for this species, though density is suspected to be naturally low (Flux 1990).  It is a rarely seen species, that has likely never been common in its range as there is little local knowledge of the species (Flux 1990). It is known from only seven locations (Flux 1990).<br/><br/>A sighting in January 2007 with a camera trap was the most recent since 2000, and the previous record was from 1972 (BBC News 2007).	eng
14662	threats	Meijaard, E. & Sugardjito, J., 2008	The main threat to <em>Nesolagus netscheri</em> is the clearing of mountain forest for agriculture, primarily coffee, tea and cocoa plantations (Flux 1990). It is not apparently hunted routinely, probably due to its natural rarity (Flux 1990).	eng
14663	conservation		It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
14663	distribution		This species is restricted to Mahé and Silhouette Islands in the Seychelles, occurring at relatively high elevations above 350m asl, though one individual was recently found at 95m asl.	eng
14663	habitat		It is restricted to relatively undisturbed habitat in wet rocky areas along streams or dry streambeds. The recent low-altitude records were from secondary forest, but it shows a strong preference for higher altitudes and undisturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid among rocks.	eng
14663	population		It is less common than other members of the family Sooglossidae.	eng
14663	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened in its higher altitude habitat. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.	eng
14671	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas, including Ranomafana National Park, Mantadia National Park and Analamazaotra Special Reserve.	eng
14671	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species occurs in the middle- and high-altitude humid forest regions of central, eastern and north-eastern Madagascar, from Manongarivo east to Tsaratanana and the mountains ringing the Andapa Basin south to Andohahela National Park (Ryan 2003). It has an altitudinal range of 750 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
14671	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This is a terrestrial, diurnal species of middle- and montane humid forest. Animals use a number of burrows which are often situated under logs, brush piles and other ground cover. Individuals may be found scavenging at rubbish pits and camps within the forest. The litter size is presumably one or two young. This species may be found outside of the forest feeding on crops in tavy fields, although usually only when these are adjacent to forested areas (Ryan 2003; D. Rakotondravony pers. comm.).	eng
14671	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	Based on standard trapping techniques, this species can be common at certain sites.	eng
14671	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance of forest for cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
14672	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
14672	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Hispaniola.	eng
14672	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species.	eng
14672	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
14672	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.	eng
14673	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
14673	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Cuba, including the Isle of Pines.	eng
14673	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species.	eng
14673	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
14673	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.	eng
14674	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
14674	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Haiti.	eng
14674	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species.	eng
14674	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
14674	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.	eng
14676	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
14676	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Haiti.	eng
14676	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species, it was the smallest of the <em>Nesophontes</em>.	eng
14676	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is known only from skulls and skeletal material found in owl pellets. Recent carbon dates from fossil material, suggest that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
14676	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most likely cause of the extinction of this species. Remains of this species have been found together with those of <em>Rattus spp.</em> and <em>Mus spp.</em> which were introduced to the island by European ships. The burning of forests for cultivation purposes is also considered to have pushed these species to extinction.	eng
14706	conservation	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species is extinct.	eng
14706	distribution	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species was endemic to Galápagos Islands. It was found on Santa Cruz (= Indefatigable) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Patton and Hafner, 1983). It is extinct, last recorded in 1930 (Musser and Carleton, 1993). Recent field work by R. Dowler during 1997 did not find the species (Dowler <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
14706	habitat	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
14706	population	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is extinct.	eng
14706	threats	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The introduction of the black rat (Rattus rattus) is the main cause of the extinction of this species.	eng
14707	conservation	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.	eng
14707	distribution	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Fernandina (= Narborough) Island in the Galápagos archipelago (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Type material was discovered from fresh owl pellets (Hutterer and Hirsch, 1979).	eng
14707	habitat	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species has been found at various sites on the island, from the coastal area to the top of the volcano. However, the highest trap success occurred along the rim of the volcano where the vegetation was most dense. It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with N. narboroughi. It has been captured in lowland and highland areas on Fernandina Island. Also found at high-elevation (around 1,300 m) along the volcano rim where the vegetation is primarily Scalesia spp., and was most dense (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14707	population	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14707	threats	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The main current threat to the species is possible introduction of exotic species, in particular <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.	eng
14708	conservation	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are not conservation measures.	eng
14708	distribution	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It was found on Santa Cruz (= Indefatigable), and Baltra (= South Seymour) Islands (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14708	habitat	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is little information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
14708	population	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The last documented record was in 1934 (Patton and Hafner, 1983). This species is extinct (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14708	threats	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The introduction of the black rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) is the cause of the probable extinction of this species.	eng
14709	conservation	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	To preserve this species it is to important develop an eradication or control program of the introduced species (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>).	eng
14709	distribution	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It occurs on Santiago (= San Salvador, James) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
14709	habitat	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with black rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) and domestic mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>). It has been captured in lowland areas (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). This endemic rice rat occurs in dry forest and shrubs areas with a large quantity of the endemic cactus (Opuntia galapageia), which indicates a relationship exists between this plant and the presence and survival of the rice rat <em>N. swarthi</em> (Charles Darwin Research Station, 2005).	eng
14709	population	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Two new populations were discovered on the northern coast of the Island during a monitoring expedition in March 2005, population densities at these sites are low, but they represent a significant increase in the known population of the species. This range extension does not alter the highly endangered status of this species. No other populations of N. swarthi were found while searching for potential sites on western Santiago (Charles Darwin Research Station, 2005).	eng
14709	threats	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is threatened by non-native rodents introduced to Santiago Island, including <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.	eng
14734	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	The species does not occur in any protected areas in Turkey; it is not known if the species occurs in protected areas in other parts of its range. It is protected by national legislation in Iran.  More research is needed to understand the natural history and distribution of this species in order to develop conservation measures.	eng
14734	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is present in the vicinity of Beytussebbap (Vilayet Hakkari), south-east Anatolia, Turkey and in the Kurdish region of northern Iraq. There are two old records for north-western Iran, but current presence should be verified (Ted Papenfuss, pers. comm. 2008). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
14734	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It breeds in montane streams (egg laying) during the spring. Adults are known to leave the streams for surrounding areas after breeding, but the terrestrial habitat remains unknown. It is presumed that the adults occur under rocks and other cover during the winter.	eng
14734	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There is no information on its population status for Turkey.  Very little is known about this species because there has been little research within its range.	eng
14734	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	Very little is known about this species.  It is likely to be relatively susceptible to habitat change including habitat loss, pollution, and drought. In Turkey, the construction of several dams is planned within the species range. The area of distribution in Turkey is expected to undergo significant development over the next 10 years, and presumably the species will be impacted by these changes.	eng
14735	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas in Turkey. There is a need to develop national legislation to mitigate the pollution of stream habitats in eastern Turkey.	eng
14735	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	This species is currently known only from Vilayets Mus, Bitlis and Malatya in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey.  Of the two confirmed subspecies, <em>N. s. strauchi</em> is found in the streams surrounding the south and west of Lake Van along the ridges of the mountains of Akdag and Mus guneyi daglari.<em>N. s. barani</em> is found in areas near the town of Poturge and is restricted to Kubbe Mountain on the Malatya-Puturge road (Pasmans et al 2006). It is present at altitudes of 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
14735	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	It is known only from the small, cool mountain streams in which it breeds. The borders of these streams may or may not be wooded. Animals spend the winter months on land under stones and in burrows. The terrestrial habitat of this species is not well known. The female lays between 10 and 20 eggs in a clutch. It can survive some habitat modification (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
14735	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	This species is locally common within its limited suitable habitat (Kaya, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
14735	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	In general, this species lives at high elevations where there is a low human population and few threats. In the eastern part of the species range, close to Bitlis, the species is presumably threatened by pollution of streams and rivers with domestic detergents and sewage. Construction of a dam is planned on the river catchments where the western subspecies in the Kubbe Dagi occurs (G. Eken pers. comm.). This species has been recorded in the pet trade, although it is not known if this is a threat to wild populations (Bogaerts <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
14740	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in three protected areas, two in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.), and one in Colombia, Paramillo National Park (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It may be present in other protected areas throughout its range (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
14740	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of west Colombia and north Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Colombia it occurs in the Cordilleras Central and Occidental (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,800 to 3,750 m.	eng
14740	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is semiaquatic and riparian; it feed on aquatic insects. This water mouse has been captured near clear streams in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This genus has the least specialized habitat of its tribe. It is predated by foxes (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
14740	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is difficult to collect, but is not rare.	eng
14740	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	The major threat is habitat disturbance due to deforestation.	eng
14741	conservation	Ochoa, J. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is yet to be found in any protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
14741	distribution	Ochoa, J. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is known just for two localities. The type locality is western Venezuela, Tachira State, 14 km southeast Pregonero, Río Potosí, Paso Hondo, 1,050 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005), and a new record: near La Azulita (08°43'N, 71°27'W, 1,200 m) (J. Ochoa and P. Soriano pers. comm.).	eng
14741	habitat	Ochoa, J. & Soriano, P., 2008	This rodent is semiaquatic, and it feeds on aquatic invertebrates.	eng
14741	population	Ochoa, J. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is rare (J. Ochoa pers. comm.). It is known from only three specimens from two localities.	eng
14741	threats	Ochoa, J. & Soriano, P., 2008	There is strong pressure from habitat destruction including deforestation, dams, and agriculture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
14742	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is found in Nouragues Nature Reserve in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
14742	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is known only from four localities in French Guiana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001) and one in Amapá, northeast Brazil (Nunes, 2002). It occurs in lowlands (less than 300 m in altitude) (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
14742	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species has been collected from moist creek side forest on level sandy soil just a few centimeters away from the water (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). In Brazil, the single specimen was taken in open vegetation with a few scattered trees and scrub, patches of gallery forest are in the area, but the nearest forest watercourse was at least 1 km away, the first occurrence reported in absence of water.	eng
14742	population	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	The remains of small crabs found along streams in a study area suggested that this species was not uncommon locally, but intensive trapping effort produced no additional specimens (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is not common in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.) and difficult to capture.	eng
14742	threats	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	Prospectors ("garimpeiros") in the area might be affecting this species by polluting the watercourses (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
14743	conservation	Vivar, E. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is present in the Manu National Park and Alto Purus Reserve. General research into the habitat, ecology and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
14743	distribution	Vivar, E. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species is known only from three localities in lowland east Peru. It has been recorded from Madre de Dios and Ucayali Departments (see Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1993) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded at elevations of 200 to 400 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
14743	habitat	Vivar, E. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This water mouse has been captured near to clear streams in bamboo forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997; E. Vivar pers. comm.). It feeds on aquatic insects and perhaps crabs. It is not present in modified areas.	eng
14743	population	Vivar, E. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is rare or difficult to capture (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
14743	threats	Vivar, E. & Zeballos, H., 2008	The area and habitat that this species has been recorded from is undisturbed, and there appear to be no immediate threats to this species.	eng
14744	conservation	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is found in Canaima National Park in Venezuela, and it may be present in Mochima National Park (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
14744	distribution	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species has been found at five widely separated localities in Venezuela and Guyana (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 1,400 m.	eng
14744	habitat	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This rodent is semiaquatic. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates. This water mouse has been captured near clear streams in rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
14744	population	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is uncommon and patchily distributed. It is known only from 5 locations within its broad distribution.	eng
14744	threats	Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	There is strong intensive habitat destruction and aquatic contamination due to deforestation, mines and agriculture (J. Ochoa pers. comm.) occurring within the range of the species which is inferred to be causing a population decline.	eng
14765	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is traded in some numbers in the East Asian food trade. It is uncommon to rare in the wild, not known to inhabit effectively protected areas, and has a life history particularly sensitive to exploitation of adults.	eng
14812	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14812	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occuring in Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and possibly northern Guizhou provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations between 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14812	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in high montane forest (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14812	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
14812	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14813	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from Namdhapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas outside of India. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14813	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is limited to northeastern India, northern Myanmar and southwestern China. Within India, it has been recorded from Arunchal Pradesh (at Gandhigram and the Anzong Valley in the Mishmi Hills) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In northern Myanmar, it has been recorded from the Adung Valley and Nyetmaw River region in Kachin State (Musser and Carleton 2005). In China, it has been reported from Yunnan west of the Salween river (the northwestern Gaoligong mountains) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs from around 2,000 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
14813	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. In Southeast Asia and China It is a montane temperate to cool conifer forest species. In South Asia, it occurs in tropical forests, temperate forests, montane moist deciduous forests. (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It can probably persist in secondary forest, although it is not thought to occur outside of forest habitats.	eng
14813	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known, only a few specimens have ever been collected.	eng
14813	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	There do not appear to be any major threats to this montane species. There seems to e little habitat disturbance within its range.	eng
14814	conservation	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	It is present in Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand. In China, it is present in Xishuangbanna (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and many other protected areas see CSIS (2008) for a complete list. Taxonomic revision of the subspecies is needed. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14814	distribution	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species is widely distributed in China (but not on islands off the coast), extending to northern Myanmar, northwest Thailand (summit Doi Inthanon, Chiengmai Province), and extreme northwest Viet Nam (summit Mount Fan Si Pan west of the Red River); it may also occur on summits of mountains in northern Lao PDR, although there is as yet no confirmed record (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an elevational range of between 150-4,000 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
14814	habitat	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	It occurs in montane mossy forest in Thailand, and is present in a wide range of habitats from forest to cultivated land in China (Corbet and Hill 1992). In China, the species is found in both primary and secondary forest, though it is about twice as common in primary forest (Wu <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
14814	population	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Large museum collections suggest that this species is common in the highlands of northern Myanmar and China (Musser 1981). In a survey by Wu <em>et al.</em> (1996) in Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, southern China this species was by far the most abundant in both primary and secondary forest. It is known from only a handful of specimens in Thailand and Viet Nam.	eng
14814	threats	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
14815	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), but it is not known if it occurs in any other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14815	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is restricted to elevations below 2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008), becoming common at 1,300 m asl (Yu 1993).	eng
14815	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in broad-leaf forests and its edge habitat, and scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is 2-3 (Yu and Lin 1999).	eng
14815	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has a population density of 2-5 per hectare (Yu and Lin 1999).	eng
14815	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
14816	conservation	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
14816	distribution	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	This widespread species is found in peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, as some offshore islands; including the Mergui Archipelago, Anambas islands, Sumatra, Nias, Billiton, Bangka, Borneo, Java, Bali, and small islands off the northern tip of Sabah (Musser and Carleton 2005). This generally lowland species reaches 1,530 m on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Indochina this species occurs only south of the Isthmus of Kra (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14816	habitat	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is frequently trapped in both the canopy and on the ground, showing no preference for either (Wells et <em>al</em>. 2004). It prefers primary forest habitats but it is relativley tolerant of disturbance and may be found in secondary wooded habitats. It is not found outside of forested areas.	eng
14816	population	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is generally a common species (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2004; Md Nor 2001).	eng
14816	threats	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	The habitat of this species, especially in lowland areas, is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land (such as oil palms).	eng
14817	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been recorded in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993; Yu 1994) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004). Further studies regarding population and habitat status, are needed.	eng
14817	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is typically restricted to highlands between 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14817	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in primary hemlock forests, and is sometimes found in secondary habitats as well (Smith and Xie 2008). It is usually found in association with large logs on the forest floor (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14817	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In a survey conducted from 1989-1990, this species was characterized as common in Yushan National Park (Yu 1993).	eng
14817	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In the past there was some deforestation in the highlands of Taiwan, however, that has now mostly ceased and there are no longer any known threats to this species.	eng
14818	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In China and Southeast Asia, it might be present in some protected areas, such as the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve in China. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. General field surveys, research into the distribution, natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14818	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species ranges from central and eastern Nepal and India (West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunchal Pradesh), into southern China (Xizang, Yunnan and perhaps ranging into adjacent Sichuan and Guizhou) and northern Myanmar (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It may be present in Bhutan, but this needs to be confirmed. It occurs from around 2,000 to 3,700 m asl	eng
14818	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in wet montane coniferous forest, rhododendron forests and bamboo shrubs (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been caught along streams and rocky outcrops (Anthony, 1941). It may be able to persist in disturbed habitats, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
14818	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is probably a common species.	eng
14818	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In China and Southeast Asia it seems unlikely that there are any major threats to this species in its remote range. Hunting for subsistence use has been observed to be the major threat for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
14819	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
14819	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in southwestern Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan, and a single record in central Yunnan from Ailao Mountain (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 2,300-3,000 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
14819	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in montane forests, at high elevations (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
14819	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
14819	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
14820	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas. It is not known from any  protected area in South Asia. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, general field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14820	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in Nepal, possibly Pakistan, northern India (Arunchal Pradesh, Assam Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarachal and West Bengal), possibly Bangladesh, southern China (Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Hong Kong, Macao), Lao PDR, Viet Nam (including a number of offshore islands such as Con Son), Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Bali) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005 Musser and Carleton 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It is absent from Borneo and other islands on the Sunda Shelf (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from around sea level to over 2,200 m asl.	eng
14820	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of forest types throughout its range. It has been trapped in gardens and other forest edge habitats. This species is found in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest in Dujiangyan Region of Sichuan Province, China. In Lao PDR, it is found in evergreen, pine, deciduous, and secondary forests (Marshall 1977). In South Asia, it occurs in tropical evergreen, temperate broadleaf, grass and bushy land, riverbeds in hilly forest. It has been found to occupy evergreen broadleaved forests, shrubs, rocks, also found near water (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is sympatric with <em>N. confucianus</em> over an extensive part of its range (Allen, 1940).	eng
14820	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is very common in Southeast Asia. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14820	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species other than total loss of forest cover. In South Asia it is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14821	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It may occur in Khao Yai National Park, but as far as is known it has not yet been recorded. This species is in need of further survey work to establish whether it really is endemic to, and more widespread on, the Korat Plateau.	eng
14821	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is currently known only from the Korat Plateau in south east Thailand (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely to be confined to this karst area of Thailand, but is currently known only around the immediate vicinity of the type locality.	eng
14821	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is closely associated with limestone cliff habitat. It was collected halfway up the face of a forested limestone cliff outside the entrance to a cave, while another record is from "high above the valley floor, in scrubby vegetation at the base of vertical limestone cliffs" (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
14821	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is patchily distributed, being tied to karst habitats, but there is no current information on population status.	eng
14821	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and degradation, particularly of the limestone forest, although it may be shown to occur in the nearby Khao Yai National Park where there is improved habitat protection.	eng
14822	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in several protected areas. It is not known from any protected area in India. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14822	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand (north of the Isthmus of Kra), southwestern Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and northeastern India (Margherita in Assam [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]). It is present in southern China (a single site in Yunnan) (Smith and Xie 2008). It has an altitudinal range of roughly 200 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
14822	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is arboreal, but commonly captured on the ground. It is primarily found in tropical evergreen rainforest formations, but there are records from mixed deciduous seasonal forest (Marshall 1977). Throughout its range, this species is found with N. fulvescens in the same habitats (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It can be found in lightly disturbed, but not secondary forest (Guy Musser pers. comm.). In South Asia, it can be found in both primary and secondary habitat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
14822	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	In Southeast Asia, it is widespread but not particularly abundant at any site. There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14822	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G., Frost, A. & Molur, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is generally being deforested over its range for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
14823	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
14823	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is endemic to western and central Java (Musser and Carleton 2005). Elevation range is probably above 1,000 m.	eng
14823	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14823	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is relatively common, and easy to trap.	eng
14823	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss given its presence at upper elevations on Java.	eng
14824	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any of the protected areas within its range in South Asia. General taxonomic research, field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
14824	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This South Asian species is widely distributed in Bhutan, India, Myanmar and Nepal from sea level up to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14824	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs temperate coniferous, temperate broad leaved forest, tropical evergreen, subtropical dense evergreen and riverine forests in vicinity of streams. It has been found to occupy riverine forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14824	population	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14824	threats	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Loss of habitat and fragmentation through fires, jhuming (a form of shifting cultivation) and general encroachment have been observed to be the major threats for this species in parts of South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14825	conservation	Ruedas, L., Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in Bukit Raya National Park (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
14825	distribution	Ruedas, L., Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly known species is found in the highlands of the island of Borneo. It has been recorded between 940 and 3,360 m on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu, and possibly occurs throughout the upland forests of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14825	habitat	Ruedas, L., Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that is presumably found in forest and scrubland at higher elevations.	eng
14825	population	Ruedas, L., Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is probably a fairly common species.	eng
14825	threats	Ruedas, L., Helgen, K., Lunde, D., Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. It may be threatened by habitat loss at lower elevations.	eng
14826	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is recorded from several protected areas across its range.	eng
14826	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in west-central and southern Myanmar, north-western Thailand (Doi Pui and Doi Suthep, Chiengmai province), southern Cambodia (Elephant Mts.), southern Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and China, where according to Smith <em>et al</em>. (2008) it is found only on Hainan island. It has also now been confirmed from the mountains of northern Lao PDR (D. Lunde pers. comm.). Records exist from 1,300 to 2,200 m in Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003), though they do occur at higher elevations elsewhere, perhaps up to 3,000 m. It is probably more widely distributed in southern China border regions.	eng
14826	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is restricted to montane rainforest habitats in Indochina, beyond the range of <em>N. confucianus</em>, and sympatric in some places with <em>N. fulvescens</em> and <em>N. langbianis</em> (Musser and Carleton 2005). Lunde <em>et al</em>. (2003) captured most individuals on the ground, although two were caught on woody lianas threading through dense stands of bamboo.	eng
14826	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is never very abundant, although there are several large series of museum specimens.	eng
14826	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats, other than some habitat loss at lower elevations.	eng
14829	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 - restricted range in Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
14829	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	S Mexico (only Chiapas) to Guianas, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
14829	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is found in a variety of vegetation types throughout its range, but it is always located near streams, bodies of water or other moist places. Bulldog bats typically roost in hollow trees, foliage and man-made structures. Members of this species have been found in association with the mastiff bat <em>Molossus molossus</em>; the roost can easily be identified by the musky odor of the lesser bulldog bat (Nowak 1999). Natural and urban areas (Barquez 2006, 1999). <em>N. albiventris</em> have been noted foraging with 8-15 conspecifics. Studies of the activity pattern of this species show a peak in activity immediately after sundown (Hooper and Brown 1968).	eng
14829	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant. Needs taxonomic review (Barquez - pers. comm.) The species is uncommon in its northern range (Arroyo Cabrales pers. comm.). Can be found from sea level up to 1,100 m (Hood and Pitochelli, 1983).	eng
14829	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
14830	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
14830	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Sinaloa (Mexico) to the Guianas, Suriname, Brazil, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru; Trinidad; Greater and Lesser Antilles; S Bahamas (Simmons 2005).	eng
14830	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Hollow trees, caves, piscivore, can eat aquatic insects. Observed in groups larger than 30 individuals in Brazil (Barquez 1999). They roost near streams, coastal marine habitats, major river basins, or other moist places. Bachelor males roost apart from females. Males residing with female groups stay for two or more reproductive seasons (Mulheisen and Berry 2000). Females bear a single young each pregnancy. This species tends to have pregnancies occuring from September until January, and lactation is first seen in November and continues until April. This is a general pattern, however, and it can vary with geographical location. Reproduction corresponds to seasons of greatest food availability (Mulheisen and Berry 2000).	eng
14830	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant. Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.). Large roosts of hundreds of bats have been reported. They may also roost in smaller groups of up to 30 individuals and forage at night in groups of 5 to 15 animals (Mulheisen and Berry 2000).	eng
14830	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. In Guatemala fishfarmers are killing this species (Cajas pers. comm.). Water bodies pollution (Armando Rodriguez pers. comm.). In Belize the water level changed and restricted the range (Miller pers. comm.). Deforestation (Uribe and Castro-Arellano, 2005).	eng
14854	conservation	Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in at least four protected areas in Argentina.	eng
14854	distribution	Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in southern Argentina, from southern Río Negro Province to central Santa Cruz Province (see Pardiñas and Galliari, 1998a:Fig. 5) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
14854	habitat	Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	Rocky areas and steppe.	eng
14854	population	Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	It is an uncommon species, finding some populations as abundant (Meseta de Somuncura).	eng
14854	threats	Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
14856	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
14856	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	The trade volume of this species has increased in Malaysia, whilst habitat has decreased. In East Asian food markets it was traded at levels of 2–3 tons/day in 1999, after proportionally very high mortality during transport.	eng
14859	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	This species has been found only in Lagoa Amarela, Minas Gerais.	eng
14860	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from the Tucuruí Reservoir in the State of Pará, Brazil and from Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela. May be more widespread in South America.	eng
14861	conservation	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
14861	distribution	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	This poorly known species was restricted to arid areas of central Australia. Abundant subfossil data suggest a very wide distribution in arid central and western Australia.	eng
14861	habitat	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	The habitat requirements of this species are not well known. The country in the area of collection is open gibber plain, desert grassland and low shrubland. Alternatively it may have been found in nearby sand ridge country (Dixon 2008).	eng
14861	population	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It is believed to be extinct (Dixon 2008). The species is known only from two specimens collected at Charlotte Waters, Northern Territory, in 1896, and also from remains in the northern Flinders Range, South Australia and nearby open plains (Dixon 2008).	eng
14861	threats	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation by introduced species such as foxes and feral cats.	eng
14862	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is not present in any national parks, however, Cape Arnhem is an Indigenous Protected Area managed by the Dhimurru Land Management Aboriginal Corporation, and much of its range on Groote Eylandt is also proposed as an Indigenous Protected Area (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There is a need to establish a monitoring program for this species. More information is needed about threats to this species.	eng
14862	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is restricted to coastal areas in north-eastern Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt in Northern Territory. The type specimen was reportedly collected on the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland some time prior to 1867, however, the species has not since been recorded here (Winter and Allison 1980; Lee 1995; Woinarski and Flannery 2008). There is a possibility that it is found in northern Queensland. There is one isolated record from Maningrida, north-central Arnhem Land, but the area of suitable habitat around this record is limited (J. Woinarski pers. comm.).	eng
14862	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	It occurs in a range of vegetation types on sandy substrates (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). It is patchily distributed, but appears to be most abundant in dunes and sandsheets, supporting coastal heathlands, shrublands, and tussock grasses (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1999; Woinarski and Flannery 2008). This species is difficult to trap, and is most easily detected by its tracks (Woinarski 2005). The gestation period is about seven weeks, and the females can give birth to up to five young (Woinarski and Flannery 2008).	eng
14862	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Woinarski and Flannery 2008).	eng
14862	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. Feral cats, strip-mining for manganese, and changes in the fire regime are possible threats.	eng
14863	conservation	Moseby, K.E. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It has been recorded from the Strzelecki Regional Reserve, South Australia, and may be present in the Innamincka and in Stuart National Park (Lee 1995). Currently, this species is the focus of some research activities in New South Wales and a conservation project in South Australia. Further studies are needed into the threats and conservation measures for this species.	eng
14863	distribution	Moseby, K.E. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is now restricted to north-east South Australia, south-western Queensland, and a small area of north-western New South Wales (Lee 1995; Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). It formerly also occurred over much of South Australia and southern Northern Territory (Lee 1995).	eng
14863	habitat	Moseby, K.E. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in sand plains and sand ridges. It burrows in large sandy dunes (Lee 1995). Animals live in small groups (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). In captivity it breeds throughout the year, with one to five young being born after a gestation period of 38 to 41 days (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). It breeds after rainfall events.	eng
14863	population	Moseby, K.E. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is a rare species overall (Owens <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species can be eruptive along with high rainfall. The distribution is patchy within its extent of occurrence.	eng
14863	threats	Moseby, K.E. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The reasons for the decline of this species are not known (Lee 1995). It can survive in severely degraded habitat. The species co-occurs with dingoes, which may control feral cat and fox populations; so, dingo control may be a threat. Populations and habitat fluctuate depending upon rainfall events.	eng
14864	conservation	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Any reports of the persistence of this species, including finds of recent remains, should be reviewed to determine whether the species is possibly still extant.	eng
14864	distribution	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species was endemic to Australia, where it appears to have ranged through much of the central and western arid parts of the country (Dixon 2008).	eng
14864	habitat	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It appears to have been associated with hard clay soils of arid and semi-arid areas, with a vegetation cover of acacia and eucalypt woodlands, hummock grassland, and low scrubland (Dixon 2008).	eng
14864	population	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct. It is known from very few specimens and remains collected at widespread localities. It was collected in Western Australia in the 1840s. The last specimens of this species were collected in 1901-1902 from the Northern Territory (Dixon 2008).	eng
14864	threats	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation rates by introduced predators such as foxes and domestic cats.	eng
14865	conservation	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
14865	distribution	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species was endemic to Australia where it is known only from two specimens: one collected at Moore River, Western Australia, and a second collected at an unrecorded locality (Dixon 2008).	eng
14865	habitat	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The habitat requirements of this species are unknown. The land surrounding the Moore River originally consisted of coastal heathland, woodland, and open forest (Dixon 2008).	eng
14865	population	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is believed to be extinct. It is known only from two damaged specimens, the last probably being collected in 1843 or 1844 (Dixon 2008).	eng
14865	threats	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, however, most of the land in the vicinity of Moore River has been cleared of native vegetation through conversion to agricultural use. It is possible that the species may have suffered predation from introduced predators such feral cats.	eng
14866	conservation	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
14866	distribution	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	This species was endemic to Australia. The species was described in 1922 from a single skull thought to have been collected on the Darling Downs, Queensland, in the 1840s (Watts 2008).	eng
14866	habitat	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species remain unrecorded.	eng
14866	population	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct, and is known only from a single skull.	eng
14866	threats	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	The reasons for the loss of this species are unknown, but may be related to predation rates by introduced predators such as foxes and domestic cats.	eng
14867	conservation	Morris, K., Moseby, K.E., Burbidge, A. & Robinson, T., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
14867	distribution	Morris, K., Moseby, K.E., Burbidge, A. & Robinson, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the arid and semi-arid central and western areas of the country (Breed 2008).	eng
14867	habitat	Morris, K., Moseby, K.E., Burbidge, A. & Robinson, T., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in arid areas of spinifex-covered sand plains and dune systems. Animals spend the day in deep burrow. Females give birth to three or four young.	eng
14867	population	Morris, K., Moseby, K.E., Burbidge, A. & Robinson, T., 2008	It is a common species. It is an eruptive species that persists across its range in low densities during most years (Breed 2008).	eng
14867	threats	Morris, K., Moseby, K.E., Burbidge, A. & Robinson, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Feral cats are a localized threat (the population is five to six times higher within the Arid Recovery Reserve than outside). The species fluctuates in terms of population numbers (being eruptive in some years), but this is not seen as a threat.	eng
14868	conservation	Brandle, R., Peeters, P. & Breed, W., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas at northern extent of range: Ethabuka Reserve and part of Diamantina Lakes National Park. Monitoring of populations is needed. Populations in southern areas require some protection. Further studies into the effects of introduced predators and rabbits, and the impact of lower rainfall on the species are needed.	eng
14868	distribution	Brandle, R., Peeters, P. & Breed, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Channel Country Biogeographic Region (BGR) spanning north-east South Australia and south-west Queensland, Australia. Habitat of extant populations is dominated by open, smooth stony and clay plains with smaller areas of overlying sand, usually vegetated with ephemeral grasses, forbs, and herbs, though some taller perennial vegetation may be sparsely present. The species' range is currently restricted to 25% of the Channel Country BGR. There are also historic records from other parts of central Australia (Stony Plains BGR, Central Ranges BGR, MacDonnell Ranges BGR, and the Nullarbor BGR). Outlying populations in the Nullarbor and MacDonnell Ranges BGRs appear to have occurred prior to the 1950s. The species has not been recorded in the Stony Plains BGR since 1970, despite a period of intensive survey work here. There is some doubt about the reliability of outlying records. Finlayson (1961) questioned these and suggested the distribution was confined to what can be considered the Stony Plains and Channel Country BGRs. However, the species has been identified from a number of sub-fossil regurgitated owl pellet material collected from caves on the Nullarbor BGR, and the Flinders Ranges at the south-eastern edge of the Stony Plains BGR (Watts and Aslin 1981). <br/><br/>It is not clear if range contraction is continuing as many records in Queensland are from one-off surveys, and a recent Queensland assessment for prioritization for conservation action considered this species of “Least Concern” because it was not known to be in decline (EPA Queensland 2005; 'Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework'). In South Australia the population appears to be restricted to the north-east corner of the state, where populations that have been repeatedly visited since 1992 appear to be relatively stable. Areas of what would now be considered ideal <em>Notomys cervinus</em> habitat in the Stony Plains BGR are much smaller/fewer and more fragmented compared to the Channel Country. It is likely therefore that the species had a much smaller area of occupancy making it more prone to localized extinction during past periods of environmental stress, eventually leading to total extinction from the western side of Lake Eyre. If only the northern half of the Stony Plains BGR is considered as the species’ past range then the extent of occurrence would have declined by approximately 75% and the potential area of occupancy by a further 20%. The overall decline of the species from its pre-European area of occupancy is probably over 50% since the 1950s.	eng
14868	habitat	Brandle, R., Peeters, P. & Breed, W., 2008	It is present in the gibber plains and claypans (hard substrate) of the north-eastern Lake Eyre Basin which forms part of the Channel Country Biogeographic Region of north-east South Australia and south-western Queensland (Breed 2008). It lives in burrows in small family groups. The species is believed to reproduce opportunistically with suitable conditions; females give birth to between one and five young after a gestation period of 38 days (Breed 2008).	eng
14868	population	Brandle, R., Peeters, P. & Breed, W., 2008	This species is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Breed 2008). Exceptional rainfall events followed by high plant productivity results in elevated population levels probably by an order of magnitude (Canty and Brandle 2008). If decline is continuing it is likely to be the result of local extinctions from isolated suitable habitat patches during prolonged dry periods. If the extant potential area of occupancy (18,000 km<sup>2</sup>) is used to estimate min and max population size, the result is a range: 4,500 – 180,000 depending on seasonal conditions (using densities of 0.25-10 animals/km<sup>2</sup> estimated from field records; Canty and Brandle 2008).	eng
14868	threats	Brandle, R., Peeters, P. & Breed, W., 2008	No major, widespread threats to this species have been identified, though excessive trampling by domestic and feral ungulates can severely degrade the vegetated patches of sand in which this species burrows. This leads to de-stabilization of these areas making them prone to wind and water erosion (Canty and Brandle 2008). Higher stocking rates for sheep and cattle prior to 1950 may have been a significant factor in their historical decline. Placement of artificial waterpoints in areas of prime habitat may be a continuing threat to some populations. <br/><br/>Global warming has potential to be a threatening process for this species (contraction of the species from Mulka to Clifton Hills may be related to the lower rainfall that this region receives). Modelling by Chapman and Milne (1998) for the Kowaris <em>Dasycercus byrnei</em>, a species occupying the same habitat and distribution as <em>N. cervinus</em>, predicted a 92-98% contraction, with remaining areas in habitat not currently occupied by Kowaris.<br/><br/>Smith and Quinn (1995) in their investigation of rodent decline across Australia concluded that hyperpredation in combination with low productivity landscapes was a major factor in the decline and continued suppression of many rodent species. Introduced carnivores such as foxes and cats were indicated as primary species acting as hyperpredators when their populations were maintained at high levels by more common prey species such as European Rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cunniculus</em> or Long-haired Rats <em>Rattus villosissimus</em>. Rabbits, foxes, and cats are relatively rare on the open gibber inhabited by <em>N. cervinus</em>, though proximity of suitable habitat to isolated sand dunes and drainage channels alters this balance in many areas. Introduced predators may have been significant in their decline of <em>N. cervinus</em> over their historical range, particularly if they were using better vegetated habitats. There have been no studies to indicate that they are significantly impacted by these introduced predators at their present locations.	eng
14869	conservation	Morris, K., Robinson, T., Copley, P. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is well represented within a number of protected areas.	eng
14869	distribution	Morris, K., Robinson, T., Copley, P. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges throughout the wheat belt and semiarid mallee/eucalypt areas of South Australia, Western Australia, and Victoria (Breed <em>et al.</em> 2008). The distribution is currently fragmented, restricted to remaining habitat within agricultural areas.	eng
14869	habitat	Morris, K., Robinson, T., Copley, P. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in mallee scrub type habitats. The species has extensive burrow systems.	eng
14869	population	Morris, K., Robinson, T., Copley, P. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a widespread species, but currently has a fragmented distribution. Occasionally eruptive, but not to the extent of <em>Notomys aquilo</em> (Breed <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14869	threats	Morris, K., Robinson, T., Copley, P. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Habitat loss was a threat historically, and past land clearing has resulted in a fragmented distribution, which leaves the species more vulnerable to stochastic events. Habitat degradation through grazing might be a threat.	eng
14872	conservation		Most of the remaining known populations are on federal, state, or private conservation lands, such as Apalachicola National Forest, Florida; Camp Blanding Military reservation, Florida; Ocala National Forest, Florida; Fort Stewart, Georgia; Ichauway Plantation, Georgia; Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge; the ITT Rayonier property, Georgia; and the Katharine Ordway Preserve-Swisher Memorial Sanctuary. Surveys at the periphery of its range, and in appropriate habitat between populations, are needed to investigate the perceived decline (R. Franz pers. comm.).	eng
14872	distribution		This species can be found in northern Florida, westward to the vicinity of the Ochlocknee River, and northward into southern Georgia, USA. The known Georgia distribution is limited to three widely disjunctive areas (Dodd 1993b; Dodd and LaClaire 1995). In Florida, specimens have been recorded as far south as Hernando and Orange Counties and from the Atlantic coast westward to the west side of Apalachee Bay (Christman and Means 1978; Campbell, Christman and Thompson 1980). In Georgia, specimens have been recorded from as far north as Screven and Jenkins Counties, south-east to Wilcox County (Dodd 1993b) and westward to Baker County (L.V. LaClaire pers. comm.). More than 30 occurrences are known across its range, with the majority from Florida. Further surveys might turn up additional occurrences (Dodd 1993b).	eng
14872	habitat		This species can be found in sandhill habitat, scrub, scrubby flatwoods, mesic flatwoods, and isolated, ephemeral wetlands within these habitats (for example in sinkhole ponds, depression ponds and marshes, and ditches). It can tolerate selective logging as long as the ground is not roller-chopped or otherwise prepared. The larvae and adults are aquatic, although the adults emigrate to surrounding wooded areas near breeding ponds if the ponds dry up. It breeds in shallow temporary ponds associated with well-drained sands, and the eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.	eng
14872	population		It varies from rare to locally common depending on the availability of a breeding pond. The total number of individuals is unknown. It sometimes occurs in very low densities, but some local breeding populations encompass many thousands of individuals (Johnson 2002). Evidence suggests that the total population is declining.	eng
14872	threats		There are many potential threats to this species. For example, conversion of terrestrial habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial or residential development, drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fish) of aquatic habitat, and loss of aquatic habitat from lowering of the water table as a result of water consumption by humans. Other key threats include habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire, highway mortality during migration, habitat degradation from off-road vehicle traffic, and collection for the pet trade. Population disjunction might exacerbate existing threats through lack of gene flow, genetic drift, and inbreeding depression.	eng
14876	conservation	Palmeirim, J., 2008	<em>Notopteris macdonaldi</em> is protected by local wildlife laws. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, biology, and ecology of this species. Major roosting sites of this species should be protected. Studies into the impact of hunting on populations of this species are needed (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
14876	distribution	Palmeirim, J., 2008	This species is restricted to Fiji and Vanuatu where it has been recorded from the islands of Anatom, Efate, Erromango, Mota Lava, Santa Maria, and Tanna (Vanuatu), as well as Vanua Levu, Taveuni, and Viti Levu (Fiji) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). This is a lowland species in Vanuatu (Medway and Marshall 1975) and Fiji, although it also common in montane forest in Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005); it has been recorded up to 1,100 m asl. The species occurred in Tonga, but was extirpated following the arrival of Polynesians (Koopman and Steadman 1995).	eng
14876	habitat	Palmeirim, J., 2008	This species roosts as large colonies in caves. This species forages in lowland forest and intermediate altitude vegetation (Pernetta and Watling 1978; Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). It also commonly occurs in mossy montane forest, and it has been recorded from lowland, patchy secondary forest, and rural gardens (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). Its presence at high altitudes on the three main Fijian islands (Ingleby and Flannery 1991; Flannery 1995), might indicate altitudinal migration, "since the availability of flowers and fruits (which they may also consume) is seasonal, it is quite likely that the species will use forest at different altitudes, depending on the season." (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14876	population	Palmeirim, J., 2008	There is no information about the population status of the species in Vanuatu. Fiji likely holds more than half of the global total, where it is present on all three main islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the only known breeding caves (four in total) are all on Viti Levu, which has a favourable geology. Individuals on Vanua Levu and Taveuni probably migrate to the nurseries on Viti Levu, which is within their range of movement. The caves on Viti Levu hold 200-2,000 individuals each (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
14876	threats	Palmeirim, J., 2008	It is not known to be exploited in Vanuatu. This species is vulnerable to direct exploitation and potential disturbance at roosting sites by vandalism, guano mining, recreation, or quarrying (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Specifically, large numbers of bats are still taken from one cave in Fiji with shotguns for consumption (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). Tourism is also a potential threat to nursery colonies in at least two of the four known maternity caves (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14878	conservation	Benshemesh, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggest that the following research actions are proposed for all marsupial moles: undertake GIS and BIOCLIM analysis of Museum records; examine reproductive, dietary and other aspects of all available specimens; develop and implement region-wide community survey for all marsupial moles; undertake field survey of key localities; establish local community-based recording and reporting schemes at key localities.<br/><br/>The Recovery Plan Objectives and Actions for this species are (Benshemesh 2004): 1) Resolve taxonomic issues; 2) Describe the distribution, abundance, and lineages; 3) Determine population trends; 4) Provide preliminary information on threat of fire, introduced predators (foxes and cats), and grazing; 5) Describe activity patterns and behaviour 6) Obtain ecological information from Aboriginal elders; 7) Examine diet, reproduction, and general condition of surfacing animals; 8) Prepare for captive individuals brought to Desert Park; 9) Manage the recovery process with a recovery team; 10) Downlist species from endangered to a lower category of threat.<br/><br/>No management actions can be defined until additional research has been completed (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Benshemesh 2004).	eng
14878	distribution	Benshemesh, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Kakarratul, or Northern Marsupial Mole, has been collected from twelve localities in the Gibson, Little Sandy, and Great Sandy Deserts of Western Australia, Australia. In 2000 specimens were also collected at Wallal Downs on the coast between Broome and Karratha, and at Kunawarritji Community (Benshemesh 2004). Both this species and <em>Notoryctes typhlops</em> have been recorded in the vicinity of Warburton and may be sympatric there (Benshemesh 2004). All specimens north of Warburton and west of the Northern Territory border have been identified as <em>N. caurinus</em>. In addition, both species may be found in the Tanami Desert, however, this is unclear (Benshemesh 2004). <br/><br/>There are very few specimens (around 20), but six of these have been collected in the past decade or so, despite an enormous increase in the number of people visiting its range in four-wheel drive vehicles. Maxwell <em>et al.</em>’s (1996) description of two of the records indicates the importance of chance in obtaining specimens of this fossorial species. An animal was found on Talawanna Track west of Cotton Creek, Western Australia, in October 1995 (Western Australia Museum), having been excavated by a bulldozer about one metre below the surface. Another came from near Nifty Mine in March 1996 after it was found nearly dead on the surface after heavy rain.	eng
14878	habitat	Benshemesh, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This is a fossorial species, living in underground burrow systems within sand dunes, interdunal flats, and in sandy soils along river flats. It occasionally emerges to the surface, especially after rain (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is not able to travel large distances across hard ground, thus continuous areas of suitable habitat are likely important (Benshemesh 2004).<br/><br/>In 1998 a live specimen was captured on the surface at Punmu in Rudall River National Park and kept briefly in captivity. Study of this individual showed that the species has an unusual metabolism and can vary its body temperature as a probable adaptation to its fossorial way of life (Withers <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14878	population	Benshemesh, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Population estimates are not available due to the lack of data, which can be attributed to the elusiveness of this species (Benshemesh 2004). There is historical information that indicates that this species was common.	eng
14878	threats	Benshemesh, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Little is known about major threats to this species. It is an arid zone Critical Weight Range species (Burbidge and McKenzie 1989); around 90% of such taxa have either become extinct or have declined seriously in range and/or abundance. Operating threatening processes include predation by foxes (which are capable of taking animals on or near the surface) and feral cats. Changed fire regimes in the spinifex-dominated sandy deserts may also be affecting the species. Other potential threats to this species include predation by dingoes, and habitat changes caused by the trampling of cattle and camels (Benshemesh 2004). Climate change may also be a threat to this species in the future, as projected changes in rainfall and temperature would cause changes in biota (Benshemesh 2004).	eng
14879	conservation	Dickman, C., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Benshemesh, J., 2008	This species is found in Watarrka National Park and Uluru Kata Tjuta National Park (Langford and Pavey 2002).<br/><br/>The Recovery Plan Objectives and Actions for this species are (Benshemesh 2004): 1) Resolve taxonomic issues; 2) Describe the distribution, abundance, and lineages; 3) Determine population trends; 4) Provide preliminary information on threat of fire, introduced predators (foxes and cats), and grazing; 5) Describe activity patterns and behaviour; 6) Obtain ecological information from Aboriginal elders; 7) Examine diet, reproduction, and general condition of surfacing animals; 8) Prepare for captive individuals brought to Desert Park; 9) Manage the recovery process with a recovery team; 10) Downlist species from endangered to a lower category of threat.	eng
14879	distribution	Dickman, C., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Benshemesh, J., 2008	Itjaritjari, or Southern Marsupial Mole, is known from the central deserts of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia, Australia. Both it and <em>Notoryctes caurinus</em> have been recorded in the vicinity of Warburton and may be sympatric there (Benshemesh 2004). All specimens north of Warburton and west of the Northern Territory border have been identified as <em>N. caurinus</em>. In addition, both species may be found in the Tanami Desert, however, this is unclear (Benshemesh 2004). Recent technique of cutting trenches in sand dunes to reveal burrows has extended the known distribution into the Simpson Desert.	eng
14879	habitat	Dickman, C., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Benshemesh, J., 2008	This is a fossorial species; it burrows within sand dunes, interdunal flats, and in sandy soils along river flats. It occasionally emerges onto the surface, especially after rain (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species remains largely underground. This species is not able to travel large distances across hard ground, thus continuous areas of suitable habitat are likely important (Benshemesh 2004). The diet of this species consists primarily of ants (and their eggs) and termites (Langford and Pavey 2002).	eng
14879	population	Dickman, C., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Benshemesh, J., 2008	Population estimates are not available at this time, although populations are being investigated, and in most areas they do not appear to be especially sparse. They do appear to be confined to large and continuous dunefields (J. Benshemesh pers. comm.). There are new techniques that allow for easier collection of data on this species, and possibly <em>N. caurinus</em> as well (Benshemesh 2008; J. Benshemesh pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Langford and Pavey (2002) claim that the population of this species is less than 10,000 individuals, and that there is an estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years. Both Pearson and Turner (2000) and Benshemesh (2004) have questioned any decline.	eng
14879	threats	Dickman, C., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Benshemesh, J., 2008	Little is known about major threats to this species. It is an arid zone Critical Weight Range species (Burbidge and McKenzie 1989); around 90% of such taxa have either become extinct or have declined seriously in range and/or abundance. Operating threatening processes may include predation by foxes (which are capable of taking animals on or near the surface) and feral cats (Benshemesh 2008). It may be hunted by dingoes (there is evidence of presence in fox and dingo scat). In the past, the species was hunted by Aboriginal people. Other potential threats to this species include changed fire regimes, and habitat changes caused by the trampling of cattle and camels (Benshemesh 2004). Climate change may also be a threat to this species in the future, as projected changes in rainfall and temperature would cause changes in biota (Benshemesh 2004).	eng
14883	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in streams in Texas (Brazos River drainage).	eng
14884	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Confined to the Cahaba River, Alabama.	eng
14891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Notropis orca</em> was known from the Rio Grande, occurring from the mouth of the river to northern central New Mexico.	eng
14891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	This was a subtropical, demersal freshwater species formerly found in the main channel of the Rio Grande, usually over sand and often in turbid water.	eng
14891	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The most important factor in bringing about decline of this species may have been the dewatering of the habitat though diversions, dams, and droughts. In addition, dams may have changed the character of the habitat, to the point of making it unsuitable for the species, for example, by altering downstream rates of flow, temperature regimes, and stream morphology. Dams also prevent floods, which may be critical to the phantom shiner, particularly regarding reproduction. Another contributing factor in the demise of this species is pollution, including that from agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources.  Predation by and competition with introduced fishes probably also contributed to extinction of phantom shiner.	eng
14895	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, <em>Notropis semperasper</em> was previously assessed as Data Deficient on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3. <br/>Regulations regarding the discharge of chemical effluents perhaps need to be reviewed and tightened. Species interactions between <em>Notropis semperasper</em> and <em>N. telescopus</em> needs to be monitored (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991).	eng
14895	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species range includes the Ridge and Valley Provinces of the Upper James River drainage in Virginia. It has the smallest range of the three species endemic to the James River drainage (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Jenkins and Burkhead (1975) estimated that this species occupies 432 river kilometers, of which 35km were lost in creating Lake Moomaw. This species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence less than 20,000km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
14895	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is typically found in relatively pristine streams. It may also be found in large, clear creeks and medium sized rivers with a moderate gradient, hard substrate and little siltation. It prefers slow to moderate currents of runs, pools near flowing water, and backwaters, but it occasionally can be found in swifter water (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). It may spawn over <em>Nocomis</em> nests.	eng
14895	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Jenkins and Burkhead (1994) mapped about 38 collection sites, which may represent several distinct subpopulations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown, but it has been described as rare to common, although is generally found to be uncommon (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>This species may have been extirpated from some parts of its historical range as a result of increased siltation near the lower boundary of the Valley and Ridge (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "Vulnerable".	eng
14895	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species may be impacted by a number of threats to its habitat including impoundment and pulp mill effluents. These threats are already known to have altered the quality of the habitat in the Jackson River and upper James River. This species may also be threatened by competition from the recently introduced, and rapidly spreading, <em>Notropis telescopus</em> (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).	eng
14896	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Formerly found in the upper Rio Grande, Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico, and Pecos River, New Mexico. Subspecies <em>simus</em> of the Rio Grande was last collected in 1964 in New Mexico; and is now regarded as extinct. Subspecies <em>pecosensis</em> Gilbert & Chernoff, 1982: Pecos River drainage of eastern New Mexico, just south of Santa Rosa to Carlsbad (Chernoff <em>et al</em>. 1982); currently, Pecos River from Fort Sumner to Artesia (Hatch <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
14899	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs only in two small sections of streams (tributaries of the Little Tennessee River) in Tennessee (one site represents a reintroduction). Was extirpated in another tributary.	eng
14903	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found to occur in the Hot Springs National Park (Petersen and Justus 2005), and <em>Noturus lachneri</em> was previously assessed as Vulnerable (criteria B1+2cd) on the 1996 IUCN Red List version 2.3.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the impact that threats are having on the population of this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range is needed to establish trends in rates of decline.	eng
14903	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The small, discontinuous range is restricted to the upper Saline River system and a small unnamed tributary of the Ouachita River below Remmel Dam, in central Arkansas (Robison and Buchanan 1988. See Robison and Harp (1985) for localities).<br/><br/>Range extent is not more than a couple of hundred square kilometers (e.g. see map in Robison and Harp 1985).<br/><br/>Known area of occupancy may be less than 100 square kilometers or not much more than this.	eng
14903	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is typically found in moderate to high gradient creeks and small rivers. It shows a preference for clear, cool water over gravel-rubble and sand substrates, with alternating pools and riffles. It is usually seen in shallow pools, buried in gravel/cobble or in debris and vegetation along edges, sometimes in very shallow riffles under large rocks (Robison and Allen 1995). It may seek smaller tributaries for spawning. Young have been found in a pool over shale bedrock in a small tributary (Robison and Harp 1985).	eng
14903	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Robison and Harp (1985) mapped 17 collection sites that represent probably not more than 15 distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown and would be difficult to determine due to the secretive habits of madtoms. This species is never abundant at any locality within its range (Robison and Harp 1985). <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations apparently have not decreased by more than 25% compared to the historical situation. Trend in population size is unknown.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorized the status as "threatened" (not "currently stable").<br/><br/>Trends are not well documented, but this species may be declining.<br/><br/>Some local extirpations may be temporary. For example, madtoms can rapidly recolonize from large, deep pools stream reaches from which they have been extirpated as a result of drought (Gagen <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>In a study by Gagen <em>et al.</em> 1998 of six sites, densities of 17.2 - 204 individuals per 100m<sup>2</sup> were noted. In dried up stream reaches, densities of 32 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> were found.	eng
14903	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species has undergone local extirpations due to factors such as bridge repair and construction, commercial gravel operations, stream chennelisation and clearcut logging (Robison and Buchanan 1988). Impoundments for a water supply for Little Rock and Benton are a potential threat (Robison and Buchanan 1988). Due to the restricted range of this species, these threats are thought to be having a significant impact on the population of this species.	eng
14908	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from Big Darby Creek, Pickaway County, Ohio.	eng
14908	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurred in the riffle area of a stream where the substrate was composed of sandy gravel with occasional small stones up to 10 cm in diameter (NatureServe 2006). Was presumably a bottom-feeder. The species apparently made local, seasonal upstream and downstream migrations (Matthews and Moseley 1990).	eng
14908	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Possibly extinct.	eng
14908	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Unknown.	eng
14918	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Alcaldé, J.T., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known. It occurs in a number of national parks and protected areas within its range (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). However, in Spain the two known colonies are outside protected areas (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). More information is needed on population size and trends, ecology, and potential threats.<br/>.	eng
14918	conservation	Tony Hutson, Javier Juste, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known. It occurs in a number of national parks and protected areas within its range (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). However, in Spain the two known colonies are outside protected areas (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). More information is needed on population size and trends, ecology, and potential threats.	eng
14918	distribution	Tony Hutson, Javier Juste, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Nyctalus lasiopterus</em> has a very scattered distribution through central and southern Europe and north Africa (Morocco, Libya, and possbily Algeria) through Asia Minor to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Kazakhstan. Of the Mediterranean islands, recorded on Sicily. The species is easy to detect with bat detectors, so it is known that the species' distribution in Europe is genuinely extremely patchy. Until 1999, it had been recorded in 120-130 localities in Europe (Benzal 1999). It occurs up to 1,900 m in Switzerland.	eng
14918	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Alcaldé, J.T., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Nyctalus lasiopterus</em> has a very scattered distribution through central and southern Europe (Iberia to the Balkans, Urals) and north Africa (Morocco (only two records in northwest Morocco), Libya (five records in Cyrenaica), and possibly Algeria (possibly one record in Algeria identified as <em>Nyctalus noctula</em> by Loche 1867, the specimen is lost)). There are an increasing number of records from Turkey (Karatas <em>et al.</em> 2007, Yigit <em>et al</em>. in press). Outside the Mediterranean region the range extends eastwards through Asia Minor to the Caucasus, northern Iran, Kazakhstan and the Urals in Russia. Of the Mediterranean islands, recorded on Sicily. The species is easy to detect with bat detectors, so it is known that the species' distribution in Europe is genuinely extremely patchy. Until 1999, it had been recorded in 120-130 localities in Europe (Benzal 1999). It occurs up to 1,900 m in Switzerland	eng
14918	habitat	Tony Hutson, Javier Juste, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It forages over mixed and deciduous forest and wooded river valleys (the latter especially on migration). It is highly dependent on mature forest. It is largely insectivorous, but is also reported to take small passerines in the southern part of the range during migration. In summer it roosts in hollow trees, and occasionally in buildings. Rock crevices may also be used as hibernacula in winter. It sometimes roosts with other species such as <em>N. noctula</em>. Nursery colonies are usually relatively small (up to 35 females). Females give birth to a single pup per litter. It is considered to be migratory in the north-east of its range, but there is very little data. Vagrants have been recorded well outside the normal range (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some areas in the western part of the range appear to be occupied exclusively by males, according to capture results. Its foraging range may be greater than 30 km in a single night.	eng
14918	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Alcaldé, J.T., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages over mixed and deciduous forest and wooded river valleys (the latter especially on migration). It is highly dependent on mature forest (the species needs a number of old trees to support a colony, hence any tree removal is a threat). It is largely insectivorous, but is also reported to take small passerines in the southern part of the range during migration. During the bird migration seasons, passerines are likely to form a major part of the diet. Faeces collected during these times are composed 90% of feathers (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007). Tracking the species using radar in Spain it is now known that it flies up to several hundred metres presumably to catch migratory birds. <br/><br/>In summer it roosts in hollow trees, and occasionally in buildings. Rock crevices may also be used as hibernacula in winter. It sometimes roosts with other species such as <em>N. noctula</em>. Nursery colonies are usually relatively small (up to 35 females). Females give birth to a single pup per litter. It is considered to be migratory in the north-east of its range, but there is very little data. Vagrants have been recorded well outside the normal range (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Some areas in the western part of the range appear to be occupied exclusively by males, according to capture results. Its foraging range may be greater than 30 km in a single night.	eng
14918	population	Tony Hutson, Javier Juste, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	The patchy distribution and low population density in most of range suggest a relatively small global population. Breeding colonies are typically small (up to 35 females), and few are known. Only two larger-sized (50-100 females) breeding colonies are known in the world. It is rare throughout the range in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There is a strong population in northern Hungary. The species is difficult to survey, and difficult to capture with mist nets as it hunts 10-20 m above the ground (K. Tsytsulina <em>in litt.</em> 2005). The population trend is unknown.	eng
14918	population	Hutson, A.M., Alcaldé, J.T., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	The patchy distribution and low population density in most of range suggest a relatively small global population. Breeding colonies are typically small (up to 35 females), and few are known. Only two larger-sized (50-100 females) breeding colonies are known in the world. It is rare throughout the range in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). There is a strong population in northern Hungary. The species is difficult to survey, and difficult to capture with mist nets as it hunts 10-20 m above the ground (K. Tsytsulina in litt. 2005). The population trend is unknown.	eng
14918	threats	Hutson, A.M., Alcaldé, J.T., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Little is known about potential threats, but loss of mature woodland and loss of or disturbance to roost sites (in old trees and buildings) may have a negative impact on the species. Some individuals were found dead at wind farms in Spain (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and all pups were found dead in 2005 at one of the two known colonies in Spain (located in a city park). The cause of these deaths was not known (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In Spain cutting of old trees which are used as roosts is a threat.	eng
14918	threats	Tony Hutson, Javier Juste, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Little is known about potential threats, but loss of mature woodland and loss of or disturbance to roost sites (in old trees and buildings) may have a negative impact on the species. Some individuals were found dead in wind farms in Spain (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and all pups were found dead in 2005 at one of the two known colonies in Spain (located in a city park). The cause of these deaths was not known (J.T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14919	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions known.	eng
14919	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions known.	eng
14919	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No specific conservation actions known, but a review of the species' status and summary of existing knowledge is currently (2006) in preparation.	eng
14919	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Nyctalus leisleri</em> is largely a western Palaearctic species (Europe and north-west Africa), with scattered records in the western parts of the eastern Palaearctic (Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Himalayas). It is widely distributed in Europe from southern Scotland and Ireland more or less along southern edge of the Baltic Sea south and parts of Mediterranean coast to western Russia. It is present on Madeira and the Canary Islands (on Tenerife and La Palma only) but absent from southwestern Italy and Sicily, eastern Spain, most of Fennoscandia and northern Russia. In North Africa it is recorded from Mediterranean montane Morocco and Algeria and there is one record from Cyrenaica (Libya). It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m.	eng
14919	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Nyctalus leisleri</em> is largely a western Palaearctic species (Europe and north-west Africa), with scattered records in the western parts of the eastern Palaearctic (Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Himalayas). It is widely distributed in Europe from southern Scotland and Ireland more or less along southern edge of the Baltic Sea south and parts of Mediterranean coast to western Russia. It is present on Madeira and the Canary Islands (on Tenerife and La Palma only) but absent from southwestern Italy and Sicily, eastern Spain, most of Fennoscandia and northern Russia. In North Africa it is recorded from Mediterranean montane Morocco and Algeria and there is one record from Cyrenaica (Libya). It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m.	eng
14919	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	<em>Nyctalus leisleri</em> is largely a western Palaearctic species (Europe and north-west Africa), with scattered records in west parts of the eastern Palaearctic (Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Himalayas). It is widely distributed in Europe from Portugal and the British Isles to western Russia. It is present on Madeira and the Canary islands but absent from southwestern Italy and Sicily, eastern Spain, most of Fennoscandia, the northern Baltic and northern Russia. It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m.	eng
14919	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It forages over woodland, pasture, and river valleys, where it feeds on flies (including mosquitos), moths and beetles. It is linked to old trees. Summer nursery roosts are located in tree holes, plus buildings and bat boxes. Nursery colonies usually number 20-50 females, occasionally up to 1,000 (e.g., in Ireland: Stebbings and Griffith 1986). In winter it hibernates mainly in tree holes, or occasionally in underground sites or buildings, often in large groups. Females migrate over distances up to 1,567 km (Ohlendorf <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14919	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over woodland, pasture, and river valleys, where it feeds on flies (including mosquitos), moths and beetles. It is linked to old trees. Summer nursery roosts are located in tree holes, plus buildings and bat boxes. Nursery colonies usually number 20-50 females, occassionally up to 1,000 (e.g., in Ireland: Stebbings and Griffith 1986). In winter it hibernates mainly in tree holes, or occasionally in underground sites or buildings, often in large groups. Females migrate over distances up to 1,567 km (Ohlendorf <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14919	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages over woodland, pasture, and river valleys, where it feeds on flies (including mosquitos), moths and beetles. It is linked to old trees. Summer nursery roosts are located in tree holes, plus buildings and bat boxes. Nursery colonies usually number 20-50 females, occassionally up to 1,000 (e.g., in Ireland: Stebbings and Griffith 1986). In winter it hibernates mainly in tree holes, or occasionally in underground sites or buildings, often in large groups. Females migrate over distances up to 1,567 km (Ohlendorf <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
14919	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is widespread although patchily distributed in Europe. Common in parts of range (e.g., Ireland), scarce in other parts (Stebbings and Griffith 1986). Local extinctions have been reported for the central part of Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although the species remains common in other parts of Russia and the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). In North Africa it is limited by the distribution of suitable habitat, but is particularly abundant in Djurdjura, NE Algeria. There is no information about trends.	eng
14919	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is widespread although patchily distributed in Europe. Common in parts of range (e.g., Ireland), scarce in other parts (Stebbings and Griffith 1986). Local extinctions have been reported for the central part of Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although the species remains common in other parts of Russia and the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). In North Africa it is limited by the distribution of suitable habitat, but is particularly abundant in Djurdjura, NE Algeria. There is no information about trends.	eng
14919	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is widespread although patchily distributed in Europe. Common in parts of range (e.g., Ireland), scarce in other parts (Stebbings and Griffith 1986). Local extinctions have been reported for the central part of Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although the species remains common in other parts of Russia and the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). There is no information about trends.	eng
14919	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Threats include disturbance to and destruction of roosts in trees and buildings, and loss or degradation of foraging habitat. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.	eng
14919	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Threats include disturbance to and destruction of roosts in trees and buildings, and loss or degradation of foraging habitat. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.	eng
14919	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	Threats include disturbance to and destruction of roosts in trees and buildings, and loss or degradation of foraging habitat. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.	eng
14920	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
14920	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Stubbe, M., Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
14920	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
14920	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Nyctalus noctula</em> has a wide Palaearctic distribution, including Europe and southern Scandinavia to the Urals and Caucasus; Turkey to Israel and Oman; western Turkmenistan, western Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to south-west Siberia and the Himalayas, south to Myanmar, Viet Nam, and western Malaysia. Its occurrence in North Africa is questionable (see below), and a record from Mozambique is considered dubious. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (Strelkov 1997a, 1997b). Has been found at 1,900 m asl in the western Alps during migration (Aellen 1962 in Gebhard and Bogdanowicz 2004).<br/><br/>"It is possible that <em>N. noctula</em> occurs in Africa but this needs confirmation. A record from Algeria (two specimens collected from a hollow tree in Cheliff plain) was published by Loche (1858), but these specimens were lost with the rest of Loche's collection. According to Palmeirim (1982), it is possible that these specimens belonged to N. lasiopterus, a species which does occur in North Africa and which was considered to be conspecific with <em>N. noctula</em> by earlier zoologists. There are also some doubts as to the place of origin of some specimens of <em>N. noctula</em> in the BMNH (Palmeirim 1982) and in the RMNH (Jentink 1888). One of these was mentioned by Dobson (1878) as having been bought in Algiers. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) suggest that all of them were bought from professional dealers, which means that their localities may be unreliable" (M. Happold pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14920	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Stubbe, M., Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	<em>Nyctalus noctula</em> has a wide Palaearctic distribution, including Europe and southern Scandinavia to the Urals and Caucasus; Turkey to Israel and Oman; western Turkmenistan, western Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to south-west Siberia and the Himalayas, south to Myanmar, Viet Nam, and western Malaysia. Its occurrence in North Africa is questionable (see below), and a record from Mozambique is considered dubious. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (Strelkov 1997a, 1997b). Has been found at 1,900 m asl in the western Alps during migration (Aellen 1962 in Gebhard and Bogdanowicz 2004).<br/><br/>"It is possible that <em>N. noctula</em> occurs in Africa but this needs confirmation. A record from Algeria (two specimens collected from a hollow tree in Cheliff plain) was published by Loche (1858), but these specimens were lost with the rest of Loche's collection. According to Palmeirim (1982), it is possible that these specimens belonged to N. lasiopterus, a species which does occur in North Africa and which was considered to be conspecific with <em>N. noctula</em> by earlier zoologists. There are also some doubts as to the place of origin of some specimens of <em>N. noctula</em> in the BMNH (Palmeirim 1982) and in the RMNH (Jentink 1888). One of these was mentioned by Dobson (1878) as having been bought in Algiers. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) suggest that all of them were bought from professional dealers, which means that their localities may be unreliable" (M. Happold pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14920	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Nyctalus noctula</em> has a wide Palaearctic distribution, including Europe and southern Scandinavia to the Urals and Caucasus; Turkey to Israel and Oman; western Turkmenistan, western Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to south-west Siberia and the Himalayas, south to Myanmar, Vietnam, and western Malaysia. Its occurrence in North Africa is questionable (see below), and a record from Mozambique is considered dubious. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (Strelkov 1997a, 1997b). Has been found at 1,900 m in the western Alps during migration (Aellen 1962 in Gebhard and Bogdanowicz 2004).<br/><br/>"It is possible that <em>N. noctula</em> occurs in Africa but this needs confirmation. A record from Algeria (two specimens collected from a hollow tree in Cheliff plain) was published by Loche (1858), but these specimens were lost with the rest of Loche's collection. According to Palmeirim (1982), it is possible that these specimens belonged to <em>N. lasiopterus</em>, a species which does occur in North Africa and which was considered to be conspecific with <em>N. noctula</em> by earlier zoologists. There are also some doubts as to the place of origin of some specimens of <em>N. noctula</em> in the BMNH (Palmeirim 1982) and in the RMNH (Jentink 1888). One of these was mentioned by Dobson (1878) as having been bought in Algiers. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) suggest that all of them were bought from professional dealers, which means that their localities may be unreliable" (M. Happold pers. comm. 2007).	eng
14920	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over wetland, woodland and pasture, feeding on larger moths, beetles and flies. Summer colonies are in tree holes, sometimes in buildings. Winter hibernacula are in rock crevices, caves, occasionally artificial structures. Maternity colonies number 20-50 females (occasinally up to 100), but winter groups in rock crevices, caves and artificial structures can be large, to 10,000 in one instance (Germany) (Harrje 1994, Mayer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Tree holes and bat boxes are also used as wintering sites. Seasonal migrations between breeding area and hibernation range which is situated in central and southwest Europe normally cover distances of less than 1,000 km. The longest recorded movements is 1,546 km (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14920	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Stubbe, M., Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	It forages over wetland, woodland and pasture, feeding on larger moths, beetles and flies. Summer colonies are in tree holes, sometimes in buildings. Winter hibernacula are in rock crevices, caves, occasionally artificial structures. Maternity colonies number 20-50 females (occasinally up to 100), but winter groups in rock crevices, caves and artificial structures can be large, to 10,000 in one instance (Germany) (Harrje 1994, Mayer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Tree holes and bat boxes are also used as wintering sites. Seasonal migrations between breeding area and hibernation range which is situated in central and southwest Europe normally cover distances of less than 1,000 km. The longest recorded movements is 1,546 km (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14920	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It forages over wetland, woodland and pasture, feeding on larger moths, beetles and flies. Summer colonies are in tree holes, sometimes in buildings. Winter hibernacula are in rock crevices, caves, occasionally artificial structures. Maternity colonies number 20-50 females (occasionally up to 100), but winter groups in rock crevices, caves and artificial structures can be large, to 10,000 in one instance (Germany) (Harrje 1994, Mayer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Tree holes and bat boxes are also used as wintering sites. Seasonal migrations between breeding area and hibernation range which is situated in central and southwest Europe normally cover distances of less than 1,000 km. The longest recorded movement is 1,546 km (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
14920	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A widespread species, relatively common throughout much of its range.	eng
14920	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Stubbe, M., Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	A widespread species, relatively common throughout much of its range.	eng
14920	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	A widespread species, relatively common throughout much of its range. Very abundant, not declining and considered least concern in the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). Common in winter in Austria, with no sign of decline (Spitzenberger 2002 and F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). However, there have been documented local declines in the Netherlands, and there are suspected to have been substantial declines in the United Kingdom since the 1940s, although the population trend now appears to have stabilised (Bogdanowicz 1999, Battersby 2005). Within its Iranian range and based on very limited information, the species appears to be rare (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
14920	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	No major threats at present.	eng
14920	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Stubbe, M., Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S. & Spitzenberger, F., 2008	No major threats at present.	eng
14920	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	The species is affected by loss of tree roost holes in northeastern Europe. In Romania and Hungary colonies are being lost due to renovation of buildings and human disturbance in buildings. Local declines in the Netherlands were linked to loss of wetlands (Bogdanowicz 1999). These are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.	eng
14921	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It is listed in the Chinese and Japanese Red Lists as Near Threatened, and as a Rare Species in Russia.	eng
14921	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Palaearctic, marginally Oriental. This species is known from eastern China (provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Henan, Zhejiang, and Anhui (Smith and Xie, in press), the Korean peninsula and Japan, where there are records from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Iki Island, Fukue Island, Okinawa, and Tsushima Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In the Russian Far East known from several visual and echolocation observations.	eng
14921	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It roosts in tree hollows and forages in the forest (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). They are nocturnal and feed on flying insects.	eng
14921	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Most of the records over the last 30 years in Japan have come from Hokkaido, northern Honshu, Iki Island, Fukue Island, and Okinawa.	eng
14921	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Deforestation and human disturbance considered one of the major threats in Japan.	eng
14922	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Rainho, A. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	There is no specific national legislation. It is protected under Bern Convention and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. There are proposals for protection and monitoring of roosts, public awareness (with special reference to roosts), reduction of adverse agricultural practices, preservation and restoration of natural habitat, use of lights that attract insects (e.g. mercury), and further studies of the species' biology (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14922	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Rainho, A. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	<em>Nyctalus azoreum</em> is restricted to the Azores archipelago (Portugal), where it occurs on Faial, Pico, San Jorge, Graciosa, Terceira, San Miguel and Santa Maria islands, where it occurs from sea level to 600 m (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). Its extent of occurrence is estimated at <em>ca</em>.2,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
14922	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Rainho, A. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	It forages over a variety of habitats on the islands, favouring natural and semi-natural habitats. But it frequently feeds around artificial lighting (e.g. streetlamps). Most maternity colonies are probably located in buildings, trees and rock crevices.	eng
14922	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Rainho, A. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Surveys in 2002, 2003 and 2004 found the species quite abundant on San Miguel, Faial, Terceira and San Jorge, but rare on Graciosa and extremely rare on Santa Maria. It is absent from Flores and Corvo. There is no quantitative information on population trend, but it is suspected that the species may be declining as a result of habitat degradation, destruction of or exclusion from roosts (both in trees and buildings), and human persecution. Local environmental groups report that numerous colonies have recently disappeared (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). The total population is estimated at 2,000-5,000 individuals, and there are probably fewer than 1,000 individuals on San Miguel, where the species is most abundant (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005, J.M. Palmeirim, A. Rainho and L. Rodrigues pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14922	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Rainho, A. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Human persecution, and the destruction of roost sites, are likely to be the main threats (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006). Habitat loss and degradation, use of pesticides, and the spread of exotic plant species may also have a detrimental effect on the species. It is suspected that the extreme scarcity of the species on Santa Maria is attributable to habitat loss and degradation. This species is particularly vulnerable to persecution because it flies during the day, making colonies obvious and easy to find (A. Rainho pers. comm. 2006).	eng
14923	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Detailed surveys, ecological studies, population and habitat monitoring, protection against poaching are the main recommendations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
14923	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Paktika provinces), India (Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand), Nepal (mid western Nepal) and Pakistan (Roberts 1997). It has been recorded at an altitudinal range of 680 to 1,692 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 sq km and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 sq km (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14923	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in riparian habitat and arid flood plains with rich undergrowth in the Himalaya. It roosts among rocky cliffs, crevices among rocks and overhanging vegetation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14923	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14923	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural use, mining and quarrying activities. It is also threatened due to hunting for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
14925	conservation	Kauhala, K. & Saeki, M., 2008	Not listed in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Raccoon dogs occur in national parks and other wildlife protection areas in Japan, where hunting and some other activities are prohibited. Raccoon dogs occur in national parks also in Finland (although they are hunted in some parks). Elsewhere across their range, they occur in numerous protected areas and wildlife sanctuaries. <br/><br/>In many countries where the Raccoon Dog is legally hunted, hunting is permitted year round (e.g., Sweden, Hungary and Poland). However, in Finland, females with pups are protected in May, June and July, and in Belarus hunting is allowed from 1 October to the end of February. In Japan, hunting/trapping of the species requires a licence or other form of permission and can only occur within the designated hunting season (November 15 to February 15). The raccoon dog on Mukojima island (18.4 km²), Hiroshima prefecture, is designated as a natural monument under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, and permission from the Director-General of the Agency of Cultural Affairs is required for capturing the animals on the island.<br/><br/>There have been no conservation measures developed for the raccoon dog to date.<br/><br/>In Japan, around 40 zoos hold captive animals and successful breeding has been reported (e.g., Kobe Municipal Zoo). Captive raccoon dogs still exist on fur farms in Finland.	eng
14925	distribution	Kauhala, K. & Saeki, M., 2008	The historical distribution of this species was the Far East, from northern Indochina to the southeast corner of Russia, also in Mongolia. In the Japanese Archipelago, the species was confined to Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Awaji island, Sado island and other islets of Japan except those south of Kyushu (e.g., Okinawa islands, Nansei islands, Miyako islands and Ogasawara islands). There has been a recent introduction in Yakushima island (S. Azuma pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Today, the species has been widely introduced. It is now widespread in northern and eastern Europe, thriving in moist forests with abundant undergrowth. The northern limit of distribution lies in areas where the mean temperature of the year is just above 0°C, the snow cover about 800 mm, the duration of the snow cover 175 days and the length of the growing season 135 days (for example, in Finland the northern limit of permanent distribution is between 65°N and the Arctic Circle). If winters become milder, the raccoon dog may expand its range northwards.	eng
14925	habitat	Kauhala, K. & Saeki, M., 2008	Two features are typical of the habitat of Raccoon Dogs: 1) they are often found near water; and 2) during autumn they are more or less dependent on fruits and berries, which affects their habitat selection. In Japan, Raccoon Dog habitat includes deciduous forests, broad-leaved evergreen forests, mixed forests, farmlands, and urban areas from coastal to subalpine zones. In the countryside, the species prefers herbaceous habitat and uses less Cryptomeria plantation throughout year, while riparian areas are often used (M. Saeki and D.W. Macdonald, unpubl.). In urban areas, Raccoon Dogs inhabit areas with as little as 5% forest cover. In the Russian Far East, the Raccoon Dog favours open landscape, especially damp meadows and agricultural land and avoids dark forests (Judin 1977). <br/><br/>In the introduced range, Raccoon Dogs favour moist forests and shores of rivers and lakes, especially in early summer (Korneev 1954; Nasimovic and Isakov 1985; Kauhala 1996). In late summer and autumn, they favour moist heaths with abundant berries (Morozov 1947; Kauhala 1996). In the Finnish archipelago, however, they favour barren pine forests where they feed on crowberries (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>) (Kauhala and Auniola 2000).	eng
14925	population	Kauhala, K. & Saeki, M., 2008	Abundance is unknown in the Far East outside of Japan where it is common. Population estimates have never been<br/>conducted in the latter country, but indirect indices (e.g., road-kills per km of the National Expressways and harvest<br/>density per prefecture), suggest that relative abundance is high in south-western parts of Japan (i.e., Kyushu, Shikoku, and Chugoku) and low in Hokkaido, Chubu, and extremely urban areas (M. Saeki and D.W. Macdonald<br/>unpubl.). See also Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004; Table 5.4.2).	eng
14925	threats	Kauhala, K. & Saeki, M., 2008	Road kills, persecution, government attitudes, epidemics (scabies, distemper and rabies) and pollution (organtins, lead, PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs) remain the major threats to the species across its range. <br/><br/>The Russians introduced Raccoon Dogs into the wild in the European part of the former Soviet Union because they wanted to establish a valuable new fur animal in the wild. Raccoon Dog furs continue to be commercially sold, although today they are produced in fur farms. While the species is still commonly farmed for fur in Finland, Raccoon Dogs are no longer farmed in Sweden (J.-O. Helldin pers. comm.) or Hungary, where the last fur farm was closed in 1995 (M. Heltai pers. comm.). In Japan, Raccoon Dog fur is also used in the production of calligraphic brushes, stuffed animals, and other products.	eng
14926	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.	eng
14926	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This African bat is widely distributed over much of West and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, through West Africa and the Congo Basin to western Uganda, southern Sudan, western Kenya, northern Tanzania and Burundi. It is distributed as far south as southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola. It is typically a lowland species.	eng
14926	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is found in a range of habitats, from lowland tropical moist forest, through gallery forest and moist savanna (Happold 1987). It can be found in remnant forest patches in more open woodland (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). During the day this species roosts, usually singly, in fallen logs and hollow cavities of trees, especially those with an opening close to the ground (Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987). It is unclear whether the species can persist in more degraded habitats.	eng
14926	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
14926	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It parts of its range it is presumably threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural land, and the logging of roost trees.	eng
14927	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is not known if there are any direct conservation measures in place, or if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
14927	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is known from scattered records in East Africa. It has been recorded from northern Somalia in the north of its range, through southern Ethiopia and Sudan, into Kenya and Tanzania in the south.	eng
14927	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species appears to be associated with savanna habitats, although two localities in more arid areas suggest that it is also found in semi-desert.	eng
14927	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but it seems to be common where it has been recorded.	eng
14927	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known, however, it is likely that there are no major threats to the species, as it has been recorded from an extensive habitat that is not severely declining.	eng
14928	conservation	Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. There is a need to protect roosts of this species, and to better determine the eastern limits of the species range.	eng
14928	distribution	Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This West African species ranges from Senegal and the Gambia, through most of West Africa, as far east as central Nigeria. There is a single uncertain record from Cameroon which requires verification.	eng
14928	habitat	Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is mostly associated with both moist and dry savanna habitats. It has been recorded in the vicinity of urban areas, close to grassland, and within cleared forest areas (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Colonies generally roost in caves, but have been recorded from hollow trees and buildings (cellars and roofs) (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Colony size ranges from a few dozen to hundreds of animals.	eng
14928	population	Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It can be a locally common species.	eng
14928	threats	Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, often resulting from conversion of savanna to agricultural use.	eng
14929	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14929	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is broadly distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, through West and Central Africa, to southern Sudan, southeastern Kenya and eastern Tanzania, with scattered records as far south as Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is a lowland species.	eng
14929	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of lowland habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest (often found near to swampy sites) to drier savanna areas and Miombo woodland (Rosevear 1965; Fenton <em>et al.</em> 1990; Hickey and Dunlop 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It generally roosts in hollow trees, but is also found in man made structures such as houses (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 1990, 1993), disused water towers (Fenton <em>et al.</em>1990, 1993) and culverts (Rosevear, 1965). Animals might also roost in hollow fallen logs, and holes or small caverns in rocks (Rosevear, 1965; Hickey and Dunlop 2000).	eng
14929	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species. The species occurs in small colonies, but is usually found only as single animals or in pairs.	eng
14929	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, particularly the logging of large trees used for roosting. Some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food.	eng
14930	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas (including the Udzungwa Mountains National Park of Tanzania [Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005]). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14930	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has a wide range, encompassing much of sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of the Horn of Africa and parts of southern Africa. There is an apparently disjunct population in western Mauritania close to the border with Senegal, and a isolated record from central Mali.	eng
14930	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, into moist savanna, dry savanna, papyrus swamps and marsh. Colonies roost in hollow trees, dense bushes, caves, holes in termite colonies and similar habitats. Colonies range in size from individual and pairs of animals to up to 20 bats.	eng
14930	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This is a very common bat.	eng
14930	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely through the conversion of forest to agricultural use.	eng
14931	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	There do not appear to be any direct conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g.. Comoe National Park and Tai National Park both in Côte d'Ivoire). Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
14931	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is broadly distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from Liberia in the west, to western Tanzania in the east, with records as far south as northeastern Angola. The species appears to be known from around 27 localities. It is typically a lowland species.	eng
14931	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, occurring marginally in gallery forest and moist savanna habitats. It roosts in hollow trees. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
14931	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species appears to be relatively rare. It is usually found as small groups of animals.	eng
14931	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation including loss of roosting trees.	eng
14932	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from Pangadaran which is a protected area and Gunung Pangrano.	eng
14932	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from Java, Nusa Penida and the Kangean Islands of Indonesia (Simmons 2005). There are two records of this species that are erroneous: one from Bali (Kock and Dobat 2000) and one from Timor (Corbet and Hill 1992). This species is also reported from West Timor (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
14932	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is probably quite forest dependent, however, roosting caves are sometimes adjacent to coconut plantations. Generally <em>Nycteris</em> bat species like fallen tree hollows, hollow bases of trees, culverts, and live in small groups of less than five. They have been found to roost singularly or in pairs in caves (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
14932	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is common throughout its range.	eng
14932	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The major threats to this species are habitat loss, due to logging and agriculture.	eng
14933	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
14933	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This widespread African species ranges from Senegal in the west, to Somalia in the east, being recorded as far south as northern Botswana. It has been recorded between sea level and 2,200 m asl.	eng
14933	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest into both moist and dry savanna. While it most often roosts in hollow trees, it has also been recorded roosting in small caves and in thatched house roofs. In the Parc National du ‘W’ in Niger Republic, 300 km west of Sokoto, they have been found roosting in groups of 10-20 individuals in thatched huts and others were found in abandoned mine shafts (Poché, 1975). Happold (1987), notes that they are solitary or live in small groups.	eng
14933	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This is a very common species. In southern Africa, colonies are small, typically consisting of fewer than 10 animals.	eng
14933	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is threatened by general habitat loss, presumably mostly through the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
14934	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from the Tai National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this somewhat enigmatic species. There is a need to monitor to presence of this species at its known localities.	eng
14934	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is distributed in West and Central Africa, where it has been patchily recorded from Guinea, Liberia (at Voinjama) and Côte d'Ivoire in the west, and from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa (at Avakubi), with the southern-most record from northern Zambia (close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo).	eng
14934	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest, possibly ranging into moist savanna habitats. It is a tree roosting species, known to occur in small numbers of up to three animals.	eng
14934	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This appears to be an extremely rare species, that is only known from a dozen or so specimens. It is not difficult to catch and efforts have been made to locate more specimens.	eng
14934	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species appears to need rather large trees, and is presumably threatened by deforestation resulting from logging activities and the conversion of forest to agricultural use.	eng
14935	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
14935	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species has been widely recorded in West and Central Africa, with some records from East Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in the west, through south Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, to Uganda and western Kenya. It ranges as far south as northern Angola. Generally a lowland species, but can be found up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
14935	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The bat has been recorded from both dry and moist lowland forest, gallery forest and moist savanna. It has been found roosting in standing trees in small family groups (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
14935	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is considered to be a rather rare bat, colony sizes tend to be small.	eng
14935	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known, but it seems likely to be locally threatened by deforestation in parts of its range.	eng
14936	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karatas, A., 2008	May occur within some protected areas. No specific conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>Protection of the roost sites is required and also legal protection of the species should be improved. Further research is required on the population size and trends.	eng
14936	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	May occur within some protected areas. No specific conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>Protection of the roost sites is required and also legal protection of the species should be improved. Further research is required on the population size and trends.	eng
14936	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karatas, A., 2008	Broadly distributed across savanna and riparian zones. Mostly found in sub-Saharan Africa; also found in Morocco, Libya, Egypt (primarily down the Nile River valley, but also into Sinai) and the Middle East (Israel, Palestine and Jordan). Elevation from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
14936	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Broadly distributed across savanna and riparian zones. Mostly found in sub-Saharan Africa; also found in Morocco, Libya, Egypt (primarily down the Nile River valley, but also into Sinai) and the Middle East (Israel, Palestine and Jordan). Elevation from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
14936	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karatas, A., 2008	A savanna species with wide habitat tolerance. Occurs in moist and dry savanna, also ranging into desert, arid rocky areas, and riparian strips. Essentially a cave-roosting species but also roosts during the day in mine adits, aardvark holes, rock crevices, culverts under roads, roofs and hollow trees, typically in open savanna woodland (Smithers and Labao Tello 1976, Skinner and Smithers 1990, Taylor 1998).	eng
14936	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	A savanna species with wide habitat tolerance. Occurs in moist and dry savanna, also ranging into desert, arid rocky areas, and riparian strips. Essentially a cave-roosting species but also roosts during the day in mine adits, aardvark holes, rock crevices, culverts under roads, roofs and hollow trees, typically in open savanna woodland (Smithers and Labao Tello 1976, Skinner and Smithers 1990, Taylor 1998).	eng
14936	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karatas, A., 2008	Fairly common through most of its range. However, an uncommon species in the Mediterranean region. In Morocco only three small colonies (usually 10 to 30 and occasionally up to 100 individuals) are known (Stéphane Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Nothing is known about population trend.	eng
14936	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Fairly common through most of its range. However, an uncommon species in the Mediterranean region. In Morocco only three small colonies (usually 10 to 30 and occasionally up to 100 individuals) are known (Stéphane Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Nothing is known about population trend.	eng
14936	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karatas, A., 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation affect the species. Roost disturbance and degradation are the main threats in the Mediterranean region. These are not considered major threats at present.	eng
14936	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation affect the species. Roost disturbance and degradation are the main threats in the Mediterranean region. These are not considered major threats at present.	eng
14937	conservation	Kingston, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The species range includes several protected areas.	eng
14937	distribution	Kingston, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species' distribution includes Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia) and throughout Borneo (Simmons 2005).The type locality for this species is Bidi caves, Sarawak, Borneo Malaysia.	eng
14937	habitat	Kingston, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It has been collected from primary Dipterocarp forest and peat swamp forest (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It roosts in small groups in fallen tree hollows and similar man-made hollows such as culverts as well as crevices of large boulders and in limestone caves.	eng
14937	population	Kingston, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.	eng
14937	threats	Kingston, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The major threat for this species is habitat loss due to deforestation for logging, plantations, agriculture, as well forest fire.	eng
14939	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g.. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this poorly known species.	eng
14939	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been recorded from Zimbabwe, South Africa, to Zambia, north-west Mozambique and Malawi. It may range into southwestern Tanzania, however, it has yet to be recorded in this country. Its is generally a lowland species.	eng
14939	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known, however, populations have been recorded in semi-arid savanna woodland, where it roosts in hollow trees (particularly Baobabs), sandstone caves, rock fissures, and some buildings (Ansell 1967; Cotterill 1996; Sinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
14939	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known. It has been recorded in colonies of a few dozen individuals, otherwise animals have been recorded individually.	eng
14939	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It is possibly locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss (particularly through conversion of land to cotton farming), pesticide use, and disturbance of roosting sites.	eng
14941	conservation	Streicher, U., Ngoc Thanh,V., Nadler,T., Timmins, R.J. & Nekaris, A., 2008	In Viet Nam this species is protected at the highest possible level (Appendix IB, Decree 32, 2006); in China, it is listed as Class 1 protected (involving potentially severe penalties); and in Cambodia it is listed on the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries Species List as prohibited to hunt from 08 January 1994. The species has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007). There is a need for close monitoring of harvesting rates of this species, not only in Viet Nam, but also in Cambodia and Lao PDR where rates of take could increase in future. <br/>Pygmy lorises are represented in at least 50 captive collections, and reported in at least two-dozen protected areas, but these reports need to be ground-sourced with systematic surveys (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
14941	distribution	Streicher, U., Ngoc Thanh,V., Nadler,T., Timmins, R.J. & Nekaris, A., 2008	This species is found east of the Mekong River in eastern Cambodia, southernmost China (southeastern Yunnan), Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Streicher 2004). The western limit of distribution in Lao PDR and Cambodia is uncertain, but it appears to be absent or at least naturally very scarce in the extreme west of the Mekong plain. In China, the species has only been recorded in southeast Yunnan, although it is not clear if these are wild animals or captured animals brought into China from Viet Nam (MacKinnon 2008).	eng
14941	habitat	Streicher, U., Ngoc Thanh,V., Nadler,T., Timmins, R.J. & Nekaris, A., 2008	This species has been sighted in a wide variety of habitats, including primary evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, forest on limestone, secondary and highly degraded habitats, and bamboo thickets (Ratajszczak 1998; Streicher 2004). It is found up to 1,500 m (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987).<br/><br/><em>Nycticebus pygmaeus</em> is nocturnal and forages alone. Its feeding habits have not been well studied in the wild, but it is known that the species is omnivorous in natural conditions. A study of released pygmy loris food choices showed insectivory 40% of the time, gummivory 30% of the time, and feeding on unidentified plant exudates the rest of the time. Flowering trees are most attractive to these animals (Streicher 2004). This species appears to be more insectivorous than <em>Nycticebus coucang</em>, which may explain its ability to survive better in secondary habitat that lack big fruiting trees (Ratajszczak 1998). They may also take geckos, small arboreal mammals, eggs, and chicks (Ratajszczak 1998). This species appears to be a seasonal breeder, giving birth in the winter months (Ratajszczak 1998).	eng
14941	population	Streicher, U., Ngoc Thanh,V., Nadler,T., Timmins, R.J. & Nekaris, A., 2008	Ratajszczak (1998) mentioned that hundreds of this species were being traded in markets, but based on the smaller numbers of pygmy lorises now found in Viet Namese markets, as well as the increased difficulty noted in making field encounters, researchers have concluded that wild populations are probably in major decline (Fitch-Snyder and Vu 2002; Streicher 2004). In Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, 90 survey nights returned only seven sightings of this species; in Ben En National Park, only eight animals were encountered over ten night walks by four teams, each covering several kilometers per night. In Lao PDR, Duckworth (1994) recorded only four individuals during a survey in Phou Xang He protected area (about 0.05-0.10 individuals/km). It is possible that this species was under-recorded, however, as villagers claimed that this species was common throughout the area, and their accounts may also be historical (Duckworth 1994). The species is widespread in forested areas in Lao PDR, where exploitation of lorises is lower than in neighboring Viet Nam.	eng
14941	threats	Streicher, U., Ngoc Thanh,V., Nadler,T., Timmins, R.J. & Nekaris, A., 2008	In Viet Nam, the pygmy slow loris is heavily exploited for traditional “medicine” as well as for the pet trade (Nekaris and Nijman 2007), including international trade, at levels that are not sustainable; it is also used as a food source by many (Streicher 2004). Some hunting involves the use of elaborate traps, as well as snares. In Cambodia, it is generally used for so-called “medicinal” purposes. Levels of exploitation in Lao PDR are significantly lower. Habitat loss, due to agriculture (cashew plantations, corn, rice paddies and so forth), and human settlement, may be resulting in localized declines.	eng
14942	conservation	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.	eng
14942	distribution	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread over the inland parts of the country. It is known from 40 to 480 m asl in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
14942	habitat	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is present in drier habitats within inland Australia. It roosts in tree hollows and building roofs (Parnaby 2008). Females give birth to one or two young after a seven month gestation period (Parnaby 2008).	eng
14942	population	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Parnaby 2008).	eng
14942	threats	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Agricultural activities and modified fire regimes within its arid habitat probably adversely affects the species by eliminating trees with cavities (Parnaby 2008). It may be also locally threatened by disturbance of roosting sites.	eng
14943	conservation	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
14943	distribution	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread in northern, central, and eastern parts of the country.	eng
14943	habitat	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species forages close to waterbodies within arid open woodland and plains. It roosts in colonies of a few individuals to around 20 animals in tree holes, disused buildings, and other available structures (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14943	population	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is a common species (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14943	threats	Lumsden, L., McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
14944	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Avoid habitat loss.	eng
14944	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Northern Veracruz (Mexico) to Nebraska, the Great Lakes, and Pennsylvania, south to Florida and the Gulf coast (USA) (Simmons 2005).	eng
14944	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The Evening Bat is a forest-dwelling species that roosts in tree crevices and behind loose bark, as well as in buildings. This species rarely enters caves but does participate in swarming activities at some cave entrances in late summer. They historically used tree hollows, but as forests have been cut, many have moved into wooden buildings. <br/>Mating probably occurs in late summer and early fall, with the sperm being stored in the uterus of the female during the winter. Ovulation and fertilization occur in the spring. Females give birth to 1 to 3 pups (usually twins) during June.<br/>Evening bats leave their roost near dusk. Individuals begin flying at a height of 12 to 23 m, but as darkness falls they come much lower to the ground. They have a slow and steady flight. During feeding maneuvers, the tail and wing membranes are used to capture and restrain prey (Linzey and Brecht 2005).	eng
14944	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The evening bat lives in eastern deciduous forests, from the East Coast west to eastern Nebraska and south through East Texas to northern Mexico. It inhabits elevations from sea level to 300 m.  The average life span in the wild is probably about two years, although there are records of some individuals surviving for over five years (Watkins, 1972).	eng
14944	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Evening bats have declined in Indiana, but it appears to be relatively abundant in Missouri and Iowa. Its population trends have not been monitored, and its status is unknown over much of its range. <em>N. humeralis</em> is not listed as a species of special concern by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, though it is considered endangered in Indiana, the area where it has been best monitored.	eng
14945	conservation	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
14945	distribution	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from around Brisbane to Melbourne, mostly east of the Great Dividing Range, and has been reported also from the Cairns region of Queensland (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008). It is known from sea level to 720 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
14945	habitat	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It forages in tall, wet forests or rainforest but has also been captured in areas of open woodland. It has been recorded roosting in tree hollows and roofs (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
14945	population	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Tidemann and Parnaby 2008).	eng
14945	threats	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss due to urban development and logging, including the selective removal of large trees (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
14946	conservation	Lunney, D. & Pennay, M., 2008	The species is presumably present in a number of protected areas within its range. There is a need to identify and protect important populations of this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology, distribution, abundance, and reproduction of this species.	eng
14946	distribution	Lunney, D. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a patchy distribution in coastal areas between northern Queensland and south-east New South Wales. It ranges from sea level to 500 m asl, and above, along the coast and in coastal ranges. The range of this species is poorly understood because of identification issues (D. Lunney pers. comm.).	eng
14946	habitat	Lunney, D. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, dry and wet sclerophyll woodland, and eucalypt forest. Its roosting habits are poorly known, but it has been found roosting in tree hollows, crevices, and under bark. Females give birth to a single young (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hoye and Richards 2008).	eng
14946	population	Lunney, D. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is sparsely scattered in suitable habitat (Hoye and Richards 2008).	eng
14946	threats	Lunney, D. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is suspected to be threatened by clearance and fragmentation of suitable forest habitat. In addition to the degradation of foraging habitat, the loss of roosting trees due to logging is also likely to be a threat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
14947	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Local education programmes on bat species would benefit the conservation of this species.	eng
14947	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from West Timor (Indonesia), south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), Dolak Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), and in Australia where it occurs in north-eastern Queensland, Northern Territory, and northern Western Australia. It presumably ranges more widely in little-surveyed parts of Papua Province, Indonesia. The species occurs from sea level to 2,200 m asl in New Guinea, but is usually found below 100 m asl (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14947	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest, sclerophyll forest, coastal forests, and savanna. In the Kimberley, it is only recorded in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It forages along rivers and edges of quiet bays, along paths and roads, and around lights in urban areas. It roosts in hollow trees and buildings. Colonies may consist of a few individuals to several hundred animals. Females gives birth to one or two young (Bonaccorso 1998; Hall 2008).	eng
14947	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a fairly common species.	eng
14947	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
14953	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Ingle, N., Cariño, A.B., Pangulatan, L.M., Pedregosa, M., Alcala, E. & Helgen, K., 2008	Surveys are needed over a wider part of the potential range of <em>N. rabori</em> to more acurately determine the status of its population, and to determine whether it occurs on Panay. It is known to occur in North Negros Forest Reserve (Tamblyn <em>et al.</em> 2005). More adequate conservation measures are needed at known sites.	eng
14953	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Ingle, N., Cariño, A.B., Pangulatan, L.M., Pedregosa, M., Alcala, E. & Helgen, K., 2008	The tube-nosed fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the islands of Cebu (Vinciguerra and Muller 1993), Negros and Sibuyan; it might also occur in Panay, although there has been a lack of sampling there to confirm this (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has also been recorded from Karakelong in the Talaud Islands (Indonesia), and on Siao and Greater Sangihe in the Sangihe Islands (Indonesia) (K. Helgen pers. comm.), but these records represent tentative identifications. The elevational range is from sea level to 1,300 m asl. On Negros, it has been recorded from 200 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
14953	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Ingle, N., Cariño, A.B., Pangulatan, L.M., Pedregosa, M., Alcala, E. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is found in or adjacent to forest (sea level to 1,300 m), in both primary and secondary forest (Vinciguerra and Muller 1993).  <em>N. rabori</em> was previously thought to be confined to high-quality forest, but it is tolerant to a wider range of habitats than previously suspected, having been recorded from degraded habitats on Negros, and persisting in very degraded habitats on Cebu. During recent collections, the species has tended to be found near bodies of water.	eng
14953	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Ingle, N., Cariño, A.B., Pangulatan, L.M., Pedregosa, M., Alcala, E. & Helgen, K., 2008	The tube-nosed fruit bat has been collected (mist-netted) infrequently on Cebu and Negros. It might be less common in degraded habitat than in old growth forest, but it does seem to be able to persist in degraded areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is more widespread on Negros and Cebu than previously suspected (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). On Negros, where it had been known only from a population on the southern part of the island, surveys have located 30 individuals at eight sites between 1998 and 2004 (Carino 2004). During survey, the highest number of individuals of <em>N. rabori</em> was recorded in Ban-ban, Ayungon municipality, with a total capture of nine individuals during 26 Mar to 10 Apr 1999 (Cariño 2004). Mount Siburan (Sibuyan Island) may have numbers of the tube-nosed fruit bats in the high hundreds, Negros may have low thousands of individuals and Cebu may have numbers in the low hundreds, where the population of that island has been found only in five small sites (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). The number of mature individuals could be less than 2,500.	eng
14953	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Ingle, N., Cariño, A.B., Pangulatan, L.M., Pedregosa, M., Alcala, E. & Helgen, K., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat, and has been severe across much of the range of <em>N. rabori</em>, although the rate has slowed due to the fact that there is little remaining primary forest. Most of the lowland forest habitat, which is the most suitable for the species, has been destroyed in two out of the three islands on which the species is known to occur. Although it has recently been recorded from some areas of secondary forest, the remaining populations are under intense pressure since very little forest remains and there is a continuing decline in area and quality of this forest. Hunting is not suspected to be a threat as, according to surveys, local people are unfamiliar with this tube-nosed fruit bat.	eng
14954	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is likely to be found in some protected areas.	eng
14954	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded at scattered localities throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and on the islands of Misool, Salawati, and Kairiru (Indonesia) plus Admosin in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. The record from Halmahera, Indonesia by Dollman (1930) is in error and no longer mapped. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
14954	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded from primary and secondary rainforest, swamp forest, and rural gardens. Animals roost in foliage, either singly or in small groups. It is a frugivorous species, likely to be a fig specialist (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Pregnant females have been recorded in January and February.	eng
14954	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is probably a common species. It appears to have a low population density, but is widespread throughout New Guinea.	eng
14954	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is not actively hunted.	eng
14955	conservation	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve is within the range of this species. Further taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the relationship between it and <em>N. certans</em>.	eng
14955	distribution	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is known from the Arfak Mountains on the Vogelkop Peninsula in western New Guinea. It has also been reported by Meinig (2002) as occurring on Mansuar Island, Indonesia. The precise altitudinal range is not known.	eng
14955	habitat	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is presumed to have similar habitat requirements to <em>N. certans</em>, and occur in primary and secondary forest, forest edge, and rural gardens in hill forests and at lower montane elevations. It is also presumed to occur in moss forest at mid-motane elevations, although Meinig (2002) reports capturing this species at 5 m asl.	eng
14955	population	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
14955	threats	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
14956	conservation	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The distribution limits of this species are not known. Further studies into the taxonomy, ecology, threats, and distribution of this species are needed.	eng
14956	distribution	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is mostly known from either side of the highlands of central New Guinea. It has been recorded from less than 10 localities and only about twenty specimens. The type locality is the Lorentz River (the single locality in Papua Province, Indonesia). Records from north of the central highlands (Bonaccorso 1998) may not represent this species, but are included here until further details become available. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100 m asl.	eng
14956	habitat	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	All records of this species have been associated with freshwater swamps and rivers. Bonaccorso (1998) captured a  postlactating female that was not reproductively active in January.	eng
14956	population	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
14956	threats	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known whether this species faces any threats. The species is not likely to be hunted (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
14958	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status, range and population numbers, ecology, biology, and threats to this species (Mickleburgh <em>et al. </em>1992).	eng
14958	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Malaita and San Cristobal in the Solomon Islands (Simmons 2005).	eng
14958	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	This species occurs in primary tropical moist forest.	eng
14958	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	It is presumably common in suitable habitat.	eng
14958	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	It is restricted to just two islands, and the threats to this species are not known.	eng
14959	conservation	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The distribution of this species is uncertain. Studies are needed into the ecology, biology, and threats to it.	eng
14959	distribution	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The precise distribution of <em>N. masalai</em> is unknown, and there may be confusion with other species in the genus. It appears to be endemic to the island of New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. The type locality of this species is Ralum, New Ireland (3 31' S, 152 22' E). The species might extend through the Bismarcks, perhaps the north coast islands of Papua New Guinea, and possibly even the east Papuan Islands (relevant museum samples from these regions need to be investigated; K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
14959	habitat	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There is no information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
14959	population	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
14959	threats	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known whether this species faces any threats.	eng
14960	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is present in Manusela National Park.	eng
14960	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is confined to highland regions of the islands of Buru and Seram in Indonesia. It is not present on the island of Ambon. The geographically mislabelled specimen from the island of Menado is not considered here as part of the range of the species.	eng
14960	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from mid-montane forest on each island.	eng
14960	population	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It is only known from a small number of specimens.	eng
14960	threats	Hutson, A.M., Helgen, K., Schlitter, D. & Suyanto, A., 2008	Habitat loss due to clear-cut logging and probably also mining are the main threats to this species (Dudun pers. comm.). This species is probably not hunted, as it is too small.	eng
14961	conservation	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Research is needed to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to confirm, if possible, the existence of this species.	eng
14961	distribution	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from a single female specimen probably collected in the late 19<sup>th</sup> century on Santa Cruz (Nendö) Island in the Solomon Islands, or certainly from within the Santa Cruz Island Group. It was apparently last seen on Nendö in 1907 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Several subsequent biological expeditions to the region have not recorded this species (Flannery 1995).	eng
14961	habitat	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is no information available regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
14961	population	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known from a single specimen, and it may now be extinct. Extensive surveys in the 1980s and 1990s failed to find any <em>Nyctimene</em> species on Nendö Island (Flannery 1995). There appears to be no other published information about these surveys. Of particular interest would be information about the survey effort, techniques, and habitats covered. This is important because even a slight difference in these variables can change results. <em>N. major</em> in New Britain and Bougainville, for example, were captured in large numbers seasonally, feeding on beach front fruiting trees, whilst no captures were made just 200 m inland in forest areas (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
14961	threats	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Disturbance by humans may have led to the extinction of this species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). There was extensive logging here in the past.	eng
14962	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is likely to be found in some protected areas. Work is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in the Kei Islands, the Bismarcks, and the Solomon Islands. The distribution and conservation status of the Kei Islands populations should also be investigated.	eng
14962	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from the islands of Halmahera, Obi, Batjan, Waigeo, and Salawati (all Indonesia), and eastwards to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Aru and Kei Islands (Indonesia). It ranges from sea level to 1,900 m asl (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
14962	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is generally found in primary rainforest, being less common in secondary forest, sago palm forests, native gardens, plantations, Melaleuca savanna and monsoon forests. Animals roost singly or in mother-infant pairs within vegetation. Pregnant females have been collected on New Guinea in January, February, July, August, and September, each with single embryos.	eng
14962	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is common and widespread. Bonaccorso (1998) and Flannery (1995a) reported that it was one of the most abundant fruit bats found in the primary rain forests of Papua New Guinea.	eng
14962	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is unlikely to be hunted (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
14963	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is present in some protected areas (e.g., Loralindu, Gamoga-bone). Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia and New Guinea need further identification and/or taxonomic work and are currently treated as <em>N. robinsoni</em>.	eng
14963	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from the islands of Sulawesi, Seram, Mangole, Sanana, Buru, Ambon, and Tanimbar (all Indonesia), and from the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia) though it may no longer be present here (K. Helgen pers. comm.). Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia probably refer to <em>Nyctimene robinsoni</em>. Mainland New Guinea records are possibly misidentifications of <em>N. robinsoni</em>, and are marked on the map as possible range of <em>N. robinsoni</em>. A record from Numfoor Island, Indonesia, represents a separate, undescribed Geelvinck Bay bat taxon (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species ranges from sea level to at least 1,800 m asl.	eng
14963	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is fairly reliant on good primary tropical moist forest. It roosts singly, in trees (where it appears like a leaf when roosting). It is primarily frugivorous, but may also take insects. Of the four females collected on Sanana in mid-November by Flannery (1995), two were found to be pregnant.	eng
14963	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is common in less disturbed environments.	eng
14963	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	Deforestation is a serious threat, and indeed the species may be extirpated from Timor due to near complete loss of primary moist forest (K. Helgen pers. comm.). This species also is hunted for food in parts of its range, and is occasionally found for sale in markets.	eng
14964	conservation	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The species is protected in some areas by local religious beliefs. People on Mount Telefomin regard it as extremely bad luck to kill the species. It is presumed to occur in some protected areas. Work is needed to assess the taxonomic validity of the species.	eng
14964	distribution	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species ranges through the highlands of central New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and East New Britain (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It occurs from 800 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
14964	habitat	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, forest edge, and rural gardens in hill forests and at lower montane elevations. It also occurs in moss forest at mid-motane elevations. It flys higher than other Nyctimene species (as evidenced by capture in sub-canopy nets). Animals roost singly or in pairs in foliage. It is a frugivorous species. In Morobe and Eastern Highlands Provinces, pregnant females have been found in November and in February.	eng
14964	population	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is widespread in mid-montane forest. Bonaccorso (1998) suggests they may be locally abundant and secure in montane habitats.	eng
14964	threats	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is minimal hunting of it (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
14965	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	It is not known if Dobson's tube-nosed bat is present in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the status and threats to the species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). More information about distribution and ecology should also be a priority.	eng
14965	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Dobson's tube-nosed bat is present in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from many islands in the Provinces of East Sepik, Madang, Milne Bay, Morobe, New Ireland, East New Britain, West New Britain and North Solomons (the latter via S. Hamilton pers. comm.). In the Solomon Islands it has been recorded from most of the islands as far south as Malaita and Guadalcanal (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). The species ranges from sea level up to 900 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14965	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Dobson's tube-nosed bat occurs in primary tropical lowland forest and can be found in disturbed forest, plantations, and rural gardens. It roosts singly, or as small groups, in vegetation (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). This species is able to disperse and persist on small isolated islands (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14965	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Dobson's tube-nosed bat can be abundant in parts of its range. It is less common where other species of Nyctimene are present (Flannery 1995).	eng
14965	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
14966	conservation	Hall, L., Thomson, B., Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic and identification work is needed regarding the Torres Strait and New Guinea populations.	eng
14966	distribution	Hall, L., Thomson, B., Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is found from eastern Queensland down to northern New South Wales, Australia. Records from Moa Island, Queensland, Australia previously referred to as <em>Nyctimene cephalotes</em> are probably <em>N. robinsoni</em>, but these require further identification and/or taxonomic work. Mainland New Guinea records of <em>N. cephalotes</em> are also thought to be misidentifications of <em>N. robinsoni</em>, and are marked on the map as possible range of <em>N. robinsoni</em>.	eng
14966	habitat	Hall, L., Thomson, B., Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is found in tropical forest and orchard habitats. This species roosts in trees and dense foliage. It is generally solitary but may be found in small groups. Females give birth to a single young (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14966	population	Hall, L., Thomson, B., Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is a common species, but patchily distributed in the south of its range (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
14966	threats	Hall, L., Thomson, B., Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has the potential to be a pest of fruit orchards in some parts of its range (Hall <em>et al.</em> 2008). Barbed wire fences are a source direct mortality (L. Hall and B. Thomson pers. comm.).	eng
14967	conservation	Hamilton, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14967	distribution	Hamilton, S., 2008	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is present in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Papua New Guinea it is found on the Bismarck Archipelago and on Bougainville Island (Bonaccorso 1998). It is present over most of the Solomon Islands north of Malaita (Simmons 2005). The species ranges from sea level to 1,800 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14967	habitat	Hamilton, S., 2008	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is associated with closed-canopy, primary tropical moist forest. It is rarely present in secondary growth forest or plantations (Bonaccorso 1998). Animals roost in trees and dense foliage.	eng
14967	population	Hamilton, S., 2008	It is generally a common species (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14967	threats	Hamilton, S., 2008	The Umboi tube-nosed bat is threatened in the Bismarck Archipelago by logging (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
14969	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Although a recovery plan is in place for this species, further research into the cause of the decline of this species is necessary.	eng
14969	distribution		This species is endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) from Paluma to Cooktown, north Queensland, at altitudes between sea level and 1,200m asl (McDonald 1992). The species includes two divergent genetic lineages separated by Barron Creek-the diversity within each lineage is very low (M. Cunningham pers. comm.).	eng
14969	habitat		This species is a rainforest specialist (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). In montane areas the species prefers fast-flowing rocky streams although they also frequent slower watercourses where ample vegetation exists along the margins (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). At low elevations, it favours rock soaks, narrow ephemeral streams and rock outcrops in larger watercourses (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). It may also be found on rocks, boulders and vegetation in or adjacent to streams (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). <em>N. dayi</em> is a spring and summer breeder (Davies and Richards 1990) with peak breeding activity from October to April (Hero and Fickling 1997; Hodgkinson and Hero 2002). Davies and Richards (1990) provide a detailed description of the developmental biology of the species. Males call at night from rocks and low foliage along rapidly flowing stretches of creek. The competition for females may necessitate territorial behaviour in males, as they have never been found calling in a group or within 1m of another male (Hodgkinson and Hero 2002). Amplexus is axillary and eggs are laid in a cohesive clump under rocks in rapidly flowing water (Czechura, Ingram and Liem 1987). One clutch collected contained 107 unpigmented eggs (egg diameter 2.3-2.6mm, capsule diameter 3.3-3.5mm, n=5) (Davies and Richards 1990). Larvae can be found on or under rocks in fast-flowing sections of stream and show adaptations to living in torrents, such as large suctorial mouthparts and muscular tails (Davies and Richards 1990; Fickling and Hero 1994). After hatching they aggregate under a rock until their digestive tracts are fully formed (Davies and Richards 1990). After several days they begin to graze on benthic algae and may drift downstream. Larvae from eggs laid in early summer complete development in 3-4 months, while those eggs laid in late summer may overwinter and metamorphose the following summer (Davies and Richards 1990).	eng
14969	population		<em>Nyctimystes dayi</em> has disappeared from upland sites throughout the Wet Tropics and was last recorded from Mount Spec State Forest in 1990 and the Kirrama Range in 1989 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993; M. Cunningham pers. comm.). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) noted that the species was still common at most foothill and lowland sites and recorded adults and larvae from upland sites north of the Daintree River. These populations subsequently disappeared in 1992 and 1993 (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). At one monitoring site at O’Keefe Creek, Big Tableland, this species has occasionally reappeared near a site at an altitude of 400m asl, but it has not established resident populations and is absent from a monitoring site at 680m asl (McDonald and Alford 1999). Interestingly, the lowland and foothill populations still exist (McDonald and Alford 1999).	eng
14969	threats		The reason(s) for the decline of the species are largely unknown. Although in the past habitat destruction may have been a factor, clearing or logging has not taken place in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, where the species occurs, since 1988 (McDonald and Alford 1999). Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) first noted a decline of the species in pristine rainforest habitats in 1989. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reject drought, floods, habitat destruction or changes in water quality (pH, conductivity, temperature, dissolved oxygen and metal ions) as the primary causes of the decline. However, in a study by Hodgkinson and Hero (2002) cold temperatures were found to reduce the activity of <em>N. dayi</em> and it was suggested that prolonged exposure to cold, dry conditions (particularly at high altitudes) may inhibit the breeding and survival of the frogs and influence recruitment in local populations. Current research is examining the possibility that disease, possibly a virus or chytrid fungus, may have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger,  Speare and Hyatt 1999; McDonald and Alford 1999). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Tully, Queensland. Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by <em>N. dayi</em> (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there has been very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
14993	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Research is required to confirm the range of this species.	eng
14993	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central and South America. The species distribution is poorly understood but is thought to have a disjunct population in South America. This species is found from Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) is absent from central america, but it is distributed in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil (Simmons 2005). There are no records from the Brazilian Amazon. Known altitudinal range is from sea level to 3,150 m; mostly known records are from below 1,000 m elevation (Jones and Arroyo-Cabrales, 1990). Further work is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.	eng
14993	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in decidous tropical forest, shrubs, thorn forests and dry forests (Arita, 2005); and has been regarded as a lowland bat (Alvarez and Aviña, 1964). Individuals presumably spend the day in crevices within a cave (Sanborn, 1951); a male from southeastern Brazil was found roosting in the attic of a house (Taddei and Garutti, 1981). The diet is thought to consist mainly of soft-bodied insects as has been reported for related species of <em>Nyctinomops</em>. Alvarez (1963) recorded skull of this species found in owl pellets.	eng
14993	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Apparently uncommon, and sparsely distributed in disjunct populations. Aerial insectivore thus population status poorly known due to difficulties in sampling this species. Not abundant in Mexico (Arita, 2005)	eng
14993	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation in some parts of its range although this is not a major threat. In south of Mexico there was a 45% of habitat reduction in 10 years (de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
14994	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in several protected areas along its range.	eng
14994	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs from Guerrero (Mexico) to New Mexico, Arizona, California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,250 m (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
14994	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is insectivorous; it eats a variety of insects (Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, and Neuroptera). During the dry season it utilizes water sources with open access and a large available surface area from which to drink. It leaves its roosts after dark and is usually not taken in mistnets until two or three hours after sunset. It roosts in caves, rock crevices in cliff faces, and man-made structures. Colonies usually number fewer than 100 individuals. It gives birth to only one young per year, usually in early July, and the young are flying in mid to late August (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
14994	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is limited and uncommon (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
14994	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss and use of pesticides (the species eats moths that are affected by pesticides).	eng
14995	conservation	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is found within several protected areas.	eng
14995	distribution	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is found from Tamaulipas and Jalisco (Mexico) to Venezuela and the Guianas, northwest Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil; Trinidad; Cuba (Simmons 2005). Distribution extended to include northern Uruguay (Gonzalez 2001). Expansion of range in southern Argentina according to Barquez <em>et al.</em> (2006). There are no records for Nicaragua and Costa Rica.	eng
14995	habitat	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>N. laticaudatus</em> occupies diverse tropical and subtropical habitats. It has also been captured in disturbed and urban areas (Avila-Flores <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is insectivourous. It is found up to 1,500 m (Reid 1997)	eng
14995	population	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>N. laticaudatus</em> may form resident colonies throughout the year, in some cases in stable numbers, although population dynamics are complex, and phylopatry is low (Avila-Flores <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is rare or uncommon throughout most of its geographic range. However, it is relatively common in some areas, especially within the Yucatan Peninsula (Bowles <em>et al.</em> 1990; Jones <em>et al.</em> 1973).	eng
14995	threats	Barquez, R., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
14996	conservation	Barquez, R., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Diaz, M., 2008	No conservation measures cited. Found in protected areas.	eng
14996	distribution	Barquez, R., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Diaz, M., 2008	SW British Columbia and Iowa (USA) to SW Mexico; Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam to Peru, N Argentina and Uruguay; Cuba; Jamaica; Hispaniola (Simmons 2005). Not found either in Rio Grande do Sul (Reis <em>et al.</em> 2006) nor Uruguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004)	eng
14996	habitat	Barquez, R., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>N. macrotis</em> is a seasonal migrant throughout much of its range and it is insectivourous (Milner <em>et al.</em> 1990; Barquez 1999). Found in urban areas (Barquez 1999). In North America is found in dry forests and pine forests. In South America and Antillas is found in tropical evergreen forests. From sea level up to 2,600 m (Arita, 2005)	eng
14996	population	Barquez, R., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Diaz, M., 2008	Common species (Barquez pers. comm.). Not very common in Mexico (Arita, 2005). Common in Dominican Republic (Sixto Inchaustegui pers. comm.)	eng
14996	threats	Barquez, R., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
14999	conservation	Samudio, R., Pino, J. & Reid, F., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. More research needed into its population dynamics.	eng
14999	distribution	Samudio, R., Pino, J. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in lowland and lower montane forests from south Jalisco and south Veracruz, Mexico, south to central Panama, excluding the Yucatán Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997).	eng
14999	habitat	Samudio, R., Pino, J. & Reid, F., 2008	It is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest and tall second growth (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This mouse is nocturnal and strictly arboreal. Its short limbs and broad body give it a waddling gait on the ground, but may aid in balance on vertical vines and branches, where it appears to be more agile. The diet includes figs, fruit of madders and borage (<em>Cordia diversifolia</em>), seeds, and insects. Several individuals were seen catching small white moths among the rafters of a house in Costa Rica. Nests were found in tree hollows in Veracruz (Hall and Dalquest 1963, in Reid 1997). Entrances of 3 to 8 cm diameter were preferred, leading to larger hollows 15 to 32 cm wide (Reid 1997). This species is usually silent in the wild (Reid 1997). Litter size is 1 to 4 young, averaging 2, and reproduction may take place year-round (Reid 1997).	eng
14999	population	Samudio, R., Pino, J. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is generally common.	eng
14999	threats	Samudio, R., Pino, J. & Reid, F., 2008	None known.	eng
15000	conservation	McKenzie, N., Reardon, T. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
15000	distribution	McKenzie, N., Reardon, T. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found in the tropical parts of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland (H. Parnaby pers. comm.), Northern Territory, and Kimberley and along the coast of Western Australia. It is also present on offshore islands of the Melville, Bonaparte Archipelago, Groote Eylandt, and the Sir Edward Pellew Group (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). There is at least one recent record from the tip of the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, so it may be more widely distributed (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but the taxonomy of this species requires clarification (H. Parnaby pers. comm.).	eng
15000	habitat	McKenzie, N., Reardon, T. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species has been recorded in rainforest patches, open Eucalyptus forests, in mangroves, and over freshwater lagoons and waterholes (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). At least west of, and including, the Dampier Peninsula, it has only been found in mangroves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It has been found roosting in foliage and under the roof of a house (McKenzie and Churchill 2008). Females may give birth to a litter of two young.	eng
15000	population	McKenzie, N., Reardon, T. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, although its habitat is limited (McKenzie and Churchill 2008).	eng
15000	threats	McKenzie, N., Reardon, T. & Parnaby, H., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
15001	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is present in many protected areas in northern Australia and has been recorded from the Kau Wildlife Area in Papua New Guinea. Further studies are needed into the distribution, status, and threats to this species on New Guinea. Additional taxonomic research is also needed.	eng
15001	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species has been recorded from northern Australia and the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In Australia it is present in north Western Australia, north Northern Territory, coastal Queensland, and north-east New South Wales. On New Guinea, it has only been recorded from a few widely scattered localities. It ranges from sea level to 500 m asl in Queensland (L. Hall pers. comm.), but probably occurs 0-400 m asl elsewhere.	eng
15001	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species forages for insects in rainforest and sclerophyll woodland, and it is often associated with waterbodies in these habitats (Bonaccorso 1998; Parnaby and Churchill 2008). In the Kimberley and Pilbara, it is found in rainforest and riparian zones (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Animals roost communally in hollow tress, dense foliage, or in houses. Females often give birth to twins (Parnaby and Churchill 2008).	eng
15001	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	In Queensland it is common and widespread, and in the west of the range it is common but localised (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In New Guinea, it is known only from a few specimens.	eng
15001	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. However, they require a range of available roosting sites for survival (Parnaby and Churchill 2008). The status of populations on New Guinea needs further investigation (Bonaccorso 1998). Riparian zones are being degraded throughout Australia, which may pose local threats (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
15003	conservation	Lumsden, L., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is known to occur in many protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in Tasmania.	eng
15003	distribution	Lumsden, L., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is present over much of Australia (including Tasmania), being absent only from the north-east of the country. It is known from sea level to 1,580 m asl, but is most common at lower altitudes, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
15003	habitat	Lumsden, L., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is present in a wide range of habitats being found in semi-arid areas, mallee, woodland, wet forest, alpine areas, tropical forest, and urban areas (Lumsden and Turbill 2008). Animals roost in cavities and crevices in trees, underneath the bark of trees, or in roofs of houses (Lumsden and Turbill 2008). Females commonly give birth to twins.	eng
15003	population	Lumsden, L., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This is a very common species over much of its range, though less so in the northern part of the range (B. Thomson and N. McKenzie pers. comm.). Colonies may contain 200 animals, but most are found in solitary roosts or roosts of less than 30 individuals (Lumsden and Turbill 2008).	eng
15003	threats	Lumsden, L., Hall, L., McKenzie, N. & Parnaby, H., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
15004	conservation	Pennay, M., Lumsden, L., Lunney, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is known to be present in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations in West Australia.	eng
15004	distribution	Pennay, M., Lumsden, L., Lunney, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. It is present in eastern Australia from south-eastern South Australia northwards through Victoria and eastern New South Wales to south-eastern Queensland. There is also a disjunct population in south-western Western Australia. The species is known from sea level to 1,240 m asl, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
15004	habitat	Pennay, M., Lumsden, L., Lunney, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species forages in sclerophyll forests and woodland (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008), including forest remnants (L. Lumsden and M. Pennay pers. comm.). It seems to need the dense understory of tall forest (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). This species roosts in tree holes, crevices, and under roofs. Maternity colonies typically consist of between 10 and 20 females, males tend to be solitary (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females often give birth to twins.	eng
15004	population	Pennay, M., Lumsden, L., Lunney, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is a common species (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
15004	threats	Pennay, M., Lumsden, L., Lunney, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In some areas, the loss of large old trees due to forest thinning is a threat to this species (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1988; D. Lunney pers. comm.).	eng
15005	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species possibly occurs in Hadewaia-Labelkang Game Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
15005	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen collected before 1991 in Indonesia; Lesser Sundas (Nusa Tenggara), Lembata Island (= Lomblen Island), Desa Hadakewa, Kampong Merdeka (08°22'S, 123°31'E).	eng
15005	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	Congenerics typically are not water dependent, but are often found in dry savanna woodland below 1,000 m asl. It usually lives in small colonies.	eng
15005	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
15005	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss is likely to be a threat.	eng
15006	conservation	Hall, L., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Introduced owls have now been eradicated from Lord Howe Island and programmes to eradicate rats are underway (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Extensive surveys for this species have not located any remaining animals (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Contemporary reports by locals, however, of two sizes of bats flying at dusk, the larger currently unidentified (N. Carlile pers. comm.), indicates the need for further survey work. If it were found to be extant, further studies would be needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
15006	distribution	Hall, L., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales, Australia.	eng
15006	habitat	Hall, L., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	The only known specimen (an incomplete skull) was collected from a ledge in a cave that may have been an owl roost (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
15006	population	Hall, L., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is known only from an incomplete skull that was considered to be a sub-fossil until a recent re-examination indicated that it was from the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Richards 2008).	eng
15006	threats	Hall, L., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	The reasons for its decline are unclear, however, it is possible that this species was predated by introduced owls and rats.	eng
15007	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Harp trap surveys need to be conducted in order to better understand the distribution and abundance of this species. Further studies are also needed into the natural history and threats that may be acting on the species.	eng
15007	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from seven localities. It has been reported from between 1,900 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
15007	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species roosts in trees and caves, as solitary animals or in small groups. It is probably an insect gleaner within its mid-montane forest habitat (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
15007	population	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
15007	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Threats to this species are not known. It is possibly threatened by loss of suitable forest and cave habitats.	eng
15008	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It has been recorded from Crater Wildlife Management Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species. There is also a need for clarification of the taxonomic status of this species, which may represent a species complex (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
15008	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is present on the island of Salawati (Indonesia) where it is known from a single record, the island of New Guinea (widespread in Papua New Guinea, but only one record from the Indonesian side), the island of New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), and possibly from Sudest Island (Papua New Guinea). It is likely that the species occurs more widely in Papua Province, Indonesia, New Guinea. It ranges from sea level to 2,600 m asl.	eng
15008	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is found in wet primary and secondary tropical forests, or in forest clearings. The species roosts in small groups in foliage, including dried bamboo, or in caves. Two of four females collected in July in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea, were lactating (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
15008	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is the most common <em>Nyctophilus</em> species in New Guinea. It is now known from a larger number of localities, and is probably not sampled properly by using mist-nets.	eng
15008	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Bonaccorso, F. & Parnaby, H., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) believed it was unlikely to suffer sharp declines from disturbance or loss of a roost cave.	eng
15009	conservation	Reardon, T., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species occurs in a number of national parks (T. Reardon pers. comm.). Research is needed into its conservation status, distribution, natural history, and threats to the species, particularly the proportion of its range in which habitat destruction or degradation of habitat quality occurs.	eng
15009	distribution	Reardon, T., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia, but it is absent from the south-west part of the island.	eng
15009	habitat	Reardon, T., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It is a forest species, probably restricted to the lowlands (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
15009	population	Reardon, T., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is widespread and moderately common within its range (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
15009	threats	Reardon, T., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Forest clearance for eucalypt plantations, agriculture, and commercial logging are major threats to at least the roost sites of this species (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
15010	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., McKenzie, N., Reardon, T., Lumsden, L., Pennay, M., Ellis, M. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas in Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species complex. Although logging continues, large reserves exist and restrictions are now imposed on clearing land in the far south-western part of the range of this species (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
15010	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., McKenzie, N., Reardon, T., Lumsden, L., Pennay, M., Ellis, M. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species has been recorded from Morobe and Western Provinces of Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). Records of this species from the island of Timor (Indonesia and East Timor) and Sudest (Papua New Guinea) are currently considered to be uncertain (Corbet and Hill 1992; Bonaccorso 1998). This species is also found in southern and eastern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales). In New South Wales, there is likely a break in its distribution where it crosses the Darling River around 30 S, 146 E (M. Ellis pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level to 1,600 m asl.	eng
15010	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., McKenzie, N., Reardon, T., Lumsden, L., Pennay, M., Ellis, M. & Parnaby, H., 2008	In New Guinea, this species occurs in coastal sclerophyll woodlands and mid-montane forests. In Australia it is most commonly found in closed eucalypt woodland, but also occurs in open forest, savannas and mallee-type habitats in arid and semi-arid areas. In the south-east of Australia it occurs from semi-arid mallee and cypress country to iron-bark and mixed eucalyptus woodlands (L. Lumsden and M. Pennay pers. comm.). In the south-west of West Australia, it occurs in tall forest, in the goldfields of West Australia it is found in arid and open woodlands (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It roosts in tree hollows and under bark. Females give birth to one or two young (Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). In New South Wales, this species is restricted to only larger remnants (M. Pennay pers. comm.) and is most abundant in the extensive areas of structurally complex box-ironbark-cypress woodland on the western slopes and plains (Turbill and Ellis 2006). The generation length of this species is likely to be 4-5 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
15010	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., McKenzie, N., Reardon, T., Lumsden, L., Pennay, M., Ellis, M. & Parnaby, H., 2008	In Australia, this species has a patchy distribution, often uncommon but sometimes locally common, and is known from only a few specimens in Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
15010	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., McKenzie, N., Reardon, T., Lumsden, L., Pennay, M., Ellis, M. & Parnaby, H., 2008	In Australia, it is threatened by loss of habitat through clearance of native vegetation for conversion to agricultural land. It may also be threatened by logging operations, grazing by livestock, and changes in fire regimes (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The threats to this species in Papua New Guinea are not known (Bonaccorso 1998). In the wheatbelt of West Australia, its preferred habitat has been almost completely cleared for agriculture and the remnants are, or will be, salinity affected (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
15011	conservation	McKenzie, N., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
15011	distribution	McKenzie, N., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found in northern Western Australia, northern Northern Territory, and at Lawn Hill Gorge, Queensland.	eng
15011	habitat	McKenzie, N., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is associated with watercourses through rocky areas surrounded by melaleuca and pandanus, gallery forest or <em>Livistona</em> palms (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
15011	population	McKenzie, N., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Though previously considered rare, this species is now known to be locally common within its range.	eng
15011	threats	McKenzie, N., Lumsden, L. & Parnaby, H., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
15023	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Endemic to the Escambia River drainage system, confined to the main channel. This species is only present in three counties.	eng
15023	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species requires moderate currents with sand and gravel substrates.	eng
15023	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Silt loading clogging the gills of this species is a threat, as is channel management.	eng
15026	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
15026	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
15046	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, population status, and distribution.  Conservation measures should be drafted and implemented for this species (Smith 2008).  This species was regionally assessed, in China, as Endangered under criteria B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).  This species occurs in Aerjinshan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).	eng
15046	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona koslowi</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  A 1999 survey concluded that <em>O. koslowi</em> occurs in three localities; "(i) the Valley of the Winds, where the type specimens were collected (the exact location is not clear, but it is conjectured to be in the central or west Kunlun Mountains); (ii) the juncture of the Kunlun and Kala-Kunlun mountains, which is located south-east of Mount Kongke; and (iii) in the Arjin Mountain Nature Reserve, including the areas verified in 1984, 1988 and during the current survey.  During the present investigation, it was verified that the distribution is nearly continuous between Aqik Lake, Yueya River and Tuzi Lake.  The distance between these three limits is 800 km east to west, running parallel to the Kala-Kunlun mountains, where the distribution of Koslov's pika is limited and discontinuous" (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).  It is speculated that its distribution may extend further west than is currently known.  This species was previously recorded in two additional localities, "Kuzyuk-Kakty Pass" and near Arkatag village by the Przehevalski expedition in 1884 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The locality of Ikhe-Tsaidemin Nur requires confirmation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species occurs at elevations of 4,200-4,800 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15046	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies alpine meadow tundra and digs holes in the swelling mounds of saline loess on the Guldsha Pass (Büchner 1894).  The burrows constructed by this species are shallow (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  These pikas live communally at high densities (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>Ochotona koslowi</em> is characterized as general herbivore and is a diurnal species of pika (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The total length of this species is 22.0-24.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Only a single litter is produced each year (Zheng 1986), with four to eight young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15046	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona koslowi</em> was found to be locally abundant in a recent survey (Smith 2008).  However, this species has been characterized as rare (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15046	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It was speculated that <em>Ochotona koslowi</em> populations may have been negatively affected by vertebrate control programs in the region (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Regional assessment in China indicated that this species is threatened by severely fragmented extent of occurrence and continuing decline in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and area, extent and/or quality of habitat (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15047	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, behavior, and threats (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Additionally, efforts are needed to establish population status, as this species has not been recorded since the 1960's (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species has been regionally assessed, in China, as Vulnerable under criteria D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15047	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona muliensis</em> is endemic to China and known only from western Sichuan, China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occupies elevations up to 3,600 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15047	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species "inhabits thicket and steppe habitat" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This habitat preference differs from that of <em>O. gloveri</em>, which prefers rocky terrain (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 22.2 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15047	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been characterized as rare and has not been recorded in 40 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  There are only a small number of specimens of <em>Ochotona muliensis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15047	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It has been suggested "that chemical control directed at other vertebrate species," may be a threat to this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15048	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Nujiang and Gaoligongshan (Yunnan) Nature Reserves in China (CSIS 2008).  Due to the general lack of data regarding the population status, behavior, ecology, and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken.  This species has been regionally assessed in China as Near Threatened, nearly meeting the criteria for Vulnerable under criteria A2c+3c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15048	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona forresti</em> ranges from northwest Yunnan, southeast Tibet (China) to northern Myanmar, to Assam, and Sikkim (India) and Bhutan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The mapped range in Myanmar is totally speculative (Duckworth and Thaw pers. comm.). The distribution information in South Asia is not understood as there is taxonomic confusion (S. Molur pers. comm.)  <em>O. forresti</em> occupies elevations of 2,600-4,400 m (Feng <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
15048	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Little or nothing is known regarding the behavior, ecology, and reproduction of <em>Ochotona forresti</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>O. forresti</em> inhabits mountain slopes facing toward the sun at elevations of 2,600 to 4,400 m in the forest belt (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  These high altitude habitats are typically coniferous or mixed broadleaf and conifer forests and shrubland (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is speculated that this species of pika creates burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 15.5-18.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15048	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The current population status of <em>Ochotona forresti</em> is unknown.	eng
15048	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15049	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species likely occurs in Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve.  Little is known about the behavior, ecology, reproduction of <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990) and the actual distribution is uncertain (Smith and Xie 2008).  Research in these areas should be undertaken.  This species has been regionally assessed as  Endangered, in China, under criteria A1c; B1ab(iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15049	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> has a restricted distribution (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is only known from Mount Gaoligong, northwest Yunnan Province in China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  O. gaoligongensis is thought to be endemic to China, but may occur in Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008).  It can be found at approximately 3,000 m in elevation (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15049	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is little information regarding this species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em> occurs in talus and rocky habitat in forested areas (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The total length of this species is 16.5-17.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15049	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no conclusive data on the population status of <em>Ochotona gaoligongensis</em>.  It is speculated that it the species is rare based on preliminary investigations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15049	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15050	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for <em>Ochotona iliensis</em>.  Research is needed in the areas of ecology, reproduction, and behavior (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Furthermore, data is needed to assess the distribution and population status (Li and Smith 2005).  A recovery plan should be implemented to prevent extinction (Li and Smith 2005).  This species has been regional listed, in China, as Endangered under criteria A2abc; C2a(i) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15050	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona iliensis</em> is endemic to China, known only from the Borohoro Shan in Xinjiang, China (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species has a highly fragmented distribution, within a restricted geographic range (Li and Smith 2005).  It is found at elevations between 2,800-4,100 m (Li and Smith 2005).  Census work conducted in 2005 estimated that over the past decade the area of occupancy has declined to approximately 7% (previously 17%) of the extent of occurrence for this species (Li and Smith 2005).  <em>O. iliensis</em> is no longer found at 57% of the previously inhabited sites (Li and Smith 2005).	eng
15050	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona iliensis</em> inhabits "talus areas on high cliff faces" (Li and Smith 2005).  <em>O. iliensis</em> exhibits low population densities (Li and Smith 2005).  Typically a diurnal species, but may exhibit nocturnal activity (Li and Smith 2005).  This species constructs haypiles and is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Li and Smith 2005).  Only one to two litters are produced each year, but litter size for this species is unknown (Li and Smith 2005).  The total length of <em>O. iliensis</em> is 20.3-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15050	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Population declines have been observed for several locations inhabited by this species (Li and Smith 2005).  A recent census indicated that <em>Ochotona iliensis</em> may be extirpated from Jilimalale and Hutubi South Mountains (Li and Smith 2005).  Populations have declined in the regions of Jipuk, Tianger Apex, and Telimani Daban (Li and Smith 2005).  Only one examined site, the Bayingou region, showed signs of previously observed abundance (Li and Smith 2005).  An estimated 2,000 mature individuals existed in the early 1990's (Li and Smith 2005).	eng
15050	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The exact causes for recently observed population declines are not known, but it is speculated that an increase in grazing pressure and global atmospheric pollution resulting in climate change are negatively impacting <em>Ochotona iliensis</em> populations (Li and Smith 2005).  Low population densities and reproductive rates coupled with the relatively limited ability to disperse impede the ability of the species to recover from declines (Li and Smith 2005).	eng
15051	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	This species may be present in Changthang and Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuaries in India (Mallon 1991).  No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>Ochotona nubrica</em> and none have been proposed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15051	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	<em>Ochotona nubrica</em> occurs in the trans-Himalayan region from the mountains in south Xizang, China, across the Tibetan plateau and into Ladakh, India (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. nubrica</em> occurs at elevations between approximately 3,000 to 4,500 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15051	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	<em>Ochotona nubrica</em> inhabits alpine and subalpine desert scrub, where it is assumed to be burrowing, rather than talus-dwelling (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008). The subspecies <em>O. n. lhasaensis</em> occurs in alpine steppe (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/><em>O. nubrica</em> forms well defined family group territories, but little is known about reproductive biology (Smith and Xie 2008). The total length of this species is 14.0-18.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is characterized as a habitat generalist (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15051	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	There are few data regarding the population status of this species.  In Nubra Valley, the type locality, it was characterized as common by locals during a survey conducted in 1980-1986 and again in 1989-1991 (Mallon 1991).	eng
15051	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	There are no threats to the status of <em>Ochotona nubrica</em> known at this time.	eng
15052	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  The subspecies <em>Ochotona pusilla pusilla</em> has been characterized as rare by the Red Book of the Bashkir Autonomous Republic, Soviet Union (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Research should be conducted to determine the current status of the European populations of this subspecies.	eng
15052	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a widespread species.  <em>Ochotona pusilla</em> is known "from the upper Volga River and southern Ural Mountains south and east to the border of China," Kazakhstan, and Russia (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The westernmost extent of <em>O. pusilla</em> is the easternmost edge of the European continent (Smith 1994).  Despite its presence in Europe, it is routinely left off European mammal lists (Smith 1994).  However, "the range of this species has contracted significantly in historical times" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The past distribution extended into western Europe during the Pleistocene, with a new specimen record extending its northern-most presence to Cumbria county in the UK (Fisher and Yalden 2004).  By the onset of the Holocene, <em>O. pusilla</em> still occurred in Hungary.  This distribution moved eastward, so that by the 10th century it occurred in the Ukraine and by the 18th century it could be found “between the Don and the Volga” and finally, “only east of the Volga” by the 19th century (Smith 1994).  The cause for distribution contraction has been two-fold; 1) naturally occurring climate change from the Pleistocene to Holocene; and 2) anthropogenic changes like overgrazing and agriculture (Smith 1994).	eng
15052	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona pusilla</em> is a burrow-dwelling species of pika that occupies steppe habitat, "found primarily in moist soil which is verdant with thick grass and bushes" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  As a steppe dwelling species, <em>O. pusilla</em> is an excellent indicator for the general health of steppe ecosystems (Smith 1994).  This species of pika constructs haypiles (Ognev 1966).  It is unusual "in that it is frequently nocturnal" and "vocalizations are usually heard at late dusk and through the night" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The total length of this species is 15.3-21.0 cm (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  <em>O. pusilla</em> has one to thirteen young per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The number of litters per year varies according to the age of the female (Shubin 1965).  Adult pikas can yield three to five litters per year, whereas yearlings only produce one to three litters (Shubin 1965; Smirnov 1982).  Females will mature in four to five weeks, whereas males become mature after a year (Shubin 1965).  The reproductive periodicity will vary yearly according the weather conditions (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Gestation is approximately 22-24 days (Shubin 1965).	eng
15052	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Population densities of <em>Ochotona pusilla</em> vary spatially and temporally and may vary according to habitat quality (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Populations were described as "common" to "very numerous" for several regions within its distribution (Ognev 1966).  The Red Book of the Bashkir Autonomous Republic, Soviet Union characterized some of the European populations of <em>O. p. pusilla</em> as "rare" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15052	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat modification is the likely cause for the recorded distribution decline (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The species at one time extended west across the European steppes, and it may have been extirpated from this region due to agricultural intensification.	eng
15053	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	No conservation measures are in place to protect <em>Ochotona thomasi</em>. Research is needed to determine the effects of pest control on the pikas, to establish whether any other threats exist, and to determine current population statuses.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A2c+3c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
15053	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> is endemic to China, occurring on isolated mountains of the east Qilian mountain range in Gansu, Qinghai, and northwest Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/><em>O. thomasi</em> occurs between elevations of 3,400 and 4,020 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15053	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> inhabits meadows and shrubby areas, and is a diurnally active, generalized herbivore (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>The ecology of <em>O. thomasi</em> is not well known, but it is assumed to be similar to <em>O. cansus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). <em>O. thomasi</em> may live in small family groups (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 10.5 and 16.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15053	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thomasi</em> is known to be a rare species that occurs in isolated mountains, but nothing is known about the status of those populations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15053	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Because <em>Ochotona thomasi</em> has not been well studied, little is known about the possible threats to its habitat and populations. It is possible that the species may be at risk due to the inadvertent killing of <em>O. thomasi</em> in an attempt to control other pest species that occur in its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15062	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona huangensis</em> is a relatively, poorly understood species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  Research in the areas of population status, ecology, reproduction and biology are needed.  This species was assessed as <em>Ochotona thibetana huangensis</em> by the IUCN SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group in 1996, as  Endangered under criteria A2d (ver. 2.3 1994).  The China regional assessment currently lists this species as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  This species occurs in Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Foping, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
15062	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic range of <em>Ochotona huangensis</em> consists of the mountainous regions of Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005), Shanxi, Henan, and Hubei provinces (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. huangensis</em> is sympatric with <em>O. thibetana</em> in Qinling Mountains and northwestern Sichuan, and <em>O. cansus</em> in Xunhua, Qinghai, and southern Gansu (Yu and Zheng 1992).  This species occupies elevations up to 2,700 m, but may be found at heights of 4,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15062	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona huangensis</em> occupies several habitat types.  These include mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, to coniferous forests and shrublands, and periodically this species can be located in grassland habitat (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species of pika builds complex burrow systems and is a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 12.5-17.6 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
15062	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is no information regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona huangensis</em>.	eng
15062	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to <em>Ochotona huangensis</em> are not known, although it could be subject to poisoning like other burrowing pikas in China.	eng
15087	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It occurs within Noel Kampf and very few protected areas throughout its range. It is listed as Vulnerable for Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006) even though it is considered a pest in some commercial forests (Rodriguez, 1993).	eng
15087	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Chilean Andes and into Argentina from 34o15’ to at least 40oS (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). It occurs south up to 38oS (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.)	eng
15087	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Scansorial, it occurs in bush, scrublands and rocky areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15087	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There has been a population decline in the last years.	eng
15087	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The habitat shows a high rate of deforestation by forestry and agricultural activities. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red List  but is considered a pest in some commercial forests (Rodriguez, 1993). The reliance of this species on disappearing dense woodlands is implied by its extinctions from several localities in central Chile since pre-Colombian times (Simonetti and Saavedra, 1998).	eng
15088	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place to protect this rodent.	eng
15088	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in Chile, on the western slope of the Andes between Vallenar and Curico, to 1,200 m asl. (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
15088	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Coastal and central scrubland (matorralo) (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15088	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This is an abundant species (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15088	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There are no major threats for this species at present.	eng
15089	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2009	It does not occur within protected areas.	eng
15089	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2009	This species occurs in Chile in the coastal mountains of Valparaiso, Aconcagua, and Coquimbo Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
15089	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2009	This species inhabits rocky and dense coastal scrublands (R. Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15089	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2009	It is thought that there has been a population decline in the last 10 years.	eng
15089	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2009	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion and livestock grazing. Urban expansion is also a threat for the species (R. Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15090	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Research is needed to Further trapping efforts should directed to mountain tops.	eng
15090	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs on Mocha Island off the coast of central Chile in Arauca province (Wilson and Reeder, 2005). Although a recently described species, the first collection of it was made in 1959 (Saavedra <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
15090	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The island supports dense vegetation that is biogeographically related to mainland Valadivian forest. It occupies only a few square kilometers of forest habitat.	eng
15090	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species has not be trapped since Hutterer (1994) despite several attempts (Saavedra <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is thought that the population is now extremely small.	eng
15090	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The islanders rely heavily on the vegetation for their subsistence which has led to significant degradation of the natural habitats. Human activity has resulted in the almost total deforestation of lowlands which are now dominated by grasslands. The Valdivian forest is now restricted to the highest elevations and subject to logging.	eng
15091	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is found in some protected areas.	eng
15091	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of northern Chile, through east-central and southeast Bolivia, and northwest Argentina. The species may be absent from some higher elevation areas in the middle of the range. It is found from 2,000 and 5,000 m asl.	eng
15091	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is found in xeric conditions, such as Puna, including a wide variety of habitats with appropriate rocky hiding places. It is scansorial, makes superficial burrows and feeds on cacti, (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15091	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is very common in appropriate habitat.	eng
15091	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species and it can tolerate living in areas of high human population.	eng
15093	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It occurs within very few protected areas.	eng
15093	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina (between 28° and 32°S (Ojeda pers. comm.)) along the foothills and lower montane slopes of the Andes, and portions of the Monte Desert of Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, and northern Mendoza Provinces (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found in two disjunct areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15093	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It is associated with rocky areas (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
15093	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
15093	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to mining and cattle ranching (Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
15106	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Coastal Alaska Natives have hunted walruses for subsistence purposes in the United States under an exemption from the Marine Mammal Protection Act since 1972.  No quotas or limits have been established, but all animals taken are required to be harvested in a non-wasteful manner. Quotas on harvest have been imposed in Canada and in the Russian Federation. Walrus hunting in east Greenland has been banned and is regulated in other areas of Greenland. In the Laptev Sea, only natives and members of scientific expeditions are allowed to kill walruses (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
15106	conservation	Lowry, L., Kovacs, K. & Burkanov, V., 2008	The population of Canada is listed on CITES Appendix III. Since 1972 coastal Alaska Natives have hunted Walruses in the United States for subsistence purposes under an exemption provided in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. No quotas or limits have been established, but all animals taken are required to be harvested in a non-wasteful manner. Alaska Natives work with the responsible management agency (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) to co-manage Walrus hunting. Regulations on harvest are in place in Canada, the Russian Federation, and Greenland. Norway prohibits all hunting at Svalbard (North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated).	eng
15106	distribution	Lowry, L., Kovacs, K. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Walruses have a discontinuous circumpolar Arctic and sub-Arctic distribution (Fay 1981, Rice 1998). The Pacific subspecies is normally found from the Bering and Chukchi Seas to the Laptev Sea in the west and the western Beaufort Sea in the east, with vagrants south into the North Pacific Ocean to Japan and to southcentral Alaska (Fay 1982). The Atlantic subspecies occurs in numerous subpopulations from the eastern Canadian Arctic and Greenland to the western Kara Sea, including the Barents, White and Pechora Seas, and Svalbard and Franz Josef Land (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission, undated). Historically, Atlantic walruses occurred south to the Gulf of St Lawrence in the northwestern North Atlantic. Vagrants have been reported from New England, Iceland and in western Europe south to the Bay of Biscay. All subspecies of Walruses are found in relatively shallow continental shelf areas and seldom occur in deeper waters.	eng
15106	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Walruses have a discontinuous circumpolar Arctic and sub-Arctic distribution. The Pacific subspecies is found in the Bering and Chukchi Seas to the East Siberian Sea in the west and the western Beaufort Sea in the east. The Atlantic subspecies occurs in numerous subpopulations from the Eastern Canadian Arctic to the western Kara Sea, including the Barents and White Seas, and Svalbard and Franz Josef Land. Vagrants have been reported from Iceland, and from Norway south to the Bay of Biscay. The Laptev walrus is confined to the Laptev Sea north of central Russia.  All three subspecies of walruses are found in relatively shallow continental shelf areas, and rarely occur in deeper waters (Scheffer 1958, Fay 1982, Rice 1998, Kastelein 2002).	eng
15106	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Walruses are highly gregarious animals and are frequently found in close knit groups that regularly number in the tens to many hundreds, and aggregations of animals including many groups of these sizes can number in the low thousands.  Walruses also haul out on ice floes and beaches on islands or remote stretches of mainland coastlines forming dense groups of animals lying pressed together and on top of one another. At sea, walruses can be found alone or in large aggregations.<br/><br/>Courtship and mating occurs in the winter. It is believed that walruses are polygynous, the males forming a type of lek, or establishing small aquatic territories where they vigorously vocalize and display adjacent to females hauled-out on ice floes. Males have an unusual adaptation for producing bell-like sounds underwater. A pair of elastic pharyngeal pouches in the neck can be inflated with air to serve as resonance chambers that make this unique sound. There is also intense male-male fighting at this time. Tusks are used for interspecific aggression, defense against predators, which include polar bears and killer whales, and for aids in hauling-out on ice, but not for digging up food. <br/><br/>Walruses are one of the largest pinnipeds.  Males reach about 3.6 m and 880-1560 kg, females about 3 m and 580-1039 kg.  Newborns are 1-1.4 m and weigh 33-85 kg. Although females can ovulate at four years of age, the majority do not give birth until they are 7-8 years old and usually only produce one calf every three years. Gestation lasts 15 months, including a delay of implantation time of 3-3.5 months. The period of calf dependency is long, regularly taking two years, and can extend longer if a female does not give birth every three years. Males become sexually mature between 7-10 years old, but are not physically and socially mature enough to successfully compete for breeding opportunities until they are approximately 15 years old. Longevity is approximately 40 years (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>Walruses are primarily bottom feeders and shallow divers. Most prey taken is found in the upper few centimeters of sediment, or on or just above the bottom. A wide variety of benthic invertebrates, with several species of clams, make up the majority of food for most animals. Their diet also includes other species of mollusks, and many species of worms, snails, soft shell crabs, amphipods, shrimp, sea cucumbers, tunicates, and slow-moving fish. Some individuals regularly prey on seals, small whales, and seabirds, and occasionally scavenge marine mammal carcasses (Fay 1982).	eng
15106	habitat	Lowry, L., Kovacs, K. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Walruses are one of the largest pinnipeds. In the Pacific, males reach about 3.6 m in length and weigh 880-1,557 kg; adult females are about 3 m and 580-1,039 kg. In the Atlantic adults are slightly shorter and lighter. Newborns are 1-1.4 m and weigh 33-85 kg (Fay 1981). Walrus are characterized by their large tusks, which are well-developed in both males and females. Tusks are used for interspecific aggression, defense against predators (Polar Bears and Killer Whales) and as an aid for hauling-out on ice. <br/><br/>Courtship and mating occur in the winter. It is believed that Walruses are polygynous and that the males establish small aquatic territories where they vigorously vocalize and display adjacent to females hauled-out on ice floes (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>Walruses haul out on ice floes and beaches on islands or remote stretches of mainland coastlines. They are very gregarious animals and are frequently found in tight groups that number from the tens to the thousands. Pacific Walruses spend most of their lives associated with sea ice and migrate with the ice as it expands and moves south in the winter and breaks up and retreats in the spring and summer. Males often separate from the females in late spring and during the summer they use land haulouts some distance from sea ice, while the females, their calves, and most of the juveniles follow the retreating sea ice edge north (Fay 1982). The situation is somewhat different for Atlantic Walrus, with animals of all sex/age categories using terrestrial haulouts during summer months (Born 2005). At sea, Walruses can be found alone or in aggregations.<br/><br/>Walruses are primarily bottom feeders and shallow divers (Fay 1982, Born 2005). Most prey taken is found in the upper few centimeters of sediment, or lives on or just above the bottom. A wide variety of benthic invertebrates, with several species of clams, make up the majority of food for most animals. Their diet also includes other species of molluscs, and many species of worms, snails, soft shell crabs, amphipods, shrimp, sea cucumbers, tunicates, and slow-moving fish. Some individuals prey on seals, small whales and seabirds and may occasionally scavenge marine mammal carcasses.	eng
15106	population	Lowry, L., Kovacs, K. & Burkanov, V., 2008	The Pacific Walrus population recovered from a depleted state in 1950 to historical high levels in the 1980s (Fay <em>et al</em>. 1997). The Bering-Chukchi segment of the population was estimated at approximately 230,000 in 1985 (Gilbert 1989) and 201,000 in 1990 (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 1992). However, characteristics of Walrus behaviour and difficulties associated with conducting surveys resulted in estimates with low precision (Gilbert 1999). The current population size in the Bering-Chukchi region is unknown (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2002). The number of Pacific Walrus in the Laptev Sea region was estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals according to a report cited in Fay (1982), but the current abundance in that region is also unknown.<br/><br/>Changes in the abundance of Atlantic Walrus in various regions during the past 45 years are unclear (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated). Modelling indicates that the Walrus populations in West Greenland and the North Water have been in steady decline, while the population in East Greenland has been increasing (Witting and Born 2005). Walrus numbers at Svalbard have increased slowly during 1993-2006 (Lydersen <em>et al</em>. 2008). The current total abundance of Atlantic Walrus is very poorly known, but the most recent information suggests a population size of perhaps 18,000-20,000 (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006, North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission undated). The current global population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>Although female Walrus can ovulate at four years of age, the majority do not give birth until they are 7-8 years old and usually only produce one calf every three years. Gestation lasts 15 months, including a delay of implantation time of 3-3.5 months. The period of calf dependency is long, regularly lasting two years and sometimes longer. Males become sexually mature between 7-10 years old, but are not physically and socially mature enough to successfully compete for breeding opportunities until they are approximately 15 years old. Longevity is approximately 40 years (Fay 1981).<br/><br/>The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (2006) gives the generation time for Atlantic Walrus, calculated as the average of ages of the youngest and oldest animal giving birth, as 21 years. However, because young animals are more common in the population and older females may exhibit reproductive senility this does not correspond to the IUCN definition. The average age of female Pacific walrus in the Alaska Native harvest is approximately 15 years (Garlich-Miller <em>et al</em>. 2006), which provides a more reasonable estimate of the generation time.	eng
15106	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The Pacific walrus population recovered from a depleted state in 1950 to historical high levels in the 1980s (Fay <em>et al.</em> 1997). The population was estimated at over 230,000 in 1985 (Gilbert 1989), and 201,000 in 1990 (Gilbert <em>et al.</em> 1992). However, difficulties with associated with conducting these surveys greatly reduced the precision of these estimates (Gilbert 1999). The current population level is unknown (Angliss and Lodge 2004). The Atlantic walrus has been extirpated from some areas but estimates are that between 10,000 and 19,000 animals occur from the eastern Canadian Arctic to the Kara Sea (Born <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kastelein 2002). The Laptev population was estimated at 4,000-5,000 animals according to a report cited in Fay (1982), and the current status is unknown. The walrus is a vagrant in the marine region covered by the European Mammal Assessment.	eng
15106	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	All three walrus populations were severely depleted by episodic commercial hunting that was heaviest from the 18th  through the mid-20th centuries. Native people of the Arctic have depended on walruses for food, hides, ivory, and bones since first contact, and subsistence harvests of all three subspecies continue today in most parts of their ranges. <br/><br/>Direct conflicts with fisheries are low; however trawl fisheries can disturb important benthic feeding area (Born 2003).  Human disturbance at land-based haul-out sites, low-level aircraft over-flights, and near-shore passage of vessels can have serious effects on walruses out of the water, as they are highly susceptible to disturbance, and easily panicked into stampedes. Fay and Kelly (1980) documented an instance of a mass mortality of approximately 1,000 animals from a stampede event at Saint Lawrence Island. The cause of the stampede is unknown; however this mass mortality event underscores the risks of any source of disturbance to aggregations of hauled-out walruses.    <br/><br/>Global warming and any associated reduction in the extent, timing, and characteristics of seasonal sea ice cover could negatively effect walrus populations. Declining sea ice reduces suitable strata for pupping and breeding aggregation, and limits access to offshore feeding areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Moore 2005). In contrast Stirling and Derocher (1993) suggest that climatic warming could result in more favorable conditions for bearded, harp, and harbor seals and walruses if it causes sea ice to become less consolidated in winter, and the summer open water period to lengthen. <br/><br/>Reduction in sea ice could also lead to the addition of commercial sea lanes in rarely visited portions of the walruses’ range, with increased risk of spills and discharge of pollutants, disturbance, and coastal development (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993, Tynan and Demaster 1997, Moore 2005).	eng
15106	threats	Lowry, L., Kovacs, K. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Native people of the Arctic have depended on Walruses for food, hides, ivory and bones since first contact, and subsistence harvests of both subspecies continue today in most parts of their ranges. All Walrus populations were severely depleted by episodic commercial hunting that was heaviest from the 18th through to the mid-20th centuries.<br/><br/>Direct conflicts with fisheries are uncommon (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2002); however, trawl fisheries could disturb important benthic feeding areas (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 2006). Human disturbance at land-based haul-out sites, low-level aircraft over-flights and near-shore passage of vessels can have serious effects on Walruses out of the water, as they are highly susceptible to disturbance and easily panicked into stampedes (Fay and Kelly 1980).<br/><br/>Global warming and any associated reduction in the extent, timing, and characteristics of seasonal sea ice cover could negatively affect Walruses, especially the Pacific population. Declining sea ice reduces suitable strata for pupping and breeding aggregation and limits access to offshore feeding areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Moore 2005, Laidre <em>et al</em>. in press). In the Atlantic where the use of coastal haulouts is more widespread, reduced sea ice cover could increase feeding opportunities for Walruses (Born 2005).<br/><br/>Reduction in sea ice could also lead to the addition of commercial sea lanes in currently rarely visited portions of the Walruses’ range, with increased risk of spills and discharge of pollutants, disturbance and coastal development (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Tynan and Demaster 1997, Moore 2005). A history of poor international cooperation, crude population monitoring methods and delayed management responses has led to speculation that future management actions in response to population declines of Pacific Walruses may not be taken soon enough to be effective (Fay <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
15117	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from a pool near Lake Chau in Uruguay, now also known from ponds in Venezuela, and may be more widespread.	eng
15131	conservation	Pino, J., Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Costa, L. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. Needs taxonomic revision.	eng
15131	distribution	Pino, J., Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Costa, L. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs from eastern Panamá to western Colombia and Ecuador; Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Guyana, north and central Brazil; Amazonian drainage of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia (Musser and Carleton 2005). Below 700 m in Panama.	eng
15131	habitat	Pino, J., Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Costa, L. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rodent tolerates dry and deciduous forest and tropical evergreen forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>The species is arboreal. Its mean litter size is 4.5 young; the species becomes sexually mature at about three months (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
15131	population	Pino, J., Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Costa, L. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is uncommon (Patton <em>et al. </em> 2000).	eng
15131	threats	Pino, J., Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Costa, L. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15132	conservation	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	There is no information on conservation measures.	eng
15132	distribution	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Federal District, Universidade de Brasília, Fazenda Agua Limpa; Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 1993).	eng
15132	habitat	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	The species occurs in gallery forest.	eng
15132	population	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	The information about its population is unknown.	eng
15132	threats	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	The main threat is habitat destruction.	eng
15133	conservation	Costa, L., Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Langguth, A., Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This rodent is found in several protected areas.	eng
15133	distribution	Costa, L., Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Langguth, A., Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in Venezuela (see Linares 1998), western Guyana, north-west Brazil, eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and north-east Bolivia (Anderson 1997). However, range limits are poorly documented (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15133	habitat	Costa, L., Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Langguth, A., Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in tropical evergreen forests.	eng
15133	population	Costa, L., Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Langguth, A., Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
15133	threats	Costa, L., Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Langguth, A., Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15134	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The species probably occurs in several protected areas in Venezuela.	eng
15134	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in lowland Coastal Range and slopes of Cordillera de Mérida of north and west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998), west to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of northeast Colombia, perhaps including the slopes of Cordillera Oriental (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 1,800 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).	eng
15134	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is nocturnal, arboreal and occurs in tropical and subtropical rainforest and dry forest. This rodent eats on seeds and green fruits (Linares, 1998).	eng
15134	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It may be rare but is widespread in many localities (Linares, 1998).	eng
15134	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15135	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It is present in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15135	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is widespread through much of Bolivia, northern Paraguay, and west central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range up 200 to 2,100 m.	eng
15135	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This mouse is arboreal, solitary and has nocturnal activity. It is found in mature and secondary rainforest, dry forest, savanna, scrub, gardens and plantations. It feeds on fruit and green seeds and uses all levels of the forest, including occasionally the ground. It is most numerous in dense viny vegetation. It nests in tree holes, in dense masses of vines or epiphytes, and among palm leaves. It often invades houses in the forest and seems particularly fond of thatched roofs (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
15135	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It is often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
15135	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Pardinas, U., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15136	conservation	Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M., Costa, L. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This rodent is not known from any protected areas but it may occur in several throughout its range.	eng
15136	distribution	Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M., Costa, L. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in central Brazil south of the Amazon River; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15136	habitat	Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M., Costa, L. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in tropical rainforest.	eng
15136	population	Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M., Costa, L. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is known from several localities; it apparently is not very rare (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
15136	threats	Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M., Costa, L. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	The major threat is deforestation by agricultural expansion.	eng
15137	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Solari, S., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Manu National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
15137	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Solari, S., 2008	This species occurs in the east slopes of Peruvian Andes; its limits are unresolved (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,000 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
15137	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Solari, S., 2008	The species is found in lower montane forest, and has only been recorded from primary forest on the eastern Andean slopes. It is nocturnal. It has been sometimes recorded in human dwellings adjacent to forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
15137	population	Pacheco, V. & Solari, S., 2008	The species is rare, perhaps due to its arboreal habits (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
15137	threats	Pacheco, V. & Solari, S., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15138	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in at least Nouragues and Saul nature reserves in French Guiana (Catzeflis pers. comm.). Other protected areas exist within its range.	eng
15138	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species range extends from eastern Venezuela (Bolívar State; see Linares, 1998), across the Guianas (not yet collected from Suriname) to extreme northeastern Brazil, north of the Amazon (Amapá and Amazonas States) (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15138	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent occurs in secondary forest and gardens.	eng
15138	population	Catzeflis, F. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species can be common locally in secondary degraded forests.	eng
15138	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15139	conservation	Costa, L., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15139	distribution	Costa, L., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species broadly distributed in Amazonian from occurs from southern Venezuela, Guianas, and Amazonian region of western Brazil, eastern Peru, and extreme north Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15139	habitat	Costa, L., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	During a study along the Rio Jurua River the species was found primarily in varzea forest (88%), two specimens were found in edge of igapo forest and two in highly disturbed second growth edges to seasonally flooded forest habitats.	eng
15139	population	Costa, L., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is apparently relatively common. Patton <em>et al.</em> (2000) caught 50 individuals in a survey in Jurua forest, Brazil.	eng
15139	threats	Costa, L., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15140	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15140	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in extreme east Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana to Amazonas, Brazil (see Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
15140	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest (terra firme and swampy lowland tropical forest). It has been caught in Pit-fall and Arboreal traps (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
15140	population	Catzeflis, F. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent can be fairly common in primary forest (Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
15140	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15141	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Woodman, N. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
15141	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Woodman, N. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in the savannas of northeast Colombia, central and north Venezuela, and Trinidad (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Venezuela, it is found in the north from Zulia and Falcon to the peninsula Paria and Delta Amacuro, and also along the banks of the Orinoco River from Apure to Delta Amacuro (Lord 1999).	eng
15141	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Woodman, N. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in tropical rainforest as well as dry forest; it is found mostly in secondary forest, gallery and inundated palm forest and disturbed areas (Linares 1998). In Colombia it occurs in the savannas (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It is semi arboreal, omnivorous and nocturnal.	eng
15141	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Woodman, N. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is locally common in Venezuela although it is difficult trap. The population status in Colombia is not known.	eng
15141	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Woodman, N. & Emmons, L., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15142	conservation	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15142	distribution	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs on the lower Andean slopes of east Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru, including contiguous lowlands of west Amazonia (see Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species has not been recorded from Bolivia, though it could occur there. The distribution is poorly known.	eng
15142	habitat	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This mouse is arboreal and nocturnal. The species has been found in secondary forest and highly disturbed habitats, including old garden plots and riverine shrubs (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
15142	population	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species is uncommon or rare, but there are sampling issues due to its arboreal habits. There are not many known localities.	eng
15142	threats	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15143	conservation	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range. This species needs further taxonomic research.	eng
15143	distribution	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in tropical rainforests from south-western Costa Rica to central Brazil, including Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago; east Andean slopes of west-central Colombia to south-central Peru and into Bolivia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15143	habitat	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This arboreal species is present in tropical rainforests (Musser and Carleton 2005), including terra firme and varzea forest (Eisenberg and Redford 1999). Its nests are located near the ground (Hershkovitz 1960) and its litter size ranges from two to four young.	eng
15143	population	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rodent apparently is uncommon, but widely distributed in Rio Jurua (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Central America it is uncommon (Reid 1997), and in Venezuela it is rare (Lord 1999).	eng
15143	threats	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats known.	eng
15164	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
15164	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This sub-Saharan African species is widespread from Nigeria in the west to Kenya in the east, and southwards to Angola, and possibly Zambia. It is found at around 2,000 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
15164	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is found in tall, moist and dense grasslands, shrubby vegetation at the edge of gallery forest in forest clearings, along the borders of marshes and in farmlands, plantations and previously cultivated areas. In East Africa and Central Africa, it is found at the edge of montane forests in dense vegetation.	eng
15164	population	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	The species lives at very variable population densities, with no clear pattern of abundance.	eng
15164	threats	Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15165	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
15165	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is endemic to the western parts of the rainforest zone in West Africa. It has been recorded from the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone eastwards to southeastern Guinea (including Mount Nimba), Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and central Ghana.	eng
15165	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is a good climber and is found in open areas with dense overgrowth and grass in the rainforest. It has also been recorded from cultivated areas bordering rainforest (Guinea).	eng
15165	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is considered to be a rare species. It is known only from a few localities in each of the countries where it has been recorded.	eng
15165	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15184	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galápagos islands. Research should be conducted to determine where suitable caves are located within this species' distribution and whether this species is found within those caves. Genetic assessments should also be conducted to determine relationships between populations among different cave systems on the same island and potentially between islands.	eng
15184	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is only known from four brackish caves on Santa Cruz Island of the Galápagos.	eng
15184	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits rocky caves in fresh and brackish waters. This unique habitat type is found as small, isolated patches scattered throughout the islands.  It is found from 0.5-5 m but may be found as deep as 10 m. It is viviparous (Møller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found in groups of 4-20 individuals.	eng
15184	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
15184	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	The presence of freshwater intrusion in brackish caves in active volcanic areas is likely to be ephemeral, however, rainfall varies greatly over the ENSO cycle (increases dramatically during ENSO events). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes including changes in freshwater regime, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
15187	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Seddon, M., 2009	This species is believed to have become extinct prior to 1983 and as such there are no conservation actions possible.	eng
15187	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Seddon, M., 2009	Endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Bank <em>et al., </em>Fauna European 2006) where it was only known from the upper part of River Drim, however it has not been seen since before 1983 (Radoman 1985).	eng
15187	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Seddon, M., 2009	This species was originally thought to be living in sediments within springs feeding the River Drim.	eng
15187	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Seddon, M., 2009	This species was only known by dead shells.	eng
15187	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Seddon, M., 2009	After a great drainage of the Drim River, surveys could not find this species anymore (Radoman 1985).	eng
15188	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Okapi is a totally protected species under Congolese law and the species is a national symbol, appearing on the insignia of the Congolese National Parks Institute, ICCN (Hart in press).<br/><br/>The Okapi Faunal Reserve and Maiko National Park continue to support significant populations, with the Okapi being widespread and common within Okapi Faunal Reserve in central lturi, and the Okapi has become the flagship species for the conservation of the lturi ecosystem. Strengthening protection of these two protected areas is the single most important means to ensure long-term survival of Okapi (East 1999; Hart in press).<br/><br/>Since a small population of Okapi still occurs in the northern sector of the Virunga N.P., in the Congolese portion of the Semliki Forest (M. Languy, in Hart in press), reintroduction to Uganda’s now well-protected Semliki Forest National Park should be considered (East 1999).<br/><br/>A number of animals are held in captivity, both in Epulu (headquarters of the Okapi Faunal Reserve) and in international collections.	eng
15188	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Okapi is endemic to the forests of DR Congo, occurring between about 500 m and 1,500 m elevation over a fairly large range, on both sides of the Congo River. The primary strongholds of Okapi include are the Ituri / Aruwimi and adjacent Nepoko basin forests, and the forests of the upper Lindi, Maiko and Tshopo Basins; the species is also well known in the Rubi-Tele region in Bas Uele (Hart in press). <br/><br/>In Uganda, it formerly occurred in the Semliki Forest, but is not known to survive there (East 1999).	eng
15188	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Okapi is limited to closed, high canopy forests, occuring in a wide range of primary and older secondary forest types. It does not range out into gallery forests or into the forest islands on the savanna ecotone and it does not persist in the disturbed habitats surrounding larger forest settlements. Although they will use seasonally inundated areas when the substrate is still wet, they do not occur in truly inundated sites or extensive swamp forest (Hart in press). Tree fall gaps are selected foraging sites for Okapi during the early stages of regeneration (Hart and Hart 1989).	eng
15188	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Okapi density in the Okapi Faunal Reserve varied from 0.1-1.2 animals/km², with an average density of 0.45 animals/km² and a total estimated population of about 6,500 Okapi in the 13,700 km² reserve; somewhat lower densities were recorded in northern and central Maiko, where some 4,000 Okapi were estimated to occur (Hart and Hall 1996). The total global population is probably in the order of 35,000-50,000 animals (Hart in press).	eng
15188	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Given that Okapi can coexist with small-scale, low-level human occupation of the forest, but disappear in areas of active settlement or disturbance, the major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. According to Hart (in press), approximately one-third of the Okapi’s known area of occupancy is likely to be at risk by major incursions during the first quarter of this century. Areas at high risk include the south-eastern Ituri Forest, the Kisangani area, Rubi-Tele, and the western limits of the species' range in the Ebola R basin.<br/><br/>Hunting (meat and skins) is also a threat to the species, and they decline rapidly in areas where there is persistent use of cable snares. The Mbuti hunter-gatherers in the Ituri Forest hold Okapi in high esteem. While this has not prevented them from killing Okapi, it has elevated this to a special event that requires post-hunt purification (Hart in press).	eng
15189	conservation	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It occurs in two small private reserves; it is likely to occur in Chingaza National Park (C. Delgado pers. comm.). Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
15189	distribution	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in northwest Colombia; it is patchily distributed in northern part of the Central Cordillera and central part of the Eastern Cordillera (Eisenberg 1989; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005); it has an altitudinal range of 2,800 to 3,200 m asl (Delgado and Zurc 2005).	eng
15189	habitat	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in bamboo forest and occasionally in high montane forest (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It was found in the diet of the crab eating fox (Delgado, 2002).	eng
15189	population	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown (C. Delgado pers. comm.). It is difficult to capture during surveys due to the impenetrable habitat (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
15189	threats	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation within its known localized distribution (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
15190	conservation	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	O. edax occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park, and possibly others. Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
15190	distribution	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species occurs in the central part of the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. It is found at high altitude above 2,000 m asl. (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
15190	habitat	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It is known only from a single area; this species is nocturnal and arboreal. It is living in thickets of bamboo and its diet is unknown.	eng
15190	population	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	Its population is unknown; it is difficult to survey due to the impenetrable habitat in which it occurs.	eng
15190	threats	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
15239	conservation	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Whitfield, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oligolepis keiensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to monitor population trends and the status of its estuarine habitat.	eng
15239	distribution	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Whitfield, A., 2009	The Kei Goby <em>(Oligolepis keiensis</em>) occurs from Mozambique to the Sundays Estuary in the Eastern Cape (South Africa), as well as around the Seychelles and Madagascar.&#160; This species has a severely fragmented distribution (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15239	habitat	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Whitfield, A., 2009	The Kei Goby is a benthic species, most commonly found in estuaries.&#160; In the warm-temperate and subtropical regions of South Africa, this species appears to be exclusively found in estuarine environments, as there are no records from freshwater or marine systems.&#160; Its main food items include crustaceans and polychaetes.&#160; It is most abundant on sandy mud substrata in the middle and upper reaches of permanently open estuaries (salinity 5–15 psu), but may also be found in some temporarily closed estuaries (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Estuaries with a perennial river flow appear to be the favoured type (A.K. Whitfield pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15239	population	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Whitfield, A., 2009	A study by Harrison (2005) found the Kei Goby to be one of the most frequently captured species in open subtropical estuaries in South Africa.	eng
15239	threats	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Whitfield, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Kei Goby.&#160; Due to its preference for perennial river flow systems, changes to the flow regime of freshwater systems by activities such as abstraction may pose a threat to this species.&#160; It is also likely to be impacted by threats such as water pollution from industrial and domestic activities, dredging, and shipping traffic.&#160; However, these are localised threats and not known across the entire distribution of this species.	eng
15241	conservation	Weksler, M., Zeballos, H. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
15241	distribution	Weksler, M., Zeballos, H. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs in western and southern Peru and northern and central Bolivia. It is found at elevations of 1,700 to 4,000 m.	eng
15241	habitat	Weksler, M., Zeballos, H. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has been recorded from humid shrubland and cultivated areas in Peru. It can be found close to stream vegetation.	eng
15241	population	Weksler, M., Zeballos, H. & Bernal, N., 2008	The species undergoes seasonal population fluctuations.	eng
15241	threats	Weksler, M., Zeballos, H. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It can adapt to traditionally cultivated areas.	eng
15242	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in at least eight small protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
15242	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species ranges in western Peru. It is also present in the high northern Peruvian inter-Andean valleys near Chachapoyas, Amazonas Department. It has an elevational range from 400 to 2,850 m.	eng
15242	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in dry coastal and semi arid biomes, shrubland, inter-Andean valleys and inundated areas. It can be found in secondary or disturbed habitat, but it is not present in cultivated areas.	eng
15242	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is uncommon. The species has seasonal population fluctuations, influence by El Niño effect.	eng
15242	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is threatened by displacement in its habitat by introduced murids (such as <em>Rattu</em>s). There is some habitat loss in the south of the species range.	eng
15243	conservation	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Pardinas, U., Teta, P., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species probably occurs in several protected areas in Paraguay.	eng
15243	distribution	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Pardinas, U., Teta, P., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in dryer habitats of southeast Bolivia, west Paraguay, southwest Brazil, and north Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15243	habitat	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Pardinas, U., Teta, P., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in Chaco and Cerrado close to aquatic habitats (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
15243	population	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Pardinas, U., Teta, P., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15243	threats	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., Pardinas, U., Teta, P., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats in Brazil.	eng
15244	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15244	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul state) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15244	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs along small hills; reproduces between spring and mid-autumn producing 2-4 young per litter (Gonzalez 2001).	eng
15244	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
15244	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15245	conservation	Weksler, M., Tirira, D., Zeballos, H., Bernal, N., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
15245	distribution	Weksler, M., Tirira, D., Zeballos, H., Bernal, N., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs from the east Andean slopes of south Colombia, through Ecuador, Peru, and west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997), to northwest Argentina (Tucumán Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 600 to 3,350 m.	eng
15245	habitat	Weksler, M., Tirira, D., Zeballos, H., Bernal, N., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species is found in tropical, subtropical and montane forest; also it occurs close to paramo (Barnet, 1999). Most of the Bolivian records are from the Yungas Forest (Anderson 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15245	population	Weksler, M., Tirira, D., Zeballos, H., Bernal, N., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is locally common to uncommon.	eng
15245	threats	Weksler, M., Tirira, D., Zeballos, H., Bernal, N., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	Deforestation and habitat lost are affecting the species although they are not a major threat (M. Weksler and D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
15246	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
15246	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Central and Southeastern Brazil; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15246	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Known from Cerrado habitats and moist forest, usually associated with gallery forests and scrub.	eng
15246	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Little is known about populations of this species.	eng
15246	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Habitat loss is a threat across the species range, however, this is not currently a major threat.	eng
15247	conservation	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. Teta, P. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15247	distribution	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. Teta, P. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay (Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998), southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to Bahia), Uruguay, and northern to south-central Argentina; range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15247	habitat	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. Teta, P. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This nocturnal species is found in a variety of habitats usually near to water, in Uruguay it is reported from tall grasses in marshlands and in Argentina in brushy arid areas (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species occurs in scrublands and some hilly regions (Gonzalez 2001). It is adaptable to agricultural areas (at least in Argentina) (Weksler pers. comm.). It seems to be primarily herbivorous but occasionally feeds upon invertebrates.  Births from spring to autumn with 3-7 (average 5) young per litter (Gonzalez 2001). Reservoir of several hantavirus (central plata and lechiguaras) (D'Elia, G., comm. Pers.)	eng
15247	population	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. Teta, P. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species is commons in the southern distribution but less common in the north (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
15247	threats	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. Teta, P. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15248	conservation	Weksler, M., Aguilera, M. & Reid, F., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15248	distribution	Weksler, M., Aguilera, M. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in west and east versants of south México, through Central America, to Peru, north and central Venezuela, the Guianas, and northernmost Brazil in South America (Musser and Carleton 2005). Lowlands to 2,000 m but usually only to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15248	habitat	Weksler, M., Aguilera, M. & Reid, F., 2008	It is terrestrial and occurs in lowland dry forest and rainforest, in brush, tall grass, at the forest edge and open areas. It is tolerant to disturbance. Litter size is 2 to 6 young, averaging 4 (Hall and Dalquest 1963).	eng
15248	population	Weksler, M., Aguilera, M. & Reid, F., 2008	It is locally common and widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997).	eng
15248	threats	Weksler, M., Aguilera, M. & Reid, F., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15249	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Weksler, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15249	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in Táchira, Andes of extreme west Venezuela, and Cordillera Oriental of east Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15249	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is terrestrial and occurs in high montane forest and paramo (Linares 1998).	eng
15249	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is locally common (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
15249	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Weksler, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species; however, deforestation and habitat loss affect its area of occupancy.	eng
15250	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	It's found in several protected areas.	eng
15250	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in northern Chile and northwestern Argentina, southwards along the Andes to approximately to 50°S latitude; extralimital in east-central Argentina (Buenos Aires Province); range limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15250	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	Forest (subantarctic and valdivian), matorral and steppe. It is reservoir of the hanta virus.	eng
15250	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This is a abundant species.	eng
15250	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
15251	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15251	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in the southern Patagonian regions of Chile and Argentina, including Tierra del Fuego (Musser and Carleton 2005) and neighbouring islands.	eng
15251	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This species inhabits subantartic forest.	eng
15251	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
15251	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
15252	conservation	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15252	distribution	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species occurs throughout northwestern Brazil, south of the Solimoes-Amazon Rivers, and in the contiguous lowlands of Peru and Bolivia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15252	habitat	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in tropical rainforest; it is found on primary, forest edges and secondary growth habitats. Although this species is distributed widely within the Rio Juruá basin (Brazil), it has a very restricted and unique habitat range. It is thought that animals grow rapidly and reach maturity quickly, breeding in successive bouts, in the dry season. Litter sizes based on embryo counts ranged from 2 to 8, with a mode of 4.	eng
15252	population	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is extremely common in the appropriate habitat.	eng
15252	threats	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats.	eng
15253	conservation	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15253	distribution	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in east Paraguay, north Argentina, and Atlantic Forest region, central and southeast Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to Paraíba, interior to Goías and Distrito Federal; also Ilha Grande; see Andrades-Miranda <em>et al.</em>, 2001, and Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998) and Uruguay (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
15253	habitat	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This rodent is adaptable to agricultural advances Weksler and Bonvicino (2005). This is one of the least specialized species in diet and microhabitat requirements in a study of seasonal niche dynamics of coexisting rodent species of the cerrado habitat. During the dry season, the species preferred open areas with apparent soil and absent or rare herbs, shrubs and trees, the latter never more than 10%, it also occurred in grassy areas with dense, continuous herbaceous cover with up to 30% arboreal cover, or partially continuous herbaceous cover with up to 10% arboreal cover. The species is vegetarian. In Uruguay, this nocturnal, primarily herbivorous species occurs in mesic subtropical forest with closed canopy with sparsely vegetated understory and in drier thorn woodlands, where it breeds in late summer and autumn producing two to four embryos.	eng
15253	population	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is very common. For additional information see Weksler and Bonvicino (2005).	eng
15253	threats	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15254	conservation	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	The Costa Rican population are mainly found in protected areas.	eng
15254	distribution	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in central Costa Rica and western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 840 to 3,000 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15254	habitat	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is found in lower montane and montane wet forests (Musser and Carleton 2005); it occurs in second growth, brush, and cloud forest openings (Reid 1997). Found largely in edge habitat.	eng
15254	population	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This mouse is common (Reid 1997).	eng
15254	threats	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15255	conservation	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	None.	eng
15255	distribution	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen of the type locality: Lesser Antilles, Saint Vincent (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15255	habitat	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There is nothing known about this species. Bones have been present in Amerindian kitchens suggesting it may have been fairly common.	eng
15255	population	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species has not been recorded since 1892.	eng
15255	threats	Turvey, S. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Black rats, brown rats, and mongoose are present on the island and likely resulted in the extinction of the species.	eng
15259	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population and threats is needed to determine whether this species is being impacted upon by threat processes. Site management to control for invasive species is recommended.	eng
15259	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is only known to inhabit Stewart (Rakiura) Island and Codfish Island, south of the South Island, New Zealand (Patterson and Daugherty 1990). It is also known from Betsy Island in the Stewart Island archipelago (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010). It has been recorded at altitudes between sea level and 700 m (Patterson and Daugherty 1990). <br/><br/>Stewart, Codfish and Betsy Islands have areas of 1,815 km²,14 km², and 0.06 km² respectively. &#160;Therefore this species has an inferred extent of occurrence of 1,829 km².	eng
15259	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is found in sand dunes, grasslands, wetlands, scrub and rocky areas, and forest clearings (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010,&#160;D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010). The predominant habitat on Stewart Island is temperate rain forest.&#160;<br/><br/>A specimen of this species in captivity gave birth to two live young (Patterson and Daugherty 1990).	eng
15259	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	Daugherty <em>et al.</em> (1994) described this species as rare; however it is now considered one of the most common lizard species in the Stewart Island archipelago (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).	eng
15259	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	The threats to this species include predation and habitat degradation by invasive mammals. Deer and possum have been introduced to Stewart Island and have altered the vegetation structure, while introduced cats and rats may prey on the lizards. Kiore, the Pacific rat, was exterminated from Codfish Island in 1998, however, it is still present on Stewart Island (Atkinson and Towns 2001).	eng
15260	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	Population modelling has indicated a severe threat of extinction within ten years from 2003 (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>A recovery plan has been created by the New Zealand Government, which includes a series of measures to be implemented from 2006-2016 (Norbury <em>et al.</em> 2006). The top research priority is to conduct a study to determine that the skink populations are recoverable <em>in situ</em> by removing the mammalian predators. <em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation priorities include the implementation of a Captive Management Plan, the creation of a large scale fenced habitat and mammalian eradication in the ranges, and the monitoring of populations (Norbury <em>et al.</em> 2006). This management plan is now being implemented and the results of which are being continually assessed; however the species is still considered at risk of extinction (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).	eng
15260	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to New Zealand (Norbury 2001). It had been previously found throughout central Otago, South Island (Whitaker and Loh 1995), however, its range has declined dramatically over the last 100 years, and now constitutes only 10% of this former extent (Norbury 2001).<br/><br/>The current distribution includes the two widely separated areas of Macraes Flat and the Lindis Pass region, near the far east and west margins of its former distribution (Roughton and Seddon 2006). This species occurs between 200 and 1,000 m above sea level.<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is 2,227 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
15260	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is diurnal and inhabits rocky outcrops and stream canyons within the tussock grasslands of Central Otago (Towns and Daugherty 1994). <br/><br/>This species is heliothermic, and requires a long time to reach optimal temperature due to its large body size. Therefore, it only tends to bask during periods of optimal temperature (Roughton and Seddon 2006) and will retreat to the rock crevices when it becomes too hot (Patterson 1997).<br/><br/>There is evidence that this species engages in long-range movements between rock outcrops (Patterson 1997).&#160;Females are known to give birth to two to three offspring at a time (Patterson 1997).	eng
15260	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is described as rare (Norbury 2001). The population has been estimated to be around 2,000 individuals (Whitaker and Loh 1995). The larger subpopulation lives between Macraes Flat and Sutton, with the subpopulation in the Lindis Pass area being much smaller (Patterson 1997).	eng
15260	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	The 90% loss in range over the past century has been attributed to heavy predation as well as degradation of the grassland habitat by grazing and agricultural development (Norbury 2001). A change in farming practices from extensive pastoralism of native grasslands to over-sowing with exotic grasses and intensive grazing is thought to be one of the driving forces in this species decline (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This habitat modification resulted in a series of impacts, such as the removal of shrub cover around the outcrops, which had provided a food source of berries for the skinks, a reduction in cover and therefore increased vulnerability to predators, disturbance of habitat by livestock, and the removal of vegetation by rabbits (Towns and Daugherty 1994).<br/><br/>Furthermore, with the arrival of humans in the region around 150 years ago came introduced predators such as cats and ferrets (Roughton and Seddon 2006). <br/><br/>In a study on skink predation, Norbury (2001) found that the introduction of rabbits has contributed to skink population decline due to an increase in predator abundance, a decrease in refuges, and a decrease in food and shelter for the lizards. Avian and mammalian predators that are known to prey on the Macraes population of skinks include magpies, Australasian harriers, New Zealand falcon, feral cats, ferrets, stoats, weasels, ship rats, Norway rats, mice, and European hedgehogs (Tocher 2006).<br/><br/>Other contributions to the decline of this species may be poisoning from pest control efforts and habitat degradation from mining (Roughton and Seddon 2006).	eng
15263	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	The preferred management option for the next five years for this species includes the installation and maintenance of bait stations against rodents, as well as a survey of the skinks' distribution (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
15263	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to the Three Kings Islands off the north coast of New Zealand (Towns and Daugherty 1994), north-west of Cape Reinga. The Three Kings Islands is a group of ten small islands, totalling 7.1 km²<sup></sup> in area. &#160;Three Kings Islands are considered to be one location based on the threat of catastrophic climatic events and predation by invasive species able to move between all the islands (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species inhabits nine of the ten islands, namely Great Island, North East Island, West Island, Stella Rock, Hinemoa Rock, Archway Rock, Tutanekai Rock, Arbutus Rock and South West Island (Parrish and Gill 2003). <br/><br/>This species is listed as Range Restricted (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Subfossil remains from Northland, suggested by Worthy (1991) as possibly from this species, were associated by size, and were not the result of definitive identification (D. Chapple pers. comm).	eng
15263	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits forest areas, scrub and low-growing ground cover. It is found in semiarid habitats, including rocky slopes (Neilson 2002). The species has been recorded in pohutukawa forest, and in patches of pukanui-dominated low forest close to open scrub (Parrish and Gill 2003). The species was found to be scarce in kanuka forest and dense broadleaf forest (Parrish and Gill 2003). <br/><br/>This species is omnivorous and has been credited as helping to disperse the seeds of the endemic small tree <em>Alectryon excelsus grandis</em> (de Lange <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species may also feed on invertebrates and the spilled regurgitations of sea birds and will readily eat carrion (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species is diurnal for much of the year, but can at times become nocturnal (G. Parrish pers. comm., Towns <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has a mean clutch size of 4.5 eggs (Parrish and Gill 2003), and young are born in January or February (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
15263	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is described as relatively common by Neilson (2002). The species has been described as abundant on Great Island of the Three Kings Islands (de Lange <em>et al.</em> 1999), as abundant on the four largest islands of the Three Kings, as common to abundant on the Princes Islands (Parrish and Gill 2003), and as abundant throughout its range; it also still occupies its entire known historic range (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species' population is listed as Stable (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>These skinks may reach densities of 10-13 per m² (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
15263	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	The habitat on the largest of the Three Kings Islands, Great King (4.08 km²<sup></sup>), was greatly altered during Maori habitation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Goats later introduced also modified the vegetation; however, these exotics were removed in 1946. Capture frequencies are much higher in scrub than in forest, indicating that numbers may be in decline somewhat on Great King Island as the forest continues to regenerate (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At present, there are no major threats to this species; however, predation by invasive species could become a major threat in the future if any colonize the islands. Towns <em>et al.</em> (2002) describe that the primary threats to this species are catastrophic climatic events and the colonisation of the islands by introduced predators. As the Three Kings Islands are separated by less than one kilometre, introduced predators such as Norway rats could swim between the islands once established on one of them (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
15268	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>O. torobo</em> is endemic to Lake Kutubu in the Kiikori River system.	eng
15268	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is approximately 19 km long and 2-4 km wide.	eng
15268	threats	Allen, G., 1996	The lake supports six villages along its shore with a total human population estimated at 2,000-3,000 in 1996.  Gill nets and the use of outboard motors have been introduced onto the lake since the 1980s and there has been rapid development of oil drilling and logging in the area in recent years.	eng
15269	conservation	Southwell, C., 2008	Ross seals are protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and are not listed as threatened or endangered.	eng
15269	distribution	Southwell, C., 2008	Ross seals have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctic. They are usually sighted in summer in dense consolidated pack ice where they haulout to breed, moult and rest. Recent satellite tracking suggests that some Ross seals may move north to the open ocean in autumn (Nordøy and Blix 2001). Vagrants have been reported from South Sandwich, Falkland, Scott, South Orkney, Kerguelen, and Heard Islands, and South Australia (Rice 1998, Thomas 2002).	eng
15269	habitat	Southwell, C., 2008	At maturity, Ross seals are the smallest of the four Antarctic phocids. Based on a small sample of measured animals, Ross seal males reach 1.68-2.09 m in length and 129-216 kg and females are slightly larger at 1.96-2.5 m in length and 159-204 kg. It is estimated that pups are about 1 m and 16 kg at birth; eight suckling pups examined in November were109-138 cm in length and 40-75 kg. Age at sexual maturity is thought to be 3-4 years for females and 2-7 years for males (Ray 1981). Adults reach physical maturity at approximately 9 years of age and can live to at least 20 years (Skinner and Klages 1994).<br/><br/>Most pups are born in November, with a peak from early to mid-November (Southwell <em>et al.</em> 2003). Weaning takes place at about one month, although little is known of the relationship between mother and pup. Nursing pups have been seen swimming between ice floes. Mating is thought to occur in the water, but has not been observed. Ross seals are usually found singly on the ice. Moulting is believed to occur in January, at which time many Ross seals appear to fast (Skinner and Klages 1994). During summer Ross seals exhibit a diel haulout pattern with most seals hauled out on the ice at midday (Ray 1981, Bengtson and Stewart 1997, Southwell 2003). Satellite tracking suggests that some Ross seals may move north to the open ocean in autumn (Nordøy and Blix 2001).<br/><br/>Little is known about the activities of Ross seals in the water, although recent work with one female has revealed that when in the water, diving was continuous with dives averaging 110 m in depth and 6.4 minutes in duration, and were to a maximum of 212 m and up to 9.8 minutes. The seal’s dives were deepest at twilight and shallowest at night, and it hauled out during the day (Bengtson and Stewart 1997). The diet of Ross seals consists of 64% cephalopods, 22% fish, and 14% other invertebrates including some krill (Ray 1981). Skinner and Klages (1994) identified only Antarctic silverfish (<em>Pleurogramma antarcticum</em>) in 20 animals examined; no other fish were present. Several species of squid were also recorded, but many stomachs were empty when the animals were collected in January, suggesting fasting during the post-breeding moulting period.<br/><br/>Killer whales and leopard seals are presumed to be predators of the Ross seal.	eng
15269	population	Southwell, C., 2008	Ross seals typically haulout in dense consolidated pack ice over large geographic areas. Because these areas can usually only be reached by ice-breaking ships or long-range aircraft, it is difficult to estimate population size and trends with high certainty. Published global population estimates range from 20,000-50,000 (Scheffer 1958) up to 220,000 animals (Gilbert and Erickson 1977). However, early estimates were based on very limited sampling and were highly speculative. The most recent global estimate, from analysis of ship and aerial sighting surveys carried out around the Antarctic Continent between 1968 and 1983, provided a point estimate for global Ross seal population size in the pelagic pack ice of the Southern Ocean in the order of 130,000 animals (Erickson and Hanson 1990, Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). No indication of the uncertainty around this estimate was given. A more recent regional survey in the pack-ice off east Antarctica between 64-150ºE indicates that broad-scale estimates are likely to have considerable uncertainty around them. The best estimates for this regional survey were in the order of 50,000, 95% confidence limits ranged from 20 000 to 227 000 (Southwell <em>et al</em>. 2008). Given this uncertainty, only gross changes in Ross seal population size could be confidently detected from repeated surveys.	eng
15269	threats	Southwell, C., 2008	Ross seals are typically found hauled out singly in dense consolidated pack ice in very low concentrations and can usually only be reached by ice breakers. It has been estimated that as few as 200 sightings of the species were all that were known prior to 1972 (Ray 1981). Small numbers of animals have been collected for commercial purposes, scientific studies and museums, but otherwise interactions with humans have been few. When wandering outside the pack ice zone, Ross seals could come in contact with commercial fishing operations, but there are no reports of interactions to date.<br/><br/>Two of the four species of Antarctic ice seals, Leopard seals and crabeater seals, tested positive for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV). Weddell seals were tested and did not have any antibodies and Ross seals were not tested. The susceptibility of Ross seals to CDV is unknown, but it is present in the Antarctic, probably having arrived with sled dogs before the advent of vaccines. A mass mortality of crabeater seals occurred in 1955, and many animals displayed viral illness symptoms prior to death (Bengtson and Boveng 1991).<br/><br/>The effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are unknown. However, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggest that Ross seal numbers may decline with increasing temperatures if Antarctic sea ice is significantly reduced. Loss of sufficient areas of consolidated ice habitat used for pupping, resting, avoidance of predators and access to preferred foraging areas because of changes from warming could lead to population declines of Ross seals. The effects of loss of large amounts of ice on the Antarctic continent, general climate warming or sea level rises on Antarctic Ocean circulation and productivity and on Antarctic marine resources such as seals are unknown.	eng
15309	conservation	Pereira, J., Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Acosta, G. & Leite-Pitman, R., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. The species is protected by national legislation across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Paraguay, and hunting regulations in place in Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas (13 in Argentina: Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Research into its ecology, distribution, taxonomy, and threats is needed (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
15309	distribution	Pereira, J., Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Acosta, G. & Leite-Pitman, R., 2008	The pampas cat, named after Argentine grasslands, ranges throughout most of Argentina and southern Uruguay beyond into the dry forests (chaco, cerrado) of Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil, and north through the Andes mountain chain through Ecuador and possibly marginally into southwestern Colombia (Silveira 1995, Ruiz-Garcia <em>et al.</em> 2003, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Pereira <em>et al.</em> (2002) found few recent records for this species in the Argentine pampas region, however.  Most records (83.5%) are from a semi-arid climatic strip that enters northwestern Argentina as a continuation of the Andes mountains and expands further south towards the coastal areas by the Atlantic ocean.<br/><br/>In the high Andes, although it has been recorded at over 5,000 m (Nowell and Jackson 1996), most records are from lower elevations, in comparison to the similar-appearing Andean cat L. jacobita .  In northern Argentina, the mean elevation for pampas cat records was 3,567 +/- 67, as compared to 4,236 +/- 140 for the Andean cat (Perovic <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
15309	habitat	Pereira, J., Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Acosta, G. & Leite-Pitman, R., 2008	The pampas cat has a wide distribution outside the moist forests of South America, being associated only with more open habitats.  It typically inhabits dry scrub and grassland, but can also be found in dry woodland as well as swampy wetland (Silveira 1995, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Its prey includes small mammals as well as ground-dwelling birds (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In the high Andes the diet is based on mountain viscacha and small rodents (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Based on the first radio-telemetry study taking place in Brazil's Emas National Park, pampas cats are primarily diurnal wth some crepuscular and occasionally nocturnal activity.  Home ranges (90%MCP) averaged 19.47 +/- 3.64 km² (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
15309	population	Pereira, J., Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Acosta, G. & Leite-Pitman, R., 2008	Silveira <em>et al.</em> (2005) suggest that the species’ similarity to the domestic cat in Brazil is one reason for the scarcity of records in that country, as camera trapping in Emas National Park has found them to be relatively common, although this may be a localized abundance.  Average densities may range from 2-10 adults per 100 km² (T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).   In Brazil and Argentina the species is considered Vulnerable (Diaz and Ojeda 2000, Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Genetic analysis of pampas cats from the high Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina found six highly divergent groupings; subspecific partitioning is an important research need for conservation of this species.	eng
15309	threats	Pereira, J., Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T., Eizirik, E., Acosta, G. & Leite-Pitman, R., 2008	Habitat loss (to agricultural cropland) and degradation (by livestock grazing) is considered the major threat to this species throughout most of its range.   Retaliatory killing for poultry depredation is also a threat, as is hunting for traditional cultural purposes in the high Andes (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  A zone of hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colocolo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tigrinus</span> has been demonstrated by genetic analysis in central Brazil (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1999, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> 2007).  A number of deaths by road kill have been observed (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 2005, J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15310	conservation	Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T. & Acosta, G., 2008	Included in CITES Appendix I. The species is fully protected across its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
15310	distribution	Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T. & Acosta, G., 2008	The Geoffrey's cat ranges from southeastern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina east of the Andes and southern Brazil (below ca. 30oS), Uruguay all the way to the Strait of Magellan in Chile, from sea level to 3,300 m (Oliveira 1994, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006, Dotta <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
15310	habitat	Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T. & Acosta, G., 2008	Described as occurring in a wide variety of habitat types of the subtropical and temperate Neotropics, including scrubby woodland, dry forests and savannas of the Chaco, Patagonian scrub, Monte desert/semi-desert, wooded parts of the Pampas grasslands, marshlands, etc. in both pristine and disturbed areas (Oliveira 1994). It uses both open and closed habitats, but seems to be more associated with areas of denser cover in the predominately open areas of most of its range. The Geoffroy's cat is distributed throughout the pampas grasslands and arid Chaco shrub and woodlands, and up around the Salinas Grandes (alpine saline desert of north-western Argentina) to 3,300 m in the Andes (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Most of its range is arid or semi-arid (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it also occurs in wetlands (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  It is not found in either the tropical or temperate rainforests. It likely has a patchy distribution in the southern grasslands, where it is more likely to occur in forest fragments and riparian vegetation (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It is sympatric throughout its range with the pampas cat (L. colocolo).<br/><br/>In a radiotelemetry study in wet pampas grassland of Argentina, Manfredi <em>et al.</em> (2006) found mean home range size from 2.5-3.4 km², with male ranges 25%  larger than females.  In Chile's Torres del Paine National Park, in beech forest, home ranges were larger, at 2.3-6.5 km² for two females, and 10-9-12.4 km² for two males (Johnson and Franklin 1991).  In Argentina's Lihue Calel National Park, Pereira <em>et al.</em> (2006) found female home ranges of 2.5 km² during a drought period; a single female who had been radio-collared before the drought increased her home range by a factor of two, although no obvious differences in mean daily distance travelled were observed.  Six radio-collared cats died of starvation during the drought period, when hare abundance fell from 5.6  to <0.8 per 10 km.<br/><br/>Manfredi <em>et al.</em> (2004) found diet to vary by location in Argentina, consisting primarily of small rodent, but including other locally abundant species such as birds.  In Chile, rodents and hares were primarily taken (Johnson and Franklin 1991).  Plains vizcachas are also prey (Branch 1995).  In southern South America, where vizcachas have become extinct, introduced brown hares (Lepus europaeus) are the major prey, although densities of both hares and Geoffroy's cats were observed to decline markedly during a drought period (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Fish and frog remains were found in the stomachs of Geoffroy's cats from Uruguay and Brazil (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Bisceglia <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that small mammals were the most frequent prey of Geoffroy´s cats in Lihue Calel, representing at least the 63% of the food items throughout the year. <br/><br/>Geoffroy's cat is a small solitary felid (4.3 kg), with an average litter size of 1.5 kittens, and predominantly nocturnal activity pattern. It seems to be the most abundant felid of the temperate Neotropics (Oliveira and Cassaro 1995, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15310	population	Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T. & Acosta, G., 2008	Although it is considered to be relatively common, its status is not well known. Heavy commercial hunting pressure from the 1960's to the late 1980's is believed to have reduced populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species is considered Endangered in Chile where it occurs only in a small area in the south.  In Brazil and Argentina it is considered Near Threatened, although relatively common in the pampas region (J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008), while in Bolivia it is considered the second most abundant felid, after the ocelot (Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Density estimates include:<br/><br/>Brazil 10/100 km² (Oliveira <em>et al.</em> in submission)<br/>Bolivian Chaco 2-42/100 km² (Cuellar <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Argentina (Lihue Calel National Park) 3-26/100 km² (Pereira <em>et al.</em> 2006) during a drought but 139.9 +/- 35.5 per 100 km² two years later (J. Pereira pers. comm. 2008)<br/>Chile (Torres del Paine National Park) 7-12/100 km² (W. Johnson pers. comm. in Nowell and Jackson 1996)	eng
15310	threats	Lucherini, M., de Oliveira, T. & Acosta, G., 2008	Large numbers of pelts were exported from South America for the international fur trade from the 1960s to 1980s, but little trade took place after 1988 and the species was upgraded to CITES Appendix I in 1992 (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Cats are still killed as pests or livestock predators, and these pelts may be seen in local illegal trade. Currently, habitat loss and fragmentation, and retaliatory killing (poultry depredation) remains as the main threats. Further research is needed on this species to understand the impact of numerous potential threats within its range.<br/><br/>During a health evaluation of Geoffroy´s cats (Uhart <em>et al.</em> 2005) at two different protected areas in Argentina (Campos del Tuyu Wildlife Reserve and Parque Nacional Lihue Calel), antibodies to infectious peritonitis, feline panleukopenia, canine distemper virus, feline callicivirus, toxoplasmosis and dirofilariasis were found in tested animals. Adult parasites recovered from necropsied animals and eggs in fresh faeces revealed the presence of various nematode families, including Ascarididae, Trichuridae, Capillariideae, Rictulariidae, Spiruridae and Ancylostomatidae; cestodes from families Taenidae and Anaplocephaliidae and oocists of Eimeriidae (Beldomenico <em>et al.</em> 2005). These results suggest exposure (recent or past) to common domestic carnivore diseases, and indicate a potential risk to these Geoffroy´s cats´ populations.	eng
15311	conservation	Acosta, G. & Lucherini, M., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II and protected by national legislation in Argentina and Chile (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/>It is recorded in 16 protected areas in Chile, but many are too small to support viable populations (Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2003).  It is known from three national parks in Argentina: Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, and Los Alerces (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although densities may be low.  The most important conservation measure for this species is providing connectivity between native forest patches across areas currently under management as plantation forest.  It is also important, in areas such as Chiloe Island where they are considered livestock pests, to improve chicken coops and reduce conflict (J. Sanderson pers. comm.)  Further studies are required on the species ecology, demographics, natural history, and threats (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
15311	distribution	Acosta, G. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The guiña, the smallest felid in the Americas, also has the smallest distribution, being found primarily in central and southern Chile and marginally in adjoining areas of Argentina.  The guiña is the only small felid to occur over most of its range, although on the eastern limit, in Argentina, it is sympatric with the Geoffroy’s cat (Lucherini <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It is also found on the large island of Chiloe off the coast of southern Chile (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Its extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 177,000 km² (J. Schipper pers. comm. 2007), but its area of occupancy is much smaller and fragmented due to loss of its native temperate forest habitat; Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that there were 24 separate subpopulations in central Chile.	eng
15311	habitat	Acosta, G. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The species is strongly associated with the moist temperate mixed forests of the southern Andean and Coastal ranges, particularly the Valdivian and Araucaria forests of Chile, which is characterized by the presence of bamboo in the understory. It ranges up to the treeline at approximately 1,900 (Miller and Rottmann 1976) to 2,500 m. In Argentina, the species has been recorded from moist montane forest which has Valdivian characteristics, including a multi-layered structure with bamboo, and numerous lianas and epiphytes (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <em>L. guigna</em> is also relatively tolerant of altered habitats, being found in secondary forest and shrub as well as primary forest, and on the fringes of settled and cultivated areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The presence of primary forest corridors is likely an important component of their long term persistence in human dominated landscape (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002, Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> 2003, Acosta-Jamett and Simonetti 2007).<br/><br/>In southern Chile, where it is found in beech Nothofagus forest, Freer (2004) found that areas of dense shrubby understory (thicket-forest) were preferred over primary forest.<br/><br/>On Chile's Chiloe Island, in a largely agricultural landscape, Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) found home ranges of 6.5 km² and 1.2 km² for females.  Freer (2004) reported smaller home ranges (MCP95) of 1.3 km² for males and 1 km² for females from two national parks in southern Chile.<br/><br/>guiñas in southern Chile fed primarily on small mammals, especially rodents, but birds were also frequently taken.  They scavenge opportunistically on carrion (Freer 2004).	eng
15311	population	Acosta, G. & Lucherini, M., 2008	In fragmented areas in central Chile, Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated approximately 2,000 individuals in 24 subpopulations.  Of these, 22 (90%) are estimated to hold fewer than 70 individuals, and 13 (44%) less than 10.  Status in southern Chile is more secure, where human activity is less and there are several large protected areas, and Dunstone <em>et al.</em> (2002) obtained high densities of 1 adult/sub-adult guiga per square kilometer.  The population in Argentina is considered small (M. Lucherini pers. comm. 2007).	eng
15311	threats	Acosta, G. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The major threat to the guiña is logging of its temperate moist forest habitat, and the spread of pine forest plantations and agriculture, particularly in central Chile.  Acosta-Jamett <em>et al.</em> (2003) found lower densities in plantation forest, which was only used if it was close to native forest or had native forest regeneration in the understory.<br/><br/>They are also viewed negatively as a poultry depredator, with 81.4% of 43 families interviewed in a rural area of southern Chile considering it “damaging or very damaging”, although there was only a single recent report of a guiña killing 12 hens in a henhouse (Silva-Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2007).  On Chiloe Island, two out of five radio-collared cats were killed while raiding chicken coops during the first study of this species (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
15319	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Nagara River.	eng
15324	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	There are no measures currently in place to protect O. zibethicus. Common and considered "secure" (S5) or "apparently secure" (S3) throughout entire US range. One subspecies of concern: O. Z. ripensis (S2 in Texas). Status in Mexico needs to be assessed.	eng
15324	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species occurs in North America, from northern Canada and Alaska south through the United States, except the arid regions of the southwest and Texas, and the Florida peninsula. Introduced to Czech Republic in 1905 in order to establish fur farms, it is now present throughout the Palaearctic, Mongolia, China, northeast Korea, and Honshu Island, Japan. Also introduced in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15324	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Muskrats are found in brackish and fresh-water lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and marshes. Depending on the location, they will either dig burrows into waterside banks, or construct houses of vegitation. Houses are built so that the main chambers are above water level, but can only be entered through underwater tunnels. Separate structures are constructed for feeding and nesting (Feldhamer, 1999 in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Muskrats exhibit many morphological adaptations for aquatic life, including lips that close behind incisors to allow gnawing under water, partially webbed hindfeet, and the ability to stay submerged for up to 20 minutes. Muskrats are primarily herbivorous, feeding on aquatic vegiation such as cattails and horsetails. During periods of food scarcity, individuals will also consume animal matter such as mussels, turtles, mice, birds, frogs and fish (Wilner <em>et al.</em>, 1980)	eng
15324	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	The muskrat is common to abundant in suitable habitats, with average densities of 40 individuals per hectare (Feldhamer, 1999 in Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
15324	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	The majority of muskrat mortality is caused by humans. Muskrats are extensively trapped for their pelts, which are of increasing economic value around the world. High population densities of muskrats often result in destruction of local habitat, including damage to river banks caused by burrowing, and the reduction of aquatic vegetation due to over consumption for food and building materials. As a result, muskrats are often treated as a pest species and are trapped, hunted or poisoned to control population levels.	eng
15330	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	The Bridled Nailtail Wallaby is listed a threatened species under Australian law. It is currently known only from protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the 2005-2009 period (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Recommendations from the recovery plan (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005), include: managing existing bridled nailtail wallaby populations to maintain or increase current population levels; monitoring existing and future translocated populations; further translocations; maintaining captive breeding populations; and greater community and stakeholder education and involvement.	eng
15330	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	The Bridled Nailtail Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally in Taunton National Park (Scientific) near Dingo in central Queensland. Two self-sustaining translocated populations also exist: Idalia National Park (Queensland) and Avocet Nature Refuge (Queensland) (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). There are two other recently translocated populations: BHP Threatened Species Sanctuary at Western Plains Zoo (New South Wales) (not mapped) and Scotia Sanctuary (New South Wales).	eng
15330	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	This species inhabits open, edge habitats of eucalypt forest and brigalow scrub and grasses. Breeding can take place at any time of year, and in good conditions females may raise up to three young in a year (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005).	eng
15330	population	McKnight, M., 2008	This is a rare species that probably numbers less than 1,100 mature individuals in the wild. The population at Taunton is stable (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005) or increasing (Evans and Gordon 2008) since the mid 1990s when it was at its lowest point of 450 individuals. The population at Taunton had risen following the exclusion of cattle to about 1,400 in December 1991 (Davidson 1991). Then a severe drought in the early 1990s reduced the population (Clancy and Porter 1994; Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005; Evans and Gordon 2008). More recently (2002/2003) another severe drought struck, and populations may periodically fluctuate in response to rainfall, or the droughts could major mark stochastic events.<br/><br/>The population at the Idalia is about 450 individuals (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). There is no estimate for the size of the Avocet population, but it is said to be self-sustaining (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). The recovery plan considers the Western Plains Zoo and Scotia populations as “intensively managed predator-free enclosures” (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005), and these would not be considered self-sustaining in terms of the IUCN criteria.	eng
15330	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	Historically Bridled Nailtail Wallabies declined for a variety of reasons. In Queensland, competition with sheep and land clearance appear to have been the largest factors (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005; Evans and Gordon 2008). In the southern part of its range introduced rabbits might also have competed for resources (Lundie-Jenkins and Lowry 2005). Introduced predators probably had some impact on the species, but it is unclear to what degree. Foxes are capable of preying upon the species, especially the young. However, the largest declines of  Bridled Nailtail Wallabies in Queensland pre-date the arrival of foxes and foxes are not rare or absent from their current locations (Evans and Gordon 2008). Foxes may have been more of a factor in the demise of the species in New South Wales, and the role played by introduced cats, if any, is largely unknown. Current threats to species include the decline in habitat quality due to invasive weeds, introduced predators (a threat because any loss to such a small population is major), and the potential risks from severe drought, extreme fire, and disease.	eng
15331	conservation	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	None.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
15331	distribution	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	This species was endemic to western and central Australia. Aboriginal oral histories indicate that is persisted possibly into the 1950s. There is a doubtful record from the early 1960s.	eng
15331	habitat	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	It was found in stony hills, mulga country, and open woodland (Burbidge 2008).	eng
15331	population	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
15331	threats	Burbidge, A. & Johnson, K., 2008	This species was likely extirpated by predation from introduced foxes and cats. Habitat degradation, including changing fire regimes and the impact of rabbits and introduced stock, may have had an impact. In part of their range (south-western Western Australia and parts of New South Wales), pastoral expansion were likely to have been detrimental to the species.	eng
15335	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Control of pollution, gravel pitting, water harnessing and irrigation are needed.	eng
15335	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	From southwest Turkey to western Turkmenistan.	eng
15335	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Streams.	eng
15335	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	This species has been reported from 26 different streams, either in single specimens or under flourishing populations (> 1,000 exuviae).	eng
15335	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Water pollution, gravel pitting in stream major beds, stream drying due to water harnessing and irrigation, and urbanization.	eng
15336	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	The paucity of recent records suggests that the species has declined both in numbers and localities. Research on its distribution and its habitat requirements is therefore much needed.	eng
15336	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	The species has a very limited distributional area, roughly from northern Israel to Adana, Turkey (Dumont 1991, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Schneider <em>et al</em>. 1987, Suhling and Müller 1996). According to Schneider (1987), the record from Iran by Blom (1982) of <em>O. macrodon</em> refers to <em>O. forcipatus</em>. Worldwide less than 20 records of <em>O. macrodon</em> are known. Most old sites have not been researched in the last decades.	eng
15336	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	The species is found in larger lowland rivers. Details on its habitat preferences are lacking.	eng
15336	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Detailed information on abundance is lacking for all sites.	eng
15336	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Its habitat is heavily influenced by pollution, grind mining, and the creation of barrage lakes.	eng
15337	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
15337	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From south-eastern Arizona, south-central New Mexico, and west Texas (United States), south through north-central Mexico to Zacatecas and Aguascalientes (Mexico).	eng
15337	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Desert scrub and dry grassland, piedmont with gravelly or rocky substrate. Dominant vegetation includes creosote bush, tarbush, and snakeweed (Hinesley 1979). <br/><br/>This species digs burrows or uses those abandoned by other animals. Young are born in underground burrows.	eng
15337	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common.	eng
15337	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
15338	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
15338	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Widely distributed in grassland and shrub steppe habitats of western North America (Canada, United States), extending into northeast Mexico.	eng
15338	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Found in short-grass prairie, desert sagebrush, and dune habitats. Also is found in corn fields.	eng
15338	population	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	Fairly common and widespread. Little known about population dynamics, but apparently occurs at low densities. Very abundant in corn fields.	eng
15338	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	None known.	eng
15339	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
15339	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Southwestern United States and adjacent northwest Mexico; from western Nevada, southern California, and southern Arizona (United States), south to northern Baja California, Sonora, and northern Sinaloa (Mexico).	eng
15339	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in desert scrub, rocky soils, creosote, semi-desert.	eng
15339	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is fairly common throughout its range. It generally has low densities, with 1.83 individuals/ha recorded in Nevada.	eng
15339	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
15362	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Short sections of a few streams are protected by the Natchez Trace National Parkway, and the Alabama locality is in the Freedom Hills Wildlife Management Area.	eng
15362	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from 11 counties in the states of Alabama and Tennessee. The species may also occur in Kentucky.	eng
15362	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Sparse gravel pockets in fissures of a rocky stream bed (Carle 1981). Second order streams that are mostly shaded, with relatively stable substrates and riffle areas (Tennessen 1994). Probable two year life cycle.	eng
15362	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15362	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	The larval habitat, consisting of chert pebble debris in limestone bedrock streams (Donnelly pers. comm.) is very specialized.	eng
15363	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Saint Croix River, one of the important locations for <em>O. anomalus</em>, is protected in Saint Croix National Scenic Riverway in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Because of specialized habitat requirements, the species is considered rare in most states in which it occurs (US Fisheries and Wildlife Service: www.ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=I0LZ). Listed in some of them: Minnesota (S1S2), Wisconsin (Endangered). Further surveys needed all across range.	eng
15363	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.	eng
15363	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at fast-flowing, medium-sized, warm water rivers (100 to 800 ft wide) with abundant gravel and excellent water quality in heavily forested watersheds.	eng
15363	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. anomalus</em> is locally common in scattered populations across fairly wide range. Many populations are established by searching for exuviae (moulted exoskeletons), and those found in some numbers at some locations. Some gomphids have to be surveyed by larvae and/or exuviae, as adults spend much of their time in locations (e.g., high in trees or far out over large rivers) inaccessible to collectors and observers.	eng
15363	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Lowering of water quality through various types of pollution is a threat to this species.	eng
15364	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed on a European scale; the species is already protected under the EU Habitats Directive (Annex II). Local measures should be applied for those populations that are under threat.	eng
15364	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	The species is included on the Habitat Directive of the European Union and further research into population numbers and range are needed.	eng
15364	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Ophiogomphus cecilia</em> occurs from west Europe east to lake Baikal. The species is widespread in Central and northeast Europe but is scarce to moderately represented in western parts of its range. Old records from the Iberian Peninsula are recognized as incorrect (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species has declined strongly during the first three-quarters of the last century in parts of its range and became extinct in several regions. In west and south Europe it is limited to the Loire basin in France, the Po river in Italy and scattered populations in the Balkan Peninsula. Since the 1990s, the species has shown an increase in at least the Netherlands and Germany, in both countries it became rare in the last century. This increase is probably a result of an increased water quality and a more natural management of river systems.	eng
15364	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	The species is known from Europe and Western Siberia.	eng
15364	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	<em>Ophiogomphus cecilia</em> inhabits rivers and rivulets, mostly with sandy beds.	eng
15364	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The adults are found in running waters that are at least partly unshaded. It is found in rivers and brooks in the lowland with a sandy bottom. The species is largely absent from stony mountain brooks or rivers with a strong current or in muddy rivers.	eng
15364	population	Malikova, E., 2007	A lot of records from Central and Eastern Europe but it is rather uncommon in Western Siberia.	eng
15364	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is fairly common in most of its European range. The densities vary strongly from site to site but it is frequently locally abundant.	eng
15364	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no serious threats to the species in the core of its range at present. Most of the decline in the last century was probably due to water pollution and large-scale channelisation of rivers and brooks. In the south, the species is presently threatened by increased use of river water for irrigation (for example in the Po floodplain) and canalisation of water courses which causes high fluctuations of water levels and seasonal drying. In some river systems waves caused by large boats might lead to an increased mortality of emerging adults.	eng
15364	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Water pollution and water harnessing may threaten the species in future, although none are known at prestent.	eng
15365	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The Conasauga River runs through fairly rugged country in national forests in Tennessee and Georgia, so it is somewhat protected. The species is also state-listed in Georgia, and its occurrence is presently being surveyed (G. Beaton, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15365	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Ophiogomphus edmundo</em> is found in three states in the United States of America including these locations: Conasauga River in adjacent Tennessee and Georgia plus four additional localities in these two states.  It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of less than 1,000 km² (G. Beaton pers. comm. 2006).	eng
15365	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in clear, moderately flowing mountain streams.	eng
15365	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size of <em>O. edmundo</em> is probably rather small because of its limited range and habitat preference. At localities where species are known, it is presumed hundreds of larvae are present but adult population at any given time remains unknown.	eng
15365	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. edmundo</em> is currently, and will continue to be, affected by impoundments, channelization, siltation, and pollution of water.  Logging and vacation home development may both pose threats, although they do not seem to be severe in the immediate future.	eng
15366	conservation	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Occurrences protected on the St. Croix River, administered by the St. Croix International Waterway Commission, and in Baxter State Park, Maine; there are probably occurrences in other state and provincial parks.	eng
15366	distribution	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Endemic to the United States.	eng
15366	habitat	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Big, clear, strongly flowing, clean rivers with gravel/sand bottoms, rarely small rivers. The species apparently cannot breed in conditions found below dams (Dunkle 2000).	eng
15366	population	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15366	threats	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Current threats appear moderate over much of the species' northern range, but habitat threat is probably major to the south. Potential threats of habitat degradation are the impoundment of running waters by human activities such as poorly drained roads, damming, and also natural activities such as beaver damming (often a transient effect), channelization leading to scour of microhabitats, toxic or organic pollution, introduction of exotic species.	eng
15367	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Populations of <em>O. I. Incurvatus</em> are found in the Pisgah National Forest of North Carolina, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center of Maryland, and a Clemson University research area and the Savanna River Plant in South Carolina.	eng
15367	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Occurs in the piedmont/foothills on either side of the Appalachians from Alabama to Maryland (NatureServe 2006).	eng
15367	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Clear streams at low elevations in the open, with sandy or gravely riffles (Dunkle 2000).	eng
15367	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15367	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Larvae are susceptible to alterations in stream flow due to clear cutting/deforestation, agriculture, and development that produce flood scouring, siltation and pesticide use (NatureServe 2006). Chemical control of gypsy moths might be a problem (NatureServe 2006).	eng
15389	conservation	Hamer, M., 2003	Permits are required by provincial conservation agency to collect any animals and there is some degree of protection of habitat in place by the State. Recommended conservation measures include increasing public awareness of the species, further research on population numbers, range, biology of the species, and habitat status.	eng
15389	distribution	Hamer, M., 2003	Only recorded from South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Ngele Forest. This forest is known to be naturally patchy, which has led, and continues to lead to the destruction of the smaller patches. The main forest area is fragmented by a national road.	eng
15389	habitat	Hamer, M., 2003	<em>O. roseus</em> is confined to indigenous, Afromontane forest, where it occurs amongst moist leaf litter or under or in fallen and rotting logs. <br/> <br/>Generation length in onychophorans is generally longer than in most invertebrates. No data exist for <em>O. roseus</em>, but for other members of the family in South Africa, gestation is approximately 12-13 months. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938). In <em>O. cinctipes</em> only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year (Purcell 1899).	eng
15389	population	Hamer, M., 2003	Populations can be inferred to have decreased in association with the decrease in area of occurrence, and to continue decreasing with current and future degradation of Ngele Forest. No information is available on population size or density. It appears that there are no subpopulations outside of the Ngele area, although there may be subpopulations in different forest patches within the Ngele complex.	eng
15389	threats	Hamer, M., 2003	Area of occurrence and occupancy are known to have decreased, and the quality of the habitat is known to have been affected by the removal of a large proportion of timber, the spread of alien invasive plants, and the construction of a national road through the forest.	eng
15392	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
15392	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This Thailand endemic has only been found in the province of Lampang.	eng
15392	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are not known. However, other members of the genus are well-known for living in forest streams with clear water.	eng
15392	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	Only two specimens of this species have been found (Cox 1991).	eng
15392	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	It is unknown if any threat process is impacting this species. Deforestation and water pollution are likely to be threats to this species, however, not enough is known about this species to assess if these threats are affecting it.	eng
15409	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht J., & Marshall, B.E., 2007	River health programmes and in-stream flow requirement assessments are in operation in most areas in South Africa.	eng
15409	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht J., & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Save River in Zimbabwe south to the Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. No recent records in Zimbabwe and possibly extinct there.	eng
15409	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht J., & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Typically found in pools below fast flowing waters, juveniles often in very shallow water running over sand or gravel bars.	eng
15409	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht J., & Marshall, B.E., 2007	During the 1980/90s numbers assessed in Mpumalanga were very low. A significant increase in population numbers has occurred during the last decade. In recent Swaziland surveys it was abundant in suitable swift flowing habitats.	eng
15409	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht J., & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Flow regulation and water pollution in parts of the Limpopo River have significantly reduced the species range. In Zimbabwe regulation of flows by dams, sedimentation of habitats, pollution from agriculture and alien fishes (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) have probably effected its decline.	eng
15419	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The Action Plan for the Conservation of Freshwater Populations of Irrawaddy Dolphins (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-c) notes that multiple-use protected areas will play a key role for conserving freshwater populations of Irrawaddy dolphins. Protected areas could be a particularly effective conservation tool due to the fidelity of the species in freshwater systems to relatively circumscribed areas, as this can facilitate management. The Action Plan also provided details on strategies for mitigating bycatch that included (1) establishing core conservation areas where gillnetting is banned or severely restricted; (2) promoting net attendance rules and providing training on the safe release of entangled dolphins; (3) initiating a program to compensate fishermen for damage caused to their nets by entangled dolphins that are safely released; (4) providing alternative or diversified employment options for gillnet fishermen; (5) encouraging the use of fishing gears that do not harm dolphins by altering or establishing fee structures for fishing permits to make gillnetting more expensive while decreasing the fees for non-destructive gears; and (6) experimenting with acoustical deterrents and reflective nets.	eng
15419	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Irrawaddy dolphins have a discontinuous distribution in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific, almost exclusively in estuarine and fresh waters (Stacey and Arnold 1999; Arnold 2002). They occur from Borneo and the central islands of the Indonesian Archipelago north to Palawan, Philippines, and west to the Bay of Bengal, including the Gulf of Thailand. There are freshwater subpopulations in three large rivers: Ayeyarwady (up to 1,400 km upstream) in Myanmar, Mahakam (up to 560 km upstream) in Indonesia, and Mekong (up to 690 km upstream) in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR, and two marine-appended brackish water bodies or lakes: Chilika in India and Songkhla in Thailand. The fine-scale range of the species is poorly documented throughout much of its range in estuarine waters.	eng
15419	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Irrawaddy dolphins prefer coastal areas associated with the muddy, brackish waters at river mouths, ranging offshore as far as the extent of the freshwater plume – often only a few km but more than 60 km at the Meghna River mouth in Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005). In rivers and mangrove channels, the species is most often observed at channel confluences and divergences and downstream of sharp meanders. They have been seen in the same area as finless porpoises in coastal waters of Bangladesh and Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005), and Ganges River dolphins in the waterways of the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15419	population	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	No range-wide survey has been conducted for this species; nor is there a synoptic estimate of total numbers from local or regional surveys. Statistically rigorous abundance estimates are available for only a few portions of the range: 77 (CV = 27.4%) in Malampaya Sound, Philippines (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004); at least 125 (95% CI = 114-152) in the Mekong River (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2007); 70 (CV = 10%; 95% CL = 58-79) in the Mahakam River, Indonesia (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007); 58-72 in the Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-a); 5,383 (CV=40%) in coastal waters of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005); and 451 (CV=9.6%) in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al,/i>. 2006). <br/><br/>Recent surveys indicate dramatic range declines in the Mekong, Mahakam and Ayeyarwady freshwater subpopulations (IWC 2001, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). All three of these subpopulations were classified as Critically Endangered in the 2004 Red List because the numbers of reproductively mature individuals were estimated to be < 50 and continuing population declines were projected based on known and potential threats. Two other geographically isolated subpopulations – one living in inner Malampaya Sound, Palawan, Philippines, and the other in Songkhla Lake, Thailand, were classified as Critically Endangered, also in 2004, due to their low numbers and limited ranges.	eng
15419	threats	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The estuarine and freshwater occurrence of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to threats from the human activities that occur in these environments. Threats include direct mortality from fisheries interactions (particularly gillnet entanglement), vessel strikes, and habitat loss and degradation (<em>e.g.</em> declining or altered freshwater flows due to dam and embankment construction, environmental contamination). Live captures for aquarium display also have been a conservation issue in some local areas. Irrawaddy dolphins have been hunted directly in the past, at least in the Mekong and Mahakam Rivers, but are revered by local people in many areas of Asia. <br/><br/>Irrawaddy dolphins are caught accidentally in fishing nets in almost all areas where they have been studied (Smith <em>et a</em>l. 2007-b). The most detailed information on bycatch comes from the Mekong River where, of 15 confirmed human-caused deaths 2001-2005, 13 (87%) were due to gillnet entanglement (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2007). Based on reports from local fishermen and the retrieval of eight carcasses along the Mahakam River between 1995 and 2005, Kreb <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented 48 deaths, 66% of them from entanglement in large-mesh (10 –17.5 cm) gillnets. Mortality also has been recorded in drift gillnets targeting elasmobranchs in coastal waters of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005) and bottom-set gillnets targeting crabs in Malampaya Sound (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). Fishermen in some areas report the dolphins are released if found still alive (Smith and Hobbs 2002, Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007), but in the case of drowned animals, the oil may be used for medicinal purposes or the flesh eaten (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>There have been no systematic observer schemes in freshwater or coastal regions, but evidence of bycatch and increased use of gillnets is cause for concern (IWC 2000). Fishing with electricity is considered a dire threat to the Ayeyarwady subpopulation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-a). <br/><br/>Many dams have been proposed that are likely to degrade the channels inhabited by Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong River Basin. Of greatest concern are the large run-of-the-river dams (dams without a reservoir that generally preserve a relatively natural flow regime) proposed for the Mekong mainstem near Stung Treng and Sambor (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996; Mekong Secretariat 1995). Dam projects in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam threaten not only dolphins but also fisheries and therefore human livelihoods (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). A recent report of a high dam planned for the headwaters of the Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar, in Myitsone just below the confluence of the Mali Hka and N’Mai Hka tributaries, provides reason for concern about its effects on the population of Irrawaddy dolphins downstream (Anon. 2007).<br/><br/>Deforestation and gold, sand and gravel mining are causing major changes to the geomorphologic and hydraulic features of rivers and marine-appended lakes where Irrawaddy dolphins occur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007-b). Increased sedimentation resulting from deforestation in surrounding watersheds has resulted in declining water depths in Songkhla, Chilika and Semayang Lakes. The last of these water bodies is appended to the Mahakam River and previously supported dolphins throughout most of its breadth. Now it contains suitable habitat only in a small area near the channel connecting it with the mainstem (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007). Between 1992 and 1997 the maximum depth of Chilika Lake declined from 3.4 to 1.4 meters and the accumulation of sediments led to shrinkage of the opening channel and a dramatic decline in salinity. A new channel dredged in the northern portion of the lake in 2000 apparently has mitigated at least some of the problems caused by sedimentation (Pattnaik <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and population fragmentation in several areas have resulted from the proliferation of fixed fishing gears. In the middle and southern portions of Songkhla Lake about 27,000 Sai nong or sitting traps and 13,000 Sang sai or barrier traps create more than 8000 linear km of barrier in multiple rows. These fishing structures are left in place year-round and restrict dolphin movements such that their habitat is substantially reduced and the potential for demographic interaction with individuals in the Gulf of Thailand is eliminated (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15421	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The eastern North Atlantic subpopulation is included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. The proposal to list all subpopulations of the killer whale in Appendix II was endorsed in 2002 by the Working Group of the CMS in Bonn (see Proceedings), as all the subpopulations were migratory and could profit from cooperative protective measures. Because killer whales are cosmopolitan in distribution, they may be present in virtually any marine protected area worldwide.  Further studies on subpopulation structure, abundance and life history are needed.	eng
15421	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is in Appendix II of CITES and Appendices I and II of CMS. The eastern North Atlantic as well as the eastern North Pacific subpopulations are included in Appendix II of CMS. <br/><br/>Further studies on subpopulation structure, abundance and life history are needed for most regions. Regional subpopulations of killer whales can be small and highly specialized, and therefore vulnerable to over-exploitation and habitat deterioration. Several small subpopulations have already been recognized as having a high risk of extinction. Many similar small subpopulations may exist worldwide but have not yet been fully identified and described. There are likely several subpopulations that qualify for a threatened category, and steps should proceed to assess their status.	eng
15421	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The killer whale is the most cosmopolitan of all cetaceans, and may be the second most widely-ranging mammal species on the planet, after humans. Killer whales can be seen in virtually any marine region, from the equator to polar waters. Although they are generally more common in nearshore areas and in higher productivity areas and/or higher latitudes, there appear to be no hard and fast restrictions of water temperature or depth on their range. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. However, there are only extralimital records from the Baltic Sea and no records from the Black Sea.	eng
15421	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The killer whale is the most cosmopolitan of all cetaceans and may be the second-most widely-ranging mammal species on the planet, after humans (Rice 1998). Killer whales can be seen in virtually any marine region, from the equator to polar waters. Although they are generally more common in nearshore areas and in higher-productivity areas and/or higher latitudes, there appear to be no hard and fast restrictions of water temperature or depth on their range. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. However, there are only extralimital records from the Baltic Sea and no records from the Black Sea.	eng
15421	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Killer whales may occur in virtually any marine or estuarine habitat, but are most common in areas of high marine productivity, particularly at higher latitudes and near shore (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Forney and Wade 2006). Sightings range from the surf zone to the open sea. Although they do not migrate, movements can be extensive; for instance, some killer whales have been documented to have moved between Alaska and central California, a distance of more than 2000 km. In the Antarctic, they readily enter areas of floe ice in search of prey (Pitman and Ensor 2003).  Killer whales in some areas congregate seasonally in coastal channels to forage and occasionally enter river mouths. <br/><br/>Killer whales are known to feed on a wide array of prey types, including most marine mammal species (except river dolphins and manatees), seabirds, sea turtles, many species of fishes (including sharks and rays) and cephalopods (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Ford and Ellis 1999, Ford 2002). Killer whales have a diversity of foraging tactics, including intentional beaching to gain access to seals onshore. They are known to use cooperative techniques to herd fish and to attack large prey (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999, Baird 2000).  <br/><br/>Although a generalist as a species, at least some subpopulations specialize on particular types of prey (Bigg <em>et al.</em> 1990, Baird 2000). Studies in coastal waters of the eastern North Pacific, from California to Alaska, have described three distinct ecotypes of killer whales, referred to as residents, transients, and offshores.  Although distinguished by ecological differences, there are also differences in coloration, external morphology, behavior and acoustics.  The three ecotypes maintain social isolation from each other despite overlapping ranges.	eng
15421	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Killer whales may occur in virtually any marine or estuarine habitat but are most common in areas of high marine productivity, particularly at higher latitudes and near shore (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Forney and Wade 2006). Sightings range from the surf zone to the open sea. Movements can be extensive. For instance, some killer whales have been documented to have moved between Alaska and central California, a distance of more than 2000 km. In the Antarctic, they readily enter areas of floe ice in search of prey (Pitman and Ensor 2003). Killer whales in some areas congregate seasonally in coastal channels to forage and occasionally enter river mouths. <br/><br/>Killer whales are known to feed on a wide array of prey, including most marine mammal species (except river dolphins and manatees), seabirds, sea turtles, many species of fish (including sharks and rays) and cephalopods (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Ford and Ellis 1999; Ford 2002). They have a diversity of foraging tactics, including intentional beaching to gain access to seals onshore. They are known to use cooperative techniques to herd fish and to attack large prey (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Baird 2000). <br/><br/>Although a generalist as a species, at least some subpopulations specialize on particular types of prey (Bigg <em>et al</em>. 1990; Baird 2000). Studies in coastal waters of the eastern North Pacific, from California to Alaska, have described three distinct ecotypes of killer whales, referred to as residents, transients, and offshores. Although distinguished by ecological differences, there are also differences in coloration, external morphology, behavior and acoustics. The three ecotypes maintain social isolation from each other despite overlapping ranges. The northeastern Pacific residents are salmon specialists and have a strong preference for one species, the chinook salmon (Ford and Ellis 2006). Transients in coastal waters of the northeastern Pacific appear to focus their foraging on pinnipeds and small cetaceans and occasionally take baleen whales. Killer whales in coastal Norway specialize on herring (Simila <em>et al</em>. 1996) and in the Strait of Gibraltar on bluefin tuna (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006). Some killer whales in New Zealand may forage selectively on rays and other elasmobranchs (Visser 1999). In the Antarctic, the standard-type killer whales appear to specialize on minke whales, one smaller type eats mostly seals, and yet another small form appears to be a fish-eater (Pitman and Ensor 2003).	eng
15421	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although killer whales occur worldwide, densities increase by 1-2 orders of magnitude between the tropics and the highest-sampled latitudes in the Arctic and Antarctic (Forney and Wade 2006). Killer whales tend to be more common along continental margins; however, there is some variation in this general pattern that appears linked to ocean productivity. Killer whales appear to be less common in western boundary currents, such as the Gulf Stream or the Kuroshio than in more productive eastern boundary currents, such as the California Current. Known areas of locally higher density often coincide with greater oceanographic productivity (e.g. off Argentina). <br/> <br/>Killer whale populations have been relatively well-studied in the North Pacific. In the eastern tropical Pacific, a line-transect survey resulted in an estimate of 8,500 (CV=37%) (Wade and Gerrodette 1993). A catalogue of 86 individuals exists for waters around the Baja Peninsula, Mexico (Guerrero-Ruiz <em>et al</em>. 1998). In waters of Hawaii, a line-transect survey estimated 430 (CV=72%) (Barlow 2003). The southern resident subpopulation that inhabits the inland waters of Washington and southern British Columbia recently numbered 90 whales; it is apparently depleted and considered to be endangered (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; K. Balcomb pers. comm., Krahn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The northern resident subpopulation of British Columbia recently numbered 216 (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). The west coast transient subpopulation catalogue included 314 individual whales (Ford and Ellis 1999; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A photographic catalogue of offshore type killer whales identified 211 individuals from British Columbia to California (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2000; Black <em>et al</em>. 1997), but this is likely an underestimate of the subpopulation size. A line-transect survey extending out to 300nm offshore resulted in an estimate of 466 (CV=35%) in California and 898 (CV=35%) in Washington and Oregon (Barlow 2003); these estimates likely include whales from the aforementioned west coast transient, southern resident, northern resident, and offshore subpopulations. A line-transect survey from the Aleutian Islands to the Gulf of Alaska resulted in an estimate of abundance for transient killer whales of 251 (CV=51%) (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006), while the AT1 transient subpopulation (which inhabits Prince William Sound and waters of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska) numbers only 11 animals (Matkin <em>et al</em>. 1999; Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A Gulf of Alaska resident killer whale catalogue includes 507 individuals (Matkin <em>et al</em>. 1999) while a line-transect survey from the Aleutian Islands to the Gulf of Alaska resulted in an estimate of 991 (CV=51%) (Zerbini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Line-transect surveys suggest there are at least hundreds of killer whales in the western North Pacific, including waters around Japan (Miyashita 1993). Preliminary studies suggest as many as 700-800 killer whales may be in Russian waters of the Pacific, but an abundance estimate has yet to be calculated (Miranova <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Line-transect surveys have resulted in estimates of abundance in several regions in the North Atlantic, including an estimate of 133 (CV=49%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), 3,100 (CV=63%) in Norwegian waters (Øien 1990), and 6,618 (CV=32%) in Iceland and Faroes Islands waters (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990; Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Several analyses of line-transect surveys have yielded abundance estimates for killer whales around Antarctica (Ohsumi 1981; Hammond 1984; Kasamatsu and Joyce 1995); however, some of the estimates have been considered biased by methodology and survey coverage (Branch and Butterworth 2001). More recent analyses that account for some of these biases resulted in an estimate of about 25,000 for waters south of 60ºS (Branch and Butterworth 2001); however, there are still uncertainties related to coverage of areas in the pack ice, so true abundance could be higher. Densities are known to vary locally within Antarctic waters, ranging from very abundant to uncommon (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2002; Pitman and Ensor 2003), and it has been recognized that killer whale densities are higher closer to the ice edge, where the smaller-type killer whales can occur in large aggregations of tens to hundreds of animals (Berzin and Vladimirov 1983; Pitman and Ensor 2003). Photo-identification studies have found 25-30 whales around Marion Island (Keith <em>et al</em>. 2001). In other parts of the southern Hemisphere, an estimate of 119 (CV=20%) has been made in New Zealand waters (Visser 2000), and 30 have been identified off Argentina (Lopez and Lopez 1985; Iñíguez 2001). <br/><br/>Although the available data are far from complete, abundance estimates for the areas that have been sampled provide a minimum worldwide abundance estimate of about 50,000 killer whales. It is likely that the total abundance is higher, because estimates are not available for many high-latitude areas of the northern hemisphere and for large areas of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. However, this population abundance refers to several forms of killer whales that may be recognized as different species or subspecies in the future (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15421	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Although killer whales occur worldwide, densities increase by 1-2 orders of magnitude between the tropics and the highest sampled latitudes in the Arctic and Antarctic (Forney and Wade 2006). Killer whales tend to be more common along continental margins; however, there is some variation in this general pattern that appears linked to ocean productivity. Killer whales appear to be less common in western boundary currents such as the Gulf Stream, than in more productive eastern boundary currents such as the California Current. Line-transect surveys have resulted in estimates of abundance in several regions in the North Atlantic, including an abundance estimate of 3,100 (CV=63%) killer whales in Norwegian waters (Øien 1990), and an estimate of 6,618 (CV=32%) whales in Iceland and Faroes Islands waters (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1990).	eng
15421	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Killer whales have been exploited at low levels in several regions world-wide (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Norwegian whalers in the eastern North Atlantic took an average of 56 whales per year from 1938 to 1981.  Fishermen in many areas see killer whales as competitors, and intentional shooting of whales is known to occur. This problem is especially serious in Alaska, where depredation of longline fisheries is extensive (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Killer whales are still taken in small numbers in coastal fisheries in Japan, Greenland, Indonesia, and the Caribbean islands (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>After 1976, Iceland has been involved in live-captures of killer whales for export. During the period 1976-1988, 59 whales were collected, of which 8 were released, 3 died and 48 (an average 3.7 per year) were exported (Reyes 1991 and ref. therein). In 1991, the lcelandic government announced that once current permits for live-capture expire, no new ones would be issued (Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993).  Bycatch in trawl and driftnet fishing operations occur, but are considered rare (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999). Persistant, bioaccumulating contaminants have recently been found to present a serious potential risk to some killer whale subpopulations. Large-scale catastrophic oil spills have the potential to cause significant mortality of killer whales. Oil spills may also have an indirect effect by reducing prey abundance.<br/><br/>Disturbance may be a matter for concern in areas inhabited by killer whales and supporting whale-watching industries (Reyes 1991).  Moving boats can disrupt activities such as foraging and resting, and underwater boat noise could affect social and echolocation signals of the whales or otherwise interfere with foraging (Erbe 2002, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2002).  For example, close approaches by whale-watching vessels have been shown to result in avoidance responses by resident killer whales in British Columbia, which may have energetic costs for whales frequently subjected to whale watching activity (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2006).  Fast-moving boats in the proximity of killer whales also present a risk of collision or injury from propellers.  Visser (1999) reported propeller scars observed on killer whales in New Zealand.  <br/><br/>There have been large-scale reductions in predatory fish populations (Myers and Worm 2003, Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (Jackson et al. 2001). The effects on killer whales of reductions in fish populations due to overexploitation are unknown. In some areas, populations could be vulnerable owing to dietary specialization. The depletion of the Mediterranean bluefin tuna stock is considered a source of concern for the survival of the Gibraltar killer whales (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect killer whales, and may affect some subpopulations more than others through changes in prey availability.	eng
15421	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Killer whales have been exploited at low levels in several regions world-wide (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Norwegian whalers in the eastern North Atlantic took an average of 56 whales per year from 1938 to 1981. The Japanese took an average of 43 whales per year along their coastal waters from 1946 to 1981. The Soviets, whaling primarily in the Antarctic, took an average of 26 animals annually from 1935 to 1979 and then took 916 animals in the 1979/80 Antarctic season (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999; Reyes 1991). Killer whales are still taken in small numbers in coastal fisheries in Japan, Greenland, Indonesia, and the Caribbean islands (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Fishermen in many areas see killer whales as competitors, and intentional shooting of whales is known to occur. This problem is especially serious in Alaska, where depredation of longline fisheries is extensive (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Yano and Dahlheim 1995; Donohue <em>et al</em>. 2003). Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g., Aleutian Islands Alaska, South Georgia, Crozet Island, and several other southern ocean island areas, Australia, and other locations in the south Pacific). <br/><br/>During the period 1976-1988, 59 whales were captured alive off Iceland, of which 8 were released, 3 died and 48 (an average 3.7 per year) were exported to aquaria (Reyes 1991). Live-captures of several killer whales have also taken place in Japanese waters (Reyes 1991). Bycatch in trawl and driftnet fishing operations occur, but are considered rare (Dahlheim and Heyning 1999).<br/><br/>Persistent bio-accumulating contaminants have recently been found to present a serious potential risk to some killer whale subpopulations. Ross <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that total PCB concentrations were very high in three killer whales subpopulations (2 resident and 1 transient) frequenting the coastal waters of British Columbia, Canada. Transient killer whales were particularly contaminated due to their high trophic position in the marine ecosystem. PCB levels in most killer whales sampled were greater than levels established at which adverse effects occur in harbor seals, suggesting that the majority of free-ranging killer whales in this region are at risk of toxic effects. The southern resident and transient killer whales of British Columbia and Washington can be considered among the most contaminated cetaceans in the world (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Habitat disturbance may be a matter for concern in areas inhabited by killer whales and supporting whale-watching industries (Reyes 1991). Moving boats can disrupt activities such as foraging and resting, and underwater boat noise could affect social and echolocation signals of the whales or otherwise interfere with foraging (Erbe 2002; Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002). For example, close approaches by whale-watching vessels have been shown to result in avoidance responses by resident killer whales in British Columbia, which may result in energetic costs for whales frequently subjected to whale watching activity (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2006). Fast-moving boats in the proximity of killer whales also present a risk of collision or injury from propellers. Visser (1999) reports on propeller scars observed on killer whales in New Zealand and their possible causes of mortality. <br/><br/>Large-scale catastrophic oil spills have the potential to cause significant mortality of killer whales. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska was strongly correlated with the subsequent loss of several whales from a pod that had been seen swimming through light oil slicks early in the spill (Dahlheim and Matkin 1994). Oil spills may also have an indirect effect by reducing prey abundance.<br/><br/>There have been large-scale reductions in predatory fish populations (Myers and Worm 2003; Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). There have also been dramatic declines in marine mammal populations throughout the world. The effects of such reductions in prey populations (both fish and marine mammal) and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Due to their dietary specialization, some populations of killer whales could be especially vulnerable to a reduction of their food supply. In British Columbia and Washington State, many salmon stocks have significantly declined as a result of over-fishing, habitat degradation and reduced ocean survival. This is likely to affect fish-eating resident killer whale populations in that region (Ford <em>et al</em>. 2005). Mammal-hunting killer whales in British Columbia likely experienced periods of reduced prey availability due to depletion of pinniped populations prior to 1970 (Ford and Ellis 1999). The depletion of the Mediterranean bluefin tuna stock is considered a source of concern for the survival of the Gibraltar killer whales (Cañadas and de Stephanis 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may negatively affect certain killer whale subpopulations more than others through changes in prey availability (see e.g. Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15422	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species was assessed by NatureServe as G1   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
15422	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is restricted to the <st1:city w:st="on">Beargrass, Pond </st1:city>and Harrods Creeks, on the <st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state> River in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jefferson County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:state></st1:place> (Rhoades 1944, INHS Crustacean Collection, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be 990 km².	eng
15422	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is found in streams in riffle areas, primarily under large rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15422	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There have been no population studies published to date, although it can be abundant on suitable substrate (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15422	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Urbanization could be considered a threat to this species.&#160; The main stream that it is found in has been converted to cement ditches, with sewage and industrial run-off present.&#160; However, it is still being collected in good numbers. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, an invasive species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>is present in the main channel of the Ohio River, but so far seems not to have made it into Beargrass Creek   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15423	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed this species&#160;as 'endangered' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), while NatureServe have assigned a heritage rank of G1G2&#160;(NatureServe 2009)&#160;to this species.&#160;&#160;A federal recovery plan exists for the species, although the remit of this is unknown&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to fully evaluate whether the effects of construction and sedimentation are negatively impacting this species. </p>	eng
15423	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species was first found in Mill Creek, a tributary of the Cumberland River in Davidson County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1948). It is now also known from Sevenmile Creek in Williamson County, Tennessee&#160;(Miller <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1990). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km².	eng
15423	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The type locality of this species&#160;is a hard water stream, which flows over sand, rubble and limestone ledges in its upper reaches, which is mostly through&#160;pasture and cultivated lands (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city>&#160;1948). It has silty, muddy banks, with shade provided by reeds and trees. The two creeks in which this species is found&#160; have banks 3 - 5 m high and Mill Creek is between 5-15 m wide (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1990). It is thought that this species&#160;does not inhabit turbid waters and so sedimentation may result in habitat becoming unsuitable (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
15423	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;has been found to be common in some degraded sites&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). There has been no documented decline of the Nashville crayfish since it was located in the early eighties. This species seems to be maintaining itself in areas of the main channel of the Mill Creek that are not heavily polluted and where it is the dominant species&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15423	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are some concerns for this species&#160;due to urban development and stream modifications such as dry-bed retention dams in the Mill Creek drainage (Miller&#160;<em>et al. </em>1990). In both Mill Creek and Sevenmile Creek, there are numerous bridges and pipelines and other evidence of urban development. Both streams are also affected by sedimentation as a result of local construction (Miller&#160;<em>et al</em>. 1990).&#160; This species was once collected in degraded habitat in relatively good numbers at one site where the site was full of rubbish, however there was some cobble and rock substrate where the species was found (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). No measurements of water chemistry were taken, but the water was found to be relatively clear, rather than turbid (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15424	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>  This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
15424	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the state of Kentucky and was first found in Crooked Creek, and subsequently in Brushy Fork and Camp Creek in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Crittenden County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state></st1:place> (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965, Taylor and Schuster 2004).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 210 km².	eng
15424	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits small to medium sized creeks ranging from 2 to 10 m with bottom substrates of bedrock, cobble and some mud (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species may also be found in pools (Rhoades 1944). During collection in January 1964, it was found that some tributaries of Brushy Creek were nearly dry. Pools that were left were 5 - 10 ft wide and 5 - 20 inches deep. However, this is attributed to unusually low rainfall in autumn and early winter of 1963/1964 (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965). Many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>will hide away under rocks in pools when water levels drop. Crayfish were found amongst detritus in the bottom of pools and under rubble (Prins and Fitzpatrick 1965).	eng
15424	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is common in suitable habitat (Taylor and Schuster 2004).	eng
15424	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<em></em>This species inhabits a rural area where there are no known threats. However there is a possible threat posed by the introduction of species not native to this drainage such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, which used to be commonly used as a bait species by fishermen. One introduction, or an expansion of the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> which is occurring in nearby areas, perhaps as close as 10 miles (T. Jones pers. comm. 2009) could be detrimental to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has negatively affected many species where it has been introduced, and has out-competed, and sometimes hybridized with species native to the drainage.&#160; The last collections in the Crooked Creek drainage were in 2003 where 2 individuals were collected (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, the Ohio River has been recovering for 15 years since the main channel was altered causing a drop in pollution levels (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15425	conservation	Adams, S., Crandall, K.A., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed <em></em>this species as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), and it has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<em></em>.&#160;</p><p>Monitoring of the remnant subpopulations of this species is needed to assess the likelihood of becoming threatened in the near future.<br/></p>	eng
15425	distribution	Adams, S., Crandall, K.A., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cherry</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Jackson County, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs and Barr 1972). It is known from approx 25 localities within three counties in <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee; one cave in&#160; </st1:state><st1:placename w:st="on">Putnam</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, one cave in <st1:placename w:st="on">Smith</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, and <st1:placename w:st="on">10 caves within Jackson</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename>, on both sides of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cumberland river</st1:place>, and is considered to have a severely fragmented distribution (Buhay and Crandall 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately less than 2,700 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15425	habitat	Adams, S., Crandall, K.A., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<em></em>This species is restricted to caves (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; From what is known, this is a relatively specialized habitat type and there are few available flowing subterranean streams available to this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15425	population	Adams, S., Crandall, K.A., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>The rarity of collections by Thomas Bar, held in USNM is likely to be a true reflection of the relative sparseness of the species (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009). Very few individuals were encountered in surveys   conducted by Buhay (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
15425	threats	Adams, S., Crandall, K.A., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The restricted cave environment,  such as that occupied by this species, presents a number of potential threats. Caves are often subject to surface run-off and can easily bring in contaminants such as sewage or faecal contamination, pesticides or herbicides, and hazardous materials via accidental spills or deliberate dumping such as road salting (Lewis 2001). Sedimentation resulting in habitat alteration is a common threat caused by construction, farming, logging, and other development that disturbs the groundcover. It can block recharge sites in caves and alter flow velocity and volume (Lewis 2001). Flooding can be a serious threat to cave dwelling species as it changes stream flow. Stream back-flowing is another source of contamination introduction into cave habitats, as is local exploration for oil, water or gas, which may encounter cave passages (Lewis 2001). However at the present time, it is noted there is no documented decline in this species as a result of threats.<br/><br/>A recent study by Buhay and Crandall (2005) showed this species  exhibited little difference between historical and current genetic  diversity estimates, although there is inferred decline in the quality  of cave habitat (Lewis 2001, Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
15426	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007)	eng
15426	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Tradewater River drainage in Caldwell, Crittenden, Livingston, and Union, Counties in Kentucky, and Hardin County, Illinois, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1989, Rhoades 1944). <br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,600 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
15426	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams with substrates of cobble (Hobbs 1989) and rocky pools (Boyd and Page 1978).	eng
15426	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. Page (pers. comm. 1992) stated, however that this species&#160; is&#160; reasonably plentiful where it occurs and estimates more than 10,000 individuals exist across its range. During a 1972&#160; -1975 survey of Big Creek, Illinois, the number of individuals collected at 15 stations ranged from 1 - 459 (Boyd and Page 1978). In addition, there is currently estimated to be fewer than 50 miles of stream inhabited by this species in Illinois (G. Kruse pers. comm. 1998). However, the majority of the range occurs in Kentucky.</p>	eng
15426	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown. Hybridisation is reported, however. in one specimen between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes placidus</span> in Big Creek, Illinois (Boyd and Page 1978). Subsequent collections have never revealed further examples of this hybridization (C. Taylor pers. comm.).	eng
15427	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and a more precise distribution.	eng
15427	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is limited to the Prairie section of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Noxubee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> and in other tributary systems of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> northward to the Catalpa Creek basin in Kemper, Noxubee, Lowndes, <st1:placename w:st="on">Choctaw</st1:placename>, and Oktibbeha Counties (Cooper and Hobbs 1980<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>, MMNS database). Single records from the <st1:place w:st="on">Upper  Pearl</st1:place>, Upper Big Black, and Sucarnoochee watersheds did not contain form 1 males and are thus not substantiated   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 4,500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
15427	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in streams which are sluggish to moderately flowing, roadside ditches and woodland ponds (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).	eng
15427	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><em></em>   There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species can be abundant at a site   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Only three collections, with 1 - 6 individuals per collection, were made since 1990, but that may be due to limited sampling effort   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
15427	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species include habitat degradation resulting from sedimentation and agricultural run-off.&#160; In addition, this species is likely undergoing localized declines due to urbanization and alterations to the hydrological regime   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Finally, reservoirs may contribute to population fragmentation in parts of the range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
15428	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>A significant proportion of this species&#160;occurs in the Ouachita National Forest (ONF); however conservation measures for this species are urgently required given its small range and the significance of threats (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15428	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species was,&#160;in 1976, found in only one tributary of the Kiamichi River, LaFlore County, Oklahoma, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). However, in a recent extensive survey it has now been found in seven tributaries in the upper 45 km of the Kiamichi river (Jones and Bergey 2007). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 300 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15428	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has a strong preference for riffles and pool habitats, dominated by cobble, boulder and gravel substrates with maximum depths rarely more than one metre (Jones and Bergey 2007). In dry months, this species&#160;utilizes pool areas when riffles are absent. The availability of riffle habitats probably contributes to the limited range of this species, as it cannot migrate further down the Kiamich River due to the low abundance of cobbles, and wide riffle zones (Jones and Bergey 2007). In the summer, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>constructs small burrows under large boulders and cobbles, providing suitable conditions for aestivation (Jones and Bergey 2007).	eng
15428	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	In the study by Jones and Bergey (2007), a total of 696 individuals were captured. Thus, this species is recognized as being locally abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15428	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is threatened by the growing demands for freshwater from the Kiamichi&#160;River. The surface water produced by this river is the primary source of human drinking water in the region, with five water resource development projects already in place along the river (Jones and Bergey 2007). A significant proportion of this species&#160;occurs in the Ouachita National Forest (ONF), where silviculture is an important industry (Jones and Bergey 2007). It has been calculated that at least 70% of every stream that this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits, lies within the ONF. This silviculture has brought increased sedimentation and turbidity to the streams where this species&#160;is located (Jones and Bergey 2007), although its impact on this species' populations is unknown (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010).	eng
15429	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
15429	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in southwestern Ohio and southern Indiana, USA (St. John 1988, St. John 1991, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In 1962 this species was found in 32 counties in Ohio and Indiana (Rhoades 1962). However, by 1988 a survey showed that this species had been extirpated from three of these 32 counties (St. John 1988). In the same survey, however, this species&#160;was found in five new counties in Indiana (St. John 1988). In a study in 1991 on the&#160;distribution of this species in Ohio, St. John (1991) found that the ratio of<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>to<span style="font-style: italic;"> O. rusticus </span>had decreased in nine out of 15 sites and was now absent in one of the counties where it had previously been found.&#160;The present extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 16,400 km², although a reduction in EOO of 4,349 km² from 1962 to 1991 has been recorded. This reduction in range is due to the range expansion of the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> (St. John 1988, St. John 1991, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).	eng
15429	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits the clear tributaries of streams and prefers clean, rocky-bottomed streams, preferring small to medium sized streams (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In the presence of <em>O. rusticus</em> it is found in small wooded riparian streams, and in the absence of<em> O. rusticus </em>it expands its range into fourth order streams up to 20 m across (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15429	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species&#160; is slowly being replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>as the more dominant crayfish species in certain parts of its range (St. John 1991, St. John 1988). In addition, a population reduction has been seen in certain areas of Ohio. Where<em> O. rusticus</em> is not present, this species is common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15429	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The range expansion of the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> is encroaching on the historic range of this species&#160;in certain areas, with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span>&#160;slowly replacing this species as the more dominant species&#160;(St. John 1988; St. John 1991; Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). Increasing levels of pollution have been found to compound this threat as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> is the more resilient of the two species (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).<br/>St. John's (1991) sites were recently revisited and it was found that almost every one of the historic sites to be extant, with equivalent numbers (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).This species has been known, however, to&#160;coexist with <em>O. rusticus</em> in some parts of its range, especially outside of Ohio,&#160;effectively taking up a different niche form when it is in the presence of it (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15430	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Further survey work is recommended for this species, as channelization in this agricultural area may have resulted in some localized declines&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).In addition,&#160;further&#160;research into the effects of point and diffuse discharge into the water course is required to ensure populations of this species are not being affected.	eng
15430	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is only known from the Little Wabash River system in southeastern Illinois, USA (Page 1985). This represents an extent of occurrence of approximately 2,085 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15430	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits second to forth order streams and has a preference for shallow riffles with large flat stones, mud and woody debris (Page 1985).	eng
15430	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is found to be uncommon within its range (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is approximately 25 years since the last intensive survey for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
15430	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The Little Wabash River flows through several urban areas and areas of intensive agriculture. This has led to some discharge of heavy metals,&#160;faecal&#160;matter, excess nutrient input from farmland and pollution from some oil well operations (Illinois EPA 2006). The effect this is having on populations of this species is not known however. There is some channelization in its range, but as long as there is some woody debris, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is still present (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor and pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15431	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'endangered' (Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2007); NatureServe has assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the threats to this species is needed.	eng
15431	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has a restricted range and is known from Robinson, Beason and Snake Creeks, which are western tributaries of the Tennessee River in Hardin and McNairy Counties, Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1948, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2007). &#160;This species is also found in Chambers and Seven Mile Creek, in Alcorn County Mississippi (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009) and also the Houston Branch and Shiloh Branch in Hardin County (S.Adams, pers. comm 2010). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 666 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15431	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species inhabits small to medium sized slow flowing creeks, streams and large pools. This species' type locality had a substrate of red clay and gravel with a few rocks forming riffles. The heavily shaded water was between 0.3 and 1.8 m deep, with water-side vegetation (Hobbs 1948).&#160; It has subsequently been found under rocks and in leaf litter.	eng
15431	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although is regarded as&#160;common in areas of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15431	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Sedimentation poses the biggest threat to the species in the Mississippi part of its range, but this is not considered to be an expanding threat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009); the area that this species inhabits is largely rural. The species has been collected in areas with active pasture and agricultural impacts, where it was still found in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). However, fishing is popular in the Tennessee River above and on Pickwick Lake, which is a maximum of 15 km from the mouths of the tributaries. This activity poses the potential threat of invasive crayfish species from bait release. There is a known population of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. virilis</span>, an invasive species of crayfish, upstream of Pickwick Lake (Taylor and Schuster 2004, USNM 4873). There has also been extensive head cutting of streams and channelisation which is now a reasonably widespread threat within this species range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).	eng
15432	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and acknowledge this species has taxonomic problems.	eng
15432	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species is known only from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Sucarnoochee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1972) but may extend into the upper reaches of the Chickasawhay and Leaf River drainages, and the tributaries of the east and west banks of the lower <st1:placename w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place>, USA.</p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
15432	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams which are moderate to swiftly flowing, dominating riffle areas and sparganum beds (Fitzpatrick 1972). This species is dependent on cobble or woody debris for cover and is largely dependent on the availability of this  (Taylor pers. comm 2009).	eng
15432	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. <br/></p>	eng
15432	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is threatened by the widespread intensive agriculture in the Sucarnooche River basin. This has caused high levels of sedimentation, in addition to high&#160; chlorophyll and nitrogen levels in the water (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is smaller, with lower fecundity and smaller eggs, than most other species from its subgenus (Adams 2008).&#160; At one site, several ovigerous females carried empty eggshells and one male had deformed gonopods, suggesting possible water quality problems (Adams 2008). </p>	eng
15433	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
15433	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species was originally known from only seven localities in the Kisatchie Bayou drainage in the Natchitoches and Sabine parishes, Louisiana, and in Upshur County, Texas, USA. It is now thought to be sparsely distributed in several&#160; Red River tributaries in northeast Texas and in central Louisiana (Walls 2009).&#160; It has been recorded at 21 sites in 8 counties all in the Cypress Creek drainage (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The species range is additionally regarded as being very disjunct   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Specimens of this species from Coal County, Oklahoma, were interpreted by Walls (1972) as intergrades between this crayfish and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. (H.) difficilis</span>.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 7,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
15433	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams of various sizes and substrates, but mostly on flowing clear sandy bottomed streams, under debris and rocks, and seldom in reed beds, but almost always with leaf litter (Walls 1972, Walls 2009).	eng
15433	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is now absent from 4 historical sites, indicating recent  population declines in the Louisiana portions of its range<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009). </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
15433	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by the possible conversion of surrounding forests into agricultural land (wlf 2008). This will increase run off and sediment loads into the streams (wlf 2008). Additionally, the loss of shade and the creation of impoundments will also affect the habitat suitability and dispersal abilities of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(wlf 2008)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>This species is now absent from 4 historical sites, indicating recent population declines in the Louisiana portions of its range<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; These sites have become buried in silt due to increased sediment loads.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
15434	conservation	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further research and monitoring on this species is recommended to clarify threats posed.&#160;<br/><br/><br/><em></em>	eng
15434	distribution	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Spring River drainage system in Lawrence, Randolf, Fulton and Sharp counties, Arkansas, and Oregon County, Missouri , USA (Pflieger 1996). Although this species is known from upwards of 20 sites (Flinders and Magoulick 2005), this is reduced to 5-10 locations based on the threat of an invasive species. The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated at just over 2,800 km².	eng
15434	habitat	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clear streams with riffles and runs, with gravel or rubble substrate (Pflieger 1996), but is also found in high numbers in pools and spring fed streams (Dukat and Magoulick 1999). In some parts of its range this species is found in higher numbers in non-permanent freshwater habitats than it is in those which are permanent (Flinders and Magoulic 2003).	eng
15434	population	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been collected in one instance in densities of up to 5 individuals m<sup>-2 </sup>(Flinders and Magoulick 2007).&#160; However, this is not thought to be true across its range, where at many locations when collected, it is one of the less common species (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15434	threats	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is under threat from the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span>, which has entered the South fork of the Spring River drainage and is rapidly spreading (B. DiStefano, pers. comm. 2009). It has already displaced two species, <em>Cambarus hobbsi</em>&#160;and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. eupunctus,</span> after entering the system some time between 1990 and 2000, and has been moving at a rate of 28 km over 10 years. It is not yet present in the range of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, but is getting closer (B. DiStefano, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
15435	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, whether it is being impacted by any other threats and the impacts of current threats.	eng
15435	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a restricted range in the tributaries of the Ouachita River in Polk and Montgomery Counties, Arkansas, and the Red River in LeFlore and McCurtain Counties, Oklahoma, USA (Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just above 2,100 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
15435	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in stony or rocky permanent streams (Fetzner 2008).	eng
15435	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
15435	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is potentially threatened by forestry activities and sedimentation from road construction in the basins of the Ouachita and Red rivers (wildlifearkansas 2008). However, the area is rural, there are no known documented impacts and habitat quality is stable (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15436	conservation	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Missouri Department of Conservation, the University of Missouri, Columbia, and the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit are working together to find the mechanism behind the range and population decline and are planning a conservation strategy for this species&#160;(DiStefano 2008).<em><br/></em>	eng
15436	distribution	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is only known from the upper St. Francis River in central Missouri, USA. The range of this species has contracted in the past 30 years and it has been extirpated from significant portions of Big Creek and its tributaries (DiStefano<em> et al.</em> 2002,&#160;DiStefano 2008). A recent comprehensive survey (Riggert <em>et al.</em> 1999) confirmed the narrow range of this species, but also that the range has been reduced over the last 30 years, presumably related to the invasion of <em>Orconectes hylas</em> from a&#160;neighbouring&#160;drainage. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just above 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15436	habitat	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found under shallow burrows and small rocks in rocky streams and pools (Pflieger 1996, DiStefano 2008).	eng
15436	population	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is common in the few streams where it occurs (DiStefano 2008). However, a global population decline can be inferred from its significant range contraction. A decline has been observed over 7 years in Carver Creek, and it seems likely that declines are occurring in other nearby creeks (DiStefano 2008).	eng
15436	threats	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The range of this species&#160;has reduced significantly in the past 30 years. This is considered to be due to the encroachment of the more aggressive, invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> (DiStefano 2008, Rahm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes  hylas</span> represents a plausible threat to the continued persistence of this species&#160;(DiStefano 2008). Furthermore, the St. Francis River watershed is periodically contaminated by heavy metals released by nearby mining activities, reducing the habitat quality of the river (DiStefano 2008).	eng
15437	conservation	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Crandall (1998) recommends that the status of this species&#160;be moved from 'watch list' to 'rare' in the Rare and Endangered Species of Missouri Checklist. The Missouri Department of Conservation, University of Missouri Columbia, and the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit are currently monitoring this species with an effort to understand the mechanisms of declines for this species (DiStefano 2008)	eng
15437	distribution	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is restricted to the headwaters of the St. Francis River system in Iron, Genevieve, and Madison counties in Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, DiStefano 2008, Williams 1954). The range of this species is observed to have been retracting (DiStefano 2008). This species&#160;has been extirpated from two-thirds of its type locality stream: Stouts Creek (DiStefano&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2002). A recent survey (Riggart<em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;1999) examining 17 museum collections confirmed its narrow range but also that its range has been reduced in the last 30 years, presumably related to the introduction of&#160;<em>Orconectes hylas</em>&#160;from a neighbouring drainage.&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 3,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15437	habitat	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been found under rocks in rocky streams and from shallow depths on pebble and cobble substrates (Williams 1954, DiStefano 2008).	eng
15437	population	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is not uncommon in the streams where it occurs and has been found in densities of up for 4 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (DiStefano 2008). However, a population decline can be inferred from the range reduction this species is experiencing&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15437	threats	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	A potential threat to this species&#160;is heavy metal pollution caused by mining in the region (DiStefano 2008). However, there is no evidence this has had an adverse effect on this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> The invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> has been introduced into at least three streams in the range of<em> </em>this species and has eliminated the native crayfish from these streams (DiStefano 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes hylas</span> poses a continued and plausible threat to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
15438	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">blacki </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
15438	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This subspecies is known from only six localities in Beauregard and Calcasieu parishes, Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).	eng
15438	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. blacki </span>occurs in small to medium sized permanent streams with a sand and mud substrate (Fetzner 2008).	eng
15438	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population data avaliable for this subspecies.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
15438	threats	Adams, S., 2010	The main threat to this crayfish subspecies is pollution from agricultural run off such as sedimentation and chemical pollution (wlf 2009).	eng
15439	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
15439	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species was first found at the Brier Fork of the <st1:place w:st="on">Flint River</st1:place> in Madison County, Alabama (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). It is now known to be restricted to the Flint River Watershed, <st1:city w:st="on">Madsion County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state> and the head waters of the Flint River in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lincoln   County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place> (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).<br/><br/>It is known from only 7 localities, primarily in the Flint River (Tennessee system) in Madison County, Alabama (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and Lincoln County, Tennessee. In Tennessee, Williams and Bivens (2001) documented it in the Highland Rim province in the headwaters of the Flint River system in Lincoln County.   This species has a distribution of approximately 2539 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15439	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in stream habitats, most commonly along the edges amongst leaf litter (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).&#160; The streams in which it has been found support a wide variety of crayfish species due to high levels of habitat heterogeneity (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).&#160; Furthermore, these streams get much deeper during flooding in winter and spring (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).	eng
15439	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
15439	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species. This species inhabits a rural area, however, urbanization of the growing Huntsville metropolitan area may impact the species in the future   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
15440	conservation	Bergey, E., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>  <em><em><em></em></em></em>	eng
15440	distribution	Bergey, E., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the North Canadian drainage (mainstem only) in Oklahoma. It was first found in Oklahoma in 1951, although a valid description of the crayfish didn't occur until 1975 from a New Mexico record; it was also found in Oklahoma in 1975. It occurs from Harper County (where the North Canadian is known as the Beaver River), through Woodward, Blaine from a record from 1951, Dewey and Okfuskee Counties, Oklahoma. Though it may occur in other parts of Oklahoma, as extensive survey work in this state has not been done. The species also occurs in the Arkansas River in Muskogee and LeFlore Counties, near it's junction with the North  Canadian River. Although Conchas Reservoir is on the Canadian River in New Mexico, the species has not been collected in the Canadian River in Oklahoma (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 93,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15440	habitat	Bergey, E., 2010	This species inhabits both streams and lakes (Hobbs 1989), in woody debris piles on sand bottomed low gradient rivers (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Additionally, it occurs in warm, eutrophic water (among filamentous green algae in an area with high cattle use) at the western edge of the Oklahoma range. It did not extend further westward into the intermittent headwaters. It also occurs in reservoirs along the North Canadian River e.g. Canton Reservoir in Blaine County and Fort Supply Reservoir in Woodward County (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15440	population	Bergey, E., 2010	This species is known from a number of collections. It is abundant within the North Canadian River in areas of suitable habitat (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
15440	threats	Bergey, E., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>was introduced to the Conchas Lake reservoir approximately 25 years ago (Bouchard 1980), which drains into the Canadian river where this species is found. However there are no records of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> in the North Canadian River at this time (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
15441	conservation	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/>    <p><span class="datalabel">Further research this species range and assessments of population size are recommended, as are evaluations of responses to stream habitat degradation (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009)<span class="datalabel">.</p><p></p>	eng
15441	distribution	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is known from six localities in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Yazoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992, Adams 2008). More specifically, it is known from the Yalobusha, Yocona, and Little Tallahatchie drainages in Calhoun, Yalobusha, Lafayette, and Panola counties. An additional record of one female from the upper <st1:place w:st="on">Pearl River</st1:place> drainage requires further collections to verify the identification.&#160; Another unsubstantiated record of the species from <st1:place w:st="on">Tallahatchie</st1:place> County was reported in Fitzpatrick (1996). If these are substantiated, they would represent substantial range expansions.&#160; <br/></p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 1,466 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
15441	habitat	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is endemic to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Yazoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It inhabits streams with sand, silt or compacted clay substrates in channels from 7 - 10 m wide, at various depths ranging from several centimetres to one meter (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992). Water flow can be either slow or moderate. However, <em></em>this species seems to exhibit a range of tolerances for different habitats. Cowpen Creek, for example, is narrow, varying from 2.4 to 9.2 meters width, its bed is compacted clay with undercut ledges, and it has water temperatures up to 28<sup>o</sup>C (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992).</p>	eng
15441	population	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p><em></em>This species was found to be uncommon in five of six collections, obtaining three or fewer specimens per site (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). Most stream sampling within the range has not produced this species (<st1:place w:st="on">S. Adams</st1:place>, pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
15441	threats	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p><em></em>This species seems to be able to tolerate somewhat degraded conditions, as two of the streams it inhabits are used by small holder livestock farming (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992). It is likely to be affected by row-crop agriculture, deforestation, roads, channelization, and head-cutting. In addition, large reservoirs currently fragment this species' range   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
15442	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), although new records mean this will be updated shortly (C. Taylor, pers comm. 2009).<br/>Further research on this spceis is recommenced to clarify its abundance, distribution and threats       (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15442	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Alabama River basin in Dallas, Lowndes, Montgomery, Perry, and Wilcox Counties, Alabama (Cooper and Hobbs 1980), in a limited portion of the lower Tom Bigby and central Alabama drainages.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
15442	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams less than one meter deep with a sluggish to moderate current, coupled with a sand and clay substrate (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). This species has been found underneath debris and roots of trees along the banks of the stream bed (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).	eng
15442	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is known to be uncommon in sites at which it is present     </p><p>(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p>	eng
15442	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known immediate threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. There are large areas of timber harvesting in its range and is thus likely to be undergoing localized declines due to increased siltation and alterations the hydrological regime   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
15443	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Buhay, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the subpopulations is needed to determine the status at each site.	eng
15443	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Buhay, J., 2010	This species is currently known from Rockcastle and Pulaski Counties, and possibly McCreary County, Kentucky (Buhay and Crandall 2008), although historical sites were not accessible for recent genetic studies. This species is also found on both sides of the Cumberland River, which fragments the distribution (J. Buhay pers. comm. 2010). With intensive field surveys, it is believed more cave localities will be found for this species (Buhay and Crandall 2008). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 2,600 km².    <p> </p>	eng
15443	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Buhay, J., 2010	This is a subterranean species (Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
15443	population	Crandall, K.A. & Buhay, J., 2010	No formal census surveys have been done for this species, although genetic diversity is significant, suggesting severe fragmentation of populations (Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
15443	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Buhay, J., 2010	Major road construction has been recognized as an imminent threat to many populations of this species (Buhay and Crandall 2008) and is impacting all the subpopulations of this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).	eng
15452	conservation	Acosta, G., Cossios, D., Lucherini, M. & Villalba, L., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Leopardus jacobitus</span>). The Andean Cat also has full protection at national level across its entire range, as described below.  However, law enforcement is problematic, and recently hunted specimens have been observed in the field and for sale in special markets to be used in religious ceremonies.  Traditional cultural reverence for the Andean Cat should be the foundation of a conservation education program to reduce hunting pressure (Lucherini <em>et al.</em> 2003, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Conservation also depends on maintaining and restoring colonies of the main prey species, Mountain Vizcachas (<em>Lagidium</em> spp.), which historically have been destroyed or severely reduced (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>The Andean Cat Conservation Action Plan (Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2004) lists protected areas where Andean Cat presence is confirmed and suspected.<br/><br/>The action plan has six objectives:<br/><br/>To determine the current distribution and relative abundance of Andean Cat populations, and the threats that affect the species and natural ecosystems;<br/><br/>To carry out scientific research to provide basic information on Andean Cat biology and ecology;<br/><br/>To mitigate impacts of human activities on the Andean Cat and natural ecosystems through community education and participation;<br/><br/>To strengthen the management of protected areas where the Andean Cat is present, promote the establishment of new areas or corridors and encourage the development of conservation initiatives in the region;<br/><br/>To promote the implementation and adequacy of conservation legislation and policies regarding the Andean Cat and natural ecosystems; and<br/><br/>To continuously evaluate the actions developed in the implementation of this plan. <br/><br/>National legislation<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>The Andean Cat is protected by National Law 22421 of wildlife conservation and its Statutory<br/>Decree 666/97. Also, Resolution N°63/86 of the Secretary of Agriculture.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Along with other wild species of fauna and flora, the Andean Cat is protected by the Supreme<br/>Decree N°22641, promulgated in 1990, which establishes a general and undefined ban for the<br/>pursuit, capture, storing and conditioning of wild animals and its derivative products.<br/><br/>Chile<br/>All felid species are fully protected since 1972 by Law N° 19473. The illegal hunting of felines in<br/>Chile is penalized with fines up to US$ 6.000 and imprisonment up to 3 years.<br/><br/>Peru<br/>In Peru the Andean Cat is considered a threatened species and its hunting, commerce and<br/>possession (live or dead animals or its parts) is prohibited (Supreme Decree N°013-99-AG, <br/>1999).	eng
15452	distribution	Acosta, G., Cossios, D., Lucherini, M. & Villalba, L., 2008	The Andean Cat has a restricted distribution, being found only in the higher elevations of the Andes moutains, in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru.  In Argentina, while the average elevation of occurrence was estimated at 4,236 m (Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003), it has also been found at lower elevations, with a new record of 1,800 m in the southern Andes (Sorli <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In Chile, Napolitano collected confirmed scats of the Andean Cat from 3,714 to 4,414 m, but the probability of finding scats increased with altitude.  In Bolivia, Villalba <em>et al.</em> (2008) consider it to occur generally only from 4,100 m and higher, and most records from Peru were collected at 4,000 m or higher (Cossios <em>et a</em>l. 2007).  While range in Chile appears to be less extensive (Iriarte 1998, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008) than previously inferred (Scrocchi and Halloy 1986), in Peru, where it was previously thought to be only of marginal occurrence in the far south, new research has extended its range over 800 km north into the center of the country (Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Andean Cat has only been observed in the wild a few times by scientists (Scrocchi and Halloy 1986, Sanderon 1999, Sorli <em>et al.</em> 2006), and there are few museum specimens (Garcia-Perea 2002), but the number of recent distribution records has greatly increased due to the efforts of the Andean Cat Alliance (www.gatoandino.org), a network of specialist researchers.	eng
15452	habitat	Acosta, G., Cossios, D., Lucherini, M. & Villalba, L., 2008	The Andean Cat is restricted to the arid, sparsely vegetated areas of the high Andes above the timberline, primarily in the most most rocky and steep terrain (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its distribution is similar to the historic range of the Short-tailed Chinchilla (<em>Chinchilla chinchilla</em>) and current range of the Mountain Vizcacha (<em>Lagidium</em> spp.) (Yensen and Seymour 2000), which are its major prey (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2007, Napolitano <em>et al</em>. 2008).  Most recent information about the species has come from analysis of scats found at latrine sites near rocky areas and caves (Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).   <br/><br/>The Andean Cat is perhaps a solitary species, but may be seen in pairs or with cubs during mating season and after births respectively (Villalba <em>et a</em>l. 2004). Mating season, according to local people in Bolivia, is between July and August (Villalba and Bernal 1998); howeve,r is possible that this period is extended until November or December due to small cubs have been observed in October and April (Villalba 2002, E. Delgado pers. comm.). The period between October and March corresponds to the spring and summer season in the southern hemisphere, and during these seasons it is common to record births for other wildlife species and it is the period of major productivity of vegetation (Villalba <em>et a</em>l. 2004).  Two kittens were seen by Villalba (2002), and what appears to be an older single cub by Sorli <em>et al.</em> (2006).  <br/><br/>Most of the reported sightings of Andean Cats have been mainly during daytime; however, current studies on the species through camera traps and observations of a radio-collared Andean Cat indicate that the activity of the species is mainly at night or crepuscular (Villalba 2002, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2004, L. Villalba unpublished data). The crepuscular or nocturnal habits of the Andean Cat are likely related with feeding habits of its main prey, the Mountain Vizcacha, which is considered a diurnal and crepuscular species (Galende <em>et a</em>l. 1998).<br/><br/>Data on territoriality is absent, however, as occurs with most felids (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), it is possible that male territories are larger than those of females and that there could be a certain degree of territory overlapping between the sexes.  Because the conditions of the Andean Cat habitat are severe and naturally fragmented, it is probable that territory and home ranges are very large; in fact the results of the radio-tracking of a female Andean Cat, between April and December 2004, gave a home range of 65.5 km² (95% minimum convex polygon: L. Villalba unpublished data). <br/><br/>The Andean Cat is a medium-sized felid; from measures of skins the total length in adults varies from 740 to 850 mm and in sub-adults varies from 577 to 600 mm; tail length is from 410 to 485 for adults and 330 to 420 mm for sub-adults. Only two records on the weight are available, the first from a sub-adult specimen from Peru, which weighed 4 kg (Pearson 1957, García-Perea 2002) and the second is from an adult female from Bolivia which weighed 4.5 kg (Delgado <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Andean Cat fur is mainly ash grey with brown-yellowish blotches that are distributed as vertical lines at both sides of the body, giving the appearance of continuous stripes. The tail of the Andean Cat is very characteristic. It is very long (66 - 75% of the head and body length), thick and cylindrical, with a fluffy aspect and with 6 to 9 wide rings of dark brown to black colour (García-Perea 2002). The legs also have dark and narrower blotches or stripes, but they don’t form complete rings.<br/><br/>Apparently the species is not sexually dimorphic in terms of fur color, but comparisons among Andean cat skulls carried out by García-Perea (2002) suggest that sexual dimorphism is present. Differences between juvenile and adult specimens were also found, with juveniles having a lighter coloration and more and smaller blotches (García-Perea 2002). Because of these features, sub-adult or juvenile Andean Cats can be confused much more easily with Pampas Cats (García-Perea 2002).	eng
15452	population	Acosta, G., Cossios, D., Lucherini, M. & Villalba, L., 2008	The Andean Cat is rare compared to its close relative the Pampas Cat.  Although the Pampas Cat looks quite different in other parts of its wide range, in the high Andes it is similar in appearance to the Andean Cat, to the extent that local people find it difficult to distinguish the two (Villalba <em>et al.</em> in submission) as well as scientists, who have developed diagnostic keys (Garcia-Perea 2002, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Palacios 2007).  Several studies have found records of the Pampas Cat much more frequently than the Andean Cat (Lucherini and Vidal 2003, Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found reduced genetic diversity in the Andean Cat compared to the sympatric Pampas Cat, suggesting a "smaller current or historic population size."<br/><br/>The only population estimate available was for a 25,000 ha area in northern Chile, around the Salar de Surire National Monument, where Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated five individuals to occur based on genetic sampling, for a density of one per 5 km².<br/><br/>There are no known Andean Cats in captivity.	eng
15452	threats	Acosta, G., Cossios, D., Lucherini, M. & Villalba, L., 2008	The Andean Cat Conservation Action Plan (2004) considers traditional hunting the top threat, followed by prey reduction and habitat loss and fragmentation.<br/><br/>The Andean Cat (as well as the pampas cat) is considered a sacred animal according to indigenous Aymara and Quechua traditions.  Throughout much of its range, dried and stuffed specimens are kept by local people for use in harvest festivals (Iriarte 1998, Sanderson 1999, Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cossios <em>et al.</em> 2007, Villalba <em>et al.</em> 2008).  Hunting for such cultural practices may represent a significant threat to the species.  In Argentina's Catamarca province, 69% of people interviewed (n=13) said they had hunted small cats (Perovic <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The Mountain Chinchilla was likely to have been a major prey species for the Andean mountain cat, but the species was hunted nearly to extinction for the fur trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Its main prey is now the Mountain Vizcacha (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007, Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008), which lives in patchily distributed small colonies and has also been reduced by hunting pressure. This may result in a highly fragmented distribution for the Andean Cat.  Genetic analysis suggests that the Andean Cat had a historic or a currently small population size (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008).  <br/><br/>Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found that Andean Cats were much more dependent on Mountain Vizcachas than sympatric Pampas Cats, which took a wider variety of prey.  However, Pampas Cats were more abundant that Andean Cats, even at higher altitudes (Napolitano <em>et al.</em> 2008), and inter-specific competition for Vizcacha prey could negatively impact the Andean Cat (Lucherini and Luengos Vidal 2003, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat alteration and destruction, mainly by extensive mining, resource extraction for fuel, and to a lesser degree cattle grazing is increasingly affecting its populations in some parts of its range (Villalba <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Hunting by local people who consider the Andean Cat a predator of their small domestic livestock has been frequently reported particularly in some regions of Argentina, Chile and Peru (Iriarte 1998, Cossíos and Madrid 2003, Lucherini <em>et al</em>. 2003). These cats are also killed by dogs accompanying local shepherds.  Cossios <em>et al.</em> (2007) also reported the hunting of Andean and Pampas Cats for food and for traditional medicine in central Peru.<br/><br/>Napolitano <em>et al.</em> (2008) found that the probability of finding sign of the Andean Cat decreased with proximity to human settlement.<br/><br/>Cossios and Angers (2007) found that the genetic diversity of Andean Cats was extremely low across their range.	eng
15457	conservation	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
15457	distribution	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Present within the Lake Victoria drainage and Lake Kanyaboli. It has been introduced into several dams and waters, including the Pangani system (Lake Jipe). It is still present in some of the satellite lakes of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. It is, however, virtually extinct from the main Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.	eng
15457	habitat	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This species was originally (before competitive exclusion by the introduced species) confined to water less than 20 m deep and was most abundant in sheltered gulfs and bays where the bottom is composed of soft algaceous mud (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is a plankton feeder, using the mucus-trap mechanism combined with the combing action of the pharyngeal teeth. It is non selective all organisms of a size capable of being retained are passed into the stomach (Trewavas 1983). Breeding fish are found throughout the year and distinct spawning areas can be identified in the lake. Females brooding eggs often move off to the shelter of macrophyte beds or swampy areas. The young become independent at a length of about 15 mm when they are often found in channels in papyrus swamps (Trewavas 1983). Max Size: 248 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).	eng
15457	population	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Declining.	eng
15457	threats	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Displacement by introduced fishes notably Nile perch and Nile tilapia. Heavy fishing pressure: over-fishing was reported by Horril (2000) as the cause for population decline, reduction in harvestable size and size at first maturity. Marked reduction of diatoms from the phytoplankton of Lakes Victoria and Kyoga at the expense of 'unpalatable' <em>Cyanobacteria</em>. Massive <em>Typha</em> species infestation of the spawning and nursery grounds. Increased siltation due to agricultural and cattle grazing practice in the area. Clearance of water-laden woodlands for agriculture (land encroachment), especially in the northwest, and for fuel wood. Pollution from domestic and agricultural effluents.	eng
15458	conservation	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
15458	distribution	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Victoria drainage (endemic). It has not been recorded in the Tanzanian part of the Lake since the 1990s (Seehausen and Bouton 1997, Mkumbo 1999). The species is, however, still found in some localized portions of the lake and in satellite lakes, mainly Burigi, Katwe, and Kirumi pool (Katunzi and Kishe 2002). It is also found in Nyumba ya Mungu Dam and several inland ponds following probable introductions.	eng
15458	habitat	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Most abundant on exposed and sandy shores where there is considerable water movement. It also occurs in the calm waters of water lily swamps (Lowe McConnell 1956). Found at a depth range of 0–40 m but most commonly in water less than 10 m deep (Witte and de Winter, 1995). The young fish feed on planktonic algae and may ingest small copepods. The adults feed predominantly on bottom algae but they also feed directly on plankton (Trewavas, 1983) and may graze algae from rocks and aquatic plants (Witte and de Winter 1995). It spawns on firm or sand habitats and breeding males may occasionally be seen guarding their circular nests in water a few feet deep at the edge of the lake. Young are brooded until about 15 mm long. Brooding females have been caught in the rushes and among vegetation near the edges of the lake (Lowe McConnell 1956). Max Size: 246 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).	eng
15458	population	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The population has declined. It supported a commercial fishery in Lake Victoria prior to the nineteen fifties but later declined to low levels prompting restocking (Oguto Ohwayo 1990). Trawl surveys during 1969/70 established catch rates of 1.5 kg/hr (Mkumbo 1999) but these rates have not been possible since that time as it has been virtually eliminated from main Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga due to predation by the introduced Nile perch (Ogutho-Ohwayo 1990), and through ecological displacement by introduced Nile tilapia and <em>Tilapia zilii</em> (Twongo 1995). Present-day sub-populations are highly fragmented within the satellite lakes, where they are free from predation by the Nile perch.	eng
15458	threats	Twongo, T.K., Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Over-fishing, particularly using illegal methods and gear. Competition for habitats and food with exotic species (introduced Nile tilapia), and predation by the introduced Nile perch.	eng
15478	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
15485	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About one-quarter of the population occurs in protected areas, including: Simien and Bale Mountains (Ethiopia), Tsavo (Kenya), North and South Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Namib-Naukluft (Namibia) and Matobo (Zimbabwe). It occurs in lesser numbers in a large number of other protected areas throughout its range which contain smaller areas of suitable habitat. Very large numbers survive on private farmland in Namibia.	eng
15485	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Klipspringer has a wide distribution from north-eastern Sudan, Eritrea, northern Somalia and the Ethiopian Highlands southwards through East and southern Africa to South Africa, and along the west coast in Namibia and south-western Angola. Isolated populations occur in the Central African Republic (two separate areas in the northern and western uplands) and south-eastern DR Congo (East 1999; Roberts in press). In Nigeria, they occur in and around the Jos Plateau (East 1999), and also in the east in the Gashaka-Gumpti N. P. (Nicholas 2004). The only country in which they formerly occurred, but are now probably extinct, is Burundi.	eng
15485	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Klipspringers are dependent on rocky and mountainous terrain, occurring up to 4,380 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). The Rift Valleys and the Southern African escarpments provide extensive suitable habitat and are central to its distribution. Klipspringers are primarily browsers.	eng
15485	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Klipspringer can reach relatively high population densities within continuous areas of favourable habitat, e.g., 10.0-14.0/km² in a 9.6 km² area of escarpment, ridge top and gorge in Simien Mountains National Park (Ethiopia). More typically, the Klipspringer’s habitat is discontinuous within a given area and its abundance is closely related to the extent of suitable rocky terrain. Its overall population density is frequently in the range 0.01-0.1/km² in protected areas within which it is common in restricted areas of suitable habitat. Higher densities occur in areas with more extensive Klipspringer habitat, e.g., 0.15-0.30/km² in Lengwe (Malawi) and Karoo, Mountain Zebra and Royal Natal National Parks and Giant’s Castle Game Reserve (South Africa) (various authors in East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of about 42,000 animals, which is probably conservative. Population trend is stable in many protected areas and on private land, but tending to decrease in areas where small, isolated populations are subjected to uncontrolled hunting and competition with livestock. The numbers of the western klipspringer are unknown but are unlikely to exceed a few thousand at most, in view of its very restricted distribution. This subspecies’ population is probably decreasing, at least in Nigeria.	eng
15485	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no obvious major threats to Klipspringers across their range. Their habitat is of little value to humans and it persists outside protected areas in regions where subsistence hunting pressure is not intense. The Klipspringer’s adaptation to the inaccessible hillsides and cliffs in these areas enables it to avoid most competition from domestic herds. Small, isolated populations within relatively small areas of rocky habitat are more vulnerable to hunting and competition from goats, and many of these populations have been eliminated in settled regions.	eng
15491	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Titicaca, a high elevation Andean lake at 3,812 m.	eng
15492	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Chungara, a high elevation Andean lake at 4,517 m.	eng
15493	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in the Lauca River.	eng
15494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in the Lauca River.	eng
15509	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
15509	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Traded in East Asian food markets in huge numbers of animals of all sizes. It is exported in large quantities from Indonesia despite official protection.	eng
15541	distribution	Roth, B., 2000	The Stock Island tree snail presently occurs on Stock Island in the Florida Keys. It is confined to the northwest region of the island on several trees in a municipal parking lot.	eng
15541	habitat	Roth, B., 2000	The species lives on trees and shrubs in tropical hardwood hammocks. It is found on a large diversity of tree species, such as <em>Acacia farnesiana</em> (sweet acacia); <em>Bursera simaruba</em> (gumbo limbo), <em>Chrysobalanus icaco</em> (coco plum) and <em>Ficus aurea</em> (strangling fig) amongst others.	eng
15543	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Searches must continue, especially for the larval habitat. Continued removal of alien trees must also continue. Trout should no longer be released and those present should be removed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable.	eng
15543	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	Formerly, this species was recorded from various localities in the Western Cape, including Table Mountain. Clearly it was never an abundant species (Pinhey 1979, 1984b). A great deal of searching time was devoted to this species between 1993 and 2006 but it was never rediscovered, suggesting that it may be under severe threat.	eng
15543	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	High, montane streams and kloofs. However, specific habitat is not known - it may be a montane specialist, in which case it may not be particularly threatened; or it may be a lower elevation species, in which case it may be seriously threatened. More data are needed.	eng
15543	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	There is no information available at all on current population size or trends. It has not been seen since 1977.	eng
15543	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	It is not clear why this species has not been rediscovered as its upland habitat is largely found in protected areas. However, it may breed at lower elevations where it is affected by threats as plantation forestry, alien invasive trees, alien trout and, in Du Toit’s Kloof, from fish farming.	eng
15544	conservation	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
15544	distribution	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs from northwestern Panama to Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997); in Costa Rica, it is found up to 3,200 m (Rodriguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). Found also in Santa Fe National Park and Veraguas province and Bahia Honda.	eng
15544	habitat	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is poorly known. This species occurs in forests, clearings and agricultural areas. It sometimes damages crops of bananas, rice, and cassava (Reid 1997).	eng
15544	population	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997); but in Bahia Honda (Pacific coast) and Santa Fe NP it is rare.	eng
15544	threats	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
15545	conservation	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs within protected areas, although such occurrence is not considered essential to secure it because of its ability to thrive in agricultural lands.	eng
15545	distribution	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in north central Costa Rica (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,450 m (Hafner and Hafner 1987).	eng
15545	habitat	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in forest, second growth, and agricultural areas, in both humid and seasonally dry regions (Reid 1997). This species can damage crops including banana and cassava, rubber trees and young palms in primary forest (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>Pregnant females have been taken from November to February, and litter size is 2 or 3 young (Reid 1997).	eng
15545	population	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
15545	threats	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
15546	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	More research is needed to determine its current status, distribution, and habitat requirements (specifically the degree to which this species tolerates disturbance). It is protected as a 'threatened species' under Mexican law.	eng
15546	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is confined to a few localities in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca (Goodwin 1969; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). The type locality is Zanatepec (Patton 2005). Ceballos and Oliva (2005) state it is found from sea level to 30 m asl, but Goodwin (1969) states that the species is known from the "foothills", and when the collecting localities are mapped, they clearly include areas higher than 30 m asl.	eng
15546	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Goodwin (1969) states that this species is known from arid tropical habitats, and the region where it has been recorded still contains some dry forests, although one of the collecting localities (Ingenio Santo Domingo) in the gazetteer to Goodwin (1969) is described as a sugar refinery surrounded by sugarcane fields, which makes it at least possible that this species is tolerant of some degree of disturbance. Nothing more is known about the natural history of this species (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
15546	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There is no current information about its population status; the most recent collecting record appears to be from the early 1960s, and it is unknown whether this species has even been looked for since that time.	eng
15546	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The major threats to this species are unknown. The range of this species has been, and continues to be, heavily modified. Deforestation for plantation agriculture and grazing by cattle are occurring and are possible threats, but nothing is known about this species' tolerance to habitat disturbance.	eng
15547	conservation	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It occurs in Darien National Park, Panama. Taxonomic work is needed to determine whether or not this species includes <em>O. thaeleri</em>, which if true, would expand its range.	eng
15547	distribution	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Panama (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,300 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15547	habitat	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in evergreen forest, clearings, and agricultural areas. It is active in the early morning, evening, and at night. More mounds are produced in the rainy season than in the dry season (Reid 1997).	eng
15547	population	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is locally abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
15547	threats	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
15548	conservation	Reid, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs within protected areas, although such occurrence is not considered essential to secure it because of its ability to thrive in agricultural lands.	eng
15548	distribution	Reid, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in central Costa Rica in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Talamanca (Reid 1997). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
15548	habitat	Reid, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	Found in agricultural areas, roadsides, and clearings (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It may be active by day or night but is most active in the morning. This is the only species in the genus for which the burrow structure is known, through radio tracking studies and tunnel excavations. Each burrow contains a central nest with adjacent food storage areas and excrement chambers. Straight tunnels radiate from the nest area like spokes of a wheel and lead to foraging areas. Several foraging areas are in active use at the same time; each area is honeycombed with shallow feeding tunnels and marked by the characteristic above-ground mounds. Individuals are solitary, each with a nonoverlapping home range of about 240 m<sup>2</sup> (Sisk and Vaughan 1984, in Reid 1997). A lactating female was noted in March (Reid 1997).	eng
15548	population	Reid, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid 1997)	eng
15548	threats	Reid, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
15549	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
15549	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs from south Tamaulipas and the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, to Belize, Guatemala, and northwestern Honduras (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,400 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15549	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This rodent occurs in forest openings, sandy, coastal regions, and agricultural areas with well-drained soil. It is mainly nocturnal, but it sometimes feeds during the day. Burrows are about 10 cm in diameter, and mounds are usually small. A pregnant female with 2 embryos was caught (Hall and Dalquest 1963 in Reid 1997).	eng
15549	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is locally common to abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
15549	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
15550	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is probably found in one protected area in Colombia, Cuena Quebrada Mutata Forest Reserve. It is not known from any other protected areas (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
15550	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species occurs in Serranía de Baudó (extreme north-west Colombia) (Patton 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 100 to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
15550	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	It occupies open habitats with well-drained soils (Emmons and Feer 1997). It also occurs in tropical rainforest, mainly in lowlands. It is probably both diurnal and nocturnal, fossorial, and solitary. It is herbivorous and feeds on underground plant parts, such as tubers and stems, and on above ground parts pulled down from below. The presence of pocket gophers is shown by their shallow foraging tunnels, which appear as low humps snaking between damaged plants.	eng
15550	population	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	It is locally abundant, but populations are patchily distributed (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
15550	threats	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & McCarthy, T., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species; it occurs in a remote area (R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
15568	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Scimitar-horned Oryx is listed on CMS Appendix 1. A global captive breeding programme was initiated in the 1960s. In 2005 there were at least 1,550 captive animals held in managed breeding programmes around the world (Gilbert 2005). In addition, a large number, probably >4,000 are kept in a private collection in the United Arab Emirates. Additional animals are likely held on private game ranches in the USA. As part of planned reintroduction projects, animals have been released into fenced protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma National Park 1985, Sidi Toui National Park 1999, Oued Dekouk National Park 1999), Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park 1995), and Senegal (Ferlo Faunal Reserve 1998, Guembuel Wildlife Reserve 1999). Reintroduction is currently also planned at a site in Niger.	eng
15568	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Scimitar-horned Oryx is listed on CMS Appendix 1. A global captive breeding programme was initiated in the 1960s. In 2005 there were at least 1,550 captive animals held in managed breeding programmes around the world (Gilbert 2005). In addition, a large number, probably >4,000 are kept in a private collection in the United Arab Emirates. Additional animals are likely held on private game ranches in the USA. As part of planned reintroduction projects, animals have been released into fenced protected areas in Tunisia (Bou Hedma National Park 1985, Sidi Toui National Park 1999, Oued Dekouk National Park 1999), Morocco (Souss-Massa National Park 1995), and Senegal (Ferlo Faunal Reserve 1998, Guembuel Wildlife Reserve 1999). Reintroduction is currently also planned at a site in Niger. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
15568	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	May formerly have been widespread across North Africa, at least in arid and Saharan areas, but now Extinct in the Wild over all its range. Captive herds are kept in fenced protected areas in Tunisia, Senegal and Morocco (Sous Massa National Park (probably outside the known historical range) as part of long-term reintroduction programmes.	eng
15568	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Primarily inhabits sub-desert, annual grassland steppe areas. Found in rolling dunes, grassy steppes and wooded inter-dunal depressions, rarely entering true desert or true Sahelian bush. The Scimitar-horned Oryx is well adapted to arid areas.	eng
15568	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	An estimated 500 Oryx survived at least until 1985 in Chad and Niger, but by 1988 only a few dozen individuals survived in the wild and since then there have been no confirmed reports of any wild oryx surviving in the wild (Morrow in press).<br/><br/>There are captive populations in fenced protected areas in several former range states: in Tunisia, there were 130 in Bou Hedma N.P. in 2005, 25 in Sidi-Toui N.P. (2006), and 12 in Oued Dekouk N.P. (2006); in Morocco, there were 240 in Souss-Massa N.P. in 2005; and in Senegal, there were 18 at Guembeul and 12 at Ferlo in 2004 (see Morrow in press, and refs therein). These populations are all maintained in fenced enclosures of varying sizes and are subject to different degrees of management. None is eligible for consideration as a released population for assessment purposes.	eng
15568	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Overhunting and habitat loss, including competition with domestic livestock, have been reported as the main reasons for the extinction of the wild population of Scimitar-horned Oryx (Mallon and Kingswood 2001, Devillers and Devillers-Terschuren 2005, Morrow in press).	eng
15569	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Protective legislation in Saudi Arabia, Oman and Israel is adequate. Occur in protected areas, as above. Sites in Israel and Bahrain are also protected. Captive population is well-managed, with an international studbook. In addition, large numbers are kept in private collections, especially in UAE and Saudi Arabia. The government of UAE is funding a reintroduction into Jordan and is considering releases in Yemen. A regional Arabian Oryx conservation strategy was developed in 2007. The Coordinating Committee for the Conservation of the Arabian Oryx is an inter-governmental body charged with coordination of conservation efforts within the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
15569	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Protective legislation in Saudi Arabia, Oman and Israel is adequate. Occur in protected areas, as above. Sites in Israel and Bahrain are also protected. Captive population is well-managed, with an international studbook. In addition, large numbers are kept in private collections, especially in UAE and Saudi Arabia. The government of UAE is funding a reintroduction into Jordan and is considering releases in Yemen. A regional Arabian Oryx conservation strategy was developed in 2007. The Coordinating Committee for the Conservation of the Arabian Oryx is an inter-governmental body charged with coordination of conservation efforts within the Arabian Peninsula. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
15569	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred through most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to Kuwait and Iraq. Arabian Oryx range had already contracted by the early years of the 20th century and the decline accelerated thereafter. Before 1920, oryx distribution was separated into areas over 1,000 km apart: a northern population, and a larger southern population in and around the Rub Al Khali and the plains of central-southern Oman. Oryx disappeared from the north in the 1950s. In the south, their range steadily decreased due to hunting and by the 1960s oryx were restricted to parts of central and southern Oman. The last wild individuals were probably shot in 1972 on the Jiddat al Harasis.<br/><br/>Currently, there are reintroduced populations in Oman (Arabian Oryx Sanctuary), Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd Reserve, 2,900 km² and Uruq Bani Ma’arid Reserve, 5,500 km²); and Israel (3 locations in Northern Arava and Negev Desert). A release programme in Abu Dhabi, UAE, began in 2007.	eng
15569	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred through most of the Arabian Peninsula, north to Kuwait and Iraq. Arabian Oryx range had already contracted by the early years of the 20th century and the decline accelerated thereafter. Before 1920, oryx distribution was separated into areas over 1,000 km apart: a northern population, and a larger southern population in and around the Rub Al Khali and the plains of central-southern Oman. Oryx disappeared from the north in the 1950s. In the south, their range steadily decreased due to hunting and by the 1960s oryx were restricted to parts of central and southern Oman. The last wild individuals were probably shot in 1972 on the Jiddat al Harasis.<br/><br/>Currently, there are reintroduced populations in Oman (Arabian Oryx Sanctuary), Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd Reserve, 2,900 km² and Uruq Bani Ma’arid Reserve, 5,500 km²); and Israel (three locations in Northern Arava and Negev Desert). A release programme in Abu Dhabi, UAE, began in 2007.	eng
15569	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Inhabits sandy and stony deserts.	eng
15569	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Current total population is estimated at approximately 1100: Oman (approximately 50); Saudi Arabia (approximately 950; 800 in Mahazat as Sayd and 160 in Uruq Bani Ma’arid); and Israel (90-100). The population in Oman reached a high point of 450 before illegal live capture began and severely reduced numbers. Now only males remain. In Saudi Arabia, numbers are roughly stable in Uruq Bani Ma’arid, but declining in Mahazat As Sayd, which is completely fenced and where animals have exceeded carrying capacity. There has been a slow, but steady increase in the Israeli population. About 100 animals have been released at Umm Al Zumul, UAE, since 2007.<br/><br/>An estimated 6000-7000 animals are held in captivity worldwide, mostly within the region. Some of these are maintained in large fenced enclosures, including those in Syria (Al Talila), Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE.<br/><br/>Current population trend is stable/decreasing.	eng
15569	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Oman population has been devastated by illegal live capture for sale to private collections and has been rendered totally ineffective. The security of animals that wander outside the other protected areas where they have been released cannot be guaranteed, except perhaps in Israel. Drought and overgrazing have reduced habitat quality in places and limited the choice of potential release further release sites.	eng
15571	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Most remaining populations of Beisa Oryx occur outside protected areas (with only 17% of the population in Pas). The largest populations occur in the Awash N.P. in the Awash Valley and Omo-Mago-Muruie-Chew Bahir (Ethiopia) and Sibiloi National Park and the unprotected northern rangelands (Kenya).<br/><br/>About 60% of Fringe-eared Oryx are in protected areas, particularly in Tsavo, Kajiado and Kilifi (Kenya) and Tarangire and Mkomazi (Tanzania).<br/><br/>More effective protection and management of the remaining populations in areas where the species still occurs in substantial numbers but its populations are in decline, such as the Awash Valley, Omo-Mago-Chew Bahir, northern Kenya and Tsavo, would greatly enhance the long-term survival prospects of this species (East 1999).<br/><br/>Populations of Beisa Oryx are maintained in captivity.	eng
15571	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	This species formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grasslands of North-East Africa, from north-east Sudan throughout arid areas of Eritrea, Ethiopia, north-east Uganda and Kenya to Djibouti, Somalia and north-east Tanzania (Wacher and Kingdon in press). Their distribution has declined markedly in numbers and distribution, especially at the margins of its range, e.g., Uganda and Somalia, but still occur quite widely in areas of Ethiopia, northern and eastern Kenya and north-eastern Tanzania where human and livestock densities are low (East 1999).<br/><br/>There is no recent confirmation of Beisa Oryx occurrence in Eritrea, where its status is uncertain. Likewise, the failure to locate any oryx during a 1995 aerial survey of Bokora Corridor, Matheniko and adjoining areas of Karamoja suggests that it has either disappeared completely from Uganda or at best survives in very small numbers (East 1999).<br/><br/>Fringe-eared Oryx are distributed entirely south of the Tana River in eastern Kenya and north-east Tanzania, with a major centre of distribution in Tsavo (East) and the Galana Ranch region (Cobb 1976), spreading west and south to Mkomazi, Amboseli and sporadically appearing in Serengeti (Wacher and Kingdon in press).	eng
15571	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Occurs widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grasslands of North-East Africa. The condition of grazing and state of the soil influence seasonal movements (Wacher and Kingdon in press). They occur to altitudes of 1,700 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Both subspecies eat a wide range of grass species and growth stages, taking more browse during the dry season (Wacher and Kingdon in press). Drinks regularly when water available, but can get by on water-storing melons, roots, bulbs, and tubers, for which it digs assiduously.	eng
15571	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population estimates are available from aerial surveys of large parts of the species’ range. Summation of these estimates suggests total populations of about 25,000 Beisa and 8,000 Fringe-eared, but this makes no allowance for unknown levels of undercounting bias and areas for which no estimates of numbers are available. Citing various authors East (1999) indicates that population densities estimated from aerial surveys are typically low, e.g., 0.05-0.10/km² in areas such as the Awash Valley and Tsavo and 0.15-0.20/km² in areas such as Omo-Mago-Murule-Chew Bahir, Mkomazi and Tarangire.<br/><br/>East (1999), correcting for undercounting bias, gives estimated total populations of about 50,000 Beisa Oryx and 17,000 Fringe-eared Oryx (East 1999). Population trends are probably gradually downward over most of the species’ current range, with exceptions in areas such as Sibiloi and Laikipia (Beisa Oryx) and Kajiado, Tarangire and Mkomazi (Fringe-eared).	eng
15571	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Poaching (for meat and hides) and encroachment by settlement and livestock remain the major threats to this species, especially since the majority of the population remains outside protected areas.	eng
15573	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The largest numbers occur on private land (about 45% of the population), especially in Namibia, and in protected areas (35%) such as Namib-Naukluft and Etosha (Namibia), Central Kgalagadi-Khutse Game Reserves and Gemsbok National Park and surrounds (Botswana) and Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (South Africa). All of these populations are stable or increasing.<br/><br/>The Gemsbok is of major economic value to the wildlife industry in southern Africa. It is a key trophy species on game farms and an important component of game-capture activities. In South Africa it is in great demand among farmers because of its trophy value. It has been introduced widely to areas outside its natural range, e.g., Gemsbok numbers have increased dramatically on bushveld farms in the north of the country, mainly due to introductions from Namibia. Kalahari Gemsbok National Park supports South Africa’s largest Gemsbok population.	eng
15573	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Gemsbok formerly occurred widely in the semi-arid and arid bushland and grassland of the Kalahari and Karoo and adjoining regions of southern Africa, with a marginal intrusion into south-west Angola (East 1999; Knight in press). The extensive contraction of its distribution and decline of its numbers which accompanied the expansion of human activities in Southern Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries have been partly compensated in the last 10 - 20 years by the widespread reintroduction of Gemsbok to private land and protected areas. Today, they remain widely, albeit patchily, distributed in south-western southern Africa, although populations in Angola are now considered extirpated, even from the former stronghold in Iona N.P. (East 1999). They have also been introduced in small numbers to areas outside their natural range, such as private game ranches in Zimbabwe (East 1999).	eng
15573	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Adapted to waterless watelands uninhabitable for most large mammals, Gemsboks inhabit semi-arid and arid bushland and grassland of the Kalahari and Karoo and adjoining regions of Southern Africa. They are is equally at home on sandy and stony plains and alkaline flats. It ranges over high sand dunes and climbs mountains to visit springs and salt licks.<br/><br/>Although they are predominantly grazers, they broaden their diets in the dry season to include a greater proportion of browse, ephemerals and Acacia pods. They drink water regularly when available, but can get by on water-storing melons, roots, bulbs, and tubers, for which it digs assiduously. Adaptations to living in a desert environment are summarized by Knight (in press).	eng
15573	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Population estimates are available for almost all of this species’ range. Summation of these estimates gives a total population of 326,000, but actual numbers are probably higher because of an unknown level of undercounting bias in aerial surveys. Assuming an average correction factor for undercounting bias of 1.3 would give a total population estimate of 373,000. Overall population trend is increasing in private farms and conservancies and protected areas, and stable elsewhere (East 1999).	eng
15573	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Presently there are no major threats to the survival of the species. In the past its numbers and its distribution decline significantly due to the expansion of human activities in Southern Africa during the 19th and 20th centuries. Yet, in the last two decades there has been widespread reintroduction of Gemsbok to private land and protected areas, For example, in Namibia the largest numbers occur on private farmland, where the estimated population increased from 55,000 in 1972 to >164,000 in 1992 (East 1999). <br/><br/>Despite this favourable trend, in some areas such as south-western Botswana its distribution is increasingly restricted to protected areas, to the point where there are now two discrete concentration areas within this region, in Central Kgalagadi-Khutse Game Reserves and within and to the north and east of Gemsbok National Park. Outside these protected areas, it occurs mainly in areas of the Kalahari without cattle (East 1999).<br/><br/>Its ability to meet its survival needs within a relatively small area of semi-arid or arid savanna, even during severe droughts, enable it to occupy much smaller mean annual ranges than migratory species such as blue wildebeest and red hartebeest. The gemsbok’s independence of surface water and non-migratory behaviour have enabled it to largely escape the adverse effects of veterinary cordon fencing (East 1999).	eng
15575	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.	eng
15576	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
15577	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
15578	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Malili Lakes system on Sulawesi.	eng
15579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Lake Sindenreng in Sulawesi.	eng
15583	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	None.	eng
15583	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Nayarit State, México: María Madre Island (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15583	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurred in damp areas near springs and close to the summit of Maria Madre. This habitat has abundant herbaceous vegetation in the undergrowth (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).  <br/><br/>Nelson’s rice rat may have fed on seeds, fruits, weeds, and occasionally small fish and invertebrates (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).	eng
15583	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known only by the four specimens of the type series. After extensive trapping that produced only a few specimens, <em>O. nelsoni</em> was believed to be rare (Nelson 1899 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003). More recent trapping in the type locality revealed only <em>Rattus rattus</em> (Wilson 1991 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003), and this species is currently considered extinct (IUCN, 2006).	eng
15583	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	The extinction of the species may have been caused by <em>Rattus rattus</em> (Wilson 1991 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2003).	eng
15584	conservation	Reid, F., Samudio, R., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
15584	distribution	Reid, F., Samudio, R., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs from montane forests of easternmost Panamá, north and westernmost Venezuela, the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, and northern Peru (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at 900 to 3,300 m (Percequillo, in prep.; Tirira, in prep.). Emmons and Albuja (1992) reported the species as less as 70 m in altitude, but this may be anomalous.	eng
15584	habitat	Reid, F., Samudio, R., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is omnivorous, terrestrial and nocturnal; it occurs in primary and secondary montane forest.	eng
15584	population	Reid, F., Samudio, R., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is common.	eng
15584	threats	Reid, F., Samudio, R., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There are no major threats at this time; however, deforestation is an important influence on its area of occupancy.	eng
15585	conservation	Timm, R., Matson, J., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R. P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15585	distribution	Timm, R., Matson, J., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R. P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in lowland to lower montane forests from south Tamaulipas and Oaxaca, México, through Central America, to western Colombia and Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found below 2,500 m (in Mesoamerica generally below 1,500 m).	eng
15585	habitat	Timm, R., Matson, J., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R. P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is nocturnal and terrestrial in forest and forest edge (Reid 1997).	eng
15585	population	Timm, R., Matson, J., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R. P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is uncommon (Reid 1997) to moderately common.	eng
15585	threats	Timm, R., Matson, J., Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R. P., Rivas, B., Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There are no major threats at this time; however, deforestation is an important influence on its extent of occurrence.	eng
15586	conservation	Weksler, M., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It occurs in Llanganates National Park, Ecuador, possibly two others (D. Tirira pers. comm.). Geography range study is required for Peru.	eng
15586	distribution	Weksler, M., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The species known distribution is disjunct. It occurs in eastern Ecuador and northern Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005) It is known from 1,000 to 2,900 m (Tirira in prep.).	eng
15586	habitat	Weksler, M., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It occurs in mosaic of paramo or temperate plants, subtropical vegetation, second growth and primary forest (Rageot and Albuja 1994).	eng
15586	population	Weksler, M., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (Tirira in prep.). In Peru it is known from one locality (Percequillo, in prep.).	eng
15586	threats	Weksler, M., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15587	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas (Tirira pers. comm.). Further taxonomic surveys are required.	eng
15587	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species distribution is disjunct. It occurs in east and south Ecuador, north Peru; range extent uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 1,800 m (Tirira, in prep.)	eng
15587	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is not well known. In Ecuadorian Andes the species occurs in cloud forest (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998). Probably it is terrestrial and nocturnal.	eng
15587	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species is rare in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
15587	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	In Ecuador, eastern habitat is well preserved; but western habitat has been destroyed (C. Boada and D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
15588	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B., Timm, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
15588	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B., Timm, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs from east Honduras, through east Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, to west Colombia and west central Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15588	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B., Timm, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rodent is found in lowland evergreen to lower montane cloud forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). Sometimes it is trapped up to 1.5 m above ground, but usually it is found on the ground, either under logs, around the roots of large trees, or among rocks along streams (Reid 1997).	eng
15588	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B., Timm, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is uncommon to rare (Reid 1997).	eng
15588	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B., Timm, R. & Pino, J., 2008	The species is threatened by deforestation, especially in the west of Colombia and Ecuador.	eng
15591	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
15591	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from cloud forest elevations in the Sierra Madre Oriental (from Tamaulipas to Veracruz), the Sistema Montañosa (north Oaxaca), and the Sierra Madre del Sur (south Oaxaca), México (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).  This species is found at 1,500-2,500 m asl.	eng
15591	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in cloud forest (Musser and Carlton 2005). It has been known to tolerate anthropogenic disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
15591	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
15591	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its cloud forest habitat.	eng
15592	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
15592	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is known from extreme southern Texas, USA; México (excluding north central plateau region), south through most of Central America, to northwestern Colombia; Jamaica (where population is extinct), Isla Cozumel; and disjunct populations in southern Baja California Sur and west central Sonora (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from lowlands to 2,000 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15592	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is found in cattail marshes and wetlands, including floating reed beds in deep water; also found in small bodies of standing water. It is less common in thorn scrub, brush, forest, and forest edge. Sometimes it invades rice fields and sugar cane (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This rat is a good climber and is sometimes is found above ground. It can swims or dives when is disturbed. The diet includes green plant material, insects (ants, beetles, and caterpillars), seeds (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984; Hall and Dalquest 1963). Nests are woven among reeds about one metre above ground or water level. Breeding may occur year around; the gestation period is about 25 days (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Litter size is 2 to 7 young, averaging 3.8 to 5 (Reid 1997; Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
15592	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This rodent is common and widespread, but seemingly rare in the United States. Estimated at 2 - 12 individuals/acre (5-30 individuals/ha).	eng
15592	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations are presumably impacted by the draining of wetlands within its range.	eng
15593	conservation	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	In Costa Rica, it is found in several protected areas, including Amistad and Talamanca.	eng
15593	distribution	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs in highlands of Costa Rica and westernmost Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15593	habitat	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species primarily occurs in highlands and cloud forest (Musser and Carlton 2005). This species is poorly known, but is thought to consume arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and may be important spore dispersers (Mangan and Adler 2000).	eng
15593	population	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	Common in wet highland forest.	eng
15593	threats	Reid, F. & Samudio, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. However, deforestation is a threat to some populations.	eng
15594	conservation	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Very little is known about this species. Further research needs include taxonomic and ecological studies.	eng
15594	distribution	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is known from south-east Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found in lowlands (Reid 1997).	eng
15594	habitat	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species has been found in dense cane on a riverbank (Jones and Engstrom 1986), and in a banana plantation on very wet, red clay (Thomas 1905). Its biology is poorly known; it is possibly semiaquatic (Reid 1997).	eng
15594	population	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Although it is known from only 3 specimens, it likely to be more widespread than these records would indicate.	eng
15594	threats	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
15595	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.	eng
15595	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It occurs only on Sante Fe (= Barrington) Island, and previously occurred on San Cristobal (= Chatham) Island (Musser and Carleton, 2005). <em>A. galapagoensis</em> was first described from specimens collected from Santa Cruz Island by Charles Darwin in 1835. Later studies suggested that <em>A. baur</em>i from Santa Fe, and <em>A. galapagoensis</em> were so similar that they may be considered conspecific (Patton and Hafner, 1983).	eng
15595	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Its ecology and natural history are poorly known. It is terrestrial and solitary.	eng
15595	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species includes two populations: <em>A. g. galapagoensis</em> occurs in San Cristobal Island, which is extinct (Dowler <em>et al.</em> 2000; Tirira 2001); and <em>A. g. bauri</em> occurs in Santa Fe Island, where it is common (Dowler <em>et al</em>. 2000; Tirira 2001).	eng
15595	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The history of the decline and likely extinction of the population on San Cristobal Island, with the increase and spread of introduced species has been well documented (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The introduction of exotic rats (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) or mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>) to Santa Fe Island remains the main threat to the species. History suggests that the species could easily go extinct due to invasive predators and competitor species and this should be a conservation priority.	eng
15596	conservation	Ochoa, J., Gómez-Laverde, M., Weksler, M. & Timm, R., 2008	In Venezuela the locality is within a protected area (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15596	distribution	Ochoa, J., Gómez-Laverde, M., Weksler, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is known from specimens in the eastern coast of the gulf of Maracaibo in Venezuela at sea level (Sanchez <em>et al. </em>2001; Sanchez Ojera and Vaz 2004) and from the type locality in Colombia.  Locals report a mangrove rat between the two locations but there are no voucher specimens (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
15596	habitat	Ochoa, J., Gómez-Laverde, M., Weksler, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in coastal environments of mangroves, freshwater inundated grasslands, and salt marsh; it is terrestrial and semi aquatic, and is omnivorous (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15596	population	Ochoa, J., Gómez-Laverde, M., Weksler, M. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is rare (Sanchez <em>et al</em>. 2001). In some places it is locally extinct because the species has been displaced by <em>Rattus rattus</em> (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
15596	threats	Ochoa, J., Gómez-Laverde, M., Weksler, M. & Timm, R., 2008	The major threats are changes in species dynamics by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>; other human disturbances also are important in Venezuela (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15597	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.). There is a general need to protect the habitat of this species.	eng
15597	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is known from eleven specimens and from four localities in the northwest Ecuador (Percequillo, in prep.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,200 to 2,700 m (Tirira in prep.)	eng
15597	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in subtropical montane and cloud forest. It is terrestrial and apparently has some affinity with water.	eng
15597	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is rare (Tirira, in prep.). The last record known was in 1980 (D. Tirira pers. comm.)	eng
15597	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	One of the known four localities has been completely converted to urban areas. Approximately 40% of its habitat may have been destroyed (Tirira pers. comm.). Because this species has not been recorded in recent times (since 1980) there is a likelihood other populations have also been severely diminished. Survey work is urgently needed to assess the status of the species.	eng
15598	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is found in several reserves, but not national parks.	eng
15598	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	Possibly narrowly endemic, this species occurs in the Cordillera Central, central Colombia in the Antioquia, Quindio, and Risaralda Departments. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,800 m (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
15598	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is terrestrial; it is found in primary premontane wet forest, secondary forest, croplands and pasture may also be suitable (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
15598	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species appear to be abundant (or at least easily trapped) at most places where they have been found to date (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
15598	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	In the northern part of its range deforestation is prevalent (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
15600	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in one protected area in Peru and at least four in Bolivia. There is a general need to protect the habitat of this species.	eng
15600	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in the eastern Andes from southeastern Peru to central Bolivia. It occurs between 1,000 to 2,600 m, with most of the records from 1,200 to 1,500 m (Percequillo, in prep.).	eng
15600	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary Yungas humid forest. It is not present in cultivated areas.	eng
15600	population	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15600	threats	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	The habitat of this species is being lost through deforestation and conversion of land to agricultural use and is becoming fragmented, which could effect some populations - however, there are no major threats to the species.	eng
15602	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
15602	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is limited to remaining Cerrado habitat formations in Minas Gerais and Goiás states, central Brazil (see Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
15602	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is reported from habitats from 700 to 900 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is a habitat specialist and occurs only in enclaves of forest in the cerrado (not gallery forests).	eng
15602	population	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is known from only three localities: Rio Jordan, Chapada dos Veiadeiros National Park, and Anapolis (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998); there is no information about its population or abundance. Of the three locations where it has been recorded, two have been completed destroyed due to agricultural expansion.	eng
15602	threats	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation for conversion to agriculture, livestock and logging.	eng
15603	conservation	Vargas, J., Weksler, M., Jayat, J.P. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is present in Tariquia Natural Reserve, Bolivia. It is present in two protected areas in Argentina. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
15603	distribution	Vargas, J., Weksler, M., Jayat, J.P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes of south-central Bolivia and northwest Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 500 to 2100 m.	eng
15603	habitat	Vargas, J., Weksler, M., Jayat, J.P. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has been recorded from undistrurbed Yungas and Tucumano Bolivian subtropical forest habitat; it is not known if occurs in secondary habitat.	eng
15603	population	Vargas, J., Weksler, M., Jayat, J.P. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
15603	threats	Vargas, J., Weksler, M., Jayat, J.P. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, however, numerous populations are threatened. Various populations are threatened by loss of habitat through conversion to agricultural use (crops). The habitat of this species in the Argentinean part of the range is severely threatened, where the species is largely restricted to protected areas. In Bolivia, more habitats are available.	eng
15604	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in three protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
15604	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Peru through to west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997). This species is found at elevations of 1800 to 3200 m.	eng
15604	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent inhabits primary and secondary cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Anderson, 1997). It is not present in cultivated areas.	eng
15604	population	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15604	threats	Zeballos, H., Vargas, J. & Weksler, M., 2008	The habitat of this species is being lost through deforestation and conversion of land to agricultural use. The habitat is becoming fragmented.	eng
15605	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species has been found in several protected areas throughout its range. Further taxanomic research should be carried out to split in three and those new species re-evaluated for threats and threat status.	eng
15605	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in tropical evergreen rainforest, from sea level to 1,524 m, of south and central Colombia, eastern Ecuador and Peru, eastwards to south Venezuela, Guianas, and northern Brazil (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
15605	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This is a forest-dwelling species. It is probably limited to pristine rainforest as it has never been found in secondary forest.	eng
15605	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This mouse is widespread but locally rare.	eng
15605	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Potential current and future threat posed by logging. The prospectors (“garimpeiros”) are a threat to this species in French Guiana and Suriname.	eng
15606	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species range falls within several protected areas.	eng
15606	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in low to intermediate elevations of western México, from south Sinaloa to southwest Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15606	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. The area in which it is found is characterized by coastal lowland forest.	eng
15606	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is not considered to be rare.	eng
15606	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
15607	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15607	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and west-central Brazil (Acre and Mato Grosso States), 50 to 1,985 m (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15607	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent inhabits in tropical and subtropical evergreen humid forest. Although known from primary forest, many localities are within second growth forest. Able to tolerate moderate to severely modified forest, only absent from grasslands (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is terrestrial and solitary. This species is found in lowland rainforest and Andean foothills (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15607	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	It is locally common. Most of the known localities are along the eastern Andean foothills and nearby lowlands (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
15607	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
15608	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Biological Reserve Saltinho.	eng
15608	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs along the Atlantic forest coast from Pernambuco State to northern Bahia State, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
15608	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species has not been captured outside of forested areas and is cuurently confined to mosaics of severely fragmented remaining forested areas within a limited range.	eng
15608	population	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
15608	threats	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction, fragmentation and deforestation for sugar cane plantations. This species has a limited range in an area where much of the forest has been converted to agriculture and livestock.	eng
15609	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
15609	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	This poorly-known species is known only from north central Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura Departments) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It may range more widely than is currently known. It has been collected at around 1,500 to 2,000 m.	eng
15609	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from secondary dry forest. It is not known from cultivated areas.	eng
15609	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a few specimens have been collected.	eng
15609	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Weksler, M., 2008	The habitat of this species is threatened by clearance for cattle pasture.	eng
15611	conservation	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Occurs in a few protected areas in Mexico and in the Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala.	eng
15611	distribution	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of south Chiapas, Mexico, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at 1,250 to 3,250 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15611	habitat	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge. It favors cool, wet, highland forest, often near water, but it is sometimes found in wet field or brush (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997). It has a very restricted range in cloud forest and pine-oak forest.	eng
15611	population	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is uncommon (Reid 1997).	eng
15611	threats	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Habitat degradation in its restricted habitat is a major threat.	eng
15612	conservation	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Occurs in protected areas, including Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica.	eng
15612	distribution	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in deciduous and evergreen tropical forests from central Tamaulipas to Oaxaca and the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, to Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from low elevations to 1,200 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15612	habitat	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is found in forest edge, and coffee groves, cane, brush, and grassy areas adjacent to evergreen or deciduous forest but is sometimes found in mature forest near tree falls and natural gaps (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and mainly terrestrial; it sometimes climbs on logs, low brush, or at the base of trees. Its litter size is 3 to 4 (Reid 1997).	eng
15612	population	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This rat is generally uncommon; occasionally locally or seasonally abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
15612	threats	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	None.	eng
15613	conservation	Reid, F., Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas, including Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Very little is known about this species, and research is needed.	eng
15613	distribution	Reid, F., Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species occurs in cloud forest elevations from Chiapas, México, through Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, to north central Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found at 750 to 2,500 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15613	habitat	Reid, F., Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is found in evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge. It favors cool, wet, highland forest, often near water, but sometimes enters wet field or brush (Reid 1997). It is nocturnal and terrestrial (Reid 1997).	eng
15613	population	Reid, F., Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	It is uncommon (Reid 1997). In Mexico it has only been reported for 4 localities (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
15613	threats	Reid, F., Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	The species is threatened by declining habitat. In Mexico, it is considered to be near threatened.	eng
15614	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas, Parque Estadual do Rio Doce (Brazil), and may occur in others in the range.	eng
15614	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs in lowland forests of eastern Brazil (Ceará and Río Grande do Norte southwestwardly to São Paulo), east Bolivia (less than 500 m, per Anderson, 1997), and extreme southeast Peru (as buccinatus, per Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995); limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15614	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This rodent is tolerant of some habitat modification; it can be found in agricultural areas and in lowland moist forests.	eng
15614	population	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
15614	threats	Percequillo, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
15615	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15615	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs from Costa Rica, through Panama, to west and north central Colombia, west Ecuador, and north Venezuela (Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,525 m.	eng
15615	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This rat is most common in forested lowland, in areas of dense undergrowth and around fallen logs.This species adapts well to secondary vegetation and plantations (Emmons and Feer 1997), and it is tolerant to habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and insects. It runs about actively on the ground or on fallen logs; if frightened, it may bounce away with a series of high jumps. After the initial activity of the night, it may climb onto a branch at 1 to 2 m and rest motionless, head propped on the incisors against the branch. Breeding occurs year-round; litter size is 2 to 5 young, averaging 3.9 (Fleming 1971).	eng
15615	population	Anderson, R.P., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	It is common throughout its range.	eng
15615	threats	Anderson, R.P., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species (R. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
15616	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
15616	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is known from west central Ecuador to west Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 500 to 1,800 m.	eng
15616	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It is present in dry forest, desert, inter-Andean valleys and Lomas habitat. It is well adapted to secondary vegetation, plantations and cultivated areas.	eng
15616	population	Zeballos, H. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is uncommon in Ecuador (Tirira in prep.). It is a common species in Peru. The populations fluctuate with seasonal and El Niño weather patterns.	eng
15616	threats	Zeballos, H. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15617	conservation	Patton, J., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
15617	distribution	Patton, J., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in evergreen rainforest of Amazonia, from sea level to 2,000 m, from Guianas and south Venezuela (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1988) to central Brazil, including lowlands and Andean foothills of central Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, and north Bolivia (see Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
15617	habitat	Patton, J., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is found in disturbed habitats as well as primary forest.	eng
15617	population	Patton, J., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is uncommon but widespread.	eng
15617	threats	Patton, J., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
15628	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Given complete protection by the Congolese government (Ordinance No. 79-244 of 16 Oct 1979). Present in the Okapi Faunal Reserve. This species is certainly a priority for further survey work to better understand its ecology, distribution and population status.	eng
15628	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to DR Congo, where patchily distributed from the right bank of the Congo R. eastward to the Rift Valley. There are, as yet, no confirmed records from Uganda (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Occurs at elevations of 460 - 1,500 m asl.	eng
15628	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	A rainforest inhabitant, most specimens have been collected in forests dominated by <em>Gilbertiodendron</em> trees (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Nearly all specimens were obtained from local hunters who caught them with snares usually put out on trails near small rivers (Van Rompaey 1988). Piscivorous.	eng
15628	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Considered among the rarest of African carnivores, and known only from around 30 museum specimens. In 53 hunts in the Ituri Forest only two individuals (or 1.8% of all carnivores) were captured (Hart and Timm 1978).	eng
15628	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Major threats are unclear, but they are hunted as bushmeat by the Bambuti pygmies; the meat is taboo to all, except male elders (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). It is not clear whether there are any pressing threats to its particular habitat.	eng
15629	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Several protected areas are located within its range.	eng
15629	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from the coastal plain of south Nayarit to south Guerrero and in the interior of Michoacán and Guerrero along the basin of the Río Balsas, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).  It is found from sea level to 1,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
15629	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Although this species is poorly known, its distribution was observed to be restricted to areas of rock or accumulated brush in primarily arroyo forest (Ceballos 1990).  It is found in tropical deciduous forest, xerophilius shrub, grasslands, oak-pine forest, and riparian vegetation. It can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
15629	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	A study in Jalisco by Ceballos (1990) showed <em>O. banderanus</em> to be common in arroyo forest (semideciduous) with densities ranging from 1.6 to 8 individuals/ha, and scarce in deciduous forest (<1 individual/ha).	eng
15629	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss from deforestation and agriculture.	eng
15631	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
15631	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal waters of White, Barents, Baltic and North Seas, Great Britain, western Ireland, Atlantic Ocean southward to Garonne estuary. Landlocked populations in lakes of coastal areas of North, Baltic, White and Barents Seas. North to about 68°N in Scandinavia.	eng
15631	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic inhabitant of marine waters, estuaries and large lakes. Spawns in tributaries of lakes or along shallow shores of lakes and rivers, on sand, gravel, stones and plant material, preferably in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Anadromous individuals spawn at two years, landlocked ones often at one year. Anadromous individuals live up to seven years. Landlocked populations and large parts of anadromous populations usually reproduce only once in their life. Spawning migration starts in September-October, when mature fishes aggregate in estuaries to overwinter. Upriver migration starts in March-April when temperatures rise above 4-6°C and during rainy and stormy weather. Spawning migration reaches only the lower part of rivers. Older individuals and males migrate earlier than younger ones and females. Spawns in March-April at 4-12°C. Eggs are sticky and attached to substrate. Large numbers of eggs are washed from substrate and drift, with attached sand above river bottom. Eggs hatch in 20-35 days; larvae drift to estuaries. After spawning, adults migrate to sea, remain in coastal waters close to estuaries. Juveniles prefer fresh or brackish water until they mature. May reach high densities and experience large fluctuations in abundance. Feeds on zooplankton and small fishes, which often are juveniles of its own species.	eng
15631	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
15631	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water pollution and river impoundments.	eng
15632	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is in the Red Lists of many European states, generally as Endangered, e.g. in Denmark. This species is present in several protected areas (e.g. in France) but wider countryside conservation measures are essential. <span lang="EN-GB">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.	eng
15632	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is found in western Europe, from southern Sweden to northern Spain, excluding the British Isles (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Denmark the species is registered from ten localities in 2008, all from southern and eastern part of the country. In France the species is reported from more than 300 localities and it is widespread distributed in the country (Tauzin 2000). According to Ranius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) in Europe there are 2,142 localities covering 33 countries.	eng
15632	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in accumulations of wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood (red or white rot). Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions are not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but with shading more important under more continental conditions. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations - old wood pastures, historic parklands, hedgerow trees, old avenues, orchards, etc, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<p>Oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. is the most important tree for <span style="font-style: italic;">O. eremita</span>, followed by lime trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> spp., willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> spp., beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span> and fruit trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span> spp, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span> spp. In many regions, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span> spp., elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span> spp., chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>, aspen and poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> spp., birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> spp. and maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">platanoides</span> are also important host trees. Mulberry trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Morus</span> spp., common alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span>, plane trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus</span> spp., walnut trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span> and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span> are other tree species which the beetle has been found developing in. Reports from conifer trees are rare (Ranius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Basically the tree species is not important; but what is important is that the trees have survived into old age and been colonised by non-pathogenic heartwood decay fungi; networks of trees are required in order to maintain population viability, to avoid the insidious effects of fragmentation and isolation.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
15632	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	In Spain there are a small number of known populations scattered across the far northern mountainous areas: there was a single recent breeding site identified in Cantabria (Alexander 2005) but at least one other is also now known (K.N.A. Alexander, pers. comm.); otherwise only an old unlocalised record. Also known in Spain from a few sites in Navarra (San Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001) and the Basque Country. The species is common but vulnerable to loss of habitat in Poland. In Sweden it is relatively widespread in the south; in France it is widespread in the south but in the north is very localised; in Italy is rare; and in Finland there is a very small population. Overall the species is considered to be decreasing through loss of old trees suitable as breeding sites.	eng
15632	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Encroachment of open forest and park habitats by development is also a threat to this species (P.F. Thomsen pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
15633	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
15634	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
15635	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
15635	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
15640	conservation	Ross, S., Murdoch, J., Mallon, D., Sanderson, J. & Barashkova, A., 2008	Listed under CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Felis manul</span>). Hunting of this species is prohibited in all range countries except Mongolia (Nowell and Jackson 1996), where it has no legal protection despite being classified as Near Threatened in the country (Wingard and Zahler 2006).  Trophy hunters can purchase a hunting license to export trophies, from which $70 USD is allocated to the government (Mongolia Mammal Assessment, 2006).  While Mongolia has not recorded any trophy exports, skin exports have grown since 2000, with 143 reported exported in 2007 (UNEP-WCMC Cites trade database, 2008).   <br/><br/>Approximately 12% of the species? range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Mongolia Mammal Assessment, 2006), although Murdoch <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that the manul's preferred steppe-shrub habitat was under-represented in an important protected area in central Mongolia (the Ikh Nartiin Chuluun Nature Reserve), and that illegal hunting inside the protected area was frequent.  <br/><br/>In Russia, about 6% of the species' range is  protected, as follows: about 1% of it is situated the state nature reserves: "Altaisky" (Altai Republic), "Sayano-Shushensky" (Krasnoyarsk region), "Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina" (Tyva Republic), "Daursky" and "Sokhodinsky" (Chita RegionHowever, only the Tyvan and Daursky state reserv protect significant habitat.   About 4% of Pallas' Cat area is situated in the national parks: "Tunkinsky" (Buryatia Republic) and "Alkhanai" (Aginsky Buryatsky autonomus region, which will belong to Chita Region soon). About 0.5% of area is situated in federal wildlife refuges: "Altacheisky" (Buryatia Republic) and partly "Tsasucheisky Bor" (Chita Region).  Buryatia Republic also has regional protected areas where llas cats are found (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In China it is reported from the following nature reserves: Xuelingyunshan, Tuomuerfeng, Luoshan, Baijitan, Qinghaihuniaodao, Wanglang. Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Kalamailishan, Qitaihuangmobanhuangmo, Aerjinshan, Ganjiahu (Xinjiang), Luobupoyeluotuo (China Species Information Service 2008).<br/><br/>  Since 2009 this species is now a legally protected species in Afghanistan, banning all hunting and trade in its parts within the country.	eng
15640	distribution	Ross, S., Murdoch, J., Mallon, D., Sanderson, J. & Barashkova, A., 2008	The Pallas cat occurs primarily in the central Asian steppe grassland regions of Mongolia, China and the Tibetan Plateau, where an elevational record of 5,050 m was reported (Fox and Dorji 2007).  In Russia, Pallas's cat occurs sporadically in the Transcaucasus and Transbaikal regions, along the border with north-eastern Kazakhstan, and along the border with Mongolia and China in the Altai, Tyva, Buryatia, and Chita republics (Koshkarev 1998, Anon. 2008).  They are widely distributed in areas of uplands and intermountain depressions as well as mountain steppe in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan (Anon. 2008). Populations in the southwest of its range (the Caspian Sea region, and Afghanistan and Pakistan) are diminishing, isolated and sparse (Belousova 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Habibi 2004, Anon. 2008)	eng
15640	habitat	Ross, S., Murdoch, J., Mallon, D., Sanderson, J. & Barashkova, A., 2008	Typical habitat for the Pallas cat is characterized by an extreme continental climate - little rainfall, low humidity, and a wide range of temperatures.  They are rarely found in areas where the maximum mean ten-day snow cover depth exceeds 10 cm, and a continuous snow cover of 15-20 cm marks the ecological limit for this species (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  They are generally associated with grass and shrub steppe, and much of their habitat is montane.  They are absent from lowland sandy desert basins, although may penetrate these areas along seasonal river courses (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>In the grass and shrub steppe of central Mongolia, annual home ranges were found to be strikingly large for a small felid, although it is not clear if such large ranges are typical for the species (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Ongoing research there (S. Ross pers. comm. 2008) measured home ranges as follows:  <br/>Female = 100% MCP = 50.8 +/- 43.0 km²,  95% MCP = 27.1 +/- 23.6 km²; n = 10<br/>Male = 100% MCP = 158.5 +/- 179.2 km²,  95% MCP = 100.4 +/- 101.2 km² n = 8<br/>During the study Pallas cats were found to have a strong association with rocky, steep areas and were rarely found in open grasslands (where they may be more vulnerable to predation by sympatric carnivores: S. Ross pers. comm.. 2008). <br/><br/>Preliminary results based on radio-tracking of Pallas cats in Daursky state nature reserve (Chita region of Russia) shows that annual home range varies from 5 to 30 km² (n=3) (Kiriliuk <em>et al.</em> 2008 via pers. comm. A Barashkova 2008).<br/><br/>In China, Pallas cats feed predominately on pikas (Ochotona), small rodents (Alticola, Meriones, Cricetulus), birds (partridge-Pyrrhocorax), hares (Lepus) and marmots (Marmota), and appear to be most numerous where pikas and voles are abundant and not living under deep snow cover (Wozencraft <em>et al.</em> in press).  In Mongolia, preliminary analysis of scats indicated that gerbils (Meriones spp) and jerboas (Dipus sagitta and Allactaga spp) were the main prey, wih lambs of the Argali sheep (Ovis ammon) taken during the spring (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Populations may fluctate widely with their small mamal prey base (Purevsuren 2004).  Activity is predominantly crepuscular, although they can be active at any time (S. Ross pers comm. 2008).	eng
15640	population	Ross, S., Murdoch, J., Mallon, D., Sanderson, J. & Barashkova, A., 2008	Mongolia is probably the stronghold of Pallas's cat.  In the steppe grasslands of central Mongolia, Ross <em>et al.</em> (2007) radio-collared 27 cats, and estimated density (optimistically) at 7.5 +/- 2 manuls/ 100 km².  <br/><br/>Across the Tibetan plateau, Pallas's cat is considered widespread but nowhere very common (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The species is considered rare and uncommon in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Ladakh) and Iran (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Habibi 2004), and has disappeared from much of its former range around the Caspian Sea (Belousova 1993) and Pakistan's Balochistan province (Husain 2001).  Populations are small and threatened in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia's Krasnoyarsk region and Turkmenistan (Anon. 2008).<br/><br/>In Russia, the Tyva and Chita regions may have the largest populations, estimated at 2,000-2,200 and 2,100-3,000, respectively.  Populations in Altai and Buryatia republics were estimated at 450-550 and 250-350 (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
15640	threats	Ross, S., Murdoch, J., Mallon, D., Sanderson, J. & Barashkova, A., 2008	The most serious threat may be depletion of their prey base through poisoning and over-hunting.  Poisoning to control pika and marmot populations has taken place on a large scale in Central Asia where they are considered to be vectors for bubonic plague, and western and northern China where they are considered to compete with domestic stock for graze (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Their habitat is being widely degraded by domestic livestock and agriculture (IUCN Cats Red List Workshop, 2007).  While livestock had decreased during the 1990s in Russia and is believed to have led to improving status of Pallas cats in Russia (Barashkova <em>et al.</em> 2007), livestock is now spreading back across steppe areas with an improving economy, again posing a threat to the species.  Mining is also on the increase in Pallas cat habitat in Russia and other parts of Central Asia.  In Russia Pallas?s cat range is still quite fragmented and there is high level of risk to loss many subpopulations, especially in Buryatia Republic (A. Barashkova pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The manul has long been hunted for its fur in relatively large numbers in Mongolia, Russia and China, although international trade in manul pelts has largely ceased since the late 1980s (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Mongolia is the only range state which permits hunting of Pallas cats for "household purposes."  The permitting system is ineffective, and Pallas cat furs are illegally exported to China (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Wingard and Zahler (2006) estimate that there are approximately 1,000 hunters of Pallas's cats in Mongolia, with a mean estimated harvest of two cats per year.  Pallas cats are also shot because they can be mistaken for marmots, which are commonly hunted, and trapped incidentally in leghold traps set for wolves and foxes and snares set for marmot and hares (S. Ross pers. comm. 2008)  Their fat and organs are used as medicine in Mongolia and Russia, and they are killed by domestic dogs (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007 and A. Barashkova pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15642	conservation	Nel, J.A.J. & Maas, B., 2008	The species is not included in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Bat-eared Foxes are kept in captivity in North America, Europe, South Africa and Asia, although never in large numbers. There are no management programmes or studbooks for the species in any of these regions. Importations have occurred throughout the history of the captive population despite successful captive breeding since 1970. Bat-eared foxes can coexist well with other species and are frequently seen in African plains exhibits at zoos.<br/><br/>There is a conspicuous lack of information about both abundance and population trends in this species across its range. In southern Africa, little is known about dispersal of young and the formation of new breeding pairs. The causal factors for differences in home range size in different localities, group size and changes in density as a function of food availability are poorly known. In the Serengeti, behavioural evidence on group and pair formation and the existence of 'super families', consisting of one male and up to three closely related breeding females, raises interesting questions about regular inbreeding between males and their daughters from several generations (see Maas 1993a).	eng
15642	distribution	Nel, J.A.J. & Maas, B., 2008	The Bat-eared Fox has a disjunct distribution range, occurring across the arid and semi-arid regions of eastern and southern Africa in two discrete populations (representing each of the known subspecies) separated by about 1,000 km. <em>O. m. virgatus</em> ranges from southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia down through Uganda and Kenya to south-western Tanzania; <em>O. m. megalotis</em> occurs from Angola through Namibia and Botswana to Mozambique and South Africa (Coetzee 1977; Kingdon 1977; Skinner and Smithers 1990). The two ranges were probably connected during the Pleistocene (Coe and Skinner 1993). This disjunct distribution is similar to that of other endemic, xeric species e.g., Aardwolf (<em>Proteles cristatu</em>s) and Black-backed Jackal (<em>Canis mesomelas</em>).<br/><br/>Range extensions in southern Africa documented in recent years (e.g., Stuart 1981; Marais and Griffin 1993) have been linked to changing rainfall patterns (MacDonald 1982).	eng
15642	habitat	Nel, J.A.J. & Maas, B., 2008	In southern Africa, the prime habitat is mainly short-grass plains and areas with bare ground (Mackie and Nel 1989), but they are also found in open scrub vegetation and arid, semi-arid or winter rainfall (fynbos or Cape macchia) shrub lands, and open arid savanna. The range of both subspecies overlaps almost completely with that of <em>Hodotermes</em> and <em>Microhodotermes</em>, termite genera prevailing in the diet (Mackie and Nel 1989; Maas 1993a). In the Serengeti, they are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries but not short-grass plains (Lamprecht 1979; Malcolm 1986); harvester termite (<em>H. mossambicus</em>) foraging holes and dung from migratory ungulates are more abundant in areas occupied by bat-eared foxes, while grass is shorter and individual plants are more widely spaced (Maas 1993a).	eng
15642	population	Nel, J.A.J. & Maas, B., 2008	The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, becoming uncommon in arid areas and on farms in South Africa where they are occasionally persecuted. Within a circumscribed habitat, numbers can fluctuate from abundant to rare depending on rainfall, food availability (Waser 1980; Nel <em>et al.</em> 1984), breeding stage and disease (Maas 1993a,b; Nel 1993).	eng
15642	threats	Nel, J.A.J. & Maas, B., 2008	In southern Africa the primary threats are hunting for skins or because they are perceived as being predators of small livestock. Commercial use is very limited, but winter pelts are valued and sold as blankets. They are also sold as hunting trophies in South Africa. Populations fluctuate due to disease or drought.	eng
15643	conservation	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic and survey work is required to determine the relationship of the subspecies <em>O. c. monteiri</em>.	eng
15643	distribution	Bearder, S., 2008	This species ranges from the KwaZulu-Natal Province in eastern South Africa, northwards into Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and southern Malawi (Chikwawa), and then into Tanzania and southern Kenya. Up to 1,800 m in eastern Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>There are three subspecies, <em>O. c. crassicaudatus</em> is known only from the KwaZulu-Natal region; <em>O. c. kirkii</em> Gray, 1863, ranges from Massangena, Mozambique, in the south to southern Malawi in the north; and <em>O. c. monteiri</em> is found in the Brachystegia miombo woodland zone from Angola in the west, to Zambia, Malawi and northern Mozambique in the east and from here north to Rwanda and western and south-eastern Kenya. <br/><br/>Some taxonomic authorities states that <em>O. c. monteiri</em> can be split into two groups with a <em>monteiri</em> group present from Angola, through the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern Mozambique, Malawi and southern Tanzania (Tabora). The distribution of the <em>argentatus</em> grouping is unclear, but it has been recorded from Rwanda, Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
15643	habitat	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is mostly found in coastal forest, woodland and riparian bushland. In the southern parts of the range (e.g. KwaZulu-Natal and the Limpopo Province), the species is found in riparian and coastal forest, whereas in the northern parts of the range it extends into bushland and open woodland (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). This species may possibly be found in timber plantations, and in western Swaziland have adapted to living in wattle forests. It is not uncommon in urban gardens and farmland where there is sufficient tree growth to afford them shelter and where there are orchards of tropical and semi-tropical fruits to provide food. Sleeps alone or in groups of 2-6 and generally disperses solitarily or in small groups at night to forage. It is presumed to give birth to between one and three infants per year (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).<br/><br/><em>O. c. monteiri</em> is known from Brachystegia woodlands and riparian forests. It extends over a wide range by using corridors of vegetation along rivers and streams. On the other hand, <em>O. c. kirkii</em> is mostly found in coastal forest, woodland and riparian bushland, and in the northern parts of the range it extends into bushland and open woodland. It is not uncommon in urban gardens and farmland where there is sufficient tree growth to afford them shelter and where there are orchards of tropical and semi-tropical fruits to provide food.	eng
15643	population	Bearder, S., 2008	This is a relatively common species.	eng
15643	threats	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is expanding its range in some areas (e.g., in South Africa), and there are no current major threats. However, it may be locally threatened in parts of its range through the loss of suitable forest habitat. For example, although <em>O. c. monteiri</em>, was once common around Lake Victoria, it has now almost completely disappeared, together with the woodlands due to cultivation.	eng
15644	conservation	Butynski, T.M., Bearder, S. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Tana River National Primate Reserve, Tsavo West National Park, Tsavo East National Park, Aberdares National Park, Mount Kenya National Park, Meru National Park, and Arabuke Sokoke Forest (Kenya) and Ngezi National Park, Jozani Chakwa National Park, Udzungwa Mountain National Park, and Lake Manyara National Park in Tanzania (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
15644	distribution	Butynski, T.M., Bearder, S. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species ranges from the Juba River in southern Somalia, southwards along the East African coast to the Ruvuma River, Tanzania, and inland from here to the Kenya highlands. The southernmost locality is Milo on the northern end of Lake Malawi. This species is present on Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia Islands, Tanzania. It may be present in Mozambique, but there are no confirmed records. There is also no indication that the species occurs in Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988). Recorded up to 2,500 m (Olson 1979). Sympatric with <em>Galagoides zanzibaricus</em>, <em>Galagoides cocos</em>, <em>Galago senegalensis</em>, <em>Galagoides granti</em> and <em>Otolemur crassicaudatus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are four subspecies: <em>O. g. garnettii</em> appears to be restricted to Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia Islands; <em>O. g. panganiensi</em>s is present in Tanzania from the Mozambique border in the south to Tanga, Mount Kilimanjaro and Lake Manyara in the north; <em>O. g. lasiotis</em> ranges northwards from Tanga in Tanzania, along the Kenyan coastline to the Juba River in Somalia; it is also present in the Taita Hills and Kibwezi (north of Mount Kilimanjaro); and the subspecies <em>O. g. kikuyuensis</em> is restricted to the Kenyan highlands east of the Rift Valley (Nairobi, Aberdares and Mt Kenya).	eng
15644	habitat	Butynski, T.M., Bearder, S. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Highly adaptable species, being found in mid- to high-canopy coastal and montane tropical forest, and in riverine gallery forest; also able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented forest, and found in cultivated areas and sometimes urban suburbs. They sleep in dense tangles or clumps of trees and are not reported to make nests or sleep in tree holes (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003). The females give birth to one or two young annually.	eng
15644	population	Butynski, T.M., Bearder, S. & De Jong, Y., 2008	A widespread and abundant species (for example, on the Kenyan Highlands and on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba), but within its range it is somewhat patchily distributed and conspicuously absent from some forests (e.g., Matundu Forest Reserve, Tanzania). <br/><br/>In Kenya, <em>O. garnettii</em> were encountered at rates of: 0.1 ind/h by vehicle in Kipini Conservancy (north coast), 0.9 ind/h on foot in Irangi, Mt Kenya (2,000 m asl), 1.1 ind/h on foot in Makindu (960 m asl), 2.9 ind/h on foot in Isiolo (1,544 m asl), 5 ind/h and 7.1 ind/km on foot in Meru Forest (1,734 m asl), and 2,5 individuals/hour (estimate of 15 animals / ha) on foot in Tana River National Primate Reserve (230 m asl; Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.). In Tanzania, they were encountered at rates of: 0.6 ind/h on foot in Meia Meia (1,330 m asl), 2.0 ind/h on foot in Jozani Chakwa National Park, Zanzibar Island (5 m asl), 2.4 ind/h and 0.1 ind/km by vehicle in Tanga (15 m asl), and 2.7 ind/h and 1.3 ind/km on foot in Ngezi National Park, Pemba Island (10 m asl; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
15644	threats	Butynski, T.M., Bearder, S. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Some subpopulations may be locally threatened by conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land.	eng
15645	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Walston, J. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. Additional survey work is required to establish its range, population status, ecology and threats.	eng
15645	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Walston, J. & Kingston, T., 2008	The type locality of this species is Tjibadak in western Java, Indonesia (Simmons 2005). The species is represented by four specimens collected in western Java (two in 1939 and two in 1990). This species could be more widespread than is currently known.	eng
15645	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Walston, J. & Kingston, T., 2008	The original specimen may have been taken from a barbet or woodpecker in a rubber tree. It is probably a high-flier, and not too reliant on specific habitat types. The elevational range is thought to be around 400 m asl.	eng
15645	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Walston, J. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no recent records and this species is very rarely found.	eng
15645	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Walston, J. & Kingston, T., 2008	Major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
15646	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Molur, S., 2008	The two known cave localities within India are not in protected areas (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). The species is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act amended 2006 (S. Molur pers. comm. 2008). This species has been proposed to receive the highest level of protection under Cambodian wildlife law (Walston and Bates 2001). Further survey work to determine population numbers and range is required for this species. Also genetic evaluation of all known populations of this species and other <em>Otomops</em> would lead to a better understanding of their taxonomy and distribution.	eng
15646	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is known from only three disjunct sites in India and Cambodia. In India, the species has been recorded from the type locality of Barapede Cave near Talewadi, Belagavi district, in Karnataka (Bates and Harrison 1997), and more recently from Phrang Karuh Cave, near Nongtrai village, Shella confederacy, Meghalaya (Thabah and Bates 2002). In Cambodia, it is known only from a recent collection in Chhep District, Preah Vihear Province (Walston and Bates 2001). It has been recorded from an elevation of 140 to 800 m (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
15646	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Molur, S., 2008	The Barapede cave is located on a plateau above a moist deciduous forested valley at 800 m with high humidity inside (Alfred <em>et al</em>. 2006). The bats were found to live in small groups of 2 to 15 individuals both sexes in crevices throughout the cave (Bates and Harrison 1997, Alfred <em>et al.</em> 2006). The cave where a specimen was captured in north-east India is likewise situated on the edge of a plateau at 170 m in a tropical semi-evergreen forest and near cultivated areas (Thabah and Bates 2002). Walston and Bates (2001) report a single bat captured in lowland degraded mixed deciduous forest (nearby one of the few semi-evergreen patches in the area) at 140 m in Cambodia.	eng
15646	population	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Molur, S., 2008	Ramakrishna <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe the colony in Barapede cave as numbering approximately 70+ individuals. They also state that females have been recorded carrying one foetus/young. Thabah and Bates (2002) report one specimen captured outside the Phrang Karuh cave in Meghalaya, India. Walston and Bates (2001) report a single bat captured in Cambodia. The population in Barapede Cave seems to fluctuate between 40 and 100 as reported by different workers, while the population numbers and trends in the two new locations are unknown.	eng
15646	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is threatened from tourism, human interference and collections for scientific purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The habitat close to the Barapede cave is threatened from submergence due to a proposed dam and from ongoing mining activities (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). The spread of alien plants species <em>Prosopis</em> sp. at the cave mouth is a visible hindrance to bat activities (M.S. Pradhan pers. comm. February 2003). Threats to the species at the two recently discovered new localities are not known.	eng
15647	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	The type locality is not within a protected area. Additional survey work is required to establish its range, population status, ecology and threats.	eng
15647	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality Dasa Apui (700 m asl), Alor Island, Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (08°15'S, 124°43'E) (Simmons 2005; Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
15647	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species was collected from a hollow in a tree (Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
15647	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	The single known specimen was collected in 1991.	eng
15647	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
15648	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is a need to reassess the status of all known roosts (and to locate additional localities) to ascertain numbers and status of colonies, so that key sites can be identified. There is a need to collect better information on the current status of populations in both Central and West Africa. Disturbance of key localities should be restricted or managed to reduce the impact on colonies. The species has been recorded from Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, it has been recorded from within a national park in Rwanda, and the former large colony at Mount Suswa, Kenya, is believed to be protected (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). This bat is protected by provincial ordinance in Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa. An IUCN Species Action Plan has been developed for this species (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15648	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded from much of sub-Saharan Africa, and from Yemen (Hud Sawa cave, Ar-Rayadi Al-Gharbi Mountains) on the Arabian Peninsula (Al-Jumaily 1999; Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Africa it has been reported from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana in West Africa, through Central Africa (recorded from Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and western Uganda) to East Africa (Djibouti [Mount Day], Ethiopia [Sof Omar limestone cave], Kenya and Tanzania) to southern Africa (Malawi, central Angola [Chitau], Zimbabwe, Zambia and eastern South Africa). It has recently been recorded in Eritrea (in a disused railway tunnel 8 km east of Asmara) for the first time (Kock and Zinner 2004). It is found at elevations from sea level to 2,900 m asl.	eng
15648	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Animals have been recorded from a wide variety of habitats ranging from montane tropical moist forest to semi arid environments, and in some instances have been found to be common in urban and suburban areas, foraging in areas of intensive agricultural operations (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002). Animals often make long distance foraging flights during the dry season. While it seems as though there is no direct evidence of migration in this species, marked seasonal absence from some areas and from major colony sites during the dry season has prompted the suggestion of migration (e.g. Mutere, 1973). In southern Africa colonies tend to be small (numbering up to 30 animals) and are regularly recorded from buildings (see Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002). Other populations mainly roost in caves, disused tunnels, trees, hollows and on vegetation. Two of the most well known roosts for this species are the lava caves of Mount Suswa and Ithundu in Kenya.	eng
15648	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Although this bat was once considered to be rare, with gaps in distribution, additional collecting has demonstrated local abundance in several areas (Long 1995; Taylor 1998; Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). For example, it is common around Durban in KwaZulu Natal Province of South Africa (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002), and is fairly common in Comoe National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. However, major colonies of this species (consisting of hundreds of bats) from caves in East Africa have declined severely and now have few or no bats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
15648	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The leading threat to this species appears to be roost disturbance. Major colonies in East Africa, such as the population at Mount Suswa (Kenya), seem to have disappeared through disturbance of their cave habitats (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). Threats to these caves include guano mining (with associated changes to the cave microclimate), blocking of entrances, recreational caving and general tourism activities. It is possible that the collection of 4,954 bats by Mutere (1973) as part of a reproductive study may have contributed to a decline of the Kenyan populations. Populations in Durban (South Africa) have been found to use old buildings with attics as roosts, and it appears that the main threat to these populations is indirect poisoning through the application of toxic timber treatments (Fenton <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
15649	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	As it may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.	eng
15649	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from two sites in Gulf (Valilala River, near Kerema) and Oro (Mai-u River near Mount Suckling) Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
15649	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species forages in the rainforest canopy, and is believed to roost in tree hollows within forest (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995).	eng
15649	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is known only from 11 specimens, but the species is difficult to survey.	eng
15649	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15650	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	As it may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.	eng
15650	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from three locations: Tapu, on the Upper Ramu River Plateau, Madang Province; Kimi Creek Camp, Eastern Highlands Province; and Hohola, Port Moresby (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,980 m asl.	eng
15650	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species has been recorded flying above the mid-montane forest canopy, and over open habitats including urban areas (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). Roosting habits of this species are unknown.	eng
15650	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is known from six museum specimens collected at three localities.	eng
15650	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
15651	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is not known if it occurs from protected areas.	eng
15651	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This is an Angolan endemic found in suitable habitat in north-east and central Angola. It occurs below 2,000 m asl.	eng
15651	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is found in low lying riverine habitats and upland plateau grasslands. It is usually found in grassland within forest/grassland mosaic. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
15651	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is assumed to be relatively common.	eng
15651	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Open cast diamond mining is a threat to the species' habitat in the northern part of its range.	eng
15652	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
15652	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This Subsaharan species is widely distributed in parts of Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It ranges from the area of the Albertine Rift and southern Kenya in the north of its range, as far south as eastern South Africa and Swaziland.	eng
15652	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It occurs in well-watered savanna grassland, seasonally flooded grassland, wetlands in southern Africa below 1,000 m asl, but in higher elevation grasslands and heath in East Africa. The species can be found in pastureland but usually not when livestock is present.  They are usually found near streams.	eng
15652	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is common to abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
15652	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by habitat degradation due to overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock.	eng
15653	conservation	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The range of the species includes protected areas.	eng
15653	distribution	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has a relic distribution on a few widely separated mountain ranges from Ruwenzori and the Albertine Rift Mountains in Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the Uluguru and Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, to the Nyikae Plateau in Malawi and Zambia. It has been recorded from 1,950 to 3,000 m asl. The range of the species has declined since the Pleistocene.	eng
15653	habitat	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is an inhabitant of montane or alpine grassland, montane forest, disturbed forest and transitional scrub at higher altitudes on mountain slopes.	eng
15653	population	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is quite a common species, and can even be reasonably abundant, although it is difficult to catch.	eng
15653	threats	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Civil warfare and people living in the forest damaging the habitat, as well as fire from stray agricultural burning are major threats in parts of the species range.	eng
15654	conservation	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
15654	distribution	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is known from coastal and eastern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, and the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe and into neighbouring areas of Mozambique. It is known from above 900 m asl.	eng
15654	habitat	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is known from grassland and marshes, as well as timber plantations.	eng
15654	population	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15654	threats	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
15655	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
15655	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the Cape region and eastern South Africa. It occurs from sea level up to at least 2,000 m asl. The species has been referred to in various publications as being recorded from Swaziland, however, the records for this country have no specimen basis (Monadjem, A. pers. comm.).	eng
15655	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It inhabits moist habitats such as bogs, swamps, marshes, and moist grassland and shrubland areas. Its is not known if the species is present in farmland or other modified habitats.	eng
15655	population	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is considered to be quite uncommon. The population size is currently unknown, however, it is noted that there is very low trapping success for this species throughout its range.	eng
15655	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no known threats, and its habitat is quite well secured in protected areas.	eng
15657	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Mount Oku is not within a protected area. The species' range in Nigeria is most likely not in a protected area.	eng
15657	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known from the Gotel Mountains (1,900 to 2,300 m asl) in Nigeria, and from Mount Oku (2,100 to 3,000 m asl) and another nearby volcano in western Cameroon.	eng
15657	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is known from grassland with ferns in montane forest clearings. It is not known if the species can persist in farmland.	eng
15657	population	Taylor, P.J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
15657	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Clearance of the forest for agricultural use is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
15658	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Further surveys, monitoring of the population, and genetic and taxonomic research for this species is recommended. Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
15658	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is known from two disjunct populations, one in the southwest, and one in the south-central region. It has been reported as occurring in Lesotho but this appears to have been a misidentification.	eng
15658	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is found in shrubland and grassland habitat. It occurs in mountain fynbos, Drakensberg grassland, and in thickets. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
15658	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The population size is not known. Recent collecting efforts suggest that the eastern subspecies may be rare, and may be hybridizing with <em>O. irroratus</em>, however, further genetic and chromosomal research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the type populations.	eng
15658	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	There are no major threats known, although hybridization may be a problem for the eastern subspecies.	eng
15659	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
15659	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is known from central and eastern South Africa and from across Lesotho. It occurs above 2,000 m asl, but is usually found higher than 2,600 m asl. There are historical records from inselbergs in the Karoo at 1,500 m asl.	eng
15659	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is a diurnal inhabitant of montane and alpine grassland on both dry or wet bog soils with or without rocky outcrops. The species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
15659	population	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There have been estimates of the population at over 100 individuals/ha in suitable rocky habitats (Willan 1990).	eng
15659	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
15660	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. There is a need for further investigation into the taxonomic status of populations currently included within <em>Otomys tropicalis</em>.	eng
15660	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This species occurs from southern Sudan, to northern Malawi, through Uganda, into the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Ruwenzori Moutntains range), Rwanda and Burundi, central and southern Kenya and Tanzania. It is found up to 4,500 m asl. The distribution of populations formerly recognised as <em>Otomys orestes</em> is unclear, but are generally confined to the type locality area of Teleki Valley, near the summit of Mount Kenya, in Kenya from 3,200 to 4,500 m asl. Animals formerly recognised as <em>Otomys dollmani</em> are known only from the type locality of Mount Gargues, in the Matthews Range of Kenya, just north of Mount Kenya at about 2,100 m as	eng
15660	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats from lowland to montane grassland and also from swamps. It is also known from plantations such as coffee and banana.	eng
15660	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Overall, it is a very common species. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded at 42.5 individuals/ha in disturbed savanna habitats, but in areas with fire regimes in place the populations are found to be much lower.	eng
15660	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	There are no threats to this species. It can be a pest species causing damage to tree plantations.	eng
15661	conservation	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S., Lavrenchenko, L., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas, including the the Bale Mountains National Park and the Simien Mountains National Park (Ethiopia), Ruwenzori National Park (Uganda), Mount Elgon National Park (Kenya), and several protected areas in Tanzania. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic relationship between populations currently allocated to <em>Otomys typus</em>.	eng
15661	distribution	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S., Lavrenchenko, L., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	This montane species has been recorded from the Ethiopian highlands (1,900 to 4,100 m asl); Mubuku Valley, in the Ruwenzori Mountains of Uganda (at around 3,300 to 3,900 m asl); the Ugandan and Kenyan slopes of Mount Elgon (between 3,300 and 4,200 m asl) and the Udzungwa Mountains in east-central Tanzania and the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi and possibly north-eastern Zambia (between 1,800 and 2,200 m asl).	eng
15661	habitat	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S., Lavrenchenko, L., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	It inhabits mesic grassland, montane grasslands and alpine heaths. The species does not appear to persist in modified habitats, although more research is needed to confirm this.	eng
15661	population	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S., Lavrenchenko, L., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	A reasonably common species in good habitat.	eng
15661	threats	Taylor, P.J., Maree, S., Lavrenchenko, L., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock, habitat loss resulting from set fires, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the conversion of grassland to agricultural use.	eng
15662	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is recommended that there are further surveys, genetic research and research into the rat's life history. Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
15662	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species occurs in the arid parts of the Eastern Cape, Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces in South Africa and ranges north to southern Namibia.	eng
15662	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is found in succulent Karoo habitat, and Namakaroo and fynbos scrub. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
15662	population	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitat. The current population size is unknown, however, it is not considered to be facing any serious threats.	eng
15662	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
15663	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	The species presumably occurs in some protected areas across its range. No other specific measures are known, although it will be protected under national legislation in some of the range states.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
15663	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	The species presumably occurs in some protected areas across its range. No other specific measures are known, although it will be protected under national legislation in some of the range states.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
15663	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	The species occurs in the southern desert and sub-desert belt of Western and Central Palaearctic from Morocco and Niger as far east as north-west India. It is possibly present in the whole of the desert area in the north of Africa where there is suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Niger, northern Sudan and Egypt.  In the Middle East it is found in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and a single locality from southeastern Turkey. It has an area of occupancy of  >20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and occupies an altitude of up to 2400 m (in Pakistan).	eng
15663	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	The species occurs in the southern desert and sub-desert belt of Western and Central Palaearctic from Morocco and Niger as far east as north-west India. It is possibly present in the whole of the desert area in the north of Africa where there is suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Niger, northern Sudan and Egypt.  In the Middle East it is found in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and a single locality from southeastern Turkey. It has an area of occupancy of  >20,000 km<sup>2</sup> and occupies an altitude of up to 2400 m (in Pakistan).	eng
15663	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Occurs in desert and semi-desert habitats of the Palaearctic region. Its habitats are xeric, sparsely vegetated and rocky. It seems well adapted to arid climates (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995).  Roosts in rock fissures or in human constructions (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995). This is a ground-gleaning species.	eng
15663	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Occurs in desert and semi-desert habitats of the Palaearctic region. Its habitats are xeric, sparsely vegetated and rocky. It seems well adapted to arid climates (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995).  Roosts in rock fissures or in human constructions (Gharaibeh and Qumsiyeh 1995). This is a ground-gleaning species.	eng
15663	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Widespread but generally rare, with a scattered distribution. Mostly solitary animals, female colonies up to 18 individuals. Litter size usually 2. In Turkmenistan the species is considered least concern. Up to 2,400 m in Tadjikistan (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).	eng
15663	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Widespread but generally rare, with a scattered distribution. Mostly solitary animals, female colonies up to 18 individuals. Litter size usually 2. In Turkmenistan the species is considered least concern. Up to 2,400 m in Tadjikistan (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).	eng
15663	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Although not a major threat this species is affected by pesticides.	eng
15663	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Although not a major threat this species is affected by pesticides.	eng
15664	conservation	Timm, R., Reid, F., Woodman, N., McCarthy, T. & Matson, J., 2008	This species has been found within a few protected areas. More information is needed particularly regarding population status.	eng
15664	distribution	Timm, R., Reid, F., Woodman, N., McCarthy, T. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, south to north Belize and northeast Guatemala (Peten Department) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid 1997).	eng
15664	habitat	Timm, R., Reid, F., Woodman, N., McCarthy, T. & Matson, J., 2008	This rodent has been found in deciduous and semideciduous forest and second growth (Reid 1997). This species is poorly known.<br/> <br/>It is highly arboreal. In captivity it is nocturnal, extremely shy, and prefers seeds to fruit (Reid 1997). It is a difficult species to trap.	eng
15664	population	Timm, R., Reid, F., Woodman, N., McCarthy, T. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is rare and only known from 18 specimens (Timm pers. comm.).	eng
15664	threats	Timm, R., Reid, F., Woodman, N., McCarthy, T. & Matson, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
15665	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
15665	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	The Luzon pygmy fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Luzon Island (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Bataan, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Kalinga, Isabela, Laguna, Mountain, Nueva Viscaya, Quezon, Quirino, Zambales provinces) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) occurring at an elevation range of 200-2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are no records from nearby offshore islands (Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
15665	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is most common in primary and well-developed secondary, lowland, montane, and mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is also present in badly degraded forest. Data on reproductive biology has been documented (Heideman <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
15665	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	The abundance of <em>Otopteropus cartilagonodus</em> is variable and it is usually most common at middle elevations (Kock 1969; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Ruedas <em>et al.</em> 1994; Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
15665	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., Duya, P., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is affected by deforestation at lower elevation within its range. However, it also occurs in montane forest which remains relatively intact (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). Overall, this species has clearly declined because of habitat loss, but it is not significantly threatened, especially as it can adapt to some secondary habitats.	eng
15666	conservation	Reid, F. & Timm, R., 2008	Found in protected areas in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and the Yucatan.	eng
15666	distribution	Reid, F. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in central Costa Rica north to the Yucatán Peninsula, south Tabasco, and north Chiapas, Mexico. There is also an isolated record from north central Guerrero, Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,900 m (Reid 1997).	eng
15666	habitat	Reid, F. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from dry deciduous lowland forest and dense second growth to wet highland forest. It is often found near rocks and limestone outcroppings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and may be seen on the ground or among vines and low vegetation. It usually forages 3 m or less from the ground (Lawlor 1982). The diet includes fruit of borage (<em>Cordia diversifolia</em>) and madders, seeds, and vegetable matter (Lawlor 1969). A nest found in an abandoned building in northwest Costa Rica was made of grass and lined with plant down. It was a shallow, open structure, about 15 cm wide. Pregnant females have been recorded at all months of the year, but most populations do not breed for 1 to 2 months during the dry season. Litter size is 2 to 4 young, averaging about 2. Young are highly precocious, almost half adult size at birth, and cling to the mother’s nipples until nearly full size (Reid 1997).	eng
15666	population	Reid, F. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is fairly common (Reid 1997).	eng
15666	threats	Reid, F. & Timm, R., 2008	None known.	eng
15730	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Its distribution and abundance are increasingly centred on protected areas (about half the total population occurs in and around protected areas) and some other areas where human population densities are very low, such as Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Comoe (Ivory Coast), Arly-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso), Mole and Bui (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin), eastern Salamat (Chad), Bouba Ndjida, Benoue, Faro and adjoining hunting zones (Cameroon), Manovo- Gounda-St. Floris, Sangba and adjoining hunting zones (Central African Republic), Garamba, Upemba and Kundelungu (Congo-Kinshasa), Omo (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls, Lake Mburo and Kidepo Valley (Uganda), Masai Mara and Ruma (Kenya), Serengeti (Tanzania), Kafue, Bangweulu and Liuwa Plain (Zambia) and Golden Gate Highlands N. P. (South Africa).<br/><br/>Haggard’s Oribi occurs in Boni-Dodori National Reserve in Kenya and Bush Bush N.P. in Somalia, but there is no information available on its status.	eng
15730	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Oribi has a patchy distribution ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia and Eritrea and south through eastern Africa to Angola and the Eastern Cape of South Africa (East 1999; Brashares and Arcese in press). It still occurs widely within its former distribution but its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented as it is gradually eliminated from moderately to densely settled areas. They are now probably extinct in Burundi (East 1999).<br/><br/>Haggard’s Oribi is entirely isolated from other forms in coastal Kenya to southern Somalia (Hillman <em>et al.</em> 1998; East 1999).<br/><br/>The Kenya Oribi formerly occurred on the lower slopes of Mount Kenya but is now extinct (Hillman <em>et al</em>. 1998; East 1999).	eng
15730	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Oribi inhabit savanna woodlands, floodplains and other open grasslands, from around sea level to about 2,000 m asl. They reach their highest density on floodplains and moist tropical grasslands, especially in association with large grazers.	eng
15730	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Oribi are locally common in suitable habitats at densities of 2-10 animals/km², but have been recorded at densities up to 45 animals/km² in exceptionally productive tropical grasslands and treeless floodplains (Brashares and Arcese in press, and references therein). Densities estimated from ground counts range from 0.1-0.4/km² in areas where it is uncommon or depleted (East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 750,000. Population trend is stable in many protected areas but decreasing in some others which receive minimal or no protection. Outside protected areas, population trend is gradually downwards in many parts of the Oribi’s range as human populations increase and settlement expands, although its populations are stable in some thinly settled, unprotected regions where hunting pressures are relatively low. <br/><br/>The total numbers of Haggard’s Oribi are probably in the thousands.	eng
15730	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	It has been eliminated from substantial parts of its former range by the spread of agricultural settlement, livestock and increased hunting for meat. In the Comoé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire, Oribi experienced a decline of around 92% between 1978 and 1998 primarily due to poaching (Fischer and Linsenmair 2001). It nevertheless shows considerable resilience to hunting in some parts of its range, although generally not to the extent of highly resilient species such as Bushbuck and Grey Duiker. Its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented as it is gradually eliminated from moderately to densely settled areas.	eng
15733	conservation	Harris, R.B. & Reading, R., 2008	Argali are included on Appendix II of CITES, excepting the subspecies <em>O. a. nigrimontana</em> and <em>O. a. hodgsonii</em>, which are included on Appendix I. The United States Endangered Species Act lists argali as endangered, except in Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, where they are listed as threatened. (Threatened classification allows for importation of trophies from legally taken argali in those countries under specifically-authorized permits from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Permits for importation of trophies are generally not authorized for taxa listed as Endangered).<br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>A trophy hunting program for argali in the Big Pamir operated from ~ 1966-1978, but was discontinued following the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, and to date, has not been re-established. Under this program, livestock grazing in high elevation habitats favoured by argali during summer was effectively prohibited, and poaching by local pastoralists reduced. However, domestic livestock grazing was concentrated on argali winter ranges, with the result that the overall effect on argali habitat of the hunting program was unclear (Petocz <em>et al</em>. 1978). All hunting in Afghanistan was banned by order of President Hamid Karzai in 2006. There do not, however, appear to be serious effort so to enforce the ban. In 2009.   argali were officially-listed as a Protected Species in Afghanistan, strictly prohibiting all hunting and trading of this species within the country. There are currently no protected areas within the distribution of argali in Afghanistan, although plans exist to establish one or more in the Big and Little Pamir areas. Land management regulations or restrictions in any such future protected areas are not yet known.<br/><br/>China<br/>Argali are classified as a Category II “key species” under the Chinese National Wildlife Law of 1988. As such, permits to take argali must be obtained from province-level authorities. In practice, only the trophy hunting programs have procured permits to take argali under this legislation (Harris 2007). <br/><br/>Argali occur in a number of Chinese nature reserves. In Xinjiang, they occur in occur in at least six nature reserves in Xinjiang (Du and Zhang 2006), including Arjin Shan, Kalamaili, Source of the 2 Altai Rivers (Altai mountains), West Tian Shan, Hami Shan (Tian Shan range) and Taxkorgan (Pamirs). On the Tibetan Plateau, argali occur in the 247,120 km² Qiangtang Reserve in Tibet and the 83,000 km² Kekexili Reserve in Qinghai, as well as in scattered populations within the Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve in Qinghai (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Gansu, argali occur in Yanchiwan Nature Reserve, and may occur in the Qilian Nature Reserve. Nature reserve designation in China does not necessarily preclude habitat conflicts, as grazing, mining, and other activities often take place.<br/><br/>A number of trophy hunting areas have been established with argali as the focal species. Hunting areas in Xinjiang include Baicheng, Bu’erjin, Fuyun, Hami, Hejing, Qiemo, Tacheng, Tashiku’ergan, and Tulufan counties; in Gansu in Aksai and Subei counties (Subei’s consisted of two distinct areas, the Hashiha’er area in the Qilian Mountains and the Mazong Shan area in the Gobi Desert abutting Mongolia). In addition, two hunting areas in Qinghai Province, focusing primarily on blue sheep, have argali populations: Dulan (within separate townships, Balong and Gouli) and Maduo counties. One hunting area in Inner Mongolia (Yabulei) contains argali. Hunting areas in China have generally succeeded in reducing poaching and in generating some local enthusiasm for argali, but have not yet succeeded in treating habitat conflicts (Harris and Pletscher 2002, Harris 2007). <br/><br/>India<br/>Argali are listed as a threatened species by the Government of India and are fully protected under Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife Act of 1978 (Fox and Johnsingh 1997). Poaching appears to have declined in recent years (Namgail 2004), but has evidently not been accompanied by an increase in argali. Little has been done to address the likely deleterious effects of displacement increasing numbers of livestock on argali in Ladakh.  Argali are rare but present in Khangchengzonga National Park in Sikkim (Sharma and Lachungpa 2003).<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>Fedosenko (1999b) considered that some of the hunting concessions in Karaganda oblast protected argali well. Between 1990 and 2000, 75 argali rams were shot in the Karaganda area, and the approximately $900,000 earned was used for scientific studies, according to Fedosenko (1999b). However, Fedosenko (1999b) also believed that trophy hunting was having deleterious effects on breeding behavior and resultant productivity of females, and recommended a reduction in the yearly offtake quota. Trends in habitat conflicts with domestic livestock in Kazakhstan have not been well documented.<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>A research and conservation plan for argali was approved by the government of the Kyrgyz republic on April 7, 2004 (Krygyz Republic 2004), but it is unclear if it has proceeded, and if so, what results have been achieved.  In February 2006, the United State Department Fish and Wildlife Service suspended their program of issuing import permits to US hunters taking argali in Kyrgyzstan, pending receipt of additional information on the status of the taxon there (M. Carpenter, USFWS pers. comm., 2006). Issuing permits was partially reinstated in 2007, with 10 permits allowed. <br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>Argali sheep are protected as “Rare” under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act No. 264) of the 2000 Mongolian Law on Animals (Wingard and Odgerel 2002). General hunting of argali has been prohibited since 1953, and is the species is further protected as “Rare” under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (Wingard and Odgerel 2002). Argali are included in Appendix II of CITES (UNEP-WCMC, 2006), with an export quota of 80 hunting trophies with horns and 44 skins and horns in 2005. Altai argali (<em>O. a. ammon</em>) were listed as Rare” in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books, and the species was upgraded to “Endangered” in Mongolia in the most recent nationwide assessment (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within federal protected areas, including Altai Taivan Bogd National Conservation Park (NCP), Gobi Gurvan Saikhan NCP, Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (SPA) sections A and B, Ikh Nart NR, Khokh Serkh SPA, Khoredal Saridag SPA, Khustai Nuruu NCP, Myangan Ugalzat Nature Reserve (NR), Sielkhem Uul NCP, Tsagaan Shuvuut SPA, Tsambagarav Uul NCP, and Turgen Uul SPA (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b). Small populations likely occur in other federal and provincial (aimag) or county (soum) protected areas as well.<br/><br/>Although protected from general hunting, trophy hunters can purchase licenses. Under the Mongolian Hunting Fee Law of 1995, revenue generated from argali trophy hunting is divided among the federal government’s general funds (70%), the local province (20%), and the hunting organization (10%); specifically, US$ 18,000 for <em>O. a. ammon</em> trophies and US$ 9,000 for <em>O. a. darwini</em> trophies is allocated to local and federal governments (Wingard and Odgerel 2002).  Ostensibly this money should benefit local people, government agencies, and help implement important conservation actions for argali and the ecosystems they inhabit, but unfortunately, little of this money makes it back to local people or to the conservation of the species (Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>., 2002a, Wingard and Zahler 2006). Indeed, because local governments generally receive no additional revenue from trophy hunting (the federal government simply reduces payments to local governments that receive trophy hunting permits), many local governments are actively establishing protected areas to prevent future hunting (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Recent reforms to Mongolian trophy hunting practices have led to proposals for community-based wildlife management programmes (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a). Initial efforts by WWF-Mongolia, the Argali Wildlife Research Center, Denver Zoological Foundation, and local governments stalled; however, after initiation of a Global Environment Facility Project in the region and no progress has been made in recent years. <br/><br/>WWF and the Ministry of Nature and Environment organised a workshop on ‘Conservation of Argali in Mongolia’ in 2000 that resulted in a Argali Conservation Management Plan in 2002. However, this plan has not yet been adopted by the government and is not being implemented.<br/><br/>Mongolia’s Argali Wildlife Research Centre, Denver Zoological Foundation, and Mongolian Academy of Sciences cooperate on a number of conservation and research projects, including an interdisciplinary research and conservation project in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Dornogobi Aimag in cooperation with the Dalanjargal Soum Administration.  That work, begun in the late 1990s, has resulted in several publications (e.g., Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, 2003, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2003, 2005; Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>., 2002a; 2002b, 2006; Tserenbataa <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wingard 2005), development of ecotourism to support conservation, a broad conservation education program, and active conservation management of the reserve by the Dalanjargal Soum Administration.  <br/><br/>Additional conservation measures are desperately required in Mongolia. Clark <em>et al</em>. (2006) outlined the following:<br/><br/>• Implement the recommendations outlined in the Argali Conservation Management Plan.<br/>• Improve enforcement of existing legislation that would help conserve argali. <br/>• Enhance conservation management in protected areas where argali are found at high population densities, and increase the capacity of protected areas personnel and other environmental law enforcement officers.<br/>• Work to improve the livelihoods of local communities in areas where argali are protected by local initiatives and re-initiate community-based approaches to argali conservation (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a).<br/>• Develop public education programmes to raise awareness of the status of and threats to the species. <br/>• Continue ecological research, monitor population trends, and study the impacts of threats, including work in the Altai and Khangai Mountains to complement research occurring in the Gobi Desert.<br/>• Implement the recommendations from the Mongolian Wildlife Trade Workshop as outlined in Wingard and Zahler (2006).<br/><br/>Major revisions to argali trophy hunting practices in Mongolia as outlined in Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. (2002a) could generate substantial revenue for conservation and ensure that local people benefit, greatly benefitting argali conservation.  However, the barriers to changing the way trophy hunting is managed and implemented in Mongolia are formidable.<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Working with local people in the Khunjerab area toward mutually agreeable conservation solutions has been a contentious issue for many years. Successful resolution of competing claims with concerns for the interests of argali will ultimately be beneficial for conservation.<br/><br/>Russia<br/>Argali are listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, and hunting is legally banned; it is unclear how effective this legal protection is. Argali occur in the Altaisky Zapovednik, but most argali in the Russian Federation are outside of protected areas. Both Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) and Paltsyn (2001) suggested expanding the area under protected area status in the area. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) suggested that the eastern portion of Sailguem Ridge near the Mongolian border could be a possible new protected area, as well as in the upper reaches of the Chagan-Burgazy River. Paltsyn (2001) noted that WWF has become a long-term program to promote sustainable development in the Altai-Sayan region, which could have benefits for argali.<br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Argali occur in Pamir National Park (26,000 km²), and the Zorkul Zapovednik (870 km²), although neither protected area is fully functional (Schaller and Kang 2008).  Trophy hunting began in 1987, the same year that local hunting was prohibited (Fedosenko 1999b). Quotas for trophy hunts have recently been 40-60/year (Schaller and Kang 2008), up from ~ 20/year in the late 1980s and early 1990s (Fedosenko 1999b). There are reports that additional animals are sometimes sold beyond the official quotas. Some hunting concessions actively protect argali and limit disturbance, others do not (Schaller 2003).<br/><br/>Sources disagree on the status of argali in Tajikistan. Protection from excessive human mortality and human disturbance appears to be strong in the southeastern corner of the country; somewhat less so in other portions of argali range (Schaller 2003). Argali have generally benefited from the substantial reduction in domestic livestock grazing in the high-elevation Pamirs following Tajikistan’s independence in 1991 (Fedosenko 1999a). However, poaching, by pastoralists, military, and border guards, may have increased since that time – perhaps in part due to the civil war of the mid 1990s -- and is only partly controlled by hunting concessions (Schaller 2003). Trophy hunts represent a substantial source of revenue that could be used for argali conservation; this appears to be occurring in some hunting concessions within Tajikistan, but not in others (Schaller 2003).<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/>Severtzov’s argali are protected with the Nuratinski SPA and a few individuals possibly survive in the Zaaminsk SPA.  The species is included in the Red Book of Uzbekistan and protected from general hunting, although limited trophy hunting is permitted and occurs irregularly. Unfortunately, little law enforcement to prevent poaching occurs outside of the protected areas. Strong anti-poaching activities, expansion of the Nuratinski SPA, and would help conservation efforts. Support for anti-poaching and pasture improvement efforts are crucial. <br/><br/>A captive breeding program for Severtzov’s argali occurs just outside Nuratinski SPA to supplement the wild population and provide animals for trophy hunters. Unfortunately, this facility is relatively small, has limited resources, and occasionally releases breeding males for trophy hunters. Nevertheless, this program demonstrates that, captive propagation is possible and could aid in restoring animals to portions of their range where protection from poaching and over-grazing occurs.	eng
15733	distribution	Harris, R.B. & Reading, R., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan, China (Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, possibly western Sichuan, Tibet, and Xinjiang), northern India (Ladakh, Sikkim, and Spiti), eastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, northern Nepal (near the Chinese border), extreme northern Pakistan, Russia (Tuvan and Altai Republics in the Altai Mountains), eastern Uzbekistan, and eastern Tajikistan (Fedosenko and Blank 2005). There are no recent records of argali occurrence in Bhutan (Tschewang Wangchuck pers. comm., 2008). <br/><br/>Afghanistan<br/>Argali were historically present in much of the Afghan Pamirs of the Wakhan district (Habibi 1977, Petocz 1973, Petocz <em>et al</em>. 1978), between the Panj (Amu Darya) and Wakhan Rivers, but were not known from elsewhere in Afghanistan during recent times. They currently occupy the western section of the Big Pamirs, most of the Little Pamirs, and are often found in the Wakhjir Valley as well (Harris and Winnie 2008, Schaller and Kang 2008). Their status in the eastern portion of the Big Pamir, where they were documented by Petocz (1978) in the early 1970s remains uncertain. They are occasionally reported from elsewhere within the Wakhan Corridor. These animals are considered to be <em>O. a. polii</em>.<br/><br/>China<br/>Argali are distributed in most mountain ranges of Xinjiang (Yu <em>et al</em>. 1999), including the Altai Shan, Arjin Shan, Kara-Kunlun Shan, Pamirs, and Tian Shan and associated ranges. Some authorities consider all these argali except those in the Pamirs to be <em>O. a. karelini</em>; others sub-divide these into other subspecies. Within the ranges of the Tibetan Plateau, argali are distributed discontinuously and irregularly (Liu and Yin 1993, Schaller 1998, Schaller <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007). Although present in ranges from the Himalaya to the Qilian Shan in Gansu, argali on the Tibetan Plateau appear to be rare where temperatures are exceedingly low, winter snows deep, and/or precipitation amounts too low to support grass (Harris 2007). However, relatively healthy populations occur in the Qilian and Kunlun Mountains of Gansu and Qinghai (although from written accounts, argali are rare in the drier, western portions of the Kunlun Shan [Feng 1990, G. Schaller, unpublished data, 2001]). Chinese sources report the species as present in extreme western Sichuan (Wang 2002) but recent documentation of this is weak. Most authors consider argali on the Tibetan Plateau (including the Qilian Shan in Gansu) <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>, although some Chinese authors consider <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em> limited to southern Tibet, and consider argali north of that to be <em>O. a. dalailamae</em>. Argali are patchily distributed in Inner Mongolia (Bu <em>et al</em>. 1998). They are historically known from parts of Shaanxi and Ningxia Provinces (in the Helan Shan, which forms Ningxia’s western border with Inner Mongolia), but recent records suggest that they no longer occurs in either of these provinces (Liu Zhensheng, Gong Minghao pers. comm., 2008). These animals are variously described as <em>O. a. darwini</em> or <em>O. a. jubata</em>.<br/><br/>India<br/>Within India, argali are restricted to the eastern plateau of Ladakh, a nearby area in Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), and, separately, in northern Sikkim adjacent to Tibet (Fox and Johnsingh 1997, Bhatnagar 2003, Ul-Haq 2003, Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2004). Indian biologists consider these animals <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>.<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>In Kazakstan, argali (usually considered <em>O.a. collium</em>) are present in the Kazakhshiy and Melkosopoachnik regions, north of Lake Balkash, in the northeastern part of the country. Small populations are also present in the Kara-Tau Mountains (<em>O. a. nigrimontana</em>, although Shakula 2000 raised doubts about the validity of this subspecies), and the ranges of the West Tian Shan, both north and west of Almaty (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <em>O. severtzovi</em> historically inhabited the Beltau Mountains and eastern portions of the Aktau range (Ishunin 1970), but the subspecies is believed to be extirpated from Kazakhstan (N. Beshko pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>In Kyrgyzstan, argali are present along the eastern quarter of the country toward the Chinese border from Kazakhstan in the north to Tajikistan in the south, as well as along portions of the eastern Tian Shan toward the Uzbek border (Fedosenko and Blank 2005). Animals in southern southeastern Kyrgyzstan are usually considered <em>O. a. polii</em>; some authorities consider those in northern Kyrgyzstan <em>O. a. karelini</em>, but geographic and morphological separation remains unclear.<br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>Argali are distributed widely, but patchily across a large portion of Mongolia. Historically, argali occurred in disjunct populations across all, but eastern Mongolia, in areas with rolling hills, mountains, rocky outcrops, canyons, and plateaus (Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, 2003, Reading <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Argali appear to be expanding their distribution in eastern Mongolia, but contracting and becoming even more fragmented in western Mongolia (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Amgalanbaatar and Reading 2000, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, 2002b, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Large areas formerly occupied by argali in western Mongolia now lack the species. The species current distribution includes portions of the Altai, Trans-Alai, Gobi-Altai, Khangai, Khentie, and Khovsgol Mountain ranges, as well as isolated areas in the Gobi Desert (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). More specifically, isolated populations exist in the mountains of the Mongolian Altai and Gobi Altai Mountains, primarily the western and southern Khangai Mountains, near the source of the Arsain River in the Khovsgol Mountains, and the southernmost Khentii Mountains. Other populations persist patchily in the Dzungarian Gobi Great Gobi, Trans-Altai Gobi, Alashan Gobi, Middle Gobi, and eastern Gobi (Bannikov 1954, Dulamtseren 1970, Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2001, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, 2002b, Fedosenko and Blank 2005, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006)).<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>Argali (usually considered <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em>) are known from the Damodar Kunda area of Mustang District, bordering Tibet (Shrestha <em>et al</em>. 2005). They may also persist in the Dolpo region, north of the Dhualagiri Range (Wegge and Oli 1997). <br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Argali in Pakistan are known only from Khunjerab National Park (KNP) and environs, including the Khunerab, Kilik, and Mintaka passes with China (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997, Khan and Khan, n.d.). It is unknown whether argali (considered <em>O. a. polii</em>) use the mountains separating these areas from Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor to the west. <br/><br/>Russia<br/>Argali were formerly found in Zabaikal, Kuray, and the South-Chuya ranges and the Ukok plateau (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). More recently, they are known only from Tuva and Altai Republics (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Paltsyn 2001, Maroney 2004). Russian authorities considered these <em>O. a. ammon</em>.<br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Argali are present through most of the eastern third of Tajikistan (Luschekina 1994, Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997, Schaller and Kang 2008), from the border with Xinjiang, China west to Langar in the south and Sarez Lake in the north. Authors agree that all argali in Tajikistan are <em>O. a. polii</em>.<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/><em>O. ammon severtzovi</em> was previously distributed over a wide area of Uzbekistan from the northeastern part of the Pamiro-Alaya mountain range rhought the low mountains of the Kyzylkum Desert. Historically, it occupied the mountains of Nuratau, Aktau, Koratau, Malguzar east of Turkenstanski in Pistalitau, Tamdytau, Bukantua, Kuldjuktau, and other low ranges in the Kyzylkum Desert (Ishunin 1970, N. Beshko pers. comm.). Today, the majority of animals surviving are restricted to the higher mountains of Nuratau, primarily with the Nuratinski Strictly Protected Area, north of Samarkand (Uzbekistan). Very small populations persist in the western Aktau, Tamdytau, and Malguzar Ranges (N. Beshko pers. commun.).	eng
15733	habitat	Harris, R.B. & Reading, R., 2008	Argali inhabit mountains, steppe valleys and rocky outcrops (Reading <em>et al</em>., 1997; Schaller 1998; Amgalanbaatar and Reading, 2000; Harris 2007); they also occur in open desert habitats at the south-eastern end of its range (Reading <em>et al</em>., 2003; Tserenbataa <em>et al</em>., 2004; Reading <em>et al</em>., 2005). Argali are sensitive to deep snow, particularly if forage is limiting; often migrating from high mountain habitats during winter, but are present all year round at lower elevations in the Gobi desert (Reading <em>et al</em>., 2005). Most argali live on alpine grasslands between 3,000-5,500 m, often descending lower in winter (particularly if snow accumulates to more than a few cm). In some areas, (e.g., Gobi desert of southern Mongolia, Karaganda area of Kazakhstan), they live in lower elevation, semi-arid areas.  They generally avoid forested areas (except in Kazakhstan, where they are presumed to occupy forests because of displacement from preferred habitats, Fedonsenko and Blank 2005). They prefer to occupy open areas with a gentle slope; females generally occupy steeper (cliff) terrain following lambing. Argali feed on grasses, sedges, and some herbs and lichens, and they regularly drink from open springs and rivers. Where sympatric with blue sheep they are more likely to occur in grass-dominated communities compared to the sedge-dominated communities occupied by blue sheep. Argali are gregarious and live in groups from 2-150 individuals. Wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) are their primary natural predator. Gestation is about 160 days, and females give birth to one offspring (twins are occasionally reported in the literature, but documentation is poor). Mothers separate from the herd to give birth and remain alone with her offspring for several days.  Females are sexually mature at 2 years, while males may not sexually mature until 5 years. Maximum life-span is 10-13 years (Fedosenko and Blank 2005).	eng
15733	population	Harris, R.B. & Reading, R., 2008	Afghanistan<br/>There is no comprehensive population estimate for argali in Afghanistan. In the early 1970s, Petocz <em>et al</em>. (1978) accounted for approximately 1,260 argali in the Pamirs (including both Big and Little Pamir segments), from which they estimated a total abundance of about 2,500. During their survey in autumn 2004 (primarily of the Little Pamir), Schaller and Kang (2008) tallied 624 argali (87% of which were in the Little Pamir), and speculated that the total number in the Wakhan might be 1,000. Some of the argali tallied in the Little Pamir may periodically cross into Tajikistan, and thus possibly be counted within surveys there. Harris and Winnie (2008) estimated that they observed 120-210 individual argali in the western segment of the Big Pamir in November-December 2007. Eight-five individuals (all males) had been encountered by B. Habib in the Wakhjir Valley near the Chinese border in July of 2007, which likely were not part of the Big Pamir counts. Efforts to refine a population estimate for Big Pamir argali are currently underway, using DNA microsatellites extracted from fecal samples.<br/><br/>China<br/>Wang <em>et al</em>. (1997) put forward estimates of 29,000-36,000 for <em>O. a. hodgsoni</em> alone (in Tibet, Qinghai, and southeastern Xinjiang; although Wang [1998] subsequently wrote that such an estimate was probably a “significant overestimate”), with an additional 2,100-2,800 <em>O. a. darwini</em> (in Inner Mongolia), 600-700 <em>O. a. jubata</em> (in Inner Mongolia), 8,000-11,000 <em>O. a. karelini</em> (in the Tian Shan), 2,000-3,000 <em>O. a. polii</em> (in the Pamirs), and some additional <em>O. a. ammon</em> (in northern Xinjiang near the Mongolia border). This would suggest an estimate during the early 1990s of 41,700-53,500 argali in China. Later, as part of a nationwide attempt to generate numerical estimates for wildlife, Yu estimated the total number of argali in China to be between 23,298 and 31,910 (Yu Yuqun, Northwest Institute of Endangered Species, Xian, personal communication, 2004). Both of these estimates were extrapolations based on density estimates from limited areas, and neither was associated with sufficient explanation to asses their accuracy. Given the tendency for density estimates to be taken from areas known to have the densest concentrations and to use models that are usually biased high (Harris and Burnham 2001), these estimates are more likely to be biased high than low. <br/><br/>On the Tibetan plateau, Schaller (1998) considered that “…the total number of Tibetan argalis could be as low as 7,000”. For the Tibetan Autonomous Region, Liu and Yin (1993) estimated 5,000 argali.  For Gansu, in a letter to the US Fish and Wildlife Service dated May 17, 1991, Wang Zhangyun of China’s CITES Management Office suggested that there were as many as 20,000 argali in this province alone. In Qinghai, Zheng (2003) estimated a total population for Qinghai of 3,588. Earlier, Zheng and Zhu (1990) had estimated a population size of 665 (with a 95% confidence interval of 245) within selected study sites totaling approximately 600 km² of the Bu’erhanbuda Shan portion of the Kunlun Shan (based on 18 groups observed).<br/><br/>There are at least four written estimates of argali abundance in the Hashiha’er International Hunting Area of Gansu encompassing the northern slopes of the Danghenan Shan and the nearby Yemanan Shan in Subei County, Gansu. A provincial survey from 1990 estimated 1,452 argali (with unspecified confidence limits of  831-2,073; Gao Jun, Gansu Wildlife Protection Bureau, Lanzhou, unpublished data), an internal report of unclear origin estimated 1,525 (with confidence limits of 990—2,060; Zhao Lianghong, Subei International Hunting Area, unpublished data), Liu <em>et al</em>. (2000) cited a mean density figure of 0.482 (which is higher than either of the 2 density estimates underlying the above abundance estimates, and which equates to an abundance estimate of 4,479), and Liu (2001) estimated a population of 3,294 within Yanchiwan township (which roughly equates with the Hashiha’er hunting area boundary). All of these estimates relied on some variation of ground-based distance sampling, but in no case were sampling methods described, although Liu (2001) revealed that his density estimate was based on a sample size of 6, and the total number of animals observed was 60. A brief survey in April 1999 suggested that all these estimates were biased high (R. Harris, unpublished data). In an adjacent hunting area in Aksai county, Gansu, the 1990 provincial population estimate was 1,545 (with confidence limits of 1,127—1,963; Gao Jun, unpublished data), and the density estimate from Liu <em>et al</em>. (2000) suggested a population size of 3,879. In contrast, ~ 1-month-long surveys in both 2000 and 2003 with KIHA staff, focusing on what was believed to be the best argali habitat, documented 204-255 individual argali, and although some were no doubt missed, Harris <em>et al</em>. (2005) concluded that it was highly unlikely that the total population exceeded 500. <br/><br/>In Xinjiang, no estimates are available specifically for the Tian Shan or Altai Mountains (although estimates for the former are in the thousands, for the latter in the hundreds). In Taxkorgan County where Xinjiang shares the Pamir range with Tajikistan and Afghanistan, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (1987) documented only 87 argali and believed the population to be rather small. However, a later survey (Schaller and Kang 2008) yielded documentation of 851 argali in the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve and 1,448 argali north of it. In a separate survey during the same year (2005), Gong <em>et al</em>. (2007) surveyed selected drainages within Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, tallying 433 argali. Based on the area sampled and assumptions about suitable habitat, they extrapolated an estimate of 1,500-1,700 argali within the Reserve. No population estimates are available for argali in Inner Mongolia, but most populations appear to be isolated and small (Wang and Schaller 1996, Bu <em>et al</em>. 1998, Wang 1998). <br/><br/>Due to the lacking of consistent trend monitoring, population trends in China are largely unknown. A population monitored periodically over 12 years in Yeniugou, in the Kunlun Mountains south of Golmud in Qinghai apparently declined (Harris and Loggers 2004); no marked difference in abundance was noted in a population monitored in Aksai, Qilian Mountains in Gansu (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>India<br/>Argali are very rare in Sikkim (Sharma and Lachungpa 2003), and only occasionally move into the Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh from adjacent Ladakh (Pandey 2003). Fox and Johnsingh (1997) estimated that about 200 remained in Ladahk. Namgail (2004) counted 127 in a ~500 km² study area in the Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary and adjacent Tsokar Basin in spring 2003. Adding unpublished recent reports of an additional 120-140 argali elsewhere in Ladakh, he concluded that there might be slightly more than 200 argali in the Ladakh. Namgail (2004) cautioned against interpreting these later numbers as an increase of the 200 estimated earlier by Fox and Johnsingh (1997).<br/><br/>Kazakhstan<br/>Sources are currently unavailable from which an estimate of the total abundance of argali in Kazakhstan might be inferred. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated 8,000 to 10,000 in the northeastern distribution (of the putative subspecies <em>O. a. collium</em>), i.e., the Karaganda area, with perhaps 250 in the Kara Tau Mountains, and an unknown number in the West Tian Shan. Fedosenko (1999b) reported that Smirnov (1965, not seen) had estimated 16,000 argali in Karaganda during the early 1960s, but that later estimates in the 1970s and 1980s had put the number at 7,000 or even 5,000. A helicopter survey in November 1991 resulted in an estimate of 9,717 Karaganda argali, but whether this was a direct count or an extrapolation was not made clear by Fedosenko (1999b). Fedosenko (1999b) quotes R. Baidavletov as assuming a total abundance of 13,500 in the Karaganda area, including 6,500 in Karaganda oblast, 2,100 in Semipalatinsk oblast, 4,300 and the remainder in other oblasts as of the early 1990s. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2003) report tallying 449 individuals within a survey area of 1,544 km² in the upper course of the Baralbas River of Karaganda and Semipalatnisk, but declined to extrapolate this figure to areas not surveyed. Recent surveys in Kazakhstan revealed a disappointing picture of argali status (A. Subbotin pers. comm., 2008).  Uncontrolled killing by those who carry firearms appeard to be common; local militia and customs officials had come to areas inhabited by argali and killed dozens with gun-machines.  In the Kara-Tau Mountains, Shakula (2000) believed that the population could have been as low as 100 animals.<br/><br/>Kyrgyzstan<br/>There is little consensus regarding the abundance of argali in Kyrgyzstan. Luschekina (1994) counted 565 individuals in the western part of the Kokshalatau range in summer 1993. Based on these counts plus older, unpublished counts, she extrapolated an estimate of 6,000 argali in northeastern Kyrgyzstan. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2003) surveyed 190 km of transects in a similar area during spring 2002, tallying 717 argali. Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) reported “no more than 2,000” argali in Tian Shan (which may have included parts of Kazakhstan), and estimates of from 9,900 to 16,000 in the Pamir and Tian Shan of putative <em>O.a. polii</em> subspecies (which included parts of Tajikistan). Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) believed argali in both the Tian Shan and Pamirs were declining. According to Fedosenko (1999b), aerial surveys conducted during winters 1990 and 1991 tallied 5,493 argali, and estimated a total population of approximately 8,000 in the early 1990s. Fedosenko and Blank (2005) reported estimates of argali in Kygzystan as 10,000-12,000 in the Pamir and 5,000 in the Tian Shan, but without citing sources or methods. Based on extrapolations from counts in Aksai, Arpa-Naryn, Dzhety-Oguz, and Issyk-Kul oblasts, Kyrgyz government surveys have estimated approximately 15,900 argali in 2006, slightly lower than in previous years, and down from an estimated 26,000 in 2003.<br/><br/>Mongolia<br/>No rigorous population estimates exist for Mongolia nation-wide.  The Mongolian Academy of Sciences has conducted a few country-wide surveys; however, the methods used do not permit accurate population estimation.  Alternatively, they do provide some measure of population trends because similar methods were used.  The methods involved several teams of biologists driving and hiking in areas known to at least historically contain populations of argali sheep and discussions with local people and local government officials in these areas. These surveys yielded round number estimates (lacking measures of precision) of 40,000 in 1970, 50,000 in 1975, 60,000 in 1985, and between 13,000-15,000 in 2001 (Dulamtseren 1970, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002b, Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, unpubl. Data).  Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997 suggested that no more than 20,000 argali inhabited Mongolia in 1994.  The 2001 Academy of Sciences survey suggested that approximately 10,000 – 12,000 argali inhabited the Gobi Region of Mongolia (roughly corresponding to the range of <em>O. a. darwini</em>) and  3,000 – 5,000 argali inhabited the Altai Region (roughly the range of  <em>O. a. ammon</em> in Mongolia).  It is difficult to gauge the accuracy of these figures given the methods and data provided in government reports, but on regional distribution data, it does appear that argali continue to decline in western and central Mongolia, while populations in eastern Mongolia appear to be expanding.  Argali populations in southern Mongolia appear to be relatively stable.  Probably no more than a few thousand Altai argali (<em>O. a. ammon</em>) persist in Mongolia, while several thousand Gobi argali (the putative <em>O. a. darwini</em>) inhabit a growing range in the south and east.<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>No estimates of the number of argali in Nepal exist; it is likely to be a small number (Shrestha <em>et al</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Pakistan<br/>Animals using the Khunjerab area of Pakistan may also use the Chinese side; the number of animals occurring in Pakistan remains unknown, but is likely to be small, possibly less than 100 (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997). In 2002 or 2003, Khan and Khan (n.d.) report observing 34 argali. These authors also provide qualitative evidence of a general decline in argali abundance in the area. <br/><br/>Russia<br/>In the mid-1990s, Weinberg <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated that between 450-700 argali occurred in the Altai Mountains of southern Russia, distributed among numerous subpopulations none of which exceed 50 animals. Paltsyn (2001) reports counts of 80-85 argali within Altaisky Zapovednik (speculating that 100-110 individuals may have existed), 150-160 in headwaters of rivers of Sailugem Ridge (south of the Zapovednik, near the Mongolian border), and 40-45 individuals along the slopes of Chikhachev’s Ridge in the Tuvan Republic. <br/><br/>Tajikistan<br/>Numerous figures have been put forward for the total number of argali in Tajikistan; all suffer from methodological problems of one sort or another. Luschekina (1994) reported that helicopter surveys conducted in 1991 tallied 9,415 animals, with the estimated total in Tajikistan being 9,900-10,300. Density was highest in the eastern-most section, near the border with China where “engineering” works limited human access. Fedosenko (1999a), based on local information in the Saluistyk River area, believed this estimate to be slightly low, asserting that population size in the early 1990s was 11,500-12,000. Based on poaching records and political events within Tajikistan at the time, Fedosenko (1999a) hypothesized a decline to about 9,500-10,000 during the mid-1990s. Fedosenko (1999a) reported tallying 4,948 argali in southeastern portions of Tajikistan in 1999 where he had tallied only 1,242 in 1995, and concluded that the population in Tajikistan had increased to 13,000-14,000. Other estimates during the 1990s by K. Kasirov (quoted by Schaller 2003) were in the 8,000-9,000 range. Magomedov <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003) surveyed 900 km of transects during late February and early March 2002 in southeastern Tajikistan, estimating that they tallied 5,951 individual argali. Extrapolations from these counts (based on poorly documented assumptions) yielded an estimate of 14,500 argali within southern and eastern study areas, and 39,900 for all of Tajikistan (their surveys evidently took place where Luschekina [1994] and Fedosenko [1999a] had earlier postulated this highest densities in Tajikistan). Schaller and Kang (2008) tallied 1,528 argali in summer 2003 within selected census blocks totaling 1,977 km² (and in winter 2005, counted 2,200 animals within their South Alichur block in Murgab). Schaller and Kang (2008) declined to project an estimate for all of Tajikistan, but believed that the 13,000-14,000 estimated by Fedosenko (1999a) was “of the correct order of magnitude”.<br/><br/>Uzbekistan<br/>Within Nuratinski Strictly Protected Area (SPA) of the Nuratau Mountains, about 1,200-1,300 argali survive. Outside of the protected area the Nuratau Mountains supports about 250-300 argali, of which ~150-200 occur in western Nuratau and 100 individuals occur in eastern Nuratau and the Koitash Range. Under 100 argali remain in the Tamdytau and Aktau Ranges. A few individuals may persist in the Malguzar Range near the Zaaminsk SPA. Therefore, a total of under 1,800 Severtzov’s argali persist in Uzbekistan, of which 90% occur in the Naratau Range (N. Beshko pers. commun.).	eng
15733	threats	Harris, R.B. & Reading, R., 2008	The main threats are over-hunting and poaching (for meat); competition, displacement and possibly disease transmission by domestic livestock; and habitat loss. In general, argali appear to be extremely intolerant of human disturbance (Fedosenko 1999, Namgail 2004, Maroney 2006, Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2007, Harris 2007, Schaller and Kang 2008.) These threats appear to vary little among argali populations, even though habitats vary.<br/><br/>In Afghanistan, poaching is generally considered to be a continuing threat to argali, the presidential ban on hunting notwithstanding. Weapons are not uncommon in Afghanistan.<br/><br/>In China, poaching has been considered to be a substantial threat (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1997, Schaller 1998). In the mid-1990s however, a nationwide effort to confiscate guns from pastoralists substantially reduced the weaponry available for poaching. This, together with continued efforts to publicize the national law prohibiting killing protected species, appears to have reduced poaching during the last decade or so. At the same time however, efforts to regularize and sedentarize pastoralists generally increased habitat conflicts, because pastoralists typically intensified their use of productive grasslands preferred by argali, thus displacing them (Harris 2007). <br/><br/>Some of the strongest data suggesting interference competition from livestock as a limiting factor for argali comes from Ladakh, India, where Namgail <em>et al</em>. (2007) documented a group of argali shifting their habitat preference toward escape terrain and away from preferred foraging areas when livestock were present.<br/><br/>As elsewhere, livestock grazing and poaching were considered the principal limiting factors to argali in Kazakhstan by Fedosenko (1999b). There is general consensus that habitat conditions for argali improved after Kyrgyzstan’s independence in 1991, due to the collapse of the state-supported livestock sector and consequent reduction in grazing pressure in the Tian Shan and Pamirs (Farrington 2005). It is unclear whether relatively low livestock density near the Chinese border will continue. Poaching and competition with livestock are also considered threats in Kyrgyzstan (Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). After independence in 1991, the number of domestic sheep herded into argali habitat declined dramatically, which likely had a beneficial effect. However, since 2000 there have been informal reports that livestock numbers have again risen. <br/><br/>The main threat facing argali in Mongolia is poaching for subsistence (meat) and increasingly for their horns, which are increasingly being used as substitute horn in traditional Chinese medicine (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, Amgalanbaatar 2002b). Also important are the impacts from local, nomadic pastoralists who displace argali, whose livestock feed on the same forage as argali, and whose dogs chase and even kill argali (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1997, 1998, 2003, 2005, Wingard 2005, Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2006). More minor and localized threats include unsustainable trophy hunting (Amgalanbaatar 2002a, Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wingard and Zahler 2006) and habitat loss resulting from rapidly increasing resource extraction (i.e., mining) (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1999, 2001, 2005). Subsistence poaching by miners general represents a greater threat than actual mining activities, but this may change as the number of mines continues to grow rapidly. These threats remain important due to poor or non-existence law enforcement throughout most of the range of the species in Mongolia. Very little money from trophy hunting currently supports conservation activities in Mongolia (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002a, Wingard and Zahler 2006).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, in addition to disturbance from livestock (grazing in Khunjerab remains legal; Knudsen 1999, Khan and Khan, n. d.), increased access to the area through the Karakoram Highway is believed to have increase poaching pressure (Hess <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Unlike in Mongolia, domestic livestock herds in the Russian Altai were reported has having declined during the 1990s (Paltsyn 2001), providing a potential opportunity for expansion of the protected area network in the Altai-Sayan area. <br/><br/>In Uzbekistan, poaching represents the main threat facing Severtzov’s argali, which continues to occur even within protected area (N. Beshko pers. comm.). The second major threat to Severtzov’s argali is a loss of habitat and competition with domestic livestock for forage.  Finally, inbreeding and harsh climatic conditions represent threats for the very small, isolated populations in the Aktau, Tamdytau, and Malguzar Mountains (N. Beshko pers. comm.).	eng
15735	conservation	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	In Canada, more than 4,500 Rocky Mountain bighorns are fully protected within five National Parks (Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, Waterton, Yoho). An even larger number receive some level of protection in provincial parks and other protected areas in Alberta and British Columbia. Animals in protected areas are often especially vulnerable to poaching because they are habituated to humans and are also readily accessible. Outside national parks, both subspecies of bighorn sheep are covered by provincial or state wildlife acts, and many populations can be hunted under license. Harvesting both adult males and adult females may be permitted in some populations. Hunting quotas are determined each year, and in general regulations are strictly enforced. Management consists of regulating annual harvests, habitat improvement, annual censuses, translocation of animals, and promoting research. Between 200 to 250 male and 150 to 200 female Rocky Mountain bighorns are harvested annually in Alberta. In British Columbia, where only males are hunted: 60 to 65 Rocky Mountain and 40 to 45 California bighorns are shot each year, mainly by resident hunters (Hebert <em>et al</em>., 1985).  In much of Canada, male harvest is limited only by the availability of adult males that have reached a minimum curl size, possibly leading to artificial selection against large-horned rams (Coltman <em>et al</em>., 2003). <br/><br/>In the US, Bighorn sheep occur in the following 30 National Parks, Monuments, Recreation Areas and Wildlife Refuges: Arizona: Grand Canyon NP; Cabeza Prieta, Havasu, and Kofa WRs; Glen Canyon, and Lake Mead NRAs; Organ Pipe Cactus NM; California: Sequoia- Kings Canyon NP; Death Valley, and Joshua Tree NMs; Colorado: Mesa Verde, and Rocky Mountain NPs; Colorado, and Dinosaur NMs; Montana: Glacier, and Yellowstone NPs; Bison Range, and C.M. Russell NWRs; Bighorn Canyon NRA; Nevada: Desert NWR; Death Valley NM; Lake Mead NRA; New Mexico: San Andres NWR; North Dakota: T. Roosevelt NP; Oregon: Hart Mountain NWR; South Dakota: Badlands NP; Utah: Arches, Canyonlands, Capitol Reef, and Zion NPs; Dinosaur NM; Flaming Gorge, and Glen Canyon NRAs; Wyoming: Grand Teton, and Yellowstone NPs; Bighorn Canyon NRA. It also occurs in the large Anza-Borrego State Park (California). Most of these protected areas are in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts, and on the Colorado plateau. Numerous other federal lands administered by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management also contain bighorn. Fourteen state wildlife agencies have transplanted sheep onto more than 200 historic ranges. This has accounted for much of the recovery of bighorn sheep from historic low numbers in the 1960s. However, numerous other transplants have failed (Bailey, 1990), presumably for lack of careful evaluation of habitat conditions at potential transplant sites or because of disease transmitted by livestock. Animals in about half the herds are hunted, and all states with bighorn sheep have at least one hunted population. Usually, only adult males are taken as hunting trophies. The number of sheep permitted to be taken each year is conservative and is regulated by each state. All states require that legally taken trophy heads be marked for permanent identification. This practice allows easy identification of illegally taken animals and thus discourages poaching. <br/><br/>Improvement of habitat for bighorn sheep has been frequent, especially on federal multiple-use lands. Projects have been funded with combinations of federal, state, and private moneys. Natural water sources have been improved and artificial water sources created, especially in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the Southwest. Further north, dense forest or shrub vegetation has been cleared, often by controlled burning, to provide open areas with forage for bighorn sheep. Some populations of bighorn are routinely baited and treated with drugs to control parasites including lungworm (<em>Protostrongylus</em> sp.). Such treatments concentrate sheep and may jeopardize wildness. Management and research biologists exchange information on bighorn sheep in annual meetings of the Desert Bighorn Council and biennial meetings of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council. Proceedings of these meetings are published. Three private organizations, the Foundation for North American Wild Sheep, the Rocky Mountain Bighorn Society and the Society for the Conservation of Bighorn Sheep, raise funds for research and management. At least 10 states auction and/or raffle one or two special bighorn hunting licenses to raise funds for these purposes. Its status within the United States is Not Threatened (but see below). <br/><br/>The status of most traditional subspecies and major ecotypes of bighorn sheep is satisfactory because they exist on 30 biological reserves and on many other protected areas. However, their status is not fully secure because at least 64% of the herds contain about 100 animals. Berger (1990) reviewed the history of some small bighorn populations and concluded that those numbering less than 50 animals usually became extirpated, but Wehausen (1999) provides an alternative interpretation and viewpoint. Further, the ecotypes of bighorn in the Chihuahuan desert and in shortgrass-badlands and riverbreak environments are not secure because there are few reserves or other protected lands within these two regions, and very few of these lands contain wild sheep. <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed for the United States: 1) Additional research on bighorn diseases, particularly in relation to domestic livestock, and on developing efficient methods for habitat management is desirable. 2) State and federal agencies should develop coordinated plans to enhance the long-term security of the numerous bighorn herds with less than 100 sheep. Strategies should include increasing herd size, expanding habitat and increasing herd mobility, and enhancing habitat quality and habitat protection in corridors between small herds (Bailey 1992). 3) Land management agencies, especially the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, should formally recognize bighorn ranges in their management plans, including corridors for movement within and between herds. 4) Until disease relations are clearer, bighorn should be protected from contact with domestic sheep and domestic goatswhenever possible. 5) Greater recognition of the values and importance of ecotypic variation in bighorn sheep is needed. Federal agencies and state wildlife departments should seek a consensus on classifying the major ecotypes. Each state should furthermore classify its bighorn according to state ecotypes. Conservation of major ecotypes should proceed under the federal Endangered Species Act. Each state should be responsible for conserving another level of ecotypic diversity of bighorn sheep within its boundaries. 6) Increase the number of bighorn sheep in federally protected habitats in the Chihuahuan Desert and in the shortgrass-badlands and river breaks ecosystems. In the Chihuahuan Desert, options include: a) expanding protection of habitat and sheep from the San Andres National Wildlife Refuge to a greater portion of the White Sands Missile Range; b) formally recognizing and enhancing protection of the Big Hatchet Game Range, now on Bureau of Land Management land; c) establishing viable bighorn populations in Guadalupe Mountains and Big Bend National Parks; and d) establishing bighorn in a new biological reserve, probably in west Texas. 7) In the shortgrass-badlands and river breaks ecosystems, management options include: a) expanding bighorn populations and distributions in the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, the Bighorn National Recreation Area, and in Theodore Roosevelt and Badlands National Parks; and b) establishing bighorn populations in new biological reserves in eastern Wyoming or western Nebraska.<br/><br/>The species in Mexico is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Mexican bighorn occur in only two protected areas in Mexico, one of which (Isla Tiburon Wildlife Reserve (in the Sea of Cortez)) holds an introduced population. Peninsular bighorn is in only one protected area, Sierra de San Pedro Martir National Park, but Weem’s bighorn occurs in none. A small group (25 in 1992) of desert bighorn (<em>O. c. nehoni</em>) is held in captivity at Hermosillo. The high price ($30,000 to over $l00,000) that some hunters are willing to pay to hunt wild sheep has recently motivated private and communal landowners in Sonora and Baja California to begin desert sheep monitoring and management programs. In 1994, ranchers in Sonora started a captive breeding program by capturing 40 sheep and placing them in breeding enclosures. Six hunting permits were issued to private landowners for free-ranging bighorns in 1995, and each sold for $40,000. A private conservation organization has initiated a transplant of Weem’s bighorn from southern Baja California to Carmen Island. The excess sheep produced on this island, once the transplanted population increases to a viable size, will be used to re-establish extinct populations on the mainland. The participation of private landowners in wild sheep management programs in Mexico is a positive initiative. Private landowners have the funds to provide for monitoring wild sheep populations and to prevent further poaching. <br/><br/>Conservation measures proposed for Mexico: At least five areas must be addressed for conservation of desert bighorn in Mexico (Sandoval, 1985): a) Effective law enforcement is a major problem facing the conservation of bighorn in Mexico. In large part, this is due to the very low financial support generally given to wildlife programmes. b) There is a general lack of technical expertise among wildlife personnel. c) A public education program, especially targeted towards the rural population, is necessary if conservation programmes are to be successful. d) Habitat management has generally been ignored, despite the fact that agricultural practices and forest use have had, and continue to have, significant negative effects on the bighorn. e) The further spread of exotic ungulates, such as Barbary sheep, in or adjacent to current and historic bighorn range should be curtailed. Proposals to deal with these include: 1) Increase the number of protected areas in Baja California and in Sonora on the mainland. Present protected areas are inadequate to protect sheep populations. Mexico’s burgeoning human population requires intensive exploitation of agricultural and natural resources, while coastal tourist development projects in Sonora and Baja California will have further deleterious impacts on wild sheep habitats. 2) Raise enforcement of anti-poaching efforts to adequate levels. This will require a well-equipped law enforcement division. 3) Develop a public conservation education programme, especially targeted towards the rural population. This could play an important role for future conservation of wild sheep and all other wildlife and natural resources. 4) Educate and employ a cadre of professional wildlife biologists.	eng
15735	distribution	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	The bighorn sheep ranges widely in western Canada, western United States, and northern Mexico.<br/><br/>In Canada, the bighorn sheep (<em>O. c. canadensis</em>) is distributed throughout the Rocky Mountains in Alberta and British Columbia, south from the Peace River to the Canada-USA border. Two small populations also have been introduced to central British Columbia outside their normal distribution. Populations of a second subspecies, California bighorn sheep (<em>O. c. californiana</em>), are scattered through central British Columbia from north of Anahim lake, south along sections of the Chilcotin, Chilco and other western tributaries of the Fraser river south of William’s Lake and west to just north of Lillooet, and also south from around Kamloops along both sides of the Okanagan valley to the border with Washington State (USA) and as far west as Granby, British Columbia. Populations around Kamloops and Granby have been introduced, mostly into historically occupied habitat.<br/><br/>In the United States, the bighorn sheep is widely distributed from Montana and Idaho south through Wyoming and northern Utah, to Colorado and New Mexico. These bighorn herds comprise most of the traditional <em>O. c. canadensis</em> for which Thorne <em>et al</em>. (1985) estimated a population of greater than 19,000. To the south, desert bighorn (traditionally <em>O. c. nelsoni</em>, <em>O. c. cremnobates</em>, and <em>O. c. mexicana</em>) inhabit southern portions of California, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico, much of Arizona, and west Texas. Weaver (1985) estimated 16,000 desert bighorn in this area. However, there are few bighorn and few herds (mostly transplants to reintroduce bighorns in areas where they were extirpated) within the Chihuahuan desert of New Mexico and west Texas. To the west, bighorn occur in scattered populations in the Columbia plateau and Great Basin ranges of Washington, Oregon, southwest Idaho, and northern Nevada. These herds comprise most of the traditional <em>O. c. californiana</em>, for which Thorne <em>et al</em>. (1985) estimated greater than 2,800 animals. East of the Rocky Mountains, bighorn exist in scattered herds in badlands and river-breaks in eastern Montana, North and South Dakota, northeast Wyoming, Nebraska, and outside of historic range in southeast Colorado.<br/><br/>In Mexico, the bighorn sheep was originally distributed in the northern states of Nuevo Leon, Coahila, Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California and Baja California Sur. Desert bighorn in Mexico is now restricted to three states: Mexican bighorn (<em>O. c. mexicana</em>) in northwestern Sonora and on Tiburon island in the Sea of Cortez; Peninsular bighorn (<em>O. c. cremnobates</em>) in the northern two thirds of Baja California; and Weems’ bighorn (<em>O. c. weemsi</em>) in the southern third of Baja California Sur.	eng
15735	habitat	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	These animals are sexually segregated outside the rut.  Group sizes usually range from 5 to 50 for males and from 5 to 100 for ‘nursery’ groups of females, lambs and young males.  <br/><br/>They mostly eat grass, but they also consume forbs and browse – diet varies widely over the large geographical range of the species.  Females gestate for 175 days, and give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy.  Females can first conceive at 18 months of age and males are rarely successful at obtaining paternities before about 3 years of age.  Very few females live more than 15 years and very few males survive past 12 years.	eng
15735	population	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	The total population of all bighorn sheep in Canada is estimated to be <em>ca.</em> 15,500 to 15,700 individuals. Of this total, <em>ca.</em> 11,500 to 11,700 are estimated to be Rocky Mountain bighorns [Alberta 10,300 (K. Smith, <em>in litt</em>., 1994), and British Columbia 1,500 to 1,700 (Hebert <em>et al</em>., 1985)], and <em>ca.</em> 4,000 California bighorn whose individual populations range in size from 15 to 2,400 animals. Most populations of both subspecies are either increasing or stable. <br/><br/>In 1990, there were estimated to be greater than 42,700 bighorn sheep in over 340 recognized herds, in 14 of the states in the United States. However, 64% of the herds recently had less than 100 animals (Thorne <em>et al</em>., 1985; U. S. Bureau of Land Management, n.d.), but most of these populations have since increased.<br/><br/>Only rough population estimates are available for Mexico. Previous estimates of 4,500 in all of Baja California, and perhaps 1,000 on ten separate ranges in Sonora (Sandoval, 1985) were inaccurate. A helicopter survey of the northern two thirds of Baja California in April 1992 by the Bighorn Institute, revealed there were probably greater than 2,500 wild sheep in the entire peninsula (J. Deforge pers. comm., 1992). Personnel from the Arizona Game and Fish Department and the Centro Ecologico de Sonora, conducted a helicopter survey of the principal mountain ranges of Sonora, Mexico in November 1992. Based on this survey, during which 528 sheep were classified by age and sex, R.M. Lee (pers. comm., 1992) estimated <em>ca.</em> 2,000 wild sheep for Sonora. The total estimate of all desert bighorn sheep in Mexico in 1992 was therefore <em>ca.</em> 4,500 animals.	eng
15735	threats	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	Epizootics have occurred periodically, especially in Rocky Mountain bighorn, and together with over-harvesting and competition from livestock at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, reduced numbers significantly. Most populations recovered with the aid of wildlife management and conservation efforts, but pneumonia and mange epizootics still occur today, particularly in populations that come into contact with domestic sheep and goats. Poaching of large trophy males is a problem in many areas, including within national parks. <br/><br/>In the US, small (< 100) numbers in many herds, and diseases from domestic sheep are major threats, while in Mexico the threats are poaching, competition from domestic livestock, and habitat degradation (Sandoval, 1985).	eng
15739	conservation	Valdez, R., 2008	<em>Ovis orientalis</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>Ovis orientalis ophion</em> and <em>Ovis vignei vignei</em>, Appendix II as <em>Ovis vignei</em>).<br/><br/>  In Afghanistan, O. orientalis was placed on the country’s first Protected Species List in 2009, prohibiting all hunting and trading of this species within the country.<br/><br/>In Iran, Caprinae are the only game mammals that can be hunted under licences issued by the Department of the Environment. Other large mammals such as cheetah (<em>Acinonyx jubutus</em>), Persian fallow deer (<em>Dama mesopotamicus</em>), roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>), red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), gazelles (<em>Gazella bennetti</em>) and wild ass (<em>Equus hemionus</em>), are protected species and hunting them is prohibited except under special licence. The hunting season for Caprinae lasts four months beginning each year in September, but each licence is valid only for five days from its date of issue. Hunters with non-automatic and semi-automatic weapons (all weapons with a calibre of <6 mm and all shot guns are prohibited) can obtain a licence and are permitted to shoot a wild sheep or a wild goat. Each hunter can obtain up to four licences per hunting season, and may shoot three males and one female. Unfortunately the exact numbers of Caprinae shot each year by hunters are not available. According to recent data, between 2,200 and 3,200 licences were issued each hunting season, and a rough estimate of the number Caprinae legally shot each year would be between 2,000 to 3,000 animals. However, more than twice this number are estimated to be killed by poachers annually. Hunting is permitted in protected areas but requires a special licence. Because Caprinae populations are not harvestable in most areas, licences are almost never issued for protected areas except for Kabudan island, located within Lake Uromiyeh. Here, the Department of the Environment staff harvest between 200 and 500 Armenian mouflon annually.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>This subspecies is found in Garnishlo and Kolahgazy Wildlife Refuges, and in Tangsayad Protected Area.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>Laristan sheep are known to occur in Khabr-va-Rochon Wildlife Refuge and in Geno and Hormod Protected Areas. Some authors believe that Laristan sheep also inhabit Bamou National Park (estimated number 1,150) (Valdez and DeForge, 1985).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroechkovsky, 1990b): Kaplankyr (Turkmenistan); Ustyurt (about 600 head) (Kazakhstan). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection (Republican State Board For Conservation and Utilisation of Flora, Fauna, and Protected Lands) plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). Conservation measures proposed: Reduce significantly poaching. If this can be controlled, the existing measures will be sufficient as long as they are maintained. This urial also occurs in two National Parks, three Wildlife Refuges, and three Protected Areas in Iran. Hunting in all these areas is prohibited and domestic animals are under control. Hunting under licence is allowed from September to February outside these areas.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category I in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves: Dashti Turn (Tajikistan), Kugitang (Turkmenistan) and Surkhan (Uzbekistan). In 1991, 14 were reported in Surkhan NR but only five in 1993 (Kh. Mengliev pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b), and Tajikistan planned to allow hunts for this urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Halt all hunting. 2) Carry out surveys and censuses. 3) Reconsider the potential for hunting programs only if they are sustainable and will clearly improve conservation status of markhor. If not, maintain a hunting ban and provide further protection. 4) Establish reserves at Babatagh (when fighting ceases) and at Baisuntau in Uzbekistan. 5) Examine the possibility of re-establishing a population in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve. Reduce significantly 6) poaching and 7) competition with livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and placed in Category II of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Approximately half the total population lives in protected areas in Turkmenistan. Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve was established primarily for preservation of this subspecies, and they are also found in Siunt-Khasardag and Badkhyz Nature Reserves. The Turkmenistan Government planned hunts for two of this urial in 1995. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the enforcement of existing protective measures both in and outside protected areas. 2) Decrease poaching. 3) Ensure any hunting programs are sustainable and based on sound biological data. Occurs in the Arjar Valley Wildlife Reserve in Afghanistan (Shank <em>et al</em>., 1977), and seasonally (summer) in Kohe Burocinal and Kohe Argosa nearby the Band-e Amir National Park (Shank and Larsson, 1977). In the 1970s plans were considered to locate a viable urial population to develop a limited hunting reserve involving local participation, as had been achieved for Marco Polo sheep. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Carry out extensive surveys of Afghan urial populations and distributions in the Hindu Kush. 2) Re-consider the options proposed by Petocz (1978).<br/><br/>Pakistani protected areas reported to contain mostly very small numbers of Afghan urial include: NWFP - Dera Ismail Khan District: Sheikh Buddin NP (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Kohat District: Borraka WS (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987) Rakh Topi GR (Malik, 1987); Peshawar District: Nizampur GR (Malik, 1987); District Abbottabad: Surrana GR. BaZz&istarz - Las Bela District: Hingol NP, Dureji WS, Khurkhera WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990), Dureji WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Khuzdar District: Dhrun NP, Chorani WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Kharan District: Ras Koh GR, Raghai Rakshan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Kalat District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP, and possibly Sashan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Quetta District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990; though presence in this NP not confirmed by Virk, 1991); Sibi District: Ziarat Juniper WS (Baluchistan Forest. Dept., 1990); Pishin District: Masalakh WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990). Sind - Dadu District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date); Karachi District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date). As a result of the protection given by Kirthar NP, the urial population within its boundaries has increased recently. However, except for Kirthar NP, Hingol NP, Dhrun NP and Dureji WS, the protection measures for the other sanctuaries and reserves may not be effective at the present time. WWF-Pakistan has recently initiated a participatory management program in the Shirani tribal area, which includes protection for Afghan urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine the current distribution and numbers of Afghan urial, as well as its status in all protected areas, as soon as possible. 2) Immediately, focus intensive protection measures on a few of the already existing, but well controllable sanctuaries, to protect and rebuild viable populations. Apart from the national parks, Takatu hills (District Quetta) and Gharsa Nallah may be good focal areas. The proximity of Takatu hills to Quetta should offer the opportunity for effective protection. 3) To maximise the efficient use of resources, conservation actions for urial, wild goat, and straighthorned markhor, could be combined where their distributions overlap. 4) Some areas might ultimately be used for controlled trophy hunting programs once populations have been restored, providing economic incentives to tribal people as part of the management plan (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>In Iran, the Armenian mouflon is found in Uromiyeh Lake National Park, three Wildlife Reserves, and 10 Protected Areas. The contentious hybrid populations occur in Kavir, Khogir and Sorkheh Hesar National Parks; in Dodangeh Wildlife Reserve; and in Alborz-e-Markazy, Lar River, Varjim and Jajrud Protected Areas. Hunting is allowed under permit outside the protected areas between September and February each year, while within them, domestic livestock grazing is strictly controlled. The population on Kabudan Island, which lies within Uromiyeh Lake National Park, was introduced 90 years ago. In recent years the Kabudan Island population built up to over 3,000 sheep and vegetation was badly damaged. Two leopards (Pan therapardus) were released in an attempt to control the sheep population, and after a few years numbers decreased and stabilised at around 1,000 sheep. The leopards reportedly produced at least one young, but no more sightings or signs were recorded after 1984. The population of wild sheep has since increased and control of the sheep population has been initiated, with Department of Environment staff removing 200 to 500 animals per year. Listed in Category I of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). In Armenia, it has been forbidden to hunt them since 1936. Armenian mouflon is found only in two protected areas, the Khosrov Nature Reserve in Armenia created for this mouflon’s protection but which fails to fulfil this task because of territorial changes, and the Ordubad Sanctuary (Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan). A captive breeding program has been initiated at the Zoological Institute of Armenia. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine current numbers, status and distribution as soon as possible. 2) Expand Khosrov Nature Reserve to include areas which had been used previously by sheep, and 3) reorganize the Orbubad Sanctuary into a state reserve. 4) Control livestock and eliminate, or significantly reduce poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The Ladakh urial is listed in Appendix I of CITES, as a threatened species by the Government of India, and is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Some illegal hunting probably still takes place, although such activity is now apparently well controlled in the upper Indus valley area near Leh. Hemis National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) contains the only urial population currently found in a protected area in India. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the number of protected areas and establish those proposed ones in which Ladakh urial are known to inhabit in Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gya-Miru (12 1 urial counted in 1984), Rizong (145 counted in 1984) and Karakorum Wildlife Sanctuaries (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a). Gya-Miru includes the easternmost known distribution of the species. 2) Enlarge Hemis National Park to include areas of critical habitat along the Indus river west of its confluence with the Zanskar river. This step is very important for urial conservation. 3) Increase measures to combat poaching by road labourers and construction officials along the new road running between two important subpopulations in the Hemis National Park, (Fox 1987, Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a, Mallon and Bacha 1989). Develop a management strategy to 4) strictly control hunting and 5) minimise competition from livestock grazing. If the above proposed sanctuaries are notified and adequately protected, and if livestock grazing is well managed, they should begin to provide the necessary protection for more than half of the remaining Ladakh urial and their range in India. However, because of the linear distribution of urial along major valleys, and its close proximity to human activity, the inclusion of critical urial habitat within the central core areas of large conservation units is not practical. Alternatively, “mini-core areas” may be required to target the protection of small areas of critical urial habitat. Ladakh urial occur in very few protected areas in Pakistan: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP (Anonymous, 1986); Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Danyore GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Satpara WS (Rasool, no date). These areas probably protect few urials; for example only two individuals were reported in Chitral Gol NP in 1986. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Ban all hunting of this urial. 2) Rigorously protect all areas with populations ~20 animals which can be controlled. 3) Initiate an intensive conservation program in the Kharpacho hills near Skardu, inhabited in 1983 by 14 animals and in 1985 by 18 animals. Its close proximity to Skardu makes it easy to control and offers opportunity to demonstrate wildlife protection to the public (Hess in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES under <em>Ovis vignei</em>, and like all mammals, it is legally protected in the Punjab. Protected areas reported to contain this urial include: Punjab - Chakwal (previously Attack) District: Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988), Kala Chitta CR, Khari Murat GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Chakwal District: Chinji NP, Chhumbi Surla WS; Jhelum District: Jalalpur Sharif WS, Rakh Kundal WS, Diljabba Domeli GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date), Chhumbi Surla WS (Chaudhry, unpubl. data); Khushab District: Sodhi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Mianwali District: Kala Bagh Sanctuary. Kala Bagh Sanctuary is a WWF-Pakistan Sanctuary, privately owned and protected by the Maliks of Kala Bagh (Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977; Roberts, 1967a, 1977, 1985; Mirza <em>et al</em>., 1979; Zool. Survey Dept., no date). This population, estimated at 500 in 1966, 1970 and 1974 (Mountfort, 1969; Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977), increased to over 750, before crashing due to an unknown epidemic transmitted by domestic camel. The population has since recovered and numbers 850 animals at present (Malik A.Y. Khan, 1992 pers. comm. to A. A. Chaudhry). Conservation measures proposed: 1) Enforce protection measures in the relatively accessible protected areas; this is urgently required. 2) Kala Bagh Sanctuary could be selected as a focal area. Animals from this population could be used for a re-introduction program. Only one area is protected (Kalabagh game Reserve) and managed by the community The Punjab government has declared 12 protected areas of different categories in the range of distribution of Punjab urial. Law enforcement in these protected areas is poor, and there are no legal restrictions on domestic livestock.	eng
15739	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	<em>Ovis orientalis</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>Ovis orientalis ophion</em> and <em>Ovis vignei vignei</em>, Appendix II as <em>Ovis vignei</em>).<br/><br/>In Iran, Caprinae are the only game mammals that can be hunted under licences issued by the Department of the Environment. Other large mammals such as cheetah (<em>Acinonyx jubutus</em>), Persian fallow deer (<em>Dama mesopotamicus</em>), roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>), red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), gazelles (<em>Gazella bennetti</em>) and wild ass (<em>Equus hemionus</em>), are protected species and hunting them is prohibited except under special licence. The hunting season for Caprinae lasts four months beginning each year in September, but each licence is valid only for five days from its date of issue. Hunters with non-automatic and semi-automatic weapons (all weapons with a calibre of <6 mm and all shot guns are prohibited) can obtain a licence and are permitted to shoot a wild sheep or a wild goat. Each hunter can obtain up to four licences per hunting season, and may shoot three males and one female. Unfortunately the exact numbers of Caprinae shot each year by hunters are not available. According to recent data, between 2,200 and 3,200 licences were issued each hunting season, and a rough estimate of the number Caprinae legally shot each year would be between 2,000 to 3,000 animals. However, more than twice this number are estimated to be killed by poachers annually. Hunting is permitted in protected areas but requires a special licence. Because Caprinae populations are not harvestable in most areas, licences are almost never issued for protected areas except for Kabudan island, located within Lake Uromiyeh. Here, the Department of the Environment staff harvest between 200 and 500 Armenian mouflon annually.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>This subspecies is found in Garnishlo and Kolahgazy Wildlife Refuges, and in Tangsayad Protected Area.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>Laristan sheep are known to occur in Khabr-va-Rochon Wildlife Refuge and in Geno and Hormod Protected Areas. Some authors believe that Laristan sheep also inhabit Bamou National Park (estimated number 1,150) (Valdez and DeForge, 1985).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category II in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves (Sokolov and Syroechkovsky, 1990b): Kaplankyr (Turkmenistan); Ustyurt (about 600 head) (Kazakhstan). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection (Republican State Board For Conservation and Utilisation of Flora, Fauna, and Protected Lands) plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b). Conservation measures proposed: Reduce significantly poaching. If this can be controlled, the existing measures will be sufficient as long as they are maintained. This urial also occurs in two National Parks, three Wildlife Refuges, and three Protected Areas in Iran. Hunting in all these areas is prohibited and domestic animals are under control. Hunting under licence is allowed from September to February outside these areas.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and as Category I in the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). This urial is found in the following Nature Reserves: Dashti Turn (Tajikistan), Kugitang (Turkmenistan) and Surkhan (Uzbekistan). In 1991, 14 were reported in Surkhan NR but only five in 1993 (Kh. Mengliev pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). The Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection plans to allow two of this urial to be taken by foreign hunters in 1995 (Anon., 1995b), and Tajikistan planned to allow hunts for this urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Halt all hunting. 2) Carry out surveys and censuses. 3) Reconsider the potential for hunting programs only if they are sustainable and will clearly improve conservation status of markhor. If not, maintain a hunting ban and provide further protection. 4) Establish reserves at Babatagh (when fighting ceases) and at Baisuntau in Uzbekistan. 5) Examine the possibility of re-establishing a population in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve. Reduce significantly 6) poaching and 7) competition with livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES, and placed in Category II of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin 1984). Approximately half the total population lives in protected areas in Turkmenistan. Kopet Dagh Nature Reserve was established primarily for preservation of this subspecies, and they are also found in Siunt-Khasardag and Badkhyz Nature Reserves. The Turkmenistan Government planned hunts for two of this urial in 1995. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the enforcement of existing protective measures both in and outside protected areas. 2) Decrease poaching. 3) Ensure any hunting programs are sustainable and based on sound biological data. Occurs in the Arjar Valley Wildlife Reserve in Afghanistan (Shank <em>et al</em>., 1977), and seasonally (summer) in Kohe Burocinal and Kohe Argosa nearby the Band-e Amir National Park (Shank and Larsson, 1977). In the 1970s plans were considered to locate a viable urial population to develop a limited hunting reserve involving local participation, as had been achieved for Marco Polo sheep. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Carry out extensive surveys of Afghan urial populations and distributions in the Hindu Kush. 2) Re-consider the options proposed by Petocz (1978).<br/><br/>Pakistani protected areas reported to contain mostly very small numbers of Afghan urial include: NWFP - Dera Ismail Khan District: Sheikh Buddin NP (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987); Kohat District: Borraka WS (Malik, 1987, Zool. Survey Dept., 1987) Rakh Topi GR (Malik, 1987); Peshawar District: Nizampur GR (Malik, 1987); District Abbottabad: Surrana GR. BaZz&istarz - Las Bela District: Hingol NP, Dureji WS, Khurkhera WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990), Dureji WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Khuzdar District: Dhrun NP, Chorani WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Kharan District: Ras Koh GR, Raghai Rakshan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Kalat District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP, and possibly Sashan WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990); Quetta District: Hazarganji-Chiltan NP (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990; though presence in this NP not confirmed by Virk, 1991); Sibi District: Ziarat Juniper WS (Baluchistan Forest. Dept., 1990); Pishin District: Masalakh WS (Baluchistan Forest Dept., 1990). Sind - Dadu District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date); Karachi District: Kirthar NP (Sind Wildlife Management Board, no date). As a result of the protection given by Kirthar NP, the urial population within its boundaries has increased recently. However, except for Kirthar NP, Hingol NP, Dhrun NP and Dureji WS, the protection measures for the other sanctuaries and reserves may not be effective at the present time. WWF-Pakistan has recently initiated a participatory management program in the Shirani tribal area, which includes protection for Afghan urial. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine the current distribution and numbers of Afghan urial, as well as its status in all protected areas, as soon as possible. 2) Immediately, focus intensive protection measures on a few of the already existing, but well controllable sanctuaries, to protect and rebuild viable populations. Apart from the national parks, Takatu hills (District Quetta) and Gharsa Nallah may be good focal areas. The proximity of Takatu hills to Quetta should offer the opportunity for effective protection. 3) To maximise the efficient use of resources, conservation actions for urial, wild goat, and straighthorned markhor, could be combined where their distributions overlap. 4) Some areas might ultimately be used for controlled trophy hunting programs once populations have been restored, providing economic incentives to tribal people as part of the management plan (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>In Iran, the Armenian mouflon is found in Uromiyeh Lake National Park, three Wildlife Reserves, and 10 Protected Areas. The contentious hybrid populations occur in Kavir, Khogir and Sorkheh Hesar National Parks; in Dodangeh Wildlife Reserve; and in Alborz-e-Markazy, Lar River, Varjim and Jajrud Protected Areas. Hunting is allowed under permit outside the protected areas between September and February each year, while within them, domestic livestock grazing is strictly controlled. The population on Kabudan Island, which lies within Uromiyeh Lake National Park, was introduced 90 years ago. In recent years the Kabudan Island population built up to over 3,000 sheep and vegetation was badly damaged. Two leopards (Pan therapardus) were released in an attempt to control the sheep population, and after a few years numbers decreased and stabilised at around 1,000 sheep. The leopards reportedly produced at least one young, but no more sightings or signs were recorded after 1984. The population of wild sheep has since increased and control of the sheep population has been initiated, with Department of Environment staff removing 200 to 500 animals per year. Listed in Category I of the USSR Red Data Book (Borodin, 1984). In Armenia, it has been forbidden to hunt them since 1936. Armenian mouflon is found only in two protected areas, the Khosrov Nature Reserve in Armenia created for this mouflon’s protection but which fails to fulfil this task because of territorial changes, and the Ordubad Sanctuary (Nakhichevan, Azerbaijan). A captive breeding program has been initiated at the Zoological Institute of Armenia. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Determine current numbers, status and distribution as soon as possible. 2) Expand Khosrov Nature Reserve to include areas which had been used previously by sheep, and 3) reorganize the Orbubad Sanctuary into a state reserve. 4) Control livestock and eliminate, or significantly reduce poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The Ladakh urial is listed in Appendix I of CITES, as a threatened species by the Government of India, and is a fully protected (Schedule I) species in Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar, 1979). Some illegal hunting probably still takes place, although such activity is now apparently well controlled in the upper Indus valley area near Leh. Hemis National Park (Jammu and Kashmir) contains the only urial population currently found in a protected area in India. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Increase the number of protected areas and establish those proposed ones in which Ladakh urial are known to inhabit in Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gya-Miru (12 1 urial counted in 1984), Rizong (145 counted in 1984) and Karakorum Wildlife Sanctuaries (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1991a). Gya-Miru includes the easternmost known distribution of the species. 2) Enlarge Hemis National Park to include areas of critical habitat along the Indus river west of its confluence with the Zanskar river. This step is very important for urial conservation. 3) Increase measures to combat poaching by road labourers and construction officials along the new road running between two important subpopulations in the Hemis National Park, (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon and Bacha, 1989). Develop a management strategy to 4) strictly control hunting and 5) minimise competition from livestock grazing. If the above proposed sanctuaries are notified and adequately protected, and if livestock grazing is well managed, they should begin to provide the necessary protection for more than half of the remaining Ladakh urial and their range in India. However, because of the linear distribution of urial along major valleys, and its close proximity to human activity, the inclusion of critical urial habitat within the central core areas of large conservation units is not practical. Alternatively, “mini-core areas” may be required to target the protection of small areas of critical urial habitat. Ladakh urial occur in very few protected areas in Pakistan: NWFP - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP (Anonymous, 1986); Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Danyore GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Satpara WS (Rasool, no date). These areas probably protect few urials; for example only two individuals were reported in Chitral Gol NP in 1986. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Ban all hunting of this urial. 2) Rigorously protect all areas with populations ~20 animals which can be controlled. 3) Initiate an intensive conservation program in the Kharpacho hills near Skardu, inhabited in 1983 by 14 animals and in 1985 by 18 animals. Its close proximity to Skardu makes it easy to control and offers opportunity to demonstrate wildlife protection to the public (Hess, in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Listed in Appendix I of CITES under <em>Ovis vignei</em>, and like all mammals, it is legally protected in the Punjab. Protected areas reported to contain this urial include: Punjab - Chakwal (previously Attack) District: Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988), Kala Chitta CR, Khari Murat GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Chakwal District: Chinji NP, Chhumbi Surla WS; Jhelum District: Jalalpur Sharif WS, Rakh Kundal WS, Diljabba Domeli GR (Zool. Survey Dept., no date), Chhumbi Surla WS (Chaudhry, unpubl. data); Khushab District: Sodhi WS (Zool. Survey Dept., no date); Mianwali District: Kala Bagh Sanctuary. Kala Bagh Sanctuary is a WWF-Pakistan Sanctuary, privately owned and protected by the Maliks of Kala Bagh (Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977; Roberts, 1967a, 1977, 1985; Mirza <em>et al</em>., 1979; Zool. Survey Dept., no date). This population, estimated at 500 in 1966, 1970 and 1974 (Mountfort, 1969; Schaller and Mirza, 1974; Schaller, 1977), increased to over 750, before crashing due to an unknown epidemic transmitted by domestic camel. The population has since recovered and numbers 850 animals at present (Malik A.Y. Khan, 1992 pers. comm. to A. A. Chaudhry). Conservation measures proposed: 1) Enforce protection measures in the relatively accessible protected areas; this is urgently required. 2) Kala Bagh Sanctuary could be selected as a focal area. Animals from this population could be used for a re-introduction program. Only one area is protected (Kalabagh game Reserve) and managed by the community The Punjab government has declared 12 protected areas of different categories in the range of distribution of Punjab urial. Law enforcement in these protected areas is poor, and there are no legal restrictions on domestic livestock.	eng
15739	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species occurs as Urial or Arkar in Afghanistan, northwestern India (Kashmir), northeastern and southeastern Iran, southwestern Kazakhstan, Oman (where it is possibly introduced), Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Intermediate Laristan sheep occur in southern Iran, and Mouflon are found in Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, western Iran, and eastern Turkey, with an isolated population in south-central Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies are distributed as follows:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>Restricted to a very small area directly southwest of Esfahan in east-central Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>This sheep is a resident of southern and southeastern Iran. The purest Laristan sheep are found in Hormod Protected Area, whereas those east of 55°E in the Khabr and Baft mountains in Kerman Province have been suggested to be hybrid populations – Kerman sheep (<em>Ovis vignei blanforcti</em> x <em>Ovis gmelinii laristanica</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Found in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan where it inhabits the ravines surrounding the Ustyurt plateau and Kaplankyr, and on the Mangyshlak Peninsula where it is found in the moderately high mountains of Karatau, the precipices and ravines of Northern Aktau (all in Mangysklan and to the south to Kara-Bogaz-gol) and similar habitat in Karagie, Kaunda, Kazakhla, Kulandaga, Kazakhly-Sora and other areas. This urial also occurs on rolling hills and on gentle mountain slopes in northeast Iran. The purest form of this urial is found in Golestan, Gorkhod, Serany and Tandoreh Protected Areas (see also Armenian mouflon <em>Ovis orientalis gmehii</em> above). The population was estimated to be at least 20,000 animals in the mid-1970s (Valdez and DeForge, 1985), of which around 15,000 were estimated to inhabit Golestan National Park alone (Kiabi, 1978).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/> Bukhara urial occurs in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is found on the north sides of the Amu Darya and Panj rivers, where it inhabits the Kugitang and Baisuntau mountains, the Babatagh and Karatau ranges, the Vakhsh range on the east bank of the Vakhsh river, and the southwestern part of the Pamir (Luzhevsky, 1977; Sapozhnikov, 1976). The taxonomic status of the last population is uncertain; it may belong to Ladakh urial (<em>O. o. vignei</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Found in Turkmenistan, where its distribution stretches south-eastwards in scattered populations from the Large (about 39°40’N and 54°30’E) and Small Balkhan mountains north of Nebit-Dagh, through the Kopet-Dagh mountains, in the mountains on the right bank of the Tejen, in an area between the Kushka and Murgab rivers, and in the ravines and rolling hills of Namansaar, Yer Oilanduz (Badkhyz) as far east as Southern Karabil (about 36°20’N and 64°30’N). Urial populations were known to occur throughout the Hindu Kush and the mountains of central Afghanistan, extending from the Zebak mountains in the north to the Seyah Koh range in the southwest. The largest concentration was in the Ajar Valley Reserve, from where animals were known to migrate into distant valleys near the Band-e Amir National Park. Its presence was established in the Zebak ranges during 1976 surveys, but it was not known how far the species ranged into Badakshan. East of Kabul, the urial was found in the Kohe Safi region of Kapisa Province (Petocz, 1973). Specimens collected from hunters show that its range extended towards the Lataband Pass area near Kabul. The sub-species was also reported from the Safed Koh range in Heart and Badghis Provinces. For Pakistan, a distribution map for this urial in the North West Frontier Province is given by Malik (1987). It shows the occurrence of the subspecies in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Northern Waziristan, Karak, Kohat, Orakzai, Kurram, Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad, and Swat. Malik (1987) described the populations as being extremely scattered and at low densities in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Abbottabad and lower -Swat. Urial densities in the Tribal lands are believed to be slightly higher. It is not certain whether animals inhabiting the hills along the west bank of the Indus (Districts Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan) are Afghan or Punjab urial (Schaller and Mirza 1974). Data for animals in this area are included in this account. Urial are widely distributed up to 2,750 m on gentler slopes of the major mountain ranges in Baluchistan. According to the most recent report by Roberts (1985), these include the Chiltan hills (Districts of Quetta and Kalat), the Hinglaj ranges (District Khuzdar), the Karhan hills (District Karhan), the Mekran Coast ranges (District Gwadar), the Takatu hills (Districts of Pishin and Quetta) and the Toba Kakar range (Districts of Pishin and Zhob). On a map published by the Zoological Survey Department (no date) additional areas are indicated: Kirthar range (Districts of Dadu and Las Bela), the mountains north of Nok Kundi (District Chagae), Takht-i-Sulaiman (Districts of Zhob and South Waziristan), the western edge of the Indus at Kalabagh (District Mianwali), the Mahsud mountains (Districts of North and South Warizistan), and the Marri mountains (District Kohlu). The last four areas lie within the distribution area for the subspecies given by Schaller (1977), but were not mentioned in Roberts’ (1985) more recent report. Because of the different and partially contradictory information of the above authors, it appears that the actual knowledge on the status and distribution of Afghan urial north of 32°N is inadequate. The most recent distribution map is given in Virk (1991). In Sind, the Afghan urial occurs in the Kirthar mountains, especially in the Mari-Mangthar range (District Karachi) and in Dumbar, Kambuh and Karchat mountains (District Dadu).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>This sheep, with a small black neck ruff is a resident of the mountain foothills and rolling steppe of northwest and southwest of Iran. In the recent past, its range extended eastward from northwestern Iran to central Alborz and Zagros. The purest Armenian sheep are found in Marakan, Kiamaky, Arasbaran, Uromiyeh lake (Kabodan Island), Angoran and Bijar. Armenian sheep also occur in Oshtorankoh and Haftad Goleh. The purported hybrid population, Alborz red sheep (<em>Ovis gmelinii gmelinii</em> x <em>Ovis vignei urknl</em>) (Valdez <em>et al</em>. 1978) occurs in north-central Iran in the Alborz mountains near Tehran, east to the Parvar Wildlife Reserve and south into the Kavir Desert (Siah Kuh range). The exact western, eastern and southern limits of its distribution are undetermined. In Iraq, populations occurred in the extreme northern region in the Zagros mountains and along the northeastern border with Iran. Nothing known of current distributions. In the former Soviet Union, the sheep inhabits the Transcaucasus, specifically the Zangezur (Zangezrskiy) range in Armenia and Nakhichevan, and possibly just into the extreme southwestern tip of Azerbaijan. However, most occur on the Nakhichevan side of these mountains from 40°N, 45°E to 38°30’N, 46°30’E.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>In India, this urial occurs only in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), where it is distributed discontinuously in a narrow band along the valley-bottom, to the foothill boundary of the Indus and Shyok-Nubra rivers, and some of their major tributaries. Most urial are found along the Indus valley westward from the village of Likchey to that of Khalsi, with additional herds around the junction of the Nubra and Shyok valleys (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). In Pakistan, Schaller (1977) gave the major river valleys of the KunarlChitral river, Indus, Gilgit river and Shyok as the main range of Ladakh urial, and Roberts (1985) presented a similar picture. However, these distribution maps seem no longer valid, indicating instead the recent historical and not the current distribution. Ladakh urial is still widely distributed, but only in very small isolated populations. In Chitral District, it still inhabits the west (right) bank of the Kunar river, from Chitral southwards to Drosh (Anonymous, 1986). Localities on the east bank of the Kunar river, as well as from north of Chitral (Anonymous 1986; Zool. Surv. Dept., 1987) are not confirmed. Also, Malik (1987) presents a distribution map showing that it occurs on the east bank of the Kunar river, but does not mention this occurrence in the text. In Gilgit District, Hess (in press) was able to locate only one place where urial survived in 1985-86; reliable informants told him about a population of 27 animals on the right side of the lower Miatsil river (Hispar valley). Also Rasool (unpubl. data) has information about 10 to 15 urial from the main Hunza valley, which may represent animals of the same population described by Hess. There is no evidence of its presence within the whole area along the Gilgit and Indus rivers upstream from Gilgit to downstream from Chilas. Most occurrences of the taxon in northern Pakistan are from Baltistan District. Besides Schaller’s (1977) map, additional records exist for the Kharpacho hills close to Skardu, and from a reliable report for the Tormik valley and the area near Rondu (Hess, in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em> <br/>The distribution area of this subspecies in Pakistan is enclosed by the Indus and the Jhelum rivers and the forest belt of the Himalayan foothills. The taxonomic status of urial living along the west bank of the Indus, adjacent to the Punjab urial’s range, is uncertain (Schaller and Mirza, 1974). Punjab urial is found in small scattered populations in the Kala Chitta and in the Salt range up to 1,500 m asl, and in the Districts of Attack, Chakwal, Jhelum, Mianwali, and Khushab. At present the 2, and perhaps only, major populations of Punjab urial inhabit the Kala Chitta hills (District Attack) and the Kala Bagh Sanctuary of the Jabbah Valley (District Mianwali). Pakistan: Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges, Punjab Province. Limited to two areas in Punjab: Kala Chitta Range:Total estimated area of Kala Chitta Range = 322 km², Current area of occupancy in Kala Chitta Range = 100 km², two subpopulations and Salt Range : Total estimated area of Salt Range = 4,334 km², Current area of occupancy in Salt Range = 1,265 km², 14 subpopulations	eng
15739	distribution	Valdez, R., 2008	This species occurs as Urial or Arkar in Afghanistan, northwestern India (Kashmir), northeastern and southeastern Iran, southwestern Kazakhstan, Oman (where it is possibly introduced), Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Intermediate Laristan sheep occur in southern Iran, and Mouflon are found in Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, western Iran, and eastern Turkey, with an isolated population in south-central Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies are distributed as follows:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis isphahanica</em><br/>Restricted to a very small area directly southwest of Esfahan in east-central Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis laristanica</em><br/>This sheep is a resident of southern and southeastern Iran. The purest Laristan sheep are found in Hormod Protected Area, whereas those east of 55°E in the Khabr and Baft mountains in Kerman Province have been suggested to be hybrid populations – Kerman sheep (<em>Ovis vignei blanforcti</em> x <em>Ovis gmelinii laristanica</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Found in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan where it inhabits the ravines surrounding the Ustyurt plateau and Kaplankyr, and on the Mangyshlak Peninsula where it is found in the moderately high mountains of Karatau, the precipices and ravines of Northern Aktau (all in Mangysklan and to the south to Kara-Bogaz-gol) and similar habitat in Karagie, Kaunda, Kazakhla, Kulandaga, Kazakhly-Sora and other areas. This urial also occurs on rolling hills and on gentle mountain slopes in northeast Iran. The purest form of this urial is found in Golestan, Gorkhod, Serany and Tandoreh Protected Areas (see also Armenian mouflon <em>Ovis orientalis gmehii</em> above). The population was estimated to be at least 20,000 animals in the mid-1970s (Valdez and DeForge, 1985), of which around 15,000 were estimated to inhabit Golestan National Park alone (Kiabi, 1978).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/> Bukhara urial occurs in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is found on the north sides of the Amu Darya and Panj rivers, where it inhabits the Kugitang and Baisuntau mountains, the Babatagh and Karatau ranges, the Vakhsh range on the east bank of the Vakhsh river, and the southwestern part of the Pamir (Luzhevsky, 1977; Sapozhnikov, 1976). The taxonomic status of the last population is uncertain; it may belong to Ladakh urial (<em>O. o. vignei</em>).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>Found in Turkmenistan, where its distribution stretches south-eastwards in scattered populations from the Large (about 39°40’N and 54°30’E) and Small Balkhan mountains north of Nebit-Dagh, through the Kopet-Dagh mountains, in the mountains on the right bank of the Tejen, in an area between the Kushka and Murgab rivers, and in the ravines and rolling hills of Namansaar, Yer Oilanduz (Badkhyz) as far east as Southern Karabil (about 36°20’N and 64°30’N). Urial populations were known to occur throughout the Hindu Kush and the mountains of central Afghanistan, extending from the Zebak mountains in the north to the Seyah Koh range in the southwest. The largest concentration was in the Ajar Valley Reserve, from where animals were known to migrate into distant valleys near the Band-e Amir National Park. Its presence was established in the Zebak ranges during 1976 surveys, but it was not known how far the species ranged into Badakshan. East of Kabul, the urial was found in the Kohe Safi region of Kapisa Province (Petocz, 1973). Specimens collected from hunters show that its range extended towards the Lataband Pass area near Kabul. The sub-species was also reported from the Safed Koh range in Heart and Badghis Provinces. For Pakistan, a distribution map for this urial in the North West Frontier Province is given by Malik (1987). It shows the occurrence of the subspecies in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Northern Waziristan, Karak, Kohat, Orakzai, Kurram, Peshawar, Mardan, Abbottabad, and Swat. Malik (1987) described the populations as being extremely scattered and at low densities in the Districts of Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Abbottabad and lower -Swat. Urial densities in the Tribal lands are believed to be slightly higher. It is not certain whether animals inhabiting the hills along the west bank of the Indus (Districts Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan) are Afghan or Punjab urial (Schaller and Mirza 1974). Data for animals in this area are included in this account. Urial are widely distributed up to 2,750 m on gentler slopes of the major mountain ranges in Baluchistan. According to the most recent report by Roberts (1985), these include the Chiltan hills (Districts of Quetta and Kalat), the Hinglaj ranges (District Khuzdar), the Karhan hills (District Karhan), the Mekran Coast ranges (District Gwadar), the Takatu hills (Districts of Pishin and Quetta) and the Toba Kakar range (Districts of Pishin and Zhob). On a map published by the Zoological Survey Department (no date) additional areas are indicated: Kirthar range (Districts of Dadu and Las Bela), the mountains north of Nok Kundi (District Chagae), Takht-i-Sulaiman (Districts of Zhob and South Waziristan), the western edge of the Indus at Kalabagh (District Mianwali), the Mahsud mountains (Districts of North and South Warizistan), and the Marri mountains (District Kohlu). The last four areas lie within the distribution area for the subspecies given by Schaller (1977), but were not mentioned in Roberts’ (1985) more recent report. Because of the different and partially contradictory information of the above authors, it appears that the actual knowledge on the status and distribution of Afghan urial north of 32°N is inadequate. The most recent distribution map is given in Virk (1991). In Sind, the Afghan urial occurs in the Kirthar mountains, especially in the Mari-Mangthar range (District Karachi) and in Dumbar, Kambuh and Karchat mountains (District Dadu).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>This sheep, with a small black neck ruff is a resident of the mountain foothills and rolling steppe of northwest and southwest of Iran. In the recent past, its range extended eastward from northwestern Iran to central Alborz and Zagros. The purest Armenian sheep are found in Marakan, Kiamaky, Arasbaran, Uromiyeh lake (Kabodan Island), Angoran and Bijar. Armenian sheep also occur in Oshtorankoh and Haftad Goleh. The purported hybrid population, Alborz red sheep (<em>Ovis gmelinii gmelinii</em> x <em>Ovis vignei urknl</em>) (Valdez <em>et al</em>. 1978) occurs in north-central Iran in the Alborz mountains near Tehran, east to the Parvar Wildlife Reserve and south into the Kavir Desert (Siah Kuh range). The exact western, eastern and southern limits of its distribution are undetermined. In Iraq, populations occurred in the extreme northern region in the Zagros mountains and along the northeastern border with Iran. Nothing known of current distributions. In the former Soviet Union, the sheep inhabits the Transcaucasus, specifically the Zangezur (Zangezrskiy) range in Armenia and Nakhichevan, and possibly just into the extreme southwestern tip of Azerbaijan. However, most occur on the Nakhichevan side of these mountains from 40°N, 45°E to 38°30’N, 46°30’E.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>In India, this urial occurs only in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), where it is distributed discontinuously in a narrow band along the valley-bottom, to the foothill boundary of the Indus and Shyok-Nubra rivers, and some of their major tributaries. Most urial are found along the Indus valley westward from the village of Likchey to that of Khalsi, with additional herds around the junction of the Nubra and Shyok valleys (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). In Pakistan, Schaller (1977) gave the major river valleys of the KunarlChitral river, Indus, Gilgit river and Shyok as the main range of Ladakh urial, and Roberts (1985) presented a similar picture. However, these distribution maps seem no longer valid, indicating instead the recent historical and not the current distribution. Ladakh urial is still widely distributed, but only in very small isolated populations. In Chitral District, it still inhabits the west (right) bank of the Kunar river, from Chitral southwards to Drosh (Anonymous, 1986). Localities on the east bank of the Kunar river, as well as from north of Chitral (Anonymous 1986; Zool. Surv. Dept., 1987) are not confirmed. Also, Malik (1987) presents a distribution map showing that it occurs on the east bank of the Kunar river, but does not mention this occurrence in the text. In Gilgit District, Hess (in press) was able to locate only one place where urial survived in 1985-86; reliable informants told him about a population of 27 animals on the right side of the lower Miatsil river (Hispar valley). Also Rasool (unpubl. data) has information about 10 to 15 urial from the main Hunza valley, which may represent animals of the same population described by Hess. There is no evidence of its presence within the whole area along the Gilgit and Indus rivers upstream from Gilgit to downstream from Chilas. Most occurrences of the taxon in northern Pakistan are from Baltistan District. Besides Schaller’s (1977) map, additional records exist for the Kharpacho hills close to Skardu, and from a reliable report for the Tormik valley and the area near Rondu (Hess, in press).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em> <br/>The distribution area of this subspecies in Pakistan is enclosed by the Indus and the Jhelum rivers and the forest belt of the Himalayan foothills. The taxonomic status of urial living along the west bank of the Indus, adjacent to the Punjab urial’s range, is uncertain (Schaller and Mirza, 1974). Punjab urial is found in small scattered populations in the Kala Chitta and in the Salt range up to 1,500 m asl, and in the Districts of Attack, Chakwal, Jhelum, Mianwali, and Khushab. At present the 2, and perhaps only, major populations of Punjab urial inhabit the Kala Chitta hills (District Attack) and the Kala Bagh Sanctuary of the Jabbah Valley (District Mianwali). Pakistan: Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges, Punjab Province. Limited to two areas in Punjab: Kala Chitta Range:Total estimated area of Kala Chitta Range = 322 km², Current area of occupancy in Kala Chitta Range = 100 km², two subpopulations and Salt Range : Total estimated area of Salt Range = 4,334 km², Current area of occupancy in Salt Range = 1,265 km², 14 subpopulations	eng
15739	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species inhabits moderately to very arid habitats, especially grasslands, but they also occur in agricultural fields and woodland areas (Valdez, 1982). This species is herbivorous, feeding on grasses and shrubs, and also grains. The Punjab urial (<em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em>) is the principal mammalian game species of the scrub forest in Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges. In the Salt Range it is typically associated with lower rounded stony hills sparsely covered with wild olive (<em>Olea ferruginea</em>) and phulai (<em>Acacia modesta</em>). The distribution of the sub-species in Pakistan is between the Indus and Jhelum rivers at elevations of 250-1,500 m. The Punjab urial is a gregarious, sexually dimorphic, non-territorial, promiscuous ungulate. The reproductive cycle begins with the rut in mid October and November with a peak of activity in the first half of November. Females give birth to one or two lambs in early April.  Main predators are leopard and jackal.	eng
15739	habitat	Valdez, R., 2008	This species inhabits moderately to very arid habitats, especially grasslands, but they also occur in agricultural fields and woodland areas (Valdez, 1982). This species is herbivorous, feeding on grasses and shrubs, and also grains. The Punjab urial (<em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em>) is the principal mammalian game species of the scrub forest in Salt and Kala Chitta Ranges. In the Salt Range it is typically associated with lower rounded stony hills sparsely covered with wild olive (<em>Olea ferruginea</em>) and phulai (<em>Acacia modesta</em>). The distribution of the sub-species in Pakistan is between the Indus and Jhelum rivers at elevations of 250-1,500 m. The Punjab urial is a gregarious, sexually dimorphic, non-territorial, promiscuous ungulate. The reproductive cycle begins with the rut in mid October and November with a peak of activity in the first half of November. Females give birth to one or two lambs in early April.  Main predators are leopard and jackal.	eng
15739	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The global population of this species has not been estimated. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, probably as much as 30% over three generations.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>The total number estimated in ex-Soviet republics  at the beginning of the 1990s was ca. 6,000 animals. Numbers had declined sharply before the mid-1960s when 3,000 were estimated for Kazakhstan, and continued to decline to 2,000 by the 1970s and 1,500 at the beginning of the 1980s (Lankin 1982; Savinov and Bekenov, 1977). In the early 1980s 800 were estimated in Turkmenistan, of which 500 were found along the shores of Kara-Bogaz Gol and 300 in the southern ravines (Zarkhidze and Gorbunov, 1983). Following protection resulting from its listing in the USSR Red Data Book, numbers of this subspecies began to increase in the latter half of the 1980s with some populations reestablishing themselves naturally. However, since the early 1990s the populations appear to have once more declined. About 300 were thought to inhabit Uzbekistan in 1983 but have since declined (0. Tsaruk, <em>in litt</em>., 1994) with ca. 40 near the border with Turkmenistan (B. Dyakin pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). There are no recent estimates in Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Numbers have fluctuated slightly since the 1970s (Frolov and Golub, 1983; Luzhevsky, 1977), and by the late 1980s the total number estimated was only 1,000 animals (Prisyazhniuk, 1990). However, Sokov (1989) mentioned > 1,000 for Tajikistan alone, so together with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan there might have been up to some 1,200 animals. However, numbers are believed to be decreasing now, and in some areas populations are very small. For example, in Uzbekistan on the western slopes of the Kugitangtau on the Turkmen-Uzbek border, there may be as few as 100 individuals (B. Dyakin, Department of Hunting Management, Uzbekistan pers. comm. to E. Mukhina), with only five counted in May 1993 in the Surkhan Nature Reserve (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>The estimate for the total population in Turkmenistan in the late 1980s and early 1990s was between 10,500 and 11,000 urial. Numbers had increased slightly from the estimates of 7,000 to 9,000 made in the 1970s (Babaev <em>et al</em>., 1978), when there were 2,000 in the Kopet-Dagh Reserve, with about 1,500 in the Badkhyz Reserve (Gorelov, 1978). Although about half the total numbers probably still occur within protected areas, outside them these urial exist mainly in relatively low densities. Recent evidence reports a significant decline in numbers in the eastern Kopet Dagh and in Badkhyz, with only 150 to 200 in Big Balkhan and 300 to 350 in the western Kopet Dagh (V. Lukarevsky, in litt., 1994). No total population census based on surveys is available for Pakistan. In the past, Roberts (1985) estimated that perhaps 2,500 to 3,000 Afghan urial lived in Baluchistan, with 1,000 (0.2/km²) inhabiting the Torghar hills of Toba Kakar range (District Zhob) according to Mitchell (1988). About 150 animals inhabit the Takatu hills near Quetta (A. Ahmad, unpubl. Data), and the situation in the Dureji hills (District Zhob) may be a little better (Virk, 1991). Malik (1987) estimated a total of 310 to 340 Afghan urial for the whole of NWFP, whereas the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP 1992) reported a more recent total of only 80 urial (68 from Kohat, two from Mardan and 10 from Abbottabad), suggesting a severe decline over five years. For Sind Province, a census carried out by Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a population of 430 urial for Kirthar NP. Based on a census in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range and in the Karchat mountains in 1987, K. Bollmann (unpubl. data) estimated between 800 and 1,000 urial (0.26-0.32/km²) for the whole of Kirthar NP. About 150 to 200 animals live in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range, and 100 to 150 in the Karchat mountains; i.e. 1.7 to 2.5 urial/km² (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). The overall density within the subspecies’ distribution is probably much lower than this. There is no estimate in Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>No current total population estimate is available in Iran. The population on Kabodan Island, on Uromiyeh Lake, is probably the largest and the current estimate for this is around 2,250 sheep. An estimate of numbers for the hybrid is not available. No estimate in Iraq. Current numbers are unknown for Turkmenistan, but probably 11,000 individuals. It was numerous until the 1950s when herds of up to 200 could be seen. It has since declined, and by the end of the 1960s there were 1750 in Azerbaijan and Armenia. For a brief period,numbers did increase until the late 1970s when the population in Nakhichevan ASSR alone numbered 1,000 to 1,200 animals (Alekperov and Kuliev, 1981).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The total population in India is estimated to be between 1,000 and 1,500 animals (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). The Ladakh urial has declined dramatically in the last 60 years, especially during the military conflicts between 1947 and 1962 (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983). According to some reports from around 1900, the Ladakh urial used to be a common animal of northern Pakistan. Schaller (1976) estimated that < 1,000 were left in Pakistan and Roberts (1985) gave “intelligent guesses” of 500 to 600 animals for Baltistan and 700 to 800 for Gilgit-Hunza. All these estimates are much greater than present numbers. Hess (in press) estimated the total population of Ladakh urial in Pakistan for 1988-87 to be only 200 to 400 animals. In 1992, a total of 57 urial were estimated (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. The total estimated for the Northern Areas for 1993 was 400 to 500 urial (G. Tahir, Wildlife Wing, Northern Areas Forest Dept., in ht. to G. Rasool). In 1992, a total of 57 urial was estimated by NWFP Forest Department personnel (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. There are probably ~600 Ladakh urial in Pakistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Kala Chitta Range (100 urials, 2 subpopulations) and Salt Range (800 urials, 14 subpopulations) (Caprinae SG 2004). Schaller (1977) estimated a total world population of ~2,000 Punjab urial and a complete census made in 1976-77 by Mirza <em>et al</em>. (1979) estimated 2,157. Estimates by Chaudhry (unpubl. data) in 1992, give a minimum total population of 1,550 throughout its whole range. For Punjab, Chaudhry <em>et al</em>. (1988) reported a significant decline in urial numbers over only one year; from 733 in 1986 to 528 in 1987. A total of only 12 were reported for Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988).	eng
15739	population	Valdez, R., 2008	The global population of this species has not been estimated. The population trend across its range is likely to be a significant decrease, probably as much as 30% over three generations.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>The total number estimated in ex-Soviet republics  at the beginning of the 1990s was ca. 6,000 animals. Numbers had declined sharply before the mid-1960s when 3,000 were estimated for Kazakhstan, and continued to decline to 2,000 by the 1970s and 1,500 at the beginning of the 1980s (Lankin 1982; Savinov and Bekenov, 1977). In the early 1980s 800 were estimated in Turkmenistan, of which 500 were found along the shores of Kara-Bogaz Gol and 300 in the southern ravines (Zarkhidze and Gorbunov, 1983). Following protection resulting from its listing in the USSR Red Data Book, numbers of this subspecies began to increase in the latter half of the 1980s with some populations reestablishing themselves naturally. However, since the early 1990s the populations appear to have once more declined. About 300 were thought to inhabit Uzbekistan in 1983 but have since declined (0. Tsaruk, <em>in litt</em>., 1994) with ca. 40 near the border with Turkmenistan (B. Dyakin pers. comm. to E. Mukhina, 1995). There are no recent estimates in Iran.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>Numbers have fluctuated slightly since the 1970s (Frolov and Golub, 1983; Luzhevsky, 1977), and by the late 1980s the total number estimated was only 1,000 animals (Prisyazhniuk, 1990). However, Sokov (1989) mentioned > 1,000 for Tajikistan alone, so together with Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan there might have been up to some 1,200 animals. However, numbers are believed to be decreasing now, and in some areas populations are very small. For example, in Uzbekistan on the western slopes of the Kugitangtau on the Turkmen-Uzbek border, there may be as few as 100 individuals (B. Dyakin, Department of Hunting Management, Uzbekistan pers. comm. to E. Mukhina), with only five counted in May 1993 in the Surkhan Nature Reserve (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>The estimate for the total population in Turkmenistan in the late 1980s and early 1990s was between 10,500 and 11,000 urial. Numbers had increased slightly from the estimates of 7,000 to 9,000 made in the 1970s (Babaev <em>et al</em>., 1978), when there were 2,000 in the Kopet-Dagh Reserve, with about 1,500 in the Badkhyz Reserve (Gorelov, 1978). Although about half the total numbers probably still occur within protected areas, outside them these urial exist mainly in relatively low densities. Recent evidence reports a significant decline in numbers in the eastern Kopet Dagh and in Badkhyz, with only 150 to 200 in Big Balkhan and 300 to 350 in the western Kopet Dagh (V. Lukarevsky, in litt., 1994). No total population census based on surveys is available for Pakistan. In the past, Roberts (1985) estimated that perhaps 2,500 to 3,000 Afghan urial lived in Baluchistan, with 1,000 (0.2/km²) inhabiting the Torghar hills of Toba Kakar range (District Zhob) according to Mitchell (1988). About 150 animals inhabit the Takatu hills near Quetta (A. Ahmad, unpubl. Data), and the situation in the Dureji hills (District Zhob) may be a little better (Virk, 1991). Malik (1987) estimated a total of 310 to 340 Afghan urial for the whole of NWFP, whereas the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP 1992) reported a more recent total of only 80 urial (68 from Kohat, two from Mardan and 10 from Abbottabad), suggesting a severe decline over five years. For Sind Province, a census carried out by Mirza and Asghar (1980) estimated a population of 430 urial for Kirthar NP. Based on a census in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range and in the Karchat mountains in 1987, K. Bollmann (unpubl. data) estimated between 800 and 1,000 urial (0.26-0.32/km²) for the whole of Kirthar NP. About 150 to 200 animals live in the Mari-Lusar-Manghtar range, and 100 to 150 in the Karchat mountains; i.e. 1.7 to 2.5 urial/km² (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). The overall density within the subspecies’ distribution is probably much lower than this. There is no estimate in Afghanistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>No current total population estimate is available in Iran. The population on Kabodan Island, on Uromiyeh Lake, is probably the largest and the current estimate for this is around 2,250 sheep. An estimate of numbers for the hybrid is not available. No estimate in Iraq. Current numbers are unknown for Turkmenistan, but probably 11,000 individuals. It was numerous until the 1950s when herds of up to 200 could be seen. It has since declined, and by the end of the 1960s there were 1750 in Azerbaijan and Armenia. For a brief period,numbers did increase until the late 1970s when the population in Nakhichevan ASSR alone numbered 1,000 to 1,200 animals (Alekperov and Kuliev, 1981).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>The total population in India is estimated to be between 1,000 and 1,500 animals (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983, 1991). The Ladakh urial has declined dramatically in the last 60 years, especially during the military conflicts between 1947 and 1962 (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a; Mallon, 1983). According to some reports from around 1900, the Ladakh urial used to be a common animal of northern Pakistan. Schaller (1976) estimated that < 1,000 were left in Pakistan and Roberts (1985) gave “intelligent guesses” of 500 to 600 animals for Baltistan and 700 to 800 for Gilgit-Hunza. All these estimates are much greater than present numbers. Hess (in press) estimated the total population of Ladakh urial in Pakistan for 1988-87 to be only 200 to 400 animals. In 1992, a total of 57 urial were estimated (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. The total estimated for the Northern Areas for 1993 was 400 to 500 urial (G. Tahir, Wildlife Wing, Northern Areas Forest Dept., in ht. to G. Rasool). In 1992, a total of 57 urial was estimated by NWFP Forest Department personnel (NWFP, 1992); 29 in Dir and 28 in Chitral. There are probably ~600 Ladakh urial in Pakistan.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>Kala Chitta Range (100 urials, 2 subpopulations) and Salt Range (800 urials, 14 subpopulations) (Caprinae SG 2004). Schaller (1977) estimated a total world population of ~2,000 Punjab urial and a complete census made in 1976-77 by Mirza <em>et al</em>. (1979) estimated 2,157. Estimates by Chaudhry (unpubl. data) in 1992, give a minimum total population of 1,550 throughout its whole range. For Punjab, Chaudhry <em>et al</em>. (1988) reported a significant decline in urial numbers over only one year; from 733 in 1986 to 528 in 1987. A total of only 12 were reported for Chinji NP (Chaudhry and Sarwar, 1988).	eng
15739	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Overall, this species is threatened mainly by poaching and competition with livestock. Specific threats to particular subspecies are:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Poaching remains a major threat and is the cause of the latest decline in the ex-Soviet republics. It is carried out by locals, especially around the limited waterholes used by the urial, using both firearms and snares (Fedosenko, 1986; Gorbunov, 1986). In Iran the threats include habitat destruction, poaching and competition from livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>The decrease in numbers is attributed to poaching and competition with domestic livestock, coupled with droughts and severe winters. The Babatagh mountains have been a centre in the civil war in Tajikistan and poaching is totally uncontrolled. The winters of 1968-69 and 1971-72 were especially harsh in Tajikistan, and many urial carcasses were found in spring 1969 in the Kugitangtau.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>In Turkmenistan, poaching is the main threat, but there is also competition from domestic livestock for forage and water. In Afghanistan, this urial avoids rugged mountainous terrain where it might gain some protection, and instead competes directly with livestock that are seasonally brought into their habitat. Urial populations near major urban centres have declined significantly due to indiscriminate hunting pressure. In Pakistan, overhunting, livestock overgrazing, and habitat degradation caused by fuelwood gathering and by agriculture, are the main threats to this urial. Afghan urial may be more susceptible to such threats than are wild goats inhabiting the same areas because of species-specific differences in habitat preferences (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). Throughout its range in Baluchistan, Afghan urial faces severe hunting pressure and competition from domestic sheep and goat, and lives in extremely scattered and small populations (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>Habitat loss and competition from domestic livestock, together with poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>Hunting has been relatively strictly controlled recently in India (especially in the Indus valley), but the urial’s habitat is very accessible and susceptible to overuse by livestock herding and other human activities. Urial occupy the low relatively accessible areas along the major valley corridors, all of which have, or soon will have, roads. The resulting effects of increased hunting and eventual human settlement associated with irrigation projects and increased livestock numbers, will require effective conservation and management actions if Ladakh urial is to survive (Fox<em>et al</em>., 1994). Its future status thus remains questionable due to increasing development activities in the major valleys of Ladakh. In Pakistan, most urial habitat is close to human settlements and also not very steep, therefore easily accessible to hunters and for grazing by livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>The habitat of Punjab urial is declining in area because of agriculture, urbanization, roads and other human developments.  It is declining in quality because of overgrazing by domestic livestock. Lambs are poached at birth to keep as pets. They are a status symbol and although capture is illegal, the Pakistani government is now selling licenses to keep urial as pets. Some are hybridized with mouflon and domestic sheep. Adult rams are poached for their trophy value. Apart from the protected population in the Jabbah valley (700 urial), the Punjab urial suffers heavy hunting pressure and has declined drastically in only a short period in some areas of Pakistan (Chaudhry <em>et al</em>., 1988). It persists only in small populations and at low densities (Roberts, 1985). In addition, competition and transmission of diseases from domestic animals are major threats. Lambs are kept as pets, ram horns are a prized trophy, the meat is eaten.	eng
15739	threats	Valdez, R., 2008	Overall, this species is threatened mainly by poaching and competition with livestock. Specific threats to particular subspecies are:<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis arkal</em><br/>Poaching remains a major threat and is the cause of the latest decline in the ex-Soviet republics. It is carried out by locals, especially around the limited waterholes used by the urial, using both firearms and snares (Fedosenko, 1986; Gorbunov, 1986). In Iran the threats include habitat destruction, poaching and competition from livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis bocharensis</em><br/>The decrease in numbers is attributed to poaching and competition with domestic livestock, coupled with droughts and severe winters. The Babatagh mountains have been a centre in the civil war in Tajikistan and poaching is totally uncontrolled. The winters of 1968-69 and 1971-72 were especially harsh in Tajikistan, and many urial carcasses were found in spring 1969 in the Kugitangtau.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis cycloceros</em><br/>In Turkmenistan, poaching is the main threat, but there is also competition from domestic livestock for forage and water. In Afghanistan, this urial avoids rugged mountainous terrain where it might gain some protection, and instead competes directly with livestock that are seasonally brought into their habitat. Urial populations near major urban centres have declined significantly due to indiscriminate hunting pressure. In Pakistan, overhunting, livestock overgrazing, and habitat degradation caused by fuelwood gathering and by agriculture, are the main threats to this urial. Afghan urial may be more susceptible to such threats than are wild goats inhabiting the same areas because of species-specific differences in habitat preferences (Edge and Olson-Edge, 1987). Throughout its range in Baluchistan, Afghan urial faces severe hunting pressure and competition from domestic sheep and goat, and lives in extremely scattered and small populations (Virk, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis gmelinii</em><br/>Habitat loss and competition from domestic livestock, together with poaching.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis vignei</em><br/>Hunting has been relatively strictly controlled recently in India (especially in the Indus valley), but the urial’s habitat is very accessible and susceptible to overuse by livestock herding and other human activities. Urial occupy the low relatively accessible areas along the major valley corridors, all of which have, or soon will have, roads. The resulting effects of increased hunting and eventual human settlement associated with irrigation projects and increased livestock numbers, will require effective conservation and management actions if Ladakh urial is to survive (Fox<em>et al</em>., 1994). Its future status thus remains questionable due to increasing development activities in the major valleys of Ladakh. In Pakistan, most urial habitat is close to human settlements and also not very steep, therefore easily accessible to hunters and for grazing by livestock.<br/><br/><em>Ovis orientalis punjabiensis</em><br/>The habitat of Punjab urial is declining in area because of agriculture, urbanization, roads and other human developments.  It is declining in quality because of overgrazing by domestic livestock. Lambs are poached at birth to keep as pets. They are a status symbol and although capture is illegal, the Pakistani government is now selling licenses to keep urial as pets. Some are hybridized with mouflon and domestic sheep. Adult rams are poached for their trophy value. Apart from the protected population in the Jabbah valley (700 urial), the Punjab urial suffers heavy hunting pressure and has declined drastically in only a short period in some areas of Pakistan (Chaudhry <em>et al</em>., 1988). It persists only in small populations and at low densities (Roberts, 1985). In addition, competition and transmission of diseases from domestic animals are major threats. Lambs are kept as pets, ram horns are a prized trophy, the meat is eaten.	eng
15740	conservation	Harris, R.B. & Tsytsulina. K., 2008	The Kamchatka sheep (<em>O. n. nivicola</em>) was listed as Category III in the Russian Red Data Book (Ivanenko, 1999 <http: nature.ok.ru="" index.htm="">). Despite this, some have been hunted recently by foreign trophy hunters. Sheep in the Koryak and Chukchi ranges are listed under <em>O. n. koriakum</em> as Category II in the Russian Red Data Book (1983). The other subspecies are considered as game animals and a limited number of licenses are being sold in Yakutia and Kamchatka, many to foreign hunters. Approximately 1,300 Putoran sheep are protected in the Putoran Reserve, about 600 of the Kamchatka subspecies occur in Kronotsky Reserve, while for Okhotsk sheep, about 1,700 are protected in the Magadan Reserve and 1,200 in Dzhugdzhur Reserve. Conservation measures proposed: 1)  Establish the several reserves for conservation of the Yakutian subspecies in the Tuora-Siz range (Lower Lena river) and in the Chersky range. Reserves would also be valuable in Chukotsk, Koryak Uplands and’in Kamchatka for the conservation of their respective populations. 2) Undertake censuses of numbers to verify distributions and population estimates. At the same time, 3) the taxonomy of snow sheep subspecies and their respective distributions requires clarification (Weinberg <em>et al</em>., 1997).	eng
15740	distribution	Harris, R.B. & Tsytsulina. K., 2008	This species is found in Russia, where they occur in the Putorana Mountains, north central Siberia, northeast Siberia from Lena River east to Chukotka and Kamchatka (Baskin 1985, Grubb, 2005, Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002).<br/> <br/>The snow sheep is distributed throughout most of the mountain regions of eastern Siberia (Russia). The main distribution area begins just east of the Lena River and stretches as far as the Tenkany mountains on the Chukotsk peninsula on the western edge of the Bering Strait (Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002). This sheep also occurs in the volcanic mountains running down the Kamchatka peninsula, and the southern limit of the species appears to be in the Yablonovoi Range, south of the Lena River (Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002, Bunch <em>et al</em>. 2006). In addition, a totally isolated population, referred to Putoran snow sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) is restricted to the Putoran Mountains south of the Tamyr peninsula (about 66° to 70°N and 92° to 98°E), east of the Yenisey River, and separated from the nearest Yakutian population by about 1,000 km (Sipko <em>et al</em>. 1999, Pavlinov <em>et al</em> 2002).	eng
15740	habitat	Harris, R.B. & Tsytsulina. K., 2008	This species occurs in rocky, mountainous areas, above 1,700 m asl in the Putoran Plato, and above 2,000 m asl in the rest of its range. It is generally non-migratory, but it makes seasonal short distance movements. At the beginning of spring pregnant females leave herds and in late May and June they give birth to a single young. In June herds the regroup. The old males form small groups and live separately until late autumn, while remaining animals form mixed herds. Mating is in November – December, after that during whole winter snow sheep stay in mixed groups (15 – 20 individuals). Their diet consists primarily of grasses, but also of lichens, mosses, and willow sprouts. Females are sexually mature at 2 years, while males are not until age 5. Mating is reported to occur in December with lambs born in late June (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Baskin (1985) reports that their maximum lifespan is much longer than that of other wild <em>Ovis</em>.	eng
15740	population	Harris, R.B. & Tsytsulina. K., 2008	As of the mid 1980s, the total snow sheep population size was estimated to be between 85,000 and 95,000; comprised of 12,000 to 13,000 Kamchatka sheep (<em>O. n. nivicola</em>), 55,000 to 60,000 Yakutian sheep (<em>O. n. zydekkeri</em>), 10,000 to 12,000 Okhotsk sheep (<em>O. n. alleni</em>), 3,000 to 3,500 Koryak sheep (<em>O. n. koriakorum</em>), 3,000 to 3,500 Chukotsk sheep (<em>O. n. tschuktschorum</em>), and 3,500 Putoran or Norilsk sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) (Revin 1982; Revin <em>et al</em>., 1988; Weinberg <em>et al</em>. 1997). More recently, numbers of Putoran sheep have been reported to be  increasing (Sipko 1999), but population trends for other subpopulations are not available. There are now some new data on size populations of snow sheep. According to Kamchatka Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (2007), the latest population estimate of <em>O. n. nivicola</em> is about 7,000 individuals, of which 150 are hunted each year. The Putoran snow sheep (<em>O. n. borealis</em>) is a protected subspecies, and its population size has increased during the last decade and currently stands at about 5,500 individuals (Natural Resources Ministry of Russian Federation, Natural World Heritage Commission, 2008). The population size of Chukotsk sheep is estimated as 1,500 individuals. Its population density varies from 0.3 to 3.5 individuals per 1,000 ha, and in some parts of its range (Rarytkin, Zolotoy, and Elekay Ranges, Northern and Southern Vapanaivaam Mountains) only single individuals are registered (Red List of Russian Federation 2000). There is no recent estimate of the overall population size for the species, and its trends are unknown.	eng
15740	threats	Harris, R.B. & Tsytsulina. K., 2008	Poaching is said to take at least 6,000 snow sheep annually, but mainly affects animals living close to human settlements. The overall affect of this hunting on the population is not known. Sheep on the Chukchi peninsula also compete with reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>).	eng
15777	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E. & Hardersen, S., 2006	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure, Alder trees bordures and pathway.	eng
15777	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure and riverine trees.	eng
15777	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure and riverine trees through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
15777	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is listed in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive and in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Control of water pollution, conservation of "natural" stream structure, riverine <em>Alnus </em> and <em>Salix</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are required. For Germany a conservation action plan has been published (Ott <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
15777	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> is largely confined to southwestern Europe. The species is very rare in North Africa, occurring in Morocco in three localities only. Its European EOO exceeds 1 million km² and over 1,500 localities have been recorded and its total AOO exceeds most likely 2,000 km². Its main area of distribution is found in the Iberian Peninsula and France. In Italy it is known from only 20 streams and lakes and records from only three localities have been published since 1990 but this is most likely due to the lack of surveys. The species has declined in the northern margin of its range and has been lost from the UK and the Netherlands, although it probably has always been very rare in these countries. In Germany and Luxembourg it remains confined to only one river at the border between these two countries.	eng
15777	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> occurs mainly in southwestern Europe. It is very rare in North Africa, occurring in Morocco only.	eng
15777	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Oxygastra curtsii</em> occurs mainly in southwestern Europe. It is very rare in northern Africa, occurring in Morocco only.	eng
15777	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E. & Hardersen, S., 2006	Southwest Europe. Very rare in North Africa.	eng
15777	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Slow flowing streams.	eng
15777	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Slow flowing streams.	eng
15777	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E. & Hardersen, S., 2006	Slow flowing streams; pools and ponds.	eng
15777	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species reproduces in slow flowing streams and by exception in standing waters such as lakes, pools and ponds.	eng
15777	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, this species is very rare in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and uncommon in Italy, northeastern and eastern France, rather common to common in the southwestern half and the Mediterranean fringe of France (Grand and Boudot 2006). The species is  scattered with a rather low density over the whole Iberian Peninsula, but is much more present in the west than previously believed. It is Regionally Extinct in the United Kingdom (last recorded in 1957) and the Netherlands (1982).	eng
15777	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, the species is known only from three streams in Morocco. The status of the populations here is unknown.	eng
15777	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In northern Africa, the species is known only from three streams in Morocco. The status of the populations here is unknown.	eng
15777	population	Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E. & Hardersen, S., 2006	Very rare in Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Morocco. Uncommon in Italia, northeastern and eastern France, rather common to common in the southwestern half and the Mediterranean fringe of France. Scattered with a mean rather low density over the whole Iberian Peninsula, but decidedly much more present in the west than previously believed. Regionally Extinct in the United Kingdom (last recorded there in 1957) and The Netherlands.	eng
15777	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A general decrease is to be expected almost anywhere in the future (but much less in a large part of the southwestern half of France and western Iberia than elsewhere, due to both mountainous features and a lower agricultural pressure), owing to extensive water quality degradation and large scale stream transformations (alteration of structure and functioning, including canal construction), removal of trees bordering the streams (<em>Salix, Alnus</em>), global warming and subsequent frequent summer droughts and stream drying up.	eng
15777	threats	Boudot, J.-P., Riservato, E. & Hardersen, S., 2006	Water pollution, stream calibration.	eng
15777	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution, stream calibration, and suppression of riverine trees are threats to the species.	eng
15777	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, stream calibration, suppression of riverine trees.	eng
15778	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known only from the Marolambo Rapids, Nosivolo River, a tributary of the Mangoro River.	eng
15778	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	A riverine species.	eng
15778	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species' restricted range makes it particularly susceptible to habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
15782	conservation	Jayat, J., D'elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	There is not included in any proteceted area.	eng
15782	distribution	Jayat, J., D'elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15782	habitat	Jayat, J., D'elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	Found in mountain forest/yungas	eng
15782	population	Jayat, J., D'elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	There are only three specimens collected. There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
15782	threats	Jayat, J., D'elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	In that area there exists deforestation and overgrazing, however, the possible effects of habitat loss and reconfiguration on populations of this species are still unknown.	eng
15783	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
15783	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This species occurs in extreme eastern Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Pernambuco) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15783	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This species occurs in tropical  dry shrublands and open habitat.	eng
15783	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	Very little is known of populations of this species	eng
15783	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15784	conservation	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Emas National Park, and National Park of Brasilia. It is possible that it occurs in additional protected.	eng
15784	distribution	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in low areas of east Paraguay, and south central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It was found in Serra da Canasta state park in Brazil (Queirolo pers. comm.)	eng
15784	habitat	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in marshy areas and in humid grasslands, up to approximately 1,200 m (Queirolo pers. comm.). It is diurnal, and insectivorous, ecologically equivalent to <em>O. nasutus</em> but not as high elevation range (Vieira pers. comm.). Also, it occurs in the border between dry grasslands and wetlands (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
15784	population	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is locally abundant, most common in wet grasslands (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
15784	threats	Patterson, B., D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	The major threat is drainage of wetlands for development.	eng
15785	conservation	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in some areas which are protected.	eng
15785	distribution	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Argentina (Misiones).	eng
15785	habitat	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It has been found in moist forests of the Mata Atlantica region in Brazil.	eng
15785	population	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species.	eng
15785	threats	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Little is known of the threats but the natural habitats within the range have been severely altered, however, the species may be adaptable.	eng
15786	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is not present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect the distinct area of Comarapa. Further research is needed in this area to try to find additional populations.	eng
15786	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, about 2, 600 to 3,000 m, central Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The type locality is: Cochabamba Department, 28 km (by road) west Comarapa, 2,800 m; 17°51'S, 64°40'W (Hinojosa <em>et al.</em>, 1987). This species is believed to have a very restricted range.	eng
15786	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is terrestrial, nocturnal and diurnal; it has only been recorded from disturbed cloud forest. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.	eng
15786	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens in a single location.	eng
15786	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	Major threats to this species include clearance of cloud forest for cattle pasture. The range of the species is divided by a road, along which human colonization is taking place, further fragmenting the habitat.	eng
15787	conservation	Christoff, A., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent occurs within several protected areas.	eng
15787	distribution	Christoff, A., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province) and southeastern Brazil (in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul) (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Christoff and Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
15787	habitat	Christoff, A., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in forest habitat and borders between forest and cultivated land (Christoff, Jung and Sheibla pers. comm.).	eng
15787	population	Christoff, A., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is very common in its range (Christoff, Jung and Sheibla pers. comm.).	eng
15787	threats	Christoff, A., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
15788	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
15788	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the south central Peru to northern Bolivia, as far south as Cochabamba and east into west Santa Cruz Departments (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of around 400 to 2,500 m in Bolivia, and 500 up to 1,900 m in Peru.	eng
15788	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It ranges from lowland cerrado and mixed forest, into Yungas and montane forest and regrowth following logging. It is present in savannas, grassland and fields, in primary and secondary habitat including disturbed areas.	eng
15788	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a moderately common species.	eng
15788	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15789	conservation	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Aparados da Serra National Park and contiguous to Serra Geral National Park, in Rio Grande do Sul State. It likely is present in other protected areas.	eng
15789	distribution	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in Uruguay and adjacent southeastern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul to São Paulo states) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15789	habitat	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This rodent is found above 400-500 m depending on latitude, it occurs in wetlands, coastal sandbanks, pasturelands and the edges of streams (Gonzalez 2001). This is a diurnal and crepuscular species, and it diet is insectivore (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
15789	population	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is locally abundant (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
15789	threats	D'elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
15790	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Patterson, B., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. There may be a need to further research the three subspecies of <em>O. paramensi</em>s.	eng
15790	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Patterson, B., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	This species occurs in the middle to upper east Andean slopes, in southeast Peru, west central Bolivia, and northwest Argentina; it has an altitudinal range of around 1,000 to 4,000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In northern parts of its range it is found at higher elevations than in the southern parts. In Argentina can be found from 700 m.	eng
15790	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Patterson, B., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It is nocturnal, diurnal, and terrestrial. It is found in elfin forest, Polylepis forest, upper montane forest, Yungas and Tucumano Boliviano forest habitats. It can be found in primary and secondary forest habitats. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.	eng
15790	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Patterson, B., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15790	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Patterson, B., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas., U., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to adapt well to disturbed areas.	eng
15791	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
15791	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil, Minas Gerais State, Rio Jordão, Paranaíba, from 700-900 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15791	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	This rodent is found in Araucaria forests with open fields and grassland, with temperate climate.	eng
15791	population	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	Little is know of populations of this species.	eng
15791	threats	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15792	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in several protected areas in Argentina.	eng
15792	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15792	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in open grasslands.	eng
15792	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	Is an abundant species.	eng
15792	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
15793	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in at least three protected areas.	eng
15793	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southeast Peru and northwest Bolivia (La Paz and Cochabamba Departments), it has an altitudinal range of 610 to 3,500 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
15793	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is nocturnal, diurnal, and terrestrial. It is present in primary and secondary <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and humid montane forest. It may be present in cultivated areas, although this requires verification. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates and may use its long claws to dig these from the litter.	eng
15793	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a rare species in Peru, but is more common in Bolivia.	eng
15793	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
15803	conservation	Gonzalez, S. & Merino, M.L., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I.  Recommended conservation actions include further population surveys, ecological research, strengthening of existing management of protected areas, creation of new protected areas, establishment of a collaborative captive breeding program, and enlisting the co-operation of local landowners in maintaining this species (Wemmer 1998). Some measures must be implemented to develop privately owned protected areas in order to preserve these last populations. These measures must include exoneration of taxes by government agencies and other fiscal incentives to stimulate private conservation action (González, <em>et al.</em>, 2002.)	eng
15803	distribution	Gonzalez, S. & Merino, M.L., 2008	The pampas deer occurs in insular populations in western, northern, and central Argentina, eastern Bolivia, central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Prior to the 1800's, the species was abundant throughout the grasslands of South America (Wemmer 1998). The Pampas deer was a widespread species occupying a range of open habitats, including grasslands, pampas and the Brazilian savanna known as the Cerrado, in eastern South America from 5º to 41ºS (Cabrera 1943; Jackson 1987; Merino <em>et al.</em> 1997; González <em>et al</em>. 1998; 2002; González, 2004; Weber and González 2003). However, the area encompassed by these habitats has been dramatically reduced to less than 1% of that present in 1900 (González <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Currently, Pampas deer populations are generally small and highly isolated (Jackson and Langguth 1987; González <em>et al</em>. 1998: 2002). The largest extant populations are found in Brazil, in the northeast cerrado ecosystem where about 2,000 individuals live, and in the Pantanal where 20,000 to 40,000 exist (Pinder 1994), and was rediscovered in the South a small population in Paraná State estimated  in less of 100 individuals Braga et al.2005, . In Uruguay there are two main populations: El Tapado (Salto Department) with 800 individuals, and Los Ajos (Rocha Department) with approximately 300 deer (Weber and González, 2003 ). At the turn of the century, the Argentinean population was likely very large since over 500,000 km² of grassland habitat was available. However, today only three small populations remain: Corrientes (Ituzaingo Department) with about 170 individuals (Merino and Beccaceci, 1999), in San Luís Province) with approximately 800-1000 individuals (Merino <em>et al</em>. 1997) and coastal Bahía de Samborombóm (Buenos Aires Province) with about 200 individuals (Merino <em>et al</em>. 1997) and  in Santa Fé  “Bajos Submeridionales” area there is a small population estimated less 50 individuals lives in an area of 23,000 ha. (Vera Department, Pautasso <em>et al</em>. 2002a and b).  A small population may still be extant in the southeastern part of Bolivia (Weber and González, 2003). Small populations of Pampas deer may still be extant in the National Park Noel Kempff Mercado (Santa Cruz Department), in southwestern Bolivia (Anderson 1985; 1993; Tarifa 1993). However, it is restricted to relatively small patches of suitable habitat and may have become locally extinct in some of them.	eng
15803	habitat	Gonzalez, S. & Merino, M.L., 2008	The species occupies a range of open habitats, in particular grassland areas and the cerrado shrublands. In Argentina, coastal salt marshes are also utilized.	eng
15803	population	Gonzalez, S. & Merino, M.L., 2008	There is not update information of total population size there are partical estimation for population specifically in the Southern part of South America. The general trend is not possible to estimate for the species. The populations from Argentina and Uruguay show a decline trend (González <em>et al.</em>, 2002). A minumum estimate for the total population size is 20,000 (Pinder, 1994), while the miximum population size is estimated at 80,000 (Pinder, 1994) individuals.	eng
15803	threats	Gonzalez, S. & Merino, M.L., 2008	Habitat conversion for agriculture and competition with domestic livestock have been reported as threats to the pampas deer (Wemmer 1998). Other threats include over-exploitation for food, hides, and sport, predation by feral dogs, and possibly bovine disease (Wemmer 1998).	eng
15837	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
15837	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Lake Skadar basin (Serbia-Montenegro) and to the Drin river basin including Lake Ohrid (Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)). It is also recorded in the Aoos river bain in western Greece. In Italy was introduced in Serchio River and was found also in Lake Massaciuccoli were it is quite common, but still reported in this lake as Rutilus rubilio (P.G.Bianco pers. observ.). The species has commercial value in Lake Skadar, and is very frequent in the basin of Moraca River and in River Vijose in Albany, which originate in Greece as River Aoos. It has also been introduced into France.	eng
15837	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small cyprinid living in rivers as well as in lakes.	eng
15837	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Quite abundant (Freyhof, J. pers comm).	eng
15837	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (dams), water pollution.	eng
15838	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
15839	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
15865	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
15865	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has a widespread distribution in northern Africa, encompassing parts of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.	eng
15865	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in deserts and semi-deserts with a solid, non-sandy, substrate.	eng
15865	population	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
15865	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
15866	conservation	Johnson, D., Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> received protection under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) and has been classified as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe (2009).<br/><br/>By installing and maintaining effective barriers in the river system, the plan to protect <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> focuses on preventing the invasion of signal crayfish into the 20 remaining native subpopulations still free of the exotic species. When these subpopulations are stabilized, work will be done to remove signal crayfish from areas containing both crayfish species and additional barriers will also be installed. The plan requires government agencies to increase cooperative efforts with local landowners because much of the habitat is on private lands (Millar 2004).<br/><br/>Culverts at Spring Creek Road have been replaced using a design to prevent signal crayfish migration. The fish hatchery at Sucker Creek has been removed and a barrier installed. Restoration has been carried out on eroded areas. A recovery plan calls for future repairs on water impoundments to be done with imported boulders to improve Shasta Crayfish habitat instead of locally dredged materials. Removal or controls of muskrat populations throughout the watershed are to be undertaken (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Continued study of Shasta Crayfish ecology, and monitoring of Signal Crayfish are being carried out (Millar 2004).	eng
15866	distribution	Johnson, D., Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<em></em>This species is known only from Shasta County, California, USA. It is more specifically known from isolated portions of the Pit River drainage. The current range is greatly reduced to much smaller and more isolated stream sections in the same watersheds (Millar 2004). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 13 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
15866	habitat	Johnson, D., Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> prefers rocky, gravelly bottoms, usually volcanic rubble (Bouchard 1978). This species has been found in spring pools and slow to moderately flowing waters, and also in cold clear lakes with little annual fluctuation in temperature (Eng and Daniels 1982). It requires a constant, steady, and untainted flow of fresh water to survive (American Fisheries Society Endangered Species Committee 1996). <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em> grows to 90mm total length and females reach maturity at 5 years old (Millar 2004).	eng
15866	population	Johnson, D., Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	By 1990, <em>Pacifastacus fortis</em>  was restricted to seven isolated localities, mostly in the headwaters of spring-fed tributaries of the Pit River. The Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) had become established throughout much of the study area within 12 years. In one site <em>P. leniusculus</em> probably contributed to the precipitous decline of this species, from 2000 - 3000 in 1980 to about 370 (+ 135) in 1991 (Light <em>et al</em>. 1995). Relict distribution exist today but no evidence the species had a wider range during historic times (Eng and Daniels 1982).&#160; Historically, distribution was more or less continuous throughout the Fall River, Hat Creek, and the segment of the Pit River that joins these drainages (Light <em>et al.</em> 1995).&#160; It was described in 1898 from the Fall River at Fall River Mills and Hat Creek at Cassel with subsequent collections from the Fall River system in 1934, 1964, 1973-1974; with collections in 1975 from all three river systems (headwaters of the Fall River, Sucker Springs Creek on the Pit River, Crystal Lake on Hat Creek).&#160; In 1978-1980 it was found in numerous locations in the Fall River system including the type locality as well as Sucker Springs Creek and the Pit River and in Crystal, Baum, and Rising River lakes on the Hat Creek system.&#160; Resurveys in 1985-1986 found no major changes in distribution but noted a declining population in Crystal Lake occurring with a large population of introduced <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> in only five years plus new observations in Eastman Lake at the Lava Creek overflow, the Fall River at the mouth of Spring Creek, and Tritton Reservoir. Most recently in 1990-1991, Light <em>et al</em>. (1995) found it in a total of 14 sites comprising seven noncontiguous subpopulations separated by dams, gradient barriers and many stream km; mostly in the same areas as historically but now isolated in patches rather than distributed continuously. The marginal locations (Fall River, Pit River mainstem near sucker Springs, and Baum Lake) have not yielded specimens since 1980, though these represented washdowns or strays from nearby populations.	eng
15866	threats	Johnson, D., Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	This species faces a number of threats within its restricted range. This species has undergone significant habitat fragmentation as a result of water diversion and impoundments associated with 4 major hydroelectric dams (NatureServe 2009). Though range extent is still as it was historically, distribution is no longer continuous and the amount of occupied area within its range is significantly reduced (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1998, Light <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). <span style="background-color: white;">T</span>he population of this species is now considered to be highly fragmented and split into isolated subpopulations as a result of dam construction (Millar 2004). Exotic and invasive species also pose another major threat to this species: it is likely that the decline of this species is linked to the spread of <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> (Fetzner 2008) as well as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span>, both of which have the characteristics typical of expanding populations (Daniels 1980, Light <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).<em> Pacifastacus fortis</em> is also subject to increased predation from non-native species such as muskrats, bullfrogs, and several species of introduced game fish (Millar 2004).	eng
15867	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of GX by NatureServe (2009) and 'endangered possibly extinct' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
15867	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> was originally described from the vicinity of San Francisco, and reported from the hills on the north side of San Francisco Bay. This species was once common in the creeks surrounding the San Francisco bay; however, it has not been observed since the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>) was introduced to California (probably 1800s- Bouchard 1977) and is believed to be Extinct (Rogers 2005).   There have been no authenticated collections in 20th Century. Specific searches by Riegel (1959) and Bouchard (1977) found no extant populations. In 1980 and 1981 searches by McGriff also found no extant populations. All localities had populations of either <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus </em>or <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (both <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>plicated in the extinction of this species) and the habitat was greatly modified especially by urban development in the last hundred years (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).&#160;   <defanghtml_span style="font-size: 11pt;" calibri="" ,="" sans-serif="" ;="" color:="" rgb(31,="" 73,="" 125);=""><u2:p></u2:p></defanghtml_span><defanghtml_span style="font-size: 11pt;" calibri="" ,="" sans-serif="" ;="" color:="" rgb(31,="" 73,="" 125);=""><u2:p></u2:p></defanghtml_span>	eng
15867	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> was found in streams (NatureServe 2009).	eng
15867	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span class="copy">Specific searches by Riegel (1959) and Bouchard (1977) found no extant populations. In 1980 and 1981 searches by McGriff also found no extant populations. All localities had populations of either <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus </em>or <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> (both implicated in the extinction of this species) and the habitat was greatly modified especially by urban development in the last hundred years. This species is now thought to be Extinct (NatureServe 2009).	eng
15867	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus nigrescens</em> is restricted to the San Francisco Bay region of northern California, but has disappeared as a result of urbanization and interactions with introduced crayfish species such as the Signal Crayfish (<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus) </em>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> (NatureServe 2009).	eng
15870	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
15870	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Tyrrhenian catchment of Central Italy.	eng
15870	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in small rivers with fast running water and stony substrate. It reproduces from late April to July according to the water temperature in different rivers. Also found in lakes.	eng
15870	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species is threatened mainly by introduction of the congeneric alien <em>P. bonelli</em>, which caused local extinctions in at least the river basins of Ombrone, Amaseno and Mignone in central Italy.	eng
15870	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water extraction, and invasive species (<em>Padogobius bonelli</em>, in particular).	eng
15875	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This is a nationally protected species. Its habitat (8310-4) is protected under the EU Habitat Directive.	eng
15875	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species is endemic to France, known from the Departments of Ardeche and Gard.	eng
15875	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
15875	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available.	eng
15875	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
15876	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no known conseravtion actions for this species.	eng
15876	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em><span lang="EN-US">Paladilhia </em><span style="font-style: italic;">pleurotoma</span><span lang="EN-US"> is a species which is  widespread in southern France, west of the Rhône valley and east of the Hérault valley.	eng
15876	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
15876	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species	eng
15876	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
15880	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored. Present in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.	eng
15880	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.	eng
15880	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Streams in lowland rain forest (<em>ca</em>. 400 m).	eng
15880	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15880	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
15881	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. gigantula</em> is present in Guanacaste National Park, Costa Rica. Additional populations should be sought, with research on biology of this unusually long-bodied species.	eng
15881	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is known from Costa Rica and Nicaragua:<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province., Peralta, 320 m (Calvert 1931)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste Province, Estación Pitilia, N side Volcán Orosi, 680 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>Nicaragua: Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002)	eng
15881	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has a preference for rain forest streams.	eng
15881	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Only small numbers of <em>P. gigantula</em> have been found at known localities.	eng
15881	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and drought (latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are continuing threats although they do not seem to be causing a problem at present.	eng
15882	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
15882	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.	eng
15882	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Doubtless small streams in rain forest.	eng
15882	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15882	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
15883	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Endemic to eastern Mexico (Nuevo León and San Luis Potosí to Veracruz and Oaxaca).	eng
15883	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland forest streams.	eng
15883	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15883	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
15884	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
15884	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.	eng
15884	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Small rocky streams in lowland rain forest (760 m).	eng
15884	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15884	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
15917	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	More surveys are needed to better establish this species geographic, elevational, and habitat associations (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15917	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is recorded only by the type series from Mt. Mantalingajan, Palawan island (Philippines) at approximately 1,370 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
15917	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	This is a montane species (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15917	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	The population status of this species is poorly known. It is probably highly restricted in distribution. The species was not encountered on Cleopatra's Needle, the only montane site surveyed recently (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). Since the collection of the original series, there have been no adequate surveys near the type locality or in other appropriate areas (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15917	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P. & Widmann, P., 2008	Its presumed habitat (montane forest) is currently unthreatened (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
15918	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
15918	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is highly valuable in food trade.	eng
15925	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and habitat status of the species would be valuable.	eng
15925	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species was previously known only from the type locality in northeast Gabon. Recent records are from two localities in Congo, Brazzaville: Odzala and La Lefini (unpublished records in Paris Museum of Natural History).	eng
15925	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in rainforest areas.	eng
15925	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
15925	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, but most likely forest destruction.	eng
15932	conservation	Fruth, B., Benishay, J.M., Bila-Isia, I., Coxe, S., Dupain, J., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Hurley, M., Ilambu, O., Mulavwa, M., Ndunda, M., Omasombo, V., Reinartz, G., Scherlis, J., Steel, L. & Thompson, J., 2008	Until recently, the only protected area harbouring bonobos was the 33,346 km² Salonga National Park (ICCN 2006). Although legally protected, law enforcement in the DRC is negligible, and conservation efforts are hampered by corruption, isolation as well as persistent political and economic instability. The only active and permanent presence on the ground is assured by NGOs and research projects. NGOs are working to strengthen ICCN’s limited capacity in Salonga National Park. Elsewhere, NGOs are using participatory approaches to guide local communities towards the sustainable use of natural resources for long-term conservation.<br/><br/>In the context of the Congo Basin (Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) 2005), an international project for the protection of forests, DRC possesses three landscapes important for bonobo conservation: Lac Tele-Lac Tumba Landscape (Congo and DRC); Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape (DRC); and Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape (DRC).<br/> <br/>Within these landscapes are areas with established protection status such as Salonga National Park (since 1970) and Luo Scientific Reserve (since 1990). However, significant portions of bonobo habitat such as the Lomami-Lualaba and the Lomela-Sankuru areas are not included in the landscapes defined by CBFP.<br/><br/>Due to the combined efforts of the ICCN (DRC’s national conservation authority) and international NGOs, two additional areas obtained official protected status in 2006: Faunal Reserve of Lomako-Yokokala (RFLY) (Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape), and Tumba-Lediima Natural Reserve (RTL) (Lac Tele-Lac Tumba Landscape). Others are under consideration and protected only by local commitments: Yasa-Bososandja wildlife sanctuary (1998) (Myers Thompson 2001), and Kokolopori (reserve to be gazetted in 2007) (BCI 2007).<br/><br/>Although these areas still harbour sizeable numbers of bonobos, the threats cited above put all populations at risk irrespective of the conservation status of the area. Conservation education programmes are essential to help curb poaching and illegal trade, not only in areas adjacent to wild populations but also in urban centres such as Kinshasa or Kisangani, where the demand for bushmeat and pets is generated. Lola Ya Bonobo, a sanctuary for confiscated bonobos in Kinshasa, welcomes 15,000 visitors per annum, half of which are school children, who can influence local attitudes (ABC 2006).<br/><br/>In sum, for effective protection of bonobos, commercial hunting must be halted, intensification rather than expansion of local agriculture must be supported, and local industries must be actively persuaded to support rather than subvert conservation. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the species’ overall distribution and abundance.<br/><br/>Despite the fact that bonobos breed well in captivity, and captive propagation programmes exist in North American and European zoos, only conservation measures <em>in situ</em> can be considered useful attempts to contribute to the species’ survival in the wild.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
15932	distribution	Fruth, B., Benishay, J.M., Bila-Isia, I., Coxe, S., Dupain, J., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Hurley, M., Ilambu, O., Mulavwa, M., Ndunda, M., Omasombo, V., Reinartz, G., Scherlis, J., Steel, L. & Thompson, J., 2008	The bonobo has a discontinuous range in the low-lying central Congo Basin of Equatorial Africa, south of the Congo River. Their range extends from the Lualaba River in the East, to the Kasai/Sankuru Rivers in the South, and to the west as far as to the Bolobo village and around the Lake Tumba/Lac Ndombe area. Although the extent of their potential range is estimated at approximately 500,000 km² (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 2003), recent evidence of previously unsurveyed areas has detected bonobo presence throughout their historical area of distribution. Bonobos occur in small populations whose gene flow is determined by riverine barriers. Due to the bonobos’ dispersal patterns, the effective population size of males is smaller than that of females. Analyses of population genetics suggest that bonobo populations have a stable population history (Eriksson <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2004). Despite new surveys by various NGOs, the southern part of the Congo Basin, including the area south of the Kasai River, has not been surveyed.	eng
15932	habitat	Fruth, B., Benishay, J.M., Bila-Isia, I., Coxe, S., Dupain, J., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Hurley, M., Ilambu, O., Mulavwa, M., Ndunda, M., Omasombo, V., Reinartz, G., Scherlis, J., Steel, L. & Thompson, J., 2008	The entire range of bonobo distribution is characterized by moderate variations in elevation (300 to 700 m). They inhabit a mosaic of primary and secondary forests, as well as seasonally inundated swamp forests, with a humid, stable climate. A single bonobo community (usually 30 to 80 individuals) occupies a home-range of 20 to 60 km² of forest, with extensive overlap between community ranges resulting in small core areas. Over 50% of their diet is comprised of fruits and seeds, with leaves, flowers, and piths, some of which provide considerable amounts of protein and other nutrients (Hohmann <em>et al</em>. 2006). Animal proteins deriving from both vertebrate (e.g., duikers) and invertebrate prey (e.g., termites, caterpillars) are also ingested. Nests are built in trees at heights between 5 and 50 m (Fruth 1995). Both habitat and nesting preferences are pronounced, and ground nests have been reported (Reinartz <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15932	population	Fruth, B., Benishay, J.M., Bila-Isia, I., Coxe, S., Dupain, J., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Hurley, M., Ilambu, O., Mulavwa, M., Ndunda, M., Omasombo, V., Reinartz, G., Scherlis, J., Steel, L. & Thompson, J., 2008	From studies based on nest counts along standardized line transects, population densities have been calculated for a number of areas (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: population densities for <em>Pan paniscus</em>.<br/><br/>There are no substantive data concerning total numbers, although speculative estimates give numbers for a total population size between 29,500 (Myers Thompson 1997) and 50,000 (Dupain and Van Elsacker 2001). Recent surveys indicate that these numbers may still be underestimates. In any case, any number indicating total population size should be considered with the highest caution.	eng
15932	threats	Fruth, B., Benishay, J.M., Bila-Isia, I., Coxe, S., Dupain, J., Furuichi, T., Hart, J., Hart, T., Hashimoto, C., Hohmann, G., Hurley, M., Ilambu, O., Mulavwa, M., Ndunda, M., Omasombo, V., Reinartz, G., Scherlis, J., Steel, L. & Thompson, J., 2008	The collective threats impacting the wild bonobo population today include: commercial poaching (for bushmeat, pets or medicinal purpose); residue of civil warfare (military sanctioned hunting, availability of modern weaponry and ammunition); human population changes (growth and movement); habitat alteration (commercial logging and agriculture, traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, increase of fallow land); and lack of education (insufficient awareness among certain urban and rural populations, and national politicians).<br/><br/>Commercial poaching has to be considered the most prominent threat. In some areas local taboos against bonobo hunting still exist, in others they are disintegrating due to changing cultural values associated with transient and immigrant human populations. Although commercial hunting is targeted at large-bodied ungulates and monkeys, the growing predominance of bushmeat commerce as an income-generating activity has led to increases in the number of commercial bushmeat hunters. These hunters, aided by military and local administration, are active in all areas, including those with legally protected status such as Salonga National Park. The importance of Salonga National Park as a significant reservoir of bonobos will be rapidly compromised if current hunting trends continue. Between 2003 and 2006, Hart <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded evidence of hunting across the park in 51% of survey grids. Hunting pressure was considered to be high in the north and east of the park, and bonobo mortalities as a direct consequence of hunting were recorded. Bonobos are slow-breeding and thus particularly susceptible to loss caused directly by poaching or indirectly by snaring.<br/><br/>Infectious diseases are yet to be quantified but are undoubtedly an important threat to wild bonobo populations, and of particular concern in areas where bonobos live side-by-side with humans. The risk of transmission increases with increasing human population density as well as increasing proximity with wildlife.	eng
15933	conservation	Oates, J.F., Tutin, C.E.G., Humle, T., Wilson, M.L., Baillie, J.E.M., Balmforth, Z., Blom, A., Boesch, C., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Dunn, A., Dupain, J., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Gatti, S., Greengrass, E., Hart, J., Herbinger, I., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Maisels, F., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Nakamura, M., Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J., Reynolds, V., Stokes, E.J. &  Walsh, P.D., 2008	Chimpanzees are listed under Appendix I of CITES and as Class A under the African Convention. Chimpanzees are protected by law in most countries and they are present in numerous national parks throughout their range, although many populations occur outside protected areas. Nonetheless, stricter enforcement of wildlife laws, and more effective management of protected areas are urgently needed. Engagement with the extractive industries are predominant in Central Africa towards curtailing the bushmeat trade is essential. Some marked success in co-management and other arrangements have been implemented and these should be duplicated and extended (Morgan and Sanz in prep.). <br/><br/>Conservation education and promotion of economic alternatives to hunting and land-extensive agriculture should also be supported. Major resources are required to identify appropriate conservation actions in the face of the spread of Ebola (Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005). Finally, a combination of factors has led to a poor understanding of the current population status of <em>Pan troglodytes</em>. Much of the range has not been surveyed, survey methods have been inconsistent, and many of the surveys are now out of date. Older survey data are particularly unreliable as Ebola, commercial hunting and extractive industries are known to have caused dramatic declines in some areas (Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005). New surveys using consistent methods are greatly needed throughout most of the range of <em>Pan troglodytes</em> (Kuehl <em>et al</em>. in prep.). These will enable the conservation community to better understand the true impact of Ebola, the bushmeat trade, habitat degradation and destruction, and to effectively set priorities.	eng
15933	distribution	Oates, J.F., Tutin, C.E.G., Humle, T., Wilson, M.L., Baillie, J.E.M., Balmforth, Z., Blom, A., Boesch, C., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Dunn, A., Dupain, J., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Gatti, S., Greengrass, E., Hart, J., Herbinger, I., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Maisels, F., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Nakamura, M., Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J., Reynolds, V., Stokes, E.J. &  Walsh, P.D., 2008	Chimpanzees have a wide but discontinuous distribution in Equatorial Africa between 13 degrees North and 7 degrees South. They occur from southern Senegal across the forested belt north of the Congo River to western Uganda and western Tanzania, from sea-level to 2,800 m asl. The four subspecies recognized here are distributed as follows:<br/><br/><em>P. t. verus</em> (Schwarz, 1934) is found in West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> (Gray, 1862) is found only in Nigeria and Cameroon, north of the Sanaga River.<br/><br/><em>P. t. troglodytes</em> (Blumenbach, 1799) ranges from Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, to the Congo River/Ubangi River (Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/><em>P. t. schweinfurthii</em> (Giglioli, 1872) ranges from the Ubangi River/Congo River in Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo, to western Uganda, Rwanda and western Tanzania (with small, relict populations in Burundi and south-eastern Sudan).	eng
15933	habitat	Oates, J.F., Tutin, C.E.G., Humle, T., Wilson, M.L., Baillie, J.E.M., Balmforth, Z., Blom, A., Boesch, C., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Dunn, A., Dupain, J., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Gatti, S., Greengrass, E., Hart, J., Herbinger, I., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Maisels, F., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Nakamura, M., Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J., Reynolds, V., Stokes, E.J. &  Walsh, P.D., 2008	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).	eng
15933	population	Oates, J.F., Tutin, C.E.G., Humle, T., Wilson, M.L., Baillie, J.E.M., Balmforth, Z., Blom, A., Boesch, C., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Dunn, A., Dupain, J., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Gatti, S., Greengrass, E., Hart, J., Herbinger, I., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Maisels, F., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Nakamura, M., Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J., Reynolds, V., Stokes, E.J. &  Walsh, P.D., 2008	Little recent survey work has been carried out over much of the chimpanzee’s range, and so population estimates are crude. The most recent estimate of total population size is 172,700 to 299,700 (Butynski 2003). Approximately 6,400 to 9,600 eastern chimpanzees were estimated to occur outside the DRC, with about 5,000 in Uganda. DRC was estimated to have 70,000 to 110,000. Central African chimpanzees were estimated to number 70,000 to 116,500. In the west, <em>P. t. verus</em> is patchily distributed and number between 21,300 and 55,600 with the greatest number estimated to be found in Guinea (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003); <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is the least numerous taxon with a total population of less than 6,500 individuals remaining (B. Morgan and J. Oates pers. comm. 2006). The only relatively large and secure population of <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is in Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria, with an estimated population of up to 1,500 (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
15933	threats	Oates, J.F., Tutin, C.E.G., Humle, T., Wilson, M.L., Baillie, J.E.M., Balmforth, Z., Blom, A., Boesch, C., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Dunn, A., Dupain, J., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Gatti, S., Greengrass, E., Hart, J., Herbinger, I., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Maisels, F., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Nakamura, M., Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J., Reynolds, V., Stokes, E.J. &  Walsh, P.D., 2008	The four subspecies face similar threats but to varying degrees in different regions. <br/><br/>Major threats include:<br/><strong>1. Habitat destruction and degradation</strong>, with varying impacts on populations and caused mainly by: <br/>(a) slash and burn agriculture: deforestation across West and Central Africa has severely reduced chimpanzee habitats. It is estimated that more than 80% of the region’s original forest cover has been lost (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003). Rapid growth in human populations across Africa is expected to lead to continued widespread conversion of forest and woodland to agricultural land.<br/>(b) Logging, oil and gas mining: increased accessibility to remote areas through road building poses a risk to chimpanzee populations through habitat degradation and fragmentation and potential increased poaching in areas previously not seriously impacted by such anthropogeniic pressures. In western Central Africa deforestation rates are low but selective logging is, or will be, carried out in the majority of forests outside of national parks. Logging generally, but not always, has a negative impact on chimpanzee density due to habitat alteration (removal of important food trees) and disturbance (Plumptre and Johns 2001, White and Tutin 2001).<br/><br/><strong>2. Poaching</strong>. Due to low population densities and slow reproductive rates, hunting often leads to the rapid local extirpation of chimpanzee populations. The main reasons for hunting are:<br/>(a) for meat: Chimpanzees currently constitute 1 to 3% of bushmeat sold in urban markets in Côte d’Ivoire (Caspary <em>et al</em>. 2001), and commercial hunting, often facilitated by logging, has caused declines in chimpanzee populations in some areas (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999, Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/>(b) pet trade: Although the pet trade is illegal in all range countries that are signatories to CITES, it persists illegally across Africa. The capture of an infant chimpanzee usually implies the death of its mother and often other members of the community.<br/>(c) medicinal purposes: In some localities, chimpanzees are hunted traditionally for medicinal purposes. Some range countries, such as Guinea, still officially permit the capture of chimpanzees for scientific research.<br/>(d) snares/crop-protection: People kill chimpanzees intentionally to protect their crops (S. Kamenya pers. comm. 2007). Chimpanzees may also be maimed or killed unintentionally when caught in snares set for other animals, such as baboons or cane rats (e.g., Reynolds 2005, C. Duvall pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>3. Disease</strong>. The main cause of death in chimpanzees at Gombe, Mahale and Taï is infectious disease (e.g., Goodall 1986, Nishida <em>et al</em>. 2003, Hanamura <em>et al</em>. 2006). Because chimpanzees and humans are so similar, chimpanzees succumb to many diseases that afflict humans (Butynski 2001). The frequency of encounters between chimpanzees and humans and/or human waste is increasing as human populations expand, leading to higher risks of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees. If not properly managed, research and tourism also presents a risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees. In the past 15 years, Ebola haemorrhagic fever has killed chimpanzees in Côte d’Ivoire (Formenty 1999), and repeated epidemics have caused dramatic declines of ape populations in remote protected areas in Gabon and the Republic of Congo (Huijbregts <em>et al</em>. 2003; Walsh <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Walsh, unpubl.). While recent surveys have not always distinguished between the nests of chimpanzees and gorillas, the pooled density of apes in several large areas has declined by 50 to 90% following Ebola epidemics (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2004, Tutin <em>et al</em>. 2005, Bermejo <em>et al</em>. 2006, Lahm <em>et al</em>. 2006, P. Walsh, unpubl.).	eng
15935	conservation	Humle, T., Boesch, C., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Herbinger, I., Blom, A. & Oates, J.F., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15935	distribution	Humle, T., Boesch, C., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Herbinger, I., Blom, A. & Oates, J.F., 2008	<em>P. t. verus</em> (Schwarz, 1934) is found in West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
15935	habitat	Humle, T., Boesch, C., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Herbinger, I., Blom, A. & Oates, J.F., 2008	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).	eng
15935	population	Humle, T., Boesch, C., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Herbinger, I., Blom, A. & Oates, J.F., 2008	<em>P. t. verus</em> is patchily distributed and number between 21,300 and 55,600 with the greatest number estimated to be found in Guinea (Kormos <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
15935	threats	Humle, T., Boesch, C., Duvall, C., Ellis, C.M., Farmer, K.H., Herbinger, I., Blom, A. & Oates, J.F., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15936	conservation	Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Dupain, J., Gatti, S., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Morgan, D.B. & Walsh, P.D., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15936	distribution	Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Dupain, J., Gatti, S., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Morgan, D.B. & Walsh, P.D., 2008	<em>P. t. troglodytes</em> (Blumenbach, 1799) ranges from Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, to the Congo River/Ubangi River (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
15936	habitat	Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Dupain, J., Gatti, S., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Morgan, D.B. & Walsh, P.D., 2008	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).	eng
15936	population	Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Dupain, J., Gatti, S., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Morgan, D.B. & Walsh, P.D., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15936	threats	Tutin, C.E.G., Baillie, J.E.M., Dupain, J., Gatti, S., Maisels, F., Stokes, E.J., Morgan, D.B. & Walsh, P.D., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15937	conservation	Wilson, M.L., Balmforth, Z., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Hart, J., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Nakamura, M, Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J. & Reynolds, V., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15937	distribution	Wilson, M.L., Balmforth, Z., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Hart, J., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Nakamura, M, Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J. & Reynolds, V., 2008	<em>P. t. schweinfurthii</em> (Giglioli, 1872) ranges from the Ubangi River/Congo River in Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo, to western Uganda, Rwanda and western Tanzania (with small, relict populations in Burundi and south-eastern Sudan).	eng
15937	habitat	Wilson, M.L., Balmforth, Z., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Hart, J., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Nakamura, M, Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J. & Reynolds, V., 2008	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).	eng
15937	population	Wilson, M.L., Balmforth, Z., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Hart, J., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Nakamura, M, Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J. & Reynolds, V., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15937	threats	Wilson, M.L., Balmforth, Z., Cox, D., Davenport, T., Hart, J., Hicks, C., Hunt, K.D., Kamenya, S., Mitani, J.C., Moore, J., Nakamura, M, Nixon, S., Plumptre, A.J. & Reynolds, V., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
15939	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Originally reported from the Malabon River, Rizal, Philippines, an area which has since been 'reclaimed'. It has supposedly also been collected in the sea at Culion Island, off Palawan, Philippines (see account on FishBase). Recently collected in Bali, Sulawesi and Singapore (M. Kottelat, pers. comm.). According to FishBase there are also supposedly records from Fiji and Papua New Guinea.	eng
15939	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Found in brackish waters and mangrove areas, usually in areas with soft muddy bottom and around aquatic plants. Is reputed to be one of the smallest fish in the world (about 1 to 1.5 cm in length).	eng
15939	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species used to frequent shady river banks in the Malabon River, Rizal Province, Luzon, Philippines (the type locality), however, the area has been 'reclaimed' and the remaining waters in the area are heavily polluted; hence the species is considered extinct in the Philippines (R. Froese, pers. comm.).	eng
15944	conservation	Hogan, Z.S., 2003	This species has been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1975. The species occurs in a Biosphere Reserve in the Tonle Sap Lake, and a RAMSAR site in northeastern Cambodia, although neither of these sites offers real protection for the species. In Cambodia, it is illegal to capture, sell, or transport <em>P. gigas</em>, although bagnet fisheries in the area still catch and sell the species. In Thailand, fishing for this species is regulated based on a quota license of less than 20 catches annually (C. Vidthayanon pers. comm. 2010). <em>P. gigas</em> is also protected in Laos (Kottelat, pers comm.) although this does not prevent the species being fished there.	eng
15944	distribution	Hogan, Z.S., 2003	<em>Pangasianodon gigas</em> is a Mekong endemic (Rainboth 1996). Historically, it was distributed throughout the Mekong River Basin from the coast of Viet Nam to northern Lao PDR. Past reports of the species occurring as far north as southern Yunnan Province in China (Smith 1945, Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991) remain unconfirmed. The species' migration patterns are unknown. However, based on catch information provided by Roberts (1993) and others, it is believed that<em> P. gigas</em> migrates from the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, upstream into northeast Cambodia and possibly up to Lao PDR or Thailand to spawn (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). At least one spawning site is known (northern Thailand/Lao PDR), with a further possible spawning area in northeast Cambodia (Z. Hogan pers. comm.). There may have been other (lost) spawning sites in the middle and lower reaches of the Mekong (M. Kottelat pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is estimated at around 4,150 km² (Z. Hogan pers. comm.).	eng
15944	habitat	Hogan, Z.S., 2003	<em>P. gigas</em> is one of the world's largest freshwater fish, measuring up to three meters in length and weighing in excess of 300 kilograms (Smith 1945, Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991). It is a migratory species. From October to December each year, the species moves out of the Tonle Sap Lake (Cambodia) into the mainstream of the Mekong River. From there, it is believed to migrate upstream into northeastern Cambodia and possibly Lao PDR, or Thailand to spawn (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>The fish was bred in captivity for the first time in 2001. Individuals artificially spawned from wild-caught parents have been released into the Mekong since 1985. The fish almost certainly spawns upstream of Chiang Khong, Thailand. Possible spawning sites include the Kok River near Chiang Saen, Thailand	eng
15944	population	Hogan, Z.S., 2003	Current population size is unknown. A rate of population decline of over 80% can be estimated from combining annual catch data over the last thirteen years in the Mekong River Basin area: <br/> <br/>In Chiang Khong (Northern Thailand), the catch has declined from a peak of 69 fish in 1990 to just seven fish in 1997 (Srettacheua 1995, Hogan 1998). In 1999, 20 fish were captured in Chiang Khong, however no fish were caught in the area in 2001 (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001) or in 2002. In Nong Khai Province (Northeast Thailand) 40-50 fish were caught per year in the early 1900's. However, since that time the number of fish caught has declined. In 1967, fishermen captured 11 fish in the area (Pookaswan 1969), and by 1970, <em>P. gigas</em> occurred only rarely as by-catch of beach seine fisheries (Pholprasith and Tavarutmaneegul 1998). Today, very few <em>P. gigas</em> are reported from Nong Khai Province (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In Luang Prabang (Lao PDR) the catch declined from 12 fish per year to just three fish caught in 1968. No fish were caught in 1972, 1973, or 1974 (Davidson 1975) and there has been no significant catch of the species reported since that time (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>In Khone Falls (southern Lao PDR), a few fish were reported by fishermen each year prior to 1993, almost all of them in the first half of the year. No fish were reported in 1993. The status of <em>P. gigas</em> in the Khone Falls area has not been assessed since 1993 (Baird, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In the Tonle Sap River (Cambodia), four fish were captured in the bagnet fishery in 1999 and eleven fish reported in 2000. Fishermen report that they catch a few <em>P. gigas</em> each year (Pengbun <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Anecdotal information suggests that the species was once present in the Mekong Delta (Viet Nam), but is now reported as being very rare. One fish was caught close to, but not in, Viet Nam in 2003 (Z. Hogan, pers. comm.). No significant fishery for the species exists in Viet Nam (Lenormand 1996). <br/> <br/>Overall annual catch data for the Mekong River area indicate that around ten years ago 40-50 fish were caught each year. The figure has now dropped to approximately 5-8 catches per year (Z. Hogan, pers. comm.). The Tonle Sap River is one of the last places where the fish is caught in appreciable numbers. Although the species has been disappearing from Lao, Thailand , and Viet Nam, there is little information on population trends in Cambodia (Hogan <em>et al</em>. 2001). In 2001 and 2002, no <em>P. gigas</em> were caught in northern Thailand. Annual catch figures for the Tonle Sap River in Cambodia over recent years were, four in 2000, 11 in 2001 and five in 2002. <br/> <br/>Generation length has been reported as less than 10 years, however this is difficult to verify. The best estimate of generation length is between 10 and 15 years (Z. Hogan, pers. comm.).	eng
15944	threats	Hogan, Z.S., 2003	Alongside overfishing, main threats to the species include habitat loss and degradation (for example, as a result of damming of the Mun River and clearance of flooded forest in the Tonle Sap Great Lake), and genetic introgression with cultured stocks.	eng
15945	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In 1989 <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> was listed as a Class II protected species by the provincial government of Yunnan, China.	eng
15945	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species is known from the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.	eng
15945	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. sanitwongsei</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species which inhabits large rivers surrounded by rainforest.  <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> uses deep pools as refuges in the dry season.	eng
15945	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Two sub-populations may be separated by the Khone Falls, over which <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> does not appear to migrate (Poulsen 2001).<br/><br/>Local fishermen report declines in sightings/catch of <em>P. sanitwongsei</em>; one interviewee said that <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> had disappeared from his catch, while another (ex-chair of the Giant Catfish Fishermens Club) said that 'fifteen years ago 100 <em>P. sanitwongsei </em> were caught per year…five years ago about 5-20 fish were caught per year…recently the catch has declined further and the fish has disappeared' (Meynell 2003).<br/><br/>Generation time is not known, but that of the closely related <em>Pangasianodon gigas</em> is estimated at 10-15 years.	eng
15945	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Overfishing for food and to a lesser extent the aquarium trade, has depleted the natural population of <em>P. sanitwongsei</em> (Wang 1998).  <br/><br/>This species is likely to have been affected by the destruction of rapids and reefs as part of the Upper Mekong Navigation Improvement Project, and by the construction of dams.  Projects such as these affect the natural flood/drought cycles throughout the river, and therefore the migratory behaviour of fish such as <em>P. sanitwongsei.</em>	eng
15951	conservation	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	<em></em>    <p><em>P. leo</em> is included in CITES Appendix II; the Critically Endangered Asiatic Lion subspecies <em>P. leo persica</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/> <br/> In Africa, Lions are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, and remain one of the most popular animals on the must-see lists of tourists and visitors to Africa. Most range states in East and <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Africa</st1:place> have an infrastructure which supports wildlife tourism, and in this way Lions generate significant cash revenue for park management and local communities and provide a strong incentive for wildland conservation.<br/> <br/> Regional conservation strategies have been developed for Lions in west and central Africa (IUCN 2006a) and eastern and southern <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> (IUCN 2006b). The West and Central African Lion Conservation Strategy focuses on three primary objectives to address threats that directly impact Lions: to reduce Lion-human conflict, and to conserve and increase Lion habitat and wild prey base. The objectives of the Eastern and Southern African Lion Conservation Strategy are articulated around the root issues in Lion conservation, including policy and land use, socio-economics, trade, and conservation politics. For example, the policy and land use objective is "to develop and implement harmonious and comprehensive legal and institutional frameworks that provide for the expansion of wildife-integrated land use, Lion conservation and associated socio-economic benefits in current and potential Lion range." The trade objective is "to prevent illegal trade in Lions and Lion products while promoting and safeguarding sustainable legal trade." Both regional strategies share common priorities of conserving and restoring Lion populations, improving management capacity, and increasing the flow of benefits to communities living with Lions. These strategies should be used by governments to guide national Lion action plans, policies and programs, and by the conservation community to guide their project development. By setting out common priorities to guide action on both national, community and landscape levels, the regional conservation strategies have the potential for broad and significant improvement of Lion status and management (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> For the Asiatic Lion, resolving human Lion-conflict is a high priority, as well as establishing a second wild population (Jackson 2008).</p>	eng
15951	conservation	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	<em>P. leo</em> is included in CITES Appendix II; the Critically Endangered Asiatic lion subspecies <em>P. leo persica</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/><br/>In Africa, lions are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas, and remain one of the most popular animals on the must-see lists of tourists and visitors to Africa. Most range states in East and Southern Africa have an infrastructure which supports wildlife tourism, and in this way lions generate significant cash revenue for park management and local communities and provide a strong incentive for wildland conservation.<br/><br/>Regional conservation strategies have been developed for lions in west and central Africa (IUCN 2006a) and eastern and southern Africa (IUCN 2006b).  The West and Central African Lion Conservation Strategy focuses on three primary objectives to address threats that directly impact lions:  to reduce lion-human conflict, and to conserve and increase lion habitat and wild prey base.  The objectivs of the Eastern and Southern African Lion Conservation Strategy are aarticulated around the root issues in lion conservation, including policy and land use, socio-economics, trade, and conservation politics.  For example, the policy and land use objective is "to develop and implement harmonious and comprehensive legal and institutional frameworks that provide for the expansion of wildife-integrated land use, lion conservation and associated socio-economic benefits in current and potential lion range."  The trade objective is "to prevent illegal trade in lions and lion products while promoting and safegarding sustainable legal trade."  Both regional strategies share common priorities of conserving and restoring lion populations, improving managemetn capacity, and increasing the flow of benefits to communities living with lions.  These strategies should be used by governments to guide national lion action plans, policies and programs, and by the conservation community to guide their project development.  By setting out common priorities to guide action on both national, community and landscape levels, the regional conservation strategies have the potential for broad and significant improvement of lion status and management (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>For the Asiatic lion, resolving human lion-conflict is a high priority, as well as establishing a second wild population (Jackson 2008).	eng
15951	distribution	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa.  In 2005-2006 the Wildlife Conservation Society and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map and assess current lion range in sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN 2006a,b; Bauer 2008).  Extent of occurrence is estimated at over 4.5 million km², 22% of historical range.  Most lion range is in eastern and southern Africa (77%).  Current lion status is still unknown over large parts of Africa, 7.6 million km².  <br/><br/>The lion formerly ranged from northern Africa through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Today, the only remainder of this once widespread population is a single isolated population of the Asiatic lion <em>P. leo persica</em> in the 1,400 km² Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary. Lions are extinct in North Africa, having perhaps survived in the High Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996, West and Packer in press).	eng
15951	distribution	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa.  In 2005-2006 the Wildlife Conservation Society and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map and assess current lion range in sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN 2006a,b; Bauer 2008).  Extent of occurrence is estimated at over 4.5 million km², 22% of historical range.  Most lion range is in eastern and southern Africa (77%).  Current Lion status is still unknown over large parts of Africa, 7.6 million km².  <br/><br/>The Lion formerly ranged from northern Africa through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Today, the only remainder of this once widespread population is a single isolated population of the Asiatic Lion <em>P. leo persica</em> in the 1,400 km² Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary. Lions are extinct in North Africa, having perhaps survived in the High Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996, West and Packer in press).<br/><br/>The map (provided by the Wildlife Conservation Society) shows Lion range as derived from mapping workshops associated with two regional Lion conservationo strategies. In West and <st1:place w:st="on">Central Africa</st1:place>, known and probable range are shown (IUCN 2006a).&#160; In Eastern and <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Africa</st1:place>, known, occasional and possible range are shown (IUCN 2006b). Both strategies are available online from the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group website<a href="The%20map%20%28provided%20by%20the%20Wildlife%20Conservation%20Society%29%20shows%20lion%20range%20as%20derived%20from%20mapping%20workshops%20associated%20with%20two%20regional%20lion%20conservationo%20strategies.%20%20In%20West%20and%20Central%20Africa,%20known%20and%20probable%20range%20are%20shown%20%28see%20IUCN%202006a%29.%20%20In%20Eastern%20and%20Southern%20Africa,%20known,%20occasional%20and%20possible%20range%20are%20shown%20%28see%20IUCN%202006b%29.%20%20Both%20strategies%20are%20available%20online%20from%20the%20IUCN%20SSC%20Cat%20Specialist%20Group%20website%20%20http://www.catsg.org/catsgportal/bulletin-board/20_bulletin-board/home/index_en.htm"> http://www.catsg.org/catsgportal/bulletin-board/20_bulletin-board/home/index_en.htm</a>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
15951	habitat	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	<p>The Lion has a broad habitat tolerance, absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of the <st1:place w:st="on">Sahara</st1:place> desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There are records of Lion to elevations of more than <st1:metricconverter productid="4,000 m" w:st="on">4,000 m</st1:metricconverter> in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bale</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> and on Kilimanjaro (West and Packer in press). Although Lions drink regularly when water is available, they are capable of obtaining their moisture requirements from prey and even plants (such as the tsama melon in the <st1:place w:st="on">Kalahari desert</st1:place>), and thus can survive in very arid environments. Medium- to large-sized ungulates (including antelopes, zebra and wildebeest) are the bulk of their prey, but Lions will take almost any animal, from rodents to a rhino. They also scavenge, displacing other predators (such as the Spotted Hyaena) from their kills. <br/> <br/> Lions are the most social of the cats, with related females remaining together in prides, and related and unrelated males forming coalitions competing for tenure over prides. Average pride size (including males and females) is four to six adults; prides generally break into smaller groups when hunting. Lions tend to live at higher densities than most other felids, but with a wide variation from 1.5 adults per 100 km² in southern African semi-desert to 55/100 km² in parts of the Serengeti (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Pride ranges can vary widely even in the same region: e.g., from 266-4,532 km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa (Funston 2001), and 20,500 km² in the Serengeti (West and Packer in press). <br/> <br/> In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the habitat of the Asiatic Lion is dry deciduous forest. The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gir</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Wildlife Sanctuary is surrounded by cultivated areas and inhabited by the pastoralist Maldharis and their livestock. Domestic cattle have historically been a major part of the Asiatic Lion's diet, although the most common prey is the chital deer. Mean pride size, measured by the number of adult females, tends to be smaller than for African Lions: most Gir prides contain an average of two adult females (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>	eng
15951	habitat	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	The lion has a broad habitat tolerance, absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of the Sahara desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There are records of lion to elevations of more than 4,000 m in the Bale Mountains and on Kilimanjaro (West and Packer in press).  Although lions drink regularly when water is available, they are capable of obtaining their moisture requirements from prey and even plants (such as the tsama melon in the Kalahari desert), and thus can survive in very arid environments. Medium- to large-sized ungulates (including antelopes, zebra and wildebeest) are the bulk of their prey, but lions will take almost any animal, from rodents to a rhino. They also scavenge, displacing other predators (such as the Spotted Hyaena) from their kills. <br/><br/>Lions are the most social of the cats, with related females remaining together in prides, and related and unrelated males forming coalitions competing for tenure over prides. Average pride size (including males and females) is four to six adults; prides generally break into smaller groups when hunting.  Lions tend to live at higher densities than most other felids, but with a wide variation from 1.5 adults per 100 km² in southern African semi-desert to 55/100 km² in parts of the Serengeti (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Pride ranges can vary widely even in the same region: e.g.,  from 266-4,532 km²  in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa (Funston 2001), and 20,500 km² in the Serengeti (West and Packer in press). <br/><br/>In India, the habitat of the Asiatic lion is dry deciduous forest.  The Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary is surrounded by cultivated areas and inhabited by the pastoralist Maldharis and their livestock.  Domestic cattle have historically been a major part of the Asiatic lion's diet, although the most common prey is the chital deer.  Mean pride size, measured by the number of adult females, tends to be smaller than for African lions: most Gir prides contain an average of two adult females (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15951	population	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	<p>There have been few efforts in the past to estimate the number of Lions in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>. Myers (1975) wrote, "Since 1950, their [Lion] numbers may well have been cut in half, perhaps to as low as <st1:metricconverter productid="200,000 in" w:st="on">200,000 in</st1:metricconverter> all or even less". Later, Myers (1986) wrote, "In light of evidence from all the main countries of its range, the Lion has been undergoing decline in both range and numbers, often an accelerating decline, during the past two decades". In the early 1990s, IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group members made educated "guesstimates" of 30,000 to 100,000 for the African Lion population (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/> <br/> The most quantitative historical estimate of the African Lion population in the recent past was made by Ferreras and Cousins (1996), who developed a GIS-based model to predict African Lion range and numbers, calibrated by surveying experts about the factors affecting Lion populations. First they correlated vegetation (Leaf Area Index) with Lion densities, using known values from 37 studies in 19 African protected areas, and mapped potential Lion range. Then the reduction effect of human activities on Lion range and numbers were estimated. Lion experts were surveyed in order to develop and rank a set of factors which would lead to lower Lion densities as well as Lion absence. These included agriculture, human population density, cattle grazing, and distance from a protected area, and were derived from GIS databases of varying age. For example, in areas identified as main cattle grazing areas Lion density was reduced by 90%, and in areas identified as having widespread agricultural cultivation or high human population density (> 2.5 people/km²) Lions were considered absent. Lion density was reduced by 50% in areas with low human population density (1-2.5 people/km²). Because of the age of their data sources on extent of agriculture and pastoralism, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) selected 1980 as the base year for their predicted African Lion population of 75,800. They emphasized the need for ground-truthing their estimate by censusing Lions, particularly outside protected areas.<br/> <br/> Two recent surveys have provided current estimates of the African Lion population, with some ground-truthing. The African Lion Working Group, a network of specialists affiliated with the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, conducted a mail survey and compiled estimates of 100 known African Lion populations. Not included were populations of known existence, but unknown or unestimated size. The ALWG African Lion population estimate is 23,000, with a range of 16,500-30,000 (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). The second survey was carried out by Philippe Chardonnet and sponsored by the International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife and Conservation Force (Chardonnet 2002). He also compiled estimates for 144 individual African Lion populations, grouped into 36 largely isolated subpopulations. His methodology included extrapolation of estimates of known populations into areas where Lion status was unknown, and his total figure is not surprisingly larger: 39,000 Lions in <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>, with a range of 29,000-47,000.<br/> <br/> Approximately 30% of the individual population estimates compiled by the African Lion Working Group were based on scientific surveys. Techniques for these surveys included total count based on individually identified body features, sampling by use of calling stations playing recordings of hyaena and/or Lion prey, and mark-recapture methods including radio telemetry, photo databases, and spoor counts (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). Seventy percent of their population figures were derived from expert opinion or guesstimate. In the other survey, 63% of Chardonnet's (2002) individual population estimates were based on expert opinions or guesstimates. Twelve percent of Chardonnet's (2002) estimates were based on scientific surveys, and a further 25% were derived from extrapolation of variables from nearby populations and catch-per-unit effort-estimates based on Lion trophy hunting.<br/> <br/> Estimating the size of the African Lion population is an ambitious exercise involving many uncertainties. The three main efforts (Ferreras and Cousins 1996; Chardonnet 2002; Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004) all use different methods. The African Lion Working Group compiled individual population estimates primarily from protected areas (23,000 Lions: Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). In 1980, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted 18,600 Lions to occur in protected areas. This was probably an underestimate as not all protected areas inhabited by Lions at that time were included. Still, the comparison suggests that the number of Lions in African protected areas has remained stable or possibly increased over time. But Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted that most Lions in 1980 were found outside protected areas. Chardonnet (2002) finds that unprotected areas still comprise a significant portion (half) of the Lion's current African range. Comparison of Ferreras and Cousin's (1996) prediction of 75,800 Lions in 1980 (roughly three Lion generations ago) to Chardonnet's (2002) estimate of 39,000 Lions yields a suspected decline of 48.5%. This calculation suggests a substantial decline in Lions outside protected areas over the past two decades. Ferreras and Cousins (1996) may have over-estimated the African Lion population in 1980, as their number was derived from a model rather than actual Lion counts, and so it is possible that the rate of decline of the African Lion population may be lower. A group exercise led by WCS and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group estimated that 42% of major Lion populations were declining (Bauer 2008). The rate of decline is most unlikely to have been as high as 90%, as reported in a series of news reports in 2003 (Kirby 2003, Frank and Parker 2003).<br/> <br/> Genetic population models indicate that large populations (50-100 Lion prides) are necessary to conserve genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding, which increases significantly when populations fall below 10 prides. Male dispersal is also an important factor in conserving genetic variation (Bjorklund 2003). These conditions are met in few wild Lion populations, although there are at least 17 Lion "strongholds" >50,000 km² in extent (Bauer 2008). <br/> <br/> Outside sub-Saharan Africa, the Asiatic Lion <em>P. leo persica</em> occurs as an isolated single wild population in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>'s <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gir</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The Gir Lion population had been reduced to a very low number in the early years of the 20th century, possibly fewer than <st1:metricconverter productid="20. In" w:st="on">20. In</st1:metricconverter> 1936, 234 Lions were estimated, falling to approximately 100 iin the 1970s, and estimates in the 1980s and 1990s around 200 adults (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In 2005, the population was estimated at 359, +/- 10, including cubs, based on, according to the Chief Minister of Forests for <st1:place w:st="on">Gujarat</st1:place> state, a total count of Lions by direct sighting in a block-system methodology. This is an increase from 327 reported in 2001 (Anon. 2006). The Wildlife Protection Society of India reported 34 Lion deaths in 2007, due to poaching, electrocution, falling into open wells, and death by motor vehicle and unknown causes. Single populations are vulnerable to extinction from catastrophic events, and it has long been recommended by scientists to establish a second wild population in Madhya Pradesh's Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, but this has not yet been done (Jackson 2008). The Asiatic Lion shows reduced genetic variation due to small population size (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 1987). It is feared that the size of the population is larger than the estimated carrying capacity of the habitat and prey base (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>	eng
15951	population	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	There have been few efforts in the past to estimate the number of lions in Africa. Myers (1975) wrote, "Since 1950, their [lion] numbers may well have been cut in half, perhaps to as low as 200,000 in all or even less". Later, Myers (1986) wrote, "In light of evidence from all the main countries of its range, the lion has been undergoing decline in both range and numbers, often an accelerating decline, during the past two decades". In the early 1990s, IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group members made educated "guesstimates" of 30,000 to 100,000 for the African lion population (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>The most quantitative historical estimate of the African lion population in the recent past was made by Ferreras and Cousins (1996), who developed a GIS-based model to predict African lion range and numbers, calibrated by surveying experts about the factors affecting lion populations. First they correlated vegetation (Leaf Area Index) with lion densities, using known values from 37 studies in 19 African protected areas, and mapped potential lion range. Then the reduction effect of human activities on lion range and numbers were estimated. Lion experts were surveyed in order to develop and rank a set of factors which would lead to lower lion densities as well as lion absence. These included agriculture, human population density, cattle grazing, and distance from a protected area, and were derived from GIS databases of varying age. For example, in areas identified as main cattle grazing areas lion density was reduced by 90%, and in areas identified as having widespread agricultural cultivation or high human population density (> 2.5 people/km²) Lions were considered absent. Lion density was reduced by 50% in areas with low human population density (1-2.5 people/km²). Because of the age of their data sources on extent of agriculture and pastoralism, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) selected 1980 as the base year for their predicted African lion population of 75,800. They emphasized the need for ground-truthing their estimate by censusing lions, particularly outside protected areas.<br/><br/>Two recent surveys have provided current estimates of the African lion population, with some ground-truthing. The African Lion Working Group, a network of specialists affiliated with the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, conducted a mail survey and compiled estimates of 100 known African lion populations. Not included were populations of known existence, but unknown or unestimated size. The ALWG African lion population estimate is 23,000, with a range of 16,500-30,000 (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). The second survey was carried out by Philippe Chardonnet and sponsored by the International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife and Conservation Force (Chardonnet 2002). He also compiled estimates for 144 individual African lion populations, grouped into 36 largely isolated subpopulations. His methodology included extrapolation of estimates of known populations into areas where lion status was unknown, and his total figure is not surprisingly larger: 39,000 lions in Africa, with a range of 29,000-47,000.<br/><br/>Approximately 30% of the individual population estimates compiled by the African Lion Working Group were based on scientific surveys. Techniques for these surveys included total count based on individually identified body features, sampling by use of calling stations playing recordings of hyaena and/or lion prey, and mark-recapture methods including radio telemetry, photo databases, and spoor counts (Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). Seventy percent of their population figures were derived from expert opinion or guesstimate. In the other survey, 63% of Chardonnet's (2002) individual population estimates were based on expert opinions or guesstimates. Twelve percent of Chardonnet's (2002) estimates were based on scientific surveys, and a further 25% were derived from extrapolation of variables from nearby populations and catch-per-unit effort-estimates based on lion trophy hunting.<br/><br/>Estimating the size of the African lion population is an ambitious exercise involving many uncertainties. The three main efforts (Ferreras and Cousins 1996; Chardonnet 2002; Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004) all use different methods. The African Lion Working Group compiled individual population estimates primarily from protected areas (23,000 lions: Bauer and Van Der Merwe 2004). In 1980, Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted 18,600 lions to occur in protected areas. This was probably an underestimate as not all protected areas inhabited by lions at that time were included. Still, the comparison suggests that the number of lions in African protected areas has remained stable or possibly increased over time. But Ferreras and Cousins (1996) predicted that most lions in 1980 were found outside protected areas. Chardonnet (2002) finds that unprotected areas still comprise a significant portion (half) of the lion's current African range. Comparison of Ferreras and Cousin's (1996) prediction of 75,800 lions in 1980 (roughly three lion generations ago) to Chardonnet's (2002) estimate of 39,000 lions yields a suspected decline of 48.5%. This calculation suggests a substantial decline in lions outside protected areas over the past two decades. Ferreras and Cousins (1996) may have over-estimated the African lion population in 1980, as their number was derived from a model rather than actual lion counts, and so it is possible that the rate of decline of the African lion population may be lower.  A group exercise led by WCS and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group estimated that 42% of major lion populations were declining (Bauer 2008).  The rate of decline is most unlikely to have been as high as 90%, as reported in a series of news reports in 2003 (Kirby 2003, Frank and Parker 2003).<br/><br/>Genetic population models indicate that large populations (50-100 lion prides) are necessary to conserve genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding, which increases significantly when populations fall below 10 prides.  Male dispersal is also an important factor in conserving genetic variation (Bjorklund 2003).  These conditions are met in few wild lion populations, although there are at least 17 lion "strongholds" >50,000 km² in extent (Bauer 2008).  <br/><br/>Outside sub-Saharan Africa, the Asiatic lion <em>P. leo persica</em> occurs as an isolated single wild population in India's Gir Forest.  The Gir lion population had been reduced to a very low number in the early years of the 20th century, possibly fewer than 20.  In 1936, 234 lions were estimated, falling to approximately 100 iin the 1970s, and estimates in the 1980s and 1990s around 200 adults (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In 2005,  the population was estimated at 359, +/- 10, including cubs, based on, according to the Chief Minister of Forests for Gujarat state, a total count of lions by direct sighting in a block-system methodology.  This is an increase from 327 reported in 2001 (Anon. 2006).  The Wildlife Protection Society of India reported 34 lion deaths in 2007, due to poaching, electrocution, falling into open wells, and death by motor vehicle and unknown causes.  Single populations are vulnerable to extinction from catastrophic events, and it has long been recommended by scientists to establish a second wild population in Madhya Pradesh's Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, but this has not yet been done (Jackson 2008).  The Asiatic lion shows reduced genetic variation due to small population size (O'Brien <em>et al.</em> 1987).  It is feared that the size of the population is larger than the estimated carrying capacity of the habitat and prey base (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15951	threats	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	<p>The main threats to Lions are indiscriminate killing (primarily as a result of retaliatory or pre-emptive killing to protect life and livestock) and prey base depletion. Habitat loss and conversion has led to a number of populations becoming small and isolated (Bauer 2008). <br/> <br/> The economic impact of stock raiding can be significant: Patterson <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated that each Lion cost ranchers in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kenya</st1:place></st1:country-region> living alongside Tsavo East National Park US$290 per year in livestock losses. Likewise, annual losses of cattle to Lions in areas adjacent to <st1:placename w:st="on">Waza</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cameroon</st1:place></st1:country-region> comprised only about 3.1% of all livestock losses, but were estimated to represent more than 22% of financial losses amounting to about US$370 per owner (Bauer 2003). Consequently, Lions are persecuted intensely in livestock areas across <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place>; their scavenging behaviour makes them particularly vulnerable to poisoned carcasses put out to eliminate predators. Little actual information exists on the number of Lions killed as problem animals by local people, even though this is considered the primary threat to their survival outside protected areas. Implementation of appropriate livestock management measures, coupled with problem animal control measures and mechanisms for compensating livestock losses, are some of the primary responses to resolving human-Lion conflict (Frank <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> Trophy hunting is carried out in a number of sub-Saharan African countries and is considered an important management tool for providing financial resource for Lion conservation for both governments and local communities. However, there is concern that current management regimes can lead to unsustainable offtakes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/> Disease has also been a threat to Lion populations (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/> <br/> In parts of southeastern Tanzania there have been alarmingly high incidences of people killed by Lions, with up to 400 human Lion-related fatalities recorded from 1997-2007 (Ikanda 2007).</p>	eng
15951	threats	Bauer, H., Nowell, K. & Packer, C., 2008	The main threats to lions are indiscriminate killing (primarily as a result of retaliatory or pre-emptive killing to protect life and livestock) and prey base depletion.  Habitat loss and conversion has led to a number of populations becoming small and isolated (Bauer 2008).  <br/><br/>The economic impact of stock raiding can be significant: Patterson <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimated that each lion cost ranchers in Kenya living alongside Tsavo East National Park US$290 per year in livestock losses. Likewise, annual losses of cattle to lions in areas adjacent to Waza National Park in Cameroon comprised only about 3.1% of all livestock losses, but were estimated to represent more than 22% of financial losses amounting to about US$370 per owner (Bauer 2003). Consequently, lions are persecuted intensely in livestock areas across Africa; their scavenging behaviour makes them particularly vulnerable to poisoned carcasses put out to eliminate predators. Little actual information exists on the number of lions killed as problem animals by local people, even though this is considered the primary threat to their survival outside protected areas. Implementation of appropriate livestock management measures, coupled with problem animal control measures and mechanisms for compensating livestock losses, are some of the primary responses to resolving human-lion conflict (Frank <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Trophy hunting is carried out in a number of sub-Saharan African countries and is considered an important management tool for providing financial resource for lion conservation for both governments and local communities.  However, there is concern that current management regimes can lead to unsustainable offtakes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Disease has also been a threat to lion populations (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In parts of southeastern Tanzania there have been alarmingly high incidences of people killed by lions, with up to 400 human lion-related fatalities recorded from 1997-2007 (Ikanda 2007).	eng
15952	conservation	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C., 2008	Establishment of at least one other wild population is advisable for population safety, for maximizing genetic diversity, and in terms of ecology (re-establishing the lion as a component of the fauna in its former range). However, there are problems in attempting this: a previous attempt to establish a second subpopulation in the Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary in eastern Uttar Pradesh appeared to be succeeding, as the population grew from three to 11 animals, but then the lions disappeared, presumably shot or poisoned (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Madhya Pradesh has now been selected as the best candidate area.  Communities will require resettlement to make room for the Lions, but this time great care is being taken to make the process participatory and to attempt to satisfy local needs, and not engender hostility toward Lion conservation.<br/><br/>Included on CITES Appendix I. This subspecies is fully protected in India (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15952	distribution	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C., 2008	The range of the lion in North Africa and South-West Asia formerly stretched across the coastal forests of northern Africa and from northern Greece across south-west Asia to eastern India. Today the only living representatives of the lions once found throughout much of South-West Asia occur in India's Gir Forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996) but there are now also some groups outside Gir Forest - Girnar, coastal subpopulation, Bali Tana subpopulation.	eng
15952	habitat	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C., 2008	Asiatic lions are genetically distinct from the lions of sub-Saharan Africa, although the difference is not large, being smaller than the genetic distance between human racial groups (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The Gir is dry deciduous forest dominated by teak, the predominance of which is partially due to the silvicultural practices of the Gujarat State Forest Department, which permits logging and replants clear-cut areas with teak (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The forest, which covered about 2,600 km² at the turn of the century, has since shrunk to less than half this size. Most of the remaining forest is included in the Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15952	population	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C., 2008	Current total population size is about 350 animals. Was increasing, but is now stable as has reached its expansion limits and there are now increasing poaching incidents. At least 100 animals are outside the Gir Forest protected area. Total number of mature animals is about 175.	eng
15952	threats	Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C., 2008	The Asiatic lion currently exists as a single subpopulation, and is thus vulnerable to extinction from unpredictable events, such as an epidemic or large forest fire.<br/><br/>There are indications of poaching incidents in recent years (there are reports that organised gangs have switched attention from tigers to these lions). There have also been a number of drowning incidents after lions fell into wells.	eng
15953	conservation	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. The jaguar is fully protected at the national level across most of its range, with hunting prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, United States, and Venezuela, and hunting restrictions in place in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>With habitat fragmentation a major threat, and taxonomic research suggesting little significant differences among jaguar populations, an ambitious program has been launched to conserve a continuous north to south habitat corridor through the species range (Rabinowitz 2007).<br/><br/>Addressing livestock management and problem animal issues is a high priority for conservation effort in many jaguar range countries.	eng
15953	distribution	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The jaguar is the largest cat of the Americas, and the only living representative of the genus <em>Panthera</em> found in the New World (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Historically it ranged from the southwestern US (where there are still some vagrants close to the Mexican border) through the Amazon basin to the Rio Negro in Argentina.  Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 8.75 million km², with its stronghold the rainforest of the Amazon basin, which comprises 88% of its EOO.  However, ecological models indicate that much of the Amazon is of low suitability for the jaguar, compared with the Pantanal, Paraguayan Chaco, and Caatinga (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2007).  The Jaguar has been virtually eliminated from much of the drier northern parts of its range, as well as northern Brazil, the pampas scrub grasslands of Argentina and throughout Uruguay.  It is now estimated to occupy only about 46% of its historic range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Populations in Colombia are divided by the Andes (Ruiz-Garcia <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) presented a group exercise to define the most important areas for conservation of viable jaguar populations (Jaguar Conservation Units or JCUs).  These 51 areas add up to 1.29 million km², or 13% of jaguar range.	eng
15953	habitat	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	The species is strongly associated with the presence of water. Habitats range from rainforest to seasonally flooded swamp areas, pampas grassland, thorn scrub woodland, and dry deciduous forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In Belize, jaguars are reportedly more abundant in lowland areas of relatively dense forest cover with permanent water sources than in open, seasonally dry forests.  Although jaguars have been reported from elevations as high as 3,000 m (Brown and Lopez Gonzalez 2001),  they typically avoid montane forest, and have not been found in the high plateau of central Mexico or above 2,700 m in the Andes.  Jaguars take a wide variety of prey species but large-sized ungulates are preferred when available (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>A 13 year old wild female was found with cub (Brown and Lopez-Gonzalez 2001).<br/><br/>Density estimates ranged from 1.7-4 adults per 100 km² in studies in Brazil, Peru, Colombia and Mexico summarized by Sunquist and Sunqujist (2002).  Density estimates by Silver <em>et al.</em> (2004) from five different study sites ranged from 2.4-8.8 adults per 100 km², with the highest densitiy found in Belize's Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Reserve (rainforest), a density similar to the 6-8 per 100 km² found by Rabinowitz and Nottingham (1986).  That study found home ranges of females of 10 km², overlaped by male home ranges which varied from 28-40 km² and also overlapped extensively.  In other areas jaguar home ranges have been over 1,000 km² (T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Soisalo and Cavalcanti (2006) used GPS-telemetry to check density estimates derived from a common camera trap methodology in the Brazilian Pantanal, and cautioned that the method may over-estimate population size.  Telemetry data indicated a density of 6.6-6.7 adult jaguars per 100 km², while densities derived from Maximum Distance Moved (MMDM) extrapolations from camera trap captures were higher at 10.3-11.7/100 km².<br/><br/>Jaguar densities in the Paraguayan Gran Chaco are 2.27–5.37 per 100 km² (Cullen Jr. <em>et al.</em> in submission), and in the Colombian Amazon, 4.5/100 km² in Amacayacu National Park and 2.5/100 km² in unprotected areas (Payan 2008).  In Brazil, densities are 2 per 100 km² in the savannas of the Cerrado,  3.5/100 km² in the semiarid scrub of the Caatinga, and 2.2/100 km² in the Atlantic Forest (Silveira 2004, in litt. To T. de Oliveira 2008).	eng
15953	population	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2002) found that 70% of estimated jaguar range (over 6 million km²) was considered to have a high probability for survival.  Most of this area consists of the Amazon basin rainforest, and adjoining areas of the Pantanal and Gran Chaco.  However, while the latter two were found by ecological models to be highly suitable for jaguars, the Amazon was found to be of low suitability (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Jaguar densities in the Brazilian Pantanal are estimated at 6.6-6.7 adults per 100 km² (Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006), and in the Bolivian Gran Chaco 2.2–5 per 100 km² (Maffei <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In the Amazon basin in Colombia, jaguar density was estimated at 4.5/100 km² in Amacayacu National Park and 2.5/100 km² in unprotected areas (Payan 2008).  In Madidi National Park in the Bolivian Amazon, density was estimated at 2.8/100 km² (Silver <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Other high probability areas for long-term jaguar persistence include tropical moist lowland forest in Central America:  the Selva Maya of Guatemla, Mexico and Belize; and a narrow strip of the Choco-Darien of Panama and Colombia to northern Honduras.  Densities in the Belizean Selva Maya rainforest were estimated at 7.5-8.8/100 km² (Silver <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica and Panama also host a populations, but the long term persistence is uncertain (Gonzalez-Maya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Eighteen percent of jaguar range (1.6 million km²) was estimated to have medium probability of long-term survival.  These areas are generally adjacent to high-probability areas and include a large portion of the northern Cerrado, most of the Venezuelan and Colombian llanos, and the northern part of Colombia on the Caribbean coast.  In Central America and Mexico, medium-probability areas include the highlands of Costa Rica and Panama, southern Mexico, and the two eastern mountain ranges of Mexico, Sierra de Taumalipas and the Sierra Madre Oriental.<br/><br/>The remainder of jaguar range was classified as low probability for jaguar survival, and of most urgent conservation concern. These areas include the Atlantic Tropical Forest and Cerrado of Brazil;  parts of the Chaco in northern Argentina; the Gran Sabana of northern Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana; parts of the coastal dry forest in Venezuela; and the remainder of the range in Central America and Mexico.<br/><br/>Some of the most important areas for jaguar conservation (Jaguar Conservation Units) fell within parts of jaguar range where probability for long-term survival was considered low, and so represent the most endangered jaguar populations.  These include the Atlantic Forests of Brazil, northern Argentina, central Honduras, and the Osa peninsula of Costa Rica (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2002).  The Atlantic Forest subpopulation in Brazil has been estimated at 200+/- 80 adults (Leite <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Jaguar populations in the Chaco region of northern Argentina and Brazil, and the Brazilian Caatinga, are low-density and highly threatened by livestock ranching and persecution (Altrichter <em>et al.</em> 2006, T. de Oliveira pers. comm. 2008).	eng
15953	threats	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M. & Valderrama, C., 2008	Deforestation rates are high in Latin America and fragmentation of forest habitat isolates jaguar populations so that they are more vulnerable to human persecution (Nowell and Jackson 1996). People compete with jaguars for prey, and jaguars are frequently shot on sight, despite protective legislation (Nowell and Jackson 1996). An estimated 27% of jaguar range has a depleted wild prey base (WCS 2008).  Jaguars are also known to kill cattle, and are killed by ranchers as pest species. The vulnerability of the jaguar to persecution is demonstrated by its disappearance by the mid-1900's from the south-western US. <br/><br/>Commercial hunting and trapping of jaguars for their pelts has declined drastically since the mid-1970's, when anti-fur campaigns and CITES controls progressively shut down international markets (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  However, although hunting has decreased there is still demand for jaguar paws, teeth and other products.	eng
15954	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal international traffic is limited largely to exports of skins and hunting trophies under a CITES Appendix I quota system by 13 African countries (2005 CITES quota is 2,590).  Leopards are protected under national legislation throughout most of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Africa, although Leopards occur in numerous protected areas across their range, the majority of the population occurs outside of protected areas, necessitating a need for improved conflict mitigation measures (including livestock management, conflict resolution) (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  In West Asia, leopards are essentially restricted to protected areas, many of which are too small to support viable populations, and need expansion through buffer zones and connectivity through corridors (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007).  In Indo-Malaya and China, leopards need better protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007).	eng
15954	conservation	Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Breitenmoser, U., Purchase, N., Packer, C., Khorozyan, I., Bauer, H., Marker, L., Sogbohossou, E. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal international traffic is limited largely to exports of skins and hunting trophies under a CITES Appendix I quota system by 13 African countries (2005 CITES quota is 2,590).  Leopards are protected under national legislation throughout most of their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In Africa, although Leopards occur in numerous protected areas across their range, the majority of the population occurs outside of protected areas, necessitating a need for improved conflict mitigation measures (including livestock management, conflict resolution) (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  In West Asia, leopards are essentially restricted to protected areas, many of which are too small to support viable populations, and need expansion through buffer zones and connectivity through corridors (Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, 2007).  In Indo-Malaya and China, leopards need better protection from illegal trade in skins and bones (Nowell 2007). Leopards are protected in Afghanistan having recently been placed on the country?s Protected Species List (2009), prohibiting all hunting and trading of the species within Afghanistan.	eng
15954	distribution	Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Breitenmoser, U., Purchase, N., Packer, C., Khorozyan, I., Bauer, H., Marker, L., Sogbohossou, E. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The leopard occurs across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as remnant populations in North Africa, and then in the Arabian peninsula and Sinai/Judean Desert (Egypt/Israel/Jordan), south-western and eastern Turkey, and through Southwest Asia and the Caucasus into the Himalayan foothills, India, China and the Russian Far East, as well as on the islands of Java and Sri Lanka (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002; Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In sub-Saharan Africa, leopards remain widely, albeit now patchily, distributed within historical limits (see Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press, and references therein). Ray <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimated that leopards have disappeared from at least 36.7% of their historical range in Africa. The most marked range loss has been in the Sahel belt, as well as in Nigeria and South Africa.  They have been locally extirpated from areas densely populated with people or where habitat conversion is extreme (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). They are likely extinct on Zanzibar, where there have been no confirmed records since 1996 (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, a tiny relict population persists in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003), and there was a probable observation on the Morocco-Algerian border in Figuig in 2007 (F. Cuzin pers. comm.), while a population was recently found in the Ahaggar of south-eastern Algeria, a region from which they had not previously been recorded (Busby <em>et al</em>. 2006). Leopard are likely extinct in Egypt, although they may occur in the Eastern Desert (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>A 2006 Arabian Fauna Conservation Workshop estimated there were fewer than 200 leopards remaining on the Arabian peninsula, in three confirmed separate subpopulations:  the Negev desert, the Wada'a mountains of Yemen, and the Dhofar mountains of Oman.  Presence in Saudi Arabia is uncertain (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006).  <br/><br/>I. Khorozyan (pers. comm. 2008) compiled detailed country information on the distribution of the Endangered Persian leopard as follows:<br/><br/>Russian North Caucasus: mountain ridges in the headwaters of the Avarskoe Koisu and Andiiskoe Koisu rivers (Republic of Dagestan). Possibly exists in the Chegem River canyon (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic); Erzi Reserve, Assa River valley (Republic of Ingushetia); Armkhi River basin (Republic of North Osetia-Alania), headwaters of the Sharoargun and Argun rivers (Chechen Republic) (Akkiev and Mokaev, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007; Lukarevsky <em>et al.</em>, 2007). <br/><br/>Georgia: Vashlovani Reserve in the south-east; Arkhoti River canyon in the upper part of the Assa River basin and the headwaters of the Andiiskoe Koisu River in the north-east (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007). Some anecdotal records from south-western Georgia are either unreliable or can be attributed to individuals coming from north-eastern Turkey (Arabuli, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).<br/><br/>Armenia: south-western and southern parts of the country from Khosrov Reserve to the Armenian-Iranian state border throughout the Geghama, Zangezur, Aiotsdzor, Bargushat and Meghri ridges. The range boundaries are the Azat River in the north-west; Vardenis Ridge in the north; semi-desert of the Ararat Valley in the west; state border with Azerbaijan and the alpine meadow/nival belt transition zone in the south-west and east; Arax River basin along the Armenian-Iranian border in the south. Until the early 1970s it lived also in north-eastern parts of Armenia (Khorozyan <em>et al</em>., 2005; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).  <br/><br/>Azerbaijan: Talysh Mts. in the extreme south-east, Akhar-Bakhar Ridge of the Iori-Mingechaur Highland in the north-west and the Zangezur Ridge in the Nakhichevan Republic along the state border with Armenia in the west (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007).   <br/><br/>Nagorno-Karabakh Republic: distribution in Shushi, Mardakert and Hadrut districts and in the adjoining Kelbajar district was recorded in 1941-1967 (Alekperov, 1966; Sludsky, 1973). Up-to-date information on leopard status is impossible to obtain for the political tension between Armenia and Azerbaijan over this republic, even though it plays a vital role as a corridor between the southern (Armenia, Azerbaijan?s Nakhichevan Republic), central (Iori-Mingechaur Highland in Azerbaijan and Vashlovani Reserve in Georgia) and northern (Russian North Caucasus) parts of the Caucasus (Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007). <br/><br/>Iran: virtually all country, except the vast deserts of Desht-e-Kevir and Desht-e-Lut in central and eastern parts. Particularly common in the Alborz Mts. along the southern fringe of the Caspian Sea. Quite common in protected areas (e.g., Tandooreh, Sarigol, Bafgh, Golestan, Kolah?ghazy, Touran, Kavir, Khojir, Khabr and Bamu national parks; Kiamaki and Naybandan wildlife refuges; Jahan Nama, Central Alborz, Varjin, Arasbaran, Dena and Bahram?gur protected areas) and some unprotected lands (Chapur-Ghoymeh, Safee Abad-Dozain or Minoo Dasht, Ramsar, Khaeez and Darestan-Rudbar) (Joslin and Shoemaker 1988; Kiabi <em>et al</em>., 2002; Farhadinia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Abdoli <em>et al</em>. 2008; M Farhadinia and A. Ghoddousi pers. comms., 2008). <br/><br/>Turkey: north-east (around the Artvin city), east (vicinities of Mt. Ararat or Agri) and south-east (Bitlis Ridge). Possibly exists in the mountains of the Black Sea coast and south-westwards to the Taurus Mts. (H. Diker pers. comm., 2008). It is unclear whether leopards still survive in western Turkey.<br/><br/>Turkmenistan: western Kopetdag Ridge, central Kopetdag Ridge, eastern Kopetdag Ridge, Badkhyz Reserve and Giaz-Gyadyk Ridge (Lukarevsky, 2001). <br/><br/>Afghanistan: central (Hindu Kush, Kohe Baba, Kohe Paghman and Safed Koh ranges of the central highlands), north-eastern (Wakhan corridor) and northern (Darkad peninsula of Badakshan) parts of the country (Habibi, 2004).<br/><br/>In the Central Asian republics, leopard distribution is poorly known.  Historically, leopards had a wider distribution in Turkmenistan, and were found in parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.  An old male leopard was killed by a local hunter in January 2000 in Kazakhstan, the first record of the species in this country, in a location over 600 km from possible occurrences in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and over 1,200 km from known occurrences in Turkmenistan.  It is aplso possible that the leopard travelled along the foothills of the Pamirs, then proceeded via the Ugam and Pskem ranges into the Talas river valley.  Habitat appears to be suitable, but the existence of any leopard subpopulation in any of these three countries is uncertain (Shakula 2004).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, the leopard is thinly distributed in montane areas, and there have only been a handful of confirmed records in recent years (Ahmed 2001).<br/><br/>Leopards occur widely in the forests of the Indian sub-continent, through Southeast Asia and into China, although they are becoming increasingly rare outside protected areas.  They are not found on the islands of Borneo or Sumatra (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15954	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The leopard occurs across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as remnant populations in North Africa, and then in the Arabian peninsula and Sinai/Judean Desert (Egypt/Israel/Jordan), south-western and eastern Turkey, and through Southwest Asia and the Caucasus into the Himalayan foothills, India, China and the Russian Far East, as well as on the islands of Java and Sri Lanka (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002; Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In sub-Saharan Africa, leopards remain widely, albeit now patchily, distributed within historical limits (see Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press, and references therein). Ray <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimated that leopards have disappeared from at least 36.7% of their historical range in Africa. The most marked range loss has been in the Sahel belt, as well as in Nigeria and South Africa.  They have been locally extirpated from areas densely populated with people or where habitat conversion is extreme (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). They are likely extinct on Zanzibar, where there have been no confirmed records since 1996 (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>In North Africa, a tiny relict population persists in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003), and there was a probable observation on the Morocco-Algerian border in Figuig in 2007 (F. Cuzin pers. comm.), while a population was recently found in the Ahaggar of south-eastern Algeria, a region from which they had not previously been recorded (Busby <em>et al</em>. 2006). Leopard are likely extinct in Egypt, although they may occur in the Eastern Desert (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>A 2006 Arabian Fauna Conservation Workshop estimated there were fewer than 200 leopards remaining on the Arabian peninsula, in three confirmed separate subpopulations:  the Negev desert, the Wada'a mountains of Yemen, and the Dhofar mountains of Oman.  Presence in Saudi Arabia is uncertain (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006).  <br/><br/>I. Khorozyan (pers. comm. 2008) compiled detailed country information on the distribution of the Endangered Persian leopard as follows:<br/><br/>Russian North Caucasus: mountain ridges in the headwaters of the Avarskoe Koisu and Andiiskoe Koisu rivers (Republic of Dagestan). Possibly exists in the Chegem River canyon (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic); Erzi Reserve, Assa River valley (Republic of Ingushetia); Armkhi River basin (Republic of North Osetia-Alania), headwaters of the Sharoargun and Argun rivers (Chechen Republic) (Akkiev and Mokaev, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007; Lukarevsky <em>et al.</em>, 2007). <br/><br/>Georgia: Vashlovani Reserve in the south-east; Arkhoti River canyon in the upper part of the Assa River basin and the headwaters of the Andiiskoe Koisu River in the north-east (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007). Some anecdotal records from south-western Georgia are either unreliable or can be attributed to individuals coming from north-eastern Turkey (Arabuli, 2006; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).<br/><br/>Armenia: south-western and southern parts of the country from Khosrov Reserve to the Armenian-Iranian state border throughout the Geghama, Zangezur, Aiotsdzor, Bargushat and Meghri ridges. The range boundaries are the Azat River in the north-west; Vardenis Ridge in the north; semi-desert of the Ararat Valley in the west; state border with Azerbaijan and the alpine meadow/nival belt transition zone in the south-west and east; Arax River basin along the Armenian-Iranian border in the south. Until the early 1970s it lived also in north-eastern parts of Armenia (Khorozyan <em>et al</em>., 2005; Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007).  <br/><br/>Azerbaijan: Talysh Mts. in the extreme south-east, Akhar-Bakhar Ridge of the Iori-Mingechaur Highland in the north-west and the Zangezur Ridge in the Nakhichevan Republic along the state border with Armenia in the west (Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>., 2007).   <br/><br/>Nagorno-Karabakh Republic: distribution in Shushi, Mardakert and Hadrut districts and in the adjoining Kelbajar district was recorded in 1941-1967 (Alekperov, 1966; Sludsky, 1973). Up-to-date information on leopard status is impossible to obtain for the political tension between Armenia and Azerbaijan over this republic, even though it plays a vital role as a corridor between the southern (Armenia, Azerbaijan?s Nakhichevan Republic), central (Iori-Mingechaur Highland in Azerbaijan and Vashlovani Reserve in Georgia) and northern (Russian North Caucasus) parts of the Caucasus (Khorozyan and Abramov, 2007). <br/><br/>Iran: virtually all country, except the vast deserts of Desht-e-Kevir and Desht-e-Lut in central and eastern parts. Particularly common in the Alborz Mts. along the southern fringe of the Caspian Sea. Quite common in protected areas (e.g., Tandooreh, Sarigol, Bafgh, Golestan, Kolah?ghazy, Touran, Kavir, Khojir, Khabr and Bamu national parks; Kiamaki and Naybandan wildlife refuges; Jahan Nama, Central Alborz, Varjin, Arasbaran, Dena and Bahram?gur protected areas) and some unprotected lands (Chapur-Ghoymeh, Safee Abad-Dozain or Minoo Dasht, Ramsar, Khaeez and Darestan-Rudbar) (Joslin and Shoemaker 1988; Kiabi <em>et al</em>., 2002; Farhadinia <em>et al</em>. 2007; Abdoli <em>et al</em>. 2008; M Farhadinia and A. Ghoddousi pers. comms., 2008). <br/><br/>Turkey: north-east (around the Artvin city), east (vicinities of Mt. Ararat or Agri) and south-east (Bitlis Ridge). Possibly exists in the mountains of the Black Sea coast and south-westwards to the Taurus Mts. (H. Diker pers. comm., 2008). It is unclear whether leopards still survive in western Turkey.<br/><br/>Turkmenistan: western Kopetdag Ridge, central Kopetdag Ridge, eastern Kopetdag Ridge, Badkhyz Reserve and Giaz-Gyadyk Ridge (Lukarevsky, 2001). <br/><br/>Afghanistan: central (Hindu Kush, Kohe Baba, Kohe Paghman and Safed Koh ranges of the central highlands), north-eastern (Wakhan corridor) and northern (Darkad peninsula of Badakshan) parts of the country (Habibi, 2004).<br/><br/>In the Central Asian republics, leopard distribution is poorly known.  Historically, leopards had a wider distribution in Turkmenistan, and were found in parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.  An old male leopard was killed by a local hunter in January 2000 in Kazakhstan, the first record of the species in this country, in a location over 600 km from possible occurrences in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and over 1,200 km from known occurrences in Turkmenistan.  It is aplso possible that the leopard travelled along the foothills of the Pamirs, then proceeded via the Ugam and Pskem ranges into the Talas river valley.  Habitat appears to be suitable, but the existence of any leopard subpopulation in any of these three countries is uncertain (Shakula 2004).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, the leopard is thinly distributed in montane areas, and there have only been a handful of confirmed records in recent years (Ahmed 2001).<br/><br/>Leopards occur widely in the forests of the Indian sub-continent, through Southeast Asia and into China, although they are becoming increasingly rare outside protected areas.  They are not found on the islands of Borneo or Sumatra (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15954	habitat	Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Breitenmoser, U., Purchase, N., Packer, C., Khorozyan, I., Bauer, H., Marker, L., Sogbohossou, E. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The leopard has the widest habitat tolerance of any Old World felid, ranging from rainforest to desert.  In Africa, they are most successful in woodland, grassland savanna and forest but also occur widely in mountain habitats, coastal scrub, swampy areas, shrubland, semi-desert and desert. They range from sea level to as much as 4,600 m on Mt Kenya (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). In Southwest and Central Asia, leopards formerly occupied a range of habitats, but now are confined chiefly to the more remote montane and rugged foothill areas. Through India and Southeast Asia, Leopard are found in all forest types, from tropical rainforest to the temperate deciduous and alpine coniferous (up to 5,200 m in the Himalaya), and also occur in dry scrub and grasslands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Leopards have extremely catholic diets including more than 90 species in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from arthropods to large antelope up to the size of adult male Eland <em>Tragelaphus oryx</em> (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  Densities vary with habitat, prey availability, and degree of threat, from fewer than one per 100 km² to over 30 per 100 km², with highest densities obtained in protected East and southern African mesic woodland savannas (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>A study in Thailand found a home range of 8.8 km² for a radio-collared female, and 17.3-18 km² for two adult males  (Grassman 1998).  Important prey species were hog badger Arctonyx collaris (45.9%), muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (20.9%) and wild pig Sus scrofa (6.3%).	eng
15954	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The leopard has the widest habitat tolerance of any Old World felid, ranging from rainforest to desert.  In Africa, they are most successful in woodland, grassland savanna and forest but also occur widely in mountain habitats, coastal scrub, swampy areas, shrubland, semi-desert and desert. They range from sea level to as much as 4,600 m on Mt Kenya (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). In Southwest and Central Asia, leopards formerly occupied a range of habitats, but now are confined chiefly to the more remote montane and rugged foothill areas. Through India and Southeast Asia, Leopard are found in all forest types, from tropical rainforest to the temperate deciduous and alpine coniferous (up to 5,200 m in the Himalaya), and also occur in dry scrub and grasslands (Nowell and Jackson 1996). <br/><br/>Leopards have extremely catholic diets including more than 90 species in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from arthropods to large antelope up to the size of adult male Eland <em>Tragelaphus oryx</em> (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).  Densities vary with habitat, prey availability, and degree of threat, from fewer than one per 100 km² to over 30 per 100 km², with highest densities obtained in protected East and southern African mesic woodland savannas (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>A study in Thailand found a home range of 8.8 km² for a radio-collared female, and 17.3-18 km² for two adult males  (Grassman 1998).  Important prey species were hog badger Arctonyx collaris (45.9%), muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (20.9%) and wild pig Sus scrofa (6.3%).	eng
15954	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The leopard is an adaptable, widespread species that nonetheless has many threatened subpopulations. While still numerous and even thriving in some marginal habitats from which other big cats have disappeared in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, in North Africa leopards are on the verge of extinction. <br/><br/>There are no reliable continent-wide estimates of population size in Africa, and the most commonly cited estimate of over 700,000 leopards in Africa (Martin and de Meulenaar 1988) is flawed.  In India, based on pugmark censuses (a methodology which has been criticized as inaccurate), 9,844 leopards were estimated in 2001.  Many populations are believed to be increasing, and there are high levels of human-leopard conflict (Singh 2005).<br/><br/>Several Asian subspecies are included on the Red List, with population information as follows:<br/><br/>Amur leopard P.p. orientalis CR C2a(ii),D: 14-20 (Anon. 2007)<br/>Arabian leopard P.p. nimr CR C2a(I): <200 (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006)<br/>Javan leopard P.p. melas CR C2a(i): 323-525, with <250 mature breeding adults (A. Ario pers. comm. 2007)<br/>Sri Lankan leopard P.p. kotiya EN C2a(i): 700-950 (Kittle and Watson 2007)<br/>Persian leopard P.p. saxicolor EN C2a(i): 871-1290 (Khorozyan <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>. 2007)	eng
15954	population	Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Breitenmoser, U., Purchase, N., Packer, C., Khorozyan, I., Bauer, H., Marker, L., Sogbohossou, E. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	The leopard is an adaptable, widespread species that nonetheless has many threatened subpopulations. While still numerous and even thriving in some marginal habitats from which other big cats have disappeared in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, in North Africa leopards are on the verge of extinction. <br/><br/>There are no reliable continent-wide estimates of population size in Africa, and the most commonly cited estimate of over 700,000 leopards in Africa (Martin and de Meulenaar 1988) is flawed.  In India, based on pugmark censuses (a methodology which has been criticized as inaccurate), 9,844 leopards were estimated in 2001.  Many populations are believed to be increasing (Singh 2005), and there are high levels of human-leopard conflict (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>Several Asian subspecies are included on the Red List, with population information as follows:<br/><br/>Amur leopard P.p. orientalis CR C2a(ii),D: 14-20 (Anon. 2007)<br/>Arabian leopard P.p. nimr CR C2a(I): <200 (Breitenmoser 2006, Spalton and Al Hikmani 2006)<br/>Javan leopard P.p. melas CR C2a(i): 323-525, with <250 mature breeding adults (A. Ario pers. comm. 2007)<br/>Sri Lankan leopard P.p. kotiya EN C2a(i): 700-950 (Kittle and Watson 2007)<br/>Persian leopard P.p. saxicolor EN C2a(i): 871-1290 (Khorozyan <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Lukarevsky <em>et al</em>. 2007)	eng
15954	threats	Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Breitenmoser, U., Purchase, N., Packer, C., Khorozyan, I., Bauer, H., Marker, L., Sogbohossou, E. & Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., 2008	Throughout Africa, the major threats to Leopard are habitat conversion and intense persecution, especially in retribution for real and perceived livestock loss (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). In intact rainforest, the chief threat to Leopards is probably competition with human hunters for prey; the tremendous volume of wild meat harvests denudes forests of prey and may drive localized extinctions. Nonetheless, Leopard are somewhat tolerant of habitat conversion, and may persist close to large human populations provided they have suitable cover and prey (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>Leopard come into conflict with people across their range. A rapidly increasing threat to Leopards is the poisoning of carcasses targeting carnivores, either as a means of predator control or incidentally. <br/><br/>The impact of trophy hunting on populations is unclear, but may have impacts at the demographic and population level, especially when females are shot. In Tanzania, which allows only males to be hunted, females comprised 28.6% of 77 trophies shot between 1995 and 1998 (Spong <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Skins and canines are still widely traded domestically in some central and West African countries where parts are used in traditional rituals and sold openly in villages and cities (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). Djibouti is an important conduit for Leopard skins from East Africa that are bought mainly by French military personnel and carried illegally to Europe. <br/><br/>In West Asia, small leopard subpopulations are threatened primarily by habitat fragmentation, killing in defence of livestock, and poaching for trade (Habibi 2004, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In Indo-Malaya, leopards are threatened primarily by habitat loss (deforestation) as well as poaching for illegal trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In India, leopards are feared for their attacks on people (Singh 2005).	eng
15954	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Throughout Africa, the major threats to Leopard are habitat conversion and intense persecution, especially in retribution for real and perceived livestock loss (Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). In intact rainforest, the chief threat to Leopards is probably competition with human hunters for prey; the tremendous volume of wild meat harvests denudes forests of prey and may drive localized extinctions. Nonetheless, Leopard are somewhat tolerant of habitat conversion, and may persist close to large human populations provided they have suitable cover and prey (Hunter <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>Leopard come into conflict with people across their range. A rapidly increasing threat to Leopards is the poisoning of carcasses targeting carnivores, either as a means of predator control or incidentally. <br/><br/>The impact of trophy hunting on populations is unclear, but may have impacts at the demographic and population level, especially when females are shot. In Tanzania, which allows only males to be hunted, females comprised 28.6% of 77 trophies shot between 1995 and 1998 (Spong <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Skins and canines are still widely traded domestically in some central and West African countries where parts are used in traditional rituals and sold openly in villages and cities (Hunter <em>et al.</em> in press). Djibouti is an important conduit for Leopard skins from East Africa that are bought mainly by French military personnel and carried illegally to Europe. <br/><br/>In West Asia, small leopard subpopulations are threatened primarily by habitat fragmentation, killing in defence of livestock, and poaching for trade (Habibi 2004, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2006, Breitenmoser <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In Indo-Malaya, leopards are threatened primarily by habitat loss (deforestation) as well as poaching for illegal trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In India, leopards are feared for their attacks on people (Singh 2005).	eng
15955	conservation	Chundawat, R.S., Habib, B., Karanth, U., Kawanishi, K., Ahmad Khan, J., Lynam, T., Miquelle, D., Nyhus, P., Sunarto, S., Tilson, R. & Sonam Wang, 2010	Tigers have been the focus of substantial conservation effort and investment.  Most range countries have developed or are developing national Tiger conservation action plans. A unique international conservation body, the Global Tiger Forum, brings together tiger range state governments with other governments and NGO members (GTF 2007).&#160; The World Bank has launched the Global Tiger Initiative <a href="http://www.globaltigerinitiative.org">www.globaltigerinitiative.org</a>, bringing conservationists together with the top tiers of government and international finance. The GTI sponsored a Global Tiger Workshop in <st1:place w:st="on">Kathmandu</st1:place> in October 2009, and in January 2010 the First Asian Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation pledged to protect critical tiger habitats.<br/><br/>Tigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade, and all Tiger range states as well as countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well (although implementation has been uneven, and some legal loopholes remain (Nowell 2007).  At the 14<sup>th</sup> Conference of the Parties to CITES, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to Tiger farming (the production of tiger products from captive Tigers) (Nowell <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>National governments have invested huge resources in Tiger conservation, including India, which has had a special Project Tiger program since the early 1970s. Non-governmental organizations have been very active.  S. Christie (in Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006) analysed Tiger conservation funding by non-governmental organizations in the years 1998–2002.  Over $23 million USD was invested, primarily in India, Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nepal.  The Save the Tiger Fund, funded in part by ExxonMobil, has invested 12.6 million USD in Tiger conservation from 1995-2004 (Gratwicke <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>To address the threat posed by habitat loss and fragmentation of the Tiger population, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation announced plans on 30<sup>th</sup> January 2008 to establish a 5,000 mile-long "genetic corridor" from Bhutan to Myanmar that would conserve a large contiguous Tiger population.  It would span eight countries and represent the largest block of Tiger habitat left on earth. The World Wide Fund for Nature has launched a major tiger initiative with the goal of doubling the wild tiger population by 2020. More than 35 non-governmental organizations have joined forces in the International Tiger Coalition, which advocates for Tiger conservation.<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about the effectiveness of conservation measures for Tigers in the areas they work in (Tiger Conservation Landscapes), and compiled the results to indicate conservation effectiveness across Tiger range.  Scores for 22 conservation measures are given below; high scores indicate high effectiveness and widespread implementation.  Measures at the top of the list are widely implemented and considered effective.  Measures in the middle require more effort, and measures at the bottom are perceived to be ineffective.  Individual Tiger Conservation Landscapes which received the highest conservation effectivenss scores were in India, Bhutan, Nepal and Malaysia.  Malaysia also had a number of Tiger Conservation Landscapes with the lowest scores, indicating lack of effective implementation.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conservation Measure                  Effectiveness score.</span><br/><br/>Education of local people          170<br/>Education of school children     164<br/>Training of protected area staff  159<br/>Anti-poaching patrols      153<br/>Monitoring of tigers in the field  152<br/>Enforcement of protected area policies  149<br/>Provisioning or monetary support to protected area staff  141<br/>Enforcement of existing laws regarding tigers  135<br/>Local publicity about Tigers   133<br/>Monitoring of prey populations  129<br/>Anti-trafficking enforcement  104<br/>Ecotourism ventures  104<br/>Compensation programs  99<br/>New laws/policies for Tigers  93<br/>Conflict management/mitigation  90<br/>Monitoring of trade in Tiger parts  80<br/>New/upgraded protected area  78<br/>Translocation of local people out of protected area  76<br/>Habitat restoration  68<br/>Habitat enhancement  58<br/>Captive breeding facility  24<br/>Reintroduction of Tigers  8	eng
15955	conservation	Breitenmoser, U., 2008	Tigers have been the focus of substantial conservation effort and investment.  Most range countries have developed or are developing national tiger conservation action plans (see Country Action Plan section of the Save the Tiger Fund website), and have called for IUCN to facilitate an international tiger conservation strategy (Nowell <em>et al.</em>, 2007).  A unique international conservation body, the Global Tiger Forum, brings together tiger range state governments with other governments and NGO members (GTF, 2007).<br/><br/>Tigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade, and all tiger range states as well as countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well (although implementation has been uneven, and some legal loopholes remain (Nowell, 2007).  At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to tiger farming (the production of tiger products from captive tigers) (Nowell <em>et al.</em>, 2007).<br/><br/>National governments have invested huge resources in tiger conservation, including India, which has had a special Project Tiger program since the early 1970s.  Increasingly, international inter-governmental organizations such as the World Bank are also supporting tiger conservation.  Nongovernmental organizations have been very active.  S. Christie (in Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006) analyzed tiger conservation funding by non-governmental organizations in the years 1998-2002.  Over $23 million USD was invested, primarily in India, Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nepal.  The Save the Tiger Fund, funded in part by ExxonMobil, has invested 12.6 million USD in tiger conservation from 1995-2004 (Gratwicke <em>et al.</em>, 2006).<br/><br/>To address the threat posed by habitat loss and fragmentation of the tiger population, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation announced plans on January 30 2008 to establish a 5,000 mile-long "genetic corridor" from Bhutan to Myanmar that would conserve a large contiguous tiger population.  It would span eight countries and represent the largest block of tiger habitat left on earth.  The proposed corridor includes extensive areas of Bhutan, northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia, along with potential connectivity to Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. It was endorsed by the King of Bhutan, his Majesty Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who requested other heads of state to support similar efforts.<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about the effectivess of conservation measures for tigers in the areas they work in (Tiger Conservation Landscapes), and compiled the results to indicate conservation effectiveness across tiger range.  Scores for 22 conservation measures are given below; high scores indicate high effectiveness and widespread implemenation.  Measures at the top of the list are widely implemented and considered effective.  Measures in the middle require more effort, and measures at the bottom are perceived to be ineffective.  Individual Tiger Conservation Landscapes which received the highest conservation effectivenss scores were in India, Bhutan, Nepal and Malaysia.  Malaysia also had a number of Tiger Conservation Landscapes with the lowest scores, indicating lack of effective implementation.  <br/><br/>Conservation Measure                  Effectiveness score<br/><br/>Education of local people          170<br/>Education of school children     164<br/>Training of protected area staff  159<br/>Anti-poaching patrols      153<br/>Monitoring of tigers in the field  152<br/>Enforcement of protected area policies  149<br/>Provisioning or monetary support to protected area staff  141<br/>Enforcement of existing laws regarding tigers  135<br/>Local publicity about tigers   133<br/>Monitoring of prey populations  129<br/>Anti-trafficking enforcement  104<br/>Ecotourism ventures  104<br/>Compensation programs  99<br/>New laws/policies for tigers  93<br/>Conflict management/mitigation  90<br/>Monitoring of trade in tiger parts  80<br/>New/upgraded protected area  78<br/>Translocation of local people out of protected area  76<br/>Habitat restoration  68<br/>Habitat enhancement  58<br/>Captive breeding facility  24<br/>Reintroduction of tigers  8	eng
15955	distribution	Chundawat, R.S., Habib, B., Karanth, U., Kawanishi, K., Ahmad Khan, J., Lynam, T., Miquelle, D., Nyhus, P., Sunarto, S., Tilson, R. & Sonam Wang, 2010	The Tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Over the past 100 years Tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia, from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia.  Tigers have lost 93% of their historic range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  <br/><br/>Tigers are currently found in thirteen Asian range states:  Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam.  They may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent confirmed evidence. <br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map current tiger range.  Priority areas for tigers were delineated and are called Tiger Conservation Landscapes, or TCLs.  TCLs are defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five tigers, and tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade.  The range map shows the TCLs, and maps can be viewed in detail at the Save the Tiger Fund website: http://www.savethetigerfund.org/am/customsource/tiger/mapping/index.cfm<br/><br/>A total of 76 TCLs were delineated, with a total area of 1,184,911 km².  TCLS vary in size, with the largest 269,983 km² in the Russian Far East and the smallest 278 km² in India.  Most TCLs are small: 61 (80%) are less than 10,000 km² in area, and the median area for the entire set is just 2,904 km².  Rabinowitz (1999) and Karanth and Nichols (2002) emphasize the importance of large core zones (>3,000 km²) with a healthy prey base for conservation of viable tiger populations.<br/><br/>However, tiger range is actually smaller than the total area of TCLS, because most TCLS contain area of non-tiger habitat where tigers cannot live (average 55% non-habitat, ranging from 20–70% of a TCL).  The average amount of legally protected area within a TCL is shown below.<br/><br/>However, tigers do occur outside the TCLs.  The exercise also identified 543 Fragments with Tigers - areas of habitat with confirmed tiger presence, but considered too small to support a long-term population.  Also, 491 Tiger Survey Landscapes were highlighted - areas where tiger status is unknown, but where there is some reason to believe tigers might still be present, and which are large enough to support at least five tigers.<br/><br/>The Indian sub-continent (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Bhutan, western Myanmar) is the bioregion with the most TCLS (40) and the highest number of TCLs assessed as being of global importance and of top priority for conservation (11).  Total TCL area 227,569 km².  Median TCL size 2,154 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 15.8%.<br/><br/>The Indochina bioregion (Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) has a smaller number of TCLs (20, with six of top priority) but the largest TCL total area of the four bioregions.  Total TCL area 540,758 km².  Median TCL size 5,288 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 29.2%.<br/><br/>The Southeast Asia bioregion supports 15 TCLs, with three of global priority.  Total TCL area 145,285 km².  Median TCL size 3,884 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 36.5%.<br/><br/>The Russian Far East bioregion (which includes small areas of northeastern China and North Korea) has just two TCLs, but includes the world's largest (269,983 km²).  Total TCL area 271,297 km².  Median TCL size 135,649 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 9.9%.<br/><br/>Tiger range has been shrinking not only historically, but also more recently.  Comparison of current TCL area with a previous estimate a decade ago (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1997) finds that Tiger range has shrunk by 41% in the past ten years.  This discrepancy is due in part to technical reasons including a better state of knowledge and improved tiger detection methodologies (Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sanderson <em>et al</em>. 2006).  However, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider Tiger poaching and habitat loss to be important causes of this recent decline.<br/><br/>Although tiger range loss has been serious and steep, Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) still consider 77% of current range to consist of "known and secured breeding populations of Tigers in areas large enough for a substantive population."  Roughly half of all TCLs are big enough to support an estimated 100 tigers or more, with the largest seven TCLs offering the potential to support 500 or more Tigers.  Even if tiger populations in these landscapes are below carrying capacity, these areas provide opportunities to increase tiger populations with appropriate conservation measures (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15955	distribution	Breitenmoser, U., 2008	The tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  Over the past 100 years tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia, from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia.  Tigers have lost 93% of their historic range (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  <br/><br/>Tigers are currently found in twelve Asian range states:  Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam.  They may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent confirmed evidence. <br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al.</em> (2006) undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map current tiger range.  Priority areas for tigers were delineated and are called Tiger Conservation Landscapes, or TCLs.  TCLs are defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five tigers, and tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade.  The range map shows the TCLs, and maps can be viewed in detail at the Save the Tiger Fund website: http://www.savethetigerfund.org/am/customsource/tiger/mapping/index.cfm<br/><br/>A total of 76 TCLs were delineated, with a total area of 1,184,911 km².  TCLS vary in size, with the largest 269,983 km² in the Russian Far East and the smallest 278 km² in India.  Most TCLs are small: 61 (80%) are less than 10,000 km² in area, and the median area for the entire set is just 2,904 km².  Rabinowitz (1999) and Karanth and Nichols (2002) emphasize the importance of large core zones (>3,000 km²) with a healthy prey base for conservation of viable tiger populations.<br/><br/>However, tiger range is actually smaller than the total area of TCLS, because most TCLS contain area of non-tiger habitat where tigers cannot live (average 55% non-habitat, ranging from 20-70% of a TCL).  The average amount of legally protected area within a TCL is shown below.<br/><br/>However, tigers do occur outside the TCLs.  The exercise also identified 543 Fragments with Tigers - areas of habitat with confirmed tiger presence, but considered too small to support a long-term population.  Also, 491 Tiger Survey Landscapes were highlighted - areas where tiger status is unknown, but where there is some reason to believe tigers might still be present, and which are large enough to support at least five tigers.<br/><br/>The Indian sub-continent (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Bhutan, western Myanmar) is the bioregion with the most TCLS (40) and the highest number of TCLs assessed as being of global importance and of top priority for conservation (11).  Total TCL area 227,569 km².  Median TCL size 2,154 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 15.8%.<br/><br/>The Indochina bioregion (Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) has a smaller number of TCLs (20, with 6 of top priority) but the largest TCL total area of the four bioregions.  Total TCL area 540,758 km².  Median TCL size 5,288 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 29.2%.<br/><br/>The Southeast Asia bioregion supports 15 TCLs, with 3 of global priority.  Total TCL area 145,285 km².  Median TCL size 3,884 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 36.5%.<br/><br/>The Russian Far East bioregion (which includes small areas of northeastern China and North Korea) has just two TCLs, but includes the world's largest (269,983 km²).  Total TCL area 271,297 km².  Median TCL size 135,649 km².  Average percent of TCL protected: 9.9%.<br/><br/>Tiger range has been shrinking not only historically, but also more recently.  Comparison of current TCL area with a previous estimate a decade ago (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 1997) finds that tiger range has shrunk by 41% in the past ten years.  This discrepancy is due in part to technical reasons including a better state of knowledge and improved tiger detection methodologies (Karanth <em>et al</em>., 2003, Sanderson <em>et al</em>., 2006).  However, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider tiger poaching and habitat loss to be important causes of this recent decline. <br/><br/>Although tiger range loss has been serious and steep, Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) still consider 77% of current range to consist of "known and secured breeding populations of tigers in areas large enough for a substantive population."  Roughly half of all TCLs are big enough to support an estimated 100 tigers or more, with the largest seven TCLs offering the potential to support 500 or more tigers.  Even if tiger populations in these landscapes are below carrying capacity, these areas provide opportunities to increase tiger populations with appropriate conservation measures (Dinerstein <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
15955	habitat	Breitenmoser, U., 2008	Tigers are found only in the tropics of Asia.  According to a recent comprehensive range mapping exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006), most tiger range is found in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (700,991 km², or 60% of tiger range).  The second most common habitat type is temperate and broadleaf mixed forest (251,516 km², or 21% of tiger range), and the third is tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (122,599 km², or 10% of tiger range).  Other habitat types in which tigers are found include coniferous forest, mangrove forest, and tropical grass and shrubland.  Photos of tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).<br/><br/>Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the tiger's diet, and in general tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Based on studies, Karanth <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate that tigers need to kill 50 large prey animals per year.  Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds, fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and porcupines.  Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids (water buffalo, gaur, banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  <br/><br/>Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges.  Adult female home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1-3 females, a typical felid pattern of social organization.  Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - eg, female home ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km², while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at 450 km² (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Similarly, reported tiger densities range from 11.65 adult tigers per 100 km² where prey is abundant (India's Nagarhole National Park) to as low as 0.13-0.45 per 100 km² where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote Alin Mountains (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).	eng
15955	habitat	Chundawat, R.S., Habib, B., Karanth, U., Kawanishi, K., Ahmad Khan, J., Lynam, T., Miquelle, D., Nyhus, P., Sunarto, S., Tilson, R. & Sonam Wang, 2010	Tigers are found only in the tropics of Asia.  According to a recent comprehensive range mapping exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), most Tiger range is found in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (700,991 km², or 60% of Tiger range).  The second most common habitat type is temperate and broadleaf mixed forest (251,516 km², or 21% of Tiger range), and the third is tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (122,599 km², or 10% of tiger range).  Other habitat types in which Tigers are found include coniferous forest, mangrove forest, and tropical grass and shrubland.  Photos of Tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).<br/><br/>Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the Tiger's diet, and in general tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Based on studies, Karanth <em>et al.</em> (2004) estimate that Tigers need to kill 50 large prey animals per year.  Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds, fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and porcupines.  Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids (water buffalo, gaur, banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges.  Adult female home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1–3 females, a typical felid pattern of social organization.  Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - e.g., female home ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km², while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at 450 km² (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  Similarly, reported tiger densities range from 11.65 adult tigers per 100 km² where prey is abundant (India's Nagarhole National Park) to as low as 0.13–0.45 per 100 km² where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote Alin Mountains (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
15955	population	Chundawat, R.S., Habib, B., Karanth, U., Kawanishi, K., Ahmad Khan, J., Lynam, T., Miquelle, D., Nyhus, P., Sunarto, S., Tilson, R. & Sonam Wang, 2010	Scientific efforts to monitor Tiger populations and estimate their size have increased in recent years (Gratwicke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A collation of national tiger estimates is given below.  While some national populations can be estimated with confidence (notably Russia, India and Nepal), most are admittedly more speculative, ranging from application of site-specific density estimates over large areas to outright guesstimates.  Putting all these national estimates together, the global Tiger population is estimated to range from 3,000–5,000 (3,062–5,066).  <br/><br/>A previous compilation of national estimates to determine the global population estimated 5,000–7,000 Tigers (Seidensticker <em>et al.</em> 1999).  While most of these previous estimates were rough and lacked the scientific rigour that has gone into some recent estimates, so that a direct comparison is unreliable, a global population decline is suggested, as would be expected given the documented range reduction of 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In terms of conserving the wild tiger's genetic biodiversity, population biologists prefer to work with a number that approximates the actual breeding population, the number of animals which raise offspring to reproductive adulthood, or effective population size (Ne).  The number of breeding tigers in one population was equivalent to just 40% of the actual adult population, based on long-term demographic studies in Nepal's Chitwan National Park (Smith and McDougal 1991).  Therefore, the Tiger's effective population size could be in the range of 1,225–2,026 reproductively successful adults.<br/><br/>Bangladesh: Tigers are now largely restricted to the Sundarbans mangrove forest.  Estimating tiger density based on prey density, Khan (2004) estimated the population at 200.  A higher estimate of 419 was obtained by the Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests, which carried out a joint census with their Indian counterparts (MoEF 2004), using a methodology of identifying individual tigers from their tracks which has been criticized as yielding inaccurate results (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Based on the first data on home range collected from two radio-collared female tigers (11.5 and 13.9 km²), Barlow <em>et al.</em> (2007) roughly estimated there could be 95–286 female tigers in the Sundarbans.  Estimate used for global population:  200–419.<br/><br/>Bhutan:  Dorji and Santiapillaai (1989) estimated Bhutan's tiger population at 151 (based on track counts) to 250 (extrapolating to unsurveyed areas).  However, the density they used for their extrapolation (one adult per 40 km²) was high for the more high-altitude parts of their range.  In Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (where tigers have been recorded up to 4,500 m), Wang (2008) estimates, from camera trapping, a density of one tiger per 200 km².  A similar density for the central Himalayan region was obtained from track surveys by McDougal and Tsering in the late 1990s, one Tiger/185 km².  Overall, their surveys estimated 67–81 adult tigers in Bhutan; this figure is used in the   Government  of Bhutan's 2005 National Tiger Action Plan (Sangay and Wangchuk 2005), although further research is necessary to clarify tiger abundance and distribution in the country (S. Wang pers. comm. 2008).  Estimate used for global population: 67–81.<br/><br/>Cambodia:  Several NGOs working on tiger conservation held a meeting in 2004 to review data for the Tiger Conservation Landscape delineation exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Based on their work, using a range of methodologies including camera traps and field surveys by biologists and community wildlife rangers, Cambodia's Tiger population was estimated at 11–50 Tigers (Chheang <em>et al</em>. 2006). WWF (2010) estimates “probably no more than <st1:metricconverter productid="30.”" w:st="on">30.”</st1:metricconverter>  <br/><br/>China:  The   Government  of China, State Forest Administration, distributed a presentation at the 2007 International Tiger Symposium held April 2007 in Kathmandu, Nepal.  The total Tiger population in China was estimated at 37–50, broken down as follows.  Amur Tiger <em>P.t. altaica</em> (northeastern China) 18–22; Bengal Tiger <span style="font-style: italic;">P. t. tigris</span> (Motuo county, Tibet) 8–12; Indochinese Tiger <em>P. t. corbetti</em> (southern Yunnan province) 11–16; South China Tiger <em>P. t. amoyensis</em> (southern China) no definite evidence of continued persistence (Government  of China 2007, GTF 2007).  <br/><br/>India:  India's previous national Tiger censuses were based on recognition of individual Tiger tracks, and in 2001–2002 estimated the population at 3,642 Tigers.  This methodology was criticized by leading tiger scientists for being inaccurate and inefficient (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  A new methodology has been developed as recommended by the 2005 Tiger action plan (Government of India 2005), using GIS mapping systems to extrapolate tiger densities derived from camera trap and sign-based indices of abundance.  The Indian tiger population is now estimated at 1,411 (range 1,165–1,657 (Jhala <em>et al.</em> 2008).  The Indian Sundarbans Tiger population was not estimated.  Because of the difference in methodology, it is not clear how much of the reduction from the 2001 estimate is due to actual loss of Tigers as opposed to a more accurate census result.<br/><br/>Indonesia:  The Sumatran Tiger occurs in about 58,321 km² of forested habitat in 12 potentially isolated Tiger Conservation Landscapes totalling 88,351 km² (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), with about 37,000 km² protected in ten national parks (Government of Indonesia 2007b).  The Tiger population was estimated at 400–500 in the first and second national Tiger action plans (Government of Indonesia 1994, 2007a), and at 342–509 in six major protected areas (estimates from Shepherd and Magnus 2004).  However, incorporating more recent research (Linkie <em>et al.</em> 2006, Government of Indonesia 2007b), covering most of tiger estimated habitat (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), suggests the population could be 441–679 (see Red List assessment of <em>Panthera tigris sumatrae</em> for details).  Understanding of Sumatran Tiger status will improve when research in the three Tiger Conservation Landscapes in Riau province by Sunarto <em>et al.</em> (2007) is complete.  Estimate used for global population: 441–679.<br/><br/>Lao PDR: Tigers are known to occur in five (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999) to seven areas (GTF 2007).  One of the largest is the 3,446 km² (+ 854 km² proposed extension) Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area.  Based on camera trapping, Tiger density there was estimated at 0.2–0.7 per 100 km², a relatively low density suggesting a population of only 7–23 Tigers in the reserve (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Tigers and their large ungulate prey have have been depleted by hunting pressure across the country, and tiger numbers are likely to be low (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). Estimate used for global population: 30 (WWF 2010).<br/><br/>Malaysia:  Based on typical prey biomass in tropical rainforests, energetic needs of Tigers, estimated Tiger densities from studies carried out in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, and others in tropical Asia, and available tiger habitats in Peninsular Malaysia, Kawanishi <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated the national tiger population at 493–1,480 adult tigers.  The lower bound coincides with the previous population estimate for the country (Topani 1990) and is the number selected as feasible by the country's national Tiger action plan (DWNP 2008).  However, based on density estimates derived from camera trapping in six sites in Malaysia during the late 1990s, Lynam <em>et al.</em> (2007) suggest a lower  population, "up to several hundred." Estimate range used for global population: 300–493.<br/><br/>Myanmar: Tigers have disappeared or occur at very low density across much of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>, home to thousands of tigers a few decades ago (Lynam 2003, Government of Myanmar 2009).&#160; Most Tigers are now found in the large Hukaung Tiger reserve in the north of the country (fewer than 100, with up to 70 adults and sub-adults estimated in the corea area where management efforts are focused: Lynam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008,   Anonymous 2009a).&#160; The other important area for Tigers is the forest complex found in northern and southern Taninthayi Division (approx. 50) (Lynam 2003). Range used for global estimate: 100–150.<br/><br/>Nepal:    A census, using camera traps and habitat occupancy surveys, of four protected areas in the Terai region of Nepal estimated 121 (100–194) breeding adult Tigers, with most (91) found in Chitwan National Park, an increase from a 2006 estimate of 50–60. However, numbers have declined in western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region>, with estimates of four in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, eight in Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, and <st1:metricconverter productid="18 in" w:st="on">18 in</st1:metricconverter> <st1:placename w:st="on">Bardia</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, according to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Anonymous 2009b, WWF 2009). Overall, estimates of the population of breeding adult Tigers have remained generally stable since 2000 (Government of Nepal 2007, WWF 2009).<br/><br/>North Korea:  There have been no surveys since 1998, when tiger tracks were reported along the border with China (Miquelle 1998).<br/><br/>Russia:  In 2005 a comprehensive winter snow tracking census estimated 331–393 adult/sub-adult Tigers;  977 fieldworkers covered 1,537 transect routes totalling 26,031 km.  Using a similar methodology, 330–371 adult tigers were estimated in 1996.  The more recent number probably reflects more intensive survey effort (Miquelle <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, after having been stable for over a decade, recent surveys which covered about 15–20% of Tiger habitat in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> may indicate a significant declining trend (D. Miquelle pers. comm.). Moreover, the population has very low genetic diversity, behaving as if it were just 27–35 individuals (effective population size: Henry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>Thailand: Tigers occur in 15 spatially disjunct forest complexes in Thailand (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999), and were recorded in six out of seven forest complexes where camera trap surveys were carried out (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006).  The best area for Tigers is Huai Kha Khaeng National Park, with an estimated 113 Tigers (Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Extrapolating the density obtained from Huai Kha Khaeng (3.98 tigers per 100 km²) to the large 18,000 km² Western Forest complex, the largest habitat block for Tigers in Thailand,  Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated it could hold 720 Tigers, with the potential to harbour 2,000 if prey densities were to increase.  However, this estimate should be treated as speculative pending further data from other parts of the Western Forest complex, where conditions are unlikely to be as good as in Huai Kha Khaeng.  For example, the distribution map in Thailand's national Tiger action plan portrays approximately half of the Western Forest complex population as low density in comparison to the Huai Kha Khaeng population (Tunhikorn <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In other Thai forest complexes, including Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2001) and the Dong Phayayen-Khai Yai complex (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006), Tigers were few, occurring at much lower densities than would have been predicted on the basis of habitat quality.  Rabinowitz (1993), using presence/absence surveys and a modified arbitrary density estimate of one Tiger per 100 km², estimated the Thai Tiger population at no more than 250.  Estimate range used for global population: 250–720.<br/><br/>Viet Nam: The population was estimated at fewer than 50 Tigers by Nguyen Manh Ha from Vietnam National University, a delegate to the 2009 Global Tiger Workshop International Tiger Symposium (Anonymous 2009c). WWF (2010) estimates “probably no more than <st1:metricconverter productid="30.”" w:st="on">3</st1:metricconverter>0.” According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2004–2005 exercise estimated not more than 100 Tigers in areas along the borders with Lao and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cambodia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (GTF 2007). In 2007, the Vietnamese Red Data Book estimated 150 Tigers (Government   of Viet Nam 2009). All of these estimates (30–150) are based on a poor information base and more study is needed.  <br/><st1:metricconverter productid="30.”" w:st="on"></st1:metricconverter><br/>Follow the link below for further&#160;information about national Tiger population  estimates.	eng
15955	population	Breitenmoser, U., 2008	Scientific efforts to monitor tiger populations and estimate their size have increased in recent years (Gratwicke <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A collation of national tiger estimates is given below.  While some national populations can be estimated with confidence (notably Russia, India and Nepal), most are admittedly more speculative, ranging from application of site-specific density estimates over large areas to outright guesstimates.  Putting all these national estimates together, the global tiger population is estimated to range from 3,402-5,140.  <br/><br/>A previous compilation of national estimates to determine the global population estimated 5,000-7,000 tigers (Seidensticker <em>et al.</em> 1999).  While most of these previous estimates were rough and lacked the scientific rigor that has gone into some recent estimates, so that a direct comparison is unreliable, a global population decline is suggested, as would be expected given the documented range reduction of 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In terms of conserving the wild tiger's genetic biodiversity, population biologists prefer to work with a number that approximates the actual breeding population, the number of animals which raise offspring to reproductive adulthood, or effective population size (Ne).  The number of breeding tigers in one population was equivalent to just 40% of the actual adult population, based on long-term demographic studies in Nepal's Chitwan National Park (Smith and McDougal, 1991).  Therefore, the tiger's effective population size could be in the range of 1,361-2,056 reproductively successful adults.<br/><br/>National tiger population estimates<br/><br/>Bangladesh: Tigers are now largely restricted to the Sundarbans mangrove forest.  Estimating tiger density based on prey density, Khan (2004) estimated the population at 200.  A higher estimate of 419 was obtained by the Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests, which carried out a joint census with their Indian counterparts (MoEF 2004), using a methodology of identifying individual tigers from their tracks which has been criticized as yielding inaccurate results (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Based on the first data on home range collected from two radio-collared female tigers (11.5 and 13.9 km²), Barlow <em>et al.</em> (2007) roughly estimated there could be 95-286 female tigers in the Sundarbans.  Estimate used for global population:  200-419<br/><br/>Bhutan:  Dorji and Santiapillaai (1989) estimated Bhutan's tiger population at 151 (based on track counts) to 250 (extrapolating to unsurveyed areas).  However, the density they used for their extrapolation (1 adult per 40 km²) was high for the more high-altitude parts of their range.  In Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (where tigers have been recorded up to 4,500 m), Wang (2008) estimates, from camera trapping, a density of one tiger per 200 km².  A similar density for the central Himalayan region was obtained from track surveys by McDougal and Tsering in the late 1990s, 1 tiger/185 km².  Overall, their surveys estimated 67-81 adult tigers in Bhutan; this figure is used in the Govt of Bhutan's 2005 National Tiger Action Plan (Sangay and Wangchuk, 2005), although further research is necessary to clarify tiger abundance and distribution in the country (S. Wang pers. comm. 2008).  Estimate used for global population: 67-81<br/><br/>Cambodia:  Several NGOs working on tiger conservation held a meeting in 2004 to review data for the Tiger Conservation Landscape delineation exercise (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  Based on their work, using a range of methodologies including camera traps and field surveys by biologists and community wildlife rangers, Cambodia's tiger population was estimated at 11-50 tigers (Chheang <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>China:  The Govt of China, State Forest Administration, distributed a presentation at the 2007 International Tiger Symposium held April 2007 in Kathmandu, Nepal.  The total tiger population in China was estimated at 37-50, broken down as follows.  Amur tiger <em>P.t. altaica</em> (northeastern China) 18-22; Bengal tiger P.t. tigris (Motuo county, Tibet) 8-12; Indochinese tiger <em>P.t. corbetti</em> (southern Yunnan province) 11-16; South China tiger <em>P.t. amoyensis</em> (southern China) no definite evidence of continued persistence (Govt of China 2007, GTF 2007).  <br/><br/>India:  India's previous national tiger censuses were based on recognition of individual tiger tracks, and in 2001-2002 estimated the population at 3,642 tigers.  This methodology was criticized by leading tiger scientists for being inaccurate and inefficient (Karanth <em>et al.</em> 2003).  A new methodology has been developed as recommended by the 2005 tiger action plan (Govt of India 2005), using GIS mapping systems to extrapolate tiger densities derived from camera trap and sign-based indices of abundance.  The Indian tiger population is now estimated at 1,411 (range 1,165-1,657 (Jhala <em>et al.</em> 2008).  The Indian Sundarbans tiger population was not estimated.  Because of the difference in methodology, it is not clear how much of the reduction from the 2001 estimate is due to actual loss of tigers as opposed to a more accurate census result. <br/><br/>Indonesia:  The Sumatran tiger occurs in about 58,321 km² of forested habitat in 12 potentially isolated Tiger Conservation Landscapes totalling 88,351 km² (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), with about 37,000 km² protected in ten national parks (Govt of Indonesia 2007b).  The tiger population was estimated at 400-500 in the first and second national tiger action plans (Govt of Indonesia 1994, 2007a), and at 342-509 in six major protected areas (estimates from Shepherd and Magnus 2004).  However, incorporating more recent research (Linkie <em>et al.</em> 2006, Govt. of Indonesia 2007b), covering most of tiger estimated habitat (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006), suggests the population could be 441-679 (see Red List assessment of <em>Panthera tigris sumatrae</em> for details).  Understanding of Sumatran tiger status will improve when research in the three Tiger Conservation Landscapes in Riau province by Sunarto <em>et al.</em> (2007) is complete.  Estimate used for global population: 441-679<br/><br/>Lao PDR:  No population estimates are available, and Lao PDR is not included in the global population estimate.  Tigers are known to occur in five (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999) to seven areas (GTF 2007).  One of the largest is the 3,446 km² (+ 854 km² proposed extension) Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area.  Based on camera trapping, tiger density there was estimated at 0.2-0.7 per 100 km², a relatively low density suggesting a population of only 7-23 tigers in the reserve (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Tigers and their large ungulate prey have have been depleted by hunting pressure across the country, and tiger numbers are likely to be low (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).  <br/><br/>Malaysia:  Based on typical prey biomass in tropical rainforests, energetic needs of tigers, estimated tiger densities from studies carried out in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, and others in tropical Asia, and available tiger habitats in Peninsular Malaysia, Kawanishi <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated the national tiger population at 493-1,480 adult tigers.  The lower bound coincides with the previous population estimate for the country (Topani 1990) and is the number selected as feasible by the country's national tiger action plan (DWNP 2008).  However, based on density estimates derived from camera trapping in six sites in Malaysia during the late 1990s, Lynam <em>et al.</em> (2007) suggest a lower  population, "up to several hundred." Estimate range used for global population: 300-493<br/><br/>Myanmar: The national tiger population was estimated at approximately 150, according to extensive surveys covering much of the country (Lynam 2003).  Most tigers (approximately 100) are found in the large Hukaung Tiger reserve in the north of the country (Lynam <em>et al.</em> in prep.).  Tigers have lost much of their historical range in Myanmar, and where they persist are at very low densities.  The other important area for tigers is the forest complex found in northern and southern Taninthayi Division (approx. 50) (Lynam 2003).  <br/><br/>Nepal:  According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2006 exercise, based in part on camera trapping, estimated 350-370 tigers.  The same number was obtained in 2005 and also in 1999-2000, and the population is considered stable (GTF 2007). <br/><br/>North Korea:  There have been no surveys since 1998, when tiger tracks were reported along the border with China (Miquelle 1998).<br/><br/>Russia:  In 2005 a comprehensive winter snow tracking census estimated 331-393 adult/sub-adult tigers.  977 fieldworkers covered 1537 transect routes totalling 26,031 km.  Using a similar methodology, 330-371 adult tigers were estimated in 1996.  The more recent number probably reflects more intensive survey effort (Miquelle <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>Thailand: Tigers occur in 15 spatially disjunct forest complexes in Thailand (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999), and were recorded in six out of seven forest complexes where camera trap surveys were carried out (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006).  The best area for tigers is Huai Kha Khaeng National Park, with an estimated 113 tigers (Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> 2007).  Extrapolating the density obtained from Huai Kha Khaeng (3.98 tigers per 100 km²) to the large 18,000 km² Western Forest complex, the largest habitat block for tigers in Thailand,  Simcharoen <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated it could hold 720 tigers, with the potential to harbor 2,000 if prey densities were to increase.  However, this estimate should be treated as speculative pending further data from other parts of the Western Forest complex, where conditions are unlikely to be as good as in Huai Kha Khaeng.  For example, the distribution map in Thailand's national tiger action plan portrays appoximately half of the Western Forest complex population as low density in comparison to the Huai Kha Khaeng population (Tunhikorn <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In other Thai forest complexes, including Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2001) and the Dong Phayayen-Khai Yai complex (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006), tigers were few, occurring at much lower densities than would have been predicted on the basis of habitat quality.  Rabinowitz (1993), using presence/absence surveys and a modified arbitrary density estimate of 1 tiger per 100 km², estimated the Thai tiger population at no more than 250.  Estimate range used for global population: 250-720.<br/><br/>Viet Nam:  According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2004-2005 exercise estimated not more than 100 tigers in areas along the borders with Lao and Cambodia (GTF 2007).	eng
15955	threats	Breitenmoser, U., 2008	Tiger range has contracted by 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  The sharpest decrease in area occurred in India, where landscapes with tigers were found to be much smaller and more fragmented than previously assessed in 1997.<br/><br/>While the reduction in range is due in some measure to improved knowledge of tiger distribution over the past decade, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider habitat loss and poaching for trade to be primary causes of a significant decline in tiger range and numbers.  <br/><br/>Asia is a densely populated and rapidly developing region, bringing huge pressures to bear on the large wild areas required for viable tiger populations.  Conversion of forest land to agriculture and silviculture, commercial logging, and human settlement are the main drivers of tiger habitat loss.  With their substantial dietary requirements, tigers require a healthy large ungulate prey base, but these species are also under heavy human subsistence hunting pressure and competition from domestic livestock.  Karanth and Stith (1999) consider prey base depletion to be the leading threat to tigers in areas of otherwise suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the early 1990s, it was feared that poaching of tigers for the use of their bones in traditional Asian medicine would drive the tiger to extinction (Nowell, 2000).  Despite strong international action to eliminate it, illegal trade persists (Nowell, 2007).  Tiger bone has long been considered to hold anti-inflammatory properties, with some support from Chinese medical research, but many consider the effect to be more psychological than pharmacological (Nowell and Xu, 2007).  Although all countries have banned use and manufacture of tiger bone, illegal production persists in several Asian countries, especially in China, Malaysia, and Viet Nam (Nowell, 2007).  In China there are several operations engaged in intensive breeding ("farming" of tigers), with the captive population reportedly reaching 5,000.  They are pressuring the government to allow them to produce tiger products, and several are already engaged in illegal production of tiger bone wine.  Market surveys indicate that medicinal use of tiger bone has decreased since China banned tiger bone in 1993.  Tiger farming perpetuates and threatens to re-ignite consumer demand (Nowell and Xu, 2007).<br/><br/>There are other illegal markets for tiger products, especially skins, but also teeth and claws (particularly in Sumatra: Shepherd and Magnus, 2004; Ng and Nemora 2007), contributing to poaching pressure.  But many tigers are also killed by people seeking to protect life and livestock.  Conflict-killed tigers can also feed into the illegal trade.  Many tiger products in trade are faked, a legal "grey area" in several countries which also perpetuates consumer demand (Nowell, 2000).<br/><br/>Tiger attacks on livestock and people can lead to intolerance of tigers by neighbouring communities and presents an ongoing challenge to managers to build local support for tiger conservation.  In some areas there have been many human deaths - for example, 41 people were killed by tigers in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh during an 18-month period in 2001-2003 (Khan 2004).<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about threats to tigers in the areas they work in, and compiled the results to indicate threat prevalence across tiger range.  The top twelve threats are listed below, with their Vulnerability Scores:  high scores indicate the threat is severe (e.g., it is reducing tiger populations), is urgent, and is widespread across tiger range.<br/><br/>Threat                              Vulnerability Score<br/><br/>Lack of law enforcement  1943<br/>Hunting of tiger prey        1936<br/>Low tiger population size    1909<br/>Incidental hunting of tigers  1545<br/>Lack of habitat connectivity  1510<br/>Habitat degradation           1499<br/>Export of tiger parts to other areas     1462<br/>Habitat destruction    1386<br/>Directed hunting of tigers    1325<br/>Resource exploitation  1229<br/>Local trade in tiger parts    1030<br/>Lack of legal protection      586 <br/><br/>Source: Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006: 14)	eng
15955	threats	Chundawat, R.S., Habib, B., Karanth, U., Kawanishi, K., Ahmad Khan, J., Lynam, T., Miquelle, D., Nyhus, P., Sunarto, S., Tilson, R. & Sonam Wang, 2010	Tiger range has contracted by 41% over the last decade (Sanderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).  The sharpest decrease in area occurred in India, where landscapes with tigers were found to be much smaller and more fragmented than previously assessed in 1997.<br/><br/>While the reduction in range is due in some measure to improved knowledge of Tiger distribution over the past decade, Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> (2007) consider habitat loss and poaching for trade to be primary causes of a significant decline in Tiger range and numbers.<br/><br/>Asia is a densely populated and rapidly developing region, bringing huge pressures to bear on the large wild areas required for viable Tiger populations.  Conversion of forest land to agriculture and silviculture, commercial logging, and human settlement are the main drivers of Tiger habitat loss.  With their substantial dietary requirements, tigers require a healthy large ungulate prey base, but these species are also under heavy human subsistence hunting pressure and competition from domestic livestock.  Karanth and Stith (1999) consider prey base depletion to be the leading threat to tigers in areas of otherwise suitable habitat.<br/><br/>In the early 1990s, it was feared that poaching of Tigers for the use of their bones in traditional Asian medicine would drive the Tiger to extinction (Nowell 2000).  Despite strong international action to eliminate it, illegal trade persists (Nowell 2007).  Tiger bone has long been considered to hold anti-inflammatory properties, with some support from Chinese medical research, but many consider the effect to be more psychological than pharmacological (Nowell and Xu 2007).  Although all countries have banned use and manufacture of tiger bone, illegal production persists in several Asian countries, especially in China, Malaysia, and Viet Nam (Nowell 2007).  In China there are several operations engaged in intensive breeding ("farming" of tigers), with the captive population reportedly reaching 5,000.  They are pressuring the government to allow them to produce tiger products, and several are already engaged in illegal production of Tiger bone wine.  Market surveys indicate that medicinal use of Tiger bone has decreased since China banned Tiger bone in 1993.  Tiger farming perpetuates and threatens to re-ignite consumer demand (Nowell and Xu 2007). In 2008 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) adopted a Decision stating that “Tigers should not be bred for trade in their parts and derivatives” (CITES 2008).<br/> <br/>There are other illegal markets for Tiger products, especially skins, but also teeth and claws (particularly in Sumatra: Shepherd and Magnus 2004; Ng and Nemora 2007), contributing to poaching pressure.  But many tigers are also killed by people seeking to protect life and livestock.  Conflict-killed tigers can also feed into the illegal trade.  Many Tiger products in trade are faked, a legal "grey area" in several countries which also perpetuates consumer demand (Nowell 2000).<br/><br/>Tiger attacks on livestock and people can lead to intolerance of Tigers by neighbouring communities and presents an ongoing challenge to managers to build local support for tiger conservation.  In some areas there have been many human deaths - for example, 41 people were killed by Tigers in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh during an 18-month period in 2001-2003 (Khan 2004).<br/><br/>Sanderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about threats to Tigers in the areas they work in, and compiled the results to indicate threat prevalence across Tiger range.  The top twelve threats are listed below, with their Vulnerability Scores:  high scores indicate the threat is severe (e.g., it is reducing Tiger populations), is urgent, and is widespread across Tiger range.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Threat                              Vulnerability Score</span> (Sanderson <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/><br/>Lack of law enforcement  1943<br/>Hunting of Tiger prey        1936<br/>Low Tiger population size    1909<br/>Incidental hunting of tigers  1545<br/>Lack of habitat connectivity  1510<br/>Habitat degradation           1499<br/>Export of Tiger parts to other areas     1462<br/>Habitat destruction    1386<br/>Directed hunting of Tigers    1325<br/>Resource exploitation  1229<br/>Local trade in Tiger parts    1030<br/>Lack of legal protection      586	eng
15962	distribution	Ario, A., Sunarto, S. & Sanderson, J., 2008	Confined to Java. Camera tapped in (2004) in Gunung Gede National Park.  Other onfirmed records from Gunung Halimun, Ujung Kulon, (Western Java) and Meru Betiri (East Java).	eng
15962	population	Ario, A., Sunarto, S. & Sanderson, J., 2008	Population estimates are not certain, but certainly less than 250 mature individuals (possibly even less than 100)	eng
15962	threats	Ario, A., Sunarto, S. & Sanderson, J., 2008	Human population growth and loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion.	eng
15966	threats	Linkie, M., Wibisono, H.T., Martyr, D.J. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Habitat loss due to expansion of oil palm plantations and planting of Acacia plantations. Illegal trade, primarily for domestic market. Prey-base depletion.	eng
15967	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Listed on Appendix I of CITES. The Chiru is legally protected in China and India, but enforcement of the law over the vast area of its habitat has been problematic, but enforcement efforts have recently been intensified (Zhen 1999; China Daily 2004), public awareness of the Chiru within China has increased, and some populations have evidently begun to respond (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2003). Occurs in Qiantang, Kekexili, Arjin Shan and Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserves and Jung Kunlun provincial nature reserve. Since 2002, IFAW has organized and sponsored an annual workshop for nature reserve staff and other officials from the three Chinese provinces where the majority of the population is concentrated (Tibet, Qinghai, Xinjiang).	eng
15967	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Formerly ranged across the whole Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Range decreased and now absent from all or most of the eastern plateau; the main stronghold of the species is in the remote Chang Tang area of north-western Tibet (Schaller 1998). A small number occur seasonally in northeast Ladakh, in the extreme north of India. Formerly occurred in a small area of northwest Nepal (Schaller 1977).	eng
15967	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Inhabit high altitude plains, undulating hills plateaux and montane valleys at elevations of 3,700-5,500 m (Schaller 1998). Most populations are highly migratory or nomadic (Schaller 1998; Schaller <em>et al.</em> 2006), moving hundreds of kilometres between summer and winter ranges. Some populations migrate over much shorter distances (Harris and Miller 1995). Males and females are usually separate except for the mating period. Females congregate to give birth in traditional birthing grounds, some of which e.g. Central Kunlun have only recently been identified. The ecological parameters of these sites are not fully understood.	eng
15967	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Numbers were estimated at <75,000 by Schaller (1998). Following that, Feng (1999) estimated a population size of 100,000 to 120,000, while Xi and Wang (2004) guessed 150,000. However, these figures are speculative and rigorous population estimates over the entire Chiru range are urgently needed.	eng
15967	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Chiru have long been hunted for their underfur (shahtoosh), which is renowned for its quality and which has traditionally been transported to Srinagar in Kashmir, where it is woven into an extremely fine fabric used to make shawls. This hunting escalated to a commercial scale in the late 1980s and 1990s, becoming the major threat to Chiru and leading to a severe decline in numbers (Wright and Kumar 1997). Measures to restrict illegal hunting and smuggling of the product have become increasingly effective, though the problem has not been eliminated. Horns of the males have also been traditionally used as gun rests, and to a limited extent in traditional Chinese medicine. Other important threats include expansion of livestock herding into remote and previously unused areas (Fox and Bårdsen 2005), road building (facilitating the above and illegal hunting), fencing of pastures on the Tibetan plateau, and construction of the Beijing-Lhasa railway which threatened to divide Chiru range. Engineering measures, including ?underpasses?, now appear to be having some beneficial effect. Chiru are also vulnerable to severe winter conditions. An exceptional snowstorm in Qinghai in 1985 caused high mortality and led to their disappearance from some areas especially in the eastern part of their range (Schaller and Ren 1988).	eng
15968	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs on the upper shore-line; also occurs below low-water level in mangrove swamps, under stones or matted algae. On land it occurs in moist earth under stones on hillsides.	eng
15968	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Could be affected by the development of tourist facilities.	eng
15975	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D., Amori, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from the Rutong Protection Forest. Further surveys are needed into the distribution, and persistance of this species to severe hunting pressure and habitat modification.	eng
15975	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D., Amori, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Flores island, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded between sea level and high elevations on Flores.	eng
15975	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D., Amori, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is believed to occur in a range of forest types, including disturbed areas and secondary growth, but is not expected to be present in heavily cleared areas.	eng
15975	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D., Amori, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance is not known, but it may be a common species. Populations may be declining, but this needs to be confirmed. It is known by extant specimens as well as subfossil fragments 3000-4000 years old (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
15975	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D., Amori, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The large species is directly hunted for food, but it is unclear if this is resulting in significant population declines. It is possibly not heavily impacted by habitat loss due to the rugged nature of Flores island. Cats and dogs are considered predators on this species (Suyanto 1998).	eng
15993	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix I. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In France and Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.	eng
15993	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Its elevational range is between 400-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
15993	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Corsican Swallowtail is a butterfly of open, grassy slopes, often with some scattered rocks and bushes and of slopes with low-growing scrub. Just as the Swallowtail, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. machaon</span>, these butterflies show hill-topping behaviour, the males assembling on hilltops or other prominent features in the landscape, waiting for the females to arrive. In Corsica, they are found on three different foodplants, Giant Fennel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula communis</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruta corsica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Peucedanum paniculatum</span>, different populations being strictly bound to one type of foodplant. However, in Sardinia, the caterpillars are only found on Giant Fennel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferula communis</span>). The Corsican Swallowtail has one generation a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. On Corsica reported to do well after forest fires. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).	eng
15993	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
15993	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
16012	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
16012	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone and rivers.	eng
16012	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Epibenthic on sand and mud substrates. Often found in weedy areas of intertidal zone and in the mangroves. Enters estuaries, lagoons and rivers (Maugé 1986).	eng
16012	habitat	Skelton, P., 1996	Found over sandy and muddy bottoms, often in weedy areas of the intertidal zone; also in mangroves, estuaries, lagoons and rivers.	eng
16012	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
16012	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
16018	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	It is listed as Class B under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. This species is protected in the Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal), where densities of 2-15 individuals/km² have been estimated, and in Outamba-Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone.	eng
16018	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This west African species ranges from southern Mauritania and Mali to Guinea and north-western Sierra Leone (see Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998 for discussion about occurrence in this country). Along its eastern limits, the Guinea baboon may be hybridising with the larger Olive Baboon <em>Papio anubis</em>.	eng
16018	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species inhabits woodlands, savanna, and Sahelian steppe within reach of water. It also inhabits gallery forests and secondary forest in the south of its range. Rich food resources and good protection in the Niokolo Koba National Park in Senegal allow large aggregations of harem groups, numbering 10-200 (sometimes >500) individuals, to forage together. Guinea Baboons eat seeds, shoots, roots, fruits, fungi, invertebrates, small vertebrates, and eggs. Where agriculture has expanded, rice, maize, yams, groundnuts, and other cultivated crops are also taken.	eng
16018	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	They are reported to be common in many parts of their range (e.g., The Gambia and south-eastern Guinea-Bissau), and although patchily distributed even appear to be relatively abundant in a few places.	eng
16018	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Outside the Niokolo-Koba National Park, this species has undergone widespread declines as a result of extensive agricultural expansion, tree-felling, and direct hunting for crop protection and for meat in Guinea. In the past, large numbers were exported for laboratory use, particularly in Senegal.	eng
16019	conservation	Gippoliti, S. & Ehardt, T., 2008	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES, and is classed as Vermin in the African Convention along with all other species of baboon. A 'pure' subpopulation of this species is found in the Simien Mountains National Park, while <em>P. hamadryas-P. anubis</em> hybrids occur in the Awash National Park. In addition, the species occurs in the proposed Yangudi Rassa National Park, the Harar Wildlife Sanctuary, and a number of Wildlife Reserves in the lower Awash valley and in northern Eritrea (although it is important to note that the Awash reserves are all affected by agricultural schemes).	eng
16019	distribution	Gippoliti, S. & Ehardt, T., 2008	This species occurs in north-east Africa. It is principally found in Ethiopia, although its range extends from the Red Sea Hills and Suakin (Sudan) through Eritrea and Djibouti (especially in the Goda Mountains) to northern Somalia. It is also found in the Red Sea Hills in the south-west Arabian Peninsula opposite the Horn of Africa. Historically, its range extended into Egypt, but not into recent times (i.e., post 1500AD; see Osborn and Osbornová 1998).	eng
16019	habitat	Gippoliti, S. & Ehardt, T., 2008	This species inhabits arid subdesert, steppe, hillsides, escarpments, and mountains bordering the Red Sea, generally at altitudes up to 1,500 m. However, it appears to be seasonally migratory in at least some parts of its range in Ethiopia, where bands may move up into neighbouring mountainous areas (up to 3,300 m in the Simien Mountains National Park) in the wet season. This species is dependent on water, and is never found far from water sources. It is an opportunistic omnivore, and seasonally important foods include grass, buds, invertebrates, and the fruits of desert plants (notably heglig <em>Balanites</em> and buffalo thorn <em>Ziziphus</em>). The basic social unit consists of one male and several females.	eng
16019	population	Gippoliti, S. & Ehardt, T., 2008	This species is abundant, with the majority of the population in Ethiopia, and may even have increased because of loss of predators and small-scale agriculture. Kunzel <em>et al.</em> (2000) estimated the total population in Djibouti at around 2,000 animals, and that the population was stable.	eng
16019	threats	Gippoliti, S. & Ehardt, T., 2008	There are no major range-wide threats at present, although locally it may be at risk through loss of habitat due to major agricultural expansion and irrigation projects. In addition, adult males are hunted for their skins (which are used to embellish ceremonial cloaks in Ethiopia). They were formerly trapped in large numbers for medical research.	eng
16021	conservation	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES. It is listed as Vermin under the African Convention. It is present in many protected areas. Research into the boundaries and possible reasons for separation into distinctly eastern and western subspecies could be useful.	eng
16021	distribution	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species ranges from Somalia, coastal Kenya, and northern Tanzania southwards to the Zambezi valley, and across south-central Africa to central Angola (Benguela) (Jolly 1993). There are hybrid zones with <em>Papio anubis</em> near Sultan Hamud, Kenya (2°02'S, 37°23'E), Amboseli National Park (Kenya) and Mkomazi Reserve in Tanzania. There is a broad clinal hybrid zone between Laikipia District, just to the north-east and east of Mt. Kenya, and the Lower Tana River, Kenya coast. Baboons in this >200-km wide region are intermediate and cannot be readily allocated to either <em>P. anubis</em> or <em>P. cynocephalus</em> (baboons become increasingly “yellow-like” in their phenotypes towards the Kenya Coast; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Sympatric with <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em>, <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are three subspecies: <em>P. c. cynocephalus</em> occurs in the central and south-eastern parts of the range including Zambia east of the Luangwa, Malawi, northern Mozambique, and most of Tanzania; <em>P. c. ibeanus</em> is found in southern Somalia, and south-east and coastal Kenya; <em>P. c. kindae</em> is found on the upper Zambezi in south-western Zambia.	eng
16021	habitat	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Over a great part of this species' range, it is specific to fire-climax Miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em>) woodland. Both within this zone and especially to the north-east, it also occupies dry bushland, thickets, steppes, and the coastal littoral (including mangroves); able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated area. It is an opportunistic omnivore which primarily feeds on the seeds, flesh, and pods of the leguminous trees including <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Albizia</em>, mopane (<em>Colophospermum</em>), and tamarind, all of which are seasonal staples. In addition, Miombo fauna such as mopane worms and various other insects are equally important at times. In addition, this species also eats grasses, shoots, fungi, lichens, and many invertebrates. It prefers foods with an unusual chemistry, implying that this species has acquired special digestive adaptations. This may help to explain why the boundaries of its distribution do not follow any geographic discontinuities but coincide very closely with the distribution of a plant community (Jolly 1993; Kingdon 1997).<br/><br/>The Yellow Baboon typically forages in extended, well-spaced troops which can occasionally number up to 300 animals (with an average of 30-80). During the calving season, many young antelopes and hares are caught.	eng
16021	population	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is widespread and locally common, but patchily distributed over its extensive range.	eng
16021	threats	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it has been locally displaced by agriculture and tree clearance in some parts of the range (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). In addition, it is commonly exported from East Africa for medical research.	eng
16022	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Hilton-Taylor, C., 2008	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES. Occurs in numerous protected areas across its range.	eng
16022	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Hilton-Taylor, C., 2008	This species ranges all over southern Africa, up to the Zambezi valley (and including south-west Zambia; see Ansell 1978), Caprivi, and southern Angola littoral. Altitudinal range is from sea level to >2,100 m<br/><br/>There are two subspecies: <em>P. u. griseipes</em> occurs in south-west Zambia, Botswana (Okavango Delta), Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, south of the Zambezi; <em>P. u. ursinus</em> occurs in the remainder of the range, in all provinces in South Africa and throughout Namibia.	eng
16022	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Hilton-Taylor, C., 2008	The Chacma Baboon occupies all types of woodland, savanna, steppes and subdesert, montane regions (such as the high elevations of the Drakensberg), Cape Fynbos and Succulent Karoo. Cliffs, hills or large trees are necessary night-time retreats. In some habitats, such as in the Namib Desert, habitat choice is infuenced by predation risk. This species is totally dependent on drinking daily, and water availability limits its overall range in Namibia. However, one troop in the Kuiseb Canyon, Namib Desert, balanced its water requirements with moisture from nearby plants and conserved water by resting and sleeping during the hottest part of the day. Through this adaptation to their arid environment they temporarily overcame restrictions imposed by the need for regular drinking and were observed to survive without water for up to 11 days and even longer. In dry localities, artificial water supplies have allowed substantial expansion of territority. This species is an opportunistic omnivore, and shows a local preference for bulbs, shoots, roots, seeds, or fruits. Invertebrates, small vertebrates, seashore life, fungi, and lichen are eaten as and when available. Occasionally, they may take small antelopes or the young of species like Impala <em>Aepyceros melampus</em>. Crops (maize, tomatoes, citrus and root crops) are raided in settled areas. Lambs and small stock are taken in some ranching areas.<br/><br/>Troops average between 20 and 50 animals, but may total up to 130 individuals. Multi-male hierarchies are normal, though smaller troops may only have a single male (in one study in the Drakensberg, one-male groups made up 50% of groups recorded above 2,100 m).	eng
16022	population	Hoffmann, M. & Hilton-Taylor, C., 2008	This species is common and widespread. Densities can range from 3 or 4 up to 40/km² in some protected localities.	eng
16022	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Hilton-Taylor, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although problem animals may be shot as vermin. Animals are also hunted locally as parts of dead baboons are offered for sale in markets in South Africa for traditional medicinal use, but this is not considered a major threat	eng
16023	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I., Vázquez, E., Cuarón, A. & Álvarez, S., 2008	This species needs protection from persecution by farmers and conservation of its remaining habitat. This species was recently searched for and was not found within its range (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002), despite a previous study finding the species to be abundant. More field work needs to be undertaken to better understand the status of this species.	eng
16023	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I., Vázquez, E., Cuarón, A. & Álvarez, S., 2008	This species is known from south Jalisco (Mexico), in the Sierra del Tigre (Patton 2005).	eng
16023	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I., Vázquez, E., Cuarón, A. & Álvarez, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in pine-oak forests with iron-rich soils (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16023	population	Castro-Arellano, I., Vázquez, E., Cuarón, A. & Álvarez, S., 2008	This species was recently searched for and was not found within its range (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). A previous study in 1997-1998, focusing on burrowing habitats of this gopher, found the species to be abundant in its range (S. Alvarez pers. comm.).	eng
16023	threats	Castro-Arellano, I., Vázquez, E., Cuarón, A. & Álvarez, S., 2008	It is persecuted by farmers as a pest. Its habitat is being deforested for timber and agriculture.	eng
16024	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of its range falls within a protected area.	eng
16024	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima (Mexico) (Patton 2005). It occurs from sea level on the Pacific coast to above 3,200 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16024	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This rodent is predominantly a montane species, occurring in soils mostly of volcanic origin in the pine-oak forests, and is most abundant at higher elevations in meadows supporting grasses and forbs. Burrows sometimes extended into adjacent forest. It occurs near corn and open fields where the soil is sufficiently deep. It can be found in semitropical environments in larger canyons dissecting the western slope of the coastal range where it is associated with tropical shrubs, especially in cultivated areas. Roots of xerophytic shrubs, grasses, and forbs are eaten by <em>P. bulleri</em> (Soler-Frost <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is known to tolerate anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
16024	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is abundant within its range (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16024	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
16025	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	There are several protected areas within this species' range.	eng
16025	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is known from the south-central USA and north-eastern Mexico. It occurs from the Arkansas River drainage in south-eastern Colorado and western Kansas southward to south of the Rio Grande in eastern Chihuahua and north-eastern Durango.	eng
16025	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Yellow-faced Pocket Gophers are found in light soils such as the sandy/silty soils of valleys and river bottoms. When forced to inhabit rocky or dense soil areas this species does poorly and has lower population densities. Throughout its range, these areas of suitable soil correspond with mesquite and cactus communities in the west, and grassland communities in the east. <br/><br/>The burrow system of this species may be up to 76 m long, including a main shaft with several shorter tunnels branching off to serve as foraging routes, as well as a deeper tunnel area with the nest and food storage areas. These burrows are occupied by one individual, except during the mating season when a pair may inhabit a burrow.  <br/>The diet consists mainly of the underground portions of plants and low-growing green vegetation. Females typically have two litters per year, one in early spring and the other in late summer, with 1-3 young in each litter (Davidow-Henry 1989).	eng
16025	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
16025	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, like many other gophers, this species is considered an agricultural pest and may cause damage to orchards and crops. As a result populations are often reduced by trapping and use of rodenticide (Davidow-Henry 1989). Populations may also be controlled by managing for the presence of large predatory birds including hawks and owls.	eng
16026	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas.	eng
16026	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt at the southern end of the Mexican Plateau from the states of Jalisco and Colima in the west to Hildago and the state of Mexico in the east (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). It ranges in elevations from about 300 m to 3,370 m asl. It is found usually at 2,000 m asl or higher in most of its range, but in Colima and south-western Jalisco populations occur at lower elevations.	eng
16026	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This gopher prefers volcanic soils (>1 m in depth) (Demastes <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its primary habitat includes pine and oak forests and grasslands, but it can also live in degraded habitats and agricultural lands.	eng
16026	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is relatively common throughout its range.	eng
16026	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement. This species also is persecuted as a pest in parts of its range. Isolated populations in Colima, Lago de Morenos in Jalisco, and in Querétaro are particularly at risk.	eng
16028	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range.	eng
16028	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Merriam's Pocket Gopher is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in the southern part of the Valley of Mexico, Sierra de Las Cruces, Sierra de Ajusco, the Popocatépetl-Iztaccíhutl range, and from Lerma to western Puebla in the Valley of Toluca (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species ranges in elevation from 1,800 m to 4,000 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16028	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak. It is also known to occur in agricultural lands and rangelands (Whisson and Villa-C 1994).	eng
16028	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is patchily distributed, but common to abundant.	eng
16028	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.	eng
16039	conservation	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to confirm the taxonomic status, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16039	distribution	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Vinh, Nghe An Province, in central Viet Nam.	eng
16039	habitat	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	Nothing is known about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.	eng
16039	population	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species as it is known only from the holotype.	eng
16039	threats	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
16042	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
16042	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known by a single museum specimen collected from Sibatwa at 2,000 m asl in the Itombwe Mountains, in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1908. There appear to have been no additional field surveys in this area since the early 1900s.	eng
16042	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	The holotype was collected in montane forest.	eng
16042	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
16042	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
16043	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Kasangaki <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded the species from the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in southwestern Uganda. It is also knonw from the Ruwenzori National Park in Uganda, and Kibira National Park in Burundi. There is a need to prevent further loss of suitable habitat within the range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution and population status.	eng
16043	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from the Albertine Rift region of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda. It has an elevational range of between 850 and 2,680 m asl.	eng
16043	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Many of the records of this species are from montane tropical moist forest, including both primary and secondary forest. It has been recorded from areas of montane swamp at 2,200 m asl in Burundi, and from patches of mixed forest and bamboo habitat in other parts of its range.	eng
16043	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This is a relatively rare species.	eng
16043	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There has already been considerable habitat loss within the lower elevations of this species range. Presumably this is largely the result of logging operations, and the general conversion of land to agricultural use. Habitat loss at Kibira, Burundi, seems to have been quite severe in recent years with approximately 25% of forest now cleared or degraded (Julian Kerbis pers. comm.).	eng
16067	distribution	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Restricted to six hydrologically isolated anchialine caves in Bermuda.	eng
16067	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Inhabits six caves in Bermuda, all which lack a direct connection with the sea. Chalk Cave and Christie's Cave are ca. 50 m from open water, Roadside Cave is 110 m and Tucker's Town Cave is 124 m from open water. Roadside Cave, Southdown Cave and Tucker's Town Cave have a tidal range of 57%, 48% and 62% respectively, that of the open water, and have tidal lag times of 80 min, 82 min and 58 min respectively. The most abundant population was found in Devonshire Cave, where 49 specimens were collected. Some of the specimens were observed swimming slowly along the substrate while the endopod of the maxilliped vibrated rapidly stirring up particles from the bottom.	eng
16074	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
16074	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Karakum desert (including those near Caspian Sea, Nebit-Dag), Kyzylkum desert (including Aral sea area), and Deshte-Kevir desert (NE Iran).	eng
16074	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits sandy deserts with shrubs. Fast and agile runner (up to 9 m/sec), can jump up to 3 m long and 1.5 high. Orientational vertical jumps at the same place are characteristic to the species. Makes burrows in moist sand if dry qucksand layer above is not more than 15-20 cm thick. At the entrance there is a long sand emission (up to 1,5 m). Wintering and reproduction burrows are up to 5 m long and 3 m deep. All burrows entrances except one-day-use, are plugged with sand. Feed on young shrub shoots (especially white saxaul), grass, and seeds. Most probably doesn't consume animal food at all. Feeding route could be up to 700 m. Reproduce twice per season, young females do not reproduce on the year they are born. Litter size is 1-6, 3-4 in average. Enters hibernation when temperture reach -16 to -18 C (in southern Karakum in Decmber-January). Before that active even if night temperature is -20 C.	eng
16074	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Population size can be quite high, up to 10-15 individuals per 1 km of tracking.	eng
16074	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
16104	conservation	Muddapa D. & Choudbury, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), as well as Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). This species is likely to be found in 25 protected areas within its distribution (Ashraf <em>et al,</em> 1993). It was recorded from Kalakad-Mudanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa, 2002). More surveys are needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, due to concern about threats from commercial plantations of coffee, tee, Eucalyptus spp, and teak, as well as other development activities (Menon and Bawa, 1997; Rajamani <em>et al, </em>2002). Long-term protection of primary rainforests, both large tracts as well as fragments, is imperative to the conservation of this species (Rajamani <em>et al,</em> 2002). More surveys are urgently needed to determine the true abundance and distribution of this species. More information about possible threats would allow more certainty over its status.	eng
16104	distribution	Muddapa D. & Choudbury, A., 2008	This species is found in southern India (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), where it is found in the Western Ghats (Pocock 1939, Corbet and Hill 1992, Mudappa 1998).The distribution of this species has been poorly documented due to its nocturnal and arboreal habits (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002).	eng
16104	habitat	Muddapa D. & Choudbury, A., 2008	It has been recorded in evergreen forest and occasionally in coffee plantations (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It was most common in altitudes above 1,000 m, though they were seen as low as 700 m (Mudappa, 2002).<br/><br/>It is largely arboreal and nocturnal, and mainly frugivorous, feeding on nearly 40 rainforest tree and liana fruit species, though it does supplement its diet with birds, rodents, and insescts (Pocock 1939). It is often found in coffee plantations (Pocock 1939). This species is often sighted in elevated (above 500 m) moist forest (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). It is nocturnal and predominantly arboreal, but is often found on the ground, as indicated by success in trapping and camera trapping (Mudappa, 2002). It is known mostly from tropical rainforests (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002), but has been recorded from coffee estates in Coorg and Anamalais (Ryley, 1913; Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993; Mudappa, 2001). In a survey conducted in the Western Ghats in 2001-02, all 23 sightings of this species were in evergreen forests, including five in high altitude montane evergreen forest or sholas (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It was recorded in both undisturbed, large patches of contiguous forest, as well as in fragments surrounded by plantations of tea, and human habitations (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). They were recorded on forest trails and along main roads, often exposed to traffic (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Rajamani <em>et al</em> (2002) found that this species may be more dependent on the structure and floristics of forests, rather than on altitude.	eng
16104	population	Muddapa D. & Choudbury, A., 2008	The population status is poorly known. It is not as rare as it was previously generally believed to be, at least in relatively undisturbed rainforest (Mudappa, 2002). It was the most frequently seen small carnivore in Kalakad-Mudanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) between May 1996 and December 1999 (Mudappa, 2002). The abundance of this species has been poorly documented due to its nocturnal and arboreal habits (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Ryley (1913) found then to be fairly abundant in Coorg, though not nearly as common as <em>Paradoxerus hermaphroditus</em> (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). Recent studies suggest that this species is not as rare as it was thought to be (Mudappa, 2001; Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). It appears to be fairly common in Kakachi-Upper Kodayar (Ganesh, 1997) and other areas above 1,000 m within the KMTR in the Agasthyamalai hills and also in the Anamalai hills (Mudappa, 2001).	eng
16104	threats	Muddapa D. & Choudbury, A., 2008	Populations may be threatened by habitat destruction due to mining activities in Kudremukh (which has since been closed by the government), hydroelectric projects in Anamalais, and large-scale plantations of coffee, cardamom, and tea in and around protected areas (Ashraf <em>et al,</em> 1993). Hunting is unlikely to be a major threat to this species, however, illegal hunting is still common in privately owned plantations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). As it is highly frugivorous and arboreal, fragmentation of rainforest habitat is likely a threat to this species (Mudappa, 2002). Due to its mainly frugivorous and arboreal habits, it can survive in heavily encroached areas provided some fragments remain with relatively unbroken canopy and adequate food resources, such as coffee and cardamom plantation, but not tea, Eucalyptus, or teak (Rajamani <em>et al</em>, 2002). The species is tolerant of fragmented landscapes (Mudappa in press).	eng
16109	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species is currently listed as endangered under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.  In response to this, the Tasmanian Inland Fisheries Service has produced a recovery plan for this, and other, Galaxiidae species (Jackson 2004).  <br/><br/>The Tasmanian Inland Fisheries Act 1995 prohibits collecting of any freshwater species without permit.  <em>P mesotes</em> is a ‘priority species requiring consideration’ under the Tasmanian Regional Forest Agreement 1997, identified as requiring further research to determine its management requirements.  Arthurs and Woods lakes and their fish populations are included in technical studies being conducted by Hydro Tasmania for development of a Water Management Plan under the Water Management Act 1999 (Jackson 2004).<br/><br/>An informal minimum lake level agreement between Inland Fisheries Service (IFS) and Hydro Tasmania since 1995 is intended to keep the lake above a minimum water level of 735.40 meters above sea level to reduce the risk of high turbidity events. A minimum lake level agreement in place for Arthurs Lake to maintain angling amenity also reduces the potential for extensive habitat dewatering (Jackson 2004).<br/><br/><em>P. mesotes</em> was reintroduced to Woods Lake in late 2002, with 174 individuals released at two adjacent rocky sites (Jackson 2004).  What had changed to make it possible for the translocated fish to survive in Woods Lake any better than the previously resident stocks that had disappeared is unclear, as are the results of the transfer (McDowall 2006).   <br/><br/>Future conservation strategies include habitat management, monitoring of populations, trout management, genetic research and communication. Research into the habitat requirements and life history of <em>P. mesotes</em> is needed to determine appropriate habitat management, particularly of water levels. Woods Lake requires monitoring designed to determine whether the reintroduced fish establish a breeding population there (Jackson 2004).	eng
16109	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia.  It was previously restricted to Arthurs Lake and Woods Lake on Tasmania's central plateau (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002), but today only the Arthurs Lake population remains (DEH 2005).  Despite extensive survey effort over the last decade, the species has not been recorded in Woods Lake since 1989. <br/><br/>When <em>P. mesotes</em> was found in both Woods and Arthurs Lakes, its area of occupancy was estimated to have been approximately 75 km². Based on the likelihood that the species no longer occurs in Woods Lake, its area of occupancy has declined to approximately 62 km². Additionally, the species' extent of occurrence was previously estimated to be approximately 180 km², but following its apparent disappearance from Woods Lake, the extent of occurrence for the Arthurs <em>Paragalaxias</em> is estimated to have declined to approximately 87 km² (DEH 2005).	eng
16109	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. mesotes</em> is a demersal species that inhabits lacustrine habitats near the shore, amongst rocks or vegetation, down to a depth of 4-5 meters.   It is also found in pools of outlet streams.  Little is known about the biology of this species (Allen<em> et al.</em> 2002).	eng
16109	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
16109	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Habitat quality and availability for <em>P. mesotes</em> fluctuates in both Woods and Arthurs lakes as water levels change due to extraction for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Although the exact spawning habitat of this species is not known, other galaxiid species deposit eggs under rocks in shallow waters. These shallow areas are often subject to drying, and given that rocky areas occur around the shore in Woods Lake, it is possible that a slight drop in water level may expose a large width of shoreline, potentially displacing fish from important breeding habitat. Low water levels are also linked to high turbidity as a result of wind-driven sediment disturbance. Over the past decade, Woods Lake has experienced two events of extremely high turbidity, one in 1995 and one in mid 2000. High turbidity is considered to increase the risk of harmful algal blooms and fish gill erosion, which has the capacity to cause high mortality among fish populations (DEH 2005).<br/><br/>It is likely that Brown Trout (<em>Salmo trutta</em>) have been present in Woods Lake for over a century. Whilst they are likely to prey on <em>P. mesotes</em>, the degree of predation is not known. Given that the species remains common in Arthurs Lake, which also contains Brown Trout, it is unlikely that predation pressure alone is the cause of the species decline in Woods Lake (DEH 2005).  Rainbow trout is also present in both Arthurs and Woods lake (McDowall 2006).  <br/><br/>The two populations were fragmented by the construction of Arthurs Dam in 1965, which totally blocks flow from Arthurs Lake to Woods Lake under normal conditions. Movement of fish would probably have been in the downstream direction (Jackson 2004).	eng
16110	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None known.	eng
16110	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.	eng
16110	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.	eng
16110	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required such as perennial management of good quality running waters.	eng
16110	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.	eng
16110	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan; likely to be present in Egypt.	eng
16110	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Air mountains of northern Niger. Likely to occur in Tibesti mountains in northern Chad (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in Niger (Air Mts), Sudan (Red Sea Hills), Egypt (Sinai), Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.	eng
16110	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Saharan Africa to southeast Arabia, in northern Niger (Air Mts.), Sudan (Red Sea Hills), Egypt (Sinai), Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.	eng
16110	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Present in deposition pools within seasonal streams within wadis in mountain areas; stagnant and near-stagnant but permanent waters in desert environments.	eng
16110	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Running waters in desert environments (wadis).	eng
16110	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Running waters in desert environments (wadis).	eng
16110	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Stagnant and near-stagnant but permanent waters in desert environments.	eng
16110	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
16110	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Current population size is unknown.	eng
16110	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Current population size is unknown.	eng
16110	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
16110	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Drought in the Air region is causing ground water levels to decline but this is not thought currently to be heavily impacting the permanent water systems. In the south of the Air region overgrazing is causing increased sedimention and uranium mining is also taking place but the impacts of these threats are currently unknown. (Mahamane pers. com.).	eng
16110	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought.	eng
16110	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.	eng
16110	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water management by locals (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought are threats to the species.<br/><br/>Drought in the Air region (Niger) is causing ground water levels to decline but this is not thought currently to be heavily impacting the permanent water systems. In the south of the Air region overgrazing is causing increased sedimention and uranium mining is also taking place but the impacts of these threats are currently unknown. (Mahamane pers. comm.).	eng
16114	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The range falls within the Lorentz National Park and probably other protected areas.	eng
16114	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is widespread from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west, along the Central Cordillera and outlying ranges, to south-eastern Papua New Guinea in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 500 to 2,200 m asl (may occur at lower altitudes according to unconfirmed records).	eng
16114	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been collected on stream banks, in forests, in streamside vegetation and in rural gardens. It burrows into stream banks or under rocks. Females give birth to a litter of two young.	eng
16114	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not common in heavily disturbed areas.	eng
16114	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
16115	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.	eng
16115	habitat	Kaufman, L., 1996	Inhabits shallow inshore regions of the main lake and the lake ward inlets to the marginal swamps; over sand, sand with mud-detritus overlay and deep mud.	eng
16118	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
16118	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
16118	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
16118	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.	eng
16118	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
16119	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
16119	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
16119	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.	eng
16119	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
16119	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
16121	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution and ecology of the species are needed.	eng
16121	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is known only from three mountain ranges – the Cyclops, Princess Alexandra, and Bewani (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Although the extent of occurrence is mapped much more widely (without fine resolution), the actual extent of occurrence is suspected to be less than 200 km² in total. It is not found below 1,200 m asl, and ranges as high as 1,700 m asl.	eng
16121	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It has been recorded from mossy and non-mossy tropical montane forest.	eng
16121	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It appears to be uncommon.	eng
16121	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food by local people. Lower elevation forest is quite degraded, and this impacts the quality of forests at higher elevations in parts of this species' range.	eng
16122	conservation	Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if populations are present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to these populations.	eng
16122	distribution	Helgen, K., 2008	This taxon has been recorded from three localities along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from Mount Wilhelmina, Papua Province, Indonesia and from the Tifalmin valley in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea. Populations at each of the three known sites are considered to represent separate unpublished species (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It has been recorded from between 1,800 and 2,800 m asl.	eng
16122	habitat	Helgen, K., 2008	It appears to be largely restricted to medium to high elevation forest; it has been recorded from an area of disturbed forest (Flannery 1995). Little more is currently known about the natural history species.	eng
16122	population	Helgen, K., 2008	It is extremely abundant at the type locality on Mount Wilhelmina. There is no information about the population status at the other locations.	eng
16122	threats	Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known whether or not there are major threats to this species. Populations appear to have restricted distributions.	eng
16125	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
16125	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on soft substrates It is known from all four countries coastlines (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).	eng
16125	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species thrives from shore to about 60 meters in depth in fine sediment, rocky shores and sandy sites.	eng
16125	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species occurs in groups of 10s-100s of individuals in appropriate substrates.	eng
16125	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
16126	conservation	Nicayennzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	No conservation measures are currently known to be in place for this species. Recommended actions include species-specific survey work to discover whether this species also occurs in Lake Malawi and development of a habitat conservation plan for the species.	eng
16126	distribution	Nicayennzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found on all four coastlines.	eng
16126	habitat	Nicayennzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Restricted to mud, silt and sand substrates in moderate to deep water (10–150 m depth).	eng
16126	threats	Nicayennzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Common threats in Lake Tanganyika are sedimentation and pollution.	eng
16127	distribution	Hamer, M., 1996	Only known from the Kalk Bay Caves, Western Cape.	eng
16129	conservation		This species is found in Tam Dao, which is an undefined National Park, and has also been found in Ba Be National Park. There are two locations west of the Red River, Lao Cay and Yen Bai that are in a region proposed for a National Park. It is included under Viet Nam protective legislation. Setting up managed <em>ex-situ</em> assurance colonies among zoos and competent hobbyists is recommended.	eng
16129	distribution		This species was originally known only from the Tam Dao mountain ridge in northern Viet Nam. It has now been found in more than ten localities in Bac Kan, Ha Giang, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, Tay Nguyen, and Lao Cai Provinces, all in Viet Nam. It occurs from about 600-1,200m asl.	eng
16129	habitat		It inhabits streams in evergreen hill forest, including small natural and artificial impoundments. It breeds in small pools in streams where larval development takes place.	eng
16129	population		Its population apparently is relatively stable, and it is not particularly rare locally.	eng
16129	threats		Habitat loss, due to agriculture and human settlement, pollution, and harvesting for food, medicine and the pet trade, are threats to this species.	eng
16138	conservation	Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & Morris, K., 2008	The Dibbler is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs in a few protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the species for the 2003-2013 period (Friend 2004). Captive breeding has allowed for the translocation of Dibblers to three locations.<br/><br/>Recommendations in the recovery plan (Friend 2004), include: monitoring known populations; surveying for additional populations; protecting populations from threatening processes (including the prevention of exotic predators from the islands, controlling foxes and cats at mainland sites, implementing fire management, preventing the spread of <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>); studying the feasibility of eradicating introduced mice from Boullanger and Whitlock Islands; maintaining and expanding captive breeding populations for further translocations; and promoting awareness of Dibbler conservation among the public and among land managers.	eng
16138	distribution	Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & Morris, K., 2008	The Dibbler is endemic to south-western Australia. It occurs naturally in Fitzgerald River National Park and on the islands of Boullanger and Whitlock (Friend 2004). The species also occurs as translocated populations on Escape Island, Peniup, and Stirling Range National Park (Woolley 2008).	eng
16138	habitat	Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & Morris, K., 2008	Dibblers are associated with scrub and heath communities. The time since fire appears to be important with older aged areas being preferred. It is possible that the species will occupy younger vegetation when foxes are excluded (Friend 2004). Dibblers eat a variety of arthropods, and some small vertebrates. Females may produce two litters annually (at least in captivity and on the islands) of up to eight young (Woolley 2008).	eng
16138	population	Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & Morris, K., 2008	The Dibbler is a rare species (Woolley 2008). The global population consists of about 500-1,000 mature individuals, but there have been some declines. The three island populations include a total of 200 individuals. The (reintroduced) adult population on Escape Island is about 30 individuals. The island populations have declined in the last few decades. Population size fluctuates significantly with rainfall. This species lives only for about one year.	eng
16138	threats	Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & Morris, K., 2008	Introduced foxes and cats are known to prey on this species, and are found throughout its known mainland range, though they are not present on the islands. The plant disease <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> is a threat to Dibblers, as it adversely alters their habitat. Introduced mice are also a potential threat on Boullanger and Whitlock Islands, due to competition (Friend 2004). Because this species is dependent on habitat that has not been recently burned, frequent and intense fire is a major threat.	eng
16174	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the identification and status of <em>P. raptor</em> relative to <em>P. tenax</em>.	eng
16174	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is presumably present across most of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and is found on the islands of Waigeo and Salawati (both Indonesia). The type locality is on the Upper Fly River, southern Papua New Guinea. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. A note in Helgen (2007) states: "<em>Paranyctimene tenax</em> may be widely distributed in the northern lowlands of New Guinea and <em>P. raptor</em> in the south (N. Irwin pers. comm.)." It ranges from sea level to 1,350 m asl.	eng
16174	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This highly cryptic species is largely solitary. It can be found in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, rural gardens, and swamps. Animals roost in vegetation, and are not likely to be dependant on water. Females give birth to single young; pregnant females have been reported in January, February, April, May, July, August, and September.	eng
16174	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Individuals of this species are commonly encountered. It may be sympatric with <em>P. tenax</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear.	eng
16174	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) commented that its small size, solitary roosting behaviour and broad distribution safeguard it against most factors threatening fruit bat populations.	eng
16176	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends should be determined, augmented by search for additional subpopulations. Stability of appropriate habitats should be assessed. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. The systematic position of this genus should be established by further study.	eng
16176	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Northeastern Mexico (San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to Puebla and Veracruz).	eng
16176	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Forested streams in low mountains (200–1,200 m). The largest and most vividly coloured species in this small genus.	eng
16176	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
16176	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
16185	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Supposedly confined to the Pacific waters off the coast of California, but there is a questionable record of <em>P. affinis</em> from Siberia (Kobjakova 1967).	eng
16185	habitat	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Lives as a symbiont, it inhabits the tubes and burrows of marine polychaete worms.	eng
16190	conservation		The forests of the Estación Ecológica de Bananal is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
16190	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the Serra da Bocaina, in the Serra do Mar in the state of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil: Bonito (the type locality), at around 1,300m asl, where it might now be locally extinct as a result of the degradation of its natural habitat; and the Estación Ecológica de Bananal, at 1,100-1,900m asl.	eng
16190	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of montane forest. If it is like other species of <em>Paratelmatobius</em>, it breeds in temporary ponds or streams, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
16190	population		This species is known from two specimens collected in 1931, and from 11 specimens that were caught in pit-fall traps in December 2003 and January 2004. Although it might be restricted to a small area, it was clearly overlooked until pit-fall traps were used as a monitoring technique.	eng
16190	threats		There is little direct information on the threats that it faces, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cut logging. The loss of habitat around Bonito might have caused its local extinction there.	eng
16191	conservation		Its known range is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
16191	distribution		This species is known only from the Alto do Itatiaia, at 2,200m asl in the Serra da Mantiqueira, on the border of the states of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro in south-eastern Brazil.	eng
16191	habitat		This species lives in montane forest, sheltering under rocks amongst moss. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it could use either streams or temporary ponds.	eng
16191	population		It was once common in an area of a few square metres in its only known locality. However, it has not been seen since 1978, despite suitable habitat remaining and significant survey efforts.	eng
16191	threats		Its disappearance is not related to any obvious threats, although it could well be susceptible to the effects of tourism and fire. Its disappearance from apparently suitable habitat is reminiscent of that of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
16193	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Found in Towuti and Mahalona Lakes (also called Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.	eng
16194	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Found in Lake Wawontoa (part of the Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.	eng
16195	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Found in Lakes Towuti, Wawontoa and possibly Mahalona, Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
16196	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Found in the Malili Lakes system (including Lake Towuti), Sulawesi.	eng
16199	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16200	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16202	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	Known to be present in some protected areas (mainly forest reserves of varying protection). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. There is a general need to maintain suitable forest habitat for this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
16202	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species appears to be largely restricted to the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. It has been recorded from a number of locations including Mount Kilimanjaro (from 1,900 m asl to the heath zone [Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995]); the Usambaras range (sites include Amani, Lushoto, Magamba and Mazumbai); the Ulugurus (at Bagiro); the Udzungwa range (Kigogo); the Ukinga Mountains; and Katessa Forest.	eng
16202	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is associated with montane tropical moist forest. It is presumably not found in human-modified habitats.	eng
16202	population	Grubb, P., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a relatively few museum specimens exist.	eng
16202	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are not well known, however, it is possible that the species is confined to Eastern Arc habitats and might be dependent on primary forest. If this is the case, it is likely to be affected by the large-scale habitat loss that has occurred in the region as forests have been converted to plantations and for subsistence agriculture.	eng
16203	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Kibale National Park).	eng
16203	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, ranging from the Lualaba River to the Nile River (Victoria), and from the Mbomou River to the Lukuga River (north to south), at altitudes of up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
16203	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, where it preferably occurs in tall relatively mature forest, although it has also been recorded from fallow plantations (Rahm 1970). It is arboreal and usually encountered as a single animal or in a pair.	eng
16203	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is commonly seen in mature forests. It is rare or absent in young forests regenerating after felling.	eng
16203	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Parts of its range it is presumably threatened by habitat loss due to the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
16204	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
16204	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This largely Central African species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, extreme southern Sudan, northwest Tanzania and northern Zambia. The distribution is between 5°N and 8°S extending on the right bank of the Zaire River between (from west to east) the Ubangi River and Nile River and western shores of Lake Victoria, and south to the Mweru-Wantipa flats. There is an extralimital record from Maryal Bai and Malek in southern Sudan, and they may well be contiguous with the specimens collected further south. This species might also occur in Central African Republic, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
16204	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is commonly found in the undergrowth and lower storey of tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded from wooded savanna in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963), and at the edge of plantations and along roadsides (Rahm 1966). It is arboreal and diurnal, with animals normally solitary but sometimes encountered in pairs or threes. Breeding seems to occur throughout the year, usually with a single young born.	eng
16204	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is common in suitable habitats.	eng
16204	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
16205	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	Occurs in a number of large and well managed protected areas throughout the range, including Kruger National Park.	eng
16205	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is present in southern Central Africa, East Africa and northern parts of Southern Africa. It ranges from southwestern Tanzania to southern Mozambique and westwards to south-eastern Angola and northeastern Namibia, being found as far south as northeastern South Africa.	eng
16205	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This is a savanna woodland species, occurring particularly in mopane woodland, Acacia woodland and mixed associations such as <em>Acacia</em>/<em>Terminalia</em>, <em>Acacia</em>/<em>Combretum</em> and others. They are less common in <em>Brachystegia</em>/<em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Baikiaea</em> woodland probably because these do not provide tree holes necessary for resting and breeding sites. The species is arboreal and terrestrial, and living mainly in groups.	eng
16205	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is believed to be a common species.	eng
16205	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
16206	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	It is probable that this species is present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
16206	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the highlands of Cameroon and Nigeria, north of the Sanaga River. It has been recorded from very few sites, probably no more than five localities in total. It was more recently observed in the Gotel Mountains in Nigeria (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire 1989).	eng
16206	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	It has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest, and forest fringes. This species is very poorly known, and there is limited information available on the ecology or habits of this species.	eng
16206	population	Grubb, P., 2008	There is very little known about the abundance of this species. Prior to 1967, only two specimens were known, until the surveys of Eisentraut who, as Rosevear (1969) puts it, "found them to be a far more abundant animal than was previously thought". The Gotel mountains and some other mountain tops /ranges are relatively poorly surveyed.	eng
16206	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. There are few details available on the possible adaptability of this species to habitat degradation.	eng
16207	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
16207	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This East African species is distributed in extreme southern Kenya, through eastern Tanzania into northern Mozambique and southeastern Malawi.	eng
16207	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is found in Savannah, forest, and thicket habitats and has been recorded from cultivated land, showing a preference for groves of sugar plum (<em>Uapaca</em> spp.) trees (Kingdon 1997).	eng
16207	population	Grubb, P., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
16207	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are presumably no major threats as a whole to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.	eng
16208	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Nyika National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
16208	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is limited to northern Malawi (Misuku Hills and Nyika Plateau region at around 2,000 m asl) and southwestern Tanzania (in the Poroto Mountains and Mount Rungwe). It has not been recorded from northeastern Zambia (Mafinga or Makutu Mountains), where it may have been expected (Ansell and Dowsett 1988).	eng
16208	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known. It has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest. A single pregnant and lactating female was taken in September.	eng
16208	population	Grubb, P., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. Only a relatively few museum specimens exist.	eng
16208	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss within its restricted range is possibly a threat.	eng
16209	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
16209	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This largely East African species has been recorded from central and northeastern Tanzania, northwards to central Kenya, with probably extensions into southeastern Sudan (F. Dieterlen pers. comm.) and possibly also in Somalia (Varty [1990] recorded them in the riverine forests of the Jubba Valley, but this needs to be confirmed). It is found up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
16209	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	It is commonly found in dry thornveld habitat and thickets, and, according to Kingdon (1997) in wooded riverine strips in arid country. Apparently this is a fairly adaptable species, and is commonly found in cultivated areas and living in association with humans in the roofs of houses. The species has a litter size of two or three young.	eng
16209	population	Grubb, P., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
16209	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
16210	conservation	Grubb, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
16210	distribution	Grubb, P., 2008	This species is distributed along the coast of East Africa, ranging from southern Somalia (south of the Jube River) in the north, southwards to KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa, being found as far south along the coast as Lake Saint Lucia, with an isolated population in the Ongoye Forest. The species is also found on Mount Selinda in eastern Zimbabwe, and through much of Malawi, including Mount Mulanje (2,000 m asl). Within this range their occurrence is patchy and discontinuous due to their habitat requirements (Skinner and Smithers, 1990).	eng
16210	habitat	Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitat types including dry or moist evergreen forests, woodlands, riverine forest and thickets. It is arboreal and diurnal, and usually solitary. The species has one, or perhaps two, litters annually of one or two young.	eng
16210	population	Grubb, P., 2008	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
16210	threats	Grubb, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole, although much of its coastal forest habitat have now been deforested or degraded.	eng
16211	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
16211	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Subsaharan Africa, ranging from Sierra Leone to Ghana (west of the Volta Basin); then from southeastern Nigeria (east of the Niger river) to eastern Congo; also recorded from three localities in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Bata, Medje, Niapa). This species is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It has been recorded up to 1,600 m asl on Mount Bintamane (Sierra Leone).	eng
16211	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is found in tropical moist forest, forest fringes, secondary growth around villages, and deserted farmland (Rosevear 1969). It is apparently a pest species in cocoa plantations. Despite the fact they seem to be relatively common and widespread, not a great deal is known about this species.	eng
16211	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Rosevear (1969) noted that this species was the commonest and most widespread of all squirrels in West Africa, that it was well represented in museum collections, and not infrequently found as a pet.	eng
16211	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.	eng
16212	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The only site at which the species is known, Mount Namuli, is not protected. There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species. Research on taxonomy is necessary as the species has been suggested to be a subspecies of <em>Paraxerus palliatus</em> (Smithers and Lobao-Tello, 1976).	eng
16212	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Namuli in central Mozambique, north of the Zambezi River, where it occurs between 1,200 and 1,850 m asl (Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976). It is not known if the species is present on surrounding mountains. Survey work outside the known range of this species has not been extensive, especially during the two decades of civil war in Mozambique.	eng
16212	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is typically associated with montane tropical moist forest habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
16212	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is not particularly common.	eng
16212	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The forest on Mount Namuli is under threat from fires, cultivation, and harvesting for fuel wood. The species is apparently also hunted for subsistence food.	eng
16217	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
16217	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	Previously only known from Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the Jubb system, Somalia.	eng
16217	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
16217	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
16217	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
16218	conservation	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Ahmed Khan, J., Kukherjee, S. & Grassman, L., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (Yunnan only), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand. Hunting regulations are in place in Lao PDR, Singapore (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Further research is needed on its ecology, distribution and status (IUCN  Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
16218	distribution	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Ahmed Khan, J., Kukherjee, S. & Grassman, L., 2008	The marbled cat is found in tropical Indomalaya westward along the Himalayan foothills westward into Nepal and eastward into southwest China, and on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo.  There are few locality records of this species (Nowell and Jackson, 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>	eng
16218	habitat	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Ahmed Khan, J., Kukherjee, S. & Grassman, L., 2008	The marbled cat is primarily associated with moist and mixed deciduous-evergreen tropical forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and may prefer hill forest (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005).  A few sightings have been made in secondary forest or cleared areas near forest, but it is likely forest-dependent (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Grassman and Tewes (2002) reported the observation of a pair of adult marbled cats in a salt lick in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park.<br/><br/>It has never been studied, although Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) made a preliminary home range estimate of 5.3 km² for an adult female who was radio-collared and tracked for one month in Thailand's Phu Khieu National Park.  The marbled cat probably preys primarily on rodents, including squirrels (Nowell and Jackson, 1996), and birds.	eng
16218	population	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Ahmed Khan, J., Kukherjee, S. & Grassman, L., 2008	The marbled cat appears relatively rare compared to sympatric felids, based on the paucity of historical as well as recent records (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005, Azlan and Sharma 2006, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), although Cambodia stands out for having a relatively high encounter rate (13 camera trap records, compared to 12 for the Asiatic golden cat and 4 for the clouded leopard: Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16218	threats	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S., Ahmed Khan, J., Kukherjee, S. & Grassman, L., 2008	The marbled cat appears to be forest-dependent, and its habitat in Southeast Asia is undergoing the world's fastest deforestation rate (1.2-1.3% a year since 1990: FAO 2007), due to logging, oil palm and other plantations, and human settlement and agriculture.  Although infrequently observed in the illegal Asian wildlife trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), it is valued for its skin, meat and bones, and indiscriminate snaring is prevalent throughout much of its range and is likely to pose a major threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  They have been reported as poultry pests (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
16235	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16236	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16237	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16238	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
16249	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4, Bern Convention Annex 2 and CITES Appendix II. In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. The species is legally protected in many countries. In spite of this legal protection, there is often no special attention to the habitat management. As a consequence, many small lowland populations are declining. The production and implementation of species action plans are urgently needed.	eng
16249	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in most of the large mountainous areas in Europe: Spain, south of France, Switzerland, Austria, south of Germany as far as the Mosel, Italy, the Balkans and Greece, south of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 1,000-2,400 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. Its range extends to the Tian-Shan and Siberia and Mongolia; also from the Northern Urals to Transcaucasia, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
16249	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Apollo occurs in mountainous areas on steep, sunny slopes with sparse vegetation. In Europe, there are many different sub-species, forms and aberrations, because of the very divided nature of the distribution area and as a consequence, large isolation of populations. Separated by mountains, the populations develop independently of one another, so that quite marked differences arise. However, their ecology is similar. The butterflies are fond of visiting thistles and other flowering plants. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on or near the foodplant stonecrop (<em>Sedum</em> spp.). The eggs develop but the tiny caterpillar hibernates inside the eggshell or as newly hatched larva in its close vicinity. In spring it starts feeding on the buds of the foodplant. The caterpillars of later instars also eat the leaves. When it is time to pupate, the caterpillars look for a safe place between the stones, where they then spin a flimsy cocoon in which to change into a pupa. The Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (11%), screes (9%), coniferous woodland (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).	eng
16249	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belarus, Latvia and Romania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria, France, Norway, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
16249	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is declining in areas of low altitude. These lowland populations suffer from fragmentation and isolation. Large and strong populations are still found in the high parts of the Alps and other high mountain ranges. The species is attractive to collectors, especially the subspecies of small lowland populations, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.	eng
16251	conservation	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Given the global and regional population trends, <em>P. autocrator</em> was listed on Afghanistan’s first Protected Species List in 2009, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan.	eng
16270	conservation	Coetzee, N., 2008	The range of the species several includes protected areas.	eng
16270	distribution	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in western South Africa, north to south-eastern Namibia and south-western Botswana. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
16270	habitat	Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a diurnal species that is restricted to consolidated sands in semi-desert. They can also occur in pastureland.	eng
16270	population	Coetzee, N., 2008	It can be very common.	eng
16270	threats	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered to be a pest in agricultural areas.	eng
16271	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
16271	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has a fragmented distribution from western South Africa northwards through extreme, northern Namibia. It has not been recorded from Angola. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
16271	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	This diurnal species occurs in shrubland. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
16271	population	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	It can be a locally common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
16271	threats	Coetzee, N. & Griffin, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16272	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This snail was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.	eng
16272	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	This was a forest species.	eng
16272	population	Coote, T., 2007	This species is now extinct.	eng
16272	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> which was introduced onto the island in 1977.	eng
16273	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.	eng
16273	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16273	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16275	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. It is a long-term candidate for re-establishment in the wild.	eng
16275	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16275	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16275	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16277	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.	eng
16277	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16277	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16278	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.	eng
16278	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16278	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16281	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands.	eng
16281	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16281	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16282	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. There is a realistic possibility of future re-establishment.	eng
16282	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was widespread in central and southern Moorea, where it is an endemic. Now it is restricted to a few tiny isolated populations within the same range area.	eng
16282	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Currently, the species is found  at low altitudes in disturbed habitat in lowland moist forest.	eng
16282	population	Coote, T., 2007	It is difficult to assess population numbers.	eng
16282	threats	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>is still the principal threat though there is evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. t. elongata </span>may be able to persist in low densities in the presence of the predator. The principal intrinsic threats are those associated with small populations.	eng
16283	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Moorea, Society Islands. Its distribution was limited to the valley of Fareaito.	eng
16283	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16283	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16284	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.	eng
16284	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	This was a forest species.	eng
16284	population	Coote, T., 2007	This snail is now extinct.	eng
16284	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the spread of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, which was introduced into the islands in the 1990s.	eng
16286	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	Captive populations of this species are maintained in the international breeding programme.	eng
16286	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16286	population	Coote, T., 2007	There are no wild populations of this species remaining.	eng
16286	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinciton of the wild popualtions is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16288	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme.	eng
16288	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea and Tahaa (neighbouring islands which share the same lagoon), Society Islands.	eng
16288	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species now only exists in captivity.	eng
16288	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16290	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16290	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16290	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16293	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.	eng
16293	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16293	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16295	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.	eng
16295	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16295	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16296	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	The terrain and difficulty of access make conservation measures very difficult. A reserve was built in this valley for the purpose but was quickly destroyed by a rockfall. For the moment, vigilance is the best option. This species exists in the international breeding programme.	eng
16296	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Tahiti. The only known surviving population is in the Faaroa Valley on the Peninsula of Tahiti Iti.	eng
16296	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	The only known population survives on a patch of the semi-aquatic root plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Alocasia macrorhiza</span> in wet, lowland forest (<100 m altitude), although in the past the species could also be found at higher altitudes.	eng
16296	population	Coote, T., 2007	Only one population is known for certain and there may be less than 50 individuals remaining.	eng
16296	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>has reached the valley but appears not to have progressed far in recent years for reasons unknown. This is the only current threat apart from the intrinsic factors associated with small population size.	eng
16298	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16298	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	This was a forest species.	eng
16298	population	Coote, T., 2007	This species is now extinct.	eng
16298	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> which was introduced in the late 1980s.	eng
16300	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16300	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16300	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16301	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Thhis species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16301	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16301	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The xtinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16303	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16303	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16303	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16304	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	This species is maintained in the international breeding programme. Some wild populations are regularly monitored.	eng
16304	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. It is now restricted to only a few small populations in a few valleys around the island.	eng
16304	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Habitat quality is not an issue for this species. Many populations survive in disturbed habitat, often not too far from human habitation.	eng
16304	population	Coote, T., 2007	Small subpopulations are scattered around Tahiti, mostly consisting of less than 50 individuals.	eng
16304	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The principal threat to this species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>but there is evidence that some populations have survived in spite of this introduced carnivorous species. The carnivorous flatworm <span style="font-style: italic;">Platydemus manokwari </span>has been found in one area where <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clara</span> persists but its imapct is unclear at the moment. The intrinsic problems associated with small population size also threaten the future of this species.	eng
16306	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16306	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16306	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16307	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16307	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16307	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16308	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16308	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16308	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predtaion by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16309	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Distribution restricted to Pirae Valley.	eng
16309	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16309	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.<em></em>	eng
16310	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16310	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16310	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16311	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16311	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16311	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16312	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16312	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16312	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16313	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	This species is maintained in international breeding programme.	eng
16313	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Believed endemic to Tahiti but also found (likely introduced) on three islands in the Australs Archipelago and two of the Cook Islands.	eng
16313	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Generally this snail is found in lowland forest in disturbed habitat not far from human habitation.	eng
16313	population	Coote, T., 2007	This species is widespread on the islands where it is found, although it occurs in lower densities where the carnivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">rosea</span> is present.	eng
16313	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat to this species, although evidence suggetst that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hyalina </span>can continue to survive in its presence. On Tahiti the Little Fire Ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata </span>may turn out to be a threat.	eng
16314	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16314	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16314	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16315	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16315	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16315	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16316	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16316	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16316	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16317	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16317	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16317	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16318	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Bora Bora, Society Islands.	eng
16318	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16318	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16320	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	The species is maintained in the international breeding programme and it is a priority candidate for re-establishment into a predator-proof reserve.	eng
16320	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Its distribution was restricted to seven west coast valleys.	eng
16320	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16320	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16321	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	Because of the taxonomic uncertainties and the genetic uniqueness of certain populations there is an urgent need to initiate <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>breeding populations. However, for the moment the populations are not considered robust enough to remove the numbers required.	eng
16321	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	The species is endemic to Tahiti. Formerly it had a widespread distribution across the island but now it is restricted to the highest altitudes.	eng
16321	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	All remaining populations of this species are restricted to high altitudes (above 950 m) and the associated cloud forest habitat. Before the arrival of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>this species was found in all the valleys at base altitude.	eng
16321	population	Coote, T., 2007	It is difficult to assess population sizes because of inaccessible terrain.	eng
16321	threats	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat but appears to be less effective a predator at high altitude. That said, some of the populations are seriously threatened. There is also increasing habitat damage due to communications installation and roadside clearances to facilitate better views for tourists in one of the best areas.	eng
16322	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands. Its distribution was restricted to Faurahi Valley.	eng
16322	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16322	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16324	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16324	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16324	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16325	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16325	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16325	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16327	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16327	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16327	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16328	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16328	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16328	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16329	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16329	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16329	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16330	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands	eng
16330	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species no longer exists in the wild.	eng
16330	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species in the wild is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16331	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16331	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16331	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16333	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16333	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16333	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16334	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahaa in the Society Islands.	eng
16334	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16334	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16335	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16335	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16335	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16336	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16336	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16336	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to the introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16337	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahiti. Its distribution was limited to the Papenoo Valley.	eng
16337	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16337	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation from the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16338	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16338	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16338	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea.</span>	eng
16339	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.	eng
16339	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16339	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16340	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands.	eng
16340	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16340	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16341	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.	eng
16341	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16341	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16342	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
16342	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16342	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16343	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.	eng
16343	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16343	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16349	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Tahaa, Society Islands.	eng
16349	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
16349	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
16375	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Present in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park. There is a need for population monitoring.	eng
16375	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, where it is found from sea level up to the tree-line (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16375	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is found in tropical evergreen lowland and montane rainforests (Musser and Carleton 2005); all specimens originate from forest, though the species probably does occur in areas of low disturbance. It is terrestrial, but can be found in the understory and canopy of trees scavenging for food (Musser 1982). One specimen was taken in a leaf-nest on the ground, and they have also been trapped in strangler figs (G. Musser pers. comm.). It feeds only on fruit (Musser and Durden 2002).	eng
16375	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known to be common in good habitat.	eng
16375	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat to the species is likely to be habitat loss, due to agricultural expansion and logging. In the lowlands, much habitat has been converted to rice paddies. This is the largest rat species present on Sulawesi, and, in some parts of the range, such as in the north-east (where there are fewer muslim communities), they are eaten; however, this seems to be a localized threat.	eng
16411	distribution	Bonham, K., 2006	Only one known location within a gorge in Tasmania. Known range (extent of occurrence) is about 2 km². Area of occupancy is very small, possibly as little as 50 hectares. It is unknown whether there are any other locations despite considerable searching. Unconfirmed records have been reported from elsewhere, however searches at that locality have failed to find the species present there and the record for that locality is not considered reliable (K. Bonham, pers. comm).	eng
16411	habitat	Bonham, K., 2006	Currently known from rocky wet forest, scrub and mossy cliff faces. Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span, etc).	eng
16411	population	Bonham, K., 2006	At least three subpopulations are known within the only known locality, divided by a river and an area of exotic vegetation (K. Bonham, pers. comm). The main subpopulation has densities of dozens of specimens per metre. It is likely that the population is at least several thousand individuals. There probably have been some losses over the past 100 years but this has largely stopped, and the extent of this decline is unclear	eng
16411	threats	Bonham, K., 2006	Reason for past population decline is mainly clearing (which has now halted) but possibly also environmental degradation and exotic species invasion. Specifically, habitat alteration resulted from a dam being built upstream which resulted in more irregular water flows through the gorge, high floods stripped the rocks directly by the waterside of vegetation. There was also some clearing of parts of habitat: most of what remains is not clearable because it is just bare steep rock covered with shrubs and mosses (K. Bonham, pers. comm). However, any humidity changes resulting from this (and I believe there have been some because there are documented minor vegetation changes) have had no discernable impact on the snail in about 70 years since the dam was built. <br/> <br/>The gorge is a major recreational reserve, the single most significant "park" for a large city. It is unlikely that its reserve status will be revoked. Currently there are no known threats to the species.	eng
16426	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Rutong Protection Forest. Further survey work is needed through Flores to determine whether it might be present in other montane parts of Flores.	eng
16426	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Flores island, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16426	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005), although it apparently has been recorded from slightly degraded habitats.	eng
16426	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Recorded as common on Gunung Ranaka from 1,000 to 2,000 m in west Flores (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1998 Kitchener and Yani 1998).	eng
16426	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is almost certainly affected by habitat loss, since it exists at higher population densities in intact habitat rather than degraded habitat.	eng
16458	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Grubb, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
16458	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species appears to be patchily distributed Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. The distribution in Somalia is unclear, but the type locality is in Somaliland between Goree Bunder and Nogal (09 deg N and 47 deg E). In Ethiopia, it has been recorded at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m asl (although Yalden <em>et al</em>. [1996] indicate the species may possibly occur to 2,200 m asl).	eng
16458	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Grubb, P., 2008	Yalden <em>et al</em>. (1976) states that this species is an inhabitant of rocky cliffs (sheltering in rock fissures) in desert or semi-desert areas, and that it is sometimes found in association with hyraxes. A specimen in Djibouti was collected in an area comprising sand and rocks with low scrub and grass and some well established trees and bushes (Pearch <em>et al</em>. 2002). Five captive-born litters contained a single young, although a sixth contained two.	eng
16458	population	Coetzee, N. & Grubb, P., 2008	In Djibouti, the species is fairly common and widely distributed. Population densities of 76 individuals per hectare have been given (Nowak 1999).	eng
16458	threats	Coetzee, N. & Grubb, P., 2008	It is considered likely that the species has few threats.	eng
16467	conservation	Butynski, T.M.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout the range, many with good management. Further research is needed into harvest levels for this species.	eng
16467	distribution	Butynski, T.M.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species occurs in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, western Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, south of the Zambezi River, and in South Africa in the Limpopo Province, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, although they are absent from the eastern parts, Free State, extreme north-western KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Northern Cape. It has not been recorded from Lesotho.	eng
16467	habitat	Butynski, T.M.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Throughout their range they occur only where there is suitable substrate, as they are unable to burrow in hard substrates and prefer lighter sandy soils. If they do occur in these areas, it is usually where there are intrusions of sandy alluvium, such as along rivers, or in patches of sandy soil overlaying hard ground. They are commonly seen on open sandy ground or sandy scrub, overgrazed grassland, on floodplain grassland or pans, and in cultivated areas.  <br/>The species is nocturnal, and forage in groups of two to six individuals.	eng
16467	population	Butynski, T.M.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	It is generally common, though estimates of abundance are lacking.	eng
16467	threats	Butynski, T.M.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Springhare have great value as a source of protein, and Butynski (1975) estimated that, in Botswana, 2.5 million springhare were taken annually for food by the indigenous peoples.  The San secure them by hooking them out of their burrows using a pole with a barb on the tip, as do the Ndebele in Zimbabwe using a burred seedpod lashed to the end of a pole which is screwed into the fur so tightly that the springhaas can be withdrawn. The San also use the skins to make water and food containers, mats or karosses, and the best thread is made from the tail sinews. In agricultural areas, springhare can become a problem; Butynski (1973) estimated that 10-15% of maize, sorghum, beans and groundnuts grown in Botswana were destroyed by springhare.	eng
16469	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
16469	distribution		This species is known only from the type series (two syntypes) collected "above Tura... at 2,500 feet [762m asl]" in the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, north-eastern India.	eng
16469	habitat		This is an arboreal species associated with semi-evergreen forest. Information on its breeding habits and larval habitat and ecology are currently unavailable, but it probably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
16469	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
16469	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
16470	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Konya Wild Life Sanctuary (Maharashtra), Cotigao Wild Life Sanctuary (Goa), Indira Ghandi National Park and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu), Ponmudi Hills and Silent Valley National Park (Kerala). The species is the focus of ongoing studies from 1998 to the present (S. D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
16470	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, where it has a very fragmented range. It occurs at elevations of 300-1,800m asl.	eng
16470	habitat		It is a semi-arboreal species generally associated with montane moist evergreen forest. Breeding takes place on the ground at stream banks, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
16470	population		There is no reliable information available on the population status of this species, although it is locally uncommon and believed to be declining.	eng
16470	threats		It is threatened by the conversion of its forest habitat to non-timber plantations (including coffee and tea), the collection of timber and wood for subsistence use by local people, and the construction of roads and dams.	eng
16474	conservation	Vincent, A., 1996	Environment Australia Listing: Lower Risk (least concern) on an Australia-wide basis, 2002; Australian Society for Fish Biology Listing: Lower Risk (least concern).	eng
16474	distribution	Vincent, A., 1996	<em>Pegasus lancifer</em> is a temperate, inshore endemic species (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) whose extent of occurrence includes the southern coast of Australia between Rottnest Island, Western Australia and Lakes Entrance, Victoria including Tasmania (Palsson and Pietsch 1989, Edgar 1997). <br/> <br/>No information is available on the species’ area of occupancy. <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002)</u>  <br/>146 specimens (Standard Length 18–119 mm), collected from depths of 0–56 m, ranging in geographical distribution from off Lakes Entrance (37°53’S, 148°E), Victoria, southwards to Hobart (43°07’S), Tasmania and north-westwards to Rottnest Island (32°S, 115°30), WA, collected between 1909 and 1996.	eng
16474	habitat	Vincent, A., 1996	<strong>Habitat</strong> <br/>Adult <em>Pegasus lancifer</em> are mainly bottom-dwelling fish that are most often found on sand or mud amongst or near seagrass (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994) or near low rubble reef (Kuiter 1996). They occur at a variety of depths from intertidal shallows to ca. 55 m (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour</strong> <br/><em>Pegasus lancifer</em> camouflages itself by rapidly changing colours to match its surroundings and occasionally burrows into the substrate to escape predators. In spring, the species enters sandy bays to breed, sometimes congregating in small numbers. Juveniles are pelagic before taking on the adults’ bottom mode of existence (Kuiter 1985, Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). This species is mostly buried during the day, and active at dusk. Males have ornamental patches on the edges of their pectoral fins for displaying to females (Kuiter 1996). Spawning involves the pair swimming upwards together, to several meters from the substrate. They quickly dart back after the release of eggs and sperm, which floats to the surface. These activities have been observed to occur towards dusk on high tides (Kuiter 1993). Seasonal migrations are suggested by the fact that they are trawled with prawns only during certain times of the year (Kuiter 1985). They often crawl over the seabed on their paired fins in search of small crustaceans, worms and molluscs on which they feed (Kuiter 1985, Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Size</strong> <br/><em>Pegasus lancifer</em> reaches a maximum length of 12 cm (Kuiter 1996).	eng
16474	population	Vincent, A., 1996	Possibly occurs in the following Australian marine protected area: Great Australian Bight Marine Park, SA (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). No information from elsewhere.	eng
16474	threats	Vincent, A., 1996	Presently, the only known threat to this species is direct take as bycatch in bottom trawls, where <em>P. lancifer</em> is trawled with prawns during certain times of the year (Kuiter 1985). <br/> <br/>It is also possible that trawling may also exert indirect effects on habitat used by <em>P. lancifer</em>, and that inshore development may affect their distribution, given depth records from 0–56 m. <br/> <br/>There is no known trade for this species at the present time but it may enter the traditional medicine trade along with other pegasids in the future (Vincent 1997).	eng
16476	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>may be found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Philippines as well as Australia. No other conservation measures are known.	eng
16476	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>occurs throughout the Indo-West Pacific: Delagoa Bay, Mozambique to Saudi Arabia (Persian Gulf) and throughout Gulf of Manaar to Bay of Bengal; along the east coast of Myanmar; north to Japan, south to tropical Australia and Papua New Guinea (Froese and Pauly 2009).</p>	eng
16476	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>is reported to reach a maximum of 180 mm (Palsson and Pietsch 1989) and inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms where they are often found in association with prawns (Conlu 1986). They are usually found between 2–30 m depth, but have also been found on the surface and at a depth of 73 m (Palsson and Pietsch 1989).<br/>&#160;</p>	eng
16476	population	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	The lack of data for population sizes of pegasids such as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>that was highlighted by Vincent (1997) still exists. One study recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans </span>in low densities (Smith 1986).	eng
16476	threats	Sorensen, M. & Vincent, A., 2009	Sea moths may possess characteristics that make them unsuited to heavy exploitation, such as low population densities and established long-term pair bonds of one male and one female that mate repeatedly (Kuiter 1985, Herold and Clark 1993).<br/><br/>Sea moth species began appearing in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in the 1980s, and are now traded by several South East Asian countries, including southern China and Hong Kong, although the scale and impact of the trade remains unclear (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999, Vincent 1997).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. volitans</span> is caught incidentally in illegal trawl gear in the Philippines and is sold for use in TCM (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Approximately 130,000–620,000 P. volitans were landed in north-western Bohol, central Visayas region of the Philippines in 1996, with an additional ~42,000–62,000 caught for the live aquarium trade (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Total bycatch in the Philippines was significantly female biased, with only 36% males (Pajaro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Given the reported monogamy amongst sea moths (Herold and Clark 1993) this could reduce the proportion of paired males thereby reducing the effective population size.	eng
16484	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Grey Rhebok are reported to occur in at least 29 provincial reserves and six national parks in South Africa, and in Malolotja Nature Reserve in Swaziland, and Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho (East 1999).	eng
16484	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Grey Rhebok is endemic to a small region in southern Africa, inhabiting montane and plateau grasslands of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. In South Africa, their distribution is discontinuous and patchy, and they no longer occur north of the Orange River in the Northern Cape, or in parts of the North West Province. They formerly occurred widely in the highveld of western Swaziland, but have disappeared from parts of their former range; they remain fairly common in Malolotja Nature Reserve and still survive locally in unprotected areas. In Lesotho, they probably occurred widely in the past, but have been reduced to a few scattered remnant populations. It responded well to protection in Sehlabathebe National Park in the 1980s (East 1999; Avenant in press).<br/><br/>Although believed to have occurred formerly in hilly country around Gaborone in south-east Botswana, there is no conclusive evidence for their presence in this country (Smithers 1971).	eng
16484	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Grey Rhebok are associated with rocky hills, grassy mountain slopes, and montane and plateau grasslands in southern Africa. They are predominantly browsers, and largely water independent, obtaining most of their water requirements from their food (Avenant in press).	eng
16484	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Summation of available population estimates gives a total of >9,800, but this excludes substantial areas for which estimates are unavailable. East (1999) suggested a total population of about 18,000, of which at least one-quarter is in protected areas and more than 30% on private land. Overall population trend is generally stable (especially in protected areas), but decreasing in some parts of the range. The largest population is that in the Ukahlamba-Drakensberg Park (2,000-3,000).<br/><br/>Estimated population densities of the Grey Rhebok in protected areas are generally in the range 0.5-1.7/km², but occasionally lower (e.g., 0.2-0.3/km² in Addo- Zuurberg and Karoo National Parks), or higher (e.g., 4.3/km² in Bontebok National Park) (summarized in East 1999).	eng
16484	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	there are no known major threats, but localized declines have taken place due to habitat alteration, hunting pressure, and predation by uncontrolled dogs (East 1999; Avenant in press).	eng
16494	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
16494	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
16494	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins; Baltic basin from Vistula to Neva drainages, southern Sweden and Finland, Lakes Ladoga and Onega. Occasionally on Baltic coast west of Vistula and on Finnish coast north of 61°N.	eng
16494	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins; Baltic basin from Vistula to Neva drainages, southern Sweden and Finland, Lakes Ladoga and Onega. Occasionally on Baltic coast west of Vistula and on Finnish coast north of 61°N.	eng
16494	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surface of open waters of large rivers and lakes. Abundant in reservoirs (Don, Volga). Semi-anadromous individuals forage and spawn in pelagic. freshened parts of sea or lower parts of rivers, in main channel or floodplains. Lacustrine populations spawn in open water of lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years, 200-300 mm SL. Semi-anadromous individuals start entering rivers in July (Don). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is resumed with breaking up of ice in April-May. Resident individuals are found in rivers year-round. Spawns in May-June, earlier in southern drainages (April in Syr-Darya) at temperatures above 12°C. Eggs are semi-pelagic and drift with the current (in rivers). Eggs hatch after 3-4 days. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Juveniles may migrate to estuaries during first summer. Feeds on zooplankton, terrestrial invertebrates and small fish.	eng
16494	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surface of open waters of large rivers and lakes. Abundant in reservoirs (Don, Volga). Semi-anadromous individuals forage and spawn in pelagic. freshened parts of sea or lower parts of rivers, in main channel or floodplains. Lacustrine populations spawn in open water of lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years, 200-300 mm SL. Semi-anadromous individuals start entering rivers in July (Don). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is resumed with breaking up of ice in April-May. Resident individuals are found in rivers year-round. Spawns in May-June, earlier in southern drainages (April in Syr-Darya) at temperatures above 12°C. Eggs are semi-pelagic and drift with the current (in rivers). Eggs hatch after 3-4 days. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Juveniles may migrate to estuaries during first summer. Feeds on zooplankton, terrestrial invertebrates and small fish.	eng
16494	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in large rivers and dams (resevoir).	eng
16494	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant in large rivers and dams (resevoir).	eng
16494	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
16494	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
16498	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is protected by national legislation in most European range states. Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV and Pelobates fuscus insubricus is listed on Annex II of the EU Natural Habitats Directive as a priority species. The species is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. A conservation programme is in place for the isolated population in central France. Populations benefit from pond creation and respond well to habitat restoration. In Sweden 99% of the population was lost between 1959-1989, however the species is now recovering due to reintroduction and population augmentation.	eng
16498	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most European range states. Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed on Annex IV and Pelobates fuscus insubricus is listed on Annex II of the EU Natural Habitats Directive as a priority species. The species is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. A conservation programme is in place for the isolated population in central France. Populations benefit from pond creation and respond well to habitat restoration. In Sweden 99% of the population was lost between 1959-1989, however the species is now recovering due to reintroduction and population augmentation.	eng
16498	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This is a lowland species found throughout much of the plains and hilly regions of Europe, including from eastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium and eastern France, east through Germany, Denmark, Sweden (northern limits) and Central Europe and Eastern Europe to western Siberia (Russia) and northwestern Kazakhstan. It ranges from sea level up to 675m asl. There is a very isolated population in Argenton-sur-Creuse in central France, and another isolated population (the endemic subspecies, <em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em>) in the Po Valley of northern Italy.	eng
16498	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This is a lowland species found throughout much of the plains and hilly regions of Europe, including from eastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium and eastern France, east through Germany, Denmark, Sweden (northern limits) and Central Europe and Eastern Europe to western Siberia (Russia) and northwestern Kazakhstan. It ranges from sea level up to 675m asl. There is a very isolated population in Argenton-sur-Creuse in central France, and another isolated population (the endemic subspecies, <em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em>) in the Po Valley of northern Italy.	eng
16498	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is mostly present in open areas, generally avoiding moist soils. It inhabits clear spaces in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests (and their edges), groves, steppes, fields, meadows, sand dunes, heath land, gravel pits, parks and gardens. Spawning sites are mostly permanent, small still waterbodies including ditches, ponds and lakes. It may occur in modified habitats such as rice fields (in Italy). Nocturnal and habitat specific.	eng
16498	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	It is mostly present in open areas, generally avoiding moist soils. It inhabits clear spaces in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests (and their edges), groves, steppes, fields, meadows, sand dunes, heath land, gravel pits, parks and gardens. Spawning sites are mostly permanent, small still waterbodies including ditches, ponds and lakes. It may occur in modified habitats such as rice fields (in Italy). Nocturnal and habitat specific.	eng
16498	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	Populations are reported to be declining or rare in some European countries (e.g.. Italy, Sweden, Denmark, Slovenia, Hungary). It is generally common in Poland. The species is common and widespread in the European part of the former Soviet Union. It is extinct in Switzerland.	eng
16498	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	Populations are reported to be declining or rare in some European countries (e.g.. Italy, Sweden, Denmark, Slovenia, Hungary). It is generally common in Poland. The species is common and widespread in the European part of the former Soviet Union. It is extinct in Switzerland.	eng
16498	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	The species seems to be may be sensitive to water quality and soil structure. Pollution of wetlands by industry, domestic sewage and agriculture (including eutrophication), drainage of breeding pools and introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish are major threats to the species. The species is also threatened by loss of terrestrial habitats (such as meadows) by factors such as intensive agriculture (e.g., over-stocking of cattle) and mortality on roads (and off-road driving). The species is collected in small numbers for the pet trade.<br/><br/><em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em> is a highly threatened subspecies. There are now 12 populations and in recent years it has declined strongly. In some areas it is threatened by the introduced crayfish. chytrid may be a problem (and may be now) in the near future. There is an Action Plan for this species in the Bern Convention.	eng
16498	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	The species seems to be may be sensitive to water quality and soil structure. Pollution of wetlands by industry, domestic sewage and agriculture (including eutrophication), drainage of breeding pools and introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish are major threats to the species. The species is also threatened by loss of terrestrial habitats (such as meadows) by factors such as intensive agriculture (e.g., over-stocking of cattle) and mortality on roads (and off-road driving). The species is collected in small numbers for the pet trade.<br/><br/><em>Pelobates fuscus insubricus</em> is a highly threatened subspecies. There are now 12 populations and in recent years it has declined strongly. In some areas it is threatened by the introduced crayfish. chytrid may be a problem (and may be now) in the near future. There is an Action Plan for this species in the Bern Convention.	eng
16502	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16503	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16503	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	There is significant trade in this species for local consumption in Papua New Guinea.	eng
16506	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little-known species.	eng
16506	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is endemic to swampy regions between Lake Victoria and the Albertine Rift Valley. It has been recorded from Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda and possibly occurs in Burundi and Tanzania.	eng
16506	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Boitani, L., 2008	The species is known from swamps, and may be semi-aquatic.	eng
16506	population	Dieterlen, F. & Boitani, L., 2008	Only eight specimens are known.	eng
16506	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Boitani, L., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known.	eng
16507	conservation	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for further studies into the natural history and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
16507	distribution	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to some of the Ssese Islands (the islands of Kome, Bugala and Bunyama) in the Ugandan part of northwestern Lake Victoria. It is the only species of <em>Pelomys</em> on the islands and it is not known from the mainland.	eng
16507	habitat	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is found on abandoned farmland, it has not been recorded from natural grassland or forest.	eng
16507	population	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
16507	threats	Dieterlen, F., Schlitter, D. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear. It is possible that this species is threatened by the resumption of agricultural activities within its preferred habitat.	eng
16508	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
16508	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is endemic to western Angola and western Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
16508	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in grassland savannas. The species may occur close to, but not inside, rainforests. In Angola it has been found on the coastal plains, the Escarpment zone and on the western Angolan Plateau. It is also found in old gardens and corn fields with grass patches. Little is known about the biology of this species.	eng
16508	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
16508	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
16509	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
16509	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species has a large distribution range, covering much of central-southern Africa.	eng
16509	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found in savanna habitats with permanent cover of grass or bushes. In drier regions it is confined to permanent damp areas. It is also found in cultivated areas.	eng
16509	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is widespread and common but generally not abundant.	eng
16509	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
16510	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed in parts of the species ramge.	eng
16510	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is found in the Katanga region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and in northern Angola. A single specimen has also been collected on Mount Mahale in Tanzania, and there is a single record from northern Zambia. It is found from the lowlands to elevations of up to 2,160 m asl.	eng
16510	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in moist savanna with tall grasses, on slopes near to rivers and in wooded valleys. This species is found close to cultivated land,	eng
16510	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known. It has a scattered distribution and is rarely trapped.	eng
16510	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
16511	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16511	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
16527	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2003	All <em>Pelusios</em> terrapins are protected by Seychelles law. Research into the status of <em>P. seychellensis</em> was recommended as a high priority in the 1989 Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Action Plan (Swingland and Klemens 1989). Despite intensive surveys since 196, no individuals have been found.	eng
16527	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2003	<em>P. seychellensis</em> is known from only three specimens collected in 1895 from an unknown locality in the Seychelles. The precise origin of the type specimen is unknown, but it is suspected to have been Mahé.	eng
16527	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2003	Not known.	eng
16527	population	Gerlach, J., 2003	Unknown.	eng
16529	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Apparently confiend to Lake Turkana.	eng
16529	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic.	eng
16559	conservation	Yamada, F & Sugimura, K., 2008	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> was declared a natural monument of Japan in 1921, and a special natural monument in 1963. These designations prohibited hunting and capture of the rabbits (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). The Center for Conservation of Amami Wildlife was established in 1999, and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. furnessi</span> was listed under the Japanese Endangered Species Act in 2004 (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  <br/><br/>Control of exotic predators has been addressed by a program started in 2005 by the Ministry of the Environment, which seeks to eradicate the introduced mongoose (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). Control of feral cats and dogs is also needed (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Because of the limited area of <em>P. furnessi</em>’s natural range, habitat preservation is very important (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). The cessation of forest road construction would discourage the spread of predators into the rabbit’s range and restrict logging of mature forests. These logging practices destroy prime habitat for <em>P. furnessi</em> and fragment local populations (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Government subsidies intending to support the local economy have inhibited rabbit conservation, as they have provided financial support for forest road construction (Sugimura 1988) and clearing for farmland (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Ninety percent of the mature forest area is privately or locally owned, the remaining 10% is owned by the national government (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
16559	distribution	Yamada, F & Sugimura, K., 2008	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> occurs only on the Japanese islands of Amami-Oshima (712 km² total land area) and Tokuno-Shima (248 km²), in Kagoshima prefecture, in the Nansei archipelago (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  The rabbit is estimated to have a distribution on Amami Island of 301.4 km² (Yamada and Cervantes 2005), and 33 km² on Tokuno, based on data collected using fecal pellet presence and suitable habitat (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).  The area of both islands combined is 960 km², but less than half of the area constitutes suitable habitat (Yamada and Cervantes 2005 ).  The rabbit’s distribution is fragmented into four separate populations, three of which are very small. (Yamada 2004).  The elevational distribution is from sea level to 694 m on Amami and 645 m on Tokuna (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  <br/><br/>Range size declined on Amami Island by 20-40% from 1977-1994 (Yamada 2008).	eng
16559	habitat	Yamada, F & Sugimura, K., 2008	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> originally lived in dense primary forest, prior to widespread deforestation (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  No studies have been conducted to measure the impact of the deforestation that began in the 1950's on P. furnessi abundance, but old forest area was reduced by 70-90% of the area since 1980 by logging (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <em>P. furnessi</em> currently lives in coastal cycad cover, mountain habitat with oak cover (Yamada and Cervantes 2005), broad leafed evergreen forests and cutover areas where perennial grasses dominate (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><em>P. furnessi</em> has a diet of 12 species of herbaceous plants and 17 shrub species, consuming mostly acorns and the sprouts and young shoots of plants (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). <br/><br/><em>P. furnessi</em> burrows underground usually in densely covered forest valleys (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).  They are primarily nocturnal (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). The total length of males of this species is 45.1 cm. Females are on average 45.2 cm in length (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). <em>P. furnessi</em> has two breeding seasons each year (March-May and September-December), with a single kitten bred at a time (Yamada and Cervantes 2005). At birth, neonates are 15.0 cm in length (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).	eng
16559	population	Yamada, F & Sugimura, K., 2008	Total population size for Amami island from estimates in 2003 was between 2,000 and 4,800 individuals, reduced from a 1993-1994 estimate of 2,500-6,100 individuals.  These estimates were based on fecal pellet counts (Sugimura and Yamada 2004).  No index of abundance is known for the population on Tokuno, which has a much smaller area of occupancy.	eng
16559	threats	Yamada, F & Sugimura, K., 2008	<em>Pentalagus furnessi</em> is threatened by invasive predatory species and human caused habitat destruction.<br/><br/>The introduction of the mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>), which probably occurred on Amami Island in 1979, has presented a serious threat to <em>P. furnessi</em>, which evolved in isolation in absence of large active predators (Yamada 2002). Feral cats and dogs on both islands present a similar threat (Yamada and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat destruction, in the form of logging, has decreased the area of old growth forest to less than 10-30% of the area that existed in 1980 (Sugimura <em>et al.</em> 2000). Forest road construction, for the purpose of logging, encourages predator expansion in forests (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2000). Construction of resort facilities (e.g. golf courses) on Amami island have caused concern because the plans required destruction of rabbit habitat (McDowell 1996).	eng
16563	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is found in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
16563	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, and throughout Borneo, and Sumatra.	eng
16563	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It roosts in caves and lives in large colonies with more than 100 individuals. It inhabits secondary and primary lowland to hill forest (Medway 1983).	eng
16563	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
16563	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is most likely affected by limestone extraction. Deforestation for agriculture, plantations, logging and due to fire is occurring through a lot of the species' range, but at present they are not considered major threats for this species.	eng
16564	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The melon-headed whale does not regularly occur in the European Mammal Assessment region, so there are no conservation measures for the species in this area.	eng
16564	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to assess the impacts of potential threatening processes.	eng
16564	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Melon-headed whales have a pantropical distribution (Perryman 2002). The distribution  coincides almost exactly with that of the pygmy killer whale in tropical/subtropical oceanic waters between about 40°N and 35°S (Jefferson and Barros 1997). A few high-latitude strandings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water. These include specimens from Cornwall in England, Cape Province in South Africa, and Maryland, USA (Perryman <em>et al.</em> 1994, Rice 1998).	eng
16564	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Melon-headed whales have a pantropical distribution (Perryman 2002). The distribution coincides almost exactly with that of the pygmy killer whale in tropical/subtropical oceanic waters between about 40°N and 35°S (Jefferson and Barros 1997). A few high-latitude strandings are thought to be extralimital records, and are generally associated with incursions of warm water. These include specimens from Cornwall in England, Cape Province in South Africa, and Maryland, USA (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rice 1998).	eng
16564	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Melon-headed whales usually occur in groups of 100-500 (with a known maximum of 2,000 individuals).  Melon-headed whales are highly social. This species is sometimes involved in mass strandings, generally containing many dozens or even hundreds of animals. The largest ones known have included about 250 animals.<br/><br/>Most sightings are from the continental shelf seaward, and around oceanic islands; they are rarely found in temperate waters. However, they do occur nearshore in some areas where deep water approaches the coast (see Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1997, Wang <em>et al.</em> 2001).  In the eastern tropical Pacific, the distribution of reported sightings suggests that the oceanic habitat of this species is primarily in the upwelling modified and equatorial waters (Perryman <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, though they are known to feed on several species of squid, shrimp and small fish.	eng
16564	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Most sightings are from the continental shelf seaward, and around oceanic islands; they are rarely found in temperate waters. However, they do occur in some nearshore areas where deep water approaches the coast (see Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1997; Wang <em>et al</em>. 2001a, b). In the eastern tropical Pacific, the distribution of reported sightings suggests that the oceanic habitat of this species is primarily in the upwelling modified and equatorial waters (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Little is known of the diet of this species, though they are known to feed on several species of squid, shrimp and small fish.	eng
16564	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is relatively common in some areas of its range, although few abundance estimates are available.	eng
16564	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species is relatively common in some areas of its range, such as parts of the Philippines, and is regularly seen in waters around the Hawaiian Islands and around some archipelagos in the western tropical Pacific (such as the Tuamotus-Marquesas Islands). Only a few abundance estimates are available, however. <br/><br/>There are estimates of 45,400 (CV=47%) animals in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993); 3,451 (CV = 55%) in the Gulf of Mexico (Mullin and Fulling 2004); 2,947 animals (CV = 111%) in Hawaii (Barlow 2006); and 921 (CV = 80%) in the eastern Sulu Sea, Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2006). Photo-identification data from the Hawaiian Islands indicate some site fidelity, with repeated re-sightings of individuals, although movements among the main Hawaiian Islands have been documented (Huggins <em>et al</em>. 2005; Baird pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
16564	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of melon-headed whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect melon-headed whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Although no regular, large hunts are known, this species is taken occasionally in the subsistence fishery for small cetaceans near the island of St. Vincent in the Caribbean, in Taiwan and in the Japanese dolphin drive fishery. They continue to be taken in a long-lived and well-established harpoon fishery for sperm whales and various small cetaceans near Lamalera, Indonesia. Four melon-headed whales were taken during the 1982 fishing season. Small-boat fisherman also occasionally harpoon or net this species near Sri Lanka and in the Philippines (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994). Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1994) investigated the fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Hunters at several sites took melon-headed whales for bait or human consumption. Whales are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Around 800 cetaceans of various species are taken annually by hunters at the seven sites, mostly during the inter-monsoonal period of February-May. <br/><br/>Mortality from incidental captures in the purse-seine fishery for yellowfin tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific will probably continue at a very low level (Perryman <em>et al</em>. 1994). Information is scant, but at least small numbers of these pelagic animals are known to be taken in nets throughout the tropics. Especially considering that bycatch of small cetaceans in general is a large and growing problem in Asia (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 2002), low numbers of reports may be misleading. However, no particular conservation problem has been identified.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006). An anomalous movement of melon-headed whales into a bay in Hawaii was associated with military sonar (Southall <em>et al</em>. 2006), and the frequency of mass stranding events for this species have increased in the last 30 years (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
16564	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Threats include declines in prey species, incidental mortality in fishing gear, and noise pollution.	eng
16569	conservation	Friend, T. & Richards, J., 2008	This species is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Bernier and Dorre Islands are both protected areas, as are all the areas where the species has been reintroduced. Further studies are needed on the impact of pathogens on Bernier Island. Regular monitoring of populations is needed (annually or biannually). It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>A recovery plan for the species has been developed for the 2005-2010 period (Richards 2005). Recommendations in this plan include: protect wild populations and their habitat so that the species does not fall below the level of natural fluctuations; maintain captive populations; use of population viability analysis to compare the viability of wild, current and potential reintroduced populations, and; enhance community participation and education. The recovery plan also recommends initiating three reintroductions to the mainland within a five year period (2005-2010) (Richards 2005). Some of these, like the reintroduction to Arid Recovery, should be established "in different regions where climatic fluctuations may be out of synchrony" (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
16569	distribution	Friend, T. & Richards, J., 2008	The Western Barred Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it occurs naturally on Bernier and Dorre Islands in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Friend 2008). This species formerly ranged over much of southern Australia. There are reintroduced populations in Shark Bay (Heirisson Prong and Faure Island) and Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs, South Australia.	eng
16569	habitat	Friend, T. & Richards, J., 2008	Vegetation types occupied on Bernier and Dorre Islands include Triodia grasslands and scrub communities on vegetated dunes, and on sandplains, although the species is particularly abundant in sandhills behind beaches. On the mainland, this species was recorded from semi-arid areas with a variety of vegetation types, including scrub, open bluebush and saltbush plains and stony hills (Friend 2008). Females give birth to between one and three young, and can have up to four litters per year (Richards 2004).	eng
16569	population	Friend, T. & Richards, J., 2008	The population size fluctuates with rainfall. The overall population is under 10,000 mature individuals. There are perhaps about 5,000 in total on Bernier and Dorre Islands, where the species is considered abundant (Friend 2008). The population appears to be stable on the two islands. There are over 200 individuals in Heirisson Prong, over 20 on Faure Island, and about 40 in Arid Recovery. There is also a captive colony at Return to Dryandra Field Breeding Facility, and a small number of animals are held at Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre (Richards 2005).	eng
16569	threats	Friend, T. & Richards, J., 2008	The current major threats to the natural populations of the species include: the accidental introduction of predators (introduced cats and foxes), fire, and disease (Richards 2005). These same threats apply to varying degrees to the reintroduced populations. Extreme fluctuations in populations on islands are a threat, but this threat is seen as minor relative to the risk exotic predators being introduced (Short <em>et al.</em> 1997). With weather events becoming ever more unpredictable and all but one location for the species being located in Shark Bay, these fluctuations are still cause for concern. Introduced rats and mice are also a concern, but to a lesser degree than introduced predators.<br/><br/>This species probably declined through predation by introduced cats, dogs, and foxes, modification of vegetation by rabbits and stock, and possibly changed fire regimes in parts of the range (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Pathogens are a problem in Bernier Island (they seem to be endemic in the population, though discovered recently); the impact of these diseases on the population size is unknown and needs to be studied. The pathogens are also found within captive colonies.	eng
16570	conservation	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
16570	distribution	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species was endemic to western and central Australia. It was last collected in 1943. Aboriginal history indicates survival into the 1950s and perhaps the early 1960s (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
16570	habitat	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species was associated with spinifex grassland areas in arid, sandy areas.	eng
16570	population	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumed to be extinct.	eng
16570	threats	Burbidge, A., Johnson, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Its population decline was probably due to introduced predators: cats and foxes. Changes to the fire regime have also been blamed for species losses in inland arid areas of Australia – the gradual patchwork burning by aboriginal people was replaced by intensive "lightening-caused" wildfires which destroyed habitat diversity. Rabbits also likely had a major impact on its habitat.	eng
16572	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Richards, J., 2008	Eastern Barred Bandicoot occurs in protected areas. The most important conservation measure for the species as a whole is the control of fox populations in Tasmania. <br/><br/>Recovery efforts on the mainland are complex, multi-disciplinary, and involve many organisations and individuals; several research projects are under way, including collaborative projects with universities, covering biology and ecology of reintroduced populations, establishment at new sites, and population dynamics of foxes at bandicoot release sites; there is considerable community interest and involvement in the recovery program, especially with releases onto private land. A Recovery Plan for the mainland subspecies has been developed (Watson and Halley 2000). <br/><br/>Management actions underway for the mainland population include: captive breeding, ongoing since 1988. The Zoological Parks and Gardens Board (ZPGB) now manages this aspect of the recovery program, and bandicoots are bred at facilities in Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales. There are four reintroduction sites in Victoria, but only one, Woodlands Historic Park near Melbourne, has a reasonably secure population (>700 animals). The others are small, highly vulnerable, and will rely on supplementary releases for the next few years. Not all of these sites contain sufficient habitat for populations to be self-sustaining in the short- to medium-term; habitat management through fencing, tree planting, native grassland management, weed and rabbit control variously occur at all sites; intensive predator control is maintained at all release sites, with regular poisoning, shooting and destruction of dens and other refuges.	eng
16572	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Richards, J., 2008	The Eastern Barred Bandicoot is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it occurs over much of Tasmania and in a few reintroduction sites in Victoria (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). At one time, this species occurred from Melbourne west across the volcanic plain to south-eastern South Australia. It is now extinct in South Australia. Four small reintroduced populations exist in Victoria, including one of >700 animals has been established near Melbourne (only this one appears on the map). The Tasmanian population is most widely distributed in the northern and eastern parts of the island (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). The species ranges in elevation from sea level to 950 m in Tasmania, but it is usually found much lower there and on the mainland (Seebeck 2001).	eng
16572	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Richards, J., 2008	In Tasmania, populations inhabit open grasslands and areas of pastoral development with patches of dense groundcover (Seebeck 2001; Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008). On the mainland, the species formerly occupied the native grasslands and grassy woodlands of the western volcanic plains of Victoria. Reintroduced populations have been established in grasslands and grassy woodlands, often dominated by exotic plant species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Females give birth to between one and five young (but usually 2 or 3) (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008).	eng
16572	population	Menkhorst, P. & Richards, J., 2008	The Tasmanian population is reasonably widespread and fairly common. The population near Melbourne has declined, as have the other reintroduced populations, and the total number of individuals on mainland Australia is likely less than 200, although these numbers fluctuate depending on rainfall.	eng
16572	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Richards, J., 2008	Eastern Barred Bandicoots probably disappeared from the mainland due to introduced predators and habitat destruction from introduced herbivores. Predation from red foxes is thought to have been particularly detrimental, and the recent introduction of foxes to Tasmania could pose a major threat to the species here. Introduced sheep and rabbits also cleared large areas of bandicoot habitat on the mainland, which must have led to reduced populations. In Tasmania populations are fragmented in parts of its range, but this is probably not a major threat (Seebeck and Menkhorst 2008).	eng
16580	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
16580	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
16580	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Throughout Europe to northernmost extremity of Scandinavia, except Iberian Peninsula, central Italy and Adriatic basin; Aegean Sea basin: Maritza and from Struma to Aliakmon drainages; Aral Sea basin; in Siberia, in rivers draining to Arctic Ocean eastward to Kolyma (replaced by P. flavescens in North America). Introduced in Ebro delta (Spain), central and southern Italy, Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania), Amur (Siberia), Australia and South Africa.	eng
16580	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Throughout Europe to northernmost extremity of Scandinavia, except Iberian Peninsula, central Italy and Adriatic basin; Aegean Sea basin: Maritza and from Struma to Aliakmon drainages; Aral Sea basin; in Siberia, in rivers draining to Arctic Ocean eastward to Kolyma (replaced by P. flavescens in North America). Introduced in Ebro delta (Spain), central and southern Italy, Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania), Amur (Siberia), Australia and South Africa.	eng
16580	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A very wide range of habitats from estuarine lagoons, lakes of all types to medium sized streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 21 years, usually to about six years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. Spawns in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches about 6°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. A female usually spawns with several males, once each year. The female circles the spawning site, followed by one male, while other males remain stationary. The egg strand is released as the female swims in spiral clockwise movements, folding herself into a U-shape. All eggs are released and fertilised within about 5 seconds in a single strand, which becomes twisted around and entangled with spawning substrate. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic, live in open water and feed on pelagic organisms. They may be widely distributed by currents. An opportunistic diurnal feeder, preying mainly at sunrise and sunset, using all available prey. Larvae and small juveniles usually prey on planktonic invertebrates. During first summer, many juveniles come near shores to feed on benthic prey. Often becomes piscivorous at about 120 mm SL. Stocks with different life-histories may co-occur in some lakes (littoral, benthic feeding, pelagic zooplanktivorous), sometimes with different spawning sites and times.	eng
16580	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A very wide range of habitats from estuarine lagoons, lakes of all types to medium sized streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 21 years, usually to about six years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. Spawns in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches about 6°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. A female usually spawns with several males, once each year. The female circles the spawning site, followed by one male, while other males remain stationary. The egg strand is released as the female swims in spiral clockwise movements, folding herself into a U-shape. All eggs are released and fertilised within about 5 seconds in a single strand, which becomes twisted around and entangled with spawning substrate. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic, live in open water and feed on pelagic organisms. They may be widely distributed by currents. An opportunistic diurnal feeder, preying mainly at sunrise and sunset, using all available prey. Larvae and small juveniles usually prey on planktonic invertebrates. During first summer, many juveniles come near shores to feed on benthic prey. Often becomes piscivorous at about 120 mm SL. Stocks with different life-histories may co-occur in some lakes (littoral, benthic feeding, pelagic zooplanktivorous), sometimes with different spawning sites and times.	eng
16580	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
16580	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
16580	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
16580	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
16586	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a small range in the Coosa and Cahaba River systems, Georgia and Alabama.	eng
16587	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Widely but disjunctly distributed in mountains and uplands of the Tennessee (very rare) and Cumberland (probably extirpated) River drainages, Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, and (at least formerly) Kentucky.	eng
16591	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	The range includes medium to large streams of the Ohio River Basin from western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio southwestwards to Tennessee.	eng
16593	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Occurs in the Little River system of Oklahoma and Arkansas.	eng
16618	conservation	Hamer, M., 2003	Permits are required by a national conservation agency to collect fauna. It is suggested that prohibition of access or limited access to caves should be implemented.	eng
16618	distribution	Hamer, M., 2003	This species is only known from the Table Mountain Wynberg and Bats Cave systems in Western Cape, South Africa. Two subpopulations likely to be effectively separated by two isolated cave systems.	eng
16618	habitat	Hamer, M., 2003	In Wynberg Cave, the main galley where specimens were collected is about 30 m below the surface. The walls of the cave are constantly damp, the cave is continuously dark, and the only vegetation is small greyish lichen (Lawrence 1931). <br/> <br/>Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 20 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).	eng
16618	population	Hamer, M., 2003	Evidence suggests that population/s are very small. However, there is no real evidence that populations have declined. <em>P. alba</em> has only ever been collected from Wynberg and Bats Cave systems. There is thus no evidence that the area of occurrence or the area of occupancy has changed, or that it will change in the future (if these habitats are adequately protected).	eng
16618	threats	Hamer, M., 2003	Main threats to the species are over-collection for research purposes or by cavers, atmospheric pollution within the caves from carbides and tobacco smoke, and human disturbance of the species.	eng
16619	distribution	Hamer, M., 2003	This species occurs in South Africa, Western Cape, along the coastal region of the George / Knysna area, and in the Tsitsikamma Forest in the Eastern Cape.	eng
16619	habitat	Hamer, M., 2003	<em>P. clavigera</em> is confined to indigenous, Afromontane forest, where it occurs amongst moist leaf litter or under or in fallen and rotting logs. <br/> <br/>Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).	eng
16619	population	Hamer, M., 2003	The population is likely to have declined in response to the destruction and degradation of the habitat at several of the localities. Several subpopulations have been recorded, but the status of all of these is unknown.  <br/> <br/><em>P. clavigera</em> has been collected from six localities. Tsitsikamma Forest is unlikely to have undergone any detrimental change or to undergo such change in the near future. The other localities fall within state forests (Diepwalle, Harkerville, Saasveld), which are sustainably logged. These forests have some alien plant invasive problems, they are largely surrounded by plantations, and have been fragmented through road construction and afforestation. The Swart River area, between George and Knysna is an unprotected area that has undergone considerable development over the past 10 years.	eng
16620	distribution	Hamer, M., 2003	This species is only known from the type locality of Lion's Hill (Signal Hill), Cape Peninsula, Western Cape, South Africa. Details of this locality are as follows: the Cape Town side of Signal Hill, two small valleys cutting into the south-east slopes of that part of Lion's Hill known as the Saddle, the lower portion lying between Lion's Head and Lion's Rump; and from another valley, situated on the same side of the hill but much nearer Table Bay, and east of the signal station on the highest point of Lion's Rump.	eng
16620	habitat	Hamer, M., 2003	The species was collected from Fynbos habitat, in small ravines, under stones. Generation time and reproductive trends are likely to be similar to other members of the genus. Gestation is approximately 12-13 months, and only about 40 young are produced by each female in a year. Sexual maturity takes 9-11 months to reach and the life span is about 6-7 years (Manton 1938).	eng
16620	population	Hamer, M., 2003	The population is likely to have declined in response to the destruction and degradation of the habitat. Currently. there is no evidence of subpopulations anywhere. <br/> <br/><em>P. leonina</em> has only ever been collected from one location - Signal Hill. This area has been changed through the development of houses and roads, the development of recreation areas and the establishment of exotic plantations. Levels of air pollution have increased radically over the past 100 years. The habitat will have been fragmented by plantations, but the original extent of occurrence is unknown, which makes it difficult to estimate the amount of fragmentation that has occurred.	eng
16629	conservation	Oates, J.F., Butynski, T.M., Kingdon, J., Bearder, S., Pimley, E. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. This species is present in many protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/>It seems that the ’Mount Kenya Potto’ <em>P. p. stockleyi</em> either occurs at low densities or is highly local in its distribution, or (probably) both. There is also, of course, the possibility that this taxon is extinct. Determining the geographic range, abundance, and conservation status of this subspecies is a priority for primate conservation action in Kenya (see Butynski and De Jong 2007).	eng
16629	distribution	Oates, J.F., Butynski, T.M., Kingdon, J., Bearder, S., Pimley, E. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species has a wide range from about Sierra Leone and south-eastern Guinea to south-western Kenya, at elevations of 600 to 2,300 m asl, with an isolated population east of the rift valley (Butynski and De Jong 2007; Pimley and Bearder in press). Surprisingly, there are no records at all for Tanzania (see Butynski and De Jong 2007).<br/><br/>There are four subspecies: the nominate <em>P. p. potto</em> (here taken to include the form "<em>juju</em>")  is found in West Africa from Sierra Leone to the Niger River in Nigeria (there are no confirmed records for Senegal, Gambia or Guinea-Bissau); <em>P. p. edwardsi</em> is found from the Niger River in Nigeria east through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (not found on Bioko), Congo, and then south of the Congo River through Democratic Republic of Congo as far east as Irneti and as far south as Angola; <em>P. p. ibeanus</em> occurs from east and south of the Ubangi River, and north and east of Congo River, DR Congo, eastwards extending east of the Lualaba River to north-west Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda to the Kakamega and Nandi forests and surrounds in south-western Kenya (see Butynski and de Jong 2007); and <em>P. p stockleyi</em> is known only from the type locality, Mount Kenya, at 1830 m, and is isolated from the nearest <em>P. p. ibeanus</em> population by at least 170 km (Butynski and de Jong 2007). A Potto obtained by Peirce (1975) at Muguga (2100 m) on the southern slopes of the Aberdares Range may well represent the latter subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Pseudopotto martini</em>, originally described as a new genus but here included in the synonymy of <em>P. potto</em>, is currently known only from one skeleton (which came from a specimen that died at Zurich Zoo) and two skulls, as well as some undocumented sightings, around Mount Kupe, Cameroon, at 820-940 m altitude. However, this animal was never observed once on Mt Kupe during the course of two years of field work (E. Pimley pers. comm.), and only <em>P. potto</em> (some with long tails) were recorded.	eng
16629	habitat	Oates, J.F., Butynski, T.M., Kingdon, J., Bearder, S., Pimley, E. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species inhabits all strata of lowland and montane tropical moist forest, swamp forest, and other lowland forest types. It is commonest in secondary and colonising forests, and along the margins of these forests. Its diet shows distinct seasonal variation: gums are dominant during drier periods, with insects, snails, and fruits (such as figs, <em>Musanga</em>, <em>Parinari</em>, <em>Uapaca</em>, and <em>Myrianthus</em>) taken during the rains. Pottos are solitary animals, but do display some degree of sociality (Pimley <em>et al.</em> 2005; AMJP). Charles-Dominique (1977) recorded females ranging over 3-9 ha, and males over 9-40 ha with their ranges overlapping that of one or more females; however, Pimley <em>et al</em>. (2005; IJP) found no significant difference in the range area of pottos between males (mean = 30.6 ha ± 2.97) and females (mean = 31.5 ha ± 7.25). The females give birth to one young annually. Wild pottos in Gabon lived to at least nine years of age (Charles-Dominique 1977).	eng
16629	population	Oates, J.F., Butynski, T.M., Kingdon, J., Bearder, S., Pimley, E. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Pottos are widespread and common. Density averages 8 – 10 animals/km² at Makokou, in north-east Gabon (Charles-Dominique 1977) and 4.7 animals/km² in mixed secondary forest and farm bush on Mt. Kupe, Cameroon (Pimley 2002). Butynski and De jong (2007) summarize encounter rates and densities for <em>P. p. ibeanus</em>, noting that densities range between <2 and 28 individuals/km².<br/><br/>The recently described <em>P. p. stockleyi</em> is known only from a single specimen collected in 1938.	eng
16629	threats	Oates, J.F., Butynski, T.M., Kingdon, J., Bearder, S., Pimley, E. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Pottos are known to be widespread in secondary and primary forests, and even in disturbed forest near human habitation. There are probably no major threats resulting in a range-wide population decline, but localized declines are likely taking place due to habitat loss from clear-cutting and intensive agriculture, and from hunting.	eng
16631	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not listed as threatened or endangered; some historical localities are on public land but habitat is unprotected. Further surveys are needed in potential habitat throughout its historical range and in contiguous potential habitat. Areas likely to support populations are the mountain slopes of the Tehachapi and San Gabriel ranges that front on the Mojave Desert (Williams, 1986). All known occurrences should be protected, but no data are available to determine the type of protection needed, other than protection from development. Information is needed on basic biology, ecology, and the taxonomic relationship between the two subspecies.	eng
16631	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The white-eared pocket mouse is known from two disjunct mountain ranges in southern California in the United States: the San Bernardino Mountains in San Bernardino County (subspecies <em>alticolus</em>), and the Tehachapi Mountains, in Kern, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties (subspecies <em>inexpectatus</em>), at elevations of about 3,500-6,000 feet (1,070-1,830 m asl). The two subspecies are separated by the San Gabriel Mountains.	eng
16631	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Available information indicates that habitat is primarily open grassy/weedy/dry bracken areas among sagebrush and other shrubs in ponderosa/Jeffrey pine, pinyon/juniper, or montane hardwood-conifer associations. Secondary habitat is also open areas in Joshua tree and high desert shrub associations and old-field communities of herbaceous plants in high desert scrub associations, arid annual grassland (e.g., rangeland dominated by introduced grasses), and a fallow grain field dominated by Russian thistle (Sulentich, 1983; Williams, 1986; Best, 1994).<br/><br/>At higher elevations, this rodent is found in yellow pine forest with bracken fern and pinyon-juniper woodland habitats. At lower elevations, chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitat is occupied. It is a nocturnal species, remaining in burrows during the day and emerging at night to forage on a variety of plant and animal matter. Seeds are carried in cheek pouches to underground storage chambers.	eng
16631	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Despite focused surveys, no specimens of subspecies <em>alticolus</em> have been obtained since the 1930s; this subspecies appears to be rare or extinct. Subspecies <em>inexpectatus</em> is also uncommon (D. F. Williams, cited by Best, 1994). Searches from 1979-1981, involving 81,938 trap nights, yielded only three specimens from a single locality (D. F. Williams). Trapping by Sulentich (1983) produced 11 specimens from two localities on the eastern side of Tehachapi Pass, in an area where a single specimen was caught in 1975 (Williams, 1978). Since 1978, occurrence at three localities has been verified; several historical sites for <em>inexpectatus</em> were not searched and probably still are occupied (D. F. Williams). The current population trend is unknown, but the species already appears to have declined to a small extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size.	eng
16631	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Current threats to the species are related to its increased vulnerability to habitat modification due to its restricted and patchy distribution (Nowak, 1999). Habitat is used for timber production, but the effect of this is unknown. The species may be threatened by cattle grazing, but the effects of different levels of grazing are not known. Many of the mountain valleys within the potential range of subspecies <em>alticolus</em> are privately owned and have been developed or inundated by reservoirs; with exception of a Forest Service fire lookout tower, the area surrounding Strawberry Peak is privately owned and largely developed (Winter, 1998).	eng
16633	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16633	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in western and central Arizona, extending southward to northwest Sonora, Mexico (Hall 1981; Hoffmeister 1986).	eng
16633	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Found in desert scrubland and desert grassland, where it prefers flat habitats with scattered shrubs or bunchgrasses and fine-textured, firm soils.	eng
16633	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common. Extreme temporal fluctuations in populations, in response to temporal variation in levels of precipitation (M. Price pers. comm.).	eng
16633	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known major threats. However, because of the temporal variation in populations, severe habitat fragmentation could pose a threat (M. Price pers. comm.).	eng
16634	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16634	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From eastern Minnesota southward to Utah, southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, west Texas (United States), and into northern Chihuahua (Mexico).	eng
16634	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Generally confined to areas of sandy or sandy-loam soils, where it typically associates with either grassland or shrubland habitats. May also occur in agricultural fields.	eng
16634	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is locally common but patchily distributed.	eng
16634	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats.	eng
16635	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>One subspecies <em>P. f. goodpastori</em> is considered threatened in Arizona  due to its very isolated and restricted range.	eng
16635	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Central and Southern Great Plains and intermountain west in the U.S., extending southward throughout the Mexican Plateau. A disjunct population occurs in Sonora, Mexico along the Gulf of California.	eng
16635	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in semi-arid or arid grasslands and shrublands.	eng
16635	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is abundant and common.	eng
16635	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
16636	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16636	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	The species' distribution extends from southeast Oregon and western Utah in the United States, to north Sonora and Baja California Sur in Mexico.	eng
16636	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	The general habitat for most species of <em>Perognathus</em> is arid plains and desert-like country. This species is nocturnal, spending daylight hours in burrows and emerging at night to feed on a variety of vegetation and insect species.<br/><br/>The subspecies of <em>P. longimembris</em> currently of conservation concern occurs in grassland, alluvial sage scrub, and coastal sage scrub habitats.	eng
16636	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Generally common. However, the population in Baja California Sur is extremely small.	eng
16636	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	None known.	eng
16637	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16637	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From southwestern Oklahoma through western and southern Texas and eastern New Mexico (United States), and into far northeastern Chihuahua, northern and eastern Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Mexico).	eng
16637	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in short-grass prairie, desert scrub, and arid brushland. Is able to live in disturbed habitat, such as grazed pastureland.	eng
16637	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Apparently common, although localized in distribution within range.	eng
16637	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats.	eng
16645	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	None.	eng
16645	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Sonora, San Pedro Nolasco Island (27°58’N, 111°24’W), México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16645	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. San Pedro Nolasco is the only island in the Gulf that supported 2 species of <em>Peromyscus</em> (<em>P. pembertoni</em> and <em>P. boylii glasselli</em>). No other mammals occurred on the island. <br/><br/><em>P. pembertoni</em> was collected on a steep, grass-covered hillside on the east side of the island (Burt 1938 in Alvarez-Castañeda and Calva 2003). Dominant plants are: elephant tree/torote (<em>Bursera microphylla</em>), pitayita (<em>Echinocereus websterianus</em>), liga (<em>Euphorbia magdalenae</em>), Adam’s tree/palo adan (<em>Fouquieria diguetii</em>), leatherplant/matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), biznaguita/fishhook cactus (<em>Mammillaria multidigitata</em>, <em>M. tayloriorum</em>), malva rosa (<em>Melochia tomentosa</em>), chain-fruit cholla/cholla (<em>Opuntia fulgida</em> var. <em>fulgida</em>), cardon (<em>Pachycereus pringlei</em>), slipper plant/candelilla (<em>Pedilanthus macrocarpus</em>), jojoba (<em>Simmondsia chinensis</em>), and pitaya dulce/organpipe cactus (<em>Stenocereus thurberi</em>) (Alvarez-Castañeda and Calva 2003).	eng
16645	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is extinct.	eng
16645	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
16651	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Occurs in protected areas.	eng
16651	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species has a disjunct range, occurring in humid montane and cloud forests in central Veracruz, central Guerrero, through Oaxaca and east Chiapas, México, to Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found from 500 to 3,200 m (Carleton 1979, in Reid 1997).	eng
16651	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This mouse is found in temperate montane regions. It favors edges and secondary growth of wet highland forest (Reid 1997). It can live in disturbed habitat of coffee and sugar cane plantations (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>It is largely insectivorous and includes ants, weevils, crickets, and beetles in the diet; a few seeds (<em>Solanum</em> sp. and others), and green plant material are also eaten (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984, in Reid 1997).	eng
16651	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
16651	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats. However, deforestation could pose a threat in the future.	eng
16652	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. The population on San Pedro Nolasco Island has protected status under Mexican law.	eng
16652	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in mountainous regions over a wide area of western United States, and south into central Mexico, including San Pedro Nolasco Island in the Sea of Cortez. Is it usually found above 2,000 m.	eng
16652	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Habitats vary from desert to montane forest, but restricted to locations where there are rock outcroppings, boulders, brush piles, and fallen trees. Usually places nest in natural cavities, rocky crevices, or under brushpiles.	eng
16652	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common.	eng
16652	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known. However, on San Pedro Nolasco Island, a related species <em>Peromyscus pembertoni</em>, has gone extinct.	eng
16653	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001)	eng
16653	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from the Orizaba Basin on the border of Veracruz and Puebla, in east central México (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is Perote, Veracruz (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is known from 2,250 to 2,500 m elevation (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16653	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. Dominant vegetation associations include grasslands and arid scrub in bottom lands and coniferous forests at higher elevations. This species is restricted to flat bottoms with areas of fine sandy soil that support grasses and a few trees (<em>Juniperus dippeana</em>) and Yucca. It has not been collected in rocky areas (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females showed no signs of reproductive activity in March, June, September, or October (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16653	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Before 1950, this rodent was known from seven specimens. This species was considered rare because only one specimen was collected by Hall and Dalquest (1963). <em>Peromyscus bullatus</em> exhibits very specific and strong habitat selection, and its preferred habitat is uncommon and restricted (Gonzalez-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16653	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	A restricted range, a highly discriminating choice of habitat, low densities, and habitat deterioration may pose serious threats this species (Gonzales-Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2005). This area is experiencing severe habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture.	eng
16654	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
16654	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Restricted to southern California (United States) and northern Baja California (Mexico). Elevational range sea level to 2,440 m.	eng
16654	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in chaparral, coniferous and oak woodlands, coastal sage scrub, and laurel and redwood forests. <br/><br/>Finds cover in natural holes and crevices and uses burrows of other animals. Often lives in stick nests built by wood rats. Young are born in complex nests of grasses, weeds and sticks located under logs or other debris.	eng
16654	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Can be locally common.<br/><br/>Low, but stable densities, with populations up to 104 individuals/ha depending on habitat and season. Appears to associate with <em>Neotoma fuscipe</em>s, with densities possibly correlating with abundance of <em>Neotoma dens</em>.	eng
16654	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
16655	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from Montserrat Island, Baja California Sur, Mexico. (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
16655	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This island is desert scrub.	eng
16655	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
16655	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is severely threatened by feral cats in its very restricted range. Predation by feral cats has already caused the extinction of <em>Chaetodipus rodinorus fornicatus</em> on the same island.	eng
16656	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16656	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Western United States and adjacent northwestern Mexico. In the United States from Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming southward California, Arizona, and New Mexico. In Mexico, northern Baja California and northwestern Sonora.	eng
16656	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Habitat specialists. Occur in arid shrublands and grasslands, specifically where bare rock is present such as canyon walls, but not in association with any particular type of vegetation.<br/><br/>Because of its patchy distribution (which is not reflected in the range map), this species likely has a much smaller area of occupancy than indicated by its extent of occurrence.	eng
16656	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is locally common in suitable habitat.<br/><br/>Densities up to 42.9 individuals/ha have been recorded, with higher numbers occurring on isolated buttes.	eng
16656	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
16657	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
16657	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from Tortuga Island, Baja California, Mexico (Cortez-Calva and Alvarez-Castaneda 2001).	eng
16657	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This island is desert scrub.	eng
16657	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is relatively common on the island.	eng
16657	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Given this species' extremely restricted range, it is threatened by stochastic threats such as El Niño/La Nina events, cyclical rattlesnake predations, and the high possibility of the introduction of feral cats to the island.	eng
16658	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Approximately one-third of its range is in protected areas.	eng
16658	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from west Chihuahua and southeast Coahuila, south to central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its range follows the Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental, and surrounds the deserts of Chihuahua and Sonora.	eng
16658	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in pine and oak forests, desert scrub, and grasslands. This species is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
16658	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species lives at low densities.	eng
16658	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known threats. However, deforestation of the pine and oak woodlands could pose a threat in the future.	eng
16659	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16659	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in the south-western United States and north-central and north-western Mexico, including several islands in the Gulf of California. Occurs from 35 - 2,130 m elevation	eng
16659	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in a variety of habitats, but generally prefers desert shrublands, rocky foothills, and plains with scattered vegetation and sandy soils.	eng
16659	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common. Populations tend to be stable and relatively low in density.	eng
16659	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16660	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are several protected areas within this species' range. The population of this species on Carmen Island is protected by Mexican law (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
16660	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout Baja California Sur and Carmen Island, México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).	eng
16660	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	<em>P. eva</em> is generally associated with patches of succulent vegetation and stony areas. It has been found in natural arid tropical scrub containing matorral sarcocaule such as cholla (<em>Cilindro opuntia</em>), palo Adan (<em>Fouquieria diguetii</em>), lomboy (<em>Jatropha cinerea</em>), viejito (<em>Mammilaria</em>), cardon (<em>Pachicereus pringlei</em>), and pitaya agria (<em>Stenocereus gummosus</em>). This rodent has also been collected in fields of chili, corn, oranges, palms, sugarcane, and tamarind, and in areas with secondary vegetation.<br/> <br/>Pregnant females were captured during February, March, June, and July; and lactation was observed mainly in February, April, and July. Breeding was observed in July. The number of embryos averaged 3 (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).	eng
16660	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The population of <em>Peromyscus eva</em> increases more during the cooler months October to February than other species of rodents. On the slopes of the Sierra de la Laguna, the relative abundance of <em>P. eva</em> is closely related to elevation and vegetation (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2003).	eng
16660	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. However, the population on Carmen Island may be threatened by  population decline from introduced species and predation by feral cats.	eng
16661	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species requires more research to understand more about its basic biology, population status, and threats.	eng
16661	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from wet and cool forests along the eastern flanks of the Sierra Madre Oriental from extreme south-east San Luis Potosí to north central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 650 - 2,900 m asl.	eng
16661	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in moist, mountainous regions of east-central Mexico. This species is found in oak-pine and cloud forest (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16661	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
16661	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. However, little is known about potential threats other than deforestation.	eng
16662	conservation	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	Ocurs in the Sierra de las Minas biosphere reserve in Guatemala. Needs further taxonomic research.	eng
16662	distribution	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs from south Alta Verapaz and north-east Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, although the exact limits of its distribution are unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 2,700 m.	eng
16662	habitat	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This mouse can be found in mature cloud forest, and is most common along steep banks of streams and in low-lying areas with numerous tree ferns and mosses (Reid 1997). It is also known from secondary habitats.<br/><br/>It is usually terrestrial, occasionally on low logs or fallen trees. One female was pregnant with 2 embryos in December (Reid 1997).	eng
16662	population	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	It is locally common to common (Reid 1997).	eng
16662	threats	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It does, however, have a relatively small range, in which suitable habitat is decreasing due to forest loss.	eng
16663	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16663	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in mountainous areas from the Mogollon Plateau in southwestern New Mexico, USA, south to western Chihuahua and southeastern Coahuila, through interior México to central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species occurs from elevation of 1,829 to 3,110 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16663	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Reported from a variety of habitats between 1,829 - 3,110 m, it may prefer foothills covered with shrubby vegetation. It is typically associated with rocky habitats, especially with dark lava flows. However, it has also been found in an array of habitats ranging from cultivated land to coniferous mountain-top forests.	eng
16663	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It status is unknown in the United States, but most of its range is in Mexico where it is considered common.	eng
16663	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
16664	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species' range occurs within the Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether populations of this species exist on Ángel de la Guarda Island (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). If populations are found they should be secured by controlling introduced competitors and predators, a captive breeding program should be instigated with the possibility of translocating individuals to Estanque Island where cats (or rather the single cat) was recently removed (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004), and ways to mitigate possible increased human activity due to the Mexican government's plans to make the Gulf of California a major tourist destination should be explored (Álvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
16664	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known from Ángel de la Guarda Island in the northern Gulf of California, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was historically also found on three nearby, smaller islands (i.e, Granito, Mejía, and Estanque).	eng
16664	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	These islands are desert scrub.	eng
16664	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Although this species was apparently common in the mid-1960s, population declines have been observed over the past three decades to the extent that no population is currently known to be still extant, and the species could in fact be extinct. On Ángel de la Guarda Island, it was last recorded in 1991 (Mellink <em>et al.</em> 2002); populations are thought to be extremely low on this island due to predation by feral cats, and the species may possibly have been extirpated (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004). No individuals have been recorded in several recent surveys on the Islands of Mejía and Granito (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003), and the species is likely extirpated from these islands (Mellink <em>et al.</em> 2002; Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003). The species is said to be extirpated from Estanque Island (Vázquez-Domínguez <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
16664	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Major threats to this species include competition with introduced rodents, predation by feral or domestic cats, and intrinsic factors due to its small population size and limited distribution. There is a risk that more human activity will result from the Mexican government's plans to make the Gulf of California a major tourist destination, which will substantially increase the chances of detrimental introduction of non-native species (Álvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
16665	conservation	Matson, J. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Mexico and Guatemala. Taxonomic research is needed as there is confusion with <em>P. mexicanus</em> and other <em>Peromyscus</em> species.	eng
16665	distribution	Matson, J. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in high elevations in mountains of south Chiapas, México, and southwest Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,300 to 3,000 m (seldom below 2,000 m) (Reid 1997).	eng
16665	habitat	Matson, J. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This mouse can be found in wet highland oak forest with numerous epiphytes and is rare or absent from highly disturbed or logged areas (Reid 1997). It is mainly terrestrial and is often trapped on the ground near fallen logs or at the base of trees, occasionally along low branches or logs (Reid 1997).	eng
16665	population	Matson, J. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is common to abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
16665	threats	Matson, J. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although some of the parks that comprise the core area of the species are not adequately protected from habitat loss.	eng
16666	conservation	Pérez, S., Medina, A., Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Guatemala. Research is needed on the taxonomy and basic biology and ecology of this species because very little is known about it.	eng
16666	distribution	Pérez, S., Medina, A., Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs from the Pacific coastal plain and adjacent foothills from south Chiapas, México, to south Nicaragua, west of Lake Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from sea level to 1,675 m (usually below 1,000 m) (Reid 1997; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16666	habitat	Pérez, S., Medina, A., Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species can be found in tall evergreen forest, riparian areas in deciduous forest, second growth, and shaded coffee fields (Reid 1997). Prefers shady, cool areas.<br/><br/>It is terrestrial; it is often trapped near fallen logs and around the roots of trees or by rocks. Pregnant females were found from March to August in Nicaragua; litter size is 2 to 4 young, mean 2.7 (Reid 1997).	eng
16666	population	Pérez, S., Medina, A., Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat (Reid 1997).	eng
16666	threats	Pérez, S., Medina, A., Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	Very intensive agriculture and tourism development are reducing this species' habitat.	eng
16667	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Part of this species' range occurs within a protected area.	eng
16667	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in a grassland transition zone (from 1,000 to 2,000 m), from central Coahuila to northernmost Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16667	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The optimal habitat for the species is the grassland transition floral zone. This vegetation type separates the Chihuahuan desert scrub below and montane chaparral above. Conspicuous plants are <em>Dasylirion</em>, <em>Nolina</em>, and <em>Yucca</em>, interspersed with various grasses. <br/><br/>Trapping success was better on the slopes than in the arroyo, and a greater number of specimens were collected in the grassland transition vegetation (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002). Litter size averaged 2.9. In captivity, average gestation period while lactating was 33.5 days (range, 30–40 days). Average age at first estrus is 69 days (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002).	eng
16667	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is considered rare (Alvarez-Castañeda 2002).	eng
16667	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
16668	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is protected as an endangered species in Mexico (NOM--59-ECOL-2001)	eng
16668	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs on three islands in the northern Gulf of California, México: San Lorenzo Norte (also called Animas), San Lorenzo Sur, and Salsipuedes.	eng
16668	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The habitat on these islands is desert scrub.	eng
16668	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	On Salsipuedes and San Lorenzo Norte the population is now stable, on San Lorenzo Sur house cats are contributing to a decline in the population.	eng
16668	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by predation by feral cats and house cats, and by the development of fishing camps that leads to an increase in the number cats and other introduced species (such as rodents).	eng
16669	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
16669	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Eastern two-thirds of United States and adjoining portions of southern Canada, southward into southern Mexico. However, it does not occur in the coastal plain areas of the southeastern states or in Florida.	eng
16669	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Occupies a variety of habitats throughout its extensive range. In the eastern part of its range, it reaches highest densities in low to mid-elevation dry forests with shrubby understory and is also abundant in brushy fields. In contrast, in the southwestern U.S. it inhabits semi-desert vegetation.	eng
16669	population	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Often the most abundant species in eastern woodlands and in hedgerows bordering agricultural fields. Densities vary seasonally and multi-annually, with one study in suboptimal habitat reporting densities ranging from a low of 20.1 individuals/ha during fall of one year to a peak of 57.5 individuals/ha in fall of following year.<br/><br/>It has drastically increased its distribution over the last few decades.	eng
16669	threats	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	None known.	eng
16670	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
16670	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from central Nuevo León and west Tamaulipas, in and along the Sierra Madre Oriental, to central Veracruz, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Distrito Federal, and Morelos, México (Houseal <em>et al</em>. 1987; Schmidly <em>et al</em>. 1988; Bradley <em>et al</em>. 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 690 to 3,100 m (Carleton 1989; Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16670	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in rocky habitats within pine, pine-oak, gallery, and pak woodlands. It has been collected from 690 m to 3,100 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal. It feeds on grains, fruits, and green vegetation; it will also consume worms, insects, molluscs and small vertebrates, particularly in early spring (Ceballos and Galindo-L. 1984). Piles of acorn shells may be found at burrow entrances or in small hollows under roots or stones (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 1982). Nests are made from plants and other materials, and are located in rock crevices, tree hollows, and brush piles (Ceballos and Galindo-L. 1984). Dalquest (1953) reported that a leaf nest was found 1 m above ground in a hollow oak tree. Reproduction generally occurs from May through November (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). The number of young per litter varies from one to six, with an average of four (Romo 1993).	eng
16670	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be common in parts of its range (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16670	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats.  However, deforestation within the pine and oak forests could pose a threat in the future.	eng
16671	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is protected in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001). The range of this species is within Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
16671	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Islas Marías group: San Juanito, María Madre, María Magdalena, and María Cleofás, located off the central western coast of México (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005).	eng
16671	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is present in several habitats, but mainly in tropical deciduous forest. Often, <em>P. madrensis</em> has been found in the interior highlands, near dry riverbeds, and on the surrounding hillsides. This mouse lives under logs, projecting roots, rocks, and small ledges. Pregnant and lactating females and juveniles of both sexes were found in March (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005).	eng
16671	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This mouse is abundant in all habitats on María Cleofás Island, the least disturbed island in the chain. On other islands, this species is rare. No individuals were collected in 1991 on María Magdalena Island (Alvarez-Castañeda and Mendez 2005); this species may be extirpated from this island.	eng
16671	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species may be threatened due to  competition for resources with introduced fauna (including <em>Capra hircus</em>, <em>Odocoileus virginianus</em>, and <em>Rattus rattus</em>) (Wilson 1991). There is a federal prison on María Madre, and the island houses more than 5,000 people, as well as cattle, horses, goats, sheep, donkeys, rabbits, poultry, and cats (Lopez-Forment <em>et al.</em> 1996). The population of <em>P. madrensis</em> on this island is likely the most threatened by introduced fauna.	eng
16672	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
16672	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This is the most widespread North American rodent. It is found throughout southern Canada, the United States, and north and central Mexico, including Baja California. It is absent from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastal plains of the United States, but its range does extend to the coast in east Texas.	eng
16672	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is ecologically diverse, with its 57 subspecies divided into two ecotypes: long-tailed, large-eared forest inhabitants and short-tailed, small-eared inhabitants of open country. Altogether, it is found in virtually every habitat within its range (tundra, taiga, temperate and boreal forests, swamps and bogs, prairies, deserts, and scrublands).	eng
16672	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	It is extremely abundant in some habitats, varying both seasonally and annually.	eng
16672	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16673	conservation	Reid, F., Pérez, S., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra de Cuchumatanes National Park, however, this park is rapidly being cut down and is not well protected. The species would benefit from an increased level of protection of its forest habitat.	eng
16673	distribution	Reid, F., Pérez, S., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and nearby vicinity (2,950 m) in the Huehuetenango Department, Guatemala, about 7 km northwest of Santa Eulalia, Yaiquich (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 2,900 to 3,000 m.	eng
16673	habitat	Reid, F., Pérez, S., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This mouse can be found in mature, highland forest, where it seems to be restricted to cold, wet oak forest with scattered pines, abundant epiphytes and fallen trees, and a deep layer of leaf litter (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial, and burrows through the leaf litter under and along decaying logs and tree roots. It appears to require a deep layer of litter, as it was not found in similar forest without deep litter at a slightly lower elevation (2,800 m). At 2,900 m, nightly frost slows decomposition of litter, while at 2,800 the litter layer is shallower due to warmer conditions (Reid 1997). Pregnant females were taken in May, with 1 to 3 embryos (mean of 1.8) (Carleton and Huckaby 1975). All individuals caught in December were nonreproductive (Reid 1997).	eng
16673	population	Reid, F., Pérez, S., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It is locally common in well-preserved forest, but not in deforested areas.	eng
16673	threats	Reid, F., Pérez, S., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This mouse is highly threatened due to intensive logging in its small known region of occurrence. Fire is also a potential threat because of the small size of its region of occurrence. Climate change and/or a strong El Niño year, either of which could dry out the area, are other potential threats as the species requires wet leaf litter.	eng
16674	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
16674	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in forests in the mountains of central Guerrero, south and north central Oaxaca, and the Estado de Mexico, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
16674	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in highland pine and oak forests with a preference for riparian areas. It can tolerant anthropogenic change.	eng
16674	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
16674	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats.  However, deforestation within the pine and oak forests could pose a threat in the future.	eng
16675	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs within a protected area.	eng
16675	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in south-east Puebla, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is only known from two specimens: the type locality of Ciudad Serdan and a single skin from Tehuacan at 1,700 m (Hall 1981).	eng
16675	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is poorly known. This area was originally characterized by arid shrubland. This species is thought be specific to one vegetation type.	eng
16675	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	No population information could be found. Only two specimens are known. The last specimen was seen 60 years ago.	eng
16675	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The area where the species is found is experiencing loss of native vegetation due to agricultural conversion.	eng
16676	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In the Sierra de Juarez, there is a community-based forest management program which helps to protect its habitat.	eng
16676	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierras de Zempoaltépec, Juárez, and Mazteca (ca. 1,500 to 2,500 m) of north-central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16676	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This rodent inhabits montane forests in regions characterized by steep slopes, lateritic soils, high rainfall and heavy cloud cover, and relatively low insect and avian diversities and abundances. It occurs in montane rainforest and evergreen cloud forest. Both forest types have a dense, herbaceous understory and bamboo in common (Rickart and Robertson 1985). This species is not tolerant of major habitat conversion.<br/><br/>A seasonal breeding peak was found from March to July (corresponding to the transition between dry and wet seasons). However, at least some reproduction occurs throughout the year. Litter size range is 1 to 3 (mean size 2.8 in wild animals; 1.8 in laboratory). The sex radio (male : female) for 41 individuals born in captivity was 1.93:1; whereas that of 246 snap-trapped specimens from the Cerro Pelon region was 1.54:1. The length of gestation in the laboratory has been estimated at 1 month (Rickart and Robertson 1985).	eng
16676	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is frequent to common (Rickart and Robertson 1985).	eng
16676	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E., Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation for small-holder agriculture and expanding human settlements.	eng
16677	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
16677	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from southern Durango to Coahuila, and south through interior México to Chiapas (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 100 to 2,600 m (Baker 1952; Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982).	eng
16677	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This rodent occurs in dry, rocky, desert areas (Reid 1997). It is semi-arboreal. <br/><br/>In San Luis Potosi, Mexico, it is known to emerge at dusk to climb and feed on the fruit of Joshua trees and prickly pear cacti. Ball-like nests of woven grasses are made in thorny terminal branches of Joshua trees. This species is rather noisy and can be located by their constant squeaking (Dalquest 1953). Breeding takes place from June to January; litter size is about 3 (Reid 1997).	eng
16677	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be common in the northern part of its range, but in Chiapas (southern most extent of its range), it is known from very few specimens taken in the late 1800s (Reid 1997)	eng
16677	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
16678	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16678	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species' range is mostly within Mexico, but there is a disjunct population in the mountains of southeast Arizona (Chiricahua, Graham, and Santa Catalina Mountains). In Mexico, this species occurs in the central Cordillera Transvolcanica (east Jalisco to central Veracruz), northwards along Sierra Madre Oriental to south Nuevo León and along Sierra Madre Occidental to west Chihuahua (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16678	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found mainly in rocky habitats within mesic deciduous and coniferous forests. It iis found throughout the pine-fir zone and intermixed grasslands in high mountains. <br/><br/>This species is noctural and omnivorous (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005). The home range for the species was aproximately 410 m<sup>2</sup>. Mean litter size is 3.7 to 3.8 embryos (Baker 1956; Davis 1944), with a maximum of 5 embryos. Pregnant females have been recorded in January, April, May, July, August, and November; lactating females have been reported only in November; and juveniles in June and July. One fertile cross between <em>Peromyscus melanotis</em> and <em>P. maniculatus</em> produced a litter of males, which were fertile when backcrossed to females of <em>P. maniculatus</em> (Clark 1966), but another similar mating failed to produce offspring. Of 137 interspecific crosses between <em>P. melanotis</em> and <em>P. maniculatus</em>, none produced offspring (Bowers 1974).	eng
16678	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This mouse is not common to uncommon (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).	eng
16678	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
16679	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Research is needed to determine this species population status and habitat preferences.	eng
16679	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an elevational range of between 700 and 1,900 m.	eng
16679	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. The area in its range is characterized by tropical lowland deciduous forest and pine/oak forest.	eng
16679	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
16679	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture.	eng
16680	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
16680	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in south central Arizona, USA, through west Sonora to central Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found from sea level to 1,160 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16680	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in dense mesquite thickets mixed with other woody vegetation and grasses between sea level and 1,160 m elevation. Ground cover in its habitat tends to be dense and the substrate typically has a litter layer of dead vegetation. <br/><br/>It is strictly nocturnal, foraging mostly on the ground for seeds, small fruits, and insects. It appears to breed throughout the year, probably with less activity during the hot summer months and most actively in late winter and early spring. Embryo counts average about 2.6 (range 2 to 4) (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16680	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is common in appropriate habitat (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16680	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Habitat is localized and fragmented.	eng
16681	conservation	Reid, F. & Pino, J., 2008	Found in protected areas in Mexico and parts of Central America. Needs research into its taxonomy.	eng
16681	distribution	Reid, F. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in México, along the Atlantic coast from south San Luis Potosí to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and along the Pacific coast, from the Guerrero-Oaxaca border to central Chiapas; the upper foothills and middle elevation mountains in Guatemala, through El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, to the highlands of Costa Rica and west Panamá (Chiriquí region) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,000 m (usually 600 to 1,500 m) (Reid 1997).	eng
16681	habitat	Reid, F. & Pino, J., 2008	This mouse occurs in semideciduous, secondary forest along streams. It is also found in rocky thorn scrub, evergreen and highland forest, coffee groves, and brush (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It climbs well but is largely terrestrial in habits. It does not swim and is reluctant to enter water. It is shy and secretive and is seldom seen at night, even where abundant. Stomachs of 27 individuals from Chiapas, Mexico contained 67% arthropods (primarily spiders, ants, crickets, and beetles), 23% seeds (Solanaceae and Compositae), and 10% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). Caches of coffee beans and others seeds were found under rocks, logs, and near burrows in San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Dalquest, 1953). Its burrows are located among the roots of trees, under logs, or in open areas of the forest floor. Breeding can take place year-round, although populations in seasonally dry areas are usually nonreproductive early in the dry season. Litters size is usually 2 to 3 young, mean 2.5 (Reid 1997).	eng
16681	population	Reid, F. & Pino, J., 2008	It is widespread and often common or abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
16681	threats	Reid, F. & Pino, J., 2008	None known.	eng
16682	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
16682	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From north-central Colorado and southern Utah southward through western Texas, New Mexico, and eastern Arizona (United States), and northern Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon (Mexico).	eng
16682	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, among rocky outcrops and boulders within pinyon-juniper-oak woodlands. Because suitable habitat is not found uniformly within the range, the species' distribution is highly fragmented.This species is semi-aboreal.	eng
16682	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Widespread, but patchily distributed, rare to uncommon.	eng
16682	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Although a rare species with highly fragmented distribution, there is no information to suggest it is threatened. No major threats are known.	eng
16683	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is present in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
16683	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in moist forests of south Tamaulipas and adjacent San Luis Potosí, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 800 m to 2,000 m.	eng
16683	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species has been observed at elevations ranging from approximately 800 m to 2,000 m in cloud forest and dry pine and oak woodlands (Baker and Phillips 1965). Specimens have been taken from deep leaf litter, rocks, and from borrows under limestone blocks and near logs (Baker and Phillips 1965).	eng
16683	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species can be locally abundant, at least within the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve (Castro-Arellano 2005).	eng
16683	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation by timber extraction and conversion of forest to coffee plantations.	eng
16684	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16684	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs from southeastern New Mexico, central and western Texas, and southern Oklahoma (United States), south along the Mexican Plateau and Cordillera Oriental to northern Jalisco and Hidalgo, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16684	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species prefers rocky areas in a wide variety of arid or slightly humid habitats, including desert and grassland habitats, brush-covered foothills, pinyon-oak woodlands, ravines and rocky arroyos (Schmidly 1974).Aassociates with a variety of vegetation types, including chaparral, oak-juniper, catclaw, gramma-bluestem, cedar-oak, and pine-oak.<br/><br/>Immatures may use broader array of microhabitats than do adults (Etheredge <em>et al. </em>1989). Primarily terrestrial; arboreal activity rare (Mullican and Baccus 1990). Nests are in piles of rocks or debris. It feeds on a variety of seeds, including juniper berries, acorns, and hackberries, as well as insects. <em>P. pectoralis</em> breeds throughout most of the year. The average litter size is three, but ranges from two to five. The gestation period is about 23 days (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16684	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This mouse is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
16684	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
16685	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Part of this species' range occurs in protected areas.	eng
16685	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of Jalisco and Colima, along Río Balsas to interior Michoacán, and in northernmost Guerrero, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16685	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found primarily in subtropical deciduous forest, riparian forest, and agricultural areas.	eng
16685	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat.	eng
16685	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
16686	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas and is not protected under Mexican law.	eng
16686	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in the west-central Chihuahua, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16686	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in coniferous forests and some xerophilus shrubland (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
16686	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
16686	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation and open-pit mining within its restricted range.  This species has lost 20% of its habitat over the last 20 years (Sanchez-Cortero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16687	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The Mexican government considers this species to be threatened (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998).	eng
16687	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Baja California Sur, Coronados Island (26°06?N, 111°18?W), México (Alvarez-Castaneda 1998).	eng
16687	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. Coronados Island is 3 km long by 2.5 km wide and is of volcanic origin. On the east side, it is characterized by steep cliffs, with a long sand spit extending from the southwestern edge of the island toward the mainland. Dark lava boulders are particularly prevalent on the west slope (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). This species has been found in the sand spit, and among the rocks (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). The vegetation on the island is desert scrub.	eng
16687	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No specimens were captured in 1989 in seven working days (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). In 1994, 20 specimens were collected in one night.	eng
16687	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	As on many of the islands in the Gulf of California, feral cats have been introduced to Coronados Island (Alvarez-Castañeda 1998; Alvarez-Casteneda and Ortega-Rubio 2003) and likely represent a predation threat and are causing population decline. The dissection of faecal pellets from feral cats indicates that they consume small rodents (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1993 in Alvarez-Castañeda 1998). Another rodent species has already been extirpated on this island.	eng
16688	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is listed as threatened in Mexico (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
16688	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs on Santa Cruz and San Diego Islands in the southern Gulf of California, México (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001).	eng
16688	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs along canyons with ground vegetation and cacti of several varieties, including cardon (<em>Pachycereus pringlei</em>) and cholla (<em>Cholla</em> sp.). Specimens collected on San Diego Island were caught on a rocky hillside with very little vegetation, only a few patches of bush, and some bush grass among rocks. Most rodents on Santa Cruz Island were collected in the bottom of canyons; very few were found in slopes and hills (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001). <br/><br/>The dominant vegetation on San Diego Island includes banderita (<em>Bouteloua radicosa</em>), chaparro amargoso (<em>Castela peninsularis</em>), <em>Euphorbia magdalenae</em>, zacate (<em>Heteropogon contortus</em>), matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), and cholla (<em>Opuntia cholla</em>). The vegetation on Santa Cruz Island includes torote (<em>Bursera microphylla</em>), campanilla (<em>Jacquemontia abutiloides</em>), matacora (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>), and tacote (<em>Viguiera deltoidea</em>).	eng
16688	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This mouse is very common in suitable habitat (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001).	eng
16688	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Feral cats (<em>Felis sylvestris</em>) are present on Santa Cruz Island (Alvarez-Castañeda 2001), but are not yet present on San Diego Island.	eng
16689	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	None.	eng
16689	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from west-central Sinaloa through west Nayarit, México, from sea level to 250 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16689	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species inhabits lowland tropical deciduous forest of the arid upper tropical zone west of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It most frequently occurs in primary deciduous forest, coastal scrub, flood plains, and lower river valleys, and is absent from drier hillsides. Mangroves swamps, palm groves, arroyos, and <em>Acacia</em> thickets have provided numerous captures (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Pregnant females were caught in February and September. Juveniles were caught in May (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
16689	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is frequent in suitable habitat (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
16689	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture throughout its range and the application of rodenticides.	eng
16690	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	<em>P. slevini</em> is considered endangered by the Mexican government.	eng
16690	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Baja California Sur, Santa Catalina Island, 17 mi (27 km) northeast Punta San Marcial, México (Musser and Carleton 2005)	eng
16690	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This rodent has been found in the bottom of a draw, where the soil was sandy. Eight females captured in November were lactating and none was pregnant (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).<br/><br/>The main plants in Santa Catalina Island are: copal (<em>Bursera hindsiana</em>), torote (<em>B. microphylla</em>), palo Colorado (<em>Colubrina viridis</em>), incienso (<em>Encelia farinose</em>), palo Amarillo (<em>Esenbeckia flava</em>), golondrina (<em>Euphorbia polycarpa</em>), biznaga (<em>Ferocactus diguetii</em>) and others (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).	eng
16690	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	In his 1931 field notes, W. H. Burt indicated that this species was abundant and was even out in the daytime. In 1993 no specimens were collected, 15 were captured in 1995, and 4 were caught in 1998, using 480, 150, and 220 trap-nights, respectively (Alvarez-Castañeda and Cortes-Calva 2002).	eng
16690	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Mammal species composition on the Santa Catalina Island is expected to change, as <em>P. fraticulus</em> has been introduced and is known to be in competition with <em>P. slevini</em> (Alvarez-Castaneda and Cortes-Calva 2002).	eng
16691	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16691	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs along the west flanks of the Sierra Madre Occidental, México, from southeast Sonora and extreme southwest Chihuahua to northeast Colima and west central Michoacán. It is found from low to middle elevations (15 to 1,980 m) (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
16691	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in humid tropical lowlands and montane regions. At lower and middle elevations in Nayarit, it is found along arid, rocky hillsides, and at higher elevations it occurs in pine-oak forest (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Durango, it occupies areas from the tropical, deciduous forests of the western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental to the thorn forests of the Pacific lowlands (Baker and Greer 1962 in Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Lactating females were caught in February and March; non-reproductive animals were trapped in the same months as well as in November (Carleton <em>et al.</em> 1982 in Roberts <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
16691	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
16691	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no known major threats for this species. It is estimated to have lost 4% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
16692	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known only from San Esteban Island in the Gulf of California (Mexico).	eng
16692	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This island is desert scrub.	eng
16692	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is considered relatively common.	eng
16692	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Given that this species is restricted to a very small island (<42 km<sup>2</sup>), it is likely to experience extreme fluctuations in population due to stochastic threats. There are no feral cats or other introduced species on this island.	eng
16693	conservation	Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cajas, J.O. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.  It occurs largely outside of protected areas (R. Timm, N. Woodman, J. O. Cajas pers. comm.).	eng
16693	distribution	Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cajas, J.O. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is intermittently found in dry to semiarid lowlands of southeast Guatemala, southeast El Salvador, Honduras, and west Nicaragua (Musser and Carleton 2005). It can be found at 200 to 1,000 m (Huckaby 1980). A sub-fossil record from 2,000 - 3,000 years ago from Guanacaste province, Costa Rica, was found in 1988, so its range may extend into northwestern Costa Rica (Woodman 1988)	eng
16693	habitat	Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cajas, J.O. & Timm, R., 2008	This mouse is restricted to dry or semiarid rocky hills and valleys in dry, deciduous forest, brush, and thorn scrub (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and always is trapped near rocks or boulders. In Nicaragua, a female with 3 embryos was caught in April (Jones and Yates 1983). Females were nonreproductive in December and January in Guatemala (Reid 1997).	eng
16693	population	Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cajas, J.O. & Timm, R., 2008	It is local and usually uncommon; however, it is occasionally common (Reid 1997).	eng
16693	threats	Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cajas, J.O. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species (its rocky habitat is not farmed and it is found on rock walls). Adaptable to habitat modification.	eng
16694	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
16694	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern and central Oregon, northern Nevada, northern Utah, western and southern Colorado in the United States, south to northern Baja California, southeastern Arizona, and southern New Mexico; with a disjunct population in northern Texas (formerly regarded as a separate species, <em>P. comanche</em>) (Carleton 1989; Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs from near sea level to above 2,300 m asl.	eng
16694	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occupies arid and semi-arid regions, and is most often found among rocks or on rocky slopes (but rocky terrain is not required) in a wide variety of habitats including: pinyon- juniper woodlands, chaparral and desert scrub areas, limestone cliffs, redwood forests, riparian woodlands. Nests among rocks; may also nest in trees. Individuals use multiple daytime sites (Hall and Morrison 1997).<br/><br/>It breeds primarily in spring and summer, throughout most of the year in Arizona and in some areas of California and Nevada (see Kirkland and Layne 1989). Average number of litters per year is 3.4 in central California. In New Mexico and Colorado, gestation lasts 25-27 days (non lactating) or about 40 days (lactating). Litter size averages about 3-4. Average life span is less than one year.<br/><br/>In California, the home range averaged 2.9 ha for eight males, 0.8 ha for seven females; the relatively large homes ranges may have reflected the effects of drought and reduced food availability (Hall and Morrison 1997). In New Mexico, median home range size was 0.4-1.6 ha, varying with sex and the method used. In northern New Mexico, based on short-term data, mean home range size (minimum convex polygon) was 0.41 ha (trapping data) or 0.93 ha (radio telemetry) (Ribble <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, nuts, berries, fungi, and insects. Often forages in trees. Active throughout the year. Primarily nocturnal.	eng
16694	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe).	eng
16694	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16695	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species under special protection by the Mexican government (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).	eng
16695	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in isolated localities in the Sierra de Coalcomán, Michoacán, and in the Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). Its range is restricted to the wetter areas on the west side of these mountain ranges (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).	eng
16695	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species can be found in pine-oak forest. In these areas, trees have thick mats of mosses and lichens and many epiphytes, including large bromeliads and orchids. Various herbs and saplings, rocks, and fallen trees (Carleton 1977, and Duellman1965 in Alvarez-Castañeda,2005) form the understory. Other species collected with this species are <em>Peromyscus boylii</em> and <em>Reithrodontomys fulvescens</em> (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).	eng
16695	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is not very common.	eng
16695	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The area in which this species is found is used for timber extraction (Alvarez-Castañeda 2005).	eng
16696	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
16696	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in the Yucatán Peninsula, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). There have been recent observations reported from Guatemala (Zarza <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs at lowland elevations (Reid 1997).	eng
16696	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This mouse occurs in deciduous and semideciduous forest and second growth (Reid 1997). It is mainly terrestrial and can be trapped on the ground or on logs and low branches.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs year-round, but reproductive activity is greatest in the wet season. Litter size is 1 to 4, mean 2.8 (Reid 1997).	eng
16696	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is common (Reid 1997).	eng
16696	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16697	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not found in protected areas.	eng
16697	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in middle to high elevation cloud and pine-oak forest in central and southeast Chiapas, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,400 to 2,900 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Specimens have been found in Guatemala that are probably <em>P. zarhynchus</em>, but these have not been confirmed (S. Perez pers. comm.).	eng
16697	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This mouse occurs in wet highland cloud and pine-oak forest. It can be found in mature forest, second growth, and brushy, cutover areas. Below 2,200 m it is restricted to tall forest (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known. It is terrestrial and is usually trapped on the ground near large trees. Mean litter size is 2.0 (Reid 1997).	eng
16697	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
16697	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation from logging for timber, and by habitat conversion for agriculture. The remaining habitat is severely fragmented. This species has lost more than 50% of its habitat over the past 30 years (Sanchez-Cordero 2005).	eng
16707	conservation	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J., Miller, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Conservation of caves and karstic regions, and retention of forests. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
16707	distribution	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J., Miller, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species ranges from southern Veracruz, Mexico across Amazonian South America (Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana) to the Atlantic Forests of Brazil (Eisenberg 1989). It may range to moderate elevations of 850 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976). Absent from large areas of Amazonian Brazil, although this area has not been well sampled (Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
16707	habitat	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J., Miller, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It tolerates dry situations and although it prefers evergreen forest, the species does forage considerably in open fields. Roosting colonies are small, ranging from one to seven, and roosts are in caves and boulder crevices. The mating system is based on a monogamous pair, and the male defends his female against intruding males (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1977). Forages high in open space above the canopy level. Associated with water (streams and rivers). Occurs in open fields outside forests. Associated with tree savannas. Roost in cave entrances in shady rocky areas (Davalos and Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
16707	population	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J., Miller, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Widespread but may be restricted by roosting sites; generally common (Emmons and Feer 1997). However, due to its high flight and feeding strategies, it is difficult to estimate population size using current survey methodologies. More than 200 records from Colombia (Molinari pers comm.). Population much less abundant than <em>P. macrotis</em> (Molinari pers comm.). The species is easily confused with <em>P. macrotis</em> (Aguirre pers. comm.).	eng
16707	threats	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J., Miller, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Association with caves but not restricted to them. There are no known threats at present. Need studies to obtain more details (Lim pers. comm.).	eng
16708	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Forest retention and conservation of caves and karstic regions.	eng
16708	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species ranges from Peru, Colombia and eastern Brazil north to Venezuela and the Guyanas (Eisenberg 1989). It is found at low elevations (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
16708	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Very little is known concerning the natural history of this species. Roosts are in caves, hollow trees, in hollow rotten logs on the ground (Eisenberg 1989) or under overhanging banks (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
16708	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. As an aerial insectivore the species forages in background cluttered space to open space, population size can not be inferred due to methodological bias.	eng
16708	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation and loss of cave and karstic habitat.	eng
16709	conservation	Barquez, R., Lim, B., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
16709	distribution	Barquez, R., Lim, B., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species occurs from Guerrero and Yucatán (Mexico) to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and south and eastern Brazil (Simmons 2005).	eng
16709	habitat	Barquez, R., Lim, B., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	<em>P. macrotis</em> typically occurs in tropical deciduous forest, but individuals have been collected from semi-arid thorn scrub (Willig 1983) and evergreen forests (Handley 1976). Diet of <em>P. macrotis</em> comprises small beetles and flies (Bradbury and Vehrencamp 1976; Emmons and Feer 1990, Yee 2000). Found in urban areas (Diaz com pers). In Mexico it has been recorded in crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
16709	population	Barquez, R., Lim, B., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Although few data exist concerning demographics of <em>P. macrotis</em>, populations currently are thought to be stable (Wilson 1996). This species occurs abundantly in some localities (Reid 1997), but may be less abundant but widespread in others (Arita 1993, Yee 2000).	eng
16709	threats	Barquez, R., Lim, B., Rodriguez, B., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16710	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas despite the fact that there are many throughout its range. The protected areas of the Central Province are not well managed, and many villagers access them to seek game and firewood. Thus, this species may be hunted out of the protected areas (L. Salas pers. comm.).	eng
16710	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the south-eastern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. It is broadly distributed throughout its range but at low densities. It has been recorded from sea level and the upper limit of altitudinal range is probably about 1,000 m asl.	eng
16710	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The Giant Bandicoot is the largest bandicoot in the world. It occurs in lowland tropical moist forest and gallery forests.	eng
16710	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is rarely encountered and the local abundance is suspected to be naturally low.	eng
16710	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	<em>Peroryctes broadbenti</em> is threatened by hunting for food by local people and by habitat loss due to conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural land and commercial agriculture, especially oil palm plantations. Bushmeat has increased substantially in value – this species would sell for 84 Kina in the markets (J. Menzies pers. comm.).	eng
16711	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
16711	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Raffray's Bandicoot is widespread throughout the highlands of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and it is also found on Yapen Island (Flannery 1995a,b). It occurs from 60 to 3,900 m asl, though it is most common at around 1,000 m asl (Flannery 1995a).	eng
16711	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The species occurs in montane and upper montane tropical moist forests, and montane grasslands. It is rarely found in secondary or regenerating forest, preferring undisturbed forest. Animals have been recorded from secondary forests, but the species is fairly intolerant of habitat disturbance. The average litter size is one or two young (Flannery 1995a).	eng
16711	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
16711	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	Raffray's Bandicoot is hunted for food by local people throughout its range, but this is not seen as a major threat to the species.	eng
16712	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no plans in place to cease the small-scale deforestation of habitat, or to stop the development of tourist lodges in the species habitat, although research is needed to see what effect this is having on <em>Petalura pulcherrima</em>.	eng
16712	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; Cape York Peninsula and northeastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
16712	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Adults are usually found along rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
16712	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A scarce species with an unknown population trend.	eng
16712	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The continued change in how the habitat is managed is going to have a negative effect on the species, so to is the small-scale logging of the forest habitats.	eng
16714	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16714	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known only from a single location in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.	eng
16714	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is arboreal and probably prefers forest.	eng
16714	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as the only known record is the type specimen from 1901.	eng
16714	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	It is threatened by habitat conversion due to agriculture and logging.	eng
16715	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16715	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is restricted to Brunei and Malaysia, in northern Borneo.	eng
16715	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	It is arboreal and nocturnal and probably prefers tall dipterocarp forest.	eng
16715	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	It is known from only a few lowland sites on Borneo. No recent surveys have been done for this species.	eng
16715	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agriculture.	eng
16716	conservation	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16716	distribution	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is known from Selangor, in southwest Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
16716	habitat	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is found in rubber plantations and natural forests.	eng
16716	population	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
16716	threats	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is threatened by forest loss.	eng
16718	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Research is needed to determine the extent of the north-west distribution, as the distruibution in Qinghai and Gansu may belong to <em>P. xanthotis</em>, not <em>P. alborufus</em>.  It occurs in the following nature reserves; Daozhendashahe, Mayanghe, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Fodingshan, Maolan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Shimenhupingshan, Badagongshan, Suoxiyu, Bamianshan, Mangshan, Foping, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Xiaoxi (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005). It likely occurs in many additional protected areas. A status survey of Kenting National Park (Taiwan) did not find the presence of this species, which once existed there (Pei 2004). In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
16718	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is found in China in the provinces of Shaanxi, Hunan (CSIS 2008), Guangxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Hubei, Guizhou, and Yunnan, and including Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). It is likely that this species' southern distribution extends into Myanmar; however, there are no known specimens collected from within the country. It occupies elevations ranging from 800-3,500 m asl, most often from 2,000-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). Observations confirm sympatric distribution with <em>Hylopetes alboniger</em>, <em>P. phillipensis</em> and <em>Trogopterus xanthipes</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16718	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species inhabits dense montane forest, limestone cliffs, and in Taiwan hardwood (preferred) and conifer forests (Smith and Xie 2008). They are nocturnal and nest in high tree hollows (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>This species has low fecundity, with litter sizes of 1-2 (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1993a; Smith and Xie 2008). They feed on acorns, other nuts, fruits and leafy vegetation, as well as insects, larvae and perhaps bird eggs (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16718	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
16718	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting may be a threat in Taiwan where it is a major game species (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1993b).	eng
16719	conservation	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in mant protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Indonesia.	eng
16719	distribution	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed Asian species is found in northern South Asia, southern and central China, and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded in Nepal, Bhutan and northeastern India at elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is widespread in China, where it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Xizang, Hunan, Hubei, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, this species is widespread throughout its range in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak), Thailand, and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java). In Southeast Asia, it is found at elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 m asl (Peninsular Malaysia).	eng
16719	habitat	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This montane species has been found in temperate pine forests, wet tropical evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It is found in tall trees, but also often in rhododendron scrub and on rock cliffs (Smith and Xie 2008). It nests in tree hollows (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16719	population	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is locally common to abundant.	eng
16719	threats	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In Southeast Asia, this species could be threatened by large-scale industrial logging in montane areas.	eng
16720	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas.	eng
16720	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan and is known from Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is found in lowlands up to the subalpine zone.	eng
16720	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is found in primary and mature secondary forest, conifer plantations, and sometimes in urban areas (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16720	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is a common species, with greater abundance in the lowlands.	eng
16720	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16721	conservation	Molur, S., 2009	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  However, it is not known from any protected areas. Survey, taxonomic research  and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
16721	distribution	Molur, S., 2009	This species is limited to northern South Asia, southern China and western Southeast Asia. This species has been recorded from Bhutan, India and Nepal in South Asia at elevations of 1,500 to 2,240 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is found in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species is only found in western and northern Myanmar.	eng
16721	habitat	Molur, S., 2009	This species lives in evergreen tropical and subtropical and broad-leafed forests from the lowlands up to 3,000 m. It seems to prefer deciduous forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, Smith and Xie 2008). They occupy nests with a round entrance at heights of 5–15 m above the ground (Smith and Xie 2008). They are reported to have a generation time of 7–8 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16721	population	Molur, S., 2009	It is a locally rare species over much of its range. In South Asia, there has reportedly been a quantitative decrease in the population (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
16721	threats	Molur, S., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to non-timber plantations (cardamom and tea), small-scale logging, human encroachments, forest fires have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Habitat at the type locality is lost (S.S. Saha pers. comm. 2005). It is hunted as a subsistence food source in some areas.	eng
16722	conservation	Thapa, J., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The subspecies <em>singhei</em> occurs in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa Sanctuary in Aruncachal Pradesh (Choudhury 2002). Survey, life history and limiting factor studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16722	distribution	Thapa, J., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	This species is endemic to Bhutan, India and Nepal at altitudes of 1,500 to 3,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005, Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). Choudhury (2002) observes the subspecies <em>singhei</em> as occurring in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It has a very thin range of montane forest of about 1.5 km based on the elevation range (J. Thapa pers. comm. 2005).	eng
16722	habitat	Thapa, J., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	It is an arboreal and crepuscular/nocturnal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical montane, montane pine and rhododendron forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. 2005). The generation time is estimated to be about seven or eight years.	eng
16722	population	Thapa, J., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	The population of this species is declining with continuing habitat loss in the region.	eng
16722	threats	Thapa, J., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to logging and mining operations, expansion of human settlements, construction of dams, and hunting for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
16723	conservation	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W., Sarker, S.U. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). This is considered to be a species complex for which taxonomic revision is needed. Surveys and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
16723	distribution	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W., Sarker, S.U. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species has been recorded from northern South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. This species has a large distribution in South Asia, being recorded from eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, eastern Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and northern India at elevations of 500 to 3,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangxi and Guangdong (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found on the mainland from Myanmar in the west, into western Thailand and south to Peninsular Malaysia. It is largely distributed in insular Southeast Asia on the island of Sumatra and Java (both to Indonesia) and Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia).	eng
16723	habitat	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W., Sarker, S.U. & Molur, S., 2008	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. It occurs in moist evergreen broadleaf forest, temperate forest, coniferous forests, scrub forest, rocky areas as inland cliffs, mountain peaks (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16723	population	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W., Sarker, S.U. & Molur, S., 2008	It is often a locally common to abundant species.	eng
16723	threats	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W., Sarker, S.U. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat conversion due to logging, agriculture, dam construction, infrastructure development and urbanization is occurring throughout the range of the species. It has been harvested for the pet and fur trade in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
16724	conservation	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas in Southeast Asia. In India it is present in Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Valmiki Tiger Reserve, Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary in Bihar; Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka; Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam WS, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thathekad Bird Sanctuary in Kerala; Bori Wildlife Sanctuary, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh; Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. In Sri Lanka it is known from Horton Plains National Park, Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province and Sinharaja Forest Reserve, Sabaragamuwa (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. A taxonomic review of populations currently allocated to this species is needed.	eng
16724	distribution	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed Asian species is found in South Asia, southern and central China, and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is seemingly patchily distributed in India and Sri Lanka. In China, it has been recorded from Hainan Island, Yunnan, Sichuan and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it is distributed over much of the mainland, being only absent from the Malay Peninsula. In South Asia it has been recorded from 500 to 2,000 m asl; in Southeast Asia it is known up to 1,000 m asl (Duckworth 1998).	eng
16724	habitat	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This is an arboreal and nocturnal species. In South Asia it occurs in dry deciduous forests and evergreen forests. In addition to natural forest, it has been recorded from plantations. It is found to occupy tree canopies and holes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). On Hainan Island it has been found only in large patches of forest, where it was considered abundant (Smith and Xie 2008). On Taiwan they are most abundant in hardwood compared with coniferous forest (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16724	population	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is locally abundant in Southeast Asia where suitable habitat protection is in place (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1994; Duckworth 1998; Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). It could be in local decline in a few areas in India where it is under heavy hunting pressure (Rajamani pers. comm.). It appears to be in decline in the Western Ghats and also in northeastern India (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
16724	threats	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Southeast Asia, the species seems to be very resilient to threats, but it could decline with increasing habitat loss; although there is no serious evidence of this except where forest is being completely replaced. In South Asia, habitat loss and degradation resulting from logging, shifting cultivation, expansion of human settlements and forest fires are considered to be threats for this species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is hunted for local consumption and medicinal purposes in South Asia and China.	eng
16725	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is likely to occur in Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserve and may be present in other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
16725	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Qinghai, and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations at about 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16725	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies spruce forests at high elevations in western China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is nocturnal, and uses burrows in trees for nesting, and does not hibernate (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It forages on young shoots and leaves, as well as pine nuts (Smith and Xie 2008). Parturition takes place in summer, litter size averages two (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16725	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Records for this species suggest that its range and abundance are large (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
16725	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16726	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	A community conservation area is being established in the range of this species. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and conservation measures for it are needed.	eng
16726	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Somoro, and adjacent areas, in the Torricelli Mountains of north-western Papua New Guinea. Fossil records indicate that the species never occurred in the Bewani range, so appears to be confined to the Torricelli range. It has been recorded at 1,000 and 1,220 m asl. It may range as low as 300 m asl, although this requires confirmation.	eng
16726	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been found in primary, mid-montane tropical moist forests. It is also known from rural gardens close to forest (Flannery 1995).	eng
16726	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known from very few records and appears to be a generally rare species. Only seven animals have been captured in the last 20 years.	eng
16726	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is threatened by heavy deforestation due to human encroachment (i.e., conversion to gardens), and by hunting for meat by local people.	eng
16727	conservation	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	The Mahogany Glider is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. Approximately 45 percent of remnant Mahogany Glider habitat occurs within protected areas, including: Edmund Kennedy National Park, Girringun National Park, Paluma Range National Park, Mahogany Glider Nature Refuge, Seafarm Nature Refuge, Chakoro Nature Refuge, as well as several Forest Reserves and State Forests (Parsons and Latch 2007; P. Latch pers. comm.). The distribution of Mahogany Glider habitat has been identified and mapped by the Environmental Protection Agency (P. Latch pers. comm.). Mahogany Glider habitat is protected from further clearing under Queensland government legislation (P. Latch pers. comm.). A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species (Parsons and Latch 2007). <br/><br/>Recommendations from the recovery plan (Parsons and Latch 2007), include: updating Mahogany Glider habitat mapping and identifying areas for protection, restoration, and management; identifying, managing, and monitoring habitats threatened by encroaching rainforest; developing strategies to conserve Mahogany Glider habitat on private lands; implementing habitat recovery burns at key sites and improving weed control; reducing threats arising from transport and easement corridors; promoting a Mahogany Glider friendly-fencing scheme; determining the population genetic structure of Mahogany Gliders; and increasing public awareness and involvement in the recovery of the species.	eng
16727	distribution	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to an area of coastal lowland forest between Crystal Creek, south-east of Ingham, north to the Hull River; a latitudinal range of approximately 122 km (Jackson and Claridge 1999; Jackson 2008). The distribution of the Mahogany Glider largely falls within the Wet Tropics biogeographic region over an area of approximately (P. Latch pers. comm.). All of its distribution is severely fragmented (Parsons and Latch 2007).	eng
16727	habitat	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	Occurring in habitat below 120 m elevation, the arboreal and nocturnal Mahogany Glider is highly mobile and dependent on continuous open forest or woodland. They feed primarily on nectar and pollen, gliding at night between feed trees and sometimes foraging close to the ground. They usually forage alone, possibly to avoid predators (Van Dyck 1993; Jackson 1998). They use tree hollows as dens for sleeping and rearing young (Jackson 2000a). First breeding occurs at around 12 - 18 months and young are weaned after 4 - 5 months (Jackson 2000b).	eng
16727	population	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	The Mahogany Glider is cryptic, elusive, and virtually silent. These attributes continue to hinder survey efforts to estimate total population size and to determine the southern, western, and northern limits of distribution. Consequently there are no published data on total Mahogany Glider abundance or distribution limits beyond modelling based on known records to date (P. Latch pers. comm.).	eng
16727	threats	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	Clearing of forest for sugar cane, bananas, pineapples, improved pasture, Caribbean pine, and aquaculture has had a dramatic impact on habitat and has lead to a corresponding reduction in the distribution and connectivity of the species. Only 20 percent of former available habitat remains (Blackman <em>et al.</em> 1994) and this is severely fragmented (Parsons and Latch 2007). Altered fire regimes, weed invasion, and intensive grazing threaten the structure and ecological integrity of remaining habitat fragments. The subsequent decline in habitat quality and isolation of populations are major threats to the species’ survival. Major roads disrupt movements of Mahogany Gliders and road kills have been recorded. Mahogany Gliders also can become entangled on barbed-wire fences resulting in fatalities (P. Latch pers. comm.).	eng
16728	conservation	Winter, J., Lunney, D., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: develop national recovery plan and establish recovery team. The Plan should incorporate the Victoria Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement, which should be published and implemented. It should also examine what amendments are needed to current forest management practices to enhance Squirrel Glider habitat; monitor persistence and abundance throughout range, particularly at peripheral and isolated sites. This is especially urgent for inland populations in New South Wales and Queensland, where range also needs to be documented more accurately; reassess the evidence of presence in coastal forests of southern New South Wales. Conduct further, carefully-targeted, surveys if necessary; use biochemical taxonomic techniques to examine the possible differences between coastal and inland populations; conduct further research into the ecological requirements of the species and the impacts of habitat alterations, including timber removal, silviculture and grazing; further habitat protection in State forests, parks, and on private property is needed, especially in areas of box-ironbark in northern Victoria and western New South Wales, and areas of grey gum-grey ironbark-spotted gum from near Sydney to the Queensland-New South Wales border.	eng
16728	distribution	Winter, J., Lunney, D., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Squirrel Glider occurs in a broad band from Cape York Peninsula (Queensland) to central Victoria, extending to the coastal side of the Great Dividing Range between southern Queensland and central New South Wales. It is also possibly present in Bordertown, South Australia where it was last recorded in 1990 (van der Ree and Suckling 2008). It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,200 m asl.	eng
16728	habitat	Winter, J., Lunney, D., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is associated with dry open forest and woodland, tall coastal forest and Banksia woodland in the north-east of its distribution, and ionbark-lemon-scented gum-forest red gum association in north Queensland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). They are also in rainforest in south-east Queensland and urban environments such as suburban Brisbane.	eng
16728	population	Winter, J., Lunney, D., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is patchily distributed, and can be locally common or scarce.	eng
16728	threats	Winter, J., Lunney, D., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There is steady attrition of quality and extent of habitat remnants due to removal of timber both for sawn products and firewood. There is also a lack of suitable hollows in most habitat remnants on the inland slopes and regeneration of trees and shrubs is hindered by grazing by stock, rabbits, macropods, and inappropriate fire regimes. Coastal developments and clearance of forest remnants in New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland also adversely affect this species (van der Ree and Suckling 2008).	eng
16730	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Management of timber such that large areas of intact, contiguous forest remain is important for this species. Currently sap trees must be identified and preserved, but the effectiveness of this measure is uncertain (Goldingay 2008). Timber-harvesting and fire management should be aimed at maintaining tree-hollows.	eng
16730	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	The Yellow-bellied Glider is endemic to eastern Australia, where it occurs from the Mount Windsor tablelands (Queensland) in the north to the Victoria/ South Australia border (Goldingay 2008).	eng
16730	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species inhabits wet sclerophyll, open coastal, and foothill forests. When not in their tree-hollow dens, Yellow-bellied Gliders spend about 90 percent of their time foraging (Goldingay 2008). Individuals of this species require unusually large areas of habitat. This species is particularly noted for feeding on eucalyptus sap, and sap trees are well marked and routinely visited by the gliders (Goldingay 2008). Females typically give birth to a single young annually (Goldingay 2008).	eng
16730	population	Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	It can be a common species, but it is patchily distributed.	eng
16730	threats	Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation due to timber-harvesting and agriculture are the main threats to this species. Due to past forest management there is a current dearth of available live hollow-bearing trees within Yellow-Bellied Glider habitats. Remaining dead trees are therefore an important resource, but these are at risk of collapse due to regular prescribed burning regimes and windthrow. In Queensland and New South Wales (and possibly Victoria) broad-scale land clearing has been stopped due to newly introduced vegetation management legislation. However, degradation to existing habitat (e.g., through fire, timber removal) within the habitat of isolated populations, but also between non-isolated populations, is a huge threat to the species (essentially inducing a fragmentation effect) throughout its range, due to its wide-ranging and extensive habitat requirements (T. Eyre pers. comm.).	eng
16731	conservation	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Lunney, D., Oakwood, M., Menkhorst, P. & Strahan, R., 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas throughout its range. Further taxonomic studies are needed because <em>P. breviceps</em> might be composed of more than one species. It is very understudied; research into its ecology, habitat requirements, population status are also needed.	eng
16731	distribution	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Lunney, D., Oakwood, M., Menkhorst, P. & Strahan, R., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Moluccan Islands in the west (including the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, and Gebe) (all Indonesia); it is present on the islands of Misool, Salawati, Supiori, Yapen (all Indonesia); it is present on the Kai Islands and Adi Island (both Indonesia); the species is widespread throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); it is present on the islands of Bagabag, Karkar and New Britain (all Papua New Guinea); many of the Trobriand Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Louisiade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea); and ranges throughout much of northern, eastern and southern Australia, including the island of Tasmania (were it is introduced) and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Groote Eylandt). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 3,000 m asl.	eng
16731	habitat	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Lunney, D., Oakwood, M., Menkhorst, P. & Strahan, R., 2008	This species is present where nesting hollows are available in various types of primary, secondary, and degraded forest. It has been recorded from plantations and rural gardens. Females give birth to two young.	eng
16731	population	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Lunney, D., Oakwood, M., Menkhorst, P. & Strahan, R., 2008	It is locally common over much of its range. Populations in Australia are considered to be stable (Suckling 2008).	eng
16731	threats	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Lunney, D., Oakwood, M., Menkhorst, P. & Strahan, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Land clearance mainly for agriculture is a threat through many parts of its range. It is susceptible to bushfires.	eng
16732	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in a protected area. Further taxonomic work is needed to determine its relationship to <em>P. breviceps</em>.	eng
16732	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Biak-Supiori and Owi, Papua Province, Indonesia.	eng
16732	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in primary tropical forests on limestone substrate, and has been recorded from degraded and secondary forests, rural gardens, and plantations. It is largely arboreal but occasionally comes down to the ground. Females give birth to one or two young.	eng
16732	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
16732	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is occasionally taken by dogs and cats, but this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
16733	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is known to occur in several protected areas, including Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). Basic research on habitat use, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
16733	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Mindanao Faunal Region. There are records from Basilan, Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known to occur from 500 to 1,600 m (Musser and Heaney 1992). There are no records from Leyte or Samar, and they are likely to be absent from these islands (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
16733	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is a ground squirrel and is found in lowlands to montane primary forest, although its abundance is higher in its preferred habitat (oak forest) at upper elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The habitat at that altitude is in pretty good shape since it is cold, wet, and difficult to access.	eng
16733	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species seems to be most abundant in mid-elevation primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). On Mt. Kitanglad, they are extremely common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is also abundant in relatively undisturbed oak-dominated montane forest.	eng
16733	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is currently not threatened by habitat destruction, although there is some concern about the expansion of vegetable farming at high elevations. It is not hunted very often.	eng
16734	conservation	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Sri Lanka - India: Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thathekad Bird Sanctuary in Kerala; Kalakkad-Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu; Sri Lanka: Adam’s Peak Wildlife Sanctuary, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province and Sinharaja Forest Reserve and Sabaragamuwa Forest Reserve, Sabaragamuwa Province. Taxonomic studies, survey, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
16734	distribution	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is restricted to the Western Ghats of southern India and to the island of Sri Lanka at elevatons of 500 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has a wide distribution range in the two countries. In India, it is known from many fragmented locations in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, from Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary and Makutta in Coorg in Karnataka, while in Sri Lanka it has been recorded from many fragmented locations in Central, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern and Uva provinces (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
16734	habitat	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. It occurs in evergreen, deciduous and montane forests. It occupies tree canopies and holes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Can survive in slightly modified habitat (semi deciduous), former evergreen areas. Forages in plantations adjacent to forests (N. Rajamani pers. comm.). Small, solitary, nocturnal  species living 15-20 m in canopy. Generation time may be 3-3.5 years based on other similar species (other Petaurillus).	eng
16734	population	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is very rare compared to the more commonly sighted Petaurista phillippensis.	eng
16734	threats	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Habitat loss due to expansion of agriculture, small wood plantations, small-scale logging, infrastructure development and human settlements are major threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Harvesting for local consumption is a minor threat (N. Rajamani pers. comm.).	eng
16735	conservation	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.	eng
16735	distribution	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is found on Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia and northern Borneo.	eng
16735	habitat	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It is arboreal and nocturnal. This species is found in lowland tall primary and secondary forest. It may also occur in tree plantations.	eng
16735	population	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	Population levels are unknown because it is difficult to survey this species.	eng
16735	threats	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agriculture.	eng
16736	conservation	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16736	distribution	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is known from one locality in northern Sumatra, because the only known specimen from Borneo has been lost.	eng
16736	habitat	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is nocturnal and arboreal, living in primary forest.	eng
16736	population	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	Population levels are unknown as this species is difficult to survey.	eng
16736	threats	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural conversion and logging.	eng
16737	conservation	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
16737	distribution	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is restricted to the Mentawai Archipelago (Sipura and North Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
16737	habitat	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	<em>P. lugens</em> prefers forest.	eng
16737	population	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, but likely in steep decline due to the rate of recent habitat loss on these islands.	eng
16737	threats	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.	eng
16738	conservation	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.	eng
16738	distribution	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is known from the island of Java in Indonesia.	eng
16738	habitat	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is nocturnal and arboreal. If this is a real species, it is probably found in lowland tall primary and secondary forest. It may also occur in tree plantations.	eng
16738	population	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is only known from the type specimen described in 1776.	eng
16738	threats	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agriculture.	eng
16739	conservation	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
16739	distribution	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, and northern Borneo (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
16739	habitat	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This is nocturnal and arboreal, specialized to deciduous forest in northern Thailand and possibly elsewhere. This species is found in higher elevations in the north and lowland areas in the south.	eng
16739	population	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
16739	threats	Francis, C. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	In the southern part of its range, it is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and habitat conversion.	eng
16740	conservation	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It has been recorded from protected areas across its range.	eng
16740	distribution	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species known from scattered localities on southern Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, northern and central Borneo, and islands off eastern Sumatra.	eng
16740	habitat	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	This species is arboreal and nocturnal and it likely prefers lowland rainforest.	eng
16740	population	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Further studies are needed into the distribution, and abundance of this species.	eng
16740	threats	Francis, C. & Gumal, M., 2008	It is threatened by forest loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.	eng
16744	conservation	Burbidge, A., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: survey to clarify distribution, abundance, and habitat requirements, especially on the mainland; identify populations for regular monitoring; conduct research aimed at understanding species' conservation biology. The four known island populations are outside protected areas.	eng
16744	distribution	Burbidge, A., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in the north-west Kimberley of Western Australia. It is present on a few nearby islands: Bigge, Boongaree, Katers, and possibly Wollaston (based on a sight record). The only known localities on the mainland are in and around the Prince Regent Nature Reserve to the Mitchell Plateau (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There have been limited surveys of the mainland and offshore islands.	eng
16744	habitat	Burbidge, A., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	This species is found in rugged sandstone areas – screes and rock piles, near open woodland vine thickets.	eng
16744	population	Burbidge, A., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat on the mainland, but this habitat is limited (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population is abundant on Bigge Island (ca. 18,000 ha).	eng
16744	threats	Burbidge, A., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	The current threats to the species are unknown. Predation by feral cats may be affecting abundance on the mainland. Changed fire regimes may also be affecting the species. Future exploitation of bauxite deposits on the Mitchell Plateau could have a potential negative impact, though the deposits are not within its preferred habitat.	eng
16746	conservation	Taggart, D., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	The Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It occurs within a number of protected areas. A detailed recovery plan has been developed for the species within New South Wales (DECC 2008). <br/><br/>The recovery of this species is particularly complex and requires a consideration of threats and management interventions at a variety of spatial scales – from local to regional (Murray <em>et al.</em> 2008; DECC 2008). Threats also vary across the range of the species so that, for example, fox predation is considered less of a threat in the northern portion of the range than in the south (DECC 2008). Recommendations from the recovery plan (DECC 2008), include: further surveys to improve knowledge of the distribution and abundance of the species; identifying the main local and widespread threats and the interactions between these; monitoring the effectiveness of management responses; expanding existing predator and introduced herbivore control; maintaining and enhancing captive breeding programs for identified regional populations; and continuing and expanding community-based conservation programs.	eng
16746	distribution	Taggart, D., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	The Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it occurs in south-eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, and as a tiny population in the East Gippsland of eastern Victoria.	eng
16746	habitat	Taggart, D., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	Brush-tailed Rock Wallabies are found in structurally complex, rocky habitats. Often these areas are gorges, cliffs, rock outcrops, or boulder piles. Most of these sites have a northerly aspect, but this appears not to be as important as rock complexity that contains a number of refuges from predators (Murray <em>et al.</em> 2008). The rocky environments occur within a variety of vegetated landscapes from dense rainforest to dry sclerophyll or open woodland (Eldridge and Close 2008). This species occurs as small colonies, usually with less than 30 individuals, but sometimes more (Piggott <em>et al.</em> 2006). These colonies run the risk of becoming inbred. Highly structured breeding and male dispersal have helped reduce the risk of inbreeding (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2004), but as these colonies become increasingly isolated they are at greater risk (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2006a,b).	eng
16746	population	Taggart, D., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is sparsely distributed within abundant suitable habitat (Eldridge and Close 2008). It is difficult to estimate population sizes because it is nocturnal, and occurs in very rugged terrain. The species is declining at many localities and the overall population is in decline. The total population size is estimated to be between 15,000 and 30,000 individuals (DECC 2008). The stronghold for the species is within north-eastern New South Wales, containing as much as 80% of the total population – most of which is within the Macleay River and Clarence River gorges (DECC 2008). An estimated 2% of the population occurs elsewhere in New South Wales, 17% within Queensland, and less than 1% in Victoria (DECC 2008).	eng
16746	threats	Taggart, D., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	There is a lack of data about the threats to the Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby (Eldridge and Close 2008). Predation by introduced foxes and competition with introduced goats are likely to be the greatest threats. Foxes prey on young rock wallabies and probably limit dispersal as well as recruitment. Introduced dogs and cats are also probably threats, but the habitat in which this species lives is not well suited to these predators. Habitat fragmentation and land clearance between colonies is also thought to limit dispersal and reduce numbers of individuals by exposing rock wallabies to higher rates of predation. As colony isolation increases so does the risk of inbreeding (Hazlitt <em>et al.</em> 2006a,b). <br/><br/>Hunting was perhaps the main factor in reducing the population and range of this species. A sustained commercially-driven period of hunting led to the decline of many populations and local extinctions, and may have been the primary cause of the initial decline, at least in central and southern New South Wales. Bounties were paid on over half a million rock-wallabies between 1894 and 1914 (Short and Milkovits 1990) and there was an extensive fur trade from pre-1890 to 1927 (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species was also hunted extensively in the Grampians area of Victoria. The magnitude of hunting is apparent when one considers that the current population of the species is estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000 individuals, and in 1908 alone 92,590 skins were marketed by a single company (Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
16747	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Proserpine Rock Wallaby is present in four protected areas, the Conway National Park, Dryander National Park, Gloucester Island National Park, and Proserpine State Forest on the Clarke Range (B. Nolan pers. comm.). It is listed as a threatened species under Australian law.<br/><br/>One Translocated/introduced population has also been established on Hayman Island from captive bred stock with additions required to this population from captive bred stock over the next 4 years (B. Nolan pers. comm.). Studies of reproduction and aging of pouch young have also been completed for this species in captivity (B. Nolan pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A recovery plan is in place (Nolan and Johnson 2000). Recommendations from the recovery plan include: monitor existing colonies, search for new colonies, and continue mapping the habitat; establish other colonies in suitable places from captive bred animals; minimize disease and incidental kills; and increase community awareness and involvement recovery.	eng
16747	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species occurs from a restricted area near Proserpine in north-east coastal Queensland, Australia, including the Conway National Park, Dryander National Park, Gloucester Island National Park, and Proserpine State Forest on the Clarke Range (B. Nolan pers. comm.). One translocated/introduced population has also been established on Hayman Island from captive bred stock with additions required to this population from captive bred stock over the next 4 years (B. Nolan pers. comm.).	eng
16747	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Inhabits rock outcrops and cliffs within semi-deciduous microphyll/notophyll dry vine forest. It uses grassy areas in abutting open woodlands for food gathering in dry months of the year. It is nocturnal and commonly found between rock crevices and in caves during the day (Nolan and Johnson 2000).	eng
16747	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species has a small and declining population.	eng
16747	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It appears to have declined mainly as a result of loss of habitat, and the proximity of the species to settled areas leading to mortality from predation by domestic dogs and road kills (Nolan and Johnson 2000). It is threatened by increased tourist development and urbanization (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It is additionally threatened by toxoplasmosis and consumption of introduced toxic plants (Nolan and Johnson 2000). There are also problems of hybridization with <em>Petrogale inornata</em>.	eng
16750	conservation	Copley, P., Ellis, M. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Yellow-footed Rock Wallaby recovery is a major focus of Operation Bounceback in the Olary Hills, and the Flinders and Gawler Ranges (South Australia). These efforts have resulted in major population increases in the Olary Ranges and parts of the Flinders Ranges. Continued fox and goat control is important for this species. For more than a decade there have been reintroductions of captive-bred Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies to sites in Queensland and South Australia (Lapidge 2000, 2005). These reintroductions have been very successful and should continue. Regular monitoring of sites in South Australia should continue as well as monitoring of reintroduced populations.	eng
16750	distribution	Copley, P., Ellis, M. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a highly disjunct and patchy distribution in South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland.	eng
16750	habitat	Copley, P., Ellis, M. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species inhabits rocky outcrops and is often associated with permanent or semi-permanent water sources (Eldridge 2008). It is a highly social species that lives in small colonies usually of less than 20 individuals (Copley and Alexander 1997), but sometimes containing more than a hundred (Eldridge 2008). Dispersal between colonies is rare (Pope <em>et al.</em> 1996; Sharp 1997). Recruitment is low in this species due to high juvenile mortality (Eldridge 2008).	eng
16750	population	Copley, P., Ellis, M. & van Weenen, J., 2008	The population of Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies fluctuates depending on rainfall. There are estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals in the wild. A large section of the species range in South Australia has been surveyed (most years from 1993-2008), indicating that there are on the order of 6,000 individuals currently in South Australia. There are less than 100 individuals in New South Wales, and the size of the population in Queensland is unknown.<br/><br/>The overall population trend of the species is unknown. There has been evidence of a general population decline in the Flinders Ranges and a number of colonies in the Olary Hills and Gawler Ranges have gone extinct (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, populations have dramatically increased in some areas over the last few decades due to fox and goat control measures (including in the Olary Hills, and the Flinders and Gawler Ranges). Successful reintroductions of captive-breed individuals to areas in South Australia and Queensland have recently taken place (Lapidge 2000, 2005).	eng
16750	threats	Copley, P., Ellis, M. & van Weenen, J., 2008	Predation from introduced foxes is the greatest threat to Yellow-footed Rock Wallabies (Lapidge and Henshall 2001). Competition with domestic and introduced herbivores (particularly goats, rabbits, and sheep) and wildfire are major threats. Historically, this species declined due these threats and as a result of hunting for pelts from the 1880s to 1920s and land clearance for agriculture (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
16751	conservation	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Reed, J., van Weenen, J., Moseby, K.E. & Morris, K., 2008	All three subspecies and both races of Black-footed Rock Wallaby are listed as threatened under Australian law. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. The separate subspecies and races are managed separately. Some of the island populations should be sampled genetically – not all have been sampled and there is evidence of inbreeding with some locations. Regular monitoring of populations should be conducted in a coordinated fashion. Predator control measures (primarily fox baiting) need to be maintained and expanded within key areas for the species, as well as monitoring of fox populations. Fire management and habitat restoration should be implemented where feasible. <br/><br/>A number of reintroductions of have been carried out to date and management of the relevant threatening processes described above is particularly important when establishing new populations (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> was endemic to North Pearson Island, but in 1960 it was accidentally introduced to South and Middle Pearson, where populations are now established (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). In 1974 this subspecies was translocated to Thistle Island and in 1975 to Wedge Island (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). <em>P. l. lateralis</em> has been reintroduced to Avon Valley National Park (2001), Paruna Sanctuary (2001), Walyunga National Park (2002), and Cape Le Grand National Park (2003) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further reintroductions/ translocations are planned and these should proceed along with the maintenance of genetic variation within captive-breeding populations.	eng
16751	distribution	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Reed, J., van Weenen, J., Moseby, K.E. & Morris, K., 2008	The Black-footed Rock Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in rocky areas in the central, southern, and western portions of the country and includes a number of offshore islands. Many of the populations of this species are isolated from each other, and this separation has given rise to three recognized subspecies (<em>Petrogale lateralis lateralis</em>, <em>P. l. hacketti</em>, <em>P. l. pearsoni</em>) and two races (West Kimberley and MacDonnell Ranges). There have been a number of localized extinctions of this species over the last 100 years, but there are have also been several reintroductions, translocations, and even a couple of accidental introductions of the species as well.	eng
16751	habitat	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Reed, J., van Weenen, J., Moseby, K.E. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is found in a variety of steep and rocky habitats. The vegetation in these areas varies widely from temperate rocky islands to pandanus lined gorges and spinifex covered hills in the central deserts (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). The diet of this species includes grass and some fruit, and it can survive without water for long periods, as its need is reduced by sheltering in caves during the day where relative humidity is higher (Langford and Pavey 2002). The species is long lived, with the average age of breeding females about 6 years (females mature at 1 year; animals live about 12 years).	eng
16751	population	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Reed, J., van Weenen, J., Moseby, K.E. & Morris, K., 2008	The global population is probably over 10,000 mature individuals. Historically, the MacDonnell race of Black-footed Rock Wallaby began a steep decline in the 1930s, and this decline continues today, mainly in the smaller, isolated populations (Eldridge and Pearson 2008). Populations in 21 of 400 sites have disappeared in last 30 years (Gibson 2000), and there are fewer than 100 individuals in South Australia (10 in the north-western population and about 70 in the population further east). The MacDonnell Ranges race, however, remains widespread and common in the Northern Territory, due to a variety of factors, including: widespread, contiguous and variable habitat; an absence of rabbits and foxes, as they are found farther south; an inability of goats to persist; and 1080 baiting programs for dingoes. Likewise the West Kimberley race is described as “conspicuously abundant at several sites” because it is at the northern edge of fox distribution and does not suffer much predation (Eldridge and Pearson 2008).<br/><br/>The remaining subspecies of Black-footed Rock Wallaby have not fared so well or are very limited in distribution. The Black-footed Rock Wallaby in south-western Western Australia have declined massively during the 20th century, and many local populations have gone extinct (Pearson and Kinnear 1997; Eldridge and Pearson 2008). Barrow Island may hold about 100 individuals, though recent work suggests this population is much smaller (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Both <em>P. l. hacketti</em> and <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> are common within their tiny ranges. Estimates for <em>P. l. pearsoni</em> include approximately 500 individuals on Thistle Island and 200 on Wedge Island (both are introduced populations).	eng
16751	threats	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Reed, J., van Weenen, J., Moseby, K.E. & Morris, K., 2008	The various subspecies of Black-footed Rock Wallaby face different threats. The main threat overall to this species is predation from introduced foxes, and foxes are known to have played a major role in the decline of the species historically. Competition with domestic and introduced herbivores (primarily sheep and rabbits) is a major threat as well as loss of habitat due to changes in the fire regime and introduced grasses.	eng
16752	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is present in protected areas (e.g., Mungkanknju National Park). Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) include: survey to clarify distribution, abundance, and habitat requirements; identify populations for regular monitoring; conduct research aimed at understanding biology, ecology, and conservation requirements.	eng
16752	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to a small area of the eastern Cape York Peninsula. It ranges in elevation from sea level to 400 m asl.	eng
16752	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	Its habitat is described as rocky outcrops, rocky gullies, and boulder piles, usually within open woodland (Maxwell <em>et al. </em>1996).	eng
16752	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is rare, but recent surveys have found four new populations, and it might be underestimated (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16752	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The habitat near some populations is adversely affected by cattle grazing and changes to the fire regime (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 2008). Feral cats may also take a few young animals.	eng
16753	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species is present in protected areas (e.g., Mount Zero). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution and status of the species across its range. Populations should be identified for regular monitoring programmes. Studies are needed to understand the species biology and ecology, especially to determine its interaction with introduced herbivores (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
16753	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Seaview and Coane Ranges, west of Ingham in north-eastern Queensland, Australia (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
16753	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It occurs on rocky outcrops, boulder piles, gorges, cliff lines, and rocky slopes.	eng
16753	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is common within its restricted range (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
16753	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	Currently there is no decline in the extent or quality of the species' habitat, however, competition from domestic and wild introduced herbivores make be threat as well as increased pastoralism in the western part of its range. The species is vulnerable to possible effects of climate change which may favour more populous species of rock-wallabies in adjacent regions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
16761	conservation	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., Telfer, W., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. Surveys are needed for a more accurate picture of its distribution and population status. Nabarlek populations should be monitored on a regular basis to determine population trends and assess possible threats. Research may be required to develop appropriate survey techniques as this species is nocturnal and prefers rugged terrain. The affects of fire on this species needs to be investigated and the development of fire management plans is also of high importance.	eng
16761	distribution	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., Telfer, W., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	The Nabarlek is endemic to Australia, where it occurs essentially in two disjunct locations: the north-western Kimberley (Western Australia) and in Top End (Northern Territory). The populations in two regions have traditionally been referred to as separate subspecies, but these designations remain untested by modern morphometric or genetic analyses (Sanson and Churchill 2008).	eng
16761	habitat	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., Telfer, W., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	This species is shy and mostly nocturnal (Woinarski 2002). It typically spends its days in caves and crevices. At night it forages in a variety of habitats from monsoon rainforests and vine thickets to open woodlands and hummock grasslands (Sanson and Churchill 2008).	eng
16761	population	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., Telfer, W., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	The species is very patchily distributed, though it can be locally abundant. There seems to have been localized extinctions from the Northern Territory within the last 30-40 years. In Western Australia, the species is found on several offshore islands but is apparently very restricted, and on the mainland it is occurs as scattered populations. There is no sound evidence of an overall population decline in Northern Territory over the last ten years, and there is no population information from Western Australia.	eng
16761	threats	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., Telfer, W., McKenzie, N. & Start, T., 2008	The current threats to this species are largely unknown. Changes to vegetation composition and structure as a result of altered fire regimes are thought to be the greatest threat facing Nabarleks. Introduced cats probably prey on Nabarleks, but it is unknown whether or not this constitutes a major threat. All four offshore islands do not have cats.	eng
16776	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Etosha National Park, Skeleton Coast national Park, Ai-Ais, Namib-Naukluft National Park, Iona National Park and Augrabies National Park. Research is currently being done on the species in the Irongo Mtns, Omaruru. Taxonomic research to elucidate the status of the species complex is necessary.	eng
16776	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is generally confined to the arid and semi-arid regions of southwestern Angola, Namibia and northern Namaqualand in South Africa. Coetzee (2002) gave the range as from 16 deg S to 12 E in southwestern Angola to 30 deg S to 18 deg E in Namaqualand. In northern central Namaqualand, the species occurs up to 1,200 m asl, but apparently does not ascend to the cloudy Eselfontein Plateau nor to the summits of the highest peaks (Shortridge 1942), which, as Coetzee (2002) explains, is due to colder and wetter nature of the plateau than the area inhabited to the northwest. In Angola, the species is absent from the semi-tropical western escarpment, and from the more moist savanna in the central parts of the country (Coetzee 2002).	eng
16776	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The species is largely confined to the western escarpment and adjoining mountainous areas, as well as inselbergs on the pro-Namib plains of Angola and Namibia. The Namib dunes and the very arid unvegetated mountains and plains west of the 50-mm isohyet restrict their spread westwards, while the Kalahari sands limit their spread east. The largest part of the distribution range of this species occurs between the 50-600 mm isohyet, but they may be present along canyons entering the Namib Desert, where average rainfall is below 35 mm (Coetzee 2002). This species nests in rock crevices, while piled-up boulders provide nesting sites, which can be identified by the presence of accumulations of sticks and other vegetable matter. In Augrabies Falls National Park, in South Africa, the species inhabits rock shelters that hyraxes cannot enter (George and Crowther 1981), thanks to its broad and flattened skull. Diurnal, they live in colonies usually only of a few animals, though as many as 22 in an area of 170 m x 70 m have been recorded (Coetzee 2002). Breeding season varies, but is mainly in late spring and autumn. Litter size is a maximum of three, with two the norm. Gestation period is around three months (Coetzee 2002).	eng
16776	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Relatively common where they occur. There are no published population densities.	eng
16776	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, although in urban areas they are preyed upon by domestic cats.	eng
16777	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The range of the species includes three protected areas.	eng
16777	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is endemic to northwest South Africa. The species occurs from 100 to 700 m asl.	eng
16777	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in rocky areas in succulent shrubland.	eng
16777	population	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not an uncommon species.	eng
16777	threats	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The population is not considered to be facing any serious threats, it may possibly be threatened by nomadic livestock overgrazing in parts of its range.	eng
16778	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
16778	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known from southwestern South Africa, northwards through Namibia to southern Angola. It has been recorded from 100 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
16778	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.	eng
16778	population	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
16778	threats	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
16779	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Most of this species range is within protected areas.	eng
16779	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known from northwestern South Africa and southern Namibia. It occurs from 100 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
16779	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.	eng
16779	population	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Forty years ago this species was considered to be rare, and was known with certainty from a single mountain. Now it is even considered to be common in some areas.	eng
16779	threats	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
16780	conservation	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
16780	distribution	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This southern African species occurs from southwestern Angola to northwestern Namibia. It occurs from 100 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
16780	habitat	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in rocky areas in semi-desert shrubland.	eng
16780	population	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It can be common but its population fluctuates.	eng
16780	threats	Coetzee, N. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
16781	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
16781	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
16781	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Both sides of North Atlantic, north to Iceland and along Norwegian coasts to Barents Sea (River Ura, Kola Peninsula). North Sea, Baltic and western and central Mediterranean basins, very rare in Baltic basin, only known to enter Odra, Vistula (Poland, Germany), Western Dvina (Latvia), Narova and Luga (Russia) drainages. Several landlocked populations in North America; none in Europe.	eng
16781	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Both sides of North Atlantic, north to Iceland and along Norwegian coasts to Barents Sea (River Ura, Kola Peninsula). North Sea, Baltic and western and central Mediterranean basins, very rare in Baltic basin, only known to enter Odra, Vistula (Poland, Germany), Western Dvina (Latvia), Narova and Luga (Russia) drainages. Several landlocked populations in North America; none in Europe.	eng
16781	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults at sea, off-shore; spawns in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, parasitic. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to winter. Spawns in couples in April-July, mostly in May and early June, when temperature reaches at least 15°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with strong current. Dies after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 51/2-71/2 years in freshwater. Feeds on diatoms and detritus, metamorphoses at 130-150 mm TL in late summer and migrates to sea. At sea, adults parasite a wide variety of fish species and even whales and other cetaceans. Usually does not kill its hosts, but feeds on small amounts of blood and body fluid for several days on a single host. Adults feed for about 3 years before migrating to spawning grounds. In 1921, the landlocked population of Lake Ontario entered the other Great Lakes of North America, 90 years after the opening of the Welland Canal in 1829. In combination with other factors, it caused a sharp decline of many native species and the extinction of three endemic Coregonidae. Expectedly, recent molecular studies suggest that the European and North American populations might be different species.	eng
16781	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults at sea, off-shore; spawns in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, parasitic. Adults migrate into rivers from autumn to winter. Spawns in couples in April-July, mostly in May and early June, when temperature reaches at least 15°C. Spawning individuals cease their normal daylight avoidance reaction and reproduce on sunny days. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with strong current. Dies after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 51/2-71/2 years in freshwater. Feeds on diatoms and detritus, metamorphoses at 130-150 mm TL in late summer and migrates to sea. At sea, adults parasite a wide variety of fish species and even whales and other cetaceans. Usually does not kill its hosts, but feeds on small amounts of blood and body fluid for several days on a single host. Adults feed for about 3 years before migrating to spawning grounds. In 1921, the landlocked population of Lake Ontario entered the other Great Lakes of North America, 90 years after the opening of the Welland Canal in 1829. In combination with other factors, it caused a sharp decline of many native species and the extinction of three endemic Coregonidae. Expectedly, recent molecular studies suggest that the European and North American populations might be different species.	eng
16781	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
16781	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
16781	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
16781	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
16799	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species need studies of systematics and ecology, and better learn population and distribution.	eng
16799	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is known only from a restricted area in the Serra do Mar, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo states, south Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
16799	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The morphology of this species suggests that it is arboreal (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It occurs in lowland forest (Bergallo pers. comm.) and occasionally is found in forest edge (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
16799	population	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species is extremely rare known only from museum records (total = 11) consolidated by Maia Vaz (2000), who noted that the species has not been collected within the last sixty years and commented on its conservation status. An individual collected in 1998, from Rio de Janeiro, brings the total number of specimens to 12 and indicates that the species can persist even in slightly degraded habitat (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Note that many of these specimens were taken from the same locations - the species is known from only a few locations.	eng
16799	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
16801	conservation		It does not occur in any officially protected areas, although three areas (less than 15 acres) are set aside to support a limited population. Two areas are in public ownership: Lookout Hill Fire Tower (Alabama Forestry Commission) and Haines Island (US Army Corps of Engineers). Long-term protection is best assured through private landowner cooperation, and Dodd (1991) recommended a series of management actions that would help to maintain the integrity of salamander habitat. It is protected as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act and is listed as a protected non-game species by the state of Alabama.	eng
16801	distribution		This species can be found in the Red Hills of south-central Alabama, USA, between the Alabama and Conecuh Rivers (Petranka 1998). It is restricted to Tallahatta and Hatchetigbee geological formations. It can also be found in Butler, Conecuh, Covington, Crenshaw, and Monroe Counties (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Dodd 1991).	eng
16801	habitat		The primary habitat is slopes of mesic shaded ravines dominated by hardwood trees (big-leaf magnolia and southern magnolia with mountain laurel and oak-leaf hydrangea). It is often found in moderately steep areas with a northern exposure most often on high, steep, uncut slopes with high soil moisture content and full tree canopy (Dodd 1991). It lives in burrows that often open in leaf-litter-free areas near the base of trees or under siltstone outcroppings. Eggs are laid in cavities inside burrows (Means 2003). Embryos develop directly within the eggs. It can tolerate selective logging or clear-cutting as long as burrows are not destroyed mechanically, as by plowing, tilling, or other forms of intensive site preparation.	eng
16801	population		It is not rare (K. Dodd pers. comm. 1995), although current evidence indicates significant losses over the 63,000 estimated acres of formerly occupied habitat. Local abundance varies considerably, and population estimates are difficult to arrive at due to the secretive (fossorial) habits of the species and the isolated locations of populations.	eng
16801	threats		The habitat of this species has been reduced by timber harvest; the conversion of mesic ravines to pine monocultures and the clearing of ridge tops above ravines destroys or degrades available habitat. Overcollecting may have caused a decline in some areas (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Jordan and Mount 1975). Nearly all habitats are on private timber company lands, and detrimental forestry practices continue (Dodd 1989, 1991), though some problems have been alleviated by management agreements (K. Dodd pers. comm. 1995). Feral pigs are a threat in some areas.	eng
16846	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. The main threat to this species, oil palm development on Woodlark Island, should be prevented.	eng
16846	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is known from Woodlark and Alcester (possibly introduced) Islands, and may be present on the island of Madau (all Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 410 m asl.	eng
16846	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals shelter under epiphytes and in tree hollows during the day (Flannery 1995). Secondary regrowth provide the species with what locals say is their favorite food – nectar from a vine and a tree <em>Rhus taitensis</em> that quickly grows up in old gardens (F. Damon pers. comm.). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
16846	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It was abundant in the 1990s on the island of Alcester (Flannery 1995); its current status there is unknown. On Woodlark Island it is more common in the drier eastern end of the island than elsewhere (Flannery 1995).	eng
16846	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The single major threat to the Woodlark Cuscus, and indeed the current way of life for humans on the island, is a planned oil palm development by a Malaysian biofuels company. There is some uncertainty about the scope of the project, but it is thought that no matter how large the project is, it will mark the beginning of the end for the native forests on the island (F. Damon pers. comm.). It is occasionally hunted for food by local people, but it is not a preferred food item (unlike pigs and fish). Hunting does not appear to be impacting population abundance. It is potentially threatened by the introduction of other <em>Phalanger</em> species to the islands, with the possibilities of competition and disease transmission (Flannery 1995).	eng
16847	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.   <br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
16847	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is distributed from the islands of Timor (Indonesia and Timor Leste), Wetar and Leti (both to Indonesia) through the Kai Islands and a number of the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including: Ambon, Buru, and Seram); it is present on the islands of Misool, Waigeo, Batanta, and Salawati (all Indonesia), and ranges over much of the northern part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), including a number of offshore islands. It ranges as far east as the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, where it is present on many islands including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland. It also occurs on many of the Solomon Islands. <br/><br/>Many of the insular island populations are the result of prehistorical introductions, possibly including: Timor, Seram, Buru, Sanana, the Kai Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Island chain.	eng
16847	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs primarily in disturbed habitats such as secondary forest, plantations, and gardens. The species is also present in primary tropical forest. The female usually gives birth to two young.	eng
16847	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
16847	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting for food by local people and by collection for the pet trade.	eng
16850	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas. Further study into the taxonomy of this species (which may prove to be a species complex) is needed.	eng
16850	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is separated into four distinct subpopulations, each of which may be a distinct species. It has been recorded between 1,200 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
16850	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in primary and slightly disturbed secondary upper montane tropical moist forests. It is believed to have a single young.	eng
16850	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	Overall, this species is abundant. However, while some subpopulations are abundant and secure, others are probably under considerable threat.	eng
16850	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by local hunting for food.	eng
16851	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to confirm the existence of this species. Hunting regulations may be needed to prevent its overexploitation.	eng
16851	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is known from the areas of Telefomin and Tifalmin, Papua New Guinea. The species might be found further north-east or west of the known collection localities. The only place where it is known with certainty was largely destroyed by fire in 1998. It has been recorded from between 1,400 and 2,600 m asl (1,400-1,800 is the core elevation range). It occurs sympatrically with the other species.	eng
16851	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in mid-montane tropical moist oak forest and has a narrow altitudinal range. Little more is known about the natural history of this distinctive species.	eng
16851	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is known from only six specimens. An individual that is presumed to be this species was captured in 1997 (L. Salas pers. comm.), but was not collected. The area in which the species occurs has not been well surveyed.	eng
16851	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	The habitat at the type locality was completely burnt in the 1998 El Niño event. This species is threatened by local hunting for food and loss of suitable habitat through human encroachment.	eng
16852	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
16852	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Obi, Bisa, Obi-Latoe in the north central Moluccan Islands, Indonesia.	eng
16852	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary forests, and it also occurs in gardens. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
16852	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	It is generally common in the islands where it occurs. Flannery (1995) reports that local people noted that the species had become rare in northern Bisa.	eng
16852	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16853	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in one national park and in several management areas. The development of hunting regulations may be needed in parts of the species' range.	eng
16853	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is found in mid-montane areas throughout the central mountain ranges, and Huon Peninsula, of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from 1,350 to 3,800 m asl.	eng
16853	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is found in primary montane tropical oak forest. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
16853	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	Where it is not hunted it is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
16853	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened by hunting for food by local people in portions of its range. Significant habitat loss is taking place in parts of the species' range, mostly through deforestation for conversion of land to subsistence agriculture.	eng
16854	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species occurs in Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve.	eng
16854	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species is restricted to the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, and Morotai (all Indonesia). Found from sea level to about 1,000 m asl.	eng
16854	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	It occurs in primary tropical moist forest, secondary forest, rural gardens, and other degraded habitats. It is an adaptable species.	eng
16854	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species is common throughout its range, especially in the south.	eng
16854	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Flannery, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting (populations in non-Muslim areas).	eng
16855	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in at least two protected areas.	eng
16855	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widespread at high elevations in the central mountains of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,900 m asl.	eng
16855	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is found in mid-montane and upper-montane tropical moist forests. It does not occur in secondary forests or gardens. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
16855	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is locally common.	eng
16855	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. It is threatened in some parts of its range by local hunting for food. Encroachment by human populations on the mountains is pushing a competing species (<em>P. carmelitae</em>) into the range of <em>P. sericeus</em>.	eng
16856	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
16856	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Aru Islands, and the islands of Yapen, Misool, Salawati (all Indonesia). It has been thought to be absent from the southern lowlands of New Guinea, although it has recently been found at Serki, Papua New Guinea (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 2,700 m asl.	eng
16856	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forests, as well as cultivated gardens. This species is unusual in that it spends much of its time on the ground, even having dens on the ground. It is an omnivorous species. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
16856	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
16856	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is threatened by feral dog predation and by humans hunting with dogs. It is the most commonly-hunted cuscus species. It is hunted for meat, medicinal purposes, and for the pet trade. It has been extirpated from some areas because of extensive hunting.	eng
16857	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in several supposed wildlife management areas.<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
16857	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is present in the lowlands of eastern and south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, the Trobriand Islands, and the Louisade Archipelago (all Papua New Guinea). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,250 m asl.	eng
16857	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary, slightly degraded tropical moist forest. It is a fairly adaptable species and is also found in rural gardens.	eng
16857	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is fairly common.	eng
16857	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Hamilton, S., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is affected by hunting for meat and its pelt (and is traded), as well as loss of habitat through logging operations.	eng
16858	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need to ensure that the widespread <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> is not introduced to Gebe Island. Further field studies of <em>P. alexandrae</em> are needed. Hunting regulations may be needed to conserve this species.	eng
16858	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Gebe Island, Indonesia. It occurs from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
16858	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in primary tropical moist forest and secondary forest. This species has been caught in the trees near the airport.	eng
16858	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
16858	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food, mining, and habitat loss through conversion of forest to agricultural use. The habitat of this species is further threatened by degradation from feral pigs.	eng
16872	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported from two national parks (Masoala and Zahamena), two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena), the Ambatovaky Special Reserve, and the forests of Makira (which are slated for official protection), and it may occur in the Mananara-Nord National Park (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). May also occur in Marotandrano Special Reserve. Taxonomic studies to determine the status of the species, and further surveys on population numbers and range.	eng
16872	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in eastern Madagascar from Toamasina north to and including the Masoala Peninsula. It ranges from sea-level to 1,050 m.	eng
16872	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It inhabits tropical moist forests. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research.	eng
16872	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, but it seems to be relatively widespread.	eng
16872	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threats probably include habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, and illegal logging.	eng
16873	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in the Tsaratanana Nature Reserve and the Manongarivo Special Reserve, but these require strengthened protection. The corridor between Tsaratanana and Marojejy and Anjaharibe-Sud forest block should be maintained. Remaining forest in Ampasindava should be included in a Conservation Site. Additional surveys to the east of the range in existing forest blocks would be useful.	eng
16873	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits the Sambirano region of northwest Madagascar, south of Ambanja, its range including the Ampasindava Peninsula and extending south to the Andranomalaza River. Occurs from sea level to 800 m.	eng
16873	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found in lowland tropical moist forests. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research, but as with other members of the genus they occur high up in the canopy of tall trees.	eng
16873	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Quite common on Ampasindava peninsula in shade-grown coffee plantations around villages.	eng
16873	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The main threats include habitat loss due to slash-and-burn activities and for firewood collection and charcoal production.	eng
16874	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is reported to occur in several national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha, Tsingy de Namoroka, Zombitse, Vohibasia), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, and the Andranomena Special Reserve; it is also reported from the Analabe Private Reserve and the Kirindy Forest CFPF (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Forêts de Mikea is in the process of being declared part National Park and part Conservation Site. Taxonomy of the species, as with the genus, requires further investigation.	eng
16874	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species, which has the largest range of any <em>Phaner</em> species, is patchily distributed along a narrow strip of western Madagascar forests from just south of the Fiherenana River, including the Forêts de Mikea, north to Soalala, from sea level to 800 m (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The northerly populations appear isolated and may possibly represent distinct taxa.	eng
16874	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in lowland forest habitats, and also in exotic tree plantations, perhaps suggesting reliance on tall canopy trees and gum. This is the best studied of the four <em>Phaner</em> species; its biology and ecology are summarized by Schulke (2003) and Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> (2008).	eng
16874	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common. Population density estimates derived from studies in the Kirindy Forest and from Marosalaza are about 50-70 individuals/km² (Charles-Dominique and Petter 1980), but Ausilio and Raveloarinoro (1993) estimated densities of 300-400 individuals/km² in the forests of Tsimembo.	eng
16874	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, charcoal production, and annual burning to create pasture, may be resulting in localized declines.	eng
16875	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The species occurs in Montagne d’Ambre National Park, in three special reserves (Forêt d’Ambre, Analamerana, Ankarana), and in the Sahafary Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). The status of the form in Daraina requires taxonomic investigation.	eng
16875	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is apparently confined to the region of Montagne d’Ambre in northern Madagascar where it inhabits moist tropical forests from 50-1,500 m asl. There is a distinct population in Daraina that may represent a separate species.	eng
16875	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It inhabits both tropical dry and moist forests. In Daraina, mostly seen in gallery forests in low-lying areas, whereas elsewhere they appeared to be more common at higher altitudes. The ecology and behavior of this species have yet to be the focus of systematic field research.	eng
16875	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common in Montagne d'Ambre, but elsewhere unknown.	eng
16875	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to mining for sapphires, and yearly agricultural burning in Analamerana, Daraina and Ankarana.	eng
16887	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Field surveys using appropriate sampling techniques (e.g., harp traps) are urgently needed to determine if this species is still extant. This is one of the highest priorities for surveys in Papua New Guinea (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). Any important roosting or foraging sites should be protected.	eng
16887	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species has only been recorded with certainty from Kamali on the lower Kemp Welch River, in the Central Province of South-eastern New Guinea in 1890. According to Flannery (1995) 45 individuals (probably a maternity colony) were collected by Dr. L. Loria, but only four of these specimens can now be accounted for. The species has been collected from below 100 m asl.<br/><br/>There is a record of an animal collected at Kapa Kapa by Dr. Loria, but this specimen has been lost. According to Bonaccorso (1998) a single specimen was collected in 1985 from the crown of a Pandanus tree in Rogut Village along the Tuman River in Central Province. This specimen was destroyed in 1992. However, in 1988, a careful examination of the specimen (PM 25374), including measurements, was done as part of an ongoing revision of bats in the genus <em>Nyctophilus</em> confirmed that it did not belong to <em>Pharotis imogene</em>, but instead represented <em>Nyctophilus microdon</em> (Parnaby pers. comm.).	eng
16887	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	It roosts communally in lowland sclerophyll woodland habitat, although it is not known whether the species roosts in trees or in caves (Bonaccorso 1998). Even the general habitat is not known for certain, but is assumed to be either savanna woodland, and/or lowland rainforest patches in savanna woodlands.	eng
16887	population	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Bonaccorso (1998) believes that this species is still extant, but that it is very difficult to survey with standard collecting methods, and that surveying with harp traps near potential roost sites at known localities is needed.	eng
16887	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Hamilton, S. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss around human population centres such as the Kamali district by reduction of area and quality of the small rainforest patches in savanna woodland, both by encroachment by fire, and human activities, particularly fire wood collection (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). If the species roosts in tree cavities, loss of such trees by fire is a likely threat.	eng
16888	conservation	Friend, T., 2008	The Red-tailed Phascogale is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is currently found at a total of 40-50 sites, many of which are within protected areas, with fairly low threat. There is a need to study the effects of predator control on the species and to secure and establish further populations. Close monitoring of the Red-tailed Phascogale is important in order to detect and react early to any population declines.	eng
16888	distribution	Friend, T., 2008	The Red-tailed Phascogale is endemic to Australia. It was formerly very widespread but now is found only within south-western Western Australia.	eng
16888	habitat	Friend, T., 2008	This species is mainly nocturnal, arboreal and nests with tree hollows (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008). It occupies dense, mature woodlands containing Rock Sheoak (<em>Allocasuarina huegeliana</em>) and hollow-forming Wandoo (<em>Eucalyptus wandoo</em>). Females have up to 13 young in a litter, but only eight are raised (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16888	population	Friend, T., 2008	Populations fluctuate with rainfall. Like several other dasyurid species, males die-off after mating, but females are capable of breeding for two or even three seasons (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no demonstrated population declines currently, but there were large declines historically. Red-tailed Phascogales are not found at high densities and there are probably less than 10,000 mature individuals overall.	eng
16888	threats	Friend, T., 2008	The historical decline of Red-tailed Phascogale was probably due to forest clearance and fragmentation, changed fire regimes (whereby frequent fire eliminated nest sites), and the presence of introduced predators. The species now occurs in a number of protected areas that are secure from habitat destruction and people in the region are very careful with fire, so there is no longer frequent burning. Populations and habitat are still fragmented.<br/><br/>The effects of cats and foxes on populations are not fully understood. There is no evidence that fox control has helped this largely arboreal species (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). The current range of the species, however, seems to be associated with the presence of <em>Gastrolobium</em> and <em>Oxylobium</em>, which produce monosodium fluoracetate ('1080' poison), which is lethal to foxes (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16889	conservation	Woinarski, J., Rhind, S. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is found within three protected areas: Litchfield, Garig Gunak Barlu, and Kakadu National Parks. More surveys and monitoring are needed on the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and population trends of this species (Woinarski 2005). Targeted surveys for this animal, which is not readily trapped using standard methods (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
16889	distribution	Woinarski, J., Rhind, S. & Oakwood, M., 2008	The Northern Brush-tailed Phascogale is found in the Top End of the Northern Territory, where it has been recorded from the Melville Island, Cobourg Peninsula, West Pellew Island, Kakadu National Park, Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, and Litchfield National Park (Woinarski 2005; Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16889	habitat	Woinarski, J., Rhind, S. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is solitary, nocturnal, and arboreal. It nests within tree hollows during the day, and forages both on the ground and in trees mostly for invertebrates, but also some small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). There is little information on the habitat requirements of this species. Most recent records are from tall open forest of <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>-<em>E. tetrodonta</em> forests (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16889	population	Woinarski, J., Rhind, S. & Oakwood, M., 2008	The total global population of this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals and it might be less than 2,500. The Northern Brush-tailed Phascogale was said to be very common historically, though currently there are only about 10 records known from the mainland in the last decade despite intensive survey work for the species (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are two recent records from Melville Island (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006), and two records from West Pellew Island (1988), but a recent survey of West Pellew was unable to locate it (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
16889	threats	Woinarski, J., Rhind, S. & Oakwood, M., 2008	Inappropriate fire regimes which alter the understorey to increase the presence of tall grasses (especially exotic grasses) and habitat degradation associated with pastoralism are the main threats to the species (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). The clearance of vegetation is a threat in the western portion of the mainland range and on Melville Island where exotic tree plantations are detrimental and expanding (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008). Introduced cane toads and cats might be threats (Rhind <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16890	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Rhind, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	Recommended actions for this species include: taxonomic work to assess the status of the various regional populations; developing survey techniques for this species to increase knowledge of its distribution, population status, and to allow for monitoring; identifying key habitats and populations; determining the relative importance of threatening processes throughout its range; and determining the potential impact of 1080 baiting on phascogales in south-east Australia.	eng
16890	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Rhind, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	Brush-tailed Phascogales are endemic to Australia, where they occur in the eastern portion of the country, and in western Kimberley and south-western Western Australia. They are not found on any islands in Western Australia.<br/><br/>The species is known from at least ten localities within northern Queensland and Cape York Peninsula, and they have most commonly been recorded around the Cooktown region (S. Rhind pers. comm.). There have been about 30 reports of phascogales since the 1970s, with records between 1976 and 1995 extending the known range south into northern Queensland by more than 500 km (S. Rhind pers. comm.). There are also records from the Rockhampton area (Ingram and Raven 1991). It was formerly widespread elsewhere in eastern and south-western Australia. The range has been reduced by about 50% since European settlement predominantly due to agricultural clearing, forestry practices, and deforestation associated with mining activities (Traill and Coats 1993; Rhind 2004). It is presumed to be extinct in South Australia.	eng
16890	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Rhind, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is now largely confined to dry sclerophyll forests and open woodlands that contain hollow-bearing trees. It occurs more rarely in wetter forests. Brush-tailed Phascogales are arboreal, nocturnal, and largely solitary. Females typically give birth to eight young, or six to eight in south-western Australia (Soderquist and Rhind 2008). Males die soon after the breeding season, and females can live up to three years, but usually only produce one litter (Soderquist and Rhind 2008).	eng
16890	population	Menkhorst, P., Rhind, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	Abundance within its range is mostly unknown because the species eludes conventional faunal survey techniques. It is sparsely distributed and is typically reported from infrequent single sightings and/or captures. <br/><br/>There is little information on the Kimberley population, which is represented by only 23 records (S. Rhind pers. comm.). In south-western Australia, the population fluctuates markedly in response to climatic conditions (Rhind and Bradley 2002). The species may have declined in the south-west in the last ten years; there are fewer records in spite of increased survey effort. It is presumed to be extinct in South Australia (last reliable record is from 1967). In Victoria, there have been major declines in the past, but populations appear to have stabilized more recently. In New South Wales phascogales are most commonly encountered on the north coast, particularly from Taree to Port Macquarie and Coffs Harbour and parts of the Hunter Valley. It is uncommon to rare in northern Queensland.	eng
16890	threats	Menkhorst, P., Rhind, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	Reduction in area of occupancy for this species has been predominantly caused by gross habitat alteration including continued habitat clearing and fragmentation. Habitat alteration as a result of logging and mining has also been detrimental to the species. The greatest current threat is the increasing decline in the availability of hollow-bearing trees. Predation by foxes and cats is also a threat. Male die-off makes this taxon particularly vulnerable to stochastic events. Reproductively viable populations require large areas of suitable habitat in order to persist because male home ranges are often greater than 100 hectares (Soderquist and Rhind 2008).	eng
16892	conservation	Gordon, G., Menkhorst, P., Robinson, T., Lunney, D., Martin, R. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is present in numerous protected areas. Recommended actions for the species (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Martin and Handasyde 1999; Gordon pers. comm.) include: complete and implement National Strategy for Conservation of the Koala (currently in draft form); develop appropriate PVA models applicable to the diversity of habitat types utilised by the species; conduct regional and local surveys of distribution, assessment of tree preferences and identification of key critical habitat areas for conservation; formulate and implement detailed regional management plans for the conservation of these populations; manage populations to prevent over-browsing at some sites in Victoria and South Australia; develop positive community involvement in Koala conservation and management.	eng
16892	distribution	Gordon, G., Menkhorst, P., Robinson, T., Lunney, D., Martin, R. & Ellis, M., 2008	The Koala was formerly common throughout the broad band of forests and woodlands dominated by <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp. extending from north Queensland to the south-eastern corner of mainland South Australia, Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It currently ranges from northeastern, central, and southeastern Queensland with patchy populations in western areas, to eastern New South Wales including the coastal strip and highlands of the Great Dividing Range, the western plains and related riparian environments where suitable habitat occurs, Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. The geographic range has contracted significantly due to loss of large areas of habitat since European settlement. In Queensland, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have contracted by about 30% (Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It has been introduced to at least 12 islands including: Kangaroo (South Australia, 450,000 ha), French (Victoria, 17,470 ha), Phillip (Victoria, 10,116 ha), and Magnetic (Queensland, 5,200 ha) (Abbott and Burbidge 1995). It has also been introduced within the mainland in the Adelaide Region and along the Murray River (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
16892	habitat	Gordon, G., Menkhorst, P., Robinson, T., Lunney, D., Martin, R. & Ellis, M., 2008	Koalas occupy forests and woodlands where there are acceptable food trees. They are largely nocturnal and feed almost exclusively on eucalypts, but preferred food tree species vary with locality and there are quite distinct regional preferences (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008). They are able to persist in fragmented habitats, and even survive in isolated trees across a predominantly agricultural landscape. Females reach sexual maturity at two years of age and usually give birth to a single young per year. Individual Koalas have been known to live up to 18 years in the wild, but most live between 10 and 14 years (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
16892	population	Gordon, G., Menkhorst, P., Robinson, T., Lunney, D., Martin, R. & Ellis, M., 2008	Koalas are uncommon and patchily distributed in most of their Queensland range, but are common in south-eastern Queensland. Queensland populations have persisted where habitat occurs, although fluctuating markedly in size (Gordon and Hrdina 2005; Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2006). They are widespread and common in Victoria. In New South Wales, they are known to be common in the Pilliga (the species' stronghold is along the north coast), but they are uncommon elsewhere. All South Australian populations became extinct by 1920, and current populations have been introduced outside their original range with the exception of the extreme south-east of the state. The introduced populations have expanded and caused severe environmental damage on Kangaroo Island (current population estimates on Kangaroo Island are of 28,000 ? these animals are highly inbred, resulting from a very small original source population of 10 animals). The Koala was listed in the 2001 State of the Environment report of the Commonwealth as one of the eight pest species of Australia.<br/><br/>While remaining populations are widely distributed, habitat fragmentation and modification has resulted in an increased prevalence of predation, in addition to geographic and genetic isolation (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
16892	threats	Gordon, G., Menkhorst, P., Robinson, T., Lunney, D., Martin, R. & Ellis, M., 2008	Current threats to this species include continued habitat destruction, fragmentation, and modification (which makes them vulnerable to predation by dogs, vehicle strikes, and other factors), bushfires, and disease, as well as drought associated mortality in habitat fragments. Public concern for the species is high. There are management problems with many populations; remnant populations living at high densities in isolated patches of habitat are at greatest risk (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2008). Effective management of some of the threats on the mainland could lead to excessive abundance and result in pest problems similar to those occurring on Kangaroo Island and in parts of Victoria.<br/><br/>The overall distribution of Koalas has been reduced since European settlement. This decline was primarily due to disease, bushfires, and widespread habitat destruction in the early decades of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Commercial harvesting also took place across the range towards the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> century (huge numbers, running into the millions, were killed for their pelts for a large export industry in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland). This was banned in Victoria in the 1890s, and it continued sporadically (and under regulation) in Queensland until 1927 (Hrdina and Gordon 2004). There is no evidence, however, that the early spate of commercial harvesting had any long-term impact on the overall population.	eng
16893	conservation	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species has been found in the past within areas now protected.	eng
16893	distribution	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of Papua Province where it is known from the Vogelkop Peninsula, Weyland Range and north-western slopes of the Central Cordillera, within the altitudinal range of 900 to 2,000 m asl. (Helgen 2007).	eng
16893	habitat	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	The species occurs in mature montane tropical moist forest. Nothing is known of the biology of this species. It may be active during daylight hours.	eng
16893	population	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown. It was locally abundant in two localities in the 1930s. An attempt to collect this species in the Arfak Mountains in 1992 was unsuccessful, but skeletal remains were found in a raptor pellet (specimen in Australian National Wildlife Collection) (P. Woolley pers. comm.).	eng
16893	threats	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Dickman, C. & Lunde, D., 2008	It may be affected by forest disturbance (shifting agriculture and timber extraction), predation by feral dogs, and by local hunting for food.	eng
16894	conservation	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It has been recorded within some protected areas. Further taxonomic research is needed.	eng
16894	distribution	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is distributed across the Central Cordillera of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from the Arfaks in the west to the Huon in the east. It has been recorded from 1,625 m in the Arfaks and in the Central dividing range from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.	eng
16894	habitat	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It occurs in mature and disturbed tropical moist forest. This species is terrestrial and diurnal (Woolley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Wild-caught females generally have a full complement of young (4) in the pouch (Woolley 2003).	eng
16894	population	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is common.	eng
16894	threats	Woolley, P., Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species suffers predation by feral dogs, but this is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
16899	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is present in protected areas within its range.	eng
16899	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is only found on Honshu. It is found in the southern Kii Peninsula, as well as Chubu and Hokuriku Districts and northwards (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is found from sea level to the alpine zone in Tohoku District and the Kii Peninsula. In Chubu District, the species is found from 400 m asl to the alpine zone (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
16899	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	The species is found primarily at higher elevations, in rocky areas and riverine habitats, and also artificial stone walls in farmlands and artificial dykes (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
16899	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is fairly common only in suitable habitat. The species is difficult to trap.	eng
16899	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
16900	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is known to be present in protected areas.	eng
16900	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on Honshu (Niigata and Fukushima Prefectures and southwards), Kyushu, Shikoku, and Dogo Island (Oki Islands). It is found from about 400 m asl to lowland montane and alpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
16900	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary forest. It prefers wet areas, and is found also in conifer plantations and farmlands in lowland montane areas. It is absent entirely from alluvial plains.	eng
16900	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
16900	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
16925	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16926	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16939	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
16947	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, and harvest levels of this species should be carried out.	eng
16947	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from fewer than five locations in the Toliara region, south-west Madagascar (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 17,130 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
16947	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits dry forest and thornbush in southwestern Madagascar. A single individual or a pair is observed on large trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
16947	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no specific population data available for this species, but populations numbers are thought to have declined in the 1990s due to heavy collecting for the pet trade (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).	eng
16947	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is likely experiencing the loss, degradation and fragmentation of its native habitat due to human activities including land clearing for agricultural uses such as cattle grazing and slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, logging and charcoal production (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 2000). Brushfires associated with tavy practices may also be degrading the habitat of this species. <br/><br/>This species is harvested for the international pet trade. Although trade is controlled by CITES, individuals are traded illegally (Nilsson 2005). Collection for the international pet trade caused declines in the population abundance of this species in the 1990s (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).	eng
16957	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Has a restricted range in the New River drainage, Virginia, West Virginia and North Carolina.	eng
16981	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Bonaccorso, F., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas on New Guinea. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological and population studies recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
16981	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Bonaccorso, F., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from northern South Asia, parts of Southeast Asia, and Melanesia. In South Asia this species is presently known from India (Sikkim) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) in South Asia,  recorded from 585 to 1846 m (Koopman 1983; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Padang District in western Sumatra (Indonesia) (Koopman 1983; Suyanto pers. comm. 2006), Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippnes. In the Philippines it has been recorded from Catanduanes, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, and Laguna), Mindanao (Bukidnon, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces) and Negros (Kock 1981; Heaney <em>et al. </em>1998) where it has been found from 475-900 m asl (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), although there is a recent record of the species on Mount Isarog at 1,450 m asl. The species has also been reported as scattered records in New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Bismarck Archipelago and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea). It ranges here from sea level 2,100 m asl.	eng
16981	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Bonaccorso, F., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, it is found in montane forests, is known to roost in tree hollows and coconut palms (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its behaviour of roosting in coconut palm is applicable to populations from New Guinea, but not in South Asia (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). In the Philippines, the species occurs in primary and disturbed lowland forests (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) it has also been found in second growth forest along rivers on Polillo. In Southeast Asia, a specimen has also been collected in a peat swamp forest in Malaysia (Lim Boo Liat, unpublished data), and elsewhere in the region it has been recorded in degraded forest adjacent to good lowland and montane forest. In Melanesia, it seems to be a tree hollow roosting species, which has been recorded from both primary and disturbed tropical moist forests. It can be found in coconut plantations adjacent to forest. Up to 55 animals have been collected from a single tree (Bonaccorso 1998). It forages in the forest understorey and sub-canopy and over grassland (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
16981	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Bonaccorso, F., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the population abundance of this species is not known. Only relatively few specimens have been collected (Sharoukh Mistry pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In the Philippines it is probably moderately common in primary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species can be locally common in New Guinea.	eng
16981	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Bonaccorso, F., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole in Southeast Asia (including New Guinea). In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
16997	conservation		The species' habitat is protected within Baw Baw National Park, and the species is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring are currently in place. The implementation of a focused recovery plan is clearly needed, and this will probably need to include an <em>ex-situ</em> component.	eng
16997	distribution		This species is restricted entirely to the Baw Baw Plateau, located approximately 120km east of Melbourne, Victoria (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995). Despite searches in close proximity to the plateau, and in similar environments (e.g., Mount Useful, Mount Torongo), the species has not been found elsewhere. Encompassing an area of approximately 80km², the Baw Baw Plateau between approximately 1,260 and 1,560m asl is contained within the Baw Baw National Park, except for approximately 3.5km² near Mount Baw Baw that is managed by the Victorian Alpine Resorts Commission (Hollis 1997). At lower elevations, between 960 and 1,300m asl, records of the species occur from montane forest along the south escarpment of the Baw Baw Plateau (G. Hollis pers. comm.). In 1983 and 1984, Malone (1985a) undertook a comprehensive assessment of the distribution of the species. It was found to be widely distributed and abundant in the west (Mt Baw Baw), central (Mt St Phillack) and north-west (Mt Whitelaw) parts of the plateau. There were fewer records from the east region (Mt St Gwinear), and the species was conspicuously absent from the south-east region. The distribution map shows the historical and not current range of the species. It has now disappeared from over 80% of its former occupied range.	eng
16997	habitat		This species is a habitat specialist. During the breeding season (September-December), calling males, gravid females and egg masses have been recorded, along seepage lines within or at the periphery of sub-alpine wet heathland and in gullies within montane vegetation communities (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995). Calling activity has been recorded in early September, continuing as late as the last week in December (Malone 1985a; Hollis 1995; G.J. Hollis. pers. comm.). Oviposition (egg laying) appears to be confined to a shorter interval of 2-3 weeks during this period, when a peak in calling activity occurs (Malone 1985a, b; Hollis 1995). The timing of this peak in calling activity varies between breeding seasons (Hollis 1997). Calling activity may occur at any time of the day or night, with the greatest levels of activity being recorded during relatively warm, humid conditions (Hollis 1997). Very little calling activity occurs at temperatures near freezing (Malone 1985a) or when temperatures are high with low humidity (Hollis 1997). Egg masses are deposited in a transparent foam nest (8cm diameter and 3-4cm high) at the calling site, or nearby, during inguinal amplexus (Littlejohn 1963). The foam nest is produced by the female beating air bubbles into the mucous and eggs with flanged fingers during egg laying (Littlejohn 1963). The egg mass may be deposited at varying depths in vegetation, or below the ground surface, depending on the structural attributes of the site (Hollis 1997). Depths of over a metre have been observed, whilst others are deposited in vegetation very close to the surface (Hollis 1997). Clutch sizes reported in the literature range from 50-185 (see Littlejohn 1963; Malone 1985a, b; Tyler 1992). Ova are white and unpigmented and measure on average 4mm in diameter (Malone 1985b). Oviposition of more than one clutch may occur at a single site (Malone 1985b; Hollis 1997). It is also possible that females deposit a portion of their eggs at more than one site (Malone 1985a). Under natural conditions the embryonic period varies from 5-8 weeks, with individuals hatching at Gosner stages 22-23 (Malone 1985a, b). The larvae are non-feeding, hatching with a residual yolk mass that maintains them through to metamorphosis (Malone 1985a, b). Larvae usually remain at oviposition sites through to metamorphosis (Barker, Grigg and Tyler 1995; Hollis 1997). Upon hatching, however, larvae have also been observed to move small distances in shallow water from oviposition sites, while remaining covered under vegetation and/or woody debris (Hollis 1997), or to be washed into nearby pools (B.S. Malone pers. comm. in Hollis 1997).	eng
16997	population		Malone (1985a) estimated the adult male population on the plateau to be over ten thousand individuals. During a series of extensive annual surveys carried out since 1993, a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species has been observed (Hollis 1995, 1997; Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Malone (1985a) recorded calling males in 73% (64 of 88) of frost hollows surveyed in 1983 and 1984, compared with 46% (22 of 48) recorded by Hollis (1995) in 1993. In a subset of 35 frost hollows surveyed in both 1983 and 1993, Malone (1985a) recorded 3,694 males compared with 83 by Hollis (1995). Similarly, in a subset of 19 frost hollows surveyed in both 1984 and 1993, 885 males were recorded in 1984 compared with 19 in 1993. Hollis (1995) and Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) only recorded 2.2% and 2.1% of the number of males recorded by Malone in 1983 and 1984, respectively. Surveys during subsequent years (1994-1997) indicate that the species is currently restricted to the western half of the Baw Baw plateau (particularly to steeper montane-forested areas on the edge of the western plateau (W. Osborne pers. comm.), with a contraction of the distribution from eastern and western areas (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Twenty-four sites surveyed on the Baw Baw plateau originally by Malone (1985a) were re-surveyed annually by Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) for numbers of calling males present. At all sites, there was a very large reduction in the numbers recorded. The mean number of calling males recorded at 24 sites declined from 124 individuals in 1983 to between 1.5 and 3.3 individuals over the five years 1993 to 1997. In 1983-1984 the maximum population size recorded at a monitoring site was 667 individuals; by contrast, between 1993 and 1997 the largest population recorded was 41 individuals. In 1997 frogs were recorded at only six of the 25 monitoring sites. Overall, the current population size is estimated to be less than 250 adults, a tiny fraction of the number estimated only 20 years earlier by Malone (1985a).	eng
16997	threats		The dearth of information available on the population dynamics and demography of the Baw Baw Frog makes it very difficult to interpret the observed decline in the adult male population. This decline coincides with a recent global phenomenon of declining amphibians (e.g., Barinaga 1990; Blaustein and Wake 1990; Tyler 1991), and perhaps of more concern, with the reported decline of species restricted to mountain-top and alpine environments in Australia (e.g., Osborne 1990; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) and overseas. Numerous hypotheses have been generated to explain these declines, but few as yet have been investigated thoroughly. Those that have, or are currently being investigated, include climate change (Osborne 1990; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993), ultraviolet radiation (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994), atmospheric pollution (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994) and pathogens (such as chytridiomycosis) (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1994; Trenerry, Laurance and McDonald 1994), but there is growing scientific consensus that chytridiomycosis is often implicated. No thorough investigation of these hypotheses has yet been undertaken for the Baw Baw Frog. Forestry operations might also represent a threat to the species where it occurs in State Forest (W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). Willow (<em>Salix cinerea</em>), cattle, rabbits, Sambar deer, foxes, dogs and cats have been identified as invasive species that might be impacting the species (G.J. Hollis pers. comm.).	eng
17003	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Gonzales, J.C. & Oliver, W., 2008	Basic information on this species habitat and ecology, distribution and abundances is needed.	eng
17003	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Gonzales, J.C. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to the Luzon Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found on Luzon island (Camarines Sur, Southern Sierra Madre, Quezon, Laguna, Cavite, Btatangas, Bicol Peninsula, and Bulacan provinces), Catanduanes island, and formerly occurred on Marinduque island (Steere 1890; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998; Musser and Heaney 1992; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
17003	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Gonzales, J.C. & Oliver, W., 2008	On Mt. Isarog and Catanduanes, this species was found in disturbed lowland forest from sea level to 900 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species also uses coconut plantations where there are records of populations having been established for over 70 years.	eng
17003	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Gonzales, J.C. & Oliver, W., 2008	This is a moderately widespread and moderately locally common species which has undergone declines in part of its range, including on the Bicol peninsula (L. Heaney pers. comm.)	eng
17003	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L., Gonzales, J.C. & Oliver, W., 2008	The species is hunted for food and is subject to habitat destruction (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). However, it is successful in coconut plantations, where it is sometimes considered a pest.	eng
17004	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	Resolution of taxonomic questions is needed to identify potentially important subpopulations.	eng
17004	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to the Luzon Faunal Region (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005) where it is found only in northern and central Luzon island (Abra, Benguet, Kalinga-Apayao, Laguna, Nueva Viscaya provinces) (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). There are recently verified records also from Bataan/Zambales region (P. Ong unpubl. data), and Sierra Madre (P. Ong pers. comm.; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) from sea level to 2,000 m. It occurs also on Mt. Amuyao (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17004	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest (Thomas 1898; Rabor 1955; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004/2005), as well as heavily disturbed scrub (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). It can also occur in some severely degraded or predominantly agricultural habitats, especially plantations.	eng
17004	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species is widespread and apparently relatively common in forests and is evidently able to withstand sustained hunting pressure over prolonged periods (e.g. it is moderately common in Mt. Amuyao and fairly heavily hunted there; L. Heaney pers. comm.) It occurs sympatrically with <em>Crateromys schadenbergi</em> in the southern Cordillera Central.	eng
17004	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Ong, P., Ruedas, L. & Oliver, W., 2008	The species is under heavy hunting pressure, it is taken for food (Pasicolan 1993; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). There is extensive forest loss, especially in the lowlands, but the species appears to persist in these areas.	eng
17008	conservation	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.&#160; This species urgently needs a management plan.&#160; A higher level of formal protection of the island and active management for conservation is a high priority for this species.&#160; Further research on the population and distribution of this species  should be conducted to determine if it should be placed in a higher  threat category. An eradication plan for rats should be implemented immediately.&#160; Monitoring is also needed to detect whether this species is currently declining.&#160; <br/><br/><br/><em></em>	eng
17008	distribution	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p><em>P. bocourti</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known to exist only on a small islet off Ile des Pins, New Caledonia (Ineich 2009). While it is speculated that the species may also occur on other islets off the Ile des Pins, on Ile des Pins itself and even on Grande Terre, there are no data at present to support this (Ineich 2006). The species remained unrecorded and known only from the single type specimen since it was described in 1876 up until eight years ago when it was rediscovered, but still only remains known in the wild from two individuals.<br/></p>The islet on which the species has been found is <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 0.5 km²; the Isle of Pines is 152 km² (I. Ineich pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is estimated as the size of the islet (0.5 km²) and the area of occupancy is <0.5 km².	eng
17008	habitat	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The Ile des Pins is dominated by coastal humid forest. Very little is known of the species' ecology. It is presumed to be diurnal and terrestrial, but there is some evidence of arboreal behaviour (one found 1 m above ground on a horizontal branch, another climbed quickly up a vertical trunk when released). It occupies low coastal forest. It is presumed to bask, as one was observed motionless in a patch of sunlight..	eng
17008	population	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There is no information on population size and trends for <em>P. bocourti</em>. Until recently, it was presumed extinct, as no observations had been made since the holotype was collected (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). However, in December 2003 and November 2005, Ivan Ineich from Muséum national d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris recorded two individuals on a small islet off Ile des Pins, New Caledonia (Ineich 2006).&#160; <br/><br/>The data available suggest that population density is low (or the species is very elusive). Given the very small size of the island on which it occurs, it is presumed that this is a relict population and that the species has been extirpated from Ile des Pins -and perhaps also Grande Terre- by a combination of habitat loss and predation by introduced mammals.	eng
17008	threats	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The islet where both specimens were found is well preserved, as it is uninhabited and visited infrequently by people (Ineich 2006). However, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bocourti</span> faces a number of potentially serious threats, which are exacerbated by the fact that it is a small population and confined to a single, very small, low and easily-accessible island, and has a very large body size (up to 284 mm SVL). Foremost amongst these threats is habitat loss. This could happen from an accidental fire that destroys a substantial area of the island's forest, from a major cyclone that flattened the forest and/or&#160; caused extensive coastal erosion, or even from a random event such as a tsunami. The habitat is vulnerable to degradation from invasive weeds that could change the composition and structure of the forest with unpredictable consequences. Habitat degradation could also occur from illegal timber cutting. At present the only introduced mammal on the island is the ship rat (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rattus rattus</span>), which is presumably exerting significant predation pressure on the skinks (large lizard species are markedly more vulnerable to rodents than small ones). If other introduced predatory mammals (e.g. cats) colonize the island they could have a serious impact. The status of invasive ants on the island is unknown but given their impact on lizards elsewhere in New Caledonia it is predicted they also would have a detrimental effect. There is a very high risk of illegal collection and trafficking.	eng
17013	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Hunting of subspecies <em>P. v. vitulina</em> is currently only permitted in Norway and Iceland, where there may be an annual catch of 5,000-7,000. In the United Kingdom, shooting licenses may be issued in order to protect fishing activities. In the United States the harbour seal is protected from all but subsistence hunting by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also prohibits importation of parts or products from all seals. Coastal reserves in Norway which exclude commercial fishing have been shown to reduce harbour seal mortality. Hunting is now prohibited in the Wadden Sea area (Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden) (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
17013	conservation	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	In the United States the harbour seal is protected from all but subsistence hunting by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also prohibits importation of parts or products from all seals. Coastal reserves in Norway which exclude commercial fishing have been shown to reduce harbour seal mortality because of the generally restricted movements of this species along the Norwegian coast. Hunting is now prohibited in the Wadden Sea area (The Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Swedish waters) (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993), Swedish Baltic, Eire and UK (Harwood 1987).  Licensed killing to protect fisheries is allowed in UK, Canada and USA.  Illegal hunting probably occurs throughout the harbour seal's range. The harbour seal population in Svalbard is on the national Red List for Norway and is afforded complete protection.	eng
17013	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harbour seals are one of the most widespread of the pinnipeds. They are confined to coastal areas of the Northern Hemisphere, from temperate to polar regions. Five subspecies are recognized: <em>P. v. vitulina</em>  occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Portugal to the Barents Sea in northwestern Russia, and north to Svalbard; <em>P. v. concolor</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from the mid-Atlantic United States to the Canadian Arctic and east to Greenland and Iceland; <em>P. v. mellonae</em> only lives in several lakes and rivers in Quebec, Canada that drain into Hudson and James Bays; <em>P. v. richardii</em> is found in the eastern Pacific from central Baja California, Mexico to the end of the Alaskan Peninsula, and possibly to the eastern Aleutian Islands, and <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> ranges from either the end of the Alaskan Peninsula or the eastern Aleutians to the Commander Islands, Kamchatka, and through the Kuril Islands to Hokkaido in the western Pacific.	eng
17013	distribution	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Harbour seals are one of the most widespread of the pinnipeds.  They are found throughout coastal waters of the Northern Hemisphere, from temperate to Polar Regions.  Five subspecies are recognized:  <em>P. v. vitulina</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from Brittany to the Barents Sea in north-western Russia and north to Svalbard, with occasional sightings as far south as northern Portugal; <em>P. v. concolor</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from the mid-Atlantic United States to the Canadian Arctic and east to Greenland and Iceland;  <em>P. v. mellonae</em> only lives in a few lakes and rivers in northern Quebec, Canada, that drain into Hudson and James Bays (geological changes prohibit these seals from leaving this freshwater habitat); <em>P. v. richardii</em> is found in the eastern Pacific from central Baja California, Mexico to the end of the Alaskan Peninsula and possibly to the eastern Aleutian Islands, and;  <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> ranges from either the end of the Alaskan Peninsula or the eastern Aleutians to the Commander Islands, Kamchatka and through the Kuril Islands to Hokkaido in the western Pacific.	eng
17013	habitat	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Adult males are up to 1.9 m long and weigh 70-150 kg, females 1.7 m and 60-110 kg.  At birth, pups are 65-100 cm and 8-12 kg (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are mainly found in the coastal waters of the continental shelf and slope, and are also commonly found in bays, rivers, estuaries and intertidal areas. On land, harbor seals are usually extremely wary and shy unless habituated to human activities and noise sources in their vicinity. It is almost impossible to approach them when they are ashore without stampeding them into the water.  Most harbour seal haul-out sites are used daily, based on tidal cycles and other environmental variables, although foraging trips can last for several days.  Although generally considered a non-migratory species with a high degree of site fidelity to a haul out, juvenile dispersal, emigration and establishment of new haul out sites are all possible reasons for long range movements of harbour seals (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are gregarious at haul-out sites. However, they usually do not lie in contact with each other. They will haul out on rocks, sand and shingle beaches, sand bars, mud flats, vegetation, a variety of man-made structures, glacial ice, and to a very limited extent sea ice in some areas.  They usually lie close to the water to permit a rapid escape from threats. Sex and age segregation is common in most populations (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1990). At sea, they are most often seen alone, but occasionally occur in small groups.  Localized aggregations can form in response to feeding opportunities and concentration of prey. <br/><br/>Male harbour seals become sexually mature when four to five years old. Female harbour seals usually become sexually mature when three to five years old. Gestation lasts 10.5-11 months, including a 2+-month delayed implantation.  Throughout the range, the time of birthing varies widely and may follow a latitudinal cline (Temte 1994). Peak pupping date varies from mid March to early September.  The mating system is promiscuous, or weakly polygynous, with males defending underwater calling sites (e.g. Van Parijs and Kovacs 2002).  Mating usually takes place in the water, with females coming into oestrus around a month after giving birth. Moult follows the pupping and mating season. The timing of onset of moult depends on the age and sex of the animal with yearlings moulting first and adult males last (e.g. Reder <em>et al</em>. 2003).   Most harbour seal monitoring programs are based on counts obtained during the moult and are therefore subject to possible biases due to changes in age and sex structure of the population.<br/><br/>Most pups shed their silvery gray lanugo coat in the uterus before birth.  Exceptions to this include pups born prematurely, and some that are born early in the breeding season. Pups usually enter the water rapidly after birth, and because of tidal inundation at many sites used for birthing, this often occurs in hours (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are generalist feeders that take a wide variety of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans obtained from surface, mid-water, and benthic habitats (e.g. Olesiuk <em>et al</em> 1990, Payne and Selzer 1989).  Their diet is highly varied, and animals from different populations and areas show differences and there is also variation associated with seasonal changes in the abundance of prey (e.g. Harkonen 1987, Andersen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Generally, a few species dominate the diet at any one location and time of year. Although primarily coastal, dives to over 500 m have been recorded (Burns 2002).  Harbour seals also take many commercially important fish species such as Atlantic cod, many kinds of salmon, herring, and flatfishes to name a few, and this aspect of their foraging puts them into conflict with coastal fisheries.<br/><br/>Longevity is typically 35 years for females and 25 years for males, but is lower in <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> and <em>P. v. richardii</em> which are reported to live to approximately 20 years for males and 30 years for females.  Predators include killer whales, great white and Greenland sharks and possibly other shark species, Steller sea lions and walrus, gulls and ravens and in southerly locales feral dogs and eagles.  There is no information on polar bear, brown bear, and wolf predation on harbor seals, but all are possible predators.	eng
17013	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harbour seals are mainly found in the coastal waters of the continental shelf and slope, and are also commonly found in bays, rivers, estuaries, and intertidal areas. Although generally considered non-migratory species with a high degree of site fidelity to a haul out, juvenile dispersal, emigration, and establishment of new haul out sites are all possible reasons for long range movements of harbor seals (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Harbour seals are generalist feeders taking a wide variety of fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans obtained from surface, mid-water, and benthic habitats. Generally, a few species dominate the diet at any one location and time of year. Harbour seals also take many commercially important fish species such as Atlantic cod, many kinds of salmon, herring, and flatfishes, and this aspect of their foraging puts them into conflict with coastal fisheries. Although primarily coastal, dives to over 500 m have been recorded (Burns 2002).<br/><br/>Male harbour seals become sexually mature when four to five years old. Longevity is typically 35 years for females and 25 years for males.	eng
17013	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Combining recent estimates yield a world-wide population of 350,000 to 500,000 animals.  <em>P. v. stejnegeri</em>  of the western Pacific (approximately 7,000), and <em>P. v. mellonae</em> (120-600), of the seal lakes of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada, may be the subspecies most at risk due to low population numbers. Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, both in the hundreds, are also dangerously low, although they are not considered to be separate subspecies from <em>P. v. vitulina</em>.	eng
17013	population	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Combining recent estimates yields a world-wide population of 350,000 to 500,000 animals.<br/>  <br/><em>P. v. vitulina</em> - Population dynamics of regional subpopulations vary dramatically, with recent large-scale declines in the northern UK populations (Thompson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Lonergan <em>et al</em>. 2007), rapid increases punctuated by major population crashes due to disease events in the Wadden Sea, southern England, Kattegat and Skagerrak populations and gradual increase after near extinction in the 1970s in the Baltic (e.g. Heide-Jorgensen and Harkonen 1988, Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2002, 2005, 2006). Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, are low, both in the hundreds, although they are not considered to be separate subspecies. There are some morphological differences at least in the Svalbard population (Lydersen and Kovacs 2005). Overall the population of <em>P. v. vitulina</em> has increased since the 1970s.<br/><br/><em>P. v. concolor</em> - Canadian populations declined during the 1970s from approximately 12,000 to 4,000.  They have probably been increasing since the early 1980s with the exception of the Sable Island subpopulation that declined from a maximum pup production of 600 in 1989 to <10 p.a. by early 2000s.  The Sable Island harbour seal declines are thought to be due to shark predation and competition with grey seals (Lucas and Stobo 2000, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2003). Populations in West Greenland, Iceland and Norway are depleted as a result of hunting (Bjorge 1987, Hauksson 1992, Teilmann and Dietz 1994, Henriksen <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harbour seals in the eastern USA have increased at 6.6% p.a. since 1981, recovering from results of bounty hunting which ceased in the 1960s (Gilbert <em>et al</em>. 2005). Overall the population of <em>P. v. concolor</em> has been stable or increasing since 1980.<br/><br/><em>P. v. richardii</em> - Population dynamics of regional subpopulations vary dramatically. Large-scale, long-term declines in Gulf of Alaska from the 1970s to the early 1990s with >60% declines, have apparently stabilized, with the population experiencing slight increases since the early 1990s (Pitcher 1990, Frost <em>et al</em>. 1999, Jemison and Kelly 2001, Boveng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Mathews and Pendleton 2006, Jemison <em>et al</em>. 2006). Long-term population increases from the 1970s up to early 1990s appear to have reached an asymptote in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. Overall the <em>P. v. richardii</em> populations has been stable or increasing since the early 1990s. <br/><br/><em>P. v. stejnegeri</em> - Population dynamics of this subspecies are not well documented, but the population in the Kuril Islands appears to have increased slightly from 2,000-2,500 in the early 1960s (Belkin 1964), and again increased to around 3,000-3,500 individuals in 2000 (Trukhin 2002).  Similarly, in the Commander Islands the subpopulation increased from around 2,000 in the early 1960s to around 3,000-3,500 in the early 1990s (Burdin <em>et al</em>. 1991) and is thought to be stable.  The population in Japan is small, estimated at 350 individuals in late 1980s, having declined due to heavy hunting pressure (Hayama 1988). This population is still thought to be subject to high by-catch rates in trap net fisheries and is shot by fishermen coastally Wada <em>et al</em>. 1991).   <br/><br/><em>P. v. mellonae</em> – This subspecies lives in lakes and rivers of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada. It is thought to number some 120-600 individuals and may be the subspecies most at risk to extinction, due to low population numbers and potential effects of hydro-electric developments (Smith 1997).	eng
17013	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harbour seals live in coastal areas in some of the most heavily fished waters on earth, and as a result there are significant entanglement and by-catch issues, as well as effects on the food chains they depend on for their prey. <br/><br/>Historically there have been organized population reduction programs and bounties for taking seals in many parts of their range, and licenses, permits, and legal allowances are also available in a number of countries today to commercial fishermen to take animals that depredate nets, traps, and lines. Harbor seals may still be taken by subsistence hunters in Canada, Greenland, and the United States.  <br/><br/>Mass die-offs from viral outbreaks have claimed thousands of harbor seals.  In 1988 and 1989 more than 18,000 harbor seals are estimated to have died from a phocine distemper virus (morbillivirus) epidemic in European waters. Other disease outbreaks occurred both before and after this large epidemic in both Europe and the western North Atlantic, but resulted in much smaller levels of mortality. <br/><br/>Because many harbor seals live and feed in close proximity to large populations of humans they are exposed to and can accumulate high levels of industrial and agricultural pollutants. Immunosuppression is one effect regularly attributed to exposure to high levels of certain organochlorines, and these and other contaminants probably contribute to poor condition and overall fitness of a number of animals in some areas. Both chronic oil spills and discharges, and episodic large scale spills cause direct mortality, and have long term impacts on harbor seal health and their environment.	eng
17013	threats	Thompson, D. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Harbour seals live in coastal areas many of which are heavily fished. As a result there are entanglement and by-catch issues which may be significant in some populations e.g. in northern Japan (Burns 2002).  Over fishing, oceanographic regime shifts and global climate change may impact food chains harbour seals depend upon for prey.<br/><br/>Historically, there have been organized population reduction programs and bounty schemes in several range states of countries, largely because of perceived.  Hunting and/or licensed killing to protect fisheries still occurs in Norway, UK and Iceland and subsistence hunting is allowed in Greenland and the United States (Alaska). In Greenland and Iceland there are indications that hunting is responsible for continuing population declines.<br/><br/>Mass die-offs from viral outbreaks have claimed thousands of harbour seals on both sides of the Atlantic, but most notably in Europe.  In 1988 more than 20,000 harbour seals are estimated to have died from a phocine distemper virus (morbillivirus) epidemic in European waters (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1989, Reijnders 1989).  A similar outbreak in 2002 killed approximately 30,000 (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2006). Other disease outbreaks occurred both before and after this large epidemic in both Europe and the western North Atlantic, but resulted in much smaller levels of mortality.  Influenza from an avian source killed approximately 500 harbour seals in the North-eastern United States in 1979 and 1980 (Burns 2002). Potential for exposure to disease is probably increased by the natural behaviour of this species to haul out on near shore and at coastal mainland sites.  As a result terrestrial carnivores, waste from human populations as well as contact with human pets and feral animals associated with human populations creates an increased risk of exposure to communicable diseases.  <br/><br/>Because many harbour seals live and feed in close proximity to large populations of humans they are exposed to and can accumulate high levels of industrial and agricultural pollutants in some parts of their range (see Reijnders 1978, 1985, 1986, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007); while some northern populations have very low contaminant levels (e.g. Wolkers <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Immuno-suppression is one affect regularly attributed to exposure to high levels of certain organochlorines and these and other contaminants probably contribute to poor condition and overall fitness of a number of animals in some areas. Both chronic oil spills and discharges and episodic large scale spills cause direct mortality and have long term impacts on harbour seal health and their environment.  Some additional examples of threats and impacts to harbour seal populations are given below.<br/><br/><em>P. v. stejnegeri</em>, of the western Pacific, numbers approximately 7,000 animals. Fishery related mortality in the small Japanese population is a cause for concern (Wada <em>et al</em>. 1991).  However, low levels of human activity in the Kurils and protected status within nature reserves in the Commander Islands means that there is no obvious anthropogenic threat to the bulk of the population.  <br/><br/><em>P. v. mellonae</em> numbers only some 120-600 animals which are restricted to the Seal Lakes (Lac des Loups Marin) of the Ungava Peninsula, Canada. This subspecies is at risk due to low population numbers and unknown effects of James Bay II hydroelectric development which may reduce the water level in the seal lakes by 20 cm.  This might have impacts on mortality of seals in winter and altered hydrographic conditions could potentially affect the seals’ prey.<br/><br/><em>P. v. richardii</em> has shown dramatic reductions in the recent past in one large part of its range, Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound. Although part of this decline may be related to the effects of the Exxon Valdez disaster, the overall decline in Gulf of Alaska is unexplained.<br/><br/>Subpopulations of <em>P. v. vitulina</em> in the Northern UK have recently declined by around 50% in less than 10years.  The cause of this decline is unknown. The Icelandic population has declined by 5% p.a. since 1980, which is thought to be due to direct hunting. Populations in Svalbard and the Baltic Sea, which are both small are protected.  Competition with increasing gray seal populations may have been responsible for declines in the mid-latitudes and further increases in grey seal populations seem likely in the North Sea.  Rapidly increasing development of offshore wind generated power means that the levels of industrial activity and noise are increasing in the foraging areas of resident harbour seals.  To date, there is little information available to assess the potential impacts of such disturbance. <br/><br/>Historical population reductions of <em>P. v. concolor</em> along the USA coast were probably due to hunting that has now ceased. The rapid decline in the Sable Island population may have been due to a combination of shark predation (Lucas and Stobo 2000) and competition with grey seals (Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2003); the continued increase of grey seal populations in Canadian and US waters could produce a more widely spread decline.	eng
17023	conservation	Lowry, L. & Burkanov, V., 2008	In the United States the spotted seal is generally protected from all but subsistence hunting by Alaska Natives by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which also generally prohibits import and export of parts or products from all marine mammals.<br/><br/>Commercial harvesting of spotted seals from vessels of the Russian Federation ended in 1994. Small scale commercial and subsistence harvest from small boats and land occurs along the Russian Far East coast, but the size of the harvest is relatively small (V. Burkanov pers. comm.).	eng
17023	distribution	Lowry, L. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Spotted seals are found in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan and reach China in the northern Yellow and Bohai Seas. They are widespread in the Bering and Chukchi Seas and range north into the Arctic Ocean to about the edge of the continental shelf, west to about 170°E longitude and east to the Mackenzie River Delta in Canada (Shaughnessey and Fay 1977, Quakenbush 1988). They inhabit the southern edge of the pack ice from winter to early summer. In late summer and fall, spotted seals move into coastal areas, including river mouths. They breed mostly on sea ice and haul-out on sea ice when it is available, but they also haul out on beaches and sandbars (Burns 1970, Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000). There are several sites along Asian coast where spotted seal breed on small remote islands (e.g., in Peter the Great Gulf, the Kuril Islands, and small islands along east coast of Kamchatka) (Burkanov 1988, 1990, Trukhin and Katin 2001, Kostenko <em>et al</em>. 2004, Vertyankin and Nikulin 2004).	eng
17023	habitat	Lowry, L. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Adult spotted seals are generally 1.5-1.7 m long and weigh 70-130 kg with little difference between the sexes (Bigg 1981).<br/><br/>In spring, spotted seals give birth to a single pup, mostly on the surface of sea ice but sometimes on land. Pups are born in a white lanugo coat that is shed at or before weaning which occurs about four weeks after birth. Mating occurs after pups are weaned. Spotted seals are annually monogamous and males defend lactating females on ice floes, and groups composed of a female with her pup and a male, called triads, are common during the breeding season (Quakenbush 1988).<br/><br/>In late-spring and summer many spotted seals leave the sea ice and haul-out on land to rest when they are not foraging. On some haulouts in Kamchatka the number of animals on shore may reach over 10,000 individuals (V. Burkanov pers. comm.). As sea ice reforms in October-November spotted seals again use the ice as their primary feeding and resting habitat (Burkanov 1990, Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000). They are generalist feeders that take primarily a variety of fish species (walleye pollock, Arctic and saffron cod, rockfish, herring, sand lance, smelt, capelin, eelpout, salmonids and flounders), cephalopods (squid and octopus) and crustaceans (shrimp and crab) (Quakenbush 1988, Burkanov 1990).<br/><br/>Reported predators include Pacific sleeper sharks, killer whales, golden eagles, Steller’s sea eagles, ravens, gulls, polar and brown bears, wolves, Arctic foxes, walruses and Steller sea lions (Quakenbush 1988).	eng
17023	population	Lowry, L. & Burkanov, V., 2008	The abundance of spotted seals has never been well quantified. Poorly documented estimates suggest a total population size in the 1970s of perhaps 400,000, with 200-250,000 in the Bering-Chukchi Seas and perhaps 170,000 in the Okhotsk Sea (Bigg 1981, Quakenbush 1988). Mizuno <em>et al</em>. (2002) flew aerial line-transect surveys of a portion of the pack ice in the southern Okhotsk Sea in March 2000 and estimated there were 13,653 spotted seals in their 25,000 km² survey. There is no reliable estimate of the current total population size (Angliss and Outlaw 2007).<br/><br/>Female spotted seals become sexually mature at 3-4 years old and males at 4-5 years. Maximum longevity is at least 35 years (Quakenbush 1988).	eng
17023	threats	Lowry, L. & Burkanov, V., 2008	Subsistence hunting of spotted seals has no doubt occurred since humans first made contact with the species and they remain an important subsistence resource for coastal Natives in western Alaska (Quakenbush 1988). From the 1960s through the 1980s, the Soviet Union harvested several thousand spotted seals each year in both the Okhotsk and Bering seas, mostly from large commercial vessels (Heptner 1996). Commercial harvesting of this species no longer occurs in Russia.<br/><br/>Intensive harvesting of fish in the Okhotsk and Bering seas poses a risk to spotted seals as several of their main prey species are targets of commercial fisheries (Lowry and Frost 1985). Entanglement in commercial fisheries occurs occasionally in Japan and in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea and small organized control kills to limit damage to fisheries regularly occur in Japan (Mizuno <em>et al</em>. 2001, Angliss and Outlaw 2007). In Kamchatka, spotted seals sometimes eat fish out of fishing gear and fishermen shoot small numbers in local areas to defend their landings and protect their equipment (V. Burkanov pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Oil and gas development may cause disturbance to and adversely affect the habitat used by the spotted seals (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993). Oil contamination poses poorly known risks to spotted seal populations. The greatest impacts would likely result if spills occurred during the pupping season, if food resources were negatively effected or if the spill was an event that affected a large area (St Aubin 1990). There is little information on contaminant burdens in this species, but concern would be greatest for animals living in the western part of the range where they occur near large population and industrial areas in China, Korea and Japan and in the Sea of Okhotsk.<br/><br/>Reduction in late winter and spring sea ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk and the central and southern Bering Sea as a result of global climate change could be problematic for spotted seals as the majority of the population uses pack ice at the southern limit of the ice extent for pupping (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Changes to ice characteristics that effect its location, timing, stability, etc. could result in lower survival of spotted seal pups. Disruption or alteration of the patterns of primary productivity and abundance of key prey species could also have detrimental effects on ice dependent seals like the spotted seal (Tynan and DeMaster 1997; Laidre <em>et al</em>., in press).	eng
17026	conservation	Gales, N., 2008	The New Zealand government has provided protection to New Zealand Sea Lions with laws that date back to 1881. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1978 provided additional measures. The squid fishery responsible for the by-catch of sea lions was moved away from the main colonies in 1982 when the government established a 12 nautical mile exclusion zone around the islands (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>. 2003) and later management plans set maximum levels of fishing related mortalities, which, when exceeded, led to the early withdrawal of the fishery. Sea Lion escape devices (SLEDs) have also been mandated in the fishery. Some concerns remain regarding the health of the sea lions expelled from these devices. The uninhabited Auckland Fauna Reserve forms part of the habitat of New Zealand Sea Lions (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Tourism is regulated on islands and at some mainland beaches on the South Island. Given the recent steady decrease in pup production at the Auckland Islands, and the uncertainty about the influence of human activities on this trend, it is unknown if the current conservation measures are sufficient to protect the species.	eng
17026	distribution	Gales, N., 2008	The primary habitat of New Zealand Sea Lions is several sub-Antarctic islands south of New Zealand and their surrounding waters. The principal breeding colony accounting for 86% of annual births is at the Auckland Islands, with a smaller number breeding at Campbell Island (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007). New Zealand Sea Lions regularly occur in small numbers at Stewart Island and on the southeast coast of the South Island of New Zealand, where there are occasional births (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, most of the animals hauling out on the South Island are males ranging in age from 2-11 years old. Wandering New Zealand Sea Lions also reach Macquarie Island. Historically, New Zealand Sea Lions had a more extensive range that appears to have included most of New Zealand.	eng
17026	habitat	Gales, N., 2008	New Zealand Sea Lions are large heavy-bodied sexually dimorphic animals. Adult males are 1.2-1.5 times longer and 3-4 times heavier than adult females. Adult males are 2.3-2.7 m long and may weigh from 320-450 kg, although these values might be high in the light of recent information that males are probably shorter than previously reported. Adult females are 1.8-2 m long and weigh 90-165 kg. Newborns are approximately 70-100 cm long and weigh 8-10 kg (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006). Pups are born in a thick long dark brown lanugo with a lighter crown, nape, and mystacial area, and with a pale stripe on the top of the muzzle, originating on the crown. Female pups are lighter than male pups. Pups begin to molt their birth coat at 2 months and at the end of the molt look like adult females.<br/><br/>Males become sexually mature at the age of 5 years. The age of maturity for females is 3-4 years. Gestation lasts 12 months. Pup mortality at the end of one year is about 35%. Males live at least 23 years and females to at least 26 years (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993, Childerhouse 2007). The average age of reproductive females is 10.75 yrs (Childerhouse 2007).<br/><br/>The breeding season for the New Zealand Sea Lion begins in late November when adult males return and establish themselves on territories through displays, vocalizing, and fighting. Adult females arrive in early December and give birth on average within 2.1 days after returning to the rookery (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males may have as many as 25 females within their territories. The bulls are frequently challenged by newly arriving males and neighbors, and turn-over of males is a regular occurrence. Many territorial bulls depart in mid-January with the end of the pupping period (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The onset of estrous occurs 7-10 days after a female gives birth. Prior to this, the mother continuously attends her newborn pup. Following mating, females begin a phase of short foraging trips followed by pup attendance, typical of many otariids. Foraging trips average 2.7 days and are followed by 1.5 days of pup attendance and feeding ashore (Chilvers <em>et al</em> 2005). Also typical of many otariids, pups gather into groups while their mothers are away. Females and pups recognize each other through vocalizations and scent, and a small percentage of females will allow additional pups to nurse along with their own pup, which is unusual behavior for a pinniped. Pups are weaned at approximately 10 months. The primary causes of pup deaths within their first two months of life are trauma (35%), bacterial infections (24%), hookworm infection (13%), starvation (13%), and stillbirth (4%) (Castinel <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adult males are a significant source of mortality to pups, occasionally killing them outright and also through incidents of cannibalism. Pups are also trampled and killed by adult males challenging other males during territorial disputes.<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions do not appear to be migratory, although they disperse widely over their range during the non-breeding season (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some animals can be found at the major rookeries and haul-outs year-round. At sea they are active divers that forage on both benthic and pelagic prey. Mean dives for female New Zealand Sea Lions are to 129 m and mean dive duration is 3.9 minutes. Maximum dive depths are over 600 m and dives have been recorded to last as long as 14.5 minutes (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2006a).<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions take a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey. Frequently-taken species include: opalfish, octopus, munida, hoki, oblique-banded rattail fish, salps, squid and crustaceans. Prey is taken in both benthic and pelagic habitats. Antarctic, Subantarctic, and New Zealand Fur Seals are taken as prey by adult male sea lions. Penguins and sea lion pups are also occasionally taken.<br/><br/>Predators include sharks, Leopard Seals, and presumably Killer Whales. Pups are also cannibalized by adult males of their own species.	eng
17026	population	Gales, N., 2008	New Zealand Sea Lions have a highly restricted distribution and a small population that numbers approximately 11,855 animals (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2006). This equates to an adult population size of <10,000. Pup production has shown a decline of 30% in the last 10 years, but this was preceded by a few years of growth. Data from one of the main colonies shows no overall trend in pup production over the past 25 years (Chilvers <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
17026	threats	Gales, N., 2008	New Zealand Sea Lions were once more abundant, with a much more extensive range that included the North and South islands of New Zealand. The Maori people of New Zealand have traditionally hunted sea lions, presumably since first contact, as did Europeans upon their arrival much later. Commercial sealing in the early 19th century decimated the population in the Auckland Islands, but despite this, continued until the mid-20th century, when it was halted. The population may not have fully recovered from this period of overexploitation, although estimates of pre-exploitation population size are difficult to derive.<br/><br/>New Zealand Sea Lions have a highly restricted distribution, a small population, and most of the breeding activity is concentrated in two island groups in New Zealand's sub-Antarctic. This combination makes them vulnerable to disease outbreaks, environmental change, and human activities.<br/><br/>Commercial squid fishing near the two largest rookeries reported their first sea lion bycatch mortalities in 1978. In 1982, the fishery was moved at least 12 nautical miles away from the islands. However, this did not end mortality which from 1988 to 2007 ranged from 17-132 seals taken annually (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Chilvers 2008). Apart from direct mortality there is also the potential for prey competition and habitat modification from the fishing industry in the habitat of the New Zealand Sea Lion's breeding areas. Tourism at mainland sites and remote subantarctic islands can cause disruption to haul-out patterns and breeding activities.<br/><br/>Epizootic disease outbreaks at the Auckland Islands in 1998, 2002 and 2003 led to more than 50%, 33% and 21% early pup mortality respectively, and also led to mortalities of an unknown number of animals from other age classes during 1998. The source of the suspected bacterial agent and cause of the outbreak and subsequent mortality for the 1998 outbreak is unknown, however, the 2002 and 2003 outbreaks have been identified as cause by <em>Klebsiella pneumoniae</em> (Castinel <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
17027	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The European Union adopted a Council Regulation 812/2004 entering into force in July 2004. This regulation is aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the Baltic Seas, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. Immediate actions to reduce the magnitude of bycatches are necessary. A review of the progress of implementing the regulation is scheduled for 2007. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR (present Georgia, Russia and Ukraine), Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. In the North Sea incidental takes have been determined to be above the advised maximum level of removals.<br/><br/>Under the aegis of the ASCOBANS Secretariat, a special working group composed of representatives of international conventions, government ministries, fishermen and environmental groups has developed a recovery plan for the Baltic Harbour porpoise (Jastarnia Plan), which recommends a programme for bycatch reduction, research and monitoring, marine protected area establishment and an increase of public awareness. The overall aim is to restore the Baltic population of harbour porpoises to at least 80% of the Baltic’s carrying-capacity. A change in fishing methods and a reduction of fishing effort could significantly contribute to a lower bycatch rate.	eng
17027	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>In the North Sea incidental takes have been determined to be above the advised maximum level of removals. The European Union adopted a regulation aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the North and Baltic Seas, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. A review of the progress of implementing resolution is scheduled for 2007.	eng
17027	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harbor porpoises are found in cold temperate to sub-polar waters of the Northern Hemisphere (Gaskin 1992, Read 1999). They are usually found in continental shelf waters, although they occasionally travel over deeper offshore waters. In the North Pacific, they range from central California and northern Honshu to the southern Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (including the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, and Sea of Japan). In the North Atlantic, they are found from the southeastern United States to southern Baffin Island (they apparently do not enter Hudson Bay) in the west, and from Senegal to Novaya Zemlya in the east.  They also occur around southeast and western Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, and this is the only cetacean species that currently regularly occupies the Baltic Sea. The species occurs in the Black Sea, Marmara Sea, and Sea of Azov, but with the exception of the adjacent northern Aegean Sea, they do not regularly occur in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
17027	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Harbour porpoises are found in cold temperate to sub-polar waters of the Northern Hemisphere (Gaskin 1992, Read 1999). They are usually found in continental shelf waters, although they occasionally travel over deeper offshore waters. In the North Pacific, they range from central California and northern Honshu to the southern Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (including the Bering and Okhotsk Seas, and Sea of Japan). In the North Atlantic, they are found from the southeastern United States to southern Baffin Island (they apparently do not enter Hudson Bay) in the west, and from Senegal to Novaya Zemlya in the east. They also occur around southeast and western Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, and this is the only cetacean species that currently regularly occupies the Baltic Sea. The species occurs in the Black Sea, Marmara Sea, and Sea of Azov, but with the exception of the adjacent northern Aegean Sea, they do not regularly occur in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
17027	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Throughout its range, <em>P. phocoena</em> is largely limited to continental shelf waters. They frequent relatively shallow bays, estuaries, and tidal channels less than about 200 m in depth. Carretta <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that the main distribution of porpoises in northern California was in waters of less than 60 m. Dives to at least 220 m have been recorded via telemetry (Bjørge and Tolley 2002, Otani <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/><br/>Harbour porpoises eat a wide variety of fish and cephalopods, and the main prey items vary regionally (see Smith and Gaskin 1974; Recchia and Read 1989, Fontaine <em>et al</em>. 1994, Gonzales <em>et al</em>. 1994, Aarefjord <em>et al</em>. 1995, Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1998, Read, 1999, Børjesson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Santos <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Although small schooling fish (e.g. herring) are important, demersal foraging is characteristic in many areas. <br/><br/>The ecology of Black Sea harbour porpoises may be unusual reflecting the high degree of geographic isolation of their habitat. Low water salinity, seasonal fluctuations of water temperatures and large amounts of anoxic waters below 100-250 m (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Surveys in 1994 and 2005 in the North Sea and adjacent waters have shown a major shift in distribution from northern to southern areas (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002, Hammond pers. comm.), a change that is reflect by increased in shore-based sightings (Camphuysen 2004, Thomsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
17027	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Throughout its range, <em>P. phocoena</em> is largely limited to continental shelf waters. They frequent relatively shallow bays, estuaries, and tidal channels less than about 200 m in depth. Harbor porpoises eat a wide variety of fish and cephalopods, and the main prey items vary regionally. Although small schooling fish (e.g. herring) are important, demersal foraging is characteristic in many areas. The ecology of Black Sea harbour porpoises may be unusual reflecting the high degree of geographic isolation of their habitat.<br/><br/>Surveys in 1994 and 2005 in the North Sea and adjacent waters have shown a major shift in distribution from northern to southern areas (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002, P.S. Hammond pers. comm. 2007), a change that is reflect by increased in shore-based sightings (Camphuysen 2004, Thomsen <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
17027	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	In the North Atlantic Ocean (including the Black and Azov seas), fourteen population units have been proposed (Donovan and Bjørge 1995), and in the North Pacific, several population units have been identified based on genetic studies (Chivers <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>There are no synoptic surveys covering the entire range within ocean basins, but abundance has been estimated for selected portions of the range. Abundance estimates have been summarized by Read 1999 (but see updates in Angliss and Outlaw 2005, Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006, Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). About 73,000 animals have been estimated to occur along the west coast of the USA (including 1,656 [CV=0.39] in the Morro Bay population, 1,613 [CV=0.42] in the Monterey Bay population, 8,521 [CV=0.38] from San Francisco to the Russian River, 17,763 [CV=0.39] in northern California and southern Oregon, 39,586 [CV=0.38] in Oregon and Washington, and 3,509 [CV=0.40] in Washington inland waters). In Alaska abundance is estimated at about 89,000 (including 10,947 [CV=0.24] in southeast Alaska, 30,506 [CV=0.21] in the Gulf of Alaska, and 47,356 [CV=0.22] in the Bering Sea) (see summary in Angliss and Outlaw 2005). In the western Atlantic, there are an estimated 75,438 [CV=0.42] in the Gulf of Maine/Upper Bay of Fundy to the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 27,000 for the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2007). Abundance has been estimated at 27,000 in Iceland (Stenson 2003) and 11,000 [CV=0.44] off North Norway - Barents Sea (Bjørge and Øien 1995). In the waters of the European Atlantic, abundance in 2005 was estimated at 385,600 [CV=0.20] (P.S. Hammond pers. comm.), of which about 335,000 [CV=0.21] were estimated in the North Sea and adjacent waters, where abundance was estimated at 341,000 [CV=0.14] in 1994 (Hammond <em>et al</em>. 2002). The abundance in the Baltic Sea is estimated at 599 (CV = 0.57) (Hiby and Lovell 1996). Line transect surveys have been conducted recently (since 2001) to estimate harbour porpoise abundance in different portions of the Black Sea. These suggest that total population size in the region may be at least several thousand and perhaps as much as 10,000-12,000 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Taken together, these numbers indicate that the global abundance of the harbour porpoise is at least about 700,000 individuals. <br/><br/>There is evidence of decline in abundance in some areas, e.g. in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), in the Baltic Sea (see account for that subpopulation), and in inland waterways of Washington State, USA (Osmek <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
17027	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	In the North Atlantic Ocean (including the Black and Azov seas), fourteen population units have been proposed (Donovan and Bjørge 1995), and in the North Pacific, several population units have been identified based on genetic studies (Chivers <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/><br/>There are no synoptic surveys covering the entire range within ocean basins, but abundance has been estimated for selected portions of the species’ range.  Abundance estimates have been summarised by Read 1999 (see updates in Angliss and Outlaw 2005, Carretta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Waring <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the waters of the European Atlantic, abundance in 2005 was estimated at 385,600 [CV=0.20] (SCANS-II P.S. Hammond pers. comm.), of which about 335,000 [CV=0.21] were estimated in the North Sea and adjacent waters, where abundance was estimated at 341,000 [CV=0.14] in 1994 (Hammond <em>et al.</em> 2002). The abundance of the Baltic Sea stock has been estimated at 599 (CV=57%; 95% confidence interval = 200-3,300) (Hiby and Lovell 1995), of which about 50% or 300 would likely be mature (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Using a precautionary approach (Wade 1998), a minimum abundance estimate of mature animals would be the lower 20th percentile of the abundance estimate of mature individuals, equal to 192. Line transect surveys have been conducted recently (since 2001) to estimate harbour porpoise abundance in different portions of the Black Sea suggesting that total population size in the region may be at least several thousand and perhaps as much as 10,000-12,000 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>There is evidence of decline in abundance in some areas, for example in the Black Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) and the Baltic Sea. Although there are no reliable estimates of pre-exploitation subpopulation size, harbour porpoises were once numerous in the Baltic proper (see citations in Kinze 1995).	eng
17027	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The harbor porpoise has been hunted in many areas of its range, including some European waters. Many of these fisheries are now closed, but hunting of harbour porpoises still occurs in Greenland. In the Black Sea, large directed takes occurred during 1976-1983 before being banned by Turkey in 1983. Within that period, the total number of harbour porpoises killed was at least 163,000-211,000. Illegal direct killing of unknown numbers continued in some parts of the Black Sea until 1991 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Today, the most significant threat in most areas is incidental catches in fishing gear, primarily gill nets. Incidental mortality in fishing gear is likely to occur throughout the range of the species, but in European waters substantial incidental takes have been documented (summarized in Donovan and Bjørge 1995) for the North Sea (4,600/year) and the Celtic Shelf (1,500/year). More recent monitoring programmes of Danish set-net fisheries in the North Sea revealed an average of 5,591 porpoises taken annually in the period 1987-2001 (Vinther and Larsen 2002). However, most North Sea gillnet fisheries were not monitored for marine mammal bycatch (ICES 2002). In the Black Sea incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets is estimated to have been in the thousands annually through the 1980s (e.g. Birkun 2002). Almost all (>99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in recent times owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Other types of threats include chemical pollution, vessel traffic, noise, and depletion of prey by overfishing. Due to its near shore distribution, the harbour porpoise is exposed to coastal sources of pollution throughout most of its range. Chemical pollution (PCBs) has been described as having adverse effects, especially in the Baltic. Porpoises from the Baltic Sea have up to 254% higher mean levels of PCBs than corresponding samples from the adjacent Kattegat and Skagerrak (Berggren <em>et al.</em> 1999, Bruhn <em>et al.</em> 1999), and a number of lesions and pathological changes have been reported from the Baltic Sea porpoises (Clausen and Andersen 1988).	eng
17027	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The harbour porpoise has been hunted in many areas of its range, e.g. in Puget Sound, the Bay of Fundy, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, Newfoundland, Greenland, Iceland, Black Sea, and the Danish Belt Seas. Many of these fisheries are now closed, but hunting of harbour porpoises still occurs in Greenland. In Greenland more than 700 per year were taken in 1990-1993 (Teilmann and Dietz 1995). In 2003 the reported catch had increased to 2,320 (NAMMCO 2005). Assessments of population impacts of these takes are not available.<br/><br/>In the Black Sea, large directed takes occurred during 1976-1983. Within that period, the total number of harbour porpoises killed was at least 163,000-211,000. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former USSR (present Georgia, Russia and Ukraine), Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. Illegal direct killing of unknown numbers continued in some parts of the Black Sea until 1991 (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Today, the most significant threat in most areas is incidental catches in fishing gear, primarily gill nets. Incidental mortality in fishing gear is likely to occur throughout the range of the species, but substantial incidental takes have been documented (summarized in Donovan and Bjørge 1995) for the Gulf of Maine (1,200-2,900/year), Bay of Fundy (80-400/year), West Greenland (1,400/year), North Sea (4,600/year) Celtic Shelf (1,500/year), and also off central California during the 1980s and 1990s (tens to hundreds per year; Barlow and Hanan 1995). More recent monitoring programs of Danish set-net fisheries in the North Sea revealed an average of 5,591 porpoises taken annually in the period 1987-2001 (Vinther and Larsen 2002). However, most North Sea gillnet fisheries were not monitored for marine mammal bycatch (ICES 2002).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets is estimated to have been in the thousands annually through the 1980s (e.g., Birkun 2002a). Almost all (>99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in recent times owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing in the Black Sea.<br/><br/>Other types of threats include chemical pollution, vessel traffic, noise, and depletion of prey by overfishing. Due to its near shore distribution, harbour porpoises are exposed to coastal sources of pollution throughout most of its range. Chemical pollution (PCBs) has been described as having adverse effects (see Baltic subpopulation account). <br/><br/>An explosion at a gas-drilling platform in the Azov Sea in August 1982 resulted in the deaths of over 2,000 porpoises (Birkun 2002b).<br/><br/>Severe habitat degradation and prey depletion caused by intensive fishing in the Black Sea, together with explosive growth of populations of invasive species are considered important threats for local harbour porpoises (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Reduced prey availability coincided with two mass mortality events (in 1989 and 1990) that affected all three Black Sea cetacean species, but primarily harbour porpoises (Birkun 2002c). Severe pulmonary nematodosis, caused by <em>Halocercus spp</em>. and complicated by bacterial super-infection, was recognized as a primary cause of the deaths, which were mainly of young animals.	eng
17028	conservation	Rojas-Bracho, L., Reeves, R.R., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A. & Taylor, B.L., 2008	Only approximately half of the "core area" of vaquita distribution falls within the Upper Gulf of California and Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve, which was created in 1993. Moreover, the nuclear zone of the Reserve, which is the only area where all fishing is prohibited, appears to be grossly mismatched with vaquita distribution as no sightings of vaquitas were made inside this zone during the two large-scale systematic surveys in the 1990s (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995, Jaramillo-Legorreta 1999).<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita (CIRVA) was established in 1997 and has developed recommendations including: immediate prohibition of large-mesh gillnets throughout the species' known range, followed in sequence by bans on medium- and small-mesh gillnets; exclusion of gillnets and trawls within an enlarged biosphere reserve; and improved enforcement of fishing regulations in the northern Gulf generally. Considerable attention has also been given to development of less harmful fishing methods, alternative income-generating activities for fishing communities, and community-based education and awareness (Rojas-Bracho <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>On 29 December 2005 the Mexican Ministry of Environment declared a Vaquita Refuge that contains within its borders approximately 80% of all verified vaquita sighting positions. In the same decree, the State Governments of Sonora and Baja California were offered $(US)1 million to compensate affected fishermen. The results of this action cannot yet be evaluated.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
17028	distribution	Rojas-Bracho, L., Reeves, R.R., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A. & Taylor, B.L., 2008	The vaquita is known to occur only in the northern Gulf of California, Mexico, mainly north of 30º45'N and west of 114º20'W (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995). The so-called ?core area? consists of about 2,500 km² centred at Rocas Consag, some 40 km northeast of the town of San Felipe, Baja California. This core area straddles the southern boundary of the Upper Gulf of California and California River Delta Biosphere Reserve. There is no evidence to indicate that the vaquita?s overall range has changed in historic times.<br/><br/>Endemic to upper quarter of Gulf of California, extent of occurrence (EOO) >2,000 km², area of occupancy (AOO) (core area) approx. 2,000 km².	eng
17028	habitat	Rojas-Bracho, L., Reeves, R.R., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A. & Taylor, B.L., 2008	The vaquita is a marine species that lives in a relatively shallow (<40 m), turbid and dynamic environment (Vidal 1995, Rojas-Bracho and Jaramillo-Legorreta 2002). Vaquitas feed on a variety of demersal or benthic fishes, squids and crustaceans. They have been observed singly and in small groups of up to 8 or 10 individuals (mean = 2), but many such groups can be loosely aggregated over several km².	eng
17028	population	Rojas-Bracho, L., Reeves, R.R., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A. & Taylor, B.L., 2008	The most recent estimate of total population size comes from a shipboard line transect survey in 1997 that was stratified to provide relatively intensive coverage of the core area but that also sampled adjacent areas to the south, east and north, including the shallow marginal bays and the even shallower Colorado River delta. Although imprecise because of variable sighting rates and other factors, the estimate of 567 (95% CI 177 to 1,073) was a great improvement on previous estimates and stands as the best currently available.<br/><br/>There is no immediate means of estimating trend, so it is necessary to impute the direction and rate of population change by reference to a population model laden with assumptions.<br/><br/>Naturally rare (Taylor and Rojas-Bracho 1999) and very difficult to detect and count (cryptic) (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 1995). No population subdivision is known or suspected, i.e. no subpopulations, but also no fragmentation. Most recent estimate of total population size (1997 shipboard line transect survey): 567 (95% CI 177 to 1,073) (Jaramillo-Legorreta <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Given the difficulty of sampling the vaquita population, generation time and percent mature (i.e., capable of reproduction) can only be estimated crudely and by analogy with the life history and population biology of the better-studied harbour porpoise (<em>Phocoena phocoena</em>). Thus reasonable default values for porpoises (phocoenids) would be 10 years and 55%, respectively.<br/><br/>Ongoing decline inferred from available information on abundance and bycatch rate. Even an unrealistically optimistic scenario - high end of 95% CI for population size (1,073), lower of two estimates of annual bycatch mortality for a single fishing port (39 porpoises) - indicates likely decline (Rojas-Bracho and Taylor 1999).	eng
17028	threats	Rojas-Bracho, L., Reeves, R.R., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A. & Taylor, B.L., 2008	Mortality in gillnets of various mesh size has long been recognized as the most serious and immediate threat to the vaquita?s survival (Vidal 1993, 1995; Reeves and Leatherwood 1994; IWC 1995:87, 167; Rojas-Bracho and Taylor 1999; Rojas-Bracho <em>et al</em>. 2006). The only available estimates of the vaquita bycatch rate are 39 (using one method) and 84 (using a different method) animals killed per year by boats from a single port (D?Agrosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). This alone would represent 7 or 15%, respectively, of the estimated total population size (Rojas-Bracho and Jaramillo-Legorreta 2002). Other potential threats that have been suggested but that appear not to be significant risk factors at present include inbreeding depression, pesticide exposure and ecological changes as a result of reduced flow from the Colorado River (Taylor and Rojas-Bracho 1999). The last of these may be important in the long term and deserves investigation.	eng
17029	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Better documentation of catches and new approaches to dealing with porpoise/gillnet interaction problems are clearly needed, in order to enable an assessment of the effects and suggest mitigation measures in the case of Burmeister's porpoise.	eng
17029	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Burmeister's porpoises are distributed in shallow, coastal waters of South America, from southern Brazil (about 28°48’S), south to Cape Horn in Tierra del Fuego, and thence north to northern Peru (to about 5°01’S) (Brownell and Clapham 1999). It is unclear whether the distribution is continuous between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.	eng
17029	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This is essentially a coastal species, which sometimes frequents inshore bays, channels, and fjords of Tierra del Fuego, and is occasionally observed inside the kelp line. It is typically found shoreward of the 60-m isobath, but occasionally has been recorded in up to 1,000 m of water (Brownell and Clapham 1999). There have also been records from more offshore waters, 50 km from the coast of Argentina.<br/><br/>Feeding is on demersal and pelagic fish species, such as anchovies and hake, as well as various squid and shrimps (Goodall <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
17029	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance or trends. Burmeister's porpoises are very difficult to detect in any but calm conditions, which may explain the rarity of field observations (Brownell and Clapham 1999).<br/><br/>Recent genetic studies have indicated that porpoises in Peru form separate subpopulations from those in southern Chile and in Argentina. The possibility of multiple subpopulations in Peruvian waters is also considered likely (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some evidence suggests that the Burmeister’s porpoises in the Pacific and Atlantic belong to separate subpopulations (Corcuera <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
17029	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	It is widely known that Burmeister's porpoises are shot or harpooned for use as crab bait in southern Chile. However, because quantitative data are lacking, the extent of this problem is unknown. <br/><br/>The most extensive known takes occur in Peruvian waters, where Burmeister's porpoise is bycaught primarily in net fisheries, and where it has been used extensively for human consumption. Mortality in Peru was recently estimated as > 450 per year and the high mortality is cause for concern (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997; Brownell and Clapham 1999). In southern Chile, porpoises may be killed directly by harpooning (Brownell and Clapham 1999).	eng
17030	conservation	Birkun Jr., A.A. & Frantzis, A., 2008	<p>The <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> population of Harbour Porpoises has been listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals since 1996. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans, including Harbour Porpoises, was banned in 1966 in the former <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region> (present <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region>), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region>, and in 1983 in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The riparian states </span>assumed international obligations to protect Black Sea </span>cetaceans as contracting parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, Appendix II), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The Harbour Porpoise, <em>P. phocoena</em>, is mentioned in Annex II of the EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora. In 1996, the Ministers of Environment of Black Sea countries adopted cetacean conservation and research measures within the framework of the Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (paragraph 62). The Harbour Porpoise is included as Data Deficient in the regional Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). However, in 2002 it was listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of the Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol of the Bucharest Convention. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  On a national level, <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetaceans, including harbour porpoises, are protected by environmental laws, governmental decrees and national Red Data Book listings. The harbour porpoise is listed in the Red Data Books of Bulgaria, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>, which do not use the IUCN categories and criteria. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>, inscription in national Red Data Books means that the species should be monitored and managed by appropriate state/national programmes. Such a programme has existed in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> since 1999 (the Delfin-programme adopted by the Ministry of Environment). Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> (2001) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (2003) but they have no legal effect. In 2003-05 nine coastal protected areas were joined to form the Ukrainian National Network for Cetacean Conservation, an informal network consisting of 19 institutions (operational units) situated in 17 localities along the seaboard of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>. </span>Those protected areas are (from west to east): the Dunaisky [Danube] Biosphere Reserve, Chernomorsky (Black Sea) Biosphere Reserve, Swan Islands Branch of the Crimean Nature Reserve, Cape Martyan Nature Reserve, Karadag Nature Reserve, Opuk Nature Reserve, Kazantip Nature Reserve, Azov and <st1:placename w:st="on">Sivash</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National  Park</st1:placetype>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Meotida</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Landscape</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The inventory of cetacean habitats has been completed and a common methodology for cetacean monitoring has been introduced in these protected areas. The ACCOBAMS Implementation Priorities for 2002-06 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) envisage the development of a pilot conservation and management project in the well-defined area between <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Sarych</st1:placename> and <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Khersones</st1:placename>, southern Crimea (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>).	eng
17030	distribution	Birkun Jr., A.A. & Frantzis, A., 2008	<p>The subspecies’ range includes the Black Sea proper, Azov Sea, Kerch Strait (<em>e.g</em>., Tzalkin 1938), Marmara Sea, Bosphorus Strait (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997), northern Aegean Sea (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001) and also, very likely, the Dardanelles Straits (Harun Guclusoy 2006, pers. comm. to Frantzis) connecting the Marmara and northern Aegean Seas (see Figure 1 in attached PDF). The Black Sea population is completely isolated from the nearest <em>P. phocoena </em>population in the northeastern Atlantic by a wide range hiatus in the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place> (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; Although there is no agreement on when it happened (Kleinenberg 1956, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2001), it is clear that Harbour Porpoises came to the Black Sea via the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place> which, therefore, must have had its own population in the past.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The range of the Black Sea subspecies includes territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine in the Black Sea; internal waters of Ukraine in the Black Sea (including the Dnieper-and-Boug Liman and Karkinitsky Bay); internal waters of Russia and Ukraine in the Azov Sea and Kerch Strait; internal waters of Turkey (TSS, including the Bosphorus Strait, Marmara Sea and, possibly, the Dardanelles); Greek territorial waters in the northern Aegean Sea (Thracian Sea, Kavala Gulf, Strymonikos Gulf, Agiou Orous Gulf, and Thermaikos Gulf); and possibly Turkish territorial waters of the northeastern Aegean Sea, at the exit of the Dardanelles Straits. Occasionally, Harbour Porpoises have been sighted in the Danube, Dnieper, Don and Kuban rivers, their estuaries, deltas and tributaries (<em>e.g</em>., in the Danube in 1984-1989 and 2003 or in the Ingulets, a confluent of the Dnieper, in 1999), and coastal freshwater, brackish and saline lakes and lagoons including the Yalpug and Sivash lakes, Berezansky and Grigorievsky lagoons, Tendrovsky, Yagorlytsky and Jarylgachsky bays, and the Gulf of Taganrog (Tzalkin 1940a, Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1976, Birkun 2006). All of these sites are situated in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region>, on the northern and northwestern coasts of the Black Sea and round the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The population of <em>P. p. relicta</em> may consist of three or more subpopulations including those that spend much of the year in geographically and ecologically different areas, e.g. the <st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>, northwestern Black Sea and <st1:place w:st="on">Sea of Marmara</st1:place>. The <st1:placename w:st="on">Bosporus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Straits</st1:placetype>, the Sea of Marmara and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Dardanelles</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Straits</st1:placetype> serve as conduits between the Black and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Aegean</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Water flow at the surface is into the Aegean, from the <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> (Poulos<em> et al.</em> 1997). If porpoises were to leave the Black Sea, the conditions in the northern Aegean Sea (as compared to other parts of the Mediterranean) would remain similar to those of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place>. The period of greatest similarity would be February and March (Poulos<em> et al.</em> 1997) and five out of the nine records from the Aegean occurred from mid January to the end of March (three were in summer and one in October; all age classes have been found in the small available sample). Further work is needed to determine whether the animals found in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Aegean  Sea</st1:place> represent a separate resident subpopulation.<br/><br/>  [Definition: Territorial waters of all six <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> countries are defined as consisting of the 12-mile-wide submerged strip along the coast, and the offshore border of this strip constitutes the marine boundary for each country. In areas where the sea extends inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), the 12-mile rule does not apply. These water bodies constitute the so-called “internal (marine) waters” of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries.]	eng
17030	habitat	Birkun Jr., A.A. & Frantzis, A., 2008	<p>Harbour Porpoises inhabit mainly shallow waters (0–200 m deep) over the continental shelf around the entire perimeter of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place>, although they also occur quite far offshore in deep water. For instance, in late September – early October 2005, sizeable groups were observed in the central Black Sea, beyond the shelf edge some 38–215 km from the nearest coast in waters 450–2,170 m deep (Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2006). During warm periods they occur in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype> (Tzalkin 1940a; Kleinenberg 1956; Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002) and in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Marmara</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Bosphorus (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). Both of these small seas (as well as the northwestern Black Sea shelf zone) may represent geographically disjunct breeding-calving-feeding areas while the straits (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Kerch</st1:city></st1:place> and Bosphorus) connecting the seas serve as migration corridors. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Harbour Porpoises undertake annual migrations, leaving the Azov Sea (Tzalkin 1938) and northwestern <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (Birkun 2006) before winter and returning in spring. Such movements also may occur between the Black Sea and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Marmara</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place>; in the latter (along with the Bosphorus) there are no records for January-March (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997). The primary wintering areas are in the southeastern <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006) including southern Georgian territorial waters and (perhaps) eastern Turkish territorial waters. These are also the well-known wintering grounds of Black Sea and Azov Sea populations of the Anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>) – a principal prey species for Harbour Porpoises during the cold season (Kleinenberg 1956). Most of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> porpoise population may congregate there every year. In January 2005 the density estimated for Georgian waters was 1.5 porpoises per km<sup>2</sup> ( Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006), i.e. 6–39 times higher than densities reported for any other Black/Azov Sea area surveyed in summer or autumn.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The mean group size varies from 1.4 to 7.7 in different areas (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003, 2004; Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2006) although during their seasonal migration, animals may remain for a few days at different sites (usually bays with abundant fish) forming dense aggregations of some hundreds of individuals, e.g. off the southern coast of Crimea in December-January 1994 (Laspi Bay), March 1995 (near Cape Meganom) and April 2005 (between Cape Aya and Cape Fiolent) (Birkun and Krivokhizhin unpublished data). Sometimes, early and rapid ice formation, arising immediately after an “Indian summer”, can prevent animals leaving the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> and cause mass mortality due to ice entrapment (Kleinenberg 1956). The last recorded die-off of this kind occurred in November 1993 (Birkun and Krivokhizhin 1997); the number of animals could not be estimated. <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> harbour porpoises do not avoid waters with low salinity and high turbidity; they may occur in brackish bays and lagoons, and visit rivers and estuaries (all records occurring at warm times of the year).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The ecology of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> Harbour Porpoises may be considered unusual. It reflects the high degree of geographical isolation of their habitat, relatively low water salinity, significant seasonal fluctuations of water temperature, and large amount of anoxic waters saturated with hydrogen sulphide, H<sub>2</sub>S, below 100-250 m. At least 14 fish species have been recorded in the stomach contents (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Tonay and Öz 1999, Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Birkun 2006), of which four are considered as the most important prey: Anchovy, Sprat (<em>Sprattus sprattus phalaericus</em>), Whiting (<em>Merlangius merlangus euxinus</em>) and gobies (Gobiidae)	eng
17030	population	Birkun Jr., A.A. & Frantzis, A., 2008	<p>Total population size is unknown and therefore a synoptic region-wide survey is essential. Past Black Sea region-wide estimates based on strip transect surveys carried out in the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region> (1967-1974; Zemsky and Yablokov 1974) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region> (1987; Çelikkale <em>et al. </em>1989) have been shown to be fundamentally flawed for a number of methodological and analytical reasons, making their use as indicators of absolute abundance unwarranted (e.g., IWC 1992, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). Consideration needs to be given as to whether, despite the identified problems, any of the data from those earlier surveys can be used in comparisons with data from future well-designed surveys to infer population change. Other estimates also suffered from inadequacies of survey design, record keeping and statistical analysis. Nevertheless, it was generally recognized (e.g., Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997) that during most of the 20th century, the abundance of Harbour Porpoises in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> was higher than that of Bottlenose Dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncatus ponticus</em>) and lower than that of Common Dolphins (<em>Delphinus delphis ponticus</em>).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate Harbour Porpoise abundance in different parts of the range. In particular, aerial surveys were conducted in the Azov Sea, Kerch Strait (2001, 2002) and northeastern shelf area of the Black Sea (2002); vessel-based surveys were performed in the Kerch Strait, the entire 12-mile-wide zone of the Ukrainian and Russian Black Sea (2003), Georgian territorial sea (2005), and central part of the Black Sea between the Crimea peninsula, Ukraine, and Sinop province of Turkey (September–October 2005). Results of those surveys (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below) suggest that present total population size is at least several thousands and possibly in the low tens of thousands.<br/><br/>  <strong>Population Trend<br/></strong>In the 20th century, the number of Black Sea Harbour Porpoises was dramatically reduced by massive direct killing for the cetacean-processing industry that continued until 1983 (e.g. Smith 1982, IWC 2004). The numbers of animals taken were not recorded accurately; much of the catch data was recorded as numbers of animals undifferentiated to species (all three <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> small cetacean species were targeted) and by wet weight aggregates (e.g. pounds or tons of dolphin/porpoise landed). However, it can be inferred that the population size of <em>P. p. relicta</em> was reduced due to the direct kills (totalling some hundreds of thousands) by the time the total ban on dolphin hunting was enforced in the Black Sea region (see section “Threats”). It is strongly suspected that during the subsequent period from 1983-2006, not only did the population not recover but it declined markedly, primarily due to large-scale mortality in bottom-set gillnets (Birkun 2002a). In addition, there are other ongoing threats including human-induced habitat degradation (see “Threats” below). These threats are poorly managed in most <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries and therefore further decline of the population seems likely. It is also important to consider the effect on population trends of the mass-mortality events mentioned elsewhere in this assessment (gas platform explosion in 1982, die-off from ice conditions in 1993 and the two events in 1989 and 1990 possibly related to parasitic and bacterial infections).	eng
17030	threats	Birkun Jr., A.A. & Frantzis, A., 2008	<p>Until 1983, unregulated hunting was the primary threat (IWC 1992, 2004). Very large numbers of harbour porpoises, as well as other cetaceans, were taken during the 20th century by all <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries for a variety of industrial uses (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957). Although the total number killed is unknown, it may have been as many as four or five million for all species combined (e.g. see review in Smith 1982). It is widely accepted that all <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetacean populations, including Harbour Porpoises, were badly reduced by the directed fishery (IWC 1983, 1992, 2004). Catches of Harbour Porpoises were numerically fewer than those of Common Dolphins until 1964 when Harbour Porpoises became predominant (Danilevsky and Tyutyunnikov 1968, Smith 1982). Berkes (1977) reported that in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>, approximately 4,400 tons (4,400,000 kg) of cetaceans (all three species combined) were processed annually from 1971-73. He assumed an average weight per carcass of 50 kg (unspecified to species). Importantly, Berkes noted that shooting (the predominant method of dolphin killing in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>) could result in about half of the killed animals being lost due to sinking. If, following Berkes, one supposes that in the early 1970s the annual total of removals by the Turkish fishery amounted to 8,800,000 kg (including both processed and lost carcasses), or up to 176,000 animals of which >50% were Harbour Porpoises, this would imply at least 88,000 killed per year (of which 44,000 were landed). These very crude calculations suggest that Turkish catches of Harbour Porpoises in the early 1970s were at least as high as, and possibly much higher than, those estimated for 1976-1981&#160;(34,000-44,000 per year according to IWC, 1983, assuming that harbour porpoises accounted for 80% of the total). At least since 1991, there has been no evidence of illegal directed takes although such takes had been reported before that time (IWC 1992). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>At present, incidental mortality in fishing nets is the most serious threat (<em>e.g</em>., Birkun 2002a). Although all three <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> cetacean species are 'bycaught', the majority (95%) of recorded cetacean entanglements are of porpoises. Unfortunately, absolute numbers of removals cannot be estimated from the available data. However, there are indications that the annual level of Harbour Porpoise bycatch may be in the thousands. Almost all (>99%) of the porpoises are caught in bottom-set gillnets for Turbot (<em>Psetta maeotica</em>), Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) and sturgeon (<em>Acipenser </em>spp.). The peak occurs from April–June during the Turbot season in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype> and throughout the shelf area of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place>, including territorial waters of all six riparian countries. Almost all (99.9%) recorded bycatches are lethal (BLASDOL 1999). Illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing is widespread in the Black and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place> and a significant proportion of the bycatch may occur in such operations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>An explosion at a gas-drilling platform in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> in August 1982 resulted in the deaths of over 2,000 porpoises (Birkun 2002b).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Large-scale pelagic and small-scale coastal fisheries may affect <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> harbour porpoises indirectly by reducing their prey populations and degrading their habitat. Primarily, this relates to anchovies and sprats in the Black Sea and gobies in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In particular, overfishing, eutrophication and the population explosion of an introduced predator, the ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>, led to a dramatic (<span lang="EN-US">8 to 12-fold) decline of sprat and anchovy abundance in the early 1990s<span lang="EN-US"> (Prodanov <em>et al.</em> 1997). This reduced prey availability coincided with two mass mortality events (in 1989 and 1990) that, although they affected all three cetacean species, primarily affected porpoises (Birkun 2002c). Severe pulmonary nematodosis, caused by <em>Halocercus </em>spp. and complicated by bacterial super-infection, was recognized as a primary cause of the deaths, which were mainly of young animals. For other species, it has been hypothesised that malnutrition along with immuno-suppression associated with PCB contamination provokes or intensifies the effects of epizootics (e.g. Mediterranean Striped Dolphins; Aguilar and Borrell, 1994). Reported levels of DDTs and HCHs in <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> Harbour Porpoises are higher than those in conspecifics elsewhere in the world (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1997). Chemical pollution is thus also a potential threat, particularly in the context of epizootics. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Black Sea Harbour Porpoises are also affected in some years by ice entrapment in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (see section “Habitats and Ecology”).	eng
17031	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The European Union adopted a Council Regulation 812/2004 entering into force in July 2004. This regulation is aimed at reducing the incidental catch of small cetaceans in fisheries in European Union waters. The regulation includes measures restricting Baltic Sea drift net fisheries, providing for mandatory use of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) in some EU gillnet fisheries in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Baltic</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and the use of onboard observers on vessels of over 15 m in length. Immediate actions to reduce the magnitude of bycatches are necessary. A review of the progress of implementing the regulation was scheduled for 2007. </p>	eng
17031	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">In the Baltic Sea area the historic range apparently included all of the Kattegat/Skagerrak area, the Gulfs of Riga, Finland, and Bothnia, and much of the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> proper.&#160;&#160; However, in the latter half of the 1900s, the range was reduced considerably, and currently porpoises are considered to be virtually absent in the north-eastern Baltic (Koschinski 2002).&#160; </p>	eng
17031	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> is a semi-enclosed, relatively shallow shelf sea with some deeper basins of more than 200 m depth. There is a gradient in salinity with declining salinity towards east and north. Winter sea-ice normally covers the northern and eastern parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place>.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> and vicinity, herring, sprat, and cod are the main prey items, and many prey species are benthic or demersal (Read 1999, Boerjesson <em>et al.</em> 2003).</p>	eng
17031	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The abundance of the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic  Sea</st1:place> stock has been estimated at 599 (CV=57%; 95% confidence interval = 200-3,300) (Hiby and Lovell 1996), of which about 50% or 300 would likely be mature (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Using a precautionary approach (Wade 1998), a minimum abundance estimate of mature animals would be the lower 20<sup>th</sup> percentile of the abundance estimate of mature individuals, equal to 192. Scheidat <em>et al.</em> <span lang="EN-US">(2004) reported that on the Oderbank east of Rügen, Baltic harbour porpoise densities between May and August 2002 were high relative to nearby <st1:place w:st="on">Mecklenburg</st1:place> and Kiel Bights. There is evidence that porpoises in the Kattegat –Skagerrak area migrate to the <st1:place w:st="on">North Sea</st1:place> (Teilmann <em>et al.</em> 2004). &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Although there are no reliable estimates of pre-exploitation subpopulation size, harbour porpoises were once numerous in the Baltic proper (Kinze 1995).</p>	eng
17031	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Historically, large commercial catches occurred when porpoises migrated through the Danish Straits, mainly during winter and spring months. Annual catch levels averaged about 1,000 porpoises during most of the nineteenth century, increasing to 2,000 at the end of the century with a subsequent declining trend during the twentieth century until catches increased again in the 1940s.&#160; According to Kinze (1995), historical directed catches in the Baltic proper might have been higher than the catches in the Danish Straits. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Today, the most significant threat is incidental catches in fishing nets, primarily various types of gillnets (including both set gillnets and driftnets; Berggren 1994, Koschinski 2002). In addition to gillnets, harbor porpoises are also taken in smaller numbers in trawls (Berggren 1994). The current bycatch, known to be at least seven porpoises per year, is thought to be unsustainable, and Baltic porpoises may become extinct in the near future unless actions are taken to prevent future anthropogenic mortality (ASCOBANS 2000).&#160; </span>Skóra and Kuklik (2003) recorded information on 62 observations of harbour porpoises in Polish waters during 1990-1999. Of these, 45 (75.6%) were reported bycaught in fishing gear, 10 observed at sea and 7 found dead on the shore. The bycatches occurred mostly in driftnets set for salmonids and bottom-set gillnets set for cod.&#160; </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The annual bycatch in German Baltic fisheries is assumed to be between 3-5 porpoises (ICES 2005). Eight porpoises in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Poland</st1:country-region> and two in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Latvia</st1:place></st1:country-region> were reported bycaught in 2003-2004 (ICES 2005). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Finland</st1:place></st1:country-region> two porpoises were reported bycaught in the period 1986-1999. No bycatches were reported from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Finland</st1:place></st1:country-region> after 1999 (ICES 2003). </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Pollution is of particular concern in the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> where toxic compounds (in particular PCBs) have been described as the likely source for reduced fertility and population decline in Baltic Sea pinnipeds (Helle <em>et al.</em> 1976, Helle 1980, Bergman and Olsson 1986, Bergman 1999). Porpoises from the Baltic Sea have up to 254% higher mean levels of PCBs than corresponding samples from the Kattegat and Skagerrak (Berggren <em>et al.</em> 1999, Bruhn <em>et al.</em> 1999), and currently, a number of lesions and pathological changes are reported from the Baltic Sea porpoises (Siebert <em>et al.</em> 1999, Clausen and Andersen 1988), including pneumonia, liver fibrosis, arthrosis, abscesses in muscles, lungs and other organs, skin lesions and heavy attacks from parasites (Siebert <em>et al.</em> 1999, Clausen and Andersen 1988). Therefore, pollution cannot be excluded as a contributing factor in the past decline in abundance in the <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic  Sea</st1:place>. However, a recent decline of PCB concentration in <st1:place w:st="on">Baltic Sea</st1:place> biota has been observed (Bignert <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
17032	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The long period since the last survey (over 15 years) warrants urgent reassessment of the status of the two subpopulations hunted by the Japanese hand harpoon fishery.	eng
17032	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Dall's porpoises are found only in the northern North Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas (Bering and Okhotsk seas, and Sea of Japan). They inhabit deep waters between about 30°N and 62°N (Jefferson 1988; Houck and Jefferson 1999), but may occasionally occur as far south as about 28°N off the coast of Baja California (Mexico), during unusually cold-water periods.<br/><br/>The <em>dalli</em>-type occurs throughout of the species’ range, from the west coast of North America to Japan. <br/><br/>The <em>truei</em>-type, identified by a broad lateral white patch, inhabits the western north Pacific, and migrates between wintering grounds off the Pacific coast of northern Japan and summer breeding grounds in the central Okhotsk Sea, and constitutes one population (IWC 2002).	eng
17032	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This species inhabits mainly offshore deep waters colder than 18°C (Miyashita and Kasuya 1988), but may also occur in narrow channels and fjords in the western North Pacific (Jefferson 1988; Rice 1998). <br/><br/>Sex-biased dispersal is known to occur in this species, and this may have relevance in assessing the impact of takes on regional populations (Escorza Trevino and Dizon 2000).<br/><br/>Dall's porpoises are apparently opportunistic feeders, taking a wide range of surface and midwater fish and squid, especially soft-bodied species like lanternfish (myctophids) and gonatid squid. Occasional krill, decapods, and shrimps found in porpoise stomachs are not considered normal prey (Houck and Jefferson 1999; Jefferson 2002).	eng
17032	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Dall’s porpoises are common in many parts of the North Pacific, and density is high in many areas of the range. The total abundance of the species is probably over 1.2 million individuals (Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1993). In Alaska, the abundance is estimated at 83,400 (CV=10%) (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Along the U.S. west coast, abundance estimates have ranged from about 35,000 to 134,000, averaging 86,000 animals (CV = 45%) between 1991 and 2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). In the western North Pacific, the <em>truei</em>-type population migrating between the Pacific coasts of Japan and the central Okhotsk Sea is estimated at 217,000 (CV=0.23). The <em>dalli</em>-type population migrating between the Sea of Japan and the southern Okhotsk Sea is estimated at 226,000 (CV=0.15), and the <em>dalli</em>-type population summering in the northern Okhotsk Sea at 111,000 (CV=0.29) (IWC 1998). These estimates are subject to biases due to response to survey vessels. <br/><br/>The International Whaling Commission currently recognizes 11 populations of this species, based on differences in genetics, pollutant loads, parasite faunas, and distribution patterns of cow/calf pairs (IWC 2002). Three of them summer in the Okhotsk Sea, two in the Bering Sea, four in the North Pacific, and two off the US coast, but the wintering grounds are unknown for many of them. The populations cannot be reliably distinguished by their external appearance at sea except for the three summering in the Okhotsk Sea, which are distinguishable based on the pigmentation and location.	eng
17032	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The largest threats to this species have been incidental takes by salmon and squid drift net fisheries and direct takes by hand harpoon fishery in Japanese coastal waters. The driftnet salmon fisheries began in 1952 and continued until a United Nation moratorium on all high-seas driftnet fisheries came into effect (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). The large-mesh and squid driftnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increasing in effort during the 1970s and peaking during the 1980s prior to the moratorium. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1989-1990, when about 4,000 Dall's porpoise were estimated killed per year (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of Dall's porpoise, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993). The estimated annual take by Japanese salmon fisheries within the United States EEZ for the period 1981-1987 ranged from 741 (1987) to 4,187 (1982), with lower levels of additional takes in Bering Sea waters outside of the U.S. EEZ (IWC 1991; T. Jefferson pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Incidental catches on the order of thousands of porpoise per year are ongoing in several fisheries using gillnets in the Russian exclusive economic zone (Burkanov and Nikulin 2001). Small numbers of Dall's porpoises are also taken along the US West Coast in drift net and trawl fisheries (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>The Japanese hand harpoon fishery for Dall’s porpoise started in the 1910s (Ohsumi 1972; Sawadate 1983), made a great expansion around the World War II period (Wilke <em>et al</em>. 1953; Sawadate 1983), then remained lower at between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals until the 1970s (Kasuya 1982). Approximately 111,500 Dall’s porpoises were removed by hunting between 1986 and 1989 from two stocks centred in the Okhotsk Sea (IWC 1991). The Japanese government began to regulate the hand-harpoon hunt in 1989, and a catch quota was introduced in 1993. The fishery currently operates with a quota of 9,000 <em>dalli</em>-type Sea of Japan-southern Okhotsk Sea population and 8,700 <em>truei</em>-type Pacific coast-central Okhotsk Sea population (IWC 2002). The current level of reported takes are about 4% of the mean estimate of the size of the populations; however, these catch statistics might not be reliable (Kasuya 2007).<br/><br/>Environmental contaminants are also thought to be a threat, and high levels of organochlorines may reduce testosterone levels in males and affect calf viability, thereby influencing reproduction and survival (Subramanian <em>et al</em>. 1987, 1988).	eng
17035	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs within protected areas all over the area (approximately 6% of the species’ range in Mongolia).<br/>Further research is recommended.	eng
17035	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in steppes and semi-deserts in Kazakhstan, Tuva and Transbaikalia (Russia), W and C Mongolia, and N China (Heilongjiang, Nei Mongol, Xinjiang).	eng
17035	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in grasslands, semi-desert and desert; more likely to be found living on soils with a firmer substrate than P. roborovskii.  Burrows (4-6 vertical entrances) lead to a nest chamber as deep as 1 m (but normally shallower) and food caches of seeds.  May occupy burrows of <em>Meriones</em>, rather than digging their own.  Diet primarily seeds and plants, but known to consume insects.  Nocturnal or crepuscular; do not hibernate.  Breeds from April-October, producing 3-4 litters of 4-8 young following a 20-22 day gestation period.  Juveniles may become reproductively active in their first year.	eng
17035	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No data are available at present, although it is believed to be relatively common.	eng
17035	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not major threats to the species at present.	eng
17036	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs within protected areas (approximately 18% of the species’ range in Mongolia).	eng
17036	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in sand deserts and semi-deserts in Mongolia (Govi Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Govi, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert and Alashani Govi Desert; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980) and adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Russia (Tuva) and N China.	eng
17036	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in sandy deserts and grasslands; avoids areas with clay soil, those overgrown with shrubby vegetation, and barkhan sands. Burrows with a single opening (4 cm diameter) are dug between sand dunes or at their edge.  Burrows extend 90 cm deep and contain a single nest and 2-3 food caches.  Eats seeds (often filling their cheek pouches); also known to consume green vegetation and insects. Nocturnal; do not hibernate.  Reproduce from March-September (or even later).  Up to four litters ranging from 3-9 young are born following a 20-day gestation.  Young of the year may become reproductively active.	eng
17036	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No population data are available, but it is believed to be common in the Gobi Desert. Rare in Kazakhstan and Russia.	eng
17036	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats at present.	eng
17037	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
17037	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in dry steppes and semi-deserts of SW Siberia, E Kazakhstan, and in one isolated area in Khakassia (Russia).	eng
17037	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits dry plane and mountain steppes, including sandy, solty and rubbly ones. Solitary. Burrows have multiple passages with one or two cells. Wintering nest can be up to 1 m below the ground. Often uses other rodents' burrows, sometimes lives very close to other species. Does not hibernate. Feeds on seeds, insects and larvae. In winter accumulates a large amount of hypodermic fat that helps them to survive freezing temperatures. Reproduce during warm time of the year, sometimes in winter too. From April to September has 5-6 litters (in Kazakhstan), with 4-11 young in each. Young start to reproduce when their weight is about 20 g.	eng
17037	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Precise data are unavailable. Population size fluctuations are significant. In some areas abundant and is a crop pest.	eng
17037	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Habitat degradation may decrease the area of occupancy.	eng
17056	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from various lakes in Turkey including Lakes Akgol and Beysehir.	eng
17056	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in lakes.	eng
17056	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Threatened due to the introduction of other species.	eng
17066	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
17066	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
17066	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Wide but highly disjunct range: lakes in Odra, Vistula, Dniepr, Volga (Oka and Kama systems) drainages, lakes in Arctic Ocean (from Northern Dvina to Kolyma drainages) and Pacific basins (from Amur to Korea and Japan). Introduced in Po drainage (Italy).	eng
17066	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Wide but highly disjunct range: lakes in Odra, Vistula, Dniepr, Volga (Oka and Kama systems) drainages, lakes in Arctic Ocean (from Northern Dvina to Kolyma drainages) and Pacific basins (from Amur to Korea and Japan). Introduced in Po drainage (Italy).	eng
17066	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small lakes, shallows or isolated small bays of larger lakes, swamps, artificial ponds, with abundant vegetation, turbid water, with mud or clay bottom. Prefers still water or slow current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and usually over 40 mm SL. Spawns in May-July, when temperatures reach 7-9°C. Females lay 3-4 portions of adhesive eggs among underwater plants each one season. Embryonic development lasts 10-15 days. Commonly stays in shallows among vegetation in schools of 20-80 individuals. Survives extreme low oxygen concentrations in summer and winter. Spends winter in hibernation (in northern regions) or is inactive at temperatures close to 0°C. Feeds on a wide variety of prey, from plankton to benthic animals.	eng
17066	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small lakes, shallows or isolated small bays of larger lakes, swamps, artificial ponds, with abundant vegetation, turbid water, with mud or clay bottom. Prefers still water or slow current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and usually over 40 mm SL. Spawns in May-July, when temperatures reach 7-9°C. Females lay 3-4 portions of adhesive eggs among underwater plants each one season. Embryonic development lasts 10-15 days. Commonly stays in shallows among vegetation in schools of 20-80 individuals. Survives extreme low oxygen concentrations in summer and winter. Spends winter in hibernation (in northern regions) or is inactive at temperatures close to 0°C. Feeds on a wide variety of prey, from plankton to benthic animals.	eng
17066	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
17066	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
17066	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
17066	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
17067	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
17067	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
17067	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Basins of Atlantic, North and Baltic Seas, Arctic and northern Pacific Ocean from Garonne (France) eastward to Anadyr and Amur drainages and Korea, Ireland (possibly introduced), Great Britain northward to 58°N, Scandinavia and Russia northernmost extremity, Rhône drainage. Recorded from upper and middle Volga and Ural drainages, Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan) and upper Syr-Darya drainage (Aral basin), but these identifications require confirmation. Introduced elsewhere.	eng
17067	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Basins of Atlantic, North and Baltic Seas, Arctic and northern Pacific Ocean from Garonne (France) eastward to Anadyr and Amur drainages and Korea, Ireland (possibly introduced), Great Britain northward to 58°N, Scandinavia and Russia northernmost extremity, Rhône drainage. Recorded from upper and middle Volga and Ural drainages, Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan) and upper Syr-Darya drainage (Aral basin), but these identifications require confirmation. Introduced elsewhere.	eng
17067	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large Nordic lowland rivers and from small upland lakes to large oligotrophic lakes. Usually associated with salmonid fishes. Spawning takes place over clean gravel areas in flowing water or on wave-washed shores of lakes. Overwinters in coarse substrate or in deep pools with low current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilous. Lives up to 11 years, usually up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 10°C. Some individuals spawn even during autumn. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
17067	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large Nordic lowland rivers and from small upland lakes to large oligotrophic lakes. Usually associated with salmonid fishes. Spawning takes place over clean gravel areas in flowing water or on wave-washed shores of lakes. Overwinters in coarse substrate or in deep pools with low current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilous. Lives up to 11 years, usually up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 10°C. Some individuals spawn even during autumn. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
17067	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
17067	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
17067	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution and excessive stocking of species of <em>Salmo</em>.	eng
17067	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Pollution and excessive stocking of species of <em>Salmo</em>.	eng
17078	conservation		There are no protected areas near the type locality of this species.	eng
17078	distribution		This species has only been recorded from "Alto da Serra", Paranapiacaba, Santo Andre, in the State of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil. It was collected at an elevation of around 1,000m asl.	eng
17078	habitat		Although there is no information available on the biology or ecology of this species, it is possible that it was a high-altitude stream-breeder.	eng
17078	population		It remains known from the holotype only, with no additional records for more than 80 years, despite repeated searches. It is now believed to be extinct.	eng
17078	threats		No explanation is currently available for the disappearance of this species.	eng
17080	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
17081	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
17082	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Mostly aquatic - flowing creeks in rainforests. Terrestrial nest sites.	eng
17083	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
17084	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
17096	conservation	Connolly, R., 2006	<strong>Legislation</strong> (Source: Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/>1. Totally protected species in South Australian Waters (since 1987). <br/>2. Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>3. Totally Protected Fish Status in Western Australian Waters (since 1991). <br/>4. Subject to Export controls since January 1st 1998, in the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em>. <br/>5. Listed as marine species under s248 of <em>The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)</em>. <br/>6. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/> <br/><strong>More information</strong> (Source: Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/>Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection. <br/> <br/><strong>Protected areas</strong> <br/>All states of Australia are currently implementing systematic series of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Different states are at different stages of this process. The most important development for Leafy Seadragons is that a new MPA is close to being declared (it was released as a draft plan earlier in 2005) in southern Gulf St Vincent in the state of SA. The proposed MPA will include areas (e.g., Encounter Bay and northeastern Kangaroo Island) in which a large proportion of public sightings of seadragons occur. The protection of these areas could substantially decrease the perceived vulnerability of the species to human activities, in particular to commercial fishing. At this stage, however, levels of protection and locations of zones of high protection within the proposed MPA have not been finalised. Furthermore, MPAs offer no immediate protection against eutrophication and sedimentation threats to habitat from land-based sources.	eng
17096	distribution	Connolly, R., 2006	Leafy seadragons appear to be most abundant in SA and southern WA. Until recently, the range was considered to form a continuous stretch of coastline from near Perth on the southern west coast of WA to Wilson’s Promontory in Vic (Kuiter 2000b).  Recent sightings of live animals by divers have extended the known range along the WA coastline as far north as the Abrolhos Islands, west of Geraldton (Baker 2002). Unconfirmed reports of sightings come from Bass Strait Islands (King Is., Kent Group) of NW TAS (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence can be approximated as the length of coastline along which it occurs (~ 14,000 km) and the width of the strip of habitat suitable for it to occupy along this coastline (less than 1 km in most places, and for this calculation assumed to be 0.1 km wide).  The extent of occurrence is therefore estimated to be 1,400 km². Seadragons have been sighted at numerous locations within the range but it is impossible to determine how fragmented occurrence is. Total area of occupancy is possibly less than 2,000 km² (given the approximate extent of occurrence calculated above), but at this time is unknown. <br/> <br/>The depth range of Leafy Seadragons is not well documented. Most reported encounters are with divers, and therefore necessarily in waters less than about 20 m. Seadragons have, however, been recorded down to 30 m in SA, WA and VIC (Kuiter 2000b).	eng
17096	habitat	Connolly, R., 2006	Leafy Seadragons were until recently considered to occur predominantly near rocky reefs supporting stands of kelp or other macroalgae, where they have been observed feeding on mysids and other crustaceans (Kuiter 2000a). Recent telemetry using ultrasonic transmitters has shown, however, that this species is just as prevalent over shallow (5–15 m depth) <em>Posidonia</em> seagrass meadows and patches of sand amongst seagrass (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). <br/> <br/>Leafy Seadragons tracked over periods of up to 10 days typically remained within well-defined home ranges of up to 5 ha (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b).  Patterns of movement are characterised by short bursts (at average velocities of 2–17 m/h) punctuating long periods (up to 68 h) without movement. No diel pattern of movement is apparent (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). <br/> <br/>As with other syngnathids, male seadragons carry the fertilized eggs. For Leafy Seadragons, the male carries about 200 eggs on the exposed surface of the underside of its tail (there is no pouch).  <br/> <br/>This species can survive for at least two to three years in aquaria if supplied with its specific live food requirements (P. Quong, pers. comm. in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Longevity <em>in situ</em> is not known. <em>Phycodurus eques</em> attains a maximum length of about 35 cm (Kuiter 1993).Mating reportedly occurs during summer months (Kuiter 2000b). Genetic structure of populations has not been measured, nor has any aspect of reproduction been quantified (e.g., number of mates, number of broods per season). <br/> <br/><em>Phycodurus eques</em> is particularly well camouflaged, with a number of frond-like appendages that resemble kelp. The species also rocks back and forth with wave action, increasing its resemblance to coastal algae swept by coastal surge (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
17096	population	Connolly, R., 2006	No firm population estimates exist for Leafy Seadragons, but an approximate estimate can be made using certain assumptions. Just one estimate of density exists for this species, from a single location at one time. Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a) estimated the density of Leafy Seadragons around West Island, in Encounter Bay, SA, using a mark/re-sighting method and a capture/recapture algorithm. The density of larger juveniles and adults at this site was 57 fish per ha. Small juveniles (< 100 mm) were not included in the study. In making a population estimate, the following estimations and assumptions were made: <br/> <br/>1. The site at which Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a) worked was chosen because relatively frequent sightings had been made there previously. An average density across the distribution would be lower, probably much lower, and a figure of 5 fish per ha was used (approximately 10% of estimate by Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002a)). <br/> <br/>2. The coastline along which Leafy Seadragons occur is an estimated 14,000 km long. <br/> <br/>3. The species occurs most frequently in a thin strip of shallow water along the coastline, typically in stands of macroalgae or in seagrass meadows. This strip is estimated to be, on average, 100 m wide, giving a total of 140,000 ha of occupancy. <br/> <br/>At 5 fish per ha, the estimated total number of Leafy Seadragons is ~700,000. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. The purpose of making such an estimate is to give perspective to the number of fish that might be removed from the wild (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>Mapping of habitat at sites far from major population centres and research into variability in habitat use at different sites is required to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.	eng
17096	threats	Connolly, R., 2006	Leafy Seadragons lack a caudal fin and are weak swimmers; in conjunction with a lack of a dispersive egg phase, this potentially makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation as well as to incidental harvesting during commercial fishing (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). These are the two main threats. <br/> <br/>Leafy Seadragons are associated with seagrass beds and reefs supporting macroalgae (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2002b). These habitats have been adversely affected by human activities and loss in quality and quantity of habitat has been documented (Baker 2003). The loss of habitat is most severe near major urban centres (e.g., Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne), where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation. Losses of seagrass have been particularly severe along the metropolitan coasts and are well documented (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996). <br/> <br/>Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2002b) report anecdotal evidence that Leafy Seadragons are killed as incidental bycatch in the trawling industry in SA. Fishers have indicated that on occasions they catch “large numbers” of Leafy Seadragons. This information remains at the level of anecdote however, and neither the rate nor distribution of incidental catch have been substantiated. Measurement of incidental catch in SA would be beneficial, in that bycatch rates, compared with <em>in situ</em> densities, could be used to establish the relative threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>The legal collection of wild specimens has little likelihood of causing long-term changes in population sizes. The small numbers taken under legally issued permits could result in the reduction or loss of groups of animals at particular sites, but this is unlikely to result in measurable effects on regional populations. If demand increases substantially, illegal collection could threaten local and perhaps regional populations, although this possibility should remain unlikely given the difficulties associated with illegal international export. <br/> <br/>This species is a major attraction for the dive industry in southern Australia, and it has been made the official fish emblem in the state of South Australia. Recreational divers often harass or disturb individuals (Kuiter 2000a). Suitable protocols for divers should be encouraged to protect local populations, but the disturbance probably does not harm the long-term prospects for regional populations.	eng
17168	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Reduce habitat loss (GMA Brazil). The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Phyllostomus stenops</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
17168	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs from Chiapas, Mexico, and Belize, is patchily distributed through Honduras and the rest of Central America (not recorded in Nicaragua), to south Peru, Bolivia and southeastern Brazil, but appears to be absent from dry deciduous forest over much of southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Lowlands to 2,600 m (Emmons and Feer, 1997). However, it has recenty captured in Pantanal and Cerrado (Aguiar pers. comm.).	eng
17168	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Poorly known. It is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forests but is broadly tolerant of man-made clearings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).This mixed feeder will take fruits as well as insects. It has been recorded feeding on larvae and pupae, and from the nest of a social wasp. One individual caught in Costa Rica had eaten fruit, especially those of cucurbit vines (LaVal, 1977). One was collected while it was attacking a large rat, apparently a Proechimys. Females bear a single young. These bats are found around streams and swamps or marshes. It is usually captured in mist nets set over streams in evergreen forest. The roost is undescribed (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
17168	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Uncommon to rare, but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Pineda pers. comm.).	eng
17168	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
17173	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Habitat conservation.	eng
17173	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons, 2005).	eng
17173	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is colonial and roosts in caves, often together with other bats species. The only major colony contains a few hundred individuals. A female with one embryo was caught in January; and a pregnant female captured in June (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and perhaps insects (Nowak, 1999); captive individuals thrived on a diet of bananas, mangoes, papayas, and various kinds of canned fruit nectars (Nowak, 1999).	eng
17173	population	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	It is uncommon to locally common, found in five caves (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
17173	threats	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	The only major colony contains a few hundred individuals and is considered vulnerable to human disturbance (Nowak, 1999).	eng
17175	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Found in protected areas, research focusing in species separation.	eng
17175	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Isle of Pines, and Hispaniola (Simmons, 2005).	eng
17175	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It diet consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects (Gardner, 1977); three females taken in Haiti in December were pregnant with one embryo each (Nowak, 1999).	eng
17175	population	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Abundant in Cuba and Dominican Republic (Mancina and Sixto pers. comm.)	eng
17175	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Mining, cave destruction.	eng
17176	conservation	Mancina, C., Dávalos, L. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	Research actions, found in protected areas.	eng
17176	distribution	Mancina, C., Dávalos, L. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	This species is known from Cuba; Hispaniola; as fossil, Isle of Pines (Cuba) (Simmons, 2005). Recently was recorded in Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac (A. L. Band pers. comm.).	eng
17176	habitat	Mancina, C., Dávalos, L. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	This bat roosts in trees in small groups of no more than five individuals. It feeds on the fruit of wild native fig trees, dropping seeds across the forests and clearings (Silva-Taboada, 1979).	eng
17176	population	Mancina, C., Dávalos, L. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	It is rare (Silva-Taboada, 1979). Solitary or scarce gregrarious (Mancina pers. comm.)	eng
17176	threats	Mancina, C., Dávalos, L. & Incháustegui, S, 2008	Habitat destruction.	eng
17177	conservation	Connolly, R., 2006	<strong>Legislation</strong> (Source: Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/>1. Protected Species in NSW under <em>Fisheries Management Act 1994</em>. <br/>2. The <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania (by non-permit holders). <br/>3. Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria. <br/>4. Subject to Export controls since 1<sup>st</sup> January 1998, in the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em>. <br/>5. Listed as marine species under s248 of <em>The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)</em>. <br/>6. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/> <br/><strong>More information</strong> (Source: Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003) <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection.	eng
17177	distribution	Connolly, R., 2006	Weedy Seadragons are found along much of the southern Australian coastline, from near Newcastle, NSW (approx 32° 56’S) southwards to Actaeon Island, TAS (43°32’S) and westwards through VIC and SA to Geraldton, WA (28°46’S) (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><em>Phyllopteryx taeniolatus</em> can be locally common in NSW, VIC and TAS. In Victoria it can often be seen in shallow areas of Port Phillip Bay (surrounded by the city of Melbourne) and Western Port. In NSW it is often found on sheltered reefs in waters exceeding 15 m, but is also found in shallower waters in large open bays (Kuiter 2000a). In TAS large numbers have been observed at a number of sites in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel, particular in the Blackman’s Bay/Kingston area (Martin-Smith and Davey, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>P. taeniolatus</em>.	eng
17177	habitat	Connolly, R., 2006	Weedy Seadragons occur over rocky reefs supporting stands of kelp or other macroalgae, or over adjacent stretches of bare sand (Kuiter 2000a). <em>Phyllopteryx taenoliatus</em> is most commonly observed along reefs in areas abutting sand where it feeds on mysids and small crustaceans (Kuiter 2000b). Individuals have been shown to have broad, overlapping home ranges that can vary in length from 50–150 m, and be up to 50 m wide (Sanchez-Camara and Booth 2004). Baker (2000a) found that Weedy Seadragons also live in association with sponges. The species’ depth distribution ranges from shallow bays down to reefs at depths of up to 50 m. <br/> <br/>The extent to which the species occurs over seagrass meadows is unknown and needs investigation. The other large syngnathid from southern Australian waters, the Leafy Seadragon, was not considered to be associated with seagrass until recently. For that species, ultrasonic tracking of individuals demonstrated that they were at least as likely to occur over seagrass as over algae. Although this may not be true for Weedy Seadragons, it is important to establish any use of seagrass meadows because seagrasses are known to be adversely affected by pollution in southern Australia; habitat use is therefore important in the consideration of potential threats (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>The breeding season for Weedy Seadragons is early summer and there is one brood per season. Males carry the eggs externally below their tail and the skin forms a cup on each egg during deposition. Incubation time is about eight weeks and up to about 250 young hatch. Some individuals mature in one year, but most usually breed in their second year when fully grown (Kuiter 1993). Baker (2000a) reports that brooding males have been observed in NSW from mid-winter to mid-summer, but never from February to June, despite sightings of over 350 seadragons during this period. <br/> <br/>In the Sydney area and in southern NSW, aggregations of between 20 and 40 seadragons have been observed, respectively (Baker 2000a). <br/> <br/><em>Phyllopteryx taeniolatus</em> feeds on mysids and other small crustaceans and attains about 45 cm in total length (Kuiter 1993).	eng
17177	population	Connolly, R., 2006	No firm population estimates exist for Weedy Seadragons, but an approximate estimate can be made using certain assumptions. Estimates of densities can be obtained for several locations, although at this stage no analyses of trends in densities are available. <br/> <br/>From the study by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) near Sydney, NSW, using certain assumptions about the width of transects (recorded as 350 long, and assumed to be approximately 20 m wide), densities averaged 58 fish ha-1 at the 2 sites where most work was done. At a nearby site with fewer fish where less work was done, densities were about a quarter of these estimates. Densities at two sites in the Derwent estuary in TAS have been estimated using mark-recapture methods at 12–20 and 4–10 fish ha<sup>-1</sup> (M. Davey and K. Martin-Smith, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>In making an overall population estimate, the following estimations and assumptions were made: <br/>1. The sites at which Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) worked were chosen because relatively frequent sightings had been made there previously. An average density across the distribution would be lower, probably lower even than the third site used by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004) and the sites in TAS surveyed by Davey and Martin-Smith.  A figure of 5 fish ha-1 was used (approximately 10% of upper estimate by Sanchez-Camara and Booth (2004)). <br/> <br/>2. The coastline along which Weedy Seadragons occur is an estimated 20,000 km long (including TAS). <br/> <br/>3. The species occurs most frequently in a thin strip of shallow water along the coastline, most frequently along the edge of reefs supporting stands of macroalgae. This strip is estimated to be, on average, 100 m wide, giving a total of 200,000 ha of occupancy. <br/> <br/>At five fish per ha, the estimated total number of Weedy Seadragons is ~ 1,000,000. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. The purpose of making such an estimate is to give perspective to the number of fish that might be removed from the wild (see Threats, below). <br/> <br/>Mapping of habitat at sites far from major population centres and research into variability in habitat use at different sites is required to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.	eng
17177	threats	Connolly, R., 2006	The main threats to the weedy seadragon include; 1) intrinsic life history traits thought to limit dispersal, 2) habitat degradation, 3) collection for trade: <br/> <br/>1. Weedy Seadragons lack a caudal fin and are weak swimmers; in conjunction with a lack of a dispersive egg phase, this potentially makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation, which is the main threat to this species. <br/> <br/>2a. Both algae-covered reefs and seagrass meadows have been adversely affected by human activities and loss in quality and quantity of habitat has been documented (Baker 2003). The degradation of habitat is worst near major urban centres (e.g., Sydney, Adelaide, Melbourne, Perth), where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation. Losses of seagrass have been particularly severe along the metropolitan coasts and are well documented (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria 1996). Reefs have been more strongly affected by increased rates of sedimentation resulting from human activities such as sand dredging, land reclamation and coastal urban development (Baker 2003). <br/> <br/>2b. Urchin consumption of kelp beds and loss of giant kelp in TAS through climate change. <br/> <br/>3. The legal and/or illegal collection of wild specimens has little likelihood of causing long-term changes in population sizes, unless demand increases substantially. The small numbers taken could result in the reduction or loss of groups of animals at particular sites, but this is unlikely to result in measurable effects on populations. Weedy Seadragons have not been reported in surveys of incidental bycatch in trawl fisheries of southeastern Australia.	eng
17216	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
17216	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Oaxaca and Veracruz (Mexico) to Guianas, Southeastern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru; Trinidad; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Not found in Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004). One record in Tabasco, Mexico (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
17216	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in all kind of habitats.	eng
17216	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Common and widespread.	eng
17216	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
17217	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitats.	eng
17217	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species ranges across Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, southeastern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Lim and Engstrom, 2000). Lowlands only.	eng
17217	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species strongly prefers multistratal tropical evergreen forest although it is occasionally taken in dryer habitats near streams. It roosts in small groups in tree cavities, or large groups in caves. These roosting congregations are divided up into smaller permanent social units consisting of harems of a single male and several females and their young, and groups of nonbreeding bachelors. Apparently it is strongly disposed to feed on fruits, but it may also take nectar and pollen, and large insects (Gardner, 1977). It also hunts aerially above the forest canopy. These bats emerge from their roosts at complete darkness and forage for about two hours before returning to the roost.	eng
17217	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Moderately common.	eng
17217	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation in some parts of its range though this is not considered a major threat.	eng
17218	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
17218	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Guatemala and Belize to the Guianas, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru; Trinidad and Tobago; Margarita Island (Venezuela) (Simmons 2005). Not found in Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzales 2004).	eng
17218	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in urban and rural areas, forests and houses.	eng
17218	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very abundant in South America. Common in Central America.	eng
17218	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
17219	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conservation of cave habitats.	eng
17219	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is confined to northwestern Brazil and adjacent portions of Guyana, French Guiana and Suriname, Bolivar State in Venezuela, and Colombia (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
17219	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Little is known concerning this bat. Perhaps its ecology is similar to other <em>Phyllostomus</em>. Associated with caves and can known to roost with <em>Carollia</em>. This bat species is a gleaner.	eng
17219	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Only know from a few individuals in 8 localities.	eng
17219	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Disturbance of caves and loss of cave habitat.	eng
17220	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The species is present in seven protected areas (e.g. Lachay National Reserve). Further research is needed into its habitat and ecology.	eng
17220	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs on the coast and lower Pacific slopes of west Peru, from Piura (Lavrentchenko and Dmitriev, 1994) to Arequipa Department (H. Zeballos pers. comm.). It is found at elevations of 50 to 2,100 m.	eng
17220	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is known from sand and rock formations with sparse cover. Results of a 2000-2001 study suggested that P. amicus maintains low, highly dispersed populations in a harsh dry environment with sparse vegetation, and that this nocturnal species can reproduce at any time of the year (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In captivity, litter size varied between one and three pups and gestation time averaged 24 days (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17220	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species. In Lomas de Lachay the population density was between 0 to 12 individuals per hectare, higher population densities were observed during the wet season (June-August) (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
17220	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by urban expansion in some parts of its range.	eng
17221	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The species occurs in at least eight protected areas in Peru (e.g. Lachay National Reserve), and at least three protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
17221	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the east and west Andean slopes from central Ecuador (Tungurahua Province) to central Peru (Lima Department) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found at elevations of 1,500 to 4,000 m.	eng
17221	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in dry forest, shrublands, rocky areas and wet highlands. It is present in both primary and secondary habitat, and cultivated areas and pastoral areas. P. andium appears to be an irruptive species closely tied to rainfall patterns, it shows clear seasonal reproductive activity between July and September (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002). In captivity litter size varied between one and four young and gestation period average 24 days (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is a broadly omnivorous, nocturnal species (Arana <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17221	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a very common species. Results of a study in 2000-2001 in Lomas de Lachay gave a density of between 0-3 individuals per hectare (Arana <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
17221	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
17222	conservation	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	The species is included in one protected area (Parque Provincial Ernesto Tornquist).	eng
17222	distribution	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This species is found in Sierra de la Ventana, Southeast of the Buenos Aires province (Argentina). The altitudinal range is from 500 m to 2,200 m (max high of the Sierra de la Ventana).	eng
17222	habitat	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	Rocky areas in Sierra de la Ventana.	eng
17222	population	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
17222	threats	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	The habitat is threatened due overgrazing for horses.	eng
17223	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in the Cuesta de Sama and Tariquia National Reserves in Bolivia. Further studies are needed into this species.	eng
17223	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs on the upper slopes of eastern Andes, from south central Bolivia to northernmost Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of about 2,100 to 4,500 m.  In Argentina it is only found in Jujuy and Salta.	eng
17223	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is present in primary and secondary Puna and dry forest and scrubland. It can be found in cultivated areas and pastureland. It is often found amongst rocks.	eng
17223	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is a common species in Bolivia, however, in Argentina it is considered rare.	eng
17223	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Jayat, J.P. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The dry forest habitat of this species is susceptible to anthropogenic changes.	eng
17224	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
17224	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs along coastal west-central Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
17224	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species occurs in habitas associated with Chilean matorral.	eng
17224	population	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is considered abundant.	eng
17224	threats	Patterson, B. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
17225	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in the Huascaran National Park. Further research into this species is needed.	eng
17225	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of Ancash Department, Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded between 2,600 and 3,000 m.	eng
17225	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in dry shrublands and rocky areas, but it is not present in open areas. It can be found at the edges of cultivated areas, but not in the areas themselves.	eng
17225	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
17225	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is threatened by clearance of shrub habitat for pastoral grazing. The species has a narrow distribution and is becoming increasingly fragmented in patches of remaining habitat.	eng
17226	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in the Santuario Historico Bosque de Pomac, a protected area. Further research in general is needed into this species.	eng
17226	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is known from Sechura Desert, northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded from around 50 m.	eng
17226	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is terrestrial and is found in sandy areas with mesquite vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas.	eng
17226	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
17226	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
17227	conservation	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
17227	distribution	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of central Ecuador, it has an altitudinal rage of 3400 to 4000 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
17227	habitat	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Little is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus (shrublands, grasslands and rocky outcrops).	eng
17227	population	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is frequent to uncommon. Difficult to capture: during 50 sampling days between 8 May 1978 and 7 May 1980, inclusive, 241 individual small mammals were trapped belonging to 16 species near Papallacta, no <em>P. haggardi</em> were captured although they are known to occur in the area (Voss, 2003).	eng
17227	threats	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation, fragmentation and agriculture threaten some populations.	eng
17228	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It has been recorded from three protected areas in Peru.	eng
17228	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in the upper Pacific slopes of Andes from central Peru (Arana-Cardó and Ascorra, 1994) to north Chile (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It occurs from 2,000 to at least 3,800 m.	eng
17228	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in rocky areas, shrubland, riverine areas, Polylepis forest and cultivated areas. It has been trapped among rocks, in stone walls, and along the banks of small streams.	eng
17228	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species. Densities of 2.06 per hectare have been recorded in mountain scrub of Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
17228	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17229	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	It occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
17229	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in limited distribution within the Altiplano of northeastern Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
17229	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	Rocky areas in Andean regions.	eng
17229	population	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
17229	threats	D'Elia, G. & Patterson, B., 2008	Populations can be threatened by mining activities in some areas, however, there are no major threats to the species.	eng
17230	conservation	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is present in four protected areas in Peru, many in Bolivia and several in Chile and Argentina.	eng
17230	distribution	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This species occurs in the upper Andean slopes, from south central Peru (Cuzco Department), through west Bolivia, to north Argentina (Catamarca Province). This species is found from 3,400 to 4,900 m in Bolivia. In Argentina is found from 1,500 m to 3,100 m (Jayat and Pacheco, 2006). The species has not been recorded in Chile.	eng
17230	habitat	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This is a mouse of the high Andean bunchgrass and rocky areas, though it can occur at lower elevations in a few localities. It is strictly crepuscular. It is present in primary, secondary and cultivated areas and particolary in foggy grasslands.	eng
17230	population	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is a common species. In Peru it was found at a density of 1.47 per hectare (Pearson and Ralph, 1978).	eng
17230	threats	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. , Patterson, B. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
17231	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in the Cuesta de Sama and Tariquia National Reserve in Bolivia. Further studies are needed into this species.	eng
17231	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs on the upper east Andean slopes in west central Bolivia (Anderson, 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevational range of 1,300 to 3,875 m.	eng
17231	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is present in dry valleys where it is found in primary and disturbed dry shrubby habitat. It can be found in cultivated areas.	eng
17231	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
17231	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species; it is found in a wide variety of habitats including disturbed areas.	eng
17232	conservation	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
17232	distribution	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in the west central Peru, in and along the Andes to Santa Cruz Province, south Argentina, and adjacent Magallanes Province, south Chile; latitudinal (15-51°S) and altitudinal ranges (sea level-5,600 m) exceptional as currently defined (Kramer <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Peru and Bolivia it ranges between 2,000 and 4,500 m.	eng
17232	habitat	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of habitats, including wetlands, <span style="font-style: italic;">Polylepis </span>forest, altiplano, grasslands, shrublands, rocky areas and cultivated areas.	eng
17232	population	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
17232	threats	Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Patterson, B., Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17233	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to confirm the extent of occurrence, to establish population sizes and trends, and to monitor possible threats.	eng
17233	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	La Vega and Monseñor Nouel provinces in Dominican Republic and Dept. L'Ouest in Haiti.	eng
17233	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Forested mountain streams at around 2,000 m; larvae in cold, clear pools (Westfall 1976, Daigle 1993).	eng
17233	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
17233	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Habitat destruction.	eng
17278	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
17278	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from the Kunene and Okavango systems and the ephemeral systems inbetween and southern Angola. It is also found in the Caprivi area (part of the upper Zambesi system) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). It could occur further up the Zambesi but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
17278	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	A mainly benthic species but may occur on plants and sand substrate. This species occurs in permanent and ephemeral river and pan systems (Brown <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). The species can aestivate and is therefore able to survive periods of desiccation.	eng
17278	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	A locally common species (Curtis pers comm.). This species is recorded at moderate densities, 15 to 20 per square metre (Curtis and Appleton 1987)	eng
17278	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No threats known.	eng
17279	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
17279	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
17279	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
17279	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Kenya, through Somalia to southeast Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from northern Kenya and lower Tana river. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Somalia, and southeast Ethiopia near Dolo (Brown 1994).	eng
17279	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Somalia, south east Ethiopia near Dolo (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Kenya and lower Tana River.	eng
17279	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is present in northern Kenya and lower Tana River.  It is also reported from several other parts of Africa.	eng
17279	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits rivers and swamps (Bacci 1951).	eng
17279	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
17279	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
17279	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
17279	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
17279	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
17279	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
17279	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation is a possible threat.	eng
17279	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is threatened by sedimentation and drought.	eng
17288	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The catchments of the East and South Alligator rivers, and the lower reaches of the East Alligator River fall within the Kakadu National Park (IUCN Category II).	eng
17288	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia.  It is restricted to the East and South Alligator River systems and the upper reaches of the Katherine Rivers, in the Northern Territory (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  These river basins cover an area of approximately 80,430 km².	eng
17288	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. midgleyi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is most common in well-shaded, rocky pools in clear, flowing creeks, usually with sandy bottoms and little aquatic vegetation present.  It occurs in small aggregations in the wild, and is believed to spawn during the middle wet season (December to January), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17288	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is reported to be common within its range (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17288	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The area which is inhabited by <em>P. midgleyi</em> is threatened by pollution from uranium mining, but this is currently believed to be under control (UNEP-WCMC 2002).  There are plans for water extraction from the lower reaches of the Katherine River, but as <em>P. midgleyi</em> is restricted to the upper reaches of this river it is unlikely to be affected (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
17314	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national law in most European range states. It is also protected under international legislation in parts of its range through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, and is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
17314	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national law in most European range states. It is also protected under international legislation in parts of its range through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, and is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
17314	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected by national law in most European range states. It is also protected under international legislation in parts of its range through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, and is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is found in a number of protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
17314	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> has a large range extending from Iberia through southern Europe through the Near East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and India. The northern limit of its range in Europe was formerly <em>ca</em>.45°N, but the species has been expanding northwards. It arrived 1994 in Vienna/Austria (48°N),  and was more recently recorded to 50°N in France and 51°N in Ukraine. It has been expanding northwards in Russia for the last half century from 46°N to c.53°N, with the highest record made at almost  57°N (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17314	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species is widespread in Africa, Europe and Asia. <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> has a large range extending from Iberia through southern Europe through the Near East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and India (Molur 2002). There is a single record from China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008). The northern limit of its range in Europe was formerly <em>ca</em>.45°N, but the species has been expanding northwards. It arrived 1994 in Vienna/Austria (48°N),  and was more recently recorded to 50°N in France and 51°N in Ukraine. It has been expanding northwards in Russia for the last half century from 46°N to c.53°N, with the highest record made at almost  57°N (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17314	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species is widespread in Africa, Europe and Asia. <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> has a large range extending from Iberia through southern Europe through the Near East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and India (Molur 2002). There is a single record from China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008). The northern limit of its range in Europe was formerly <em>ca</em>.45°N, but the species has been expanding northwards. It arrived 1994 in Vienna/Austria (48°N),  and was more recently recorded to 50°N in France and 51°N in Ukraine. It has been expanding northwards in Russia for the last half century from 46°N to c.53°N, with the highest record made at almost  57°N (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17314	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over variety of habitats, including agricultural and urban areas (including around street lights). It feeds on small insects, including Diptera, Psocoptera, and Coleoptera. Summer maternity colonies are located in crevices in buildings. Winter sites include rock crevices and cellars. In North Africa this species is usually associated with human settlements, forages in forest as well as semi-desert, common in the oases of the northern Sahara.  Found in temperate grassland and Mediterranean-type shrubland. Kuhl' s pipistrelle is probably a sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17314	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages over variety of habitats, including agricultural and urban areas (including around street lights). It feeds on small insects, including Diptera, Psocoptera, and Coleoptera. Summer maternity colonies are located in crevices in buildings. Winter sites include rock crevices and cellars. In North Africa this species is usually associated with human settlements, forages in forest as well as semi-desert, common in the oases of the northern Sahara.  Found in temperate grassland and Mediterranean-type shrubland. Kuhl' s pipistrelle is probably a sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17314	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages over variety of habitats, including agricultural and urban areas (including around street lights). It feeds on small insects, including Diptera, Psocoptera, and Coleoptera. Summer maternity colonies are located in crevices in buildings. Winter sites include rock crevices and cellars. Kuhl’s pipistrelle is probably a sedentary species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17314	population	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is a relatively abundant species in the Mediterranean region and Middle East. Populations in South Asia seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer colonies typically number 30-100 individuals. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species' range is increasing and it is displacing <em>P. pipistrellus</em> (M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The northern border of the species' range is also expanding. It is very numerous in urban areas across much of its range.	eng
17314	population	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is a relatively abundant species in the Mediterranean region and Middle East. Populations in South Asia seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer colonies typically number 30-100 individuals. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species' range is increasing and it is displacing <em>P. pipistrellus</em> (M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The northern border of the species' range is also expanding. It is very numerous in urban areas across much of its range.	eng
17314	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is a relatively abundant species in the Mediterranean region and Middle East. Summer colonies typically number 30-100 individuals. In Iran and the Caucasus, the species' range is increasing and it is displacing <em>P. pipistrellus</em> (M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). The northern border of the species' range is also expanding.	eng
17314	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	No major threats are known.	eng
17314	threats	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	No major threats are known. Use of pesticides to eradicate mosquitos (especially in urban areas) may be a threat in places.	eng
17314	threats	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	No major threats are known. Use of pesticides to eradicate mosquitos (especially in urban areas) may be a threat in places.	eng
17315	conservation	Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	The species is protected through Bern Convention, and included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. Rainho and Palmeirim (2002) proposed the following actions: identification, protection and monitoring of roosts; preservation and restoration of natural habitats, reduction of pesticide use; and, study of the species' biology, ecology, genetics, and systematics. Palomo and Gisbert (2002) additionally recommend a public awareness campaign aimed at reducing disturbance of breeding colonies in private houses.	eng
17315	distribution	Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	This species is restricted to Madeira (Madeira, Porto Santo), and the western Canary Islands (La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife). Pipistrelles found in the Azores (Santa Maria, Flores, Corvo, Graciosa, San Jorge) probably belong to this species. It is found from sea level to 2,150 m in the Canary Islands, although it prefers lowlands on Madeira (Fajardo and Benzal 1999).	eng
17315	habitat	Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	It forages over a wide range of habitats, including aquatic habitats, woodland and farmland (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It feeds on flying insects, including small moths and flies. Breeding colonies have been found in crevices in sea-cliffs and underneath the roofs of houses, as well as in bird boxes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Roost sites include rock crevices, bird boxes, and crevices in (often disused) buildings. It is often associated with human settlements.	eng
17315	population	Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	On the islands of Madeira it is relatively abundant on Madeira and very rare on Porto Santo. The total population is estimated to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, and trends are unknown (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Canary Islands it is the most reported bat on all islands of occurrence, although no bat is abundant in the islands. Population size and trend have not been quantified (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), although declines are inferred as a result of threats including loss and degradation of habitats, pesticide use, and disturbance and destruction of roosts. On the Azores, <em>Pipistrellus</em> bats are rare or very rare on all islands of occurrence, and the total number of individuals is probably less than 300 (Rainho <em>et al.</em> 2002). The global population is naturally fragmented.	eng
17315	threats	Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	Loss of natural habitat may be a threat, although the species is apparently adapted to man-made habitats. The use of agricultural pesticides may be a problem, and disturbance to roosts in buildings may also be of concern.	eng
17316	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is regarded as a species of special concern by Eurobats. Proposals for the conservation of the species in Europe (including research requirements) were made by Limpens and Schulte (2000) following a workshop in Germany in 1998. They recommended a Europe-wide census involving assessment of the species' population status and trends, identification of its mating, hibernation and maternity areas, investigation of migration routes, and identification of preferred resting areas on migration routes.	eng
17316	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It is regarded as a species of special concern by Eurobats. Proposals for the conservation of the species in Europe (including research requirements) were made by Limpens and Schulte (2000) following a workshop in Germany in 1998. They recommended a Europe-wide census involving assessment of the species' population status and trends, identification of its mating, hibernation and maternity areas, investigation of migration routes, and identification of preferred resting areas on migration routes.	eng
17316	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is regarded as a species of special concern by Eurobats. Proposals for the conservation of the species in Europe (including research requirements) were made by Limpens and Schulte (2000) following a workshop in Germany in 1998. They recommended a Europe-wide census involving assessment of the species' population status and trends, identification of its mating, hibernation and maternity areas, investigation of migration routes, and identification of preferred resting areas on migration routes.	eng
17316	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Pipistrellus nathusii </em>is a western Palaearctic migratory species. It is restricted to Europe, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia where it is found at latitudes of up to <em>ca</em>. 37-63°N. In Europe, it is generally widespread although absent from most of Iberia and Fennoscandia. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (eastern Germany, Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: Vierhaus 2004). The first observation of <em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> breeding in Finland was made in 2006 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006) when a colony of c.10 individuals, including lactating females, was found close to the  southern coast some  50-60 km east of Helsinki. The species is typically associated with lowland areas but has been recorded up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> is a western Palaearctic migratory species. It is restricted to Europe, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia where it is found at latitudes of up to <em>ca</em>. 37-63°N. In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread across southern Europe although apparently absent from most of Iberia (although there have been some new recent records in Spain which extend the known range) and Fennoscandia. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (eastern Germany, Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: Vierhaus 2004). The first observation of <em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> breeding in Finland was made in 2006 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006) when a colony of <em>ca</em>.10 individuals, including lactating females, was found close to the  southern coast some  50-60 km east of Helsinki. The species is typically associated with lowland areas but has been recorded up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> is a western Palaearctic migratory species. It is restricted to Europe, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia where it is found at latitudes of up to <em>ca</em>. 37-63°N. In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread across southern Europe although apparently absent from most of Iberia (although there have been some new recent records in Spain which extend the known range) and Fennoscandia. With few exceptions, maternity colonies are confined to northeastern Europe (eastern Germany, Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia: Vierhaus 2004). The first observation of <em>Pipistrellus nathusii</em> breeding in Finland was made in 2006 (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006) when a colony of <em>ca</em>.10 individuals, including lactating females, was found close to the  southern coast some  50-60 km east of Helsinki. The species is typically associated with lowland areas but has been recorded up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages over a range of habitats including woodland edge, wetlands, and open parkland. Summer roosts are located in tree holes, buildings, and bat boxes, mainly in woodland areas. Winter roost sites include crevices in cliffs, buildings and around the entrance of caves, often in relatively cold, dry, and exposed sites. It is a migratory species, with movements of up to 1,905 km recorded (Petersons 2004). Migrations typically follow a NE-SW route (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages over a range of habitats including woodland edge, wetlands, and open parkland. Summer roosts are located in tree holes, buildings, and bat boxes, mainly in woodland areas. Winter roost sites include crevices in cliffs, buildings and around the entrance of caves, often in relatively cold, dry, and exposed sites. It is a migratory species, with movements of up to 1,905 km recorded (Petersons 2004). Migrations typically follow a NE-SW route (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages over a range of habitats including woodland edge, wetlands, and open parkland. Summer roosts are located in tree holes, buildings, and bat boxes, mainly in woodland areas. Winter roost sites include crevices in cliffs, buildings and around the entrance of caves, often in relatively cold, dry, and exposed sites. It is a migratory species, with movements of up to 1,905 km recorded (Petersons 2004). Migrations typically follow a NE-SW route (Bogdanowicz 1999).	eng
17316	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is abundant in northern parts of its range, and less common but increasingly recorded in southern and western parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies of up to 200 individuals have been recorded, but large winter aggregations are not known.	eng
17316	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is abundant in northern parts of range, and less common but increasingly recorded in southern and western parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies of up to 200 individuals have been recorded, but large winter aggregations are not known.	eng
17316	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is abundant in northern parts of range, and less common but increasingly recorded in southern and western parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies of up to 200 individuals have been recorded, but large winter aggregations are not known.	eng
17316	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Although not major threats, the species is affected by habitat fragmentation on migration routes, loss of and disturbance to roosts in buildings, loss of mature trees with cavities and/or loose bark etc., and water quality changes which may affect food supply.	eng
17316	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Although not major threats, the species is affected by habitat fragmentation on migration routes, loss of and disturbance to roosts in buildings, loss of mature trees with cavities and/or loose bark, etc., and water quality changes which may affect food supply.	eng
17316	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Although not major threats, the species is affected by habitat fragmentation on migration routes, loss of and disturbance to roosts in buildings, loss of mature trees with cavities and/or loose bark, etc., and water quality changes which may affect food supply.	eng
17317	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.	eng
17317	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.	eng
17317	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
17317	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Pipistrellus pipistrellus</em> is a widespread western Palaearctic species with a range extending from the British Isles through much of Europe (with the exception of northern Fennoscandia) to the Volga and Caucasus; and through parts of north-western Africa and south-west Asia to central Asia. Its detailed distribution, as distinct from that of the recently-differentiated <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, is still to be established. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17317	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus pipistrellus</em> is a widespread western Palaearctic species with a range extending from the British Isles through southern Scandinavia, much of Europe (including all the Mediterranean countries, but with the exception of northern Fennoscandia) to the Volga and Caucasus; and through parts of north-western Africa (mountainous areas of Morooco, Algeria and Tunisia, also in Cyrenaica in Libya) and south-west Asia to central and eastern Asia (China, India, Myanmar). Its detailed distribution, as distinct from that of the recently-differentiated <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, is still to be established. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17317	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus pipistrellus</em> is a widespread western Palaearctic species with a range extending from the British Isles through southern Scandinavia, much of Europe (including all the Mediterranean countries, but with the exception of northern Fennoscandia) to the Volga and Caucasus; and through parts of north-western Africa (mountainous areas of Morooco, Algeria and Tunisia, also in Cyrenaica in Libya) and south-west Asia to central and eastern Asia (China, India, Myanmar). Its detailed distribution, as distinct from that of the recently-differentiated <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, is still to be established. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
17317	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages in a variety of habitats including open woodland and woodland edges, farmland, rural gardens and urban areas. It feeds on small moths and flies. Summer roosts are mainly found in buildings and trees, and individuals frequently change roost site through the maternity period. Most winter roost sites are located in crevices in buildings, although cracks in cliffs and caves and possibly holes in trees may also be used.  It is not especially migratory in most of its range, but movements of up to 1,123 km have been recorded (Buresh 1941 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). In at least parts of its range it seems to benefit from urbanisation (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
17317	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages in a variety of habitats including open woodland and woodland edges, Mediterranean shrubland, semi-desert, farmland, rural gardens and urban areas. It feeds on small moths and flies. Summer roosts are mainly found in buildings and trees, and individuals frequently change roost site through the maternity period. Most winter roost sites are located in crevices in buildings, although cracks in cliffs and caves and possibly holes in trees may also be used.  It is not especially migratory in most of its range, but movements of up to 1,123 km have been recorded (Buresh 1941 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). In at least parts of its range it seems to benefit from urbanisation (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
17317	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages in a variety of habitats including open woodland and woodland edges, Mediterranean shrubland, semi-desert, farmland, rural gardens and urban areas. It feeds on small moths and flies. Summer roosts are mainly found in buildings and trees, and individuals frequently change roost site through the maternity period. Most winter roost sites are located in crevices in buildings, although cracks in cliffs and caves and possibly holes in trees may also be used.  It is not especially migratory in most of its range, but movements of up to 1,123 km have been recorded (Buresh 1941 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). In at least parts of its range it seems to benefit from urbanisation (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
17317	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	A widespread and abundant species, one of the most common bats in many parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies generally number 25-50 individuals, although colonies of as many as 200 have been recorded. In winter, it tends to occur singly or in small groups, although some very large groups have been recorded (e.g., up to 45,000 in caves in Romania and Slovakia) (Nagy and Szanto 2003). Significant declines have been recorded in some European countries (e.g. Britain), although in Britain at least the trend may now have stabilised (Battersby 2005).	eng
17317	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	A widespread and abundant species, one of the most common bats in many parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies generally number 25-50 individuals, although colonies of as many as 200 have been recorded. In winter, it tends to occur singly or in small groups, although some very large groups have been recorded (e.g., up to 45,000 in caves in Romania and Slovakia) (Nagy and Szanto 2003). Significant declines have been recorded in some European countries (e.g. Britain), although in Britain at least the trend may now have stabilised (Battersby 2005).  In Serbia in the urban areas <em>P. pipistrellus</em> has become less common due to displacement by <em>P. kuhlii</em> (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007). The same is also reported from the Russian Federation.	eng
17317	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	A widespread and abundant species, one of the most common bats in many parts of its range. Summer maternity colonies generally number 25-50 individuals, although colonies of as many as 200 have been recorded. In winter, it tends to occur singly or in small groups, although some very large groups have been recorded (e.g., up to 45,000 in caves in Romania and Slovakia) (Nagy and Szanto 2003). Significant declines have been recorded in some European countries (e.g. Britain), although in Britain at least the trend may now have stabilised (Battersby 2005).  In Serbia in the urban areas <em>P. pipistrellus</em> has become less common due to displacement by <em>P. kuhlii</em> (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007). The same is also reported from the Russian Federation.	eng
17317	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	As a high proportion of colonies are found in buildings, the species may be particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However this is not thought to be a major threat to the species at present.	eng
17317	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	In parts of the range there is deliberate persecution as people do not want thousands of bats roosting in their buildings. As a high proportion of colonies are found in buildings, the species may be particularly vulnerable to other anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005).	eng
17317	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	In parts of the range there is deliberate persecution as people do not want thousands of bats roosting in their buildings. As a high proportion of colonies are found in buildings, the species may be particularly vulnerable to other anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005).	eng
17320	conservation	Bates, P. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Its range includes protected areas.	eng
17320	distribution	Bates, P. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is known from the southern Ussuri region (Russia and China), the western half of China including Taiwan, Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Viet Nam, Myanmar, and India. In Japan, it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the islands of Tsushima, Takarajima Yaku, Tane, Kuchino, Amami-oshima, Tokunoshima, Okinawa, Kakeroma, Miyako, Irabu, Ishigaki, Iriomote, and Yonaguni (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In China it is known from the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, Shanxi, Jiangsu, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Shandong, Anhui, Zhejiang, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Fujian, Taiwan, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macao, Guizhou, Xizang, Shaanxi, and Hainan (Smith and Xie, in press). There is a record from Sakhalin (Russia).	eng
17320	habitat	Bates, P. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It roosts during the day in houses and buildings (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It appears to be absent from montane areas and forests where there are no structures for roosts (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is often found feeding under lights in disturbed habitats. Its preference for disturbed habitats has made it difficult to establish its preference for non-anthropogenic habitats.	eng
17320	population	Bates, P. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It is a common species in China (Smith and Xie, in press). One of the most abundant bats in Hanoi and, supposedly, also in other human settlements and heavily disturbed areas of north Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003). In Japan, typical colony size ranges from a few, to a hundred individuals (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
17320	threats	Bates, P. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
17321	conservation	Lumsden, L., Woinarski, J. & Milne, D., 2008	It is known to occur in several protected areas, including Kakadu, Litchfield, Nitmiluk, Djukbinj, and Garig Gunak Barlu National Parks.	eng
17321	distribution	Lumsden, L., Woinarski, J. & Milne, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the wet-dry tropics of Australia where it occurs north of around 15°S on Cape York Peninsula in Queensland and in the Top End of the Northern Territory.	eng
17321	habitat	Lumsden, L., Woinarski, J. & Milne, D., 2008	On Cape York the Forest Pipistrelle is largely associated with waterbodies in rainforests, savanna, and open woodland habitats. In the Top End of the Northern Territory it occurs throughout all environments, but appears to prefer tall eucalypt forests and woodlands (Hoye and Milne 2008). It is known to roost in rock shelters (T. Reardon pers. comm.), but is believed to primarily roost is tree hollows. Females give birth to a single young and may breed more than once a year (Hoye and Milne 2008).	eng
17321	population	Lumsden, L., Woinarski, J. & Milne, D., 2008	It appears to be relatively common, particularly in the more northerly areas of its range.	eng
17321	threats	Lumsden, L., Woinarski, J. & Milne, D., 2008	No major threats to this species are known. Habitat loss is a general threat, as is modification through livestock grazing and altered fire regimes (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
17323	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It has been recorded in the Matthews Range Forest Reserve and Marsabit National Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
17323	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is endemic to northwestern Kenya, where it is known only from three localities (Mount Garguez; Marsabit Lake and Ngong). It may be present in adjacent Ethiopia, however, this needs confirmation.	eng
17323	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is typically associated with dry forest habitats. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
17323	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
17323	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
17324	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	In South Asia, there are no conservation measures in place and this species has not been recorded from any protected areas. In Southeast Asia is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed in some South Asian parts of the species range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17324	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is generally distributed in southern and northern parts of South Asia, southern China, and western Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is known from India (Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva provinces. In China, the species has been recorded from Xizang, Yunnan, and Guangxi. In Southeast Asia it appears to have only been recorded from Myanmar. It ranges from sea level up to around 2,000 m asl.	eng
17324	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species roosts in small colonies of five or six individuals in roofs of buildings and cracks, hollows in trees, near human habitations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It feeds on small insects (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
17324	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is little information about the abundance of this species. Though widely distributed in South Asia, the population size is believed to be small and a declining trend in the population is inferred (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
17324	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Southeast Asia. In parts of South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human interference to roosting sites (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17326	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas. Important roosting and foraging sites should be identified and protected.	eng
17326	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the island of Biak (Indonesia), through parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismark Archipelago, many islands of Milne Bay Province, and the island of Bougainville (all Papua New Guinea), to the Solomon Islands as far south as the island of Nendo (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). Its distribution on the island of New Guinea is poorly known. It has been recorded between sea level and 2,400 m asl.	eng
17326	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	This species roosts in caves, buildings, and bamboo clumps. Unlike <em>Pipistrellus papuanus</em>, it does not roost in holes in coconut palms. The species forages in tall primary and secondary tropical moist forest, even in urban areas. On New Guinea, this species has been recorded emerging from their roost at dusk to forage on aerial insects. A maternity colony of 200 bats in a cave was active in June on the island of New Ireland in the Bismark Archipelago (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
17326	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
17326	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Leary, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
17327	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.	eng
17327	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Myanmar, Changyinku at 2,134 m asl.	eng
17327	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The type locality is in secondary deciduous and some pine forest in a cultivated area (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
17327	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
17327	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
17328	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No specific measures are in place. Research is required to determine population size, distribution, trends, and any threats or necessary conservation measures.	eng
17328	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is known only from mountains of the North-Eastern Oman, Arabian Peninsula; and from Iran, where 12 individuals were reported from Baluchistan province in 2002 (Benda <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
17328	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In Iran bats were collected above a rest pool of a periodical river, surrounded by lowland desert and semi-desert habitats (ca. 130 m a.s.l.). Similarly as in other species of eptesicini-pipistrellini clade, <em>P. arabicus</em> is an aerial hawker: as the diet analysis has shown, the species is insectivorous.	eng
17328	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
17328	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
17331	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey, ecological studies and impacts of roost disturbance need to be conducted (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
17331	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread in northeastern South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (West Bengal) and has been recorded from an elevation of 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Lekagul and McNeely (1977) erroneously reported Assam instead of West Bengal as the range of this species range (Srinivauslu <em>et al.</em> in press). In Mainland Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. The species is probably more widespread in Southeast Asia than is currently known (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
17331	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in dry bamboo forests and mixed forests (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam the species was collected in a disturbed area close to the Cuc Phuong National Park headquarters (Bates <em>et. al.</em> 1997). Remains of a single specimen have been collected from a cave in northeastern Thailand (Robinson and Smith 1997).	eng
17331	population	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread but not common.	eng
17331	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the threats to this species remain unknown. However, disturbance to roosting sites by humans could affect the populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17332	conservation	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008) and Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve (Vanitharani 2006). Ecological studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17332	distribution	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is largely distributed in South Asia, with additional populations recorded in China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (no exact location), India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Uva and Western provinces) (Das 2003; Khan 2001; Korad <em>et al. </em>2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,153 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from south Guangxi and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, there are reports of this species from northern Myanmar, northern Viet Nam, and Sabah (Malaysia) on the island of Borneo (at 1,300 m asl).	eng
17332	habitat	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species can be found in varied habitats from arid regions to humid montane forests. It roosts in human habitations in both rural and urban areas, in old dilapidated buildings, crevices and cracks in walls, tree hollows, holes in trees, caves, wells, old temples, under overhanging ledges. It roosts either singly or in colonies of few hundred individuals. It is an early flyer and its flight includes numerous twists and turns and also goes straight and hunts mainly beetles, moths, flies and other insects. Two young are born after a gestation period of 50-55 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
17332	population	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widely distributed and a common species and its population seems to be doing well over its range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17332	threats	Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species however, it is locally threatened in some areas by hunting for local consumption and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17334	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is presumed to be present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
17334	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a number of scattered localities along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and from Goodenough Island, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is found between 700 and 2,900 m asl.	eng
17334	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been reported from tropical hill forests, mid-montane forests, and from native gardens. Animals have been recorded roosting in the hollows of trunks of Pandanus trees. It is an aerial insectivore. Two females collected in the month of June were lactating.	eng
17334	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. Flannery (1995) found it to be common in the Kwiyawagi area of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is likely to be locally common.	eng
17334	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There are no known, major threats to this species. Much of the hill habitat used by this species are intact and are not considered to be threatened.	eng
17335	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Furey, N., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas including Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from some protected areas.	eng
17335	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Furey, N., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widely distributed species is found throughout most of South Asia, parts of southern China and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (no exact location), Bhutan (no exact location), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western Northern, Southern and Uva provinces) (Das 2003; Khan 2001; Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Simmons 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005; Vanitharani 2006). In South Asia, it has been recorded from 100 to 2,769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it has been recorded from Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
17335	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Furey, N., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in varied habitat types from forested regions, agricultural landscapes to urban areas. It roosts in trees, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of houses, tiles of huts, old buildings, temples, under bark and in holes of large trees, signboards, tree hollows in small groups of few individuals. It is an early flyer with a slow fluttering flight and hunts on flies, ants and other small insects. There are three breeding seasons and two young ones are born (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
17335	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Furey, N., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, it is a widely distributed and common species and the population seems to be doing well in its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is fairly common in Viet Nam, even in cities and similar urban habitats.	eng
17335	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Furey, N., Bumrungsri, S., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
17338	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India such as Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and effect of pesticide overuse on this species. Public awareness activities need to be taken up highlighting the importance of this species in the agricultural ecosystem as the controller of insect pests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17338	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known from Bangladesh (Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) (Das 2003, Vanitharani 2006, Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17338	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in drier climes and near human habitations in both rural and urban landscapes. It roosts in cracks, crevices, holes in old temples, old disused buildings and tombs and in holes in large trees in colonies of 2-24 individuals. It is a late flyer, hunts close to its roosting site and flies steadily. Its diet varies seasonally feeding on beetles, moths, grasshoppers, crickets in winter, winged termites, beetles, moths, orthopterans, hymenopterans in summer and termites, beetles, moths, orthopterans and hymenopterans in monsoon and feeds on agriculturally important insect pests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species seems to breed almost throughout the year (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
17338	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widespread and common species and the population seems to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17338	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. As this species feeds on agricultural pests its population might be declining in parts of its range because of the use of chemical pesticides (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17340	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	It is present in protected areas. They are a	eng
17340	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it has been recorded from nine prefectures in Honshu and Shikoku (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from 100 m to perhaps 1,500 m asl. The actual area of occupancy is considered to be extremely restricted.  Their suitable habitat of mature deciduous forests at low altitude, is limited and decreasing, and they have also not been found in many areas of apparently suitable habitat despite reasonable research efforts.	eng
17340	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	It occurs primarily in mature deciduous forests, and roosts in tree hollows (although there is one instance of them roosting in a cave).	eng
17340	population	Maeda, K., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
17340	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	Destruction of primary lowland forest, upon which the species depends for roosting in tree hollows, has been responsible for declines seen in populations at lower elevations (and ongoing). They are not adaptable, and do not use buildings or other man-made structures to roost in.	eng
17341	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Avoid habitat loss and human disturbance. Destruction of rocky areas due to renewed mining or other development activities can kill roosting bats and remove roosting habitat.	eng
17341	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Washington to Southwestern Oklahoma (USA), and Baja California, south to Hidalgo and Guerrero (Mexico) (Simmons 2005).	eng
17341	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Western pipistrelles inhabit a variety of habitats, ranging from rocky canyons, cliffs, and outcroppings to creosote bush flats. They are the most abundant of North American bats that are found in deserts, but are found at higher elevations in arid brush lands, grasslands, and even some forests. Western pipistrelles spend their days roosting in rock crevices, beneath rocks, in burrows, mines, and buildings. It has been suggested that western pipistrelles use burrows made by kangaroo rats (<em>Dipodomys</em> spp.) and other rodents (Barbour and Davis, 1969).<br/>Western pipistrelles spend their winter hibernating in mines, caves, and rock crevices. Water is a very important resource determining the distribution of this bat. Because of the high proportion of protein in their diet, the arid environment that they inhabit, and the subsequent high levels of evaporative water loss, western pipistrelles generally roost close to a water source. Availability of maternity roost sites is an extremely important factor in successful bat reproduction (Cockrum and Cross, 1964).	eng
17341	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Western pipistrelles begin their foraging flights very early in the evening hours, making them one of the most diurnal of North American bats. They may also be encountered later in the evening (4 hrs after sunset), or closer to the morning. Occasionally, individual bats have been observed on wing during mid-day, during which time they seek out water to alleviate stress caused by the arid environment they inhabit. Because these bats fly slowly, they are restricted to small foraging circuits. They have a very slow, fluttery flight that can often be observed along cliff faces, among pinyon trees, or other desert shrubs. They are often mistaken for large moths (Peters 2003).	eng
17341	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Since reopening abandoned or inactive mines can negatively affect bat colonies, it has been recommended that multi-seasonal surveys be conducted prior to allowing any renewed mining. Human disturbance can be extremely detrimental to bat colonies, especially to non-volant young and hibernating adults, depending on the season and severity of the disturbance. Mines that are in close proximity to roads, towns, hiking trails or camp grounds are more susceptible to disturbance then those in remote areas with difficult access. There is a need for greater assurance that roosts will remain undisturbed and that future (potential) roost sites will be left when managing for bats in pinyon-juniper habitat. Ideally, management should aim to sustain adequate food, water, and roost sites in close proximity to one another (Klingel, 2000).	eng
17342	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
17342	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species occurs in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo), Java, Kangean Island, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Island in Indonesia. Records from the Philippines (Palawan) represent <em>Hypsugo javanicus</em> (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
17342	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It inhabits wide, dry water course fringed by plantations and bamboo. It has been captured over a stream in amongst banana trees in a village garden, also over water in an irrigation canal. Three individuals have been captured by hand in banana leaves (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
17342	population	Hutson, A.M. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It is not an uncommon species.	eng
17342	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Suyanto, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17343	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known bats species.	eng
17343	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from a few localities in West and Central Africa. It has been reported from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria and Cameroon. There are also uncertain records from east Sudan and Uganda, although the specimens in question are difficult to certainly allocate to <em>Pipistrellus inexspectatus</em> (Koopman 1975). The records of this species from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya are now allocated to <em>Pipistrellus eisentrauti</em> (Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Simmons 2005).	eng
17343	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. The type locality is reportedly from Guinea woodland (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
17343	population	Fahr. J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
17343	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known.	eng
17344	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas including Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 6 March 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17344	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from northern and central South Asia, southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Balkh, Faryab, Kabul, Konarha and Kunduz provinces), Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions,), India (Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central) and Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) (Das 2003; Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to 2,380 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Xizang and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges widely, from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore. With insular Southeast Asia, the species is distributed in Indonesia (Sumatra, Bangka, Java, Flores, Karakelang), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), on the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Camiguin, Luzon (Benguet , Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, and Rizal provinces), Mindanao (Bukidnon, and Davao del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Reinhard, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). In the Philippines, it has been recorded from sea level to around 2,250 m asl (Mount Kitanglad).	eng
17344	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in varied habitat types from primary and secondary forested regions, agricultural landscapes (including rubber plantations) to urban areas. It roosts in trees, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of houses, tiles of huts, old buildings, temples, under bark and in holes of large trees, signboards, tree hollows in small groups of few individuals. It is an early flyer with a slow fluttering flight and hunts on flies, ants and other small insects. There are three breeding seasons and two young ones are born (Sanborn <em>et al</em>., 1952; Bates and Harrison 1997; Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.; P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
17344	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed, common and the population seems stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; C. Francis pers. comm.; Sedlock pers. comm. 2006).	eng
17344	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to this adaptable species. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened by disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17345	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
17345	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is only known from two locations in northern Myanmar.	eng
17345	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species has been collected from 'thick forest' (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
17345	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is known only from two records (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
17345	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
17346	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species has been reported from protected areas; Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996), and Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
17346	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in Kalimantan Tengah (Barito River), in Indonesian Borneo. It was also reported from Gunung Palung National Park (Blundell 1996), and collected by Engstrom in the Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997).	eng
17346	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. Presumably it inhabits lowland and montane forest.	eng
17346	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
17346	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but habitat loss may be a threat if it inhabits lowland forest.	eng
17347	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species. Rapid deforestation and expansion of palm-oil plantations in its only known locality makes this species a priority for taxonomic research and further surveys.	eng
17347	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is only known from one location in Myanmar (Maliwun in Victoria Province, Tenasserim).	eng
17347	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species has been collected at just above sea level in a forest clearing in open grassland surrounded by evergreen forest (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
17347	population	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. The species has not been recorded since 1915.	eng
17347	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging is a possible threat.	eng
17348	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	Some substantial areas of suitable habitat for this species are protected. There is a need for further surveys and monitoring of it. Important roosting sites should be identified and protected.	eng
17348	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is endemic to south-western Western Australia, Australia.	eng
17348	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species occurs in high rainfall forests, dominated by Jarrah, Karri, Marri, and Tuart. Colonies of up to 30 animals have been found in hollow logs. It is a specialist of tall, mature forest (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
17348	population	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is locally common, but appears to be rare in the north of its range and has not been recorded by extensive, recent surveys. There could have always been a natural difference in density from north to south, but it seems likely that the range of the species has been reduced by habitat loss and alteration (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
17348	threats	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is threatened by continued logging of mature forests, and clearance of privately owned forest that is for various reasons including housing development (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
17349	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
17349	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in western Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Padang, Bali, and adjacent small islands). It is not known whether it occurs in Java.	eng
17349	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The species has been caught foraging over open mud flats in coastal areas in Peninsula Malaysia, however, its roosting requirements are unknown (C. Francis pers. comm.). It is not known whether it is tolerant of any disturbance of its habitat.	eng
17349	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
17349	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	Deforestation due to agriculture, plantations, logging and forest fires is occurring within the species' range, but it is not known whether this species is forest dependent.	eng
17350	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
17350	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The species is known only from two specimens from the type locality: Tomohon, Minahassa, in northern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).	eng
17350	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.	eng
17350	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It has not been recorded again since it was first described.	eng
17350	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
17351	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species, as it may well be declining, especially if reliant on primary habitat.	eng
17351	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, but was incorrectly included in the fauna of China based on Wang (2002), who listed it from Yingjiang, Yunnan.	eng
17351	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
17351	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
17351	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but if it is dependent on primary forest then deforestation will be a major threat.	eng
17353	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	Animals have been reported from the Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and seemingly adaptable species as a whole.	eng
17353	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is widespread in West and Central Africa, with an apparently disjunct population in East Africa. It ranges from Senegal eastwards, through most West African countries to Cameroon, from here it has been recorded from Equatorial Guinea (including the island of Bioko) and Gabon. In the east of the species range it has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and western Kenya (north of Lake Victoria).	eng
17353	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats including tropical moist lowland forest, riverine forest, tropical dry forest and lowland and moist savanna. In Nigeria it is found in the rainforest zone extending northwards into derived and Guinea savanna zones (Happold, 1987). Happold (1987) suggests that the species might be associated with banana plantations.	eng
17353	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is relatively common.	eng
17353	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
17355	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is presumed to occur in some protected areas.	eng
17355	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This widespread species is distributed from the islands of Seram, Ambon, Batanta, Dolak, Biak-Supiori, Salawati, the Aru Islands, and the Kai Islands (all Indonesia) in the west of its range, through parts of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is also present on Fergusson Island and the Samarai Islands in Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea), on the islands of New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), ranging as far east as the island of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It occurs from sea level to 1,300 m asl.	eng
17355	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species commonly roosts in buildings, tree hollows, and in small cavities in coconut trees (in groups of up to 50 animals) (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998). This species has been recorded from undisturbed lowland forest (D. Wright pers. comm.), but it is more commonly found as a human commensal species that seems to have benefitted from the modification of natural habitat as it is often found in towns, villages, and gardens, particularly in low-lying areas. It is an aerial insectivore that emerges shortly before dusk to forage in urban areas and plantations.	eng
17355	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is a very common species that is found in colonies of hundreds of individuals.	eng
17355	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may suffer some localised persecution within towns, villages, and other settlements.	eng
17356	conservation	Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
17356	distribution	Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is distributed in northern South Asia, southern China and parts of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur and Nagaland), where it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is restricted to Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, northern Thailand (requires confirmation Bumrungsri, <em>et al.</em>, 2006), Lao PDR and Viet Nam.	eng
17356	habitat	Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in primary and secondary forests. It roosts among banana and bamboo trees, deep holes in trees and roofs of thatched huts in forested areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Myanmar, it is predominantly found in limestone caves, although it has also been recorded from forest areas without karst habitats. It can be found in disturbed areas including agricultural land (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
17356	population	Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is relatively common in many areas in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.). In South Asia, although this is a widely distributed species a declining trend in its population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17356	threats	Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia there are no believed to be any major threats to this species as a whole (P. Bates pers. comm.). In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)	eng
17358	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of dry coastal forest in much of East Africa.	eng
17358	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen collected close to Dar es Salaam in Tanzania.	eng
17358	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The holotype was collected from coastal dry forest. There is little additional information on the natural history of this species.	eng
17358	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this bat.	eng
17358	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. However, it may be confined to dry coastal forest habitat, which is significantly threatened by conversion to agricultural use and extraction of firewood and timber.	eng
17359	conservation	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
17359	distribution	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is found on Borneo, Sulawesi, Buru and Amboina islands (Molucca Islands, Indonesia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines the species has been recorded from Luzon (Benguet province) and Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and Surigao del Norte provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
17359	habitat	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology of this species. A colony was found roosting under the eaves of an isolated house in lower montane forest in Sabah (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).	eng
17359	population	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
17359	threats	Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
17360	conservation	Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
17360	distribution	Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species is found in China (Anhui, Shanghai, Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Hainan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Hunan, Guizhou, and Jiangsu), extending to Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Thailand (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is also found in Myanmar (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
17360	habitat	Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	In Myanmar and Thailand the species is found in limestone outcrops surrounded by semi-evergreen rainforest and disturbed remnants of forests. It roosts in caves, but has also been found roosting in houses. Also found in Myanmar in dry deciduous forest and known from sea level up to 1,080 m asl (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Viet Nam it also inhabits limestone areas.	eng
17360	population	Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	This species is widespread, never abundant but not rare (P. Bates pers. comm.) and can be locally abundant (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
17360	threats	Bates, P. & Furey, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17361	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	No specific measures are known.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
17361	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Recorded throughout Africa, with scattered records from southwest Asia. North African records include a disjunct distribution being recorded from a small part of eastern Morocco into western Algeria, Tunisia, a single record from eastern Libya (on the border with Egypt; Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004)  and then in a broad strip in Egypt including all of the Nile River valley and delta and extending to the Red Sea (but not in the south) and the westernmost part of the Sinai. West African records are from the Senegal coast and the Senegal/Mauritania border. The largest contiguous range consists of a strip stretching from northern Sudan down to northern Zimbabwe, which at its widest point ranges from western Zambia to western Mozambique. Occurs up to 1,100 m in Morocco.	eng
17361	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Found in semi-desert and desert. Roosts under rocks and in buildings.	eng
17361	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Unknown, because it is primarily known only from mist net captures.	eng
17361	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Use of pesticides against locusts is a threat.	eng
17362	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
17362	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It is distributed from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, with easternmost records from Ethiopia close to the Somalia border area. It is found as far south as northern South Africa and central Namibia. Other than records from southern Chad and northern Central African Republic, the species has not been recorded in Central Africa.	eng
17362	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from savanna woodland, and both dry and moist savanna habitats. Animals have been reported roosting in tree crevices, under bark and in old buildings (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
17362	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
17362	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
17364	conservation	Kingston, T., Bumringsri, S., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
17364	distribution	Kingston, T., Bumringsri, S., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is found on Sumatra and Borneo (Indonesia), through to the Philippines where it is known from a single specimen from Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur Province) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and southernmost Thailand (Bumrungsri <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
17364	habitat	Kingston, T., Bumringsri, S., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	In Thailand and Malaysia the species has been mist netted whilst feeding over streams and open fields (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) and Medway (1983) reported it in lowland foothills. It is found from about 100 m asl (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm. 2006), elsewhere its upper elevational range has been recorded as 1,200 m asl. This species is gregarious and roosts in hollow trees and plantations, roofs of rural areas, and occasionally is found with <em>Scotophilus kuhlii</em>.	eng
17364	population	Kingston, T., Bumringsri, S., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This bat is rarely caught but as it is likely to be a high flying species it is probably under represented by surveys. It is known from only one individual in the Philippines.	eng
17364	threats	Kingston, T., Bumringsri, S., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17365	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	There is a need to confirm the taxonomic validity of this species. If this is a valid species, there needs to be research into its actual distribution and whether there are any extant populations. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
17365	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus sturdeei</em> is known only from Hahajima Island in the Bonin (= Ogasawara) Islands, Japan (Abe 2005). Some experts believe that this bat never actually occurred in Japan, and that the type locality is in error (Abe 2005). Therefore, the true distribution and country of origin are unknown.	eng
17365	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
17365	population	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown. Only the type specimen presumably collected at the end of the 19th century is preserved (housed in the British Museum of Natural History) (Abe 2005), and there have been no further records for over a century.	eng
17365	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
17366	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Mexico.	eng
17366	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Nova Scotia, South Quebec (Canada), and Minnesota (USA), south to Florida (USA) and Honduras (Simmons 2005).	eng
17366	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Eastern pipistrelles can be found in open woods near the edges of water, as well as over water. They are not usually found in open fields or deep forests (Schmidly, 1991; Nowak, 1991). They roost in rock crevices, caves, buildings, and tree foliage in the summer. During the winter, caves, mines, and deep crevices serve as hibernacula (Briggler and Prather, 2003; Sandel <em>et al.</em>, 2001). (Briggler and Prather, 2003; Nowak, 1991; Sandel <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidly, 1991).<br/>Eastern pipistrelles copulate between August and October while “swarming” in front of cave openings. This is the only time the sexes of this species are together- during this time females mate with multiple males (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). (Whitaker and Hamilton, 1998). Eastern pipistrelles are insectivores and are considered generalists (Hamlin and Myers 2004).	eng
17366	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Eastern pipistrelles have a lifespan of 4 to 8 years in the wild (Nowak 1991). The known record for the oldest <em>P. subflavus</em> is 14.8 years. (Nowak 1991; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998) Eastern pipistrelles are obligate hibernators, in warmer climates they hibernate even though food is available (Briggler and Prather 2003). They enter the hibernaculum in late July-October and leave at the beginning of April (Fugita and Kunz 1984). They hibernate in the deepest part of the hibernaculum where temperatures are stable (Schmidly 1991). Eastern pipistrelles generally hibernate individually, but groups of 2 or 3 have been observed in Texas caves (Sandel <em>et al.</em> 2001). Eastern pipistrelles might choose hibercula based on the closeness to and abundance of forests available to them (Sandel <em>et al</em>. 2001). They also prefer hibernacula with east-facing openings (Briggler and Prather 2003). During the summer, female <em>P. subflavus</em> roost in maternity colonies with an average of 15 individuals. Males roost alone (Whitaker 1998).<br/><br/>Eastern pipistrelles are sporadic flyers with a short elliptical flight pattern (Patterson and Hardin 1969). They are often confused for moths (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998) (Briggler and Prather 2003; Fugita and Kunz 1984; Patterson and Hardin 1969; Sandel <em>et al.</em> 2001; Schmidly, 1991; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998; Whitaker 1998).	eng
17366	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
17367	conservation	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.	eng
17367	distribution	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is present in eastern and south-eastern Australia, including Tasmania. It is known from near sea level to 1,500 m asl, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
17367	habitat	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	This species is found in tall, mature, wet forest (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Animals have been recorded roosting in stem holes in Eucalyptus  and in buildings (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
17367	population	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	It is sparsely scattered within suitable habitat (Law <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
17367	threats	Pennay, M. & Lumsden, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is probably declining due to habitat loss and removal of large trees (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
17368	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Lumsden, L., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntulan, L.M., 2008	In Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from many protected areas. In South Asia, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006) and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
17368	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Lumsden, L., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntulan, L.M., 2008	This widespread species is found throughout much of South Asia, southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar Province), Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and mid western), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Das 2003, Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Vanitharani 2006). It has been recorded form sea level to 769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present over much of southeastern China, including the island of Hainan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is found throughout the mainland, ranging into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Seram and Serasan), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia, Malaysia and possibly Brunei; the species is possibly more widespread than currently known [C. Francis pers. comm.) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded on Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Luzon (Rizal Province), Mindanao (Taylor 1934), Negros, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) where it occupies an altitudinal range from sea level to 800-1700 m (P. Bates and L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
17368	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Lumsden, L., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntulan, L.M., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found from arid zones to wet and humid areas. It is equally abundant in forested areas, in rural and urban landscapes (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 2007). It roosts in hollows of trees, holes, crevices and cracks in walls and ceilings of old buildings, dead leaves of trees.  In Southeast Asia this is a largely forest species inhabits primary and secondary hill, montane and montane mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is adapted to highly disturbed habitats, gardens, and mangrove forests (P. Bates pers. comm. 2006). It is an early flyer, with a varied flight pattern from a jerky flight with many twists and turns to a slow fluttering and floating flight to an erratic flight as the evening progresses. Its diet is varied and seasonal. It feeds on beetles, cockroaches and wingless ants in winter, on a wide variety of insects in summer and on winter termites, moths, hymenopterans, dipterans and beetles during monsoon. There are two breeding seasons one in February-March and the other in July-August and between one to three young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
17368	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Lumsden, L., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntulan, L.M., 2008	In South Asia, this species is widely distributed and common, and the population is stable and seems to be doing well (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is widespread and moderately common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is locally very common in Myanmar and Lao PDR (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17368	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Lumsden, L., Heaney, L., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntulan, L.M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.	eng
17369	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is not known whether this species is recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. Museum records need to be checked for identification.	eng
17369	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Pennay, M., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded from south-eastern New Guinea and Samarai Island (10°37'S, 150°40'E) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It ranges between sea level and 200 m asl.	eng
17369	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from coastal lowlands, but will forage in urban areas as an aerial insectivore (Bonaccorso 1998). It has been observed roosting in the ceiling of a house (a group of less than 20 individuals) (Flannery 1995a).	eng
17369	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Pennay, M., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
17369	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Pennay, M., 2008	Disturbance or persecution of roosting animals may be a threat to this species.	eng
17370	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas including Kakadu and Keep River National Parks, and the Prince Regent Nature Reserve (McKenzie and Milne 2008).	eng
17370	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges along the northern coastline from Cape Bossut in Western Australia to Karumba in western Queensland. It is present on a number of islands (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
17370	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is primarily associated with mangrove habitats but it is also encountered in adjacent thickets and in riverine forest (McKenzie and Milne 2008).	eng
17370	population	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (McKenzie and Milne 2008).	eng
17370	threats	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
17400	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Further surveys are needed to determine if this species is still extant.	eng
17400	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This poorly known species has only been recorded from western Java, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It possibly occurs from lowland areas up to 1,200 m.	eng
17400	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumed to be a lowland tropical forest species.	eng
17400	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known from only a few specimens collected before World War II (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
17400	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. It is probably threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest habitat from Java.	eng
17401	conservation	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is almost certainly present in some of the protected areas within the range of the species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, threats and persistance of this species in disturbed habitats.	eng
17401	distribution	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from southern Peninsular Malaysia, south of the Isthmus of Kra (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is at around 1,000 m. It generally occurs from sea level to 1,200 m. It may be absent from higher elevation forests (K. Aplin pers. comm.). It is probably now confined to the protected areas within its range.	eng
17401	habitat	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is an arboreal species that is generally found in primary or tropical moist forest, but it has been recorded from secondary forest; although it is unclear about the disturbance to the forest at this locality.	eng
17401	population	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is locally abundant, but infrequently collected (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
17401	threats	Aplin, K., Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is presumably generally threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
17402	conservation	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species is not present in any protected areas in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17402	distribution	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	The range of this species is poorly known. It occurs south of the Napo in Ecuador and Peru (Hershkovitz 1987). <em>Pithecia aequatorialis</em> is reported to be sympatric with <em>P. monachus</em> in northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).	eng
17402	habitat	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	<em>P. aequatorialis</em> occurs in moist subtropical lowland forest.<br/><br/>Sakis are medium-sized primates (1-3 kg). They are specialized morphologically for seed predation. The diet is made up of seeds, fruit pulp, young leaves, insects and flowers. Members of this genus form small, cohesive groups (2-9 individuals), generally comprising a single male-female breeding pair and several young. Day ranges (1,5-2 km) and home ranges are small (10-25 km), and sakis exhibit behaviours associated with territory defence (Norconk 2007).	eng
17402	population	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
17402	threats	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	In Peru, the main threat is hunting and habitat loss (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). They are sometimes found in the pet trade.	eng
17460	conservation	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
17460	distribution	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is known a few isolated areas on Hispaniola.	eng
17460	habitat	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and arboreal and inhabits subtropical and tropical forest, as well as rocky areas. It is known to live in rocky outcrops and hide in crevices among rocks. It is herbivorous (folivorous) and eats numerous plants and local crops.	eng
17460	population	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Almost nothing is known about this species. On a recent survey near Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, the species was not uncommon, but was only found in isolated areas where they were considered to be an agricultural pest (Turvey pers. comm.). Populations have been drastically reduced, and are restricted to a few remaining areas of suitable habitat.	eng
17460	threats	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Often killed as a crop pest and opportunistically hunted for food in Haiti. Increasing habitat destruction both within and outside of protected areas is a major threat. In addition, invasive species (mongoose, cats, dogs and rats) persecute and kill individuals of the species. These compounding factors have resulted in the extirpation of the animal from much of its former range.	eng
17462	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
17462	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is known from recent fossil deposits in Hispaniola. It is possible at this species is the animal referred to as "Quemi" by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes who lived in Hispaniola between 1536-1546 (Miller 1929). There is also a remote possibility that this represents an animal referred to as "comadreja" which allegedly survived into the 20th Century (Woods <em>et al.</em> 1985)	eng
17462	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known about this species' habitat or ecology.	eng
17462	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
17462	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The fossil deposits from which this is known from also contained rat remains. This suggests that the species persisted until the modern era and that the extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
17468	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Was formerly more widespread in the Colorado and Gila River systems in Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, now essentially restricted to the Virgin River system.	eng
17468	threats	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Dams and water diversions have destroyed most of the habitat (eight major dams on the Salt, Verde, and Gila Rivers have effectively cut off natural water flow downstream) non-native Red Shiner has had a negative impact; also threatened by water developments associated with human population growth.	eng
17474	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Bonaccorso, F. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species occurs in two protected areas: Wasur National Park (Indonesia) and Tonda Wildlife Management Area (Papua New Guinea). Further taxonomic research is needed.	eng
17474	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Bonaccorso, F. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is restricted to the grassland and savanna areas of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 250 m asl.	eng
17474	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Bonaccorso, F. & Woolley, P., 2008	It has been recorded from both tropical grasslands and savannas. A female was reported with two half-grown young in September (Flannery 1995).	eng
17474	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Bonaccorso, F. & Woolley, P., 2008	The Papuan Planigale is thought to be common in suitable habitat.	eng
17474	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Bonaccorso, F. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Papuan Planigales are probably affected by predation from cats. They also could be affected by habitat loss in the south-eastern part of their range through conversion of grassland to cultivated areas, but overall habitat for this species is probably expanding.	eng
17481	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is known from seven protected areas - Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary (Nameer 2005), Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park (Jayson 2006) and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Jayson and Christopher 1995) in Kerala; Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Shankar 1998), Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Prabhakar 1998) and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa <em>et al</em>. 2001) in Tamil Nadu. Taxonomic studies to understand the two disjunct populations is recommended apart from studies on ecology, habitat use, population and threats.	eng
17481	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is endemic to Western Ghats of India ranging from Shivamogge, Karnataka in the north (Rajagopalan 1968; Agrawal 2000) to Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala in the south (Jayson and Christopher 1995). The species occurs in two disjunct populations, north and south of the Palakkad gap of the Western Ghats, in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (S. Molur, P.O. Nameer and C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 9 September 2007). Although Jayson (2006) reports the occurrence of this species from 33 localities in Kerala, Western Ghats, direct evidence of its presence is only from three locations. Reports from other locations indicated as indirect evidences and questionnaire surveys need confirmation. In addition, it also occurs in other locations of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka Western Ghats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Nameer 2005). The species ranges from 600 to 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
17481	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It occurs in moist-deciduous, semi-evergreen, evergreen and shola forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005) and in riparian forests (Jayson 2006; S. Molur and P.O. Nameer pers. comm.).	eng
17481	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Prabhakar (1998) reports occurrence of this species only in undisturbed rain forest patches of more than 20 km² in the Anamalais. Shankar (1997, 1998) reports occurrence of this species in undisturbed high altitude shola forest fragments of 60 to 600 ha. Mudappa <em>et al</em>. 2001 report trap success of less than 1% in undisturbed evergreen forests of Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. Shortridge in Ryley (1916) reported the occurrence of this species from central Madikeri, Karnataka. However, S. Molur (pers. comm.) reports total absence of this species from plantations and forest fragments of Madikeri, except for 0.02% trap success in an undisturbed riverine forest adjoining Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka.	eng
17481	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Habitat loss, changes in land use are major threats to the species. It is very sensitive to change in quality of habitat and to human interference (Prabhakar 1997; S. Molur pers. comm.). In some areas of its occurrence it is threatened by harvest for medicinal purpose (Jayson and Christopher 1995).	eng
17487	conservation	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
17487	distribution	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in the west of Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
17487	habitat	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is a pollen and nectar feeder (Cactus associated). It has been noted to shelter in caves. It feeds on cacti when it is in bloom. Pregnant females were captured in September. Decreased fruit and flower production by the columnar cactus (Weberbauerocereus) during prolonged droughts resulted in emigration or death within colonies of this species at Arequipa, Peru (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Graham, 1987). Associated with caves and bridges and man made constructions.	eng
17487	population	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
17487	threats	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat can be adversely affected during El Niño events.	eng
17512	distribution	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Platyla foliniana</em> occurs in France and Italy (Valleys east of Menton, Alpes-Maritimes).	eng
17512	habitat	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This terrestrial species is found in woodland leaf-litter.	eng
17512	threats	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	The main threat to the species is habitat deterioration.	eng
17518	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the prevention of the spread of mongooses to islands where the species still survives. It occurs in the Ravilevu Nature Reserve and Bouma Natural Heritage Park, both on Taveuni, but neither of these actively protects wildlife.	eng
17518	distribution		This species once occurred widely in Fiji, but is now restricted to the mongoose-free islands of Ovalau, Gau, Taveuni, and Viwa. It used to occur on the two large islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and on Bequa, but it is now extinct there. The last, unconfirmed, record from Vanua Levu was from the 1960s, when it was reported as part of the diet of mongooses in the Nadarivatu (Monosavu) area.	eng
17518	habitat		Although presumably originally a forest species, it is also found in anthropogenic habitats, including degraded forest, rural gardens, plantations, and even close to the beach. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development, although the eggs are very hard to find.	eng
17518	population		It occurs widely, but in small numbers, on Ovalau, Viwa, and Gau, and is fairly common on Taveuni.	eng
17518	threats		Introduced mongooses, released in 1883, caused a major decline, much of this having taken place by the early 20th century. It now survives only on mongoose-free islands. Mongooses are the only predators known to wipe the species out completely. It might also be impacted by introduced <em>Rattus praetor</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>, which arrived in Fiji some 2,500-3,000 years ago, as well as by <em>Bufo marinus</em> and introduced cats, but it is known to co-exist with all of these (on the small island of Viwa it has co-existed with <em>B. marinus</em> for over 30 years).	eng
17519	conservation		The small island of South Gigante, the only locality thus far known for this species, should be designated as a special protected area.	eng
17519	distribution		This species is known only from South Gigante Island, in the central Philippines.	eng
17519	habitat		It inhabits limestone karst forest and caves in forested lowlands. It breeds by direct development.	eng
17519	population		It is common at the type locality, especially in appropriate atmospheric conditions (heavy rains).	eng
17519	threats		Major threats are shifting agriculture, human encroachment of the forest over the limestone karst and caves, guano mining, and the quarrying of limestone. The latter two threats are especially detrimental to the habitat of this species.	eng
17520	conservation		It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas, but the protection of its unique habitat, the limestone karst and caves of southern Negros, should be prioritised in order to ensure the survival of the remaining populations of this species. Public education campaigns focusing on the significance of this species and its habitat are needed.	eng
17520	distribution		This species is known only from limestone karst and caves on southern Negros Island, at 20-400m asl, in the central Philippines.	eng
17520	habitat		It inhabits caves and limestone forest in lowland forests. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
17520	population		It is common in forested limestone areas. A recent survey conducted by researchers from Silliman University in the Phillipines found individuals in 86 of 147 caves surveyed, with 6-16 individuals in each cave (and the population was hence estimated to be about 800 individuals).	eng
17520	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of shifting agriculture, human encroachment, guano mining, and the quarrying of limestone. The latter two threats are particularly detrimental to the very specific habitat of this species.	eng
17524	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this single site.	eng
17524	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Banahaw (Banahaw and San Cristobal peaks), on Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from around 700-1,700m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).	eng
17524	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds and deposits eggs in arboreal ferns and pandanus. It breeds by direct development.	eng
17524	population		It is common to very common at the type locality, and populations appear to be stable at present.	eng
17524	threats		The immediate threats are relatively limited since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less susceptible to deforestation and other human disturbance. The south-west side of Mount Banahaw is heavily impacted by religious pilgrims and tourists who damage habitat while building campsites. A new road-building project in the Municipality of Tayabas will no doubt result in increased access to the mountain and increased disturbance, especially at lower elevations. The collection of aerial ferns and tree ferns as ornamentals represents a possible threat, as these plants are the preferred microhabitats for reproduction.	eng
17528	conservation	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	Only a few protected areas are currently found in this region (as yet, though, there are no records from Pulag National Park), and there is a need for more effective management and protection of remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.	eng
17528	distribution	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras, on northern Luzon, in the Philippines. It ranges from around 500 to more than 900m asl (R. Brown, pers. comm.).	eng
17528	habitat	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development. Limited ecological information is available for this species.	eng
17528	population	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	It is apparently common in appropriate forest habitats, but it is so rarely recorded or observed that concern regarding its current population status is warranted.	eng
17528	threats	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are relatively less threatened by habitat conversion and agriculture and human encroachment. Regardless, some populations of this species are still subjected to these threats.	eng
17534	conservation		It occurs in Mount Kanlaon National Park. There is a need for the designation of remaining rainforests of southern Negros and Masbate as protected areas. The Masbate population should be the target for population status surveys in the near future, and there is a particular need to resolve the taxonomic status of this population.	eng
17534	distribution		This species occurs at high elevations (600-1,700m asl) on the mountains of Negros and possibly Masbate Islands (see taxonomic note), in the Philippines.	eng
17534	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
17534	population		It is common at high elevations in moist upper elevation rainforests, but it is rare or absent in disturbed habitats.	eng
17534	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of habitat to agriculture, logging, and large-scale disturbance of the remaining rainforest by geothermal explorations and related activities.	eng
17537	conservation		The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining rainforests of the islands of Romblon and Tablas as protected areas. The population on Sibuyan Island is generally well protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species on Tablas and Romblon.	eng
17537	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of Romblon, Tablas, and Sibuyan Islands in the Philippines from sea level up to 800 or 900m asl.	eng
17537	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in lower montane and lowland forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
17537	population		It is very common in forested areas on Sibuyan Island, but there is no information available on its population status on Tablas and Romblon.	eng
17537	threats		The populations on the smaller islands of Tablas and Romblon are particularly threatened by continuing habitat loss due to small-scale logging and conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.	eng
17546	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Mount Kanlaon National Park, but there is a need for further protection of the remaining rainforests of southern Negros. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species on Panay.	eng
17546	distribution		This species is known from the rainforests of Negros and Panay Islands, in the Philippines, between 600 and 1,800m asl.	eng
17546	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds in aerial ferns and lays its eggs in the moist detritus that has accumulated in ferns. It breeds by direct development.	eng
17546	population		Populations have declined, even in the remaining preferred habitat on Negros, although the populations on Panay have not been recently surveyed.	eng
17546	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to small-scale logging and the conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.	eng
17548	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas, such as the Aklan River Watershed Forest Reserve. However there is clearly a need for improved protection of remaining forest habitats on the island of Panay, and for rehabilitation of tracts of degraded forest.	eng
17548	distribution		This species is known only from western Panay Island, in the Philippines, from 400-1,750 m asl.	eng
17548	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development in shrub layer vegetation, laying its eggs on the upper surfaces of leaves.	eng
17548	population		It is common to abundant in a few localities at high elevations, but scarce at lower elevations.	eng
17548	threats		Although populations occurring at higher elevations may currently be subject to fewer threats, populations found at lower elevations are threatened by extensive habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development.	eng
17551	conservation		The continued protection of the remaining forest on Polillo should be a priority in order to ensure the long-term survival of this species, while degraded forest habitats also need to be rehabilitated. Its range on Luzon Island includes Aurora Memorial National Park in Aurora Province.	eng
17551	distribution		This species is known from the lowland rainforests of Polillo Island and the adjacent coast of Luzon Island in Aurora Province, in the Philippines. It has been recorded from 50-350m asl.	eng
17551	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and is active in shrub-layer vegetation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
17551	population		The number of mature frogs possibly falls within the range of 100-300 individuals on Polillo Island. It is uncommon on eastern Luzon.	eng
17551	threats		Small-scale logging and the conversion of its major habitat, lowland rainforest, to agricultural land is a major threat. Recent field studies show that the Polillo Island population of this species is possibly in decline due to the continued destruction of the lowland dipterocarp forest. This species has recently been rediscovered on the adjacent mainland of Luzon, but populations there are also subject to high levels of disturbance.	eng
17553	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao.	eng
17553	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao Islands, in the Philippines, at 300-1,400m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
17553	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in nests in tree ferns and pandanus.	eng
17553	population		It is uncommon throughout its range. It occurs at very low densities in several localities, and is known to have declined, presumably due to habitat loss.	eng
17553	threats		The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
17558	conservation		Although present in several protected areas, including Pulag and Mount Data National Parks, remaining tracts of intact montane rainforest in the cordilleras require protection. The application and disposal of agricultural pesticides in the numerous vegetable farms needs to be monitored and regulated.	eng
17558	distribution		This species is found in a few localities of the central cordilleras, on northern Luzon Island in the Philippines. It might also occur on Mount Polis and Mount Pulog. It has been recorded from 1,850-2,200m asl.	eng
17558	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development, presumably in shrub layer vegetation.	eng
17558	population		The number of mature frogs likely to occur at the type locality (Mount Data) falls within the range of 100-300 individuals. However, it has been found in other localities away from Mount Data in recent years, and so the total population of the species is not as small as was once thought.	eng
17558	threats		The most important threat to this species is the continued loss of montane forests in the cordilleras due to conversion of habitat to vegetable farms, quarrying, mining of mineral resources, and real estate development. Pollution from agricultural pesticides, which are intensively used to maintain vegetable farms, is likely to be a major factor in the loss of some populations of this species from the remaining montane forests at the type locality.	eng
17565	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	The population of Uruguay is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
17565	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Colombia to Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, Northern Argentina, and Southern and Eastern Brazil; Surinam (Simmons 2005).	eng
17565	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Frugivorous, but can eat insects and nectar. Found in small groups from 7 to 15 females in harem (Willig 1983).	eng
17565	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Rare in Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
17565	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
17566	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Velazco, P. & Molinari., J., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in the tepuis. Reduce deforestation.	eng
17566	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Velazco, P. & Molinari., J., 2008	This species is found in the highlands of eastern Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname above 500 m (Valasco, 2005). This species is probably the only endemic to the Guianan highlands (Lim pers. comm.). Specimens previously reported from Colombia appear to have been misidentified (Simmons, 2005; Velazco, 2005).	eng
17566	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Velazco, P. & Molinari., J., 2008	This bat is basically frugivorous. This species is poorly known. Highland rain forest approximately 500-1,500 m (Velasco, 2005; Lim pers. comm.).	eng
17566	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Velazco, P. & Molinari., J., 2008	In Venezuela it is rare (Linares, 1998). Relatively common in the Guianas (Velazco pers. comm.). Can be locally common (Lim pers. comm.).	eng
17566	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Velazco, P. & Molinari., J., 2008	None known. Deforestation, associated with gold and diamond mining. The species habitat is less vulnerable to logging because of its inaccessibility.	eng
17567	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss.	eng
17567	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is confined to Lowland areas (Patterson pers. comm.) of northern South America in the Amazonian portion of Brazil, the Guianas, southern Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Amazonian Peru and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Its westernmost limit is the flank of the Andes.	eng
17567	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest and moist sites. It is basically frugivorous and roosts in small groups of three to ten in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
17567	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Uncommon to locally common (Patterson pers. comm.).	eng
17567	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of the species range, though this is not considered a major threat.	eng
17568	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Although it occurs in protected areas there is no enforcement in place.	eng
17568	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands of the Choco biogeographic region of Colombia, to northwestern Ecuador, from 35 to 305 m asl (Velazco, 2005).	eng
17568	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is basically frugivorous. Although well collected the ecology of the species is poorly known.	eng
17568	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.). Where habitat remains it seems to be relatively frequent. It had declined by 50% over the past decade because of habitat destruction.	eng
17568	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The choco region is being rapidly converted to agriculture which poses a serious threat to this restricted species. Illicit crops are a problem and habitat is rapidly being converted to coca for drug trade. Aerial spraying of defoliants may also be a threat.	eng
17569	conservation	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in some conservation areas.	eng
17569	distribution	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs from Panama, along both slopes of the Andes in Colombia, and only the western slope in Ecuador, and northern Venezuela, from 230 to just over 2,000 m (Velazco, 2005).	eng
17569	habitat	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is found in evergreen forest and forest edge of foothills and highlands. It has been found under palm leaves and in leaf clusters. It is basically frugivorous. The species is sympatric with <em>P. chocoensis</em>.	eng
17569	population	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is uncommon in Panama (Reid, 1997) and is common in Colombia and Ecuador. Widespread in Andes (Velazco pers. comm.)	eng
17569	threats	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Deforestation and land-use change.	eng
17570	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.	eng
17570	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, southern Mexico through the Isthmus, broadly across northern South America and the western portion of Brazil; also Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993). Lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.	eng
17570	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species prefers moist habitats, such as evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest, semideciduous forest, forest edge, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997). It also occurs in Cerrado (Aguiar and Zortea pers. comm.) and tolerates man-made clearings. Evidence indicates the species is strongly frugivorous (Gardner, 1977); diet includes figs, Cecropia and Acnistus; occasionally consumes insects, including Lepidoptera (Howell and Burch, 1974; Bonaccorso, 1978). They roost in pairs or small groups high in the crowns of tree, caves, buildings, tunnels, hollow trees, under palm leaves, and among foliage. This species is not known to make tents. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally In Venezuela, the species may be very abundant in favorable habitat but can be netted in numbers only if nets are set in the canopy (Handley, 1976). In seasonally dry areas, it is usually caught in mist nets set over or near streams. Birth peaks occur in March-April and July-August (Ferrel and Wilson, 1991).	eng
17570	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Fairly common (Reid, 1997).	eng
17570	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None known.	eng
17571	conservation	Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
17571	distribution	Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs throughout Colombia to Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Brazil, from 180 to 1900 m (Velazco, 2005).	eng
17571	habitat	Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is frugivorous, thought it may eat some leaves (Molinari pers. comm.). It roosts in small groups in leafy tangles and in caves (Albuja 1999).	eng
17571	population	Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) and in Peru and Bolivia, however, little is known of the Brazilian population.	eng
17571	threats	Velazco, P. & Mantilla, H., 2008	None known.	eng
17572	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Maintain habitat within the Atlantic Forest. Further research on this species basic ecology is important. Occurs in protected areas.	eng
17572	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Brazil (Koopman, 1993). The Guyanan record is erroneous. The northern limit of the range is the Tocantins River, the southernmost limit is Sao Paulo (Ditchfield pers. comm.).	eng
17572	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest and moist sites.There are two records from  Cerrado habitat (Pedro and Taddei, 1998). It has also been captured in dry, semi-deciduous forest, but close to rivers (Ditchfield pers. comm.). It is basically a frugivorous species which roosts in small groups of three to ten in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
17572	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Can be locally common but not as common as <em>P. lineatus</em> and has been recorded in disturbed habitat (Faria pers. comm.).	eng
17572	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Much of the species range has been heavily developed, especially the Atlantic Forest however, as the species has been regularly captured in disturbed habitat this is not considered a major threat.	eng
17573	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Research actions.	eng
17573	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Northern Colombia, Northern Venezuela (Simmons 2005).	eng
17573	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
17573	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
17573	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Not known.	eng
17574	conservation	Velazco, P., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
17574	distribution	Velazco, P., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species occurs from Costa Rica, Panama, western and northern Colombia and northern Venezuela (Velazco, 2005).	eng
17574	habitat	Velazco, P., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	It feeds on fruit including figs, Acnistus, and Cecropia. Reproduction usually coincides with the onset of the rainy season and varies locally (Gardner, 1977). This species is poorly known. Mostly founded in middle elevation forests.	eng
17574	population	Velazco, P., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	It is fairly common in evergreen forest, fruit groves, and second growth of foothill and highland in Panama (Reid, 1997). Relatively common in Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela and Colombia.	eng
17574	threats	Velazco, P., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
17585	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17586	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
17586	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
17586	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
17586	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species appears to be increasing in numbers. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decreased from three in 1979/80 to zero for 1987/88 and 1993/95, but then increased to more than 18 for 2006/08.	eng
17586	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
17596	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Maintenance of natural habitat, especially forests with mature trees is required.	eng
17596	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000.<br/><br/>Maintenance of natural habitat, especially forests with mature trees is required.	eng
17596	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Plecotus auritus</em> is endemic to Europe, where it is widely distributed south of 65°N and west of the Urals and north of the Caucasus. In the south it is confined to higher elevations. It occurs on the British Isles and in Sardinia. Patchy distribution in Iberia, Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. In the Alps, maternity colonies are found up to 1,920 m asl, hibernacula up to 2,350 m asl (Horácek and Dulic 2004).	eng
17596	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Plecotus auritus</em> is endemic to Europe, where it is widely distributed south of 65°N and west of the Urals and north of the Caucasus. In the south it is confined to higher elevations. It occurs on the British Isles and in Sardinia. Patchy distribution in Iberia, Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. In the Alps, maternity colonies are found up to 1,920 m asl, hibernacula up to 2,350 m asl (Horácek and Dulic 2004).	eng
17596	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in the vicinity of the roost in deciduous and coniferous woodlands, along hedgerows, and in isolated trees in parks and gardens. It feeds mainly on moths and flies gleaned from foliage. In summer it roosts in colonies in buildings (attics, barns, churches, drainage channels), tree holes, and bat boxes. Solitary animals also roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in caves, mines, buildings and occasionally trees. A sedentary species, its longest recorded movement is 88 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
17596	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages in the vicinity of the roost in deciduous and coniferous woodlands, along hedgerows, and in isolated trees in parks and gardens. It feeds mainly on moths and flies gleaned from foliage. In summer it roosts in colonies in buildings (attics, barns, churches, drainage channels), tree holes, and bat boxes. Solitary animals also roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in caves, mines, buildings and occasionally trees. A sedentary species, its longest recorded movement is 88 km (Gaisler <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
17596	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	A common species in central Europe, but rare in the Mediterranean. Summer colonies usually number 10-50 females, sometimes up to 100. In winter it is generally solitary, although it may occasionally be found in very small clusters (2-3 animals). Nursery colonies of up to 10 (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). There have been no recorded population declines throughout most of its range, but it is decreasing in Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm.).	eng
17596	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	A common species in central Europe, but rare in the Mediterranean. Summer colonies usually number 10-50 females, sometimes up to 100. In winter it is generally solitary, although it may occasionally be found in very small clusters (2-3 animals). Nursery colonies of up to 10 (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.). There have been no recorded population declines throughout most of its range, but it is decreasing in Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm.).	eng
17596	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Loss of broad-leaved forest and particularly of mature trees is a threat in parts of its Mediterranean range (Balkans, Portugal, Spain and Turkey). It is affected locally by remedial timber treatment and loss of roost sites.	eng
17596	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	Loss of broad-leaved forest and particularly of mature trees is a threat in parts of its Mediterranean range (Balkans, Portugal, Spain and Turkey). It is affected locally by remedial timber treatment and loss of roost sites.	eng
17597	conservation	Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends, and improving agricultural habitats by protecting and restoring hedges and scrubby areas and reducing pesticide use.	eng
17597	conservation	Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunović, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends, and improving agricultural habitats by protecting and restoring hedges and scrubby areas and reducing pesticide use.	eng
17597	distribution	Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	<em>Plecotus austriacus</em> is restricted to Europe, excluding northern countries. Widespread south of 52-53°N, from south England to Moldova and the Black Sea Coast southwards to the Mediterranean coast (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One record in south Sweden. Found on Mediterranean and Atlantic islands: Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily and Madeira (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Highest confirmed record in the Alps 1,390 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
17597	distribution	Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunović, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	<em>Plecotus austriacus</em> is restricted to Europe, excluding northern countries. Widespread south of 52-53°N, from south England to Moldova and the Black Sea Coast southwards to the Mediterranean coast (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One record in south Sweden. Found on Mediterranean and Atlantic islands: Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily and Madeira (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Highest confirmed record in the Alps 1,390 m (hibernaculum) (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
17597	habitat	Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It forages in lowland valleys and open agricultural landscapes in central Europe, and in a great variety of open and semi-open habitats in southern Europe. It feeds mainly on moths. In summer it typically roosts in buildings (attics, fissures, cavities, old castles), although solitary animals may roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in buildings, mines, and caves. It is a sedentary species, and no individual has been recorded to move further than 62 km (Gaisler and Hanák 1969 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17597	habitat	Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunović, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It forages in lowland valleys and open agricultural landscapes in central Europe, and in a great variety of open and semi-open habitats in southern Europe. It feeds mainly on moths. In summer it typically roosts in buildings (attics, fissures, cavities, old castles), although solitary animals may roost in underground sites. In winter it hibernates in buildings, mines, and caves. It is a sedentary species, and no individual has been recorded to move further than 62 km (Gaisler and Hanák 1969 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17597	population	Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is a common species in the Mediterranean, but relatively rare in the European part of Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Summer colonies usually consist of 10-30 females. Winter clusters are usually small (2-3 animals), and the species is often solitary in this season. Population declines have been documented in parts of central Europe (Horácek <em>et al.</em> 2004); in Austria this species is listed as Vulnerable (Spitzenberger 2005) and in Croatia it is listed as Endangered (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Portugal there is no evidence of decline. Elsewhere in the range data on population trend is lacking.	eng
17597	population	Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunović, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is a common species in the Mediterranean, but relatively rare in the European part of Turkey (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Summer colonies usually consist of 10-30 females. Winter clusters are usually small (2-3 animals), and the species is often solitary in this season. Population declines have been documented in parts of central Europe (Horácek <em>et al.</em> 2004); in Austria this species is listed as Vulnerable (Spitzenberger 2005) and in Croatia it is listed as Endangered (Tvrtkovic 2006). In Portugal there is no evidence of decline. Elsewhere in the range data on population trend is lacking.	eng
17597	threats	Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Some populations are affected by remedial timber treatment (poisoning by wood preserving chemicals) and loss of roost sites. Intensification of agriculture seems to have a negative impact on the species in central Europe, and may be responsible for population declines reported in this region. Agricultural intensification may also affect the species in other parts of the range.	eng
17597	threats	Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Paunović, M., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Some populations are affected by remedial timber treatment (poisoning by wood preserving chemicals) and loss of roost sites. Intensification of agriculture seems to have a negative impact on the species in central Europe, and may be responsible for population declines reported in this region. Agricultural intensification may also affect the species in other parts of the range.	eng
17598	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Avoid human disturbance; it occurs in several protected areas.	eng
17598	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	S British Columbia (Canada) through W USA to Oaxaca (Mexico), east to Virginia (Simmons 2005).	eng
17598	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	C. townsendii are found in a variety of locations that range from coniferous forests and woodlands, deciduous riparian woodland, semi-desert and montane shrublands (Nowak, 1999). They are most common in evergreen forests in the warmer months (Kunz and Martin, 1982). Female bats usually only have one young a year (Tuttle, 1988). The newborns range in weight from 2.1-2.7 g. There is a strong maternal bond and the young bats squawk when the mother is away. The young bats, however, grow quickly, being able to fly within three weeks. After two months, many of the young bats have left the nursery roosts, with male bats leaving before female. In their first year, male bats are almost certainly incapable of breedding while female bats are able to reproduce at the age of four months (Barbourand Davis, 1969).<br/>These animals are sensitive to light and movement so if they are disturbed during the day, they awake and their ears begin to move as they try to indentify the intruder. If the disturbance occurs for more than a few seconds, the entire group takes flight (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Mating usually occurs in two phases. In the summer phase, both partners are alert and active, in a time known as the active phase. During the winter, or the passive phase, the females are torpid and the males seek out and find these females and mate with them. The females remain unattentive throughout the entire encounter (Fenton, 1985). These bats are insectivorous. They to emerge late in the day to feed (Barbour and Davis, 1969). Townsend's big eared bats feed on small moths and either capture these moths from leaves or catch them directly in the air along forested edges (Kunz and Martin, 1982).	eng
17598	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	During the winter months, they hibernate either individually or in groups composed of several hundred bats, and they hibernate in mines or caves. In the summer, these bats roost in a wide variety of locations, including limestone caves, lava tubes, and human-made structures. In the summer, the females form nesting roost. Males are solitary during the maternity periods. The maternity colonies consist of one or more small clusters, which rarely exceed 100 bats. Females are alert and active in the maternity roosts and prefer dark places for their roosts (Kunz, 1982).	eng
17598	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species has declined due to direct killing by people and because of abandonment of roosts caused by disturbance due to explorers and vandals. Minimization of human disturbance is essential for <em>Corynorhinus townsendii</em> to remain in existence (Nowak, 1999). Human intervention may have helped conserved the population on the west coast of North America, because man-made structures provide a shelter for big-eared bats.	eng
17599	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Reid, F., 2008	It is found in at least five protected area.	eng
17599	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in Sonora and Coahuila to Michoacan Yucatán (Mexico); Cozumel Island (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 3,200 m (usually above 1,500 m outside Yucatán) (Reid, 1997). The records found in Yucatan peninsula are old records: the original data for location is questionable (Reid pers. comm.)	eng
17599	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Reid, F., 2008	This species can be found in dry lowland areas to highland pine-oak forest (Reid, 1997). It roosts in caves and mine tunnels. Individuals hang well apart from one another, clinging to vertical surfaces with feet and thumbs, ears coiled back, and tail curled under to cover the lower belly. Numbers present in caves may vary throughout the year, and hibernating groups have been found in deep caves. Most southern and lowland records were obtained in the winter and may be due to seasonal migrations from cold, highland regions (Hall and Dalquest, 1963; Koopman, 1974). Diet probably consists of small, flying insect. Single young are born in March or June (Tumlinson, 1992; Reid, 1997).	eng
17599	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Reid, F., 2008	It is rare in southeastern Mexico (known from few specimens); elsewhere uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
17599	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Reid, F., 2008	Habitat loss and roost disturbance (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
17600	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	More accurate information is needed on distribution and status. Range-wide investigation, in light of reported declines, is justified. States where surveys have been directed only at caves, or where no bat surveys have been conducted in recent years, should be targeted first for searches, and searches must be targeted at this species in particular. Abandoned buildings should be searched as potential roost sites (Finn 1996).<br/>Protect all colony sites with more than 10 bats present. Foraging habitat may be critical to species survival and should therefore be protected (protect mature floodplain and swamp forests; maintain large hollow tree component of such forests). Abandoned-building roost sites should be protected or, if need be, replaced with a potential alternate roost area on the site (Finn 1996).<br/>More accurate information is needed on general biology, foraging habitat, foraging behavior, and the importance of mature forests, hollow trees for roosts, and small maternity colonies.	eng
17600	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range extends from southern Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio (Handley 1991), Indiana, and Illinois south to Florida (primarily the panhandle and northern and central portions of the peninsula) and the Gulf of Mexico; west to Louisiana, Arkansas (known primarily from the Gulf Coastal Plain), eastern Oklahoma, and the eastern edge of Texas (Schmidly 2004) (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998; Lynch and Jones, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Elevational range in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park extends to at least 2,400 feet.	eng
17600	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The number of occurences is certainly greater than 100, but the number of known extant summer and winter roosting sites with large numbers of bats (> 100) is only 6 to 8 in any one year, and these sites are clustered in Kentucky and North Carolina. As of 2005, the species had been recorded from 18 counties in Tennessee (Tennessee Bat Working Group).<br/><br/>Several occurrences are known from state or national parks, including the largest known hibernating colony and some large (>100 individuals) maternity colonies in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Two large hibernating colonies in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park are partially protected, one with a gate and the other with fencing. Additional protected occurrences include (but are not limited to) the following. One protected colony occurs in Carter Cave, Kentucky. A colony also occurs in Natural Bridge State Park in Kentucky. Sites on USFS property are required under NEPA to be considered when evaluating effects of management practices. One large maternity colony is within Mammoth Caves National Park. Arkansas has gated several caves with <em>Myotis sodalis</em> colonies, and these may also be potential roost sites for Rafinesque's long-eared bats (Harvey 1992). Two maternity colonies in old buildings in Illinois have been protected, and the buildings repaired to extend their useful life (Gardner 1992).<br/>This is a bat of forested regions. Hibernation in the north and in mountainous regions most often occurs in caves or similar sites; small caves are selected, and the bats stay near the entrance (often within 30 meters) and are thought to move about in winter (Handley 1959, Barbour and Davis 1969). Winter habitat in the south is poorly known, but usually this species is not found in caves during winter. In the Coastal Plain they are suspected to use hollow trees for cold weather and possibly winter roosts. In the southern portions of the range these bats often roost in buildings year round. Summer roosts often are in hollow trees, occasionally under loose bark, or in abandoned buildings in or near wooded areas. Nursery colonies are rare in caves, but are known to occur in Kentucky and Tennessee (Barbour and Davis 1969). A large nursery colony (87 adults in June of 1985) roosts in abandoned copper mines in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Currie 1992). <br/><br/>In Louisiana, Gooding and Langford (2004) found that roost trees were hollow <em>Nyssa aquatica</em> with triangular-shaped basal openings, and all were located within a 5-hectare tupelo stand.  In Mississippi, Trousdale and Beckett (2005) found that tree roosts were in hollow <em>Nyssa</em> spp. and <em>Magnolia grandiflora</em>. Most of the trees were still alive, relatively large, and were adjacent to streams or other bodies of water. Tree roosts were apparently rare within the study area, and <em>C. rafinesquii</em> showed roost fidelity to particular areas of forest. Six tree roosts were used by multiple individuals and several trees were reused within tracking sessions and among years.<br/><br/>In Louisiana, Lance <em>et al.</em> (2001) demonstrated that bridges, especially girder bridges, are important day-roost sites. Tagged bats in this study roosted under bridges 50% of the time and in black gum trees (<em>Nyssa aquatica</em>) 50% of the time. In Mississippi, small groups of females (mean of 5.6 adult females) used concrete bridges as maternity roosts; the bridges were much less used in fall and winter (Trousdale and Beckett 2004). It has been suggested that the species began using man-made structures in the coastal plain region only after large old hollow trees became scarce.<br/><br/>In Arkansas these bats are found in cisterns and wells rather than caves (Harvey 1992). In the mountains of South Carolina they roost in rock houses, abandoned gold mines, and hollow trees. In the coastal plain of North Carolina, they move into old buildings in the summer. They are known to use hollow trees as temporary night roosts between feeding bouts in the summer. In central Florida, a maternity roost was in an abandoned trailer that had been placed on a site in the early 1980s; it had been occupied for several years by the mid-1990s (Finn 1996). <br/><br/>Dilapidated buildings are inhabited more commonly than are intact occupied structures, and Clark (1987) reported that these bats roost in the darkest parts of such buildings. Others have reported that these bats choose more open and lighted daytime roosts than other kinds of bats (Handley 1959, Barbour and Davis 1969, Harvey 1992). Clark (1987) agreed that in caves and mines this species prefers areas receiving some natural light. The foraging habitat is primarily mature forest in both upland and lowland areas. In North Carolina and Virginia, foraging habitat for subspecies <em>Macrotis </em>is mature hardwood floodplain forest; sites along permanent water bodies, especially rivers, are preferred (Clark 1987). In the Upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina, where large contiguous tracts of mature bottomland hardwoods were common, most foraging activity of males nevertheless occurred in young pine stands; only 9% of foraging areas were in bottomland hardwoods (Menzel <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
17600	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Population size is not known to exceed 10,000 mature individuals, but data are lacking for many areas. This bat never has been considered abundant. In general, it roosts in small numbers at scattered locations (e.g., in Alabama, the largest known colony includes only a few individuals). Population is thought to be 1,000-2,000 in each of Kentucky and South Carolina. This is one of the most common bats in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park; hibernation roosts include up to several hundred individuals (e.g., in 1993, two roosts included 454 and 699 bats); Harvey (1991) reported a hibernating colony of 570 individuals as well as smaller maternity roosts. In a cave in Kentucky, counts of hibernating <em>C. rafinesquii</em> ranged from 14-49, with summer colony size reaching a maximum of 118 bats (Hurst and Lacki 1999). In southern Mississippi, the number of bats present under occupied bridges ranged from 1 to 25 per bridge (Trousdale and Beckett 2004). In Florida, this bat is uncommon in the northern part of the state and rare in the south (Florida Bat Center, www.floridabats.org). In Georgia, it is widespread but rare (Georgia Wildlife Web). In much of the range thorough searches have not been completed and abundance is poorly known.<br/><br/>No range-wide statistics on trends are available, but four states (Georgia, West Virginia, South Carolina, and Tennessee) reported documented population declines, and populations in Indiana and Ohio probably have been extirpated. Four other states (Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, and North Carolina) reported suspected declines. In summary, the species is known or suspected to be declining in more than half (10 out of 18) of the states within its range. In most other states, data are unavailable to determine trends.	eng
17600	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Much historically occupied habitat was lost with the clearing of swampland forests. Present threats include: forest destruction (significant in parts of coastal plain); hollow tree removal during certain forest management practices (widespread; noted in Mississippi as important); decreasing availability of abandoned buildings through razing and vandalism (serious threat in coastal plain); insecticide applications, at least in past; vandalism of caves and mines, and closing or blasting mines shut (England <em>et al.</em> 1992). There is considerable potential for loss and degradation of roosting and foraging habitats by commercial logging practices in preferred habitat (Schmidly 2004).<br/><br/>This species is very intolerant of disturbance (natural or human) and may abandon roost sites or hibernation sites if subjected to disturbance. Disturbance in winter may arouse bats and cause them to use up fat needed to survive the winter (Harvey 1992). Tendency to roost in cave entrances makes this bat especially vulnerable to disturbance. One roost site was abandoned after the surrounding area was logged.	eng
17601	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
17601	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). The holotype was collected at an altitude of 2,250 m asl on Mount An-ma Shan (Yoshiyuki 1991).	eng
17601	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	The holotype of this species was collected in forest at an elevation of 2,250 m asl in the central mountainous region of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). It roosts in caves, tunnels, buildings and trees (Nowak 1999).	eng
17601	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is thought to be declining.	eng
17601	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it appears to be restricted to primary forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan.	eng
17602	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. A bat protection programme aimed at protecting caves used as roost sites from human disturbance was instigated in 1993 (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Protection of the species' woodland foraging habitat is also recommended (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
17602	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	<em>Plecotus teneriffae</em> is endemic to the Canary Islands (Tenerife, La Palma, El Hierro and may also be on La Gomera, but presence there has not yet been confirmed although there is suitable habitat), where its extent of occurrence is less than 3,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It occurs at elevations between 100 and 2,300 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
17602	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	It is highly associated with woodland habitats (coniferous and mixed), although it occasionally forages in more open and arid areas. Its diet consists primarily of moths. Recorded roost sites include volcanic tubes, caves, and crevices in abandoned buildings (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Tree holes and bat or bird boxes are never used (Benzal and Fajardo 1999). The La Palma maternity colony is located in a natural cave. This species is considered to be sedentary (Fajardo and Benzal 2002 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
17602	population	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	Summer colonies usually consist of 10-30 females (the maximum number recorded is 37). Winter clusters are usually small (c.10 animals), and the species often roosts solitarily at this time of year. There are only two known breeding colonies (on La Palma and Tenerife respectively). The larger of these two (the La Palma colony) has declined almost 80% in number in recent years (Palomo and Gisbert 2002; J. Juste pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The population is estimated to be between 500 and 2,000 individuals (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007, based on information in the Spanish Red Data Book).	eng
17602	threats	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Palmeirim, J. & Alcaldé, J.T., 2008	The population declined in the 1950s after aerial fumigation for pest control. Current threats include use of pesticides on agricultural land near to the forests, loss of woodland habitat, and restoration of buildings that results in the disturbance of colonies and the destruction of roost sites (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The recent decline of the La Palma maternity colony has been attributed to disturbance, and it is known that at least one individual from this colony has been taken by private collectors (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Shafts into the mountains to collect water are increasingly being fenced which is detrimental to the survival of the bats.	eng
17618	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Chitaukali, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Malawi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the current status of this poorly known bat.	eng
17618	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Chitaukali, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is largely known from scattered records in Central Africa. Most reports of this little-known species are from the 1950's in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Zambia. A single specimen was collected in Malawi  in 1997. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl (Bergmans 1989).	eng
17618	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Chitaukali, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Bergmans (1989) reports that all collecting localities are within the Wetter Zambezian miombo woodland (dominated by <em>Brachystegia</em>, <em>Julbernardia</em> and <em>Isoberlinia</em>) with the possible exception of Kasama in Zambia which is in the Mosaic of Zambezian dry evergreen forest and wetter miombo woodland. The skull morphology of this species indicates that it has a specialised diet. It may be an important pollinator.	eng
17618	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Chitaukali, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It appears to be a rare, or at least a rarely recorded, species.	eng
17618	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Chitaukali, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Within the Angolan and Malawian parts of the species range it may be threatened by habitat destruction resulting from agricultural development, collection of timber and firewood, and setting of fires by poachers.	eng
17625	conservation		Many populations are protected within the Columbia River National Scenic Area (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), but populations on national forest and private land might not be adequately protected.	eng
17625	distribution		This species can be found in the USA along the Columbia River Gorge in the Washington and Oregon Cascades, and as four populations near Mount Saint Helens and just south of Mount Rainier. It is found at altitudes up to 1,036m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
17625	habitat		This species inhabits lava talus slopes in Douglas fir stands, and is typically found under canopy cover in talus of suitable size that has accumulated considerable amounts of humus. It rests under rocks and bark and in rotten wood (Stebbins 1985b), and moves deep under talus in cold weather or when it is dry or hot. Breeding occurs in the same habitats in late autumn or spring on warm rainy nights. This species does not tolerate the loss of canopy cover, which appears to allow congeners to out-compete it (Herrington 1985).	eng
17625	population		It can be common in optimal microhabitats. Washington State's Department of Fish and Wildlife had 67 unique records for this species as of 1997 (Dvornich, McAllister and Aubry 1997). Most of these sites are expected to be extant, though some of them might represent single populations. There are approximately 15 populations in Oregon. The total adult population size is unknown, but populations are small. Populations appear stable, and new populations are being discovered in Washington State (L.A. Hallock pers. comm.).	eng
17625	threats		It is threatened in some areas by logging (which changes the microclimate and composition of the talus slopes) and by the use of taluses for road construction (Herrington 1988; Pfrender 1993).	eng
17626	conservation		More than 90% of the populations of this species are believed to occur on lands administered by the Santa Fe National Forest; additional populations are known to occur on Santa Clara Pueblo, in Bandelier National Monument, and in the Valles Caldera National Preserve in Sandoval County (Cummer, Christman and Wright 2003), as well as on private land. Final approval of the Jemez Mountains Salamander Conservation Agreement in 2000 represents a commitment by the US Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish to manage this amphibian in a manner consistent with this agreement, and with each other's policies, in order to reduce threats and ensure that the species is conserved (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 2000). It is listed as 'threatened' by the State Game Commission of New Mexico, and is protected from harvest by the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service special order "Animal Possession Restrictions" No. 10-230, 22 November 1999.	eng
17626	distribution		This species is restricted to the Jemez Mountains in Sandoval, Los Alamos, and Río Arriba Counties, New Mexico, USA, from 2,130-3,435m asl (Stebbins 1985b; Degenhardt, Painter and Price 1996; Petranka 1998). It exists as fragmented populations in six major zones of distribution within an area of approximately 650-780km² (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1994).	eng
17626	habitat		It can be found in moss-covered talus and under bark and beneath logs and rocks in and near mixed forests of fir, spruce, and aspen (Stebbins 1985b). It occurs underground except during periods of warm seasonal rains. It is assumed to lay its eggs underground as no egg clutch has ever been found in the wild. Populations decline but persist after clear-cutting and slashing of forest, and it also persists after wildfires but most likely in reduced numbers.	eng
17626	population		It is rare to common in suitable habitat, which is fragmented due to subsurface geology.	eng
17626	threats		The major threats to this species are intensive logging, slash removal, burning, road building, and establishment of tree plantations (Ramotnik and Scott 1988). The build-up of excessive fuel loads and resulting fires is also a threat. However, with recent conservation efforts, threats have been greatly reduced.	eng
17627	conservation		It occurs in two national forest wilderness areas and several proposed research natural areas, and also in about 50 United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service sites, but these are not well protected. Monongahela National Forest has a management plan for this species (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). An additional beneficial conservation measure would be the establishment of forested corridors between existing populations.	eng
17627	distribution		This species can be found in the Allegheny Mountains from Cheat Mountain north to Back Allegheny and Cabin mountains, in Grant, Tucker, Randolph, Pocahontas, and Pendleton Counties, West Virginia, USA, generally from 908-1,463m asl (Pauley 1993), although one population extends to below 730m asl. Much of the remaining habitat is within Monongahela National Forest (Green and Pauley 1987).	eng
17627	habitat		This species can be found primarily in red spruce, yellow birch or spruce-dominated forests, and has been occasionally collected in mixed deciduous hardwood forests (Brooks 1945, 1948; Clovis 1979; Green and Pauley 1987). Bryophytes and downed logs are usually common in its habitat, and it occurs under rocks and in or under logs during the day, and sometimes among wet leaves. It is active on the forest floor at night and may climb lower portions of tree trunks (Brooks 1945, 1948; Green and Pauley 1987). Eggs have been found in and under rotting logs, and under rocks (Brooks 1948; Green and Pauley 1987), where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
17627	population		Approximately seventy occurrences are known (Pauley 1993; Petranka 1998), but these appear to be very small fragments of once larger populations. Recent surveys yielded some new localities, but the species was absent at some historical sites (USFWS 1990a). There is less than 10,000 acres of known occupied habitat. Populations generally are small (only a few include over a thousand individuals), and the US Fish and Widlife Service (USFWS 1990a) categorized its status as "stable".	eng
17627	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to logging, mining, recreational development, and road construction. Competition with <em>Plethodon cinereous</em> might also be a limiting factor. However, these threats are all minimal and the population is probably stable.	eng
17628	conservation		Almost all populations are on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Some protection is afforded in Klamath National Forest by an "Interim Management Direction" that specifies normal stream course protection measures designed to maintain water quality and fisheries habitat (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Once considered a Federal Candidate Species for listing, Siskiyou Mountains salamanders are recognized as a species of special concern by Oregon and California.	eng
17628	distribution		This species is restricted to an area of about 377km² in the Siskiyou Mountains in southern Oregon (mostly upper Applegate River drainage, Jospehine and Jackson Counties) and northern California (Siskiyou County: near Hutton Guard Station, the Cook and Green Guard Stations, along Joe and Dutch creeks in upper Applegate River drainage and along Seiad and Horse creeks in Klamath River drainage), USA (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). In Oregon, it is found at elevations of 490-1,463m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
17628	habitat		This species, as with its sister species (<em>P. elongatus</em>; Welsh and Lind 1995), is highly associated with rocky talus slopes in areas of dense mature and late-seral forest (Welsh and Lind 1995; Bury 1998; Ollivier, Welsh and Clayton 2001). Most individuals occur in talus and rocky soils or slopes and, occasionally, are found under logs, in leaf-litter, and under other substrates if talus is nearby (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Bury 1998; Bury and Welsh 2005). Eggs (2-18) are laid on land apparently in cavities in talus (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).	eng
17628	population		It is locally abundant in a few sites and moderately common at many others (R.B. Bury pers. comm. 2003).	eng
17628	threats		The most serious threat appears to be gradual destruction of over story vegetation by clear-cutting in areas of rock outcrops and talus slopes, which results in drying out of the species' microhabitat (California Department of Fish and Game 1990).	eng
17629	conservation		All sites are in National Park holdings. Shenandoah Salamanders are listed as Endangered by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, and as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
17629	distribution		There are three isolated populations on Hawksbill Mountain, The Pinnacles, and Stony Man Mountain (including Bushytop and a subpopulation below Hemlock Springs Overlook), Shenandoah National Park, Page and Madison counties, Virginia, USA, generally above 800m asl (914-1,143m asl). Reports from further south on the Blue Ridge (Thurow 1999) appear not to refer to this species (Sites <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
17629	habitat		It can be found in the highest mountains of Shenandoah National Park; steep, northerly facing talus slopes in forested situations. It is tolerant of relatively dry conditions. It is mostly confined to pockets of soil and/or vegetative debris. Apparently, talus is sub-optimal habitat for this species, but it is excluded from forest habitat through competition with Eastern Red-backed Salamander <em>P. cinereus</em>. It is a terrestrial breeder, with direct development.	eng
17629	population		Its abundance is uncertain. It apparently has not declined compared with its historical status, and probably is not declining significantly at the present time (R. Highton pers. comm., 1995).	eng
17629	threats		Its range might be restricted by competition (inter-specific territoriality) with Eastern Red-backed Salamander, which excludes Shenandoah Salamander from moist deep soil adjacent to talus occupied by the latter (Griffis and Jaeger 1992). Deterioration of talus and the accumulation of organic matter might allow incursion of Eastern Red-backed Salamander into Shenandoah Salamander habitat. Recent work indicates that human-related factors, including acid deposition (direct effects and vegetation defoliation) and tree defoliation caused by introduced insect pests, such as gypsy moths and woolly adelgids, might be more important threats (draft recovery plan, 1994). Changes in climate could impact already marginal habitat and exceed salamander's tolerance.	eng
17630	conservation		Most populations are in the Ouachita National Forest, which affords this species some level of protection (Warriner 2002), and it is also state-listed as being a species of special concern.	eng
17630	distribution		This species can be found in the Caddo Mountains, Ouachita Mountains region, south-western Arkansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991; Petranka 1998), from 275-655m asl.	eng
17630	habitat		It is recorded as being "locally abundant in or near talus slopes or other rocky sites, particularly on north-facing slopes that support mature, mesic forests" (Petranka 1998). It moves into underground retreats under shaded talus or in abandoned mine shafts during hot, dry weather (Petranka 1998), during which large numbers have been found in abandoned mines on rock walls near water in summer (Saugey, Height and Heath 1985). It has also been found in secondary growth, mixed deciduous woods with some pine (Pope 1964). Eggs clusters have been found in mine shafts (Heath, Saugey and Heidt 1986).	eng
17630	population		It is locally common (Saugey, Height and Heath 1985; Petranka 1998). As of 2004, the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission had recorded about 20 occurrences. Several of these were regarded as having good to excellent viability at the time of last visitation, but most of the occurrences did not have recent information.	eng
17630	threats		Habitat loss and degradation represents a localized threat, and timber management activities and conversion of land to pine plantations probably also reduced suitable habitat for this species in the past (Warriner 2002).	eng
17631	conservation		Its entire known range is within the Ouachita National Forest, which affords some level of protection (Warriner 2002b). There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
17631	distribution		This species is found in the higher elevations of the Fourche and Irons Fork mountains, Polk and Scott counties, Arkansas, USA; it is present at 503-730m asl (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
17631	habitat		It inhabits moist, shady, hardwood and mixed deciduous pine forests; and lives under logs, forest litter, and rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
17631	population		It is apparently locally common and even relatively abundant in some areas (Warriner 2002b); Duncan and Highton (1979) collected several dozens of individuals from multiple locations.	eng
17631	threats		It has probably been impacted by deforestation in the past, but its habitat is now better protected. Local populations are presumably still impacted by deforestation, but overall, it is probably relatively secure, although its restricted distribution renders it particularly susceptible to any new threats.	eng
17632	conservation		Some populations are fully protected (Petranka 1998). Nearly the entire known range is within Jefferson National Forest and Blue Ridge Parkway, but the management of these is not necessarily compatible with the conservation of this species. Surveys are needed to establish the extent of the species' range on private lands. They are recognized as a Federal species At Risk by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and listed as a Species of Concern by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
17632	distribution		This species can be found in the Blue Ridge Mountains, north-east of Roanoke, Virginia, United States. Most of the known range is within the Jefferson National Forest and Blue Ridge Parkway. It is primarily known from localities along the Blue Ridge Parkway between miles 78 and 84 (Bedford and Botetourt counties) in the Sharp Top, Flat Top, Onion, and Apple Orchard mountains and vicinity. It occurs at elevations above 550m asl (Mitchell 1991); it is also reported as generally occurring above 760m asl (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).	eng
17632	habitat		It can be found in mature Appalachian hardwood forest, mainly on north-facing slopes and in coves and shaded ravines, and also in rhododendron thickets; found primarily under downed logs and rocks, and among wet leaf-litter, in middle to late successional stages of oak-maple woodland (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980, Mitchell 1991). It often climbs into vegetation, especially ferns, during June-September at night during foraging (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993). It might be vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and clear cutting. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
17632	population		Although it has a patchy distribution, it is seasonally common and can be locally abundant (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993). Kramer <em>et al.</em> (1993) marked 250 Peaks of Otter Salamanders in a 10 x 10m plot and estimated a population size of 450 individuals; average density/field trip was 0.24 individuals/m².	eng
17632	threats		There is a potential local threat due to firewood collection. Sattler and Reichenbach (1998) found that clear cutting significantly reduced populations, due to emigration and/or mortality; juveniles appeared to be particularly impacted. Shelterwood cuts did not have any overall adverse impacts. Mitchell, Wicknick and Anthony (1996) found that timber-harvesting practices do not eliminate this species but may diminish population size and diet quality. Because of very low dispersal rates, intensive timbering and habitat fragmentation could be highly detrimental (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1993; Petranka 1998). Threats also include recreational development, defoliation by gypsy moths, and spraying to control gypsy moths (Mitchell 1991).	eng
17633	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas, but further research is needed on its threat status and population status and trends.	eng
17633	distribution		This species can be found in the Ouachita Mountains, in Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA (Duncan and Highton 1979; Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
17633	habitat		It can be found in mesic hardwood forests, usually on a northerly facing slope, where it is generally found under rocks or in or under logs. Breeding takes place terrestrially by direct development.	eng
17633	population		A map in Duncan and Highton (1979) indicates that there might be up to several distinct populations or perhaps just a few, depending on actual distributional discontinuities. It is often abundant in suitable conditions (Black 1974; Blair 1967; Spotila 1972). Duncan and Highton (1979) collected samples of at least a few dozen specimens from each of 10 locations, not including additional locations with <em>ouachitae</em>-<em>fourchensis</em> hybrids.	eng
17633	threats		There are no known major threats to this species, although populations might be impacted locally by clear-cutting logging.	eng
17670	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 1996	Historically this species was distributed throughout the Mississippi, Wabash, Tennessee, and Ohio River systems. Today the species is widely but very sporadically distributed. It has apparently been extirpated from much of its former range.	eng
17670	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 1996	Inhabits large rivers but may occur in medium-sized lotic environments. It tends to occupy riffles or shoals in relatively shallow water and coarse-particle substrates, along sand bars, or in deep water (>4 m) with mud and sand bottoms.	eng
17678	distribution	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	This species was once known from the upper Mississippi River drainage and the St. Lawrence River drainage, from western New York west to Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas, south to Arkansas and Alabama. Historically occurred throughout much of the Ohio River drainage. Now  sporadic occurrences in Ohio River and apparently extirpated from the Wabash and some other tributaries. Localized occurrences in the Green, Tennessee and Cumberland river reservoirs and a few Tennessee River tributaries.	eng
17678	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	primarily inhabits large rivers but may be found in medium-sized rivers. It is also tolerant of some reservoir environments.	eng
17690	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Endemic to the Apalatchacola River.	eng
17690	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species inhabits midsize streams to large rivers in silty-sand to sand and gravel substrates in slow to moderate currents.  Clean substrates offer less habitat.	eng
17690	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Changes in water quality threaten this species.	eng
17692	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	Damming removed all habitat.	eng
17693	habitat	Bogan, A.E., Seddon, M.B. & Butler, R.S., 2000	This species inhabits moderate current rivers in small to medium -sized rivers, where it is found in silty-mud and silty-sand substrates.	eng
17693	threats	Bogan, A.E., Seddon, M.B. & Butler, R.S., 2000	Siltation, water pollution (agricultural run-off, residential), channel alteration (dredging, road/bridge construction), dam construction for flood control are threats to this species.	eng
17708	distribution	Bouchet, P., 2000	<em>Pleurodonte desidens</em> was endemic to the island of Martinique.	eng
17793	conservation	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive. It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
17793	distribution	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species occurs in Malta where it is found on the islands of Malta, Gozo, Filfola, Selmunett Islands (=Saint Pauls Islands) and the General's Rock (=Fungus Rock), and on the Italian islands of Linosa and Lampione. It has been introduced to the island of Lampedusa, Italy (Claudia Corti pers. comm.).	eng
17793	habitat	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found in scrubland, rocky areas, traditionally cultivated land and gardens. It lives in seabird colonies in some places. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
17793	population	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is abundant in most places, and their populations are generally stable.	eng
17793	threats	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Certain populations, such as the one on Lampione Island, might be intrinsically threatened because they are confined to small islands. But in general the species does not face any significant overall threats.	eng
17795	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. This species is present in the Parque Nacional de Cabrera and the Parques Naturales de Dragonera and Albufera des Grau. An education campaign is in place. There is a need to control visits to the islands where this species is present.	eng
17795	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands of Spain, where it is restricted to small, rocky islands off the larger islands of Menorca and Mallorca. It also occurs on the Cabrera Archipelago south of Mallorca. The species was once present on the islands of Mallorca and Menorca. It is a lowland species.	eng
17795	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in arid rocky areas and in scrubland. The females may lay three clutches annually consisting of one to three eggs.	eng
17795	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is extremely common on some islands, although populations may be small on some of the smallest islands. Until around 2000 years ago, the species was abundant on the islands of Mallorca and Menorca. Some small populations are still liable to be lost.	eng
17795	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is believed that the introduction of cats and other predators resulted in the extirpation of the species from the main islands of Mallorca and Menorca. Extant populations are threatened by the translocation of invasive predators between islands by visitors, and the illegal capture of animals for the pet trade. This species may also be threatened through eating poisoned bait left for seagulls and rats, and the loss of vegetation on some islands due to overgrazing by goats. Some populations are inherently at risk because of their small sizes and restricted ranges.	eng
17797	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes a few protected areas covering part or all of the islands on which it is found.	eng
17797	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to the Aegean islands of Greece, where it is restricted to the Milos archipelago (Milos, Kimolos, Polyaigos and Antimilos), the Ananes archipelago, Falkonera island and Velopoula island. It ranges from sea level up to 685m asl.	eng
17797	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It can be found in open areas of traditionally cultivated land, open scrubland, sand dune systems and damp marshy coastal areas. The females lay repeated small clutches of one to three eggs.	eng
17797	population	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It can be abundant in coastal areas.	eng
17797	threats	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species has a very restricted range. It was threatened by overcollection of animals in the past but this is no longer considered to be a threat.	eng
17800	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. A public education programme is in place with posters on the small islands. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
17800	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Ibiza and Formentera, and nearby rocky islets, in the Balearic Islands of Spain. It is known from 42 different populations. It has been introduced to Muella de Palma (Mallorca), Barcelona (where now extinct), Aleria town (southern Spain) and San Juan de Gaztelugatxe (northern Spain). It ranges from sea level up to 475 m asl.	eng
17800	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is largely found in vegetated areas, such as cultivated land and gardens, close to and around human habitation. It also occurs in rocky areas, especially in coastal regions. The females lay between one and four eggs.	eng
17800	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be common, especially on small islets. A few populations are declining, but overall it is stable.	eng
17800	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species. A number of islet populations are threatened by disturbance by visitors, introduction of cats and rats to the islands, and accidental poisoning with bait left for seagulls.	eng
17821	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17821	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquaric	eng
17822	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17822	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic - large rivers and tributaries, adjacent lagoons and forest ponds.	eng
17823	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17823	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Confined to the Río Magdalena basin.	eng
17823	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic.	eng
17824	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17824	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
17825	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17825	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
17828	conservation	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Tabao, M., 2008	This species is present in Mount Apo and  Mount Kitanglad National Parks.	eng
17828	distribution	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Tabao, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Mindanao island in the Philippines, occurring at an elevation range from 1,300 to 2,900 m asl, where it is so far known from Bukidnon, Davao del Norte and Davao del Sur provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known from Mount Apo, from the mountains of central Mindanao (including Mount Kitanglad), and the mountains in the south of the island in Davao del Sur province. There is no information available on the species in the east of the island Mindanao, but it is suspected to occur more widely across the mountainous parts of the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17828	habitat	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Tabao, M., 2008	The species is found in primary montane and mossy forest above 1,300 m (Musser and Heaney 1992) up to 2,900 m (Hoogstraal 1951; Poduschka and Poduschka 1985; Sanborn 1952; Rabor 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is not known whether or not it can survive in anthropogenic habitats (though much habitat at high elevations within its range remains intact).	eng
17828	population	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Tabao, M., 2008	This is the single most common small mammal from Mount Kalatungan and abundant on Mount Apo at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Because of its occurrence in high-elevation forests of low stature that have limited commercial value, current populations of this species are believed to be stable.	eng
17828	threats	Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Tabao, M., 2008	There area no major threats to this species. It is found mainly in high elevation forest, and over 80% of its habitat is in its original condition (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17829	conservation	Balete, D., Tabao, M. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are currently no conservation programmes within the range of this species, and there is a strong need to establish protection efforts. The whole islands of Siargao and Bucas Grande are within the Siargao Protected Landscape and Bucas Grande Protected Landscape respectively, although these have offered almost no protection for forest. This species needs some effective protected areas to be established.	eng
17829	distribution	Balete, D., Tabao, M. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines. Originally described from Dinagat island to the north of Mindanao (Heaney and Morgan 1982), the species has also been reported from the nearby islands of Bucas Grande and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17829	habitat	Balete, D., Tabao, M. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species lives in old growth lowland rainforest, second-growth forest, and "bonsai" forest (a low productivity area with stunted trees which are not economically valuable). On all three islands, it appears to be moderately tolerant of habitat disturbance. On the Bucas Grande, the species occurs in disturbed forest on limestone, and in patchy areas of forest adjacent to agricultural areas. It persists in reasonable numbers in fairly heavily degraded areas for example at edges of farms, but it does not occur where good forest is not nearby, or in areas completely dominated by humans (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17829	population	Balete, D., Tabao, M. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is moderately common in primary and secondary forest, but it is geographically restricted to three islands where habitat destruction has been extensive (Heaney and Morgan 1982; Heaney and Utzurrum 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; B. Tabaranza unpubl. data). There are no long-term population data, and so the extent of its ability to persist in secondary forests, or in more degraded habitats, is unknown (D. Balete and L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
17829	threats	Balete, D., Tabao, M. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species original distribution has been and continues to be reduced by logging and firewood collection. Habitat loss due to mining of nickel and chromite in the remaining old-growth area is a threat in addition to quarrying of limestone for road building. The forest area of Dinagat is less than 50 km<sup>2</sup> and the entire island is a mining concession (D. Balete pers. comm.)	eng
17830	conservation	Pergams, O., Hammerson, G. & Jackson, D.R., 2008	Protected occurrences include Archbold Biological Station, Merritt Island NWR, Katharine Ordway Preserve, Lyonia Preserve, Ocala National Forest, Highlands Hammock SP, Jonathan Dickinson SP, San Felasco Hammock SP, Tiger Creek Preserve, Withlacoochee SF, and Camp Blanding Training Site. See also Layne (1992) for a listing of preserves and managed areas inhabited by this mouse.<br/><br/>The current distribution, abundance, and population trends of this species need to be determined. Preservation and management of large tracts of suitable habitat are particularly needed. Maintenance of viable populations of gopher tortoises would benefit the mouse.	eng
17830	distribution	Pergams, O., Hammerson, G. & Jackson, D.R., 2008	This species' range extends from St Johns, Clay, Alachua, Suwannee, and Taylor counties south to Sarasota County on the west coast (but not documented in Sarasota County in recent years), Highlands County in central Florida in the United States, and, at least formerly, Dade County on the east coast (now south to near Boynton Beach); an apparently isolated population also exists along the Gulf Coast in Franklin County, where its current status was unknown in the early 1990s (Layne 1978, 1992). The species was recorded near Clearwater in 1984, but it probably no longer occurs on the Pinellas peninsula (Layne 1992). It also has been recorded on Merritt Island on the Atlantic coast in Brevard County (see Jones and Layne 1993). Apparently the species is most continuously distributed in north-central peninsular Florida; mainly it is confined to the Lake Wales Ridge in the south-central region and to a narrow strip along the east coast (Layne 1978).	eng
17830	habitat	Pergams, O., Hammerson, G. & Jackson, D.R., 2008	This mouse is restricted to fire-maintained, xeric, upland vegetation occurring on deep, well-drained sandy soils, including sand pine scrub, coastal scrub, scrubby flatwoods, longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill), south Florida slash pine-turkey oak (southern ridge sandhill), upland hammock, live oak (xeric) hammock, and drier pine flatwoods (Layne 1992). Transients sometimes are found in other habitats. The major habitats are the scrub and sandhill associations, with scrub being the primary habitat. Populations tend to be larger in sand pine scrub than they are in longleaf pine-turkey oak habitats (Layne 1978), apparently due to the greater acorn production in the former (Layne 1992). Populations decline as habitat becomes less openly vegetated, shadier, and more mesic. Habitats that support good populations of the Florida scrub jay indicate high quality <em>Podomys</em> habitat (Layne 1992). <em>Podomys</em> is generally a ground dweller. When inactive, it occupies underground burrows, often made within those of gopher tortoises. In south-central Florida, burrows were exclusively within gopher tortoise burrows (both active and inactive); within a period of 2-19 days, individuals used up to several different locations within a single burrow and used 1-3 different tortoise burrows (Layne and Jackson 1994). Young are born in nests in underground burrows.<br/><br/>Probably breeds throughout the year; reported as breeding June-March in Alachua County, Florida. Breeds mainly in fall and early winter (Layne 1992). Gestation lasts about 3-4 weeks (longer when lactating). Litter size averages around 2-3. Females probably seldom produce more than two litters each breeding season (Layne 1992). Young are weaned at 3-4 weeks. In the wild, only a small percentage of the population lives longer than one year, though longevity of several years is not uncommon in captives.<br/><br/>Home range averages about one acre or less. Mean distances between successive captures of adults in different habitats were 16 m, 25 m, and 40-50 m; home range size evidently is larger in less favourable habitats (see Layne 1992). In optimal conditions, 36 mice have been captured per 100 trap-nights (see Layne [1992] for further data from various habitats). <br/><br/>This species is omnivorous, diet includes seeds, nuts, fungi, insects, and other invertebrates; acorns are an important food source. Predation by various snakes, owls, and Carnivora probably is the major mortality factor (Layne 1992).	eng
17830	population	Pergams, O., Hammerson, G. & Jackson, D.R., 2008	The population size is unknown but is presumably at least several thousand. This species is known from several dozen collection sites (see dot map in Jones and Layne 1993), but populations currently are not extant at all of these locations. Undoubtedly the species is continuing to decline due to habitat loss (Layne 1992). Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have declined; populations have been extirpated or greatly reduced in much of its former range (Layne 1978). The species has disappeared from the Miami area and the Pinellas peninsula.<br/><br/>Mean density in scrub and sandhill habitats was about 5-10/ha (up to 28/ha) (Layne 1992). Populations generally are highest in winter-early spring and lowest summer-early winter (Layne 1992)	eng
17830	threats	Pergams, O., Hammerson, G. & Jackson, D.R., 2008	<em>Podomys floridanus</em> is moderately dependant on gopher tortoise (<em>Gopherus polyphemus</em>) burrows, and gopher tortoises in Florida are well documented to be in decline, as much as 80% by some estimates due to habitat destruction as well as Upper Respiratory Tract Disease (URTD). Gopher tortoises are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red list and Federally considered Threatened. The resultant decline in new gopher tortoise burrow construction is cause for some concern in relation to <em>Podomys floridanus</em> conservation status. Red imported fire ants (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>) are a potential predatory threat to gopher tortoises and might be a direct threat to <em>Podomys</em> as well (Wetterer and Moore 2005).<br/><br/>Much of the species' habitat has been lost to real estate development, citrus groves, pine plantations, and vegetation changes resulting from fire suppression (Layne 1992). For example, data compiled for Highlands County by Peroni (1983) indicate that during the period from 1940-44 to 1981, approximately 64 percent of the xeric upland habitat suitable for <em>Podomys</em> was destroyed, and an additional 10 percent was disturbed. Since 1981, the rate of clearing of the remaining scrub and sandhill habitats for development and citrus has escalated sharply. In the northern portion of the range, many former sandhill and scrub sites have been converted to pine plantations. In addition, suppression of fire and the resultant successional changes have resulted in further reduction or elimination of <em>Podomys</em> populations in many remaining sandhill and scrub habitats. [Source: Northeast Florida Regional council; http://www.nefrpc.org/pdfs/srpp/appendixa.pdf]	eng
17831	conservation	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in the Mont Roraima National Park.	eng
17831	distribution	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is known only from the Venezuelan side of Mount Roraima on the Guyana, Venezuela and Brazil border (Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996, Musser and Carleton, 2005); it probably occurs on other neighbouring areas within Venezuela (Linares, 1998) as well as adjacent Brazil and Guyana.	eng
17831	habitat	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs on upper montaine slopes (forest), 1,500 to 2,000 m altitude (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
17831	population	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This rodent is known only by the original type series of 5 specimens and a single specimen reported by Pérez-Zapata <em>et al.</em> (1992).	eng
17831	threats	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
17877	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect important sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
17877	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from the island of Salawati and the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea. The fossil record suggests that it was previously distributed throughout the western-most part of Papua Province. Its elevational range is sea level to a few hundred metres at most.	eng
17877	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is an arboreal species, presumably of lowland tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from tree-hollows, and it is likely that the species is dependent on tree hole availability.	eng
17877	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
17877	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is threatened by severe habitat degradation, mostly because of conversion of forested areas to small-holder agricultural use. There has almost certainly been extensive logging, which poses a major threat to this hole nesting species.	eng
17878	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but the range coincides with some protected areas (e.g., Mamberamo). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.	eng
17878	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it has a wide range in northern parts of the island from the Weyland Range (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 400 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
17878	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known from tropical moist forest habitats. Animals have been found in tree hollows. A female with two young has been recorded (Flannery 1995).	eng
17878	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is generally uncommon (Flannery 1995).	eng
17878	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is suspected that northern populations are under threat from general habitat loss, mostly from conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land.	eng
17879	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
17879	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it has been recorded from the Huon Peninsula, the Hagen and Bismarck Ranges, Mount Erimbari, and as far west as the Telefomin area (Flannery 1995). It ranges between 1,400 and 3,100 m asl.	eng
17879	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in montane moss forest and in the alpine zone above the tree line (Flannery 1995). Females usually give birth to a single young.	eng
17879	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is most common at altitudes over 2,000 m asl (Flannery 1995).	eng
17879	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.	eng
17882	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range. This species needs further study on its taxonomy and distribution.	eng
17882	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic the upper Sepik River drainage, Papua New Guinea, where it is known only from the Telefomin and Tifalmin valleys ranging from 1,400 to 2,300 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is listed as a species that is unrecorded from Papua Province, Indonesia, but it is expected to occur here (Helgen 2007).	eng
17882	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Presumably it is found in tropical moist forest. It is a scansorial species and lives in holes on the ground. It is tolerant of disturbed habitat and lives in rural gardens.	eng
17882	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
17882	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has a small range size. It is killed by hunting dogs and actively hunted by local people for food. The altitudinal range of this species coincides with high human activity. If human population pressure increases in the area the species may begin to decline.	eng
17883	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats.	eng
17883	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Animals currently allocated to this species have been recorded over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). There are records from the Vogelkop Peninsula in the west (Papua Province, Indonesia) to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded between 240 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
17883	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from both mature and regrowth tropical moist forest. It nests underground. Females give birth to two or three young (Flannery 1995).	eng
17883	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
17883	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
17884	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is presumably present in some protected areas. In Australia, it is present in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. Taxonomic work is needed to determine the distributional limits of the species.	eng
17884	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This little-known species is widespread in lowland and mid-montane New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), it has been recorded from the island of Yapen (Indonesia), and from the island of New Britain (Papua New Guinea) in the Bismarck Archipelago. There are also populations in two areas in north-eastern Queensland (Australia): in low elevation forest at Iron Range, and between Shiptons Flat to Koombooloomba (Menkhorst 2001). It ranges between sea level and 1,800 m asl.	eng
17884	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical moist primary and secondary forest (Flannery 1995b). It is found in burrows during the day. Litters of up to three young have been recorded (Flannery 1995b).	eng
17884	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It appears to be a common, but rarely seen species on New Guinea. It is thought to be rarer on Yapen and New Britain (Flannery 1995a). In Australia it is thought to be common, though hard to trap (an assumption based mainly on collection from owl pellets) (Winter <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
17884	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to be fairly tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
17885	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are protected areas within the range (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance.	eng
17885	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species complex is endemic to the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Specimens currently allocated to <em>P. sylvestris</em> have been recorded from the Arfak Mountains on the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province in the west, through to the Huon Peninsula and Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea in the east (Flannery 1995). The two western-most populations are likely to represent two separate, restricted range species. Populations of <em>P. sylvestris</em> in the east of its range are broadly distributed. It has been recorded from 1,300 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
17885	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from both primary and disturbed montane tropical moist forest. Animals have been found in old rural garden habitats. It is partly arboreal, and groups of animals have been collected in burrows.	eng
17885	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	In parts of its range it is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
17885	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is hunted for food in parts of its range, although this may not pose a significant threat. Eastern populations are not considered to be threatened; western populations may be threatened by their restricted range.	eng
17932	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	This species is known from the Ozark Mountains where it is recorded from five counties, Izard, Marion, Newton, Searcy and Stone.	eng
17932	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	It is found at the base of dolomitic cliffs.	eng
17938	conservation	Grady, J., 2004	The 1992 USFWS status review for paddlefish determined that listing this species as threatened under the ESA was not warranted at that time. Tagging results of the five year MICRA paddlefish project and harvest reports from states with sport and commercial fisheries indicate that range-wide paddlefish populations exceed 10,000 individuals and can currently sustain harvests. <br/> <br/>In states with sport fisheries, paddlefish are managed by seasons and bag limits to ensure sustained harvests (MICRA 1993). Fourteen states currently have paddlefish sport fisheries. Six of these are supplemented by stocking programs (Graham 1997). The management authority for this species is the individual state fish and game agency responsible for waters within their jurisdiction. This species still supports commercial fisheries in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee where authorities believe the harvest is well managed and sustainable. However, there are individual subpopulations that have been overexploited.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
17938	distribution	Grady, J., 2004	Mississippi River basin from southwestern New York to central Montana and south to Louisiana; Gulf Slope drainages from Mobile Basin, Alabama (primarily below the Fall Line; Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996), to Galveston Bay, Texas (Page and Burr 1991). The historical range included occurrences in Canada in Lake Huron and Lake Helen and in 26–27 states in the United States (Parker 1988, Graham 1997).  <br/> <br/>Extirpated in Canada, there have been no Canadian records since the early 1900s (Parker 1988). However, Canada never was a significant part of the distribution (highly peripheral). <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range, see the <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.	eng
17938	habitat	Grady, J., 2004	Freshwater.	eng
17938	population	Grady, J., 2004	In 1992, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) announced a 12-month Ruling in the Federal Register declaring the listing of paddlefish as Threatened was not warranted in response to a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The assessment found that, historical and current scientific information, including fundamental information about population size and structure, growth rate, and fisheries harvest was almost completely lacking. Interviews with fisheries biologists indicated that while paddlefish were declining in some areas, in other areas they were expanding and occupying habitat from which they’d been formerly extirpated. While some state agencies listed the paddlefish as a species of concern others licensed commercial and sport anglers. <br/> <br/>The Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Association (MICRA) was established in 1991 to address the full spectrum of fisheries management issues in the Mississippi River Basin. MICRA launched a basin-wide, multi-year, coded wire tagging paddlefish study in the spring of 1995 to help address issues of paddlefish population size and large-scale movements. Twenty-two Mississippi River Basin states actively participate in the paddlefish project by: 1) hatchery-raising and tagging more than 1.3 million paddlefish for release into Basin waters since 1988; 2) collecting and tagging 11,281 wild adult paddlefish in 19,178 hours of sampling in Basin waters since 1995; and 3) collecting tag return and creel information in those states which allow sport and/or commercial harvests. <br/> <br/>Number of mature individuals in this range-wide population number considerably more than 10,000. Area of occupancy is very large. Substantial subpopulation mixing may occur due to large-scale movements of adult paddlefish.	eng
17938	threats	Grady, J., 2004	Competition, predation, diseases and parasites were evaluated in the 1992 review (USFWS 1992) and determined not to be limiting factors for paddlefish stocks. Although dams, habitat, and water quality concerns still occur in several locations, the majority of formerly occupied habitats remain available to this species. Continued application of existing U.S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, etc.) and current and future mitigation and habitat improvements designed to improve pallid sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats should benefit the paddlefish.	eng
17939	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.	eng
17939	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs only in mountains of Calabria in the south of Italy, between 1,100-2,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
17939	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Gallo’s Anomalous Blue occurs both on flower-rich grassland and in woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is often found on rocky slopes and screes. This butterfly is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
17939	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A population decline from 10-23% is reported from Italy. This species shows large population fluctuations (E. Balletto, pers. comm.).	eng
17939	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a limited range in Europe and shows strong fluctuations. It is particularly sensitive to the adverse influences of grazing. Even though the effects of sheep overgrazing is particularly severe, even slight grazing by domestic stock can result in considerably diminished population densities, which soon fall well below 50% of the normal. A potential threat is over-collecting, although for the time being this is not an issue. (Balletto 1993).	eng
17940	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.	eng
17940	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in the south of Spain, in the Sierra Nevada at 2,500-3,000 m and Sierra de la Sagra at 1,700-2350 m elevation. This is a European endemic species. Recently the populations in the Sierra de la Sagra (formerly described as <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyommatus sagratrox</span>) have been assigned to this species causing the duplication of the area of occupancy (AOO) for taxonomic reasons.	eng
17940	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Sierra Nevada, the Nevada Blue can be found in open patches in dwarf Juniper scrub and on grassy vegetation growing between acid, slate rocks and schist. In the Sierra de la Sagra, the butterflies are found on dry, open calcareous slopes with short vegetation. Here, the climatic conditions are extreme, the ground being covered with snow for nine months of the year. One of the plants that can withstand these conditions, the kidney-vetch <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis vulneraria</span>, is the foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate in the ground in June. The later instars are often found in the company of ants. Habitats: screes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).	eng
17940	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Nevada Blue is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
17940	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a very restricted range. Its main threat comes from the building of tourist infrasructure and tourist activities. Considering its limited distribution it might become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) there is no information on  possible changes to the climate envelope.	eng
17941	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Using a butterfly-net is strictly forbidden in the Pondel-site, which supports the main population. Controls appear to be very efficient. The remaining sites should be well managed and the species should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species is listed on the Bern Convention Annex 2.	eng
17941	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species only occurs in the Valle d'Aosta in the Italian Alps, where there are at most five populations. It occurs at 800-1,000 m elevation, sometimes as high as 1,600 m. The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 10 km² and the extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km². This is a European endemic species.	eng
17941	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Piedmont Anomalous Blue occurs on warm, dry, rocky slopes with groups of bushes and patches of grassy, species-rich vegetation, where nectar is abundant. The female lays its eggs on Mountain Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis montana</span>) and Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">O. viciifolia</span>). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and when still small, hibernate. In spring, they are attended by ants. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
17941	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
17941	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species has a restricted range and very limited dispersal possibilities. The main direct threats come from grassland abandonment, causing shrubs and trees to invade the habitat. It is uncertain whether trade in collected specimens is an additional threat.	eng
17975	conservation	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	The Bornean orangutan is a fully protected species in both Malaysia and Indonesia legislation. This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Although some major populations are found within the network of protected areas existing in Borneo, it is now well established that the vast majority of Bornean orangutans live outside protected forests. New mechanisms to ensure their long-term survival outside protected forests are urgently needed.	eng
17975	distribution	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	The Bornean orangutan is endemic to the island of Borneo where it is present in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as in three of the four Indonesian Provinces of Kalimantan.<br/><br/>Species distribution is now highly patchy throughout the island: it is apparently absent or uncommon in the south-east of the island, as well as in the forests between the Rejang River in central Sarawak and the Padas River in western Sabah (including the Sultanate of Brunei).	eng
17975	habitat	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	Orangutans are the largest arboreal mammals found on earth today. They are semi-solitary animals, but complex social networks of loose relationships are maintained between members of a community. Males tend to disperse further than females at maturity. More than 500 plant species have been recorded in their diet. Fruits make up more than 60% of their average total intake (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2006). The diet also includes leaves, barks, flowers and insects. Orangutans are best described as “gardeners” of the forest (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999); they play a vital role in seed dispersal, especially for large seeds that are not dispersed by smaller animals (Ancrenaz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fruit availability in the Bornean forest directly impacts all aspects of their life: ranging patterns, seasonal movements, health, social and reproductive behaviour.<br/><br/>The orangutan is the only primate species with two different forms of mature males (bimaturism). Flanged males are twice the size of the female; they possess a long coat of dark hair on the back, a facial disk, flanges and a throat sac used for “long calls”. These males are rather intolerant and aggressive towards other adult males. Unflanged males do not possess these secondary sexual characteristics; they are the size of an adult female, they do not emit long calls nor do they show mutual intolerance. These two types of male both sire offspring and contribute to the reproduction of a given population (Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2006a). The transition from the unflanged to the flanged form can happen anytime; this depends mostly on complex social cues that are not yet fully understood.<br/><br/>Bornean orangutan distribution is patchy throughout the island. Large rivers are impassable natural barriers and limit their dispersal (Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species occurs typically at relatively low abundance in the Bornean forests: from 0.5 to 4.0 ind./km² in most populations (review in Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, van Schaik <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bornean orangutans are more abundant in low-lying forests (below 500 meters asl) than in uplands. Flood-prone forests and peatswamps produce more regular and larger fruit crops than dry dipterocarp forests and harbour the highest orangutan densities. Bornean orangutans are vulnerable to habitat disturbances, although the taxon <em>P. p. morio</em> shows a relative and unexpected tolerance to habitat degradation in the northern part of the island (Ancrenaz <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Females generally give birth to a single infant after a gestation period of approximately 245 days (Nowak 1999). Female Bornean orangutans reach maturity between 10 and 15 years old and reproduce every six to eight years on average (Nowak 1999, Wich <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
17975	population	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	The most recent estimates for Bornean orangutan numbers are between 45,000 and 69,000 individuals living in 86,000 km² of suitable habitat (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Caldecott and Miles 2005). These estimates were obtained between 2000 and 2003. Since recent trends are steeply down in most places due to logging and burning, it is forecasted that the current numbers are below these figures (see Tables 1a, b and c).<br/><br/>Follow link below for Tables 1a, b and c: population size estimates for <em>P. p. wurmbii</em>, <em>P. p. pygmaeus</em> and <em>P. p. morio</em>.	eng
17975	threats	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the twentieth century) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Goossens <em>et al</em>. 2006b).<br/><br/>Major threats include:<br/><br/><strong>1. Habitat losses</strong> with the destruction of vast areas of tropical forest throughout the island and their conversion to agriculture (mostly oil palm plantations - <em>Elaeis guineensis</em>, but also acacia, rice, subsistence crops, cocoa, etc). An overall loss of 15.5 million hectares of forest (24% of total forest area) was recorded between 1985 and 1997 in Sumatra and Kalimantan, while 37% of the total forest area was lost in Sabah between 1950 and 2000 (FAO 2000). In the lowlands (prime orangutan habitat) this figure is higher and reaches more than 60% (Holmes 2000). We consider that today only 86,000 km² of habitat remains available to the species throughout the island (which is about 740,000 km²). Protected areas home to significant orangutan populations are also threatened by habitat loss (Curran <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The rapid expansion of oil palm plantations in Borneo in response to international demand (the oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and more recently as source of bio-diesel) has accelerated habitat losses. Between 1984 and 2003, the area planted with palm oil on Borneo increased from 2,000 km² to 27,000 km²: about 10,000 km² is located in Kalimantan; 12,000 km² in Sabah and 5,000 km² in Sarawak. Many areas used to be prime habitat for the orangutans: eastern lowlands of Sabah, the plains between the Sampit and Seruyan rivers in central Kalimantan, etc.<br/><br/><strong>2. Fires</strong>. The El Niño climatic event has been occurring repeatedly in the last few decades, and is associated with severe droughts and forest fires. Ninety percent of Kutai National Park was lost to massive fires in 1983 and 1998 and its orangutan population was reduced from an estimated 4000 individuals in the 1970s to a mere 500 today (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999). Over 400,000 ha of peatland forest in South Kalimantan were burnt to ashes in six months during 1997-98 following the collapse of the Mega-Rice project, representing an estimated loss of 8,000 orangutans (Page <em>et al</em>. 2002). Large numbers of orangutans are also killed by people while fleeing the flames and smoke during and after the fires. As a result of the 1997-98 fires, we estimate that the Bornean orangutan population was reduced by 33% in just one year. The most recent drought of 2006 in Kalimantan is thought to have killed several hundred orangutans in just six months. Forest fires can also result in the arrival of “refugees” in surrounding remnant and the resulting crowding effect can have serious negative impacts on the resident population (Husson <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>3. Habitat exploitation and illegal logging</strong>. Although recent work in Sabah and East Kalimantan shows that orangutans can adapt and survive (at least in the short term) in commercial forest reserves exploited for timber according to sustainable logging practices (reduced-impact logging; FSC certification), it is well established that more aggressive and conventional logging practices have a negative impact on orangutan populations. Rampant legal and illegal logging results in the destruction of key food sources that sustain orangutans, and in the fragmentation of remnant subpopulations which subsequently become more prone to local extinction and catastrophes.<br/><br/><strong>4. Habitat fragmentation</strong>. Recent results from the orangutan PHVA show that Bornean orangutan populations of fewer than 50 individuals are not viable in the long-term and will most probably go extinct in the next 100 years (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Forest fragmentation further reduces the size of orangutan populations and makes them more prone to genetic drift and inbreeding as well as to local catastrophes, such as floods, fires, outbreak diseases, hunting pressure.<br/><br/><strong>5. Hunting</strong>. In some parts of the island, hunting has been a major threat and is directly responsible for local extinctions (Rijksen and Meijaard 1999). Even low levels of hunting for traditional purposes strongly reduce orangutan population densities (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2006). Indeed, recent vortex models showed that a 2% hunting rate is not sustainable for this species (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004, Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Major reasons for hunting include: bushmeat trade, wanton killing as part of poaching for other forest products (such as gaharu or aloe wood), use of body parts for traditional medicine, pet trade and to mitigate conflicts with agriculture.<br/><br/><strong>6. Pet trade</strong>. Illegal export of animals continues. In early 2004 about 100 individuals of Bornean origin were confiscated in Thailand and 50 of them were repatriated to Kalimantan in 2006. Several hundred Bornean orangutan orphans who were confiscated by local authorities have been entrusted to different orphanages in both Malaysia and Indonesia. They are in the process of being rehabilitated into the wild.	eng
17976	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Found among algae in spring seep in wet campo.	eng
17978	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y., Zerbini, A.N. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Measures are needed to reduce the level of bycatch of this species, and research is needed to monitor bycatch levels more accurately.	eng
17978	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y., Zerbini, A.N. & Zhou, K., 2008	Franciscanas inhabit shallow coastal waters (and they sporadically enter the estuary of the La Plata River) of tropical and temperate regions of the western South Atlantic Ocean (Crespo 2002). They are found only along the east coast of South America (Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina), from the northern Golfo San Matias, central Argentina (ca. 42°10'S), to Espirito Santo, southeastern Brazil (18°25'S) (Siciliano 1994; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is not distributed continuously throughout its range. Surveys (including beach surveys, museum specimens, and interviews with local people) indicate that franciscanas are extremely rare or absent in two areas of the northern parts of their range between Macaé (southern Rio de Janeiro State) and Ubatuba (northern São Paulo State) and in Espírito Santo State (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2002; Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003). The reasons for these gaps are unclear, but because the species prefers shallow, turbid waters (Brownell 1989; Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989), water transparency and depth may be among the factors responsible (Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17978	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y., Zerbini, A.N. & Zhou, K., 2008	Although sometimes described as a ‘river dolphin’, the franciscana is not a freshwater species. Franciscanas apparently do not migrate, although seasonal inshore/offshore movements have been documented in some areas (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bordino 2002). Predation by both large sharks and killer whales has been documented (Praderi 1985; Ott and Danilewicz 1996; Santos and Netto 2005).<br/><br/>Franciscanas are generally found in turbid waters < 30 m deep (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Secchi and Ott 2000). Although they are found mainly in marine waters and only occasionally in estuaries, they are relatively common in the Uruguayan part of the La Plata River estuary (Praderi 1986). Franciscanas are primarily coastal, ranging no farther offshore than the 30 m isobath. Some sightings have been made in waters seaward of the 50 m isobath and 55 km offshore, but the density offshore is very low. <br/><br/>Franciscanas feed on several species of shallow-water fish (e.g., sciaenids, engraulids, gadids, and carangids), cephalopods, and crustaceans (Brownell 1989; Di Beneditto and Ramos 2001; Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2002; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
17978	population	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y., Zerbini, A.N. & Zhou, K., 2008	Morphological and molecular data strongly support the existence of two main subpopulations of franciscanas. Multivariate analysis of morphometric data revealed two subpopulations: a smaller form in the northern part of the species' range (north of 27°S) (those in the far north are of intermediate size) and a larger form in the coastal waters of southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (south of 27°S) (Pinedo 1991). Analyses of a highly variable region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) also supported these two geographic forms (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Ott (2002) and Lázaro <em>et al</em>. (2004) compared the mtDNA of franciscanas from Uruguay and Argentina with those published by Secchi <em>et al</em>. (1998). These studies found support for the existence of a large southern population (composed of animals from Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay and northern Argentina) that is clearly differentiated from animals in the waters off Rio de Janeiro. In addition, they revealed fixed genetic differences between the populations that suggest essentially no effective genetic exchange (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998; Ott 2002; Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ott’s results also clearly showed that individuals inhabiting Paraná and São Paulo waters belong to a genetically distinct subpopulation. This is consistent with morphological data showing that size is not clinal, with animals from Paraná and São Paulo being smaller than those in adjacent populations to the south and north of those States (<em>e.g.</em>. Kasuya and Brownell, 1979; Di Beneditto and Ramos, 2001; Barreto and Rosas, 2006; Barbato <em>et al</em>., 2007) A pairwise analysis of haplotype distances between different geographic locations showed increasing differentiation in the haplotype frequencies with increasing distance, following an isolation-by-distance pattern (Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). Furthermore, recent analysis indicated that haplotype frequencies of samples from Claromecó (in Argentina) were significantly different from those of the rest of the southern population (Ott 2002; Lázaro <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/>Secchi <em>et al</em>. (2003a) proposed four provisional management units (Franciscana Management Areas, or FMAs) with the following ranges: FMA I - coastal waters of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (note: confirmation of the hiatus in the Espírito Santo State with increased survey effort will require further division of this FMA); FMA II - São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina states, Brazil; FMA III - coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil and Uruguay; and FMA IV - coastal waters of Argentina, including the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut. <br/><br/>There is no current abundance estimate for the species as a whole, but there is an estimate for the management stock inhabiting FMA III (hereafter referred as the RS/URU management unit). During aerial surveys of coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in 1996 (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001), this stock’s abundance was estimated at 42,078 (95% CI 33,047-53,542). This extrapolated result must be used very cautiously, however, because it is based on a density estimate for only a small fraction of the coastline, representing approximately 0.7% of the possible range of the subpopulation (ca. 64,045 sq. km), and there is limited information on the distribution pattern of franciscanas within their total range. This and other estimates of franciscana density and abundance need to be interpreted cautiously as they could be either positively or negatively biased. The IWC Scientific Committee concluded, after reviewing the methods and limitations of franciscana surveys through 2003-2004, that it was not appropriate to consider them as providing minimum estimates of abundance (IWC 2005a).<br/><br/>While the overall abundance of the species would seem relatively high, in most areas the gillnet mortality alone is not thought to be sustainable. Secchi (2006) projected the four management units 25 years into the future based on a stage-structured matrix model using a variety of scenarios of fishing effort. Because there were estimates of franciscana density and abundance only for FMA III and IV (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001; Crespo <em>et al</em>. 2004), Secchi (2006) used the density estimated for FMA III ( ) and applied a correction factor based on the ratio of capture per unit of effort (CPUE) between the other areas and FMA III. This was assumed to represent a valid index of abundance because the unit of fishing effort is the same and the fishing gears are similar among management units. The corrected densities were multiplied by the entire area of both FMA I and II to obtain the estimate of total abundance. Uncertainty in the parameter estimates was incorporated through appropriate probability distributions. The scenarios considered most realistic (i.e. those that aimed to compensate for underestimation of the bycatch and that modelled environmental stochasticity) resulted in relatively high probabilities that each management unit would decline by at least 30% below its initial size with the exception of FMA I. However, it should be noted that estimates of bycatch in FMA I come from only one fishing village and it is known that bycatch occurs in other parts of this FMA (e.g. Freitas-Neto and Barbosa 2003). <br/><br/>The modelling exercise described above is considered to underestimate the risk of decline of franciscanas. The most recent data on bycatch (<em>e.g.</em> Rosas <em>et al</em>. 2002; Bordino and Albareda 2005; A. Zerbini as summarized in IWC 2005b) indicate that the numbers caught annually in FMAs II and IV are roughly twice as high as the values used by Secchi (2006) in his projections. In addition, other sources of potential threat (risk factors, as described in the Threats section below) were not considered in Secchi’s study.	eng
17978	threats	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y., Zerbini, A.N. & Zhou, K., 2008	The main problem facing the species is incidental mortality in gillnet fisheries (there is no indication of direct exploitation of franciscanas), which has been observed since at least the early 1940s (Van Erp 1969). In the 1960s, the bycatch in Uruguay alone was as high as 1,500-2,000 animals (Brownell and Ness 1969; Pilleri 1971). Current estimates total at least 2,900 animals per year in all four management stocks, combined (e.g., Ott <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b), but the numbers used to get that total are thought to be underestimated to an unknown extent, primarily due to: (1) captures in other non-monitored types of fisheries (e.g., active gillneting, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997; shrimp trawling, Cappozzo <em>et al</em>. 2000); (2) under-reporting of bycatch by fishermen; and (3) dolphins captured sometimes falling from the net before or during haul-out (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). Bycatch is higher in FMA III with estimates being above 1,300 animals incidentally caught annually (Ott <em>et al</em>. 2002; Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b, 2004), followed by FMA IV: approximately 800 individuals (Bordino and Albareda 2005), FMA II: > 700 dolphins (Rosas <em>et al</em>. 2002; IWC 2004), and FMA I: > 110 franciscanas (Di Beneditto 2003). <br/><br/>Stomach contents of franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul have included many kinds of debris: discarded fishing gear such as pieces of nylon net (17% of 36 stomachs), cellophane, and plastic fragments (6%) (Bassoi 1997). This problem has also been reported in northern Argentina, where cellophane, fishing debris, and plastic were found in 45%, 32% and 16% of the stomachs (Bastida <em>et al</em>. 2000; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002). The effects of such debris ingestion on health status of individual franciscanas have not been determined, and the subpopulation-level implications are uncertain. However, debris could have a negative effect in at least some areas. <br/> <br/>Other potential threats include various forms of habitat degradation (e.g. overfishing; destruction of benthic community and bycatch of small sciaenid fish – main franciscana prey – by trawling) (e.g. Bassoi and Secchi 2000; Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002; Rodríguez <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
18067	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from the Lake Tawar in northwestern Sumatera.	eng
18095	conservation	Vogel, P., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Basic biology and conservation research will determinre the types and feasibility of realistic conservation measures.	eng
18095	distribution	Vogel, P., 2008	Central Rainforest Zone and peripheral areas from Nigeria (Cross River) eastwards through Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, to western Uganda and western Kenya and Tanzania, and southwards to central Angola and northern Zambia (Corbet 1974). From sea level up to 1,800 m. Occurs in the preserved rainforest of Kakamega, Kenya.	eng
18095	habitat	Vogel, P., 2008	Found in streams in equatorial rain forests. Lives along rather small slow-flowing forest streams, forest pools and mountain torrents (from an altitudinal range of  0–1,800 m)  where banks provide habitats for nest chambers (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990). Also along streams, bordered by gallery forest. Normally does not occur in large rivers, although one was found in the Ivindo river (Gabon) where it was several hundred metres wide. This species is an adept swimmer that feeds on crabs, fish and amphibians. It lives in riverbank burrows, which have an entrance below the water level. It shelters in its burrows during the day becoming active in the afternoon. It is possibly a solitary species with each adult occupying between 500–1,000 m of stream.<br/><br/>Very muscular tail enables efficient swimming by horizontal undulations (Kingdon 1974) as in fishes and crocodiles. This method of swimming is unique amongst aquatic mammals (e.g., seals arid whales) which usually swim by undulations in a vertical plane. Forelimbs not used for propulsion. Moving on land is rather clumsy. Body pelage groomed with comb-like structure formed by the fusion of second and third toes. Nocturnal with several bouts of activity each night (Dubost 1965, Nicoll 1985); rests during daytime in burrow in river bank. When disturbed, escapes in the water. Movements over long distances always by water, never over-land.<br/><br/>Foraging and food Forages in water, feeding only on aquatic prey. Hunts by dives, each lasting for only several seconds. Prey located using the sensitive vibrissae and odor; eyes apparently not used to locate I prey. Analysis of stomach contents and feces show that diet is mainly fishes, crabs, shrimps, and water insects; frogs rarely eaten (Dubost 1965). In captivity eats 15– 20 crabs per night (Durrell 1953).<br/><br/>Latrines probably used to mark boundaries of territory (Dubost 1965). The den, with the nest chamber, is entered from below or above water level and is usually placed under a tree.<br/><br/>Breeds during wet and dry seasons. One (n=3) or two (n=2) pups/litter. Probably two litters/year (Dubost 1965).	eng
18095	population	Vogel, P., 2008	Mean density in good habitats may be 1 territorial animal /0.5 to 1 km length of stream with maximum densities of about 1 per 100 m river (Dubost 1965).	eng
18095	threats	Vogel, P., 2008	Soil erosion caused by deforestation increases the opaqueness of waterways to the detriment of this species. This is a particular problem in Cameroon (Nicoll 1985), but a potential threat in the other range states undergoing rapid forest loss. If forest strips lining the banks of the inhabited waterways remain intact then viable population are thought to be maintained. This species is also widely hunted for its skin and is accidentally trapped (but the extent to which this last is a threat to survival is unknown).	eng
18102	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	In Victoria about half the species' range is within national parkland with much of the remaining part of its range in area available for timber harvesting and fuel-collection. About half of the species' range in New South Wales is within the South East Forests National Park and the rest is within state forest land.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Endangered nationally and also has state threatened species status as well. A National Recovery Plan was completed in 2000 (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000), and a State Recovery Plan for New South Wales was completed in 2002 (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).<br/><br/>Numerous recovery activities have been conducted to date, and these need to continue along with other recovery actions. Recommendations for the recovery of this species include (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000; NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002): protect suitable habitat for the species, control predators through the controlled use of 1080 baiting, control introduced pigs through trapping, establish the distribution and abundance of the species (perhaps with new survey techniques), research the effects of habitat disturbance from timber harvesting and fire, research the biology of hypogeous fungi that it depends on, maintain and expand the captive colony, and promote public awareness of the species.	eng
18102	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from three disjunct, fragmented populations, one in south-eastern New South Wales, and two in north-east Victoria: East Gippsland and the Great Dividing Range. Recorded from South East Forests National Park and Yambulla State Forest in New South Wales where it has never been trapped, but is known from hair and predator scat samples (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002). Recorded from 44 sites in East Gippsland: most lie between the Snowy River and Cann River in near-coastal East Gippsland and the adjacent uplands of the Snowy River. It ranges in elevation from 100 m to 1,100 m (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008).	eng
18102	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	The species occurs in a variety of forest types ranging from montane wet sclerophyll forests at over 1,000 m altitude, to lowland sclerophyll forest at 100 m altitude. It is apparently confined to sites with a high soil moisture content throughout the year. The primary requirements of Long-footed Potoroos are a diverse and abundant supply of hypogeal fungal sporocarps throughout the year and dense cover to provide shelter and protection from predators (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008). Its diet is highly unusual for a mammal species, and consists almost entirely of fungi (up to 91%) (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008).	eng
18102	population	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is rare, cryptic, and difficult to find. The most recent National Recovery Plan refrains from estimating its population size due these factors, but states that it is unlikely to be more that a few thousand individuals, and it might only be a few hundred (Nunan <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
18102	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	Major threats to the species include predation from foxes, dingoes, and feral dogs, which may lead to the low densities at which this species has been found (Menkhorst and Seebeck 2008). Introduced pigs might be competitors for this species' specialized food requirements. Inappropriate fire regimes might also affect the fungi on which this species depends. Logging activities appear to be detrimental to the species, but further research is required for confirmation (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2002).	eng
18103	conservation	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
18103	distribution	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	This species was endemic to Australia, where it once ranged from coastal South Australia westwards to Albany, Western Australia and northwards through the wheatbelt of Western Australia, at least as far north as the Geraldton region (Kitchener and Friend 2008).	eng
18103	habitat	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	The species is very poorly known. It is not believed to have occurred in forested areas (Kitchener and Friend 2008).	eng
18103	population	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	It is presumed to be extinct. The last known record was in the 1875 when five specimens were sold to the National Museum in Victoria (Kitchener and Friend 2008). Appropriate, targeted surveys have not recorded this species since.	eng
18103	threats	Australasian Mammal Assessment Workshop, 2008	Presumably this species declined through feral cats and possibly disease.	eng
18107	conservation	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The entire known population of this species exists within Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve (Friend 2008). <br/><br/>The most recent recovery plan, Courtenay and Friend (2004), lists the following needed actions for recovery of this species: monitor known populations, undertake protective actions (including fire exclusion, feral animal control, and dieback hygiene), search for additional populations especially outside Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve, undertake assisted reproduction techniques to enhance reproductive potential, and create new population through translocation. Also, controlling the rate of <em>Phytophthora</em> infection in the habitat of this species is important to the conservation of this species, as well as preserving corridors that link its current habitat with other suitable habitat (i.e., the strip of bushland linking Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve with the Boulder Hill area) by protecting it from fire and land clearing for grazing and agriculture.<br/><br/>A new introduction of a few individuals to Bald Island is underway by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia). Cat predation research in Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve is commencing. Extensive research is ongoing on biology and ecology. Surveys have not found any new populations.	eng
18107	distribution	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Gilbert's Potoroo is endemic to south-western, Western Australia, and was long thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1994. It was taken by three collectors between 1840 and 1879 in the vicinity of King George's Sound (Albany), but exact locations are not known. Skeletal material is common in cave deposits between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturaliste. Sub-fossil skeletal specimens have been located in coastal sand dunes between these localities. It is currently restricted to Mt. Gardner promontory in Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve (Friend 2008).	eng
18107	habitat	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is found in <em>Melaleuca striata</em> heath with a dense layer of sedges underneath (Courtenay and Friend 2004; Friend 2008). It apparently avoids areas where dieback disease caused by the root pathogen <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> has modified the structure and floristic assemblage of heathlands (Courtenay and Friend 2004).<br/><br/>Its diet is highly unusual for a mammal species, and consists almost entirely of fungi (>90%) (Courtenay and Friend 2004). There is little evidence of seasonality in reproduction of this species. Females begin having young at nine months of age. A single young is produced and stays in the pouch for three to four months (Friend 2008). The maximum longevity of both sexes exceeds 10 years (Friend 2008).	eng
18107	population	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The population of Gilbert's Potoroo is thought to be 30-40 individuals (Friend 2008). There has been little change in successful trapping, and this probably indicates a stable population (Courtenay and Friend 2004; Friend 2008). All suitable habitat in this species' tiny range appears to be occupied (Friend 2008).	eng
18107	threats	Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Fire is the critical threat (present and future) to this species as the Mt. Gardner population is in an area of long unburnt and extremely fire prone vegetation, and a single fire event could potentially wipe out the species (except for the few individuals in captivity and on Bald Island) (J. Courtenay pers. comm.). This species is in the prey size range of both feral cats and foxes, and both are known to exist in the Two Peoples Bay area, thus this species is likely threatened by these predators (Courtenay and Friend 2004). <br/><br/>Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) states that the reasons for the decline of the species are unknown. Predation by foxes has probably been significant. Changed fire regimes may have altered habitat and/or exacerbated fox and cat predation by destroying dense cover. Gilbert's notes record it as "the constant companion" of Quokkas, <em>Setonix brachyurus</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Unlike Gilbert's Potoroo, the Quokka, although declining, persists over much of its pre-settlement range. The difference has not been explained. Maxwell <em>et al.</em> (1996) and Courtenay and Friend (2004), suggest that dieback disease caused by <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> threatens persisting populations by eliminating plant symbionts of hypogeal, mycorrhizal fungi which are the principal food of Gilbert's Potoroos. Altering vegetation structure and eliminating plants that provide food are direct threats to this species.	eng
18113	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is not present in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas and conserve suitable areas of forest within the range of this species.	eng
18113	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is known only from seven collections made in the Mount Oku area (Mount Oku itself, Manenguba, Mount Lefo, Bambulini, Lake Oku) of Cameroon. It ranges between 2,700 and 2,900 m asl.	eng
18113	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species occurs in montane forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or secondary habitats, it is possible that it is limited to primary forest habitat.	eng
18113	population	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	Few specimens of this species have been collected. It is certainly not an abundant species.	eng
18113	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation due to expanding agriculture, logging and collection of firewood and timber for building materials.	eng
18114	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Agwanda, B., 2009	It occurs in a number of protected areas, but many of the forest reserves in Kenya are being deproclaimed.	eng
18114	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Agwanda, B., 2009	This species has been recorded from high plateaus and isolated mountains from northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau, Makutus, and Mafingas) and Malawi (Nyika Plateau), through Tanzania to southeastern Kenya. There is also a new record from northern Mozambique (Julian Kerbis Peterhans pers. comm.). It ranges between 1,000 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
18114	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Agwanda, B., 2009	This species occurs in montane forest, and appears to tolerate some disturbance (as densities are higher in secondary forest), but has not been collected outside of forest.	eng
18114	population	van der Straeten, E. & Agwanda, B., 2009	It is very common and stable. It is found in high densities on Taita, Kenya.	eng
18114	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Agwanda, B., 2009	Many of the forest patches (at least in Kenya) are threatened due to deforestation by logging activities, and clearance for agriculture (crops and livestock) and new settlements.	eng
18115	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It occurs in a large number of protected areas.	eng
18115	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species has the most expansive geographic range of any <em>Praomys</em>. It occurs from central Nigeria through Cameroon and Central African Republic to southern Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, northeastern Angola, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, and southward through eastern Tanzania to northern and eastern Zambia. There is a recent record of this species from Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is found from the lowlands up to 3,000 m asl (in Kenya).	eng
18115	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	This species occurs primarily in lowland rainforest and secondary forest, but also recorded in cultivated and fallow land, montane forests, and forest relicts on the margins of the rainforest zone. It is occasionally found in bamboo forest and around marshes and swamps. This is a terrestrial, nocturnal and crepuscular species. It may climb up small branches up to two metres off of the ground. It is mainly a frugivorous, but partly omnivorous species.	eng
18115	population	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	It is one of the most common species of small mammals in the rainforests of central and eastern Africa.	eng
18115	threats	van der Straeten, E., Decher, J., Dieterlen, F., Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Agwanda, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18116	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. This species needs to be refound and studied.	eng
18116	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Lukolela in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is a lowland species.	eng
18116	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It was apparently collected in lowland rain forest, probably on the right bank of the Congo River, however, this information is uncertain as specimens were also brought to the collector (Hatt 1934) from the left bank of the river. There are two places called Lukolela but these are on opposite sides of the river.	eng
18116	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is known only from three specimens.	eng
18116	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
18117	conservation	van der Straeten, E., Dieterelen, F., Agwanda, B. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kahuzi-Biega National Park).	eng
18117	distribution	van der Straeten, E., Dieterelen, F., Agwanda, B. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from five localities in northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya and Uganda. It has been recorded at 500 to 1,650 m asl, and has not been recorded at higher altitudes.	eng
18117	habitat	van der Straeten, E., Dieterelen, F., Agwanda, B. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It occurs in lowland rain forest and submontane forest, and is also found in secondary forest and fallow cultivated habitats within rainforest.	eng
18117	population	van der Straeten, E., Dieterelen, F., Agwanda, B. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The abundance of this species varies according to habitat and altitude. In general it is not as common as the sympatric <em>Praomys jacksoni</em>.	eng
18117	threats	van der Straeten, E., Dieterelen, F., Agwanda, B. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18118	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	Mount Cameroon is designated for protection (Etinde Reserve) and there are two reserves on Bioko.	eng
18118	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Cameroon (Cameroon) and the mountainous island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It has been recorded at elevations from 1,100 to 2,135 m asl.	eng
18118	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs only in montane forest.	eng
18118	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
18118	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	Mount Cameroon is fairly intact and partly protected, whereas the forest on Bioko has been heavily impacted in the past by logging and clearance for agriculture (crops and livestock). Deforestation is still ongoing on Bioko despite the presence of two protected areas.	eng
18119	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It may possibly occur in the Yangambi Forest and Floral Reserve.	eng
18119	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality - Haut-Zaïre, Batiabongena (Masako Forest Reserve), (00°36'N, 25°13'E), in the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The altitudinal range is not known.	eng
18119	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species only occurs in wet and undisturbed high forest along rivers.	eng
18119	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The population abundance is not known, however, 30 to 40 specimens were caught in traps right on the waters edge (even partly in the water), so it may be a common species.	eng
18119	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The forest was still reasonably intact when the first collections were made. There was a nearby village and some forest had been cleared. There is no recent information on what has happened in the area since last the collections were made.	eng
18120	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Upper Niger National Park in Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
18120	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from Senegal, possibly The Gambia, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, central Guinea, the Mount Nimba region of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the distribution limits are not fully unresolved. It occurs up 1,300 m asl and probably even higher (1,400 m).	eng
18120	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It occurs in lowland and montane forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
18120	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is abundant, and is often the commonest animal in collections. The global population is stable.	eng
18120	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18121	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
18121	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This sspecies has been recorded from the Gambia River in the west, through Cameroon, to northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo; it is also found on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) and in northwestern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998). The precise range limits are unclear because this is a species complex. It ranges from the lowlands up to around 1,200 m asl.	eng
18121	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is found in lowland tropical rain forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
18121	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
18121	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18125	conservation	Nijman, V. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Most remaining populations in western Java exist in nature preserves where they are mostly safe from habitat disturbance and hunting. These sites include Ujung Kulon National Park, Halimun National Park, and Gede-Pangrango National Park (Nijman 1997). Most populations seem to have stabilized, and although they are fragmented, some retain large numbers of individuals.	eng
18125	distribution	Nijman, V. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in western and central Java (as far east as the Gunung Slamet region) in fragmented pockets (Groves 2001).	eng
18125	habitat	Nijman, V. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species was historically found from sea level to 2,565 m (V. Nijman pers. comm.), but is now mainly restricted to mountain habitat fragments. In the Pegunungan Dieng it is found in primary and secondary forests, at the edges and in the interior, and in lowland forests, forests on steep slopes and hills, and upper montane forest (Nijman and van Balen 1998). It is folivorous, but will also consume fruits, flowers, and seeds (Ruhiyat 1983).	eng
18125	population	Nijman, V. & Richardson, M., 2008	Population size has been estimated at between 2,285 (Supriatna <em>et al</em>. 1994) and 2,500 animals (MacKinnon 1996) in approximately 30 isolated populations. However, there remains some disagreement as to the actual number of individuals currently remaining.	eng
18125	threats	Nijman, V. & Richardson, M., 2008	<em>Presbytis comata</em> is threatened by habitat destruction (Nijman and van Balen 1998), such that the remaining populations are now mainly confined to montane forest patches, whereas the species once occurred across extensive lowland areas. Hunting is a persistent threat in many of the remaining population fragments.	eng
18126	conservation	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is listed as CITES Appendix II. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species. There is an urgent need to clarify the taxonomy and distribution of what is now considered <em>P. femoralis</em>, as there is very little information at this time. Since <em>siamensis</em> has been separated from <em>femoralis</em>, there has been confusion about what is known of <em>femoralis</em>, and what of that actually pertains to <em>siamensis</em>.	eng
18126	distribution	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The species as a whole is found in Indonesia (east-central Sumatra), Singapore and the Malay Peninsula. In the latter it is restricted to the far south and to the northwest, extending north throughout peninsular Thailand and southern Myanmar (the two parts of the range are separated by that of <em>P. siamensis</em>). In Sumatra it is found between the Rokan and Siak Rivers (Groves 2001).    <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis femoralis</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in southern Peninsular Malaysia (Johore) and (marginally) the island of Singapore (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis robinsoni</em><br/>This subspecies is found in the northwestern Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar and peninsular Thailand. It is found from the Larut Hills, Perak north as far as 13°N in Phet Buri province, Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis femoralis percura </em><br/>This subspecies is found in Indonesia (east-central Sumatra) in a small area between the Rokan and Siak Rivers (Groves 2001).	eng
18126	habitat	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Based on what is known of closely-related species, such as <em>P. siamensis</em> and <em>P. melalophos</em>, this species is found in mixed mangrove, primary freshwater, riverbank, primary lowland logged, scrub-grassland riverbank, and secondary riverbank habitats (Wilson and Wilson 1976; Crockett and Wilson 1980). It is primarily frugivorous, but also consumes immature leaves (Fleagle 1978). It is found in taller trees of swampy peat forest in Malay Peninsula (J. Hon pers. comm.), while in Singapore it is found in primary, secondary, swamp, and dryland rainforests (Lucas <em>et al. </em>1988).	eng
18126	population	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It's overall abundance is poorly known. Less than 20 individuals of <em>P. f. femoralis</em> were known to survive on Singapore as of 2006, although a few of these were juveniles (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).	eng
18126	threats	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Deforestation and conversion of habitat would appear to be the major threats to this species. It is particularly affected by oil palm plantations, which are expanding very rapidly within its range.	eng
18127	conservation	Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species is protected by Indonesian law and is totally protected in Sarawak; it is included on Appendix II of CITES. It is known to occur in at least seven protected areas: Batang Ai National Park, Betung Kerimun National Park, Bukit Baka – Buki Raya National Park, Gunung Palung National Park, Kutai National Park, and the Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Indonesia); Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Malaysia). However, the level of protection that they offer, particularly in Indonesia, is insufficient and there is a need to reinforce wildlife management (E. Meijaard pers. comm.).	eng
18127	distribution	Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo. It occurs in Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sarawak). It is found patchily in central and eastern Borneo, from central Sarawak to the southern coast, with a few populations in the west (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
18127	habitat	Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V., 2008	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It has been found in primary lowland rainforest, and riverine and hill forest (Azuma <em>et al</em>. 1984), as well as occasionally in secondary and plantation habitats.	eng
18127	population	Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V., 2008	There are an estimated 13,400 animals in Sarawak (Lanjak-Entimau), with densities estimated to be 1.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (E. Meijaard unpubl. data). In some areas, such as the northwestern mountains (Lanjak-Entimau, Bantang Ai and Bentuang Kerima), the species seems to be common (V. Nijman pers. comm.), while it seems to be quite uncommon throughout other portions of its range, with little indication of explanatory variables. This may be reflective of a sampling bias as the animals are shy where hunted and generally difficult to see (V. Nijman and E. Meijaard pers. comm.). Other population estimates, from 10 different sites, include 1.5 groups/km<sup>2</sup> and 5.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman unpubl. data), though this is not consistent across its range.	eng
18127	threats	Meijaard, E. & Nijman, V., 2008	Hunting for meat and traditional “medicine” are threats to this species, as well as habitat loss. Much of its forest habitat is being lost very rapidly, especially due to oil palm plantations and other anthropogenic habitats.	eng
18128	conservation	Nijman, V., Meijaard, E. & Hon, J., 2008	This species is legally protected in Indonesia, though wrongly named <em>P. aygula</em>, a misidentification that may serve to subvert prosecution of offenders. <em>P. aygula</em> is the former name for <em>P. comata</em>, a species with which <em>P. hosei</em> has sometimes been incorrectly lumped in the past. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The largest population in a protected area is found in Kayan Mentarang, East Kalimantan (Nijman 2005), and the next largest protected area that harbors <em>P. hosei</em> is the Betung-Kerihun / Lanjak Entimau trans-boundary reserves in West Kalimantan and Sarawak (Nijman 2004). These protected habitats do not prevent the decline of many forest species, including Hose’s sureli, however, due to the absence of meaningful enforcement of laws to prevent illegal hunting (Nijman 2005). The species occurs as well in Kutai National Park (Indonesia) and in Mount Kinabalu National Park (Malaysia). There are no specimens reported in captivity.	eng
18128	distribution	Nijman, V., Meijaard, E. & Hon, J., 2008	<em>Presbytis hosei</em> is found in northern Borneo, specifically northern Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), northern East Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei Darussalam (Nijman 2004). The southern boundary of the species' range is not yet clear, and the distribution map should be regarded as provisional.<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei hosei</em> may only be found around the lower Baram River in coastal Sarawak, Malaysia (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei everett</em>i is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The range extends from about latitude 2°40’N to Mount Kinabalu and along the northwestern coast of Sabah into Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei sabana</em> is confined to central and eastern Sabah, and perhaps also in far northeastern Kalimantan (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis hosei canicrus</em> is found on the eastern coast of Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia), from Kutai to Gunung Talisayan (Groves 2001).	eng
18128	habitat	Nijman, V., Meijaard, E. & Hon, J., 2008	This species occurs in lowland to hill dipterocarp rainforest (on Mount Kinabalu). It is known from sea-level up to approximately 1,000 m elevation, with records to 1,600 m (Goodman 1989) and possibly higher. Animals occasionally enter plantations. It is primarily folivorous, but will consume flowers, fruits and seeds, as well as eggs and nestlings.	eng
18128	population	Nijman, V., Meijaard, E. & Hon, J., 2008	A population in the Kayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan was assessed by counts along transects as well as data from all other encounters. A follow-up census 7 years later concluded that densities had dropped by 50-80%, and the species had become rare to observe. It is suggested that hunting for various reasons was the principal cause of this decline (Nijman 2004, 2005).<br/><br/>In Brunei, average size is 6 individuals per group (Hon pers. comm.); this may be the last stronghold for this species. Densities for <em>P. h. sabana</em> are estimated at 2.1 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 16 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>; estimates for <em>P. h. everetti</em> are 1.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 10.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>; estimates for <em>P. h. canicus</em> are 2.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately 19 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman pers comm.).	eng
18128	threats	Nijman, V., Meijaard, E. & Hon, J., 2008	Though not totally impervious, Hose’s sureli is relatively tolerant of forest disturbance. However, hunting poses the biggest danger to this species. The hunting of surelis correlates with the presence of inland settlements, the timber industry, and a demand for lucrative “bezoar stones” (visceral secretions used in traditional “medicines”). These monkeys are also hunted for food and to deter crop-raiding (Nijman 2004).	eng
18129	conservation	Nijman, V. & Manullang, B., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and is protected by national law. It is known to occur in five protected areas: Berbak National Park, Bukit Barisan National Park, Bukit Sebelah Protection Forest, Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Way Kambas National Park (Indonesia).	eng
18129	distribution	Nijman, V. & Manullang, B., 2008	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Indonesia), where it is found south of the Wampu and Simpang Kiri Rivers (except for the eastern coastal forests), and on Pulau Pini in the Batu Archipelago (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos melalophos</em> <br/>Found in southwestern Sumatra, from the upper Sungai Rokan south to the upper Sungai Hari and beyond along the Barisan Range into Lampung (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos mitrata</em><br/>Found in southeastern Sumatra, from Lampung north to the upper Musi River drainage, west of Palembang, and north to the Batang Hari River (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos bicolor</em><br/>Found in west-central Sumatra, in the highlands from the middle and lower Sungai Hari to the middle Sungai Inderagiri (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis melalophos sumatrana </em><br/>Found in western Sumatra and Pulau Pini in the Batu Archipelago. On the Sumatran mainland found in the northern highlands and west coast south of the Sungai Simpang Kiri north of Gunung Talamau, southeast to the Rokan River, and on the east coast from Sungai Wampu to the Sungai Barumun.	eng
18129	habitat	Nijman, V. & Manullang, B., 2008	The species is tolerant of habitat conversion to a degree (V. Nijman pers. comm.), and can be found in disturbed and secondary forest areas. It has also been found in primary and secondary hill rainforest, shrub forest and plantations. This species is primarily folivorous, but will also consume fruits, flowers, and seeds. Its home range has been observed to be 14-29.5 ha and its daily distance moved is about 300-1,360 m.	eng
18129	population	Nijman, V. & Manullang, B., 2008	This species is relatively common (Aimi and Bakar 1992) in its remaining and appropriate habitat, but its occurrence is very patchy and fragmented.	eng
18129	threats	Nijman, V. & Manullang, B., 2008	There has been extensive loss of habitat, especially for oil palm plantations, and this is a serious threat. However, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. Trapping of the species for the illegal pet trade is a threat across their range, with some incidental hunting for food. Forest fragmentation is a long-term consideration for population persistence (Manullang pers. comm.).	eng
18130	conservation	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is protected by Indonesian law. It is only known from one official protected area, Siberut National Park. There are no specimens in captivity. Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement; formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible; protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971; conservation education, especially regarding hunting; the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.	eng
18130	distribution	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found on the Mentawai Islands, off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Fuentes 1996). The subspecies <em>P. p. potenziani</em> is found on Sipora, North Pagai, and South Pagai Islands, while the subspecies <em>P. p. siberu</em> is found on the island of Siberut (Brandon-Jones 1993).	eng
18130	habitat	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	These animals are found predominantly in primary forest areas, but also utilize secondary and cultivated habitats to a lesser extent. They are arboreal and favor the middle and upper canopies. As a colobine monkey, <em>P. potenziani</em> is highly folivorous, feeding on leaves (55% of diet), fruits and seeds (32%), and or flowers, bark, and sap (13%) (Fuentes 1996). A large proportion of its total diet, up to 35%, consists of "climber"-type vegetation. Its home range in a site on North Pagai Island was 25-40 ha (Fuentes 1996); elsewhere the home range has been recorded as 11.5-40 ha.	eng
18130	population	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Siberut subspecies is estimated to comprise 1,600-9,500 individuals (Whittaker 2006), based on a population density estimate of 1 to 4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Paciulli 2004). The southern subspecies has a much smaller population of only 100-800 individuals across the three islands. In 1980, there were an estimated 46,000 individuals on Siberut, representing a decline of 83 to 97% (Whittaker 2006). Further consideration had determined that these estimates may be higher due to difficulty of detection, and that the actual decline is closer to 50% (Whittaker pers. comm.). However, the animals may have adapted to hunting by becoming cryptic, causing current population estimates to be low (Whittaker 2006). Thus, there may be as many as 36,000 individuals for the species as a whole, representing a decline of only 43% (Whittaker 2006). They appear to reach their highest densities in forests logged 10 years ago (Whittaker 2006).	eng
18130	threats	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as conversion to oil palm plantations, forest clearing, and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has intensified because of increased access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles, anything larger is illegal in Indonesia (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade constitutes a minor threat to this species (Whittaker 2006).	eng
18131	conservation	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is protected in Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), and is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in at least 10 protected areas including Betung Kerihun National Park, Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Ganung Palung National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Kutai National Park, Pleihari Martapuri Nature Reserve, Tanjung Puting National Park, and the Sungai Wain Protection Forest (Indonesia); Sapagaya Forest Reserve, Ulu Segama Reserve (Malaysia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
18131	distribution	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The species occurs through most of the island of Borneo, in Indonesia (Kalimantan and Karimata Island), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), and possibly Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda rubicunda</em> <br/>Occurs in Indonesia (southeastern Kalimantan). Found roughly east of the Barito River and south of the Mahakam River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda rubida</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia (southwestern Kalimantan). Found roughly south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda ignita</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sarawak), and possibly Brunei. Found north of the Kapuas River into Sarawak, as far as the Baram River and the borders of Brunei (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda chrysea</em><br/>Occurs in Malaysia (Sabah). Confined to a very small area in eastern Sabah near Kinabatangan (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis rubicunda carimatae </em><br/>Confined to Karimata Island, Indonesia (Yanuar <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
18131	habitat	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	<em>P. rubicunda</em> is almost wholly arboreal, having a clear preference for primary forest. This colobine species’ annual diet is mostly comprised of folivory on young leaves (36%), seed eating (30%), and combined frugivory on pulpy, seedy fruits and florivory (34%). This diet varies throughout the year as availability of food sources shifts (Davies 1991). In Sabah, a group of<em>P. rubicunda</em> was found to rely on lianas for about 32% of their total diet; the rest were tree species. Overall, the group exploited over 102 plant species over a single year (Davies 1984). It is also found in swamp forests (Chivers and Burton 1988), and evergreen forests (Bennett and Davies 1994). It occasionally visits native gardens in search of food (Yanuar <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is found in primary and secondary lowland forests, not above 2,000 m, and is able to tolerate forests that have regenerated after logging has taken place (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
18131	population	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	<em>Presbytis rubicunda</em> is endemic to Borneo and adjacent Karimata Island (Davies 1991). Twenty-five studies were compiled to show that density is 2.6 (+/- 1.4) groups/km<sup>2</sup>, and 16.5 (+/- 9.1) individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (V. Nijman pers. comm.). Density does not change with elevation up to 1,200 m; above this point, however, it quickly drops (V. Nijman pers. comm.).	eng
18131	threats	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The species is threatened by hunting for meat and traditional “medicine”, as well as loss of habitat due to deforestation. Much habitat is being lost to expanding oil palm plantations. Nevertheless, it is reasonably adaptable, and can occur in some secondary habitats.	eng
18132	conservation	Supriatna, J. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is protected by Indonesian law. It is known to occur in at least one large national park, Gunung Leuser.	eng
18132	distribution	Supriatna, J. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in northern Sumatra (Indonesia) in Aceh Province north of the rivers Simpangkiri and Wampu (Wilson and Wilson 1976), where the range has recently been discovered to extend to the south bank of the Simpangkiri River (Aimi and Bakar 1996). A study on the behaviour of this species was performed at Ketambe Research Station, Leuser Ecosystem, Sumatra, Indonesia (3°41 N, 97°39 E) (Sterck <em>et al.</em> 2005). Another study on its behaviour was performed at two sites in Leuser Ecosystem, northern Sumatra, one of which was also Ketambe, and the other was Bukit Lawang (3°30 N, 98°6 E) (Wich and de Vries 2006).	eng
18132	habitat	Supriatna, J. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species has been recorded from undisturbed primary rainforest near Ketambe Research Station in Sumatra (Sterck <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has also been recorded from a mosaic of primary and secondary forest with rubber plantations on its fringes (Wich and de Vries 2006), and in rubber tree plantations (Gurmaya 1986). It ranges in elevation from 0 to approximately 1,500 m, and the home range has been observed to be 12.3-15.7 ha.<br/><br/>These animals are primarily folivorous (Ungar 1995) but also feed on fruits and flowers, and occasionally on toadstools and the stalks of coconuts (Gurmaya 1986), as well as gastropods such as ground snails (Steenbeek 1999). Females are considered adult at an age of 60 months, roughly one year before the average age at which infants were born (74 months), and the youngest age at which a female in a study population gave birth (Sterck <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
18132	population	Supriatna, J. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	During a study of this species? behaviour by Sterck <em>et al</em>. (2005) 163 different individuals were recorded, in a study area of 200 ha.	eng
18132	threats	Supriatna, J. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Hunting does not seem to be a significant threat, but loss of primary habitat due to logging and conversion to oil palm plantations is probably displacing some populations.	eng
18134	conservation	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.  There is an urgent need to clarify the taxonomy and distribution of this species, as there is very little information at this time. Since <em>siamensis</em> has been separated from <em>femoralis</em>, there has been confusion about what is known of <em>femoralis</em>, and what of that actually pertains to <em>siamensis</em>.	eng
18134	distribution	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species occurs in Indonesia (eastern Sumatra and the Riau Archipelago in the Strait of Malacca), Peninsular Malaysia, and extreme southern peninsular Thailand. It is found throughout the Malay Peninsula except for the south and northwest. In Sumatra, it occurs in a few small sections of the eastern forests (between the Siak and Inderagiri Rivers, between the Rokan and Barimun Rivers, the Lake Toba region, and perhaps the Jambi district); in the Riau Archipelago it is found on Kundar, Bintang, and probably Batam and Galang Islands. Population isolates are known within the range of <em>P. femoralis</em> in Thailand and <em>P. melalophos</em> in Sumatra (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis siamensis</em><br/>Occurs in Malaysia and Thailand. Found in most of Peninsular Malaysia except for the south and northwest (Perak north to the Piah Valley; Selangor; Negri Sembilan; Pahang; Melaka), with a population isolate reported in Thailand at 6°22?N, 101°08?E within the range of <em>P. femoralis robinsoni</em> (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis rhionis </em><br/>Known for certain only from Pulau Bintang, in the Riau Archipelago, Indonesia; might occur on Pulau Batam and Pulau Galang as well (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis cana</em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia. Found in eastern Sumatra between the Siak and Inderagiri Rivers, and on Palau Kundur in the Riau Archipelago (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Presbytis siamensis paenulata </em><br/>Occurs in Indonesia. Found in east-central Sumatra, where it is confined to a small wedge of coastal forest and with a population isolate reported from near Lake Toba (Groves 2001).	eng
18134	habitat	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	There is very little information available on this species relating to habitat and ecology other than what can be inferred from closely related forms. The subspecies <em>P. s. rhionis</em> is known to occur in lowland wet forest, swamp forests, and secondary re-growth mixed rubber gardens (Yanuar 1993/1994).	eng
18134	population	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	There is very little information available on this species relating to abundance.	eng
18134	threats	Nijman, V., Geissman, T. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It seems likely that deforestation and conversion of habitat are the major threats to this species, and hunting to a lesser extent. Oil palm plantations are expanding greatly within its range at the expense of lowland forest habitat.	eng
18136	habitat	Contreras-Balderas, S. & Almada-Villela, P., 1996	Found in wells.	eng
18137	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
18137	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is only known from the type locality; a cave west of Ciudad Mante in the Rio Tamesi basin, Mexico, and one other cave about 26 km to the north (Miller 2005).	eng
18137	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. lundbergi</em> inhabits subterranean waters.  Only one specimen has been taken from the type locality despite extensive subsequent exploration that demonstrated that the spring is the surface expression of a very deep, submerged cave system.  All specimens from the other locality were taken by cave divers from below 50 m water depth.  It thus appears that the preferred habitat of the species may be in deep portions of the aquifer, and it is only occasionally found in shallower portions of caves accessible to divers (Miller 2005).	eng
18137	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. lundbergi</em> is thought to be rare at the two sites it has been found in; only five specimens have ever been seen (Hendrickson <em>et al</em>., 2001).	eng
18137	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Water extraction is the principal threat for this species as it depletes water of caves, especially when the caves are near human occupied areas.  The region in which its habitat of is situated is threatened by continued clearing of forest for timber, road construction, expansion of settlements, industrial development and agricultural expansion (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1997).  These activities could result in pollution of subterranean waters.	eng
18144	conservation	Superina, M., Abba, A.M., Porini, G. & Anacleto, T.C.S., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in many protected areas. There is a need to decrease hunting pressure, and maintain habitat where viable populations occur.	eng
18144	distribution	Superina, M., Abba, A.M., Porini, G. & Anacleto, T.C.S., 2009	This largest of all armadillo species ranges from northern Venezuela (east of the Andes) and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), south to Paraguay, and northern Argentina. Srbek-Araujo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) recently confirmed its presence in Espirito Santo, Brazil, although the populations in southeastern Brazil seem to be very reduced. The species may be extinct in Uruguay, and is not listed at all for this country by Fallabrino and Castiñeira (2006). It has been recorded from sea level up to 500 m asl.	eng
18144	habitat	Superina, M., Abba, A.M., Porini, G. & Anacleto, T.C.S., 2009	This terrestrial species is found close to water within undisturbed primary rain forest habitats. It excavates burrows, usually in grasslands or open areas of the forest. Nowak (1999) suggested that the species had declined by at least 50% over the last decade. In 1954, three individuals were found in an area of 16.7 km² in Espirito Santo, Brazil (Ruschi 1954). Home range size has been estimated to be at least 450 ha in Brazil (Carter and Encarnação 1983).	eng
18144	population	Superina, M., Abba, A.M., Porini, G. & Anacleto, T.C.S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> appears to be naturally rare where it occurs, with a very patchy distribution. Surveys in Suriname over an 18 year period recorded seven individuals in an area of 650 km² (Walsh and Gannon 1967). The density has been estimated to be from 5.77 to 6.28 per 100 km² using camera trapping (Noss <em>et al.</em> 2004). The wild populations are decreasing.	eng
18144	threats	Superina, M., Abba, A.M., Porini, G. & Anacleto, T.C.S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. maximus</span> is threatened by hunting for meat (generally for subsistence) and deforestation of habitat. The illegal capture of Giant Armadillos for clandestine sale to wealthy animal collectors may also be a threat, but is difficult to quantify.	eng
18145	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.C., Starnes, W.C. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Priolepis robinsi</em>, however this species was collected within the marine protected area of Tayrona National Park.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
18145	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.C., Starnes, W.C. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Priolepis robinsi</em> occurs around Santa Marta in Colombia, and the island of Curaçao.&#160; In Santa Marta, the species is known from an area of no more than 200 km²; in Curaçao, it occurs in an area of no more than 300 km².&#160; It is not known to occur between these two sites and very little suitable habitat is available between these two areas (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18145	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.C., Starnes, W.C. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Priolepis robinsi</em> is found in areas with sandy, rubble, rocky and algae bottoms, to a depth of 27 m.&#160; It is also found in areas with large sponges, and in the nests of the sand tilefish, which are located beyond the reef base and made out of coralline rubble (<em>Malacanthus plumieri</em>) (Garzon-Ferreira and Acero 1991).&#160; This species may also been found on isolated coral heads in reef lagoons and on the fore reef.&#160; It feeds on small crustaceans and small fish.	eng
18145	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.C., Starnes, W.C. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis robinsi</span> is uncommon around the Santa Marta region (Garzon-Ferreira and Acero 1991) and the island of Curaçao (J. Van Tassell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
18145	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.C., Starnes, W.C. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis robinsi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Due to its coastal nature and restricted range, there is a potential threat from coastal development and water pollution.&#160; Currently, however, the species occurs within a protected area, so this is unlikely to be a problem.	eng
18146	conservation	Sanderson, J., Sunarto, S., Wilting, A., Driscoll, C., Lorica, R., Ross, J., Hearn, A., Mujkherjee, S., Khan, J.A., Habib, B. & Grassman, L., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II; populations in Bangladesh, India and Thailand are included on Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Prionailurus bengalensis bengalensis</span>). The species is protected at the national level over part of its range, with hunting prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, Thailand and Taiwan, and hunting and trade regulations in place in South Korea, Lao PDR and Singapore (Nowell and Jackson 1996, A. Wilting pers. comm. 2008).   The species is on Afghanistan’s 2009 Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading of this species within the country.  It is found in numerous protected areas.	eng
18146	distribution	Sanderson, J., Sunarto, S., Wilting, A., Driscoll, C., Lorica, R., Ross, J., Hearn, A., Mujkherjee, S., Khan, J.A., Habib, B. & Grassman, L., 2008	The leopard cat is a widespread species in Asia.  It is found throughout most of India west into Pakistan and Afghanistan (Habibi 2004), through the Himalayan foothills, across most of China, and north to the Korean peninsula and into the Russian Far East (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  It is found throughout Southeast Asia, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Taiwan.  It is found on numerous small offshore islands of mainland Asia (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  The leopard cat is the only wild felid found in the Japan, where it occurs on the small islands Tsushima and Iriomote, and the Philippines, where it occurs on the islands of Palawan, Panay, Negros and Cebu.  In the Philippines, there are recent (2007) unconfirmed reports from the island of Masbate.  It should be present in Guimaras due to proximity to Negros and Panay, but no presence was reported, and is therefore presumed to be extinct (R. Lorica and W. Oliver, unpub.).	eng
18146	habitat	Sanderson, J., Sunarto, S., Wilting, A., Driscoll, C., Lorica, R., Ross, J., Hearn, A., Mujkherjee, S., Khan, J.A., Habib, B. & Grassman, L., 2008	The species can range up to 3,000 m in parts of its range, which extends into the Himalayas along river valleys. It occurs in a broad spectrum of habitats, from tropical rainforest to temperate broadleaf and, marginally, coniferous forest, as well as shrub forest and successional grasslands. The northern boundaries of its range are limited by snow cover; the leopard cat avoids areas where snow is more than 10 cm deep. It is not found in the cold steppe grasslands, and generally does not occur in arid zones, although there are a few records from relatively dry and treeless areas in Pakistan.  Leopard cats occur commonly in dense secondary growth, including logged areas, and have been found in agricultural and forest (rubber tree, oil palm, sugarcane) plantations. The species can live close to rural settlements. Leopard cats are excellent swimmers, and have successfully colonized offshore islands throughout their range (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>In the most comprehensive study, based on a large sample size of 20 radio-collared cats in Thailand's Phu Khieu Wildlife Sanctuary, mean home range size (95% MCP) was 12.7 km², larger than in other areas of Thailand (4.5 km²) (Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005), on Borneo (3.5 km²: Rajaratnam 2000), or on Japan's Iriomote island (Schmidt <em>et al.</em> 2003).  There was no significant difference between male and female home range size.  Open and closed forest habitats were used in proportion to their occurrence, and activity patterns showed crepuscular and nocturnal peaks.   On Borneo, Rajaratnam <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that leopard cats hunted rodents in oil palm plantations, and used forest fragments for resting and breeding.  Murids dominate the diet (85-90%: Grassman <em>et al.</em> 2005b, Rajaratnam <em>et al.</em> 2007).   Other small mamals, eels and fish have also been reported, as well as occasional scavenging of carrion (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
18146	population	Sanderson, J., Sunarto, S., Wilting, A., Driscoll, C., Lorica, R., Ross, J., Hearn, A., Mujkherjee, S., Khan, J.A., Habib, B. & Grassman, L., 2008	The leopard cat is the most frequently recorded small cat across most of its wide range, in comparison with sympatric species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999, Holden 2001, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yasuda <em>et al.</em> 2007), and with its broad distribution has an abundant population.  However, it is probably declining due to habitat loss and hunting.  Large numbers of leopard cat furs were exported from China (averaging 200,000 skins per year in the late 1980s) (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Higher survival rates (92%) were recorded in a protected area with little human influence, compared with lower rates in areas with greater human activity (53-82%) (Haines <em>et al.</em> 2004).  While the leopard cat is more tolerant of disturbed areas than other small Asian felids, it likely undergoes higher mortality in such areas.<br/><br/>Island populations are most at risk of extinction, with the Iriomote cat P.b. iriomotensis listed as Critically Endangered, and the Visayan leopard cat P.b. rabori of the Philippine islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu and possibly Masbate listed a Vulnerable.  The small population (approximately 100) on Japan's 710 km² Tsushima Island, considered the same subspecies as occurs in northeastern mainland Asia, has decreased over the last 30-40 years (Izawa <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
18146	threats	Sanderson, J., Sunarto, S., Wilting, A., Driscoll, C., Lorica, R., Ross, J., Hearn, A., Mujkherjee, S., Khan, J.A., Habib, B. & Grassman, L., 2008	In China, the centre of its range, commercial exploitation has been heavy: hundreds of thousands of Leopard Cat skins per year were exported in the 1980s.  Although commercial trade is much reduced, the species continues to be hunted throughout most of its range for fur, for food, and as pets.  They are also widely viewed as poultry pests and killed in retribution.  Island populations are small and seriously threatened in the Philippines and Japan. Leopard cats can hybridize with domestic cats, as is shown by the popular domestic breed, the "safari cat". Hybridization in the wild has been reported, but is not considered a significant threat.  Although the species is less dependent on forest cover than others, habitat loss and fragmentation is still a major threat across most of its Asian range (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
18148	conservation	Wilting, A., Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J. & Sunarto, S., 2010	<p>Included on CITES Appendix I. The species is fully protected by national legislation over its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Malaysia</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is known to occur in Berbak (Bezuijen 2000), Way Kambas (Anon 1996), Batang Gadis (Barita pers. comm.2006) and Kerinci Seblat National Parks (M. Linkie pers. comm. 2008) in Sumatra; the Danum Valley (Hearn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Tabin Wildlife Reserve (Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Kinabatangan Willdlife Sanctuary in Sabah (Lackman-Ancrenaz and Ancrenaz 1997), Deramakot Forest Reserve (Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009), Tangkulap Forest Reserve and Maliau Basi (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010); Bukit Sarang Conservation Area (Giman pers. comm. 2006) and Loagan Bunut National Park (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) in Sarawak; Kutai and Kayan Mentarang National Parks (Wulfraat and Samso 2000), Bukit Suharto Protection Forest and Sabangau Peat Swamp Forest (Cheyne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) in Kalimantan; Selangor and Pahang Peat Swamp Forest in Peninsula Malaysia (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and the Phru Tao Dang Peat Swamp Forest protected area in southernmost Thailand (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Brunei</st1:country-region> it has been recorded from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tasek</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Merimbun</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Heritage</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Conservation of this species depends on adequate habitat protection, and better understanding of its ecology and status in the remaining lowland and wetland forests. Therefore species specific field surveys focusing on these wetland and lowland areas are needed.</p>	eng
18148	distribution	Wilting, A., Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J. & Sunarto, S., 2010	The Flat-headed Cat has a restricted distribution, found only on Sumatra, Borneo and the Malayan peninsula (Malaysia and extreme southern Thailand).  It is a lowland species strongly associated with wetlands (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). The map is adapted from Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2010); this online publication includes other more detailed maps as well.	eng
18148	habitat	Wilting, A., Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J. & Sunarto, S., 2010	Very little is known about this species, with only a handful of observations and camera trap records.  Available information suggets that, like its close relative the fishing cat, the flat-headed cat is strongly associated with wetlands and preys primarily on fish.  Stomach contents of two dead animals contained mostly fish, and also shrimp shells.  They may also take birds and small rodents, and have been reported to prey on domestic poultry (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Most records for the Flat-headed Cat are from swampy areas, lakes and streams, and riverine forest (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). They also occur in peat-swamp forest (Bezuijen 2000), and have been observed in secondary forest (Bezuijen 2000, Bezuijen 2003, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). All published observations of live animals have taken place at night or early morning, near water (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Bezuijen 2000, Bezuijen 2003, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Over 80% of the records gathered by Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) were from elevations below 100 m asl, and over 70 % were recorded within a distance of <st1:metricconverter productid="3 km" w:st="on">3 km</st1:metricconverter> to larger water sources.  <br/><br/>The Flat-headed Cat takes its name from its unusually long, sloping snout and flattened skull roof, with small ears set well down the sides of its head.  It has large, close-set eyes, and relatively longer and sharper teeth than its close relatives.  Its claws do not fully retract into their shortened sheaths, and its toes are more completely webbed than the fishing cat's, with long narrow foot pads.  Muul and Lim (1970), commenting on the cat's feet and other features, termed it the ecological counterpart of a semi-aquatic mustelid.	eng
18148	population	Wilting, A., Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J. & Sunarto, S., 2010	<p>The Flat-headed Cat is closely associated with wetlands and lowland forests, habitats which are increasingly being occupied and modified by people (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It has never been studied, there are few records of the species, and it is generally considered rare, with a highly localized distribution around bodies of water (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Anon 1999, Bezuijen 2000, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Meijaard <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Yasuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Barita and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006, Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Although fishermen along the Merang river in south Sumatra (which has relatively intact peat forests) described it as common (Bezuijen 2000), they tend to use a single generic term for both flat-headed and leopard cats <span style="font-style: italic;">Prionailurus bengalensis</span>, a more abundant species (Bezuijen 2003). Most of the recent records come from Sabah in north-eastern Borneo, where it can be frequently be observed along the Kinabatangan River (Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), and where it has been several times photographed by camera-traps in Deramakot Forest Reserve (Mohamed <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).</p>	eng
18148	threats	Wilting, A., Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J. & Sunarto, S., 2010	<p>Wetland and lowland forest destruction and degradation is the primary threat faced by the species (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Wilting <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Causes of this destruction include human settlement, forest transformation to plantations, draining for agriculture, pollution, and excessive hunting, wood-cutting and fishing. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid in Tropical Asia. The depletion of fish stocks from over-fishing is prevalent in many Asian wetland environments and is likely to be a significant threat. Expansion of oil palm plantations is currently viewed as the most urgent threat (IUCN Cats Red List workshop assessment 2007). Trapping, snaring and poisoning are also threats: E. Bennett (in Sunquist and Sunquist 2002) reported that skins were frequently seen in longhouses in the interior of <st1:place w:st="on">Sarawak</st1:place>, and Flat-headed Cats have been captured in traps set out to protect domestic fowl (Nowell and Jackson 1996).</p>	eng
18149	conservation	Khan, J.A. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The Indian population is included on CITES Appendix I, while the Sri Lankan population is included on CITES Appendix II. The species is fully protected over most of its range, with hunting and trade banned in India, and Sri Lanka (although domestic trade is uncontrolled in Sri Lanka) (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Yala National Park in Sri Lanka (Nekaris 2003, Kittle and Watson 2004) and the Gir Forest National Park (Pathak 1990) and Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve (Dubey 1999) in India.	eng
18149	distribution	Khan, J.A. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	The rusty-spotted cat is found only in India and Sri Lanka.  In India, it was long thought to be confined to the south, but recent records have established that it is found over much of the country (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Patel and Jackson 2006, Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007), with a record from the foothills of the Himalaya in Jammu (Chakraborty 1978) requiring confirmation.	eng
18149	habitat	Khan, J.A. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	Rusty-spotted cats occupy moist and dry deciduous forest types as well as scrub and grassland, but are likely absent from evergreen forest in India (Nowell and Jackson 1996), although there are a few records from montane and lowland rainforest in Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1956, Nekaris 2003).  While dense vegetation and rocky areas are preferred (Worah 1991, Kittle and Watson 2004, Patel 2006), rusty-spotted cats have been found in the midst of agricultural and settled areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Mukherjee 1998, Nekaris 2003).  They are highly arboreal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), and Patel (2006) observed cats pouncing down from tree branches when hunting prey.  Most observations have been at night (Mukherjee 1998, Nekaris 2003, Kittle and Watson 2004, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007).  One cat was seen hunting frogs, but small rodents were the main prey reported from a series of observations by Patel (2006) and Nekaris (2003) - seeking out such prey is likely why the cats venture into cultivated areas.	eng
18149	population	Khan, J.A. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	Rusty-spotted cats have been observed increasingly frequently by researchers (Kittle and Watson 2004, Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006, Patel 2006, Vyas <em>et al.</em> 2007).  They have been described as abundant in some parts of India and Sri Lanka, and have been observed close to and within villages (Nowell and Jackson 1996), but that they were not known to occur in northern India until recent decades suggests rarity in some parts of the range (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
18149	threats	Khan, J.A. & Mukherjee, S., 2008	Habitat loss and the spread of cultivation are serious problems for wildlife in both India and Sri Lanka. Although there are several records of rusty-spotted cats from cultivated and settled areas, it is not known to what degree cat populations are able to persist in such areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996) - some villagers say rusty-spotted cats, unlike jungle cats, "keep to the forest" and do not prey on domestic fowl (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2006).  Kittle and Watson (2004) observed a rusty-spotted cat mating with a domestic cat and also saw a potential hybrid ("being slightly larger in size, with long legs and exhibiting unusual markings on a paler background").  There have been occasional reports of rusty-spotted cat skins in trade (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and rusty-spotted cats killed for food or as livestock pests (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Nekaris 2003).	eng
18150	conservation	Mukherjee, S., Sanderson, J., Duckworth, W., Melisch, R., Khan, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S. & Howard, J.G., 2010	Included on CITES Appendix II. Protected by national legislation over most of its range.  Hunting prohibited: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand.  Hunting regulations apply in Lao PDR. No protection outside protected areas: Bhutan, Viet Nam (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  The Fishing Cat is confirmed to occur in protected areas including the  Sundarbans (Bangladesh and India), Chitwan (Nepal), Corbett, Dudwha, and  Kaziranga (India) (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007), Khao Sam Roi Yot and Thale  Noi (Thailand: Cutter and Cutter 2009), Botum-Sakor (Cambodia: Royan 2009) and  Ujung Kulon and Pulau Dua (Java, Indonesia: A. Compost in Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2009).<br/>Conservation of the species depends on adequate protection of remaining wild wetlands in Asia, and prevention of indiscriminate trapping, snaring and poisoning.	eng
18150	distribution	Mukherjee, S., Sanderson, J., Duckworth, W., Melisch, R., Khan, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S. & Howard, J.G., 2010	The Fishing Cat has a broad but discontinuous distribution in Asia, with large gaps - some the result of its association primarily with wetlands, some the result of recent extirpation, and some supposed due to a lack of confirmed records.  In Pakistan, the only known population was in the Indus river valley (Roberts 1977), but there are no recent records to confirm it still occurs.  The fishing cat has been extirpated in recent years from parts of India, including the Bharatpur region of western India (Shomita Mukherjee, Jamal Khan pers. comms. 2007), home to Keoladeo National Park, one of the few areas in India were fishing cats were studied (Mukerjee 1989, Haque and Vijayan 1993).  It has possibly disappeared also from the southern Western Ghats (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Shomita Mukherjee and Jamal Khan pers. comms. 2007).  However, there is also a new record from Umred, near Nagpur in central India, an area well outside of the fishing cat's known range, when a Fishing Cat that had been killed by a vehicle was found (Anon 2005).  It is primarily found in the terai region of the Himalayan foothills, and eastern India into Bangladesh, where it is widely distributed and locally common in some areas (Khan 2004), although in eastern India few prime habitats remain (Kolipaka 2006).  On the island of Sri Lanka, it occurs apparently all over the island, and has been found on waterways near the capital city of Colombo in degraded habitats (S. Mukherjee pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asia, its distribution appears very patchy,with few recent records (Anak, W. Duckworth and R. Steinmetz, Southeast Asia mammal assessment, 2003).  There are no confirmed records of the fishing cat from Peninsular Malaysia, but a 1999 camera trap image from Taman Negara National Park, an incomplete image showing only the animal's hindquarters, suggests the species occurrence here (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2003).  However, the fishing cat never occurred on Taiwan, where it was mistakenly reported in the past (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002).  Its possible occurrence (based on an old, unsubstantiated record) in southwestern China is unknown (J. Sanderson pers. comm. 2007).  On the island of Java, it has become scarce and apparently restricted to a few coastal wetlands (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). Although commonly considered to occur on the island of Sumatra, there are no  definite historic records, recent records have been shown to be erroneous, and  its presence there remains to be confirmed (Duckworth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>	eng
18150	habitat	Mukherjee, S., Sanderson, J., Duckworth, W., Melisch, R., Khan, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S. & Howard, J.G., 2010	Fishing Cats are strongly associated with wetland. They are typically found in swamps and marshy areas, oxbow lakes, reed beds, tidal creeks and mangrove areas and are more scarce around smaller, fast-moving watercourses.  Along watercourses they have been recorded at elevations up to 1,525 m, but most records are from lowland areas.  Although fishing cats are widely distributed through a variety of habitat types (including both evergreen and tropical dry forest: Rabinowitz and Walker 1991), their occurrence tends to be highly localized (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Fishing cats are good swimmers, and unlike most other small cats may prey primarily on fish rather than small mammals.  A one-year study of scats in India's Keoladeo National Park found that fish comprised 76% of the diet, followed by birds (27%), insects (13%) and small rodents last (9%) (Haque and Vijayan 1993).  Molluscs, reptiles and amphibians are also taken (Haque and Vijayan 1993, Mukherjee 1989).  However, they are capable of taking large mammal prey, including small chital fawns (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), and have been seen scavenging livestock carcasses and tiger kills (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Predation on small domestic livestock and dogs has also been reported (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>The only radio-telemetry study took place in Nepal's Chitwan National Park in the early 1990s.  Cats were active only at night and spent most of their time in dense tall and short grasslands, sometimes well away from water.  Home ranges of three females were 4?6 km²; that of a single male was larger at 16?22 km² (JLD Smith pers comm. in Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Fishing cats have been observed in degraded habitats, such as near aquaculture ponds with little vegetation outside the Indian city of Calcutta (P. Sanyal in Anon. 1989).	eng
18150	population	Mukherjee, S., Sanderson, J., Duckworth, W., Melisch, R., Khan, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S. & Howard, J.G., 2010	There is concern about the species status in Southeast Asia where it is very infrequently encountered and believed to be declining (Southeast Asia regional mammal assessment, 2003). There are very few records from camera trapping in Lao (Duckworth pers. comm. 2003) or Cambodia, although there are a sizeable number of confiscated live captive animals there (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2005). There have been declines in Thailand (Anak pers. comm. 2003) where it is very rarely encountered (Steinmetz pers. comm. 2003) and was more common in the past (Anak pers. comm. 2003).  The fishing cat could not be confirmed in any reserves in Viet Nam during a survey of wildlife officers (Johnsingh and Nguyen 1995).  In 2004, the Fishing Cat SSP and the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden funded a field survey by Thai biologists Namfon Boontua and Budsabong Kanchanasaka to locate fishing cats in prime wetland areas in southern Thailand. Four months of camera trapping failed to find any sign of fishing cats despite confirmed presence of numerous other wildlife species. There have also been big declines in Lao PDR (W. Duckworth pers. comm), as well  as on the island of Java, where the population, possibly a valid subspecies  <em>Prionailurus viverrinus rizophoreus</em> (Sody 1936), may qualify as  Critically Endangered (Boeadi pers. comm.; Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996).  In India it has apparently been extirpated from large parts of its range in recent years (S. Mukherjee and J.A. Khan pers. comm. 2007), and it may no longer occur in Pakistan.	eng
18150	threats	Mukherjee, S., Sanderson, J., Duckworth, W., Melisch, R., Khan, J., Wilting, A., Sunarto, S. & Howard, J.G., 2010	Wetland destruction and degradation is the primary threat faced by the species (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Over 45% of protected wetlands and 94% of globally significant wetlands in Southeast Asia are considered threatened (Dugan 1993).  Threats to wetlands include human settlement, draining for agriculture, pollution, and excessive hunting, wood-cutting and fishing. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid in Tropical Asia.  The depletion of fish stocks from over-fishing is prevalent in many Asian wetland environments and is likely to be a significant threat.  While fishing cats appear relatively tolerant of modified habitats, they are also vulnerable to accidental snaring, while generally not being a commercially valued species (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Widespread indiscriminate snaring, trapping and poisoning are believed to underlie recent declines in Southeast Asia, where fishing cats have not been found even in seemingly intact wetland habitats (Southeast Asia regional mammal assessment, 2003).  Kolipaka (2006) reported that fishermen have killed and eaten fishing cats which they say had taken fish from their nets.  Wetlands are under-represented in the matrix of Asian protected areas (W. Duckworth pers. comm.).  Fishing cat skins have been found in illegal trade in India for many years (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002, Anon 2005).	eng
18151	conservation	Izawa, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">   </span><em>Prionailurus&#160;iriomotensis</em>).	eng
18164	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is not known whether any of the localities are within protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
18164	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This Central African species is known from five widely dispersed localities. It has been recorded at Obala and Bitye in Cameroon, Mbaika and Boukoko in Central African Republic and from the Odzalla National Park in Congo. It has been recorded between 100 and 300 m asl.	eng
18164	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It occurs in the open grassy areas of moist lowland tropical forest.	eng
18164	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens from a few localities. It is difficult to trap, hence population surveys are hard to complete.	eng
18164	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. There is not information about this species at present to determine threats.	eng
18174	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	Indonesia enacted legislation to protect sawfishes (and five other freshwater fish species) in Lake Sentani, West Papua, following severe depletion of populations in a gill net fishery (Compagno and Cook 2005a).  <br/> <br/>South Africa has outlawed the capture of all sawfish species for many years; first protection at KwaZulu-Natal provincial level was in 1978, national as critical in 1997. <br/> <br/>Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) lists Pristis microdon as a Protected species and Vulnerable in Queensland.India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.	eng
18174	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	A euryhaline species (except in Australia where it has only been recorded in freshwater) of the Indo-Pacific region. It has been recorded from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago including Australia and the Philippines (Fowler 1941, Wallace 1967, Misra 1969, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a).  <br/> <br/>Freshwater records of <em>Pristis microdon</em> include rivers of South Africa, in the Shire, Zambezi, Sabie, and Lundi Rivers of Mozambique and Zimbabwe; Ganges and Bramaputra Rivers of India; possibly from the Chaophraya at Nantaburi above Paknam in Thailand; Perak, and possibly the Trembeling and Linggi Rivers in mainland Malaysia; the Kinabatangan and other large rivers in Sabah, Borneo; Grand Lac in Cambodia (Kampuchea); at Lake Naujan, Mindoro Island in the Philippines; Indragiri River near Rengat, Sumatra and Bandjermassing, Borneo in Indonesia; the Fly river system, Sepik and Laloki Rivers, and Lake Murray in Papua-New Guinea; Gilbert, Mitchell, Daly, Victoria, Ord, Fitzroy, Lynd, Walsh, Palmer, and Alligator Rivers, and Teogangini Creek in Australia (Boulenger 1909, Annandale 1909, Fowler 1941, Whitley 1940 and 1945, Smith 1945, Boeseman 1956, Alfred 1962, Stead 1963, Jubb 1967, Munro 1967, Misra 1969, Grant 1972 and 1978, Roberts 1978, Taniuchi 1979, Kottelat 1985, Merrick and Schmida 1984, Taniuchi and Shimizu 1991, Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a, Skelton 2001).	eng
18174	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	A large (to 700 cm) euryhaline sawfish with 18 to 23 evenly-spaced rostral teeth starting near the rostral base and extending over the entire length of the saw on each side; the posterior margin of the slender rostral teeth is grooved. It has broad nostrils with large nasal flaps, dorsal fins are high and pointed with first dorsal well forward of the pelvic-fin origins and the caudal fin lower lobe is small but distinct (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>This species, like the largetooth sawfish of the Americas, occurs far up rivers and in freshwater lakes throughout its range. However, it no longer occurs in a number of freshwater habitats where it was formerly recorded. The species is seen and very occasionally caught seasonally along with the bull shark <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em>, in rivers in Sabah, North Borneo, and, in lower stretches of the rivers, with the green sawfish <em>Pristis zijsron</em> (Compagno and Cook 2005b). <br/> <br/>The sawfishes are all ovoviviparous. The biology of this species is virtually unknown where it occurs, but, as with <em>P. perotteti</em>, it apparently breeds in fresh water. Size at maturity is unknown. Mature whole specimens are generally lacking in collections because of their size, but dried isolated rostra are generally well represented in collections although they often lack data (L. Compagno pers. obs).	eng
18174	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats. Many populations have been extirpated or nearly extirpated from large areas of their former range, with no or only very few observations reported in most range states since the 1960s, although they were reportedly common in many inshore waters at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> century.	eng
18174	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons. Very large specimens have also been the target of trophy angling, e.g., in the Kinabatangan River, Sabah (L. Compagno pers. obs). <br/> <br/>According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1759 t in 1978 worldwide, but most of these were outside the main Indo-Pacific range of this primarily freshwater species and some annual figures appear to be extrapolations from previous years. Reported landings have since declined steeply. Most reports suggest that numbers taken by fisheries from a great many localities have fallen noticeably since the 1960s, if not earlier.  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, with most specimens sourced from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown. <br/> <br/>Major habitat impacts include river engineering (particularly dams), siltation from logging and agricultural activity upstream, and pollution from industries and mining operations. <em>P. microdon</em> has disappeared from many freshwater habitats (i.e., Chaophraya River, Thailand, for example, where it has not been reported in several decades (L. Compagno pers. obs). It was apparently wiped out along with other fishes in the Fly River system of Papua-New Guinea by recurrent, massive cyanide spills from heap-leach mining operations (Tyson Roberts, Bangkok personal communication 1996). Increased agricultural and industrial use of water in catchments reduces flow, closes river mouths and alters salinity, exacerbating the effects of climate change. This is currently very evident at St Lucia estuary in South Africa, which was once the major site for <em>Pristis</em>. Last and Stevens (1994) report that the species is highly vulnerable to gillnet fishing and that Australian populations may be threatened in streams by bycatch in poaching operations for barramundi <em>Lates calcarifer</em>.	eng
18175	conservation	Adams, W.F., Fowler, S.L., Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Soto, J. & Furtado, M., 2006	The Nicaraguan government imposed a temporary moratorium on targeted fishing for sawfishes in Lake Nicaragua in the early 1980s (Thorson 1982), after the population collapsed following intensive fishing in the 1970s. The aim was to allow the population to recover, but no such recovery has occurred (McDavitt 2002 a). Protection was bolstered in 2006 with a Nicaraguan ban on fishing for sawfish, but only in Lake Nicaragua.Indonesia enacted legislation to protect sawfishes (and five other freshwater fish species) in Lake Sentani, West Papua, following severe depletion of populations in a gill net fishery (Compagno and Cook 2005).  <br/> <br/>The USA listed <em>Pristis pectinata</em> on the US Endangered Species List in 2003, following earlier protection in the State waters of Florida and Louisiana. This remnant population in the Gulf of Mexico is considered to have survived because of the benefits of large marine and coastal protected areas, including the establishment of the Everglades National Park in 1947, and as a result of a number of conservation measures during the 1990s, primarily species protection in Florida and Louisiana and a ban on all forms of entangling fishing nets in Florida State waters (Simpfendorfer 2002). The decline in this population may have ceased as a result of these measures. The state of Texas prohibited catch of smalltooth sawfish in concert with the ESA listing and has proposed similar action for largetooth sawfish based on similarity of appearance. A Smalltooth Sawfish Recovery Plan (under the ESA) is anticipated for release, comment, and implementation beginning in mid 2006 and is expected to include myriad conservation actions. <br/> <br/>All Australian sawfish populations are listed as Vulnerable or Endangered, either under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) or by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB).  <br/> <br/>India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>No habitat protection measures have been identified specifically for sawfishes, but the large marine protected areas on Florida?s Gulf of Mexico coast have been identified (above) as a vital factor in the survival of Pristis pectinata on the US coast. Other protected areas, particularly those that include gill net bans, may have the potential to be similarly important for sawfish conservation. The US National Marine Fisheries Service is working to establish ?critical habitat? for sawfish pursuant to the Endangered Species Act listing. Habitat protection measures are likely to be part of the Smalltooth Sawfish Recovery Plan (see above). <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts.<br/>                    <br/>All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.	eng
18175	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is currently protected in several areas as populations are under severe threat (Compagno and Cook 1995).	eng
18175	distribution	Adams, W.F., Fowler, S.L., Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Soto, J. & Furtado, M., 2006	Possibly originally the most widespread <em>Pristis</em> species, but populations highly disjunct. Possibly less well adapted to freshwater than members of the <em>Pristis pristis</em> complex. Western Atlantic: North Carolina USA, to the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil (reported as far north as New York USA and as far south as Uruguay and northern Argentina). Eastern Atlantic: Mediterranean Sea and southern Portugal (now extirpated), Morocco to southern Angola (possibly northern Namibia), including Cameroon (Adams and Wilson 1995, Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Carvahlo <em>et al</em>. in press, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Fowler 1936 and 1941, Krefft and Stehmann 1973, Last and Stevens 1994, Misra 1969, Penrith 1978, Stehmann 1990, Vakily <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wallace 1967).  <br/> <br/>Recorded in freshwater (large rivers) in USA, Nicaragua, Colombia, Guyana, Brazil, Mali and Senegal (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Fowler 1936 and 1941, Thorson 1974, 1976a and 1982a, Thorson <em>et al</em>. 1966). Severe declines reported in several regions where it was formerly common, including eastern USA (Adams and Wilson 1996, Simpfendorfer 2002, Adams 2005). All species of sawfish seem to have been extirpated from the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, although vagrants of this and other species may still occasionally enter the latter through the Suez Canal.	eng
18175	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea there is a single definitive record of a smalltooth sawfish, <em>Pristis woermanni</em> Fischer, 1884 (also known as <em>P. pectinata</em>), described from Cameroon. The holotype (ZMH 6278), measures 785 mm in total length, and has 25/25 rostral spines. However, this may be a marine occurrence as no further locality information is available. Elsewhere this is a widespread species in warm tropical to subtemperate waters, recorded from the western Atlantic, eastern Atlantic, eastern Pacific, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific, but many of these records need verification. The species is currently protected in several areas as populations are under severe threat.	eng
18175	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pristis pectinata</em> is a reef-associated, amphidromous species. It is an inshore and intertidal species, but may cross deep water to reach offshore islands; also ascends rivers and can tolerate fresh water. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is commonly seen in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and river mouths. It is also found in rivers and lakes. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is ovoviviparous with gravid females containing about 15-20 embryos. The embryos feed solely on yolk. It gives birth in shallow bays and estuaries.  The size at is birth 61 cm. It uses its saw to stir the bottom when feeding on bottom invertebrates and to kill pelagic fishes. <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is utilized as a food fish; oil is used to make medicine, soap and in leather tanning. Adults are stuffed for decoration. It has been reported to be aggressive towards sharks when kept in tanks.	eng
18175	habitat	Adams, W.F., Fowler, S.L., Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Soto, J. & Furtado, M., 2006	<em>Pristis pectinata</em> is known from tropical and warm temperate nearshore ocean waters. Juveniles are common in very shallow waters, but adults occur to depths over 100 m (Poulakis and Seitz 2004, Simpfendorfer and Wiley 2005). They are thought to spend most time on or near the seabed, but occasionally swim at the surface. There are many records from coastal lagoons, estuarine environments and the lower, brackish drainages of rivers (Yarrow 1877, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Swingle 1971).  <br/> <br/>The diet of <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is primarily fish, but it also consumes crustaceans and other bottom dwelling organisms (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b). Breder (1952) summarized the function of the saw in the feeding strategy of <em>P. pectinata</em>, noting that prey is impaled on the rostral teeth then scraped-off on the bottom and consumed. <br/> <br/>This species is very large-bodied (550 cm, possibly 760 cm TL). Because it grows slowly, it is believed to mature late and large individuals are thought to be very old. The four-generation period could even be 100 years or more. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) suggest that large females produce between 15 and 20 young per year; the young are born at 70 to 80 cm TL (Simpfendorfer unpublished data). Size at maturity is estimated as 320 cm TL. Maximum life span is estimated to be 40 to 70 yrs and generation times are approximately 27 yr. Annual rate of population increase estimated as 0.08 to 0.13. (Adams and Williams 1995, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Simpfendorfer 2000, 2002, Adams 2005). <br/> <br/>Simpfendorfer (2000) estimated a population doubling time for <em>P. pectinata</em> of between 5.4 and 8.5 years under ideal conditions (no fisheries mortality, no population fragmentation, no habitat modification and no inbreeding depression arising from the genetic consequences of a small population size). He noted that the life history of these species makes any significant level of fishing unsustainable and that recovery from any population decline would be slow (taking decades to a point where extinction risk will be low, or centuries to recover to pre-European settlement levels in the USA).	eng
18175	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
18175	population	Adams, W.F., Fowler, S.L., Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Soto, J. & Furtado, M., 2006	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats. Many populations have been extirpated or nearly extirpated from large areas of their former range, with no or only very few observations reported in most range states since the 1960s, although they were reportedly common in many inshore waters at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th </sup>century (Goode 1884, Henshall 1895, Jordan and Evermann 1996, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). <br/> <br/>Adams and Wilson (1996) examined the reduction in populations of <em>Pristis pectinata</em> in the USA, concluding that both population and range have been severely reduced. In the late 19th Century, one fisherman reported catching 300 sawfish in his nets in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA (Evermann and Bean 1898), but Snelson and Wilson (1981) reported the extirpation of sawfish from this formerly important site. The portion of the population that used to disperse north along the eastern coast of the USA as far as New York may have been completely lost. Bycatch rates in Louisiana shrimp trawlers declined steeply during the late 1950s and early 1960s and none have been reported since the 1970s (Simpfendorfer 2002). The Gulf of Mexico population is severely reduced, with isolated and very small populations perhaps totalling a couple of thousand individuals remaining off Florida and perhaps venturing to adjacent waters, compared with estimates of hundreds of thousands in the late 1800s (Simpfendorfer 2002). These now receive the USA?s strongest protection, but awareness of these measures is still poor and may leave individuals at risk for mortality based on curiosity or ignorance. The number or size of other remaining populations is unknown and not likely to be determined in the near future. The only population thought not to be in imminent danger of extinction, because it appears to have stopped declining and may now have stabilised at extremely low numbers, is that in the coastal waters on the Gulf coast of Florida, USA, where marine and estuarine protected areas and a gill net ban are in place, (Simpfendorfer 2000). This population is less than 5% (as little as 1%) of its size at the time of European settlement (Simpfendorfer 2002).	eng
18175	threats	Adams, W.F., Fowler, S.L., Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Soto, J. & Furtado, M., 2006	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, because their long tooth-studded saw makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear.  <br/> <br/>There have been some large-scale target sawfish fisheries: in Lake Nicaragua in the 1970s, in the south-eastern United States in the 19<sup>th</sup> and early 20<sup>th</sup> century, and possibly in Brazil from 1960s to 1980s (bycatch is still landed in this range state). According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1,759 t in 1978 worldwide. Most landings were from South America. A strong decline in reported landings took place between 1884 and 1995, partly masked by estimates of landings by FAO (it is unclear how these estimates were reached), despite some landings declared by Pakistan between 1987 and 1995, reaching 84 t in 1990. In West Africa, Liberia declared some landings between 1997 and 2000, ranging from 41 to 48 t. Landings are now only recorded sporadically and in very small quantities in world fisheries. <br/> <br/>Populations are now so depleted, however, that commercial targeting of sawfish stocks for meat is no longer economically viable. Most sawfishes have been and still are killed in broad-spectrum commercial and artisanal fisheries, particularly set net and trawl fisheries that target a very wide range of fishes and invertebrates. Sawfishes are retained in these fisheries, just as they were in former target fisheries, because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons.  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, although most specimens today are sourced from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown. Trophy angling for very large specimens has been reported (Compagno and Cook 2005, www.fishbase.org, Simpfendorfer 2002).  <br/> <br/>Degradation of this species? shallow coastal and brackish habitat is associated with high levels of human activity, including through pollution, prey depletion, and coastal or riverine developments, including mangrove clearance, canal development and seawall construction (Simpfendorfer 2002).	eng
18175	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has minor commercial importance.	eng
18176	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Furtado, M., Cook, S.F., Compagno L.J.V. & Oetinger, M.I., 2007	The Nicaraguan government imposed a temporary moratorium on targeted fishing for sawfish in Lake Nicaragua in the early 1980s (Thorson 1982), after the population collapsed following intensive fishing in the 1970s. The aim was to allow the population to recover, but no such recovery has occurred (McDavitt 2002a). Protection was bolstered in 2006 with a Nicaraguan ban on fishing for sawfish, but only in Lake Nicaragua. <br/> <br/>In the USA <em>P. perotteti</em> is protected by several states (Florida, Louisiana), but not Federally. It has been proposed for inclusion in the US Endangered Species Act as either endangered or threatened (comment by LRH May 27th 2010).<br/><br/>The smalltooth sawfish <em>Pristis pectinata</em> is on the US Endangered Species List (ESA) (since 2003). This remnant population of <em>P. pectinata</em> in the Gulf of Mexico is considered to have survived because of the benefits of large marine and coastal protected areas, including the establishment of the Everglades National Park in 1947, and as a result of a number of conservation measures during the 1990s, primarily species protection in Florida and Louisiana and a ban on all forms of entangling fishing nets in Florida State waters (Simpfendorfer 2002). The decline in this population may have ceased as a result of these measures. The state of Texas prohibited catch of smalltooth sawfish in concert with the ESA listing and has proposed similar action for largetooth sawfish based on similarity of appearance.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of smalltooth sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay and with the help of outside experts. A similar ban on the largetooth sawfish has not been established to date. <br/> <br/>The Brazilian Environment Ministry edited a federal law (MMA-IN05/2004) that has also considered it a threatened species and indicated that it should be protected. Enforcement of this protection has been a great challenge. <br/> <br/>Further appropriate protection measures and fisheries controls are required to prevent this species from being extirpated where populations still persist. <br/> <br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment by LRH May 27th 2010).	eng
18176	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Furtado, M., Cook, S.F., Compagno L.J.V. & Oetinger, M.I., 2007	<strong></strong><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: USA (Texas (historically), Louisiana, and occasionally south Flo<strong></strong>rida), Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Caribbean Sea, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Historically reported from: Gibraltar, Spain, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zaire, Angola, and also possibly in the Mediterranean Sea.  Present reported range: Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.	eng
18176	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Furtado, M., Cook, S.F., Compagno L.J.V. & Oetinger, M.I., 2007	A large-bodied euryhaline sawfish of warm-temperate and tropical waters (>18°C to at least 30°C). Mostly nearshore marine, brackish and freshwater (river and lake) environments (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b), but adults may occur across the continental shelf. Though not precisely known, it probably spends most of its time on or near the bottom. However, it is also commonly observed in the wild and in public aquaria swimming quite near the surface for extended periods of time. <br/> <br/>The largetooth sawfish is an adept predator, feeding on a variety of small bony fishes, which it stuns with its saw before consuming, and invertebrates, which it stirs with its saw from the substrate (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, McCormack <em>et al</em>. 1963, T.B. Thorson pers. comm). It is ovoviviparous and gives birth to 1 to 13 fully developed young per litter with 7 to 9 young being the most common litter sizes (Thorson 1976). Size at birth is about 76 cm TL (Nicaraguan specimens) or slightly less (around 60 cm TL) for northern Brazil (P. Charvet-Almeida pers. obs). In Lake Nicaragua the breeding season has been reported to be in early June and sometimes July. After a five-month gestation, young are born from early October to perhaps early December (Oetinger 1978). Size and age at sexual maturity for both males and females is 240 to 300 cm at about 10 years old (Thorson 1982b). Mean generation time for this species is thought to be about 16 years (Simpfendorfer 2000). Mean maximum adult size is at least 570 cm TL and as much as 700 cm TL (Almeida 1999), though specimens residing in Lake Nicaragua reach only about 430 cm TL maximum. It attains a maximum weight of at least 608 kg (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Oetinger 1978). Its lifespan in the wild is unknown, although its maximum age is thought to be around 30 years (Cook <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Demographic analysis for <em>P. perotteti</em>, based on life history parameters from the Lake Nicaragua stock, produces estimates of intrinsic rates of increase of 0.05 to 0.07 year<sup>-1</sup>, and population doubling times of 10.3 to 13.6 years (Simpfendorfer 2000). There is no information regarding its life history characteristics from elsewhere within its range.	eng
18176	population	Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Furtado, M., Cook, S.F., Compagno L.J.V. & Oetinger, M.I., 2007	The population size of this species remains unknown. Its abundance has been continuously declining over the past few decades to the point that it can now be considered rare or even extirpated in some areas where it was previously considered a common species. Probably the largest or one of the last largest populations survives in the northern region of South America (P. Charvet-Almeida pers. obs).	eng
18176	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P., Faria, V., Furtado, M., Cook, S.F., Compagno L.J.V. & Oetinger, M.I., 2007	This species has been fished intensively at various locations within its range, with a dramatic decline in local stocks noted as a result. In Lake Nicaragua (Nicaragua, Central America) Thorson noted large catches of largetooth sawfish during his preliminary visits to Granada in 1963 (T.B. Thorson pers. comm). However, intense fishing efforts for sawfish and the bull shark <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em> in the lake led to rapid decline of stocks of both species (Thorson 1974, 1976, 1980, 1982a, 1987). Taniuchi (1992) did not see any sawfish or bull sharks in the lake during his survey of Central American freshwater elasmobranchs. He noted that during the entire previous season only one of each species had been reported in the fishery. Tanaka (1994) did observe a few specimens of the largetooth sawfish in his studies of Lake Nicaragua. The fisheries for largetooth sawfish in Lake Nicaragua have been characterized by continued effort long after local stocks were practically non-existent. Products recovered from this species are typical of those for other species of sawfishes and include dried saws for curios (primary product), meat for human consumption, fins and to a lesser degree, hides for leather. It is unknown if useable fins are or were recovered from largetooth sawfish for the shark fin trade. Since stocks of the largetooth sawfish in Central America were fished down well before the current surge in interest in shark fins in the mid-1980s, the impact of the sharkfin trade on this species is uncertain but could be important in limiting recovery of the species. <br/> <br/>The occurrence of this species off the Brazilian coast is historically described as a vast coastal area ranging from the northern to southeastern coast, but recent reports indicate a distribution restricted to the northern coast (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It has been extirpated from the southeastern Brazilian coast and is in decline in other regions as a result of artisanal and commercial fishing. Habitat modifications probably also affect this species, especially mangrove forest reduction. According to FAO data (Food and Agricultural Organization) the contribution of sawfish to the total percentage of sharks and rays landed in the north Brazilian region is large (Bonfil 1994). <em>P. perotteti</em> is routinely fished in north Brazil, having its meat, fins and saws traded (Charvet-Almeida 2002). Local fishermen mention a local population declining over the past 15 years (Charvet-Almeida 1999). Both <em>P. pectinata </em>and<em> P. perotteti</em> are considered threatened species in Brazil (Rosa and Menezes 1996).	eng
18177	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
18177	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
18177	conservation	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There are currently no management or conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment added by LRH May 27th 2010).	eng
18177	distribution	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	A sketchily-known large sawfish of the Mediterranean (where it no longer occurs) and eastern Atlantic. It has been recorded from Portugal south to Angola and possibly to Namibia (Fowler 1936, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Krefft and Stehmann 1973, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Stehmann 1990, Compagno and Cook 1995a). Freshwater records of Common Sawfish are from Mali or Senegal in the Faleme River and possibly Gambia in the Gambia River (Compagno and Cook 1995a).	eng
18177	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pristis pristis</em> is found in fresh or brackish water recorded from the lower Ogowe and its estuary (Séret 1990), Port Gentil and Nkomi lagoon (Mbega and Teugels 2003), and Lake Onangue (Gilbert <em>et al.</em> 1989, as <em>P. microdon</em>), but further definitive freshwater records are needed (and in particular voucher specimens). We have examined a photograph of a large saw (approximately 1 m in length) with fewer than 20 pairs of rostral spines (and therefore identified as <em>P. pristis</em>) that is presently in Lambaréné (Gabon). It may be from the Ogowe River, but more precise locality data is not available. Elsewhere this is a very widespread species, occurring circumglobally in warm tropical to subtemperate waters (often recorded as <em>Pristis perotteti</em> or even <em>P. microdon</em> in other areas, (Last and Stevens 1994; McEachran and de Carvalho 2002; and Carvalho and McEachran 2003).	eng
18177	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, the common sawfish has been reported from the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Cacheu. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong></strong>  Elsewhere the species is reported from the rivers Ogowe and Congo.	eng
18177	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pristis pristis</em> is a demersal, oceanodromous species that inhabits inshore coastal waters to moderate depth, also around off lying islands. It is also found in estuaries, lagoons, river mouths, and even freshwater. <em>Pristis pristis</em> feeds on fishes and bottom-living animals. It is ovoviviparous; the embryos feed solely on yolk (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997).	eng
18177	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species inhabits inshore coastal waters to moderate depth, also around off lying islands.  Found also in estuaries, lagoons, river mouths, and even freshwater. Feeds on fishes and bottom-living animals.  Ovoviviparous.  Freshwater populations occur to about 750 km up Amazon River; populations in Lake Nicaragua may be non-migratory.	eng
18177	habitat	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Very little is known of this misnamed sawfish, which is actually quite rare. All sawfishes are ovoviviparous, but little else is known of the reproductive biology of the Common Sawfish. Its size at maturity is unknown, but its maximum length is about 5 m. Mature specimens are generally lacking in collections, small specimens are rare and isolated saws attributed to the species may be misidentified members of the <em>Pristis microdon</em> group. Virtually all aspects of its biology could benefit from additional field collections and museum preparations.	eng
18177	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Fec assumed to be <100.	eng
18177	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
18177	threats	Cook, S.F. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Common sawfish is presumably caught in inshore fisheries with net and line gear set for other species. It lives in places subject to heavy artisanal and commercial fisheries and will tend to be taken incidentally wherever it occurs. Some West African populations of sawfishes have recently been heavily depleted as a result of increased coastal elasmobranch fisheries effort (Mathieu Ducroq in litt.).	eng
18177	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pristis pristis</em> is extremely vulnerable to bycatch and is believed to be severely depleted in Africa, where elasmobranch fisheries effort has increased. Without timely intervention, there is a high probability that this sawfish will become extinct.	eng
18177	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is threatened by fishing pressure.	eng
18178	distribution	Orthopteroid Specialist Group, 1996	This cave cricket was first discovered at Samwell Cave, Shasta Co., northwestern California. Since its discovery specimens have also been collected from Potter Creek cave (approximately 20 miles from Samwell cave). Its distribution is now thought to be more widespread, however, further work is necessary to determine this. Its conservation status is currently under review.	eng
18178	habitat	Orthopteroid Specialist Group, 1996	This species appears to be restricted to caves.	eng
18182	conservation	Kottelat, M., 1996	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
18188	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and a decline in quality of habitat (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to monitor the population trends and habitat status of this species, as well as the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. Site protection is also required to restrict access to the known locations of this species. <br/></p><p></p>	eng
18188	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only one locality in Orange County, Florida, and three in Seminole County, Florida (Franz and Lee 1982).   This species has estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 3,000 km².	eng
18188	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in springs and underground streams (Hobbs 1989). These karst systems include sinkholes, underground streams, wells and caves (NatureServe 2009).	eng
18188	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in small numbers (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18188	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species' habitat is likely to be under threat due to alterations in the hydrological regime, and water pollution leaching into the aquifer. The limited distribution of this species renders it even more vulnerable to such threats. Water quality conditions in Florida aquatic caves, are said to be 'poor and declining' (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009). All known occurrences are within close vicinity of Orlando city (NatureServe 2009) and so are likely to be affected by urban development, and pollution (industrial and domestic).	eng
18189	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of GH by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance, habitat ecology and any major threats impacting this species.	eng
18189	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was located in Carrollton, Carroll County, Mississippi (Fetzner 2008). However, recent attempts to locate this species in Caroll County weere unsuccessful, as the habitat was not suitable. Furthermore, burrows, which may be from this species, were seen in Caroll County, Alabama, and targeted surveys are planned. In addition, it is thought that it may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18189	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978).	eng
18189	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is thought that this species may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
18189	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it is thought that this species may be locally Extinct in Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
18191	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the range, and population trends of this species is needed to determine at what rate subpopulations are being lost.</p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
18191	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal flatwoods in Franklin, Bay, Walton and Gulf counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942) in which this species is still present. This species has a distribution of approximately 4,000 km² which is severely fragmented as a result of urbanization (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). In addition this species may occur in Calhoun County, although this may represent a separate species, based on preliminary data (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18191	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal lentic (lakes, pools) situations and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989). It also inhabits depressions in the flatwoods where water stands during some periods of the year (Hobbs and Hart 1959, Hobbs 1942). When the depression becomes dry, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>constructs simple burrows (secondary burrower) (Hobbs and Hart 1959, Hobbs 1942).	eng
18191	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Hobbs and Hart (1958) described this species as abundant within its small range. More recent accounts suggest this species is abundant where suitable habitat is available (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18191	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Although this species is not present in Panama City, it is impacted by ongoing urbanization on the outskirts of the city (NatureServe 2009,&#160;P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18192	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). It is only known from a locality that may be a managed area, as the site was purchased by St. Johns River Water Management District and is being developed as a public recreation area, probably to be managed by the U.S. Forest Service (Franz pers. comm. 1992 cited in NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population abundance this species. Protection measures are also needed for this species.	eng
18192	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from the type locality at Silver Glen Springs, Astor Park, Marion County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1992). This species has a distribution of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18192	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters in a cave chamber 213 m from its main entrance, consisting of a water depth of 49 m (Hobbs and Franz 1992). Individuals were observed sequestering in crevices or on the substrate. This cave system has a strong outflow current, and as a result there is no accumulation of organic detritus in the cave. Furthermore, the food source for this species may come from bacterial growth and the death of other cave species (Hobbs and Franz 1992). The life history of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is unknown, but due to the low levels of nutrients reaching the cave chamber due to the strong outflow current, it can be assumed that this species has a late reproductive maturity and a long life history making it susceptible to loss of individuals.	eng
18192	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Although only three animals have been collected, Hobbs and Franz (1992) reported that the collectors observed several more sequestered in small crevices in the walls of the cave. A recent scientific dive, however, observed numbers comparable to those present when the species was first described (P Moler pers. comm. 2010)	eng
18192	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The cave where this species is present, is located in a recreation area in the Ocala Natural Forest (Florida Adventuring 2008). The pool outside of the cave was used frequently by tourists for snorkelling and scuba diving (Florida Adventuring 2008), although this has now been prohibited (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). The entrance to Natural Well solution tube has been roped off to protect wildlife (Florida Adventuring  2008).&#160;Water pollution from tourists may also have a negative impact on this species (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18193	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and more precise information on its range.	eng
18193	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known only from the Jackson Prairie area, chiefly in Newton and Scott, Jasper, Smith and Rankin Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 3079 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18193	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to be a primary burrower (Fetzner 2008). It is also known to occur in ditches, lawns, prairie soils and burrows are often found some distance from watercourses. Furthermore, it has been found found in disturbed and undisturbed habitats (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18193	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, furthermore, it is difficult to determine the abundance of this species as it is a primary burrower (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
18193	threats	Adams, S., 2010	The TVA is upgrading a section of transmission line in Scott county, which will see heavy equipment moving through the Jackson Prairie area. The presence of heavy vehicles will cause the soils to compact, crushing the burrows of this species (carnegiemnh 2005). Additionally, the construction work that will take place, will cause increased run-off making the water turbid and increasing sedimentation (carnegiemnh 2005). <br/><br/>Conversion of prairie to agricultural land leads to extirpation of this species, and re-estalishment of prairie does not see the return of this species (Fitzpatrick 1996). Land use may pose a significant threat to this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
18194	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing decline in habitat quality (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the population trends and threats faced by this species.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
18194	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is known only from the lower Brazos River valley, Brazoria County, Texas between the San Bernard River and Oyster Creek, extending inland from the Gulf of Mexico approximately 32 km (Albaugh 1975). Extensive collecting has not revealed any further specimens although Albaugh (1975) believes this species once occupied a larger range. This species is surrounded by closely related species, so it is unlikely that this species could extend its range (Albaugh 1975, NatureServe 2009). Furthermore, this species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 218 km², and its range is severely fragmented (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18194	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	The type locality of this species has been described as a ditch beside a road. The ditch was 100 m long and one metre wide, and commonly contains water up to 0.3 m deep, although it does dry completely when there is no rain (Albaugh 1975).	eng
18194	population	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18194	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	No species-specific threats have been reported, although inter-specific competition and hybridization has been suggested as a potential cause of the extirpation of this species in its potential former range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). There is no evidence for this however, but due to the localized nature of this population it is possible that this may be a threat. Additionally, due to the extremely localized distribution, habitat destruction is a major concern for this species (NatureServe 2009). An ongoing decline in the quality of this species habitat has been reported, but it is not clear as to the contributing factors (NatureServe 2009).	eng
18195	conservation	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 NatureServe and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population status of this species, as well as its current distribution and threats impacting upon it.	eng
18195	distribution	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in Lowndes and Oktibbeha counties, Mississippi (Fetzner 2008), currently found in less than five locations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010). This species has been extirpated from the type locality, as the habitat no longer exists due to habitat modification&#160; (B. Jones pers. comm. 2009). This species has an approximate distribution of 2,382 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18195	habitat	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<span class="fieldLabel"><span class="copy">This species is found in relatively simple burrows in flatwoods or meadows in rich, well-drained soils with bedrock approximately seven meters below the surface. The species is a primary burrower (NatureServe 2009).	eng
18195	population	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	Current records for this species are from 1968 and 1969 taken from 3 localities; though few samples were collected so it is difficult to specify population numbers (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009.). Furthermore<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>this species is considered rare and of special concern (Fitzpatrick 1996).	eng
18195	threats	Adams, S. & Jones, R.L., 2010	It has been extirpated from the type locality, due to habitat modification (urbanization).&#160;Poison was historically used to control the numbers of this species, as it was considered a pest species due to problems it caused to crops (Lyle 1937); it is uncertain whether farmers in the region still use pesticides to eliminate the crayfish from farmland (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species is likely to still be threatened by urbanization due to the expansion of Starkville (a city in&#160;Oktibbeha county),&#160;and from modern agricultural practices such as row crop farming throughout its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010); however this has not been extensively looked in to.	eng
18196	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Surveys are needed to confirm the presence of this species.</p>	eng
18196	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from its type locality, a single spring within&#160;Ocala Natural Forest, Lake County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1986).   This species has a distribution of less than 100 km².	eng
18196	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters and springs (Hobbs and Franz 1986). This species is found in one pool where the water enters from numerous small openings and cracks, none of which are large enough for a person to enter (Hobb and Franz 1986). The spring is covered by numerous boils (upheaval of water at the surface) (Hobbs and Franz 1986). The substrate varies from sand to limestone rocks and boulders (Hobbs and Franz 1986). It is unknown how <span style="font-style: italic;">P. delicatus </span>receives nutrients, however there is loose debris that accumulates in stagnant areas near the spring boils (Hobbs and Franz 1986).	eng
18196	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	In a study conducted by Relyea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1976), one specimen was found outside of the subterranean system resting on a pile of loose debris and a second specimen was found at the main cave entrance by the main boil (an upheaval of water at the surface). Hobbs and Franz (1986) anticipate that the population of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is small and that is why so few have been recorded. One more specimen of this species was collected in 1986 while seining the vegetation around a spring pool (P Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18196	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by disturbance from tourism. The spring is a major tourist attraction which is used for fishing, snorkelling, swimming, and is popular with SCUBA divers (Ocala National Forest Visitor Centre 2008), resulting in degraded habitat.	eng
18197	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is being impacted upon by threats within its range. In addition, site protection is required to prevent further degradation of the habitat of this species. <br/></p><p></p>	eng
18197	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This sprecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the environs of Panama City, Bay County, Florida (Hobbs 1989). Within this area, its distribution is severely fragmented. Its range is bounded on three sides by the St. Andrews Bay system, and on the East by Callaway Creek and Bayou (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18197	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in coastal plain flatwood forests, ditches and temporary ponds. Furthermore, it is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989).	eng
18197	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18197	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Groundwater drainage and urban development for residential housing have greatly reduced the habitat of this species, and continue to do so (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).	eng
18198	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>Part of the range of this species is owned by The Nature Conservancy and managed specifically for this species. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further site protection measures are required to ensure further populations are not extirpated, and further research is needed to determine the population status of this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
18198	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is only known from five localities, all situated north of the Santa Fe River, east of the Suwannee River, and west of Ichetucknee Springs, Suwannee County, Florida (Relyea and Sutton 1975). Several dozen sites have been examined north of the Sante Fe River, but no individuals of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded (Franz and Lee 1982).   This species has a distribution of approximately 277 km².	eng
18198	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits subterranean waters. It is inferred that the five caves in which this species is found, are linked by passages which allow some genetic flow to occur (Streever 1996). The type locality is a fully flooded cave with a water temeperature of 21<sup>o</sup>C and has a maximum depth of 12.5 m (Streever 1996).	eng
18198	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Franz and Lee (1982) recorded 500 specimens of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>from the type locality.	eng
18198	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by human disturbance (Streever 1996), groundwater abstraction, pollution from mining, and pesticide and herbicide use in surrounding areas (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009). This mining activity is also known to destroy the cavern systems supporting this species (P Moler pers. comm. 2010). Furthermore, garbage dumping in the 1970s is thought to have caused the extirpation of this species from one site (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).	eng
18199	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Part of the distribution of this species occurs within a National Park (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance, habitat ecology and major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
18199	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present in southern Mississippi between the Wolf and Pascagoula rivers (Fetzner 2008). Furthermore, it is known to ocur in George, Harrison, Jackson and Stone Counties, Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18199	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is known to occur in rivers (Fetzner 2008), and is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1971), occuring in sandy soils within the Gulf coast area (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18199	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, 10 records of this species have been reported near the type locality, the most recent being from 2007 (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18199	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species is impacted upon by urbanization, development and hurricanes on a local level, though is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18200	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and continuing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed, along with further research on the main threats. Site protection is needed to prevent further degradation of the habitat and loss of important nutrient sources.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
18200	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only two localities in Marion County, Florida (Hobbs and Lee 1976).   This species has a distribution of approximately 59 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18200	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters in two caves. At the type locality, this species is located in a large, irregular shaped room (15 m long and 5 m wide), where the water levels fluctuate markedly (Hobbs and Lee 1976). The water temperature is around 21-22<sup>o</sup>C. The cave is used by bats (<span style="font-style: italic;">Myotis austroriparius</span>) as a maternity site in the spring, they are not usually present throughout the remainder of the year (Hobbs and Lee 1976). As many as 3,700 bats have been recorded using this cave (Hobbs and Lee 1976). The bats are a major source of nutrients for this species, and nearly all of the crayfish collected<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, have been sighted underneath the bat roosts (Hobbs and Lee1976).	eng
18200	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	In a study conducted by Hobbs and Lee (1976), between 23 and 32 individuals were recorded on two consecutive days from the type locality cave with far fewer (number not reported) from the other cave. All known populations are small although when last checked there was a viable population in the last two rooms of the type locality cave (Franz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994). There is no population information available for the second cave.	eng
18200	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The type locality for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located on the north side of a quarry (Hobbs and Lee 1976). This activity could be causing water quality issues to the groundwater supplying the cave. The limited populations sizes, limited distribution, and fluctuation in water levels are all threats to this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18201	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). One of the springs in which this species is found is surrounded by a national wildlife refuge. Further research is needed on the population trends.<br/></p>	eng
18201	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in two localities in Jefferson and Leon counties, Florida  and possibly in one other, but this is a questionable sighting and yet to be positively confirmed (Hobbs and Means 1972). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 98 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18201	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean springs (Hobbs and Means 1972).	eng
18201	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The Big Blue Spring population of this species may be very large (Hobbs and Means 1972).	eng
18201	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The springs in which this species is found, are tourist attractions but swimming is not recommended due to the presence of alligators. Further research is needed on the impact of tourism on these springs (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). This species is very likely susceptible to pollution of the groundwater aquifer (NatureServe 2009).	eng
18202	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the threats affecting this species.	eng
18202	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Gulf County, Florida, north of the Wetappo Canal (Hobbs 1942). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 770 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18202	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from temporary ponds, pools, flatwoods and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942). It can burrow into substrate during droughts   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18202	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is not scarce where it occurs   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18202	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18203	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the site specific threats for this species so appropriate conservation measures can be devised.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
18203	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>known from only eight localities (five of which are within a 3-mile radius and may constitute one location) in Hernando and Pasco counties, Florida (Franz and Hobbs 1983). The range of this species is thought to extend from the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico in the west, to the Brooksville Ridge in the east (Franz and Hobbs 1983). The northern and southern limits are currently undefined (Franz and Hobbs 1983). All of the known localities of this species lie within 11.6 km of the Gulf of Mexico (Franz and Hobbs 1983). This species' distribution is severely fragmented (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 650 km².	eng
18203	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters, in flooded cave systems (Franz and Hobbs 1983). It has has been found at depths between 16.7 and 69.9 meters underground (Franz and Hobbs 1983). Nutrients enter the caves through shafts from surface ponds (Franz and Hobbs 1983).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
18203	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18203	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by human disturbance and recreational activities. The caves in which it is found are frequently used by SCUBA divers (Florida Caves 2008). One of the sites in which this species is found is subject to sedimentation as a result of surrounding agriculture, industrial/domestic development, groundwater abstraction, recreational activities, and nutrient loads from agriculture and development (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commisssion 2009).	eng
18204	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is needed on the population status at each site and appropriate conservation measures for each.<br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
18204	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>was formerly&#160;known from two localities in Miami, Dade County, Florida (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). These two sites were 24 km apart (Radice and Loftus 1995). This species was recently found again in 1992 (Radice and Loftus 1995), after last being recorded in 1968 and subsequently described three years later (Hobbs 1971).&#160;This species is now known from 14 -15 sites in southern Dade County, mostly from man-made groundwater wells (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). All known occurrences are found within an area of 210 km<sup>2</sup> (30 km x 7 km NatureServe 2009).	eng
18204	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean habitats (Radice and Loftus 1995). Nutrients enter the wells, through holes and crevices on the Florida pinelands and marshes, which allow plant and other detritus to filter down into the cave system (Radice and Loftus 1995). Loftus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2001) found that this species inhabits deep geological fomations, greater than 5 m beneath the Rocky Glades, with voids of various dimensions that flood periodically but always contain water. The drilling of groundwater abstraction wells seems to provide suitable habitat for this species (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18204	population	Cordeiro, J., Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	According to Radice and Loftus (1995), seven individuals have been recorded over a two month period, and several were recorded at the original site, although the exact number was not specified (Hobbs 1971).	eng
18204	threats	Cordeiro, J., Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by groundwater pollution from nearby urban areas, and salt water intrusion due to groundwater abstraction for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species is seemingly tolerant of well digging activity (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18205	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Site area protection is urgently needed with restricted access to the cave.<br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
18205	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Devil's Sink Cave in Putnam County, Florida (Hobbs and Franz 1991).	eng
18205	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean pools with large amounts of detritus (Hobbs and Franz 1991). The water depth varies between 31.7 m and 37.1 m with a water temperature of 22<sup>o</sup>C (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
18205	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known from 15 specimens, one collection of seven and a second of eight individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
18205	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by public access and recreational activities. The interior of the cave was described by Hobbs and Franz (1991) as being severely degraded by SCUBA divers on the eastern and southern sides. In the shaft area a Volkswagen car has been dumped (Hobbs and Franz 1991). In a recent dive by Tom Morris (1995), the silt cone from eroding sandstone around the pit to the sink, had grown to nearly cut off the entrance to the cave.	eng
18206	conservation	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
18206	distribution	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known from 95 sites in 7 counties (Angelina, Houston, Nacogdoches, Polk, San Jacinto, Trinity, Walker) in Texas, USA (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18206	habitat	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species can be found inhabiting flooded ditches, drainage ditches, temporary or semi-permanent pools and creeks (Hobbs 1990, D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). Only one specimen has been taken from a creek which was presumed to be an unlikely habitat for this species. The creek is a clear stream with a bed-rock bottom (Hobbs 1990). This species outcompetes <span style="font-style: italic;">P. acutus</span> (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18206	population	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is dominant within its range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18206	threats	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	No known major threats to this species.	eng
18207	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3Q by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This is due to natural or anthropogenic factors affecting species continued existence, and restricted range (Criteria 4, 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). &#160;Further research on possible threats is recommended.</p>	eng
18207	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> is endemic to the Flint River drainage system in Baker, Crawford, Lee, Marion, Schley, and <st1:city w:st="on">Sumter</st1:city>&#160;Counties in the Coastal Plain Province, Georgia, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This is an Extent of Occurrence of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18207	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span> has been found in rivers that are approximately 4 m wide and at a depth of around 0.6 m with a mixed sandy and organic substrate (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1969).&#160; According to Hobbs (1981) it is restricted to lotic waters, of all sizes and does not shun swift water and may even be found in riffle areas. GA DNR (pers. comm., 2009) reports it from sand bottomed streams with macrophytes in clear, free flowing water; often in riffle habitat.<br/></p>	eng
18207	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	Hobbs (1981) collector found the species at 13 sites in Baker, Crawford, Lee, Marion, Schley, Sumter Counties, Georgia. It appears to be common at known localities.	eng
18207	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	Patterns of mussel species diversity have been linked to deterioration of habitat due to pollution, sedimentation, oxygen levels and drainage network position in the tributaries of the <st1:place w:st="on">Flint River</st1:place>, Georgia (Gagnon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is possible that crayfish in the same area, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus gibbus</span>, are also being adversely affected by these threats.	eng
18208	conservation	Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe). Further research is needed on the population status of this species across its range.	eng
18208	distribution	Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the tributaries of the Tombigbee River in Kemper and Lauderdale county (Black 1968) and the middle reaches of the Sucarnoochee River system, Mississippi. In Alabama, it is only found in three localities in Sumter County (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999), and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is considered to be quite rare in Alabama (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). This species has severly fragmented populations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18208	habitat	Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in permanent streams which are comparatively cool, flowing over a firm, sand substrate in a medium-sized stream habitat (Black 1968). Watercress vegetation was found at two collection sites, and trapped leaf litter seems to be the preferred substrate (Fitzpatrick 1996).	eng
18208	population	Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. There have been a number of recent collections of this species by the Geological Survey of Alabama (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009), and subpopulations appear to be healthy and viable (Fitzpatrick 1996), however these are only a small portion of the total population (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
18208	threats	Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The main threat impacting upon this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is water quality degradation through urbanization (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1999). The Sucarnoochee watershed is comparatively rural, allowing this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>to exist at this location (McGregor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999). This species is impacted by heavy deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) and agriculture in its range (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus jonesi</span>, which is also found in this area has been found with empty eggs which is possibly attributed to water quality problems (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18209	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range overlaps with a national park. Furthermore, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
18209	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from 100 sites in 13 Counties, all in the Neches River system, Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). Three days of targeted surveying, produced 43 new sites for this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 10000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18209	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in moderately flowing, clear or weak coffee-coloured creeks with sandy and rocky bottoms. One specimen has been found in a pool in a roadside ditch (Hobbs 1990).	eng
18209	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The species has been described as common and widespread throughout a national park in eastern Texas (Saenz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).	eng
18209	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Furthermore, Saenz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2003) believed that this species is common, and hence its population is not be effected by removal of individuals for scientific research. Due to the unpolluted nature of this species type location, it is likely that low water quality would be detrimental to this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18210	conservation	Adams, S. & Johnson, D., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'endangered', and it has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, critically imperilled, due to extremely restricted range (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). <br/><br/>The impacts of threats such as the agro-farming need to be assessed and protection to be provided if agricultural activities are having a major impact on this species. Furthermore, if farming is having an impact on the habitat of this species, then an area based habitat management and monitoring scheme needs to be implemented (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required immediately for this species, as it is very likely to become extinct in the near future. Population abundance needs to be clarified to identify whether there are any individuals left of this species, and another comprehensive survey of the surrounding area should be undertaken to ensure that the given distribution is accurate. If there are individuals then life history data should be recorded to see whether this species is long lived (K- strategist) or if it is a rapid recoloniser (R-strategist). This will show the potential for this species to survive. Once this research is completed a species recovery action plan needs to be developed and then implemented (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).	eng
18210	distribution	Adams, S. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is only  known from six specimens found at its type locality in the Atascosa River, Atascosa County, Texas. Since its description in 1960 only two additional samples have been collected, both from the same region of the river. This is despite concurrent searches being conducted in other suitable aquatic habitat of the region (Hobbs and Hobbs 1995).	eng
18210	habitat	Adams, S. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species has its type locality in a sluggish stream tributary which is extremely turbid, with little flow rate recorded. The substrate of this stream is sand and gravel with heavily silted pools present (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18210	population	Adams, S. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is extremely rare. Initial surveys were carried out in 1960 when one adult and three juveniles were recorded, since then futile searches have been made until two additional specimens were recorded in 1993, though other aquatic habitats were searched (Hobbs and Hobbs 1995). Further specimens have been collected by Sterling Johnson and Nathan Johnson near the type locality within the last two years, however the area is not believed to be thoroughly surveyed (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18210	threats	Adams, S. & Johnson, D., 2010	There are no major threats recorded for this species. However, extensive large scale farming occurs throughout the county within which it is found. As this species is not known from many individuals, it is very likely that this species is susceptible to small population size stochastic extinction risk (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18211	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation&#160; (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the population status at each site and the main threats to each.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
18211	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was known from four localities in Leon and Wakulla counties, Florida, but it has now increased its range to eight caves in Leon county and six in Wakulla (Dobson 1998), though, it has a fragmented distribution (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 500 km<sup>2</sup>. All the known sites are connected to the same aquifer (NatureServe 2009).	eng
18211	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean habitats (Hobbs and Means 1972). The only habitat information for this species is from its type locality, which consisted of deep silt substrates, where this species was located to a depth of 150 feet into the cave with a water temperature of 22<sup>o</sup>C (Hobbs and Means 1972).	eng
18211	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18211	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Foot and vehicle traffic have caused erosion around at least one location (Gopher Sink). Furthermore, all locations are prone to potential pollution and detrital change. There is concern that this aquifer may be receiving pollutants from the Tallahassee area (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). A number of the caves in this species range have been described as 'poor and declining' in condition as a result of recreational activities and mining (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).	eng
18212	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of endangered (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). The US Fish and Wildlife Service established a natural refuge around one of the caves in 1997 (USFWS 2009). Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status is needed.</p>	eng
18212	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in three unconnected caves in the Tennessee drainage system in Colbert, Lauderdale, and Morgan counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1967, Buhay and Crandall 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be around 5,000 km².	eng
18212	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in subterranean streams and pools (Hobbs 1967). This species is reliant on nutrients entering the cave such as leaf litter, from heavy rains which wash into the cave (Hobbs 1967). At one of the caves, there is a substantial Gray Bat <span style="font-style: italic;">(Myotis grisescens) </span>community, which is depositing bat guano into the cave, thereby increasing the availability of nutrients (USFWS 2009).	eng
18212	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is very rare in the caves it occupies. Numerous surveys over the past 10 years have found zero to three individuals per trip   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
18212	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by droughts which limit the amount of nutrients entering the caves and causes the subterranean pools to dry out (Hobbs 1967). In 1997 the US Fish and Wildlife Service purchased 428 ha within the recharge area of the Key Cave and hence established the Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge. Cotton production in this area has since been replaced with soybean and corn production, and chemical use has been restricted. At present, 80% of the recharge area is agricultural land but will be converted to forest and native grassland. Despite this, urbanisation in the area continues and threatens to lower the water table with the expansion of impermeable surfaces (Kuhajda and Mayden 2001).	eng
18213	conservation	Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine over how much of its range this species is undergoing a decline.	eng
18213	distribution	Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from several small tributaries of Black Creek in Clay County, a tributary to the St. Johns River in Duval County, Florida (Franz and Franz 1979). It is also reported from Putnam County (NatureServe 2009), in the upper Etoniah Creek system (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010). It is known from three stream systems (Black and Etoniah creeks, and a small stream near Fort Caroline). There have been many collecting sites (over 30, mostly in Black Creek) within these systems. In addition, potential gene flow probably occurs among most or all sites within each system (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,600 km².	eng
18213	habitat	Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in headwater streams, and in small and large tributaries within its range (Franz and Franz 1979). It has been collected in cool, tannic-stained, flowing streams, and was found to be absent from sluggish flowing sections (Franz and Franz 1979).	eng
18213	population	Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species has been collected from over 30 sites, mostly within the Black Creek system (Burgess and Franz 1978). In addition, potential gene flow probably occurs among most or all sites within each system (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009), and it was found in greatest density in headwater sections (Franz and Franz 1979).	eng
18213	threats	Moler, P. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is sensitive to human alterations of the headwater areas, and to water pollution such as siltation and sewage (Franz and Franz 1979). The Black Creek is situated close to the Jacksonville metropolitan area and so is under pressure from expanding urbanization. Land developers have cleared large tracts of land, and have built residential areas. Several areas of the creek have been altered by damming (Franz and Franz 1979). Flatwood areas have been drained, and extensive canal systems have been constructed and roads built. Erosion caused by the roads and canals has caused extensive siltation to occur in the headwater streams. The siltation has removed substrate detritus and eliminated the pools created by root mats and logs. Widespread run-off from surrounding dairy farms and human sewage have also created open sewers along several of the South Fork tributaries and no individuals of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded in these areas (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18214	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the population abundance and trends of this species, also the threats impacting this species need to be identified and monitored.	eng
18214	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus plumimanus</span> is known from Carteret, Craven, Duplin, and Jones counties, North Carolina (Fetzner 2008). Cooper and Braswell (1995) report that the species has apparently expanded its range into the lower Neuse River drainage.	eng
18214	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus plumimanus</span> is a secondary burrower which can be found in temporary ponds, pools, and ditches (Hobbs and Walton 1958 and Fetzner 2008).	eng
18214	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	Known from seven to ten localities but more surely exist. Cooper and Braswell (1995) add nine new sites.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite rivers, ponds, ditches, and burrow pits in eastern Coastal Plain of North Carolina in Carteret, Craven, Duplin (extirpated), Jones, New Hanover, Onslow, and Pender Cos.&#160; Recent work by J. Cooper (1999) has shown the species to be often found in "prodigious numbers".	eng
18214	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no specific threats associated with this species, however as a secondary burrower it is likely that this species would be undergoing localised declines due to surface water abstraction.	eng
18215	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
18215	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is known from two Mississippi localities in Chickasaw and Oktibbeha Counties, both localities are within ten miles of each other (Fitzpatrick 1978). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,050 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18215	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	There is no habitat information available for this species, but this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to be a primary burrower (Fitzpatrick 1978).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>	eng
18215	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is only one record of this species since its description (S. Adams pers comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
18215	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.&#160; Furthermore, this species was minorly impacted by agriculture until the 1950's, from cotton farming; which are now mostly pasture (J.F. Fitzpatrick pers. comm. 1995).	eng
18216	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, a more accurate distribution and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
18216	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>was previously&#160;found in the Okaloosa and Holmes counties, Florida (Hobbs 1940), and is now thought to occur in Okaloosa and Walton counties, with its occurrence in Holmes county questionable (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). It is known from a limited number of locations (likely less than five) with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 1,000km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
18216	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>is found in temporary bodies of water and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1940).	eng
18216	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae</span>. Populations merge and divide as water levels fluctuate, especially seasonally.	eng
18216	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rathbunae </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution. However, the rural nature of habitats probably affords adequate protection at this time.	eng
18217	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>      <p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered', based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is on the threats to this species.  </p>	eng
18217	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is confined to the Upper Irons Fork of the Ouachita River basin in Polk County, Arkansas (Hobbs 1979). It is known from six localities (Hobbs and Robison 1988),   and has a distribution of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18217	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and occurs in ditches and temporary pools (Hobbs 1979).	eng
18217	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Initially, this species was known from only 20 adults and 99 juveniles. In 2008, 52 individuals were recorded in the Ouachita National Forest (US Forest Service 2008). Evidence of viability includes dozens of individuals including juveniles at a few sites (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18217	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	As this is a burrowing crayfish in a limited area, it is susceptible to habitat degradation coupled with the potential for such degradation throughout its range (Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009)	eng
18218	conservation	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, although the species is listed under the Texas Rare, Threatened, and Endangered species list, but with no assessed status. The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Endangered with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2 assigned by NatureServe, due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is needed on the taxonomy.	eng
18218	distribution	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is only known from Parkhill Prairie, in the Trinity River basin, Collin County, Texas (D. Johnson pers.comm. 2010).   This species has a distribution of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18218	habitat	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a primary burrower which lives in temperate grasslands (prairies). The soil in the type locality is calcareous clay which has been eroded to varying degrees (shallow to deep) (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18218	population	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	One survey has been undertaken for this species, where 30 individuals were collected. Though, all individuals were passively collected, and no active searching has occurred (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18218	threats	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats acting on this species. Furthermore,&#160; the prairie habitat within which this species occurs, is in an area of low development, however, future development or agriculture may have a large impact on this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18219	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has gbeen iven a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
18219	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is only known from its type locality in a fish hatchery near Smithville, Bastrop County, Texas (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18219	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in artificial aquaculture ponds and a single stream (Johnson and Johnson 2008, NatureServe 2009).	eng
18219	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
18219	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.	eng
18220	conservation	Thoma, R.F., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of GX by NatureServe and Endangered (possibly extinct) by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
18220	distribution	Thoma, R.F., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>This species was known historically only from a single type specimen from an extremely vague type locality in Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1958). "It lives in lesser Georgia, in the rivulets of pure water which flow between little sand hills" (LeConte 1856). Hobbs (1981) notes it was known only from streams in the Sand Hills of southern Georgia. It is considered globally extinct.</p>	eng
18220	habitat	Thoma, R.F., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>There is no information on the habitat or ecology of this species. <br/></p>	eng
18220	population	Thoma, R.F., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	This species is known from one specimen (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1958), collected at a vaguely described type locality and hasn't been found since: Despite 30 years of attempted collecting Hobbs (1981) reported conducting thorough searches for the species throughout its known range and areas of known habitat and failed to  find it.	eng
18220	threats	Thoma, R.F., Cordeiro, J. & Jones, T., 2010	There is no threat information available; this species is considered Extinct.	eng
18221	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, while The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as 'vulnerable' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the extent to which threats within its range are impacting upon it.	eng
18221	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	This species is known from the headwaters of the South Fork Edisto River and Salkehatchie River drainages in four South Carolina counties (Eversole 1995, Eversole and Jones 2004). No individuals of this species have been collected in any of the three adjacent drainage systems (Savannah River, Stevens Creek and Saluda River) despite extensive targeted surveys (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 1,000 to 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18221	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	This species is known to occur in flowing, cool water streams with firm sand bottoms and trapped leaf litter. Furthermore, this species inhabits permanent streams which have high water quality, and individuals have also frequently been sampled from shrub dominated wetlands, such as aquatic grass beds (Eversole 1995).	eng
18221	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	A recent survey found that this species occurs at 19 locations, although quite possibly could occur at a few additional localities. Furthermore, it has been described as quite abundant at most localities (Eversole 1995).	eng
18221	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, this species requires habitats with a high water quality such as the Edisto River, which is currently undammed. Any threat, such as pollution, which lowers the dissolved oxygen levels in the river would seriously impact the abundance of this species. In addition, the continued existence of the aquatic grass beds may be required for the continuation of this species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
18222	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and has been assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).&#160;Much of the distribution of this species is now owned and managed by The Nature Conservancy (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and how much of its range is impacted by land conversion to pine plantation.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
18222	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>was&#160;known from two localities in the Escambia River sytem, Escambia County, Alabama, and a small area in the west of the pan handle of Florida (Hobbs 1942). Doubt has emerged in recent times, however, over the validity of the specimens collected from Escambia County, as these may belong to the closely related Procambarus capillatus. Thus the distribution of this species is now accepted as southwestern Escambia County and southeastern Baldwin County, Florida (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species has a distribution of approximately 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18222	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary bodies of water, in flatwood forest and floodplains, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).	eng
18222	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18222	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by loss of flatwood forest as a result of land conversion to pine plantation. The Flatwoods Salamander (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ambystoma cingulatum</span>) which is also known from this region, has undergone a significant decline in population numbers as a result of ongoing habitat degradation and modification (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2009).	eng
18230	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Protected by law as a Category I species in China. There are several new Forest Police posts within the remaining area of distribution and illegal hunting is no longer an important factor. One subpopulation occurs in Bird Island (Niao Dao) National Nature Reserve (Jiang and Wang 2001).  The species is now regarded as a conservation priority by national and provincial governments.	eng
18230	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Formerly occurred in western China from Qinghai Lake through Gansu to Ningxia and Ordos. Now confined to six isolated subpopulations around Qinghai Lake: Bird Island on the western side; Shadao-Gahai and Hudong-Ketu on the east; Yuanzhe on the south-east; near Gonghe across the mountians on the south side of the lake, and west of Tianjun, about 120 km north-west of the lake. The last two subpopulations were discovered in 2003 during surveys by scientists from the Chinese Academy of Science’s NW Institute of Plateau Biology and Institute of Zoology. Subsequent studies have confirmed that they represent separate subpopulations and not instances of nomadic groups of gazelles moving around the area.	eng
18230	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Przewalski’s Gazelle inhabits steppe plateaux and open valleys, including broken and undulating terrain of stabilised dunes containing steppe vegetation. The habitat of the remaining population around Qinghai Lake lies at elevations of 3,194–5,174 m (Jiang and Wang 2001).	eng
18230	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	A thorough survey in September 2003 provisionally estimated a population of 500-600, an increase from earlier estimates. Subsequent work by IOZ, WCS, and others have confirmed this figure and revised it upwards to 700-800. There is a possibility that the total could be even higher.	eng
18230	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Gazelles on the eastern shore of Qinghai Lake have been fenced out of their main feeding grounds since 1994, and the population on the western shore declined from 37 to seven between 1992 and 1998 (Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2000). Most of their habitat has already been lost to the increasing human population, farming activities, and desertification. Predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>), especially in areas of dense fencing, appears to also be having a negative impact (Jiang and Wang 2001). Subpopulations are quite isolated and movement between them is increasingly difficult owing to intensive land use and physical barriers.	eng
18231	conservation	Mallon, D.P. & Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2008	Occurs in Chang Tang, Kekexili, Arjin Shan, Qomolangma, and Sanjiangyuan nature reserves, China.	eng
18231	distribution	Mallon, D.P. & Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2008	Occurs across virtually the whole Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (China), extending a small distance into two adjoining areas of India (Ladakh, Sikkim). Over 99% of its range lies in China (Jiang and Wang 2001). Occurs up to at least 5,750 m asl (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
18231	habitat	Mallon, D.P. & Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2008	Inhabits high-altitude plains, hills, and stony plateaux. Also grazes in wetland margins. Lives singly or in small groups of 3 to 20 animals, gathering in larger herds during migrations to higher summer pastures (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
18231	population	Mallon, D.P. & Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2008	Schaller (1998) suggested that the total population in China on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau may be around 100,000, but noted that numbers could not be estimated with any degree of accuracy.	eng
18231	threats	Mallon, D.P. & Bhatnagar, Y.V., 2008	Habitat loss through development of rangeland and increases in domestic livestock is probably the principal threat. Some are killed for their meat and heads/horns are occasionally seen for sale. Fencing of rangeland is an increasing threat locally that restricts movement and access to forage and is systematically excluding gazelles from parts of their former range, especially in the east. Road building has also opened previously remote areas to grazing and (illegal) hunting. The much smaller Indian population also has been severely reduced mainly through past hunting followed by increased competition with livestock (Bhatnagar <em>et al</em>. 2006; Namgail <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
18232	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas in Mongolia but most of the population occurs outside these. Given some legal protection in Mongolia and China, but enforcement is not fully effective. Currently proposed for inclusion on the appendices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).	eng
18232	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Occurs in eastern Mongolia and adjacent areas of Russia and north-eastern China. Smaller populations are still found in central and western Mongolia. There is a translocated population on Homin Tal steppe in Zavkhan Province of west-central Mongolia.	eng
18232	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Inhabits rolling arid steppes and plains. Mongolian gazelle move constantly over their range, except during the rutting and birthing seasons.	eng
18232	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Population estimates over the last 10 years have ranged from 400,000 to 2,700,000. The taxon is subject to population fluctuations due to disease and effects of severe winter conditions. Illegal hunting is heavy, in addition to the legal annual harvest. However, several recent authorities agree on a figure of approximately 1,000,000 in Mongolia, though some experts still believe this figure is much too high. Most of the current population is found in the eastern Mongolian steppes. Smaller populations are found in central and western Mongolia. Some move south into China in winter where up to 250,000 may occur. Around 80,000 are estimated to live year-round in China.	eng
18232	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Illegal hunting (in addition to the legal harvest) is an increasing threat. The species is harvested for meat and hides. Former tight control in Mongolia has weakened during the last decade and tens of thousands are killed illegally on top of the official harvest. <br/><br/>The Ulaanbaatar-Beijing railway is double-fenced and has effectively cut off the smaller populations from the core population in eastern Mongolia. Outbreaks of disease and severe winters result in sporadic heavy mortality.	eng
18240	conservation	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., McGraw, S., Galat-Luong, A., Galat, G. & Ting, T., 2008	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.<br/><br/><em>P. b. badius</em> has been recorded from the Gola Forest Reserves, Outamba-Kilimi National Park, and Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Sierra Leone; Sapo National Park, Liberia; and Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. This subspecies is reported to have disappeared in four forest reserves and at Marahoué National Park between the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in Côte d'Ivoire, mainly due to hunting (Sery <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>P. b. temminckii</em> has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Abuko National Park, River Gambia National Park, Gambia; Basse Casamance National Park (where they may no longer survive), Saloum Delta National Park, Niokolo-Koba National Park Senegal; and Cufada National Park in Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>Individuals of <em>P. b. waldroni</em> might be present in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river, Côte d'Ivoire (McGraw 2005), and this region represents a priority for further survey work to ascertain whether any individuals may still survive in the wild.	eng
18240	distribution	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., McGraw, S., Galat-Luong, A., Galat, G. & Ting, T., 2008	This West African species is distributed as fragmented populations from Senegal to Ghana (Struhsaker 1975; Oates <em>et al.</em> 1994; Grubb in press; Groves in press).<br/><br/><em>P. b. temminckii</em> occurs to the west of the principal Upper Guinea rain-forest block in south-west Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau (Grubb in press) and north-west Guinea (Starin <em>et al</em>. in press). It is reported to be absent east of the Rio Grande (Rio Corubal) in Guinea-Bissau, except for a supposed sighting at Catio, near the border with Guinea (Monard 1938). Although mapped from the Fouta Djalon in Guinea (Booth 1958), there are no published records available to confirm this. Also reported from north-west Sierra Leone (Harding 1984), although this record is dubious (N. Ting pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The nominate <em>P. b. badius</em> is distributed as fragmented populations in Sierra Leone, adjacent parts of southern Guinea, Liberia, east to the Nzi-Bandama River system in western Côte d'Ivoire (Grubb in press; Groves in press). The exact boundary between <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. temminckii</em> is unclear, but the two are believed to be geographically separated (Grubb in press). <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. waldroni</em> meet at the Bandama River, Côte d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><em>P. b. waldroni</em> ranged from the Nzi-Bandama River system in south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire to south-western Ghana, though not quite reaching the Volta River (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2000; McGraw 2005). The taxon has been eliminated over most of its range, and no live specimens have been observed for over 25 years in the wild. However, based on recent evidence (a skin, tail and photograph), a few individuals might be present in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river in Côte d'Ivoire (McGraw 2005). In March 2008, calls by what is believed to be Miss Waldron's Red Colobus were heard by a team of scientists from the Swiss Centre for Scientific Research in the Ehy Forest (Tanoé Swamps Forest) in Côte d’Ivoire, and  a fresh skin of a red colobus was recovered from a poacher (I. Kone pers. comm.).	eng
18240	habitat	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., McGraw, S., Galat-Luong, A., Galat, G. & Ting, T., 2008	This arboreal species is found in a variety of forest types including primary, secondary, and riverine or gallery forest.<br/><br/><em>P. b. badius</em> prefers primary or mature old growth moist forest, and is more dependent on forest habitat than <em>P. b. temminckii</em>. Group size ranges to as many as 90 animals, with an average of 53 in Tai National Park (S. McGraw pers. comm.).<br/><br/>As concerns <em>P. b. temminckii</em>, Galat-Luong and Galat (2005) and A. Galat-Luong (pers. comm.) report that the Saloum (Senegal) northern most red colobus population lived in the 1970s only in closed habitats (e.g., in forest, dry forest, forest fringe or gallery forest), but started in recent years to use more “open habitat” like gallery forests with interrupted canopy and even true wooded savanna, mangrove swamps and farmland, apparently because of reduction of forest cover in their original habitat.	eng
18240	population	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., McGraw, S., Galat-Luong, A., Galat, G. & Ting, T., 2008	There are no overall population estimates, but the species appears to be declining over the majority of its range. <br/><br/>There have been no confirmed sightings of Miss Waldron's Red Colobus in the wild since 1978 and surveys carried out from 1993 to the present have yet to confirm the survival of any living individuals (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000; McGraw 2005). Since the announcement of the monkey’s probable extinction (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000), new evidence from forests in extreme south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire suggests that a handful of individuals may have remained undetected in the forest between Ehy forest and Tanoe river, Côte d'Ivoire (Oates and McGraw 2002; McGraw 2005; I Kone pers. comm.). However, they are unlikely to represent a viable population (McGraw 2005; Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/>In Senegal, there are probably fewer than 400-500 individuals of <em>P. b. temminckii</em> surviving in Saloum Delta National Park, and probably fewer than 100 in the isolated Niokolo Koba and north-west Guinea population (A. Galat-Luong and G. Galat pers. comm.).	eng
18240	threats	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., McGraw, S., Galat-Luong, A., Galat, G. & Ting, T., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss and hunting. Deforestation through logging, charcoal production, and clearance for agricultural land including plantations, has occurred over much of the species range, especially in the last century. In addition, both subsistence and commercial hunting have heavily impacted populations of this species, particularly of <em>P. b. badius</em> and <em>P. b. waldroni</em>. Improved access to forest interiors through logging roads has increased hunting pressure on this species. Much of the range of this species has been impacted by civil conflict since 1989 and it is not yet clear to what extent this has affected populations in Senegal (especially Basse Casamance), Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>Although hunting is also a threat to <em>P. b. temminckii</em> (particularly so in the south of its range), this subspecies appears to be somewhat less affected than <em>P. b. waldroni</em> and <em>P. b. badius</em>; in The Gambia monkeys are hunted more as farm pests than for consumption as meat, and red colobus are minor farm pests compared with baboons, green monkeys and patas (Starin 1989). The major threat to this subspecies is habitat loss as a result of forest conversion by agriculture, overgrazing, fires and tree-cutting, combined with decreasing rainfall in the part of West Africa inhabited by this monkey (Starin 1989; Galat-Luong and Galat 2005).	eng
18245	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The Olive Colobus is listed as a Class A species under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
18245	distribution	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The Olive Colobus is confined to the forests of west Africa, and is discontinuously distributed from southern Sierra Leone and Guinea to south-east Nigeria. Oates' (1982) map shows a more or less continuous range from Sierra Leone to Ghana, extending just east of the Volta River, and again in Nigeria on the south bank of the Benue River just above its confluence with the Niger. He considered the distributional gap to be real rather than an artefact of collecting or observation (Groves 2001). In a few localities (e.g., Tai forest, Côte d'Ivoire), it is only locally distributed, but numerous. In a recent survey of Bénin and Togo, Campbell <em>et al.</em> (2008) found the Olive Colobus in 13 of the 26 localities surveyed in Bénin; no sightings were made in Togo by Campbell's team, although it was reported by hunters at one locality (see Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2008 for more details).	eng
18245	habitat	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species inhabits the high forest zone of West Africa and can be particularly common in areas of secondary growth within high forest, in swamp and palm forests. Olive Colobus are cryptic in colouration and behaviour, residing in small groups, usually as part of a large polyspecific association, and mainly occupying the lower and middle dense vegetation strata (Oates 1988; Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is found extensively in farmbush in parts of its range, and it appears that they can survive in small and degraded forest fragments. It prefers dense growth below 10 m, but may ascend to 30 m or even the canopy when feeding in the company of other species. The diet of the Olive Colobus is mainly comprised of young leaves, buds, and flowers (70%), as well as only 10% mature leaves. There is a strong preference for unripe fruits, although the quantities of fruits and seeds taken vary according to the season. It is almost always found in close association with other cercopithecus monkeys (<em>diana</em>, <em>mona</em>, <em>petaurista</em>, <em>cambelli</em>). This species is almost exclusively arboreal, and is very shy.	eng
18245	population	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Although quite secretive, they remain common in many parts of its range.	eng
18245	threats	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is probably declining due to loss of its forest habitats and hunting, especially in the far eastern part of its range, towards Nigeria.	eng
18267	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D.,  García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The Pygmy Raccoon is legally protected in Mexico. It is included in the official Mexican list of threatened species as "En Peligro de Extinción" (SEMARNAT 2002). An island-wide ecological ordinance program (Programa de Ordenamiento Ecologico Local) that seeks to determine the pattern of land occupation, minimizing conflict and maximizing consensus among stakeholders, has recently been implemented and is in the process of being officially decreed. There are initiatives underway to establish two new protected areas on Cozumel Island. An invasive alien animal control programme is underway on Cozumel Island. This program has focused primarily on urban stray dogs and cats, and it is necessary to expand it to feral dogs and cats, house rats and mice, and <em>Boa constrictor</em>. There is work in progress for the establishment of a captive breeding program. An environmental education programme promotes the conservation of Cozumel endemic biota. A long term initiative for the study and conservation of Cozumel's native biota has been undertaken, promoted and sustained by a Mexican interdisciplinary multi-institutional team.	eng
18267	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D.,  García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is confined to Cozumel Island (478 km<sup>2</sup>) off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004; Cuarón, in press).	eng
18267	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D.,  García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Information on the ecology of the Pygmy Raccoon has been summarized in Cuarón <em>et al</em>. (2004), McFadden (2004), and de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. (in press). The Pygmy Raccoon prefers mangrove stands and sandy areas, but they are also found in semi-evergreen and subdeciduous tropical forests and agricultural areas. Abundance varies considerable among vegetation types. Main subpopulations are restricted to coastal areas of the island, and vast areas of the central part of the island are uninhabited or have very sparse subpopulations. The Pygmy Raccoon may inhabit areas that are in proximity to human settlements, as well as to paved and unpaved roads (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden 2004, García-Vasco 2005, Copa-Alvaro 2007).<br/><br/>Pygmy Raccoons are mainly nocturnal, although it is not uncommon to see them during daylight (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, García-Vasco 2005).  Generally it is a solitary mammal, which could sometimes form family groups (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, Jones and Lawlor 1965).<br/><br/>The Pygmy Raccoon is an omnivorous species, with preference for crabs but followed by fruits, insects, crayfish, and small vertebrates (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2006, Martínez-Godinez 2008). The relevance of the different food items varied importantly between seasons and sites, and following major changes in habitat quality due to hurricanes (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2006, Martínez-Godinez 2008).<br/><br/>The Pygmy Raccoon is particularly vulnerable to introduced pathogens and diseases such as mange, rabies and dog distemper from exotic animals (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden 2004, Mena 2007).  The parasites <em>Eimeria nutalli</em>, <em>Placoconus lotoris</em>, <em>Capillaria procyonis</em>, <em>Physaloptera</em> sp., a mite in the family Listrophoridae, and a trematode in the family Heterophyidae have been collected from <em>P. pygmaeus</em> individuals (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The identification of <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> in some Pygmy Raccoons suggests a recent spillover from domestic cats (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It has been identified that the Pygmy Raccoon has been exposed to infectious canine hepatitis, canine distemper and feline panleukopenia viruses (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mena 2007).  <br/><br/>Genetic information indicates that Pygmy Raccoon individuals share the same mtDNA haplotypes, suggesting a recent population bottleneck that might be related to the founder effect (McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
18267	population	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D.,  García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Total population estimates for <em>P. pygmaeus</em>, including juveniles, range from 323 (McFadden 2004) to a maximum of 955 individuals, including juveniles (Copa-Alvaro 2007). During 2006, a total of 105 different known individuals, including juveniles, were caught indicating that the total <em>P. pygmaeus</em> population is comprised by at least this number (Copa-Alvaro 2007). Considering that 59.4% of captured individuals are adults (McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review), then the estimated number of mature individuals ranges from 192 to 567 (62, when one considers the minimum number of known individuals). The average estimated population size and standard error for all pygmy raccoon subpopulations is 27.8 ± 5.5 individuals (McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review). Abundance estimates for the best known populations range from a low of 16 individuals (95% CI= 13-20) to a high of 48 individuals (95% CI = 39-79; McFadden <em>et al</em>. in review). Density estimates vary between sites and year of study, and range from 12.4 to 112 individuals/km² (Copa-Alvaro 2007, McFadden 2004).  A sexual proportion lightly skewed to females was recorded but was not significantly different from 1:1 (García-Vasco 2005). <br/><br/>The species is severely impacted by hurricanes and already depressed populations from a variety of human threats make it increasingly difficult for populations to recover following natural disasters. After major hurricanes, the density of pygmy raccoons can decline at a particular site by as much as 60% and the proportion of juveniles in the population can diminish significantly (Copa-Alvaro 2007).  The impact of hurricanes may vary among regions or vegetation types on the island (Copa-Alvaro 2007).	eng
18267	threats	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Valenzuela-Galván, D.,  García-Vasco, D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Cozumel Island has been substantially developed for tourism. Cozumel is still relatively well-conserved, with close to 90% of the island covered by natural vegetation (Romero-Nájera 2004, Romero-Nájera <em>et al</em>. 2007), but the situation is deteriorating  rapidly. The interior of the island is less developed, but raccoons are rare or absent there (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, García-Vasco 2005, Copa-Alvaro 2007).  There is only a very small area of prime raccoon habitat and this is on the coast where most of the tourist development is taking place.  <br/><br/>The expansion and widening of the road system is fragmenting the vegetation of the island in at least three areas (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. in press). The widening of roads is potentially increasing their barrier effect and exacerbating their impact on the conservation of Pygmy Raccoons and other native species (de Villa-Meza <em>et al</em>. in press). Most cases of Pygmy Raccoon mortality documented since 2001 have been the result of animals being run over by cars on the island?s highways (García-Vasco 2005).<br/><br/>Alien invasive predators, such as <em>Boa constrictor</em>, as well as domestic and feral dogs, may have an important impact on the Pygmy Raccoon population and it is confirmed that feral dogs predate on them (Martínez-Morales and Cuarón 1999, García-Vasco 2005, Bautista 2006).  Additionally, introduced carnivores to the island could easily become a source of parasites and pathogens that could potentially affect negatively Pygmy Raccoon populations (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, McFadden <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mena 2007).  The introduction of congeners from the mainland (<em>P. lotor</em>), usually for pets, is a risk of genetic introgression and a potential source of parasites and pathogens (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Hurricanes are the main natural threat recognized for the Cozumel biota (Cuarón <em>et al</em>. 2004, Perdomo 2006, Barillas 2007, Copa-Alvaro 2007).  In the case of the pygmy raccoon, hurricanes cause drastic population decline, reduction in the proportion of juveniles, and cause injury and facilitate pathological change (Copa-Alvaro 2007, Mena 2007). The frequency, magnitude and duration of hurricanes in the Caribbean Basin is increasing (CITA), so they are an issue of major concern as there may be a synergistic effect with anthropogenic disturbance.<br/><br/>Hunting and collection of Pygmy Raccoons as pets is currently not an important threat.	eng
18272	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in Sergipe protected area.	eng
18272	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in the states of Sergipe, Bahia and Minas Gerais in northeastern Brazil (Pessôa and Reis, 2002).	eng
18272	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in drier habitats than others in the genus. <em>T. a. albispinus</em> occurs in climax forest with some deciduous trees. <em>T. a. sertonius</em> inhabits typical ‘caatinga’, a climax forest of mainly deciduous trees characterized by unpredictable rainfall and semiarid conditions, with vegetation including plants of the families Cactaceae and Bromeliaceae (Pessôa and Reis, 2002). <em>T. a. minor</em> occurs in the Morro do Chapeu at the northern edge of the Espinhaco range in the state of Bahia, an area with rock formations at 800-2,000 m asl. From 800 to 1,000 m, the vegetation is characteristically savanna, which grades into grasslands between 1,000 and 1,100 m. Some records indicate that females are pregnant between January and June; these specimens contained two to four embryos.	eng
18272	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is abundant in forest.	eng
18272	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat is  habitat destruction in the form of forest fragmentation and degradation.	eng
18275	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	It is found in several protected areas including indigenous areas throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.). This rodent is eaten locally by indigenous people but only for subsistence (J. Patton pers. comm.). No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
18275	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in the western Amazonia from southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, northern Bolivia, and the headwaters Region of the Río Jurua, west Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Its range also extends up to southern Colombia to the Río Caqueta, including the Amazon at Iquitos, Colombia (Patton, 1987, Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species reaches 500 m asl at the base of the Andes.	eng
18275	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rat has been recorded in terra firme forest, including naturally disturbed forest with either high density of bamboo or in second growth. It is commonly found in disturbed second growth forests, active and abandoned cultivated plots and various edge habitats. It is less frequently found in forest that floods occasionally, not seasonally. This rodent has not been found in varzea forest (J. Patton pers. comm.). The modal litter size was 2 (range one to four). It is not known whether reproduction is seasonal or largely aseasonal in Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
18275	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is common everywhere; there have been no population studies (J. Patton and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
18275	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time. This species does well in second growth and garden plots (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18276	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
18276	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species occurs in the northwest Venezuela and north central Colombia, around the foothills of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Aguillera 1979; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is a lowland species; it is found from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
18276	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This spiny rat is found in deciduous forest or on forest edge. This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, fungi, and a few leaves and insects. It is tolerant to habitat degradation.	eng
18276	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It is an abundant species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
18276	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Aguillera, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
18277	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
18277	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (Patton, 1987), and is known only from lowlands up to 500 m asl.	eng
18277	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is nocturnal and mainly frugivorous but it also eats seeds and fungi (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This rodent is common in primary and secondary forest and also much degraded habitats. It is present in different patch sizes should be available from grey literature from Lovejoy's plots north of Manaus (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). This species can survive in agricultural landscape if there is some forest cover; its reproduction is seasonal in French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
18277	population	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is common in natural and degraded habitats (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
18277	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	In the past clear cutting was a threat in the Guianas; mining may have threatened the species in the Brazilian portion of its range.	eng
18278	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
18278	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Colombia (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from 100 to 500 m asl. (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
18278	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.	eng
18278	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There is no information available about the population status of this species.	eng
18278	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Mining and agriculture have lead to significant deforestation and habitat loss at the type locality.	eng
18279	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species occurs in Tumucumaque National Park (C. Silva pers. comm.) and several other protected areas throughout its range.	eng
18279	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This species occurs in scattered localities in eastern Amazonia, from the Guianan region of eastern Venezuela and French Guiana to the Carajas region of Pará State south of the Rio Amazonas, Montanhas de Tumucumaque National Park in Amapa State, and the left (east) bank of the Rio Negro near Manaus in central Amazonia, Amazonas State (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000); also in Peru (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1995). Its elevation range is below 500 m asl. altitude (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18279	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	During a survey of the Jurua River, Brazil, many specimens were trapped in terra firme forests (28 of 57), they were also collected in locally inundated forest, secondary upland forest and abandoned gardens and were especially common in the latter (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In the same survey, out of sampling months August to March, pregnant females were collected only in February and March. All litters comprised two young. Data are too limited to determine whether breeding is largely confined to the wet season or also extends through the dry period. Voss <em>et al.</em> (2001) also presents capture data for three different habitat plots in French Guiana, where the species is found equally in both secondary and primary forest (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
18279	population	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is abundant in primary forest but absent in secondary forest in French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.). It is found in secondary forest in Rio Jurua in western Amazonia (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is a very abundant species in Tumucumaque National Parque (C. Silva pers. comm.).	eng
18279	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
18280	conservation	Boada, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in three protected areas in the north of its range.	eng
18280	distribution	Boada, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of southwest Ecuador and northwest Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 5 to 800 m asl. in Ecuador.	eng
18280	habitat	Boada, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It occurs in dry lowland forest (C. Boada pers. comm.).	eng
18280	population	Boada, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.); there is no information on its abundance in Peru.	eng
18280	threats	Boada, C. & Tirira, D., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation especially in the southern part of its range; introduced goats are causing destruction of low vegetation leading to erosion. Probably 20% of its habitat remains (C. Boada pers. comm.).	eng
18281	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
18281	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is confined to coastal eastern Rio de Janeiro (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999), eastern slopes of the Serra do Mar (Lara and Patton, 2000). It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
18281	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in Restinga forest, primary and secondary forest (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
18281	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is locally common (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
18281	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat is habitat destruction (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
18282	conservation	Patton, J. & Astua, D., 2009	This species is found in Xingu indigenous area and Cristalino State Ecological Reserve. Studies would be useful to determine whether the retraction of the range will adversely affect the species (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18282	distribution	Patton, J. & Astua, D., 2009	This species occurs in Brazil, south of the Amazon and east of the mouth of the Madeira (Patton 1987). Alberico <em>et al.</em> (2000) includes it in Colombia (not shown on map). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m.	eng
18282	habitat	Patton, J. & Astua, D., 2009	This rodent is present in varzea and igapo forests. It has also been collected in gardens and secondary and primary forest (P. Costa pers. comm.). Most of the localities where it has been reported to occur are along margins of rivers, though this may be an artifact of collection methods.	eng
18282	population	Patton, J. & Astua, D., 2009	It is expected to be abundant (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18282	threats	Patton, J. & Astua, D., 2009	The eastern Pará is currently under threat from deforestation and mining for iron and aluminium; other areas are experiencing expansion of soybean agriculture; the Cuiaba-Santarem highway also passes through part of the range. Its range is contracting from the south and south-east (A. Percequillo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Extrapolating deforestation rates (from Asner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) for Pará and the northern 58% of the Mato Grosso (which roughly matches the distribution map for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. goeldii</span>) for a three year period to ten years, the percent of habitat loss to the species’ is approximately 14%. However, Ewers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) show that Amazonian deforestation rates vary greatly over time and a three year period would likely be too short on which to base a ten year projection, but even with a more grim average yearly loss the species is unlikely to lose 20% of its habitat in a ten year period. In any case, even 14% is an extraordinary rate of habitat loss over such a large area, but it should be noted that habitat loss is unlikely to translate directly to population decline in this species because it is probably able to tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. Also, these projections do not consider deforestation for the unmapped range in Colombia, which is likely to be occurring a lower rate.	eng
18284	conservation	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas especially in the west (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
18284	distribution	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species occurs in the north central Venezuela, east of the Lake Maracaibo and at the foothills of Merida Andes (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is possible that the species occurs in Colombia. It is found from sea level to 800 m asl.	eng
18284	habitat	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species is terrestrial, and nocturnal. It is present in both primary and secondary habitats.	eng
18284	population	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species is considered common (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
18284	threats	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	The eastern part of  its range is undergoing habitat degradation, but overall there are no major threats.	eng
18287	conservation	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
18287	distribution	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Venezuela and adjacent areas of Guyana and Brazil. The type locality, Mount Roraima in Bolivar Province, Venezuela is at an elevation of 2,000 m asl (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).	eng
18287	habitat	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
18287	population	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There is nothing known about the population status of this species as it is known from only two individuals (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18287	threats	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
18288	conservation	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18288	distribution	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs from coastal portions of eastern Espirito Santo to eastern Sao Paulo (Pessôa and Reis, 1996) and Minas Gerais Statas, Brazil (Lara and Patton, 2000).	eng
18288	habitat	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent occurs in lowland forest areas. The home range of adult males averages 1.37 ha and females 0.86. Females mature at 240 days and can produce four litters per year; longevity reaches thirty months (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
18288	population	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is locally abundant and common (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
18288	threats	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	At present there are no major threats to this species.	eng
18289	conservation	Patton, J., Costa, P., Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is probably present in several protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the distribution and taxonomy of this species.	eng
18289	distribution	Patton, J., Costa, P., Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in southern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, and central Brazil (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs below 500 m, but is thought to have an upper limit near 1,000 m asl.	eng
18289	habitat	Patton, J., Costa, P., Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a terrestrial species. In Bolivia, it has been recorded from Cerrado and intermittent forest areas. It is present in both primary and secondary habitats.	eng
18289	population	Patton, J., Costa, P., Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B., 2008	This is a common species in Bolivia.	eng
18289	threats	Patton, J., Costa, P., Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B., 2008	In Bolivia, there do not appear to be any major threats to this species. The dry forest in Bolivia, Paraguay, and Brazil is rapidly declining due to forest conversion for agriculture, and a pipeline form Brazil will increase this threat (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18290	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
18290	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, west of the Río Magdalena (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from sea level to 500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The current distribution is not well known.	eng
18290	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.	eng
18290	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species..	eng
18290	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
18291	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
18291	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in northern Colombia, below 500 m in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
18291	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.	eng
18291	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
18291	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
18292	conservation	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the actuall range, verify its occurrence in protected areas and tolerance to habitat modification.	eng
18292	distribution	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occupies forest to the west of coastal mountain ranges in Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
18292	habitat	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species has been captured in Atlantic forest habitats. Very little is known about this species although it is suspected to be tolerant to some disturbance.	eng
18292	population	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Nothing is known about the population of this species, however, similar species are very common in forested habitats (Emmons and Freer 1997).	eng
18292	threats	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to the species although deforestation and conversion of forest habitats to agriculture and pasture have severely reduced Atlantic forest habitats, which is suspected to be reducing populations.	eng
18293	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
18293	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in central Colombia east of Cordillera Oriental (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is found from 0 to 500 m  (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
18293	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It occurs in primary forest.	eng
18293	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
18293	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
18294	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2009	This rodent occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002) and National Park of Brasilia, Distrito Federal.	eng
18294	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2009	This species occurs in Brazil, in Goiás State (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002), Distrito Federal, north to Tocantins and Pará states (Weksler <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its altitudinal range reaches 1,000 m asl.	eng
18294	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2009	This rodent inhabits gallery forest within the Cerrado region (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies suggest that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. roberti</span> selects for specific microhabitats strongly associated with presence of babacu palms.	eng
18294	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2009	This species is locally abundant throughout its distribution and occurs only in unaltered vegetation (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18294	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2009	The southern and southeastern portion of its range in Cerrado is under significant threat due to agricultural expansion. The species is also facing additional threat due to the Trans-Amazon highway (J. Patton pers. comm.) and also logging and fire in Tocantins (P. Costa pers. comm.). The species is less threatened in the northern (Amazonian) portion of the range.	eng
18295	conservation	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species is found in some protected areas (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).	eng
18295	distribution	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species occurs from southwest of Maracaibo Lake to Perija, from sea level to 800 m (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995). The species may occur in Colombia.	eng
18295	habitat	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	It occurs in primary, secondary and gallery forests. It can not tolerate agricultural areas (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995). Even though much of the species range is within protected areas, much of the habitat is unsuitable (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
18295	population	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	The species is relatively abundant but it is known from less than ten locations (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).	eng
18295	threats	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	The habitat outside national parks is seriously degraded; much of the land has been converted to pasture and agriculture (Aguilera <em>et al.</em>, 1995).	eng
18296	conservation	Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species at this time.	eng
18296	distribution	Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This is a lowland species; it occur in the Amazonian region of eastern Ecuador, northern Peru, and southeast Colombia east across south Venezuela and adjacent Brazil to the vicinity of Manaus, west of Rio Negro (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
18296	habitat	Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species occurs in primary forest and occasionally secondary and gallery forest (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
18296	population	Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	In Ecuador this species is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and in Venezuela it is rare when sympatric with P. guyannensis (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
18296	threats	Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
18297	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Boada, C. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
18297	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Boada, C. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs from southeastern Honduras to southwestern Ecuador (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Mostly a lowland species but there are a few unconfirmed records to 1,700 m in Ecuador (C. Boada pers. comm.). It is possible that the species occurs in northwestern Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
18297	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Boada, C. & Timm, R., 2008	This large rat is found in lowland evergreen forest primary and second growth. Also occurs in deciduous forest, where it favors riparian corridors and low-lying areas. This species is tolerant to some degree of habitat destruction (e.g., partial deforestation and habitat fragmentation).<br/><br/>Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial and solitary. It travels along fallen logs or old walls but does not climb trees. At night it is often seen sitting quietly near buttress roots or logs. It walks slowly and sometimes freezes in a spotlight. This rat may use burrows during the day but often occupies shallow depressions under roosts and hollow logs, or in dense vegetation. The diet consists mainly of fruit and seeds, with lesser amounts of plant material, insects, and fungi. Palm nuts and other large seeds are carried to a sheltered spot to be eaten. Females give birth to 1 to 5 precocious young and may breed 4 times a year (Reid 1997).	eng
18297	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Boada, C. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is common, often abundant (Reid 1997).	eng
18297	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Aguilera, M., Boada, C. & Timm, R., 2008	Deforestation is a threat in some parts of its range, although this species is thought to be tolerant to a degree of habitat destruction or alteration (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
18298	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18298	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in west of the coastal mountain ranges in Bahia and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
18298	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is present in all types of forest and also savanna (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
18298	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species of rodent is locally abundant.	eng
18298	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
18299	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
18299	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species occurs from southern Colombia (Caqueta and Florencia), eastern Ecuador and Peru throughout the western Amazon Basin east to the Rio Jurua and south to northern Bolivia (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species has the highest altitude for this genus (1,500 m asl) (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000)	eng
18299	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species is commonly found in disturbed second growth forests, active and abandoned cultivated plots and edge habitats (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). Females are thought to breed in all seasons of the year (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is present in lowland rainforest and lower regions of upper tropical forest; this is an upland non-flooded forest specialist (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18299	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	During a survey, <em>P. simonsi</em> was found to be common along the length of the Rio Jurua and well represented in the fauna of all four regional areas (Patton <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is common and easily recognizable (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18299	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats known at this time (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18300	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18300	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species has been identified from central Peru south of the Río Marañon to northern Bolivia, east to western Brazil in Acre and Amazonas States (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.	eng
18300	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is a specialist of varzea habitat in areas subject to seasonal flooding within the lowland Amazon (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Along the Rio Jurua, Brazil, P. steerei exhibits reproductive characteristics as might be expected for a species inhabiting seasonal habitats with early maturity, large litter sizes and a large percentage of young animals breeding (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size twice as large as other species of this genus and breeds at a much earlier age than others of the genus (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18300	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is common throughout its range (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18300	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time. Only future threat would be if the rivers were all dammed and destroyed the varzea habitat (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
18301	conservation	McKnight, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are protected areas within its range. More research is needed into its extent of occurrence and the population status of this species.	eng
18301	distribution	McKnight, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in Trinidad (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
18301	habitat	McKnight, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is found in seasonal marsh forests. It is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects.	eng
18301	population	McKnight, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	There is no recent information regarding the population status of this species; it was abundant in appropriate habitat in the 1970s (Everard and Tikasingh 1973).	eng
18301	threats	McKnight, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	Major threats to the species are unknown.	eng
18302	conservation	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas and no further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
18302	distribution	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species occurs in the northern Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
18302	habitat	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This rat is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and a few leaves and insects. It constructs small dens. The species occurs in primary, secondary and gallery forest. It is tolerant to habitat disturbance (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
18302	population	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	This species is considered common (Lord, 1999; M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
18302	threats	Aguilera, M. & Ochoa, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
18305	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been recorded in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
18305	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, known from southern Gansu and northern Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). Two recent specimens were collected at elevations of 2,440 and 2,550 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). A 2003 survey collected 16 specimens in Jiuhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2005), increasing known localities to three.	eng
18305	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in mountain forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
18305	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been characterized as rare (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
18305	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The species' forest habitat is threatened by expanding agriculture and logging, although these threats are decreasing.	eng
18306	conservation	Henschel, P., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.& Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix II. Hunting of this species is prohibited in Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Democratic Republic of Congo, with hunting regulations in place in Gabon, Liberia and Togo (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>Key protected areas for the species include: Gola F.R. (Sierra Leone), Mount Nimba Strict N.R. (Liberia, Côte d?Ivoire, Guinea), Sapo N.P. (Liberia), Taï and Comoé National Parks (Côte d?Ivoire), Gashaka Gumti N.P. (Nigeria), Korup N.P. and Dja Faunal Reserve (Cameroon), Lopé N.P. and Ivindo N.P. (Gabon), Odzala and Nouabale-Ndoki National Parks (Congo Republic) and Dzangha-Ndoki National Parks (CAR), Virunga N.P. (DR Congo), Queen Elizabeth and Bwindi Impenetrable National Parks (Uganda), and Aberdares N.P. (Kenya) (Butynski and Ray in press).<br/><br/>There is a need for further survey work to acquire reliable population density estimates in various forest types, including disturbed habitats, in order to help better determine the population status across the range of the species.	eng
18306	distribution	Henschel, P., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.& Sogbohossou, E., 2008	The African golden cat is endemic to the forests of Equatorial Africa. There are no confirmed records from The Gambia and Guinea Bissau, nor from Togo and Benin (Ray and Butynski in press), which suggests a separation between Western and Central African populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996).	eng
18306	habitat	Henschel, P., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.& Sogbohossou, E., 2008	While the Neotropical and Indomalayan regions have several sympatric forest-dependent felid species, this is Africa?s only one.  The African golden cat occurs mainly in primary moist equatorial forest, although on the periphery of its range it penetrates savanna regions along riverine forest.  It also occurs in montane forest and alpine moorland in the east of its range (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Ray and Butynski in press).  The golden cat also has the distinction of being Africa?s least studied felid, and only its diet has been researched.  Two studies of scats ? from the Ituri forest of the Congo (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996) and the Dzanga-Sangha forest of the Central African republic (Ray and Sunquist 2001) ? found similar results.  Rodents and squirrels were the main prey item (70 % and 62% respectively), followed by small and medium-size duikers (antelopes) (25% and 33% respectively.  Primates made up 5% of the prey items in both studies, and there have been several observations by primate researchers of African golden cats hunting arboreal primates (Ray and Butynski in press).  The same general diet items were reported by Kingdon (1977) from Uganda?s Bwindi National Park.  Birds are also taken, and pangolin remains were frequently found in scats from the Ivory Coast?s Tai National Park (D. Jenny pers. comm., in Nowell and Jackson 1996).  In southern Sudan a female with two kittens was observed hunting bats as they swooped for insects feeding on fallen mangoes (Seth-Smith 1996 in Ray and Butynski in press).  African golden cats have turned up in the diet of leopards, the only other felid to occur in African moist forest.  African golden cat remains were found in five of 196 leopard Panthera pardus scats from Gabon?s Lopé National Park (Henschel <em>et al.</em> 2005); a single carcass killed by a leopard was found in the Ituri (Hart <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
18306	population	Henschel, P., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.& Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Africa's most poorly known cat, it is infrequently observed in the wild, and generally considered rare. However, skins are rather more frequently encountered (in museums, and among hunters and bushmeat markets), indicating that the species may not be as rare as field records suggest (Ray and Butynski in press) and possibly the threat of significant trade.	eng
18306	threats	Henschel, P., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.& Sogbohossou, E., 2008	Loss of habitat is an obvious threat to this species. Deforestation has destroyed suitable habitat and driven declines of prey species in large areas of the African golden cat range, particularly in West and East Africa (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Ray and Butynski in press). An additional threat stems from the bush meat trade, which figures largely in the region?s economy, and is depleting populations of the prey base of the African golden cat. There appears to be little direct hunting of golden cats (Nowell and Jackson 1996). However, they may be trapped incidentally in wire snares: over the course of a three-month period at four sites in Lobeké, south-east Cameroon, 13 African golden cats were recorded killed by wire snares (T. Davenport, in Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005). Skins are sometimes found for sale in markets, for example in Yaoundé and Kampala where they are often sold alongside medicinal herbs and fetishes (T. Davenport, in Ray and Butynski in press). Skins may be used during circumcision rites or to wrap valuable objects, or as good luck charms for hunting success (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>African golden cats are known prey of Leopards (Henschel <em>et al</em>. 2005), and on a small scale avoid areas where Leopard are common (T. Gilbert in prep.). On a larger scale, in areas where Leopards have recently been extirpated, African golden cats seem to be more locally abundant (P. Henschel pers. comm.).	eng
18307	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18307	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18307	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18307	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18307	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18309	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18309	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18309	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18309	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18309	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18311	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18311	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18311	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18311	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18311	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18312	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18312	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18312	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18312	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 19% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
18312	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18313	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18313	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18313	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18313	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18313	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18314	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18314	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18314	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18314	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	In the 1970s this species was present in the Northern part of the Mwanza Gulf, but the population density was not known. The species was rarely caught (less than 4 times a year) and disappeared from the catches after 1984 and has not been observed since.	eng
18314	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18315	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18315	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18315	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18315	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18315	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18316	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18316	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18316	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18316	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18316	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18318	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18318	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18318	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18318	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
18318	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18319	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18319	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18319	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18319	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 50% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
18319	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18320	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18320	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18320	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18320	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18320	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18321	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18321	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18321	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18321	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18321	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18322	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18322	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
18322	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18322	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 27% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
18322	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18323	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18323	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya.	eng
18323	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18323	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18323	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18324	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18324	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18324	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18324	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18324	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18325	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18325	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18325	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18325	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
18325	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18326	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18326	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
18326	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18326	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 56% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. In data from 2006/08, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 61% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
18326	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18327	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18327	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18327	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18327	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18327	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18328	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18328	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18328	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18328	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18328	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18329	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nabugabo.	eng
18329	habitat	Kaufman, L., 1996	More abundant in offshore, open areas than in other regions.	eng
18332	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18332	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
18332	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
18332	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s. It has not been seen since 1983.	eng
18332	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18333	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Kyoga and the adjoining Lake Nawampasa.	eng
18336	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. bellei</em> is present in some national forests but not in completely protected areas. National forests are unlikely to be developed.  Research into all aspects of its biology and identification of more protected areas are needed.	eng
18336	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Progomphus bellei</em> occurs in the United States of America.	eng
18336	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in sandy lakes and first-order sandy streams.	eng
18336	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Small populations of <em>P. bellei</em> occur in scattered habitats.	eng
18336	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Development of lakes and woodland in parts of range, quite possible in the regions not currently under protection, is likely to decrease viable habitat in the future. Small streams and shallow lakes are liable to dry out with potential drought from global warming.	eng
18337	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed. Extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area needs to be evaluated. Population size and trends should be monitored.	eng
18337	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Southern Mexico (Chiapas) to Guatemala.	eng
18337	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Small lowland forest streams.	eng
18337	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
18337	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
18338	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Prolagus sardus</em> once occupied Corsica, Sardinia, and small adjacent islands of the Mediterranean (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
18338	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Extinct.	eng
18339	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is found in protected areas.	eng
18339	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	This species is found in the Caucasus Mountains, Georgia, and extreme northeastern Turkey (eastern Black Sea Mountains; Krystufek and Vohralík 2001).	eng
18339	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Alpine zone. The species occurs in sub-alpine, mesic, tall grass meadows, at an elevation range of 1500 - 2800 m. This species is fossorial, using claws for digging, therefore only occurs in loose soils. The species may be outcompeted by mole rats which in sympatry occur at lower elevations. Makes complex burrows. In peripheral parts of the passages makes "feeding tables". Feeds mostly on plants. Supplies for winter could be up to 3,5 kg. Lives in colonies that consist of separate families. Colony could cover from 200 to 500 sq. m. Reproduce from May to August. Usually 2 litters with 3 young in each. Does not have real hibernation.	eng
18339	population	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Turkey, populations are localized and approx. 1/ha. Density estimates of 150-200/ha  have been recorded in Abkhasia, Georgia. Populations fluctuates. This may be due to mortality events following repeated snow melt and freezing.	eng
18339	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The area is small and fragmented. There is some threat due to overgrazing, though the species is still found in degraded areas. The species is not under any major threat, however, we need more information on population size, trends, and distribution.	eng
18340	conservation	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found within protected areas.	eng
18340	distribution	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Jalisco and Yucatán (Mexico) to Ecuador, Peru, western Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina, Guianas, Suriname; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). Paraguay distribution adjusted according to Anderson (1997) and Lopez-Gonzalez (2004). Not found in Costa Rica (Rodriguez pers. comm.).	eng
18340	habitat	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Not many studies, it seems to occur in a wide variety of habitats (Solari pers. comm.). It occurs up to 1,800 m (Reid 1997). Found in evergreen, deciduous forests and pine-oak (Eisenberg, 1989). In Mexico from sea level up to 1,050 m.	eng
18340	population	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Common species (Solari pers. comm.). Not very common in Mexico.	eng
18340	threats	Solari, S., Barquez, R. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
18341	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
18341	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyanas, Surinam, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
18341	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
18341	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Uncommon species (Barquez pers. comm.). Only six specimens collected (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
18341	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There are no known threats throughout its range.	eng
18352	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. A new conservation site was declared in the Daraina region in June 2005 thanks largely to the efforts of Association Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental organization, and Conservation International. This 20,000-ha protected area complex will be managed by Association Fanamby in collaboration with the Ministry of Water and Forests. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection at the Duke University Primate Center in Durham, North Carolina USA (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18352	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a restricted distribution, limited to forest patches in north-eastern Madagascar between the Loky River to the north and the Manambato River to the south, centering around the town of Daraina and covering approximately 245,000 ha of human-altered savanna, dry scrub, agricultural land, gallery forests and forest fragments (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has been found in the coastal/littoral forest Analabe near L. Sahaka. Ranges from 50-700 m.	eng
18352	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The forests throughout this sifaka’s range are remnant tracts isolated by degraded grasslands. Within the distribution range of the species there are 75 remaining forest fragments, and <em>Propithecus</em> are present in 45 of these. Most are deciduous formations similar in composition to dry western Malagasy forests (Meyers and Ratsirarson 1989; Vargas <em>et al.</em> 2002). Groups range in size from three to 10 individuals (an average of five) and occupy territories of 9-12 ha. This species is primarily diurnal, though sometimes crepuscular during the rainy season, and sleeps at night in high emergent trees. Mating occurs in late January, births in late June and weaning in December (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).	eng
18352	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Recent population density estimates range from 10-23 individuals/km² in forest and the total population is believed to be 6,000 to 10,000 animals (Vargas <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18352	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threats to the species are slash-and-burn agriculture, uncontrolled grass fires, wood extraction for housing and firewood production, logging of precious hardwoods, and gold mining. Hunting from migrant gold miners is perhaps the largest current and future threat. Although gold miners were not observed to hunt this animal in 1995 during a period of intense mining activity (indeed, they even fed these animals on a daily basis in their camps near Daraina), more recent information indicates that these miners may have become a problem, at least in some areas (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18354	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in five national parks (Andohahela, Isalo, Kirindy-Mitea, Tsimanampetsotsa, and Zombitse-Vohibasia), two special reserves (Andranomena and Beza-Mahafaly), two private reserves (Analabe and Berenty), the Kiridindy CFPF, and a number of unprotected forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). As of 2007, there are no animals held in captivity.	eng
18354	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. The Tsiribihina River is believed to be the northern limit of the range, ranging as far as Tolagnaro and the Andohahela National Park in the south-east. Sea level to 1,300 m (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18354	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This is a diurnal lemur that inhabits tropical dry lowland and montane forest, including spiny bush, brush-and scrub thickets, and riparian forests, and is also recorded in lowland rainforest in the south-east. It tends to live in small to medium multi-male groups that range from 2-14 (average five to six individuals), with home ranges sometimes exceeding 10 ha. Breeding is seasonal, with mating taking place in January and February. Infants are almost completely independent at six months (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). The age at which sexual maturity is reached varies with habitat. For example, in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly fewer than half the females have reproduced by six years of age (Richard <em>et al</em>. 2002), but three-year-old females are routinely seen with newborns at Berenty (Jolly 1966).	eng
18354	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Significant variation in population densities has been noted in different forest types, but even very small forest patches can support sizeable populations of this sifaka. Population densities have been estimated at 47 individuals/km² in the degraded forests of Bealoka, at 150-200 individuals/km² at Berenty (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 1982; O’Connor 1987) and at 860 individuals/km² at Antserananomby; however, the population density at the last mentioned site had declined to about 49/km² as of 2004 (Kelley <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
18354	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Despite this species' wide distribution, the two principal habitats upon which it depends for survival -- spiny desert and riparian forest -- are under threat due to the need for timber, charcoal and fuelwood (Sussman and Richard 1986).  Although hunting of <em>P. verreauxi</em> is fady (taboo) to several of the tribes living in its range (e.g., Antandroy, Mahafaly), it is hunted by other tribes (e.g., Sakalava) and immigrants to the region (Goodman and Raselimanana 2003). In the Isalo region, this lemur is known as sifaka-bilany or “sifaka of the cooking pot,” but it is unclear whether this is because of its popularity as a food item or because of the sooty black appearance of individuals from this part of the species’ range (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18355	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The only two protected areas in which it is known to occur are the Ankarafantsika National Park and the Bora Special Reserve; however, hunting pressure on sifakas is significant in Ankarafantsika (Garcia and Goodman 2003) and Bora has become seriously degraded. Populations of <em>P. coquereli</em> have also been reported from the forests of Anjiamanginana, Anjajavy, the Narinda Peninsula, and Mariarano, which should be considered for protected area status (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is represented in a small number of zoos in the United States.	eng
18355	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found throughout the forested areas of north-western Madagascar to the north and east of the Betsiboka River. Its most southerly occurrence is reportedly Ambato-Boéni, its northern limit is near Bealanana, and its eastern boundary is near Antetemasy (just west of Befandriana Nord). Near sea-level to 300 m.	eng
18355	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This diurnal vertical clinger and leaper is most commonly found in mixed deciduous and evergreen forests, and often in brush-and-scrub and secondary formations as well; also sighted in coastal mangroves on Baie de Mahajamba. They occasionally descend to the ground. In the forests of Ankarafantsika it is seen in groups of three to 10 with home ranges of 4-9 ha. Births are clustered in the months of June and July. Infants become completely independent by about six months of age and reach adult size by one year (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
18355	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common in Ankarafantsika, where densities of up to 60 individuals/km² have been estimated (Ganzhorn 1988).	eng
18355	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threats include habitat loss and hunting pressure. Annual burning to generate new pasture for livestock is the principal cause of forest loss in north-western Madagascar, but trees are also cut to produce charcoal and both practices threaten even officially protected areas. Local traditions place taboos on hunting sifakas, but immigration to this region continues to change such long held practices.	eng
18356	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is included on Appendix I of CITES. There are reports of its occurrence in two special reserves (Ambohijanahary and Kasijy), although the status of populations in these protected areas is questionable. Efforts should be made to secure protection for populations at Katsepy and Anjamena that have been the subject of brief studies and are also visited by tourists. In addition, there is a need for further survey of a few classified forests within the crowned sifaka’s possible range that may also harbor viable populations (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). A project called Antrema is conserving coastal forest around Katsepy. There is a European captive breeding programme, with very few founders, but apparently showing some success (C. Schwitzer pers. comm.).	eng
18356	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The species is distributed from the Mahavavy River to the south-west (separating it from <em>P. deckenii</em>) and the Betsiboka River to the north-east (separating it from <em>P. coquereli</em>). Petter <em>et al.</em> (1977) subsequently pointed out that hybridization between <em>P. coronatus</em> and <em>P. deckenii</em> probably occurred along the upper reaches of the Mahavavy River. Collections made in the forests of Ambararatabe (to the west of the Mahavavy River) and sightings along the Bongolava Massif (west of Tsiroanomandidy) also appear to include individuals of <em>P. coronatus</em>. Also, reliable reports of Crowned Sifakas as far south as the Sakay River, as far east as Andanotongo, and south-east beyond Tsiroanomandidy suggest that the distribution of this species is more complicated than originally believed (Tattersall 1986). Sea level to 700 m.	eng
18356	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is diurnal, inhabits dry deciduous forests and is often found in mangroves (which also form an important food source). Occurs in groups of two to eight individuals, with home ranges from 1.2 – 1.5 ha.	eng
18356	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Where not hunted, fairly common. Muller <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded densities of 48 groups/km² and 173 individuals/km² in Anjamena, using transect line sampling.	eng
18356	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, as forests within this species’ range have been lost to provide pasture for livestock and to produce charcoal. In some parts of the range they may be hunted, and captured for the pet trade.	eng
18357	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Occurs in three national parks (Tsingy de Bemaraha, Baie de Baly and Tsingy de Namoroka), the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, and four special reserves (Ambohijanahary, Bemarivo, Kasijy, and Maningoza) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no specimens reported in captivity.	eng
18357	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The species is found in patches of highly fragmented deciduous forest in western Madagascar between the Mahavavy and Manambolo Rivers. The southern limit of its range does not extend to the Tsiribihina River, which marks the northern limit of <em>P. verreauxi</em>. To the north, within the coastal forests that occur between the Betsiboka and Mahavavy Rivers, the geographic separation between <em>P. deckenii</em> and <em>P. coronatus</em> is clear, but not on both sides of the lower reaches of the Mahavavy where the changing river course allows the populations to interchange (Thalmann <em>et al.</em> 2002). More confusing is the situation in forests of the Bongolava Massif, where animals with colour patterns characteristic of both species have been observed; populations of both species also can be found at a number of other sites (Thalmann <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
18357	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has yet to be studied in the wild. It is known to be diurnal, inhabits dry deciduous forests, occurs on groups of two to 10 individuals, and is somewhat adaptable to degraded habitat, even being present in Eucalyptus trees in the middle of Soalala town.	eng
18357	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common where present.	eng
18357	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, as forests within its range are already very fragmented. Habitat loss continues mainly to provide pasture for livestock and to produce charcoal. It is protected by a very strong taboo in much of its range, becoming very tame as a result.	eng
18358	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species occurs in three national parks (Mananara-Nord, Mantadia, and Zahamena), two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena), and three special reserves (Ambatovaky, Mangerivola, and Marotandrano) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Additional populations have been identified in the Andriantantely Classified Forest, Tsinjoarivo Classified Forest, the Marokitay Forest Reserve, and in the unprotected forests of Anosibe an’ala, Anjozorobe, Didy, Iofa, Maromiza and Sandranantitra (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). The Tsinjoarivo Classified Forest has already been recommended as a new protected area. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection at the Duke University Primate Center in Durham, North Carolina, USA.	eng
18358	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species occurs throughout eastern Madagascar from about the Mangoro and Onive Rivers north to the Mananara Nord River. Its occurrence between Antainambalana River near Maroantsetra and Mananara Nord River, as reported by earlier authors (e.g., Petter <em>et al.</em> 1977) has not been confirmed in recent years. At the southern limit of its range there seems to be a clinal gradient between <em>P. diadema</em> and <em>P. edwardsi</em> (Andriaholinirina and Rabarivola 2004). Ranges from 200-1,625 m.	eng
18358	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found in the eastern rainforests, and persists in smaller forest fragments. There have been no long-term field studies of the Diademed Sifaka. However, it is known to be diurnal and to live in multi-male/multi-female groups of up to eight or more individuals that defend home ranges of 20 - 50 ha by means of scent-marking (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008; and references therein).	eng
18358	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Rare. It occurs only at very low densities wherever it is found.	eng
18358	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Continued destruction of rain forest habitat in eastern Madagascar due to slash-and-burn agricultural practices and timber extraction is the principal threat to this sifaka’s survival, although hunting for food also can have a very serious impact on remaining populations, even within existing protected areas (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Furthermore, illegal rum production, necessitating the planting of sugar cane fields, is a threat to populations in Tsinjoarivo (Irwin and Ravelomanantsoa 2004).	eng
18359	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Milne-Edwards’ sifaka is known to occur in two national parks (Andringitra and Ranomafana). Its suggested presence in Andohahela National Park (O’Connor <em>et al.</em> 1986, 1987) has not been verified by subsequent field surveys (Feistner and Schmid 1999). Populations have also been identified in unprotected forests north of Ranomafana, including those nearby the villages of Kirisiasy, Marofotsy, Fandriana and Marolambo. Marofotsy should be immediately included within the existing Ranomafana National Park. A large number of forest reserves have been established in eastern Fianarantsoa Province, some of which may still harbor populations of <em>P. edwardsi</em>, and these could be included within a conservation corridor linking Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). As of 2007, no animals are known to be held in captive breeding programmes.	eng
18359	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found in the east between the Mangoro and Onive Rivers and the  Manampatrana River and Andringitra National Park. At the northern limit of its range (at the Nosivolo and the Mangoro River) there seems to be a clinal gradient between <em>P. diadema</em> and <em>P. edwardsi</em> (Andriaholinirina and Rabarivola 2004). Ranges from 600-1,600 m.	eng
18359	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found in primary and slightly degraded rainforest forests at middle to high elevations. The typical group size is from three to nine individuals, groups range over areas of 40 to 250 ha. Infants typically are born in June and July every other year. Predation, especially by the fossa (<em>Cryptoprocta ferox</em>), is a significant cause of mortality, but some infant losses also are attributable to infanticidal male sifakas. Infant mortality has been calculated at almost 50% before the age of one year, but it is particularly high in exploited forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Long-term studies have shown that these sifakas are long-lived, reproduce slowly, have high infant and adult mortalities, and are poor dispersers across fragmented habitats (Pochron <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
18359	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population density estimates are relatively low at 7.6 individuals/km² in Ranomafana National Park (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). South of Ranomafana in the corridor between the park and Andringritra there are good remaining populations of the species, although they occur at much lower densities (about 3/km²). Projecting across the entire range the total number of individuals is estimated at about 20,000 individuals (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
18359	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Habitat destruction due to slash-and-burn agriculture and logging, even within protected areas, represents the principal threat to this species’ survival. Habitat loss is also taking place due to gold mining outside of the Ranomafana on the western boundary, and illegal rum production is a threat in the Fandriana region. These are also large-bodied lemurs, and a favoured prey item among hunters, with hunting taking place by means of slingshots, blowguns and firearms, especially north of Ranomafana, as local taboos operate in the southern parts of the range.<br/><br/>Recently, Dunham <em>et al.</em> (2008) performed a demographic study of <em>Propithecus edwards</em>i, to evaluate the impact of deforestation, hunting, and El Niño on its population. Over 18 years of demographic data, including survival and fecundity rates were used to parameterize a stochastic population model structured with three stage classes (yearlings, juveniles, and adults). Results demonstrate that hunting and deforestation are the most significant threats to the population. Analysis of several plausible scenarios and combinations of threat revealed that a 50% population<br/>decline within three generations was very likely.	eng
18360	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Patel, E., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is found in the Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, and (very rarely) the Anjanaharibe and Manandriana portions of Makira Protected Area north of the Antainambalana River. A small number of unexplored forest reserves and classified forests in north-eastern Madagascar are within the presumed range of this species and should be surveyed. Ambodivoahangy forest, where the species has been recorded, and the corridor between Betaolana and Anjanaharibe-Sud should be protected as a Conservation Site. Efforts aimed at ending lemur hunting in the Marojejy region and elsewhere should be continued and expanded. As of 2007, there are no animals held in captivity.	eng
18360	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Patel, E., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a very restricted range in north-eastern Madagascar that includes the humid forest belt extending from Maroantsetra to the Andapa Basin and the Marojejy Massif, but the precise limits of its distribution are unknown. Marojejy National Park represents the northern limit of its known distribution and the forests of Makira and the Antainambalana River are currently regarded as the southern limit. They are patchily distributed and occur at low densities. It is most commonly encountered at elevations between 700 and 1,875 m asl (Patel <em>et al.</em> 2007; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
18360	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Patel, E., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	It is found mainly in tropical moist montane forest. This species has been the subject of one intensive 14.5 month study and a few short-term studies in Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe-Sud. Group size ranges from 2-9, and home ranges can exceed 40 ha. Groups spend about a quarter of their time traveling between foraging sites. Mating occurs just a few days each year between November and January, with young being born in June or July (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein).	eng
18360	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Patel, E., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This is one of the rarest and most threatened sifakas, believed to number less than 250 mature individuals. Sterling and McFadden (2000) provided two population density estimates within Marojejy: 40 individuals/km² and 90 individuals/km². Each estimate was from a different elevational range along the same main trail to the summit. However, this was a very short study from only one small section (the most well traveled) of Marojejy National Park, and clearly these estimates are not representative of the entire park (E. Patel pers. comm.). The numbers of known mature individuals in Marojejy is around a dozen mature individuals; six mature individuals are known from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (E. Patel pers. comm.).	eng
18360	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Patel, E., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and hunting, particularly within the Marojejy Massif and Andapa Basin, and even within the boundaries of the only two protected areas in which it is found, Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Mining activities in Anjanaharibe-Sud are exacerbating hunting activities due to improved infrastructure. Large trucks have been observed containing rosewood, palissandre, ebony and other valuable hardwood trees that were illegally cut within Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud (E. Patel pers. comm.).	eng
18361	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is currently known only from the Analamerana Special Reserve, although even within this protected area the forests have been reduced by as much as 10% over an eight-year period (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). Banks <em>et al</em>. (2007) have called for the forests falling in between Ankarana and Analamerana to be annexed for inclusion as part of these protected areas, because these localities support Perrier?s sifakas and other threatened primates. The&#160; enhancement of infrastructure at Ankarana and Analamerana to support moderate tourist volumes and research presence should be considered.	eng
18361	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a very restricted range in northern Madagascar that includes the Analamerana Massifs. It was formerly recorded in the Ankarana forests (where it may not have been resident), but has not been recorded at all during recent surveys, although animals were observed in forest fragments between Analamerana and Ankarana (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). Ranges from sea level to 400 m.	eng
18361	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of tropical dry forest. Groups range in size from two to six individuals and home ranges approach 30 ha (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Densities of fossa are extremely high in this region, and this carnivore could be having a negative impact on lemur populations.	eng
18361	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Petter <em>et al.</em> (1977) suggested that the total population of Perrier's Sifakas was unlikely to exceed 1000 individuals, while Meyers and Ratsirarson (1989) suggested that about 2000 individuals may have then remained in the wild. More recently, densities in Analamerana were recorded at 3.1 individuals/km² (Banks <em>et al.</em> 2007). These authors projected this density estimate over the 295.6 km² forest area calculated as available habitat for Perrier?s Sifakas, and derived an estimate of 915 remaining individuals, estimating an effective population size of 230 individuals.	eng
18361	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Slash-and-burn activities resulting in forest loss represents the greatest threat to this species. Additional threats include fires set to increase livestock pasture, the cutting of trees to produce charcoal, forest destruction caused by itinerant miners, and hunting. During the dry season, they drink water on the ground, and when they move between forest patches they move along the ground where their conspicuous coloration makes them vulnerable to predators and hunters.	eng
18362	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
18362	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in the Mengkoka Mts. in southeastern Sulawesi at 1,500 m.	eng
18362	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It has been recorded only from mid-montane forest.	eng
18362	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as it has been collected once in 1950s with no follow up research. It is potentially endemic to the Mengkoka Mts.	eng
18362	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is potentially threatened by human encroachment and hunting.	eng
18363	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18363	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Butung, Muna, Kabeana, and adjacent islands.	eng
18363	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is a forest obligate and prefers lower to mid-montane evergreen forest.	eng
18363	population	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species likely occurs at low densities. It is not encountered frequently and it is extremely difficult to study.	eng
18363	threats	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is threatened by forest clearing due to small-scale agriculture, and at lower elevations due to forestry operations.	eng
18364	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18364	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is restricted to north east and central Sulawesi and adjacent small islands, including Sangihe island, north of Sulawesi (Riley 2002).	eng
18364	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It prefers primary forest, probably at higher elevations. The species is primarily arboreal but it is sometimes found on the ground.	eng
18364	population	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. On Sangihe, this species is common in all habitats with tall trees. Because there were no records of this now common species on Sangihe until recently, it is suspected to be recently introduced (Riley 2002).	eng
18364	threats	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is threatened by forest clearing due to small-scale agriculture, and at lower elevations due to forestry operations.	eng
18365	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18365	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known from scattered localities in northern and western Sulawesi.	eng
18365	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is forest dependent. The elevational range is unknown.	eng
18365	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is widespread but rarely encountered. Museum specimens are scattered and most of the collections predate 1950 and have been from lowland sites.	eng
18365	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is threatened by deforestation due to small-scale logging and agriculture.	eng
18372	conservation	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	Aardwolves are present in numerous well-managed protected areas across their range. Grassland burning and livestock overgrazing results in a gross increase in the population of <em>Trinervitermes</em>, so Aardwolves would benefit in areas where such management takes place (Anderson in press).	eng
18372	conservation	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	Aardwolves are present in numerous well-managed protected areas across their range. Grassland burning and livestock overgrazing results in a gross increase in the population of <em>Trinervitermes</em>, so Aardwolves would benefit in areas where such management takes place (Anderson in press).<br/>The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
18372	distribution	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	The Aardwolf has a disjunct distribution in Africa, occurring in two discrete areas, 1,500 km apart, one in East and north-eastern Africa and one in southern Africa. Their distribution is largely determined by the distribution of <em>Trinervitermes</em> termites, which constitute their principle food (Anderson in press).<br/><br/>The northern population extends from central Tanzania to north-eastern Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia, then narrowly along the coast of Eritrea and Sudan to extreme south-eastern Egypt (in the Sudan Government Administration Area) (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). Their presence in Djibouti is unclear (Kunzel <em>et al.</em> 2000). A road kill from near Mbatwa in the Udzungwa Mountains in 2002 is probably the most southerly record for the northern subspecies (De Luca and Mpunga 2005). <br/><br/>The southern population ranges over most of southern Africa, extending just into south-west Angola, southern Zambia (apparently south of the Kafue River), and south-west Mozambique, but is entirely absent from Malawi, southern Tanzania, and most of Zambia (Hofer and Mills 1998; Anderson in press). They are not recorded from Lesotho, but may well occur (Lynch 1994).	eng
18372	habitat	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	Their prime habitat is open, grassy plains, being entirely absent from forests or pure desert (Anderson in press). In southern Africa the Aardwolf occupies diverse habitats, ranging from the karroid habitats of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape, the grasslands and scrub of Botswana, the open savanna woodlands of Zimbabwe, and the inland gravel plains of the Namib Desert in Namibia (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Recorded to 2,000 m asl in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Throughout its distribution, the Aardwolf has been recorded to feed primarily on nasute harvester termites (genus <em>Trinervitermes</em>) and, in any particular region, mainly on one species; they are largely independent of water (except during prolonged cold spells), obtaining their moisture requirements from termites (Anderson in press). A comprehensive review of the species' ecology can be found in Koehler and Richardson (1990) and Anderson (in press).	eng
18372	population	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	Although relatively widely distributed, the Aardwolf is not common within its range. In prime habitat (open grassland and scrub regions), densities may reach one adult/km² on farms with good populations of termites and no persecution by farmers (Anderson in press).	eng
18372	threats	Anderson, M. & Mills, G., 2008	There are currently no major threats to Aardwolves. In South Africa, the Aardwolf was previously persecuted by some farmers for the mistaken belief that it was a predator of livestock, chickens and eggs (Richardson 1984; Anderson 1988). However, such reports are not substantiated by studies of gut or faecal contents and probably result from mistaken identity with hyaenas or jackals (Anderson in press), and, fortunately, this perception has now changed and most farmers actively conserve Aardwolves. They are, however, the occasional inadvertent victims of problem animal control operations, especially those using gin traps (M.D. Anderson pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Loss of habitat, through urbanization agricultural expansion, may be having an important negative impact. For example, some farmers in South Africa destroy termitaria, using a plough or poisons, and these areas then become unsuitable for Aardwolves. Poisons used for locust control may also have an affect on Aardwolves (Anderson in press). Other mortality factors include predation by carnivores, and accidental road casualties, which are not uncommon as Aardwolves fail to move out of the way of oncoming vehicles at night (Anderson in press).	eng
18377	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Franco Andreone, Milan Vogrin, Paul Edgar, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the Slovenian National Red List and is protected by national legislation in many range states, e.g. Slovenia, Croatia and Italy. In Slovenia the species is present in caves, which are protected by national legislation, and much of the distribution of this species is within proposed national or international protected areas (Kocevski and Kraski regional parks; NATURA 2000 sites). In Italy it is found in the Riserva Naturale Regionale dei Laghi di Doberdò e Pietrarossa. The subspecies <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is in need of protection, as its habitat is limited to only a few holes in connection with subterranean networks in a very small geographic area.	eng
18377	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Franco Andreone, Milan Vogrin, Paul Edgar, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	The species is restricted to subterranean aquatic habitats within the Dinaric Alps, ranging from southern Slovenia and adjoining north-east Italy through coastal Croatia and karst regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has yet to be officially recorded in western parts of Montenegro despite considerable anecdotal evidence of its presence (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). The species has been introduced to a cave of the subterranean laboratory of the CNRS France in the Pyrenees (C. Miaud pers. comm.), and one of the north-eastern Italian populations (in the Vicenza area) was introduced in the 1800s (P. Edgar pers. comm.).	eng
18377	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Franco Andreone, Milan Vogrin, Paul Edgar, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	The species generally occurs in large subterranean aquatic karst systems formed in limestone and dolomite rocks, and may be found in cave entrances (especially during episodes of high rainfall and flooding) and abandoned mine workings. Many of the caves that the species occurs in are connected to rivers that run above ground for the first 50-100km and then disappear into the ground. Populations may be found close to the surface or as much as 300m underground depending on the thickness of the Karstic formation. The species is found in waters ranging from 5°C to 15°C. Animals feed on detritus and endemic cave invertebrates and hide in crevices or bottom sediment when disturbed. In contrast to the nominate subspecies, <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is found in warmer surface waters. The species is long-lived (they are not sexually mature until they are 12 years of age) and reproduce very slowly. Females lay approximately 70 individual eggs on the undersides of aquatic stones; however, in some cases the eggs are retained within the body and two fully formed young are produced.	eng
18377	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Franco Andreone, Milan Vogrin, Paul Edgar, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but it is apparently most common in Slovenia and Croatia. A decline has been observed in the populations of Goriza (Italy) and Postojna (Slovenia) (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997). The number of individuals of the subspecies <em>P. a. parkelj</em> is very low.	eng
18377	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Franco Andreone, Milan Vogrin, Paul Edgar, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	The main threats to this species are changes to the forested and pastoral land above the subterranean systems, largely through tourism, economic changes, and increasing water pollution. These changes have a direct influence on the quality of the habitat available to the species. The species is highly dependent on clean water, and is therefore very susceptible to pollution. Other localized threats to this species might include water abstraction and hydroelectric schemes. There is some illegal collection of this species for the pet trade, but the extent of this is unknown.	eng
18378	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
18383	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Australian grayling were once a popular angling species, but the species is now of conservation concern and listed as a protected fish in New South Wales under the Fisheries Management Act 1994.  Heavy penalties apply for taking or possessing them. Australian grayling are listed as a vulnerable species on the schedules of the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.  The related New Zealand grayling (<em>Prototroctes oxyrhynchus</em>) became extinct in the 1930s.<br/><br/>There are several conservation actions underway, including:<br/>- Providing fish ladders over dams, weirs and other barriers, and removing redundant structures.<br/>- Protecting and enhancing creek-side vegetation to minimise siltation of rivers and gravel beds.<br/>- Maintaining flow rates and water quality in rivers and streams as part of water sharing plans.<br/>- Implementing the Protected, Threatened and Pest Species Sighting Program, by reporting any sightings of the species to the NSW Department of Primary Industries.<br/>- Implementing the Commercial Fisheries Threatened and Protected Species Interaction Reporting arrangements.<br/>- Educating fishers on the best way to return incidentally caught grayling to the water.<br/>(Department of Primary Industries 2006).	eng
18383	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from coastal drainages of south-eastern Australia from the Grose River (New South Wales) to the Hopkins River (Victoria).  It also occurs in Tasmania and King Island in the Bass Strait.  These river basins cover a total area of 185,120 km².	eng
18383	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. maraena</em> is an amphidromous species that inhabits clear, moderate to fast-flowing water in the upper reaches of rivers, sometimes to altitudes above 1,000 m.  It is typically found in gravel-bottom pools and often forms aggregations below barriers to upstream movement, such as weirs and waterfalls.  <br/><br/>Adults dwell in flowing freshwater streams, spawning between February and May.  They are highly fecund; on average a total of 47,000 demersal eggs are released by each female.  The larvae hatch around two weeks and are swept downstream into estuaries and the sea.  They spend their first six months here before returning to freshwater in the spring as part of their annual 'whitebait' migrations.  Some fish spawn at the end of their first year of life, but the majority wait until the second year and die shortly afterwards.  The maximum recorded lifespan is six years (Allen<em> et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18383	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. maraena</em> is reported to be relatively uncommon.  It is often only captured in small numbers (less than 10). Larger populations are apparently restricted to a few rivers, for example the Tambo River in Victoria, (Environment Australia 1993).  This species has declined in numbers and distribution within New South Wales (Department of Primary Industries 2006). <br/><br/>However, research has revealed large annual fluctuations in population numbers depending on the prevailing conditions for spawning and migration of the young.  Given their high fecundity, this species has potential for explosive population increases when conditions are favourable (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18383	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There is concern for the distribution, abundance and conservation status of <em>P. maraena</em>, though the level of concern has oscillated over past decades, and has varied geographically (McDowall 2006).   <br/>  <br/>Australian grayling need to migrate to and from the sea to complete their life cycle, and the construction of barriers such as dams and weirs has had a major impact on populations in some river systems.  Other threats to Australian grayling include:<br/>- land clearing, resulting in siltation and water quality decline;<br/>- smothering of gravel beds by fine sediment;<br/>- competition from introduced brown trout.<br/>(Department of Primary Industries 2006).	eng
18384	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Prototroctes oxyrhynchus</em> was endemic to New Zealand.	eng
18384	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The New Zealand grayling was an amphidromous species, inhabiting freshwater, brackish and marine environments. Spawning apparently occurred in freshwater streams and hatched larvae made their way downstream to the sea where they remained until maturity and returned to freshwater spawning areas.	eng
18384	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The species was abundant at the time of European settlement in the 1860s, but population decline was noted by the late 1870s. The disappearance of the fish from the Waikato River was noted in 1874, and by 1900 the species was apparently rare. There are reports of grayling being caught in the 1920s and in the early 1930s a specimen, possibly the last, was brought to the British Museum, however, the origin and date of collection were not noted.	eng
18384	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The extinction of this species was possibly due to a combination of the effects of introduced trout and the deterioration of the freshwater habitat through the clearance of forest cover resulting in increased light penetration and raised water temperature.	eng
18385	conservation	Decher, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from spome protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
18385	distribution	Decher, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is endemic to West Africa, where it ranges from extreme southern Sierra Leone (recorded in the Gola forests) through Liberia, southeastern Guinea and southern Côte d'Ivoire to southwestern Ghana.	eng
18385	habitat	Decher, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest, wher it is usually found in the undergrowth. It has also been recorded from <em>Raphia</em> palm swamps, where it feeds on the <em>Raphia</em> fruit. A very poorly known species, with the limited biological information available.	eng
18385	population	Decher, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is uncommon (at least in museum collections).	eng
18385	threats	Decher, J. & Grubb, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known, but the forests of the Upper Guinea area have been extensively logged such that habitat loss may be a threat.	eng
18386	conservation	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) and Kibale National Park (Uganda). Additional research is needed into the taxonomy of populations found to the east and to the west of the Dahomey Gap.	eng
18386	distribution	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It is found from Sierra Leone and Liberia in the west, eastwards through lowland forest regions to southern Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, western Kenya (recorded from Kakamega forest) and southwards in Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Rwanda and Burundi. There are two isolated records from Tanzania (Kingdon), and from north-central Angola on the Angola Escarpment. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
18386	habitat	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is found in lowland forest and fringing forest, and has apparently also been recorded from secondary forest and farmland. It occurs mainly in the upper branches of trees, rarely descending to the ground (Rosevear, 1969). Rosevear (1969) mentions two females taken, one with a single embryo, another with two.	eng
18386	population	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is not particularly common.	eng
18386	threats	Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Deforestation is unlikely to be a serious threat as the species is also known to occur in agricultural fields/formations and is sometimes found in cocoa plantations. There is some limited hunting for bushmeat.	eng
18398	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
18401	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18401	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18401	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. This species is thought to be a plant-eater but morphologically and ecologically is also thought to be partly a piscivorous.	eng
18401	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
18401	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18403	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18403	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
18403	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. <em>H. cassius</em> is a zooplanktivore, morphologically and ecologically it is also a piscivore.	eng
18403	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
18403	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18418	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
18418	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in North Africa from Mauritania and Western Sahara to Egypt, and east through Sinai Peninsula into Saudi Arabia, Israel, Jordan and Syria. It is unevenly distributed probably due to its dependence on succulent plants for moisture. It has been recorded from a harbour in Sudan, where it may have been accidentally introduced.	eng
18418	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	The species is only found in the vicinity of succulent shrubs, which are its main food source. It is a habitat generalist, found in rocky habitats, grasslands, semi-desert and desert so long as succulent shrubs are present. This mostly diurnal species is colonial and lives in burrow systems in open terrain of soil or sand. The causative agent for Leishmaniasis has been isolated from this species in Jordan (Amr 2000). The species is used in laboratory studies on diabetes (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
18418	population	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is common. At times, population explosions occur.	eng
18418	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Granjon, L., 2008	No major threats. The species is persecuted as a pest and is a reservoir for disease.	eng
18419	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
18419	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This North African species ranges from northeastern Algeria, through central Tunisia to northwestern Libya.	eng
18419	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is found in areas with consolidated sands with sparse, halophil vegetation. It is associated with Chenopodiaceae.	eng
18419	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The abundance of this species is unknown. It is often confused with <em>Psammomys obesus</em>.	eng
18419	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18428	conservation	Qiwei, W., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. gladius</span> is listed as a first-class state protected animal in China. Due to its endemicity and rarity, this species possesses significant academic and economic importance. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>An integrated rescue programme was initiated in 2005. This extensive programme hopes to re-discover this species. It is also investigating habitat and plans to conduct studies on foraging behaviours and instigate captive breeding programmes, propagation for release, preservation of genetic resources, and even cloning (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>The “Protective Laws of Aquatic Products Resources” should be implemented and increased awareness of the significance of the protection of the species is needed (Wei Qiwei <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). <br/><br/>Current studies hope to investigate artificial breeding with the hope of releasing captive bred fries into rivers, ponds and reservoirs. The success of this work depends upon finding wild adult specimens.	eng
18428	distribution	Qiwei, W., 2009	The Chinese Paddlefish is endemic to the Yangtze River (including the brackish water of the mouth) in China.	eng
18428	habitat	Qiwei, W., 2009	This paddlefish is considered anadromous (spends at least part of it's life in the sea and migrates upriver to reproduce). This species occurs in broad surfaced main streams of large rivers, staying usually in middle and lower layers of the water column, and occasionally swims into large lakes. Its spawning period is in March and April. Spawning sites are located in the upper reaches of the Changjiang River. Available information also indicates that spawning took place in the lower Jinsha River between Shuifu and Yibin (Liu and Zeng 1988; Li <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).<br/><br/>The largest specimen recorded was 7 m in length and weighed over several thousand kg.	eng
18428	population	Qiwei, W., 2009	From the mid-20th century the population of the Chinese Paddlefish decreased significantly. Incidental capture data between 1982-2008 from the upper, mid and lower sections of the Yangtze River indicate the largest number of this species found during this period was in 1985, when 32 individuals were captured in the lower section (below the Gezhouba Dam) (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In 1995 juveniles of this species were recorded below the Gezhouba Dam of the Yangtze River (Chen 2008).<br/><br/>Two specimens (1.2 kg weight, 47 cm tail length; 1.3 kg weight, 50 cm tail length) were found in the Chongqing reach in 1992 (Chen 2007). In 2002, a female Chinese Paddlefish (body length 330 cm, weight 117 kg) was captured in the section of Jiangsu Nanjing, Yangtze River. Urgent attempts were made to save this individual, but it only survived in captivity for 30 days. On Jan 24th, 2003, a female (body length 352 cm) was accidentally caught in Yibin, Sichuan Province China (upper stream of Yangtze River).&#160; It was captured, tagged with an ultra-sonic tag and released by Dr. Wei’s team of the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. Unfortunately, after 12 hours of tracking, communication was disconnected. Between 2006 and 2008, Dr.Wei’s team used a number of boats to deploy 4,762 setlines, 111 anchored setlines and 950 drift nets covering a stretch of 412.5 km of the upper Yangtze River in a bid to catch the fish, but they failed to catch a single individual (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The team also used hydroacoustic equipment that beams sound through the water to create a picture of the river and anything in it. This identified nine possible targets, of which two could be paddlefish (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). This species is considered to be the verge of extinction. Artificial reproduction has not been successful.	eng
18428	threats	Qiwei, W., 2009	The Chinese Paddlefish has historically been overfished. The long-life history of this species (e.g. late sexual maturation and large size) means the population will take a longer time to recover from depletion.<br/><br/>In 1981 the Gezhouba Dam was built in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, blocking the migration route of this species and preventing adult fish moving to the upper reaches of the river to spawn.<br/><br/>Fries of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gladius</span> form schools along the river, thus becoming easily captured in traditional Chinese fishing nets and set nets (Zhang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
18444	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no known conservation measures. Communication actions and monitoring of the habitat are recommended.	eng
18444	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Bythiospeum klemmi</em>&#160;restricted to the&#160;Department of&#160;Gard in southern France, where it is known from the type locality which Girardi and Rosello (2001) noted it was difficult to refind but was between Uzes and St Hippolyte-de-Montaigu.&#160; Other localities have been located near Collias including numerous springs at "la Grotte de Pâques à Collias" as well as along the left bank of the river Gardon, about 500m from Collias (Girardi and Rosello 2001).	eng
18444	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species occurs in freshwaters within a subterranean cave system, with two closely adjacent localities near one village. One site has springs within the cave system with other possible exit locations. The third location was not found again, and is possibly lost due to habitat degradation.	eng
18444	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.	eng
18444	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Main threats are water abstraction and pollution.&#160; The groundwater is used for domestic supplies to the village at Collias (Giraudi and Rosello 2001).&#160; Future threats may include poor recharge with fluctuating precipitation patterns.	eng
18447	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Carpentarian Pseudantechinus is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in a single protected area (North Island, which is Barranyi National Park). A recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2008 period (Woinarski 2004). Recommendations from this plan include: establishing a recovery team; communicating information about the species to stakeholders; targeting research in order to make informed decisions (e.g., towards total number and distribution, population trends, habitat suitability, and threatening processes); minimize the impacts of feral cats; and improve fire management.	eng
18447	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia. The location of the original record from Alexandria Station in 1905 is considered unreliable or at least vague (Woinarski 2004; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species now appears to be restricted to the Sir Edward Pellew Group (Northern Territory) and to two localities near Mount Isa (Queensland). <br/><br/>It was first recorded from the Sir Edward Pellew Group in 1967 on North Island. In 1988, it was found again on North Island as well as Centre and South West Islands. The most recent survey in 2003 failed to find the species on Centre and South West Islands, but did find it again on North Island and on Vanderlin Island (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is probably still present on all four islands, although work is needed to confirm its continued existence on Centre and South West Islands. The species is presumed to have historically been lost from the mainland in Northern Territory. Survey work has recently yielded specimens from two localities near Mt. Isa (1997 and 2002), but surveys in the intervening habitat have not located it.	eng
18447	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in rocky habitats with a scattering of trees. The ground vegetation consists of mainly spinifex. The diet is mostly invertebrates, but may also include small vertebrates (Woinarski 2004).	eng
18447	population	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is rare on the mainland, but possibly more common on the islands (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are fewer than 10,000 mature individuals in the global population based on current knowledge.	eng
18447	threats	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	Major threats to the population are not known, however, it is thought that changes to the fire regime, destruction and degradation of habitat by introduced herbivores and livestock, predation by exotic predators, and possibly disease have all been factors in the decline of this species (Woinarski 2004). One of the two Queensland sites is within a proposed mining area. Cane toads and cats (both relatively recent introductions; last 2-3 decades) are present on all four islands from which the species is known, though the effects of these are not known (Woinarski 2004).	eng
18457	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
18457	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
18458	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Formerly throughout the lower part of the Mobile River system below David Lake, Baldwin and Mobile counties, Alabama; as far north as the Little River State Park in southern Monroe County, and perhaps east into the Florida Panhandle as far as Apalachee Bay. Current distribution: Mobile Bay and tributary streams.	eng
18458	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Most abundant in quiet backwaters of upper Mobile Bay in areas with dense submerged vegetation, in water generally 1 to 2 m deep; also in river channels; occurs only as a straggler in brackish water and salt marsh areas of lower Mobile Bay. Basks on dense beds of aquatic vegetation.	eng
18459	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
18460	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
18473	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	No specific conservation actions are in place to reduce the risk of extinction in this species.	eng
18473	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	<em>P. burgi</em> is endemic to the Berg River system and occurs in the Boesmans, Goedverwacht, Leeu, Krom, Hugo and Wemmers (Olifants) tributaries as well as in the upper reaches of the Berg River (tributary type habitat) (Bloomer and Impson 2000, Swartz 2005). As a result of a genetic study (Bloomer and Impson 2000), morphological evidence (Skelton 1988) and field observations, the Verlorenvlei population is considered to be a different undescribed taxon. The Eerste River system's population may have belonged to this taxon, but have gone extinct (Skelton 1987, Skelton 1988).	eng
18473	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Occurs in clear oligotrophic mountain streams with low mineral content.	eng
18473	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	There is continuing decline as noted for the Boesmans tributary. Populations are severely fragmented due to a biological barrier to gene flow as a result of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> and other alien fishes. However, several of the populations are probably large enough to survive long-term without the need for immigration.	eng
18473	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Alien predatory fishes is the main threat, especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> have isolated populations in upper reaches of tributary streams. <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> has an impact higher up in some of the tributary streams where they are able to survive due to colder temperatures. The relatively recent introductions of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> will have to be monitored to assess what impact this alien will have on populations. Excessive water extraction has severely impacted upon lower reaches of tributary streams.	eng
18474	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	A river rehabilitation project is planned for the Rondegat River that will significantly increase the size of that population.	eng
18474	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Occurs in the Oudste, Thee, Noordhoeks, Boskloof and Rondegat tributaries of the Olifants River system on the western side of the Cederberg Mountains (Bills 1999, Swartz 2000, Swartz 2004).	eng
18474	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	They prefer cobble habitat in the lower reaches of tributary streams, with moderate flow. Clear sexual dimorphism exists and males have bright red fins in the breeding season and defend territories (Skelton 1988).	eng
18474	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No information is available on population trends.	eng
18474	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien invasive fish species have reduced their range significantly. There must have been a rapid and major reduction in their range soon after the introduction of especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> in the 1940s. Unsustainable water extraction is also a major threat, especially where the lower reaches of tributary streams are affected. This lineage has gone extinct in the Jan Dissels River, a major tributary of the Olifants River and are no longer found in mainstream areas where they probably occurred before the introduction of alien fishes.	eng
18475	conservation	Swartz, E., 2007	No specific conservation actions are planned for this taxon.	eng
18475	distribution	Swartz, E., 2007	Populations remain in the Tsoelikane, Sani, Maremoholo, Senqu and Matsoku Rivers (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001), but the population in South Africa has gone extinct (Mkhomazana River in KwaZulu-Natal) (Pike and Karssing 1995).	eng
18475	habitat	Swartz, E., 2007	Prefers low gradient streams at high altitudes on basalt or sandstone (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
18475	population	Swartz, E., 2007	No information is available on population trends, but each of the populations are probably large enough to survive long-term (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
18475	threats	Swartz, E., 2007	The major threat is alien invasive fish species, particularly <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Salmo trutta</em> (Skelton 2001). The translocation of indigenous fish species such as <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em> outside their natural range into the range of <em>Pseudobarbus quathlambae</em> is also a major threat. The spread of alien fish species is being facilitated by the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (Skelton <em>et al</em>. 2001) that connects different catchments and allows alien fishes to form large populations in the dams.	eng
18476	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Some populations fall within formally protected areas such as Addo Elephant National Park and the Groendal Nature Reserve, however, the protection affored by these areas is ineffective against invasion from alien fish species.	eng
18476	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Tributaries of the Sundays and Swartkops River systems. It is not known whether the Baakens population still survives and whether it belongs to this taxon (Swartz 2005).	eng
18476	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	They prefer clear to slightly discoloured mountain streams, especially pools in slow flowing reaches.	eng
18476	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Several populations still survive in the Sundays River system in tributaries draining the Suurberg Mountains and there are at least one healthy population in the Swartkops River system. Not much is known of population trends, but it seems as if many of the streams in the Sundays River system has periods of severe drought during which the number of mature individuals may fluctuate and parasite loads increase severely in stagnant pools.	eng
18476	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien invasive fish species, especially <em>Micropterus</em> species have severely reduced the range of this taxon (Skelton 1993). The impact of other alien fish species on this taxon is not well documented or understood.	eng
18477	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No conservation actions are in place for this species, mainly because it has not been perceived as threatened in the past. However, the rapid loss of range to <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> in the Gamtoos River system is of concern and there are already reports of this alien species being placed in farm dams in the Gourits River system. Urgent conservation actions are need to prevent the introduction and spread of this alien fish species.	eng
18477	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Prefers mainstream areas of the Gamtoos and Gourits River systems but also occurs in lower reaches of tributary streams in the latter river system (Skelton 2001, Swartz 2005).	eng
18477	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	The species prefers mainstream areas with high mineral content that may be slightly turbid.	eng
18477	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	This species has recently (since 1998) experienced a major reduction in population size in the Groot River of the Gamtoos River system due to <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>. This species also occurs widely in the Gourits River system.	eng
18477	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Mainstream areas are under threat due to increasing impacts downstream of agricultural activities and excessive water extraction. However, the main threat to this species seems to be <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>. This alien has caused the recent rapid decline of this species in the Gamtoos River system (since 1998).	eng
18478	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No specific conservation actions are planned for this taxon.	eng
18478	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Endemic to the Gourits River system (Swartz 2005).	eng
18478	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Occurs in clear tributary streams of the Gourits River system (Skelton 2001).	eng
18478	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No information is available on population trends, but several populations are large and secure against invasion by alien fish species.	eng
18478	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien invasive fish species such as <em>Micropterus punctulatus, Micropterus dolomieu, Micropterus salmoides, Labeobarbus aeneus, Oncorhynchus mykiss</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> can have a devastating impact on populations of this taxon.	eng
18479	conservation	Chen, X.-Y., 2008	This species is already being suggested as a provincial key protected animal in 2003. Beginning  in 2003, a GEF/The World Bank funded project was established in Kunming, Yunnan  to conserve and try to restore the aquatic biodiversity of Lake Dianchi. A  thrice-yearly survey and monitoring of the aquatic biodiversity, including <em>P.  medianalis</em> has been implemented since spring of 2004. An <em>ex-situ</em>  conservation effort of a small flock will be conducted soon. Some individuals  will be moved into fish ponds of a breeding center and cultured. When hatchlings  grow up to certain size being suitable for surviving in wild, some juveniles  will be released back to their original habitats. By public awareness works of  the project since the pilot project in 1999, local people already understood the  rarity of <em>P. medianalis</em> and its major habitat, and the springs have been  finely protected. Several springs were recommended to be local reserve areas by  the assessor to the local government.	eng
18479	distribution	Chen, X.-Y., 2008	This species is endemic to the Dianchi basin and its effluent, Zhangjiu River.  Historically, it occurred through out Lake Dianchi basin including in the lake  body (where it had once been very common fish in Lake Dianchi prior to the  mid-20<sup>th</sup> century), streams and headwater springs. But since the 1970’s it has  become absent from the lake, and now is only known to occur in two springs  (White Dragon Spring (24°52"36.7'N, 102°51"47.7'E, 1,921 m above sea level) and  Longwangtan Spring (24°32"31.5'N, 102°40"22.4'E, 1,932 m above sea level)) and  an effluent river (Zhangjiu River) on east bank of the lake. However the springs  may be connected by small underground karst rivers. The species may also occur  in some other rivers and resevoirs around the lake that have not yet been  investigated.	eng
18479	habitat	Chen, X.-Y., 2008	At present, the relic populations of <em>P. medianalis</em> mainly exists in  spring pools and the stream from the spring to the lake. The water of one of the  springs is approximately 3 m in maximum depth, clear to the bottom, warm and  stable, 22.2-22.8°C (annual average 22.4 ± 0.2°C), pH 7.58-7.81 (annual average  7.72 ± 0.08) 6.5 and there is good macrophytes beds in dominance of <em>Hydrilla  verticillata</em> and curly leaf pondweed, <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>. Two other  species of endemic fish, a Cyprinidae fish, <em>Sinocyclocheilus grahami</em> and  a Balitoridae fish, <em>Yunnanilus discoloris</em>, and at least three species of  introduced cyprinid fish, Common carp, <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>, Crucian carp,  <em>Carrasius auratus auratus</em> and Grass carp, <em>Ctenopharyngodon idella</em>  occur sympatrically with <em>P. medianalis</em> in this spring. It is a cryptic  benthic fish and prefers to hide under rocks and macrophytes beds at day time,  and moves around at night and feeds on small fishes and aquatic invertebrates,  such as insects, worms and molluscs.	eng
18479	population	Chen, X.-Y., 2008	No information.	eng
18479	threats	Chen, X.-Y., 2008	Habitat loss is the critical threat to <em>P. medianalis</em>, including the  pollution of water and soil which decreased aquatic macrophytes, and the  utilization of springs as fishery ponds. Since 1958, the fries of ‘‘the four  cultured carps’’, Black carp, <em>Mylopharyngodon piceus</em>, Grass carp, Silver  carp, <em>Hypophthalmichthys molitrix</em> and Big head carp,  <em>Hypophthalmichthys nobilis</em> have been introduced into the lake (He <em>et  al</em>. 1983, Gao <em>et al</em>. 1990) and over-released grass carp by local  fishery department heavily grazed macrophytes in the lake. Overfishing is a  threat to those individuals living in springs and streams; competition and  predation from the introduced fishes may become a threat as well.	eng
18492	conservation	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	Many of the known inland Western Ringtail Possum populations in the inland Perup area occur in national forest, and are outside areas marked for logging. Some of these populations are the subject of a research project quantifying threats to the species (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is listed as Vulnerable by Australian government. <br/><br/>The Western Ringtail species has been the subject of translocation programs in an attempt to mitigate the effects of habitat loss (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008). In a recent review, de Tores <em>et al.</em> (2004) noted that success of translocated populations has not been demonstrated at any of the release sites, and that the primary release site (Leschenault Peninsula Conservation Park) has suffered a population decline. This review also found that effective monitoring of the response of the species to fox control programs is lacking outside of a few select translocations sites. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include: implementation a monitoring program at sites selected to represent the range of habitats used by the Western Ringtail in order to assess possum population changes and responses to fox control and the impacts of other management practices; establishment of a effective monitoring program at translocation sites; identification of sites of high conservation value to the Western Ringtail; conservation of Western Ringtails in public lands managed by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia); minimizing impacts of land developments; education and liaison with towns with or near to Western Ringtail populations (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
18492	distribution	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	The Western Ringtail Possum has a restricted distribution in south-western Western Australia; it is found along the coast from south of Bunbury to Waychinicup National Park (near Albany) and in suitable habitat inland, most notably at Perup Nature Reserve and surrounding State forest near Manjimup (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; de Tores 2008). It was recently recorded in stands of Peppermint near the Harvey River and in Jarrah/Marri forest near Collie (north-east of Bunbury); however, the long term persistence of the species in these areas is not confirmed (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004). The Western Ringtail was formerly more widespread: in the 1970s it was known from Casuarina woodlands in the wheatbelt near Pingelly (south-east of Perth), and it is thought to have once occurred throughout much of south-western Western Australia (but not necessarily continuously distributed) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; de Tores 2008).	eng
18492	habitat	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	The Western Ringtail Possum is associated with Peppermint (<em>Agonis flexuosa</em>). Along the coast, it is found in Peppermint forest and woodland and in Tuart (<em>Eucalyptus gomphocephala</em>) forest, typically with a Peppermint mid-story. Inland it is found in Jarrah (<em>E. marginata</em>), Wandoo (<em>E. wandoo</em>), and Marri (<em>Corymbia calophylla</em>) forest (de Tores 2008).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and arboreal. It is a folivore; its preferred food is Peppermint foliage, or if that is unavailable, myrtaceous species. Reproduction occurs year-round. The greatest number of young are born in late autumn and winter; the least number of young are born in late summer. Litter size ranges from 1 to 3 young, and is most commonly 1. At approximately 3 months age, the young emerge permanently from the pouch. Female young generally remain in the home range of their mothers, while male young disperse from their mother’s range when they are about 7 months old (at weight of 600 - 700 grams). The individual home range of this species varies in size, with larger sizes occurring in low density populations. This species has been recorded to live more than six years (de Tores 2008).<br/><br/>There is thought to be some degree of competition and/or habitat partitioning with the Common Brushtail where the two species co-occur, but the extent and effect of this competition is not clear. However, there is negligible competition for nesting sites, as the Western Ringtail makes dreys (built of vegetation), rather than using treeholes as does the Common Brushtail. The dreys are normally found in the mid- to upper- canopy, but can occur lower to ground (de Tores 2008).	eng
18492	population	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	Common in suitable habitat (de Tores 2008). The highest densities of this species were recorded in Peppermint habitat near Busselton area; relatively high densities were found in Jarrah/Marri forest at Perup (de Tores 2008). However, populations in coastal habitat (the majority of its range) are thought to be declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation.	eng
18492	threats	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	Coastal populations of the Western Ringtail Possum are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation associated with urban development (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008). Inland populations are threatened by habitat modification, and also timber harvesting. Predation by introduced foxes (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) is also a major threat to this species. In areas where fox populations are controlled, predation by python (<em>Morelia spilota imbricate</em>) and by introduced cats is a major threat. Populations also may be threatened by increasing fire intensities, and by burning operations associated with logging and clearing (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2004; de Tores 2008).	eng
18502	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Recommended actions include (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): monitor distribution and abundance; conduct research on population dynamics and habitat utilisation. Most of its range is within World Heritage Protected areas.	eng
18502	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It occurs from 50 km south of Ingham, to 120 km north-west of Cairns (Mt. Windsor Tableland), Queensland, Australia. Its area of occupancy has declined through clearing of rainforest, especially on the Atherton Tableland (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
18502	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species lives in cool rainforests at elevations above 300 m, often associated with figs (which form a large part of its diet) and in disturbed habitats. It does not use tree hollows (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is able to tolerate some degree of habitat fragmentation, and can cross linear barriers on the ground.	eng
18502	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a common species and varies in density across its range.	eng
18502	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
18503	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The species occurs in a couple of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.	eng
18503	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is known from disjunct localities in the mountains of northern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the mountains of Yapen island (Indonesia). It has not be found along the Eidenburg River. All of these mountain ranges have a history that is different from the Central Cordillera. The major part of its range is on the Vogelkop Peninsula, Indonesia. Field surveys for this species are needed in the Foja Mountains and the mountains west of the Mamberamo region. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 1,900 m asl.	eng
18503	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from lower and upper montane primary tropical forests. In the Arfak Mountains, on the Vogelkop Peninsula, it is restricted to secondary forests, possibly being displaced by <em>Pseudochirops coronatus</em>. It is a strictly folivorous species. It possibly has a high reproductive rate; females have been caught with a single young.	eng
18503	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is locally abundant in some areas, and is more common than other ringtail species.	eng
18503	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is generally threatened by hunting for food by local people, and additionally by habitat loss in the northern coastal part of its range through conversion of forest to cultivated land.	eng
18504	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
18504	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species ranges widely throughout the Central Cordillera and Huon Peninsula of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 900 and 2,900 m asl.	eng
18504	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in montane mature tropical forest. It is possible that it occurs in areas of secondary forest that are not in use by people. It is very docile and easily captured. Females have been reported with a single young.	eng
18504	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is widespread but often rare. It is reasonably common in the Telefomin area of Papua New Guinea.	eng
18504	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by local hunting for food, and possibly also by habitat loss through conversion of forest to rural gardens and cultivated land. It is generally susceptible to loss of primary forest.	eng
18505	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18505	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is widespread in the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded between 1,500 and 3,996 m asl.	eng
18505	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in montane and upper montane primary forests. It is also abundant in subalpine grasslands, and is sometimes found in secondary forests and at the edges of rural gardens. The females give birth to a single young.	eng
18505	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
18505	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Its numbers are adversely affected in parts of its range by overhunting for food by local people.	eng
18507	conservation	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Lorentz National Park. The impact of hunting on this species needs to be studied and the species should be closely monitored. It could rapidly become threatened if either human encroachment or hunting were to increase significantly.	eng
18507	distribution	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution in the western Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Papua province, Indonesia). It is known from four localities west of the Star mountains. It has been recorded from near to sea level to around 2,200 m asl.	eng
18507	habitat	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It is found in hill and montane tropical forest. The ecology of this species is poorly known. It has a narrow diet.	eng
18507	population	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It appears to be patchily distributed within its range.	eng
18507	threats	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. However, this species is hunted for food by local people and habitat disturbance is increasing within its range.	eng
18508	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Recommended actions include (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996): monitor distribution and abundance; conduct research on population dynamics and habitat utilisation. Its range is mostly within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.	eng
18508	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species occurs in three known populations between Cairns and Cape Tribulation, in Far North Queensland, Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The three populations are Mount Carbine Tablelands, Mount Windsor Tablelands, and the Thornton Peak Massif. It occurs above 420 m asl.	eng
18508	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species inhabits cool, wet rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest with rainforest understorey, in both primary and secondary forests (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
18508	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
18508	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species; its habitat is secure. Most of the species' habitat is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and threats from large-scale clearing or selective logging no longer apply.	eng
18509	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Most of its range is within protected areas. Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for this species include: establish connectivity of the now isolated Herberton Range/Hugh Nelson Range population with the main population by reforestation; ensure continuity of habitat in the Mulgrave and North Johnstone catchments is maintained and even enhanced; reclaim the rural landscape of the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands as suitable habitat through reforestation on private land to establish a connectivity network of rainforest corridors and patches; determine possible genetic demes within the presently continuous population of the main Atherton Unit population which may have resulted from population fragmentation as a result of climatic changes since the height of the last glacial period c. 18,000 years before the present; continue studies on socio-ecology, habitat requirements and effects of disturbance on the species.	eng
18509	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is known from the Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia. A smaller population occurs in the Mt. Lee block of rainforest, isolated from the main population by the Herbert River gorge. About 23% of rainforest has been cleared from the Atherton Tableland, isolating the Herberton Range/Hugh Nelson Range population. In a fragmented rainforest, the ringtail disappears from patches of habitat less than 20-30 ha in area (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
18509	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species occurs in rainforest above 350 m in elevation (Winter and Moore 2008). There have been records of the species in wet sclerophyll forest adjacent to rainforest, however, it is unlikely that self-sustaining populations exist in eucalypt forest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
18509	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a common species (Winter and Moore 2008).	eng
18509	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Now that most of the ringtail's habitat is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, threats from large-scale clearing or selective logging no longer apply. Short-term local extinctions in the fragmented rural landscape of the Atherton and Evelyn Tablelands is a threat. Longer-term genetic changes may take place in larger populations now isolated by clearing. Climate change is a potential threat that is likely to diminish its habitat in the future (Winter and Moore 2008).	eng
18514	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
18517	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a large proportion of its range coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
18517	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to occur in South Africa, from the lower slopes of the Drakensberg mountains, to Giant's Castle mountain peak in KwaZulu-Natal, and in the Golden Gate National Park in Free State. This species is found between an altitude of 1,500 and 2,500 m above sea level.	eng
18517	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found on mountain slopes and prefers scattered boulders in open grassland.	eng
18517	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
18517	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
18533	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, and possible threats to these taxa.	eng
18533	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species complex is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it ranges from the Mount Wilhelm area in the west to the Wau area in the east, and also in the Milne Bay region of the south-east. <br/><br/>True <em>P. murinus</em> is found between 2,100 and 3,400 m asl, and occurs from Mount Wilhelm to the Wau area. One of the new species that will be split occurs in the Milne Bay area (the only one in the south-east) at 600 to 1,500 m asl. There is another species to be spilt that occurs sympatrically with <em>P. murinus</em> at 2,400 to 3,400 m, and a species from the single site at Mount Sisa occurring from 800 to 850 m asl.	eng
18533	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	Presumably it is a tropical montane forest animal.	eng
18533	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It appears to be common at some localities.	eng
18533	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is widely distributed with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.	eng
18534	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and threats to these taxa.	eng
18534	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known from apparently separate subpopulations on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). The western subpopulation recorded from around Lake Habemma and the slopes of Mount Wilhelmina in Papua Province, Indonesia, and the eastern subpopulation on the Star Mountains (Lake Louise area) and Victor Emmanual Range, Papua New Guinea. It is possible (perhaps even probable) that the species occurs along the intervening mountain ranges. It has been recorded between 2,800 and 3,600 m asl.<br/><br/>There is an undescribed murid from the Star Mountains (Telefomin) which has been confused with this species, but this is a different species.	eng
18534	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from upper montane forest edge habitats in the Star Mountains (Flannery 1995).	eng
18534	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It appears to be common at some localities.	eng
18534	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Animals are somewhat vulnerable to predation by feral dogs. Increased fires as a result of the effects of future global warming may be a future threat.	eng
18535	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	There is no formal legislation for its protection in China because when the national protection list was established, this species was considered to be <em>P. nayaur</em> and placed in Class II (although Smith and Xie 2008 show it as listed under Class II). Since dwarf blue sheep was recognized as a separate species, a concerted effort has been made by scientists temporarily working in the area to educate local hunters. The species does receive protection from local people in Baiyu (Sichuan) because of their religious beliefs (Cai <em>et al</em>., 1990). Conservation measures proposed: l) Re-assess its taxonomic status. 2) If it proves to be a separate species, dwarf blue sheep should be raised to a Class I species in the national protection list. 3) Protected areas need to be established. Reserves at Batang, or in adjacent areas where the population is still relatively abundant, have been suggested (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990). 4) At the same time, surveys are essential to determine status and total distribution throughout its suspected range. <br/><br/>In 1995, a prefectural reserve covering 142.4 km² (which was enlarged to about 300 km² in 2007) around Zhubalong was established for the protection of this species (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).  However, many human activities such as mushroom gathering, livestock grazing, and illegal hunting continue to occur in the core zone and thus threaten the populations here (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).	eng
18535	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is found in China (Upper Yangtze Gorge in west Sichuan and adjacent parts of Tibet and north Yunnan) (Grubb, 2005). Recently, populations have been reported from Deqin county, northwestern Yunnan (Wen Xiao, Dali University, unpublished data, 2007). Its primary range is in a narrow area along the Jinshajiang Valley, which forms part of the upper reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtse) river. Specimens have been collected from Batang (Sichuan), and Baiyu, to the north of Batang (Cai <em>et al</em>., 1990). Local hunters claim it is found in Derong (south-western Sichuan), in Deqin (north-western Yunnan), and in Markam (eastern Xizang); areas that are all to the west and south of Batang (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang 2003).  Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) doubted the presence of  dwarf blue sheep in Baiyu County (believing these animals to be blue sheep, as well as the reports of dwarf blue sheep from Markam (in eastern Tibet; Wang and Wang 2003). The status of dwarf blue sheep in Deqin County, Yunnan is in some dispute, and requires more investigation.	eng
18535	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	Dwarf blue sheep inhabit rugged valley terrain along the Yangtze River valley. They live among very steep rocky slopes between 2,700-3,200 m; occasionally range into conifer forest and forest clearings.  Blue Sheep may live in same region at higher altitudes (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000; Wang and Wang 2003; Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). This valley habitat is dry with sparse vegetation cover; common species include grasses (<em>Cymbopogon distans</em> and <em>Themeda hooderi</em>), low shrubs (<em>Berberis</em> spp., <em>Rosa</em> spp., <em>Cotoneaster</em> spp., <em>Cladrastis</em> spp., <em>Ephedra</em> spp., and <em>Rhododendron</em> spp.), and clubmoss (<em>Selaginella sanguinolenta</em>) (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000). <em>P. schaeferi</em> is isolated from the alpine habitat of <em>P. nayaur</em> by a belt of oak forest, in which they have not been documented to enter (Groves, 1978; Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000). Diet consists of grasses, low shrubs, club moss and lichens. They feed and rest alternately throughout the day on the grassy slopes of mountains. Group sizes were formerly 10-36 animals, but now usually less than 15, or even fewer as a result of over-hunting and competition with livestock. Males sometimes form all male groups or sometimes mix with females and young. The largest herd reported by locals was 25 animals, although this was seen in the 1950s (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).  These same locals also stated that herd size has been declining since then - due primarily to hunting and competing with livestock, but also due to habitat loss.  Contrary to Schäfer's original reports (1937), neither Wu <em>et al</em>. (1990) nor Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000) ever observed solitary individuals. Population densities range between 0.5-1.0 individuals per square kilometer (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang, 2003). <br/><br/>These sheep are known to consume more than twenty species of plants (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990); according to the observations made by Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000), they feed primarily on grasses (e.g., <em>Pennisetum flaccidum</em> and <em>Setarica glauca</em>), though other plants like club moss (<em>Selaginella sanguinolenta</em>) are also eaten.  Predators include wolf (<em>Canis lupus</em>), dhole (<em>Cuon alpinus</em>), leopard (<em>Panthera pardus</em>), and large raptors (Wang <em>et al</em>., 2000).<br/><br/>Usually single young (rarely twins) are born in May or June after a gestation of 160 days. Young are weaned within six months and reach maturity at 1.5 years. Males may take seven years to reach full size (Wang and Hu 2004).	eng
18535	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	Hu (1998) believed there were approximately 7,000 individuals in the mid-1990s, although this seems difficult to square with the reports of only a few hundred by Wang <em>et al</em>. (2000). Local hunters report that the numbers of this species have fallen drastically; previously observed group size ranges of 10 to 36 have dropped to three to eight animals in recent years. Density estimates of only 0.5 to 1.0 sheep/km² also suggest low numbers (Wu <em>et al</em>., 1990; Wang and Wang 2003). Smith and Xie (2008) also repeated concerns of a drastic decline in numbers.	eng
18535	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	Hunting is a major threat to these animals, and if effective protection measures are not adopted quickly, the taxon will disappear in the near future. Humans and/or their livestock are present throughout the range of this species. Over-hunting is a serious threat, as is habitat degradation (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
18536	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	In China, <em>Pseudois nayaur</em> are present within a number of large protected areas the Chang Tang Nature Reserve (Schaller and Gu, 1994), Medoq, Qomolangma and Zayu Reserves (Tibet); the Arjin Mountain Reserve (Achuff and Petocz, 1988; Butler <em>et al</em>. 1986; Gu 1990) and Taxkorgan Reserve (Schaller, 1977; Xinjiang); Kekexili and Sanjiangyuan Nature Reserves in Qinghai; and Yanchiwan and Qilian Nature Reserves (western Gansu). Some of these protected areas truly limit human disturbance, some have been demarcated where human disturbance was already quite low (generally because inhospitable climate makes production for human purposes marginal at best); other protected area exist on paper only. Of note, however, is that, at least in China, <em>P. nayaur</em> appears able to persist at reasonable densities in the absence of protected areas. <em>P. nayaur</em> is categorized as a Class II protected species under China’s National Wildlife Law of 1988. Hunting of <em>P. nayaur</em> is legal only via permit obtained by provincial wildlife offices; in practice, such permits are provided only for foreign trophy hunters. Thus, hunting of <em>P. nayaur</em> is essentially illegal in China.<br/><br/>In Bhutan, blue sheep are known to occur in Jigme Dorji National Park. Conservation measures proposed by Wollenhaupt <em>et al</em>. (1989a) included, using input from local inhabitants, establishing integrated alpine forest and grassland reserves in high elevation areas where demand for domestic yak grazing is considerable and deforestation and degradation of alpine areas occur (Wollenhaupt, 1989a).<br/><br/>In India, blue sheep occur in several national parks and many other protected areas in northern India (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986, 1991a; Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981, 1983; Green, 1987b; Pandey, in prep.; Singh <em>et al</em>., 1990) including: Jammu and Kashmir - Hemis National Park and Sabu Chukor Wildlife Reserve; Himachal Pradesh - Great Himalayan and Pin Valley National Parks and Chital, Daranghati, Kais, Kanawar, Lippa Asrang, Rakshum, Rupi Bhaba, Sangla Valley (includes previous Rakcha-Chitkul WS), Sechu Tuan Nala, and Tirthan (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries; Uttar Pradesh - Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks, and Govind Pashu Vihar and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries; Sikkim - Khangchendzonga National Park; and their unlikely presence in Namdapha National Park of northeastern Arunachal Pradesh needs to be checked. Conservation measures proposed for India: 1) Establish the proposed Changtang, Gya-Miru, Karakoram, and Lung Nag Wildlife Sanctuaries (Jammu and Kashmir), and the extensions to the Great Himalayan National Park and the proposed Srikhand National Park (Himachal Pradesh). 2) Determine if blue sheep occur along the northern border of Arunachal Pradesh. 3) Make the control of illegal hunting of this species the primary management priority to maintain viable populations under current land use regimes. 4) Monitor changes in livestock grazing practices that could affect competition with blue sheep.<br/><br/>In Nepal, blue sheep are found in Shey-Phoksundo National Park and in the Annapurna Conservation Area. It is the main big game species in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. Conservation measures proposed for Nepal: 1) Maintain the current, closely controlled legal hunting program, and 2) consider a regulated program of sustainable, low-level subsistence hunting by local villagers in some areas. At the same time, 3) steps should be taken to halt or reverse the habitat destruction caused by livestock grazing in the blue sheep’s natural habitat.<br/><br/>Khunjerab National Park contains a large portion of Pakistan’s total population of blue sheep. It occurs in no other protected area. Conservation measures proposed for Pakistan: 1) Extend the boundaries of Khunjerab NP eastwards. 2) Address problems faced by local people whose livelihoods would be affected by this extension. The management plan originally proposed for Khunjerab NP did not do this, but this is necessary before its conservation recommendations can be implemented. The measures taken in the Bar valley project initiated by WWF-Pakistan and similar projects could serve as useful models. 3) Determine what detrimental influences the new road to Shimshal will have in the Park’s modified management plan.	eng
18536	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is found in Bhutan, China (Gansu, Ningxia-Inner Mongolia border, Qinghai, Sichuan, Tibet, southeastern Xinjiang, and northern Yunnan), northern India, northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz 1996), Nepal, and northern Pakistan. Some sources have stated the species exists in Tajikistan (Grubb 2005), but recent evidence for this is lacking.<br/><br/>This taxon remains fairly abundant in most of its principle range among the ranges of the Tibetan Plateau in China (Schaller 1998; Harris 2007). In China, its distribution runs from western Tibet south-western Xinjiang (Schaller 1987) where there are small populations in the mountains bordering the western edge of Aru Co, extending eastwards with in scattered populations throughout the autonomous region. It also occurs in southern Xinjiang, along the Kunlun Mountains and in the Arjin Mountains. It is present in most mountain ranges of western and southern Qinghai into eastern Sichuan and northwester Yunnan, as well as in the Qilian and associated ranges of Gansu. The eastern extent of its current distribution appears to be in the Helan Shan which form the western border of Ningxia Province (with Inner Mongolia). <br/><br/>It is found throughout northern Bhutan above 4,000 to 4,500 m asl. Blue sheep is fairly continuously distributed in the northern Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan regions of India, although the extent of its eastern distribution along the northern border of Arunachal Pradesh is still unknown. It is relatively common in many areas of eastern Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), and in parts of Spiti and the upper Parbati valley in northern Himachal Pradesh (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986; S. Pandey pers. comm.). Blue sheep are known to occur in the Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary and Nanda Devi National Park, and near Badrinath (Uttar Pradesh), on the slopes of the Khangchendzonga massif (Sikkim), and in eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Very recently, blue sheep presence has been confirmed in the northwestern corner of Arunachal Pradesh near its border with Bhutan and China. In Nepal, it is fairly continuously distributed to the north of the Greater Himalaya from the border with India and Tibet in the extreme northwest, eastwards through Dolpo and Mustang to Gorkha district in north-central Nepal. It then re-occurs in Nepal in at least two isolated areas: in Lamobogar, and on the southwestern slopes of Kanchenjunga near the border with Sikkim (India) (Schaller 1977; Wegge 1991). These two are probably connected with more extensive populations across the border in Tibet. <br/><br/>Its main distribution range in Pakistan includes the upper Gujerab valley, the upper Shimshal valley, and the area eastward from Shimshal pass (District Gilgit), including part of Khunjerab NP (Schaller 1976; Roberts 1977; Rasool 1986; Wegge 1988, 1989; G. Tallone, <em>in litt</em>., 1993). Outside these areas there is a single, recent observation of one animal from Khunjerab pass (R. Hess, pers. obs., 1985). Earlier, Roberts (1977) mentioned its occurrence (with proof) around Shigar and the Baltoro glacier (District Baltistan), however, we have no actual information from this area. Roberts’ (1977) source for its occurrence in the Passu valley was a quote from Lydekker (1907) who mentioned “Hunza valley, near Passu”, but possibly meaning the Shimshal valley. David Mallon (pers. obs., <em>in litt</em>.) was unable to confirm the presence of the species in the Passu valley.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) indicates that blue sheep can be found in Tajikistan, but documentation for this is not provided, and recent surveys of the Pamir area have failed to mention find evidence of occurrence in Tajikistan (Magomed <em>et al</em>. 2003, Schaller 2005, or neighboring regions of Taxkorgan County in Xinjiang, China (Schaller 2005) or Afghanistan (Schaller 2003). Maps of the species' distribution can be found in Shackleton (1997) and Schaller (1998).	eng
18536	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	Blue Sheep occupy a variety of habitats across the region. Blue Sheep inhabit open grassy slopes in high mountains from 2,500-5,500 m. They are usually found near cliffs and similar escape cover, but generally avoid entering forested areas (Schaller, 1977; the Helan Shan is a partial exception). This species is often able to maintain locally high densities in habitats otherwise inhospitable to other wild species. Often, these areas are close to (although generally at higher elevations, or in less productive habitats than) domestic livestock. They are very tolerant of environmental extremes from desert mountains in searing heat to windy and cold slopes (Schaller 1998). They feed on grass and alpine herbs and lichens and live in small to rather large herds, alternately resting and feeding on steep grassy slopes of alpine meadows. Sentinels watch out for snow leopards, their primary predator. Breeding season is during December-January, followed by a 160 day gestation. Single lambs (rarely twins) are born in early summer (mid-June in most of the Tibetan Plateau); weaning occurs in six months and young reach maturity 1.5 years.<br/><br/>Blue sheep are active throughout the day, feeding on lichens, herbaceous plants, and mosses. Females gestate for 160 days and give birth to one offspring per pregnancy.  The animals are sexually mature at 1.5 years, though males are not fully sexually active until age 7. They can live 12-15 years, although animals of > 10 are rarely encountered.  Blue sheep generally live in large groups. Males sometimes form all male herds, and sometimes mix with family aggregations. Small groups (e.g., < 5) are sometimes encountered, particularly where topography or vegetation is complex, but more often, blue sheep form larger groups. In Qinghai, groups of 80-100 are common, and occasionally groups of > 300 individuals have been observed.	eng
18536	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	Range-wide population estimates are unavailable. Although not difficult to “count” once encountered, <em>P. nayaur</em> lives almost entirely in steep, mountainous terrain; it is also a relatively small-sized artiodactyl, with coloration that can make it very difficult to see unless observation conditions are excellent. It is probably absent from broad areas devoid of steep topography (e.g., basins). However, this does not necessarily mean populations are fragmented, because it appears to be present in virtually all appropriate mountainous terrain from the Qilian Mountains in the north to the Himalaya in the south.<br/><br/>In western China, <em>P. nayaur</em> was said to be “relatively abundant” (Shackleton 1997, Wang 1998), with various (questionable) local density estimates, and a total population greater than 10,000. The bulk of these 10,000 were an extrapolation for the Arjin Shan Nature Reserve, which is probably an overestimate. However, numerous areas within the current range were not included in this estimate, so the amount of 10,000 within the western portion of the Chinese range is not necessarily out of the question (Schaller 1998 guessed that at least 10,000 inhabited the Chang Tang Nature Reserve in western Tibet). Schaller (1998) cited an estimate by Pu (1993; not seen) of 34,500-49,600 in “western Tibet”, which includes but is larger than the Chang Tang Nature Reserve.<br/><br/>Further east within the Tibetan plateau, Wang (1998) cited a Chinese extrapolation of over 1,200,000 in Qinghai province (of which 267,000 were in “eastern” Qinghai), which is probably a considerable overestimate. Schaller (1998), in discussing the estimate by Pu (1993, see above), noted that it is likely that greater than 20-30% of the entire Chinese population lives east of “western Tibet”. If there are 30,000 – 50,000 in “western Tibet”, there may thus be roughly from 43,000 – 62,500 (using the derivation from Pu 1993), to 200,000 – 400,000 (using extrapolations from Wang 1998) within the entire Chinese portion of the Tibetan Plateau. <br/><br/>In the Helan Shan, Ren <em>et al</em>. (1999) and Lü <em>et al</em>. (2000) estimated roughly 5,000 to 9,000 blue sheep, but their extrapolations were based on non-randomly placed transects. Liu <em>et al</em>. (2005) have continued to monitor this population, which, regardless of methodological problems in estimating its size, is clearly dense and in no danger.<br/><br/>Most extrapolations of population size in China are based on insufficient justification, and should be viewed with caution. However, in marked contrast to other species, field investigations of subjective and anecdotal reports of <em>P. nayaur</em> invariably confirm the presence and general abundance of this species. Thus, although specific figures in Chinese literature may be inaccurate, all evidence suggests that <em>P. nayaur</em> is widespread and relatively abundant within appropriate habitats within Chinese portions of the Tibetan plateau. <br/><br/>Within India, Shackleton (1997) cites an estimate produced by Fox <em>et al</em>. (1991) of “a minimum of 11,000” within Ladakh. In Nepal, Shackleton (1997) reports a “conservative estimate of 10,000 animals”, although Schaller (1998) included a table suggesting 1,947-2,561 in areas counted within Nepal. In Pakistan, Shackleton writes that, “according to written reports [Wegge 1988, Rasool 1990], the species is not as rare as previously thought…the most recent estimates indicated between 2,000 and 2,500 animals in 1992.” No estimate is available for Bhutan.<br/><br/>Taken together, these estimates suggest total population sizes of from roughly 47,000 (almost certainly a very conservative estimate) to 414,000 (probably an overestimate).	eng
18536	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	Competition with livestock has been suggested and probably occurs (Shrestha <em>et al</em>. 2005), but in general, habitat loss due to livestock threat is minor, and <em>P. nayaur</em> can sustain a reasonably large population under current and likely future scenarios with regard to the livestock industry. This is because reasonably large populations of the species can be supported entirely within high elevation, steep, or excessively rough/rocky terrain that is used sparingly if at all by domestic livestock. Livestock does exist near <em>P. nayaur</em> subpopulations, and in specific situations there may be conflicts. However, in general, it appears that even relatively intensive livestock grazing does not prohibit healthy populations of <em>P. nayaur</em>. This is in marked contrast to livestock’s effect on some other wild species.<br/><br/>Because access to <em>Pseudois nayaur</em> habitat is usually difficult and individual body-size is relatively small, market-based poaching for meat appears to be rare, at least in the northern portions of the Tibetan plateau. Locally-based, subsistence poaching has occurred frequently in recent years, and no doubt continues. However, China has recently begun implementing a new policy of confiscating all guns from nomadic pastoralists, and observations during 1998-2002 in Gansu and Qinghai provinces corroborate this (R. Harris pers. obs.). Thus, local herders now have little technology with which to poach <em>P. nayaur</em> for meat. International (“trophy”) hunting for <em>P. nayaur</em> occurs, but only in 4-5 designated areas in China and Nepal (and possibly in Pakistan), and in numbers too small to have substantial population impacts. It seems most likely, therefore, that human use of <em>P. nayaur</em> has been decreasing in recent years.<br/><br/>Recently, an outbreak of sarcoptic mange was reported among <em>P. nayaur</em> in extreme northern Pakistan, and has markedly reduced abundance locally. This may yet be a cause for concern range-wide, but similar reports from elsewhere within the species’ range have not surfaced (Woodford 2003, 2005).<br/><br/>In Bhutan, the species is not in immediate danger and numbers seem to be increasing due to the expansion of grazing areas for domestic yaks. However, heavy grazing by both species is damaging the fragile, high alpine vegetation, so blue sheep population trends may be reversed in the near future. <br/><br/>In India the major threat is localized over-hunting, including that by the army in remote outposts. Within Nepal, although in some areas religious beliefs protect blue sheep from poaching, excessive competition from livestock grazing may cause habitat degradation in much of its natural range. <br/><br/>In Pakistan, limited range and low numbers make blue sheep vulnerable to poaching and habitat loss. When access to the Shimshal valley is opened by construction of a jeep road, the species will most probably come under increased hunting pressure.	eng
18544	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	An area of 75,000 hectares surrounding Popondetta has been declared a National protected area, however, this does not have an IUCN category at present (UNEP-WCMC 2004).  It is not known whether its protection is enforced.	eng
18544	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs within a 50 km radius of Popondetta, eastern Papua New Guinea.  These locations lie within three drainage basins, which cover a total area of 15,928 km².	eng
18544	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. connieae</em> is a pelagic species that is generally found in clear, moderate to fairly rapid flowing streams in both shaded rainforest or sunlit, exposed sections.  The altitudinal range is from about 30-300 m.  It is an egg laying omnivore, that normally congregates in schools.	eng
18544	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species is decreasing in parts, but detailed population figures are not known.	eng
18544	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. connieae</em> is currently threatened by population growth in the town of Popondetta.  The resulting urbanization and increasing agriculture will reduce the suitable habitat available for this species (Jenkins, pers. comm.).  Urbanization, agriculture and logging are all potential sources of water pollution which are likely to negatively impact populations of <em>P. connieae</em>.  <em>P. connieae</em> is also a much sought after species in the aquarium trade, which poses a potential threat.	eng
18549	conservation	Morris, K. & Richards, J., 2008	It is present in Bernier Island Nature Reserve. A recovery plan for the species has been prepared and funded, but needs revision. There are plans to introduce the species to other offshore islands and to establish self-sustaining populations on the Australian mainland (Lee 1995). Dirk Hartog is a potential site for reintroduction. Monitoring is needed on Bernier Island.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/>Pseudomys fieldi praeconis</span> is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
18549	distribution	Morris, K. & Richards, J., 2008	Shark Bay Mouse naturally occurs only on Bernier Island, Shark Bay, Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia, Australia (Morris and Robinson 2008). It was formerly widespread on the Australian mainland, and probably ranged from Exmouth Gulf in the west to Alice Springs in the east (Lee 1995). It was introduced to Doole Island in Exmouth Gulf, but surveys have shown that this population has failed to establish (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). The species was also recently introduced to North West Island (in the Montebello Islands) (A. Burbidge pers. comm.), and reintroduction to Faure Island in 2002 has proven to be successful (J. Richards pers. comm.).	eng
18549	habitat	Morris, K. & Richards, J., 2008	This species is largely found in beach spinifex and <em>Olearia</em> shrubs on coastal sand dunes. It is occasionally found in areas of heathland and mangrove. The species lives within very shallow burrows. Females gives birth to a litter of three or four young after a gestation period of around 28 days (Morris and Robinson 2008).	eng
18549	population	Morris, K. & Richards, J., 2008	It is a rare species (Morris and Robinson 2008). A few hundred individuals exist on Bernier Island, under 200 on Faure Island, and under 1,000 on North West Island. The total population size is less than 2,000 individuals. Populations are increasing, however, due to reintroduction.	eng
18549	threats	Morris, K. & Richards, J., 2008	The causes of the past decline of this species are not known, and it is possible that it was declining prior to European settlement of Australia. It may have declined through subtle climate change, grazing, and trampling of habitat by cattle, or by predation from feral cats (Lee 1995; Morris and Robinson 2008).	eng
18550	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K. & Lunney, D., 2008	The species' range is well represented in protected areas including the Grampians, Alpine, Croajingalong, Namadgi, Kosciuszko, and South East Forests National Parks. Populations also occur in timber production forests. A recovery outline (Lee 1995) and recovery plan (Menkhorst and Broome 2005) for the species have been prepared. Agreements have been made between the Department of Environment and Conservation, New South Wales and Forests, New South Wales to protect key areas of habitat in integrated logging forests in the Eden hinterland and to monitor populations and habitat in logged, burnt, and unlogged areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, and threats to this species are needed (L. Broome pers. comm.).	eng
18550	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from disjunct populations in the state of Victoria, in the Grampians, Otway Ranges (it has not been found here since 1985), the south-eastern Highlands, and coastal East Gippsland. It is also known from two species in the Brindabella Range of the Australian Capital Territory, but it has not been found here since 1987. It is present in south-eastern New South Wales in the Eden hinterland, Kosciuszko National Park and Buccleugh State Forest (Menkhorst and Seebeck 1981; Menkhorst and Broome 2005). This species was formerly widespread in south-eastern New South Wales and in parts of eastern and western Victoria according to subfossil material (Lee 1995). It ranges from close to sea level to 1,800 m asl.	eng
18550	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is found in a range of environments from near sea-level to the sub-alps and in vegetation communities ranging from heath to dry sclerophyll forest and occasionally wetter gullies. Most localities have a diversity of heath and pea species in the ground and shrub vegetation and shelter sites in the form of rocks or woody debris. Seeds and fruits dominate the spring and summer diet, with hypogeal (underground fruiting) fungi being more common in winter (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2003; Ford 2008). Females annually give birth to one or two litters of three or four young (Ford 2008). Where populations are able to achieve high numbers nesting is communal (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is not found in disturbed areas.	eng
18550	population	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K. & Lunney, D., 2008	This is a rare species (Ford 2008). There are less than 2,500 mature individuals left in the wild, and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals. Recent surveys have failed to detect the species in the Otway Ranges, coastal East Gippsland, and the Australian Capitol Territory. Populations at monitored sites in the Grampians, Eastern Highlands, and Eden hinterland appear to be in decline (L. Broome pers. comm.). Evidence from owl pellets suggests that historically this was an abundant species. Subfossil deposits show a small contraction in range at the northern and western edges of its distribution.	eng
18550	threats	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species appears to have rapidly declined in abundance since European settlement of Australia. Threats include changes in the floristic composition of shrub and ground vegetation due to inappropriate fire regimes and possibly the introduced root-rot fungus, <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>, which affects many plant species characteristic of its habitat. The species is significantly preyed upon by introduced foxes, wild dogs, and feral cats. Feral cats in particular have the ability to sit and wait outside burrow entrances and deplete colonies very quickly. Loss and fragmentation of habitat due to land clearing and timber harvesting may contribute to local declines (L. Broome pers. comm.).	eng
18551	conservation	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
18551	distribution	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	This species was endemic to Australia, where it has been reported as living animals, and from subfossil remains, from south-western Western Australia, eastern South Australia, and New South Wales (Dixon 2008).	eng
18551	habitat	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It is a poorly known species. Animals are reported to have preferred sandhills and plains, and to make burrows under bushes in loose soil (Dixon 2008).	eng
18551	population	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	It is believed to be extinct. It was last collected in 1856-1857 on the Blandowski Expedition to the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers (Dixon 2008). Survey work in the region has not rediscovered the species.	eng
18551	threats	Baillie, J.E.M., 2008	The reasons for the decline of this species are unclear, but may be related to predation from introduced feral cats.	eng
18552	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to maintain patches of habitat at the appropriate stage of succession. There is an Action Statement in Victoria outlining a recovery plan for this species in the state. There is a need for systematic research into this species.	eng
18552	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	New Holland Mouse is endemic to Australia where it is patchily distributed in southern Victoria, eastern New South Wales, extreme southern Queensland, Flinders Island, and north-eastern Tasmania (Kemper and Wilson 2008). The population in Anglesea, Victoria has shown to be distinct from other populations. This species has been recorded from sea level up to around 900 m asl.	eng
18552	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is found in dry heathland and open forest habitats in coastal areas, and dry sandstone areas further inland. Within these habitats it prefers successional vegetation (often following a year or two after a burn) with a sandy substrate, a layer of leguminous perennials and sparse ground cover (Kemper and Wilson 2008). The females give birth to between two and six young after 32 days (Kemper and Wilson 2008).	eng
18552	population	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is common within its limited habitat in New South Wales (Kemper and Wilson 2008), although populations here are known to fluctuate. It is rare in Tasmania and Queensland, and is very patchily distributed in Victoria in small localities.	eng
18552	threats	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	The species may be threatened by permanent clearing of habitat, urbanisation, and changes in fire regime (Kemper and Wilson 2008). In Victoria the populations are now very fragmented and prone to extinction.	eng
18553	conservation	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	It is restricted to the protected areas of Anderson Lake, Dragon Rocks, Bendering, Harris, Lake Grace, North Kalgarin, Rock View and Tarin Rock Nature Reserves, Fitzgerald River National Park and Ravensthorpe Range, Stirling Range National Park, Lake Magenta Nature Reserve (Lee 1995), as well as Dunn Rock Nature Reserve (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). A recovery plan for this species has been prepared, but needs revision. Monitoring of populations is needed.	eng
18553	distribution	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is restricted mainly to protected areas in southern Western Australia, Australia (Lee 1995; Whisson 2008).	eng
18553	habitat	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in dry shrubland, mallee, and woodland that has not been burnt for at least 15 to 50 years, which contain patches of dense understorey 0.5 to 2.5 meters high, generally on sandy clay soils with a laterite component (Lee 1995; Whisson 2008). The species has also been found to nest communally with up to 10 individuals found in a single burrow (Whisson 2008).	eng
18553	population	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	It is sparsely distributed within its limited range. Populations vary from year to year depending on the seasonal variations, but, within areas of suitable habitat within these nature reserves, they can be found at densities between one to seven individuals per hectare (L. Whisson pers. comm.).	eng
18553	threats	Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & Friend, T., 2008	This species appears to have been in decline before European settlement in Australia. Loss of habitat was a threat in the past due to clearing of land, and remaining populations are now restricted to small fragments (increasing their vulnerability). Populations are frequently found in or near nature reserves of less than 1,000 hectares (L. Whisson pers. comm.). Changes to the fire regime are a factor as the species needs a long interval between fires. Feral cats and foxes have been a threat in the past, and continue to be so (L. Whisson pers. comm.). Weed invasion is currently a threat, and probably will be in the future (L. Whisson pers. comm.).	eng
18554	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	It has been recorded from Barrington Tops National Park, Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, Werrikimbe National Park, Blicks River Flora Reserve, and Edwards Plain Flora Reserve (Lee 1995). A recovery outline for this species has been prepared (Lee 1995). Further studies into the distribution, ecology, population, and threats (e.g., grazing and impacts of fire) to this species are needed. There is a need to control potential introduced predators.	eng
18554	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from Mount Royal, New South Wales in the south to Warwick, Queensland in the north (Lee 1995). It has a narrow elevational range, from 300 to 1,250 m asl, but usually between 500 and 600 m asl (Townley 2008).	eng
18554	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is found in open forests and woodland, with a range of ground covers that includes sedges (Lee 1995). It shelters in logs or behind rocks. It can be found in logged forest. It is absent from many areas containing what looks to be suitable habitat, and tends to be found in areas with a high diversity of other small mammals (Townley 2008). Females give birth to up to four young, and may give birth to as many as three litters in a season (Townley 2008).	eng
18554	population	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species was previously common according to subfossil records. It is now a rare species with a disjunct distribution. Its population is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals, no subpopulation is estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals, and there is an ongoing decline in the population.	eng
18554	threats	Menkhorst, P., Dickman, C., Denny, M., Aplin, K., Lunney, D. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is likely threatened by ongoing cattle grazing and associated burning of suitable habitat. Logging damages the ground cover initially, which is a threat to the species, but the recovering forest can be suitable habitat. It is also preyed upon by introduced foxes and cats.	eng
18555	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is present in the Pilliga Nature Reserve and the Pilliga State Forest. A recovery plan was prepared but never published. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, ecology, and threats to this apparently hybrid species.	eng
18555	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is known only from the Pilliga Scrub region of New South Wales, Australia (Lee 1995; Fox 1995).	eng
18555	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Ellis, M., 2008	This little-known species is restricted to the Pilliga Scrub which consists of mixed open woodland, with a sparse understorey of heath on sandy soil and sandstone ridges (Lee 1995; Fox 1995). The female give birth to an average of three young (Fox 1995).	eng
18555	population	Menkhorst, P. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is rare and patchily distributed.	eng
18555	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Ellis, M., 2008	It has a small distribution and is threatened by habitat loss due to logging, mining and changes in fire regimes. It may also be threatened by predation from introduced cats and foxes.	eng
18557	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Morris, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in both Victoria and Western Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and threats to the species. Further research needed to determine whether the species is extant on Kangaroo Island; morphological differences between these individuals and those on the mainland also need to be studied. Prescribed burns in Victoria, as well as targeted fox control are needed. National recovery plan being prepared. Monitoring is needed. If the species declines in Western Australia are confirmed, translocations may be considered.	eng
18557	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to a few sites in south-western Victoria, eastern South Australia, and southern Western Australia (Lee 1995; Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Western Australia, it is present in the Ravensthorpe Range, Fitzgerald River National Park, Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, and Lake Magenta Nature Reserve (Lee 1995). One individual was on Kangaroo Island in 1967; a recent survey in 1990 did not find the species, but it should be noted that the survey was not directed specifically towards this species. In Victoria, the species is found in Grampians National Park, Lower Gleneld National Park, and several reserves. The species was formerly more widespread.	eng
18557	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Morris, K., 2008	In Western Australia, it is most abundant in mallee heath and mixed Banksia scrub on loamy soils that have not been burnt for at least 30 years, but it has been found in areas that were burnt less than 10 years before (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria it is most often found in areas of heaths and heathy woodlands that have been burnt 5-15 years prior (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females annually give birth to one or two litters of three young (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18557	population	Menkhorst, P. & Morris, K., 2008	It is a common species within its limited habitat in Victoria (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Lake Magenta National Park, there are about 4,000 individuals. The species is rare in South Australia and Western Australia (Menkhorst <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is probable that declines have recently occurred and are continuing in Western Australia; there is no evidence of declines in Victoria, but there have also been no recent population studies here.	eng
18557	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Morris, K., 2008	It has declined through historical habitat loss and changes in the fire management regime that prevent a habitat mosaic of differing aged patches of heathland. Changes in fire regime continue to be a significant potential threat. Introduced predators, such as fox, may also have led to the decline of the species and are considered a threat (Lee 1995).	eng
18558	conservation	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
18558	distribution	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is present in south-western Western Australia, including Bernier Island, Dorre Island, and Dirk Hartog Island (Morris 2008).	eng
18558	habitat	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This is a nocturnal species found in areas of low heathland and shrubland on sandy soils (Morris 2008). Females give birth to two to six young after a gestation period of 37 to 38 days (Morris 2008).	eng
18558	population	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a reasonably widespread and common species. Although there have been declines in the past, it is now considered to be stable. Two subspecies are recognized (one on the mainland and another on the islands).	eng
18558	threats	Morris, K., Friend, T. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species at present. It has declined in parts of its range through residential development of coastal areas and conversion of land to agricultural use (Morris 2008). It may be threatened by predation from cats and foxes. Frequent or extensive fires within fragments could be a threat.	eng
18559	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas in both Victoria and South Australia.	eng
18559	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. It is known from very low elevations.	eng
18559	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is found in dry semi-arid heathland with a high diversity of plant species. Animals live in burrows at the base of shrubs (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). In favourable conditions, the females may give birth to successive litters of two to five young (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). It does not live in agricultural areas.	eng
18559	population	Menkhorst, P. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Cockburn and Menkhorst 2008). Its range in South Australia is highly fragmented. Populations of this species fluctuate.	eng
18559	threats	Menkhorst, P. & van Weenen, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Inappropriate fire management adversely affects the species, and introduced cats and foxes can be a threat locally. Populations of this species fluctuate, but this is not seen as a major threat.	eng
18560	conservation	Moseby, K.E. & Kemper, C., 2008	It has been recorded from the Witjira National Park, South Australia; the species is also found in Arid Recovery Reserve and in Mac Clac Reserve. Further information is needed regarding its population trends. It is necessary to include patch dynamics in monitoring of populations for management purposes, and focus on regional populations, as opposed to sites (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most of the known populations of this species occur on pastoral leases, with core populations well away from stock concentration areas, however, current pastoral practices of piping water across previously unwatered country may alter this balance (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
18560	distribution	Moseby, K.E. & Kemper, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs as patchy populations in the western gibber plains of the Lake Eyre Basin from Pernatty Station (south-east of Woomera), to the Finke in the Northern Territory (Lee 1995; Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999)). It was formerly much more widely distributed; for instance, the species is no longer found in the eastern part of the Lake Eyre Basin (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species was last collected in Western Australia and south-east South Australia in 1969, and has not been found since. During periods of drought, it is found only within refugia.	eng
18560	habitat	Moseby, K.E. & Kemper, C., 2008	Historically this species was found in a wider variety of habitats (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Remaining populations are found in gibber or flood plains (especially in cracking clay areas and gilgais) with a hard clay substrate and a cover of low shrubs (Lee 1995; Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999; Brandle and Pavey 2008). Much of the knowledge of the habitat preferences of this species is from its naturally irruptive periods, whereas very little is known about its habitat requirements during dry spells (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and forms shallow burrows in clay. Females give birth to a litter of usually between three or four young after a gestation period of between 30 and 31 days (Brandle and Pavey 2008).	eng
18560	population	Moseby, K.E. & Kemper, C., 2008	This species is patchily distributed, often rare, and is eruptive after rainfall events (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999; Brandle and Pavey 2008). Capture rates suggest that during droughts the population drops to less than 10,000 individuals (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). No recent declines have been observed, however, this is difficult to ascertain in light of the natural population fluctuations of this species (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Still, it is clear that this species experienced severe declines following European settlement (Brandle <em>et al.</em> 1999). Brandle and Moseby (1999) found a population density of 9.842 individuals per hectare in May of 1993 at Dismal Plain, Billa Kalina Station (29 44 47 S, 136 27 33 E), but then were unable to trap any during the winter of 2005.	eng
18560	threats	Moseby, K.E. & Kemper, C., 2008	Degradation of habitat due to overgrazing by sheep and cattle is a major threat because it compacts the earth (and eliminates burrows), decreases resources, and makes the species more exposed to predation (Brandle and Pavey 2008). Populations of this species are fragmented and they fluctuate with rainfall events.	eng
18561	conservation	Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Burbidge, A. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park). Further taxonomic work is needed to determine whether or not <em>P. delicatulus</em> is a species complex.	eng
18561	distribution	Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Burbidge, A. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is present in the area of Morehead Station and Mibini Village in the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea (present in Papua New Guinea only), and it is widespread, but patchily distributed, in northern Australia where it ranges from northern Western Australia to southern Queensland and New South Wales in the east. It is also found on a number of offshore islands including Melville Island, Groote Eylandt, and Fraser Island (all Australia) (Flannery 1995; Ford 2008), as well as Bigge Island, Kimberley, Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
18561	habitat	Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Burbidge, A. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is generally found in sandy, well drained, sparsely grassed open areas (Flannery 1995). The species can survive in degraded, and heavily grazed, savanna woodland (Ford 2008). Reproduction is often resource dependent; females can give birth to several litters of three or four young annually (Ford 2008).	eng
18561	population	Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Burbidge, A. & Pennay, M., 2008	In Australia, it is common but fluctuates (Ford 2008). Populations may increase significantly following grass fires (Ford 2008).	eng
18561	threats	Dickman, C., Aplin, K., Burbidge, A. & Pennay, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
18562	conservation	Read, J. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is present in Uluru National Park and many other protected areas.	eng
18562	distribution	Read, J. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges widely throughout much of the arid central zone and parts of the semi-arid tropics (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species' range extended further south in the past.	eng
18562	habitat	Read, J. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including savanna woodland, shrubland, and grassland, mostly within a zone of rainfall of 500-750 mm (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2004). The presence of dense groundcover of either grasses, sedges, or shrubs is very important (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species can breed throughout the year, and females give birth to an average of three young after a gestation period of 27 to 28 days (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18562	population	Read, J. & Woinarski, J., 2008	The abundance of this species varies greatly in response to levels of rainfall. It can be common after a number of heavy rains (Kerle <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population also changes in response to fires; the species prefers unburnt areas.	eng
18562	threats	Read, J. & Woinarski, J., 2008	Superficially this species appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance, however, new evidence suggests that it is less common in areas that experience fire or grazing (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus it could be threatened by changes in fire regimes and grazing over parts of its range. Introduced grasses might be another threat, especially in Queensland.	eng
18563	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Driessen, M., Broome, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is present in the Kosciuszko National Park, Barrington Tops National Park, Victoria's Alpine National Park, Wilsons Promontory National Park and possibly Great Otway National Park, as well as several other protected areas in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. In Tasmania, <em>M. fuscus</em> is well protected as more than half of its habitat is within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, which incorporates several contiguous national parks (Hocking and Driessen 2000). <br/><br/>Recovery plans are in preparation for the Barrington Tops (DEC 2005) and Kosciuszko populations. Fox control programs have been carried out each winter in the Kosciuszko area since 1999 and Barrington Tops since 2001 and cat control is conducted around ski resorts. Monitoring of <em>M. fuscus</em> populations at Kosciuszko has occurred at one site since 1978, and another seven sites (with and without fox control) since 1999, and at Barrington Tops since 2002. Pig and weed control is also carried out at Barrington Tops and feral horse removal and predator proof fencing is being considered. Further research is needed on the population status and range of this species, especially in Victoria and Tasmania. Other research priorities include:  ecology, genetics, the ability to repopulate vacant habitat patches, impacts and control measure for feral animals, competition with Rattus species and research leading to reliable population viability, habitat, and climate change models.	eng
18563	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Driessen, M., Broome, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed on the mainland in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, in Barrington Tops, New South Wales, and in the Eastern Highlands, Victorian Alps, Otway Ranges, and Wilsons Promontory in Victoria. It also occurs in western Tasmania. It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,200 m asl (Driessen 2002; Green and Osborne 2003; Happold 2008; L. Broome pers. comm.).	eng
18563	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Driessen, M., Broome, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in alpine and subalpine heathland, in clearings in wet sclerophyll forests and in wet sedgelands along streams. Primary requirements appear to be high rainfall and a cool climate, some form of cover in the form of boulders, shrubs or grass tussocks and access to grasses that form the major part of its diet. Leaves of shrubs, seeds, fungi, and bark are also eaten. Females give birth to probably two litters per season of between one and four young after a gestation period of about five weeks (Happold 2008).	eng
18563	population	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Driessen, M., Broome, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	In general, it is not a common species and is patchily distributed throughout its range. In the alpine areas of Victoria and New South Wales it can be locally common, but still patchily distributed. It has not been recorded in the Otway Ranges for the last 30 years, and it has declined in large parts of its range. The isolated population at Barrington Tops is listed as an endangered population under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (New South Wales). There has been a significant decline (>50% of the previous 13 year average) in the Mount Kosciuszko area since 1999 likely due to low snow cover and early snow melt (K. Green pers. comm.), which may cause low survival due to low temperatures and higher levels of predation by foxes and in some areas cats. This was exacerbated by bush fires in January 2003 that burned approximately 70% of the alpine area where the species occurs. Recent population trends in Victoria are unknown. There has been no formal monitoring of populations in Tasmania, apart from a 12-year survey at Lake St. Clair (M. Driessen pers. comm.).	eng
18563	threats	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Driessen, M., Broome, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is generally restricted by the sparseness of suitable habitat, and is threatened by predation from introduced foxes (Bubela and Happold 1993; Green 2002) and cats (L. Broome pers. comm.). Bushfires are also a threat as well as habitat destruction and modification by feral horses, rabbits, hares, pigs, and ski resort developments in some parts of its range (L. Broome pers. comm.). Introduced weeds (e.g., broom Cytisus species and an exotic grass <em>Holcus lanatus</em>) are invading habitat at Barrington Tops and willow Salix species is a threat in alpine Victoria. The root rot fungus <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em> is causing dieback of heath in some areas. In Tasmania, inappropriate fire regimes are a potential threat to the species (Hocking and Driessen 2000). The recent introduction of foxes in Tasmania could be a major threat. Foxes have been shown to selectively prey on this species (Green 2002). Marginalisation of habitat due to drought and increased fire frequency and loss of protective snow cover in winter with subsequent increased predation in alpine areas is predicted to occur with global warming. This may also increase competition with native Rattus species (<em>R. lutreolus</em>, <em>R. fuscipes</em>) that co-occur in the habitat.	eng
18564	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
18564	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species was formerly found in Queensland and northern New South Wales in Australia (Dickman 2008).	eng
18564	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.	eng
18564	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	It is presumed extinct. The species is known only from three specimens, two from Queensland, one from Cryon in northern New South Wales (Dickman 2008). The last record is from 1956. Surveys at Cryon in the early 1990s did not find this species (Dickman 2008).	eng
18564	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	It probably went extinct due to a combination of habitat loss and predation, but this is unknown.	eng
18565	conservation	Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is present in protected areas. Range losses in the southern part of its distribution suggest that close monitoring of the species' overall status is required.	eng
18565	distribution	Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has a patchy range along the eastern coast from northern Queensland in the north to eastern New South Wales. There is an outlying population in Jervis Bay, New South Wales. This species was perhaps formerly more widely distributed.	eng
18565	habitat	Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	It has been recorded from open woodland and eucalypt forest, often with a grassy understorey, wet heathland, and swampy areas. It is largely associated with newly regenerating heath vegetation (Fox 2008). The female annually gives birth to up to three litters of between one and five young (usually three), after a gestation period of around 27 days (Fox 2008).	eng
18565	population	Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	The distribution of this species is patchy, but it is common (Fox 2008). It apparently reaches its highest densities in heath 2-4 years after fire. They have declined in some parts of their range, such as in the Sydney area.	eng
18565	threats	Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although loss of habitat due to intensive grazing, inappropriate fire regimes (especially as these remove the grassy understorey), and predation by dogs and cats may cause localized declines.	eng
18566	conservation	Kemper, C. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in some protected areas.	eng
18566	distribution	Kemper, C. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the central and western parts of the country (Breed 2008). It is present on some offshore islands in Western Australia, including Dirk Hartog, Dixon, Rosemary, and Hope off the Pilbara (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It has long been suspected to occur in Queensland, but this has only been recently confirmed; some misidentified species have been reassigned as <em>Pseudomys hermannsburgensis</em>, and it is now frequently captured in south-west Queensland (Kutt <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
18566	habitat	Kemper, C. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a nocturnal species, found in a variety of arid habitats from sand dunes to hummock and tussock grasslands (Breed 2008). Animals spend the day in burrows. Females generally give birth to three or four young (Breed 2008).	eng
18566	population	Kemper, C. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a common species. Populations fluctuate with rainfall (Breed 2008).	eng
18566	threats	Kemper, C. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
18567	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is present in many protected areas, including the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. This species should be monitored to determine the effects of recently introduced foxes on populations.	eng
18567	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is now endemic to the islands of Tasmania and Bruny (Australia) (Driessen 2008). It was previously known from the east coast of mainland Australia. It was thought to have declined on the mainland in the Pleistocene, but recent research has shown that it was present here until about 200 years ago. It occurs across all elevations in Tasmania, from sea level to around 1,600 m asl.	eng
18567	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is reaches its highest densities in subalpine rocky screes and boulder fields (Driessen 2008). It can also be found in southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> spp.) temperate moist forest, and may be found in wet schlerophyll forest and deep fern gullies. Females annually give birth to one or two litters, of three or four young (Driessen 2008).	eng
18567	population	Menkhorst, P. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a common species (Driessen 2008).	eng
18567	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present, although the recent introduction of foxes to Tasmania may cause problems in the future.	eng
18568	conservation	Aplin, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is present in many protected areas, including: Gregory National Park, Purnululu National Park, Camooweal Caves National Park, Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve, Mitchell River National Park, Davenport Range National Park, and Lawn Hill National Park. Further taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of <em>P. laborifex</em>.	eng
18568	distribution	Aplin, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This recently-described species is widely distributed in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Mount Isa (Queensland) regions of northern Australia where it is found on rocky ridges (Kerle and Ford 2008). In the Northern Territory, it is known from the Davenport and Murchison Ranges. It has also been recorded in owl pellet material from Peaker Piker Pocket in the Mittiebah Range, and pebble mounds constructed by this species have been found near Helen Springs and Nicholson Block (Lee 1995; F. Ford pers. comm.).	eng
18568	habitat	Aplin, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats including plateaus with open woodland, wooded valleys, and spinifex grassland. It is associated with pebble-covered ridges and plains with pebble mounds and grasses, and a sparse to dense shrubby understorey. This species lives in burrows and forms mounds of pebbles close to one of the entrances (Kerle and Ford 2008).	eng
18568	population	Aplin, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	In the past, it appeared to be an uncommon species. However, it is now considered to be more common as new populations are still being located throughout its range. Although populations of this species are naturally fragmented on rocky sites, it is reasonably common in suitable habitats (F. Ford pers. comm.). The species is found within low, stable populations with little fluctuation in numbers.	eng
18568	threats	Aplin, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There are no data on declines. Feral cats are probably not a major threat due to its habitat.	eng
18570	conservation	Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is present in some protected areas (including Potter Island and Sholl Island). More research needed on threats to this species on the mainland, fire ecology, and population dynamics.	eng
18570	distribution	Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is restricted mainly to northern Australia ranging from Barrow Island (Western Australia) eastwards to the islands of the Sir Edward Pellew Group in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory (Robinson and Cooper 2008). Native populations were recently discovered on Potter Island and Sholl Island, both of which are nature reserves. It was formerly far more widely distributed in eastern Western Australia, but has now been extirpated from central and southern Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). However, the species is still common in parts of the Kimberley mainland, it has not been extirpated from this area (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
18570	habitat	Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is found in grasslands, and eucalypt on sandy volcanic and lateritic soils (Robinson and Cooper 2008). Females give birth to between three and five young (usually three), after a gestation period of around 22 to 24 days (Robinson and Cooper 2008).	eng
18570	population	Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It seems to be a widespread, but generally sparse species. Fewer individuals were found during recent surveys in the Kimberley (K. Morris and A. Burbidge pers. comm.), though it is still common in parts of the Kimberley mainland (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
18570	threats	Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. Changes in fire regime are a potential threat as are changes from perennial to annual grasses, and grazing.	eng
18571	conservation	Burnett, S. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in a large number of conservation areas, including the follow national parks: White Mountains, Peak Range, Carnarvon, Expedition, Minnerva Hills, Blackdown Tableland, Moorrinya, Homevale, and Blackbraes. Further studies are needed into possible threats to this species.	eng
18571	distribution	Burnett, S. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in a broad semi-circle in eastern Queensland from Paluma and Charters Towers west to Burra Range and Clermont, and south-east to Springsure and Gympie (Menkhorst 2001; Ford and Johnson 2007).	eng
18571	habitat	Burnett, S. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in rocky and scrubby areas, preferring hills or ridges with dry open woodlands and a grass-dominated understorey. The species builds mounds of pebbles under which the animals construct burrows to live in, and it is therefore confined to areas with small pebbles (Ford and Johnson 2007; Ford 2008).	eng
18571	population	Burnett, S. & Aplin, K., 2008	Its distribution is patchy, scattered in small populations, and poorly known.	eng
18571	threats	Burnett, S. & Aplin, K., 2008	The major threats to this species are poorly understood. This species is likely susceptible to predation by introduced foxes, cats, and dogs. It was previously thought that intense fire may be a threat to this species because it destroys available food resources and would result in population declines. However, it was recently found that fire has no effect on this species (F. Ford, manuscript in review).	eng
18579	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Appendix II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
18579	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to part of the Peloponnese and Aitolo-Akarnania and Lefkas Island.	eng
18579	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A small size fish well adapted to unstable conditions. It has a high resilience and can quickly re-establish depleted sub-populations.	eng
18579	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Safe, although some subpopulations are probably locally extinct, notably on the islands.	eng
18579	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution.	eng
18581	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place for this species, apart from its habitat being protected when it occurs in national parks and state forests. The causes of the recent declines need to be identified.	eng
18581	distribution		This Australian endemic is found from the south-east corner of Queensland, along the east coast of New South Wales, and into central Victoria and South Australia (including Kangaroo Island), from 20-1,000m asl.	eng
18581	habitat		This species is found in dry forest, woodland, shrubland and grassland, and shelters under leaf-litter and other debris in moist soaks and depressions. Calling is from February to August and frogs have been noted calling in temperatures of only 4°C. Between 70 and 200 large eggs are deposited terrestrially on damp leaf mould, in shallow nests or under stones and logs near water, and these hatch after rain floods the area and provides pools for larvae. Metamorphosis takes three to seven months.	eng
18581	population		It was considered to be the most common and widespread member of its genus, but populations have appeared to decline in some areas in recent years.	eng
18581	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to transport infrastructure development and agriculture (including cultivation of crops and livestock rearing). Increasing water salinity is also a problem. However, the specific reasons for the many declines are not known.	eng
18582	conservation		Research is currently being undertaken to examine the potential role of captive husbandry in aiding the recovery of small populations through direct manipulation of recruitment to the terrestrial development stage (Hunter <em>et al.</em> 1999). The range of the species includes Kosciusko National Park. Since 2001, Melbourne Zoo has raised/maintained tadpoles and frogs as part of the national recovery program. After the devastating bushfires of 2002/2003, all eggs were removed from the wild to increase the intensity of the captive-breeding program.	eng
18582	distribution		Prior to the detailed survey undertaken by Osborne (1989), there were museum records of <em>P. corroboree</em> from only seven locations, all in the Snowy Mountains of southeastern New South Wales, Australia (Guthega, Smiggin Holes, Happy Jacks Plain, Round Mt., Alpine Hut, Pretty Plain and Tooma Swamp). Osborne (1989) subsequently recorded the species at most of these sites (although was unable to find the species near Guthega and Alpine Hut) in a survey that included 257 potential breeding sites, recording the species at 63 locations. The extent of occurrence of the species was reported to be about 400km² in a relatively narrow band between 1,240 and 1,710m asl (Osborne 1989). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) surveyed 170 potentially suitable breeding sites across the known historical range of the species and detected <em>P. corroboree</em> still inhabiting 63 sites during the period 1995-1998. However, in this survey only a single individual was found in the southernmost extent of the former range, few extant populations were found along the entire eastern edge of the former distribution and only a single individual was found at low-altitude sites near Tooma Dam in the northern Snowy Mountains. In the central region of the former distribution the species was only located at 21 sites with the numbers at each site being critically low. This represents an extensive collapse of the population in this region.	eng
18582	habitat		The Corroboree Frog is a habitat specialist, restricted to montane and sub-alpine woodlands, heathland and grassland above about 1,000m asl. Breeding sites are associated with shallow pools, fens, seepages, wet grassland, and wet heaths. Non-breeding habitat occurs in forest, woodland and heath adjacent to breeding sites. It breeds in shallow pools or seepages. Osborne (1990b) summarised the main features of their reproductive ecology (after Pengilley 1966, 1971, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.). Field measurements (Pengilley 1973) suggest that the species reaches sexual maturity at three years of age (i.e., one year as an embryo/tadpole and two years as a juvenile/sub-adult), which is consistent with observations of captive-reared individuals (Osborne 1990b). It is unlikely that many adults survive for more than one breeding season (Osborne 1990b). Breeding occurs from January to February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.) and 16-40 eggs (Pengilley 1973) of ovum diameter 3.1-3.6mm (capsule diameter 6.0-10.0mm W.S. Osborne unpubl.) are deposited terrestrially (Pengilley 1966; W. Osborne unpubl.). Tadpoles develop within the egg capsule and hatching occurs when high ground-water levels after rain cause the nest to become flooded (Osborne 1990b). Hatching occurs at four to six months (W.S. Osborne unpubl.) and the tadpole development period is six to eight months (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.). Metamorphosis occurs between December and early February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W.S. Osborne unpubl.).	eng
18582	population		The population size in the wild is now believed to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.	eng
18582	threats		The Corroboree Frog is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibian species that have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species that stands out as a feature in common, and that might help explain the declines (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). <em>Pseudophryne pengilleyi</em> is still widespread and abundant at lower altitudes (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long-term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Chytrid fungus has recently been detected in museum specimens of the Corroboree Frog by R. Speare, although the level of virulence in wild populations is unknown (W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). Planting of exotic trees, such as Willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), has been widespread in the Snowy Mountains (Osborne 1990b). Although no breeding sites are directly threatened by willow invasion, in the longer-term the spread of willows by vegetative growth along seepages and streams might present a problem for the management of some sites (Osborne 1990b). Excavation by feral pigs has also been identified as a potentially threatening process (Osborne 1990b; W.S. Osborne pers. comm.). The bushfires of 2002/2003 destroyed over 90% of the species' habitat.	eng
18583	conservation		Most of the range of the species occurs in conservation reserves, but these are under human pressure.	eng
18583	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in Hawkesbury Sandstone region from the Royal National Park in the south, to Gosford and Newcastle in the north. It occurs between 10 and 1,000m asl.	eng
18583	habitat		This species is a Sydney sandstone specialist, around the Hawkesbury region. It prefers heath woodland and hides in sandstone rock crevices where water seepages have eroded a labyrinth of caverns and tunnels. It is a spring and summer breeder, and a terrestrial egg layer with decreased clutch size (about 20) and increased egg size. Males have been observed tending the nest. Rainfall releases the tadpoles from the nests into ephemeral pools and tadpoles take 1-3 months to develop. Females can lay multiple clutches in a year.	eng
18583	population		It is often found in colonies of 20-30 individuals. Populations at the edge of the range are known to be decreasing and are being adversely affected by urbanization and human-mediated disturbances. Historically, it was found at 471 sites, but in 1998 there were only 56 extant breeding sites.	eng
18583	threats		The entire population is centred around an area of intense human development. Intensified fire regimes, hydrological changes, and increased pollution levels (at edges and wherever human development encroaches into more core areas) are major threats, while the collection of rocks from its habitat, the spread of invasive weeds, and low recruitment rate (about 1% of each clutch survives to metamorphosis) pose additional threats.	eng
18596	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES<br/><br/>This is a relatively poorly-known species which, although mostly observed over deep water, is known to strand from many coasts. Abundance estimates as well as by-catch data do not exist for most areas, nor are there detailed accounts on migratory behaviour. Clearly, more research is needed.	eng
18596	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is a relatively poorly-known species which, although mostly observed over deep water, is known to strand from many coasts. Abundance estimates as well as by-catch data do not exist for most areas, nor are there detailed accounts on migratory behaviour. Clearly, more research is needed.	eng
18596	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	False killer whales are found in tropical to warm temperate zones, generally in relatively deep, offshore waters of all three major oceans. In addition to deep, oceanic areas, they do sometimes occur over the continental shelf and appear to move into very shallow waters on occasion.  They do not generally range poleward of about 50° in either hemisphere. However, some animals occasionally move into higher latitude waters.  They are found in many semi-enclosed seas and bays (including the Sea of Japan, Bohai/Yellow Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf), but they only occasionally occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Leatherwood <em>et al.</em> 1989).  There are a few records for the Baltic Sea, which are considered extralimital.	eng
18596	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	False killer whales are found in tropical to warm temperate zones, generally in relatively deep, offshore waters of all three major oceans. They do not generally range into latitudes higher than 50° in either hemisphere. However, some animals occasionally move into higher latitude waters. They are found in many semi-enclosed seas and bays (including the Sea of Japan, Bohai/Yellow Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf), but they only occasionally occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are a few records for the Baltic Sea, which are considered extralimital. There are also records of false killer whales being found far into large rivers in China.	eng
18596	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	As is the case for most of the tropical oceanic delphinids, this species is rather poorly-known (see Baird 2002).  This species is considered to be extremely social.  Groups of 10-60 are typical, though much larger groups are known.  Some groups are very tight-knit, while others may be spread over a kilometer or more of ocean. <br/><br/>This is one of the most common species involved in cetacean mass strandings, and in one case, over 800 stranded together.  The false killer whale is a lively, fast-swimming cetacean, and occasionally rides bow waves of vessels.  False killer whales are known to behave aggressively toward other small cetaceans, and have even been seen chasing and attacking dolphins (in particular, dolphins just released from tuna purse seines) and some large whales.<br/><br/>False killer whales occur in tropical and temperate waters worldwide (Stacey <em>et al.</em> 1994, Odell and McClune 1999), generally in relatively deep, offshore waters. However, some animals may move into shallow and  higher latitude waters, on occasion (including some semi-enclosed seas such as the Red Sea and the Mediterranean). It seems to prefer warmer water temperatures. Although false killer whales eat primarily fish and cephalopods, they also have been known to attack small cetaceans, humpback whales, and sperm whales.  They eat some large species of fish, such as mahi-mahi (also called dorado or dolphinfish), tunas (see Alonso <em>et al.</em> 1999) and sailfish.	eng
18596	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	False killer whales occur in tropical and temperate waters worldwide (Stacey <em>et al</em>. 1994; Odell and McClune 1999), generally in relatively deep, offshore waters. However, some animals may move into shallow and higher latitude waters, on occasion (including some semi-enclosed seas such as the Red Sea and the Mediterranean). The species seems to prefer warmer water temperatures. Off Hawaii, this species is found in both shallow (less than 200 m) and deep water (greater than 2000 m) habitats (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Although false killer whales eat primarily fish and cephalopods, they also have been known to attack small cetaceans, humpback whales, and sperm whales. They eat some large species of fish, such as mahi-mahi (also called dorado or dolphinfish), tunas (Alonso <em>et al</em>. 1999) and sailfish. In Hawaiian waters observational studies suggest that large game fish (mahi-mahi, tunas, billfish) may form the majority of their diet (Baird <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
18596	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Studies on population structure in this species indicate both broad-scale (between-ocean) limits on gene flow (e.g., Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990), and limited gene flow on smaller (within-ocean) scales (Chivers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Abundance has been estimated for the coastal waters of China and Japan (16,000, CV=26%; Miyashita 1993), the northern Gulf of Mexico (1,038, CV = 71%; Mullin and Fulling 2004), and the U.S. EEZ of Hawaii (268, CV=108%; Barlow 2006). Abundance in the eastern tropical Pacific has been estimated as 39,800, CV=64%; Wade and Gerrodette 1993). There is no information on global trends in abundance.	eng
18596	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are few estimates of abundance, and none for the global population size. Abundance estimates, even for large oceanic regions such as the eastern tropical Pacific, are only in the low tens of thousands (39,800, CV=64%: Wade and Gerrodette 1993). There is no information on population trends.	eng
18596	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although there is considerable controversy regarding the absolute level of declines, there is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations of false killer whales are unknown but could result in population declines.<br/><br/>False killer whales are occasionally taken in Japan for food and in St. Vincent in the Caribbean for meat and cooking oil (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Odell and McClune, 1999). Considerable numbers of false killer whales may have also been killed in a past drive fishery in the Penghu Islands of Taiwan. Their interactions with fisheries, particularly their tendency to remove desired target species from longlines and sport fishing gear, have made them the targets of culling efforts. Around Iki Island, Japan, over 900 false killer whales were killed in drive fisheries from 1965 to 1980 in an attempt to reduce interactions with the yellowtail fishery (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Odell and McClune, 1999). They continue to be taken opportunistically in Japanese harpoon and drive fisheries (Kishiro and Kasuya 1993). They are also hunted at least opportunistically in Indonesia, Taiwan and the West Indies. Some of the animals caught in the Japanese and Taiwanese drive fisheries have been kept alive and sold to oceanaria (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Incidental takes of small numbers of false killer whales in gill nets has occurred off northern Australia, the Andaman Islands, the southern coasts of Brazil and in tuna purse seines in the eastern tropical Pacific. Dolphin entrapment in tuna purse seine nets may be providing artificial feeding opportunities for <em>Pseudorca</em> on other marine mammals (Odell and McClune, 1999). Although there have not been any records of false killer whale being killed in the large-mesh pelagic driftnets off eastern Taiwan, some are likely to be caught. Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported on by-catch rates in Chinese coastal fisheries (trawl, gill and stow net), which may number in the hundreds per year for <em>P. crassidens</em> alone. False killer whales are occasionally hooked in longline fisheries, presumably as they are removing fish from the hooks. Death has been observed as a result of some hookings (Forney 2006). Many of the other hookings are inside the mouth or gullet and are likely to result in the subsequent death of the animals (Forney and Kobayashi 2005). Other types of non-lethal injuries may also occur (Baird and Gorgone 2005). Such longline fisheries are found throughout the central and western tropical Pacific, and similar interactions with false killer whales occur in other regions (e.g. Mediterranean, Bearzi 2002). Observer programs to monitor bycatch are limited.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk<br/><br/>This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect false killer whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
18596	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Potential threats include decline in prey base, incidental mortality in fishing gear, and noise pollution.	eng
18597	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Robichaud, W.G., Long, B., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R., Abramov, A., Do Tuoc & Mallon, D.P., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and both of its range countries are CITES signatories. It is protected by national law in Viet Nam (Decree 48; IB) and in Lao PDR (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Regulation 360).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR Saola are probably still found in Nakai-Nam Theun and Xe Xap National Protected Areas, and in Nam Chat-Nam Pan Provincial Protected Area.  However, only Nakai-Nam Theun has active, well-funded management. Saola occur in several forest blocks outside protected areas - in fact, its range in Lao PDR outside protected areas may be nearly as large as its range within, and perhaps larger. In Viet Nam it is probably found in Vu Quang and Pu Mat National Parks; Pu Huong, Phong Dien and Dak Rong Nature Reserves and the proposed Bac Huong Hoa Nature Reserve. A new protected area for the species has been proposed in Thua-Thien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces.<br/><br/>The highest priority areas for conservation are: 1). Southern Thua -Thien Hue-northern Quang Nam Provinces, Viet Nam (and adjacent areas of Lao PDR). 2). Eastern Bolikhamxay Province (e.g., Nam Chat-Nam Pan Provincial Protected Area), Lao PDR. 3). Transborder area of Khammouan and Savanakhet Provinces, Lao PDR and Quang Binh and Quang Tri Provinces, Viet Nam.4). Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area, Lao PDR and adjacent forests in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Two editions of a conservation action plan for the species in Lao PDR have been written (Robichaud 1997, 1999), but permission for implementation has not been granted by the Lao government. Recommendations from a 2004 Saola workshop held in Viet Nam (Hardcastle <em>et al</em>. 2004) included updating and implementing the 1999 Lao Action Plan and preparation of a comprehensive Saola Conservation Action Plan for Viet Nam. The latter has now been drafted.<br/><br/>Highest, immediate priorities for both countries are increased patrolling against snaring and other types of hunting.	eng
18597	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Robichaud, W.G., Long, B., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R., Abramov, A., Do Tuoc & Mallon, D.P., 2008	This species occurs only in the Annamite Mountains of Viet Nam and the Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) (Grubb 2005). Most records are from south of the Song Ca River in Viet Nam, although a population to the north has also been found (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994, Kemp <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, records come from as far west as central Bolikhamxay Province. Suitable habitat is, or was, probably more abundant in Viet Nam than in Lao PDR, but Viet Nam's much higher human population density has severely reduced both habitat and Saola numbers in the habitat that remains. In Lao PDR there is evidence of occurrence in Bolikhamxay, Khammouan, Savannakhet and Xekong Provinces; it probably also occurs in southern Xieng Khouang Province. In Viet Nam there is evidence of occurrence in Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua-Thien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces. It is suspected to occur in less than 15 forest blocks in the two countries.<br/><br/>The species' altitudinal range is 200 to 1,200 m.	eng
18597	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Robichaud, W.G., Long, B., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R., Abramov, A., Do Tuoc & Mallon, D.P., 2008	The species occurs in the northern and central Ammanites, in climatically wet evergreen forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2004), and is present only in forest blocks over approximately 25 square kilometers (R. Timmins pers. comm.2006). The habitat preference appears to be highly specific, namely evergreen forests with little or no dry season. Saola have been found in high quality, dense forest. Whether or not it can inhabit other types of wet forest is not known. It may  associate with areas close to forested streams (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1993). Thus, many areas within the presumed range in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam are not suitable due to the predominance of forests with pronounced dry seasons, limestone forests, etc.<br/><br/>The altitude range of the Saola is uncertain. While it seems to be a mid-low elevation species, most of the forest below 400 m within its presumed range has been lost and a high proportion of the remaining forest is over 1,000 m. There is no indication that the species occurs above 1,200 m.<br/><br/>Information from villagers in its range indicates that Saola are mainly solitary, although there are some reports of groups of two or three animals, and rarely groups as large as six or seven (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species is possibly territorial, and might mark territory with scent from its large maxillary gland.<br/><br/>Single foetus pregnancy has been documented. Information from local villagers suggests this to be the norm (Robichaud 1998). Saola may have a fixed breeding season with births occurring in the summer.<br/><br/>Captive Saola exhibited primarily diurnal, or diurnal and crepuscular, activity; however, it is not known if this is typical under natural conditions (Robichaud 1998). Local reports suggest Saola is a browser, feeding mostly on leaves (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
18597	population	Timmins, R.J., Robichaud, W.G., Long, B., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R., Abramov, A., Do Tuoc & Mallon, D.P., 2008	The area of forest remaining in the known historical range of the Saola is 5,000 to 15,000 sq. km, but much of this range is probably no longer inhabited by the species. The number of Saola subpopulations - defined as those in non-contiguous blocks of habitat - is probably in the order of 6 to 15, and none likely number more than 50 animals. Consequently, total Saola population is undoubtedly less than 750, but is likely much less.<br/><br/>No formal surveys have been undertaken to estimate Saola numbers accurately (Tham Ngoc Diep <em>et al</em>. 2004). Accurate population estimates would be exceedingly difficult to obtain due to the secretive nature of the taxon, the difficulty in making direct observations in dense forest habitat - a difficulty compounded by the species' rarity - the rugged terrain, and the remoteness of much of its habitat. Furthermore, one of the two range governments, Lao PDR, has often withheld permission to conduct detailed studies of the species in its territory. Nonetheless, it is known that subpopulations are small, highly localised, and isolated.<br/><br/>To date, scientists have categorically documented Saola in the wild on only four occasions. In fact, there is not yet a  reliable method for detecting the species other than direct observation or camera trapping. Incidences of either of these encounters are extremely rare. The first photograph of a Saola in the wild was taken in 1998 from a camera trap set near a mineral spring in Pu Mat National Park, Viet Nam (Whitfield 1998). A few months later the species was camera-trapped in Lao PDR, in Bolikhamxay Province (Robichaud 1999). The only other potentially reliable method of detection is through genetic analysis of feces.<br/><br/>The paucity of data on Saola is itself an indication of its critically small population. Though populations of other ungulates in the Saola's range are severely depressed, they are seen far more commonly by local inhabitants than is the Saola. Recorded sightings of these ungulates occur at a frequency often two orders of magnitude higher than for the Saola. Documented villager sightings of Saola in the past decade don't number in the thousands or hundreds, but in the tens. In contrast, sightings by villagers of muntjacs, pigs and even Sambar are so common that researchers generally don't quantify them.<br/><br/>Analysis of hunter interviews conducted in In Pu Mat National Park, Viet Nam in 1998 and 1999 estimated that about 18 Saola survived in the Khe Bong area in the southeast of the reserve and about eight in the Khe Chat and Khe Choang areas in the center. In 2003, research suggested that these numbers had been reduced by about 50% over the intervening five years, despite the best efforts of the forest authorities and other responsible agencies (Weir and Dinh Van Cuong 2004).<br/><br/>Speculative population estimates of 70 to 700 in Lao PDR and several hundred in Viet Nam were provided in the IUCN Antelope Action Plan (Mallon and Eames 2001, Timmins 2001). Subsequent surveys in Lao PDR indicated that the current population there is likely near the country's low estimate, i.e., fewer than 100 remaining (Robichaud and Timmins, 2004). It is unlikely that Saola's total global population is greater than the low hundreds at most (i.e., fewer than 250 mature individuals). Such a total estimate was made in the 1990s, based on the known range and reports from hunters (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1993, Schaller and Rabinowitz 1995). The situation has deteriorated considerably since then. The surviving population is highly dispersed and its fragmentation is worsening. Saola numbers may be so low that no viable populations remain.<br/><br/>There are no Saola known in captivity.	eng
18597	threats	Timmins, R.J., Robichaud, W.G., Long, B., Hedges, S., Steinmetz, R., Abramov, A., Do Tuoc & Mallon, D.P., 2008	While tropical forests have inherently low ungulate biomass, natural Saola densities are probably even lower than other sympatric ungulates such as wild pigs, Sambar, and muntjacs. This is due in part to the presumed lower reproductive output, solitary nature, and likely larger territory and/or home range of the Saola as compared to some of these other ungulates. It is clear that Saola populations must also be unnaturally depressed, as populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in its range have been significantly reduced by human exploitation. Field survey encounter rates with muntjacs and pigs in the Saola's range are remarkably low compared to other areas in Asia, and wild cattle, elephants, and tigers are all nearing extinction in its range (e.g., Duckworth and Hedges 1998). Even typically resilient species such as Sambar are scarce. The declines are corroborated by local villagers across the area, who consistently report major reductions from former abundances.<br/><br/>The greatest threat to Saola is hunting. While wildlife in the Saola's range are most threatened by the traditional medicine trade, specific demand for Saola is almost non-existent as the species is unknown in the traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia. Instead, the animal is snared incidentally in the intense, general pursuit of other species for the medicine and bushmeat trade.<br/><br/>Local subsistence hunting also takes a toll. Saola may be particularly susceptible to being hunted with dogs (Robichaud 1998). The intensity of hunting in the Saola's range is hard to adequately describe, but some figures hint at the enormity of the problem. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 70 million, that of China more than a billion. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein).<br/><br/>The bushmeat trade is more localized, but it is estimated that eight million Viet Namese, i.e., eight million people with the propensity to eat wildlife, live within 100 km of forest inhabited by Saola. It is unlikely that any Saola occur more than 35 km from a village. The pressure from proximal human settlements is so intense that there are no longer core areas in the Saola's range not regularly reached by hunters. Every square kilometre of Viet Namese and Lao forest within Saola range probably has snares capable of capturing Saola set in it every year. Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per square kilometre per year.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction is also a threat to the Saola, forests in their range being cleared for small-scale agricultural use, timber extractions, roads, and hydropower development. However, there continues to be more Saola habitat than there are Saola.<br/><br/>Presumably, the generation time of Saola is greater than three years, and reproductive output is lower than that of muntjacs, Southern Serow or Sambar, putting Saola at a conservation disadvantage. Additionally, pigs, Southern Serow, muntjacs and Sambar retain significant population reservoirs in areas of lower hunting pressure, such as difficult to reach areas of habitats such as dry evergreen forest that are not amenable to Saola. The absence of Saola from such habitats is either an indication of a greatly accelerated rate of decline as compared with other species or an ecological intolerance, neither of which bodes well for the species.<br/><br/>Finally, the bushmeat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted, but Saola will become extinct long before these more common species are hunted out. In Viet Nam, informal interviews with hunters in Pu Huong Nature Reserve revealed that 30 Saola were killed there between 1995 and 2003 (Hoang Xuan Quang and Cat Tien Trung 2004). In some local villages in Viet Nam, hunters used to kill three individuals per year 10 years ago, but now rarely catch any (Do Tuoc, Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Most hunted specimens have been killed in winter (at least in Viet Nam), when Saola are in more accessible lowland habitats (Dung <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR, but there the majority of Saola range lies along the Viet Nam border, and is heavily poached by Viet Namese, and/or coincides with the distribution of the ethnic Hmong in Lao PDR, who avidly and effectively hunt a wide range of wildlife, including Saola. These forests are as nearly devoid of large mammals as forests in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Economic development and expanding wealth in the region are likely increasing rather than decreasing the demand for wildlife medicines and bushmeat. Development projects in the region commonly cite poverty as a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but the main threat in the Saola's range, at least for the mid-term, is increasing wealth in its range countries and in China. Wealth, not poverty, is the principal driver of the wildlife trade.<br/><br/>The recent construction through the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam of the Ho Chi Minh Road, parallel to and with branches to the Lao border, is a severe and probably unmitigatable new threat. It directly affects Saola subpopulations by forest fragmentation and increased human access for hunting and forest clearance in several critical areas.<br/><br/>Saola have proved difficult (thus far impossible) to maintain in captivity (Robichaud 1998). Approximately 20 Saola, at least, have been captured in Viet Nam and Lao PDR, and all died shortly afterwards, with exception of two released back into the wild (Stone 2006).<br/><br/>Protected area management has been largely ineffective in the Saola's range and existing and new protected areas offer little hope for conservation of the species. Protected areas have proved particularly impotent in the control of poaching or as a mechanism to safeguard areas from economic development. Protected areas in the region are commonly the site of hydropower projects, road construction, and mining. As yet there has been no demonstration of effective anti-hunting measures in any area in the range of Saola, nor are any likely to become effective within the next five years, at best.<br/><br/>Although specific trade demand for Saola has been low, it could be increasing as the species grows rarer. In 2000, horns marketed as belonging to the rare Saola were offered for sale in Hanoi, Viet Nam for US$600 (Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Human population growth in the Saola's range is high, both from births and in-migration, which will intensify the  threats to the species.<br/><br/>Efforts to initiate Saola conservation activities in Lao PDR have received little government support, and in some cases have been actively blocked. The reasons for this are not clear, but may be due to fear of slowing logging and hydropower development.<br/><br/>In summary, intense hunting and a multitude of exacerbating pressures on Saola are increasing and evidence indicates that the species, which is naturally uncommon and localized, is in a major decline. The trend is likely to result in the extinction of Saola in the foreseeable future.	eng
18598	conservation	Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18598	distribution	Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in east and central Bolivia, northeast Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Sante Fe; Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, in litt.), and west Paraguay, to east Brazil (Pernambuco) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
18598	habitat	Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This rodent is confined to lowland areas with strong seasonal rainfall characterized by palm savannas and thorn scrub (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is found in humid and dry environments (Carmignotto pers. comm.).	eng
18598	population	Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is uncommon in areas that have been surveyed with high trapping effort (Carmignotto pers. comm.). It may be difficult to catch - or rare.	eng
18598	threats	Percequillo, A., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are no major threats, however, some populations are effected by habitat destruction and fragmentation (Percequillo pers. comm.).	eng
18599	conservation	Mugue, N., 2009	Full survey work is needed to confirm the species is actually extinct.<br/><br/>This fish has been listed in The Red Data Book of Kazakhstan since 1978. Protected areas need to be established in those sites where remnant populations might still exist. Some genomic material has been cryopreserved: live specimens should be collected and propagated in order to preserve more of its genome (Red List of Kazakhstan). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.	eng
18599	distribution	Mugue, N., 2009	The Syr-darya Shovelnose Sturgeon is an endemic of the Syr Darya River, and is found in the middle and lower reaches from the Kara Darya River downstream (Birstein 1997, Red List of Khazakstan 1996).	eng
18599	habitat	Mugue, N., 2009	Little information is available. Adults were benthophagous feeding mostly on midge larvae and spawning took place during late April (Birstein 1997). The generation length for this species is unknown, but it is estimated to be between 8 to 10 years (Chebanov pers. comm.). The species is thought to be able to feed in the Aral sea (historically) but is adapted to live in freshwater (Bemis and Kynard 1997).	eng
18599	population	Mugue, N., 2009	There have been no reports of the species since the 1960s, and it is believed to be probably extinct. Surveys have been undertaken (Kazakhstan fisheries surveys), and though the data is not accessible, it is believed that it has not been recorded since the 1960s.	eng
18599	threats	Mugue, N., 2009	The Aral Sea has shrunk by more than 60% from 1973 to 2000 (NASA 2008) and is now hypersaline, and contains no fishes apart from in a small reservoir in the northeast of the Sea. The Syr Darya River has not reached the sea since 1975 due to large levels of water extraction and damming (Zholdasova 1997). Agricultural pollution has also impacted the quality of the water.	eng
18600	conservation	Mugue, N., 2009	Part of the species' range is within a nature reserve (Amu Darya Nature Reserve). During the carrying out of the recovery plan for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span>, it will be possible to make an estimation of the status of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hermanni</span>. More survey work is needed to determine the status of the population (Birstein 1997). This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.	eng
18600	distribution	Mugue, N., 2009	This species is endemic to the Amu Darya River (middle and lower reaches) (Birstein 1997).	eng
18600	habitat	Mugue, N., 2009	The habitat and ecology of the Small Amu-dar Shovelnose Sturgeon are practically unknown (FAO 2009). Adults are benthophagous, feeding mostly on midge larvae. This species may possibly hybridize with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> (Birstein 1997).	eng
18600	population	Mugue, N., 2009	This species is very rare; in April 1996 three specimens were caught for the first time in the last 15 years (Birstein 1997). However, there are current unconfirmed reports of local fishermen (poachers) catching the species.	eng
18600	threats	Mugue, N., 2009	In the past, the Amu Darya River entered the Aral Sea near the town of Muynak (Amu Darya River delta) but since 1982, due to dams and water extraction (primarily for irrigation), the river has not reached the Sea (Birstein 1997, Zholdasova 1997). There are also high levels of water pollution recorded from the Amu Darya River due to mineral fertilizers, pesticides for cotton agriculture and the disposal of drainage waste, with the highest level of pollution in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, though between 1989-1990 a decrease in pesticide content in the Amu-Darya water was noticed (Zholdasova 1997).<br/><br/>Poaching is a threat to the remaining population.	eng
18601	conservation	Mugue, N., 2009	An aquaculture project is currently being developed (by Moscow Zoo), with the aim of stocking. Part of the species distribution is within the Amu Darya nature reserve. This species was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1998.<br/><br/>There is a critical need to survey the species from both the Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan sides of the river, as more information is needed.	eng
18601	distribution	Mugue, N., 2009	The Large Shovelnose Sturgeon is endemic to the middle reaches of the Amu Darya River. Presently, there are two populations: one in the Vakhsh River (tributary to the Amu Darya), and the second in the middle reaches of the Amu Darya, within a region between the two towns of Kerki and Chardzhou (it is not found below Chardzhou) (Zholdasova 1997, Birstein 1997). <br/><br/>Historically, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> was distributed along the river from the upper reaches (Pyandzh River) to the delta. In the early 1990s, only a few individuals were recorded in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).	eng
18601	habitat	Mugue, N., 2009	According to Birstein (1997) and Zholdasova (1997) the species occurs in the shallow, muddy waters of rivers with fast flowing turbulent current, with sandy or stony-pebble substrate at a depth of 1.0–1.5 m in highly turbulent muddy water. Although it is a freshwater species, the Shovelnose Sturgeon can tolerate some salinity, as it was found in the nearmouth area of the Aral Sea. It feeds mainly on small fish, with insect larvae forming the rest of the diet. Reproduction occurs in late March to early May at a water temperature of 14-16 <sup>o</sup>C. Males become mature at 5-7 years, and females at 6-8 years. Intervals between spawning periods possibly last 4-5 years.&#160; Historically, this species easily hybridized with the other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudoscaphirhynchus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hermanni</span>. <br/><br/>The species generation length is estimated to be 10 years.<br/><br/>The size and weight of individuals in the population has declined. In the past, the maximum size was 75 cm and maximum weight was 2 kg; in 1965-1966, the average body length was 37 cm and the average weight, 241 g; in 1989-1991, length was 23.6 cm on average, and the weight 100.2 g on average (Zholdasova 1997) . <br/><br/>Age structure of the population has also declined. In the 1960s, the majority of individuals were between 3-6 years&#160; (varied from 1+ to 14+) and in the late 1980s, the predominance was of young individuals (1-6 years), particularly 3-year- (36.8%) and 4-year-old individuals (41.6%). The rate of linear growth has also slowed down compared with the 1960s due to a change in diet (proportion of fish in the species diet has declined) (Zholdasova 1997).	eng
18601	population	Mugue, N., 2009	The major part of the Large Shovelnose Sturgeon population was located in the foothill and valley areas of the river, concentrated around the villages of Kerki-Chardzhou-Ildzhik in the upper and middle reaches of the river, where they supported a commercial fishery in the 1930s. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaufmanni</span> was also numerous in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River. In the late 1970s, Large Shovelnose Sturgeon juveniles constituted up to 26% of all young fish in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).<br/><br/>According to Zholdasova (1997), the Large Shovelnose Sturgeon continues to reproduce in the Amu Darya River, however the rate of reproduction of the population is very low. In 1991, only two one-year-old juveniles were collected (along with a single late embryo) in the low reaches of the river; in 1993 three similar-sized individuals were collected in the Ordybai Channel of the Amu Darya River delta and one near the town of Nukus in the Kattyagar irrigation channel. This occurrence of the species in its former habitats (lower reaches of the Amu Darya River) is probably due to a significant volume and stable downstream flow which occurred in 1993, as during the mid-1990s the mean discharge in the Amu Darya River was 3.7 times higher than during the previous decade. Also, there has been a decline in the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the region, mostly due to economic problems (Zholdasova 1997).	eng
18601	threats	Mugue, N., 2009	In the past, the Amu Darya River entered the Aral Sea near the town of Muynak (Amu Darya River delta), but since 1982, due to dams and water extraction (primarily for irrigation), the river has not reached the sea (Birstein 1997, Zholdasova 1997). There are also high levels of water pollution recorded from the Amu Darya River due to mineral fertilizers, pesticides for cotton agriculture and the disposal of drainage waste, with the highest level of pollution in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, though between 1989-1990 a decrease in pesticide content in the Amu Darya water was noticed (Zholdasova 1997). <br/><br/>The Large Shovelnose Sturgeon occurs exclusively in fast-running turbid waters. It is thought that the low levels of water in the Amu Daryr from the middle 1970s until the late 1980s decreased the flow velocity and the size of river beds, preventing migration of Shovelnose Sturgeon from the middle to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River (Zholdasova 1997).	eng
18653	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Paguntalan, L.M.,Cariño, A.B., Ramayla, S., Duya, P., Warguez, D., Alcala, E., Garcia, H., Pamaong, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Lorica, R.P., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
18653	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Paguntalan, L.M.,Cariño, A.B., Ramayla, S., Duya, P., Warguez, D., Alcala, E., Garcia, H., Pamaong, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Lorica, R.P., 2008	The greater musky fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs widely, except in the Batanes/Babuyan and Palawan Faunal Regions. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Caluya, Camiguin, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Batangas, Benguet, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Ilin (Gonzalez), Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Mountain province, Nueva Viscaya, Pampanga, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Sorsogon, Tarlac, and Zambales ), Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Polillo Islands, Samar, Sanga-sanga, Semirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas and Ticao (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2005). Its elevational range is 0-1,950 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2005).	eng
18653	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Paguntalan, L.M.,Cariño, A.B., Ramayla, S., Duya, P., Warguez, D., Alcala, E., Garcia, H., Pamaong, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Lorica, R.P., 2008	This frugivorous tree and cave roosting species which occurs from sea level to at least 1,950 m is abundant in primary forest and common in secondary forest. <em>P. jagor</em>i is occasionally present in agricultural areas near forest and has been found in degraded habitats on Cebu and Negros; elsewhere it has been recorded from urban areas, including the suburbs of Manila and the campus of the University of the Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2008).	eng
18653	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Paguntalan, L.M.,Cariño, A.B., Ramayla, S., Duya, P., Warguez, D., Alcala, E., Garcia, H., Pamaong, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Lorica, R.P., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species with large populations which are generally stable, being most common in lowland forest, uncommon in montane forest, and usually absent in mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Ingle 1992, 1993; Lepiten 1995; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). This was the second most frequently netted species during a 2001 study of three Department of Environment and Natural Resources managed reforestation sites on Siquijor Island (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished paper). In a 2003 mist-net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Ptenochirus jagori</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).	eng
18653	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Paguntalan, L.M.,Cariño, A.B., Ramayla, S., Duya, P., Warguez, D., Alcala, E., Garcia, H., Pamaong, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Lorica, R.P., 2008	This species has no doubt declined due to forest loss, but overall it remains common and is not significantly threatened.	eng
18654	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Warguez, D., Ramayla, S., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Pamaong, R., 2008	<em>P. minor</em> occurs in some protected areas.	eng
18654	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Warguez, D., Ramayla, S., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Pamaong, R., 2008	The lesser musky fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Mindanao faunal region. Records are from Biliran, Bohol (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Bukidnon, Cotabato,  Davao del Sur, and Misamis Occidental provinces, though it probably occurs throughout the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)), and Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006, R. Gomez pers. comm. 2007) (Yoshiyuki 1979; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A record from Palawan (Yoshiyuki 1979) is almost certainly erroneous (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,600 m asl.	eng
18654	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Warguez, D., Ramayla, S., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Pamaong, R., 2008	Found in lowland and montane forest and secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) <em>P. minor</em> does not occur in agricultural or urban areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It apparently coexists at upper elevations with Ptenochirus jagori (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In a 2002 mist net survey on Mount Apo, Mindanao, <em>Ptenochirus minor</em> was uncommon in lower elevation mossy-montane forest that had been subjected to habitat alteration (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished report).	eng
18654	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Warguez, D., Ramayla, S., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Pamaong, R., 2008	It is common in primary lowland and montane forest and sometimes present in mossy forest, and can also be common in lightly degraded secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). It is often misidentified as <em>Ptenochirus jagori</em>.	eng
18654	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Pedregosa, M., Warguez, D., Ramayla, S., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Pamaong, R., 2008	Whilst populations have declined due to destruction of lowland forest habitat, they are still considered to be common and widespread (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Overall, this species has clearly declined because of habitat loss, but it is not significantly threatened, especially as it can adapt to some secondary habitats.	eng
18655	conservation	Helgen, K., Palmeirim, J. & Allison, A., 2008	Not known to be present in any protected areas; it may occur within Ravilevu Nature Reserve. More study needed regarding threats, population size, and to assess its possible presence on Vanua Levu.	eng
18655	distribution	Helgen, K., Palmeirim, J. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is restricted to the summit region of Des Voeux Peak on the island of Taveuni, Fiji.  It has been captured between 1,010 m and 1,190 m asl, on a single mountain on the island of Taveuni. The mountain is called Koroturanga by the Fijians. The range is likely to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Palmeirim pers. comm.). It might also be present at high elevations on the island of Vanua Levu (in the east, on Mt. Delaikoro), although further surveys are needed to confirm its presence (Flannery 1995). Currently only the Taveuni location is recognized.	eng
18655	habitat	Helgen, K., Palmeirim, J. & Allison, A., 2008	It appears to be restricted to mossy tropical forest above 900 m in elevation. There is very little known about the biology of this species. The bat weighs about 250 grams.	eng
18655	population	Helgen, K., Palmeirim, J. & Allison, A., 2008	Few specimens have been captured. Population size unknown, but is found in a very restricted range. Likely a few hundred individuals (under 1,000).	eng
18655	threats	Helgen, K., Palmeirim, J. & Allison, A., 2008	This species seems to have a very restricted range and appears to be restricted to a specific habitat type. It is not known if there are any threats to the species at present, although there is a continuing decline in habitat on Taveuni.	eng
18656	conservation	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S., Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining populations of this rare species.	eng
18656	distribution	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S., Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and Choiseul (Solomon Islands) (Parnaby 2002; Helgen 2005; Pikacha 2008). The overall range is recorded as sea level to 1,900 m; most animals are found in the upland areas. The species might also occur on Ysabel, but this requires confirmation (Helgen 2005).	eng
18656	habitat	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S., Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There is nothing known about the habitat requirements of this species. Flannery (1995) suggests that it is likely that it inhabits mature tropical forest (preferntially high elevation mossy forest).	eng
18656	population	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S., Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This is a rare species. While it has not been recorded since 1968 on Bougainville; the species was recorded from Choiseul in 1995 (Helgen 2005) and then again sometime between 2005-2006 (Pikacha 2008). The overall population has declined significantly since the 1960s. This species was not recorded over a three year period 2002-2005 in lowland areas of eastern Bougainville despite attempts to acquire information from residents of the area (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18656	threats	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S., Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is believed to have declined through the conversion of forests to agricultural land, and increased hunting pressure in parts of its range. It seems completely reliant on mature forest, primarily in upland areas. This species is sometimes hunted by burning the trees in which they roost (to smoke them out of hollows), thus capturing individuals and also destroying roost sites. Civil tensions in Bougainville from 1987 till 2000 likely resulted in an increase in hunting pressure (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18657	conservation	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining populations of this rare species.	eng
18657	distribution	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is restricted mainly to the island of Guadacanal, and known from New Georgia, both in the Solomon Islands. The single specimen recorded from Santa Isabel has recently been identified as <em>P. flanneryi</em> (Helgen 2005). The species is known from 0-400 meters, but it likely occurs to 1,000 m asl.	eng
18657	habitat	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There is little-known about the habitat and ecology of this species. Flannery (1995) observed animals feeding upon unripe mangos in an old garden. The species is probably dependent on undisturbed, old growth forests, and seems to roost in tree hollows. Its roosting habits likely render it subject to similar hunting and roost destruction threats faced by <em>P. anceps</em> on Bougainville (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18657	population	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is rarely encountered (Flannery 1995). It was last collected on New Georgia in 1975. Extensive surveys on other fruit bats in New Georgia in the late 1980s and early 1990s failed to detect this species.	eng
18657	threats	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is threatened by forest clearance and hunting.	eng
18658	conservation	Leary, T., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas. Survey work on the species is urgently needed to confirm its presence. Studies of the natural history of the species and threats faced by it are also needed.	eng
18658	distribution	Leary, T., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen collected on the southern slopes of Mount Makarakomburu, Guadacanal in the Solomon Islands. It was recorded at 1,230 m asl (elevational range of 1,200-2,448 comes from Helgen 2005).	eng
18658	habitat	Leary, T., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Flannery (1995) recorded the habitat at the collection site as being "primary mossy montane forest with emergent <em>Metrosideros</em> and palms, and an abundant understorey of ferns and climbing bamboo" (p. 242). The species is likely restricted to upland areas.	eng
18658	population	Leary, T., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
18658	threats	Leary, T., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It has a restricted range that could be susceptible to a single threat event. The species likely has specific habitat requirements given the dependence of its congeners on large hollow trees as roosts, and it might also share traits that make these species easily hunted.	eng
18701	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is present in protected areas.	eng
18701	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found on Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
18701	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species inhabits forests, from montane to subalpine zones (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
18701	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is not so common, but primarily found at higher elevations so more rarely seen.	eng
18701	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18702	conservation	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Henttonen, H., Maran, T. & Hanski, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, in parts of its range where these apply. It is considered Vulnerable at the national level in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Finnish Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture and Ministry of the Environment have published detailed guidelines on how to deal with flying squirrels in forestry. Specific recommendations include protecting known feeding and nesting sites (usually this means that trees surrounding nesting tree will be protected within 30 m, and "corridors" will be saved so that nesting sites are not isolated) (Anon. 2002, 2003, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/>It is listed on the Chinese Red List as Vulnerable A1cd.	eng
18702	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski, 2006	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. It is considered Vulnerable at the national level in Finland (Rassi <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Finnish Ministry of Forestry and Agriculture and Ministry of the Environment have published detailed guidelines on how to deal with flying squirrels in forestry. Specific recommendations include protecting known feeding and nesting sites (usually this means that trees surrounding nesting tree will be protected within 30 m, and "corridors" will be saved so that nesting sites are not isolated) (Anon. 2002, 2003, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
18702	distribution	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Henttonen, H., Maran, T. & Hanski, I., 2008	The Siberian flying squirrel has a wide range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from Finland, Estonia and Latvia eastwards through Russia, Mongolia, northwest China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Sulkava 1999) including the Korean Peninsula and northeast China. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan). It occurs from sea level up to the tree line (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and in northern China it occurs up to 2,500 m asl (Smith and Xie, in press). In Mongolia it occurs in forest habitats including the Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and the western parts of the Mongol Altai Mountain Range.	eng
18702	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski, 2006	The Siberian flying squirrel has a wide range in the northern Palaearctic, extending from Finland, Estonia and Latvia eastwards through Russia to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Sulkava 1999). It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan). It occurs from sea level to the tree line (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18702	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski, 2006	It prefers mature spruce-dominated forests with a significant proportion of deciduous trees, especially aspen <em>Populus tremula</em>, birch <em>Betula </em>sp. and alder <em>Alnus </em>sp. (Reunanen <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002). Large deciduous trees are an important source of both food and nest-sites: the flying squirrel feeds primarily on alder and birch catkins in the winter and alder leaves in the summer, and nests in old woodpecker holes or natural cavities in decaying wood.	eng
18702	habitat	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Henttonen, H., Maran, T. & Hanski, I., 2008	It prefers mature spruce-dominated forests with a significant proportion of deciduous trees, especially aspen <em>Populus tremula</em>, birch <em>Betula </em>sp. and alder <em>Alnus </em>sp. (Reunanen <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2002). Large deciduous trees are an important source of both food and nest-sites: the flying squirrel feeds primarily on alder and birch catkins in the winter and alder leaves in the summer, and nests in old woodpecker holes or natural cavities in decaying wood. They are nocturnal and do not hibernate. They are found from lowlands to montane regions (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
18702	population	Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski, 2006	The species continues to decline in many parts of its range owing to loss of old-growth mixed forests. In Finland, it is still locally quite common but declining everywhere, with detailed local studies showing 20-58% declines over periods of 10-20 years (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hanski 2006). Declines were noted in all parts of Finland; there were no areas where the population was stable or increasing, and declines are predicted to continue in the future (Hanski 2006) A three year census ending in 2005 estimated the Finnish population at 140,000 females (95% confidence limits 134,800-151,300: Hanski 2006).  It has been found at c.50 sites in Estonia (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). In Russia, it is considered widespread but rare in Karelia, and in the Karelian isthmus its status is similar to that of the Finnish population (A. Tikhonov <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
18702	population	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Henttonen, H., Maran, T. & Hanski, I., 2008	The species continues to decline in many parts of its range owing to loss of old-growth mixed forests. In Finland, it is still locally quite common but declining everywhere, with detailed local studies showing 20-58% declines over periods of 10-20 years (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hanski 2006). Declines were noted in all parts of Finland; there were no areas where the population was stable or increasing, and declines are predicted to continue in the future (Hanski 2006). A three year census ending in 2005 estimated the Finnish population at 140,000 females (95% confidence limits 134,800-151,300: Hanski 2006).  It has been found at c.50 sites in Estonia (T. Maran pers. comm. 2006). In Russia, it is considered widespread but rare in Karelia, and in the Karelian isthmus its status is similar to that of the Finnish population (A. Tikhonov <em>in litt. </em>2006). It is considered to be somewhat more common in the St Petersburg area. It is common on Hokkaido in Japan.	eng
18702	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Tiit Maran, Ilpo Hanski, 2006	Modern intensive forestry and logging are the major threats to this species (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001). Fragmentation of forests is a particular problem for this species, as flying squirrels are reluctant to cross open areas on the ground. Managed forests also tend to have fewer deciduous trees (which are an essential winter food source), less decaying wood and fewer tree-holes (which are needed for nest-sites). In parts of Russia, it has been estimated that up to 50% of logging is illegal (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). Illegal logging is particularly destructive, as unsustainable practices such as high-grading or 'skimming' are used, meaning that for every ten trees felled only one or two high-quality logs will be used (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002).	eng
18702	threats	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Henttonen, H., Maran, T. & Hanski, I., 2008	Modern intensive forestry and logging are the major threats to this species (Hanski <em>et al.</em> 2001). Large tracts of mature boreal forest have been felled and replaced by a managed forest landscape that is a mosaic of semi-natural forest, young saplings, and clear-cut patches. Fragmentation of forests is a particular problem for this species, as flying squirrels are reluctant to cross open areas on the ground. Managed forests also tend to have fewer deciduous trees (which are an essential winter food source), less decaying wood and fewer tree-holes (which are needed for nest-sites). In parts of Russia, it has been estimated that up to 50% of logging is illegal (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). Illegal logging is particularly destructive, as unsustainable practices such as high-grading or 'skimming' are used, meaning that for every ten trees felled only one or two high-quality logs will be used (Kotlobay and Ptichnikov 2002). The species is also hunted for commercial use of its fur, but this is not considered a major threat at present (Nowak 1991).<br/><br/>In Mongolia, habitat loss caused by selective logging, human-caused fires and natural wildfires in some parts of its range are a threat.	eng
18703	conservation	Aplin, K. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Parts of its range are contained within well-managed, good condition National Parks.	eng
18703	distribution	Aplin, K. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (from Selangor and Pahang, to Johore), to Sumatra and Borneo. The potential range on Borneo and in Malay peninsula is probably more extensive than currently mapped. It is also found on the island of Penang (Medway 1983).	eng
18703	habitat	Aplin, K. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is nocturnal, lives in tree hollows in tall, undisturbed primary forest.	eng
18703	population	Aplin, K. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	According to Bornean and Malay records it is probably a rare species, as it is rarely seen even in primary forest. So, even in optimum habitat it is not abundant. There are probably two relatively secure populations (with not large numbers) in Mt. Kinabalu National Park and in a nearby protected area.	eng
18703	threats	Aplin, K. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is affected by habitat degradation because of low elevational range.	eng
18705	conservation	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
18705	distribution	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs throughout northwest Peru and northern Venezuela to southern Baja California, southern Sonora, and Nuevo León (Mexico); It is also found on Trinidad and the southern Lesser Antilles. The northeastern Brazilian record is erroneous (Simmons 2005).	eng
18705	habitat	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is an aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles and moths. This species prefers to roost in damp caves, often with several other species including <em>Pteronutus parnellii</em> and various phyllotomyd bats. This shows a broad tolerance for habitat types; most specimens occur in dry areas. It frequently occurs in dry deciduous thorn forest, but they range into wet evergreen forest. Its distribution may be limited by availability of roost sites. Often forages in open spaces (Eisenberg and Redford 1999, Emmons and Feer 1997, Handley 1976, Reid 1997, J. Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
18705	population	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is locally common to abundant (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
18705	threats	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Molinari, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats. In Brazil and possibly other areas the species may be locally threatened due to cave destruction for limestone production (Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
18706	conservation	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in a protected areas throughout its range. Protect the caves. In Mexico is listed as subjected to special protection by SEMARNAT (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
18706	distribution	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs throughout south Veracruz (Mexico) south to Peru, northeast and central Brazil, Bolivia, and Guyana (Simmons, 2005). Also occurs in Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
18706	habitat	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is an aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles, as well as other insects. No specific observations have been recorded on this species other than that it generally occurs below 400 m and is stongly associated with montains in tropical wet forest and savannas. It roosts in large caves, often with other species of mormoopid bats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997).	eng
18706	population	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Fairly abundant species (Molinari pers. comm.). Not common on the northern part of their range (Arroyo Cabrales and Miller pers. comm.).	eng
18706	threats	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L., Arroyo Cabrales, J., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats. Problems in caves, like tourism and mining.	eng
18707	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
18707	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, and Jamaica (Simmons, 2005).	eng
18707	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This bat is present at low to moderate elevations wherever appropriate roost caves are found. It is considered an obligate cavedwelling species. Like other Mormoopids, it is insectivorous. The species has been taken in association with nine caves on the island (Fincham 1997). Nets were placed covering one of the entrances, capturing bats as they entered and exited the cave. The flight of bats began about 7:30 PM. There is not information about its reproduction; however, apparently it breeds annulment, probably in late winter (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
18707	population	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Abundant in Cuba. Not so common in Jamaica (Mancina, 2005). Extinct in New Providence (Bahamas) (Turvey pers. comm.).	eng
18707	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Habitat loss, guano extraction, tourism.	eng
18708	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
18708	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found in Central, and South America, and the Caribbean. This bat ranges from Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Brazil, Guianas, Suriname, and Venezuela to S Sonora and S Tamaulipas (Mexico); Cuba; Jamaica; Puerto Rico; Hispaniola; St. Vincent; Trinidad and Tobago; Margarita Isl (Venezuela); La Gonave Isl (Haiti) (Simmons 2005). It inhabits at lowlands elevation, below 2,200 m (Reid, 1997), but in Venezuela it occur below 500 m (Handley, 1976).<br/><br/>.	eng
18708	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It Venezuela the species generally lives in moist areas but tolerates both multistratal evergreen forest and dry deciduous forest (Handley, 1976), in middle elevations and in disturbed areas (Reid, 1997). Roost in caves and mines; it favors large caverns, but smaller roosts, possibly including hollow trees, are also used (Reid, 1997), and may co-occur with other species of mormoopids and phyllostomids (Herd, 1983). Activity begins at sunset (Baterman and Vaughan, 1974), although maximum movement can occur two hours later (Bonaccorso, 1979). Individuals remain active for 5 to 7 hours, then return to the day roost. Some may be active again shortly before dawn. Forest trails are often used as flyways or foraging areas; streams and creeks are seldom used. A medium-sized bat flying fast and straight along a forest trail is most likely to be of this common and widespread species (Whitaker and Findley, 1980). It feeds primarily on moths and beetles; other types of insects and some seeds have also been found in fecal material; insects are found by echolocation, but the echolocation pulse is unique in that the major portion of the call in not frequency modulated (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
18708	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Common to abundant in all types of lowland forest (Reid, 1997); rare in Ecuador.	eng
18708	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
18709	conservation	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
18709	distribution	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia,Venezuela, Guyana and Surinam to south Sonora and south Tamaulipas (Mexico); it also is found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).	eng
18709	habitat	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species is low flying aerial insectivore that feeds on many scarab beetles, as well as other insects. It generally occurs below 400 m and is stongly associated with montains in tropical wet forest and savannas. It roosts in large caves, often with other species of mormoopid bats (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Handley, 1976; Reid, 1997 and Molinari pers. comm.). Also collected in secondary forests and deciduous forests (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
18709	population	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	The species is not rare though is difficult to collect, less common than other species in the genus (Molinari pers. comm.). It seems to be more abundant in areas with water (Miller pers. comm.).	eng
18709	threats	Dávalos, L., Molinari, J. Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
18710	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in Protected areas.	eng
18710	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).	eng
18710	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species roosts during the day in deep recesses of hot caves, where it form roosting aggregations containing thousands of individuals (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Genoways <em>et al</em>. 2005). An estimative of 140,000 bats of this species roosts in Cucaracha Cave, Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). A cave occupied by this bat usually shelters two to five other species. It is insectivorous, and apparently is an opportunistic forager to some degree, like many insectivorous bats. Insects from one to seven different orders have been found in stomach or fecal samples of a single bat; moths, flies, and true bugs are taken consistently as well, and wasps and flying ants, which occur in large but unpredictable swarms, are eaten when available. Females generally give birth to a single young; twinning is extremely rare. Pregnant females are found from February through June, with the largest percentage occurring in May, when births begin (Silva-Taboada, 1979; Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
18710	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is abundant in Puerto Rico (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
18710	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Caves are not protected in Jamaica (Davalos pers. comm.). It is gone for Abaco, Andros and New Providence (Bahamas) (Turvey pers. comm.). Threats on hot caves.	eng
18711	conservation	Duplaix, N., Waldemarin, H.F., Groenedijk, J., Evangelista, E., Munis, M., Valesco, M. & Botello, J.C. , 2008	The giant otter is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), as Endangered under the United States Endangered Species Act and as Endangered under the IUCN Red List.<br/><br/>1) to continue assessment of predator-prey relationships, including conflicts with subsistence and commercial fishermen<br/>2) to evaluate the positive and negative impacts of tourism in different habitats and implement management guidelines in order to maximize the benefits.<br/>3) To encourage the development of a long-term research and conservation project in the Llanos of Venezuela of Colombia<br/>4) To undertake collaborations between field scientists, zoos and genetic laboratories to evaluate the potential use of genetic analysis tools in giant otter research	eng
18711	distribution	Duplaix, N., Waldemarin, H.F., Groenedijk, J., Evangelista, E., Munis, M., Valesco, M. & Botello, J.C. , 2008	P. brasiliensis is endemic to South America. The northern extent of its range occurs near, but does not include, the Caribbean Sea, and the southern extent of its range reaches Argentina, although Argentine and Uruguayan populations are thought to be extinct. The species is not found in Chile. The majority of the animals are found in the Brazilian Amazon and the regions immediately bordering this area (Kruuk 2006).	eng
18711	habitat	Duplaix, N., Waldemarin, H.F., Groenedijk, J., Evangelista, E., Munis, M., Valesco, M. & Botello, J.C. , 2008	The giant otter is the largest of all the 13 otter species and is endemic to the rainforests and wetlands of South America. It is found regionally in portions of the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata River systems. It is known to inhabit large slow-moving rivers, streams, lakes and swamps. In a long-term study in Peru, giant otters were found in most of the river systems in the southeastern part of the country with the exception of those located close to the Andes where the flow gradient is steeper. Studies in Suriname have shown a preference for black water creeks and rivers with sandy or rocky bottoms (Duplaix 1980). The large rivers of the lowland areas with gentle flow and oxbow lakes with high fish densities represent the environment most favored by this group-living species, and areas with gently-sloped riverbanks and dense overhanging vegetation are preferred habitat features. On occasion, giant otters are seen in agricultural canals and reservoirs of small dams, although they prefer gently sloped river banks and secluded areas with overhanging vegetation. The giant otters tend to concentrate in their preferred habitats and territories can be very small (105 ha for a group of 5-8 otters).<br/><br/>The annual life cycle and feeding ecology of P. brasiliensis has been shown to be highly dependent upon the seasonal migrations of prey stock fish populations (Duplaix 1980). The preferred fish diet of P. brasiliensis includes members of the catfish, perch and characin families. When fish abundance is low, it feeds on crustacenas, small snakes and small caiman. <br/><br/>Pteronura brasiliensis lives in family groups of 5-8 individuals. Families have home ranges of 12 sq. km. Members of the family, which include a monogamous pair and several generations of offspring, clear an area along a streamside for living. These areas can be up to 50 sq meters and are usually located near feeding sites. Preparation of the living area includes trampling the surface vegetation, collecting tree limbs and leaves and embedding the leaves and branches into the trampled mud patch. Large burrows are then constructed under fallen logs. In addition, one to five communal latrines are placed along the site perimeter. Finally, the territory is marked by scent from the anal glands. If intruders invade the territory, parents defend it and their offspring.<br/><br/>Although separate territories are maintained, P. brasiliensis is a highly social mammal. Social activities include grooming, hunting, resting and communicating. Pteronura brasiliensis have 9 different vocalizations. The purposes for each of these sounds is undocumented, but vocalizations probably serve as warning signals against predators and/or contact calls.<br/><br/>Gestation is estimated to have 65-70 days and litters range from 1-5 young (average number 2). A great deal of reproductive ecology is known from studies in captivity (Redford and Eisenberg 1992), as well as some long-term studies in Peru focusing on breeding ecology and behavior. P. brasiliensis is a piscivore and preferred prey fish include members of the catfish, perch and characin families. In times of reduced prey fish availability, crustaceans, small caiman, and small snakes are opportunistically consumed (Carter and Rosas 1997).	eng
18711	population	Duplaix, N., Waldemarin, H.F., Groenedijk, J., Evangelista, E., Munis, M., Valesco, M. & Botello, J.C. , 2008	Distribution of the giant otter is patchy throughout its range and many remote areas have not been recently surveyed. The current total wild population is estimated at between 1,000-5,000 individuals (IUCN OSG 2006), but further surveys are required to refine this figure. Current population trends are unknown, but are thought to be declining in many areas due to habitat loss and the effects of gold mining and mercury pollution (N. Duplaix pers. comm. 2007).	eng
18711	threats	Duplaix, N., Waldemarin, H.F., Groenedijk, J., Evangelista, E., Munis, M., Valesco, M. & Botello, J.C. , 2008	The giant otter has very few predators.  Young fall prey to caimans, jaguars, pumas, and fragmentation, and water pollution from mining and agricultural runoff.  Over fishing affects their prey base.  They are being affected by illegal hunting for their pelt, habitat loss and evidences that they are getting affected due to contaminants like Mercury coming from gold mines in their range. Canine and feline distemper and canine parvovirus, all introduced diseases take a heavy toll as well.	eng
18713	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species, <em>P. admiralitatum</em>, is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for research on the taxonomy of this species, as well as on its distribution, ecology, and threats.	eng
18713	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	<em>P. admiralitatum</em> incorporates what are probably three distinct species. One of the presumed species is found in the Admiralty Islands, Bismarck Archipelago (excluding the St. Matthias Group), and the Eastern Solomon Islands from Buka to Malaita). A record of it from Bougainville Island may not be valid; it likely does occur on the island, but its presence has not been confirmed (there are five specimens from the nearby Carteret group, 90 km northeast of Buka) (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). Another presumed species occurs on the islands of Western Province, Guadalcanal, and Malaita. The third taxon occurs in the Matthias group, on Mussau and Emirau.	eng
18713	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The three taxa have different ecology. The first is a small island specialist, known mainly from below 200 m (a "tramp" species). This is a larger bat, and roosts on branches of trees. The second is found mainly on moderate to larger islands, and ranges from lowland to montane forests. It is found from 400 to 900 m on Malaita (this fist taxon is found also on the same island, but at a lower elevation). This is a smaller bat, and roosts in tree cavities. The third taxon is only known from two islands, and its ecology is unknown. It is the largest of the three species.	eng
18713	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The first taxon discussed in the distribution section is common, and likely found in large colonies. One colony in East New Britain, however, is known to have completely disappeared between 1996-2002 (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The second taxon is found in smaller colonies. The density and population size of the last species are unknown.	eng
18713	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Presumably it is threatened to some degree in parts of its range by deforestation. This is particularly the case with the second taxon because it is likely to be very susceptible to logging, as it roosts in large trees. Hunting may be a threat to the first, but it is not a major problem. Threats unknown regarding the third taxon.	eng
18714	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	Although the species is not directly protected (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008), the Aldabra Atoll is a highly protected UNESCO World Heritage site and a Special Reserve under the Seychelles National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991; Hutson 2004). There is a distinct need for additional research into the total population number of this restricted range species and to monitor any changes in abundance (Hutson 2004).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
18714	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Aldabra Atoll (approximately 150 km²) in the Seychelles. Bats have been recorded from all main islands and have been observed flying between islands of the atoll (Hutson 2004; von Brandis 2004).	eng
18714	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	Groups of these bats have been recorded from dry scrub in the south of the island and dry woodland in the north of the island. Populations have been recorded roosting in Casuarina trees, mangrove stands, coconut and coco plantations (Hutson 2004; von Brandis 2004). Much of the habitat on South Island, that comprises roughly two thirds of Aldabra, is unsuitable for roosting although they can forage in some parts of this island where there is suitable shrubland (Tony Hutson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
18714	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	The population is reported to consist of only a few hundred animals (Cheke and Dahl 1981; Carrol 1985). Hutson (2004) notes that no major colonies were located in 1968, with the largest roosting group on the small lagoon islet of Iles Michel that was probably well under 100 animals. Hutson (2004) suggests that the total population was fewer than 250 animals in 1968, although he considered that the majority of the population may be present on the relatively little explored Middle Island (= Malabar Island) 26 km² in size. von Brandis (2004) reports that large groups of these bats have been recorded in Casuarina trees, with the largest group of more than 100 animals reported at the eastern end of Middle Island (=Malabar Island) in 1995. Conrad Savy (pers. comm. 2008) indicates that the bats were commonly seen in good numbers during 2001. Additional surveys are needed to count and monitor the current population of this restricted range species.	eng
18714	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	The population is probably stable with no declines reported, however, because of the restricted nature of the species range it is considered to be especially vulnerable to threats such as tropical cyclones and rises in sea level (60% of the atoll is at or below 1 m asl.) (Mikleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991; Hutson 2004; Justin Gerlach pers. comm. 2008).	eng
18715	conservation	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in many protected areas. Further surveys of the distribution of this species is needed in New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18715	distribution	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This widespread species ranges from eastern Java (Indonesia) (Surapaya; A. Suyanto pers. comm.), through the islands of Sulawesi, Lombok, Sumba, Sava, Salayar, Bawean, and the Kangean Islands (all Indonesia), to the coastal plain and Yule Island of southern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), and is also present in Australia where it ranges from Shark Bay in Western Australia to central New South Wales. It is increasing its range in the south-east of its distribution (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is also found on the Torres Strait Islands to Boigu Island (Australia) off of New Guinea (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Helgen 2004; L. Hall pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 100 m asl.	eng
18715	habitat	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This largely coastal species is found in areas of mangrove and swamp forest, and is sometimes encountered in tropical moist forest or in savannas near water; it is also found in urban environments (Markus <em>et al.</em> 2008). It roosts in large colonies of several hundred to hundreds of thousands of animals (Bonaccorso 1998). Individual animals may forage as far as 50 km from roosting sites. Females annually give birth to a single young.	eng
18715	population	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	It is generally widespread and common over much of its range, but is apparently uncommon in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995b; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18715	threats	Hutson, T., Suyanto, A., Helgen, K., McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is vulnerable to local hunting for food in parts of its range (e.g., Sulawesi). As this species expands its range southwards it is increasingly exposed to high temperatures events that can lead to high mortality (Markus <em>et al.</em> 2008; Welbergen <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18716	conservation	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the Vatthe Conservation Area. Studies into the taxonomic status of the many subspecies of this species are needed. Further research into the distribution, ecology, and threats to it is needed.	eng
18716	distribution	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Vanuatu, and is recorded with certainty from: Vanua Lava, Santa Maria, Mota Lava, Pentecost, Aore, Malakula, Ambrym, Epi, Efate, Erromango, Anatom, Espirito Santo, Maewo, Ureparapara, Malo, Emao, Emae, Lopevi, Tongoa, Nguna, and Aoba. It is possibly extinct on Tana Island. It is a lowland species.	eng
18716	habitat	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This may be a partly diurnal species. Animals generally spend the day in small, quiet colonies. It has been found feeding on figs, breadfruit, and coconuts (Flannery 1995). Births are believed to take place in August and September. Individuals are usually seen roosting in small groups, of a few animals, in trees. It does not disperse well, and may not recolonise following extirpation episodes.	eng
18716	population	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is widespread and can be locally common, although it is susceptible to hunting pressure following typhoons.	eng
18716	threats	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is considered to be vulnerable to local extinctions, most especially because of its apparent limited dispersal capability (Flannery 1995). It is hunted for food, but it generally does not appear to be overexploited, although populations can decline through increased hunting following typhoons (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
18717	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats of this species.<br/>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteropus</span> spp. are listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
18717	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	The type locality of this species was originally given as Ambon but based on archival research T. Flannery and K. Helgen believe this specimen comes from Gebe, both of which are islands in Indonesia.	eng
18717	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
18717	population	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype. The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
18717	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
18718	conservation	Richards, G. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Despite extensive surveys so far, further field studies on the Percy Islands and other islands in the region are needed to determine if any remnant populations of this species persist (L. Hall pers. comm.). There is also a need to try to find skeletal remains near old camps, in order to confirm the locality of this specimen (L. Hall pers. comm.). Additional taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this species.	eng
18718	distribution	Richards, G. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen (collected in 1874) from the Percy Islands, Queensland, Australia, and subsequent non-specimen records of a colony (L. Hall pers. comm.). It is not known from which island the specimen originally came.	eng
18718	habitat	Richards, G. & Hall, L., 2008	There is little known about the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
18718	population	Richards, G. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype. It was reported as being plentiful at the close of the 19<em>th</em> century (Conder 2008).	eng
18718	threats	Richards, G. & Hall, L., 2008	It is possible that the species declined because of its vulnerability to habitat loss (Conder 2008).	eng
18719	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; and it is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
18719	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is an endemic of Indonesia, and is known from the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, Tidore, and Ternate. Sula, Peleng, and Sangihe island records are erroneous (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988; K. Helgen pers. comm.; Koopman 1993). There is a single record from Sulawesi that is dubious, and there are no other records from this island.	eng
18719	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species lives in both primary and somewhat disturbed habitats. It probably roosts in small groups and is known to roost in tree hollows. It is probably not dependent on water and occurs from sea level up to 1,630 m asl. Some births are known to take place in November (Flannery 1995).	eng
18719	population	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is rarely collected throughout its range.	eng
18719	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	Hunting and deforestation due to expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats to this species. This species is particularly sensitive to deforestation as it relies on older trees for hollows.	eng
18720	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in Manusela National Park. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
18720	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in the Maluku Islands, Ambon, Buru, Seram, and small islands east of Seram in Indonesia. A Sangihe Island record is erroneous (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). It is found below 250 m asl.	eng
18720	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is largely dependent on intact forest, but on Obi it was also collected while feeding in a garden, and several others when roosting in a Sago palm. It has also been collected from disturbed forest. It probably occurs in small groups.	eng
18720	population	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been rarely collected, but probably it is not uncommon. It was definitely detected more often in the 19th century than in recent surveys.	eng
18720	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Helgen, K., 2008	Deforestation due to clearcut logging and agricultural expansion is a major threat, and hunting may also be a problem as it is a large and distinctive bat.	eng
18721	conservation	Helgen, K., Salas, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present within a number of protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of Australian populations is needed.	eng
18721	distribution	Helgen, K., Salas, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Obi, Misool, and Gebe), it is present on Salawati Island (Indonesia), Biak and Yapen islands (Indonesia), coastal areas of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and is found in Australia where it ranges patchily from Cape York to coastal central Queensland between MacKay and Rockhampton (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998), with the main population in the Wet Tropics (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It is found from sea level to 200 m asl.	eng
18721	habitat	Helgen, K., Salas, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is found in lowland swamp, mangrove, and tropical moist forest habitats (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been recorded in both primary and disturbed areas. Females annually give birth to a single young.	eng
18721	population	Helgen, K., Salas, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is generally a common species.	eng
18721	threats	Helgen, K., Salas, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is threatened on New Guinea by logging of suitable coastal habitats, and the species is eaten (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.). In Australia it is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of coastal and upland forest to crops (e.g., sugar), pastureland, and urban development (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Loss of moist forest habitat overall in its range has been up to 80% (B. Thomson pers. comm.). It is known to raid orchards and large numbers are electrocuted and shot in orchards and at colonies (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also threatened by mortality through infestation with paralysis tick, disturbance of maternity colonies, and collision with barbed-wire fences and power lines (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18722	conservation	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Izawa, M., 2008	The species was included in Appendix II of CITES in 1990. In Japan, <em>dasymallus</em> and <em>daitoensis</em> have been designated as Natural Monuments and the latter also as a Domestic Endangered Species. <em>P. d. daitoensis</em> and <em>P. d. dasymallus</em> are listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007). In the Red List of China it is considered Endangered.	eng
18722	distribution	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Izawa, M., 2008	This species is found in Taiwan, Japan and the Philippines. In the Philippines, it occurs in the small northern islands of Batan, Dalupiri, and Fuga, but it probably also occurs on other nearby islands, although not on Luzon (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, it is found on the Osumi Islands (Kuchinoerabu), Tokara Islands (Nakano, Taira, Akuseki, Takara), Okinawa Islands, Yaeyama Islands (+ Aragusuku) and Miyako Islands (Tarama, Irabu, Miyako), Yaeyama Islands (Ishigaki, Taketomi, Kohama, Iriomote, Hateruma, Kuro, Hatoma, and Yonaguni), and Daito Islands.	eng
18722	habitat	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Izawa, M., 2008	This is a forest species with a diet consisting mainly of figs. In Japan they roost throughout the islands, and have also been seen in urban areas, where they have planted the same fruiting trees that this bat prefers as a food source. It rests during the day either alone or in small groups hanging from the branches of trees.	eng
18722	population	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Izawa, M., 2008	The Philippines population probably comprises the largest number of individuals (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In the Philippines, the species is reported to be common in forest where it is known to occur; however, the extent of its range has not been determined and there are knowledge gaps regarding its population status elsewhere (Ingle and Heaney 1992; Utzurrum 1992; Ross pers. comm.). There is no evidence that the population is in significant decline within the Philippines.<br/>In Japan, the populations on Daito (<em>P. d. daitoensis</em>) are estimated to number more than 300; those on Kuchinoerabujima, Takarajima, Nakanoshima and Akusekijima number less than 200 individuals (<em>P. d. dasymallus</em>). There are no precise population estimates for the other subspecies, but the population size of <em>yayeyamae</em> is likely to be a few thousands and that of <em>orii</em> over 5,000.<br/>There have been large reductions in the populations of Taiwan, and some possible local extinctions.	eng
18722	threats	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Izawa, M., 2008	There is some hunting of the Philippines populations. It is facing substantial threat from hunting on Babuyan Claro, where it is a favoured delicacy amongst locals. However, it does not appear to be hunted in Dalupiri because of the lack of air guns in the community (Oliveros <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In Japan, habitat loss remains a problem on most islands, although on some islands (Miyako and Daito islands), populations have been increasing as the bats have been recolonizing areas where fruiting trees have been planted in urban areas. Farmers have been placing nets over the top of citrus crops (in order to avoid damage by the fruit bats and birds), with the result that some bats have been accidentally trapped. Several animals have been electrocuted on power cables on the Daito Islands.<br/>In Taiwan it has been hunted for food in the past, and populations have been reduced to the point that it is considered threatened.	eng
18723	conservation	Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Although it is rare, this species has not been accorded conservation priority by the local or National Government. It is currently is categorized as vermin and placed under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protected) Act, 1972 amended 2004. It has been recorded within some protected areas. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Long term studies on ecology and habitat and population monitoring are urgently required. There is also a distinct need to determine the movement patterns of this species, specifically whether animals can move between the six known island locations. Awareness and lobbying to accord special protection to this endemic species is emphasised.	eng
18723	distribution	Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the Nicobar islands, India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) and is presently known from six islands in the group (Nancowry, Teressa, Comorta, Bompuka, Katchal, Trinkat totaling an area of 580.3 km²) of 14 islands recently surveyed (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). At present it is not known if the species can move between the six islands in its range, or whether it is highly fragmented (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008) It has been recorded up to an elevation of 200 m asl. The extent of occurrence is approximately 2,500 km² calculated based on the distance between the islands, and the area of occupancy is a maximum of 580 km² and is likely to be considerably less than this.	eng
18723	habitat	Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in tropical evergreen forests, roosts in wild arecanut palms and has been reported to feed on fruits of silk cotton (<em>Bombax</em> species) (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). Unlike many similar species, it generally roosts as solitary animals. The species forages in the sub canopy to avoid interaction with the larger <em>P. melanotus</em> (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).	eng
18723	population	Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is very rare compared to other Pteropus <em>sp.</em> on these islands (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It is probable that the species is now extinct from the type locality of Car Nicobar (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003).	eng
18723	threats	Kingston, T., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The major threat to this taxon is habitat loss (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002) due to selective clearing of forests (S.P. Vijaykumar pers. comm. 12 December 2007). This species is hunted on several islands for medicinal purposes, as it is believed to cure asthma (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). It is occasionally locally kept as pet (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). Although the tsunami event of December 2004 could have affected the species habitat, this needs further study (S. Molur pers. comm. December 2007).	eng
18724	conservation	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not believed to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
18724	distribution	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This poorly-known species is restricted to the islands of Mota and Vanua Lava, in the Banks Group of Vanuatu. It is a lowland species.	eng
18724	habitat	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this species. It is present in lowlands, often secondary/disturbed tropical forest. This species has been collected in village plantations and gardens. It is a small species of fruit bat. It is likely to roost in small groups or individually, possibly in trees or foliage (K. Helgen and S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18724	population	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is probably not an uncommon species (based on available specimens) (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
18724	threats	Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species has a restricted range. It is threatened by hunting for food (K. Helgen and S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species could additionally be threatened in the future by severe habitat loss (i.e., complete loss of trees). Stochastic events could threaten this restricted range species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
18725	conservation	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This is one of the most persecuted fruit bats in South Asia, and is listed as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from a few protected areas in India like Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, Palamau Tiger Reserve and Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary in Jharkhand, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, Molem National Park in Goa, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Chilka (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa and Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Population monitoring is needed to establish major threats and overall declines, if any (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18725	distribution	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is largely found in South Asia, but also occurs in adjacent China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is widely distributed from Bangladesh (Barisal, Dhaka, Rajashahi and Sylhet divisions), Bhutan (Chhukha and Samtse areas), India (Andhra Pradesh, Andaman Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Maldives (Addu Atoll, Ari, Haddunmatti, Mulaku and Nilandu South), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal), Pakistan (Northwest Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) to Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 2,000 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is present in western Myanmar with Cambodian records being apparently erroneous (Kock 2000).	eng
18725	habitat	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species roosts in large colonies of hundreds to thousands of individuals on large trees in rural and urban areas, close to agricultural fields, ponds and by the side of roads (S. Molur, Project PteroCount). It feeds on a wide variety of fruits and flowers, both wild and cultivated. A single young is born between April to early June (Bates and Harrison 1997). It travels long distances, up to 150 km to and from its roost, a night in search of fleshy berries. Colonies usually have a permanent roost with one or two temporary roosts that individuals shift to depending on season and other unknown factors (S. Molur, Project PteroCount).	eng
18725	population	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	Common and widespread throughout its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18725	threats	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. This species is assumed to be locally threatened by cutting down of roosting trees because of road expansion or other purposes. The species is also hunted in several locations for meat and for medicine (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2007 pers. comm., C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). New roosts have been observed, but the impact of roost disturbance and felling is not known, and the impact of hunting is also not understood. Surveys of local people at more than 30 roost sites indicate a steady decline in roosting populations (Venkatesan 2007, S. Molur pers. comm.). In parts of its range, some deforestation seems to help this species as it has occupied areas of the Western Ghats once the vegetation was disturbed (S. Molur and P. Molur pers. comm.; Ryley, 1916).	eng
18726	conservation	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Studies are urgently needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species. Surveys in the Nakanai Mountains would be particularly useful.	eng
18726	distribution	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is known from only three records on New Britain and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. The holotype was collected in the Whiteman Mountains of West New Britain, at 1,600 m asl. Another specimen was collected from Mu village in East New Britain (5 deg 19 min, 152 deg, 08 min); the third was in the HansMeyer Range, (approximately 4 deg 18 min, 152 deg, 54 min). Records of the species range from 200 to 2,300 meters asl.	eng
18726	habitat	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is believed to inhabit mature tropical forest (known elevation 200 to 2,300 meters). May roost solitarily or in small groups.	eng
18726	population	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is known only from three specimens.	eng
18726	threats	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It may have a restricted range. Widespread clearing of lowland forest could affect upland habitat. Hunting is probably not a threat.	eng
18727	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
18727	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in Timor, Samao Island, Dyampea Island, Bonerato Island, Saleyer Island, Paternoster Islands, Pelang Island, Sulawesi, and Banda Islands in Indonesia. It may also be found in Flores (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It does not occur in the Philippines as it sometimes suggested in the literature.	eng
18727	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	On Timor it has been seen in coastal forests roosting in small groups or alone (Goodwin, 1979).	eng
18727	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	Population status and trends of this species are unknown.	eng
18727	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
18728	conservation	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
18728	distribution	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is restricted to the Ontong Java Atoll in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). Ontong Java Atoll consists of some 50 tiny vegetated islands present around the atoll ring 50 km to the south of Nukumanu (Papua New Guinea) and 250 km north of Santa Isabel Solomon Islands. There are unconfirmed reports of occurrence of Pteropus on Nukumanu. If present, <em>P. howensis</em> likely moves throughout these Java Ontong islands and possibly also to Nukumanu. Nukumanu can be reached periodically by cargo ship from Buka but not by air, once your there you could be waiting months for the next ship to get back to Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18728	habitat	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	There is very little information available on the natural history of this species.	eng
18728	population	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown; it was last collected in 1945, so there are no recent data.	eng
18728	threats	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Most of the land surface of Ontong Java Atoll has been converted to coconut production (Flannery 1995), but this may not be a threat. Due to its highly restricted range, it is vulnerable to stochastic events (especially cyclones). The atoll itself is also likely to be subsumed by rising sea levels.	eng
18729	conservation	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Bonaccorso, F. & A., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is accorded vermin classification under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. This species has been recorded from Barren Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Andaman and Nicobar Island in India. Taxonomic studies, ecology, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended. Awareness needs to be created to mitigate threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species apparently does well in captive-breeding programmes (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18729	distribution	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Bonaccorso, F. & A., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread, ranging from the Maldives and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) in the west, to Melanesia in the east. In South Asia, this species is restricted to only four locations in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India and Addu Atoll in Maldives (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is found on many offshore islands and in coastal lowlands in the Southeast Asian region, including the Philippines and Indonesia (Sulawesi). In the Philippines it is found throughout the country with the possible except of the Palawan faunal region; records are from: Bohol, Cagayan Sulu, Camotes (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006) Camiguin, Cebu (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006) Cuyo, Dinagat, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Camarines Sur, Ilocos Norte, and Nueva Ecija) Mactan, Marinduque, Maripipi, Masbat, Mindanao (Gunther 1897) Negros, Panay (including Boracay and Batbatan), Polillo, Romblon (Timm and Birney 1980), Samar, Siargao, Sibuyan, Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) Tablas (Paguntulan pers. comm. 2006). There are few records from mainland Papua New Guinea; the species is also found in the D'Entrecastreaux Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, on Manus in the Admiralty Islands. Records from New Britain and Tabar are questionable (probably P. admiraltatum). It is confirmed only from Mbanika and the Russel Islands in the Solomons. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 100 m asl. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900 m asl in the Philippines; it is primarily found in low elevation areas in Melanesia (under 500 m asl).	eng
18729	habitat	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Bonaccorso, F. & A., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in large colonies of several individuals and is found in forests, orchards, coconut palm groves (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It feeds both on wild and cultivated fruits (Bates and Harrison 1997). In most parts of its range in the Philippines, this species roosts on small offshore islands and near coastlines, but forages on the mainland where it is common in agricultural areas and absent from primary forest (Heideman and Heaney 1992, Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993, Utzurrum 1992). In Melanesia, it is generally an insular species found on small offshore islands. Animals may commute infrequently to larger islands for foraging. It is known to roost in trees, often in large groups at the coastline. It can be found foraging for food in both primary and secondary tropical forest habitats, rural gardens and plantations. The females give birth to a single young which take about one year to reach maturity (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18729	population	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Bonaccorso, F. & A., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is common to abundant throughout its range, and can form colonies of up to 5,000 individuals. The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
18729	threats	Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Bonaccorso, F. & A., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened due to tourism related activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is under heavy hunting pressure in the Philippines, although it may be able to withstand this, at least in the short term, as populations have remained stable. Animals are sold locally for 30-50 Philippine Pesos each Cariño pers. comm. 2006). In Melanesia, the species is locally vulnerable to hunting. Island populations of this species, especially on the coastal islands of northern New Guinea, are vulnerable to overexploitation by hunting for food (Bonaccorso 1998). Threats to this species are unknown in Indonesia.	eng
18730	conservation	Helgen, K. & Wiles, G., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Trade restrictions should be enforced. Regular monitoring of known populations should be initiated. Further surveys to identify additional populations, possibly on adjacent islands, are needed. An environmental education and awareness programme should be initiated (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
18730	distribution	Helgen, K. & Wiles, G., 2009	This species is restricted to the islands of the Chuuk Lagoon and Namonuito Atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia.	eng
18730	habitat	Helgen, K. & Wiles, G., 2009	Little information is available on the natural history of this species. A roost of about 1,000 individuals has been recorded in native forest near to the summit of Tol Island (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has been observed feeding on the flowers of the coconut (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
18730	population	Helgen, K. & Wiles, G., 2009	It was commonly seen in 1984, and the population was roughly estimated to be around 5,628 animals in 1986. The population declined substantially during the late 1980s through overexploitation for commercial trade on Guam and the Northern Marianas. The population may have recovered after this trade was prohibited in 1989 (G. Wiles pers. comm.). No information is currently available on population size or trend.	eng
18730	threats	Helgen, K. & Wiles, G., 2009	This species was severely threatened by overexploitation for the commercial market on the island of Guam and the Northern Marianas. Records indicate that 5,795 animals were exported from Chuuk to Guam between 1978 and 1989, with 3,723 of these animals exported between 1988 and 1989 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Much of the natural habitat of Chuuk has been lost through conversion to agricultural land and plantations (coconut, breadfruit, mangos, and bananas). Recent trends in habitat loss are unknown. The residents of Chuuk do not hunt the bats for local use (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
18731	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Alcala, E. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>P. leucopterus</em> has been included in CITES Appendix II since 1990. It occurs in some protected areas. Research on its distribution, habitat preferences and threats is greatly needed. There is a captive breeding programme for the species at Silliman University, Philippines.	eng
18731	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Alcala, E. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	The white-winged flying fox is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Luzon faunal region and Dinagat. It has been recorded on Luzon (Abra, Benguet (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006), Cagayan, Isabela, Laguna, Nueva Viscaya, Quezon and Tarlac (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) provinces), Catanduanes and Dinagat Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), occurring at an elevation range from 0-1,100 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
18731	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Alcala, E. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	It has been reported from primary montane forest on Catanduanes, lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Mickleburgh <em>et al</em>. 1992;  Utzurrum 1992; Heideman <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data), and grassland in Benguet and San Mariano (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). <em>P. leucopterus</em> has recently been found in degraded areas, but it is not known to what extent it is able to persist in such habitats (L.Heaney pers. comm. 2007). This species does not form large conspicuous roosts in trees, but probably lives in small groups in shaded areas; it has a seasonal presence in some areas (Balbalasan) and might be migratory (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In captivity the species breeds once per year (A. Cariño pers. comm. 2006) and sometimes produces two pups (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18731	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Alcala, E. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	<em>P. leucopterus</em> is a high flying species which is difficult to capture in surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is thought to be moderately common, although there are seasonal fluctuations in abundance which might indicate that it is migratory (Heaney and Utzurrum 1991). It has recently been captured in areas of Luzon from which it was not previously known (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). The population trends of this species are poorly known, but the population is likely to have undergone a significant general decline due to habitat destruction (Utzurrum 1992; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
18731	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Alcala, E. & Cariño, A.B., 2008	The population status of <em>P. leucopterus</em> is poorly known but it has probably undergone a significant decline due to habitat destruction (Utzurrum 1992, Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) due to agriculture, timber production and expanding human settlements. It is hunted in Benguet province, but the effects of this on the population status of the species there are not known (D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18732	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	A species action plan developed by the NGO Action Comoros is being implemented for this species (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). A national environmental education programme has been implemented to raise awareness of this species (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). National legislation to protect this species is being developed (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005) and work has begun to establish a forest reserve for this bat on Moheli and on evaluating a site for a reserve on Anjouan (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is an active captive-breeding programme underway for this species initiated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18732	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Union of the Comoros, where it is only found on the islands of Anjouan and Moheli. On Anjouan, the species avoids lower parts of the island below 300 m asl, but it has been recorded feeding on Moheli at 40 m asl.	eng
18732	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species roosts on steep-sided valleys with south-east facing slopes, near ridge tops and in areas generally associated with natural vegetation (Granek 2002).  Populations of this bat are largely confined to primary tropical moist forest (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Animals feed on pollen, fruit and leaves, particularly of native <em>Ficus</em> species but also includes kapok (<em>Ceiba pentandra</em>) (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2001; Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
18732	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In 2002 there were estimated to be 1,200 bats in 20 roosts, many of which have been recently located as a result of the implementation of a national environmental education programme (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). Prior to the national environmental education programme there were estimated to be fewer than 200 bats.	eng
18732	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The species is threatened by the continuing degradation of its forest habitat by conversion of land to agricultural use, especially the use of lowland areas for export crops (such as cloves). In degraded forest the species is outcompeted by the bat <em>Pteropus seychellensis</em> (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Tree felling has additionally destroyed a number of roosts (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is also increased disturbance because of human population growth, however, the species is not hunted for food (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). The small remaining population is additionally potentially threatened in its restricted range by the effects of tropical cyclones.	eng
18733	conservation	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species occurs in a few protected areas. More research is needed to determine the population status, habitat and ecology, level of utilization and threats to this species.</p>	eng
18733	distribution	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs on Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor and Timor Islands in Indonesia, and East Timor.	eng
18733	habitat	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from a mango plantation (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.). Its preferred habitat is most likely lowland tropical forest.	eng
18733	population	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	There is no information on the population size but it is thought to be not very common.	eng
18733	threats	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species may be threatened by hunting, but more information is needed. Deforestation is occurring within the species' range but it is unknown if it is able to adapt to any habitat modification.	eng
18734	conservation	Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. There are no known populations within protected areas in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.) or Cambodia. The species is protected by monks in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).</p>	eng
18734	distribution	Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known from Yunnan in China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending in to Cambodia, Thailand, and Viet Nam.	eng
18734	habitat	Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	Nothing is known from China about the ecology of this species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In other areas, it is known to form large colonies in trees that can become stripped of leaves by the bats? activity. It feeds in orchards and is regarded as a serious pest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It occurs in mangrove forest in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.). This species travels up to 50 km between colonies (S. Bumrugsri pers. comm.).	eng
18734	population	Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	The largest known colony in Thailand is about 3,000 individuals and up to 11 colonies have been identified. There are three known colonies in Viet Nam (Son Nguyen Truong pers. comm.).	eng
18734	threats	Bumrungsri, S., Suyanto, A. & Francis, C., 2008	In Thailand the species is threatened through loss of roosting habitat, as existing trees die and are not replaced, it is also subject to hunting (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is also threatened in Cambodia by hunting (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
18735	conservation	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hamilton, S. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas. The impacts of hunting on this species need further study.	eng
18735	distribution	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hamilton, S. & Hall, L., 2008	This species occurs throughout the lowlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on the island of Salawati (Indonesia), and the Aru Islands (Indonesia). It typically occurs below 500 m asl.<br/><br/>Helgen (2004) states that reports of <em>Pteropus macrotis</em> from the Torres Strait Islands of Australia refer to <em>P. scapulatus</em>. This is likely true of specimen records, however, non-specimen reports, including photographs, show that the species is present on Boigu and Saibai Islands (Hall 2008) – both within 10 km of mainland Papua New Guinea.	eng
18735	habitat	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hamilton, S. & Hall, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of lowland habitat types including both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, monsoon forest, dry forest, savanna woodland, plantations, and rural gardens (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). It is very common in coastal mangroves (T. Leary pers. comm.). The roosting sites appear to be unrecorded. Very little is known about the reproduction of this species.	eng
18735	population	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hamilton, S. & Hall, L., 2008	It is fairly abundant over much of its range.	eng
18735	threats	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hamilton, S. & Hall, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. There is some local hunting for food in parts of its range.	eng
18736	conservation	Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is probably not found within any protected areas. There should be further research on the impact of habitat degradation on its population size. Population estimates and modelling utilisation data on analog species may be appropriate.	eng
18736	distribution	Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from the islands of Santa Isabel and Tanabuli in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). Extensive searches have not recorded populations of this species on other islands in the Solomons group (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from sea level to 200 m asl. The combined area of the four islands is 12,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18736	habitat	Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in coastal lowlands in coconut plantations and lowland tropical forest. Animals have been recorded feeding on young coconuts at night. It is not a colony rooster; it roosts individually and in small groups in foliage and small tree hollows.	eng
18736	population	Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Flannery (1995) reported that it was common on Santa Isabel. It is also common on Bougainville and Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species has a fairly uniform distribution within appropriate habitat, but not at high density.	eng
18736	threats	Leary, T., Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There has been widespread habitat alteration due to conversion of mature forest for agriculture (subsistence and commercial coconut plantations) and this continues. Santa Isabel has been logged. The ability of this species to persist in degraded areas is unknown. The species also is hunted opportunistically for food, but it is unknown whether this poses a major threat to the species. Stochastic events might also threaten the species.	eng
18737	conservation	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & James, R., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Also, it is now considered a threatened species in Guam under the US Endangered Species Act and the CNMI. It was formerly listed as Endangered on Guam and not listed all in the CNMI (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There is also a recovery plan already for Guam, and a new recovery plan for Guam and the CNMI will be prepared (A. Brooke pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species has been declared locally threatened, and hunting is illegal without a special permit. Hunting regulations should be enforced in Guam and throughout its distribution. The species has been recorded from the Guam National Wildlife Refuge. Measures to control predation by the brown tree snake on remaining populations on Guam are needed. There are ongoing studies into the current distribution and population status of this species. According to a government report, the population fluctuations on the island of Rota are a high priority for research, as are investigation of migration between islands. The species is now listed as threatened throughout the Marianas under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
18737	distribution	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & James, R., 2008	This species ranges from the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and the Ulithi Atoll (and possibly from nearby atolls) in the Federated States of Micronesia.	eng
18737	habitat	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & James, R., 2008	It is found in areas of native tropical forest, coastal strand, and mangroves. Animals roost along cliffs where human disturbance is minimal and there is some protection from winds (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Young have been reported throughout the year (Flannery 1995).	eng
18737	population	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & James, R., 2008	This species has declined dramatically in Marianas. Most islands now have relatively few remaining bats. The island of Pagaen (Northern Marianas Islands) possibly has the largest population of this species; about 2,500 animals were present in the early 1980s (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1989), but this is probably more than are present now (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There were estimated to be 8,700 to 9,000 bats remaining on the entire Marianas island chain in 1983 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>In the Northern Marianas, the population in 2001 was estimated at 6,975 to 7,475 individuals (Johnson 2001). These estimates, however, are out of date and probably too high (A. Brooke pers. comm.). They do not account for the eruption of Anatahan that has killed most bats on that island, and no bats were recorded on Sarigan in 2005. Furthermore, a number of islands in the Northern Marianas were not surveyed by Johnson (A. Brooke pers. comm.). <br/><br/>According to Cruz <em>et al.</em> (2000) between the years 1983 and 2000 there was an 40 percent decrease in the population of fruit bats (the population decreased from 7,000 individuals in 1983 on 6 islands of the Marianas, to about 4,200 in 2000. On the island of Guam, the population is about 100 individuals, and expected to be extirpated within 10 years (A. Brooke pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The population on Ulithi Atoll was small (estimated at about 1,200 bats), but dense, in 1986 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1990). No assessment has been made since then (G. Wiles pers. comm.).	eng
18737	threats	Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & James, R., 2008	The species is considered a delicacy on Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands and as a consequence it is illegally hunted. The introduced brown tree snake, <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, has been a major predator on young <em>P. mariannus</em> and has become a great threat to the long-term survival of this species on Guam (reduces recruitment); the snake may also be present on Saipan. The species also has a limited distribution and habitat is threatened by ongoing deforestation for development. It is susceptible to typhoons, which are common in the area.  Volcanic eruptions on Anatahan are a major threat, since regular eruptions cover large portions of the island in ash. Overgrazing by introduced deer, feral pigs, and goats prevents forest regeneration and promotes the invasion of introduced plants on many of the Mariana Islands (G. Wiles pers. comm.). On the island of Guam, overgrazing by deer is a major threat (the deer populations on Guam are among the highest of any ungulate worldwide) (A. Brooke pers. comm.).	eng
18739	conservation	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species possibly occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species, and to determine the current population status, habitats and the impact of present hunting levels.</p>	eng
18739	distribution	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the central Moluccas (Ambon, Seram, Buru) and adjacent small islands in Indonesia. It is also present in the Kai, Aru, and Tanimbar (also called Timor Laut) island groups. Also thought to have been collected on Sumbawa, located in the middle of the Lesser Sunda Islands (Boadi pers. comm.).	eng
18739	habitat	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in lowland tropical forest. It has been found roosting in mango trees in Sumbawa (Boadi pers. comm.) but this record needs to be confirmed.	eng
18739	population	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species has an extremely small population. There have been only three records of this species from the 20th century in the central Moluccan population. A survey of the Tanimbars in the 1990s recorded this species.	eng
18739	threats	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting and habitat loss due to logging and agriculture.	eng
18740	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., James, D.,Lumsden, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. This species is currently categorised as vermin under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, however, there is a need to encourage the protection of the globally important Andaman and Nicobar Islands population. It is present in the Campbell Bay protected area on Great Nicobar. On Christmas Island a National Park now covers 63% of the island. Control of invasive species on Christmas Island is necessary. A detailed assessment of conservation status and threats is provided for the Christmas Island population by James <em>et al.</em> (2007). Further population assessments, monitoring and taxonomic studies, and appropriate conservation responses are needed for all remaining populations of this species.</p>	eng
18740	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., James, D.,Lumsden, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is limited to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (Bompuka, Car Nicobar, Great Nicobar (including Campbell Bay), Kamorta, Katchal, Kondul, Nancowrie, South Sentinel, Tilangchong, Tressa and Trinket Islands [<em>Pteropus melanotus melanotus</em>] and South Andaman and Rutlans Islands [<em>Pteropus melanotus tytleri</em>]) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), the Mentawi Islands (Nias and Enggano [<em>Pteropus melanotus modiglianii</em>]) of Indonesia, and Christmas Island of Australia (<em>Pteropus melanotus natalis</em>). The population on the island of Enggano is now extirpated following a severe typhoon (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It has been recorded form sea level to an elevation of 1,000 m asl.	eng
18740	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., James, D.,Lumsden, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in large colonies consisting of several thousands of individuals in the mangrove vegetation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). Feeds on both wild and cultivated fruit. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997). It has been observed to feed on <em>Bombax</em> spp. and Sterculia spp. (Aul and Vijaykumar 2003). On Christmas Island part of the population roosts in large camps at traditional locations and part roosts scattered singly and in small groups through the forest. It was recorded roosting in 11 tree species in December 2005-Feb 2006 (Orchard 2006). Camps are always near the coast (D. J. James pers. comm.). Numbers in camps fluctuate widely, possibly in response to winds that facilitate emergence (D. J. James pers. comm.). They feed on a number of rainforest fruits and flowers; of 26 known species in the diet, 10 are introduced species and at least five of these 10 seem to be very important (Orchard 2006). It is relatively diurnal, emerging from camps well before dusk. Non-flying young have been recorded in December and January (Orchard 2006; D. J. James pers. comm.).	eng
18740	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., James, D.,Lumsden, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Aul and Vijaykumar (2003) report a colony of more than 300 individuals in a mangrove creek on Great Nicobar Island. Aul and Vijaykumar (2003) also counted more than 500 individuals in the mangroves and under Nypa palms on Tillangchong Island in the Nicobars; 10-15 individuals have been recorded from palm fronds on Tillangchong Island, with several pups in this colony in the month of March. There appears to be no information on the current status of the population in the Mentawi Islands. On Christmas Island in 1984 the population was estimated to contain 3,500 individuals in five main camps and a further 2,500 individuals scattered singly or in small groups (Tidemann 1985). The camps were thought to have been historical, dating to before human settlement. By 1989 one more camp had been located, bringing the total to six camps, but only containing a hundred or so extra animals (Tidemann <em>et al</em>. 1993). Duncan <em>et al</em>. (1999) interpreted Tidemann?s population figures as ?less than 10,000 animals?. In 1997-1998, few camps could be found and these contained few individuals (P. Meek, via L. Lumsden pers. comm.). In August 2002 only 17 Individuals were recorded during 26 field days of a general fauna survey, and the population was loosely estimated to be in the order of 500 to 1,000 individuals (Corbett <em>et al. </em>2003). In April 2004 only one of the original five known camps could be found, and in November 2004 that camp contained 299 individuals (D. J. James pers. comm.). In December 2005, two of the six colonies once known were active but extensive searches for additional colonies were not successful. Counts in these two colonies from January to March 2006 varied between 14 and 500 individuals, apparently in response to local wind conditions. The number of bats roosting away from camps has not been estimated accurately, but is likely to be less than the number in camps; nocturnal surveys reveal wide distribution of foraging animals. The entire population was unlikely to number more than 1,000 individuals in March 2006 (Orchard 2006; D. J. James pers. comm.). In September 2006, there was a count of 1,381 individuals on Christmas Island (James <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
18740	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., James, D.,Lumsden, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural purposes. It is also threatened due to tourism related developmental activities (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and from overhunting at daytime roosts, as the bones are crushed and used as asthma medicine (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). These bats are kept as pets on Car Nicobar, Kamorta, Katchal, Pulo Milo and Trinket Islands. The December 2004 tsunami is likely to have damaged the mangrove habitat of this species, however, further research is needed to confirm that the species has declined because of this event. The population on the Indonesian island of Enggano may have been wiped out by a hurricane, although this needs to be confirmed, and while threats to the species on Nias are not known, they presumably include general habitat loss. It is preyed on by feral cats on Christmas Island, and there has also been some hunting, including large numbers (up to 200), in the past, however, there is no recent evidence of hunting in this part of the species range (D. J. James pers. comm.). Corbett <em>et al.</em> (2003) hypothesised that a severe cyclone in 1988 initiated the decline in the Christmas Island population. However, other anecdotal evidence indicates that the decline began in the mid 1990?s (Orchard 2006). The Yellow Crazy Ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> has caused general ecological breakdown on Christmas Island since the late 1990?s (O?Dowd <em>et al.</em> 2003). Disease (speculative) may be a factor. Threats to the Christmas Island population have proven difficult to identify, and are likely to be a combination of factors (Orchard 2006). James <em>et al.</em> (2007), provide a detailed account of possible threats to the species including, predation or disturbance by both, or either, introduced and native species; predation and/or persecution by humans (mostly formerly); loss of habitat; storm events; accidental poisoning; light pollution; and disease and parasites. James <em>et al</em>. (2007), also give a 'threat assessment matrix' indicating the likelihood of each potential threat.	eng
18741	conservation	Buden, D., Wiles, G., Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Allison, A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES, effectively prohibiting international trade in this species since 1989. Field studies are needed to determine the current status of populations throughout the species range. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected. It is found in the Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve and Ant Atoll Conservation Area.	eng
18741	distribution	Buden, D., Wiles, G., Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the Federated States of Micronesia where it has been recorded from the islands of Pohnpei, Ant Atoll, and Pakin Atoll. The species has also been recorded from the Mortlock Islands (holotype of the synonym <em>Pteropus breviceps</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992), however, this record is now considered erroneous (D. Buden pers. comm.). Recent surveys of the Mortlocks did not detect its presence (D. Buden pers. comm.).	eng
18741	habitat	Buden, D., Wiles, G., Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Allison, A., 2008	The species has been recorded in areas of native tropical forest. It feeds upon the fruit of Pandanus and endemic palms (<em>Clinostigma</em> spp.), and flowers of kapok trees (<em>Ceiba pentandra</em>) (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to one young at a time.	eng
18741	population	Buden, D., Wiles, G., Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Allison, A., 2008	This species was considered to be abundant on Pohnpei and Ant Atoll by Jackson (1962) and a colony of 200 to 300 animals was reported from Sokeh's Rock, Pohnpei in 1981 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has been suggested that significant declines occurred in the 1980s and 1990s (Rainey 1990). However, observations in the late 1990s and continuing to the present suggest the species is again fairly common (G. Wiles and D. Buden pers. comm.). It was described as “fairly common” on Ant Atoll (2 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1994-1995 (Buden 1996a) and as “uncommon” on Pakin Atoll in 1994, where about 100 bats estimated to be present (Buden 1996b).	eng
18741	threats	Buden, D., Wiles, G., Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Allison, A., 2008	This species was most significantly threatened by overexploitation for export for the luxury food market in Guam. Wiles (1992) records the export of 15,223 animals from Pohnpei to Guam between 1979 and 1989. International trade in this species was restricted by its listing on CITES Appendix I in 1989. Currently, it may be threatened by habitat loss through conversion of native forest to cultivated land and plantations, especially for kava (<em>Piper methysticum</em>) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Merlin and Raynor 2005).	eng
18742	conservation	Salas, L., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. An assessment of hunting pressure is needed, as is a review of recent population declines on parts of the Gazelle Peninsula, East New Britain (Papua New Guinea).	eng
18742	distribution	Salas, L., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species occurs on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and the Raja Ampat islands (Indonesia) (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998). There is one record from Thursday Island in Australia (L. Hall pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
18742	habitat	Salas, L., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is highly gregarious and roosts of several thousand individuals have been observed in tree crowns. It has been recorded foraging in a number of tropical forest habitats, and presumably also occurs in rural gardens and other areas with fruiting food trees. Female gives birth to a single young.	eng
18742	population	Salas, L., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is generally common and abundant.	eng
18742	threats	Salas, L., Helgen, K. & Hamilton, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It could be threatened by localized hunting for food over much of its range (especially in western East Sepik). In New Britain only small colonies of less than a hundred animals have been observed in recent and heavily disturbed areas; there is no evidence of any large camps remaining. The effects of reductions in colony sizes in New Britain render the species more susceptible to hunting here than elsewhere in its range (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The species was reported to be rare on the island of Manus (Papua New Guinea) in 1985, possibly because of the effects of a mobilivirus outbreak. Animals appeared to be recovering slowly in 1988 (Flannery 1995a; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18743	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Tatayah, V. & Racey, P.A., 2008	It became a protected species in 1993 on Mauritius (Nyhagen <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is reported to occur in protected areas, including the Black River Gorges National Park (Nyhagen 2004), nature reserves and mountain reserves. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.  There is a clear need to assess the population size, population dynamics, response to cyclones, assess relative fruit predation, roosting habitat requirements and impact of culling on this species and effectiveness of netting trees to prevent foraging.	eng
18743	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Tatayah, V. & Racey, P.A., 2008	Since becoming extirpated from Réunion in the early eighteenth century, this species has been restricted to the western Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. In 2007 a small colony of <em>P. niger</em> (up to 6 individuals) was located on Réunion, though a few individuals have been observed on previous occasions over the past decade, most likely blown over from Mauritius by annual cyclones. Breeding within this small population is suspected but not confirmed.	eng
18743	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Tatayah, V. & Racey, P.A., 2008	It is usually found in primary forest or in areas with both native and introduced trees (Nyhagen, <em>et al.</em> 2005). It feeds on a variety of different plants, including both endemic and introduced species (Nyhagen <em>et al.</em> 2005). Over a third of its endemic food plants in a seven month study were listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, but 50% of its diet was from introduced plant species (Nyhagen <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
18743	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Tatayah, V. & Racey, P.A., 2008	The present population on Mauritius appears to be stable; 14 roosting sites were reported by Nyhagen (2004), but a more recent study by Robin (2007) identified 57 roosts. This study only looked at 24 of the 57 roosts and calculated a minimum population size of 12,000-16,000. It can therefore be assumed that the minimum island wide population is over 25,000 (V, Tatayah pers. comm.).<br/><br/>.	eng
18743	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Tatayah, V. & Racey, P.A., 2008	Like other <em>Pteropus</em> species in the region, this species is threatened by cyclones, the removal of feeding and roosting trees, and persecution/hunting by people (Carroll and Feistner 1996). Up until recently populations of this species were considered healthy because of the lack of any severe cyclones, and active protection (Nyhagen 2004). In October 2006 the government endorsed a culling programme for 2,000 bats because of their perceived role in inflicting serious economic damage on lychees. This is obviously in conflict with the fact that the species is protected under the Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993. Only six bats were officially culled, despite illegal hunting parties being known to kill up to a few hundred bats in one night. The law is currently being revised and it is unknown whether further culling will be supported, although most likely it will be.	eng
18744	conservation	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
18744	distribution	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	This species is known only from the islands of Nendö and Tömotu Neo in the southern Solomon Islands (Leary and Aujare 1994; Flannery 1995). It has one of the most restricted ranges of Pteropus in the Solomon Islands (Leary and Aujare 1994); the range size is about 600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18744	habitat	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	It roosts singularly and in small groups, but also occasionally in larger groups (sometimes up to 100 or 200 individuals). This species roosts on small islands and mangrove areas, and it forages in primary forest, secondary forest, and gardens (where it is commonly captured). The diet of this species consists of mangrove flowers (<em>Bruguiera gymnorrhiza</em>) and fruits (Leary and Aujare 1994).	eng
18744	population	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	This species is common (Leary and Aujare 1994).	eng
18744	threats	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	Garden expansion (subsistence agriculture) is likely to limit the availability of roosting sites. Some degree of hunting is likely to be a threat. The species is vulnerable to population decline due to stochastic events (particularly cyclones).	eng
18745	conservation	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is found in Manusela National Park. A protected area needs to be established on Buru to protect the habitat of this species.</p>	eng
18745	distribution	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is recorded in the Maluku Islands from Buru, Ambon and Seram islands in Indonesia. There were four localities on three islands historically, and now it is probably absent from Ambon.	eng
18745	habitat	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species probably occurs only in old growth forest.	eng
18745	population	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species has only been collected four times. The most recent collection was in 1993, but there have been no recent surveys.	eng
18745	threats	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting and deforestation for logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
18746	conservation	Brescia, F., 2008	This species has been recorded in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Local wildlife legislation prohibits the commercial trade in fruit bats and provides a lengthy closed season to hunting. There is a need to further enforce this legislation. Further surveys are needed to identify and protect important sites and habitat for this species. Ongoing studies into its population numbers and trends, degree of utilisation, current status, and ecology are being conducted by IAC (Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien) (Brescia 2007).	eng
18746	distribution	Brescia, F., 2008	The Ornate Flying Fox is endemic to New Caledonia where it has been recorded from the islands of Lifou, Maré, and New Caledonia (Flannery 1995). It appears to range from sea level to around 1,066 m asl. (Sanborn and Nicholson 1950, as referenced in Flannery 1995).	eng
18746	habitat	Brescia, F., 2008	This species formerly roosted in large numbers in trees. It is believed to forage nocturnally and have a strong fidelity to roost sites (Flannery 1995; Brescia 2007). Roosts have been recorded at the upper end of dense tropical moist forest growing in gullies on slopes (Flannery 1995). It appears as though the species does not breed until its second year, after which females give birth to a single young.	eng
18746	population	Brescia, F., 2008	This species was once considered to be common. The number of Ornate Flying Foxes, however, has dramatically declined over the last 50 years due to over-hunting, including local commercial harvesting (Brescia 2007). Flannery (1995) reports that its numbers were also drastically reduced in the 1960s by the spread of a disease.	eng
18746	threats	Brescia, F., 2008	The main threat to the survival of this species appears to be local hunting for food and traditional use. Legislation providing a short fruit bat hunting season is in place (the hunting season only includes the weekends of April, with a quota of 5 bats per hunter), however, reports of substantial illegal hunting and commercial harvesting of fruit bats is widespread (Brescia 2007).	eng
18747	conservation	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected areas.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18747	distribution	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the North Molluca Islands (Halmahera and Obi island groups) and the island of Gag in Indonesia. Records from Sulawesi are in error (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).	eng
18747	habitat	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	It is caught abundantly on shrubs in the understorey of clove garden (Boadi pers. comm.).	eng
18747	population	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is moderately abundant.	eng
18747	threats	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is hunted, but at present it does not appear to be at a level that is threatening the species.	eng
18749	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
18749	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species was endemic to Palau.	eng
18749	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	There are no records available concerning the natural history of this species.	eng
18749	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	It is known from only two specimens collected prior to 1874.	eng
18749	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The specific causes of the extinction of <em>Pteropus pilosus</em> are unknown. Hunting for food by local people may have been a contributing factor as well as the degradation of native forest habitat (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
18750	conservation	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from some reserves, however, these are not considered to be well protected.	eng
18750	distribution	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is restricted to west Papuan islands of Numfoor, Rani, and Yapen (all to Indonesia).	eng
18750	habitat	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The species occurs in both primary tropical forest and disturbed forest. It has been recorded from beaches and offshore islands. Flannery (1995) mentions the capture of an individual in a rural garden. This is a foliage rooster, likely in groups and sometimes on offshore islands (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
18750	population	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is moderately common.	eng
18750	threats	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting for food, and general forest clearance for timber.	eng
18751	conservation	Lunney, D., Richards, G. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present within a number of protected areas, however, none of these contain all of the conditions needed to maintain viable populations (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further studies are needed into the population status and trends of this species, demographics, and population structure, in order to understand movement patterns (notably for recolonisation), define habitat requirements relative to protected areas (especially in winter/spring habitat), and to develop cost-effective methods of protecting fruit crops from this species (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species breeds well in captivity (Strahan 1995). Education is needed to reduce negative public attitudes to this species. There is also a need for an assessment and reduction of any threats from power lines, barbed wire fences, and netting. There is a draft Recovery Plan for this species (Eby and Lunney 2006).	eng
18751	distribution	Lunney, D., Richards, G. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland, through eastern New South Wales to Victoria. There has been a contraction of the northern extent of the range in recent years (by 500 km in past 100 years), and an increase in the numbers in the south, with increasing permanent colonies (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
18751	habitat	Lunney, D., Richards, G. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in tropical moist forest, open forest, closed and open woodlands, Melaleuca swamps, Banksia woodlands, mangroves, and commercial fruit plantations. It also occurs in urban areas where suitable foraging and roosting habitat are available. The primary food source are the flowers of Eucalyptus, Banksia, Melaleuca species, plus rainforest fruits. It roosts in colonies in patches of trees and dense vegetation. Females generally give birth to a single young (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; D. Lunney pers. comm.). Generation length is likely to be around six or seven years (A. Divljan pers. comm.).	eng
18751	population	Lunney, D., Richards, G. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, but its habitat is limited (Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008). The population is declining throughout the range except in Victoria where the species is increasing in numbers (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Surveys across the range showed declines of over 30% since 1990, and these declines were predicted continue in the future due to habitat loss (Eby and Lunney 2006).	eng
18751	threats	Lunney, D., Richards, G. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is threatened by loss of foraging and roosting habitat, largely through clearance of native vegetation for agriculture and forestry operations plus urban development (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species requires multiple, dispersed populations of food trees (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). The winter and early spring range of this species is limited to a narrow-coastal strip in Queensland and New South Wales that is targeted for residential development, and this is the primary threat (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Eby and Lunney 2002). <br/><br/>It is a pest of commercial fruit trees in parts of its range and animals are directly killed under license in orchards in New South Wales and Queensland; there is also likely to be unlicensed killing (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Tidemann <em>et al.</em> 2008; D. Lunney pers. comm.). The species is believed to be threatened by competition and hybridisation with <em>Pteropus alecto</em>, which has expanded southward at the same time as the range of <em>P. poliocephalus</em> has been reduced in the north (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; G. Richards pers. comm.). The rapid rate of expansion range extension by <em>P. alecto</em> (by 500 km from 1990 to 2006) is of particular concern (P. Eby pers. comm.). It is additionally threatened by pollutants in urban areas and potentially by a number of viral pathogens (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
18752	conservation	Ishii, N. & Maeda, K., 2008	This species was designated as a Natural Monument in 1969 under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties and capture without permission (including hunting) is prohibited. Minami-Iwo and Kita-Iwo are protected islands and they have no human inhabitants. There is a military base on Iwo. A National Wildlife Protection Area that includes the species'  habitat was established in 1980. This species is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) on the Japanese Red List (2007)  . It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18752	distribution	Ishii, N. & Maeda, K., 2008	This species is known only from the Ogasawara Islands in Japan, with records from Chichi-jima, Haha-jima, Kita-Iwo-jima, Iwo and Minami-Iwo-jima (Abe, <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
18752	habitat	Ishii, N. & Maeda, K., 2008	It is found in forest habitats. They feed in orchards on the northern two islands, and are known to cause crop damage.	eng
18752	population	Ishii, N. & Maeda, K., 2008	On Chichi-jima, the species was considered extinct during the 1970s, but they were rediscovered in 1986, and have been slowly increasing. <br/><br/>In March 2006 it was estimated that 100-150 individuals live on Chichi-jima and less than 50 individuals on Haha-jima. The islands of Kita-iwo-jima, Minami-iwo-jima, and Iwo-jima are very hard to access, so there is not enough data for population estimates. In 2001, the survey on Kita-iwo-jima directly observed 25 individuals and it was estimated that in total no more than 50 individuals live on this island. The last survey on Minami-Iwo-jima was conducted in 1982, and the population was estimated to be no more than 100 individuals (Ishii, 1982). On Iwo-jima, there are photos of this species on the island taken in 2004, although no survey on population size was conducted. The population size appears to be <br/>very small because of the low frequency of observational records. Conducting surveys on Iwo-jima is very hard, because of the topography and because it is a military base. Based on the above information, it is estimated that the population size is 300 individuals or less (Masako Izawa pers. comm.).	eng
18752	threats	Ishii, N. & Maeda, K., 2008	The main threats to the species are deforestation, disturbance at roost sites by tourists and construction activities on the two northernmost islands, and accidental mortality in nets placed around trees to prevent damage to fruit (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). Feral cats and dogs may also be a threat.<br/><br/>The islands had been occupied by the United States from the end of the Second World War until 1968, during which time the bats were hunted for export.	eng
18753	conservation	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Cariño, A.B., Garcia, H., Pangunlatan, L.M., Ramala, S.P. & Alcala, E., 2008	<em>P. pumilis</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Habitat conservation and control of over-harvesting are important conservation priorities.	eng
18753	distribution	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Cariño, A.B., Garcia, H., Pangunlatan, L.M., Ramala, S.P. & Alcala, E., 2008	The little golden mantled flying fox occurs in the Philippines and Miangas (Palmas) Island in Indonesia (between the Talaud Islands and Mindanao). In the Philippines it is widespread excluding the Batanes/Babuyan, Luzon and Palawan faunal regions with records from Balut, Camiguin, Leyte, Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur), Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, and Tablas where it occurs at an elevation range from sea level to 1,110 m and rarely to 1,250 m (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). There are unverified Philippine records from Cebu and Camotes (L. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006) and Tawi-Tawi (S. Ramalya pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18753	habitat	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Cariño, A.B., Garcia, H., Pangunlatan, L.M., Ramala, S.P. & Alcala, E., 2008	<em>P. pumilus</em> is associated with primary and well-developed secondary lowland forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and is uncommon outside of forest although on Cebu a roosting site has been recorded from a scrubland area. This species breeds once annually (A. Cariño pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18753	population	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Cariño, A.B., Garcia, H., Pangunlatan, L.M., Ramala, S.P. & Alcala, E., 2008	This flying fox is most common on small islands and uncommon to rare on larger islands (Heaney 1984; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998;  Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Utzurrum 1992), its roosts are usually inconspicuous (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). It is considered abundant on Camigium and moderately common on Negros (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). A single individual was netted during 144 hrs of mist netting in Salagdoong during a 2001 study of three Department of Environment and Natural Resources managed reforestation sites on Siquijor Island (Godfrey <em>et al</em>. unpublished paper). During a study of 12 sites over a period spanning 1999 to 2003, 12 individuals were captured at six sites (Cariño 2004). Populations have declined in the past due to habitat degradation and destruction and it is predicted to continue to decline due to further habitat destruction and hunting pressure.	eng
18753	threats	Heaney, L., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Cariño, A.B., Garcia, H., Pangunlatan, L.M., Ramala, S.P. & Alcala, E., 2008	<em>P. pumilus</em> is declining due to habitat destruction, and it may continue to do so, although it does remain fairly widespread. An ethnobiological study has shown the species to be under heavy hunting pressure on Mindoro (H. Garcia pers. comm. 2006) and it is subject to hunting on Negros (Cariño <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is anticipated that hunting will cause further population declines. It might also be subject to persecution.	eng
18754	conservation	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Field studies are needed to determine the current status of populations throughout the species' range. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and possibly protected. It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
18754	distribution	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species occurs on the islands of Bougainville and Buka of Papua New Guinea, and is found on the Solomon Islands of Choiseul, Arnavon (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.), Vella Lavella, Shortland, Simbo, Ghizo, Kolombangara, Mono, New Georgia, Santa Isabel, Guadacanal and Malaita (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded from sea level to 700 m asl.	eng
18754	habitat	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species often roosts in large colonies, but has also been recorded as roosting singly in tall trees in secondary forest, and exceptionally in caves. It has been recorded from mature and secondary tropical forest, mangroves, and coconut plantations. Animals have been found feeding on Malay Apple flowers and captured in coconut groves. The species is estimated to have a generation time of five to six years (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
18754	population	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is common on a number of islands in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). The species is also fairly common on Bougainville and Buka. There were 5 observed colonies on the eastern coast of Bougainville during 2002-2005, a previously reported large colony in the vicinity of Arawa has now disappeared (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18754	threats	Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	There were major die-offs of populations of this species on Bougainville and Buka in the 1980s; the cause is unknown, but it may have been related to disease or environmental factors such as temperature increase. There continue to be reports of periodic die-offs of large numbers of individuals (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). Bonaccorso (1998) considered the ongoing and rapid logging of the Solomon Islands to be a significant threat. Flannery (1995) reported that it was heavily hunted for food in some areas, but remained relatively common. Targeted hunting at roosting sites may be a major threat to the species (approximately 10,000 bats may be harvested per year on Bougainville; S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The human population on Bougainville and Buka is estimated at 200,000 people, and could potentially lead to an increase in opportunistic hunting. Cyclones and other storms may have a significant impact on this species. The population on Malaita Island was decimated by a cyclone in the 1990s (Flannery 1995). The islands of Isabel, Choiseul and New Georgia have, and continue to be, heavily logged, and the island of Malaita has the highest human population in the Solomon Islands (T. Leary pers. comm.). Some animals are hunted for their teeth, but this is probably not a major concern (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
18755	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	A successful captive breeding programme for this species was initiated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, with breeding populations of this bat now maintained at 28 zoos around the world (Powell and Wehnelt 2003). In-situ conservation efforts have concentrated on restoration of the natural habitat, watershed protection and awareness raising among the local people through environmental education programmes (Powell and Wehnelt 2003; Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005).   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18755	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is confined to the western Indian Ocean island of Rodrigues (Mauritius). It was historically present on the island of Mauritius and Round Island (Mauritius), but is now extirpated from here. It appears to range up to around 200 m asl.	eng
18755	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is generally associated with forested areas, and can be found roosting in remaining patches of both primary and secondary forest. Tamarind trees are an important food source, but it also feeds on a variety of different fruits (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
18755	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Until around 1916 the species was reported to be abundant on Rodrigues, and even in 1955 large numbers (about 500) still roosted in tamarinds (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). In 1965 there were fewer bats but the species was still common. There was a marked decline in the 1970's, and following Cyclone Celine II 1979, the population was reduced to around 70 bats. By 1980 the population had recovered to between 200 and 250 animals (Carroll and Mace 1988), and at the end of February 1990 the population was estimated to be greater than 1,000 bats (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Recently the population had recovered to around 5,076 bats (Powell and Wehnelt 2003), however, the impact of cyclone Kalunde in March 2003 appears to have reduced the population to around 4,000 animals (Anon. 2006).	eng
18755	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Deforestation has been a serious threat to the species, especially where mature fruit trees and important roost trees were felled. Because of the deforestation of this forest buffer, any remaining patches of forest (and their roosting bats), are now much more susceptible to tropical cyclones. These cyclones can cause significant fluctuations in bat population size and, along with shortage of food and dehydration, are now the major current threat to the species (Powell and Wehnelt 2003). In the past the species was also hunted for food, however, this is now rare (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
18756	conservation	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Rabearivelo, A., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix II and is a game species under Malagasy law (Durbin 2007) but neither of these provide any practical <em>in situ</em> conservation measures (Racey <em>et al.</em> in press). There are a few roosts in protected areas, notably Parc National Kirindy-Mité, Parc National de Masoala, Parc National de Mananara-nord (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Berenty Private Reserve (Long 2002), but many of the existing parks and reserves appear to be without roosting colonies (e.g. Goodman 1996, 1999; Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2002; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Schmid and Alonso 2005). The ongoing process to triple the surface of protected areas in Madagascar is providing an unprecedented opportunity to include traditional roosts in the new conservation sites. There is also significant scope for local institutions to conserve roosts and this is already occurring in some parts of Madagascar where the bats use sacred forests (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007b) or where communities have created social contracts to protect the bats (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a).	eng
18756	distribution	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Rabearivelo, A., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar (Simmons 2005). It is one of the most widespread bat species on the island and appears to only be absent from the highly populated central highlands (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). The highest density of roost sites is  in coastal regions, especially from Morombe in the south-west to Antsiranana in the north (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
18756	habitat	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Rabearivelo, A., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It roosts in a variety of different tree species where the bats hang on the outermost branches (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Long and Racey 2007). Roosts are very rare inside intact forest and are usually found in forest fragments, small islands or mangroves (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Occasionally, <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations are also used (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a). The majority of roosts are in small areas of relatively degraded vegetation with a few large trees. Roosting bats are easily disturbed by people and cattle that venture near the roost and colonies readily take flight (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003). Once disturbed the bats may move to an alternative roost site in the vicinity and it appears that each colony requires more than one roost site as a response to disturbance but also maybe to shifting patterns of food availability (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a). This species can survive in heavily modified landscapes through feeding on a mixture of native and introduced plants (Raheriaisena 2005; Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Long and Racey 2007). It is known to travel at least 17 km a night between roosting and foraging areas (Long 2002) and may actually regularly travel much further than this.<br/><br/>The diet consists predominantly of fruit juices which are squeezed from fruit in the mouth. Large quantities of seeds are accidentally ingested during feeding and are later dispersed at other foraging sites, during flight or at the roost. There is some evidence that seeds that have passed through the digestive tract of <em>P. rufus</em> incur a fitness advantage through increased germination success (Racey <em>et al</em>. in press). Other plants parts are also consumed, including flowers, nectar and leaves. In the south, nectar from introduced plants is an important dietary component throughout the year (Long and Racey 2007). Some plants have evolved to attract nocturnal mammals like bats as pollinators and <em>P. rufus</em> feeds non-destructively on the nectar of two threatened baobab species (Baum 1995; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006). Because of its ability to travel long distances and its capability as a seed disperser and pollinato,r <em>P. rufus</em> is widely believed to be a key species in fragmented forest ecosystems (Bollen and Van Elsacker 2002; Bollen <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
18756	population	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Rabearivelo, A., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	Roosts are conspicuous and noisy but the bats are often tightly clustered making abundance estimates at the larger sites difficult. MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported that colony size ranged from 10 to 5,000 animals with a median of 400. They found that nationally 17.5% of 154 roosts had been abandoned in the last ten years and desertion rates were much higher (70%) in the central highlands. The estimated national population size in 2000 was 300,000 (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
18756	threats	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Rabearivelo, A., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are numerous threats to this species. It is listed as a game species under Malagasy law and can be legally hunted between May and August (Durbin 2007). Only the few roosts that are located in protected areas therefore receive some protection (Racey <em>et al.</em> in press). <em>Pteropus rufus</em> is hunted for food across Madagascar (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Rakotondravony 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Racey <em>et al</em>. in press) where it is an important subsistence food but also of commercial importance. Although quantitative data on the supply of <em>P. rufus</em> for food and the impact of this harvest on colonies/populations is lacking, there is some evidence that the offtake is locally unsustainable (Racey <em>et al</em>. in press). Hunting occurs at roost sites and where the bats forage, especially when they feed on trees in villages (Jenkins and Racey in press). There is evidence that <em>P. rufus</em> from Ile Sainte Marie is hunted commercially and frozen shipments are sent to the mainland port of Toamasina (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). The conversion of the forest used by roosting bats into agriculture is another threat to <em>P. rufus</em> and results in the permanent loss of suitable trees which in many cases have been used for decades. <em>Pteropus rufus</em> feeds on a number of cultivated fruits that have a high economic value in rural Madagascar and is often subjected to persecution.	eng
18757	conservation	Brooke, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	Samoan Flying Fox is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Continued enforcement of export bans of this species is necessary to aid recovery. Domestic legislation to regulate hunting is needed over all the species' range states. Legal protection is present in some protected areas in Samoa and the National Park of American Samoa, which contains important sites for foraging and roosting (A. Brooke pers. comm.). Local awareness programmes are needed to emphasize the importance of wildlife resources. Key sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Both flying fox species (<em>Pteropus samoensis</em> and <em>Pteropus tonganus</em>) are still under a hunting ban in American Samoa, however, this legislation is temporary (A. Brooke pers. comm.). There is a ban on hunting any bat in American Samoa, but bats are taken for personal consumption as this ban is not widely enforced (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, there is a need to assess the distribution (particularly its occurrence in the Lau Group) and to protect native forests (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
18757	distribution	Brooke, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	Samoan Flying Fox is restricted to Fiji, Samoa, and American Samoa. In Fiji it is known from the islands of Vatu Vara, Cicia, Vanua Balavu, Kadavu, Ovalau, Taveuni, Vanua Levu, Viti Levu, and probably occurs on some medium-sized islands in the Lau Group (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Samoa, it has been recorded on the islands of 'Upolu and Savai'i. In American Samoa it has been recorded on Tutuila, Ofu, and Ta'u (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). The species was prehistorically present in Tonga, but was extirpated at the time of Polynesian colonization (Koopman and Steadman 1995).	eng
18757	habitat	Brooke, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	Unlike most other pteropodids, this species roosts alone or in small family groups; most often in the forest canopy. It is found in primary tropical moist forest, and less often in agroforest, plantations, and village areas especially when roosting (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). The females are believed to give birth to a single young annually.	eng
18757	population	Brooke, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	Samoan Flying Fox appears to be regularly encountered in Fiji and American Samoa. Overall, populations of this species are not large anywhere and may be slowly declining (A. Brooke pers. comm.). The population in American Samoa has been stable since 1996 and was estimated at approximately 900 animals in the late 1990s (Brooke 2001). In Samoa, the populations are scattered, but it is found in all forested areas, while in American Samoa this species can be observed, island-wide (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, the species is moderately common in some lowland areas of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). It also occurs on some medium-sized islands, but usually avoids smaller islands.	eng
18757	threats	Brooke, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	In Samoa and American Samoa, it is principally threatened by overexploitation and forest clearance (logging and conversion to cultivated land). Populations underwent drastic declines in the 1980s. Commercial hunting of the species largely took place to supply the export demand for fruit bats as a luxury food item in Guam and the Northern Marianas. However, this is no longer a threat to the species, because it was listed on Appendix I of CITES in 1990, and international trade in this species is effectively illegal. Hunting of bats for the domestic market appears to have increased in Samoa and American Samoa since the 1980s, and is still a concern today (A. Brooke pers. comm.). In Fiji, the hunting of this species is only for local consumption and is not a major threat to the species, particularly on large islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, if Fijians either begin to hunt flying foxes with guns or to collect for trade the threat of overexploitation could become serious (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Populations throughout the range of this species are susceptible to typhoons and other storm events (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). In the early 1990s, storms diminished populations in Samoa and American Samoa, by destroying food sources and leading to noticeable changes is foraging behaviour and overhunting (Daschbach 1990; Craig <em>et al.</em> 1994; Pierson <em>et al.</em> 1996; Grant <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
18758	conservation	Hall, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in some protected areas.	eng
18758	distribution	Hall, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is widespread in western, eastern, and northern Australia (including Boigu and Thursday Islands in the Torres Strait), and is also known from a single collection of four skulls from Western Province, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Helgen 2004; Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Vagrants occur to the south of the main range, including to Kangaroo Island. It ranges from sea level to 300 m asl.	eng
18758	habitat	Hall, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is found in sclerophyll woodland, paperbark, bamboo, mangroves, and occasionally in orchards. Also found in ornamental trees (M. Pennay pers. comm.). Roosting sites can contain over a million individuals (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is a very nomadic species (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to a single young (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
18758	population	Hall, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
18758	threats	Hall, L. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by clearance of suitable forest habitat. The species occasionally damages fruit crops, although it is not a serious pest (Birt <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
18759	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	A large population (2,000 to 3,000 bats) of this species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park on Mahé, Seychelles (Nicholl and Racey 1981). There is a general need to continue monitoring activities for this species in order to detect any possible declines and to determine if there are any movements between populations. Studies are underway to better determine the taxonomic status of the population of bats from Mafia Island (<em>Pteropus seychellensis comorensis</em>) largely to understand if this population should be recognised at the species level distinct from <em>P. seychellensis</em>. The population of Mafia Island may be threatened, and an assessment of the situation on this island and of the possibilities for the species’ protection there is highly desirable (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18759	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	This species is has been recorded from the Seychelles, the Union of the Comoro and Tanzania. In the Seychelles it is present on a number of islands including Mahé, Praslin, La Digue, and Silhouette. Gerlach (2004) mentions that it has recently been recorded roosting on a number of islands where its presence was previously unconfirmed. In the Comoros it is known from the islands of Anjouan, Grand Comore and Moheli. In Tanzania, it is restricted to Mafia island.	eng
18759	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest and coral rag forest. Roosting take place in trees. In addition to native plants the bats also feed on cultivated fruits and are considered a minor nuisance in some areas. It is considered to be an important dispersal agent for some of the native forest trees, including some rare endemics (Gerlach 2004).	eng
18759	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	This species is widespread throughout the Seychelles, with some colonies consisting of up to 300 individuals. It is very common in villages and towns (Goodman 2007). The population was estimated to be around 10,000 individuals on the Seychelles in 1979, and was believed to be close to this level in 2004 although adequate censuses have not been completed for all islands (Gerlach 2004).	eng
18759	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Howell, K. & Gerlach, J., 2008	Overall, there currently appear to be no major threats to the species. There is some limited hunting for food on a few islands in the species range (e.g.. Mahé and Praslin in the Seychelles) however, this does not appear to be significantly impacting the population at present. Additional localised threats include mortality through collision with power lines, and possible persecution as a pest of fruit crops.	eng
18760	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further work is needed to determine whether or not this species is valid. If it is, research will be needed onm its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.</p>	eng
18760	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in the Philippines and Indonesia. In the Philippines, it is reported from Basilan, Malanipa, the tip of the Zamboanga peninsula on Mindanao (Zamboanga del Sur Province), as well as Sanga-sanga, Sibutu, and Tawi-tawi in the Sulu Islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The species is also known from two small islands in Indonesia, off the southeast coast of Borneo, Masalambu Besar (Solombo Besar) and Mata Siri (Java Sea), and from Karakelong in the Talaud Islands (Simmons 2005; K. Helgen pers. comm.). Previous reports from Cebu, Mactan, and Negros in the Philippines were based on subadult Pteropus hypomelanus (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). All reports of the species are from low elevations, up to 800 m asl.	eng
18760	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is virtually unknown, except that they have been recorded to roost in coconut palms (Haribon Project unpublished data). It is likely to be associated with lowland forests, but it is unclear whether or not populations are able to persist in lightly logged forests.	eng
18760	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	There have been no definitive records, confirmed by museum specimens, in over 70 years, but there have been recent reports of several large colonies on Tawi-tawi (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). A project there recorded the species in 2004 but there are still no recent specimens (Haribon Project unpublished data).	eng
18760	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Although the species is not hunted for food, they are shot for target practice on Tawi-Tawi (Brooks pers. comm. 2006). It is likely that it is negatively impacted by serious loss of forest, which is ongoing within its range.	eng
18761	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	No longer applicable.   This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18761	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species was previously known from Mauritius and Réunion. It was restricted to elevations of between 1,200 and 1,600 m asl.	eng
18761	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	It roosted in trees and was sometimes found in rocks. Its very long and dense fur suggest that it may have had a preference for cool roosting places, such as the higher altitudes in Réunion, and its reported ability to exploit suitably rocky substrates indicate that it was not dependent on forest or even trees for roosting places (Bergmans, 1990).	eng
18761	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is now extinct. It is believed to have become extinct on Mauritius between 1864 and 1873. It is likely to have disappeared from Réunion in the 1860s. It may have lasted a little longer but is now certain to be extinct.  In the 1730s it was common enough to consider for the bat oil trade.	eng
18761	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Both deforestation and local hunting are thought to have contributed to the extinction of this species.  It was thought to have lived in hollow trees.	eng
18762	conservation	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from Manusela National Park, Seram. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species, the severity of threats to it, and the identification of important roosting and foraging sites.	eng
18762	distribution	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This little-known species is restricted to the central Moluccan islands of Buru, Seram, and Ambon (all in Indonesia). It has been recorded at sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
18762	habitat	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been reported from primary tropical moist forest. It is a foliage rooster, likely not to occur in large colonies (F. Bonaccorso, pers comm.). Generation length of this species is likely to be around 3-5 years (F. Bonaccorso and K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
18762	population	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is common in undisturbed primary forest.	eng
18762	threats	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Loss of habitat through logging activities and local hunting for food are considered to be threats to this species.	eng
18763	conservation	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18763	distribution	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	This species was endemic to Guam. Only three specimens were collected, the last being shot by hunters in 1968. Despite intensive field work on the island’s fruit bats, there have been no confirmed records of the Guam Fruit Bat since that time. There was a possible sighting of the species in the late 1970s (G. Wiles pers. comm.).	eng
18763	habitat	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	There appears to be little recorded concerning the natural history of this species.	eng
18763	population	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	This species is considered extinct; there is no information about former abundance.	eng
18763	threats	Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Allison, A. & Wiles, G., 2008	It was hunted locally as a food source, and this is thought to have been the main factor leading to the demise of the species. The introduction of the predatory Brown Tree Snake (<em>Boiga irregularis</em>) to Guam possibly contributed to the extinction of this species.	eng
18764	conservation	Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES, effectively prohibiting international trade in this species since 1989. It is protected by domestic legislation or wildlife laws in a few range states (e.g., Fiji), and like all bats, this species is protected by a hunting ban in American Samoa (A. Brooke pers. comm.). Hunting regulations and enforcement are needed still throughout much of the species' range. The species is present in a number of protected areas. Monitoring of declines throughout its range is important and further study of Papua New Guinea populations distribution would be worthwhile.	eng
18764	distribution	Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is the most widespread of the Pacific fruit bats. It ranges from Karkar and Koil islands of Papua New Guinea, southeastwards into the Solomon Islands (Malaita, Makira, Rennell, and Santa Cruz islands), and from here ranges to Vanuatu, New Caledonia (New Caledonia Island and Ouvéa Island), Fiji (widespread), Wallis and Futuna (few old records), Tonga, Samoa, American Samoa, Niué, and the Cook Islands (Mangaia and Rarotonga) (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is possible that this species has been introduced to some islands by humans (Flannery 1995).	eng
18764	habitat	Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is usually found in large roosting colonies in large, canopy trees. It has been recorded in tropical moist forest, mangrove forest, and feeding on plantation crops such as banana and papaw (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Flannery 1995). Females most commonly give birth to a single young, twins are found occasionally (A. Brooke pers. comm.).	eng
18764	population	Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	It was previously reported to be relatively common in some island groups (e.g., Vanuatu), however, current abundance is unclear for many populations and it is known to have declined in some areas. Colonies can be large, and the species migrates between islands. The population is thought to be declining on the islands of Rarotonga and Mangia. In 2002, surveys estimated 1,730 on Rarotonga and only 78 on Mangia (Cousins and Compton 2005). This species is plentiful and widespread on both large and small Fijian islands, with more than half of the global population attributed to the islands of Fiji (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Tonga during 1995, surveys found a robust population of about 6,000 individuals on 14 islands in the Vava’u group (Grant 1998). After cyclone Waka hit the area in 2001, McConkey <em>et al.</em>  (2004)  recorded a decline of more than 80% of bats they had recorded moving between six islands (A. Brooke pers. comm.).	eng
18764	threats	Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Throughout much of its range this bat species is threatened by overexploitation for food, both for commercial or subsistence purposes. The loss of native forest, including important food trees for the species, to timber and conversion to plantations and cultivated land is a significant threat to the species in many parts of its range. Tropical storms and typhoons, including general increased hunting pressure following a storm, are considerable threats to many populations, most especially small remnant populations. Due to listing on Appendix I of CITES in 1989, there is little commercial hunting of <em>P. tonganus</em> in Polynesia and Micronesia (A. Brooke pers. comm.). However, in Vanuatu this species is sold in restaurants and one hotel advertises bat hunting on its web site (A. Brooke pers. comm.). On the island of Niue, nine months after Cyclone Heta struck in January of 2004, a decrease of 95% was found in relation to surveys conducted in 1998. A legal hunting season continued for the two to four month season following this cyclone, with ammunition being sold by the police department. Later a five year ban on hunting was enacted (Brooke 2004). On the island of Mangia, lack of habitat appears to be the biggest threat. Still, hunting is not restricted and  poses a threat on both Rarotonga or Mangia (Cousins and Compton 2005). Although bats are hunted for personal consumption in Fiji, the lack of development and firearms have protected <em>P. tonganus</em> from the wide-scale hunting of other islands (Palmeirim <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Tonga, after cyclone Waka hit the area in 2001, McConkey <em>et al.</em> (2004)  recorded a decline of more than 80% of bats they had recorded moving between 6 islands. Hunting was considered negligible because most of the islands were uninhabited (A. Brooke pers. comm.).	eng
18765	conservation	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys urgently needed to confirm the presence of this species.	eng
18765	distribution	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	This species is known only from the island of Vanikolo in the southern Solomon Islands. The island is 189 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
18765	habitat	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	Nothing is known about the ecology of this species. Other Pteropus species bear a single young, and have a lifespan that is approximately 8 or 9 years.	eng
18765	population	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	It is known from few specimens; all probably collected before 1930. Surveys in the early 1990s did not detect this species.	eng
18765	threats	Leary, T., Hamilton, S. & James, R., 2008	This island was extensively logged in the 1950s and 1960s; there is some regeneration now, and logging has once again been proposed. Opportunistic hunting may be a threat to this species.	eng
18766	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Heaney, L. & Mildenstein, T., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species, and to regulate any hunting pressure so that populations are sustainably harvested. Regular field surveys and monitoring of known populations should be undertaken. Further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species, as Pteropus vampyrus might represent a species complex.</p>	eng
18766	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Heaney, L. & Mildenstein, T., 2008	This species generally ranges through much of continental and insular Southeast Asia. On the mainland, it has been reported from southern Myanmar, southern Viet Nam (possibly southern Cambodia), through much of Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore. The species is found over much of Indonesia, being recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Bangka, the Mentawi Islands (Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai), the Krakatau Islands, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Savu, the Anamba Islands, the Natuna Islands (Bunguran Besar) and Siantan. It is present on the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and on Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). The species is present throughout the Philippines, except for the Batanes/Babuyan region. There are records from the Philippines islands of Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Cabo, Catanduanes, Culion, Leyte, Guimaras, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, La Union, Quezon [Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006], Tarlac provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces and Bongo Island), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo (Alviola 2000), Tantangan, Dinagat (Gunther 1879) and Romblon (Timm and Birney 1980). In the Philippines it has been recorded from sea level to around 1,250 m asl. Outside of Southeast Asia, there is a report from Shaanxi in China (Smith and Xie 2008), and the species has been reported to be present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, as there are no voucher based records of this species from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and its presence within India is doubtful and it is not mapped here (C. Srinivasulu and Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 9 September 2007).	eng
18766	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Heaney, L. & Mildenstein, T., 2008	This tree roosting species is tolerant to some habitat disturbance; it occurs in primary, and secondary forest and uses adjacent agricultural areas for feeding (Rabor 1955; Rabor 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993; Sanborn 1953). A study of the species habitat in the Subic Bay area, Luzon, indicated that the species preferred natural forest to disturbed or agricultural areas (T. Mildenstein pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18766	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Heaney, L. & Mildenstein, T., 2008	In the Philippines, this species formerly occurred in many large colonies, but these are now greatly reduced in size and number (Heideman and Heaney 1989; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Mudar and Allen 1986; Rickart <em>et al.</em> 1993). The largest colony identified as this species found in Subic Bay (Luzon) contained almost 20,000 individuals (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006). It is a moderately common species on Palawan Island in spite of continuing hunting pressure (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004). On Mindoro, it has been found in Sablayan municipality (Occidental Mindoro province) in mixed colonies of up to 52,000 individuals (Garcia pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, the species has not been recorded from some localities for over 100 years. The largest colonies in Thailand now consist of 3,000 individuals (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm. 2006). In Sabah (Malaysia) populations have probably undergone a serious decline (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).	eng
18766	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Gumal, M., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Heaney, L. & Mildenstein, T., 2008	In the Philippines, while hunting for food has resulted in population declines in some areas, the species appears to be able to change roosting locations in order to avoid heavy hunting pressure (Garcia pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, hunting is considered to be the major threat to this species (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm. 2006), and it seems possible that hunting is also a major threat in other parts of the species range. In addition to overhunting, the species is generally threatened by the loss of lowland forest throughout much of its range, however, it somewhat adaptable to secondary or modified habitats, providing suitable roosting sites are available.	eng
18767	conservation	Brescia, F., 2008	The New Caledonia flying fox is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Domestic hunting is regulated under local wildlife laws. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. More information is needed regarding the current population numbers, ecology, status of and threats to the species.	eng
18767	distribution	Brescia, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Caledonia (Flannery 1995; Simmons 2005).	eng
18767	habitat	Brescia, F., 2008	It is a nocturnal species that has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). It roosts at the entry of caves (Brescia and Borel 2004), or in hollow trees (Boissenin and Brescia 2007).	eng
18767	population	Brescia, F., 2008	It is rarely observed and there are very few known roost sites (F. Brescia pers. comm.).	eng
18767	threats	Brescia, F., 2008	The threats to New Caledonia flying fox are unclear. Presumably there is some local hunting for food (it important for local use), and loss of suitable habitat through deforestation.	eng
18768	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Ongoing awareness raising on the importance and uniqueness of the endemic fruit bat, and the need for sustainable hunting, has been undertaken through environmental education programmes (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005; Juma 2007). Income for the local community is being generated through bat related ecotourism activities (Juma 2007). It has been reported from the recently gazetted Ngezi-Vumawimbi Nature Forest Reserve and Msitu Kuu Forest(Pakenham 1984; Juma 2007). Illegal logging and the invasive umbrella tree (<em>Maesopsis eminii</em>), that degrades the habitat of this bat, are being controlled within the Nature Forest Reserve (Juma 2007).   This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
18768	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Pemba in Tanzania, where it occurs at elevations from sea level to 45 m asl.	eng
18768	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from primary forest, secondary forest, undisturbed traditional grave yards and mangroves.  Will roost in several different species of trees, including large examples of non-native trees (such as Mango). According to Pakenham (1984) the species has been recorded roosting on the small islands off Pemba's coast, with bats flying to the mainland at sunset to forage. Seehausen (1990) concluded from interviews with inhabitants of Pemba that the species used to occur in the western parts of the island, which was once covered with rain forest, and not in the eastern, drier parts.	eng
18768	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	In the early 1990's the population of this species appears to have been reduced to a few hundred animals at most (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991). Entwistle and Corp (1997) reported  that in 1997, 94% of the of population was restricted to 10 roosts (of 41 in total) with a total estimate of 4,600 to 5,500 individuals. Entwistle (2001) reported that more recent local participation in survey work had helped to give a more accurate population estimate of ~6,900 bats (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). The population of bats has continued to increase and by the end of 2006 there were ~19,000 animals (Juma 2007).	eng
18768	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Much of the natural forest habitat of this bat has been cleared or severely fragmented. The species has been hunted for food with the use of shotguns replacing traditional methods, resulting in an unsustainable use (Entwistle and Corp 1997). As of 2005, hunting had been reduced but not stopped on Pemba (Trewhella <em>et al.</em> 2005). An additional threat is posed by the collision of bats with overhead electric cables.	eng
18769	conservation	Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas (T. Leary pers. comm.). Further research is needed to confirm the roosting sites of this species, and to determine if it can at all adapt to any secondary habitats (S. Hamilton and T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
18769	distribution	Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the islands of Fauro, Guadacanal, Kerehikapa, Kolombangara, Malaita, Mbanika, New Georgia, Nggela Sule, Pavuvu, Sikopo, Vangunu, and Vella Lavella (Flannery 1995). The species is not known from Bougainville just 12 km from Fauro and with another island stepping stone between them. This provides some evidence that relatively small stretches of water between islands could be barriers to dispersal for some bats in the region. Competitive exclusion from <em>Pteropus mahaganus</em> might also account for the absence of this species on Bougainville and Choiseul (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,230 m asl.	eng
18769	habitat	Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	The species is found in a wide variety of habitat types. It has been recorded from lowland gardens, through to mature forest. Animals have been observed feeding on young coconuts, and coconut and kapok flowers. Presumably females give birth to a single young. This species seems likely to roost in old-growth tree hollows (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
18769	population	Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species used to be common in the southern and western Solomon Islands (e.g., New Georgia) (Flannery 1995; T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
18769	threats	Leary, T. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Assuming that this species does roost in holes in old-growth forest, deforestation leading to their loss is likely to be a threat to this species. A number of islands within its range (e.g., New Georgia) have been extensively logged. It is possibly threatened to some degree by localised hunting (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
18773	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. There needs to be work to establish the taxonomic validity of this species. If established, there is a need to survey possible areas where the species may occur, including Okinawa and possibly other areas in Southeast Asia. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List.</p>	eng
18773	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is known only from three records, all postulated to have been from Okinawa Island (=Nansei-Shoto), Japan in the 19th century (Abe 2005). There are two specimens in the British Natural History Museum, and the whereabouts or existence of the third specimen is unknown. The two known specimens have been speculated to have possibly come from Southeast Asia and not Okinawa, or possibly to have been vagrants on Okinawa (Abe 2005). Therefore, this species is taxonomically uncertain and the existing specimens are of unknown provenance.	eng
18773	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
18773	population	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown. Known only from three individuals from over a hundred years ago.	eng
18773	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
18829	distribution	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Restricted to large rivers of the Colorado River basin, formerly in the mainstream Colorado River and major tributaries (Gunnison, White, Yampa, Dolores, San Juan, Uncompahgre, Animas, and Green rivers) from Mexico and Arizona to Wyoming. Present distribution is drastically reduced from the original. By the mid-1980s it occurred only in the upper Colorado River basin of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Wyoming; mainly in the Green River in Utah and in the Yampa and Colorado rivers in Colorado and portions of Utah; has not been seen below Glen Canyon Dam since 1968.	eng
18830	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
18832	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
18837	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
18837	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
18837	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It belongs to the trophic group of oral shellers.	eng
18837	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
18837	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
18839	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
18841	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
18847	conservation	Barrio, J. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include: undertake comprehensive status surveys and develop research program to determine ecology, habitat requirements, population biology, and extent of threats; strengthen existing protected areas management where necessary; in areas where subsistence hunting proves to be a serious threat, seek alternative subsistence schemes or more sustainable harvesting methods; develop conservation education programs and increase law enforcement if necessary. The species occurs in several protected areas across its range; some of these are without management plans and many receive insufficient resources to enable adequate protection.	eng
18847	distribution	Barrio, J. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occupies a discontinuous and probably fragmented range through the montane forests and their limit with the humid grasslands of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.  Exact range is unknown and distributional gaps between records are unresolved.  The only known natural gap is the Maranon dry forest lying in between the Ecuadorian population and the Peruvian population south of the Maranon. The current extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 90,000-130,000 km² and is split between two populations; the southern population <br/>30,000-35,000 km² and the northern population 60,000-95,000 km².	eng
18847	habitat	Barrio, J. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species inhabits elfin, cloud and montane forests throughout its distribution, and in humid grasslands above the tree-line mainly by the northern population, between 2,000 and 4,000 m.  It moves in the undergrowth when it is inside forest.  The small size makes the species difficult to detect.	eng
18847	population	Barrio, J. & Tirira, D., 2008	Populations in central Peru clearly isolated from populations in Peruvian northern Andes, Ecuador and Colombia. There are new records in the former larger gap between populations; however, the gap still covers the breadth of the Maranon dry forest (Barrio, in prep.).  Given the habitat type covering the gap, there is no expectation that an individual will ever appear there, besides accidentally.	eng
18847	threats	Barrio, J. & Tirira, D., 2008	Northern pudu was intensively exploited by local people from the 1950s to early 1980s (Hershkovitz 1982). However, nowadays habitat conversion and predation by domestic dogs are worse threats.	eng
18848	conservation	Jimenez, J. & Ramilo, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/>A captive breeding program is currently underway (Concepcion University, Chile) and there are plans to reintroduce animals into three national parks (Toledo pers. comm.). Recommended conservation actions include: initiate coordinated research to examine habitat requirements, food habits, and behavioral ecology; determine impact of feral dogs. Feral dogs are also very significant threats in Argentina. Also, determine effect of introduced wild pigs, whose distribution is greater than that of the pudu; there is 100% overlap of the distribution of wild pigs and pudus and undertake status surveys to establish extent of habitat decline and forest fragmentation; use information to identify priority areas for Southern pudu conservation and develop coordinated program to manage species throughout range; strengthen existing protected areas management; interchange of captive animals among captive breeding programs for self maintenance to reduce inbreeding, genetically manage the international captive population to reduce inbreeding; and conduct research on reproduction, nutrition, and behavior.	eng
18848	distribution	Jimenez, J. & Ramilo, E., 2008	Southern Pudu occurs in southern Chile (from Maule Province as far as the Strait of Magellan) and some adjacent areas of southwestern Argentina from southwest Neuquén Province, southward along the foothills of the Andes, into southwest Santa Cruz Province (Hershkovitz 1982). The confirmed southern limit in Argentina is south of the National Park Los Acerces in Chubut Province, around 43ºS (Ramilo 2001).	eng
18848	habitat	Jimenez, J. & Ramilo, E., 2008	The Southern Pudu inhabits dense temperate forest, between sea level and 1,700 m, where it browses mainly foliage and shoots (Miller <em>et al.</em> 1973, Hershkovitz 1982). It is also common in disturbed forests, as long as it is not harassed by people and especially dogs. It feeds on new leaves and shoots of native trees, avellanas fruit (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gevuina avellana</span>), many forb species, and flowers (Jimenez pers. comm.). It is solitary, except during the rut, and in spring when young accompany mothers (Hershkovitz 1982).	eng
18848	population	Jimenez, J. & Ramilo, E., 2008	Total population is thought to be less than 10,000 animals (Ramilo pers. comm., Hershkovitz 1982, MacNamara and Eldridge 1987).	eng
18848	threats	Jimenez, J. & Ramilo, E., 2008	The species is thought to have undergone rapid decline in recent decades as a result of poaching and illegal collecting for zoos and private collections (DSG 1991). Habitat conversion, predation by domestic dogs, and competition with exotic deer and domestic livestock are serious associated threats (Eldridge <em>et al.</em> 1987). In addition, the species is hunted for subsistence use for food and skins, and heavily poached for the captive animal trade (Jimenez pers. comm., Toledo pers. comm.). In Argentina in the last three years there have been a number of road kills of pudus on the internal roads of  the national parks. The increase in the number of roads within the distribution area of the pudu should be considered a threat, not only because of the number of road kills but also because of the interference with normal movements and isolation of populations.	eng
18868	conservation	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M., 2008	Included in CITES Appendix II (eastern and Central American subspecies (<em>P. c. coryi, costaricensis</em> and <em>cougar</em>) Appendix I). The species is protected across much of its range, with hunting prohibited in most of Argentina, and all of Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela and Uruguay, and hunting regulations in place in Canada, Mexico, Peru and the United States (Nowell and Jackson 1996).<br/><br/>There is a need for the implementation of programs to mitigate conflict resolution for livestock depredation and to study the real effect of puma vs. jaguar depredation on livestock (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Puma occasionally kill humans - especially in North America.	eng
18868	distribution	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The geographic range of the puma is the largest of any terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), from Canada through the US, Central and South America to the southern tip of Chile.  While the puma is an adaptable cat, being found in every major habitat type of the Americas, including the high Andes (5,800 m in southern Peru: Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), it was eliminated from the entire eastern half of North America within 200 years following European colonization (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  A remnant Endangered subpopulation persists in Florida, and records of pumas in northeastern Canada and the eastern US are on the rise, indicating possible recolonization (M. Kelly pers. comm. 2007).	eng
18868	habitat	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The species is found in a broad range of habitats, in all forest types as well as lowland and montane desert.  Several studies have shown that habitat with dense understory vegetation is preferred, however, pumas can live in very open habitats with only a minimum of vegetative cover (Nowell and Jackson 1996).  Pumas co-occur with jaguars in much of their Latin American range, and may favor more open habitats than their larger competitor, although both can be found in dense forest (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Pumas are capable of taking large prey, but when available small to medium-sized prey are more important in their diet (in tropical portions of the range).  This is true of wild prey as well as livestock (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  In North America, deer make up 60-80% of the puma's diet, and the mean weight of prey taken is 39-48 kg.  In Florida, however, where deer numbers are low, pumas take smaller prey including feral pigs, raccoons and armadilllos, and deer account for only about 1/3 of the diet (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).<br/><br/>Home range sizes of pumas vary considerably across their geographic distribution, and the smallest ranges tend to occur in areas where prey densities are high and prey are not migratory (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).  In North America, home range sizes ranged from 32-1,031 km² (Lindzey <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
18868	population	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M., 2008	The Canadian population was rougly estimated at 3,500-5,000 and the western US population at 10,000 in the early 1990s (Nowell and Jackson, 1996).  The population of Central and South America is likely much higher, although it is unclear how abundant pumas are in the dense rainforest of the Amazon basin (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). The Florida subpopulation, numbering 70-80, is isolated, and has been supplemented by a reintroduction of pumas from Texas (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Brazil it is considered Near Threatened but subspecies outside the Amazon basic are considered VU (Machado <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is also considered Near Threatened in Peru (Inrena 2006), Argentina (Diaz and Ojeda 2000) and Colombia (Rodriguez-Mahecha <em>et al.</em>, 2006), and Data Deficient (inadequately known) in Chile (CONAMA 2005). <br/><br/>Density estimates include:<br/><br/>Utah, US: 0.3-0.5/100 km² (Hemker <em>et al.</em> 1984)<br/><br/>Idaho, US:  0.77-1.04/100 km² (Laundre and Clark 2003)<br/><br/>Peru: 2.4/100 km² (Janson and Emmons 1990)<br/><br/>Patagonia: 6/100 km² (Franklin <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/><br/>Pantanal 4.4/100 km² (Crawshaw and Quigley unpubl. in Nowell and Jackson 1996)<br/><br/>Belize 2-5/100 km², in Argentina 0.5-0.8/100 km², Bolivia 5-8/100 km² (Kelly <em>et al.</em> in press)<br/><br/>W Mexico 3-5/100 km² (Nunez <em>et al.</em> 1998)	eng
18868	threats	Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M., 2008	Pumas are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and poaching of their wild prey base.  They are persecuted across their range by retaliatory hunting due to livestock depredation, and due to fear that they pose a threat to human life (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).  Pumas have killed a number of people in western Canada and the US in recent years.  Pumas are legally hunted in many western US states, although hunting was banned by popular referendum in California in 1990.  Road kills are the principal cause of mortality in the endangered Florida panther subpopulation, and heavily travelled roads are a major barrier to puma movements and dispersal (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).	eng
18875	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Both the Aghia Paraskevi spring and <em>P. hellenicus</em> have been granted protection by law No 67/1981 of the Greek State and official decision of the Phthiotis Prefect. However, the law is not effectively enforced. It is listed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
18875	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to an estimated ten separate, deep, isolated pools in the Sperchios River catchment in Central Greece: the Aghia Paraskevi spring, and a system of drainage and irrigation canals and a small number of natural wells in the areas of Lycochoria and Valtos and near the village of Kompotades.	eng
18875	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in springs and drainage and irrigation systems with cool springs or slow-running waters with rich vegetation. The water temperature never exceeds 20°C in summer. Its present location appears to provide the only remaining suitable habitat where it can survive.	eng
18875	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
18875	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction (some springs have been completely capped for water extraction), and pollution.	eng
18877	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
18877	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
18877	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lower course of rivers draining to northern shore of Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, Danube drainage as far upstream as Belgrade; isolated populations in Axios and Aliakmon drainages (Greece). Also in Lower and middle reaches of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya, Sary-su River, Lower Chu River; headwaters of Ob' river (Nura River, Kurgal'dzhin Lake). In 1980s invaded Ishim River (tributary of Irtysh) and spread downstream to Ust'-Ishim and Tyumen' Province in Russia	eng
18877	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Lower course of rivers draining to northern shore of Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, Danube drainage as far upstream as Belgrade; isolated populations in Axios and Aliakmon drainages (Greece). Also in Lower and middle reaches of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya, Sary-su River, Lower Chu River; headwaters of Ob' river (Nura River, Kurgal'dzhin Lake). In 1980s invaded Ishim River (tributary of Irtysh) and spread downstream to Ust'-Ishim and Tyumen' Province in Russia	eng
18877	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps and slow-flowing streams with dense vegetation; occasionally enters brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in spring when temperature reaches 17°C. Territorial during spawning season. Males build a nest made of filamentous algae and submerged plants, with a separate entrance and exit. Males guard nest until the young swim away a few weeks later. Females lay about 90 eggs.	eng
18877	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps and slow-flowing streams with dense vegetation; occasionally enters brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in spring when temperature reaches 17°C. Territorial during spawning season. Males build a nest made of filamentous algae and submerged plants, with a separate entrance and exit. Males guard nest until the young swim away a few weeks later. Females lay about 90 eggs.	eng
18877	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
18877	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
18877	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
18877	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
18878	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
18878	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
18878	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal areas of northern Europe, from Netherlands to northern Russia, including southern Norway and Baltic basin. Widespread inland in eastern Scandinavia. In north eastern Europe in rivers of White Sea and Barents Sea from Onega to Kara, extends eastward to Siberia and Japan, but it remains to be demonstrated that East Asian populations are conspecific with European ones.	eng
18878	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Coastal areas of northern Europe, from Netherlands to northern Russia, including southern Norway and Baltic basin. Widespread inland in eastern Scandinavia. In north eastern Europe in rivers of White Sea and Barents Sea from Onega to Kara, extends eastward to Siberia and Japan, but it remains to be demonstrated that East Asian populations are conspecific with European ones.	eng
18878	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small freshwater streams and ponds, with dense aquatic vegetation. Enters brackish water along shores of Baltic and Barents Seas, rarely along North Sea shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Individuals born in early spring may mature in 3 months and spawn the same year. Territorial during spawning season, in March-September in central Europe, June-July in Arctic areas. Males build a tube-shaped nest anchored on aquatic vegetation or to the bottom, with a separate entrance and exit. The nest is made of pieces of plants or filamentous algae. Males guard nest from spawning until larvae swim away a few weeks later. Eggs hatch in 6-7 days. Feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates.	eng
18878	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small freshwater streams and ponds, with dense aquatic vegetation. Enters brackish water along shores of Baltic and Barents Seas, rarely along North Sea shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Individuals born in early spring may mature in 3 months and spawn the same year. Territorial during spawning season, in March-September in central Europe, June-July in Arctic areas. Males build a tube-shaped nest anchored on aquatic vegetation or to the bottom, with a separate entrance and exit. The nest is made of pieces of plants or filamentous algae. Males guard nest from spawning until larvae swim away a few weeks later. Eggs hatch in 6-7 days. Feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates.	eng
18878	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
18878	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
18878	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
18878	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
18879	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
18879	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo (which has a surface area of 4.53 km²), in west Cameroon.	eng
18879	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. maclareni</em> is a demersal fish that inhabits the shallow water of the lake shore, (less than 4 m deep).  It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates (mayfly, caddis and chironomid midge larvae), and the females are mouth brooders.	eng
18879	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing within its restricted range, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
18879	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Lake Barombi Mbo is at risk from the effects of introduced crustaceans and fishes, siltation from local deforestation and water pollution, all of which pose a threat to <em>P. maclareni</em>, (Duker & Borre, 2001).  The small size of the lake renders it particularly vulnerable to siltation due to land-use change or water extraction for agriculture and domestic use: lake level fluctuations in Lake Barombi Mbo have impacted fish breeding sites (Dudgeon <em>et al</em>. 2006).   <em>P. maclareni</em> is also collected from Lake Barombi Mbo for the aquarium trade.	eng
18880	conservation	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the range, habitat, ecology of and threats to this species.	eng
18880	distribution	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of southern Peru. It is known only from four isolated locations. It has an elevational range of 4,400 to 4,900 m.	eng
18880	habitat	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This rodent shelters in rock crevices. It is diurnal and forages on the Senecio and Werneria plants within treeless wet puna habitat. The species is believed to persist in secondary puna habitats. Females have been recorded with only two embryos (Pearson, 1951, 1957).	eng
18880	population	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is a rare species, known from only a few specimens. It has not been recorded recently, but this may be because of low sampling effort.	eng
18880	threats	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This montane species may be threatened by drainage of suitable wet habitat, although this needs to be confirmed. It has a restricted elevational range which is considered to be threatened by climatic changes.	eng
18882	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18885	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18889	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18890	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species was assessed as CR A1ce in 1996, with the justification that 'Harrison and Stiassny (1999) consider this species to be possibly extinct. The matter has been referred to the relevant Specialist Group for a decision' (IUCN 2006).<br/><br/>In November 2006 the “Covenant to Conserve and Protect Lake Lanao, the second largest freshwater lake in the Philippines and one of the 5 oldest in the world” was signed at a conference which aimed to bring together stakeholders and raise awareness on the need to conserve the lake.	eng
18890	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. herrei</em> is endemic to Lake Lanao, Lanao Province, Mindanao Island, Philippines.	eng
18890	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. herrei</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
18890	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
18890	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Lake Lanao has experience large scale environmental degradation as a result of the combined effect of agricultural pollutants, human and industrial waste, hydroelectric power plants, dams, introduction of predatory species, and high levels of deforestation in the area surrounding the lake.  <br/><br/>Froese and Pauly (2006) reported <em>P. herrei</em> specimens available in a market near Lake Lanao in 1908, therefore this species was definitely consumed in the past.	eng
18891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18892	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18898	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18901	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18902	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18903	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18904	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
18909	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
18919	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	Found in leaf litter in woodland and forest.	eng
18942	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Isolated population in Balkhash area needs further study and evaluation.	eng
18942	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	W, C and E Kazakhstan and NW Turkmenistan (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
18942	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit clay semi-deserts and deserts, mostly those with saltwort and wormwood. In the northern part of the range found in sandy steppes. Burrows are simple, usually it is only one tunnel with several cells. Close to exit there is a widening of the central passage, where the jerboa can turn around in case of danger. Feeds mostly on green parts of saltworts, rarely on seeds and underground parts of plants. Reproduces once a year, litter size is 4-6 young.	eng
18942	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	According to Gromov and Erbaeva (1995) population density fluctuates significantly and at the highest years it could be up to 10 individuals per 1 km of tracking. According to Rogovin (Biodiversity Conservation Centre, 2008) the species is rare on the whole range. Namely, up to 5 individuals per 1 km of tracking in the north of the range, and 3-5 individuals per ha in south.	eng
18942	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. Habitat loss may be critical for isolated population in Balkhash basin.	eng
18943	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. In the European part of the range occurs in several protected areas.	eng
18943	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
18943	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in southern part of steppe zone, semi-deserts and deserts from the Don River (Russia) through Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River, south to NE Iran; E to S Mongolia; China: W Nei Mongol, N Xinjiang  Gansu, and Ningxia (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is consists of two large isolated parts, western and eastern (China and Mongolia) and several small isolated populations between those two parts and along the southern border of the range.	eng
18943	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in southern part of steppe zone, semi-deserts and deserts from the Don River (Russia) through Kazakhstan to the Irtysh River, south to NE Iran; E to S Mongolia; China: W Nei Mongol, N Xinjiang  Gansu, and Ningxia (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is consists of two large isolated parts, western and eastern (China and Mongolia) and several small isolated populations between those two parts and along the southern border of the range.  Stubbe and Chotolchu (1968) recorded two localities just across the southern border of Mongolia.	eng
18943	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	<em>Pygeretmus pumilio</em> is a stenobiont species. It inhabits clay semi-deserts with rare vegetation which includes succulents of the family Haenopodiaceae (<em>Salsola</em>, <em>Suaeda</em>, <em>Nanopphyton</em>, <em>Anabasis</em> etc.). The clay proportion in the soil and type of vegetation determine species distribution (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
18943	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	<em>Pygeretmus pumilio</em> is a stenobiont species. It inhabits clay semi-deserts with rare vegetation which includes succulents of the family Haenopodiaceae (<em>Salsola</em>, <em>Suaeda</em>, <em>Nanopphyton</em>, <em>Anabasis</em> etc.). The clay proportion in the soil and type of vegetation determine species distribution (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species has a primarily herbivorous diet and stores fat in its tail as a reserve during times of food scarcity.	eng
18943	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	In some parts of the range (including parts of the European range) the species is relatively abundant and population number is stable. However, the whole range is fragmented and all the isolated populations in the east and south of the range are slowly declining and potentially vulnerable owing to the species' highly specialised habitat requirements.	eng
18943	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	In some parts of the range the species is relatively abundant and population number is stable. However, the whole range is fragmented and all the isolated populations in the east and south of the range are slowly declining and potentially vulnerable owing to the species' highly specialised habitat requirements.	eng
18943	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Populations are quite fragmented and its habitat is shrinking in parts of the range due to land use changes and climate change.	eng
18943	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats at present. However, populations are quite fragmented and its habitat is shrinking in parts of the range due to land use changes and climate change.	eng
18944	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
18944	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This jerboa is endemic to SE Kazakhstan, occurring in the Lake Balkhash area. Posibly occur in NE China (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
18944	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Stenobiont. Inhabits clay, often saline areas along low banks of drying river beds and lakes. Habitat is covered with only <em>Anabasis</em>, <em>Atriplex</em>, <em>Camophoroma</em>, <em>Climacoptera</em>, <em>Kochia</em>, and <em>Salsola</em> vegetation. The highest density is at such areas with rich succulent vegetation. Sightings from other habitat types (clay or rubbly areas in sandy deserts, agricultural fields) are due to dispersal of young on their way to more suitable habitats (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em>, 1995).<br/><br/>Feeds mostly on green parts of plants, and mainly on succulent <em>Climacoptera brachiata</em>. The percentage of seeds in the diet increases from mid-summer onwards. Has obligate hibernation, which usually starts at the end of October. If the year is very warm, can be active until beginning of November. Hibernation ends in mid-March, plus or minus two weeks depending on temperature. Has three types of burrows: permanent, wintering and shelters. Permanent burrows have several passages and nest. Shelters are simple, with only one passage. Reproduction starts right after hibernation. Second reproduction cycle starts always in the same time, at the end of June. Gestation is 25-27 days, litter size is 3-8 (usually 4-5) young. Age at maturity in spring-born is about 4 months, in autumn-born is about 7 months.	eng
18944	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Total number is relatively small due to small range, however, local abundance could be high. In spring it cold be up to 20-30 idividuals per ha, in autumn 50-60 individuals per ha (Mazin 1977). In western part of the range population size was stable, while in the eastern part of the range the population experienced sharp decline in the 1960s after several rainy years that resulted in steppe expansion (Vorontsov <em>et al</em>. 1969). More recent data on population trend is not available.	eng
18944	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss due to climate change (higher precipitation level) resulting in steppe expansion.	eng
18945	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	May be 2 subspecies. Review the taxonomy.	eng
18945	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Bolivia, southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina (Simmons 2005). Not present in Suriname.	eng
18945	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Forest dependents, but found in houses and near cities. Frugivorous.	eng
18945	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Scarce in Argentina - common in Missione, but rare in northeast Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
18945	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
19033	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Nawampasa  and Lake Kyoga.	eng
19034	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
19034	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
19034	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.	eng
19034	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
19034	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
19035	conservation	Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R., 2008	This species is nationally protected under Malagasy law (Decree 60126; October, 1960). Internationally, the tortoise, since 1975, has been listed in Appendix II of CITES. In 2005 <em>P. arachnoides</em> was uplisted to CITES Appendix I. It is included on Schedule B of EU wildlife regulations, and imports are suspended.<br/> <br/>Two protected areas and three additional sites (Lac Tsimanampetsotsa National Park 43,200 ha, Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve 1,750 ha and Berenty Private Reserve 250 ha, Site of Biological Interest – (1) Hatokaliotsy 21,850 ha and (2) PK3 north of Tulear 12,500 ha) fall within the range of this species (CITES 2005, Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). A captive breeding centre (Village de Tortues de Mangily) was established in Ifaty.<br/> <br/>Since 1991, the action plan of the IUCN SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group has considered <em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> to be a "species that requires conservation projects and study of its status" (IUCN/SSC/TFTSG 1991, CITES 2005). In August 2005, an international meeting of the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) group produced a report that addressed the conservation status and recommended conservation actions for this species, these included the need to start a national conservation plan (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007). Walker <em>et al</em>. (2004, 2007) call for more stringent conservation measures to ensure habitat protection and a widespread, region wide education programme to try and protect <em>P. a. arachnoides</em> from food and pet-trade hunting.<br/><br/>Additionally, ensuring adequate coverage of populations of the different Spider Tortoise taxa, particularly the subspecies <em>brygooi</em>, is very important as Madagascar expands its Protected Area network.	eng
19035	distribution	Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R., 2008	The Spider Tortoise is found only in the arid region of the coastal areas of southwestern Madagascar, from the coast up to 10-50 kilometres inland going as far north as Morombe (Glaw and Vences 1994, Henkel and Schmidt 2000). It is sympatric with the Radiated Tortoise except for the northern extent of its range.<br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides arachnoides</em>: This subspecies occurs in the region of the Onilahy River in southwestern Madagascar near Toliara. Its area of distribution is limited to north of the Manambo River and south of Lake Tsimanapetsotsa. A field survey carried out in 2001 by  Behler and Randriamahazo has shown that the area of distribution of the sub-species extends up to north of the Menarandra River (H. Randriamahazo pers. comm.).<br/> <br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides brygooi</em>: This subspecies occurs south of the Mangoky River. Tortoises are commonly found in the region between Morombe and Lake Ihotry (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides oblonga</em>: This subspecies (the southern subspecies) is found along the southern coast between the Menarandra River to the west and Lake Anony near Amboasary to the east. The majority of animals have been found between Ambovombe and Lavanono (Glaw and Vences 1994, Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Participants at the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop (CBSG 2001) estimated the extent of occurrence as between 5,000 and 20,000 sq. km, and the area of occupancy as less than 500 sq. km.	eng
19035	habitat	Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R., 2008	The Spider Tortoise is found in Mikea forest habitat in the north and in communities of xerophytic spiny vegetation with low irregular rainfall dominated by Didiereaceae and <em>Ephorbia</em> in the south (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2007). Their habitat consists of sandy areas with spiny vegetation close to the coast. They do not tend to utilize rocky areas like <em>A. radiata</em> does (T. Leuteritz pers. obs.). Acccording to Walker <em>et al</em>. (2008) <em>P. a. arachnoides</em> was only recorded as feeding during the wet months, a period of increased activity. Tortoises are known to eat young leaves and cow dung with insect larva (Glaw and Vences 1994). Spider Tortoises reach a curved carapace length of up to 200 mm.<br/><br/>Very little is known about the reproduction of this species but it is believed to produce single egg clutches although the number of clutches per year are unknown (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989). Reproductive age is thought to be at about 12 years (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2004), and average reproductive age (=generation time) was conservatively estimated at 20 years at the 2008 Red List workshop. No solid data exists on longevity but estimated life span is believed to be up to 70 yrs (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
19035	population	Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R., 2008	The earliest information on populations comes from Bour (1981), who anecdotally stated that <em>P. arachnoides</em> was localized but not rare. Raxworthy and Nussbaum (2000) estimate that there were more than ten populations and that the area of distribution could cover more than 2,000 km². Jesu and Schimmenti (1995) who undertook the first quantitative estimate of population density reported approximately three individuals per ha. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2008) report densities of 4.63 and 2.08 tortoises per ha in the wet and dry seasons respectively. Both these studies were on <em>P. a. arachnoides</em>. A rough total estimate of 2-3 million animals was recorded by Pedrono (2008). <br/><br/>Hinge mobility of the three subspecies decreases from south to north (Glaw and Vences 1994, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2008):<br/><em>P. a. oblonga</em> - plastron with black markings on scutes and anterior lobe will close completely to touch carapace (mobile).<br/><em>P. a. arachnoides</em> - plastron totally devoid of markings and anterior lobe will close partially but not touch carapace (less mobile).<br/><em>P. a. brygooi</em> - plastron totally devoid of markings but anterior lobe will not close fully to touch carapace (rigid).	eng
19035	threats	Leuteritz, T. & Walker, R., 2008	<em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> faces threats from habitat destruction and fragmentation (through conversion for agriculture, charcoal prduction, human-induced wildfires, and alien invasive plants). Recent analyses by Conservation International (May, 2007) of the state of the spiny forest biome, using aerial imagery, indicate that deforestation rates have significantly increased over the last five years (compared with the period 1990-2000) (H. Crowley pers. comm.). A loss of 21-50% was estimated to have occurred over the period 1970-2000 (an average annual rate of 1.2% spiny forest loss; Harper <em>et al</em>. 2007), and a further loss of 51-80% of remaining habitat was projected for the period 2002-2012 (CBSG 2001). Invasive plant species affecting habitat suitability were considered a significant threat at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).<br/> <br/>In addition, the species has increasingly become subject to collection for the local food trade as Radiated Tortoise populations have been depleted, and exploitation has recently included harvesting for livers for export to Asia (Behler 2000). A pulse of legal export trade occurred during the period 2000-2004; CITES trade records show that about 4,000 animals were exported for the international pet trade in that time (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><em>Pyxis arachnoides</em> was recommended to be listed as Endangered (A3acd, B1b) at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG, 2001).<br/><br/>Overall, the northern subspecies <em>P.a. brygooi</em> is under more severe habitat loss and exploitation pressures than the other two subspecies, with some <em>brygooi</em> subpopulations already extirpated and others declining.<br/><br/>The 2005 Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) workshop (Randriamahazo <em>et al</em>. 2007) evaluated different threat and population scenarios, which variously yielded estimates of about 60 to 80 years of decline into extinction based on harvest rates of 2005. With increasing exploitation and accelerating loss of remaining habitat, this may be a conservative set of estimates.	eng
19036	conservation	Leuteritz, T., Randriamahazo, H. & Lewis, R., 2008	In 2003, <em>P. planicauda</em> was uplisted to CITES Appendix I from Appendix II (in which the tortoise had been listed since 1977; UNEP-WCMC 2007). This is generally perceived to have reduced exploitation of the species. The tortoise is protected nationally by Ordinance No. 60-126 of 3 October 1960, which regulates hunting and fishing and provides for the protection of nature, but the problem is that it is not stated what level of protection this legislation affords to <em>P. planicauda</em>, or how this is enforced (CITES AC18 Doc. 7.1, 2002).<br/><br/>The tortoise is protected at three sites within its range. It is protected in the special reserve of Andranomena 6,420 ha and in the Sites of Biological Interest of (1) Analabe 2,000-12,000 ha and (2) the Kirindy Forest (Morondava) 100,000 ha by private or local interests [CFPF] (Nicoll and Langrand 1989).<br/><br/><em>Pyxis planicauda</em> is bred at the Durrell Wildlife chelonian captive breeding centre in Ampijoroa (Razandrimamilafiniarivo <em>et al</em>. 2000) and at a number of zoos around the world.	eng
19036	distribution	Leuteritz, T., Randriamahazo, H. & Lewis, R., 2008	This species mainly occurs in fragments of dry deciduous forest in the region of Menabe between the Morondava and Tsiribihina Rivers. However, a small subpopulation occurs north of the Tsiribihina Rivers (Behler <em>et al</em>. 1993, Bloxam <em>et al</em>. 1993, Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>At the 2001 Conservation Assessment and Conservation Planning (CAMP) workshop, <em>P. planicauda</em>'s extent of occurrence was estimated as less than 5,000 sq. km, and total area of occupancy was estimated as under 500 sq.km (CBSG 2001).	eng
19036	habitat	Leuteritz, T., Randriamahazo, H. & Lewis, R., 2008	The forests inhabited by <em>Pyxis planicauda</em> grow on loose sandy soils and the tortoises take refuge amongst the leaf litter of the forest floor. They burrow and are inactive in leaf litter during dry season (late May through October), but become active in the wet season. They are crepuscular and seek shelter during mid-day (Durrell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Rakotombololona 1998, Gibson and Buley 2004). Tortoises feed on fallen fruits such as <em>Breonia perrieri</em> and <em>Aleanthus greveanus</em>. (Glaw and Vences 1994, Gibson and Buley 2004). Fungi and fallen flowers have also been reported as diet items (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>Adult <em>P. planicauda</em> reach a carapace length of 13.7 cm (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2000) to 14.8 cm (Pedrono 2008). Based on information from Durrell Wildlife breeding center in northwestern Madagascar females do not reach maturity until ten years of age. Generation time was estimated at the 2008 Madagascar Tortoise and Freswater Turtle workshop as at least 25 years. Mating occurs in the first half of the wet season and females produce 1-3 single egg clutches in the latter half of the wet season (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pedrono 2008). Observation of nests in the wild, show incubation periods of 250-340 days (Razandrimamilafiniarivo <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
19036	population	Leuteritz, T., Randriamahazo, H. & Lewis, R., 2008	Based on density estimates, habitat reduction and trade figures it is believed that the total population of <em>P. planicauda</em> is less than 10, 000 animals (Anonymous 2001). Recent surveys yield a calculated total population of over 16,000 animals, but the methodology used requires further data to confirm this number. <br/><br/>Summary of various <em>P. planicauda</em> studies (from CITES AC18 Doc. 7.1, 2002):<br/><br/>1991 - Kirindi - 8 km² surveyed - tortoises encountered on 54 occasions - 6.75 per km², but no data on recaptures — Quentin and Hayes (1991).<br/><br/>1996 - Kirindi - 20 km² / 20,000 ha surveyed - 12 tortoises in 11 days, 83% recapture - 0.6/km2 — <br/>Bloxam <em>et al</em>. (1996).<br/><br/>"main forest block":<br/>- 0.5/ha (50/km²) — Durbin and Randriamanampisoa (2000).<br/>- 2-6/ha (200-600/km²) —- Durbin and Randriamanampisoa (2000, as cited in CITES Proposal 12.55)<br/>- 1/ha (100/km²) — Kuchling in litt. 2001, Rakotombololona (2001 cited in Rakotombololona & Durbin in litt. to SSC Wildlife Trade Programme, 23 Nov 2001)	eng
19036	threats	Leuteritz, T., Randriamahazo, H. & Lewis, R., 2008	<em>Pyxis planicauda</em> is exclusively associated with closed-canopy dry forest and its major threat comes from habitat loss, particularly from burning and clearing for agricultural lands/cattle grazing, highway development, mining, and petroleum exploration (Tidd <em>et al</em>. 2001, Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bonin <em>et al</em>. 2006). Analyses of satellite imagery by Tidd <em>et al</em>. (2001) between 1963 and 1993 showed a 32% reduction in the primary dry forests. Deforestation rates have increased, and up to 50% of the 76,000 ha remaining in the southern portion of the tortoises range may be destroyed before 2010. A 50% reduction in the remaining 73,000 ha of habitat in the northern portion of its known range may occur by 2040 (Tidd <em>et al</em>. 2001), for a combined forest habitat loss estimated at over 70% in the period 1963-2040. Similar deforestation rates were documented by Harper <em>et al</em>. (2007). <br/><br/>Secondary pressure comes from collection for the pet trade (Goetz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bonin <em>et al</em>. 2006); a pulse of exploitation for pet trade export removed about 4,000 adult animals during 2000 to 2002, representing 20 to 40% of the total number of adults (depending on total population estimates). The reproductive capacity and recruitment potential of this species are particularly low, even by tortoise standards. <br/><br/>The species is not consumed locally or traded locally/regionally. <br/><br/>Population modelling at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001) predicted extinction before 2030 based on rates of habitat loss and pet trade collection then in effect, but legal export trade is no longer permitted and thus the modelling assumptions are no longer valid. <br/><br/><em>Pyxis planicauda</em> was recommended to be listed as Critically Endangered (CR A3acd + B1b) at the 2001 CAMP workshop (CBSG 2001).	eng
19039	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species occurs in clear waters of small and medium sized rivers on riffle and shoal areas near banks.	eng
19040	conservation	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	Is listed as a federally endangered species in the U.S.  The St. Croix River is a National Wild and Scenic River and this designation confers some protection from anthropogenic disturbance of the population.	eng
19040	distribution	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 1996	The single known remnant population exists in a 20 km stretch of the lower St. Croix River between Minnesota and Wisconsin.	eng
19070	habitat	European Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
19107	habitat	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Burrowing species	eng
19148	conservation		No conservation measures are needed; this species is extinct.	eng
19148	distribution		This species was known from a small number of localities, elevation ca. 600m asl, in the northern portions of Las Vegas Valley, Clark County, Nevada, USA (Jennings, Riddle and Bradford 1995).	eng
19148	habitat		This frog was restricted to freshwater streams, springs, seeps, and adjacent riparian habitat associated with the Upper Las Vegas Valley (Wright and Wright 1949). Egg masses are not known, but metamorphic individuals were collected in the same habitats as those used by adults (Wright and Wright 1949).	eng
19148	population		It was last seen in 1942 (Wright and Wright 1949) and is now believed to be extinct (Jennings, Riddle and Bradford 1995).	eng
19148	threats		It is extinct evidently due to habitat loss resulting from spring capture and ground water pumping by the growing city of Las Vegas (URS 1977), and exacerbated by the introduction of the Bullfrog <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>. Although some suitable habitat persists within or near the former range of this species, only <em>R. catesbeiana</em> can be found.	eng
19156	conservation	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Trent Garner, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Italy, Switzerland and Slovenia and has been recorded in a number of national and Red Data books and lists.	eng
19156	distribution	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Trent Garner, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, Milan Vogrin, 2008	This species occurs from the lowlands of the Padano Venetian plain of northern Italy and southern Switzerland (where it is restricted to a small area in Kanton Ticino), east to the Triestine and Istrian regions of north-eastern Italy, with a few sites in Slovenia and Croatia. It is present from sea level up to around 500m asl, but sites at higher elevations are unusual.	eng
19156	habitat	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Trent Garner, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, Milan Vogrin, 2008	The original habitat of this species is semi-hygrophilous forest; in secondary habitats it is associated with humid deciduous wooded areas, typically situated alongside small streams, rivers, or lakes, with rich vegetation. It is present in poplar plantations with thick understorey and occasionally meadows (Arnold 2002). It hibernates on land (where it may occur up to a kilometre from water: Arnold 2002), and also under the mud of stream beds. The species breeds in permanent and temporary water in wooded areas, usually including slow-moving rivers. It can occur in anthropogenic habitats such as agricultural irrigation ditches, but only if these are close to forest remnants for over wintering (Garner pers. comm.).	eng
19156	population	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Trent Garner, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is relatively abundant along some northern tributaries of the Po River, with a few sites existing along southern tributaries. It is occasional and localized in north-western Italy being more common in north-eastern areas. Some of the breeding sites in Switzerland can contain hundreds of individuals. It is considered rare in Slovenia. Populations of the species are generally larger in the eastern parts of its range and population genetic diversity decreases sharply from east to west by a factor of three (populations located in the western part of the distribution have severely reduced genetic diversity as measured at microsatellite loci, while populations located in the east do not; T. Garner pers. comm.). Most populations are severely fragmented.	eng
19156	threats	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Trent Garner, Benedikt Schmidt, Claudia Corti, Milan Vogrin, 2008	This species is threatened by the destruction of much of the original humid deciduous forests of the Padano Venetian plain and Istrian region by extensive agricultural development including drainage and deforestation (with population fragmentation). Additional threats to this species are the introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii)</em>, lowering of the water table, and aquatic pollution. Crayfish predation has driven one isolated subpopulation to disappear. The reduced genetic diversity in western populations might be leading to greater vulnerability to emergent pathogens (T. Garner pers. comm.).	eng
19168	conservation		This species is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa Prefecture, but there remains a need for improved protection of forest habitat on both Okinawajima and Tokashikijima.	eng
19168	distribution		This species is found only on Okinawajima and Tokashikijima Islands in Japan.	eng
19168	habitat		It occurs in primary or well-recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest, breeding on the wet, sandy mud substrates around the heads of mountain streams and in the surrounding still waters.	eng
19168	population		Its population appears to be in rapid decline.	eng
19168	threats		Recent deforestation caused by road and dam construction in the northern part of Okinawajima and Tokashikijima have been damaging the habitat of this species, and will probably lead to further decline of the population on these islands.	eng
19169	conservation		The population of Okinawajima is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures, but there remains a need for improved protection of forest habitat on both Okinawajima and Amamioshima.	eng
19169	distribution		This species is endemic to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan, and is found only on Amamioshima and Okinawajima Islands.	eng
19169	habitat		It is entirely restricted to the upstream regions of montane torrents, surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest.	eng
19169	population		It is believed to be in serious decline.	eng
19169	threats		The major threat is deforestation, along with the development around stream areas (through road and dam construction), which has led to severe fragmentation of the species' habitat on each of the two islands. It is in the pet trade in Japan and the USA. In Japan, the population from Amami was being traded after the Okinawa population was protected, although now both populations are protected.	eng
19172	conservation		It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, though there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in the Ryukyus.	eng
19172	distribution		This species is endemic to the Amamioshima and Kakeromajima Islands of the central Ryukyus in Japan.	eng
19172	habitat		It inhabits primary, or well-recovered secondary, broad-leaved evergreen forest, breeding by larval development in small pools on forest trails and muddy riverbeds.	eng
19172	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
19172	threats		Recent deforestation on Amamioshima, along with road construction in mountainous areas, has been severely impacting the quality of the habitat of the species. Other threats include predation by introduced mongoose and development of rivers.	eng
19175	conservation		Some populations of this species occur in national forests in California and Oregon, but this does not necessarily provide adequate protection. It also occurs in a few national, regional and state parks, and on properties owned by The Nature Conservancy. In Mexico it occurs within the San Pedro Martir National Park, which is a relatively well-preserved area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
19175	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific drainages from the upper reaches of the Willamette River system, Oregon (west of the Cascades crest), south to the upper San Gabriel River, Los Angeles County, California, including the coastal ranges and Sierra Nevada foothills, in the USA. There is a disjunct population at La Grulla Meadow, Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, Mexico. It has apparently disappeared from portions of its historical range, especially in southern California (see Hayes and Jennings 1988). It occurs from sea level up to 2,040m asl.	eng
19175	habitat		This species inhabits partially shaded, rocky streams at low to moderate altitudes, in areas of chaparral, open woodland, and forest (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Hayes and Jennings 1988). It seeks cover at the bottom of a pool when startled. Its breeding and non-breeding habitats are the following, in order of decreasing favourability: (1) partially shaded, small perennial streams, 30-1,000m asl, with at least some cobble-sized rocks, riffle areas and a stream depth rarely greater than 1m; (2) intermittent, small, partly shaded, rocky streams displaying seasonal riffle habitat; (3) large (consistently greater than 1m in stream depth), partly shaded, perennial streams with rocky or bedrock habitat; and (4) open perennial streams with little or no rocky habitat. Breeding takes place in pools of streams, and eggs are usually attached to gravel or rocks at the edge of pools or streams (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). In northern California, eggs were found attached to cobbles and boulders at lower than ambient flow velocities, near confluences of tributary drainages in wide, shallow reaches, and most breeding sites were used repeatedly (Kupferberg 1996).	eng
19175	population		This species has probably been extirpated from the Tehacahapi Mountains southwards, and there have also been severe declines in the central Sierra foothills of California (Drost and Fellers 1996). It is now rare or absent in Oregon (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), moderately common in north-western California and the northern Sierra foothills, and rare or absent in the central and southern Sierra foothills. This species was first recorded in Mexico three decades ago, but almost nothing is known about its biology there.	eng
19175	threats		Threats to this species include stream scouring (it may negatively impact frogs in stream bed hibernation sites), introduced aquatic species, non-selective logging practices, and stabilization of historically fluctuating stream flows. However, because causes of declines are uncertain, it is difficult to assess the degree to which this species is threatened. S.J. Kupferberg (pers. comm.) found that bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) larvae perturbed aquatic community structure and exerted detrimental effects on <em>R. boylii</em> populations in northern California but had only a slight impact on <em>Pseudacris regilla</em>.	eng
19176	conservation		Some populations are within protected national park and wilderness areas in Oregon (such as Crater Lake National Park, and the Three Sisters wilderness area), Washington (Olympic and Mount Rainier National Parks), and California (Mount Lassen and Trinity Alps). However, factors such as pesticide drift, UV radiation, and fish introductions are prominent threats even in montane protected areas.	eng
19176	distribution		This species occurs in the Cascade Mountains from northern Washington south to northern California, USA. Populations isolated from the main Cascade Mountains complex occur in the Olympic Mountains, Washington; Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak area, California; and the Trinity Mountains, California (Stebbins 1985b; Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983; Pearl and Adams 2005). Its range is generally between 665 and 2,450m asl, although some Washington populations might occur at lower altitudes. Its prehistoric range might have included much lower altitudes (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
19176	habitat		This species inhabits wet mountain meadows, sphagnum bogs, ponds, lakes, and streams, in open coniferous forests. It hibernates in mud at the bottom of ponds and in spring-water saturated ground up to at least 75m from ponds (Briggs 1987). It prefers quiet ponds for breeding and usually lays eggs in shallow open water. Non-breeding habitats are often more than 100m from breeding sites, sometimes substantially more. Non-breeding habitats can be streams in lower altitudes. It is not clear how adaptable this species is to habitat degradation.	eng
19176	population		In Washington State, hundreds of populations have been identified, but some of these are likely to be no longer extant, and others might be continuous with adjacent populations (Dvornich, McAllister and Aubry 1997). This species is very rare and possibly extirpated from the Mount Lassen area, California (Fellers and Drost 1993). However, a population persists at Trinity Alps, California (Bury 1973a; Jennings and Hayes 1994). Some declines might have occurred in the Oregon Cascades (Olson 2001), but there have been no declines documented in Olympic (Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001) and Mount Rainier National Parks in Washington State.	eng
19176	threats		Observed declines in Lassen Volcanic National Park are apparently due to a combination of local factors, including (1) the presence of non-native predatory fish that have restricted available habitat and limited dispersal of frogs; (2) gradual loss of open meadows and associated aquatic habitats; and (3) loss of breeding habitat due to a five-year drought (Fellers and Drost 1993). Pesticide drift via prevailing winds might also have contributed to losses in California (Davidson, Shaffer and Jennings 2002). Introduced fish are implicated as limiting distribution in montane areas (Hayes and Jennings 1986; Jennings and Hayes 1994; Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001). UV radiation shows negative effects in experimental settings, but effects at landscape scale are unclear (Adams, Schindler and Bury 2001; Palen <em>et al.</em> 2002). Eggs are highly susceptible to the pathogenic fungus <em>Saprolegnia ferax</em>, which might be introduced during fish stocking (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997).	eng
19177	conservation		All known populations and majority of habitat in southern California occur on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service (USFWS 1999, 2002). Elsewhere, most occurrences are on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service or U.S. National Park Service. Occurrence in protected, pristine areas does not ensure population persistence, due to threats from non-native fishes and disease.<br/><br/>A total of 8,283 acres (33.5 square kilometers) of stream segments and riparian habitat in portions of Los Angeles, Riverside and San Bernardino counties have been designated as critical habitat for the southern California distinct population segment of mountain yellow-legged frog (USFWS 2006). Almost all of the areas proposed as critical habitat are managed by the U.S. Forest Service's Angeles National Forest (ANF) and San Bernardino National Forest (SBNF). A small amount of privately owned land (approximately 119 acres) are also included as  critical habitat.	eng
19177	distribution		Rana muscosa occurs in the southern Sierra Nevada of California and in mountains to the south in southern California. In southern California south of the Sierra Nevada, the historical range extended from Palomar Mountain in San Diego County northward and westward through the San Jacinto, San Bernardino, and San Gabriel Mountains of Riverside, San Bernardino, and Los Angeles counties; these formed four isolated clusters of montane populations (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Additionally, the species occurred as an isolated cluster of populations on Breckenridge Mountain, south of the Kern River in Kern County, and in the Sierra Nevada (west of the crest) in Tulare, Inyo and Fresno counties, extending north to Mather Pass (Vredenburg et al. 2007). The mountain ridges that separate the headwaters of the South Fork Kings River from the Middle Fork Kings River, from Mather Pass to the Monarch Divide, form the northern border of the range. Rana muscosa is now extirpated on Palomar and Breckenridge mountains and in much of the former range elsewhere in southern California and the southern Sierra Nevada (USFWS 2006, Vredenburg et al. 2007). Elevational range in southern California is 1,220-7,560 feet (370-2,290 meters (Stebbins 1985, USFWS 2002).	eng
19177	habitat		The habitat includes sunny riverbanks, meadow streams, isolated pools, and lake borders in the Sierra Nevada, rocky stream courses in southern California. The species seems to prefer sloping banks with rocks or vegetation to the water's edge (Stebbins 1985). Zweifel (1955) observed that the frogs in southern California are typically found in steep gradient streams in the chaparral belt and may range into small meadow streams at higher elevations. In contrast, Sierran frogs are most abundant in high elevation lakes and slow-moving portions of streams. This frog seldom is found away from water, but it may cross upland areas in moving between summer and winter habitats (Matthews and Pope 1999). Wintering sites include areas nearshore under ledges and in deep underwater crevices (Matthews and Pope 1999).<br/><br/>In southern California, USFWS (2006) concluded that Rana muscosa requires the following habitat elements: (1) Water source(s) found between 1,214 to 7,546 feet (370 to 2,300 meter) in elevation that are permanent. Water sources include, but are not limited to, streams, rivers, perennial creeks (or permanent plunge pools within intermittent creeks), pools (i.e., a body of impounded water that is contained above a natural dam) and other forms of aquatic habitat. The water source should maintain a natural flow pattern including periodic natural flooding. Aquatic habitats that are used by mountain yellow-legged frog for breeding purposes must maintain water during the entire tadpole growth phase, which can last for up to 2 years. During periods of drought, or less than average rainfall, these breeding sites may not hold water long enough for individuals to complete metamorphosis, but they would still be considered essential breeding habitat in wetter years. Further, the aquatic includes: a. Bank and pool substrates consisting of varying percentages of soil or silt, sand, gravel cobble, rock, and boulders; b. Open gravel banks and rocks projecting above or just beneath the surface of the water for sunning posts; c. Aquatic refugia, including pools with bank overhangs, downfall logs or branches, and/or rocks to provide cover from predators; and d. Streams or stream reaches between known occupied sites that can function as corridors for movement between aquatic habitats used as breeding and/or foraging sites. (2) Riparian habitat and upland vegetation (e.g., ponderosa pine, montane hardwoodconifer, montane riparian woodlands, and chaparral) extending 262 feet (80 meters) from each side of the centerline of each identified stream and its tributaries, that provides areas for feeding and movement of mountain yellow-legged frog, with a canopy overstory not exceeding 85 percent that allows sunlight to reach the stream and thereby provide basking areas for the species.	eng
19177	population		Vredenburg et al. (cited by Macey et al. 2001) stated that there are only 3-4 healthy populations in the southern Sierra Nevada.<br/><br/>Historically, Rana muscosa was documented in approximately 166 localities in creeks and drainages in the mountains of southern California (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Currently the species is known from only seven or eight locations (Backlin et al. 2002, cited by USFWS 2002; Vredenburg et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but may not exceed a couple thousand (generously assuming 20 subpopulations averaging 100 adults); available information indicates fewer subpopulations and smaller subpopulation sizes. In southern California south of the Sierra Nevada, estimated population size in 2003 was around 183 adults (see USFWS 2006).<br/><br/>A precipitous decline in Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae appears to have occurred over the past 3-4 decades (Bradford 1991; USFWS 1999; Vredenburg et al., in Lannoo 2005). For the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as a whole, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped many more extirpated populations than extant populations. <br/><br/>Of the 79 historical R. muscosa sites studied by Vredenburg et al. (2007), only 3 sites contained frogs when revisited between 1995 and 2005 (96 percent extirpation rate). Rana muscosa probably has been extirpated from more than 99% of the historical range in southern California south of the Sierra Nevada (USFWS 2002).<br/><br/>Declines likely are continuing, but the current rate of decline (past 10 years) is uncertain.	eng
19177	threats		A petition to list the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex as endangered cited the following threats: non-native fish introductions, contaminant introductions, livestock grazing, acidification from atmospheric deposition, nitrate deposition, ultraviolet radiation, drought, disease, and other factors (see USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys in the Sierra Nevada clearly demonstrate the strong detrimental impact of introduced trouts on <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> populations (Bradford 1989, Knapp and Matthews 2000). Removal of non-native fishes (relatively easy in some Sierra Nevada lakes) might easily reverse the decline (Knapp and Matthews 2000).<br/><br/>See Bradford (1991) for information on mass mortality and extinction of a population due at least in part to red-leg disease and predation on metamorphics by Brewer's blackbird; reestablishment of the extirpated population probably will be prevented through predation by introduced fishes.  <br/><br/>Frogs of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex are possibly but probably not threatened by sublethal effects of low pH and elevated levels of dissolved aluminum (Bradford <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).<br/><br/>Fellers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) documented oral chytridiomycosis (often indicated by oral disc abnormalities) in larvae and recently metamorphosed individuals of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae </span>complex in the Sierra Nevada, where recent declines have occurred. However, loss of pigmentation of larval mouthparts does not always indicate chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrium infection) (Rachowicz 2002).<br/><br/>Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) found support for the hypothesis that airborne agrochemicals have played a significant role in the decline of frogs of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana muscosa</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana sierrae</span> complex.<br/><br/>Southern California south of the Sierra Nevada: Threatened by predation by introduced trout (remaining frog populations generally are in upstream areas with barriers to trout colonization), recreational suction dredging for gold, human activities at campgrounds and day-use areas, and usual problems associated with small population size and population isolation (e.g., fire, flood, or drought could extirpate small populations, with little chance of reestablishment due to poor connectivity of populations). Human use in and along streams can disrupt the development, survivorship, and recruitment of eggs, larvae, and adult frogs (Jennings 1995; Stewart, in litt. 1995) and can change the character of a stream and its bank and associated vegetation in ways that make whole sections of a stream less suitable for the species (see USFWS 2002). Dams and diversions on streams alter natural hydrologic flow and may negatively impact breeding and foraging habitat and further exacerbate the decline of populations in southern California. Predatory non-native bullfrogs are present in many areas formerly occupied by <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa </span>(USFWS 2002) and likely are incompatible with viable <span style="font-style: italic;">R. muscosa</span> populations. Pathogenic chytrid fungus (attacks larval mouthparts) may be a threat (USFWS 2002). Release of toxic or hazardous materials into streams is a potential threat (Jennings 1995, Backlin et al. 2002, USFS 2002).	eng
19178	conservation		Remaining populations occur within the Lake Mead National Recreation area. A range-wide conservation assessment and strategy is currently being developed by a working group consisting of representatives from federal, state, and local governmental agencies, as well as specialist representatives. Current conservation measures include the re-introduction of this frog to suitable, unoccupied locations, and in 2002 frogs were released at two unoccupied natural spring sites.	eng
19178	distribution		This species occurs on the border region of Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, USA, mostly below 1,000m asl. It was known from the Virgin and Muddy River drainages and along the Colorado River drainage downstream of its confluence with the Virgin River to Black Canyon below Lake Mead (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). In the late 1990s, the species could be found at seven sites in three general areas: a spring near Littlefield, Arizona, on the Virgin River; several springs along the Nevada side of the Overton Arm of Lake Mead; and within several springs in the Black Canyon along the Nevada side of the Colorado River (Jaeger <em>et al.</em> 2001; Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). By 2001, two of these populations, including the one near Littlefield, had gone extinct (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005).	eng
19178	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in springs and outlet creeks, typically in or within a few meters of water, year round (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). It does not tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
19178	population		As of 2001, there were five known sites in two general areas containing reproducing populations of leopard frogs (Jaeger <em>et al.</em> 2001; Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005). A rough estimate of the total population size (combining all sites) was approximately 1,100 adults (range 693-1,833), most of which were at a single spring (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004, Bradford, Jennings and Jaeger 2005).	eng
19178	threats		The causes of the decline of this species are not entirely clear, but the loss of habitat to agriculture and water development were likely causes, as was the introduction of American bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>), crayfish, and exotic predatory fish (Jennings 1988). These factors remain active threats. Vegetation encroachment, of both exotic and native vegetation, has been suspected of causing recent declines (Bradford, Jaeger and Jennings 2004).	eng
19179	conservation		It is somewhat protected in several federal and state parks and refuges, though management usually ignores this species. Some zoos in North America have raised wild-caught larvae and then reintroduced them to the wild, although captive breeding of this species has not yet been successful.	eng
19179	distribution		This species can be found in south-western British Columbia, Canada, south through the Puget/Willamette Valley trough and the Columbia River gorge in south-central Washington to the Cascades range at least to the Klamath Valley in Oregon, USA. It has been extirpated from much of western Oregon and Washington. Some records are based on misidentified <em>Rana aurora</em> (Green <em>et al.</em> 1997). Historically, it has occurred in north-eastern California (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Hayes 1994). It occurs at an elevation of 20-1,570m asl.	eng
19179	habitat		It is highly aquatic, and rarely found far from permanent quiet water; usually occurs at the grassy margins of streams, lakes, ponds, springs, and marshes (Licht 1971, 1986, Watson, McAllister and Pierce 2003). Animals may disperse into forest, grassland, and brush land during wet weather. It breeds usually in shallow water in ponds or other quiet waters. It does not appear to adapt well to habitat disturbance or alteration, although it does occur in some anthropogenic ponds in central Oregon (C. Pearl, unpubl.).	eng
19179	population		It is now known from ca. 33 sites in the north-western United States and south-western British Columbia, Canada (Pearl and Hayes 2005). Most extant populations are small. The Conboy Lake NWR population produced a five-year maximum-estimated at 8,300 egg masses in one year in the late 1990s, but then plummeted to about 1,500 egg masses in 2003 (M. Hayes, unpubl.). Historically, it is recorded from eight localities in western Washington, 44 in Oregon, three in California, and one in British Columbia. A nearly complete survey of the range in the mid-1990s revealed extant populations only in three sites in Washington and 19 in Oregon. It is apparently extirpated in California (M. Hayes), but recently confirmed as extant in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia (D. Green pers. comm.).The species has probably vanished from about 70-90% of its former range.	eng
19179	threats		It has declined in areas inhabited by the introduced bullfrog (Pearl <em>et al.</em> 2004). Introduced predatory fishes probably also are having a detrimental impact. The decline of this species is also probably related to loss and degradation of breeding habitat such as may result from dam construction, alteration of drainage patterns, dewatering due to urban and agricultural use of water, excessive livestock grazing, and other human activities that reduce or eliminate lentic shallow water. At the embryonic stage, UV-B radiation currently does not seem to be contributing to population declines (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
19180	conservation		It is protected in The Nature Conservancy's Ramsey Canyon Preserve and the Coronado National Forest, which owns the Brown Canyon site. A voluntary conservation agreement among landowners and state and federal agencies was signed in 1996, and is currently being revised. Conservation activities focus on removing threats to populations and habitats and on improving the meta-population structure. Arizona Game and Fish Commission Order 41 prohibits the collection of this species from the wild in Arizona. Phoenix Zoo has successfully bred tadpoles from egg masses that have then been reintroduced to protected areas.	eng
19180	distribution		This species is known from Ramsey and Brown Canyons on the east side of the Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona, southwestern United States (Platz 1993). The elevations of these localities range from 1,501-1,829m asl (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). There is speculation that its historical range included the San Pedro River valley and parts of Chihuahua, Mexico (Platz 1997). Leopard frogs that might have been Ramsey Canyon Leopard Frogs have been noted from eleven canyons in the Huachuca Mountains (Sredl 2005), but there are no recent records from any of these sites, except where the species has been released recently.	eng
19180	habitat		This species is a habitat generalist known to inhabit and breed in aquatic systems in pine-oak and oak woodland and semi-desert grassland habitats in extreme south-eastern Arizona. The perennial or near-perennial habitats from which they are known or likely to have occurred include springs, cienagas, earthen cattle tanks, small creeks, and slack water of main-stem rivers. Most habitats are modified or artificial aquatic systems (Sredl and Saylor 1998; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Deep areas, root masses, and undercut banks are used when escaping capture. Habitat heterogeneity is likely important. The frogs will move into newly created suitable habitat rapidly, if near to occupied habitat (Sredl 2005). It is apparently adaptable to anthropogenic changes. Only one of the nine known sites inhabited by Ramsey Canyon Leopard Frogs is a natural aquatic system; the remainder are artificial or highly modified aquatic systems (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
19180	population		It is still known to be extant at just five sites, including backyard ponds. Populations appear to be declining and recruitment is low at most historical localities. Translocation has been successful in one canyon. The animals released there in 1999 have produced over 400 egg masses through 2003 and the population of metamorphosed frogs is thought to be over 400 individuals. In 2004, an abundance of eggs were reported in the wild and there is some evidence that the population might be starting to rebound.	eng
19180	threats		Chytrid fungus has been found in dead frogs at several sites that have declined and this pathogen might be responsible for these declines. The most important threats are disease (chytridiomycosis), non-native predators, and competitors (bullfrogs, sport fish, crayfish), the effects of small, isolated populations, and loss of aquatic habitat through drying or siltation. Other minor threats include floods that carry unnaturally high sediment loads due to road use, improper grazing practices, fire, and other sources.	eng
19181	conservation		This species occurs in and is being managed for on several state and federally managed lands in Arizona (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Mexico it was listed as rare in 1995 (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997), and is also listed by the Mexican government in the "Special Protection" (Pr) category. It is listed as endangered in California and New Mexico (Jennings and Hayes 1994). It has been bred in captivity at Phoenix Zoo.	eng
19181	distribution		This species ranges from western and central Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, in the USA, south to northern Sonora and northwestern Chihuahua, and south-central and southeastern California and adjacent Arizona, from San Felipe Creek to the Colorado River (Painter 1985, Jennings and Hayes 1994). It usually occurs below 1,000m asl, to 1,700m asl in central Arizona (Platz and Frost 1984, Stebbins 1985). It has apparently been extirpated in Imperial Valley, California, and along the lower Colorado River, Arizona-California, though it might be extant in some areas close to the Colorado River in Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989, Jennings and Hayes 1994). It has been replaced by the introduced R. berlandieri along the Colorado and Gila rivers, Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). In Arizona, it is found in every county except Apache and Navajo with 57% of all localities occurring in Gila, Maricopa, and Yavapai counties (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is believed to be extirpated from New Mexico (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997).	eng
19181	habitat		This species preferably inhabits rocky streams in canyon habitats surrounded by conifer forests or ponds and stream pools, usually in areas of scrub desert. Eggs and larvae develop in quiet water.	eng
19181	population		In California, historical records are from 28 locations with the most recent observation in 1965. It has not been observed during recent general herpetological surveys in California and is believed to be extirpated (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In New Mexico, it is known from 14 historical locations. A 1995 survey of 72 potential locations in New Mexico, including six historical sites that had not been surveyed in the past 10 years, resulted in no observations. New Mexico populations are now believed to be extirpated or occurring in very low numbers (Jennings 1995, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, the Natural Heritage Program recorded 302 populations with 90% believed to be extant (S. Schwartz pers. comm., 1998). An extensive 1991-1996 survey in Arizona resulted in the relocation of this species at 43 of the 115 historical localities surveyed and at 61 additional new sites (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/>It has a widespread distribution and has a large number of occurrences. Abundance information has been collected only from a small area in New Mexico and is highly variable. Mark-recapture studies were conducted annually at six New Mexico sites from 1991-1996 resulting in highly variable population estimates among sites and annually within sites. Population estimates were determined using the Lincoln-Peterson method. Individuals were observed every year at only one of the six locations. The following are the ranges of annual population estimates: 1991 (four sites), 41-704; 1992 (four sites), 19-887; 1993 (two sites), 156-1806; 1994 (two sites), 134-863; 1995 (one site), 92; and 1996 (one site), 70. See Sredl <em>et al.</em> (1997) for more specific individual site information.<br/>Populations are considered stable in central Arizona, but the remainder of the USA populations are declining or extirpated. Information is not available from Mexico. In California, the species has not been observed during any recent general herpetological surveys and is believed to be extirpated (Jennings and Hayes 1994). A 1995 survey in New Mexico, where it occurred as recently as 1985, indicates that previously viable populations are now extinct or numbers are very low (Jennings 1995). A 1991-1996 survey in Arizona indicated that populations were stable in central Arizona, dramatically declining in southeastern Arizona, and extirpated from southwestern Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997, Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
19181	threats		The greatest threats to this species are habitat alteration and fragmentation, and the introduction of non-native predatory and competitive fishes, crayfishes, and frogs (see Jennings and Hayes 1994, Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Habitat alteration is the result of agricultural practices, livestock grazing, development, and reservoir construction (see Jennings and Hayes 1994). Damming, draining, and the diversion of water have fragmented formerly contiguous aquatic habitats. In many areas, fragmentation has been accentuated by introduced predatory fishes, crayfish, and bullfrogs. The species has been replaced by the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">R. berlandieri</span> along the Colorado and Gila rivers, Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). These factors result in the blockage of potential dispersal corridors for recolonisation. Populations are also vulnerable to large-scale mortality on a frequent basis due to drought, disease, and sulphur toxicity (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Chytridiomycosis was confirmed in this species in 1992.	eng
19182	conservation		It seems that no individuals of this species survive in the wild, but an intensive survey is needed to check all the possible localities where this species could occur. The Mexican government has placed this species in the "Endangered" category.	eng
19182	distribution		The historical range of this species was the Valley of Mexico at Xochimilco, and probably Chalco, and maybe in the eastern state of Mexico, central Mexico.	eng
19182	habitat		It inhabited wetland areas in the surroundings of southern Mexico City.	eng
19182	population		This species is most likely extinct, and has not been seen since it was first described in 1985.	eng
19182	threats		The rapid and intense growth of Mexico City with its high rate of urbanization has caused the disappearance of the only known suitable habitats for this species.	eng
19183	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is included in the regional catalogues of Navarra and Aragón. It is present in Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park (Huesca) and Lizardoia Integral Reserve (Navarra).	eng
19183	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Philippe Geniez, 2008	This species is largely restricted to the southern slopes of the western central Pyrenees Mountains. In Spain, it occurs from the Roncal Valley (Navarra) eastwards to Parque Nacional de Ordesa (Huesca). It also occurs in the Iraty Forest in the western French Pyrenees. It has an altitudinal range of 800-2,100m asl.	eng
19183	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It lives in and close to rocky mountain streams and torrents in which the water is cold, clear and well oxygenated, and is also found in roadside and forest edge ditches, drinking troughs and rain pools. Breeding takes place in these waterbodies.	eng
19183	population	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Philippe Geniez, 2008	Populations are common in the headwaters of valleys in Huesca Province, while in Navarra populations are scattered in the west.	eng
19183	threats	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Philippe Geniez, 2008	Threats include stream eutrophication (through intensification of agricultural practices), drought, potential introduction of trout and other predatory fishes, and habitat loss due to the development of tourism and transport infrastructure. Logging and associated activities may threaten the species' habitat, and it is likely to be vulnerable to climate change.	eng
19242	conservation		Field surveys are needed to gather new information on the range, population status, and habitat requirements of this species and to determine if it is currently threatened.	eng
19242	distribution		This species has been recorded only from Papahag Island, and a few other localities in the Sibutu Group, in the Sulu archipelago in the southern Philippines.	eng
19242	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.	eng
19242	population		It is known only from the original collection, which took place before 1920, so its population status is not known. The lack of subsequent records is probably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
19242	threats		The threats in the region where it was collected include deforestation through logging, and habitat conversion to agriculture and real estate.	eng
19304	conservation		This species is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Kazakhstan and is listed as a Class I protected species by the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. The range of this species is thought to be within the Hecheng Four-Claw Turtle Nature Reserve of China, although this requires confirmation. Existing conservation measures are considered to be insufficient, and there is a need for the immediate development and implementation of an effective system for conservation of the species at national (Kazakhstan and China) and international level. The most important measure recommended is the urgent creation of special strict nature reserves.	eng
19304	distribution		This species is restricted to the southern and south-western spurs of the Junggarian Alatau [Altao] Ridge in southern Kazakhstan and Mount Tianshan in Wenquan County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. It may also occur in the adjacent Yining, Huocheng and Tacheng Counties of China, and was historically also found in Hergos County. The range is severely fragmented due to the scarcity of suitable habitats (flat plateaus with a dense network of permanent streams). The altitudinal range is 2,100-3,200m asl.	eng
19304	habitat		It lives in the headwaters of small mountain streams, brooks and lakes in alpine and sub-alpine meadows, and forest-meadow and forest-meadow-steppe belts. Large streams and rivers are avoided. Reproduction extends from April to August. Clutches comprising two egg sacs of around 40-50 eggs each are attached to stones in brooks or streams. Larval development is slow, with larvae mainly feeding on stream invertebrates. The species first breeds at five years and has a lifespan of 15-20 years.	eng
19304	population		This is an extremely rare species. In China, the total population size is estimated at around 6,000 individuals.	eng
19304	threats		It is particularly susceptible to over-exploitation (for medical, commercial and scientific purposes), habitat degradation (caused by over-grazing of forest, lowering of the water table, soil erosion, and desiccation of streams), and accidental mortality caused by the trampling effects of livestock during summer grazing. It is also threatened by local fishing practices.	eng
19306	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Cape Grysbok is officially conserved in the majority of formal conservation areas in the Western Cape, as well as in many others in the Eastern Cape. It is known from seven National Parks, including Table Mountain National Park, West Coast National Park, Agulhas National Park, and the Wilderness National Park (Castley and Lloyd in press). In addition, it occurs widely in local authority and forestry reserves and on private land (East 1999).	eng
19306	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Endemic to South Africa, where largely confined to the Cape Floristic Region. It remains widespread and locally common within its historical range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces. For more detailed discussion of the distribution range see East (1999) and Castley and Lloyd (in press).	eng
19306	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Cape Grysbok is locally common in thickets, shrublands and the fynbos biome. Dense cover is an important habitat requirement. Their presence in the high-altitude grasslands of the north-eastern Cape is conditional on the proximity of forest fragments and bush clumps, although they may also use long grass for cover (Castley and Lloyd in press). They also enter developed areas such as vineyards and agricultural areas (East 1999), and have been blamed, along with the Common Duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), for extensive damage to young shoots in tea plantations in the Cedarberg (C.T. Stuart and T. Stuart, in Castley and Lloyd in press). Grysbok are predominantly broswers, and have limited water requirements (Castley and Lloyd in press).	eng
19306	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Cape Grysbok are normally solitary and cryptic in their behaviour and therefore seldom seen. They are particularly difficult to see in dense vegetation, which is exacerbated in fire-prone areas such as the fynbos of the Western Cape (Castley and Lloyd in press). Scott (1991) studied the distribution of small antelopes in De Hoop Nature Reserve between 1985 and 1987 and recorded densities of 0.21 animals per 100 km travelled for Cape Grysbok compared with 2.64 for Steenbok. This might suggest that Steenbok are at least 10 times more abundant than Cape Grysbok but, when habitat preferences and relative visibility are taken into account, it is likely that Cape Grysbok have been substantially underestimated (Castley and Lloyd in press).<br/><br/>Based on available habitat, and a requirement of between 6 and 456 ha per animal depending on the vegetation type, Cape Grysbok numbers could lie between 231,448 (post-habitat transformation) and 322,977 (pre-habitat transformation) in the Cape Floristic Region (Kerley <em>et al.</em> 2003), almost an order of magnitude higher than earlier estimates (East 1999).	eng
19306	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to the species. Localized declines may occur due to habitat encroachment and loss of dense vegetation in some areas. For example, Grysbok ranges have seen local declines in numbers from areas such as the Addo Elephant National Park where escalating numbers of elephants have opened up or destroyed thicket habitats (Castley and Lloyd in press).	eng
19307	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About one-third of the total population occurs in protected areas, including: Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Upemba National Park (DR Congo), Kafue National Park and Luangwa Valley (Zambia), Lengwe National Park (Malawi), Banhine National Park (Mozambique), Hwange National Park and Gonarezhou National Park (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park (South Africa) (East 1999, Hoffmann and Wilson in press).	eng
19307	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Sharpe’s Grysbok range from the western and southern parts of Tanzania, southwards through south-eastern DR Congo, Zambia (east of the Zambezi River), Malawi, Mozambique (not including the coastal forested regions), to extreme north-eastern Botswana and the eastern Caprivi Strip in Namibia, much of Zimbabwe, and north-east South Africa (Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga) and eastern Swaziland (Hoffmann and Wilson in press).	eng
19307	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Across much of their range (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Tanzania), Sharpe's Grysbok appear to be associated with miombo (Brachystegia) woodland where there is good undercover in the form of low-growing scrub or medium-length grass (Hoffmann and Wilson in press). Although they appear to be associated with areas of good ground cover, Wilson (1975) recorded that they were also found in pure stands of mopane (Colophospermum mopane) with very little good cover in Hwange National Park, while in Chobe National Park they were seen on a sandy plateau in open woodland with light grass and scrub cover. Sharpe's Grysbok are predominantly browsers, but will also graze (Hoffmann and Lloyd in press).	eng
19307	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) summarized recorded population density estimates for this species (0.3-0.7 animals/km²), and estimated a total population size of about 95,000 animals. Sharpe’s Grysbok are predominantly nocturnal, exceptionally shy and secretive, and can be overlooked in areas where in reality they are reasonably common so they may be more abundant than supposed (Hoffmann and Wilson in press).	eng
19307	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats, although they have been eliminated from some parts of their former range by the spread of settlement and associated habitat destruction and hunting for meat (East 1999). Its secretive habits enable it to withstand considerable hunting pressure.	eng
19308	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Steenbok is very well represented in protected areas and private farmland. The largest numbers occur in areas such as Serengeti-Mara and Tarangire (East Africa), Etosha National Park and private farmland (Namibia), northern, central and south-western rangelands (Botswana), Hwange National Park and private farmland (Zimbabwe) and Kruger National Park and private farmland (South Africa) (East 1999). About one-quarter of this estimated population occurs in protected areas and 30% on private land (East 1999).	eng
19308	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Steenbok have a disjunct distribution, with one population in East Africa (southern Kenya, north and central Tanzania) and a larger one in southern Africa, the isolating barrier being the tall miombo woodlands of central Zambia, Malawi (from which there are no records) and northern Mozambique (Du Toit in press). In southern Africa, their range extends from southern Angola and western Zambia, into most of Namibia (except the arid coastal parts), throughout Botswana, much of Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, and much of South Africa (being absent only from southern and south-eastern KwaZulu-Natal and the neighbouring Eastern Cape) (Du Toit in press). Although their distribution is largely unchanged in southern Africa, in East Africa they no longer occur in Uganda, where most suitable habitat is now cultivated (East 1999).	eng
19308	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Steenbok occupy a variety of habitats, from semi-desert to alpine moorland zones up to altitudes of 3,500 m on Mt Kenya (Du Toit in press). They occur widely in drier savannas, grasslands and scrublands (East 1999). In southern Africa they show a particular preference for heavily grazed areas, where the herb layer has a high forb to grass ratio and the woody layer is dominated by encroaching thorn scrub; such conditions often occur around watering points although Steenbok are largely water-independent. The key habitat requirement is the availability of high-quality food items (green browse, geophytes, berries, flowers or pods) throughout the year (Du Toit in press).	eng
19308	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated a total population size in excess of 600,000 individuals, but this is an underestimate. Aerial surveys underestimate population numbers, but ground surveys, in areas where the species is common, give density estimates of 0.3-1.0/km² (East 1999). In general, there are no reliable estimates of Steenbok population density, as census methods are too unreliable for this cryptic species (Du Toit in press).	eng
19308	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, Steenbok are locally vulnerable to predation by domestic dogs and subsistence herdsmen who frequently capture and kill juveniles in particular (when they are found lying alone in cover) (Du Toit in press).	eng
19315	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	This is apparently the only fish species endemic to Bali; endemic to Lake Bratan, a crater lake at 1,231 m above sea level.	eng
19316	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Tawar, Aceh, Sumatera.	eng
19317	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
19318	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
19318	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the upper slopes of Mount Giluwe and its associated peaks, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It is probably more widespread than current records indicate. It has been recorded from 2,195 to 3,660 m asl, with most records being above 2,800 m asl.	eng
19318	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in subalpine grassland, moss forest, and in the beech-moss forest zone (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 1982). Animals construct shallow tunnels leading to nests among tussock grass.	eng
19318	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. It was last recorded in 1983. This may be a difficult species to trap, possibly because of the types of baits that have been used.	eng
19318	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species has a very restricted range and is preyed upon by hunting dogs. It is potentially threatened by increased fire frequency induced by global warming.	eng
19319	conservation	Heaney, L., Garcia, H. & Duya, M.R., 2008	Although surveys to determine the geographic range of the species, its habitat requirements and status would be beneficial, its habitat is in an area in which it is very difficult to carry out fieldwork.	eng
19319	distribution	Heaney, L., Garcia, H. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The species is known only from and is likely to be restricted to Tawitawi island, Sulu Archipelago (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
19319	habitat	Heaney, L., Garcia, H. & Duya, M.R., 2008	Nothing is known about this species' habitat and ecology.	eng
19319	population	Heaney, L., Garcia, H. & Duya, M.R., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown. The species is only confirmed from the type series of three specimens in 1971 (Musser and Heaney 1985). There are unidentified records of <em>Rattus</em> spp from Tawitawi (H. Garcia pers. comm.).	eng
19319	threats	Heaney, L., Garcia, H. & Duya, M.R., 2008	This species is probably threatened by habitat destruction. The island is in a political conflict zone and there is ongoing large scale illegal logging (H. Garcia pers. comm.).	eng
19320	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is a top priority for survey work to determine whether it still survives on Enggano.	eng
19320	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from the island of Enggano, off the western coast of Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19320	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is probably formerly restricted to forested habitats.	eng
19320	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype which was recorded in the 1920s (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19320	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, since the habitat on Enggano has been nearly completely destroyed. It may have been affected by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19321	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
19321	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known from the Malaysian Peninsula, Singapore, east Sumatra, Padang and Rupat (Musser and Newcomb 1983; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19321	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It has been collected from lowland secondary forest, and in rubber estates whenever traps were set low in trees. Several specimens were also taken on the ground (Muul and Lim 1971). These same authors noted that none were taken in deep primary forest.	eng
19321	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Muul and Lim (1971) collected large numbers in Selangor (Malaysia).	eng
19321	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	In the Sumatran part of the range, the major threat is likely to be loss of forest cover, with conversion of land to agriculture. Malaysian populations are probably more stable.	eng
19322	conservation	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
19322	distribution	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is recorded widely throughout Indochina, in Thailand and Koh Samui off the east coast of peninsular Thailand, Cambodia, central Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (including islands of Cham and Thô Chu off the coast of southern Viet Nam). Then in the Sunda Shelf from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Kangean island, and Bali. It has been introduced in the Lesser Sunda Islands (on the islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Sangeang, Komodo, Rintja, Flores, Adonara, Lembata, Alor, Sumba, Timor, and Tanimbar), and in the Philippines (Cebu, Luzon, Mindoro, Mindoro, Negros), Sulawesi and New Guinea (Musser and Carleton 2005). Corbet and Hill (1992), followed by Helgen (2003), recorded the species from Seram in the Moluccas, but Musser and Carleton (2005) could not substantiate its occurrence there.	eng
19322	habitat	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Its natural habitat was probably swampy grasslands, but today it occurs in rice fields, grasslands, and plantations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) and is broadly commensal with humans.	eng
19322	population	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is extremely abundant near human habitation and settlement.	eng
19322	threats	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
19323	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species. Surveys are needed to determine if it is present in other mountain areas.	eng
19323	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from Mt. Kinabalu (Malaysia) in northern Borneo (Musser and Carleton 2005; Md Nor 2001; Musser 1986). It has been recorded between 1,524 and 3,810 m.	eng
19323	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in montane and moss forest, and sub-summit dwarf forest and scrub (Musser 1986). It is not known if the species is present in disturbed habitats. As with related species, it may be readily adapatable to habitat modification.	eng
19323	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is common at altitudes between 2130 and 3,810 m on Mt. Kinabalu (Medway 1977; Musser and Newcomb 1983; Musser 1986).	eng
19323	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
19324	conservation	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Gunung Lampobatang is a designated as a Protection Forest, but it is not known whether this area is well managed for biodiversity conservation. Further research is needed to determine the geographic range and population status of this species, and to establish whether it still survives in the lowlands in modified habitats.	eng
19324	distribution	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from south western Sulawesi, from the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at 600-2,500 m, and also from adjacent coastal lowlands close to sea level (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may occur slightly further north on the south western peninsula in limestone formations, but this requires confirmation.	eng
19324	habitat	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It inhabits montane and upper-montane forest, and also occurs in forest at lower elevations. It is possible that they may occur in coconut plantations, based on related species in other parts of Sulawesi	eng
19324	population	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is represented only by four modern specimens from the lowlands, and another larger series from Gunung Lampobatang. They probably still occur on the slopes of Gunung Lampobatang, although it is not known whether they might still persist in the lowlands.	eng
19324	threats	Musser, G., Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The major threat is likely to be extensive habitat loss in the region, and much of the forest below 1,700 m has been completely destroyed. Above this elevation, the habitat remains in good condition, although montane forest will degrade as the result of forest loss at lower elevations. It is also, possibly affected by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19325	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
19325	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to the Nicobar group of Islands in India, where it is confined to the islands of Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Trinket (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). <em>Rattus palmarum</em> and <em>R. anadamanensis</em> occur on Car Nicobar Island and not <em>R. burrus</em> as previously believed (Musser and Carleton 2005). The total area of the islands is less than 1,500 km². and the species is fragmented into three populations on as many islands.	eng
19325	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species occurs in tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
19325	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
19325	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The December 2004 tsunami has been observed to be the major threat for this species on the Nicobar islands. Post tsunami development, establishment and expansion of human settlements, conversion of forests into palm plantations are serious threats to the species (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
19326	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	This species is known from many protected areas, including Kakadu National Park.	eng
19326	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	This species is restricted to the monsoonal subcoastal plains of the Northern Territory, Australia (Williams 2008).	eng
19326	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is associated with broad, flat, treeless alluvial floodplains of tidal rivers. The species moves seasonally from the floodplains to uplands because of flooding (Williams 2008). Females can produce nine or more young throughout the year depending upon the monsoonal rains (Williams 2008).	eng
19326	population	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is generally an extremely common species where it is found; populations are eruptive (Williams 2008).	eng
19326	threats	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	Currently, there are no known major threats to this species. There has been some saltwater intrusion of floodplains that can change the vegetation. The effect of feral water buffalo on vegetation encourages saltwater intrusion throughout their range. Habitat loss is occurring through exotic plants, introduced shrubs and grasses. There is also pastoralism through cows. Cane Toads, which reach large numbers in their range, are seen as a potential threat.	eng
19327	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the response of this species to habitat disturbance.	eng
19327	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from Pulau Taliabu and adjacent Pulau Mangole in the Sula Archipelago (Indonesia), but is absent from Pulau Sanana, where only the introduced <em>R. tanezumi</em> and <em>R. exulans</em> are found (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from the lowlands to possibly around 1,200 m.	eng
19327	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is present in lowland tropical forest, and has been collected in secondary growth and coco plantations, although it is not known if it can persist in these modified habitat and it is possible that the localities may have been close to relatively undisturbed forest.	eng
19327	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a common species on Taliabu island.	eng
19327	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It may be threatened by habitat loss through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also potentially threatened by competition by introduced <em>Rattus</em> species.	eng
19328	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is a top priority for survey work to determine whether it still survives on Enggano.	eng
19328	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is recorded only from the island of Enggano off south west Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). Surveys on the island conducted in the late 1980s did not find this species, but did record <em>Rattus rattus</em>. A single specimen of <em>Rattus tiomanicus</em> is recorded from the island, and <em>Rattus adustus</em> is also only known from the holotype from Enggano.	eng
19328	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a primitive type of <em>Rattus</em>, almost certainly restricted to forest habitats.	eng
19328	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected more than 100 years ago (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19328	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss, since the habitat on Enggano has been nearly completely destroyed. It may have been affected by competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19329	conservation	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, M.R., Tabao, M., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
19329	distribution	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, M.R., Tabao, M., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is endemic to the Philippines where it is widespread though its range excluding the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes/Babuyan groups (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Specimens are recorded from Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Albay, Aurora, Benguet, Camarines Sur, Laguna, Mountain Province, Pampanga, Quezon, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Mindoro, Burias, Panay, Siargao, and Ticao. It has also been reported from Samar (Johnson 1946).	eng
19329	habitat	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, M.R., Tabao, M., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	It is found in primary and disturbed lowland, montane, and mossy forest, including scrubby areas close to forest (Balete and Heaney 2006; Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rabor 1955). There are no records from agricultural lands or completely deforested areas. Its elevation range is from sea level to 2,200 m on Luzon, and up to 2,400 m on Mindanao (Musser and Heaney 1992; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
19329	population	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, M.R., Tabao, M., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is most common in primary and disturbed forest, uncommon in secondary forest, and usually absent in agricultural areas.	eng
19329	threats	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Duya, M.R., Tabao, M., Gonzalez, J.C. & Balete, D., 2008	There are no major threats to the species which has been found to be competitively superior to introduced <em>Rattus</em> species.	eng
19330	conservation	Ruedas, L., Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas.	eng
19330	distribution	Ruedas, L., Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widespread throughout both mainland and insular Southeast Asia (including the islands of Taiwan, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely introduced and widespread in the Philippines and several Indonesian islands (including Sulawesi, Buru, Lombok, Sumbara, Flores), the island of New Guinea (approximate range only given). It has also been widely introduced throughout the Pacific (Corbet and Hill 1992; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is now extinct from North Island, New Zealand (Flannery 1995). The map for this species depicts only an estimate of the species extensive range.	eng
19330	habitat	Ruedas, L., Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed or agricultural land. In the Philippines, it occurs in agricultural areas throughout the country at all elevations (Barbehenn <em>et al. </em>1973; Rabor 1986). Often present in disturbed forest (e.g. Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994), usually rare in primary forest, but may be common in primary forest on islands such as Negros with few native rodents (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1989). In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and probably commensal species. It occurs in tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical mangrove forests. Coastal hilly forest with human settlements in lowlands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19330	population	Ruedas, L., Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
19330	threats	Ruedas, L., Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19331	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from Manusela National Park. Studies are needed into the persistence of this species in modified habitats, and also into the general habitat use by the species.	eng
19331	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded at three localities on Seram (Teloeti Bay on the south coast, near Piliana Village in south-central Seram, and on Gunung Manusela), the elevational range is from sea level to 1,830 m (Helgen 2003). Although the distribution is incompletely known, it almost certainly occurs throughout the island.	eng
19331	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species seems to be largely terrestrial (Helgen 2003). This species has been recorded from moderately disturbed mid-elevation rainforest in precipitous limestone country (Helgen 2003). This is the largest known rat on Seram.	eng
19331	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known from eight specimens collected at three sites (Helgen 2003).	eng
19331	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is threatened by logging, especially in lowland areas. It can persist in some moderately disturbed areas. It is also threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19333	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., Ellis, M., Burnett, S. & Friend, T., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
19333	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., Ellis, M., Burnett, S. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed mainly along the forested and coastal heath of the southern and eastern portions of the country. It is also present on a number of offshore islands (including Kangaroo Island) (Lunney 2008).	eng
19333	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., Ellis, M., Burnett, S. & Friend, T., 2008	Recorded from subalpine woodland, coastal scrub, coastal heath, eucalypt forest, and tropical moist forest. It is a largely terrestrial and ground-dwelling species that occurs in areas with a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ferns (Lunney 2008). Females give birth to about five young and several litters may be produced in a good season (Lunney 2008).	eng
19333	population	Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., Ellis, M., Burnett, S. & Friend, T., 2008	It is generally common in most parts of its range, and locally abundant. It is very common, for instance, in coastal heaths (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
19333	threats	Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., Ellis, M., Burnett, S. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is very sensitive to habitat disturbance and land clearing, and may be threatened in parts of its range by inappropriate fire regimes and bushfire, as well as logging activities.	eng
19334	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is present in Rutong Protection Forest.	eng
19334	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found only on Flores Island (Musser and Carleton 2005). The type locality is at 1,300 m, and it probably occurs between about 1,000 and 2,000 m, as on Gunung Ranaka (Kitchener and Yani 1998).	eng
19334	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It occurs in montane forest, in both primary and disturbed habitats.	eng
19334	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Described from two specimens (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1991), but later found to be common in forest habitats (Kitchener and Yani 1998).	eng
19334	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is probably affected by ongoing habitat loss; the habitat is especially degraded between 1,000 and 1,500 m. In future its range will probably be more restricted altitudinally, it is also possible that this species is affected by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>.	eng
19335	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in many protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park. Some further studies are needed to determine how well the species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
19335	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found on throughout Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the exception of the upper slopes of Gunung Lampobatang at the end of the southwestern peninsula. It is also found on Malenge island in the Togian Archipelago (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19335	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This terrestrial species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forest (Musser 1982). It is tolerant of some habitat disturbance and can be found in secondary growth and scrub. It has been recorded from shade-grown coffee plantations. It is a frugivorous species.	eng
19335	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
19335	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	In the lowland parts of its range, it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging and heavy conversion of land to open cultivated areas. It is presumably caught for food in the northern part of its range, but this seems unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
19336	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is present in Gunung Leuser National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
19336	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in the mountains of western Sumatra, Indonesia, where in the foothills and upper slopes of Gunung Leuser from 2,500 to 3,000 m (Miller 1942). It may occur more widely in the northern mountain block, but further surveys are needed to confirm this.	eng
19336	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in upper montane moss forest and exposed forested heath. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
19336	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	It can be locally common in suitable habitat. Only relatively few specimens have been collected.	eng
19336	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Helgen, K., 2008	Although there appear to be no major threats to the species at present, it is potentially threatened by loss of its very limited dry habitat through fire.	eng
19337	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to this species are needed; most importantly, research should focus on how it responds to habitat degradation.	eng
19337	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is restricted to Yapen, Biak-Supiori, and Owi islands of Indonesia. Its elevational range is from sea level to 600 m asl.	eng
19337	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded from tropical moist forest, at the forest edge, in rural gardens, and within villages.	eng
19337	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
19337	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of native forest, especially on the island of Biak. It is possibly threatened by competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19338	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for further survey on Peleng to determine the population status of this species.	eng
19338	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Kepulauan Banggai, Pulau Peleng (1°23'S, 123°14'E) in Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). There is no reason why the species could not occur all over the island, but there has been limited survey work on Peleng.	eng
19338	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available for this species, the type specimen was collected in coastal plains on Peleng. Its closest relative is <em>R. hoffmanni</em>, suggesting that it may be found in all habitats on the island.	eng
19338	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Represented only by the holotype collected in 1938. There is no information on current poulation status.	eng
19338	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There has been extensive habitat loss on Peleng due to logging, which will certainly have led to a decline in this species if it is confined to forest habitats.	eng
19339	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is present in Kerinci Seblat National Park, and may be found in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
19339	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from Gunung Kerinci and Gunung Talakmau in western Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The altitudinal range is incompletely known, it was collected at 2,225 m at the type locality. It may range more widely geographically and altitudinally.	eng
19339	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in primary upper montane or moss forest (Musser 1986).	eng
19339	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	The population abundance is not well known. The species is known from relatively few specimens.	eng
19339	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, aside from the secondary knock-on effects of habitat degradation at lower altitudes. Lower montane forest will act as a buffer zone, helping to protect this species.	eng
19340	conservation	Aplin, K., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas, both in New Guinea and on the Australian mainland.	eng
19340	distribution	Aplin, K., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is widespread in southern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), Wokam in the Aru Islands of Indonesia, and on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Menkhorst 2001; Moore and Leung 2008). In Queensland, it occurs as two disjunct populations, one on the Cape York Peninsula in the McIlwraith and Iron Ranges, and the other in the wet tropics between Cooktown and Paluma. It is found from sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
19340	habitat	Aplin, K., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is a terrestrial species primarily of tropical moist forest and gallery forest (Flannery 1995b; Moore and Leung 2008). Animals have been recorded in rural gardens (Flannery 1995b) and secondary or regenerating forest (Moore and Leung 2008). Females can annually give birth to up to three litters of between two and five young (Moore and Leung 2008).	eng
19340	population	Aplin, K., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
19340	threats	Aplin, K., Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
19341	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
19341	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in south east China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Chongqing, east Sichuan, south Shaanxi,, Hainan) and Taiwan, extending into central and southern Lao PDR, south and south west Cambodia, Thailand, and the Pescadores islands (Dang <em>et al</em>. 1994; Marshall 1977; Musser and Carleton 2005; Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/>Wang (2003) recognized three subspecies in China: <em>R. l. exiguus</em>, Howell, 1927, found in continental China; <em>R. l. losea</em>, (Swinhoe, 1871), occurring in Taiwan; and <em>R. l. sakeratensis</em>, Gyldenstolpe, 1917, from Hainan island.	eng
19341	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	It inhabits grass, scrub, mangroves, cultivated fields and other human modified areas from sea level up to about 1,000 m. Studies in Viet Nam suggest that population sizes may fluctuate in relation to the availability of field crops (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
19341	population	Aplin, K., 2008	This is a common and highly abundant species.	eng
19341	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
19342	conservation	Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	Further surveys are needed to determine the current status of this species.	eng
19342	distribution	Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found on the islands of Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara (North Pagai island), and Pagai Selattan (South Pagai isalnd) in the Mentawai Archipelago off the coast of southwestern Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19342	habitat	Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is restricted to tropical lowland evergreen forest.	eng
19342	population	Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	From early collections it seems to have formerly been a common species. It is uncertain as to whether this species is still extant, has not been seen for approximately 100 years.	eng
19342	threats	Aplin, K., Musser, G. & Lunde, D., 2008	The habitat of this species has been extensively deforested through extraction of timber and firewood and conversion to agricultural land (much of the area is now mixed fruit plantations). There is also expected to be some competition between this species and introduced <em>Rattus</em> taxa.	eng
19343	conservation	Burnett, S., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Denny, M., 2008	It is present in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine the whether or not the Atherton Tableland populations represent a separate species.	eng
19343	distribution	Burnett, S., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Denny, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the south-east ranging from Fraser Island southwards to Kangaroo Island. It is also present in Tasmania and the Bass Strait Islands, and there is a disjunct population in north-eastern Queensland, between the Atherton Tableland and Paluma. Sea level to 1,600 m asl is the elevational range.	eng
19343	habitat	Burnett, S., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Denny, M., 2008	It is largely associated with wetland habitats on the Australian mainland, but in Tasmania it is found in a broader range of habitats including alpine areas, wet sclerophyll forest, buttongrass moorland and temperate moist forest (Lunney 2008). It is often found in heath and sedge type habitats (Lunney 2008). Females may give birth to several litters of up to five young per year (Lunney 2008).	eng
19343	population	Burnett, S., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Denny, M., 2008	It is common and locally abundant.	eng
19343	threats	Burnett, S., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Denny, M., 2008	Formerly the species declined significantly in response to habitat loss following European settlement of Australia (Lunney 2008). Coastal development may result in some local declines; in north-eastern Queensland the species' habitat (grassy, wet sclerophyll forest) is declining due to inappropriate burning regimes resulting in the replacement of this habitat with rainforest.	eng
19344	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
19344	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Maclear's Rat was endemic to Christmas Island, Australia. Christmas Island is approximately 138 km<sup>2</sup> and lies 345 km south of Java, the nearest landmass, in the Indian Ocean.	eng
19344	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species was largely or entirely nocturnal, and had little fear of people. It was terrestrial, climbed trees, and was present all over the island, which was at the time mostly covered by tropical moist forest. Lister (1888) noted that "they generally keep to the ground, but are able to climb trees." Andrews (1900), who apparently was more impressed by their climbing ability, said they "ascend trees to a great height" in pursuit of fruits and young shoots, and "I have often seen them run up the trailing stems of the lianas, and, in fact, they can climb as well as a squirrel." Little is known of their diet, except that they were fond of fruits and young shoots. <br/><br/>Nothing more is known about the habitat and ecology of this species aside from what is contained in the following lines: "In the daytime these rats live in holes among the roots of trees, in decaying logs, and shallow burrows. They seem to breed all the year round" (Andrews 1900).	eng
19344	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Maclear's Rat became extinct probably between 1902 and 1904. It was, however, abundant on Christmas Island at the close of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. Lister visited the island in 1887 and said of Maclear's Rat, it "abounds all over the island" (Lister 1888). Andrews (1900) who was on the island for ten months, 1897-1898, noted that it was "by far the commonest of the mammals found in the island; in every part I visited, it occurred in swarms. During the day nothing is to be seen of it, but soon after sunset numbers may be seen running about in all directions." Andrews continued by stating that "as may be imagined, they are a great nuisance, entering the tents or shelters, running over the sleepers, and upsetting everything in their search for food" (Andrews 1900).	eng
19344	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species was still abundant in 1897-1898 while Andrews was on Christmas Island (Andrews 1900). By the time he returned to the island in 1908, he was confident that it and the other native rat species, <em>Rattus nativitatis</em>, were extinct (Andrews 1909). Andrews (1909) speculated that introduced Black Rats <em>R. rattus</em> had brought an epidemic disease to the island that wiped out both native rats. Nearly 100 years later, the mystery was finally solved by Wyatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), who used ancient DNA methods on samples from museum specimens of these rodents collected during the extinction window (AD 1888–1908), and showed that endemic rats collected prior to the introduction of Black Rats were devoid of evidence of a pathogenic trypanosome (carried by fleas hosted on recently-introduced Black Rats). <br/><br/>To Andrews, the disappearance of such an abundant animal in such a short time had to be due to disease because <em>R. rattus</em> was not present over the entire island. It was unreasonable therefore to assume that the native species had been out-competed by <em>R. rattus</em> all over the island (Andrews 1909). Two predators had been introduced to the island by 1908, cat and dog, but these were far too few to rid the island of the rats (Andrews 1900, 1909). Although Christmas Island had an increasing human settlement at Flying Fish Cove, roads now crossed the island, and there was active phosphate mining, there was still a lot of native forest and even collectively these human disturbances were unlikely to have caused significant declines in the populations of Maclear's Rat (Andrews 1909). Andrews (1909) also relates anecdotal information that a medical officer on the island, Dr. McDougal, recalled frequently seeing "individuals of the native species of rats crawling about the paths in the daytime, apparently in a dying condition" in 1902-1904. <br/><br/>Pickering and Norris (1996) report on documents concerning Maclear's Rat that were uncovered at Oxford University, and specimens from the Zoological Collections, University Museum, Oxford University and the University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. The documents include notes for a lecture by K. R. Hanitsch who visited Christmas Island for five weeks in 1904 and was unable to locate either species of native rat. Dr. Durham, a pathologist, visited the island from November 1901 to March 1902 and reported in expedition reports that he was told that <em>R. rattus</em> had been introduced to the island in 1899 by the S.S. Hindustan. Durham also collected 19 rat specimens. Pickering and Norris (1996) note that some of these specimens were of <em>R. macleari</em>, <em>R. rattus</em>, and some of varying degrees of hybrid between <em>R. macleari</em> and <em>R. rattus</em>. Hybridisation between the two species, with the implication that <em>R. macleari</em> was genetically swamped by <em>R. rattus,</em> was put forward as a contributing factor in the demise of <em>R. macleari</em> (Pickering and Norris 1996). However, hybridisation between the two species is unlikely given the phylogenetic distance between them, and apparently re-examination of specimens confirms that each belongs to one or the other species (Musser and Carleton 2005; Aplin 2008). This is further supported by the molecular studies of Wyatt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008).<br/><br/>Notes on the date of extinction / date last seen (1902-1904):<br/>Because Durham collected specimens, some of which were <em>R. macleari</em>, in late 1901 and 1902, <em>R. macleari</em> must have become extinct after 1901. <br/><br/>McDougal was the last person to recall seeing native rats alive, albeit in the act of dying (Andrews 1909). These rats were probably <em>R. macleari</em> because <em>R. nativitatis</em> was the rarer of the two, as evidenced by the fact that Durham was unable to collect any specimens of <em>R. nativitatis</em> in 1901-1902. Andrews (1909) writes that McDougal's recollections are from 5-6 years before, but it is unclear whether he meant 5-6 years prior to his 1909 publication (putting the date at 1903-1904), or if it was 5-6 years prior to 1908 when Andrews was on Christmas Island (putting the date as 1902-1903 as Pickering and Norris (1996) interpret the anecdote). Because Hanitsch was unable to locate the species in 1904, it is likely that the species already had become extinct.	eng
19345	conservation	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas, including Morowali, Bongani Nani Wartabone and Lore Lindu National Parks.	eng
19345	distribution	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, where it occurs on the northern arm and central core of the island from lowlands to mountain summits. It is absent from the south eastern and south western peninsulas (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19345	habitat	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is both terrestrial and arboreal and found in a variety of forest formations (Musser and Carleton 2005). It feeds mainly on fruit, especially figs, and it is commonly caught by setting traps in strangler figs (Musser 1982; G. Musser pers. comm.). It has never been taken in heavily disturbed areas, although it may occur in plantations and bamboo where these are near good forest.	eng
19345	population	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is relatively common, especially at middle and high elevations, and consistently found during surveys.	eng
19345	threats	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is likely to be affected by extensive forest degradation taking place at lower elevations. It is also likely to be found in bushmeat markets in the north-east.	eng
19346	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C. & Heaney, L., 2008	The species has been recorded in Mt. Iglit National Park.	eng
19346	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from hilly and forested areas of Mindoro island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19346	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C. & Heaney, L., 2008	The habitat of this species is not well known, although it is likely to occur mostly at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been found at an elevation range from 700-800 m in Mt. Iglit National Park, and in forested areas from 1,000 m to 1,500 m (Thomas 1898).There are no records of this species from outside of forest.	eng
19346	population	Gonzalez, J.C. & Heaney, L., 2008	Surveys from 1900s to 1930s considered the species 'not uncommon'. It has been described more recently as common at high elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19346	threats	Gonzalez, J.C. & Heaney, L., 2008	Deforestation has occurred in the past which has adversely affected this species (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is continued illegal logging in the lowlands (M. Lepiten-Tabao pers. comm. 2006) which is unlikely to have negative effects on this species because it occurs at higher elevations (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19347	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Gunung Lampobatang National Park. Further research is needed to determine the full range of the species in the area of Gunung Lampobatang.	eng
19347	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the upper slopes of Gunung Lampobatang on Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005; Musser and Holden 1991; G. Musser pers. comm.). It has been collected between 1,100 and 2,000 m.	eng
19347	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is restricted to upper montane tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.	eng
19347	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
19347	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species while Gunung Lampobatang is maintained as a National Park.	eng
19348	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation.  It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park and Knuckles Forest Reserve. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19348	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka in Central and Uva provinces, restrcited to four highly fragmented locations (knuckles, Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya and Ohiya) in the central highlands (Phillips 1980; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; D. Wickramasinghe in litt. 2005, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). It occurs at elevations from 1,320 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19348	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a diurnal or crepuscular, terrestrial species. It occurs in tropical evergreen montane forest and wet grasslands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19348	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19348	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, fire and clear-cutting of forests have been observed to be the major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19349	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumed that the species is present in some protected areas.	eng
19349	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is present in eastern New Guinea and on the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea), the Conflict Group of islands, Fergusson Island, Goodenough Island, Misima Island, Normanby Island, Sideia Island, Sudest Island and Woodlark Island (all Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a). It occurs from sea level up to 2,800 m asl.	eng
19349	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This terrestrial species has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats, from primary mossy tropical forest, tropical scrubland and eucalyptus savanna, through secondary forest to rural gardens, and to some extent villages. The species does not appear to have a breeding season; females give birth to between two and four young (Flannery 1995b).	eng
19349	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It seems to be a common species.	eng
19349	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.	eng
19350	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. There are several proposed nature reserves on Halmahera, but the status of these is unknown.	eng
19350	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is the only murid endemic to the Halmahara Islands where it has been recorded from Morotai, Halmahara, and Batjan islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). All known localities are from low-lying areas, but there has been no survey work in higher-elevations in these islands.	eng
19350	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This is an arboreal species, and very agile climber. It has been trapped on the ground in gardens on the edge of primary forest, and observed it climbing in understory plants. It spends its days in burrows, the entrances to some having been found placed in particularly bare areas in new gardens (Flannery 1995). Flannery (1995) also observed this species in cocoa plantations on Batjan.	eng
19350	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Flannery (1995) recorded it as common throughout its range.	eng
19350	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Although there is likely to be habitat loss taking place on the Halmahera islands due to logging and agriculture, this species seems fairly adaptable to human disturbance. It may be affected by competition with introduced murids, including <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19351	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.	eng
19351	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	The Bulldog Rat was endemic to Christmas Island, Australia. Christmas Island is approximately 138 km² and lies 345 km south of Java, the nearest landmass, in the Indian Ocean.	eng
19351	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Little is known the habitat and ecology of the Bulldog Rat. Its short tail and robust hands and feet demonstrate that it was equipped for life as a fossorial species (Thomas 1888, Forsyth Major 1900). It is interesting, however, that its skull was described as "particularly small, slender, and delicate" (Thomas 1888).<br/><br/>In any case, the species was often seen in and around burrows, and, unlike <em>R. macleari</em>, it did not climb trees. Andrews (1900) summed up what he knew of the animal: "They seem to live in small colonies in burrows, often among the roots of a tree, and occasionally several may be found living in the long, hollow trunk of a fallen and half-decayed sago-palm (<em>Arenga listeri</em>). The food consists of wild fruits, young shoots, and, I believe, the bark of some trees."	eng
19351	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	The Bulldog Rat became extinct probably between 1900 and 1904. This species was never as abundant as the other native rat to Christmas Island, <em>Rattus macleari</em>, which went extinct at about the same time. Two specimens were collected by Lister in 1887 (Thomas 1888), and a further nine specimens were collected by Andrews in 1897-1898 (Andrews 1900).	eng
19351	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species was last recorded by Andrews from his from his 10 month stay on Christmas Island 1897-1898 (Andrews 1900). At that time, it already appeared to be in decline. Although the species was known from the settlement at Fly Fish Cove, Andrews never encountered them there and believed they were mainly confined to higher ground (Andrews 1900, 1909). In the hills, he described them as "very numerous in places", but less common than <em>R. macleari</em> (Andrews 1900). Andrews (1900) states that "it is difficult to avoid the belief that the former species [<em>R. nativitatis</em>] is being supplanted by the latter [<em>R. macleari</em>] in spite of the abundance of food."<br/><br/>By the time Andrews revisited the island in 1908, he was confident in pronouncing the species to be extinct (Andrews 1909). In 1904, Hanitsch visited the island hoping to collect specimens of the native rats, but was unable to locate either species (Pickering and Norris 1996; see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). Durham visited the island in November of 1901 to March 1902 and collected <em>R. macleari</em> and <em>R. rattus</em>, but was unable to obtain <em>R. nativitatis</em>, despite offering a reward to the local inhabitants (Pickering and Norris 1996; see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). Pickering and Norris (1996) note that Durham did not go far from Fly Fish Cove during his stay, thus he could well have missed <em>R. nativitatis</em>. However, Hanitsch's failure to obtain <em>R. nativitatis</em> in 1904 likely means that the species was extinct by this time. Andrews (1909) relates anecdotal information that a medical officer on the island, Dr. McDougal, recalled frequently seeing "individuals of the native species of rats crawling about the paths in the daytime, apparently in a dying condition" in 1902-1904, and these may have included <em>R. nativitatis</em>, but were likely to be <span style="font-style: italic;">R. macleari</span> (see account for <em>R. macleari</em> for further details). <br/><br/>The demise of the Bulldog Rat was certainly rapid, going from locally common to extinct in less than eight years. It is thought to have been the result of an epidemic disease brought to the island by introduced Black Rats <em>R. rattus</em> (Andrews 1909; Aplin 2008). Black Rats are thought to have been introduced to the island by the S.S. Hindustan in 1899 (Pickering and Norris 1996). This hypothesis is supported by the study of&#160; Wyatt <em>et al</em>. (2008), who used ancient DNA methods on samples from museum specimens of these rodents collected during the extinction window (AD 1888–1908), and showed that endemic rats collected prior to the introduction of Black Rats were devoid of evidence of a pathogenic trypanosome (carried by fleas hosted on recently-introduced Black Rats).	eng
19352	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Additional taxonomic studies are needed for this species.	eng
19352	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This very widespread Asian species, ranges from northeastern South Asia (Bhutan, India and Nepal [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]; probably present in Bangladesh), much of central, southern and eastern China (including the island of Hainan) (Smith and Xie 2008), ranging into Southeast Asia, where it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and probably occurs more widely. It has been introduced to Benguet Province, Luzon in the Philippines; Palau; central Sulawesi (Indonesia); Seram (Indonesia); and the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province (Indonesia) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). In South Asia the species occurs from 686 to 2,740 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is presumably found as low as sea level in parts of its range.	eng
19352	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This very adaptable species occurs in various forest types, cropland and human settlements.	eng
19352	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a very abundant species.	eng
19352	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19353	conservation	Ruedas, L., 2008	None in place and none required.	eng
19353	distribution	Ruedas, L., 2008	This species was originally native to south-east Siberia, north-east China and parts of Japan, but it occurs worldwide as an introduced species.	eng
19353	habitat	Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is present in lowland and coastal regions wherever humans are. It is more common in colder climates (e.g. at higher northern and southern latitudes); in warmer and tropical regions it is restricted to habitats highly modified by humans (sewers, buildings, ports, etc.). It does not compete with <em>R. rattus</em>, as the latter is scansorial/arboreal whereas <em>R. norvegicus</em> is strictly terrestrial.	eng
19353	population	Ruedas, L., 2008	Often abundant in suitable habitat (e.g. in urban areas).	eng
19353	threats	Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19354	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.	eng
19354	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution within the central part of Papua New Guinea. It ranges from 740 to 1,520 m asl.	eng
19354	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been collected in primary tropical moist forest, secondary forest, and grassland. It has been recorded in association with vegetation along stream and river banks in montane forest. It breeds year round; females give birth to between four and six young.	eng
19354	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a common species that can occur in dense populations.	eng
19354	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
19355	conservation	Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the relationship between this taxon and <em>Rattus losea</em>.	eng
19355	distribution	Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from only two localities in Lam Dong province, southern Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton 2005): Langbian Peak (12°03'N, 108°26'E) and Gougah.	eng
19355	habitat	Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of primary and secondary montane habitats. Musser and Newcomb (1985) note that they "suspect that this species is terrestrial and lives in grass and dense shrubbery providing good cover that may occur either along forest margins or scattered through forest with an open canopy. Thick scrub cover adjacent to agricultural fields may also be good habitat."	eng
19355	population	Aplin, K., 2008	It is presumed to be a common species.	eng
19355	threats	Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.	eng
19356	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any protected area in the Nicobars (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, life history studies, monitoring and impact of changing land use on the species are critical recommendations for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
19356	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is endemic to Nicobar Islands of Car Nicobar and Great Nicobar at elevations of 50-150 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is restricted in the extent of occurrence to less than 1,200 km² based on the total area of the two islands.	eng
19356	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen forests, mangrove areas and has been found to prefer crowns of palm trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19356	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in Nicobars (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19356	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The effects of tsunami on the habitat could have had some effect on the species. Post tsunami reestablishment of human settlements and related forest loss could be a major threat to the species. However, with an increase in palm cultivation on the islands could make the situation more conducive for the species. Until further studies are conducted on these aspects, it is difficult to identify major threats with any certainty for this species (S. Molur pers. comm.)	eng
19357	conservation	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	Field surveys are needed to find out more about the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
19357	distribution	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly known species is found only on Peleng island, off the eastern coast of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). The elevation at collection has not been recorded.	eng
19357	habitat	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is no available information on the habitat requirements of this species. It may be a forest species, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
19357	population	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from the 1938 type series.	eng
19357	threats	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. Much of the forest on Peleng has been degraded, and if it is a forest species it may be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
19358	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is presumably present in some protected areas.	eng
19358	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This widespread species is found on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is found on the Vogelkop Peninsula, north and south of the Central Cordillera as far east as the Sepik-Ramu drainage basin (Flannery 1995a). It is also present on a number of offshore islands in the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, and adjacent island groups. It ranges as far east as Tikopia in the Solomon Islands. It is possible that it has been introduced (mostly many thousands of years ago) to much, or all, of the insular part of its range. This species may be more widespread than current records indicate, as <em>praetor</em>-like animals are being trapped outside of the known range. The elevational range of the species is from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
19358	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is especially common in disturbed habitats, where it may occur at high densities. It is commensal to some degree, but less so than a number of other <em>Rattus</em> species. Animals have been recorded in burrows and hiding under ground cover. It breeds throughout the year, with the females giving birth to between two and seven young.	eng
19358	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a common species, and is considered to be a pest in some areas.	eng
19358	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there might be competition between it and <em>R. rattus</em> in parts of its range.	eng
19359	conservation	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It does not occur in any protected areas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, research into the natural history, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19359	distribution	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is endemic to southern India where it is known only from three severely fragmented locations at Alleppey, Thrissur and Tiruvananthapuram in Kerala (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs from sea level up to about 1,000 m asl in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19359	habitat	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. Although the species has been found to occupy arable land, waterlogged areas and inundated cultivated fields, it appears to have a restricted range (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).	eng
19359	population	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19359	threats	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Conversion of agricultural fields for developmental activities (such as housing construction) and increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals represent major threats to the species (P.O. Nameer pers. comm.; Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008). It also appears to be threatened by increased competition with the native Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni</em> (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).	eng
19360	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas.	eng
19360	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Not protected under international legislation; commonly regarded as a pest. Present in many protected areas.	eng
19360	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Originally an Indomalayan species, <em>Rattus rattus</em> was widely introduced across the globe as a result of human activities. In Europe, it has been present since ancient times, and is found in most countries. The species is widespread and common throughout the Mediterranean region. The list of countries of occurrence where the species is introduced is incomplete.<br/><br/>Still found throughout south-east Asia; includes a complex of at least four distinct species; <em>Rattus rattus sensu strictu</em> originally from Western India and Pakistan, spread worldwide thence.	eng
19360	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Originally an Indomalayan species; widely introduced across the globe as a result of human activities. In Europe, it has been present since ancient times, and is found in most countries, with the exception of Fennoscandia (where it has gone extinct, except for one site in Denmark). It has suffered declines and now has a very restricted range in the United Kingdom, appears to be confined to one island off the east coast of Ireland, and is probably extinct in Slovakia (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).	eng
19360	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Highly commensal in northern and central parts of Europe, where is is found in a variety of man-made habitats. Also lives outdoors in natural and semi-natural habitats in the Mediterranean (especially on Mediterranean islands) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).	eng
19360	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Primarily commensal, but also found in a variety of natural and semi-natural habitats.	eng
19360	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	A widespread and abundant species.	eng
19360	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	A widespread and abundant species. It is very common in the Mediterranean. However, in some parts of its northern European range (e.g. United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria) large population declines and range contractions have occurred since c.1970 (Amori and Cristaldi 1999, Spitzenberger 2005). It has disappeared from Fennoscandia (with the exception of one site in Denmark) (Amori and Cristaldi 1999).	eng
19360	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats.	eng
19360	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	No major threats.	eng
19361	conservation	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Chakraborty, S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is listed in the Schedule V (considered vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in Fanjingshan (Guizhou) and Jianfengling Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and it is presumably present in many other protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species, particularly a review of genetic material, is needed. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19361	distribution	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Chakraborty, S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This widespread species is known from southern China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, central and northern Myanmar, northeastern India, Bhutan, and eastern Nepal (Musser and Carleton 2005). In China, it is known from the provinces of Tibet, Guizhou, Hainan (Guangdong), and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). It could possibly be present in the remnant northern and northeastern forests of Bangladesh (S. Molur pers. comm.). It is not known from mainland peninsular Thailand south of the Isthmus of Kra (10E, 30N), but it occurs on four islands off the coast (Koh Tau, Koh Phangan, Koh Samui, and Koh Kra) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is also found on the Andaman Islands (islands of North Andaman, Interview, Middle Andaman, Long, Henry Lawrence, Havelock, South Andaman, and Little Andaman) and Car Nicobar (Musser and Carleton 2005). It roughly occurs from sea level (Aplin and Frost 2006) up to around 2,000 m asl (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19361	habitat	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Chakraborty, S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is a highly arboreal species that is present in a variety of forest and forest edge habitats. It can occur in secondary and modified habitats with wooded areas. It is often found in agriculture lands, scrubland, and around houses (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19361	population	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Chakraborty, S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It can be moderately abundant in forested areas.	eng
19361	threats	Aplin, K., Frost, A., Chakraborty, S., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19362	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its current population status.	eng
19362	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is found on Simalur island and the nearby islands of Siumat, Lasia, and Babi (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19362	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There is little information on its habitat requirements. It is likely to be confined to forest and forest edge.	eng
19362	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. It has not recently collected.	eng
19362	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It may be affected by forest loss taking place on the islands, and likely by competition with introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus exulans</em>.	eng
19363	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
19363	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	This species is present in Australia and on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In New Guinea, it ranges eastwards from Koemba (Papua Province, Indonesia) to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a); the south-eastern peninsula populations may represent a different species. In Australia, it is generally found in the north and east of Queensland ranging about as far south as the Mackay range (Shoalwater Bay) (Aplin and Redhead 2008). Specimens reported from northern coastal New South Wales (specimens in the CSIRO wildlife collection; M. Ellis pers. comm.) represent <em>R. tunneyi</em>. There is an isolated population on South West Island, but it may have been extirpated. It is found from sea level to 670 m.	eng
19363	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is found in canefields, tropical grasslands, savanna, open woodland and grassy glades within tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995a; Aplin and Redhead 2008). It can breed throughout the year, with females giving birth to litters of around six young (Aplin and Redhead 2008).	eng
19363	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is generally an abundant species, although in southern parts of Australia, particularly south-eastern Queensland, it is rare.	eng
19363	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Burnett, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19364	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is presumed to occur in some protected areas.	eng
19364	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is generally widespread on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), being absent only from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Indonesia), the southern lowlands, and parts of the far east of the island (Flannery 1995). Its elevational range is between 450 and 2,800 m asl.	eng
19364	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species can be found in low densities within primary tropical moist forest, but it is abundant at the forest edge and in rural gardens or open and grassy areas. Animals are often found in burrows. It breeds throughout the year with females giving birth to litters averaging between 2.7 and 3.4 young.	eng
19364	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a common species that can reach high densities.	eng
19364	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there is competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
19365	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey, ecological studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19365	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to the Andaman group of islands of India. It has been recorded from Henry Lawrence Island,  South Andaman and Middle Andaman (Agrawal 2000, Musser and Newcomb 1983) (T.P. Bhattacharya pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level to 200 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19365	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a terrestrial and noctural species and occurs in tropical evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19365	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19365	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	While there appear to be no major threats for this species, it is possible that post tsunami (December 2004) relief works, including the creation of new settlements and clearance of forests in the Andaman islands, could be a potential threat to the species (Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 2008).	eng
19366	conservation	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in numerous protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this common and adaptable species. There is a need to further study the taxonomic relationships between populations of Rattus currently allocated to this species.	eng
19366	distribution	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	Both the native and introduced geographic distribution of this very widespread species remains somewhat unclear. We follow Musser and Carleton (2005) who consider the species native distribution to range from eastern Afghanistan (Niethammer and Martens 1975) through central and southern Nepal (below about 2,000 m asl), Bhutan, northern India, northern Bangladesh and northeastern India (distributional relationships between <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>R. tanezumi</em> along the northern portion of the Indian subcontinent still requires resolution) into southern and central China (including Hainan Island), the Korean Peninsula, and mainland Southeast Asia (including offshore islands) south to the Isthmus of Kra, being also probably native to Mergui Archipelago. Musser and Carleton (2005) report that it is presently unclear whether the species is native or introduced to Taiwan and Japan. But is most likely introduced to Peninsular Malaysia and islands on the Sunda Shelf and nearby archipelagos, including the Mentawai Islands (Musser and Califia 1982; Musser and Newcomb 1983). It has been introduced to Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. It has been widely introduced throughout the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005; Larry Heaney pers. comm.). It appears to have been widely introduced throughout insular Southeast Asia, including the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands and the Molucca Islands, to western New Guinea (range map very provisional for this island) (Flannery 1995), and from here into Micronesia to the islands of Eniwetok and Fiji (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19366	habitat	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This highly adaptable species is commonly found in and around villages and agricultural areas. In the Philippines it is common in disturbed lowland and montane forest up to 1,800 m (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1989.	eng
19366	population	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a common to abundant species.	eng
19366	threats	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19367	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The type locality is not formally protected, and is in urgent need of effective protection since it is one of the few remaining tracts of intact forest on Timor. There is a need to conduct survey work to determine if this species survives in the wild.	eng
19367	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only as a living animal collected in 1990 from near the summit of Gunung Mutis, west Timor, in Indonesia, at 1,900 m (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1991). From the sub-fossil record, this species seems to have been formerly abundant, at least down to about 500 m (K. Aplin pers. comm.).	eng
19367	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The site from which the species was recorded is montane rainforest rather than mixed-eucalypt forest, which characterizes much of the island (though this is not the original native vegetation). The habitat at the type locality is believed to still be intact, and has so far not been subjected to burning. The original specimen was taken from tunnels in a steep erosion gully.	eng
19367	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is no information on current population status, and it is known only from the holotype. This species was not recorded during several weeks of survey work conducted at slightly lower elevations (about 1,500 m), suggesting it is extremely rare.	eng
19367	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The major threat has been extensive habitat loss initially due to extensive forest clearance from the use of metal tools coupled with burning. Burning takes place to clear land for grazing horses; in the absence of fire, the area rapidly converts into eucalyptus forest. Since burning is often uncontrolled, fires frequently move into the dried out eucalypt forest from which they can then move into higher elevations.	eng
19368	conservation	Aplin, K. & Frost, A., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across the range.	eng
19368	distribution	Aplin, K. & Frost, A., 2008	This species is found on peninsular Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra), the Malaysian Peninsula, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo). In the Philippines, it occurs in the Palawan Faunal Region only being recorded from Arena, Bancalan, Busuanga, Calauit, and Palawan (Musser and Carleton 2005).<br/>It is also found on many smaller islands, including Tioman island, Enggano island (south-west of Sumatra) and the Maratua Archipelago (east of Borneo), as well as the smaller islands of Pandjang, Rabu Rabu, Sangka Laki, Bilang Bilangan, Eraban, and Miang Besar off the east coast of Borneo (Musser and Califia 1982). It is also found on Busuanga (Musser 1977).	eng
19368	habitat	Aplin, K. & Frost, A., 2008	The species is apparently found only in a variety of habitats in the lowland areas: from secondary forest, agricultural areas, plantations, gardens, scrub, to grassland (Sanborn 1952; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), while Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. (2004) found it in grassland-forest mosaic, selectively logged forest, rice fields, mossy forest, and the transition zone between mossy and montane forest.	eng
19368	population	Aplin, K. & Frost, A., 2008	This species is common and widespread.	eng
19368	threats	Aplin, K. & Frost, A., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
19369	conservation	Morris, K., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is present in many protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park).	eng
19369	distribution	Morris, K., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in western, northern, and eastern Australia. It appears that prior to European settlement of Australia, this species was distributed over most of continental Australia, except for the humid south-east (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008). The species is present on quite a few islands, particularly in Western Australia.	eng
19369	habitat	Morris, K., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a nocturnal species that lives in tall grassland, cane fields, and other modified habitats. The species forms shallow burrows in loose, sandy soil (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females give birth to up to eleven young after a gestation period of 21 to 22 days (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19369	population	Morris, K., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a patchily distributed species that is abundant in some areas; fluctuates widely in response to climatic variability (Aplin <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19369	threats	Morris, K., Burbidge, A., Aplin, K. & Ellis, M., 2008	<em>Rattus rattus</em> eliminates this species. Cattle grazing could be a threat due to trampling of shallow burrows. Feral cats also may be a threat.	eng
19370	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is listed in Schedule V (considered vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is not known from any protected area within South Asia (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it occurs in Tongbiguan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and it is probably present in several other protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19370	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a widespread species occurring in China (Yunnan, Sichuan, and Guangdong), and extending west through northern Myanmar, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, north to Tajikistan, eastern Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, south-eastern Kazakhstan, northern and eastern Afghanistan, and east-central Iran (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Bangladesh (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,200-4,250 m asl (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
19370	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in montane habitats (Smith and Xie 2008), rocky areas such as, inland cliffs, mountain peaks, cultivated lands (Sarker <em>et al.</em> 2005), and often near residential areas (Niethammer and Martens 1975).	eng
19370	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
19370	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
19371	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed on core areas and potential threats, as well as management.	eng
19371	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to central and northern Australia (Predavec and Watts 2008). The species has a core range, but is occasionally found in a far larger area (during eruptions). Irrigated areas in the Ord River area of North-eastern Kimberley provide artificial refugia. The natural core range is in the Barkly lake system of the Barkly Tableland of the Northern Territory and the Channel Country in Southwest Queensland and north-eastern South Australia. It is also found on Southwest Island, within the Sir Edward Pellew Group, Northern Territory. Portions of the core range are within protected areas. There are smaller refugia as well.	eng
19371	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is generally a nocturnal, terrestrial species of arid or desert areas. Populations are largely restricted to refuges within the arid landscape where food and water are always available. It has an extremely high reproductive potential (Predavec and Watts 2008).	eng
19371	population	Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a species that generally occurs in core areas, but can occasionally expand its range to a far larger area. The species can be eruptive with rainfall, but there seem to be far fewer eruptions today than in the past, perhaps due to degradation of habitat within refugia. Severe bottlenecks have been coupled with extremely large range expansions over time; there are historic records of extremely high abundance. No good estimates of population numbers outside of eruptions ("plague years"), which tend to be about 20 years apart.	eng
19371	threats	Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appears to be no major threats to this species. Destruction of refuge areas by cattle may be a threat. In Western Australia, the species seems to have benefited from irrigation (artificial refugia within the Ord River area). During drought periods, there is a high level of pressure on refuge areas, as well as an increased threat of hunting by feral cats.	eng
19372	conservation	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
19372	distribution	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from northeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from coastal areas to around 1,000 m.	eng
19372	habitat	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is unclear if it is found in disturbed areas, it may be found in secondary habitats close to natural forest. It is presumed to be a frugivorous species.	eng
19372	population	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is no available information on the population abundance of this species.	eng
19372	threats	Musser, G. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss, through logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use. It seems likely that this large rat is hunted for food.	eng
19376	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas (Han and Giman pers comm.).  It is protected in Sarawak and Malaysia (Giman and Han pers. comm.), as well as probably in Thailand (Giman pers. comm.). It also protected by CITES Appendix II (Han and Giman pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
19376	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is widespread throughout its range in southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
19376	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This is a closed canopy species that is never seen on ground, and is dependent on tall, wet evergreen forests (Giman pers. comm.). This species can tolerate plantations and secondary forest (Giman pers. comm.). This is an arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004).	eng
19376	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is quite rare in Sarawak and peninsular Thailand. This species was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of1.30 ± 0.61 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>.  In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia; in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 3.61 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 5.18 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.	eng
19376	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Giman, B. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is threatened by logging and hunting in forest fragments, it is probably sensitive to even selective logging (Giman pers. comm.).	eng
19377	conservation	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Bangladesh - India: Eagle?s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Tale Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Gorumara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal; Bangladesh: Lawachara National Park (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Survey, life history, limiting factors studies and monitoring are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Southeast Asia, it occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including Gunung Masigit Kareumbi Hunting Park, Pananjung Pangandaran Nature Reserve, and Ujong Kulon National Park in Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia. This species is protected from hunting by legislation in Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II regulating international trade in this species.	eng
19377	distribution	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread Asian species ranges from northern South Asia, through southern China into much of mainland and western insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded widely distributed in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and West Bengal), and eastern Nepal (distribution poorly recorded) at elevations of 500 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, the species has been recorded from southern Yunnan, southern Guanxi, eastern Xizang and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely but patchily distributed from Myanmar and Thailand, through Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (possibly a more contiguous range here), to Indonesia (Mentawi Islands, Sumatra, Billiton, Panaitan, Java and Bali).	eng
19377	habitat	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is a diurnal and arboreal species occasionally feeding on the forest floor. It occurs in tropical and subtropical montane evergreen and dry deciduous forests. It is found to occupy tree hollows in mid high canopy (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, Evans <em>et al.</em> (2000) found this species to be common in evergreen and semi-evergreen broadleaf forest, and rarely present in pine forest. It is found from the plains up to at least 1,400 m (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004). This species feeds on pine cones and oak trees on Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is not tolerant of habitat modification, and has a long generation time of eight to nine years, with a litter size of one or two young.	eng
19377	population	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	The population of this species is declining in South Asia, but the rate of decline is unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand the species is abundant in suitable habitat where hunting is controlled. It is easily eradicated from fragmented habitat (Duckwoth pers. comm.). In Lao PDR it is recorded from most survey areas; however, populations are now so low in some areas that it has not been recorded in recent surveys, including Sangthong District, Nam Et and Phou Louey NBCAs (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It was found to be locally common during a survey in 1994-95 of the the Nadi Limestone area in Lao PDR by Evans <em>et al</em>. (2000). It is still widespread and abundant in Cambodia, largely as hunting has not yet impacted populations in this country (R. J. Timmins pers. comm.). This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River catchment area). This species is rare and declining on Java, where it is found only in remote areas (away from human habitation) within remaining patches of forest (primary and secondary) (Boeadi pers. comm.). This species is declining in population, in parallel with forest loss on Java (Boeadi pers. comm.).	eng
19377	threats	Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	Human induced habitat degradation due to shifting (jhum) agriculture practices, small-scale logging, clear-cutting, forest fires, expansion of human settlement, harvesting for local consumption have been observed to be major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is threatened by hunting and habitat loss in China (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1989). This species is especially vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss (often through logging operations) in Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000), Viet Nam and Thailand. This species was "formerly one of the most commonly sold mammals in the That Luang fresh food market in Vientiane" (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). Hunting pressure is predicted to increase in Cambodia, as following the overharvesting of large bodied mammals, smaller species are now being targeted (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is not hunted on Java, as people are generally aware of the legislation protecting this species; however, habitat loss remains a considerable threat (Boeadi pers. comm.).	eng
19378	conservation	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	The species is included in the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is known from the following protected areas in India — Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Chimmoni Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park,Thattekad Wildlife Sanctuary and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary, Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tadoba National Park in Maharashtra, Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) Wildlife Sanctuary, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Mudumulai Wildlife Sanctuary, Sriviliputur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Kallar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kulathupala Wildlife Sanctuary, Senthumani Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Survey, taxonomic research, limiting factor studies, monitoring and protection are recommended for this species (Molur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
19378	distribution	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	This species is endemic to southwestern, central and eastern peninsular India specifically in the Western Ghats, Satpuras and Eastern Ghats, where it is known from Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. It is seen at elevations of 180 to 2,300 m asl. It is widely distributed, but occurs in several severely fragmented populations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19378	habitat	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	It is a diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical evergreen, semievergreen and moist deciduous forests. The species is not tolerant of habitat degradation and does not occur in plantations. It is found to occupy high canopy (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005). The age of first reproduction for a female is around three years, four years for a male. Age of last reproduction is about 12 years in the wild (older females observed with pups). The generation length is approximately seven to nine years (Renee Borges <span style="font-style: italic;">in litt.</span> to Sanjay Molur 2008).	eng
19378	population	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	Fairly common to locally common in areas where it occurs. Local extinctions and range restrictions have occurred, the current population is fragmented and remains in areas with limited suitable habitat (S. Molur pers. comm.). Although protected from hunting, there is still pressure on the species and it continues to decline due to hunting and habitat loss.	eng
19378	threats	Rajamani, N., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2009	Habitat degradation due to expansion of agro-industry based large-scale and small-scale plantation, monoculture plantation, clear felling, selective logging, construction of dam, hunting for local consumption have been observed to be the major threats for this species through out its range (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is being hunted extensively in the Eastern Ghats where new human settlements have been built. Population decline and habitat loss is at an alarming rate (S. Kolipaka pers. comm. 2005)	eng
19381	conservation	Joshua, J., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed under the Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972 and 1991), and is listed on CITES Appendix II regulating international trade in this species. It is known from the following protected areas in India and Sri Lanka - India: Srivilliputhur Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala; Sri Lanka: Horton Plains National Park, Central Province and Sinharaja Reserve Forest, Sabargamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survey, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ex-situ conservation efforts might be required for the Indian population (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19381	distribution	Joshua, J., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to southern India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka. In India it is known from only five severely fragmented locations, while it occurs more widely and less fragmented in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevations of 150 to 500 m asl in India and up to 2,500 m asl in Sri Lanka.	eng
19381	habitat	Joshua, J., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a diurnal and arboreal species. It occurs in tropical dry deciduous and montane forests, where it is confined to the riverine habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It has a generation time of ~7-8 years.	eng
19381	population	Joshua, J., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	Within India, the total population in Chinnar and adjoining Tamil Nadu is about 300 individuals. In addition the most southerly population has 300 individuals, the second most southernly population about 200 individulals. The most northerly population, Kartanar, had about 6 squirrels in 1989 and 3 individuals in 2001. The population in India in the north is decreasing, the population in the south is increasing (J. Joshua pers. comm.). The Indian population has been estimated to be fewer than 500 mature individuals, and the population has been decling at a rate greater than 30% in the last 25 years and is also predicted to decline at the same rate in the next 25 years due to habitat loss and hunting (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). The population of this species is considerably higher in Sri Lanka.	eng
19381	threats	Joshua, J., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to agro-industry farming, small-scale logging, selective logging, increase in human settlements, forest fire, inter-specific competition, competition from alien species, hunting for local consumption purposes, presence of domestic predators have been observed to be the major threats for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Within India, hybridization between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ratufa indica</span> is considered to be a major threat to remaining populations (Joshua 1996).	eng
19387	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. and Cambray, J., 2007	Conservation issues need to be considered when proposls for coastal developments are made.	eng
19387	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. and Cambray, J., 2007	Eastern Cape coastal Rivers, South Africa north into central Mozambique.	eng
19387	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. and Cambray, J., 2007	Coastal rivers and lakes, both freshwater and estuarine areas.	eng
19387	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. and Cambray, J., 2007	Abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
19387	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. and Cambray, J., 2007	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.	eng
19390	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About 60% of this estimated total occurs in protected areas and 13% on private land. Major populations occur in areas such as Selous (Tanzania), Kafue (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Gorongosa (Mozambique), Okavango (Botswana) and Kruger and Eastern Shores (South Africa) (East 1999).	eng
19390	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Southern Reedbuck occurs from Gabon and Tanzania to South Africa. It remains widespread in protected areas and other areas with low to moderate levels of settlement, including significant populations on private land in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia. In Republic of Congo, it formerly occurred locally in the savannas of southern Congo, but it may now be extinct as a result of intensive meat hunting. Its presence was last confirmed in 1974 in Mount Fouari Faunal Reserve. The Namibian population is largely extralimital, as it has been introduced to private land outside its natural range in the northern farming districts, where it is now relatively numerous) (East 1999).<br/><br/>Lynch and Watson (1990) sighted one individual in Sehlabathebe N.P. in Lesotho, but this may have been a vagrant from KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
19390	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Southern Reedbucks occupy floodplain and drainage-line grasslands in savanna woodlands. They overlap with Bohor Reedbuck in southern Tanzania. The most significant habitats in South Africa are valleys in which the grass cover is tall (or there is suitable herbaceous cover) and permanent water is available (Jungius 1971). Southern Reedbucks range to 1,800-2,000 m in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa (Rowe-Rowe 1994). They are predominantly fresh grass grazers, but will occasionally take small quantities of herbs, and in some areas may even browse extensively (Jungius 1971).	eng
19390	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	As with the Bohor Reedbuck, aerial counts of the Southern Reedbuck tend to result in density estimates of 0.1-0.2/km², or less than 0.1/km². Aerial surveys have produced density estimates of up to 1.9 per sq km in Nyika National Park (Malawi), where the species is exceptionally abundant. Aerial surveys undoubtedly tend to underestimate its true numbers. The Southern Reedbuck can occur at much higher densities within areas of exceptionally favourable habitat, e.g., 35.0/km² in Eastern Shores State Forest (South Africa). East (1999) estimated the total population size at 73,000 individuals. Overall population trends are generally stable in protected areas, increasing on private land and decreasing elsewhere (various authors in East 1999)	eng
19390	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Southern Reedbucks remain widespread, but they have been eliminated from some parts of their former range by the spread of settlement and associated habitat destruction and hunting for meat and trophies.	eng
19391	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Southern Mountain Reedbuck occur in sizeable numbers in both protected areas and on private land. In South Africa alone, they are protected in at least nine National Parks, and in numerous provincial reserves and conservancies.<br/><br/>Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck occur in viable populations in Awash, Nechisar, Omo and Mago National Parks (Ethiopia), the Aberdares, Nairobi and Lake Nakuru National Parks (Kenya), and Arusha and Tarangire National Parks and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Tanzania) (East 1999). Western Mountain Reedbuck occur in the Gashaka-Gumpti N.P., while in Cameroon there is some protection from poachers in the hunting zones below the Adamaoua Mtns and in the hunting zones between Benoue and Bouba Ndjida National Park (East 1999; Avenant in press).	eng
19391	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Mountain Reedbuck occurs in three separate populations in East and southern Africa, and in a restricted area of eastern Nigeria and north-central Cameroon (East 1999; Avenant in press).<br/><br/>The Southern Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. fulvorufula</em>) occurs in South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, and Mozambique (Lubombo Mtns only). <br/><br/>Chanler's Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. chanleri</em>) occurs in south-eastern Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania.<br/><br/>The Western Mountain Reedbuck (<em>R. f. adamauae</em>) has been reduced to a small, declining remnant subpopulation in Nigeria in the Gashaka-Gumpti N.P. and the Gotel Mtns. adjoining the park’s southern boundary, and in Cameroon in the Adamaoua Mtns. and the hunting zones below, as well as in the hunting zones between Benoue and Bouba Ndjida N.P. (East 1999; Nicholas 2004; Avenant in press).	eng
19391	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Mountain Reedbuck live on ridges and hillsides in broken rocky country and high-altitude grasslands (often with some tree or bush cover), from 1,500-5,000 m (East 1999; Avenant in press). They are predominantly grazers, and water is an important habitat requirement.	eng
19391	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Densities of Mountain Reedbuck within protected areas vary greatly according to factors such as the extent of suitable habitat. Estimated densities of the southern subspecies in protected areas in South Africa vary from 0.1/km² or less in areas such as Karoo, Addo-Zuurberg and Marakele National Parks to 3.0-3.5/km² in Golden Gate Highlands and Royal Natal National Parks and 7.5/km² in Mountain Zebra National Park. lrby (1977) reported a density of 4.9/km² of Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck on ranchland in Kenya’s Rift Valley.<br/><br/>The current total population is estimated at over 36,000 individuals (33,000 Southern Mountian Reedbuck, 2,900 Chanler's Mountain Reedbuck, and 450 Western Mountain Reedbuck) (East 1999). The estimate for Chanler’s Mountain Reedbuck may be very conservative if this subspecies still occurs in significant numbers on private land in Kenya (East 1999). The estimate for Western Mountain Reedbuck may also be slightly low; they have been reported as locally common, albeit declining, in Gashaka Gumpti N.P. (Nicholas 2004). Overall population trends are more or less stable for the Southern Mountain Reedbuck, but decreasing for the other two subspecies.	eng
19391	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The main threats to Mountain Reedbuck include the expansion of human settlement, poaching, widespread disturbance by cattle herders and their livestock, and hunting by dogs (Avenant in press).	eng
19392	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bohor Reedbuck is now generally uncommon/rare where it survives in West Africa, but viable populations persist in areas such as Boucle du Baoule (Mali), Niokolo-Koba (Senegal), Corubal River (Guinea-Bissau) and Arty-Singou and Nazinga (Burkina Faso). It is more numerous in Central and East Africa, with major populations in areas such as Bouba Ndjida (Cameroon), Manovo-Gounda-St. Floris (Central African Republic), Bale Mountains (Ethiopia), Murchison Falls and Pian-Upe (Uganda), Mara (Kenya) and Serengeti, Moyowosi-Kigosi and Selous (Tanzania). Some of these key populations are decreasing because of poaching, especially in West and Central Africa. About three-quarters of the estimated total occurs in protected areas (East 1999).<br/><br/>If current trends persist, the Bohor Reedbuck should continue to survive in reasonable numbers in national parks, equivalent reserves and hunting concessions in East Africa, but it will become increasingly uncommon in West and Central Africa until its survival in these regions is eventually threatened. More active protection and management of areas which retain viable populations will be necessary to reverse this trend.	eng
19392	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bohor Reedbuck ranges north of the forest zone from Senegal, The Gambia, and southwest Mauritania through the woodlands and floodplain grasslands of the savanna zone of West Africa through southern Chad, the savanna woodlands of the Central African Republic, extreme northeast DR Congo, southern Sudan, to Ethiopia and south to Lake Tanganyika and the Rovuma River in Tanzania (East 1999; Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). In West Africa, in particular, they have undergone fairly large range contractions, and may now be extinct in Togo and Côte d’Ivoire (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press).	eng
19392	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bohor Reedbuck are associated with woodland and floodplain grassland across much of their range. They are effectively water-dependent grazers, but show a strong preference for extensive areas of flood plains and open inundated grasslands where access to water may become restricted in the dry season (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). On the extreme north-eastern margins of its range, this species has colonized montane areas, such as the Bale Mtns up to about 3,200 m, beyond its usual preferred habitats (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). In some marginal parts of its range, such as the Aberdares in Kenya and the Ethiopian Highlands, this species co-exists with the Mountain Reedbuck <em>Redunca fulvorufula</em>, while over much of Tanzania its range overlaps with that of the Southern Reedbuck <em>Redunca arundinum</em>.	eng
19392	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population size at 101,000, including 4,500 in Sudan, which is probably a substantial underestimate; the species may well survive in good numbers in southern Sudan. Its numbers are in gradual decline over most of its remaining range, apart from some protected areas in East Africa.<br/><br/>Aerial survey estimates are available for populations of this species in many parts of its range, particularly in Central and East Africa. Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that these surveys have generally given density estimates of 0.1-0.3/km². Aerial counts undoubtedly tend to underestimate reedbuck numbers, by an unknown but probably substantial amount. In the Sahelo-Sudanian habitat of Waza N.P. (north Cameroon), of which approximately 40% is floodplain, numbers were estimated, mostly through terrestrial counts, at 4,000 in 1960, dropping to 500 in 1967 and to less than 100 following the 1970s droughts (respectively, 2.4 to 0.3 to 0.06/km² (Scholte 2005, Scholte <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
19392	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bohor Reedbuck have been eliminated from large parts of their natural range by overhunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of settlement and livestock, although it tends to survive for longer in over-exploited areas than less secretive and more easily hunted species. In many countries it only survives in viable but greatly depleted numbers in protected areas. Drought has also been cited as a major threat. <br/><br/>In North Cameroon, floodplain degradation through the construction of upstream dams has been a major reason for the decline of Reedbuck; nonetheless, reedbuck can still be observed even in floodplain areas with (relatively) high population pressure (P. Scholte, in Hoffmann and Kingdon in press).	eng
19399	conservation	Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in Argentina.	eng
19399	distribution	Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs from  Rio Grande do Sul State, in Southern Brazil through Uruguay, Central Argentina, Patagonia to Tierra del Fuego Argentina. This species also occurs in the Falkland  Islands (Islas Malvinas).	eng
19399	habitat	Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species occurs from sea level to 3,000 m, pampas and open field habitats and grasslands.	eng
19399	population	Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	In some areas could be considered rare (Northeast Argentina) but it most part of its range is a common species.	eng
19399	threats	Pardinas, U., Jayat, J.P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
19401	conservation	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Although populations occur in a number of protected areas, many are probably not large enough to ensure long term persistence. There was a recovery plan completed in 1984. However, the US Fish and Wildlife Service is developing a "Tidal March Ecosystem Recovery Plan," with <em>R. raviventris</em> to be included in this apparently updated plan.<br/><br/>This mouse is protected to some extent by federal and state listings as Endangered. Several small marshes are protected in national wildlife refuges and other preserves, but few provide refuge and cover from the highest tides.<br/><br/>Marshes and adjacent uplands need to be protected from development and degradation. Managed, diked marshes appear to be the key to the survival of the subspecies <em>raviventris</em>; future management prescriptions may include the possibility of a more patchy environment with some areas of high salinities plus the acceptance of some open areas within the managed areas (Geissel <em>et al.</em> 1988). Shellhammer (1989) questioned whether large enough areas of diked marsh can be acquired in the near future to protect this species in perpetuity. <br/><br/>Up-to-date data are needed on range-wide habitat occupancy and relative abundance. Research is needed on the effects of plant salinities on water balance and habitat use of mice.	eng
19401	distribution	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	This species is restricted to habitats bordering San Francisco Bay in California in the United States. Occurrence within this small range is highly fragmented. The range encompasses salt marshes of the San Francisco Bay system (San Francisco, San Pablo, and Suisun bays), in central California (Shellhammer 1982). Subspecies <em>halicoetes</em> occurs in marshes of San Pablo and Suisun bays (and including Petaluma Marsh in Sonoma County) and along the northern Contra Costa County coast (east to Antioch dunes area), and subspecies <em>raviventris</em> occurs mostly in the southern part of South San Francisco Bay, with a few populations on the Marin Peninsula (west to the mouth of Gallinas Creek) and near Point Richmond (Shellhammer 1989). The remaining tidal marsh habitat in the San Francisco Bay Area is estimated to be 12,555 ha (=125 sq km). An unknown fraction of this habitat is actually occupied by this species.	eng
19401	habitat	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The species' habitat consists of salt and brackish marshes, where plants provide a dense mat of cover, ideally around 30-50 cm high with a high percentage (e.g., 60%) of pickleweed (<em>Salicornia</em>) and complex structure of <em>Atriplex</em> and other species. The mouse needs access to refuge/cover on high ground, especially during highest tides in winter. It appears to be less dependent on cover in diked marshes than in tidal marshes (Geissel <em>et al.</em> 1988). In South San Francisco Bay, in diked marsh, harvest mice used more open and saltier pickleweed when vole populations were high, then moved into deeper and less salty pickleweed as vole populations declined (Geissel <em>et al</em>. 1988). In diked salt marshes, high densities of voles (<em>Microtus</em>) seem to force this species into marginal habitats or to become locally extirpated (Geissel <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>halicoetes</em> builds ball-like nests of dry grasses/sedges on the ground. Subspecies <em>raviventris</em> does little nest building but may use accumulations of vegetation on the ground surface. Diet dominated by green vegetation. Will eat salt grass and pickleweed as well as some seeds. Diet influenced by availability of food plants. More green vegetation is eaten in winter. Primarily nocturnal but sometimes active during the day.<br/><br/>Average litter size is 3.7-4.0 young. There may be only a single litter/year in <em>R. r. halicoetes</em> (breeds May-November) but multiple litters in <em>R. r. raviventris</em> (breeds March-November).	eng
19401	population	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Shellhammer <em>et al.</em> (1983) estimated a total population of a "few thousand animals at the peak of their numbers each summer." They also mapped 24 "principal populations." Recent figures are unavailable. The former, probably more or less continuous historical distribution has been fragmented, leaving harvest mouse populations restricted to discontinuous patches of suitable habitat. About 84% of historical tidal marshes of the San Francisco Bay area have been destroyed. Over 3,600 acres of habitat have been filled or degraded since the 1970s. Since 1982, hundreds of acres of nontidal salt marsh in the South Bay have been disced and the damage continued into at least 1989 (California DF&G 1990).	eng
19401	threats	Whitaker Jr., J.O., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat destruction or disturbance due to development, residential encroachment, intrusion of fresh water into salt marshes, marsh subsidence, and predation (especially by housecats). In many marsh habitats, there is no higher ground to escape to during high tides. Habitat within the range of the southern subspecies (<em>R. r. raviventris</em>) has been more severely impacted than that of the northern subspecies (<em>R. r. halicoetes</em>).<br/><br/>Most of the historical tidal marsh habitat has been lost as a result of filling for urban development and conversion to agricultural uses and commercial salt production. Upland vegetative cover adjoining tidal marshes is important cover for harvest mice during high tides and storms, but much of this habitat is no longer available due to clearing and conversion to intensive human uses. Remaining populations are relatively small, isolated, and may lack the size and full range of resources needed for long-term persistence.<br/><br/>Threats include continued loss of habitat to development, pollution and other changes in water quality, and encroachment by exotic plant species (e.g., invasive cordgrasses, <em>Spartina</em>) that do not provide suitable habitat for salt marsh harvest mice. Most areas of remaining habitat support few to no mice because of backfilling, subsidence, or vegetation changes. Salt marshes are subject to subsidence and increased tidal coverage (flooding) as a result of groundwater pumping. This reduces the extent of the broad pickleweed zone favoured by harvest mice (Shellhammer 1998). <br/><br/>Most of the remaining habitat is diked. Much of the habitat is managed for waterfowl and such management (e.g., lowered salinities) may not be compatible with the needs of harvest mice. Excessive inputs of fresh water (e.g., from discharges of treated municipal sewage) have altered salinity levels, marsh vegetation, and mouse food resources. See Shellhammer (1989) for a discussion of threats to diked marshes.<br/><br/>Much of the East Bay shoreline from San Leandro to Calaveras Point is rapidly eroding. In addition, an estimated 600 acres of former salt marsh along Coyote Creek, Alviso Slough, and Guadalupe Slough has been converted to fresh- and brackish-water vegetation due to freshwater discharge from South Bay wastewater facilities; these areas likely no longer support populations of salt marsh harvest mice.<br/><br/>Some habitat has been lost as a result of discing of nontidal salt marsh. Discing of wetlands, an activity not regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, has been employed by interests seeking to obscure the Corps' jurisdiction and circumvent the Clean Water Act and the Federal Endangered Species Act.<br/><br/>Some harvest mice are preyed upon by feral and free-ranging cats and non-native red foxes that roam salt-pond dikes or wander from residential areas now bordering many tidal marshes.<br/><br/>Habitat may be threatened over the long term by the rise in sea level that is predicted to occur within the next century. In combination with reduced sediment supply caused by upstream dams and water diversions, sea level rise could result in major losses of tidal marsh habitat that would be very difficult to prevent or mitigate.	eng
19402	conservation	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	Located in mid-elevation national parks in Costa Rica, including Rincon de la Vieja national park.	eng
19402	distribution	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in allopatric populations in highlands of north central Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970) and central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Nicaragua it occurs from 1,100 to 1,250 m (Reid 1997) and in Costa Rica from 1,700 to 2,300 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19402	habitat	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is poorly known. It can be found in or near evergreen forest. It was recorded in Nicaragua from a shaded coffee field; in Costa Rica it was found in deep rocky canyons and cloud forest (Reid 1997). It was trapped along fallen logs and at the bases of large trees in Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970). <br/><br/>Two pregnant females, with 3 and 4 embryos, were caught in June (Reid 1997). Often in edge habitat.	eng
19402	population	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This mouse is generally rare and local (Reid 1997), but may be abundant is secondary growth.	eng
19402	threats	Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	None known.	eng
19403	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no protected areas within its range. This species needs more research to learn about its basic biology and life history.	eng
19403	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in west central Sonora to west central Sinaloa, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is found in the lowlands near, but not along, the coast from 60 - 180 m asl.	eng
19403	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. Individuals in Sinaloa (Russell and Alcorn 1957) were trapped in an open field alongside a brush fence, and in mesquite and agave dominated field with short grasses.  It has a restricted habitat.	eng
19403	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
19403	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There is significant habitat transformation for agriculture within its range.	eng
19404	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species' range falls partially into a number of protected areas.	eng
19404	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Transvolcanica, from southeast Jalisco to west central Veracruz, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19404	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species range is found in high elevation pine/oak forest.	eng
19404	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
19404	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
19405	conservation	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Located in protected areas in Costa Rica, including Volcán Irazu.	eng
19405	distribution	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs from upper elevations in the Cordilleras Tilarán, Central, and Talamanca, Costa Rica, to the Chiriquí region, western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,300 to 3,350 m (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
19405	habitat	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This mouse can be found in highland and montane forest, forest edge, and clearings. Its biology is poorly known. It is mainly terrestrial but is sometimes caught on logs or low branches. It may be found among patches of bamboo near creeks (Reid 1997).	eng
19405	population	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
19405	threats	Timm, R. & Reid, F., 2008	None known.	eng
19406	conservation	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Most of its distribution in Panamá is in protected areas.	eng
19406	distribution	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs from east Panamá, including Azuero Peninsula, and perhaps adjacent Colombia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 900 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19406	habitat	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It can be found in evergreen forest, forest edge, and in open areas (Reid 1997). It is mainly arboreal (Handley 1966). A female with 4 embryos was caught in February (Reid 1997).	eng
19406	population	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is common in Panamá. It can be found in rural gardens, but does not persist in secondary forests.	eng
19406	threats	Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	None known.	eng
19407	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place that specifically target this species. Occurs in many national parks in many different countries.	eng
19407	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in south central Arizona, north central, south and east Texas, to southwest Missouri and west Mississippi, USA; south through much of México, to west Nicaragua; excluding the Yucatán Peninsula and Caribbean coastal lowlands (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,700 m (in southeastern Mexico and Central America) (Reid 1997).	eng
19407	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	<em>R. fulvescens</em> is found primarily in grassy fields interspersed with shrubs, such as mesquite-grassland and pine-grassland associations (Spencer and Cameron 1982). In Central America, it can be found in dry thorn scrub, gaps in deciduous forest, and grassy areas (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>This mouse is strictly nocturnal and is mainly terrestrial, but often travels above ground through low vegetation. Burrows are used in hot, dry areas, and small runways are made through grass. The diet consists of seeds, insects, and shoots; in the United States, insects make up the bulk of diet in spring, and seeds predominate in fall (Spencer and Cameron 1982). Nests are usually built among vegetation, within 1 m of the ground. Litter size in Texas is 2 to 4 young, averaging 3 (Cameron 1977). Pregnant females with 4 to 5 embryos were taken in San Luis, Mexico, where breeding occur year-round (Dalquest 1953).	eng
19407	population	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	<em>R. fulvescens</em> is common within its geographic range in North America, with densities ranging from 6-30 individuals/ha depending on habitat type and season, with greatest densities during summer and winter months (Spencer and Cameron 1982). In Central America, this mouse is uncommon (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>Populations of <em>R. fulvescens</em> experience rapid turnover, with an average generation length of 1 year.	eng
19407	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Timm, R., 2008	No major threats known. However, barriers to dispersal, including roads and habitat fragmentation due to agricultural development, may have negative effects on population dynamics.	eng
19408	conservation	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas across its range. Taxonomic research is needed for this species.	eng
19408	distribution	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs from the Yucatán Peninsula and coastal Chiapas, México, south along Pacific watershed to west central Costa Rica (Reid and Langtimm 1993 in Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19408	habitat	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	It occurs in a variety of habitats: from dry thorn scrub to wet highland forest. It is found in mature forest, second growth, and in forest clearings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is mainly nocturnal, but may be active in the late afternoon. This species is arboreal and terrestrial; in tall, mature forest it is rarely trapped on the ground and has been caught in the canopy at 15 m; in scrub and grassy areas it is largely terrestrial and is often trapped on the ground (Reid 1997). The diet includes insects and seeds. This mouse makes spherical nests in hollows and sometimes uses bird nest-boxes attached to trees. It often invades houses and buildings near forested areas, nesting on rafters or in gaps between roofs and ceilings. Reproduction occurs throughout the wet season and sporadically in the dry season. Litter size is 2 to 5 young, averaging 3. This mouse can live for more than 2 years in the wild, although normal life span is probably 6 to 9 months (Reid 1997).	eng
19408	population	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	This mouse is locally common and widespread (Reid 1997).	eng
19408	threats	Reid, F., Vázquez, E. & Emmons, L., 2008	None known.	eng
19409	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
19409	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in south-central Nayarit and northwest Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19409	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. The native vegetation in this area is desert scrub.	eng
19409	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is not very common.	eng
19409	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species has a restricted range. Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. There is extensive loss of native vegetation in this area due to the expanding cultivation of blue agave in monoculture.	eng
19410	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Matson, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. Occurs in several protected areas within its range.	eng
19410	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Matson, J., 2008	Known from portions of southwestern Canada, south through the western and mid-western United States, to southern Mexico (Musser and Carleton 2005). Found from below sea level in Death Valley to 4,000 m in central Mexico. (Webster and Jones 1982). There is evidence that the range within the U.S. is expanding to the east as a result of increased habitat alteration for agricultural use (Ford 1977)	eng
19410	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Matson, J., 2008	This species has wide habitat tolerances. It prefers open, mesic habitats dominated by herbaceous vegetation including meadows, pastures and fallow agricultural fields. This species may also inhabit deserts, shrublands, marshes and cleared areas of pine-oak forests.  <br/><br/><em>R. megalotis</em> is a nocturnal, non-hibernating species. Nests are built of shredded plant material and are typically found on the ground under dense vegetation but may also be found in burrows or in vegetation above the ground (Wilson and Ruff 1999). The diet is opportunistic and is comprised mainly of seeds, herbaceous material and insects. The reproductive potential of a female Western harvest mouse is quite high, with females known to have 14 litters totaling 58 pups within 12 months (Bancroft 1967).	eng
19410	population	Linzey, A.V. & Matson, J., 2008	The western harvest mouse is a widespread and abundant species. Densities may reach up to 60 individuals/ha in late summer (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
19410	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Matson, J., 2008	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
19411	conservation	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Gómez-Laverde, M., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is found in many protected areas.	eng
19411	distribution	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Gómez-Laverde, M., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs from southern Tamaulipas and west central Michoacán, México, south through Middle American highlands to western Panamá, Colombia and Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005). <br/><br/>Small distribution in Panama (in the northwest). It occurs from 500 to 3,300 m (usually 1,000 to 2,000 m) (Reid 1997). In Colombia, the species occurs in Cordillera Central, Occidental, and Oriental (M. Gómez-Laverde and C. Delgado pers. comm.); in Ecuador, it is present in north central of both cordilleras (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia, it is found from 900 to 3,200 m (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.); in Ecuador, this species is found from 1,800 to 3,800 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
19411	habitat	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Gómez-Laverde, M., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in a variety of habitats, from montane oak forest to dry lowlands forest and arid scrub. <br/><br/>It is found in both within mature forest and in secondary forest, clearings, and cultivated areas (Reid 1997). This species is nocturnal; it is semiarboreal and may be trapped on logs, vines, or on the ground. In Veracruz, Mexico, a nest was found on top of a bromeliad, about 2.5 m above ground. The nest was a loosely woven ball of grasses and plant fiber, about 23 cm in diameter (Hall and Dalquest 1963). Litter size is 3 to 4 young (Reid 1997). It is predated by the crab-eating fox.	eng
19411	population	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Gómez-Laverde, M., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This mouse is uncommon to locally common in Central America (Reid 1997); in Colombia and Ecuador it is very common.	eng
19411	threats	Delgado, C., Tirira, D., Gómez-Laverde, M., Matson, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	No major threats known. Although not a major threat, the species is disturbed by habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
19412	conservation	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2009	Occurs in very few protected areas in Mexico, and in a poorly-protected park in Guatemala.	eng
19412	distribution	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species is in isolated pockets in the highlands of north Michoacán and Distrito Federal, north Oaxaca, and central and south Chiapas, Mexico, and west central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Chiapas and Guatemala, it occurs from 2,200 to 3,100 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19412	habitat	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This mouse is restricted to mature and undisturbed montane forest with numerous ferns, mosses, and fallen trees (Reid 1997). It is semiarboreal. It may be trapped on logs or on the ground at the base of large trees.	eng
19412	population	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2009	It is local but not uncommon in suitable habitat (Reid 1997).	eng
19412	threats	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
19413	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
19413	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Known from central USA and northern Mexico. In the United States, found between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains, as far north as southeastern Montana and southwestern North Dakota,  south to southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico and Texas. In Mexico, occurs from northern Sonora and Chihuahua to northern Durango (Musser and Carleton 2005).  Range includes elevations from 84 m to 1,920 m above sea level.	eng
19413	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in open grassy areas, including cultivated fields, prairie, and grazed grasslands. It is generally found in higher numbers in short-grass prairie than in tall-grass prairie. <br/><br/>The diet of the plains harvest mouse consists of insects, seeds and herbs. Nests are built of grasses and may be found either on the ground or slightly elevated off the ground in vegetation. Females of this species have a high reproductive potential. Breeding begins at 8 weeks old, with less than 30 days between litters which have an average of 4 young (Wilkins 1986).	eng
19413	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	<em>R. montanus</em> is very common within its range. Observed densities are between 1.5 and 7 individuals/ha, with the greatest densities in short grass associations (Brown 1946, cited in Wilkins 1986)	eng
19413	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known major threats. Dispersal of <em>R. montanus</em> is inhibited by roadways, however, the impact of these barriers on population dynamics has not been quantified (Wilkins 1986).	eng
19414	conservation	Reid, F., Emmons, L., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Further studies are urgently required concerning its ecology, taxonomic affinities, and extent of occurrence.	eng
19414	distribution	Reid, F., Emmons, L., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is known from isolated records in southwestern Nicaragua and west central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 660 m to750 m (Jones and Baldassarre 1982 in Reid 1997).	eng
19414	habitat	Reid, F., Emmons, L., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Its biology is unknown. This species occurs in deciduous forest (Reid 1997), often in degraded areas.	eng
19414	population	Reid, F., Emmons, L., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	It is known from very few specimens (Reid 1997). It is poorly known.	eng
19414	threats	Reid, F., Emmons, L., Matson, J. & Timm, R., 2008	Much of its habitat has been degraded, so habitat degradation and deforestation are potential threats.	eng
19415	conservation	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	Located in national parks in well-protected forests. Needs taxonomic research.	eng
19415	distribution	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is patchily recorded in the Cordilleras Central and Talamancas, central Costa Rica (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,500 to 3,400 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19415	habitat	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This mouse can be found in wet, mature highland forest and in pastures at forest edge (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>Its biology is poorly known. It has been trapped on the ground in grass at the edge of wet forest on Irazu (Goodwin 1946), and in low vegetation in elfin forest. This mouse feed on the nectar of a melastome (<em>Blakea</em> sp.), and may be one of several mouse pollinators for this plant (Lumer and Schoer 1986). A pregnant female was captured in July (Reid 1997).	eng
19415	population	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
19415	threats	Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	None known.	eng
19416	conservation	Cuarón, A., Vázquez, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is a program to control the populations of invasive dogs and cats. A program is still needed to control the invasive snakes and rodents.	eng
19416	distribution	Cuarón, A., Vázquez, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is restricted to Cozumel Island, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19416	habitat	Cuarón, A., Vázquez, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This mouse occurs in dense, viney second growth and forest edge. It is nocturnal and semiarboreal (Reid 1997).	eng
19416	population	Cuarón, A., Vázquez, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is very rare and patchily distributed. The population of this species fluctuates significantly (A. Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
19416	threats	Cuarón, A., Vázquez, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is threatened by predation from introduced species: feral dogs, cats, and <em>Boa constrictor</em>.  It is also threatened by competition from introduced house rats and mice.<br/><br/>The species is also vulnerable to the effects of frequent hurricanes and flooding, particularly in combination with its extremely small, fluctuating population and interactions with invasive species.	eng
19417	conservation	Reid, F., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
19417	distribution	Reid, F., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is known from allopatric segments in the Middle American highlands: southwest Jalisco and south San Luis Potosí to central Guerrero and east central Oaxaca, México; central Chiapas, México, to north central Nicaragua; and central Costa Rica to west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 1,200 to 4,000 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19417	habitat	Reid, F., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is found at forest edge or among brush and pastured in cold, wet montane regions. It favors more open habitats than other harvest mice; it is fairly common in coniferous forest, but rare in mature, broadleaf forest (Reid 1997). Does well in secondary forest.<br/><br/>This mouse is mainly terrestrial and is usually trapped on the ground; although it can climb. A round nest of grass was fond under a log in a coffee field in Nicaragua (Jones and Genoways 1970 in Reid 1997). Breeding may occur year-round, and litter size is 3 to 5 young (Anderson and Jones 1960 in Reid 1997).	eng
19417	population	Reid, F., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	This mouse is widespread, often common (Reid 1997).	eng
19417	threats	Reid, F., Samudio, R. & Pino, J., 2008	None known.	eng
19418	conservation	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra de las Minas National Park in Guatemala. Very little is known about this species, so distribution, ecology, and biology research is needed.	eng
19418	distribution	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of Chiapas, México, and central Guatemala (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,400 to 2,900 m (Rogers <em>et al.</em> 1983; Reid 1997).	eng
19418	habitat	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is restricted to mature, broadleaf montane forest and may be threatened by habitat loss. It favors the coldest, wettest slopes, with abundant epiphytes and mosses (Reid 1997). Its biology is poorly known; this species apparently is semiarboreal (Reid 1997).	eng
19418	population	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).	eng
19418	threats	Reid, F. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat. Fire is a potential threat, for example in Sierra de las Minas National Park, due to the small extent of occurrence of the species.	eng
19419	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within its range.	eng
19419	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from west Chihuahua to west central Michoacán, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
19419	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This area is characterized by high elevation pine/oak forest.	eng
19419	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
19419	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
19426	distribution	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Renea bourguignatiana</em> is known from France and Italy (Alpes-Maritimes). It has been recorded from a valley near Menton, France and, more recently, from Cima Longoira, Italy and Val Roia, near to Ventimiglia in Liguria.	eng
19426	habitat	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This terrestrial species is found in damp leaf-litter in woodland.	eng
19426	threats	Bouchet, P. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	The species is threatened by deterioration of its habitat.	eng
19432	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	Occurs in Italy and is endemic to Alpi piemontesi, near Torino.	eng
19432	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	Occurs in moist shaded sites, within leaf litter and woodland around 1,150 m asl and non-calcareous soils.	eng
19433	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
19433	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Tanzania, Burundi, DRC and Zambia) (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19433	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	The species is common on and underneath cobbles in shallow waters 0-5 m. Sometimes groups appear size sorted, thus may be cohorts.	eng
19433	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species occurs in large numbers on appropriate substrates.	eng
19433	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
19434	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
19434	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known only from Burundi.	eng
19434	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It lives underneath rocks and cobbles in shallow waters, 0-3 m.	eng
19434	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
19434	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
19435	conservation	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
19435	distribution	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is only recorded from Tanzania and Burundi, shown as six locations, but it may well occur between these (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19435	habitat	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	It lives underneath rocks and cobbles in shallow waters, 0-3 m.	eng
19435	population	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
19435	threats	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
19436	conservation	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its extensive range.	eng
19436	distribution	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded in southern and central Angola, Namibia, Botswana, all of South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, North West Province and Limpopo Province), eastern Zimbabwe, western central Mozambique, Malawi (Nyika Plateau and Mulanje Massif), northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau), and highlands of Tanzania, Kenya, eastern Uganda (Mount Elgon) and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kasaki, Marungu Mountains). It has been recorded up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
19436	habitat	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs in six biotic zones of southern Africa, but is restricted to disjunct montane savannas throughout its range north of South Africa. This is a commensal species found in agricultural lands and in houses. It is sometimes considered to be a pest species.	eng
19436	population	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
19436	threats	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19454	conservation	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs in Pincinguaba State Park in Sao Paolo state.	eng
19454	distribution	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species is known only from Ubatuba, Sao Paolo state and Vicosa, Minas Gerais state, and part of Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004 and Percequillo pers. comm.). The type locality is Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro State), but there are no records from that state since 1848 (Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
19454	habitat	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest habitat, often found in proximity to bamboo and in modified habitat (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Percequillo and Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
19454	population	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This rodent was considered extinct because no records had been found for more than 100 years, now found in four localities, but still not common (Pinheiro <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
19454	threats	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
19455	habitat	Contreras-Balderas, S. & Almada-Villela, P., 1996	Found in cave streams.	eng
19474	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It is known from several protected areas across its range.	eng
19474	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is found on Borneo (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
19474	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The species is only recorded from primary forest in hilly areas, however, it is not well surveyed in other habitat types. It could be dependent on good quality habitat.	eng
19474	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This seems to be a rare, occurring at low densities.	eng
19474	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting, using snares, and habitat degradation and loss.	eng
19475	conservation		The historical range of the species included several protected areas. Further research into the cause of the decline of this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19475	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, was restricted to elevations between 350 and 800m asl in the Blackall and Conondale Ranges in south-east Queensland (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The geographic distribution of the species was less than 1,400km² (map in Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> inhabited streams in the catchments of the Mary, Stanley and Mooloolah River (Ingram 1983). It was thought to have been first found in 1972 (Liem 1973), but Ingram (1991) reported a specimen collected in 1914 from the Blackall Range.	eng
19475	habitat		<em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> lived in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and riverine gallery open forest at 350m asl and was closely associated with watercourses and adjacent rock pools and soaks (Czechura 1991; Meyer< Hines and Hero 2001e). These streams are mostly perennial, but in extremely dry years they may cease to flow (Ingram 1983). The vegetation along the stream banks is usually closed forest or tall closed forest with emergent eucalypts, although there are some sites in open forest with grassy ground cover (Ingram 1983). In spring and summer individuals were usually found in or at the edge of rock pools, either amongst leaf-litter, under and between stones or in crevices around the edge (Ingram 1983). The species was also found under rock in shallow water in backwaters and also the main flow of permanent watercourses (Ingram 1983; Czechura 1991). Searches of popular sites in winter only recovered two frogs and it is assumed that the species hibernates in deep crevices in rocks or spaces between rocks underwater during the colder months (Ingram 1983). Adult males tend to prefer deeper pools, whereas females and juveniles may move to newly created pools after rain as long as these pools contained stones and/or leaf-litter (Ingram 1983). The prerequisite for the use of pools by this species seems to be that the pool must be deep enough for the frog to be able to sit with its head out of the water and be able to safely submerge (Ingram 1983). Individuals will only sit fully exposed on the rocks during light rain (Ingram 1983). <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em> has never been recorded from cleared riparian habitat. Breeding activity occurs between October and December (Ingram 1983). Males call from rock crevices above pools (Ingram 1983). Females brood young within the stomach and give birth through the mouth (Tyler and Carter 1982). Fertilized eggs or early stage larvae are presumably swallowed by the female and complete their development in the stomach (Tyler and Carter 1982). The number of eggs in gravid females (approximately 40) exceeds the number of juveniles found to occur in the stomach (21-26) (Tyler 1989). It is not known whether or not the excess eggs are digested by the female or whether or not they are simply not swallowed (Tyler 1989). The production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach of the female ceases during brooding (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1983). Tadpoles develop in a manner similar to the aquatic tadpoles of other species though, as they feed off egg yolk, the labial teeth are absent and the intestines form at a later stage of development (Tyler 1989). After 6-7 weeks the females give birth to up to 25 young (Tyler and Davies 1983a). Young emerge from the female’s mouth as fully formed frogs and after four days the digestive tract returns to normal and the female recommences feeding (Tyler and Davies 1983b). Ingram (1983) reported minimum brooding periods from two individuals of 36 and 43 days and suggested that the duration was such that females were unlikely to breed twice in one season.	eng
19475	population		The species declined rapidly and disappeared at about the same time as a sympatric species <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Czechura and Ingram (1990) and Ingram (1990) state that the last frog was seen in the wild in 1979 on the Conondale Range. However, Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) reported the existence of a specimen taken from the Blackall Range in 1981. Despite intensive searching, the species has not been located since (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). In the laboratory, the last known individual died in 1983 (Tyler and Davies 1985b). Ingram (1983) studied a population of the species in the headwaters of Booloumba Creek, Conondale Range, and estimated that approximately 78 were present in 1976. No other estimates of population size are available for the species. This species is now believed to be extinct.	eng
19475	threats		The reason(s) for the disappearance of this species remains unknown (Tyler and Davies 1985b). Populations were present in logged catchments between 1972 and 1979. Although the species persisted in the streams during these activities, the effects of timber harvesting on this aquatic species were never investigated. Its habitat is currently threatened by feral pigs, invasion of weeds (especially mistflower <em>Ageratina riparia</em>), and altered flow and water quality due to upstream disturbances (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). However, from what is known from similar declines and disappearances elsewhere in the world, the disease chytridiomycosis must be suspected.	eng
19476	conservation		Its known range is within a protected area. A recovery plan for the species has been prepared. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19476	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, was discovered in January 1984 (Mahony <em>et al.</em> 1984) and was found exclusively in undisturbed rainforest in Eungella National Park, mid-eastern Queensland at altitudes of 400-1,000m asl (Covacevich and McDonald 1993). The extent of occurrence of the species was less than 500km² (map in McDonald 1990).	eng
19476	habitat		It is an aquatic species largely restricted to the shallow section of fast-flowing creeks and streams in rainforest. It is one of only two known species to brood its offspring within its stomach. Females deposited their eggs, and then swallowed them. While in the stomach, tadpoles excreted some form of enzyme that inhibited the female's gastric digestion, and then proceded to develop into fully formed froglets. The froglets were then regurgitated through the female's mouth.	eng
19476	population		The species was considered common across its range until January 1985 when the first signs of decline (reported by Winter and McDonald 1986) were observed at lower altitudes (i.e., about 400m asl) (McDonald 1990). At higher altitudes the frogs remained common until March 1985 but were absent in June of that year (McDonald 1990). Despite continued efforts to locate the species, <em>Rheobatrachus vitellinus</em> has not been recorded again within Eungella National Park or any other locations (Ingram and McDonald 1993; McDonald and Alford 1999). This species is now considered to be extinct.	eng
19476	threats		The cause(s) of the population decline remain unknown. McDonald (1990) found no obvious evidence that seasonal rarity, over-collecting, predation, drought, floods, habitat destruction, disease, heavy parasite loads or stress due to handling for data collection were responsible for the population declines. Threats to the Eungella National Park include fires that might sweep up the slopes of the mountain during harvesting of the sugar cane in the fields below (Winter and McDonald 1986). Successive fires extend deeper into the rainforest leaving grassy ridges that are devoid of trees (Winter and McDonald 1986). The rainforest is extremely narrow in places and continual fire might eventually erode away entire sections of the forest or fragment the forest (Winter and McDonald 1986). Weeds that encroach on the edges of the forest pose a similar threat (Winter and McDonald 1986). It was thought that it might have been possible that the decline that was observed in 1984-1985 was a natural population fluctuation and that residual individuals had retreated to hidden refuges (Winter and McDonald 1986; McDonald 1990). The extent of such population fluctuations is unknown, but there is evidence of large swings in numbers of other Australian frogs (McDonald 1990). However, despite continued efforts to locate the species, it has not been recorded within Eungella National Park or any other locations since March 1985 (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002; McDonald and Alford 1999). Eungella National Park is subject to weed invasion on the edges of the reserve (Winter and McDonald 1986). From what is known from similar declines and disappearance elsewhere in the world, chytridiomycosis (present in at least some rainforest streams at Eungella) must be suspected and a major causes of the extinction of this species.	eng
19478	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	This species is known from the upper reaches of the eastward-flowing Mangoro and Rianila Rivers. It has also been recorded from Lac Alaotra.	eng
19479	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Recorded from the Nosivolo River but may boccur elsewhere in Madagascar.	eng
19480	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
19481	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Recorded from the Manambola River system in Madagascar.	eng
19481	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	1	eng
19482	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Recorded from the Manambola River system in Madagascar.	eng
19483	habitat	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
19484	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	More research is needed to determine the status of this species population and its specialized habitat.	eng
19484	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is only known from Guelatao, San Jose Lachiquiri, Union Hildalgo and Tontatepec on the Pacific slope of Oaxaca (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19484	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is a semi-aquatic species relying on the freshwater environment as a food source (Nowak 1999). It is restricted to forested riparian areas at the headwaters of streams, in particular it is restricted to small tributaries with closed tropical forest vegetation, and does not occur in larger rivers. This species requires a pristine habitat, any kind of pollution in water resources is a threat to this species. <br/><br/>An adult male was found clogging a hosepipe used to collect water from the Rio Yavesia at 2,000 m in an area charcterized by pine-oak forest (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19484	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is considered rare, and has only been recorded from 4 localities within its range (Santos-Moreno <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species distribution is likely severely fragmented.	eng
19484	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is threatened by human activity within its range, specifically by continued deforestation and water pollution. Any type of water pollution, including household pollution from washing clothes, is considered a threat to this species. Deforestation is occurring throughout the range of this species, except in steep riparian areas.	eng
19485	conservation	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	Occurs in high-elevation protected areas in Costa Rica.	eng
19485	distribution	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from isolated segments in highlands of central Costa Rica and Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 1,300 to 1,600 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19485	habitat	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	This rodent is found along fast-flowing, rocky-bottomed streams through cool, highland forest (Reid 1997), and occupies burrows with entrances above the waterline on the banks of streams. One burrow extended for at least 2 m (Reid and Langtimm 1993). This species may be slightly less aquatic in habits that other <em>Rheomys</em> species, but is always found closely associated with streams. <br/><br/>This species is active both by day and by night. It is strong swimmer, capable of moving rapidly against the water current. Stomachs of two individuals contained caddisfly larvae, beetles, and spiders (Hooper 1968). A captive mouse was highly vocal and made loud, low-frequency clicking calls by snapping the tongue against the roof of the mouth (Reid 1997).	eng
19485	population	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).	eng
19485	threats	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	Stream quality degradation, water pollution, and deforestation are threats to this species.	eng
19486	conservation	Reid, F., Vázquez, E.,  Emmons, L. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in El Triunfo National Park in Mexico and in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador. Expected to occur in Sierra de las Minas National Park in Guatemala.	eng
19486	distribution	Reid, F., Vázquez, E.,  Emmons, L. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of south México (Chiapas), Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 400 m to 2,700 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19486	habitat	Reid, F., Vázquez, E.,  Emmons, L. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This rodent is found along streams through most forest types and second growth (Reid 1997). It is sometimes found on very small streams and steeps in forests, and may be more generalized in diet and habits than other water mice. <br/><br/>In El Salvador, foods eaten include insects, birds, salamanders, mammals (possibly another <em>Rheomys</em>), and starchy pulp (Stirton 1944). One individual from Guatemala had eaten stonefly and mayfly larvae, beetles, and part of a catfish (Hooper 1968). A captive mouse readily consumed small fish and aquatic insect larvae (Reid 1997).	eng
19486	population	Reid, F., Vázquez, E.,  Emmons, L. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is uncommon and local (Reid 1997).	eng
19486	threats	Reid, F., Vázquez, E.,  Emmons, L. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Stream degradation and water quality degradation are major threats due to its reliance on stream habitats. Other potential threats include landslides.	eng
19487	conservation	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas in the Costa Rican cloud forest, including the Amistad National Park.	eng
19487	distribution	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of central Costa Rica and western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 1,500 to 2,000 m (Reid 1997).	eng
19487	habitat	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	This rodent is found along clear, cold streams in wet, highland forest (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>One individual was caught alive on the bank of Rio Poasita, Costa Rica. It was observed swimming in captivity; only its head and tip of the tail were held above the water. This mouse ate sardines and rejected plant food (Starrett and Fisler 1970). In the wild it eats aquatic invertebrates; the stomachs of two individuals contained larvae of stoneflies, caddisflies, and mayflies (Hooper 1968; Reid 1997).	eng
19487	population	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is rare and local (Reid 1997).	eng
19487	threats	Reid, F. & Woodman, N., 2008	Degraded water quality and streams are a potential major threat.	eng
19488	conservation	Norman, B., 2005	Whale Sharks are legally protected in Australian Commonwealth waters and the states of Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia (regulations control human interactions in the latter state), the Maldives, Philippines, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Honduras, Mexico, US Atlantic waters and a small area off Belize (Fowler 2000, Anon. 2002b). Full legal protection is under consideration in South Africa and Taiwan (POC) has recently introduced an annual quota for its fishery. In 1999 the whale shark was listed on Appendix II of the Bonn Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). This identifies it as a species whose conservation status would benefit from the implementation of international cooperative Agreements (Fowler 2000). A US proposal to add the Whale Shark to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was rejected by the 11th Conference of Parties in 2000, but a revised proposal, submitted by Philippines and India, was accepted by the 12th Conference in 2002 and came into force at the end February 2003. This requires fishing states to demonstrate that any exports were derived from a sustainably managed population and to enable exports and imports to be monitored.	eng
19488	distribution	Norman, B., 2005	Whale Sharks are found in all tropical and warm temperate seas except the Mediterranean (Compagno 1984a, Wolfson 1986, Last and Stevens 1994). Although the range of this species typically lies between latitudes 30°N and 35°S, it has occasionally been sighted at latitudes as high as 41°N and 36.5°S (Wolfson 1986). Whale Sharks are known to inhabit both deep and shallow coastal waters and the lagoons of coral atolls and reefs (Demetrios 1979, Wolfson 1983). Iwasaki (1970) reported that they are found in surface seawater temperatures between 18?30°C, but most frequently occur in surface sea-water between 21? 25°C. Archival tags have recorded dives to over 700 m and a water temperature of 7.8°C off the coast of Belize (Graham and Roberts in prep.).<br/><br/>Whale Sharks are found almost all year round off the east coast of Taiwan (Province of China) (Leu <em>et al.</em> 1997), Honduras (A. Antoniou pers. comm.) and near the Seychelles (Gudger 1932). Ongoing studies on the population of Whale Sharks around Seychelles inner islands indicate that, although occasional shark sightings are made throughout the year, there are two seasonal peak sighting periods from June to August and October to November (Marine Conservation Society Seychelles, unpubl.). Similar patterns of infrequent year-round sightings and seasonal feeding aggregations of larger numbers (tens, to low hundreds) are recorded from many areas. Aggregations of whale shark occur in Indian coastal waters between December and April (Silas 1986), March? June in Tanzania (Yahya and Jiddawi pers. comm.), in Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) from November to January (Beckley <em>et al.</em> 1997), off the coast of Somalia in September, off Chile during October, in the Sea of Cortez around May?June and October? November, in the Gulf of Mexico between August and September (Clark and Nelson 1997), off the coast of Belize in April/May to June (Heyman <em>et al.</em> 2001), in the Bohol Sea of the Philippines between April and May (Trono 1996, Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002), in the Coral Sea, near the Great Barrier Reef during November and December (McPherson 1990), at Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia in March? May (Norman 1999) and at Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean between November and January. There are also occasional reports from the Florida Keys (E. De Sabata pers. comm.). Although whale sharks have been sighted in numerous other regions, these sightings are generally sporadic and seasonal.<br/><br/>Recent developments in electronic and satellite tagging of Whale Sharks have demonstrated that these animals undertake multi-annual and very long-distance migrations. These include over 2,000 km from north-west Australia towards Asia (pers. obs. 2002), 550 km within a few weeks (Graham and Roberts in prep.), a 2,000 km two month migration from the Mindanao Sea, inner Philippines, to 280 km south of Vietnam (Eckert <em>et al.</em> 2002) and a 13,000 km migration in over 37 months from the Gulf of California, Mexico, to near Tonga (Eckert and Stewart 2001). Three sharks tagged in the Seychelles, Indian Ocean, in 2001 travelled west to Zanzibar, north-west to Somalia, and over 5,000 km to the coast of Thailand, respectively (Rowat 2002).	eng
19488	habitat	Norman, B., 2005	Joung <em>et al.</em> (1996) established that whale sharks are ovoviviparous when they reported a female (~10.6 m TL) harpooned off Taiwan (Province of China) containing approximately 300 embryos. These embryos ranged in length from 48?58 cm. One juvenile from this litter, born at 58 cm (TL), attained a length of 143 cm (TL) when raised in an aquarium for 143 days (Leu <em>et al.</em> 1997). Sixteen whale sharks measuring 3.1?6.3 m (TL) have previously been held in captivity at the Okinawa Expo Aquarium, Japan (Uchida <em>et al.</em> 2000). Growth rates of three sharks held from 458?2,056 days ranged from 21.6? 29.5 cm per annum, but may not be comparable to growth rates in the wild. There have been few reports of pregnant females or juvenile whale sharks under 3 m (TL) in the literature (Wolfson 1983). The largest female so far reported is an estimated 20 m, 34 t Whale Shark landed in Taiwan (Province of China) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997, 2002), although other sources suggest a 15 m maximum total length (TL).<br/><br/>No long-term studies have produced validated growth rates in the wild, age at maturity, or maximum age for this species, although Pauly (2002) has tentatively suggested a slow growth rate and a 5?6% annual mortality rate for adult <em>R. typus</em> and estimated longevity as 60?>100 years, for a total length of 14 m. Wintner?s (2000) study of vertebral growth rings recorded three mature males with 20, 24 and 27 growth rings at 903, 922 and 945 cm TL respectively, and an immature female with 22 rings and 577 cm TL (calculated from a precaudal length of 445 cm). The presence of scars and abrasions on the claspers of several sharks over 9 m (TL) at Ningaloo Marine Park (Norman 1999) also suggests that sexual activity, at least in males, is not common prior to attaining this length. Wintner (2000) also found that adding a theoretical data point at 100 years and 14 m TL produced a Bertalanffy growth curve with lower standard errors and Linf closer to the reported maximum length than did 60 years and 14 m TL.<br/><br/>The Fishbase (www.fishbase.org) default life history tool for this species is set at a maximum length of 20 m TL and, strangely, Linf of 14 m TL. This yields an estimated age at maturity of nine years at 560 cm TL, a generation time of 21 years and longevity of 59 years. Most of these parameters are clearly too low. Recalculating these data for Linf 20 m TL yields an age at maturity of 21 years at 770 m TL (still low). Generation time becomes an estimated 63 years and longevity almost 150, which seems too high for a warm water species, although recorded for some species of sturgeon Acipenseridae.<br/><br/>Chang <em>et al.</em> (1997) considers that a breeding ground for whale sharks apparently lies close to Taiwan (Province of China). However, the length of gestation, localities of birth, and frequency of reproduction are not yet known for this species and require further study.<br/><br/>Because of their large size, Whale Sharks are probably not subject to extensive predation after reaching maturity. There are only two reports of juvenile whale sharks taken by another animal: a Blue Marlin (A. Goorah pers. comm.) and a Blue Shark (Kukuyev 1996). Several Whale Sharks from Ningaloo Reef possess scars that may be the result of shark attack at an early age (Norman 1999) and two orcas <em>Orcinus orca</em> have been filmed attacking, killing and consuming an 8m whale shark (O?Sullivan and Mitchell 2000).<br/><br/>The Whale Shark is one of only three species of shark that filter feeds, the other two being the Megamouth (<em>Megachasma pelagios</em>) and Basking Shark (<em>Cetorhinus maximus</em>) (Compagno 1984a). Unlike these two, the Whale Shark does not rely on forward motion for filtration, but is able to hang vertically in the water and suction feed by closing its gill slits and opening its mouth (Compagno 1984a). <em>Rhincodon typus</em> is believed to be able to sieve zooplankton as small as 1 mm in diameter through the fine mesh of their gill-rakers (Taylor 1994), typically feeding on a variety of planktonic and nektonic prey, small crustaceans and schooling fishes and even occasionally ingesting small tuna and squid (Last and Stevens 1994, Clark and Nelson 1997, Norman 1999).	eng
19488	threats	Norman, B., 2005	Small-scale harpoon and entanglement fisheries have taken place in various regions of the world, including India (whale shark fishing banned in 2001), Pakistan, Taiwan (Province of China), the Philippines (banned in 1998) and the Maldives (prior to protection in 1995). These took Whale Sharks primarily for their meat, liver oil, and/or fins (Compagno 1984a, Ramachandran and Sankar 1990, Trono 1996, Hanfee 2001, Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002). Liver oil was traditionally used for water-proofing boat hulls. The huge fins are low quality but of high value as restaurant "signboards" in east Asia, and the soft meat (known as "tofu shark") is in great demand in Taiwan (Province of China).<br/><br/>Fishermen in the Maldives used to take 20-30 Whale Sharks per year for their oil, but reported declining catches during the 1980s to early 1990s (Fowler 2000). In a study in the Philippines, it was found that in 1997 there was a 29% decline in the whale shark catch at two of the primary sites, despite an increase in effort due to rising prices for exported products (Alava <em>et al.</em> 2002). The increased fishing effort and falling catches led to the 1998 fishery ban, although illegal fishing and attempted export of meat still continues on a small scale, with shipments having been impounded by customs authorities (Anon 2002b).<br/><br/>In Pakistan, the flesh was traditionally eaten either fresh or salted, and liver oil used for treating boats (Compagno 1984a). The number of sharks taken each year was small and often accidental bycatch (Silas 1986, Seshagiri Rao 1992). Recent landings are unknown.<br/><br/>A traditional small-scale seasonal harpoon fishery in India took whale sharks for their liver oil (Prater 1941, Rao 1986, Silas 1986, Vivekanandan and Zala 1994). About 40 were harpooned during April 1982 (Silas 1986), but demand for "tofu shark" meat in Taiwan (Province of China) led to increased fishing effort in Gujarat during the 1990s (Hanfee 2001). Prices rose significantly after 1997, with 279 Whale Sharks taken in January?May 1999. One hundred and forty-five sharks were taken offshore (10-15 km) in December 1999, and 160 in coastal waters in January?May 2000. The fishery closed in May 2001, when the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests legally protected whale sharks in territorial waters.<br/><br/>Whale Sharks have been targeted for many decades in Taiwan (Province of China), but catches appear to have declined since the 1980s (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996, Joung <em>et al.</em> 1996). Billfish harpooners from Hengchun Harbour, fishing south of Penghu, reportedly landed 50-60 Whale Sharks each spring in the mid-1980s, but annual landings at this location subsequently declined to about 10 sharks, and fewer still in 1994 and 1995. In 1995, landings throughout Taiwan (Province of China) were approximately 250-272, around 158 taken as bycatch in set nets, 114 by harpoon (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996). The government introduced a Whale Shark reporting system in 2001. This and other sources indicate that the total number of Whale Sharks caught during 2001 was 89 (38 by set nets, 36 in the billfish harpoon fishery and 15 by other methods), and that 94 sharks weighing about 104 t in total were landed during the 12 months from March 2001 to March 2002 (Anon 2002b, Chen and Phipps 2002). The domestic catch has apparently declined by 60-70% since surveyed by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1996). Chen and Phipps (2002) note that the sum of the reported catch and imports is smaller than the quantity of Whale Shark meat on the domestic market, indicating that official data under-represent imports.<br/><br/>Wholesale Whale Shark meat prices in Chinese Taipei peaked at US$7.00/kg in the late 1990s (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2002) when a 10 t shark was worth approximately US$70,000, subsequently falling to US$2.00/kg in 2001 (Chen and Phipps 2002).<br/><br/>Although Ramachandran and Sankar (1990) considered that <em>R. typus</em> was an underexploited species, there are now concerns that Whale Shark populations are decreasing in many locations as a result of stock depletion by unregulated fisheries (Anon 2002b). Ecotourism industries based on viewing Whale Sharks are now developing in several locations, including Mexico, Australia, Philippines, south-eastern Africa, Seychelles, Maldives, Belize and Honduras (Norman 1999, Anon 2002b, Newman <em>et al.</em> 2002). The number of people swimming with Whale Sharks at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, during the short whale shark season from March to June, increased from 1,000 in 1993 to almost 5,000 in 2002 (Colman pers. obs. 1997). This well-managed industry contributes significantly to the national and regional economy (overseas participants make up 65-75% of participating tourists).<br/><br/>Ecotourism has taken over from hunting as a significant source of income for Maldivian operators, since the small fishery that once existed ceased after legislation was introduced in 1995 to protect whale sharks (C. Anderson pers. comm.). Similarly, the development of an important whale shark ecotourism industry in areas of the Philippines that experience large seasonal aggregations of whale sharks is now underway (Anon 2002b).<br/><br/>In the Seychelles, 162 tourists/week interacted with <em>R. typus</em> in November 1996 and the industry could be worth US$3?5 million annually there (Newman <em>et al.</em> 2002). Revenues are also significant in several other range states, indeed rather higher than revenues from fisheries for this species (Anon 2002b). To ensure that high levels of tourism do not have an adverse effect on the behaviour of Whale Sharks at these locations and other aggregation sites identified in future, monitoring must continue as a priority.<br/><br/>In Tanzania Whale Shark sightings are apparently on the increase. Surprisingly, fishermen do not actively hunt whale sharks and do not consume the meat; nor do they recognise that the fins may have any value. Four individuals caught in March 2001 were not consumed nor were their fins sold. A very small amount of meat was taken, possibly for medicinal purposes (S. Yahya and N. Jiddawi pers. comm.). They are avoided by net fishermen because of potential damage to the nets. Whale sharks have been sighted for the last few years during the inter-monsoonal period of March-June off Zanzibar. They are caught in purse, drift and gillnet fisheries.	eng
19495	conservation	van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S., 2008	It is legally protected in all range states. The species has been on CITES Appendix I since 1975.<br/><br/>A Rhino Protection Unit (RPU) has been established for the protection of this species on Java (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). It occurs in two protected areas: Ujung Kulon National Park on Java and the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam.<br/><br/>There is an urgent need to review the feasibility of a reintroduction/translocation program, since the only known viable population occurs in a geographically restricted area of Java. There is also a need to survey parts of its historical range for the very remote possibility that small remnant populations exist, especially in parts of Lao PDR or Cambodia. The population in Cat Loc is probably no longer viable, and requires intensive management measures in order to survive (perhaps including captive breeding and re-introductions).	eng
19495	distribution	van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S., 2008	The Javan Rhino formerly occurred from Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and probably southern China through peninsular Malaya to Sumatra and Java (Grubb, 2005). The species' precise historical range is indeterminate, as early accounts failed to distinguish rhinos to specific level, due to partial sympatry with the other two Asian rhino species (<em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em> and <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em>). Beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century, the species was extirpated from most of its historical range, and currently occurs only in two small isolated areas. The last records of Javan Rhino vary, from 1920 in Myanmar, to 1932 in Malaysia, and 1959 on Sumatra (Indonesia) (Simon and Geroudet, 1970).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis</em> formerly occurred in northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, but is now extinct (Nowak, 1999).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus</em> formerly occurred in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and eastern Thailand. Currently, this subspecies is restricted to the area in and around the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus</em> formerly occurred from Thailand through Malaysia, to the islands of Java and Sumatra (Indonesia). The only remaining population occurs on the Ujung Kulon Peninsula (Hoogerwerf, 1970), which forms the westernmost extremity of the island of Java. The Javan population of this subspecies has been restricted to this area since around the 1930s.<br/><br/>This is a lowland species that typically occurs up to 600 m (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.), but has been recorded above 1,000 m (Nowak, 1999).	eng
19495	habitat	van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S., 2008	The Javan rhinoceros currently occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas, especially in the vicinity of water (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969). The species formerly occurred in more open mixed forest and grassland and on high mountains. Because of its rarity, little is known about its preferred habitat, but it is certainly not naturally restricted to dense tropical forest water (Schenkel and Schenkel, 1969). Little is known about the species' biology and the habitats in which the two remaining populations are found may not be optimal.<br/><br/>The home range size of females is probably no more than 500 ha, while males wonder over larger areas, with likely limited dispersal distance. The species is generally solitary, except for mating pairs and mothers with young (Nowak, 1999). Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 30-40 years, gestation length of approximately 16 months (as with other rhino species), and age at sexual maturity estimated at 5-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; International Rhino Foundation website, (www.rhinos-irf.org) 2006).	eng
19495	population	van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S., 2008	An estimated 40-60 animals live in the area on the western tip of Java in Ujung Kulon National Park. Another smaller population occurs in and around the Cat Loc part (Dong Nai province) of the Cat Tien National Park in of Viet Nam, with maybe as few as six individuals remaining (R. Steinmetz, M. Khan bin Momin Khan pers. comm.). These populations have not significantly declined over the last few decades, and the current trend is not known (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.), but no breeding has been observed in the Cat Loc population for many years (M. Khan bin Momin Khan pers. comm.). There are no animals currently in captivity, and a total of only 22 individuals have ever been known to exist in captivity (Rookmaaker <em>et al</em>., 1998).	eng
19495	threats	van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S., 2008	The cause of population decline is mainly attributable to the excessive demand for rhino horn and other products for Chinese and allied medicine systems (Foose and van Strien 1997). The bulk of the remaining population occurs as a single population within a national park and the population size in Ujung Kulon National Park is probably limited to the effective carrying capacity of the area (around 50 animals). One possible threat to this population is disease. In addition, such a small population faces a constant threat from poachers, although there is evidence that current poaching levels are under control (Sectionov and Waladi pers. comm.). The Cat Loc population may be too small to be viable, and no breeding has been observed for many years, and it is possible that the animals are too old to breed. The population is so small that all the animals could be of the same sex.	eng
19496	conservation	Talukdar, B.K., Emslie, R., Bist, S.S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B.S., Malakar, M.C., Talukdar, B.N. & Barua, M., 2008	The species has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1975. The Indian and Nepalese governments have taken major steps towards Indian Rhinoceros conservation, especially with the help of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and other non-governmental organizations.<br/><br/>Indian Rhino populations occur almost exclusively within and around protected areas. In India, the species occurs in Kaziranga National Park (World Heritage Site), Manas National Park (World Heritage Site in danger), Dudhwa National Park (re-introduced population), Karteniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Orang National Park, Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, and Gorumara National Park. In Nepal, the species occurs in Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park (re-introduced population), and Royal Suklaphanta Wildife Reserve (a very small re-introduced population). Strict anti-poaching measures are needed to maintain all of these populations. It is also important to reduce human-wildlife conflicts around these areas, and this might involve fencing. Many of the areas also require targeted programmes to control invasive plants, to prevent the spread of woodland, to safeguard wetlands through appropriate water management, and to limit the extent of grazing by domestic livestock. In Pabitora, specific recommendations have been made to increase the quality of feeding habitat of rhino within the sanctuary through meticulous manipulation and checking livestock grazing (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press). Water holding mechanisms within the sanctuary during winter are crucial in terms of keeping moist grassland available in winter seasons, thereby reducing the number of rhinos straying out of the sanctuary and thus exposing themselves to poaching (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press).<br/><br/>The area of Kaziranga National Park has officially been extended, although animals had access to this area previously as the original park area was not fenced. In West Bengal (Jaldapara and Gorumara), there is a programme of habitat improvement in old teak areas, weed control is being carried out in 50-60 ha annually.<br/><br/>With the support of the IUCN SSC Asian Rhino Specialist Group, an Indian Rhino Vision 2020 and a Nepal Rhino Action Plan have been developed. These cover a number of important and specific conservation measures, including: translocating rhinos to bolster struggling populations (e.g., Manas National Park) and to start new populations; improving security around rhino populations and reducing poaching; assessing habitat status and management needs; expanding available habitat through active management; improving protected area infrastructure; training staff in specific rhino conservation techniques; reducing human-wildlife conflicts; involving local people in rhino conservation; and implementing education and awareness programmes. Overall, there is a need for further reintroductions, thereby reducing the concentration of over 70% of the individuals in one large population.	eng
19496	distribution	Talukdar, B.K., Emslie, R., Bist, S.S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B.S., Malakar, M.C., Talukdar, B.N. & Barua, M., 2008	Historically, the Indian rhinoceros once existed across the entire northern part of the Indian subcontinent, along the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra River basins, from Pakistan to the Indian-Burmese border, including parts of Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan (Foose and van Strien, 1997). It may also have existed in Myanmar, southern China, and Indochina, though this is uncertain. The species was common in northwestern India and Pakistan until around 1600, but disappeared from this region shortly after this time (Rookmaker, 1984). The species declined sharply in the rest of its range from 1600-1900, until the species was on the brink of extinction at the beginning of the twentieth century.<br/><br/>Currently, the Indian rhinoceros exists in a few small subpopulations in the Nepal and India (West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Assam) (Foose and van Strien 1997; Grubb, 2005), with an unsuccessful reintroduction of a pair in 1983 into Pakistan.	eng
19496	habitat	Talukdar, B.K., Emslie, R., Bist, S.S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B.S., Malakar, M.C., Talukdar, B.N. & Barua, M., 2008	The species inhabits the riverine grasslands of the Terai and Brahmaputra Basins (Foose and van Strein 1997). The species prefers these alluvial plain grasslands, but was known to occur in adjacent swamps and forests. The populations are currently restricted to habitats surrounded by human-dominated landscapes, so that the species often occurs in adjacent cultivated areas, pastures, and secondary forests. The diet includes mainly grasses, but also some fruit, leaves, shrub and tree branches, and cultivated crops (Nowak, 1999). The species also utilizes mineral licks regularly. Males are solitary, with unstructured, overlapping territories. The females solitary unless occurring with young.<br/><br/>Its life history characteristics are not well known, with longevity estimated at about 30-45 years, gestation length of approximately 16 months (as with other rhino species), and age at sexual maturity estimated at 5-7 years for females and 10 years for males (Nowak, 1999; IRF website, 2006).	eng
19496	population	Talukdar, B.K., Emslie, R., Bist, S.S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B.S., Malakar, M.C., Talukdar, B.N. & Barua, M., 2008	The total population estimate in May 2007 was estimated to be 2,575 individuals, with estimates of a total of 378 in Nepal and 2,200 in India (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007). The Indian Rhino, with strict protection from Indian and Nepalese wildlife authorities, has recovered from a total population of under 200 in the early 1900s. Although some populations have declined in recent years, overall there has been a population increase for almost 100 years which still continues.<br/><br/>India<br/>The species exists in several protected areas in India, with the following population estimates in May 2007 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007): Dudhwa National Park (21), Manas National Park (3), Karteniaghat (2), Kaziranga National Park (1,855  in 2006; 1,551 in 1999), Orang (68 in 2006; 46 in 1999), Pabitora (81 in 2006; 74 in 1999, 79 in 2004), Jaldapara (108 in 2006; 96 in 2004; 84 in 2002), Gorumara (27 in 2006; 25 in 2004; 22 in 2002).  Estimates given in Foose <em>et al</em>. (1997) were as follows: Dudhwa National Park (11), Manas National Park (60), Karteniaghat (4), Kaziranga (1164 +/- 134), Orang (over 90), Pabitora (80 individuals over 38.8 km²) (Choudhury, 2005), Jaldapara (over 33), Gorumara (13), and a few remaining small populations in Assam. Kaziranga National Park, which was established as a reserve for the last 10-20 Indian rhinos in Assam in 1905, is home to over 70% of the global population of this species. Poaching rendered the species extinct in Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary by the mid-1990s (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997), and there has also been a severe decline in Manas National Park due to poaching related to civil unrest. The overall population tendency is to increase (especially in Kaziranga, Pabitora, Dudhwa, Jaldapara and Gorumura), with decreases in Manas, Orang (now increasing again) and Laokhowa. The population in Karteniaghat is best described as transient (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Nepal<br/>In the late 1960s, an estimated 65 Indian rhinos survived in Nepal, but due to increased conservation efforts, the total population was up to 612 in 2000. A total of at least 91 animals were poached in 2000-2003 (Martin, 2004), and since 2000, numbers have declined. In Royal Chitwan National Park, the number of individuals has declined from 544 individuals in 2000, to 372 individuals in 2005 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007), the decrease being due to increased poaching following political instability in Nepal (Rothley <em>et al</em>., 2004; Khan <em>et al</em>., 2005), and habitat changes. In Royal Bardia National Park (where rhinos were re-introduced) there were approximately 40 individuals in 1997 (Foose <em>et al</em>., 1997) and 35 animals in 2007 (Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007). In Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (where the species was also re-introduced), the population is only six individuals (Martin, 2004; Asian Rhino Specialist Group 2007).<br/><br/>Pakistan.<br/>A pair of rhinos was introduced into Lal Sohanra National Park in 1983, but have not bred.	eng
19496	threats	Talukdar, B.K., Emslie, R., Bist, S.S., Choudhury, A., Ellis, S., Bonal, B.S., Malakar, M.C., Talukdar, B.N. & Barua, M., 2008	This species declined to near extinction in the early 1900s, primarily due to widespread conversion of alluvial plains grasslands to agricultural development, which led to human-rhino conflicts and easier accessibility for hunters. Sport hunting became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. A reversal of government policies shortly thereafter protected many of the remaining populations. However, poaching, mainly for the use of the horn in Traditional Chinese Medicine has remained a constant and the success is precarious without continued and increased support for conservation efforts in India and Nepal. Poaching has lead to decreases in several important populations, especially those in Chitwan, Manas , Laokhowa, and the Babai Valley area of Bardia.<br/><br/>However, not all recent population decreases can be linked to poaching. There have been serious declines in quality of habitat in some areas. This is due to: 1) severe invasion by alien plants into grasslands affecting some populations; 2) demonstrated reductions in the extent of grasslands and wetland habitats due to woodland encroachment and silting up of beels; and 3) grazing by domestic livestock. In Chitwan (the second largest population) there is clear evidence that poaching on its own does not account for the observed level of population decline (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.), and there are trends in a number of reproductive indicators (i.e., decline in the percentage of adult females calving and in the percentage of the population that is calves) that are strongly indicative of negative changes in habitat quality. In Chitwan there has been severe infestation of some riverine and grassland areas by the climbing <span style="font-style: italic;">Mikania micrantha</span> (which covers over indigenous vegetation), and invasion of Eupatorium in other areas. There is also heavy livestock grazing pressure and disturbance in buffer zone areas as well as some invasion of grasslands by <em>Acacia catechu</em> and <em>Dalbergia sissou</em>. It has been reported that grassland area in Chitwan has been reduced from 20% to 4.7% of the national park (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In India, there is not yet any evidence that invasion by alien plants has caused any population decreases. However, in Orang National Park, there have been marked habitat changes due to grazing, human encroachment and silting up. In particular, short grass areas have declined by 75% due to silting up and draining of beels (B.N. Talukdar pers. comm.). Mimosa is also an alien invader in this area. In the Karnali floodplain area of Bardia there is also some invasion of habitat by the alien <em>Lantana camara</em>. <br/><br/>In Pabitora there has been an invasion of <em>Ipomoea</em> "weeds" into grassland areas (S. Dutta pers. comm.). There also has been an invasion of woodland into grassland and siltation and drying up of some water bodies. There also has been some human encroachment and very heavy livestock grazing. With increasing human densities this pressure is unlikely to get any less (S. Dutta pers. comm.). Analysis of satellite imagery has shown that there has a substantial increase in woodland (34.51%) in Pabitora since 1977 accompanied by decline in alluvial grassland (68%). This change of habitat is mostly because of natural succession process, livestock grazing from the nearby villages as well as improper management of the grassland habitat (Sarma <em>et al</em>., in press).<br/> <br/>The West Bengal populations (Jaldapara and Gorumara) are affected by high levels of grazing from fringe villages, and there have been weed and climber infestations by <em>Mikania cordata</em>, <em>M. scandens</em>, <em>Lantana camara</em> and <em>Leea</em> spp. <br/> <br/>The species is inherently at risk because over 70% of its population occurs at a single site, Kaziranga National Park. This area, is subject to poaching and tensions with the surrounding high human population due to human-wildlife conflicts (including conflicts with rhinos). The level of poaching in Kaziranga has generally not been at a level to prevent the ongoing increase in the population, but constant vigilance is required. Clearly, any catastrophic event in Kaziranga (such as disease, civil disorder, poaching, habitat loss, etc) would have a devastating impact on the status of this species.<br/><br/>Sex-ratio among the adult rhinos in Gorumara National Park is almost 1:1. As a result, intra-specific fights among the bulls are very common and these animals have a tendency to stray out of the National Park very often, leading to human-wildlife conflicts (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There are suggestions that the small population of rhinos in Jaldapara and Gorumara may be prone to in-breeding depression (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There have been proposals to dam the Bramaphutra River in Arunachal Pradesh, and should this happen in future this could very negatively affect the habitat quality and rhino carrying capacity of major parks like Kaziranga in future (by preventing or reducing the pulse of nutrients brought in by regular large floods). In Jaldapara Sanctuary, the River Torsa no longer overflows as a result of massive flood-control structures. As a result the water table in the sanctuary is receding and the natural water-bodies and wallow-pools used by rhinos are slowly drying up (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).	eng
19503	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
19505	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Mostly aquatic	eng
19508	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Canseco-Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/><em>R. rubida perixantha</em> is confirmed to occur in the Chamela Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (Jalisco; 131 sq. km, core 82 sq. km, cat Ia/VI) and the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>R. r. rubida</em> may occur in Huatulco NP (Oaxaca, MX, 119 sq. km, cat.II), La Sepultura BR (1673 sq. km., cat.VI) and Playa de Escobilla. <br/> <br/>Very few animals are kept and bred in captivity, although a facility in Oaxaca is believed to be highly successful breeding the species (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Occurrence and population status needs to be documented better, and monitoring of selected populations would be highly desirable. Data on exploitation, habitat loss and other threats, as well as basic natural history information, are needed.	eng
19508	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Canseco-Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	Mexico, on Pacific versant: <em>R. rubida rubida</em> in Oaxaca and Chiapas, <em>R. rubida perixantha</em> in Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, and Balsas de Morelos, Mexico (Iverson 1992). Possibly extends into western Pacific Guatemala. Occurs from sea level to 1,350 m (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
19508	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Canseco-Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	<em>R. rubida</em> inhabits tropical semi-deciduous lowland areas, where they have been recorded from rocky hillsides, near streams in lowland scrub forest, from coastal woodlands, from thorn scrub; and from the ecotone between dry forest and pine-oak forest (Mosimann and Rabb 1953, Peterson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Also in moist mid-elevation habitat. Seen once near pastures, but tolerance to disturbance not completely understood. <br/> <br/>Presumably feeds mainly on fruits and vegetation shoots, with opportunistic consumption of animal matter (Carr CBFT Manuscript).  <br/> <br/>Apparently active mainly or only during the June-November wet season (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). <br/> <br/>Maximum size up to 23.0 cm CL in males, 17.9 cm in females (Ernst in Smith and Smith 1979). <br/> <br/>No reproductive data are available.	eng
19508	population	van Dijk, P.P., Canseco-Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	Smith and Smith (1979) refer to 'apparent rarity of individuals'. Seen occasionally, including two in one week in Oaxaca and one in Chiapas during August 2005. The species is universally considered as occasionally to rarely encountered.	eng
19508	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Canseco-Marquez, L. & Muñoz, A., 2007	Smith and Smith (1979) speculated that the currently widely discontinuous distribution indicates progressive reduction of the species' range through natural processes. No specific threats seem to have been documented, though habitat loss from agriculture and infrastructure development and direct exploitation for pets and possibly food, and increased predation by subsidised predators may be factors. Human consumption of the species has not been recorded.	eng
19509	distribution	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Philippines, Jolo Island.	eng
19509	habitat	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
19509	population	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
19509	threats	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
19513	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	There are several protected areas in the range of the species, though there remains a need for improved maintenance and protection of native forest habitats, particularly in the north. Close population monitoring of this species is required given the declines seen in suitable habitat. In Chile, it is listed as "Endangered" (En Peligro de Extinción) (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).	eng
19513	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is endemic to the austral forest of Chile and Argentina. Historically, it was distributed in Chile from Concepción Province to Palena Province. In Argentina, it is known from Neuquén and Río Negro provinces. It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,100 m asl.	eng
19513	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It generally occurs in the leaf-litter of temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forests; it is also present in forest bogs. Females deposit eggs in the leaf-litter. When the larvae inside the eggs begin to move, adult males ingest the eggs and incubate them in vocal sacs. Larvae develop inside the male and emerge after metamorphosis. The species is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
19513	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	Recent surveys within the range of <em>Rhinoderma darwinii</em> in Chile reveal that some populations (including those in national parks and other preserved areas) have disappeared entirely (M. Crump and A. Veloso pers. comm.). In other areas, the density of frogs is much lower than 10 or 20 years ago (M. Crump pers. comm.). Forestry operations have destroyed large areas where northern populations were found. However, it was still abundant in at least some southern Chilean localities in 2003; indeed, it appears that the species reaches its highest densities in regions of the Archipelago, where habitat disturbance is minimal (M. Crump pers. comm.). In Argentina, this is a scarce species and appears to have declined at one site (Puerto Blest, Río Negro Province) during the past 50 years.	eng
19513	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	In the north, the main threats are drought and pine forestry, while in the south it is clear-cutting of forest. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats, such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water, and it has not previously been reported from Chile).	eng
19514	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. The species might well be extinct, but further survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not this is indeed the case. In view of the possible risk of disease, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
19514	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species occurs in Chile from 33° 30'S to 37° 50'S from Curico (Curico Province) to Ramadillas (Arauco Province) at elevations of 0-500m asl.	eng
19514	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Ramón Formas, 2008	It has been recorded in leaf-litter in temperate mixed forests, and also in bogs surrounded by forests. Females lay their eggs in the leaf-litter. When the larvae inside the eggs begin to move, adult males ingest the eggs and incubate them in their vocal sacs, where the larvae develop until they are regurgitated into streams where metamorphosis takes place.	eng
19514	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Ramón Formas, 2008	It formerly occurred in small, isolated populations, and was fairly regularly seen until around 1978. However, since then, there have been no confirmed reports despite several attempts to relocate the species, giving rise to fears that it might be extinct.	eng
19514	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Ramón Formas, 2008	The destruction of the native vegetation through the planting of pine plantations and for the building of second homes probably had some impact on this species. However, this is unlikely to explain fully its disappearance, the causes of which are not understood. Declines that have taken place within suitable habitat might be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this has not previously been reported from Chile).	eng
19515	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in areas to which these apply. It is included in Annex II (and Annex IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires specific conservation measures in some range states, including the designation of Special Areas for Conservation. It occurs in some protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of the African populations. Monitoring and protection of caves is also required.	eng
19515	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z. & Karataş, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in areas to which these apply. It is included in Annex II (and Annex IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires specific conservation measures in some range states, including the designation of Special Areas for Conservation. It occurs in some protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of the African populations. Monitoring and protection of caves is also required.	eng
19515	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and Annex IV) of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and hence requires specific conservation measures, including the designation of Special Areas for Conservation. It receives some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of African populations. Monitoring and protection of caves is also required.	eng
19515	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Rhinolophus blasii</em> has a large range in the Palaearctic and the Afrotropics, throughout which it is widely but patchily distributed. In Africa, it occurs from north-eastern South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo to Ethiopia and Somalia, and in North Africa. In Asia, it has a patchy distribution extending from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and from the Caucasus in the north to Yemen in the south (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It was confirmed in Georgia in 2006 (Z. Nagy pers. obs.). In Europe, it is extinct in northeastern Italy and has not been recorded in Slovenia during the last 50 years (Kryštufek and Dulic 2001). It is now restricted to the Balkan peninsula and to some Mediterranean islands including Crete and Cyprus. There are no recent records in Romania and northern Bulgaria despite intensive work by Christian Dietz (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). Past records from this area are disputed: no specimen has been found in museums in Romania, and the presence of <em>R. euryale</em> in the same area might have caused confusion (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). It occurs from sea level to 2,215 m in Yemen.	eng
19515	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus blasii</em> has a large range in the Palaearctic and the Afrotropics, throughout which it is widely but patchily distributed. Its range extends marginally into the Indomalayan region.<br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs from northeastern South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo, through south Malawi, to East African, Ethiopia and Somalia, and in North Africa. Follow Taylor (2000) for southern African distribution. In North African it is only present in Morocco and Algeria (it may occur in Tunisia but there are no confirmed records as yet, and likewise for Egypt). Altitude range is from sea level to 1,200 m.<br/><br/>In Asia, it has a patchy distribution extending from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and from the Caucasus in the north to Yemen in the south (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It was confirmed in Georgia in 2006 (Z. Nagy pers. obs.). <br/><br/>In European, it is extinct in northeastern Italy and has not been recorded in Slovenia during the last 50 years (Krystufek and Dulic 2001). Also recorded from western Anatolia and from the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel). It is now restricted to the Balkan peninsula and to some Mediterranean islands including Crete and Cyprus. There are no recent records in Romania and northern Bulgaria despite intensive work by Christian Dietz (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). Past records from this area are disputed: no specimen has been found in museums in Romania, and the presence of <em>R. euryale</em> in the same area might have caused confusion (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 2,215 m in Yemen.	eng
19515	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z. & Karataş, A., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus blasii</em> has a large range in the Palaearctic and the Afrotropics, throughout which it is widely but patchily distributed. Its range extends marginally into the Indomalayan region.<br/><br/>In Africa, it occurs from northeastern South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo, through south Malawi, to East African, Ethiopia and Somalia, and in North Africa. Follow Taylor (2000) for southern African distribution. In North African it is only present in Morocco and Algeria (it may occur in Tunisia but there are no confirmed records as yet, and likewise for Egypt). Altitude range is from sea level to 1,200 m.<br/><br/>In Asia, it has a patchy distribution extending from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and from the Caucasus in the north to Yemen in the south (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It was confirmed in Georgia in 2006 (Z. Nagy pers. obs.). <br/><br/>In European, it is extinct in northeastern Italy and has not been recorded in Slovenia during the last 50 years (Krystufek and Dulic 2001). Also recorded from western Anatolia and from the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel). It is now restricted to the Balkan peninsula and to some Mediterranean islands including Crete and Cyprus. There are no recent records in Romania and northern Bulgaria despite intensive work by Christian Dietz (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). Past records from this area are disputed: no specimen has been found in museums in Romania, and the presence of <em>R. euryale</em> in the same area might have caused confusion (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 2,215 m in Yemen.	eng
19515	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	In the Mediterranean region it typically forages in shrubland and woodland, although it may penetrate to desert habitat (Amr 2000). Summer roosts are situated in natural and artificial underground sites, with attics also being used in the northern part of the range. In winter, it hibernates in underground sites. This species is considered to be sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19515	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z. & Karataş, A., 2008	In the Mediterranean region it typically forages in shrubland and woodland, although it may penetrate to desert habitat (Amr 2000). Summer roosts are situated in natural and artificial underground sites, with attics also being used in the northern part of the range. In winter, it hibernates in underground sites. This species is considered to be sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19515	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	In the Mediterranean region it typically forages in shrubland and woodland, although it may penetrate to desert habitat (Amr 2000). Summer roosts are situated in natural and artificial underground sites, with attics also being used in the northern part of the range. In winter, it hibernates in underground sites. This species is considered to be sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19515	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Africa: Not very common.<br/><br/>Asia: This species has a widespread distribution and the populations in Pakistan and Afghanistan seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Europe: A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Krystufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 400 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 2,000 animals in Serbia). There are large colonies in Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states (e.g., the western Balkans); however, the populations in the eastern Balkans are stable (Mediterranean Workshop 2007).	eng
19515	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z. & Karataş, A., 2008	Africa: Not very common.<br/><br/>Asia: This species has a widespread distribution and the populations in Pakistan and Afghanistan seem to be stable and doing well (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Europe: A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Kryštufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 400 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 2,000 animals in Serbia). There are large colonies in Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states (e.g., the western Balkans); however, the populations in the eastern Balkans are stable (Mediterranean Workshop 2007).	eng
19515	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	A rare or infrequent species, probably the rarest horseshoe bat in Europe (Kryštufek 1999). Summer colonies of <em>ca</em>. 20-30 are typical, although up to 300 females may be found in a single colony. In winter, it congregates in mixed-species clusters with other <em>Rhinolophus</em> species (up to 800 animals in Bulgaria). There are large colonies in Bulgaria and Greece. It is suspected to be declining because of loss of Mediterranean woodlands and cave disturbance, and is considered vulnerable in many range states.	eng
19515	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kryštufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves.	eng
19515	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z. & Karataş, A., 2008	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kryštufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves and by use of the caves as shelters for livestock.	eng
19515	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Threats to the species include loss of Mediterranean woodlands, disturbance and loss of underground habitats, and destruction of roost sites (Kry?tufek 1999). In a number of range states the species is disturbed by tourist visits to caves and by use of the caves as shelters for livestock.	eng
19516	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation). The species is directly or indirectly benefiting from EU LIFE-funded projects in France, Spain, Italy, and Romania.	eng
19516	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation). The species is directly or indirectly benefiting from EU LIFE-funded projects in France, Spain and Italy. No specific measures are in place in North Africa.	eng
19516	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000, and some roosts are already protected by national legislation). The species is directly or indirectly benefiting from EU LIFE-funded projects in France, Spain and Italy. No specific measures are in place in North Africa.	eng
19516	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus euryale</em> is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in southern Europe, north-west Africa (known range extends across northern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), and the Near East. There is only a single record from Cyprus, but this is regarded by most authors to be <em>R. mehelyi</em>. It is widely distributed over its range, and is found from sea level to 1,000 m.	eng
19516	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus euryale</em> is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in southern Europe, north-west Africa (known range extends across northern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), and the Near East. There is only a single record from Cyprus, but this is regarded by most authors to be <em>R. mehelyi</em>. It is widely distributed over its range, and is found from sea level to 1,000 m.	eng
19516	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Rhinolophus euryale</em> is a western Palaearctic species, occurring in southern Europe, north-west Africa (Morocco to Tunisia), and the Near East. It is widely distributed over its range, and is found from sea level to 1,000 m.	eng
19516	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19516	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19516	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It forages in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, feeding on moths and other insects. In Italy, preferred foraging habitats are broadleaved woodland and riparian vegetation; coniferous woodland is avoided, and shrubland is rarely used (Russo <em>et al.</em> 2002). Summer roosts are located in natural and artificial underground sites, as well as attics in some part of the range. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a sedentary species (the longest recorded distance travelled by an individual is 134 km) (Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19516	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	An infrequent species. Summer colonies number <em>ca</em>. 50-1,500 individuals (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Winter clusters typically number up to 2,000 animals. It occurs in large vulnerable colonies, and is considered threatened in many range states. Large population declines have been reported in a number of European countries, including Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In France, the population declined by <em>ca</em>. 70% between 1940 and 1980, although subsequently the trend appears to have stabilised (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Apart from <em>R. blasii</em>, which may have gone extinct in the country, <em>R. euryale</em> is probably the rarest rhinolophid in Italy, and anecdotal evidence suggests that a number of colonies have declined in the past few decades (D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). The species has a very small and declining population in Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is stable and common in the central and eastern Balkans (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is little information on population trends outside Europe, although it is suspected that continuing declines have also occurred in at least parts of the non-European range. For example, in Iran the species is no longer found in caves which 30 years ago held 20,000 individuals of different species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
19516	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	An infrequent species. Summer colonies number <em>ca</em>. 50-1,500 individuals (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Winter clusters typically number up to 2,000 animals. It occurs in large vulnerable colonies, and is considered threatened in many range states. Large population declines have been reported in a number of European countries, including Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In France, the population declined by <em>ca</em>. 70% between 1940 and 1980, although subsequently the trend appears to have stabilised (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). Apart from <em>R. blasii</em>, which may have gone extinct in the country, <em>R. euryale</em> is probably the rarest rhinolophid in Italy, and anecdotal evidence suggests that a number of colonies have declined in the past few decades (D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). The species has a very small and declining population in Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is stable and common in the central and eastern Balkans (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is little information on population trends outside Europe, although it is suspected that continuing declines have also occurred in at least parts of the non-European range. For example, in Iran the species is no longer found in caves which 30 years ago held 20,000 individuals of different species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
19516	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	An infrequent species. Summer colonies number <em>ca</em>. 50-500 individuals (formely up to 1,500 animals). Winter clusters typically number up to 2,000 animals. It occurs in large vulnerable colonies, and is considered threatened in many range states. Large population declines have been reported in a number of European countries, including Spain (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and Slovakia (Ibáñez 1999). In France, the population declined by <em>ca</em>. 70% between 1940 and 1980, although subsequently the trend appears to have stabilised (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988, S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). Apart from <em>R. blasii</em>, which may have gone extinct in the country, <em>R. euryale</em> is probably the rarest rhinolophid in Italy, and anecdotal evidence suggests that a number of colonies have declined in the past few decades (D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). From 1960-2000 the species disappeared from a number of sites in Romania, but the trend over the last five years appears to be stable (Z. Nagy pers. comm. 2006). The species has a very small and declining population in Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>There is little information on population trends outside Europe, although it is suspected that continuing declines have also occurred in at least parts of the non-European range. For example, in Iran the species is no longer found in caves which 30 years ago held 20,000 individuals of different species (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is considered to be declining in North Africa (GMA Africa workshop 2004).	eng
19516	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used as landscape references for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states. The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988). In North Africa, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture (livestock) and human disturbance.	eng
19516	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used as landscape references for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states. The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988). In North Africa, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture (livestock) and human disturbance.	eng
19516	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Threats include loss of foraging habitat, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats. On a landscape scale, fragmentation and loss of linear elements such as hedgerows and riparian vegetation is a problem because such elements are used for commuting. The species' strong dependence upon caves for roosting makes it particularly sensitive to cave disturbance, such as that from caving or tourism. Tourist disturbance of caves affects the species in a number of range states, including Italy, Iran and Turkey (M. Sharifi and A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005, D. Russo pers. comm. 2006). The use of organochlorine pesticides is believed to have contributed to the earlier dramatic decline of the species in France (Brosset <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
19517	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Ransome and Hutson 2000). <br/><br/>It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the European Union Habitats Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for the species in North Africa or South Asia. Populations should<br/>be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19517	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Ransome and Hutson 2000). <br/><br/>It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the European Union Habitats Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation).<br/><br/>There are no specific conservation measures in place for the species in North Africa or South Asia. Populations should<br/>be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19517	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	The greater horseshoe bat has been the subject of widespread conservation activity, especially in Europe. Until recently, this has concentrated on roosts in buildings and caves. Many buildings used as roosts have management agreements and many underground sites have been protected. Nevertheless, sites continue to be lost or damaged. More recently, attention has turned to identifying more precisely the food and foraging requirements. A European meeting (Germany, May 1995) discussed the status and conservation needs for the species on a pan-European scale. The Bern Convention has commissioned a Europe-wide Species Action Plan under the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy  (Ransome and Hutson 2000). It is protected by national legislation in most range states (not Russia: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There are international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (and some roosts are already protected by national legislation).	eng
19517	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Rhinolophus ferrumequinum</em> has a wide range in the Palaearctic encompassing north-west Africa; southern and central Europe from Portugal to Greece and north to southern England, France, Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria; Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan and Iraq and Iran; Ukraine, Crimea, and Caucacus regions; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Kazakhstan, Afganistan, Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Sikkim, China (Wilson and Reeder 2005), Korea and Japan (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003). It usually occurs below 800m, but can be found up to 3,000m in the Caucasus depending on roost availability and humidity (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
19517	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic, occuring from North Africa and southern Europe through south-west Asia, the Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Himalayas to south-eastern China, Korea, and Japan (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003, Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It usually occurs below 800 m asl, but can be found up to 3,000 m asl in the Caucasus depending on roost availability and humidity (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
19517	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic, occuring from North Africa and southern Europe through south-west Asia, the Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Himalayas to south-eastern China, Korea, and Japan (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003, Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). It usually occurs below 800 m asl, but can be found up to 3,000 m asl in the Caucasus depending on roost availability and humidity (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005).	eng
19517	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Feeds on beetles and moths at low level in pastures and in trees (by aerial hawking or perch feeding).<br/>Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180km: de Paz <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
19517	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Important foraging habitat and landscape features includes woodland, particularly early in the year, and permanent summer-grazed pasture, particularly late in the summer. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects at low level in pastures and in trees up to 2 to 3 km from the roost each night (by aerial hawking or perch feeding). Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. The species will use caves all year, but particularly in northern Europe it uses buildings for summer maternity colonies. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). The requirements for hibernation appear to be within limited confines of temperature and humidity, but vary with age, sex and condition. The mean temperatures in spring, at the end of hibernation, may influence the time of birth at the summer maternity colonies; late parturition in turn increases mortality rates of juveniles (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In southern parts of the range, they are active all year-round. A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180 km: de Paz <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests among the mountains and valleys of the Himalaya. It is gregarious and roosts in caves, old temples, old and ruined buildings in tight clusters. It has a slow and fluttering flight and feeds on small insects, lacewings, small moths, spiders and grasshoppers. A single young is born after a gestion period of 72 days (Bates and Harrison, 1997).	eng
19517	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in pastures, deciduous temperate woodland, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland and woodland. Important foraging habitat and landscape features includes woodland, particularly early in the year, and permanent summer-grazed pasture, particularly late in the summer. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects at low level in pastures and in trees up to 2 to 3 km from the roost each night (by aerial hawking or perch feeding). Summer roosts are located in warm natural and artificial underground sites, and attics in the northern part of the range. The species will use caves all year, but particularly in northern Europe it uses buildings for summer maternity colonies. Where the species occupies buildings, it requires particular features of the building itself, as well as proximity to good foraging areas and underground sites for torpor at various times of year and for winter hibernation (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In winter it hibernates in cold underground sites (usually large caves). The requirements for hibernation appear to be within limited confines of temperature and humidity, but vary with age, sex and condition. The mean temperatures in spring, at the end of hibernation, may influence the time of birth at the summer maternity colonies; late parturition in turn increases mortality rates of juveniles (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). In southern parts of the range, they are active all year-round. A sedentary species, distances of 20-30 km between winter and summer roosts are typical (longest distance recorded 180 km: de Paz <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is found in montane forests among the mountains and valleys of the Himalaya. It is gregarious and roosts in caves, old temples, old and ruined buildings in tight clusters. It has a slow and fluttering flight and feeds on small insects, lacewings, small moths, spiders and grasshoppers. A single young is born after a gestion period of 72 days (Bates and Harrison, 1997).	eng
19517	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is an infrequent species in most parts of its range, although in at least parts of south-west Asia and the Caucasus it is abundant and widespread (it is the most frequently reported species in Turkey: A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005), with populations in Iran and Turkey considered to be stable (A. Karatash, M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although it may be decreasing in Russian parts of the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). Summer colonies of c.30-200 individuals (up to 400 animals), and winter clusters of up to 500 animals are typical. <br/><br/>In Europe, the two most widespread <em>Rhinolophus</em> species, <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> and R. <em>hipposideros</em>, are of particular conservation concern and are the subject of considerable research and monitoring. <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> has shown marked declines in range in northwest Europe within the last 100 years (e.g. United Kingdom, Germany, Austria), and has gone extinct in some countries (eg. Belgium, Netherlands). However, there are signs of stabilisation and/or recovery in some northwest European countries (Hutson <em>et al</em> 2001). For example, in the UK the species declined massively in the past but it is now stable at a low population level (around 5,000 individuals) (Ransome and Hutson 2000). However, in Austria declines continue, with population reductions of 70% in the last 10 years (from 100 to 30 breeding individuals: Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In other parts of Europe, trends vary and are generally less well known: in Malta the species has gone extinct, in Portugal and Spain the trend is not known (although some colonies have disappeared in Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Croatia the population is thought to be stable (N. Tvrtkovic pers. comm.), and in Romania the population has been slowly increasing since 1989 due to reduced use of pesticides and a return to traditional agriculture with colonies of up to 800 individuals. In Switzerland the species is very rare (3 maternity roosts with some 200 individuals), but the population trend appears stable (H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>In its north African and south Asian range the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
19517	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is an infrequent species in most parts of its range, although in at least parts of south-west Asia and the Caucasus it is abundant and widespread (it is the most frequently reported species in Turkey: A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005), with populations in Iran and Turkey considered to be stable (A. Karatash, M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although it may be decreasing in Russian parts of the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). Summer colonies of c.30-200 individuals (up to 400 animals), and winter clusters of up to 500 animals are typical. <br/><br/>In Europe, the two most widespread <em>Rhinolophus</em> species, <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> and R. <em>hipposideros</em>, are of particular conservation concern and are the subject of considerable research and monitoring. <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> has shown marked declines in range in northwest Europe within the last 100 years (e.g. United Kingdom, Germany, Austria), and has gone extinct in some countries (eg. Belgium, Netherlands). However, there are signs of stabilisation and/or recovery in some northwest European countries (Hutson <em>et al</em> 2001). For example, in the UK the species declined massively in the past but it is now stable at a low population level (around 5,000 individuals) (Ransome and Hutson 2000). However, in Austria declines continue, with population reductions of 70% in the last 10 years (from 100 to 30 breeding individuals: Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In other parts of Europe, trends vary and are generally less well known: in Malta the species has gone extinct, in Portugal and Spain the trend is not known (although some colonies have disappeared in Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Croatia the population is thought to be stable (N. Tvrtkovic pers. comm.), and in Romania the population has been slowly increasing since 1989 due to reduced use of pesticides and a return to traditional agriculture with colonies of up to 800 individuals. In Switzerland the species is very rare (3 maternity roosts with some 200 individuals), but the population trend appears stable (H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>In its north African and south Asian range the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
19517	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	The two most widespread <em>Rhinolophus</em> species in Europe, <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> and R. <em>hipposideros</em>, are of particular conservation concern and are the subject of considerable research and monitoring. <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> has shown marked declines in range in northwest Europe within the last 100 years (e.g. United Kingdom, Germany, Austria), and has gone extinct in some countries (e.g. Belgium, Netherlands). However there are signs of stabilisation and/or recovery in some northwest European countries (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001). For example, In the UK the species declined massively in the past but is now stable at low population level (around 5,000 individuals) (Ransome and Hutson 2000). However in Austria declines continue, with population reductions of 70% in the last 10 years (from 100 to 30 breeding individuals: Spitzenberger 2002, F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In other parts of Europe, trends vary and are generally less well known: in Malta the species has gone extinct, in Portugal and Spain the trend is not known (although some colonies have disappeared in Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), in Croatia the population is thought to be stable (N. Tvrtkovic pers. comm.), and in Romania the population has been slowly increasing since 1989 due to reduced use of pesticides and return to traditional agriculture. In Switzerland the species is very rare (3 maternity roosts with some 200 individuals), but the population trend appears stable (H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>It is an infrequent species in most parts of its range, although in at least parts of south-west Asia and the Caucasus it is abundant and widespread (it is the most frequently reported species in Turkey: A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005), with populations in Iran and Turkey considered to be stable (A. Karatash, M. Sharifi and K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), although it may be decreasing in Russian parts of the Caucasus (S. Kruskop pers. comm. 2005). Summer colonies of c.30-200 individuals (up to 400 animals), and winter clusters of up to 500 animals are typical.	eng
19517	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (e.g. by tourist visits), changes of use and the destruction of such sites. In buildings colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
19517	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (for example by tourist visits to caves). In buildings, colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses. Disturbance to roosting sites is likely to be a potential threat to the populations of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19517	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	The main threats are fragmentation and isolation of habitats, change of management regime of deciduous forests and agricultural areas, loss of insects due to pesticide use, and disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics. In northwest Europe, habitat change is likely to have been amongst the major causes of declines, the conversion of woodland and small-field landscape to large-scale agricultural land being particularly damaging. While declines elsewhere, particularly in eastern Europe, may currently not be so marked, the loss of cultural landscapes in those countries as they move towards western-style economies may have significant effects in the near future. The use of pesticides has been a recognized threat to the insect food, particularly where these have been directed against the larvae of favoured food items, such as melolonthid beetles, larvae of noctuid moths or crane-flies. Favoured prey may be affected secondarily by pesticide use, such as the loss of dung fauna from the use of persistent anti-parasitic drugs (avermectins) on cattle. Populations in caves and other underground habitats have suffered from increased disturbance (for example by tourist visits to caves). In buildings, colonies may be affected by human intolerance, renovation work or the application of pesticides, such as some of those used for the remedial treatment of timbers (Hutson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses. Disturbance to roosting sites is likely to be a potential threat to the populations of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19518	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where those apply. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites, hibernation caves and foraging habitats. <br/><br/>No specific conservation measures apply in South Asia; more research and monitoring is needed.	eng
19518	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, where those apply. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites, hibernation caves and foraging habitats. <br/><br/>No specific conservation measures apply in South Asia; more research and monitoring is needed.	eng
19518	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Protected by national legislation in most range states (but not the Russian Federation: K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There are international legal obligations for protection through Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. Included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive and hence requiring special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. Some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended conservation measures include protecting maternity roosting sites and hibernation caves and foraging habitats. One potential method is compensation schemes to give people incentives to keep colonies in their houses (this is happening in one region of Spain at the moment: J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19518	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus hipposideros</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Palaearctic. It is found in all the European countries (including the islands) of the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the eastern part of the Sinai (to Egypt); also occurs in eastern Africa. Also recorded from Anatolia and the countries of the Levant. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
19518	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus hipposideros</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Palaearctic. It is found in all the European countries (including the islands) of the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the eastern part of the Sinai (to Egypt); also occurs in eastern Africa. Also recorded from Anatolia and the countries of the Levant. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
19518	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Rhinolophus hipposideros</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Palaearctic. It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
19518	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10 km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19518	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10 km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19518	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Forages close to ground within and along the edges of broadleaf deciduous woodland, riparian vegetation, Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean shrubland. Feeds mainly on midges, moths and craneflies. Summer roosts (breeding colonies): natural and artificial underground sites in the southern part of the range, attics and buildings in the northern part. Winter: hibernates in underground sites (including cellars, small caves and burrows). Sedentary, winter and summer roosts usually within 5-10km (longest distance recorded 153 km: Heymer 1964 in Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19518	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	An infrequent species in the northern part of its range. In Europe the species forms summer colonies of 10-50 individuals (up to 1,500 animals). Solitary in winter or loose aggregations up to 500 animals per roost. Since the 1950s the northern border of the range in western and central Europe has moved to the south. In the Netherlands, northern Belgium and Germany with the exception of a few colonies in Bavaria, Thüringen, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt the species went extinct (Fairon <em>et al.</em> 1982, Schofield 1999). It disappeared from northern and western parts of Bohemia, and much of Poland where 87% of the hibernating population was lost between 1950 and 1990 (Urbanczyk 1994, Ohlendorf 1997). In Switzerland and Austria the distribution became fragmented, as colonies remained only in higher elevations (>400 m) (Stutz and Haffner 1984, Spitzenberger 2002), although in Switzerland at least the population has started to slowly recover over the last 10 years (increasing from 2,200 to 2,500 adults counted in maternity roosts: H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006). In Spain some colonies have disappeared due to the restoration of buildings, but there are no data on population trend (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and in France there have been some declines in the north, although large populations in the south are thought to be more stable (EMA Workshop 2006). <br/><br/>In the southwest Asian part of the range it gathers in wintering colonies of up to 40 animals, although it is mainly solitary (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Turkey it is a commonly reported species, and the population is stable (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). It is common in Iran although encountered less frequently than <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is not known how abundant this species is in Jordan and Syria but it may be more common than the collection reports indicate (Amr 2000).<br/><br/>Size and trends within Africa and South Asia are unknown.	eng
19518	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	An infrequent species in the northern part of its range. In Europe the species forms summer colonies of 10-50 individuals (up to 1,500 animals). Solitary in winter or loose aggregations up to 500 animals per roost. Since the 1950s the northern border of the range in western and central Europe has moved to the south. In the Netherlands, northern Belgium and Germany with the exception of a few colonies in Bavaria, Thüringen, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt the species went extinct (Fairon <em>et al.</em> 1982, Schofield 1999). It disappeared from northern and western parts of Bohemia, and much of Poland where 87% of the hibernating population was lost between 1950 and 1990 (Urbanczyk 1994, Ohlendorf 1997). In Switzerland and Austria the distribution became fragmented, as colonies remained only in higher elevations (>400 m) (Stutz and Haffner 1984, Spitzenberger 2002), although in Switzerland at least the population has started to slowly recover over the last 10 years (increasing from 2,200 to 2,500 adults counted in maternity roosts: H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006). In Spain some colonies have disappeared due to the restoration of buildings, but there are no data on population trend (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and in France there have been some declines in the north, although large populations in the south are thought to be more stable (EMA Workshop 2006). <br/><br/>In the southwest Asian part of the range it gathers in wintering colonies of up to 40 animals, although it is mainly solitary (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Turkey it is a commonly reported species, and the population is stable (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). It is common in Iran although encountered less frequently than <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is not known how abundant this species is in Jordan and Syria but it may be more common than the collection reports indicate (Amr 2000).<br/><br/>Size and trends within Africa and South Asia are unknown.	eng
19518	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	An infrequent species in the northern part of its range. In Europe the species forms summer colonies of 10-50 individuals (up to 1,500 animals). Solitary in winter or loose aggregations up to 500 animals per roost. Since the 1950s the northern border of the range in western and central Europe has moved to the south. In the Netherlands, northern Belgium and Germany with the exception of a few colonies in Bavaria, Thüringen, Sachsen and Sachsen-Anhalt the species went extinct (Fairon <em>et al.</em> 1982, Schofield 1999). It disappeared from northern and western parts of Bohemia, and much of Poland where 87% of the hibernating population was lost between 1950 and 1990 (Urbanczyk 1994, Ohlendorf 1997). In Switzerland and Austria the distribution became fragmented, as colonies remained only in higher elevations (>400m) (Stutz and Haffner 1984, Spitzenberger 2002), although in Switzerland at least the population has started to slowly recover over the last 10 years (increasing from 2,200 to 2,500 adults counted in maternity roosts: H. Kraettli pers. comm. 2006). In Spain some colonies have disappeared due to the restoration of buildings, but there are no data on population trend (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006), and in France there have been some declines in the north, although large populations in the south are thought to be more stable (EMA Workshop 2006). Overall in Europe there has been a substantial decline over the last 50 years, with a slow decline continuing at present.<br/><br/>In the southwest Asian part of the range it gathers in wintering colonies of up to 40 animals, although it is mainly solitary (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Turkey it is a commonly reported species, and the population is stable (A. Karatash pers. comm. 2005). It is common in Iran although encountered less frequently than <em>R. ferrumequinum</em> (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). It is not known how abundant this species is in Jordan and Syria but it may be more common than the collection reports indicate (Amr 2000).	eng
19518	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karataş, A. & Paunović, M., 2008	Threats include disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics (conversion of attics in human habitat), agricultural intensification, fragmentation and isolation of habitats, and the use of pesticides in agricultural areas.	eng
19518	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Spitzenberger, F. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Threats include disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics (conversion of attics in human habitat), agricultural intensification, fragmentation and isolation of habitats, and the use of pesticides in agricultural areas.	eng
19518	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Threats include disturbance and loss of underground habitats and attics (conversion of attics in human habitat), change of management regime of agricultural areas (loss of tree lines and hedgerows), and fragmentation and isolation of habitats.	eng
19519	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karatas, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where those apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain. There are no specific conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>Research is required on the causes of the declines across the range.	eng
19519	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karataş, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in all European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention where those apply. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain. There are no specific conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>Research is required on the causes of the declines across the range.	eng
19519	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex II (and IV) of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and hence requires special measures for conservation including designation of Special Areas for Conservation. There is some habitat protection through Natura 2000 (some roosts are already protected by national legislation). An EU-LIFE funded project aims to ensure the long-term conservation of the large populations of cave and forest-dwelling bats, including this species, in Spain.	eng
19519	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	<em>Rhinolophus mehelyi </em>is largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It has a discontinuous distribution from north Africa and southern Europe through Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and Iran. It is patchily distributed in some large and vulnerable colonies. It occurs up to 2,000 m in High and Saharan Atlas mountains, although it is typically found at lower altitudes in other parts of its range (e.g. in Spain it tends to occur below 700 m).	eng
19519	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karatas, A., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus mehelyi </em>is largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It has a discontinuous distribution from north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt) and southern Europe (southern Portugal and Spain, possibly one occurrence in France, a few places in Italy and the Balkans) through Asia Minor, Anatolia, to Transcaucasia, Iran and Afghanistan (where its exact roost location is not known: Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>It is patchily distributed in some large and vulnerable colonies. It occurs up to 2,000 m in High and Saharan Atlas mountains, although it is typically found at lower altitudes in other parts of its range (e.g. in Spain it tends to occur below 700 m).	eng
19519	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karataş, A., 2008	<em>Rhinolophus mehelyi </em>is largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It has a discontinuous distribution from north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt) and southern Europe (southern Portugal and Spain, possibly one occurrence in France, a few places in Italy and the Balkans) through Asia Minor, Anatolia, to Transcaucasia, Iran and Afghanistan (where its exact roost location is not known: Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>It is patchily distributed in some large and vulnerable colonies. It occurs up to 2,000 m in High and Saharan Atlas mountains, although it is typically found at lower altitudes in other parts of its range (e.g. in Spain it tends to occur below 700 m).	eng
19519	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Forages in Mediterranean and dry sub-tropical shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts in caves and does not use artifical habitats. Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).	eng
19519	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karatas, A., 2008	Forages in Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts mainly in caves and does not use artificial habitats (but there is a single report of animals using an abandoned building in Bulgaria (Benda <em>et al</em>. 2003)). Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90 km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).	eng
19519	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karataş, A., 2008	Forages in Mediterranean shrubland and woodland, and in dry steppes. It feeds mainly on moths, but also preys on other insects. Summer roosts are in warm caves, often in karstic regions. Winter hibernacula are in colder underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). The species only roosts mainly in caves and does not use artificial habitats (but there is a single report of animals using an abandoned building in Bulgaria (Benda <em>et al</em>. 2003)). Sedentary (longest distance recorded 90 km: Palmeirim and Rodrigues 1992).	eng
19519	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karatas, A., 2008	An infrequent species, which is reported to have declined in all parts of its range for which data are available. In Andalucia (Spain), the rate of decline has been estimated at 10% over the last ten years. The species is close to extinction in France (Rodrigues and Palmeirim 1999), Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005), and north-east Spain (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In France, only one individual was recorded in 2004 (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006), and in Romania the population was estimated at 5,000 in the 1950s, but now numbers approximately 100 (Dumitrescu <em>et al.</em> 1962-1963, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). It is also declining in southern Spain (Franco and Rodrigues 2001), Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), Georgia, and Morocco (SW Asia Workshop 2005).  In Iran mixed-species colonies including <em>R. mehelyi</em>, which in the 1970s were estimated to be over 10,000 individuals, now only number a few hundred individuals (M. Sharifi pers. obs. 2005). Summer nursery colonies typically number 30-500 individuals (although colonies of up to 3,000 individuals have been recorded, separated in smaller groups within the same cave). Winter clusters consist of up to 5,000 animals.	eng
19519	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karataş, A., 2008	An infrequent species, which is reported to have declined in all parts of its range for which data are available. In Andalucia (Spain), the rate of decline has been estimated at 10% over the last ten years. The species is close to extinction in France (Rodrigues and Palmeirim 1999), Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005), and north-east Spain (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In France, only one individual was recorded in 2004 (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006), and in Romania the population was estimated at 5,000 in the 1950s, but now numbers approximately 100 (Dumitrescu <em>et al.</em> 1962-1963, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). It is also declining in southern Spain (Franco and Rodrigues 2001), Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), Georgia, and Morocco (SW Asia Workshop 2005).  In Iran mixed-species colonies including <em>R. mehelyi</em>, which in the 1970s were estimated to be over 10,000 individuals, now only number a few hundred individuals (M. Sharifi pers. obs. 2005). Summer nursery colonies typically number 30-500 individuals (although colonies of up to 3,000 individuals have been recorded, separated in smaller groups within the same cave). Winter clusters consist of up to 5,000 animals.	eng
19519	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	An infrequent species, which is reported to have declined in all parts of its range for which data are available. In Andalucia (Spain), the rate of decline has been estimated at 10% over the last ten years. The species is close to extinction in France (Rodrigues and Palmeirim 1999), Romania (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005), and north-east Spain (J. Juste and T. Alcalde pers. comm. 2006). In France, only one individual was recorded in 2004 (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006), and in Romania the population was estimated at 5,000 in the 1950s, but now numbers approximately 100 (Dumitrescu <em>et al.</em> 1962-1963, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). It is also declining in southern Spain (Franco and Rodrigues 2001), Portugal (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Russian Federation (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005), Georgia, and Morocco (SW Asia Workshop 2005).  In Iran mixed-species colonies including <em>R. mehelyi</em>, which in the 1970s were estimated to be over 10,000 individuals, now only number a few hundred individuals (M. Sharifi pers. obs. 2005). Summer nursery colonies typically number 30-500 individuals (although colonies of up to 3,000 individuals have been recorded, separated in smaller groups within the same cave). Winter clusters consist of up to 5,000 animals.	eng
19519	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Margarida Fernandes, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	The species is affected by disturbance and loss of underground habitats, changes in foraging habitats, and destruction of caves by tourism.	eng
19519	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karatas, A., 2008	The species is affected by disturbance and loss of underground habitats, changes in foraging habitats, and destruction of caves by tourism. Mortality due to collision with cars is a problem in some areas (e.g., Portugal). The reasons for the declines are not fully understood.	eng
19519	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Alcaldé, J.T., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M., Benda, P. & Karataş, A., 2008	The species is affected by disturbance and loss of underground habitats, changes in foraging habitats, and destruction of caves by tourism. Mortality due to collision with cars is a problem in some areas (e.g., Portugal). The reasons for the declines are not fully understood.	eng
19520	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., McKinnon, J. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
19520	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., McKinnon, J. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species occurs from Thailand east to Lombok (Indonesia), Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region: recorded from Balabac, Busuanga and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19520	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., McKinnon, J. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The ecology and habitat of this species are unknown in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). The only known roosts in the Philippines are in caves, and the species has been found from 60-250 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest on Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). The species forages in primary and secondary forest, as well as bamboo thickets (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Myanmar the species was found in a small colony roosting under a building (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is tolerant of urban areas.	eng
19520	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., McKinnon, J. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	The population status of the species is uncertain, though apparently it is locally common and occurs in small colonies (Esselstyn et <em>al</em>. 2004, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19520	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., McKinnon, J. & Esselstyn, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species although disturbance of caves is a localized threat.	eng
19521	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
19521	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is known only from the type series collected in Kimanika cave, Kouilou, in the Republic of Congo (Aellen and Brosset, 1968; Csorba, Ujhelyi and Thomas 2003).	eng
19521	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It was collected roosting in a cave, and is suspected to occur in tropical moist forest, however, further field surveys are needed to confirm this.	eng
19521	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is known only from ten specimens held in the Paris and Geneva museums (Aellen and Brosset 1968), and may be naturally rare, however, this requires confirmation.	eng
19521	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are currently unknown. It is possible that it is threatened by cave disturbance, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
19522	conservation	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
19522	distribution	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	This very widespread species is present throughout much of South Asia, southern and central China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), Bhutan (Gedu), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em>2002). In China, it has been reported from Hunan, Shanxii, Hubei, Guizhou, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Anhui and Hainan island. In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, into Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands), to southern parts of the island of Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia). Reports of this species from Cambodia cannot currently be confirmed (Kock 2000). It has been recorded from 290 to at least 2,000 m asl (China).	eng
19522	habitat	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	In South Asia, this is a highly adaptable species. It roosts in caves, and is found commonly in man-made habitats such as orchards, degraded habitats and agriculture areas (M. Muni pers. comm. February 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, occasionally in cultivated areas, but is not found in urban areas. It has a tendency to roost in caves, and colonies can be large, up to thousands of Individuals. Species forages in understory of forest, and is not thought to be dependent on water. In China it is considered to be a cave roosting species, found both in the wet western highlands and in the more tropical eastern lowlands.	eng
19522	population	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is a highly adaptable and common species.	eng
19522	threats	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species. However, limestone extraction may be a threat locally in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19523	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
19523	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This sub-Saharan bat species ranges through much of West and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Senegal in the west through to Togo, and then from Nigeria to southern Sudan and western Uganda, with patchy records from the Congo basin (although it likely occurs throughout the Congo). It ranges as far south as central Democratic Republic of the Congo. The record of this species from Gabon needs to be reexamined as it may represent a misidentified specimen of <em>Rhinolophus sylvester</em> (Dowsett <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
19523	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with closed tropical moist forest, but also extends into savanna where there are pockets of suitable habitat (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). During the day colonies roost in caves, hollow trees, the roofs of thatched houses and in old mine shafts (Rosevear 1965; Brosset 1966; Happold, 1987).	eng
19523	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is easily found in colonies of up to 20 animals.	eng
19523	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This widespread species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, largely resulting from logging and conversion of land to agricultural use. In some areas the species is hunted for food, although it is unclear whether this represents a major threat.	eng
19525	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Wright, D., 2008	This is a widespread species and it is presumably present in some protected areas. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.	eng
19525	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Wright, D., 2008	This widespread species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Borneo (Sarawak, Malaysia) and Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Wetar, the Moluccas, Buru and Amboina islands, the island of New Guinea, and throughout the Philippines (Corbet and Hill 1992, Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines records are from: Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Dalupiri, Fuga, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal provinces and in montane and mossy forest from 925-1,950 m asl elevation in Balbalasang (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004) in Kalinga province), Maripipi, Masbate, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Maguindanao, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Sibutu, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tawi-tawi (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl (L. Heaney and D. Balete pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19525	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Wright, D., 2008	It occurs in agricultural lands, secondary forest, and primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, Lepiten 1995, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), including montane and mossy forest on Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>It roosts in limestone caves in small colonies. It forages for food by gleaning and aerial insectivory (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
19525	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is locally common in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is generally rare in Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
19525	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B. & Wright, D., 2008	There are no major threats, although in parts of its range the species is impacted by forest loss and cave disturbance for guano mining and hunting.	eng
19526	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures applied to the species.	eng
19526	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Middle Asia from S Turkmenistan to N Afghanistan.	eng
19526	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in desertified mountain foothills. Inhabits caves and deserted mine galleries. Females during pregnancy and lactation period form colonies separate from males. Usually those colonies reach several hundreds in number, rarely small groups. Delivery occurs in June-beginning of July. After young are able to fly and feed independently, males move to form mixed colonies. Those mixed colonies are often common roosts with <em>Myotis emarginatus</em>, sometimes with <em>Rhinolophus ferrumequinum</em>, and/or <em>Myotis blythi</em>. Mating occurs after lactation period or during winter. The species hibernates in deep caves. Preys at dusk, flying low above the ground, feed mainly on butterflies, sometimes on beatles andother insects.	eng
19526	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data on population size.	eng
19526	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss and artificial cave modification are threats, but are not thought to pose a major risk to the species at present.	eng
19527	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	It is recorded in protected areas including, for example, Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam. Further taxonomic studies are required to determine the distribution limits of the species.	eng
19527	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known from Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR and the Malay Peninsula. Its presence is not confirmed from Thailand, though it probably occurs there. It is recorded throughout much of Borneo (though there is no confirmed record from Brunei), from several locations on Java, including Nusakambanagan Island just off south central Java (U. Sinaga pers. comm.), Labuan and Banguey Islands, Karimata Islands, and South Natuna Islands in Indonesia.	eng
19527	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest. Diurnal roosts include hollow bamboos, young leaves of bananas, hollow trees and rock crevices. Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) mention that the species roosts in caves, sometimes in colonies of several hundred individuals. It uses perches to feed.	eng
19527	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	Recorded from Gunung Halimun, West Java as rare by Suyanto (2003). Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) wrote that this is one of the most common forest bats in southern Viet Nam.	eng
19527	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species and it does seem to tolerate some disturbance of its habitat.	eng
19528	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known whether any records fall within protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the range and population status of this species, particularly whether or not it still survives on Java.	eng
19528	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known from two localities on Java and one on Nusa Barong in Indonesia (Csorba <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known also from one locality on Timor (Goodwin 1979), but this is probably a distinct form (recorded at 550 m asl) and is not mapped here. An unpublished specimen from Bali also represents this species (G. Csorba pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is Kallipoet-jang, Tji-Tangoi river, South Java, Indonesia.	eng
19528	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This is a cave roosting species, probably in large colonies. It requires caves and intact forest, although it may occasionally forage over cultivated landscapes.	eng
19528	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	Survey work in Java has not found this species and the Bali population may be the only extant population, but additional survey work is required.	eng
19528	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	Human disturbance of roost sites, and deforestation due to logging and expanding agriculture represent major threats to this species.	eng
19529	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is present in some protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roost sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this bat.	eng
19529	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is restricted to the coastal belt of the Northern Cape, the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape of South Africa, as far east along the coast as the vicinity of East London (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Records outside of this range are misidentifications (see Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
19529	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This bat has been recorded from a range of habitats, including fynbos, in coastal areas. Populations roost in suitable coastal and sea caves, and have been recorded from dark lofts, and disused mines (Taylor 2000; Csorba, Ujhelyi and Thomas 2003; Smithers and Chimimba 2005). The diet consists largely of beetles, but other invertebrates are also taken. the breeding season is December to February, with a single young born.	eng
19529	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This bat can be found in colonies consisting of thousands of individuals (Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Skinner and Chimimba (2005) state that 'they are abundant in the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape, where there are many records from coastal caves'.	eng
19529	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of cave roosts (often by recreational and tourism activities), and the conversion of suitable foraging habitat to agricultural use.	eng
19530	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been recorded from Kakanauwi Forest Reserve, Lambasanga Forest Reserve, and Lorelindu National Park in central Sulawesi.	eng
19530	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from Java, Krakatau, Bali, Sulawesi, Buton, Kabaena, Kangean, Sangihe, and Karekelang islands in Indonesia. The record from Sepanjang requires confirmation. Also recorded from Wangi Wangi and Kaledupa islands, in Indonesia (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
19530	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and is a cave roosting species, in colonies of up to hundreds.	eng
19530	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
19530	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although deforestation due to logging and agricultural development, as well as limestone extraction may be a localised threat.	eng
19531	conservation	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	In view of the species wide range it seems likely that it is present in a number of protected areas. All bats, including <em>Rhinolophus clivosus</em>, are protected by national legislation in Jordan (Amr pers. comm. 2004). Bats of the genus <em>Rhinolophus</em> are generally susceptible to indirect poisoning through the local use of insecticides; there is a need to evaluate the impact of this threat on populations (especially in southwest Asia), and to investigate alternative methods of insect control (Kock pers. comm. 2004).	eng
19531	distribution	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is widespread in North, East and southern Africa, and also in parts of southwest Asia, including western and southeastern areas of the Arabian Peninsula. In North Africa it has been recorded from Algeria, Libya and Egypt; in East Africa, it ranges from Sudan in the north, through all East African countries to Malawi in the south; in southern Africa, it is present in Mozambique and Zambia in the north, ranging southwards into South Africa, Namibia and southern Angola. In addition there are a number of records from southern and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In southwest Asia, it ranges from Israel, Jordan and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt in the north, through the western and southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula of Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman, with a few additional records of the species from central regions of the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
19531	habitat	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from savanna woodland, Mediterranean-type shrubland, dry (and possibly moist) savanna, open grasslands and semi-desert to even more arid environments. Roosting has been recorded in caves, rock cervices, disused mines, and various rural and urban buildings.	eng
19531	population	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range, including South Africa. But is uncommon to rare in other areas, such as in Zimbabwe. In Swaziland, three separate populations contained over a thousand individuals, while in Jordan forty individuals were observed at a single location in Jordan (Amr, 2000). Although the population appears to be stable in many regions, in Jordan the population is in decline and this bat maybe declining throughout its range in the Arabian Peninsula (Amr pers. comm.).	eng
19531	threats	Kock, D., Amr, Z., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Although there are generally considered to be no major threats to the species as a whole, some populations are locally threatened by disturbance of their roosting sites, and indirect poisoning resulting from the use of insecticides, pesticides and similar chemicals.	eng
19532	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19532	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is recorded from Myanmar, Salaween River, Thailand, Western Malaysia, and Lao PDR. The records from eastern Thailand may be <em>R. shameli</em> (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19532	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is found in broad leaved mixed deciduous to evergreen forest in a wide altitudinal range in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19532	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species is locally common in Thailand, a population there may have contained 1,000 individuals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Its population status in other countries is not known but it is not thought to be common anywhere.	eng
19532	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species at present.	eng
19533	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place. It is recorded from the Narcondam Island Wildlife Sanctuary. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population monitoring, ecology and effects of tsunami on the habitat (S. Molur pers. comm. 2007).	eng
19533	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known only from three Andaman Islands (North Andaman, South Andaman and Narcondom Island) in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Elevation details are not known. The extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is 11-500 km² based on the size of the islands (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19533	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this species, except that it is a cave dwelling species in rainforests and also occurs in mangrove forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19533	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends of this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19533	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain poorly known, however, the habitat on two of the three islands it has been recorded from are under threat from human settlements following the December 2004 tsunami event. In view of the lifting of the islands resulting from the tsunami, the mangrove forests could be also be affected.	eng
19535	conservation	Hutson, A.M.,  Kingston, T., Esselstyn, J. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19535	distribution	Hutson, A.M.,  Kingston, T., Esselstyn, J. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species has been recorded from Borneo, Madura, and recently also from Palawan in the Philippines (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has been reported from various sites in East Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) by Yasuma (1994). It is unclear whether the species occurs throughout Borneo or whether it is restricted to areas with caves. It has also been collected from Nusa Penida, Semau, Roti (I. Maryanto  pers. comm. 2006), and recently reported from Banggi Island by Rahman and Abdullah in Indonesia (2002). Confirmation is required as to whether the record from Flores is <em>R. creaghi</em> or <em>R. canuti</em> (Suyanto 1998). Records from Timor are provisionally assigned to <em>R. canuti</em>.	eng
19535	habitat	Hutson, A.M.,  Kingston, T., Esselstyn, J. & Maryanto, I., 2008	On Palawan, the species is common in primary lowland forest from near sea level up to at least 700 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has also been collected in primary forests in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm. 2006). It roosts in caves, often in large numbers, with colonies of hundreds or thousands (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maryanto pers. comm. 2006). Of 135 adult females captured at one site in December 1999, eight were pregnant (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
19535	population	Hutson, A.M.,  Kingston, T., Esselstyn, J. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
19535	threats	Hutson, A.M.,  Kingston, T., Esselstyn, J. & Maryanto, I., 2008	There is disturbance of the species' cave roosts, for limestone extraction and guano mining, and it is also affected by deforestation due to logging and agricultural development. It is hunted in the Philippines, but not in Indonesia, and not at a level that currently constitutes a threat to the species.	eng
19536	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is present within a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for populations recorded outside of southern Africa. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
19536	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This bat is largely distributed in southern Africa with some additional records outside of this area. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) report that it has been recorded from Namibia and northeastern Botswana; that it is widely distributed in Zimbabwe; in South Africa it is known from Limpopo Province, eastern Mpumalanga, northern Gauteng, in parts of the Eastern Cape and the Northern Cape, and from KwaZulu-Natal; in much of eastern Mozambique; and in the lowveld and Lubombo regions of Swaziland. It is unclear if the species is present in Lesotho. Outside of southern Africa, it has been recorded from Benguela in Angola, Banagi in Tanzania, and possibly from Nigeria suggesting a wider distribution than is currently known (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
19536	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Generally associated with savanna and savanna-woodland type habitats. It is dependant on caves, mines, broken rocky areas, buildings and similar structures as roost sites (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
19536	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This is a locally common species that, while usually found in small numbers, can be represented by hundreds of bats in a colony (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
19536	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
19537	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from some National Parks and Forest Reserves in Tanzania. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further research is needed into the species taxonomy, biology and overall natural history.	eng
19537	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known East African species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, including the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.	eng
19537	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. it is a forest dwelling species that may not be exclusively associated with primary forest (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further information is needed on the roosting habits of this species.	eng
19537	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Small colonies of less than 20 individuals. It is reported to be locally common in some areas, such as the Manga Forest Reserve, Tanzania (Doggert <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
19537	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by the logging and conversion of forest land to agricultural use, especially in coastal areas.	eng
19538	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species (particularly in West and Central Africa).	eng
19538	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded in West and southern Africa. It ranges from southeastern Senegal, through northern parts of West Africa to northeastern Ghana; in Central Africa it appears to have only been recorded from eastern Congo and southern Angola; in southern Africa, it is present in Namibia, northwestern and southwestern Botswana and northern parts of South Africa.	eng
19538	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is typically associated with savanna habitats. Populations are largely dependent on caves, abandoned mines and similar habitats for roosting (Herselman and  Norton 1985), although they have also been found roosting in hollow trees (M.N. Morton <em>in litt</em>. in Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19538	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	The species is known from fewer than 100 in colonies in West Africa, and fewer than 200 colonies in southern Africa.	eng
19538	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance to roosting caves.	eng
19539	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this bat.	eng
19539	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Central and Eastern Africa. It has been recorded from southern Sudan, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba in Tanzania.	eng
19539	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with caves in savanna habitats. It is not known if it can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
19539	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
19539	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is threatened by the general conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.	eng
19540	conservation	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (D. Wright pers. comm.). Major roosting sites and important foraging areas should be protected.	eng
19540	distribution	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is widespread in the eastern Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia), Yapen Island (Indonesia), the Aru Islands (Indonesia), throughout the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and Kiriwina Island (Papua New Guinea). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,800 m asl. (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
19540	habitat	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Large roosts, of up to 1,000 individuals, have been found in limestone caves, old mining shafts, and old military tunnels. It has also been found in mangroves (T. Leary pers. comm.).	eng
19540	population	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
19540	threats	Leary, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
19541	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	In view of the species wide range in East and southern Africa it seems probable that it is present in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
19541	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the east, through West and Central Africa to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east, and from here through East and southern Africa as far south as Namibia and northeastern South Africa.	eng
19541	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from dry forest, and dry and moist savanna habitats. Colonies are generally associated with caves.	eng
19541	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is a locally common species that can be encountered as large colonies. Colonies in southern Africa tend to be smaller.	eng
19541	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
19542	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site and the "Massif du Ziama" Biosphere Reserve, both in Guinea. It has also been recorded from a few state forests ("Forets Classees") in Guinea. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species. Further studies are needed to better determine the species range.	eng
19542	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This West African bat has been patchily recorded from southern Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. It is a highland species recorded at elevations of 1,400 m asl and over. It may be present in Gambia in remnant patches of forest (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
19542	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	Thiss species has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest, and to a lesser extent from moist savanna (Koopman 1989; Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998; Weber and Fahr 2007). Animals are usually found roosting in caves, however, two were found in a hollow trees (Böhme and Hutterer 1978; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998; Weber and Fahr 2007).	eng
19542	population	Fahr. J., 2008	It is possibly a rare species overall, although little information is available on the population abundance of this bat.	eng
19542	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	Major threats to this species include deforestation resulting from logging operations, the conversion of land to agricultural use, and mining activities. There is also a limited threat of overhunting for the bushmeat trade.	eng
19543	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide East African and southern African range, it seems probable that the species is present in some protected areas.	eng
19543	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is largely endemic to East Africa, except for a Central African records from Rwanda and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, a single questionable West African record from Nigeria. In East Africa it ranges from Ethiopia and northern Sudan in the north, through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, into southern Africa of Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Botswana, being found as far south as northern South Africa.	eng
19543	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	Populations have been recorded from caves in both dry and moist savanna. The preferred habitat appears to be woodland savanna although Ansell and Ansell (1973) recorded the species in "bracken-briar" near the head of a stream in a montane area. The species roosts in caves, mines, unused buildings, warthog holes and hollow trees including as baobab and mopane (Pienaar <em>et al</em>. 1987).	eng
19543	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is quite common in Zambia.	eng
19543	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
19545	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Sedlock, J., Alviola, P., Alcala, E., Pangunlatan, L.M. & Balete, D., 2008	<em>R. inops</em> occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need for taxonomic research into geographic variation in distinctive characters (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19545	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Sedlock, J., Alviola, P., Alcala, E., Pangunlatan, L.M. & Balete, D., 2008	The Philippine forest horseshoe bat is endemic to the Philippines and has been recorded from Biliran, Camiguin, Catanduanes, Cebu (Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006), Leyte, Luzon [throughout the island (L. Heaney pers. comm.)], Mindanao [Agusan del Sur, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur and Surigao del Sur provinces], Negros, and Polillo islands (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007), where it is found from sea level to 2,250 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19545	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Sedlock, J., Alviola, P., Alcala, E., Pangunlatan, L.M. & Balete, D., 2008	<em>R. inops</em> is mostly dependent on primary forest (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) where it is common to abundant in lowland and montane forest, and only rarely found in secondary forest and mossy forest (Heaney 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has, however, been reported in disturbed forest on Negros and in orchards on Mount Makiling (Luzon) (Sedlock 2001) and from mossy forest at 1,800-1,950 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga province, Luzon (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19545	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Sedlock, J., Alviola, P., Alcala, E., Pangunlatan, L.M. & Balete, D., 2008	<em>R. inops</em> is locally abundant (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
19545	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Sedlock, J., Alviola, P., Alcala, E., Pangunlatan, L.M. & Balete, D., 2008	This species has no doubt declined because of loss of its forest habitat, especially at low elevations. However, it has strong populations in montane forest, and these are much more secure, as habitat loss is less severe in these areas (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19546	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	In view of the species wide range it seems probable that it is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
19546	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been widely reported from much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most of West and Central Africa to Sudan and Ethiopia in the east. The species has been recorded as far south as eastern South Africa. Populations have been reported at an altitude of 2,000 m asl on Mount Elgon in Kenya (Aggundey and Schlitter, 1984). On Cameroon Mountain they have been taken at an altitude of 1,200 m asl and at 900 m asl on Bintamane Mountain in Sierra Leone (Rosevear, 1965).	eng
19546	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is generally associated with both savanna and gallery forest habitats. It has also been found in lowveld, sparsely wooded transition areas, riverine forest, dense thornscrub and tropical moist forest (Taylor 1998; Menzies 1973; Rosevear 1965; Happold 1987). Populations roost  caves, mine adits and in crevices amongst piles of boulders. Animals have also been found roosting in a baobab tree, water wells (Koopman <em>et al.</em> 1978) and buildings (Rosevear 1965).	eng
19546	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is rather common locally, colonies can consist of hundreds of individuals	eng
19546	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
19547	conservation	Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place in South Asia. It is reported from Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan, Karnala Bird Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002), and Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 10 October 2007). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia it occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19547	distribution	Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is very widespread in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia the species is known from Afghanistan (Faryab, Kabul, Nangarhar, Parwan and Zabol provinces), Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Sylhet and Rajsahi divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat (Senacha, under review), Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) and Pakistan (Punjab) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, and (Sumatra). In South Asia, it has been recorded up to an elevation of 2,330 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19547	habitat	Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species can be found in both dry and moist forest and fringe areas (C. Srinivaulu pers. comm. September 2007). In Malaysia and Thailand it appears to be associated with intact lowland tropical moist forest. Roosts include caves, unused tunnels, old and ruined buildings, old temples (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is slow and low and feeds on lepidopterans, coleopterans, dipterans, hymenopterans (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
19547	population	Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is locally common throughout much of its range.	eng
19547	threats	Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its Indian range, this species is threatened due to roost disturbance from conversion of old forts and havelis to hotels as a part of tourist related development activities (K.R. Senacha pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19548	conservation	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place. In South Asia, it is recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Taxonomy, distribution, ecology, habitat and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it has been collected in a number of protected areas, including Vu Quang National Park, Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop, 2003).	eng
19548	distribution	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species is widespread in South Asia, southern China and South East Asia. In South Asia it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southeastern China, the species has been recorded from Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Sichuan, Fujian, Guangxi, Anhui, Yunnan and Hainan Island. It has been recorded throughout most of continental Southeast Asia, and ranges into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Bali) and the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,600 m asl.	eng
19548	habitat	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	In South Asia, this species is a forest dweller, it roosts solitary or in pairs in small to large caves, rocky outcrops and overhanging ledges and large trees with hollow (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is low just above the ground and feeds on coleopterans, termites and other insects. In Southeast Asia it is considered to be forest dependent, although it is present in degraded forest (and is apparently somewhat resistant to human disturbance). Roost in small groups in rocky outcrops, rock crevices, niches in cliffs, shallow holes in earth banks, roosts of trees, and hollow trees. In China, most have been collected in forested areas and have been collected from tunnels, old mine shafts, hollow trees and under thick bark.	eng
19548	population	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	The species appears to be found at naturally low densities.	eng
19548	threats	Walston, J., Kingston, T. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that there are no overall major threats to the species. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use. It is also threatened by hunting for medicinal purposes (Debojit Pukhan pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19549	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Protection of habitat, further research, and awareness education urgently  required.	eng
19549	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is known from a very few localities in eastern Guinea. Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) reports that 'apart from the type locality, supposedly Conakry Island, all records are located along the lower, southern slope of the Fouta Djallon region between Kindia and Mamou near the border with Sierra Leone'. However, recent surveys have revealed additional localities in the Fouta Djallon Highlands, ranging as far north as the Gessorewoul River in Prefecture Mali (Weber and Fahr 2007).	eng
19549	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) states that the 'predominant vegetation is bush-tree savanna, intersected by gallery forests along the rivers and in protected pockets (Guinean Forest-Savanna Mosaic ecoregion)'. Most specimens have been taken from day roosts in caves, but a single specimen has been collected from a house (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19549	population	Fahr. J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. The species roosts singly or in small groups (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19549	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The species relatively limited range is quite densely populated, and it is threatened by habitat loss and degradation of remaining patches of forest, and by overharvesting for the bush meat trade (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19550	conservation	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed. Public awareness activities need to be taken up to mitigate any further threats to this taxon (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In view of its wide range in Southeast Asia, it seems probable that the species has been recorded from some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
19550	distribution	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Francis, C., 2008	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southeastern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong division), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) and Pakistan (Punjab) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In China it has been recorded from Sichuan, Shaanxi, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou and Guangxi. In Southeast Asia, it has generally been recorded from northern Myanmar and Thailand, northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (and the island of Tioman), Sumatra (Indonesia), and the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Guimaras, Luzon [Abra and Pampanga provinces], Mindanao [Bukidnon Province], Negros, Palawan (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Samar (Gonzales unpublished data). It has been recorded from 200 up to 1,692 m asl (South Asia) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19550	habitat	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in abandoned mines and caves in forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its flight is fast and high and feeds on coleopterans and dipterans (Bates and Harrison 1997). Other than being a cave roosting species, there are few details available on the natural history of this species in China. In Myanmar and Viet Nam it is associated with limestone caves at an altitude of around 1,000 m asl, and has been found at a large cave in disturbed secondary growth forest. It has been recorded from in caves in secondary forest in Lao PDR and lowland tropical moist forest in Peninsular Malaysia (C. Francis pers. comm.). In the Philippines, it has been recorded in lowland tropical moist forest, but is otherwise poorly known (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). There are some records from forest caves. On Palawan Island, it has been reported from caves in disturbed lowland forest at 50 to 250 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
19550	population	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Francis, C., 2008	Though this species is widely distributed in its range in South Asia it is known from a few localities and has a small colony size. The population size of this species is low and a declining trend in the population is inferred (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand it is rare in tall lowland forest and also hill forest in Peninsular Malaysia (Bumrungsri and Francis pers. comm. 2006) and widespread but seemingly uncommon in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
19550	threats	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion for agricultural use. In Nepal it is threatened due to increase in tourism leading to disturbance to roosting sites; fumigation and chemical pesticides to rid the caves of roosts (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. January 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it is probably threatened in parts of its range (such as Malaysia) by ongoing habitat loss.	eng
19551	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species is found in a number of protected areas.	eng
19551	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
19551	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	In eastern Myanmar it is associated with limestone caves, and found in agricultural areas and secondary forest (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is found in caves (not necessarily limestone) in secondary forest and degraded habitat (G. Csorba pers. comm.). This species is tolerant to some degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
19551	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species is common in Lao PDR, locally common in eastern Myanmar, Viet Nam, and possibly in Thailand.	eng
19551	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19552	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. All known populations are in protected areas in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19552	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in Myanmar, Thailand (Chantaburi, Amphoe Pong Nam Ron, foothills of Khao Soi Dao Thai),<br/>Viet Nam, Lao PDR, and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
19552	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	In Myanmar and Viet Nam it is associated with limestone caves and is tolerant of very disturbed habitat (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Thailand it is also found in rock crevices (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19552	population	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is always found as individuals, never in large numbers (P. Bates pers. comm.; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is not clear whether it has declined significantly historically (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
19552	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19553	conservation	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
19553	distribution	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species ranges from the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only), the Bismarck Archipelago (islands of New Britain and New Ireland) (Papua New Guinea); the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and on the eastern coast of Australia from Cape York to Victoria (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Pavey and Young 2008). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
19553	habitat	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This is a cave (including lava tunnel) roosting species that is generally associated with closed tropical forest habitats and hot humid roosting sites. It has been recorded from rural gardens and plantations. Colonies usually consist of less than 50 individuals, but they sometimes (rarely) exceed 2,000 (Pavey and Young 2008). Females give birth to a single young. Its range has expanded in the south due to mine shafts in the last 100 years (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
19553	population	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is locally common in suitable habitats within Australia, common in New Guinea, and relatively abundant in New Ireland and New Britain, and islands of Milne Bay.	eng
19553	threats	Hutson, T., Schlitter, D., Csorba, G., Hall, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is generally sensitive to disturbance of cave roosting sites.	eng
19554	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Very little is known about this species, hence surveys, ecological studies and habitat evaluation are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19554	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to India. It is presently known only from the type locality, Chaibassa in Jharkhand (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), at an elevation of 300 m. Recent surveys by Y.P. Sinha did not yield any new records of this species from the type locality (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19554	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It might be a cave roosting species, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
19554	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It is known only from the holotype collected in 1844.	eng
19554	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19556	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitat, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
19556	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known only from Siantan Island (Anamba Islands) and North Natuna Islands in Indonesia.	eng
19556	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J. & Csorba, G., 2008	Nothing is known about the ecology of this species (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
19556	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J. & Csorba, G., 2008	The status of the population is unknown (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
19556	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J. & Csorba, G., 2008	Major threats to this species are unknown (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
19557	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered A2cd; B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19557	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to China and is known only from the type series, from Nguluko, Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).  A specimen, fitting the description of this species, was collected near Dali, Yunnan in 2003 (Jones, G. pers. comm.).	eng
19557	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are few data regarding the habitat and no data on the ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008). The specimen from Dali was found in a cave (Jones, G. pers. comm.).	eng
19557	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There is no information regarding the population status of this species.	eng
19557	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
19558	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It has been reported from protected areas.	eng
19558	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, adjacent Guangxi Province in China (Zhao <em>et al</em>. 2002), central Viet Nam (Hendrichsen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999), central Thailand (Thonglongya 1973), and northern and central Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
19558	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species roosts in caves. The specimen from Thailand was taken in a rather dry pine forest (Thonglongya 1973), and the specimen from southwestern China was found torpid in a limestone cave in late November 1999.	eng
19558	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	Once considered extremely rare, colonies of up to 50 individuals were found in caves in central Lao PDR (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999) and northern Viet Nam (Hill and Kemp 1996). Single individuals or small groups were found in other areas of China, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Eger and Fenton 2003). It is not difficult to find during surveys.	eng
19558	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	Deforestation due to logging and agricultural expansion, represents a major threat to this species in some parts of its range.	eng
19559	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in South Asia. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if the species is present in protected areas in China or Southeast Asia.	eng
19559	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed in northern South Asia, southeast and central China, and much of continental Southeast Asia. In South Asia it has been recorded from Bangladesh (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), Bhutan (Phuntsholing), India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, the species has been reported from Xizang, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Hubei, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hunan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from an altitudinal range of 610 to 3,077 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19559	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	In South Asia, this species roosts in caves in hilly areas, and is found in montane forests, bamboo forests and cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Bates and Harrison 1997). In Myanmar the species has been recorded from agricultural areas; in Thailand it is found in good forest which is surrounded by agricultural land. The species appears to be associated with limestone caves (P. Bates and S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, it is predominantly found in limestone areas but does not appear to be dependent on this substrate (Furey pers. comm.). In China, it has been recorded hibernating in caves and bomb shelters.	eng
19559	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	In South Asia, while the species is still common and widely distributed, a declining trend in the population of this species is suspected because of ongoing habitat degradation in the Himalayas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is common in Southeast Asia.	eng
19559	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and converted for agricultural use in the Himalayas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19560	conservation	Sedlock, J., Francis, C., Heaney, L. & Suyanto, I., 2008	It has been recorded from protected areas in both Australia and the Philippines. A Recovery Plan for this species has been developed (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2001). Further studies of the distribution and taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
19560	distribution	Sedlock, J., Francis, C., Heaney, L. & Suyanto, I., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Philippines (islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Mindanao), northeastern Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia), the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor, the Kai Islands (Indonesia), Geelvinck Bay (Indonesia), to the island of New Guinea at Mount Karimui and Waro and from Australia where it is present in northeastern Cape York Peninsula (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In the Philippines there are records from Luzon (Abra Province), Mindanao (Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Mindoro, Negros, Polillo and Samar (Gonzales pers. comm. 2004) and Siquijor (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded between 200-1,500 m asl.	eng
19560	habitat	Sedlock, J., Francis, C., Heaney, L. & Suyanto, I., 2008	This is a forest species which has been recorded only in primary and secondary forest in the Philippines (Lepiten 1995; Ruedas <em>et al</em>. 1994; L. Heaney unpubl. data) and in primary and disturbed forest in Sulawesi and Flores (Suyanto and Kingston pers. comm. 2006). <br/>It roosts as scattered individuals, or small colonies, in caves, mines and similar habitats. It forages in tropical moist forest and open woodland (Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
19560	population	Sedlock, J., Francis, C., Heaney, L. & Suyanto, I., 2008	It appears to be a rare species (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It is an apparently uncommon species in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Only one individual was found after much survey effort on Mount Makiling in Laguna province, Luzon (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006). There are some moderately large colonies in Sabah (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006). In Sulawesi the species is uncommon (I. Suyanto pers. comm. 2004).	eng
19560	threats	Sedlock, J., Francis, C., Heaney, L. & Suyanto, I., 2008	Overall there are no major threats affecting the species throughout its range. It is threatened in Australia by disturbance of roost sites and the collapse and intentional closure of old mines (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999). Over collection for museums and habitat loss have also been suggested as threats to this species (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 1999). Deforestation and limestone extraction in Southeast Asia may also affect the species.	eng
19561	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Walston. J., 2008	The species has been recorded from Phamong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu in India. Ecological studies and population monitoring are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in numerous protected areas in Southeast Asia. Subspecies <pumilus</em> is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007)	eng
19561	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Walston. J., 2008	This species has a very wide range from South Asia eastwards to Japan, occuring also in southern and southwestern China, including Taiwan, southwards through mainland Southeast Asia to Indonesia and Borneo. The distribution of the geographically isolated subspecies is given below. <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pusillus</em> is widely distributed in South Asia, southern and southwestern China and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia it is widely distributed and is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recently collected from Kothaiyar Dam site in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan Island and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It appears to be present throughout most of continental Southeast Asia, ranging from Myanmar in the west, to Viet Nam in the east and as far south as Peninsular Malaysia. It has also been recorded from Indonesia (including the Mentawi Islands and the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali), and from Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sabah (Malaysia). In South Asia it has been recorded from 200 to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Subspecies <monoceros</em> is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies low elevations on the island (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>cornutus</em> is endemic to Japan. It ranges from Hokkaido south to Okinoerabu on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Islands, Izu-Oshima, Niijima, Miyake, Mikura, Hachijo, Tsushima, Iki, Fukue, Yaku, Tane, Kuchinoerabu, Amami-Oshima, Kakeroma, and Tokunoshima (Abe, 2005). It includes as a synonym <em>perditus</em> which is found only on the Yaeyama Islands (Iriomote, Ishigaki, Taketomi, and Kohama), and <em>imaizumii</em> (described from Iriomote) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pumilus</em> is endemic to Japan, where it is found on three islands in the Ryukyus: Okinawa, Iheya, and Kume. The species is believed to have become extinct on Miyako (30 years ago) and Irabu (probably around 5 years ago).	eng
19561	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Walston. J., 2008	It has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, roosting in caves (up to 1,500 animals in China) and houses (usually a smaller colony size). Animals have been recorded foraging low over bamboo clumps in limestone areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). This species is characterized as a forest-interior specialist that is not readily adaptable to open habitats (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
19561	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Walston. J., 2008	It appears to be widespread and common throughout its range.<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>pumilus</em> breeding colonies are on Okinawa, where the subpopulation is estimated at 5,000 or more. Only three major breeding colonies of 200, 1500 and 2000 individuals are currently known (Ministry of the Environment, 2002). On the smaller two islands, the total subpopulation is less than 300 individuals.	eng
19561	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Walston. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
19562	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species occurs in Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin and Jinfoshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may occur in other protected areas along the Sichuan and Guizhou border. There are few data regarding this species, research should be conducted in the areas of taxonomy, population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered A2cd+3cd; B2b(i,ii,iii)c(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19562	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the following provinces: Sichuan, Guangdong, and Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19562	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	It has been recorded as hibernating in a cave in Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It roosts in caves, buildings, foliage, and hollow trees (Nowak 1999). It presumably forages in the surrounding habitat.  It is not known whether it is tolerant of disturbed habitats, but if it roosts in hollow trees then it is most likely restricted to primary forest.	eng
19562	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There is no current information regarding the population status of this species.	eng
19562	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	Deforestation as a result of urban development, selective logging, and agriculture is a major threat.	eng
19563	conservation	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in India, including Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, Karnala Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Indravati National Park in Chattisgarh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Ecological studies and population and habitat monitoring are important research recommendation for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if it is present in any protected areas outside of South Asia.	eng
19563	distribution	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is largely confined to South Asia, with a few records outside of this region. In South Asia, it is known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, Sabargamuwa, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, there is a single record of the species from western Yunnan (Gaoligong mountain) (Wang 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from southern Myanmar, with reports of this species from Cambodia being probably erroneous (Kock 2002). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to 1,370 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19563	habitat	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in caves, hollows of large tree in moist evergreen forests, unused wells, old dilapidated buildings and temples in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vanitharani 2007).	eng
19563	population	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Though a widely distributed species in South Asia, with a large colony size, a declining trend in the population is being observed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19563	threats	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened due to cave tourism leading to decline in populations. It is also threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19564	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>R. rufus</em> occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19564	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>R. rufus</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Bohol, Catanduanes, Leyte, Luzon (Laguna, Pampanga, and Rizal provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and Maguindanao provinces), Mindoro, and Polillo (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is a lowland species range from sea-level to 350 m asl., perhaps higher.	eng
19564	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>R. rufus</em> has been recorded in primary and mature secondary forest, either in or near to caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1998; Lawrence 1939; Sanborn 1952).	eng
19564	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	A generally uncommon species (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), the overall population of the large rufous horseshoe bat is declining. It is, however, abundant on Bohol and Polillo (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).	eng
19564	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>R. rufus</em> is probably dependent on lowland caves, most of which have been heavily disturbed (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). The caves are threatened by guano mining. This species is also collected for food (fires are lit in the caves to asphyxiate these bats) (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).	eng
19565	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It occurs in protected areas.	eng
19565	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei). It has been reported from the Ulu Barito area (Sheldon unpubl. rep.) and also the Maliau Basi, and G. Palung National Park (Blundell 1996).	eng
19565	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is mainly a primary forest species, and feeds in the forest understorey. It roosts singly or in small groups and may be monogamous. It roosts in caves, hollows formed by fallen trees, or in man-made structures like culverts. It has small home-ranges (400 m radius from roost).	eng
19565	population	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs at low densities, and represents between 1-3% of captures in Krau Wildlife Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (Kingston <em>et al</em> 2006).	eng
19565	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation due to logging, agricultural development, plantations and forest fires affects both prime foraging habitat as well as roosting habitats.	eng
19566	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J. & Dinh Thong, V., 2008	It is not reported from any protected areas.	eng
19566	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J. & Dinh Thong, V., 2008	The species is known from northern Thailand as well as islands on the south east coast of Thailand (Koh Chang Islands), and from eastern Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), Lao PDR, Cambodia, and central Viet Nam.	eng
19566	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J. & Dinh Thong, V., 2008	It inhabits undisturbed lowland evergreen forest (Thong <em>et al</em>. 2006) and secondary forest. In Thailand it occurs in secondary mixed deciduous forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.); in Myanmar it is associated with limestone caves around at least 1,000 m asl (P. Bates pers. comm.) within very disturbed areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
19566	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J. & Dinh Thong, V., 2008	It is locally common in eastern Myanmar and Thailand, but locally rare in Viet Nam.	eng
19566	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J. & Dinh Thong, V., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19567	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	The species does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. An additional examination of the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Rhinolophus deckeni</em> is needed. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and the extent of threats to this little known bat.	eng
19567	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This poorly known species has only been recorded from three localities in Gabon (Benga; Belinga; and the type locality of Dumbu Cave, Latoursville), and a single site in Congo (Meya-Nzouari).	eng
19567	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known, however, it appears to be associated with cave habitats within lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitats.	eng
19567	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	The species is usually found in small colonies of fewer than 20 bats. It is believed to be in overall decline.	eng
19567	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	It is considered to be threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. Additional threats include general disturbance of cave roost sites and overharvesting of the species for the bushmeat trade.	eng
19568	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species East African and southern African distribution, it seems likely that it is present in some protected areas.	eng
19568	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. There are records in West Africa from the Wonegizi Mountains and Mount Nimba (Guinea and Liberia), and from central Nigeria. In Central Africa it has been reported from Cameroon. In East Africa there are many more records, with the species being reported from as far north as Ethiopia and southern Sudan, ranging southwards through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania to Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, eastern South Africa, Swaziland and southern Botswana.	eng
19568	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is typically associated with caves in areas of moist savanna. It is also reported from bushveld adjacent to rivers and savanna woodland (particularly <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland in Zimbabwe) (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Availability of day roosts in the form of caves and mine adits is a necessary component of their habitat (Taylor, 1998).	eng
19568	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species can be locally common. Colonies may consist of a couple of hundred individuals, although these are often quite fragmented because of the species association with caves for breeding.	eng
19568	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by cave disturbance and the loss of habitat resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use and mining operations.	eng
19569	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is known from a number of protected areas in Thailand and throughout its range.	eng
19569	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in Myanmar (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), Viet Nam, Thailand, Lao PDR, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Java (Indonesia). It has not yet been recorded but probably also occurs in Cambodia.	eng
19569	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It inhabits degraded forest to primary deciduous forest in Thailand (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is associated with limestone in Myanmar in degraded habitats including agricultural areas (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
19569	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It tends to be found in small groups in Myanmar and Viet Nam (P. Bates and G. Csorba pers. comm.). It is locally common in Thailand, one population of 1,000 individuals was found there, and also common in Lao PDR (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
19569	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although the species is hunted in northeast Thailand but this is not at a level that is considered a threat to the species (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19570	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Taxonomy, ecology, population studies, habitat management are the primary recommendations for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19570	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is largely endemic to South Asia, although there are records from Myanmar and China. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet Division) (Khan 2001, Sarker and Sarker 2005), India (Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya) and Nepal (Central and Western Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is known only from a single record in Mengzi County, Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Myanmar, it has only been recorded from the Nam Tamay Valley. It has been recorded at 1,231 m asl in South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
19570	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is encountered in dense forests among bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19570	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	A declining trend in its population is being observed in the Himalayas (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19570	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural purposes and mining operations (T.K. Shreshta pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19571	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	<em>R. subrufus</em> occurs in some protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic vaidity of this species.	eng
19571	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	<em>R. subrufus</em> is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded on Camiguin, Catanduanes, Luzon (Abra, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Laguna, Pampanga, Rizal, and Sorsogon provinces), Mindanao (Davao del Sur, and South Cotabato provinces), and Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) islands. It has been recorded from near sea level to over 1,000 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19571	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is a very poorly known species. Some records of <em>R. subrufus</em> are from caves (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and it is assumed to be associated with lowland tropical forest.	eng
19571	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Very little information is available on the abundance of this species. Most surveys have not used appropriate techniques (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It may be confused with other species (L. Heaney in litt. 2007)	eng
19571	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The threats to this very poorly known species are currently unknown.	eng
19572	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	The species is present in some protected areas (e.g.. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species, the distribution and possible threats.	eng
19572	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This African bat has been recorded from eastern parts of South Africa, much of Zimbabwe, northwestern Mozambique, with additional scattered records further north in Malawi, Zambia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It may be present in Angola but this needs confirmation.	eng
19572	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	Found in moist montane rainforest, and dry and moist savanna (Cotterill 1996; Cotterill 2002). Populations are dependant on caves, mines and similar habitats for roosting. It appears to be sparsely distributed in parts of its range.	eng
19572	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	In parts of its range it is considered to be uncommon, however, Taylor (2000) records that it is fairly common in Zimbabwe. It generally forms small colonies of fewer than ten animals.	eng
19572	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	Populations may be locally threatened by deforestation, largely resulting from logging operations, local use of timber and firewood, and general conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
19573	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19573	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in south west China, extending down the Indochina Peninsula in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Lao PDR.	eng
19573	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is associated with limestone areas and found in caves from 400 up to 1,100 m asl. It can also occur in degraded habitats. Nothing is known from China, but this species is known to roost in caves with other species of <em>Rhinolophus</em> in other areas.	eng
19573	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There is no information available on the population and abundance of this species. However, it is known to be locally uncommon to common.	eng
19573	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats, although the species appears to be dependent on caves and their destruction in some parts of the range may cause localised population declines (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
19574	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Survey, ecological and population monitoring are recommended (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
19574	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Southeast Asia, with additional records from South Asia and China. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from southern Myanmar and Thailand, into Peninsular Malaysia, and from here into Indonesia (including the Mentawi Islands [Nias], Sumatra, Bangka, Billiton, Java and Banta), ranging to the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). In South Asia, it is presently known from Assam and West Bengal in India, recorded up to an elevation of 1,800 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it is known only from a single specimen recorded from Guizhou (Jinsha) (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19574	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It is generally considered a lowland species on Borneo and elsewhere in the region. Animals roost singly under leaves or palm leaves in the forest understory, and are believed to breed once a year. In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is found in dense evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19574	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, this species is generally considered to be common in intact forest habitats. It is considered to be uncommon on the island of Sumatra (Indonesia). The abundance, population size and trends for this species in South Asia are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19574	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened over much of its range by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use. In South Asia, the development of tourism related activities is also considered to be a major threat (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19575	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19575	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it occurs widely. There are records from Batan, Busuanga, Catanduanes, Cebu, Jolo, Leyte, Lubang (Lawrence, 1939), Luzon [Abra, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Kalinga (Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 2004), Laguna, Pampanga, and Sorsogon provinces], Maripipi, Mindanao [Bukidnon, South Cotabato (Taylor, 1934) provinces], Negros, Palawan, and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is found at 250-1,100 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19575	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Records of this species are from primary lowland forest up to the lower limits of montane forest. There are several reports from caves and one from a tree buttress (Taylor, 1934; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has also been found frequently in heavily disturbed agricultural areas if there is second-growth vegetation near the caves where the bats roost (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007).	eng
19575	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is a widespread and moderately common species. On Palawan Island, it was found to be moderately common (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
19575	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It is a lowland species, but is adaptable and so is probably not greatly impacted by deforestation, except perhaps around its caves. Its populations do not seem to be severely threatened and appear to be stable (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19576	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed (Y.P. Sinha pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, most known populations are in protected areas (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
19576	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is distributed in Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram in India, Yunnan in China, northern and eastern Myanmar and northern, western and southern Thailand (including the island of Terutau). It might be present in Lao, however, this needs confirmation. In India, it has been recorded at elevations up to of 1,231 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19576	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is commonly encountered in dense hilly forests among bamboo clumps (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia all known records are from limestone caves. In China, this species has been collected from bamboo thickets, and also from thatched roofs.	eng
19576	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	It seems to be uncommon in Southeast Asia, and in Thailand it is mostly found in groups of 100 or fewer animals (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19576	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, there appear to be no major threats but may be locally threatened by deforestation in some areas.	eng
19577	conservation	Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Protection of important roosting sites and foraging areas is needed. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
19577	distribution	Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	This insular species has been recorded on the Indonesian islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Wetar, Ambon, Batjan, Goreng, Ternate, Bacan, Manawoka, and the Kai Islands. It has also been recorded from the island of Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia).	eng
19577	habitat	Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	Presumably this is a cave roosting species.	eng
19577	population	Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	The population abundance is not known.	eng
19577	threats	Bates, P. & Csorba, G., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. There have been large-scale habitat changes within its range, the impact of these on the species has not been recorded.	eng
19589	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	It is present in the Barlee Range Nature Reserve and other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
19589	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is found in northern and western Western Australia, Northern Territory, and north-western Queensland (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19589	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species roosts in caves and old mine workings in colonies of 20 to 20,000 individuals (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008). Dry season roosts are normally in caves. In the wet season, bats disperse and use a diversity of roosts including caves, under buildings, and also probably in tree hollows (B. Thomson pers. comm.). The species likes very humid caves (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). It forages in nearby open woodland. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
19589	population	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is rare and scattered within its habitat, but is locally common in Top End (Churchill <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19589	threats	McKenzie, N. & Hall, L., 2008	This species is very sensitive to cave disturbance due to visitation (B. Thomson pers. comm.). Large numbers have been killed by inappropriate cave gating in the past. Mine collapse is a major threat to old mines, at least in the Pilbara and Northern Territory regions (N. McKenzie and G. Richards pers. comm.). Mining is also threatening some natural roosts (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
19591	conservation	Mantilla, H. & Burneo, S., 2008	Found in some National Parks.	eng
19591	distribution	Mantilla, H. & Burneo, S., 2008	This species occurs in the west of Colombia, and western Ecuador (Simmons, 2005). Occurs between 0-1,000 m on the Pacific flanks of the Andes and lowlands. In Ecuador reported to 1,700 m (Burneo pers. comm.).	eng
19591	habitat	Mantilla, H. & Burneo, S., 2008	This bat is strongly associated with moist areas and tropical evergreen forests, prefers unaltered habitats (Albuja 1999). Feeds on remains of fruits. It is primarily frugivorous; it feeds on fruits of understory shrubs; it also eats insects (Handley 1976). Found in Chocoan forests. Bimodal reproduction (Albuja 1999). Found in caves (Handley 1976)	eng
19591	population	Mantilla, H. & Burneo, S., 2008	It is not known from many specimens, thus population is unknown. Seems to be locally abundant in appropriate areas - in Reserva Ecologica Cotacachi Cayapas is one of the most abundant bats (Albuja 1999).	eng
19591	threats	Mantilla, H. & Burneo, S., 2008	Chocoan forest habitats are severely threatened.	eng
19592	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19592	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Peru, Ecuador, southern Venezuela, southeastern Colombia, and Amazonia Brazil (Koopman, 1993).	eng
19592	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, near rivers, and fruit groves; rare in deciduous forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). These bats are believed to be primarily frugivorous (Eisenberg, 1989). Pregnant females with only a single embryo have been found in Peru in June and July (Graham, 1987).	eng
19592	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Moderately common to uncommon (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
19592	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	No major threats throughout its range. Deforestation is a localised threat.	eng
19593	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat destruction. The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
19593	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species ranges across southern Colombia and Venezuela, the Guianas, Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and northern Brazil to the central east coast (Eisenberg, 1989; Koopman, 1993) including Espírito Santo south of the Doce river (Zortea, 1995). Altitudinal range is up to 1,400 m asl (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
19593	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist areas and multistratal tropical evergreen forests, near rivers, and fruit groves and is rare in deciduous forest. These bats are believed to be primarily frugivorous feeding on fruits of understory shrubs; they also eat insects (Eisenberg, 1989; Tuttle, 1970). Roosts under tents made from palm and aroid leaves (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Pregnant or lactating females have been found in April, May, June, July, and December (Wilson, 1979).	eng
19593	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Common to moderately common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
19593	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation, conversion of habitat is a localised threat.	eng
19594	conservation	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is confirmed as occurring in two protected areas: Na Hang Nature Reserve and Cham Chu Nature Reserve (Le and Boonratana 2006), and may occur in others (M. Richardson pers. comm.). Based on interviews and specimen information, it may occur in Yen Tu Nature Reserve in Quang Ninh Province, but it is unclear whether a population survives (Le Khac Quyet pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Nadler <em>et al </em>(2003) recommended the following conservation actions to preserve this species in Viet Nam: undertaking of further field status surveys; expansion of the protected area network and improvement of protected area management; mitigation of impacts from dam construction; and other options for conservation, including assessments of its behavior, diet, and ecological relationships in order to support a captive breeding program, and planning for subsequent release into a suitably designed, well-protected natural areas which can support it. Subsequent to these recommendations, the results of a stakeholder consensus workshop proposed: establishment of a species and habitat protection program; long-term monitoring program; long-term field studies on behavioral ecology; surveys; expansion of protected habitats; strengthening of protected area management; public awareness and conservation education; participation of stakeholder communities; relocation of stakeholder communities; and implementation of recommendations (Le and Boonratana 2006).<br/><br/>An important conservation measure is the establishment of a species habitat/conservation area for Khau Ca Conservation Area in Ha Giang Province. Strict law enforcement is needed wherever the species still survives (Boonratana and Le 1998).	eng
19594	distribution	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is confined to a few areas in far northeastern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). Historically limited to areas east of the Red River (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), its distribution has become dramatically restricted in recent decades due to massive deforestation and intensive hunting (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is currently known only from small forest patches in Tuyen Quang and Bac Kan Provinces, and to a lesser extent in Ha Giang and Thai Nguyen Provinces (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
19594	habitat	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is found in tropical evergreen forests associated with karst limestone hills and mountains (Le and Boonratana 2006), and is largely restricted to primary forest (Boonratana and Canh 1998). It has been recorded at elevations between 200 and 1,200 m (Le and Boonratana 2006). Ranges of different groups overlap greatly (Boonratana and Canh 1998). It appears to be a selective feeder, feeding on the young leaves, unripe fruits, and seeds of as many as 52 plant species (Boonratana and Canh 1998). These animals are diurnal (Nguyen 2000), and arboreal and terrestrial.	eng
19594	population	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Viet Nam, and very rare (Nguyen 2000). A study of the Tat Ke Sector of the Na Hang Nature Reserve in 1993 estimated a density of less than 8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Le and Boonratana 2006); a later study, in 2004-2005, found far lower densities. It has been suggested that hunting pressure is the reason for low densities in Tat Ke Sector, and former densities may have reached 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Le and Boonratana 2006). The highest estimate for any one population was in the Ban Bung sector of the Na Hang Nature Reserve, at between 90 and 110 individuals in 1992 (Ratajszczak <em>et al</em>. 1992). There is a suggested trend of decline in both sectors of the Na Hang Nature Reserve, Tat Ke and Ban Bung (Le and Boonratana 2006). There are estimated to be about 250 individuals throughout its known range, though the global population could actually be higher, due to the possible occurrence of this species in other areas where it has not yet been recorded (Le and Boonratana 2006).	eng
19594	threats	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Boonratana, R., 2008	These animals are reported as threatened from habitat degradation and hunting pressure. There is an increase in habitat disturbance from humans in the southern sectors of the Na Hang Nature Reserve. They are not shy and do not necessarily flee when encountered by humans, increasing the chance of being shot (Nguyen 2000). Hunting is the most immediate threat to this species (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003), despite claims from various sources that it is not hunted. The only reason more individuals are not shot is due to the rarity of the species, and not because of law enforcement or awareness of the species importance (Long and Le Khac Quyet 2001).<br/><br/>Although this species is not usually targeted for bushmeat hunting due to its "foul-taste", it is shot when encountered, and consumed or used in traditional "medicine" (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). It has been found in trade in China, where it may be used for "medicinal" purposes (Nadler pers. comm.), although this is likely to be limited. There is a high hunting pressure in the area where it lives, as evidenced by several gunshots heard almost daily during field trips (2004-2005) in the Na Hang Nature Reserve (Le and Boonratana 2006). Shifting and settled cultivation, as well as other land development activities, also pose a threat (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the past, excessively intense and unsustainable legal and illegal logging and gold mining were the biggest threats. Recently, the development of a hydroelectric power project along the Gam River in Na Hang has caused large areas of its habitat to come under construction (Le and Boonratana 2006; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Also, sudden increases in human populations, especially construction workers, have led to increased demand for meat, and thus increased hunting pressure (Le and Boonratana 2006).	eng
19595	conservation	Bleisch, W., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and as Category I under the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act, 1989. <br/>The most urgent conservation need is to remove the threats in and around the Fanjingshan Nature Reserve. In the longer term, there is a need to survey other possible remnant forests in the vicinity, especially Jinfoshan Nature Reserve (along the border between Guizhou and Sichuan provinces), for the small possibility of other populations and also to investigate the possibility of translocation. There are also other possible sites within the Wuling Mountain range that might offer suitable habitat.<br/><br/>The Fanjingshan Nature Reserve maintains a captive breeding colony, and a few pairs have been sent to other centers in China. However, breeding has been slow and the future of the captive population is not considered secure (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve 1996).	eng
19595	distribution	Bleisch, W., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is endemic to a small region of Guizhou Province southern China (in Jiangkou, Songtao, and Yingjiang counties). It is confined to a small, continuous block of habitat centering on Fanjing Mountain, south of the Yangtze in the Wuling Mountains (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1994; Groves 2001). There were unconfirmed anecdotal reports of a population in Jinfoshan Nature Reserve, but the status is unknown.	eng
19595	habitat	Bleisch, W., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in forests of mixed–deciduous and evergreen broadleaf and deciduous broadleaf trees at elevations between 1,400 and 2,300 m (Bleisch <em>et al</em>. 1993; Bleisch 1995; Bleisch and Xie 1998). However, at times of heavy snow cover, they may be recorded at lower elevations (as low as 570 m), as individuals move down to the rivers (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in secondary forest but is absent from coniferous forest (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). The subpopulations are thought to utilize much of the available habitat throughout the nature reserve. It is folivorous, but also consumes leaf buds, flower buds, fruits, seeds, bark, and insect larvae (Bleisch <em>et a</em>l. 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1998). It is diurnal and semi-terrestrial, yet more arboreal as it only comes to the ground when there is an absence of appropriate trees (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993). The birth season for this species is from April to May (Bleisch <em>et al</em>. 1993). The social structure is based on one-male groups which travel and rest together in large cohesive bands composed of up to 400 individuals or more (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Bleisch and Xie 1998).	eng
19595	population	Bleisch, W., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	In 1992, a census with multiple observation teams led to an estimate of 600-1,200 individuals (Bleisch <em>et al.</em> 1993; Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve 1996). A new census in 2005 led to an estimate of about 750 individuals, believed to consist of less than 400 mature individuals, in one troop which may divide in the winter into smaller groups (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve unpubl. data). There is evidence that 20 individuals have moved outside of the Nature Reserve into an adjacent community forest (Lijiadashan) (Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve unpubl. data; W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). No other individuals have been confirmed outside of the nature reserve.	eng
19595	threats	Bleisch, W., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is threatened by non-targeted hunting (Bleisch 1991) and habitat loss due to forest clearing (Bleisch 1995). It is also sometimes caught in snares set for other animals (Bleisch 1995). Previously, collection of magnolia flower buds and bark (by cutting down tress) by local villagers removed a food source of this species, but this practice has reportedly ceased (Dunyan pers. comm. 2006). There is currently construction and development for tourism, including a tourist road, cable car and hotels within the nature reserve, which are a potential threat because of habitat destruction and disturbance. At lower elevations, there is continued pressure from agricultural expansion and collection of firewood. The species occurs at only a single locality, making it vulnerable to epidemic disease or catastrophes.	eng
19596	conservation	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and as Category I of the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act, 1989. <br/>Protected areas where this species definitely known to occur include: Baihe Nature Reserve, Changqing Nature Reserve, Foping Nature Reserve, Laoxiancheng Nature Reserve, Shennongjia Nature Reserve, Taibai Nature Reserve, Wanglang Nature Reserve, Zhouzhi Nature Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.), although according to L. Yongcheng (pers. comm.) it is to be found in a much larger number of nature reserves. It is almost never seen in captivity outside of Asia (M. Richardson pers. comm.).	eng
19596	distribution	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs in west-central China (Ganssu, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Sichuan provinces) (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em> <br/>Occurs in western Sichuan (Qingchuan, Pingwu, Songpan, Beichuan, Nanping, Maoxian, Heishui, Wenchuan, Baoxing, Tianquan, Lushan, Luding counties, on Qionglaishan Mountain, Mingshan Mountain, Daxiangling and Xiaoxiangling Mountain), southern Gansu (Wenxian county in Mingshan Mountain) and southern Shaanxi (Ningqian country) (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em> <br/>Occurs in southern Shaanxi (Qinling Mountains, including the counties of Taibai, Zhouzhi, Foping, Yangxian, Ningshaan) (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1998; Li <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis </em><br/>Occurs in western Hubei and northeastern Sichuan (Shennongjia forest region of Daba Mountain, in Fangxian, Xingshan, and Batong counties) (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1998; Li unpubli. 2006).	eng
19596	habitat	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found only in montane forests where snow cover can last for up to six months of the year (Allen 1938; Davison 1982). In the Qinling Mountains it is found in mixed deciduous-broadleaf forests from 1,400 to 2,800 m (Gao and Liu 1995; Li <em>et al.</em> 2001). It can also occur in other forest types, including mixed conifer-broadleaf and deciduous broadleaf. <em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em> and <em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em> are found more often in mixed conifer and deciduous broadleaf forests. It is semi-terrestrial, diurnal, and folivorous, but will also eat seeds, fruit, bark, insects, and small vertebrates.	eng
19596	population	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	<em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em><br/>There are about 10,000 individuals in 100 troops in Sichuan (6,000 individuals in Mingshan Mountain, 3,500 in Qionglaishan Mountain, and 500 in Daxiangling and Xiaoxianling Mountain), about 800 individuals in 8 troops in Gansu, and about 170-200 individuals in 1 or 2 troops in Shaanxi (Zhang 1995; Jiang 2005; Li unpubl. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em><br/>There are approximately 3,800-4,000 total individuals belonging to 39 troops (Li <em>et al.</em> 2001). Around half of these are mature individuals. Since the mid 1990s, the population appears to have stabilized.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em><br/>There are about 600-1,000 individuals in 5-6 troops (Ren <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
19596	threats	Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	<em>Rhinopithecus roxellana</em><br/>The major threat for the species is forest loss due to agricultural expansion, especially outside of protected areas. <br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana</em><br/>The major threat is habitat loss. Secondarily, there is a serious threat from continued illegal hunting of this subspecies. There is also harassment owing to tourist activities, including the herding of troops for tourists to view.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana qinlingensis</em><br/>In the Qinling Mountains tourism is having a significant negative impact, mainly due to the creation of roads and other infrastructure. Before 1990, there were threats from illegal hunting, but this has stopped due to increased government protection.<br/><br/><em>Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</em><br/>There is a serious threat to this subspecies from tourism-related activities, along with continued habitat loss. Before 1990, there were threats from illegal hunting, but this has stopped due to increased government protection.	eng
19597	conservation	Bleisch, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Most of the remaining populations are in protected areas, with only four groups found outside of them. There are currently 11 groups in protected areas: Hongla Snow Mountain Nature Reserve in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (which contains about 300 individuals), and Baima Snow Mountain and Laojun Mountain Nature Reserves in Yunnan.<br/><br/>There is a major focus in China on captive breeding of this species, with breeding pairs at the Kunming Zoo and Kunming Institute of Zoology. Most of these individuals are captured from the wild, and so far the program is not sustainable (Wang Sung pers. comm.).	eng
19597	distribution	Bleisch, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs only in southwestern China (Tibet and Yunnan). It is found in fragmented populations in the Yun Ling Mountains in northwestern Yunnan and southeastern Tibet, west of the Yangtze River and east of the Mekong River (Yang 2003).	eng
19597	habitat	Bleisch, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in high-altitude evergreen forests, both the lower (about 3,000 m) and upper (about 4,700 m) limits of its known ranges (Long <em>et al.</em>. 1996) are the highest recorded for a primate. It prefers fir-larch forest between the Yangtze and Mekong Rivers (Long <em>et al.</em> 1994). At Bamei, in northern Yunnan Province, it was found to live primarily in cypress forests (Zhong <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>It is mainly folivorous, though Kirkpatrick <em>et al. </em>(2001) report that lichens are also an important part of its diet in the northern part of its range. It is semi-terrestrial and diurnal (Wu and Xian 1994).	eng
19597	population	Bleisch, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	In 2006 the total known population was estimated at less than 2,000, with less than 1,000 mature individuals. There are currently 15 subpopulations, with 3 locations where subpopulations are known to have been extirpated since 1994 (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.). Although the remaining populations are well known, there are very likely to be as yet unsurveyed populations.	eng
19597	threats	Bleisch, W. & Richardson, M., 2008	The major threat to this species is hunting, often as a non-targeted species caught in snares set for musk deer. A preliminary PVA using Vortex found that five smallest subpopulations are at risk of declines and extinction in the next 100 years from effects inbreeding and poaching, while 5 largest subpopulations were considered more secure (Xiao <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is also threatened by habitat loss, especially from logging. Since 1999, when a ban stopped most commercial logging in the region, habitat loss has slowed, but it is still a large potential threat in the future. Clearing of forest land for summer grazing pasture had decreased suitable habitat for the monkeys by 31% between 1958 and 1997 (Xiao <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition, fires set for agriculture are a threat to some of the areas, particularly in Tibetan Autonomous Region. A subpopulation of about 50 individuals in one area was apparently extirpated due to pesticide spraying for control of forest pests (Zhong Tai in litt.)	eng
19599	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	No specific measures are known or are in place, but presumably occurs in protected areas across the range. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
19599	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2010	No specific measures are known or are in place, but presumably occurs in protected areas across the range. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
19599	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Occurs across central and northern Africa through Arabia and southern Asia; from Morocco to India north to Israel, Palestine, Jordan Iraq and Afghanistan and south to Kenya. Presence in Myanmar based on a very old reference with no detail of location; there is doubt about its current presence. Occurs up 1,100 m asl in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
19599	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2010	Occurs across central and northern Africa through Arabia and southern Asia; from Morocco to India north to Israel, Palestine, Jordan Iraq and Afghanistan and south to Kenya. Presence in Myanmar based on a very old reference with no detail of location; there is doubt about its current presence. Occurs up 1,100 m asl in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
19599	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Inhabits arid and semi-desert vegetation zones where suitable roosts and food are available. Recorded in semi-desert grassland with areas of Acacia scrub in oases with gardens and orchards surrounded by sandy desert and hamada, in gorges of wadis with some <em>Tamarix</em> and Oleanders (<em>Nerium oleander</em>). Roosts in dry caves, ruins, underground tunnels (including catacombs), mosques and old buildings. In summer sometimes roosts in fissures, small crevices and among boulders. The species is sendentary and it stores fat in autumn for the winter months.	eng
19599	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2010	Inhabits arid and semi-desert vegetation zones where suitable roosts and food are available. Recorded in semi-desert grassland with areas of Acacia scrub in oases with gardens and orchards surrounded by sandy desert and hamada, in gorges of wadis with some <em>Tamarix</em> and Oleanders (<em>Nerium oleander</em>). Roosts in dry caves, ruins, underground tunnels (including catacombs), mosques and old buildings. In summer sometimes roosts in fissures, small crevices and among boulders. The species is sendentary and it stores fat in autumn for the winter months.	eng
19599	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Appears to be particularly abundant near oases. However, both distribution and abundance are undoubtedly insufficiently investigated because the roosts and suitable habitats are often unreachable. Colonies range in size from a few individuals up to several hundred. Up to 500 individuals have been reported in colonies in Jordan (Amr 2000). Occurs with other species in the genus, in Iran it is normally found in low numbers and low densities and it feeds on coleoptera (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Assumed stable throughout the southwest Asia region (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Population information remains unknown for its African distribution.	eng
19599	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2010	Appears to be particularly abundant near oases. However, both distribution and abundance are undoubtedly insufficiently investigated because the roosts and suitable habitats are often unreachable. Colonies range in size from a few individuals up to several hundred. Up to 500 individuals have been reported in colonies in Jordan (Amr 2000). Occurs with other species in the genus, in Iran it is normally found in low numbers and low densities and it feeds on coleoptera (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Assumed stable throughout the southwest Asia region (D. Kock pers. comm. 2005). Population information remains unknown for its African distribution.	eng
19599	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Human disturbance in roost sites and pesticide use against locusts are the main threats. In arid areas of Iran which can not support high numbers of colonies, they aggregate in a few large groups which increases their vulnerability (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). These are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.	eng
19599	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2010	Human disturbance in roost sites and pesticide use against locusts are the main threats. In arid areas of Iran which can not support high numbers of colonies, they aggregate in a few large groups which increases their vulnerability (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). These are not thought to be major threats to the species as a whole at present.	eng
19600	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	No specific measures are known for this species, but presumably it occurs in some protected areas. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
19600	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, P., 2008	No specific measures are known for this species, but presumably it occurs in some protected areas. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
19600	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Distribution range extends from northern Africa through southwest Asia to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In southeast Asia, there are single old records from Thailand and Sumatra. Recorded from sea level in Egypt up to 1,200 m in Morocco.	eng
19600	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, P., 2008	Distribution range extends from northern Africa through southwest Asia to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In southeast Asia, there are single old records from Thailand and Sumatra. Recorded from sea level in Egypt up to 1,200 m in Morocco.	eng
19600	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	A species of arid areas, with rainfall usually less than 300 mm and with sparse vegetation. This is a true desert species which is adapted to this habitat by having valved nostrils (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Roosts in crevices, small caves, mines, underground tunnels, wells, old monuments and buildings. Tolerates low relative humidity and light. Accumulate fat during the autumn and remain active throughout the year.	eng
19600	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, P., 2008	A species of arid areas, with rainfall usually less than 300 mm and with sparse vegetation. This is a true desert species which is adapted to this habitat by having valved nostrils (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). Roosts in crevices, small caves, mines, underground tunnels, wells, old monuments and buildings. Tolerates low relative humidity and light. Accumulate fat during the autumn and remain active throughout the year.	eng
19600	population	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Uncommon in the western part of the Mediterranean range, but populations probably occur in areas not yet surveyed. Colonies of several thousands have been reported in Egypt. Very rare in Jordan, found in the same caves as <em>R. hardwickii</em> but in much lower numbers (Amr 2000). In Iran the species is common, the most populated cave is in the Mesopotamian plain and has around 20,000 individuals; the total population of Iran is approximately 30,000 and is considered stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). In Africa there are large colonies of up to 5000 individuals in several areas (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).	eng
19600	population	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, P., 2008	Uncommon in the western part of the Mediterranean range, but populations probably occur in areas not yet surveyed. Colonies of several thousands have been reported in Egypt. Very rare in Jordan, found in the same caves as <em>R. hardwickii</em> but in much lower numbers (Amr 2000). In Iran the species is common, the most populated cave is in the Mesopotamian plain and has around 20,000 individuals; the total population of Iran is approximately 30,000 and is considered stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005). In Africa there are large colonies of up to 5000 individuals in several areas (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).	eng
19600	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Human disturbance in roost sites and use of pesticides for locusts affect the species but are not considered major threats at present.	eng
19600	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, P., 2008	Human disturbance in roost sites and use of pesticides for locusts affect the species but are not considered major threats at present.	eng
19601	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is possible that the species is present in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
19601	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is endemic to East Africa, where it has mostly been recorded from Kenya with additional records from the eastern edge of Uganda, Somalia, Ethiopia and possibly Eritrea.	eng
19601	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This little known species is associated with hot and temperate desert and semi-desert.	eng
19601	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It is believed to have a small population as several expeditions to the species range have not collected specimens.	eng
19601	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	It may be threatened by habitat loss, although this requires confirmation.	eng
19602	conservation	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Sharifi, M., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance and protection of important roost sites is needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19602	distribution	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Sharifi, M., 2008	This species ranges from the southeastern Arabian Peninsula to western South Asia. It has been recorded from a number of localities in Oman, from the United Arab Emirates, and presumably occurs in much of southern Iran. In South Asia, This species is known from Afghanistan (Kandahar, Nimruz and Helmand provinces) and Pakistan (Baluchistan) where it has been recorded at 700 to 1,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There are doubtful records of its occurrence in India, either from Genji in Rajasthan or from Gingee in Tamil Nadu (Van Cakenberghe and de Vree 1994; and Bates and Harrison 1997) and these are not included in this assessment.	eng
19602	habitat	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Sharifi, M., 2008	This species is known to roost in caves, caverns and old and disused buildings (Harrison and Bates, 1991; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It roosts as single individuals, or in groups of up to several hundred individuals (Harrison and Bates 1991; Bates and Harrison 1997). In Iran, the species has been recorded from arid and semi arid areas in the littoral area of the Persian Gulf. In parts of Iran it is found in wheat fields and similar arable areas where it feeds on beetles (Coleopterans) (Sharifi pers. comm.).	eng
19602	population	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Sharifi, M., 2008	In Iran it is generally uncommon to rare (Sharifi <em>et al</em>, 2000; Sharifi pers. comm.). There is little information on the abundance of this species on the Arabian Peninsula, and in South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19602	threats	Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Sharifi, M., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known, but presumably include some localised disturbance of roosting sites. In South Asia, this species is locally threatened due to loss of roosting sites (generally buildings) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002)	eng
19605	conservation	Vargas, J., Weksler, M. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
19605	distribution	Vargas, J., Weksler, M. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species occurs in the lower east Andean slopes and foothills, about 350 to 2,600 m, from La Paz Department, west central Bolivia, south to Jujuy Province, northwest Argentina (Tribe, 1996; Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Argentina between 500 m to 1,400 m.	eng
19605	habitat	Vargas, J., Weksler, M. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species that is present in a wide variety of habitats, including primary and secondary Yungas forest, plantations and cultivated areas.	eng
19605	population	Vargas, J., Weksler, M. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
19605	threats	Vargas, J., Weksler, M. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is a pest species in coffee plantations.	eng
19606	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19606	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The species is known only from twelve specimens (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). This species occurs in middle to high elevations, about 2,200 to 3,500 m, Cordillera Occidental (Cauca, Valle and Antioquia Departments) and the junction of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras (Huila Department), Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). There is continuing uncertainty about its range and the extension in the Cordillera Central.	eng
19606	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is arboreal in primary montane forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
19606	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is rarely collected although this is probably an artefact of sampling methods (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
19606	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The effects of deforestation and habitat conversion are not known and further research is necessary to confirm threats to this species.	eng
19607	conservation	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19607	distribution	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in the moist lowland forest that follows an arc from Trinidad, through north and west central Venezuela, to central Colombia (Meta Department) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is found from 10 to 1,500 m in Venezuela (Linares 1998).	eng
19607	habitat	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is nocturnal, arboreal and is found in mature and secondary rainforest, lowland and lower montane forest (Linares 1998).	eng
19607	population	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rodent is common in Venezuela (Linares 1998).	eng
19607	threats	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Emmons, L., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19608	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.	eng
19608	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species is known from isolated populations in the Andes of southwestern and central Colombia, and west and northeast Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
19608	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is an arboreal species; it occurs in primary montane forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
19608	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is a relatively common species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
19608	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19609	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout the range.	eng
19609	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in mid-elevation Andean forests, about 450 to 2,200 m, of central and west Colombia, central Ecuador, and extreme north Peru; allopatric populations in easternmost Panama (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador the highest elevation is 2,400 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and up to 3,000 m in Colombia.	eng
19609	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is an arboreal, nocturnal, and solitary rat; it occurs in primary forest. High populations occurred during periods of maximum precipitation. Reproduction was continual throughout the annual cycle (Montenegro-Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 1991).	eng
19609	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is rare in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.) but relatively common in Colombia (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
19609	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Tirira, D. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is affected by general habitat destruction although this is not a major threat at this time.	eng
19610	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
19610	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Guianas, south Venezuela, north and central Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and west central Bolivia; extralimital in west Ecuador and northwest Peru  (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
19610	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The genus is typically found in lowland, forested tropical South America (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). This species occurs in mature terra firme forest in the canopy (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Breeding may be delayed in <em>R. leucodactylus</em> relative to sympatric species (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
19610	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is relatively rare (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
19610	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
19611	conservation	Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19611	distribution	Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in highlands of south Venezuela (Bolívar and Amazonas States) and likely to be neighbouring parts of north Brazil and west Guyana (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 300 to 2,800 m (Linares, 1998).	eng
19611	habitat	Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This rodent is nocturnal, arboreal, occurring in primary and secondary rainforests (M. Aguillera pers. comm.).	eng
19611	population	Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is relatively common (Linares, 1998).	eng
19611	threats	Aguilera, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19612	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
19612	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region, southeast Brazil (Pernambuco to São Paulo) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
19612	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The genus is typically found in lowland, forested tropical South America (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is an arboreal rat found at sea level to 1,500 m, in forested areas including primary and secondary forest (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
19612	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
19612	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, but this is not a major threat overall.	eng
19613	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occur in several protected areas.	eng
19613	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Amazonian lowlands in south Venezuela, Guianas, and north central Brazil. The reports of the species in Bolivia (Anderson, 1997) and Colombia (Tribe, 1996) cannot be confirmed, and the species appears to be confined to Amazonia east of the Rios Negro-Madeira as so far documented (see Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
19613	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest, and even into urban areas (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
19613	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is fairly common (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
19613	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
19614	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into this poorly known species.	eng
19614	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, southeast Río Inambari in northern Puno Department, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Tribe, 1997). It has been collected at 1,830 m.	eng
19614	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is presumably an arboreal species. It was collected in cloud forest, with a dense undergrowth of shrubs and vines.	eng
19614	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is known only from four specimens.	eng
19614	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is presumably threatened by deforestation of habitat through conversion to agricultural use, however, further research is necessary as this species is known from only a few localities.	eng
19616	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19616	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of north and west Venezuela, Tobago (Trinidan and Tobago), and east Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Extent of eastern distribution is uncertain.	eng
19616	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It is arboreal in primary montane forest and dry forest.	eng
19616	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It is a relatively common species (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
19616	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Ochoa, J. & Aguillera, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19617	conservation	Soriano, P. & Rivas, B., 2008	It occurs in a several protected areas.	eng
19617	distribution	Soriano, P. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is found in isolated populations in mountains of west and north Venezuela in Cordillera Mérida and central and Táchira (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found from 1,200 to 2,280 m (Linares, 1998).	eng
19617	habitat	Soriano, P. & Rivas, B., 2008	This rodent is nocturnal, arboreal and is found montane forest (Linares, 1998).	eng
19617	population	Soriano, P. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is difficult to capture and sample as an arboreal species (Linares, 1998).	eng
19617	threats	Soriano, P. & Rivas, B., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19618	conservation	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It occurs in a several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19618	distribution	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in highlands in south Venezuela (Bolívar and Amazonas States) and likely to occur in north Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of  1,000 to 2,200 m (Linares, 1998).	eng
19618	habitat	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	This is a nocturnal and arboreal rodent; it is found in primary and tepui montane (Linares, 1998).	eng
19618	population	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	It is a rare species (Linares, 1998).	eng
19618	threats	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J. & Rivas, B., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
19645	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range. In South Asia, it is known from the following protected areas in India: Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram and Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). The species is included in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In South Asia, surveys, life history studies, and population monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19645	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species is found in southern China (Yunnan, Ghizhou, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Fujian), northern and north-eastern India (Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Manipur up to 1,500 m asl [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]), eastern Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, south to Perak on the Malay Peninsula, at altitudes between 100 m and 4,000 m asl (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
19645	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is found in bamboo hill and montane forest in Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Xu (1984) reports records of this species from grassland intermixed with secondary forests, shrub forests, bamboo groves, with a smaller number of specimens from pine, fir, and other artificial forests. In South Asia, it occurs in tropical and subtropical deciduous forests. It is found to occupy bamboo thickets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). There seems to be concensus that they are not found in agricultural fields and rarely in deep forest, with some affiliation with bamboo. It is a long-lived, relatively slow-maturing, with a small litter size (one or two young).	eng
19645	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	In general, this species can be locally abundant. It was found to be rare during market surveys in the lowlands of Lao PDR, but commonly traded in markets in mountainous areas (Francis 1999). There is no information available on the population abundance of this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19645	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	The only threat to this species is that it is hunted for food, since they are easy to find and conspicuous. In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to shifting cultivation, bamboo extraction and hunting for local consumption (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
19646	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species occurs in Niumulin, Wuyishan, Nanling, Heishidingkuoyelin, Dayaoshanshuiyuanlin (Guangxi), Daozhendashahe, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Maolan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Dongdongtinghu (Hunan), Mangshan, Poyanghuhouniao, Yanquan, Taohongling, Jinggangshan, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Nandongtihu Shidi and Shuiqin, Xiaoxi, Meihualutiebu, Nanjingnanyaredaiyulin (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the distribution, taxonomy, and impacts of exploitation on the population.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19646	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is found in southern China, northern Myanmar, and northern Viet Nam (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It may be present in Lao PDR, however, the range in this country needs to be confirmed. Allen (1938) gave the elevational range of this species as 1,219-3,962 m asl.	eng
19646	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species may be largely confined to the bamboo belt of montane forest (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been recorded from plantations in some parts of its range. It is a burrow-dwelling species (Smith and Xie 2008). Predators include the red panda (MacClintock 1988) and the snow leopard (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1993). It has moderate tolerance to human disturbance (Lunde <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
19646	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range, for instance it is considered to be a plantation crop pest species in China (Ken Aplin pers. comm.).	eng
19646	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	The species is heavily harvested for food in some parts of its range.	eng
19647	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is present in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) and is probably present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and use/harvest trends of this species.	eng
19647	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a widespread species occurring in China (Yunnan), Myanmar, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (Indonesia) (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,000-4,000 m asl (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).	eng
19647	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in secondary forest where it feeds on bamboo roots (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Corbet and Hill 1992). It also feeds on cultivated tapioca and sugar cane (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Ithas moderate tolerance to human disturbance (Aplin and Lunde 2006).<br/><br/>They are reproductive biannually, February-April and August-October (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 22 days and litter size is 3-5 (Smith and Xie 2008). Longevity is four years (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19647	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It may be common where it is not hunted. It was formerly abundant in southern Myanmar, but now appears to be absent from this area. According to Wiles (1981) this species is common in lowland bamboo forest and uncommon in upland bamboo forest in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary in southwestern Thailand. It was found in good numbers in southern Yunnan (Mengla Area) in the 1990’s (A. Cleveland pers. comm.).	eng
19647	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is extensively hunted in some parts of its range.	eng
19661	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Was known only from the Lake Tota basin.	eng
19670	distribution	Bogan, A.E., 2000	<em>Rhodacmea filosa</em> was known from Alabama, USA.	eng
19670	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species is now thought to be extinct.	eng
19671	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Since this species was last assessed (in 1996), the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">R. s. amarus</span> (occurring in central and eastern Europe) has been raised to species level. The remaining population of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. sericeus</span> occurs in East Asia.	eng
19679	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in several protected areas and biosphere reserves.	eng
19679	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known from Oaxaca to Zacatecas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
19679	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). It is known from localities between 125 and 1,990 masl. It is found in decidious tropical forest (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
19679	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is considered as a rare species (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
19679	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Specimens collected have shown dental problems suggesting congenital affections (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its distribution is very fragmented. Habitat loss.	eng
19680	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found only in a very restricted State protected area. The species is including inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction).	eng
19680	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known in Pacific lowlands of south Chiapas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
19680	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species has been taken under the canopy of mature second growth lowland tropical forest. It is an aerial insectivore and is among the first bats to appear in the evening for feeding. No information about its reproduction is available. However, closely related species such as <em>Rhogeessa tumida</em> is known to bear two young per year with individuals reaching sexual maturity at the age of one year (Roots and Baker, 1998).	eng
19680	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This bat is rare; apparently know only from two localities (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). They are very difficult to distinguish from sibling wide spread species <em>Rhogeessa tumida</em> and because of that it could have been missidentified (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
19680	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The area is very affected by tropical storms in some cases even hurricanes (Arroyo-Cabrales and Jimenez pers. comm.) and habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture.	eng
19681	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in the Biosphere Reserve Tehuacan-Cuicatlan.	eng
19681	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is known from Jalisco and Zacatecas to Oaxaca (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from 600 to 2,000 m (Jones, 1977).	eng
19681	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Little information on its natural history is known. It occurs in arid tropical areas; also it has been found over a mountain stream in pine-oak forest. A male was take over an arroyo in oak forest. A female captured on May carried an embryo (Jones, 1977).	eng
19681	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species apparently is rare (Jones, 1977). Ceballos and Oliva (2005) deduce the fragility of the species considering the few number of specimens collected.	eng
19681	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
19682	conservation	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	Not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
19682	distribution	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Colombia and coastal Venezuela (including Margarita Island) (Simmons, 2005). In Venezuela 0-860 m (Lew pers. comm.)	eng
19682	habitat	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	This bat is strongly insectivorous, it especially feeds on small aerial insects (like flies or moths) that it catches in open areas. It is generally found in small colonies (Linares, 1998).This is one of the first bat species to appear at dusk (Soriano pers. comm.) Lives in holes in columnar cactus arms (Soriano pers com).	eng
19682	population	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	Where it occurs it is common, though it occurs sporatically across its range.	eng
19682	threats	Soriano, P. & Molinari, J., 2008	Threats to this species include habitat conversion following infrastructure development, including industry, commercial and residential (and tourism), concentrated along the Venezuelan Coast, near shore islands (Margarita) and into the eastern Andes (Merida region) which together with its reliance on columnar cactus and restricted range are resulting in popula	eng
19683	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The species is included inside the Mexican regulation for species conservation NOM-59-SEMARNAT-2001 (under P categorie which means Endangered of extinction) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
19683	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs only of the Balsa river basin at the Infiernillo dam. In south Michoacan (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from 125 to 200 m (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).	eng
19683	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It inhabits a small area of semiarid low region and arid thorn scrub vegetation. It has been caught over streams, in cactus-mesquite vegetation, and in gallery forest (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).	eng
19683	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This bat apparently is rare (Arroyo-Cabrales and Polaco, 1997).	eng
19683	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitat loss because of the dam development (Arroyo-Cabrales, pers. com)	eng
19684	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
19684	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs from Oaxaca to Sonora (Mexico); and Tres Marías Islands (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
19684	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in thorny and decidious forest and is know from sea level up to 1,500 meters (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
19684	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is considered as common (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
19684	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
19685	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
19685	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Tamaulipas (Mexico) to north Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica (Emmons and Feer; 1997; Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
19685	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat inhabits in a variety of habitats, including evergreen and deciduous forest, open areas, and villages. It appears to favor slightly disturbed, deciduous forest (Reid, 1997). Roosts in buildings and hollow trees, and colonies may be large. This is one of the first bats to appear at sunset, often flying low to the ground along wide trails on roads. There are two peaks of activity, for an hour after sunset and within an hour of dawn. It feeds on small flying insects, and individuals appear to have established hunting routes. Echolocation calls are short, with maximum energy at 50 to 60 kHz. In Belize, synchronized births occur once a year in the rainy season, and litter size is usually two (LaVal, 1973). Within limits imposed by its elevational distribution, this species is known from almost every major vegetation association in tropical North America (LaVal, 1973). The single specimen reported by Carter and Jones (1978) in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico, was captured over a stream. At Diriamba, Nicaragua, <em>R. tumida</em> was captured over small streams, along a trail in a small ravine, and along trees bordering a hacienda (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1971). Roosting habits of <em>R. tumida</em> are unknown. The only recorded instance of predation on <em>R. tumida</em> is by a male <em>Vampyrum spectrum</em> in northern Guatemala (McCarthy, 1987).	eng
19685	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997); Apparently rare but very widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
19685	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
19686	conservation	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is known from Hazar Ganji National Park in Baluchistan, Pakistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Approximately 35% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
19686	distribution	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This very widely distributed species is present in Iran, Central Asia, western South Asia, China and Mongolia. It is widespread in Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and appears to have a smaller distribution in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In South Asia, it has been recorded from northern Afghanistan (Habibi 2004) and western Pakistan (Baluchistan) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China the species is very widespread, and has been recorded from Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, Gansu, Ningxia and western Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it has been recorded from desert and semi-desert habitats across southern Mongolia, including the Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert, Alashani Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and Eastern Govi. Shargyn Govi in southern Govi Altai Mountain Range represents the northern limit of its range in Mongolia (Mallon, 1985).	eng
19686	habitat	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a diurnal, fossorial, colonial often seen associated with other gerbils. In China, the species occupies desert to semi-desert habitat, and is most successful in dry river beds dominated with shrubby vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia, it has been recorded from apple orchards and clay-sandy embankments. It has been found to occupy steppe mountains and upland deserts and sand dunes with scattered vegetation, in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Distribution is always associated with the presence of saxaul plants (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). It constructs large entrance holes to a very elaborate burrow system that consists of long deep tunnels, nest and food storage chambers (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19686	population	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Molur, S., 2008	No data are available at present, although it is believed to be common in the Gobi Desert.	eng
19686	threats	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing of vegetation by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts might also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
19705	conservation	FitzGibbon, C. & Rathbun, G., 2008	Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation (Rathbun and Kyalo 2000). A 25-year Strategic Management Plan (2002 to 2027) has been developed for this forest. Golden-rumped Sengis are currently being monitored in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest under a three year (2003 - 2005) USAID funded project run by Nature Kenya (the Kenyan partner to BirdLife International). The forest is managed jointly by the Forest Department and Kenya Wildlife Service. The kaya forests are the subject of a project run by the Coast Forest Conservation Unit (National Museums of Kenya), which assists local communities to re-establish effective local control over resources in these sacred forests. Through the efforts of the CFCU, these forests have been gazetted as National Monuments, a legal status which prevents development and encroachment but provides only limited protection for biodiversity.	eng
19705	distribution	FitzGibbon, C. & Rathbun, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Kenya and occurs in fragmented and small forest patches inland from Mombasa (on the north side of the Kombeni River near the Rabai Hills) north as far as the Boni Forest (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Rathbun 1979a,b), but probably absent from gallery and ground-water forests.	eng
19705	habitat	FitzGibbon, C. & Rathbun, G., 2008	The Golden-rumped Sengi is found in forest, dense woodland, and thicket habitats that support dense leaf litter on the ground. They eat a wide range of invertebrates, including beetles, termites, earth worms, and millipedes. They are diurnal and form monogamous pairs (FitzGibbon 1997). They spend the night on the forest floor in leaf nests, which have been used to estimate relatively abundance (FitzGibbon and Rathbun 1994). They produce single highly precocial young about every two months throughout the year. In many regards, their general natural history is best understood if one considers them a combination of a small ant-eater and a miniature antelope (Rathbun 1979a; FitzGibbon 1995).	eng
19705	population	FitzGibbon, C. & Rathbun, G., 2008	Populations densities in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest decreased by <em>c</em>. 30% between 1993 and 1996 from an estimated 20,000 to 14,000 individuals (Bauer 1996; FitzGibbon 1994); the decline appeared to be concentrated in the <em>Cynometra</em> woodland, rather than in the mixed or <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland. Population trends in other areas are unknown, except for the small population at Gede Ruins National Monument (an area of 44 ha) declined significantly between the early 1970s (population estimated at <em>ca</em> 70 individuals; Rathbun 1979a) and the early 1990s (population estimated at <15 individuals; FitzGibbon 1994). Clearance of woodland and scrub in surrounding areas is likely to have resulted in further population declines elsewhere.	eng
19705	threats	FitzGibbon, C. & Rathbun, G., 2008	Outside of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the major threat to this species is likely to be habitat loss (Rathbun and Kyalo 2000), as a result of clearance of scrub and woodland. Many of the kaya forests have been severely degraded by tree felling and pole collecting, and their boundaries eroded by agricultural encroachment. Habitat loss not only results in a reduced distribution, but also increases isolation of the remaining small populations. Within Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the species appears to be adversely affected by logging (but not pole collecting), primarily in the Cynometra habitat type. This may be due to the resulting reduction in leaf litter and canopy cover, and the loss of hollow trunks used as refuges (FitzGibbon 1994; Bauer 1996; Rathbun and Kyalo 2000); trapping by woodcarvers who camp in the Cynometra habitat for long periods and trap a variety of wildlife for food may also be contributing to the decline. It was estimated in the early 1990s that about 3,000 Golden-rumped Sengis were being caught per year by hunters in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. At that time the species was not being targeted by hunters (it has an unpleasant taste), it was primarily caught in traps and snares designed for other animals (particularly the Four-toed Sengi, <em>Petrodromus tetradactylus</em>), and overall trapping was considered unlikely to be having a significant impact on population levels (FitGibbon <em>et al</em>. 1995). However, trapping intensity in Arabuko-Sokoke is reduced by forest guard patrols, and unrestricted trapping in un-patrolled areas may be having a negative impact. Predation by dogs may be an additional threat close to areas of habitation (FitzGibbon 1994).	eng
19708	conservation	Rathbun, G.B. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Numerous relatively small blocks of forest are designated as forest reserves in both Kenya and Tanzania, and these offer some level of protection of habitat needed by this sengi. Currently, several members of the IUCN SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group are collecting data to undertake a status review of <em>R. petersi</em>. In 2000, Black and Rufous Sengis from Tanzania were imported to North American zoos, where they have successfully bred. In the future, the husbandry methods developed may be useful in captive breeding and reintroduction programs.	eng
19708	distribution	Rathbun, G.B. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Endemic to East Africa and confined to the Eastern Arc mountain and coastal forests. In the Eastern Arc Mountains found in forests associated with the Shimba Hills in Kenya and south into Tanzania on the Pare, Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, and Uluguru mountains. A population in the Ndundulu Forest of the Udzungwa Mountains appears to be surrounded by Rhynchocyon cirnei. Along the coast populations occur in small and fragmented forests from Diani Forest, Kenya, south to the Rufiji River, Tanzania, including the islands of Zanzibar (= Unguja) and Mafia.	eng
19708	habitat	Rathbun, G.B. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Relatively little is known about the biology of the Black and Rufous Sengi because no detailed field studies have been completed. It occupies evergreen and semi-deciduous forests, dense woodlands, coral rag scrub, and abandoned and overgrown agricultural lands with closed canopies where a thick layer of leaf litter accumulates (Corbet and Hanks, 1968).  In recent years these habitats are becoming more fragmented, isolated, and small, which is often not illustrated in distribution maps for this species. Like other members of the genus, it is completely terrestrial and diurnal with very keen senses. <em>R. petersi</em>, like other sengis, has a propensity to quickly flee any disturbance in a highly cursorial gait (Allen and Loveridge 1927). It builds nests similar to those of the Golden-rumped Sengi (Hanna and Anderson 1994), and produces 1-2 highly cursorial neonates per litter. It feeds on forest floor invertebrates. Most often only brief sightings of lone individuals are made, although it is probably monogamous like the Golden-rumped sengi. Most aspects of its natural history are probably similar to the Golden-rumped Sengi (Rathbun 1979).	eng
19708	population	Rathbun, G.B. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	A relatively rare species with a fragmented and restricted distribution. Maximum densities, estimated from transect surveys of nests, up to 79.3/km² (Hanna and Anderson 1994). However, there are no population estimates for the numerous disjunct populations in the many isolated forests where this species occurs.	eng
19708	threats	Rathbun, G.B. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Fragmentation and degradation of forested habitats due to urban and agricultural expansion is the major threat to this sengi (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990). Extraction of timber for woodcarving, firewood, and charcoal production are also threats to its habitats. Given the similarity between the Golden-rumped Sengi and the Black and Rufous Sengi (Rathbun 1979), it is very likely that the latter is experiencing overall population declines due to habitat loss and degradation (Hanna and Anderson 1994).	eng
19709	conservation	Rathbun, G.B., 2008	Except for indirect protection in reserves and parks, there are no specific conservation initiatives directed towards this species. However, efforts to protect primates and antelopes in forest habitats may indirectly benefit <em>R. cirnei</em>.	eng
19709	distribution	Rathbun, G.B., 2008	The species occurs in central Africa, from Mozambique north of the Zambezi River; highlands associated with the Rift Valley system in Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania; western Uganda; south-eastern Tanzania; and Democratic Republic of Congo between the Congo and Ubangi Rivers (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Kingdon 1974). In some generalized distribution maps <em>R. cirnei</em> is shown to occur in extreme southern Central African Republic, based on a single individual reputed to have been collected between Bangui and Mbaiki west of the Ubangi River; this would be the only record west of the Ubangi River and unless confirmed, this does not seem likely (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
19709	habitat	Rathbun, G.B., 2008	The Checkered Sengi is restricted to montane and lowland forests, closed-canopy woodlands, and riparian thickets where the substrate is usually covered with dense leaf litter. These habitats are often fragmented and isolated due to natural and anthropogenic activities, resulting in isolated and sometimes small populations of this sengi. The fragmented nature of its occurrence is not illustrated in most distribution maps. Although there are no systematic field studies of <em>R. cirnei</em>, based on its general morphology, habitat associations, diurnality, nesting habits, and locomotion it is very likely that it's behavioral ecology is similar to that of the Golden-rumped Sengi. These similarities include monogamy, a relatively low reproductive rate, highly precocial neonates (litter 1–2), and a diet of leaf litter invertebrates.	eng
19709	population	Rathbun, G.B., 2008	There are no data on the relative abundance of Checkered Sengi populations. However, given the similarity to the Golden-rumped Sengi (<em>R. chrysopygus</em>), there is good reason to believe that similar population declines are occurring in <em>R. cirnei</em>.	eng
19709	threats	Rathbun, G.B., 2008	Vulnerable to habitat fragmentation, decline in forested areas, and quality of habitats due to human activities, similar to that documented for the Golden-rump Sengi, <em>Rhynchocyon chrysopygus</em>. Of potential concern are two subspecies of Checkered Sengi: <em>R. c. hendersoni</em> is restricted to an isolated montane forest in Malawi, which may be disappearing due to clearing (Nicoll and Rathbun 1990), and <em>R. c. cirnei</em>, which is known only from the type specimen from a restricted area in coastal Mozambique where little recent information is available on the status of the forested area. Habitat loss may also threaten other subspecies with restricted distributions, such as <em>R. c. macrurus</em> in the coastal areas of southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique. Hunting for food is also likely to be a localized threat in parts of the range (e.g., Nielsen 2006).	eng
19710	conservation	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine the area of occupancy and impact of numerous threats within the range of the species.	eng
19710	distribution	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Restricted to south-central Chile, including Chiloe Island (Gardner 2007). Recently reported to have been captured in Argentina. This species has a wide altitudinal range, occurring from sea level (Chiloe Island) up to 1,135 m asl in Osomo Province, Chile.	eng
19710	habitat	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	<em>R. raphanurus</em> occurs in temperate forest. It occurs at and is tolerant of a wide elevational range from sea level to 1,135 m above sea level and is locally abundant. It is probably terrestrial and nocturnal, foraging on the forest floor for insects, earthworms and plant debris.	eng
19710	population	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This genus occurs at and is tolerant of a wide elevational range and is locally abundant (Patterson <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
19710	threats	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Deforestation for logging is the main threat to this species.	eng
19711	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The locality where the species was collected is protected – Munusela National Park. Further surveys are needed to confirm whether or not the species still exists and also to see if it occurs elsewhere in other ranges on the island. It should also be looked for on the island of Buru.	eng
19711	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is only known from a series of seven specimens collected in February 1920 at a single locality on the island of Seram, Indonesia. One of the specimens was collected at 1,800 m asl.	eng
19711	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species was recorded from upper montane tropical forest. Little more is known about the species natural history.	eng
19711	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. More recent surveys undertaken on Seram have not been conducted at the elevational range of this montane species. There have been no surveys undertaken in the upper moss forests.	eng
19711	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The lower altitude forests of Seram are being cleared for timber and conversion to cultivated land. This affects the upper montane forest by increasing desiccation and making it more susceptible to fire. Pigs, rats, and dogs (and possibly cats) have been introduced to the island and they might be adversely affecting the species through both habitat degradation and predation.	eng
19712	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in Mt. Isarog National Park.	eng
19712	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is only known from Mt. Isarog, Camarines Sur Province, Luzon (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
19712	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	It occurs in primary montane and mossy forest from 1,125 to 1,750 m (D. Balete and L. Heaney in press; Heaney <em>et al.</em> in press; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
19712	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The population appears stable, but geographically restricted (Musser and Freeman 1981). It is more common on Mt. Isarog than <em>Chrotomys gonzalezi</em> or <em>Archbold luzonensis</em>. It is difficult to trap.	eng
19712	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	Mt. Isarog National Park used to be logged in the 80s, but this has ceased and some regeneration has occurred (D. Balete pers. comm.). Abaca is being grown for fibre within the park boundary but is not expanding nor is it affecting the species (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
19713	conservation	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is found in protected areas across its range.	eng
19713	distribution	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This species, which is endemic to Luzon (Philippines), has been recorded from Mt. Data, Benguet province, and from montane and mossy forest from 1,600-2,150 m in Balbalasang, Kalinga province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, it is likely to occur throughout the Central Cordillera (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
19713	habitat	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	This terrestrial species inhabits mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002) and occurs in areas with wet leaf litter where it feeds on earthworms.	eng
19713	population	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is moderately common in Balbasang National Park (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
19713	threats	Heaney, L., Tabaranza, B. & Balete, D., 2008	There is some habitat conversion to vegetable farms in parts of the species range and it is also vulnerable to habitat disturbance and logging, as the leaf litter dries out the food source is eliminated (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19714	conservation	Lim, B. & Miller, B., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas. It is widely distributed throughout the Neotropics. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
19714	distribution	Lim, B. & Miller, B., 2008	This species ranges from Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, to central and eastern Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Guianas, Surinam and Trinidad (Simmons 2005).  It is widely distributed at low elevations, generally below 500 m (Eisenberg 1989) but up to 1,500 m.	eng
19714	habitat	Lim, B. & Miller, B., 2008	It is almost always associated with moist areas near multistratal evergreen forests. These bats tend to roost in small, single-species colonies of about ten to twenty-four, on tree trunks, in tree cavities, or in rock caves (Eisenberg 1989). When roosting they are often aligned in vertical rows with individuals about 10 mm apart. Several males occur in a roosting group, and there appears to be no harem formation or defense. These bats are aerial insectivores (Husson 1978; Goodwin and Greenhall 1961); and they tend to feed over water, flying only a short distance above the surface (Eisenberg 1989). In Mexico they have been also reported for secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
19714	population	Lim, B. & Miller, B., 2008	These bats are often common in lowland forest near water (streams, rivers, mangroves, and lakes) (Reid 1997); widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997). Colonies vary from a few individuals to 100 individuals (Dalquest 1957).	eng
19714	threats	Lim, B. & Miller, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. May be some water issues.	eng
19737	distribution	Bonham, K., 2000	The species is known only from a number of sites on the eastern face of Mt Wellington. It may exist elsewhere, especially in the same mountain range, but considerable searching has failed to reveal specimens elsewhere.  <br/> <br/>Five localities are recorded (K. Bonham, unpub. data), relatively close together, so that it is just conceivable that all could be impacted by a single event (e.g., catastrophic fire). With further searching this number will increase but there is still some case for treating the species as present in a single location (K. Bonham, pers. comm). Extent of occurrence (EOO) (based on currently known records) is approximately 4 km². EOO is likely to be higher with more records but is quite likely to be less than 20 km². There has been no evidence of decline in range.	eng
19737	habitat	Bonham, K., 2000	Subalpine shrubby forest. It lives mainly in open boulder fields (these are typically 50 m to hundreds of metres wide) which are just lightly vegetated with wet scrub forest trees/shrubs (K. Bonham, pers. comm). Nothing is known of life history parameters (age at maturity, life span, etc).	eng
19737	population	Bonham, K., 2000	Much more would need to be known to determine if species consists of close subpopulations or a single subpopulation.  Conceivably the latter is the case. Population size is very low for a small land snail. The species is extremely difficult to find making estimates very difficult. It could conceivably be as small as 10–20 000 (K. Bonham, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>It is uncertain whether any population decline has occurred. Collections in the late 1800s suggest species may have been slightly easier to find then than now, but early searchers may simply have known of an area where the species was more common. Any population decline which occurred may have been due to a severe bushfire in 1966, which burnt through most of the species’ range.	eng
19737	threats	Bonham, K., 2000	Bushfires: The species is protected from fire in most places to a large degree by its specialised habitat. Some specimens occur in areas prone to fire, but fire would not be able to destroy the species altogether by itself (K. Bonham, pers. comm). The species may indeed be extremely fire sensitive, due partly to its naturally low population densities, and that the very large scree blockfields within its limited range explain its ability to survive and its inability to spread further (K. Bonham, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>In the long term, climate change as species occupies a narrow altitude band (700–1,000 m on a mountain 1,270 m high) and may have difficulty surviving a temperature change of several degrees.	eng
19740	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Presently the focus of a project of the EU Life programme (now finished), but the species distribution is within a protected area.	eng
19740	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage in Romania; formerly known from upper River Arges and its tributaries Valsan and Raul Doamnei. Today restricted to 1 km of upper River Valsan upstream of Bradet village, but adjacent basins still unsufficiently surveyed.	eng
19740	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast-flowing, cold and clear mountain streams. Usually hidden under stones. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, bottom dweller. Territorial; possibly spawns in second half of May. 120-150 eggs are deposited under stones. Feeds on insect larvae including mayflies (<em>Ephemeroptera</em>) and stoneflies (<em>Plecoptera</em>).	eng
19740	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19740	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Threats to the species were deforestation, construction of roads, extraction of stones, pollution and dam constructions has driven this species to the edge of extinction. <br/>Currently the species occurs only below a dam, and exists only because enough water is released from the dam.	eng
19742	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is listed under Appendix I of CITES (1973), and hunting is illegal according to Mexican law, but poorly enforced (Fa and Bell 1990). <em>R. diazi</em> occurs within the protected areas Izta-Popo and Zoquiapan National Parks, but hunting, grazing, and grass burning persist within the park boundaries (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 1990; Fa and Bell 1990; Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/><br/>Captive breeding programs have been established with some success, but infant mortality in captivity is very high (Fa and Bell 1990). <br/><br/>It is recommended that conservation measures focus on habitat management, particularly the control of burning and overgrazing of the bunchgrass “zacaton” habitat, and enforcement of the existing laws prohibiting hunting and trade of <em>R. diazi</em> (Fa and Bell 1990). Management of the protected areas should be improved and education plans at local, national, and international levels should be implemented (Fa and Bell 1990). Captive colonies, especially those in the zoos of Mexico, D. F., should be used to educate the public about the protected status of <em>R. diazi</em> (Fa and Bell 1990).	eng
19742	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is endemic to Mexico, restricted to the Transverse Neovolcanic Belt, mainly in discontinuous patches on four volcanoes (Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, El Pelado, and Tlaloc) (Fa and Bell 1990), spanning approximately 386 km² (Velazquez 1994). <em>R. diazi</em> has apparently disappeared from some of its historical range in the central Transverse Neovolcanic Belt, including the eastern slopes of Iztaccihuatl and the Nevada de Toluca (Fa and Bell 1990).  There is an approximate extent of occurrence of 1,841 sq. km (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).  The range of <em>R. diazi</em> is becoming smaller and increasingly fragmented as a result of human induced and natural causes (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/><em>R. diazi</em> occurs between 2,800 m and 4,250 m in elevation (Fa and Bell 1990), but occurs at the highest density between 3,150 m and 3,400 m (Velazquez 1994).	eng
19742	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is a habitat specialist (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).  It is found at its highest density in a subalpine habitat containing bunchgrass (“zacaton”) and pine communities (Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). In areas where bunchgrass is less abundant, they give birth in cracks and abandoned burrows (Velazquez <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is unlikely that <em>R. diazi</em> constructs burrows of its own (Fa and Bell 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>R. diazi</em> is not well known, but local reports indicate that the species feeds upon the young leaves of grasses and some spiny herbs (Fa and Bell 1990).  Gestation time for this species is 38-40 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).   <em>R. diazi</em> may be reproductively active year round with peak breeding season occurring "during the warm, rainy summer" (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Adults of a captive breeding program weighed 400-600 g, with birth weights for females 25-27 g and males 32 g (Matsuzaki <em>et al</em>. 1982).  Total length of newborns ranges from 8.3-10.6 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Mean total length of adults ranges between 26.8-32.0 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
19742	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	A 1994 study on El Pelado used fecal pellet counts and direct censusing by line transect (on horseback) to estimate population size and concluded that the population size of <em>R. diazi</em> was between 2,478 and 12,120 individuals, recommending the smaller number be considered for conservation purposes due to broad confidence limits (Velazquez 1994).	eng
19742	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	<em>Romerolagus diazi</em> is threatened by habitat destruction, caused by livestock grazing, agriculture and property development encroachment, logging, harvest of the “zacaton” grasses, and forest fire (98% of which are started by humans attempting to encourage new pasture growth) (Fa and Bell 1990). The range of <em>R. diazi</em> exists within 45 minutes of one of the world’s largest cities (Mexico D. F.) and urban expansion has resulted in habitat loss (Fa and Bell 1990).  Habitat loss has been estimated at 15-20% over the last three generations (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fragmentation of <em>R. diazi</em> habitat is caused by contiguous habitat loss and by highway construction, causing the fragmented populations to become genetically isolated, increasing their risk of local extinction from random processes (Velazquez <em>et al.</em> 1993).   <br/><br/>Though hunting is illegal, it continues because of lack of local knowledge of its protected status, and lack of enforcement (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 1990, Fa and Bell 1990).	eng
19743	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It is recommended that stacked timber at the forest edge is not used before four years to enable all larvae (as eggs are laid only on fresh dead wood) to finish their development cycle and enable the beetles to re-establish populations in the forest.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, France). In particular some stable and important populations occurs in protected areas in the Alps (Forest Biological Reserves) and in the National Park of the Cevennes.<br/><br/>This species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany, in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg there is a monitoring programme in place according to the EU Habitats Directive.<br/><br/>It is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, Vulnerable in Germany (2009) and Least Concern in Spain (Galante and Verdú 2000). It is also included in the Red Book of Ukraine.	eng
19743	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs across a central band of Europe, from east to west; absent in north and south west (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas wherever extensive beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica </span>forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in all Carpathians, where beech forests are present (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians. In Italy it is recorded from most mainland regions and Sicily, absent in Sardinia (Sama 2006). Its distribution in France follows those of the beech&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>forests, essentially (seems to be exclusively) among the mountain borders. One population is located at low altitude in the north-west (Charente-Maritime). This special population is not developing on beech as usual but uses alternative broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and Kırklareli (Oymen 1987, Malmusi and Saltini 2005). <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, Major and Minor Caucasus and Minor Asia.	eng
19743	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop on the dead wood of exposed stumps and standing or fallen trunks (but not in contact with the ground); the larvae stay two or three years in the wood. Polyphagous in broadleaved trees (<em>Fagus, Ulmus, Carpinus, Tilia, Castanea, Fraxinus, Juglans, Quercus, Salix, Alnus, Crataegus</em>), although beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>is the favoured tree over much of its range. The life cycle is at least two or three years, with pupation in spring or early summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found on the host plants. <br/><br/>The preferred habitats are large open montane beech forests or solitary trees, but also other tree species (see above) can be a habitat especially in southern Europe. In the Alps it prefers beech formations on limestone that are drier. The appropriate beech trees tend to be those that remain standing on remote slopes, where extraction is too laborious and so are not lost to firewood gathering. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in old, extensive beech forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in old beech forests, sometimes in the south-western part of the country at low level, 200 m (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy and Spain it lives mainly in old beech forests. In Germany it lives in beech forests in the Alps and montane areas, mainly on calcareous stands; breeding in beech and sycamore <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer pseudoplatanus</span>, but also in wych elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus glabra.</span><p> In France it is found in broadleaved trees where beech is absent. In mountains, larvae are found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, it prefers trees that are big (diameter >30 cm) and sun exposed. Freshly dead trees are colonised. Not every beech forest is suitable. The species is located only in the mature forests (managed or not) with trees of more than 40 cm of diameter. The continuity of the deadwood recruitment is essential (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
19743	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	In Europe this species is relatively common over much of its range. In Hungary, Slovakia and probably also in Poland&#160; the species is common or abundant in many localities where host-plants (old, sun-exposed beech trunks) are available. In Romania the size and trend of the population are stable, and the largest populations from Europe are spread in the south-western part of the country, Banat (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany there are records from alpine beech forest: Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, and from Erzgebirge (Sachsen). Other records from other German States are presumably introductions from transported logs. Its population trend is declining. In the Czech Republic there is only one large stable population; there are many historical records but these might be introduced with fuel wood (fallen from transport and collected).<br/><p>There are many localities known in France but recent declines have been detected, as it is threatened by collection. The species forms small patchy populations in suitable habitats: logged places of large chablis where a big and stable population is hosted by large and old beech forests. The species is able to fly around at least at the distance of two km. Its population functioning is clearly a metapopulation model with a large and stable population as a source and small patchy sites as pits, colonised for three to ten years and then   abandoned (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2007). In Spain its population is stable; its distribution in the north of Spain follows <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus spp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>100 localities. In Italy there are 70 localities.<br/></p><p>In Greece it is abundant in Rhodope Mountains, in beech forests in central Greece (Olympus Mountains) and there are several localities. In Ukraine it is a rare species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Turkey.</p>	eng
19743	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>A typical species depending on pastured woodland, open beech forest almost in montane areas. Long decking and late timber hauling are a major threat as the larvae have a long development phase (two or three years). Another major threat is the stacking of extracted timber on the edge of forest as this attracts beetles lying eggs. As the larval cycle is two or three years, a significant part of the population can be removed and destroyed by the subsequent removal of this timber. Stored trunks at the forest border are very attractive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosalia </span>but eggs do not have any chances of survival (Duelli and Wermelinger 2005). In France the major threat is the cleaning of the logged stands and the deadwood removal.&#160; Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of forest management (O. Merkl, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>Locally the collection of specimens might pose a threat (Spain, France and Italy). <br/></p>	eng
19749	conservation	Helgen, K., Kingston, T., Ruedas, L. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is known to occur in the Domoga Bone National Park, and Buton Utara on the island of Buton. Its range also includes three smaller reserves along the eastern tip of north Sulawesi where it is likely to occur (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).	eng
19749	distribution	Helgen, K., Kingston, T., Ruedas, L. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is found on Sulawesi and the adjacent islands of Lembeh, Buton and Menado in Indonesia (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). The type locality is Boné (near Gerontalo), north Sulawesi, Indonesia. The known elevation range for this species is from 200 to 1,060 m asl (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).	eng
19749	habitat	Helgen, K., Kingston, T., Ruedas, L. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This is a lowland forest bat that is also able to forage in partly cultivated habitats. It roosts in caves.	eng
19749	population	Helgen, K., Kingston, T., Ruedas, L. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is rare across its range.	eng
19749	threats	Helgen, K., Kingston, T., Ruedas, L. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting, including the national-level bushmeat trade, and habitat loss through logging and conversion to agriculture.	eng
19750	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	As a game species under Malagasy law (Durbin 2007), <em>R. madagascariensis</em> is only protected when it occurs in nature reserves. In a survey of western Madagascar it was found in six protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha and Parc National d’Isalo (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Roosts within existing protected areas need to receive close attention from park staff to discourage hunting. Other roosts need to be conserved and this might be best achieved through their inclusion within new protected areas and with the cooperation of local communities.	eng
19750	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is widespread but rare or absent from the central highlands and the arid south-west (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
19750	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It roosts in caves well beyond the twilight zone (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003). Few colonies are known to biologists even in areas with extensive underground cavities (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) giving the impression that they have strict environmental requirements for roosting. This species is known from a number of sites that are without known roosts or caves (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007) and <em>R. madagascariensis</em> may therefore roost in other sites such as tree holes.<br/><br/>Although it is widely distributed it appears to be associated with forest formations (MacKinnon <em>et al</em>. 2003) and has also been trapped inside <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006) and from agricultural settings (Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) and in villages (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It is able to fly within relatively intact forest (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) and therefore potentially plays a role as a seed disperser and pollinator. Compared with the two larger Malagasy fruit bat species, there is less information on its diet and foraging behaviour (Hutcheon 2003), but there are observations of it feeding on introduced fruits (Goodman 1999; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) where it can be considered as a pest (Hutcheon 2003; Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also known to feed on the fruit of endemic forest trees (Razafindrakoto 2006). Nectar appears to be an important dietary constituent and bats have been observed feeding on kapok flowers (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
19750	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It roosts in aggregations of up over a thousand individuals (MacKinnon <em>et al.</em> 2003; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) but smaller colonies of a few hundred are also known (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007). It can be locally abundant and is often the most commonly trapped species in mist-netting surveys in the west of Madagascar (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007).	eng
19750	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The extent to which the destruction and degradation of natural forest threatens this species is poorly understood. Although Goodman <em>et al.</em> (2005) suggested that <em>R. madagascariensis</em> is not dependent on relatively intact forest there are insufficient data on its annual dietary requirements to decide this matter. It is clear, however, that some of the roosting colonies are located some distance from intact forest and additional study is therefore needed on the mobility of this species. The main threats to <em>R. madagascariensis</em> are to its roosts where it is subject to hunting pressure (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007; Jenkins and Racey in press) in virtually all sites that are not inside protected areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) or considered sacred (Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). It appears to be hunted exclusively for subsistence and bats are harvested using locally made traps as well as being knocked down from the cave ceiling with wooden batons (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). On Ile Sainte Marie the reported offtake was between 360 and 480 bats per year (Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007).	eng
19751	conservation	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
19751	distribution	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is recorded from northern Sumatra (near Medan or near Prapat) in Indonesia, and from northern Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) (Simmons 2005). One specimen was collected from central Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) from a cave (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
19751	habitat	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is probably forest dependent and it roosts in caves. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) recorded a colony of 300 individuals. This species may associate with <em>R. amplexicaudatus</em> in caves. It is thought to feed on nectar and fruit.	eng
19751	population	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
19751	threats	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	Cave disturbance and forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires are the main threats to this species.	eng
19754	conservation	Csorba,  G., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Ingle, N., 2008	It is present in several protected areas. Identification and protection of important roosting sites would benefit the conservation of this species across its range. In the Philippines, caves are protected under the Cave Management Act, although this is not fully enforced. Elsewhere in southeast Asia the species requires protection from hunting and education is needed on the actual impact of the species on orchards (C. Francis pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19754	distribution	Csorba,  G., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Ingle, N., 2008	This species is known from Yunnan in China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008) extending to Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Viet Nam (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Peninsular Malaysia through Indonesia (including Java and Bali), and the Philippines. It is present on many of the Molucca Islands, including the islands of Halmahera, Morotai, Buru and Seram. It is widespread throughout much of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago and adjacent islands. It has been recorded from the island of Bougainville and Buka (S. Hamilton pers. comm.) and many of the Solomon Islands as far south as the island of San Cristobal.<br/>It is found throughout the Philippines, with records from Balabac, Babuyan Group (Garcia pers. comm.), Barit, Biliran, Bohol, Boracay, Busuanga, Caluya, Camotes (L. Paguntalan pers. comm.), Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dalupiri, Dinagat, Fuga, Ilin (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm.), Jolo, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Laguna, Quezon, Rizal, Sorsogon, Zambales provinces), Maripipi, Marinduque, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental (Ramayla pers. comm.), South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Sur), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan , Panay, Polillo, Samal, Samar (J. C. Gonzales pers. comm.), Semirara, Siargao, Sibay, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Tablas, Ticao (L. Paguntalan pers. comm.), Tincansan (Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from sea level up to 2,200 m asl.	eng
19754	habitat	Csorba,  G., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Ingle, N., 2008	This is a colonial species which forms cave roosts of several thousand animals. Roosts are known from caves, rock crevices, and old tombs. It can be found in a wide variety of habitat types including secondary forest, agricultural areas, and other disturbed habitats like rural gardens, fruit orchards and at the forest edge (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991, 1998; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is present, but less common, in primary tropical moist forest. <br/>They may travel long distances each night, in search of appropriate fruit. <em>Rousettus</em> are known to use a primitive form of echolocation while foraging. Gestation is thought to be about 15 weeks, and lactation about three months. The species may have two litters of a single young annually in New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
19754	population	Csorba,  G., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Ingle, N., 2008	This is a locally abundant species in Southeast Asia and the Philippines (Utzurrum 1992). In Southeast Asia it has probably experienced declines due to hunting as a large cave roosting species (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
19754	threats	Csorba,  G., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Ingle, N., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to this species. It is regarded as a pest in some parts of its range. In the Philippines and Indochina it is subject to intense hunting at some cave roosts (Utzurrum 1992).	eng
19755	conservation	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Sinanga, U. & Maharadatunamsi, D., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19755	distribution	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Sinanga, U. & Maharadatunamsi, D., 2008	This species occurs in greater Sulawesi and adjacent islands (Mangole, Sanana, Sangihe Islands) in Indonesia. It is found also on Wowoni island (U. Sinaga pers. comm.) and on Wangiwangi and adjacent islands (T. Kingston pers. comm.) also in Indonesia.	eng
19755	habitat	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Sinanga, U. & Maharadatunamsi, D., 2008	This species is generally found in the forest at elevations up to 1,400 m asl. It is also often caught in mixed gardens and open areas (U. Sinaga pers. comm.). It roosts in caves.	eng
19755	population	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Sinanga, U. & Maharadatunamsi, D., 2008	It is very abundant in forested habitat.	eng
19755	threats	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Sinanga, U. & Maharadatunamsi, D., 2008	Deforestation is occurring throughout the species' range. This species is also affected by hunting and cave disturbance.	eng
19756	conservation	Bates, P. & Helgen, K., 2008	In South Asia, it is classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Namdapha Biosphere in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagarhole Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, Sambalpur Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa, Indravathi National Park in Chattisgarh, Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Awareness activities need to be taken up to mitigate threats to this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia the species has been recorded from many protected areas and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
19756	distribution	Bates, P. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is very widely distributed in South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Dakha, Khulna and Sylhet divisions), Bhutan (Panjurmane), India (Chattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central and Western Nepal), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, North Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it has been recorded from southern Fujian, southern Guangdong, Hainan island, southern Guangxi, southern Yunnan and Guizhou. It has additionally been reported from Xizang (Medog), Sichuan, and Jiangxi (Wang 2002). In Southeast Asia, the species has been widely recorded from Myanmar, through Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam, and ranging into Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, and the Mentawai islands). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,140 m asl.	eng
19756	habitat	Bates, P. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats ranging from tropical moist forest to urban environments. Roosts in colonies ranging from a few to several thousands of individuals in caves, old and ruined buildings, forts and disused tunnels. It feeds on fruits and flowers. It has two breeding cycles in a year and bears a single young (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
19756	population	Bates, P. & Helgen, K., 2008	In general, this seems to be a common species with stable populations.	eng
19756	threats	Bates, P. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no overall major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. In South Asia, while the population is generally stable, this species is locally threatened by human interference to roosting sites due to tourism related developmental activities, loss of preferred roosting sites, persecution by humans by means of poisoning, fumigation activities and stoning, hunting for medicinal purposes and local consumption (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
19757	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There are currently no direct conservation actions in place for this species. The National Conservation Action Plan for <em>Pteropus livingstoni</em> (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003) includes an appendix for the conservation of <em>Rousettus obliviosus</em>. While the few known roosting sites are in remote areas, there is a need to ensure that these caves are not disturbed. Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that the roosting site at Bandakalala on Moheli might have been abandoned. Additional field surveys are needed to confirm this, as are attempts to locate any additional roost sites for this species.	eng
19757	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is restricted to the lower elevations of the islands of Grande Comores, Moheli and Ajouan in the Comoros, western Indian Ocean. The species has not been reported on Mayotte Island (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003a). All captures recorded by Sewall <em>et al</em>. (2003), occurred between 20 and 1,750 m asl.	eng
19757	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Bergmans (1994) reports that all four of the Comoro islands are covered with Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal mosaic. Much of the forest, especially in the lower regions, has been destroyed. In parts of the remaining forest the undergrowth has been replaced by banana plantations. The large series collected by the Belgian expedition indicates that the species, which is most probably a lowland forest species, has been able to adapt itself to the changing environment thus far. Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003) widely recorded the species in native forest, underplanted forest and agricultural areas, but not villages or towns. It is a cave roosting species that is currently only known to roost at six cave localities in remote areas with difficult terrain or dense vegetation and infrequently visited by people (Sewall <em>et al.</em> (2003).	eng
19757	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The species is fairly common, with colony roost size ranging from around 100 to several thousand animals (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The total estimated population is between 7,100 and 17,100 bats (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19757	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The species is sensitive to disturbance at roost sites and this appears to be the major threat to this restricted range bat. During the early 1990s, deforestation on the Comoros averaged 5.8% per year, with human population growth at 2.5%. While the species is regularly recorded from agricultural areas, and it seems that deforestation is possibly not a major threat, this bat also uses areas of both natural and underplanted forests which are expected to help the species cope with seasonal and year to year environmental variation, including droughts and cyclones (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19758	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g.. Mount Elgon National Park, Kenya). There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable montane forest and to protect major roosting colonies from disturbance. In areas where this species is identified as being overhunted, there is a need to encourage the sustainable use of susceptible populations.	eng
19758	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is distributed in East Africa and marginally in Central Africa. It ranges from Ethiopia and southern Sudan in the north of its range, into Kenya, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, to Tanzania and northern Malawi. It is largely, but not strictly, a montane species being found between 500 and 4,000 m asl (with most records above 1,000 m).	eng
19758	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Most of the records of this species are from roosting caves in montane tropical moist forest, although it has also been recorded from a mosaic of East African evergreen bushland and secondary Acacia wooded grassland, with very few records from drier Guineo-Congolian rain forest, wet and dry miombo woodland, East African evergreen and semi-evergreen bushland and thicket, and deciduous bushland and thicket (Bergmans, 1994).	eng
19758	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This appears to be a little recorded, but locally abundant species (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1991). It forms colonies of up to a few hundred bats.	eng
19758	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	The major threats to this species include ongoing deforestation in montane regions, likely disturbance of cave roosting sites (possibly from tourists in parts of its range), and possible overhunting of bats at roost sites for subsistence food by local people.	eng
19762	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in at least two protected areas across its range.	eng
19762	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widespread on Sulawesi, even in the highland areas. These squirrels have recently been found at up to 900 m on Sangihe island just north of Sulawesi (Riley 2002).	eng
19762	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in lowland and highland forest. On Sangihe, this species was sighted in primary forest or gardens adjacent to forest (Riley 2002).	eng
19762	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a widespread species, but no real information on abundance is available. It is probably rare on Sangihe (Riley 2002).	eng
19762	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is threatened by hunting and deforestation due to logging and agricultural conversion. Sangihe island is heavily cultivated at low elevations, and there are no strictly protected areas. Also, it is reported as being a target of hunting by local farmers (Riley 2002).	eng
19771	conservation	Herrero, J., Lovari, S. & Berducou, C., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (as part of R. rupicapra <em>sensu lato</em>). <br/><br/>In Spain, the species occurs in three national parks, at least 10 natural parks, and a number of other reserves (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Spanish protected areas include Montana de Covadogna and Ordesa National Parks; Reres Natural Park; Alta Pallars-Aran, Benasque, Cadi, Cerdana, Fresser y Setcasas, Los Circos, Los Valles, Vinamala, Mampodre, Picos de Europa, Saja, Somiedo and Sueve Hunting Reserves. Spanish hunting reserves are large hunting management units with strictly controlled culling (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In France, it occurs in a number of protected areas (Pyrenees-Occidentales National Park, Roc-Blanc, Moudang and Mont-Vallier Mountain Reserves, Orlu Nature Reserve and other small reserves where hunting is banned: C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). A study of population dynamics is ongoing in France, as well as a detailed survey of the population size and distribution (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In France, there is a hunting plan that is designed to correct geographic imbalances in numbers and distribution, but might be difficult to achieve. A major restoration effort was carried out in the French Pyrenees between 1981 and 2000, involving the translocation of more than 600 individuals (Herrero <em>et al.</em> 2004, C. Novoa and C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). In Andorra there are a few small reserves with hunting quotas (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In Italy, the autochthonous population of subspecies <em>ornata</em> inhabits Abruzzo National Park, and all recent and planned re-introductions and introductions are into protected areas.  A group of 22 chamois was released in the Majella massif between 1991 and 1994, and more recently, 26 were re-introduced into the Gran Sasso massif in cooperation with local villagers. A captive breeding population (numbering 18 individuals in 2006: S. Lovari <em>in litt.</em> 2006) is kept in four large enclosures in as many national parks. No studbook has been kept, which is a major shortcoming in the captive breeding program (Shackleton 1997). The subspecies <em>ornata</em> is strictly protected under national and international legislation - it is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, Annex II* and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, Appendix I of CITES, and as a “specially protected species” under Italian hunting law. A slowly increasing number of alpine meadows in the species’ range have been forbidden to livestock grazing to reduce competition. This action may generate cautious optimism about the species’ future. Proposed conservation measures include the following: 1) Consider benign introductions for a number of areas in the central and southern Apennines, once their suitability has been adequately assessed. Some national parks (e.g. Pollino, Gran Sasso-Laga, Majella and Sibillini) could in the future also host populations of the Apennine chamois. 2) When selecting individuals for transplants and captive breeding, consider Nascetti <em>et al.</em>'s (1985) finding of an alarming lack of genetic variability in the surviving nucleus of the Abruzzo National Park. This was most likely a result of living at low density for a long time and of population bottlenecks occurring at World Wars I and II. 3) Keep detailed breeding records, genetic profiles, and develop a studbook, for each of the captive breeding populations. 4) Avoid releasing Alpine chamois into areas of potential (re)introduction of Apennine chamois, as if such an action was carried out, it would prevent the subsequent release of the latter species (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/>Future priorities for the species as a whole include extending monitoring to all populations, and to increasing knowledge of demography and the impact of hunting. It is particularly important for monitoring and research to take place outside National Parks, where chamois are hunted.	eng
19771	distribution	Herrero, J., Lovari, S. & Berducou, C., 2008	<em>Rupicapra pyrenaica</em> is endemic to south-west Europe, where it occurs as three subspecies: <em>R. p. ornata</em>, <em>R. p. pyrenaïca</em> and <em>R. p. parva</em> (Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). The Apennine chamois <em>R. p. ornata</em> now survives only in three small populations in the Abruzzo, Majella, and Gran Sasso-Monti della Laga National Parks in Italy, although earlier in the Holocene it ranged from the Sibillini mountains (Marche Region, Italy) down to the Pollino massif (Calabria Region, Italy) (Masini 1985, Masini and Lovari 1988). The isard or Pyrenean chamois <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> is found in the Pyrenean mountains, along France' s border with Spain (including Andorra: C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). The Cantabrian chamois <em>R. p. parva</em> occurs in the Cantabrian mountains (Spain). The altitudinal range of the species is 400-2,800 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
19771	habitat	Herrero, J., Lovari, S. & Berducou, C., 2008	The species is found in alpine meadows, rocky areas, and the forested valleys and lower slopes in mountainous regions. This species generally stays above 1,800 meters in alpine meadows during the warmer months of the year (Nowak, 1983). These animals make altitudinal migrations from the forests in the valleys to the more open alpine meadows (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). In late fall and winter they have been known to enter lands below 1,100 meters, while usually staying on steep slopes, and rarely if ever occur in forested areas (Nowak, 1983). In recent years some populations have started to permanently inhabit forest (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999; Herrero pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19771	population	Herrero, J., Lovari, S. & Berducou, C., 2008	Overall, the status of this species has greatly improved since 1990. The population and range of the Pyrenean subspecies <em>pyrenaica</em> increased markedly from 1989 to 2003, although there have subsequently been some declines. The 1989 estimate for the total number of <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> was around 15,500 animals (Shackleton 1997), but by 2003 there were estimated to be at least 53,000 (Herrero <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is now (2006) likely to be an overestimate of the population, as many chamois populations have locally declined since 2004 following severe mortality caused by viral disease, and French hunting bags have reduced although hunting effort has remained steady (C. Novoa pers. comm. 2006). Densities of <em>R. p. pyrenaica</em> tend to be lower outside protected areas. Not all subpopulations of subspecies <em>parva</em> have been censused, but the population was recently estimated at c.15,000 (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). <br/><br/>However, the Italian subspecies <em>ornata </em>remains very rare. Numbers of <em>ornata</em> have probably been low for the last few centuries, only starting to increase in the 1920s as a result of increased protection. Numbers plummeted again to just several tens of individuals in a single population in the Abruzzo National Park during World War II (Lovari 1989). As a result of  conservation action, including re-introductions and the establishment of two new populations, numbers have increased and the population is currently estimated at about 1,100 individuals in three subpopulations (Mari and Lovari 2006, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006), up from a total of c.400 individuals in the late 1980s (Lovari 1989). Not all of these are mature individuals.	eng
19771	threats	Herrero, J., Lovari, S. & Berducou, C., 2008	The threats to the species vary in different parts of its range. In Italy, subspecies <em>ornata</em> might be vulnerable to many factors because the total number is small, there are only three subpopulations, and genetic variability is very low (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Space and food competition with livestock, especially domestic caprins, seem to be the main limiting factors for <em>ornata </em>. Some poaching occurs, but does not seem to impair the viability of the chamois population in Abruzzo National Park. There are currently no problems with disease for the Italian subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). However, in France and Spain disease is currently the most important threat. Pestivirus appeared in the Pyrenean subspecies in <em>c</em>. 2004, and sarcoptic mange outbreaks periodically cause local declines in the Cantabrian subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In Spain and the Pyrenees, chamois coexist with domestic livestock, but there do not appear to be problems with competition; indeed in the Pyrenees the presence of domestic livestock is considered to benefit the chamois, via maintenance of young and good quality forage, which increases the carrying capacity (J. Berducou pers. comm. 2006). Most Pyrenean and Cantabrian populations are hunted (with the exception of within National Parks). Chamois is a major game species in Spain and is important socially and economically as a source of rural livelihoods. Hunting is carefully managed and revenue from hunting is returned to the local community. In Spain, regional governments set quotas, and hunting is not at an unsustainable level (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In France, hunting is essentially a recreational and non-profit leisure activity, and average annual quotas are under 10% of censused populations. This is sustainable, with only a few local exceptions (C. Berducou pers. comm. 2006).	eng
19781	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Totally protected in Slovenia but there are no known conservation measures elsewhere.	eng
19781	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Padua-Venetian region in northern Italy, including the southern part of Switzerland. It has been introduced in Central Italy. It is also described in the Adriatic Basin of Slovenia and has been introduced in central and southern Italy. Introduced in most lakes of central and southern Italy where it has caused the regional extinction of <em>R. rubilio</em>.	eng
19781	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Preferentially a lacustrine species but it is also found in rivers. There is a regional variation in the preference for the lake or river habitat. The biology of this species reported for Lake Massaciuccoli probably applies to mixed populations of <em>R. aula</em> and <em>Pachychilon pictum</em> since the latter species, found in this lake, is still not reported (Bianco P.G. pers. observ.).	eng
19781	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant. Local declines are reported in Slovenia and Italy following introduction of alien species.	eng
19781	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The introduced <em>Rutilus rubilio</em> threatens the riverine populations and <em>Carassius carassius</em> and oriental carps threaten the lake populations, particularly in Slovenia.	eng
19782	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It is stocked in Iranian waters.	eng
19782	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	It is stocked in western and southern Caspian sea.	eng
19782	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black and Azov Sea basins, absent from Danube and Kuban drainages; Has not been recorded from Dniestr, Dniepr and South Bug since 1985 (may now be extirpated); In the Don it is found in the Tsymlansk Resevoir (landlocked) and lower reaches and Sea of Azov. In the Caspian basin, it is extirpated from Volga and Ural but still abundant along the western and southern coast from Kuma to Gorgan Bay, where it enters most rivers and freshened lagoons to spawn.	eng
19782	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black and Azov Sea basins, absent from Danube and Kuban drainages. The species has not been recorded from Dniestr, Dniepr and South Bug since 1985 (may now be extirpated). In the Don it is found in the Tsymlansk Resevoir (landlocked) and lower reaches and Sea of Azov. In the Caspian basin, it is extirpated from Volga and Ural but still abundant along the western and southern coast from Kuma to Gorgan Bay, where it enters most rivers and freshened lagoons to spawn.	eng
19782	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large brackish estuaries and their large, freshened plume waters, coastal lakes connected to rivers and lowland stretches of large rivers. In estuaries, in deep layers, down to 20 m. Tolerates salinities up to 7-12 ‰. Landlocked populations inhabit lakes or reservoirs. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, 430-500 mm SL. Starts entering rivers in second half of October (Black Sea, rarely in Caspian Sea). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is continued with the breaking up of the ice or even under ice in February-March. Spawns in April-May, earlier in southern drainages (February in Terek), when temperature reaches 8°C, peaking at 13-15°C. Eggs adhere to rocks and gravel, rarely to submerged plants. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Eggs hatch in 10-16 days at 12-19°C. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August). Landlocked populations migrate in spring from lakes or reservoirs or middle river stretches to tributaries or upper reaches. Larvae and early juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae. Adults feed mainly on molluscs and crustaceans, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates. Stops feeding while migrating, spawning and overwintering.	eng
19782	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>  Large brackish estuaries and their large, freshened plume waters, coastal lakes connected to rivers and lowland stretches of large rivers. Rarely in small rivers. In estuaries, in deep layers, down to 20 m. Tolerates salinities up to 7-12 ?. Landlocked populations inhabit lakes or reservoirs. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, 430-500 mm SL. Starts entering rivers in second half of October (Black Sea, rarely in Caspian Sea). When rivers are covered by ice, spawning migration ceases and is continued with the breaking up of the ice or even under ice in February-March. Spawns in April-May, earlier in southern drainages (February in Terek), when temperature reaches 8°C, peaking at 13-15°C. Eggs adhere to rocks and gravel, rarely to submerged plants. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Eggs hatch in 10-16 days at 12-19°C. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August). Landlocked populations migrate in spring from lakes or reservoirs or middle river stretches to tributaries or upper reaches. Larvae and early juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae. Adults feed mainly on molluscs and crustaceans, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates. Stops feeding while migrating, spawning and overwintering.	eng
19782	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<p>The species undergone a massive decline due to the damming of its spawning rivers, mostly happening in the 1950s and 1960's. It has not been recorded north east Black Sea basin since 1985 (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.), and is no longer recorded in the Volga and Ural. It is still abundant but socking dependant in western and southern Caspian sea. In the Azov Sea and Don river as well as in two coastal rivers in Bulgaria and in some rivers of northern Anatolia it is still present. It is abundant in Tsymlansk resevoir but has strongly declined recently in Iznik lake in Turkey most likely due to overfishing.</p>	eng
19782	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species undergone a massive decline due to the damming of its spawning rivers, mostly happening in the 1950s and 1960's. It has not been recorded north east Black Sea basin since 1985 (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.), and is no longer recorded in the Volga and Ural. It is still abundant in western and southern Caspian sea. In the Azov Sea and Don river it is still present, and abundant in Tsymlansk resevoir.	eng
19782	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Current threats to the species are overfishing (it is a commercial fish) in Tsymlansk Reservoir (Don River) and the western and southern Caspian Sea.	eng
19782	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Current threats to the species are overfishing (it is a commercial fish) in Tsymlansk Reservoir (Don River) and the western and southern Caspian Sea.  &#160;Caspian populations strongly depend on artificial reproduction and stocking. EU populations also threatened by pollution, dams, climate change and water abstraction.	eng
19785	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19785	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Adriatic basin, from Livenza to Po drainages, Lakes Maggiore, Lugano and Como (Italy, Switzerland). Introduced in Arno.	eng
19785	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine populations inhabit deep waters of large, subalpine lakes. Riverine populations inhabit large to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives in small groups. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Moves to shallow areas of rivers to spawn in April-June. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
19785	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
19785	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Threatened by overfishing and construction of weirs, which block access to spawning sites.	eng
19786	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
19786	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Tuscano-Latum district of Italy, and introduced to southern Italy and Sicily.	eng
19786	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A predominantly riverine species but it does enter lakes. A multi-spawner, which is both polyandry and polygymnic. Reproduction is in March to July.	eng
19786	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A pioneer species subject to high fluctuations and able to recover quickly from decline. Overall the population is stable.	eng
19786	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduced alien species. The introduction of <em>Rutilus aula</em> is reported to have caused the local extirpation of this species from all the lakes in central Italy.	eng
19787	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19787	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
19787	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Europe north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages (Caspian basin). Aegean basin, in Pinios, Vardar, Vegoritis, Kastoria, Struma and Maritza drainages. Asia: Aral basin and Siberia from Ob eastward to Lena drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Great Britain north of 56°N, Scandinavia north of 69°N. Locally introduced in Spain. Introduced and invasive in northeastern Italy.	eng
19787	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Europe north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages (Caspian basin). Aegean basin, in Pinios, Vardar, Vegoritis, Kastoria, Struma and Maritza drainages. Asia: Aral basin and Siberia from Ob eastward to Lena drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Great Britain north of 56°N, Scandinavia north of 69°N. Locally introduced in Spain. Introduced and invasive in northeastern Italy.	eng
19787	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats, mainly in lowland areas. Most abundant in nutrient-rich lakes and large to medium sized rivers and backwaters. Takes advantage of channelization, damming and slight organic pollution. Known also from small lowland streams and from brackish coastal lagoons. In fast-flowing rivers, restricted to stretches where backwaters or shelters allow for overwintering. Spawns among dense submerged vegetation in backwaters or lakes, flooded meadows or in shallow, fast-flowing river habitats on plant or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 13 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females one year later, usually at about 100 mm SL. Undertakes short spawning migrations, sometimes starting as early as September, usually with a peak at temperatures above 9°C in spring. Spawns in April-May, when temperature rises above 12°C. Usually, a whole population spawns within a period of 5-10 days. Spawns in shoals. Eggs are sticky and hatch in about 12 days. Larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of littoral habitats. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, zooplankton, plant material and detritus. Populations predominantly feeding on detritus are often stunted (stunted populations may also be associated with strong year classes). May shift from littoral to pelagic habitats and between benthic food and zooplankton when abundance of a specific food item is high or in order to avoid predation and/or competition. The decision whether to stay in open water or among littoral vegetation is often described as a trade-off between food uptake and predator avoidance. When growing, there is an energetic need to switch from zooplankton to benthic food (chironomids, molluscs). Individuals able to feed on Dreissena mussels increase their growth rate but do not exploit this food source until they have reached about 120 mm SL (at which size they are able to crush the mussels). In some area (Volga reservoirs), pelagic and benthic roach can be distinguished by life-history traits (spawning time, spawning sites). Overwinters in backwaters or in deep parts of lakes. Frequently produces fertile hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em>.	eng
19787	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats, mainly in lowland areas. Most abundant in nutrient-rich lakes and large to medium sized rivers and backwaters. Takes advantage of channelization, damming and slight organic pollution. Known also from small lowland streams and from brackish coastal lagoons. In fast-flowing rivers, restricted to stretches where backwaters or shelters allow for overwintering. Spawns among dense submerged vegetation in backwaters or lakes, flooded meadows or in shallow, fast-flowing river habitats on plant or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 13 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females one year later, usually at about 100 mm SL. Undertakes short spawning migrations, sometimes starting as early as September, usually with a peak at temperatures above 9°C in spring. Spawns in April-May, when temperature rises above 12°C. Usually, a whole population spawns within a period of 5-10 days. Spawns in shoals. Eggs are sticky and hatch in about 12 days. Larvae and juveniles inhabit a wide variety of littoral habitats. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, zooplankton, plant material and detritus. Populations predominantly feeding on detritus are often stunted (stunted populations may also be associated with strong year classes). May shift from littoral to pelagic habitats and between benthic food and zooplankton when abundance of a specific food item is high or in order to avoid predation and/or competition. The decision whether to stay in open water or among littoral vegetation is often described as a trade-off between food uptake and predator avoidance. When growing, there is an energetic need to switch from zooplankton to benthic food (chironomids, molluscs). Individuals able to feed on Dreissena mussels increase their growth rate but do not exploit this food source until they have reached about 120 mm SL (at which size they are able to crush the mussels). In some area (Volga reservoirs), pelagic and benthic roach can be distinguished by life-history traits (spawning time, spawning sites). Overwinters in backwaters or in deep parts of lakes. Frequently produces fertile hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em>.	eng
19787	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
19787	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
19787	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
19787	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
19788	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19788	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Kifissos drainage, including Lakes Yliki and Paralimni (which is now dry).	eng
19788	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in February-April.	eng
19788	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19788	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Paralimni was drained. The water in lake Yliki is being extracted to supply Athens.	eng
19790	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Rwenzori Mountains National Park, Uganda, and might be present in additional protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
19790	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift, occurring in the Ruwenzori Mountains (both in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), additional parts of Uganda (Kasangaki <em>et al.</em>, 2003), eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi (J. Kerbis pers. comm.) and Rwanda. It has an elevational range of 800 to 2,350 m asl.	eng
19790	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is associated with damp and dense mossy vegetation in motane primary tropical moist forest. It appear to be a specialised semi-aquatic species that has been captured from shallow streams.	eng
19790	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Very few specimens of this species have ever been collected, and little is known about the species overall abundance.	eng
19790	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has a relatively restricted range, within which it is presumably threatened to some degree by habitat loss resulting from logging operations and the general conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
19794	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
19794	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Padua-Venetian region in northern Italy. The detailed distribution still unknown. Transplanted into Lake Trasimeno and the Tiber and Ombrone river basins.	eng
19794	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in standing and running waters in the lowland and hill zones with sand or mud substrates rich in vegetation. Also found in drainage channels.The breeding season occurs from May to July. Females are larger than males but sexual dimorphism in size is not so evident as in the Spined Loach, <em>Cobitis taenia</em> with which <em>S. larvata</em> often occurs sympatrically.	eng
19794	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Reportedly decreasing but has probably been overlooked in surveys.	eng
19794	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
19796	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
19796	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic - streams and brooks.	eng
19797	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
19797	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Semi-aquatic	eng
19798	habitat	Acero, A., 1996	A reef-associated species.	eng
19799	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas throughout Australia. Further surveys of Papua New Guinea are needed to determine the species' full range. Further ecological research is needed to clarify migration patterns, roosting trees, etc. (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Also additional research into threats to this species throughout its range would be useful.	eng
19799	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species is widespread over much of Australia, and is known from two specimens collected in Central Province and the National Capital District in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998; Richards 2008). The records in the south-east Australian part of the range may be vagrants (Victoria, southern South Australia, southern New South Wales) (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
19799	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	The Yellow-bellied Sheath-tailed bat is found in a wide variety of habitats, including eucalypt forests and open habitats. It roosts in tree hollows. The species is usually solitary but may be found in small colonies. It may make migratory movements in the south-eastern portion of its range, although this is based on reports of exhausted individuals that might in fact be suffering from disease (Richards 2008). There appear to be seasonal movements in the mid-coastal Western Australian range (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In the arid and semi-arid parts of its range, it is most frequent in mangrove or riparian habitat (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
19799	population	McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	The species is common in the northern part of its Australian range, but in south-eastern Australia it is very rare.	eng
19799	threats	McKenzie, N. & Pennay, M., 2008	This species seems to have the highest prevalence of lyssavirus in Australian Microchiroptera and it is not known whether this is a problem (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). Feral European honeybees in at least arid western Australia, but likely most of arid Australia, have taken over many tree hollows, displacing these bats (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). In the eastern part of its range, substantial land clearance is likely to be a threat (M. Pennay pers. comm.). In the arid zone, riparian zones are being stripped of their perennial species, so habitat quality is declining fast for this species in these areas (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
19800	conservation	Thomson, B., Lumsden, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The species occurs in a couple of protected areas, including Jardine River National Park in Australia and Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. Important roosting sites and foraging areas should be identified and protected. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
19800	distribution	Thomson, B., Lumsden, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is present in Papua New Guinea and Australia. In Papua New Guinea it is found in National Capital District and Western Province on the island of New Guinea. In Australia this species is present on the Cape York Peninsula (Bonaccorso 1998; Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is shown from the Torres Strait Islands in Thomson <em>et al.</em> (2008), but the source of this information is unclear (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
19800	habitat	Thomson, B., Lumsden, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species forages over open Eucalyptus or sclerophyll forest. It has been recorded roosting in limestone caves and may also roost in tree hollows (Bonaccorso 1998; Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19800	population	Thomson, B., Lumsden, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is rarely recorded. Few specimens are known from Australia (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
19800	threats	Thomson, B., Lumsden, L. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species may be threatened by loss of roosting sites and suitable foraging habitat.	eng
19801	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is found in several protected areas. Research is needed to determine the effects of habitat fragmentation on the species.	eng
19801	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Pel's pouched bat ranges widely through the equatorial forest belt of west and central Africa. In the Upper Guinea region it occurs in Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Its main range extends from southwestern Nigeria to  western Uganda, with isolated records from western Kenya and eastern Angola.	eng
19801	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Pel's pouched bat lives in forest clearings in the rainforest zone but not in the forest interior. It flies very high, and is insectivorous, nocturnal and crepuscular. It roosts in hollow trees and cavities of large trees, either singly or in groups up to five animals (Happold, 1987). The species' response to habitat fragmentation is unknown.	eng
19801	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Pel's pouched bat occurs in low densities across its wide range.	eng
19801	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Selective logging of large trees with cavities results in substantial roost destruction. Parts of Pel's pouched bat's range is fragmented by agricultural activities, but as it lives in clearings, it is not known whether or not this is having a significant negative impact on the species.	eng
19802	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas, and over much of the species range no direct conservation actions are needed. In South Asia, the species has been recorded from protected areas such as Campbell Bay National Park (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh). With, further studies needed on distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. In South Asia, populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is also a need to identify populations that are being threatened by human induced habitat alterations in order to develop mitigation measures (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). It has been recorded from several protected areas in Australia (eg. Kakadu National Park), however, there is a need to identify and protect important roosting and foraging sites for the species. Further studies are needed in Australia into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. The eastern Australian form has been described as a subspecies, and there is a there is a need for additional taxonomic work (T. Reardon pers. comm.). There is also a need to resolve the taxonomic status of the Northern Territory population relative to that in northeastern Queensland, as well as a study to determine its habitat, distribution, population size, and status (Woinarski and  Milne 2005).	eng
19802	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	This widespread species ranges from South Asia, through parts of continental and insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet division) (Sarker and Sarker 2005; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Sri Lanka (North Central, Uva and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from continental Southeast Asia, in Myanmar, southern Thailand, Cambodia (known only from a collection in Phnom Phen [G. Csorba pers. comm.]), southwestern Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore. Within insular Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from the islands of Sumatra and Java (Indonesia), Borneo (Indonesia and Malaysia only), Sulawesi (Indonesia), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Halmahera (Indonesia), the Talaud Islands (Indonesia) and Ternate Island (Indonesia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it has been the species has been recorded from sea level to 800 m asl (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) from Catanduanes, Luzon and Mindoro (Corbet and Hill 1992) Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Negros (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) although it is likely to occur throughout the country except for the Batanes/Babuyan region (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from scattered localities on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on Yapen Island (Papua Province, Indonesia), on the Bismarck Archipelago and the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea), on Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea). It has also been recorded from the island of Guadacanal in the Solomon Islands and from coastal northern and northeastern Australia (Queensland and Northern Territory) (Corbet and Hill 1992; Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In the Northern Territory of Australia, there have been relatively few records, with the only confirmed records from the Kakadu lowlands (Woinarski and Milne 2005). This is partly due to the lack of a diagnostic call that can be assigned to the species and can be used for its detection (Woinarkski and Milne 2005).	eng
19802	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	In the Nicobar Islands in India, it is found in dense forests near to the seashore. In Sri Lanka, the species has been recorded from dense forests, swampy areas and plantations. The diurnal roosts include hollows of old and decaying trees including Kitul Palm and Arecanut Palm, old buildings and rocky crevices. No sexual segregation is observed while roosting. It roosts in small colonies of five or six. This species is known to feed on termites, beetles and other insects and forages close to the ground. Its flight is very fast and high, initially flying 300 to 400 m from ground. It is recorded to emerge very early in the evening from its roost for its foraging bouts (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Southeast Asia, the species is strongly associated with modified habitats, including agricultural areas. It is a canopy feeder which roosts in buildings and shallow caves sometimes occurring in large groups. In the Philippines, records have mainly been from hollow coconut trees (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). In Melanesia and Australia, this species has been recorded from wooded areas ranging from open dry sclerophyll woodland to dense tropical moist forest. It roosts in shallow caves, buildings and tree hollows. Roosts may range from a few individuals to several hundred animals. The female gives birth to a single young (Flannery 1995; Strahan 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). In Australia, it has been found in open Pandanus woodland, as well as open eucalypt tall forests and coastal lowlands. It roosts in tree hollows, as well as caves (Woinarski and Milne 2005).	eng
19802	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	In general this is a common species. In South Asia, the population status is considered to be poorly known, but according to Bates and Harrison (1997) it is plentiful. In the Philippines, it is poorly known, but might be moderately common in agricultural areas (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and is probably common in populated areas, but this require confirmation as there has been little direct survey work undertaken in these modified habitats (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is locally common in other parts of its Southeast Asian range outside of the Philippines.	eng
19802	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Helgen, Bates, P., Heaney, L., Balete, D. & Thomson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and from conversion of land to agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Australia, it is significantly threatened in coastal Queensland by clearance of coastal tropical woodland and changes to the fire regime at the northern and southern range limits (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Vegetation change due to saltwater intrusion and invasion by exotic species (such as <em>Mimosa pigra</em>) may affect habitat suitability (Woinarski and  Milne 2005).	eng
19804	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This is a widely distributed and common species. Retention of primary forest. The species occurs in some protected areas. This occurs for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.	eng
19804	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found in Central and South America. This species ranges from Jalisco and Veracruz (Mexico) to Bolivia, Guianas, and eastern Brazil south to Rio de Janeiro; Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). It is widely distributed at low elevations, generally below 500 m (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
19804	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	These bats usually forage near streams and in moist areas; they prefer multistratal evergreen forest and forage in clearings and forest edges and forest corridors (Eisenberg 1989). Clearings and corridors are both natural and man made. Roosting colonies average about 12 individuals. These bats may roost with other species in hollow trees or caves. Males defend harems; they have well-developed wing sacs in their ante-brachial membranes and emit scent while flapping their wings in ritualized combat (Bradbury and Emmons, 1974). This species is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space. In Mexico it has also been reported for secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.)	eng
19804	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>S. bilineata</em> is common in lowland evergreen and semideciduous forest and forest edge; rare in dry deciduous forest (Reid 1997).	eng
19804	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This is a widely distributed and common species. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.	eng
19805	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This is a widely distributed and common species. Retention of primary forest. The species occurs in some protected areas. This occurs for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.	eng
19805	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This species is distributed from eastern Colombia across northern South America, including Venezuela and the Guianas, to northern Brazil and Peru (Eisenberg 1989; Koopman 1993). It typically occurs below 500 m in Venezuela (Handley 1976)	eng
19805	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This small bat is poorly known. It frequents multistratal evergreen forests at low elevations (Eisenberg 1989). Often found near streams and moist areas and in clearings, it co-occurs over much of its range with <em>S. leptura</em>, but the exact way they partition resources is poorly understood. It is insectivorous; this bat forages in small openings in the forest, around camps (where they often fly through buildings), river edges, and pastures (Emmons and Feer 1997). It is regularly recorded in gaps. It is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space.	eng
19805	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	Sometimes common (Emmons and Feer 1997). Poorly known to any comments (Lim pers. comm.).	eng
19805	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This is a widely distributed and common species. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.	eng
19806	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	One of the sites in Guyana is Iwokrama Forest. There is a need for additional sampling effort using an appropriate methodology. Lack of basic knowledge of this species' biology impedes the evaluation of this species. This species is a candidate species for the Red List of the State of Para in Brazil (Bernard pers. comm.).	eng
19806	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is known from Guyana (Lim and Engstrom 2001), Suriname (Lim unpublished data), French Guiana (Simmons and Voss 1998), and central and eastern Amazon region of Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
19806	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is an aerial insectivore. From its morphology, it is probably suited to semi-open forest or gaps within forest. It is rainforest generalist (Lim pers. comm.). There has been severe deforestation and fragmentation in the southern part of the range, but habitat in other regions where the species is found is  better conserved.	eng
19806	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is very rarely recorded.	eng
19806	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There has been severe deforestation and fragmentation in the southern part of the range, but habitat in other regions where the species is found is  better conserved.	eng
19807	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat conversion. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
19807	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This species extends from Chiapas and Tabasco (Mexico) to southeastern Brazil; Peru; northern Bolivia; Guianas; Margarita Island (Venezuela); Trinidad and Tobago (Simmons 2005). Not known to occur in Nicaragua's highlands (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
19807	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	It occurs in moist habitats and is strongly associated with multistratal evergreen forests (Eisenberg 1989). Roosting groups range from one to nine bats (Eisenberg 1989). <em>S. leptura</em> feed on small to tiny insects, including moths; they come out to forage during the last daylight and fly in beats, repeating the same path again and again (Emmons and Feer 1997). The species forages throughout the night. There is some shifting in the composition of the social group, males tend to defend individual females during breeding, when they exist as monogamous pairs (Bradbury and Vehrencamp, 1977). This species is an aerial insectivore that forages in background cluttered space. It is not too abundant in Belize (Miller pers. comm.). It has been also reported in Mexico in secondary forests, crop-lands and grasslands (de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
19807	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is widespread (Emmons and Feer 1997) at elevations below 500 m. This species is relatively common.	eng
19807	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., & Peters, S., 2008	Forest loss through conversion to pasture. It probably is a rainforest generalist but the loss of forest is more specific to areas of northern Brazil.	eng
19808	conservation	Corti, M., Griffin, M., Coetzee, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
19808	distribution	Corti, M., Griffin, M., Coetzee, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	This widespread species occurs over most of southern Africa. This species ranges from southwestern Tanzania, through Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1998), Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa. It occurs from 50 m up to around 2,000 m asl.	eng
19808	habitat	Corti, M., Griffin, M., Coetzee, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	This species occurs in savanna woodland, as well as various other habitats, but it is a species complex that most likely has component species dependent on specific habitats. In Malawi it is a grassland woodland species, but in Namibia it occurs in western arid areas and enters the Namib desert along riverbeds. It is found in disturbed areas such as rural gardens.	eng
19808	population	Corti, M., Griffin, M., Coetzee, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
19808	threats	Corti, M., Griffin, M., Coetzee, N. & Chitaukali, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
19809	conservation	Corti, M., Oguge, N. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
19809	distribution	Corti, M., Oguge, N. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is known from southern coastal Somalia through southern Ethiopia, eastern Uganda, Kenya, to northeastern Tanzania. It has been recorded from 100 m up to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
19809	habitat	Corti, M., Oguge, N. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It occurs in dry savanna woodland, grassland and from very arid areas in Somalia. This species is usually found in dry conditions which would explain its absence from the moist areas of Kenya. It is also found in crop land.	eng
19809	population	Corti, M., Oguge, N. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This can be a locally abundant species. Populations fluctuate seasonally.	eng
19809	threats	Corti, M., Oguge, N. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19811	distribution	Orthopteroid Specialist Group, 1996	Has a highly scattered distribution across southern European countries.	eng
19811	habitat	Orthopteroid Specialist Group, 1996	This "Matriarchal katydid" is one of the largest insects in Europe (12 cm in length). It is a carnivore and parthenogenetic grasshopper.	eng
19819	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix 1. Also on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus leucopus</em> occurs in one regional reserve (Cañon del Rio Alicante), which is poorly protected, and being exploited for people that live in the area (Morales-Jiménez 2006). It also occurs in the proposed park of the Sierra San Lucas. A campaign is underway for the creation of a protected area for the species, which will also benefit the Variegated Spider Monkey, <em>Ateles hybridus</em>, in the north-east of the department of Antioquia, Colombia, 07°01'N and 74°05'W, 100?200 m above the sea level, on the left margin of the Río Magdalena (Morales-Jiménez 2007b; Morales-Jiménez and Rivadeneira 2006).<br/><br/>A regional captive breeding programme supported by the European Callitrichid TAG (18 zoos) was begun in 2006 (Morales-Jiménez 2006, 2007a; Morales-Jiménez and Ruivo 2006). In Colombia, the species is maintained in at least seven zoos, but all of them have problems with reproduction and survival.<br/><br/>An action plan has been drawn up which includes the continuation and organization of <em>ex situ</em> breeding, and research on husbandry, nutrition, and management in captivity, environmental education and education programmes for zoos, and <em>in situ</em> field research, including population surveys and studies of habitat use (Morales-Jiménez 2007c).	eng
19819	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Saguinus leucopus</em> occurs in northern Colombia, between the Ríos Magdalena and Cauca from their confluence in the Department of Bolivar (including the Isla de Mompos and the region south-east to the Department between the Ríos Cauca and Magdalena) south into the Department of Antiquoia along the west of Río Cauca basin as far west as the region of Caceres, Valdivia, the Río Nechi valley, and Porce. It probably extends southward along the tropical forested slopes of the Central Cordillera, west of the Río Magdalena, south into western Caldas and northern Tolima (at least as far south as the vicinity of Mariquita, ranging up to 1,500 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989; Defler 2004). Hernandez-Camacho and Defler (1989) indicated the possibility that the range of <em>S. leucopus</em> extends further south-west along the east bank of the Río Cauca in Antiquoia, and further south into the gallery forests of the llanos and the forested foothills of the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the Department of Tolima (see also Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 1986; Cuartas-Calle 2001; Cuervo <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
19819	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Tropical dry forest, tropical humid forest, and very humid premontane forest (Defler 2004). Present in both primary and secondary forests, in gallery forest, and in some urban areas (Poveda <em>et al</em>. 2001; Poveda and Sanchez-Palomino 2004).  <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentitions of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) do not provide for gouging, and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Defler (2004) recorded group sizes from 3-9 (average 4.6, n=42), while Poveda (2000) recorded groups of 2-12 individuals (average group size 6.6, n=7). A home range of 17.7 ha was recorded by Poveda (2000) near Mariquita (six months of observations). <br/><br/>Infants reported in May-June and October-November by Vargas and Solano (1994; Vargas and Solano 1996a,b). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult weight male 494 g (n=2) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985)<br/>Adult weight female 490 g (n=2) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985)<br/>Adults H&B 23.0-25.0 cm, TL 38.0 cm (Defler 2004).	eng
19819	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Calle (1992) recorded very high densities of <em>S. leucopus</em> in a small forest on the Río Miel, Antioquia: 82 individiduals/km², the result of forest destruction and displaced groups fro elsewhere (Defler 2004). Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976) reported 1-4 individuals/km² in a forest patch in northern Bolívar.	eng
19819	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species occurs in an area of intensive colonization and forest loss. Cuartas-Calle (2001) concluded that the future of this species is worrying, with the forest in its range being degraded and fragmented at an accelerating rate. Natural habitats are being affected by logging, the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching, mining, and the construction of roads and a dam in the Río Miel (Calle 1992; Defler 2004). They have been recorded sold as pets in the markets of Medellín and Bogotá (Defler 2004).	eng
19823	conservation	Savage, A. & Causado, J., 2008	Legally protected in Colombia since 1969. Major threat in the past was export for the pet trade, zoos and biomedical research, but export was banned in 1974. Listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>There are three protected areas where <em>Saguinus oedpipus </em>occurs: Paramillo National Natural Park (460,000 ha), decreed in 1977; Los Colorados Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (1,000 ha) decreed in 1977; and Reserva Forestal Cerro de Coraza-Monte de Marja (7,460 ha) decreed in 1983. They were also introduced to Tayrona National Natural Park in 1974 (Defler 1994).<br/><br/>Proyecto Tití, a conservation programme for the Cotton-top Tamarin in Colombia, was established in 1987 to begin the first long-term field study on this species in collaboration with Colombian biologists, educators, NGO?s and government authorities (INDERENA, Ministerio del Medio Ambiente) (Savage 1988, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997; Savage <em>et al.</em> 1996a,b, 1997, 2001a,b). Initial research focused on understanding the factors influencing reproductive strategies of Cotton-top Tamarins, but it quickly grew into a comprehensive conservation programme including educational efforts, capacity building, training Colombian students, development of economic alternatives, and the development of an agricultural training programme to decrease the pressure on the forest by local communities (Savage and Giraldo 1990; Savage <em>et al</em>. 1990, 1996, 1997).<www.csew.com proyectotit=""><br/><br/>In addition to the studies of Cotton-top Tamarins in the field, there has been a major and comprehensive assessment of the remaining habitat within the historic distribution of the Cotton-top Tamarin in Colombia, along with surveys to assess population numbers remaining. This information has provided important insights into the long-term viability of this population given the current rate of habitat destruction.</www.csew.com>	eng
19823	distribution	Savage, A. & Causado, J., 2008	<em>Saguinus oedipus</em> occurs in north-western Colombia between the Río Atrato and the lower Río Cauca (west of the Río Cauca and the Isla de Mompos) and Magdalena, in the Departments of Atlantico, Sucre, Cordoba, and western Bolivar, north-western Antiquoia (from the Uraba region, west of the Río Cauca) and north-eastern Choco, east of the Río Atrato, from sea level up to 1,500 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989; Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993 ).<br/><br/>The south-western boundary of the cotton-top?s range has not been clearly identified. Mast <em>et al.</em> (1983) suggested that it may extend to Villa Arteaga on the Río Sucio (Hershkovitz 1977), which included reports of Cotton-top Tamarins in Los Katios National Park. However, Barbosa <em>et al.</em> (1988) were unable to find any evidence of Cotton-top Tamarins in this area nor in Los Katios, where they observed only <em>Saguinus geoffroyi</em>.<br/><br/>Groups have been seen in the Islas del Rosario and Tayrona National Park in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Mast <em>et al.</em> 1993; A. Savage and L. H. Giraldo, pers. obs.). However, these populations were founded by captive animals that were released into the area (Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993) and these remnant populations are here considered as outside of the historic range of the species.	eng
19823	habitat	Savage, A. & Causado, J., 2008	This species occurs in humid forest in the south to dry deciduous forest in the north; recorded from primary and secondary forests. Known at altitudes up to 400 m, but could occur in higher elevations in the upper valley of the Río Sinu (Defler 2004).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. <em>Saguinus oedipus</em> lives in groups of 2-9. Savage <em>et al.</em> (1996a,b) observed reproductively active groups that ranged in size from 3-6. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Lives in groups of 2-9 individuals.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adults H&B 20.8-25.9 cm, TL 33.0-41.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Weight 416.5 g (n = 10) (Savage 1990).	eng
19823	population	Savage, A. & Causado, J., 2008	In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 20,000-30,000 individuals were exported to the United States for biomedical research (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). Current population estimates for the species are 6,000 individuals (approximately 2,000 mature individuals).	eng
19823	threats	Savage, A. & Causado, J., 2008	<em>Saguinus oedipus</em> occurs in an area of intensive colonization and forest loss. Neyman (1978) estimated that 75% of the original distribution of <em>S. oedipus</em> had been cleared for agriculture and pasture, and that the remainder of its range was represented by small isolated forest patches along with its main stronghold, the Paramillo National Natural Park of 460,000 ha. Cerquera (1985) reported on the threats regarding the construction of two hydroelectric dams, Urra I and Urra II, on the Ríos Sinu and San Jorge, in the south of its range. Urra II is sited within the Paramillo National Natural Park and is expected to flood more than 54,000 ha of primary and secondary forest, within what is considered to be the last major stronghold for the species.<br/><br/>The three protected areas where they occur have lost a significant portion of their forests (Barbosa <em>et al.</em> 1988). Paramillo has lost approximately 42% of its original forested habitat and Montes de Maria and Los Colorados lost 70 and 71%, respectively. To date, almost 200,000 ha of the original forested areas within protected boundaries of the parks and reserves dedicated to Cotton-top Tamarin conservation efforts have been lost. This suggests, therefore, that there is less than 2,600 km² that will be protected in perpetuity for Cotton-top Tamarins by the Colombian Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. Although these areas are protected, they continue to suffer from the pressure of the growing local populations to extract resources or clear areas for agricultural activities.<br/><br/>Defler (1994, 2004; pp.196-201) discusses the conservation status and threats to this species (see also Defler and Rodríguez-Mahecha 2003; Defler <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19824	conservation	de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	This species occurs in the Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) in Ecuador (Albuja 1994; Kostrub 1997; Tirira 2007). It is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19824	distribution	de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	A species of the upper Amazon, found between the Rios Curaray and Napo in Peru, and the right bank of the Napo in Ecuador (Heymann 2000; Heymann <em>et al</em>. 2002). The western limits to the distribution of this species in Ecuador are not clearly defined, but Albúja (1994) extended it as far as the middle reaches of the Ríos Tiputini and Curaray (<em>S. f. lagonotus</em> occurs at the headwaters of the Río Curaray), the upper Río Cononaco, and the entire basins of the Ríos Yasuní and Nashiño. S. de la Torre (in litt., 1996) has observed Golden-mantle Saddleback Tamarins between the Ríos Yasuní and Indillama. Tirira (2007) stated that it occurs up to 400 m above sea level in Ecuador in the western limits of its range.	eng
19824	habitat	de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	The Golden-mantle Saddleback Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, <em>terra firma</em> and seasonally flooded forest, riparian forest, remnant forests or fringe patches, and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Aquino <em>et al</em>. (2005) recorded an average group size of 5.3 individuals (n=14, range 4-8). Kostrub (1997, 2002) observed groups of 4-7 individuals (n=10) in the Yasuní National Park. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.	eng
19824	population	de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Soini <em>et al. </em>(1989) reported that this species is common in Peru, and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated that it is relatively abundant. Aquino <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded a population density, based on 17 groups, of 13.5 individuals/km² in the Río Aushiri basin, Peru.	eng
19824	threats	de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	The forests where <em>S. tripartitus</em> occurs along the Río Yasuní in Ecuador are remote and have to date suffered little impact from human activities, other than small localized encampments for petroleum prospecting (Albúja 1994).  However, the occurrence of petroleum in the region, resulting in the current construction of the Pompeya-Iro highway, is reason for some concern for the future of these forests and their wildlife.	eng
19827	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Saguinus imperator imperator</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>Southwestern Amazon, east of the upper Rio Purus, between the Purus and the Rio Acre (Hershkovitz, 1979). Izawa and Bejarano (1981) did not record <em>S. i. imperator</em> for Bolivia, but reported an isolated population on the left bank of the Rio Acre, in the basin of the Rio São Pedro in Brazil, in an area otherwise occupied by <em>S. l. labiatus</em>. Encarnación and Castro (1990) found populations of <em>S. i. imperator</em> (but not <em>S. l. labiatus</em>) on the right and left banks of the Rio Acre near the Quebrada Río Branco, approximately 20 km west of Inapari, close to the region indicated by Izawa and Bejarano (1981).  The population on the south bank of the Río Acre is evidently highly restricted, the subspecies not having been found anywhere else further south in Peru despite a number of surveys (Castro <em>et al.</em>, 1990).  It is not known how far it extends into Peru along the Rio Acre, nor whether it occurs between the Rio Purus and Pauiní and the Rios Purus and Ituxí (Hershkovitz, 1979).	eng
19832	conservation	Global assessment by D.P. Mallon (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group), regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team., 2006	Legislation protecting saiga exists at national level but increased enforcement, and especially external funding for anti-poaching measures and linked rural development are urgently needed. Some protected areas exist within saiga range but distance between summer/winter ranges of the various populations hinders full protected area coverage. Extension of already existing and new protected areas is under discussion by the Russian Federation government. Some research is being carried out on numbers, range and behaviour. Total prohibition of saiga meat and horn trade as well as temporary removal of saiga from the hunting animals list have been proposed as key conservation measures.	eng
19832	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Legislation protecting Saiga exists at national level, but increased enforcement, and especially external funding for anti-poaching measures and linked rural development are urgently needed. Some protected areas exist within Saiga range but distance between summer/winter ranges of the various populations hinders full protected area coverage. Extension of already existing and new protected areas is under discussion by the Russian Federation government. Some research is being carried out on numbers, range and behaviour. Total prohibition of saiga meat and horn trade as well as temporary removal of saiga from the hunting animals list have been proposed as key conservation measures.<br/><br/>The Mongolian Saiga has been legally protected since 1930. Two protected areas, Sharga NR (286,900 ha) and Mankhan NR (30,000 ha), were designated in 1993 to protect most of the remaining areas of occurrence.<br/><br/>Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19832	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	<em>Saiga tatarica</em> inhabited the steppes and semi-desert regions of south-eastern Europe and Central Asia from the Precaspian steppes to Mongolia and western China. Currently, there is one population in Russia (Kalmykia) and three in Kazakhstan, although in winter some animals reach Uzbekistan and even northern Turkmenistan. A distinctive subspecies occurs in western Mongolia (the nominate subspecies formerly occurred in the Dzungarian Gobi of south-western Mongolia, but has not been seen in 40 years). Saiga became extinct in China by the 1960s, and in Ukraine in the 18th century.	eng
19832	distribution	Global assessment by D.P. Mallon (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group), regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team., 2006	<em>Saiga tatarica</em> inhabits the steppes and semi-desert regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia. Currently found at one location in Russia and three areas in Kazakhstan. A distinctive subspecies occurs in Mongolia.	eng
19832	habitat	Global assessment by D.P. Mallon (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group), regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team., 2006	Inhabits arid steppes and semi-deserts. Prefers clay soil open spaces covered with grass and avoids rugged terrain as well as sandy areas. A migratory species with widely separated summer (northern) and winter (southern) ranges. Lives in large herds, usually up to thousand individuals. Heat is at the beginning of winter when males defend harems of females. Gives birth in April-May to two, more seldom to one calf.	eng
19832	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The Saiga is a nomadic herding species that generally inhabits the open dry steppe grasslands and semi-arid deserts of Central Asia. Bekenov <em>et al.</em> (1998) described the typical habitat as flat open areas covered with low-growing vegetation, allowing animals to run quickly; areas of broken terrain or dense cover are generally avoided, but animals may stray into these out of necessity.<br/><br/>The Saiga is a migratory species with widely separated summer (northern) and winter (southern) ranges. The species lives in large herds, usually up to thousand individuals. It has a high rate of reproduction and recruitment. In years with a favourable climate the population can increase by up to 60% in a single year (Chan <em>et al.</em> 1995). Very few animals in a population are more than 3.5 years old, indicating that the population is almost completely renewed after four years (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
19832	population	Global assessment by D.P. Mallon (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group), regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team., 2006	Historically, it was a common species in Eurasian steppes and semideserts. From information provided in recent references it appears that between 1991 and 1994, the global population of <em>S. tatarica</em> was relatively stable at just under one million animals, the majority of which were in Kazakhstan (approximately 810,00-825,000) (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998, Lushchekina <em>et al.</em> 1999, Sokolov and Zhirnov 1998). Recent information from A.B. Bekenov and Iu. A. Grachev (in litt. to IUCN Species Survival Commission 1999) suggests that the population in Kazakhstan had fallen by spring 1998 to around 570,000 animals (a decline of ~30%). The global population is now c.50,000, down from 1,250,000 in the mid-1970s. Most are found in Kazakhstan.<br/><br/>In European Russia (Kalmykia), the saiga population steeply declined after land reclamation of the Volga basin started, but the species remained numerous within the distribution area. In the 1970s the population recovered to c.700-800,000 as a result of hunting regulation. However, since then the population has drastically declined. In 1980 there were an estimated 380,000 individuals, in 1996 196,000, and by 2000 just 26,000 (see Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2001 for annual survey results for 1980-2000).  At present there are no more than 18,000 animals. Sex ratio is severely skewed; the proportion of males varies from 1 to 10 % in different years.	eng
19832	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Historically, this was a common species in Eurasian steppes and semi-deserts. From information provided in recent references it appears that between 1991 and 1994, the global population of <em>S. tatarica</em> was relatively stable at just under one million animals, the majority of which were in Kazakhstan (approximately 810,00-825,000) (Bekenov <em>et al.</em> 1998; Lushchekina <em>et al.</em> 1999; Sokolov and Zhirnov 1998). However, the population in Kazakhstan had fallen to around 570,000 animals by 1998 (A.B. Bekenov and Iu. A. Grachev, in litt. to ASG).<br/><br/>In European Russia (Kalmykia), the Saiga population steeply declined after land reclamation of the Volga basin started, but the species remained numerous within the distribution area. In the 1970s the population recovered to c.700-800,000 as a result of hunting regulation. However, since then the population has drastically declined. In 1980 there were an estimated 380,000 individuals, in 1996 196,000, and by 2000 just 26,000 (see Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2001 for annual survey results for 1980-2000). At present there are no more than 18,000 animals in Kalmykia. Sex ratio is severely skewed; the proportion of males varies from 1 to 10% in different years. <br/><br/>The population of Mongolian Saiga increased from c. 3,000 in 1998 to 5,200 in 2000 helped by favourable climatic conditions and active conservation measures by WWF?Mongolia. Numbers fell between 2000 and 2002 as a result of severe winters and summer drought. They continued to decline in 2002?2003, mainly because of poaching. Numbers were c. 1,020 in 2003 and 750 in January 2004 (J. Chimeg, in litt.).<br/><br/>In total, the global population of Saiga is now estimated at c.50,000, down from 1,250,000 in the mid-1970s, with most animals found in Kazakhstan.	eng
19832	threats	Global assessment by D.P. Mallon (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group), regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team., 2006	Uncontrolled illegal hunting for horns (male horns are exported for the traditional Chinese medicine trade) and meat since the break-up of the former USSR has led to the catastrophic fall in numbers. Selective hunting of young males and subsequent distortion of the sex ratio has affected reproduction: recent research shows that heavily skewed sex ratios are resulting in reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2003). A second significant threat is the destruction of key habitats and traditional migration routes. Agricultural abandonment is a problem in some areas; cattle grazing formerly maintained the grassy species but land abandonment allows another species (<em>Stippa</em> sp.) to encroach, which the saiga cannot eat. The recent increase in steppe fires is a further cause for concern. Severe winters can cause mass mortality.	eng
19832	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Uncontrolled illegal hunting for horns (male horns are exported for the traditional Chinese medicine trade) and meat since the break-up of the former USSR has led to the catastrophic fall in numbers. Selective hunting of young males and subsequent distortion of the sex ratio has affected reproduction: recent research shows that heavily skewed sex ratios are resulting in reproductive collapse (Milner-Gulland <em>et al.</em> 2003). A second significant threat is the destruction of key habitats and traditional migration routes. Agricultural abandonment is a problem in some areas; cattle grazing formerly maintained the grassy species but land abandonment allows another species (<em>Stippa</em> sp.) to encroach, which the Saiga cannot eat. The recent increase in steppe fires is a further cause for concern. Severe winters can cause mass mortality.	eng
19833	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Saiga borealis</span>).	eng
19836	conservation	Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs, or may occur, in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii</em> Costa Rica, Panama<br/><br/>Costa Rica <br/>Corcovado National Park (41,789 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1997; Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Golfito National Park of (2,830 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (within range)<br/>Portalón National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Preciosa Platanares National Wildlife Refuge (within range)<br/>Punta Río Claro National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Pancho La Merced National Wildlife Refuge (within range) )<br/>RHR Bancas National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Transilvania National Wildlife Refuge (within range)<br/>Donald Peter Hayes National Wildlife Refuge (within range) <br/>Finca Barú del Pacífico National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Forestal Golfito SA National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Hacienda Copano National Wildlife Refuge<br/>Lacustrino Pejepperrito Protection Zone (0.7 ha) (within range)<br/>Pejeperro Protection Zone (500 ha) (within range) (within range)<br/>Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve (70,000 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1997)<br/>Sierpe Térraba Forest Reserve (32,960 ha) (within range)<br/>Los Santos Forest Reserve (62,000 ha) (within range)<br/>Osa Anthropological Reserve (1,700 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Térraba Anthropological Reserve (9,350 ha) (within range)<br/>Conte Burica Anthropological Reserve (11,910 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>Panama<br/>El Chorogo - Palo Blanco Wildife Refuge (proposed, within range).<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (within range)<br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agricola (possible occurrence: Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Estero Golfo de Montijo Recreation Area (89,452 ha) (within range) <br/>Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (14,740 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (683 ha) (Boinski and Sirot 1996; Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996; Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Carara Biological Reserve (4,700 ha) (Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996a,b; just to north of known range, not confirmed) - this subspecies has not been seen in this protected area <br/>Cerro de Turrubares Protection Zone (2,340 ha) (Rodrigues-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996; within historic range, not confirmed).	eng
19836	distribution	Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>Saimiri oerstedii</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama inland to altitudes of up to 500 m asl. The north-eastern limit is marked by the Río Tulín in the north Herradura Mountains (9°40’N, 84°35’W) and Dota Mountains (9°37’N, 84°35’W). Along the coast of the Golfo Dulce and the Burica Peninsula to the western part of the Chiriquí Province, mouth of the Río Fonseca, including the Archipelago of the Golfo de Chiriquí, in Panama (Hershkovitz 1984; Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998; Reid 1997).<br/><br/>There are two subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri oerstedii oerstedii</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, from the left bank of the Río Grande de Térraba to the Osa Pensinsula, along the coast of the Golfo Dulce and the Burica Peninsula to the western part of the Chiriquí Province, mouth of the Río Fonseca, including the Archipelago of the Golfo de Chiriquí, in Panama (Hershkovitz 1984; Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998; Reid 1997). Surveys by Baldwin and Baldwin (1972, 1976) recorded its presence on the Burica Peninsula, but indicated that it is now restricted to a narrow strip of scattered lowland coastal forest fragments, not extending to the type locality David, although it possibly occurred as far east as Remedios (well to the east of David) prior to the 1950s. Altitudinal range is 0 to 500 m asl (Hershkovitz 1984). Rodríguez-Vargas (2003) mapped the remaining populations in Panama. <br/><br/>The historic range of <em>Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus</em> is along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, to altitudes of up to 500 m asl. The north-eastern limit is marked by the Río Tulín in the north Herradura Mountains (9°40’N, 84°35’W) and Dota Mountains (9°37’N, 84°35’W), and the southern limit is the north bank of the Río Grande de Térraba (8°25´N, 84°25´W) (Arauz 1993; Sierra <em>et al</em>. 2003). Its occurrence is sporadic, and the surviving populations are entirely fragmented (Alfaro 1987; Wong 1990; Sierra <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
19836	habitat	Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests (see Boinski 1987c). They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running <br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, females do not form dominance hierarchies, and there is no evidence of coalition formation in social interactions. Females transfer between groups before first mating season, and males are philopatric. There is little competition or agonistic interactions between groups, and males show high levels of vigilance for predators.  Reproductively mature males collaborate in mobbing females during the mating season. Their fruits they typically exploit occur in small and very scarce patches, and feeding competition is very low. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration (see Boinski 1987a,b). Single offspring, qwith interbirth intervals of about 12 months (Boinski 1999b). Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only one or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Weight: Adult male 750-950 g (mean 829 g), adult female more than 600-800 g (mean 695 g) (Jack 2007).	eng
19836	population	Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Mitchell <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded a population density of 36 individuals/km² in Costa Rica; Baldwin and Baldwin (1981) recorded 130 individuals/km² n Panama.<br/><br/>There is some dispute by different teams as to total numbers of <em>S. o. citrinellus</em>. The larger estimate is 1300-1800 individuals (Wong 1990; Sierra <em>et al</em>. 2003; but see Boinski <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
19836	threats	Wong, G., Cuarón, A.D., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The major threat to this species across its range is habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture and logging.	eng
19839	conservation	Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	As noted, the species occurs entirely in the Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha) (Ayres 1984; Queiroz 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19839	distribution	Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species has a very small range circumscribed by the Rios Solimões and Japurá and the Auatí-Paraná (Ayres 1985).	eng
19839	habitat	Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000). However, there have been no studies of this species to date, and its ecology is inferred from those of other species. It is probable that its social orgnaization will be similar to that of <em>S. boliviensis</em>.<br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Amazonian <em>Saimiri</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size: Adult male 950 g; adult female 650 g (Jack 2007).	eng
19839	population	Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Common in a large part of its range. It has been recorded at a population density of 2.8 groups/km² (Ayres 1986).	eng
19839	threats	Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The entire range of <em>S. vanzolinii</em> is within the Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha) (Rylands 1994). People are living within the reserve, but are permitted to use natural resources sustainably. The species is not known to be hunted. This species was formerly thought to be declining due to hybridization with <em>S. s. cassiquiarensis</em>, but this is uncertain.	eng
19843	conservation	Franco Andreone, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Benedikt Schmidt, Paul Edgar, Milan Vogrin, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	<em>Salamandra atra</em> is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and <em>Salamandra atra aurorae</em> is listed on Annex II* of the EU Habitats Directive under the name '<em>Salamandra salamandra aurorae</em>'; both <em>Salamandra atra</em> and '<em>Salamandra aurorae</em>'[sic] are also listed on Annex IV of the Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in most range countries (e.g.. Switzerland, Slovenia) and it is present in a number of protected areas. Kalezic and Dzukic (2001) suggest the establishment of a protected area on Prokletije Mount would significantly aid the conservation of <em>S. atra</em> in the Dinaric Alps. The subspecies <em>S. a. aurorae</em> is present in the Natura 2000 sites of Cima Dodici (10,450 ha) and Pasubo e Piccole Dolomiti: Monte Pasubo (1,920 ha).	eng
19843	distribution	Franco Andreone, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Benedikt Schmidt, Paul Edgar, Milan Vogrin, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species is present in the European Alps (including a recently discovered population close to the village of Samoëns in the Département de la Haute-Savoie, France), with isolated populations in the Balkan Dinaric Alps in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro and northern Albania. It occurs at elevations between 400 and 2800m asl (more frequent between 800-2,000m asl). The subspecies Salamandra atra aurorae is largely restricted to the Bosco del Dosso and Val Rensola in north-east Italy (between 1,300 and 1,800m asl); new localities extending to the east were discovered in the early 1990s (with a distance between furthermost sites of 15km2), and it is possible that this subspecies might occur in the entire forested high plateau of the area. Further field surveys are needed to verify the full distribution of Salamandra atra aurorae.	eng
19843	habitat	Franco Andreone, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Benedikt Schmidt, Paul Edgar, Milan Vogrin, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is found in cool, damp alpine meadows, stony pastures, dwarf heath and mixed, broadleaf and coniferous woodland. Animals are usually hidden below stones and logs, but can be encountered in shady places, or after rain, during the day. The species is unusual in that it has a ovi-viviparous method of reproduction by which it gives birth on land to an average of two fully metamorphosed offspring; the gestation period is between two and four years. It may be found in pastureland and other slightly modified habitats. It is not associated with water.	eng
19843	population	Franco Andreone, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Benedikt Schmidt, Paul Edgar, Milan Vogrin, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is still be abundant in Switzerland (although now considered to be extinct in some southern parts of the country), Germany, Austria and parts of Italy. It appears to be more rare and threatened in the Dinaric Alps in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro and northern Albania (e.g., Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). Gasc <em>et al.</em> (1997) considered <em>Salamandra atra aurorae</em> to be highly endangered.	eng
19843	threats	Franco Andreone, Mathieu Denoël, Claude Miaud, Benedikt Schmidt, Paul Edgar, Milan Vogrin, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	There are generally no threats to the Italian populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. a. atra</span>. Some local populations in Switzerland are threatened by road mortality and populations of the Dinaric Alps are threatened by localized habitat destruction through intensification of farming methods, tourism (skiing) and infrastructure development. The subspecies<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. a. aurorae</span> is threatened by collection for scientific purposes and the pet trade and general habitat alteration through excessive water abstraction from streams, and the removal of ground cover during forestry practices. Populations in Serbia and Montenegro are small, fragmented and threatened by over-collecting for the pet trade and possibly climatic changes.	eng
19845	conservation	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention under <em>Salamandra atra</em>. There is a need to maintain traditional forest and alpine management within the species' range. It is found in protected areas in both Italy and France.	eng
19845	distribution	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, 2008	This species occurs only in a very small area of the western Alps on the border of Italy and France. It is distributed in the valleys of Po, Pellice, and Germanasca in Italy, and in the Guil Valley in France. An isolated population was recently discovered in Chisone valley, Italy. It has also been reported to be (or have been) present on the Maritime Alps, in Cuneo Province. This finding is based upon a single specimen housed in Florence Museum, and with a label indicating its provenance as "Antracque", which is a mistake for Entracque, Valdieri (Cuneo), Italy. The species has not been found again at Entracque or nearby sites. Ribéron (2003) concluded that the species' distribution is decreasing, but this assertion is based solely on the Entracque specimen. The altitudinal range is from 1,200m (perhaps less) to around 2,600m asl; the altitude record of 2,800m asl and corresponding locality (Lago delle Forciolline), is most likely erroneous (Andreone and Sindaco 1999; Vences <em>et al.</em> 2003b; Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
19845	habitat	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It is associated with rocky alpine meadows and scree slopes, often close to small streams, usually above the tree line. The known sites of this species at lower elevations may have mixed or coniferous forest. It gives birth to one to six fully metamorphosed young on land (Noellert and Noellert 1992), and is not associated with water. This species hides beneath rocks and stones when inactive and may be found in pastureland and other slightly modified habitats.	eng
19845	population	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, 2008	The small known populations of this species are considered to be stable. The Germanasca Valley (Torino Province) population was reduced during 2000 because of habitat changes caused by unusually high levels of precipitation.	eng
19845	threats	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, 2008	While there are no major threats to this species, some localized development for tourism might be disturbing the habitat, and many individuals are killed by cars.	eng
19852	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., Durbin, J. & Dollar, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from Masoala National Park, Zahamena National Park, and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve. Additional work is needed to determine the current status of the populations of this species across its range, as well as basic information on its ecology and natural history.	eng
19852	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., Durbin, J. & Dollar, L., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to northeastern Madagascar. The species has been recorded in the Masoala Peninsula, Zahamena National Park, and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve. There are only four confirmed recent localities, including two individuals with aberrant coloration in reed beds of Lac Alaotra at around 800 m (J. Durbin pers. comm.). There were also historical records from the area surrounding Lac Alaotra. The known records in rainforest range in elevation from 200 to 650 m. The type locality is unknown. There are historical records from Mananara MAB Reserve (Albignac 1973). Despite substantial trapping efforts in eastern rainforest over the last 15 years above 600 m, the species has not been recorded in any new sites (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
19852	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., Durbin, J. & Dollar, L., 2008	It is a diurnal species that has been recorded from lowland tropical humid forest, and possibly from the reedbeds surrounding Lac Alaotra (J. Durbin pers. comm.). The animals rest in burrows or hollow trees during the night. Usually found singly or in pairs.The gestation period is about three months and there is a single young (Albignac 1973). This species is shy and sensitive to human disturbance.	eng
19852	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., Durbin, J. & Dollar, L., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this secretive species. The only locations where there have been recent multiple observations are Betampona Strict Nature Reserve (Britt and Virkaitis 2003) and Masoala National Park (F. Hawkins pers. comm.).	eng
19852	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., Durbin, J. & Dollar, L., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation of its habitat through conversion to cultivated land, selective logging and charcoal production. The lowland forest below 500 m is one of the most threatened habitats in Madagascar. There is no knowledge of hunting, persecution, or the effects of non-native carnivores, although it is certain that these occur within the species’ range.	eng
19854	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
19854	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to tributaries (Sogoksu and Karagöz, near the town Pinarbasi) of River Zamanti, and a tributary of the River Seyhan in south-eastern Turkey.	eng
19854	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in mountain streams. Not a migratory species.	eng
19854	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population is large, but restricted.	eng
19854	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Illegal fishing using nets and the introduction of other trout species (Rainbow trout, <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>, which is a predatory threat to larvae and a direct competitor) are the main threats. Pollution is not a threat in this case (mountainous area).	eng
19855	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	An anadramous species.	eng
19856	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
19856	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Garda lake in northern Italy. It has been introduced into numerous lakes in Italy and other countries.	eng
19856	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a lacustrine species. It has two spawning seasons: one in winter and one in summer.	eng
19856	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
19856	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Overfishing, destruction of habitat and water pollution (past threats). Introduced species (<em>Coregonus</em> spp).	eng
19857	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19857	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin, from Krka to Aoos drainages (Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia); possibly present in Alfios (Peloponnese, Greece).	eng
19857	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In lakes and large rivers. Spawns on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident and lacustrine ecotypes. In Lake Skadar basin, overwinters in deep parts of lake, moves to main tributaries in summer.	eng
19857	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19857	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hybridisation with introduced trouts and illegal fishing are potential threats.	eng
19858	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
19858	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
19858	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives at depths of 60–80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February. This trout makes up the bulk of catches of salmonid in the Albanian waters of Ohrid lake.	eng
19858	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
19858	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, hybridization.	eng
19859	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
19859	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy and Adriatic basin of Slovenia. It has been introduced in several countries in Europe. There are seven pure subpopulations in Slovenia and three known pure subpopulations in Italy (more research needed as there may be more).	eng
19859	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The remaining population of Marble trout are found in headwaters of mountainous streams.	eng
19859	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Rare. The population declined in the early 1900s.	eng
19859	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Hybridization with foreign trout stocked for angling. Water extraction and pollution.	eng
19861	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19861	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Atlantic, North, White and Baltic Sea basins, from Spain to Chosha Bay (Russia). Present in Iceland and in northernmost rivers of Great Britain and Scandinavia. In Rhône drainage, native only to Lake Geneva basin, which it entered after last glaciation. Native to upper Danube and Volga drainages. Introduced throughout Europe, North and South America, southern and montane eastern Africa, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Japan, New Zealand and Australia.	eng
19861	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Cold streams, rivers and lakes. Spawns in rivers and streams with swift water. Lacustrine populations migrate to tributaries and lake outlets, rarely spawning on stone, wave-washed lake shores. Spawning sites usually characterised by downward movement of water into gravel. Sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats, sea trouts mostly close to coast, not very far from estuary of natal river. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in couples between late October and March, usually in November-December. Females select spawning sites and deposit the redd. Males guard and defend females against other males. Eggs are covered with gravel by female. Both sexes usually survives spawning and anadromous trout migrate back to sea or lake in autumn or overwinter in rivers and migrate in spring (5-70 % repetitive spawners in Norway). Sea trouts generally feed in freshwater. Eggs are covered with 3-30 cm of gravel. Redd depth is positively related to female's size. Eggs in deep redds are less vulnerable to spates and wash-outs and more vulnerable to low oxygen concentrations and pollution. Fry usually emerge from gravel between March (Spain) and July (Finland). Parrs and resident trouts are territorial, feeding on drifting and benthic invertebrates. Success in finding and defending a feeding territory is positively correlated to size of fry and to mother's size. Being large is clearly advantageous at this stage of life cycle. Resident trouts usually spawn for the first time at 2-3 years and spawn 2-3 seasons. Smoltification usually complete at 2-3 years and 120-220 mm SL, but up to seven year old smolts are reported. Mean smolt age increases with latitude. All juveniles seem to have the genetic ability to smoltify and migrate; in some small, summer-dry streams all migrate. In other streams, almost none seem to migrate. Factors triggering the 'decision' of an individual to smoltify or not are not well understood. If migration is impossible, smolts may interrupt migration and become resident again. In most rivers, a greater proportion of females than males seems to migrate, apparently a response to a greater need for reproductive energy. Therefore, sex ratio is usually skewed towards females in smolts. Large anadromous females may spawn with small resident males (the reverse is not reported but is expected to be possible, too). Smolts start to migrate downstream in April-May when temperature increases from low winter level, reaching beyond 5-11°C; migration peaks at rising water levels with increased turbidity.<br/><br/>There is a great variability in life history details of lacustrine populations. In some lakes, fry may migrate to the lake and at least males may spawn for the first time at two years. In other lakes, parrs smoltify after spending 1-3 years in spawning streams and males feed 4-6, females 5-8 years before first reproduction. At sea and in lakes, trouts feed on small fish and large crustaceans. In lakes, aquatic and terrestrial insects may form an important part of the diet. After at least 18 month at sea, sea trouts start to return to rivers to spawn. The pattern and timing of upstream migrations depends on particular river, sex and age. Homing accuracy is not as high as in <em>S. salar</em>. After spending one summer at sea, whitling start to migrate in July-September to lower reaches of rivers to overwinter or mature and migrate to spawning sites. Anadromous adults migrate in May and enter rivers until late October. Most maturing whitlings are males and the proportion of whitlings might be up to 30 % among spawners. Whitlings usually sneak in to spawn in redds of large couples, as resident males do, too. Large males attack, injure and often kill sneakers. After one spawning season as whitling or resident male, individual trouts may spawn again as large sea trout. The factors triggering the 'choice' to reproduce as whitling or as large male seems to be related to body size of young parrs since larger parrs more frequently develop the whitling tactic and smaller parrs the large male tactic. During upriver migrations, the silvery colour evolves into a dark breeding colour, the skull of males enlarges and the lower jaw develops a kype. Sometimes hybridises with <em>S. salar</em>.	eng
19861	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant..	eng
19861	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming (sea lice etc.)	eng
19862	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
19862	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to a few Adriatic rivers in Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro: Krka (very rare), Jadro, Neretva, and Zeta river basins. It is introduced into the Zrnovnica.	eng
19862	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers of the karstic region.	eng
19862	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
19862	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The main threats are overfishing (sportfishing, food, including poaching) and hybridizitation with foreign trout. Habitat destruction (dams), water pollution.	eng
19863	conservation	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em>, 1987; MNE, 1997). <br/>In Red List of Kazakhstan (1996) listed under category III (rare, small in number and limited range species). <br/>Occurs in protected areas along whole range (approximately 19% of the species’ range in Mongolia).	eng
19863	distribution	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia. In Kazakhstan from northern Aral sea basin to Balkhash Lake and Zaysan basin. In Mongolia found in Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans-Altai Govi Desert, Alashani Govi Desert, Northern Govi, and Eastern Govi Sokolov <em>et al.</em> (1996). In the northern part the major factor that limits dispersal is deep freezing of soil during winter.	eng
19863	habitat	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits desert and steppe habitats, preferentially in sand dunes overgrown with tamarisk, saxaul, and saltwort vegetation. Solitary, nocturnal, sometimes also active in dusk. When chased try to bury in the sand. Has simple temporary and complex permanent burrows. Permanent burrows can be up to 3 m long with several passages, part of which do not reach surface. Exits sealed with sand plugs. Feed on insects (mainly acridoids), arachnids and plant parts (mainly seeds). Spring reproduction starts in April - May, summer reproduction starts in May-June. Litter size is 2-5 young.	eng
19863	population	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Spatial distribution is very erratic, and number significantly fluctuates. In different subpopulations number can differ 1,7 - 14,5 times. According to some authors up to 13 individuals per 10 km tracking is considered high density (Scherbakov and Kochenev, 1982). However, Gromov and Erbaeva (1995) wrote that in summer in Zaysan basin population density can be up to 60 individuals per 10 km of tracking.	eng
19863	threats	Batsaikhan, N. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. Preyed upon by owls, red foxes, alpine weasels and marbled polecats. In Kazakhstan major threats include overgrazing. Also, burrow destruction and roadkills are significant.	eng
19864	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No conservation measures applied due to poor knowledge.	eng
19864	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	<em>Salpingotus heptneri</em> is recorded from Uzbekistan and southern parts of Kazakhstan, in the Kyzylkum desert.	eng
19864	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This nocturnal species occupies desert areas. It remains within burrows throughout the day and emerges at night to forage on vegetation, insects and spiders.	eng
19864	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare poorly studied species, known only from single findings and some remains found in pellets.	eng
19864	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
19865	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species may be present in protected areas in China. Approximately 37% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it was listed as Rare in the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al.</em> 1987; MNE 1997).  It has most recently been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
19865	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in Mongolia and China (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang, Nei Mongol, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it occurs in the southern portion of the country including the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert and Eastern Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
19865	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species inhabits desert and steppe habitats associated with pea shrubs, tamarisk and saxaul vegetation. In Mongolia, its range overlaps with Gobi gerbils, midday gerbils, hairy-footed jerboas and Gobi hamsters. <br/><br/>This nocturnal, and sometimes crepuscular species feeds on vegetation, seeds, insects (Smith and Xie 2008) and spiders. Parturition occurs in April-May and litters of three to five young are produced (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19865	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are few data regarding the population status of this species. In Mongolia, three were caught in 200 traps in Bayanburd and Zuunmod over 24 hours. A spot-light survey found five along a 46 km transect in the Khatan Suudal, and six were found in a 50 km transect in the Zam Bilgekhiin Gobi. It was also reported in 16 localities in the Trans Altai Gobi Desert, Alashani Gobi Desert and Eastern Gobi (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1996). There are no current data regarding the population status in China.	eng
19865	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19866	conservation	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species is not protected under any legislation in South Asia.  Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring and habitat management are recommended for the species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19866	distribution	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This poorly known species has been recorded from Pakistan at altitudes between 1,000-1,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is presumed to occur in Afghanistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005), however, it is not as yet been reported from this country by Habibi (2003) or Hassinger (1973).	eng
19866	habitat	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is a nocturnal, loosely colonial, gregarious, herbivorous species occuring in rolling sand dunes or barren flat gravel and sandy plains in hot deserts (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
19866	population	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Population numbers and trends are not known.	eng
19866	threats	Jordan, M., Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
19867	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed in Red List of Kazakhstan as category III (rare, small in number and limited range species).	eng
19867	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic to the northern Aral Sea area, Kara Kum desert and valleys of the Lake Balkhash area.	eng
19867	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	In Aral region inhabit fixed sands with shrubs and cereals and sands with cereal and wormwood veretation. In Balkhash area inhabit fine-grained sands and clay-sandy deserts. Solitary, nocturnal. Reproduction starts after hibernation in April. Females usually give two litters per season. Feed mainly on seeds, ephemers, and small invertebrates.	eng
19867	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Population size is small and fluctuates annualy. In Aral area from 0 to 9 individuals per 10 km of tracking. In Southern Balkhash region 0,3 to 1 per 10 km of tracking.	eng
19867	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
19876	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in the Totsukawa River.	eng
19877	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19877	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
19877	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Iceland, Scandinavia, northern Russia [absent in rivers draining to Baltic and White Seas] present in rivers of Barents Sea basin from Volonga to Kara, Jan Mayen, Spitzberg, Kolguev, Bear and New Zemblia islands, northern Siberia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland; 'real' <em>S. alpinus</em> might be restricted to Europe and Greenland. Despite its scientific name, does not occur in the Alps.	eng
19877	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Iceland, Scandinavia, northern Russia [absent in rivers draining to Baltic and White Seas] present in rivers of Barents Sea basin from Volonga to Kara, Jan Mayen, Spitzberg, Kolguev, Bear and New Zemblia islands, northern Siberia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland; 'real' <em>S. alpinus</em> might be restricted to Europe and Greenland. Despite its scientific name, does not occur in the Alps.	eng
19877	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly lacustrine. Estuaries, rivers and lakes with cold, clear water. At sea, along coasts. Usually spawns on pebble to stone bottom in lakes. Riverine stocks spawn in rivers with slow current (0.2-0.8 m/s). Some riverine anadromous stocks in Norway spawn every year in fast-flowing waters of riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In large lakes, sympatric with <em>S. lepechini</em>. Most stocks differ in details of mode of life, migration, growth, reproduction, food. The following information apply to the species as a whole but do not apply exactly to a particular stock, which normally would have much less variable characteristics. Stocks north of about 65°N are anadromous. Juveniles spend their first 1-9 years in freshwater then move to the sea where they spend the short Arctic summer, returning to overwinter in frozen lakes. Some authors report that there is apparently no strict homing and that marine-feeding individuals become more opportunistic with age as to the choice of the river and lake they return to; in other areas, they consider that there is a strict homing. At sea, they remain in coastal areas; the longest documented marine migration is 940 km. Landlocked populations migrate within river drainage or are sedentary, lacustrine. Dwarf stocks are known in some Finnish lakes and upper stretches of rivers, characterised by a very slow growth rate; mature adults reach only 300-350 mm SL and 250-300 g (2000-5000 g in partly sympatric 'normal' lacustrine stocks). Lives up to a maximum of 32 years (usually up to 15). Anadromous stocks spawn for the first time at 4-10 years, lacustrine ones at 2-5; all individuals spawn every 3-4 years. Anadromous stocks grow much faster than lacustrine and riverine ones. Usually spawns in October-December; some populations spawn in spring, summer or winter. Prefers pebbles where males build nests 2-3 m in diameter. Usually, males are territorial and may spawn with several females. After spawning, some stocks return to sea, others remain 1-3 years in lake before returning to sea. In freshwater, feeds on benthos, plankton and small fish. At sea, feeds mainly on fish; anadromous individuals feed little in freshwater and not at all during migrations.	eng
19877	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly lacustrine. Estuaries, rivers and lakes with cold, clear water. At sea, along coasts. Usually spawns on pebble to stone bottom in lakes. Riverine stocks spawn in rivers with slow current (0.2-0.8 m/s). Some riverine anadromous stocks in Norway spawn every year in fast-flowing waters of riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In large lakes, sympatric with <em>S. lepechini</em>. Most stocks differ in details of mode of life, migration, growth, reproduction, food. The following information apply to the species as a whole but do not apply exactly to a particular stock, which normally would have much less variable characteristics. Stocks north of about 65°N are anadromous. Juveniles spend their first 1-9 years in freshwater then move to the sea where they spend the short Arctic summer, returning to overwinter in frozen lakes. Some authors report that there is apparently no strict homing and that marine-feeding individuals become more opportunistic with age as to the choice of the river and lake they return to; in other areas, they consider that there is a strict homing. At sea, they remain in coastal areas; the longest documented marine migration is 940 km. Landlocked populations migrate within river drainage or are sedentary, lacustrine. Dwarf stocks are known in some Finnish lakes and upper stretches of rivers, characterised by a very slow growth rate; mature adults reach only 300-350 mm SL and 250-300 g (2000-5000 g in partly sympatric 'normal' lacustrine stocks). Lives up to a maximum of 32 years (usually up to 15). Anadromous stocks spawn for the first time at 4-10 years, lacustrine ones at 2-5; all individuals spawn every 3-4 years. Anadromous stocks grow much faster than lacustrine and riverine ones. Usually spawns in October-December; some populations spawn in spring, summer or winter. Prefers pebbles where males build nests 2-3 m in diameter. Usually, males are territorial and may spawn with several females. After spawning, some stocks return to sea, others remain 1-3 years in lake before returning to sea. In freshwater, feeds on benthos, plankton and small fish. At sea, feeds mainly on fish; anadromous individuals feed little in freshwater and not at all during migrations.	eng
19877	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
19877	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
19877	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
19877	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
19878	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Endemic to Lake El'gygytgyn in the central region of the Chukchee Peninsula.	eng
19878	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in deep waters close to the bottom.	eng
19879	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	This species occurs in American Samoa; Tutuila: Alava/Maugaloa ridge, Faiga ridge and along the Vatia powerline trail, the Toa ridge. In addition, empty shells have been found on Pagatatua ridge, Levaga ridge and Polauta ridge.	eng
19880	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Previously believed endemic to Moorea but now possibly extant on Tahiti at high altitude (>1,000 m) on Mt Aorai.	eng
19880	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	High altitude montane forest.	eng
19880	population	Coote, T., 2007	No details.	eng
19880	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The principal threat is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>which can be found in the location where the putative <span style="font-style: italic;">S. diaphana </span>survives.	eng
19883	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Huahine, Society Islands.	eng
19883	population	Coote, T., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
19883	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The main threat to the species is probably the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
19884	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">In-situ </span>management. Does not appear to survive in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding colonies.	eng
19884	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Extant on Tahiti, Moorea and Raiatea, Society Islands. Extinct on Bora Bora.	eng
19884	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	The snail has a preference for higher branches in trees and often drier ridges. However, it is also found in at least one wet valley of Tahiti.	eng
19884	population	Coote, T., 2007	This species is notoriously elusive but certainly very rare in lowland Tahiti and slopes of Moorea. One individual recently was discovered on the highest point of Raiatea.	eng
19884	threats	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>remains the principal threat. The intrinsic problems of small population size are also a danger but it is likely that this species has always existed in low densities.	eng
19889	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	Educational resources have been developed and distributed. A barrier is needed to bass movement in Yellowwoods river. A captive breeding programme is also needed and possibly benign introductions if viable habitats are identified within the original catchments.	eng
19889	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	Nahoon, Buffalo, Igoda, Gulu,Keiskamma, Great Fish, Kowie Rivers all in the Eastern Cape South Africa.	eng
19889	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in  rocky streams, favouring marginal habitats where the current is slow (Skelton 2001). A predator on insects, crabs and small fish, it holes up in crevices and waits for prey to pass by. Breeds in summer, males make a nest and after spawning guard the developing eggs and young fish.	eng
19889	population	Cambray, J., 2007	Not known but decreasing and almost extirpated in the Kowie and Nahoon Rivers. Estimated numbers in the Gulu and Igoda Rivers less than 100 mature fish.	eng
19889	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	Introduced fish such as largemouth and smallmouth bass and the sharptooth catfish (<em>Clarias gariepinus</em>). Water abstraction, interbasin transfers and siltation and water pollution.	eng
19890	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No specific conservation actions are planned for this species, but several river rehabilitation programs are planned that will benefit some populations.	eng
19890	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Widespread across the Cape Floristic Region, but several lineages exists that has to be investigated taxonomically (Roos 2005).	eng
19890	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Occurs in mountain and lowland streams of the Cape Floristic Region.	eng
19890	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Several large and secure populations exist across its range.	eng
19890	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien invasive fish species is the major threat. Habitat destruction also plays a major role.	eng
19896	habitat	Roberts, C., 1996	Associated with reefs.	eng
19899	habitat	Roberts, C., 1996	Associated with reefs.	eng
19900	conservation	Madagascar Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
19908	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19908	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
19908	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	The young of <em>Sarotherodon caroli</em> are more carnivorous than the adults; the latter feed predominantly on phytoplankton (Trewavas 1983). This species is demersal.	eng
19908	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
19908	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19909	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19909	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
19909	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon linnellii</em> occasionally forms schools; is mainly diurnal. Juveniles feed on mayfly larvae and various terrestrial insects among a diet in which animal items formed a high proportion. Adults feed predominantly on phytoplankton (Trewavas 1983). It is a demersal species.	eng
19909	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
19909	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19910	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19910	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon. Two juveniles have been found in a tributary of the Kake River, an affluent of Lake Barombi-Mbo.	eng
19910	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon lohbergeri</em> usually forms schools at the surface. It feeds mainly on epiphytic and epilithic filamentous algae, and the diatoms, rhizopods, rotifers and organic debris found among them. The adults feed by opening their mouths very wide and applying them to the surface of the rock as though sucking the material in (Trewavas 1983). <em>Sarotherodon lohbergeri</em> is a demersal species.	eng
19910	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
19910	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19911	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19911	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
19911	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon steinbachi</em> occurs in schools at the surface. The stomach of the specimens which were examined contained organic debris. Benthic and epilithic diatoms, and sponge spicules were nearly always present and many had inorganic particles in the stomach. Individuals were seen shovelling sand into the mouth, moving it about in the buccopharynx, then spitting out the sand and making swallowing movements (Trewavas 1983). This species is demersal.	eng
19911	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
19911	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
19912	distribution	Stiassny, M., 1996	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.	eng
19917	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	A subterranean species.	eng
19926	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
19940	conservation	Krentz, S., 2004	The pallid sturgeon was listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 1990. At that time, very few details were available on the life history and behavior of this species. However, limited information was available on abundance, distribution and existing status of the population. Since that time, considerable work has been accomplished to identify occupied habitats, to determine the existing status of this species and to gain a better understanding of the habitat needs and behavior. The Pallid Sturgeon Recovery Plan (1993) outlines identified recovery actions to improve conditions for this species and promote recovery of the existing populations.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19940	distribution	Krentz, S., 2004	The total length of the species’ range is approximately 5,656 km (3,515 miles) of river. Current trends of pallid sturgeon populations are variable from decreasing in the upper part of the range to stable in the lower part of their range. In the large middle portion of their range, population status is unknown. <br/> <br/>For more information see <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe’s Explorer database</a>.	eng
19940	habitat	Krentz, S., 2004	Restricted to freshwater.	eng
19940	population	Krentz, S., 2004	Estimates of mature individuals in the population have been calculated for segments of the range. Pallid sturgeon populations in the Missouri River are limited to isolated free flowing reaches. In Montana above Fort Peck Dam, tag recapture data have allowed researchers to estimate that 50 to 100 mature pallid sturgeon remain. In the Missouri River between Fort Peck Dam and Lake Sakakawea and lower Yellowstone River, estimates of the current population ranges from 200 to 300 adult fish. Based on tag returns and telemetry studies, perhaps as many as 2,750 to 4,100 pallid sturgeon remain in the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana. However, for the greatest part of the contiguous range, the lower Missouri River below Gavins Point Dam, downstream to the Mississippi River and downstream to the Gulf of Mexico, no estimates are available. The best estimate, at present, of the total population of pallid sturgeon is that as few as 6,000 to as many as 21,000 may still exist throughout the entire range of this species (Duffy <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
19940	threats	Krentz, S., 2004	Habitat modification, including the construction of six main stem dams on the Missouri River and extensive channelisation in the lower Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, is the primary factor affecting the continued existence of this species.  This species is known to hybridize with the closely related and more abundant shovelnose sturgeon (<em>S. platorynchus</em>) where their ranges overlap.  Continued application of existing U. S. laws (e.g., Clean Water Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, Endangered Species Act, etc.) should result in improved sturgeon breeding and nursery habitats.	eng
19942	conservation	Parauka, F.M., 2004	The Alabama sturgeon was listed as endangered in 2000 under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). The decision was based on the species apparent inability to sustain a viable population. <br/> <br/>State and federal agencies and the private sector formalized a Conservation Agreement and Strategy for Alabama Sturgeon (2000) that originated as a informal voluntary plan for the conservation and enhancement of the Alabama sturgeon and its habitat. The goals of the conservation effort are to increase the numbers of Alabama sturgeon through a captive breeding program and release of propagated fish, genetic conservation, protect existing habitat quantity and quality, develop information on life history and habitat needs, and use this information to develop and implement conservation and adaptive management strategies for the species and its habitat.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19942	distribution	Parauka, F.M., 2004	The Alabama sturgeon’s historic range once included 1,600 km of the Mobile River system in Alabama and Mississippi, however, it is believed that Alabama sturgeon currently occupy only about 216 km of the lower Alabama River below Robert F. Henry, Millers Ferry and Claiborne Locks and Dams, and the lower Cahaba River, Alabama.  <br/> <br/>For a more detailed description of this species’ range see the <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/">NatureServe Explorer database</a>.	eng
19942	habitat	Parauka, F.M., 2004	Freshwater.	eng
19942	population	Parauka, F.M., 2004	There are no population estimates for the Alabama sturgeon however, intensive collection efforts by state and federal fishery biologists beginning in the spring of 1997 through the spring of 2001 resulted in the capture of only four Alabama sturgeon which further substantiates the rarity of the species. Efforts to induce spawning of the captive Alabama sturgeon held at the Marion State Hatchery, Alabama have so far been unsuccessful. Status of the population appears to be declining.	eng
19942	threats	Parauka, F.M., 2004	The decline of the Alabama sturgeon is believed due to over-fishing, the loss and fragmentation of habitat as a result of navigation-related development, and degradation of water quality.	eng
19943	conservation	Surprenant, C., 2004	Arkansas closed shovelnose sturgeon to commercial fishing on its state waters of the Mississippi River in 2000, as a measure to reduce the by-catch of endangered pallid sturgeon. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
19943	distribution	Surprenant, C., 2004	The species occurs throughout much of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and portions of their largest tributaries (Lee 1978), including the lower Ohio River (Smith 1979). The species once occurred as far upstream in the Ohio River as Pennsylvania (Trautman 1981). Shovelnose sturgeon are rare above Newburg, Indiana (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1990), but relatively abundant below Smithland Locks and Dam at Ohio River kilometer 1,479 (Greg Conover, USFWs, pers. comm.). The <em>Scaphirhynchus</em> species, previously reported as shovelnose sturgeon in the drainages of Mobile Bay in Alabama by Smith-Vaniz (1968), were reclassified by Williams and Clemmer (1991) as the Alabama sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus suttkusi</em>). The only known subpopulation of shovelnose sturgeon in the Alabama portion of the Tennessee River is apparently extinct. Shovelnose sturgeon may still occur sporadically in the lower Tennessee or Cumberland Rivers (Etnier and Starnes 1993). A disjunct subpopulation once occurred in the Rio Grande of Northern New Mexico  (Tomelleri and Eberle 1990), but only one specimen is known to exist from that subpopulation (Blair <em>et al</em>. 1968). Eddy and Underhill (1974) report shovelnose sturgeon occurring in the Hudson Bay drainage of the Canadian Plains. This may be an error, however, since Scott and Crossmen (1973) in Freshwater Fishes of Canada make no reference to the species in that country.	eng
19943	habitat	Surprenant, C., 2004	Smallest of the sturgeon species in North America, shovelnose sturgeon can tolerate high turbidities and are usually found in the strong currents of main river channels. They are often found over sand and gravel substrates feeding on aquatic insects, mussels, worms and crustaceans. Spawning normally occurs from April through early July with mature shovelnose migrating upriver to spawn over rocky substrates in flowing water between 19–21ºC. Individuals mature after 5–7 years of age, at total lengths of approximately 500 mm and 630 mm for males and females, respectively. Their weight at this age ranges from 0.9–1.3 kg (National Paddlefish and Sturgeon Steering Committee 1992). <br/> <br/>River sturgeon are uniquely adapted to mainstem river systems which are characterized by their large scale, diverse habitats, and a dynamic nature (Beamesderfer and Farr 1997). Adaptations include mobility, opportunistic feeding habits, delayed maturation, longevity, and high individual fecundity. Unfortunately, in recent decades these same life history characteristics have become a handicap to the species and led to population declines because of man-induced habitat fragmentation and destruction (Beamesderfer and Farr 1997).	eng
19943	population	Surprenant, C., 2004	In 2001, all of the states within the current and historic range of the shovelnose sturgeon were surveyed by the Mississippi Interstate Cooperative Resource Association (MICRA) to determine the shovelnose sturgeon status. Ten of the range states responded with sufficient information to allow the author to place the individual states into one of four classifications: (1) extirpated, (2) rare/vulnerable/imperiled, (3) stable and (4) undetermined. The remaining range states were assigned these classifications based on information provided by the Nature Conservancy at their website: <a href="http://www.natureserve.org/explorer">http://www.natureserve.org/explore</a>. The species has been extirpated from five states, is rare to imperiled in four states, stable in 10 states and has undetermined status in five states. <br/> <br/>Historically, shovelnose were apparently common in the Tennessee River system, all the way to the French Broad River on the Tennessee-North Carolina border before the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) reservoir system was constructed (Etnier and Starnes 1993). These authors note that, while the species may still occur there sporadically, no recent records exist for either the Tennessee or Cumberland rivers. Sprague (1960) documented the decline in catch and condition of the shovelnose over a five-year period in the Missouri River after impoundment of Lewis and Clark Lake. However, since then these subpopulations have apparently recovered and stabilized (Hesse and Carreiro 1997). Trautman (1981) stated that the shovelnose was considered abundant in the Ohio River until 1911 when the river began "ponding" as a result of construction of the slackwater navigation project, thereby partially stopping the spawning run. After that, Trautman (1981) said fishermen reported a drastic decrease in shovelnose sturgeon abundance.  Mettee, <em>et al</em>. (1996) considered the shovelnose extirpated in Alabama. <br/> <br/>Today, the shovelnose sturgeon still occurs in most of the large tributaries of the Upper Mississippi River from Wisconsin to Illinois. Hesse and Carreiro (1997) listed 59 rivers, creeks, oxbows and bayous in the Mississippi River Basin where shovelnose sturgeon occurred historically, but only 44 of these were listed as supporting the species today. In Illinois, the species is most abundant in the Wabash River, a tributary to the Ohio River (Smith 1979). According to Smith (1979) the Wabash is less impacted by flood-control dams and other modifications than are the remainder of Illinois’ large rivers. <br/> <br/>In the mainstem Mississippi River, numbers of shovelnose sturgeon have decreased sharply since 1900 (Becker 1983), although the species is still commonly taken by commercial fishermen (UMRCC Annual Reports; Etnier and Starnes 1993. Several authors have noted a lack of natural reproduction in areas of the Missouri and have attributed it to man-made alterations to shovelnose sturgeon habitat (Bailey and Cross 1954, June 1977, Moos 1978).   Meanwhile, upstream from the Missouri River mainstem impoundments shovelnose sturgeon remain abundant in the river below Great Falls, Montana and in the major tributaries (Montana DNRC 1977). Robison and Buchanan (1988) describe the shovelnose as especially abundant in the unimpounded portions of the Arkansas, lower White and Red rivers in Arkansas. According to Hesse and Carreiro (1997) state biologists attribute the success of White River sturgeon to a somewhat natural hydrograph with seasonal floods, good gravel bars, and backwater complexes. <br/> <br/>Hesse and Carreiro (1997) concluded that while shovelnose sturgeon have probably been considered less at risk than other sturgeon species, evidence suggests that deterioration of the shovelnose’s overall range is keeping pace with that of the other sturgeon species. <br/> <br/>Obrecht (1996) noted that shovelnose have been reintroduced into the Bighorn River Basin in Wyoming, where they had been extirpated by dams which blocked spawning migrations from downstream in Montana. West Virginia and New Mexico have also developed reintroduction plans for rivers where the shovelnose has been extirpated (Keenlyne 1997). The Ohio Division of Wildlife reports a plan to reintroduce the shovelnose sturgeon in the Ohio River above Meldahl Lock and Dam at Ohio River kilometer 702 (Scott Schell, pers. comm.). The species has not been recorded from the middle Rio Grande in New Mexico since 1875 (NMDGF 1991).	eng
19943	threats	Surprenant, C., 2004	Alteration of large rivers and construction of locks and dams for navigation purposes has contributed significantly to the decline of shovelnose sturgeon by blocking access to ancestral spawning grounds and by eliminating its requisite lotic habitat. In addition to impacts related to navigation, much of the habitat available to the shovelnose sturgeon within its historic range, has also been altered by water resource development projects designed to provide for irrigation, public water supply, public recreation, and the production of electricity. Dams have blocked spawning migrations, isolated populations, destroyed rearing and spawning habitats, and altered food supply as well as changed flow, turbidity and temperature regimes (Dryer and Sandvol 1993). <br/> <br/>While shovelnose sturgeon roe is used as an acceptable caviar, overharvest has not yet been a major detriment to the species. This may be due to its relatively small size in comparison to lake sturgeon (<em>Acipenser fulvescens</em>) and the pallid sturgeon (<em>Scaphirhynchus albus</em>), the other two sturgeon species found historically throughout its range. Shovelnose are locally abundant in some areas where large river habitat is still fairly intact and modest commercial fisheries occur in a few states where some acceptable riverine habitat still exists (National Paddlefish and Sturgeon Steering Committee 1992). <br/> <br/>Hesse and Carreiro (1997) recorded causes for shovelnose sturgeon decline (as reported to them by state biologists) as habitat degradation, loss of natural hydrograph, sedimentation, channelization, loss of spawning habitat, flood control and navigation dams, artificial water management, water temperature alteration, and past over-harvest. Boreman (1997) noted that sturgeon life history and habitat use attributes make the species highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. Specifically, he attributed this vulnerability to their older age (than most fishes) at full maturity, lower fecundity values, and older age at which 50% of the lifetime egg production is realized with no fishing mortality. <br/> <br/>Shovelnose sturgeon continue to be commercially harvested in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Arkansas closed shovelnose sturgeon to commercial fishing on its state waters of the Mississippi River in 2000, as a measure to reduce the by-catch of endangered pallid sturgeon. Keenlyne (1997) reported the commercial harvest of shovelnose meat and roe in 1992 as follows: <br/> <br/>Arkansas: 14,500 kg meat; 88–110 kg caviar <br/>Illinois: 22,335 kg meat; 77 kg caviar <br/>Indiana: no data on meat harvest; 55 kg caviar <br/>Iowa: 34,603 kg meat; 55 kg caviar <br/>Kentucky: no data on meat harvest; 88 kg caviar <br/>Missouri: 26,460 kg meat; 66–88 kg caviar <br/>Wisconsin: 11,025 kg meat; 33 kg caviar	eng
19945	conservation	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas in Brazil.	eng
19945	distribution	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in southernmost Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul and Curitiba states), Uruguay, and north Argentina (Buenos Aires province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Queirolo and Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
19945	habitat	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The species is semiaquatic occurring in low flooded grass areas and salt marshes; it seems to be active throughout the day and night. There is no indication that the species burrows and the average four young produced inhabit shallow depressions beneath matted grass (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Also it occurs in pampas and open grasslands (Queirolo pers. comm.).	eng
19945	population	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is locally abundant (Queirolo and Christoff pers. comm.).	eng
19945	threats	Queirolo, D., Christoff, A., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
19946	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19946	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
19946	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Most European rivers north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages, Aral and White Sea basins; Black Sea basin in Europe and northern Asia Minor. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Greece south of Pinios drainage, Great Britain north of 54°N, Ireland and Scandinavia north of 62°N. Introduced to Spain and Corsica.	eng
19946	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Most European rivers north of Pyrénées and Alps, eastward to Ural and Eya drainages, Aral and White Sea basins; Black Sea basin in Europe and northern Asia Minor. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Greece south of Pinios drainage, Great Britain north of 54°N, Ireland and Scandinavia north of 62°N. Introduced to Spain and Corsica.	eng
19946	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly nutrient-rich, well vegetated lowland rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. Spawns on roots or submerged plants. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Fractional spawner. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 15°C. Males assemble at spawning grounds and drive ripe females, often with much splashing, into dense vegetation to spawn. Eggs are very sticky. Feeds predominantly on plankton, terrestrial insects and plant material. Able to adapt to unfavourable environmental conditions by slow growth and small size at maturity (stunted populations).	eng
19946	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly nutrient-rich, well vegetated lowland rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. Spawns on roots or submerged plants. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Fractional spawner. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 15°C. Males assemble at spawning grounds and drive ripe females, often with much splashing, into dense vegetation to spawn. Eggs are very sticky. Feeds predominantly on plankton, terrestrial insects and plant material. Able to adapt to unfavourable environmental conditions by slow growth and small size at maturity (stunted populations).	eng
19946	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
19946	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
19946	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
19946	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
19947	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
19947	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to lake Yliki in Beotia, Greece.	eng
19947	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A lacustrine species with a lake-wide distribution although it requires shoreline habitat (vegetation) for reproduction.	eng
19947	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Possibly decreasing as the lake is subject to large fluctuations in water level.	eng
19947	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and drought, which are resulting in lake level fluctuations and overall lake level decline.	eng
19948	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
19948	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Romania: hot spring Petzea (or Baile Epiropesti) close to Oradea, about 10,000 m².	eng
19948	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Densely vegetated, shallow hot spring with mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
19948	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In 1998, it was observed that the fish was common and the habitat was in good conditon. However in 2000, the site was heavily polluted with litter.	eng
19948	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In 2000 it was observed that the spring was heavily polluted with litter. The spring water is also used to feed a public bath which was being rebuilt with plans to channel more water than previously from the spring (M. Glaubrecht, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).	eng
19950	conservation	Ferreira, C.E., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected areas within its range. It is protected in Bonaire, Los Roques, Bermuda where no fishing is permitted for this species. Marine parks in Florida still have viable populations of this species.	eng
19950	distribution	Ferreira, C.E., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in the western Atlantic, from Bermuda, South Florida, the Bahamas, and the Caribbean to Venezuela. <br/><br/>There are dubious records recorded from Brazil (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2005) which are based on few specimens from museums and literature records. Although Ferreira <em>et al. </em>(2005) suggested this as an extinct species, this fish is probably a vagrant along the Brazilian coast. Historical data needs to be investigated in order to build a better scenario of its status in Brazil.	eng
19950	habitat	Ferreira, C.E., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species inhabits coral reefs, mangroves and sea grasses at depths from 1 to 25 m. It feeds mainly on benthic algae and detritus. Juveniles may be associated with mangrove areas (P. Mumby <em>et al.</em> 2004, Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2005) and other habitats (Gonzales-Salas <em>et al.</em> 2008). This is the largest parrotfish in the Atlantic. Adults tend to be found inshore often in murky water (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
19950	population	Ferreira, C.E., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is relatively rare, except in Bermuda where it is more abundant. Large numbers of this species were observed in Florida, Florida Keys, Bonaire and Los Roques, Venezuela (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
19950	threats	Ferreira, C.E., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species forages in shallow inshore waters which makes them very vulnerable to overfishing particularly from spearfishing. It has experienced significant historical declines. In most of its range, this species is still fished, but given its current rarity it is not often caught. For example, in 1993, transect surveys falied to observe this species in Curacao, while in the same habitat several individuals were observed in Bonaire where there is no fishing of this species as all Scarids are protected. However, there is no information available on harvest levels or the impact of fishing on the current population.<br/><br/>This species is also threatened by habitat loss throughout its range from the continued loss of coral reef and mangrove habitat from coastal development and extraction. Based on anecdotal information from Glovers Reef in the Caribbean (D. Wesby pers comm 2009), <em>S. guacamaia</em> has undergone local extinction in the past 30 years. Schools of this parrotfish were commonly observed in the 1960s when several of the islands had well-developed mangrove habitats (Mumby <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
19951	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	Endemic to a single complex of springs associated with the Great Artesian Basin, located on Edgbaston Station, a sheep and cattle property located 35 km north-east of Aramac in central-western Queensland. Edgbaston Springs occur in the upper reaches of Pelican Creek, a tributary at the head of the inland Lake Eyre catchment.	eng
19951	habitat	Wager, R., 1996	Found in small shallow freshwater springs. Most of the springs are very small, shallow, and marshy. <br/> <br/>Most desert fishes are very effective at migration and during times of flood, most springs become connected. It is likely that this species relies on flooding to increase its distribution.	eng
19951	population	Wager, R., 1996	Although population numbers of <em>Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis</em> in individual springs have varied since their discovery, specific population trends are not well known and they have disappeared completely from a number of springs. It is estimated that their numbers may range from a few hundred to a few thousand individuals.	eng
19951	threats	Wager, R., 1996	The species is being threatened by the introduced mosquito fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and habitat destruction caused by harvesting water from the Great Artesian Basin, trampling and grazing by stock and feral animals, and modification of springs to provide for stock watering.	eng
19976	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
19977	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No conservation measures are in place. This cave should be designated as a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
19977	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura sijuensis</span> is only recorded from Siju cave in the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India. Occurrence in adjacent habitat in Nagaland needs confirmation.	eng
19977	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura sijuensis </span>is a cave-dwelling species.	eng
19977	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
19977	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Main threats to this species are quarrying and mining for limestone. Deforestation is also reducing habitat quality as it produces siltation and habitat disturbance.	eng
19993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Lake Fuxian, Yunan Province, at 1,750 m asl.	eng
19997	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
19997	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in four major disjunct populations in Peru and Colombi, central northern Brazil, and north eastern Brazil, into French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana.	eng
19997	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
19997	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
19997	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The major threat to this species if the destruction of its forest habitat.	eng
19998	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Tiantangzhai, Songshan, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Maolan, Dongzhai niaolei, Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Houhe, Qishan, Liupanshan, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Foping, Wolong, Jinyunshan, Jinfoshan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and it may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19998	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring throughout central China (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19998	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occupies rocky habitats. It will construct dens within the crevices of these habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Its diet consists of seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). This species does not hibernate (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19998	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been characterized as reaching high densities in places (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19998	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
19999	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), and Tongbiguan (CSIS 2008) protected areas, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and natural history of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
19999	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations of approximately 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19999	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies cliffs covered in scrub (Smith and Xie 2008). It is inferred that the biology is akin to its sister taxa, <em>Sciurotamias davidianus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
19999	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
19999	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20000	conservation	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Included in the EU Habitats Directive (92/43) IV 21/05/92; and the Bern Convention II 01/03/02, in parts of its range where these apply. Occurs in protected areas. Population monitoring is recommended, particularly in parts of the range where declines have been noted.	eng
20000	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	In Europe it is restricted to the area around Istanbul (where it was introduced in 1964), and to the islands of Lesbos (Greece) and Gökçeada (Turkey) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). Also occurs in "Turkey, Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), N and W Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.	eng
20000	distribution	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	occurs in extreme southeastern Europe and southwest Asia. In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Turkey (introduced to the area around Istanbul in 1964), the islands of Lesbos (Greece) and Gökçeada (Turkey) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Also occurs in Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), northern and western Iran, and Iraq (Wilson and Reeder 2005). A significant part of its range is within the Asiatic part of Turkey. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2000 m.	eng
20000	habitat	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species predominantly lives in mixed and deciduous forest, although it also occurs in coniferous forests (e.g., on the southern coast of Turkey) as well as rocky outcrops (Amr 2000, Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
20000	population	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species remains abundant in some parts of its range (e.g. Anatolian Turkey: N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007), although declines have been reported in other parts of its distribution. Anecdotal information suggests 'dangerous declines' in populations in Lebanon and Syria over the last few decades. A decline in Jordan has been noted leading the subspecies <em>S. a. syriacus</em> to be considered endangered there by Amr (2000). During a five month study during 1993 in suitable habitat in Israel only eight squirrels were encountered at two different sites. This number was considered low. Guides in the area thought numbers to be historically the lowest encountered and the authors considered the species to be 'nearly extinct' (Gavish 1993).<br/><br/>The species was considered abundant in Syria in the woods south of mount Hermon in 1866 (Harrison and Bates 1991). In Iraq in 1959, Hatt found the species near Sarsank, where up to twelve individuals occupied a single hollow tree (Harrison and Bates 1991). <br/><br/>Population density has not been quantified, but fluctuations apparently occur.	eng
20000	threats	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B., Sozen, M., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	In parts of its range, deforestation and hunting/poaching occur. Hunting and destruction of the forest habitat have reportedly caused numbers to decrease in Israel (Gavish 1993). In Turkey, it is not under serious threat at present (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).	eng
20001	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Woodman, N., Matson, J., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix III in Costa Rica.	eng
20001	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Woodman, N., Matson, J., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs from Tamaulipas, Mexico south to Costa Rica (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,800 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20001	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Woodman, N., Matson, J., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in evergreen and semideciduous forest, favoring areas with high humidity and dense vegetation. It enters agricultural areas and may be a pest of corn and other crops, but disappears if adjacent forest is highly disturbed (Reid 1997). It is tolerant to a degree of habitat modification (F. Reid pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This squirrel is diurnal. It may be seen resting quietly on a low branch with its tail over its back or moving with great speed and agility through epiphyte-laden tress or vines in middle and upper canopy levels. It sometimes descends to the ground to feed or to cross clearings but is mainly arboreal. This species dens in tree cavities or makes leaf nests on branches 6 to 20 m above ground (Coates-Estrata and Estrada 1986; Leopold 1959). Its diet includes seeds and fruit, including figs, <em>Manilkara zapora</em>, <em>Brosimum alicastrum</em>, and <em>Poulsenia armata</em>. Fungi, shoots, and leaves are also eaten. It is usually solitary, silent, and inconspicuous, but sometimes calls with high-pitched trills and twitters. Groups are occasionally seen feeding together. Young are born near the end of the dry season (Reid 1997).	eng
20001	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Woodman, N., Matson, J., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
20001	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Woodman, N., Matson, J., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
20003	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20003	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is distributed widely through Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela and Colombia.	eng
20003	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Occur in various types of forests from Atlantic gallery forests to Amazon rain forests. It also occurs in urban parks.	eng
20003	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	It is widespread and locally common in some areas of Brazil. Its status unknown in the rest of the range.	eng
20003	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Deforestation and habitat fragmentation.	eng
20004	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species is common in Cumbres de Monterey National Park.	eng
20004	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in south-east Coahuila through central Nuevo Leon, and south through west Tamaulipas to extreme north San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Hoffmann and Thorington 2005). It occurs from 600 to 2,550 m.	eng
20004	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is found primarily in oak and oak-pine forests (Best 1995).<br/><br/>In some localities it was observed during the early morning hours. Nests may be inside natural cavities of trees or built of leaves and sticks placed on branches of trees. Larvae and adult insects are common in the diet; peanuts, corn, oats, apples, peaches, mangos, plums, grapes, tomatoes, and anurans also are consumed. This species occasionally enters cornfields and can considerably damage ripening corn. Several females were recorded with embryos (2 to 4) in March, July, and August; two females on April were lactating; and a nest containing several small young was found in August in a hollow branch of a tree (Best 1995).	eng
20004	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	It can be uncommon in some parts of its range, however, in other places it may be common (Best 1995).	eng
20004	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation and hunting (for food). It is estimated to have lost 13-23% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 15 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
20005	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are several protected areas within this species' range. Research on ecology and biology, as well as population and conservation status is needed.	eng
20005	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in south-western U.S.A. (Arizona and New Mexico) and adjoining Mexico (Sonora), with three disjunct population segments: western and southern mountains of central Arizona high country (below Mogollon Rim) and a few localities in western New Mexico, isolated mountain ranges in southern Arizona, and southern Arizona mountains extending into northern Sonora. Found between 1,120 and 2,700 m asl in elevation.	eng
20005	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This squirrel primarily occupies riparian deciduous and mixed forests of canyon bottoms and streamsides (Best and Reidel 1995; Reid 2006; J. Frey pers. comm.). The upper elevational limits are generally where oak-pine forests transition to pine. The lower elevational limits can extend into chaparral and desert grasslands. This species is rarely seen due to secretive nature. The Arizona walnut tree (<em>Juglans major</em>) is considered a key indicator of this species. It prefers food from mast-producing trees.	eng
20005	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is uncommon and local. Its population status is unknown. The species is thought to fluctuate from year to year; probably due to food supplies from mast-producing trees, which varies each year.	eng
20005	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The destruction of habitat by wildfires is a major threat.	eng
20006	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20006	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs from southwest and central Guatemala to Guanajuato, Nayarit and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It has been introduced to Elliot Key, Florida (Reid 1997). It occurs from lowlands to 3,800 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20006	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This squirrel occurs in most forested habitats including thorn scrub, deciduous and evergreen forest, dry pine-oak woodland, secondary forest, and plantations. In dry woodlands or forest it is most common, especially in those bordering agricultural areas (Reid 1997). It also occurs in urban areas.<br/><br/>This squirrel is diurnal and usually solitary. Individuals occupy distinct territories and may occur at densities of 0.7 individuals/ha (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986). It is mainly arboreal, but will come to the ground to feed or travel from tree to tree. Leaf nests are built on tree branches, 5 to 15 m above ground. In the lowlands, it feeds fruits and seeds of <em>Ficus</em> spp., <em>Cecropia</em> spp., <em>Poulsenia</em> <em>armata</em>, <em>Brosimum</em> <em>alicastrum</em>, and <em>Astrocaryum</em> <em>mexicanum</em>. Acorns and pine nuts are the staple foods of highland populations. Plantations of corn, mango, cacao, and tamarind are sometimes raided. It is usually silent, but sometimes makes raspy trills and harsh chatters. Females give birth to 2 to 4 young during the dry season; black and gray individuals may be born in the same litter (Reid 1997).	eng
20006	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is common where not hunted.	eng
20006	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R. & Emmons, L., 2008	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat, in some areas this species is hunted for food or to prevent damage to corn and other crops (Reid 1997).	eng
20007	conservation	de Grammont, P.C., Cuarón, A. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. There are protected areas within its range.	eng
20007	distribution	de Grammont, P.C., Cuarón, A. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the west central coast of Mexico, including Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). The elevational range is from sea level to 1,290 m to 2,190 m (Best 1995).	eng
20007	habitat	de Grammont, P.C., Cuarón, A. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species can be found in thick forests along the Pacific coast in tropical or subtropical forests. It can occur in coquito palm (<em>Arecaceae</em>) forests intermixed with figs (<em>Ficus</em>) and other native tropical broadleaf trees surrounding lagoons and rivers, and also in tropical deciduous forest on slopes below the oak-pine forest (Best 1995). <br/><br/>It is frugivore and herbivore, feeding on nuts of coquito palms and figs. Nests of twigs and leaves may be in hollow trees or on the bushy terminal parts of tree limbs. In Southwestern Chihuahua, a female with three embryos were found in May; in Durango, in June, a female was pregnant with three embryos, and another was lactating; in Jalisco, breeding occurs in March and April, and young are present in April (Best 1995).	eng
20007	population	de Grammont, P.C., Cuarón, A. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is widespread but with low densities. It is common in suitable habitat (Best 1995).  In the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere reserve, this species is more abundant in semi-evergreen than tropical dry forest and their density varies from 0.9 - 4.3 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Mandujano 1997).	eng
20007	threats	de Grammont, P.C., Cuarón, A. & Vázquez, E., 2008	Although not presently considered under major threats, this species habitat is affected by deforestation and it is hunted for food. It is estimated to have lost 6-8% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 15 years (C. de Granmont and A. Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
20008	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20008	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in Venezuela, south of Orinoco River from the Colombian border to Cuidad Bolivar (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)	eng
20008	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
20008	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20008	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
20009	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20009	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in northern Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela	eng
20009	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
20009	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20009	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
20010	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Timm, R., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas, including national parks and city parks, throughout its range.	eng
20010	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Timm, R., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This widespread species is found in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Trinidad and Tobago. Ranges from 0 to 3,000 m in elevation.	eng
20010	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Timm, R., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This squirrel inhabits many types of forests from sea level to montane (Nitikmann 1985), and from picnic grounds to good forests.	eng
20010	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Timm, R., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	As currently recognized, this species is widespread and common. However, a taxonomic review could separate ranges.	eng
20010	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Timm, R., Samudio, R., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	None known.	eng
20011	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20011	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found throughout Pacific region of the western United States and northern Mexico, from northern Washington state to extreme northern Baja California.	eng
20011	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in oak-conifer woodlands and in mixed conifer forests. Also found in sycamore, cottonwood and walnut mixed forest.	eng
20011	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is considered uncommon. Density estimates vary from 0.25 individuals/ha in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada range to 2.8 individuals/ha in mixed coniferous forest.	eng
20011	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species competes for food with acorn woodpeckers, California ground squirrels and introduced tree squirrels (<em>S. niger</em> and <em>S. carolinensis</em>) Its habitat is also threatened by logging activities. This species is less tolerant to urbanized areas compared to eastern squirrels. This species is also threatened by predation from house cats and is one of the more common squirrel species in traffic mortalities.	eng
20012	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20012	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Argentina according (Wilson and Reeder, 2005)	eng
20012	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are poorly known. It was trapped in an area of primarily evergreen, lowland, tropical forest, transitional between humid tropical forest and dry tropical forest (Woodman <em>et al.</em>, 1996).	eng
20012	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20012	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
20013	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20013	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru (Wilson and Reeder, 2005).	eng
20013	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species inhabits the  lowland forests of the Amazon. It is a specialist on large nuts with extremely thick, hard, endocarps (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20013	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	It is thought to be widespread with low densities (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20013	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation. It is known to be hunted for food at Limoncocha, Ecuador and in the Iquitos area (Yanamono, Mishana) of Peru (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20014	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Research into the impact of the introduced species <em>Sciurus vulgaris</em> is needed.	eng
20014	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan. It is widely distributed in north-eastern Honshu, and is rare in western Honshu, from the Chugoku District (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found on Shikoku (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and on Awaji Island, where there have been no recent sightings (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is unclear whether the species ever occurred on Kyushu.	eng
20014	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is found in lowland to subalpine primary and secondary pine forests.	eng
20014	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is common over most of its range, but rare in some parts, such as western Honshu. It can occur at relatively large densities in lower montane pine forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
20014	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	There are no major threats, although the population has possibly been affected by die-offs of native pine trees due to an invasive disease (Japan RDB, 2002). The impact of the introduction of <em>Sciurus vulgaris</em> around Tokyo (in the late 1990s) and other areas requires further investigation to determine whether the two species are competing or hybridizing.	eng
20015	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	There are protected areas within this species' range.	eng
20015	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species occurs from Jalisco, Mexico, north to south-east Arizona, USA (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs between 1,560 m and 2,700 m asl, but usually is found from about 1,650 m to 1,950 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species' range is mostly in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico and enters North America only in the Chiricahua Mountains of extreme south-eastern Arizona.	eng
20015	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	It is found in pine-oak forests and mixed conifer forests, especially in canyon bottoms. Its litter size is 1 to 2 young; it rarely has more than 1 litter per year.	eng
20015	population	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is widespread with low densities. It is uncommon (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
20015	threats	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	There are no known major threats. It is hunted for local consumption.	eng
20016	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
20016	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is native throughout much of the eastern United States and very limited areas of adjoining Canada (extreme southern prairie provinces) and Mexico (occurs along the Rio Grande and its tributaries in northeastern Coahuila y Nuevo Leon (Ceballos and Oliva 2005)). It has been introduced to several western U.S. states and two Canadian provinces (British Columbia and Ontario).	eng
20016	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	This species prefers open woodland habitats, with scattered trees and open understory.	eng
20016	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	Abundant. Reported densities vary from 0.04 - 0.12 individuals/ha in the southeastern U.S. to 1.0 - 12 individuals/ha in the mid-west.	eng
20016	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Emmons, L. & Reid, F., 2008	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat at this time, this species is experiencing declining habitats in eastern states, with an increasingly restricted distribution. By contrast, range expansion has occurred in the mid-west. In Mexico, it may be considered fragile, but is not officially threatened (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
20017	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
20017	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla, Queretaro, and Guanajuato, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations of 1,500 to 3,600 m (Best 1995).	eng
20017	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This squirrel can be found in pine and oak forest, and arid mountains. It can sometimes be observed in deep arroyos in nearby valleys. It has been observed feeding on almonds (<em>Prunus</em>), acorns, and wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>). Its breeding period occurs in July and August (Best 1995).	eng
20017	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in many places, especially in summer; but it is uncommon and rare to see in cold weather (Best 1995).	eng
20017	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
20018	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20018	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is found in the Colombian Andes.	eng
20018	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
20018	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20018	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
20019	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20019	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	It is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes of Peru.	eng
20019	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
20019	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20019	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
20020	conservation	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	More taxonomic work is required to determine whether or not this taxon is conspecific with <em>S. granatensis</em>.	eng
20020	distribution	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species occurs in Nicaragua (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to about 1,000 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20020	habitat	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This squirrel is poorly known. It is diurnal and probably solitary. It forages on the ground and in the understory and is seldom seen in the canopy. The breeding season is from February to September, and litters of 2 to 3 young have been reported (Genoways 1975; Reid 1997).	eng
20020	population	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is probably rare (Reid 1997).	eng
20020	threats	Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. There is also a lot of subsistence hunting of this species.	eng
20021	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20021	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is distributed through the Madre de Dios Dept., south eastern Peru.	eng
20021	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The habitat preferences and ecology of this species are unknown.	eng
20021	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens which were collected at 400 m asl. (J. Koprowki pers. comm.).	eng
20021	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
20022	conservation	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20022	distribution	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species is distributed across Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru.	eng
20022	habitat	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	This species inhabits the lowland forests of the Amazon and into foothills of Andes mountains. It is a specialist on large nuts with extremely thick, hard, endocarps (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20022	population	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	It is widespread with apparently low densities (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20022	threats	Amori, G., Koprowski, J. & Roth, L., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation. It is known to be hunted for food at Limoncocha, Ecuador and in the Iquitos area (Yanamono, Mishana) of Peru (Emmons, 1984).	eng
20023	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Koprowski, J., 2008	The conservation status of this species is unknown.	eng
20023	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Koprowski, J., 2008	This species is found in north western Peru and south western Ecuador in the area surrounding the Gulf of Guayaquil (Wilson and Reeder, 2005). It was introduced into Lima city (J. Koprowski pers. comm.)	eng
20023	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Koprowski, J., 2008	It inhabits wet evergreen forests, dry tropical forests and urban areas (perhaps introduced).	eng
20023	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Koprowski, J., 2008	Locally abundant.	eng
20023	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Koprowski, J., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat reduction and fragmentation by agriculture and wood cutting. It is known to be hunted for food.	eng
20024	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
20024	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs from south Chiapas, Mexico to Panama (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid 1997). However, there are some records at 2,600 m on Poás Volcano, Costa Rica (Giacalone <em>et al.</em> 1987). In Panama, it does not occur at high elevations except near the border with Costa Rica.	eng
20024	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in dry deciduous forest, semideciduous forest, evergreen forest, second growth, and in plantations (Reid 1997). In some locations it is considered a crop pest.<br/><br/>Like other large squirrels, this species is diurnal. It is mainly arboreal and crosses open areas by traveling along fencerows or low trees. This species dens in tree holes and constructs leaf nests on branches. The diet consists of soft fruits including mangos, guavas, hog plums (<em>Spondias mombin</em>), and guacimo (<em>Guazuma ulmifolia</em>) (Reid 1997).  Low chucks and harsh chatters are occasionally given (Reid 1997).	eng
20024	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is widespread and common (Reid 1997).	eng
20024	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	No major threats. Although not considered a major threat at this time, this species' habitat may be threatened by deforestation.	eng
20025	conservation	Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
20025	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. It is listed on the Chinese Red list as Near Threatened, being close to qualifying for Vulnerable A2cd+3cd.	eng
20025	conservation	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Bertolino, S., Henttonen, H., Kryštufek, B. & Meinig, H., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. It is listed on the Chinese Red list as Near Threatened, being close to qualifying for Vulnerable A2cd+3cd.	eng
20025	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Globally, the red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and northwest and northeast China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan, endemic subspecies <em>Scuirus vulgaris orienti</em>). It has been introduced to the Caucasus, and the Tokyo area of Japan where it may be competing with <em>S. lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It occurs only sporadically in the Balkans, and is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. It occurs in Turkish Thrace and northeastern Turkey (Yigit <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20025	distribution	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Bertolino, S., Henttonen, H., Kryštufek, B. & Meinig, H., 2008	Globally, the red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and northwest and northeast China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan, endemic subspecies <em>Scuirus vulgaris orienti</em>). It has been introduced to the Caucasus, and the Tokyo area of Japan where it may be competing with <em>S. lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It occurs only sporadically in the Balkans, and is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. It occurs in Turkish Thrace and northeastern Turkey (Yigit <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20025	distribution	Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	The red squirrel has a large range in the Palaearctic, extending from Ireland, Spain and Portugal in the west, through continental Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and north-east China to the Pacific coast (Panteleyev 1998, Gurnell and Wauters 1999). It is also found on the Pacific islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan), and it has been introduced to the Caucasus. In Europe, it is widespread in most areas, with the exception of the Iberian peninsula (where it is absent from the south-west) and Britain (where it has almost completely disappeared from the south-east). It is absent from the majority of Mediterranean islands. In Portugal the range has expanded southwards. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20025	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. It is found in lowland to subalpine forests. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs). They are an important species for the reforestation process.	eng
20025	habitat	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Bertolino, S., Henttonen, H., Kryštufek, B. & Meinig, H., 2008	It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. It is found in lowland to subalpine forests. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs). They are an important species for the reforestation process.	eng
20025	habitat	Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	It is most abundant in large tracts of coniferous forest and also occurs in deciduous woods, mixed forest, parks, gardens, and small stands of conifers. Its diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of seeds, acorns, fungus, bark, and sapwood, although it occasionally takes animal prey (young birds and eggs).	eng
20025	population	Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, O'Teangana <em>et al.</em> 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999).	eng
20025	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, O'Teangana <em>et al.</em> 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999). However, it is sufficiently common in some parts of its range that it is considered a forestry pest owing to its habit of stripping bark and feeding on conifer buds.<br/><br/>In Mongolia the population is subject to great fluctuations, which are reflected in the fur-trade statistics. From 1958-1960 an average of over 145,000 skins/year was obtained; in 1961, 70,300 skins were obtained and in 1962, 33,135 skins were harvested. During 1965 the total rose sharply to 112,755 skins, and then declined the next year to 77,629 skins. By 1970 the number collected fell to 35,600 skins.	eng
20025	population	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Bertolino, S., Henttonen, H., Kryštufek, B. & Meinig, H., 2008	Although it is described as common throughout most of its range (Gurnell and Wauters 1999), there have been well-documented population declines and range contractions in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Italy (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, O'Teangana <em>et al.</em> 2000). Typical densities range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 individuals per hectare (Gurnell and Wauters 1999). However, it is sufficiently common in some parts of its range that it is considered a forestry pest owing to its habit of stripping bark and feeding on conifer buds.<br/><br/>In Mongolia the population is subject to great fluctuations, which are reflected in the fur-trade statistics. From 1958-1960 an average of over 145,000 skins/year was obtained; in 1961, 70,300 skins were obtained and in 1962, 33,135 skins were harvested. During 1965 the total rose sharply to 112,755 skins, and then declined the next year to 77,629 skins. By 1970 the number collected fell to 35,600 skins.	eng
20025	threats	Sandro Bertolino, Heikki Henttonen, Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, 2006	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation and, in Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em> (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes <em>in litt.</em> 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton <em>et al.</em> 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.	eng
20025	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation, but these are not considered to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em> (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes <em>in litt.</em> 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton <em>et al.</em> 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.<br/><br/>In Japan, this species is frequently sold as pets, having been imported from the mainland, and so the risk of the spread of this species across Japan is high, with much resulting concern for its impact on the native <em>Sciurus lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, unsustainable hunting for skins, for the international fur trade is a threat. Records of hunting levels between 1942 and 1960 are available in Stubbe (1965), although current hunting levels have not been established.	eng
20025	threats	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D., Bertolino, S., Henttonen, H., Kryštufek, B. & Meinig, H., 2008	The main threats to this species are habitat loss and fragmentation, but these are not considered to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Britain and Italy, out-competition by the introduced grey squirrel <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em> (Gurnell and Pepper 1993, Wauters <em>et al.</em> 1997, Bertolino and Genovesi 2003). Now that the grey squirrel has become established on the continent, it can be expected that it may ultimately spread throughout much of the red squirrel's range. Grey squirrels not only out-compete the smaller red squirrels, but also carry parapox virus, which is highly pathogenic to red squirrels. Grey squirrels can carry the virus without being affected, and recent (2006) UK studies have shown that 61% of apparently healthy grey squirrels have been exposed to the virus and may be carriers (C. McInnes <em>in litt.</em> 2006). When the virus is present, the grey squirrel can replace the red squirrel 20 times faster than normal replacement rate (Rushton <em>et al.</em> 2006). The virus has not yet been recorded in Italy.<br/><br/>In Japan, this species is frequently sold as pets, having been imported from the mainland, and so the risk of the spread of this species across Japan is high, with much resulting concern for its impact on the native <em>Sciurus lis</em>.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, unsustainable hunting for skins, for the international fur trade is a threat. Records of hunting levels between 1942 and 1960 are available in Stubbe (1965), although current hunting levels have not been established.	eng
20026	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
20026	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs in the Yucatan Peninsula, northern and southwestern Belize, and northern Guatemala (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 750 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20026	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This squirrel occurs in deciduous and evergreen forest, semiarid pine-oak woodlands, and second growth (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>It is diurnal and mainly arboreal. It is most active in the early morning, but may be seen sunning on a branch later in the day. Nests of leaves and twigs are built on branches. It eats soft fruit, nuts, and seeds; when these foods are not available, it subsists on flowers, buds, and shoots. Females give birth during the dry season (April to August) and litter size is 2 to 3 young (Best <em>et al.</em> 1995; Reid 1997).	eng
20026	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species is fairly common in deciduous and evergreen forest, and less common in the more populated northern part of the peninsula due to hunting pressure and deforestation (Reid 1997).	eng
20026	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	No major threats known. Although not considered a major threat at present, this species habitat is subject to fragmentation.	eng
20033	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. More research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats is urgently required.	eng
20033	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is known from eastern Colombia, Venezuela, and northwestern Brazil. Colombian specimen was recently reviewed and proven to not be <em>ega</em> (Tew pers. comm.). Does not occur in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.), and Brazilian record need verification.	eng
20033	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	In Venezuela, this rare bat has been netted in multistratal tropical evergreen forest, primary forest and in a yard near a stream (Handley, 1976; Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1993). The diet probably consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, and insects (Gardner, 1977).	eng
20033	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Expected to decline in response to restricted habitat. An extremely rare species (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
20033	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range although this is not considered a major threat.	eng
20034	conservation	Kottelat, M., 1996	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
20036	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador, and elsewhere in its range.	eng
20036	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the eastern slopes of the Andes of Ecuador and to near Iquitos in Amazonian Peru (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 2004). The distributional range was increased in recent years. This species occurs from 200 to 1,200 m.	eng
20036	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is found in lowland and piedmont rainforest. It is found in disturbed and primary forest. This species is a forest specialist.	eng
20036	population	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is not rare, there are several recent specimens.	eng
20036	threats	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	Some populations are threatened by general deforestation in the Amazon region (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
20037	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
20037	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the south Colombia, northeast Peru, western Brazil (Acre and Amazonas States) (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Musser and Carleton, 2005), and probably northeastern Ecuador (Castro y Zapata, 2001). The elevational range of this species is 200 to 800 m (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
20037	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This mouse is nocturnal (Emmons and Feer, 1998) and it is known from undisturbed terra firme forest on the ground; these sites were often in areas of local, natural disturbances, such as tree falls. Pregnant females or those with a perforate vagina were obtained from August through March, suggesting that breeding occurs in both wet and dry seasons and perhaps throughout the year. Embryo counts ranged from one to three (Patton el al., 2000). This species is found in lowland and piedmont Amazon rainforest. It is found in disturbed and primary forest. This species is a forest specialist.	eng
20037	population	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is not rare; there are several recent specimens.	eng
20037	threats	Anderson, R.P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	Some populations are threatened by general deforestation in the Amazon region (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.), but overall this is not considered a major threat.	eng
20052	conservation	Reid, F., Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Found in protected areas in Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. No specific research needs as it has been well studied.	eng
20052	distribution	Reid, F., Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs in intermediate elevations from eastern Oaxaca, México to western Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 900 to 2,900 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20052	habitat	Reid, F., Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs primarily in cloud forest, forest edge, and grassy clearings (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is generally diurnal and is most active in the morning. It is mainly terrestrial, using runways and well-trodden paths through grass and under logs (Hooper 1972). Insects make up about 80% of the diet (adult beetles are preferred), and some seeds and fruit are also taken (Hooper and Carleton 1976). Both sexes of this mouse construct nests, and breeding occurs year-round, with litters size between 1 and 3 young (Reid 1997).	eng
20052	population	Reid, F., Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is common to abundant in its range (Reid 1997).	eng
20052	threats	Reid, F., Pino, J. & Samudio, R., 2008	Pesticides are a major threat, because this species is insectivorous.	eng
20053	conservation	Samudio, R., Timm, R., Pino, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	Much of its habitat occurs within protected areas.	eng
20053	distribution	Samudio, R., Timm, R., Pino, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in high elevations in the Cordilleras Central and Talamanca of Costa Rica to the Volcán Chiriquí region in west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from 2,100 to 3,400 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20053	habitat	Samudio, R., Timm, R., Pino, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in wet montane forest, forest edge, dense grass, and paramo. <br/><br/>This species favors cold environments (Reid 1997). It is terrestrial, traveling in runways under logs and among rocks or through dense vegetation. Almost entirely insectivorous in diet, it prefers larval beetles, which are probably located by smell. Little nest-building activity occurs in captivity, and nests have not been found in the wild. It appears to breed year-round; litters size is 2 to 4 young, averaging 2.7 (Reid 1997).	eng
20053	population	Samudio, R., Timm, R., Pino, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	It is fairly common (Reid 1997).	eng
20053	threats	Samudio, R., Timm, R., Pino, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, though in parts of its range it is adversely affected by agrochemicals, loss of grassland habitat (to development) and to some extent, deforestation.	eng
20054	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from Zinave National Park on the Save River in Mozambique, and presumably is present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this widespread but seemingly very poorly known species.	eng
20054	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily recorded over much of West Africa and East Africa, with some records from Central Africa. It ranges from The Gambia and Senegal in the west, through West Africa to eastern Nigeria, it is then distributed from northern Uganda and southern Kenya, through Tanzania, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Malawi, Mozambique and southeastern South Africa. The range is poorly known and the species might be more widespread.	eng
20054	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	The natural history of this species is very poorly known. It has been recorded from Guinea and Sudan woodlands (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), and probably also occurs in dry savanna habitats (see Happold 1987).	eng
20054	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
20054	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
20055	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Zinave National Park in Mozambique (Cotterill 2001), and from the Mole National Park in Ghana (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), and in view of its wide range, is presumably present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this poorly known species.	eng
20055	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This widespread African species has been reported as scattered records from West Africa (The Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria), Central Africa (northern Cameroon, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola) and East Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zambia). It is possibly present in Benin, Chad and Somalia but this requires confirmation.	eng
20055	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. Rosevear (1965), indicates that the species is present in Sudan woodland and also high forest. Happold (1987), reports that in Nigeria the species is found in the Guinea savanna zone, especially on the Jos plateau, and is found roosting in houses. Bergmans (1977) recorded the species flying along a stream.	eng
20055	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is very rarely recorded, and there is little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
20055	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	While the threats to this species are not well known, it is presumed not to have any major threats in view of the species wide distribution in habitats that are not rapidly declining throughout much of its recorded range.	eng
20056	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed on distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, population monitoring, habitat maintenance, limiting factor research, public awareness and conservation lobbying are actions recommended for the species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20056	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia and is presently known from India (Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) in South Asia (Das 2003, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002, Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press). It has been recorded from 46 m up to an elevation of 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20056	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species is found in tropical thorn forests and urban areas preferring to roost in crevices and holes in old buildings and hollows in trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20056	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20056	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely due to increase in urbanization leading to disturbance and loss of roosting sites, and competition from invasive alien species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20058	conservation	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20058	distribution	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is distributed from northeastern South Asia, into central and southern China, and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia this species is presently known from Bangladesh (Sylhet Division), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal) (Khan 2001; Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), and has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Anhui, Fujian, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and the island of Hainan (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges through northern and western Myanmar, northern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.), Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been recorded up to 2,200 m asl in Thailand (S. Bumgrunsri pers. comm.).	eng
20058	habitat	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in deep, humid valleys and hilly forests. It roosts among trees and banana leaves (Lekagul and McNeely 1997). It emerges late and is a high and fast flyer (Bates and Harrison 1997). In Viet Nam, it has been recorded from limestone caves in secondary and primary tropical moist forest (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
20058	population	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely distributed and common (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002; P. Bates, Furey and Francis pers. comm.).	eng
20058	threats	Csorba, G., Bates, P., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia there are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is locally threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural and other uses (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20059	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2009	This species has been recorded from the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire) and from Tai National Park (Côte d'Ivoire). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable primary forest throughout much of West Africa, especially in areas where this seemingly rare bat has been recorded. Further field surveys are needed to locate any additional populations of this species.	eng
20059	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2009	This species is known only from a relatively few scattered records in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon and Congo. It seems to only be known from 16 localities, and has not been recorded from a number of areas where intensive netting has taken place. Animals have been recorded at elevations from 120 m (Oda, Ghana) to 1,200 m asl (Mount Nimba).	eng
20059	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2009	This species has been recorded from both tropical moist lowland and montane forest, with most localities in the Guineo-Congolian lowland forests. The species is a frugivorous specialist, and appears to be a primary forest obligate. Recapture data indicate that animals have extremely restricted home ranges of several hectares (J. Fahr pers. comm. 2004).	eng
20059	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2009	This appears to be a naturally rare species.	eng
20059	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J. & Juste. J., 2009	This species is highly impacted by deforestation, and through forest fragmentation and degradation. Threats presumably include logging and mining activities, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
20060	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Although there appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, it has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g.. Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire). There is a need to investigate whether this species can adapt to secondary forest habitats. Further studies are needed to fully determine if the species is present in forested areas between known localities.	eng
20060	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Liberia and Guinea, into Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, and from here into Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (both Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The range appears to be disjunct, and comprised of five main populations. It ranges from sea level to around 1,100 m asl.	eng
20060	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is found in both lowland and montane forests. It is unclear if it can persist in secondary forest, although recent records have come from undisturbed sites. Animals probably roost singly and have a very small  home range, and very high site fidelity. The species has been recorded to feed on fruits, but does not appear to feed on flowers (Happold 1987; Bergmans 1990).	eng
20060	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It appears to be a rare, or at least rarely recorded, species.	eng
20060	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss, presumably largely through logging and mining operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
20064	conservation	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
20064	distribution	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This holotype was described from two specimens from La Réunion and one of these was designated as the lectotype but is now in very poor condition (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Madagascar, it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1868, at Sarodrano, near Toliara in the south (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). The identity of the Madagascar specimen cannot be confirmed due to absence of reliable material from La Réunion. The area near Sarodrano has been relatively well surveyed recently, but no new specimens were obtained (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20064	habitat	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The natural history of this species is not known.	eng
20064	population	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species was considered to be relatively common in the early 19th Century on La Réunion; however, it was not recorded in the 20th century or 21st century (Cheke and Dahl 1981).	eng
20064	threats	Andriafidison, D, Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
20065	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Suyanto, A., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
20065	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is known from Sulawesi, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).	eng
20065	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Suyanto, A., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. However, congenerics live in houses, usually in small colonies of less than a hundred, and forage in open areas, above the canopy.	eng
20065	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Suyanto, A., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
20065	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T., Francis, C. & Suyanto, A., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
20066	conservation	Griffin, M., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is believed to be present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
20066	distribution	Griffin, M., 2008	This species is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and the Gambia in the west, through West Africa and parts of Central Africa, to Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Ethiopia in the east, from here it ranges south through much of East Africa and southern Africa, being recorded as far south as eastern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
20066	habitat	Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. It roosts in hollow trees, roofs and other dark places in houses. Although they may roost singly, groups of 20 to 30 bats are not uncommon (Kingdon 1974) (Happold 1987).	eng
20066	population	Griffin, M., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
20066	threats	Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
20067	conservation	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from some protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
20067	distribution	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widespread species is found through much of South Asia, southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Afghanistan (Nangarhar and Laghman provinces), Bangladesh (Sylhet division), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,  Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (Central, Far Western and Mid Western Nepal), Pakistan (North West Frontier Province and Punjab) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Northern, North Western, Sabargamuwa, Southern, Uva and Western Provinces) (Khan 2001; Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005; Vanitharani 2006; Korad <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It ranges across southern China, including Hainan island (Simth and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges through Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northern Cambodia.	eng
20067	habitat	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitat types, including urban areas (G. Csorba and P. Bates pers. comm.). It roosts in crevices and cracks in old buildings, among the leaves and crowns of palms, in hollows of trees and among leaves of banana either singly or in colonies of up to 50 individuals. It emerges late from the roosting site and is a low flyer and flies at a steady speed. One or two young ones are born after a gestation period of 115 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
20067	population	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widespread in distribution and common in occurrence.	eng
20067	threats	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. It might be locally threatened in some areas because of disturbance of roosting sites.	eng
20068	conservation	Bates, P., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Gonzales, J.-C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas (eg. Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, India). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
20068	distribution	Bates, P., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Gonzales, J.-C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This widely distributed species ranges through much of South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong, Khulna and Sylhet divisions), India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central, Eastern, Northern, North Central and Uva provinces) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005, Das 2003, Vanitharani 2006, Korad <em>et al.</em> 2007). This taxon may probably also occur in Nepal (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). In South Asia, it has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,111 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong, Hainan, Guangxi, Yunnan and is present on the island of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumba, Flores, Savu and Sulawesi), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia] and Sabah [Malaysia]), to the Philippines. In the Philippines, it is present throughout much of the country, being recorded from Bohol, Biliran, Carabao, Catanduanes, Cebu, Cuyo, Guimaras, Leyte, Luzon (Abra, Bulacan, Cagayan, Cavite, Isabela, Laguna, La Union, Pampanga, Rizal, and Zambales provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, Misamis Oriental, and South Cotabato provinces), Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo, Sibuyan, and Ticao (Lawrence 1939; Taylor 1934; Alcala and Alviola 1970; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) where it occurs from sea level to 600 m (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
20068	habitat	Bates, P., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Gonzales, J.-C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This adaptable species is found in primary and secondary habitats, and in both rural and urban areas. It roosts in temples, caves, hollow trees, palm fronds, roofs, crevices, cracks and holes in the walls and on the roofs of old houses, dry leaves of trees in colonies of several hundred individuals. It is an early flyer and prefers to feed on hymenopterans and dipterans. One or two young ones are born after a gestation period of 105-115 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
20068	population	Bates, P., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Gonzales, J.-C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a common species with stable populations.	eng
20068	threats	Bates, P., Kingston, T., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Gonzales, J.-C., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In South Asia, disturbance to roosting sites might represent a local threat to some populations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In northeast Luzon (Philippines), it is eaten as an aphrodisiac (J.-C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20069	conservation	Griffin, M., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
20069	distribution	Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded in much of West Africa (including northern parts of Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, much of Senegal, Gambia, and Burkina Faso, and southern parts of Mali and Niger). There are isolated records from southwestern Mauritania, as well as western parts of the Central African Republic. The eastern parts of the distribution include records from Sudan, and the northern parts of Uganda and Kenya. Further south this species is found in Mozambique, western Angola and Namibia. There is uncertainty about a range which encompasses south Zambia, north Botswana, possibly South Africa, and south-east Angola.	eng
20069	habitat	Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. In Nigeria, it is widespread in Sudan and Guinea savanna zones extending southwards to the rainforest-savanna boundary (Happold 1987).	eng
20069	population	Griffin, M., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
20069	threats	Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
20070	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Management of protected areas is necessary.	eng
20070	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This African bat has been recorded as scattered records from West, East, and south-east Africa. It has been reported from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria in West Africa, from central Sudan, and from western Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Kenya and Tanzania, south to Mozambique, Malawi and eastern Zimbabwe.	eng
20070	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland tropical moist forest, to both moist and dry savanna. Animals have been found roosting in a house and in a hollow dead palm tree (Happold 1987).	eng
20070	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	It appears to be a rare, or rarely recorded, species.	eng
20070	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species is threatened by the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use in parts of its range.	eng
20071	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
20071	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This sub-Saharan species has been patchily recorded from West Africa (Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria), Central Africa (Cameroon and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and East Africa (Uganda and Kenya), and is believed to likely occur more widely than is currently known. It is possibly present in Equatorial Guinea, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
20071	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species appears to be associated with tropical lowland forest (Robbins <em>et al.</em> 1985; Happold, 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
20071	population	Fahr. J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
20071	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some populations may be impacted by general deforestation, however, this needs to be confirmed.	eng
20072	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas across Madagascar and does not appear to require specific conservation measures but, like many other Malagasy bats that are not considered to be threatened, there is a lack of basic natural history data.	eng
20072	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed from the coast to the highland plateau up to 1,400 m in Tsinjoarivo (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is rarely recorded, but as more surveys are conducted it is likely that this species will be found to have a wider distribution.	eng
20072	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There is very little available information on the natural history of this species. It appears to be associated with a remarkable variety of tropical forest types and has been recorded at various levels of human perturbation. It is known to roost in small colonies houses and other buildings (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). .	eng
20072	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	A number of bat surveys have failed to locate this species (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007) and it appears not to be locally abundant.	eng
20072	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The major threats to this species are not well known. This species uses forest habitat, but it also occurs outside of forested areas. There is one reported occurrence of this species being hunted by food by local people, but there is no evidence that this constitutes a major threat (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
20073	conservation	Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It has been recorded from the Matusadona National Park in Zimbabwe, and likely is present in a number of additional protected areas.	eng
20073	distribution	Griffin, M., 2008	This species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from Senegal and Gambia in West Africa, to northern Cameroon and Central African Republic, from here into Sudan and Ethiopia, and then south through much of East Africa and southeastern Africa, being reported as far south as eastern South Africa and possibly Swaziland.	eng
20073	habitat	Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist wooded savanna habitats. It is mostly associated with bushveld habitats in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It probably roosts in both buildings and hollow trees; in Zimbabwe it has been recorded roosting in small colonies in hollow trees (Cotterill and Giddings 1987).	eng
20073	population	Griffin, M., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
20073	threats	Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
20085	habitat	Sobel, J., 1996	Reef-associated species.	eng
20089	conservation	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
20089	distribution	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	<em>Sekeetamys calurus</em> is nearly endemic to the Mediterranean region. It occurs in in northeast Sudan and eastern Egypt (Red Sea coastal areas of Egypt), southern Israel, Jordan and extends into Saudi Arabia (currently only know from an isolated record in Central Saudi Arabia, although likely occurs continuously from Jordan and north-western Saudi Arabia). Elevation sea level to 600 m in Israel.	eng
20089	habitat	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	The bushy-tailed Jird is found in arid rocky mountain habitats, including mountain summits of the Negev desert region of southern Israel, the Dead Sea Basin and Wadi Araba, Jordan. It is nocturnal feeding mainly on plants and perhaps insects. There are few reports of reproductive habits from natural populations, two specimens were found to be in breeding condition in February and March; in captivity the species breeds throughout the year (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
20089	population	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	A naturally rare species, occurring at relatively low densities.	eng
20089	threats	Schlitter, D., Shenbrot, G., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20102	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed in Red List of Kazakhstan (category III, and a species that requires special protection). Several areas withing the range were proposed to make protected areas. Breeding in captivity was unsuccessful.	eng
20102	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic of Kazakhstan. Distributed from Dar'yalyk desert (100 km to east from Dzhusaly) to Zaysan and Alakol' basins. Northern border is unclear. Findings near Bayanaul (Pavlodar region) need confirmation. Possibly distributed in NW China (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995).	eng
20102	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit rubbly, clay and saline deserts of northern type with dominant vegetation of wormwood and saltworts. Hibernates, active period is from March to September. Feed on insects, especially on locusts. Pregnant and lactating females were found from end of May to end of June. Number of embryos is 4-8.	eng
20102	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Rare, distributed sporadically, known from single findings. In total about 40 animals have been found from about 30 localities.	eng
20102	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss due to extraction of <em>Spiraeanthus</em> shrubs.	eng
20160	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Improvement of water quality and quantities through river health programmes is in place. These programmes need to continue and feed back into conservation action plans. Introductions into dams in the Sabie catchment has been done successfully and further introductions will help the species' conservation status. Exploratory surveys in Mozambique are needed.	eng
20160	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Lake Sodwana north in the Mozambican coastal plain to the mouth of the Limpopo. Inland in restricted areas of the Sabie and Sand Rivers. Introduced into Middle Letaba Dam in Limpopo Province. Sodwan Bay is a single specimen and its presence there needs verification.	eng
20160	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Main river channels and backwaters of larger rivers and coastal lakes.	eng
20160	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Decreased water quality and quantity in the Kruger Park region through a variety of human impacts e.g., forestry in upper catchments, human settlements, industrial effluents.	eng
20165	conservation	de Tores, P., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Friend, T., 2008	The Quokka occurs in a number of protected areas and is listed as threatened species under Australian law. Research into subpopulation size and structure, diet, and habitat use has been completed for the northern Jarrah forest. Adaptive management of northern populations is underway. Rapid survey of southern forest subpopulations has been conducted, but further work is needed to define subpopulation size and movements between habitat areas. Feral pig surveys has been conducted in many locations, but additional feral pig control is required. Fox control programs should be maintained.	eng
20165	distribution	de Tores, P., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Friend, T., 2008	The Quokka is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia, Australia, including Rottnest and Bald Islands. The most northern known location is in state forest/water catchment south-east of the Perth metropolitan area. The most inland population is in Stirling Range National Park and its eastern-most known occurrence is at Green Range. The last record from the Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park is from 1979 and Quokkas are thought to be absent from the Swan Coastal Plain, although there are two unconfirmed reports of presence (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/>This species was formerly distributed on the mainland from Moore River (100 km north of Perth) to the vicinity of Waychinicup National Park on the south coast (de Tores <em>et al.</em> 2007). Kabay and Start (1976) recorded Quokka bones in surface deposits from several sites along the south coast as far east as Fitzgerald River National Park. It was abundant in the Albany district in the 1850s and in the Busselton/ Margaret River area until the late 1920s (White 1952), and was regarded as a problem to pine seedlings in new plantations around Mundaring in the early 1930s (L. Talbot pers. comm.). The distribution at European settlement (about 150 years ago) has been calculated by de Tores <em>et al.</em> (2007) to have encompassed an area of approximately 41,200 km<sup>2</sup>. The current extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 17,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
20165	habitat	de Tores, P., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Friend, T., 2008	This species uses a variety of habits. On Rottnest Island it lives in thickets and scrub habitat. On the mainland, many populations are found close to water (creeks and swamps). In the Jarrah forest, Quokkas are closely associated with the tea-tree (<em>Taxandria linearifolia</em>) in a habitat mosaic of trees at differing ages as determined by fire (Hayward <em>et al.</em> 2007; de Tores 2008). Vegetation is used as cover for nocturnal foraging. Family groups exhibit overlapping home ranges that reflect a general non-territoriality. Exceptions may be made during hot summer periods where males will fight enthusiastically for possession of the best shelters, possibly a limiting factor (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Quokka biology data suggest that the generation time is about four years.	eng
20165	population	de Tores, P., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Friend, T., 2008	This species is sparsely scattered within abundant suitable habitat (de Tores 2008). The total global population estimated to be 7,850-17,150 mature individuals. <br/><br/>It is difficult accurately to quantify total population trend, but the species is probably decreasing. Quokkas have declined in the northern Jarrah forest, populations in the southern forests might be decreasing due to the presence of introduced pigs, and some populations have disappeared from the extreme south-west of their mainland range. Although numbers fluctuate, the island subpopulations appear to be stable, and the population along the South Coast appears to be increasing in response to fox control. <br/><br/>Because knowledge of Quokka populations varies in different parts of its range, each is listed with a separate population estimate followed by a description of how the estimate was derived.<br/><br/>Population estimates for:<br/>Rottnest Island 4,000-8,000<br/>Bald Island 500-2,000<br/>Northern Jarrah forest 150<br/>Southern forests 2,000-5,000<br/>South Coast 1,200-2,000<br/><br/>Rottnest Island (1,700 ha).<br/>The population on Rottnest Island has been studied in detail for several decades because of the presence of a University of Western Australia research station there. Much of the pioneer work on marsupial nutrition, reproduction, temperature regulation, immunology, disease, ecology, and behaviour was conducted on the Rottnest Island Quokka population.<br/><br/>Population estimates for Rottnest vary between 4,000 and 17,000, with most estimates at the lower end of this range. The population is known to fluctuate widely. A precautionary population estimate for Rottnest, including uncertainty, would be 4,000 to 8,000 total individuals.<br/><br/>Bald Island (800 ha).<br/>Studies on the Bald Island population are much more limited, and there is no recent, published estimate for the island. Tony Friend (pers. comm.), who has worked on Bald Island extensively in recent years, suggests the population is about 2,000. A precautionary population estimate for Bald Island, including uncertainty, would be 500 to 2,000.<br/><br/>Northern Jarrah forest (north of the Preston River).<br/>In this region, there have been some populations which have gone extinct in the last 20 years. The presence of pigs has also been recorded at many of the northern Jarrah forest sites and Quokka presence is often detected through non-target captures during pig control programs. Recent research revealed several small subpopulations (between 10 and 48 that were rarely >30 individuals), totalling about 150 animals and declining (Hayward 2005; Hayward <em>et al.</em> 2003, 2004, 2005). Genetic research also has shown that gene flow between subpopulations is rare (Alacs 2001). <br/><br/>Southern forests (south of Collie south and east to Hay River).<br/>The average population size in the southern forests is unknown. Anecdotal evidence suggests these southern forest sites support substantially larger populations than the northern Jarrah forest. Recent rapid survey of 1,239 potential Quokka habitat sites by the Department of Environment and Conservation staff revealed evidence of Quokka at 564 of these. Further work is needed to verify the rapid survey technique and examine subpopulation size. A precautionary estimate might be 2,000 to 5,000.<br/><br/>South Coast (from Hay River east to Green Range).<br/>There are no overall estimates for the population along the South Coast. There have been recent extensive searches of this area targeting Gilbert’s Potoroo (<em>Potorous gilbertii</em>). During this work many Quokka subpopulations were located. Quokkas are more likely to be increasing rather than declining along the South Coast, which is based on trapping data and observations at Two Peoples Bay (T. Friend pers. comm.). Trapping data indicate a significant increase on Mount Gardner between 1995 and 2001 (after 2001 Quokka excluders were used on Sheffield traps to prevent them from entering potoroo traps and injuring themselves, which led to fewer Quokka records). Sightings of Quokkas in the lower parts of the reserve have increased markedly since 1999 following fox control, with Quokkas now inhabiting dense bush near the picnic area behind the beach and regularly showing themselves to visitors (T. Friend pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In addition, a hair-arch survey of Boulder Hill/Mount Manypeaks/Waychinicup/Cheynes Beach in 2002 produced evidence of Quokkas at 12 out of 13 sites surveyed. Quokkas have found in recent years on the Western Shield transect line in the Stirling Range National Park. They also persist in the Green Range, where there is no fox control (based on Quokka hair recoveries at 3 out of 5 sites surveyed, followed by successful trapping at 2 out of the 3 sites, work carried out in 2001) (T. Friend pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Total numbers in the South Coast region are not known, but are estimated at 1,200 to 2,000 individuals (T. Friend pers. comm.).	eng
20165	threats	de Tores, P., Burbidge, A., Morris, K. & Friend, T., 2008	Island populations fluctuate, but are stable over the long term. Habitat clearing and the introduction of foxes and feral cats has led to a past decline of mainland populations. Fox control has led to an increase in numbers in some areas but not in others. Feral pigs are causing habitat degradation and excluding Quokkas from swampy areas. Prescribed burning and clearing are a problem in much of the forested habitats.	eng
20184	conservation	Meinig, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species directive. It is legally protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Romania), and is included in national Red Lists of many range states (e.g. Germany, Denmark, Romania, Czech Republic, Lithuania).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Monitoring of populations is needed, especially at the western edge of the species' range.	eng
20184	conservation	Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species directive. It is legally protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Romania), and is included in national Red Lists of many range states (e.g. Germany, Denmark, Romania, Czech Republic, Lithuania).  It occurs in a number of protected areas.  Monitoring of populations is needed, especially at the western edge of the species' range.	eng
20184	distribution	Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Sicista betulina</em> has a large range extending from Denmark, Norway and Austria in the west to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the east, and from the Arctic Circle south to the Carpathian Mountains (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Records from the Ussuri region of China are considered dubious (Pucek 1999). In Europe, isolated relict populations occur in the Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (Germany), the Alps (Austria and Allgäu, Germany) and the Carpathians, but the main range extends east from Baltic Countries, Poland and the Czech Republic into European Russia (Pucek 1999, Syvertsen 2003). In Austria and adjacent Czech Republic (Bavarian-Bohemian forest) there is an isolated population. It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m in the eastern Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20184	distribution	Meinig, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	<em>Sicista betulina</em> has a large range extending from Denmark, Norway and Austria in the west to Lake Baikal (Russia) in the east, and from the Arctic Circle south to the Carpathian Mountains (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Records from the Ussuri region of China are considered dubious (Pucek 1999). In Europe, isolated relict populations occur in the Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (Germany), the Alps (Austria and Allgäu, Germany) and the Carpathians, but the main range extends east from Baltic Countries, Poland and the Czech Republic into European Russia (Pucek 1999, Syvertsen 2003). In Austria and adjacent Czech Republic (Bavarian-Bohemian forest) there is an isolated population. It occurs from sea level to 2,200 m in the eastern Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20184	habitat	Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	The range of this birch mouse covers a variety of habitats including boreal and montane forests, subalpine meadows and tundra (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the species occurs in birch forest and pine forest with dense ground vegetation (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In Germany it occurs in alpine regions and forest bogs (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). It has been suggested that the species spends summer months in wet meadow habitat and moves to forests in winter (Nowak 1999). It hibernates in underground burrows for at least six months each year, losing up to half its weight during this time (Nowak 1999).	eng
20184	habitat	Meinig, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	The range of this birch mouse covers a variety of habitats including boreal and montane forests, subalpine meadows and tundra (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the species occurs in birch forest and pine forest with dense ground vegetation (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). In Germany it occurs in alpine regions and forest bogs (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006). It has been suggested that the species spends summer months in wet meadow habitat and moves to forests in winter (Nowak 1999). It hibernates in underground burrows for at least six months each year, losing up to half its weight during this time (Nowak 1999).	eng
20184	population	Meinig, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	In western parts of the range it is generally a rare species, although it may be locally quite frequent. In eastern parts of the range (e.g. Russia, Ukraine) the species is very common. In western parts of the range there are a number of very small and isolated subpopulations, some of which are considered to be evolutionarily significant units (Meinig 2004). No cyclic fluctuations have been recorded, and interannual variation in population density is less than tenfold (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the population is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals, and Rodna National Park has a very stable population (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In Finland it is considerd to be increasing (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Population trends elsewhere are not known. The species may often go unrecorded, as it is cryptic and hard to trap (Pucek 1982, Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20184	population	Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	In western parts of the range it is generally a rare species, although it may be locally quite frequent. In south-eastern and eastern parts of the range (e.g. Russia, Ukraine) the species is very common. In western parts of the range there are a number of very small and isolated subpopulations, some of which are considered to be evolutionarily significant units (Meinig 2004). No cyclic fluctuations have been recorded, and interannual variation in population density is less than tenfold (Pucek 1999). In Romania, the population is estimated at approximately 1,000 individuals, and Rodna National Park has a very stable population (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).  In Finland it is considerd to be increasing (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Population trends elsewhere are not known. The species may often go unrecorded, as it is cryptic and hard to trap (Pucek 1982, Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20184	threats	Holger Meinig, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Heikki Henttonen, Jan Zima, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Agriculture may be a problem in the northern part of the species' range in Germany. In Romania, deforestation is  the main threat. Elsewhere threats are not known.	eng
20184	threats	Meinig, H., Zagorodnyuk, I., Henttonen, H., Zima, J. & Coroiu, I., 2008	Agriculture may be a problem in the northern part of the species' range in Germany. In Romania, deforestation is  the main threat. Elsewhere threats are not known, and the species is not considered to be under serious threat at present.	eng
20185	conservation	Baloyan, S., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Listed as Vulnerable in the Red List of Armenia. It was recommended to protect the area where <em>Sicista armenica</em> was found, however, the project is still under revision by authorities.	eng
20185	distribution	Baloyan, S., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species is known only from several locations close to terra typica in SW Armenia, namely Lesser Caucasus, Pambakskiy Range, Marmarik River (Razdan River basin). Localities are summarized by Baskevich for Biodiversity Center <http://www.biodiversity.ru/programs/rodent/species/sicista_armenica.html> [in Russian]	eng
20185	habitat	Baloyan, S., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species occurs in subalpine meadows with tall grass on the higher forest border, conspecifics prefer clearings within forests.	eng
20185	population	Baloyan, S., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species is known by single findings.	eng
20185	threats	Baloyan, S., Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Overgrazing due to clearing of tall grasses is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Habitat outside protected areas is projected to continue declining.	eng
20186	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	This species has been recorded from protected areas in the Western Caucasus.	eng
20186	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	This species is found in the western Caucasus. It is known from two localities in Russia (both in the south of Krasnodarsky Kray, at Teberda and Kavkazsky State Reserves (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1987; Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995). Also occurs in Georgia (A. Bukhnikashvili pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There have been reports of this species from the eastern Black Sea Mountains in northeastern Turkey, but these are problematic (Krystufek and Vohralik 2001, B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2008); if <em>Sicista</em> actually occurs in Turkey, then it is more likely to be <em>S. armenica</em> (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is difficult to determine the distribution of this species, because the main distinguishing trait of the species is chromosome number (2n=32), and birch mice with 2n=32 have only been karyotyped from a small number of sites (Shenbrot <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
20186	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species occurs in subalpine meadows in tall grass at 1400 to 2,000 m. Optimal habitats occur at 1,500 m; rarely found in forests; active only 3-3.5 months/year; peak activity June-July. In captivity, the species feeds on insects, seeds and berries; litter size 4-6. Hibernates.	eng
20186	population	Tsytsulina, K., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species can represent up to 25% of small mammal captures at 1,500 m above sea level, with 1-24 individuals per 100 pitfall traps. It is found at lower densities in Georgia (A. Bukhnikashvili pers. comm.).	eng
20186	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Overgrazing is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Areas of suitable habitat outside protected areas are projected to decline further (GMA SW Asia workshop, 2005).	eng
20187	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. In China listed as Data Deficient, in Russia listed as Rare Species.	eng
20187	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in NE China (Heilongjiang and Jilin), Ussuri region and from Sakhalin Island (Russia).	eng
20187	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits conifer mountain taiga, mixed forest and meadow steppe habitats. Generally, birch mice are mostly active at night. They spend much of the day in shallow burrows. Species of this genus undergo a hibernation period lasting at least six months each year. Feeds mostly on seeds. Litter size is 4-6 young.	eng
20187	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available. In Sakhalin and Russian Far East it is a naturally rare species.	eng
20187	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
20188	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is not known from any of the protected areas within South Asia (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
20188	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in northwestern South Asia, and central and southern China. In South Asia it occurs in northern India and northern Pakistan at elevations of 2,140 to 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). In China, it has been recorded from Gansu, eastern Qinghai, Shaanxi, Sichuan and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20188	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This occurs in alpine and sub alpine scrub zones in the Himalaya and grassy slopes of moist temperate montane forests (Roberts 1997), where it is seen in montane moist grassy slopes and terrace cultivation (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is a nocturnal, and fossorial species, that feeds on berries, fruits and seeds. Constructs a neatly woven ball of grass as a nest, located in crevices or bushes. It is believed to produce a single litter of three to six young annually.	eng
20188	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
20188	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
20189	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is not known to be recorded from protected areas, it is not known whether the two localites are within the protected areas.	eng
20189	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	This species is known only from the Kazbegi District, Georgia (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1986; Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1987), and adjacent parts of Russia. The species has only been karyotyped at two isolated localities.	eng
20189	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is known from areas with a mixed forest habitat and subalpic zone from 1,500 to 2,300 m. The species occurs in subalpine meadows in tall grass. Feeds on insects, fruits and seeds. Hibernates. Litter sizes range from 4 to 7. Generally, birch mice are mostly active at night. They spend much of the day in shallow burrows. Species of this genus undergo a hibernation period lasting at least six months each year.	eng
20189	population	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species is locally common in the northern part of its range (in Russia) and rare in Georgia.	eng
20189	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Overgrazing due to clearing of tall grasses is a major threat. Loss of tall grass from grass cutting for agriculture is also a threat in some areas. Habitat outside protected areas is projected to continue declining.	eng
20190	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, habitat status and conservation measures is required.	eng
20190	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in steppes, forest and steppes and meadows in mountain forest zone (400 - 2200 m) in E Kazakhstan, Altai and SW Siberia (Russia).	eng
20190	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Found in open places or with shrubs, meadows, fields close to small or light forests. Solitary. Active in dusk and night. Hibernates. Feed on invertebrates, seeds and berries. Reproduce once a yer (June-July), litter size is 4-5 young.	eng
20190	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available, but usually not abundant.	eng
20190	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Habitat loss may result in shrinking of the range.	eng
20191	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, habitat status and conservation measures is required.	eng
20191	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	<em>Sicista pseudonapaea</em> is known from middle mountain belt in the Altai Mountains (1,000-2,000 m).	eng
20191	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhaits meadows, shrub areas and light larch mountain taiga in the south Altai Mountains. Active in dusk. Solitary. Hibernates during winter. Feed on invertebrates and seeds. Reproduce once a year.	eng
20191	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data availble, but it is known not to be abundant.	eng
20191	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown. Habitat loss may result in shrinking of the range.	eng
20192	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No specific conservation measures apply to this species, however, it occurs in Tsentralno-Chernozemnyi State Reserve in Russia. Severtzov's birch mouse is listed in the Ukraine Red Data Book as a subspecies of <em>Sicista subtilis</em> under category III (rare but not threatened species).	eng
20192	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species occurs in SW Russia and Ukraine (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
20192	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species is poorly studied, has a scattered distribution, and is solitary and naturally scarce across the whole range. Distributed in steppe and forest-steppe zones and associated with meadows with high grasses. Feeds on seeds and insects. Reproduces once a year, after hibernation.	eng
20192	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no data on population size. The species is naturally not abundant, but there is no evidence of population decline.	eng
20192	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The most significant threat to the species is habitat destruction, as the soil in its preferred habitats tends to be very good for cultivation.	eng
20193	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	No special conservation measures apply to the species, although it occurs in several protected areas.	eng
20193	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No special conservation measures apply to the species, although it occurs in several protected areas.	eng
20193	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Distributed in the area between Volga and Don Rivers, from Kursk District of S Russia to northern slopes of the Caucasus ridge (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The western limit of the range is not clear, but probably lies along the Dnepr River (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20193	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species is distributed in the area between Volga and Don Rivers, from Kursk District of S Russia to northern slopes of the Caucasus ridge (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The western limit of the range is not clear, but probably lies along the Dnepr River (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20193	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Inhabits floodplain meadows in the southern part of forest zone, steppes, and forest-steppes in mountain zone. Solitary, feeds on seeds, berries and insects; reproduces once a year after hibernation.	eng
20193	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It inhabits floodplain meadows in the southern part of forest zone, steppes, and forest-steppes in mountain zone. A solitary species, it feeds on seeds, berries and insects and reproduces once a year after hibernation.	eng
20193	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	There are no data on population size. Widespread but not especially common.	eng
20193	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no quantitative data on population size. The species is widespread but not especially common.	eng
20193	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are occurring and reducing usable habitat.	eng
20193	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are occurring and reducing usable habitat, but this is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
20194	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is listed on the Romanian Red List, and protected by national legislation. It receives strict legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix II).	eng
20194	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Amori, G., 2008	It is listed on the Romanian Red List, and protected by national legislation. It receives strict legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix II). It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
20194	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Sicista subtilis</em> has a continuous range extending from the Ukraine and the southern parts of Russia to the north western parts of China (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Isolated populations are found in Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria (a single locality only) and southeast Poland. It formerly occurred in Austria but is now regionally extinct (last recorded here in 1960: Spitzenberger 2002). In Serbia it is known from only one locality. Its altitude in Austria was recorded from <120 m (Spitzenberger 2002) to 1,680 m (Pucek 1982).	eng
20194	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Amori, G., 2008	<em>Sicista subtilis</em> has a continuous range extending from the Ukraine and the southern parts of Russia to the north western parts of China (Panteleyev 1998, Pucek 1999). Isolated populations are found in Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria (a single locality only) and southeast Poland. It formerly occurred in Austria but is now regionally extinct (last recorded here in 1960: Spitzenberger 2002). In Serbia it is known from only one locality. Its altitude in Austria was recorded from <120 m (Spitzenberger 2002) to 1,680 m (Pucek 1982).	eng
20194	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, 2006	It occurs in steppe, rough grassland and pasture, open woodlands, and in field margins and shelter belts on cultivated land (Pucek 1982, 1999). It tends to prefer more open habitats than the northern birch mouse <em>Sicistica betulina</em>.	eng
20194	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Amori, G., 2008	This species occurs in the steppe areas stretching across Europe to China. It occurs in steppe, rough grassland and pasture, open woodlands, and in field margins and shelter belts on cultivated land (Pucek 1982, 1999), and extends into semi-desert areas in parts of its range. It tends to prefer more open habitats than the northern birch mouse <em>Sicistica betulina </em>.	eng
20194	population	Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, 2006	In Europe it tends to be rare, although it is locally common in at least parts of its global range, accounting for 25% of all rodents caught in north Kazakhstan (Pucek 1999). Little is known about population trends in this species, but its extinction in Austria suggests that in Europe at least its range may be contracting. The species has disappeared from large tracts of its former range in Hungary (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, the population is estimated at 2,000 individuals (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).	eng
20194	population	Kryštufek, B., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Amori, G., 2008	In Europe it tends to be rare, although it is locally common in at least parts of its global range, accounting for 25% of all rodents caught in north Kazakhstan (Pucek 1999). Little is known about population trends in this species, but its extinction in Austria suggests that in Europe at least its range may be contracting. The species has disappeared from large tracts of its former range in Hungary (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). In Romania, the population is estimated at 2,000 individuals (Popescu and Murariu 2001, Botnariuc and Tatole 2005).	eng
20194	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, 2006	The species is susceptible loss of steppe habitat. In Romania, habitat loss due to agriculture and indirect mortality through pesticide use are the major threats (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006).  In Austria, <em>Sicista subtilis</em> occupied a very small and relict range. It went extinct as a result of the conversion of natural meadows adjacent to the reedbeds of Lake Neusiedl into improved grassland (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20194	threats	Kryštufek, B., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Amori, G., 2008	The species is susceptible to loss of steppe habitat. In Romania, habitat loss due to agriculture and indirect mortality through pesticide use are the major threats (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006).  In Austria, <em>Sicista subtilis</em> occupied a very small and relict range. It went extinct as a result of the conversion of natural meadows adjacent to the reedbeds of Lake Neusiedl into improved grassland (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
20195	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
20195	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed from desert steppes in piedmonts to alpine belt in Tien Shan (except western ridges), possibly Tarbagatai.	eng
20195	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit mountain forests, coniferous and broadleaf, alpine and subalpine belts. Found in shrub area in piedmont steppes. Most abundant in forest-madow and forest-steppe at lower and upper forest borders. Active mostly at dusk. Hibernates, active period depend on altitude and can be 3 to 5 months. In Issyk-kul region active from second half of May - beginning of June till beginning of October. Feed mainly on animals (insects, molluscs and earthworms) in spring and first half of summer. Starting from June seeds and berries dominate in the diet. Reproduce once per year (in firs half of July), litter size is 3-7 youngs.	eng
20195	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Locally abundant, there are significant population fluctuations.	eng
20195	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
20196	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Majority of the range occurs within Teberda State Reserve.	eng
20196	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	This species is found only in the northwestern Caucasus in the upper reaches of the North Klukhor River (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1987).	eng
20196	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Inhabits subalpine zone (from 2100 m asl) of Southern slope of the Great Caucasus Ridge. Solitary, active in dusk. Hibernates during winter. Feed on invertebrates and seeds. Reproduces once a year in summer.	eng
20196	population	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	No data available.	eng
20196	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	The species occurs in Teberda State reserve. No major threats, however, the species is naturally rare with small area of occupancy and low population density.	eng
20209	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	It is found in Cerro de Matatlan Biosphere Reserve and Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.	eng
20209	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in western México, from south Sinaloa to south Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 3,050 m (Shump and Baker 1978).	eng
20209	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species prefers moist slopes covered with vines and shrubs in tropical or mixed tropical-boreal regions, including tropical deciduous forest and humid pine-oak forest. <br/><br/>Runways of this cotton rat are evident in thick grassy areas but are indistinct in brushy areas with little ground cover. This species constructs grass nests in a variety of places, including rotten pine logs, beneath volcano rocks, under piles of bark, and in grass-shrub clumps. In laboratory-raised animals, female produced offspring at 87 days and would have mated about 35 days earlier (Baker 1969 in Shump and Baker 1978).	eng
20209	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species has a low average density of between 0.023 and 0.52 individuals per hectare (Vazquez 1997).	eng
20209	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is experiencing deforestation for agriculture in many parts of its range. It is estimated to have lost at least 30% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.). The rate of deforestation is increasing across its range.	eng
20210	conservation	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Delgado, C., Rivas B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It occurs in a several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
20210	distribution	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Delgado, C., Rivas B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This species is intermittently distributed in savannas over northeast Colombia, north and east Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, and north Brazil (regional aspects of range amplified by Husson, 1978; Linares, 1998; and Voss, 1992) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). One peripheral record is present in Antioquia Colombia (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
20210	habitat	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Delgado, C., Rivas B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	This rat is mainly active during the day but may also be active at night if population is high. It is found in grassland or brushland at lower elevation, usually in dry regions. It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects. Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass. Occasionally, short burrows dug by other mammals are used as nest sites (Lord, 1999).	eng
20210	population	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Delgado, C., Rivas B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	It is common species (Lord, 1999).	eng
20210	threats	Patton, J., Weksler, M., Delgado, C., Rivas B. & Aguillera, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
20211	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20211	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The main range of this species is from southern Arizona southward through Sinaloa, Mexico. There is a disjunct population along the Colorado River in extreme western Arizona, extending marginally into adjoining California (and previously into Nevada where it is now considered extirpated).	eng
20211	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Restricted to grassy habitats, including edges of ponds, along drainages, in riparian habitats, adjoining agricultural fields, and in arid grassy patches.	eng
20211	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>At least one subspecies <em>S. a. arizonae</em> is extinct.	eng
20211	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20212	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20212	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the southeast Arizona, west central New Mexico, and southwest Texas (United States), south through interior México to Guanajuato and northwest Michoacán (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20212	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This cotton rat is found in a variety of grass and grass-shrub habitats, and Pinon Juniper forest. <br/><br/>Gestation is about 35 days and litters usually number 4 or 6 young. Young are raised in nests woven out of grasses; these can often be found by following a runway system. The young leave the nest when they are about one week old and begin to breed when they are about 6 weeks old (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
20212	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>One subspecies <em>S. f. goldmani</em> is considered to be extinct - this subspecies was located at the edge of the distribution in New Mexico.	eng
20212	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20213	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
20213	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern and south-central United States; an isolated population also occurs in western Arizona and adjoining California (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). Using genetic analysis, Carroll <em>et al</em>. (2005) showed that <em>S. hispidus</em> does not occur south of the United States, however, there analyses did not contain samples from immediately south of the Rio Grande in northern Mexico. Subspecies in Mexico and Central and South America formerly assigned to <em>S. hispidus</em> have been given specific status or assigned as to other species (Peppers and Bradley 2000; Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). The northern edge of range of <em>S. hispidus</em> is unstable and dependent on weather patterns.	eng
20213	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is most common in grassy habitats with dense vegetation, including tall-grass prairies, meadows, agricultural areas, and old fields. However, it also occurs in mesquite desert with little ground cover (Reid 2006).	eng
20213	population	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is very abundant, and is increasing its distribution. Densities up to 112.5/ha have been recorded, although they typically average 10 - 12/ha. The species exhibits multi-annual variation in numbers.	eng
20213	threats	Linzey, A.V., Matson, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	None known.	eng
20214	conservation	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This rodent occurs in two protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
20214	distribution	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is known only from high Andes in Azuay and Chimborazo provinces, Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
20214	habitat	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. This rodent was trapped near water, in a hole in a riverbank of a stream, and in a marshy areas; also it occurs in dense reed mat forming a quaking bog in the middle of a shallow lake (Barnet, 1999). Similar habitat preferences and run-making behavior has been reported for other Sigmodon species (i.e., Voss, 1992). One female specimen had four embryos (Barnet, 1999).	eng
20214	population	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is rare, known from less than 10 specimens (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
20214	threats	Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture, which are accelerating across its range.	eng
20215	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	A number of protected areas occur within its range.	eng
20215	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in interior México, from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Nuevo Leon to central Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20215	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This stricly montane species is associated chiefly with mesic pine-oak habitat. In these areas, the species seems best adapted to mixed grass and shrub cover on shallow, rocky soils, even though they also have been caught in grassy meadows. <br/><br/>This species is known to construct nests, burrows, and runways. However, in areas of sparse vegetation with low shrubs for cover, runway systems are obscure or absent. In fact, little or no sign of this species may be present, making its presence difficult to detect (Shump and Baker 1978). The gestation period for this species is about 35 days (Baker 1969 in Shump and Baker 1978).	eng
20215	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
20215	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
20216	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. This species is found in multiple protected areas.	eng
20216	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in western México, from the coast of south Nayarit and southwest Zacatecas southwards to extreme southwest Chiapas, and eastward along interior arid basins as far as west Hidalgo, west Puebla, and northwest Oaxaca (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20216	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in tropical dedicuous forest and agricultural land.	eng
20216	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is common.	eng
20216	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
20217	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20217	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From Durango, Mexico northward to the "sky islands" of the United States in two prongs: one to southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico, and the other to southwestern Texas. A northern outlier population may persist in the Guadalupe Mountains, Transpecos, Texas (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20217	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found on grassy slopes in oak-pine woodlands, and montane meadows within Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests. It is often associated with rocks.<br/><br/>This species is especially vole-like. Its nests are sometimes constructed on the surface of the ground, in thickets of grass, or under clumps of vegetation. Underground nests are also used, and access to these is often provided through pocket gopher burrows. Green vegetation, including grass, is the major component of its diet, but prickly pear fruit is reported to be a popular item when and where it occurs. Reproduction apparently can occur throughout most of the year (except, at least in Arizona, during the most arid portions of the summer). Gestation lasts about 34 days. There are two to six young in a litter, and these young (rather than being naked, blind, and helpless like those of most other mice and rats) are amazingly precocial at birth; with a few hours a new-born rat looks and acts like a miniature adult (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
20217	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species can be locally common. Listed as rare and local in the Chihuahua region of Mexico (Findley and Caire 1977). According to Schmidly (1977), relatively common in Big Bend National Park and the Davis Mountain region of Texas, but rare in Sierra Viejo.<br/><br/>Data on population trends seem to vary, as the species is said to be declining some areas but stable or extending its range in others.	eng
20217	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is primarily threatened by degradation and loss of habitat due to grazing, altered fire regimes, and urbanization.	eng
20218	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Tirira, D., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Arenillas Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, and Cerros de Amotape National Park and Coto de Caza El Angolo - part of the Biosphere Reserve of the Noroeste, in Peru). In general, further research into this species is needed.	eng
20218	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Pacific coastal plain and contiguous Andean foothills of west Ecuador and northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found from sea level to 1,600 m.	eng
20218	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is found in riverine habitats in primary and secondary dry forest. Animals have additionally been recorded from wet natural grasslands. It can be found in agricultural areas. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus (Alvarez <em>et al.</em>, 1984). It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects. Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass.	eng
20218	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
20218	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E. & Tirira, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species; however, it appears to be displaced by introduced murid rodents.	eng
20221	conservation	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D., Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
20221	distribution	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D., Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is found from eastern Honduras to Panama, and from central and west Colombia to northwest Venezuela and northwest Ecuador (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20221	habitat	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D., Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This rodent is poorly known. It lives in wet lowland forest, secondary forest, cane fields, marshes, or cultivated areas near water. It swims well and is probably nocturnal (Reid 1997; Lord 1999). It seldom climbs, and it feeds on seeds and vegetation.	eng
20221	population	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D., Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	This species is locally common. However, it is generally rare north of Panama (Reid 1997) and in Venezuela it is not common (Lord 1999). In Colombia, this species is known from large surveys, but is poorly known in Venezuela where habitat is very disturbed (B. Rivas and R. P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
20221	threats	Anderson, R.P., Tirira, D., Samudio, R. & Timm, R., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
20222	conservation	Samudio, R., Pino, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Costa Rica and Ecuador. Research is needed on all aspects of biology of this species.	eng
20222	distribution	Samudio, R., Pino, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from widely disjunct locations in Costa Rica (San Joaquín de Dota and Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve), Panama (Chiriquí, 24 km north-northwest of San Félix), and the western slope of Ecuador (Mt. Pichincha and Mindo) (McCain <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species has been recorded from 1,275 m asl to 2,000 m asl, although there is some uncertainty of this maximum elevation (possibly to 2,600 m) (see McCain <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
20222	habitat	Samudio, R., Pino, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in high elevation oak and cloud forest in Costa Rica. In Panama, it was found in disturbed, brushy, oak forest (Reid 1997).	eng
20222	population	Samudio, R., Pino, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This rat is rare; it is known from just seven specimens (R. Timm and F. Reid pers. comm.).	eng
20222	threats	Samudio, R., Pino, J., Timm, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	The local threat to the species in Panama is copper mining, and the known locality is now essentially gone (although others may exist in Panama) – also this elevation on the Pacific slope of Panama has largely been eliminated by development. There are no known major threats to the species in Costa Rica or Ecuador, although there is considerable deforestation occurring in and around Mindo, Ecuador.	eng
20223	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Management of coastal reserves with an emphasis on aquatic habitats is needed. New areas where S. sibayi may occur need to be explored and new conservation areas identified.	eng
20223	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Described from Lake Sibayi and Kosi Bay, northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Recently recorded from the Maputo Special Reserve (Bills 2001). Possibly more widespread in Maputaland but a small species that could be easily overlooked.	eng
20223	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Occurs in coastal freshwater lakes. Found over sand substrates where it buries itself.	eng
20223	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Not common where sampled in Mozambique.	eng
20223	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.	eng
20227	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	None.	eng
20227	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Endemic to Lake Dianchi, Yunnan Province, China. The species is not yet known from elsewhere but it maybe exists in some reservoirs, such as Songhuaba.	eng
20227	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Lives in the littoral zone of the lake with plenty of waterweeds and is carnivorous. It stays at bottom of water by day and comes out to the surface of water seeking food by dawn and dusk.	eng
20227	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Only ever known from Lake Dianchi itself, there hass no record of this species since 1970s. The population size is probably very small.	eng
20227	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Its loss from the lake is likely due to habitat loss and introduced fish species. This fish is relying on littoral zone with macrophytes, its disappearance from the lake is obviously related to loss of macrophytes, which result in these big fishes exposed in the shallow water and increased mortality from its natural enemy and human beings, and being short of food etc. Predation of eggs and juveniles by introduced species may also play an important role.	eng
20229	conservation	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and is protected by the Indonesian law. It currently occurs in only one officially protected area (Siberut National Park), and is never seen in captivity (M. Richardson pers. comm.). Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: ?1) increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, 2) formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, 3) protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971, 4) conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and 5) the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.?	eng
20229	distribution	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is endemic to Indonesia. It is confined to the Mentawai Islands off the western coast of Sumatra (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, Siberut, Sipora, and a few offshore islets).<br/><br/><em>S. s. concolor</em><br/>Occurs in the Mentawai Archipelago (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, Sipora, and the nearby islets of Simalegu and Sinakak).<br/><br/><em>S. s. siberu</em> <br/>Occurs in the Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut).	eng
20229	habitat	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in swamp forests and lowland rainforests (Tenaza 1987), as well as primary forests on the hillsides of the interior region of the islands (Tilson 1977). It is diurnal, semi-terrestrial, and primarily folivorous (D. Whittaker pers. comm.). The birth season is from June to July (Tilson 1977).	eng
20229	population	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Siberut subspecies has the largest population size, with an estimated 6,000-15,500 individuals within Siberut National Park. The southern subspecies is urgently in need of protective measures, with a total population of 700-1,800 individuals (Whittaker 2006). The current estimate for the species as a whole is therefore from 6,700 to 17,300 individuals, down from an estimated population of 26,000 in 1980. This represents a decline of 33 to 75% in 20 years. The most recent surveys of this species estimated densities from 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in unlogged forest, to 2.5 individuals in forest patches logged 20 years ago (Paciulli 2004). The mean population density for this species was estimated at 21 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in 1994 (Tenaza and Fuentes 1995). This would indicate a decline of 73 to 90% in 10 years (Whittaker 2006).	eng
20229	threats	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by heavy hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006). It is also threatened by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). <br/>Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with 177 caliber air rifles (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). <em>S. concolor</em> is the preferred game species of most Mentawai hunters (Mitchell and Tilson 1986; Fuentes 2002; Paciulli 2004). Tenaza (1989) estimated that twice as many individuals are killed by hunters each year as are born in the Pagai Islands. Animals are sometimes taken for the pet trade.	eng
20288	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	First described in 1986 from Lake Ravenel, Highlands, Macon County, North carolina (in the Upper Little Tennessee watershed). Has since also been found in ponds bordering the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.	eng
20290	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Julia Creek Dunnart is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It is present in several protected areas. A recovery plan has been developed for the 2000-2004 period (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000), and an updated recovery plan is being drafted.<br/><br/>Recommendations from the current recovery plan (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000), include: surveying to improve knowledge of the current distribution and critical habitat; studying the ecology and habitat requirements of the species; managing threats at key sites; developing management agreements with private landowners for the benefit of the species; maintaining the current captive breeding programs at La Trobe University and David Fleay Wildlife Park; and promoting community awareness, support, and participation in the recovery of the species.	eng
20290	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to north-west Queensland, Australia.	eng
20290	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is known from the Mitchell Grass downs, which are covered with cracking clay soils. It uses the cracks and dense vegetation (particularly Flinders grass) as cover (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Females can raise two litters annually of up to eight young (Woolley 2008).	eng
20290	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The Julia Creek Dunnart is rare and scattered through what appears to be large amounts of suitable habitat (Woolley 2008).	eng
20290	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	Exotic predators (especially cats and foxes), grazing by sheep and cattle, as well as the presence of the prickly acacia (<em>Acacia nilotica</em>) have all been implicated as major threats to the species. Cats have been shown to prey heavily on Julia Creek Dunnarts (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Introduced prickly acacia excludes an ample understorey for the species (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). Experiments eliminating grazing by sheep have shown to have little effect on the species, but there is some question about the methods used and the effects of cattle grazing are unknown (Lundie-Jenkins and Payne 2000). A recent study of habitat suitability, however, found that increased ground cover (in the absence of prickly acacia) and low levels of grazing were highly correlated with habitat suitability (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
20293	conservation	Robinson, T., Gaikhorst, G., Pearson, D. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in at least two protected areas: Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve and Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area. There is a published recovery plan (Churchill 2001). A captive breeding program has begun at the Perth Zoo. Surveys are ongoing in the South Australia section of the Great Victoria Desert by the Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia. <br/><br/>Churchill (2001) lists several recovery actions, including: prevent further clearance of suitable habitat on Eyre Peninsula; conduct experimental burns in suitable habitat to promote the growth of spinifex on Eyre Peninsula; conduct a detailed biological survey of Eyre Peninsula and further surveys of the Great Victoria Desert; encourage the use of deep pitfall traps in small mammal surveys in central Australia and the northern regions of the Great Victoria Desert; implement monitoring programs for the key populations; study the species in captivity to examine reproductive biology.	eng
20293	distribution	Robinson, T., Gaikhorst, G., Pearson, D. & Copley, P., 2008	This species was described from an animal collected in the Northern Territory in the late nineteenth century, however, it has not been recorded in this area since that time. Its current distribution includes areas of South Australia and Western Australia (south-western corner of the Great Victoria Desert) (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). There are only two known range isolates within South Australia, and there have been some surveys in apparently suitable habitat between these two that have failed to locate additional populations. Surveys into eastern Western Australia also have been unsuccessful in recording the species.	eng
20293	habitat	Robinson, T., Gaikhorst, G., Pearson, D. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is usually found is association with sand dunes with an understorey of Triodia (spinifex) hummock grass, and a overstorey that is can vary widely in species composition (Pearson and Churchill 2008). Little is known about the reproduction of this species; females have been seem with four and five young (Pearson and Churchill 2008). It appears that this species mates in September, with young born in September/ October, and pouch young weaned in December/ January (Churchill 2001). The diet of this species consists of a wide variety of invertebrates and some small reptiles and mammals (Churchill 2001).	eng
20293	population	Robinson, T., Gaikhorst, G., Pearson, D. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is considered rare and is seldom collected and known from a few scattered localities (Pearson and Churchill 2008). From August 1999 to May 2001 a survey for this species was conducted in the southern Great Victoria Desert and Eyre Peninsula, which collected 29 specimens at five sites (Churchill 2001). Previously, from 1894 to 1999, this species was known from 31 individuals (Churchill 2001). It has been lost from 2 of 3 known sites in the Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area since 1984.	eng
20293	threats	Robinson, T., Gaikhorst, G., Pearson, D. & Copley, P., 2008	There is a continuing decline in area of occupancy, extent and quality of habitat, number of locations, and number of mature individuals. due to predation from introduced species such as foxes and cats, combined with habitat modifications caused by changed fire regimes and the presence of livestock (Churchill 2001). Further research is needed to quantify these threats.	eng
20294	conservation	van Weenen, J., 2008	The entire known range of the species falls within Flinders Chase National Park. It is listed as Endangered Nationally (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999) and in South Australia (Schedule 7, National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972). In the recovery plan for this species, Gates (2001b) lists the following actions as being needed: <br/><br/>1) Site protection and management of known populations. <br/>2) Clarification of distribution and threatening processes. <br/>3) Investigation of ecology and biology. <br/>4) Increase community awareness. <br/>5) Establishment of a captive colony. <br/>6) Recovery planning.	eng
20294	distribution	van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is known only from Kangaroo Island, South Australia. All recent captures (since 1990) have come from the western end of Kangaroo Island in Flinders Chase National Park. Earlier records of the species came from the eastern end of the island, but it is likely no longer present there due to habitat modification (Gates 2001a,b). It has been recorded from near sea level to 270 m asl.	eng
20294	habitat	van Weenen, J., 2008	Kangaroo Island Dunnarts have been recorded from areas receiving between 480 and 800 mm annual rainfall. Of the 22 most recent records, 14 were collected from <em>Eucalyptus remota</em>/<em>E. cosmophylla</em> open low mallee, four from <em>E. baxteri</em> low woodland and three from <em>E. baxteri</em>/<em>E. remota</em> low open woodland (Gates 2001a,b). The diet of this species consists mostly of spiders, ants, beetles, scorpions, and sometimes centipedes and grasshoppers (Gates 2001a,b). Males usually survive for only one breeding season, while females may survive to breed a second year (Gates 2001a,b).	eng
20294	population	van Weenen, J., 2008	Prior to the most recent detailed surveys Kangaroo Island Dunnart was known only from seven specimens and three other records. An additional 22 records were obtained between 2000 and 2001 when the last surveys were undertaken using a full range of survey techniques (particularly pitfall traps) (Gates 2001a,b). Gates (2001b) estimates the total population of Kangaroo Island Dunnarts to be less than 500 individuals.	eng
20294	threats	van Weenen, J., 2008	Kangaroo Island Dunnarts are known from six trapping sites, but these should be treated as one location in terms of the IUCN Red List because they are all subject to a potential single catastrophic event and all may represent a single population (Gates 2001b).<br/><br/>Wildfires are the greatest potential threat facing Kangaroo Island Dunnarts and a single large wildfire could eliminate the species. Inappropriate fires management exacerbates the potential for an extensive fire. Another threat to Kangaroo Island Dunnarts is <em>Phytophthorra cinnamomi</em>, a water mold, that is destroying many heath species in the area, resulting in general changes in habitat structure that probably affect the species. Kangaroo Island Dunnarts may also be affected by introduced cats, although their impact is not well known (Gates 2001b). On the eastern end of Kangaroo Island, the preferred habitat of this species has been degraded by stock grazing, weeds, and other processes associated with fragmentation, such as land clearance for agriculture (Gates 2001b).	eng
20295	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	Butler’s Dunnart is listed as a threatened species under Australian law. It does not occur within and any protected areas. A recovery plan was developed for the 2004-2008 period (Woinarski 2004). Recommendations from this plan include: establishing a recovery team; communicating information about the species to stakeholders; targeting research in order to make informed decisions (e.g., towards survey techniques, total number and distribution, population trends, habitat suitability, and threatening processes); minimize the impacts of feral cats; and improve fire management. The recovery plan also recommends further surveys in the Kimberley to locate this species, and these should be conducted in areas of similar habitat to the type locality, but that are less affected by human presence and its associated cats, dogs, and frequent burning of habitat (Woinarski 2004; Woolley 2008).	eng
20295	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it has a very limited distribution. It is known to occur on the Tiwi Islands (Bathurst and Melville Islands), Northern Territory within 20 km of the coast (Woolley 2008). It was described from just a few specimens collected in 1965-1966 from Kalumburu in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Subsequent survey work has failed to locate the species in the Kimberley and its continued presence here is uncertain.	eng
20295	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	Little is known of the ecology of this species. It does not appear to be consistently associated with any particular habitat type on the Tiwi Islands (Woinarski 2004). All known records of the species, however, have come from within 20 km of the coast (Woolley 2008), and the species does not occur within plantation forests (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006). The habitat in the Kimberley was said to be heavily vegetated where backsoil country met sand plains, and the species was found among flood debris (Woinarski <em>et al.</em> 1996). Like other dunnarts, this species probably preys mainly upon invertebrates, but might also take small vertebrates (Woinarski 2005). Nothing is known about the reproductive biology of this species except that a female collected from the Kimberley was carrying seven pouch young (Woolley 2008).	eng
20295	population	McKnight, M., 2008	Butler's Dunnart is a rare species. The overall population is likely to be less than 2,500 mature individuals. Only about 30 individuals have been located on the Tiwi Islands despite intensive survey work since 1991 (Woinarski 2004; Woolley 2008). The paucity of records might be due in part to conventional trapping techniques not being suited to this species (e.g., Elliott traps and pitfall traps) (Woinarski 2004). In any case, it is not a common species and its distribution within the islands is sparse. The population status in the Kimberley is unknown; it has not been located here since the 1960s.	eng
20295	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	Because this species is rarely encountered, there is little certainty about the threats to it. Its rarity, however, is likely due to variety of threatening processes. Exotic predators (cats and possibly dogs), changes to the fire regime, and the destruction and degradation of habitat are all probable major threats (Woinarski 2004). Proposals to expand exotic tree plantations on Melville Island are a major concern, because the species is not found within existing plantations (Firth <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
20296	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Winter, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The species has been recorded from protected areas. There is a need to undertake further field surveys for this species, and studies of the habitat, threats, and ecological requirements are required in both Australia and New Guinea.	eng
20296	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Winter, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	<p>This species has been collected in New  Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in north-eastern Australia, mostly from near sea level (Kutt 2008). In New Guinea, it is known only from 16 specimens collected at Morehead and Mibini (Waithman 1979) and one specimen from Wipim. In Australia, it is known from 14 specimens collected from a number of different localities (see Woolley 2007). </p>  <br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
20296	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Winter, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	In Australia, it has been recorded from tall stringybark woodlands on red earth soils of the laterite-bauxite plateau, where canopy species include <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em> and <em>Eucalyptus nesophylla</em>, with an understory of <em>Parinari nonda</em>, <em>Planchonia careyi</em>, <em>Grevillea parallela</em>, and <em>Acacia rothia</em> (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996), and also in more heath-type vegetation. The latest specimen, from Blackbraes National Park, was taken in bloodwood and ironbark eucalypt woodland on granite soils. In New Guinea, it was collected in mixed savanna grassland (Waithman 1979).	eng
20296	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Winter, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
20296	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Winter, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but it may be threatened by predation by introduced cats and dogs.	eng
20297	conservation	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	The White-footed Dunnart is present in a number of protected areas. The Queensland population is within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need to delineate distribution and ecology of this northern Queensland population and to research its taxonomic status. Populations in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania should be monitored, particularly in areas subject to disturbances which promote dense regrowth (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
20297	distribution	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it has been recorded from southern Victoria, south-eastern New South Wales, and Tasmania (except in the south-west), including also Cape Barren, East Sister, and West Sister Islands. An outlier population occurs in north-eastern Queensland at above 750 m, where it is known from only three specimens (Menkhorst 2001; Lunney 2008).	eng
20297	habitat	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	In Tasmania, the White-footed Dunnart occurs in most vegetation types. On the mainland, it occurs in forests and woodlands with an open understorey of low density vegetation (Lunney 2008). It has been recorded in grassy fore-dune complexes in Victoria. In Queensland, it occurs in primary and secondary upland rainforest (Lunney 2008). The species is terrestrial and nocturnal.	eng
20297	population	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	This species is infrequently recorded, despite intensive survey work, and may have a sparse and patchy distribution (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The total population is estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals, with less than 1,000 in New South Wales, less than 2,000 in Victoria, and probably less than 5,000 individuals in Tasmania. The Queensland population is represented by only a few specimens, and the population size there is not well known. The subpopulations of the species undergo extreme fluctuations in numbers, regularly going through boom and bust phases, although no subpopulation is estimated to number more than 100 individuals.	eng
20297	threats	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	This is an early-mixed successional stage species and it has not been recorded from re-growth forest (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Inappropriate fire regimes may result in some declines.	eng
20299	conservation	Burbidge, A., 2008	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
20299	distribution	Burbidge, A., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to south-western Australia, and is only known from early 1840s.	eng
20299	habitat	Burbidge, A., 2008	The natural history of this species is not known.	eng
20299	population	Burbidge, A., 2008	The population status of this species is not known.	eng
20299	threats	Burbidge, A., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
20314	conservation	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	Precis (from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998. <br/>2. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>3. Australian Society for Fish Biology Listing : Data Deficient. <br/> <br/>More information (from Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2003): <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection.	eng
20314	distribution	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	<em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is an eastern Australian endemic pipehorse known from Lord Howe Island and southern Queensland (Qld.). It is known to occur to Forster in New South Wales (NSW) (Dawson 1985) and possibly as far south as Ulladulla (NSW) (Bowles and Martin-Smith 2003). Johnson (1999) noted that it is regularly washed up on ocean beaches in southern Queensland. FAO fisheries areas 71 (Queensland) and 81 (New South Wales). Follow the link below to see Figure 1: distribution map for <em>S. dunckeri</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs</strong>: <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Qld.	eng
20314	habitat	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	<em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is a benthic species occurring in continental shelf waters (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). It is known from a number of stranded specimens and from trawl collections in depths of 29 to 128 m. Fishers in south-eastern Australia report catching them on hard substrate (hard sand, shale, sandstone or gravel) in association with gorgonians, black corals, algae or sponges (Bowles 2001, Bowles and Martin-Smith 2003). Further <em>in situ</em> research is needed to confirm both general habitat use and specific habitat critical for particular life history stages (e.g., nursery areas, spawning grounds, etc). <br/> <br/><em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is ovoviviparous and males carry the eggs embedded in spongy tissue under the tail (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Pear-shaped eggs that may be yellow, orange or amber are embedded in the epithelial tissue, and the surrounding capillaries supply oxygen to the embryos (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pregnant males have been found at total length as small as 33.7 cm and the species grows to a recorded maximum total length of 50 cm (Dawson 1985). The number of egg scars (a proxy for egg number) ranged from 29 to 120 with a mean of 84±24 sd for trawled specimens from southern Queensland (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> is thought to have medium resilience to exploitation, based on a minimum population doubling time 1.4–4.4 years (Froese <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>It is believed that pipehorses rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet of this species is unknown, but like other species in the family, it probably feeds on small crustaceans (Texeira and Musick 1995, Texeira and Musick 2001, Woods 2002).	eng
20314	population	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	Not known.	eng
20314	threats	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	The main threat to this species is commercial trawling, where <em>S. dunckeri</em> is bycatch in prawn fisheries.  A secondary and related concern is the demand for pipehorses in traditional medicine. Animals taken in trawls as bycatch can be sold to Asian markets as medicinal ingredients. It is not known whether availability creates demand, but using fairly conservative estimates of the total retail trade in Hong Kong, Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded that that all Australian exports of pipehoses, could be consumed in Hong Kong and still leave a shortfall. <br/> <br/>Between February 1998 and May 2000, a combined total of 2,380 kg of dried <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> and <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> were taken in trawls by commercial fishers in the Queensland East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery. Exports from Australia generally consist of approximately 40% Duncker’s Pipehorse and 60% Hardwick’s Pipehorse (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001); major destinations include Hong Kong (62%), Taiwan (31%) and China (6%) (Environment Australia export data, unpublished, in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). These trades could potentially threaten the populations of these two species, particularly if current levels of exploitation continue. Data are not presently available to examine to what degree bycatch of pipehorses may subsidize the prawn fishery, but income generated from the sale of pipehorses is likely to be minimal relative to sales from the valuable primary target. <br/> <br/>Research by Martin-Smith and Vincent (in press) also points to the fact that illegal or un-reported exports may misrepresent true trade volumes, and hence do not accurately reflect potential threats. Comparison between Australian export data and import data for pipehorses into Hong Kong and Taiwan indicates large discrepancies (up to five-fold) (Martin-Smith and Vincent in press). This suggests that Australian exports may be significantly under-reported, where pipehorses are likely to have been recorded as seahorses through some combination of misidentification, translation and errors in data coding. Support for this view is provided by trade estimates of exports derived from interviews with pipefish processors in Australia: these match well with import figures from Hong Kong and Taiwan (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Relatively poor life history information presently exists for this species, where its inherent biology (reproductive rate, growth rate, etc.) may confer poor resilience to exploitation. This is thought to be the case for some other species of syngnathids (Foster and Vincent 2004).	eng
20315	conservation	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	Precis (from Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002): <br/>1. All syngnathids are subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998.  <br/>2. All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999</em>. <br/>3. Australian Society for Fish Biology: Data Deficient. <br/> <br/>More information (from Martin Smith <em>et al</em>., 2003): <br/>All Australian pipehorses have been protected in Australian Commonwealth (federal) waters (greater than three nautical miles from the coast) since the beginning of 1998. As most pipehorses are caught in Commonwealth waters they are protected under the <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em> wherein they are ‘listed marine species’. It is an offence to take, trade, injure or kill listed marine species except under permits issued by the Minister of the Environment. Such permits for exports of syngnathids are issued subject to a management plan, which must be approved by the executive agency, Environment Australia (within the Department of Environment and Heritage). Legal protection is variable for pipehorses caught in Australian State waters (less than three nautical miles from the coast), ranging from full to no protection. In other range nations such as Indonesia and the Philippines, pipehorses are subject to the provisions of fisheries legislation but receive no specific protection.	eng
20315	distribution	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	South China Sea north to southern Japan, south to northern Australia. <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> is known from tropical and subtropical Australia, the South China Sea and Japan (Dawson 1985) as well as from the western Indian Ocean in Mauritius, although doubts have been expressed about whether all specimens represent a single species or a species complex (Kuiter 2000: see below). The type specimen for the species comes from China. In Australia it occurs in Western Australia, the Northern Territory and in Queensland southwards to the NSW-Queensland borders (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Landings surveys confirm that <em>S. hardwickii</em> has been landed as far south as Ballina (NSW) (Bowles 2001). Russell (1983) reported it as rare in the Capricorn-Bunker section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In Western Australian waters it is has been found north of Onslow (21°38’S) (Allen and Swainston 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Museum Records (Australia)</u> <br/>29 specimens (Standard Length 235–440 mm), collected from depths of 20–180 m, ranging in geographical distribution from off Cairns (16°55’S), Qld, southwards to the Tweed River mouth (28°10’S), NSW on the east coast of Australia and on the west coast from north-east of Monte Bello Islands (20°03’S), WA northwards to north-east of Cape Lambert (19°15’S), WA. There are also two records from the Arafura Sea (08°53’S, 135°12’E and 09°42’S, 133°58’E), NT and one record from near Kempsey (31°05’S), New South Wales, but the Kempsey specimen has been destroyed, so the identification cannot be verified. Specimens were collected between 1894 and 1997. Additionally, 40 specimens (381–510 mm total length) are housed at Griffith University, Queensland that were collected in October 2000 in a depth range of 16–89 m between Shoalwater Bay (22°32’S) and Hervey Bay (24°55’S), Qld as part of a scientific trawling survey. <br/> <br/><strong>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs</strong>: <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Qld. <br/>This species possibly occurs in the following MPAs: <br/>Bowling Green Bay Fish Habitat Area A; Repulse Fish Habitat Area B; Mackay-Capricorn Marine Park, Qld; Broad Sound Fish Habitat Area, Qld; Bustard Fish Habitat Area A; Hervey Bay Marine Park, Qld. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>S. hardwickii</em>.	eng
20315	habitat	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> is mostly known from trawled specimens captured from 12 m to 100 m depth (Dawson 1985), though it has been collected in depths of up to 180 m. Fishers in south-eastern Australia report catching  <em>S. hardwickii</em> in association with gorgonians, black corals, algae or sponges (Bowles 2001, Bowles and Martin-Smith, unpublished data). Positive correlations with the carbonate fraction of the seabed were found during trawl surveys in 1999 and it has been suggested that <em>S. hardwickii</em> is associated with deep edges of coral reefs (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Further in situ research is needed to confirm both general habitat use and specific habitat critical for particular life history stages (e.g., nursery areas, spawning grounds, etc.) for <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em>. Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2001) suggest that habitat structure or other environmental variables may be important to the survival of this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Behaviour and Biology</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnatus hardwickii</em> is ovoviviparous and males carry the eggs embedded in spongy tissue under the tail (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989). Pear-shaped eggs that may be yellow, orange or amber are embedded in the epithelial tissue, and the surrounding capillaries supply oxygen to the embryos (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pregnant males have been found at total length as small as 29.6 cm (Dawson 1985), and the species grows to a recorded maximum total length of 50 cm (Dawson 1985). The number of egg scars (a proxy for egg number) ranged from 19 to 207 with a mean of 117 ± 64 sd for trawled specimens from southern Qld (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Using modal progression analysis Connolly <em>et al</em>. (2001) calculated a growth rate of 0.25–0.33 mm d<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.29–0.50 mm d<sup>-1</sup> for males over the size range 30–45 cm. Limited otolith work estimated age at 3–5 years for these trawled individuals (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown, but like other species in the family, it probably feeds on small crustaceans (Teixeira and Musick 1995, Teixeira and Musick 2001, Woods 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Size</strong>: <br/><em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> attains a total length of at least 510 mm (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
20315	population	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	A scientific trawling survey carried out in October 1999 between Hervey Bay and Shoalwater Bay in Queensland provides the first density estimates for this species (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the abovementioned study, density estimates for <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> range from 0 to 128 individuals per km² (mean 3.2 km<sup>-2</sup> ± 12.9 sd). Within this study region populations were very patchily distributed and the sex ratio was even (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). No information is available from any other populations in the species’ range.	eng
20315	threats	Morgan, S., Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2006	The main threat to this species is commercial trawling, where <em>S. hardwickii</em> is bycatch in prawn and scallop fisheries. A secondary and related concern is the demand for pipehorses in traditional medicine. Animals taken in trawls as bycatch are sold to Asian markets as medicinal ingredients. It is not known whether availability creates demand, but using fairly conservative estimates of the total retail trade in Hong Kong, Martin-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded that that all Australian exports of pipehoses, could be consumed in Hong Kong and still leave a shortfall. <br/> <br/>Between February 1998 and May 2000, a combined total of 2,380 kg of dried <em>Solegnathus dunckeri</em> and <em>Solegnathus hardwickii</em> were taken in trawls by commercial fishers in the Queensland East Coast Otter Trawl Fishery. Exports from Australia generally consist of approximately 40% Duncker’s Pipehorse and 60% Hardwick’s Pipehorse (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001); major destinations include Hong Kong (62%), Taiwan (31%) and China (6%) (Martin-Smith and Vincent, in press). These trades could potentially threaten the populations of these two species, particularly if current levels of exploitation continue. Data are not presently available to examine to what degree bycatch of pipehorses may subsidize the prawn fishery, but income generated from the sale of pipehorses is likely to be minimal relative to sales from the valuable primary target. <br/> <br/>Research by Martin-Smith and Vincent (in prep) also points to the fact that illegal or un-reported exports may misrepresent true trade volumes, and hence do not accurately reflect potential threats. Comparison between Australian export data and import data for pipehorses into Hong Kong and Taiwan indicates large discrepancies (up to five-fold) (Martin-Smith and Vincent in prep). This suggests that Australian exports may be significantly under-reported, where pipehorses are likely to have been recorded as seahorses through some combination of misidentification, translation and errors in data coding. Support for this view is provided by trade estimates derived from interviews with pipefish processors in Australia: these match well with import figures from Hong Kong and Taiwan (Connolly <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>No life history information presently exists for this species, where its inherent biology (reproductive rate, brood size, growth rate, etc.) may confer poor resilience to exploitation.  This is thought to be the case for some other species of syngnathids (Foster and Vincent 2004).	eng
20316	conservation	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <em>S. lettiensis</em> has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under section 248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In addition to legislative protection, monitoring the bycatch of this species in Australian trawl fisheries will provide baseline data on the species’ distribution and abundance in Australian waters (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). The designation of suitably located non-trawl protected areas within its range where possible commercial trawling occurs (i.e., northern Australian waters or perhaps <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) may be crucial to its survival (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in the 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007). </span>	eng
20316	distribution	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis</em> is a temperate to tropical western Pacific pipehorse (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) that occurs in <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). In <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state>, it is known from <st1:city w:st="on">Albany</st1:city> (117°52’E) to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">North West</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype></st1:place> (22°S) (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989).</p>  <p><u><br/></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 25 specimens (standard length 230-518 mm), collected from a depth range of 42-169 m (also beach wash-ups), ranging in geographical distribution from the Indian Ocean (17°30’S, 121°19’E), WA, southwards to <st1:city w:st="on">Albany</st1:city> (35°S), WA, and also from the Arafura Sea (10°S, 130°10’E), NT and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Specimens were collected between 1932 and 1990.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): it is possible that <em>S. lettiensis</em> occurs in the Abrolhos Islands Fish Habitat Protection Area, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:place></st1:state>.</p>	eng
20316	habitat	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis </em>is a benthic inhabitant of outer continental shelf waters (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989), and has been captured from depths of 42-180 m. </p>    <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>Although all members of the genus <em>Solegnathus </em>have males that carry eggs on the underside of the tail (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985), nothing more is known about the biology of this species. Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown but like other species in the family, <em>S. lettiensis</em> probably feeds on small crustaceans (Pogonoski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).<strong></strong></p>  <p><u><br/></u></p>  <p>Size</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus lettiensis </em>reaches a maximum total length of approximately 525 mm (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). <em></em></p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>  <p>Critical Habitats </p>  <p>No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species. Pipehorses are likely to be demersal and associated with habitat structure as all have been caught by benthic or demersal gear together with sessile species such as sponges, corals, and gorgonians.</p>	eng
20316	population	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>Nothing is known about the population size or structure of this species.</p>	eng
20316	threats	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<em>S. lettiensis</em> is listed as being caught in trawls in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984), although there is limited commercial trawl fishing within the range of this species in Western Australian waters (B. Hutchins, pers. comm.). There is no information about the impact of trawling on populations outside of Australian waters. Trawling bycatch of this species is a potential threatening process, as individuals caught in trawls may not survive the removal from deep waters.	eng
20317	conservation	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, <em>S. robustus</em> has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002) All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under section 248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its <u>2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes</u><span style="text-decoration: underline;"> </span>document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007).</p>	eng
20317	distribution	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p><em>Solegnathus robustus </em>is endemic to the coastal waters of southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). The species has been verified to be found from Spencer Gulf (Port Weyland) westwards to Flinders Island in South Australia&#160; (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species is suspected to occur beyond the known distribution, however further scientific surveys in the <st1:place w:st="on">Great  Australian Bight</st1:place> are needed to validate this suspected range extension.  </p>  <p><u><br/></span></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 25 specimens (standard length to 300 mm), trawled from a depth range of 55–68 m (many specimens do not have depths recorded), ranging in geographical distribution from Port Weyland (34°56’S, 137°05’E), SA westwards to Flinders Island (33°43’S, 134°31’E), SA. Specimens were collected between 1909 and 1982.</p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): it is possible that that <em>S. robustus </em>occurs in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Great Australian  Bight</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Marine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Australia</st1:place>. </span></p>	eng
20317	habitat	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus robustus</em> is a temperate-water pipehorse, which occurs in benthic habitats of the continental shelf (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989) and has been recorded in depths of 42-68 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>The smallest examined brooding male of this species was 314 mm total length (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). Males of all species within the genus <em>Solegnathus</em> allow females to deposit eggs on the underside of their tales (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). Pipehorses probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. The diet is unknown but like other species in the family, <em>S. robustus</em> probably feeds on small crustaceans (Pogonoski et al. 2002).</p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Size<u></u></p>  <p><em>Solegnathus robustus</em> attains a total length of at least 350 mm (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). <em></em></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Critical Habitats</p>  <p>No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species.</p>	eng
20317	population	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>No information is available regarding population dynamics for <em>S. robustus</em>, including any evidence of population increases or declines.</p>	eng
20317	threats	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>Commercial trawl fishing in the <st1:place w:st="on">Great  Australian Bight</st1:place> has been suggested as a potential threat to this species, as individuals could be captured as bycatch (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, no information exists on verified threats to the species.</p>	eng
20318	conservation	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>In Australia, <em>S. spinosissimus </em>has been identified or protected under several pieces of legislation. All syngnathids are listed as Protected Aquatic Biota in Victoria, Australia and the <em>Tasmanian Living Marine Resources Management Act 1995</em> prohibits the take of all syngnathids in Tasmania by non-permit holders, since September 1994 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). As well, all syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> from 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>., 2002) All syngnathids and solenostomids were listed as marine species under s248 of the <em>EPBC Act 1999 </em>(Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007). In an Australian overview of the conservation status of threatened marine fishes, it was recommended that further research be conducted in order to accumulate information on the basic biological and population dynamics characteristics of this species (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, the collection of accurate distributional and depth data was recommended in order to identify key habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) also suggest non-trawl protected areas within the range of <em>S. spinosissimus.</em> Non-trawl areas would protect some wild populations from possible bycatch threats. In addition, monitoring of bycatch from the trawl fisheries would allow for baseline data to be accumulated on abundances, distributions and habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Marine protected areas established in Australia on 28 June 2007 contain benthic sanctuary zones that will allow for some protection of wild populations in addition to providing opportunities to collect baseline data.<strong></strong></p>	eng
20318	distribution	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> occurs in south-eastern Australia along the coasts of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (May and Maxwell 1986) and also in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989). This species has also been recorded from off Brisbane (Queensland), and in South Australian waters (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994), although the South Australian specimen identifications have not been confirmed. </p>  <p><u><br/></u></p>    <p>Museum Records from Australian Fish Collections (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): there are 176 specimens (Standard Length 138-470 mm), trawled from depths of 2-640 m, ranging in geographical distribution from Caloundra (26°48’S), Queensland, southwards to Lune River (43°26’S), Tasmania. There are also records from New Zealand. Specimens were collected between <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span> 1885 and 2000.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): this species possibly occurs in marine protected areas with suitable habitat along the coasts of Queensland, NSW and Victoria, but particularly Tasmania as they are known to occur in shallow waters in that State. New marine protected areas that were declared on 28 June 2007 (came into effect on 3 Sep 2007) where <em>S. spinosissimus </em>may occur are:</p>  East Gippsland, Flinders, Freycinet, Huon, Tasman Fracture, Franklin, Boags, Apollo and Zeehan (see online map of the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/southeast/index.html">Commonwealth marine reserves in the south-east marine region of Australia</a>)	eng
20318	habitat	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus </em>is most commonly taken by trawl in areas with muddy bottoms at depths of 29-232 m, but it occurs as shallow as 2-3 m in the Derwent & Huon Estuaries, Tasmania (Gomon <em>et al</em>. 1994, Davey and Martin-Smith, unpub. data). It is found in shallow waters in the southern part of its range where waters are shaded or are darkened by tannins. This species is often found over rubble substrates and near rich invertebrate platform reefs (Kuiter, 2000). It is sometimes found on beaches after storms and has occasionally been collected in depths up to 670 m. This species probably attaches itself to encrusting animal growths on deep rocky reefs (Ayling and Cox 1982). Divers in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel and Huon Estuary in Tasmania have observed <em>S. spinosissimus</em> holding on to sea whips at 10-15 m depth&#160; (Edgar 1997,&#160; Davey and Martin-Smith unpub. data). In this habitat, they probably rely on camouflage to avoid predators. In New Zealand, <em>S. spinosissimus</em> has been observed in Fiordland at 20-30 m attached to gorgonians or other habitat forming benthos (K. Miller pers. comm..)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology</p>  <p>The female attaches eggs to the underside of the male’s tail, just behind the anus, as pipehorses lack a brood pouch structure (Francis 1996). The male carries the eggs until they hatch (Francis 1996). Brood size is approx. 200 (Davey and Martin-Smith unpub. data). The young are benthic and have no pelagic stage (Kuiter 2000). <em>Solegnathus spinosissimus</em> anchor themselves to holdfasts such as seaweed or sea fans while feeding on planktonic crustaceans (Francis 1996).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Size</p>  <p><em>Solegnathus spinosissimus </em>attains a maximum length of 50 cm (Francis 1996). FishBase lists the maximum total length for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. spinosissimus</span> as 49 cm (May and Maxwell 1986, as cited by Froese and Pauly 2007)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Critical Habitats </p>  No critical habitats have been identified. It is likely that this species has specific habitat preferences, particularly for habitat forming benthos, that determine its abundance within its range, but little or no research has focused on the critical habitats for this species.	eng
20318	population	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	There is little information available regarding the population size or dynamics of <em>S. spinosissimus</em>. A small-scale study of <em>S. spinosissimus</em> in the D’Entrecasteaux Channel, Tasmania suggested that the species is rare/scarce and found in low abundance (Davey and Martin-Smith, unpub. data).	eng
20318	threats	Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D., Paxton, J., Morgan, S. & Bartnik, S., 2008	Commercial fish and prawn trawling are potential threats to the survival of this species as they are taken as bycatch in these trawl and Danish seine fisheries (Ayling and Cox 1982, AFMA 1999, Bowles 2001, Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Martin-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003, Martin-Smith and Vincent 2006). Specimens caught as trawl bycatch will not likely survive if released due damage to internal organs that occurs when caught and brought to the surface, also termed prolapse (K. Graham, pers. comm.). Prolapse has been observed in animals brought to the surface from <5 m depth (Martin-Smith, unpub. data).	eng
20320	conservation	Soy, J. & Mancina, C.A., 2008	This species has been recorded from Pico Cristal and Alexander Humboldt National Parks.	eng
20320	distribution	Soy, J. & Mancina, C.A., 2008	This species is only known from southeastern Cuba, however, remains have been found from Late Quaternary and Amerindian sites all over the island (Ottenwalder, 2001 in Hutterer, 2005).	eng
20320	habitat	Soy, J. & Mancina, C.A., 2008	The Cuban solenodon is found in dense, humid forests and brush country. Small frogs, insects and spiders, found in soil and in leaf litter form most of its diet. Solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws. This species is mainly nocturnal, hiding during the day in rock clefts, hollow trees, or burrows which it excavates itself. Adult Cuban solenodons are solitary, other than mothers with young. Litter size is 1 or 2 young. The young are born in a nesting burrow. Young remain with their mother for several months (Varona, 1980; Ottenwalder, 2001 in Hutterer, 2005; pers. comm. Juan Soy).	eng
20320	population	Soy, J. & Mancina, C.A., 2008	By 1970, some thought that the Cuban solenodon had become extinct, since no specimens had been found since 1890. However, three were captured in 1974 and 1975, and subsequent surveys showed that it still occurred in many places in central and western Oriente Province, at the eastern end of Cuba. However, it is rare everywhere. It is considered to be even more rare than <em>S. paradoxus</em> (pers. comm. Carlos A. Mancina).<br/><br/>The last alive specimens of <em>S. cubanus</em> were found in Sierra del Cristal National Park in 1998 and Alexander Humboldt National Park in 2003, Holguin Province. One specimen was found dead in 2005 (pers. comm. Juan Soy).	eng
20320	threats	Soy, J. & Mancina, C.A., 2008	Feral dogs and cats are probably the greatest threat to this species. In addition to predation by introduced predators, habitat loss is also a factor contributing to the solenodon's rarity. The Cuban solenodon is not hunted for food.	eng
20321	conservation	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	It is protected by law in the Dominican Republic (General Environmental Law 64 - 00). There is a recovery Plan published in 1992 which suggested comprehensive surveys, and management in the National Park Pic Macaya, and education, and the control of exotic mammals, and breeding programmes. At the moment it is not being implemented (Samuel Turvey pers. comm.). It is found in most protected areas in the Dominican Republic (Sixto Inchaustegui pers. comm.). It is one of the species that lives in both the Caribbean Biodiversity Hotspot and the Greater Antillean Moist Forests Ecoregion (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998).	eng
20321	distribution	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species occurs in the Massif de la Hotte (Haiti) and the Dominican Republic.	eng
20321	habitat	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	The Haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country, as well as around plantations. It is mainly nocturnal, hiding during the day in rock clefts, hollow trees, or burrows which it excavates itself. Its diet includes insects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter. Solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws. This species is relatively social, and up to eight individuals may inhabit the same burrow. Litter size is 1 or 2 young. The young are born in a nesting burrow. Young solenodons remain with their mother for several months, which is exceptionally long for insectivores.	eng
20321	population	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is rare. In Haiti the species could be considered Critically Endangered because there is an isolated population with a range less than 100 km², threatened by habitat loss and persecution (S. Turvey and L. Davalos pers. comm.).	eng
20321	threats	Turvey, S. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	The most significant threat to this species appears to be the continuing demise of its forest habitat and predation by introduced rats, mongoose, cats and dogs, especially in the vicinity of settlements. In Haiti persecution and hunting for food (Samuel Turvey pers. comm.) is a threat, and there is devastating habitat destruction also occurring.	eng
20322	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
20322	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to the Dominican Republic.	eng
20322	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species, it was the smallest of the Solenondons. Solenodon species generally occur in forests and occasionally plantations. During the day they shelter in caves, rocky crevices, hollow trees, logs, or burrows they dig. Nests are commonly built in the breeding season. They are predominantly nocturnal and forage on invertebrates, reptiles, fruit and vegetables, although they have been reported to eat poultry.	eng
20322	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known from recent fossil deposits suggesting that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
20322	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most probable reason for the extinction of this species. Fossil deposits of this species have been found with rat fossils. Deforestation, increased human activity, predation by introduced cats and dogs have also  been implicated as possible causes of the extinction of this species.	eng
20332	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Knuckles Forest Reserve and Hakgala Reserve are the two protected areas it has been recorded from (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2005; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20332	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka at an altitudinal range of 950 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20332	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been reported from primary tropical evergreen forests where it inhabits wet patana grasslands. Four individuals have been trapped in long grass. This species may be semifossorial (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20332	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Population information is unknown.	eng
20332	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is restricted to a small area of declining habitat. Fires, cardamon plantations, and other more general forms of habitat loss are threatening these areas.	eng
20333	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements, current range, and habitat status of this species. Important areas of habitat for this rare species should be identified and protected. Community awareness and involvement are essential for the conservation of this species (Pikacha 2008).	eng
20333	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea), and Choiseul (Solomon Islands). It has been recorded as fossil remains on the island of Buka, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). Recent indications are that it has lost at least 80% of its habitat in a very short period. Its elevational range is from sea level up to 200 m asl.	eng
20333	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	Animals have been collected in a swampy area, where they were found in a large stick nest on the branch of a huge forest tree (Flannery 1995). It does not appear to occur in modified habitats. Further records have all been found in lowland swamp forest. It is an arboreal species.	eng
20333	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
20333	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by logging, most especially selective logging of trees used for nesting. This species is hunted on both Choiseul and Bougainville and there has also been increased hunting pressure on the latter in recent years.	eng
20334	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Field surveys during 1987 and 1991 failed to locate the species, although it is possible that it is still extant (Flannery 1995). Further field studies are needed on Florida Island and on Makira Island, as is protection of any remaining areas of suitable habitat.	eng
20334	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected on Florida Island (= Nggela Sule a land-bridge extension) in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). There is debate about the true locality of this species; it may well be from Makira Island, though we do not map this island. A large <em>Solomys</em> has been recorded from Makira, but was never collected (seen in 1996 by R. James but eaten by a dog).	eng
20334	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The natural history of this species is not known.	eng
20334	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is known only from the holotype. Flannery (1995) states that with the deforestation of Florida Island, this species may already be extinct, but that further surveys are warranted. These islands have not been properly surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
20334	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Florida Island has been badly deforested for timber and conversion of forest to cultivated land.	eng
20335	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, habitat requirements, habitat status, and conservation measures for this species. Important areas of suitable habitat should be protected to ensure the survival of this species, and community awareness and involvement are key to this effort (Pikacha 2008).	eng
20335	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from the islands of Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) and Choiseul (Solomon Islands). It is also known from fossil remains on Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. All records are from below 200 m asl on Bougainville, but it has been recorded possibly as high as 400 m on Choiseul (near Olivetti Village at 200-400 m; Pikacha 2008). The area of the two islands is 12,000 km².	eng
20335	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been collected in nests of leaves within hollow trees, presumably within tropical moist forest. Females may give birth to a single young. It is an arboreal species.	eng
20335	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Historical records suggest it may have been common at one time, but it is not common today.	eng
20335	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The species is threatened by logging, especially the selective logging of large roosting trees, and by hunting. There has been increased hunting pressure on Bougainville in recent years. Predation by cats may also be a problem, but this requires confirmation.	eng
20336	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, habitat status, threats, and conservation measures for this species. Important areas of suitable habitat should be protected to ensure the survival of this species.	eng
20336	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is endemic to Santa Isabel Island in the Solomon Islands. It is possible that this species (or a congener) once occurred on Malaita Island (and possibly San Cristobal Island) from where it is now considered to be extinct (Flannery 1995). It has been collected at 30 m asl.	eng
20336	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is associated with tropical moist forest. It is reportedly arboreal, and may rely on large forest trees for nesting sites.	eng
20336	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is moderately common, although it appears to be declining most particularly in the south-west of the island (Flannery 1995).	eng
20336	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation for timber, and conversion of land to cultivated use. It is also threatened to some degree by hunting for food by local people.	eng
20340	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Canada and the United States. Current population size is unknown.	eng
20340	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Pools in sphagnum bogs.	eng
20340	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	It is a widespread species, but one that is very rarely seen or collected.	eng
20341	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. calverti</em> is present in some protected areas. Research and surveys urgently needed to establish habitat status and population numbers.	eng
20341	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in the United States of America.	eng
20341	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Rough habitat of this species is woodland, presumably quite specific water locations due to is being rarely encountered.	eng
20341	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Populations must be small because <em>S. calverti</em> is rarely encountered.	eng
20341	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. calverti</em> is experiencing logging to the woodland where adults are seen and the threat of drought to small-sized breeding habitats is likely to occur in the future.	eng
20342	conservation	Abbott, J.C. & Cashatt, E., 2007	Has been listed as Endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, despite the ongoing surveys have revealed its presence in more localities than many other non-listed North American species. Eight known extant sites are designated as nature preserves (public or private). Purchase unprotected tracts in Wisconsin. Recovery plan has been drafted (Zercher 2001). Manage habitat in Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Missouri. Develop an educational program.	eng
20342	distribution	Abbott, J.C. & Cashatt, E., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Currently known from 42 locations: 9 in Illinois, 20 in Wisconsin, 10 in Michigan, and at least 3 sites in Missouri. Extirpated in Ohio, Alabama and Indiana.	eng
20342	habitat	Abbott, J.C. & Cashatt, E., 2007	Shallow wetlands overlying dolomitic limestone bedrock; calcareous water from intermittent seeps, shallow small channels and/or sheetflow (Bick 2003). The odd specialization of this species is its apparent requirement of burrows of a certain geometry in fens that essentially dry out in the late summer. Its burrows of choice so far have been those of a large crayfish, <em>Cambarus diogenes</em>, which for some reason does not consume them.	eng
20342	population	Abbott, J.C. & Cashatt, E., 2007	Based on mark recapture work in Illinois and Wisconsin, probably >30,000 individuals globally; 20,000 of these may occur in Door County, Wisconsin.	eng
20342	threats	Abbott, J.C. & Cashatt, E., 2007	Narrow ecological requirements and vulnerability to habitat degradation and destruction (Cashatt and Vogt 2001).  Extant occurrences are threatened by the following activities: petroleum refineries and other heavy industry, a proposed highway project, quarrying, urban non-point water pollution, and ATV use in Illinois; agricultural non-point water pollution (surface and groundwater) and recreational development in Wisconsin. Most significant threats are habitat/alteration/destruction from development of commercial and residential areas, quarrying, creating landfills, constructing pipelines, and filling of wetlands (Zercher 2001).	eng
20343	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves.  It is listed in Wisconsin as Endangered (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/er/biodiversity/index.asp?mode=detail&Grp=12).	eng
20343	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.	eng
20343	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at sphagnum pools in poor fens.	eng
20343	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. incurvata</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
20343	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
20344	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Endemic to two states in the United States (Louisiana and Texas). The species currently is known from six counties in these two states.	eng
20344	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Low, gently rolling, clear, sandy streams or possibly forest seepages.	eng
20344	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Only seven locations are known.	eng
20344	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
20345	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Found in Ozark and Ouachita National Forests, and Lake Sylvia Recreation Area in Arkansas, and in Woodson County State Lake Area in Kansas.	eng
20345	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States.	eng
20345	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Forest streams with moderate riffles.	eng
20345	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
20345	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Deforestation, development, pollution.	eng
20372	conservation		The range of the species is within the Reserva Provincial Somuncura, but the reserve currently is poorly managed, and there is little real protection for the species. Strengthening the management of such existing protected areas is necessary, and further field research is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
20372	distribution		This species is known only from the Somuncura Plateau, an isolated basaltic plateau in the Río Negro Province, Argentinean Patagonia. It has an altitudinal range of 500-700m asl.	eng
20372	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, inhabiting and breeding in permanent thermal springs and streams originating in the northern slopes of Somuncura Plateau. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
20372	population		It is generally quite rare, and thought to be declining.	eng
20372	threats		The species is probably threatened by introduced predatory fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>), and by the canalization of spring water towards local towns and villages for domestic use. In addition, the impacts of livestock farming (sheep and goats) result in overgrazing, as well as chemical pollution of waterways from sheep baths.	eng
20380	conservation		It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
20380	distribution		This species occurs on Mahé and Silhouette islands in the Seychelles.	eng
20380	habitat		It lives both on the ground in forest litter and on low vegetation in leaf axils, in disturbed and undisturbed rainforest. It also occurs in areas dominated by introduced trees such as cinnamon. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid on the ground.	eng
20380	population		It is common at many sites in both disturbed and relatively undisturbed rainforest, occurring at densities of up to 2,000 animals per hectare in the best habitat.	eng
20380	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened since it is somewhat adaptable to secondary habitats. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.	eng
20381	conservation		It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
20381	distribution		This species occurs on the islands of Mahé and Silhouette in the Seychelles.	eng
20381	habitat		It lives on the forest floor in leaf-litter in both relatively pristine and disturbed rainforest. It lays its eggs on land and guards them until they hatch. The tadpoles then wriggle onto their parent's back (although it is not clear whether or not it is the male or the female that carries the larvae).	eng
20381	population		It is a locally common species, living at densities of 667-2,000 animals per hectare.	eng
20381	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species, but it is not thought to be seriously threatened since it is somewhat adaptable to secondary habitats. It might be inherently at risk because of its small range.	eng
20383	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
20383	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, and until recently was known only from a restricted distribution within Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). Several additional specimens have now been collected in southwest Gansu, adjacent Qinghai, and one from east Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). It likely occurs at elevations ranging from 2,600-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20383	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the habitat preferences of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20383	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The species has been characterized as rare (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20383	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown. It occurs in a restricted area that is threatened by habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging and conversion to wasteland (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press), but it is not known which habitats this species prefers so it is impossible to know the impact of such threats.	eng
20384	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Liupanshan, Taibaishan, Wanglang, Wolong, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Wawushanmay (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
20384	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008), and Ningxia (CSIS 2008). In Sichuan, it was recorded at an altitude of 3,000 m asl.	eng
20384	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The habitat preferences of this species are unclear due to identification confusion with <em>Sorex bedfordi</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It is inferred that it occupies montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008). Little else about the habitat and ecology can be distinguished (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20384	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
20384	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are most likely no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
20385	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this little-known species. South Asian populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20385	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is known from a few localities in South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, it has only been recorded from Khumjung in eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is distributed in northern Yunnan, Sichuan Xizang and southern Qinghai Provinces (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it has been recorded up to 4,000 m asl.	eng
20385	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In China, the species has largely been recorded from alpine and montane forest regions, with animals in southern Qinghai captured along small streams with shrubby banks and moist litter on the soil surface (Smith and Xie 2008). Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
20385	population	Molur, S., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
20385	threats	Molur, S., 2008	While the threats to this species are poorly known, it has been widely recorded globally, and sufficiently large areas of suitable habitat are presumed to remain within the species' geographic range.	eng
20386	conservation	Abe, H., 2008	This species has been recorded from several National Parks and protected areas, although the degree of protection within these areas varies greatly.	eng
20386	distribution	Abe, H., 2008	This species has been recorded only from relict populations in montane areas of central Honshu, Japan, at altitudes of 900 to 2,900 m asl. It has been found in the Japan Alps, Okuchichibu and Shigayama (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species has not been found on northern Honshu where the mountains are usually lower in height (usually less than 1,500 m asl), and where the Shinto Shrew (<em>Sorex shinto</em>) is more common.	eng
20386	habitat	Abe, H., 2008	It inhabits grasslands, shrublands and coniferous forests in subalpine to alpine habitat; and is rarely found in forests at lower altitudes.	eng
20386	population	Abe, H., 2008	The population appears to be small, though stable. It is not as common as <em>Sorex shinto</em>.	eng
20386	threats	Abe, H., 2008	The species occurs primarily at elevations above 1,000 m asl, and so there currently are very few major threats. However, human encroachment and development of tourist facilities, such as ski resorts, may be a localized threat. Competition with <em>Sorex shinto</em> may be a problem. Because the species is restricted to montane habitat fragments it may be susceptible to climate change in the future.	eng
20387	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
20387	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is only known from a tributary of the Mekong River, Dze-Chyu (Zi Qu) river, in Tibet, China (Hutterer 2005).	eng
20387	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
20387	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
20387	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
20388	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
20388	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is probably confined to Paramushir Island, south of the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia.	eng
20388	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit shrubs near rivers. Reproduce once a year, litter size is up to 11.	eng
20388	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
20388	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species occurs in a restricted area that is threatened by human encroachment.	eng
20389	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2c; D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
20389	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations from 2,700-3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20389	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in rocky mossy mountain-top habitat (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20389	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
20389	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
20390	conservation	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
20390	distribution	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Saint Lawrence Island, in the Bering sea, Alaska, in the United States (Reid, 2006).	eng
20390	habitat	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	Habitats include bogs/wet tundra, fell-fields, and mesic tundra; where scarce, this shrew may be restricted to fell-field habitats and boulder scree, particularly auklet nesting colonies. It also occurs in old village sites where voles and insects are numerous. In winter, it may invade buildings where dried/frozen meat is stored.	eng
20390	population	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	It is not uncommon in its range (Reid, 2006). It is the only shrew on Saint Lawrence Island.	eng
20390	threats	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
20391	conservation	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	No specific protection measures are in place for this species. Approximately 10% of the preferred shrew habitat is on USFWS and NMFS land, where the species is potentially protected by use permit restrictions. Other general protection is provided by land use development restrictions identified in the Saint Paul Coastal Management Plan. ADF&G regulations regarding the taking of shrews as "unclassified game" requires a hunting license, but there is not a closed season or bag limit. However, except when it invades human food storage areas, this species is not of interest except to scientific collectors.<br/><br/>The distribution of shrews on Saint Paul is fairly well known and occurrences can be reasonably predicted throughout the range (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Additional surveys are needed on Otter Island where the presence of preferred plant communities suggest the shrew might occur (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Also, surveys should be conducted on Unalaska Island to determine if <em>Sorex hydrodromus</em> actually exists and, if so, to reevaluate its taxonomic relationship to <em>S. pribilofensis</em>.<br/><br/>Present protection needs include: 1. Identifying and protecting sufficient preferred habitat to insure maintenance of a viable population. 2. Minimizing the feral cat population. 3. Managing the reindeer herds to prevent overgrazing of shrew habitat. 4. Preventing introduction of rats onto the island.<br/><br/>Local distributional surveys on Saint Paul Island have been conducted with some statistical sensitivity (Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). General information on local distribution and habitat use patterns is available (Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). Present research needs include: 1. Total population size and trend estimates. 2. Continued assessment of habitat preferences. 3. Measurement of reproductive capacity. 4. Estimation of feral cat and arctic fox predation levels. 5. Long-term population viability analysis.	eng
20391	distribution	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The known geographic range of this species is confined to Saint Paul Island (90 sqkm), in the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, United States. It is distributed primarily along the periphery of the island. Plant associations supporting shrews in summer occupied nearly 40 sqkm in the late 1980s (Byrd and Norvell 1993). The type locality was reported as "Unalaska Islands, Aleutian Islands." However, attempts to collect shrews from the type locality have not been successful. Presumably the shrews to which the name <em>hydrodromus</em> has been applied were collected on Saint Paul Island of the Pribilof Islands.	eng
20391	habitat	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The species' habitat is maritime tundra. On Saint Paul Island, capture rates were highest in dune habitats and grass-umbel habitats, less in forb and mixed habitats, none in <em>Carex</em> or upland habitats; seemingly most abundant in habitats with more tall stems per unit area (Byrd and Norvell 1988). <br/><br/>This species is an invertivore, and the remains of beetles have been observed in some stomachs (Byrd and Norvell 1988).	eng
20391	population	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is known to occur only on St. Paul Island which is considered to be one location. No shrews have been collected on neighbouring Saint George and Otter islands, despite numerous surveys (Preble and McAtee 1923; Byrd and Norvell 1988, 1993). The species' abundance is unknown, but the total population size is probably more than 10,000 individuals. Jackson (1928) described the Pribilof shrew as "not common" in 1928. Fay (in Fay and Sease 1985) found them to be abundant in 1965. Byrd and Norvell (1988, 1993) reported capture rates of 0.9-4.5 shrews/1000 trap hours over an area of approximately 39 sqkm but gave no estimates of density. Similar trap efforts for <em>Sorex cinereus</em>, a closely related species with similar habitat requirements, resulted in density estimates of two to 30 shrews per acre depending on the period of the cycle when captured (Buckner 1966). Using the lower estimate of two shrews per acre and extrapolating over the 39 sqkm of suitable habitat gives a very rough minimum total population estimate of 19,266 animals on the island.<br/><br/>The population trend is unknown but is suspected to be stable. The shrews have been known to occur on the island for over 200 years (Fay and Sease 1985). The population is believed to have existed on Saint Paul since the area became an island, approximately 16,000 years ago.	eng
20391	threats	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. pribilofensis</span> is naturally restricted to a single island, so this species is vulnerable to localized perturbations. Habitat is largely intact, but human activities and climatic warming are of potential concern (ADFG 2005). Although the effects of climate change on this species' habitat are unknown, these shrews are a relict, cold-adapted species that could be compromised by a warmer climate.  <br/><br/>Byrd and Norvell (1993) found the shrews to be distributed widely at relatively high densities, and they identified no immediate threats to the species or to most habitat areas. Little habitat fragmentation has occurred. Of Saint Paul Island's 10,093 hectares, only 2-3% has been developed. This includes the village of Saint Paul, a fish processing plant, the Coast Guard Loran station, an airport, the POSS Helicopter camp (Pribilof Offshore Support Service), and a new seaport. There are approximately 35 miles of roads which section the island into several large parcels. These facilities do not appear to have caused significant fragmentation of the shrew habitat to date (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Potential threats include habitat loss to development and overgrazing by reindeer, and population declines if rats are incidentally introduced to the island. <br/><br/>At present, development activities are primarily directed toward the construction of a major harbour and port facility in Village Cove. Anticipated development includes: expansion of industrial processing facilities both within and near the harbour area; new commercial ventures including a chandlery; expanded support services; increased uses and trespass on traditional subsistence and recreation land; and expansion of air transport facilities and services. Additional future developments may also include expansion of the OCS support services for oil and gas extraction activities. Current land use plans indicate that these developments will occur primarily in the immediate vicinity of the village and harbour and along a development corridor between the village and the airport. Much of this area has been identified as preferred shrew habitat and contains high shrew densities (Byrd and Norvell 1988). Proportionally, this region involves approximately 12% of the total preferred shrew habitat on the island (estimated from Byrd and Norvell 1988, Fig 2).<br/><br/>With recent completion of the new seaport, increased shipping traffic is expected and the potential for Norway rat introductions will increase. The ecological consequences of this possibility are not well known. Rats introduced to different Aleutian Islands have spread across entire islands, invading most habitats. They are believed to function as significant predators of birds and other wildlife on these islands. Byrd and Norvell (1988) predicted that predation on the shrews would increase if rats were introduced to Saint Paul Island. It is also possible that they could introduce disease that is detrimental to the shrews, though this possibility has not been documented.<br/><br/>Reindeer were introduced on the island in 1911 (Fay and Sease 1985). Here they prospered, their numbers reaching a peak abundance of over 2,000 animals in 1938, which was followed shortly by a "crash" to only a few animals. This over-extension of their carrying capacity greatly impacted the vegetation and shrew habitat (Fay and Sease 1985). The herd is now maintained at approximately 500 animals.<br/><br/>Arctic fox and localized house cat predation do not appear to pose serious threats to the long-term viability of the population.	eng
20392	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
20392	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from Oaxaca, Puebla, and Veracruz in Mexico from 1,200 to 2,600 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Its range is estimated to be around 6,400 km² (Carraway 2007).	eng
20392	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs on mossy banks near streams in cloud forest, and also in dense oak forests on the forest floor or under rocks or logs (Carraway, 2007). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
20392	population	Castro-Arellano, I., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is known only from fourteen specimens in seven localities (Carraway, 2007).	eng
20392	threats	Castro-Arellano, I., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	Habitat loss due to agriculture, as well as deforestation is a major threat to this species. In 2005, 84% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
20393	conservation	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in the Ixta-Popocatepetl National Park.	eng
20393	distribution	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico; it occurs in Distrito Federal, Morelos, México, Puebla, Jalisco and Tlaxcala around 2,500 m asl (Carraway, 2007). Its extent of occurrence is estimated around 34,400 km² (Carraway, 2007).	eng
20393	habitat	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in moist fir-pine-oak forests as well as high elevation tussock grasslands. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
20393	population	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no information known about the population status of this species.	eng
20393	threats	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation outside the protected areas where it can be found is a major threat.	eng
20394	conservation	Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is not found in any protected area. It is included under special protection in Mexican legislation (Nom 059-SEMARNAT-2001).	eng
20394	distribution	Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Tumbala at 1,700 m asl, and from one other location near the border with Guatemala, both in Chiapas, Mexico (Carraway, 2007). The area of the type locality is only 7 km², considering the habitat availability (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
20394	habitat	Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The habitat of both localities is within tropical montane cloud forest.	eng
20394	population	Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
20394	threats	Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The rate of habitat loss in the region in which the species occurs is between 15 and 22% over the last 10 years (Cuaron and de Grammont pers. comm.). Agricultural development and deforestation are the major threats.	eng
20395	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is found in the Private Reserva Ecológica Huitepec in Chiapas (Naranjo and Espinoza Medinilla, 2001).	eng
20395	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is known only from the type locality and the Reserva Ecológica Huitepec in Chiapas (Carraway, 2007). It is known from 2,743 m asl at the type locality (Merriam, 1895).	eng
20395	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is known from wet and montane forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is unknown.	eng
20395	population	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is apparently rare (Reid, 1997).	eng
20395	threats	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	Habitat loss, is estimated to be 26% in the last 10 years (Cuaron and Carton de Grammont pers. comm.). Agriculture and deforestation are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
20396	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in Arizona (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
20396	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species' distribution is restricted to southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, in the United States, and northwestern Mexico (Nowak, 1999) in the state of Chihuahua. It is found from 1,500 to 2,600 m asl (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). The only known Mexican specimen was collected at 2,591 m asl.	eng
20396	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occupies forested slopes, and is often found near springs or other water sources where considerable vegetation cover exists (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is nearly always found beneath a thick canopy of vegetation (Simons, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It has been collected in montane conifer forest and encinal and Mexican oak-pine woodland, in relatively mature forest with substantial understorey vegetation and debris (e.g., logs, stumps), often in canyons along riparian edges of pine-oak forest, such as among horsetails near a spring in dense woodland (oak, walnut maple, sycamore, and some Douglas-fir), in thick woodland where large boulders were present with large pines, walnuts, oaks, and maples, and along a dry wooded streambed.	eng
20396	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species was only known from a few specimens from the Animas Mountains of New Mexico and the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Mexico until surveys initiated by the Arizona Game and Fish Dept in 1992 and 1993 found 30 more specimens (increasing the reported individuals known from 22 to 52) (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). This shrew may be more abundant and widespread than records suggest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). In Mexico it is known only from one specimen in Chihuahua at 2,600 m asl (Carraway, 2007).	eng
20396	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	If this species is as rare and restricted in distribution as it appears to be in some areas (e.g., Animas Mountains, New Mexico), it may be vulnerable to localized adverse habitat alterations. Potential threats include habitat alteration and degradation caused by removal of downed woody debris through understorey clearing and firewood collection; intense ground-burning fires that remove ground structure could cause local extirpations. Locally, this shrew might be threatened by livestock grazing and development of recreation sites in Arizona. However, the responses of this species to various habitat alterations and management practices are poorly known.	eng
20397	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs on more than five different sierras, two of which are protected areas (Ivan Castro pers. comm.).	eng
20397	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is restricted to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Coahuila and Nuevo León, Mexico, as well as a disjunct location in north western Coahuila. It is found from 2,400 m up to 3,700 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005; Carraway, 2007).	eng
20397	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is usually found in moist shaded areas on logs amongst the leaf litter of high elevation Douglas-fir-pine-aspen and scrub piñon pine woodlands. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
20397	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No population information is available for this species.	eng
20397	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation, mining, and overgrazing outside of the protected areas where it occurs are major threats.	eng
20411	conservation	Amori, G., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas in parts of the range. Research is required on its distribution, population status, and trends.	eng
20411	distribution	Amori, G., 2008	The Appenine shrew is endemic to the Italian peninsula. It is recorded from the Appenines to Calabria, at altitudes between 300 m and 1,160 m, but its exact distribution is poorly known (Hausser 1990, 1999, Amori and Aloise 2005).	eng
20411	habitat	Amori, G., 2008	A poorly known species. It occurs in shrubland habitat within forested areas (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006), but avoids densely forested areas (Mortelliti <em>et al.</em> 2007). Hausser (1990) describes it as being found near streams, in bogs, and in hedgerows and stone walls in damp areas.	eng
20411	population	Amori, G., 2008	It is not abundant, but it is quite widespread (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). There are no data on population trend.	eng
20411	threats	Amori, G., 2008	Pesticides and habitat destruction (through agriculture and urbanisation) are considered to be the main threats (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20416	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Wolong Nature Reserve, but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered A2c; D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
20416	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	According to Hutterer (2005) this species is known only by the holotype from northern Sichuan, China (Hutterer 2005). Smith and Xie (2008) give a distribution in central Sichuan and Guizhou. Due to this confusion, we here map it only as occuring at the type locality pending taxonomic resolution.	eng
20416	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20416	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
20416	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
20424	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<em>Sousa</em> spp. Are listed in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>For both forms, but especially the plumbea-type, conservation actions are currently either meagre or non-existent. Research is needed to help design effective conservation programmes.	eng
20424	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin is a vagrant in the European Mammal Assessment region, so there are no conservation measures for the species in this area.	eng
20424	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins of the <em>chinensis</em>-type are found in shallow, coastal waters from both east and west coasts of northern Australia and southern China in the east, through the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and westward around the coastal rim of the Bay of Bengal to at least the Orissa coast of west India (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Sutaria and Jefferson 2004). The plumbea-type is found in narrow strip of coastal waters from southwest tip of South Africa eastward around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the southeast cost of India (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002, IWC 2003).  It occurs off Madagascar, Mayotte and the Comoro Islands, in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. There is an extralimital record for Israel, in the Mediterranean Sea (an apparent stray that moved through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea: Kerem <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
20424	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<strong><em>Chinensis</em>-type</strong><br/>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins of the <em>chinensis</em>-type are found in shallow, coastal waters from the east and west coasts of northern Australia and from southern China in the east, throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago, and westward around the coastal rim of the Bay of Bengal to at least the Orissa coast of eastern India (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994; Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Sutaria and Jefferson 2004). They regularly occur in some enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of Thailand. Their distribution appears to be limited to waters of the continental shelf, and the only places where they range far offshore are those where the water remains shallow (<100 m).<br/><br/><strong><em>Plumbea</em>-type</strong><br/>The <em>plumbea</em>-type is found in a narrow strip of coastal waters from southwestern tip of South Africa eastward around the rim of the Indian Ocean to the southeastern coast of India (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Ross 2002; IWC 2003). It occurs off Madagascar, Mayotte and the Comoro Islands and around the Arabian Peninsula from the Red Sea into the Arabian (Persian) Gulf and east to Pakistan. There is an extralimital record from Israel in the Mediterranean Sea (apparently a stray that moved through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea – Kerem <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the region between northeastern India and Myanmar (Burma) <em>plumbea</em>-type and <em>chinensis</em>-type dolphins are partially sympatric.	eng
20424	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Humpback dolphins occur in tropical to warm temperate coastal waters, including open coasts and bays, coastal lagoons, rocky and/or coral reefs, mangrove swamps and estuarine areas (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002). They are rarely encountered more than a few kilometres from shore. They sometimes enter rivers, but rarely move more than a few kilometres upstream and usually remain within the range of tidal influence. <br/><br/>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins appear to be opportunistic feeders, consuming a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fishes. They also eat cephalopods in some areas, but crustaceans are rare in their diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002). <br/><br/><em>Chinensis-type</em><br/><em>Chinensis</em>-type dolphins often enter rivers, estuaries, and mangroves, preferring coasts with mangrove swamps, lagoons, and estuaries, as well as areas with reefs, sandbanks, and mudbanks (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001). In at least China and southern Asia, they are rarely found far from estuaries and mangrove habitats (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007), and they show a strong preference for river mouths in northern Australia (Parra 2006; Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006b). Aerial surveys of the Great Barrier Reef region demonstrate that humpback dolphins occur mostly close to the coast but also in offshore waters that are relatively sheltered, and near reefs or islands (Corkeron <em>et al</em>. 1997). Fine-scaled resource partitioning between humpback and Australian snubfin dolphins (<em>Orcaella heinsohni</em>) has been documented off Queensland, where the two species favour river mouths and modified habitats but the humpback dolphins occur in slightly deeper (2-5 m deep) waters (Parra 2006).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/><em>Plumbea</em>-type dolphins are usually seen within a narrow strip of shallow near-shore waters and in estuarine areas (Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001), seldom in water deeper than 20-30 m (Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 2000). Seasonality of occurrence, movements, group sizes, and reproduction has been reported in several studies (<em>e.g.</em> Durham 1994, Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 1999a, 1999b, Guissamulo 2007). The dolphins appear to be selective in their habitat choice (<em>e.g.</em> Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 2000; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dependence on shallow-water habitats as feeding grounds is often evident throughout the year (Karczmarski and Cockcroft 1999; Karczmarski <em>et al.</em> 2000), although the details of the preferred key habitats may differ between groups and locations (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001; Atkins <em>et al.</em> 2004; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
20424	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Humpback dolphins occurs in tropical to warm temperate coastal waters, including open coasts and bays, coastal lagoons, rocky and/or coral reefs, mangrove swamp and estuarine areas (Ross et at. 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002); rarely more than a few kilometers from shore.  They sometimes enter rivers, but rarely move more than a few kilometers upstream and usually within the tidal range. Their distribution appears to be limited to waters of the continental shelf, and the only places where they range far offshore are those in which the water is shallow (<100m). They appear to be opportunistic feeders, feeding on a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fish. They also eat cephalopods in some areas, but crustaceans are rare in the diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002).	eng
20424	population	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<em>Chinensis-type</em><br/>Studies have been carried out in only a few parts of the <em>chinensis</em>-type’s range, and there is no overall estimate of total population size. Certain subpopulations are thought to be depleted, mostly by habitat destruction/degradation and bycatch in fisheries. Most abundance estimates have been less than a few hundred dolphins, but there appear to be at least 1,200 animals (CVs range from 17-119%) in the Pearl River Estuary of southern China, adjacent to and including Hong Kong and Macau (Jefferson 2000, Jefferson 2005). The Pearl River Estuary population is the only one for this geographic form with quantitative data on population trends, and despite the heavy development in the area and numerous threats, the population has shown no evidence of significant decline in the last 11 years (Jefferson 2005). <br/><br/>Other places where abundance has been estimated are Xiamen, with an estimate of 80 (CV=1.08 - Jefferson and Hung 2004), and eastern Taiwan Strait, which is thought to have a population of only about 99 individuals (CV=52% Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007). Declines have been inferred in both of these areas, based on qualitative environmental information. An estimated 237 (95% CI = 189-318) humpback dolphins inhabit waters around the Leizhou Peninsula, southern China (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2007). Data on the status of humpback dolphins in Australia are scarce, but by analogy with sympatric (and better-studied) dugongs (<em>Dugong</em> <em>dugon</em>), Corkeron <em>et al</em>. (1997) suggested that they were in decline there. The only statistically defensible estimates for Australian waters are of 34-54 (CVs=13-27%) in Cleveland Bay, Queensland (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006a), and 119-163 (95% CIs = 81-251) in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Corkeron <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/>As in the case of the <em>chinensis</em>-type, there is no overall estimate of total population size for <em>plumbea</em>-type dolphins. All available subpopulation estimates are in low tens to low hundreds: ~ 450 dolphins (95% CIs = 447-485) in the Algoa Bay region, Eastern Cape coast of South Africa (Karczmarski <em>et al</em>. 1999a), 170-244 in the Richard’s Bay region on the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa (Atkins and Atkins 2002), 105 (95% CIs = 30-151) in Maputo Bay, Mozambique (Guissamulo and Cockcroft 2004), ~ 60 dolphins in Bazaruto Archipelago, Mozambique (Guissamulo and Cockcroft 1997) and 58-65 (95% CIs = 56-102) off Zanzibar (Stensland <em>et al</em>. 2006). Quantitative trend data are not available anywhere in the <em>plumbea</em>-type’s range, but there are indications that some subpopulations have declined in numbers in recent years. For instance, the numbers in the Bazaruto Archipelago decreased from ~ 60 in 1992 (Guissamulo 1993) to probably fewer than 30 in 2003, along with considerable deterioration of the shallow-water habitat across the archipelago (Guissamulo and Karczmarski pers. comm.). Mortality in anti-shark nets off the KwaZulu-Natal coast in the late 1980s was estimated to likely exceed the dolphins’ replacement rate (Cockcroft 1990), but there is no more recent information from that area. Mixing among neighbouring populations is uncertain, although in South Africa none was documented between groups inhabiting locations 800 km apart. Quantitative data are limited, but there are indications that the distribution is discontinuous elsewhere in the <em>plumbea</em>-type’s range, with fragmented and likely discrete populations (<em>e.g.</em>. Karczmarski 2000, Baldwin <em>et al</em>. 2004, A.T. Guissamulo pers. comm., V.G. Cockcroft pers. comm.).	eng
20424	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There has only been a single sighting of this species in the European Mammal Assessment area (Kerem <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
20424	threats	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Most humpback dolphins inhabit coastal or estuarine waters of developing nations, <em>i.e.</em> countries with limited resources and means for environmental protection. Range-wide incidental mortality in fishing gear and habitat degradation and loss represent the greatest threats to this species throughout its range (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001). <br/><br/><em>Chinensis-type</em><br/><em>Chinensis</em>-type dolphins are not known to be hunted directly in significant numbers anywhere in their range. However, they are often caught in fishing nets, such as gillnets and trawls, and in anti-shark nets set to protect bathing beaches from large sharks along the coasts of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia (Heinsohn 1979, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Parra <em>et al.</em> 2004). Accurate catch data for humpback dolphins in the Australian nets are unavailable, but kills in anti-shark nets off Queensland are high relative to estimated abundance (Paterson 1990, Corkeron <em>et al.</em> 1997). The greatest direct sources of human-caused dolphin mortality in Hong Kong appear to be incidental catches in fishing gear (most likely pair trawls) and vessel collisions (Jefferson 2000, Parsons and Jefferson 2000). Between 1993 and 1998, at least 3 humpback dolphins were killed by boat strikes and another death was suspected of being caused by a boat strike. This represented 14% of all documented humpback dolphin strandings in Hong Kong during that period (Parsons and Jefferson 2000).<br/><br/>Concentrations of organochlorines in cetaceans from Hong Kong coastal waters are significantly higher than those found in cetaceans in other parts of the world (Parsons and Chan 1998, Minh <em>et al.</em> 1999) and it has been suggested that the reproductive success of Hong Kong’s humpback dolphins (including neonatal survival) is being affected (Parsons 2004; Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Hong Kong, high volumes of sewage discharge and the close proximity of contaminated mud pits means that there is considerable potential for trace metal contamination of local dolphins (Parsons 1997). Indeed, mercury concentrations in the tissues of Hong Kong humpback dolphins were found to be an order of magnitude higher than in prey items and in some cases, were high enough (max: 906 µg kg-1 dry weight) to be considered potentially health-threatening (Parsons 2004). Hong Kong discharges over 2 billion litres of sewage into the surrounding waters daily. Parsons (1997) estimated that a humpback dolphin’s minimum daily intake of sewage bacteria through ingestion of contaminated seawater could be up to 70,500 faecal coliforms. To put this in context, a one-off ingestion rate of 200-300 coliforms is considered unacceptable for humans (Parsons 2004). <br/><br/>The disposal of contaminated mud from Hong Kong's dredging and reclamation projects poses an indirect risk to humpback dolphins via their consumption of contaminated prey (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2000). Humpback dolphins inhabit the waters of several coastal ports in Asia that host large volumes of ship traffic, such as Shanghai, Singapore and Hong Kong. Therefore, it is likely that they are highly contaminated with butyltin (BT) (see Tanabe <em>et al.</em> 1998, Tanabe 1999; Parsons 2004). <br/><br/>Underwater industrial activity, such as pile-driving during pier and bridge construction, are likely to cause acoustic disturbance (<em>e.g.</em> the development of Hong Kong’s new airport). Boat traffic also might interfere with the dolphin’s acoustic communication (Van Parijs <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Plumbea-type</em><br/>Their near-shore distribution and preference for shallow-water habitats make these dolphins particularly susceptible to the effects of human activities in the coastal zone – all similar to what is described above for <em>chinensis</em>-type animals. Habitat loss (through alteration or destruction of inshore environments) and incidental mortality in fishing gear are among the greatest threats (<em>e.g.</em> Baldwin <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cockcroft and Krohn 1994; Guissamulo 1993; 2007; Karczmarski 2000; 2002; Keith <em>et al.</em> 2002; Rozafindrakoto <em>et al.</em> 2004; Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006). Deliberate killing for human consumption is known to occur in Africa and Madagascar, and at least in some areas human-caused mortality (deliberate and incidental) is likely to be close to, or even exceed, the dolphins’ reproductive rate. Other threats include coastal and offshore development, oil and gas exploration, pollution, and boat traffic (<em>e.g.</em> Karczmarski 2000, Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Oil-related deaths of dolphins have been reported from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1999). Where investigated, tissue concentrations of organochlorines and other pollutants have been high (among the highest of all marine mammal species in the region), causing concern that the reproductive potential of adults and survival of neonates might be impaired (Cockcroft 1999). Behavioural responsiveness to boat harassment has been recorded in several locations (Karczmarski <em>et al.</em> 1998, Karczmarski 2002, Stensland <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
20424	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The majority of humpback dolphins inhabit coastal or estuarine waters of developing nations, countries with limited resources and means for environmental protection.  Habitat degradation and habitat loss, and incidental mortality in fishing gear represent the greatest threats to this species (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001).	eng
20425	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES and Appendix II of CMS. <br/><br/>These dolphins are a high priority for research and conservation because of their restricted and apparently fragmented range, narrow ecological niche, apparently low numbers, and continuing threats (IWC 2003, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003, Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
20425	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The Atlantic humpback dolphin is endemic to the eastern tropical Atlantic, where it is limited to coastal and inshore waters (Ross 2002; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2004). It occurs in nearshore waters off tropical to subtropical West Africa, from Morocco south to at least southern Angola (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1998, Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
20425	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Atlantic humpback dolphins are found primarily in estuarine and shallow (< 20 m) coastal waters with soft sediment bottoms (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). They have been observed as far as about 50 km up the Saloum River and are known to enter the Niger and Bandiala rivers, but they rarely travel far upstream and usually remain within the range of tidal influence (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is no evidence to suggest the existence of separate freshwater subpopulations. In at least some areas (<em>e.g.</em>, Gabon and Mauritania), these dolphins occur in the surf zone just offshore of the breakers (Busnel 1973; Tim Collins pers. comm. to T. Jefferson, 2007). There are no reports from offshore waters. Among the features that have been described as aspects of preferred habitat are proximity to sandbanks, brackish, mangrove-lined estuaries, and turbid waters with temperatures ranging between 17°C and 28°C (Maigret 1980, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>There is little information on the diet of Atlantic humpback dolphins. They appear to feed on nearshore schooling fishes such as mullet (<em>Mugil</em> spp.) and, contrary to some descriptions, are not thought to eat vegetable matter (see Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). tomach contents have included grunts (<em>Pristipoma jubelini</em>) and bongo fish (<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em>) (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
20425	population	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Little information on population size is available, as this is one of the least-known delphinids. Although there has been no assessment in most areas of their overall range, the population of Atlantic humpback dolphins appears fragmented, with subpopulations separated by areas of low or zero density (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2004). Eight “management stocks” have been provisionally identified. Six of them are identified on the basis of “sightings, or other contemporary records, clustered around a confirmed habitat” (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004) – Dahkla Bay, Banc d’Arguin, Saloum-Niumi, Canal do Gêba-Bijagos, South Guinea, and Angola. The other two – Cameroon Estuary and Gabon – are based on “historical evidence.” The continued presence of humpback dolphins in the Estuaire de Gabon was recently confirmed (Tim Collins pers. comm. to R. Reeves, 8 January 2008). A ninth management stock is suspected to exist off western Togo (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Rough “estimates” for the Saloum River delta, Senegal, were 100 animals, and there were thought to be at least several hundred in Guinea Bissau several decades ago (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Reyes 1991). A small group of at least 20 dolphins resides in the Rio Grande de Buba (a fjord-like sea arm rather than a river) and upstream to the confluence of the Rio Sahol (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although the species often has been reported as common (Reyes 1991, Culik 2004), there are no other numerical data on abundance. Considering the relatively small numbers observed, and even taking account of the many areas of the species’ range where there has been little or no assessment, the total population probably numbers only a few thousand.	eng
20425	threats	Reeves, R.R., Collins, T., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Incidental mortality in fishing nets and lines is known from at least Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea Bissau (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although such mortality has not been assessed properly anywhere in the species’ range, it probably occurs in most or all areas and is considered the most serious immediate threat to the species. <br/><br/>Some Atlantic humpback dolphins are probably taken directly for food by local people (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fishing communities of Joal and Fadiouth in Senegal have a tradition of hunting cetaceans, and others in the Petite Côte were known to hunt dolphins until at least 1996 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). Past and present levels of these captures, and their potential impacts on subpopulations, remain unknown (Reyes 1991). The most recently documented interaction in Senegal was in November 1996, when three dolphins were found together, each with a piece of netting tied around the tailstock on a beach of Sangomar Island in the Saloum delta (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction, boat strikes, and environmental contamination are additional potential threats, although generally little is known about them. In Senegal there has been a permanent reduction of mangrove areas to facilitate the extension of rice culture and exploitation of forests, especially in the Fathala area. Habitat destruction and degradation may be significant factors affecting the species’ status given its nearshore distribution and the high human population densities, associated with agricultural and industrial development, in some areas. These problems will contribute to fragmentation of the dolphin population. Offshore oil exploration and development are underway in at least Gabon and Angola. Excessive fishing of neritic fish stocks in parts of West Africa also may have reduced food availability for these dolphins (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
20427	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
20427	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occurs in Chile, to the west of the Andes between 27° and 36°SS (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found in both Andean and coastal areas.	eng
20427	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species occupies a wide range of habitats (Lessa pers. comm.). These  range from alpine grasslands in the Andes to acacia savanna in the Intermediate Depression and stabilized sand dunes and snady grasslands on the coast (Torres-Mura and Contreras, 1998). It is fossorial and colonial (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
20427	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is abundant with large populations (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
20427	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	In the Red List of Chilean Terrestrial Vertebrates is classified as Endangered (CONAF, 1993). The habitats that this species inhabit are under threat from deforestation and over grazing by domesticated mammals.	eng
20428	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The species occurs within a protected area, but this does not cover all of the population. It is listed in Ukraine's Red Data Book as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population), and therefore it has legal protection at the national level.	eng
20428	conservation	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The species occurs within a protected area, but this does not cover all of the population. It is listed in Ukraine's Red Data Book as category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population), and therefore it has legal protection at the national level.	eng
20428	distribution	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	An endemic species of southern Ukraine, found only on the lower Dnepr sands. Its extent of occurrence is c. 2000 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of occupancy is about 55 km<sup>2</sup>. The main part of the population lies within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the reserve it occurs in fragments of poor quality habitat near the Lower Dnepr River sands. Those parts of the range are very fragmented.	eng
20428	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Endemic species of southern Ukraine, found only on the lower Dnepr sands. Its extent of occurrence is c. 2000 km<sup>2</sup>, and its area of accupancy is about 55 km<sup>2</sup>. The main part of the population lies within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the reserve it occurs in fragments of poor quality habitat near the Lower Dnepr River sands. Those parts of the range are very fragmented.	eng
20428	habitat	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	A stenotopic species, it inhabits light, moderately wet sandy soils with low subterranean waters. Never occurs in moving sands, alkali soils and in dry feather-grass steppes. It prefers absinth-grass and absinth-spurge steppes with very sparse vegetation. Its ecology is poorly studied. A solitary species; individual range is more than 80 m<sup>2</sup>. It feeds on most plants that are abundant in its range (<em>Eryngium campestre</em>, <em>Artemisia campestris</em>, <em>Tragopogon ucrainicum</em> etc.). It reproduces once a year, with copulation occurring in March and birth in April-May. Lactation period is about a month.	eng
20428	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Stenotopic, inhbits light, moderately wet sandy soils with low subterranean waters. Never occurs in moving sands, alkali soils and in dry feather-grass steppes. Preferres absinth-grass and absinth-spurge steppes with very sparse vegetation. Ecology is poorly studied. Solitary, individual range is more than 80 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds on most plants that are abundant in its range (<em>Eryngium campestre</em>, <em>Artemisia campestris</em>, <em>Tragopogon ucrainicum</em> etc.). Reproduces once a year. Copulation occurs in March, birth in April-May. Lactation period is about a month.	eng
20428	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The population is stable only in Black Sea State Reserve. In other areas the population is declining because of afforestation of the sands (for stabilisation of the sands and wood production).	eng
20428	population	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The population is stable only in Black Sea State Reserve. In other areas the population is declining because of afforestation of the sands (for stabilisation of the sands and wood production).	eng
20428	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Habitat loss due to afforestation of the sands.	eng
20428	threats	Tsytsulina, K. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to afforestation of the sands.	eng
20429	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation in Category 3 (rare species). It occurs in reserves in Chechen Republic and Dagestan (Russia). Limitation of irrigation and grazing have been proposed as conservation measures.	eng
20429	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It occurs in CIS-Caucasia and southernmost Kalmykia (Russia). Within the range it is distributed very patchily, as separate settlements that often occur in sandy areas.	eng
20429	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits loamy and sandy semi-deserts in NE CIS-Caucasia. Prefers moderately moist areas with light soils in river valleys, lake basins and lowlands with luxuriant vegetation. Also occurs in semi-deserts with shrubs and reed, herb-grasses and herb-absinth steppes. Also found in anthropogenic landscapes such as orchards and fields, where it may be a pest. Obligatory subterranean, feeds on subterranean plant parts. Active throughout the year. Generally monogamous. Heat occurs in December-January, females give birth to 2-3 young.	eng
20429	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	It is declining in some parts of the range due to human impacts, although in other parts of the range populations are considered stable. Almost extinct in Chechen Republic (Russia) and parts of Dagestan (Russia). Does not undergo periodical fluctuations. Data on population size are limited and somewhat contradictory. According to data for the beginning of 1980s in Dagestan there were about 700-750 individuals (Red Data Book of Russian Federation 1983). However, a later aerial survey showed that the population was about 10,000 individuals.	eng
20429	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Habitat loss due to irrigation and subsequent soil salinization, overgrazing, and ploughing. Low reproductive potential is a further limiting factor.	eng
20430	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Locally protected in a number of State Reserves and national parks.	eng
20430	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in steppes and forest-steppes in Ukraine and S Russia between Dnepr and Volga Rivers, north to Orel-Kursk line, and south to Ciscaucasia (Gromov and Erbaeva 1995). In Crimea most probably absent since the Pleistocene. During Holocene the northern border of the range has moved significantly southward, leaving behind isolated relict populations, for example in Samarskaya Luka (Samara District, Russia).	eng
20430	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Obligatory subterranean species. Inhabits steppes; prefers lowlands with black earth and avoids loamy and sandy soils. Inhabits crop fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards and forest belts. Feeds on underground parts of dandelion, cow parsnip, chicory and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia). Makes hoards for winter, sometimes up to 10-14 kg. Breeds once a year, females give birth in March to 2-5 young. During dispersal juveniles emerge above ground and often fall prey to carnivorous mammals and birds. A significant pest in southern parts of the range.	eng
20430	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	A common species. In historical times in some parts of the range it became rare or even extinct, but elsewhere extended its extent of occurrence. In the northern part of the range and the Volga Region is occurs in small isolated populations and is considered rare. These populations are threatened by habitat loss (ploughing of major habitats). In the southern part of the range (Stavropol Region) in the 1950s, population and range declines occurred because of ploughing. Population density differs significantly in different parts of the range. Maximum densities are found in Central Black Earth Region (Russia) adjacent Ukrainian territories. Population density there is on average 3-10 individuals per hectare, however, locally it could reach up to 20. In the southern part of the range the density may be lower, as the arid climate of the steppes is less favourable. Populations are stable and do not undergone periodical fluctuations.	eng
20430	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Ploughing of major habitats and use of toxic chemicals for pest control.	eng
20431	conservation	Zagorodnyuk, I. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on the Romanian and Ukrainian national Red Lists. A small reserve has been proposed in Transylvania to protect several species of plant and also, incidentally, <em>Spalax</em> (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006). Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures for this little-known species.	eng
20431	distribution	Zagorodnyuk, I. & Coroiu, I., 2008	The Balkan mole rat is a European endemic, known only from a small number of sites in Romania (Suceava, Craiova, Transylvania, and the lower Danube), south-eastern Ukraine (Cernovcy), and Moldova (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999). Its range is very fragmented. It occurs in lowland and upland areas. In the Ukraine, the species has not been recorded over the last 20-40 years and it may be severely reduced, or already extinct there (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20431	habitat	Zagorodnyuk, I. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It inhabits steppe grassland, pastures, small cultivated fields and orchards, often preferring northern exposures (Kryštufek 1999, B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). Very arid areas are avoided (Nowak 1999). Individuals aggregate in winter but disperse in summer (Kryštufek 1999).  The mole-rat is a fossorial species, digging extensive and elaborate tunnel systems with nesting chambers, storerooms and latrines (Nowak 1999). It feeds on bulbs, roots, tubers, and other underground parts of a range of plants (Nowak 1999). Mole-rats of the genus <em>Spalax</em> can be distinguished from all other rodents by the lack of any external openings for the eyes, although small eyes are present under the skin (Nowak 1999).	eng
20431	population	Zagorodnyuk, I. & Coroiu, I., 2008	It has a small and fragmented range, within which it occurs at densities of ca.1-3 individuals per hectare (although densities of up to 23 individuals per hectare have been recorded) (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek 1999). The current population trend is unknown, although declines can be assumed to have occurred in Ukraine in the relatively recent past.	eng
20431	threats	Zagorodnyuk, I. & Coroiu, I., 2008	Its congener <em>Spalax leucodon </em>is threatened by agricultural intensification, as it cannot survive in intensively-farmed arable land. <em>Spalax graecus</em> may be similarly vulnerable to intensive agriculture. Subsistence agriculture continues in Transylvania, and the mole rat population appears to be stable there (I. Coroiu pers. comm. 2006), at least for the time being. However, accession of Romania to the EU might be expected to result in agricultural intensification in the near future.	eng
20442	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
20442	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries. Tanzania (18 sites), Burundi (5-8 sites), DRC (25+ sites) and Zambia (5-8 sites).	eng
20442	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found on hard substrates bearing algae, including cobbles, boulders, the bases of reeds and piers in shallow depths, 0-3 m. Most common in splash zone.	eng
20442	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is common in very limited habitat at waters edge, 0.5 m.	eng
20442	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Water pollution, agriculture, sedimentation, deforestation and erosion threaten this species.	eng
20451	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	Originally, the amphipod probably ranged throughout the available subterranean spaces in the Koloa Lava Flow, which covers the lowlands on the southeastern portion of Kauai, Hawaiian Islands, as well as in a limestone cave about five kilometers away from the lava tubes sitting on top of the flow.  Subsequent ash deposits and erosion have filled the voids in the upslope portion above about 200 feet elevation, so that the historic range was probably about 15 square kilometers.  Recent land surface modifications for agriculture, urbanization, and recreation have destroyed more than one half of the historic habitat, including the population in the limestone cave.  The current confirmed range (i.e., the area between the known caves) is less than 2,000 acres, but suitable habitat is probably larger.  These animals are currently known only from a single exposed lava flow which covers approximately 10.5 square kilometers, and exhibits no covering by erosional sediments.	eng
20451	habitat	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	The Kauai cave amphipod is restricted to the dark, moist areas of larger caverns and smaller subterranean spaces or mesocaverns <br/> <br/>These animals are  blind, pale, cave adapted crustaceans. It is a detritivore (feeds on organic debris from decomposing plants, animals, and fecal material) and has been observed feeding on rotting roots, sticks, branches, and other plant material washed into the caves; and arthropod fecal material.  In large cave passages, most individuals are found on or underneath roots or rotting debris.	eng
20453	distribution	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	Known only from Walsingham and Bee Pit Caves in Hamilton Parish, Bermuda.	eng
20453	habitat	Iliffe, T.M., 1996	A marine species, found in limestone cave pools in 0-4 m depths and on submerged soil slopes at 0-1m depths.	eng
20454	conservation	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is present in Parco Nazionale delle Cinque Terre and Parco Naturale delle Alpi Apuane. The species has a very restricted range and needs further conservation attention. Prior to being considered a separate species <em>S. ambrosii</em> was listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention under <em>S. italicus</em>. It is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
20454	distribution	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to scattered localities (at least 12 localities are known) in La Spezia Province, north-west Italy. The populations east of the Fiume River around Massa Carrara belong to a recently discovered subspecies, <em>Speleomantes ambrosii bianchii</em>. Genetic research indicates that this subspecies may actually belong to <em>S. italicus</em> rather than <em>S. ambrosii</em> (Carranza <em>et al</em>. 2007). There is an introduced population in Monteviggioni (Siena, Tuscany). It is found at altitudes ranging from near sea level to around 2,300m asl.	eng
20454	habitat	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is known from humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. Individuals may occasionally be found climbing in vegetation. The species reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20454	population	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is generally common within its limited range, with no evidence of any decline.	eng
20454	threats	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Threats to this species include general localized loss of suitable habitat and illegal collection.	eng
20455	conservation	Roberta Lecis, Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Directive. It has been recorded from the Parco Geominerario, Storico ed Ambientale della Sardegna. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
20455	distribution	Roberta Lecis, Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Monte Albo chain of north-eastern Sardinia (Italy). It has been collected between 40m and 1,050m asl.	eng
20455	habitat	Roberta Lecis, Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is found in damp mountain regions, rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. The preferred habitat often has a good covering of damp moss. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20455	population	Roberta Lecis, Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is locally common within its limited range; there are no reports of any major declines.	eng
20455	threats	Roberta Lecis, Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There are no threats identified other than some localized loss of habitat and illegal collection. However, these threats are limited, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
20456	conservation	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in at least four protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
20456	distribution	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the region of Sulcis-Iglesiente in south-western Sardinia (Italy). It has been collected between altitudes of 8 and 650m asl.	eng
20456	habitat	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. The species reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20456	population	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is generally common within its limited range, being only relatively uncommon within the Carbonia-Barbusi-Monte Tasua area (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
20456	threats	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The major threat is general deforestation of suitable habitat, mineral extraction, urbanization, and over-collection of specimens, presumably for scientific purposes.	eng
20457	conservation	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It has been recorded from Parco Nazionale Gennargentu e Golfo di Orosei and Parco Naturale Regionale del Monte Sette Fratelli, and it is likely to occur in Parco Naturale Regionala della Giara di Gesturi. This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
20457	distribution	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the provinces of Nuoro, Oristano and Cagliari in central and eastern Sardinia, Italy. The populations in the Sette Fratelli Mountains east of Cagliari are now considered to be a separate species, <em>Speleomantes sarrabusensis</em>. It is found at altitudes between 7 and 1,170m asl.	eng
20457	habitat	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found in humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20457	population	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is common within its limited range (Gasc <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1997).	eng
20457	threats	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There are no major threats identified other than general localized habitat loss and illegal collection.	eng
20458	conservation	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is present in some protected areas (Natura 2000 sites and regional and national parks). It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
20458	distribution	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is a northern and central Apennine endemic, ranging from the provinces of Reggio Emilia (Emilia-Romagna) and Lucca (Tuscany) southwards to the province of Pescara (Abruzzi) inclusive (Lanza <em>et al</em>. 2007; Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs from 80 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
20458	habitat	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is known from humid rocky outcrops, caves, crevices, and forested areas in the vicinity of streams, often in limestone areas. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20458	population	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is common over much of its range, although it is considered to be less abundant in the southernmost part of its range. There is no evidence of any population decline taking place.	eng
20458	threats	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There are no major threats identified other than some localized habitat loss and illegal collection.	eng
20459	conservation	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and it is also listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The species has been recorded from Parco Nazionale Gennargentu e Golfo di Orosei. Further research into the threats leading to the recent apparent declines in this species is needed.	eng
20459	distribution	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is endemic to central-eastern Sardinia around the Gulf of Orosei, occurring roughly between the valley of the Cedrino River and 40°N (in the province of Nuoro; Gasc 1997). It is found at altitudes between 100 and 1,400m asl.	eng
20459	habitat	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is found in humid rocky outcrops, limestone caves, crevices, and forested areas with a good growth of moss in the vicinity of streams. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
20459	population	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Although the species has often been considered to be common, and even abundant, within suitable habitat (with recorded densities of as much as 300 animals per ha in some areas; Vosenek, van Rooy and Strijbosch 1987), it recently appears to have undergone a decline and has become more difficult to observe in its limited range (R. Lecis pers. comm.)	eng
20459	threats	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is generally threatened by localized habitat loss and illegal collection.	eng
20467	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.	eng
20468	conservation	Zuercher, G.L., Swarner, M., Silveira, L. & Carrillo, O., 2008	Included in CITES – Appendix I. Occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/>Hunting is prohibited in Colombia (Law Number 848:1973), Ecuador (Law Number 74:1981), French Guiana (Law Number JO19860625:1986), Panama (Law Number 2-80:1980), Paraguay (Law Number 18796:1975) and Peru (Law Number 5056:1970). Hunting and trade is regulated in Argentina (Law Number 22.421:1981), Bolivia (Law Number 12301:1975), Brazil (Law Number 5197:191967), and Venezuela (Law Number 276:1970). There is no Information for Guyana and Suriname.<br/><br/>Bush Dogs do occur in captivity and are breeding successfully. No known attempts at reintroduction.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>The distribution of bush dogs should be re-evaluated. There are no population estimates or demographic data for bush dogs in any of their range countries. Our understanding of dietary habits is based mostly on anecdotal information and does not address seasonal or geographic variation. Habitat associations are not clearly understood – the species was once thought to be dependent on forests but is now regularly observed in open habitats. The impact of disease, both historically and currently, is unclear (this is especially true for diseases introduced by domestic animals). Accepted ideas of behaviour and social structure, obtained from captive animals, have not yet been verified in wild populations. Interspecific relationships with sympatric carnivores need to be further evaluated.	eng
20468	distribution	Zuercher, G.L., Swarner, M., Silveira, L. & Carrillo, O., 2008	This species occurs from extreme eastern Central America and northern South America, south to Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina. Isolated subpopulations may also still occur in Ecuador and Colombia, west of the Andes. Their historical distribution may have extended as far north as Costa Rica (de la Rosa and Nocke 2000), where the species may still survive in suitable habitat.	eng
20468	habitat	Zuercher, G.L., Swarner, M., Silveira, L. & Carrillo, O., 2008	Bush Dogs are reported to be a habitat generalist by indigenous peoples, within the context of occurring generally near water sources, particularly small streams, and near available prey populations, especially Agouti paca (O. Carrillo and M. Swarner, pers. obs.). Bush Dogs have been observed in lowland (below 1,500 m) forested habitats including primary and gallery forest (Defler 1986), semi-deciduous forest, and seasonally flooded forest (Aquino and Puertas 1997). Observations have also been recorded from cerrado habitat in Brazil (Silveira <em>et al.</em> 1998; C. Brady pers. comm.) and Paraguay (Zuercher and Villalba 2002) and pampas (wet savanna) edge/riparian areas (Strahl <em>et al</em>. 1992; Emmons 1998). In some cases, they have been observed several kilometres from forest habitat (Silveira <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is also occasionally reported from secondary forest, ranchland (M. Swarner, pers. obs.) and fragmented cerrado ranchland (L. Silveira and A. Jácomo pers. comm.).	eng
20468	population	Zuercher, G.L., Swarner, M., Silveira, L. & Carrillo, O., 2008	Despite its large distributional range and occurrence in a variety of habitats (i.e., cerrado and rainforest), the species seems to be naturally rare throughout its range, and is seldom recorded even using newer non-invasive techniques such as camera-traps. There are no published density estimates of Bush Dogs, but they are believed to occur at exceptionally low densities. For example, based on track records, Beisiegel and Ades (2004) recorded the minimum home range for a group as ca. 1,600 ha; a very rough density estimate based on their data would be around 0.04 individuals/km² (B. Beisiegel pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Another group of bush dogs, radio-tracked for one year (2004/2005) in an area of cerrado in Nova Xavantina (south eastern part of the state of Mato Grosso), used a home range of 145 km² (Kernell, 95%). The group was formed by a pair of adults (male and female) and a variable number of juveniles and pups (2-4 individuals). Considering an average of 4 individuals for the total area, yields a density of 0.03 individuals/km² (E.S. Lima, K. DeMatteo, S. Klorfine, R.S.P Jorge, H.S. Lima and J.C. Dalponte in prep.).	eng
20468	threats	Zuercher, G.L., Swarner, M., Silveira, L. & Carrillo, O., 2008	The only serious perceived threat is from habitat conversion and human encroachment.	eng
20471	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into harvest levels for this species.	eng
20471	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is generally widespread in Central Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, northeastern Iran and northwestern Afghanistan (Thorington and Hoffman 2005). In Afghanistan it has been recorded up to 1,000 m asl (Habibi 2003; Habibi 2004).	eng
20471	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is generally associated with sandy desert habitats (such as sand dunes [Shenbrot 1992]) and steppes, where it forms burrows often located in areas of brush. In northern Afghanistan, it has been recorded from clay and loess substrates (Habibi 2004). It is not usually found in cultivated areas, although it can damage plantings made within its arid environment.	eng
20471	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is known to live in small family groups.	eng
20471	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is reportedly hunted for fur in parts of its range, however, Habibi (2004) reports that it 'does not seem to be taken by fur hunters in Afghanistan and is therefore it is likely that it is found in relatively stable numbers'. Additional information on levels of exploitation are needed for this species.	eng
20472	conservation	Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures. In 2005, the species was reintroduced to Poland by the NGO Salamandra, and animals survived the first winter hibernation (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In 2006 a project was initiated to reintroduce the species to Germany (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20472	conservation	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Research is needed to determine population status and trends, ecological requirements, potential threats, and appropriate conservation measures. In 2005, the species was reintroduced to Poland by the NGO Salamandra, and animals survived the first winter hibernation (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In 2006 a project was initiated to reintroduce the species to Germany (H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20472	distribution	Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The European souslik is endemic to central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs at altitudes of 0-2,500 m. Its range is divided in two by the Carpathian mountains. The north-western portion extends through the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern portion extends from southern Serbia, Macedonia and Greece through Bulgaria and southern Romania to Turkish Thrace, Moldova and Ukraine (Panteleyev 1998, Kryštufek 1999).	eng
20472	distribution	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The European souslik is endemic to central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs at altitudes of 0-2,500 m. Its range is divided in two by the Carpathian mountains. The north-western portion extends through the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Serbia and Montenegro, and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern portion extends from southern Serbia, Macedonia and Greece through Bulgaria and southern Romania to Turkish Thrace, Moldova and Ukraine (Panteleyev 1998, Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
20472	habitat	Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The European souslik has quite specific habitat requirements. It is restricted to short-grass steppe and similar artificial habitats (pastures, lawns, sports fields, golf courses) on light, well-drained soils, where it can excavate its burrows (Kryštufek 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It avoids cultivated land, with the exception of vineyards in some parts of its range (Spitzenberger 2002). It has an omnivorous diet including seeds, roots, shoots, flowers, and arthropods (Nowak 1999, Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20472	habitat	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The European souslik has quite specific habitat requirements. It is restricted to short-grass steppe and similar artificial habitats (pastures, lawns, sports fields, golf courses) on light, well-drained soils, where it can excavate its burrows (Kry?tufek 1999, Spitzenberger 2002). It avoids cultivated land, with the exception of vineyards in some parts of its range (Spitzenberger 2002). It has an omnivorous diet including seeds, roots, shoots, flowers, and arthropods (Nowak 1999, Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20472	population	Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The European souslik is currently in serious decline. Its population has become fragmented, and extinctions have occurred in peripheral parts of its range in Germany (where it went extinct c.1985 because of forestry) and Poland (where the last definite autochthonous records date from the 1970s, although the species has recently been reintroduced (Kryštufek 1999, H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006, A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). Although there are still some large and apparently stable subpopulations, there have been many reports of declines, especially in the north-western part of its range; it is also declining in the southern part of the range. In optimal habitat, densities of 18-48 individuals per hectare have been recorded, although lower figures of 5-14 individuals per hectare are also reported (Kryštufek 1999). In Romania, the population has been estimated at c.15,000 (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of Dobrudja (Romania and Bulgaria) populations may have stabilised and started to increase since 1989, as a result of abandonment of intensive agriculture following the fall of the communist regime (I. Coroiu and D. Murariu pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, populations of two subspecies <em>macedonicus</em> and <em>graolojenici</em>) have been lost (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there were 83 known localities in 1995, but by 2000-2001 only 26 of them still existed (Cepáková and Hulová 2002). Since 2001, there has been regular monitoring of <em>S. citellus</em>. Five new sites have been found, six colonies have disappeared, one was re-established due to reintroduction and one site has been naturally colonized following conservation  management. Fluctuation or stagnation of abundance has been observed at eleven sites, numbers of sousliks have steadily decreased at seven sites, and only in five colonies have populations increased. In 2006 the total number of <em>S. citellus</em> living in the Czech Republic was estimated at 2,750 (J. Mateju unpublished data).	eng
20472	population	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The European souslik is currently in serious decline. Its population has become fragmented, and extinctions have occurred in peripheral parts of its range in Germany (where it went extinct c.1985 because of forestry) and Poland (where the last definite autochthonous records date from the 1970s, although the species has recently been reintroduced (Kry?tufek 1999, H. Meinig pers. comm. 2006, A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). Although there are still some large and apparently stable subpopulations, there have been many reports of declines, especially in the north-western part of its range; it is also declining in the southern part of the range. In optimal habitat, densities of 18-48 individuals per hectare have been recorded, although lower figures of 5-14 individuals per hectare are also reported (Kry?tufek 1999). In Romania, the population has been estimated at c.15,000 (Botnariuc and Tatole 2005). In parts of Dobrudja (Romania and Bulgaria) populations may have stabilised and started to increase since 1989, as a result of abandonment of intensive agriculture following the fall of the communist regime (I. Coroiu and D. Murariu pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, populations of two subspecies <em>macedonicus</em> and <em>graolojenici</em>) have been lost (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there were 83 known localities in 1995, but by 2000-2001 only 26 of them still existed (Cepáková and Hulová 2002). Since 2001, there has been regular monitoring of <em>S. citellus</em>. Five new sites have been found, six colonies have disappeared, one was re-established due to reintroduction and one site has been naturally colonized following conservation  management. Fluctuation or stagnation of abundance has been observed at eleven sites, numbers of sousliks have steadily decreased at seven sites, and only in five colonies have populations increased. In 2006 the total number of <em>S. citellus</em> living in the Czech Republic was estimated at 2,750 (J. Mateju unpublished data).	eng
20472	threats	Coroiu, C., Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Zagorodnyuk, I., 2008	The main threats to this species are the conversion of steppe-grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or forestry, and the abandonment of pasture and its subsequent reversion to tall-grass meadows or scrubby habitats which are not suitable for the souslik (Kryštufek 1999). In Austria it is therefore largely restricted to vineyards, airstrips, golflinks, sport- and camping grounds and other frequently mown lawns where it is completely dependent on the toleration of the owners (Spitzenberger 2002). Although not a major threat, some Gypsy communities in central and eastern Europe still catch sousliks for use as a traditional meal (J. Mateju pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20472	threats	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	The main threats to this species are the conversion of steppe-grassland and pasture to cultivated fields or forestry, and the abandonment of pasture and its subsequent reversion to tall-grass meadows or scrubby habitats which are not suitable for the souslik (Kry?tufek 1999). In Austria it is therefore largely restricted to vineyards, airstrips, golflinks, sport- and camping grounds and other frequently mown lawns where it is completely dependent on the toleration of the owners (Spitzenberger 2002). Although not a major threat, some Gypsy communities in central and eastern Europe still catch sousliks for use as a traditional meal (J. Mateju pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20473	conservation	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G., Jefferson, J. & Cannings, S., 2008	Subspecies <em>brunneus</em> was listed as threatened on 5 April 2000 under the United States Endangered Species Act. Subspecies <em>endemicus</em> was listed as a Candidate for listing by USFWS (2001).<br/><br/>The USFWS announced a 12-month finding on a resubmitted petition to list subspecies <em>endemicus</em> under the ESA, and found the petition does warrant listing, but is precluded by other higher priority listing actions. It is still considered a candidate for listing (Federal Register, 27 December 2004).<br/><br/>Translocation and habitat improvement measures by the United States Forest Service have resulted in population increases of <em>S. b. brunneus</em> in the past five years.<br/><br/>At least a few occurrences are adequately protected. The following is needed: survey colonies for precise population numbers; protect occurrences from agricultural development; maintain natural habitat; research life history and reproductive biology.	eng
20473	distribution	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G., Jefferson, J. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is endemic to a five-county area of west-central Idaho in the United States (Yensen and Sherman 1997). The northern subspecies (<em>brunneus</em>) presently is known only from Valley and Adams counties at elevations of 1,150-1,550 m asl; most populations are small and often isolated by several kilometres (Yensen 1991). The southern subspecies (<em>endemicus</em>) has a patchy distribution at lower elevations (670-975 m asl) north of the Payette River in Gem, Payette, and Washington counties. The species is apparently extirpated in the area between the extant populations of the northern and southern subspecies (Yensen 1984, 1991, Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1991, Yensen and Sherman 1997). Even within subspecies, populations are disjunct.	eng
20473	habitat	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G., Jefferson, J. & Cannings, S., 2008	It occurs in mountain meadows surrounded by forests of ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. <em>S. b. endemicus</em> is found in areas originally covered with sagebrush and native bunchgrasses, but the current vegetation consists of annual grasslands composed of introduced grasses.<br/><br/>Mating occurs soon after spring emergence; males guard sexually receptive females from other males; after mating, female excludes male from female burrow; gestation lasts about three weeks; litter size is 2-10 (average around 6-7); young are weaned in three weeks (Yensen 1991, Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>May be limited by competition from Columbian ground squirrel (Spahr <em>et al.</em> 1991). Badgers and prairie falcons are the primary predators. Feeds on green vegetation, seeds. Southern populations emerge in late January or early February and cease above-ground activity in late June or early July; northern populations are active above ground from late March or early April until late July or early August (Yensen 1991). Activity is constrained by time of snow melt and vegetation desiccation.	eng
20473	population	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G., Jefferson, J. & Cannings, S., 2008	The total adult population size appears to be at least several thousand individuals (Yensen 2001, USFWS 2002). Based on locations mapped on a coarse scale (Yensen and Sherman 1997), this species occurs in at least a few dozen distinct areas; these include at least a few hundred occupied sites. <br/><br/>Current overall trend is uncertain but may be relatively stable. With regards to the long term trend, a significant decline has occurred in area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size (USFWS 2002, 2004).	eng
20473	threats	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G., Jefferson, J. & Cannings, S., 2008	The primary threat to <em>S. b. brunneus</em> is loss and fragmentation of meadow habitat due to forest regrowth. Poisoning and replacement of native grasses by tall introduced grasses have also had large negative impacts on the species. Other threats include grazing by domestic livestock, off-road vehicle use (may destroy burrows), competition with Columbian ground squirrels (which may exclude <em>S. brunneus </em>from deeper soils that provide more favourable conditions for hibernation), and some recreational shooting (USFWS 2002). Recreational housing developments in the near future could present a major conservation challenge. <br/><br/>Declines of <em>S. b. endemicus</em> have resulted from shrub-steppe habitat conversion to agriculture, poisoning, and degradation of remaining rangeland habitat, mainly by the invasion of exotic annual grasses such as cheatgrass (<em>Bromus tectorum</em>) and medusahead (<em>Taeniatherium asperum</em>) and the loss of shrubs. This has changed the species composition of vegetation (reducing squirrel diet quality and reliability) and has altered the fire regime throughout much of the range. Recreational shooting and poisoning of ground squirrels historically were common activities, but recent regulatory changes and educational efforts probably have reduced this threat (USFWS 2004). In most areas, this squirrel faces threats associated with small population size (USFWS 2004).	eng
20474	conservation	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Only 9% of the suitable habitat within the historical range exists in a protected state. Stewart (2005) determined that this species occurs on a large number of protected areas (federal wilderness areas, state parks, state ecological reserves, etc.) on lands encompassing about 1,800 km². Nearly two-thirds of the range is in federal ownership (Stewart 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat needs to be protected from development and excessive grazing. Off-road vehicle traffic should be restricted or eliminated at inhabited sites. Consideration of this species in federal land use decisions should be promoted.<br/><br/>Obtain data on reproduction, dispersal, demography, food habits, habitat needs, and the effects of fire, grazing, and off-road vehicle use.	eng
20474	distribution	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The Mohave ground squirrel has a patchy (discontinuous) distribution (Hafner 1992, Gustafson 1993) in the northwestern corner of the Mohave Desert, south-central California in the United States, at elevations of 610-1,800 m asl (Best 1995); the range coincides with a cool mesic Wisconsinan refugium in the Mohave Desert. It occurs in southwestern Inyo, eastern Kern, extreme northeastern Los Angeles, and northwestern San Bernardino counties (Wessman 1977, California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Best 1995); from Olancha, Inyo County, south to Victorville, San Bernardino County, and from the Tehachapi Mountains of Kern County to the Granite Mountains in San Bernardino County (Biosystems Analysis 1989). The Mojave River generally defines the extreme southeastern boundary of the range, but the species historically occurred east of the river in Lucerne Valley (Stewart 2005; see list of specimens examined by Hafner 1992). Its extent of occurrence is approximately 20,000 km² (Stewart 2005).	eng
20474	habitat	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	This ground squirrel inhabits desert areas with deep sandy or gravelly friable soils and an abundance of annual herbaceous vegetation. Habitats include alluvial fans where desert pavement is absent. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) creosotebush association, (2) shadscale association, (3) alkali sink association, and (4) Joshua tree association. Nests are in underground burrows. Individuals may use several different burrows. <br/><br/>Mating occurs in February-March (Harris and Leitner 2004). Litter size is 4-6; young are born in late March or early April (Biosystems Analysis 1989). No reproduction occurs during the driest years; for example, Harris and Leitner (2004) found that no reproduction occurred at their study site when early winter precipitation (October-January) was less than 30 mm. <br/><br/>Populations fluctuate with environmental conditions (Leitner and Leitner 1998). Populations in marginal habitats may become extirpated during extended droughts. After the return of favourable conditions, those areas may be recolonized from adjacent areas following the resumption of reproduction and dispersal of offspring from core habitats (Gustafson 1993). Long-distance movement by juveniles might be critical for connecting local populations and recolonizing sites after local, drought-related extirpation (Harris and Leitner 2005). <br/><br/>Mohave ground squirrels feed on green vegetation and seeds. May also eat carrion. Remains underground August until late winter or early spring (reportedly emerges in February or March, or, according to Biosystems Analysis [1989], March in the south and May in the north). Active during the spring and summer.	eng
20474	population	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	This species is rare throughout much of its range. Significant population declines have been recorded across most of the range between 1980 and 2000, and this decline is not correlated with winter rainfall, which generally increased between 1984 and 1998 (Leitner 2001, Brooks and Matchett 2002). Hafner (1992) hypothesized that low dispersal ability might be one of several possible explanations for the persistence of a stable contact zone between <em>S. mohavensis</em> and <em>S. tereticaudus</em>, the species is relatively mobile compared to other ground squirrel species. Harris and Leitner (2004) found that the size of female home ranges in years of no reproduction appears to vary in response to food availability, and that alternating size of the home range may be an adaptive response to an arid, variable environment.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 100,000 (assuming an average density of about one adult per hectare (Leitner and Leitner 1998) and 430,000 hectares of occupied habitat). However, the spatial and temporal distribution of this species is highly dynamic, which makes it difficult to make a reliable estimate of overall population size.<br/><br/>Stewart (2005) mapped 22 locations in which this species was captured during trapping surveys in 2002-2004 (Leitner 2005). These represent four core areas plus two additional areas in which squirrels are present at low densities (Stewart 2005).<br/><br/>This ground squirrel exhibits large fluctuations in local population size. Further information on overall trend is needed.<br/>Recent monitoring data reveal that over twenty percent of the historical range of this species is no longer occupied (Stewart 2005).	eng
20474	threats	Hafner, D.J., Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The primary cause of the decline is the conversion of habitat to urban, suburban, agricultural, military, and other human uses (Gustafson 1993), including livestock grazing, off-highway vehicle use, energy production, and transportation infrastructure (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, Stewart 2005). Over 78% of the habitat within the species' range is either naturally unavailable, severely degraded, or is in a land-use category that represents a threat to the ground squirrel; the remainder is under threat from continued development and habitat fragmentation (Stewart 2005). The planned Fort Irwin expansion would fragment one of four remaining populations that appear to be stable, posing a serious threat to the species' persistence (Stewart 2005). Current regulatory mechanisms are believed to be inadequate to protect this species (Stewart 2005). <em>Spermophilus tereticaudus</em> may be expanding its range at the expense of <em>S. mohavensis</em> (Wessman, in Hafner 1992).<br/><br/><em>S. mohavensis</em> fails to reproduce during years of drought rather than risking a delay in accumulating fat reserves for aestivation. Periods of prolonged drought therefore is a potential threat to the population. The taxon exists as isolated populations with a scattered distribution. Recruitment from neighbouring colonies is thought to be rare (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
20475	conservation	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G. & Popper, K.P., 2008	United States Endangered Species Act: Candidate (12 Sep 2006). United States Fish and Wildlife Service Lead Region: R1 - Pacific<br/><br/>Roughly 64 percent of known Oregon sites are located on federal land (Boardman Bombing Range and Horn Butte), 35 percent are located on private land that is under an ODFW conservation easement, and the remaining one percent is located on other private lands (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>The Boardman Bombing Range (northern Oregon), which supports the highest known concentration of Washington ground squirrels and best available habitat (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 1980, Betts 1990, Quade 1994, Greene 1999), is not fully secure. Research Natural Areas on the bombing range protect 2,046 hectares, but the remainder of the bombing range (8,024 hectares) is managed by the Navy for military training and grazing allotments (Quade 1994, Greene 1999) (grazing has not been allowed in recent years). Protected habitat is also located on a small preserve owned by The Nature Conservancy just south of the bombing range. <br/><br/>In Washington, most sites are located on the state-owned Seep Lakes Wildlife Management Area, the BLM's Wenatchee Resource Area, and the Columbia National Wildlife Refuge. The Badger Mountain sites (Betts 1990) were located on private land.<br/><br/>Continued inventories are needed. Conservation easements should be pursued on private lands.	eng
20475	distribution	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G. & Popper, K.P., 2008	The species' range includes the Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington east and south of the Columbia River, and northern Oregon between the John Day River and the Blue Mountains in the United States (Betts 1990, Verts and Carraway 1998). The three main occupied areas (two in Washington, one in Oregon) are highly disjunct, and separated by more than 50 kilometres (30 miles) of unoccupied land (Betts 1990). The elevational range is 90-450 m asl (Rickart and Yensen 1991).	eng
20475	habitat	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G. & Popper, K.P., 2008	This ground squirrel occupies shrub-steppe habitat of the Columbia Basin ecosystem (USFWS 2004). It is most abundant in areas of high grass cover, on deep soils with low clay content (Betts 1990) and high silt content (Greene 1999). Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow.<br/><br/>This species breeds late January-early February, soon after emergence from hibernation; later at higher elevations than at lower elevations. Gestation lasts probably 23-30 days. Young are born in February and early March. Litter size is 5-11 (average is eight). Young appear above ground in late March or April, nearly full-sized by late May (Rickart and Yensen 1991).<br/><br/>Klein <em>et al.</em> (2005) studied dispersal patterns of 125 radio-collared juvenile males in north-central Oregon. Mean dispersal probability was 0.718. Median dispersal distance was 880 metres (range up to 3.5 kilometres). There was suggestive evidence that survival of dispersers was higher than that of non dispersers.<br/><br/>Individuals live alone or in colonies. Badger probably is the most important predator. Diet includes herbaceous vegetation (including cultivated plants), roots, bulbs, seeds, and insects. Adults emerge from hibernation late January-March, feed throughout spring and into the summer, and accumulate much body fat. Adults are active until late May or early June, juveniles until late June or early July. During hot weather, most active in the morning (Rickart and Yensen 1991).	eng
20475	population	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G. & Popper, K.P., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. For example, 41 of the 80 colonies located by Betts (1990) were rated as small, 13 as moderate, and 26 as large. Assuming an average of 20 individuals in the small colonies, 60 for the moderate, and 150 for the large, total population size would be at least 6,280 individuals. This is purely an estimate based on average numbers, and it clearly underestimates the entire population as Betts (1990) did not completely survey all known habitat areas and many previously unknown colonies have been discovered since 1990.<br/><br/>In 2004, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) revisited 300 of roughly 500 known and historic detections in Douglas, Grant, and Adams counties. Surveyors found activity at approximately 240 (80 percent) of the sites. Probably some single colonies were represented by multiple detections, so the number of distinct occurrences is likely fewer than 240 in this area (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>In Oregon (Boardman Bombing Range), only 115 of 188 (61.2 percent) colonies originally located in 1997, 2000, 2001, and 2002 were occupied in 2003 (Marr, 2003, unpublished data). TNC revisited all of the 90 known colonies (or 121 detections) on the Boardman Conservation Area in 2004. Sixty-six (73 percent) of sites were occupied in 2004. Of the 62 known in 1999, 44 (71 percent) were still occupied. Of the 20 sites first identified in 2001, 16 (80 percent) were occupied. While 24 sites had become vacant since 1999, 16 additional sites were located incidentally in 2004 (Marr 2004). Populations fluctuate with climate variations; populations may decline with drought, then recover with increased precipitation (and hence improved food resources) (Quade 1994, Greene 1999).<br/><br/>The range is now separated into three disjunct populations, although historically it was probably contiguous (Verts and Carraway 1998); the current range is estimated to be less than 50% of the historical range. The number of colonies has also dropped dramatically, and over 50% of those that have disappeared have gone since 1985 (USFWS 1999). Betts (1990, 1999) found that the species had disappeared from 73.8 percent of the sites in Washington and 76.9 percent of the sites in Oregon. Of the approximately 47 historic and new confirmed sites in southeastern Washington  in 1987-1988, Washington ground squirrels were still evident at 37 (78 percent) in 1998 (Betts 1999). Sherman (2001) noted the loss of entire colonies of ground squirrels on the Columbia National Wildlife Refuge and Seep Lakes Management Area near Othello, Washington, despite the protected status of the species in the area.	eng
20475	threats	Yensen, E., Hammerson, G. & Popper, K.P., 2008	The range contraction and disappearance of colonies is primarily the result of loss and fragmentation of habitat due to conversion of native grassland and shrub-steppe to agricultural uses, such as wheat farms (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 1980, Betts 1990). In addition to removing required vegetative cover and forage, tilling and other soil disturbance destroys the necessary structure of the specific silty soil types (i.e., Warden soils) on which the species relies (Greene 1999). Intensive grazing removes vegetative cover and forage, degrading the habitat for ground squirrels (Greene 1999). Betts (1990) rated 21 of 80 colonies as highly vulnerable to extinction due to colony size, isolation from other colonies, land ownership, and threat from human activity. <br/><br/>However, the majority of existing colonies are located on the Boardman Bombing Range and the Boeing tract, which include the largest contiguous tract of suitable habitat (USFWS 2004). Although future Boardman Bombing Range activities are not certain, they are not expected to change significantly in the foreseeable future (USFWS 2004). In 2003, the largest threat to colonies in Oregon was the imminent conversion of the Boeing tract for agriculture. However, under a newly signed agreement, Threemile Canyon Farms placed 9,146 ha (22,600 acres) of the Boeing tract into a permanent ODFW Conservation Easement (Boardman Conservation Area), which is managed by TNC with the goal to maintain and improve where feasible the integrity of existing native communities and associated covered species (including the Washington ground squirrel) (USFWS 2004). All but two known sites and the majority of suitable habitat on the Boeing tract are located on the Boardman Conservation Area and therefore are protected from irreversible habitat modification (USFWS 2004). Hence threats from habitat loss have been significantly reduced in recent years. USFWS (2004) reasoned that this has reduced the immediacy of threats to the Washington ground squirrel, but actually it is the scope of threat that has been reduced; ground squirrel colonies that are not on conservation lands remain vulnerable to continued habitat loss (USFWS 2004).<br/><br/>Quade (1994) concluded that invasion of non-indigenous and noxious weeds also has contributed to the degradation of the habitat. <br/><br/>Ground squirrels are often viewed as pests and are subject to recreational shooting and poisoning to reduce impacts to agricultural crops (USFWS 2004). Olterman and Verts (1972) attributed the decline of Washington ground squirrels from 1948 to 1970 to years of control by poisoning and/or shooting, in addition to significant habitat loss.<br/><br/>Predation by badgers can be a significant mortality factor. Badger predation may cause local extirpations of small, isolated colonies (Betts 1999).<br/><br/>Sylvatic plague, which was responsible for large population declines of <em>Spermophilus townsendii</em> (a closely related species) several decades ago, is a potential threat (USFWS 2004).	eng
20476	conservation	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in protected areas. To protect this species it is necessary to prevent overgrazing and limit the expansion of agriculture.	eng
20476	distribution	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is restricted to the Yakima River Valley of Washington in the United States, west of the Yakima River and in the Horse Heaven Hills to the south of the valley (Hafner <em>et al</em> 1998). The entire area of the species' range appears to be less than 7,000 km².	eng
20476	habitat	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found mainly in high desert shrubland. It generally occurs in well-drained soils, especially embankments. It makes extensive burrow systems. Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. In Idaho, juvenile dispersal distance over two years was 146-1,076 metres (mean 515 metres over the two years) (Olson and Van Horne 1998). <br/><br/>Main diet includes herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; it may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out. May have separate period of activity in fall. It is most active in the early morning.	eng
20476	population	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Remaining populations of this species are fragmented and isolated. There are no estimates of population density available.	eng
20476	threats	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Less than 10% of the species' original habitat remains and most of its range is on private land. This species causes agricultural damage in some areas and has been subject to control programs.	eng
20477	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in Pico Tancitaro National Park and a protected area near Infiernillo, Michoacan.	eng
20477	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Jalisco, Michoacan, and Mexico, and Guerrero, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
20477	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species lives in areas with xerophytic vegetation, in rocks areas along canyon sides, around stone walls and corrals near ranches, and in agricultural areas. <br/><br/>It uses burrows that are made in open ground at the base of a tree or bush, in rocky areas along small ravines, or under mesquite. This species is an omnivore, and the dried and black seeds of <em>Crescentia</em> are an important part of its diet, as well as the fruits of plum trees.This species may cause significant damage to cultivated crops, such as corn, beans, and sorghum. It is possible that this species has spread its range into the more arid habitats of the Mexican Plateau because of the large areas under cultivation (Best 1995).	eng
20477	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is common in suitable areas (Best 1995). Its population size varies from year to year and among seasons (Villa-R. 1943 in Best 1995).	eng
20477	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
20478	conservation	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, this species is protected as Rare under the 2001 revision (Mongolian Government Act. No. 264) of the 2000 Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom. Listed as Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996), and included as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE 1997). It was regionally Red Listed in Mongolia as  Endangered under criterion A3c (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.  Although it is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws, Hunting Laws, and the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. In China, there are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in Luoshan, Baijitan, and Saihanwula Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
20478	distribution	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in Mongolia and China, and occurs at elevations up to 3,200 m asl. In Mongolia, it occurs in the Ikh and Baga Bogd in Valley of the Lakes, and Gurvansaikhan and Öshög mountains in Gobi Altai Mountain Range (Bannikov 1954; Dawaa 1972). In China, it occurs in Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008), Shanxi, and Shaanxi provinces (CSIS 2008).	eng
20478	habitat	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	It inhabits steppe, mountain foothills, and alpine meadows, at elevations up to 3,200 m asl. It is often associated with couch grasses, pea shrubs and false sedges, particularly <em>Amygdalus pedunculata</em> and <em>Amygdalus polyrrhizum</em>. This species is not found in areas with dense forest cover (Nowak 1991). In China, it can be found in desert habitat occupying dry sandy areas, as well as "grasslands at the edge of the Gobi" (Smith and Xie 2008). <br/><br/>This species is typically brown or grey in color, with small pale spots on the back and a pale underside. The coat becomes lighter in summer, with the head and shoulders turning pale chestnut (Nowak 1991). Internal cheek pouches are used for carrying food. Its diet consists of herbs and other plants (Smith and Xie 2008). The legs and tail are short, and it has a head-rump measurement of 22-23 cm (Sokolov and Orlov 1980). It is a diurnal species that hibernates (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is between 1-9, with June the likely time of parturition (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
20478	population	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Population data for this species are currently unavailable. In Mongolia, it is believed to be most abundant around Gurvansaikhan Mountain.	eng
20478	threats	Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20479	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	A number of protected areas occur within its range.	eng
20479	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from Nayarit south to northern Guerrero, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m (Best 1995).	eng
20479	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This squirrel inhabits dense, tropical, deciduous forests, and is common in plains. Its burrows are on hillsides among rocks, and in sandy flats along walls and hedges bordering cultivated fields. It also occurs in the shade of the dense groves of oil palms (<em>Arecaceae</em>), with its burrows under masses of fallen palm fronds or sheltered by the thorny growth of mesquite (<em>Prosopis</em>) and catclaw (<em>Acacia</em>). <br/><br/>This squirrel eats fruits and nuts, and sometimes it also may feed on insects.  Breeding occurs during the dry season (December to June). A female captured in February had four embryos (Best 1995).	eng
20479	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitats (Best 1995).	eng
20479	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
20480	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Part of this species range lies within a protected area.	eng
20480	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in Baja California, Mexico (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
20480	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in desert shrubland and open mountain forests in areas of volcanic origin. Vegetation is dominated by <em>Pachycereus pringlei</em> (cardon), <em>Machaerocereus gummosus</em> (pitaya agria), <em>Lemairocereus thurberi</em> (pitaya dulce), <em>Opuntia cholla</em> (choya), <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> (mesquite), <em>Lysiloma candida</em> (palo blanco), <em>Burcera ceraciflora</em> (torote) and <em>Jatropha cinerea</em> (lomboy) (Alvarez-Castañeda <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is primarily found near water holes in the Gigantas Sierra and Sierra de San Francisco. It feeds on Datil plants. Because of this specific habitat preference, populations are very isolated and fragmented.	eng
20480	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No population information could be found. This species has a restricted and fragmented range with low population density. It occurs in isolated and fragmented populations.	eng
20480	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is hunted. It is sometimes considered a pest to crops (squash, Datil).	eng
20481	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20481	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the western United States and adjoining north-western Mexico, from extreme south-central Washington and western Oregon, south-ward throughout most of California, and into north-western Baja California.	eng
20481	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in successional habitats, roadsides, farmlands, chaparral, desert, and open grassy areas.	eng
20481	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	In California and northern Baja California, this species is widespread and locally abundant in most habitats where found, including agricultural areas. In the central desert of Baja California and California it is rare.	eng
20481	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats.	eng
20482	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Listed as Least Concern in Russia and China.	eng
20482	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in dry plain steppes in Transbaikalia (Russia), E Mongolia and NE China. In Mongolia one specimen was recorded from a locality 300 km west of this known distribution (Nicht <em>et al.</em>, 1971), therefore the precise western limit of its range in Mongolia is unclear (Bannikov, 1954).	eng
20482	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Inhabit plain wormwood tuft-cereal steppes, also in China found in deserts. It is considered a characteristic species of the northern edge of the Gobi in extreme N Mongolia and the adjacent borders of Siberia.  It apparently does not extend far into the Gobi, but follows around the northeastern edge to reappear in Chinese territory along the borders of Hebei and adjacent Nei Mongol. Live on hill slopes, pastures, road borders, along railroads. Uses burrows of marmots and daurian pika. <br/><br/>Burrows are simple, wintering burrows have one entrance without soil emission. Tunnels normally extend a maximum of 2 m, although some may reach as far as 6-8 m in length.  A single nest, lined with grass, is normally found at a depth of 50 cm to 1 m, while wintering nests are about 2 m below the ground.  Adult males enter hibernation in the end of May, while young ground squirells are active till autumn. These ground squirrels feed on various herbs and other plants, including grain fields.  Maturity age is on second year. Gestation is about 30 days, litter size is 2-9 young.	eng
20482	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	No population data are available, but this species is believed to occur at low densities throughout Mongolia and Transbaikalia.	eng
20482	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. These are not considered major threats to the species as a whole at present.	eng
20483	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	In Russia is abundant and is considerable crop pest. Transmits encephalitis, tularemia and other disases. Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 5% of the species’ range in Mongolia).	eng
20483	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in plain semi-deserts and dry steppes in E Kazakhstan, south of W Siberia (Russia), and Xinjan (China). Several isolated areas in Mongolia (from Uvs Lake Depression in northern Great Lakes Depression, to Dariganga in Eastern Govi; Dawaa, 1972) and Inner Mongolia (China).	eng
20483	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	In northern parts of the range lives at borders of aspen and birch forest-steppe. More to south inhabit steppes with light saxaul, in mountains lives up to 2100 m. Also found in pastures, derilict and arable lands. Burrows are simple, deep (up to 3,5 m), without soil emission. Enter hibernation in August - first half of September, exit in end of March - April. Feed on steppe cereals, sometimes consume animal food. Litter size is 7-9 young.	eng
20483	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	In eastern and north-eastern parts of the range in common and often abundant.	eng
20483	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	The species is hunted for meat and skins for local trade. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
20484	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No special conservation measures apply to this species.	eng
20484	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No special conservation measures apply to this species.	eng
20484	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Russia and Kazakhstan, from the Caspian Sea and the Volga River to Lake Balkash; south through Uzbekistan, W Tajikistan and Turkmenistan to NE Iran, and N Afghanistan; W Xinjiang (China). The southern part of the range is fragmented.	eng
20484	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Russia and Kazakhstan, from the Caspian Sea and the Volga River to Lake Balkash; south through Uzbekistan, W Tajikistan and Turkmenistan to NE Iran, N Afghanistan and China. The southern part of the range is fragmented.	eng
20484	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits sand, clay and loess deserts and semi-deserts. In the forest zone it lives on black absinth and saltwort alkali soils. Usually digs a single burrows on a large territory. Sometimes burrows of the great gerbil <em>Rhombomys opimus</em> are used. Migrates seasonally from sites flooded with water from melted snow, or in search for fresh vegetation. Hibernation is extended; the species exits hibernation in mid-May and after 3-4 months enters hibernation again. Feeds on overground parts of cereals, absinths and saltworts.	eng
20484	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits sand, clay and loess deserts and semi-deserts. In the forest zone it lives on black absinth and saltwort alkali soils. Usually digs a single burrows on a large territory. Sometimes burrows of the great gerbil <em>Rhombomys opimus</em> are used. Migrates seasonally from sites flooded with water from melted snow, or in search for fresh vegetation. Hibernation is extended; the species exits hibernation in mid-May and after 3-4 months enters hibernation again. Feeds on overground parts of cereals, absinths and saltworts.	eng
20484	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	In some regions of Russia and Kazakhstan populations have declined as a result of commercial hunting, but the species remains common and abundant throughout most of its range.	eng
20484	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	In some regions of Russia and Kazakhstan populations have declined as a result of commercial hunting, but the species remains common and abundant throughout most of its range.	eng
20484	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Although it is hunted commercially, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.	eng
20484	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Although it is hunted commercially, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.	eng
20485	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species distribution falls partially into several protected areas within its range.	eng
20485	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in south-western Chihuahua, Mexico (Hoffmann and Thorington 2005). Its altitudinal range is from 3,000 to 3,750 m (Webb and Baker 1984).	eng
20485	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in pine forests at elevations higher than the pinyon-pine belt. It inhabits slopes covered by <em>Pseudotsuga</em>, <em>Pinus</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, and <em>Populus</em>, without <em>Quercus</em> (Webb and Baker 1984). <br/><br/>A female captured in May had five embryos; and in June four females captured contained two, four and five embryos each. In July, seven females were lactating (Best and Thomas 1991).	eng
20485	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat (pine forest). It is not found outside this vegetation type.	eng
20485	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by intensive habitat loss due to timber extraction.	eng
20486	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No specific conservation measures for this species are known.	eng
20486	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	No specific conservation measures for this species are known.	eng
20486	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Steppe between Volga and Irtysh rivers (Russia; N Kazakhstan). Formerly, steppe between Don and Volga rivers (Russia: Gromov <em>et al.</em> 1965). On the western bank of Volga River found in NW part of Volga Hills (Ermakov and Titov 2000). Reported from Xinjiang (Ma <em>et al.</em> 1987); but probably a misidentified <em>S. brevicauda</em>. Its range is increasing in the south and the west (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006). Occurs from sea level to 600 m.	eng
20486	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Steppe between Volga and Irtysh rivers (Russia; N Kazakhstan). Formerly, steppe between Don and Volga rivers (Russia: Gromov <em>et al.</em> 1965). On the western bank of Volga River found in NW part of Volga Hills (Ermakov and Titov 2000). Reported from Xinjiang (Ma <em>et al.</em> 1987); but probably a misidentified <em>S. brevicauda</em>. Its range is increasing in the south and the west (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006). Occurs from sea level to 600 m.	eng
20486	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits mixed grassy plains, and grain and feather-grass steppes. In the northern part of the range penetrates into forest-steppe and the southern part of forest zones. In the south it occurs in river meadows in semi-desert zones. The species is spreading as roads and development increase the number of channels containing water and long grasses. The species is able to cross the Volga due to the construction of dams in four different places. The dams contain ponds which keep ice over winter for longer, allowing the species to move. Another possible reason for observed range expansion is the release of individuals (along with marmots) by hunters. Lives in single burrows scattered over wide territories. In southern parts of the range where appropriate habitats are limited forms colonies.  Adult males enter hibernation in mid-June; mass hibernation starts in August. Feeds on green parts and seeds of grasses and cereals.	eng
20486	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits mixed grassy plains, and grain and feather-grass steppes. In the northern part of the range penetrates into forest-steppe and the southern part of forest zones. In the south it occurs in river meadows in semi-desert zones. The species is spreading as roads and development increase the number of channels containing water and long grasses. The species is able to cross the Volga due to the construction of dams in four different places. The dams contain ponds which keep ice over winter for longer, allowing the species to move. Another possible reason for observed range expansion is the release of individuals (along with marmots) by hunters. Lives in single burrows scattered over wide territories. In southern parts of the range where appropriate habitats are limited forms colonies.  Adult males enter hibernation in mid-June; mass hibernation starts in August. Feeds on green parts and seeds of grasses and cereals.	eng
20486	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations and consequently population size varies from year to year. Periods of mass reproduction give place to population depressions, during which only single individuals could be found in colonies that had formerly been large. The main factors that determine mortality include the soil freezing through during the species' hibernation period, late arrival of spring, human disturbance (including direct killing), predators and epizootics. The species has high reproductive capacity and ecological plasticity. However, a recent study found that populations in most parts of the range were declining, and some small populations had gone extinct (Ermakov and Titov 2000). At the same time, the species has been extending its range in some areas (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20486	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations and consequently population size varies from year to year. Periods of mass reproduction give place to population depressions, during which only single individuals could be found in colonies that had formerly been large. The main factors that determine mortality include the soil freezing through during the species' hibernation period, late arrival of spring, human disturbance (including direct killing), predators and epizootics. The species has high reproductve capacity and ecological plasticity. However, a recent study found that populations in most parts of the range were declining, and some small populations had gone extinct (Ermakov and Titov 2000). At the same time, the species has been extending its range in some areas (N. Formozov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20486	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	The most significant threats are ploughing and direct killing by humans.	eng
20486	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The most significant threats are ploughing and direct killing by humans.	eng
20487	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20487	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found from extreme southeastern New Mexico through western and central Texas (United States),  south to Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Mexico). There is disjunct population in central Mexico.	eng
20487	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This squirrel is found in grassy habitats, where grass occurs with brush, or in arid regions. It will also occupy human-created grassy areas, such as cemeteries and golf courses.	eng
20487	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in small colonies and is locally common.	eng
20487	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
20488	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Although the distribution within the range is patchy, it is common and sometimes abundant species that occurs in some protected areas.<br/><br/>Considered "secure" (S5) in British Columbia, but "vulnerable" (S3) in Manitoba where it occurs marginally. Several subspecies are restricted to Alaskan Islands, where they are of conservation concern because of their restricted distributions: <em>S. p. kodiacensis</em> (S3), <em>S. p. lyratus</em> (S3), <em>S. p. nebulicola</em> (S3), <em>S. p. osgoodi</em> (S3?). Otherwise, the species is not ranked in Alaska or the Canadian territories.	eng
20488	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	In Eurasia distributed in NE Siberia, from Lena River, Verhoyanskoe and Kolymskoe Highlands, Chukotka, and Kamchatka. From Kolyma River to Arctic and Pacific Oceans; in south range does not reach Magadan (Gromov and Erbaeva, 1995). According to Serdyuk (1986) current area of occupancy is above 2 million sq. km, but it distributed sporadically and inhabited zones interchange with wide uninhabited places. There is a big isolated population at western border of the range, in Lena River Basin (Panteleev, 1998). In Yakutia here are two isolated populations: on Yana River, and on headstream of Indigirka River (Vinokurov <em>et al.</em>, 1982). The range is expanding (Serdyuk, 1986).<br/><br/>In North America, from Alaska east to west of Hudson Bay and south to central British Columbia and extreme northern Manitoba.	eng
20488	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Found in open tundra, in forested areas in open meadows, or above treeline, in river valleys and meadow-steppe places, in coastal sand ridges. In mountains inhabit edges of stone deposits and meadows of alpine and subalpine zones (up to 1400 m). Often found in outskirts of human settlements. Lives in colonies with complex system of burrows. Burrows are shallow (up to 1 m), without vertical passages. Permanent burrows are with several entrances and nests. Hibernates from October till March. In northern part of the range exits hibernation while it is still snowing. Omnivorous. In spring, mainly feed on animals. Later feed on berries, mushrooms, lichens, mosses and other plants. Stores nuts and dry grass for winter. Reproduce once a year. In the northern part of the range mating occurs in burrows before they emerge outside. Litter size is 6-8, sometimes up to 14 young. Starts mating during second year.	eng
20488	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Occur in colonies and are locally abundant throughout the range. Appears to be little accessible information about its status in mainland Alaska or the Canadian territories, but anecdotal comments indicate it is common.	eng
20488	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Unsustainable hunting for skins for local trade is the primary threat. Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
20489	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
20489	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in Veracruz and Puebla in east central Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). Its altitudinal range is from 2,340 to 2,370 m (Best and Ceballos 1995).	eng
20489	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This squirrel lives is common in high elevation pine-forest. It is active approximately 9 months of the year, from early March to November. By early October, most squirrels have gone into hibernation. Predators probably include long-tailed weasels (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), and domestic dogs (<em>Canis familiaris</em>) (Best and Ceballos 1995). Two adult females were pregnant in July; one had seven embryos and six the other; mean litter size is four. Apparently, it has a late breeding season or two litters each year (Best and Ceballos 1995).	eng
20489	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in pine forest (Best and Ceballos 1995).	eng
20489	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive habitat fragmentation and deforestation within its restricted range due to timber extraction and clearing of forest for agriculture (potatoes).	eng
20490	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Despite recorded population decline in the European part of the range, the species remains widespread and abundant. No specific conservation measures are known.	eng
20490	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Despite recorded population decline in the European part of the range, the species remains widespread and abundant. No specific conservation measures are known.	eng
20490	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Distributed in plains or foothills steppes and semi-deserts in the Dnepr Region (Ukraine), Lower Volga Region and cis-Caucasia (Dagestan, Russia). Most of the range is in Central Asia east to the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan). The range of the species has reduced over the last 20 years as a result of climate change (more wet weather and wet years in the region). The abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming), which is changing the habitat, may also have played a role. The species occurs at low altitudes (up to 400 or 500 m).	eng
20490	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in plains or foothills steppes and semi-deserts in the Dnepr Region (Ukraine), Lower Volga Region and CIS-Caucasia (Dagestan, Russia). Most of the range is in Central Asia east to the Aral Sea (Kazakhstan). The range of the species has reduced over the last 20 years as a result of climate change (more wet weather and wet years in the region). The abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming), which is changing the habitat, may also have played a role. The species occurs at low altitudes (up to 400 or 500 m).	eng
20490	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Inhabits absinth deserts and semi-deserts in virgin and long-fallow lands. Avoids sites with dense high grasses. Lives in colonies consisting mostly of non overlapping territories of adult females. Male territories covers several female territories. Each colony includes permanent (reproduction and hibernation) burrows and temporary shelter burrows. The little ground squirrel leaves hibernation in March-April; enters estivation in second part of June-July, sometimes, especially in dry years, goes straight from estivation to hibernation.	eng
20490	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits absinth deserts and semi-deserts in virgin and long-fallow lands. Avoids sites with dense high grasses. Lives in colonies consisting mostly of non overlapping territories of adult females. Male territories covers several female territories. Each colony includes permanent (reproduction and hibernation) burrows and temporary shelter burrows. The little ground squirrel leaves hibernation in March-April; enters estivation in second part of June-July, sometimes, especially in dry years, goes straight from estivation to hibernation.	eng
20490	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations. In the European part of the range over last 30 years, numbers have declined and some local populations have gone extinct.	eng
20490	population	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations. In the European part of the range over last 30 years, numbers have declined and some local populations have gone extinct.	eng
20490	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Zagorodnyuk, I., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The main factors causing decline are natural climate desiccation in the southern Volga Region, with a concurrent trend towards wetter weather at mid-latitudes. Neither of these changes in climate are favourable for the little ground squirrel. Additionally, human activities including pesticide use, irrigation, overgrazing and persecution have a negative impact on populations. Abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming) may be leading to unfavourable habitat change in some areas.	eng
20490	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	The main factors causing decline are natural climate dessication in the southern Volga Region, with a concurrent trend towards wetter weather at mid-latitudes. Neither of these changes in climate are favourable for the little ground squirrel. Additionally, human activities including pesticide use, irrigation, overgrazing and persecution have a negative impact on populations. Abandonment of agricultural practices (cattle grazing and arable farming) may be leading to unfavourable habitat change in some areas.	eng
20491	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It is a trade animal of minor importance. In 1950s up to 45,000 skins per year were collected, but to 1990s it lowered up to 10,000 skins per year. Found in some protected areas in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan (Sary-Chelek State Reserve) and Uzbekistan (Gyssar State Reserve).	eng
20491	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Western and Central Tien Shan and western parts of peripheral ranges of Pamir Alai. Range consist of several separated areas. Found from 500 to 3200 m.	eng
20491	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit mountain and partly piedmont steppes. From deserted wormwood and sheep fescue on loess ad rubbly soil to hgh altitude cereal and mixed grasses steppes and meadow-steppes with some alpine vegetation. Found in juniper stang and in openings at lower border of coniferous forest. Avoid wet meadows and agricultural fields. <br/><br/>In summer, day break in activity is very well pronounced. During hot days, as well as at night burrow exits are sealed with soil plug. Life cycle timing depends on the altitude and slope aspect. For example, hibernation ends from end of February (Issyk-Kul basin) to first decade of May (Chatkal highland). Young emerge from mid-May (lowlands) to second decade of June (Kuraminsky range). On overcast and windy days activity is reduced. <br/><br/>Burrows are simple, majority of them are with one passage and one nesting cell. Wintering nest is at 1 - 1,5 m below ground, summer nests not lower than 1 m. Sometimes use burrows of voles and marmots. Feed mainly on underground plant parts, in spring consume green parts and flowers. To reach to pea tree flowers climb the tree. In some areas (Chatkal range) insects were up to 90% of stomach contents. Does not make supplies. Reproduction is prolonged, beginning very much depends on spring weather. Average litters size depends on altitude, from 6 at 750-800 m, to 3-4 at above 2000 m.	eng
20491	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common, partly rare, partly abundant. Most abundant (25 individuals per ha) is during young dispersal period, at altitude 2600-2800 m. In 1983, in Gissar State reserve (Uzbekistan, 2000-2300 m) population density was 2,8 individuals per ha (Volzheninov <em>et al.</em>, 1986).	eng
20491	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
20492	conservation	Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A., 2008	It is legally protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. In Poland the souslik is strictly protected under national law, and five nature reserves have recently been created to protect the species. Development of the system of nature reserves and active protection (reintroduction and habitat management) are recommended (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20492	distribution	Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A., 2008	The spotted souslik is endemic to eastern Europe, where it is found in south-eastern Poland, small areas in Belarus, the Ukraine, Moldova, and Russia eastwards to the river Volga. In Poland, the souslik occurs on the western edge of its range and it is known from one relic enclave located between the Wieprz and Bug rivers in the region of Zamosc (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005). A lowland species, it occurs up to no more than 500 m (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20492	habitat	Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A., 2008	Like its congener the European souslik <em>Spermophilus citellus</em>, the spotted souslik prefers open areas with short grass (including steppes, pastures, and road verges). Unlike the European souslik, it can also sometimes be found on cultivated ground and can survive ploughing (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). It feeds chiefly on grasses and cereals, although arthropods and small vertebrates are also taken.	eng
20492	population	Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A., 2008	The spotted souslik has suffered marked declines in both population and range. Its extent of occurrence has contracted in both Poland and southern Russia, and the number of colonies in Poland and the Ukraine (where no more than 10% of the former range described in mid-twentieth century is left) has decreased markedly (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Populations in the southern and eastern parts of the range are more stable. Over the last ten years some populations have shown increases in population size. However, across the global range, the total population is declining, although the rate of decline over the last ten years is likely to be less than 30% (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). The Polish population of the spotted souslik has been estimated at c.20,000 individuals living in 7 compact and no more than 10 scattered colonies. The most numerous of these colonies, with 10,000-12,000 individuals, is found at Swidnik airport (near Lublin) and is the result of an unofficial introduction in the early 1980s. The present population of <em>S. suslicus</em> is one third of what it was in the 1960s, the number of localities has markedly decreased and the area occupied has shrunk by a half. If this trend continues the souslik will die out in Poland at the first decades of the 21th century (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006).	eng
20492	threats	Zagorodnyuk, I., Glowacinski, Z. & Gondek, A., 2008	It is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of appropriate habitats. Causes of habitat loss include expansion of agriculture and forestry, urbanisation, reclamation of wasteland and industrial development (Glowacinski <em>et al.</em> 2001, Piskorski 2005, Z. Glowacinski pers. comm. 2006). More than 50% of the remaining Polish population is threatened by the expansion of Lublin airport (A. Gondek pers. comm. 2006). In some areas, it is persecuted as an agricultural pest. Hybridisation with <em>S. pygmaeus</em> and <em>S. citellus</em> has been recorded, but is not likely to be a major threat. Currently all populations are declining and becoming more fragmented, which makes hybridisation less of a problem.	eng
20493	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20493	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in the Sonoran and Mohave Deserts of southwestern United States and Mexico, from southern Nevada southward through southeast California and southwest Arizona (U.S.) to northeastern Baja California and eastern Sonora (Mexico).	eng
20493	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in sandy desert in low, flat areas, commonly in communities dominated by mesquite and creosotebush; it avoids rocky hills. It is also found in urban areas and parks.	eng
20493	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common to very common. For this species, densities vary with stage of life cycle, with reported numbers ranging from a January low of 40 individuals/ha to a high of 210 individuals/ha in early May when juveniles emerge from burrows. At a less crowded study site, density of a resident summer population averaged 5.3 individuals/ha.	eng
20493	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
20494	conservation	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas (approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia).	eng
20494	distribution	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Distributed in mountain forest-steppes and steppes from Southern Siberia and Altai (Russia) to Manchuria. Two isolated population in north, in Yakutia (S. u. jacuensis) and east of the range, between Amur and Burei Rivers in Russia and N Heilongjiang in China (S. u. menzbieri). In China distributed in Altai and Sayan mountains; Xinjiang, Altai mountains; Xinjiang, Tian Shan mountains. In Mongolia found in Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl and Hentii mountain ranges, as far south as Aj Bogd Massif in Trans Altai Govi Desert. Recently recorded in the northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.	eng
20494	habitat	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Inhabits semi-desert and mountain steppe habitats along the edge of forests. In China found in thinly wooded savannas and grassy steppes bordering the Gobi desert. In addition to grasslands, they occupy bushy terrain among oaks and white or black beech groves, alpine meadows, and wet areas along river valleys.  Lives in colonies with a labyrinth of burrows.  Burrows are characteristically 8-13 cm in diameter and surrounded by a large mound of soil (up to 2 m in diameter and 40 cm high)  Diurnally active; although most active at dawn and dusk. Diet consists of green vegetation and seeds, but also insects.  Before hibernating makes a store of vegetation to utilize following arousal.  Hibernates from October until late March/mid April.  Reproduce once per year in spring; litters of 3-9 young are produced following a 30 day gestation. Start mating on second year.	eng
20494	population	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	It is common and sometimes abundant species. Population size very much differs depending on the habitat. For example, in Transbaikalia in steppe river valleys population density is up to 250 burrows per ha (Badmaev, 1996). In Tuva it is about 100 burrows per ha (Ol'kova, 1962). In other habitats density is much lower, in wormwood and cereal steppe it is about 5 animals per ha, and in subalpine zone it is 1-2 animals per ha (Shilova and Savinetskaya, Biodiversity Conservation Centre web-site <www.biodiversity.ru>, in Russian).	eng
20494	threats	Shar, S. & Lkhagvasuren, D., 2008	Hunting for international trade in skins once occurred at high levels, between 1958 and 1960 it was estimated that as many as 418,400-551,000 individuals were killed annually (Stubbe, 1965). This activity is now believed to have ceased and no other threats are known to be impacting upon this species at present.	eng
20495	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
20495	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species distribution constitutes an extensive range in southwestern United States and Mexico, from eastern Nevada, Utah, and Colorado, south through west Texas (in the east) and southeast California (in the west) to southernmost Puebla, Mexico. It has been found from sea level to 2,900 m (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
20495	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in semi-arid areas, specifically among rocky canyons, cliffs, and hillsides. It is also found in urban areas.  Despite what is portrayed by most range maps, this species is unlikely to occur in sub-tropical forest on the western Mexican coastal plateau.<br/><br/>This species has food habits that tend towards buds, nuts, fruits, and seeds such as pinyon, wild lupine, acorns, juniper berries, grapes, and corn. It also feeds on grasshoppers, beetles, earthworms, and even young turkeys. Although the rock squirrel is largely a vegetarian, it will eat meat if the opportunity arises (Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>This squirrel tends to be colonial. Within a colony, there is a dominant male and a number of subordinant males. Females have one or two litters per year, depending on the length of the winter and gestation takes 1 to 1.5 months. Litters consist of one to seven young (typically four).	eng
20495	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is locally common (Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is colonial, with reported densities of 2.0 individuals/ha in marginal habitat and 5.7 individuals/ha in good habitat.	eng
20495	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
20496	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
20496	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Anatolian ground squirrels <em>Spermophilus xanthoprymnus</em> are distributed in Anatolian Turkey, extending marginally into Armenia and NW Iran.	eng
20496	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Open steppe habitat with short vegetation. Elevational range is approximately 800 to 2,700 m. In Turkey, the species lives in natural steppe, but sometimes occurs on rocky mountain slopes, and at the edge of grain fields (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). Hibernation starts at the end of August and is terminated in mid-February; hibernation may last 21 to 100 days (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). Mating takes place after emergence in February, with births occurring in April-July (litter size 1-6) (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006). One litter is produced each year and sexual maturity is attained after the first hibernation period (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
20496	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Population size has not been quantified. The population may be declining at a rate of approximately 20-25% over the last ten years as a result of habitat conversion for agriculture.	eng
20496	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Large scale agricultural expansion is the main threat. The species is considered a pest in Turkey, where it is found in agricultural areas (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).	eng
20521	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, it is considered to be vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has been recorded from protected areas in India like Namdapha National Park in Assam, Phambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim. In Southeast Asia it has been recorded from a number of protected areas. In South Asia, field surveys, population monitoring, habitat management and public awareness initiatives are immediate recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).]	eng
20521	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	This species ranges from northern South Asia, into southern China and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bhutan (Ganghlakha), India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China it is present in southern Xixang and eastern Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, there are records from Myanmar, northern Thailand and Viet Nam. It has been recorded from 308 to 2,710 m asl.	eng
20521	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	Little has been recorded about the habitat or ecology of this species other that it is known to inhabit bamboo forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
20521	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, although it is widespread, it is not a common species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, the species is little known, but is  believed to be most common in lower montane forests. It is uncommonly encountered in Southeast Asia.	eng
20521	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Csorba, G. & Francis, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is threatened by habitat loss largely through commercial harvest of bamboo (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There appear to be no major threats to the species in Southeast Asia. In China, the threats to this species are unclear although it may be threatened by ongoing habitat degradation.	eng
20599	conservation	Tavares, V. & Lewis, D., 2008	Further research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats is required. Maintain intact habitat.	eng
20599	distribution	Tavares, V. & Lewis, D., 2008	One Colombian record is from Santa Marta (Mantilla pers. comm.) 0-300 m in Colombia, 0-2,000 in Venezuela. This species occurs from Venezuela and eastern Colombia, east of the Andes, south to Amazonian Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and northwestern Brazil (Tirira, 1999). In Venezuela, specimens have been taken at up to 2,240 m (Handley, 1976). Bolivia records (MNH records reviewed  by Anderson 1997) Peru records (Angulo and Diaz, 2004).	eng
20599	habitat	Tavares, V. & Lewis, D., 2008	Strictly frugivorous. Habitat specialist, though it preferes primary habitat it has been found in secondary forest in Venezuela (Ochoa per comm). Poorly known. The species may follow gallery forest into dry habitats but is usually associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest, and may be able to tolerate man-made clearings. The diet of these bats in unknown, but it is probably primarily frugivorous (Gardner, 1977). A pregnant female was collected in Bolivia in October (Anderson and Webster, 1983).	eng
20599	population	Tavares, V. & Lewis, D., 2008	Low density throughout range but can be locally common in appropiate habitat. Is more abundant along flanks of the Cordillera la Costa (Ochoa pers com).	eng
20599	threats	Tavares, V. & Lewis, D., 2008	Restricted to appropriate habitat. The species is affected by habitat loss in some parts of its range, although this is not considered a major threat.	eng
20600	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Not located in a formal protected area.	eng
20600	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Only ever recorded from Lake Dianchi. However, it is possible that this species survives in springs and tributaries near to the lake due to the better environmental quality.	eng
20600	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	There is no sexual dimorphism between male and female.	eng
20600	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	The only location known is the Dianchi Lake. The population size is unknown.	eng
20600	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
20612	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
20613	conservation	Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
20629	conservation	Pino, J., Vázquez, E., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is listed under CITES Appendix III in Honduras (Reid 1997). Occurs in several protected areas in its range.	eng
20629	distribution	Pino, J., Vázquez, E., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This species occurs from San Luis Potosi and Yucatan, Mexico to western Panama (Emmons and Feer 1997; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It can be found from lowlands to 3,200 m (Reid 1997).	eng
20629	habitat	Pino, J., Vázquez, E., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This porcupine can be found at middle and high elevation in all forest types, including disturbed forest and second growth. At low elevations it seems to favor seasonally dry habitats (Pacific Slope and Yucatan Peninsula) (Reid 1997). This species is uncommon or rare in wet evergreen forests of Atlantic lowlands (Reid 1997).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal in habit; it seems to be most active on dark nights. It is mainly arboreal, but descends to the ground to cross roads ands clearings; its prehensile tail is usually coiled around a large branch. It is usually solitary and silent, but during the breeding season it calls with loud yowls and screams. During the day it sleeps in hollow trees or on leafy branches. It feeds on seeds, fruit, buds, and young leaves, particularly those of <em>Inga</em>, <em>Cecropia</em>, <em>Ficus</em>, and <em>Brosimum</em> trees. Females usually have one young (Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986; Reid 1997).	eng
20629	population	Pino, J., Vázquez, E., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is locally common and widespread in most habitats; but is uncommon to rare in wet evergreen forest (Reid 1997).	eng
20629	threats	Pino, J., Vázquez, E., Reid, F. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	It is hunted in some areas and often killed by traffic (Reid 1997). There are no major threats throughout the species range.	eng
20630	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species has been included in CITES Appendix III since 1976 (Uruguay).	eng
20630	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in southern and eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Uruguay and Misiones province, Argentina (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
20630	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in wide range of habitats, including Cerrado, Pantanal and Atlantic Forest. In lowland tropical rainforest it occurs in primary forest, there is a possibility that mature secondary growth might be inhabited (Voss in litt., 2006).	eng
20630	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is locally common, found in secondary forest canopy and near human communities.	eng
20630	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
20631	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species and it thought that none are needed at this time.	eng
20631	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic coastal region of eastern Brazil (Catzeflis in litt., 2006).	eng
20631	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species inhabits Atlantic forest where it occurs in primary forest, but is more common in secondary forest and forest borders; it is occasionally found near urban areas. It is nocturnal and arboreal, occurring mainly in the canopy (Y. Leite pers. comm.) and is frugivourous as well as feeding on ant pupae, cultivated vegetables and roots.	eng
20631	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This porcupine is locally common.	eng
20631	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time. The species is not known to be hunted for food (Voss in litt., 2006).	eng
20633	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Further surveys are needed in distribution, threats, status and ecological requirements.	eng
20633	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, it is known only from two definite localities in the western foothills of the eastern Andean cordillera, about 60 km WNW of Bogotá at about 1,300 m asl (Voss and da Silva, 2001; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
20633	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This porcupine is nocturnal and arboreal. It feeds on leaves, shoots, and fruits. Nothing has apparently been recorded about the habitats or behavior of this species, but the natural vegetation at the two localities where specimens are definitely known to have been collected was probably lower montane moist forest (Voss and da Silva, 2001). The individual captured near to Villa de Lleyva was found in a fruit tree in a plantation (D. Perico pers. comm.).	eng
20633	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is known from only a few individuals (Voss and da Silva, 2001). The species has been recently captured, identified from photographic evidence (D. Perico pers. comm.). Prior to this no specimens of this species had been recorded since 1925, and it was thought that the species may have been extirpated from its known range (Voss and da Silva, 2001). They are difficult to survey.	eng
20633	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unfortunately, habitat destruction is virtually complete in this part of Colombia, and it is possible that the species has been extirpated (Voss and da Silva, 2001).	eng
20634	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species. It is not known if any are needed.	eng
20634	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais states, Brazil (Bonvicino, 2002; 831091).	eng
20634	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is present in Atlantic forest habitat, it occurs in primary forest, but is more common in secondary forest and forest borders; it is occasionally found near urban areas. It is nocturnal and arboreal, occurring mainly in the canopy and has a folivorous diet (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
20634	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This porcupine is locally common.	eng
20634	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
20636	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
20636	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This widespread species is found through much of the southern Moluccan Islands (Indonesia), including Buru, Seram, Banda, and Ambon (possibly introduced to these islands); it is present on the islands of Misool and Yapen, the Kai Islands and the Aru Islands (all Indonesia); it is distributed over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); and is present on the Cape York Peninsula, north of Coen, in Australia. It has been introduced to the islands of Mussau and New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), and to Salayer Island, south of Sulawesi, Indonesia (George 1987). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
20636	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is an arboreal and nocturnal species, found in primary, secondary, and disturbed tropical moist forest. It has additionally been recorded in mangrove forest. Females are believed to rear a single young (Winter and Leung 1995).	eng
20636	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a locally common lowland species.	eng
20636	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally hunted for food and skins in parts of its range (e.g., New Guinea).	eng
20637	conservation	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, although there is a wildlife management area on Manus. Populations of this species should be closely monitored.<br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
20637	distribution	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Admiralty Island group of Papua New Guinea. It is present on the islands of Manus, Lou and Luf, and Wuvulu; it is extinct on Baluan; the species may also occur on Ninigo (Flannery 1995). It has also been recorded on or just off New Britain Island twice, but these specimens could have originated from Manus (Helgen and Flannery 2004).	eng
20637	habitat	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	The species has been recorded from almost mature forest to traditional gardens on Manus (Flannery 1995). It is an arboreal species with an annual breeding cycle.	eng
20637	population	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It is common on Manus. The subpopulation on Baluan was presumably extirpated through overhunting. Its status on other islands is not well known.	eng
20637	threats	Helgen, K., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	Although this species is able to tolerate degraded habitats (occurring in rural gardens), there is continuing decline in habitat quality. It is commonly hunted and eaten over much of its range; the species may also be widely traded to other islands. The species appears to be common on Manus in the face of hunting pressure (Flannery 1995). However, increasing human population pressures and the low fecundity of this relatively long-lived animal coupled with the declines in habitat and hunting pressure are cause for concern (particularly in the future).	eng
20638	conservation	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species has been recorded from a protected area, Pulau Waigeo Nature Reserve. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
20638	distribution	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Waigeo Island off the coast of New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia), although it might be present also on Batanta Island (not mapped) (Helgen 2007).	eng
20638	habitat	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary or disturbed tropical moist forest. There are few details available about the natural history of this species.	eng
20638	population	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is fairly common on Waigeo, even in disturbed habitat.	eng
20638	threats	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is hunted for food by local people. It is unclear if this island is presently experiencing deforestation. If hunting were to increase markedly or if large-scale deforestation operations were to come to Waigeo, the status of this species could rapidly deteriorate.	eng
20639	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Indonesia and a management area in Papua New Guinea. There is a need to conserve important populations of this species. Public awareness and hunting restrictions will be essential for the conservation of this species. Further research into its numbers, distribution, ecology, threats, harvest levels, and conservation measures are all important.	eng
20639	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is widespread, though patchily distributed, in the northern part of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Most of the records are very old. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl.	eng
20639	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species prefers primary lowland and lower-montane tropical forests. It is also less commonly found in secondary forest. It is most likely nocturnal (L. Salas pers. comm.).	eng
20639	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	<em>Spilocuscus rufoniger</em> is a rare species. It has been extirpated from parts of its range through overhunting and its intolerance to human disturbance.	eng
20639	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is threatened by preferential hunting by local people for food and cultural reasons, and also by conversion of forest to cultivated land. While it has declined where it comes into contact with people, a large part of its range is uninhabited. The west Papuan area has been impacted by the influx of Javan people, and large areas of habitat have been transformed by agriculture. There are also logging concessions and oil palm activities planned for parts of the area.	eng
20687	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Occurs in Lake Lanao.	eng
20688	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is known from Horton Plains National Park, Knuckles Range Forest Reserve in Central Province; Delwala Forest Reserve and Sinharaja Forest Reserve in Sabaragamuwa Province. Survey, life history studies and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
20688	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka, known from a few fragmented locations in Central Province, Sabaragamuwa Province and Uva Province at elevations ranging from 915 to 2,310 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
20688	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and fossorial species. It occurs in lowland and montane evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
20688	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20688	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agriculture, clear-cutting, forest fire in Horton Plains, undergrowth clearing in Knuckles Range, and predation by domestic carnivores have been observed to be the major threats for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005).	eng
20713	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
20713	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC)	eng
20713	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in sandy substrates, 3-30 m.	eng
20713	population	Lange, C., 2004	Numerous trails visible in clear sandy areas, thus when present population densities are likely to be high.	eng
20713	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Sedimentation is the prime threat suggested for the species from Tanzania.	eng
20715	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
20716	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
20717	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	The range of this species does not include any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
20717	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known from only two localities; the type locality of Wenchi in central-western Ghana, and from Ibadan, in south-western Nigeria (Anedu). It has been recorded at around 100 m asl.	eng
20717	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It has only been found in cropland.	eng
20717	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
20717	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, however, it is found in agricultural land suggesting that is reasonably adaptable.	eng
20718	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The range of the species includes protected areas.	eng
20718	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in West Africa from the coast of Senegal through to north-western Nigeria, including northern Benin, Togo, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, southern Burkina Faso and southwestern Mali. It has been recorded from 200 to 600 m asl.	eng
20718	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This is a small, noctural grassland species. It can also be found in agricultural areas.	eng
20718	population	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is not generally a common species. The species is usually found in low densities, but the population numbers fluctuate.	eng
20718	threats	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is eaten in some parts of its range but this is not considered to be a significant threat.	eng
20719	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The range of the species includes protected areas, at least in Senegal.	eng
20719	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs from the coast of Senegal, through southern Niger, Burkina Faso and northern Benin, to northwestern Nigeria. It has been recorded between 200 and 600 m asl.	eng
20719	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of grassland with interrupted shrubs.	eng
20719	population	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is generally not a common species. The species is usually found in low densities, but the population numbers fluctuate.	eng
20719	threats	Schlitter, D. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is eaten in some parts of its range but this is not considered to be a significant threat.	eng
20720	conservation	Monadjem, A. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The northern part of the range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
20720	distribution	Monadjem, A. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution across southern Africa. It is known from coastal south-western South Africa, north-eastern South Africa, southwestern Angola, and from eastern Angola, western Zambia and northern Botswana.	eng
20720	habitat	Monadjem, A. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats. In the southern part of its range it occurs in Meditteranean type shrubby vegetation, in the middle it occurs in high altitude shrubland, then in the north it occurs in higher altitude grassland.	eng
20720	population	Monadjem, A. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population abundance as the species appears to be "trap shy".	eng
20720	threats	Monadjem, A. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20721	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
20721	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The species occurs in a few disjunct populations in East Africa and Southern Africa. In East Africa, it ranges from southern Sudan and Ethiopia into Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania, possibly being found in adjacent Rwanda. In Southern Africa, it has been recorded from central Zambia, into northwestern Zimbabwe, northeastern Namibia and northern Botswana, with a disjunct population recorded from southwestern Angola, and an seemingly isolated record from northeastern Mozambique. It occurs up to about 1,000 m asl.	eng
20721	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This is a grassland, or dry savanna, species that might also occur in agricultural areas.	eng
20721	population	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population abundance as the species appears to be "trap shy".	eng
20721	threats	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
20722	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
20722	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of this species, as it is currently taxonomically defined, ranges over parts of Central Africa from Cameroon in the west, through Central Africa and northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to southern Sudan; disjunctly in southern Tanzania and northern Malawi; and from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, through much of Southern Africa, as far south as northeastern South Africa and Swaziland. It occurs from sea level to 1,500 m asl.	eng
20722	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	This is an open savanna, grassland species.	eng
20722	population	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
20722	threats	Schlitter, D. & Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
20729	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Spotted dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery, are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001).<br/><br/>As the species comprises several subspecies and regional populations, the conservation status of each of these should be assessed separately since the available estimates of abundance and removals suggest that some of them may fall into a Threatened category.	eng
20729	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<em>S. a. attenuata</em> is pantropical, found in all oceans between about 40°N and 40°S, although it is much more abundant in the lower-latitude portions of its range. The range extends to some enclosed seas, such as the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, but does not include the Mediterranean Sea (Perrin 2001, 2002).<br/><br/><em>S. a. graffmani</em> – The coastal spotted dolphin is found only in a narrow band (<200 km wide) along the coast of Latin America, from southern Mexico to Peru (Perrin 2001; Escorza-Treviño <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent genetic data suggest there may be several populations contained within this subspecies (Escorza-Treviño <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20729	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	In the eastern Pacific the pantropical spotted dolphin is an inhabitant of the tropical, equatorial and southern subtropical water masses. The waters in which the animal occurs with greatest frequency are those underlain by a sharp thermocline at depths of less than 50 m and with surface temperatures over 25°C and salinities less than 34 parts per thousand. These conditions prevail year round in the region north of the Equator called the "Inner Tropical" waters of the eastern Pacific. Occurrence in this core habitat is correlated with apparent multi-species foraging and feeding behaviour. The species also occurs in similar waters south of the Equator that expand and contract greatly with season and year to year (Perrin and Hohn 1994). In the Atlantic, <em>S. attenuata</em> is primarily a dolphin of the high seas and oceanic islands, but in the eastern Pacific a large-bodied subspecies occurs along the coast from Mexico to Peru. Detailed analysis of oceanographic correlates of distribution will be necessary in order to understand fully the habitat requirements of these pelagic dolphins, often the most conspicuous elements of tropical cetacean communities around the world (Ballance and Pitman 1998).<br/> <br/>Offshore spotted dolphins feed largely on small epi- and mesopelagic fishes, squids, and crustaceans that associate with the deep scattering layer (Robertson and Chivers 1997). In some areas, flying fish are also important prey. The diet of the coastal form is poorly known, but is thought to consist mainly of larger fishes, perhaps mainly bottom-living species (Perrin 2001, 2002).	eng
20729	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	In the eastern Pacific, there were an estimated 228,038 coastal spotted dolphins in 2000 (CV=34%; Gerrodette and Forcada 2002a). The north-eastern offshore spotted dolphin (the form most affected by the ETP tuna fishery) numbered about 737,000 in 2003 (CV=15%; Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005), a reduction of 76% from original size in 1959 (Reilly <em>et al</em>. 2005). This population is not showing clear signs of recovery despite the dramatic decline in mortality in recent years (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). The western/southern offshore stock (which is less affected by the fishery) numbered about 876,075 in 2000 (CV=31%; Gerrodette and Forcada 2002b). In Hawaiian waters, there are an estimated 8,978 (CV=48%) (Barlow 2006). About 438,000 inhabited Japanese waters in the early 1990s (Miyashita 1993). There are estimated to be 34,067 (CV=18%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Mullin 2006), and 4,439 (CV=49%) along the east coast of the United States (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dolar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated about 14,930 (CV=41%) for the eastern Sulu Sea and 640 (CV=27%) for the Tañon Strait between the islands of Negros and Cebu.	eng
20729	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Offshore spotted dolphins bore the brunt of the massive dolphin kill by tuna seiners from the late 1950s to the 1980s in the eastern Pacific (although the coastal subspecies was also impacted). For example, in the period 1959 to 1972, nearly five million dolphins were killed, and of this number, about three million were from the north-eastern offshore population (Wade 1995). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the combined annual mortality for all spotted dolphins in the ETP has decreased greatly, e.g. to only 373 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the north-eastern form appears to be recovering very slowly, if at all, and potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al</em>. 2001), possible mortality by small vessels that do not carry observers, under-reporting of mortality, and ecosystem change, have been suggested as possible reasons for the species’ slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). <br/><br/>Spotted dolphins are also taken incidentally in local fisheries along the Central American coast (Palacios and Gerrodette 1996).<br/><br/>Yang <em>et al</em>. (1999) also reported incidental mortality in Chinese fisheries, and Dolar 1994 found incidental spotted dolphin takes in the Philippines. An unknown but suspected large number of pantropical spotted dolphins are taken by the large-mesh pelagic driftnet fishery off eastern Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Japan takes large numbers of spotted dolphins for human consumption. The catch in 1982 was 3,799, and annual catches between 1994 and 1997 ranged from 23 to 449 (Perrin 2002). Between 1995 and 2004, the average annual catch was 129 animals (Kasuya 2007). The drive fishery for spotted dolphins began in 1959 and is thought to have caused a slight decline in the minimum age at attainment of sexual maturity in females (Kasuya 1985). <br/><br/>Pantropical spotted dolphins are also taken in hand-harpoon fisheries in the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994); in Taiwan, where it is the locally preferred species of cetacean for human consumption (J. Wang pers. comm.); and regularly or opportunistically by gillnet and harpoon in India and Sri Lanka (Perrin and Hohn 1994). Drive hunts at Malaita in the Solomon Islands took several hundred or thousands of spotted dolphins annually in the 1960s; the hunts continue at present (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kahn 2006). Small numbers are taken in numerous small subsistence fisheries for dolphins and whales around the world, e.g. at St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles (Perrin and Hohn 1994) and Lamalera in Indonesia (Kahn 2004). Most of these kills have not been adequately monitored and the effects on the subpopulations are usually not known. <br/><br/>Dolphins and small whales of several species, including <em>S. attenuata</em>, putatively interfere in hook-and-line fisheries for squid and yellowtail in the Iki Island region of Japan (Kishiro and Kasuya 1993). Bounties have been paid to fishermen for dolphins killed since 1957. During the period 1976-1982 a total of 538 spotted dolphins were killed. The effect of these takes on the regional population is not known (Perrin and Hohn 1994).	eng
20730	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Further research should be conducted on subpopulation structure, abundance and takes in West African waters, where by-catch has evolved into directed take.	eng
20730	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The Clymene dolphin is found only in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species has a notable warm-water preference, although there are records as far north as New Jersey on the U.S. east coast and as far south as southern Brazil (Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The limits on the West African coast are not well known, but extend from at least the equator north to Mauritania. The Clymene dolphin is not known to enter the Mediterranean Sea (Perrin and Mead 1994, Jefferson and Curry 2003, Fertl <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
20730	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This is a deep-water, oceanic species, not often seen near shore (unless deep water approaches the coast). <br/><br/>Very few stomachs have been examined, and there are even fewer observations of feeding behavior reported in the literature. Clymene dolphins apparently feed predominantly on small fish (including myctophids) and squid at moderate depths (Jefferson and Curry 2003).	eng
20730	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Abundance has only been estimated for the northern Gulf of Mexico and US east coast (6,575 (CV=36%) and 6,086 (CV=93%), respectively -- Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, considering the difficulty of distinguishing it from similarly marked species at sea, it may not be as rare as it would seem to be (Perrin and Mead 1994). Based on capture records, <em>S. clymene</em> appears to be the most common cetacean in Ghana's coastal waters (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
20730	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Although they are known to be taken by harpoon occasionally in dolphin fisheries in the Caribbean (especially St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles), and incidental captures in fishing nets do occur throughout much of the range, the Clymene dolphin is not known to suffer any heavy exploitation at present (Jefferson and Curry 2003). The only possible exception may be off the coast of West Africa, where this species is possibly one of several taken in large numbers in tuna purse seines in the Gulf of Guinea (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Clymene dolphins are captured incidentally in gillnets in Venezuelan waters and utilized for longline shark bait and for human consumption (Perrin and Mead 1994).	eng
20731	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Striped dolphins are one of the main small cetacean species involved in small cetacean harpoon and drive fisheries in Japanese waters. The impact of these takes on the populations should be reassessed.<br/><br/>The current ban on driftnet fishing in the Mediterranean should be implemented and enforced as a matter of priority.	eng
20731	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The western Mediterranean subpopulation is included in Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species. Further research should be focused on stock identity and abundance, the effects of direct and incidental mortality, and the effects of pollutants and other sources of habitat disturbance on dolphin subpopulations, in particular in the western Mediterranean (Reyes 1991).	eng
20731	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This is a widely-distributed species, found in tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, as well as many adjacent seas, including the Mediterranean. Northern and southern range limits are about 50°N and 40°S, although there are extralimital records from the Kamchatka Peninsula, southern Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Prince Edward Islands. They are uncommon in the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, off eastern Taiwan and Ryukyuan waters, and a few extralimital records are known from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.	eng
20731	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This is a widely-distributed species, found tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, as well as many adjacent seas, including the Mediterranean. Northern and southern range limits are about 50°N and 40°S, although there are extra-limital records from the Kamchatka Peninsula, southern Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Prince Edward Islands. They are uncommon in the Sea of Japan, East China Sea, off eastern Taiwan and Ryukyuan waters, and a few extra-limital records are known from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.	eng
20731	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Striped dolphins are primarily found in warm temperate and tropical oceanic regions and are seen close to shore only where deep water approaches the coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). In the North Pacific they are associated with oligotrophic waters of the central North Pacific gyre and with more productive regions associated with upwelling areas in the eastern tropical Pacific and along the edges of the California and Kuroshio Current systems (Miyazaki <em>et al</em>. 1974; Reilly 1990; Archer and Perrin 1999; Balance <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the western North Atlantic, striped dolphins appear to prefer continental slope waters offshore of the Gulf Stream (Leatherwood <em>et al</em>. 1976; Schmidly 1981; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). In the Mediterranean, striped dolphins are associated with highly productive, oceanic waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 1993; Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1994; Frantzis <em>et al</em>. 2003; Gannier 2005). Off South Africa, the species is oceanic, occurring beyond the continental shelf at depths of over 1,000 m, and its distribution is correlated with the warm Agulhas Current (Ross 1984).<br/><br/>The diet of the striped dolphin consists primarily of a wide variety of small, midwater and pelagic or benthopelagic fish, especially lanternfish, cod, and squids (Wurtz and Marrale 1993; Hassani <em>et al</em>. 1997; Archer 2002). Striped dolphins apparently feed in pelagic to benthopelagic zones, to depths as deep as 200-700 m, in continental slope or oceanic regions.	eng
20731	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Striped dolphins are primarily found in warm temperate and tropical oceanic regions and are seen close to shore only where deep water approaches the coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Strait of Gibraltar, they are found in waters of 600 m or more depth (Hashmi 1990).  In the Mediterranean, striped dolphins are associated with highly productive, oceanic waters beyond the continental shelf (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1993, Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994, Frantzis <em>et al.</em> 2003, Gannier 2005). <br/><br/>The diet of striped dolphins consists primarily of a wide variety of small, midwater and pelagic or benthopelagic fish, especially lanternfish, cod, and squids (Wurtz and Marrale 1993, Hassani <em>et al.</em> 1997, Archer 2002). Striped dolphins apparently feed in pelagic to benthopelagic zones, to depths as deep as 200-700m, in continental slope or oceanic regions.	eng
20731	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Based on sighting data in 1983-91, the total striped dolphin abundance for several populations in the western North Pacific was estimated as 570,000 (CV = 19%; Miyashita 1993). Two areas of concentration of striped dolphins in the western North Pacific were identified. The first, estimated to comprise about 52,682 animals (CV = 95%), was found between 20° and 30°N. The second, a large concentration of around 497,725 (CV = 18%) animals, was located between 30° and 40°N. Relatively few striped dolphins (about 19,631; CV = 70%) were present in the nearshore waters off Japan (Kasuya 1999). In the coastal portion of this range, the population has probably been depleted by directed takes (Kasuya 1999); however, questions of population identity remain (IWC 1994). In the eastern tropical Pacific, the most recent population estimate from a 2003 line-transect survey was 1,470,854 (CV=15%) (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005) Abundance estimates within 555 km (300 nautical miles) of the U. S. West Coast have averaged about 19,000 (CV = 28%) between 1991-2005 (Barlow and Forney, in press). An estimated 13,143 (CV=46%) occur in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). Balance and Pitman (1998) found that <em>S. coeruleoalba</em> was the second-most abundant species sighted in the western tropical Indian Ocean (14% of all cetaceans, compared 33% for the eastern tropical Pacific and 10% for the Gulf of Mexico). <br/><br/>Striped dolphins are the most abundant cetacean in the Mediterranean. The population in the western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea was estimated in 1991 to be 117,880 (95%CI=68,379-214,800) (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 1994). There is no estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Goujon (1996) conducted a sighting survey in 1993 in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in the Bay of Biscay and estimated the abundance of striped dolphins as 74,000. During 2003-2004, there were an estimated 3,325 (CV=48%) in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 94,462 (CV=40%) in the western North Atlantic off the US east coast (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are isolated from each other, with little or no gene flow across the Strait of Gibraltar (Calzada and Aguilar 1995; García-Martínez <em>et al</em>. 1995; Archer 1997; Gaspari 2004). Within the Mediterranean there is some evidence of population structure based on restriction in gene flow between areas and significant differences in tissue pollutant levels (Calzada and Aguilar 1995; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Gaspari 2004).	eng
20731	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Striped dolphins are the most abundant cetacean species in the Mediterranean. The population in the western Mediterranean excluding the Tyrrhenian Sea was estimated in 1991 to be 117,880 dolphins (95%CI=68,379-214,800) (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994). There is no estimate for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Goujon (1996) conducted a sighting survey in 1993 in the fishing grounds of the albacore tuna driftnet fishery in the Bay of Biscay and estimated the abundance of striped dolphins as 74,000 individuals.  <br/><br/>Morphological and genetic studies strongly suggest that the Mediterranean and eastern North Atlantic populations are isolated from each other, with little or no gene flow across the Strait of Gibraltar (Calzada and Aguilar 1995, García-Martínez <em>et al.</em> 1995, Archer 1997,  Gaspari 2004). Within the Mediterranean there is some evidence of population structure based on restriction in gene flow between areas and significant differences in tissue pollutant levels (Calzada and Aguilar 1995, Monaci <em>et al.</em> 1998, Gaspari 2004).	eng
20731	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	In the Mediterranean small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines. Despite being illegal, catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). In the Northeast Atlantic, striped dolphins were harpooned to supply food for consumption on board or to scare them away from tuna trolling lines.  It is difficult to ascertain the number of dolphins taken in this way, but it has been estimated in the thousands (Reyes 1991).<br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets. The high-seas drift gillnet fisheries, which operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about  35?N and 47?N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium went into effect in January 1993.  Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993).  During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al.</em> 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al.</em> 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread and likely significant (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are also a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al.</em> (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90% composed of <em>Delphinus delphis</em> and <em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to 1.8% for the striped dolphin (this estimate must be increased by 30% in order to take into account the whole European albacore tuna driftnet fishery). <br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Monaci <em>et al.</em> 1998, Aguilar 2000, Cardellicchio <em>et al.</em> 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT (an agricultural pesticide) and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson<em> et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al.</em> 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). Immediately after the event, the mean school size was found to be less than one third of prior levels, which may be interpreted as indicating a proportional reduction in overall population size (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 1994).  The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al.</em> 1990) but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Blanco <em>et al.</em> 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-1992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000).	eng
20731	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The largest directed catches have occurred in Japanese waters, in drive and hand-harpoon fisheries at several locations that date back to at least the Meiji period (1868-1912). Catch statistics are incomplete before 1978, but annual recorded takes exceeded 15,000-20,000 striped dolphins in some years. Catches were reduced beginning in 1981 and have since varied between 358 (in 1987) and 4,783 (1981), averaging 2,512 during the period 1981-89. Between 1988-1994, the average catch was 1,045 (Kasuya 1999). The average take between 1995-2004 was 502 individuals (Kasuya 2007), and there has been an annual quota of 725 since 1993 (through 2006). Fragmented information on morphology, life history, pollutant levels and genetics suggests that the striped dolphins taken by Japanese fisheries are from more than one subpopulation, with varying proportions among fisheries and perhaps over time (IWC 1993). <br/><br/>In Taiwan, some striped dolphins are harpooned opportunistically (John Wang pers. comm.). Striped dolphins are also taken in the drive fishery at Malaita in the Solomon Islands (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003) and by harpoon and gillnet in Sri Lanka and St. Vincent (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ilangakoon <em>et al</em>. 2000a&b). Other such small indigenous fisheries may exist elsewhere. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines (Reyes 1991). Illegal catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001; Aguilar 2006). <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets, including in the northeastern Indian Ocean, the eastern tropical Pacific, the north-eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean, in the North Pacific, off the coast of Japan, and in other coastal large-mesh pelagic driftnet and pelagic longline fisheries (Archer and Perrin 1999). Bycatch probably also occurs in similar fisheries in tropical and warm-temperate waters around the world. Although rare, striped dolphins have been caught in the Natal shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>High-seas drift gillnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium came into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90 % composed of Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality rate linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to be 1.8% for the striped dolphin. In the southwest Atlantic, by-catch of <em>S. coeruleoalba</em> was noted by Zerbini and Kotas (1998) off Brazil.<br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Cardellicchio <em>et al</em>. 2000; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Aguilar 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson <em>et al</em>. 1988). Extremely high concentrations of heavy metals, DDT and PCBs are also reported in specimens from Japan (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1983). The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al</em>. 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 1990), but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Pulcini <em>et al</em>. 1993; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991; Aguilar 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-19992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000). <br/><br/>In 2004 and 2005, two series of unusual strandings in Taiwan included striped dolphins (Wang and Yang 2007). The cause(s) of the deaths of these animals have not been determined but it is likely that human (but non-fishing) activities were responsible. The largest directed catches have occurred in Japanese waters, in drive and hand-harpoon fisheries at several locations that date back to at least the Meiji period (1868-1912). Catch statistics are incomplete before 1978, but annual recorded takes exceeded 15,000-20,000 striped dolphins in some years. Catches were reduced beginning in 1981 and have since varied between 358 (in 1987) and 4,783 (1981), averaging 2,512 during the period 1981-89. Between 1988-1994, the average catch was 1,045 (Kasuya 1999). The average take between 1995-2004 was 502 individuals (Kasuya 2007), and there has been an annual quota of 725 since 1993 (through 2006). Fragmented information on morphology, life history, pollutant levels and genetics suggests that the striped dolphins taken by Japanese fisheries are from more than one subpopulation, with varying proportions among fisheries and perhaps over time (IWC 1993). <br/><br/>In Taiwan, some striped dolphins are harpooned opportunistically (J. Wang pers. comm.). Striped dolphins are also taken in the drive fishery at Malaita in the Solomon Islands (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2003) and by harpoon and gillnet in Sri Lanka and St. Vincent (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ilangakoon <em>et al</em>. 2000a&b). Other such small indigenous fisheries may exist elsewhere. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic small numbers were taken in Spain, France and Italy for human consumption. They were also hunted for use as bait for shrimp traps and longlines (Reyes 1991). Illegal catches continue in southern Spain and probably in other areas (SGFEN 2001; Aguilar 2006). <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur throughout the range in various types of fishing gear, especially purse seines and gillnets, including in the northeastern Indian Ocean, the eastern tropical Pacific, the north-eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean, in the North Pacific, off the coast of Japan, and in other coastal large-mesh pelagic driftnet and pelagic longline fisheries (Archer and Perrin 1999). Bycatch probably also occurs in similar fisheries in tropical and warm-temperate waters around the world. Although rare, striped dolphins have been caught in the Natal shark nets in South Africa (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>High-seas drift gillnet fisheries operated throughout the central and western North Pacific between about 35˚N and 47˚N, increased during the 1970s, and peaked during the 1980s before a United Nations moratorium came into effect in January 1993. Bycatch estimates are only available for 1990, when about 3,000 striped dolphins were estimated killed (Hobbs and Jones 1993). During the 1970s and 1980s, the combined high-seas driftnet fisheries likely killed tens of thousands of striped dolphins, but this level would not have been high enough to cause population declines (Hobbs and Jones 1993).<br/><br/>Incidental captures in pelagic driftnets have been a major source of mortality all over the western Mediterranean in the past. These nets are still being illegally used, e.g. by Moroccan, French, Italian and Turkish vessels, resulting in extensive dolphin mortality. The Spanish driftnet fishery in the Alborán Sea reportedly killed 145-183 striped dolphins per season in the early 1990s (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999); this fishery was halted in 1995 but the nets were transferred to Moroccan boats, which continue operating and are estimated to kill in the order of 1,555-2,092 striped dolphins per year (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Italian driftnet fishery has been reported to kill 5,000-15,000 dolphins, mostly striped dolphins, per year (Di Natale 1992). The French thonaille driftnet fishery has been estimated to take about 180-472 striped dolphins per season (Imbert <em>et al</em>. 2001). Reports from other fishing activities are sparse and collected non-systematically, but they indicate that striped dolphin mortality in at least pelagic purse-seines, longlines and gillnets is widespread (Di Natale and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1994). <br/><br/>Large incidental kills in pelagic trawl and driftnet fisheries off western Europe are a source of concern (IWC 1998, Tregenza and Collet 1998). Antoine <em>et al</em>. (2001) found that by-catch rates in the tuna drift-net fishery in the northeastern Atlantic were 90 % composed of Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba. Mean catch rate by trip in 1992-1993 years were 4.7 striped dolphins per km of net and per day. Such rates are similar to those estimated in other driftnet fisheries. Goujon (1996) estimated the annual additional mortality rate linked to driftnets in the Bay of Biscay albacore tuna fishery to be 1.8% for the striped dolphin. In the southwest Atlantic, by-catch of S. coeruleoalba was noted by Zerbini and Kotas (1998) off Brazil.<br/><br/>Tissue levels of organochlorine compounds, some heavy metals and selenium in Mediterranean striped dolphins are high and exceed threshold levels above which detrimental effects commonly appear in mammals (Cardellicchio <em>et al</em>. 2000; Monaci <em>et al</em>. 1998; Aguilar 2000). Organochlorine pollutants, in particular, are found at levels that greatly exceed thresholds of reproductive impairment in bottlenose dolphins elsewhere (Aguilar 2006). Blubber concentrations of DDT and PCB, the two main organochlorine pollutants, have been slowly declining in the last two decades (Aguilar and Borrell 2005) but are still high. High PCB levels have the potential to depress reproductive rates in striped dolphins (Munson <em>et al</em>. 1988). Extremely high concentrations of heavy metals, DDT and PCBs are also reported in specimens from Japan (Tanabe <em>et al</em>. 1983). The 1990-92 epizootic devastated the whole Mediterranean population of striped dolphins, producing many thousands of deaths (Bortolotto <em>et al</em>. 1992, Aguilar and Raga 1993). The primary cause of the die-off was a morbillivirus infection (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 1990), but PCBs and other organochlorine pollutants with potential for immunosuppressive effects may have triggered the event or enhanced its spread and lethality (Aguilar and Borrell 1994). <br/><br/>Commercially exploited fish and cephalopod species are important components of striped dolphin diet in the Mediterranean (Pulcini <em>et al</em>. 1993; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 1995). As many stocks of important striped dolphin prey (e.g. the European anchovy) are known to have been depleted, reduced prey availability resulting from conflict with commercial fisheries is considered a potentially important threat (Reyes 1991; Aguilar 2006) and may have contributed to the 1990-19992 epizootic (Aguilar 2000). <br/><br/>In 2004 and 2005, two series of unusual strandings in Taiwan included striped dolphins (Wang and Yang 2007). The cause(s) of the deaths of these animals have not been determined but it is likely that human (but non-fishing) activities were responsible.	eng
20732	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Abundance and bycatch in fisheries off West Africa should be investigated.	eng
20732	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	This species is found only in the Atlantic Ocean, from southern Brazil to the United States (New England) in the west, and to the coast of Africa in the east (the exact limits off West Africa are not well known – Perrin 2002a,b). A discontinuity in the range of the species exists in the western South Atlantic Ocean (Moreno <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
20732	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Distribution is mostly over the offshore continental shelf, but these dolphins also inhabit deep oceanic waters. The species is known from far-offshore Gulf-stream waters and the mid-tropical Atlantic (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1987). The large, heavily spotted form of the Atlantic spotted dolphin along the south-eastern and Gulf coasts of the United States inhabits the continental shelf, usually being found inside or near the 200 m isobath (within 250-350 km of the coast), but sometimes coming into very shallow water adjacent to the beach seasonally, perhaps in pursuit of migratory fish (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1987). In the Bahamas, Atlantic spotted dolphins spend much time in shallow water (6-12 m) over sand flats. The smaller and less-spotted forms that inhabit more pelagic offshore waters and waters around oceanic islands are less well known in their habitat requirements (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Jefferson and Schiro 1997. In the north-central and western Gulf of Mexico. Atlantic spotted dolphins were consistently found in the shallowest waters on the continental shelf and along the shelf break within the 250-m isobath (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1998). In addition, the bottom depth gradient (sea floor slope) was less for Atlantic spotted dolphins than for any other species.<br/><br/>A wide variety of epi- and mesopelagic fishes and squids, as well as benthic invertebrates, are taken by this species (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are known to be some regional differences in diet.	eng
20732	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Data from surveys in the 1990s were used to estimate abundance in the northern Gulf of Mexico at 30,947 (CV=27%), although NMFS considers this an underestimate due to survey limitations (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are no data available from West Africa, but the few records available suggest that it is either not abundant or that it has an offshore distribution there (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). A geographically and possibly genetically isolated population may occur off southern Brazil from 21-33°S (Moreno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20732	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	No direct killing is known, other than occasional catches in small Caribbean dolphin fisheries, possible off West Africa and possibly in the Azores (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>Incidental catches in fisheries are known for several areas of the range (Brazil, the Caribbean, off the east coast of the United States, and in Mauritania). Some are probably also taken incidentally in tuna purse seines off the West African coast (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are no reliable estimates of the number of animals taken in any of these fisheries (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Atlantic spotted dolphins are also captured incidentally in gillnets in Brazil and Venezuela (Zerbini and Kotas 1998). In Venezuela, the dolphin carcasses are used for shark bait and for human consumption (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994). Mignucci-Giannoni <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that the most common human-related causes observed in strandings were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. Niero <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that in 1995, a large number of Atlantic spotted dolphins washed ashore on the sandy beaches north of Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania. Workers surveyed the coastline to assess the number of corpses and the cause of death, which was attributed to fishery interaction.	eng
20733	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Spinner dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC. The IATTC has imposed annual stock mortality limits on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001). <br/><br/>The species is composed of several subspecies and regional populations. The conservation status of each of these should be assessed. The available estimates of abundance and removals suggest that some of them may fall into a Threatened category.	eng
20733	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The spinner dolphin ranges through tropical and subtropical zones in both hemispheres. Limits are near 40°N and 40°S. <br/><br/><em>S. l. longirostris</em> occurs mainly around oceanic islands in the tropical Atlantic, Indian, and western and central Pacific east to about 145°W (Rice 1998). However, the distribution in the Atlantic is not well known, especially in South American and African waters; the known range can be expected to expand considerably in those areas with increased attention to the cetacean faunas there. The southernmost record is from New Zealand, more than 2,000 km south of what is thought to be the normal range but still well north of subantarctic waters (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). <br/><br/><em>S. l. orientalis</em> inhabits pelagic waters of the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP) east of about 145°W, from 24°N off Baja California south to 10°S off Peru, but exclusive of the range of the following subspecies (Perrin 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. l. centroamericana</em> is found in coastal waters over the continental shelf of the ETP, from the Gulf of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico southeast to Costa Rica (Perrin 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. l. roseiventris</em> is distributed in shallow waters of inner Southeast Asia, including the Gulf of Thailand, the Timor and Arafura Seas off northern Australia, and other similar shallow waters off Indonesia and Malaysia. It is replaced in deeper and outer waters by the larger pelagic subspecies <em>S. l. longirostris</em> (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999, Kahn pers. comm. to W. Perrin 2007).	eng
20733	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	In most tropical waters, nearly all records of spinner dolphins are associated with inshore waters, islands or banks. Around Hawaii spinner dolphins depend on the availability of sheltered shallow bays for use as resting areas during the day. In the ETP, however, spinner dolphins occur in very large numbers on the high seas many hundreds of kilometers from the nearest land. Spinner dolphins favor a specific habitat in the ETP, called by oceanographers "tropical surface water;" it is typified by unusual conditions of shallow mixed layer, shoal and sharp thermocline, and relatively small annual variation in surface temperature (Reyes 1991; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). There they are often found in close association with pantropical spotted dolphins, yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and birds of several species. The dwarf form of the spinner dolphin in Southeast Asian waters apparently inhabits a shallow coral reef habitat (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). In the north-central and western Gulf of Mexico, <em>Stenella longirostris</em> is found over intermediate bottom depths, its distribution overlapping with that of purely pelagic and purely coastal species (Davis <em>et al</em>. (1998).<br/><br/>Most spinner dolphins feed predominantly at night, on small (<20 cm) midwater fish of many different families (including myctophids), squids, and sergestid shrimps (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1973; Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dwarf spinner dolphins are exceptional, however; they feed (presumably during daylight hours) on small, reef-associated organisms (benthic reef fishes and invertebrates) (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
20733	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There were about 801,000 (CV=37%) whitebelly spinners (<em>S. l. orientalis</em> X <em>S. l. longirostris</em> intergrades) in the ETP in 2000 (Gerrodette <em>et al</em>. 2005). The eastern spinner dolphin (the population most heavily impacted by the ETP tuna fishery) numbered about 613,000 (CV=22%) in 2003, and despite large reductions in the kill is recovering at an estimated rate of only 1.1% per year, an estimate that is not statistically different from zero (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). There are estimated to be 11,971 (CV=71%) spinner dolphins in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 3,351 (CV=74%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). There are no abundance estimates for the dwarf subspecies. Dolar <em>et al</em>. (1997) estimated abundance in the southern part of the Sulu Sea and north-eastern Malaysian waters at 4,000 individuals. For the southeastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated abundance at about 31,000 (CV=27%) spinner dolphins. The numbers listed above add up to more than a million spinner dolphins: numerous other regional populations in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans have not been surveyed.	eng
20733	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The association of spinner dolphins with spotted dolphins and yellowfin tuna results in their entanglement in tuna purse seines in the ETP. This is the second-most important species of dolphin involved in the tuna fishery (after the pantropical spotted dolphin) (Gerrodette 2002). The population of the eastern spinner dolphin subspecies <em>S. l. orientalis</em> is estimated to have been reduced by 65% by the tuna fishery kills (Reilly <em>et al</em>. 2005). Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the mortality for the eastern and whitebelly forms combined decreased, to 389 in 2005 (IATTC 2006). Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the eastern form appears to be recovering slowly. Potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al</em>. 2001), possible mortality by small vessels that do not carry observers, and under-reporting of mortality have been suggested as possible reasons the eastern spinner’s slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005). <br/><br/>Throughout their range, spinner dolphins are taken as bycatch in purse-seine, gillnet, and trawl fisheries (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1994; Donahue and Edwards 1996), often in high numbers. Spinner dolphins are the most abundant dolphin in the Indian Ocean (Balance and Pitman 1998) and are taken throughout the region. In the Indian Ocean, annual takes of hundreds of spinner dolphins have been reported bycaught in the few fisheries that have been examined in India (Lal Mohan 1994), and annual takes in the thousands have been reported in Sri Lanka (Leatherwood and Reeves 1991; Lal Mohan 1994). Takes in other areas are unknown, but may be substantial. Unknown numbers have been taken in the tuna purse-seine fishery in the eastern Atlantic (Donahue and Edwards 1996) and in small-scale gillnet fisheries in the western Atlantic (Siciliano 1994). Dolphins taken incidentally in the Philippines and Venezuela are utilized for shark bait and human consumption (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 1994; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). Dwarf spinners are caught incidentally in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Thailand (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1999). There are likely to be undocumented fisheries interactions off West Africa (Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993; Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994). Zerbini and Kotas (1998) report on by-catches in Brazilian drift-net fisheries and Cockcroft (1990) on animals entangled in shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>In some cases, human use of by-caught spinner dolphins has led to direct fisheries. Direct kills occur in several areas, including the Caribbean, Sri Lanka, the Philippines (Dolar 1994), Taiwan, and Indonesia (Perrin and Gilpatrick 1994; J. Wang pers. comm., Kahn 2004). Spinners may also be so taken in West Africa (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>Tourist development may affect the habitat and viability of spinner dolphins in some regions, for example at Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil (Reyes 1991), in Hawaii (Lammers 2004) and in Bali, Indonesia (T. Jefferson pers. comm.). The habit of resting in shallow coastal waters during the day leads to problems of harassment by dolphin-watching boats.	eng
20737	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The distribution is poorly known, but has been recorded from Virginia, North Carolina (New River and South Fork River) and Walker County, Alabama.	eng
20737	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Apparently a species of clean, clear mountain rivers.	eng
20738	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The biology, life history, population size, and separation into subpopulations, as well as migratory behaviour are insufficiently known. Research on this species should be encouraged.	eng
20738	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The biology, life history, population size, and separation into subpopulations, as well as migratory behaviour are insufficiently known. Research on this species should be encouraged.	eng
20738	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The rough-toothed dolphin is a tropical to subtropical species, which generally inhabits deep, oceanic waters of all three major oceans, rarely ranging north of 40°N or south of 35°S (Jefferson 2002).  However in some areas (such as off the coast of Brazil and West Africa), rough-toothed dolphins may occur in more shallow coastal waters.  They are found in many semi-enclosed bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Thailand, Red Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California), but they are regarded as visitors in the Mediterranean Sea (Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1987, Miyazaki and Perrin 1994, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
20738	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The rough-toothed dolphin is a tropical to subtropical species, which generally inhabits deep, oceanic waters of all three major oceans, rarely ranging north of 40°N or south of 35°S (Jefferson 2002). However, in some areas (such as off the coast of Brazil and West Africa), rough-toothed dolphins may occur in more shallow coastal waters. They are found in many semi-enclosed bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Thailand, Red Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California), but they are regarded as visitors in the Mediterranean Sea (Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1987; Miyazaki and Perrin 1994; Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).	eng
20738	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Most often, <em>Steno bredanensis</em> is found in deep water far offshore, usually beyond the continental shelf (Maigret 1994), but may be seen close inshore in areas of steep bottom relief (Ritter 2002). In the eastern tropical Pacific, they tend to associate with other cetaceans (especially pilot whales and Fraser’s dolphins) (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Rough-toothed dolphins feed on cephalopods and fish, including large fish such as <em>Coryphaena hippurus</em> (Pitman and Stinchcomb 2002).	eng
20738	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Most often, <em>Steno bredanensis</em> is found in deep water far offshore, usually beyond the continental shelf (Maigret 1994), but may be seen close inshore in areas of steep bottom relief (Ritter 2002). Rough-toothed dolphins appear to be widespread in warm temperate and tropical waters around the world. In the eastern tropical Pacific, they tend to associate with other cetaceans (especially pilot whales and Fraser’s dolphins) (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Rough-toothed dolphins feed on cephalopods and fish, including large fish such as <em>Coryphaena hippurus</em> (Pitman and Stinchcomb 2002).	eng
20738	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are few estimates of abundance for this species. An estimated 145,900 (CV=32%) rough-toothed dolphins inhabit the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), and about 2,746 (CV=36%) occur in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008), including an estimated 1,238 (CV=65%) on the continental shelf (Fulling <em>et al</em>. 2003). The US NMFS has estimated the regional population around Hawaii to be 19,904 (CV=52%), based on recent vessel surveys (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
20738	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is of marginal occurrence in the European Mammal Assessment region. Globally, there are few estimates of abundance for this species.	eng
20738	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	No fisheries are known to specifically target this species, but small numbers are taken in drive fisheries at Okinawa in the Ryukyus and other islands of Japan, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea, by harpoon in Japan, St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles, and in West Africa. They were possibly formerly were taken at St. Helena in the South Atlantic. However, only 23 rough-toothed dolphins were captured in Japan (Okinawa) during the period 1976-81 (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Recent information suggests catches in Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>A few rough-toothed dolphins are killed incidentally in tuna purse seines in the eastern tropical Pacific: 21 were estimated killed during the period 1971-75 and 36 died in a single net haul in 1982. Small numbers are also taken as by-catch in gillnet and driftnet fisheries in Sri Lanka, Brazil, the central North Pacific and probably elsewhere around the world in tropical and warm-temperate waters (Miyazaki and Perrin 1994). Monteiro-Neto <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported on fishery-related mortality along the coast of Ceara State, northeast Brazil, commenting on the possible conservation implications for the local subpopulations. Seasonally, incidental catches were more frequent during the austral spring (October-December). Rough-toothed dolphins are also taken by gill nets, driftnets and pelagic long-lines in Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.).	eng
20738	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	No fisheries are known to specifically target this species, but small numbers are taken in drive fisheries in parts of the global range (outside Europe). Incidental mortality in gill nets, drift nets and pelagic long-lines has been recorded.	eng
20740	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is present within the proposed Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
20740	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has a restricted range in the high altitude moorlands of the Bale and Arssi mountain ranges, southeastern Ethiopia. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,377 m asl.	eng
20740	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in upland moorland on the high plateau of Bale and Arssi (Arussi) provinces. It is particularly associated with <em>Alchemilla</em> pastures and mesa slopes dominated by low <em>Artemisia</em> and <em>Helichrysum</em> scrub. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
20740	population	Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is abundant in its limited range.	eng
20740	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., Corti, M. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The species has a very limited range. It is found at higher altitude than the majority of Ethiopians and their livestock, and should be relatively safe from habitat degradation.	eng
20741	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is protected by the Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
20741	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is found in high altitude habitats of Ethiopian plateau on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is found from 2,400 to 3,900 m asl.	eng
20741	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is associated with upland grasslands and <em>Erica</em> shrubland, on both the western and eastern parts of the Ethiopian plateau.	eng
20741	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
20741	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species could be threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing, however, it remains sufficiently common and widespread to pose no immediate conservation concerns.	eng
20743	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Research actions, found in protected areas.	eng
20743	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is known from Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands (St. John and St. Thomas) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
20743	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	The habitat in which this species occurs often is dry arborescent vegetation (Genoways and Baker, 1972). This species is poorly known. Only the population in the Luquillo Mountains has been studied extensively, and almost all knowledge of its natural history comes from animals living there. It is primarily a frugivore; the most commonly eaten fruits are from the trumpet tree, bullet-wood, and sierra palm, and there is not evidence that it eats figs. It is solitary and roost among the leaves of the forest canopy. This bat frequently changes its roosting location, and sites are seldom occupied more than once. Home range is small, about 2.5 hectares on average. Pregnant females have been captured on Puerto Rico in January, March, June, July and August, and lactating bats are known from March, May, June, and July (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
20743	population	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is rare in the Virgin Islands (no specimens taken in the last 30 years) (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In Puerto Rico it is uncommon; apparently it is most common in the Luquillo Experimental Forest (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
20743	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Human disturbance and hurricanes.	eng
20745	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
20745	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian Sea (commonly central and southern Caspian in summer), Volga, Ural and Terek drainages.	eng
20745	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, throughout basin in pelagic zone with temperatures below 18°C and 20-50 m deep. Juveniles and adults overwinter and forage at sea. Large lowland rivers during migration. Prior to the construction of dams, migration route was over 3000 km long, reaching up to uppermost reaches of Ufa and Belaya drainages (Kama tributaries). Spawns on gravel shallows. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Spawns for the first time at 5-8 years, females usually two years later than males. In autumn, starts migration from sea to estuaries. Mature adults enter Volga, only few individuals enter Terek and Ural. Migration takes almost a year. Spawns in September-October at temperatures below 6°C. Adults migrate back to sea soon after spawning, but many die. Eggs adhere to gravel and rocks. Embryonic development lasts about six months, alevins appear in April. Fry actively migrates to sea soon after start of exogenous feeding. At 30 days, juveniles already start to feed on fry of other fishes. Adults feed exclusively on fish. Active predator, feeds on all available fish, commonly small schooling species.	eng
20745	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Native stocks are reportedly extinct and survival depends exclusively on stocking. In the Volga all spawning grounds were above Volgograd dam. In 1959 only a few spawners remained. Up to 33 million (1988) juveniles were stocked during Soviet times. Between 1996-99 only 600,000 juveniles were stocked and the spawning population is in a drastic decline again. In 2004, only about 100 spawners were caught below Volgograd dam. In the 1960s, it was already extremely rare in the Ural, where it has not been recorded since.	eng
20745	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Construction of dams led to the loss of all spawning grounds for the species (the Volga, Ural and Terek drainages). Increasing illegal fishing in the Volga and in the Caspian Sea is now a very critical concern. <em>S. nelma</em> was introduced in the northern Volga drainage and is now expanding and might threaten surviving populations and cultivated stocks through hybridization.	eng
20757	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been recorded from the Manusela National Park. Further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species are needed.	eng
20757	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Seram, in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia. It is known only from two localities on Mount Mansuela.	eng
20757	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There is little information available for this species. It has only been recorded from undisturbed primary tropical moist forest at altitudes from 1,500 to 1,800 m.	eng
20757	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is known only from three specimens (Natural History Museum London) and an additional example in the Western Australia Museum (Helgen 2003). The species is not believed to be common.	eng
20757	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Even if logging does not represent a threat at high altitudes, however, ongoing habitat degradation at lower altitudes will affect the quality of higher altitude habitat. Competition with the introduced <em>Rattus rattus</em> is believed to be a threat to this species.	eng
20758	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
20758	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widespread in Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 762 and 4,050 m asl. Most records are from over 1,500 m.	eng
20758	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species can be found in tropical moss forest, areas of degraded forest, and old rural gardens. Females give birth to between two and three young.	eng
20758	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It can be very abundant.	eng
20758	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
20759	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from protected areas (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Other areas of suitable glacial habitat should be surveyed to locate additional populations of this restricted range species.	eng
20759	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from three localities in two areas of the island of New Guinea. It is found in the Central Cordillera of Papua Province, Indonesia where it has been recorded from around Lake Habbema and Mount Wilhelmina, and from Mount Jaya (Flannery 1995). These areas represent two of the last areas with glacial cover on New Guinea. It has an altitudinal range of 3,225 to 4,500 m asl.	eng
20759	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is found in areas of alpine scrub and tussock grassland, often between rocks and other cover.	eng
20759	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is believed to be reasonably common where it is found.	eng
20759	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This high-altitude species is considered to be at risk from the impacts of increasing fire frequency induced by global warming. There is mining activity in one of the protected areas where it is found. Animals are predated by hunting dogs in parts of its range.	eng
20760	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, habitat status, and threats to the species are needed. Important areas of habitat for this species should be identified and protected.	eng
20760	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is restricted to the mountains of south-east Papua New Guinea, where it is found at altitudes above 1,300 m asl. It may range more widely than currently known (e.g., it is possibly present on Mount Simpson). Its range is suspected to be very fragmented.	eng
20760	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	Animals have been recorded in primary montane tropical moist forest. Little is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
20760	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	In general it is not common. It may be locally abundant at certain sites but absent from others. Around 15 specimens have been collected.	eng
20760	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The forest within which this species lives has been degraded in parts of its range. It is potentially threatened by continuing loss of forest habitat by an increase in the human population density of the area (i.e., rural gardens appear to be pushed further up the slopes by expanding oil palm plantations lower down). There may be competition with <em>Rattus rattus</em> at the lower edges of its elevational range.	eng
20761	conservation	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.	eng
20761	distribution	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is fairly widespread along the central range of Papua Province (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea. It ranges from the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia to the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995). It has been found at elevations from 150 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
20761	habitat	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been recorded in a wide variety of habitats from primary tropical moist forest to rural gardens (Flannery 1995). The species seems to be sensitive to exposure, and is not found in areas with sparse cover (Flannery 1995). Females give birth to between one and three young.	eng
20761	population	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The population of this species is unknown.	eng
20761	threats	Wright, D., Singadan, R., Seri, L., Allison, A., Aplin, K., Helgen, K., James, R., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.	eng
20795	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	The fish has been protected in California since 1982 and protected in Mexico since 1992 (Crooke 1992). <br/> <br/>California State Legislature banned both commercial and recreational fishing for Giant Sea Bass in 1981 in response to the great decline in population, but it allowed two fish per angler per trip when fishing south of United States-Mexico border (Crooke 1992) and allowed one fish per trip if taken incidentally in gill or trammel net by commercial fisherman (Domeier 2001). <br/> <br/>The species can still be caught in Mexico (M. Domeier, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The law limited the amount of Giant Sea Bass that could be taken in Mexican waters and landed in California (could not land more than 3,000 lbs in a calendar year). The ban of inshore gill nets in California was introduced in 1990, which was considered a way to significantly reduce the incidental mortality of Giant Sea Bass (Domeier 2001).	eng
20795	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	Eastern Pacific: from Humboldt Bay in California, U.S.A. to the tip of Baja, Mexico; also found in the northern half of the Gulf of California (Domeier 2001). Supposedly also occurs in the coastal waters of northern Japan (the Sea of Japan) (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1992); but the occurrence in Japan is probably a misidentification (Domeier 2001).	eng
20795	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	Juveniles are usually found in and around kelp beds as well as sandy bottom areas at depths 12–21 m (Crooke 1992), whereas adults are usually found deeper than 30 m and they tend to inhabit rocky bottoms where kelp beds are nearby (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproductive Biology</strong> <br/>The fish mature at 7 to 10 years (Domeier 2001). The maximum size of male/unsexed giant sea bass is 250 cm TL (IGFA 2001). Spawning aggregations are formed and remain together for one or two months over the period of June to September (Crooke 1992).	eng
20795	population	Cornish, A., 2004	It is now very rare in the Gulf of California (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000). Minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Musick <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
20795	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	The major threat is from overfishing; however, the species is protected in California (this legislation also covers U.S. fishers in Mexican waters) although incidental catches are allowed (see Conservation Measures below).	eng
20824	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Has a small range in the Black Warrior River system, Alabama.	eng
20824	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
20860	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
20860	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
20860	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian, Baltic, Black and Aral Sea basins; Elbe (North Sea basin) and Maritza (Aegean Sea basin) drainages. North to about 65°N in Finland. Introductions began in 1878 in Great Britain, followed by Italy, Strymon drainage (Greece) and continental Europe west of Elbe, Ebro, Tagus and Jucar drainages in Iberian Peninsula, Onega and Severnaya Dvina in White Sea basin. Widely introduced outside Europe in Anatolia, North Africa, Ob and Amur drainages (Siberia), Lakes Issyk-kul (Kyrgyzstan), Balkhash and many smaller basins in central Kazakhstan.	eng
20860	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian, Baltic, Black and Aral Sea basins; Elbe (North Sea basin) and Maritza (Aegean Sea basin) drainages. North to about 65°N in Finland. Introductions began in 1878 in Great Britain, followed by Italy, Strymon drainage (Greece) and continental Europe west of Elbe, Ebro, Tagus and Jucar drainages in Iberian Peninsula, Onega and Severnaya Dvina in White Sea basin. Widely introduced outside Europe in Anatolia, North Africa, Ob and Amur drainages (Siberia), Lakes Issyk-kul (Kyrgyzstan), Balkhash and many smaller basins in central Kazakhstan.	eng
20860	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, turbid rivers and eutrophic lakes; brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-10 years, usually at four. Spawns in April-May, exceptional from late February until July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperatures reach 10-14°C in spawning grounds (lowest temperature for egg incubation 11.5°C). May undertake short spawning migrations. Individuals foraging in brackish water migrate to freshwater habitats (migrations of up to 250 km have been recorded). Homing well developed, even nearby populations may be relatively isolated. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions about 50 cm in diameter and 5-10 cm deep in sand or gravel, or among exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually in turbid water and at 1-3 m depth. Spawns in pairs, at dawn or night. Female remains over the nest while male circles rapidly around, at about 1 metre from nest. Then male takes a vertical orientation and both swim around swiftly, and eggs and sperm are released. After all the eggs are released female leaves the nest site. Male defends the nest and fans the eggs with his pectorals. Females spawn once a year. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic and feed on pelagic organisms after they leave the nest for open water. Piscivorous, feeding mostly on gregarious, pelagic fishes.	eng
20860	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, turbid rivers and eutrophic lakes; brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-10 years, usually at four. Spawns in April-May, exceptional from late February until July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperatures reach 10-14°C in spawning grounds (lowest temperature for egg incubation 11.5°C). May undertake short spawning migrations. Individuals foraging in brackish water migrate to freshwater habitats (migrations of up to 250 km have been recorded). Homing well developed, even nearby populations may be relatively isolated. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions about 50 cm in diameter and 5-10 cm deep in sand or gravel, or among exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually in turbid water and at 1-3 m depth. Spawns in pairs, at dawn or night. Female remains over the nest while male circles rapidly around, at about 1 metre from nest. Then male takes a vertical orientation and both swim around swiftly, and eggs and sperm are released. After all the eggs are released female leaves the nest site. Male defends the nest and fans the eggs with his pectorals. Females spawn once a year. Feeding larvae are positively phototactic and feed on pelagic organisms after they leave the nest for open water. Piscivorous, feeding mostly on gregarious, pelagic fishes.	eng
20860	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
20860	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
20860	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
20860	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
20862	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
20862	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Black Sea basin, from Danube (up to Vienna) to Kuban drainages (where it is introduced); Caspian basin (Volga and Ural drainages).	eng
20862	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, turbid rivers and lakes; in brackish coastal lakes and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 12 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years and 200-300 mm SL, females usually a year later than males. Spawns for about one month in April-May, at 10-22°C. Individual females may spawn 2-3 portions of eggs. May undertake short spawning migrations. Males are territorial and excavate shallow depressions in sand or gravel, or exposed plant roots on which eggs are deposited, usually along shallow shores at 1-2 m depth. Nests often close to nests of <em>S. lucioperca</em>. Most active at dusk and dawn, foraging on small fish and invertebrates. Larvae and juveniles pelagic, feeding on zooplankton.	eng
20862	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
20862	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
20863	conservation	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
20863	distribution	Boitani, L., 2008	This sub-Saharan species is broadly distributed across Africa from Togo, Benin and Nigeria, through southern Cameroon and much of the Congo Basin of The Democratic Republic of the Congo, to western Uganda in the east of its range.	eng
20863	habitat	Boitani, L., 2008	This species inhabits primary and secondary lowland rainforests, and swampy and densly vegetated areas. It has been recorded from oil palm plantations.	eng
20863	population	Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
20863	threats	Boitani, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
20864	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20864	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
20864	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic. It is an omnivorous species (Axelrod 1991).	eng
20864	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
20864	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20865	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20865	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
20865	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelgic species.	eng
20865	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
20865	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20866	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20866	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-Mbo, Cameroon.	eng
20866	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
20866	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
20866	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
20868	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
20868	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries. Burundi (at least four sites), Tanzania (20+ sites), Zambia and DRC (West <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
20868	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	It is found underneath or occasionally on cobbles in shallow water less than 3 m deep.	eng
20868	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	When present commonly found under rocks, often in groups.	eng
20868	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	Water pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.	eng
20890	conservation	Helgen, K., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is nominally protected by Indonesia law. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
20890	distribution	Helgen, K., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs on the islands of Sulawesi, Sangihe, and Siau, in the western Moluccan Islands of Indonesia.	eng
20890	habitat	Helgen, K., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This nocturnal species, of primary, and occasionally, secondary tropical lowland moist forest. It is a folivorous species that is usually found in pairs.	eng
20890	population	Helgen, K., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
20890	threats	Helgen, K., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is threatened by hunting for food and deforestation of habitat due to clearance for agriculture and clear-cutting for timber.	eng
20892	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are various nature reserves within its range. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
20892	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is restricted to the small islands of Mangole, Taliabu, and the Peleng Islands in the western Moluccan Islands of Indonesia. Elevational range of the species is from sea level to over 1,000 m asl.	eng
20892	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It occurs in lowland primary and disturbed tropical moist forests, coconut plantations, and rural gardens. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
20892	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
20892	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Allison, A., James, R., Flannery, T., Aplin, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The possible introduction of the competitor <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> may pose a threat to the species; <em>P. orientalis</em> has been introduced already to a neighbouring island. <em>Strigocuscus pelengensis</em> is not threatened by hunting as it is protected by the Muslim beliefs of the local people.	eng
20945	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Recorded from Lake Towuti (part of the Malili Lakes system), Sulawesi.	eng
20949	conservation	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in a few protected areas - however, much of area is unprotected and threatened.	eng
20949	distribution	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia (Simmons, 2005). Occurs from 1,000-3,800 m asl (Pacheco pers. comm.)	eng
20949	habitat	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is rare and poorly known. This bat is mainly frugivorous and possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. A single young is born annually (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Associtaed with piedmont and montane forests (Pacheco pers. comm.). In Colombia collected in caves (Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
20949	population	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is rare to unknown (Linares, 1998; Tirira, in prep.).	eng
20949	threats	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	None known, however, habitat is being rapidly degraded.	eng
20950	conservation	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Conservation of cloud forests.	eng
20950	distribution	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is found in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and perhaps Amazonian Brazil (Simmons, 2005). Found between 2,000-2,800 m. Records from Para, Brazil need to be verified (Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
20950	habitat	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and cloud forests. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. It is frequently recorded from mist-nets. A single young is born annually. In central Peru breeding occurs in July with pregnant females taken in August. A bimodal breeding pattern has been noted in Venezuela. Ripe fruits are taken in season, and insects are rare to absent in the diet (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Molinari and Soriano, 1987). Eats fruit of Aracia (Molinari pers. comm.)	eng
20950	population	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	In Ecuador it is common to frequent (Tirira, in prep.). In Colombia and Venezuela it is common in primary cloud forest above 2,000 m (Molinari per comm.).	eng
20950	threats	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	None known.	eng
20951	conservation	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
20951	distribution	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru. Records from Bolivia and Argentina are erroneous (see Pacheco and Patterson, 1992) (Simmons, 2005). Occurs in high montane areas above 2,000 m (2,000 m-more than 300 m Molinari pers. comm.)	eng
20951	habitat	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and forest or cloud forest. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. It is frequently recorded from mist-nets. Two young are born annually (Molimnati pers. comm.). This species co-occurs with <em>S. bidens</em> and <em>S. elythromos</em> (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Gardner, 1977; Handley, 1976).	eng
20951	population	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	In Ecuador it is uncommon (Tirira, in prep.). Seems to also be common in other areas where habitat is present.	eng
20951	threats	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	No major threats throughout its range at present.	eng
20952	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Avoid deforestation.	eng
20952	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Venezuela to Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
20952	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in forests until 1,300 m hight. Frugivorous, it moves according food availability (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1982)	eng
20952	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
20952	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	No major threats throughout its range. Bats above 800 m are more protected.	eng
20953	conservation	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in all protected areas of Central America.	eng
20953	distribution	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Lesser Antilles; Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south to Bolivia, Paraguay, Northern Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil; Trinidad and Tobago; Grenada (Simmons 2005). Not present in highlands above 1,600 m, usually below 800 m (Samudio pers. comm.).	eng
20953	habitat	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	This species is one of the most abundant and widespread phyllostomids, and may be found from rainforests to dry or mountain forests (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1989). Contrary to the general pattern observed in its subfamily, Stenodermartinae, whose members have a general preference for fruits of Moraceae and Cecropiaceae (Nowak 1999), <em>S. lilium</em> feeds mainly on fruits of Solanaceae. Despite this dietary preference, Mello (2006) listed 28 families and 83 species of plants in the diet of <em>S. lilium</em>, based on Geiselman <em>et al.</em> (2002) and his own study. There are two reproductive seasons a year in this species, concentrated between the warm-rainy season and the beginning of the dry seasons, and strong evidences of post-partum estrus (Mello 2006). Adult males present a shoulder-gland, which produces a characteristic scent and is related to reproductive activity (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are some evidences for seasonal altitudinal migration in <em>S. lilium</em> in the mountains of Argentina (Giannini 1999) and Brazil (Mello 2006). During 10 days in the study by Mello (2006), individuals of <em>S. lilium</em> used areas from 1.31 to 13.67 ha, and foraging patterns evidence that these bats are efficient seed dispersers of Solanaceae.	eng
20953	population	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very abundant.	eng
20953	threats	Barquez, R., Perez, S., Miller, B. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
20954	conservation	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
20954	distribution	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout Ecuador and Guyana north to Sonora and Tamaulipas (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
20954	habitat	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests (Mantilla pers. comm.). Roosts not known. This species is frugivorous (Piper, Melatomataceae, and Solanaceae) and at times will even forage on the ground for fallen fruit; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. Birth peak occurs in April to May and September to October in Costa Rica (Eisenberg, 1989; Gardner, 1977; Reid, 1997).	eng
20954	population	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is abundant in mid-elevation evergreen forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997).	eng
20954	threats	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	None known, however, in Colombia the habitat is rapidly being converted.	eng
20955	conservation	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Further research is needed.	eng
20955	distribution	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout Costa Rica to Ecuador and northwest Peru (Simmons, 2005). The presence of this species in Colombia has not been verified; previously confused with <em>Sturnira ludovici</em>.	eng
20955	habitat	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
20955	population	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Its status and population is poorly known and understood due to confusion with <em>S. lilium</em> (Reid, 1997). It is common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
20955	threats	Pacheco, V., Mantilla, H., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
20956	conservation	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
20956	distribution	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs throughout Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons, 2005). There is a record from Acre, Brazil (Nogueira <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
20956	habitat	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests, lowland forests and in montane areas. Little is known about the species. Is frugivorous and feeds on Solanacea (Tavares pers. comm.)	eng
20956	population	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The species is not rare, and can be regionally common (Muños and Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
20956	threats	Pacheco, V., Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	None known - maybe illicit crops in Colombia. In Bolivia, montane forest habitats are threatened. In Bolivia the species is considered vulnerable.	eng
20957	conservation	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
20957	distribution	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species occurs in Costa Rica, Panama (McCarthy <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
20957	habitat	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forests, dry forests, and deciduous forests. This species is strongly frugivorous; it possibly feeds on pollen and nectar. The diet includes fruits of Centropogon, Anthurium, Cecropia, and banana. Pregnant females have been recorded in April (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Howell and Burck, 1974; Reid, 1997).	eng
20957	population	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	It is fairly locally common in middle and high elevation evergreen forest and forest edge (Reid, 1997).	eng
20957	threats	Rodriguez, B. & Pineda, W., 2008	None.	eng
20958	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Valezco, P., 2008	Drug enforcement.	eng
20958	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Valezco, P., 2008	This species occurs in southern Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
20958	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Valezco, P., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Found in primary humid lower montane forests.	eng
20958	population	Pacheco, V. & Valezco, P., 2008	It is rare and its distribution restricted (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
20958	threats	Pacheco, V. & Valezco, P., 2008	Area is threatened by illicit crops and other agriculture.	eng
20959	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Research actions.	eng
20959	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is known from Guadeloupe and Montserrat (Lesser Antilles) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
20959	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this species. Presumably it is predominantly frugivorous as are other members of the genus. It occurs inside forest and over streams. Two females captured in July were lactating (Jones and Genoways, 1975). It needs some native humid forest (Pedersen, 2005)	eng
20959	population	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Extremely rare. It is only be found twice in Montserrat (Pedersen, 2005)	eng
20959	threats	Dávalos, L. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Habitat loss, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions.	eng
20960	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Maintain intact habitat. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
20960	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in the southeastern portion of Colombia, southern Venezuela, the Guianas, Amazonian Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and across much of Brazil; also Trinidad (Koopman, 1993). This species of Sturnira replaces <em>S. ludovici</em> at low elevations over much of the South American continent (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
20960	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg, 1989). This species is strongly frugivorous and possibly feeds on pollen and nectar (Gardner, 1977). A single young is born annually (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
20960	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Widespread but not very common.	eng
20960	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of the range, though this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
20970	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	A cave-dwelling species.	eng
21100	conservation	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T. & Sinanga, U., 2009	It occurs in at least one protected area (Lore Lindu National Park).	eng
21100	distribution	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T. & Sinanga, U., 2009	This species has been recorded from north, central, eastern, and south-eastern Sulawesi and the Togian Islands of Indonesia (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988). The type locality for this species is Macassar, Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
21100	habitat	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T. & Sinanga, U., 2009	This species prefers primary forest up to 1,100 m asl, but has been found also in slightly disturbed forest (areas with understorey cleared for coffee and cocoa; Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).  Records of catch outside of this habitat are probably of an individual commuting between forest fragments.	eng
21100	population	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T. & Sinanga, U., 2009	This species is generally rare, but can be locally abundant.	eng
21100	threats	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T. & Sinanga, U., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and small-scale agriculture. It is probably threatened by hunting in some areas.	eng
21101	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in Luoshan and Baijitanmay Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in Dunhuang and Liangucheng Nature Reserves in China, as well as other protected areas. Approximately 13% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.  In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004), and in Mongolia, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
21101	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This is a widespread species occurring in northern China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is present in the provinces of Nei Mongol, Gansu, and Ningxia (Smith and Xie 2008). In Mongolia, it is known from the Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Gobi, Eastern Gobi and Alashani Gobi Desert (Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998).  Its distribution in relation to <em>Stylodipus sungorus</em> and <em>S. telum</em> requires further review (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
21101	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In Mongolia, this species inhabits semi-desert and desert habitats, preferentially sand dunes with shrubs. In China, it can also be found in coniferous and shrub forests (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>Its diet consists of seeds, leaves and roots. It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size is 2-4 with only one litter per year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
21101	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
21101	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D., Tinnin, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
21102	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Approximately 41% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). As this species occurs within protected areas, it is conserved under Mongolian Protected Area Laws; however, no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species have been established to date. It is recommended that further ecological research and the monitoring of population trends, to establish conservation measures should be undertaken. Research should also be conducted in the areas of distribution, threats, taxonomy, and habitat status.  This species has been regionally Red Listed in Mongolia as  Endangered A3c (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
21102	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	This species occurs in Mongolia and may also be present in China (G. Shenbrot pers. comm.). In Mongolia, it is known from the Dzungarian Gobi Desert, including Great Gobi Section B Strictly Protected Area (Sokolov and Shenbrot 1987; Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution in relation to <em>Stylodipus andrewsi</em> and <em>S. telum</em> requires further review (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
21102	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	This species constructs complex burrows in compacted soil in steppe and semi-desert habitats (Nowak 1991).<br/><br/>This small jerboa has a head-rump measurement of 100-130 mm, a tail length of 132-163 mm, short ears and hairy feet (Nowak 1991). Its coat is sandy or buff colored, darkened with black-tipped or entirely black hairs. Hairs are buff-tipped with a white base on the sides of the body, and underparts are white. The tail lacks a terminal tuft.  Each hind foot has three digits, with the middle one being the longest (Nowak 1991). Generation length is estimated to be two to three years based on data from Macdonald (2004).	eng
21102	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Current population data for this species are unavailable. It is most likely declining.	eng
21102	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	The drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006). Habitat degradation may also be resulting, through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
21103	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	<em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine under category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population). <em>S. t. turovi</em> is listed in the local Red Data Book in Russia (Rostov District) as Data Deficient. The species is found in several protected areas.	eng
21103	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	<em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine under category II (abundant species with rapidly declining population). <em>S. t. turovi</em> is listed in the local Red Data Book in Russia (Rostov District) as Data Deficient. The species is found in several protected areas.	eng
21103	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Distributed in steppes and desertified steppes in E Ukraine, N Caucasus, W Turkmenistan, W Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; E to N Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented: besides the major part of the range from the Caspian Sea to China there are several isolated populations. The two isolated populations in the European part of the range are represented by two different subspecies, <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> and <em>S. t. turovi</em>.	eng
21103	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species occurs in steppes and desertified steppes in E Ukraine, N Caucasus, W Turkmenistan, W Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; E to N Xinjiang, China (Shenbrot <em>et al.</em> 1995, Wilson and Reeder 2005). The range is fragmented: besides the major part of the range from the Caspian Sea to China there are several isolated populations. The two isolated populations in the European part of the range are represented by two different subspecies, <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> and <em>S. t. turovi</em>.	eng
21103	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Inhabits deserts and desertified steppes. In Europe it is usually distributed in hilly sands in river valleys, and arid areas, often with trees. Active at dusk and night. Enters hibernation with first frost. Lives in complex burrows, often occupies jird burrows. Feeds on seeds and partly on insects. Reproduction is once a year with litter size of 3-6 young.	eng
21103	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits deserts and desertified steppes. In Europe it is usually distributed in hilly sands in river valleys, and arid areas, often with trees. Active at dusk and night. Enters hibernation with first frost. Lives in complex burrows, often occupies jird burrows. Feeds on seeds and partly on insects. Reproduction is once a year with litter size of 3-6 young.	eng
21103	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	A widespread species that is relatively common in at least parts of its range. The Ukrainian subspecies <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is naturally rare. It has a restricted range (extent of occurrence c.8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and its area of occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. The other European subspecies <em>S. t. turovi</em> is relatively common, and despite population decline since the 1960s it remains abundant in some parts of the area, e.g. Tsimlyansk.	eng
21103	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Ukrainian subspecies <em>S. t. falz-feini</em> is naturally rare. It has a restricted range (Extent of Occurrence c.8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and its Area of Occupancy is fragmented and declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation. The other European subspecies <em>S. t. turovi</em> is relatively common, and despite population decline since the 1960s it remains abundant in some parts of the area, e.g. Tsimlyansk.	eng
21103	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Habitat loss due to ploughing and overgrazing and pesticides affect some populations.	eng
21103	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, 2007	Habitat loss due to ploughing and overgrazing, pesticides.	eng
21118	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from seven counties in the states of Florida and Mississippi. Current population size is unknown. Probably undersurveyed because of its cryptic nature.	eng
21118	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Pristine, sand-bottomed forest streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000)..	eng
21118	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	It is often locally common.	eng
21118	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Pollution and channelization along with military bases, shipyards, seafood processing establishments, vacation homes and a major interstate all interrupt this species habitat.	eng
21119	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Verified from eight counties in six states.	eng
21119	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Streams and clean, sand-bottomed forest streams and rivers (Dunkle 2000).	eng
21119	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
21134	conservation	Oguge, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The species is present within the Aberdare National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
21134	distribution	Oguge, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the east side of the Aberdare Mountain Range in central Kenya. The type locality is Nyeri, with two more localities known. The distribution of this species probably follows the top of this mountain range. Field surveys undertaken on Mount Kenya have not recorded this species. It occurs at elevations of around 2,800 to 3,300 m asl.	eng
21134	habitat	Oguge, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species inhabits dense montane grassland above the treeline.	eng
21134	population	Oguge, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
21134	threats	Oguge, N. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the high elevation habitat of this species. It is potentially threatened by climate change.	eng
21135	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	It is found within the Mount Kenya National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
21135	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Mount Kenya in Kenya. It was recorded at 3,261 m asl.	eng
21135	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species inhabits dense montane grassland.	eng
21135	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	It is only known from two or three museum specimens.	eng
21135	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the high elevation habitat of this species. It is potentially threatened by climate change.	eng
21140	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is present in the Minkébé National Park of Gabon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
21140	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from Gabon (including the localities of Belinga, Makokou and Minkébé Forest), the Central African Republic and Congo. It possibly also occurs in Cameroon, but its presence in this country needs to be confirmed.	eng
21140	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
21140	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is considered to be quite rare.	eng
21140	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by habitat loss or degradation, and possibly by overhunting.	eng
21141	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It occurs in Mount Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
21141	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected from Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo at 1,650 m asl. It might occur more widely in the Bornean highlands.	eng
21141	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is almost no ecological information available on this species. The holotype was collected in montane forest on Mount Kinabalu.	eng
21141	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
21141	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The only known location is in Mount Kinabalu National Park.	eng
21142	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is protected in the Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Mukurthi National Park in Tamil Nadu (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Detailed surveys, ecological and population studies are urgently required. Taxonomic studies between the northern and southern populations to establish the their identities recommended (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
21142	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is presently known only from four localities, largely in the Western Ghats in southern India - the type locality of Thrissur (Kerala), Eravikulam National Park (Kerala), Palni Hills (Tamil Nadu) and Upper Bhavani (in Mukurthi National Park, Tamil Nadu) (Pradhan and Kurup 2001; Shankar 1998). The 19th century type locality is from Trissur, Kerala state, southern India - this is near sea level and may not be the exact type locality (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
21142	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is a nocturnal and crepuscular animal that lives in montane grassland-shola habitat (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
21142	population	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is only known from around five individuals (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21142	threats	Chakraborty, S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species inhabits a small area, and much of its known and projected extent of occurrence is under threat from habitat conversion for plantations (tea, pines, eucalyptus, wattles) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21143	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province of Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Ecological and population studies are recommended.	eng
21143	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is known only from the central highlands of Sri Lanka.  It has been recorded at an altitudinal range of 1,100 to 2,500 m, with an estimated extent of occurrence of about 2,000 km²,  and and area of occupancy of around 450 km² based on the available habitat in the central highlands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21143	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This nocturnal and terrestrial shrew lives in montane forests and wet patana grasslands (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21143	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species. Two recent surveys recorded this species in 2003 (W.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake pers. comm. 2003; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21143	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is restricted to a small area, where the habitat is declining and others threats include fire and conversion of suitable habitat to plantations of cardamon and tea (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
21144	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats.	eng
21144	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is currently knoown only from few localities in northern Borneo: northern Sarawak and northeastern Sabah (Malaysia). Its range is probably more widespread than the current records range indicate. In particularly, it is likely to be found in Brunei, and perhaps northern Kalimantan (Indonesia).	eng
21144	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available on this species. It is a lowland forest species.  It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
21144	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
21144	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for plantations (especially oil palm), logging and fires.	eng
21145	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into its distribution, abundance, natural history and threats.	eng
21145	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	The species is known from three specimens collected in three widely separate localities in the Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Hutterer 2005). It is presumably occurs more widely within its mapped range (the distribution map is, in any case, highly generalised).	eng
21145	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	It is a lowland forest species. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
21145	population	Lunde, D., 2008	There is almost no information. The species has a very uneven occurrence through its range.	eng
21145	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for plantations (especially oil palm), and logging.	eng
21146	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is occurs in the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
21146	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Rana Mese (near Ruteng), on the western part of the island of Flores, Indonesia. Lake Rana Mese is at 1,200 m asl. It is likely to occur more widely on Flores, but its extent of occurrence is almost certainly less than 5,000 km².	eng
21146	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available about ecological requirements and habitat preferences for this species. Presumably it inhabits montane forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
21146	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known only from the holotype.	eng
21146	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Habitat loss represents the major threat to this species. The Ruteng forests are under severe threat from illegal timber harvesting and conversion to cropland, owing to the high human population in the area, and all commercially valuable trees have been forecast to have been removed by 2010; moreover, numerous communities dispute the current boundaries of the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park (Trainor 2000).	eng
21147	conservation	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	This species is known from the following protected areas within its range - Southern India: Biligirirangan Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarhole National Park (Karnataka); Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kerala); Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu); Sri Lanka: Horton Plains National Park and Knuckles Forest Reserve (Central Province) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic studies are urgently required to determine the identites of the southern Indian and Sri Lankan populations; the two are more likely to be different species (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
21147	distribution	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	This species occurs in central and southern Sri Lanka and in Nilgiris, Palni hills and Coorg in the Western Ghats of southern India (Stone 1995; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It occupies an altitudinal range of 900 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
21147	habitat	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	This species has been mostly recorded from montane forests, grasslands and organic plantations. It is noted that it does not readily enter buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21147	population	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	Population numbers are not clearly understood. It is more commonly trapped in the higher elevations of Coorg, above 900 m asl (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
21147	threats	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O. & de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., 2008	Major threats include habitat loss due to expansion of agriculture, pesticide use and forest fires (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21148	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from Sinharaja Forest Reserve and Labugama Forest Reserve in Sabaragamuwa Province (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population and ecological studies as well as thorough surveys are recommended.	eng
21148	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known from several distinctly fragmented and locations in Central, Western and Sabaragamuwa provinces. It has been recorded from 150 to around 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
21148	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal, crepuscular and terrestrial shrew that inhabits rainforests in low land wet zone (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21148	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance or trends.	eng
21148	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations (eg. coffee) are major threats to this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
21150	conservation	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is present in many protected areas across its range.	eng
21150	distribution	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is found in the mountains of Sumatra (Indonesia) and northern Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia and possibly in Brunei). It has an altitudinal range from 920 to 2,930 m on Mt. Kinabalu and Mt. Trus Madi in Sabah, and from 700 to 2,400 m in Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21150	habitat	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	Very little information exists on the habitat and ecology of this species (Musser and Newcomb 1983). According to Lim and Heyneman (1968) this species has been recorded from primary forest at two locations, between 1,280 and 1,645 m in low montane oak forest and between 2,145 and 2,710 m in mossy forest (Musser and Newcomb 1983). Musser (1986) reports that this species is "found in the upper part of lowland tropical evergreen forest and higher in montane forest". This species is terrestrial (Md Nor 2001). It is unknown if it is present in disturbed habitats.	eng
21150	population	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It may be reasonably abundant. Six specimens of this species were recorded recently by Md Nor (2001) on Mt. Kinabalu between 1,700 and 2,200 m.	eng
21150	threats	Ruedas, L., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	Lower elevation populations of this species may be threatened by general loss of habitat through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
21151	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded at lower elevations of Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park. There is an urgent need for additional survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
21151	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from two localities in western Java at elevations between 900 and 1,350 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21151	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is likely terrestrial and lives in tropical evergreen forests (Musser and Newcomb 1983). It probably does not occur in degraded habitats.	eng
21151	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from 21 specimens collected by Bartels between 1932 and 1935 (Musser and Newcomb 1983).	eng
21151	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, which has been extensive in the lowlands of Java.	eng
21152	conservation	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
21152	distribution	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known from south western peninsular Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Palawan, as well as on the smaller islands of Siantan (Anamba Island), many of the Riau Islands, Tuangku and Bangkuru (Banjak Islands), Mansalar (western Sumatra), Pinie, Tanahmasa and Tanahbala (Batu Islands), Banka, Bunguan and Serasan (Natuna Islands), Karimata Island (south western Borneo), Sebuku (south eastern Borneo), Balembangan and Banggi (northern Borneo), and Balabac, Culion, and Busuanga (Palawan Faunal Region) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It does not occur on Java.	eng
21152	habitat	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is primary forest and secondary growth (Sanborn 1952; Md Nor 2001).  It is generally a lowland species, reaching 1,650 m on slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah (Md Nor 2001). It is often found near streams and prefers moist habitats (Lim 1970; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is primarily terrestrial, though it is found on branches of trees (Lim 1970). The diet consists of insects, fruit, leaves and shoots, other vegetable matter, crabs, and land snails (Medway 1969; Lim 1966, 1970).	eng
21152	population	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is presumably common, as there are are large series from several collecting localities, but population numbers are likely to be declining.	eng
21152	threats	Ruedas, L., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is likely to be affected by ongoing habitat loss across much of its range. It is probably hunted in non-muslim parts of its range.	eng
21153	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known to occur in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.	eng
21153	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found in north, central and western Borneo.	eng
21153	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species inhabits tall forest in hill ranges-lower montane. It is diurnal, primarily arboreal.	eng
21153	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is naturally rare due to its narrow habitat zone. It has most likely a relatively large, stable population on Kinabalu. Other populations would be less stable.	eng
21153	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it may be threatened by very little degradation around Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
21154	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
21154	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found only on Mentawai Archipelago (Siberut, Sipora, North and South Pagai islands) off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
21154	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species lives in lowland evergreen forests.	eng
21154	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, but likely declining because it is forest dependent.	eng
21154	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation due to illegal logging.	eng
21155	conservation	Francis, C., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is found in several protected areas, including Pasoh Forest Reserve (Han pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
21155	distribution	Francis, C., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is found in the lowland areas of peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
21155	habitat	Francis, C., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It prefers primarily lowland forest, but is also found in secondary forests, though in declining number. It is typically found on the ground and lower in trees (Han pers. comm.). This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), but it often descends to the ground (Han pers. comm.). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin, 2004).	eng
21155	population	Francis, C., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat, though it is not often recorded (Han and Giman pers. comm.). This species was the second most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 3.93 ± 2.33 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia. In Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 19.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al</em>. (1996) found 2.42 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.	eng
21155	threats	Francis, C., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversation (Han pers. comm.).	eng
21156	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.	eng
21156	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This type locality of this species is Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. It probably also occurs on all of central mountain range of Borneo, but this needs to be substantiated.	eng
21156	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is found in montane forests.	eng
21156	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
21156	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It is threatened by small-scale agriculture for strawberries and potatoes.	eng
21157	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	It is known to occur in several protected areas (L. Heaney and P. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
21157	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region and is restricted to parts of the island north of Abo-abo (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been introduced to Apulit by resort owners and now poses a threat to cavity-nesting birds (P. Widmann pers. comm.)	eng
21157	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest from sea level to at least 500 m (Hoogstraal 1951; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, it seems to be tolerant to habitat disturbance, as it is also found in tree plantations (e.g. coconut), agricultural areas and gardens, including heavily disturbed areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21157	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common, even abundant in suitable habitat. It is considered to be a crop pest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21157	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	There are currently no major threats to this species. It is occasionally hunted as a pest and is traded as pets throughout Philippines (L. Heaney pers. comm.; P. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
21158	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas across its range (Han pers. comm.). Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
21158	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	This species is found on Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, and adjacent small islands. In Borneo it is found up to 1,400 m, but usually below 900 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21158	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It prefers degraded and secondary forest habitats. Three researchers have recorded that it increases in number after shifting cultivation. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It has been suggested that one of the reasons for low densities of this species in Malaysian tropical rain forest is competition from the great variety of other arboreal vertebrates (such as birds, and especially primates) for food, especially fruits and leaves, which are among the food items preferred by squirrels (Saiful and Nordin 2004). It is occasionally found along river banks, as seen at Temerloh, Pahang (Han pers. comm.).	eng
21158	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	It is very common in suitable habitat (Han pers. comm.). This species was the most abundant of its genus found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment), with a density of 13.00 ± 1.85 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. In general, this species is found at low densities in unlogged forest in Malaysia; in Danum Valley, Sabah, Norhayati (2001) found 14.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, while Zainuddin <em>et al.</em> (1996) found 1.28 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Nanga Gaat, Sarawak.	eng
21158	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E. & Han, K.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species (Han pers. comm.).	eng
21159	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	More information is needed on this species' ecology and local threats. Additionally, further taxonomic studies may clarify this species' status by clarifying its true degree of distinctness.	eng
21159	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region (Culion, Linapacan, Iloc, and Tampel islands) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). More recently it has also been reported from Bacuit Archipelago on Lagen island (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).	eng
21159	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest and coconut groves (Hoogstraal 1951; Sanborn 1952), including gardens (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21159	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is locally abundant (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
21159	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	It is found only on very small islands, where there is significant ongoing forest conversion to agriculture. There is not much forest left on Culion.	eng
21160	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It occurs in protected areas. Pet trade is illegal, but often not enforced.	eng
21160	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on Mindanao and adjacent islands: Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur), Samar and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart 2003). It is found from 0 to 2,100 m (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21160	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It can also occur in agricultural areas (Sanborn 1952; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998) and is considered a crop pest in certain areas.	eng
21160	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
21160	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is common in the local Philippine pet trade and could also be hunted locally for food, although the effects of both of these potential threats on population size is not well know, but probably is not great (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21161	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Surveys are needed to establish the true extent of this species' geographic and elevational distribution, and to document its basic biology.	eng
21161	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It is found only on Palawan island from 1,100 to 1,300 m, with records from Mt. Burang-Bato, Mt. Mantalingajan and Mt. Gorangbato (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
21161	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species seems to be confined to old growth, oak-dominated, montane forest at moderately high elevations (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
21161	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is only known from a few individuals.	eng
21161	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. These habitats have not been disturbed on Palawan, as they are steep and inaccessible (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21162	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
21162	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is endemic to Philippines, where it has been recorded from Samar and Leyte islands.	eng
21162	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, like <em>Sundasciurus philippinensis</em>, this species is locally common in forests (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), occurring in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found also in agricultural areas (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952).	eng
21162	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>S. samarensis</em> is probably locally common throughout its range.	eng
21162	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. However, in the Philippines <em>S. philippinensis</em> is illegally traded as pet, and local hunting for food is another potential threat.	eng
21163	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Long-term protection of lowland forests in southern Palwan is ideally needed.	eng
21163	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Palawan faunal region. It is only found on Balabac, Bancalan, Matangule, and southern Palawan islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
21163	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary forest, as well as in more disturbed areas such as tree plantations, coconut groves, banana plantations, gardens (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21163	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is locally common, and considered a garden and crop pest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
21163	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G., Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no major threats. Locally, forest conversion to rice paddies is a potential threat. Hunting is widespread, but unlikely to be a major impact this species.	eng
21164	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. Saiful and Nordin (2004) state the need for further comparative study on this species' abundance, density and distribution and its relationship to forest structure or habitat quality, spatially and temporally, in hill dipterocarp forest of Malaysia.	eng
21164	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is found in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo and several small adjacent islands.	eng
21164	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	It occurs in primary and disturbed forests, in both lowlands and mountains (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It seems to cope well in forests that have been affected by logging. This is a diurnal and arboreal species (Saiful and Nordin 2004).	eng
21164	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat. This species was rarely found in a survey conducted by Saiful and Nordin (2004) in Peninsular Malaysia (Weng River sub-catchment).	eng
21164	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21168	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
21172	conservation	Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP) is a broad-based research and conservation programme for this highly threatened species and its equally endangered habitats (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan 2006). It is being conducted under the aegis of a formal International Agreement, that was originally signed at New Delhi in 1995 and later renewed as a Memorandum of Understanding in 2001, between IUCN SSC Pigs Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (DWCT), the Forest Department, Government of Assam, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. A local governing body consisting of representatives of the four signatories and some Indian experts has been constituted to provide guidance to the Programme. The implementation of this agreement, the first of its kind in India, is being undertaken by PHCP and the local partner organisation, EcoSystems-India, with funds provided by DWCT, with assistance from the European Union, Darwin Initiative (UK government), Assam Valley Wildlife Society, Zoological Society for the Conservation of Species and Populations (ZGAP), and various other sources. The primary aim of this collaborative programme is conservation of the Pygmy Hogs and other endangered species of tall grasslands of the region through field research, captive breeding and re-introduction after adequate restoration of degraded former habitats. One of the main objectives of the Programme was to establish a well structured conservation breeding project for pygmy hogs as an insurance against the possible early extinction of the species in the wild and as a source of animals for re-introduction projects. In 1996, six (2 male, 4 female) wild hogs were caught from Manas National Park and transferred to a custom-built research and breeding centre built at Basistha near Guwahati, the capital of Assam. Five more hogs were caught and released at the capture site after fitting three males and a female with radio harness for radio-telemetry studies. The hog population kept in captivity almost doubled in 1997 from 18 to 35 through planned breeding. Between 1998 and 2002, several more hogs were born in captivity and a rescued wild hog was added to the captive population, taking it to over 75 animals which constituted over 1200% increase in 6 years. Although two more enclosures and a quarantine facility were constructed at Basistha, the unanticipated and rapid increase in the captive population created accommodation problems, forcing the programme to restrict breeding in captivity. Subsequently, a much larger facility was established at Potasali near Nameri National Park in Assam. This facility includes four holding enclosures and four pre-release enclosures with near natural habitat, where hogs earmarked for reintroduction are reared. Since the animals at Basistha Centre are the only captive pygmy hogs in the world, the second centre is also an insurance against any catastrophe at the present location. Once the Potasali pre-release enclosures were ready and the habitat at one of the release sites became reasonably suitable, the hogs were allowed to breed again.<br/><br/>Surveys to locate possible release sites in Assam were carried out, as the rapidly increasing captive population necessitated transfer of some of these pygmy hog back to where they belonged. Two potential re-introduction sites were identified in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary and Nameri National Park, both in Sonitpur district of Assam bordering Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Habitat management and protection regimes at the potential release sites were assessed in consultation with authorities and recommendations for restoration and scientific management were given. The management authorities are trying to implement the recommendations with limited auccess. The habitat in a part of Orang National Park was also found suitable, but in absence of any reliable record of the species formerly occurring in this area, further evaluation is considered necessary. <br/><br/>The actual release of hogs was delayed initially due to security problems and later due to presence of factors that were responsible for disappearance of the hogs at the potential reintroduction sites. Once the some of the recommendations were implemented at one of the sites (Sonai Rupai), preparations for soft release were started. In 2007, 23 babies were produced at Basistha. Three social groups comprising 16 (7 male, 9 female) hogs, including 10 yearlings, were transferred from Basistha to Potasali pre-release enclosures in December 2007. They were kept in the pre-release enclosures under minimum human contact. Each of these enclosures are 2,400 to 3,200 m² in size and capable of meeting most of the food requirements of a group of 5-6 hogs. These hogs began to behave like wild animals within a few weeks and did not come close even to their keepers except in an area where they were offered a few morsels of their favourite food. They were shifted to a release enclosure in Sonai Rupai after five months, and were given access to go to the wild after about two weeks. Unfortunately, the radio telemetry studies on these hogs could not be done as the radio harness fitted on six of them while they were in pre-release caused injuries when they moved rapidly through very dense grass. The released hogs will be monitored through indirect means (droppings, nests) and by observing them at bait stations. <br/><br/>Community conservation initiatives and awareness campaign have been started in the fringe villages of Manas, Nameri and Sonai Rupai as it is almost impossible to save the species without the cooperation of the local population. Capacity building and training programmes are also being carried out for the frontline protection staff in the above protected areas.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus salvanius</span>).	eng
21172	distribution	Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W., 2008	In the past, this species was confirmed from only a very few locations in northern West Bengal and north-western Assam in India, but is believed likely to have occurred in tall, wet alluvial grasslands extending in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradesh and southern Nepal to Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan (Oliver 1980). However, it is now confined to a very few locations in and around Manas National Park in north-western Assam (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan and Oliver, in press).	eng
21172	habitat	Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Pygmy Hog is the smallest and the rarest wild suid in the world. This species is dependent on early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as 'thatchland', but which, in its pristine state, is intermixed with a wide variety of herbaceous plants and early colonizing shrubs and young trees (Oliver and Deb Roy 1993). There are many species of tall grasses, which dominate in different situations. The most important of these communities for Pygmy Hogs are those which tend to be dominated by <em>Saccharum munja</em>, <em>S. spontaneum</em>, <em>S. bengalensis</em>, <em>Themeda villosa</em>, <em>Narenga porphyrocoma</em> and <em>Imperata cylindrical</em>, which form characteristic associations of 1 to 4 m height, during secondary stages of the succession on well drained ground. These communities are not, therefore, maintained by prolonged inundation, though they may be maintained by periodic burning. However, as they also include some of the most commercially important thatching grasses, some of these areas (including many of those in protected areas) are harvested annually and virtually all of them are subject to wide-scale annual (in some areas, twice-annual) burning. Although it has been suggested by ecologists that any burning be conducted at the beginning of the dry season (in December or early January) in alternate blocks (demarcated by fire-lines) and only once in 2-3 years, most of the grasslands continue to be burnt every year in the dry season, which deleteriously affects their floral and faunal diversity. It has been recognised that some amount of ?early? burning may be required in order to preclude the possibility of later, uncontrolled 'hot' burns, which are far more destructive, and possibly to delay natural succession of the grasslands in protected areas. However, early burning also may deprive hogs and other grassland dependant species of cover and other resources for a longer period prior to the regrowth of vegetation and has the same consequences of dramatically reducing floral and faunal diversity.	eng
21172	population	Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W., 2008	Today, this species is at the brink of extinction, as only a few isolated and small populations survive in the wild. In fact, the only viable population of the species, with a few hundred individuals, exists in small grassland pockets of Manas National Park (500 km²) and an adjacent reserve forest in the Manas Tiger Reserve and nowhere else in the world (Narayan and Deka 2002). Sixteen captive-bred Pygmy Hogs were released in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary in May 2008 and similar reintroductions have been planned in Nameri and Orang National Parks of Assam. There are about 75 animals in captivity in northwestern Assam.	eng
21172	threats	Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W., 2008	The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, dry-season burning, livestock grazing, commercial forestry and flood control schemes; the latter as a result of the disruption of natural successions and the replacements of former grasslands by later stage communities or other developments. In Assam, as elsewhere, most former habitat has been lost to settlements and agriculture following the rapid expansion of the human population (Oliver, 1980, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy, 1993). Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use of fire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect (Narayan and Deka 2002). A combination of these factors has almost certainly resulted in the loss of all of the small populations of these animals in the reserve forests of north-western Assam. These losses strongly reinforced the overwhelming importance of the largest and, by the early to mid-1980's, only known surviving population in the Manas (Oliver, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy 1993).<br/><br/>Hunting for wild meat by tribes was not considered a major problem in the past but is now threatening the remnant populations (Narayan and Deka 2002). The survival of Pygmy Hogs is closely linked to the existence of the tall, wet grasslands of the region which, besides being a highly threatened habitat itself, is also crucial for survival of a number endangered species such as Indian rhinoceros (<em>Rhinoceros unicornis</em>), tiger (<em>Panthera tigris</em>), swamp deer (<em>Cervus duvauceli</em>), wild buffalo (<em>Bubalus arnee</em>), hispid hare (<em>Caprolagus hispidus</em>), Bengal florican (<em>Eupodotis bengalensis</em>), swamp francolin (<em>Francolinus gularis</em>) and some rare turtles and terrapins.	eng
21174	conservation	Semiadi, G., Meijaard, E. & Oliver, W., 2008	Javan warty pigs are poorly represented in existing protected areas. Creation of three new nature reserves and expansion of two existing reserves of importance to the taxon were recommended (Blouch 1993). In addition, surveys of the extent of market hunting should be undertaken with the objective of formulating means to regulate or eliminate the practice, and ecological research and investigation on crop damage should be conducted. Captive animals need to be administered under a properly structured plan for the long term genetic and demographic benefit of the species.<br/><br/>Efforts to corroborate and document recent reports of the dramatic reduction in the numbers of <em>S. v. blouchi</em> and other threatened endemic taxa on Bawean Island are also required as a matter of urgency and with view to the institution of more effective protective measures being implemented in the Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve and other parts of this island, especially against hunting by recent immigrant communities. <br/><br/>Currently (2008) a project to establish a captive breeding population of <em>S. v. verrucosus</em> is underway by collecting founders from zoos and from the wild. The aim is to establish a captive population that reliably produces offspring later to be reintroduced in selected protected habitats.	eng
21174	distribution	Semiadi, G., Meijaard, E. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Javan warty pig is endemic to Indonesia. Historically the species was present on Java, Madura Island and Bawean Islands; now the species is very fragmented into small pockets of suitable habitat (Grubb 2005). It is extinct on Madura (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006). Two subspecies are recognized. The nominate form, <em>S. v. verrucosus</em>, occurs on Java (and formerly Madura) where it is sympatric with <em>Sus scrofa vittatus</em>. The second subspecies, <em>S. v. blouchi</em> is confined to Bawean Island in the Java Sea where it is also sympatric with <em>Sus scrofa vittatus</em>. This species was widespread on Java as recently as 1982 (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006), but is now absent from most of the island, and is surviving only in highly fragmented populations.	eng
21174	habitat	Semiadi, G., Meijaard, E. & Oliver, W., 2008	The species occurs both in cultivated landscapes and in teak forest plantations (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006), with the highest density thought to occur between Semarang and Surabaya on both sides of the border between the provinces of Central and East Java. Recent data (Semiadi 2008, unpubl data) indicate that near Banjar (West Java) there is a possibility of significant numbers of animals in a fragmented teak forest and mixed local and agricultural forest.<br/><br/>The vegetation in which they occur is dominated by mixed age teak (<em>Tectona grandis</em>) plantations interspersed with lalang grasslands (<em>Imperata cylindrical</em>), brush and patches of secondary forest. This apparently provides an optimum habitat for this species. Javan warty pigs are everywhere restricted to elevations below about 800 m. The reasons for this are not known, but it might be due to their being unable to tolerate low temperatures (Blouch 1993). They evidently prefer secondary or disturbed forests, though they are also often found near the coasts in remnant patches of mangrove and swamp forest such as in Pangandaran (West Java) and Cilacap (Central Java). They are rare in the few remaining lowland primary forests, and in areas with high human populations where otherwise suitable habitat is fragmented and surrounded by agricultural land. However, they do feed on crops, making nocturnal raids on fields of corn and cassava and, in common with <em>Sus scrofa</em>, the species is widely persecuted for such depredations (Blouch 1988).	eng
21174	population	Semiadi, G., Meijaard, E. & Oliver, W., 2008	The species occurs in at least 10 isolated areas on mainland Java, although some additional, probably very small populations, might survive elsewhere (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006). For example, recently another pocket area was found in Banjar (West Java), though intensive survey work is needed to establish the size of the area and the population (Semiadi 2007, unpubl. data). There are no estimates of overall population size, but the species has shown a rapid population decline in recent decades. Compared to a survey conducted in 1982, 17 of the 32 (53%) populations are extinct or have dropped to low encounter rate levels (Semiadi and Meijaard 2006).<br/> <br/>Semiadi and Meijaard (2004), as a result of widespread interviews, reported the species from the following areas:<br/>1. <em>S. verrucosus</em> occurs in the area between Malingping and Rangkasbitung, but is rarely encountered. There were no reports of recent kills of <em>verrucosus</em>, but some were shot several years ago. Semiadi and Meijaard (2006) considered that that a small population probably remains. However, because <em>S. scrofa</em> is a major agricultural pest, hunting intensity is high<br/>2. Pigs are common in the area between Sukabumi and the coastal nature reserve of Cikepuh, and are considered a major agricultural pest. <em>S. verrucosus</em>, however, is rarely encountered, with two hunters reporting that they had not shot one since 1998. One hunter suggested that over-hunting was the most likely cause of the species’ decline.<br/>3. Interviewees in the area near Purwakarta reported the presence of <em>S. verrucosus</em> between the 1960s and 1990s, with steady declines of the weight of killed animals and numbers of pigs encountered. They now consider <em>verrucosus</em> to be very rare, the latest report being a specimen that was shot in 2001.<br/>4. Near and south of Garut several small populations remain, with reported sightings of <em>S. verrucosus</em> in 2002 and 2001.<br/>5. Around Majalengka and towards Sumedang interviewees reported recent sightings or killings of <em>S. verrucosus</em>, but all emphasize that the species is now much rarer than in the past. Pigs are much sought after here for illegally organized fights with dogs.<br/>6. A population of <em>S. verrucosus</em> still exists east of Tasikmalaya towards Ciamis. There were several reports of recent sightings or killings. Still, people consider <em>S. verrucosus</em> to be rare in comparison to <em>S. scrofa</em>.<br/>7. Several interviewees reported recent sightings of <em>verrucosus</em> from the area around Cilacap, Cipatujuh, and Nusakambangan Nature Reserve, including some from the Nusakambangan Nature Reserve offshore Cilacap, but the species seems to be rare and fragmented into many small populations.<br/>8. <em>S. verrucosus</em> is still relatively common around Subah, generally seen in small groups of 1–2 animals, but in up to 4–6 animals/group during mating season. Females with young are seen between August and December. <em>S. verrucosus</em> has not declined as much as <em>S. scrofa</em>, but one interviewee expected rapid population declines of the former because teak forests, its prime habitat, are disappearing.<br/>9. <em>S. verrucosus</em> appears to be relatively common around Blora and Bojonegoro, and every interviewee was familiar with the species and confirmed its local presence. Still, according to one interviewee, the species used to occur in groups of 10–20 animals, but now only 1–3 animals/group are encountered. Five to seven years ago, every hunt resulted in the capture of 1–2 <em>S. verrucosus</em>, or 2–3 according to another informant, but now the species is rarely caught; the most recent one in April/May 2003. One interviewee reported that pigs have especially declined since the fall of President Suharto in 1998, because then local people started to log the state-owned teak forests.<br/>10. Bawean island is the only area where the subspecies <em>S. v. blouchi</em> occurs. Several interviewees reported the presence of <em>S. verrucosus</em> on the island, but all sightings predated 2002, and the reports gave the impression that the species was now rare. A recent (<em>c</em>. 2004) survey of Bawean deer <em>Axis kuhli</em> on Bawean Island also yielded disturbing reports of the likely dramatic diminution of this species and all wild pig populations (including <em>S. v. blouchi</em>) on Bawean Island, reputedly as a consequence of severe hunting pressure following the transmigration settlement of Christian communities from Sumatra (these animals having been previously left mostly undisturbed by the formerly predominant Moslem communities; R. Ratajszsak, unpubl; pers. comm. to W. Oliver).	eng
21174	threats	Semiadi, G., Meijaard, E. & Oliver, W., 2008	Semiadi and Meijaard (2006) hypothesized that the population decline observed in this species is primarily caused by a decline in suitable habitat, especially of stands of teak <em>Tectona grandis</em> forest or similar forest plantations, and by high hunting pressure. With the imposed regulation by the government for teak plantation forests to adopt a mixed agriculture system (agroforestry system) by cultivating agricultural products in between the young teak plantations, teak plantation forests become suitable <em>S. verrucosus</em> habitat. However, a 35-50 year cycle of teak forest harvest remains a threat for the availability of this habitat. In any case, there is extensive illegal logging of teak plantations, no doubt to the detriment of <em>S. verrucosus</em>. These animals are killed both by sport hunters and by farmers protecting their crops (Blouch 1995). Many animals are killed by poisoning (Semiadi and Meijaard, 2006). As yet unpublished reports of the recent dramatic reduction in numbers, possibly resulting in the extirpation, of <em>S. v. blouchi</em>, on Bawean Island have been attributed to correspondingly increased hunting pressure following the recent settlement of Christian immigrants from Sumatra; these animals having been previously left largely unharmed by the predominantly Moslem inhabitants. Competition from and hybridization with the Eurasian wild pig, <em>Sus scrofa</em>  has been speculated as a further threat to <em>S. verrucosus</em>, especially in areas where human induced habitat changes have favoured <em>S. scrofa</em>, though there is little direct evidence for this and the two species evidently occur sympatrically in some areas, including Bawean Island.	eng
21175	conservation	Oliver, W., 2008	<em>S. cebifrons</em> is now fully protected by Philippine law, though enforcement of protection measures is generally poor in most areas, including many 'protected areas', owing to lack of resources and other factors. The species occurs  in small populations in several 'natural parks', including Mount Canlaon (8,000 ha); North Negros (c. 18,000 ha); Mount Talinis/Lake Balinsasayao (c. 11,000 ha); and the proposed West Panay Mountains Natural Park (c. 70,000 ha). However, the formal declaration of the latter area was eventually stymied by lack of unanimity amongst relevant LGUs and a number of separate, smaller areas have since been declared, though these do not cover all of the most important sites, nor have any of these areas been significantly better protected since declaration owing the absence of any corresponding national budgetary allocations.<br/><br/>The Visayan Warty Pig Conservation Programme (VWPCP) was formally established in 1992 under the aupices of a new Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, Government of the Philippines) and the Zoological Society of San Diego (ZSSD, USA), to facilitate development and implementation of a wide-range of conservation-related activities. These include wide-ranging surveys and other field research, education awareness campaigns, assistance in the establishment of new protected areas, diverse personnel training and other local capacity-building initiatives. The latter also including assistance in the establishment of three local threatened species rescue and breeding centres (one on Panay and two on Negros) with a view to the establishment of properly structured conservation breeding programmes and, hence, the accession and management of pure-bred founder populations of these animals whilst the opportunity to do still existed. The ensuing breeding programme has since been extended to other breeding centres locally and internationally, and is hoped that this will also enable future reintroductions of these animals to selected sites in Cebu and other islands (Oliver 1993a,b, 2004; Oliver and Wirth, 1997; Lorica and Oliver, 2007).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions include:<br/><br/>1. Enhance management and protection of existing protected areas and/or assist establishment of new 'local conservation areas' (in effect 'municipal reserves') and/or private nature reserves<br/><br/>2. Reinvestigate the current status of this species on Masbate and develop and implement relevant conservation management recommendations for the enhanced future protection of any remaining native forest habitats and the potential future reintroduction of this (and other West Visayan endemic species) on this island and on Cebu <br/><br/>3. Implement priority recommendations re. local awareness raising arising from recent, range-wide 'ethnobiological' surveys, revealing both currently low levels of awareness re. local protection legislation and prevalence of 'recreational', 'reprisal' or 'commercial' (rather than 'subsistence') hunting in all key sectors.<br/><br/>4. Conduct (or complete) systematic (including mtDNA) research on intra- and inter-population variation amongst surviving Negros and Panay Island populations.	eng
21175	distribution	Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the West Visayan Islands (or Negros-Panay Faunal Region) of the central Philippines, where it previously occurred on Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Cebu, Masbate and (probably) Ticao Islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Grubb 2005; Oliver 1993a; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is not known whether <em>S. cebifrons</em> or <em>S. philippensis</em> occurred formerly on the neighbouring island of Siquijor, where wild pigs have also been extirpated, but this species is replaced by <em>S. philippensis</em> on Bohol and all other larger Philippine Islands east of Huxley?s Line, except on Mindoro where it is replaced by <em>S. oliveri</em> (Groves 1997, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species has been extirpated from most of its range, and fragmented populations survive today only on Negros, Panay, and possibly Masbate.	eng
21175	habitat	Oliver, W., 2008	Originally this species occurred in primary and secondary forest from sea-level to mossy forest at 1,600 m asl. Now it occurs mostly above 800 m asl, as there are relatively few patches of suitable habitat in the lowlands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It can persist in some degraded habitats such as cogon grasslands as long as there are areas of dense cover, though there is some evidence to suggest that pigs surviving in largely denuded areas are predominately composed of feral animals of mixed origin (W. Oliver pers. comm.).	eng
21175	population	Oliver, W., 2008	<em>S. cebifrons</em> has been eliminated from three of the six islands where it was known or presumed to have occurred formerly; i.e. Cebu (where the species was last reported in 1960s), Guimaras and Ticao Islands. It is also close to extinction, if not already ?functionally extinct?, on Masbate, where the species was last confirmed in 1993, at which time only a few individuals were reported to survive in one location. Consequently, potentially viable populations now survive only in the last remaining forest fragments on Negros and Panay Islands (collectively comprising <em>c</em>. 6% and >4% of land area, respectively). though genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic or feral pigs has also been confirmed as occurring in most (perhaps all) of these populations (Oliver, 1993a, 1995, 2001).	eng
21175	threats	Oliver, W., 2008	All of the few remaining populations of these animals are now widely fragmented and declining; both through former widespread commercial logging operations, continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion (particularly slash-and-burn cultivation or ?kaingin?) and hunting pressure. The latter continues throughout its remaining range, both by local farmers in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities. Both of these groups may also sell any surplus meat which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are unfortunately also often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests and, hence, a legitimate target for hunting activities (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, and hybrids have been confirmed from almost all remaining population sites (Blouch, 1995; Oliver, 1995; 2001).	eng
21176	conservation	Oliver, W. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>S. philippensis</em> is now fully protected by Philippine law, though enforcement of protection measures is generally poor in most areas, including many ‘protected areas’, owing to lack of resources and other factors. <br/><br/>Understanding of the taxonomy, distribution and distributional relationships, threats and likely future management needs of this and other Philippine wild pig species, and hence also their inclusion in relevant protective legislation, research studies and education/awareness campaigns, have undoubtedly benefited from greatly increased local and international interest in the extraodinary diversity of Philippines endemic suids since the early 1990’s. However, much more needs to be done in order to:<br/><br/>• determine the identities and relationships of many (as yet unstudied and described) insular populations, some of which are likely to constitute new taxa; and therefore also to: <br/><br/>• identify and prioritise conservation needs and efforts on the most threatened and distinct taxa and populations via conduct of relevant (and comparative) population distribution and (perhaps especially) ethnobiological surveys, in order to: <br/><br/>• better understand and ameliorate existing or likely future threats, whether via increased advocacy in decision-making sectors, more effective enforcement of existing protective legislation, establishment of more effectively protected ‘protected’ areas, mitigation of prevailing negative attitudes through enhanced education/awareness initiatives, resolution of existing legislative anomalies re. traditional, commercial and other uses; etc.	eng
21176	distribution	Oliver, W. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>S. Philippensis</em> is endemic to the Philippines, and occurs through most of the country except the Palawan Faunal Region (where it is replaced by <em>S. ahoenobarbus</em>), Mindoro (where it replaced by <em>S. oliveri</em>), the Negros-Panay Faunal Region (where it is replaced by <em>S. cebifrons</em>), and the Sulu Faunal Region (where it is apparently replaced by a closely related, but as yet undescribed new species of  warty pig, i.e. <em>S. sp. Nov</em>.). The ranges of the two currently recognised subspecies therefore also follow expected distribution patters, with <em>S. p. philippensis</em> being confined to and endemic to the ‘Greater Luzon Faunal Region’ (i.e. the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes and, formerly, Marinduque); and <em>S. p. mindanensis</em> being confined and endemic to the ‘Greater Mindanao Faunal Region’ (i.e. Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Bohol, Mindanao, Camiguin Sul, Basilan and associated smaller islands (Groves, 1981, 1997, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver 1995, 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993; Rose and Grubb, unpublished).	eng
21176	habitat	Oliver, W. & Heaney, L., 2008	It was formerly abundant from sea-level up to at least 2,800 m, in virtually all habitats (Rabor 1986). Now it is common only in remote forests (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991). It was reported to be common in montane and mossy forest from 925-2,150 m elevation in Balbalasang National Park, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21176	population	Oliver, W. & Heaney, L., 2008	Precise data on wild pig populations is lacking for on most islands, particularly the smaller islands, though their present status may be inferred from the extent of remaining forest over their known ranges, likely extents of hunting pressure and other factors. As such, the species was undoubtedly far more extensively distributed in the past, and most extant populations, particularly on the larger islands, are badly fragmented and declining (Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is extinct on Marinduque.	eng
21176	threats	Oliver, W. & Heaney, L., 2008	Most remaining populations of these animals are now widely fragmented and declining, and likely to face extinction, or may already be extinct on some islands (e.g. Marinduque), as a result of former widespread commercial logging operations, continued low-level illegal logging and agricultural expansion (particularly slash-and-burn cultivation or ‘kaingin’) and hunting pressure. The latter continues throughout its remaining range, including many (perhaps most) protected areas. Hunting is mostly practiced by local farmers and indigenous peoples in hinterland communities and recreational hunters from larger cities. Both of these groups also sell any surplus meat which usually commands at least twice the price of domestic pork in local markets and speciality restaurants. Efforts to reduce or discourage hunting are also often compromised by generally negative attitudes towards these animals, which can cause severe damage to crops planted within or close to existing forest boundaries, and which are therefore regarded as pests and, hence, a legitimate target for hunting activities. Unfortunately, this species is also threatened by genetic contamination via hybridization with free-ranging domestic and feral animals of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, and incidences of such hybridizations have been confirmed from Luzon and Mindanao, and reported from Basilan and other islands (Blouch, 1995; Oliver, 1995; 2001; Oliver <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
21177	conservation	Oliver, W., 2008	The species is legally protected by Philippine wildlife protection legislation, including a whole suite of legislation pertaining to the Palawan region. However, implementation of such legislation is generally poorly enforced in most areas – including some designated ‘protected areas’. Priority requirements therefore include the more effective implementation of existing legislation, and addition of new protected areas in key areas, if possible designed to enable greater management control by local governmental authorities than is the case under the existing national protected areas system. Recommendations pertaining to the management of wild pigs in non-protected areas to enable their continued harvest on a sustainable basis (Blouch 1995) are also unlikely to be effectively implemented at the present time.	eng
21177	distribution	Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the Palawan Faunal Region (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is known from many locations on Palawan mainland, and is confirmed from Busuanga and Calauit, and reported from diverse other Calamian islands, including Culion and Coron (Rico and Oliver, unpubl). It is also reported from Dumaran to the east of Palawan, and from Balabac and some neighbouring islands to the south of Palawan (Oliver 1995 and unpublished; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
21177	habitat	Oliver, W., 2008	This species occurs in forest habitats (including fragmented forest) from sea level to montane forest at 1,500 m (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004) in a wide range of habitats: from primary and secondary forest to cultivated and managed areas, even neighbouring human habitations (Rabor 1986).	eng
21177	population	Oliver, W., 2008	The species remains relatively widely, if patchily, distributed. Although still locally common in some areas, it is in decline due to habitat attrition and heavy hunting pressure in many areas (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993, Oliver 1992, Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
21177	threats	Oliver, W., 2008	This species is heavily hunted throughout most of its range on the Palawan mainland and offshore islands. Hunting methods include  snares, low caliber rifles, and small, baited explosive devices known as ‘‘pig bombs’’ (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also threatened by encroachment into forest areas (slash and burn agriculture). Due to the geography of Palawan, edge effects are a major problem. However, hybridization with free-ranging domesticates of ex-<em>S. scrofa</em> origin, which besets other Philippine wild pig species ,is not known to be a threat to this species.	eng
21178	conservation	Groves, C.P.P. & Oliver, W., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species. It is not possible to recommend conservation actions until its taxonomic validity has been resolved.	eng
21178	distribution	Groves, C.P.P. & Oliver, W., 2008	<em>Sus bucculentus</em> was described from two skulls collected in southern Viet Nam in 1892, supposedly from near Ho Chi Minh City in the Dong-nai Valley. Another specimen (an incomplete but apparently fresh skull of a juvenile male) has been reported from Ban Ni Giang in the Annamite Mountains in Lao PDR, east of the Mekong River (18º19'N, 104º44'E) (Groves <em>et al</em>. 1997; Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, recent analysis of mitochondrial DNA data (Robins <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that the light-coloured, lankier, longer-faced pigs from the northern Annamites are probably the same as the relatively light-colored form of <em>Sus scrofa</em> found east of the Mekong (Galbreath 2007). The validity of this species is therefore in doubt, and it might be a synonym of <em>Sus scrofa</em>.	eng
21178	habitat	Groves, C.P.P. & Oliver, W., 2008	No information is available on its ecology. It is likely to occur in forest, but possibly in other habitats too.	eng
21178	population	Groves, C.P.P. & Oliver, W., 2008	There is no information. It is known from only three specimens. No currently known wild population of pigs has been assigned to this species.	eng
21178	threats	Groves, C.P.P. & Oliver, W., 2008	No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
21183	conservation	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
21183	distribution	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species occurs only in the higher altitude montane forests on the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Extensive survey effort in the Papua New Guinea Highland part of its range has not found further populations than mapped. It has been recorded between 1,860 and 2,700 m asl.	eng
21183	habitat	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is largely restricted to mossy montane forest. It has been recorded from both primary habitat and rural gardens (Flannery 1995).	eng
21183	population	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Although this species is known from scattered localities, it is common in suitable habitat (at 2,400 m 3-4 specimens/night caught) (T. Flannery pers. comm.).	eng
21183	threats	Helgen, K. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This montane species may be threatened by global warming. During the El Niño of 1997, there were huge fires and loss of habitat in the area of the central population, where there is continuing loss of habitat for agriculture (T. Flannery pers. comm.). Infrastructure expansion is reducing habitat for the eastern population (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
21184	conservation	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species does not occur in protected areas, although four proposed protected areas could be within its range.	eng
21184	distribution	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Halmahera and Bacan in the north Moluccas in Indonesia. The type locality for this species is the south base of Gamkunora (01°20'N, 127°31'E), Halmahera Island in Indonesia. It occurs at only three locations (Flannery 1995).	eng
21184	habitat	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	It is most common in moderately disturbed areas, such as secondary forest and gardens (Flannery 1995).	eng
21184	population	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat and is only found on the largest islands of the north Moluccas. Intensive surveys on the small islands of Tidore and Ternate strongly suggest it is absent from there (Flannery 1995).	eng
21184	threats	Helgen, K. & Salas, L., 2008	Intensifying habitat destruction could be a threat to this species in the future. These threats include nickel and gold mining, logging and infrastructure development (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
21185	conservation	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hall, L. & Richards, G., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
21185	distribution	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hall, L. & Richards, G., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including the islands of Ambon, Seram, and Gebe), to the islands of Salawati, Biak and Yapen (all Indonesia), throughout much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Aru Islands (Indonesia). The species is present in the Bismarck Archipelago (including the islands of New Britain and New Ireland) (Papua New Guinea), on the island of Manus in the Admiralty Islands (Papua New Guinea), on the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea), the Louisade Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) and is also found in Australia where it ranges through the forests of eastern Queensland and New South Wales (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998; Law and Spencer 2008). It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998). In New South Wales, it only occurs at sea level (M. Pennay pers. comm.).	eng
21185	habitat	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hall, L. & Richards, G., 2008	It is an adaptable species found in a variety of forest habitats including tropical moist forest, moss forest, dry sclerophyll woodland, eucalypt forest, and Melaleuca swamps (Bonaccorso 1998; Law and Spencer 2008). It can also be found adjacent to heathland-type habitats. Females give birth to one or two young annually. This species roosts in colonies in dense foliage in large-leaved trees (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
21185	population	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hall, L. & Richards, G., 2008	This species is common in most habitats.	eng
21185	threats	Helgen, K., Salas, L., Hall, L. & Richards, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. South of around Fraser Island, Queensland, coastal development including drainage of paperbark swamps is a major threat locally (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
21203	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Common Duiker is well represented in a large number of protected areas from Senegal to South Africa, and is also well represented on private land.	eng
21203	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Common Duiker is one of the most widely distributed antelopes on the African continent, occurring throughout the savanna woodland zones of sub-Saharan Africa, and in spite of dense human populations in many areas its historical distribution has remained largely unchanged.	eng
21203	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Found south of the Sahara, virtually everywhere there is cover, except in rainforest and desert. Typically a savanna woodland species, but often found in relatively open country and even extends into the alpine zone in some mountainous areas such as on Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro (Wilson in press). It shows a high level of adaptability to habitat modifications caused by the spread of agricultural settlement, and it frequently survives in good numbers wherever there is low secondary growth. They have a very varied diet of foliage, herbs, fruits, seeds, and cultivated crops (Wilson in press).	eng
21203	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) indicated that aerial surveys generally produce estimates of population density in the range 0.01-0.15/km², but that these surveys underestimate numbers of this small, secretive species by a large but unknown factor. Ground surveys in areas where the Common Duiker is common often produce density estimates of the order 0.3-1.7/km². Wilson (2001) summarizes some recorded densities of Common Duiker from various localities in Africa in different vegetation types using line transects.<br/><br/>East (1999) proposed an estimated total population of 1,660,000. This is probably a very conservative figure, and Wilson (in press) suggested it was more likely to be in the order of 10 million. The population trend is probably stable over extensive parts of the species’ range, but decreasing in areas where hunting pressures are extremely high and in marginal parts of its range such as Gabon and Niger.	eng
21203	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	While there are localized declines in places with very intense hunting, the Common Duiker does not seem to have any serious threats to its survival. Its resiliency to hunting, and adaptability, have enabled it to persist widely in human- dominated landscapes, often in close proximity to settlement.	eng
21206	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> is listed as critically endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.<br/><br/>The establishment of reserves on Maria Madre Island, converting San Juanito Island completely into an ecological reserve, ceasing hunting practices, and initiating surveys and research of the species to determine biology and population status is recommended for <em>S. graysoni</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>The island of Maria Magdalena has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
21206	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Distribution of <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> is limited to the four Tres Marias Islands in Nayarit, Mexico (Cervantes 1997). The subspecies <em>S. g. graysoni</em> is native to Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, and Maria Cleofas Islands, and <em>S. g. badistes</em> occurs on San Juanito Island (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The total extent of occurrence is less than 500 km². <em>S. graysoni</em> has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 350 m (Cervantes 1997).	eng
21206	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The Tres Marias Islands where <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> occurs are more arid than the mainland (<630 mm annual precipitation), and the resulting habitat is tropical dry deciduous and moist forest (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Total length is 48.0 cm (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21206	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The populations of <em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> are declining (Cervantes 1997). In 1897, <em>S. graysoni</em> was reported to be abundant on the islands (Ramirez-Silva 2005), but an expedition to the islands in 1987 did not find any rabbits or evidence of activity on Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, or Maria Cleofas, but some were observed on San Juanito Island (Cervantes 1997).	eng
21206	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus graysoni</em> had few historical predators, and does not exhibit much fear of humans, which leaves it vulnerable to hunting (Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Introduced agricultural, and game species, such as <em>Odocoileus virginianus</em> (white-tailed deer), pigs, and domestic goats exist on Maria Magdalena Island, and <em>Rattus rattus</em> (house rat) was introduced to all islands, which have caused strong ecological impacts and compete for resources (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>A federal prison located on Maria Madre Island has led to increased human settlement and development of the land, which has caused habitat disturbance that presents a threat to <em>S. graysoni</em> (Cervantes 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction has probably been the main cause of decline in <em>S. graysoni</em>. Populations used to be more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas has been stripped of about half of its native vegetation in preparation for settlement (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
21207	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> is listed as Critically Endangered in the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.<br/><br/>The type locality of <em>S. insonus</em> is located within the Omiltemi State Ecological Park, which has been declared a natural reserve area (approximately 3,613 ha in area) by the state (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). The Mexican government listed <span style="font-style: italic;">S. insonus</span> as endangered in 1994 (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <br/><br/>Habitat conservation and management, hunting regulation, and captive breeding programs are necessary to protect <em>S. insonus</em> from further decline (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <br/><br/>Much research is needed to determine the status and conservation needs of <em>S. insonus</em>, primarily to determine its current distribution and population status, as well as research to determine the effects of threats (Chapman and Ceballos 1990, Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).	eng
21207	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> is restricted in range to the Sierra Madre del Sur, near Omiltemi, in Guerrero, Mexico (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Records of <em>S. insonus</em> show an elevational range of 2,133-3,048 m (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). The species is known from the type locality only (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <em>S. insonus</em> occupies a highly fragmented area of less than 500 km² (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
21207	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus insonus</em> occupies dense cloud forests, dominated by pine with elements of temperate forest (<em>Pinus, Quercus</em>, and <em>Alnus</em>) (Chapman and Ceballos 1990, Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). <em>S. insonus</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>S. cunicularius</em> (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This species is predominantly nocturnal (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).  Diersing (1981) recorded the following mean measurements (mm) from two collected specimens: total length - 435.00; tail length - 42.50; body length - 392.50; hind foot length - 92.50; ear length (wet) - 65.00; and greatest skull length - 77.45.	eng
21207	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Very little is known about the population status of <em>Sylvilagus insonus</em>. Prior to the recovery of a skin in 1998 (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004), <em>S. insonus</em> was known from only three specimens with suspect diagnosis (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). A 1998 survey, lasting approximately 52 days, within the known range of <em>S. insonus</em> did not yield any <em>S. insonus</em> sightings, but a sympatric species, <em>S. cunicularius</em>, was observed (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2004). The investigators found local inhabitants that managed to hunt two specimens and collected the one remaining skin, placing it in the collection at the Instituto de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, No. 40390 (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).  The hunting sight was approximately 1 km SSE Omiltemi at an elevation of 2,300 m (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).  A possible live sighting in 1991 may be the most recent (Ceballos and Navarro 1991). Prior to the 1998 finding of <em>S. insonus</em> skin specimens, many sources considered <em>S. insonus</em> possibly extinct (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
21207	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Deforestation of habitat is a serious threat to <em>Sylvilagus insonus</em>, as the forests within the known range have been extensively logged, resulting in habitat fragmentation (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997). Cattle grazing accompanies deforestation, intensifying the threat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Hunting of <em>S. insonus</em> remains a concern even after much of the known range was incorporated into a natural reserve area (Cervantes and Lorenzo 1997).	eng
21209	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	A status survey is needed for <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> before conservation measures can be recommended (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Owing to a lack of knowledge about the species it is recommended that research be conducted on population, biology/ecology, threats, and use.	eng
21209	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> occurs in a limited range only in the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and in western Panama (Reid 1997) at high elevations (above 1,640 m in Cervantes, Costa Rica, to 3,800 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica). It occurs to 1,180 m at Rancho de Rio Jimenez in Panama (Diersing 1981).	eng
21209	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Very little is known about the ecology of <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em>, but it is presumed to be similar to <em>S. brasiliensis</em>, of which <em>S. dicei</em> was formerly a subspecies (Reid 1997).  This species is most abundant in the paramo grasslands (such as those in the Chirropo massif) but also occurs in the shrublands and oak cloud forests surrounding and associated with these high elevation ecosystems (Schipper pers. comm.).	eng
21209	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Very little is known about population status of <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em>, but the species may be common in the Paramo ecosystem and highland forest of Panama and Costa Rica (Reid 1997).	eng
21209	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Threats that currently affect <em>Sylvilagus dicei</em> are poorly known (Chapman and Ceballos 1990) as few people have studied it.  During several camera-trap studies in the paramo, high elevation grasslands and cloud forests of the Chirropo massif, the species was found to be relatively abundant throughout the region based on photographic evidence and scats (Schipper pers. comm.).  However, interviews with locals in the area suggest that the species was previously more common than it is today, and likely had a larger distribution that extended down to lower elevations (which have since been converted to cattle pasture and other agriculture).  The following are potential threats for <em>S. dicei</em> in the Talamanca mountain region of Costa Rica (Schipper pers. comm.):<br/>1. Coyotes - a non-native carnivore (natural range expansion south following cattle) and is likely the greatest consumer of <em>S. dicei</em> in the Talamancans.  Probably less of a threat in forested areas, but in paramo and grassland their bones are in nearly every scat found.<br/>2. Fire - lower elevations of Talamanca are burned annually for range control, but the paramos burn periodically and completely over large areas (also human caused - accidental and intentional).  This likely has a short term effect by removing forage and a longer term effect by removing hiding places.<br/>3. Habitat loss - coupled with fire is the reduction of forest habitat along the lower reaches of the species' range.  This has the effect of range contraction, as it is already limited entirely to the Montane forest areas, which are being logged and cleared for pasture right up to the park border.<br/>4. Mesocarnivore explosions - along the contact zone with <em>S. dicei</em> and humans there is intensive hunting of large mammal fauna, which has the indirect effect of increasing the number of mesocarnivores (coyotes, tayra, and other rabbit predators).	eng
21210	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus mansuetus</em> is listed as critically endangered in the Mexican official Norm NOM-059-ECOL-2001.  A conservation program specific to <em>S. mansuetus</em> should be implemented, due to its restricted range and conservation status.  The island of San Jose is considered an ecological reserve by the Mexican government. <br/><br/>A status survey is necessary to determine the population status, threats, and ecological requirements of <em>S. mansuetus</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  If it is found that the introduction of rats and cats is negatively impacting the species, eradication efforts may need to be enacted.	eng
21210	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus mansuetus</em> is endemic to Mexico, occurring only on San Jose Island in the Gulf of California, Baja California Sur (Thomas and Best 1994), which has an area of approximately 170 km².	eng
21210	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The habitat of San Jose Island where <em>Sylvilagus mansuetus</em> occurs is arid with vegetation similar to mainland Baja California Sur (Thomas and Best 1994), containing cacti and succulents (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Total length is 33.9 cm (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21210	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Very little is known about the population and abundance of <em>Sylvilagus mansuetus</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
21210	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Disturbance by humans, the loss/disturbance of habitat by invasive alien species, and competition with domesticated fauna pose a threat.  However, a survey is necessary to establish the condition of threats to <em>Sylvilagus mansuetus</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It is suspected that the introduction of cats and rats to San Jose Island may present a threat (Thomas and Best 1994).	eng
21211	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Although abundant throughout its range, this species experiences some pressure from habitat destruction, overgrazing, and hunting (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Due to potential loss of habitat resulting from global climate change, research should be conducted regarding population density and habitat transformation (along the Pacific coast) for <em>S. c. pacificus</em>, to determine the impact on survivability (Martinez-Villeda 2006).	eng
21211	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is endemic to Mexico and the distribution extends from mid-Sinaloa, continuing south along the Pacific coast to Oaxaca, including the Axis Neovolcanic and western region of Veracruz (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Its altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to approximately 4,300 m (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Presently there are three subspecies: <em>S. c. cunicularius</em> which occurs in the central portion if the distribution (Axis Neovolcanic into the states of Michoacán, Guerrero, and Oaxaca), <em>S. c. insolitus</em> occurring in the northern extent of the species’ distribution from mid-Sinaloa along the Pacific coastal plain to the south-central region of Jalisco, and <em>S. c. pacificus</em> which occurs from the southern region of Jalisco south along to the Pacific coastal plain to Oaxaca (Hall 1981).	eng
21211	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> occurs in tropical, semi-arid, and temperate forest, open forest, dense shrub and grassland. In central Mexico it is abundant in pine and pine-oak forest and in western Mexico it occurs in pastures, dry deciduous forest, and areas of disturbed vegetation (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). From southern Sinaloa to western Michoacán, <em>S. cunicularius</em> occurs along the coastal plain at sea level to the mountain slopes (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Preliminary results of a radiotelemetry survey indicate that the size of home ranges in La Malinche National Park, Tlaxcala, is 0.2-0.7 sq. km for both sexes (Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>S. cunicularius</em> is able to reproduce throughout the year (Chapman and Ceballos 1990), with peak reproduction occurring in March through October (Vazquez <em>et al</em>. 2006).  There are six young produced per litter and gestation time is 30 days (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Total length for this species ranges from 48.5-51.5 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><em>S. cunicularius</em> is sympatric with other Lagomorphs in portions of its range, including <em>Romerolagus diazi, Sylvilagus audubonii, S. floridanus, Lepus callotis</em>, and <em>L. californicus</em> (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21211	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is known to be abundant throughout its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It has been reported that the average density was 27±5.4 individuals/km² in La Malinche National Park, Tlaxcala, which varies according to the rainy and dry seasons (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 2007).  There have been some declines associated with areas where overgrazing, hunting, and habitat degradation occur (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
21211	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cunicularius</em> is threatened in some areas by overgrazing, hunting, and habitat destruction, which has caused the decline of some populations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It is also vulnerable to human-induced fires and volcanic activity.  Habitat reduction has been estimated to be between 13-23% over the last three generations (Cuarón and de Grammont pers. comm.).  A climate change model generated for 2050, indicated that there will be 22% range reduction (primarily along the Pacific coast, impacting <em>S. c. pacificus</em>) from the current potential range of this species (Martinez-Villeda 2006).	eng
21212	conservation	Barry, R., Lazell, J. & Litvaitis, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> was recommended by Chapman and Stauffer in 1979 to be listed by the IUCN as a species of special concern due to the significant differences between it and <em>S. floridanus</em>, which is now sympatric in much of its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). In 2004 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began consideration of this species to be listed as a threatened or endangered species (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Protection under the Endangered Species Act was declined based on known scattered occurrences across its range as well as presence within protected areas (Department of the Interior - Fish and Wildlife Services 2004).  In 2006, a subsequent review found sufficient evidence to designate the species as a candidate and begin a warranted-but-precluded 12 month findings on <em>S. transitionalis</em> (Department of the Interior - Fish and Wildlife Service 2006), for which no decision has been made.  <br/><br/>Very little good habitat for <em>S. transitionalis</em> is protected, and tracts of scrub oak barrens should be purchased and protected. Conservation of critical habitat and establishment and management of “Important Mammal Areas” containing known populations, with appropriate publicity and public education programs should be implemented. <br/><br/><em>S. transitionalis</em> is in need of more research, including surveying and population monitoring, research on nest sites, dispersal, habitat, use of corridors, response to climatic change and stochastic events, effects of sport hunting, competition with other lagomorphs, and response to invasive vegetative species. <br/><br/>Captive breeding and reintroductions may be beneficial once suitable habitat has been established and protected.	eng
21212	distribution	Barry, R., Lazell, J. & Litvaitis, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> historically occurred throughout southern Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, eastern New York, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.  Whitaker and Hamilton (1998) include a small region of southern Quebec.  A study by Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated that the current area of occupancy in its historic range is 12,180 km², approximately 86% less than the occupied range in 1960. This study showed small patches of populations existing in coastal southeastern Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of southern New Hampshire, southeastern New York, western and some of eastern Connecticut (east of Connecticut River), western Massachusetts, parts of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.	eng
21212	habitat	Barry, R., Lazell, J. & Litvaitis, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> occupies areas of open woods and shrubs (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). This species is a habitat specialist.  It historically occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and the maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused decline of this species beginning in the 1960’s (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is typically found close to streams, swamps, ponds, or lakes in dense cover with a shrub dominated understory. <br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. transitionalis</em> includes a variety of herbaceous plants, fruits, and seeds, and in the winter it consumes woody species (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/>S. transitionalis has a typical litter size of 3.5, the average female produces 24 young annually (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Adults range in size from 38.2 - 42.5 cm (USFWS 2007).	eng
21212	population	Barry, R., Lazell, J. & Litvaitis, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> is rare to scarce, even in the fragments where it still occurs, and has dropped from 15-20% of skulls collected by hunters and roadkill specimens to 0-10%.  It has been extirpated from Hope Island, Rhode Island and possibly from Bristol County, Massachusetts.  Barnstable County, Massachusetts had one of the densest populations in the 1980's, but seems to have declined dramatically as of 2000-2001 (the last census attempt).  It is considered rare in Maryland (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  In the southern counties of Maine where it is found, there are perhaps 250 individuals total.  Estimated densities in New Hampshire ranged from 0.4-7 individuals/ha.  It is still considered relatively abundant in regions of West Virginia (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
21212	threats	Barry, R., Lazell, J. & Litvaitis, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus transitionalis</em> is threatened by habitat destruction. Urban-suburban sprawl and industrial development expand into and fragment the habitat of this species. These areas are better suited to <em>S. floridanus</em> (Lazell 2001). <br/><br/><em>S. transitionalis</em> has historically declined due to maturation of second-growth forests and fragmentation of suitable habitat (Litvaitis <em>et al.</em> 2006). The conversion of native shrublands to other land uses, confusion with <em>S. floridanus</em> by sportsmen, and lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of this species cause problems for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>Competition and possible hybridization with <em>S. floridanus</em> are likely to be placing pressure on <em>S. transitionalis</em> populations (Litvaitis <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
21216	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present within some protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining tracts of primary forest throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
21216	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. It has been recorded from the Ulugurus, Nguru and West and East Usambaras (Stanley <em>et al</em>. 2000). It may be present in the Udzungwa Mountains, but this needs to be confirmed. It is found above 1,000 m asl.	eng
21216	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is foun in montane tropical moist forest.	eng
21216	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is common in Usambaras, and is regularly found in suitable habitat.	eng
21216	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
21218	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is presumably present in several protected areas. There is a need fro further taxonomic studies of specimens from Nigeria and Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
21218	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is largely distributed in western Central Africa. It ranges from southern Cameroon, into southwestern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon and western Congo, with outlying records from eastern Nigeria (at 2,800 m asl) and Katanga in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is generally found between 300 and 700 m asl. The Nigerian record from 2,800 m asl, is possibly a new species (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).	eng
21218	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is generally associated with primary lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
21218	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is a locally common species	eng
21218	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is possibly locally threatened by general habitat loss and degradation.	eng
21219	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas, including Parc National des Volcans in Rwanda. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable montane habitats within the range of this species.	eng
21219	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift of Central Africa. It has been recorded from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurs at elevations of 1,780 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
21219	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is found in a wide variety of montane habitats including tropical moist forest, swamps and areas dominated by bamboo vegetation.	eng
21219	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This is an extremely common species.	eng
21219	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is presumably threatened at lower elevations by habitat loss from logging operations and the general conversion of land to agricultural, and other, uses.	eng
21220	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. This species is present in the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve in Cameroon. There is an urgent need to conserve suitable montane forest habitat for this species, most especially on Bioko. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
21220	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is known only with certainty from the northern peak of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. A similar population of <em>Sylvisorex</em> of unsolved taxonomic status occurs in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon. This might be a distinct species, but appears to be morphologically very similar to <em>Sylvisorex isabellae</em>. It has been recorded up to 2,000 m asl on Bioko.	eng
21220	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is present in montane tropical moist forest, and grasslands found above the treeline.	eng
21220	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This is an uncommon species, known from only a few specimens.	eng
21220	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss largely resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
21221	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.	eng
21221	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Mount Cameroon in Cameroon. It is found from 1,200 m asl upwards.	eng
21221	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in montane tropical moist forest.	eng
21221	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is a relatively common, but not abundant, species.	eng
21221	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has a relatively restricted range. It is threatened by habitat loss, presumably through conversion of land to agricultural use and some logging operations.	eng
21222	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
21222	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known species is known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has been collected from Medje (the type locality) and Ituri.	eng
21222	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
21222	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is an uncommon species.	eng
21222	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
21251	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About 70% of the population of the three savanna buffalo subspecies occurs in and around protected areas, including: Queen Elizabeth and Murchison Falls National Parks (Uganda), Tarangire, Moyowosi-Kigosi, Katavi-Rukwa and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North and South Luangwa National Parks (Zambia), Chobe (Botswana), Sebungwe and the Middle Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe), Hluhluwe-iMfolozi (South Africa) (Southern Savanna Buffalo), Mole (Ghana), Pendjari (Benin) and the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon) (West African Savanna Buffalo), and Zakouma (Chad), and Sangba (CAR) (Central African Savanna Buffalo).<br/><br/>About 75% of the estimated total population of the forest buffalo occurs in nominally protected areas, including Lobeke (Cameroon) - Dzanga-Sangha (CAR) - Nouabale-Ndoki-Kabo (Congo-Brazzaville), Lope, Wonga-Wongue and Gamba (Gabon), Odzala (Congo-Brazzaville) and Maiko (Congo-Kinshasa).<br/><br/>The future status of this species is closely linked to the future of protected areas and well-managed hunting zones, since it is a frequent target of poachers.	eng
21251	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The species is distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, but is now generally confined to protected areas, within which it is well represented, and other areas which are sparsely settled. In West Africa, they are now extinct in The Gambia, probably occur only as vagrants in Guinea, and the population in Mali’s Bafing Faunal Reserve is probably the country’s last (East 1999; Prins and Sinclair in press). African Buffalo are also extinct in Eritrea (East 1999). In South Africa, they have been reintroduced to areas from which they were formerly extirpated; likewise, they were reintroduced in Swaziland, where the indigenous population was extirpated.<br/><br/>African Buffalo were probably extirpated from Bioko Island sometime between 1860 and 1910 (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
21251	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	African Buffalo inhabit a wide range of habitats, including semi-arid bushland, Acacia woodland, miombo <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland, montane grasslands and forest (to elevations well over 4,000 m asl), coastal savannas, and moist lowland rainforests. They are absent only from deserts and subdeserts, such as the Namib and the Saharan/Sahelian transition zone (Prins and Sinclair in press).	eng
21251	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 830,000 for the three subspecies of savanna buffalo (27,000 West African Savanna Buffalo, 133,000 Central African Savanna Buffalo and 670,000 Southern Savanna Buffalo), probably conservative. East (1999) thought it likely that the total number of buffalo remaining in Africa’s savannas is in the approximate range of 500,000-1,000,000. Savanna buffalo populations are in decline over extensive areas because of meat hunting and continuing toss of habitat, and rinderpest continues to pose a major threat to these subspecies in some regions of Africa. <br/><br/>Few population estimates are available for the forest buffalo. It tends to occur locally at relatively high densities in open, grassy areas within the equatorial forest, but at much lower densities in extensive areas of continuous forest. East (1999) produced a total population estimate for the forest buffalo of about 60,000. This estimate is probably very conservative, but forest buffalo populations are in decline over most of the subspecies’ remaining range.	eng
21251	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In the past, numbers of African Buffalo suffered their most severe collapse during the great rinderpest epidemic of the 1890s, which, coupled with pleuro-pneumonia, caused mortalities as high as 95% among livestock and wild ungulates (Winterbach 1998). Rinderpest and other diseases such as anthrax have continued to result in localized declines and extinctions of populations throughout the 20th century, as rinderpest has spread from cattle to wildlife.<br/><br/>The species’ distribution and numbers have also been greatly reduced by habitat loss and poaching. It is a favourite target of meat hunters in many countries, and poaching has been a major contributor to the recent decline of buffalo populations in many protected areas, e.g., national parks such as Comoe (Ivory Coast), Garamba (Congo-Kinshasa) and Serengeti (Tanzania), and probably in many other areas. It is also susceptible to drought, which has caused substantial declines in some populations during the 1990s, alone or in combination with diseases such as anthrax or rinderpest, e.g., in Tsavo, Serengeti/Mara, Gonarezhou and Kruger (East 1999).	eng
21257	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
21257	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
21257	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal habitats and lower reaches of rivers in Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Sea basins; Atlantic coast from Gibraltar to southern Bay of Biscay; in Danube reaching Romanian-Hungarian border; in Dniepr reaching Kiev. Introduced in reservoirs of middle and lower Volga with mysids brought from Don estuary, now spreading and already south of Moscow.	eng
21257	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Coastal habitats and lower reaches of rivers in Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Sea basins; Atlantic coast from Gibraltar to southern Bay of Biscay; in Danube reaching Romanian-Hungarian border; in Dniepr reaching Kiev. Introduced in reservoirs of middle and lower Volga with mysids brought from Don estuary, now spreading and already south of Moscow.	eng
21257	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of marine, brackish- and fresh-water habitats, mostly associated with dense submerged vegetation but as well found on open mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs into a brood pouch on ventral surface of tail of males. Males fertilise the eggs as they enter the pouch. Eggs incubate in the male's brood pouch for about 20-25 days. Feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
21257	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of marine, brackish- and fresh-water habitats, mostly associated with dense submerged vegetation but as well found on open mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs into a brood pouch on ventral surface of tail of males. Males fertilise the eggs as they enter the pouch. Eggs incubate in the male's brood pouch for about 20-25 days. Feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
21257	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
21257	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
21257	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
21257	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
21260	conservation	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R., Pino, J. & Samudio. R., 2008	The species probably occurs in multiple protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. More information into all aspects of this species is needed.	eng
21260	distribution	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R., Pino, J. & Samudio. R., 2008	This species occurs in Costa Rica and northern Panama (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is only known from a few localities.	eng
21260	habitat	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R., Pino, J. & Samudio. R., 2008	This species is found in montane cloud forest, evergreen forest, second growth and pasture edge (Wells and Giacalone 1985). <br/><br/>This species is seen on the ground and in the upper canopy with equal frequency; it uses all levels of the forest. It appears to form pair bonds and remains in family groups, although individuals usually forage alone (Reid 1997).	eng
21260	population	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R., Pino, J. & Samudio. R., 2008	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, Samudio, and Timm pers. comm.). Occurs rarely in Panama and only in Pas (Pino pers. comm.). Observations in Panama show the populations are decreasing (Samudio pers. comm.), whereas populations are likely stable in Costa Rica (Timm and Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
21260	threats	Koprowski, J., Roth, L., Reid, F., Woodman, N., Timm, R., Pino, J. & Samudio. R., 2008	Habitat loss may be a threat to this species.	eng
21271	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., Lange, C. & Seddon, S., 2004	No information available.	eng
21271	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., Lange, C. & Seddon, S., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found on all shores. In Tanzania it is found at 11 sites (likely to be more widespread on shore), Burundi 5-8 sites, Congo 14 sites and Zambia 5 sites. (West <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
21271	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., Lange, C. & Seddon, S., 2004	It is found in sandy substrates in shallow and deep waters possibly up to 116 metres deep.	eng
21271	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., Lange, C. & Seddon, S., 2004	No information available.	eng
21271	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., Lange, C. & Seddon, S., 2004	Sedimentation is a potential (minimal) threat to the species.	eng
21272	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
21272	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded as present on all shores, locality information is available in Michel <em>et al.</em> (2003)	eng
21272	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	It lives in sandy substrata in shallow water.	eng
21272	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
21272	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Sedimentation is a possible threat.	eng
21273	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
21273	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from sandy substrates along the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC) at a total of 36 sites.	eng
21273	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	It is common on sandy substrates in shallow to moderate water depths, 3-20 m.	eng
21273	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is common in sandy areas. When present population densities are likely to be high.	eng
21273	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
21277	distribution	Bouchet, P. & Ripken, T., 2000	Occurs in Italy, Isolo di Capraia in Archipelago Toscana where it is endemic.	eng
21277	habitat	Bouchet, P. & Ripken, T., 2000	This species inhabits rocks, walls and leaf litter.	eng
21277	threats	Bouchet, P. & Ripken, T., 2000	This species is taken as a food source along with <em>Eobania vermiculata</em>.	eng
21283	conservation		It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.	eng
21283	distribution		This species occurs on four islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, and La Digue. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
21283	habitat		It lives in disturbed and undisturbed forest, plantations (such as such as "Mare aux Cochons" sites on Mahé on Silhouette), and in highly modified habitats on the coastal plateaux (for example on La Digue). It seems to do particularly well in old plantations. It breeds in marshes, pools, and perhaps in slow and fast moving streams.	eng
21283	population		It is common at many sites, including breeding sites. It was recently found at La Passe on Silhouette. This is the first record from Silhouette for nearly 20 years, and is a new site for the species.	eng
21283	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
21293	conservation	Corti, M. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The majority of the species' range is within the Bale Mountains National Park. There is a general need to maintain suitable grassland habitat for this species.	eng
21293	distribution	Corti, M. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is restricted to the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,150 m asl.	eng
21293	habitat	Corti, M. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is an inhabitant of alpine grassland habitats.	eng
21293	population	Corti, M. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is quite common within its restricted range.	eng
21293	threats	Corti, M. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock, both within and outside of the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
21299	conservation	Schlitter, D., Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	The range of the species includes many protected areas (eg. Mount Kiliminjaro National Park). Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
21299	distribution	Schlitter, D., Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is widely distributed in East Africa and eastern parts of Central Africa. It ranges from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, into Rwanda and Burundi, northern Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, throughout much of Ethiopia to northwestern Somalia. Populations allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes splendens</em> were formerly recorded as occurring throughout most of Ethiopia and into northern Somalia, from 700 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes ankoliae</em> are known from the Ankola region of southwestern Uganda (from 1,480 to 1,650 m asl). Animals previously allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes annectens</em> are known only from the type locality; "Maasai land or inland" in Kenya. Thomas (1891) refered specimens from Mianzini as the type locality; Mianzini is just east of Lake Naivashae. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes audax</em> are limited to the Abadare Mountains of Kenya, from 2,700 to 3,800 m asl. Populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes daemon</em> are known from northern, northwestern and northeastern Tanzania and south central Kenya at elevations of between 1,130 and 3,000 m asl. The populations formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes ibeanus</em> occur in the Nairobi-Machakos region of south-central Kenya, from 1,400 to 1,600 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes naivashae</em> occur from the Mau summit, south to Kijabe, and west to Loita plains, in south-central Kenya between 2,080 and 2,830 m asl. Animals previously allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes rex</em> are known from Mount Kenya and the Meru mountains, of Kenya, from 2,700 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes ruandae</em> occur in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi; It has been recorded from 1,200 to 3,300 m asl. Populations formerly allocated to <em>Tachyoryctes ruddi</em> occur in western Kenya and southeastern Uganda from 1,300 to 3,000 m asl. Animals formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes spalacinus</em> are known from the valley between the Abadare mountains and Mount Kenya, and from around the south of Mount Kenya, of Kenya from 1,300 to 1,500 m asl. The population formerly recognised as <em>Tachyoryctes storeyi</em> is known only from the type locality, Lake Elementeita in south central Kenya, at around 1,500 m asl.	eng
21299	habitat	Schlitter, D., Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, ranging from tropical moist forest and open woodland, to savanna habitats, grasslands and agricultural areas including coffee plantations and pasture areas. In some parts of its range, it can be encountered in rural gardens and urban areas.	eng
21299	population	Schlitter, D., Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	In general this is a common to very common species.	eng
21299	threats	Schlitter, D., Agwanda, B. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no major threats as a whole to this adaptable species.	eng
21311	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in a number of range states, and receives international legal protection through the Bonn Convention (Appendix II and Eurobats Agreement) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
21311	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in a number of range states, and receives international legal protection through the Bonn Convention (Appendix II and Eurobats Agreement) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
21311	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states, and receives international legal protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection for the species through Natura 2000.	eng
21311	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is mainly a Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain eastwards through southern Europe to the Balkans, Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. In North Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisa, Libya and Egypt.  It is possibly present on Madeira (to Portugal) as there was a supposed old record, but it has not been recorded from there again. It occurs on all the Canary Islands (to Spain) except for Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. It is also recorded from a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Simmons 2005). <br/><br/>Populations in Japan, Taiwan and Korea are now considered to be a separate species, <em>T. insignis</em> (Simmons 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.	eng
21311	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is mainly a Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain eastwards through southern Europe to the Balkans, Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. In North Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisa, Libya and Egypt.  It is possibly present on Madeira (to Portugal) as there was a supposed old record, but it has not been recorded from there again. It occurs on all the Canary Islands (to Spain) except for Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. It is also recorded from a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Simmons 2005). <br/><br/>Populations in Japan, Taiwan and Korea are now considered to be a separate species, <em>T. insignis</em> (Simmons 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.	eng
21311	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It is mainly a western Palaearctic species, although the south-eastern edge of its range extends into the Indomalayan region. It is well known in the Mediterranean basin, occuring from Portugal, Spain, Morocco, and Algeria eastwards through north Africa and southern Europe to Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Bengal (India), and possibly Yunnan (China)(Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is also found on Madeira (Portugal), the Canary Islands (Spain), and a number of Mediterranean islands (Hutson 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 3,100 m.	eng
21311	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It usually forages at 10-50 m above the ground over temperate to sub-desert habitats, although it also occurs humid habitats in some areas (e.g. Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005) It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and  cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures, including bridges and buildings, and sometimes in the roof of high caves. The species is probably sedentary (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
21311	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It usually forages at 10 to 50 m above the ground over temperate to semi-desert habitats, although it also occurs in humid habitats in some areas (e.g., Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005). It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures including bridges and buildings. In North Africa it prefers rocky habitats and is not found in caves. The species is probably sedentary in Europe (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it may be a partial migrant in North Africa (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).	eng
21311	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It usually forages at 10 to 50 m above the ground over temperate to semi-desert habitats, although it also occurs in humid habitats in some areas (e.g., Turkey: A. Altiparmak pers. comm. 2005). It feeds on aerial drifts of insects including moths and neuropterans. Summer and winter roosts: fissures and hollows in rock outcrops, quarries and cliffs. Common in some urban areas, roosts also in artificial structures including bridges and buildings. In North Africa it prefers rocky habitats and is not found in caves. The species is probably sedentary in Europe (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it may be a partial migrant in North Africa (GMA Africa Workshop 2004).	eng
21311	population	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitats. Summer and winter colonies typically number 5-100 individuals, although colonies of up to 300-400 animals have been recorded. It is probably sedentary, although seasonal in some areas (e.g., Malta). It is not abundant in the Caucasus, nor is it highly gregarious - large colonies are not known in this region (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005) There are only six records for Iran, however, there have not been extensive survey efforts there (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
21311	population	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitats. Summer and winter colonies typically number 5-100 individuals, although colonies of up to 300-400 animals have been recorded. It is probably sedentary, although seasonal in some areas (e.g., Malta). It is not abundant in the Caucasus, nor is it highly gregarious - large colonies are not known in this region (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005) There are only six records for Iran, however, there have not been extensive survey efforts there (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
21311	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It is a common species in suitable habitats. Summer and winter colonies typically number 5-100 individuals, although colonies of up to 300-400 animals have been recorded. It is probably sedentary, although seasonal in some areas, e.g. Malta. It is not abundant in the Caucasus, nor is it highly gregarious - large colonies are not known in this region (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005) There are only six records for Iran, however there have not been extensive survey efforts there (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005).	eng
21311	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Petr Benda, 2006	It is negatively affected by disturbance and loss of roosts in buildings, and by use of pesticides. It is also potentially threatened by wind farms (European Mammal Assessment workshop 2006), and deforestation affects the species in some parts of its range (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). However, none of these are considered to be major threats at present.	eng
21311	threats	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is negatively affected by disturbance and loss of roosts in buildings, and by use of pesticides. It is also potentially threatened by wind farms (GMA Europe Workshop 2006), and deforestation affects the species in some parts of its range (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). However, none of these are considered to be major threats at present.	eng
21311	threats	Aulagnier, S., Paunovic, M., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J., Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is negatively affected by disturbance and loss of roosts in buildings, and by use of pesticides. It is also potentially threatened by wind farms (GMA Europe Workshop 2006), and deforestation affects the species in some parts of its range (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). However, none of these are considered to be major threats at present.	eng
21312	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The species is protected by national legislation in some of the Mediterranean range states as well as in South Africa. It is likely to be found in protected areas.<br/><br/>A survey using bat detectors should be undertaken to help clarify the distribution limits and population size of this species as it is probably more widespread than current records indicate. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
21312	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The species is protected by national legislation in some of the Mediterranean range states as well as in South Africa. It is likely to be found in protected areas.<br/><br/>A survey using bat detectors should be undertaken to help clarify the distribution limits and population size of this species as it is probably more widespread than current records indicate. A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
21312	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Found throughout Africa, and in the Arabian peninsula through to India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region there are isolated records from southern Morocco and western Algeria but it is more widely distributed in Egypt along the Nile River valley eastwards to the Red Sea coast and south to the Sudanese border. The species is thought to be more widely distributed than is currently known and may well occur elsewhere in the region. <br/><br/>In South Asia, this widely distributed species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul Province) (Habibi 2003), Bangladesh (no exact location) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva Provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Elevation: sea level up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
21312	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Found throughout Africa, and in the Arabian peninsula through to India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region there are isolated records from southern Morocco and western Algeria but it is more widely distributed in Egypt along the Nile River valley eastwards to the Red Sea coast and south to the Sudanese border. The species is thought to be more widely distributed than is currently known and may well occur elsewhere in the region. <br/><br/>In South Asia, this widely distributed species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul Province) (Habibi 2003), Bangladesh (no exact location) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu, 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal), Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) and Sri Lanka (Central and Uva Provinces) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Elevation: sea level up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
21312	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is found in varied habitat types from arid areas to humid hills and valleys. It roosts under banner boards, crevices in caves, cliff faces, large boulders and rocks, narrow spaces between pillars, walls, crevices in old buildings, temples, and forts, either in small groups of 2 or 3 individuals to hundreds and thousands of individuals. It is a late and fast flyer, hunts in the air and also gleans the ground for ground dwelling insects. It feeds on beetles, moths, orthoptera, wasps, winged termites, flies, caterpillars, spiders, water beetles, and other large insects. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21312	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is found in varied habitat types from arid areas to humid hills and valleys. It roosts under banner boards, crevices in caves, cliff faces, large boulders and rocks, narrow spaces between pillars, walls, crevices in old buildings, temples, and forts, either in small groups of 2 or 3 individuals to hundreds and thousands of individuals. It is a late and fast flyer, hunts in the air and also gleans the ground for ground dwelling insects. It feeds on beetles, moths, orthoptera, wasps, winged termites, flies, caterpillars, spiders, water beetles, and other large insects. A single young is born (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21312	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common in its South Asian range, where its population seems to be stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21312	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common in its South Asian range, where its population seems to be stable (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21312	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	No serious threats other than roost disturbance from human interference is noted for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Pesticides used against locusts are a threat as for all bat species found in the Saharan belt.	eng
21312	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.W., Fahr, J. & Jacobs, D., 2008	No serious threats other than roost disturbance from human interference is noted for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Pesticides used against locusts are a threat as for all bat species found in the Saharan belt.	eng
21313	conservation	McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Richards, G., 2008	This species is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into possible threats to this species.	eng
21313	distribution	McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Richards, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, occurring across southern and central Australia and heading northwards in the southern winter. It is known from sea level to 1,400 m, in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
21313	habitat	McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Richards, G., 2008	This species is known from a wide variety of habitats, including urban areas. It roosts in small groups in tree-hollows, building ceilings, and similar habitats. Maternity colonies can consist of several hundred animals (Rhodes and Richards 2008). Females give birth to a single young. Generation length is likely to be at least five years (N. McKenzie pers. comm.). The species moves northwards in the southern winter.	eng
21313	population	McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Richards, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21313	threats	McKenzie, N., Pennay, M. & Richards, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species in the short term. Global warming may be a serious threat to this species in the future because the species is tied to temperate Australia - in 70 years, the species' range is expected to have disappeared from south Australia (N. McKenzie pers. comm.).	eng
21314	conservation	Barquez, R., Diaz, M., Gonzalez, E., Rodriguez, A., Incháustegui, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There is a large population protected in Tucuman. There is a large conservation program in Mexico.	eng
21314	distribution	Barquez, R., Diaz, M., Gonzalez, E., Rodriguez, A., Incháustegui, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found from southern Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile to Oregon, southern Nebraska and Ohio (USA); Greater and Lesser Antilles (Simmons 2005). Distribution extended to Falkland Islands. Not found in Nicaragua (Medina pers. comm.)	eng
21314	habitat	Barquez, R., Diaz, M., Gonzalez, E., Rodriguez, A., Incháustegui, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Occurs in wide range of habitats (Barquez pers. comm.). Insectivorous, migratory species forming large colonies with millions of individuals. In the Antilles they form small colonies (Rodriguez pers. comm.)	eng
21314	population	Barquez, R., Diaz, M., Gonzalez, E., Rodriguez, A., Incháustegui, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.)	eng
21314	threats	Barquez, R., Diaz, M., Gonzalez, E., Rodriguez, A., Incháustegui, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Populations exterminated as plagues in several places in Uruguay (Gonzalez pers. comm.). In Northern Mexico and southern US it has been documented reduction in the population in 1980s. Mining in the caves in the Antilles (Armando Rodriguez pers. comm.). There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
21316	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	It has been recorded from one protected area in Madagascar and is presumed to exist in many protected areas within its range in eastern and southern Africa, however, there appear to be no active conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the distribution and taxonomic status of bats allocated to <em>Tadarida fulminans</em>.	eng
21316	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	This species ranges through East Africa, southern Africa and a few localities on the island of Madagascar. Populations have been recorded through eastern and southeastern Africa, from around the border of Kenya and Uganda as far south as the border between Zimbabwe and South Africa. The most westerly record is from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. In Madagascar it is only known from a few records, mostly from the central-south region near to Fianarantsoa and Isalo National Park, and from records at Tolagnaro near the southeast coast (Jenkins <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further surveys are needed within Madagascar (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). It ranges from about sea level (at Fort Dauphin in Madagascar) to close to 2,000 m asl (Albertine Rift).	eng
21316	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	This species is found in both dry and moist savanna habitats (including 'savanna woodland'). It is not thought to be dependent on caves, but is found in rocky, granite outcrops.	eng
21316	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	Locally common, but patchily distributed in Africa. On Madagascar this bat is an uncommon, patchily distributed species. Colonies of this species may consist of dozens of individuals (although always fewer than 100 animals).	eng
21316	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
21317	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine the range of this species, and to understand whether it is restricted to rocky areas, or can persist in modified habitats.	eng
21317	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This little known species has only been recorded from four localities in Kenya and four localities in Zimbabwe (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It is found between 600 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
21317	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This species appears to inhabit arid, or semi-arid terrain, where they roost in rocky crevices, and may possibly be dependent on big inselbergs and rocky gorges (Peterson 1974; Cotterill 2001). Specimens have been collected in a house, and from a suburban garden (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
21317	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	It appears to be a rare species found in small colonies. The apparent rarity might be attributed to their high flying habits and inaccessible daylight roosts (Cotterill, 1996).	eng
21317	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	There appear to be no identifiable threats to this species.	eng
21318	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this little known species.	eng
21318	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is widely distributed in East and Southern Africa. It ranges from Eritrea in the north to Zimbabwe, and possibly northern South Africa, in the south. The  westernmost record is from the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, close to the border area with Uganda. Most records are from high altitude (1,500 m upwards to 2,500 m asl).	eng
21318	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known, although it is believed to be associated with savanna areas containing rocky crevices and gorges. Cotterill (1996) reports that a specimen was collected in 1964 from a high rise building in Harare, Zimbabwe.	eng
21318	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It has been rarely recorded and is largely known from single dead individuals.	eng
21318	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. It may be threatened through the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land and the use of pesticides in these modified areas.	eng
21326	habitat	Skelton, P., 1996	Found on mud bottoms of mangroves, estuaries and rivers.	eng
21328	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its limits of distribution and current population status.	eng
21328	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Tanke Salokko, the highest point in the Mekongga Range, in south-eastern Sulawesi (03°35'S, 121°15'E), between 1,500 and 2,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that it might occur slightly more widely, at high elevations, than current records suggest.	eng
21328	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in montane forest, and, based on habitat requirements of congeners they are unlikely to occur in degraded habitats.	eng
21328	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known only from the type series of seven specimens collected in 1932. There is no information on current population status.	eng
21328	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although forest loss in this region of Sulawesi has been less severe than elsewhere.	eng
21329	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and may be present in other protected areas.	eng
21329	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Sulawesi, where it has been recorded from a few localities, and from the central core of the island (Musser and Carleton  2005). The elevational range is from 760 to 2,260 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21329	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This terrestrial species is found in primary lowland tropical evergreen and montane forest, where it feeds on fruit, leaves, and insects (Musser 1982; Musser and Newcomb 1983). It is not known if it can be found outside of forest habitats.	eng
21329	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The population abundance is difficult to determine as it does not readily enter standard traps. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
21329	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The habitat of this species at the lower elevations in its range is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land. It may be trapped for food in the northeast of its range.	eng
21330	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is found in several protected areas, including Lore Lindu National Park.	eng
21330	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found throughout the lowlands of much of Sulawesi, from sea level to 1,200 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). Subfossil specimens are known from the south western peninsula, suggesting that it occurs throughout Sulawesi in forest habitat. Recent surveys suggest its continued presence at very low elevations, and in higher elevation portions of the range (L. Ruedas pers. comm.).	eng
21330	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This arboreal species is found in lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not likely to occur in secondary habitats, but it may be present in lightly disturbed forest patches. It is a primarily an arboreal species, with a very long tail relative to head and body length, unlike any other species in the genus, all of which are terrestrial and have relatively short tails (Breed and Musser 1991; Musser and Newcomb 1983).	eng
21330	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is moderately common in primary forest, and is not difficult to trap, thus it is represented by many more specimens than other species of the genus (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21330	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss and, in the north east, it is likely to be found in bushmeat markets.	eng
21331	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is present in Lore Lindu National Park. Further field surveys are needed to learn more about the habitat, ecology, distribution range and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
21331	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This poorly known species is known only from a few montane localities (Gunung Lehio, Gunung Kanino and Gunung Nokilalaki) in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may range more widely in the central montane regions.	eng
21331	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This terrestrial species is found in primary montane tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005), from 1,280 to 2,287 m. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
21331	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
21331	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened by deforestation if it occurs to the south of the known range.	eng
21332	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known if the species will be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
21332	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has only been recorded from the type locality, Pinedapa, in central Sulawesi, and is also known from a few subfossil fragments from the south western peninsula (Musser 1984; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21332	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It was collected in 1918 in primary lowland tropical evergreen rainforest, nothing much else is known about its ecology but it may have specialised feeding habits (G. Musser pers. comm.; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
21332	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens caught at the type locality in 1918, and a few subfossil fragments collected in the south west of the island (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21332	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although It may be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
21333	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the population status of this species and the limits of distribution.	eng
21333	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in the highlands of north eastern Sulawesi, where it is known from three very nearby localities, from 600-800 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It likely occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
21333	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It inhabits montane forest.	eng
21333	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is known from six specimens (plus one additional specimen not attributable to any locality), and was last collected around 1932 (G. Musser pers. comm.).	eng
21333	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is likely to be affected by ongoing loss of forest, and probably is present in bushmeat markets.	eng
21349	conservation	Meritt, D., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	The population in Guatemala is listed on Appendix III of CITES. It has been recorded from several protected areas (e.g. Soberanía National Park, Panamá). There are a number of subspecies described, and it is likely that further taxonomic work is needed for this species.	eng
21349	distribution	Meritt, D., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species ranges from eastern México (Tamaulipas) in the north of its range, through Central America as far south as northwestern Peru and northwestern Venezuela. It ranges from sea level to at least 1,900 m asl.	eng
21349	habitat	Meritt, D., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is found in tropical dry and moist forest, including mixed deciduous and evergreen habitats. It can also be found in mangroves and grassland with some trees. It can survive in secondary forest habitats. The females give birth to one young at any time of the year (Reid 1997).	eng
21349	population	Meritt, D., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is common in appropriate habitat.	eng
21349	threats	Meritt, D., Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
21350	conservation	Abba, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Further systematic studies of this species are needed to investigate its variation over its range.	eng
21350	distribution	Abba, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is found to the east of the Andes from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad Island, and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname), south to northern Uruguay and northern Argentina. It ranges from sea level to 1600 m asl (Bolivia).	eng
21350	habitat	Abba, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	The species is adaptable to a variety of habitats, including gallery forests adjacent to savannas, and lowland and montane moist tropical rain forest (Eisenberg 1989).	eng
21350	population	Abba, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21350	threats	Abba, A., Lara-Ruiz, P. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although in some portions of their range they are hunted for meat or by domestic dogs (Aguiar and Fonseca 2008; Noss <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
21352	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Recorded from the Malili Lakes in Sulawesi.	eng
21355	conservation	Lowrey, C., Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Almost all of the area encompassed by the Spring Mountains is managed by the Bureau of Land Management or United States Forest Service; most of the chipmunk habitat appears to be on Forest Service lands.	eng
21355	distribution	Lowrey, C., Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is restricted to the Spring Mountains (and mostly confined to Mount Charleston), Clarke County, southwestern Nevada in the United States. These mountains are surrounded by deserts that limit the distribution of this species. The species occurs mostly on one peak of a small mountain range in Nevada. The Nevada Gap Analysis Project data indicate the area of the entire range to be 2,126 km². It occurs at elevations of 2,100-3,600 m asl (most abundant at 2,400-2,550 m asl).	eng
21355	habitat	Lowrey, C., Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This chipmunk inhabits coniferous forests, from the yellow pine belt to the timber line (Hall 1946); it rarely ventures far from shelter among large rocks, logs, or cliff crevices. Habitats include white fir-Ponderosa pine, single-leaf pinyon-Utah juniper, mountain mahogany-manzanita, and bristlecone pine. Dens are typically on or near the ground but sometimes it nests in trees (e.g., in cavities made by woodpeckers). It may associate preferentially with water sources.<br/><br/>Mating occurs probably in April and early May; births occur in late May in June; gestation lasts at least 33 days; litter size usually 3-6; young first emerge in June, continue to appear through August (Best 1993).<br/><br/>This species is generally secretive and highly mobile; may habituate to humans (Best 1993). Diet includes seeds, fruits, fleshy fungi, green vegetation, and insects; conifer seeds are a primary food source.	eng
21355	population	Lowrey, C., Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species can be locally abundant, but is very limited in distribution. The total adult population size is unknown. This species is represented by at least several localities in one mountain range (Museum of Vertebrate Zoology specimen data, Nevada Division of Wildlife 1996). Density is often a few to several individuals per hectare (a few hundred to several hundred per square kilometer) (Nevada Division of Wildlife 1996). <br/><br/>Available information suggests that extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined by more than 10 percent over the past 10 years or three generations.	eng
21355	threats	Lowrey, C., Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Water diversion is reducing the available riparian habitat; campgrounds and woodcutting are reducing available habitat; feral dogs and cats are increasing mortality through predation (G. Clemmer pers. comm., 1995). However, the degree to which these factors have affected chipmunk populations is unknown. The range is being encroached upon by urban sprawl and development associated with Las Vegas.	eng
21356	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
21356	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre in south Durango, west Zacatecas, and north Jalisco (Mexico) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevation of 2,400 to 2,610 m (Bartig <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
21356	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in areas with rather dry climate; it can be found in upper slopes of mountains primarily covered with forest of pine (<em>Pinus</em>) and oak (<em>Quercus</em>) with scattered pinabete (<em>Abies religiosa</em>). At lower levels in the upper Sonoran zone, oaks, many shrubs (including manzanita, <em>Arctostaphylos pungens</em>), several species of mountain mohagony (<em>Cercocarpus</em>), and <em>Ceanothus</em> become dominant. <br/><br/>This species has been observed foraging on small flowers in an oak tree (<em>Quercus</em>), and eating juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>) seeds and one was chewing on the new growth at the tip of a pine (<em>Pinus</em>) branch (Bartig <em>et al.</em> 1993). A female captured in June had three embryos, and other captured in July had two. Lactating females occurred in June and July. This suggests that breeding may begin as early as January (Bartig <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
21356	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat (high elevation pine forest) within its range.	eng
21356	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is restricted to high elevation pine forest and scrub. It is threatened by intensive loss of habitat due to timber extraction throughout its range.	eng
21357	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
21357	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs from southwest Chihuahua to west-central Durango, and in southeast Coahuila (Mexico) (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It occurs at elevations of 1,950 to 2,550 m (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
21357	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in areas with dry climate, although heavy rains are frequent during summer and some snow falls on upper slopes in winter as late as May. Upper slopes of the mountains primarily are covered with forests of pine (<em>Pinus</em>), and oak (<em>Quercus</em>) with scattered pinabete (<em>Abies</em> <em>religiosa</em>), Douglas fir (<em>Pseudotsuga</em> <em>menziesii</em>), and quarking aspen (<em>Populus</em> <em>tremuloides</em>). At lower levels in the upper Sonoran zone, oaks and many shrubs become dominant. <br/><br/>This species has been observed feeding on pine nuts and on a large, green oak. The sex ratio was 8 males : 19 females. Litter size is two to four; pregnant females have been recorded in May, June and July. Lactating females were observed in June, July and August (Best <em>et al.</em> 1993)	eng
21357	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
21357	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
21358	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21358	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Southwestern United States and adjoining Mexico. It is limited to three counties in California  (Kern, San Bernardino, and San Mateo) and a small area of northern Baja California.	eng
21358	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Typically prefers brushy habitats, such as extensive chaparral-covered slopes mixed with pine and oak forests, pinon and juniper, or thickets along streamsides and around rock outcroppings.	eng
21358	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Common, although somewhat restricted in distribution.	eng
21358	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
21359	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	The three Mexican populations are in protected areas and parts of the species' range in California are in protected areas.	eng
21359	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Southwestern United States and Mexico, but limited to the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains of California and to the mountains of northern Baja California. Distributed in a series of at least four disjunct populations.	eng
21359	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Typically occurs in arid to semi-arid habitats in association with pinyon pine (<em>Pinus monophylla</em>) and juniper (<em>Juniperus californicus</em>), with some scrub oak (<em>Quercus chrysolepsis</em>) and yucca (<em>Yucca brevifolia</em>), cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>), rabbitbrush (<em>Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus</em>), and sage (<em>Artemesia tridentate</em>) in the understory, and rocky ground cover (Best and Granai 1994).<br/><br/>This squirrel is particularly active during late summer, from early to mid-morning and from mid- to late-afternoon, especially when pinyon nuts are available. Pinyon pine nuts are the primary food during the late summer months, and chipmunks may be found during the daytime climbing the pines in search of nuts (Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species eats a variety of seeds, fruits, and flowers, but captive specimens refused to eat insects and meat (Best and Granai 1994). In California, it has been reported that T. <em>obscurus</em> may have more than two litters of three or four young each per year. It uses burrows with entrances protected by large boulders (Best and Granai 1994). <br/><br/>In Baja California Sur, Mexico, this species is associated with two oasises where they consume the small crops in the area. Where plantations have been abandoned, the populations have disappeared. They use the cardon cactus (<em>Pachycereus pingleyi</em>) as nest sites.	eng
21359	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Locally abundant and common, although in a small, fragmented range.<br/><br/>The populations in Baja California Sur, Mexico are very small with two subpopulations in the same locality.	eng
21359	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Its range is restricted and fragmented. The rarity of the species in Baja California Sur makes it a trophy pet.	eng
21360	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
21360	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No special measures applied.	eng
21360	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Most of the range is in Asia. N European and Siberian Russia to Sakhalin; S Kurile Isls (Russia); extreme E Kazakhstan to N Mongolia, China, Korea, and Hokkaido (Japan). Introduced into Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy (Amori 1999).	eng
21360	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Most of the range of this species is in Asia. It occurs from northern European and Siberian Russia to Sakhalin, extreme eastern Kazakhstan to northern Mongolia, northwest and central China extending to northeast China (Smith and Xie, in press), Korea, and in Japan from Hokkaido, Iturup, Kunashir, Rishiri, Rebun, Teuri, and Yagishiri (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). In Japan the species has been introduced on Honshu at one confirmed locality, Karuizawa. It is also introduced in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy (Amori 1999). In Mongolia it is known from forested areas of northern Mongolia, including Hangai, Hövsgöl, Hentii and Mongol Altai mountain ranges (Mallon, 1985).	eng
21360	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species typically inhabits coniferous and mixed forests with a rich undergrowth of berry-bearing shrubs, as well as steppe and open areas. It occurs from the coast up in to mountains up to the tree line. It climbs trees, but lives in simple shallow burrows underground. Summer nests are in stumps, fallen trees, sometimes in low hollows. Usually the burrows consist of two big chambers, nest and larder, and small chambers used as a lavatory. These burrows can become up to 9 m in length, and each chipmunk 'owns' one burrow. Complex voice communication is characteristic to the species. It hibernates in winter. Short and long distance migrations have been registered during years with a poor harvest of Siberian pine nuts. It feeds on various seeds, mainly on Siberian pine, but their diet also includes seeds of other coniferous and deciduous trees and herbs. In spring and summer it consumes herb shoots; and sometimes can eat insects and molluscs. From August onward it stores up food for winter, storage mass usually 3-4 kg. It reproduces after leaving hibernation, in April-May. It is diurnal with most activity being in the morning. In Mongolia they do not hibernate during bad weather but do go into torpor, awakening occasionally to feed from their cache. They rarely become pests and if they do they are easy to control.	eng
21360	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Typically inhabits coniferous and mixed forests with a rich undergrowth of berry-bearing shrubs. In mountains occurs up to the tree line. Climbs trees, but lives in simple shallow burrows. Summer nests are in stumps, fallen trees, sometimes in low hollows. Usually burrows consist of two big chambers, nest and larder, and small chambers used as a lavatory. Complex voice communication is characteristic to the species. Hibernates in winter. Short and long distance migrations have been registered during years with a poor harvest of Siberan pine nuts. Feeds on various seeds, mainly on Siberian pine, but diet also includes seeds of other coniferous and deciduous trees and herbs. In spring and summer consumes herb shoots; sometimes can eat insects and molluscs. From August onward stores up food for winter, storage mass usually 3-4 kg. Reproduces after leaving hibernation, in April-May.	eng
21360	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Sheftel, B., 2008	This species is relatively abundant across its range. It is expanding in Europe in the boreal forest zone, and has reached Vodlo Lake (Karelia) in Russia (H. Henttonnen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
21360	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	This species is relatively abundant alcross its range. It is expanding in Europe in the boreal forest zone, and has reached Vodlo Lake (Karelia) (H. Henttonnen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
21360	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
21360	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Shar, S., Lkhagvasuren, D. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In Mongolia, hunting for the international trade in skins once occurred at high levels, and between 1958 and 1960 it was estimated that 2,600 to 4,400 individuals were killed annually (Stubbe, 1965). This activity is now believed to have ceased and at present the dominant threat to this species is human-caused and natural wildfires in some parts of its range. In Japan, there is suspected hybridization of native <em>T. s. lineatus</em> with feral continental individuals on Hokkaido, especially in urban areas, e.g. Sapporo (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005); this is exacerbated by the importation of squirrels from Korea and the mainland for pet shops.	eng
21364	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In New Mexico, this species occurs on Lincoln National Forest, McGregor Range, and Carlsbad Caverns National Park. In Texas, habitat is protected in the Guadalupe Mountains National Park.	eng
21364	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range includes the Gallinas, Sacramento, Jicarilla, Capitan, White (= Sierra Blanca), and Guadalupe mountains, Sierra Diablo, and Carrizozo Malpais lava flow in the Tularosa Valley in southeastern New Mexico and southwestern Texas in the United States (Best <em>et al.</em> 1992, Frey 2004, Schmidly 2004). In Texas, this species occurs at elevations of 1,800-2,500 m asl (Schmidly 2004). The elevational range in New Mexico extends as low as about 1,600 m asl and as high as around 3,600 m asl.	eng
21364	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Primarily forest-dwelling and found on rocky slopes with cover provided by rocks, shrubs, or trees. Habitats include coniferous forests (spruce, fir, Douglas-fir), dense mixed oak/pine/fir forests, pinyon-juniper woodland, and brushy hillsides with rocky crevices. In Texas, gray-footed chipmunks occur only in higher-elevation forests and brushy hillsides (Schmidly 2004). These chipmunks are most numerous among or near the cover of logs and rocks, etc. They climb and perch on logs, rocks, cliffs, and woody plants. Nests often are in cavities of downed timber; sometimes underground among roots of decaying stumps (see Best <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Young are born apparently from mid-May through August. Diet includes acorns, seeds, mushrooms, small fruits, some herbaceous vegetation and insects. Known to feed on Douglas-fir seed. Climbs into oaks to collect acorns. Relatively inactive in winter, especially when snow is deep.	eng
21364	population	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species can be locally abundant within a restricted range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Except for <em>Peromyscus</em>, this is the most common mammal in the Guadalupe Mountains.<br/>This species occurs in dozens of locations in several mountain ranges (Schmidly 2004). Trend of population is unknown, but existing information does not indicate a decline. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined much if at all.	eng
21364	threats	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Small populations may be vulnerable to massive fires (Schmidly 2004), but no major threats have been identified.	eng
21378	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	Part of its range is within the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park.	eng
21378	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir Mountains, Baja California Norte, Mexico (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). It is found between 2,100 m and 2,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
21378	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is endemic to high elevation pine and fir forests, and apparently nests in standing dead trees.	eng
21378	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	No population information is available for this species. It apparently exists in low densities.	eng
21378	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species habitat is threatened by timber removal, grazing, wildfire, and competition with introduced (1940s) <em>Sciurus carolinensis</em>.	eng
21379	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	The species occurs in numerous protected areas (eg. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India). In South Asia, surveys, taxonomic research and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21379	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread squirrel has been recorded from northeastern South Asia, southern China and much of mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from Bhutan, India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim [Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005]) and Nepal where it widely distributed up to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar, through much of Thailand, western Cambodia, northern Viet Nam, western Lao PDR and northern Peninsular Malaysia. There is a recent published record from Sumatra (Indonesia), but this is considered erroneous.	eng
21379	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. It is highly adaptable to habitat degradation. They are also found in association with humans in fruit trees and coconut palm plantations (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
21379	population	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widespread and locally abundant throughout its range. It is generally resistant to hunting pressure and habitat degradation (Duckworth and Tizard pers. comm.).	eng
21379	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. In South Asia, habitat loss due to forest fire, encroachments, fragmentation, jhuming (slash and burn agriculture) and hunting are threats for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21380	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
21380	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of Lao PDR and Viet Nam east of the Mekong. It also occurs exstensively in south and east China, Hainan island, and Taiwan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are four subspecies in China: <em>T. m. bopinglingensis</em>, Hong and Wang, 1984, which occurs in Fujian; <em>T. m. formosanus</em> (Bonhote, 1900) recorded from Taiwan; <em>T. m. hainanus</em>, Allen, 1906, from Hainan island, Guangxi, and south Yunnan; <em>T. m. maritimus</em> (Bonhote, 1900) from Fujian.	eng
21380	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a relatively low altitude species occupying the south eastern coastal region of China. In Taiwan, however, it is most common at elevations between 2,000-3,000 m. On mainland China it occurs in two general forest types, evergreen broad-leaved forest with evergreen oaks, laurels and <em>Pinus massoniana</em> in secondary stands, and mixed mesophytic forest (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Diet includes the very specialized habit of robbing nectar from ginger plants (<em>Alpina kwangsiensis</em>). It is highly arboreal, it is known to make long leaps between trees. Its characteristic vocalization sounds like a “cluck” or short “chirrup.	eng
21380	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common throughout its range.	eng
21380	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no threats to this species.	eng
21381	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
21381	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in southern Viet Nam, southern Lao PDR, Cambodia and eastern Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).<br/>This species appears to become rare or absent northwest of a line from 18°00'N, 104°10'E to 18°30'N, 105°00'E (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
21381	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in nearly every habitat with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. Like <em>T. mcclellandii</em>, this species uses holes in trees for shelter and travels by jumping long distances between trees (Lekagul and McNeely 1988).	eng
21381	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat. This species is common in evergreen or semi-evergreen forest, but less common where the forest is degraded or includes mixed deciduous components (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
21381	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no significant threats to this species.	eng
21382	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species occurs in Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Neixiangbaotianman, Shennongjia, Shimenhupingshan, Suoxiyu, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan, Zhujiashan, Nanjingnanyaredaiyulin (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
21382	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species has a wide distribution, occurring in central China southwards to northern Myanmar, and northern Viet Nam (Smith and Xie 2008). It may occur in Lao PDR, but no records have been confirmed (Duckworth and Lunde 2004). Its range does not significantly overlap the range of <em>T. mcclellandi</em>, but where it does there is altitudinal differentiation (<em>T. swinhoei</em>: 2,500-3,000 m asl and <em>T. mcclellandi</em>: 300-600 m asl) (Smith and Xie 2008). This species occupies elevations ranging from 1,000 (Duckworth and Lunde 2004) up to 3,900 m asl (Li <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
21382	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is found in nearly any habitat with trees, including secondary growth forest, scrub forest, and gardens. It is an arboreal species that occupies holes in trees (Smith and Xie 2008). It is primarily crepuscular in nature (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
21382	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
21382	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Lunde, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21386	conservation	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
21386	distribution	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC) at over 30 sites.	eng
21386	habitat	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	It lives in silty and sandy substrates, 5-25 m deep.	eng
21386	population	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is common in sandy areas. When present population densities are likely to be high.	eng
21386	threats	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
21452	conservation	Hall, L., Thomson, B. & Richards, G., 2008	It has been recorded from the Hillsborough National Park in Australia, where populations have recently declined, as well as several other coastal and island national parks. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites and foraging habitat for this species. Further studies are also needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to the species.	eng
21452	distribution	Hall, L., Thomson, B. & Richards, G., 2008	This species has been recorded from Australia and Papua New Guinea. In Australia it is generally restricted to coastal areas in northern and eastern Queensland, and the Torres Strait Islands (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999; Richards 2008). In Papua New Guinea it is known only from three records. It has been collected in Port Moresby and along the Lower Strickland River (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998). It ranges between sea level and 300 m asl. <br/><br/>The records from the Lower Strickland River in Papua New Guinea are from two registered specimens in the Australian Museum that were collected in the late 1800s by the Royal Geographical Society Expedition in New Guinea, without a definite locality assigned to them. Flannery (1995) assumed that they are likely from the Lower Strickland River due to the habitat there, and Bonaccorso (pers. comm.) agrees that geography and habitat suggest that this species should occur there.	eng
21452	habitat	Hall, L., Thomson, B. & Richards, G., 2008	This species forages in areas of coastal dune scrubland and paperbark swamps. It roosts in sea caves, rocky areas, crevices, boulder piles, and old buildings. Most roosts consist of a few individuals, although large colonies exist in more extensive caves (Bonaccorso 1998; Richards 2008).	eng
21452	population	Hall, L., Thomson, B. & Richards, G., 2008	It appears to be a generally uncommon species, but with patchy densities across the range. Total population size is probably less than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
21452	threats	Hall, L., Thomson, B. & Richards, G., 2008	In Australia this species is potentially threatened by loss of foraging habitats through sand mining activities, coastal development, and by disturbance of roosting sites (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Some population declines have been observed, but the magnitude of these is likely small at present (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
21453	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether other <em>Taphozous</em> populations currently included in <em>T. melanopogon</em> may actually represent <em>T. achates</em>.	eng
21453	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia from Nusa Penida eastwards to the Kai Islands (including Savu, Rote, Semau, and possibly Timor).	eng
21453	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is found in coastal and lowland areas, below 1,000 m asl, the precise altitudinal range is unknown (Simmons 2005). This bat roosts in caves and it has been found roosting with <em>Hipposideros cervinus</em>, <em>Emballonura alecto</em>, <em>Miniopterus australis</em>, <em>Myotis stalkeri</em> and <em>Rhinolophus euryotis</em> in the Kai Islands. Two females from a cave examined in mid-June were not lactating (Flannery 1995).	eng
21453	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	The population status and trend is unknown. It has recently been separated as a distinct species, and is still known only from a few localities (Simmons 2005).	eng
21453	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	Major threats for this species are unknown. Future threats include human disturbance (using caves as shelters for animals) and limestone extraction.	eng
21454	conservation	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed for final clarification about its distribution (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
21454	distribution	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to northern and western Australia. It is present on a number of offshore islands. Recent genetic analyses suggest that the distribution of this species is confined to west of around Mount Isa, west Queensland, and that the populations to the east are <em>Taphozous troughtoni</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
21454	habitat	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species occurs in a variety of habitats where there are rocky areas. It roosts in crevices, caves, and similar habitats. In general it is found roosting as solitary individuals or in small groups, however, colonies of up to 100 animals have been recorded (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females generally give birth to a single young.	eng
21454	population	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a common species (Jolly <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
21454	threats	Reardon, T. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
21455	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place. It probably occurs in some protected areas. The distribution and ecological requirements of this species require further investigation.	eng
21455	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Hamilton's tomb bat is not well known, and there are very few records. It is known mainly from east Africa (including records from Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania), and there is one additional record from southern Chad (African Chiroptera Report 2006).	eng
21455	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It has been recorded from savanna, and from mountainous areas, but very little is known. It might be be a cave-dependent species.	eng
21455	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There is no information, as there are few records of this species.	eng
21455	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	The threats facing this species are unknown. It could be declining due to habitat loss through agriculture, but the data to confirm this are lacking.	eng
21456	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It probably occurs in some protected areas, but stricter conservation of roosting and nesting sites is needed. Research into the cultural importance of the species is being carried out.	eng
21456	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Hildegarde's tomb bat is found on Pemba and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania), and along the coast of south-east Kenya and north-east Tanzania (from the Lower Tana River south to Dar es Salaam). It has so far been recorded from fewer than ten coastal localities, but is probably present in some places where it has not yet been discovered. It is present in suitable throughout the year, with no migration reported, but local movement of populations has been noted. The two central Kenya records collected by Harrison (1962), are questioned due to their location by Kock (1974), as these points are not along the East African coast. The questioned locations do, however, coincide with coastal vegetation along the Tana River, which could afford this species suitable habitat (Colket and Wilson 1998).	eng
21456	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Hildegarde's tomb bat is a cave-dependent species associated with tropical dry forest, with a very restricted coastal range. It is a diurnal bat, often cohabiting with Coleura afra.  It is insectivorous, feeding on Orthoptera and Lepidoptera.	eng
21456	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There are no overall population estimates. However, during a survey in Kenya and Tanzania in 1988, population estimates from three caves surveyed yielded more than 1,500 individuals (1,000+, 300+, 130+) (Susan M. Pont, pers. obs.). It seems to be relatively common in caves. It is probably declining due to loss of habitat, and disturbance of cave sites.	eng
21456	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Disturbance of the caves on which it depends, and loss of forest habitat, could result in population declines.	eng
21457	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species is known to occur in some protected areas.	eng
21457	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Thomson, B., 2008	This widespread species is endemic to Australia where it is distributed in central and western arid areas.	eng
21457	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Thomson, B., 2008	The species is present in arid areas and is uncommon in sandy desert. It roosts in crevices, caves, and disused mines (Reardon and Kitchener 2008; N. McKenzie pers. comm). Females give birth to a single young.	eng
21457	population	McKenzie, N. & Thomson, B., 2008	This is a common species (Reardon and Kitchener 2008).	eng
21457	threats	McKenzie, N. & Thomson, B., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
21458	conservation	Woinarski, J., Lumsden, L. & Milne, D., 2008	It has been recorded from Kakadu National Park (Milne and McKean 2008). It is also found in Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve and Point Stuart Coastal Reserve (Woinarski and Milne 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species, particularly regarding roost sites.	eng
21458	distribution	Woinarski, J., Lumsden, L. & Milne, D., 2008	This species is found in wet-dry tropics of the western Top End of the Northern Territory, Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003), but is likely to occur in the eastern Top End as well. It also extends into north-eastern Western Australia (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
21458	habitat	Woinarski, J., Lumsden, L. & Milne, D., 2008	It has been recorded from floodplains, mangroves, patchy monsoon forests, and nearby woodlands. The roosting habitats are not clear. Because it has been recorded in the Northern Territory up to 70 km from the nearest rocky habitats, it is likely to roost in tree hollows or similar situations (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003), and some Aboriginal people claim that it roosts at the base of Pandanus leaves. The species flies above the tree canopy, but it may be found closer to the ground in open areas (Milne and McKean 2008).	eng
21458	population	Woinarski, J., Lumsden, L. & Milne, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from a total of 19 sites, however, the species is probably difficult to detect and it is likely to be more common than records suggest (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
21458	threats	Woinarski, J., Lumsden, L. & Milne, D., 2008	Threats to the species include large-scale modification from invasion of large areas of coastal floodplain by introduced plant species, replacement of natural floodplain vegetation with introduced pasture species, degradation of habitats by Water Buffalo, and saltwater intrusion into the coastal plains resulting in the deaths of large stands of Melaleuca trees (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2003). If this species was found to roost in Pandanus, then fire may also be a threat.	eng
21459	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species is reported  from Hazaribagh National Park in Jharkhand and Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), and it is likely to be present in most of the protected areas in peninsular India (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In Southeast Asia, in view of its wide range it probably occurs in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21459	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	This species is widespread in South Asia and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Bangladesh (location unknown) (Khan 2001, Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005), India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), Nepal (location unknown [Bates and Harrison 1997]) and Sri Lanka (Eastern, Northern, Uva and Western provinces) (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, into northern Thailand and Cambodia. It is present in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores and is also present on the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). The eastern limit of the distribution in Southeast Asia is uncertain, however, the species has yet to be recorded from either Lao PDR or Viet Nam (P. Bates pers. comm.). It has been recorded to occur up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
21459	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	Throughout its range this species is found in varied habitats from arid areas to humid zones. It roosts in caves, old tunnels, caves created due to mud excavation, old forts, dungeons (C. Srinivauslu pers. comm.), large wells, hollows and crowns of trees, eaves of houses. It roosts in colonies from single animals to hundreds of bats. It is an early and fast flyer and feeds on cockroaches and beetles. There are two breeding seasons-one in mid January and the other in mid May (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21459	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	In South Asia, it is widespread living in large colonies in the hundreds. In many places the populations are considered to be stable (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In Southeast Asia, the species is locally common, with colonies consisting of hundreds of bats in Cambodia (G. Csorba pers. comm.).	eng
21459	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. & Walston, J., 2008	Overall there appear to be no major threats to this species. In South Asia, some populations may be threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002), while in Southeast Asia, disturbance from guano mining is a localised threat to some populations.	eng
21460	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P., Ravino, J., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is known from protected areas within Madagascar including Zombitse National Park and Ankarafantsika National Park, as well as from many protected areas on the African continent.	eng
21460	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P., Ravino, J., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species is found throughout much of subsaharan Africa, and is also on several islands (including the islands of Zanzibar (Tanzania), Bioko and Pagalu (Equatorial Guinea), and Sao Tomé and Principe). The most northerly records are from the border area between Senegal and Mauritania and at the head of the Nile River in Sudan. It is present throughout southern and eastern Madagascar but it usually only occurs at lower altitudes and there are no records from the central plateau or above 900 m. It is known from Aldabra, Mauritius, the Comoros and Réunion. Records from the western Cape region in southern Africa are unverified, with known records extending as far south as Mossel Bay. It is also recorded in an isolated location in the Northern Cape, near Hartwater (Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
21460	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P., Ravino, J., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	It is generally found in moist, open habitats and savanna regions (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). It occurs in open woodland and generally avoids the interior of dense forests. However, it lives in the rainforest zone, and is also found along major rivers. Because it is found either in areas receiving >500 mm rain per year or near swamps and rivers, it is apparently dependent on open water or riparian forests (see Dengis 1996 for references). The populations found on Sao Tomé and Principe are often found in cocoa plantations (Juste and Ibañez 1993). It is often found in built-up areas, roosting under the eaves of houses, particularly face-brick houses (Dengis 1996; Taylor 2000). Roost sites also include cliff walls with overhanging rock shelves and trunks of large trees where shade is always available (see Dengis 1996 for references). The species tends to roost near human settlements (Taylor 2000) and to prefer buildings inhabited by people, rather than buildings under construction (see Dengis 1996 for references).	eng
21460	population	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P., Ravino, J., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	The Mauritian tomb bat is not rare and is easy to find. It usually roosts under covering vegetation on the outer bark of trees.	eng
21460	threats	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P., Ravino, J., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Fahr, J., 2008	Overall, this species is not significantly threatened. It is locally hunted (by children) in parts of its range.	eng
21461	conservation	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Within India, it has been recorded from Kanha National Park and Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Nagarjunasagar Srisailama Tiger Reserve, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, Borivili National Park in Maharashtra, and may occur in many more protected areas (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.). In South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). Public awareness activities need to be taken up to highlight the importance of this species in agricultural ecosystem as controller of insect pests (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).	eng
21461	distribution	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is distributed in much of South Asia, southern China and Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from Bangladesh, India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka (Central, Northern Central, North Western, Sabaragamuwa and Western provinces) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been recorded up to 800 m asl. In southern China, it has been recorded from southern Yunnan, southern Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan Island (Smith and Xie 2008). In addition, the type series of <em>T. solifer</em> Hollister, 1913, is purportedly from Beijing (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is widely distributed from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusa Penida, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sulawesi, Waleabahi, Sanana, Buru, Halmahera and Bunguran), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines. In the Philippines it has been recorded from the islands of Biliran, Cebu, Gigante, Leyte, Luzon (Ilocos Norte, Nueva Viscaya, Pangasinan, Rizal provinces), Maripipi, Mindanao (Davao del Sur), Negros, Palawan, Sibuyan, Tincasan (= Tingkasan). Also reported from Lubang, Luzon (Abra Province) and Mindoro (Lawrence 1939) (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is found from sea level to 150 m asl in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
21461	habitat	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is known from a wide variety of forested habitats in tropical regions, and has additionally been recorded from urban areas. It is found in hilly areas and roosts in caves, old dilapidated buildings, dungeons of old forts, temples, old disused mines, tunnels (Lawrence 1939; Sanborn 1952; Taylor 1934; Rickart <em>et al. </em>1993; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Molur <em>et al. </em>2002; Smith and Xie 2008). This species is colonial and roosts in colonies of a few to thousands of individuals. It is alert, agile and flies with a fast, straight pitching flight (Bates and Harrison 1997). A single young is born after a gestation period of 120-125 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21461	population	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is locally abundant or common and populations seem stable throughout its range.	eng
21461	threats	Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is locally threatened by habitat loss, largely through commercial logging, conversion of land to agricultural use, hunting for local consumption and disturbance to roosting sites by humans (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). In the some countries, including Lao PDR and the Philippines, there is likely some localized hunting of this cave roosting species for food (Heaney and Balete pers. comm.).	eng
21462	conservation	Bates, P., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	There are international legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas to which this applies. However, through most of its range, no specific conservation measures are place for this species. It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.<br/><br/>A study on the impacts of pesticides is required, especially ways in which the impact might be minimised.	eng
21462	distribution	Bates, P., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	The naked-rumped tomb bat has a much larger range than previously believed. It has been recorded throughout the southern desert and sub-desert belt of western and central Palaearctic, from Morocco, through the Saharan region across northern Africa to Egypt and north through the Middle East to southern Turkey, and the more arid areas of the Indian subcontinent. The most southerly record is from northern Tanzania. There are two isolated records from Myanmar (the southernmost locality being in the general vicinity of Bago (Pegu) Yoma (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2000)).<br/><br/>In South Asia this species is presently known from Afghanistan (Kabul, Kandahar and Nangarhar provinces), Bangladesh, India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) and Pakistan (Punjab and Sind) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21462	habitat	Bates, P., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is found in arid and semi-arid regions, tropical forests and wet evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). The colonies in northern Africa are found in Sudanian and Sahelian savanna zones where inselbergs and rock crevices are present (Happold 1987). It is often associated with large water bodies. It feeds on beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, moths and flying (winged) termites. It is gregarious, roosting in cliff fissures, rock crevices, caves, tombs, temples, barns, houses, and underground tunnels. Although it is often associated with humans, it is tolerant of only a certain amount of disturbance (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is often associated with other species. Some populations hibernate, some migrate and some store fat.	eng
21462	population	Bates, P., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	It is common in some places, and less so in others. It is an uncommon species in the western part of its range: colonies in Africa and the Mediterranean region are generally restricted to a few individuals, although large colonies (dozens to hundreds) have been found in eastern Africa. The species is common in its range in South Asia, however, a declining trend in its population has been observed in recent years (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21462	threats	Bates, P., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr, J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is tolerant of a certain level of human disturbance. Loss of some roosts (e.g., in buildings) and use of pesticides probably impact some populations negatively, but overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
21463	conservation	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in Pakistan or India. Being a poorly understood species in the region, more studies on distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21463	conservation	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas in Pakistan or India. Being a poorly understood species in the region, more studies on distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21463	distribution	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Molur, S., 2008	The Egyptian tomb bat occurs widely throughout northern and sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Asia, east to the Indian Subcontinent. In sub-Saharan Africa, records extend along the Nile and east to Ethiopia and northern Somalia, and west to Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, and northern Nigeria, and south to Kenya (including Lamu island), Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. In southwest Asia, it has been recorded from Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. In South Asia, this species is presently known to be widely distributed from southern Pakistan (Roberts 1997) and western India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan) (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002) and recently reported from central Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has been recorded up to 200 m.	eng
21463	distribution	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Molur, S., 2008	The Egyptian tomb bat occurs widely throughout northern and sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Asia, east to the Indian Subcontinent. In sub-Saharan Africa, records extend along the Nile and east to Ethiopia and northern Somalia, and west to Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, and northern Nigeria, and south to Kenya (including Lamu island), Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. In southwest Asia, it has been recorded from Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. In South Asia, this species is presently known to be widely distributed from southern Pakistan (Roberts 1997) and western India (Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan) (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002) and recently reported from central Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has been recorded up to 200 m.	eng
21463	habitat	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Molur, S., 2008	It is associated throughout its range with open woodland, avoiding forest, semi-desert and desert areas. It tends to be found along rivers in wooded savanna. It requires the shelter of rocks or stone buildings in which to roost during the day (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Arabian Peninsula animals have been recorded roosting in castles, forts, deep caverns and sea caves, with animals foraging among palm groves and gardens (Harrison and Bates, 1991). In South Asia this species is found in arid climes and prefers tropical thorn forests. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a few individuals to thousands of individuals in caves, darker areas of old forts, mosques, large old wells, artificial tunnels, old disused buildings, and shares its roost with <em>Rhinopoma</em> spp. It feeds on moths and beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21463	habitat	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is associated throughout its range with open woodland, avoiding forest, semi-desert and desert areas. It tends to be found along rivers in wooded savanna. It requires the shelter of rocks or stone buildings in which to roost during the day (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Arabian Peninsula animals have been recorded roosting in castles, forts, deep caverns and sea caves, with animals foraging among palm groves and gardens (Harrison and Bates, 1991). In South Asia this species is found in arid climes and prefers tropical thorn forests. It roosts in small to large colonies ranging from a few individuals to thousands of individuals in caves, darker areas of old forts, mosques, large old wells, artificial tunnels, old disused buildings, and shares its roost with <em>Rhinopoma</em> spp. It feeds on moths and beetles (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21463	population	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Molur, S., 2008	It is common in parts of its African range, but is less common elsewhere. It is found in small colonies (between six to eight individuals) in the southern African subregion (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known, and the species has only been recorded from a few localities (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21463	population	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is common in parts of its African range, but is less common elsewhere. It is found in small colonies (between six to eight individuals) in the southern African subregion (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In South Asia the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known, and the species has only been recorded from a few localities (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
21463	threats	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Molur, S., 2008	Human disturbance has been highlighted as a threat to the Egyptian tomb bat, but overall it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened across its very wide range. In South Asia it is threatened by clearing of thorn forests for agricultural purposes, from mining and stone quarrying. Roost disturbance due to human interference and development of old buildings for tourism purposes is also considered serious threats (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21463	threats	Kock, D., Sami Amr, Z., Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Molur, S., 2008	Human disturbance has been highlighted as a threat to the Egyptian tomb bat, but overall it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened across its very wide range. In South Asia it is threatened by clearing of thorn forests for agricultural purposes, from mining and stone quarrying. Roost disturbance due to human interference and development of old buildings for tourism purposes is also considered serious threats (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm., Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
21465	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Within South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place, however, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India such as Silent Valley National Park in Kerala and Bhimashanker Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species throughout its range. Additional field surveys, studies into distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and population monitoring of this species are needed.	eng
21465	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded in South Asia, mainland Southeast Asia and insular Southeast Asia with a single report from China. In South Asia, this species is presently known only from India (Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) in South Asia and has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). On the Southeast Asian mainland, this species occurs in southern Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. Within insular Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from Indonesia (Java and Sulawesi) and the island of Borneo (Kalimantan [Indonesia]), but is presumably more widespread in this region. In China, it is reportedly present in Yunnan although this needs confirmation (Wang 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). A record from Malaysia appears to be in error (see Medway 1969).	eng
21465	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The species tends to be associated with forest habitats, with caves and deep crevices of large caves used as roosting sites (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).). It has been collected from limestone caves in Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
21465	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Myanmar, there are some large colonies of up to several thousand bats (P. Bates pers. comm.). In India, the species is reportedly present as colonies of several hundred bats in a few caves (D.S. Joshi pers. comm.). In Thailand colonies are smaller, generally consisting of between 10 and 40 bats (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
21465	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is threatened by disturbance and destruction of roosting sites and persecution by local people.  D.S. Joshi (pers. comm.) recounts 3,000 bats killed in six caves in Maharashtra, India, earlier this decade. Guano from this insectivorous species is mined and used as fertilizer in some areas (Smith and Xie 2008). It is used for subsistence food and medicinal purposes in parts of its range.	eng
21466	conservation	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	A Recovery Plan for this species has been developed (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is known to be present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed for final clarification about its distribution (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
21466	distribution	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	Troughton's Sheath-tailed Bat was previously thought to have a very restricted distribution. Recent genetic analyses suggest that this species extends from the area around Mount Isa to the south and east in Queensland, Australia; these populations were previously thought to be <em>Taphozous georgianus</em> (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
21466	habitat	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	It roosts in caves, abandoned mines, crevices, and rocky escarpments within a wide range of habitats.	eng
21466	population	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species is fairly widespread and not uncommon (T. Reardon and B. Thomson pers. comm.).	eng
21466	threats	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
21471	conservation	Castellanos, A., Foerester, C., Lizcano, D.J., Naranjo, E., Cruz-Aldan, E., Lira-Torres, I., Samudio, R., Matola, S., Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Six large Biosphere Reserves in Campeche, Chiapas and Quintana Roo were thought to hold numerous tapirs.  In Guatemala, the Maya Biosphere Reserve could hold several hundred more, as should each of the other small parks in Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Republic of Panama. Protected nationally throughout its range, however, these laws are often not enforced in many areas (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Costa Rica tapirs are present in numerous protected areas, are protected under the wildlife conservation law No. 7317 from 1992, and its considered under CITES Appendix I (Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.). Further research is needed to determine the rates of decline in the species due to hunting and effects of increasingly fragmented populations on the species.	eng
21471	distribution	Castellanos, A., Foerester, C., Lizcano, D.J., Naranjo, E., Cruz-Aldan, E., Lira-Torres, I., Samudio, R., Matola, S., Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J., 2008	<em>Tapirus bairdii </em>is known to occur in Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, southern Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Republic of Panama, north-western Colombia, and historically in El Salvador.  In southern Mexico (Oaxaca), tapirs are present in the following localities: Santa Maria Chimalapas (Los Chimalapas), the zone of the isthmus, Cordillera de Veinte Cerros and adjacent zone of the northern range of Oaxaca (Iván Lira-Torres pers. comm.). In Costa Rica is present in the three mountain ranges and main protected areas in lowlands, with substantially higher densities at higher elevations (J. Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).  Recent range extensions of 377 km bring the Baird’s tapir to a new northern limit; Tuza de Monroy, near the municipality of Santiago Jamiltepec in Oaxaca State, Mexico.	eng
21471	habitat	Castellanos, A., Foerester, C., Lizcano, D.J., Naranjo, E., Cruz-Aldan, E., Lira-Torres, I., Samudio, R., Matola, S., Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J., 2008	<em>T. bairdii </em>is generally found in humid habitats, from sea level to 3,600 m. The species is strongly associated with water and is found in marsh and swamp areas, mangroves, wet tropical rainforest, riparian woodland, monsoon deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest, montane cloud forest and paramo (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997, Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).	eng
21471	population	Castellanos, A., Foerester, C., Lizcano, D.J., Naranjo, E., Cruz-Aldan, E., Lira-Torres, I., Samudio, R., Matola, S., Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J., 2008	Populations of Baird's tapir are in a continuing decline. Recent (2006) means of evaluating habitat and population estimates by Naranjo, Cruz-Aldán and Lira-Torres (pers. comm.) suggest that there are only <5,500 individual Baird’s tapir remaining in the wild, with populations in Mexico (>1,500), Guatemala (>1,000), Honduras (>500), Nicaragua (>500), Republic of Panama (>1,000), Costa Rica (>1000, Vaughan 1990) and Colombia (250).<br/><br/>The Mosquitia area of Honduras and Nicaragua is particularly important because of its large size and low human population density. There are recent sightings and reports from El Salvador (Sanchez-Nuñez <em>et al.</em> 2007) suggesting it still persists there at some level.  Based on 2004 aerial surveys of available habitat in Honduras, the population is estimated to be 1,859 individuals.  The relatively small Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica is thought to hold at least 300 tapirs (C. Foerster, unpublished data). Recent surveys in the Cordillera Talamanca found tapirs to be locally among the most abundant large vertebrate above 2,000 m elevation, where large populations still remain in areas where they are not hunted (J. Schipper and J. Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recently, several individuals of this species have been observed along the Atlantic coast in the northern region of Colombia known as Chocó in the Tripogadi Serrania, outside Los Katios National Park. Reports of Baird’s tapir presence near Jurado and the upper Salaque confirm its presence in northwestern Colombia’s Darien region (D. J. Lizcano pers. comm.).  If each adult tapir requires at least 500 hectares, a rough estimate is 450 animals although hunting, warfare and habitat destruction and fragmentation could impact this estimate.  <br/><br/>In the Republic of Panama, reports received since 2000 suggest that Baird’s tapirs are distributed continuously along the forests of the Caribbean slope.  Their range extends from Bocas del Toro in western Panama throughout the Panama Canal watershed to the Kuna Yala Comarca (R. Samudio pers. comm.).  These reports also confirm the presence along the Cordillera Central in western Panama, including prime habitat above 3,000 m, as well as in the Darien region near the Colombian border. The qualitative estimations are based on sightings and tracks considered to be from tapirs, suggesting that the species is common in the Panamanian portio of the La Amistad International Peace Park as well as the Darien and Chagres National Parks and the Rio Caimito private reserve.  Gonzalez Maya (2008) reports a high density (3.03 individuals/km²) around the 2,600 meters and a comparative much higher relative abundance in mid elevations (2000-3000) on a 800-3500 meters elevation gradient in the Costa Rican portion of La Amistad - Cordillera Talamanca.	eng
21471	threats	Castellanos, A., Foerester, C., Lizcano, D.J., Naranjo, E., Cruz-Aldan, E., Lira-Torres, I., Samudio, R., Matola, S., Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J., 2008	Baird's tapir is threatened primarily by habitat destruction, and localized hunting. Tapirs have a low reproductive rate, after a 13 month gestation period, the single offspring will usually spend up to two years with its mother. This low recruitment rate, coupled with hunting threats and habitat loss, is a serious factor contributing to population decline (Matola <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>In Costa Rica, sport hunting is a threat for tapir in the Cordillera Talamanca, including within La Amistad Bionational Park (J. Schipper pers. comm.). In a recent survey of tapir in the Cordillera Talamanca, Gonzalez-Maya (pers. comm.) reports high hunting pressure of tapirs in mountain ecosystems around 2500 meters, with hunting clubs, and hunting dedicated only to this species, where it was reported as one of the most common hunted species in certain protected areas (La Amistad International Park). The effect of hunting is notable as it is common where not hunted in the Talamancas and nearly absent where hunting pressure is high – suggesting density estimated based strictly on remaining habitat are misleading where hunting occurs (J. Schipper pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Lira-Torres and Naranjo (pers. comm.) have detected a number of infectious diseases and parasites in Baird’s tapirs of southern Mexico that originated from cattle and horses.  In addition, several dead adult tapirs have been found in Chimalpas near livestock raising zones that are thought to have died from infectious diseases.<br/><br/>In Belize, continual fragmentation of the Selva Maya are threatening Baird’s tapir populations in northern Central America.  This is particularly the case in the area where the Chalillo Dam is being built and tapirs are being illegally hunted to feed construction workers (S. Matola pers. comm.).  In Panama, major threats seem to be hunting and habitat loss.	eng
21472	conservation	Lynam, A., Traeholt, C., Martyr, D., Holden, J., Kawanishi, K., van Strien, N.J. & Novarino, W., 2008	The species is legally protected in all range states and the habitat of large parts of the range is protected, including several National Parks in Thailand, Myanmar, Peninsula Malaysia and Sumatra. The impact of habitat reduction/destruction on the tapir is not fully understood and needs further investigation. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>Thailand supports one of the most comprehensive systems of protected areas in Southeast Asia.  Over 200 National Parks, Marine National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Non-hunting areas cover 17% of land area (Prayurasiddhi <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Since most existing <em>Tapirus indicus</em> habitat is already protected, the future for conservation of the species in Thailand is quite positive.  In contrast, Myanmar?s protected areas make up 5% of land area (Lynam 2003) and most tapir habitat lies outside these protected areas.  In Myanmar, Malayan tapirs are entirely restricted to rainforests in the Tenasserim Ranges along the Thai-Myanmar border (Yin, 1993).  The tenure of these lands on the Myanmar side of the border is disputed and due to civil unrest, has been inaccessible for wildlife survey until now.  A team of Myanmar Forest Department staff working the Tenasserim border during 2001 detected tapirs from camera-traps, track and scat at two sites: the Minmoletka Taung area and the Hitaung Pru Reserve Forest (Lynam 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, <em>Tapirus indicu</em>s is recorded from forest areas in the west and south of the country (Lekagul and McNeely 1988), including transboundary forest areas in border areas, and large isolated forest remnants.  The transboundary forests represent the most extensive, contiguous habitats for large mammals left in the country (Prayurasiddhi <em>et al</em>. 1999).  They include the Western Forest Complex (Thai-Myanmar border), which includes 12 protected areas, and covers over 18,730 sq km including both dry and wet forests, and the Kaeng Krachan/Chumpol complex which covers 4,373 sq km, mostly wet evergreen forest on the Thai-Myanmar border.  The Balahala Forest is an expanse of 1,850 sq km of tropical rainforest on the Thai-Malaysia border.  All areas are contiguous with larger forest areas on opposite sides of the country border.  Recent survey efforts (Lynam 1999; Lynam 2000; WCS 2001; Kaewsirisuk 2001; A. Pattanavibool pers. comm.) suggest that tapirs are present though uncommon in each of these transboundary forest areas.	eng
21472	distribution	Lynam, A., Traeholt, C., Martyr, D., Holden, J., Kawanishi, K., van Strien, N.J. & Novarino, W., 2008	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> occurs in southern and central parts of Sumatra (Indonesia), and on the Asian mainland in Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (along the western border and on the Peninsula south to the Malaysian border, and in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in the north), and Myanmar (south of latitude 18°N). Its populations are now highly fragmented within its former range. It was listed as occurring in southern Cambodia and possibly southern Viet Nam by Brooks <em>et al.</em> (1997). It was reported from Hongquan district, eastern Cochin China, Viet Nam, in 1944 (Harper, 1945), and there was an authentic-sounding record from Lao PDR in 1902 (Duckworth <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is presumed to be extinct in all three countries. However, further investigation of these historical records and of other indications from Lao, Viet Nam, Cambodia, northern Thailand and even southern China have found none that has any compelling evidence in its support. In some cases (e.g. the 1902 Lao PDR record; Cheminaud 1939), review of the statement in the context of the same author?s wider work means that records sounding, on the face of it, strong need to be dismissed (Duckworth and Hedges 1998, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, in prep., J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, G. J. Galbreath pers. comm. 2008). In sum, there is no credible historical-era record from north of the Thai?Malay peninsula, although fossil remains do come from Viet Nam and China and indicate a much wider range under different climatic scenarios. The species?s habitat distribution at the northern edge of its Thai range, where the climate develops a more marked dry season, and the tapir occupancy changes from altitudinally wide-ranging to being restricted to the most humid altitudes, strongly supports a climatic limitation (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. in press), thereby casting further empirical doubt on the 20th century reports from Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia: these reports showed no association with where, climatically, they ?ought? to have been (Annamite wet areas supporting other Sundaic species like Annamite striped rabbit Nesolagus timminsi and crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata, and in fact some came from the driest parts of Indochina, least plausible to support tapirs.	eng
21472	habitat	Lynam, A., Traeholt, C., Martyr, D., Holden, J., Kawanishi, K., van Strien, N.J. & Novarino, W., 2008	<em>T. indicus</em> is restricted to tropical moist forest areas and occurs in both primary and secondary forest. The more seasonal climate in northern Myanmar, northern (= most of non-peninsula)_Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia and the harsher dry season of the forest (even in evergreen areas, excepting the eastern flanks and adjacent Viet Namese lowlands of the Annamite chain) there is likely to be the main reason this species is not found there. The Malayan tapir is also predominantly found in the lowlands and the lower montane zone in some parts of the range, although it remains common to the highest peaks in its Thai range (Steinmetz <em>et al.</em> in press). Because the lowland forests are disappearing at a faster rate than the montane forests, an accelerated reduction in range and population is suspected (N. van Strien pers. comm.)	eng
21472	population	Lynam, A., Traeholt, C., Martyr, D., Holden, J., Kawanishi, K., van Strien, N.J. & Novarino, W., 2008	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> occurs in two disjunct and isolated populations - one occurring on mainland Southeast Asia and the other occupying on the island of Sumatra. The species is more widespread and common on the mainland, and it is declining rapidly in Sumatra due to extensive loss of habitat, accidental and deliberate trapping for meat and removal of animals for zoos in Indonesia. <br/><br/>In Malaysia there are approximately 1,500-2,000 individuals (C. Traeholt pers. comm.). Further research efforts are needed to determine the total population size. In Thailand it is one of the least-affected large mammals by recent heavy levels of hunting that have caused severe cross-country declines in many large mammal species (Steinmetz <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The situation in Thailand is similar, although with much less habitat available, and the Thai populations are is likely to be quite fragile since it is severely fragmented, and most subpopulations are unlikely to reach more than 50-100 individuals at the most. In many places there are only 10-15 individuals left with no chance of linking up to other protected areas and suitable habitats.	eng
21472	threats	Lynam, A., Traeholt, C., Martyr, D., Holden, J., Kawanishi, K., van Strien, N.J. & Novarino, W., 2008	<em>Tapirus indicus</em> is threatened throughout most of its range. The primary threats to the species are large scale deforestation and increasingly, hunting. Tapir population have declined by well over 50% in Thailand and Malaysia, whereas it is suspected to be slightly less than 50% in Sumatra. The main reason for declines in the past is habitat conversion, with large tracts land being converted into palm oil plantations. However, increasingly as other large 'prey" species decline in the area hunters are beginning to look towards tapir as a food source.<br/><br/>Destruction of habitat is the main threat to the species: in central Sumatra much of the remaining habitat is outside of any protected area and uncontrolled illegal logging continues; in Thailand, almost all remaining intact forest now lies within protected areas, with mostly degraded lands outside; in contrast, Myanmar?s protected areas make up 3.2% of land area (data provided by Myanmar Forest Department) and most tapir habitat lies outside these protected areas. In Malaysia forest loss is extremely severe, especially for expanding oil palm plantations.<br/><br/><em>Tapirus indicus</em> are shy animals and appear to be highly sensitive to forest fragmentation.  In Halabala Wildlife Sanctuary on the Thai-Malaysia border, Kaewsirisuk (2001) found that the species does not venture within a few hundred meters of forest-plantation edges.  At Khao Sok National Park, tapirs are interior forest species that avoid forest edges (Lynam 1996). Kawanishi (2002), however, found in Taman Negara, the largest national park in Malaysia, that although the human traffic level was heavier in area closer to the park boundary, tapirs showed no edge effects.  While forest loss continues in Thailand, forests in protected areas remain relatively stable in size and composition to other countries because of a ban on commercial logging that has been in place since 1989.  For this reason, while tapirs may indeed be threatened in general by forest loss, populations in Thailand and Malaysia are probably more stable.  <br/><br/>Large-scale habitat destruction has continued in Sumatra, historically the species? main stronghold, and most remaining habitat in central Sumatra is outside protected areas. In Sumatra, populations have declined by slightly less than 50% simply because the onslaught of habitat only started to be serious in the late 1980s. However, the rate of decline is continuing to escalate in this region. In fact Sumatra has only 60% of the forest cover that it had 15 years ago, so things are developing fast there and future declines of the species are likely well over 50% in the next 30 years. Given the uncontrolled illegal logging situation in Sumatra, they are becoming increasingly threatened island-wide. Localized hunting also occurs and is suspected elsewhere in its distribution range. Unless serious efforts to stem illegal logging and forest encroachment are made, all Sumatran forests outside conservation areas will be lost over the next few decades. <br/><br/>In Malaysia the current forestry trend seems to be stabilized at approx. 43% remaining forest cover (57% lost), of which at least half can be considered tapir habitat. In Thailand, 40% of the remaining forest is outside protected areas and only 5% of Myanmar?s land area is protected forest (Lynam pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species has uncertain status and future in Myanmar due to security issues and forest clearance for rubber and oil palm plantations.  However, two new protected areas have been designated in the Tenasserims: Taninthayi National Park and Lenya River Wildlife Sanctuary.  If these areas can be protected, they will preserve valuable tapir habitat in the future.<br/><br/>In the past, several Indonesian zoos, especially Pekanbaru, traded in live tapirs for sale to other Indonesian zoos or private collections, or for sale as meat in local markets.  Fifty tapirs are reported passing through the Pekanbaru Zoo since 1993.  Some of these animals are suspected of having originated from protected areas.  Elsewhere, extraction may not be very high but it is uncertain how many individuals are actually hunted every year. Hunting is specifically known to be comparatively (by comparison with other mammals of similar size) very low in Thailand and at least parts of Sumatra (Holden <em>et al.</em> 2003, Stienmetz <em>et al</em>. in press) <br/><br/>There are indications that live tapirs have been traded through several Indonesian zoos, with some destined for private collections or for sale as meat in local markets to the non-Muslim community. Some of these animals are suspected to have originated from protected areas.<br/><br/>Hunting has been a minor threat to <em>Tapirus indicus</em> in the past, but is has been increasingly a cause of concern as more and more hunting of the species is discovered.  Some localized hunting has been reported in Sumatra, however, and historically tapirs are not hunted for subsistence or commercial trade in Thailand or Myanmar, since their flesh is considered distasteful.  Some hill tribes believe that killing a tapir brings bad luck, so they are not hunted.	eng
21473	conservation	Diaz, A.G., Castellanos, A., Piñeda, C., Downer, C., Lizcano, D.J., Constantino, E., Suárez Mejía, J.A., Camancho, J., Darria, J., Amanzo, J., Sánchez, J., Sinisterra Santana, J., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Espino Castellanos , L.A. & Montenegro, O.L., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I. Legal protection of the species is in place in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (Downer 1997). In the Andes of Colombia there are 23 National Parks, of which tapirs are found in only seven (Cordillera los Picachos, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, Nevado del Huila, Purace, and Sumapaz).	eng
21473	distribution	Diaz, A.G., Castellanos, A., Piñeda, C., Downer, C., Lizcano, D.J., Constantino, E., Suárez Mejía, J.A., Camancho, J., Darria, J., Amanzo, J., Sánchez, J., Sinisterra Santana, J., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Espino Castellanos , L.A. & Montenegro, O.L., 2008	<em>Tapirus pinchaque</em> is known from the Andean area of Columbia, Ecuador, and northernmost Peru.  It occurs in the Central Andes south of Nevados National Park (05º00'N) and in the Eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz (04º30'N) in Bogotá.  In Colombia, there are no tapirs in the Western Cordillera, northern part of the Central- and Eastern-Cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serrania de la Macarena and Cerro Tacarcuna. The area of suitable habitat for the tapir inside the National Parks is 13% of the total area where tapirs are still found. Historically it has been recorded in Venezuela, however, there is no evidence of its occurrence in this area. The most threatened populations are those of the Central Cordillera between P.N. Las Hermosas and P.N. Nevado del Huila where large tracks of mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields. It is now extinct in much of its former range.	eng
21473	habitat	Diaz, A.G., Castellanos, A., Piñeda, C., Downer, C., Lizcano, D.J., Constantino, E., Suárez Mejía, J.A., Camancho, J., Darria, J., Amanzo, J., Sánchez, J., Sinisterra Santana, J., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Espino Castellanos , L.A. & Montenegro, O.L., 2008	The five major habitat types for <em>Tapirus pinchaque</em> are chaparral, Andean forest, páramo, and riverine meadow. Elevations used range from 1,400 m to the snowline (Downer 1997).	eng
21473	population	Diaz, A.G., Castellanos, A., Piñeda, C., Downer, C., Lizcano, D.J., Constantino, E., Suárez Mejía, J.A., Camancho, J., Darria, J., Amanzo, J., Sánchez, J., Sinisterra Santana, J., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Espino Castellanos , L.A. & Montenegro, O.L., 2008	The total population is not estimated to be greater than 2,500 individuals, and it is decreasing.	eng
21473	threats	Diaz, A.G., Castellanos, A., Piñeda, C., Downer, C., Lizcano, D.J., Constantino, E., Suárez Mejía, J.A., Camancho, J., Darria, J., Amanzo, J., Sánchez, J., Sinisterra Santana, J., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Espino Castellanos , L.A. & Montenegro, O.L., 2008	Formerly hunting pressure was the primary threat through most areas of the mountain tapir’s distribution (C. Downer pers. comm.) but today, poppy growing and its eradication, warfare and habitat fragmentation are currently the main threats on this species (Emilio Constantino pers. comm.).  In some areas, hunting is decreasing due to local regulations and people’s increased awareness of this species’ rarity and conservation status.  While a few mountain tapir populations may benefit because guerrilla presence may also relieve colonization pressure in Colombia as it promotes the abandonment of conflict areas (C. Downer pers. comm.), most local biologists feel the presence of the guerrilla is having an overall negative impact on the species’ conservation.  Additionally, the “actors” of the armed conflicts in Colombia (army, guerrilla, and paramilitaries) see the presence of field biologists and researchers in the areas that they control as a threat for their safety (Dávalos 2001; Semple 2000).  The slow reproduction rate, large home range, and generally solitary nature of mountain tapirs make them particularly vulnerable to destruction of habitat and fragmentation by encroaching agriculture (Downer 1997).  Habitat fragmentation is caused by conversion of forests and páramos to cattle ranching and agricultural lands.<br/><br/>The major threat to mountain tapirs in Colombia is human population growth in the Andean region.  People settling in the region need land, consumables and services, and their activities lead to habitat destruction.  <br/><br/>Additional threats include the development of  hydroelectric dams, highways crossing protected areas, petroleum exploration, and electrical networks etc. There are numerous reports of tapir being hit by cars so infrastructure development through habitat is a potential major threat in m.  There are numerous proposed highway and other projects in the Andes which would greatly increase vehicular mortalities.  Once the construction of these highways is finalized, the vehicles will be able to drive at high speed and the animals crossing the roads will become even more vulnerable.  Additionally, these roads will provide easier access to poachers, given the fact that the park lacks enough park rangers to patrol and protect the area.  <br/><br/>Another problem in the area is the fact that mountain tapirs are in contact with cattle.  Local poachers use the tapir skin to manufacture working tools (backpacks, ropes to ride horses, baskets etc.) and other domestic things such as carpets and covers for beds. Poachers sell tapir skin and feet for medicinal purposes. <br/><br/>Widespread cattle introduction into the last remaining mountain tapir refuges is a serious problem which will likely escalate in the near future.  Breeding herds of cattle have been observed in western Sangay National Park in Ecuador, causing mountain tapirs to abandon areas in San Diego headwater area of park just to north of Sangay Volcano.  Visits to other legal refuges of the mountain tapir, i.e. Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve in Ecuador, and reports from National Sanctuary of Tabaconas-Namballe in Peru and several parks in Colombia, indicate that the same problem with cattle invasion into mountain tapir sanctuaries is occurring and negatively affecting the mountain tapirs as well as increased hunting associated with vaqueros/ganaderos roundups of the mountain tapirs.  The cattle come from small ranches in the vicinities of the park and compete with the tapirs for feeding resources inside the protected area.  Besides the competition for food resources, there is a serious risk of transmission of infectious diseases and other etiological agents carried by the cattle, as previously documented for Baird’s and lowland tapirs in other locations. Another problem in Colombia is the fumigations being conducted in National Parks and all zones where cultivation of drugs can be found, including Andean forests in the Central and Oriental Cordilleras.  These fumigations are authorized and promoted by the Colombian government, and are a major threat for the mountain tapir populations.  The habitat is seriously affected and the animals can possibly be poisoned when in contact with the poison used for the fumigations (Round-Up), which is selective but can affect the availability of food resources.	eng
21474	conservation	Naveda, A., de Thoisy, B., Richard-Hansen, C., Torres, D.A., Salas, L., Wallance, R., Chalukian, S. & de Bustos, S., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas across its range. The species is officially and legally protected in many range countries, however, hunting laws are seldom enforced and therefore these have proven ineffective. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
21474	distribution	Naveda, A., de Thoisy, B., Richard-Hansen, C., Torres, D.A., Salas, L., Wallance, R., Chalukian, S. & de Bustos, S., 2008	<em>Tapirus terrestris</em> is found in lowland regions of northern and central South America, from Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Historically this species was found east of the Andes and north of the Espinal grasslands and shrublands of Argentina throughout the chaco, pantanal, cerrado, llanos, caatinga and Amazonian/Orinoco forests - however, populations have been severely reduced and often limited to forest biomes and wetlands. The species has been extirpated from the caatinga and dry chaco biomes. In the northern Andes the species has been extirpated from the dry inter-Andean valleys of the northern Andes and is becoming increasingly rare along the agriculture frontiers than are sweeping through parts of the western and southern Amazon basin. The distribution in the cerrado has been diminished to a few small populations in protected areas and those in the pantanal are rapidly declining.	eng
21474	habitat	Naveda, A., de Thoisy, B., Richard-Hansen, C., Torres, D.A., Salas, L., Wallance, R., Chalukian, S. & de Bustos, S., 2008	<em>T. terrestris</em> inhabits lowland South American moist and swamp forests, dry and moist shrub lands and grasslands and a wide variety of wetlands. Habitat association varies extensively, although the most important habitats tend to be moist, wet or seasonally inundated areas (Bodmer and Brooks 1997). This species has been observed to be associated with both water and salt-licks. The degree to which tapir are tolerant to habitat degradation varies regionally, but genreally species tapir are a forest dependant species. To date, no conclusion has been drawn as to why tapirs may thrive in one partially logged or disturbed area and be absent from others, however, it can be infered based on other tapir species that loalnd tapir cannot tolerate large scale habitat change and hunting pressure. <br/><br/>Harald Beck (pers. comm.) reports that tapirs have higher densities in Amazonian forests that contain two crucial features: Aguajales and salt licks.  Aguajales are palm swamps that typically range between 0.1 ha to over 100 ha and are dominated by the Mauritia flexuosa palm. The fruits of this palm are a crucial food resource for tapirs especially during the dry season.  In fact, tapirs are the prime seed dispersers for this palm, indicating the close evolutionary relationship between both species. Furthermore, Aguajales have incoming streams or small rivers which may also be crucial for other ecological requirements of tapir's including thermoregulation. Thus Aguajales are an ecological hotspot and sustain higher tapir densities.  Salt licks are smaller aquatic systems and may occur in clumped spatial distribution. Tapirs, among other mammals, frequently visit salt licks to obtain essential minerals.  Hunters, knowing the tapir’s fondness for salt, wait at those locations because their success is dramatically increased.<br/><br/>Tapir are ecologically more prone to be impacted by hunting due to long gestation and generational time. Reproduction is slow enough to make recover difficult for the species is areas where there is any prolonged hunting activity. Hunting is a serious threat along the numerous new road systems, settlement and along the agricultural fronteir in the Amazon basin. Hunting also occurs around logging camps and can completely eliminate the species from seemingly viable habitat.	eng
21474	population	Naveda, A., de Thoisy, B., Richard-Hansen, C., Torres, D.A., Salas, L., Wallance, R., Chalukian, S. & de Bustos, S., 2008	Very little is known of populations of lowland tapir. Populations are being reduced across the range of the species but numerous strongholds exist - however, there is not sufficient information to extrapolate population sizes in these regions. Recently camera-traps have been effective for detecting presence but have proven difficult to estimate densities because it is hard to distinguish individuals in photos. A variety of density estimates have been proposed ranging from 0.20 to 3.7 individuals/km² (Medici pers. comm.). The most likely reason for this variation is both sampling and study design bias as well as the fact that lowland tapir, although generally rare and elusive, can be locally common (i.e. around salt lick and permanent and seasonal water sources). In fact great variation in density likely also reflects the results of both direct and indirect threats in the form of hunting pressure, protection and seasonal variation.  Additionally, it can also reflect the tapir’s ability to adapt to different habitat types and availability of resources (food and water).	eng
21474	threats	Naveda, A., de Thoisy, B., Richard-Hansen, C., Torres, D.A., Salas, L., Wallance, R., Chalukian, S. & de Bustos, S., 2008	The main threats to the species include loss of habitat through deforestation, hunting for meat and competition with domestic livestock. The impacts of hunting on populations are amplified by the very low ability of tapir to quickly repopulate impacted areas. Though several strongholds occur - populations have been severely reduced and fragmented across the entire Cerrado (Brazil), Atlantic forest (Brazil) and llanos (Venezuela/Colombia) biomes. In Argentina and both southern Brazil the species has been extirpated from the tropical and temperate grassland and shrub land - and are rapidly declining in the dry Chaco. Additionally the species has been extirpated from the entire Caatinga biome of eastern Brazil. <br/><br/>In the northeast, tapirs are present only inside protected areas where illegal hunting is minimal. Outside protected areas, they are still hunted, chased by dogs, and negatively impacted by competition with cattle and illegal timber activities. The species is in rapid decline along the eastern Amazon and its Southern Tributaries where extensive hunting and deforestation have reduced almost all large mammal populations. In addition populations are declining rapidly along the agricultural front spreading into western Brazil and along the Andean foothills of Ecuador and Colombia.<br/><br/>Although <em>T. terrestris</em> may be common in some areas of Argentina, it is sensitive to deforestation and human activities and the species has already disappeared in many areas of transition between montane and Chaco forests in Anta (a department of Salta Province). Although control has been more effective during the past year in this province, tapirs are still affected by illegal timber activities, hunted, chased by dogs, and negatively impacted by competition with cattle. <br/><br/>In Bolivia, tapirs are susceptible to hunting, and habitat degradation. While they may well be more common than expected in protected areas, as was found out in Costa Rica and elsewhere for T. bairdii, they do not fare well in the presence of hunting. In French Guiana, tapirs are regularly hunted and sold commercially for meat in markets and restaurants. Little information is available for the population in Guyana, however, tapirs are not protected here at present and are hunted by subsistence hunters as well as by a developing bush-meat industry as roads are cut into the forest for logging.<br/><br/>In conclusion it is difficult to calculate the overall impact of hunting on populations, but we can infer from previous studies that in the past 30 years extensive and ongoing habitat loss combined with hunting and accumulated indirect threats have been much greater than previously estimated, and much greater than would be suspected by looking at maps of remaining forest in the Amazon.	eng
21488	conservation	Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I., 2008	The species is protected by law in Indonesia and in Malaysia, and is listed in CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><em>T. b. bancanus</em> occurs in a few protected areas, such as Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Kerinci Seblat National Park, Way Kambas National Park (Indonesia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.); <em>T. b. borneanus</em> occurs in several protected areas, including Tasek Merimbun Sanctuary (Brunei); Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park (Indonesia); Bako National Park, Gunung Malu National Park, Kinabalu National Park, Sapagaya Forest Reserve, Semengo Forest Reserve, Sepilok Forest Reserve (Malaysia) (M. Richardson pers. comm.); while<br/><em>T. b. saltator</em> and <em>T. b. natunensis</em> do not occur in any protected areas.	eng
21488	distribution	Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I., 2008	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Karimata, southeastern Sumatra, Serasen in the South Natuna Islands, and Kalimantan Borneo), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Groves 2005). The distribution in Sumatra is unknown but is thought to be delimited by the Musi River.<br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus saltator</em> <br/>Confined to the island of Belitung (Billiton), Indonesia. <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus natunensis</em> <br/>Confined to Serasan (Sirhassen) in the South Natuna Islands, and possibly nearby Subi Island, Indonesia. <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus borneanus</em> <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan Borneo and Karimata Islands) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo) and on the island of Karimata (Indonesia). <br/><br/><em>Tarsius bancanus bancanus </em><br/>Occurs in southeastern Sumatra and the island of Bangka, Indonesia.	eng
21488	habitat	Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I., 2008	This species can live in both primary and secondary forest, as well as along the coasts or on the edge of plantations (Niemitz 1979). This is often described as a lowland species, most common below 100 m elevation; however, there is at least one record from 1,200 m from the Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park in western Kalimantan (Gorog and Sinaga in press). <br/><br/>The species is 100% carnivorous, eating mainly insects (including beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches, butterflies, moths, praying mantis, ants, phasmids, and cicadas), but also small vertebrates (including bats, snakes, and birds) (Niemitz 1979). These animals are nocturnal and exhibit adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping modes of locomotion and prey capture (Roberts 1994). They spend a majority of their time below 2 meters off the ground and only 5% above 3 meters (Niemitz 1979, 1984; Crompton and Andau 1986, 1987).	eng
21488	population	Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I., 2008	Density has been variously calculated at 80 animals/km<sup>2</sup> in Sarawak (Niemitz 1979, 1984), 15-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Sabah (Crompton and Andau 1986, 1987), and 19-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Belitung (I. Yustian pers. comm.). Based on satellite studies of the extent of available habitat on Belitung Island, Yustian (2006) estimated a total population for <em>T. b. saltator</em> of 29,440 (Yustian unpubl. data).	eng
21488	threats	Shekelle, M. & Yustian, I., 2008	The principle threat is habitat loss due to forest conversion, especially due to expanding oil palm plantations, fires and logging. The species is collected for the illegal pet trade, particularly, it is thought, in the vicinity of Lampung and Way Kambas National Park. It is wrongly considered a pest to agricultural crops, and can suffer, directly and indirectly, from contamination from agricultural pesticides.	eng
21489	conservation	Shekelle, M., Salim, A. & Merker, S., 2008	Tarsiers are protected by national law and international treaties, including CITES Appendix II. Many portions of the range of this taxon are protected and indeed it occurs in at least two national parks (Lore Lindu and Morowali); however, there needs to be improved management of the currently protected areas to ensure the ongoing survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures for the species. In fact the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.	eng
21489	distribution	Shekelle, M., Salim, A. & Merker, S., 2008	The species occurs in the eastern portion of the central core of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The northern boundary is the Isthmus of Palu between Marantale (Shekelle<em>et al</em>. 1997), Ampibabo (Stefan Merker unpubl. data), and Tomini Bay. The species is distributed east to the tip of the eastern peninsula (J. Burton unpubl. data). The western boundary appears to extend at least to the Palu River and south as far as Gimpu (Merker and Groves 2006). The southern boundary from Lore Lindu National Park to the eastern coast of Sulawesi is unknown.  In this estimate, the southern border is inferred to be the edge of the main, east-central microplate. This puts the estimated faunal boundary somewhat to the north of the boundary between <em>Macaca tonkeana</em> and <em>M. ochreata.</em>	eng
21489	habitat	Shekelle, M., Salim, A. & Merker, S., 2008	This species has been studied in the field (Tremble <em>et al.</em> 1993; Merker 2006; Merker <em>et al.</em> 2005; Merker 2003; Merker and Mühlenberg 2000; Gursky 1998). It occurs in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forest gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover. Like all tarsiers it shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 0 m or less from the ground. Nocturnal social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-7 individuals (Merker 2003). Home range sizes have been recorded as 1.0–1.8 ha depending on habitat type. The diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.	eng
21489	population	Shekelle, M., Salim, A. & Merker, S., 2008	Merker (2003) estimated population densities in a variety of pristine and human disturbed habitats. The values he calculated were 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed habitat, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderately disturbed habitat, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat (Merker 2003).	eng
21489	threats	Shekelle, M., Salim, A. & Merker, S., 2008	The primary threat to this species is loss of habitat loss due to illegal logging. Other threats include agricultural pesticides and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). In addition, some animals are entering the pet trade. There has been extensive loss of lowland forest habitat; however, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. A crucial unknown variable in determining how critical the threats to this species are is its elevational distribution. GIS data indicate that large areas of quality forested habitat remain at higher elevations, but the vertical range of this species is believed to stop somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m, thus rendering a large portion of the best remaining habitat outside the range.	eng
21490	conservation	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The species is known to occur in at least once protected area (Lore Lindu National Park), although the form likely receives some protection on Mount Rantemario (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).	eng
21490	distribution	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	This species occurs in southern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The first specimen of <em>T. pumilus</em> was collected in 1916 at 1,800 m from Rano Rano, in the mountains between Palu and Poso. The second specimen, collected in 1930, came from 2,200 m on Mount Rantemario in South Sulawesi. A third specimen, which was found dead in a rat trap in May 2000, came from 2,200 m on the flank of Mount Rorekatimbu.	eng
21490	habitat	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	This species has never seen alive by scientists for long time, and is among the least known primates in existence. It has only recently (August 2008) been rediscovered in the wild, captured, radio-collared, photographed, and filmed.  Morphological analysis of museum specimens indicates adaptations for life in colder, montane cloud forests (Musser and Dagosto 1987). Moss forests are characteristic of the presumed habitat.	eng
21490	population	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	All that is known of this species is what can be inferred from the three museum specimens above (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).	eng
21490	threats	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	The distribution is in all likelihood fragmented on isolated mountain tops. One threat to these habitats is the encroachment of human populations into montane regions to satisfy the needs of a growing human population. The destruction of montane forests in more densely populated south Sulawesi indicates that this fate may well be in store for Central Sulawesi's montane forests as the human population expands. Some areas of Central Sulawesi near known <em>T. pumilus</em> sites are conflict zones, where factional fighting has seen the dislocation of large human populations that are then resettled in refugee camps. One such site lies along the main route to the Rorekatimbu capture locality.	eng
21491	conservation	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	Tarsiers are protected by international treaties, including CITES Appendix II, as well as by national law. Many portions of the range of this taxon are within conservation areas, but there needs to be improved management of these areas to ensure the continued survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures. Indeed, the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.	eng
21491	distribution	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	By definition, <em>T. tarsier</em> is the rump taxon of tarsiers that remain in the Sulawesi biogeographic region, after excluding <em>T. sangirensis</em>, <em>T. pumilus</em>, <em>T. dentatus</em>, <em>T. pelengensis</em>, and <em>T. lariang</em>. This leaves <em>T. tarsier, sensu lato</em>, with an unlikely distribution that includes Sulawesi, Buton, Muna, Kabaena, Selayar, and the Togian Islands, below 1,800 m (with an actual vertical distribution that likely stops somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m), except those portions of Sulawesi that lie within the ranges of <em>T. dentatus</em> and <em>T. lariang</em>. As discussed by Brandon-Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004), this is distribution is improbably disjunct.  It is more likely that this population is subdivided into numerous insular and parapatric species, as hypothesized by Shekelle and Leksono (2004) and Brandon-Jones <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
21491	habitat	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	<em>Tarsius tarsier sensu stricto</em> has not been the subject of systematic study, but by analogy with wild tarsier populations studied at Tangkoko and with <em>T. dentatus</em> at Lore Lindu National Park, it is expected that this taxon is found in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forest gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover. It shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-6. The home range is believed to be less than one hectare. Its diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.	eng
21491	population	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	Within <em>T. tarsier, sensu lato</em>, the best studied population comes from Tangkoko, which is at the extreme northeast peninsula of Sulawesi, whereas Makassar, the type locality of <em>T. tarsier sensu stricto</em>, is at the extreme southwestern peninsula, and has not been the subject of systematic study. Population density estimates at Tangkoko are 70/km<sup>2</sup> (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980) and 156/km<sup>2</sup> (Gursky 1997). Merker (2003) estimated population densities for <em>T. dentatus</em> in a variety of pristine and human disturbed habitats near Kamarora, on the edge of Lore Lindu National Park. The values he calculated were 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderate disturbance, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat.	eng
21491	threats	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	Major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, illegal logging, mining of limestone for cement manufacture, agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). Some animals are entering the pet trade (particularly from North Sulawesi, around Tankoko). Although there has been extensive loss of habitat, this species, however, has demonstrated some tolerance to forest conversion. Although seemingly among the least threatened of tarsiers owing to its relatively wide distribution, the possible existence of undescribed cryptic species makes it likely that some populations are more threatened than others. This species should be reassessed upon further taxonomic revision.	eng
21492	conservation	Shekelle, M. & Arboleda, I., 2008	The species is included in Appendix II of CITES and is protected under government law in the Philippines. Surveys of population status, particularly to determine its ability to persist in non-forest areas in the long-term, as well as taxonomic research, are needed. The species would also benefit from tighter controls on harvest and trade.<br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
21492	distribution	Shekelle, M. & Arboleda, I., 2008	This species is endemic to the southeastern Philippines. It is restricted to the greater Mindanao faunal region, where it is found on Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao (Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, and Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Samar (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is also reported from Basilan (Lawrence 1939), Biliran, Maripipi (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993), and Mindanao in Bukidnon province (Sanborn 1953).	eng
21492	habitat	Shekelle, M. & Arboleda, I., 2008	The species occurs in both secondary and primary forest (although it is most abundant in the latter), from sea level up to 750 m. It is found at lower densities in edge habitats and secondary growth with many pole-sized trees and low-stature vegetation, as well as in gardens and other degraded habitats including agricultural areas and plantations. It feeds on small lizards, frogs, and insects.	eng
21492	population	Shekelle, M. & Arboleda, I., 2008	It is locally common and widespread, largely because of its tolerance of second growth habitat (Dagosto and Gebo 1995). However, it clearly occurs at higher densities in less disturbed habitats (I. Arboleda pers. comm.).	eng
21492	threats	Shekelle, M. & Arboleda, I., 2008	There are several contributing factors that make this species susceptible to extinction (Wright <em>et al</em>. 2003): infant mortality rates, both in the wild and in captivity, are very high; highly specialized diet; relatively limited geographical range; high population density and extensive habitat destruction. Although it is clearly adaptable to anthropogenic habitats that contain bushes or trees, it occurs at higher densities in less disturbed habitats, especially in primary forest (very little of which remains within its range) (I. Arboleda pers. comm.). It is also heavily harvested as food and especially for the pet trade. This is illegal, but there are recent anecdotal reports that the pet markets in Manila are being flooded with tarsiers retailing at less than PhP500 per individual (I. Arboleda pers. comm.).	eng
21493	conservation	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	The taxon has been protected by national law since 1931, and is listed as CITES Appendix II. Two conservation initiatives begun in 2002 are serving to establish management systems on this archipelago and to educate its people on the environmental and conservation problems the islands face, including forest management and hunting issues (Riley 2002).	eng
21493	distribution	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	This species is currently recorded as being found on Sangihe island, north of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Riley 2002).	eng
21493	habitat	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	This population has not been studied systematically in the wild, but was surveyed by M. Shekelle and associates (Shekelle <em>et al</em>. 1997; Shekelle 2003), and Riley (2002). Riley remarked that <em>T. sangirensis</em> has a preference for primary forest, but may occur in secondary habitats including sago swamps, scrub, nutmeg plantations, coconut plantations, and secondary forest growth. These results are similar to those of Shekelle and associates, except that Shekelle did not encounter any tarsiers in primary forest.	eng
21493	population	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	M. Shekelle and A. Salim (pers. comm.) estimate the population size to be between 1,505 and 52,734 individuals, the very wide range being a result of uncertainty in the suitability of “brush” habitat for sustainable tarsier populations. Without including “brush,” the population size estimate is only 1,505-2,795 individuals. Riley (2002) estimated population size as 9,000-15,600, but those numbers drop to 300-500 if secondary habitat is excluded. Riley did not address the issue that, while tarsiers are recorded in secondary habitats, these might not support sustainable populations. Thus, the conclusions of both studies are similar; viable population size might be very small indeed, unless populations in suboptimal habitats are “sources” and not “sinks.”	eng
21493	threats	Shekelle, M. & Salim, A., 2008	M. Shekelle and A. Salim (pers. comm.) argue that the chief threat to tarsiers on Sangihe Island is habitat loss, while Riley (2002) did not think that habitat loss was a major threat, given their presence in a variety of secondary habitats. This discrepancy once again points out the need to determine the suitability of secondary habitats for sustainable tarsier populations.	eng
21494	conservation	Shekelle, M., Salim, A., Groves, C.P. & Indrawan, M., 2008	There are no decreed protection areas on Pulau Peleng. The species is listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
21494	distribution	Shekelle, M., Salim, A., Groves, C.P. & Indrawan, M., 2008	This species is found on Peleng Island (Sody 1949), off the coast of the eastern peninsula of Sulawesi. There are unconfirmed reports that tarsiers might be present in other islands of the nearby Banggai Archipelago, and if these reports are accurate, then this would extend the range of <em>T. pelengensis.</em>	eng
21494	habitat	Shekelle, M., Salim, A., Groves, C.P. & Indrawan, M., 2008	This species is believed to inhabit primary and secondary lowland and mangrove forest (to 520 m) (M. Indrawan and Y. Masala pers. comm.). Like all tarsiers it shows extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal, social primates, they are likely to live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-6. Their diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates.	eng
21494	population	Shekelle, M., Salim, A., Groves, C.P. & Indrawan, M., 2008	This taxon has not been studied in the wild. By analogy with other taxa of eastern tarsiers, we can estimate that densities in good habitat might be 156/km<sup>2</sup> (Gursky 1997), or, as for <em>T. dentatus</em> (Merker 2003) up to 270/km<sup>2</sup> in pristine habitat, 190/km<sup>2</sup> for slightly disturbed, 130/km<sup>2</sup> for moderate disturbance, and 45/km<sup>2</sup> in heavily disturbed habitat.	eng
21494	threats	Shekelle, M., Salim, A., Groves, C.P. & Indrawan, M., 2008	GIS estimates indicate that only 211 km<sup>2</sup> of “good” habitat remains on Peleng Island (2,339 km<sup>2</sup>). This implies that perhaps as little as 9% of the original habitat of the island remains in good condition. Therefore it seems likely that, while we know little about this species, habitat loss through slash and burn activities is a major threat. On the other hand, it is not clear that “good” habitat is also compatible with the needs of tarsier conservation. All species of tarsiers that have been studied in the wild are recorded in a number of non-forest habitats, but it remains an open question as to whether these habitats are suitable for sustainably-reproducing populations. GIS also provides an estimate of 1,474 km<sup>2</sup> of “fair” habitat remaining on Pulau Peleng. Together with “good” habitat, this yields a total of 1,685 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat that is potentially suitable for tarsier conservation, a figure that represents slightly more than 72% of the island’s total area. In other words, the estimate of the percentage of the original tarsier habitat that still remains on Pulau Peleng varies from 9 to 72%, depending on whether “fair” habitat is included in the model. This example illustrates the need for field surveys to determine the suitability of “fair” habitat for sustainable tarsier populations. In the meantime, we use a most conservative estimate that includes good habitat only.<br/><br/>First-hand reports of conditions on Pulau Peleng are scant, but by analogy with other areas of Sulawesi, it should likely expect a continuing pattern of encroachment into tarsier habitat, leading to a decrease in the area of occupancy, quality of habitat, number of tarsier populations and mature individuals (M. Shekelle pers. comm.). Other threats may include illegal logging, agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats).	eng
21495	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is found in protected areas across its range.	eng
21495	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the highlands of Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces). It has been recorded from Mt. Apo, Katanglad and Malindang, although it is possible that it is more widespread than this.	eng
21495	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	It occurs in montane and mossy forest from 1,550 to 2,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser and Heaney 1992).	eng
21495	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This is a moderately abundant species.	eng
21495	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21496	conservation	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in Kitanglad National Park. This park is at high elevation and offers little protection to this lowland species.	eng
21496	distribution	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species occurs in only in the Philippines where it is known only from Mindanao (Bukidnon, and South Cotabato provinces) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has been recorded from lowland areas around Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Matutum from 800 to 1,100 m.	eng
21496	habitat	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is restricted to lowland forests.	eng
21496	population	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	It was probably once widespread in lowland forest on Mindanao, but may now be greatly affected by habitat destruction (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
21496	threats	Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	There has been serious deforestation in lowland areas.	eng
21497	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known from Tooth and Amber Caves in the Edwards Plateau area of Travis County, Texas.	eng
21500	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to assess the impacts of potential threats on this species.	eng
21500	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Shepherd's beaked whales are primarily known from a few dozen strandings, all south of 30°S, around New Zealand, southern Australia, southern South America, the Juan Fernandez Islands, and Tristan de Cunha (Mead 1989). There have been only a few sightings reported in the literature and the validity of most of those is suspect (or clearly erroneous. The confirmed sightings have been from south of Tasmania and in oceanic waters of the South Atlantic (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006). The majority of strandings have occurred in New Zealand. It is presumed that they have a circumpolar distribution in cold temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is possible that the species may be somewhat more widespread than the records suggest, since it was not likely to be accurately identified at sea until its recent re-description (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
21500	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	This species generally lives mainly far offshore, well away from coasts; however, where there is a narrow continental shelf, <em>T. shepherdi</em> may sometimes occur in deep water close to shore. <br/><br/>Shepherd’s beaked whales are known to feed on several species of fish (primarily eelpouts), as well as squid and crabs, possibly near the bottom in deep waters. This seems somewhat unusual, as most beaked whales appear to feed almost exclusively on cephalopods.	eng
21500	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Shepherd’s beaked whale appears to be relatively rare, but there are no estimates of abundance available. The external appearance of the species was not well-known until it was re-described from several fresh specimens and at-sea sightings; this could lead to further refinement about its distribution and abundance (Pitman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nothing is known about subpopulation structure.	eng
21500	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No major threats are known for this species. As is true for most of the beaked whales, this species has never been hunted and fisheries interactions are not known.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of <em>Tasmacetus shepherdi</em> indicated that they had swallowed discarded plastic items (reference?), which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
21506	distribution	Bonham, K., 2006	There are about 45 recorded localities (Bonham, unpub. data, Bonham and Taylor 1997, Forest Practices Board records), excluding sites within 1 km of pre-existing records in Tasmania. There are about five recorded localitites in Victoria, but it is uncertain whether these are of the same species. In Tasmania many more could be recorded with more surveying, likely to total hundreds. <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence (EOO) is <em>ca</em>. 1,400 km² in Tasmania, based on fine-scale range-boundary mapping (minimum convex polygon, excluding sea). The range in Victoria is unknown but much smaller; area of occupancy (AOO) is <em>ca</em>. 380 km² in Tasmania (K. Bonham, estimate in report to FPB); AOO is unknown in Victoria, but much smaller. <br/> <br/>There is no evidence of range decline except that the species was formerly (1860s) reported from a site where it is not now found. If that site is included, range size decreases by about 10%. However, that report may be an error as it corresponds to no museum specimen and is not collaborated by other sources of the time. One outlying population is very precarious and likely to become extinct within the next several decades.  If this happens the range size will decrease by a further <em>ca</em>. 5%.	eng
21506	habitat	Bonham, K., 2006	Wet forests generally.	eng
21506	population	Bonham, K., 2006	There are likely to be several dozens or hundreds of subpopulations. Population densities are low (typically lower than 10 mature adults per hectare) but subpopulations likely to contain several thousand mature adults are known. Overall population, based on observed densities and likely area of occupancy, is likely to be a few hundred thousand. <br/> <br/>Very roughly, 30% of the population has been lost to clearing since 1800. The population is continuing to decline through logging activities and conversion to plantation. It is estimated that 20% of population could eventually (over 40 years) be lost to this activity, but the ability of the snail to occur in plantations is not tested, so it is possible it will reinvade them. A closely related species <em>Tasmaphena sinclairi</em> does. The species reinvades normal logged forest after about 30–40 years (Bonham and Taylor 1997).	eng
21506	threats	Bonham, K., 2006	Clearing for agriculture and settlement, logging.	eng
21507	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species has been recorded from the Lore Lindu National Park, it is not known if the species occurs in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
21507	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This poorly known species is known only from Mt. Nokilalaki, in central Sulawesi (Indonesia), where it occurs from 1,982 to 2,287 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possibly also present in nearby  montane regions, but field surveys are needed to determine this.	eng
21507	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been collected in tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats. It is scansorial, nocturnal, and vermivorous feeding on earthworms (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21507	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known from eight specimens recorded in 1975 (Musser 1982).	eng
21507	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
21508	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and Latimodjong is designated as Protection Forest. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species occurs more widely throughout montane regions of central Sulawesi, and its current population status.	eng
21508	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the Mt. Latimodjong (the type locality), and Mt. Tokala and Mt. Nokilalaki, in the eastern central core of Sulawesi (Indonesia) at 2,200 m. It is likely to be found in other mountainous regions in suitable habitat (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
21508	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This terrestrial vermivore inhabits montane forest (Musser and Durden 2002).	eng
21508	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is no information on population status, but it is probably more common than the handful of specimens known indicates since it is very difficult to trap and found only in upper montane regions. The most recent collection of specimens took place in the early 1970s on Mt. Nokilalaki.	eng
21508	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, as loss of forest due to shifting agriculture is less severe at such high elevations.	eng
21509	conservation	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21509	distribution	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in fragmented habitat, across much of southwestern South Africa.	eng
21509	habitat	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found in areas of sandy soil on the friges of shrubland and Karoo areas. This species has population explosions during which it is considered to be a pest. (Coetzee com pers).	eng
21509	population	Coetzee, N., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
21509	threats	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
21510	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
21510	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in central and southeastern parts of Africa. Its distribution includes western Tanzania, southwestern Kenya, southeastern Uganda, eastern and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, lowland Malawi, northwestern Mozambique, northern Zambia and eastern Angola.	eng
21510	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It occurs in dry, open woodlands, shrubland and mosaic farmland.	eng
21510	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21510	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21511	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in its range.	eng
21511	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found in the subtropical and wooded grasslands of most South Africa (excluding some of the south), western Zimbabwe, Botswana, central and eastern Namibia, southeastern Angola and southwestern Zambia. There is a record from northern Mozambique.	eng
21511	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is associated with open areas, or plains, in subtropical and wooded grasslands on consolidated sands. It is sometimes considered to be an agricultural pest. This species is a major reservoir for the bubonic plague.	eng
21511	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is generally a common species with cyclic variations in abundance.	eng
21511	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21512	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21512	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This west African species ranges from Senegal to Sierra Leone, and from there through northern Côte d'Ivoire, eastwards to Burkina Faso and Togo.	eng
21512	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is found in Sahel to Sudan savannas on more indurated (lateritic to clay) soils than <em>G. gambiana</em>. The species occurs where there is a dense shrub layer with variable herbaceous cover. It is also found in cultivated areas.	eng
21512	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a relatively common species, although it does not occur at high densities. In comparison to other <em>Gerbilliscus</em> species, it is less common than <em>G. gambiana</em> in Senegal, but more common than <em>G. gambiana</em> in Mali.	eng
21512	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21513	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
21513	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is present in southeastern Africa, including eastern Zimbabwe, central Mozambique and southeastern and northeastern Tanzania.	eng
21513	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in moist to wet savanna on sandy, and sandy alluvial, soils.	eng
21513	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
21513	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although there are presumed to be no major threats to the species.	eng
21514	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	It is found in numerous protected areas. It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.	eng
21514	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Near East, through the north of the Arabian Peninsula and Iran to most of South Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Turkey (Yiğit <em>et al</em>. 2001), eastern Syria, Kuwait and Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991), ranging through much of central and southern Iran to Pakistan and Afghanistan, from here it ranges throughout India, and Sri Lanka, being also widely distributed through much of Nepal south of the Himalayas. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21514	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species ranges from the Near East, through the north of the Arabian Peninsula and Iran to most of South Asia. It has been recorded from southeastern Turkey (Yi?it <em>et al</em>. 2001), eastern Syria, Kuwait and Iraq (Harrison and Bates 1991), ranging through much of central and southern Iran to Pakistan and Afghanistan, from here it ranges throughout India, and Sri Lanka, being also widely distributed through much of Nepal south of the Himalayas. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to 2,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
21514	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in a range of dry or arid habitats. In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests, scrub forests, grasslands, rocky areas, hot deserts, arid and semi-arid regions and uncultivated areas. It has been found to occupy undisturbed barren open areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Turkey, it appears to prefer uncultivated arid and semi-arid habitats with soft soil and dry river slopes (Yiğit <em>et al</em>. 2001). Harrison and Bates (1991) indicatethat the species can be found in agricultural country not far from water, including heavily grazed areas.	eng
21514	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in a range of dry or arid habitats. In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests, scrub forests, grasslands, rocky areas, hot deserts, arid and semi-arid regions and uncultivated areas. It has been found to occupy undisturbed barren open areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Turkey, it appears to prefer uncultivated arid and semi-arid habitats with soft soil and dry river slopes (Yi?it <em>et al</em>. 2001). Harrison and Bates (1991) indicatethat the species can be found in agricultural country not far from water, including heavily grazed areas.	eng
21514	population	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is locally abundant.	eng
21514	threats	Kryštufek, B., Shenbrot, G., Sozen, M. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threat to this species.	eng
21515	conservation	Schlitter, D., Granjon, L. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
21515	distribution	Schlitter, D., Granjon, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species has a wide distribution, ranging from Guinea in the west through much of West Africa, through the Sudan-Turquinae savanna zone, to southwestern Ethiopia in the east.	eng
21515	habitat	Schlitter, D., Granjon, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is found in dry tree savannas on lateritic, or clay, soils. It has been recorded from agricultural areas.	eng
21515	population	Schlitter, D., Granjon, L. & Corti, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21515	threats	Schlitter, D., Granjon, L. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21516	conservation	Coetzee, N., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
21516	distribution	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Southern Africa, from the equator to about 30 degrees south (excluding parts of southern South Africa, western Namibia and northern Mozambique).	eng
21516	habitat	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is associated with bushland and grasslands. This is a reservoir species for the bubonic plague.	eng
21516	population	Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a common species, with cyclic fluctuations of population abundance.	eng
21516	threats	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21517	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. The species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
21517	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This East African species is found in southern Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. It does not appear to range west of the Eastern Rift Valley. It is found from sea level to 1,500 m asl.	eng
21517	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species inhabits dry savanna, dry open woodland and agricultural areas.	eng
21517	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21517	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21518	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21518	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found in disjunct populations in Somalia, the Rift Valley in Ethiopia and Kenya (Bates 1988).	eng
21518	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is associated with areas of arid, open shrubland.	eng
21518	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.	eng
21518	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21519	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21519	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species range extends from Central to East Africa and includes the northeastern Central African Republic, eastern Niger, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania (Bates 1985; Bates 1988). It possibly also occurs in Cameroon and Nigeria. It is present from sea level to around 1,500 m asl.	eng
21519	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This ubiquitous species occupies a broad range of habitat types. It is generally found in dry savanna, open grassland and arable lands, most often on clay soils.	eng
21519	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is very common.	eng
21519	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21520	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	Although there are no conservation measures in place, the species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
21520	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is broadly distributed in Central Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. Its range extends from Sudan in the north to Zimbabwe in the south, and from Angola eastwards to Tanzania, encompassing southern and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
21520	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This is a species of savannas and arable lands	eng
21520	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21520	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21521	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
21521	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species appears to have been recorded from southern Mauritania, and possibly from central Mali and southern Niger although this needs to be confirmed. Only two localities have been confirmed by chromosomal data (Matthey 1969; Volobouev and Granjon 1996).	eng
21521	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	Animals have been reported from sandy clay plains and continental fixed dunes.	eng
21521	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is a moderately common species.	eng
21521	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
21522	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
21522	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is widely distributed in northern parts of Central Africa, ranging from northern Cameroon in the west to possibly northwestern Uganda in the east.	eng
21522	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is associated with Sudan savannas and wooded savannas in the Guinean zone, and can additionally be encountered in savanna islands within secondary tropical moist forest habitats.	eng
21522	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is a locally very common species.	eng
21522	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
21523	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is possibly present in a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
21523	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species has a large range in Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from eastern Central African Republic, through much of Sudan to Ethiopa and central and southern Somalia, and from here is found southwards into northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, much of Kenya and northern parts of Tanzania.	eng
21523	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is typically associated with dry savanna to sparse dry grassland and arid areas, with populations also recorded from cultivated land in parts of Sudan and Uganda.	eng
21523	population	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
21523	threats	Schlitter, D. & Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
21524	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
21524	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, eastwards to Niger, Nigeria and western Chad.	eng
21524	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is generally associated with consolidated soild substrates in the Sahel and Sudan savannas, from dry forest areas in the south to very arid areas in the north of its range.	eng
21524	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a very common species that is sometimes considered to be a considerable agricultural pest species.	eng
21524	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21526	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	This species does not appear to be known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and possible long-term threats to this species.	eng
21526	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is known only from a small area in northern Cameroon and Nigeria, near to Lake Chad.	eng
21526	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from areas of bushland, fallow land and field edges in northern Cameroon.  With more research on ecology this might prove to be a mesic species associated to Lake Chad (with a possible long term threat as the lake size continues to decrease).	eng
21526	population	Granjon, L., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
21526	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species at present or in the immediate future.	eng
21527	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
21527	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is generally distributed on the right bank of Niger River in the countries of Niger, Burkina Faso and Mali.	eng
21527	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a typical Sahelian species, associated with Sahel savana of 300 to 500 mm annual rainfall. Populations are found on sandy soils, including also in millet field on sandy soils. It can be found in dune habitats but this is not the preferred habitat.	eng
21527	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It ranges from being uncommon to locally abundant.	eng
21527	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21528	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
21528	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	Populations of this West African species have been disjunctly recorded from Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania in the west, and from Niger and northern Nigeria in the east. Increasing desertification within the region could result in the movement of this species range southwards.	eng
21528	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	Animals have been recorded from bush savanna and thorny scrub with avarage rainfall of 300 to 800 mm. It has also been found in recently formed sand dunes and soils that are poor in clay content. The species has been recorded from cultivated areas.	eng
21528	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a common to abundant species.	eng
21528	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21529	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks. Research and monitoring is in place for the species. There was a captive-rearing programme run by the Melbourne Zoo and the Queensland Department of the Environment, starting in 1996. Tadpoles were raised to metamorphosis and a single frog to adult stage, but all subsequently succumbed to chytridiomycosis. There are no longer any animals in captivity.	eng
21529	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, was widely distributed from Mount Graham to the Big Tableland, north Queensland, at altitudes of 300-1,300m asl (McDonald 1992). The former extent of occurrence of the species was less than 9,000km² (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002.).	eng
21529	habitat		The species was known to be a habitat specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998, 2001) occurring along small creeks in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). The species was seen on the rocks during the day near swift-flowing streams or in the rainforest leaf-litter during wet weather (McDonald 1992). Males call during the day, from first light to early evening, near rainforest streams from beneath rocks or leaves (McDonald 1992). Males appear to establish territories, possibly as a response to seemingly low numbers of females (Dennis 1982). Breeding has been observed from late November through to January (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Eggs are laid as a gelatinous clump of about 25-40 eggs (2.2-2.7mm diameter) amongst rocks in the water usually in heavily shaded locations (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Liem and Hosmer (1973) described the tadpole of the species as lotic benthic. Tadpoles generally inhabit debris in pools or slow flowing sections of streams (Liem and Hosmer 1973).	eng
21529	population		Formerly a conspicuous inhabitant of upland rainforest streams because of its diurnal habits and historical abundance, the species started disappearing in the southern part of its range in 1988 and had disappeared from south of the Daintree River by 1992 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). In the past the species was considered locally abundant and in 1989, 48 calling males were recorded along a 100-m stream transect (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). When surveys of the same site were undertaken in 1990, only one adult and several tadpoles were located (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The decline of this species is well documented and, in approximately five years from 1988 to 1993, it disappeared from an area spanning about 2.5 degrees latitude (Ingram 1993). Possible sightings of a single individual in a small tributary of the South Johnstone River in 1996 (Marshall 1998), and in 1997, a gravid female seen near Mount Hartley (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998), are the only records of the species since 1994 (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002; Schloegel <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is possible that this species is now extinct.	eng
21529	threats		Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) found no obvious evidence that drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals were responsible for the population declines seen in this species. Big Tableland, the area where the species was at its highest density in 1991-1992, has been mined since 1887 and logging ceased in that area in 1963 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). Rather, research suggests the rapid, catastrophic decline of this species was due to infection with chytridiomycosis (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999; Schloegel <em>et al.</em> 2006). The effects that having very small isolated populations might have on the recovery of the species remain largely unknown, but might include low genetic variability, increased susceptibility to disease and general demographic instability (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). There is very little research, however, into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
21530	conservation		The species' habitat is fully protected within a National Park.	eng
21530	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, occurred in disjunctive populations in three sub-coastal mountain ranges (Blackall, Conondale, and D’Aguilar Ranges) in the south-east Queensland region from Coonoon Gibber Creek in the north to Mount Glorious in the south (Czechura and Ingram 1990; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The extent of occurrence of the species was about 1,400km² (map in Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> occurred over a relatively narrow altitudinal range of 350-800m asl with most records falling between 500-800m asl (Czechura and Ingram 1990).	eng
21530	habitat		<em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> was associated with permanent and temporary watercourses in montane rainforests, tall open forest, notophyll vine forest and sclerophyll fern forest (Czechura and Ingram 1990). In addition, animals were also found along watercourses in pure stands of the palm <em>Archontophoenix cunninghamia</em>, in exposed areas, in gorges, in dense non-forest riparian vegetation (<em>Lomandra longifolia</em>, <em>Carex neuroclamys</em>, <em>Elastostema reticulatum</em> and <em>Blechnum nudum</em>) and where the riparian vegetation had been slightly infested with <em>Lantana camara</em> (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Permanent streams with rocky substrates were favoured, but this species also occurred in permanent and ephemeral streams on gravel, clay, sand and soil substrates (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Active frogs have been observed all year round, although less frequently during winter months (Czechura and Ingram 1990). Breeding occurred in warm weather after or during heavy rain from late October to May, with a January to March peak (Czechura and Ingram 1990; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001d). Gravid females have been reported between November and May (Straughan and Lee 1966). Amplexus is inguinal and 24-36 eggs (2.2mm diameter) are deposited in gelatinous clumps under rocks or branches in the water (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Watson and Martin 1973; Czechura and Ingram 1990; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001d). Tadpoles, illustrated by Liem and Hosmer (1973) and Watson and Martin (1973), were found throughout the year.	eng
21530	population		In the early 1970s it was considered to be relatively common (McEvoy, McDonald and Searle 1979), but it has not been sighted in the wild since 1979 despite continued efforts to relocate the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The disappearance of the species occurred over a period of three to four years, disappearing from the D’Aguilar Range in late 1975, then from the Blackall Range in late 1978, and finally from the Conondale Range in early 1979 (Czechura and Ingram 1990). There is no information on population size, structure, genetics or dynamics (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). This species is now believed to be extinct.	eng
21530	threats		The reason(s) for the disappearance of this species remains unknown. Like <em>Rheobatrachus silus</em>, logging has occurred in catchments occupied by the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999); however, the effect of timber harvesting on the species has not been investigated. The species’ habitat is currently threatened by feral pigs, invasion of weed species (especially mist flower) and altered stream flow and water quality due to upstream disturbances (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). <em>Taudactylus diurnus</em> was not found in areas along watercourses that were heavily infested with <em>Lantana camara</em> or where the weeds <em>Baccharis halimifilia</em> and <em>Agertina riparia</em> (mist flower) occurred (Czechura and Ingram 1990). The frogs were also absent from streams with very muddy water associated with the activities of feral pigs (Czechura and Ingram 1990). From what is known from similar declines and disappearance elsewhere in the world, the disease chytridiomycosis also must be suspected as a cause for the decline.	eng
21531	conservation		Much of the species' remaining habitat is protected within National Parks and State Forests. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of populations is in place.	eng
21531	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to the ranges west of Mackay, mid-eastern Queensland, from Clarke Range in the north to Finch Hatton Gorge and Credition in the south at altitudes between 200 and 1,000m asl (Ingram 1980; Covacevich and McDonald 1993).	eng
21531	habitat		It occurs along small and large streams in rainforest as well as wet sclerophyll forest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). The immediate streamside habitat is dense rainforest with ferns, vines, palms and epiphytes in the understorey (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). The species inhabits exposed steep, rocky sections of streams especially within splash zones of waterfalls and cascades (McNellie and Hero 1994; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997) and may be found under rocks and crevices or on emergent rocks in the stream (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Tadpoles are found in first to third order streams in large and relatively still mid-stream pools, or partially connected streamside pools (Retallick and Hero 1998). Tadpoles have been observed in the benthic layer among rocks, litter, and detritus (Retallick and Hero 1998). It is a stream-dwelling/stream-breeding species. Males call during the day throughout most of the year with a peak in activity and calling during autumn and the warmer months of the year (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). About 30-50 pigmented eggs are laid though sites of oviposition are unknown (Liem and Hosmer 1973; Retallick and Hero 1998). Retallick and Hero (1998) described the tadpole of the species. Peak-breeding season is between January and May, but tadpoles of all sizes and developmental stages may be found throughout the year (Retallick and Hero 1998). Newly hatched tadpoles have been recorded in April, May and December (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Metamorphosis occurs mainly between November and January (Retallick and Hero 1998).	eng
21531	population		This species was considered common across its range until January 1985 when the first signs of decline (Winter and McDonald 1986) were observed at lower altitudes (i.e., about 400m asl). At higher altitudes the frogs were common until March 1985, but were absent in June of that year (McDonald 1990). A small population was recorded in the south of its distribution in June 1986, but disappeared after that date (McDonald 1990). Tadpoles were present in the southern areas of the distribution until May 1987 (McDonald 1990). After a period of apparent absence, an individual was rediscovered in 1992 (Couper 1992) and the species has subsequently been recorded at nine scattered locations within Eungella National Park (McNellie and Hero 1994; Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998; Retallick 1998). Populations of the species were monitored throughout 1994-1998 along sections of streams at altitudes between 180 and 980m asl (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997; Retallick 1998). Population sizes differed noticeably between sites but appeared to be consistent over time. Interestingly, a significant proportion of each population was recaptured with each visit, which suggests that the population turnover is low, and that the population size is also low. The monitored populations are a large population at Rawson Creek, a medium-sized population at Dooloomai Falls, and a small population at Tree Fern Creek. Frogs at other sites were caught too irregularly to provide useful information. Although the numbers of frogs found at these sites are encouraging and appear to be slowly increasing (Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997), at Dooloomai Falls the current number of frogs remain substantially lower than were recorded before the precipitous population declines in 1985/1986 (McDonald, in Retallick, Hero and Alford 1997). Regular monitoring since 1999 has found low numbers at nine streams and high numbers at one stream. Numbers might have declined at several sites since 1997 but there has been drought for much of this time, which might have reduced numbers and/or activity.	eng
21531	threats		The cause(s) of the decline remains unknown. McDonald (1990) found no obvious evidence that seasonal rarity, over-collecting, drought, floods, habitat destruction, heavy parasite loads or stress due to handling and data collection were responsible for the population declines. Sick and dying frogs have occasionally been encountered (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2002) and it might be that the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, has had an impact on the population (Berger <em>et al.</em> 1998). Studies of tissue samples collected between 1994 and 1998 show that the chytrid fungus had infected some individuals of this species. Forest grazing and trampling of streamside vegetation by livestock have been identified as possible threats to the species, but there is no evidence to support this (Dadds 1999). Cane toads <em>Rhinella marina</em> might be able to penetrate natural habitats along roadways and utilize ponds for breeding, but there is no evidence of this occurring (Dadds 1999) or that this would have a negative impact on the species (R.W.R. Retallick pers. comm.).	eng
21532	conservation		The species' habitat is protected within a national park. It is also listed as threatened in Queensland, and research and monitoring of populations is in place. Given the presence of the chytrid fungus, populations should be monitored carefully.	eng
21532	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the Eungella area of Queensland, west of Mackay, from Cathu State Forest in the north to Crediton in the south, from 180-1,250m asl.	eng
21532	habitat		It is confined to rocky margins of fast-flowing creeks and seepages in montane rainforest in the Eungella area (Rettalick and Hero 1998). Males call from hidden positions. Eggs are laid under rocks in side pools, where the larvae complete their development.	eng
21532	population		It is a common species and is commonly heard, but it is sparsely distributed and rarely seen. There have been no observed declines in the population.	eng
21532	threats		There are several potential threats to this species, but no evidence yet of them affecting populations. These threats are forest grazing and trampling of streamside vegetation by livestock, introduced cane toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) which could penetrate natural habitats via roads and use ponds for breeding, and the chytrid fungus (which has been found in some streams where this species occurs, but there is no evidence that it has infected this species so far).	eng
21533	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected within Kroombit Tops State Forest Scientific Area No 48. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of the populations is in place.	eng
21533	distribution		The distribution of this species, an Australian endemic, is extremely restricted and is confined to nine small (up to 54ha) unconnected patches of rainforest (totalling about 200ha) above 500m asl at Kroombit Tops, south-west of Gladstone (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). It is believed to be a relict species, restricted to Kroombit Tops through habitat fragmentation that disrupted rainforest connections between south and north-east Queensland (Czechura 1986a). Within the rainforest patches, populations are clumped around drainage lines and seepage areas (J. Clarke pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 18km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be 60ha (J. Clarke pers. comm). Surveys in February 1997 and regular surveys since 1998 have greatly expanded the known distribution of the species (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). All potential sites on the Kroombit Tableland and escarpment have been searched at least once during the calling season although additional potential habitat for the species exists on the Dawes Range and Mount Roberts (M. Cunningham pers. comm.). To date, surveys of suitable habitat on the Dawes Range and Mount Roberts have failed to find this species (E. Meyer pers. comm.).	eng
21533	habitat		The species is highly cryptic and mainly associated with Piccabeen Palm (<em>Archontophoenix cunninghamiana</em>) rainforest and boulder scree gullies (Czechura 1986a; Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001c). It is found around rocky shelves and boulders, under rocks. or in deep rock piles near temporary streamlines, seepage zones, and in sheltered rocky scree (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). Most sites have little or no surface water (J.M. Clarke pers. comm.). It has never been observed basking (Czechura 1986b). Activity seems to be initiated by the first heavy falls of rain during the spring-summer period (Czechura 1996a). Calling has been heard between September and March, with calling peaks on warm, wet nights from September to February (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; J. Clarke pers. comm.). Calling is usually most intense at dusk and early evening (Czechura 1986a; Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham 1998; Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999) although the species will call all night and all day if conditions are suitable (J. Clarke pers. comm.). The males usually call partially or completely concealed in rock crevices or under leaf-litter and often exhibit territorial behaviour by segregating themselves along the stream (Czechura 1986a), although the species is frequently recorded away from streams or seepages (J. Clarke pers. comm.). Only three gravid females have ever been found: one (the holotype) in early February, another in mid-January and a third (partly gravid) in early December (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999; E. Meyer pers. comm.). Large unpigmented eggs were visible through the abdominal wall of specimens found in late January and December (Meyer, Hines and Hero 2001c). Eggs, tadpoles and oviposition sites have not been observed (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). It almost certainly does not breed in streams (H. Hines and E. Meyer pers. comm.). Despite regular searching along creeks, tadpoles of the species have never been found (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The large eggs moreover suggest direct or partially direct development (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The species occurs in situations where water is highly ephemeral, or doesn't pool above the ground (e.g., steep rocky slopes) (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Thus, it seems likely that breeding takes place at the bottom of rock piles, which retain water even when there is little or no surface water available (E. Meyer pers. comm.).	eng
21533	population		The only regularly monitored population, in the head of Kroombit Creek, appears to have declined (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species was regularly encountered at this site prior to 1997 but was not heard or seen at this site during the 1997/1998 seasons despite systematic monitoring (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). Data from monitoring transects on Kroombit Plateau indicate a significant decline in numbers over the past 6-7 years, and numbers upstream have declined dramatically since 1997 (E. Meyer pers. comm.). During 1997/1998 little other monitoring work was undertaken in the area but the species was heard calling at three recently discovered sites (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Estimates of population size are highly conjectural with no more than 13 individuals being recorded from one site at any one time, and only three females have ever been recorded (J. Clarke pers. comm.). No information is available on population structure, genetic variation or metapopulation dynamics. Some populations are almost certainly isolated from others but this has not yet been shown.	eng
21533	threats		The apparent low population, isolation and extremely restricted distribution of the species make it highly susceptible to demographic instability, disturbance and extinction. Clarke <em>et al.</em> (1999) and Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham (1998) list five main potential threats to the species: wildfire; domestic and feral animals (as mentioned above); unknown agent(s) responsible for declines of other Queensland frogs; visitor pressure and timber harvesting. Timber harvesting has ceased in the catchments above all known populations (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999), but might be a threat to any new populations on leasehold land. Visitor numbers are low at present, but increased visitation might disrupt breeding or impact on habitat. A high-intensity wildfire in 1994 burned into many rainforest patches used by the species (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). A later flood altered stream hydrology and removed leaf-litter in the area (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). The wildfire might be partially responsible for the decline of the species at the monitoring site (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Modified fire management procedures have now been put in place to reduce the risk of further high-intensity fires (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Chytrid fungus, a disease found by Berger <em>et al.</em> (1998) to be associated with frog deaths and declines elsewhere in Australia and Central America, was isolated from animals of a sympatric species (<em>Litoria pearsonia</em>). Clarke <em>et al.</em> (1999) and Borsboom, Clarke and Cunningham (1998) list domestic cattle, horses and feral pigs as potential threats to the species. The majority of the Kroombit Tops State Forest is under grazing lease and stock pose a threat to the species mainly through the destruction of habitat and fouling of water (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1999). A fence has been constructed to exclude stock, but impacts at the head of Kroombit Creek continue. Feral pigs, which might prey upon this species, destroy habitat and act as potential vectors of chytrid fungus (by carrying infected mud to new sites), and have recently been found at all sites occupied by this species (J. Clarke pers. comm.).	eng
21534	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected within Daintree and Wooroonooran National Parks. It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Research and monitoring of populations is in place.	eng
21534	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, is restricted to five mountaintops from Thornton Peak to Mount Bellenden Ker, northern Queensland, at altitudes of 940-1,400m asl (McDonald 1992; Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998). It does not occur in habitat between the mountaintops. The extent of occurrence of the species is less than 4,700km² (map in McDonald 1992).	eng
21534	habitat		This is a montane specialist, endemic to the Wet Tropics Bioregion (Williams and Hero 1998) occurring along rocky streams in upland rainforest (Liem and Hosmer 1973). It is usually found under rocks and logs beside fast-flowing streams and prefers seepage and trickle areas near streams (McDonald 1992). Individuals recorded in 1996 were found hidden from view in small gaps beneath or between boulders that were at least one metre in diameter (Marshall 1998). One juvenile on Bellenden Ker was captured from under a small rock approximately 30cm in diameter, in the streambed (J.-M. Hero pers. obs.). The species is active all year (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993) and calls mainly during the day (Ingram 1980). Male calling sites are usually under boulders, rocks or roots and individuals may be partially submerged (Ingram 1980; Marshall 1998). Egg masses and tadpoles of the species have not been identified (Liem and Hosmer 1973; McDonald and Alford 1999), but large eggs (1.8-2.4mm diameter), numbering 35-50 have been found in gravid females (Liem and Hosmer 1973). Juveniles were collected in December and May (Liem and Hosmer 1973).	eng
21534	population		The species has undergone a sudden range contraction and had apparently disappeared by October 1991 (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). After a period of apparent absence, five individuals were heard calling in a small, high-altitude tributary of the Mulgrave River, and a further seven individuals were heard calling and one was captured in a small, high-altitude tributary of the Mitchell River, Mount Carbine (Marshall 1998). Further records of the species from the south-east slope of Mount Bellenden Ker (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998) include a single juvenile in February 1998 (Hero <em>et al.</em> 1998) and 3-5 individuals in December 2000 (Freeman 2000; and see Freeman 2003) at approximately 1,400m asl.	eng
21534	threats		The causes of the decline remain unknown. Richards, McDonald and Alford (1993) found no obvious evidence that drought, floods, habitat destruction or pollution by pesticides, inorganic ions or heavy metals were responsible for the population declines. Current research is examining the possibility that disease, such as a viral infection or chytrid fungus, might have contributed to the decline of this species (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). The effects that having very small isolated populations might have on the recovery of the species remain largely unknown, but might include low genetic variability, increased susceptibility to disease and general demographic instability (Hero <em>et al.</em> 2002). Feral pigs are a potential cause of riparian habitat damage and adult frog mortality (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). The activity of feral pigs has been recorded to have increased over the period 1989-1992 in an area previously inhabited by this species (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993). However, there is very little research into the impact of feral pigs on native frog populations (Richards, McDonald and Alford 1993).	eng
21571	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Found in the Malili Lakes system, Sulawesi.	eng
21575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21576	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21577	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21578	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21578	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	1	eng
21579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21580	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Matano, Sulawesi.	eng
21581	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, 2004	To date, this species is not recorded from any protected areas, and the establishment of a protected area for this species coupled with a species management plan (including <em>ex-situ</em> assistance) is needed. The population at Pueblo Nuevo needs to be closely monitored, while the taxonomic status of the population of Los Patos needs further investigation to determine whether or not it represents a distinct taxon.	eng
21581	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, 2004	This species was initially discovered at "San Antonio de los Cobres (24° 11'S; 66° 21'W)", Salta Province, Argentina", but it has now been extirpated from this site. It is currently known with certainty only from a single bog (Pueblo Nuevo) approximately 1.5km from the type locality. A population that morphologically is very close to <em>T. atacamensis</em> has recently been discovered at Los Patos, Salta Province (Barrionuevo and Mangione 2006), which is close to the type locality, but is in a rivulet that does not belong to the same basin of the two other localities. It has been recorded at an elevation of 3,800m asl.	eng
21581	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, 2004	It is wholly aquatic, occurring in high-elevation bog streams with individuals found in burrows in the bog streamsides. The species cannot survive in modified habitats.	eng
21581	population	Esteban Lavilla, 2004	This is a very rare species that is in serious decline. Already extinct at the type locality, it might survive at Pueblo Nuevo.	eng
21581	threats	Esteban Lavilla, 2004	It is threatened by the introduction of predatory fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>), and by water pollution caused by mining activities (gold and copper). In addition, the drainage of mountain bogs and the alteration of watersheds are also threats to this species. Chytridiomycosis was reported for this species by Barrionuevo and Mangione (2006).	eng
21582	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	There are no protected areas near the region where it was collected.	eng
21582	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known only from Ollagüe, in El Loa Province in northern Chile, at 2,000-3,400m asl. It might occur in neighbouring Bolivia.	eng
21582	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species was collected from a hot spring. Its reproductive details are unknown, but reproduction presumably occurs by larval development in water.	eng
21582	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is known only from the type series, which was collected in 1937. Several expeditions to the area in recent years have failed to locate any individuals of this species, which might no longer survive at the type locality, although it could occur elsewhere.	eng
21582	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	There is no information on threats to this species, although chtridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.	eng
21583	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It does not occur in any protected area. Habitat protection and maintenance is recommended, complemented by more general actions to mitigate the effects of water pollution and channelization. Close monitoring of surviving populations of this species is required.	eng
21583	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Zapahuira, Parinacota Province, in extreme northern Chile (18° 20'S; 69° 36'W) at 3,400 m asl, on the western slopes of the Andes.	eng
21583	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The type locality is a small high-altitude stream, close to human villages. It is wholly aquatic, requiring small permanent streams to persist, and its tolerance to habitat destruction is unknown. Reproduction occurs in the water and it has large, free-swimming tadpoles.	eng
21583	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	A small population persisted in 1999, but the species generally appears to be in decline.	eng
21583	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The main threat to the species is water extraction from streams, because local people extract water for cattle ranching and human use; it might also be affected by the impact of cattle on the streams. Although not recorded, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
21584	conservation	Javier Icochea, Edgar Lehr, Daniel Neira, Ulrich Sinsch, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which the species has been recorded. In Chile, there is a need for further survey work to determine the species' current population status. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
21584	distribution	Javier Icochea, Edgar Lehr, Daniel Neira, Ulrich Sinsch, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known from the south-eastern Andes of Perú (Moquegua and Tacna departments), and a single site in Chile: Putre, Parinacota Province, close to the Peruvian border, at 3,300m asl.	eng
21584	habitat	Javier Icochea, Edgar Lehr, Daniel Neira, Ulrich Sinsch, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes. Breeding takes place in streams. It is not known to occur in modified or degraded habitats.	eng
21584	population	Javier Icochea, Edgar Lehr, Daniel Neira, Ulrich Sinsch, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	There is little recent information on the status of this species in Peru. The small Chilean population is declining, and was last seen in 1986; several visits to the site in 1996 and 2003 failed to turn up any records.	eng
21584	threats	Javier Icochea, Edgar Lehr, Daniel Neira, Ulrich Sinsch, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	In Peru, there are some localized threats including habitat loss, through mining and agricultural activities, and small-scale harvesting for food and medicine. In Chile, it is locally threatened by human water consumption and water pollution, leading to the drying out of streams. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. peruvianus</em>.	eng
21585	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas. Close monitoring of the population status of this species is needed.	eng
21585	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only at the type locality on the western slopes of the northern Chilean Andes: Zapahuira, Parinacota Province (18° 20'S; 69° 36'W), at 3,400 m asl. It might occur more widely, but it is likely to have a very small range.	eng
21585	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic species, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes; breeding takes place in streams.	eng
21585	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The population surviving at the type locality is small, and underwent a steep decline following the construction of a nearby dam.	eng
21585	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The only known locality is close to human villages, where the species occurs in streams that have been modified by peasants for agriculture, suggesting some limited ability to adapt to human disturbance. A known major threat to the species has been the construction of the nearby dam for human water consumption. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.	eng
21622	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Jose Núñez, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for greatly improved protection of the Valdivian forests.	eng
21622	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Jose Núñez, 2008	This species is known from the western and eastern slopes of the Coastal Range, in Valdivia and Osorno Provinces, Chile, at 0 -1,000m asl. It is found at 38° 38'S to 40° 53'S, localities that correspond to the <em>Nothofagus</em> region.	eng
21622	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Jose Núñez, 2008	It occurs in fast-flowing streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. The tadpoles are free-swimming and feed by scraping algae off of submerged rocks. It is tolerant of minor habitat destruction.	eng
21622	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Jose Núñez, 2008	It is known from only a few small, disjunct populations, and is uncommonly seen (it was recorded as recently as 2001).	eng
21622	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Jose Núñez, 2008	The main threat to this species is the siltation of streams (which makes it difficult for larvae to feed), caused by afforestation with exotic species and clear cutting.	eng
21623	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, but there is a need for additional protection and maintenance of habitat at sites at which this species is known to occur. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
21623	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known from only a few locations in the Coastal Range, Nahuelbuta, Arauco Province, Chile, between 37° and 38°S. It has an altitudinal range of 800-1,200m asl.	eng
21623	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs in fast-flowing streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. The tadpoles are free-swimming and feed by scraping algae off of submerged rocks. It is tolerant of moderate habitat destruction.	eng
21623	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is extremely rare; extensive fieldwork by several herpetologists within the range of this species from 1992-2002 turned up only a single adult (in 2002).	eng
21623	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The major threat to the species is clear cutting and afforestation with pine plantations, which causes siltation of streams (which, in turn, makes it harder for the larvae to feed).	eng
21624	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Altos de Lircay. Further survey work is needed to better understand the current population status of this poorly known species.	eng
21624	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known from the western slopes of the Chilean Andes from 35° 20'S to 38° 50'S (Altos de Vilches, Talca Province; Cordillera de Chillán, Chillán Province; Ralco, Bío-Bío Province), at an elevation of 1,500-1,700m asl.	eng
21624	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It occurs under rocks along streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Its reproduction is unknown, though it probably takes place by larval development in water.	eng
21624	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is a rare species, and in 1999 was recorded for the first time in some 100 years. It is known from very few individuals from only three localities.	eng
21624	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to conversion of native habitat to pine and eucalyptus plantations, and as a result of forest fires.	eng
21627	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Riverine species.	eng
21628	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
21629	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
21641	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Mostly terrestrial - open woodlands, pastures and marshy meadows.	eng
21642	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Flores-Villela, O. & Howeth, J., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. T<em>. coahuila</em> is included in CITES Appendix I. <br/> <br/>The entire range of the species falls within the 843 sq. km Cuatro Cienegas Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN Category VI), established in 1994. Provided no further major engineering works impact the ecological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, and the protected area regulations are adhered to, the species and its habitat should be relatively secure; however, recent and ongoing developments as well as plans for further development involve broad-scale ecological processes (water extraction, agriculture, infrastructure development) that will continue to impact the habitat in the foreseeable future. Such development must be managed and their impacts minimized as much as possible. Conservation efforts should be focused on halting habitat loss, especially in the western portion of the basin where the remaining population shows high levels of genetic distinctness (Howeth in litt., 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em> conservation breeding has been sufficiently successful that several zoo assurance colonies now exist, and small numbers of surplus animals have transferred to dedicated hobbyists, eliminating any need for collection and smuggling of wild animals to meet very limited hobbyist demand. <br/> <br/>An updated population status report and further biological research and status monitoring are priority actions.	eng
21642	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Flores-Villela, O. & Howeth, J., 2007	Restricted to the Cuatro Ciénegas basin, Coahuila, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Dodd 2001).	eng
21642	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Flores-Villela, O. & Howeth, J., 2007	The Cuatro Cienegas basin is an hourglass-shaped intermontane basin of about 50 km long and 8 to 24 km wide (about 600 sq. km), its floor being at 720 m altitude. Much of the central part of the basin is marshy (maximum 60 cm water depth), with dry sandy slopes leading up the rocky valley slopes. Many of the marshes and ponds are spring-fed. A number of deep (up to several metres) ponds occur within the marshy area, and retain crystal-clear water throughout the year. About half the bottom is covered by dense submerged aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Chara</em>), the other half is bare sediment. Waterlilies grow in the shallow parts, and thick stands of cattails (<em>Typha</em>) and <em>Eleocharis</em> fringe the ponds. Water temp is about 27 to 29°C. Ponds may be separated from dry nesting areas on the slopes by substantial distances (several 100 m) of flat marshy grassland. (Webb and Legler 1960). In contrast to other <em>Terrapene</em> species, <em>T. coahuila</em> is fully aquatic. Within the Cuatro Cienegas basin, <em>T. coahuila</em> occurs mainly in the shallow marshy areas, but has also been encountered in the river and clear deep pools (Dodd 2001). <br/> <br/><em>T. coahuila</em> is largely a resident species that does not disperse widely, as indicated by both natural history studies of this aquatic species in a desert environment, and the significant differences in genotypic composition of the populations at different sites in pairwise comparisons, indicating limited gene flow between sites (Howeth in litt. 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/><em>T. coahuila</em> feeds on almost equal proportions of aquatic and wind-blown insects and their larvae (54%) and plant matter (46%) (review by Dodd 2001). <br/> <br/>Male Coahuila box turtles can reach up to 16.8 cm CL, females remain a little smaller (Dodd 2001). The size and age at maturity have apparently not been reported. <br/> <br/>Average clutch size in captive animals varies between 3.8 and 5.0, and several clutches are produced per year (Tonge 1987, Cerda and Waugh 1992). The maximum reproductive output per female is about 11 eggs per year, but for about one-third of examined females it is as low as 6.8 eggs/year (Brown 1974 in Dodd 2001).	eng
21642	population	van Dijk, P.P., Flores-Villela, O. & Howeth, J., 2007	The only available population estimate is that of Brown (1974), who calculated a density of 148 <em>Terrapene</em> per hectare of marsh during 1964-66. By the beginning of the 1990s it was believed to be uncommon, and a mark-recapture study in 2002-2003 of about two thirds of suitable <em>T. coahuila</em> habitat marked about 750 turtles with 50 to 80% recapture rates, extrapolating to a total population size at the order of about 2,500 adult animals (Howeth in litt. 26 Feb 2007).	eng
21642	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Flores-Villela, O. & Howeth, J., 2007	The Cuatro Cienegas basin has been extensively altered in its hydrology by digging canals and groundwater pumping for local and regional agricultural irrigation, and for drinking water (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007, Flores-Villela in litt. 25 Jan 2007, Hendrickson in litt. 27 Feb 2007). The western side of the basin is experiencing particularly rapid aquatic habitat loss; Laguna Grande was completely dry in 2006.  According to current residents of Cuatro Ciénegas, and Dr. Dean Hendrickson, this was the first time anyone had seen it dry (this encompasses at least 50 years, conservatively) (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>In 2002, surveys of box turtle sites by a team including Brown (who studied the species 34 years previously) located the marshes where Brown worked in the 1960s. The survey indicates that the species has disappeared from about 40% of its former extent of occurrence, while remaining wetland areas within the area of occurrence have become less suitable (or unsuitable) as habitat for <em>T. coahuila</em> as a result of desiccation and altered vegetation structure (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Roads, railroads, pipelines and other infrastructure for industrial, logistic, tourism and recreational purposes have impacted the ecosystem, and some of these environmental impacts continue. In the last decade it is known there has been tourist development, and farming expansion continues (Reuters 2007). Roads and fires have created direct-mortality impacts (Howeth in litt. 24 Jan 2007). There is a potential threat from the global pet trade (at least partly met by captive breeding, see Conservation Actions). Hybridization is not an issue for <em>T. coahuila</em>, in contrast to its sympatric turtle species.	eng
21644	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Treeless plains, grasslands, brushlands.	eng
21646	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
21646	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. A variety of non-governmental organisations and private individuals work on in-situ conservation efforts (species and habitat), and ex-situ animal rescue and captive breeding. The species is included in CITES Appendix II and EU regulation EEC No.338/97 prohibits import into the EU unless captive-bred. The species is protected under domestic legislation in Algeria, Tunisia, and many other countries. Populations of the varying taxa, subspecies and evolutionarily significant units need to be confirmed as occurring in adequately protected areas. <br/>Population monitoring of threatened populations would be appropriate, as would further taxonomic, ecological and conservation-focused research. Assessment of taxonomic status is first priority for the taxon <em>flavominimaralis</em>, and many other subspecies. For the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em>, improved environmental management and awareness has reduced habitat degradation pressures somewhat in the coastal habitats in recent years (Mazanaeva 2002:63). Mazanaeva (2002:65) called for the establishment of several modest-sized protected areas, particularly for the sand dune areas which still hold relatively good populations and offer good conditions for reproduction; she also recommended population and natural history studies and monitoring, as well as ex-situ conservation breeding and re-introduction, and creating awareness among local human population.	eng
21646	distribution		This species ranges from the Mediterranean basin, east to Iran, with populations in North Africa, southern Europe and West Asia. It occurs from near sea level to 1,900m altitude (in Morocco - Lambert 1983, in Buskirk<em> et al</em>. 2001:136). In North Africa it ranges from western and northern Morocco, through northern Algeria and northern and central Tunisia to northwestern Libya, with an isolated population in Cyrenaica in northeastern Libya. In southern Europe it is known from isolated populations in southern Spain, Mallorca (Spain), west-central Sardinia (Italy), Mal di Ventre (off western Sardinia, Italy), and from the eastern Balkans where it is distributed more continuously in southeastern Serbia, eastern Macedonia, most of Bulgaria, eastern Romania, northeastern Greece and European Turkey. There is an isolated population on the Black Sea coast of southern Russia, extending into northwestern Georgia. Records from Ukraine require confirmation. Genetic analysis suggests that the Spanish populations are introductions from northern Africa in historical times (Alvarez <em>et al</em>. 2000), and all Italian populations are also presumed to be introduced. There are scattered records (probably of introduced individuals, not established populations, and therefore not mapped - Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:136) from southern France, mainland Italy and the Balkan region (outside the main range). In West Asia it occurs widely in Turkey (except the northeast), south through northern and western Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel, western Jordan, east through northern Iraq, much of Iran, and southern Turkmenistan, and north through much of Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Georgia, and southern Russia (in Dagestan). It ranges very close to Afghanistan and might occur there. For further information, see Iverson (1992), Buskirk <em>et al</em>. (2001), Perala (2002c), and Pieh (2002). The range of the possible synonym <em>Testudo flavominimaralis</em> is not clear. The type locality is stated as "North Africa. Precise biotope and range not known. Believed to include Libya." It was restricted to "Libya" by Highfield (1990) (see also Buskirk <em>et al</em>. (2001)).	eng
21646	habitat		This species inhabits a variety of dry, open scrubby habitats, meadows and pastures, sand dunes, forest, heathlands, and open habitats through its wide range, generally on a sandy-calcareous substrate (Bayley and Highfield 1996, Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001). Areas of strongly salty substrate and sparse vegetation, as well as accumulations of large rocks and steep slopes, tend to be avoided (Alekperov 1978, Kuzmin 2002:90). <em>Testudo graeca</em> is a generalist vegetarian, feeding on a wide variety of leaves, buds, flowers, seeds and fruits of grasses, herbs and shrubs, as well as small invertebrates such as snails, arthropods, and carrion. It has been recorded as dispersing plant seeds. Mature females usually produce two or three clutches (extremes one to four) of about two to four eggs (extremes one to seven) (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:153). The taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em> inhabits undisturbed deciduous forests, dispersing into more open areas in summer, including the vicinity of human habitation. Preferred areas are open forest of mixed low-growing Oaks (<em>Quercus</em>), <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Artemisia</em>, <em>Rhus</em>, <em>Pistacia</em> and <em>Jasminum</em> with a well-developed herbaceous layer, as well as more open patches. Inhabited areas are below 600, rarely up to 800m alt, and preferably between 50 and 300m, with a preference for south-facing gentle middle and lower slopes. It feeds on a variety of herbs and shrub leaves, and small items of animal origin (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001: 150-152; Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). The taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em> inhabitsed a wide variety of habitats, including open lowland forests, hill and mountain slopes and a variety of other open habitats like steppe and semi-desert and some anthropogenic landscapes (Bannikow 1951, in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:150-155, Mazanaeva 2002). As a result of loss of prime habitat to agriculture and infrastructure development, tortoise populations are now focused on marginal habitats such as anthropogenic habitats (orchards, vegetable gardens), riverine floodplain areas and coastal sand dunes (Mazanaeva, 2002:63). The taxon feeds on herbs, predominantly legumes, with some compositae, fruits and berries, and snails and insects also taken (Bannikov, in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:151). Females mature at a CL over 16 cm, at an estimated age of 12-14 years, and can produce up to 3 clutches of about 5 (range 2-8) eggs per year (Bannikov, Nadjafov <em>et al</em>. in Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:155).	eng
21646	population		The abundance of this species varies greatly across its range. In Algeria it was historically very common in the coastal region, and surveys during the period 1976-1981 encountered tortoises at rates varying between 0.1 to 10 tortoises per man-hour searching (summary in Lambert 1995). In Libya, tortoises were considered to be quite common in vegetated areas of Cyrenaica, but there was no status data from Tripolitania (Lambert 1995: 11). Morocco traditionaly supplied the European pet trade, peaking at several 100,000 animals annually in the 1970s. It was reported common in 1958, but populations were reported as depleted in northwestern and central Morocco by 1969 and 1981. Based on encounter rates, populations in some areas of Morocco were estimated to have suffered over 90% decline over the period 1900-1984 (review in Lambert 1995). The Souss Valley population is declining as result of past pet trade and ongoing habitat degradation (Bayley and Highfield 1996). It was historically common on the Tunisian plains, but some collection for international and regional trade has been documented; encounter rates suggest that populations have been depleted somewhat (review by Lambert 1995). There is a good healthy population of the species on Sardinia. In Spain the population protected in the Donana region is stable, but the populations in southeastern Spain and Mallorca continue to decline (Lambert 1995, Andreu 2003). The taxon <em>Testudo anamurensis </em>was apparently fairly easily encountered during a visit to southern Turkey by Bruekers (1997), suggesting that it is not particularly rare. Populations of in Israel were reported to be healthy and substantial, with no indication of decline (Lambert 1995:13). The taxon <em>Testudo ibera</em> has disappeared from land brought under irrigated agriculture in Azerbaijan, and there has been an overall in decline in former Soviet Union (Kuzmin 2002:93). The taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em> reaches densities of an average of 0.5 individuals per hectare in optimal habitat; in more densely forested areas the density declines to 0.2-0.4 indiv/ha (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985). Populations are dominated by mature adult animals, with apparently low recruitment, but population structure remained stable between 1985-1999 (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985, Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). At a range of 8250 km2, this suggests a maximum population of 40,000 animals. For the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em>, Mazanaeva (2002:63) documented declining population densities and loss of range during the period 1991-2001, particularly in the northern part of historical distribution, noting that no tortoises could be found now where previously they were commonly seen. Comparison with range maps from 1977 and before indicate up to 80% loss of area of occurrence in Dagestan (data in Mazanaeva 2002:60-62). Most surveyed localities had densities of less than one individual tortoise per 5 ha, although a few localities had significantly higher densities and two localities had densities of about 1.5 tortoises per ha (Mazanaeva 2002:62). Historical observations from the 1930s-1950s (reviewed by Mazanaeva 2002:60) suggest high densities (on the order of a dozen or more animals/ha). No data are available on range or population density trends of this taxon outside Dagestan.	eng
21646	threats		Habitat degradation and loss is widely cited as a significant threat (Lambert 1995, Bayley and Highfield 1996 - Morocco).<br/>Past pet trade collection has involved very large numbers of animals and has been indicated as a major factor in population depletion, particularly in Morocco and Algeria (Lambert 1995). Recent collection for pet trade, largely domestic but including offering animals to European tourists, has been recorded from Tunisia (Highfield and Bayley 1996). In Morocco, tortoise shells were used in the manufacture of tourist souvenirs (Highfield and Bayley 1996). Release of captive tortoises from different populations into <em>T. graeca</em> habitat represents dangers of genetic pollution as well as introduction of pathogens (Andreu 2003). For the taxon <em>Testudo nikolskii</em>, concern has been expressed that the population structure dominated by large mature animals indicates compromised recruitment and therefore future stability of the taxon, but this appears to be a survey artefact as a monitored population proved stable over a decade (Inozemtsev and Pereshkolnik 1985, Leontyeva <em>et al</em>. 2002). Historically, the taxon <em>Testudo pallasi</em> in Dagestan was exploited commercialy, their meat and eggs being used for human consumption as well as feed for pigs and to supply factories producing food for salmon farms. While no quantitative data are available on this exploitation, historical data indicate that harvest, especially of females, was intensive and and led to near-total extirpation in some regions (Bannikov 1951, in Mazanaeva 2002:60). Tortoise habitat in Dagestan is focused on the Primorskaya Lowland and adjacent foothill region; this region was used for human resettlement during the 1960-1980s, followed by expansion of residential infrastructure. Deforestation, intensive land use, use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides, overgrazing by cattle, extensive plantations, and sand mining, have been factors in loss of tortoise habitat (Mazanaeva 2002:63). Road killing, human commensal predators [mainly dogs but also crows and others] killing tortoises and destroying nests, and collection of tortoises as living souvenirs by tourists, have further been implicated as significant treats to Dagestan tortoises  (Mazanaeva 2002:63-64). Natural predators, a significant cause of mortality of juveniles and adults (Buskirk <em>et al</em>. 2001:150-155), have probably have been 'subsidised' by anthropogenic changes to tortoise habitat, allowing higher predator density and predator impact on tortoises.	eng
21648	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P. & Cheylan, M., 2004	There are conservation programs in France, Spain and Italy. Various protected areas throughout most of the species' range. Clarification of the taxonomic status of hercegovinensis and boettgeri, and field assessments of their conservation status are highly desirable The taxon is included in CITES Appendix II and Annex A of EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 338/97.	eng
21648	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P. & Cheylan, M., 2004	This species occurs in patchily in Mediterranean Europe, from coastal northeastern Spain, through southeastern France, Mallorca (Spain), Menorca (Spain), Corsica (France), Sardinia (including Asinara Island) and Sicily (Italy), the coastal plains of peninsular Italy, coastal Croatia, coastal Bosnia-Herzegovina, coastal Montenegro, central and southern Serbia, inland to southwestern Romania, much of Bulgaria, Macedonia, nearly all of Albania, the Greek mainland plus islands from Corfu to Zakynthos, and European Turkey. Records from Cyprus are likely to be in error (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>The distribution of the subspecies is as follows: <br/><br/><em>T. h. hermanni</em>: northeastern Spain, southeastern France, the Balaearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), and Sardinia (Italy).<br/><br/><em>T. h. boettgeri</em>: the Balkan region. <br/><br/><em>T. hermanni </em>ssp undetermined : Italian Peninsula, Sicily.	eng
21648	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P. & Cheylan, M., 2004	It prefers open patchy evergreen Mediterranean oak forest, but in its absence inhabits maquis, garigue, dune scrub and maritime grassland, as well as agricultural and railway edge habitats (Stubbs 1989b:35). Females produce one or more clutches of 3-5 eggs per year. Both sexes mature at about nine to 12 years of age, the males maturing a little younger (Stubbs 1989b).	eng
21648	population	van Dijk, P.P., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P. & Cheylan, M., 2004	The abundance of the species is regionally variable and is presented below by subspecies. Overall it is declining in the west of its range, but it is more stable in the Balkans.<br/><br/><em>T.h.hermanni</em>:<br/><br/>France: It is restricted to the Maures and Esterel hill areas, where some 10 populations persist at present, at densities up to 11 animals per hectare (Stubbs 1989b; Cheylan 2001). Historically it was known from the French Pyrenean foothills (disappeared 1960-70s) and the Iles d'Hyeres (disappeared mid-19th Century). On Corsica it is mainly in the eastern and southern coastal regions, plus scattered populations near Corte and along the northern Coast (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Spain: It is restricted to the northeastern Mediterranean coast, plus Mallorca and Menorca. <br/><br/>Italy: It is concentrated on the coastal regions, up to 400-500m, to 800m in the south, rarely more than 50 km inland. It is widespread on Sicily and Sardinia.  Localised population extinctions have been documented on the mainland and certain islands (Ballasina 1995; Cheylan 2001: 189). <br/><br/>Malta: Its historical status is uncertain, but it is definitely not present any more.<br/><br/><em>T.h. boettgeri</em>:<br/><br/>Croatia: It is restricted to the narrow costal strip and some of the islands (Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Bosnia-Hercegovina: It inhabits the coastal area and Neretva valley of Hercegovina, up to 500m altitude (Cheylan 2001, and references therein). <br/><br/>Serbia and Macedonia: It is widely distributed. <br/><br/>Albania: It occurs nearly throughout the country. <br/><br/>Greece: It occurs nearly throughout the country, but it is scarce in the drier southern parts (where it is replaced by Testudo marginata); it occurs up to 140 m (Cheylan 2001, and references therein). Population density may reach up to 60 animals per hectare in exceptional cases, but 1-5 animals per hectare is more usual (Stubbs 1989b). <br/><br/>Turkey: it is restricted to the European part of Turkey, where it is in decline due to agricultural development (Baran and Atatur 1997; Cheylan 2001). <br/><br/>Bulgaria: It is historically throughout the country below 1300m, locally up to 1400m; it has declined extensively due to anthropogenic factors throughout, and has been locally extirpated, particularly in plains and valleys (Beshkov 1993). <br/><br/>Romania: it is restricted to the southwestern region.	eng
21648	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P. & Cheylan, M., 2004	The main threats are: loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and intensification; agro-chemicals and other pollution impacts; urbanisation and tourist infrastructure development; wildfires; collection for pet trade; genetic pollution; road mortality; and potentially disease impacts from released pet tortoises (Stubbs 1989b; Willemsen 1995). In Serbia the shell is used in traditional medicine.	eng
21651	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
21652	conservation	Perälä, J., 2003	Whereas <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is covered by international conservation policies (the species is included in CITES Appendix I), and although it is protected by Egyptian law (Baha El Din 1994; Anonymous 2000), the species is unprotected in Libya (Anonymous 2000; S. Baha El Din 2002). However, recent information (M. Baha El Din 2002; S. Baha El Din 2002) suggests that the Libyan Environment General Authority and local academics show interest for tortoise conservation in Libya, and that they are looking forward to cooperating with the Egyptian based TortoiseCare program. Despite protection of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> by law in Egypt, the law is not implemented at all times (Baha El Din 1994; Anonymous 2000). S. Baha El Din (2002) indicates that TortoiseCare will continue to seek funding for future activities for the conservation of <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, and particularly for the development of a species action plan that takes into consideration the conservation needs of the species on a global level, including both Egypt and Libya.  <br/> <br/>Populations from Sinai and Israel, attributed traditionally to <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, were shown to comprise a separate species (Perälä 2001). However, the limited data available suggest that the geographically isolated subpopulation of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> from Tripolitania might additionally be taxonomically distinct. It is essential that local subpopulations are not mixed in any circumstances, including possible breeding projects, whether in or ex situ. The use of captive or confiscated stock of unknown origins or parentage in conservation programs should be discouraged at all times for the same reasons. <br/> <br/>Data for uses and harvest levels are largely known for Egypt only (Baha El Din 1994) where monitoring is continuing (Anonymous 2000). No data are available for Libya. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures are going on in Egypt (M. Baha El Din 2002) but not yet in Libya. More research is needed also in Egypt, such as a systematic search and identification of habitat pockets where tortoises might still exist. <br/> <br/>Protected areas exist in Egypt, including the one in which two individuals were recently found, and more are needed according to Baha El Din (1994), Anonymous (2000) and M. Baha El Din (2002). The motives for establishing new protected areas especially for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> are not entirely clear as the species is already effectively extinct in Egypt. Reintroduction projects have been currently stalled in Egypt (M. Baha El Din 2002). <em>T. kleinmanni</em> may occur in Kouf National Park in NE Libya (Schleich 1987) where one specimen was found 20 years ago (FMNH collection data). Other Libyan reserves in areas of tortoise activity are nonexistent (S. Baha El Din 2002). Protected areas would greatly enhance the survival prospects of the entire species if trade can be stopped.	eng
21652	distribution	Perälä, J., 2003	Populations east of the Nile delta in Egypt and in Israel formerly assigned to <em>T. kleinmanni</em> have been shown to encompass a separate species <em>Testudo werneri</em> (Perälä 2001). Consequently, this assessment does not take into account information based on the above geographical region traditionally incorporated into papers on <em>T. kleinmanni</em> (Perälä 2002). <br/> <br/>Historically, the range of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> runs along the Mediterranean coastal strip up to about 90-120 km, exceptionally further, towards inland in Libya (where disjunct populations exist in Tripolitania and in the Cyrenaican Peninsula) and more or less continuously from northeastern Libya to the Western Desert and the north coast in mainland Egypt (Lortet 1883, 1887, Loveridge and Williams 1957, Buskirk 1985, Iverson 1986, 1992, Baha El Din 1994, Fritz and Buskirk 1997, Perälä 2001). The range has possibly been much greater in the past, and localities further inland or in the west, such as Siwa Oasis and the Tripolitanian range respectively, may represent the last remnants of a more extensive distribution in historical times which could have decreased with the natural aridification and expansion of the Saharan desert. Thus <em>a priori</em> treatments of isolated occurrences of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> as human introductions, or as extralimital, should be viewed with caution.	eng
21652	habitat	Perälä, J., 2003	<em>T. kleinmanni</em> populations in northern Egypt are historically associated with desert and semi-desert habitats characterized or dominated by compact sand and gravel plains with scattered rocks and shallow sandy wadis, although populations were also known to occur in or adjacent to coastal salt marsh habitats (Lortet 1887, Baha El Din 1994). The majority of the species' primary habitats in Egypt are currently severely degraded, or already completely destroyed (Baha El Din 1994).  <br/> <br/>In Cyrenaica, northeastern Libya, the species occurs in shrubby sand and stone desert habitats (coast) and semidesert habitats with Artemisia association (further inland), according to Schleich (1987, 1989). Schleich <em>et al.</em> (1996) consider the species to occupy generally the margins of sandy, or dry stony, habitats. <em>T. kleinmanni</em> can apparently also be found (together with <em>Testudo graeca</em> species complex tortoises) in more vegetated Mediterranean subtropical shrub evergreen forests, as can be inferred from Schleich (1989) who cites Suluntah as a locality. It is however not clear how typical this habitat association is for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in northeastern Libya, thus it is probably most appropriate to describe the species' primary habitat preference in Cyrenaica as Mediterranean scrub. Habitats are still in fairly good condition in Libya, but there are signs of extensive overgrazing in many parts, particularly in Cyrenaica, and ploughing for growing cereals is a common practice, and trends and plans for habitat utilization are unclear (S. Baha El Din 2002). According to fieldwork by A. Pieh (pers. comm.), in Cyrenaica habitat is locally still very good near Suluntah, and reasonably well preserved in the wadi system near Darnah. However, habitat on the whole coastal stretch between Darnah and Tubruq is severely degraded possibly due to extensive, and continuing, nomadic activity in that area. In Tripolitania habitat degradation due to human expansion is very evident on the coast east of Al Khums around Leptis Magna, whereas habitat in more southerly areas towards the inland near Gharyan "looks better" (A. Pieh, pers. comm.). Further, according to Pieh (pers. comm.), the coastline between Al Khums and the Tunisian border features occasional spots of undisturbed habitat.	eng
21652	population	Perälä, J., 2003	Currently, the species is effectively extinct within Egypt. Baha El Din (1994) surveyed the whole former range of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in Egypt and concluded that the species disappeared completely within a period of approximately 10 to 20 years (between the early 1970s and the early 1990s). This time frame is estimated to represent around, or slightly more than, one generation length for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, taking into consideration that maturity is probably reached at about 10-20 years in the wild as is the case in several other species of testudinids living in semiarid or arid conditions (e.g., Woodbury and Hardy 1948, Brushko 1977, review in: Kuzmin 2002). In 2001, two wild tortoises were found in a protected coastal area in the Western Desert, the first record for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in Egypt in over twenty years (M. Baha El Din 2002). This finding, although significant <em>per se</em>, does naturally nothing to change the fact that <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is effectively extinct in Egypt.  <br/> <br/>The species can still be found in  two distinct, and geographically disjunct regions in Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica). <br/> <br/>Judging by data produced in Iverson (1992), Buskirk (1985) and Baha El Din (1994), the species' extent of occurrence in Egypt, possibly up to the early 1970s, is estimated as having been around 67,860 km². According to available data (Buskirk 1985, Iverson 1986, 1992, Fritz and Buskirk 1997, Perälä 2001, Pieh, pers. comm.), the small northwestern (Tripolitanian) range encompasses an estimated extent of occurrence of around 5,500 km². Nothing is known about local population densities but A. Pieh (pers. comm.) concluded <em>in situ</em> that the coastal subpopulation has to be severely fragmented because of a mosaic of badly degraded habitat. The estimated extent of occurrence for present Cyrenaican population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is around 11,100 km², as measured using a minimum convex polygon and locality data provided by S. Baha El Din (2002), and Pieh (pers. comm.). Some 40 years ago the Cyrenaican <em>T. kleinmanni</em> population had possibly an estimated extent of occurrence of 50,250 km² as calculated using data from Buskirk (1985), Iverson (1992), and Perälä (2001), as well as assuming that the distribution was continuous from Cyrenaica to western Egypt. The isolated locality of "Sirtica" (Loveridge and Williams 1957) some 300 km west of Qaminis (Gheminez) in western Cyrenaica was not taken into account. <br/> <br/>Because no fieldwork based data on the area of occupancy exist for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>, the area of occupancy is  defined as 10% of the area of extent of occurrence, yielding estimations of total past area of occupancy 12,361 km² and total present area of occupancy 1,660 km². <br/> <br/>20 years ago, Mendelssohn (1982) estimated  the global population size of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> (including <em>T. werneri</em> from Sinai and Israel) at less than 10,000 individuals, including immature tortoises. This figure seems to be an underestimation regarding current estimates and statistics on trade. Mendelssohn (1982) also was not aware of the existence of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in northwestern Libya, which was therefore not taken into account in his assessment. Although no population density assessments based on local field data have been published for <em>T. kleinmanni</em> in mainland Egypt and Libya, densities are thought to be very low (Buskirk 1985, Schleich 1989, Baha El Din 1994, M. Baha El Din 2002, S. Baha El Din 2002, A. Pieh, pers. comm.). Locals in Libya stated in April 2002 that populations of the species still exist in many parts of Cyrenaica, but that they have declined notably in recent years due to collection (S. Baha El Din 2002). Perälä (2002) estimates the past total world population at 55,624 individuals, substantially more than the estimate by Mendelssohn (1982). The total present world  population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> is estimated at 7,470 individuals (Perälä 2002), which  is considerably less than the number of recorded animals collected in Libya for the pet trade in the 1990s. Out of the existing global population around 75% (5,000 individuals) would be mature adults if Mendelssohn's (1982) data on population structure for <em>T. werneri</em> is applicable for <em>T. kleinmanni</em>. According to the above estimate, the global population of <em>T. kleinmanni</em> would have declined by 86.6% (or by 48,152 individuals) in less than three generations. Out of these, at least 10,680 individuals have been recorded from the illegal pet trade in the 1990s alone (Baha El Din 1994, Ventura 1995, Pieh, pers. comm.). Because relatively good habitat still exists in Libya it is possible that the earlier inferred reduction in the extent of occurrence  primarily reflects pressure from collection and illegal trade, rather than habitat degradation (in Libya).	eng
21652	threats	Perälä, J., 2003	In addition to agricultural (including overgrazing), developmental and industrial pressures, <em>T. kleinmanni</em> was very heavily affected by the (eventually illegal) national and international pet trade that began using the Libyan stock after Egyptian subpopulations were harvested to extinction (Baha El Din 1994).  <br/>The brochure of Tortoise Care (The Egyptian Tortoise Conservation Program) (Anonymous 2000) as well as S. Baha El Din (2002) list the illegal trade in <em>T. kleinmanni</em> of Libyan origin within Egypt as continuing. Trade in <em>T. kleinmanni</em> also exists within Libya itself (Fritz and Buskirk 1997; Pieh. pers. comm.; S. Baha El Din 2002), with potentially devastating consequences for the remaining world population. According to locals, collection pressure is higher in the east than in the west. Tortoises have a low annual biomass production resulting in a high degree of sensitivity to population disturbance and consequent poor recovery abilities from such activities as trade collection (Iverson 1982).	eng
21653	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Lymberakis, P. & Böhme, W., 2004	The species is included in CITES Appendix II,  Annex A of EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 338/97, and Greek domestic legislation. Hobbyist captive breeding appears to provide sufficient offspring to meet much of the demand. Establishment of effectively protected areas containing viable populations of the species would be desirable.  Research is needed on taxonomy (especially with regard to the status of <em>T.m. weissingeri</em>), population dynamics and conservation biology.	eng
21653	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Lymberakis, P. & Böhme, W., 2004	This species occurs mainly in northwestern, central and sothern Greece, and adjoining extreme southern Albania, including a number of islands (Kyra Panagia, Valaxa, Paris, Salamis, Sfakythiria, Spetsopoula, and possibly Korfu), as well as northeastern Sardinia and satellite islands, plus Isola di San Pietro off southwestern Sardinia. Sardinian occurrences may be the result of human introduction in the Classical era (see Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 300).  It is also introduced on Crete. The subspecies <em>T.m. weissingeri</em> occurs in west Taygetos mountains of the Peloponnesus, southern Greece, and small area that stretches for about 50 km North-South, but only 2-5 km East-West (Bour, in Artner, 200: 34). The species may have been introduced to western Anatolia, Turkey, however this requires confirmation (Sindaco <em>et al</em>., 2000).	eng
21653	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Lymberakis, P. & Böhme, W., 2004	It characteristically inhabits 'Phrygana' and Macchia scrub, dense thorny scrub among rocky outcrops, but also a range of other vegetation types, from coastal dunes to olive groves, small-scale agricultural landscapes and damp areas. It ranges up to 1300m, but mostly occurs below 800m. It generally prefers drier, hotter areas than the sympatric <em>T. hermanni boettgeri</em>. (Willemsen 1995b; Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Clutches consist of four to seven eggs, perhaps up to 15; females produce one to three clutches per year (review by Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Animals require about eight to 14 years to reach maturity (review by Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Testudo m. weissinge</em>ri inhabits both Phrygana (Spartan shrubby rocky areas) as well as more lush habitats such as olive groves with dense herbaceous ground cover (Artner 2000;  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 309-311). This taxon ranges from near sea level to about 1,300m altitude (Mueller1908, Bour 1996, in Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 311), and feeds on a variety of herbs (Bour 1996, in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 312). Its clutch size is a maximum of four, perhaps six eggs (Bour 1996, in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 314; Artner 2000).	eng
21653	population	van Dijk, P.P., Lymberakis, P. & Böhme, W., 2004	It is generally considered to occur at low densities (Stubbs 1989c). Willemsen (1995b) and Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. (2001) note that the preferred habitat of the species is very hard to penetrate and survey, thus records of low-density occurrence might pertain to marginal habitats. A population in Sardinia that was perceived as intensively collected in the 1950s persists at 'normal' density (Stemmler, Fritz, in Bringsoe <em>et al</em>., 2001: 318). Populations of <em>T.m. weissingeri </em>are apparently dense, as Bour (1996) examined 384 animals and Artner (1996) encountered 30 animals in four hours, and 80 animals in two days. Bour (1996) recorded a male-dominated population structure, and very few juveniles (juveniles of <em>T. marginata</em> are very cryptic) (data summarised in  Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001: 317). It is a very rare and localised species in Albania (Haxhiu, 2004).	eng
21653	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Lymberakis, P. & Böhme, W., 2004	The main threat is wildfires. It is less impacted by agricultural land conversion and practices than the sympatric <em>T. hermanni boettgeri </em>due to <em>T. marginata</em>'s preference for stony habitats (Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tourist infrastructure development eliminates some habitat. There is some mortality recorded from fires and trampling of juveniles by livestock, and destruction by farmers as perceived crop pests (Bringsoe <em>et al</em>. 2001). Some collection for (illegal) pet trade might still take place.	eng
21661	conservation	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas in India (for example, Gir N.P., Panna N.P., Pench N.P., and Kanha Tiger Reserve). It is totally protected by law on Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is listed on CITES Appendix III (Nepal only).	eng
21661	distribution	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The Four-horned Antelope is distributed widely, but in scattered populations, over most of India, from the Himalayan foothills to peninsular India (Rahmani 2001). A few may remain in Nepal.	eng
21661	habitat	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The habitat and ecology of the species are not well known. It is found in well-wooded undulating or hilly areas and never far from water; they are solitary and browse and graze (Rahmani 2001).	eng
21661	population	Mallon, D.P., 2008	No robust estimates of the global population are available. Numbers were estimated at >10,000 (Mallon and Kingswood (2001).	eng
21661	threats	Mallon, D.P., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction, through the clearance of scrub and forest for agriculture.	eng
21663	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from the type locality near Woodbush, Limpopo Province. Searches have also been conducted in the Haenertsburg and Wolkberg areas.	eng
21663	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Presumed to have inhabited open montane grassland.	eng
21663	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Known only from the type locality.	eng
21663	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Afforestation with alien pine species and excessive burning of the the montane grassland habitat may have caused or contributed to the disappearance of this species.	eng
21689	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
21689	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is present in the tropical east-central Atlantic only around Ascension Island.	eng
21689	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is generally reef associated, inhabiting shallow insular waters around rocky shores and rocky reefs to depths of 30 m, and also in seagrass beds (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).<br/><br/>Like its eastern Atlantic congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and shows distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). Its eggs and larvae are planktonic.	eng
21689	population	Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is reported to be very abundant (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
21689	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
21690	conservation	Schlitter, D. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is presumably present in some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
21690	distribution	Schlitter, D. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is found in scattered locations in central Kenya and northern Tanzania.	eng
21690	habitat	Schlitter, D. & Boitani, L., 2008	This species is generally associated with dry and moist savanna habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitat.	eng
21690	population	Schlitter, D. & Boitani, L., 2008	It appears to be a common species.	eng
21690	threats	Schlitter, D. & Boitani, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21691	conservation	Taylor, P.J., Coetzee, N. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is presumably present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species is needed. Populations should be monitored to record any changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
21691	distribution	Taylor, P.J., Coetzee, N. & Boitani, L., 2008	This largely southern African species has been recorded from western Angola in the north of its range, southwards through much of Namibia and Botswana to northwestern parts of South Africa.	eng
21691	habitat	Taylor, P.J., Coetzee, N. & Boitani, L., 2008	This arboreal species is generally associated with Acacia bushland habitats. Small families of these animals form nests within tree hollows and forks.	eng
21691	population	Taylor, P.J., Coetzee, N. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common, but patchily distributed species.	eng
21691	threats	Taylor, P.J., Coetzee, N. & Boitani, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21692	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.	eng
21692	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This Subsaharan species ranges widely from southern Ethiopia and southern Somalia in the north, through East Africa, to southern parts of The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and much of Zambia. From here it ranges south to northeastern South Africa and Swaziland.	eng
21692	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	This is an arboreal species associated with Acacia bushland. Small families of these animals form nests within tree hollows and forks.	eng
21692	population	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
21692	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Boitani, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
21693	conservation	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional field surveys within the species recorded range, and potential areas of suitable habitat outside of the range, are needed to locate possible populations of <em>Thallomys shortridgei</em>. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species	eng
21693	distribution	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Thislittle-known taxon was described from the south bank of the Orange River in South Africa, from about Upington west to Goodhouse in the Northern Cape (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
21693	habitat	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is no information available on the natural history of this species. As with other members of the genus, it is presumably an arboreal species associated with trees such as <em>Acacia</em>, and builds nests in hollows or tree forks (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
21693	population	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known. It has not been trapped recently despite intensive trapping activities in and around the type locality (N. Coetzee and P. Taylor pers. comm.).	eng
21693	threats	Boitani, L. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
21694	conservation	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira E., 2008	This species occurs in three National Parks within its range.	eng
21694	distribution	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira E., 2008	This species is confined to the cerrado of central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
21694	habitat	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira E., 2008	This rodent occurs in open grasslands areas, in campo cerrado transition zones (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). Its distribution is patchy.	eng
21694	population	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira E., 2008	The species is very difficult to capture in surveys, although it is commonly found in owl pellets (Bonvicino and Marinho-Filho pers. comm.). The species is rare relative to other species in the genus (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
21694	threats	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira E., 2008	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
21695	conservation	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species occurs in at least three national parks.	eng
21695	distribution	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species is confined to the cerrado of central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21695	habitat	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of habitat, including open grasslands, cerrado, and wet grasslands (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
21695	population	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira, E., 2008	The species is common (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
21695	threats	Marinhio-Filho, J., Bonvicino, C. & Vieira, E., 2008	Although habitat destruction is occurring, it is not considered a major threat to this species (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
21702	conservation	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas (eg. Kahuzi-Biega National Park). Research is needed into the distribution, natural history, abundance and threats to this species. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.	eng
21702	distribution	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Endemic to the montane regions of the Albertine Rift Valley. Recorded from a comparatively small area between 02 N and 03 S from East Ruwenzori, Uganda; Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Idjiwi Island in Lake Kivu, both in The Democratic Republic of the Congo. It might be present in Rwanda, although this requires verification. The altitudinal range is around 1,800 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
21702	habitat	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is associated with thickets in montane primary and secondary forests. It is not known if the species can persist outside of forested areas.	eng
21702	population	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Population size is uncertain. It is rarely collected and very little is known about this species.	eng
21702	threats	Dieterlen, F. & Schlitter, D., 2008	Forest habitats within the range of this species are threatened by logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
21703	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas (eg. Kahuzi-Biega National Park). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat within the Albertine Rift.	eng
21703	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Restricted to the mountain areas (above 1,800 to 3,500 m asl) of the Albertine Rift Valley in Burundi, Rwanda and The Democratic Republic of the Congo. Recorded from comparatively small area between 01°S and 03°S from the Virunga volcanoes and Kahuzi-Biega National Park west of Lake Kivu in The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda, and from northwestern Burundi. It is possibly present in Uganda, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
21703	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Preferred habitat is thickets in open areas of montane secondary forests (and occasionally in primary forests).	eng
21703	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is generally rare but may be quite common in suitable thickets	eng
21703	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The montane forests of the Albertine Valley are under threat, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses, and logging operations.	eng
21706	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The draft recovery plan (USFWS 1999) listed the following needed conservation actions: 1. Protect existing populations and habitat. 2. Restore populations to former habitat. 3. Survey to determine species distributions. 4. Monitor populations. 5. Conduct necessary research, including studies on demographics, population genetics, and habitat use. 6. Develop and implement incentive programs, and an outreach and education plan. Protection of waterfowl habitats may allow this species to survive in the Delta and Sacramento Valley regions (Hansen and Brode 1980, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
21706	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Historically the range included much of the floor of the Central Valley (Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys) of California, from Butte County in the north to Kern County in the south, at elevations from near sea level to 122 m (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). The species apparently is now extirpated from most of the range in the San Joaquin Valley (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, USFWS 1993, Stebbins 2003). Extant populations are distributed in portions of the rice production zones of Sacramento, Sutter, Butte, Colusa, and Glenn counties; along the western border of the Yolo Bypass in Yolo County; and along the eastern fringes of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta from the Laguna Creek-Elk Grove region of central Sacramento county southward to the Stockton area of San Joaquin County (Hansen, cited by USFWS 1993). As of 1992, there were 13 known populations as follows (population = cluster of locality records in a contiguous habitat): (1) Butte Basin, (2) Colusa Basin, (3) Sutter Basin, (4) American Basin, (5) Yolo Basin-Willow Slough, (6) Yolo Basin-Liberty Farms, (7) Sacramento Basin, (8) Badger Creek-Willow Creek, (9) Caldoni Marsh, (10) East Stockton-Diverting Canal and Duck Creek, (11) North and South Grasslands (extirpated?), (12) Mendota (extirpated?), and (13) Burrell-Lanare (probably extirpated) (USFWS 1993). These population largely coincide with historical riverine flood basins and tributary streams. Populations 1 to 4 are associated with rice production zones; populations 5 to 13 mainly are in small, isolated patches of valley floor habitat.	eng
21706	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The habitat of this highly aquatic species includes primarily marshes and sloughs, sometimes low-gradient streams, ponds, and small lakes, with cattails, bulrushes, willows, or other emergent or water-edge vegetation usually present and used for basking and cover (California Department of Fish and Game 1990, USFWS 1993, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Because of the direct loss of natural habitat, this snake now relies heavily on rice fields in the Sacramento Valley, but it also uses managed marsh areas in various national wildlife refuges and state wildlife areas (USFWS 1999). "Essential habitat components consist of: (1) adequate water during the snake's active season (early spring through mid-fall) to provide adequate permanent water to maintain dense populations of food organisms; (2) emergent, herbaceous wetland vegetation, such as cattails and bulrushes, for escape cover and foraging habitat during the active season; (3) upland habitat with grassy banks and openings in waterside vegetation for basking; and (4) higher elevation upland habitats for cover and refuge from flood waters during the snake's inactive season in the winter" (from USFWS 1999). The Giant Garter Snake is absent from large rivers and other waters with populations of large, introduced, predatory fishes, and from wetlands with sand, gravel, or rock substrates (see USFWS 1993). Riparian woodlands do not provide suitable habitat because of excessive shade and inadequate prey resources (Hansen and Brode 1980).	eng
21706	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	As of 1992, there were 13 known populations (population = cluster of locality records in a contiguous habitat) (USFWS 1993). Not all of the known populations have good viability. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand. Estimates of population size for three local populations in the mid-1990s were in the low 100s (USFWS 1999). The species is now apparently extirpated or very rare in most of the former range in the San Joaquin Valley. Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s yielded some previously unknown localities and several cases of extirpation or at least severe population declines (USFWS 1993). The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably continuing to decline, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
21706	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Loss and fragmentation of wetland habitats have extirpated the Giant Garter Snake from the majority of its historical range (USFWS 1999). Loss and degradation of habitat remain the greatest threat to the survival of the species (USFWS 1999). Activities that may degrade habitat include maintenance of flood control and agricultural waterways, weed abatement, rodent control, discharge of contaminants into wetlands and waterways, and overgrazing in wetland or streamside habitats. Factors that may be significant in some areas include predation by and competition with introduced species, parasitism, and road kills (USFWS 1999, Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 2002). USFWS (1993) listed threats as habitat loss (e.g., through large-scale urbanization in the American Basin, dewatering of habitat through water diversions and impoundments), flooding (in rice production areas), contaminants (e.g., selenium and salinity in North and South Grassland areas), agricultural and vegetation maintenance activities (e.g., on levees and canal borders), vehicular traffic (on levees and roads along canals), livestock grazing, and introduced predators (e.g., house cats, bullfrogs, perhaps bass). See USFWS (1993) for information on threats to specific populations.	eng
21707	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	At least a few and probably several occurrences are protected.	eng
21707	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The range of this species extends from coastal California (United States) in the vicinity of Salinas, Monterey County, south to the vicinity of El Rosario in northern Baja California (Mexico) and disjunctly south as isolated populations to the La Presa region of southern Baja California. It occurs at elevations from sea level to around 2,450 m asl (8,000 feet) (McGuire and Grismer 1993, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
21707	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This highly aquatic and amphibious snake is generally found in or near permanent fresh water, often along streams with rocky beds bordered by willows and other riparian vegetation, including mountain slopes and desert oases (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In the southern part of its range it is restricted to palm oases.	eng
21707	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is represented by at least several dozen extant occurrences or subpopulations (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Grismer 2002). The total population size is unknown but surely is at least several thousand. This snake is common in suitable habitat in northwestern Baja California (Grismer 2002). A decline has occurred primarily in urbanized areas of California. The species has disappeared from about 40% of the historical range in California, mostly since 1945 (Jennings and Hayes 1994), who mapped dozens of locations with presumed extirpated populations. However, it is probably the most common snake in southern California away from urban areas, and it is not unusual to see several individuals at a time in a given spot. Some populations in Baja California appear to be relatively stable, but others are decreasing, and it might be extirpated in San Ignacio and San Fernando Velicata. Overall, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size currently may be declining but probably not at a rate greater than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
21707	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	In California, this species has declined due to loss and degradation of habitat by urbanization and flood control, excessive livestock grazing, predation by introduced animals, loss of food resources, drought, and direct killing by increasing numbers of humans in the habitat (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Predators include introduced bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) (Hovey and Bergen 2003), but the level of threat posed by these amphibians is uncertain. In northern Baja California the species is impacted by changes to aquatic systems due to urbanization and agriculture. In southern Baja California, it is being affected by human disturbance, the introduction of alien species, and the impact of dams in its palm oasis habitat.	eng
21714	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	Endemic to Kenya. Found in the Teita Hills, Bura Hills and Vuria Peak (<em>Thapsia</em> spp. have been recorded in all the forests sampled at Taita (C. Lange, pers. comm.). All the specimens were conchologically similar and it is believed to be <em>Thapsia buraensis</em>, however, further anatomical work is needed for full confirmation of status).	eng
21714	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	There was a good relationship between presence of live snails in the least disturbed forest areas. These areas were characterized by huge trees, abundant dead fallen wood on the ground, deep leaf litter, high percentage of canopy cover and moist ground, and the presence of dense moss.	eng
21714	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Human induced habitat Changes like forest fragmentation. Rate of decline of habitat since 1990: rough estimate of about 40% in Mbololo, Kasingau, Ngangao and approx. 60–80% in the rest of the sampled forests (C. Lange, pers. comm.).	eng
21721	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. inopinata</em> is present in Braulio Carrillo National Park, Altos de Campana National Park, and probably others along cordilleras of Costa Rica and Panama. Studies are needed to establish population trends and to evaluate possible threats.	eng
21721	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Thaumatoneura inopinata</em> occurs in the following locations: <br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Carrillo (Calvert 1901-08)<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Juan Viñas, 760 - 1,000 m (Calvert 1914)<br/>Costa Rica: Cartago Province, Rio Reventazón, 760 m (Calvert & Calvert 1917)<br/>Costa Rica: San José Province, Rio Claro on La Palma-Carrillo Road, 1200 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela Province, 10 mi N Varablanca, 850 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela Province, Virgen del Socorro, near Cariblanco, 800 m (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Limón Province, Infernillo, Reventazón, 1,000 m (Ris 1918)<br/>Panama: Chiriquí Province (old literature)<br/>Panama: Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)	eng
21721	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults and larvae of <em>T. inopinata</em> are closely tied to spray zone of waterfalls, from small to rather large ones. Larvae crawl on rock surfaces with a thin layer of organic mud, kept wet by spray protected from falling water (Calvert 1914). Known elevation range 760 - 1,200 m, at the lower end of montane elevations.	eng
21721	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. inopinata</em> is present in small numbers where it occurs but detailed population numbers and trend are not known.	eng
21721	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation, typically in forested habitats, is a threat that continues to affect <em>T. inopinata</em> as the removal of trees leads to alteration of stream habitats.  In the future, global warming  is likely to lead to the drying up of smaller streams to the point of eliminating waterfalls.	eng
21727	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
21727	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Theodoxus maresi</em> is restricted to upper reaches of a few rivers in Morocco (headwaters of the Oued Fès, Imin Ifri near Meknès, Oued Oum Rbia and Oued Tessaout) and in northwest Algeria (but this is old data so it is very uncertain if it is still here). <em>Theodoxus</em> sp. used to be found further downstream but due to human activity it is now restricted to headwaters.	eng
21727	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in headwaters.	eng
21727	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
21727	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by water pollution, and abstraction. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat.	eng
21728	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
21728	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a Maghrebian endemic restricted to Morocco and Algeria. It is becoming rare over its whole range. In Morocco it has been recorded in the last 20 years in seven areas. Its recent distribution in Algeria unknown, and is probably very localised.	eng
21728	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is restricted to cold pure water of springs and brooks, free from sediment or any kind of pollution. Only lives in certain places in springs on the lower side of rocks.	eng
21728	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
21728	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by pollution and invasive species. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution.	eng
21733	conservation	Reid, J.W., 1996	Occurs in a protected area.	eng
21733	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Known only from the Florida Evergaldes National Park	eng
21734	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Confined to Lake Victoria.	eng
21736	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	All known specimens of this snake appear to have been collected in the vicinity of a hot spring at around 4,270 m elevation.  The species is not found in the water, but is rarely more than half a mile from the site (Wall 1907, Malnate 1953).	eng
21741	conservation	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	The isopod population and the Sedillo Spring habitat have undergone regular monitoring since November 1995.  The species is included on the US Federal Endangered list (since 1978).  The Socorro Isopod Propagational Facility (SIPF – Socorro) was developed in 1992 to establish a more secure isopod population and also to provide an opportunity for captive propagation and research.	eng
21741	distribution	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	<em>T. thermophilum</em> is restricted to Sedillo Spring, Socorro County, New Mexico.	eng
21741	habitat	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	This species occupies areas of Sedillo Spring which were modified in the twentieth century to supply water to the city of Socorro.  The habitat consists of two small concrete pools with an inter-connecting pipe, and a narrow stream below the pools.  <em>T. thermophilum</em> are most active during crepuscular hours.  Their diet includes blue-green algae, detritus, aquatic insect larvae, and conspecifics.	eng
21741	population	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	The effects of human changes to the spring have resulted in many bottlenecks in the population. In August 1988, the native population became extinct due to occlusion of a valve control system for surface discharge.  This flow was re-established in September of that year and a captive-bred population from the University of New Mexico was introduced to the spring.  Controlled propagation of isopods commenced in 1990 at the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facility (SIPF), Socorro.  Additional captive populations now exist at the Albuquerque Biological Park (zoo), New Mexico Tech (Socorro) and Laboratory, Department of Game and Fish, Santa Fe, New Mexico.	eng
21741	threats	Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group, 1996	The main threats to this species include disruption of the thermal groundwater discharge of Sedillo Spring.  The results from a variety of causes: adventitious woody root growth, surface mining practices, anthropogenic modification, and human vandalism.  Over the last ten years, vandalism has become the main threat to the species.	eng
21744	conservation	Gippoliti, S. & Hunter, C., 2008	Listed as Vulnerable, Class A under the African Convention, and is listed on Appendix II of CITES. A few Gelada bands range in the tiny Simien Mountains National Park (the only area of Gelada habitat which is currently formally protected). In addition there are proposals for a new Blue Nile Gorges National Park and Indeltu (Shebelle) Gorges Reserve that would protect larger numbers. The latter would protect the unnamed subspecies. There is a need for further research on the infra-specific taxonomy, especially the distribution ranges of the subspecies.	eng
21744	distribution	Gippoliti, S. & Hunter, C., 2008	This species is restricted to high grassland escarpments in the deep gorges of the central Ethiopian plateau, in the Tigre, Begemdir, Wolle, and Shoa Provinces between 1,800 and 4,400 m asl. The Blue Nile Gorge and the upper Wabe Shebelle valley (east of the Bale massif) mark the western and southeastern boundaries of the range, respectively.<br/> <br/>There are possibly three subspecies: <em>T. g. gelada</em> and <em>T. g. obscurus</em> occur in the Begemdir, Tigre, and Wollo and Shoa provinces, west of the Rift Valley, while an undescribed subspecies is found along the Wabi-Shebeli River in the Arussi province, east of the Rift Valley. <em>T. g. gelada</em> is found north of Lake Tana and west of the Takkazzé River, while <em>T. g. obscurus</em> is found south of Lake Tana and east of Takkazzé River.	eng
21744	habitat	Gippoliti, S. & Hunter, C., 2008	This species is associated with rocky gorges, precipices and moorland. Feeds mainly on the flat margins of high grass plateaus, known locally as high Wurch or Puna grassland steppe, with <em>Agrostis</em> and <em>Festuca</em> grasses and giant <em>Lobelia</em> groves. Gelada bands consist of 30-260 animals, making up 2-30 one male groups. Bands keep within 2 km of the escarpment edges, where they retreat at night or if alarmed. As a result, ranges are linear, encompassing as little as 1-3 km² for a band's core area (although their year-long range can cover 70 km²). Steep cliffs provide sleeping roosts. Geladas are poor tree-climbers and are almost entirely terrestrial, spending 99% of their time on the ground. This is partly a consequece of its extreme dietary specialization as a grazer.<br/><br/>Geladas primarily feed on the leaves of grasses. In addition, during dry seasons when there is heavy overgrazing by livestock, or when Gelada bands are very concentrated, subterranean stems and rhizomes are also excavated. Fruits and invertebrates are eaten opportunistically, and cereal crops may be taken where agriculture encroaches onto the geladas' habitat.	eng
21744	population	Gippoliti, S. & Hunter, C., 2008	Geladas are widespread throughout their present range but, partly as a result of the droughts affecting the Horn of Africa in the 1980s, they are not as abundant as in the 1970s when an aerial survey of the central Ethiopian highlands yielded an estimate of 440,000 for the total population. An alternative estimate based on known ground densities and the total area of gorge face on the plateau yielded a figure of 880,000. C. Hunter (pers. comm.) considers that these estimates may now be too high, and that a better guesstimate would be approx. 200,000 animals. Surveys in a number of areas give overall densities varying between 15 and 60 animals/km², although densities of animals within home ranges commonly exceed 70/km².	eng
21744	threats	Gippoliti, S. & Hunter, C., 2008	The overall range of the Gelada is being eroded as a result of agricultural expansion due to the increasing human population densities on the central highlands. Deforestation and soil erosion are serious problems throughout the area. Grazing pressure is intense, and competition from domestic livestock has forced the Gelada to remain on the less productive gorge slopes in some areas. Gelada densities are considerably lower in heavily populated areas than in undisturbed habitats. Geladas are also shot as crop pests, and have been trapped as laboratory animals in the past (e.g., 1,200 animals were imported into the USA between 1968-1973). In the past, adult numbers may have been reduced as a result of selective shooting for their capes (to be made into ceremonial costumes used by the Oromo tribe). There are historic records of capes being made into fur hats for tourists, but that certainly no longer occurs, and it is now extremely difficult for any tourist to leave the country with items made from Gelada skins.	eng
21745	conservation	Stanisic, J., 1996	<em>Thersites mitchellae</em> has been officially protected by New South Wales law since 1997 (listed as Endangered under the New South Wales <em>Threatened Species Conservation Act</em> 1995). A recovery plan for the species has been prepared and was approved by the New South Wales government in July 2001 (Murphy 2002).	eng
21745	distribution	Stanisic, J., 1996	<em>Thersites mitchellae</em> has a restricted distribution, occurring only on the coastal plain of far northeastern New South Wales, Australia. The species' historical extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 400 km², while the current area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 5 km² (Murphy 2002).	eng
21745	habitat	Stanisic, J., 1996	The species occurs in lowland subtropical rainforest and swamp forest habitats (Murphy 2002).	eng
21745	threats	Stanisic, J., 1996	Much of the surviving habitat is small and severely fragmented. Much of this is at risk from development (Murphy 2002).  Additional threats have been identified including habitat degradation by fire, exotic weeds, and predation of snails by introduced rats (Murphy 2002).	eng
21769	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
21769	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Andean forests, about 1,500 to 4,000 m, (B. Patterson pers. comm.) from far west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998) and east Colombia, through Ecuador and Peru, to west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997).	eng
21769	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	A terrestrial and arboreal species in primary forest, in Ecuador it has been taken in subalpine rain forest (Voss, 2003).	eng
21769	population	Pacheco, V. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Not as abundant as other species in the genus. In Ecuador it is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21769	threats	Pacheco, V. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Deforestation occurring throughout its range is an important threat to some populations.	eng
21770	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	It occurs in aseveral protected areas in Ecuador (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
21770	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of Ecuador and southernmost Colombia (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). The species occurs from 1,300 to 4,000 m (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
21770	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It occurs inside shrubby paramo/forest ecotone, in subalpine rainforest, and in dense thickets of secondary growth at the bottom of a narrow ravine surrounded by pastures. It is terrestrial, and is frequent along the wet margins of small streams, also occurs near narrow trails through mossy debris and damp leaf litter (Voss, 2003).	eng
21770	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is frequent and sometimes common in moist habitats at high altitudes in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Colombia it may be rare (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21770	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	Habitat loss is occurring across the range although this is not a major threat at this time (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21771	conservation	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	There are two protected areas within the potential range of this species but its presence there has not been confirmed. Further studies are required on the habitat, ecology and distribution of this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21771	distribution	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known only from three localities with an elevation range from 2,800 m to 3,800 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21771	habitat	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species, but found in moist montane habitats including forest and paramo.	eng
21771	population	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21771	threats	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	The spread of illicit crops across the known range is a potential threat, but the effects on the species are unknown (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21772	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas within its range (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
21772	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the upper Andean elevations in Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 2,000 and 3,500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
21772	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Habitat at Risaralda Department is characterized by steep terrain with patches of disturbed (selectively logged) primary cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
21772	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species was one of the least frequently captured during a survey in the Risaralda Department, Municipio Santuario, Vereda El Campamento (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
21772	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Habitat loss occurs in the area, although this is not a major threat (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21773	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is possibly occurs in Santuario Tabaconas-Namballe, however, this is currently unconfirmed (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21773	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the northwest Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21773	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is terrestrial and nocturnal. It occurs in montane forest, primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21773	population	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is locally common to frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21773	threats	Pacheco, V. & Tirira, D., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21774	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, like Manu National Park in Peru, and Madidi National Park in Bolivia (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21774	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes from south Peru to west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 2,774 m (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21774	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in montane forest, disturbed areas, primary, and secondary forest (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21774	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is frequently captured (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21774	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21775	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in Abiseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21775	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,000 to 3,650 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21775	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is terrestrial and nocturnal. It occurs in cloud forest and close to paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21775	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is locally common to frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21775	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21776	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in Otishi and Manu National Parks (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21776	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of southeast Peru, about 2,750 to 4,300 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21776	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent has been trapped along streams with dense scrubby undergrowth broken by montane meadows (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It is possibly arboreal (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21776	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is locally frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21776	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21777	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in a Tama National Park, Venezuela and Colombia border.	eng
21777	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the Paramo de Tama in the extreme north of Cordillera Oriental, east Colombia, and the extreme south of Cordillera de Mérida, west Venezuela. It occurs above 2,000 m. The known extent of occurrence is approximately 3,300 km²; however, the species is likely to occur much more widely.	eng
21777	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This is a nocturnal, terrestrial and omnivorous species. It is associated with moist habitats and cloud forest.	eng
21777	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	The species is rare.	eng
21777	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Although the species occurs in a national park the area is not well protected and is subject to deforestation, illicit crops (coca plantations), border disputes and guerilla activities.	eng
21778	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species has been recorded in Yanachala Chemillén National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21778	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,550 to 3,250 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21778	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in montane forest. It is terrestrial and nocturnal (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21778	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is locally common to rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21778	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21779	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs close to (but has not been recorded in) the Zona Reservada Cordillera Colán, a protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21779	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in north to central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 3,000 to 3,350 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21779	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in montane forest and is terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21779	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is locally common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21779	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21780	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in one protected area, Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21780	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21780	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest, primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21780	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is locally frequent (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21780	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21781	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21781	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from a restricted region in La Paz Department, Andes of northwest Bolivia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,610 to 3,300 m (J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21781	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is terrestrial. This rodent occurs in montane forest and paramo. It is present in primary and second growth forest (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21781	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is locallly common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21781	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21782	conservation	Pacheco, V., Ochoa, J. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It occurs within several national parks and others protected areas.	eng
21782	distribution	Pacheco, V., Ochoa, J. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental in Andes of Colombia and Cordillera de Mérida adjacent west Venezuela. It occurs at 1,500 to 3,800 m in Venezuela (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
21782	habitat	Pacheco, V., Ochoa, J. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is found in cloud forest and disturbed secondary forest, scrub habitat; it is nocturnal and omnivorous (J. Ochoa and B. Rivas pers. comm.). In Colombia it occurs more frequently in cloud forest (Gómez-Laverde <em>et al.</em>, 1987).	eng
21782	population	Pacheco, V., Ochoa, J. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is relatively common (V. Pacheco and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21782	threats	Pacheco, V., Ochoa, J. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is affected somewhat by deforestation although it is tolerant to a degree of disturbance.	eng
21783	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park although this is not effectively protected (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). Further surveys are required on ecology and population status.	eng
21783	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the extreme northeast of Colombia in Sierra Nevada Santa de Marta (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is found between 2,200 to 3,600 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21783	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in high montane forest and paramo (M. Gómez-Laverde and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21783	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Little is known about this species. It was collected only in small numbers although potential habitat has not been adequately surveyed (M. Gómez-Laverde and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21783	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Deforestation for illicit crops (e.g. coca) is an important threat (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21784	conservation	Rivas, P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21784	distribution	Rivas, P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Departments Boyacá and Cundinamarca, above 2600 m, central Colombia (Gómez-Laverde 1997; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21784	habitat	Rivas, P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It prefers paramo habitat but also occurs in Andean montane forest. It is nocturnal and omnivorous. It does not occur in unnatural grassy areas created for pasture (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21784	population	Rivas, P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Relatively common species (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21784	threats	Rivas, P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Areas outside the protected areas are affected by habitat conversion to unnatural pasture which the species can not survive in, although much of this occurs in areas which are not suitable for it (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21785	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21785	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the southeast of Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,440 to 2,900 m (Emmons, 2001). It has been found in Yanachaga Chemillen, Manu, Machu Picchu and Vilcamba localities (Solari <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
21785	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is probably arboreal and terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21785	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21785	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are effected by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21786	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas, as Madidi National Park, in Bolivia, and Manu National Park, in Peru (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21786	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the south central of Peru (Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1993) and west central Bolivia (La Paz Department; Anderson, 1997) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 3,600 m (V. Pacheco and J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21786	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is present in the Yungas area; it habits in montane forest. This rodent is terrestrial and nocturnal, and may be arboreal as well (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21786	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is rare (Pacheco and Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
21786	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21787	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in serveral protected areas (D. Tirira and M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
21787	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005) and there are some records in southern Colombia, Andes de Nariño, Galeras volcano (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 4,300 (D. Tirira and V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21787	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in Subalpine Rain Forest, in Polylepis thickets in the paramo, and in the shrubby paramo/forest ecotone. It is mainly terrestrial, uses runways through moss, and prefers banks of small streams (Voss, 2003).	eng
21787	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21787	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are effected by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21788	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in one protected area in Ecuador (Cajas National Park) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21788	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of south Ecuador and northwest Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,300 to 4,000 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21788	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Little is known about this species. It is nocturnal and occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21788	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	In Ecuador it is rare to uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.). In Peru it is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21788	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21789	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species in known from one protected area (Antisana Ecological Reserve) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21789	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of north Ecuador (Pacheco, 2003).	eng
21789	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. This is nocturnal and terrestrial and occurs in montanen forest, close to paramo  (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21789	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21789	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21790	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected area, but it could be present in Zona Protegida Alto Mayo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed into ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.	eng
21790	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known just from the type locality: Peru, Amazonas Department, Goncha, 2591 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21790	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in montane forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21790	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is rare, known only from one record (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21790	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21791	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in one protected area (Antisana Ecological Reserve).	eng
21791	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of north central Ecuador (Pichincha Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21791	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21791	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is uncommon (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
21791	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21792	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.	eng
21792	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in isolated localities in northwest Peru (Pacheco, 2003), contra Anderson (1993) and Musser and Carleton (2005) that extend its distribution to west and central Bolivia (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21792	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo, and can be found in primary and second growth forest and moderately disturbed areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21792	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is locally common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
21792	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
21793	conservation	Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Soriano, P., Aguillera, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park; it is likely to occur in other protected areas. Further surveys on distribution and ecology are required.	eng
21793	distribution	Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Soriano, P., Aguillera, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This species occurs in the Mérida Andes, ca. 1,600 to 2,400 m, west Venezuela (see Linares, 1998) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
21793	habitat	Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Soriano, P., Aguillera, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	This terrestrial and omnivorous species is poorly known. It is associated with moist habitats and cloud forest.	eng
21793	population	Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Soriano, P., Aguillera, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	It is a rare species (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
21793	threats	Rivas, B., Ochoa, J., Soriano, P., Aguillera, M. & Pacheco, V., 2008	Areas outside protected areas are affected by deforestation. The type locality is now an urban area (B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
21799	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
21799	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the western United States and northern Mexico, from southern Oregon through Baja California, eastward through the central Great Basin, and southward to the lowlands of northern Mexico.	eng
21799	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in a range of habitats, from desert scrub to high elevation coniferous forests. Within these habitats it occurs in open areas with deep soils. This species is also found in agricultural areas.	eng
21799	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common. Densities have been reported up to 29.6 individuals/acre (natural habitat) and 62 individuals/acre (alfalfa fields) (Jones and Baxter 2004).	eng
21799	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	No major threats. However, it is considered an agricultural pest.	eng
21800	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
21800	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found from south-central Arizona and south-west New Mexico, south to Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
21800	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in habitats ranging from low elevation desert grassland and scrubland, through woodlands of intermediate elevation, to high elevation meadows.<br/><br/>This rodent is vegetarian, like other pocket gophers, and relishes both below-ground and aboveground plant parts. Individuals are active year-round, constructing burrows under snow at high elevations during the winter months. Individuals of both sexes live in self-excavated, exclusive-use burrow systems, and surface mounds of fresh earth provide clear evidence of their presence in an area. Populations typically contain a larger number of adult females than adult males, and males are usually larger in size than females. <br/><br/>The breeding season varies greatly throughout the species’ range. Separate winter and summer peaks were noted in populations from the Mexican state of Coahuila, but animals in southern Arizona bred only during the late winter and early spring. Litter size averages about 4 to 5 pups, with a maximum of around 8 to 10. Longevity is probably less than 2 or 3 years, and most young probably are taken by predators before they reach reproductive maturity. Common predators include hawks and owls, snakes, weasels, badgers, bobcats, and coyotes (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
21800	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is locally abundant and common, although many populations are probably small and may be ephemeral (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
21800	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Although this species is limited in its distribution, it appears to have no immediate threats to its survival (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
21809	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is protected at the state level in Montana. There are no known populations in captivity or in protected areas in the wild (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
21809	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the western United States; in eastern Idaho, southwestern Montana, western Wyoming, and northeastern Utah (Thaeler, 1972).	eng
21809	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species occurs in open sagebrush, grassland plains, and subalpine mountain meadows. It prefers soils that are shallower and stonier than those preferred by the partially sympatric <em>Thomomys talpoides</em> (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are probably similar to <em>T. talpoides</em> which has a gestation period of 19-20 days and produces a litter of four to seven young. This species is primarily solitary except during the breeding season. Predators include coyotes, foxes, and owls. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Diet includes roots, tubers and some surface vegetation. Primarily fossorial, they forage in underground burrows, also above ground at night or on overcast days. They carry food in their cheek pouches and store it in underground chambers.	eng
21809	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is considered rare to common within its restricted range.	eng
21809	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known immediate threats to this species.	eng
21810	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	At least several occurrences of the western pocket gopher are in national parks and other protected habitats.	eng
21810	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a relatively limited distribution along the Pacific coast of the United States from Washington to northern California (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The overall range is comprised of multiple disjunct population segments (Verts and Carraway, 2000).	eng
21810	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in open grassy areas, including pastures, prairies, savannas, and open early seral woodlands and forests (Verts and Carraway, 2000, Stinson 2005). This species is fossorial, inhabiting deep, humic volcanic soils (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In this species, gestation lasts about 28 days. Females produce one litter of four to six young each year. Young are born in March-June. Pocket gophers are primarily solitary. Predators include owls, coyotes, and bobcats. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Diet includes roots, tubers, bulbs and some surface vegetation. Forages from underground burrows. May also forage on the surface of the ground at night or on overcast days. Collects food in cheek pouches and stores it in underground storage chamber.	eng
21810	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000, with the great majority in Oregon. In Washington, most surviving populations are small (<100) and appear to be isolated from other populations (Stinson, 2005). The total of all remaining populations of <em>T. mazama</em> in Washington may be between two thousand and five thousand individuals. <br/><br/>Based on 1,394 specimens, Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped roughly 200 collection sites in the central portion of the range in Oregon. About 27 populations remain in Washington (Stinson, 2005). In Washington, additional surveys are needed to document remnant populations in the rapidly developing areas on historical prairies of Thurston and Pierce counties, as well as in other regions of the state (Stinson, 2005).<br/><br/>Densities of up to 60/hectare have been reported (Verts and Carraway, 2000) for this species.	eng
21810	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In Washington, habitat loss to succession, agriculture, and development has eliminated most of the prairie habitat of this species in the south Puget Sound region, and habitat continues to be lost to residential development and other human uses (Stinson, 2005). Existing habitat is being degraded by heavy grazing of pastures and the invasion of Scotch broom and other weedy non-native plants (Stinson, 2005).<br/><br/>Stinson (2005) reported the following additional information for Washington populations of <em>Thomomys mazama</em>. Pocket gophers may not persist in residential areas due to persecution by trapping, poisoning, and predation by cats and dogs. Gravel mining affects gopher habitat on some private lands. Most occupied habitat on public lands is affected by non conservation uses including military training and recreation. Gopher populations at airports can be affected by the development of airport-related facilities and businesses, and the management of airport grassland. The small size and isolation of most remaining populations of <em>Mazama</em> pocket gopher put them at risk of local extinction, and without increased protection, all but <em>T. m. melanops</em> in Olympic National Park could go extinct. Historically, local gopher populations probably exchanged genetic material by individuals occasionally dispersing through intervening oak woodlands and forest; prairie patches where gophers went extinct would eventually be recolonized. Today, these prairie patches are increasingly surrounded by roads and suburbs that are inhospitable to dispersing gophers. Populations that become extinct are unlikely to be recolonized without reintroductions.	eng
21815	conservation	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, J., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
21815	distribution	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, J., 2008	This species occurs throughout Sulawesi and on the adjacent islands of Buton, Mangole, the Talaud and Sangihe island groups, and probably Morotai, all in Indonesia. Specimens have also been collected from Wowoni (U. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
21815	habitat	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, J., 2008	It prefers intact forest but has been collected from lowland to 2,400 m asl in many different habitats including disturbed habitats.	eng
21815	population	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, J., 2008	This species is common and widespread in suitable habitat.	eng
21815	threats	Ruedas, L., Kingston, T., Helgen, K. & Sinaga, J., 2008	This species is hunted for bushmeat, but not currently at levels that are considered a major threat to the species.	eng
21816	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional do Caparao, and has also been found in Parque Nacional da Tijuca in Rio de Janeiro, although there are no recent records. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species, and further research is needed into the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
21816	distribution		This species from south-eastern Brazil has been recorded from the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and extreme south-eastern Minas Gerais. Its altitudinal range is 200-800m asl.	eng
21816	habitat		It lives on wet rock walls near streams in forest, or on the forest edge. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures, while the larvae live on wet rock walls where water drains.	eng
21816	population		It is very rare, and has undergone precipitous declines. The records from Espirito Santo are very old, and it has not been seen in Rio de Janeiro for 20 years, despite searches. There are some recent records from Minas Gerais, in Parque Nacional do Caparao, these being the only recent records of the species.	eng
21816	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to human settlement, tourist activities and fire. However, the reasons for the observed dramatic declines remain unexplained; like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, despite the fact that this pathogen has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.	eng
21817	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Serra des Órgãos. However, the park is urgently in need of an improved management plan to accommodate increased tourist traffic to the area. There is a need for further research to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in apparently suitable habitat.	eng
21817	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from above 800m asl in the Serra des Órgãos, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. There are historical records from mountain tops in the state of São Paulo, but there are no recent records from this state. A record from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo requires confirmation.	eng
21817	habitat		It is found in rocky areas in forest, or on the forest edge, living on wet rock walls near streams or waterfalls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures.	eng
21817	population		It used to be common, but it has now undergone significant declines. For example, whereas it was once abundant and easy to find (at least up until 1979) at Teresópolis, Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, it has not been recorded since.	eng
21817	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement, tourism, and fire. However, this does not fully account for the recorded declines. Like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, even though this disease has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.	eng
21839	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
21839	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is found in south and southeast Brazil. <em>T. apereoides</em> is closely associated with a diagonal belt of open vegetation that stretches in a northeast to southwest direction between the Amazonian and Atlantic forests (Alho, 1982; Mares and Ojeda, 1982).	eng
21839	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	Thrichomys apereoides inhabits xeric and rocky environments in caatinga and cerrado domains in Brazil and chaco in Paraguay (Mares and Ojeda, 1982; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Moojen, 1952; Streilein, 1982a). In Exu, Brazil, T. apereoides is associated primarily with granitic outcroppings (Streilein, 1982d). In Bolivia, T. apereoides inhabits flat and arid shrub-dominated habitat devoid of large rocks (Anderson, 1997). It is a crepuscular species (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). In Brazil, its reproduction occurs throughout the year with two or three litters of one to six young (average 3.1) produced after a gestation period of 89 days (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Sexual maturity is reached between seven and nine months (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
21839	population	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is very common throughout the range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
21839	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	It is hunted for food although the species is not considered to have any major threats in operation throughout its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
21846	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Continued population monitoring, and research into harvest levels are needed.	eng
21846	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is generally recorded from Central Africa, East Africa and northern parts of Southern Africa, although the geographic range of this species remains poorly defined. The core area of their range appears to be centred in East Africa, from extreme southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya southwards through Tanzania, most of Zambia and Malawi to Zimbabwe. However, there are also isolated records from Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia, suggesting that the distribution range be much wider and more continuous than currently thought. They have not yet been recorded from Angola, Botswana, or Mozambique, but it is likely they occur at least in the latter country as specimens have been taken from right on the border of neighbouring Malawi and Zimbabwe.<br/>Recorded from the Nyika Plateau at 2,000 m asl (Ansell and Dowsett 1988), but apparently also from the Ruwenzori range at 2,600 m asl.	eng
21846	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from grassland and woodland habitats, and is apparently also associated with wetlands and commonly inhabitas areas of semi-aquatic grasses. It is largely nocturnal, but partly dirunal. Animals are often solitary, but are sometimes encountered in small parties. The avearge litter size is two or three young.	eng
21846	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is a fairly common species.	eng
21846	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is hunted as subsistence food in parts of its range.	eng
21847	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas throughout the range..	eng
21847	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has been widely recorded over much of Subsaharan Africa. The distribution is patchy and discontinuous and they only occur where there is suitable habitat. The species is distributed from Senegal, The Gambia and Guinea in West Africa eastwards to the Central African Republic, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and southern Sudan, and from here into East Africa where it ranges from Uganda and Kenya southwards throughout much of Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique into eastern South Africa (the Grahamstown district in the Eastern Cape province is the southerly limit [Skinner and Smithers 1990]). It has been recorded from 1,800 m asl on Kilimanjaro (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1995)	eng
21847	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is typically found in association with reedbeds or in areas of dense, tall grass with thick reed or cane-like stems, typical of riverine and other similar habitats. They are seldom found far from water. Skinner and Smithers (1990) note that agricultural crops (such as maize, wheat, sugar-cane, groundnuts) have greatly improved the habitat for this species such that they have become an agricultural pest in some regions, and are often responsible for damaging cassava crops, and, in West Africa, oil palm plantations. It is predominantly nocturnal, with little known of their biology and ecology. Two litters of as many as twelve young are born annually.	eng
21847	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This is a fairly common species.	eng
21847	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. They are a favoured food item and commonly hunted with dogs in West Africa. This species is very common in bushmeat markets, and there have been numerous studies investigating the viability of farming this species to supply demands for protein in West and Central Africa. Jori <em>et al</em>. (1995) discuss the many economical, nutritional and environmental arguments for implementing rearing of this species in rural development programmes in Africa and methods to develop farming programmes. They are also a major agricultural pest, which has often led to control measures being applied to keep them out of plantations and fields.	eng
21866	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	In 1936, the Thylacine received legal protection under Tasmanian law, although it was likely already extinct (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). In 1966, a 647,000 ha game reserve was set up in south-western Tasmania, partly to protect any animals possibly remaining in the area. Currently there are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
21866	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	<em>Thylacinus cynocephalus</em> was endemic to Australia. Mainland populations are thought to have disappeared following the introduction of domestic dogs by Aboriginal human populations several thousand years ago (though there is the possibility that it survived until much more recently on the mainland) (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). This restricted the Thylacine to the island of Tasmania. The last definite record of a wild individual is from 1933; it was captured and taken to Hobart Zoo where it died in 1936 (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008). Since then several surveys have been undertaken, however, no conclusive evidence of the existence of wild Thylacines has been found, despite numerous unconfirmed sightings.	eng
21866	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	The preferred habitat of the species probably was open forest or grassland, however, the last populations may have occupied the less accessible, dense rainforest areas of south-western Tasmania.	eng
21866	population	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is presumed to be extinct.	eng
21866	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	The Thylacine was regarded as a threat to sheep and was hunted, trapped, and poisoned both for private and government bounties. In addition to these hunting pressures, habitat modification, increased competition from domestic dogs and disease may have all contributed to the demise of this species (Mooney and Rounsevell 2008).	eng
21867	conservation	de la Sancha, N. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is not found in protected areas in the Brazilian portion of the distribution (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press), however, in Paraguay it is. More research is needed to determine the range and habitats of this species, and the cumulative effect of numerous threats.	eng
21867	distribution	de la Sancha, N. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is restricted to the moist subtropical forest of eastern Paraguay and neighbouring areas in Brazil (Gardner 2007).	eng
21867	habitat	de la Sancha, N. & Teta, P., 2008	Associated with open areas, including Chaco and subtropical moist forest in eastern Paraguay. In Brazil, occurs in areas of dense savanna with trees, as well as areas of deciduous forest. Also found in the western border of the Cerrado and close to the southern border of the Pantanal wetlands (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press). Found from 500-650 m in Brazil. The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). This is the only species of this genus that inhabits subtropical humid forests (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
21867	population	de la Sancha, N. & Teta, P., 2008	The species is locally rare in Brazil (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).	eng
21867	threats	de la Sancha, N. & Teta, P., 2008	Numerous populations of this species are threatened by deforestation for logging and agriculture.	eng
21870	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas. Monitoring of populations and regulation of hunting of this species are needed.	eng
21870	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species occurs in the southern and extreme south-eastern portion of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on the Aru and Kai Islands of Indonesia. There are three distinct populations; one in the grasslands surrounding Port Moresby (probably now extinct); one in the Trans-Fly region; and one on the Aru and Kai islands. It is found close to sea level.	eng
21870	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species now occurs only in lowland primary tropical moist forest, forest-savanna mosaic, and degraded forest. It is confined to the gallery forests in the southern portion of its range and does not occur in the adjacent grasslands.	eng
21870	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The south-eastern population, close to Port Moresby, probably has been extirpated. It is currently abundant on the Aru Islands, but this subpopulation is very susceptible to hunting due to an increasing human population. The southern New Guinea subpopulation, in the Trans-Fly plain area, is thought to be fairly common, largely because of low human population density and political instability.	eng
21870	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by local hunting (with dogs) for food. Hunting is the cause of the extirpation of this species from the south-eastern, Port Moresby, part of its range.	eng
21873	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies into the abundance and conservation measures for this species are needed. Hunting regulations should be developed for this species.	eng
21873	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to Mts. Albert Edward and Giluwe (not collected from the latter since the 1960s). It seems likely to have become extinct on Mount Wilhelm in living memory (Flannery 1995), and although this population is mapped it is not considered extant for the purposes of the assessment. The two remaining subpopulations are suspected to be relicts of what was once a much more widely distributed species (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded at around 2,800 m asl.	eng
21873	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is generally found in subalpine grasslands at the edge of tropical montane forest.	eng
21873	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	There is no recent information about its population status. Nothing is known about the Mt. Giluwe population, and the Mt. Wilhelm population presumably has gone extinct. It was locally abundant on Mt. Albert Edward in 1981 (T. Flannery pers. comm.).	eng
21873	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is threatened by local hunting with dogs for food. Climate change will increasingly be a threat. The habitat is declining due to feral pigs.	eng
21874	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
21874	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is widespread throughout northern and north-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It was introduced (6,000 - 7,000 years ago) to the islands of Bagabag, New Britain, New Ireland, and Umboi (Papua New Guinea). The species has also been recorded from the island of Yapen (Indonesia), however, it has possibly been extirpated from here. It ranges in elevation from sea level up to around 2,100 m asl.	eng
21874	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, but seems to prefer disturbed areas. Females appear to have a single young.	eng
21874	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
21874	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting by local people (hunting with dogs) for food. It appears to have been heavily depleted over parts of its range.	eng
21875	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
21875	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Barents Sea basin west of River Ob, White, Caspian, Black, Baltic, White and North Sea basins, Atlantic westward to Loire drainage; Rhône drainage. Introduced in Po and Soca drainages, and over most of southern and central Finland.	eng
21875	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Submontane reaches of rivers with a hard sand or stone bottom and well oxygenated, cold and fast-flowing water. In Scandinavia, in clear lakes and semi-anadromous in freshened part of northern Baltic basin. Usually in hollows behind boulders and shaded water under overhanging vegetation. Spawns in shallow stretches (usually 20-40 cm deep) or riffles, with moderate current (about 0.5 m/s) and clean gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, females usually one year later than males, in northern Europe later than in central Europe. Spawns in early spring, usually in March-April, later in north, when temperatures reach 4-8°C, with a peak at full moon. Adults make short spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations often spawn in lake tributaries. Males start to defend small territories at spawning site in late morning and spawning usually starts in early afternoon at highest daily temperature. Females deposit eggs into substrate. Eggs hatch usually in 10-40 days. Alevins remain in gravel until yolk sack is absorbed (4-10 days). Feeding larvae live 3-4 weeks in open water below surface. Juveniles are benthic, in fast-flowing waters. Feeds predominantly on drifting invertebrates and terrestrial insects.	eng
21875	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
21875	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
21877	conservation	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
21877	distribution	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs in Nicaragua; Panama and Colombia to Guianas, Amazonian Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Simmons 2005). New record for the Atlantic Forest that extends the range (Gregorin <em>et al</em>. in press). Also a new record for the Cerrado in gallery forest (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 2005). Found in Costa Risca (Tschapka <em>et al.</em> 2000)	eng
21877	habitat	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen forest and banana plantations. In Venezuela, 2 groups of 7 and 10 were caught by hand from under dead banana leaves; a specimen from Guyana was found under an “eate” palm leaf. It is seldom caught in mist nets. It feeds on insects (Reid, 1997; Wilson, 1978).	eng
21877	population	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is rare but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Reid, 1997).	eng
21877	threats	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	No major threats.	eng
21878	conservation	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas. Reduce habitat loss. More research on the basic ecology of the species.	eng
21878	distribution	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2008	This species occurs in Peru, Ecuador. May also be found in Venezuela, but it is not certain.	eng
21878	habitat	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is found in evergreen forest and is seldom caught in mist nets. Its diet is insectivorous.<br/>It is an aerial insectivore, captured in forests near streams. The basic ecology of this species is poorly known (Patterson pers. comm.).	eng
21878	population	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2008	This species seems to be rare throughout its range. This species has been discovered only recently and there are less than ten specimens. Uncommon throughout its range.	eng
21878	threats	Solari, S. & Velazco, P., 2008	No known major threats. Habitat loss may be a local threat.	eng
21879	conservation	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). This species should be reviewed following taxonomic clarification.	eng
21879	distribution	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Veracruz (Mexico) to Guianas, Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru; Trinidad (Simmons 2005). In Venezuela the species occurs in lowlands, moistly below 850 m elevation (Handley, 1976). Occurs in lowlands to 1,300 m on both sides of the Andes (Ecuador) and up to 1,800 m in Colombia. The species does not occur in Nicaragua and El Salvador.	eng
21879	habitat	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Lowland forests and foothills of the Andes on both sides. Occurs also in Atlantic and Amazonia forests. In Venezuela occurs in swamp palm forests across savannas (Ochoa pers. comm.) It is strongly associated with moist habitats, especially evergreen forest and tall second growth. Not found in areas with a prolonged dry season. This species is an aerial insectivore. This species is seldom caught in mist nets, even in areas where it is known to be common and its roost sites are abundant, due to its agile and highly maneuverable flight. The diet is presumed to consist of small insects caught in flight (Reid, 1997).	eng
21879	population	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Seems to be rare across its range, however, can be locally common. Difficult to collect and this may underestimate the population. Uncommon although can be locally common (Reid, 1997). The species is not often caught in mist nets during sampling (Reid, 1997).<br/>This bat forms small colonies, rarely exceeding nine individuals that show stability over time although roosting sites are changed frequently. Their specialized roosting habitats are inside young, rolled up leaves of Heliconia, Calathea, and banana, which may limit colony size. Suitable leaves are in the form of vertical tubes with openings of 50 to 100 mm diameter, located in shady areas and not in direct contact with other vegetation. Such leaves unroll rapidly and are usually only used as roosts for one day. The suction disks allow them to cling to the smooth surface of leaves. <br/>Unlike most species, this bat roosts upright, and individuals line up one above another inside the leaf. Tree falls, stream banks, and other small, natural forest gaps provide good conditions for host plants and bats. Stable groups with approximately equal numbers of males and females occupy fixed territories (Wilson and Findley, 1977).	eng
21879	threats	Tavares, V. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Loss of habitat over portions of its range (Andean foothills and Atlantic forest), but overall there are no major threats.	eng
21888	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21888	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21888	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21888	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21888	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21889	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21889	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21889	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21889	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21889	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21890	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21890	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21890	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21890	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21890	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21891	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
21891	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Lake Bermin, Cameroon, which has a surface area of 0.5 km².	eng
21891	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>T. flava</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
21891	population	Moelants, T., 2009	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.	eng
21891	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is at some risk due to its very small distribution and deforestation in the surrounding area (Groombridge and Jenkins 1998). The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sup>2</sup> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21892	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21892	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21892	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelgic.	eng
21892	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21892	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21893	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21893	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21893	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21893	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21893	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21894	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21894	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21894	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21894	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21894	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21895	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21895	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21895	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21895	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21895	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21896	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21896	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Bermin, Cameroon.	eng
21896	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21896	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21896	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21897	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21897	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Ejagham in Cameroon.	eng
21897	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
21897	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21897	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Lake Ejagham has a surface of only 0.5 km². The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21898	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
21898	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from Lake Barombi-ba-Kotto and Lake Mboandong, Cameroon.	eng
21898	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
21898	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
21898	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
21899	distribution	Stiassny, M., 1996	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.	eng
21900	distribution	Stiassny, M., 1996	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.	eng
21901	distribution	Stiassny, M., 1996	Presumably endemic to Lake Ejagham.	eng
21912	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
21912	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
21912	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Stocking throughout Europe for centuries has blurred the original distribution pattern. Hypothesised to be native in most of Europe, naturally absent only in Ireland, Scandinavia north of 61°30'N, eastern Adriatic basin and western and southern Greece where it is now introduced. In Asia, native eastward to western Yenisei drainage south of 60°N. Introduced to North and South Africa, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand, India, North America, Chile and probably elsewhere.	eng
21912	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Stocking throughout Europe for centuries has blurred the original distribution pattern. Hypothesised to be native in most of Europe, naturally absent only in Ireland, Scandinavia north of 61°30'N, eastern Adriatic basin and western and southern Greece where it is now introduced. In Asia, native eastward to western Yenisei drainage south of 60°N. Introduced to North and South Africa, Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand, India, North America, Chile and probably elsewhere.	eng
21912	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Typically in shallow, densely vegetated lakes and backwaters. Often overwinters buried in mud. Spawns among dense vegetation in still water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-6 years and 70-250 mm SL, females a year later than males. Pelvic rays more robust, longer and extending beyond anus in male. Spawns in May-October, in Central Europe usually in June-July, at temperatures above 19°C, mostly at 22-24°C. Several males follow each female, which releases eggs in several portions above vegetation. Females may spawn 1-9 times each year, every 11-15 days, if suitably warm weather persists. High embryonic mortality observed when temperature fluctuates strongly. Larvae and juveniles restricted to dense vegetation. Tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and salinities up to 12 ?. Feeds on detritus, benthic animals and plant material. Adults often feed predominantly on molluscs.	eng
21912	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Typically in shallow, densely vegetated lakes and backwaters. Often overwinters buried in mud. Spawns among dense vegetation in still water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-6 years and 70-250 mm SL, females a year later than males. Pelvic rays more robust, longer and extending beyond anus in male. Spawns in May-October, in Central Europe usually in June-July, at temperatures above 19°C, mostly at 22-24°C. Several males follow each female, which releases eggs in several portions above vegetation. Females may spawn 1-9 times each year, every 11-15 days, if suitably warm weather persists. High embryonic mortality observed when temperature fluctuates strongly. Larvae and juveniles restricted to dense vegetation. Tolerant of low oxygen concentrations and salinities up to 12 ‰. Feeds on detritus, benthic animals and plant material. Adults often feed predominantly on molluscs.	eng
21912	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
21912	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
21912	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	River engineering.	eng
21912	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	River engineering.	eng
21913	conservation	Heddle, M.L., 2004	There is currently no protection for this species.  A recent attempt (it was listed as a Candidate species) to have it listed on the U.S. Endangered Species Act has failed because of insufficient information concerning species-specific threats and lack of information on the status of this species.	eng
21913	distribution	Heddle, M.L., 2004	Kauai, Hawaii.	eng
21913	habitat	Heddle, M.L., 2004	Historically, collecting efforts were concentrated in wet forest habitats and these efforts were mostly unsuccessful.  Given the relative success of collecting efforts in diverse mesic forest areas, it is reasonable to assume that the moth's habitat is lowland mesic forest.	eng
21913	population	Heddle, M.L., 2004	<em>Tinostoma smaragditis</em> has been recorded a total of 15 times from Western Kauai, Hawaii over a period of 110 years. Ten of these individuals were collected at lights at a military tracking station situated above diverse mesic forest — a lowland forest type with no dominant species (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1990). The other five specimens were collected at lower elevations within or near to the diverse mesic forest habitat. Two male moths were collected in the diverse mesic forest in 1998 representing the first time that the moth has been intentionally searched for and found. Almost all other searching took place in the Kokee Region of Kauai in the vicinity of the tracking station, which is dominated by wet forest, and is considered high elevation forest as opposed to the low elevation of the diverse mesic forest (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1990). The island of Kauai has a total land area of 1,624 km². Diverse mesic forest habitat covers considerably less than the entire island, however, it is not thought to be less than 800 km². <br/> <br/>There have been at least 80 separate collecting events in search for Lepidoptera on Kauai over the past hundred years, predominantly in the Kokee region (Heddle unpubl. data). In addition, in the 1920s a mainland collector sent the entomologist, Kusche, to Hawaii specifically to search for the green sphinx with no luck (Zimmerman 1958) and throughout the 1980s, a local lepidopterist, Father Riotte, collected regularly in the Kokee region. Riotte’s collection work has provided a wealth of data on the Lepidoptera in the Kokee region, yet it is notable that he never encountered the Green Sphinx (Heddle unpubl. data). In spite of this collecting effort, only fifteen moths have ever been collected. Yet both times the moth was intentionally searched for and found, it flew directly to the light and was easily captured. This suggests that either the moth is restricted to a very small range and that in 1998 we collected in exactly the right region, and/or that the moth is extremely rare.	eng
21913	threats	Heddle, M.L., 2004	Kauai has the largest number of endemic plants of all the Hawaiian islands and lowland mesic forest contains the greatest number of endemic plant taxa and the greatest number of endemic plant taxa at risk (Sakai 2002). Plant taxa with single-island distributions are generally more threatened than those with multiple island distributions (Sakai <em>et al</em>. 2002).  As the host-plant for <em>Tinostoma</em> is still unknown, it is possible that plants necessary for its survival are either restricted in distribution or are themselves at risk. Therefore, in addition to the species’ overall range being limited, it's microhabitat requirements may also be restricted. <br/> <br/>The native vegetation of Hawaii is known to have undergone extreme alteration because of past and present land management practices including ranching, deliberate introduction of alien plants and animals and agricultural development. Some of the primary threats facing this species' habitat are ongoing and future modification and destruction of mesic forest habitat by feral animals (goats and axis deer) and alien invasive plants.  It is not known if these threats impact the species directly or indirectly.  But it is possible that the host food plants for this moth (currently unknown) may be highly threatened, by the above factors. <br/> <br/>In September 1992 the eye of Hurricane Iniki passed over Northwest Kauai, causing much damage to the forests as large areas of forest were opened up allowing for the movement of non-native invasive plants into the region. <br/> <br/>The mesic forest on Kauai is managed by the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). In addition to hurrican distrubance, this land is subject to disruption by feral mammals such as pigs, rats, and goats. Pigs and goats are especially destructive in this area, and their presence is permitted as DLNR lands are available for hunting. Pigs tear up tree ferns and other vegetation, and goats will decimate an area's native vegetation. A number of goats, and goat damage, has been observed in the Mahanaloa region where the green sphinx was first collected by Asquith and Heddle (M. Heddle, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Rare butterflies and moths are highly prized by collectors and there is an international market for such species.  There is no known trade in this species, although Sphinx moths in general are sought by collectors and there has been a standing reward for specimens of <em>Tinostoma smaragditis</em> (Zimmerman 1958). <br/> <br/>The introduction of alien invasive invertebartes (e.g., the Argentine Ant (<em>Iridomyrex humlis</em>) and parasitic wasps) is known to have an impact on the native arthropods, so that may be another threat to this species.	eng
21914	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
21914	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the coastlines of all four countries (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia and DRC).	eng
21914	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found in muddy substrates especially near river mouths. Generally in deep water, but could be shallow to 150 meters.	eng
21914	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Shells caught in fishermen's nets come up in large numbers indicating concentrated populations.	eng
21914	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen and the shell trade.	eng
21972	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	Full protection for all of the Yanbaru region of Okinawa Island is recommended. Management or control of introduced predators is also needed. A conservation education program using this species, as well as Okinawa Rail and Okinawa Woodpecker as flagship species would be beneficial. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
21972	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. It is found only on the northern part (Yanbaru area) of the island, above 300 m asl.	eng
21972	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species inhabits forest (chinquapins) over 30 years old in the northern part of the island (Japan RDB, 2002). It prefers forests with high undergrowth (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and has also been found in chinquapin forests surrounded by sugarcane fields (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
21972	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	Population density estimates were of 1.8/ha in 1978 and the population is currently considered to be severely declining (Japan RDB, 2002). A 1994 survey on Mount Yonahadake did not find any individuals, in a place where one was caught in 1974 (Japan RDB, 2002). Surveys in the late 1970s found that the species was relatively easy to catch, but no specimens have been recorded for 35 years since 1978.  However, in 2008 live specimens were recorded (F. Yamada pers. comm.).	eng
21972	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	On the island, deforestation is a major threat, mainly through government forestry programs (Japan RDB, 2002). Also, feral cats in the forest predate this species, which has been speculated to be a factor in population declines (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
21973	conservation	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is present in Amami Quasi National Park. The control of introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
21973	distribution	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is found only on Amami-oshima island, of the Amami Islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan. Since 1980, the species has become restricted to the central part of Amami-oshima (Japan RDB, 2002). Currently the species is found in the southwest of Amami-oshima, but there is an isolated population in the northeast (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its elevational range is from sea level up to 500 m asl.	eng
21973	habitat	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species prefers secondary broad-leaved forests, although it can also be found in intact forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It has not been observed in plantations.	eng
21973	population	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species was common on Amami-oshima until the 1960s, when the population declined. The population has been shown to decline with reductions of chinquapin seedlings following some typhoons (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
21973	threats	Ishii, N. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	Habitat destruction has severely decreased the available forest habitat on the island (Japan RDB, 2002). Feral cats and dogs present on the island are known to predate this species (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Introduced mongoose (<em>Herpestes javanicus</em>) are a major predator on the island, and competition also exists with <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
21974	conservation	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a captive population in North America.	eng
21974	distribution	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is found from eastern Bolivia and south-western Brazil, south through the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, to Argentina (San Luis province). The species was once present in southern Buenos Aires Province (Yepes 1928) but recent surveys suggest that it is now extinct in this area (Abba and Vizcaíno 2008, A.M. Abba pers. comm. 2010). The reason for its disappearing from Buenos Aires is unknown, but may be related to climate. It ranges from sea level up to 770 m asl (Argentina).	eng
21974	habitat	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	This armadillo, which can roll into a ball when threatened, is found in areas of dry vegetation within the Chaco (Bolkovic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995). It has a slow reproductive rate, the females give birth to an average of 1.5 young annually.	eng
21974	population	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is abundant in most xeric parts of the Paraguayan Chaco (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). It was recorded at densities of 1.9 animals per km² in the Chaco (Cuéllar 2002). The wild populations are decreasing, mainly due to intense hunting and habitat loss.	eng
21974	threats	Abba, A.M. & Superina, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. matacus</span> is threatened by hunting for food; as it is not fossorial, it is easier to hunt than other armadillo species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction through conversion of suitable habitat to cultivated land; however, it is able to adapt to low levels of agricultural disturbance. This species is exported to zoos and for pet trade, and there is a high mortality of individuals during this export process.	eng
21975	conservation	Superina, M. Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> has been observed in Serra da Capivara and Serra das Confusões National Parks, both in southern Piaui (Marinho-Filho and Lima 2008). It is present in the Grande Sertão Veredas National Park, northern Minas Gerais (M. L. Lima pers. comm. 2010). It was also recorded in the Ecological Station of Serra Geral do Tocantins and Jalapão State Park (Tocantins), as well as in the Raso da Catarina Biological Reserve and Veredas do Oeste baiano Wildlife Refuge (Bahia; Marinho-Filho and Lima 2008, M. L. Lima pers. comm. 2010). No protected areas exist in the area of highest population density (J. Marinho-Filho pers. comm. 2010).	eng
21975	distribution	Superina, M. Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> is endemic to Brazil, where it has been recorded from the states of Bahia, Ceará, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Piauí, Mato Grosso (extreme central eastern portion), Goiás (extreme north), Minas Gerais (extreme north-west), Tocantins (eastern portion), Paraíba, and Rio Grande do Norte.	eng
21975	habitat	Superina, M. Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> mainly occurs in caatinga habitat (dry thorn scrub of north-eastern Brazil), but it is also found in the eastern parts of cerrado habitat (bush savanna in central Brazil). It is not adapted to digging and life underground. When threatened, it has the habit of rolling into an easily portable ball.&#160; Population densities have been estimated at 0.97 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, but are expected to be considerably lower in areas with hunting pressure.	eng
21975	population	Superina, M. Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> was believed to be extinct until its rediscovery in the early 1990s in a handful of scattered localities. It has probably disappeared over much of its range, but it is difficult to survey its populations (Nowak 1999). This armadillo has a patchy distribution; population densities may be relatively high within certain patches (J. Marinho-Filho pers. comm. 2010), except in areas where the species is exposed to human pressure.	eng
21975	threats	Superina, M. Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. tricinctus</span> is threatened by heavy hunting pressure and habitat loss. In the Caatinga, the remaining populations are practically isolated in protected areas and are subjected to subsistence hunting. In the Cerrado, the main populations live outside the protected areas and are especially threatened by conversion of their natural habitat to sugar cane and soybean plantations.	eng
21979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Mahalona, Sulawesi.	eng
21980	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Lake Towuti in central Sulawesi.	eng
21981	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
21981	distribution	Crocodile Specialist Group, 2000	Data gathered between 1994 and 1998 indicates that <em>T. schlegelii</em> is widespread, although at a low density, throughout large areas of Sumatera, Kalimantan, and Sarawak, and still persists in peninsular Malaysia. Current information and sightings are now available from 39 localities in 10 different river drainages. Sebastian (1994) notes an additional three drainages in Borneo where the species is reported.	eng
21981	habitat	Crocodile Specialist Group, 2000	Swamps, rivers and lakes. Terrestial nest sites and basking areas.	eng
21981	population	Crocodile Specialist Group, 2000	A total population estimate is not possible but an estimate of below 2,500 mature adults was agreed by a consensus of active researchers as a cautious figure.	eng
21982	conservation	Velazco, P., Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
21982	distribution	Velazco, P., Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs in western Peru (Simmons, 2005).	eng
21982	habitat	Velazco, P., Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is found from sea level to 1,000 m elevation in the semiarid areas of coastal northwestern Peru. The roosts are under granite boulders and caves. A single young has been found in pregnant females from May to September (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
21982	population	Velazco, P., Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Expected to decline in response to human habitat disturbance. Known from ten collection points in Peru, the surrounding area has been surveyed adequately (Velazco pers. comm.). Considered 'critically endangered' in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).	eng
21982	threats	Velazco, P., Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The species occurs in only few caves which are being fumigated to control rabies (Velazco pers. comm.).	eng
21983	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
21983	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Northeastern Brazil to northern Argentina and Paraguay (Simmons 2005). Also Bolivia.	eng
21983	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found in hollow trees on forests and sulfur mines. Onivorous.	eng
21983	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	In Argentina 3 individuals were reviewed (Barquez pers. comm.). Rare.	eng
21983	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known, probably deforestation, but not a major threat.	eng
21984	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as endangered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Tonatia brasiliensis</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
21984	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central, and South America. This bat is distributed from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south to Peru and eastward across northern Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is common below 500 m elevation in Venezuela (Handley, 1976).	eng
21984	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with stream side habitats, evergreen forest and other moist areas but can range into deciduous forests (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999); also in second growth woodland, and fruit groves (Reid, 1997), and is broadly tolerant of man-made clearings in Venezuela (Handley, 1976). This species has been seen roosting in abandoned termite nests (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961). Usually caught in mist nets shortly after sunset. Pregnant females were found in February and April in Costa Rica (LaVal and Fitch, 1977). It feeds on insects and perhaps occasionally fruits (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Found in eucalyptus plantations in Brazil. Insectivore; gleaner.	eng
21984	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon but widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
21984	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Loss of tree cover, although this is not considered to be a  major threat.	eng
21985	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conservation of large patches of pristine forests habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
21985	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Thus far this species has been described in southeastern Colombia, the extreme southern part of Amazonas territory in Venezuela, the Guianas extending to north-central Brazil, and adjacent to Peru and Bolivia (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom, 2000).	eng
21985	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species has been taken in multistratal tropical evergreen forests near streams, it is associated with pristine forested habitats. It may invade llanos habitat via gallery forests. It uses hollow termite nests as roosting sites with roosting groups ranging from five to 12 individuals. It apparently feeds mainly on arthropods (McCarthy <em>et al.</em>, 1992).	eng
21985	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance. Absent or rare to uncommon and occasionally locally abundant at sites, this is a widespread species, the populations of which are expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance.	eng
21985	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	In Bolivia considered near threatened because known only from two localities. Loss of forest habitats although this is not a major threat.	eng
21986	conservation	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	Found in protected areas. In Mexico is listed as endangered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Tonatia evotis</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.)	eng
21986	distribution	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	This species is known from southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).	eng
21986	habitat	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	This bat can be found in mature and secondary lowland forest (Reid, 1997). A group of five was found roosting in an inactive termite nest, 3 m above ground, and a single bat was found roosting in a building (McCarthy <em>et al.</em>, 1993). The diet includes beetles and katydids. It flies through the forest understory, and most records are from mist-nest captures (Medellin and Arita, 1989; Reid, 1997).	eng
21986	population	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	This species is uncommon (Reid, 1997).	eng
21986	threats	Cajas, J. & Miller, B., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
21987	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Retention of forests in Guyana Shield.	eng
21987	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is known from Guianas and northern Brazil (Fonseca <em>et al.</em>, 1996; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom, 2000).	eng
21987	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	A poorly known gleaning insectivorous species associated with multistratal tropical forest.	eng
21987	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Very little information is available about the population status of this species although it is known to be rare within a restricted distribution in the Guyana Shield; populations are expected to decline in response to habitat disturbance.	eng
21987	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
21988	conservation	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Pineda, W. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. It is found in protected areas.	eng
21988	distribution	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Pineda, W. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Honduras to Bolivia, Venezuela, Guianas,Suriname, and E Brazil (Simmons 2005). Also in Paraguay.	eng
21988	habitat	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Pineda, W. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Found in dense forests and termitehills. The feeding habit is not known. The species is porrly known in Bolivia.	eng
21988	population	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Pineda, W. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Not common in Peru, there is not enough data to evaluate.	eng
21988	threats	Barquez, R. Diaz, M., Pineda, W. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Deforestation, but may not be a major threat.	eng
21989	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Endemic to Lake Tondano, Sulawesi.	eng
21992	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Lake Fuxian, Yunan Province, at 1,750 m asl.	eng
22003	conservation	Findley, L., 2007	A total ban on fishing was declared by the Mexican Government in 1975 and this species was placed on the Mexican Endangered Species List (PROY-NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2000). In 1976, it was placed on the endangered list (Appendix I , threatened with extinction) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). In September 1978, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service held a workshop to evaluate the biological status of the totoaba, and in May 1979 it was added to the U.S. Endangered Species list, Federal Register 44(99): 29478-29480.<br/><br/>However, illegal fishing for this species in spawning grounds continued for several years after these conservation measures were enacted, and was only brought under effective control in the 1990s. The spawning grounds are in a biosphere reserve established in 1983, and the mesh size of the large gillnets formerly used for its capture have been reduced by half (from 12 inches to six inches). However, there are no data that shows whether the population is recovering. A small size cultivation effort has been in operation in Ensenada, Baja California, for the past few years and some releases into the wild have been conducted, although there is no known benefit to the population at present.	eng
22003	distribution	Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the central and northern Gulf of California, Mexico. The species spawns in the northernmost part of the gulf in the Colorado River Delta. Historically, it may have also spawned farther south on the eastern side of the Gulf in large river mouths, especially the Rio Fuerte (Gilbert 1890). Sporadic young adults have been reported in sport fisheries in the southern gulf in areas of rocky reefs.	eng
22003	habitat	Findley, L., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow coastal waters to depths of 25 m. It is one of the largest fishes in the family Sciaenidae, with a maximum reported length of almost two m and weight of 100 kg. This species has an annual spring breeding migration to the shallow, formerly brackish (now hypersaline) waters of the Colorado River delta at the extreme northern end of the Gulf. It feeds on fishes and shrimps.<br/><br/>The generation length for this species is estimated to be 19 years, based on an estimated average age of first reproduction of seven years and a maximum age of 30 years (Cisneros-Mata <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
22003	population	Findley, L., 2007	Current population status is unknown. Unpublished data and incomplete fisheries data has only been collected in the 1980s by the Federal Department of Fisheries of Mexico. However, the population of this species, once considered to be very abundant, has been severely reduced since the 1940s by overfishing.	eng
22003	threats	Findley, L., 2007	The species has been seriously depleted due to overfishing and habitat alteration. The fish formerly supported an important commercial fishing industry and sport fishery in the Gulf of California. Historically, the majority of the commercial catch was exported from Mexico to the United States, where prices were high. Overfishing of adults occurred primarily during their annual breeding migrations to the Colorado River delta. Peak annual yield in 1942 was 2,261 tonnes, and despite intensified fishing effort and increased gear efficiency, the annual yield exhibited erratic fluctuations and decreased to approximately 58 tonnes in 1975. This represents a more than 95% decline over the past 65 years (1942–2007).<br/><br/>Current heavy fishing pressure continues on juveniles ("machorros," 20-25 cm) due to the active shrimp trawl fishery in the upper Gulf of California. Because of historical and current overfishing, the once maximum size of 200 cm for the species has been greatly reduced.<br/><br/>An Environmental Assessment Study by NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service noted that diversion of the Colorado River has converted the formerly brackish-water habitat, in the extreme northern Gulf of California, into a hypersaline environment, drastically altering the nursery grounds of the Totoaba (Guevara 1990), and altering the life history of the species (Rowell <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
22026	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
22028	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
22029	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Vabrales pers. comm.).	eng
22029	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat ranges from lowlands to 1,400 m asl (Reid, 1997) in Central, and South America. This bat is distributed from Oaxaca, southern Mexico south through the Isthmus and ranges broadly over the tropical portions of South America to southeastern Brazil; also Trinidad (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997).	eng
22029	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with tropical evergreen forest but occurs in regions of dry deciduous forest near moist habitats. This species tends to roost in caves, hollow trees, road culverts, and buildings; the colonies are small (fewer than six individuals), but larger maternity colonies are sometimes found in deep caves. In the Amazon forest and in Bahia the species has a patchy distribution (Faria pers. comm.). There is some evidence that the young associate with a parent for a considerable period. This bat flies low through the forest understory to forage over streams or other wet areas (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). Although they eat insects, these bats are active predators and also feed on lizards, other mammals (including some bats), birds, and frogs. Some individuals of this species may specialize on frogs (Tuttle <em>et al.</em>, 1982). Indeed, some frog species have been under considerable selection to produce calls that render them less conspicuous to the ears of the predators; the bat can also discriminate between poisonous and edible species on the basis of their calls.  A single young is produced near the end of the dry season (Reid, 1997).	eng
22029	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Fairly common in lowland forest; uncommon in agricultural areas and at higher elevations (Reid, 1997). Locally common.	eng
22029	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No major threats throughout its range.	eng
22034	conservation	Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and has been protected by Indonesian law since 1999. It has been recorded from Pangandaran Nature Reserve (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1996), Gunung Halimun and Ujung Kulon National Park (Gurmaya <em>et al</em>. 1994), and is one of the more common and thriving colobines in captivity.	eng
22034	distribution	Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it occurs on Java and the smaller islands of Bali, Lombok, Palau Sempu and Nusa Barung. The Lombok population may have been introduced there by humans (Groves 2001). The boundary between the two subspecies runs from the south coast of Java at about 109°E, northwestward to the vicinity of Jakarta (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus auratus auratus</em><br/>Occurs in eastern Java, Bali, Lombok, Palau Sempu and Nusa Barung. This subspecies has two morphs, one of which, the red morph, has a restricted distribution between Blitar, Ijen, and Pugeran, Java (Groves 2001). The other morph is more common and found in eastern Java, west to Gunung Ujungtebu (Brandon-Jones 1995).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus auratus mauritius</em> <br/>This subspecies has a restricted distribution in west Java to the north coast from Jakarta, inland to Bogor, Cisalak, and Jasinga, southwest to Ujung Kulon, then along the south coast to Cikaso or Ciwangi (Groves 2001).	eng
22034	habitat	Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	<em>T. auratus</em> occurs in mangrove, beach, and freshwater swamp forests, ever-wet lowland and hill forests, dry deciduous forests, and montane forest up to 3,000-3,500 m (Nijman 2000), in addition to teak, rasamala, and acacia forest plantations.<br/><br/>It is mostly folivorous, preferring to eat leaves and flowers, though it will consume the seeds of fruits and unripened fruits as well (Nijman 2000). In the Dieng Mountains of central Java, it has been recorded from both primary and secondary forest, both on the edges and in the interior (Nijman and van Balen 1998). Home range was calculated by Kool (1993) to be 20-30 ha and may be bigger in Java.	eng
22034	population	Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	This species was the most frequently observed primate during a survey of the Dieng Mountains in central Java (Nijman and van Balen 1998). Nijman and van Balen (1998) reported it to be rather common on both Mount Prahu and the central part of the study area in the Pegunungan Dieng Mountains where they also estimate a density of 23 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. From a review of 14 studies, densities were estimated as following: 7.9 (+/- 8.8) groups/km<sup>2</sup>, and individuals estimated at 114 (+/- 147.9) groups/km<sup>2</sup> (E. Meijaard and V. Nijman pers. comm.).	eng
22034	threats	Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J., 2008	Threats include habitat loss and degradation due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, hunting for food and increasingly for the pet trade, fragmentation, and small isolated populations.	eng
22035	conservation	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in at least four protected areas: Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and Gunung Leuser National Park in Indonesia, and Bako National Park and Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia; is may occur as well in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a small worldwide captive population.	eng
22035	distribution	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	This species occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Kalimantan Borneo, the Natuna Islands, Lingga, Bintang, Sugi, Jombol, and Bakang in the Riau Archipelago, and Sumatra), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo, and a strip along the western coast of the Peninsula). It might occur on Batam in the Riau Archipelago as well (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus cristatus cristatus</em> <br/>Occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Bangka, Belitung, Kalimantan Borneo, Lingga, Bintang, Sugi, Jombol, and Bakang in the Riau Archipelago, and Sumatra), and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo, and a strip along the western coast of the Peninsula). May occur on Batam in the Riau Archipelago as well (Groves 2001).   <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus cristatus vigilans </em><br/>Occurs on Sirhassen (Serasen), in the Natuna Islands, Indonesia (Groves 2001).	eng
22035	habitat	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Most of what is known of this species is from Peninsular Malaysia, which is a small portion of the range for the species. In Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo it is known mostly from riparian and mangrove forest (V. Nijman pers. comm.), while in Sumatra it is found in a variety of primary and secondary forest types, including riverine, mangrove, swamp, montane and coastal (Furuya 1961; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987). It is occasionally found in plantations.<br/> <br/>This species is mainly folivorous, with leaves comprising 60 to 80% of the diet (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, it will also feed on fruit, seeds, flowers, and young shoots (Bernstein 1968; Furuya 1961).	eng
22035	population	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Very little is known about this species, and most of what is known is from Peninsular Malaysia. It is reported to be rare in Borneo.	eng
22035	threats	Nijman, V. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Disappearance of suitable lowland habitat due to land clearance (especially for oil palm plantations) and forest fires is a major threat, especially in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. The species is hunted in Sarawak, while in Sumatra it is heavily traded and is a popular pet.	eng
22037	conservation	Das, J., Medhi, R. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is a Schedule I species in the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is also listed on CITES Appendix I (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary is the only protected habitat for this species in India (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, Srivastava <em>et al</em>. (2001) reports that the species is also found in Ripu, Chirrang, and Manas Forest Reserves. Yet these reserves are unstable, and the complete protection of Manas National Park is needed (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). By upgrading the protection and status of this species, it is believed that isolated populations can be linked through corridors that will prevent genetic fragmentation (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). A long-term study is needed to assess the actual impact of habitat alteration on the species over long periods of time (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Medhi <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggest the following actions to protect the population of this species in Nayakgaon: insulation or diversion of electric lines, motivate villagers to restrain their dogs, planting of trees to develop a corridor between the Nayakgaon population and the Chakrashila population, a long term study of behavior and ecology, and regular monitoring of the population. <br/><br/>In Bhutan this species is found in Black Mountains National Park (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001), Pipsu Wildlife Sanctuary, Royal Manas National Park and Trumshingla National Park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following research actions needed for the conservation of this species: taxonomy, survey studies, limiting factor research, and habitat fragmentation. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, public education, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.	eng
22037	distribution	Das, J., Medhi, R. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs only in Bhutan and north-eastern India (Assam). It is confined to a forest belt in western Assam between the Manas River in the east, Sankosh in the west and Brahmaputra in the south along the Indo-Bhutan border (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Its distribution in Bhutan is limited to the foothills of the Black Mountains (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). The total known range of this species in both India and Bhutan is less than 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and much of it is not suitable habitat (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). The population in India is highly fragmented, with the southern population completely separated from the northern population due to the effects of human activities.	eng
22037	habitat	Das, J., Medhi, R. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in moist evergreen, dipterocarp, riverine, and moist deciduous forests, and occasionally in degraded habitats with secondary growth (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species experiences a considerable range in elevation of near sea-level in the south to above 3,000 m in the north (Wangchuk <em>et al.</em> 2003). One isolated population is found in the Abhaya Rubber Plantation, Nayakgaon, in the Kokrajhar district of Assam (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Study of this population has shown that the animals can withstand the effects of habitat change to some extent and survive in altered habitats (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). The diet consists of young and mature leaves, ripe and unripe fruits, and seeds, with most feeding spent on young leaves (Gupta 1998, 2002). Subba (1989) and Subba and Santiapillai (1989), however, found that this species prefers fruits and buds to leaves. In forest fragments they may depend on cultivated crops such as tapioca, betel, and guava. It is diurnal and arboreal (Khajuria 1977).	eng
22037	population	Das, J., Medhi, R. & Molur, S., 2008	There is an estimated population of less than 1,500 individuals in India and around 4,000 individuals in Bhutan, with less than 2,500 mature individuals globally (J. Das pers. comm.). Demographic trends indicate a decline in the population of this species (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001). 93% of the population is found in contiguous forest, while the remaining 7% is found in several small isolated reserves (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). Contrary to predictions, groups were bigger and densities higher in areas of more degraded habitat (Srivastava <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>The population has declined by more than 30% in the last 30 years, and is expected to decline further in the near future due to various threats outlined by field biologists in both India and Bhutan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
22037	threats	Das, J., Medhi, R. & Molur, S., 2008	Due to habitat destruction, the populations of this species are restricted to fragmented forest pockets, especially in India (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat destruction is the major threat to this species in India (Medhi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Hunting is prohibited in the Abhaya Rubber Plantation, yet electrocution from power lines and hunting by dogs are local threats, which are affecting the population (Medhi <em>et al.</em> 2004). A comparative analysis based on satellite images taken in 1988 and 1998 showed a 50% loss of original habitat in India for this species (Srivastava <em>et al. </em>2001). Although commercial logging is banned in reserves where this species is found, illegal encroachment and woodcutting have severely affected these forest reserves (Srivastava <em>et al</em>. 2001). Stone quarrying and its associated noise pollution, as well as artillery firing practices in the Bamuni hills, may also have a negative effect.<br/>Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) list the following threats for this species: “Crop plantations, grazing, harvesting non-woody vegetation for firewood and charcoal production, selective logging, timber collection, human settlement, deforestation, fragmentation, trade, killed by domestic dogs, habitat loss, high juvenile mortality, inbreeding, and local trade in live animals as pets and in road shows. Trade is insignificant.” Due to road construction and other human activities (settlements), the northern and southern populations are completely separated and this has led to loss of suitable habitats and fragmentation (J. Das pers. comm.). There are potential threats to the population in the near future in India due to mustard cultivation and other human activities, and therefore the population is also expected to decline (J. Das pers. comm.).	eng
22039	conservation	Boonratana, R., Traeholt, C., Brockelmann, W. & Htun, S., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in a number of protected areas, including: Krau Wildlife Reserve, Taman Negara National Park (Malaysia); Kaeng Krachan National Park, Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, Khao Sok National Park, Taratau National Park (Thailand). It is relatively common in captivity. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the insular forms.	eng
22039	distribution	Boonratana, R., Traeholt, C., Brockelmann, W. & Htun, S., 2008	This species occurs in Malaysia (troughout the Malay Peninsula along with a few small adjacent islands), southern Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), and southwestern Thailand (including adjacent islands). It is found north to 15°10?N in Myanmar and Thailand (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. obscurus</em><br/>Found on Peninsular Malaysia, north to about Perlis (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. flavicauda</em><br/>Found in northern Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar (including James, Kisseraing, and King Islands in the Mergui Archipelago) and southwestern Thailand (including Koh Lak Island). On the mainland found from Perlis north to the northern border of the species? range (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. halonifer</em><br/>Restricted to Penang Island, Malaysia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. carbo</em><br/>Found off the western coast of Malaysia and Thailand, specifically on Terutao and Dayang Bunting Islands, and on Langkawi Island (Malaysia) (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. styx</em><br/>Occurs on East Perhentian Island and, possibly, adjacent eastern coastal Malaysia (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. seimundi</em><br/>Occurs on Phangan Island (Pennan Island), Thailand; may possibly occur in adjacent eastern Thailand as well (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. o. sanctorum</em><br/>Restricted to Zadetkyi Kyun (St. Matthew Island) in the Mergui Archipelago (Myanmar) (Groves 2001).	eng
22039	habitat	Boonratana, R., Traeholt, C., Brockelmann, W. & Htun, S., 2008	This species prefers closed primary forests, but is also found in old-growth secondary and disturbed forests, urban areas, and parks. It is diurnal, primarily arboreal, and folivorous, although the diet is relatively varied and the animals will also consume fruit, flowers and other items. They are able to take advantage of unripe fruit, which have chemical defenses, by the same means that they break down toxins in plant leaves, using the bacteria found in their digestive system (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980).	eng
22039	population	Boonratana, R., Traeholt, C., Brockelmann, W. & Htun, S., 2008	On the mainland, at five sites surveyed (Kuala Lompat, Pasoh, Sungai Kenyam, Ulu Sebol, and Lesong) the density was estimated 1.8-7.3 groups/km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 14. A population at Khao Lommuak (11°49?N) numbered 80 individuals in an area of 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>. The population status of several of the insular forms (Penang, Langkawi, Dayang Bunting, Terutau, East Perhentian, Pennan) is unclear, but most are presumed to be stable.	eng
22039	threats	Boonratana, R., Traeholt, C., Brockelmann, W. & Htun, S., 2008	Hunting for food is a major threat, as is habitat loss and degradation due to expanding oil palm plantations, agriculture, and urbanization. In Peninsular Malaysia the animals are frequent victims of road-kill.	eng
22040	conservation	Bleisch, B., Brockelman, W., Timmins, R.J., Nadler, T., Thun, S., Das, J. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is listed under Schedule I, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (amended up to 2002), while in Bangladesh it is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is listed as Category I under wildlife Protection Act, 1989 in China, and has been a completely protected species in Myanmar since 1994, though a priority for this species is survey work in order to determine the current status of populations there. It is listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. <br/><br/>This species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including: Lawachara National Park, Rama-Kalenga Sanctuary (Bangladesh); Galoligongshan Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Ailaoshan Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, Lancangjiang Nature Reserve, Huanlianshan Nature Reserve, Fenshuiling Nature Reserve, Niuluohe Nature Reserve, Caiyanghe Nature Reserve, Xishuanbanna Nature Reserve (China); Dampa Sanctuary, Gumti Sanctuary, Sepahijala Sanctuary, Trishna Sanctuary (India); Pegu Yoma Reserve, Pidaung Reserve, Popa Mountain National Park (Myanmar); Nam Nao National Park, Phu Khieo Sanctuary (Thailand); Cuc Phuong National Park (Viet Nam). It might possibly occur in Phou Dendin National Park (Lao PDR) as well.	eng
22040	distribution	Bleisch, B., Brockelman, W., Timmins, R.J., Nadler, T., Thun, S., Das, J. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This specis occurs in eastern Bangladesh, southwestern China (southern, western and central Yunnan), northeastern India (Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand (north of the peninsular zone) and northern Viet Nam (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. phayrei</em><br/>Occurs in Bangladesh, northeastern India (Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura), and western Myanmar. Found from Pegu north through Arakan to Tripura, southern Assam and eastern Bangladesh (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. crepuscula</em> <br/>Occurs in southwestern China (central, southern and southwestern Yunnan, with the Salween River as its west boundary), Lao PDR, Myanmar (north of the peninsular zone and south of the range of <em>T. p. phayrei</em>), Thailand (north of the peninsular zone) and northern Viet Nam. Found from Raheng (central Thailand) and the Mae Ping rapids (northwest Thailand) north to Xishuanbanna (Yunnan), east to southwestern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, and west to the coast of the Bay of Bengal (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>T. p. shanicus</em><br/>Occurs in southwestern China (western Yunnan with the Salween River as the boundary) and northern and eastern Myanmar. Found in the northern Shan States and neighbouring dry zone of northern Myanmar, into Yunnan in the Yingjiang-Namting River and Tunchong-Homushu Pass Districts (Groves 2001).	eng
22040	habitat	Bleisch, B., Brockelman, W., Timmins, R.J., Nadler, T., Thun, S., Das, J. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	The species prefers primary and secondary evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, mixed moist deciduous forest, but is also found in bamboo-dominated areas, light woodlands, and near tea plantations. In some parts of the range, such as Lao PDR, it also occurs in forest on limestone (R. Timmins pers. comm.; Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is a predominantly arboreal, diurnal, and folivorous species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
22040	population	Bleisch, B., Brockelman, W., Timmins, R.J., Nadler, T., Thun, S., Das, J. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	In India and Bangladesh, populations are small and isolated, though locally common in many places (Choudhury 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Lao PDR the species is localized, and in the northern parts of its range generally scarce, due both to high hunting pressure and a high level of habitat fragmentation. In the southern parts of its range in Lao PDR the species is more common, although still among the scarcest of the diurnal primates (R.Timmins pers. comm.). In Viet Nam the species is rare and now very localized (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In the last ten years there are records only from a handful of areas (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Thailand, there are good populations in Nam Nao National Park and Phukhio Wildlife Sanctuary, where they had the highest densities at 3.4 groups/km<sup>2</sup> and 23-38 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Borries <em>et al.</em> 2002), but much of northern Thailand has been hunted out. There are also good populations in the Western Forest complex (W. Brockelmann pers. comm.). There is little information available concerning the species’ status in Myanmar (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In China, healthy populations of <em>T. p. shanicus</em> survive mainly in Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve and Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, and healthy populations of <em>T. p. crepuscula</em> survive mainly in Nangunhe Nature Reserve, Ailaoshan Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Huanlianshan Nature Reserve, and Xishuanbanna Nature Reserve (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002). Overall, the picture is one of a serious ongoing decline globally.	eng
22040	threats	Bleisch, B., Brockelman, W., Timmins, R.J., Nadler, T., Thun, S., Das, J. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	In Bangladesh and India, this species is at risk of habitat disturbance and fragmentation, especially due to the establishment of tea gardens and paper mills, but also timber plantations, livestock ranching, shifting agriculture, firewood collection, charcoal production, and human settlement (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Other threats facing these populations include pollution, inbreeding, and a local trade in the animals for zoos and as food (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). The population in Bangladesh has declines by more than 80% in the last 20 years, making it very vulnerable in its extremely fragmented locations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Further to the east of the range (in China, Viet Nam, Thailand, and Lao PDR), the major threat is hunting for traditional “medicine” and bushmeat. Indeed, in northern Thailand they have been nearly entirely hunted out, and now only survive in larger protected areas. In the known Lao PDR stronghold for this species (Bolikhamsai province), there is extensive infrastructure development for hydro-electric power, which is likely to increase hunting pressure on these populations (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Furthermore, the range of the species in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Thailand coincides with ethnic minorities that favour shifting cultivation, with a continual resulting loss of forest (R. Timmins pers. comm.).	eng
22041	conservation	Das, J., Molur, S. & Bleisch, W., 2008	All South Asian populations are listed under Schedule I, Part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001), amended up to 2002, and are also listed under Appendix I in CITES. Populations in Bangladesh are protected under Schedule III of the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. It is considered First Class protected under the Wildlife Protection Act in China. In Myanmar it is nominally protected under the Wildlife Protection Act. This species is found in a large number of protected areas across its range.	eng
22041	distribution	Das, J., Molur, S. & Bleisch, W., 2008	The species occurs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), and north-western Myanmar. Records from China are disputed and need to be confirmed (W. Bleisch pers. comm.). South Asian populations of <em>Trachypithecus pileatus</em> subspecies are known to exist in adjacent and sometimes overlapping areas of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Myanmar. Various populations exist between 10 and 3,000 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachpithecus pileatus pileatus </em><br/>Occurs in north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, and Nagaland) and north-western Myanmar. Widely distributed in the highlands south and east of the Brahmaputra and west of the Chindwin; in Myanmar found in the Chin Hills south to Mount Victoria; in India, the Karbi Anglong, Khasi, Garo, Naga, and Jaintia Hills, along with the Karbi Plateau and the Barail Range in Assam (Groves 2001).   <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus durga</em> <br/>Occurs in north-eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh and north-eastern India. Found adjoining the range of <em>T. p. pileatus</em> to the north, but at lower altitudes, from nearly sea-level up to 600 m; known from the Naga Hills, Lakhimpur, Golaghat, Cachar Hills, Samaguting, and Sibsagar (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus brahma</em> <br/>Occurs in north-eastern India, where known only from the Dafla Hills, north of the Brahmaputra (Groves 2001). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus pileatus tenebricus</em> <br/>Occurs in Bhutan and north-eastern India. Found in the Manas region to the north of the Brahmaputra River (from 100 up to nearly 2,000 m) into Bhutan (Groves 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
22041	habitat	Das, J., Molur, S. & Bleisch, W., 2008	These animals are diurnal, predominantly arboreal, and folivorous (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). According to Srivastava and Mohnot (2001) they are found in subtropical evergreen, broadleaf, deciduous, and bamboo forests (Choudhury 2001). The generation length is inferred from that of other langur species to be 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
22041	population	Das, J., Molur, S. & Bleisch, W., 2008	This species is the most common langur in north-eastern India (Choudhury 2001). Although sympatric with hoolock gibbons in South Asia, it is not as heavily impacted by the effects of habitat loss and is more adaptive, breeds more rapidly, and can move across fragments easily (A. Kumar and J. Das pers. comm.). However, the species has probably declined by more than 30% in the last 20 years, making it very vulnerable in its extremely fragmented locations (J. Das, A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) and it is predicted to decline at the same rate in the next 20 years (J. Das, A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). <em>T. p. brahma</em> is only known from its holotype, and may either be extinct or perhaps never really existed at all (the differences in its pelage may be attributable merely to seasonal variation).	eng
22041	threats	Das, J., Molur, S. & Bleisch, W., 2008	Populations of this species face a range of threats particular to their geography, with most stemming from human alteration of habitat. Some major causes are jhum cultivation, plant monoculture, timber and firewood harvests, and other development, resulting in a loss of fruiting and lodging trees. Also, these animals are subject to trade for their meat and other body parts, and as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
22042	conservation	Dittus, W., Molur, S. & Nekaris, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. The following conservation management actions have been recommended for the subspecies (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003):<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola:</em> habitat management, limiting factor management, monitoring, and implementation of extant conservation laws; and the following areas in need of research: surveying, genetics, taxonomy, ecology, behavior, life history, epidemiology, and limiting factors.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em>: habitat management, public education, limiting factor management, work in local communities, and a coordinated Species Management Program; and the following areas in need of research: genetics, taxonomy, life history, behavior, surveying, limiting factor research, epidemiology, and studies to identify viable method of conserving the subspecies.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki:</em> habitat management, monitoring, limiting factor management, Population and Habitat Viability Assessment, and implementation of extant laws a priority; and the following areas in need of research: taxonomy, life history, surveying, limiting factor research, epidemiology, trade, zoogeography, population genetics, ecology, and behavior.<br/> <br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em>: habitat management, public education, government education, implementation of extant conservation laws; and the following areas in need of research: genetics, taxonomy, life history, surveying, ecology and behavioral studies. This taxon is found in many protected areas, but most of the areas have introduced pine species, with very little protection, and much of the remaining forests are rubber or other cash crop plantations.  The protected areas are not the size determined, and do not have protection (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Some conservation has been undertaken for this taxon; systematic conservation education programs were launched in 2001 and have increased awareness of this taxon (A. Nekaris pers. comm.).	eng
22042	distribution	Dittus, W., Molur, S. & Nekaris, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka (Corbet and Hill 1992). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in the rainforests of southern Sri Lanka from south of the Kalu Ganga to about Rama (Groves 2001). It ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in western Sri Lanka, from the north of the Kalu Ganga as far north as the rainforest limit (Groves 2001). It ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbrick</em>i <br/>This subspecies is found in the north and east of Sri Lanka in the dry zone, up to 800 m in East Matale and Madukelle Hills (Groves 2001; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; W. Dittus <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em> <br/>This subspecies is found in the mountains of central Sri Lanka (Groves 2001). Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) and W. Dittus (pers. comm.) report that it is found from 1,000 to 2,200 m in elevation.	eng
22042	habitat	Dittus, W., Molur, S. & Nekaris, A., 2008	According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003), <em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em> is found in “lowland and midland tropical rainforest and modified areas with adequate canopy cover. Where its natural habitat has been destroyed, groups may refuge in home gardens and plantations, but these commensal habitats, too, are threatened and offer no long-term survival prospects for the taxon”. Forest fragments may result in artificially dense populations (i.e. depending on the fragments, population size may seem higher). The range is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Nekaris pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003), <em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em> is found in “lowland tropical rainforest, while refugee populations presently inhabit semi-urban and rural home gardens, rubber plantations and areas with adequate canopy cover where these have replaced the original natural forest”; <em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em> is found in “montane tropical rainforest” and <em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki</em> is found in “dry evergreen forests, tropical monsoon and deciduous dry forest, confined to moister areas of dry zone with tall closed forest canopy near permanent sources of water”.	eng
22042	population	Dittus, W., Molur, S. & Nekaris, A., 2008	Population counts are required, as very little is known about the species (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). However, the overall picture is one of serious decline.	eng
22042	threats	Dittus, W., Molur, S. & Nekaris, A., 2008	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) summarize the threats for the four subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus vetulus</em>: selective logging (wet zone forests in 1970s), human settlement, hunting, trade, habitat loss, encroachment for agriculture, plantation, and human habitation. Ill-conceived government-organized translocation schemes of langur groups, coming into conflict with man, pose a threat to taxon survival and overall biodiversity. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  There is a 1:1 relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number. There is also a local trade for meat for food and pelage for making drums at village level for subsistence.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus monticola</em>: deforestation, fragmentation and habitat loss (crop plantation, development, human settlement) and hunting for subsistence or small scale cash. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  In addition, 80% of hill country forests were lost to tea plantations in the 19th century.  There is a close relationship between loss of critical habitat and population number.  There exists a local and domestic trade for meat and skin. Locally pocketed and isolated groups are prone to extinction due to village-level subsistence exploitation.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus nestor</em>: crop plantations, development (infrastructure, industry), human settlement, deforestation, fragmentation, illegal trade for food, pylon collision, and habitat loss. There is also a local trade at village level for meat, but it is not significant.<br/><br/><em>Trachypithecus vetulus philbricki</em>: shifting agriculture, deforestation, human settlement, development, hunting for food, habitat loss, and occasional cyclones in far northeastern areas of range. According to government data, during one 42-year period (1956-1993), the country has lost 50% of its forest cover, and more than 50% if the subsequent 10 years (1994-2003) is included.  The Mahaweli Development Scheme after 1978 had further reduced available habitat for this taxon. There is a close relationship between loss of critical habitat and population numbers. There exists a local trade for meat and skin. The animals are hunted mainly for subsistence living and trade at local village level. Skins in some areas are used to make drums. This may lead to extinction of subpopulations.	eng
22043	conservation	Nadler, T., Xuan Canh, L., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L., 2008	This species is currently listed only as CITES Appendix II. It is considered 'endangered' in Viet Nam, and is listed as a 'most endangered' species under Annex 1B of Decree 32 (2006). It occurs in six protected areas, but many still experience high hunting pressure. Van Long Nature Reserve was established for this species in 2001, and there has been some evidence of population growth in this reserve in the past five years. The connection of forest fragments in some already protected areas, such as Van Long, could greatly increase the size and survivability of some subpopulations. Also considered as beneficial population management for this species are the translocation of severely threatened (small) groups to safe and suitable habitat, and the augmentation of existing groups with offspring from a captive population. Delacour's langurs have been successfully kept and bred in captivity at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center in Cuc Phuong National Park, Viet Nam, which is currently the only collection keeping this species (Nadler 2004). It is necessary to ensure the sustainability of these programs. The Provincial People's Committees need to be encouraged to mitigate against ongoing development activities that encroach upon protected areas where Delacour?s langurs occur.	eng
22043	distribution	Nadler, T., Xuan Canh, L., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L., 2008	This species occurs in a very restricted area of north-central Viet Nam that totals about 6,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The distribution of subpopulations and smaller social groups is closely related to the series of limestone mountain ranges in the provinces of Ninh Binh, Nam Ha, Hoa Binh, and Thanh Hoa (Nadler 2004). Karst forest in the northwestern area (Black River Valley) has been surveyed, but there are no records of this species there (T. Nadler unpub. report). Previous literature has suggested a larger range for the taxon, but recent survey work has shown that it has a much more restricted range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
22043	habitat	Nadler, T., Xuan Canh, L., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L., 2008	This species is presently restricted to limestone karst forest habitat, with some records from secondary forest in limestone areas as well (Nadler 1996; Nadler 2004; Rowe 1996). The species ranges in elevation up to 1,000 m. The caves found in this habitat are thought to offer protection from predators and temperature extremes, but, if accessible to people, are where human hunters capture or kill sleeping langurs (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). The populations in Van Long, where there is a fairly good population, survive in a habitat that is mosaic cover, mostly evergreen shrub environment, on a cliff side with caves in which they sleep. It is diurnal and crepuscular; its degree of arboreality and terrestriality is habitat-dependent. This species is mainly folivorous, with leaves making up between 60-80% of its diet; the rest is composed of shoots, fruit, flowers, and bark.	eng
22043	population	Nadler, T., Xuan Canh, L., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L., 2008	The total population surviving in the above region is estimated to be between 200 and 250 individuals, surviving in 19 isolated subpopulations; the species is believed to be extirpated from three additional sites, and some important populations, including those in Cuc Phuong National Park and Pu Luong Nature Reserve, have decreased by 20% in the last five years. Previous survey work (1995-1999) had estimated the population at between 281 and 317 individuals (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Sixty percent of the total population occurs in subpopulations with fewer than 20 animals (Nadler 2004). The largest of the surviving subpopulations has increased and totals about 50 individuals in Van Long Nature Reserve, which is the only protected area that is well guarded by forest rangers and relatively inaccessible to people (Nadler 2004; T. Nadler pers. comm.).	eng
22043	threats	Nadler, T., Xuan Canh, L., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Khac Quyet, L., 2008	Hunting for the purposes of traditional ?medicine? is the primary threat facing this species; most of the populations that survive are heavily reduced and fragmented. Only the subpopulation at Van Long, with about 50 individuals, is thought likely to survive given the current hunting pressure; however, quarrying for limestone (cement), which is currently taking place there, has affected the ranging behaviour of the animals (T. Nadler pers. comm.). The smallest groups are extremely unlikely to survive should the one reproductively active male be taken or killed (Nadler 2004). Forest loss is a more minor threat as it occurs in degraded areas. A potential threat is the rapid development of tourist facilities adjacent to protected areas, especially around Van Long and Hoa Lu Nature Reserves.	eng
22044	conservation	Timmins, R.J. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and is known to occur in 2 protected areas: Khammouane National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area (R. Timmins pers. comm.). There is a need for further survey work to resolve the taxonomic and population status of the langur north of the Nam Theun River.	eng
22044	distribution	Timmins, R.J. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is only known from Khammouane and Borikhamxai Provinces in Lao PDR (Le and Campbell 1993/1994, Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, Groves 2001). The range north of the Nam Theun River is speculative; a langur most likely <em>T. laotum</em> is widely reported from limestone in this area, although there is no confirmation that is indeed <em>T. laotum</em>.	eng
22044	habitat	Timmins, R.J. & Boonratana, R., 2008	This species is closely associated with forests in limestone/karst environments, but is also associated with non-limestone rock outcrops on steep or precipitous mountain slopes. It is folivorous, terrestrial and arboreal, and diurnal. (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).	eng
22044	population	Timmins, R.J. & Boonratana, R., 2008	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species; however, it is common in suitable habitat throughout its range, which is estimated at between 500-2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Reliable population estimates depend greatly on differentiating between <em>laotum</em> and <em>ebenus</em> in the Phou Hin Poun area, and also the identity of the langur occurring north of the Nam Theun River. Populations north of the Nam Theun are scarce and localized, are naturally more fragmentary, and have already declined seriously due to hunting (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).	eng
22044	threats	Timmins, R.J. & Boonratana, R., 2008	The major threat to the species is hunting for food and medicine (as with <em>T. hatinhensis,</em> there has been a shift from the use of firearms to snaring). Habitat loss is likely to be a threat in the long-term, although at present it is unlikely to be significantly influencing population trends (Ruggeri and Timmins 1995/1996, R. Timmins pers. comm.).	eng
22045	conservation	Bleisch, B., Xuan Canh, L., Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is currently listed in CITES Appendix II.  <br/><br/>Since November 2000, the subspecies <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> and its habitat on Cat Ba have been the subject of the Cat Ba Langur Conservation Project (implemented by the Zoological Society for the Conservation of Species and Populations, ZSCSP), which has been focused on the improvement of protection status for the subspecies and its habitat, and has initiated two important programs. The first is a langur sanctuary located inside Cat Ba National Park and a ?buffer zone? of the World Heritage Site ?Halong Bay.? Thirty-five percent of the remaining population lives in the sanctuary. The second is a langur-guarding program that is meant to protect 35% of the population that exists outside of the national park. This program puts the subpopulations and their ranges under the control of local people that patrol the ranges and offer community conservation education. The most important steps in the recovery of this subspecies now are continued protection from poaching and encroachment, a reduction in the habitat fragmentation and subpopulation isolation, and an increase in reproductive output and genetic health of the entire population, suggesting the need for translocation (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004).<br/><br/>The largest populations of <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> are expected to recover under proper conservation of their Nong Guan and Nong Lin limestone habitats (Wang and Tong 2004). Nong Guan and Nong Lin are now being included in a larger proposed national-level nature reserve called Chongzuo Eco-Park, a special nature reserve for the white-headed langur (381 km<sup>2</sup>) with a population of about 250 individuals (Nadler 2003). However, considering the precarious status of the populations of this subspecies, reliable information is desperately needed about the precise effects of habitat degradation on its activity and survival (Li and Rogers 2005).<br/><br/>There are currently no specimens of <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> in captivity; a small number of <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> are reported in the collection of the Endangered Primate Rescue Center, Cuc Phuong National Park, Viet Nam (Nadler 1999).	eng
22045	distribution	Bleisch, B., Xuan Canh, L., Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is known only from northern Viet Nam and adjacent southern China.<br/><br/><em>T. p. poliocephalus</em><br/>Confined to Cat Ba Island, in Ha Long Bay off the northeastern cost of Viet Nam. There it is further restricted to about a 100 km<sup>2</sup> area of occupancy, mostly inside Cat Ba National Park (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004). It ranges from 70-100 m in elevation (Le and Campbell 1994) and possibly from 0 to 200 m.<br/><br/><em>T. p. leucocephalus</em><br/>Occurs in south China (southwestern Guangxi province), in isolated areas from the Shiwan Dushan north to the Zuo River, specifically in the karst hills of Gang Nature Reserve, Fushui Nature Reserve, Chongzuo Nature Reserve, and Longrui Nature Reserve.	eng
22045	habitat	Bleisch, B., Xuan Canh, L., Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is associated with forests on limestone (karst) hills. The caves found in this habitat are thought to offer protection from predators and temperature extremes but, if accessible to people, this habitat is also where human hunters capture or kill sleeping langurs (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is arboreal and terrestrial, and diurnal. Like other langurs, this species is mainly folivorous, with leaves making up between 60-80% of its diet; the rest is composed of shoots, fruit, flowers, and bark (Li <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
22045	population	Bleisch, B., Xuan Canh, L., Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	The current total population of <em>T. p. poliocephalus</em> as of August 2006 is 64 individuals (Stenke pers. comm.), down from an estimated 100 individuals in 2000 (Nadler and Long 2000), but apparently an increase from the all-time low (less than 60 individuals) in the interim period. These animals are fragmented into seven isolated subpopulations; average group size is low, at 3.7 individuals, and there are 3-4 all-female groups, which are consequently non-reproductive (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004).<br/><br/>As of 2003, <em>T. p. leucocephalus</em> totaled about 700-800 individuals remaining in the wild, 250 of which live in Nong Gang, a maximum of 350 individuals live in Nong Lin. Also as of 2003, the population had begun to grow after a period of human-induced decline (Wang and Tong 2004). A survey conducted in Fusui Rare and Precious Animal Nature Reserve between September 1996 and April 1997, found a 24% decline in the population density over the past 10 years, with a current population of less than 150 langurs (Li <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
22045	threats	Bleisch, B., Xuan Canh, L., Covert, B. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	Poaching, both for meat and traditional ?medicine,? has been recognized as the most severe threat to Cat Ba langurs, and the reason for the precipitous decline in their population over the past couple of decades. Reproductively valuable males were often the most common victims due to their behaviour (Stenke and Chu Xuan Canh 2004). Habitat disturbance and fragmentation resulting from the growing human population on Cat Ba Island (due in part to the country?s designation of the island as a new tourism centre for northern Viet Nam), and rampant fires due to honey collectors (Nadler and Long 2000) are also threats. Tourism in the inadequately managed Cat Ba National Park has direct effects on langur natural history, such as the disturbance to habitat and perhaps behaviour caused by things like nightly spotlighting trips in speed boats around the karst archipelago where these monkeys live. The small size and fragmented nature of the remaining Cat Ba langur population means that the subspecies is at risk of inbreeding effects (or intrinsic effects to avoid inbreeding by not breeding at all), extremely limited mate-choice due to the small number of males per group, and the chance of a natural or human disaster causing total or effective extinction.<br/><br/>In China, clearing of land with fire, burning of agricultural residue and burning charcoal often leads to uncontrolled fires that escape into adjacent karst landscapes. The white-headed Langur is surrounded in some areas by subsistence agriculture, such that much of the habitat is fragmented (Li and Rogers 2005). Tree cutting for firewood has caused further degradation to the remaining habitat (Li and Rogers 2005). Along with habitat destruction, poaching has been the primary cause of the most recent decline in the population (Wang and Tong 2004). There is some evidence that breeding is hindered in degraded habitats.	eng
22046	conservation	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Fully protected by law but enforcement is generally absent. Effective protection is limited to around 20 km² of habitat in Gaysay and around Bale Mountains N.P. headquarters. The Bale Mountains National Park harbours around half the total population of mountain nyalas. The small Kuni-Muktar Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1990 as a second protected area for mountain nyala, but by 1996 this sanctuary had suffered severely from poaching, deforestation, cultivation and gully erosion, and the species no longer occurred.<br/><br/>The mountain nyala, along with the Ethiopian wolf, is a key flagship species for Bale Mountains National Park and its future will be closely tied to the future of this protected area. It is also very important to spread the risk by establishing effective protection and management of mountain nyala populations elsewhere within its range. Sustainable trophy hunting in some of these areas has very high potential for generating the revenue needed to fund effective conservation of this species and the other endemics which share its habitat. It may also be advisable to establish a self-sustaining captive population in collaboration with the Ethiopian conservation authorities, as an insurance against future adversity for the wild population.	eng
22046	distribution	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, south-east of the Rift Valley, between 6°N and 10°N. Formerly occurred from Gara Muleta in the east to Shashamane and north Sidamo in the south, but has been eliminated from a large part of its former range. Currently, the main area of distribution is the Bale Mountains National Park   and the eastern escarpments of the Bale massif. Smaller relict populations occur in Chercher (=Amhar) Mountains (Asba Tafari, Arba Guggu, Din Din), Arsi Mountains (Chilalo, Galama, Mt Kaka, Munessa), and West Bale (Somkaro-Korduro ridge) (Hillman 1988, East 1999, Malcolm and Evangelista 2005, Sillero-Zubiri in press,   Atickem in litt. 2009).	eng
22046	habitat	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Mountain Nyalas occur at elevations of 1,800-3,400 m but are most abundant from 2,400-3,200 m (Atickem in litt. 2009). They frequent the fringes of montane grasslands (2,800 to 3,100 m) dominated by <em>Artemesia afra, Kniphofia foliosa</em> and <em>Hypericum</em> spp. (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Highest densities (up to 21/km²) have been recorded in the montane grasslands of Gaysay, Bale, where there is a combination of browse and grass with woodland cover to retreat to during the day (Hillman and Hillman 1987).<br/><br/>The formerly large continuous blocks of suitable woodland and Afroalpine habitat have now been reduced to a series of habitat islands in a sea of cultivated fields. It seems likely that mountain nyalas have been forced into higher areas by human increase and livestock grazing, and are also found above 3,400 m in heath forest and heathlands (<em>Erica</em> and <em>Phillippia</em> spp.) and on Afroalpine grasslands (<em>Alchemilla</em> spp., <em>Festuca</em> spp.) up to 4,300 m (Sillero-Zubiri in press). In the eastern extreme of its distribution, a relict population was recorded in forests as low as 1,800 m (Bolton 1973).	eng
22046	population	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	The population was estimated at 7,000 to 8,000 (and perhaps up to 12,500) in the 1960s (Brown 1969), and at 2,000 to 4,000 individuals in the 1980s (Hillman 1988). Numbers have declined since then. Mountain Nyalas may be extinct in the eastern and southern extremes of their distribution, but a few may still occur in Asba Tafari and in the border between Bale and Sidamo, south of Kofele. East (1999) calculated the population at 2,650, but subsequent information indicates that this may have been an overestimate. The main population formerly occurred in and around the Gaysay grasslands at the northern end of the Bale Mountains, and its numbers have been monitored since 1983. Numbers here increased to 1,050 by the late 1980s (Hillman 1988) as a result of creation of a national park in the 1970s which provided protection from poaching and excluded cattle grazing. Woldegebriel (1997) estimated the population prior to 1990 at 1,500 to 1,900. Unfortunately, following political unrest after the end of the war in 1991, most mountain nyala habitat in northern Bale was encroached by cattle and there was extensive hunting. As a result, the Gaysay population decreased to a fraction of what it was earlier. National Park staff estimated it to be 150 to 260 by 1994 (Woldegebriel 1997). There has been some  recovery since, and the Gaysay population was estimated at 550 by Refera and Bekele (2004) and Malcolm and Evangelista (2005).<br/><br/>In addition to Gaysay, there may be 80 to 120 mountain nyalas in other parts of Bale Mountains National Park, less than 100 in adjacent hunting areas to the north of the National Park, and 30 to 60 in Somkaro in west Bale (C. Sillero-Zubiri pers. obs.). Malcolm and Evangelista (2005) estimated as many as 500 nyala may occur in hunting blocks east of Bale. This would give a total population estimate for the Bale massif of 1,000-1,400. Small fragmented populations found in Arsi (Galama, Chilalo, Kaka and Munesa), and elsewhere (Kuni Muktar, Din Din, Arba Gugu) would total around 600 (Malcolm and Evangelista 2005). Therefore, it is likely that only 1,500 to 2,000 mountain nyalas survive throughout the range. A recent survey has indicated the total population may be higher, perhaps up to 4,000 (Evangelista <em>et al</em>. 2007). No nyalas are currently kept in captivity (East 1999).<br/>    <p>Recent research has shown that the largest population currently occurs outside Bale National Park on the eastern escarpment of the Bale massif, mainly in Besemena Odobullu and Shedom Berbere (Anagaw Atickem in litt. 2009). </p>	eng
22046	threats	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Threatened by illegal hunting, destruction of montane forest and heathlands, encroachment by cattle, expansion of high-altitude cultivation, roads, and harassment by dogs. Permanent occupation of suitable habitat as a result of increasing human and livestock populations is exerting tremendous pressure on nyala habitat throughout the range, with anecdotal evidence suggesting mountain nyalas actively avoid livestock (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Mountain Nyalas are extensively hunted for meat and horns, the latter used for local medicine and to make nipples for traditional milk bottles. Trophy hunting blocks in Arsi have been hunted out and concessions moved to Bale, with continued pressure by the industry for additional hunting blocks and larger quotas. Effects of current trophy-hunting programs are not well understood and current trophy hunting quotas may be unsustainable in the long-term (Sillero-Zubiri in press). Its restricted range, and fragmented populations, make it highly vulnerable to human activities and stochastic events.	eng
22047	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the Lowland Bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by international sport hunters during the 1990s. Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of Lowland Bongo populations. Trophy hunting has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of Bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited (East 1999).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated that perhaps 60% of Bongo numbers were confined to protected areas. In Central Africa, these include Dzanga-Ndoki National Park and Bangassou areas of the Central African Republic, Lobeke National Park (Cameroon), and in Nouabale-Ndoki National Park and Odzala National Park (Republic of Congo); in West Africa, strongholds include Taï (Côte d’Ivoire), Sapo (Liberia), and Kakum National Parks (Ghana) (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press). However, because the highest known abundances of Bongo in Central Africa occur in logging concessions not protected areas, an approach is needed that incorporates both protected areas and logging concessions (see Elkan 2003; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>The Mountain Bongo’s survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya (East 1999). Two conservation initiatives are currently in progress on Mountain Bongo. A programme to reintroduce Bongo to Mt Kenya began in 2004, when 18 animals where flown from North American zoos to a captive-breeding facility at Mount Kenya Game Ranch, on the north-western slope of the mountain. A second phase began in 2005, with the commencement of a research programme into the Mountain Bongo’s ecology. This project will attempt to determine the configuration of Bongo habitat on both the Aberdares and Mount Kenya, using recently collected field and remotely sensed data (L. Estes pers. comm.). Meanwhile, the Bongo Surveillance Programme, initiated in 2004, has been investigating the status of the remaining wild Bongo populations in Kenya (L. Estes pers. comm.).	eng
22047	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Western or Lowland Bongo ranges from Sierra Leone to Benin, being absent east of the Dahomey Gap, and then continues east of the Adamawa Highlands in Cameroon to southern Sudan and DR Congo. West Africa populations are declining throughout much of their range, although most of the central Africa populations still maintain their historical distribution (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>Historically, the Mountain Bongo occurred in and around forested zones of Mt. Kenya, the Aberdares, Mau forest, Cherengani hills and Chepalungu hills in Kenya and Mount Elgon in Kenya and Uganda (Elkan and Smith in press). The Mountain Bongo was exterminated from the Uganda side of Mount Elgon around 1913-1914 (Kingdon 1982). It is now confined to four completely isolated populations in patches of forest on Mt. Kenya, the Mau and Eburu forests, and the Aberdares in Kenya (Elkan and Smith in press).	eng
22047	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bongo is associated with disturbed forest areas and the forest-savanna ecotone in the West and Central African lowlands and the Kenya highlands. There is a record from 4,300 m on Mount Kenya (Young and Evans 1993). It thrives on transition vegetation at the forest edge and in new growth areas that occur after disturbance (i.e. post-timber exploitation, elephant disturbance, tree-falls, landslides, burned fields) (Elkan and Smith in press). Forest clearings and mineral licks are important for geophagy and socialization (Elkan and Smith in press). Bongo are primarily grasers, but exhibit some seasonal grazing on grasses (Elkan and Smith in press).	eng
22047	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population of Lowland Bongo at 28,000, with populations in the order of a few thousands in the west (where populations are fragmented), and tens of thousands in the central Africa forest zone. It tends to be naturally rare or absent over large parts of the equatorial forest zone. <br/><br/>The current population estimate (2007) for the Mountain Bongo is ca. 75-140 individuals: Aberdare Mts (50-100); Mt Kenya (6-12); Mau Forest (6-12), Eburu Forest (6-12) (M. Prettejohn and L. Estes in litt to ASG 2007).<br/><br/>Dense forest habitat, patchy distributions, wide-ranging patterns, retiring behaviour and crepuscular/nocturnal activity patterns hinder any reliable estimation of Bongo densities (Elkan and Smith in press). Hillman (1986) estimated 1.2/km² in southern Sudan based on group size observations and mineral lick distribution.	eng
22047	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Lowland Bongo faces an ongoing population decline as habitat destruction and hunting for meat (mainly through snares) increase with the relentless expansion of commercial forestry exploitation and human settlement (East 1999; Elkan and Smith in press).<br/><br/>Threats to Mountain Bongo include hunting with dogs and loss of habitat in the Mau and Eburu forests to illegal logging. The decline of Mountain Bongo populations in the Aberdares in recent years has been attributed to increased hunting by local people and habitat loss, and even to the increased numbers of Lion in the area (Elkan and Smith in press). Although these factors have no doubt contributed to the decline of Mountain Bongo, the impact of disease has probably been underestimated: the grazing of cattle in the forest reserves of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares as high as the Hagenia forest on the Aberdares plateau may have greater implications for Bongo conservation than hunting pressure in terms of disease transmission (L. Estes, in Elkan and Smith in press). Percival (1928) reported that rinderpest drastically reduced the populations of the Mountain Bongo in the 1890s, and populations are thought to have suffered greatly in later epidemics in the early 1900s.	eng
22050	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About 40% of the population survies in and around protected areas (East 1999), with major, generally stable populations occurring in Dja and Lobeke (Cameroon), Bangassou (Central African Republic), Odzala N.P. and L. Tele-Likouala (Republic of Congo), Salongo N.P. (DR Congo), Bangweulu and Busanga Swamps (Zambia), Okavango Delta (Botswana), and Akagera N.P. (Rwanda) (East 1999; May and Lindholm in press). At present, only a few of these areas receive moderate-high levels of protection and management. The current survival of good Sitatunga populations in other areas, such as Lobeke, Bangweulu and Okavango, is a product of low human population densities rather than active conservation (East 1999). <br/><br/>In some areas, sustainable trophy hunting is an economically important form of utilization of this species, for example, in northern Botswana, which has produced some of Africa’s largest Sitatunga trophies. The large areas of swamp within the Okavango Delta currently provide the Sitatunga with a safe refuge. They should continue to do so, as long as the ecology of the Delta is not altered significantly by factors such as cattle grazing within the swampland, uncontrolled burning, overhunting and hydrological schemes that would affect the water levels in the perennial or seasonal swamps. Moremi Game Reserve contains a limited area of permanent swamp with moderate numbers of sitatunga, but proposals to incorporate the Xo Flats within this reserve would significantly increase the protected population of this antelope (East 1999). The species’ significance as a trophy animal is an important economic incentive for the conservation of its habitat, and hunting zones adjoining national parks and equivalent reserves have the potential to play an increasingly important role in the conservation of the Sitatunga (East 1999).	eng
22050	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Sitatunga probably occurred formerly alongside waterways throughout the lowland forest zone of West and Central Africa, extending into swamp systems in the savanna zones of Central, East and southern Africa. It is now rare and localized in West Africa, but it remains widespread and locally common in the Central African forests and in some swamp systems within the savannas of Central, East and southern Africa. They are now extinct in Niger and probably Togo, but have been confirmed as still surviving in Ghana (May and Lindholm in press).	eng
22050	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Sitatunga occur in tall and dense vegetation of perennial and seasonal swamps, marshy clearings within forests, riverine thickets, and mangrove swamps. In savanna environments, they are typically found in extensive monospecific stands of papyrus <em>Cyperus papyrus</em> and the reeds <em>Phragmites</em> spp. and <em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em> (May and Lindholm in press). Sitatunga usually avoid open water devoid of vegetation. They are selective mixed feeders taking a range of grasses, sedges and browse (May and Lindholm in press). Sitatunga coexist with the Nile Lechwe in the great Sudd in southern Sudan, and with the Common Lechwe in Zambia, Botswana, and Angola.	eng
22050	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The cryptic nature of Sitatunga and the relative inaccessibility of their habitat makes reliable estimates of abundance difficult. Aerial surveys tend to grossly underestimate this species’ numbers (East 1999). Densities of up to 64/km² in Akagera N.P. (Rwanda) and 60/km² in the Busanga Swamps (Zambia) have been recorded (May and Lindholm in press; and see discussion therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated a total population of 170,000, but this is likely to be an overestimate (May and Lindholm in press). Its numbers are probably decreasing in densely settled areas but stable elsewhere.	eng
22050	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Loss of habitat is the main threat to the future persistence of Sitatunga. The ever-increasing loss of wetlands throughout their range has cut off former routes of dispersal and many populations are becoming isolated. Sitatunga are vulnerable to long-term changes in water level because it alters vegetation structure, which in turn largely determines their distribution and abundance. Habitat fragmentation, and both lower and higher water levels make them more vulnerable to meat hunting in many parts of its range (May and Lindholm in press). Swamps are also extremely vulnerable to fire; vast areas of Bangweulu and Busanga are burnt each year (May and Lindholm in press). Nonetheless, the Sitatunga shows a remarkable ability to survive near human habitation, provided suitable habitat remains.	eng
22051	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bushbuck is present in numerous protected areas across its range. Its ability to survive widely in settled areas and successfully utilize habitats modified by human activities should ensure that it survives in substantial numbers outside protected areas for the foreseeable future (East 1999).	eng
22051	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bushbuck ranges very widely in sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in 40 African countries, more than any other antelope species (East 1999). They range from Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea Bissau through West Africa, south of the Sahara, to north-east Africa then southwards throughout East Africa and the more mesic areas of southern Africa to the Western Cape of South Africa (East 1999; Plumptre and Wronski in press). The only sub-Saharan country from which they have not recently been recorded, and where they may formerly have occurred, is Lesotho (Lynch 1994).	eng
22051	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bushbuck occur widely in sub-Saharan Africa wherever there is cover to conceal it, from sea level to 4,000 m, from rainforest edge to patches of gallery forest and bush near water in the subdesert. It is naturally absent from arid and semi-arid regions and from extensive areas of closed-canopy forest. Its ability to survive in human-dominated landscapes and to withstand heavy hunting pressure have enabled it to persist over much of its former range (East 1999). Bushbuck are primarily browsers; in some areas, they enter agricultural fields to eat crops and may be considered a pest (Plumptre and Wronski in press).	eng
22051	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Bushbuck reaches high densities in localized areas of favourabe habitat, e.g., 78 resident individuals were identified within a 2.6 km² area of open forest within Nairobi National Park (Kenya) giving a population density of 30/km², and faecal counts gave population density estimates of 11 - 44/km² in montane forest and adjoining habitats within Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda). Aerial surveys undoubtedly grossly underestimate the Bushbuck’s population density because of its preference for cover and its secretive habits. Ground surveys have produced density estimates of 0.08-1.0/m², but again the Bushbuck’s tendency to remain concealed probably results in significant undercounting in some ground surveys (East 1999; Plumpre and Wronski in press; and references therein).<br/><br/>East (1999) estimated the total population of Bushbuck at 1,340,000, likely an underestimate. Its numbers are stable over considerable parts of its range, but are decreasing in densely settled regions (various authors in East 1999).	eng
22051	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Bushbuck have disappeared from some areas in the drier parts of its former range because of habitat destruction and increasing aridity, but it is expanding its distribution within the equatorial forest zone as this is opened up by human activities. There do not seem to be any major threats to its long-term conservation, although numbers may be gradually decreasing locally as hunting pressures increase in parts of its range (East 1999).	eng
22052	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Over 80% of the estimated total population occurs in protected areas (East 1999). The major populations survive in South African protected areas in the KwaZulu-Natal Game Reserves of Ndumo, uMkuze and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, and in Kruger N.P. (East 1999; Anderson in press). Nyala also occur in substantial numbers on private land (10-15%) in South Africa, including extralimital areas (East 1999). The dispersion of Nyala and their increase in numbers in South Africa is due primarily to the high demand for adult males by trophy hunters (Anderson in press). Nyala respond well to protection, to the point where over-population can become a management problem. The current efforts to rehabilitate Mozambique’s wildlife offer the prospect that the nyala may recover its former abundance in areas such as Gorongosa and Banhine National Parks (East 1999).	eng
22052	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Nyala's natural range comprises south-eastern Africa from the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi through Mozambique and Zimbabwe to eastern South Africa and Swaziland. It has been introduced to Namibia on private land in the northern commercial farming districts. Likewise it does not occur naturally in Botswana, but some of the Tuli block farms in the east have been colonised as a result of the spread of Nyala from populations introduced to farms in the adjacent region of South Africa (East 1999; Anderson in press).<br/><br/>In Swaziland, the species was extinct by the 1950s, but they have been successfully reintroduced.	eng
22052	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	An inhabitant of dense thickets, forest, and open-thicket woodland mosaic, generally near water. Nyala feed selectively on both the leaves and fruits of woody plants as well as grasses; although they drink daily where water is available, in parts of their range in Mozambique and Zimbabwe they are found where no surface water is present for several months of the year (Anderson in press).	eng
22052	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population of Nyala to exceed around 32,000 individuals. <br/><br/>More recently, Anderson (in press) estimates that South Africa has at least 30,000, with the largest populations (25,000) in KwaZulu-Natal. There are now more than 1,000 on protected areas and ranches in Swaziland (Monadjem 1998). Nyala are still widespread in Mozambique but numbers probably do not exceed 3,000 (Anderson in press). Zimbabwe has more than 1,000, while numbers in Malawi have declined from 3,000 (East 1999) to about 1,500, most notably in the population in Lengwe N.P. (which was originally created especially for this species). Extralimital to the species’ natural range, Namibia has about 250, all on private ranches.	eng
22052	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Nyala disappeared from extensive areas of its former range mainly due to habitat loss to agriculture and cattle grazing, and the combined effects of rinderpest and hunting. However, today they remain relatively widespread both within and outside of their former range. There are no current major threats to Nyala populations, although some protected area populations have undergone declines, notably that in Lengwe N.P.	eng
22053	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About one-third of the estimated total population occurs in protected areas. Important populations occur in protected areas such as Awash, Omo and Mago National Parks (Ethiopia), Bush Bush National Park (Somalia), Tsavo National Park (Kenya) and Ruaha National Park and adjoining game reserves (Tanzania), but it occurs in larger numbers outside protected areas (East 1999). <br/><br/>The Lesser Kudu’s long-term survival prospects would be enhanced by improved protection and management of the relatively few protected areas which support substantial populations. In addition, its value as a trophy animal gives the species high potential for increased revenue generation in the extensive bushlands where it still occurs in good numbers outside national parks and equivalent reserves (East 1999).	eng
22053	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Lesser Kudu occupies semi-arid areas of north-eastern Africa, commonly known as the Somali-Masai Arid Zone of Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. Its range extends from ca. 12° N in the Awash area of Ethiopia southward through southern Ethiopia, much of Somalia except the north and northeast (i.e. east of 46° E and north of 08°N), most of Kenya except the southwest, extreme southeast Sudan, extreme northeast Uganda to northeast and central Tanzania (Leuthold in press). It is extinct in Djibouti (East 1999).<br/><br/>The purported former occurrence of this species in Saudi Arabia (Harrison and Bates 1991) is based on two sets of horns said to have originated from Arabia and one from southern Yemen. No live animals have ever been reported from the area, and the true origin of those specimens remains in doubt.	eng
22053	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Lesser Kudu is closely associated with <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> thornbush in semi-arid areas of north-eastern Africa; it generally avoids open spaces and long grass (East 1999; Leuthold in press). They have been recorded at about 1,740 m near Mt Kilimanjaro (Grimshaw <em>et al.</em> 1995). The Lesser Kudu is primarily a browser, consuming mainly leaves of trees, shrubs and herbs, and their water requirements can largely be fulfilled from the water content of the food plants (Leuthold in press).	eng
22053	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population estimates based on recent aerial surveys are available for considerable areas of the lesser kudu’s range, but aerial surveys substantially underestimate this species’ true numbers. In addition, its populations are unknown in the remainder of its range. The sum of available estimates, about 22,000, is therefore probably a significant underestimate of the species’ actual total numbers. Correcting for undercounting bias in aerial surveys, East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 118,000. Despite the species’ ability to persist in the face of uncontrolled meat hunting, its numbers are probably in gradual decline over extensive areas of its range as human settlement expands.	eng
22053	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Its shyness and preference for thick cover enable it to withstand considerable hunting pressure, e.g., it is relatively plentiful throughout the Ogaden region wherever there is sufficient dense bush, despite widespread, uncontrolled hunting by local people (East 1999). On the other hand, its susceptibility to rinderpest resulted in a substantial decrease in its numbers in eastern regions of Kenya during the mid-1990s. These populations can be expected to recover following the subsidence of this rinderpest outbreak. There are relatively few parts of the Lesser Kudu’s range where protection against poaching reaches moderate levels or better, and eradication of rinderpest from cattle would be a major step towards reducing current pressures on its populations (East 1999).	eng
22054	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Greater Kudu are well represented in protected areas, rom southern Tanzania to South Africa, with major populations in parks and reserves such as Ruaha-Rungwa- Kisigo and Selous (Tanzania), Luangwa Valley and Kafue (Zambia), Etosha (Namibia), Moremi, Chobe and Central Kgalagadi (Botswana), Hwange, Chizarira, Mana Pools and Gonarezhou (Zimbabwe) and Kruger and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi (South Africa). It also occurs widely outside protected areas, including large numbers on private farms and conservancies in southern Africa (Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa) where it is a mainstay of the trophy hunting industry (East 1999).<br/><br/>In the northern parts of its range, key areas where some of the northern populations appear to have reasonable prospects for long-term survival include Zakouma N.P. (Chad), Awash N.P. (Ethiopia), Baringo, northern Laikipia and Tsavo (Kenya), and Tarangire (Tanzania) (East 1999).	eng
22054	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Historically, the Greater Kudu occurred over much of eastern and southern Africa, from Chad nearly to the Red Sea, south to the Eastern Cape, west to Namibia and north to mid-Angola. While it has disappeared from substantial areas, mainly in the north of its range, it generally persists in a greater part of its former range than other large antelope species, as a result of its secretiveness and its ability to survive in settled areas with sufficient cover. As in the past, it is much more sparsely distributed and less numerous in the northern parts of its range (from northern Tanzania northwards) than further south. The species seems now to be extinct at least in Somalia; there is no recent information on their status in Sudan or Djibouti (East 1999; Owen-Smith in press).	eng
22054	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Preferred habitat includes mixed scrub woodland (it is one of the few large mammals that thrives in settled areas - in the scrub woodland and bush that reclaims abandoned fields and degraded pastures-), acacia, and mopane bush on lowlands, hills, and mountains. Recorded to 2,400 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Kudu are browsers; they can exist for long periods without drinking, obtaining sufficient moisture from their food, but become water dependent at times when the vegetation is very dry (Owen-Smith in press).	eng
22054	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population estimates are available for many parts of the Greater Kudu’s range, but many of these are based on aerial counts which tend to substantially underestimate this species’ actual numbers. The sum of the available estimates (352,000) is therefore likely to be considerably less than the true total numbers of the species. Population densities estimated from aerial surveys are frequently less than 0.1/km², even in areas where this species is known to be at least reasonably common. Higher densities of 0.2-0.4/km² have been estimated by aerial surveys in some other areas. Ground counts in areas where the Greater Kudu is common have produced population density estimates from 0.3/m² to 4.1/km² (East 1999). <br/><br/>East (1999) estimated a total population of around 482,000 Greater Kudu, with the largest populations found in Namibia, where the species remains widely abundant on private farmland, and South Africa. Population trends are generally stable or increasing on private land and in protected areas in southern and south-central Africa and Tanzania, but show a tendency to decline in other regions.	eng
22054	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Greater Kudu’s status is less satisfactory in the northern parts of its range, due to overhunting and habitat loss.  However, this does not seem to be affecting the species' overall long-term survival as they remain abundant and well managed in other parts of its range.	eng
22055	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	About half of this estimated total population occurs in protected areas and 30% on private land (East 1999). Protected areas that support major populations include Omo (Ethiopia), Serengeti, Katavi, Ruaha and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Etosha (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (South Africa). Most of these populations appear to be stable. Relatively large numbers of the Common Eland now occur on private land, particularly in Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa, reflecting its value as a trophy animal. Common Eland have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Kenya, as well as in Russia, Ukraine, and England (Thouless in press).	eng
22055	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Common Eland formerly occurred throughout the savanna woodlands of eastern and southern Africa, extending into high-altitude grasslands and the arid savannas and scrublands of the Kalahari and Karoo in southern Africa. It has been eliminated from more than half of its former range by the expansion of human populations, and their numbers have decreased dramatically since the 1970s as a result of civil wars and their aftermath in countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Angola and Mozambique. They are now extinct in Burundi. However, Common Eland have been reintroduced to a number of game ranches and private ranchland in southern Africa (particularly South Africa), and this has done much to bolster numbers. In addition, animals have been introduced widely outside of their natural range; for example, although their natural range in Namibia is restricted to the northeastern parts, they now occur widely on game ranches in the southern and central parts (East 1999).	eng
22055	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Common Elands are one of the most adaptable ruminants, inhabiting subdesert, acacia savanna, miombo woodland, and alpine moorlands to 4,900 m. They are not found in deep forest, in true deserts, or in completely open grassland, though they do occur in grassland with good herb cover (Thouless in press). Common Eland are primarily broswers, and move long distances in search of ephemeral food sources; they can go without water for prolonged periods, able to obtain sufficient moisture from their food (Thouless in press).	eng
22055	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Citing various authors, East (1999) indicates that population density estimates obtained by aerial counts in areas where the species is moderately common generally range from about 0.05 - 0.4/km². Higher density estimates (0.6-1.0/km²) have been obtained by aerial counts. Ground surveys or total counts of areas where the species is common have produced similar density estimates.<br/><br/>East (1999) produced a total population estimate of 136,000, with stable/increasing national populations are now confined to Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi and possibly Tanzania. Population trends vary from increasing to decreasing within individual protected areas, and are generally increasing on private land and decreasing in other areas.	eng
22055	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Habitat loss (due to expanding human settlements) and poaching for its superior meat have resulted in drastic reductions of range and populations.	eng
22065	conservation	Oliver, W., Matillano, J. & Widmann, P., 2008	Mouse deer are surprisingly well-known within the Philippines and constitute a potentially ideal vehicle for promoting increased future conservation, research and education activities in this region (Grubb and Gardiner, 1998), though little or no effective action has been taken to date. The species is fully protected under both Philippine national law and various local (provincial and municipal) ordinances (NRMC, 1985), but these are mostly ineffectively enforced at the present time. The species would undoubtedly also benefit from the establishment of effectively protected areas (it is not currently known from any), and the enhanced enforcement of laws on hunting and trade. Research is needed on its habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs throughout it is extremely limited range; the latter therefore also including Bugsuc Island, much of which is privately-owned and inaccessible to researchers without prior permission. Existing captive populations of this species could be more usefully utilized as the basis for a properly structured conservation breeding programme; though any such initiative should be linked to related <em>in-situ</em> conservation management and applied research requirements.	eng
22065	distribution	Oliver, W., Matillano, J. & Widmann, P., 2008	On current knowledge, this species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Balabac, Bugsuc and Ramos Islands (Oliver, 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 2002; Grubb, 2005). It has also been introduced to Apulit and Calauit Island (Meijaard and Groves, 2004; Rico and Oliver, 2008).	eng
22065	habitat	Oliver, W., Matillano, J. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest and shrubland, and may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage.	eng
22065	population	Oliver, W., Matillano, J. & Widmann, P., 2008	The latest survey was in 1993 (Oliver, 1993), when the population was reputed to be quite stable and available information suggested that those on Balabac were seemingly able to withstand sustained hunting pressure. However, more recent information from local hunters indicates that it is now more difficult to capture these animals, suggesting a likely decline.<br/><br/>In the late 1990?s, a small stock of eight mouse deer escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least free-living 21 individuals by 2006 (Rico and Oliver, 2008).	eng
22065	threats	Oliver, W., Matillano, J. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is subject to poaching for food, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture.	eng
22066	conservation	Goldstein, I., Velez-Liendo, X., Paisley, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	In 1998, Peyton <em>et al</em>. reported that <20% (48,000 km²) of the range was legally protected, including 58 national parks, reserves or sanctuaries. Since then, several of the parks have been enlarged and new ones have been established. However, many of these contain habitats that are not adequate, and others are still too small or isolated to sustain viable bear populations, prompting efforts to develop corridors to link groups of protected areas (Yerena 1999, Yerena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Peyton 1999a,b, Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005). <br/><br/>Studies on the distribution, frequency and intensity of Andean bear-human conflicts have been carried out in some areas in order to better understand these situations and thereby develop management measures to reduce conflicts and the consequent killing of bears (Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 2006). Management plans to reduce bear-cattle conflicts have been developed at the Oyacachi, Ecuador, based on predation probability models (Goldstein 2006).<br/><br/>Workshops have been conducted in several of the range countries to train researchers and personnel from national parks on survey techniques, development of habitat models, and general knowledge about the ecology, distribution and status of the species (Goldstein 2006).<br/><br/>Andean bears are listed on Appendix I of CITES and are protected through national legislation in each range country.  However, there are loopholes in these laws by which bears can be (and thus frequently are) killed or removed from the wild (Orejuela and Jorgenson 1999, Peyton 1999b, Rumiz and Salazar 1999, Suarez 1999, Yerena 1999, Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005).	eng
22066	distribution	Goldstein, I., Velez-Liendo, X., Paisley, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Endemic to the Tropical Andes, the Andean bear is the only extant species of bear in South America. The northern limit of its range are Sierra de Perijá, Macizo de El Tamá and Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela; southward it inhabits the Occidental, Central and Oriental Colombian ranges; both eastern and western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes; all three Andean ranges of Peru, including a portion of the Pacific coastal desert; and the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia. <br/><br/>Historical reports include the Panama regions of El Darien (Jorgenson 1984) and Caledonia (Global Biodiversity Information Facility Data Portal 2008) but recent surveys of suspected populations in El Darien (Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 2007), as well as in northern Argentina, have not yielded conclusive evidence of bear presence.	eng
22066	habitat	Goldstein, I., Velez-Liendo, X., Paisley, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Andean bears occupy a great variety of habitats, from desert-scrub to forests to high altitude grasslands, ranging in elevation from 250 to 4,750 m asl.  They are reported to move along an altitudinal gradient among different habitat types, following seasonal patterns of food resources (Peyton 1980, Suarez 1988, Velez 1999, Paisley 2001, Cuesta <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the slopes of the eastern Andes, bear populations exist from the snowline down to 300 m asl in the Tapo-Caparo National Park in Venezuela, 1,200 m asl in Colombia, 600 m asl in Ecuador and Peru, and 550 m asl in Bolivia; on the western Andes of Peru they range down to 250 m asl (Peyton 1999a, Goldstein 2006) <br/><br/>With the notable exception of the dry forest-scrub habitat in north coastal Peru (Peyton 1999b), Andean bears are most commonly found in high elevation elfin forests, upper montane humid forest, and humid grasslands (Peyton 1987a,b, Velez 1999, Cuesta <em>et al</em>. 2003, Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2005). Within this range, habitat preferences are uncertain.  In portions of the central Andes in Bolivia, Andean bears were reported to select wet montane / foothill forests at lower elevations (Rumiz <em>et al</em>. 1999); elsewhere in Bolivia they heavily used cloud forests of the upper slopes of the Andes and rarely used dry montane forests (Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bear presence can readily be identified in the high altitude grasslands due to the easier visibility and the durability of the obvious feeding sign, but these grasslands may not sustain bears year-round without access to forest (Suarez 1985, Paisley 2001). <br/><br/>Andean bears are omnivores, feeding mainly on vegetative material such as fruits and succulent plants, and occasionally meat. Common dietary mainstays throughout their distribution are the succulent parts of plants of the families Bromeliaceae and Arecaceae (Peyton 1980, Suarez 1988, Mondolfi 1989).  However, food habits change from site to site and even within sites depending on the availability of particular resources. Tree and ground nests are used for resting where Andean bears feed on fruits high in the tree canopy and at sites where bears consume animal (e.g., livestock) carcasses (Goldstein 1991, Velez 1999).  Activity patterns range from strictly diurnal for wild bears in Bolivia (Paisley and Garshelis 2006a) to mixed diurnal and nocturnal for reintroduced bears in Ecuador (Castellanos <em>et al</em>. 2005).  As food is available year-round in all parts of their range, Andean bears do not hibernate. Based on the first few individuals of this species to be monitored using ground telemetry in Bolivia (Paisley and Garshelis 2006b) and Ecuador (Castellanos 2007 and pers. com. 2008), home ranges overlap to a high degree and minimum home range sizes vary from 10 to 160 km² (although these are underestimates, as the bears were regularly out of range of radiotelemetry in both studies).<br/><br/>Information on reproduction in this species is limited.  Litter size is typically two cubs.  The timing of births in the wild has rarely been observed, but in captivity birthing varies with latitude (Garshelis 2004).  Presumed mating pairs have been observed in the wild during March-October.	eng
22066	population	Goldstein, I., Velez-Liendo, X., Paisley, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	In the late 1990s, a range map was produced and an approximate area of occupancy estimated (260,000 km²). By applying minimum and median density estimates from American black bears (<em>Ursus americanus</em>) to this area, Peyton <em>et al</em>. (1998) generated a rough range-wide population estimate (>20,000 Andean bears).  Ruiz-Garcia (2003) attempted to obtain a population estimate by applying mutation rates to current genetic heterozygosity for bears in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador (assuming no genetic bottleneck); extrapolating this range-wide yielded a very wide span of estimates (approximately 5,000 to 30,000 breeding bears).  Other investigators obtained population estimates from small study areas, using DNA fingerprinting (in a protected area in Ecuador; Viteri and Waits 2005) and camera trapping (in a protected area in Bolivia; Rios-Uzeda <em>et al</em>. 2007), but the sample sizes and area of coverage were too small to extrapolate further. Thus, valid country-wide or range-wide population estimates are still lacking.	eng
22066	threats	Goldstein, I., Velez-Liendo, X., Paisley, S. & Garshelis, D.L., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and the lack of knowledge about the distribution and status of the Andean bear are the principal threats to this species (Peyton 1999a, Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Much of the range of the Andean bear has been fragmented by human activities, largely resulting from the expansion of the agricultural frontier. In some areas, mining, road development and oil exploitation are becoming a greater menace to Andean bear populations as well as to local communities, due to land expropriation, loss of habitat connectivity, and water and soil contamination (Peyton 1999a, Young and Leon 1999).<br/><br/>Many Andean bear populations are isolated in small to medium-sized patches of intact habitat, particularly in the northern part of the range (Yerena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kattan <em>et al</em>. 2004). The situation tends to improve towards the southern range, with some large patches of wilderness still remaining (Peyton 1999a). Nevertheless, human population growth and national development plans throughout the Tropical Andes continue to be an important cause of habitat fragmentation and to threaten the connectivity among remaining wilderness patches.   <br/><br/>Poaching is a serious threat throughout the Andean bear range. Bears are often killed after damaging crops, particularly maize, or after purportedly killing livestock (Goldstein 1991, Peyton 1999b, Rumiz and Salazar 1999, Suarez 1999, Castellanos 2002, Morales 2003).  Also, Andean bear products are used for medicinal or ritual purposes and at some localities Andean bear meat is highly prized (Yerena 1999). Live bears are also sometimes captured and sold (Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005). Human induced mortality endangers the viability of small remnant populations. <br/><br/>Lack of knowledge about the distribution and status is a problem throughout the region. In many areas, information about the status of Andean bears is outdated or, particularly in the southern portion of the range, simply non-existent. The absence of knowledge makes it difficult to develop realistic management plans for the conservation of this species, or to monitor changes in its distribution (reflective of changes in population status).	eng
22089	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is present in Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National Kirindy-Mite and Parc National Tsimanampetsotsa (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Roosting colonies need to be the focus of further conservation and research.	eng
22089	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is found on Madagascar where it is restricted to lowland (an elevation span of 30 m to 200 m above sea level) areas in the west and south-west (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Ranivo and Goodman 2006). It is also found on Cosmoledo and Aldabra Atolls in the outer Seychelles (Hutson 2004).	eng
22089	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	In Madagascar, this species is restricted to dry deciduous and spiny forest in the south and west (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and appears to be an obligate cave dweller (Olsson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Undercut sea cliffs may provide suitable roosting habitats on small atolls (Hutson 2004). This species in Madagascar feeds predominantly on Lepidoptera (Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and appears to require relatively intact forest for foraging (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
22089	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are few data available on <em>T. furculus</em>, but it appears to be a relatively rare member of the chiropteran assemblage in western Madagascar as determined by mist netting and acoustic sampling (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). However, it can occur in large colonies and a roost of over 10,000 individuals was reported from the Sept Lacs in southern Madagascar (Olsson <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no information on population size of <em>T. furculus</em> from Aldabra but it appears to be rather rare with only a few specimen records (Hutson 2004).	eng
22089	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There may be possible threats from disturbance at the cave sties. This species is tolerant to some degree of forest degradation, but appears to require forested areas to survive (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may therefore be one of the few Malagasy bat species really susceptible to deforestation and forest fragmentation.	eng
22090	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide range it seems likely that it is present in some protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for specimens of <em>Triaenops</em> from the Albertine Rift. In South Asia there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys to determine the status of this species are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
22090	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is found in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, and South Asia. In Africa widely distributed bat ranges through much of East Africa, with records from Djibouti in the north to central  Mozambique and east Zimbabwe. The species has also been recorded in Central Africa from the Congo and Central African Republic border, south Congo, Angola and possibly Gabon. It has been recorded in southern Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, from southwestern Iran, and from Gharo (Sind) in Pakistan (Harrison and Bates 1991; Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
22090	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species generally inhabits riparian habitats in low-lying woodlands and savanna. Vonhof and Kalcounis (1999) indicate that this species is characterised as a tree-roosting bat preferring small trees and shrubs. Populations have been recorded roosting in caves and mines (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In southwest Asia, the species has been recorded roosting in underground water channels and caves (Harrison 1964; Gallagher and Harrison 1988). In South Asia, little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that this species roosts among palm fronds, in the bark of  palm trees and crevices in cliff surfaces. It is an early flyer with a low and fluttering flight (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
22090	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Some colonies of this bat can be quite large, with up to half a million animals recorded in the Koalin mines of Tanzania. In peripheral parts of the range, such as Zimbabwe, colonies are often much smaller. It appears to be a relatively rare species in Asia, however, Yerbury and Thomas (1895) recorded great numbers in a cave at Ras Fakoum Bay, Little Aden, Yemen.	eng
22090	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. The species is locally threatened in parts of its range by disturbance of roost sites and mining activities. The threats to this species remain unknown in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
22102	conservation	Marmontel, M., 2008	Listed on Appendix I of CITES. Presently there are no national management plans specific for the species, except in Colombia. Management plans exist for two protected areas (Pacaya Samiria in Peru and Mamiraua Reserve in Brazil), and two communities in Colombia (Puerto Narino and Mocagua) have informal local management agreements (Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial and Fundación Omacha 2005). Amazonian Manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in Ecuador, two in Colombia, four in Peru and 23 in Brazil. Unfortunately, hunting continues even within protected areas.<br/><br/>Presently, INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves, 18 juveniles and eight adults (da Silva <em>et al</em>. 2006). CPPMA currently maintains 31 manatees, mostly orphans. So far, the Centro Mamiferos Marinhos-Conselho Nacional de Seringueiros facility in Alter-do-Chão (PA, Brazil) has rescued six orphans (two of which died) and a sick adult manatee (Luna 2005 pers. comm.).	eng
22102	distribution	Marmontel, M., 2008	Amazonian manatees occur through most the Amazon River drainage, from the headwaters, in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Timm <em>et al</em>. 1986) to the mouth of the Amazon (close to the Marajó Island) in Brazil (Domning 1981) over an estimated seven million square kilometers. However, they are patchily distributed, concentrating in areas of nutrient-rich flooded forest, which covers around 300,000 km² (Junk 1997).	eng
22102	habitat	Marmontel, M., 2008	Amazonian manatees inhabit environments in lowland tropical areas below 300 m asl, where there is large production of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants; they also favor calm, shallow waters, away from human settlements.<br/><br/>Individuals engage in long seasonal movements, moving from flooded areas during the wet season to deep water-bodies during the dry season (Kendall 2001, M. Marmontel <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). While the whitewaters provide them with plentiful food, deep lakes function as refuges during the low-water season, where animals are less vulnerable to hunting.<br/><br/>Only one calf is produced at a time. Although no specific studies are available for the species in the wild, it is believed that the reproductive cycle is similar to the West Indian Manatee’s, with a long gestation and lactation period (up to 24 months), and a birthing interval of 2 to 3 months; age at sexual maturity is unknown.	eng
22102	population	Marmontel, M., 2008	Most of the waters inhabited by Amazonian manatees are very murky, and, probably as an adaptation to past and ongoing hunting pressure, Amazonian manatees are extremely secretive. Consequently, there are no reliable population estimates available, although numbers are almost certainly lower than historical figures due to centuries of hunting. Husar (1977) estimated a minimum of 10,000 manatees for the entire Amazon basin, and Best (1983) estimated 500 to 1,000 in Amanã Lake (45 x 3 km) alone in 1979, but these numbers must be regarded with caution since they are supported by very little empirical data. Analysis of feeding patches, sightings and interview surveys have been used to try to estimate population numbers (Soini 1995, Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005) with limited results. Traditional mark-recapture studies are not appropriate due to the species’ secretive nature.<br/><br/>Whatever the current population size, the population trend is most likely decreasing, given the species’ slow reproduction (sirenian populations grow at an annual rate of approximately 5%; Marsh <em>et al</em>. 1984c, Packard 1985) and levels of exploitation (Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1992). During extensive interviews conducted with local inhabitants throughout the range of the species, conflicting responses were obtained. In Brazil, Lazzarini and Picanço (pers. comm. 2005) were of the opinion that, due to the work by the Manaus Energia Environmental Program and other conservation actions, hunting is decreasing in the lower Uatumã river (from 23 in 1994 - and a high of 73 in 1995 - to zero in 2003 and 2004 and one in 2005). The progressive increase in the number of young calves arriving at rehabilitation centers in Brazil in the past five years, has also led several researchers to suspect that the species may be undergoing some recovery, or that the increase is simply a reflection of the awareness campaigns implemented, with a concomitant increase in the number of rescued calves (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005). Alternatively, it may also suggest that calf takes are on the rise (and see Threats).<br/><br/>On the other hand, manatee numbers are thought to have been decreasing in the past few years in all known areas of occurrence in Colombia. If indeed there are less than 100 manatees in the area (Kendall 2001), then the 7 to 11 animals killed/year over the period 1988-2001 would certainly lead to a reduction in the population. However, since Fundación Omacha started its work in the area of Puerto Nariño, the population in this area at least may have stabilized due to the reduction in hunting (only two individuals in the past two years) (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>In the early 1980s, manatees were reported to be abundant in most of the lagoons and black water rivers of Ecuador’s Cuyabeno Reserve, but this population was being persecuted for meat by Peruvian and Ecuadorian militaries. Timm <em>et al</em>. (1986) suggested that there were 250 adult individuals in Ecuador, and that no subpopulation exceeded 50 individuals; they estimated that if the then level of harvest went on unabated, Amazonian manatees would disappear from Ecuador within 10 to 15 years. Timm <em>et al</em>. (1989) stated that the Siona Indians then practiced a self-imposed ban on manatee hunting because of low manatee populations. However, some of the Siona never knew about this ban, and it seems possible that hunting continued (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). Amazonian manatees still exist in the Cuyabeno River, but likely in low numbers. In the Lagartococha system, Peruvian hunters claim to have hunted manatees until about 10 years ago; since that time, they have not seen any manatees in the area. Although the information from recent interviews is contradictory, the general consensus is that the population is decreasing.<br/><br/>In Peru, in an area in the Samiria river, average sightings over the 2003 to 2005 period were sufficient to suggest that were was no apparent decrease in the population, and that the population is stable, albeit at low numbers (R. Bodmer pers. comm. 2005). However, Ulloa Gomez (2004) believes that reports from hunters, a decrease in the number of manatee sightings, the absence of manatees in sites previously occupied, and results from field surveys in Pacaya Samiria, lend evidence to the hypothesis that manatee populations are declining.	eng
22102	threats	Marmontel, M., 2008	The major threats to the species include hunting for food, incidental capture in gill nets, and habitat degradation.<br/><br/><strong>Hunting</strong><br/>Illegal hunting, for both subsistence and local use, is considered the main threat to manatees in the Amazon. Manatee populations have supported a tremendous take in past centuries and, although not at commercial levels, hunting still takes place throughout the region. Manatee meat is highly valued, but all the other products are used as well (fat and skin are used in cooking and as medicine, bones are turned into utilitarian pieces and charms, and the skin produces very resistant leather).<br/><br/>Hunters usually sell products to neighbours and nearby communities, but the meat is sometimes sold in markets of local towns. There is also some traffic between cities to sell manatee products in local markets (Evangelista 2005 pers. comm.). Meat is sold in natura, or as mixira or subproducts such as sausage. The mixira, which is the meat preserved in its own fat, is one of the products that prolongs the pressure on the species, since it commands a high price. Meat is sold in local produce fairs or markets in the interior, or by order directly with the hunter. Public markets in Brazil (Manaus, Manacapuru, Novo Airão, Tefé, Silves, Itapiranga and Itacoatiara, Santarem, Belem, Monte Alegre and Almeirim), Colombia (Puerto Narino, Leticia, Atacuari) and Ecuador also illegally offer the meat for sale, with prices ranging from U$0.23 to U$1.87 (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005, Hage pers. comm. 2005). A 60-l can of mixira sells for approximately U$168 (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005). Since a large manatee could yield as much as 200 kg of meat, which could be dried or salted, this could provide some two months’ wages (Kendall 2001).<br/><br/>The use of traditional harpoons remains the most widespread technique for hunting manatees - corresponding to 70% to over 90% of all takes (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005, Sartor <em>et al</em>. in prep, M. Marmontel unpubl.). So far, fishing traps with harpoons attached have only been recorded for Peru (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ulloa Gomez 2004) and on the Colombian-Peruvian border (Orozco 2001). Although illegal in both countries, between 1998 and 2003 at least 14 manatees were killed on the Peruvian side of the border; this technique accounted for 30% of intentional mortality from 1998 to 2003 in Colombia (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Kendall (2001) and Orozco (2001) believed this practice to be localized and becoming increasingly uncommon, although Peruvian hunters think this technique might be responsible for an increase in manatee hunting (Ulloa Gomez 2004). Fishermen will close areas where manatees are known to gather to mate, in order to harpoon them (M. Leitao pers. comm., 2005), or hit the water with sticks to disorient manatees with the noise (‘batição’) and then harpoon them in channels and lakes closed with gillnets (Lima <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The use of nets has been on the increase over the past few years. Kendall <em>et al</em>. (2005) calculated that 15% of hunting mortality in Colombia over the period 1998 to 2003 was due to netting. Netting has sometimes had large-scale impacts: in 1999, a large trawl net deployed by a freezer boat caused the death of 14 animals (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005) in the Purus river, while in 1998 a single net setting is said to have trapped 60 animals in Manacapuru (AM) (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005). Of particular concern is the development of “special” gillnets designed to catch manatees. In 1992, three cases of non-calf entangled manatees were documented in the Brazilian Amazon, while between 1999 and 2000, four adult manatees were caught in nets (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005). Although unclear if accidental or intentional, the large size of the adults suggests the use of strong nets built specifically for the specific purpose of catching manatees.<br/><br/>Take estimates are available only for a few sites where conservation and research projects are taking place. The Amazonas branch of the Brazilian environmental agency has been attempting to survey and control all manatee hunting efforts since 1995, but results are variable, primarily due to funding inconsistencies. The most complete set of data are from the lower Uatuma river (surveyed by Centro de Preservacao e Pesquisas de Mamiferos Aquaticos) and mid-Solimoes areas in Brazil (Mamiraua and Amana Sustainable Development Reserves, managed by Mamiraua Institute of Sustainable Development), and the Puerto Narino area in Colombia (under Fundacion Omacha’s research) for very limited areas (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: catch estimates for <em>T. inunguis</em> in Brazil and Colombia.<br/><br/>Very limited information is available for Ecuador (in 1996 four manatees are said to have been killed by the Siona Indians; and in 1998 eight manatees - six by the Siona and two by the Quichua; C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). Likewise, no long-term data are available for Peru either; however, during May and June 2004 alone, seven manatees were taken in only two villages from the Samiria River basin, suggesting high hunting pressure (Ulloa Gomez 2004). Between 1998 and 2003, 47 manatees were recorded hunted in the area of Puerto Nariño (Zaragoza to Atacuari) (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the Puerto Nariño area, hunting has been on the decline in the past five years: with the inception of educational campaigns, numbers of culled manatees decreased from ten in 1998/1999 to four in 2003 and two in 2004 (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/> <br/>Extreme droughts may help make the manatee an easier prey item for hunters, by causing isolation and entrapment (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ulloa Gomes 2004, Sartor <em>et al</em>. in prep., M. Marmontel pers. obs.). In 1994, an estimated 10 animals were taken from a “poço” (a deep-water site where animals concentrate during dry seasons) in Sao Sebastiao do Uatuma (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005); in 1995, 60 were hunted between July and September only, in a breathing hole across from the Urucara (AM) town, and one fisherman alone caught 11 manatees (Lazzarini and Picanço 2005). During the drought of 1998, multiple numbers of manatees were taken in one day in three different “poços” of the Coari town (AM) area (16 in the Poço da Freguesia; Tressoldi and Lazzarini 2000; 16 in Pixuma and 8 in Tucuma; Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005; and 18 in Prego Community (Purus) (Lazzarini and Picanco pers. comm. 2005). In the 2005 drought, at least five were killed in the Tefe Lake across from the Tefe town (AM) and approximately 120 were taken in the Coari area, according to information gathered by the environmental agency and reported in local newspapers.<br/><br/><strong>Incidental mortality, orphaned calves, and illegal captivity</strong><br/>With an increasing use of gillnets to hunt manatees, there has been a concomitant rise in incidental calf mortality in the past few years, and this is now a major threat to Amazonian manatees in all range countries (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005, R. Bodmer pers. comm. 2005, Utreras and Zapata 2005, Ulloa Gomez 2004). Although young animals usually end up drowning in the nets, if they do survive then they are usually kept alive for later sale, since young animals have little meat for immediate consumption (Kendall 2001, Orozco 2001).<br/><br/>The number of rescued calves every year has been increasing, but this number is certainly only a small sample of occurrences in the Amazon (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005). In the past five years, at least six calves became entangled in nets across channels in Colombia (S. Kendall pers. comm. 2005). Calves captured in Colombia are taken to Leticia and sometimes to Caballo Cocha, Peru (Orozco 2001). There are also reports of manatee calf commerce in the border between Brazil and Colombia (Lazzarini and Picanço pers. comm. 2005), and there were at least three cases reported of calves captured in Peru and offered for sale in Colombia between 2003 and 2005 (Kendall pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>Between 1992 and 2005, CPPMA (Centro de Preservação e Pesquisa de Mamíferos Aquáticos) received an average of four calves/year, with numbers increasing when a heavy drought was in place. Of the 41 calves rescued, 23 (56%) were caught in gillnets, but only four accidentally, while the others were caught in nets set up to catch them with the intent to sell, and even to catch on request (in five cases the mother was also caught and killed). In 13 (32%) of the orphan cases, the calves were harpooned (CPPMA, Picanço and Lazzarini, 2005, unpubl.).<br/><br/>Calves (wounded or not) are sometimes sold as pets (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005), kept in pools or areas close to water bodies, and sold or given to politicians, authorities, and influential persons. A boat owner on the route Belém-Santarém allegedly keeps 10 in a lake near Manaus and has paid up to US$150 for one (Sartor pers. comm. 2005). Siona and Quechua indians keep manatees as pets, but raise them for food (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat alteration and disturbance</strong><br/>Anthropogenic actions have resulted in pollution, loss, alteration and fragmentation of habitats used by the Amazonian manatee (Rosas and da Silva pers. comm. 2005, Min. Amb. and F. Omacha 2004).<br/><br/>Deforestation and contamination by mercury, oil or pesticides, are potential hazards to the manatee’s food supply (Rosas <em>et al</em>. 1991), and the construction of hydroelectric dams may isolate populations, limiting genetic variability (Rosas 1994). Brazil has planned 400 dams, 46 of them at the phase of projects, two of which are mega-enterprises in the Amazon regions (Madeira and Xingu rivers). Both gold mining and deforestation contribute to the pollution of the water system (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dolbec <em>et al</em>. 2000). Roots of floating and rooted aquatic plants (<em>Paspalum, Eicchornia, Salvinia</em>) have been shown to be important methylation sites (Guimaraes <em>et al</em>. 2000a,b).<br/><br/>An important potential problem in Ecuador are oil spills (Utreras and Zapata pers. comm. 2005), the last one having occurred in Cuyabeno Lagoon 10 years ago (C. Castro pers. comm. 2005). In 2004, Petrobras (a Brazilian multinational company) was granted permission to explore oil in Yasuni National Park, which will involve considerable traffic in the Tiputini river, mainly during the building stages, but also large boat traffic during the 20-year operation (J. Proaño pers. comm. 2005). Local indigenous leaders denounce that toxic residues, such as benzene, xylene and alcatrao, are being discharged into the river as a result of prospecting activities (http://www.amazonia.org.br 23 jan06). In some cases indigenous peoples no longer bathe in the river due to oil contamination (http://www.radiobras.gov.br).<br/><br/>Amazonian human populations are generally at low densities except in the large capital cities, but all of the issues above could be magnified by the increase in human population. In some parts of Colombia and Peru, manatee absence from areas where they were previously recorded may be partially attributed to increased boat use and town growth (Kendall 2001, Orozco 2001, Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2004, Ulloa Gomez 2004). The current process of placing asphalt on the BR-163 road connecting Cuiaba in Mato Grosso to Santarem in PA, is expected to bring the typical colonization fronts and economic occupation which have previously created disorderly migration, deforestation and predatory exploration of natural resources, which shall add to present threats to manatee. The main economic activity associated with that road, soy plantation, will likely cause increased levels of deforestation, siltation and pesticide runoff. Boat traffic tends to increase even in smaller towns, but the heavy traffic of barges associated with the setting up of a hydrovia for soybean transportation could impact both manatees directly and their food supply.	eng
22103	conservation	Deutsch, C.J., Self-Sullivan, C. & Mignucci-Giannoni, A., 2008	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The following text was excerpted directly from the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001), with condensation and some minor revisions from the assessors. The state of Florida’s Manatee Management Plan is due to be completed by June 2007 and will provide further details of planned management and conservation actions.  <br/><br/><strong>Efforts to Reduce Watercraft-Related Injuries and Deaths</strong><br/>The largest identified cause of manatee death is collisions with watercraft. Many living manatees also bear scars or wounds from vessel strikes. Because watercraft operators cannot reliably detect and avoid hitting manatees, federal and state managers have sought to limit watercraft speed in areas where manatees are most likely to occur to afford both manatees and boaters time to avoid collisions. In 1989, the Florida Governor and Cabinet approved a series of recommendations by the former FDNR to improve protection of manatees in 13 key counties. Since then state and local governments have cooperated in the creation and implementation of county Manatee Protection Plans and county-wide manatee protection speed zone rules. Two types of manatee protection areas also have been developed by FWS: (1) manatee sanctuaries, areas in which all waterborne activities are prohibited; and (2) manatee refuges areas where certain waterborne activities are restricted or prohibited. FWS and FWC continue to evaluate needs for additional protection areas that may be necessary to achieve recovery. The goal is to consider the needs of the manatee at an ecosystem level and to establish regulations to ensure that adequate protected areas are available throughout Florida to satisfy habitat requirements of the Florida manatee population with a view toward recovery.<br/><br/>In recent years, both the FWS and FWC have been using targeted enforcement strategies in an attempt to increase boater compliance with speed zones and ultimately reduce manatee injuries and death. FWS’ strategy has been to allocate significant enforcement manpower to specific areas on designated weekends. These enforcement teams travel to various locations around the state, with particular emphasis given to those zones within counties where there is a history of high watercraft-caused manatee deaths. FWC has increased its emphasis on enforcement and compliance with manatee speed zones by adding new officers, conducting law enforcement task force initiatives, increasing overtime, and increasing the proportion of law enforcement time devoted to manatee conservation.<br/><br/>Managers, researchers, and the boating industry have investigated the use of various devices to aid in the reduction of watercraft-related manatee deaths. For example, the State of Florida funded an evaluation of propeller guards (Milligan and Tennant 1998). The state’s evaluation concluded that these devices would reduce cutting damage associated with propellers when boats were operating at low speeds. However, when boats (including boats equipped with propeller guards) operate at high speeds, guards would be of little benefit because animals would continue to be killed by blunt trauma associated with impacts from boat hulls, lower units, and other gear. The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) identified additional concerns, stating that propeller guards on small recreational vessels “may create more problems than they solve” and does not support their use on recreational vessels at this time (Carmichael 2001). There are propeller guard applications, however, that appear to work for certain large, commercial vessels; for example, the use of guards on C-tractor tugs has eliminated this specific source of manatee mortality at the Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base in St. Marys, Georgia. To prevent injuries to manatees, propeller guards are used on some rental and sight-seeing boats at Blue Spring and Crystal River.<br/><br/>Researchers have also begun to investigate the manatees’ acoustic environment to better evaluate the animal’s response to vessel traffic. This line of research needs to be thoroughly assessed for its potential as another management tool to minimize collisions between manatees and boats. Results from Gerstein <em>et al</em>. (1999) indicate that manatees hear in the range from 500 Hz to 46 kHz and that inadequate hearing sensitivity at low frequencies may be a contributing factor to the manatees’ ability to effectively detect boat noise to avoid collisions. One technology often discussed is an acoustic deterrence device mounted on a boat.  Conceptually, this technological approach may sound like an answer to the manatee/watercraft issue. A number of problems have been defined with the use of acoustic deterrents. No alarm/warning device has yet been demonstrated to adequately protect wildlife or marine mammals. Additionally, concern has also been stated regarding the increase in background noise that these deterrents would add to an already noisy marine environment. It has not been determined what negative impacts this device would have on marine life and what effects it would have on animals that use acoustic cues for a variety of purposes. For these reasons, this technology needs to be thoroughly researched and assessed and managers need to evaluate the MMPA and ESA “take” issues related to implementing such technology.<br/><br/>Current research into the sensory capabilities of manatees is being supported at both the state and federal levels. One study assessed the effects of boat noise in a more controlled environment, by recording the physical and acoustic reaction of a manatee to a pre-determined acoustical level. This study design will allow the development of a relationship between acoustic amplitude and behavioural responses. Another study examined acoustical propagation over various types of marine topography. In cooperation with Mote Marine Laboratory and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the FWC is also examining manatee behavioural response to watercraft using new technology, the DTAG, a digital acoustic tag which records acoustic attributes of the environment and detailed manatee movement simultaneously. A study to assess manatee behaviours in the presence of fishing gear and their response to novelty and the potential for reducing gear interactions also has an acoustic component. The FWC is also supporting the development and implementation of technological solutions for reducing the risks that watercraft pose to manatees. <br/><br/>Additional priority actions to better protect manatees include boater education, maintenance of signs and buoys, compliance assessment, and periodic re-evaluation of the effectiveness of the rules. Such work requires close cooperation between FWC Imperiled Species Management, FWC’s Division of Law Enforcement, county officials, the Inland Navigation Districts, FWS, USCG, and, of course, boaters.<br/><br/><strong>Efforts to Reduce Flood Gate and Navigation Lock Deaths</strong><br/>Entrapment in water-control structures and navigational locks is the second largest cause of human-related manatee deaths. In some cases, manatees appear to have been crushed in closing gates; in others, they may have been drowned after being pinned against narrow gate openings by water currents. Water-control structures implicated in manatee deaths in Dade and Broward counties are operated by the South Florida WMD. From 1976 through 2000, 166 manatees have been killed in water control structures in Dade County alone, accounting for 33% of all manatee deaths in this county. In the early 1980s, steps were taken to modify gate-opening procedures to ensure openings were wide enough to allow a manatee to pass through unharmed. Steps were also initiated to fence off openings and cavities in gate structures where manatees might become trapped. Manatee deaths subsequently declined and remained low for much of that decade. Much progress has been made toward identifying, testing, and installing manatee protection devices (e.g., pressure sensors) at water control structures. The Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) has also installed removable barriers on the upstream side of the Ortona and St. Lucie Lock spillway structures. The large difference in the upstream and downstream water levels at these structures compromises the effectiveness and use of pressure sensor devices. Locks frequented by manatees have been retrofitted with an acoustic array on the gates; this device detects the presence of a manatee during lock closing to avoid pinning or crushing. An interagency task force, established in 1991, continues to monitor, examine and make recommendations to protect manatees at water control structures and navigational locks.<br/><br/><strong>Habitat Protection</strong><br/>Intensive coastal development throughout Florida poses a long-term threat to the Florida manatee. There are three major approaches to address this problem. First, FWS, FWC, Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GDNR), and other recovery partners review and comment on applications for federal and state permits for construction projects in manatee habitat areas and to minimize their impacts. Under section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, FWS annually reviews hundreds of permit applications to the ACOE for construction projects in waters and wetlands that include or are adjacent to important manatee habitat. FWC and GDNR provide similar reviews to their respective state’s environmental permitting programs.<br/><br/>A second approach is the development of county manatee protection plans. The provisions of these plans are implemented through amendments to local growth management plans under the Florida’s Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Regulation Act of 1985. In addition to boat speed rules, manatee protection plans are to include boat facility siting policies and other measures to protect manatees and their habitat.<br/><br/>A third approach to habitat protection is land acquisition. Both FWS and the State of Florida have taken steps to acquire and add new areas containing important manatee habitat to federal and state protected area systems. The State of Florida has acquired important areas through several programs, most notably the Florida Forever Program. In Florida, the Governor and Cabinet have included special consideration for purchase of lands that can be of benefit to manatees and their habitat. Over $500 million has been spent to acquire 250,000 acres, whose importance included, but was by no means limited to, protection of manatee habitat. FWS has also acquired and now manages thousands of acres of land important to manatees and many other species in the NWR System. In addition to these efforts, FWS’s initiative to propose new manatee refuges and sanctuaries factors into habitat protection. Both the State of Florida and FWS are continuing cooperative efforts with a view towards establishing a network of important manatee habitats throughout Florida.<br/><br/><strong>Manatee Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release</strong><br/>Thousands of reports of distressed manatees purportedly in need of assistance have been made to the state wildlife enforcement offices and other resource protection agencies by a concerned public. While most of the manatees do not require assistance, dozens of manatees are rescued and treated each year. A network of state and local agencies and private organizations, coordinated by FWS, has been rescuing and treating these animals for well over 20 years.<br/><br/>Manatees are brought into captivity when stressed by cold weather, when struck and injured by watercraft, when injured because of entanglements in crab traps and monofilament fishing line, when orphaned, and when compromised by other natural and man-made factors. Programme veterinarians and staff have developed treatments and protocols for these animals and have been remarkably successful in their efforts to rehabilitate compromised individuals. Since 1973, over 180 manatees have been treated and returned to the wild (FWS unpubl.).<br/><br/>Media coverage of manatee rescues, treatments, and releases helps to educate millions of people about manatees, the life-threatening problems that they face, and actions that can be taken to minimize the effect of anthropogenic activities on this species. In addition, more than 18 million visitors a year see manatees at rehabilitation facilities and participate in manatee education programs sponsored by several parks. The publicity and outreach inherent in this program provide significant support to efforts to recover the manatee.<br/><br/><strong>Public Education, Awareness, and Support</strong><br/>Government agencies, industries, oceanaria and environmental groups have all contributed to manatee public awareness and education efforts that were initiated in the 1970s. These efforts have expanded in scope and increased in quantity since that time. Some key counties in Florida have also started the education component of their manatee protection plans. These public awareness and education efforts encourage informed public participation in regulatory and other management decision-making processes and provide constructive avenues for private funding of state manatee recovery programs, research, and land acquisition efforts through programmes such as the specialty automobile license tag for manatees.<br/><br/>The public has been made aware of new information on the biology and status of manatees, urgent conservation issues, and the regulations and measures required to assure their protection through the production of brochures, posters, films and videos, press releases, public service announcements and advertisements, and other media-oriented materials. Outdoor signs have been produced that provide general manatee information and highlight the problems associated with feeding manatees.<br/><br/>Manatee viewing opportunities have also been made available to the public. In addition, volunteers from several organizations annually give presentations to schools and other groups and distribute educational materials at festivals and events. Such efforts are essential for obtaining public compliance with conservation measures to protect manatees and their habitats.<br/><br/>Many public awareness materials have been developed specifically focusing on boater education. Public awareness waterway signs are produced and distributed alerting boaters to the presence of manatees. Brochures, boat decals, boater’s guides, and other materials with manatee protection tips and boating safety information have been produced and are distributed by law enforcement groups, through marinas, and boating safety classes. Educational kiosks have been designed and installed at marinas, boat ramps, and other waterfront locations. Monofilament fishing line collection sites and cleanup efforts are being established.  Several agencies and organizations provide educator’s guides, posters, and coloring and activity books to teachers in Florida and across the United States. In addition, Save The Manatee Club (SMC) and FWC Advisory Council on Environmental Education have produced a video for distribution to schools throughout Florida and the United States. SMC and FWC also provide free manatee education packets to students and staff interviews for students. Agencies and organizations help to educate law enforcement personnel about manatees and inform them about available outreach materials that can be distributed to user groups.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>Conservation of the Antillean manatee at the regional level has been driven by the SPAW Protocol to the Cartagena Convention (Freestone 1991), resulting in the Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee, <em>Trichechus manatus</em> (UNEP 1995). In all countries with extant populations there is protective legislation with some effort towards conservation through governmental agencies and/or non-governmental organizations. In a few countries efforts have increased significantly over the past decade. Conservation measures include: (1) policy-based actions such as protective legislation, management plans, recovery plans, and community management; (2) educational outreach programs and awareness activities; (3) research actions such as site specific and country-wide surveys, behavioural studies both in captivity and in situ, remote sensing projects, health assessments, and genetic studies; (4) habitat and site-based actions such as protected areas and community-based initiatives; and (5) species-based actions such as re-introductions, stranding networks, and rehabilitation programs.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
22103	distribution	Deutsch, C.J., Self-Sullivan, C. & Mignucci-Giannoni, A., 2008	Florida manatees (<em>T. m. latirostris</em>) are found only in the United States, although a few vagrants have been known to reach the Bahamas. Their year-round distribution is restricted to peninsular Florida because they need warm water to survive the winter. During the non-winter months (March to November), some manatees disperse to adjoining states. Along the Atlantic coast these states include Georgia (highest manatee use outside of Florida), South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia; one satellite-tagged manatee traveled as far north as Rhode Island (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003), and another manatee was observed in New York (Long Island). Along the Gulf coast west of Florida, manatees are occasionally sighted in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The source (Florida or Mexico) of the Texas manatees is not always clear, but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the Florida subspecies. Major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in Florida include Lake Okeechobee, St. Johns River, Suwannee River, Caloosahatchee River, among others.<br/><br/>During the warm season (March or April through October or November, depending on latitude and year), manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters, estuaries, and major rivers of Florida and some migrate to neighboring states, particularly south-eastern Georgia. Their range constricts dramatically in the winter season (December to February) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm-water sites or areas in the southern two-thirds of Florida. These sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls (seven on the Atlantic coast, three on the Gulf coast) and four major artesian springs (Blue Spring, springs at the head of Crystal River, Homosassa Spring, and Warm Mineral Spring) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter.<br/><br/>The Antillean Manatee (<em>T. m. manatus</em>) inhabits riverine and coastal systems in the tropical and subtropical Western Atlantic Coastal Zone from the Bahamas to Brazil, including the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Although at least one individual in the Bahamas is a known migrant from Florida (Reid 2000, 2001), the Bahamas is detailed in this <em>T. m. manatus</em> assessment rather than the <em>T. m. latirostris</em> assessment. During the past decade, populations have been confirmed in the coastal waters and/or rivers of at least 19 of the 37 countries with historical records (Table 1); a population may be extant in Haiti (Ottenwalder 1995), although in very reduced numbers if at all. Rare sightings, categorized as vagrants, have been documented in five additional countries (Debrot Gore pers. comm).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: Summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations.	eng
22103	habitat	Deutsch, C.J., Self-Sullivan, C. & Mignucci-Giannoni, A., 2008	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The following text was excerpted directly from the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001), with some minor revisions, condensation, and updates from the assessors.<br/><br/>Manatees undertake extensive seasonal migrations with seasonal distribution determined by water temperature. When ambient water temperatures drop below 20°C (68°F) in autumn and winter, manatees aggregate at natural and artificial warm-water refuges or move to southern Florida (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001, Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Most artificial refuges are created by warm-water outfalls from power plants. The largest winter aggregations (maximum count of 100 or more animals) are at refuges in central and southern Florida. The northernmost natural warm-water refuges used regularly by manatees are at Crystal River on the west coast and at Blue Spring in the St. Johns River on the east coast. Most manatees return to the same warm-water refuges each year; however, some use different refuges in different years and others use two or more refuges in the same winter (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Deutsch 2000, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Many minor aggregation sites are used as temporary thermal refuges. Most of these refuges are deeper canals or boat basins where warmer water temperatures persist as temperatures in adjacent bays and rivers decline. Manatees using thermal refuges move to nearby grassbeds to feed (generally within 30 km), and may even return to a more distant warm season range during mild periods in mid-winter (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>As water temperatures rise manatees disperse from winter aggregation areas. While some remain near their winter refuges, most undertake extensive travels along the coast and some move far up rivers and canals. On the east coast, summer sightings drop off rapidly north of Georgia (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001) and are rare north of Cape Hatteras (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1982, Schwartz 1995); the northernmost published sighting is from Rhode Island (Reid 1996, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). On the west coast, sightings drop off sharply west of the Suwannee River in Florida (Marine Mammal Commission 1986), although a small number of manatees are seen each summer in the Wakulla River at the base of the Florida Panhandle. Rare sightings also have been made in the Dry Tortugas (Reynolds and Ferguson 1984) and the Bahamas (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001; Odell <em>et al</em>. 1978; Reid 2000, 2001). As in winter, manatees show strong site fidelity to the same summer habitats year after year (Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Koelsch 1997, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>In recent years, the most important spring habitat along the east coast of Florida has been the northern Banana River and Indian River Lagoon and their associated waters in Brevard County; more than 300 to 500 manatees have been counted in this area shortly before dispersing in late spring (Provancha and Provancha 1988, FWC unpubl.). A comparable spring aggregation area does not appear to exist on the west coast, although Charlotte Harbor was visited in the spring by almost half of the 35 manatees radio-tagged at the Fort Myers power plant in Lee County (Lefebvre and Frohlich 1986). During summer, manatees may be commonly found almost anywhere in Florida where water depths and access channels are greater than 1 m (O’Shea 1988). Manatees can be found in very shallow water. Hartman (1979) observed manatees utilizing waters as shallow as 0.4 m with their backs out of the water. In warm seasons they usually occur alone or in pairs, although interacting groups of five to ten animals are not unusual.<br/><br/>Migration corridors and responses by individual animals have been elaborated by long-term telemetry studies (Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003). Scientists have demonstrated site-fidelity in manatees, but have also noted that individual animals adjust their behaviours to take advantage of protected areas or changes in availability of resources. For example, Buckingham <em>et al</em>. (1999) confirmed increased manatee use of selected sanctuary areas during times when surrounding disturbance by boats was high.<br/><br/>Shallow grass beds with ready access to deep channels are preferred feeding areas in coastal and riverine habitats. Manatees often use secluded canals, creeks, embayments, and lagoons, particularly near the mouths of coastal rivers and sloughs, for feeding, resting, cavorting, mating, and calving. In estuarine and brackish areas, natural and artificial fresh water sources are sought by manatees.  Although manatees can tolerate a wide range of salinities (Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 1998), they prefer habitats where osmotic stress is minimal or where fresh water is periodically available (O’Shea and Kochman 1990). Ortiz <em>et al</em>. (1998) report that “manatees may be susceptible to dehydration after an extended period if freshwater is not available”.<br/><br/>Manatees are herbivores that feed opportunistically on a wide variety of submerged, floating, and emergent vegetation. Because of their broad distribution and migratory patterns, Florida manatees utilize a wider diversity of food items and are possibly less specialized in their feeding strategies than manatees in tropical regions (Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). Seagrasses appear to be a staple of the manatee diet in coastal areas (Smith 1990, Provancha and Hall 1991, Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). Packard (1984) noted two feeding methods in coastal seagrass beds: (1) rooting, where virtually the entire plant is consumed; and (2) grazing, where exposed grass blades are eaten without disturbing the roots or sediment. Manatees may return to specific seagrass beds to graze on new growth (Koelsch 1997, Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the upper Banana River, Provancha and Hall (1991) found spring concentrations of manatees grazing in beds dominated by manatee grass (<em>Syringodium filiforme</em>). They also reported an apparent preference for manatee grass and shoalgrass (<em>Halodule wrightii</em>) over the macroalga <em>Caulerpa</em> spp. Along the Florida-Georgia border, manatees feed in salt marshes on smooth cordgrass (<em>Spartina alterniflora</em>) by timing feeding periods with high tide (Baugh <em>et al</em>. 1989, Zoodsma 1991).<br/><br/>Breeding takes place when one or more males (ranging from 5 to 22) are attracted to an oestrous female to form an ephemeral mating herd (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Mating herds can last up to four weeks, with different males joining and leaving the herd daily (Hartman 1979, Bengtson 1981, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Permanent bonds between males and females do not form. During peak activity, the males in mating herds compete intensely for access to the female (Hartman 1979). Successive copulations involving different males have been reported. Some observations suggest that larger, presumably older, males dominate access to females early in the formation of mating herds and are responsible for most pregnancies (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995), but males as young as three years old are spermatogenic (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995). Although breeding has been reported in all seasons, Hernandez <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported that histological studies of reproductive organs from carcasses of males found evidence of sperm production in 94% of adult males recovered from March through November. Only 20% of adult males recovered from December through February showed similar production.<br/><br/>Females appear to reach sexual maturity by about age five but have given birth as early as four (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995), and males may reach sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995). Manatees may live in excess of 50 years (Marmontel 1995), and evidence for reproductive senescence is unclear (Marmontel 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995). Wild females have been documented continuing to calve into their late 30s (USGS-Sirenia, unpubl.), and a captive animal gave birth in her mid-40s (FWS, unpubl.). The length of the gestation period is uncertain but is thought to be between 11 and 14 months (Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). The normal litter size is one, with twins reported rarely (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Calf dependency usually lasts one to two years after birth (Hartman 1979, O’Shea and Hartley 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). Calving intervals average about 2.5 years (when the calf survives to weaning), but they vary greatly among individuals and may be considerably longer depending on age and perhaps other factors (Marmontel 1995, Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1995, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1995). Females that abort or lose a calf due to perinatal death may become pregnant again within a few months (Odell <em>et al</em>. 1995), or even weeks (Hartman 1979).<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>The habitat and ecology of the Antillean manatee is thought to be similar to its sister subspecies. However, given that the Florida manatee inhabits the most northern extent of the species range, behaviour and life history characteristics may be dissimilar in this tropical subspecies. Antillean manatees use rivers, lakes, coastal and inland lagoons, and coastal marine environments, including seagrass, mangrove, and coral reef ecosystems. Although they are able to survive in fresh, estuarine, or marine environments for extended periods of time, several lines of evidence indicate a dependence on periodic access to fresh water for osmoregulation (Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1999; Lefebvre <em>et al</em>. 2001; Reid <em>et al</em>. 2003). As herbivores, access to aquatic vegetation is necessary for survival; seagrasses (<em>Thalassia, Halodule, Halophila</em> and <em>Syringodium</em>) appear to be favored in estuarine and marine areas. Osmoregulation and thermoregulation are behaviorally controlled by movements between activity centers. Quiet protected areas are necessary for resting and for cows with young calves; connections (travel corridors) between feeding, drinking, nursery, mating, and resting areas are very important. A discussion of the environmental factors influencing seasonal movements and migratory behavior in both subspecies is provided in Deutsch <em>et al</em>. (2003).	eng
22103	population	Deutsch, C.J., Self-Sullivan, C. & Mignucci-Giannoni, A., 2008	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) recently conducted two Biological Status Reviews of the Florida manatee that involved comprehensive compilation and synthesis of population and range data, along with extensive modeling of population projections (FWC 2002, 2003; Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). In addition, the Manatee Population Status Working Group of the Florida Manatee Recovery and Implementation Team has produced a comprehensive Biological Population Assessment (MPSWG 2005).<br/><br/>There are no statistically based estimates (with variance) of abundance for the entire Florida manatee population. The minimum documented abundance is determined from range-wide synoptic surveys which have been conducted nearly every winter since 1991. The surveys are timed to coincide with periods of extreme cold weather when manatees aggregate at a limited number of warm-water sites. The highest count obtained during these surveys was 3,300 manatees in January 2001 (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006); this is presumed to be a minimum count, but the fraction detected is unknown. Based on the assumption of a stable age distribution, and estimating proportion mature to be 0.70 from the core biological population model, the estimated number of mature individuals in the population is 2,310. Because detection probability varies greatly with weather conditions and across sites, population experts have consistently cautioned against using these data for trend analyses.<br/><br/>Long-term studies of the Florida manatee indicate that there are four relatively distinct regional subpopulations, as recognized in the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS 2001). Each subpopulation comprises individuals that tend to return to the same warm-water refuges each winter and have similar non-winter distribution patterns. Exchange of individuals among subpopulations is considered to be relatively limited, based on data from telemetry (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Weigle <em>et al</em>. 2001, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2003) and photo-identification (Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1990, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, FWC and USGS, unpubl.). The four subpopulations differ in abundance, demographic rates, habitats, and major threats. What follows is a summary of our understanding of their rates of population growth over the past decade and very brief statements on the status of each subpopulation. Minimum population sizes are provided by the high synoptic survey count of 5 to 6 January 2001 (FWC unpubl.). Population growth rates cited below were estimated by Runge and colleagues (2004) using a stage-based model that integrated mark-recapture estimates of survival and reproduction (Kendall <em>et al</em>. 2004, Langtimm <em>et al</em>. 2004). The estimates of vital rates were made possible through a long-term, multi-agency effort to photographically identify individual manatees based on their distinct patterns of scars and mutilations (Beck and Reid 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Atlantic Coast subpopulation extends along the entire east coast of Florida (including the Florida Keys and Florida Bay), coastal states northward along the Atlantic seaboard, and the lower St. Johns River north of Palatka. A total of 1,444 manatees were counted in the Atlantic region during the 2001 synoptic survey. Craig and Reynolds (2004) estimated that the population size of manatees using power plants on the Atlantic Coast during winter 2001 was 1,607 (95% Bayesian credible interval: 1,353 to 1,972). Over the most recent 10-year period, Runge <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated that the Atlantic subpopulation had grown at an annual rate of 1.0% per year (95% CI: -1.2 to 2.9%), but this was not statistically different from zero. The subpopulation may have increased slowly or it may have declined slightly over this time period. Craig and Reynolds (2004) used a Bayesian approach to model growth in aerial counts of manatees at several major aggregation sites along the Atlantic coast (primarily power plants). This model took into account manatee movement between surveys and variation in detection rates with ambient temperature. The trends in counts suggest the population of animals using Atlantic power plants increased at a rate of 5 to 7% per year from 1982 to 1989, leveled off (growth rate 0 to 4%yr<sup>-1</sup>) between 1990 and 1993, and has been increasing at about 4 to 6% per year since 1994. The discrepancy in growth rates of these two modeling approaches needs further investigation to provide a better understanding of population trends along the Atlantic coast.<br/> <br/><strong>Upper St. Johns River Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Upper St. Johns River subpopulation occurs in a much smaller area in the river south of Palatka. A total of 112 manatees were counted during the 2001 synoptic survey, but intensive observations that facilitate identification of nearly every individual using Blue Spring, the main overwintering site in the region, indicate that at least 141 different manatees visited the spring during that winter. A total of 190 manatees were counted at Blue Spring during a synoptic survey in 2006. The subpopulation occupying the Upper St. Johns River has shown strong growth over the past decade, increasing at an annual rate of 6.2% (95% CI: 3.7 to 8.1%) based on the stage-based model. This growth rate is supported by high survival and reproductive rates. This is the smallest of the four subpopulations, contributing less than 5% to the maximum synoptic count, but it is growing the fastest.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Northwest subpopulation extends from the Pasco-Hernando County line along the central Gulf coast northward through the Florida Panhandle and including the coastal areas of adjoining states at least as far as Louisiana. A total of 377 manatees were counted in the Northwest region during the 2001 synoptic survey.  This subpopulation has grown at an annual rate of 3.7% (95% CI: 1.6 to 5.6%) over the past 10 years. This is the second smallest subpopulation, accounting for about 11% of the highest synoptic count. Its dynamics are similar to those of the USJ, with a high adult survival rate, except reproduction seems to be lower.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Subpopulation</strong>:<br/>The Southwest subpopulation extends from the Pasco-Hernando County line (north of Tampa) southward to Whitewater Bay (part of Everglades National Park) in Monroe County. Minimum subpopulation size from the high synoptic survey count in 2001 was 1,367 individuals for the Southwest region. This subpopulation has declined at an estimated rate of -1.1% per year (95% CI: -5.4 to +2.4%) over the most recent eight-year period. The relatively wide confidence interval reflects greater uncertainty about survival and reproductive rates in this region, in part due to a shorter time series of sight-resight data. Estimates of adult survival are lower than those of all other subpopulations, probably due to the combined effects of chronic human-related (watercraft) mortality and episodic mortality events caused by red tide. It should also be noted that manatees in the Southwest subpopulation are found in a broad diversity of habitats from the more developed Tampa Bay to the more pristine reaches of Everglades National Park; demographic data are lacking for individuals in the southernmost parts of the region. Temporary emigration outside of the study areas may result in a downward bias in survival rates.<br/><br/>FWC has a wide-reaching manatee carcass salvage and necropsy programme that recovers nearly every dead manatee reported in the state of Florida. Consequently, we have a long time series of excellent data on causes of death. In all of the four subpopulations, adult mortality is mostly attributable to human-related causes, primarily watercraft collisions. However, because of the lower survival rates in the Atlantic and Southwest subpopulations, the impact of this anthropogenic mortality on population growth is much greater than in the other two regions. For the immature age class, perinatal mortality is the most common “cause” and watercraft collisions is the next highest known cause of death for all subpopulations (see Major Threats).<br/><br/>It is clear that the two smallest subpopulations have been growing over the past decade, while the two largest subpopulations have grown slightly, not at all, or may be declining. Available data suggest that the Southwest subpopulation is in decline. One way to estimate the overall growth rate for the Florida manatee is to take an average of the four subpopulation's growth rates, weighted by relative size. This yields a point estimate of 0.6% per year. Confidence intervals do not incorporate our uncertainty in the relative sizes of the subpopulations. That is, this point estimate assumes that the sighting detection rate in the synoptic survey was the same in each region in 2001, which is very unlikely, and that weights have remained constant over time. So, while the available data suggest that the point estimate of population growth for this subspecies may be close to zero or slightly positive, the associated uncertainty means that the population could be declining or increasing slightly.  <br/><br/>Population Projections:  FWC used population viability analysis models to address the three criteria that involved the probability of future population decline or extinction (FWC 2002, 2003; Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). The models were based on vital rate estimates for each of four subpopulations and they incorporated demographic and environmental stochasticity. The models simulated scenarios based on plausible future threats to manatees and their habitat, including expected declines in carrying capacity through loss of warm-water refugia (loss of power plant discharges, declines in spring flow), potential increases in mortality (mostly due to watercraft collisions) associated with projected human population growth, and natural catastrophic mortality events (red tide, cold, disease). The outcome of the most recent PVA model was that there is a 12.1% chance of a 50% decline in the next three generations (generation time estimated between 16.8 and 22.6 years), and a 55.5% chance of a 20% reduction in the next two generations (Criterion C1) (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006). For details, peer reviews, and a fuller discussion of these results, assumptions, limitations, and conclusions, please see the FWC’s Biological Status Reviews of the Florida manatee.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>There are no statistically derived population estimates for <em>T. m. manatus</em> within its range, which historically covers 41 countries in the Wider Caribbean Region. Peer-reviewed publications are sparse, but there has been a significant increase in research on Antillean manatees over the past 10 years, resulting in many theses, presentations at regional meetings, local reports, and adoption of management plans. <br/><br/>We compiled data gathered through an extensive literature review and personal communication with 45 scientists representing expertise in 29 countries, but exclusive of the Florida manatee population (which was assessed independently). Antillean manatee populations occur in 20 of the 37 countries assessed, with sightings of vagrants in additional countries. However, distribution is not continuous and populations are patchy and fragmented. Using these documents, supplemented by the questionnaires completed by local experts, we derived a very rough minimum population estimate for the subspecies. Our confidence in population estimates varies dramatically from country to country, depending on the nature and extent of recent research efforts. For that reason, we used orders of magnitude in an effort to establish some baseline population estimates for each of the 20 countries where populations are most probably extant and viable. Although the quality and quantity of data vary from country to country, there is consistency regarding a continuing decline in both manatees and the quality and quantity of available habitat.  <br/><br/>Estimates by country, based on the best available data, range from less than 10 up to ~1,000 total animals, with the largest populations reported from Mexico and Belize (Table 1). No country reports an increasing country-wide population (except Bahamas with less than 10 animals). All publications and personal communications indicate country-wide populations are declining, stable, or unknown. In a few countries, localized populations may be increasing; in most countries, reports indicate a significant decline over the past 30-50 years, but this is based solely on anecdotal evidence and/or interviews with local people. <br/><br/>While the data in Table 1 suggest that approximately 2,600 individuals exist, scattered widely through the Caribbean region, optimistic "estimates" of the size of the manatee population (also based on interviews with experts in different countries, and not necessarily on empirical data) suggest that it may actually be in the range of 5,600 individuals. The age structure of the various manatee subpopulations of <em>T. m. manatus</em> is unknown, but the percentage of mature animals in Florida was estimated to be 70% through population modeling (Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 46% through carcass recovery (Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 1995, Marmontel 1995, Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1997). The figure based on carcasses is biased low due to the presence of a large proportion of calves in the sample. We note that hunting and other threats in the Caribbean may lead to a very different age structure for <em>T. m. manatus</em> than for <em>T. m. latirostris</em>; in fact, if hunters target large (i.e., mature) manatees, the percentage of mature individuals for <em>T. m. manatus</em> could be substantially lower than is the case for <em>T. m. latirostris</em>. Therefore, we consider that the percentage of mature individuals for the Antillean subspecies is likely to lie somewhere between 46% and 70%. <br/><br/>Based on the above information, we feel it is likely that the actual population size is intermediate between the number counted (2,600; minimum population size) and the more optimistic suggestions (5,600); an average between those two numbers would place the actual population size at approximately 4,100 manatees. Using this average value, and the two percentages given above for mature animals, the number of mature individuals would therefore lie between 1,886 and 2,870. Selecting the average value between these numbers produces an estimate of 2,378 mature individuals. While we do not place much significance in these average values, it is reasonable to conclude - based on the available evidence and taking the precautionary approach - that the overall number of mature individuals in this subspecies is likely to be less the 2,500.	eng
22103	threats	Deutsch, C.J., Self-Sullivan, C. & Mignucci-Giannoni, A., 2008	<strong><em>Trichechus manatus latirostris</em></strong><br/>Threats to the Florida manatee encompass catastrophic natural events and anthropogenic factors that could cause declines in reproductive and survival rates or declines in the carrying capacity of the environment. Much of the following text is modified from the Biological Status Reviews for the Florida manatee (FWC 2002, Haubold <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Anthropogenic Threats</strong><br/>About half of adult mortality rangewide is attributable to human-related causes, primarily watercraft collisions (Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995, Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2002). This is significant because the manatee population growth rate is highly sensitive to changes in adult survival rate (Eberhardt and O’Shea 1995, Marmontel <em>et al</em>. 1997, Runge <em>et al</em>. 2004). The future of the Florida manatee is also jeopardized by the predicted loss and deterioration of warm-water habitat, including retirement or deregulation of aging power plants and reduction in natural spring flows.<br/><br/>Watercraft collisions:  Watercraft collisions account for approximately 25% of all manatee deaths and 35% of documented deaths of known cause, and are the single greatest cause of human-related mortality (Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995, Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995, FWC-FWRI unpubl.). In 2005, there were over one million registered vessels in Florida (FHSMV, http://casey.hsmv.state.fl.us/Intranet/dmv/TaxCollDocs/vesselstats2005.pdf), and many more out-of-state boaters visit Florida annually. The number of registered vessels in Florida has increased by an average of 2.9% per year over the past 25 years, doubling since 1980 (FWC, unpubl.). Given that about 97% of registrations are for recreational watercraft (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995), it can be expected that there will be a continued increase in recreational vessels plying the waterways of Florida with a concomitant increase in the human population. In addition to the expected increase in boat numbers over the coming century, there are other factors that may act synergistically to increase the risk of collisions between manatees and watercraft. Modifications to the design of vessel hulls and engines are allowing boats to travel at higher speeds in shallower waters (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995), thus threatening manatees and scarring seagrass beds. Boater compliance with existing slow speed zones is inconsistent (Gorzelany 1998, Shapiro 2001). <br/><br/>Sub-lethal effects on manatees of increased vessel traffic and a growing human population in the coastal zone are cause for concern.  Most adult manatee carcasses bear scars from previous boat strikes and the healed, skeletal fractures of some indicate that they had survived previous traumatic impacts (Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995, Lightsey <em>et al</em>. 2006). Of over 1,000 living individuals in the manatee photo-identification database (Beck and Reid 1995), 97% had scar patterns from multiple boat strikes (O’Shea <em>et al</em>. 2001). Approximately one-third of these individuals were severely mutilated, especially on the tail and the dorsum. It should be noted that the photo-identification database contains only animals with scars or other identifiable features. Non-lethal injuries may reduce the breeding success of wounded females and may permanently remove some animals from the breeding population (O’Shea 1995, Reynolds 1999). Vessel traffic and recreational activities that disturb manatees may cause them to leave preferred habitats and may alter biologically important behaviours such as feeding, suckling, or resting (O’Shea 1995, Wright <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Loss of Warm-water Habitat:  Expected changes in the network of warm-water refuges over the next several decades present the most serious long-term threat to manatees in Florida, as noted in the federal Recovery Plan: “one of the greatest threats to the continued existence of the Florida manatee is the stability and longevity of warm-water refuges” (USFWS 2001, p. 28). Ultimately, the discharges from power plants provide unreliable warm-water habitat when viewed over the long term (i.e., next 20 to 100 years) because the once-through cooling technology that creates the large thermal plumes is being replaced by more efficient and alternative cooling technologies (Laist and Reynolds 2005a). Short-term threats to the network of warm-water sites also loom on the immediate horizon.  Some aging power plants may be shut down and potential deregulation of the electric utility industry may eliminate or reduce the reliability of warm-water effluents that large numbers of manatees depend on to survive winter cold periods (Rose 1997, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). Temporary disruptions in heated effluents during winter have caused changes in local manatee distribution (Packard <em>et al</em>. 1989) and have been implicated in elevated numbers of deaths from cold stress (Campbell and Irvine 1981, Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995). The complete elimination of a secondary warm-water refuge in northeastern Florida through diffusion of the heated effluent resulted in a shift in manatee distribution within the area and in substantial mortality of manatees that remained in the region (Deutsch <em>et al</em>. 2000, Laist and Reynolds 2005a). Loss of certain key warm-water sites could result in catastrophic mortality and would likely reduce the environmental carrying capacity for manatees in Florida. <br/><br/>The long-term reliability of artesian springs that provide natural warm-water refuges for manatees is also in doubt because human demand for ground water and loss of recharge areas through development will likely result in diminished spring flows (Reynolds 2000, Laist and Reynolds 2005a). According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2001), Florida’s human population increased by about 23% to 16 million between 1990 and 2000, and projections suggest that the number of people living in Florida will increase by another 10 million people by 2025. In order to meet the increased demand for water that a growth in human population will entail, it is likely that spring flows and water quality will decline, further reducing natural warm-water habitat for manatees. This natural habitat will become even more important in the future as existing industrial sites disappear.<br/><br/>Other Direct Threats to Manatees from Human Activities: Other threats from human activities include entanglement (in fishing gear or debris), entrapment in water-control structures and pipes, exposure to contaminants, incidental ingestion of debris, and crushing (in flood-control structures, in canal locks, or between large ships and docks) (Beck and Barros 1991, Ackerman <em>et al</em>. 1995). Indirect effects from increased vessel traffic include increased water turbidity from wake action and scarring of seagrass beds by propellers (Sargent <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Indirect Threats to Manatees from Human Activities: There is no commercial or subsistence utilization in the USA. However, manatees have become the centre of a large ecotourism industry at certain winter aggregation sites, such as Crystal River. Tens of thousands of people visit these areas to observe and swim with manatees. No-entry sanctuaries provide manatees with havens to avoid swimmers and boats at these sites. Manatees do, in fact, increase their use of these sanctuaries when more boats and swimmers are present (Buckingham <em>et al</em>. 1999, King and Heinen 2004). Manatees also have been found to alter their behaviour in response to the presence of human swimmers, including decreased resting and suckling and increased swimming (King and Heinen 2004).  <br/><br/>The tremendous growth in the human population in coastal Florida over the past half century has resulted in drastic losses of coastal wetland habitats. Seagrass distribution and abundance in many estuaries have declined as the result of direct human impacts (dredging and propeller scarring) and indirect effects of development (declining water quality and nutrient loading). Within Tampa Bay, for example, an estimated 80% of the seagrass present in the early 1900s was lost by 1980 (Kurz <em>et al</em>. 2000). This decline in seagrass coverage is slowly being reversed through actions to reduce nitrogen loading in the regional watershed, which have improved water clarity in much of Tampa Bay (Johansson and Greening 2000, Kurz <em>et al</em>. 2000). Non-point-source runoff is difficult to control, however, so water clarity declines in years of above-average precipitation. Reductions in optical water clarity cause declines in the health and abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 1993). Indirect effects from increased vessel traffic include increased water turbidity from wake action and scarring of seagrass beds by propellers (Sargent <em>et al</em>. 1995). It will be particularly important to protect, restore, and maintain aquatic vegetation communities in the vicinity of warm-water aggregation sites. Without conservation measures to secure these winter habitats, manatees would have to travel greater distances, concentrate into smaller areas, and forage in sub-optimal environments.<br/><br/><strong>Natural Threats</strong><br/>Naturally-occurring catastrophic threats to manatees include prolonged periods of very cold temperatures, hurricanes, harmful algal blooms (i.e., “red tide”), and the potential for a disease epizootic. The threat from extended periods of cold weather relates to the availability and quality of warm-water habitat, which has already been discussed above.  <br/><br/>Hurricanes:  Hurricanes are another type of weather-related phenomenon that can potentially impact manatee populations. In the Northwest subpopulation, Langtimm and Beck (2003) found that adult survival rate was depressed in years with severe storms or hurricanes. The mechanism(s) underlying the lower survival probabilities are unknown, as there has not been a corresponding elevation in the number of reported carcasses. Such events could also result in large-scale emigration out of the affected region. In eastern Australia, for example, the simultaneous occurrence of flooding and a cyclone, combined with poor watershed management practices, resulted in the loss of 1,000 km² of seagrass beds and in the mass movement and mortality of dugongs (<em>Dugong dugong</em>; Preen and Marsh 1995). Given the notice from meteorologists that we have entered a new 25- to 50-year cycle of greater hurricane activity and intensity (Landsea <em>et al</em>. 1996), as well as possible longer-term changes associated with global climate change (McCarthy <em>et al</em>. 2001), storm activity may have a greater impact on manatee populations in the future.  <br/><br/>Red Tide: Manatees on Florida’s Gulf coast are frequently exposed to brevetoxin, a potent neurotoxin produced by the dinoflagellate <em>Karenia brevis</em> during red tide events. In 1996, 151 manatees were confirmed or suspected to have died in southwestern Florida from brevetoxicosis (Landsberg and Steidinger 1998, Bossart <em>et al</em>. 1998). This epizootic was particularly detrimental to the manatee population because more adults were killed than any other age class. Other red tide mortality events in 1982, 2002, 2003, and 2005 resulted in the confirmed red tide-related deaths of 37, 33, 86, and 68 manatees, respectively, with an additional 35 carcasses suspected to have died from red tide during those years (O’Shea <em>et al</em>. 1991; FWC unpubl.). Recent studies have determined that brevetoxin can exist outside of the algal cells (e.g., on seagrass) for extended periods of time, thus further increasing the threat to foraging manatees (Flewelling <em>et al</em>. 2005). Red tide represents a major natural source of mortality for manatees in the southwest region. There is no clear evidence that these events have been increasing in frequency along Florida’s coast, but certainly the impact on the manatee population has increased over the past two decades. The role of nutrient loading to coastal systems relative to the intensity and duration of inshore red tides is an active area of research for the FWRI harmful algal blooms group.<br/><br/>Pathogens: Manatees could potentially be exposed to pathogens. Spread of such pathogens could be particularly rapid during winter when manatees are concentrated in warm-water refuges. Large-scale mortality events caused by disease or toxins have decimated other populations of marine mammals, including seals and dolphins, removing 50% or more of the individuals in some events (Harwood and Hall 1990). Manatees have robust immune systems that have, through the present time, provided disease resistance. Since 1997 papilloma virus has been found in captive Florida manatees and there is some evidence that it may also be present in the wild population in northwest Florida (Bossart <em>et al</em>. 2002a, Woodruff <em>et al</em>. 2005). While the consensus is that this virus probably does not present a serious threat to manatees at this time, managers are proceeding cautiously (e.g., by establishing a quarantine on exposed captives) and surveillance for papilloma lesions in wild manatees continues.<br/><br/><strong><em>Trichechus manatus manatus</em></strong><br/>Major threats to survival of the Antillean manatee include habitat degradation and loss, hunting, incidental catch/accidental take, watercraft collisions, entanglement in fishing gear, pollution, natural disasters, and human disturbance. Although threats due to hunting are diminishing in some areas, all other threats are increasing in most areas. Illegal hunting for subsistence and profit was reported as a significant threat in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela.  Pollution from agriculture and mining was consistently noted in reports from South American countries. Intrinsic factors that limit the population’s ability to withstand these anthropogenic impacts include low fecundity, slow growth, limited dispersal, and restricted range.<br/><br/>Of particular note were: (1) In Belize, watercraft related mortality was reported as the major threat, followed by illegal hunting and entanglement in fishing gear; and (2) In north-eastern Brazil, the stranding of live-orphaned calves was identified as the main recent threat to the species (Parente <em>et al</em>. 2004). Between 1981 and 2002, 74 stranded manatees were reported on the north-eastern coast of Brazil with 58% (n=43) being live dependent calves. This high percentage suggested that that the main threat may be human disturbance resulting in mother-calf separation. Disturbance in the area is due to shrimp farms, salt farms, a general increase in human activities in the coastal zone, and uncontrolled tourism. Additional major threats include hunting, entanglement in fishing nets, watercraft collisions, indiscriminate development of the coast, and degradation of aquatic environments.	eng
22104	conservation	Powell, J. & Kouadio, A., 2008	West African manatees are listed in CITES Appendix II.  Manatees are protected by national laws in all range states. Though West African manatees are protected throughout their range, enforcement and control of hunting appears negligible. Hunting is largely local and sometimes ritualized and the meat is usually consumed locally. In some regions, hunting is primarily opportunistic and meat and products are traded locally and across borders.  Progress has been made in some regions to discourage hunting, but in general protection is minimal and offtake is likely at unsustainable levels. Availability of manatee meat in some markets has dropped,  but it is not known whether this is due to increased protection or decreased abundance, probably the latter.  Awareness of the protected status of the manatee is widespread in all areas surveyed, but there is little perceived fear of arrest and punishment (Powell 1996); enforcement is rare and fines or sentences for the most part have been negligible. Frequently when individuals have been arrested, the fine can be less than what is gained by selling the manatee meat and oil in the market (Powell 1996).<br/><br/>Efforts are being increased to protect manatees from local sale. In Senegal, there has been a long effort to initiate a research and conservation project for manatees in the Senegal River, particularly Lake Guier. There is interest in a captive breeding program at the Djoudj National Park (Powell 1990). In Guinea-Bissau, recommendations have been made for the protection of manatees (Silva and Araújo 2001). Côte d’Ivoire has one of the most important manatee conservation programs. A manatee awareness and conservation program has been in place since 1989 (Akoi 1992). On Lake Volta, surveys of manatees have been conducted and recommendations made for their conservation (Ofori-Danson 1995). In Nigeria, Pandam Lake was designated a manatee sanctuary (Sykes 1974). In Cameroon, Lake Ossa has been proposed as a protected area for manatees and the government is strongly interested in having a research and conservation project started there. In Gabon, the Gambas protected area may be one of the most important for manatees in Africa and there is strong interest in developing a conservation program to protect manatees in the N’Dogo Lagoon complex (MAB 2000).<br/><br/>List of protected areas in western Africa where <em>Trichechus senegalensis</em> is known to occur.<br/><br/>Ivory Coast - Azagny National Park; Ivory Coast - Iles Eotiles National Park; Cameroon - Reserve de Faune de Douala-Edea; Congo - Reserve de Faune de Conkouati; Gabon - Reserve de Faune et Domaines de Chasse de Sette; Nigeria - Kainji Lake National Park; Cameroon - Korup National Park; Gambia - Baboon Island National Park; Gambia - Kiangs West National Park; Mauritania - Diaouling Strict Nature Reserve; Nigeria - Kainji Lake National Park; Nigeria - Pandam Wildlife Park; Nigeria - Obudu Game Reserve; Senegal - Parc National de Basse Casamance; Senegal - Delta du Saloum; Senegal - Parc National des Oiseaux de Djoudj; Senegal - Santuaire Ornithologique de la Pointe de Kalissaye; Ghana - Digya National Park.	eng
22104	distribution	Powell, J. & Kouadio, A., 2008	Countries of occurrence include: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. <em>T. senegalensis</em> occurs in most of the coastal marine waters, brackish estuaries, and adjacent rivers along the coast of West Africa from southern Mauritania (16°N) to the Loge, Dande, Bengo and Cuanza Rivers, Angola (18°S) (Beal 1939, Allen 1942, Blancou 1960, Robinson 1971, Husar 1978, Nishiwaki 1984, Grigione 1996, Powell 1996, Perrin 2001). They ascend most major rivers within their range until cataracts or shallow water prevents their progress. In some rivers, such as along the Benue River, manatees seek refuge during the dry season in permanent lakes that communicate with the rivers during high water but are cutoff when river waters subside (Sykes 1974). Manatees can be found 75 km offshore among the shallow coastal flats and mangrove creeks (with abundant seagrasses and calm water) of the Bijagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau (Powell 1990) as well as Casamance (Senegal). Isolated populations cutoff from the sea are found in Lake Volta, Ghana above the Volta hydroelectric dam. An additional population, essentially landlocked above the major rapids, is found in the upper reaches of Niger River in the inland delta of Mali as far as Segou, which are the furthest inland records, over 2,000 km from the ocean (Hatt 1934, Kienta 1982). Manatees are landlocked in the Logone and Chari Rivers of Chad (Hatt 1934, Salkind 1996). They occur along the entire length of the Gambia River, penetrating into Senegal where there are records as far upstream as Niokola Koba National Park (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Chad, manatees are present in Lake Léré and Lake de Tréné along the Mayo-Kebbi, Bahr Keeta and Baningi rivers; manatees are also reported from the Baningi, Logone and Chari Rivers tributaries of Lake Chad. Sightings of manatees have been reported from Lake Chad but there are no documented records (Ita 1994). Centers of population appear to be Guinea-Bissau; the lagoons of Ivory Coast; the lower reaches of the Niger River, Nigeria; Sanaga River, Cameroon; coastal lagoons of Gabon and the lower reaches of the Congo River (Powell 1996). The manatee population in West Africa is reported to be reduced, but their present range appears to be comparable to historic reports (Husar 1978).<br/><br/>MAJOR LAKES: Volta, Inland delta Mali, Lake Léré, Lake de Tréné.<br/><br/>MAJOR RIVERS: (N to S) includes lakes within these river systems, the Senegal, Saloum, Gambia, Casamance, Cahacheu, Rio Mansoa, Rio Geba, Rio Grande de Bulba, Rio Tombali, Rio Cacine, Kogon, Kondoure, Sierra Leone, Great Scarcies, Little Scarcies, Sherbro, Malem, Waanje, Sewa, Missunado, Cavally, St. Paul, Morro, St. John, Bandama, Niouniourou, Sassandra, Comoe, Bia, Tano, Volta, Mono, Oueme, Niger, Mekrou, Benue, Cross, Pie, Katsena Ala, Deb, Okigb, Issa, Bani, Akwayafe, Rio del Rey, Ngosso, Andokat, Mene, Munaya, Wouri, Sanaga, Faro, Chari, Bamaingui, Bahr-Kieta, Logoné, Mitémélé, Gabon, Ogoué, Lovanzi, Kouliou, Congo, Loge, Dande, Bengo, and Cuanza.	eng
22104	habitat	Powell, J. & Kouadio, A., 2008	West and Central Africa contains a variety of suitable habitats for manatees ranging from large and small rivers, coastal estuaries, freshwater and saltwater lagoons, shallow quiet coastal bays, lakes and reservoirs.  Like T. manatus, <em>T. senegalensis</em> inhabits practically every accessible habitat (Hartman 1979, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1981, Rathbun <em>et al</em>. 1983, Powell and Rathbun 1984). They were observed or recorded from coastal areas, estuarine lagoons, large rivers that range from brackish to fresh water, freshwater lakes and the extreme upper reaches of rivers above cataracts.  In general, their habitat requirements seem to be similar to <em>T. manatus</em> and require sheltered water with access to food and freshwater (Powell and Rathbun 1984). They may transit areas of unsheltered coast, but they are usually rare in these areas.  <br/><br/>Optimal coastal habitats for manatees, based on the movements of radio-tagged manatees in Côte d’Ivoire and the number of reported sightings from other areas were: a. coastal lagoons with abundant growth of mangrove or emergent herbaceous growth; b. estuarine areas of larger rivers with abundant mangrove (<em>Rhizophora racemosa</em>) in the lower reaches and lined with grasses, particularly Vossia and Echinochloa further upriver; c. shallow (<3 m depth) and protected coastal areas with fringing mangroves or marine macrophytes, particularly <em>Ruppia, Halodule</em> or <em>Cymodocea</em>.  In riverine habitats that have major fluctuations in flow rates and water levels, manatees seem to prefer those areas that have access to deep pools or connecting lakes for refuge during the dry season and seasonally flood into swamps or forests with abundant grasses and sedges, particularly <em>Vossia, Echinochloa</em> and <em>Phragmites</em>.<br/><em><br/>T. senegalensis</em> are mostly solitary, with mothers and calves the principal social unit. Manatees will often rest together in loose, small groups of two to six individuals. They feed principally at night and travel in the late afternoon and at night. They usually rest during the day in water that is 1–2 m deep and sometimes in the middle of a watercourse or hidden in mangrove roots or under natant vegetation. They make little disturbance while swimming.  These latter behaviors may be due to hunting pressures.<br/><br/>Manatees feed primarily on vegetation including: <em>Vossia</em> sp., <em>Eichornia crassipes, Polygonum</em> sp., <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em>, <em>Azolla</em> sp., <em>Echinochloa</em> sp., <em>Lemna</em> sp., <em>Myriophyllum</em> sp., <em>Pistia stratioties</em>, <em>Rhizophora racemsoa</em>, and <em>Halodule</em> sp. In Senegal (Powell, unpub. data) and Sierra Leone (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988), manatees are also known to eat small fish captured in fishermen’s nets. In Senegal and The Gambia, shell remains of mollusks have also been found in their stomachs.<br/><br/>Manatees can travel freely from salt to freshwater.  They appear to prefer estuarine areas where there is little disturbance and the waters are shallow and calm. They can be found in marine habitats where there are relatively calm water and a source of freshwater. For example, in Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau, manatees are attracted to freshwater seeps or springs that are found in marine habitats (Powell 1990).	eng
22104	population	Powell, J. & Kouadio, A., 2008	There are no population estimates based on qualitative information.  Nishiwaki (1987) made a number of intuitive estimates for various areas.  It is believed, however, that several local populations have been extirpated (Poche 1973, Wood 1937) though recent accounts of manatees from these regions have emerged (Powell pers. notes). <em>T. senegalensis</em> population decline has been largely attributed to hunting and incidental capture in fishing nets (Allen 1942, Cadenat 1957, Blancou 1960).  Johnson (1937) reported that as many as 12 manatees a day were caught in a 100 mile stretch of the Gambia River.  Powell (1984) estimated around two manatees a year were taken between 1978-1983 from this same area though this change cannot be attributed to less hunting pressure or reduced manatee numbers (or both).  In Côte d’Ivoire, Powell (1996) sighted manatees on a daily basis, but also noted that manatee traps in the region were not uncommon. Two similar live traps set for research purposes caught five manatees in four days. Maigret (1982) and Powell (1985) speculated that habitat modification and the construction of dams would severely affect manatee numbers.<br/><br/>The following adapted from Perrin (2001):  <br/><strong>Mauritania</strong><br/>The species occurs in the Senegal River and its tributaries (Powell, 1996); this river forms the border between Mauretania and Senegal. It is an infrequent inhabitant of the Diawlang Reserve, a wetland reserve of interconnecting streams, lakes and ponds. <br/><br/><strong>Senegal</strong><br/>In Senegal, the manatee is close to extinction (Navaza and Burnham, 1998). In most areas of the country, it has not been seen for many years. There are a few remaining in the Casamance River in the estuary and up to Kolda, and there have been some reported sightings in the delta of the Sine Saloum River near Kaolack, but the species is considered to be severely depleted and threatened. In the Casamance River where they still occur, they are respected and not molested, so there is some hope they can be saved there. <br/><br/><strong>The Gambia</strong><br/>In the Gambia, numbers are thought to have declined, but as of 1993 the manatee was still numerous in the River Gambia. They have been fully protected for many years but in the 1980s were still hunted extensively. <br/><br/><strong>Guinea Bissau</strong><br/>Guinea-Bissau at one time was considered to be one of the last sanctuaries of the manatee, because of the relatively undisturbed state of its mangroves, wetlands and river systems (Schumann 1995, Powell 1996). Silva and Araújo  (2001) found that manatee occupied a wide variety of habitats and were most  abundant around the Bijagos Archipelago. Based on interviews, a total of 256 sightings involving 439 individuals interviewed were reported. Powell (1996) reported seeing about 20 individual sternum from manatees hunted in the Bijagos Archipelago by a single Senegalese fishermen who seasonally fished there.  In 1997, the government signed an agreement with IUCN to develop a National Plan for Conservation of the West African Manatee in Guinea-Bissau, and some training and survey work started, but the work stopped when the war started in 1998 (Silva and Araújo, 2001). The major source of mortality before the war was accidental capture in fishing nets; they were not extensively hunted. Silva and Araújo (2001) reported 209 manatees killed between 1990-1998, 24.8/yr. Most recently, manatees have been advertised for export on the internet, and two were exported to the Toba Aquarium in Japan (Asano and Sakamoto 1997, Kataoka <em>et al</em>. 2000, Anon., 2000b). <br/><br/><strong>Guinea</strong><br/>Little information is available on the manatee in Guinea. The country has extensive suitable habitat, and the species is known to occur in the area (Powell 1996), but no systematic studies have been carried out (Barnett and Prangley 1997). <br/><br/><strong>Sierra Leone</strong><br/>In Sierra Leone the manatee is also declining (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988, Powell 1996). It is protected but widely hunted and marketed, because it is good to eat and because it is thought to be a pest by rice growers and fishermen among the Mende People. The manatee in the late 1980s was still widely distributed in the country, but the catches at that time were thought to be unsustainable. The animals are trapped, netted and harpooned. There is some concern about the effect of modern fishing gear on the manatee, because it is easily tangled in monofilament gillnets. <br/><br/><strong>Liberia</strong><br/>Manatees occur throughout the major rivers of Liberia, including in the proposed national park of Cestos-Sankwer, and in the Piso Lake region (Powell 1996). No information is available on status. <br/><br/><strong>Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)</strong><br/>In the Côte d'Ivoire, the manatee by the mid-1980s had been reduced by hunting to 5 or 6 small isolated populations, with an estimated total number of less than 750 animals. Hunting is illegal, but it still continued in the late 1980s, with traps, harpoons, hook lines, baited hooks and nets (Roth and Waitkuwait 1986, Nicole <em>et al</em>. 1994, Powell 1996). A program of research and education began in 1986, sponsored by the Wildlife Conservation Society. The population is tentatively estimated at 750–800 (Akoi Kouadio pers. comm., 2000). Illegal hunting is still a problem, as is habitat destruction by barrages. However, some success has been enjoyed in educating potential hunters and in enforcing the hunting ban in some areas, with the aid of Wildlife Conservation International (Akoi 2000, Anon, undated). A conservation plan is in development (Akoi 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Ghana</strong><br/>Recent surveys by the Institute of Aquatic Biology confirmed the continued existence of manatees in Volta Lake and Digya National Park; additional surveys are planned (Powell 1996). Hunting continues. <br/><br/><strong>Togo</strong><br/>Manatees may still exist in Togo Lake (Powell 1996). No information is available on status. <br/><br/><strong>Benin</strong><br/>In Benin, the manatee had been thought to be extinct. However, this is apparently not the case (Powell 1996), and a new research and conservation project on the species is underway to establish its current distribution and numbers as well as gather data on its ecology and behavior (Risch 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Nigeria</strong><br/>The manatee is found throughout Nigeria but is depleted, due to hunting (Powell 1996). It is hunted for its oil. There is no effective enforcement of protection laws. The most recent concern is about pollution of the Niger Delta by oil development. <br/><br/><strong>Cameroon</strong><br/>In Cameroon, based on a survey sponsored by WWF-USA and the Wildlife Conservation Society in 1989 (Grigione 1996), manatees may still be numerous in some areas. Illegal hunting has been very limited, due mainly to local attitudes toward the species rather than legal protection, but poaching from across the border in Nigeria is a severe problem. Habitat destruction by dams is also a problem. <br/><br/><strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong><br/>There is no recent information on manatees; they likely occur in the lower reaches of the Mitémélé River on the mainland (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Gabon</strong><br/>Gabon may have one of the highest densities of manatees remaining in Africa (Powell 1996). Reports of opportunistic sightings are common. Bycatch occurs in gillnets. <br/><br/><strong>Congo</strong><br/>A preliminary survey in 1994 found manatees in lakes, rivers and lagoons of Congo (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Republic of Congo (former Zaire)</strong><br/>Manatees were once common in the extreme lower reaches of the Congo River below Binda (Powell 1996). A local name for the species exists in the upper reaches of the Congo, so it may occur there as well. Status is unknown. <br/><br/><strong>Angola</strong><br/>Manatees have been reported from the entire coast, but little information is available on abundance or status (Powell 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Mali</strong><br/>Manatees are found throughout the entire Niger River system of Mali (Powell 1996) but may have been reduced by hunting. Hunting continues but may be decreasing, as meat now only rarely appears in the markets; it is not clear whether this is due to legal protection, less demand for the meat, or greatly decreased abundance. <br/><br/><strong>Niger</strong><br/>The species has been recorded from the Niger River below Niger in Nigeria and above Niger in Mali, so it can be assumed that it occurs in the Niger River in Niger as well, but there is no information on its distribution or status (Powell 1996). It may also occur in the Niger portion of the Chad basin. <br/><br/><strong>Chad</strong><br/>Manatees were once abundant in the Chad basin but had become rare by 1924 (Powell 1996). In a survey in 1995, they were found to be less abundant than formerly but not uncommon in Lére and Tréne Lakes in the Mayo-Kebbi region. Hunting continues on the rivers and lakes, despite enforcement efforts. The animals are sought mainly for their oil, which is shipped with dried meat to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Burkina Faso</strong><br/>Manatees inhabit all of the nations that surround Burkina Faso (Mali, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Niger). They are present in Volta Lake above the dam (see Ghana above). However, Perrin (2001) could find no mention of its occurrence in the upper tributaries of the Volta (White Volta, Red Volta and Black Volta) or in the Mekrou River, which forms the boundary between Burkina Faso and Togo/Benin and drains the wetlands of the Parc National de l'Arly. Pending directed surveys, its occurrence there must be considered possible.	eng
22104	threats	Powell, J. & Kouadio, A., 2008	Manatees are exploited for their meat, skin, bones, and oil nearly everywhere they are found. They are trapped by various methods including nets, weirs, large box traps, drop traps using harpoons and snaglines (Powell 1996, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988, Roth and Waitkuwait 1986, Akoi 1992).  In Guinea Bissau, Silva and Araújo (2001) reported 209 deaths between 1990–1998; of these, 72% died in fishing gear, 13% were hunted, 4% stranded at low tide and 11% the cause of death was undetermined. In Côte d’Ivoire, Powell (1996) found numerous large box traps situated around the rivers and lagoons from the Ghana border to Fresco. The 4x1 m traps are constructed of wooden poles stuck in the bottom and door weighted with a large rock. Powell (1996) built two of these box traps for catching manatees to radio tag; he caught five manatees in two of these traps over four days. Manatees are also caught in special nets with large mesh used specifically for manatees. <br/><br/>Incidental killing of manatees occurs in many areas around West and Central Africa. Cadenat (1957) recorded the deaths of five manatees around Joal, Senegal in nets used for catching sharks. Manatees are occasionally killed in fishing trawls. In Côte d’Ivoire, stationary funnel nets are placed across the inlets of major rivers to catch shrimp swept past on tidal currents. These are strong nets that have a wide mouth that faces upstream and then narrows down to a small bag on the cod end. The tidal currents where they are usually set are often strong and several of these nets can block the entire channel.  Between 1986 and 1988, three manatees were killed in the vicinity of Grand Lahou by drowning in these nets, including one radio tagged manatee (Powell 1996).  Akoi (1992) describes how manatees in Côte d’Ivoire and probably elsewhere are sometimes caught in fishing weirs made of sticks. These weirs are common in Côte d’Ivoire and in many other areas in Africa.  <br/><br/>Recent threats include loss of habitat due to damming of rivers, cutting of mangroves for firewood and destruction of wetlands for agricultural development. At Kanji dam on the Niger River, Nigeria and on the Volta River, Ghana, manatees have been known to be killed in the turbines and intake of the hydro-electric generator (Powell, 1996).  In Nigeria, for example, Isahaya (pers. comm.) reported seeing as many as six manatee carcasses at one time below the Kainjii dam, Nigeria. <br/><br/>In Senegal and The Gambia, increases in salinity and change in waterflow due to damming can cause manatees to strand or vacate an area with unknown demographic results (Powell 1996). Natural droughts and tidal changes are known to strand manatees (Dupuy and Maigret 1978, Powell 1996, Silva and Araújo 2001).<br/><br/>Coastal development near Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire resulted in loss of habitat and increased human disturbance contributing to the disappearance of manatees in the area. Increased large vessel traffic in some of the rivers and lagoons may also pose a threat from collisions with watercraft, the highest known cause of death in Florida and Belizian manatee populations.<br/><br/>The manatee is fully protected in all of the nations in which it occurs. Due to remoteness and lack of enforcement, manatees are taken for food and traditional medicinal products throughout their range (Powell 1996).  Manatee meat is openly sold in local markets.  In Cameroon, manatee meat was sold along the roadside near Douala and could easily be spotted from a passing car. Manatee meat was seen on three out of five visits during a three month period (Powell pers. obs.).  Little historical data exists to indicate a decrease in catch rates. For example, at one point in the 1930s as many as 12 manatees a day were caught in a 100-mile stretch of the Gambia River.  Based on interviews, Powell (1996) determine that only two per year were taken in the same area between 1978-83.  Manatee meat and oil is reported to move illegally in trade between Chad and Cameroon (Powell 1996). In Mali, Senegal, and Chad, manatee oil is more prized than the meat. The oil is used for its reputed medicinal properties to cure rheumatism and to condition the skin and hair (Kienta 1982, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988). Oil from the head is used to treat ear infections. In Mali and along the Benue River, certain cuts of the meat are considered to have particular useful properties.  For example, the parts of the penis are used to cure impotency in men, and the skin can be made into whips (Kienta 1982, Powell 1996).  In Sierra Leone, villagers consume all parts of the manatee carcass except for the heavy ribs (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1988).  The meat is shared among villagers and any remains are sold by the trapper.  The bones are used to make handles for walking sticks or spinning-tops used in a local game called cii.  <br/><br/>National and international trade in live manatees exists.  In Nigeria manatees are taken for exhibit in local zoos.  In 1996, a Japanese aquarium acquired two manatees for exhibit from Guinea-Bissau (Asano and Sakamoto 1997). Wild caught manatees from Guinea-Bissau are offered for sale on the internet (River Zoo Farms, ttp://www.riverzoofarm.com/manatee.htm).	eng
22120	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
22120	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs on the western versant in central Chile, from Limari to Puerto Varas.  In the Andalien River, it occurs from the mouth of the Nonguen to its headwaters.	eng
22120	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. areolatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams.	eng
22120	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Campos <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported this species to be under population decline in regions III to IX.	eng
22120	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are unknown threats acting on this species.	eng
22132	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is presumably present in protected areas.	eng
22132	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found on Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula (Van Weers 1976; Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
22132	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It inhabits in lowland forest, but also found in secondary and degraded habitat. It is semi-commensal with humans.	eng
22132	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This is a common and a prolific species.	eng
22132	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is hunted, but it is unlikely to have a major impact on population numbers.	eng
22134	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.	eng
22134	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula montana</span> is considered to be restricted to the Himalayas. It is widely distributed in India (Assam, Uttarakhand) and from two locations in Nepal. It is also reported from Sri Lanka though this requires confirmation. It is likely to be present in other pasts of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins, but this also requires confirmation.<br/><br/>The species was described from Lake Bhimtal of the Nainital region of northern India by Benson (1843) and rediscovered by Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in 1986.<br/>Davis e<span style="font-style: italic;">t al.</span> searched 28 locations for this species, and found populations in only two locations, upstream and away from the original discovery site. These two sites appear to be tributaries from a different river on the opposite mountain face that Naintal occurs. This species has lost its historical range according to the results of Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1986) but appears to be reported from other parts of India and from Nepal.	eng
22134	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in springs, streams and small rivers of the Himalayan middle mountains. It lives on gravel and stone substrate of oligosaprobic water class I or in moderately mesosaprobic waters in groundwaters.<br/><br/>This species  was originally described as coming from "a clear and weedy stream  running through a marsh at the head of Beemtal, and supplying that lake"  (Benson 1843). Davis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1986) found their samples of this species  on the stems of water iris.	eng
22134	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
22134	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Since this species is found in unpolluted streams and small rivers, water pollution is the main inferred threat to this species. Climate change may impact the species due to decrease in water flows and the drying-up of springs.<br/><br/>The historical distribution of this species in the Naintal district has become heavily polluted from a variety of sources. In particular Lake Naintal, and its surrounding waters, including the Balia Ravine, are experiencing a reduction in the size of the lake, deterioration in water quality, sewage discharge, increased construction on the lake, constant erosion of the Balia Ravine, and a increase in the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and phosphate content.	eng
22201	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
22202	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
22207	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and habitat status would be valuable.	eng
22207	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Southwest Province Cameroon (Debunsha Lake, and Muandon).	eng
22207	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Possibly found on marsh, perhaps mostly in forest, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
22207	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
22207	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
22208	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
22208	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species is endemic to Sao Tome and Principe.	eng
22208	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
22208	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
22208	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
22212	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2008	Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and there is an Action Plan. Listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. Protected by national legislation in many countries; recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. Present in many protected areas. The are local conservation programmes for the species in parts of its range (e.g.. Poland, Germany). In the UK there is a need for monitoring following mitigation work.	eng
22212	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2009	Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and there is an Action Plan. Listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. Protected by national legislation in many countries; recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. Present in many protected areas. The are local conservation programmes for the species in parts of its range (e.g.. Poland, Germany). In the UK there is a need for monitoring following mitigation work.	eng
22212	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2008	This species is widely distributed from the United Kingdom and northern France, through southern Scandinavia, and central Europe, enters a small part of the Balkans, to the southwestern part of West Siberia (Kurganskaya Province; records in Sverdlovskaya Province need verification). The presence of this species in southern Hungary requires verification and is not mapped here, as earlier records of <em>T. cristatus</em> are now believed to refer to other <em>Triturus</em> species (M. Puky pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,750m asl. (Arnold, 2003).	eng
22212	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2009	This species is widely distributed from the United Kingdom and northern France, through southern Scandinavia, and central Europe, enters a small part of the Balkans, to the southwestern part of West Siberia (Kurganskaya Province; records in Sverdlovskaya Province need verification). The presence of this species in southern Hungary requires verification and is not mapped here, as earlier records of <em>T. cristatus</em> are now believed to refer to other <em>Triturus</em> species (M. Puky pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,750m asl. (Arnold, 2003).	eng
22212	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2008	It can be found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of pine, birch, oak, alder etc.), their glades and edges, in forest steppe, bush lands, pastures, meadows, parks and gardens. Reproduction in permanent stagnant and in semi-flowing waters such as ponds, rarely lakes, flooded quarries, irrigation channels and ditches. The usage of small ponds is typical across the range. It can be found in modified habitat types, but this species is not considered to be very adaptable.	eng
22212	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2009	It can be found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of pine, birch, oak, alder etc.), their glades and edges, in forest steppe, bush lands, pastures, meadows, parks and gardens. Reproduction in permanent stagnant and in semi-flowing waters such as ponds, rarely lakes, flooded quarries, irrigation channels and ditches. The usage of small ponds is typical across the range. It can be found in modified habitat types, but this species is not considered to be very adaptable.	eng
22212	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2008	Although the species is known to be declining or rare in parts of its distribution (e.g., Belgium, where only a few sites are known), it appears to remain relatively common in suitable habitats (although usually occurring in small numbers) over parts of its range.	eng
22212	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2009	Although the species is known to be declining or rare in parts of its distribution (e.g., Belgium, where only a few sites are known), it appears to remain relatively common in suitable habitats (although usually occurring in small numbers) over parts of its range.	eng
22212	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2008	The species is sensitive to changes in water quality. Correspondingly, industrial pollution of water, destruction and drainage of ponds seem to be the most harmful factors for <em>T. cristatus</em>. The impact of natural factors such as ponds overgrowing, shallowing and eutrophication is harmful to urban populations and those near to the range margins. Introduced predatory fishes are leading to declines in some areas. In some parts of the range (of the former Soviet Union) there is substantial commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Habitat fragmentation is a threat.	eng
22212	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Trevor Beebee, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Mathieu Denoël, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, 2009	The species is sensitive to changes in water quality. Correspondingly, industrial pollution of water, destruction and drainage of ponds seem to be the most harmful factors for <em>T. cristatus</em>. The impact of natural factors such as ponds overgrowing, shallowing and eutrophication is harmful to urban populations and those near to the range margins. Introduced predatory fishes are leading to declines in some areas. In some parts of the range (of the former Soviet Union) there is substantial commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Habitat fragmentation is a threat.	eng
22216	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Claude Miaud, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas, and in parts of its range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in some of the areas where it occurs (for example, in Romania).	eng
22216	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Claude Miaud, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	This species is found in the lowlands of the Tisza and Danube River systems from eastern Austria, extreme southern Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, northern Croatia, extreme northern Bosnia-Herzegovina, northern Serbia and western Romania, eastwards to the Transcarpathian Plain in southern Romania, northern Bulgaria, southern Moldova (the lower reaches of the Prut River), and extreme southern Odesskaya Province (Ukraine). Individuals from north-eastern Slovenia (the Mura River) are hybrid forms with <em>Triturus carnifex</em>. It is generally found in lowland areas below 300m asl.	eng
22216	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Claude Miaud, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is found in open habitats with mixed deciduous forests and groves, bushlands, flooded meadows and swamps, and also in agricultural landscapes and villages, and riparian groves in the steppe regions. It might in some instances be strictly aquatic. This species may coexist with fish in oxbow lakes, river margins and other non-temporary waterbodies, and may also occur in disturbed habitats including those close to human settlement (Griffiths 1996). Reproduction takes place in small ponds with stagnant water, or in channels, ditches and flooded areas. It intergrades with other species of the former <em>Triturus cristatus</em> complex along the contact zones.	eng
22216	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Claude Miaud, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	In general, populations of this species are rapidly declining as a result of habitat loss.	eng
22216	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Claude Miaud, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	The main threats to this species are rapid anthropogenic habitat destruction (for example, through drainage and damming), and pollution of its wetland habitats (especially floodplains). Hybridization with other crested newt species at the edge of its range is also a threat. In the southern part of its range, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change.	eng
22273	habitat	Gimenez Dixon, M., 1996	A subterranean species.	eng
22297	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Chishuisuoluo, Leigongshan, Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Jiyuanmihou, Jigongshan (Xinyang), Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong, Jinfoshan, Changshanerhai, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and it is probably present in other protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1cd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
22297	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is an endemic of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It has a widespread distribution across much of central China (Smith and Xie 2008), including Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Gansu, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, Beijing, Hubei, and Qinghai. It occurs at elevations ranging from 1,360-2,750 m asl (Wang 1998).	eng
22297	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies temperate forests and nests in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>Diet primarily consists of oak leaves (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008). Sexual maturity is reached at 22 months, litter sizes range from one to four, and gestation is 78-89 days (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22297	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that the population is declining as a result of habitat loss, hunting and capturing.	eng
22297	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Threats to this species include hunting/capturing (Wang 1998), logging, and tree plantations (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
22345	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
22345	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the River Pinios in the western Peloponnese, and to the Aitoloakarnania region (Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia, Acheloos river basin) in Greece.	eng
22345	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in lakes and large rivers. It is a small size species (<110 mm).	eng
22345	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Apparently stable.	eng
22345	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, and bycatch in fisheries.	eng
22346	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
22346	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to few small rivers and streams (from Nedas to Evrotas) in southern Peloponnese in Greece.	eng
22346	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a species of small size (<100 mm) which lives near the river/stream edges avoiding the main stream currents.	eng
22346	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
22346	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution, and drought. It is reported that effluent from the olive pressing mills is discharged into the rivers in the dry season, when fish are in isolated pools, such that the river often runs black.	eng
22366	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Occurs in littoral and benthic zones of lakes with extensive macrophyte stands.	eng
22367	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	Occurs in littoral and benthic zones of lakes and ponds, perennial marshes.	eng
22372	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Found in Lakes Baringo and Naivasha.	eng
22375	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	This calanoid copepod occurs in Lake Tanganyika.	eng
22375	habitat	Reid, J.W., 1996	It is an important prey item for the many species of cichlid fish in the lake.	eng
22376	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
22378	distribution	Reid, J.W., 1996	Recorded from the plain of Rusizi River.	eng
22431	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is only known from three localities. Basic information is needed on species range and population size, habitat and ecology. It is not known to occur in a protected area.	eng
22431	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Luzon (Philippines), where it has been recorded from Benguet, Laguna, and Tarlac provinces (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). It occurs along the Chico river at the base of Mt. Data (1,500-1,700 m) and at the base of Mt. Makiling.	eng
22431	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	This species inhabits "wet habitats" such as weedy secondary growth areas, rice fields and other agricultural areas at lower altitudes. It has also been reported from mossy forest at about 2,500 m in the Central Cordillera (Miller 1910; Rabor 1955) and in the lower parts of Mt. Makiling (100-350 m) (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973).	eng
22431	population	Heaney, L., 2008	The population status of the species is not known. It is only known from three records: one from the 1946 expedition (Sanborn 1952; Rabor 1955); one from Los Banos campus, Rice research Institute in the irrigated lowland rice fields (Barbehenn 1973); and the last one from Tarlac province, close to the cities "Concepcion" and "Mayanpoc" (Barbehenn 1973). However, this is likely to be due to the difficulty in trapping this species rather than reflecting a genuine rarity (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
22431	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
22432	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Has been considered an agricultural pest.  Listed in the China Red List as Least Concern.	eng
22432	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in NE China, Korea and Russian Far East.	eng
22432	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Generally found in open xeric areas, marches with shrubs and river banks. Also found at field edges, along canals, roads, and rice fields. Constructs deep vertical burrows in which it caches vast quanties of seed in a large storage chamber. Feds on seeds of wild and cultivated plants (soy, corn, sunflower). Occasionally known to harvest leaves. Stores food for winter, up to 10 kg. Primarily nocturnal, although can be seen active during the day.  Life expectancy about one year (they tend to waste away following breeding).  Reproductive season from April to October (May to August in China).  Breed 2-3 times and generally produce litters of from 8-10 young. Maximum registred litter size is 24.	eng
22432	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data available.	eng
22432	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No major threats to the species. However, change in water regime and marshes drainage may influence local distribution.	eng
22446	conservation	Meijaard, E. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	It is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22446	distribution	Meijaard, E. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Found on North and South Pagai Islands, and Sipora (Mentawai Islands, Indonesia) (Helgen, 2005).	eng
22446	habitat	Meijaard, E. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	Apparently restricted to lowland forests.	eng
22446	population	Meijaard, E. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	There is no population information available.	eng
22446	threats	Meijaard, E. & MacKinnon, J., 2008	If this species is dependent upon lowland primary forests, then it is almost certainly being threatened by ongoing forest loss due to logging on the Mentawais.	eng
22451	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	&#160;This species is found in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22451	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo, where it is found in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei (Helgen 2005). It is more commonly found below 1,000 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
22451	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is reliant on pristine forest; however, they do survive in natural forest remnants in tree plantations and regenerating shifting agriculture plots (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).	eng
22451	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	Formerly common in Borneo, but there have probably since been declines throughout the range.	eng
22451	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The main threat to this species is deforestation and habitat degradation due to agriculture and conversion to non-timber plantations.	eng
22454	conservation	Saha, S.S. & Bhatta, T., 2008	&#160;It has been recorded from several protected areas, including Galathea National Park and Campbell National Park (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22454	distribution	Saha, S.S. & Bhatta, T., 2008	This species occurs only on the Indian islands of Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar (Helgen 2005). Sea level to 1,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
22454	habitat	Saha, S.S. & Bhatta, T., 2008	This semi-arboreal species, often seen on the forest floor, occupies the lower and mid-canopy of rainforest areas.	eng
22454	population	Saha, S.S. & Bhatta, T., 2008	It is locally common in appropriate habitats.	eng
22454	threats	Saha, S.S. & Bhatta, T., 2008	The major threats to this species are forest loss and fragmentation, and predation by domestic dogs and cats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
22455	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C., Widmann, P. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is found in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22455	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C., Widmann, P. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Palawan Island from 0 to 1,400 m asl (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004; Helgen 2005).	eng
22455	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C., Widmann, P. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest; it has also been found in n agricultural areas and in cashew and coconut plantations, brushy areas, and logged-over areas (Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
22455	population	Gonzalez, J.C., Widmann, P. & Heaney, L., 2008	Usually common, though local densities may be highly variable between apparently similar habitats (see Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2004, and references therein).	eng
22455	threats	Gonzalez, J.C., Widmann, P. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
22563	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The bottlenose dolphin has been afforded special protected status under Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.  Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey. Research on population structure, abundance and removals of common bottlenose dolphins is needed so that risks to regional populations can be assessed.	eng
22563	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The bottlenose dolphin has been afforded special protected status under Annex II of the European Union’s Habitats Directive. Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former USSR, Bulgaria and Romania, and in 1983 in Turkey.	eng
22563	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Common bottlenose dolphins are distributed worldwide through tropical and temperate inshore, coastal, shelf, and oceanic waters (Leatherwood and Reeves 1990; Wells and Scott 1999; Reynolds <em>et al</em>. 2000). Bottlenose dolphins generally do not range pole-ward of 45°except in northern Europe (as far as the Faroe Islands 62°N 7°W - Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000) and to southern New Zealand. The species is rare in the Baltic Sea (it may best be considered extralimital there) and is vagrant to Newfoundland and Norway (Wells and Scott 1999).	eng
22563	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Common bottlenose dolphins are distributed worldwide through tropical and temperate inshore, coastal, shelf, and oceanic waters (Leatherwood and Reeves 1990, Wells and Scott 1999, Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Bottlenose dolphins generally do not range pole-ward of 45° except in northern Europe (as far as the Faroe Islands 62°N 7°W:  Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). The species is rare in the Baltic Sea (it may best be considered extralimital there), and is vagrant to  Norway (Wells and Scott 1999).	eng
22563	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Common bottlenose dolphins tend to be primarily coastal, but they can also be found in pelagic waters (Wells and Scott 1999). Where distinct ecotypes are known, the inshore form frequents estuaries, bays, lagoons and other shallow coastal regions, occasionally ranging far up into rivers. The offshore form is apparently less restricted in range and movement. Some offshore dolphins are residents around oceanic islands. In many inshore areas bottlenose dolphins maintain definable, long-term multi-generational home ranges, but in some locations near the extremes of the species range, coastal bottlenose dolphins are migratory. Black Sea bottlenose dolphins are common over the continental shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins are commonly associated with many other cetaceans, including both large whales and other dolphin species (Wells and Scott 1999).  Mixed schools with Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins have been found, for instance off China and Taiwan (J. Wang, pers. comm.).  Spring and summer, spring and fall, or single summer calving peaks are known for most areas where this has been studied (Wilson 1995, Wells and Scott 1999). In general, bottlenose dolphins consume a wide variety of prey species, mostly fish  and squid (Barros and Odell 1990, Barros and Wells 1998, Santos <em>et al.</em> 2001).  They sometimes eat shrimps and other crustaceans.	eng
22563	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Common bottlenose dolphins tend to be primarily coastal, but they can also be found in pelagic waters (Wells and Scott 1999). Where distinct ecotypes are known, the inshore form frequents estuaries, bays, lagoons and other shallow coastal regions, occasionally ranging far up into rivers. The offshore form is apparently less restricted in range and movement. Some offshore dolphins are residents around oceanic islands. In many inshore areas bottlenose dolphins maintain definable, long-term multi-generational home ranges, but in some locations near the extremes of the species range they are migratory. Off the coasts of North America, they tend to inhabit waters with surface temperatures ranging from about 10°C to 32°C (Wells and Scott, 1999). Black Sea bottlenose dolphins are common over the continental shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins are commonly associated with many other cetaceans, including both large whales and other dolphin species (Wells and Scott 1999). Mixed schools with Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins have been found, for instance off China and Taiwan (J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins consume a wide variety of prey species, mostly fish and squid (Barros and Odell 1990; Barros and Wells 1998; Blanco <em>et al</em>. 2001; Santos <em>et al</em>. 2001). They sometimes eat shrimps and other crustaceans.	eng
22563	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Abundance has been estimated for several parts of the species' range. Summing available estimates, a minimum world-wide estimate is 600,000.<br/><br/>U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service surveys have estimated 52,000 bottlenose dolphins in the northern Gulf of Mexico (3,708 [CV=42%] in oceanic waters beyond the shelf edge (Mullin 2006), 25,320 [CV=26%] on the outer continental shelf, 17,602 in coastal waters, and 5,063 in estuaries, bays, and channels – Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are approximately 126,000 off the eastern coast of North America (including 81,588 [CV=17%] in offshore waters and 32,533 (winter) to 43,951 (summer) in coastal waters – Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pacific surveys found 243,500 (CV=29%) in the eastern tropical Pacific (Wade and Gerrodette 1993), 3,215 (CV= 59%) off Hawaii (Barlow 2006), 323 (CV=13%) in coastal California waters (Dudzik <em>et al</em>. 2006), and an average of about 2,000 (CV = 44%) in the offshore waters of California/Oregon/Washington (Barlow and Forney in press). Japanese surveys found 168,000 (CV=26%) in the Northwestern Pacific west of 180ºE, including 36,791 (CV=25%) in Japanese coastal waters (Miyashita 1993). In the eastern Sulu Sea, Dolar <em>et al</em> (2006) estimated 2,628. Approximately 900 bottlenose dolphins were found along 400 km of coastal waters off KwaZulu-Natal (however, many of these may have been <em>T. aduncus</em> - Reyes 1991; Wells and Scott 1999).<br/><br/>Total abundance in the Mediterranean is unknown but thought to be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). Surveys in the northwestern Mediterranean estimated 7,654 (CV=45%) present (Forcada <em>et al</em>. 2004). An estimated 584 (CV=28%) occur in the Alboran Sea (Cañadas and Hammond 2006). Mediterranean bottlenose dolphins exhibit population structure, based on toxicology and diet (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2005) and genetics (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>The total population size in the Black Sea is unknown. However, there are recent abundance estimates for parts of the range suggesting that population size is at least several thousands (Birkun 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary estimates from the late 1980s indicate about 1,000 dolphins occur around the Faroe Islands (Sigurjónsson <em>et al</em>. 1989; Sigurjónsson and Gunnlaugsson 1990, Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). Estimates of inshore bottlenose dolphins along the European Atlantic coasts total at least 610 individuals (Liret <em>et al</em>. 1998; Wilson <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grellier and Wilson 2003; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2002; Ingram 2000; White and Webb 1995, Baines <em>et al</em>. 2002; Gaspar 2003). A wide-scale survey in 2005 of western European continental shelf waters including the western Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic margin as far as southern Spain estimated that there were 12,600 bottlenose dolphins in this area (CV=27%, P. Hammond pers. comm..). Minimum estimates exist for other small areas around the world: for example, 122 (95% CI = 114-140) off Belize (Kerr <em>et al</em>. 2005) and 66 in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand (Hase and Schneider 2001).	eng
22563	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Abundance has been estimated for several parts of the species' range. Summing available estimates, a minimum world-wide estimate of common bottlenose dolphins is 600,000. <br/><br/>Total abundance in the Mediterranean is unknown but thought to be in the low 10,000s based on observed densities in areas that have been surveyed (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Surveys in the northwestern Mediterranean estimated 7,654 (CV=45%) dolphins (Forcada <em>et al.</em> 2004).  An estimated 584 (CV=28%) animals occur in the Alboran Sea (Cañadas and Hammond 2006). Mediterranean bottlenose dolphins exhibit population structure based on toxicology and diet (Borrell <em>et al.</em> 2005) and genetics (Natoli et al. 2005). <br/><br/>The total population size in the Black Sea is unknown. However, there are recent abundance estimates for parts of the range suggesting that population size is at least several thousands (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary estimates from the late 1980s indicate about 1,000 dolphins occur around the Faroe Islands (Sigurjónsson <em>et al.</em> 1989, Bloch and Mikkelsen 2000). A wide scale survey in 2005 of western European continental shelf waters including the western Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic margin as far as southern Spain estimated that there were 12,600 bottlenose dolphins in this area (CV=27%, P. Hammond pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara (2006) estimate generation time in the common bottlenose dolphin to be c.20 years.	eng
22563	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Coastal and island-centered populations are especially vulnerable to hunting, incidental catch, and habitat degradation (see Curry and Smith 1997 for a review). Acute conservation problems are known in the Mediterranean and Black seas (IWC 1992, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) as well as a number of other areas in the global range (outside Europe). Dolphin catches for bait, human consumption, or to remove competition with fisheries have been reported worldwide (see reviews in Wells and Scott 1999, 2002).  <br/><br/>The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information is the northern Adriatic Sea, where bottlenose dolphins likely have declined by at least 50% over the past 50 years, largely as a consequence of historical killing in extermination campaigns to reduce competition for fish, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing. The extermination campaigns were conducted until the early 1960s (Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).  For the north-western Mediterranean, the available information suggests similar trends (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). <br/><br/>Drive fisheries have been reported from the Faroe Islands and Japan. Up to 308 are taken annually in the Faroe Islands drive fishery (dating back to 1803), often with long finned pilot whales (Reyes 1991). The Black Sea subspecies has had extensive directed takes for commercial products (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992), including takes of at least 24,000-28,000 during 1946-1983 in the Black Sea off Turkey.  However, the total number of dolphins killed was certainly much greater (probably by tens of thousands) as figures do not include, or only partially include, catch statistics from other Black Sea countries (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).<br/><br/>Live-capture removal of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins, including mortality during capture operations, is estimated at 1,000-2,000 since the early 1960s. Live-captures continue in the Russian Federation, with 10-20 animals taken annually from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of common bottlenose dolphins are known from throughout the species’ range, in gillnets, driftnets, purse seines, trawls, long-lines, and on hook-and-line gear used in commercial and recreational fisheries, but numbers of mortalities are often poorly documented (Wells and Scott 1999). Annual Black Sea bottlenose dolphin incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets from 1946 through the 1980s is roughly estimated in the hundreds. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in the 1990s-2000s owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). According to Öztürk (1999) at least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins per year may be taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries in a variety of fishing nets, especially bottom-set gill nets.<br/><br/>Common bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1998, Jackson <em>et al.</em> 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines. The contribution of anthropogenic factors to an increasing number of Unusual Mortality Events involving bottlenose dolphins remains to be determined (Spradlin <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
22563	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Coastal and island-centred populations are especially vulnerable to hunting, incidental catch, and habitat degradation (Curry and Smith 1997). Acute conservation problems are known or suspected in at least: (a) the Mediterranean and Black seas (IWC 1992; Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006); (b) Sri Lanka (Leatherwood and Reeves 1989); (c) Peru, Ecuador and Chile (Read <em>et al</em>. 1988; Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1990, 1997; Sanino <em>et al</em>. 2004; K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.); (d) Taiwan (Hammond and Leatherwood 1984; Perrin 1989; Wang <em>et al</em>. 1999); and (e) Japan (Miyazaki 1983; Kasuya 1985; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Dolphin catches for bait, human consumption, or to remove competition with fisheries have been reported worldwide (Wells and Scott 1999, 2002). In Peru, coastal fisheries still take Tursiops and other cetaceans for human consumption and bait, using harpoons and gill nets (K. Van Waerebeek pers. comm.). It is taken opportunistically by harpoon in Sri Lanka (Ilangakoon 1997). In Taiwan, common bottlenose dolphins comprise a major part of the small cetaceans taken by harpoon (J. Wang pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The only Mediterranean area with quantitative historical information is the northern Adriatic Sea, where bottlenose dolphins likely have declined by at least 50% over the past 50 years, largely as a consequence of historical killing in extermination campaigns to reduce competition for fish, followed by habitat degradation and overfishing. The extermination campaigns were conducted until the early 1960s (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). For the north-western Mediterranean, the available information suggests similar trends (Bearzi and Fortuna 2006). <br/><br/>Drive fisheries have been reported from the Faroe Islands and Japan. Up to 308 are taken annually in the Faroe Islands drive fishery (dating back to 1803), often with long-finned pilot whales (Reyes 1991; Bloch 1998). Drive and harpoon fisheries in Japan catch bottlenose dolphins for human consumption and to remove perceived competition with commercial fisheries (Wells and Scott 1999). Average catch from 1995-2004 was 594 per annum (Kasuya 2007). <br/><br/>The Black Sea subspecies has had extensive directed takes for commercial products (Kleinenberg 1956; Tomilin 1957; Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992), including takes of at least 24,000-28,000 during 1946-1983 in the Black Sea off Turkey. However, the total number of dolphins killed was certainly much greater (probably by tens of thousands) as figures do not include, or only partially include, catch statistics from other Black Sea countries (Birkun 2006).<br/><br/>Live capture of common bottlenose dolphins for public display, research, and military applications have occurred in several parts of the species' range. Worldwide estimates of removal are unavailable, but more than 1,500 were caught in United States, Mexican, and Bahamian waters through 1980 (Leatherwood and Reeves 1982; Fisher and Reeves 2005). Some live-capture removals continue in other countries including Cuba where at least 238 were captured in 1986-2004 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 2006), the Solomon Islands, Japan, and China (Wells and Scott 1999; R.S. Wells pers. comm.). Live-capture removal of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins, including mortality during capture operations, is estimated at 1,000-2,000 since the early 1960s. Live-captures continue in the Russian Federation, with 10-20 animals taken annually from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia (Birkun 2002a, 2006). According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).<br/><br/>Incidental catches of common bottlenose dolphins are known from throughout the species’ range, in gillnets, driftnets, purse seines, trawls, long-lines, and on hook-and-line gear used in commercial and recreational fisheries, but the level of mortality is often poorly documented (Wells and Scott 1999). Gillnet and purse-seine fisheries off Peru take an unknown number annually. An estimated 42 common bottlenose dolphins were taken and landed at Cerro Azul, a Peruvian port, in 1994; while an annual gillnet fisheries bycatch of 227 animals was estimated for the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador, also in 1994 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1997). The estimated annual incidental mortality in the eastern tropical Pacific fishery for tuna ranged up to almost 200, but the mortality has declined to less than 10 since 1998 (M. Scott pers. comm.). Incidental catches in Chinese fisheries reach several hundred per year (Yang <em>et al</em>. 1999). Coastal gillnets and shark drift gillnets in the mid-Atlantic region of the US take on average 66 annually (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2008). They are taken incidentally in gillnets in Sri Lanka (Ilangakoon 1997). Taiwanese coastal and distant water longline fisheries for tuna and sharks take bottlenose dolphins incidentally (for the latter, the origin of the animals is unknown), as do a variety of gillnets, including driftnets (Wang and Yang 2002; J. Wang pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Annual Black Sea bottlenose dolphin incidental mortality in bottom-set gillnets from 1946 through the 1980s is roughly estimated in the hundreds. The scale of this mortality almost certainly increased in the 1990s-2000s owing to the rapid expansion of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (Birkun 2006). According to Öztürk (1999) at least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins per year may be taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries in a variety of fishing nets, especially bottom-set gill nets.<br/><br/>Common bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Pauly <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines. The contribution of anthropogenic factors to an increasing number of Unusual Mortality Events involving bottlenose dolphins remains to be determined (Spradlin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Environmental contaminants likely impact health and reproductive success of the common bottlenose dolphins in parts of its range. Lahvis <em>et al</em>. (1995) correlated concentrations of PCBs and DDT in the blood of inshore bottlenose dolphins with decline in immune system function. Males in some areas such as Florida accumulate levels of PCBs more than an order of magnitude greater than the threshold for adverse health effects identified by Kannan <em>et al</em>. (2000) (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). A risk assessment relative to PCB burdens suggested elevated probabilities of first-born mortality at several sites in the U.S. (Schwacke <em>et al</em>. 2002; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Bottlenose dolphins sometimes forage around fish-farm cages or take fish from gillnets (e.g., Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2001; Read <em>et al</em>. 2003), commercial trawling gear, crab traps, or recreational fishing gear (Wells and Scott 1999). This can result in incidental mortality through entanglement and ingestion of fishing gear.	eng
22569	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
22569	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
22569	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A lacustrine species.	eng
22569	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Known only from the type specimens. No recent data on population are available. However, if the species lives only in this lake, no specimens have been caught during recent surveys of the lake.	eng
22569	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
22570	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law (NOM-059_ECOL-2001).	eng
22570	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico.	eng
22570	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is associated with tropical decidous forest, around the area of Tuxtla Gutierrez.	eng
22570	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are less than 10 specimens known from the type locality. The last specimen was collected more than 40 years ago.	eng
22570	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	The area where this species is found has been modified by urbanization and conversion to agricultural. It is likely that the native vegetation will disappear completely from this area.	eng
22571	conservation	Pino, J., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Known from within the Darien, NP. Further taxonomic research is required.	eng
22571	distribution	Pino, J., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is only known from a small area of the Darien, Panama (600-1,200 m).	eng
22571	habitat	Pino, J., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Unknown.	eng
22571	population	Pino, J., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	Its population status is unknown.	eng
22571	threats	Pino, J., Samudio, R. & Reid, F., 2008	There are currently no known major threats to this species. However, there have been plans to expand the Pan-American highway, and also an oil pipeline. The species has an intrinsic threat of having a small known extent of occurrence.	eng
22572	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	It probably occurs in several parks throughout the range.	eng
22572	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the west and central Colombia, lowlands of the valley of Magdalena river (Goodwin, 1955), unknown distribution south in the valley (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.); also northwest Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 50 to 1,100 m in Ecuador (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
22572	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is apparently arboreal in wet forest (M. Gómez-Laverde and R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
22572	population	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is apparently uncommon (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Not commonly collected as arboreal and difficult to capture (M. Gómez-Laverde and R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
22572	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	Major threats are deforestation and habitat lost; also are taken for food by local communities and sold locally, but is not an important threat (M. Gómez-Laverde and D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
22573	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	Occurs in protected areas throughout its range. More research is needed on its distribution.	eng
22573	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species occurs from central Guerrero and central Veracruz, Mexico, south to southern Nicaragua, excluding the northern Peninsula (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,300 m.	eng
22573	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is found in mature evergreen and semideciduous forest, and dense, viney second growth, usually near rocks, caves, or cliffs (Reid 1997). <br/><br/>It is nocturnal and semiarboreal. Though its movements are usually slow and deliberate, this large rat can travel with great speed and agility on vines and branches. Little is known of its diet; the stomach of an animal from Veracruz contained vegetation resembling lichen or bark (Hall and Dalquest 1963 in Reid 1997). Its gestation is about 40 days, and litter size averages 2.5 young (Herlm 1975 in Reid 1997).	eng
22573	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This rat is uncommon (Reid 1997).	eng
22573	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
22574	conservation	Reid, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	The known localities of this species are in Darien National Park.	eng
22574	distribution	Reid, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from eastern Panama at 600 m.	eng
22574	habitat	Reid, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
22574	population	Reid, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens collected in the 1950s.	eng
22574	threats	Reid, R. & Woodman, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
22575	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is protected by the Mexican government (NOM-059_ECOL_2001)	eng
22575	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Tumbala, Chiapas, Mexico.	eng
22575	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This area was originally tropical forest.	eng
22575	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from less than 10 specimens from the type locality, and has not been collected in at least 40 years.	eng
22575	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This area has been completely deforested with only very small patches of original vegetation. Land use change is due to agriculture.	eng
22576	conservation	Schipper, J., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	Large populations of this species occur within protected areas.	eng
22576	distribution	Schipper, J., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in Costa Rica and west Panamá (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,700 m (Reid and Langtimm 1993 in Reid 1997).	eng
22576	habitat	Schipper, J., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species favors mid-elevation evergreen forest on the Caribbean Slope, but it is also found in humid lowland forest, and in highland oak forest (Reid 1997). Sometimes considered house pest. This species requires some degree of canopy connectivity.	eng
22576	population	Schipper, J., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	Can be extremely abundant.	eng
22576	threats	Schipper, J., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
22577	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded in many protected areas in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from protected areas in India like Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani 2006). Within South Asia, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and effect of pesticide overuse on this species. Public awareness activities need to be taken up highlighting the importance of this species in the agricultural ecosystem as the controller of insect pests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
22577	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern and northeastern South Asia, southern China, and much of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed and is presently known from Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet divisions) (Khan 2001; Srinivasulu and Srinivasulu 2005) and India (Andaman Islands, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal) (Das 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 1,262 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In China, it has been recorded from Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hong Kong (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Seram), the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), to the Philippines where it probably occurs throughout the country, but has been recorded from sea level to 500 m asl (Balete pers. comm. 2006) from Calauit, Culion, Luzon (Rizal Province and Zambales [Balete pers. comm. 2006]) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
22577	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in prime tropical deciduous forests with extensive bamboo growth, and has been recorded from lowland agricultural areas and disturbed habitats (Heaney <em>et al. </em>1998; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It prefers to roost in internodal spaces of hollow bamboo and narrow crevices in other trees. The roosting site is located 0.25 to 10 m from the ground. It is a gregarious species and roosts in groups of up to 40 individuals. It feeds on termites. The breeding season coincides with abundance of insect prey and two young are born (Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22577	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is generally common over most of its range.	eng
22577	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Heaney, L., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from commercial logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites by humans (A. Madhavan pers. comm. January 2002, Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
22578	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from nay protected areas. In South Asia, there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species and it has not been recorded from any protected areas. In South Asia, further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
22578	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species ranges from northeastern India, through parts of southern China, to much of mainland and insular Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently only known from India (Mizoram) (Srinivauslu <em>et al.</em> in press), where it has been recorded from an elevation of 800 to 1,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In southern China, it has been reported from Yunnan and Guangxi (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it ranges from Myanmar in the west, through Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Peleng), the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), western Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (Rizal and Zambales provinces), Calauit and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998) and Negros (Carino <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
22578	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is associated with bamboo vegetation in both intact and disturbed habitats (Heaney and Alcala 1986; Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith and Xie 2008). Small colonies, of up to 32 animals, can be encountered roosting in both bamboo and rock crevices (Bates and Harrison 1997). It is known to feed on termites. Two young are born after a gestation period of 84-91 days (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
22578	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This is a fairly common species of much of its range.	eng
22578	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. In South Asia the threats to this species remain unknown (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002), however, it is presumed that this species may be threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from commercial logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. It is also possibly threatened due to disturbance to roosting sites (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
22586	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It is found in the Biosphere Reserve of Nacunan, Mendoza Province.	eng
22586	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the arid plains of Mendoza Province, central-western Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It has a naturally fragmented distribution.	eng
22586	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species inhabits the salt basins, sand dunes and open scrubland habitats of the Monte Chaco and Monte Patagonia biomes. It is nocturnal, solitary and lives in complex burrow systems. It feeds (specialized) on halophite plants (Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
22586	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
22586	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The loss of habitat to the expanding oil and gas industry is a threat to this species. The population has a naturally fragmented and restricted geographical distribution. In addition it is a habitat specialist (dunes and slat flats) and low population densities (Diaz <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
22595	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
22599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Subterranean/cave-dwelling species.	eng
22600	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
22601	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
22605	conservation	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in Wuyishan, Chishuisuoluo, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Shennongjia, Houhe, Ailaoshan, Qingliangfeng, and Tianmushan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and it is presumably present in other protected areas. Further work is needed into the systematic status of the currently recognized subspecies. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
22605	distribution	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species occurs in south eastern China, in Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Anhui, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Shaanxi, Guangxi, and Yunnan. Musser and Carleton (2005) include northwestern Viet Nam within the distribution of this species but Smith and Xie (2008) consider the species to be endemic to China. Although its presence has not be confirmed, it may also occur in the extreme northern regions of Lao PDR (Francis 1999). It occurs at elevations ranging from 360-2,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22605	habitat	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This arboreal species is found in high montane forests, where it has been collected in bamboo stands, although it may not be specifically associated with this habitat type (Darrin Lunde pers. comm.). It can be found in disturbed forest close to undisturbed forest, but does not appear to be present in secondary forest. This species burrows, but is not a "blind mouse" (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>The diet of this species consists of leaves, stems, fruits, and seeds (Smith and Xie 2008). Litter size ranges from two to four (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22605	population	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	It is not uncommon, but is frequently under-sampled by field surveys.	eng
22605	threats	Lunde, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this montane species.	eng
22606	habitat	Tolson, P., 1996	Burrowing species	eng
22607	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	<em>Typhlops cariei</em> was known only from Mauritius.	eng
22607	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It was last recorded in the 17th century.	eng
22607	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	The introduction of predatory species to the island has been blamed for the extinction of this species.	eng
22707	conservation		Long-term monitoring is needed to assess the viability of populations (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
22707	distribution		This species can be found in the Salem and Springfield plateaus in the Ozark region of Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Kansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991, Collons 1993, Johnson 2000).	eng
22707	habitat		Adults inhabit caves. Larvae are found in surface spring runs as well as in cave waters. Most abundant in caves that have a large number of bats. Probably attaches eggs to rocks in or near water.	eng
22707	population		Johnson (2000) mapped occurrences in 25 counties in Missouri. Most of the rest of the range is in Arkansas, where an out-of-date review by Brandon (1970) indicated 12 locations (he showed 15 in Missouri).	eng
22707	threats		It is unthreatened range wide, but vulnerable to factors that degrade ground water quality or that negatively impact bat populations (such as water pollution, and clear-cutting of forest).	eng
22726	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
22726	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from a few localities in southern Somalia.	eng
22726	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water. The type series were collected in a pool associated with a spring, but the species is generally considered hypogean and is depigmented with no externally visible eyes.	eng
22726	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
22726	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
22727	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The 3,709 acre Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge was established by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 1985 to protect the lizard. The Coachella Valley Preserve, cooperatively managed by The Nature Conservancy, Bureau of Land Management, California Department of Parks and Recreation, California Department of Fish and Game, US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Center for Natural Lands Management, encompasses an additional 16,405 acres of Fringe-toed Lizard habitat adjacent to the Refuge (Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge website). The preserve encompasses three disjunct sites (Thousand Palms, Willow Hole, and Whitewater River), each with a discrete source of windblown sand. Collectively, the protected sites encompass a very small percentage of the lizards' original range. Few lizards now exist outside these protected areas.	eng
22727	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to southern California in the United States. Its geographic range is restricted to the Coachella Valley, Riverside County, California, at elevations from near sea level to about 490 m (1,600 feet) (Pough 1973, Stebbins 2003). The historical, presettlement range extent has been estimated as encompassing about 839 sq. km (324 sq. miles) (see USFWS 1980).	eng
22727	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits sparsely vegetated windblown sand dunes and sandy flats; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation usually is scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003), but perennial plants and the annual plant <em>Dicoria canescens</em> are important in providing shelter, plant and insect foods, and other benefits (Durtsche 1995). See also Turner <em>et al</em>. (1984) for habitat information. Individuals seek shelter underground, often in abandoned rodent burrows, or bury themselves in sand.	eng
22727	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The number of distinct occurrences has not been determined on the basis of recently developed criteria. The species is known from more than 90 collection sites, but these represent a much smaller number of distinct, extant occurrences. The three disjunct dune systems of the Coachella Valley Preserve encompass almost all of the remaining occupied habitat, each dune system could be regarded as a single occurrence; hence there may be just a few remaining viable occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown. Turner (cited by USFWS 1980) recorded densities of 4.4 to 45 individuals per hectare in suitable habitat. On a 2.25 ha plot, known population size varied from about 20 to 330 lizards (9 to 147 lizards per ha) over several years (Barrows <em>et al</em>. 1995). Assuming 50 sq. km of occupied habitat (representing the 19 sq. miles of remaining optimal habitat) and 1,000 adults per sq. km (10 per ha), the total adult population size would be around 50,000, which may or may not represent the correct order of magnitude. More than 50% of the historical habitat had been lost by the mid-1970s (see USFWS 1980). During the 1980s and 1990s, approximately 75%  of this species' habitat was lost. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Populations fluctuate with environmental variations and natural fluctuations in habitat (Barrows <em>et al</em>. 1995). As of 1999, populations were regarded as relatively stable (California Department of Fish and Game) or at least not declining so rapidly under the existing habitat conservation plan.	eng
22727	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its small historical range is now much reduced due to agricultural and urban development; its habitat has been degraded by stabilization of dunes by planted windbreaks; at least 80 to 90% of the habitat has been lost. The remaining habitat is fragmented by roads and railroad cuts. Research during the 1990s found that sand migration due to winds may affect long-term survival of this species at two of the sections of the Coachella Valley Preserve; the dunes may be moving out of the conservation areas. Conservation of these crucial blow-sand sources is being addressed in the new Coachella Valley Multispecies Habitat Conservation Plan and the development of a Conceptual Area Protection Plan. The result will be purchase of additional sand sources and sand transport corridors to ensure an adequate supply for the lizard. [from California Department of Fish and Game]	eng
22730	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species has been included in the national Red Lists of Slovenia, Croatia, Moldova and Austria. In Hungary, the species is protected and local action plans have been developed.	eng
22730	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scattered distribution in Danube drainage from Vienna to delta; lower reaches of Dniestr drainage.	eng
22730	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Very densely vegetated water bodies, usually in small ditches, oxbows, backwaters and shallow lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives at least five years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March-April, when temperatures reach 12-16°C. Eggs are laid in a nest of plant material or in a shallow depression in the bottom. Females protect the nest until the larvae leave it. Able to breathe atmospheric air and may therefore colonise habitats with very low oxygen concentrations. Feeds on a variety of small animals.	eng
22730	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining for many years.	eng
22730	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	River regulation for water transport, has reduced the number of back waters (oxbow lakes etc) where, in the last phases of succession the species is found. Drainage of wetlands to reclaim arable land has (and still does) also pose a threat. The species moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the back waters takes many years and the number of available and suitable sites for the species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations.	eng
22732	conservation	Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. &  Habib, B., 2008	Included on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Uncia uncia</span>). Is legally protected from hunting by national legislation across most of its 12 range states (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).   Afghanistan has recently afforded the Snow Leopard legal protection, after listing the species on the country’s first Protected Species List in 2009. This bans all hunting and trading of Snow Leopards within Afghanistan.<br/><br/>The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003) recommends the following conservation measures:<br/><br/><ul><li>Grazing management and livestock husbandry:  promote livestock grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife, especially large ungulates; promote husbandry practices which reduce livestock vulnerability to snow leopard predation and improve efficiency and yield;</li><li>Financial incentives for communities to conserve snow leopards (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2003): including wildlife-based ecotourism (e.g., snow leopard treks: Snow Leopard Conservancy 2008), cottage industry (e.g., village-made handicrafts: Snow Leopard Trust 2008), and well-structured ungulate trophy hunting programs;</li><li>Improve conservation education and awareness among a variety of stakeholders, from local communities to national governments to an international audience.</li></ul><br/>Theile (2003) recommends the following measures to reduce the threats of poaching and illegal trade:<br/><br/><ul><li>Strengthen national legislation and conservation policies by filling gaps in range state legislation to prohibit the hunting, killing, possession, sale and trade of Snow Leopards, including all body parts and derivatives, at local regional and national levels; offering legal assistance and advice to governments; mete out sufficient deterrent penalties to law-breakers, and consider "whistle-blower" policies to provide incentives to report illegal activities;</li><li>Strengthen law enforcement capacity by tightening controls along known trade routes, and at markets and border crossings; improve inter-agency cooperation and intelligence sharing; establish anti-poaching teams to detect and deter illegal killing; carry out regular monitoring of major markets and trade centres; and improve technical capacity through training;</li><li>Strengthen international cooperation to enforce trade bans through adherence to CITES resolutions (e.g., Res. Conf. 12.5) (Nowell 2007).</li></ul><br/>The Snow Leopard Network (SLN 2008) unites individuals and organizations (including the International Snow Leopard Trust, the Snow Leopard Conservancy, and others) for coordination, cooperation and information sharing.  An International Conference on Range-wide Conservation Planning for Snow Leopards held in Beijing, China in March 2008 identified important areas for Snow Leopard conservation (Snow Leopard Conservation Units) and provided a framework for the development of national action plans.  Four countries have existing national action plans (Mongolia, Pakistan, Nepal and Russia: McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003), and India has developed Project Snow Leopard, a national governmental program for Snow Leopard conservation, although it has not been adequately funded (Anonymous 2007).	eng
22732	distribution	Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. &  Habib, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The Snow Leopard is restricted to the high mountains of Central Asia, with core areas including the Altai, Tian Shan, Kun Lun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Karakorum</st1:city></st1:place> and Himalayan ranges. (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003). Ecological regions were defined in a workshop as Altai-Sayan, Trans-Altai Alashan Gobi, Tian Shan, Pamir, Hindu-Kush, <st1:city w:st="on">Karakorum</st1:city>, Himalayas, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hengduan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and Tibetan Plateau (Williams 2008).<br/> <br/> Based on elevational analysis, Hunter and Jackson (1997) estimated potential range at over 3 million km, with much of this in Mongolia and the Tibetan plateau of China, although it is unclear to what extent snow leopards use much of the flatter parts of the plateau (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2008). There was evidence of snow leopard occupation in 1.83 million km, and only about 550,000 km was considered to be good habitat (Hunter and Jackson 1997, McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003). Williams (2006) used historical data to improve mapping of potential range, but there remains a significant lack lack of information about current snow leopard status across much of its known and potential distribution. <br/> <br/> In an attempt to improve knowledge of Snow Leopard distribution and status, a conservation planning conference held in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Beijing</st1:city></st1:place> in March 2008 brought together experts from 11 of the 12 range countries. The conference was able to map specific and local knowledge about snow leopard range and determine Snow Leopard Conservation Units, areas which are the most important for conserving Snow Leopards over the long-term. The process highlighted areas where knowledge of Snow Leopard status is strong and where it is lacking, and resulting maps now provide biologists and conservationists with a more strategic approach to <span lang="EN-US">Snow Leopard<span lang="EN-US"> conservation and research (Williams 2008).</p>	eng
22732	habitat	Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. &  Habib, B., 2008	Snow Leopards are closely associated with the alpine and sub-alpine ecological zones, favoring steep terrain well broken by cliffs, ridges, gullies, and rocky outcrops (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, in Mongolia and Tibet they may occupy relatively flat or rolling terrain as long as there is sufficient hiding cover (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press)   In the Sayan mountains of Russia and parts of the Tien Shan range of China, they are found in open coniferous forest, but usually avoid dense forest.  They generally occur at elevations of 3,000-4,500 m, except for at their northern range limit, where they are found at lower elevations (900-2,500 m) (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Low temperatures and high aridity makes its habitat among the least productive rangeland systems in terms of graminoid biomass, with prey populations consequently occurring at relatively low densities (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The cat’s principal natural prey species are bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and ibex (Capra sibirica) whose distribution coincides closely with snow leopard range.  Snow leopards also prey on marmot (Marmota spp), pika (Ochotona spp.), hares (Lepus spp.), small rodents, and game birds. Considerable predation is reported on domestic livestock. Annual prey requirements are estimated at 20 to 30 adult blue sheep, with radio-tracking data indicating such a kill every 10 to 15 days. A solitary leopard may remain on a kill for up to a week (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press)<br/><br/>Snow Leopard home ranges overlap widely between the sexes, and are reported to vary from 10 to 40 km² in relatively productive habitat in Nepal  (Jackson and Ahlborn 1989). By comparison, home ranges are considerably larger (140 km² or greater) in Mongolia, where terrain is relatively open and ungulate prey densities lower (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2005). Densities range from 0.1 to 10 or more individuals per 100 km² (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
22732	population	Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. &  Habib, B., 2008	The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003, Table II) compiled national snow leopard population estimates, updating the work of Fox (1994).  Many of the estimates are acknowledged to be rough and out of date, but the total estimated population is 4,080-6,590, as follows:   <br/><br/>Afghanistan: 100-200?<br/>Bhutan: 100-200?<br/>China: 2,000-2,500<br/>India:  200-600<br/>Kazakhstan: 180-200<br/>Kyrgyzstan: 150-500<br/>Mongolia: 500-1,000<br/>Nepal: 300-500<br/>Pakistan: 200-420<br/>Russia: 150-200<br/>Tajikistan: 180-220<br/>Uzbekistan: 20-50	eng
22732	threats	Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, R.A. &  Habib, B., 2008	Major threats to the Snow Leopard include prey base depletion, illegal trade, conflict with local people, and lack of conservation capacity, policy and awareness.  The Snow Leopard Survival Strategy assessed primary threats by region as follows (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003):<br/><br/>Himalayan region (Tibetan Plateau and other southern China, India, Nepal and Bhutan): reduction of natural prey due to competition with livestock, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Karakhorum and Hindu Kush (Afghanistan, Pakistan and southwest China): habitat degradation and fragmentation, reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, killing of snow leopards in retribution for livestock depredation, lack of effective law enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Commonwealth of Independent States and western China (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang province of China): reduction of natural prey due to illegal hunting, poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of trans-boundary cooperation, military activity, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Northern range (Russia, Mongolia, and Altai and Tien Shan ranges of China): poaching snow leopards for trade in hides or bones, lack of appropriate policy and effective enforcement, lack of institutional capacity and awareness among local people and policy makers, and human population growth or poverty.<br/><br/>Snow Leopard habitat undergoes extensive agro-pastoral land use, both within and outside protected areas. Conflict with local communities over livestock depredation is amongst the most important threats to the species its range.  <br/>The inherently low wild ungulate density in the snow leopard’s range, owing to relatively low primary productivity, is further exacerbated by prey declines due to hunting for meat and competition with livestock. A declining prey base reduces habitat quality for snow leopards and escalates livestock depredation.  Competition with livestock for forage is one of the most widespread causes of prey base decline (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press); reduction of the wild prey base because of hunting by people is also significant in parts of snow leopard range (McCarthy <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Snow Leopards are capable of killing all domestic animals except perhaps for fully-grown male yak. Although herders take steps to reduce the risk of depredation (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press), livestock populations are a locally abundant food source for snow leopards and make up to 58% of their diet in some areas.  The relative abundance of livestock vs. wild prey is a reasonable predictor of the level of livestock depredation by snow leopards (Bagchi and Mishra 2006). <br/><br/>Snow Leopards are killed in retribution for livestock depredation, but also for commercial purposes, and poaching for illegal trade represents a significant threat.  Pelts appear to be the main snow leopard produce in demand, but there is also evidence of demand for live animals for zoos and circuses.  Other body parts found in trade include bones (used especially in Chinese medicine as a substitute for tiger bone), as well as claws, meat and sexual organs of male cats  (Theile 2003). Illegal trade increased in the 1990s in the economically depressed, newly independent Central Asian states that emerged from dissolution of the Soviet Union (Koshkarev 1994, Koshkarev and Vyrypaev 2000). Illegal trade appears to be increasing rapidly with China’s growing economic power, for example, in neighbouring Mongolia (Wingard and Zahler 2006). In Afghanistan, a new market has emerged which is difficult to police due to ongoing military conflict (Habibi 2004).  <br/><br/>The general lack of awareness at both local and national levels for the need to conserve wildlife and especially predators, further hinders conservation efforts. Up to a third of the snow leopard’s range falls along politically sensitive international borders, complicating trans-boundary conservation initiatives. Military conflict is taking place across much of the snow leopard's range, causing immense damage to wildlife through direct loss of species and destruction of habitat, losses to landmines, the demands of displaced peoples for food and fuel, and the encouragement of trade in wildlife (Jackson <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
22742	conservation		It is thought likely to occur within Prince Regent Nature Reserve.	eng
22742	distribution		This species is known only from the original collection site, south of the mouth of Prince Regent River in the Kimberley zone of Western Australia, Australia. The exact locality is not known, so when its range is mapped a large area is covered, within which the exact locality is assumed to be.	eng
22742	habitat		This species was found in grasslands and woodlands in areas that flooded.	eng
22742	population		This was the first <em>Uperoleia</em> species discovered in Australia, in 1841. Despite numerous sightings at the time, it has not been recorded since and is now known only from the original specimen.	eng
22742	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
22743	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
22743	distribution		The type locality for this species is Cox River on Alexandria Station in the middle of Northern Territory, Australia (15° 43'S; 135° 37'E). This species' estimated altitudinal range is 0-200m asl.	eng
22743	habitat		The type specimens were collected from a spring-fed swamp in paperbark woodland.	eng
22743	population		It is known only from the type specimens and one other specimen. It has only been collected once since its discovery in 1905.	eng
22743	threats		There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
22771	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Granjon, L., 2008	There is a need for further research into the distribution and natural history of this species. It is not known if it is present within any protected areas.	eng
22771	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is widespread in Subsaharan Africa, ranging from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau in West Africa, eastwards to Ethiopia and western Kenya in East Africa, and from here as far south as Zimbabwe and Mozambique.	eng
22771	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in moist savannas, grasslands and  shrublands. It is also found at the edge of forests but is never encountered within forests.	eng
22771	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Granjon, L., 2008	It is never trapped in large numbers, but can be locally abundant.	eng
22771	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Granjon, L., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
22780	conservation	Cypher, B.L., Fuller, T.K. & List, R., 2008	Not listed in the CITES Appendices. The Grey Fox is legally protected as a harvested species in Canada and the United States (Fritzell 1987).<br/><br/>Grey Foxes occur in numerous protected areas throughout their range, such as Big Bend NP, San Joaquin National Wildlife Refuge, Rocky Mountain NP and Everglades and Dry Tortugas NP, and Adirondack NP.<br/><br/>A number of foxes are held in captivity, although there may be more in the hands of private collections/individuals who do not report to ISIS. Grey Foxes appear to fare well in captivity and commonly are on display at zoos and wildlife farms.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge:<br/>Because of the relatively high abundance and low economic value of Grey Foxes, surprisingly little research has been conducted on this species. Basic ecological and demographic information is needed for each of the major habitats occupied by Grey Foxes. Also, data on the response of Grey Foxes to human-altered landscapes (e.g., urban environments) is needed. No region-wide or range-wide population estimate has been produced. Furthermore, extremely little is known about the status and ecology of Grey Foxes outside of the USA and Canada. The effects of Grey Foxes on populations of smaller vertebrates, especially in urban and suburban settings without larger predators, may be important.	eng
22780	distribution	Cypher, B.L., Fuller, T.K. & List, R., 2008	The Grey Fox ranges from the southern edge of central and eastern Canada, and Oregon, Nevada, Utah and Colorado in the United States south to northern Venezuela and Colombia; and from the Pacific coast of the United States to the Atlantic and Caribbean oceans. The species is not found in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, or in the Caribbean watersheds of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and western Panama.	eng
22780	habitat	Cypher, B.L., Fuller, T.K. & List, R., 2008	In eastern North America, the Grey Fox is most closely associated with deciduous/southern pine forests interspersed with some old fields and scrubby woodlands (Hall 1981). In western North America, it is commonly found in mixed agricultural/woodland/chaparral/riparian landscapes and shrub habitats. The species occupies forested areas and thick brush habitats in Central America and forested montane habitats in South America (Eisenberg 1989). Grey Foxes occur in semi-arid areas of the southwestern USA and northern Mexico where cover is sufficient. They appear to do well on the margins of some urban areas (Harrison 1997).	eng
22780	population	Cypher, B.L., Fuller, T.K. & List, R., 2008	The species is common in occupied habitat, but appears to be restricted to locally dense habitats where it is not excluded by sympatric Coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>) and Bobcats (<em>Lynx rufus</em>) (Farias 2000b).	eng
22780	threats	Cypher, B.L., Fuller, T.K. & List, R., 2008	Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, may be particularly problematic in regions where human numbers are increasing rapidly and important habitat is converted for agricultural, industrial, and urban uses.<br/><br/>Because of its relatively lower fur quality compared with other species, commercial use of the Grey Fox is somewhat limited. However, 90,604 skins were taken in the United States during the 1991 and 1992 season (Linscombe 1994). In Mexico, Grey Foxes are frequently sold illegally as pets (R. List pers. comm.).	eng
22781	conservation	Roemer, G.W., Fuller, T.K., List, R. & Wayne, R.K., 2008	Not included in CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>The species was formerly a category II candidate for federal listing, but is not currently listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) as threatened or endangered under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The species is listed by the state of California as a threatened species (California Department of Fish and Game 1987). The current legal status has not been sufficient to prevent recent catastrophic population declines. In June 2000, the USFWS was petitioned to list the populations on the three northern Channel Islands and Santa Catalina Island as endangered (Suckling and Garcelon 2000). The USFWS recently proposed to list these four subspecies as endangered (USDI 2001).<br/><br/>The three subspecies on the northern Channel Islands occur within the Channel Islands National Park. Approximately two-thirds of Santa Cruz Island is owned by The Nature Conservancy (TNC), and managed as the Santa Cruz Island Preserve. The Preserve is within the boundaries of the Channel Islands National Park, and the TNC and NPS (National Parks Service), co-manage natural resources together under a cooperative agreement. Approximately 87% of Santa Catalina Island is owned by the Santa Catalina Island Conservancy, a non-profit conservation organization, and both San Clemente and San Nicolas Islands are owned and managed by the U.S. Navy.<br/><br/>Based upon recommendations from an ad hoc recovery team, the Island Fox Conservation Working Group, the National Park Service (NPS) began initiating emergency actions in 1999, with the objectives being to remove the primary mortality factor currently affecting Island Foxes (Golden Eagle predation), and to recover populations to viable levels via captive breeding. Between November 1999 and June 2002, 22 eagles were removed from Santa Cruz Island and relocated to north-eastern California. In 1999, the NPS established an Island Fox captive breeding facility on San Miguel Island, added a second facility on Santa Rosa in 2000 and a third on Santa Cruz Island in 2002 (Coonan 2002, 2003; Coonan and Rutz 2000, 2002). Fourteen foxes were originally brought into captivity on San Miguel; current captive population is now 28. There are currently 45 foxes in captivity on Santa Rosa, and 12 adult foxes in the Santa Cruz facility that produced a single litter of five pups (Coonan 2002, 2003).<br/><br/>The NPS has prepared an Island Fox recovery plan for the northern Channel Islands (Coonan 2001) and an island-wide restoration plan for Santa Cruz Island (USDI 2002). The measures taken thus far on the northern Channel Islands (golden eagle removal and captive breeding) will form the basis for long-term recovery for the subspecies on the northern Channel Islands. In addition, the reintroduction of Bald Eagles (<em>Haliaeetus leucocephalus</em>), the eradication of feral pigs, and the removal of exotic plants have been recommended and are being implemented (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a; USDI 2002). Demographic modelling indicates that recovery to viable population levels could take up to a decade (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>On Santa Catalina Island, The Santa Catalina Island Conservancy has taken a series of measures to mitigate the effects of canine distemper virus on that subspecies. Close to 150 foxes from the west end have been field-vaccinated for CDV and both translocation and captive breeding programmes have been established to aid in recolonizing the eastern portion of the island (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002). <br/><br/>Although the Island Fox Conservation Working Group recognized the need for a species-wide recovery plan, there is currently no formal vehicle to accomplish such a planning effort, because the species is not listed under the Federal Endangered Species Act. Nonetheless, the Working Group recognized that the following actions need to be implemented in order to insure recovery of island fox populations to viable levels (Coonan 2002, 2003):<br/><br/>Complete removal of Golden Eagles from northern Channel Islands.<br/>? Implement monitoring/response program for future golden eagles.<br/>? Remove feral pigs from Santa Cruz Island.<br/>? Reintroduce bald eagles to the northern Channel Islands.<br/>? Eliminate canine distemper as a mortality factor on Santa Catalina Island.<br/>? Vaccinate wild foxes against canine distemper virus, as needed.<br/>? Monitor populations for diseases causing morbidity and mortality through necropsy and faecal and blood testing.<br/>? Enforce no-dog policy on islands, and vaccinate working dogs.<br/>? Educate the public about potential disease transmission from domestic dogs.<br/>? Establish and maintain captive breeding facilities on San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Santa Catalina Islands.<br/>? Supplement wild populations with captive-reared foxes.<br/>? Implement annual population monitoring of each subspecies/population.<br/>? Halt management actions to protect the San Clemente loggerhead shrike that are adversely affecting the San Clemente island fox.<br/>? Develop adaptive management programme.<br/><br/>Island Foxes currently are kept in captivity on four islands. The National Park Service's captive breeding programme maintains facilities on San Miguel, Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands, in which there are currently 28, 45 and 17 island foxes, respectively. The Santa Catalina Island Conservancy and the Institute for Wildlife Studies have established a captive breeding facility on that island, and there are currently 12 adult pairs of foxes there (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2002). Small numbers (1?4) of San Clemente Island foxes are kept in a total of four zoos on the mainland with a variable number of foxes held in captivity each year on that island (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>It is known that wild Island Fox pairs are unrelated and that extra-pair copulations occur (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b), but little is known about how foxes select mates and whether mate choice could play a role in improving the currently low reproduction characterizing captive foxes (Coonan and Rutz 2002). Controlled mate-choice experiments are needed.<br/><br/>It has been suggested that intense predation by Golden Eagles could have altered Island Fox activity patterns and selected for greater nocturnal activity in those foxes that have survived predation (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2002). The survival of the remaining wild Island Foxes on Santa Cruz Island is being monitored, but there has been no attempt to document daily activity levels (Dennis <em>et al</em>. 2001). The pattern of daily activity of wild Santa Cruz Island Foxes needs to be assessed, and compared to the activity of captive and captive-reared foxes that are released into the wild. If captive-reared foxes are more active during diurnal and crepuscular periods than their wild counterparts, it is probable that captive-reared foxes reintroduced into the wild will suffer higher mortality owing to Golden Eagle predation.<br/><br/>There has been only a single study that has examined dispersal in Island Foxes (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b) and the number of dispersal events recorded was small (n=8). Additional information on Island Fox dispersal patterns on different islands and during periods of high and low density are needed.	eng
22781	distribution	Roemer, G.W., Fuller, T.K., List, R. & Wayne, R.K., 2008	The current distribution is thought to be a consequence of waif dispersal to the northern Channel Islands during the late Pleistocene, followed by Native American assisted dispersal to the southern Channel Islands (Collins 1982, 1991a, b, 1993; Wayne <em>et al.</em> 1991; Goldstein <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species is now geographically restricted to the six largest of the eight California Channel Islands located off the coast of southern California, USA.	eng
22781	habitat	Roemer, G.W., Fuller, T.K., List, R. & Wayne, R.K., 2008	Island Foxes occur in all habitats on the islands including native perennial and exotic European grassland, coastal sage scrub, maritime desert scrub, Coreopsis scrub, Isocoma scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, pine woodland, riparian and inland and coastal dune.<br/><br/>Although fox density varies by habitat, there is no clear habitat-specific pattern. When fox populations were dense, foxes could be trapped or observed in almost any of the island habitats, except for those that were highly degraded owing to human disturbance or overgrazing by introduced herbivores. More recently, foxes have become scarce owing to precipitous population declines. On the northern Channel Islands where the declines are principally a consequence of hyperpredation by Golden Eagles (<em>Aquila chrysaetos</em>) (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a, 2002), foxes are more numerous in habitats with dense cover, including chaparral and introduced stands of fennel (<em>Foeniculum vulgare</em>) (G. Roemer, pers. obs.).	eng
22781	population	Roemer, G.W., Fuller, T.K., List, R. & Wayne, R.K., 2008	Island Foxes exhibit substantial variability in abundance, both spatially and temporally. Total island fox numbers have fallen from approximately 6,000 individuals (Roemer <em>et al.</em> 1994) to less than 1,500 in 2002. Four of the six island fox subspecies have experienced precipitous declines in the last four years. Fox populations on both San Miguel and Santa Cruz Islands declined by > 90% between 1995 and 2000. Similar declines also occurred on Santa Rosa and Santa Catalina Islands (Roemer 1999; Timm <em>et al.</em> 2000; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a, 2002; Coonan 2003). Only 28 foxes are left on San Miguel and 45 foxes on Santa Rosa, all are in captivity (Coonan 2002, 2003). The Santa Cruz population has dropped from an estimated 1,312 foxes in 1993 to 133 foxes in 1999 (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a). Estimates for 2001 suggest that this population may have declined to as low as 60?80 individuals in the wild (Coonan 2002). A captive breeding facility was initiated on Santa Cruz Island in 2002 when three adult pairs were brought into captivity; one pair had five pups in the spring (Coonan 2002). The subspecies on all three northern Channel Islands are in imminent danger of extinction. Fox populations on San Miguel and Santa Cruz Islands have an estimated 50% chance of persistence over the next decade, are Critically Endangered and in need of immediate conservation action (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001a, 2002; Coonan 2003). On Santa Catalina, Island Foxes are now rare on the larger eastern portion of the island as a result of a canine distemper outbreak that swept through the population in 1999 (Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000). The San Clemente population could be as low as 410 adult foxes, down from a high of 800?900 foxes. The causes of this decline are not yet clear (Garcelon 1999; Roemer 1999); however, it has been suggested that management actions aimed at protecting the threatened San Clemente loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi) may be a major factor in this decline (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidt <em>et al</em>. 2002; Roemer and Wayne 2003). The San Nicolas population appears to be at high density (5.6?16.4 foxes/km²) and currently harbours one of the largest populations (estimate = 734 foxes; Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2001b). However, this estimate may be positively biased and the actual population size may be closer to 435 foxes (G. Smith pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All of the current estimates of density and population size in Island Foxes have been conducted using modifications of a capture-recapture approach (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994). In its simplest application, population size is determined by multiplying average density among sampling sites times island area. Population estimates could be improved by first determining habitat-specific estimates of density and multiplying these densities times the area covered by the specific habitat (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994), an approach amenable to analysis with geographical information systems. However, density estimates made from aggregating home ranges suggest that the use of capture-recapture data may also overestimate density. For example, fox density estimated at Fraser Point, Santa Cruz Island using the capture-recapture approach was 7.0 foxes/km² (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 1994). A simultaneous estimate of density based on the distribution of home ranges for 14 radio-collared foxes with overlapping home ranges was approximately 31% lower (4.8 foxes/km²) (Roemer 1999). Thus the size of island fox populations may be lower than current capture-recapture analyses suggest.	eng
22781	threats	Roemer, G.W., Fuller, T.K., List, R. & Wayne, R.K., 2008	The current primary threats to the species include Golden Eagle predation on the northern Channel Islands (Roemer 1999; Roemer <em>et al.</em> 2001a, 2002) and the possible introduction of canine diseases, especially CDV, to all populations (Garcelon <em>et al</em>. 1992; Roemer 1999; Timm <em>et al</em>. 2000). All populations are small, several critically so, and are threatened by demographic stochasticity and environmental variability. The small populations are especially vulnerable to any catastrophic mortality source, be it predation, canine disease, or environmental extremes (Roemer <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/>Recently, there has also been a management conflict between island foxes and the San Clemente Island loggerhead shrike (Roemer and Wayne 2003). Island Foxes were euthanized on San Clemente Island in 1998 as part of a programme to protect nesting shrikes (Elliot and Popper 1999; Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although euthanasia of foxes has stopped, a number of foxes are now retained in captivity each year, during the nesting and fledging stage of the shrike, and subsequently released back into the environment. The impact to fox reproduction and the potential disruption of the social system are unknown, but may be significant. These actions may have contributed to a 60% decline in the fox population on San Clemente Island (Cooper <em>et al</em>. 2001; Schmidt <em>et al</em>. 2002; Roemer and Wayne 2003). Considering the precipitous declines in foxes on four of six islands and the continued decline in the San Clemente population, this current management practice needs further scrutiny.	eng
22782	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
22782	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south through the Isthmus to Bolivia, and southeastern Brazil; also Trinidad (Reid, 1997). It is found widely over all tropical areas of South America and generally occurs below 1,000 m elevation (Eisenberg, 1989). There are records from Venezuela, Guayana, French Guiana (Patterson pers. comm.).	eng
22782	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs in evergreen and deciduous lowland forest; it is strongly associated with multistratal tropical wet forest, but also occurs in dry areas; it tolerates second growth woodland, fruit groves, and man-made clearings (Handley, 1976; Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). It roost in colonies (two to ten; sometimes up to 60) of both sexes. This species makes a wide variety of tents and appears to be an obligate tent rooster. The bat’s prominently striped face may function as disruptive camouflage inside a tent with multiple leaflets (Reid, 1997). They are strongly frugivorous but include insects in their diet (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); also flower parts, and nectar may be taken. In Venezuela 0-2,600 m (Lew pers com).	eng
22782	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Common and widespread (Reid, 1997).	eng
22782	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None known.	eng
22783	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Found in protected areas in Mexico.	eng
22783	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species ranges from Michoacan, Mexico, south through the Isthmus to central Brazil. It generally occurs below 1,000 m elevation; most specimens being taken at below 800 m (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997). It is found in southern Venezuela and Guyana, but there are no records from French Guiana or Suriname (Lim and Patterson pers. comm.). No records for Costa Rica (Bernal Rodrigues and Pineda pers. comm.)	eng
22783	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is often associated with moist habitats, as deciduous and evergreen forest and near water in arid regions (Davis, 1968). In Venezuela, it makes use of open areas and man-made clearings and seems less tolerant of arid habitats than <em>U. bilobatum</em> (Handley, 1976). This bat roosts under palm fronds or banana leaves or other large leaves of palms (i.e. <em>Astrocaryum</em> sp.). They often bite through the ribs of fronds and cause the leaf to collapse on itself, thereby providing a shelter (Eisenberg, 1989). One tent was occupied by 5 bats (Timm, 1987). Females roost in colonies when they bear their young, and the sexes tend to roost separately during the rearing season. In Panama young are born from February through April (Wilson, 1979). They are strongly frugivorous but include insects in their diet (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961); several individuals caught were dusted with pollen, presumably after feeding on nectar or flower parts (Gardner, 1977).	eng
22783	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is not as common as <em>U. bilobatum</em>, but is not uncommon.	eng
22783	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
22784	conservation	Tabaranza, B., Gonzalez, J.C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22784	distribution	Tabaranza, B., Gonzalez, J.C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	Endemic to the Mindanao Faunal Region, Philippines. It has been recorded from Dinagat, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), and Siargao (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). It ranges from 750-2,250 m on Mindanao, whereas it is found at lower elevations on the other islands.	eng
22784	habitat	Tabaranza, B., Gonzalez, J.C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	The species inhabits mid-elevation ranges and prefers montane and lower mossy forest, though it can be found in disturbed habitats near forested areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Although it exhibits some tolerance for light habitat disturbance (for example, selective logging), it does not do well in heavily disturbed forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
22784	population	Tabaranza, B., Gonzalez, J.C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is widespread and locally common in forests on Dinagat and moderately common throughout Mindanao.	eng
22784	threats	Tabaranza, B., Gonzalez, J.C., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Heaney, L., 2008	The major threat is deforestation that has occurred at lower elevations, and much of this species' habitat below 1000 m has been lost.	eng
22800	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in Lorentz National Park, Indonesia and possibly others.	eng
22800	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widely distributed through the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), from the Weyland Range in the west to Mount Dayman in the east. It is also present on the Huon Peninsula (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from 850 to at least 3,000 m asl.	eng
22800	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, and also from degraded forest but probably not from secondary forest (unless it is very old forest). It has been recorded from stands of Pandanus. Animals have been reported from caves (Flannery 1995). Groups of up to 12 animals may be found roosting together in hollow trees, epiphytes, or Pandanus (Flannery 1995). Females have been found with four young.	eng
22800	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is uncommon, occurring naturally at fairly low densities throughout its range.	eng
22800	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened by overhunting locally, and has disappeared from parts of its range. However, the species is widely distributed and populations have not been significantly impacted by hunting in other areas.	eng
22801	conservation	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Winter, J., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy of this species are needed to determine whether it is a species complex, possibly containing a number of restricted range species.	eng
22801	distribution	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is present on the island of Waigeo (Indonesia), the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands (Indonesia), the island of Yapen (Indonesia), and ranges widely through the lowlands of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) (Flannery 1995a,b). It is present on Fergusson and Normanby islands (Papua New Guinea), and is present in Cape York and in north-eastern Queensland, Australia, to just south of Townsville; also on Hinchinbrook Island (Moore 2008). It ranges from sea level to 1,925 m asl (Flannery 1995a).	eng
22801	habitat	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Winter, J., 2008	It occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, closed sclerophyll forest, wet open woodland, swamps, and mangroves (Flannery 1995a; Moore 2008). It is generally not found outside of wooded areas. Females give birth to a litter of usually two or three young after a gestation period of 36 days (Moore 2008).	eng
22801	population	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is common.	eng
22801	threats	Aplin, K., Helgen, K. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
22802	conservation	Moore, L. & Winter, J., 2008	Most of the population of this species is located within the protected areas of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. This is a poorly known species, and further studies are required on its natural history. There is currently a three-year Ph.D. study on the distribution, habitat requirements, population densities, breeding, diet, behaviour, and home range of this species (L. Moore pers. comm.).	eng
22802	distribution	Moore, L. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to the Thornton Peak massif between 550 and 1,220 m asl elevation, the Mount Carbine Tableland above 900 m, and from the Lamins Hill/Mount Bartle of the Atherton Tableland (above 800 m). In the Atherton Uplands it may be distributed in areas of continuous tropical moist forest with a high rainfall, between Kuranda in the north and Herbert River Gorge in the south (Lee 1995).	eng
22802	habitat	Moore, L. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is found only in specific rainforest habitats, those within permanent creek systems with dense undergrowth and large logs. It is terrestrial and territorial, maintaining pathways using surface roots, shrubs, logs, etc. The diet of this species is primarily vegetarian, yet includes large beetles and other insects from rotting logs (Moore and Winter 2008).	eng
22802	population	Moore, L. & Winter, J., 2008	This is a naturally rare species, which occurs in low numbers in suitable upland rainforest. Seasonal shifts in habitat use affect local occurrence and numbers of individuals. Its pronounced territoriality and cryptic behaviour make it a difficult animal to trap. Droughts and food shortages, however, may force animals into sub-optimal habitat and possibly increase captures (Moore and Winter 2008).	eng
22802	threats	Moore, L. & Winter, J., 2008	Due to the narrow range of habitat used by this species, the headwaters of permanent creek systems in upland rainforest, the greatest threat to this species is global warming. Past clearing and fragmentation may have reduced its previous distribution and current selective logging may adversely affect populations outside the protected area (L. Moore pers. comm.). There is a prediction of 50% decline in extent of its upland habitat with a temperature increase of just 1 degree Celsius (Moore and Winter 2008).	eng
22803	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	Future surveys of Guadalcanal should be familiar with this species so that any remnant populations can be identified.	eng
22803	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is known from three specimens collected by Charles Woodford between 1886 and 1888, at Aola, northern Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995).	eng
22803	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It seems as though this was a largely terrestrial species that was at one point found throughout much of Guadalcanal, including the dry northern lowlands and areas close to the coast. Later reports suggest that the species became restricted to mossy montane forest (Flannery 1995).	eng
22803	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is known only from three specimens collected between 1886 and 1888. Anecdotal information suggests that the species survived into the 1960s (Flannery 1995). Guadalcanal has not been adequately surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
22803	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	The reasons for the decline and possible extinction of this species are not known. It may have been subject to overhunting and loss of suitable habitat; or competition, predation, and/or disease transmission from introduced species.	eng
22804	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2009	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, ecology, and threats to the species are needed.	eng
22804	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2009	This little-known species is endemic to the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Surveys for this species on the adjacent island of New Ireland have not revealed any animals (Flannery 1995). It has been collected at 30 and 500 m asl.	eng
22804	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2009	This is a terrestrial species, and there is little information available on its natural history. In general solitary animals have been collected, at least one of these was found in tropical forest regrowth (Flannery 1995).	eng
22804	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2009	This is a common species.	eng
22804	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2009	The threats to this species include deforestation for oil palm (this brings in predators like owls and snakes and competitor rats), and hunting for food by local people.   Logging is most pervasive at low elevations within this species' range (for estimates of forest cover loss on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">New Britain</st1:city></st1:place> for the period of 1989-2000, see Buchanan <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
22805	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	Future surveys of Guadalcanal should be familiar with this species so that any remnant populations can be identified.	eng
22805	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected by C.M. Woodford presumably between 1886-1888 at Aola, Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995). There is apparently no local knowledge of the species. Tim Flannery reports seeing something which could be this species in 1989, but this sighting is unconfirmed (Flannery 1995).	eng
22805	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	It appears to have been a terrestrial species that may have inhabited caves (Flannery 1995). It probably lived in lowland tropical forests.	eng
22805	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	It is known only from the holotype. Guadalcanal has not been adequately surveyed for this species (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
22805	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	The reasons for the decline and possible extinction of this species are not known. It may have been subject to overhunting and loss of suitable habitat; or competition, predation, and/or disease transmission from introduced species. Feral cats have been recorded from the area, and these could certainly have lead to the demise of this species.	eng
22806	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Directed field studies are needed to identify important sites for this species. Protection of these areas may be needed.	eng
22806	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands. It is absent from large parts of the island. It has been recorded at elevations of 20 and 600 m asl.	eng
22806	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This arboreal species has been recorded from primary tropical moist forest, including relict patches of native forest.	eng
22806	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There are few recent records of this species. This species was captured a specimen in 1987 by Tim Flannery that he found it in a "relict outlier of tall rainforest in the Poha Valley." Flannery (1995) reports that another two were found at Gold Ridge in 1989, but an intensive survey of Mount Makarakomburu in 1990 failed to locate the species. Roger James (pers. comm.) has had indications in interviews with the locals that the species may occur elsewhere on the island, but there are no specimens to confirm this anecdotal information.	eng
22806	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is presumably threatened by loss of habitat through deforestation for timber and conversion of land to cultivated use.	eng
22809	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Nujiang Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered C2a(i,ii)+D (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
22809	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008), specifically the Kui-chiang-Salween divide at 28°N. Although there are no records of occurrence in Myanmar, it is likely that this species' distribution extends across the border. It occupies elevations ranging from 3,600-4,600 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22809	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a poorly known species. It occurs in open alpine meadows and may occur in high altitude fir forests (Smith and Xie 2008). The ecology of this species is unknown although it is likely to be similar to <em>U. soricipes</em>, in areas where they are sympatric.	eng
22809	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
22809	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
22810	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Taibaishan, Foping, Wanglang, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and natural history of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
22810	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations below 2,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
22810	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species inhabits forests.	eng
22810	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
22810	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
22816	conservation	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2007	No specific conservation measures are planned, although this species occurs in several protected areas, including Kosi Bay. Coastal ecosystem conservation in general will benefit this species (Samways 2006 in press). More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats. Further searches are urgently required, especially of its larval habitat which has not yet been confirmed (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
22816	distribution	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2007	This species has only been recorded from South Africa (coastal, northern Kwazulu Natal) and southern Mozambique. So far it is known from only one record from 2001 in Mozambique, but it is likely to be more widespread here due to the present availability of suitable habitat and the species' dispersal ability.	eng
22816	habitat	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2007	Frequents grassland in close vicinity to sedge- and grass-pans. Larval habitat unknown.	eng
22816	population	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
22816	threats	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2007	Overgrazing and increasing urbanization could become a threat.	eng
22817	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed.	eng
22817	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed. This species also requires taxonomic revision.	eng
22817	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Southeast Arabia in south and northeast Oman. Possibly ranges up to Somalia, if taxonomical changes occur.	eng
22817	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Southeast Arabia in south and northeast Oman. Possibly ranges up to Somalia, if taxonomical changes occur.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is possibly present in Somalia, although more surveys and taxonomic work is needed.	eng
22817	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in and around springs and wadis.	eng
22817	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Springs and wadis.	eng
22817	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Population size is most probably very low.	eng
22817	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is most probably very low.	eng
22817	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.	eng
22817	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Use of water by humans (e.g., for drainage, over irrigation, pollution) and drought threaten this species.	eng
22823	conservation	Schliebe, S., Wiig, Ø., Derocher, A. & Lunn, N., 2008	Conservation actions vary by jurisdiction. The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears provides guidance, and Article II of the Agreement states that each contracting party "shall manage polar bear populations in accordance with sound conservation practices based on the best available scientific information," and according to Article VII, "The Contracting Parties shall conduct national research programs on polar bears" and "..consult with each other on the management of migrating polar bear populations". These articles have been important for stimulating governments to support applied research to answer management questions regarding polar bears throughout their range. This work is coordinated through the IUCN SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG). Resolutions from the PBSG are developed and directed toward ensuring that the terms and intentions of the Agreement are being met.<br/><br/>Coordinated research is ongoing, management actions reviewed for consistency, and legislation to effect bilateral management for internationally shared populations such as between the US-Russia is being pursued. Additional cooperative management agreements between Canada and Greenland are desirable and currently being developed.<br/><br/>Additional details of the Global Status and Management of Polar Bears are contained in the IUCN "Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Bears" (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
22823	conservation	Wiig, Ø., Aars, J., Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A., 2006	Conservation actions vary by jurisdiction. The International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears provides guidance, and Article II of the Agreement states that each contracting party "shall manage polar bear populations in accordance with sound conservation practices based on the best available scientific information," and according to Article VII, "The Contracting Parties shall conduct national research programs on Polar Bears" and "..consult with each other on the management of migrating polar bear populations". These articles have been important for stimulating governments to support applied research to answer management questions regarding polar bears throughout their range. This work is coordinated through the IUCN SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG). Resolutions from the PBSG are developed and directed toward ensuring that the terms and intentions of the Agreement are being met. Coordinated research is ongoing, management actions are reviewed for consistency, and legislation to effect bilateral management for internationally shared populations such as between the US-Russia is being pursued. Additional cooperative management agreements between Canada and Greenland are desirable and currently being developed (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional details of the Global Status and Management of Polar Bears are contained in the IUCN "Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Bears" (Servheen <em>et al. </em>1999) and at the PBSG website (http://pbsg.npolar.no/ <http://pbsg.nopolar.no/>). The polar bear is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and Appendix II of CITES.	eng
22823	distribution	Schliebe, S., Wiig, Ø., Derocher, A. & Lunn, N., 2008	Polar bears live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, and their range is limited by the southern extent of sea ice. Although some occur in the permanent multi-year pack ice of the central Arctic basin, they are most common in the annual ice over the continental shelf and inter-island archipelagos that surround the polar basin. Polar bears that have continuous access to sea ice are able to hunt throughout the year. However, in those areas where the sea ice melts completely each summer, polar bears are forced to spend several months on land fasting on stored fat reserves until freeze-up. Use of land by polar bears during the ice-free season appears to be increasing in certain locations. <br/><br/>The species is found in Canada (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Labrador, Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Yukon Territory, Ontario), Greenland/Denmark, Norway (including Svalbard), Russian Federation (North European Russia, Siberia, Chukotka, Sakha (Yakutia), Krasnoyarsk), United States (Alaska). Also, vagrants occasionally reach Iceland.	eng
22823	distribution	Wiig, Ø., Aars, J., Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A., 2006	Polar bears live throughout the ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic, in Canada (Manitoba, Newfoundland, Labrador, Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Yukon Territory, Ontario), Greenland (to Denmark), Norway, Russian Federation (North European Russia, Siberia, Chukotka), and the United States (Alaska). Some vagrants occasionally reach Iceland. Their range is limited by the southern extent of sea ice. Although some occur in the permanent multi-year pack ice of the central Arctic basin, they are most common in the annual ice over the continental shelf and inter-island archipelagos that surround the polar basin. Polar bears that have continuous access to sea ice are able to hunt throughout the year. However, in those areas where the sea ice melts completely each summer, polar bears are forced to spend several months on land fasting on stored fat reserves until freeze-up. Use of land by polar bears during the ice-free season appears to be increasing in certain locations (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Polar bears typically occur at low altitudes (on the sea ice and up to <em>ca</em>. 200 m in coastal areas), although exceptionally they may range far inland, and have been recorded at altitudes of 1,000 m above sea level in Svalbard (O. Wiig and A. Derocher pers. comm. 2006).	eng
22823	habitat	Schliebe, S., Wiig, Ø., Derocher, A. & Lunn, N., 2008	Polar bears occur at low densities throughout their range and are most abundant in shallow water areas near shore or where currents or upwellings increase biological productivity near ice areas associated with open water, polynyas or lead systems. Polar bears are not as abundant in the high central arctic over deeper waters of the polar basin.<br/><br/>Seasonally, in the summer open water season in the Canadian arctic islands and Svalbard, and in recent years during the fall in northern Alaska and Russian Chukotka, polar bears may be found on land in higher densities.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in March to May, implantation is delayed until autumn, and birth is generally thought to occur from late November to mid-January. Although some cubs are born in earth dens, most births occur in snow dens that may be occupied between 5?6 months during the maternal event. In Alaska the maternal dens are located on the offshore sea ice. Only pregnant female polar bears den for this protracted period of time, during which time they rely on fat stores for energy and sustenance. The average litter size is less than two. Cubs are dependent upon mothers until after the start of their third year of life. Age of first reproduction is normally 5?6 years for females. These factors contribute to the low reproductive potential for the species.	eng
22823	habitat	Wiig, Ø., Aars, J., Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A., 2006	Polar bears occur at low densities throughout their range and are most abundant in shallow water areas near shore or where currents or upwellings increase biological productivity near ice areas associated with open water, polynyas or lead systems. Polar bears are not as abundant in the high central arctic over deeper waters of the polar basin. Seasonally, in the summer open water season in the Canadian arctic islands and Svalbard, and in recent years during the fall in northern Alaska and Russian Chukotka, polar bears may be found on land in higher densities. Breeding occurs in March to May, implantation is delayed until autumn, and birth is generally thought to occur from late November to mid-January. Although some cubs are born in earth dens, most births occur in snow dens that may be occupied between 5-6 months during the maternal event. In Alaska the maternal dens are located on the offshore sea ice. Only pregnant female polar bears den for this protracted period of time, during which time they rely on fat stores for energy and sustenance. The average litter size is less than two. Cubs are dependent upon mothers until after the start of their third year of life. Age of first reproduction is normally 5-6 years for females. These factors contribute to the low reproductive potential for the species (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
22823	population	Wiig, Ø., Aars, J., Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A., 2006	There are 19 hypothesized subpopulations or stocks which number in total 20,000 to 25,000 bears. Considerable overlap of putative subpopulations occurs and genetic differences among them are small (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). In Europe, the Barents sea subpopulation (Norway and the Russian Federation) is estimated at <em>ca</em>. 3,000 individuals (Aars <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
22823	population	Schliebe, S., Wiig, Ø., Derocher, A. & Lunn, N., 2008	There are nineteen hypothesized subpopulations or stocks which number in total 20,000 to 25,000 bears. Considerable overlap of putative populations occurs and genetic differences among them are small.	eng
22823	threats	Schliebe, S., Wiig, Ø., Derocher, A. & Lunn, N., 2008	The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment have both predicted that the Arctic is extremely vulnerable to projected climate change. Polar bears will likely be shifted pole-ward if the sea ice retreats. According to new scenarios presented by the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre and others, the polar ice cap will disappear almost entirely during summer in the next 100 years.<br/><br/>The increasing changes in the sea ice that affect access to prey will have a negative effect on the bears. With less food, polar bears will fail to reproduce more often and give birth to smaller young that have higher mortality rates.<br/><br/>Polar bears may be forced on shore for extended periods and rely on fat reserves deposited the previous spring for survival. In such a situation they will be increasingly vulnerable to hunting if not regulated. If these periods become excessively long, mortality will increase. Sea ice is also used for access to den areas and if ice patterns change, existing den areas may be unreachable. Warmer temperatures and higher winds may reduce ice thickness and increase ice drift. Because polar bears must walk against the moving ice (like walking the wrong way on an escalator) increased ice movements will increase energy use and reduce growth and reproduction.<br/><br/>Polar bears are the apex predator and are exposed to high levels of pollutants that are magnified with each step higher in the food web. A key characteristic of the pollutants is that they tend to persist in the environment and resist degradation. Many of the organochlorine pollutants are lipophilic or "fat loving" and bond tightly to fat molecules. Polar bears are particularly vulnerable to organochlorines because they eat a fat rich diet. Ringed, bearded, and harp seals comprise the main food of polar bears and the blubber layer is preferentially eaten by the bears and subsequently, the intake of pollutants is high.<br/><br/>Certain areas of the Arctic, such as northeastern Greenland, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea, have higher levels of pollutants. Based on studies in other species, it is reasonable to believe that the pollutant load of polar bears in some areas are negatively affecting the immune system, hormone regulation, growth patterns, reproduction, and survival rates of polar bears. Recent studies have suggested that the immune system is weaker in polar bears with higher levels of PCBs. A major concern with polar bears pertains to their reproductive system. There are suggestions that species with delayed implantation are more vulnerable to the effects of pollution through endocrine (hormone) disruption. Further, female polar bears are food deprived during gestation their pollution loads increase because as they use their fat stores, where pollutants are stored, for energy. Because the cubs are nursed on fat rich milk, the cubs are exposed to very high pollution loads from their mother.<br/><br/>Oil development in the Arctic poses a wide range of threats to polar bears ranging from oil spills to increased human-bear interactions. It is probable that an oil spill in sea ice habitat would result in oil being concentrated in leads and between ice floes resulting in both polar bears and their main prey (ringed and bearded seals) being directly exposed to oil. Another concern is that seals covered in oil may be a major source of oil to polar bears. Other studies suggest that polar bears are sensitive to disturbance at maternity den sites. Disturbance could occur both when a pregnant female is selecting a den site and during the winter-spring after the cubs are born. If exploration or development occurred sufficiently close to a den, the mother may abandon the den prematurely or abandon her offspring.<br/><br/>Over-harvest is an ongoing concern for some polar bear populations: particularly in areas where there is no information on population size (e.g., Québec, east Greenland, and the Chukchi Sea) and no quotas. It is important that population estimates and projections are based on substantiated scientific data. An additional concern is that population inventory programs occur relatively infrequently in some areas so if the harvest rate is above the sustainable level, the population may be reduced before the next inventory is made. Recent development of co-management agreements and greater involvement of local people and hunters is improving the management of polar bears in some areas.<br/><br/><strong>Utilisation</strong><br/>The principle use of polar bears in the circumpolar arctic is for subsistence purposes. These include consumption of meat; use of hides in the construction of clothing such as mittens, boots (mukluks), fur ruffs for parkas, and fur pants; and small scale creation of items of handicraft. The US (Alaska), Canada and Greenland manage a subsistence harvest. Norway and Russia prohibit harvest of polar bears. In Russia during the early 1990s an unsanctioned harvest of polar bears began following dissolution of the Soviet Union. Levels of harvest are not quantified.<br/><br/>In Canada a portion of the annual harvest is by sports hunters employing native guides utilizing traditional harvest methods such as dog-teams. The harvest levels are regulated and based on principles of sustainable resource management. Greenland introduced a quota system which came into force on January 1, 2006 and plans to start sport hunting in the near future.<br/><br/>A small number of orphaned cubs are placed in zoos and public display facilities.<br/><br/>Research activities: live capture and release of polar bears.<br/><br/>Public viewing and photography are another form of utilization and occur locally at Churchill, Canada, and other remote areas, at specific locals in Svalbard, Norway, and to a limited extent in location on the north coast of Alaska.	eng
22823	threats	Wiig, Ø., Aars, J., Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A., 2006	The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment have both predicted that the Arctic is extremely vulnerable to projected climate change. Polar bears will likely be shifted pole-ward if the sea ice retreats. According to new scenarios presented by the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre and others, the polar ice cap will disappear almost entirely during summer in the next 100 years. The winter ice over the continental shelf in the European Arctic will probably also disappear (Furevik <em>et al.</em> 2002). The increasing changes in the sea ice that affect access to prey will have a negative effect on the bears. With less food, polar bears will fail to reproduce more often and give birth to smaller young that have higher mortality rates. Polar bears may be forced on shore for extended periods and rely on fat reserves deposited the previous spring for survival. In such a situation they will be increasingly vulnerable to unregulated hunting. If these periods become excessively long, mortality will increase. Sea ice is also used for access to den areas and if ice patterns change, existing den areas may be unreachable. Warmer temperatures and higher winds may reduce ice thickness and increase ice drift. Because polar bears must walk against the moving ice (like walking the wrong way on an escalator) increased ice movements will increase energy use and reduce growth and reproduction (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Polar bears are the apex predator and are exposed to high levels of pollutants that are magnified with each step higher in the food web. A key characteristic of the pollutants is that they tend to persist in the environment and resist degradation. Many of the organochlorine pollutants are lipophilic or "fat loving" and bond tightly to fat molecules. Polar bears are particularly vulnerable to organochlorines because they eat a fat rich diet. Ringed, bearded, and harp seals comprise the main food of polar bears and the blubber layer is preferentially eaten by the bears and subsequently, the intake of pollutants is high (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Certain areas of the Arctic, such as north-east Greenland, the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea, have higher levels of pollutants. Based on studies in other species, it is reasonable to believe that the pollutant load of polar bears in some areas are negatively affecting the immune system, hormone regulation, growth patterns, reproduction, and survival rates of polar bears (Derocher <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recent studies have suggested that the immune system is weaker in polar bears with higher levels of PCBs. A major concern with polar bears pertains to their reproductive system. There are suggestions that species with delayed implantation are more vulnerable to the effects of pollution through endocrine (hormone) disruption. Further, female polar bears are food deprived during gestation their pollution loads increase because as they use their fat stores, where pollutants are stored, for energy. Because the cubs are nursed on fat rich milk, the cubs are exposed to very high pollution loads from their mother (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Recent studies have indicated that high loads of organochlorines may cause reduction in the size of sexual organs of polar bears in certain areas, thus theoretically impairing reproduction (Sonne <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Oil development in the Arctic poses a wide range of threats to polar bears ranging from oil spills to increased human-bear interactions (Derocher <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is probable that an oil spill in sea ice habitat would result in oil being concentrated in leads and between ice floes resulting in both polar bears and their main prey (ringed and bearded seals) being directly exposed to oil. Another concern is that seals covered in oil may be a major source of oil to polar bears. Other studies suggest that Polar Bears are sensitive to disturbance at maternity den sites. Disturbance could occur both when a pregnant female is selecting a den site and during the winter-spring after the cubs are born. If exploration or development occurred sufficiently close to a den, the mother may abandon the den prematurely or abandon her offspring (Schliebe <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
22824	conservation	Garshelis, D.L. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	The most beneficial conservation measure for Asiatic black bears would be to substantially lessen the demand for bear products, and thus reduce hunting and trade. The species is protected under both international and national laws, but often these laws are not enforced.  It has been included on CITES Appendix I since 1979.   The so-called Baluchistan bear, a subspecies (<em>U. thibetanus gedrosianus</em>) living in the arid thorn forest in the Baluchistan region of southern Pakistan and Iran, was listed as Critically Endangered (B1+2abc, C2a) in the 1996 IUCN Red List, and is nationally listed as critically endangered in Pakistan.  Authorities have proposed a protected area to assist in the recovery of this very small, isolated population (Sheikh 2006).<br/><br/>In most range countries Asiatic black bears are listed as a protected species.  For example, they are protected under Class 2 of China's Wildlife Protection Law (a limited number of permits are issued to kill nuisance animals), and under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.  In South Korea they are designated as a national monument (No. 329) within the Cultural Properties Protection Law and also as an Endangered Wild Animal. In Japan, this species is listed under the Law for Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, which for trade requires certification of legal take; however, gall bladders and paws are exempted.  Throughout Southeast Asia this species is totally protected in every range country, with the exception of Myanmar, where this species is classified as “normally protected”, meaning that it may be killed with a special license (although such licenses are rarely issued; Saw Htun, Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar pers. comm.).   In Afghanistan, <span style="font-style: italic;">U. thibetanus</span> is listed as a protected species, imposing a Government ban on all hunting and trading of this species within the country.<br/><br/>Sport hunting of Asiatic black bears is legal only in Japan and Russia.  Russia reports a legal harvest of 75-100 bears/year and an estimated illegal take of about 500 bears/year. Sport harvests of black bears in Japan average about 500/year and have been slowly declining since the late 1980s due to diminishing interest in hunting (Oi and Yamazaki 2006).  However, a high number (generally 1,000–2,000, but as many as 4,000) of nuisance black bears are killed annually (using guns, traps, and snares) in towns or agricultural areas of Japan. <br/><br/>Farming bears for bile presents another conservation difficulty that needs to be resolved.  In Viet Nam, bears are still being removed from the wild to supply farms.  In China, whereas the farms themselves may not require restocking from the wild, the excessive bile produced may fuel the market, and thus may actually increase demand for bile from wild bears.  In South Korea, where wild Asiatic black bears have been nearly extirpated, 2000 bears are kept and propagated in captivity and it is believed that bile and other parts from this captive population supply an illicit market.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway in South Korea to restore the wild bear population through restocking, initially with captive-born bears, but more recently with orphaned wild bears from Russia.  Some Southeast Asian countries, like Cambodia and Thailand are also considering reintroducing bears from captivity.<br/><br/>Throughout much of the southern portion of the range of this species, efforts to reduce habitat degradation outside PAs and to increase the number and/or area of PAs would be highly beneficial.  An increasing number of PAs are being established in China, India, and a few other countries within the range of Asiatic black bears (Chape <em>et al</em>. 2003), mainly to protect other species, but serving as well to increase protection for bears.  Additionally, the recently amended (2003) Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act provides options for new categories of PAs that could be established to form travel corridors between existing PAs.	eng
22824	distribution	Garshelis, D.L. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	Fossil remains of the Asiatic black bear have been found as far west as Germany and France, but in historic times the species has been limited to Asia.  This species occupies a narrow band from southeastern Iran (Gutleb and Ziaie 1999) eastward through Afghanistan and Pakistan, across the foothills of the Himalayas, to Myanmar.  It occupies all countries in mainland Southeast Asia except Malaysia.  It has a patchy distribution in southern China, and is absent in much of east-central China.  Another population cluster exists in northeastern China, the southern Russian Far East, and into North Korea.  A small remnant population exists in South Korea.  They also live on the southern islands of Japan (Honshu and Shikoku) and on Taiwan and Hainan. The species now occurs very patchily through much of its former range, especially in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, mainland southeast Asia and China. Its distribution in parts of China and Myanmar remains very poorly known.<br/><br/>The distribution of the Asiatic black bear roughly coincides with forest distribution in southern and eastern Asia (FAO 2006), except that in central and southern India this species is replaced by the sloth bear (<em>Melursus ursinus</em>), in southern Thailand and into Malaysia it is replaced by the sun bear (<em>Helarctos malayanus</em>) and north and west of the Russian Far East it is replaced by the brown bear (<em>Ursus arctos</em>).  However, the Asiatic black bear overlaps the ranges of each of these species, especially the sun bear in a large portion of Southeast Asia.	eng
22824	habitat	Garshelis, D.L. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	Asiatic black bears occupy a variety of forested habitats, both broad-leaved and coniferous, from near sea level to an elevation of 4,300 m (in northeastern India, A. Choudhury, Rhino Foundation for Nature pers. comm.).  They also infrequently use open alpine meadows. Individual bears move to different habitats and elevations seasonally (Izumiyama and Shiraishi 2004), tracking changes in food abundance.  Foods include succulent vegetation (shoots, forbs and leaves) in spring, turning to insects and a variety of tree and shrub-borne fruits in summer, and finally nuts in autumn (Bromlei 1965, Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991, Huygens <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In some places the diet contains a sizeable portion of meat from mammalian ungulates (which they either kill or scavenge, Hwang <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/>In temperate forests, Asiatic black bears rely heavily on hard mast in autumn, in part to put on sufficient fat reserves for winter denning (hibernation).  Therefore, these bears tend to focus their activities in habitats with high abundance of oak acorns, beechnuts, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, or stone pine seeds (Schaller <em>et al</em>. 1989, Hashimoto <em>et al</em>. 2003).  When Asiatic black bears feed in hard mast trees they often break branches and pile them up in the canopy, forming what appears to be a platform or “nest”. Males may socially exclude females from rich stands of hard mast (Huygens and Hayashi 2001, Hwang 2003).  <br/><br/>In northern latitudes, where food becomes unavailable in winter, both sexes hibernate.  In the most northerly parts of their range, bears enter dens as early as October and exit as late as the end of May (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2003).  They den in rock crevices, in hollow trees or stumps, under upturned trees, in dug-out earthen dens, or in ground nests.  In Russia, Asiatic black bears have been reported to select flat river bottoms for denning (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2003), whereas in central China they move to high elevation rocky outcrops on steep slopes (Reid <em>et al</em>. 1991).  Hunters often have knowledge of the sorts of places and types of dens that the bears tend to use.  Denning and active black bears are also subject to predation by other Asiatic black bears, brown bears, and tigers (Seryodkin <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In the tropics, Asiatic black bears generally do not hibernate, except females giving birth during winter (Hwang and Garshelis 2007). They still make use of hard mast, but additionally consume numerous species of soft fruits.  In Thailand, for example, Asiatic black bears were found to feed on >160 species of tree-borne fruits.  Sympatric sun bears also eat most of these same fruits.  Both species most often climb (apparently for feeding) trees in the cinnamon (Lauraceae) and teak (Labiatae) families.  Both species live together in lowland habitats (<1,200 m), but Asiatic black bears predominate at higher elevations (R. Steinmetz, in prep.).<br/><br/>Asiatic black bears also use regenerating forests, which may have a high production of berries or young bamboo shoots.  They also feed in plantations, where they may damage trees by stripping the bark and eating cambium, and in cultivated areas, especially corn and oat fields and fruit orchards (Carr <em>et al</em>. 2002, Yamazaki 2003, Mizukami <em>et al</em>. 2005, Gong and Harris 2006, Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Asiatic black bears generally breed during June–July and give birth during November–March; however, timing of reproduction is not known for all portions of the range.  Age of first reproduction is 4–5 years, and they normally produce litters of 1 or 2 cubs every other year (at most).  Maximum lifespan is over 30 years, but average lifespan is less in the wild.	eng
22824	population	Garshelis, D.L. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	No rigorous population estimates exist for this species.  Japan formerly posed estimates of 8–14,000 bears on Honshu Island, but these are no longer considered valid.  Russian biologists have presented a number of density estimates, yielding a rangewide estimate of about 5–6,000, but the reliability of these is unclear (Aramilev 2006).  Likewise, rough density estimates have been made for some portions of India and Pakistan, which have been extrapolated country-wide (7-9000 in India: Sathyakumar 2006, 1000 in Pakistan: Sheikh 2006), but without corroborating methodology or data.  A host of recent countrywide estimates have been posed for Asiatic black bears in China, ranging from 15–46,000 (summarized by Garshelis 2002, Gong and Harris 2006), with an official government estimate (in 2003) of about 28,000; none of these estimates have been substantiated.	eng
22824	threats	Garshelis, D.L. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging, expansion of human settlements, roadway networks, and hydro-power stations, combined with hunting for skins, paws and especially gall bladders are the main threats to this species. <br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation is most severe in the southern portion of the range.  In India, <10% of the species’ range is within protected areas (PAs), and areas outside PAs are subject to development projects and extraction of wood for fuel and livestock fodder (Sathyakumar 2006).  In Bangladesh, where forest cover is now <7% of the land area, Asiatic black bears survive only in small remnant patches in the east, generally near the Myanmar border.  Myanmar, although still well forested (nearly 50%), is fourth in the world in the annual rate of loss of forested area (among countries occupied by all species of bears, it is second only to Indonesia: FAO 2006).  Thailand has lower forest cover (<30%), but much of its remaining forests are within PAs, and about half of these are occupied by black bears (Vinitpornsawan <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Forest area has recently been increasing in Viet Nam, but much of the present remaining forest is highly degraded from both legal and illegal lumbering (Nguyen Xuan Dang 2006).  <br/><br/>Forest area is increasing rapidly in China, which is now first in the world in terms of area gained per year.  This increasing forest area stems from mandated government programs aimed mainly toward reducing flooding and erosion; the replanted trees may or may not be particularly suitable for bears.  However, good forest habitat does persist in northeastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, and Japan.  In Japan, black bear range has expanded with increasing forest area and diminishing rural human populations (Oi and Yamazaki 2006).  Meanwhile, the number of people killed or injured by Japanese black bears has been on the rise (presumably reflective of the increasing bear population), and the same may be true in some parts of China (J. Gong, Sichuan Forestry Dept., Chengdu pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The major threat to bears in China and Southeast Asia is the commercial trade in live bears and bear parts, especially gall bladders (bile).  China initiated commercial bear farming in 1984, ostensibly to satisfy the demand for bile by practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM; and also Traditional Korean Medicine, TKM).  The bile is periodically drained, so the captive bears do not have to be killed; it was claimed that this practice would thereby reduce the taking of wild bears.  However, these farms were initially stocked with wild bears, and although the Chinese farms are purportedly now mainly self-propagating (with some continuing exceptions), there is no evidence that their existence has reduced the killing (poaching) of wild bears.  In Viet Nam, many small-scale bile farms have been started, which were stocked by several thousand bears removed from the wild (from Viet Nam as well as from neighbouring countries).  The condition in which these bears are kept precludes successful breeding and cub rearing; in fact, most of these farms do not attempt to breed their bears.  Moreover, although this practice has been illegal since 1992, with regulations strengthened in 2002, the number of wild-caught farmed bears in Viet Nam is estimated to have increased by an order of magnitude in less than a decade (J. Robinson and G. Cochrane, Animals Asia Foundation pers. comm.). <br/><br/>A surplus of bile is produced by the 8000–10,000 bears currently kept on Chinese bear farms, spurring efforts to find markets in non-traditional uses of bile (e.g., lotions, shampoos, cosmetics); meanwhile, many practitioners of TCM/TKM believe that bile from wild bears is more effective at healing various ailments, and are thus willing to pay higher prices for this product and may be disinclined to use substitutes (Chang <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kang and Phipps 2003).  The market for bear paws also appears to be increasing commensurate with an increasing number of wealthy people who find it within their means to indulge in this very expensive delicacy.  <br/><br/>The demand for these bear products has fuelled a growing network of international trade throughout Southeast Asia, and has turned many subsistence hunters into commercial hunters.  Most commercial trade routes eventually terminate in China (Saw Htun 2006; C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC SE Asia pers. comm.). However, it is difficult to assess the true extent of this trade because only a small fraction of the parts are confiscated.  Moreover, with no reliable population estimates or monitoring system it is not possible to evaluate the actual impacts on populations.  Nevertheless, it seems highly probable that this commercially-driven trade in parts is unsustainable and therefore causing populations to decline.<br/><br/>The capture of live bears presents yet another threat to this species.  In several Southeast Asian countries Asiatic black bears are routinely confiscated from people attempting to raise them as pets.  In Pakistan, several thousand bears were taken from the wild for exhibitions (referred to as bear baiting) in which individual bears (with canines and claws removed) fight with dogs.  This practice was made illegal in 2001, but continues to some extent.	eng
22829	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix II of the Bern Convention. There have been introductions of the species into man-made marshes (Elvira, B. pers. comm).	eng
22829	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to six locations on the Mediterranean coastal area of Spain. (Elvira, B. pers comm).	eng
22829	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in marshes, wetlands and springs.	eng
22829	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
22829	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought, habitat destruction, water extraction, domestic and agricultural pollution and introduction of <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>.	eng
22830	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention [incorrectly listed as <em>Valaenncia hispanica</em> - possibly since corrected].	eng
22830	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the southern part of Albania (Butrint lake) and to western Greece (it is thought probably extinct on the islands of Corfu and Lefkas) in the Thyamis (=Kalamas), Louros, Arachthos, Agios Dimitros, Acheloos rivers, and the Vlychos and Chiliadou springs. It is also found in Peloponnese (Pinios and Alfios rivers). The species is known from a few locations along the coast (each of a few square meters). It is not know from inland.	eng
22830	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in freshwaters rich in submerged vegetation, which provides food, spawning substrate, and protection against predators.	eng
22830	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dramatically decreasing.	eng
22830	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water abstraction, and aggressive interaction with <em>Gambusia</em>.	eng
22837	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduction of  habitat loss.	eng
22837	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is found in the Amazonian region, from Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas, to Peru, northern Bolivia and Amazonian Brazil (Koopman, 1993). In Venezuela, occurs in lowlands, moistly below 500 m elevation (Handley, 1976).	eng
22837	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	In Venezuela, it is strongly associated with moist habitats and multistratal evergreen forest (Handley, 1976). This species is largely frugivorous preferring figs. Reproduction is seasonally timed by the onset of rain (Gardner, 1977; Wilson, 1979).	eng
22837	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	May be locally common (Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
22837	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation although this is not a major threat.	eng
22838	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. More research on the species habitat and ecology.	eng
22838	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Colombia, Suriname, Guyana, Amazonian Brazil (Koopman, 1993; Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 1995).	eng
22838	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is strongly associated with multistratal evergreen forest. This species is largely frugivorous preferring figs. Reproduction is seasonally timed by the onset of rain (Gardner, 1977; Wilson, 1979).	eng
22838	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is difficult to sample because of its ecological characteristics, this in addition to some confusion over field identification make it difficult to estimate this species' abundance, but it is rare. Many of the areas where it occurs has been intensively sampled (Tavares, pers .comm.).	eng
22838	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats throughout its range.	eng
22839	conservation	Tavares, V., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Ecuador (although only known from 3 records in the country) and elsewhere.	eng
22839	distribution	Tavares, V., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in Peru, south Colombia (Simmons, 2005), and Ecuador. A record from French Guiana is erroneous (Charles-Dominique <em>et al.</em>, 2001, Tavares pers. comm.). The species is restricted to a relatively small areas.	eng
22839	habitat	Tavares, V., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. This species has only been collected in primary forest and in areas which are conserved.	eng
22839	population	Tavares, V., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is very rare and  known from few records (Tavares pers. comm.). Known from approximately 20 records.	eng
22839	threats	Tavares, V., Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Rapid deforestation in the western portion of its range (along the flanks of the Andes) is a serious threat to the species, as is fumigation, road construction and encroachment of human settlements along these new roads. Land-use change is projected to increase in the near and distant future and will be an increasing threat to the species.	eng
22840	conservation	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Occurs primarily in mature protected forests. Found in protected areas.	eng
22840	distribution	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs from west Ecuador to Nicaragua. A record from southeast Peru is misidentified (Tavares found no records for Peru - pers. comm.).	eng
22840	habitat	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This bat is usually found in mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its natural history is poorly known. Roosts in modified leaves (Rodriguez-Herrea pers. comm.).	eng
22840	population	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	It is uncommon (Reid, 1997). Populations seem to be highly localized - it is known from relatively few locations but where present is common. It may be locally common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (Medina, Pineda and Rodrguez-Herrera pers. comm.).	eng
22840	threats	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A., Rodriguez, B. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Rapidly degrading habitat, particularly in the northern Choco of Colombia (mining and timber) and southern Colombia (illicit crops).	eng
22841	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
22841	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
22841	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
22841	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
22841	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
22842	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Retention of forest habitats. The species occurs in a number of protected areas througout its range.	eng
22842	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south through the Isthmus and over most of northern South America to Amazonian Peru, northwestern Brazil (Eisenberg, 1989; Reid, 1997), and northern Bolivia (Wiilis <em>et al.</em>, 1990); also Trinidad and Tobago. It occurs mainly below 1,000 m elevation.	eng
22842	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is strongly associated with multistratal tropical evergreen forest; also can be found in plantations and gardens. These bats may be found roosting in small groups of 1 to 4 adults with their young under foliage of subcanopy trees (7 to 12 m above ground), shrub branches, or under palm leaves; the leaves are not modified to form a tent, but few roosts have been reported (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Group composition is stable, but roost sites change almost daily. The group consists of small harems of 2 to 3 females and one male, sometimes with associated young. Bachelor males roost alone (Morrison, 1980). Although sometimes caught in ground-level mist nets, this species usually flies 3 m or more above ground. Activity is greatest 30 minutes after sunset, for 1 to 2 hours, and again shortly after midnight (Bonaccorso, 1978). Figs are the principal food source, other fruits and pollen or nectar may also be taken. Females may breed twice annually, in January and July in Panama (Willis <em>et al.</em>, 1990). Feeds on fruit, especially figs (Goodwin and Greenhall, 1961).	eng
22842	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon to common, widespread (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Can be locally common.	eng
22842	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation, habitat loss although this is not a major threat.	eng
22843	conservation	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Conservation of intact forest. In Mexico it is listed as endandered under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). Found in protected areas. This species is considered Endangered in Bolivia (Aquirre 1999, Flores and Bedregado 2003).	eng
22843	distribution	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species occurs throughout Veracruz (Mexico) to Ecuador and Peru, Bolivia, north and southwest Brazil, and Guianas; It is also found on Trinidad (Simmons, 2005).	eng
22843	habitat	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Top predator with large home range, occurs in small and dispersed populations. This bat is usually found in lowland, evergreen forest, and occasionally in cloud or deciduous forest  or swampy areas. It is carnivorous, eating birds and small mammals around 20 to 150 grams. Remains of birds recorded in its roosts include 18 species, some of then include motmots, doves, trogons, cuckoos, wrens, and orioles. Also, a bat (Rhogeessa sp.) was found in feces of an individual in Guatemala. This bat is often attracted to distress calls of smaller bats. It roosts in groups of 1 to 5 in hollow trees (including Ceiba pentandra, Mora excelsa, and Spondias mombin). Groups usually consist of an adult pair and their offspring, which hang tightly clumped together. Activity begins at dusk; after foraging for an hour or more, the group returns to the day roost for part of the night. Reproductive dates are limited; a single young appears to be born at the onset of the rainy season and is tended by both parents (McCarthy, 1987; Reid, 1997; Vehrencamp <em>et al.</em>, 1977).	eng
22843	population	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is rare and local (Reid, 1997). Occurs in low densities throughout its range.	eng
22843	threats	Aguirre, L., Mantilla, H., Miller, B. & Dávalos, L., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range. Local threats include habitat fragmentation and destruction. This species is forest dependant (although sometimes captured in pastures and fruit groves near forest edge), and likely required primary forest habitat.	eng
22844	conservation	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is not protected by any legislation. It is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005, W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). Survey, taxonomic, ecological and life history studies, and monitoring are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
22844	distribution	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the central highlands of Sri Lanka, recorded from a few fragmented locations in the Central Province occuring at altitiudes of 1,320 to 2,130 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Philips 1980; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005). Based on available montane habitats the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have been estimated as less than 5,000 km². and less than 500 km², respectively (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
22844	habitat	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and arboreal species. It occurs in montane evergreen forests (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
22844	population	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
22844	threats	de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agricultural activities and clear-cutting of forest have been observed to be the major threats for this species in Sri Lanka (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; W.I.L.D.P.T.S. de A. Goonatilake in litt. 2005).	eng
22845	conservation	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in several protected areas across its Southeast Asian range. In South Asia, it has been recorded from the Indian protecte areas of Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, Gundla Brahmeshwaram Metta Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh; Banneraghatta National Park in Karnataka; Eravikulam National Park in Kerala and Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Maharshtra. In Sri Lanka it is known from Knuckles Forest Reserve in Central Province (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). It is listed in the Schedule V (considered as vermin) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. There is a need for further research to elucidate the taxonomic status of this species complex.	eng
22845	distribution	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widespread in South Asia, southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species has a wide distribution in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka,  occurring in elevation from 200 to 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is limited to western and southern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, the species ranges from Myanmar in the west into Thailand (north of the Isthmus of Kra), south-western Cambodia, possibly Lao PDR, and northern and southern Viet Nam (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
22845	habitat	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Arboreal and inconspicuous species, usually inhabiting forest and forest edge with dense tangles of vines and vegetation. However, it has been recorded in tall cane in Lao PDR (Marshall 1977) and even in the harvested remains of peanut fields in Myanmar (K. Aplin pers. comm.). In South Asia, it occurs in dry deciduous forests with bamboo brakes, moist deciduous forest, temperate forest, open forests interspersed with grasslands and scrub, montane wet zone (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Information on the diet and other aspects of the biology of the Sri Lankan population is provided by Phillips (1980).	eng
22845	population	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is widespread, but never very abundant.	eng
22845	threats	Molur, S., Nameer, P.O., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no current major threats to the species.	eng
22872	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
22884	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
22888	conservation	Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species is present within the Sibulan Protected Watershed on Polillo, and has been recorded from other protected areas within its range. A research programme is in place for the population of this species on Polillo Island (the Polillo Butaan Project). Further taxonomic studies are needed for animals recorded from the Northern Sierra Madre on Luzon. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
22888	distribution	Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R. & Diesmos, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is knonw only from southern Luzon, Catanduanes and Pollilio. Animals collected during recent surveys from the Northern Sierra Madre Range of Luzon may be allocated to this species, but it is possible that they may represent a distinct species and further taxonomic studies are needed to resolve this issue (E.L. Rico, M.R. Duya, D. Bennett, A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is a lowland species ranging from around sea level to 400 m asl.	eng
22888	habitat	Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R. & Diesmos, M., 2007	This arboreal species has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forests, often with rocky outcrops or cliffs (Bennet 1995). Juvenile animals have a diet of snails or crabs, but animals change to a largely frugivorous diet as they mature (Bennet 1995). Little is known about reproduction in this species.	eng
22888	population	Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R. & Diesmos, M., 2007	It appears to be moderately common within its limited range (Bennet 1995). Animals possibly allocated to this species, appear to be moderately common in the Northern Sierra Madre Range.	eng
22888	threats	Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R. & Diesmos, M., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. It is also threatened by hunting for food by local people and collection for the pet trade (hatchlings and juveniles are targeted for the international market).	eng
22918	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <br/><br/><em>V. v. subcincta</em> is recorded from Mananara-Nord National Park and Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve. <em>V. v. variegata</em> is recorded from Zahamena National Park, and two nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and from Ambatovaky and Marotandrano Special Reserves. <em>V. v. editorum</em> is recorded from Mantadia National Park, Ranomafana National Park and Manombo Special Reserve. Now extirpated from Analamazaotra Special Reserve, and no longer reported from Andringitra National Park.<br/><br/>Manongarivo, to which it is not possible to assign a subspecies, is a Special Reserve. Fandriana (in the range of <em>V. v. editorum</em>) is in the process of becoming a national park. Unprotected forests such as Tolodoina, Vatovavy, Atialanankorendrina and Makira should be included in protected areas. <br/><br/>In November 1997, <em>V. v. editorum</em> born and raised in US zoological institutions were returned to Madagascar and released in the Betampona Reserve (Britt <em>et al.</em> 2003). The study of this reintroduction effort is ongoing. An education campaign against hunting, using this species as a flagship, is recommended.	eng
22918	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits lowland to mid-altitude rain forests (sea level to 1,350 m) in eastern Madagascar. There are three subspecies:<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>V. v. subcincta</em> is assumed to represent the northernmost subspecies, the northern limit of its range being the Antainambalana River (east of which occurs the Red Ruffed Lemur). Its range extends southwards to the Anova River, including part of Makira, Mananara-Nord, Atialanankorendrina, and Marotandrano. This subspecies was introduced to the island of Nosy Mangabe in the Bay of Antongil back in the 1930s and still occurs there (Kuhn 1972). The distribution of this lemur is very patchy throughout its range, except for Nosy Mangabe, where it lives at a relatively high density (Morland 1991).  <br/><br/>The nominate subspecies <em>V. v. variegata</em> occurs south of the Anove River, from about Ambatovaky south to about Betampona and Zahamena National Park (including Ambatovaky), although the southern limit is not yet clearly defined.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>V. v. editorum</em> is the southernmost subspecies and is known with certainty only from Mantadia southwards to Manombo Special Reserve. According to Groves (2001), the ranges of <em>V. v. editorum</em>  and <em>V. v. variegata</em> overlap, and intermediate forms exist. The form occurring in Mangerivola Special Reserve is unknown.	eng
22918	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is very patchily distributed in lowland to mid-altitude rain forests. Black-and-white Ruffed Lemurs maintain large home ranges consisting of primary forest with tall trees. They are almost exclusively frugivorous, and as they are very selective feeders, this makes them especially susceptible to disturbance (e.g. see White <em>et al.</em> 1995, Ratsimbazafy 2002). Group size and structure appear to vary considerably between study sites. Females usually give birth to two to three young, which are left in a nest when young and afterwards carried in the mother?s mouth. Ruffed lemurs are probably the only primates that build nests exclusively for the birth and the first days of rearing infants (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008, and references therein).	eng
22918	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Population densities recorded range from 0.4-2.5/km² in Manombo, to 10-15 individuals/km² in Antanamalaza, and 29-43 individuals/km² on Nosy Mangabe (Vasey 2003).	eng
22918	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The principal threat to its survival is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, logging and mining. They are large bodied and diurnal, and therefore also among the most heavily hunted of all lemur species. The seasonality of their vocalizations (due to increased food availability) has been tied to increased levels of hunting (Ratsimbazafy 2002; Vasey 2003). In Makira, where they are one of the more expensive and desired meats, hunting is largely unsustainable (Golden 2005). It is one of the first lemurs to disappear where humans encroach upon rain forest habitats.	eng
22920	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is protected officially only within the Masoala National Park and the Makira Protected Area. Increased regulation and management of hunting within the range is recommended.	eng
22920	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has a restricted range, primarily inhabiting the remaining primary forests of the Masoala Peninsula and the region immediately north of the Bay of Antongil in north-eastern Madagascar. The Antainambalana River appears to separate this species from <em>V. variegata</em>, but the western and northern limits of the Red Ruffed Lemur’s range remain unclear (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Historically, the two species overlapped in the region north of the Bay of Antongil. Recent survey work in the region has shown that the westernmost distribution of <em>V. rubra</em> was near the confluence of the Antainambalana and Sahantaha Rivers (Hekkala <em>et al</em>. 2007). Ranges from sea-level to 1,200 m.	eng
22920	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species has been the subject of ecological and behavioral studies in the forests of Ambatonakolahy (Rigamonti 1993) and Andranobe on the Masoala Peninsula (Vasey 1997: thesis). It is diurnal, prefers high forest and is often observed in the crowns of large feeding trees. It is largely frugivorous. The mating season is May-July, with births occurring from September through early November after a gestation period of about 102 days. Litters range from one to five infants in captivity, but usually contain two or three, and only one young every two years normally survive (Brockman <em>et al.</em> 1987, Schwitzer 2003). Interbirth intervals are in the order of two years (Rakotondratsima and Kremen 2001).	eng
22920	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Density estimates have been recorded at 31-53 individuals/km² in Andranobe (Vasey 1997: IJP) and 21-23 individuals/km² in at Ambatonakolahy (Rigamonti 1993).	eng
22920	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Due to its large size and apparent need for tall primary forest, this species is susceptible to human encroachment and habitat loss (particularly due to slash-and-burn agriculture). Hunting also remains a threat.	eng
22921	distribution	Allen, G., 1996	<em>Varia jamoerensis</em> is endemic to Lake Yamur situated in the middle of the isthmus that joins the main part of Irian Jaya with the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
22921	habitat	Allen, G., 1996	The freshwater lake habitat of this species is 6-7 km in diameter.	eng
22933	conservation	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas.	eng
22933	distribution	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This species occurs in mountainous areas of southern China (western Yunnan, central and northern Sichuan, southern Gansu, and south western Shaanxi) extending into northern Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
22933	habitat	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	This is largely an arboreal species. It is generally present in the tangled canopy of montane forest at altitudes between 2,100 and 2,700 m. It has been recorded form outside of forest on open hillsides where there are thickets of dense vegetation (Anthony 1941). However, it is not generally  present in disturbed habitats.	eng
22933	population	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	It is known from very few specimens, and there is little information about the population abundance.	eng
22933	threats	Lunde, D., Aplin, K. & Musser, G., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species within its remote montane distribution.	eng
22947	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
22947	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
22947	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, Michael Stubbe, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. No specific conservation actions are known.	eng
22947	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, Michael Stubbe, 2006	<em>Vespertilio murinus</em> has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, from France and the Netherlands in the west through central, northern, and eastern Europe and Siberia to the Pacific coast. The northern limit is above 60°N in Fennoscandia and <em>ca</em>. 63°N in Russia, and the southern limit of its range passes through the Balkan peninsula, northern Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and China. The southern records refer to wintering individuals, and the most western records refer to vagrants. Breeding is restricted to the northern part of the range in this migratory species. It occurs from sea level to over 3,000 m.	eng
22947	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Vespertilio murinus</em> has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, from France, Britain and the Netherlands in the west through central, northern, and eastern Europe and Siberia to the Pacific coast. In the Mediterranean region this species occurs from southeastern France eastwards through northern Italy and Switzerland into most of the Balkans. There are scattered records from Turkey. In Japan, it has only been recorded from Rebun Island in 2002 (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The northern limit is above 60°N in Fennoscandia and <em>ca</em>. 63°N in Russia, and the southern limit of its range passes through the Balkan peninsula, northern Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and China. The southern records refer to wintering individuals, and the westernmost records refer to vagrants. Breeding is restricted to the northern part of the range in this migratory species. It occurs from sea level to  3,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)<br/><br/>In Mongolia, it was first recorded in 1964 in Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), currently distributed throughout Mongolia including Hentii and Hangai mountain ranges (Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002), and Valley of the Lakes (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). In China, the subspecies <em>V. m. murinus</em> Linnaeus, 1758 occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang (northwest China) and Gansu (central China), and <em>V. m. ussuriensis</em> Wallin, 1969 occurs in the provinces of Nei Mongol and Heilongjiang.	eng
22947	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	<em>Vespertilio murinus</em> has a wide distribution in the northern Palaearctic, from France, Britain and the Netherlands in the west through central, northern, and eastern Europe and Siberia to the Pacific coast. In the Mediterranean region this species occurs from southeastern France eastwards through northern Italy and Switzerland into most of the Balkans. There are scattered records from Turkey. In Japan, it has only been recorded from Rebun Island in 2002 (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The northern limit is above 60°N in Fennoscandia and <em>ca</em>. 63°N in Russia, and the southern limit of its range passes through the Balkan peninsula, northern Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and China. The southern records refer to wintering individuals, and the westernmost records refer to vagrants. Breeding is restricted to the northern part of the range in this migratory species. It occurs from sea level to  3,400 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002)<br/><br/>In Mongolia, it was first recorded in 1964 in Shargyn Govi in Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968), currently distributed throughout Mongolia including Hentii and Hangai mountain ranges (Tinnin <em>et al.</em>, 2002), and Valley of the Lakes (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). In China, the subspecies <em>V. m. murinus</em> Linnaeus, 1758 occurs in the provinces of Xinjiang (northwest China) and Gansu (central China), and <em>V. m. ussuriensis</em> Wallin, 1969 occurs in the provinces of Nei Mongol and Heilongjiang.	eng
22947	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It forages in open areas over various habitat types (forest, semi-desert, urban, steppe, agricultural land). It feeds on moths and beetles. Summer roosts tend to be situated in houses or other buildings; also rarely hollow trees, nest boxes, or rock crevices. Winter roost sites include rock fissures, often (as substitute) crevices in tall buildings (including, or especially, in cities), occasionally tree holes or cellars. Winter roosts are usually in colder sites that are exposed to temperature changes. Migrations of up to 1,780 km have been recorded (Markovets <em>et al.</em> 2004), although the species is sedentary in a large part of its range. This nocturnal species appears late in the evening, sleeping in narrow crevices during the day. They live in small colonies and often single individuals are sighted. It hibernates throughout the winter. Young are born in June/July, generally 2 are born at a time, and are stuck onto the chest of the mother during flight. Feeds on small dipterans, beetles and moths.	eng
22947	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It forages in open areas over various habitat types (forest, semi-desert, urban, steppe, agricultural land). It feeds on moths and beetles. Summer roosts tend to be situated in houses or other buildings; also rarely hollow trees, nest boxes, or rock crevices. Winter roost sites include rock fissures, often (as substitute) crevices in tall buildings (including, or especially, in cities), occasionally tree holes or cellars. Winter roosts are usually in colder sites that are exposed to temperature changes. Migrations of up to 1,780 km have been recorded (Markovets <em>et al.</em> 2004), although the species is sedentary in a large part of its range. This nocturnal species appears late in the evening, sleeping in narrow crevices during the day. They live in small colonies and often single individuals are sighted. It hibernates throughout the winter. Young are born in June/July, generally 2 are born at a time, and are stuck onto the chest of the mother during flight. Feeds on small dipterans, beetles and moths.	eng
22947	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, Michael Stubbe, 2006	It forages in open areas over various habitat types (forest, urban, steppe, agricultural land). It feeds on moths and beetles. Summer roosts tend to be situated in houses or other buildings; also rarely hollow trees, nest boxes, or rock crevices. Winter roost sites include rock fissures, often (as substitute) crevices in tall buildings (including, or especially, in cities), occasionally tree holes or cellars. Winter roosts are usually in colder sites that are exposed to temperature changes. Migrations of up to 1,780 km have been recorded (Markovets <em>et al.</em> 2004), although the species is sedentary in a large part of its range.	eng
22947	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, Michael Stubbe, 2006	An abundant species in northern parts of its European range. Summer maternity colonies number 30-50 (exceptionally 200) females; males may also form large colonies in summer. In winter it usually occurs singly or in small groups (although clusters of up to 30 have been recorded). Populations are expanding in some parts of the range, for example Denmark (H. J. Baagøe pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (H.J.G.A. Limpens pers. comm.)	eng
22947	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	An abundant species in northern parts of its European range. Summer maternity colonies number 30-50 (exceptionally 200) females; males may also form large colonies in summer. In winter it usually occurs singly or in small groups (although clusters of up to 30 have been recorded). Populations are expanding in some parts of the range, for example Denmark (H. J. Baagøe pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (H.J.G.A. Limpens pers. comm.). This species has a wide distribution, but a low abundance within Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
22947	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	An abundant species in northern parts of its European range. Summer maternity colonies number 30-50 (exceptionally 200) females; males may also form large colonies in summer. In winter it usually occurs singly or in small groups (although clusters of up to 30 have been recorded). Populations are expanding in some parts of the range, for example Denmark (H. J. Baagøe pers. comm.) and the Netherlands (H.J.G.A. Limpens pers. comm.). This species has a wide distribution, but a low abundance within Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
22947	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, Michael Stubbe, 2006	Although not a major threat, the species is affected by loss of or disturbance to roosts in buildings.	eng
22947	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across its range. In Europe, although not a major threat, the species is affected by loss of, or disturbance to roosts in buildings.	eng
22947	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across its range. In Europe, although not a major threat, the species is affected by loss of, or disturbance to roosts in buildings.	eng
22949	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas within its range.	eng
22949	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This species is known from southern Siberia (Russia), Mongolia, the Korean Peninsula, central and eastern China including Taiwan, and Japan. In Japan, it is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. In Mongolia it has been recorded in steppe habitats in Eastern Mongolia (Stubbe and Chotolchu, 1968; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), including Herlen and Halh rivers, and close to Buir Lake (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). In China it is widepread across many provinces.	eng
22949	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This species roosts in tree hollows of large trees, as well as in houses and caves along the seashore (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).  They also inhabit steppe as well as mountainous regions, semi-desert and desert regions, roosting in colonies in buildings or rocky areas (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980), and feed around water sources or swampy sites. Starts feeding at early dusk and prey flying insects quite high, usually at open spaces.	eng
22949	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	In Mongolia there is no population information available, but colonies have been observed in a variety of places. One colony was found under a concrete bridge near Choibalsam over the Kherlen River (S. Dorjderem pers. comm.). Another breeding colony was found in a house by the Mongolian-Chinese border, at a military point called Erdentsagaan. In Russia nursery colonies up to several dozen or hundreds females are known.	eng
22949	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It is commonly found around human settlements, therefore accidental mortality (accidental trapping, poisoning, and roost destruction) probably occur but this is not considered a major threat.	eng
22956	conservation	Lichtenstein, G., Baldi, R., Villalba, L., Hoces, D., Baigún, R. & Laker, J. , 2008	Four decades ago, the vicuna was one of the most threatened species in South America. Due to the over-hunting only a few thousand individuals existed. The implementation of the Vicuna Convention was fundamental in the recovery of the species. In 1987, during the Sixth CITES Conference of the Parties, Peru obtained for the first time, along with other countries, the authorization to internationally trade fabrics made from vicuña wool from live sheared animals, <br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, except for the populations listed on Appendix II. Currently various vicuna populations are included in the Appendix II of CITES. These are found in Argentina (the populations of the Provinces of Jujuy and Catamarca and the semi-captive populations of the Provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, La Rioja and San Juan), the whole population in Bolivia, in Chile (the population of the Primera Región), and the whole population in Peru. Appendix II allows, under strict regulations between exporting and importing countries, the trade in wool and derived products. All other populations are included in Appendix I. <br/><br/>The Vicuna Convention was implemented in each country in accordance with its own National Legislation. The ownership status of the vicuna varies somewhat; as a wild species, it is the property of the State in Peru and Bolivia, and res nullius (without owner) in Chile and Argentina. Although all the conservation aspects of the Vicuna Convention are embodied in National Laws and Decrees in all four countries, this is not always the case as regards granting benefits to local people.<br/><br/>In Argentina, there are six vicuna conservation areas in the north-west, most are managed by the provincial government. The Ley Nacional de Fauna 22421 provides a legal framework at the federal level, there are also provincial laws both for wildlife in general and specific for vicuna. <br/><br/>Since 1980, vicuñas have been reported in 38 areas along the Bolivian high plateau. These areas have been nominated Vicuña Protection Areas (VPA) and have been grouped into nine Conservation and Management Units; within these, there are 4 protected areas but with different levels of implementation; the vicuña population in Bolivia remains insecure due to the lack of continuity of conservation actions undertaken a few years ago. <br/><br/>The vicuna population in Chile has shown some recovery, which greatly reduces the risk of extinction that was very high until a few years ago. There are two geographical forms, but their precise identification still requires deeper scientific analysis. At present, the Chilean Forest Service (Corporación Nacional Forestal, CONAF) carries out annual census work in approximately 1.5 million hectares, maintains personnel in six guard stations, supports several research projects, and runs a long-term environmental education program through various communication media. There are four conservation areas inhabited by vicuna in Chile. Two more have been proposed and others are currently being studied. In addition, a management zone has been established in private lands in which periodic censuses have been carried out during the last few years.<br/><br/>In Peru the vicuna is protected, at national level, in all the operational areas of the Ministry of Agriculture's Special Project for Rational Utilization of the Vicuña. This Special Project contains six subprojects: Huaraz, Huancayo, Pampa Galeras, Cusco, Arequipa, and Puno which includes Huascaran National Park, Pampa Galeras National Reserve, and Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve. These three conservation areas are incorporated in the National System of Natural Protected Areas of Peru (SINANPE).  Local communities participate on the entire process of management and conservation of the populations and use of the sheared wool.  The responsible authority is the CONACS (National Council on South American Camelids) and the local communities.	eng
22956	distribution	Lichtenstein, G., Baldi, R., Villalba, L., Hoces, D., Baigún, R. & Laker, J. , 2008	Vicunas occur in an area of approximately 250,000 km² in the Puna and Altoandina biogeographic provinces of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Ecuador has a population of 2683 individuals resulting from a donation from Peru, Chile and Bolivia. The vicuna is found in a range that extends from 9°30'S in the Ancash Department of Peru to 29°30'S in Region III of Chile. <br/><br/>In the case of Argentina, vicunas are found in the provinces of Jujuy, Catamarca, Salta, La Rioja and San Juan (with relictual populations in the province of Tucumán). In Peru they are found in the departments of Ancash, Huanuco, Cerro de Pasco, Junin, Lima, Huancavelica, Ayacucho, Ica, Apurimac Arequipa, Cusco, Puno, Moquegua and Tacna, in Ecuador they occur at the Reserva de Produccion de Fauna Chimborazo. <br/><br/>In Bolivia, vicuña populations occur in 5 out of 9 Bolivian departments: La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosi and Tarija.<br/>Two subspecies are present in Chile and Bolivia, the northern Vicugna vicugna mensalis, and the southern Vicugna vicugna vicugna. Argentina holds only Vicugna vicugna vicugna, and Peru Vicugna vicugna mensalis.	eng
22956	habitat	Lichtenstein, G., Baldi, R., Villalba, L., Hoces, D., Baigún, R. & Laker, J. , 2008	Vicuña distribution is restricted to the Puna and Altoandina biogeographical provinces at altitudes of 3,200 to 4,800 masl. Its habitat consists mainly of six different vegetation types: halophytic, tundra marsh (called vegas in Chile and Argentina, bofedales in Bolivia and puquios in Peru, a marshy area associated with ground water, lagoons or streams), grassy steppes, prairies, shrub steppes, and rolling shrub steppes (tolares) supporting cacti  (Pujalte and Reca, 1985).<br/><br/>Preference for marshy areas was also reported by Glade (1987), Lucherini (1996) and Villalba (2000). While vicuna territories include wetlands, they are often located near hillsides. It has been reported that vicuna use steep slopes as a means of escaping from some predators, and that they use dry areas on "moderate slopes, well downhill from ridge tops" as places to spend the night. Additionally the bases of slopes are often good places for grazing because the soil there is deeper and moister than soils up on the slope (Koford 1957). <br/><br/>Vicunas spend the night and early morning on the slopes. Later in the morning, they descend to the vegas/puquios where they graze extensively, before returningto the slopes late in the afternoon (Glade 1987; Renaudeau d'Arc <em>et al.</em> 2000). Vicunas are usually found within two kilometers of water (Koford 1957).	eng
22956	population	Lichtenstein, G., Baldi, R., Villalba, L., Hoces, D., Baigún, R. & Laker, J. , 2008	According to the National Census (2008), Vicunas in Argentina inhabit an area of 123,001 km². The provinces with the highest vicuna populations are Jujuy and Catamarca, and La Rioja the province with the lowest population. Thirty four percent of the areas of distribution of vicunas occur in 10 protected areas that have different degrees of implementation. The total population size of Vicunas was estimated as 127,072 using the lowest estimate with the line transect method, in those strata where sampling was considered representative (53,578 km²). In comparison with previous data, vicuna population was stable in La Rioja and San Juan, and increased in Salta, Catamarca and Jujuy. There was evidence of poaching in the five of these provinces (Dirección de Fauna Silvestre, Secretaria de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nacion, 2008). <br/><br/>In Bolivia, the largest concentration is found in the northern section, specifically in the ?Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba? (formerly Ulla Ulla National Wildlife Reserve) (10,350 animals, according to the 2006  census). In the  most southern section of its distribution, Vicuña populations are isolated and dispersed in small groups. According to the Bolivian governmental report  there are  17,845 Vicuñas under protected areas (2006 report to the Vicuna Convention, Quito). Morphological observations give reason to believe that both Vicuña subspecies are present in the country, corresponding to the northern and southern subspecies referred to by Hofmann <em>et al.</em> (1983). Species density in the northern populations in semi-humid high-Andes habitats, is relatively high (0.065 vic/ha); while it is average to low in the semi-humid Puna (0.006 vic/ha) (DNCB 1996).<br/><br/>Ninety-five percent of the vicunas in Chile are concentrated in the I Region (Tarapacá) in the Comunas of General Lagos and Parinacota. There are three protected areas: Parque Nacional Lauca, Reserva Nacional Las Vicuñas, and Monumento Nacional Salar de Surire.<br/><br/>Peru has the largest Vicuña population in the entire Andean region, with over half of the total population of the species. Although its conservation has faced difficulties, surveys carried out by the Consejo Nacional de Camélidos Sudamericanos (CONACS) over 70,000 km² in the years 1994, 1997 and 2000 indicate that the population has been growing to almost 120,000 individuals. Pampa Galeras National Reserve has the largest concentration in Peru, with a population size estimated in 1965 to be between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.  Currently the population is Pampa Galeras surpasses 65,000 animals.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Total Population Size</span><br/>Population Size: 347,273 individuals (see below for census numbers). However, it is difficult to assess the confidence of the estimate as data from different countries were obtained using different methodology. As a general rule, it is recommended to use the distance sampling method, either for ground or aerial surveys, as it is based on more realistic assumptions than the fixed-width strip transect methods which tend to underestimate population numbers (Buckland <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, where numbers are too low, as in relict populations, total counts or less systematics methods can be appropriate. Also, extrapolation of local densities to larger areas must be careful and made according to sampling effort. Accurate estimates of local densities are not sufficient at the time to estimate abundance for larger areas unless the sampling effort is properly disseminated throughout the region. <br/><br/>Country: Vicuna population<br/>Argentina: 127,072 or 72,678<br/>Bolivia: 62,869<br/>Chile: 16,942<br/>Ecuador: 2,683<br/>Peru: 188,327<br/>TOTAL: 347,273<br/>(Source http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/gecs/)	eng
22956	threats	Lichtenstein, G., Baldi, R., Villalba, L., Hoces, D., Baigún, R. & Laker, J. , 2008	Vicuna poaching is problematic in all four countries. The difficulty of controlling is related to the vast extent of the Puna, its topography and the existence of long international borders. Limited human, economic and technical resources make control ineffective. Several laws and decrees within the countries establish protected areas for the species; prohibit hunting, commercialization and transportation or manufacturing of parts or products from hunted animals. But judges and law-enforcement officials are not always aware of the legislation concerning protection of biodiversity, resulting in differing interpretations and applications of the law, and unduly light punishments.  Many of the protected areas are ?paper parks?. <br/><br/>Most of the countries lack National Management plans. This is a threat to effective vicuna conservation; without standardized and verifiable criteria for conservation and management of the vicuna, multiple management plans for implementation may be approved without any reference to minimum sustainability criteria for conservation. There are no specific laws concerning animal welfare relevant to the management of vicuna. This too may pose a threat to long-term sustainability.<br/><br/>Measures to reduce or discourage poaching are clearly essential. One is the application of tight controls not only in the producer countries but also in the importing countries. A related measure is transparency in the provision of information concerning the legal market for vicuña fiber, e.g. prices at auction, buyers, and producers (Mc Neill, Lichtenstein and Renaudeau d?Arc in press). Corruption and lack of human and economic resources make it very difficult to control exports, and vicuña fibre and products are smuggled in large quantities to Europe or Asia. It is also possible that illegal fiber is smuggled between Andean countries (eg. from Argentina to Bolivia) as a first step to being illegally exported to international markets. The fibers of different species of camelids are relatively similar (to the non-specialist), so that personnel with special training and even laboratory equipment is required to identify fiber to species level.<br/><br/>Management of vicunas in captivity proved to be quite negative towards vicuna conservation in the wild (Lichtenstein <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lichtenstein 2006). Use and conservation-oriented management of wild populations is desirable if based on sound scientific information.<br/><br/>Local people in the altiplano consider vicunas to be competitors of domestic livestock, do not tolerance their presence and may be a highly significant factor influencing vicuña distribution (Cueto <em>et al.</em> 1985, Lichtenstein and Renaudeau D? Arc 2004). In addition, habitat-loss caused by over-grazing by domestic livestock and human activities such as mining, and subsequent pollution of rivers and sources of water are further threats to the species (Laker <em>et al.</em> 2006). The incidence of mange/scabies in vicuñas should be evaluated, particularly in those regions where livestock (native and exotic) has important presence.<br/><br/>Climate change will probably have a detrimental impact in the fragile ecosystem where vicunas occur since they are in the limits of habitable environments. Assessment of the effects of climate change on vicunas is a priority. <br/>A new potential threat, both in the Andes and worldwide, is the breeding of pacovicuña (an alpaca/vicuña hybrid) for commercial purposes (Lichtenstein, Hoces and Wheeler presentations to the Vicuna Convention: http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/gecs/).	eng
22976	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	This species occupies fast flowing, small streams and rivers with a gravel substrate with some sand on riffle areas.	eng
22976	threats	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	It is threatened by habitat loss due to acid mine drainage and dams.	eng
22977	habitat	Bogan, A.E. & Seddon, M.B., 2000	Occurs in water under 3 feet with a moderate to strong current and coarse sandy/gravel substrate with some silt.	eng
22978	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
22978	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace in Greece and the Evros river bordering Greece and Turkey. Also reported to extend into Bulgaria and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
22978	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A predominantly riverine species also present in reservoirs.	eng
22978	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data.	eng
22978	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction. Water pollution and extraction. Dam construction may cause problems but it is not yet clear if this species makes spawning migrations.	eng
22979	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
22979	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
22979	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian, Black and Baltic Sea basins (Sweden and Finland north to 62-63°N), North Sea basin from Elbe to Ems drainages. In Finland restricted to coastal waters. In Black Sea basin, absent in Anatolia west of Çoruh drainage (eastern Anatolia)   but present in Marmara basin and Aksu-Egirdir basin in Central Anatolia. Extirpated in Crimea. Introduced in Rhine.	eng
22979	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian, Black and Baltic Sea basins (Sweden and Finland north to 62-63°N), North Sea basin from Elbe to Ems drainages. In Finland restricted to coastal waters. In Black Sea basin, absent in Anatolia west of Çoruh drainage (eastern Anatolia). Extirpated in Crimea. Introduced in Rhine.	eng
22979	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish estuaries, large to medium rivers and some large subalpine lakes. Sedentary populations occur even in small rivers of barbel zone. Spawns on gravel in riffles in shallow, fast-flowing streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Spawns in May-July (April in Terek and some subalpine lakes) when temperature rises above 15°C. Semi-anadromous populations forage in freshened parts of sea and undertake long distance spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations migrate to fast-flowing tributaries. In Dniepr and Kuban, spawning migration starts in September, decreases in winter and resumes in March-May. Individual females spawn several times during a period of 2-3 weeks. Usually spawns for several years. Spent adults return to foraging habitats. Feeds predominantly on small molluscs and insect larvae.	eng
22979	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish estuaries, large to medium rivers and some large subalpine lakes. Sedentary populations occur even in small rivers of barbel zone. Spawns on gravel in riffles in shallow, fast-flowing streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>  Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Spawns in May-July when temperature rises above 15°C. Spawns earlier (April in Terek), and at lower temperatures in some subalpine lakes and anadromous populations in Sweden. Semi-anadromous populations forage in freshened parts of sea and undertake long distance spawning migrations. Lacustrine populations migrate to fast-flowing tributaries. In Dniepr and Kuban, spawning migration starts in September, decreases in winter and resumes in March-May. Individual females spawn several times during a period of 2-3 weeks. Usually spawns for several years. Spent adults return to foraging habitats. Feeds predominantly on small molluscs and insect larvae.	eng
22979	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	semi-anadromous populations declined in the Baltic and Black Sea basins.	eng
22979	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	semi-anadromous populations declined in the Baltic and Black Sea basins.	eng
22979	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution is the possible reason for the population reduction of the semi-anadromous populations in the Baltic basin. Damming in the 1950s and 1960s in the Black Sea basin.	eng
22979	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Pollution is the possible reason for the population reduction of the semi-anadromous populations in the Baltic basin. Damming in the 1950s and 1960s in the Black Sea basin.	eng
22985	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to regulate any possible trade in this species. More research and monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
22985	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is known from between Kulmaç Daglari and Yama Dagi, province of Sivas and from another location about 250 km south in Kahramanmaras, all in Turkey (Göçmen in press). It is possibly present in between these two locations. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 1,800m asl.	eng
22985	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This is a montane species, it is found in grassland areas with rocky slopes and sparse shrubs. It is unknown if this species is viviparous (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22985	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22985	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This restricted-range species is likely threatened by collection of individuals for the international pet trade. Most viper species from within the area of distribution are collected, but it is unclear exactly which species are being traded.  There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present. Like most snakes, this species is subject to some local persecution.	eng
22989	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas in Turkey. Further studies are needed into the natural history, threats and trade in this species.	eng
22989	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is restricted to the eastern Bulkar dagari in the eastern part of the Taurus mountains in Turkey.  This species is found around 2,000m asl.	eng
22989	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is found rocky mountain slopes with open coniferous and mixed Mediterranean forests (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22989	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is uncommon within it restricted range (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22989	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	There appear to be no major threats overall to the species in its remote rocky habitat. This species is subject to some collecting for the pet trade, but it is not known if this is a threat.	eng
22990	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species is included in the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Russian Federation (2001): category 2 - a species reducing in its number living on the northern periphery of the distribution range. It is protected marginally in Sochi National Park, Kameli Biosphere Reserve and Aritza Relict National, with higher density populations are preserved on rocky screes of the forest zone of mountains of the Caucasian Nature Reserve. The majority of populations are unprotected.	eng
22990	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus. The distribution range is stretched along the Black Sea coast, covering the forested foothills of the Caucasus up to 900m asl, from the settlement of Khopa in Turkey and Suramsky pass in the east across Colchis up to Mikhailovsky pass in the west. From here the species ranges to the northern slope of the Great Caucasus. Populations are found along the foothills up to the settlement Ubinskaya in the west, to the town Maikop in the north and to the mouth of the Urushten River in the east. In general, the distribution is divided into two parts, Ajaro-Lazistan (Turkey and Ajaria) and north-Colchis (western Georgia, Abkhazia and the Krasnodar Territory of Russia).	eng
22990	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species inhabits the forested slopes of mountains, the beds of wet ravines and post-forested clearings. It has been recorded from azalea and scumpea-Cornelian cherry groves; mixed-subtropical forests with an evergreen underwood; chestnut groves, beech, willow- and alder-tree woods; and from polydominant forests near river terraces and on large growing over scree. At the upper limit of its altitudinal distribution this snake reaches the coniferous forests zone, but are not found deep in this forest type. It has been recorded from the ecotone of beech-fir forest and motley grass. Animals may also be found in areas of tea cultivation (Baran and Atatur, 1998). It emerges from hibernation in March (on the Black-Sea coast), and at altitudes of 600-800m asl - in the second half of April -beginning of May. It reproduces from the end of March up to the middle of May. Hibernation begins at the start November (for coastal populations), and at the end of September - beginning of October for highland populations. The young appear at the end of August - beginning of September.	eng
22990	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This is not a common species, and populations have significantly declined through overcollection (Baran and Atatür, 1998).	eng
22990	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by illegal overcollection for the international pet trade (Baran and Atatur, 1998). Additional threats include habitat conversion for urban development, tourism and agriculture. It is becoming rare throughout the Black Sea coastal part of its range, with many populations already extirpated. Key threats to the habitat of these lowland populations include the development of tourism (such as health resorts) and housing, and agricultural expansion (including the ploughing of submontane areas). Within Turkey, the species is additionally threatened by projects to construct dams within its range.	eng
22992	conservation	Nilson, G., 2008	Access to the valley is restricted by a guard post, however, snake collectors have often been seen in the valley (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). There is a need to regulate against and prevent the collection of this species which is generally not harmful to people in its remote distribution.	eng
22992	distribution	Nilson, G., 2008	This species is restricted to a small area in the upper Lar River Basin, in the Central Alborz Mountains of Iran. Earlier records of this species are from the localities of Ab-ask, Afjeh, Firuzkuh, Gajereh, Gachsar and Havir, however these areas are now heavily populated and today it is believed to be restricted to the partially protected upper Lar River Valley (G.  Nilson pers. comm. October 2008).	eng
22992	habitat	Nilson, G., 2008	It is present in rural and mountainous areas with grasslands. Animals may be found in rocky areas with boulders along the bottom of the cliff face at the edges of the Lar Valley (Latifi 1991; G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). It does not occur in open areas. It is a viviparous species; litters of between five and ten young are born during the summer (Latifi 1991).	eng
22992	population	Nilson, G., 2008	It is possible that the species consists of fewer than 2,000 mature individuals, although it is difficult to provide a more accurate estimate (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
22992	threats	Nilson, G., 2008	Much of the suitable habitat for this species in the Lar Valley was submerged in the late 1970s when a downstream dam was built (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). There is currently no habitat loss within the species limited range. The species is seriously threatened by the over-collection of animals for their use in serum production by professional snake collectors (G. Nilson pers. comm. September 2008). This has had a very severe impact on the total population size. It does not appear to have been recorded in the European pet trade.	eng
22993	conservation	Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Aziz Avci, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is protected in the Khosrov Reserve in Armenia. It was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) as a narrow-endemic species. This species is found in Egridagi National Park in Turkey. There is a need to effectively regulate the collection of this species and monitor populations.	eng
22993	distribution	Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Aziz Avci, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is present in Turkey (Vilayets Kars, Agri, Igdir, Van and Hakkari), Armenia, Nakhichevan (Azerbaijan), Iraq, and fragmented populations in the mountains northwestern Iran (Latifi, 1991; Baran and Atatür, 1998). It occurs up to 2,000m asl (Turkey and Armenia). Little is known about its range in Iraq.	eng
22993	habitat	Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Aziz Avci, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is generally found in rocky montane areas with sparse scrubby vegetation at elevations above 1,000m asl. Animals may occasionally be found at rocky sites within woodlands (Latifi, 1991; Baran and Atatur, 1998). It is an ovoviparous species; the female gives birth to between three and nine young (Baran and Atatur, 1998).The duration of pregnancy is 140 - 160 days. This species forms congregations during the winter (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22993	population	Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Aziz Avci, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species can have densities of up to 4 - 10 individuals per hectare.	eng
22993	threats	Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Aziz Avci, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	In Turkey, this species overcollected for the pet trade, most particularly in the Aras River Valley. This species is particularly vulnerable to overexploitation because of its congregatory habits which make it easy to collect. Like all snakes and particularly vipers, this species is subject to local persecution. This species is also threatened by general development and overgrazing of its habitat.	eng
22997	conservation	Ulrich Joger, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, László Krecsák, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. Populations of this species from Europe are listed on Appendix I of CITES.  Its range includes several protected areas. In-country conservation measures, such as maintaining suitable areas of meadow habitat, are underway to conserve some populations (e.g.. Hungary and Romania) (CoE, 2003). Detailed recommendations for conservation action to protect this species can be found in Edgar and Bird (2006).	eng
22997	distribution	Ulrich Joger, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, László Krecsák, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species has a very fragmented range in southeastern France, the central Appenines of Italy, western and central Hungary, northern and southern Croatia, central and southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, southern Serbia, northern Albania, northwestern Macedonia, western Greece and central and eastern Romania. It is considered extinct in Austria and Bulgaria, and is close to extinction in Hungary and Moldova. It occurs up to about 2,700m asl.	eng
22997	habitat	Ulrich Joger, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, László Krecsák, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is primarily associated with open meadows and hillsides. Upland subspecies are generally found on well drained rocky hillsides, steppe and meadows, while the lowland forms are found in either steppe, or dry or damp meadows. The lowland subspecies are sometimes found in marshy areas. It gives birth to live young; the female has between two and 22 young.	eng
22997	population	Ulrich Joger, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, László Krecsák, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is generally uncommon or rare, and patchily distributed. It is now presumed to be extinct in Austria, Bulgaria and possibly also in Moldova.	eng
22997	threats	Ulrich Joger, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, László Krecsák, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	The conversion of traditionally farmed meadows to intensively cultivated and grazed land has caused significant declines in populations of this species in Central and southern Europe, most especially among lowland subspecies. Also, afforestation of alpine grasslands (because of abandonment of traditional agricultural practices) is a threat to the species in some areas.  Construction of ski-runs and roads are significant threats to montane populations. Montane populations of this species may also be affected by increasing climate change, in particular the impact of temperature change on populations of important prey species (e.g.. Orthoptera) and breeding biology. In the Balkans, it relies on prey species (Orthoptera) which is highly sensitive to pollution, hence it may be used as a habitat quality indicator.  In France, some well known localities in Italy, and other parts of the range it is collected for the pet trade, and like many species of snake it is persecuted.	eng
22998	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not found in any protected areas. Strong enforcement of trade restrictions are needed to help protect this species. Measures need to be taken to ensure the protection of this species in the development and implementation of infrastructure projects. The creation and enforcement of a protected area within this species restricted range would help to protect it from continuing decline.	eng
22998	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is restricted to eastern Turkey near the corners of the provinces of Kars, Erzurum, and Ağrı (Baran et al. 2004). More than 80% of the population is concentrated in the Aras River Valley which is northern portion of its distribution. In the southern portion of its distribution, the species is found in small, isolated populations in suitable habitat (Nilsen and Tuniyev, pers. comm.). The original type locality was collected in the mid-1800s along the old Armenian-Persian border. Currently, the distribution is entirely inside Turkey (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008). It is found between 1,200 and 2,000m asl.	eng
22998	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	It is found in sparsely vegetated rocky mountain slopes, often close to rivers and streams (Baran and Atatür, 1998).  This species favors more densely vegetated and cooler microhabitats found on north-facing slopes.  On warmer and south-facing slopes within its range <em>M. wagneri</em> is not present and <em>Macrovipera radde</em>i is present. Its suitable habitat is fragmented among the dominant warmer habitat types in the area. Most of the suitable habitat is concentrated in the northern part of its range with only small, isolated patches in the southern part (Nilson pers. comm.). It is ovoviviparous, giving birth to 10-12 young per clutch.	eng
22998	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is rare. It was abundant approximately 15-20 years ago, but since that time there has been significant collection including pregnant females (Nilson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
22998	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is threatened by overcollection for the international pet trade (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is also severely threatened by planned construction of a dam complex (Kara kurt, Deniz golu, and Kulu) along the Aras river. In particular, there is a dam (Kara kurt) planned that would flood most of the known habitat of this species.	eng
23000	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Göran Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There is a need to include this species within the Armenia Red Data Book. There is a need to establish protected areas to conserve suitable areas of habitat for the species, especially for the recently discovered population in Turkey. A transnational park covering the range of this species between Georgia and Armenia, is currently planned. There is a need to limit or exclude grazing by domestic livestock in the limited areas from which this species has been recorded. Additional surveys are needed to confirm the presence of this species in the vicinity of Posof (Turkey), to determine the presence of this species in Georgia, and to locate any additional populations of this species.	eng
23000	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Göran Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region where it has been recorded from Armenia and possibly two localities in Turkey, and is possibly also present in Georgia. In Armenia, it is patchily distributed in the southeastern part of the Javakhet Mountain Range, Shirak Province, where it has been recorded from the alpine and subalpine meadows of Legli Mountain at altitudes of 2,100 to 2,700m asl. A total of seven populations are known from Armenia, with suitable habitat in these patches totaling 200.78 hectares (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009). In Turkey, a population has been recorded from eastern Artvin Vilayet (Geniez and Tynié 2005), with a second population possibly recently observed in the vicinity of Posof town (close to the Georgian border), although this record needs full confirmation (not mapped here) (Göran Nilson and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., October 2008). The species may be present in Georgia, however this needs confirmation.	eng
23000	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Göran Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This highly montane species generally inhabits rocky talus or scree habitats (with flat stone slabs) among subalpine and alpine meadows.	eng
23000	population	Boris Tuniyev, Göran Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Within its preferred habitat the species can be found at densities of 10 to 12 animals per hectare. Only a few hundred animals are known from Armenia (400 to 500 mature individuals) (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009).	eng
23000	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Göran Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The primary threat to this species is overgrazing of vegetation in it's limited habitat by domestic sheep and cattle. In Armenia the species is not significantly threatened by the international pet trade, as significant protection is given to the few populations of this species (Aram Agasyan pers. comm., March 2009). It is possible that the pet trade may represent a threat to recently described populations from Turkey, however further details are needed.	eng
23001	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species was included into the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) and Georgia (1982). At present, it is included in the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001) with the status and category 2 (as an endemic of high mountains of Great Caucasus). Populations occur in the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve, Sochi National Park, Ineritza Relict National Park, Lagodejia Reserve, Tebergin Biosphere Reserve, Nozacetian State Reserve, Kobaljini High Mount. Reserve, Preelbrusia Mountain National Park, and in several additional lower level protected areas.	eng
23001	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded in south Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. The distribution range of the species is covers the Great Caucasus in Russia, Abkhazia, Georgia and, apparently, of Azerbaijan. It is found on the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus from Fisht-Oshten massif in the west up to the eastern Georgia and north-western Azerbaijan (Lagodekhi and Zakatali Reservations) in the east. The continuous distribution range stretches eastwards up to the Bol'shaya Laba River, further a chain of isolated populations is known from Karachaevo-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, Dagestan, northern and eastern Georgia. It ranges between 1,500 and 2,800m asl.	eng
23001	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It inhabits the upper-forest zone, stream borders, shrub forests, subalpine and alpine meadows, rocky scree, talus slopes and montane moraines. Animals emerge after hibernation from the middle of April to the beginning of June, with males emerging early. The period of reproduction occurs in the end of April - May, with the young appearing in August - September. The female gives birth to between 3 and 7 young. Animals begin hibernation from September - beginning of October.	eng
23001	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The western populations (1500-2400masl) are quite common, however the eastern populations (2200-2800masl) are very fragmented.	eng
23001	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by the degradation of its subalpine pasture habitats by intensive overgrazing by cattle. In areas of tourism this snake (and other vipers) is often killed. The species is additionally overcollected for the pet trade.	eng
23002	conservation	Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to establish protected areas within the range of this rare species. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, general ecology, and the potential threat of collection for the international pet trade. There is a need to monitor the conservation status of known populations.	eng
23002	distribution	Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is restricted to the Pontic Black Sea region of Turkey, where it is known from the Çoruh Valley in Vilayet Artvin. An additional specimen was found in a tea plantation near the Turkish-Georgian border, northwest of Artvin (Baran <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is possible that a population of this species could be present also in adjacent Georgia, however this needs to be confirmed. The record from the vicinity of Çamlihemsin in Vilayet Rize (Baran and Atatür 1997) should be referred to <em>Vipera barani</em> (Mallow <em>et al</em>. 2003; Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009) It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
23002	habitat	Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species is associated with Mediterranean vegetation, rocky areas within open forest. (Baran and Atatür, 1998).	eng
23002	population	Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is extremely rare, and is currently known from fewer than seven specimens. It is estimated that there are probably fewer than 250 mature individuals of this rare species (Göran Nilson pers. comm.).	eng
23002	threats	Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species has a restricted range, however there is little human activity other than traditional farming livestock grazing. There is some limited habitat loss resulting from highway (motorway) construction. As with many snakes, it is generally persecuted. It is unclear if the species is threatened by collection for the international pet trade. While other vipers from the region, such as <em>Vipera kaznakovi</em>, have been recorded in trade (Ferdi Akarsu pers. comm. March 2009), it does not appear that <em>Vipera pontica</em> has (Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009). The species lives as small populations in very remote areas where collection is not thought to take place. However, if collection of a localised population undertaken place by a skilled collector it seems probable that this would lead to its rapid extirpation (Göran Nilson pers. comm. March 2009).	eng
23036	conservation	Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is listed in Schedule I, part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and on CITES Appendix III (India). This species does not occur in protected areas and the development of protected areas in its range is unlikely due to dense human populations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). Ashraf <em>et a</em>l (1993) recommends the following conservation actions for this species: captive breeding (with the possibility of reintroduction if suitable undisturbed areas are identified), field surveys (to investigate whether this species occurs in protected areas) and ecological studies (to determine the threats to this species). An urgent conservation action plan is needed.	eng
23036	distribution	Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and has been recorded mostly in the coastal district of the Western Ghats, in southern India from Kanyakumariin the extreme south to as far as Wayanad, Coorg, and Honnavar in Karnataka in the north (Pocock, 1933, 1939; Corbet and Hill, 1992). There are only two reports of its occurrence in the higher elevation (>600 m) of  the Western Ghats, in the High Wavy Mountains (Hutton, 1949) and possibly in Kudremukh (Karanth, 1986). The former is open to severe doubt. By the late 1960s, it was thought to be near extinction. From 1950 to 1990, there were only two possible records of this species, one in Kudremukh in Karnataka (Karanth, 1986) and the other in Tiruvella in Kerala (Kurup, 1989). After being listed as possibly extinct, skins of recently killed civets were obtained in Elayur, in the lowland Western Ghats, in Malappuram district, Kerala (Kurup, 1989) and near Nilambur (northern Kerala) (Ahsraf <em>et al.</em>, 1993). Rai and Kumar (1993) report information of possible occurrence in Karnataka State.	eng
23036	habitat	Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	Though little is known about its biology and ecology, there are some descriptions of habitat use: it once inhabited lowland forests, lowland swamp and riparian forests in the coastal plain districts of Western Ghats - although now it appears to be confined to thickets in cashew plantations and to highly degraded lowland forests in northern Kerala (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has been found in lowland riparian forests in the coastal plain districts (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). The species is nocturnal and probably elusive.<br/><br/>Natural forests have completely disappeared in the entire stretch of coastal Western Ghats, thus the present vegetation is of secondary origin (Champion and Seth, 1968), and is mostly plantations (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). Of these, cashew plantations are the least disturbed, as they are not weeded, providing a dense understory of shrubs and grasses for this terrestrial species to take refuge in (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993). However, most records from 1960-1990 were in valleys around riparian areas, suggesting that this species is dependent of shallow water courses where it may forage at night (Ashraf <em>et al</em>, 1993).	eng
23036	population	Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population status is unknown. It was thought to be possibly extinct, then rediscovered (Kurup 1989; Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993; Rai and Kumar 1993), but there is no further recent information and no recent sightings of live Malabar civets (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>This species was once very common in the districts of Malabar and Travancore in southwest India, but by the late 1960s it was thought to be near extinction, it was not sighted again until 1987. From 1950 to 1990 there were only two possible sightings of this species, one in Kudremukh in Karnataka (Karanth 1986) and the other in Tiruvella in Kerala (Kurup, 1989). After being listed as possibly extinct, it was rediscovered in Elayur, in the lowland Western Ghats, in Malappuram district, Kerala (Kurup 1989).	eng
23036	threats	Jennings, A., Veron, G. & Helgen, K., 2008	The main threat to this species is the loss and degradation of forest habitat. Natural forests have completely disappeared in the entire stretch of the coastal Western Ghats (Champion and Seth 1968). <br/><br/>In the past, this species was widely used to collect civet oil. It is now threatened by habitat loss and retaliatory killings for raiding poultry. This species is seriously threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, as well as by hunting, as it occurs outside protected areas (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). The use of civet-musk is said to have been in widespread use between 1965-1970 (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). Cashew plantations, which may hold most of the surviving populations of this species, are threatened by large-scale clearance for planting rubber trees (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species is not selectively hunted, but 10 of 22 records from 1950 to 1990 were caught by dogs (Ashraf <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
23041	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
23041	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known from the high mountains, approximately 3,300-4,300 m asl, of western and southern Yunnan, and south-east Xizang in China, and northern Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
23041	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in coniferous forests and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008); it may venture out into open fields, where these occur near forest (Lunde and Aplin 2006).	eng
23041	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is not uncommon, and perhaps is even locally abundant (Lunde and Aplin 2006).	eng
23041	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
23042	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), and is presumed to occur in Taroko National Park. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
23042	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). Its distribution is restricted to high mountain tops at elevations approximately between 3,000-3,670 m asl (Yu 1995).	eng
23042	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occurs in highland forests (Smith and Xie 2008), with bushy bamboo understory (Yu 1993).	eng
23042	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
23042	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In the past there was some deforestation in the highlands of Taiwan,  however, that has now mostly ceased and there are no longer any known  threats to this species.	eng
23043	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Wolong Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008) and is presumed to occur in WenchuanCaopo, Heishuihe, Fengtongzhai, Anzihe, and Longhixihongkou Nature Reserves. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1ac (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
23043	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the northwest region of Sichuan province (Smith and Xie 2008). The locality recorded by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997) in southern Yunnan requires confirmation, it is probably <em>Microtus clarkei</em> (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species occurs at elevations above 4,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
23043	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occurs in high altitude forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
23043	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species. Only a few specimens of this species have been collected.	eng
23043	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In the past logging in this region would have posed a threat. Today, the extent to which illegal logging occurs is not known but it continues to pose a threat to this species.	eng
23044	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species was collected in Anzihe and Miyyaluo Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007), but it is not known if it occurs in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
23044	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the western region of Sichuan province (Qionglai Shan) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,315-3,660 m asl (Lawrence 1982).	eng
23044	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is known from specimens collected within rocky areas and cliffs in alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
23044	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
23044	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
23049	conservation	Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Jhala, Y.V., 2008	The populations of India are listed on CITES Appendix III. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972 as amended up to 1991) prohibits hunting of all wildlife and lists the Indian Fox in Schedule II. It is not on any special category for protection in the wildlife legislation of Nepal. <br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in India and Nepal. <br/><br/>There have been no conservation efforts targeted specifically for the species.<br/><br/>The Indian Fox is held in captivity in several zoos in India, where the species breeds well. In 2001, there were 15 males, 14 females, and 11 unsexed individuals in several zoos (Central Zoo Authority pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>A status survey is needed to identify areas throughout the species' range that have large, relatively secure fox populations. In some of these areas, an in-depth, long-term study is needed on population dynamics of the Indian fox. This would help elucidate the fox's relationship with prey population cycles and disease outbreaks. Research is also needed on ranging patterns, territoriality, and behaviour of this poorly studied species.	eng
23049	distribution	Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Jhala, Y.V., 2008	The Indian Fox is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. It ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. In the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, the species' range extends from Sindh province of Pakistan to north Bengal in India.	eng
23049	habitat	Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Jhala, Y.V., 2008	The Indian Fox prefers semi-arid, flat to undulating terrain, scrub and grassland habitats where it is easy to hunt and dig dens. It avoids dense forests, steep terrain, tall grasslands and true deserts. The species is relatively abundant in the biogeographic zones 3, 4 and 6 of India, in which rainfall is low, and the vegetation is typically scrub, thorn or dry deciduous forests, or short grasslands (Rodgers <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the Indian peninsula, the species is restricted to the plains and open scrub forest.	eng
23049	population	Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Jhala, Y.V., 2008	Nowhere in its range is the Indian Fox abundant. Densities seem to track rodent abundance in the Bhal area of Gujarat (Y.V. Jhala unpubl.), which fluctuates widely between years in the species' prime habitat (arid and semi-arid zones of India) (Prakash 1975; Tripathi <em>et al.</em> 1992). Occurrence of the Indian Fox in Langtan National Park and Shey Wildlife Reserve in Nepal was reported by Shrestha (1997); however, this has not been confirmed and is considered unlikely.	eng
23049	threats	Johnsingh, A.J.T. & Jhala, Y.V., 2008	Although the Indian Fox is widespread, it occurs at low densities throughout its range, and populations can undergo major fluctuations due to prey availability. It is also quite sensitive to human modifications of its habitat. With expanding human populations and continued development of grasslands and "wastelands" for agricultural and industrial uses, the habitat of the Indian Fox is continuously being depleted. The combination of above factors along with disease and/or natural mortality could potentially cause local extinctions. In certain states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, the Indian Fox habitat is widespread with minimal threats, while in other states like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu the specialized habitats of the Indian Fox are under serious threat.<br/><br/>There are no known commercial uses for the Indian Fox, although there is limited localized trade for skin, tail, teeth and claws (for medicinal and charm purposes). There is no trade or potential for trade of the Indian Fox.	eng
23050	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Listed on CITES ? Appendix II. Fully protected in Israel, with no hunting, trapping or trading permitted. Holding in captivity requires a special permit from the Nature Reserves Authority of Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordan and Oman. However, there is no legal protection in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Iran, Afghanistan or Pakistan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is kept in captivity at the Hai Bar Breeding Centre (near Eilat). In previous years, there was a pair at the Tel Aviv University Zoo. Captive individuals are also kept at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah, U.A.E. Foxes have been successfully bred at all the above facilities.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>The information on the biology of Blanford's foxes is mostly from the southern part of Israel. Nothing is known on the behaviour and ecology of the species in the eastern part of its distribution. Interactions with other predators and the susceptibility to diseases are poorly understood.	eng
23050	conservation	Geffen, E., Hefner, R. & Wright, P., 2008	Listed on CITES – Appendix II. Fully protected in Israel, with no hunting, trapping or trading permitted. Holding in captivity requires a special permit from the Nature Reserves Authority of Israel. There is a ban on hunting in Jordan and Oman. However, there is no legal protection in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Iran, Afghanistan or Pakistan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas in Israel, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is kept in captivity at the Hai Bar Breeding Centre (near Eilat). In previous years, there was a pair at the Tel Aviv University Zoo. Captive individuals are also kept at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah, U.A.E. Foxes have been successfully bred at all the above facilities.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>The information on the biology of Blanford's foxes is mostly from the southern part of Israel. Nothing is known on the behaviour and ecology of the species in the eastern part of its distribution. Interactions with other predators and the susceptibility to diseases are poorly understood.	eng
23050	distribution	Geffen, E., Hefner, R. & Wright, P., 2008	The Blanford's Fox was first described from south-western Asia in 1877, and specimens were collected from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and Turkistan (= Turkmenistan) (Novikov 1962; Bobrinskii <em>et al.</em> 1965; Lay 1967; Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In 1981, the species was discovered in Israel (Ilani 1983), and since then throughout the Middle East (Harrison and Bates 1989; Al Khalili 1993; Stuart and Stuart 1995; Amr <em>et al</em>. 1996; Amr 2000; Abu Baker <em>et al</em>. 2004) and even in Egypt, west of the Suez Canal (Peters and Rödel 1994).	eng
23050	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Blanford's Fox was first described from south-western Asia in 1877, and specimens were collected from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and Turkistan (= Turkmenistan) (Novikov 1962; Bobrinskii <em>et al.</em> 1965; Lay 1967; Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In 1981, the species was discovered in Israel (Ilani 1983), and since then throughout the Middle East (Harrison and Bates 1989; Al Khalili 1993; Stuart and Stuart 1995; Amr <em>et al</em>. 1996; Amr 2000; Abu Baker <em>et al</em>. 2004) and even in Egypt, west of the Suez Canal (Peters and Rödel 1994).	eng
23050	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Blanford's Fox is confined to mountainous regions (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). Hassinger (1973) concluded that Blanford's Foxes are generally found below an altitude of 2,000 m in dry montane biotopes. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins (Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In that region, the habitat of Blanford's foxes comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). This species appears to avoid higher mountain ranges as well as lower, warmer valleys (Roberts 1977). <br/><br/>In the Middle East, Blanford's Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons and cliffs (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1987; Harrison and Bates 1989). In Israel, Blanford's Fox is distributed along the western side of the Rift Valley, and, in the central Negev, specimens were collected in creeks that drain into the Rift Valley (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Apparently, Blanford's Fox can occur on various rock formations as long as its other requirements are met. The distribution of Blanford's Fox in the Arabian Desert is not limited by access to water (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992a). In Israel, Blanford's Foxes inhabit the driest and hottest regions. The densest population is found in the Judaean Desert at elevations of 100?350 m below sea level. This is in contrast to Roberts' (1977) remark that the species avoids low, warm valleys in Pakistan. <br/><br/>Geffen <em>et al</em>. (1992b) found that dry creek bed was the most frequently visited habitat in all home ranges in Israel. Home ranges at Ein Gedi (in km²), comprised an average (± SD) of 63.44 ± 3.22% gravel scree, 3.63 ± 2.59% boulder scree, 28.38 ± 4.05% dry creek bed, and 4.54 ± 3.46% stream and spring. Average time (± SD) spent by foxes at Ein Gedi in gravel scree was 148.8 ± 109.8 min/night, 46.0 ± 63.8 min/night in boulder scree, 359.9 ± 141.9 min/night in dry creek bed, and 13.0 ± 27.9 min/night near a water source (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b). Dry creek bed provided abundant prey for the foxes and only sparse cover for their terrestrial predators. Creek bed patches were used in proportion to their size. Both the available area of creek bed in each range and the area of creek bed patches that was used by the foxes were independent of home range size. However, variance in home range size was explained by the mean distance between the main denning area and the most frequently used patches of creek bed (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b).	eng
23050	habitat	Geffen, E., Hefner, R. & Wright, P., 2008	Blanford's Fox is confined to mountainous regions (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). Hassinger (1973) concluded that Blanford's Foxes are generally found below an altitude of 2,000 m in dry montane biotopes. All the records collected on the Persian Plateau are from foothills and mountains in the vicinity of lower plains and basins (Hassinger 1973; Roberts 1977). In that region, the habitat of Blanford's foxes comprises the slopes of rocky mountains with stony plains and patches of cultivation (Lay 1967; Roberts 1977). This species appears to avoid higher mountain ranges as well as lower, warmer valleys (Roberts 1977). <br/><br/>In the Middle East, Blanford's Foxes are confined to mountainous desert ranges and inhabit steep, rocky slopes, canyons and cliffs (Mendelssohn <em>et al.</em> 1987; Harrison and Bates 1989). In Israel, Blanford's Fox is distributed along the western side of the Rift Valley, and, in the central Negev, specimens were collected in creeks that drain into the Rift Valley (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1993). Apparently, Blanford's Fox can occur on various rock formations as long as its other requirements are met. The distribution of Blanford's Fox in the Arabian Desert is not limited by access to water (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992a). In Israel, Blanford's Foxes inhabit the driest and hottest regions. The densest population is found in the Judaean Desert at elevations of 100–350 m below sea level. This is in contrast to Roberts' (1977) remark that the species avoids low, warm valleys in Pakistan. <br/><br/>Geffen <em>et al</em>. (1992b) found that dry creek bed was the most frequently visited habitat in all home ranges in Israel. Home ranges at Ein Gedi (in km²), comprised an average (± SD) of 63.44 ± 3.22% gravel scree, 3.63 ± 2.59% boulder scree, 28.38 ± 4.05% dry creek bed, and 4.54 ± 3.46% stream and spring. Average time (± SD) spent by foxes at Ein Gedi in gravel scree was 148.8 ± 109.8 min/night, 46.0 ± 63.8 min/night in boulder scree, 359.9 ± 141.9 min/night in dry creek bed, and 13.0 ± 27.9 min/night near a water source (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b). Dry creek bed provided abundant prey for the foxes and only sparse cover for their terrestrial predators. Creek bed patches were used in proportion to their size. Both the available area of creek bed in each range and the area of creek bed patches that was used by the foxes were independent of home range size. However, variance in home range size was explained by the mean distance between the main denning area and the most frequently used patches of creek bed (Geffen <em>et al</em>. 1992b).	eng
23050	population	Geffen, E., Hefner, R. & Wright, P., 2008	The only available population densities come from Israel where the species is fairly common in the south-east and where density estimates of 2.0/km² in Ein Gedi and 0.5/km² in Eilat have been recorded. Surveys in other regions, such as Arabia, indicate that Blanford's Box is locally abundant. In United Arab Emirates, for example, researchers frequently captured foxes in the north-eastern mountains of the country (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
23050	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The only available population densities come from Israel where the species is fairly common in the south-east and where density estimates of 2.0/km² in Ein Gedi and 0.5/km² in Eilat have been recorded. Surveys in other regions, such as Arabia, indicate that Blanford's Box is locally abundant. In United Arab Emirates, for example, researchers frequently captured foxes in the north-eastern mountains of the country (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
23050	threats	Geffen, E., Hefner, R. & Wright, P., 2008	There are currently no obvious major range-wide threats to Blanford's Fox. In Israel, habitat loss is limited as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. However, political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert, and human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the U.A.E. (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). They may be killed incidentally through carcass poisoning of other target species, such as hyaenas and wolves. At present, the trade in fur is negligible and confined to Afghanistan.	eng
23050	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	There are currently no obvious major range-wide threats to Blanford's Fox. In Israel, habitat loss is limited as most of the area where this species occurs is designated as protected. However, political developments may change the status of the northern Judaean Desert, and human development along the Dead Sea coasts may also pose a considerable threat to existing habitat. Similar concerns exist for the populations in the U.A.E. (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). They may be killed incidentally through carcass poisoning of other target species, such as hyaenas and wolves. At present, the trade in fur is negligible and confined to Afghanistan.	eng
23051	conservation	Global assessment by A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Corsac foxes are protected in strict nature reserves (the highest protection status for the territory) and in national parks in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia.<br/><br/>Not listed on CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Listed in some regional Red books in Russia: Bashkir (Volga tribute) and Buryat (Transbaikalia region) with category III status (species with declining populations).<br/><br/>Hunting of corsac foxes is regulated by special national legislation, in which the species is considered a fur-bearer species (Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia). Trapping/hunting is allowed only from November through March in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Certain methods of hunting are prohibited, such as digging or smoking animals out of dens, den flooding, and poisoning.<br/><br/>No special conservation programmes have been carried out. Outside of protected areas, the corsac has the status of game species.<br/><br/>Corsac foxes breed well in captivity, and there are some 29 animals currently listed in ISIS. In Moscow Zoo during 1960s one pair of corsac foxes produced six litters during the time that they remained together. Corsac foxes are easily habituated to humans.<br/><br/>There are several aspects of this species' biology that require investigation, including social organization and behaviour, population structure, current distribution and population status in different regions, current levels of trapping/hunting impact, and other threats to the species.	eng
23051	conservation	Poyarkov, A. & Ovsyanikov, N., 2008	Not listed on CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Hunting of Corsac Foxes is regulated by special national legislation, in which the species is considered a fur-bearer species (Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia). Trapping/hunting is allowed only from November through March in Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. Certain methods of hunting are prohibited, such as digging or smoking animals out of dens, den flooding, and poisoning. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes are protected in strict nature reserves (the highest protection status for the territory) and in national parks in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia. <br/><br/>No special conservation programmes have been carried out. Outside of protected areas, the Corsac has the status of game species.<br/><br/>  All hunting and trading of Corsac Foxes is illegal in Afghanistan having been placed in 2009 on the country’s Protected Species List. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes breed well in captivity. In Moscow Zoo, during the 1960s, one pair of Corsac Foxes produced six litters during the time that they remained together. Corsac Foxes are easily habituated to humans. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>There are several aspects of this species' biology that require investigation, including social organization and behaviour, population structure, current distribution and population status in different regions, current levels of trapping/hunting impact, and other threats to the species.	eng
23051	distribution	Global assessment by A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Narrower than the historical range and includes two parts. The first covers the Middle Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, as well as steppe and forest-steppe areas of Russia, including the southern region of Western Siberia. In Europe its range reaches the Samara Region, Tatarstan to the North and northern Caucasia to the South. The second, much smaller area lies in southern Transbaikalye representing the northern periphery of the Mongolian and Manchurian section of the species area. Outside Russia the species area includes the steppe part of north-eastern China, including Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the region between Argun and Big Khingan, the entire Mongolian republic except for its forested and mountain regions, Dgungaria, Kashgaria, Afghanistan (probably only northern) and north-eastern Iran. Southern limit of distribution is unknown, but possibly it reaches to the mountain ridges separating the Tibet Highland from the North. Thus, the two ranges (western and eastern) are connected by a relatively narrow neck in the Dgungar Gate and Zaisan Basin region. In recent years a westward area expansion has been recorded, particularly into the Voronezh region following active recovery of baibak (<em>Marmota bobak</em>) populations. Occasionally, the species is recorded from the Ukrainian steppe (as far as Pavlodar to the West), eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan) and, probably, western Kyrgyzstan.	eng
23051	distribution	Poyarkov, A. & Ovsyanikov, N., 2008	The current range of the Corsac is disjunct. One part covers the Middle Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, as well as steppe and forest-steppe areas of Russia, including the southern region of Western Siberia. In Europe its range reaches the Samara Region, Tatarstan to the North and northern Caucasia to the South. The second, much smaller area lies in southern Transbaikalye representing the northern periphery of the Mongolian and Manchurian section of the species area. Outside Russia the species area includes the steppe part of north-eastern China, including Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the region between Argun and Big Khingan, the entire Mongolian republic except for its forested and mountain regions, Dgungaria, Kashgaria, Afghanistan (probably only northern) and north-eastern Iran. Southern limit of distribution is unknown, but possibly it reaches to the mountain ridges separating the Tibet Highland from the North. Thus, the two ranges (western and eastern) are connected by a relatively narrow neck in the Dgungar Gate and Zaisan Basin region. In recent years, a westward area expansion has been recorded, particularly into the Voronezh region following active recovery of baibak (Marmota bobac) populations. Occasionally, the species is recorded from the Ukrainian steppe (as far as Pavlodar to the West), eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan) and, probably, western Kyrgyzstan.<br/><br/>In Russia the Corsac is rare in most regions, but common in West Siberia and Transbaikalie. It sometimes occurs in northern parts of West Siberia's forested steppes, but in low numbers. The species is common everywhere between the Volga and Ural rivers. In Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China, the corsac is Common or abundant, although in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan the species is usually rare. Population status in Afghanistan and Iran is unknown.	eng
23051	habitat	Global assessment by A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The corsac typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas and dense bush. In the western part of the range they occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall grass steppes. In Kaspyi Sea region the steppes and tarragon-cereal semi-deserts are favoured. It also occurs in fixed-sand habitats (Nogaiskaya Steppe). In Volgo-Ural watershed the corsac inhabits most usual habitats, but prefers semi-deserts. To the east of the Ural Mountains, the species inhabits steppes and in favourable years occurs even in forested steppes. In Kazakhstan typical habitats are low grass steppes and semi-deserts, often inhabiting low hills, but avoiding low mountains. In Middle-Asia it inhabits semi-deserts and ephemeral-deserts, avoiding drifting sands. One limiting factor is snow height in winter, and this species avoids areas where the depth of snow exceeds 150 mm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed.<br/><br/>Corsac foxes appear to depend on distribution of ground squirrels and marmots for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for refuge).	eng
23051	habitat	Poyarkov, A. & Ovsyanikov, N., 2008	The Corsac typically inhabits steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, avoiding mountains, forested areas and dense bush. In the western part of the range they occur in low-grass steppe, avoiding dense and tall grass steppes. In Kaspyi Sea region the steppes and tarragon-cereal semi-deserts are favoured. It also occurs in fixed-sand habitats (Nogaiskaya Steppe). In Volgo-Ural watershed the Corsac inhabits most usual habitats, but prefers semi-deserts. To the east of the Ural Mountains, the species inhabits steppes and in favourable years occurs even in forested steppes. In Kazakhstan typical habitats are low grass steppes and semi-deserts, often inhabiting low hills, but avoiding low mountains. In Middle-Asia it inhabits semi-deserts and ephemeral-deserts, avoiding drifting sands. One limiting factor is snow height in winter, and this species avoids areas where the depth of snow exceeds 150 mm, preferring areas where the snow is either shallower or highly compressed. <br/><br/>Corsac Foxes appear to depend on distribution of ground squirrels and marmots for food and shelter (the burrows being enlarged and used for refuge).	eng
23051	population	Global assessment by A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Corsac populations fluctuate significantly. Population decreases are dramatic, caused by catastrophic climatic events, and numbers can drop tenfold within the space of a single year. On the other hand, in favourable years numbers can increase by the same margin and more within a three to four year period. Corsac foxes have the ability to forego water and food for extended periods of time. They are well adapted to a hot and dry climate. Current population status is unknown in most regions. Dramatic population changes were reported during the last century in PredKavkazie, between Kuma and Terek rivers and in Kuma-Manich Channel region. A drastic population decline was reported at the beginning of the last century (Dinnik 1914). Numbers had recovered by 1924 to 1925; one hunter during that time could take up to 15–30 corsac foxes in one season (Ognev 1931). By 1931 numbers decreased again with a subsequent increase in 1951 (Verezhagin 1959). In the Ural region during particular years up to 5,500 animals were taken by trappers, and up to 1,700 in the Gurievskaya region. To the south, in Mangishlak and Ustyurt, the corsac is widespread and in some years abundant. In Russia the corsac is rare in most regions, but common in West Siberia and Transbaikalie. It sometimes occurs in northern parts of West Siberia's forested steppes, but in low numbers. The species is common everywhere between the Volga and Ural rivers. In Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China, the corsac is common or abundant, although in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan the species is usually rare. Population status in Afghanistan and Iran is unknown.	eng
23051	population	Poyarkov, A. & Ovsyanikov, N., 2008	Corsac populations fluctuate significantly. Population decreases are dramatic, caused by catastrophic climatic events, and numbers can drop tenfold within the space of a single year. On the other hand, in favourable years numbers can increase by the same margin and more within a three to four year period. Dramatic population changes were reported during the last century in PredKavkazie, between Kuma and Terek rivers and in Kuma-Manich Channel region. A drastic population decline was reported at the beginning of the last century (Dinnik 1914). Numbers had recovered by 1924 to 1925; one hunter during that time could take up to 15–30 Corsac foxes in one season (Ognev 1931). By 1931 numbers decreased again with a subsequent increase in 1951 (Verezhagin 1959). In the Ural region during particular years up to 5,500 animals were taken by trappers, and up to 1,700 in the Gurievskaya region. To the south, in Mangishlak and Ustyurt, the corsac is widespread and in some years abundant.	eng
23051	threats	Poyarkov, A. & Ovsyanikov, N., 2008	Development in Kazakhstan in the mid-1850s caused a significant reduction of Corsac numbers in previously undisturbed habitats. In the 20th century several catastrophic population declines were recorded. During such crashes hunting on Corsac Foxes in the former Soviet Union was banned. For example, hunting of Corsac Foxes was stopped within the entire Kazakhstan territory from 1928 to 1938. Current population status, and the nature of major threats, is unknown in most regions. The western part of the range populations are recovering and their range expanding. In Kalmikiya large desert areas are changing into grass steppes, less suitable for corsac foxes. In Middle Asia and Kazakhstan a dramatic decrease of livestock during the last decade influenced many ecosystems and wildlife populations. However, the exact influence of this process on corsac populations remains unknown.<br/><br/>Corsac Fox pelts have been intensively traded. In general, over much of Russia during the 19th century, as many as 40,000–50,000 pelts were traded in some years. For the time being, Corsac pelts are not as highly appreciated as Red Fox pelts, and Corsac Foxes are usually trapped only incidentally.	eng
23051	threats	Global assessment by A. Poyarkov and N. Ovsyanikov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Development in Kazakhstan in the mid-1850s caused a significant reduction of corsac numbers in previously undisturbed habitats. In the 20th century several catastrophic population declines were recorded. During such crashes hunting on corsac foxes in the former Soviet Union was banned. For example, hunting of corsac foxes was stopped within the entire Kazakhstan territory from 1928 to 1938. Current population status, and the nature of major threats, is unknown in most regions. The western part of the range populations are recovering and their range expanding. In Kalmikiya large desert areas are changing into grass steppes, less suitable for corsac foxes. In Middle Asia and Kazakhstan a dramatic decrease of livestock during the last decade influenced many ecosystems and wildlife populations. However, the exact influence of this process on corsac populations remains unknown.<br/><br/>Corsac pelts have been intensively traded. In general, over much of Russia during the 19th century, as many as 40,000–50,000 corsac pelts were traded in some years. For the time being, corsac pelts are not as highly appreciated as red fox pelts, and corsac foxes are usually trapped only incidentally.	eng
23052	conservation	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Not listed on CITES Appendices. Likely to occur in a number of protected areas throughout the species' range, but no reliable information available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>This is one of the least known canid species, and studies on distribution, status, basic biology and ecological requirements are needed.	eng
23052	distribution	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	The Pallid Fox is distributed in the semi-arid Sahelian region of Africa bordering the Sahara, from Mauritania and Senegal through Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad to the Red Sea. Southern limit of geographical range extends into northern Guinean savanna zones.	eng
23052	habitat	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Typically inhabiting very dry sandy and stony sub-Saharan desert and semi-desert areas, but extending to some extent southwards into moister Guinean savannas. Therefore, they have a very extensive distribution within an unstable and fluctuating ecological band lying between true desert and the Guinean savannas. May occur near human habitation and cultivated fields where food is more readily available than in natural habitats (Rosevear 1974).	eng
23052	population	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Widespread and present throughout range, but in most parts rare and seldom recorded. The Pallid Fox is one of the least known canid species.	eng
23052	threats	Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2008	Unknown, although occasional persecution by chicken raiders may take place.	eng
23053	conservation	Cuzin, F., Lenain, D.M., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Murdoch, J., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Mauritania, Niger, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is fully protected by law, and no hunting, trapping or trading is allowed. In Morocco, according to the annual hunting decree, Rüppell's foxes and red foxes may be hunted during the whole year, as they are considered as pests. In Arabia, no species-specific laws or regulations protect Rüppell's Foxes outside of protected areas. There is no information for other countries.<br/><br/>Rüppell's Foxes are held in captivity, including in the Rabat Zoo, Morocco; the Dubai Zoo, and the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Attempts to breed Rüppell's Foxes have generally not been very successful (Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990), although they have been successfully bred in the Hai Bar Breeding Centre, Eilat, Israel (E. Geffen pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>The status and ecology of North African populations remains largely unknown. Monitoring of populations in well-established protected areas throughout the species' range is encouraged. There is scope for detailed study of competition between Rüppell's and red foxes.	eng
23053	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Mauritania, Niger, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirates.<br/><br/>In Israel, the species is fully protected by law, and no hunting, trapping or trading is allowed. In Morocco, according to the annual hunting decree, Rüppell's foxes and red foxes may be hunted during the whole year, as they are considered as pests. In Arabia, no species-specific laws or regulations protect Rüppell's Foxes outside of protected areas. There is no information for other countries.<br/><br/>Rüppell's Foxes are held in captivity, including in the Rabat Zoo, Morocco; the Dubai Zoo, and the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Attempts to breed Rüppell's Foxes have generally not been very successful (Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990), although they have been successfully bred in the Hai Bar Breeding Centre, Eilat, Israel (E. Geffen pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge <br/>The status and ecology of North African populations remains largely unknown. Monitoring of populations in well-established protected areas throughout the species' range is encouraged. There is scope for detailed study of competition between Rüppell's and red foxes.	eng
23053	distribution	Cuzin, F., Lenain, D.M., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Murdoch, J., 2008	Widespread in arid regions of North Africa (north of 17ºN) from Morocco and Mauritania to Egypt and Somalia, to along the northern fringes of the Sahara Desert. Also present across the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to Pakistan (68ºE) and north-west to Israel and Jordan. A recent record for Syria is the first confirmation of their presence in this country (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). Suspected historical expansion of distribution area is likely due to desertification, compensated by competition with the red fox due to new human settlements. It seems to avoid the extreme arid regions in the middle of the Sahara, and the Arabian Empty Quarter, being more abundant on the fringes, in mountain massifs and near oases.	eng
23053	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Widespread in arid regions of North Africa (north of 17ºN) from Morocco and Mauritania to Egypt and Somalia, to along the northern fringes of the Sahara Desert. Also present across the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to Pakistan (68ºE) and north-west to Israel and Jordan. A recent record for Syria is the first confirmation of their presence in this country (Serra <em>et al.</em> in press). Suspected historical expansion of distribution area is likely due to desertification, compensated by competition with the red fox due to new human settlements. It seems to avoid the extreme arid regions in the middle of the Sahara, and the Arabian Empty Quarter, being more abundant on the fringes, in mountain massifs and near oases.	eng
23053	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Their typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, they have been found in open and stony habitats often with sparse vegetation cover, including a few herb and grass species (<em>Fagonia indica</em>, <em>Indigofera spinosa</em>, <em>Tribulus</em> spp., <em>Stipagrostis</em> spp. and <em>Panicum turgidum</em>) that receive little rainfall (~100 mm per year) (Lenain 2000). On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Rüppell's Fox may be found in similar areas with up to 150 mm annual rainfall. In Morocco (including Western Sahara), the general habitat presents sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (<em>Hammada scoparia</em>, <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Fagonia</em> spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with <em>Acacia</em> spp., <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Balanites aegyptiaca</em>, <em>Maerua crassifolia</em> and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> trees). In Niger (Dragesco-Joffé 1993) and Morocco (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.), the species avoids large sand dune areas, where the Fennec Fox is the only other reported canid species; however, in Algeria, they also occur in large ergs (De Smet 1988). In United Arab Emirates, Rüppell?s Foxes occur in a variety of desert habitats including sand sheets, sand dunes, gravel plains, and inter-dune sabkhas (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Rüppell's Fox also lives in coastal areas, with extremely sparse vegetation and without any trees. They are able to survive in areas with little available water, as in central Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd protected area) on the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter (Lindsay and Macdonald 1986; Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007), in Algeria (De Smet 1988) and in Western Sahara, where observations do not show any relationship with the distance to the nearest available water (F. Cuzin, unpubl.).	eng
23053	habitat	Cuzin, F., Lenain, D.M., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Murdoch, J., 2008	Their typical habitat includes sand and stone deserts. In Saudi Arabia, they have been found in open and stony habitats often with sparse vegetation cover, including a few herb and grass species (<em>Fagonia indica</em>, <em>Indigofera spinosa</em>, <em>Tribulus</em> spp., <em>Stipagrostis</em> spp. and <em>Panicum turgidum</em>) that receive little rainfall (~100 mm per year) (Lenain 2000). On the northern fringe of the Sahara, Rüppell's Fox may be found in similar areas with up to 150 mm annual rainfall. In Morocco (including Western Sahara), the general habitat presents sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small brushes (<em>Hammada scoparia</em>, <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Fagonia</em> spp.) mostly concentrated in wadis (with <em>Acacia</em> spp., <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Balanites aegyptiaca</em>, <em>Maerua crassifolia</em> and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> trees). In Niger (Dragesco-Joffé 1993) and Morocco (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.), the species avoids large sand dune areas, where the Fennec Fox is the only other reported canid species; however, in Algeria, they also occur in large ergs (De Smet 1988). In United Arab Emirates, Rüppell’s Foxes occur in a variety of desert habitats including sand sheets, sand dunes, gravel plains, and inter-dune sabkhas (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The Rüppell's Fox also lives in coastal areas, with extremely sparse vegetation and without any trees. They are able to survive in areas with little available water, as in central Saudi Arabia (Mahazat as-Sayd protected area) on the fringes of the Arabian Empty Quarter (Lindsay and Macdonald 1986; Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007), in Algeria (De Smet 1988) and in Western Sahara, where observations do not show any relationship with the distance to the nearest available water (F. Cuzin, unpubl.).	eng
23053	population	Cuzin, F., Lenain, D.M., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Murdoch, J., 2008	Densities of Rüppell's Fox are usually low, but seem higher in areas where food is more freely available for example, near human settlements (Valverde 1957, K. De Smet, pers. obs.). In a large, fenced, protected area of 2,244 km² in Saudi Arabia, densities of 0.68/km² were recorded (Lenain 2000). Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. In the reserve, the population is stable, but there is a need to document long-term population dynamics (Lenain 2000).	eng
23053	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Densities of Rüppell's Fox are usually low, but seem higher in areas where food is more freely available for example, near human settlements (Valverde 1957, K. De Smet, pers. obs.). In a large, fenced, protected area of 2,244 km² in Saudi Arabia, densities of 0.68/km² were recorded (Lenain 2000). Lower population estimates outside the fenced reserve indicate that the species may be vulnerable in the over-grazed, human-influenced landscape of central Arabia. In the reserve, the population is stable, but there is a need to document long-term population dynamics (Lenain 2000).	eng
23053	threats	Cuzin, F., Lenain, D.M., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Murdoch, J., 2008	Threats include direct and indirect persecution by hunting and indiscriminate use of poisons. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes that are expanding their range following human settlements in the Negev Desert (Yom-Tov and Mendelssohn 1988), and competition with Red Fox is believed to be a problem elsewhere in the range. Rarely hunted for food or for sale of furs. However, in some regions, foxes face persecution for their perceived impact on game species like Houbara Bustard (<em>Chlamydotis undulata</em>) and livestock (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
23053	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Threats include direct and indirect persecution by hunting and indiscriminate use of poisons. In Israel, the species is on the verge of extinction due to competitive exclusion by Red Foxes that are expanding their range following human settlements in the Negev Desert (Yom-Tov and Mendelssohn 1988), and competition with Red Fox is believed to be a problem elsewhere in the range. Rarely hunted for food or for sale of furs. However, in some regions, foxes face persecution for their perceived impact on game species like Houbara Bustard (<em>Chlamydotis undulata</em>) and livestock (Murdoch <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
23059	conservation	Moehrenschlager, A., Sovada, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group - North America Regional Section, 2008	Not listed on CITES Appendices. The Swift Fox has been down-listed from 'extirpated' to 'endangered' in Canada as a result of the Swift Fox reintroduction programme. In the United States, the Swift Fox was petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act. In 2001 the US Fish and Wildlife Service determined listing to be unwarranted.<br/><br/>In Canada, Swift Foxes are found mainly on unprotected lands, but approximately one-sixth of the population falls within the boundaries of Grasslands National Park. In the United States, there are 24 National Park Service Units (Parks, Monuments, Historic Sites) located in the historic range of Swift Foxes; however, there are no records of Swift Foxes in any of these units, yet 14 have potential for Swift Fox presence. One unit, Badlands National Park in South Dakota, is tentatively planning a reintroduction of Swift Foxes in 2003.<br/><br/>In Canada, the National Swift Fox Recovery Team is currently revising its national Swift Fox recovery strategy, which will be implemented through national and provincial action plans as of 2003. The Canadian federal government has just passed the country's first 'Species at Risk Act', which will provide greater legal protection of Swift Foxes and promote landowner stewardship programmes facilitating local conservation efforts. In the United States, the Swift Fox Conservation Team operates under a Swift Fox Conservation Strategy Plan with identified goals up to the year 2005. The team continues to monitor populations, assess critical habitat conditions, review the potential for reintroductions, and provide research support for ongoing projects.<br/><br/>In Canada, Swift Foxes are present in the Calgary Zoo, Cochrane Ecological Institute, Kamloops Wildlife Park, and Saskatoon Zoo. In the United States, Swift Foxes are represented in the Bismarck Zoo, Bramble Park Zoo, Houston Zoo, Lee Richardson Zoo, Living Desert, Minnesota Zoo, Philadelphia Zoo, Pueblo Zoo, Sunset Zoo, Tulsa Zoo, and Wild Canid Center. The Fort Worth Zoo has put forward a petition to manage a swift fox Species Survival Plan on behalf of the American Zoo Association. On behalf of the Canid Taxon Advisory Group, the St. Louis Zoo is currently devising recommendations for Swift Fox space allocations in the North American programme. <br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>In Canada and the United States assessments of historical distribution and the identification of critical Swift Fox habitats for legal protection are hampered by the fact that Swift Fox habitat use is not well understood. Future studies should assess to what degree swift foxes can utilize differing types of habitats, including habitats considered atypical, such as those dominated by cropland. Information is needed to identify why Swift Foxes are unable to move into areas of apparently suitable habitat. Identification of barriers, both physical and ecological (e.g., competitive exclusion with other canids), to dispersal would improve the ability to manage and ultimately conserve this species. Future investigations should focus on parameters that might affect the range-wide, long-term viability of the populations. <br/><br/>The primary stochastic factor influencing small canid populations around the world is disease (Woodroffe <em>et al.</em> 1997; Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1998; Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1999), and such risks are enhanced when animals are transferred between populations (Woodford and Rossiter 1994). Although the Canadian population was partly established through translocation, Swift Fox exposure to canid diseases has not been assessed in Canada. The prevalence of disease exposure in different age classes and regions should be assessed in both countries and the likelihood of disease transfer between Swift Foxes and sympatric Coyotes, Red Foxes, and domestic dogs should be evaluated. In addition, genetic analyses should be conducted to examine bottlenecks, genetic variability, connectivity, and dispersal distances in Canada and within isolated population fragments of the United States. Finally, data on Swift Fox demography, disease prevalence, genetics, habitat use, and population trends should be incorporated into Population Viability Models to guide conservation planning on a provincial/state or federal basis.	eng
23059	distribution	Moehrenschlager, A., Sovada, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group - North America Regional Section, 2008	The Swift Fox is native to short-grass and mixed-grass prairies of the Great Plains in North America (Egoscue 1979). On the northern limit of its range, the Swift Foxes was present in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The southern species boundary was New Mexico and Texas in the United States. Historical records also exist for areas in Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma. Some historical range descriptions include Swift foxes in Minnesota and Iowa; however, there are no verified records of occurrence in either state (Sovada and Scheick 1999). Iowa has one fossil record and several unconfirmed accounts. Minnesota has no records and no account of any merit.	eng
23059	habitat	Moehrenschlager, A., Sovada, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group - North America Regional Section, 2008	The Swift Fox is predominately found on short-grass and mixed-grass prairies in gently rolling or level terrain (Kilgore 1969; Hillman and Sharps 1978; Hines 1980). In Kansas, Swift Foxes have been found to den and forage in fallow cropland fields such as wheat (Jackson and Choate 2000; Sovada <em>et al.</em> 2003). Survival rates (and reproductive rates although sample sizes were small; Sovada <em>et al</em>. 2003) between foxes in grassland and cropland sites were not significantly different suggesting that Swift Foxes may be able to adapt to such habitat in some cases (Sovada <em>et al</em>. 1998). Notably, the distribution and density of dens, are considered important components of Swift Fox habitat requirements (Herrero <em>et al</em>. 1991), particularly in terms of evading coyote predation or Red Fox competition (Tannerfeldt <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
23059	population	Moehrenschlager, A., Sovada, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group - North America Regional Section, 2008	Following Swift Fox extirpation from Canada by 1938 (Soper 1964), reintroduction releases since 1983 have established a small Swift Fox population in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana which now constitutes the northern extent of the species' range (Moehrenschlager and Moehrenschlager 2001). The southern periphery of the range is still central New Mexico and north-western Texas, and, in terms of historic distribution, Swift Foxes are currently not found in Manitoba or North Dakota. Current estimates for the United States suggest that Swift Foxes are located in 39–42% of their historic range depending on conservative versus liberal estimates of historic range and the time span of records that are considered (Sovada and Scheick 1999). As such, the conservative estimate, based on the relative presence or absence of swift foxes in counties throughout individual states, is that Swift Foxes are distributed across 505,149 km² while the liberal estimate is 607,767 km² (Sovada and Scheick 1999). But in much of the distribution populations are fragmented.<br/><br/>Historically, the Swift Fox was considered an abundant predator of the prairies, but numbers were severely depleted by the late 1880s and early 1900s. In Canada, the last recorded specimen was collected in 1928 (Carbyn 1998) and a single sighting was made in 1938 (Soper 1964). Zumbaugh and Choate (1985) provided evidence that, in Kansas, Swift Foxes were extremely abundant in the mid-1800s, but became less abundant by the turn of the 20th century. The species was probably extirpated from Kansas by the 1940s (Black 1937; Cockrum 1952; Hall 1955; Sovada and Scheick 1999). There are similar reports of population declines from other states (see Sovada and Scheick 1999).<br/><br/>Swift Fox populations began to recover over portions of their former range beginning in the 1950s (Martin and Sternberg 1955; Glass 1956; Anderson and Nelson 1958; Andersen and Fleharty 1964; Kilgore 1969; Sharps 1977; Egoscue 1979; Hines 1980). In the core of their distribution, in Kansas, Colorado and the Oklahoma panhandle, and New Mexico, populations are considered stable whereas populations in Texas and Wyoming are fragmented and more vulnerable to decline. Swift Foxes are rare in Nebraska, South Dakota, and Montana, and extirpated from North Dakota (Allardyce and Sovada 2003). <br/><br/>Following approximately 50 years of extirpation, a Swift Fox reintroduction programme was initiated in Canada in 1983. By 1997, 942 foxes had been released, primarily utilizing captive breeding but also through the use of translocations (Moehrenschlager and Macdonald 2003). Using live trapping, a 1996/1997 census estimated the Canadian population to consist of 289 individuals in two isolated subpopulations. A second census that re-sampled these sites during the same season in 2000/2001 also expanded the survey area into Montana (Moehrenschlager and Moehrenschlager 2001, Moehrenschlager <em>et al.</em> 2004). The results showed that Swift Fox population size in Canada had increased three-fold since 1996/1997, the total known distribution including Montana spanned at least 17,500 km², the combined population size was approximately 877 individuals, and that 98.6% of the population is now wild-born. This population is considerably isolated from the contiguous Swift Fox range in the United States and needs to be considered separately in terms of population viability.<br/><br/>In the United States, Swift Fox populations are believed to be stable in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Kansas. The population in Wyoming is relatively stable but fragmented. Less is known about the population in Nebraska, but there appear to be four disjunct populations of unknown status. In South Dakota, populations are small and fragmented; some are considered stable. Swift Foxes are extinct in North Dakota. Reintroductions of Swift Foxes are being implemented at two sites in South Dakota. The Turner Endangered Species Fund began reintroducing foxes in 2002 in the Bad River Ranch south-west of Pierre. There are also plans for a reintroduction to The Badlands National Park in 2003. The Defenders of Wildlife are currently supporting (1998–present) a reintroduction in northern Montana's Blackfeet Reservation.	eng
23059	threats	Moehrenschlager, A., Sovada, M. & Members of the IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group - North America Regional Section, 2008	Since Swift Foxes are primarily prairie specialists, ongoing conversion of grassland to cropland threatens to reduce population sizes and further fragment populations. The conversion of native grassland prairies has been implicated as one of the most important factors for the contraction of the swift fox range (Hillman and Sharps 1978). We believe that alteration of the landscape likely influences local and seasonal prey availability, increases risk of predation on Swift Foxes, and leads to interspecific competition with other predators such as the Coyote and Red Fox. Moreover, an increasing trend towards irrigation of crops from the dry-land farming practices of fallow cropland every other year could exclude Swift Foxes that have adapted to den and forage successfully under the dryland farming rotational practices. The planting of tall, dense vegetation as a part of the United States Conservation Reserve Program, may also negatively impact swift foxes because they avoid these densely vegetated habitats. In Canada, the oil and gas industry is expanding dramatically and previously isolated prairie areas are now targeted for exploration. Associated road developments will potentially decrease the habitat carrying capacity and increase vehicle-caused Swift Fox mortalities. Greater urbanization coupled with coyote control may facilitate Red Fox expansion, which could lead to the competitive exclusion of Swift Foxes in established prairie areas. In the United States, the 1972 presidential ban on predator toxicant use (e.g., strychnine, compound 1080) on Federal lands may have contributed to Swift Fox recovery, but 1080 is currently being legalized in prairie areas of Saskatchewan, Canada, which will likely limit reintroduced populations. Moreover, landowners that are attempting to protect their livestock from Coyote depredation use poisons illegally and swift foxes readily consume such baits (Moehrenschlager 2000).	eng
23060	conservation	Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 2008	Not listed in the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Occurs in protected areas in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. The Cape Fox occurs in many provincial and private nature reserves, as well as on game ranches in all South African provinces, although the species has a much more restricted range in Limpopo Province and KwaZulu-Natal (Stuart 1981; Rautenbach 1982; Lynch 1975; Rowe-Rowe 1992). In Swaziland, the species may occur in Nhlangano Nature Reserve in the south-west and pups have been successfully reared in Milwane Game Reserve (Monadjem 1998).<br/><br/>Although treated as a problem animal across most of its range, it is partially protected in several South African provinces, as it does not appear on the official lists of problem species. However, no permit is required from any authority to kill this fox in problem animal control operations. No protection measures are currently enforced and at the present time, this is not necessary.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>Although the Cape Fox has been extensively studied in South Africa's Free State province (Lynch 1975; Bester 1982; Kok 1996), there is little information for elsewhere within its range. Aspects such as diet and reproduction are quite well known but little information is available on aspects of social ecology and behaviour in the wild. Some investigation into the role, if any, this species plays in disease transmission is necessary.	eng
23060	distribution	Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 2008	The species is widespread in the central and western regions of southern Africa, reaching to about 15°N in south-western Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1989). It occupies mainly arid and semi-arid areas, but in parts, such as the fynbos biome of South Africa's western Cape Province, the species enters areas receiving higher precipitation and denser vegetation. The species has expanded its range over recent decades to the south-west where it reaches the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coastlines (Stuart 1981). Expansion through South Africa's eastern Cape Province has been documented (Coetzee 1979). Status in Swaziland is uncertain, but they may occur in the south-west (Monadjem 1998), as the species occurs in adjacent regions of north-western KwaZulu-Natal (Rowe-Rowe 1992); possible occurrence in Lesotho (Lynch 1994). Previous records of its occurrence in western Zimbabwe (Roberts 1951; Coetzee 1977) and Mozambique (Travassos Dias 1968) have not been substantiated, and it is considered unlikely that these records are valid.	eng
23060	habitat	Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 2008	They mainly associate with open country, including grassland, grassland with scattered thickets, and lightly wooded areas, particularly in the dry Karoo regions, the Kalahari and the fringes of the Namib Desert. They also penetrate moderately dense vegetation in lowland fynbos in the western Cape, as well as extensive agricultural lands where they lie up in surviving pockets of natural vegetation during the day and forage on arable and cultivated fields at night (Stuart 1981). Along the eastern flank of the Namib Desert, Namibia, they occupy rock outcroppings and inselbergs, ranging out onto bare gravel plains at night (Stuart 1975). In Botswana, they have been recorded from Acacia-scrubland, short grassland and especially on the fringes of shallow seasonal pans, as well as cleared and overgrazed areas (Smithers 1971; Skinner and Smithers 1990). In the central Karoo of South Africa, they occupy the plains as well as the low rocky ridges and isolated rock outcroppings. In the Free State, Lynch (1975) found that they were most abundant in areas receiving less than 500 mm of rainfall, although in KwaZulu-Natal they have been recorded between 1,000 and 1,500 m above sea level, where rainfall is roughly 720–760 mm (Rowe-Rowe 1992).	eng
23060	population	Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 2008	Generally common to fairly abundant across much of its range, although problem animal control activities have resulted in population reductions in some areas. Estimates are only available for South Africa's Free State province where an average density of 0.3 foxes per km² was estimated with a total population of 31,000 individuals (Bester 1982). Annual offtake resulting from problem animal control programmes averaged roughly 16% up to 1985, with no obvious declines in overall populations (Bester 1982). Range and numbers have increased in the south-west and east of South Africa (Coetzee 1979; Stuart 1981). Estimated population sizes or numbers are not available, but it is thought that populations are currently stable across their entire range.	eng
23060	threats	Stuart, C. & Stuart, T., 2008	Habitat loss/changes are not a major factor influencing the conservation status of the Cape Fox. In fact, in western Cape Province and elsewhere, changing agricultural practices have resulted in range extensions for this species, as well as for the bat-eared fox (Stuart 1981). Expansion of semi-arid karroid vegetation during the process of desertification, especially eastwards, has also resulted in range extensions of this canid. Heavy direct and indirect problem animal control measures do not seem to have had a major impact on populations of the Cape Fox, even though they have resulted in declines in some areas. The illegal but widespread and indiscriminate use of agricultural poisons on commercial farms poses the greatest threat (C. Stuart and T. Stuart, pers. obs.). The trade in Cape Fox pelts is negligible and this situation is unlikely to change.	eng
23061	conservation	Schaller, G.B., Ginsberg, J.R. & Harris, R., 2008	Not listed in CITES Appendices. The species is legally protected in several large Chinese reserves, including Arjin Shan (45,000 km²), Xianza (40,000 km²), Chang Tang (ca. 334,000 km²), Kekexili (ca. 45,000 km²), and Sanjiangyuan (ca. 152,000 km²). However, actual protection remains minimal. Likely to occur in other protected areas throughout the species' range, but no reliable information available. The species lacks special protection outside reserves.<br/><br/>Gaps of knowledge<br/>All aspects of the fox's natural history needs to be studied.	eng
23061	distribution	Schaller, G.B., Ginsberg, J.R. & Harris, R., 2008	Widespread in the steppes and semi-deserts of the Tibetan Plateau from the Ladakh area of India, east across China including parts of the Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Sichuan provinces and all of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and into Yunnan (Gong and Hu 2003; Wang 2003). Also present in Nepal north of the Himalaya, known specifically from the Mustang area. There are no confirmed records for Bhutan.	eng
23061	habitat	Schaller, G.B., Ginsberg, J.R. & Harris, R., 2008	The species is found in upland plains and hills from about 2,500–5,200 m (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2008). Most of its habitat consists of sparse grasslands devoid of trees and shrubs (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007; although see also Gong and Hu 2003), particularly where black-lipped pikas are abundant. Although definitive studies have yet to be conducted, it appears that Tibetan Foxes are closely tied to the presence of pikas, and may in fact be an obligate predator. Tibetan Foxes appear particularly adept at capturing pikas (including, at times, following brown bears <em>Ursus arctos</em> excavating pika burrows in order to capture pikas that escape; Harris <em>et al</em>. 2008), and are rarely encountered where pikas are absent. They also feed on carrion, and other small mammals (Zheng 1985).<br/><br/>Tibetan Foxes spend considerable time resting in small burrows or hollows (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2003). They are most active at dawn and dusk, although can be seen at any time of the day.	eng
23061	population	Schaller, G.B., Ginsberg, J.R. & Harris, R., 2008	Fox abundance depends partly on prey availability and partly on human hunting pressure. In northwest Tibet, in a remote region of desert steppe with little prey, only five foxes were seen in 1,848 km of driving. In south-west Qinghai in a benign environment with much prey, 15 foxes were tallied in 367 km (Schaller 1998). In Serxu county, north-west Sichuan Province, an area with abundant with black lipped pika (<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em>), eight Tibetan Foxes were sighted along 11 km country road during a night count in 2001 (Anonymous 2000), and 27 sightings (at least 12 individuals) were recorded along line transects in the same area in August 2003 (Wang Xiaoming and Wang Zhenghuan, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>However, more recent studies with marked animals (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007) have suggested that Tibetan Foxes can achieve relatively high densities where preferred prey is abundant and human hunting pressure low. Densities of 2-4/km² may occur (R.B. Harris pers. comm., 2008). A very coarse and unreliable estimation of population density of Tibetan Foxes in the Tibetan Autonomous Region was provided by Piao (1989), which extrapolated to an estimate of 37,000.	eng
23061	threats	Schaller, G.B., Ginsberg, J.R. & Harris, R., 2008	The species is not believed to be under serious threat. Hunting and snaring occurs, but is not common because the coarse pelts of Tibetan Foxes are of minor value. Domestic dogs can kill Tibetan Foxes, and may be a major source of mortality in some areas (Wang <em>et al.</em> 2007). More insidious threats are ongoing government-sponsored programmes of poisoning pikas in much of the Tibetan plateau. Secondary poisoning of Tibetan Foxes may occur, although does not appear to be common. However, reductions or complete elimination of their major prey would certainly be damaging to Tibetan Fox populations. If such pika reduction programmes continue or increase, the status of the Tibetan Fox would require reassessment.	eng
23062	conservation	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It is present in most protected areas in temperate and subarctic regions, with the exception of some inaccessible islands. It is widely regarded as a pest and is not protected, although most range states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards that was signed in 1997 (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). Controlling red foxes may be necessary where rare species, or threatened populations, are at risk from red fox predation (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004). For example, nest predation by foxes has completely prevented recruitment to an internationally important sandwich tern colony in a number of consecutive years (Musgrave 1993).	eng
23062	conservation	Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C., 2008	Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. <em>V. v. necator</em> in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies <em>griffithi</em>, <em>montana</em> and <em>pusilla</em> (=<em>leucopus</em>) are listed as CITES – Appendix III (India).<br/><br/>Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards between these countries, which was signed in 1997. Other countries are signatories to ISO/DIS 10990-5.2 animal (mammal) traps, which specifies standards for trap testing.<br/><br/>  Foxes are highly persecuted and heavily hunted in Afghanistan, however, it is an adaptable species that produces large litters. Therefore the Government of Afghanistan has listed <span style="font-style: italic;">V. vulpes</span> as a harvestable species (with regular monitoring of populations to ensure hunting does not qualify the fox for a protected status in the future). <br/><br/>In Europe and North America, hunting traditions and/or legislation impose closed seasons on fox hunting. In the UK and a few other European countries, derogation from these provisions allows breeding season culling for pest-control purposes. Here, traditional hunting ethics encouraging restrained "use" may be at odds with harder hitting pest-control ambitions. This apparent conflict between different interest groups is particularly evident in the UK, where fox control patterns are highly regionally variable (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some regions, principal lowland areas where classical mounted hunting operates, limited economic analyses suggest that the principal motive for these communal fox hunts is as a sport – the number killed is small compared with the cost of the hunting. In these regions, most anthropogenic mortality is by individual farmers shooting foxes. The mounted communal hunts do exhibit restraint – hunting takes place for a limited season, and for a prescribed number of days per week. Elsewhere, in upland regions, communal hunting by foot with guns and dogs may make economic sense, depending on the number of lambs lost to foxes (data on this is poor), and also on the current value of lost lambs. This type of fox hunting may also be perceived as a sport by its participants. <br/><br/>An individual deciding whether or not to control foxes, and by what means, has a complex set of factors to consider, including other interest groups, practicality and economics. For some farmers, there is evidence that a decision to control foxes may be economically perverse. Macdonald <em>et al</em>. (2003) modelled the interactions between foxes, rabbits, and rabbit-induced crop damage. For some farmers at least, a decision to kill a fox may, in some circumstances, cost that farmer a significant amount of crop loss to the rabbits that the fox and its descendants would have killed.<br/><br/>In addition to fur farms, Red Foxes are widely kept in small wildlife parks and zoos, but there appears to be no systematic data on their breeding success. Being extremely shy they are often poor exhibits.	eng
23062	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. <em>V. v. necator</em> in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies <em>griffithi</em>, <em>montana</em> and <em>pusilla</em> (=<em>leucopus</em>) are listed as CITES ? Appendix III (India).<br/><br/>Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards between these countries, which was signed in 1997. Other countries are signatories to ISO/DIS 10990-5.2 animal (mammal) traps, which specifies standards for trap testing.<br/><br/>In Europe and North America, hunting traditions and/or legislation impose closed seasons on fox hunting. In the UK and a few other European countries, derogation from these provisions allows breeding season culling for pest-control purposes. Here, traditional hunting ethics encouraging restrained "use" may be at odds with harder hitting pest-control ambitions. This apparent conflict between different interest groups is particularly evident in the UK, where fox control patterns are highly regionally variable (Macdonald <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some regions, principal lowland areas where classical mounted hunting operates, limited economic analyses suggest that the principal motive for these communal fox hunts is as a sport ? the number killed is small compared with the cost of the hunting. In these regions, most anthropogenic mortality is by individual farmers shooting foxes. The mounted communal hunts do exhibit restraint ? hunting takes place for a limited season, and for a prescribed number of days per week. Elsewhere, in upland regions, communal hunting by foot with guns and dogs may make economic sense, depending on the number of lambs lost to foxes (data on this is poor), and also on the current value of lost lambs. This type of fox hunting may also be perceived as a sport by its participants. <br/><br/>An individual deciding whether or not to control foxes, and by what means, has a complex set of factors to consider, including other interest groups, practicality and economics. For some farmers, there is evidence that a decision to control foxes may be economically perverse. Macdonald <em>et al</em>. (2003) modelled the interactions between foxes, rabbits, and rabbit-induced crop damage. For some farmers at least, a decision to kill a fox may, in some circumstances, cost that farmer a significant amount of crop loss to the rabbits that the fox and its descendants would have killed.<br/><br/>In addition to fur farms, Red Foxes are widely kept in small wildlife parks and zoos, but there appears to be no systematic data on their breeding success. Being extremely shy they are often poor exhibits.	eng
23062	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the Asiatic steppes, the Red Fox has the widest geographical range of any member of the order Carnivora (covering nearly 70 million km²). Not found in Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, or in extreme deserts. European subspecies introduced into eastern United States and Canada in 17th century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. The species was also introduced to Australia in 1800s. Elsewhere introduced to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and to the Isle of Man (UK), although it may subsequently have disappeared there.	eng
23062	distribution	Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C., 2008	Distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the Asiatic steppes, the Red Fox has the widest geographical range of any member of the order Carnivora (covering nearly 70 million km²). Not found in Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, or in extreme deserts. European subspecies introduced into eastern United States and Canada in 17th century, subsequently mixed with local subspecies. The species was also introduced to Australia in 1800s. Elsewhere introduced to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and to the Isle of Man (UK), although it may subsequently have disappeared there.	eng
23062	distribution	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	The red fox has an extremely large range. It is distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the Asiatic steppes. It is absent from Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, and it avoids desert areas.  It occurs throughout the whole of Europe, with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, Crete, and some of the smaller Mediterranean and North Sea islands (Hall 1981, Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990, Abe 1994, Stubbe 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999, Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). European subspecies were introduced to the eastern states of the US (e.g. Virginia) in the 17th Century, mixed with local subspecies, and then moved southwards with forest clearance. The species was also introduced to Australia in 1800s. Elsewhere introduced to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and to the Isle of Man (UK), although it may subsequently have disappeared there (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m (Stubbe 1999).	eng
23062	habitat	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	In Europe it is found in a very wide variety of habitats including all types of forest and open landscapes. It is well adapted to many anthropogenic habitats including farmland and suburban and urban areas (Larivière and Pasitschniak-Arts 1996, Stubbe 1999). Red foxes are adaptable and opportunistic omnivores, with a diet ranging from invertebrates (e.g. earthworms and beetles) to mammals and birds (including game birds), and fruit. They also scavenge in rural areas (e.g. in Europe and Canada on deer and sheep carcasses which may be the major food source in upland areas in<br/>winter), and in urban areas (on bird tables, compost heaps and refuse) (Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
23062	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Red Foxes have been recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert and forest, as well as in city centres (including London, Paris, Stockholm, etc.). Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with abundant "edge" of scrub and woodland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains (even above the treeline, known to cross alpine passes), deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4,500 m. In the UK, they generally prefer mosaic patchworks of scrub, woodland and farmland. Red foxes flourish particularly well in urban areas. They are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low-density housing and are less common where industry, commerce or council rented housing predominates (Harris and Smith 1987). In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with man, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas.	eng
23062	habitat	Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C., 2008	Red Foxes have been recorded in habitats as diverse as tundra, desert and forest, as well as in city centres (including London, Paris, Stockholm, etc.). Natural habitat is dry, mixed landscape, with abundant "edge" of scrub and woodland. They are also abundant on moorlands, mountains (even above the treeline, known to cross alpine passes), deserts, sand dunes and farmland from sea level to 4,500 m. In the UK, they generally prefer mosaic patchworks of scrub, woodland and farmland. Red foxes flourish particularly well in urban areas. They are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low-density housing and are less common where industry, commerce or council rented housing predominates (Harris and Smith 1987). In many habitats, foxes appear to be closely associated with man, even thriving in intensive agricultural areas.	eng
23062	population	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It is the most widespread and abundant wild carnivore in the world (Larivière and Pasitschniak-Arts 1996) and there are stable populations throughout Europe. In central Europe, populations are increasing owing to the oral immunisation of foxes against rabies (Stubbe 1999). In Germany 500,000 are killed every year by hunting (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). In the UK the population was recently estimated to number approximately a quarter of a million animals (Battersby 2005).	eng
23062	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Red Fox density is highly variable. In the UK, density varies between one fox per 40 km² in Scotland and 1.17/km² in Wales, but can be as high as 30 foxes per km² in some urban areas where food is superabundant (Harris 1977; Macdonald and Newdick 1982; Harris and Rayner 1986). Social group density is one family per km² in farmland, but may vary between 0.2-5 families per km² in the suburbs and as few as a single family per 10 km² in barren uplands (Macdonald 1981; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986). Fox density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerland is three foxes per km² (Meia 1994). In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, they occur at densities of 0.1/km², and in southern Ontario, Canada at 1/km² (Voigt 1987). The average social group density in the Swiss mountains is 0.37 family per km² (Weber <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The pre-breeding British fox population totals an estimated 240,000 (Harris <em>et al.</em> 1995). Mean number of foxes killed per unit area by gamekeepers has increased steadily since the early 1960s in 10/10 regional subdivisions of Britain, but it is not clear to what extent this reflects an increase in fox abundance. Although an increase in fox numbers following successful rabies control by vaccination was widely reported in Europe (e.g., fox bag in Germany has risen from 250,000 in 1982?1983 to 600,000 in 2000?2001), no direct measures of population density have been taken.	eng
23062	population	Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C., 2008	Red Fox density is highly variable. In the UK, density varies between one fox per 40 km² in Scotland and 1.17/km² in Wales, but can be as high as 30 foxes per km² in some urban areas where food is superabundant (Harris 1977; Macdonald and Newdick 1982; Harris and Rayner 1986). Social group density is one family per km² in farmland, but may vary between 0.2-5 families per km² in the suburbs and as few as a single family per 10 km² in barren uplands (Macdonald 1981; Lindsay and Macdonald 1986). Fox density in mountainous rural areas of Switzerland is three foxes per km² (Meia 1994). In northern boreal forests and Arctic tundra, they occur at densities of 0.1/km², and in southern Ontario, Canada at 1/km² (Voigt 1987). The average social group density in the Swiss mountains is 0.37 family per km² (Weber <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The pre-breeding British fox population totals an estimated 240,000 (Harris <em>et al.</em> 1995). Mean number of foxes killed per unit area by gamekeepers has increased steadily since the early 1960s in 10/10 regional subdivisions of Britain, but it is not clear to what extent this reflects an increase in fox abundance. Although an increase in fox numbers following successful rabies control by vaccination was widely reported in Europe (e.g., fox bag in Germany has risen from 250,000 in 1982–1983 to 600,000 in 2000–2001), no direct measures of population density have been taken.	eng
23062	threats	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It is hunted for sport, and is persecuted as a pest (Stubbe 1999). However, this is not a threat to the survival of the species.	eng
23062	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The main threats include habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation, and exploitation, and direct and indirect persecution. However, the Red Fox's versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure their persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. Culling may be able to reduce numbers well below carrying capacity in large regions (Heydon and Reynolds 2000), but no known situations exist where this currently threatens species persistence on any geographical scale. There are currently bounties on subspecies <em>V. v. pusilla</em> (desert foxes) in Pakistan to protect game birds such as Houbara bustards (<em>Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii</em>), with a high hunting value.<br/><br/>The number of foxes raised for fur (although much reduced since the 1900s) exceeds that of any other species, except possibly mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>) (Obbard 1987). Types farmed are particularly colour variants ("white", "silver" and "cross") that are rare in the wild. <br/><br/>Worldwide trade in ranched red fox pelts (mainly "silver" pelts from Finland) was 700,000 in 1988?1989 (excluding internal consumption in the USSR). Active fur trade in Britain in 1970s was negligible.	eng
23062	threats	Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C., 2008	The main threats include habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation, and exploitation, and direct and indirect persecution. However, the Red Fox's versatility and eclectic diet are likely to ensure their persistence despite changes in landscape and prey base. Culling may be able to reduce numbers well below carrying capacity in large regions (Heydon and Reynolds 2000), but no known situations exist where this currently threatens species persistence on any geographical scale. There are currently bounties on subspecies <em>V. v. pusilla</em> (desert foxes) in Pakistan to protect game birds such as Houbara bustards (<em>Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii</em>), with a high hunting value.<br/><br/>The number of foxes raised for fur (although much reduced since the 1900s) exceeds that of any other species, except possibly mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>) (Obbard 1987). Types farmed are particularly colour variants ("white", "silver" and "cross") that are rare in the wild. <br/><br/>Worldwide trade in ranched red fox pelts (mainly "silver" pelts from Finland) was 700,000 in 1988–1989 (excluding internal consumption in the USSR). Active fur trade in Britain in 1970s was negligible.	eng
23065	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Known only from Lake Poso, Sulawesi.	eng
23076	conservation	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
23076	distribution	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Brazil, from Ceará to Rio Grande do Sul (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
23076	habitat	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species inhabits dry deciduous and scrub forest of caatinga and cerrado vegetation, it is an able climber and constructs nests in trees. It feeds on grains and sometimes insects. In captivity females mature at 83 days and give birth on average every forty days with a mean litter size of 3.8 (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
23076	population	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
23076	threats	Marinhio-Filho, J. & Langguth, A., 2008	Habitat destruction occurs within the range, though it is currently not a major threat to this species.	eng
23077	conservation	Vieira, E. & Christoff, A, 2008	It is found in some protected areas. Further efforts are need on the taxonomy and range of this species.	eng
23077	distribution	Vieira, E. & Christoff, A, 2008	This species occurs from south Brazil to north and central Uruguay (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
23077	habitat	Vieira, E. & Christoff, A, 2008	In Uruguay the species is restricted to patches of subtropical woodland with dense vegetation; they have also been caught in trees at night. This species is a lowland forest species, particularly susceptible to deforestation (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
23077	population	Vieira, E. & Christoff, A, 2008	This species is rare in Rio Grande do Sul, known from very few specimens; no records in Brazil for last 40 years (Vieira pers. comm.)	eng
23077	threats	Vieira, E. & Christoff, A, 2008	The major threats are deforestation across the entire distributional range, which is currently highly fragmented. Timber extraction for the tobacco industry and replanting with exotic species monocultures (acacia, eucalyptus, pine).	eng
23078	conservation	Geise, L. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, at least four national parks, one of them is Parque do Caraca in Minas Gerais (Jansa and Weksler, 2004).	eng
23078	distribution	Geise, L. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern coast of Brazil, including São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and Parana states; and Misiones province, in Argentina (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Jansa and Weksler, 2004, Leite pers. comm.).	eng
23078	habitat	Geise, L. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This is an arboreal rat; it inhabits forest and can be found from sea level to 2,000 m elevation (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
23078	population	Geise, L. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is not common (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
23078	threats	Geise, L. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction and effects of fragmentation.	eng
23079	conservation	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	At least three good occurences and some small ones are on public lands, but actual degree of protection probably inadequate. In Rhode Island and Massachusetts wetlands regulations do not allow enough buffer for this species; many sites are state owned but are not effectively protected; some private sites also need protection. Connecticut and Rhode Island populations may be good candidates for protection/acquisition. New Hampshire state wetland regulations are not adequate to protect water quality. More regulatory protection is required at state level.	eng
23079	distribution	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from 54 counties in eight states. There are at least 20 occurrences in Rhode Island (Carpenter pers. comm. 2000); two to three sites in Connecticut (L. Ruth pers. comm. 2001); and based on 1999 surveys there are predicted to be 30 to 50 occurrences in Wisconsin alone (Vogt pers. comm. 2000). Ward and de Maynadier (2005) list eight populations in 13 sites in Maine. Vogt (1999) recommends continued inventory the Glacial Lake Wisconsin region, as well as other areas with suitable habitat in Wisconsin. An inventory is needed in eastern Connecticut and Bristol County Massachusetts. There are several unsurveyed sites in southeastern New Hampshire as well as Atlantic white cedar swamps. In New York the Hudson Highlands and Albany pine bush should be searched (these are close to recent New Jersey record). Further early-season searches are also required.	eng
23079	habitat	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	<em>Sphagnum</em> pools free of fish; acidic fens, often with wiry or three-way sedges (<em>Dulicium</em>), not overgrown with bushes, but near Atlantic white cedar, black spruce, larch or other forests (Dunkle 2000).	eng
23079	population	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Less than 1,000 (NatureServe 2006).	eng
23079	threats	Abbott, J.C. & Donnelly, N., 2007	Destruction of forested upland and filling of sites a great threat, as well as ditching and mossing. Pesticides, water level manipulations, pollution, and collection are apparent threats. Several sites sprayed with Malathion in August 1990, which is potentially lethal to larvae.	eng
23091	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is occurs in Prince Regent Nature Reserve. Recommended actions (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996) for this species include: monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range, including the islands; conduct research aimed at understanding the biology, ecology, conservation status, and requirements. There needs to be research on fire ecology.	eng
23091	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	Apart from the type specimen, which came from Violet Valley in the east Kimberley, all records are from the high rainfall, near-coastal north-west Kimberley of Western Australia (Burbidge and Webb 2008). It has not been recorded in east Kimberley since 1917 and is thought to be extinct from here. It is also found on Bigge and Boongaree Islands (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
23091	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	It is found in low open woodland, using four different types of rock formations for dens during the day (it is highly dependent on these rock formations): rockpiles, sunken rockpiles, large rock slabs, and underground rock crevices (Runcie 1999). At night, it feeds on four species of trees (<em>Xanthostemon eucalyptoides</em>, <em>X. paradoxus</em>, <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp., and <em>Planchonia careya</em>) (Runcie 1999). One young is born between March and August (Runcie 1999).	eng
23091	population	McKnight, M., 2008	There have not been many surveys within its range, and there are only isolated records. The species is sparsely and patchily distributed (Runcie 1999). Runcie (1999) found a density of 2.3-4.6 possums per hectare, which is nearly five times higher than that estimated by Humphreys <em>et al.</em> (1984). However, the study by Runcie (1999) was limited to one small area, and the results may not apply elsewhere (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
23091	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	There are no data on threats, but this species is probably adversely affected by changed fire regimes and predation by introduced cats. On the Mitchell Plateau, proposed mining activity could affect this species.	eng
23095	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Santa Barbara Island is part of the Channel Islands National Park. The entire island of San Clemente, used for military training, has been designated as Critical Habitat. The species is federally listed as threatened, but delisting may occur in the near future.	eng
23095	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The entire range is on the California Channel Islands in the southwestern United States. The species occurs on San Clemente and Santa Barbara islands (subspecies <em>reticulata</em>) and on San Nicolas Island (subspecies <em>riversiana</em>). It also occurs on a small islet (Sutil Island) 1.3 km offshore from Santa Barbara Island (Bezy <em>et al</em>. 1980). Old records for Santa Catalina Island are erroneous. San Clemente Island, at 145 sq. km, is the largest inhabited island (San Nicolas = 57 sq. km, Santa Barbara = 16 sq. km).	eng
23095	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits grassland, chaparral, oak savanna, clumps of cactus and boxthorn, dry sandy or rocky streambeds, cliffs, and rocky beaches (Stebbins 2003). It occupies areas of thick, low-lying vegetation growing on rocky soil and certain types of rock habitat; dominant plants include patches of prickly pear, matted thickets of boxthorn, and thickets of non-native Australian saltbush (Fellers and Drost 1991, Matthews and Moseley 1990). Individuals are often found under cover of rocks, driftwood, and fallen branches (Stebbins 2003), and they also use burrows.	eng
23095	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Each island can be regarded as a distinct, single occurrence. Hence there are just a few occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but greater than 10,000 and perhaps exceeds 100,000. At the time of listing, the population on San Clemente Island was estimated at 800 to 1300 per ha of prime habitat; the San Nicolas Island population was estimated at 14,800; and the Santa Barbara Island population was thought to be 550 to 700 (Matthews and Moseley 1990). However, Fellers and Drost (1991) determined that the total population on Santa Barbara Island was at least 17,600 and concluded that the population is not threatened with extinction as was previously thought. Also Mautz recently found healthy populations on San Clemente Island. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "stable."	eng
23095	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The inhabited islands and their native inhabitants have been negatively affected by habitat alteration and predation resulting from introduction of alien species (e.g., feral cats, goats, pigs, and rabbits). However, according to the Channel Islands Species Recovery Plan of 1984, habitat on the islands "probably has not been altered to the detriment of the [island night] lizards by grazing mammals". Goats and pigs have recently been removed from San Clemente Island. Today, the Island Night Lizard is regarded as not significantly threatened.	eng
23115	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in one protected area, the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.  This species is listed as threatened under Mexican law.	eng
23115	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution in tropical coastal lowlands (from sea level to 450 m), in Colima and southwest Jalisco, México (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
23115	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs in tropical deciduous and semideciduous forests characterized by a strong climatic seasonality (Ceballos and Miranda 2000). It occurs in areas with a closed canopy and a high density of trees and woody vines, which are used as arboreal runaways. <br/><br/>The Magdalena rat is arboreal and nocturnal. It is active from 1 to 1.5 hours after dusk until midnight (Schaldach 1960). Reproductive activity occurs late in the dry season and during rainy season from late May through November (Ceballos and Miranda 2000). Pregnant females were captured in August and September, and females with offspring were captured in May and August. Mean litter size was 1.6. One female had 2 embryos and another had 1 embryo (Schaldach 1960).	eng
23115	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is known only from three localities (Ceballos <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is present in very low numbers.	eng
23115	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat loss due to deforestation for agriculture and development. Habitat is being converted to banana plantations and development for tourism.	eng
23121	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
23122	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
23124	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	Research priorities for this species include estimating dispersal capabilities, identification of management units and monitoring population size. The threat of hybridisation needs to be clarified, as&#160;<em>Xenopus laevis</em>&#160;now occurs throughout the range. Habitat management and restoration are needed. It occurs in Cape Peninsula National Park and Agulhas National Park, both of which are relatively well managed, although there is a need to control the spread of invasive plants within these areas.	eng
23124	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is endemic to extreme south-western South Africa, occurring on the Cape Peninsula and the south-western Cape coast. It is a low-altitude species occurring at 10-140 m asl; currently known populations occur within 10 km of the coast. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 1,450 km<sup>2</sup>, is considered to be declining, and its area of occurrence is estimated to be 1% of the EOO.	eng
23124	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	It is found only in black, acid water in Cape fynbos heathland. It is a winter breeder (July to October). It aestivates if waterbodies dry up. It does not tolerate alteration of its habitat, and the larvae are very sensitive to changes in water quality.	eng
23124	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one subpopulation/location holds >50% of individuals, however the distances between subpopulations of around 100 km is considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation. It appears to be relatively abundant in some of the known localities.</p>	eng
23124	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	The main threats are habitat loss due to urbanization, agricultural run-off, and the effects of spreading alien plants. It may be threatened by hybridization with <em>X. laevis</em>, and there have been concerns about how many populations of this species represent pure <em>X. gilli</em>. <em>X. laevis</em> does not favour the acid water that <em>X. gilli</em> requires.	eng
23137	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, but its range, as mapped, indicates that it probably occurs in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
23137	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been recorded at scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It might be present across the whole island of New Guinea in preferred habitat at elevations of between sea level and 1,600 m asl.	eng
23137	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It appears to be a largely terrestrial species associated with rocky habitats, in hilly or montane areas, within broadleaf evergreen forest. Many of the recent records are from karst outcrops.	eng
23137	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It seems to be a genuinely uncommon species that is known from only a few specimens.	eng
23137	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is hunted for food by local people in parts of its range.	eng
23141	conservation	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Protection of mangroves is a key conservation measure for the species. Further studies into the distribution, taxonomy, and threats to the species are needed.	eng
23141	distribution	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	This little-known species is present on the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea only) and in northern Australia. On New Guinea, it is known only from a few specimens collected in the south-west Trans-Fly River region. In northern Australia, it has been recorded from a number of coastal sites in Northern Territory (including Melville Island) and Queensland (including Fraser Island) (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). It is suspected to be present in other parts of Queensland (studies underway).	eng
23141	habitat	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a nocturnal species, largely associated with mangrove swamps, but has additionally been recorded from saline grasslands (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). Females give birth to up to four young (Gynther and Janetzki 2008). Most habitat data are from Queensland. Queensland populations are found within inland edges of mangroves and on tidal flats. This species preys mostly on freshwater invertebrates, including crabs, pulmonates, and molluscs (Woinarski 2005).	eng
23141	population	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It appears to be a rare species that is patchily distributed within its extent of occurrence (Gynther and Janetzki 2008).	eng
23141	threats	Winter, J., Woinarski, J. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is potentially threatened by the destruction of mangrove habitats, through reclamation projects and the development of marine aquaculture. Agriculture and development are a threat in Queensland. The species tends not to survive where there is development inland of mangrove areas. In the Northern Territory, habitat change due to overgrazing is a probable threat. Gynther and Janetzki (2008) name oil pollution, waste water treatment, acid sulphate contamination, alteration of natural hydrology, and chemical control of biting insects as major threats.	eng
23144	conservation	Grubb, P., Oguge, N. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas throughout the range.	eng
23144	distribution	Grubb, P., Oguge, N. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Wide distribution range from Senegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone eastwards through much of West Africa to Sudan, Ethiopia, northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, and central Kenya. Not confirmed from Tanzania, though Kingdon (1974) gives a locality record from the north of Tanzania.  There is also an isolated record from Mount Marsebeit in Kenya, a moist area where <em>X. rutilus</em> occurs. There is a small population in Morocco in the Souss Plain.<br/>Recorded to 2,450 m (in Ethiopia; Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
23144	habitat	Grubb, P., Oguge, N. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Wide habitat tolerance, occurring in forest (though more usually secondary forest than primary), swamp forest, mangroves and drier woodland formations. Typically found in cultivated lands in many parts of the range (e.g., Uganda, Morocco, Kenya, Liberia).	eng
23144	population	Grubb, P., Oguge, N. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Common and widespread, and sometimes quite abundant (for example, in Kenya). In Sierra Leone, this was the most commonly seen squirrel (Grubb <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Not common where it occurs in Morocco.	eng
23144	threats	Grubb, P., Oguge, N. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	No major threats. There is some human consumption in a few West African countries, although not so much in Kenya. They are regarded as a pest in some parts of their range. The species is almost domesticated and is bred in intensive production for food in Benin (M.R.M. Ekué pers. comm.).	eng
23145	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	Common in many protected areas, including Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana and South Africa) and Etosha National Park (Namibia).	eng
23145	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is restricted to Southern Africa, south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers. It is distributed widely in Namibia, except where replaced by <em>Xerus princeps</em> in the northwest, but absent from the coastal areas and in parts of the southwest and northeast. In Botswana, confined to the semi-desert Kalahari associations. In South Africa, they occur mainly in the central regions, being widely distributed in the North West Province, Free State, the Northern Cape (the northern and north-eastern parts of the province), and southwards to the Graaff Reinet District in Eastern Cape, which marks their most southerly limits of distribution (Skinner and Smithers 1990). They also occur in western Lesotho (Lynch 1994).	eng
23145	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs widely throughout the more arid parts southern Africa, the greater part of its distributional range lying within the limits of the Nama-Karoo and Succulent Karoo biomes in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 100-500 mm (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Animals have a preference for open terrain with little bush cover and a solid substrate. In southern Botswana, they tend to occur on open calcareous ground on the fringes of the many dry pans which are characteristic of the area. The substrate here is hard, consisting of consolidated sand with calcareous pebbles. They avoid loose sandy areas for making their burrows but are found in the dunes of the Kalahari Desert. They occur also on the fringes of dry watercourses, or floodplain, on open overgrazed ground, and in open grassland or karroid areas, providing the substrate is suitable (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). It is diurnal, gregarious and colonial. It is a seasonal breeder, having up to three litters of as many as three young annually.	eng
23145	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
23145	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is considered to be an agricultural pest in some regions.	eng
23146	conservation	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Ai-Ais, Namib-Naukluft National Park and others.	eng
23146	distribution	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This southern African species is mostly found in Namibia. Populations occur from the Fish River Canyon near Holoog (27°22'S) in the south of Namibia northwards following the western escarpment to Kaokoland (Herzig-Straschil and Herzig 1989), and then marginally in Angola. Records from South Africa in the Richtersveld have been attributed to this species, but require verification.	eng
23146	habitat	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is confined to parts of the Nama-Karoo and Succulent Karoo biomes where the average annual rainfall varies from below 125 mm to just above 250 mm. They occur mainly on mountains and among koppies and hills with sparse vegetation. Their warrens are found usually among rocky outcrops, and sometimes on gravel plains. Burrow entrances are often situated under stones or rocks (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). It is diurnal and tends to be solitary.	eng
23146	population	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
23146	threats	Griffin, M. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
23147	conservation	Grubb, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas (eg. Samburu National Reserve, Kenya).	eng
23147	distribution	Grubb, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	This East African species, is associated with the Somali-Masai Arid Zone. It is found from northeastern Tanzania through Kenya and Ethiopia (east of the Rift, and especially in the Ogaden) and then northwards into Djibouti, Eritrea and marginally into Sudan. There is an isolated record from central Sudan on the White Nile (Fritz Dieterlen pers. comm.). The precise distribution in Somalia is uncertain. It has been recorded to more than 2,000 m asl.	eng
23147	habitat	Grubb, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	This terrestrial species is generally associated with dry savanna to scrubland where rainfall is generally perhaps 800 mm or less. It also occurs in agricultural fields. It is diurnal and non-territorial, with up to six individuals sharing a burrow. Litters of one or two young are born.	eng
23147	population	Grubb, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is common throughout much of the range. Density estimates in Turkana, Kenya, have been given as 848 individuals per km². It is a considered to be a significant pest species in the drier parts of Kenya.	eng
23147	threats	Grubb, P. & Oguge, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
23161	conservation	McGuinness, C.A., 2004	<em>X. costatus</em> is listed as ‘Nationally Critical’ (Hitchmough 2002), the highest threat ranking available in the New Zealand Department of Conservation threat classification system (Molloy <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is listed as a highest priority threatened species for conservation action (category A) in the New Zealand list of threatened invertebrates (McGuinness 2001). <br/> <br/>Further surveys are required on Pitt Island to determine whether the species is still present there, but current evidence points to it being extirpated from that island. <br/> <br/>A variety of trees on South East Island should be marked then searched for the beetle to determine whether the apparent relationship between <em>Xylotoles</em> and <em>C. chathamica</em> is true. Most searches have focused on <em>C. chathmanica</em> because this is where they have been known to be found. However, this may not necessarily be the main host.  <br/> <br/>Branch traps should be set across South east Island and checked in 6 weeks time for the presence of the beetle. This will provide some idea of distribution and abundance. Wood borers are hard to sample, and the low numbers sampled make it difficult to obtain accurate population estimates (R. Emberson, pers. comm., 1999). <br/> <br/>Further taxonomic work is required to enable <em>X. costatus</em> to be clearly separated from <em>X. traversi</em> (J. Marris, pers. comm., 2000). <br/> <br/>Rodent quarantine procedures are required on South East Island.	eng
23161	distribution	McGuinness, C.A., 2004	<em>Xylotoles costatus</em> has been collected from Pitt Island and South East (Rangatira) Island in the Chatham Islands group (Early <em>et al</em>. 1991, Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996, Emberson 1998b). All recent collections have been on South East Island. It has not been seen on Pitt Island since 1907 (R. Emberson, pers. comm. 1999).  The species is believed to be extirpated from Pitt Island.	eng
23161	habitat	McGuinness, C.A., 2004	A flightless, blackish longhorn beetle with a variable green-bronze sheen and ridges on their wing cases. The body is 15–20 cm long (Emberson and Marris 1993, Emberson 1998a). They are very similar to, though generally smaller than, <em>Xylotoles traversi</em> which is found throughout the Chatham Islands (J. Marris, pers. comm. 2000). The antennae are long and able to fold back against the body. <br/> <br/>Most species of <em>Xylotoles</em> are thought to be non-host specific, feeding as larvae on dead twigs (Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996). They are usually found on Chatham Islands Coprosma (<em>Coprosma chathamica</em>) at night, either on tree trunks or dead branches (Emberson and Marris 1993c, Emberson 1998b, Emberson, pers. comm. 1999). A specimen has also been found by beating a dead branch of ngaio (<em>Myoporum laetum</em>) caught up in a tangle of <em>Muehlenbeckia</em> (Emberson and Marris 1993, Emberson <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
23161	population	McGuinness, C.A., 2004	The species was not found on Pitt Island during a survey in 1990 (Early <em>et al</em>. 1991) or during several subsequent searches on the island (R. Emberson, pers. comm.). It has not been seen on Pitt Island since 1907. South East Island has been searched four times since 1992. A specimen has been reared out of a <em>C. chathamica</em> branch (R. Emberson, pers. comm. 1999). Current population size and abundance is not known, but there are believed to be <200 mature individuals.	eng
23161	threats	McGuinness, C.A., 2004	The species is vulnerable to mouse predation on Pitt Island (Emberson and Marris 1993). This, along with a reduction in habitat, may have resulted in their possible extirpation from that island.	eng
23162	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Population maintenance of <em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> depends on ongoing stocking of juveniles that are large enough to avoid predation by non-native fishes. Natural recruitment might be enhanced by appropriate management of floodplains that serve as important nursery areas along with the development of non-native free habitats (P.C. Marsh pers. comm.&#160;2007). Management of the predation of this species by non-native species, will be the key success of this program (T.E. Dowling pers. comm.&#160;2007).	eng
23162	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Xyrauchen texanus </em> formerly occurred throughout the Colorado River basin, from Wyoming and Colorado to Sonora and Baja California. This species is now much reduced in range and abundance. The largest extant population occurs in Lake Mohave (lower Colorado River); small numbers occur in Lake Mead, Lake Havasu, and the Grand Canyon (transitory in Grand Canyon; Douglas and Marsh 1998). Major known spawning areas in Lake Mohave include Cottonwood Cove, Arizona Bay, Six-mile Cove, and Eldorado Canyon. An ongoing stocking program is attempting to enhance the number of suckers that reach maturity in Lake Mohave where young fish escape predation by non-native fishes. Since the early 1980's, the USFWS and Arizona Game and Fish Department have attempted to establish populations in the Gila, Verde and Salt rivers through stocking, but no fish survive in the long-term. In the upper Colorado River Basin, adults and larvae are widely distributed in the Green River basin, especially in the upper basin from the mouth of the Duchesne River, upstream to the lower 4miles of the Yampa River, rarely occurring upstream as far as the Little Snake River. Spawning has been documented in lower Yampa River near the confluence with Green River and in the upper Green River (Tyus and Karp 1989). A small reproducing population exists in the lower Green River. In the upper Colorado River, most suckers occur in the Grand Valley (mainstem Colorado River and Gunnison River, Colorado). A reproducing population occurs in an off-channel pond in the Colorado River near Grand Junction. A few have been found in the San Juan River above Lake Powell, and adults have been found in the San Juan and Colorado River arms of the lake (USFWS 1997). The species is currently considered extant in New Mexico, based on ongoing reintroduction efforts in the San Juan River Basin (J. Fowler-Propst 2007 pers. comm.). The project started in 1995 and New Mexico Game and Fish documented reproduction in 1998 and 1999. Adults overwinter in the Echo Park area of Dinosaur National Monument (Tyus and Karp 1989). Razorback suckers were recorded in the late 1980's along the south shore of Lake Powell near the concrete boat ramp at Piute Farms Marina and near Bluff, Utah. The Lake Powell record apparently represented a spawning aggregation or staging prior to spawning elsewhere (Platania <em>et al.</em> 1991). The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 126,593 km².	eng
23162	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> habitat types include slow flowing areas, backwaters, and eddies of medium to large rivers and their impoundments (three of the four remaining populations of greater than 100 individuals are in reservoirs). Flooded lowlands and lower portions of tributary streams presumably served as resting-feeding areas during breeding season in the Green River basin (Tyus and Karp 1990). This fish is often associated with sand, mud, and rock substrate in areas with sparse aquatic vegetation, where temperatures are moderate to warm. It has been collected in flooded gravel pits along the Colorado River, and from irrigation canals along the lower Colorado River (juveniles, Marsh and Minckley 1989). In the non-breeding season, adults were most common in shoreline runs and along mid-channel sand bars in the mainstream Green River, with an average water depth of less than 2 m, and an average velocity of less than 0.5 m per second (Tyus and Karp 1989). Radio-tagged suckers reintroduced into the Gila River, Arizona, used both sand-bottomed, flat-water, main-channel habitats and quieter pools and eddies adjacent to stronger currents (see Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Hatchery-reared suckers released into the San Juan River inflow of Lake Powell most often used shallow, flooded stands of salt cedar and, in some cases, cobbled shorelines (Karp and Mueller 2002). Limited data indicate that the young tend to remain along shorelines, in embayments, along sandbars, or in tributary mouths (see Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). In Lake Mohave, individuals were associated with inshore habitats except during the hotter months when they moved offshore possibly to avoid warmer water temperatures (Mueller <em>et al. </em>2000). <br/><br/>Spawning occurs most commonly near shore in streams over silty sand, gravel, or rock substrate at depths of up to about 6m (often in water less than 0.6m deep); known and suspected spawning sites in the Green and other upper-basin rivers all are in broad, flat-water segments (Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Ripe individuals often have been taken over or near coarse sand, or gravel or cobble bars, in flowing water. In reservoirs, spawning occurs on gravel bars swept clean by wave action; also along shorelines over mixed substrates ranging from silt to cobble (Federal Register 2i March 1994). Spawning has been observed downstream from major impoundments, below Davis Dam and Hoover Dam (Mueller 1989). Larvae appear to remain in gravel until swim-up (USFWS 1990); apparently they prefer the shallow littoral zone for a few weeks after hatching, then disperse to deeper waters (Federal Register 21 March 1994, p. 13375). Seasonally inundated flood plains provide favourable feeding areas for the young.	eng
23162	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> is represented by just a few extant spawning populations, none of which exhibit sustained recruitment (Dowling <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Total wild adult population size appears to be not more than a few thousand. The largest population is in Lake Mohave, where an ageing population of a few hundred wild adults (Marsh <em>et al. </em>2003) is being enhanced by stocking of larger juveniles. Before a recent decline, Lake Mohave was believed to contain about 90 percent of the total population. Adult population size outside Lake Mohave may be less than 1,000.<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have declined dramatically compared to the historical situation. Population size is still declining. For example, the population in Lake Mohave (the largest remaining subpopulation) declined from 44,000 in 1991 to fewer than 3,000 in 2001 (Marsh <em>et al. </em>2003). The population in the upper Green River basin was estimated at about 1,000 adults in the late 1980's (Lanigan and Tyus 1989); more recent data suggests a decline to about 500 adult individuals (USFWS 1997).	eng
23162	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Xyrauchen texanus</em> is threatened by interactions with non-native fishes and by human alteration of riverine habitat. <br/><br/>Recruitment is very low (or absent) despite spawning and hatched larvae (e.g. in upper Green River basin). For example, no recruitment to reservoir populations was detected between 1963 and 1990 in the lower Colorado River basin, despite collecting with appropriate equipment (Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991). Poor recruitment is likely attributed to predation on this species by flathead catfish and avian piscivores (J.D. Schooley 2007 pers. comm.). Competition with and predation by exotic crayfish may also be a problem in some areas (Lenon <em>et al. </em>2002). <br/><br/>Habitat changes resulting primarily from dam operations has greatly restricted the amount of suitable habitat; these detrimental changes include high winter flows, reduced high spring flows, altered river temperatures (Clarkson and Childs 2000), and reduced flooding (USFWS 1990). <br/><br/>Natural recovery is limited by pervasiveness of predatory non-native fishes which also contribute to political impediments to recovery (Clarkson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Hybridization with other suckers is a potential problem in some locations (Tyus and Karp 1990, Minckley <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>See USFWS (1990) for details on habitat changes that have affected this species.	eng
23165	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
23165	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
23165	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	There is no information on the substrate over which the species has been found. Most specimens (5 out 6 studied by Greenwood, 1956) were caught in exposed littoral zones of Lake Victoria, and one in the Victoria Nile. The species is an epiphytic algae grazer.	eng
23165	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
23165	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
23167	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Recorded from Lake Nawampasa part of the Kyoga system.	eng
23169	distribution	Kaufman, L., 1996	Endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
23175	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Dianchi.	eng
23176	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
23176	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. macrogaster</em> is found only in Tatantze, an endorheic basin in Louping County, Yunnan, China.<br/><br/>This species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 7,447 km², which was found by locating Tatantze in a gazetteer and calculating the area of the basins surrounding this location.	eng
23176	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. macrogaster</em> is a demersal species that was found in a small marsh with abundant vegetation.	eng
23176	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
23176	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are three introduced cyprinids (<em>Hemiculter leucisculus</em>, <em>Abbottina rivularis</em> and <em>Pseudorasbora parva</em>) present at the site where <em>Y. macrogaster</em> was discovered (Dudgeon 2000); however it is not thought that these species prey on or compete with <em>Y. macrogaster</em>.&#160;  There are several human settlements in close proximity to the site which may threaten the species (Kottelat and Chu 1988).	eng
23178	conservation	Superina, M. & Abba, 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is present in many protected areas. Hunting of this species in Argentina and Chile continues, even though this is prohibited.	eng
23178	distribution	Superina, M. & Abba, 2009	This small armadillo ranges from Argentina (Mendoza, San Luis, and southwestern Buenos Aires) and eastern Chile south to the Straits of Magellan. It is found from sea level to 2,500 m asl.	eng
23178	habitat	Superina, M. & Abba, 2009	This mostly solitary species is found in desert, xeric grassland and shrubland, and Patagonian steppe habitats, always with sandy soils (including volcanic soil). It can be found in some degraded habitats. Animals have a relatively large home range within their arid habitat. The female gives birth to one or two young.	eng
23178	population	Superina, M. & Abba, 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is not abundant in southern Buenos Aires Province (A.M. Abba pers. comm. 2004), and its abundance has declined in Mendoza Province within the last 10 years (M. Superina pers. comm. 2004).	eng
23178	threats	Superina, M. & Abba, 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Z. pichiy</span> is threatened by hunting for food and sport, including hunting with dogs. An epidemic of an unknown disease has locally affected the species in some areas, and appears to be associated with rainy periods. It is threatened to some degree by overgrazing of its habitat by cattle.	eng
23179	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from a national park. Hunting regulations are needed to protect this species. Further field studies to identify important areas for this species are needed.	eng
23179	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is largely restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula region of Papua Province, Indonesia. It has also been recorded from the island of Salawati, Indonesia (possibly now extinct there), and it is possible that the species may be present on the islands of Batanta and Waigeo (both Indonesia, but not mapped) (Flannery 1995a,b; Helgen 2007). It ranges from near sea level to 2,500 m asl.	eng
23179	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species ranges from tropical hill forests to upper montane forests. It has a large altitudinal range. This species lays eggs and the primary food is worms.	eng
23179	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has not been recorded since the 1980s. It is thought to be uncommon in forest habitats that are accessible to hunting. It may be more common in inaccessible areas. The species has been hunted to local extinction in more densely populated regions of New Guinea.	eng
23179	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is heavily threatened by hunting for food by local people, and also by loss of habitat through conversion of suitable areas to cultivated land. It has retreated up the mountains over time, and the montane habitat for this species is now small and isolated.	eng
23192	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range includes a few protected areas. The subspecies <em>orarius</em> is a federal C2 candidate taxon and a California Species of Special Concern. The known population occurs within the protection of the Point Reyes National Seashore and Golden Gate National Recreational Area. It is thought that additional populations may occur in Mount Tamalpais State Park.	eng
23192	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south through western Washington, coastal and west-central Oregon, along the humid coastal strip mostly west of the crest of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain through California to Point Reyes and Elk Valley, Marin County, California in the United States (Gannon 1988).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>orarius</em> is known to occur at locations from the Golden Gate to the Point Reyes Peninsula, San Francisco Bay, California. It is isolated from other subspecies of <em>Zapus</em> by at least 100 km.	eng
23192	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Pacific jumping mice utilize several habitat types, depending on the location within its range. Coastal populations are mostly found in marshy or riparian areas within redwood and Douglas fir forests. Inland montane habitats include dense forests, riparian areas and alpine meadows. Densest populations are found in areas where annual rainfall exceeds 30 cm (Gannon 1988). This species is nocturnal and crepuscular and hibernates for up to six months of the year, depending on ambient temperature. Primarily grainivorous but may also feed on fruit, insects, mollusks and fish (Gannon 1988). <br/>Nests are built in burrows below ground, as deep as 76 cm below the surface. Burrows are often connected at a central chamber (Gannon 1999).	eng
23192	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Populations of Pacific jumping mouse fluctuate from year to year, from common to rare throughout its limited geographical range (Gannon 1999).<br/><br/>Most of the distribution records for this subspecies <em>orarius</em> are from before 1945, however, the population is thought to persist over most of its historical range. Small patches of habitat still exist, although these are very disjunct.	eng
23192	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species overall. The subspecies <em>orarius</em> has an extremely limited distribution and its fragmented nature makes it more sensitive to the effects of habitat modification.	eng
23196	conservation	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (South Africa), Khadoum National Park (Namibia) and in other protected areas.	eng
23196	distribution	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a southern African endemic ranging from northern South Africa (Northern Cape Province and North-West Province) through northern and western Botswana (Smithers 1971) to eastern and northern Namibia (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Skinner and Chimimba 2005) and into southern Angola (Neels Coetzee pers. comm., and see Crawford-Cabral 1998). It has an altitudinal range of 800 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
23196	habitat	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in dry savanna on Kalahari sands. This species has very specific micro-habitat requirements, it occurs along river beds and around pans frequently associated with Acacias and lime-clay silty soils. It is an omnivorous species.	eng
23196	population	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species always occurs in low numbers.	eng
23196	threats	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
23197	conservation	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in a large number of protected areas (e.g., Serengeti National Park, Tanzania; Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda, Nyika Plateau, Malawi).	eng
23197	distribution	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is widely, although sparsely, distributed in northern and especially southern savanna zones. It has been recorded from central Angola (the southern records in Angola are probably misidentified specimens of <em>Zelotomys woosnami</em>), Zambia, northern Malawi (Nyika and Vipya platyeaus), western Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and Central African Republic. The altitudinal range of this species is not known.	eng
23197	habitat	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	This pecies is associated with moist grassy savanna and scrub, on the edge of swamps and forests and in tall grasslands; it favours Imperata grasses in the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania) and in Queen Elizabeth Park (Uganda). On the Nyika Plateau (Malawi) it has been recorded from pine plantations and near houses. It is a terrestrial, partly diurnal and insectivorous species. This species emits high-pitched whistles.	eng
23197	population	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	It has a fairly low abundance and is infrequently encountered by collectors (usually less than 3% of rodents trapped). In Ruwenzori National Park, the estimated population density varied from 0.44-1.33 individuals/ha.	eng
23197	threats	Coetzee, N. & van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
23204	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	The species is considered likely to occur in a number of protected areas. Further research on population trends and abundance is needed.	eng
23204	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This Central African species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including southern Bioko Island, two specimens collected in 1989 and 1993), Congo, and Ngotto Forest in Central African Republic (on the border of the Central African Republic and Congo). It has not been recorded from Gabon or Democratic Republic of the Congo, although it is likely to occur here.	eng
23204	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species has been captured in tropical moist forest and semi-deciudous forest, with a few individuals collected close to arboreal savannas, apparently tolerating climates ranging from relatively dry to very humid (de Val <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species is primarily nocturnal, and it is considered likely to be solitary, with little information available on its habitats or ecology. The species is uniqe among anomalurids in having no gliding membrane, which suggests that it may descend to the ground more readily than other anomalurid species. This may explain, as suggested by de Val <em>et al</em>. (1995), why the two records from Equatorial Guinea were taken in ground snare traps.	eng
23204	population	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is known from only a few localities and specimens; del Val <em>et al</em>. (1995) document 11 specimens. There is no precise information on population or abundance.	eng
23204	threats	Hutterer, R. & Decher, J., 2008	It is possible that deforestation is a threat to the species in parts of the range. Further research into the impact of deforestation on this species is needed.	eng
23207	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annexes II and IV of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendices II and III of the Bern Convention.	eng
23207	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted four fragmented subpopulations in the Rhône River basin in France and Switzerland. May occur in more locations.	eng
23207	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It inhabits the grayling zone and the upper barbel zone. It is a strictly nocturnal species feeding on benthic invertebrates. It prefers pebbles and stones, intermediate depth (0.3–0.8 m) and moderate water velocities (0.05–0.4 m/s). During reproduction, it prefers riffles. It is short-lived species up to 3.5 years old reproducing generally once, maximum twice in a life time.	eng
23207	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing. There are only four fragmented subpopulations remaining: the Drome subpopulation with few fish; the Durance subpopulation with 200 fish/ha; the Beaume subpopulation with 80 fish/ha; and a subpopulation in the upper part of River Doubs in Switzerland with a total number of individuals estimated between 80–160 individuals. Today it only occupies 17% of its former range.	eng
23207	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Fragmentation, modification and destruction of the habitat due to dams and water pollution.	eng
23208	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
23208	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube and Dniestr drainages.	eng
23208	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of small to large rivers, in stretches with strong current. On stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-May on gravel bottom. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates.	eng
23208	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
23208	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is impacted by dams as it needs strong currents to survive. Pollution also impacted the species, particularly in the upper Danube, in the past however conditions are now improving and populations may be increasing.	eng
23209	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
23209	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube and Dniestr drainages.	eng
23209	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of large rivers, in fast-flowing waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, benthic. Spawns in March-April on sand bottom. Single females spawn with several males in a dense spawning group. Eggs very sticky and attached to gravel. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and small fishes.	eng
23209	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
23209	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is impacted by dams as it needs strong currents to survive. Pollution also impacted the species, particularly in the upper Danube, in the past however conditions are now improving and populations may be increasing.	eng
23210	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	Endemic to Kenya. Occurs in the Teita Hills, although the species was not found in any of the 73 sites surveyed by C. Lange in the Taita Hills forests in 2000.	eng
23210	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	Unknown.	eng
23210	population	Lange, C., 2004	Verdcourt (1991) noted that this species was collected in abundance in 1915 at an altitude, which would suggest it was a forest dweller, but that a survey in 1960 failed to locate any specimens.	eng
23210	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Habitat change (i.e., loss and disturbance probably due to natural drought, fire outbreaks or human forest clearance).	eng
23211	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. <br/><br/>In 2004, the Parties to the UNEP CMS Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) adopted a resolution recommending that human activities introducing high-intensity noise in the marine environment be avoided in the agreement area where high concentrations of Cuvier’s beaked whales may occur. The agreement’s Scientific Committee is currently modelling Mediterranean sighting data to generate predictive <em>Ziphius</em> habitat maps for that purpose.	eng
23211	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Very little is known about this species. However, mass strandings after military sonar tests are a matter of serious concern and should be further investigated. The global effects of bycatches in fisheries cannot be evaluated. Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales may have been unsustainable in the California/Oregon drift gillnet fishery in the early 1990s (Barlow <em>et al.</em> 1995), however, the observed bycatch of Cuvier’s and other beaked whales dropped to zero after pingers were required to reduce cetacean mortality (Barlow and Gisiner 2006).  Given this success, pingers might be useful in mitigating fishery bycatch in other locations.  Because they dive for such long periods and are so difficult to see at the surface, mitigation methods that depend on visually detecting them are not likely to reduce the impacts of acute sound impacts (such as military sonar or seismic surveys) (Barlow and Gisiner 2006). Areas of higher than average abundance can be identified (Ferguson <em>et al.</em> 2006, MacLeod and Mitchell 2006), and avoiding such areas may be a helpful mitigation method.	eng
23211	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Cuvier's beaked whales may have the most extensive range of any beaked whale species (Heyning 1989, 2002).   They are widely distributed in offshore waters of all oceans, from the topics to the polar regions in both hemispheres.  Their range covers most marine waters of the world, with the exception of shallow water areas, and very high-latitude polar regions. They are found in many enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Carribean Sea, Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk (but not in the Baltic or Black seas). This is the only species of beaked whale regularly found in the Mediterranean Sea, where it is quite common (Podesta <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
23211	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Cuvier's beaked whales may have the most extensive range of any beaked whale species (Heyning 1989, 2002). They are widely distributed in offshore waters of all oceans, from the tropics to the polar regions in both hemispheres. Their range covers most marine waters of the world, with the exception of shallow water areas, and very high-latitude polar regions. They are found in many enclosed seas, such as the Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, Sea of Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk (but not in the Baltic or Black Seas). This is the only species of beaked whale regularly found in the Mediterranean Sea (Podesta <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
23211	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Although Cuvier’s beaked whales can be found nearly anywhere in deep (>200 m) waters, they seem to prefer waters near the continental slope, especially those with a steep sea bottom. Off Japan, whaling records indicate that <em>Z. cavirostris</em> is most commonly found in waters deeper than 1,000 m (Heyning 1989). The species is known around many oceanic islands, and in some enclosed seas. It is rarely found close to mainland shores, except in submarine canyons or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and coastal waters are deep (Heyning 1989, 2002) and is mostly a pelagic species that appears to be confined by the 10°C isotherm and the 1,000 m bathymetric contour (Houston 1991; Robineau and di Natale 1995).<br/><br/>Cuvier's beaked whales, like all beaked whales, appear to prefer deep waters for feeding. Dives of up to 40 minutes have been documented. Although few stomach contents have been examined, they appear to feed mostly on deep-sea squid, but also sometimes take fish and some crustaceans (MacLeod <em>et al</em>. 2003). They apparently feed both near the bottom and in the water column. As with other beaked whales, suction appears to be used to draw prey items into the mouth at close range (Heyning and Mead 1996).	eng
23211	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Due to their widespread distribution and relatively frequent stranding, Cuvier's beaked whale may be one of the most familiar of the beaked whales (Heyning 1989, 2002).  They are found mostly in small groups of 2-7, but are not uncommonly seen alone. Strandings are usually of singletons or cow-calf pairs. A typical mass strandings of larger numbers of animals have been strongly linked acoustic trauma resulting from navy sonar or seismic exploration activities in the vicinity (e.g. Frantzis 1998).  Their behavior tends to be rather elusive, and they can be difficult to approach.  However, they have been seen breaching on a number of occasions. Dives of up to 40 minutes have been documented.<br/><br/>Although Cuvier’s beaked whales can be found nearly anywhere in deep (>200 m) waters, they seem to prefer waters near the continental slope, especially those with a steep sea bottom. The species is known around many oceanic islands, and in some enclosed seas. It is rarely found close to mainland shores, except in submarine canyons or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and coastal waters are deep (Heyning 1989, 2002) and is mostly a pelagic species that appears to be confined by the 10° C isotherm and the 1000 m bathymetric contour (Houston 1991, Robineau and di Natale 1995).<br/><br/>Cuvier's beaked whales, like all beaked whales, appear to prefer deep waters for feeding. Although few stomach contents have been examined, they appear to feed mostly on deep-sea squid, but also sometimes take fish and some crustaceans (MacLeod <em>et al.</em> 2003). They apparently feed both near the bottom and in the water column. As with other beaked whales, suction appears to be used to draw prey items into the mouth at close range (Heyning and Mead 1996). They may sometimes incidentally ingest non-food items.	eng
23211	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Global abundance has not been estimated for Cuvier’s beaked whales, but abundance has been estimated for several study areas (not in European waters). Abundance is often underestimated using visual survey methods because they dive for long periods and are often inconspicuous when they surface (Barlow et al. 2006). They are undoubtedly among the most common and abundant of all the beaked whales.  However, it should be noted that there are no trend data, and the large uncertainty in abundance estimates makes the detection of population change extremely unlikely.<br/><br/>This is the only widely-distributed beaked whale species for which a global assessment of genetic diversity has been conducted.  The results of this study suggest that there is probably little movement of Cuvier’s beaked whales among different ocean basins, and that there may even be a distinct subpopulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Dalebout <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
23211	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Global abundance has not been estimated for Cuvier’s beaked whales, but abundance has been estimated for several study areas. Wade and Gerrodette (1993) estimated an abundance of about 20,000 (CV=27%) Cuvier’s beaked whales in the eastern tropical Pacific, but a re-analysis of the same data increased that to about 80,000 after accounting for diving animals that were missed (Ferguson and Barlow 2001). Other dive-corrected estimates of Cuvier’s beaked whale abundance include 1,884 (CV=68%) off the U.S. west coast (Barlow 2003) and 15,242 (CV=143%) in Hawaiian waters (Barlow 2006). Cuvier’s beaked whales are undoubtedly among the most common and abundant of all the beaked whales, and worldwide abundance is likely to be well over 100,000. There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.<br/><br/>This is the only widely-distributed beaked whale species for which a global assessment of genetic diversity has been conducted. The results of this study suggest that there is probably little movement of Cuvier’s beaked whales among different ocean basins, and that there may even be a distinct subpopulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
23211	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Never the main target of commercial whalers, Cuvier’s beaked whales have sometimes been taken in other direct fisheries outside Europe (Heyning 1989, Jefferson <em>et al.</em> 1993). Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales has been reported in several fisheries, including the Italian swordfish fishery (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1990). <br/><br/>Mignucci <em>et al.</em> (1999) conducted an assessment of cetacean strandings in waters off Puerto Rico, the United States and the British Virgin Islands to identify the factors associated with reported mortality events between 1867 and 1995. Cuvier's beaked whale was the second most common species. An increase in the number of strandings is evident over the past 20 years, averaging 63.1% per year. Between 1990 and 1995, the average number of cases per year increased from 2.1 to 8.2. The seasonal pattern of strandings was not found to be uniform, with a high number of strandings occurring in the winter and spring. The most common human-related cause categories observed were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. <br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items. Sometimes this may happen when animals are already ill and incapable of finding/catching normal prey (e.g. Gomercic <em>et al.</em> 2006), or they may be healthy and eat it by accident and it then contributes to blockage of the digestive tract and eventual death (e.g. Scott <em>et al.</em> 2001). Therefore <em>Ziphuis cavirostris</em> may also be at risk.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in a number of mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales, including in the Mediterranean Sea during 1996 (Frantzis 1998), the Bahamas during 2000 (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), the Madeira Islands in 2000 (Freitas 2004) and the Canary Islands in 2002 (Jepson <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The mechanistic cause of the strandings is not well understood, but gas bubble formation (Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005) from a behaviorally mediated response to sound has been proposed (Cox <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
23211	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There is good evidence of large-scale reductions in many predatory fish populations (e.g., Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2005; Sibert <em>et al</em>. 2006; Polacheck 2006) and over-fishing and collapse of several important “prey” fish stocks world-wide (e.g., Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The effects of such fish population reductions and subsequent ecosystem changes on world-wide populations these whales are unknown but could result in population declines. <br/> <br/>Never the main target of commercial whalers, Cuvier’s beaked whales have sometimes been taken as bycatch in other direct fisheries, such as those in the Caribbean islands, Indonesia, Taiwan, Peru, and Chile (Heyning 1989; Jefferson <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the Japanese <em>Berardius</em> fishery, <em>Z. cavirostris</em> have been taken on an opportunistic basis, with catches varying from 3 to 35 animals taken yearly (Omura and Kimura 1955). Although the <em>Berardius</em> fishery still continues, there have been no direct takes of <em>Z. cavirostris</em> in recent years (Nishiwaki and Oguro 1972).<br/> <br/>Mignucci-Giannoni <em>et al</em>. (1999) conducted an assessment of cetacean strandings in waters off Puerto Rico, the United States and the British Virgin Islands to identify the factors associated with reported mortality events between 1867 and 1995. The most common human-related cause categories observed were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by animals being shot or speared. <br/><br/>Bycatch of Cuvier’s beaked whales has been reported in several fisheries. Julian and Beeson (1998) report a mortality of 22-44 individuals per year in the California/Oregon drift gillnet fishery from 1992 to 1995. Mora Pinto <em>et al</em>. (1995) report on bycatches from Colombian fisheries. Notarbartolo di Sciara (1990) reported on bycatch in the Italian swordfish fishery. Bycatch in the western North Atlantic is very low, with one animal reported between 1994 and 1998 (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>In recent years, there has been increasing concern that loud underwater sounds, such as active sonar and seismic operations, may be harmful to beaked whales (Malakoff 2002). The use of active sonar from military vessels has been implicated in a number of mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales, including in the Mediterranean Sea during 1996 (Frantzis 1998), the Bahamas during 2000 (Balcomb and Claridge 2001), the Madeira Islands in 2000 (Frietas 2004) and the Canary Islands in 2002 (Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked whales in Japan also appear to be correlated with locations of naval exercises (Brownell <em>et al</em>. 2006). A stranding of two Cuvier’s beaked whales in the Gulf of California was closely correlated with a seismic survey (Malakoff 2002). <br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
23321	conservation	Delgado, C., Rivas, B., Anderson, R. P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas (M. Aguillera pers. comm.).	eng
23321	distribution	Delgado, C., Rivas, B., Anderson, R. P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in the savannas from southeastern Costa Rica through Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas, to Brazil north of the Amazon River; including Trinidad and Tobago and smaller continental shelf islands adjacent to Panama and Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs in the llanos of Venezuela.	eng
23321	habitat	Delgado, C., Rivas, B., Anderson, R. P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is abundant in grassland, clearings, marshy areas, second growth, and agricultural areas (Martino and Aguilera 1993).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and terrestrial. Its diet includes seeds, fruit, and green plant material. This species makes short burrows in banks or under tree roots, leadings to nests made of grasses and plant down (Reid 1997). In Venezuela, breeding occurs year-round and litter size averages 4.1 (O’Connell 1982).	eng
23321	population	Delgado, C., Rivas, B., Anderson, R. P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	This rat is common, often abundant. It sometimes is a pest in agricultural areas (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
23321	threats	Delgado, C., Rivas, B., Anderson, R. P., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Emmons, L., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
23322	conservation	Anderson, R.P. & Aguilera, M., 2008	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
23322	distribution	Anderson, R.P. & Aguilera, M., 2008	This species occurs in the intermontane valleys of north Colombia, 350 to 1,300 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
23322	habitat	Anderson, R.P. & Aguilera, M., 2008	It occurs in grassland, clearings, marshy areas, second growth, and agricultural areas (Martino and Aguilera, 1993). This species is nocturnal and terrestrial. The diet includes seeds, fruit, and green plant material. It makes short burrows in banks or under tree roots, leadings to nests made of grasses and plant down.	eng
23322	population	Anderson, R.P. & Aguilera, M., 2008	This species occurs in an area that has not been recently well studied (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.) although it is likely to be common (as Z. brevicauda), often abundant (Martino and Aguilera, 1993).	eng
23322	threats	Anderson, R.P. & Aguilera, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
23323	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is protected under Mexican law as "en peligro de extinción" ('in danger of extinction').  There are no protected areas within its range.	eng
23323	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is known only from small areas around the general vicinity of Lago Patzcuaro, north central Michoacan, Mexico (Hafner and Barkley 1984; Patton 2005). Specifically, it is known from four areas in the Sierra Madre of Michoacan: Cerro Tancitaro, Cerro Patamban, Nahuatzen, and Patzcuaro. This species is found at elevations above 2,200 m asl.	eng
23323	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It prefers the deep, friable soil of high montane pine-spruce-alder forests. Burrow entrances are covered by volcano-like mounds of earth with no opening and it is thought that the species may be entirely fossorial (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
23323	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	The species was once said to be widespread across the area, occurring on wooded slopes, the borders of grassy parks, and in cultivated areas. It was found in high densities throughout its range. However, this species is not tolerant of habitat degradation and competition with other species that have extended their range following the transformation of habitat (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). In recent years the species has suffered a severe decline in population.	eng
23323	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Agricultural encroachment has resulted in the removal of some forest areas within the range of this species. However, the main threat to the species thought to be competition from <em>Cratogeomys</em>, which has moved higher into the mountains as a result of forest destruction on lower slopes (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
23324	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. All populations seem to be within the West MacDonnell Range National Park. Field surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species. The park has a fire management strategy to protect the vegetation on which this species is dependent. A Recovery Plan for this species is being developed. Further studies into the distribution, population, natural history, and threats to this species are planned. Also, the feasibility of reintroducing or introducing populations of this species should be investigated. Captive breeding is underway at Perth Zoo and Alice Springs Desert Park.	eng
23324	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known only from disjunct localities along a 77 km length of the West MacDonnell Ranges, Northern Territory (Cole 2000). The species has previously been recorded from living animals or cave deposits in Northern Territory at Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, Illamurta (James Range), Haast's Bluff (West MacDonnell Ranges), Mount Liebig, Napperby Station, Devils Marbles, The Granites (Tanami Desert), and the Davenport Range. It is known from cave deposits in the Cape Range, Western Australia (Cole 2000).	eng
23324	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	The habitat requirements of this species are incompletely known. It has been found in rocky outcrop and scree areas with hummock grassland, low open shrubland, and low open woodland (Cole 2000; Nano 2008). Captive females have given birth to between three and four young (Nano 2008). This species' diet consists primarily of seeds from shrubs, forbs, and grassses, as well as leaf material from these plants (which respond positively to fire) (Pavey 2002).	eng
23324	population	Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	The population size and abundance of this species is not well known. The species was thought to be extinct (no records between 1960 and 1996), and was subsequently rediscovered in fourteen sites in 1996-2001. The species, however, has not been recorded since drought and wildfire struck in 2002 (Nano 2008). Populations of the species have certainly crashed, but it is quite possible that the species remains undetected in low numbers.	eng
23324	threats	Woinarski, J. & Morris, K., 2008	Fires likely limit the available habitat for the species (Cole 2000). The spread of buffalo grass, which kills off native grasses, is another threat, and is linked to disturbance of the fire regime. Other potential threatening processes include predation by dingo and habitat degradation due to grazing by feral herbivores, especially horses (Pavey 2002).	eng
23325	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
23325	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in the north of the country from the Dampier Archipelago in Western Australia to Rockhampton on the Queensland coast (Fleming 2008).	eng
23325	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is generally associated with rocky outcrops (Fleming 2008). The vegetation cover is variable, ranging from riparian vegetation to open woodland with a grassy understorey. It breeds throughout the year. Females may give birth to up to four young after a gestation period of 35 days (Fleming 2008).	eng
23325	population	Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitat (Fleming 2008). There have been no documented declines.	eng
23325	threats	Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
23326	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	Many of the populations of this species are within the Kakadu National Park ? about 30% (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). Notwithstanding management actions, pervasive and frequent fire in the sandstone environments of Kakadu and adjacent areas remains a serious threat to habitat suitability for this species (J. Woinarski pers. comm.). There is also a need for maintenance and monitoring of sites across its range. There is a possibility that Cane Toads could help this species through decline of predators.	eng
23326	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Arnhem Land Plateau and Mt. Borradaile, Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
23326	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is found in rocky sandstone areas, deeply dissected by gorges and gullies, covered with deciduous vine thicket and an overstorey of monsoon rainforest (Begg 1981; Woinarski and Fleming 2008). The species breeds throughout the year, with litters of two or three young (Begg 1981). It is entirely terrestrial and nocturnal, and its diet includes seeds, fruit, and some other vegetable matter (Begg 1981; Woinarski 2005).	eng
23326	population	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is generally patchily distributed, but can be locally abundant (Woinarski and Fleming 2008). Trapping success rates exist, but there are not any real measures of population density (J. Woinarski pers. comm.).	eng
23326	threats	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	This species is restricted to a specific habitat-type found in a relatively small area. It is highly fire sensitive, and its main habitat is susceptible to fires (Begg <em>et al.</em> 1981; Woinarski 2005). Between 30-50% of rainforest patches that it relies on are severely damaged by fire (Russell-Smith and Bowman 1992). There are four monitoring sites where it has declined, two of which are no longer holding populations.	eng
23327	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is not present within any protected areas; sites are within pastoral stations. Monitoring is needed, along with fire control and prevention of grazing within the sites. The recovery plan for this species (Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2003) states the following priorities for the conservation of this species: declare known sites and manage them to eliminate threats; maintain a captive colony at the Territory Wildlife Park; carry out an experimental release program; and continue studies on the ecology of this species. Brook <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported that the most pressing management requirement was to limit uncontrolled fire (through preventative control burning around periphery of known sites).	eng
23327	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is known from five gorges in rocky sandstone ranges in the Northern Territory near the border with Queensland, Australia (Lee 1995; Puckey 2003; Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is probably not found outside these known sites. The former range of the species is not known (Lee 1995; Puckey 2003).	eng
23327	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	This little-known species is found only in a specific habitat type in a generally restricted area (Puckey <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is known from patches of monsoon vine thicket growing on scree slopes, and fringing escarpments, in sandstone gorges. It is also found in woodlands surrounding rainforest patches.	eng
23327	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	The species was first described in 1986 and is known from very few specimens (Puckey 2001). There are estimated to be approximately 700 individuals at Moonlight Gorge and 450 at Banyon Gorge. The total population is probably less than 2,000 individuals, however, no estimates have been made for the other sites (Puckey 2001).	eng
23327	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	It may have declined through a long-term reduction and fragmentation of it specific habitat due to climatic changes, possibly exacerbated by recent changes in fire regime (Lee 1995). Cattle grazing might be a threat, as grazing negatively impacts rainforest patches and their associated waterways (Puckey 2001). Feral cats may be a threat to this species as well, but their impact is unknown (Puckey 2001).	eng
23328	conservation	Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in some protected areas (e.g., Prince Regent Nature Reserve). Monitoring of populations would be wise given conspecific declines. The effects of fire and cattle grazing should be studied. Removal of cattle from sensitive areas of the species' habitat is needed (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). This species occurs on some offshore islands, though most are not protected for conservation.	eng
23328	distribution	Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the north and west Kimberley region of Western Australia, and the Buccaneer and Bonaparte Archipelagos (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). Limited surveys have been done in the intervening areas (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). It has recently been recorded near Kununurra, Western Australia, close to the type locality (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
23328	habitat	Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is lives in inaccessible country, where it is generally found in tropical moist forest patches in rocky and scree areas, usually with large boulders. It has also been recorded from open sandstone country with a scattered covering of low trees (Fleming and McKenzie 2008). It is known to breed throughout the year (Fleming and McKenzie 2008).	eng
23328	population	Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a patchily distributed, but relatively abundant in appropriate habitat. There is no evidence of declines in population.	eng
23328	threats	Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is threatened by loss of habitat through inappropriate fire regimes, in part caused by the opening up of forest patches to savanna grasses by cattle and other introduced herbivores (i.e., conversion of perennial grasses to annual grasses) (Fleming and McKenzie 2008).	eng
23426	conservation		This species presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Survey work is necessary to monitor the population status of this species.	eng
23426	distribution		This species is known only from the Mount Nimba region in Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. It presumably also occurs in Liberia, but there have not yet been any records. It is a montane species, occurring above 1,000m asl.	eng
23426	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland. It is a viviparous species, with the female nourishing the young internally prior to the birth of small toadlets.	eng
23426	population		It is apparently an abundant species within its small range, and a survey in 2003 succeeded in locating several individuals, even during the cold season when they are supposed to be inactive.	eng
23426	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to the mining of iron ore/bauxite is the biggest threat to this species, and new mining sites have been selected recently for mining in the Guinean part of Mount Nimba. There is a risk that mining could destroy the entire range of the species. Fires in the montane grassland might be a threat. The species is inherently at risk because of its small range.	eng
23900	conservation		There is a need for remaining intact lowland rainforest of Palawan to be designated as protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the levels of offtake of this species from the wild for the international pet trade; if proved to be a significant threat, then this species could also warrant listing by CITES.	eng
23900	distribution		This species occurs on the islands of Busuanga, Culion, and Palawan, all in the western Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites on Palawan. It is a lowland species occurring up to 300m asl, perhaps up to 500m asl.	eng
23900	habitat		This aquatic species inhabits clear, unpolluted swift-flowing mountain streams and rivers in lowland rainforests, where it usually floats near the surface of the water unless disturbed, when it will hide under submerged rocks. The breeding strategy of this species remains unknown. Tadpoles have never been observed, and eggs collected from gravid females were large, unpigmented, and few in number (Inger 1954), suggesting that it could possibly reproduce by direct development (Brown and Alcala 1983). However to date breeding habits have not yet been observed. It has not been found in open habitats outside forest.	eng
23900	population		It commonly occurs in large numbers where known, though the overall distribution is patchy and fragmented.	eng
23900	threats		The lowland rainforest habitat of this species is generally protected on the island of Palawan. However, some populations are threatened by habitat conversion, shifting agriculture, quarrying, large-scale mining, and pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural effluents. The collection of frogs for the pet trade (including internationally) is also a possible threat.	eng
25382	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
25382	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from one locality on Basilan Island, in the Philippines. A record of a larva from western Mindanao Island has been assigned to this species, but this requires verification, and so has not been used to map this species' range for this assessment.	eng
25382	habitat		It occurs in lowland and lower montane rainforest, where the adults are subterranean. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae that are believed to inhabit unpolluted streams, rivers and quiet pools near streams.	eng
25382	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known with certainty only from two specimens.	eng
25382	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
25390	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
25390	distribution		This species is known from mountain areas on Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded in at least half a dozen separate localities, and is found at 600-850m asl, and probably ranges higher than this.	eng
25390	habitat		It is known from lowland and submontane rainforest and associated agricultural habitats, where the adults are subterranean. The larvae inhabit unpolluted streams, rivers and quiet pools near streams. The adults and larvae have also been found in mud in recently cleared agricultural fields at forest edges.	eng
25390	population		It is apparently common, but is very localized and patchily distributed.	eng
25390	threats		It has been suggested that the main threats to this species are logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and pollution of streams and rivers from mining and agricultural effluents. However, the limited information available suggests that, as with other species of <em>Ichthyophis</em>, it is fairly adaptable to habitat modification, and might not be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
25954	conservation		The known range of the species is restricted to Parque Nacional do Itatiaia. More research is needed to confirm its extent of occurrence and whether or not it is a restricted range species. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required, and population monitoring is needed to investigate an apparent decline.	eng
25954	distribution		This species is known from Parque Nacional do Itatiaia in Serra da Mantiqueira on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, in southern Brazil, from 1,800-2,400m asl, and possibly also from Castanhal Grande, Óbidos, Pará State, Brazil.	eng
25954	habitat		This diurnal species occurs in swamp areas along rivers with limpid and cold waters. It deposits its eggs in temporary puddles formed by the rain. It is not known whether or not it is able to adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
25954	population		This is a very common species within its small range, but it appears to have declined recently (Eterovick <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
25954	threats		Threats to this species include tourism and recreation.	eng
26156	conservation		Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forested habitats on Mindanao and Bohol.	eng
26156	distribution		This species is known from Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol and Basilan Islands in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
26156	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests. It breeds and lays its eggs in tree holes.	eng
26156	population		It is common in forest and disturbed areas adjacent to forest.	eng
26156	threats		A major threat is the loss of the species' major habitat, the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to agriculture and human settlement.	eng
26210	conservation		Effective protection of the remaining forest on Camiguin is needed for this species. This is one of the smallest frogs in the Philippines and could be a useful species in flagship awareness campaigns. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine the identity of morphologically similar species on Mindanao.	eng
26210	distribution		This species is known only from Camiguin Island, in the Philippines. Records on Mindanao might be referable to this species.	eng
26210	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and reproduces by direct development. Eggs presumed to belong to this species have been observed under mosses in montane forests.	eng
26210	population		It is rare on Camiguin Island.	eng
26210	threats		An important threat is the loss of lower montane forest through shifting agriculture and illegal logging.	eng
26438	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao.	eng
26438	distribution		This species is found in Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao, in the eastern Philippines.	eng
26438	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and can also be found in disturbed areas adjacent to forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
26438	population		It is common in forest, and disturbed areas adjacent to forest.	eng
26438	threats		The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to agriculture (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.	eng
26459	conservation		It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, but there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitat on Mindoro.	eng
26459	distribution		This species is known only from Mindoro Island, in the Philippines, at elevations of 100-1,650m asl.	eng
26459	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It deposits its eggs in humus in tree ferns and pandan axils, and breeds by direct development.	eng
26459	population		It is common in suitable forest habitat, and also survives in small numbers in adjacent disturbed forested areas.	eng
26459	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and deforestation of the lower montane and lowland rainforest.	eng
27926	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Surveys and monitoring are required to determine population trends in this rare species. If there is any evidence of declines, action should be taken to protect the species. Research would be required to determine appropriate conservation measures.	eng
27926	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Surveys and monitoring are required to determine population trends in this rare species. If any evidence of declines is indicated, action should be taken to protect the species. Further research is necessary to determine appropriate conservation measures.	eng
27926	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Atelerix algirus</em> is endemic to the Mediterannean region, being found across north Africa from Morocco to Libya, in Spain, and on a number of islands including the Canary Islands, Djerba, Malta, Majorca, Ibiza and Formentera. It was formerly introduced to France, but is now extinct. Its occurence in continental Europe and on many of the islands within its range may be the result of introductions by man (Lapini 1999). It typically occurs at altitudes of 0 to 400 m, although it can reach altitudes of 900 m in Morocco (Lapini 1999).	eng
27926	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Atelerix algirus</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region, occurring across North Africa from Morocco to Libya, in Spain, and on a number of islands including the Canary Islands, Djerba, Malta, Majorca, Ibiza and Formentera. It was formerly introduced to France, but is now extinct there. Its occurrence in continental Europe and on many of the islands within its range may be the result of introductions by man (Lapini 1999). It typically occurs at altitudes of 0 to 400 m, although it can reach altitudes of 900 m in Morocco (Lapini 1999). The exact dates of introductions into many of the Mediterranean Islands are not known, but it is known that the species was introduced onto the Canary Islands in the 1890s (Hutterer 1983, R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
27926	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>A. algirus</em> found in a range of habitats including semi-desert, dry Mediterranean scrub, grasslands, pastures, cultivated fields, and gardens, sometimes in close proximity to human habitation. It is most often found in arid areas (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002), and forages at night for arthropods, small vertebrates, carrion, and fungi.	eng
27926	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is found in a range of habitats including semi-desert, dry Mediterranean scrub, grasslands, pastures, cultivated fields, and gardens, sometimes in close proximity to human habitation. It is most often found in arid areas  (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It forages at night for arthropods, small vertebrates, carrion, and fungi.	eng
27926	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is rare in mainland Europe, and on most of the islands within its range, although it is locally common on the Canary Islands, Malta and Formentera (Lapini 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
27926	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is difficult to record because of its nocturnal habits, therefore there are insufficient data available to be able to estimates population densities (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). However, in general hedgehog populations are decreasing across Mediterranean (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).	eng
27926	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Threats include accidental mortality on roads (roadkill). Populations may be limited by the availability of suitable habitat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is sometimes taken from the wild to be kept as a pet (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is also locally caught and eaten across the Mediterranean region. In Morocco it is used locally for medical purposes and appears in local witchcraft markets (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). Increasing numbers of roads and habitat loss are the most serious threats to the species, although it is unlikely they are major threats at present.	eng
27926	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Threats include roadkill. Populations may be limited by the availability of suitable habitat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). The species is sometimes taken from the wild to keep as a pet (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29401	conservation	Tirira, D. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs close to two protected areas (Sangay and Llangantes National Parks) but it has not yet been recorded in them. Further studies on distribution are required.	eng
29401	distribution	Tirira, D. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is known from only three localities along east Andean foothills (1,128 to 1,524 m) of central Ecuador (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is likely that the species is more widespread than presently known (D. Tirira pers. comm.)	eng
29401	habitat	Tirira, D. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is poorly-known; it occurs in premontane very humid tropical forest; it is terrestrial and apparently nocturnal.	eng
29401	population	Tirira, D. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is rare. This rodent is known only from three localities and records (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Tirira, in prep.).	eng
29401	threats	Tirira, D. & Weksler, M., 2008	Major threats are unknown.	eng
29402	conservation	Percequillo, A., Wecksler, M. & Patton, J. L., 2008	This species occurs in Floresta Nacional de Tapirape-Aquiri. It needs more research to determine habitat limitations (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29402	distribution	Percequillo, A., Wecksler, M. & Patton, J. L., 2008	This species occurs in the east and central Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas between the lower reaches of the Xingu and Tocantins Rivers (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Also it occurs in four localities from Para and Matto Grosso states, Brazil (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
29402	habitat	Percequillo, A., Wecksler, M. & Patton, J. L., 2008	This rodent occurs in the terra firme Atlantic Forest. It has typically captured on ground and under logs in viney forests and thickets and bambu thickets (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Other species of this genus are tied to pristine forest (Patton pers. comm.) so this species might be intolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
29402	population	Percequillo, A., Wecksler, M. & Patton, J. L., 2008	This species is not very common.	eng
29402	threats	Percequillo, A., Wecksler, M. & Patton, J. L., 2008	The major threat is deforestation due to soy bean plantation and cattle ranching as well as some logging.	eng
29403	conservation	Percequillo, A., Patton, J. & Pires-Costa, L., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
29403	distribution	Percequillo, A., Patton, J. & Pires-Costa, L., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in lowland tropical rainforests of eastern Amazonia—eastern and southern Venezuela, Guianas, northern anc central Brazil, and eastern Paraguay; including Trinidad; western limits indeterminate (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
29403	habitat	Percequillo, A., Patton, J. & Pires-Costa, L., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in primary, secondary, and degraded forest.	eng
29403	population	Percequillo, A., Patton, J. & Pires-Costa, L., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
29403	threats	Percequillo, A., Patton, J. & Pires-Costa, L., D'Elia, G., Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
29404	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas within the range.	eng
29404	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest, southeast Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005), from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro States, mostly in the lowlands.	eng
29404	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in lowland Atlantic forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000), which is the most highly altered piece of the Atlantic forest.	eng
29404	population	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	The information about its population is unknown.	eng
29404	threats	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.	eng
29405	conservation	Percequillo, A., Weksler M., Langguth, A., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
29405	distribution	Percequillo, A., Weksler M., Langguth, A., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay, southeastern Brazil (Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul states), and northeastern Argentina (as per Massoia 1975, Musser <em>et al.</em> 1998). (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
29405	habitat	Percequillo, A., Weksler M., Langguth, A., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is found in gallery forest in Cerrado and subtropical lowland forest.	eng
29405	population	Percequillo, A., Weksler M., Langguth, A., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	This species can be locally common or uncommon.	eng
29405	threats	Percequillo, A., Weksler M., Langguth, A., Patterson, B., D'Elia, G. & Teta, P., 2008	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
29408	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.	eng
29408	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	This species is known from French Guiana, central Guyana, from Manaus, Amazonas state, east and north of Pará state, Brazil, and then into the department of Guainia, Colombia. It has been recorded up to 100m asl.	eng
29408	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It inhabits lowland tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs in bromeliads, where the larvae also develop. It has oophagous tadpoles.	eng
29408	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is not numerous, but it is a common species. In the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana, however, it is the most commonly encountered anuran species (Ernst et al., 2005).	eng
29408	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	There are no known significant threats to this species.	eng
29414	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
29414	distribution		This species occurs east of the Andes, on the lower slopes, from northern Bolivia to southern Tucuman and Catamarca Provinces, Argentina. In Bolivia, it has been recorded in the Departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Tarija. In the northern part of its range, it occurs at 1,650-3,400m asl, and in the southern part of its range, it occurs at 500-3,000m asl.	eng
29414	habitat		It is a terrestrial and arboreal species that can be found in the forest or in open areas of montane cloud forest, in Alto-Andean vegetation, dry inter-Andean valleys and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Duellman <em>et al.</em> (1997) indicate that in high-elevation areas, it inhabits montane pastures; in the north, its range includes cloud temperate forest, while in the south, it occurs in deciduous premontane forest. It can be found in microhabitats around waterbodies, lotic or lentic lagoons, puddles, big or small streams or on the sides of a road. At night, males call from under bushes or brush woods, on the ground around waterbodies. During the day, they can be observed on rocks or perching on branches among rocks (Duellman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Köhler 2000). It breeds in most waterbodies, e.g. ephemeral ponds, roadside ditches and slow-moving streams, and deposits its eggs in water where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
29414	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
29414	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
29415	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is required to aid its conservation, for example to determine the limits of its range and its population status.	eng
29415	distribution		This is a poorly known species from two closely situated localities: San Jose on the Río Santa Rosa, and Tutumbaro on the Río Pienee, in the drainage of the Río Apurimac, both on the eastern face of the Andes in central Peru. The localities are about 12km apart in Ayacucho Department. Its altitudinal range is 1,005-1,840m asl. It might range more widely than is currently known.	eng
29415	habitat		This stream breeding species is present in disturbed montane cloud forest with bamboo, ferns and elephant ear plants.	eng
29415	population		Nothing is known about its population status.	eng
29415	threats		Its major threats are not known.	eng
29417	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
29417	distribution		This species is known only from one locality, a 6 x 25m pool at La Tapera, Aysen Province, in southern Chile (at approximately 44° 00'S; 71° 57'W), although it is likely to occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 450m asl.	eng
29417	habitat		This species inhabits steppe. Reproduction probably occurs in habitats such as pools or bogs.	eng
29417	population		It was collected from the type locality only in January and December 1995. At least two subsequent visits to the type locality occurred when the pool was dry and there were no frogs.	eng
29417	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
29418	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species has not been collected in any protected areas but it is likely to occur in some that are in its range.	eng
29418	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in cerrado (Goiás and Minas Gerais States) and caatinga (Paraíba and Pernambuco States) formations of northeast and central Brazil (Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998).	eng
29418	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent has been taken from cerrado habitat and gallery forest in Terezina de Goias (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It has been collected in moderately disturbed areas (Weksler and Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
29418	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is common.	eng
29418	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
29419	conservation		The original collection of this species occurred in Royal Chitwan National Park (Das 1998).	eng
29419	distribution		This species is endemic to Nepal. Reports from north-east India reflect a misidentification with <em>Rana danielii</em>. It is a lowland species occurring below 500m asl in the foothills of the Himalayan range. It probably occurs a little more widely, and can be expected to occur in India.	eng
29419	habitat		It is associated with terai grasslands, bushes and tropical <em>Shorea</em> forest in hilly areas. Specimens were collected by Das (1998) under logs in <em>Shorea</em> forest with scattered patches of short grass and bare earth. There is little information available concerning details of reproduction or larval habitat.	eng
29419	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
29419	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of selective logging of forests and changes in water management regimes (such as dam construction).	eng
29420	conservation	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas. Surveys, ecological studies, population monitoring, habitat management and protection of the species are recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
29420	distribution	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is endemic to western Nepal, where it is known only from the type locality of about 30 km south of Pokhara, Syangja district (Topál 1997). It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,300 m asl. The extent of occurrence and the area of occupancy is unknown (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
29420	habitat	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species except that this species has been recorded from subtropical forests (T.K. Shrestha pers. comm. January 2002) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
29420	population	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
29420	threats	Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land for agricultural purposes and mining operations (T.K. Shrestha pers. comm. January 2002) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
29425	conservation		It is known from Parque Estadual Pico do Paraná.	eng
29425	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, near Pico Paraná, in the state of Paraná, Brazil, at 1,700m asl.	eng
29425	habitat		It was found on sphagnum moss in montane savannah.	eng
29425	population		It is known from a single specimen collected in 1988, and there have been no records since, despite searches in 1999, 2001 and 2003 (Eterovick <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29425	threats		Tourism and fire could be threats to it.	eng
29426	conservation		There are no protected areas in the area from which this species is known, and there is an urgent need to maintain remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species. Ongoing surveys are needed to locate and monitor populations of this restricted range species.	eng
29426	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra de Caral (part of the Sierra de Merendón), Izabal, Guatemala, at 1,125-1,140m asl. It is not known if the species ranges more widely, and it seems very plausible that it is a restricted range endemic species (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
29426	habitat		It lives in subtropical old-growth wet forest, where it has been found on low vegetation and on a rock bank near a waterfall at night, and below a pile of dead palm leaves during the day. It breeds by direct development.	eng
29426	population		It is known only from three specimens.	eng
29426	threats		This species is threatened by the habitat loss that is proceeding very rapidly in the Sierra de Caral as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment (cattle ranching) (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
29430	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the species' habitat is in urgent need of protection. Additional survey work is needed to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species.	eng
29430	distribution		This species is known from a single specimen taken at Cerro Socopó, 84km north-west of Carora, in Falcón state, Venezuela (10.28N, 70.48W), at 1,250m asl. It is assumed to be restricted to the Cerro Socopó.	eng
29430	habitat		The Cerro Socopó is a relict of cloud forest surrounded by semi-arid vegetation. It presumably breeds by larval development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
29430	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
29430	threats		All of the area of Cerro Socopó has been severely affected by forest destruction for agriculture (crops and livestock), as well as by agricultural pollution.	eng
29431	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
29431	distribution		This Brazilian species is known from three localities in the southern part of the state of Bahia (Maracás, Planalto Baiano and Poções) and from one locality in the north-eastern part of the state of Minas Gerais (Salto da Divisa), where it occurs up to 960m asl.	eng
29431	habitat		It is a species of the scrub transition zone between the Atlantic rainforest and the inland dry Caatinga savannah. It lives inside bromeliads in dry forest and open rocky areas, and most likely breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
29431	population		It is known from only six specimens and is probably rare.	eng
29431	threats		There is no direct information on particular threats to it, but the localities from which it has been recorded are probably subject to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, livestock grazing, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.	eng
29432	conservation		Although Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén is very near to the type locality, populations of the species have not been reported from this protected area; there might be a need to extend the boundaries of this park to include the known type locality. The species is protected by national legislation in Peru. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the species, and captive-breeding programmes might be required to ensure its persistence.	eng
29432	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Llamaquizú stream, close to Oxapampa town, at 2,010m asl (Departamento: Pasco), Peru. It is thought to have a genuinely restricted distribution.	eng
29432	habitat		It is recorded from montane tropical rainforest. Its breeding habitat is not known.	eng
29432	population		It is a very rare species, and is known only from the type series.	eng
29432	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities.	eng
29433	conservation		It occurs in the several protected areas.	eng
29433	distribution		This species is widely distributed in most of the eastern Madagascar rainforest belt, at 50-900m asl.	eng
29433	habitat		It is associated with swamps in primary and secondary rainforest, and is not found in open areas. It breeds in swamps.	eng
29433	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
29433	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
29434	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
29434	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	This species occurs in central Chile; limits unknown (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
29434	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	Shrubs, in Chilean matorral.	eng
29434	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
29434	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
29435	conservation		The range of this species in Viet Nam includes Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
29435	distribution		This species is known from three localities in north-central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Inger and Kottelat 1998; B. Stuart pers. comm.), and from four localities in Viet Nam: Huong Son in Ha Tinh Province, Cha Lo in Quang Binh Province, and Pu Hoat and Pu Mat, both in Nghe An Province. It has been recorded from 200-1,300 masl.	eng
29435	habitat		It lives on boulders and rock faces along stream cascades and waterfalls in evergreen forest and tolerates some degree of habitat disturbance (Inger and Kottelat 1998; Stuart 1999).	eng
29435	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
29435	threats		This is a stream-breeding species that might be threatened by habitat loss due to logging and infrastructure development, but is particularly sensitive to changes in water quality and flow.	eng
29442	conservation		It occurs in Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro.	eng
29442	distribution		This species is known from Fazenda Neblina, at 1375 masl in the Serra do Brigadeiro, municipality of Araponga, and from the municipality of Ouro Preto (20 29' S, 43 35' W, 1248 masl), both in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil (Feio et al., 1999, Baêta et al., 2005). These localities are separated by ca 120 km (Baêta et al., 2005).	eng
29442	habitat		It has been found in the margins of temporary ponds, in which it makes a foam nest, and in swampy areas in moist rainforest, and in forest edges. It can tolerate slight disturbance to its habitat, but it does not occur in more degraded areas and is not found outside forest.	eng
29442	population		It is relatively common in suitable habitat.	eng
29442	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to fire and human settlement.	eng
29450	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas, but there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forests in the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres on Luzon. As its species name suggests, this is one of the smallest frogs in the Philippines (as small as 15mm in snout-vent length), and so could represent an important flagship species for conservation efforts in the region. There is also a need for further taxonomic research to resolve what might be a species complex.	eng
29450	distribution		This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres, on northern Luzon Island, and on Sibuyan Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from 400-1,000m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).	eng
29450	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests, and breeds by direct development. The males form calling aggregations.	eng
29450	population		It is common in many of the known localities.	eng
29450	threats		The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
29451	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.	eng
29451	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Banahaw, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
29451	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in mossy and montane rainforests, and breeds in the leaf-litter and deposits its eggs in terrestrial nests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
29451	population		It is very common above 800m asl on Mount Banahaw, and the population is apparently stable.	eng
29451	threats		This species is not likely to be threatened at present since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbance. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to these threatening processes.	eng
29452	conservation	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). It is not listed on CITES. It is present in Foret de Tiéa, which has had livestock and wild ungulates removed to aid habitat recovery. Otherwise not present in any reserves and no further conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Surveys on this species and the decline in its habitat, as well as monitoring of the invasive fire ants should be undertaken. The Pindaï forest in which this species is found is one of the largest remaining patches of sclerophyll forest in New Caledonia and needs to be protected.	eng
29452	distribution	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). <span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia exsuccida s.l.</span> occurs in north-western Grande Terre and is known from five widely-scattered and highly localized populations between Rivière Nehoué and Presqu'ile de Pindaï. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s.</span>&#160; is present at the southern three of these locations: Tinip, Foret de Tiéa and Pindaï. Occurs at altitudes up to 240 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.l.</span> is approximately 1,350 km², whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s.</span> is approximately 900 km². The area of occupancy for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.l</span>. is less than 25 km²<sup></sup>, whereas for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida s.s</span>. is 15 km<sup>²</sup>.<br/><br/>  [Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
29452	habitat	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species occurs in sclerophyll forest (Tiéa and Pindaï), gallery forest (Nehoué), closed forest (Kaala and Tinip) and maquis shrubland (Tinip). It is nocturnal and arboreal. It shelters during the day in tree holes, beneath loose bark and under logs and stones, and forages at night on trunks, twigs and foliage.	eng
29452	population	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span>, but it is assumed to have suffered substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss associated with the clearance of the west coast sclerophyll forests for agriculture and by wildfires. As a consequence, the remaining populations are fragmented and patchy in occurrence. This species is not common at any location.	eng
29452	threats	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> is further habitat loss and fragmentation from clearance and wildfires. Habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is also a concern, as is predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats). The introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is present at all the locations where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> has been recorded and is expected to have a serious impact (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The highly invasive Asian gecko <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemidactylus frenatus</span> is now present at all locations where <span style="font-style: italic;">B. exsuccida</span> has been recorded and this aggressive competitor is expected to have a detrimental effect.	eng
29453	conservation	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not protected in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species. As habitat degradation is impacting this restricted species, protected areas should be considered to help reduce the degree of threat. Monitoring is also necessary as if threats continue, significant declines may occur increasing the extinction risk of <em>B. pulchella</em>.	eng
29453	distribution	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Bavayia pulchella</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been recorded from only a small area of the main dividing range to the east of Bourail, Grande Terre. It is known from two localities about 6 km apart that may be part of one population, and are between 500-600 m above sea level (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). These sites are right on the provincial boundary.<em></em></p><p>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 12 km²<sup></sup>  and the area of occupancy at 2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of  occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width  of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around  the points), except for very widespread species where the  published  areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of  that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat  remains.]</p>	eng
29453	habitat	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p>Specimens have been collected from maquis shrubland and the margin of forests and pastureland (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also inhabits closed forest areas. This species is nocturnal and arboreal, foraging at night in the vegetation. It is not known whether it shelters by day in trees or on the ground.</p>	eng
29453	population	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered some reduction in extent as a result of habitat loss on the western slopes from wildfires and clearance for agriculture and at higher elevation from mining exploration. Still locally abundant at both known sites (Bauer <em>et al</em>. 1998), but searches elsewhere on the central ranges have failed to detect this species.	eng
29453	threats	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pulchella</span> is from wildfires reducing or destroying habitat, particularly at lower elevations on the western side of the range where it abuts ranch land. Habitat degradation from livestock and introduced ungulates is also an issue, again greatest on the western side. There is a risk that mining may occur on the range top (the area has been tracked in the past for nickel exploration). The invasive ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan 2000, 2001; Bauer and Sadlier 1993), is potentially a problem in closed humid forest habitat. Predation pressure from rodents and cats will be occurring throughout.	eng
29455	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
29455	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality, Fazenda Salvamento, Rio Uraricoera, Roraima, in Brazil.	eng
29455	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in flooded lowland tropical forest.	eng
29455	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
29455	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	Much of the interior forest in the region of the species' type locality is relatively well preserved. However, high rates of deforestation are occurring along the river courses in the area. It is not known if this habitat change is having any impact on the species.	eng
29458	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	There is need for specific surveys in the region of the type locality.	eng
29458	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is known only from a single specimen captured in April 1993 taken at 2,500 m on Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao (Bukidnon province) (Musser and Carleton 2005). This species is currently known only from the Kitanglad Range (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998), though we suspect that it is more widespread in mossy forest on Mindanao.	eng
29458	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The individual was found in a primary mossy forest with little disturbance (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Rickart <em>et al</em>. (1998) hypothesized that it is similar to <em>Archboldomys luzonensis</em>, which is diurnal and feeds on soft-bodied invertebrates. A semi-fossorial habit is inferred from a combination of external characters, including strong front feet with large claws, narrow head, tiny eyes, and dense, soft pelage (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
29458	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The population status of the species is unknown. Surveys using pitfall traps in the region of the type locality are required (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
29458	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
29459	conservation	Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M., 2008	Currently, this species' known range is within Penablanca Protected Landscape, but population surveys are needed in high elevation mossy forest in northern Sierra Madre mountains to verify whether or not the distribution extends over this region (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
29459	distribution	Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M., 2008	This species is known only from its type locality at Mt. Cetaceo, Cagayan Province, Luzon, Philippines and the Balbalasang region of Kalinga Province (Rickart and Heaney 2002).	eng
29459	habitat	Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M., 2008	This species occurs in mossy montane forest (Danielsen <em>et al</em>. 1994) from 1,500 to 1,650 m (D. Balete, M. Duya, and P. Alviola pers. comm.).	eng
29459	population	Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M., 2008	The species is known only from the holotype and one subsequent survey in 2005 that found six individuals. Surveys at lower elevations did not find the species (D. Balete, M. Duya, and P. Alviola pers. comm.) .	eng
29459	threats	Balete, D., Alviola, P. & Duya, M., 2008	There are no major threats at the known locality, which is a very remote and unpopulated area (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
29460	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It is present in the Anjanaharibe-Sud and Manongarivo Special Reserves and the Marojejy National Park.	eng
29460	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is generally found in montane areas (though there are a few records outside of montane areas) of the northern highlands and the eastern portion of the central highlands as far south as Moralambo. The distribution was previously thought to be discontinuous (Carleton 2003); however, new sampling in appropriate habitats continues to reveal new localities. It occurs at elevations between 410 and 1,875 m asl.	eng
29460	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species occurs in lowland to montane sclerophyllous forest. It is presumably a partly scansorial species. The females are presumed to give birth to up to three young. This species is forest dependent, and has not been captured outside of forest. May occur to just below the tree line, and has not been captured in alpine grasslands.	eng
29460	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species can reach notably high densities in montane forest (Goodman and Carleton 1998; Carleton and Goodman 2000).	eng
29460	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat for conversion to cultivated land. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
29461	conservation	Goodman, S., 2008	It is present in the Anjanaharibe-Sud Reserve Forest and the Marojejy National Park. There is a proposal to extend the Anjanaharibe-Sud Reserve Forest reserve further to the west, which would encompass one of the known localities of this species.	eng
29461	distribution	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern highlands of Madagascar, where it has been collected from Anjanaharibe-Sud massif and the Marojejy National Park. It is found at an elevation range of 1,300 to 1,950 m asl. There have been surveys in the surrounding areas without finding this species, although there may be issues with trapping techniques.	eng
29461	habitat	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in humid montane forest, and is only known from intact forest.	eng
29461	population	Goodman, S., 2008	&#160;Based on standard trapping techniques involving pit-fall traps and live traps, this species is never common.	eng
29461	threats	Goodman, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species since it occurs at elevations above 1,300 m, where the impacts of forest loss are diminished, and the bulk of its range is within protected areas.	eng
29462	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve and the Marojejy National Park. It is also known from the western slope of a massif outside of the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve which will soon become a protected area. Further research is needed into the population, range and biology and ecology of this species.	eng
29462	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is known only from two massifs in the northern highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of 1,225 to 1,950 m.	eng
29462	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is apparently restricted to a rather narrow elevational band of mid-montane to sclerophyllous montane forest.	eng
29462	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	Based on standard trapping techniques this species is relatively common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
29462	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no obvious major threats at present, but habitat loss from slash and burn/tavy cultivation is a potential future threat. Although this species has a restricted range, all of the records are within protected areas or from sites that will soon be protected.	eng
29463	conservation	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Costa, L., 2008	This species occurs in Jau National Park (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000), and Amana and Mamiraua protected areas as well (A. Percequillo and J. Patton pers. comm.). Surveys to the west of its present range (to Iquitos, Peru) would be very helpful.	eng
29463	distribution	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Costa, L., 2008	This species occurs in west central Amazonas state, Brazil, up to Jau River and both sides of the Rio Solimoes; adjacent Colombia and is likely to be found in northeastern Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000, J. Patton pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.	eng
29463	habitat	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Costa, L., 2008	This rodent has been reported from terra firma forest. Pregnant females have been recorded in May and October (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Nothing else is known about the habitat or ecology of this species (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29463	population	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Costa, L., 2008	This species is uncommon where it has been collected. This is the least represented member of the genus in scientific collections (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29463	threats	Patton, J., Percequillo, A. & Costa, L., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
29464	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Javari indigenous area is within the range of this species although the two localities for this species are outside the reserve. More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29464	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is known from two localities in the upper and lower central regions on the left bank of the Rio Juruá in the Amazonas State, Brazil; and one or two localities in the Loreto Department, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.	eng
29464	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in primary or second-growth terra firme forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Of specimens taken in September and October five of the 18 adult females collected were pregnant (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
29464	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is uncommon. It is known from a few specimens at the two localities, although there have not been further studies (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29464	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There were no major threats known to the species at the time it was described in the early 1990s (J. Patton pers. comm.)	eng
29465	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Some protected areas exist within its range, and the species has been collected from a National Park in Peru (J. Patton pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status.	eng
29465	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is known from only five localities in western Amazonia: two in the headwaters of the Rio Jurua Acre State, Brazil, and three in eastern and southeastern Peru in Ucayali, Madre de Dios and Puno departments (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). This species is replaced by <em>P. gardneri</em> to the east (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29465	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	All specimens in Rio Jurua and Peru were collected from undisturbed terra firme forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). The average litter is two. Further detailed information is not yet known. Data are inadequate to judge seasonality of reproduction, but breeding in the dry season has been confirmed (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
29465	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is uncommon. It is known only from a few specimens from five localities, although there have not been further studies within intermediate areas (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29465	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats known at this time; the isolated population is away from core development areas.	eng
29466	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Some protected areas exist within the distribution, but it has not been collected or observed from any protected areas (J. Patton pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to determine its conservation status.	eng
29466	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in two localities in western Amazonia, Brazil, and south of the Amazon River into northern Bolivia; its distribution may be limited by the Rio Jurua to the west, and Rio Madeira to the east (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its altitudinal range reaches 300 m asl.	eng
29466	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species occurs in forest that floods occasionally rather than annually (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Data are inadequate to judge seasonality of reproduction, but breeding in the dry season has been confirmed (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
29466	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species is known only from a few specimens at the three localities, although there have not been further studies (J. Patton pers. comm.).	eng
29466	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats known at this time; the most isolated population is away from core development areas.	eng
29470	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Desembarco del Granma (a World Heritage Site), but there is significant disturbance of the habitat in this park. Improved management of the existing protected area, particularly aimed at reducing disturbance around the caves, is necessary.	eng
29470	distribution		This species has a very restricted range, and is found in just two caves and one other locality, in Meseta de Cabo Cruz, in Cuba. It has been recorded from 10-50m asl.	eng
29470	habitat		It is associated with rocks, leaf-litter, and caves in lowland closed-canopy forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
29470	population		It is a moderately common species within the caves and other appropriate habitat.	eng
29470	threats		Habitat destruction as a result of disturbance by tourists and infrastructure development for tourism is the major threat, particularly since the caves are a popular tourist attraction.	eng
29471	conservation		It is known from a few protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species, and are in need of expansion and improved management.	eng
29471	distribution		This species is restricted to Cienfuegos Province, in Cuba, where it has been recorded from sea level up to 830m asl.	eng
29471	habitat		It inhabits a wide variety of mesic situations, including natural forest and some anthropogenic habitats such as plantations, as well as introduced vegetation. This suggests that it is able to tolerate some alteration of its habitat, although it does require large trees. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
29471	population		It is a very common species.	eng
29471	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation as a result of deforestation for agriculture, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the subsequent disturbance of the habitat due to tourist activities.	eng
29472	conservation		It is known from several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Viñales, but most are in need of improved management and protection.	eng
29472	distribution		This species is restricted to Pinar del Río Province, in western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to at least 700m asl.	eng
29472	habitat		It is found in rocky habitats and in the leaf-litter of moist forest, but has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
29472	population		It is common and abundant.	eng
29472	threats		Major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism, and agricultural pollution.	eng
29473	conservation	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., James, R., Fisher, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	<em>Pteralopex taki</em> is not present in any protected areas. Research is urgently needed to determine the impact of logging on it. Protection of suitable lowland forest habitat is urgently needed to conserve this species.	eng
29473	distribution	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., James, R., Fisher, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is restricted to the islands of New Georgia and Vangunu in the Solomon Islands. It is presumed to have become extinct on the island of Kolombangara in the mid-1970s (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002).	eng
29473	habitat	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., James, R., Fisher, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	This species appears to need a core range of mature lowland tropical moist forest containing large old trees. It usually flies below, rather than above, canopy level (Fisher and Tasker 1997). It appears to forage in old gardens and historical village-sites with large fig, Ngali (<em>Canarium</em> sp.) and Cut Nut trees (<em>Barringtonia edulis</em>), close to primary tropical moist forest (Flannery 1995). Animals roost in small colonies within hollow trees, particularly figs with a diameter of over 1.5 m (Fisher and Tasker 1997). Parnaby (2002) estimated the generation length of this species to be between eight and ten years.	eng
29473	population	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., James, R., Fisher, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	Uncommon. This species was the 9<sup>th</sup> most frequently netted out of 12 species of bats captured in a targeted study of the species on New Georgia by Fisher and Tasker (1997). It comprised 6% of captures. In ideal habitat (mature lowland forest close to stands of fruit trees, e.g., old village sites) population density estimated from the resighting rate of radio-collared bats over three months was around 3 per km<sup>2</sup>, and around 0.15 per km<sup>2</sup> in primary forest.<br/><br/>Population size inferred from the probable area of suitable habitat is around 500 mature individuals (min = 130, max = 5,000) (D. Fisher pers. comm.).	eng
29473	threats	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., James, R., Fisher, D. & Parnaby, H., 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss through logging operations and land clearance; it is also adversely affected by the conversion of land for agriculture, especially for oil palm plantations. It is particularly threatened by the removal of large roost trees (Parnaby 2002). The species is believed to have become extinct on Kolombangara because of extensive logging operations between 1966 and 1980 (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). There is some local hunting of this species, and while it is currently not intensively hunted, the hunting pressure on this species is predicted to rise with the increasing human population of the Solomon Islands (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). It occurs in accessible areas near coastal villages, and is easily caught (Fisher and Tasker 1997).	eng
29481	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Campbell, J.A., 2009	This species occurs in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve; however to what extent is not known. Further research into the population and habitat status, ecology and threats to this species are needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
29481	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Campbell, J.A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, and has a distributional area of 934 km². This species occurs between 1,829 and 2,300 m above sea level.	eng
29481	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Campbell, J.A., 2009	This species is found in both primary and secondary growth cloud forest and possibly also humid pine forest (P. Stafford pers. comm. 2008)	eng
29481	population	Stafford, P.J. & Campbell, J.A., 2009	This species is known only from three specimens, collected in 1978, 1993 and 1994 (Campbell and Smith 1998).	eng
29481	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Campbell, J.A., 2009	This species is threatened from habitat loss due to deforestation to make way for cultivated plants, in particular broccoli and ornamental-leaf fern (Campbell and Smith 1998). This species has a restricted range and therefore Campbell and Smith (1998) described it as a likely candidate for extinction.	eng
29482	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	The species has not been found within a protected area. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and natural history of this little known species.	eng
29482	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known from the type locality of '3km NW Fereydin Shahr, about 140km NW Esfahan, Zagros Mountains, Esfahan Province' (Rastegar-Pouyani and Nilson, 1998; Anderson, 1999), and from a second locality in the same area. It is presumably more widespread than is currently known. It has been recorded between 2,640 and 3,200m asl.	eng
29482	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is associated with hilly rocky areas and scant, low vegetation; it is not present in surrounding areas of plains (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). Animals are found foraging around and basking on boulders and rocks (Anderson, 1999).	eng
29482	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is relatively abundant where it occurs (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008	eng
29482	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species in its rocky habitat.	eng
29483	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	It has not been protected in a protected area so far. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
29483	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is endemic to western Iran, where it is currently known only from the type locality of '5km S Qasr-e Shirin, Kermanshah Province', however it may range further south and possibly into Iraq (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1998; Anderson, 1999). It has been collected at 285m asl.	eng
29483	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is found in arid areas of stony hills and soft-sandy alluvial soils covered with desert shrubs and grasses (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1998; Anderson, 1999).	eng
29483	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is known only from the type series of two specimens.	eng
29483	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	There seems to have been recent disturbance to the type locality, with no animals recently seen. The causes of the changes are not known and require further research.	eng
29484	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	The species is found in forest on the US military base on Okinawa. The forest patch where it is found on Amami-oshima is a forest reserve. There is an urgent need to protect mature forest. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
29484	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found in the Ryukyu Archipelago: Okinawa, Amami-Oshima, and Tokunoshima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It was first discovered in 1996 on Okinawa. The species is restricted to small fragments of intact mature forest on each of the islands. Surveys on several other forest patches have not indicated that the species is present.	eng
29484	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	This is the only tree hollow-dwelling bat known to be present on Okinawa. The species is dependent on intact mature forest.	eng
29484	population	Maeda, K., 2008	There have only been three individuals found on Okinawa, two on Tokunoshima, and four on Amami-oshima. The species occurs at low densities where surveys have been conducted.	eng
29484	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation.	eng
29485	conservation	Maeda, K., 2008	Some parts of Amami-oshima are protected in forest reserves (through the federal forest department and the prefecture). It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
29485	distribution	Maeda, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on the islands of Okinawa, Tokuno-shima, and Amami-Oshima (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). This species was first discovered in 1996.	eng
29485	habitat	Maeda, K., 2008	The species is dependent on mature forest. They roost in tree hollows.	eng
29485	population	Maeda, K., 2008	There have been ten records from the northern part of Okinawa. Twenty surveys have been conducted since 1992 on Okinawa and Tokuno-shima. There was one survey in 2000 on Amami-oshima on three nights, and three individuals were found. Previously, there were not many surveys for this species. It appears that this species occurs at a low density when compared with congeneric species.	eng
29485	threats	Maeda, K., 2008	There is deforestation on all three islands which is affecting the species, as it is dependent on mature, intact forests.	eng
29487	conservation	Débora Silvano, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
29487	distribution	Débora Silvano, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	This species is known from Boracéia (municipality of Salesópolis), Picinguaba (municipality of Ubatuba), and Reserva Florestal Morro Grande (municipality of Cotia), all in eastern São Paulo State, and adjacent Parati, in southern Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Individuals have been found at elevations between sea level and 900 metres (Pimenta et al., 2007; Verdade et al., 2008).	eng
29487	habitat	Débora Silvano, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	It occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and good quality secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus, although this hasn't been observed. Females deposit one egg at a time. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
29487	population	Débora Silvano, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	It is a fairly abundant species.	eng
29487	threats	Débora Silvano, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	Habitat loss due to deforestation of the Atlantic Forest for agriculture and infrastructure development are threats to this species.	eng
29488	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed; this species is extinct.	eng
29488	distribution		This species is known only from two specimens that were collected on 12 June 1964, two miles south of Bay Springs, Jasper County, Mississippi, USA (Lazell 1998).	eng
29488	habitat		The specimens were collected in springhead litter (Lazell 1998). It was presumably a terrestrial breeder with a direct development breeding strategy.	eng
29488	population		It is probably extinct because the species has not been observed since 1964, and members of this genus are relatively easy to detect.	eng
29488	threats		Although the threats are not well known, it seems possible that habitat loss through deforestation might have caused the species' extinction.	eng
29588	conservation		Although the forests on Palawan are, in general, reasonably well protected in much of the island, more effective protection of the remaining rainforest on the island, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests, is necessary. Further survey work is also needed to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
29588	distribution		This species is found only on Palawan Island, in the Philippines. The type locality was at an elevation of 1,500m asl.	eng
29588	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in riverine habitat in montane and lowland forests. Its breeding biology is unrecorded, but it presumably takes place in water by larval development.	eng
29588	population		It is apparently rare, and there have been no field observations of this species for more than 40 years, though this may be an artefact of limited survey work.	eng
29588	threats		The loss of lowland rainforest, mainly due to agricultural activities and selective logging, is a major threat to this species.	eng
29591	conservation		The most important conservation measure needed at present is the continued management of Mount Isarog National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
29591	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Isarog (1,200-1,800m asl), on south-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It might also occur on Mount Malinao, from 650-1,500m asl.	eng
29591	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and deposits its eggs on leaves in shrub layer vegetation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
29591	population		It is common in mid- to upper-montane forests on Mount Isarog, and its populations appear to be stable.	eng
29591	threats		It inhabits high-elevation forests in what is presently a generally well-protected locality, and is relatively less threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and human encroachment. Nonetheless, it remains susceptible to these threats particularly given its very small range.	eng
29599	conservation	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Gazetting a protected area in Tawi Tawi Island.	eng
29599	distribution	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Endemic to the Philippines: Tawi Tawi and Bongao Islands.	eng
29599	habitat	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Small forest streams.	eng
29599	population	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
29599	threats	Hämäläinen, M., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
29600	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations and extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area are urgently needed. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
29600	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.	eng
29600	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland rain-forest streams (750 m).	eng
29600	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
29600	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
29602	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
29602	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
29602	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
29602	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from The Gambia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded for Cameroon and Gabon, and reported from Equatorial Guinea. Records for Equatorial Guinea and Gabon need to be checked.	eng
29602	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from The Gambia to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found outside the western Africa region in Cameroon	eng
29602	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from The Gambia to Cameroon. Records for Equatorial Guinea and Gabon need confirmation.	eng
29602	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open rivers.	eng
29602	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open rivers.	eng
29602	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open rivers.	eng
29602	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
29602	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Current population size is unknown.	eng
29602	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
29602	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
29602	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known at present.	eng
29602	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None known at present.	eng
29603	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are needed, along with confirmation of extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored. Present in Parque Nacional Guanacaste (unpublished record from R.W. Garrison).	eng
29603	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Pacific slope of Costa Rica to Canal Zone of Panama.	eng
29603	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Swift forest streams in hilly country (425 m).	eng
29603	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
29605	conservation	Garcia, M., Perez, N. & Wiewandt, T., 2000	The Mona iguana is listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the PR-DNRE.  In 1984, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service approved a recovery plan for the Mona iguana prepared by C. Diaz, PR-DNRE (Diaz 1984).   <br/> <br/>During the last 25 years, the PR-DNRE has instituted some important changes.  The hunting season on Mona has been moved to a time outside the iguana nesting and incubation seasons.  Together with the local herpetological society, Sociedad Chelonia, the government has created several new nesting areas on the southwestern coastal terrace.  A number of clearings in the Casuarina forest have been established that are fenced off from goats and pigs but allow iguanas to pass freely.  Fencing of remote nest sites is currently being undertaken by the PR-DNRE, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Caribbean Office, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Sociedad Chelonia, and the Toledo Zoo.  Researchers at the PR-DRNE and the Toledo Zoo have additionally begun to assess the nature of the blindness syndrome seen in several adult iguanas.  Currently, PR-DNRE is conducting a long-term study to quantify the impact of feral cats on Mona Island wildlife.	eng
29605	distribution	Garcia, M., Perez, N. & Wiewandt, T., 2000	The Mona Island iguana is endemic to the remote island of Mona, a low-profile limestone plateau situated midway between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. The 11 by 7 km island lies within a deep sea channel known as the Mona Passage, and present submarine banks offer no evidence of former connections with either Puerto Rico or Hispaniola. The entire island is occupied by iguanas.	eng
29605	habitat	Garcia, M., Perez, N. & Wiewandt, T., 2000	Mona’s climate is dry subtropical (800 mm rainfall per year), supporting an open canopy forest of short, seasonally deciduous trees, shrubs, cacti, and bromeliads.  Rainwater percolates rapidly through the porous limestone substrate, allowing no freshwater streams or ponds.  Solution channels and sinkholes that penetrate the island’s rock topography offer underground shelters that are utilized by both male and female iguanas, and retreats attractive to females are vigorously defended by males.  Some males hold territories year-round, while others defend them only during the brief June mating season. <br/> <br/>Because more than 95% of Mona’s surface is rock, females must migrate to scarce soil deposits for nesting.  The onset of the two-week, mid-summer nesting season appears to be cued by photoperiod and females are especially wary at this time.  Most egg laying (74%) occurs in sandy clearings on the island’s southern coastal terraces, with the remaining 26% in sinkhole depressions (Haneke 1995).  Mean clutch size is 12 eggs.  Surviving eggs hatch approximately 83 days after laying, during the latter half of October.  Newly emerged young are large and only the smallest juveniles are susceptible to indigenous predators.  Coloration and behavior of hatchlings suggests that aerial predators have long been a threat to this age class (Wiewandt 1977).   <br/> <br/>Females require 6 to 7 years to reach sexual maturity.  Although longevity records are not available, Mona iguanas, like all large rock iguanas, are probably among the longest lived lizards in the world.  Consequently, populations are slow to recover from losses over time. <br/> <br/>Mona iguanas are primarily herbivorous, with a strong preference for fruits that fall from native trees.  Some animal matter is eagerly taken, especially caterpillars when available.  Trees reach their greatest size and diversity in scattered sinkhole depressions, areas that are of particular importance to the welfare of the iguana population.	eng
29605	population	Garcia, M., Perez, N. & Wiewandt, T., 2000	Census figures indicate that the Mona iguana population is abnormally small. A survey of the similarly-sized rhinoceros iguana on Petite Gonave Island in Haiti indicated densities 26 times greater than those found on Mona. Wiewandt found that immature iguanas were scarce on Mona, representing only 5-10% of the population (Weiwandt 1977), and Moreno sighted only two juveniles among 118 iguanas seen (Moreno 1995).  This contrasts sharply with Garcia’s unpublished data for rhinoceros iguanas (<em>C. cornuta cornuta</em>) on Isla Beata in the Dominican Republic, where all age classes are abundant and juveniles comprise approximately one-third of the population (see Grupo Jaragua 1994).  Low iguana densities and the scarcity of juveniles on Mona suggest a senescent and declining population.	eng
29605	threats	Garcia, M., Perez, N. & Wiewandt, T., 2000	The most pressing conservation management challenge on Mona today is that of exotic species.  Having evolved in the near absence of predators, insular iguanas lack the behavioral and demographic attributes to cope with introduced mammals.  Feral pigs regularly plunder iguana nests.   <br/> <br/>Feral cats are also present on Mona, and constitute the most serious threat currently impacting young iguanas.  The devastating impact of cats on a population of Turks and Caicos iguanas was clearly documented (Iverson 1978), and there is little doubt that the present scarcity of juveniles on Mona is due primarily to the combined effects of pigs consuming eggs and cats preying on young. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification due to intense browsing pressure by feral goats (resulting in forest trees being unable to propagate successfully and a severe reduction in leaf litter) may also threaten the iguanas. <br/> <br/>Although lacking permanent settlements, Mona is a haven for recreational activities, including camping, fishing, swimming, scuba diving, beach combing, exploring, and hunting.  Most of these activities are concentrated along the island’s sandy coastal terraces and within sinkhole depressions, areas of critical importance for iguana nesting.  Haneke (1995) observed that new camping facilities had been recently added in iguana nesting areas at Playa de Pajaros.  Mona iguanas are wary and easily disturbed while nesting, and visitors can unintentionally disrupt the egg-laying process.  People and feral animals walking through nest site clearings during incubation may cause nest chambers to capsize, denying oxygen to developing eggs.  These and other conflicts between iguanas and visitors are bound to intensify as recreational use of the island continues to expand.  Goats regularly gather in sinkhole depressions on Mona’s plateau, and this may partially explain Heneke’s (1995) observation of complete nest failure there.  Mona may have already exceeded its carrying capacity for low impact tourist visitation.  Better supervision over visitors, particularly by strengthening educational programs, will become increasingly important as the number of people coming to Mona continues to grow.  <br/> <br/>Another recent concern for conservation of Mona iguanas is the emergence of an undefined disease or parasite that causes blindness.  Recently, Haneke (1995) observed 15 blind adults on Mona, all with opaque, bluish eyes and apparently severely undernourished.  Ramos (1964; cited in Kuns <em>et al</em>. 1965) lists 16 species of eye flies (family Chloropidae) occurring on Mona, including <em>Hippelates pusio</em>, which has been incriminated in the spread of catarrhal conjunctivitis in the United States.  Studies are urgently needed to identify the pathogens and vectors responsible for blindness in the Mona iguana population.	eng
29606	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Research actions.	eng
29606	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia (3 localities in Colombia), and west Venezuela (Simmons, 2005).	eng
29606	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is exclusively insectivorous. Lives in cloud forest, paramo and flies in open spaces.	eng
29606	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Venezuela it is uncommon (Linares, 1998) and rare over its range.	eng
29606	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Not known.	eng
29607	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitats.	eng
29607	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is endemic to lowlands of the Guiana Shield. It is present in Bolivar State, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (Lim and Engstrom 2000).	eng
29607	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat is poorly known. Its natural history is similar to other species of <em>Lasiurus</em>. It has been found in multistratal tropical evergreen forest and deciduous tropical forest; also in open areas. It may roost in hollow trees and feed aerially on insects (Emmons and Feer 1997, Linares 1998).	eng
29607	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare. Known from only 20 specimens.	eng
29607	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species at present.	eng
29608	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known to exist in a number of protected areas in the north-east (Eger and Mitchell 2003) and many along the west coast (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29608	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it appears to be widely distributed (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). The areas from where it has yet to be recorded may reflect low sampling effort rather than a genuine absence.	eng
29608	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is a cave roosting species (Goodman 2006; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007) and in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana it used caves that are near water with low ceilings (Cardiff 2006). It has been recorded from a wide range of vegetation types including humid forest, dry deciduous forest and spiny bush (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
29608	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There was a maximum of 90 individuals recorded at a roost in Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff pers. comm.), but otherwise this species always appears to roost in rather small colonies (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its relative abundance, as determined by mist netting, varies from rare (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007) to locally common (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
29608	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is threatened by roost site disturbance. This species is locally hunted in the south-west and north-west of Antananarivo (Goodman 2006; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008) and as a relatively large species may be subject to similar exploitation elsewhere. There is no evidence that hunting presents a major threat. It is unclear if this species is forest dependent.	eng
29617	habitat	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Found on rocks and near crags between 1,800-2,350 m asl.	eng
29618	distribution	Madhyastha, N.A., 2000	Occurs in India, Western Ghats. Originally from two specified sites, one in Karnataka State and one in Koyna Valley, Maharashtra State.	eng
29618	habitat	Madhyastha, N.A., 2000	This is a freshwater species that lives attached to rocks, in clusters of three to ten individuals, only occasionally exposed, usually submerged.	eng
29619	conservation	Durate, J.M.B., Vogliotti, A. & Barbanti, M., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas across its range. The Red Brocket Deer is one of the focal species in a community-based wildlife management initiative in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Community Reserve of the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
29619	distribution	Durate, J.M.B., Vogliotti, A. & Barbanti, M., 2008	The red brocket deer distribution ranges across northern South America from northern Argentina (Misiones, Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán, Formosa, Chaco and  Corrientes), Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Trinidad, Tobago, and Venezuela (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Medellín <em>et al.</em> 1998; Juliá and Richard, 2001, Wilson and Redder, 2005).	eng
29619	habitat	Durate, J.M.B., Vogliotti, A. & Barbanti, M., 2008	This is the largest species of the Mazama genus. It weighs between 30 and 40 Kg and is 65 cm tall (Duarte, 1996).  Ribeiro (1919) and Vieira (1955) believe that this species occurs from Guianas and Peru to Rio Grande do Sul State of Brazil, including Paraguay and Argentina. Junqueira (1940) states that the Red Brocket Deer prefer large forests and riverbanks that are almost always covered with vast vegetation, thereby avoiding the sun.  In Argentina, Olrog and Lucero (1981) reported that <em>M. americana</em> inhabits closed fields. As Emmons (1990) stated, this species is adapted to living in forests. According to Bodmer (1997), this species in the Amazon prefer firm, humid forest borders. In the rain forests, Red Brocket Deer are predominantly frugivores with fruit making up around 80% of their diet. During seasonally dry periods the diet of <em>M. americana</em> switches to greater proportions of browse.	eng
29619	population	Durate, J.M.B., Vogliotti, A. & Barbanti, M., 2008	The species is suspected to be widespread at low density in northern and northwestern Venezuela. In some areas this species has been overhunted (in densely human populated, rural areas) but likely still occurs at natural densities in the vast sparsely populated areas of the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
29619	threats	Durate, J.M.B., Vogliotti, A. & Barbanti, M., 2008	Hunting and habitat destruction represent major threats. The species is hunted for meat throughout much of its range (Dietrich pers. comm.). Subsistence hunting of Red Brocket Deer is legal in the Amazonian region of Peru.	eng
29620	conservation	Black, P. & Vogliotti, A., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its distribution: 5 national parks and 9 provincial reserves in Argentina; in almost all national parks and private reserves in Paraguay; in 7 national protected areas in Bolivia and in numerous protected areas in Brazil.  Hunting is illegal in many places (several Argentine provinces, for example) but the bans are not enforced. Recommended actions would be to implement and enforce controls on hunting, control stray dogs and to educate rural and village populations to conserve the deer rather than immediately trying to kill any individual that they see in the area.	eng
29620	distribution	Black, P. & Vogliotti, A., 2008	The brown brocket deer is found east of the dry, pre-Andean regions in Argentina and Bolivia, extending to the Atlantic coast on the west; its northern limit is south of the Amazon region and its southern limit includes all of Uruguay and up to the province of Entre Rios in Argentina.  Although some authors report its distribution throughout all of Brazil, more recent evidence indicates its substitution by M. nemorivaga in the region of the Amazon (Duarte 1996; Duarte and Jorge 1998; Rossi 2000; Weber and Gonzalez 2003).	eng
29620	habitat	Black, P. & Vogliotti, A., 2008	This species occurs in moderately humid to dry regions  where there are areas of woody or brush cover. It is not found in the Amazon region and it avoids dense forests in other regions as well, although it occupies the edges of forests. It does not live in open areas but will feed in these areas, including many types of agricultural plantations, if cover is available nearby. It is found in both dry and moist Chaco regions (Cartes 1998; Chiarello 1999; Gonzalez 2004; Pinder 1997; Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997; Rivero <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It eats  a wide variety of plant species and is a selective feeder. It has pulses of frugivory depending on the area, season and availability of frutis, but is not essentially frugiverous in many areas; its habitat is not consistent with a frugivorous diet since it avoids forests where most of the fruit is found (Caballero 2001; Cartes 1998; Julia 2002; Pinder 1997; Stallings 1984).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs almost all year around with births in all months except May, June and July in Argentina and Bolivia and correlated with the rainy season in Brazil (Chavez 1999; Julia 2002). There is a post partum estrus and a gestation period of 7 months.<br/><br/>Mazama gouazoubira is a small to medium sized deer, with head and body length 882-1060 mm, tail length 83-190 mm, and ear length 95-121 mm (Rossi, 2000); shoulder height 500-650 mm and weight 11-25 kg (Duarte and Jorge 1998).  In Brazil, regional, ecological and individual variations in coloration of M. gouazoubira have frequently been reported (Duarte 1996; Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997; Rossi 2000). Light and brownish colors prevail in individuals living in grasslands, while forest populations tend to be darker and grayer; significant individual variation exists within a single population. M. gouazoubira can be readily distinguished from the most similar species, the Amazonian brown brocket Mazama nemorivaga, by its orange rump and dorsal side of the tail, larger rounded ears, smaller eyes and orbital cavities, and wider auditory bulla rather than chocolate brown rump and dorsal side of the tail, small pointed ears, large eyes, large orbital cavities, and narrow auditory bulla of the latter species (Duarte 1996; Rossi 2000).	eng
29620	population	Black, P. & Vogliotti, A., 2008	Populations seem to be decreasing due to the advance of human populations. There is no evidence of fragmented populations and the species continues to be abundant in most of its range, decreasing or disappearing when close to human populations. Densities vary greatly. In Brazil densities of 0.35 – 1 individual/km² have been found (Pinder 1997); in Bolivia densities of 5-12 individuals/km² have been found (Rivero <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
29620	threats	Black, P. & Vogliotti, A., 2008	In Argentina populations are generally declining due to hunting pressure and habitat loss. International hunting expeditions are organized in Argentina (Julia 2002). In Bolivia the populations seem to be staying constant in spite of great hunting pressure. In Brazil this is the most abundant deer species in the country, but populations are declining in certain areas (Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro). In Paraguay, the populations in general are remaining constant, but the species has disappeared from recently urbanized areas and areas of high human density. In general there is heaving hunting pressure and loss of animals due to kills by dogs as well as habitat loss.	eng
29621	conservation	Abril, V.V. & Duarte, J.M.B., 2008	In Brazil with respect to protected areas, the species is mentioned in Iguaçu National Park, Lauraceas State Park, Pau Oco State Park, Boguaçu State Park, in the Private Reserve of the Natural Patrimony (RPPN) Federal das Araucárias (General Carneiro city) and RPPN Monte Alegre Farm in Telêmaco Borba city (J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.).<br/>In Misiones, Argentina, many conservation units shelter important populations of this species, such as the Iguaçu National Park and the State Parks of Urugua-í, Foerster, Piñalito, Cruce Caballero, Esmeralda, Moconá y Cuña Pirú (D.M. Varela pers. comm.). In Paraguay, the majority of the Atlantic Forest habitats are extinct, what remains is in protected areas such as Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú and the Itaipu Hydroelectric Power Plant Reserve. Currently, San Rafael National Park, which has records of the species, suffers many pressures and threats (J.L. Cartes pers. comm.)	eng
29621	distribution	Abril, V.V. & Duarte, J.M.B., 2008	Known from a small sample of specimens in museums, this species was formerly included within the little dwarf brocket, Mazama rufina (Redford and Eisenberg 1992). For Redford and Eisenberg (1992) and Eisenberg and Redford (1999) this species occurs in southeast Paraguay, north of Misiones Province in Argentina, and in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais (extreme south), São Paulo (except Serra do Mar), Mato Grosso do Sul (south and southeast), Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (north). However, this distribution is not consistent with the origin of scarce material in the Brazilian scientific collections that restrict its distribution to the southwest of Sao Paulo (to the south of Paranapanema River), Parana, Santa Catarina and north of Rio Grande do Sul (Rossi 2000).<br/><br/>The loss of preferential habitats could have caused the occupation of forest formations less preferred by the species. This would explain the recent records in the east of Parana and Santa Catarina (Montane Forest and Submontane Ombrophilous Dense Forest) (Margarido and Braga 2004, J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.) and the absence of historical records in these regions (Rossi 2000).<br/><br/>The National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay has records of <em>M. nana</em> in San Rafael National Park region (Gamarra de Fox and Martin 1996) and in Argentina, the species may be found in almost all the remaining natural forests of Misiones Province (D.M. Varella pers. comm.).	eng
29621	habitat	Abril, V.V. & Duarte, J.M.B., 2008	The Brazilian red brocket probably resembles the other dwarf brockets (<em>M. rufina</em> and <em>M. chunyi</em>) in many aspects of its ecology, and merits detailed study in the field. According to Crespo (cited in Eisenberg in prep.), a single spotted fawn is born between September and February in northeastern Argentina. The habitat in eastern Paraguay is moist forest with an understory of bamboo thickets.There is evidence of an annual cycle of antler growth and casting in the captive animals in Argentina (Chebez and Varela 2001). In Brazil, this cycle apparently does not exist (J.M.B. Duarte pers. comm.). This is the smallest deer species in Brazil, rarely exceeding 15 kg and 45 cm height (Duarte 1996). According to Rossi (2000) the animals have an intense and shiny reddish - chestnut general coloration. The submandibular, maxillary and ventral regions are light brown. The ears are small, somewhat slender and sometimes almost totally hairless. Czernay (1987) describes the hind legs as darker than the forelegs, which are shorter, giving origin to the Brazilian common name (mão-curta = short-hand) (Mikich and Bérnils 2004).	eng
29621	population	Abril, V.V. & Duarte, J.M.B., 2008	There is no precise information on the population size in any of the areas where it has been observed nor on the degree of connectivity between them, but it is likely that its populations are being decreased by the decline of the moist lowland forests within its range.	eng
29621	threats	Abril, V.V. & Duarte, J.M.B., 2008	In spite of all the uncertainties in ecological and biological aspects, it is the most threatened deer of Brazil and possibly of the Neotropical region. The population isolation caused by habitat loss in the past must be the main threat to the maintenance of the remaining population at the present time. The fragmentation tends to increase pressures, such as: hunting, predation by dogs, the exposure to the diseases of domestic species, and the progressive degradation of small forest fragments (edge effect) (Galindo- Leal and De Gusmão Câmara, 2003).<br/><br/>In Paraguay, the populations are also threatened due to loss of habitat (J.L.Cartes pers. comm.) <br/>In Argentina, M. nana is considered as vulnerable although the populations of Misiones Province seem to be stable (Diaz and Ojeda 2000). One of the major conservation problems is hunting, mainly in the provincial parks and private forests. However, the construction of roads has increased the number of road-kills and could be affecting the populations.	eng
29622	conservation	Weber, M., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	The Yucatan peninsula has two large Biosphere Reserves. The Yucatan brown brocket has been confirmed to exist in one of them (Calakmul Biosphere Reserve), and it likely occurs in Sian Ka’an Reserve as well. Confirmation and status surveys are needed. The species is also known to occur in an area of Yucatan that has been sustainably managed for timber production and other forest products for at least two decades. However, populations of this deer exist outside protected areas and in large forested communal lands know as “ejidos” in Mexico.	eng
29622	distribution	Weber, M., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	This is a recently re-discovered species. The range of the species is not completely known, but includes most of the Yucatan peninsula (Mexico), and marginally extends into northern Guatemala and Belize.	eng
29622	habitat	Weber, M., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this species. For many years it was considered to be a disjunct population of the brown brocket deer. It is a habitat generalist and highly adaptable deer. Since 1996, the first author is been studying its biology and ecology in South-eastern Mexico.	eng
29622	population	Weber, M., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	The species seems to be fairly abundant locally, and in some parts of Yucatan it seems to be more common than the brown brocket.	eng
29622	threats	Weber, M., de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A.D., 2008	The species is currently a staple food of the Mayan people, but undoubtedly has also been hunted for many centuries. The effects of hunting on local populations, as well as the effects of deforestation should be examined.	eng
29650	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. It is also legally protected in many countries within its range.	eng
29650	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. It is also legally protected in many countries within its range.	eng
29650	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Erinaceus europaeus</em> is endemic to Europe (including European Russia), with a global distribution extending from the British Isles and the Iberian peninsula, westwards through much of western to central Europe; and from southern Fennoscandia, and the northern Baltic to north-west Russia. It was introduced recently to the Azores (Portugal); the species was recorded there in the 1990s (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). In the Mediterranean, it occurs in Portugal, France (including Corsica), Spain and Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily but not present on Malta).	eng
29650	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Erinaceus europaeus</em> is endemic to Europe (including European Russia), with a global distribution extending from the British Isles and the Iberian peninsula, westwards through much of western to central Europe; and from southern Fennoscandia, and the northern Baltic to north-west Russia. It was introduced recently to the Azores (Portugal); the species was recorded there in the 1990s (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). In the Mediterranean, it occurs in Portugal, France (including Corsica), Spain and Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily but not present on Malta).	eng
29650	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>E. europaeus</em> thrives in a variety of man-made habitats including orchards, vineyards, farmland, parks and gardens, including those in urban areas. It also occurs in deciduous woodland, woodland edge and grasslands, although it is less common in these areas (Lapini 1999). Also occurs in maquis (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29650	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>E. europaeus</em> thrives in a variety of man-made habitats including orchards, vineyards, farmland, parks and gardens, including those in urban areas. It also occurs in deciduous woodland, woodland edge and grasslands, although it is less common in these areas (Lapini 1999). Also occurs in maquis (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29650	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This generally is a relatively common and widespread species. It is rare in Sardinia (Italy), where it is hunted with dogs (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The is no evidence of any population decline in most parts of its range. Many of the island populations have been introduced there from the mainland (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29650	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	This generally is a relatively common and widespread species. It is rare in Sardinia (Italy), where it is hunted with dogs (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The is no evidence of any population decline in most parts of its range. Many of the island populations have been introduced there from the mainland (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29650	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across most of its range. In some areas, many hedgehogs are killed by collision with cars, but this is unlikely to cause serious population declines (Huijser 1999, Verkem <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is locally hunted and eaten in parts of its range, but this is a localised activity and is also not considered a serious threat to the species.	eng
29650	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across most of its range. In some areas, many hedgehogs are killed by collision with cars, but this is unlikely to cause serious population declines (Huijser 1999, Verkem <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is locally hunted and eaten in parts of its range, but this is a localised activity and is also not considered a serious threat to the species.	eng
29651	conservation	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs within protected areas.	eng
29651	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention in parts of its range where this applies, and it occurs within protected areas.	eng
29651	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention in parts of its range where this applies, and it occurs within protected areas.	eng
29651	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Crocidura leucodon</em> occurs in Europe and western Asia (France to the Caspian Sea). In the Mediterranean region it ranges from northwestern France, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula, and extending south through Turkey to Israel. It is absent from the Iberian peninsula and southern France. The only Mediterranean island on which it is known to present is Lesbos (Greece). It has been recorded from sea level to around 2,500 m.	eng
29651	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Crocidura leucodon</em> occurs in Europe and western Asia (France to the Caspian Sea). In the Mediterranean region it ranges from northwestern France, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula, and extending south through Turkey to Israel. It is absent from the Iberian peninsula and southern France. The only Mediterranean island on which it is known to present is Lesbos (Greece). It has been recorded from sea level to around 2,500 m.	eng
29651	distribution	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Crocidura leucodon </em>occurs in Europe and western Asia, from north-west France in the west to the Caspian sea in the east, extending as far south as Israel. In Europe, it is absent from Iberia and southern France, Fennoscandia, northern Poland, the Baltic, and northern Belarus and European Russia (Krapp 1999). The only European island on which it is known to be present is Lesbos (Greece). Its distribution in the eastern part of the range is not well known because it is possible that some records from that region refer to a different species. It occurs from sea level to around 2,000 m.	eng
29651	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Habitat preferences for this species vary in different parts of its geographic range. In France, it is found in damp areas with dense vegetation, whereas in central Europe and Italy it prefers open agricultural landscapes. At the northern edge of its range it is associated with gardens and houses in suburban and urban areas, and in the Balkans and Asia Minor it can be found in moist habitats in the mountains including screes, stony areas, riverbanks and stone walls. In Russia the species occurs in moist habitats within steppe and semi-desert areas. It feeds on invertebrates, including insects, insect larvae and worms.	eng
29651	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Habitat preferences for this species vary in different parts of its geographic range. In France, it is found in damp areas with dense vegetation, whereas in central Europe and Italy it prefers open agricultural landscapes. At the northern edge of its range it is associated with gardens and houses in suburban and urban areas, and in the Balkans and Asia Minor it can be found in moist habitats in the mountains including screes, stony areas, riverbanks and stone walls. In Russia the species occurs in moist habitats within steppe and semi-desert areas. It feeds on invertebrates, including insects, insect larvae and worms.	eng
29651	habitat	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its geographic range. In France, it is found in damp areas with dense vegetation, whereas in central Europe and Italy it prefers open agricultural landscapes. At the northern edge of its range it is associated with gardens and houses in suburban and urban areas, and in the Balkans and Asia Minor it can be found in moist habitats in the mountains including screes, stony areas, riverbanks and stone walls. In Asia Minor it is also found above the tree line in stony areas (Krapp 1999). In European Russia the species occurs in moist habitats within steppe and semi-desert areas. It feeds on invertebrates, including insects, insect larvae and worms.	eng
29651	population	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	At the northern and western borders of its range at least, it appears to be declining or fluctuating. In the southern part of eastern Europe this species has seriously declined during the last 50 years (50 years ago there were many records, especially from owl pellets, whereas recently there are very few records)(I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29651	population	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>C. leucodon</em> appears to be declining at least at the northern and western borders of its range (it may be either declining or fluctuating). In the southern part of eastern Europe (e.g. Ukraine) this species has seriously declined during the last 50 years (50 years ago there were many records, especially from owl pellets, whereas recently there are very few records) (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Within the Mediterranean region, it is widespread but population trends are not known. The status in the southwest Asian region is poorly known (Qumsiyeh 1996) and the species is less abundant than <em>C. russula</em> in this region.	eng
29651	population	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>C. leucodon</em> appears to be declining at least at the northern and western borders of its range (it may be either declining or fluctuating). In the southern part of eastern Europe (e.g. Ukraine) this species has seriously declined during the last 50 years (50 years ago there were many records, especially from owl pellets, whereas recently there are very few records) (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Within the Mediterranean region, it is widespread but population trends are not known. The status in the southwest Asian region is poorly known (Qumsiyeh 1996) and the species is less abundant than <em>C. russula</em> in this region.	eng
29651	threats	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	This species often occurs in open rural country, where it may be negatively affected by agricultural intensification (accidental poisoning and loss of prey species as a result of pesticide use, and loss of cover owing to replacement of hedgerows and fallow areas with large-scale monocultures) (Krapp 1999).	eng
29651	threats	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species often occurs in open rural country, where it may be negatively affected by agricultural intensification (accidental poisoning and loss of prey species as a result of pesticide use, and loss of cover owing to replacement of hedgerows and fallow areas with large-scale monocultures) (Krapp 1999). However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
29651	threats	Shenbrot, G., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	This species often occurs in open rural country, where it may be negatively affected by agricultural intensification (accidental poisoning and loss of prey species as a result of pesticide use, and loss of cover owing to replacement of hedgerows and fallow areas with large-scale monocultures) (Krapp 1999). However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
29652	conservation	Holger Meinig, Stéphane Aulagnier, Rainer Hutterer, 2006	It receives legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and it occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
29652	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It receives legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and it occurs in numerous protected areas. The Canary Islands population is protected under Spanish law.	eng
29652	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It receives legal protection under the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and it occurs in numerous protected areas. The Canary Islands population is protected under Spanish law.	eng
29652	distribution	Holger Meinig, Stéphane Aulagnier, Rainer Hutterer, 2006	This species is found in southern and western Europe (including some Atlantic and Mediterranean islands). It also occurs in North Africa, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The population on Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands (previously considered to be a separate species, <em>Crocidura osorio</em>) seems to have been introduced from Spain (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003). It typically occurs from sea level to 1,200 m, but has also been found as high as 2,000 m, particularly in Mediterranean landscapes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29652	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is found in southern and western Europe (including some Atlantic and Mediterranean islands). It also occurs in North Africa, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). The population on Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands (previously considered to be a separate species, <em>Crocidura osorio</em>) seems to have been introduced from Spain (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003). It typically occurs from sea level to 1,200 m, but has also been found as high as 2,000 m, particularly in Mediterranean landscapes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29652	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is found in southern and western Europe (including some Atlantic and Mediterranean islands). It also occurs in North Africa, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). The population on Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands (previously considered to be a separate species, <em>Crocidura osorio</em>) seems to have been introduced from Spain (Vogel <em>et al.</em> 2003). It typically occurs from sea level to 1,200 m, but has also been found as high as 2,000 m, particularly in Mediterranean landscapes (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29652	habitat	Holger Meinig, Stéphane Aulagnier, Rainer Hutterer, 2006	In the Mediterranean it occurs in a wide range of habitats including shrubland (maquis), open habitats, forest edges with abundant ground vegetation, cultivated fields, urban areas, gardens, farms, mountainous areas and land adjacent to rivers and streams (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It particularly favours old terraces with dry stone walls. In northern Europe and at higher alititudes it is predominantly synanthropic, living in close proximity to humans in houses and gardens (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Morocco, it occurs in the mountains.	eng
29652	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	In the Mediterranean it occurs in a wide range of habitats including shrubland (maquis), open habitats, forest edges with abundant ground vegetation, cultivated fields, urban areas, gardens, farms, mountainous areas and land adjacent to rivers and streams (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It particularly favours old terraces with dry stone walls. In northern Europe and at higher alititudes it is predominantly synanthropic, living in close proximity to humans in houses and gardens (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Morocco, it occurs in the mountains.<br/><br/>The Canary Islands population is found in remnant patches of the humid laurel forests in northern Gran Canaria and also in extensively managed farmlands. This population, along with the endemic <em>C. canariensis</em>, has a small litter size and lower metabolism than mainland species, possibly as a response to living in a warm and/or variable environment.	eng
29652	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	In the Mediterranean it occurs in a wide range of habitats including shrubland (maquis), open habitats, forest edges with abundant ground vegetation, cultivated fields, urban areas, gardens, farms, mountainous areas and land adjacent to rivers and streams (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It particularly favours old terraces with dry stone walls. In northern Europe and at higher alititudes it is predominantly synanthropic, living in close proximity to humans in houses and gardens (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Morocco, it occurs in the mountains.<br/><br/>The Canary Islands population is found in remnant patches of the humid laurel forests in northern Gran Canaria and also in extensively managed farmlands. This population, along with the endemic <em>C. canariensis</em>, has a small litter size and lower metabolism than mainland species, possibly as a response to living in a warm and/or variable environment.	eng
29652	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown, although the species is generally widespread and fairly common within its range. In Germany at least it is stable and expanding in some parts, although it is not known if this is natural or the result of accidental human transportation (Kraft 2000). It is probably the most common shrew in Spain, and is often the dominant prey species in the barn owl's diet in this region (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
29652	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown, although the species is generally widespread and fairly common within its range. In Germany at least it is stable and expanding in some parts, although it is not known if this is natural or the result of accidental human transportation (Kraft 2000). It is probably the most common shrew in Spain, and is often the dominant prey species in the barn owl's diet in this region (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
29652	population	Holger Meinig, Stéphane Aulagnier, Rainer Hutterer, 2006	Population size and trends are unknown, although the species is generally widespread and fairly common within its range. In Germany at least it is stable and expanding in some parts, although it is not known if this is natural or the result of accidental human transportation (Kraft 2000). It is probably the most common shrew in Spain, and is often the dominant prey species in the barn owl's diet in this region (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
29652	threats	Holger Meinig, Stéphane Aulagnier, Rainer Hutterer, 2006	Due to its synanthropic habits it may suffer from the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999), but this is not thought to be a serious threat to the species at present.	eng
29652	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Due to its synanthropic habits it may suffer from the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999), but this is not thought to be a serious threat to the species at present. The Canary Islands population is threatened by rapid urbanization and increasing desiccation.	eng
29652	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kry?tufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Due to its synanthropic habits it may suffer from the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals (Ramalhinho <em>et al.</em> 1999), but this is not thought to be a serious threat to the species at present. The Canary Islands population is threatened by rapid urbanization and increasing desiccation.	eng
29654	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
29654	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	Occurs in Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan (Wilson and Reeder 2005), may also occur in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.	eng
29654	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
29654	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is no information on population size or trend.	eng
29654	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is not believed to face any major threats.	eng
29655	conservation	Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. No specific conservation actions are recommended at this time. This is one of only three ancient endemic mammal species occurring on the Mediterranean islands (Gippoliti and Amori 2006), and for this reason it is a valuable species to conserve.	eng
29655	distribution	Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura sicula</em> is endemic to Sicily and its associated islands (to Italy) and Malta. It is currently found on Sicily, Ustica, Gozo, and the Egadi islands (Favigniana, Levanzo, Marettimo). It may be extinct on the island of Malta, where it is known only from subfossil remains (Vogel 1999). It occurs from sea level to about 1,000 m (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29655	habitat	Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Owl pellet analyses suggest that <em>C. sicula</em> inhabits suburban areas, gardens, pastures, arable land, and open scrub. In the summer, it prefers damp areas (Vogel 1999).	eng
29655	population	Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is widespread on Sicily (Maddalena <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, trapping results indicate that it occurs at much lower densities than other <em>Crocidura</em> species that inhabit Mediterranean islands (Vogel 1999). Population trends are unknown. It may have gone extinct on the island of Malta, but even if so, the date of that extinction is unknown. In Ustica a melanic form occurs and shows a very restricted range (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>A new genetic study has shown that populations of Sicily and Gozo may deserve some special attention because they are genetically distinct (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29655	threats	Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	No serious threats are known at present, although pesticides in agricultural areas are often a problem for insectivore species. Populations on smaller islands could be adversely affected by predation from domestic cats (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29656	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>C. s. caneae</em>, endemic to Crete, is on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as <em>C. ariadne</em>). It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
29656	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>C. s. caneae</em>, endemic to Crete, is on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as <em>C. ariadne</em>). It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
29656	conservation	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>C. s. caneae</em>, endemic to Crete, is on Appendix II of the Bern Convention (as <em>C. ariadne</em>). It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
29656	distribution	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, 2006	The lesser white-toothed shrew <em>Crocidura suaveolens</em> has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, extending from the Atlantic coast of Spain and probably Portugal (where its occurrence needs further confirmation) eastwards through Europe and Asia to Siberia. The southernmost edge of its distribution passes through northern Africa (Morocco and Algeria: Corbet 1978), Asia Minor, Israel, Saudia Arabia, Iran and China. In Europe, it has a somewhat scattered distribution in north-west Iberia, south-west France, Italy, central and eastern Europe, and the Balkans. It is present on some Atlantic and Channel islands, and on most eastern Mediterranean islands, as well as Menorca, Corsica, Elba, and Capraia in the western Mediterranean. It was introduced to Crete in Minoan times (Pieper 1990), where it may threaten the endemic Cretan white-toothed shrew <em>C. zimmermanni</em> through competition (Nowak 1999). In eastern Europe and in Germany <em>C. suaveolens</em> is expanding northwards in urban landscapes. It is commonest from sea level to 1,000 m, although it occurs as high as 1,600 m (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
29656	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The Lesser White-toothed Shrew has a wide global distribution. It occurs in the Palaearctic, extending from the Atlantic coast of Spain and probably Portugal (where its occurrence needs further confirmation) extending eastwards through Europe and Asia to Siberia. The southernmost edge of its distribution reaches Sinai (Egypt), Asia Minor, Israel, Saudia Arabia, Iran and China.	eng
29656	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The Lesser White-toothed Shrew has a wide global distribution. It occurs in the Palaearctic, extending from the Atlantic coast of Spain and probably Portugal (where its occurrence needs further confirmation) extending eastwards through Europe and Asia to Siberia. The southernmost edge of its distribution reaches Sinai (Egypt), Asia Minor, Israel, Saudia Arabia, Iran and China.	eng
29656	habitat	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, 2006	At higher latitudes and altitudes in Europe it is often associated with human habitation, tending to be found in parks, gardens, and even houses. It is very common in straw ricks. In western and southern Europe and it inhabits a wide range of habitats including vineyards, olive groves, terraced farmland on hillsides, dry Mediterranean shrubland, sand dunes, rocky areas in the mountains, and damp densely-vegetated patches near to water. It tends to avoid dense forests (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990, Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Small, soft-bodied insects form a major part of its diet (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990).<br/><br/>In south-west Asia it has been collected from habitats with long dry grasses; thick vegetation along streams, river edges and vegetation channels; around houses and in forested areas (Bates and Harrison 1989, Tez 2000). Its main requirement is enough vegetation and moisture to support its insect prey, and in arid areas it tends to be more common near springs and oases; however it is more tolerant of dry conditions than many of its congeners (Qumsiyeh 1996). <br/><br/>The gestation period is 28 days and life expectancy one year; a female may have 10-12 litters, each with one to seven young, although usually four (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
29656	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	At higher latitudes and altitudes in Europe it is often associated with human habitation, tending to be found in parks, gardens, and even houses. It is very common in straw ricks. In western and southern Europe and it inhabits a wide range of habitats including vineyards, olive groves, terraced farmland on hillsides, dry Mediterranean shrubland, sand dunes, rocky areas in the mountains, and damp densely-vegetated patches near to water. It tends to avoid dense forests (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990, Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Small, soft-bodied insects form a major part of its diet (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia it has been collected from habitats with long dry grasses; thick vegetation along streams, river edges and vegetation channels; around houses and in forested areas (Bates and Harrison 1989, Tez 2000). Its main requirement is enough vegetation and moisture to support its insect prey, and in arid areas it tends to be more common near springs and oases; however, it is more tolerant of dry conditions than many of its congeners (Qumsiyeh 1996). <br/><br/>The gestation period is 28 days and life expectancy one year; a female may have 10-12 litters, each with one to seven young, although usually four (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
29656	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	At higher latitudes and altitudes in Europe it is often associated with human habitation, tending to be found in parks, gardens, and even houses. It is very common in straw ricks. In western and southern Europe and it inhabits a wide range of habitats including vineyards, olive groves, terraced farmland on hillsides, dry Mediterranean shrubland, sand dunes, rocky areas in the mountains, and damp densely-vegetated patches near to water. It tends to avoid dense forests (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990, Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Small, soft-bodied insects form a major part of its diet (Vlasák and Niethammer 1990).<br/><br/>In southwest Asia it has been collected from habitats with long dry grasses; thick vegetation along streams, river edges and vegetation channels; around houses and in forested areas (Bates and Harrison 1989, Tez 2000). Its main requirement is enough vegetation and moisture to support its insect prey, and in arid areas it tends to be more common near springs and oases; however, it is more tolerant of dry conditions than many of its congeners (Qumsiyeh 1996). <br/><br/>The gestation period is 28 days and life expectancy one year; a female may have 10-12 litters, each with one to seven young, although usually four (Qumsiyeh 1996).	eng
29656	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is uncommon in the western part of its range, occurring at much lower densities than its congener <em>C. russula</em> (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further east it is more common. Described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range (Harrison and Bates 1991). In the steppe forest zone in Ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species, both in natural and agricultural habitats (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29656	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is uncommon in the western part of its range, occurring at much lower densities than its congener <em>C. russula</em> (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further east it is more common. Described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range (Harrison and Bates 1991). In the steppe forest zone in Ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species, both in natural and agricultural habitats (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29656	population	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, 2006	It is uncommon in the western part of its range, occurring at much lower densities than its congener <em>C. russula</em> (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999). Further east it is more common. Described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range (Harrison and Bates 1991). In the steppe forest zone in Ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species, both in natural and agricultural habitats (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29656	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It may be out-competed in some areas by <em>C. russula</em>. Pesticides and herbicides may have a negative impact on the species in agricultural habitats (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999), but at present this does not seem to be a major threat.	eng
29656	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It may be out-competed in some areas by <em>C. russula</em>. Pesticides and herbicides may have a negative impact on the species in agricultural habitats (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999), but at present this does not seem to be a major threat.	eng
29656	threats	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, 2006	It may be out-competed in some areas by <em>C. russula</em>. Pesticides and herbicides may have a negative impact on the species in agricultural habitats (Libois <em>et al.</em> 1999), but at present this does not seem to be a major threat.	eng
29657	conservation	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. It is recommended that population trends are monitored, as the species may be vulnerable to the loss of aquatic habitats.	eng
29657	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. It is recommended that population trends are monitored, as the species may be vulnerable to the loss of aquatic habitats.	eng
29657	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. It is recommended that population trends are monitored, as the species may be vulnerable to the loss of aquatic habitats.	eng
29657	distribution	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Neomys anomalus </em>has a patchy distribution in continental Europe and Asia Minor. It is found in parts of central and southern Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west through to the middle of the River Don (European Russia) in the east, but its range is fragmented (Corbet 1978, Spitzenberger 1999). It is recorded from sea level to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29657	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Neomys anomalus</em> has a patchy global distribution in continental Europe and Asia Minor. It is found in parts of central and southern Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west through to the middle of the River Don (European Russia) and Iran in the east, but its range is fragmented (Corbet 1978, Spitzenberger 1999). It is recorded from sea level to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29657	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Neomys anomalus</em> has a patchy global distribution in continental Europe and Asia Minor. It is found in parts of central and southern Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west through to the middle of the River Don (European Russia) and Iran in the east, but its range is fragmented (Corbet 1978, Spitzenberger 1999). It is recorded from sea level to 1,850 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29657	habitat	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It inhabits lush vegetation next to slow-flowing or still eutrophic waters (marshes, swamps, lakes, rivers, and streams). Its habitat choice is influenced by competition with the larger Eurasian water shrew <em>N. fodiens</em>, which is a stronger swimmer (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). In general, <em>N. anomalus</em> is less aquatic than <em>N. fodiens</em> and can colonise areas away from water (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in regions where <em>N. fodiens</em> is absent, <em>N. anomalus</em> may adopt its competitor's aquatic niche and increase in size (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). <em>N. anomalus</em> is strictly carnivorous, feeding predominantly on soft-bodied invertebrates such as insect larvae, spiders and worms (Spitzenberger 1990, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29657	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits lush vegetation next to slow-flowing or still eutrophic waters (marshes, swamps, lakes, rivers, and streams). Its habitat choice is influenced by competition with the larger Eurasian water shrew <em>N. fodiens</em>, which is a stronger swimmer (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). In general, <em>N. anomalus</em> is less aquatic than <em>N. fodiens</em> and can colonise areas away from water (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in regions where <em>N. fodiens</em> is absent, <em>N. anomalus</em> may adopt its competitor's aquatic niche and increase in size (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). <em>N. anomalus</em> is strictly carnivorous, feeding predominantly on soft-bodied invertebrates such as insect larvae, spiders and worms (Spitzenberger 1990, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29657	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It inhabits lush vegetation next to slow-flowing or still eutrophic waters (marshes, swamps, lakes, rivers, and streams). Its habitat choice is influenced by competition with the larger Eurasian water shrew <em>N. fodiens</em>, which is a stronger swimmer (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). In general, <em>N. anomalus</em> is less aquatic than <em>N. fodiens</em> and can colonise areas away from water (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in regions where <em>N. fodiens</em> is absent, <em>N. anomalus</em> may adopt its competitor's aquatic niche and increase in size (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). <em>N. anomalus</em> is strictly carnivorous, feeding predominantly on soft-bodied invertebrates such as insect larvae, spiders and worms (Spitzenberger 1990, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29657	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>N. anomalus</em> is suspected to be declining in line with rates of loss of its wetland habitat (Spitzenberger 1999, Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Its patchy distribution means that there are many small isolated subpopulations, making local extinctions more likely. It may be locally quite abundant in the absence of its main competitor, <em>N. fodiens</em>. There are areas where the two species occur in the same habitats, but using different niches.	eng
29657	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>N. anomalus</em> is suspected to be declining in line with rates of loss of its wetland habitat (Spitzenberger 1999, Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Its patchy distribution means that there are many small isolated subpopulations, making local extinctions more likely. It may be locally quite abundant in the absence of its main competitor, <em>N. fodiens</em>. There are areas where the two species occur in the same habitats, but using different niches.	eng
29657	population	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is suspected to be declining in line with rates of loss of its wetland habitat (Spitzenberger 1999, Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Its patchy distribution means that there are many small isolated subpopulations, making local extinctions more likely. It may be locally quite abundant in the absence of its main competitor, <em>N. fodiens</em>. There are areas where the two species occur in the same habitats, but using different niches.	eng
29657	threats	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	The major threat to the species is habitat loss. In many parts of its range wetlands are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of water extraction, canalisation of streams, agriculture, road building, and other human activities. Water quality is often degraded by agricultural chemicals, industrial effluent and sewage. Use of pesticides may be a problem in parts of the range (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29657	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The major threat to the species is habitat loss. In many parts of its range wetlands are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of water extraction, canalisation of streams, agriculture, road building, and other human activities. Water quality is often degraded by agricultural chemicals, industrial effluent and sewage. Use of pesticides may be a problem in parts of the range (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29657	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The major threat to the species is habitat loss. In many parts of its range wetlands are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of water extraction, canalisation of streams, agriculture, road building, and other human activities. Water quality is often degraded by agricultural chemicals, industrial effluent and sewage. Use of pesticides may be a problem in parts of the range (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29658	conservation	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Friederike Spitzenberger, Boris Sheftel, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in numerous protected areas within its range. The western Spanish population is a separate subspecies (<em>niethammeri</em>), which has a very restricted range and may be threatened. It is morphologically distinct from other populations, and may represent a valid species (López-Fuster <em>et al.</em> 1990, Bühler 1996). There is a need for taxonomic research on this population, as well as surveys and monitoring to determine if it is undergoing population decline or range contractions.	eng
29658	conservation	Hutterer, R., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Kryštufek, B., Amori, A., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in numerous protected areas within its range. The western Spanish population is a separate subspecies (<em>niethammeri</em>), which has a very restricted range and may be threatened. It is morphologically distinct from other populations, and may represent a valid species (López-Fuster <em>et al.</em> 1990, Bühler 1996). There is a need for taxonomic research on this population, as well as surveys and monitoring to determine if it is undergoing population decline or range contractions.	eng
29658	distribution	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Friederike Spitzenberger, Boris Sheftel, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	The water shrew has a large range extending from  the British Islands eastwards to Lake Baikal, Yenisei River (Russia), Tien Shan (China), and northwest Mongolia. A disjunct range includes Sakhalin Island and adjacent Siberia, Jilin (China), and North Korea. In Europe it is generally widespread throughout, with the exception of southern Iberia. It occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula, where it is largely restricted to the mountains. It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m (Stone 1995). The distribution of the species recently expanded southwards in Italy owing to a new record in the Sila massif (Aloise <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29658	distribution	Hutterer, R., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Kryštufek, B., Amori, A., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	The water shrew has a large range extending from the British Islands eastwards to Lake Baikal, Yenisei River (Russia), Tien Shan (China), and northwest Mongolia. In the Mediterranean is ranges from northern Spain eastwards to Bulgaria.In Europe it is generally widespread throughout, with the exception of southern Iberia. It occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula, where it is largely restricted to the mountains. It occurs from sea level to over 2,500 m (Stone 1995). The distribution of the species recently expanded southwards in Italy owing to a new record in the Sila massif (Aloise <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29658	habitat	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Friederike Spitzenberger, Boris Sheftel, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	This species is semi-aquatic with water repelling fur. It occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats, both freshwater and coastal, including lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, bogs, damp grasslands, humid woodlands, sea shores and intertidal wetlands. It is the most aquatic of all European shrews. It hunts on land and in water for invertebrates, including crustaceans, and occasionally takes small fish and amphibia (Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Spitzenberger 1999, Smith and Xie in press). It paralyses large prey with its venomous saliva (Stone 1995, Smith and Xie in press). It is highly territorial, with males only moving out of territory during the breeding season.	eng
29658	habitat	Hutterer, R., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Kryštufek, B., Amori, A., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This species is semi-aquatic with water repelling fur. It occurs in a wide variety of wetland habitats, both freshwater and coastal, including lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, bogs, damp grasslands, humid woodlands, sea shores and intertidal wetlands. It is the most aquatic of all European shrews. It hunts on land and in water for invertebrates, including crustaceans, and occasionally takes small fish and amphibia (Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Spitzenberger 1999, Smith and Xie in press). It paralyses large prey with its venomous saliva (Stone 1995, Smith and Xie in press). It is highly territorial, with males only moving out of territory during the breeding season.	eng
29658	population	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Friederike Spitzenberger, Boris Sheftel, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is a widespread and abundant species, although local population declines may be caused by wetland drainage, pollution, and destruction of riverbanks. Population densities fluctuate from year to year (Spitzenberger 1999). In the northern part of its range and in the steppe zone, the species has a patchy distribution.	eng
29658	population	Hutterer, R., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Kryštufek, B., Amori, A., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It is a widespread species, although local population declines may be caused by wetland drainage, pollution, and destruction of riverbanks. Population densities fluctuate from year to year (Spitzenberger 1999). In the northern part of its range and in the steppe zone, the species has a patchy distribution.	eng
29658	threats	Holger Meinig, Sandro Bertolino, Boris Kryštufek, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Heikki Henttonen, Friederike Spitzenberger, Boris Sheftel, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	Loss of wetland habitats through drainage, development, conversion to agricultural land, and destruction of natural vegetation at the water's edge may have a negative impact on this species. It may suffer from a shortage of food when prey species decline owing to acidification and pollution of water with pesticides, fertilisers, and sewage (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29658	threats	Hutterer, R., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Kryštufek, B., Amori, A., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Loss of wetland habitats through drainage, development, conversion to agricultural land, and destruction of natural vegetation at the water's edge may have a negative impact on this species. It may suffer from a shortage of food when prey species decline owing to acidification and pollution of water with pesticides, fertilisers, and sewage (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29659	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Found in protected areas. Due to its habitat specialization and relatively unknown biology, the species should be monitored.	eng
29659	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species is found in the Caucasus, adjacent parts of Turkey (Krystufek and Vohralík, 2001), and Iran. The eastern range limits are poorly known.	eng
29659	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Inhabits riverbanks, prefers small rivers and brooks. Swims and dives very well. Makes nests in abandoned rodent burrows, between roots, or in brushwood; sometimes digs its own burrow. Solitary. Feeds on aquatic (invertebrates, molluscs, fish roe and fingerlings, tadpoles, froglings) and terrestrial (beetles, earthworms, sometimes young rodents) animals. The saliva of this species is poisonous; the water shrew paralyzes prey with its bite, and may store living (but immobilized) prey in its burrows. Prey storing is especially important during winter. The water shrew reproduces up to 3 times a year, with 5-9 young in each litter. Some females start reproducing during their first year. Longevity in nature is about 2 years, in captivity up to 4 years.	eng
29659	population	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Common, in some areas abundant species in western part of the range. The species is generally declining in Georgia (GMA SW Asia Workshop 2005). In Turkey, there are few problems - the species varies in abundance by season and potentially year.	eng
29659	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Overgrazing may have a negative impact on some populations. The species may also be locally disturbed by tree removal and erosion. These are not considered major threats at present.	eng
29660	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Spitzenberger, F. & Zima, J., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. A major part of the alpine shrew's range in the Carpathians is covered by the Carpathians Reserve (about 45,000 ha) and National Park (about 70,000 ha). There is a need for monitoring, particularly of isolated subpopulations.	eng
29660	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Spitzenberger, F. & Zima, J., 2008	The Alpine shrew is endemic to Europe, where it has a disjunct range in the Alps, the Balkans, the Carpathians, and a number of isolated mountains in Germany, Czech Republic and Poland (Spitzenberger 1999, Meinig 2004). It previously occurred in the Pyrenees, where it is thought to have gone extinct in the early 20th century, and in the Harz (Spitzenberger 1999). Its vertical range is from 200 to 2,500 m (Spitzenberger 1999).	eng
29660	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Spitzenberger, F. & Zima, J., 2008	In the mountains, it tends to be found in open habitats (meadows, rocky areas with sparse vegetation, and banks of mountain streams), where it lives in cracks and crevices under rocks and in stone walls. At lower altitudes, it prefers cool, damp, shaded areas, such as densely-vegetated ravines and holes under mossy rocks, tree-roots and logs in forests (Spitzenberger 1990, 1999). It mainly feeds on arthropods and molluscs (Spitzenberger 1990).	eng
29660	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Spitzenberger, F. & Zima, J., 2008	More data are needed to be able to determine population trends. It is widespread but local in the Alps, where populations are thought to be stable. Small, isolated populations at the edge of the species' range may be declining, and there have been subpopulation extinctions (for example in the Pyrenees). In the Harz, the northernmost population in Europe, it appears to have disappeared (last record was in 1954 despite intensive studies to find the species there). It is still present in Germany. Some of the other remaining populations are considered evolutionarily significant units because of their long period of isolation (Meinig 2004).	eng
29660	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Meinig, H., Bertolino, S., Spitzenberger, F. & Zima, J., 2008	Loss of alpine water courses due to water abstraction and hydroelectric power is also a threat, as is loss of habitat owing to intensification of winter tourism in the Alps. Human land use is a direct threat and climate change may be a future indirect threat as a result of range shifts in other species that may be direct competitors with <em>S. alpinus</em> when ranges overlap.	eng
29661	conservation	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended at present.	eng
29661	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended at present.	eng
29661	distribution	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The common shrew has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, occurring from Britain through central, northern and eastern Europe and Asia as far east as Lake Baikal and as far north as the Arctic coast. It is widespread throughout, with the exception of arid steppe and desert areas. In Europe, it occurs in most continental areas, with the exception of large parts of Iberia and France, and some parts of Italy and the Balkans. There are isolated populations in the Pyrenees and the Massif Central (France). It is recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (Andĕra 1999).	eng
29661	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The common shrew has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic, occurring from Britain through central, northern and eastern Europe and Asia as far east as Lake Baikal and as far north as the Arctic coast. It is widespread throughout, with the exception of arid steppe and desert areas. In the Mediterranean, it occurs in most European continental areas, with the exception of large parts of Iberia, France, and Italy and the Balkans. There are isolated populations in the Pyrenees and the Massif Central (France). It is recorded from sea level to 2,500 m (Andĕra 1999).	eng
29661	habitat	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It prefers cool, damp and shady habitats with dense vegetation, such as riparian forests and reed beds (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, it tolerates a broad range of habitats, and it is present (albeit at lower densities) in drier areas such as woodland, scrub, road verges, hedges in farmland, and even sand dunes (Andĕra 1999). It is absent from very arid habitats. It feeds largely on invertebrates, especially arthropods, earthworms, and snails, but it also feeds on vegetative matter (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
29661	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It prefers cool, damp and shady habitats with dense vegetation, such as riparian forests and reed beds (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, it tolerates a broad range of habitats, and it is present (albeit at lower densities) in drier areas such as woodland, scrub, road verges, hedges in farmland, and even sand dunes (Andĕra 1999). It is absent from very arid habitats. It feeds largely on invertebrates, especially arthropods, earthworms, and snails, but it also feeds on vegetative matter (Hausser <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
29661	population	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is one of the most abundant shrew species.	eng
29661	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is one of the most abundant shrew species.	eng
29661	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Threats include general habitat degradation and an indirect threat from pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through their diet). In some countries (but not in the Mediterranean), this is an indicator species for monitoring terrestrial pollution. However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at a regional or global level.	eng
29661	threats	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Igor Zagorodnyuk, Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Threats include general habitat degradation and an indirect threat from pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through their diet). In some countries, this is an indicator species for monitoring terrestrial pollution. However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at a regional or global level.	eng
29662	conservation	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
29662	conservation	Sheftel, B., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
29662	distribution	Sheftel, B., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Occurs in taiga and tundra zones from Eastern Europe to eastern Siberia, south to central Ukraine, northern Kazakhstan, Altai Mountains, Mongolia, Gansu and northeast China, Korea, Sakhalin, Kunashir Island, Shikotan Island, and Japan (Hokkaido) (Abe, 2005).	eng
29662	distribution	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The masked shrew is found from Scandinavia in the west (including an isolated population in central Norway), through northern Europe and Asia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Sakhalin and the Kuril archipelago, as well as the Japanese island of Hokkaido (Corbet 1978, Pucek 1999, Frafjord 2002, Finch and van der Kooij 2005). It range extends to the north of the arctic circle, and the southern boundary of its distribution runs from easternmost Poland through Russia, northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and north-east China to the Korean peninsula. In Europe, it is found in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Belarus, and Russia. In northern Finland it occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m, and in central Norway it is found up to 1,600 m (J. van der Kooij <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
29662	habitat	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It occurs mainly in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests in the taiga zone, although it is also found in a range of tundra habitats including birch and willow scrub in river valleys (Pucek 1999, Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In northern Fennoscandia, it tends to be found in shrub-rich mires, alpine birch forests, and open mires, and at the south-western edge of its range in Norway it occurs in alpine habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In general moist habitats are preferred, such as damp parts of forests with thick moss cover (Pucek 1999). Cultivated land is avoided (Sulkava 1990). The masked shrew feeds on a wide range of insects, spiders, and centipedes (Stone 1995). As it has a lower net food intake than larger shrews such as <em>S. araneus</em>, it can survive in less productive habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005).	eng
29662	habitat	Sheftel, B., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It occurs mainly in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests in the taiga zone, although it is also found in a range of tundra habitats including birch and willow scrub in river valleys (Pucek 1999, Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In northern Fennoscandia, it tends to be found in shrub-rich mires, alpine birch forests, and open mires, and at the south-western edge of its range in Norway it occurs in alpine habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005). In general moist habitats are preferred, such as damp parts of forests with thick moss cover (Pucek 1999). Cultivated land is avoided (Sulkava 1990). The masked shrew feeds on a wide range of insects, spiders, and centipedes (Stone 1995). As it has a lower net food intake than larger shrews such as <em>S. araneus</em>, it can survive in less productive habitats (Finch and van der Kooij 2005).	eng
29662	population	Sheftel, B., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Europe: It is generally less common than its congener the common shrew, but it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species (Sulkava 1990). Populations are thought to be stable, with interannual fluctuations that follow no particular cycle (Pucek 1999). In eastern Karelia, where population density has best been studied, tenfold fluctuations have been recorded (Sulkava 1990). Japan: Common in the forests of Hokkaido. Mongolia: Abundant and widespread, most common in Hentii Mountain Range. This species can survive in most habitat types, preferentially forested habitats.	eng
29662	population	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is generally less common than its congener the common shrew, but it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species (Sulkava 1990). Populations are thought to be stable, with interannual fluctuations that follow no particular cycle (Pucek 1999). In eastern Karelia, where population density has best been studied, tenfold fluctuations have been recorded (Sulkava 1990).	eng
29662	threats	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Extensive logging is a general threat to habitat and may affect local populations. However, at the global scale the population is not considered under serious threat from this.	eng
29662	threats	Sheftel, B., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Extensive logging is a general threat to habitat and may affect local populations. However, at the global scale the population is not considered under serious threat from this.	eng
29663	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
29663	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Sorex coronatus </em>is endemic to Europe, where it occurs from northern Spain, through France and the Low Countries, to northern Switzerland, Germany, and the westernmost corner of Austria. It is also found on the island of Jersey (United Kingdom) (Hausser 1999). Its vertical range is from 0 to 2,200 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29663	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It inhabits a variety of habitats with dense vegetation at ground level, including woods, hedges, abandoned or unmown meadows, and marshes. It is scarce in intensively cultivated areas, and tends not to occur near to human habitation. It competes with <em>Sorex araneus</em>, and the microhabitats used are different for each species where their ranges overlap (Hausser 1990, 1999).	eng
29663	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is generally widespread and abundant. However, at the edge of its range in Switzerland intensive agriculture and pesticide use have caused the species to decline, such that now only relict populations remain in some areas (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29663	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Threats include general habitat degradation and the indirect effects of pesticides and pollutants (accumulation of toxins through the species' diet) (Stone 1995, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, the species is not considered seriously affected by these threats at the global level.	eng
29664	conservation	Muñoz, L.J.P., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas within its range. Research is needed to evaluate its population status and trends (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29664	distribution	Muñoz, L.J.P., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, where it is found in northern Portugal (north of the Tagus River) and central Spain (García-Perea <em>et al.</em> 1997). It occurs from the coast up to 2,000 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29664	habitat	Muñoz, L.J.P., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is found in Atlantic climate areas, where it inhabits a variety of woodland and scrub habitats, including native beech, oak, and pine forests, plantations of introduced <em>Eucalyptus </em>and <em>Pinus pinaster</em>, and damp areas with dense shrubby vegetation. It is also found in cultivated fields, stream- and river-banks, scree slopes, and rocky areas near to pastures. It prefers humid locations, and is restricted to areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 600 mm (García-Perea <em>et al.</em> 1997, Hausser 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29664	population	Muñoz, L.J.P., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Population size and trends have not been quantified. However, the species is quite common in the diet of nocturnal raptor species (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Spain the population is stable and it is likely to be stable also in Portugal (Muñoz, L.J.P. pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29664	threats	Muñoz, L.J.P., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is not considered threatened in Spain, although its population status is not known (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal, it may be locally threatened by habitat destruction and pesticide use, as well as reductions in the abundance of its invertebrate prey (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
29665	conservation	Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag, P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in many protected areas. Population trends and habitat status require monitoring in the western European part of its range.	eng
29665	conservation	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in many protected areas. Population trends and habitat status require monitoring in the western European part of its range, and particular attention should be paid to isolated populations in Scandinavia.	eng
29665	distribution	Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag, P., 2008	The taiga shrew's range extends from Fennoscandia in the west, through northern and central Russia, north Mongolia and northern China, and northern Kazakhstan, to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island. In Europe, it is more or less continuously distributed from Finland to northern Russia and northern Belarus (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). Populations in Norway and Sweden may be isolated; the species was not detected in Fennoscandia until as late as 1949 (Sulkava 1999). In Mongolia, occurs along the Sögnögör River in south-western Hentii Mountain Range, and in Züünbürkh in eastern Hentii Mountain Range (Shvetsov <em>et al.</em>, 1980); also occurs in parts of Mongol Daguur Steppe. In China, distribution is restricted to the northeastern regions of Heilongjiang and E Nei Mongol.	eng
29665	distribution	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	The taiga shrew's range extends from Fennoscandia in the west, through northern and central Russia, north Mongolia and northern China, and northern Kazakstan, to the Pacific coast and Sakhalin island. In Europe, it is more or less continuously distributed from Finland to northern Russia and northern Belarus (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). Populations in Norway and Sweden may be isolated. It is a habitat specialist, and consequently has a patchy distribution. The species was not detected in Fennoscandia until as late as 1949 (Sulkava 1999).	eng
29665	habitat	Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag, P., 2008	Inhabits forest, taiga, river valleys and forest-steppe. Occasionally found in mountain steppe and riparian zones. In Europe it is found along small brooks where there is dense vegetation (e.g. ferns) within mature spruce and mixed boreal forests. It is also sometimes found in scrub and fallow fields, so long as there is damp, dense vegetation at ground level and a deep soil layer (Sulkava 1999). It feeds mainly on invertebrates, particularly earthworms and dipteran larvae, although plant material is very occasionally taken (Sulkava 1990).	eng
29665	habitat	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is a habitat specialist, preferring small brook sides with dense vegetation (e.g. ferns) within mature spruce and mixed boreal forests. It is also sometimes found in scrub and fallow fields, so long as there is damp, dense vegetation at ground level and a deep soil layer (Sulkava 1999). It feeds mainly on invertebrates, particularly earthworms and dipteran larvae, although plant material is very occasionally taken (Sulkava 1990).	eng
29665	population	Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag, P., 2008	In Europe it is rare and local. In north-west Europe and north-western Siberia, captures of this species generally form less than 1% of all <em>Sorex</em> captures with snap traps and pitfall traps (Sulkava 1999). It is a patchily distributed species and little is known about population trends. Little data exists on populations of this species in Mongolia, but it is not thought to be widespread (R. Samiya pers. comm.).	eng
29665	population	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	It is rare and local. In north-west Europe and north-western Siberia, captures of this species generally form less than 1% of all <em>Sorex</em> captures with snap traps and pitfall traps (Sulkava 1999). It is a patchily distibuted species and little is known about population trends.	eng
29665	threats	Amori, G., Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag, P., 2008	Preferred habitats are being altered by forestry and drainage (Sulkava 1999). Globally this is not considered to be a serious threat at present.	eng
29665	threats	Boris Sheftel, Heikki Henttonen, 2006	Preferred habitats are being altered by forestry and drainage (Sulkava 1999). Globally this is not considered to be a serious threat at present.	eng
29666	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
29666	conservation	Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and occurs in a number of protected areas. Approximately 11% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
29666	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	The least shrew occurs from Fennoscandia through European Russia and Siberia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Hokkaido and Sakhalin (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). In Europe, it occurs more or less continuously from northern Scandinavia through most of Finland to central and northern Russia. There are a small number of records from central Scandinavia (Grüner 1998, Sulkava 1999, Vaernesbranden and Larsen 2004), but this tiny and elusive shrew may be more widespread in central Scandinavia than the paucity of records would appear to suggest (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia it occurs from sea level to above the tree line (0-1,600 m: J. van der Kooij in litt. 2006).	eng
29666	distribution	Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	The least shrew occurs from Fennoscandia through European Russia and Siberia to the Pacific coast and the islands of Hokkaido and Sakhalin (Corbet 1978, Sulkava 1999). In Europe, it occurs more or less continuously from northern Scandinavia through most of Finland to central and northern Russia. There are a small number of records from central Scandinavia (Grüner 1998, Sulkava 1999, Vaernesbranden and Larsen 2004), but this tiny and elusive shrew may be more widespread in central Scandinavia than the paucity of records would appear to suggest (Sulkava 1999). In Fennoscandia it occurs from sea level to above the tree line (0-1,600 m: J. van der Kooij in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>Mongolia: North-western Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Hövsgöl, Hangai and Hentii mountain ranges, and Mongol Daguur Steppe. Also recorded in steppe habitats in Middle Halh Steppe and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range in eastern Mongolia (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1992; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).<br/><br/>Japan: Taiga zone from Norway, Sweden and Estonia to east Siberia; Sakhalin; Hokkaido, and perhaps Honshu (Japan); Mongolia; China; South Korea (Hutterer, in press). In Japan, the species is known only from Hokkaido, where there are a few records from the northern, central and eastern regions: Sarobetsu, Horonobe, Daisetsu, Shihoro, Nijibetsu, Shibetsu, Hichirippu, and Irikomanai (Abe, 2005).<br/><br/>China: Central S and NE China; extending from Scandinavia to E Siberia, South Korea, and the islands of Sakhalin and Hokkaido.	eng
29666	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	This is a very small species (possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal species, although the pygmy white-toothed shrew <em>Suncus etruscus </em>may be slightly smaller) and it is very difficult to catch, other than by pitfall traps. It occurs from the forest tundra zone in the north, through boreal coniferous forests to mixed forests and forest steppe at the southern limit of its range. Within these zones it prefers moist spruce-dominated woodland with thick moss, but it is also commonly found in bogs and mires, and even in dry pine forests and clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1990, 1999). It feeds on small insects, grubs, spiders and snails, consuming as much as 2-5 times its body weight over a 24 hour period (Sulkava 1990, Macdonald and Barrett 1993).	eng
29666	habitat	Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This is a very small species (possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal species, although the pygmy white-toothed shrew <em>Suncus etruscus </em>may be slightly smaller) and it is very difficult to catch, other than by pitfall traps. It occurs from the forest tundra zone in the north, through boreal coniferous forests to mixed forests and forest steppe at the southern limit of its range. Within these zones it prefers moist spruce-dominated woodland with thick moss, but it is also commonly found in bogs and mires, and even in dry pine forests and clear-felled areas (Sulkava 1990, 1999). It feeds on small insects, grubs, spiders and snails, consuming as much as 2-5 times its body weight over a 24 hour period (Sulkava 1990, Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Young are born May/August, with between 4 and 7 young in each litter (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).	eng
29666	population	Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	In Europe, trapping results suggest that it occurs at much lower densities than other sympatric <em>Sorex </em>species (although reliable population density estimates are hard to obtain because of difficulties in trapping this species) (Sulkava 1990, 1999). The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Sulkava 1999). In Mongolia this species is widespread but has a low abundance. Known to be very rare in Hokkaido (Japan).	eng
29666	population	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	Trapping results suggest that it occurs at much lower densities than other sympatric <em>Sorex </em>species (although reliable population density estimates are hard to obtain because of difficulties in trapping this species)(Sulkava 1990, 1999). The long-term population trend appears to be stable (Sulkava 1999).	eng
29666	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Boris Sheftel, 2006	No major threats are known. Clear-cutting does not appear to have a negative impact on population densities (Sulkava 1999).	eng
29666	threats	Henttonen, H., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	No major threats are known. Clear-cutting does not appear to have a negative impact on population densities (Sulkava 1999).	eng
29667	conservation	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. Studies of its ecology and distibution are required in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and isolated Iberian populations should be monitored.	eng
29667	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Fernandes, M. & Meinig, H., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. Studies of its ecology and distribution are required in Portugal (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005), and isolated Iberian populations should be monitored.	eng
29667	distribution	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It occurs from the British Isles and Iberia through much of continental Europe, European Russia and Siberia to Lake Baikal in the east. The northernmost limit of its range extends beyond the arctic circle. In Portugal the distribution is discontinuous in some regions north of the Tagus river (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and 2,260 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
29667	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Fernandes, M. & Meinig, H., 2008	It occurs from the British Isles and Iberia through much of continental Europe, European Russia and Siberia to Lake Baikal in the east. The northernmost limit of its range extends beyond the arctic circle.  It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002) and 2,260 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).<br/><br/>In South Asia, this species has been reported from North Western Frontier Province in Pakistan and Kashmir in India. However, due to the taxonomic confusion between this species and S. planiceps, its distribution limits in this region are difficult to determine.	eng
29667	habitat	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It tends to be found in relatively damp areas with dense vegetation at ground level, and it occurs in a wide variety of habitats including swamps, grasslands, heaths, sand dunes, woodland edge, rocky areas, shrubland, and montane forests. It feeds on invertebrates (Hutterer 1990, 1999).	eng
29667	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Fernandes, M. & Meinig, H., 2008	It tends to be found in relatively damp areas with dense vegetation at ground level, and it occurs in a wide variety of habitats including swamps, grasslands, heaths, sand dunes, woodland edge, rocky areas, shrubland, and montane forests. It feeds on invertebrates (Hutterer 1990, 1999).	eng
29667	population	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It is a common species in suitable habitats throughout its range, and it may even be the dominant shrew species in swampy areas (Hutterer 1999).	eng
29667	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Fernandes, M. & Meinig, H., 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitats throughout its range, and it may even be the dominant shrew species in swampy areas (Hutterer 1999).	eng
29667	threats	Holger Meinig, Boris Kryštufek, Margarida Fernandes, 2006	It suffers from destruction of habitat, use of pesticides and declining invertebrates. However, these are not considered to be major threats to the global or European regional persistence of the species at present. The apparent geographic isolation of some Iberian populations may make local extinctions more likely (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29667	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Fernandes, M. & Meinig, H., 2008	It suffers from destruction of habitat, use of pesticides and declining invertebrates. However, these are not considered to be major threats to the global or European regional persistence of the species at present. The apparent geographic isolation of some Iberian populations may make local extinctions more likely (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29668	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
29668	conservation	Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
29668	distribution	Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Sorex raddei</em> has been recorded from the Trans-Caucasus and north-eastern Turkey. Found from sea level - 2,400 m.	eng
29668	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Sorex raddei</em> has been recorded from the Trans-Caucasus and north-eastern Turkey. Found from sea level - 2400 m.	eng
29668	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Inhabit moist rocky habitats in mid-mountain forests. The species occurs in damp forest sites on shores of rivers and lakes, covered by dense grassy vegetation (Ognev, 1962). Feed mainly on earthworms and isects. Reproduce whole year, but peack is at the end of spring - beginning of summer. Reproduces up to 3 times a year, litter size is 3-5 young.	eng
29668	habitat	Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Inhabit moist rocky habitats in mid-mountain forests. The species occurs in damp forest sites on shores of rivers and lakes, covered by dense grassy vegetation (Ognev, 1962). Feed mainly on earthworms and isects. Reproduce whole year, but peack is at the end of spring - beginning of summer. Reproduces up to 3 times a year, litter size is 3-5 young.	eng
29668	population	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in mountain forests. It is included as a rare/endangered species in the Red Book of Georgia. The species is common in suitable habitat but is not abundant through the range.	eng
29668	population	Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Azerbaijan the species is considered rare in mountain forests. It is included as a rare/endangered species in the Red Book of Georgia. The species is common in suitable habitat but is not abundant through the range.	eng
29668	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats. Localized deforestation is a concern.	eng
29668	threats	Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats. Localized deforestation is a concern.	eng
29670	conservation	Krystufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
29670	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
29670	distribution	Krystufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species is found from Ciscaucasia to Talysh and Black Sea coast in Turkey and Northern Iran (Hutterer 2005). Elevation ranges from 200-3200 m.	eng
29670	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species is found from Ciscaucasia to Talysh and Black Sea coast in Turkey and Northern Iran (Hutterer 2005). Elevation ranges from 200-3200 m.	eng
29670	habitat	Krystufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species dwells in humid forests and meadows, as well as forest clearings that are densely vegetated in the lower soil layer. Rarely occurs in alpine zone. Feed mostly on small coleopterans and catepillars. Reproducse from March to June. Has 2-3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.	eng
29670	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species dwells in humid forests and meadows, as well as forest clearings that are densely vegetated in the lower soil layer. Rarely occurs in alpine zone. Feed mostly on small coleopterans and catepillars. Reproducse from March to June. Has 2-3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.	eng
29670	population	Krystufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species is common, often abundant.	eng
29670	population	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species is common, often abundant.	eng
29670	threats	Krystufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats to this species.	eng
29670	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats to this species.	eng
29671	conservation	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is present in some protected areas (e.g. Donana and Nestos delta), and is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
29671	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
29671	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
29671	distribution	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Suncus etruscus </em>ocurs from southern Europe and North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt) through the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor to Iraq, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Yunnan (China). Records from southern India and Sri Lanka probably refer to another species (Libois and Fons 1999). West and East African records (Guinea, Nigeria, Ethiopia) are doubtful and need confirmation (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is confined to the Mediterranean climate zone, occurring on the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas as well as on a number of Mediterannean islands. There is an established introduced population in the Canary Islands (Tenerife). It occurs from sea level to altitudes of over 1,000 m (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
29671	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is widespread from Southern Europe and North Africa, through parts of the Near East and Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia, to the island of Borneo in the east. In Europe, it is confined to the Mediterranean climate zone, occurring on the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas as well as on a number of Mediterranean islands. There is an established introduced population in the Canary Islands (Tenerife). In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. In the eastern Mediterranean it is present on the island of Cyprus, and is distributed in parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. In the Caucasus it is found in Azerbaijan, Georgia and possibly Armenia. The species has been recorded from Yemen, Oman, Iraq and possibly Iran. In Central Asia, it is present in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and possibly Uzbekistan. In South Asia, the species is known from much of Afghanistan and Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. In China it has only been recorded from Gengma County in southwestern Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia, with some populations present on the island of Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak only). West and East African records (Guinea [not mapped here], Nigeria and Ethiopia [not mapped here]) are doubtful and need confirmation (Hutterer 2005). It occurs from sea level to altitudes of 3,000 m asl.	eng
29671	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	This species is widespread from Southern Europe and North Africa, through parts of the Near East and Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia, to the island of Borneo in the east. In Europe, it is confined to the Mediterranean climate zone, occurring on the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas as well as on a number of Mediterranean islands. There is an established introduced population in the Canary Islands (Tenerife). In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. In the eastern Mediterranean it is present on the island of Cyprus, and is distributed in parts of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. In the Caucasus it is found in Azerbaijan, Georgia and possibly Armenia. The species has been recorded from Yemen, Oman, Iraq and possibly Iran. In Central Asia, it is present in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and possibly Uzbekistan. In South Asia, the species is known from much of Afghanistan and Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. In China it has only been recorded from Gengma County in southwestern Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, the species has been recorded from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia, with some populations present on the island of Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak only). West and East African records (Guinea [not mapped here], Nigeria and Ethiopia [not mapped here]) are doubtful and need confirmation (Hutterer 2005). It occurs from sea level to altitudes of 3,000 m asl.	eng
29671	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	In the Mediterranean region it prefers abandoned olive groves, vineyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by Mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters. It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Lebanon, it has been recorded living in both semi-arid and moist habitats, and has been collected on the edge of pine woods and in olive groves (Harrison and Bates 1991). In South Asia it can be found in both temperate and tropical forests, sometimes close to houses and other buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Southeast Asia, it is found in a wide variety of both pristine and degraded habitats. It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn. Anecdotal information suggests after a gestation period of 28 days, four to six young are born.	eng
29671	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	In the Mediterranean region it prefers abandoned olive groves, vineyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by Mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters. It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Lebanon, it has been recorded living in both semi-arid and moist habitats, and has been collected on the edge of pine woods and in olive groves (Harrison and Bates 1991). In South Asia it can be found in both temperate and tropical forests, sometimes close to houses and other buildings (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Southeast Asia, it is found in a wide variety of both pristine and degraded habitats. It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn. Anecdotal information suggests after a gestation period of 28 days, four to six young are born.	eng
29671	habitat	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It prefers abandoned olive groves, vinyards, and other cultivated areas overrun by mediterranean shrubs, but occurs also in gardens, low maquis, scrub, and open forest of Mediterranean oaks and pines, provided that old dry stone walls are available as shelters.  It avoids sand dunes, dense forests, and intensively cultivated land (Libois and Fons 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is more active during night than day, with a peak at dawn.  It experiences daily variations of weight, hypothermy, and torpor, as regulatory mechanisms of the high energetic consumption associated with activity. Possibly the smallest terrestrial mammal, its head and body measures 35-50 mm in length (Stone 1995) .	eng
29671	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	In Europe it tends to be less common than other shrews living in same area, as indicated by both trapping experiments and analyses of owl pellets (Libois and Fons 1999). Trapping is not so effective for catching this species because the shrew is too small (less than two grams); it is often more commonly seen in owl pellets (V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006). The species is considered to be rare in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered rare in semi-deserts and foothill and mountain steppes. It is included in the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) as a rare or endangered species. In a preliminary status of the terrestrial mammals of Oman, the species was Data Deficient. In Southeast Asia it is never abundant in any given locality at any time.	eng
29671	population	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	In Europe it tends to be less common than other shrews living in same area, as indicated by both trapping experiments and analyses of owl pellets (Libois and Fons 1999). Trapping is not so effective for catching this species because the shrew is too small (less than two grams); it is often more commonly seen in owl pellets (V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006). The species is considered to be rare in Jordan. In Azerbaijan, the species is considered rare in semi-deserts and foothill and mountain steppes. It is included in the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) as a rare or endangered species. In a preliminary status of the terrestrial mammals of Oman, the species was Data Deficient. In Southeast Asia it is never abundant in any given locality at any time.	eng
29671	population	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It tends to be less common than other shrews living in same area, as indicated by both trapping experiments and analyses of owl pellets (Libois and Fons 1999). Trapping is not so effective for catching this species because the shrew is too small (less than 2g); it is often more commonly seen in owl pellets (V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29671	threats	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is sensitive to insecticides and pesticides, but these are not thought to pose a major threat to the survival of the species at present.	eng
29671	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
29671	threats	Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Jenkins, P., Bukhnikashvili, A., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
29672	conservation	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Roland Libois, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas. The Indian population is listed in Appendix III of CITES, as <em>Martes foina intermedia</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29672	conservation	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Libois, R., Fernandes, M., Yonzon, P., Choudhury, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft C., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas. The Indian population is listed in Appendix III of CITES, as <em>Martes foina intremedia</em> (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Further legislation and enforcement of existing legislation regarding hunting. Research to establish a sustainable harvest level is also recommended.	eng
29672	distribution	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Libois, R., Fernandes, M., Yonzon, P., Choudhury, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft C., 2008	The stone marten is widespread, occurring throughout much of Europe and central Asia. It is found from Spain and Portugal in the west, through central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and northwest China. In Europe, it is absent from the United Kingdom, the Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic, Ireland and northern European Russia. At the end of 20th century the species extended to the north and east in European Russia, as far as the Moscow Province in the north and across the Volga River in the east (Abramov <em>et al.</em>, 2006). The species occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. It was recently found in northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). The species occurs from sea level to 3,400 m in Kazakhstan, up to 3,600 m in Himalaya and 4,200 m in Nepal. In India, it occurs above 1500 m. The species was introduced to Ibiza, Balaeric Islands (Spain) but it failed. It was also introduced to Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Long, 1995).	eng
29672	distribution	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Roland Libois, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The stone marten is widespread, occurring throughout much of Europe and central Asia. It is found from Spain and Portugal in the west, through central and southern Europe, the Middle East, and central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and north-west China. In Europe, it is absent from the United Kingdom, the Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, the northern Baltic, Ireland and northern European Russia. At the end of 20th century the species extended to the north and east in European Russia, as far as the Moscow Province in the north and across the Volga River in the east (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. It was recently found in northern Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). The species was introduced to Ibiza, Balaeric Islands (Spain) but failed. It was also introduced to Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Long 1995). It is found from sea level to 3,400 m in Kazakhstan and 4,200m in Nepal.	eng
29672	habitat	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Roland Libois, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The stone marten prefers more open areas than other martens (Sachhi and Meriggi 1995). Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range. It is typically found in deciduous forest, forest edge, and open rocky hillsides (sometimes above the tree line). However, in Switzerland, Austria, north-east France, and southern Germany, it is very common in suburban and urban areas, often building its nest in house attics, outhouses, barns, garages, or even car engine spaces. In some areas they are common in towns and rare in woods. Commensal beech martens may cause damage to roofs, insulation, and electrical wiring and pipes in houses and cars (Broekhuizen 1999).	eng
29672	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Libois, R., Fernandes, M., Yonzon, P., Choudhury, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft C., 2008	The stone marten prefers more open areas than other martens. (Sachhi and Meriggi, 1995). Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range. It is typically found in deciduous forest, forest edge, and open rocky hillsides (sometimes above the tree line). However, in Switzerland, north-east France, and southern Germany, it is very common in suburban and urban areas, often building its nest in house attics, outhouses, barns, garages, or even car engine spaces. In some areas they are common in towns and rare in woods. Commensal beech martens may cause damage to roofs, insulation, and electrical wiring and pipes in houses and cars.	eng
29672	population	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Roland Libois, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is common in at least parts of its range (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Populations in western and central Europe have increased since the 1960s and 1970s. The beech marten is recolonising areas in the Netherlands from which it had disappeared.	eng
29672	population	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Libois, R., Fernandes, M., Yonzon, P., Choudhury, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft C., 2008	It is common in at least parts of its range (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). Populations in western and central Europe have increased since the 1960s and 1970s. The beech marten is recolonizing areas in the Netherlands from which it had disappeared.	eng
29672	threats	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Libois, R., Fernandes, M., Yonzon, P., Choudhury, A., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft C., 2008	It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. Rabies may be a problem in some portions of the species range. In China, it is Key Listed at level 2. The species is hunted for its fur in India and Russia. The species is also hunted for food.	eng
29672	threats	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Roland Libois, Margarida Fernandes, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	This species has no major threats. It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. The species is hunted for its fur in India and Russia; and is also hunted for food in some parts of its global range (not in Europe).	eng
29673	conservation	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernades, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is protected under national legislation in a number of range states: e.g. Schedule 6 of the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act, the Protection of Badgers Act (UK), and Schedule 5 of the Irish Wildlife Acts. In Albania it is considered Endangered. The species is found in many protected areas.	eng
29673	conservation	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also listed on Schedule 6 of the United Kingdom Wildlife and Countryside Act and listed under the Protection of Badgers Act. In Albania it is considered Endangered. The species is found in many protected areas.	eng
29673	distribution	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernades, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	According to Wilson and Reeder (2005) this species is found in “Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.” It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500m in the Caucsasus (A.V. Abramov pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,200 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).<br/><br/>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <em>M. meles</em> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <em>M. leucurus</em>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
29673	distribution	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	According to Wozencraft (2005) this species is found in ?Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.? It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500 m in the Caucsasus (Abramov pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <em>M. meles</em> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <em>M. meles </em>is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <em>M. leucurus</em>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
29673	distribution	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	According to Wozencraft (2005) this species is found in “Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China (Xinjiang), Crete, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia (eastward up to Volga River), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Ukraine.” It occurs from sea level to 3,300 m in Pamir Mountains, up to 2,500 m in the Caucsasus (Abramov pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The boundary between the distribution ranges of the European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The European badger <em>M. meles</em> was found in the Nizhnii Novgorod Province (on both sides of Volga River). <em>M. meles </em>is distributed in the west and north districts of Kirov Province, the east and south of Kirov Province are inhabited by <em>M. leucurus</em>. The sympatric zone between these species is the country between the Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
29673	habitat	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland. It is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas and urban parks. It is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as hedgehogs, moles, and rabbits. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months. The home ranges of this species in Finland are very large, with a mean of about 15 km² (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006), and their social system is peculiar, with large overlapping home ranges without any communal den (Kauhala in litt. 2006). In Finland, it does not reproduce every year, and the litter size is small (Kauhala <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
29673	habitat	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernades, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland. It is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas and urban parks (Prigioni 1999). It is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as hedgehogs, moles, and rabbits. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months. The home ranges of this species in Finland are very large, with a mean of about 15 km<sup>2</sup> (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006), and their social system is peculiar, with large overlapping home ranges without any communal den (K. Kauhala<em> in litt.</em> 2006). In Finland, it does not reproduce every year, and the litter size is small (Kauhala <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
29673	population	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernades, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The species is abundant throughout its range, and populations are generally stable or increasing. Densities of this species have increased in Europe during recent decades (Holmala and Kauhala 2006). In central Europe the population is increasing due to the reduction of rabies, in western Ukraine the population has increased, and in the United Kingdom there was a 77% increase in the total population size from the 1980s to the 1990s (Battersby 2005). There are large differences in population densities across its range (Prigioni 1999). In Finland, near the northern limit of its distribution, the population density is low at about 0.2 to 0.25 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (Kauhala in litt. 2006), whereas in the UK densities of up to 19.7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> have been recorded (Prigioni 1999).	eng
29673	population	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The species is common in European Russia. 30,000 individuals were recorded in Russia in 1990 (Abramov pers. comm.). Densities of this species have increased in Europe during recent decades (Holmala and Kauhala 2006). The population density of this species in Finland, near the northern limit of its distribution, is low, at about 2 to 2.5 individuals per 10 km² (Kauhala in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is abundant throughout its range. In central Europe the population is increasing due to the reduction of rabies. In western Ukraine the population has increased. In the United Kingdom (1980s-1990s) there was a 77% increase in the total population size. There are large differences in population densities across its range.	eng
29673	threats	Andreas Kranz, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Margarida Fernades, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. In central Europe the population was formerly severely reduced by rabies, but that threat has now decreased with rabies controls. In the United Kingdom and Ireland the species is associated with bovine TB, which is used as a pretext to eradicate the species. During hunting for foxes or raccoons the badger is often killed as bycatch. In the Russian Federation the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and fat which is used as a medicine. The species is sensitive to habitat fragmentation and the size of the remaining patch is important for the continued survival of the species. In Germany, the species is hunted annually. It is possible that the introduced raccoon dog (<em>Nyctereutes procyonoides</em>) competes with the badger in parts of its range, and a project in Finland is looking into this possible threat (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Badgers are heavily hunted in Finland, the annual harvest has increased in recent years, being about 10,000 badgers now (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The hunting season in Finland is the whole year, with the exception of females with young being protected in May, June, and July (K. Kauhala <em>in litt.</em> 2006).	eng
29673	threats	Kranz, A., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Maran, T., Fernandes, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Its decline in some agricultural areas has been attributed to land-use changes causing a loss of suitable habitat (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is sometimes persecuted as a pest. In central Europe the population was formerly severely reduced by rabies, but that threat has now decreased with rabies controls. In the United Kingdom the species is associated with bovine TB, which is used as an excuse to eradicate the species (there is no evidence of this). During hunting for foxes or raccoons the badger is often killed as bycatch. In the Russian Federation the species is sometimes hunted for its meat and fat which is used as a medicine. The species is sensitive to habitat fragmentation and the size of the remaining patch is important for the continued survival of the species. In Germany, the species is hunted annually. It is possible that the introduced raccoon dog (<em>Nyctereutes procyonoides</em>) competes with badgers, and a project in Finland is looking into this possible threat, initiated by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, started this 2006 and continuing for about 4 years (Kauhala in litt. 2006). Badgers are heavily hunted in Finland, the annual harvest has increased in recent years, being about 10,000 badgers now (Kauhala in litt. 2006). The hunting season in Finland is the whole year, with the exception of females with young being protected in May, June, and July (Kauhala in litt. 2006).	eng
29674	conservation	Reid, F., Helgen, K. & Masseti, M., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (McDonald pers. comm.). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (McDonald pers. comm.).	eng
29674	conservation	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Hererreo, Michael Stubbe, Giorgos Giannatos, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29674	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The Indian population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustela erminea ferghanae</span> is listed on CITES Appendix III. It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Monitoring of exploitation is required by the Bern Convention (McDonald pers. comm.). The species is protected under national legislation in some range states (e.g. Spain), although this is not necessarily enforced (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). However, in many parts of its global range the species is not protected and trapping is quite legal (McDonald pers. comm.).	eng
29674	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Circumboreal range throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, from Greenland and the Canadian and Siberian Arctic islands south to about 35°N (King 1983, Fagerstone 1987). In North America, this species is found throughout Alaska and Canada south through most of the northern United States to central California, northern Arizona (Berna 1991), northern New Mexico, Iowa, the Great Lakes region, Pennsylvania, and northern Virginia (Fagerstone 1987). It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis, 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands. It does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen, 1999).	eng
29674	distribution	Reid, F., Helgen, K. & Masseti, M., 2008	Circumboreal range throughout North America, Europe, and Asia, from Greenland and the Canadian and Siberian Arctic islands south to about 35°N (King 1983, Fagerstone 1987). In North America, this species is found throughout Alaska and Canada south through most of the northern United States to central California, northern Arizona (Berna 1991), northern New Mexico, Iowa, the Great Lakes region, Pennsylvania, and northern Virginia (Fagerstone 1987). It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis, 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands. It does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen, 1999).	eng
29674	distribution	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Hererreo, Michael Stubbe, Giorgos Giannatos, 2006	The stoat has a very large circumboreal range, inhabiting central and northern Eurasia, northern North America and north-eastern Greenland. It has been introduced to New Zealand. In Europe, it is present as far south as 41ºN in Portugal (Santos Reis 1983), and is found on most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, and some small North Atlantic islands; it does not occur on Mediterranean islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japan Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its vertical range is from sea level to 3,000 m (Pulliainen 1999).	eng
29674	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Ermine (Stoat) occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <em>Microtus</em> and <em>Arvicola</em> species (King, 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King, 1983). Specifically to Mongolia, they inhabit taiga, forest-steppe and rocky parts of the semi-desert. This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King, 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). This species is nocturnal but are often seen in daylight hours. Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).<br/><br/>Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983). They tend to avoid dense forest and deserts, and are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially Microtus and Arvicola (King, 1983). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).	eng
29674	habitat	Reid, F., Helgen, K. & Masseti, M., 2008	Ermine (Stoat) occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <em>Microtus</em> and <em>Arvicola</em> species (King, 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King, 1983). Specifically to Mongolia, they inhabit taiga, forest-steppe and rocky parts of the semi-desert. This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King, 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). This species is nocturnal but are often seen in daylight hours. Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).<br/><br/>Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King, 1983). They tend to avoid dense forest and deserts, and are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially Microtus and Arvicola (King, 1983). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King, 1983).	eng
29674	habitat	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Hererreo, Michael Stubbe, Giorgos Giannatos, 2006	Stoats occupy a wide range of habitats. They are often found in successional or forest-edge habitats, in scrub, alpine meadows, marshes, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, and riverbanks that have high densities of small mammals, especially <em>Microtus</em> and <em>Arvicola</em> species (King 1983). Pulliainen (1999) states that coniferous and mixed woodlands are preferred, but that many other habitats are used including tundra and the summits of fells and mountains. Dense forests and deserts are avoided (King 1983). This species is a specialist predator of small mammals, but will occasionally feed on fruit, earthworms, insects, eggs, and birds (King 1983). Its local distribution is typically related to that of small rodents and lagomorphs (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999). Estimates for home range size range from 4 to 200 hectares for males, most often falling between 10 to 40 hectares (King 1983).	eng
29674	population	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Hererreo, Michael Stubbe, Giorgos Giannatos, 2006	The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity; populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco 1998, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection (EMA Workshop 2006). In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole <em>Arvicola sapidus</em> (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert 2002, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
29674	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity. Populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen, 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco, 1998; Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection. In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole, <em>Arvicola sapidus</em>, (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002; Cabral <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is abundant in north-western and central Mongolia, but is rare in the eastern plains (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species, common in suitable habitats. However, in some parts of its range it is rare.	eng
29674	population	Reid, F., Helgen, K. & Masseti, M., 2008	Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The density and structure of populations of this species are unstable, due to short life spans and high reproductive capacity. Populations are greatly influenced by fluctuations in prey supply (especially small mammals) (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999). Population fluctuations of stoats and their prey tend to increase in magnitude at more northerly latitudes (Pulliainen, 1999), although fluctuations have also been recorded in Spain (Blanco, 1998; Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). In France, it was declining, but now has stabilized as a result of full protection. In Spain it has been speculated that the population may be declining as a results of declines in the southern water vole, <em>Arvicola sapidus</em>, (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002), but the population trend has not been quantified in Spain or Portugal (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002; Cabral <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is abundant in north-western and central Mongolia, but is rare in the eastern plains (Bannikov, 1954; Dulamtseren, 1970; Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Despite population fluctuations, it is a widespread and abundant species, common in suitable habitats. However, in some parts of its range it is rare.	eng
29674	threats	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Hererreo, Michael Stubbe, Giorgos Giannatos, 2006	In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <em>Arvicola</em> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (R. McDonald pers. comm. 2006). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s (with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade) (Pulliainen 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King 1983, Pulliainen 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.	eng
29674	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	On a range-wide scale, no major threats are known. Locally the species may be threatened by unrestricted trapping and habitat loss due to timber harvest or natural disturbance (Fagerstone 1987). In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <em>Arvicola</em> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen, 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (McDonald pers. comm.). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s, with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade (Pulliainen, 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.	eng
29674	threats	Reid, F., Helgen, K. & Masseti, M., 2008	On a range-wide scale, no major threats are known. Locally the species may be threatened by unrestricted trapping and habitat loss due to timber harvest or natural disturbance (Fagerstone 1987). In the Iberian Peninsula the species is dependent on two <em>Arvicola</em> species, and these are declining, so loss of prey base may be a threat (Palomo and Gisbert, 2002). Habitat loss (e.g. as a result of urbanization: Pulliainen, 1999) is also a problem in parts of the range. The species is commonly hunted in Russia, where there is also a limited fur trade (McDonald pers. comm.). In western and central Europe, the stoat was frequently hunted for its white winter fur up until at least the 1930s, with c.30,000 pelts sold in Finland alone during that decade (Pulliainen, 1999). Availability of prey is the principal factor controlling population density (King, 1983; Pulliainen, 1999), but disease, parasites and other pressures can also contribute.	eng
29675	conservation		More research is needed to determine whether or not it is a valid species.	eng
29675	distribution		This species is known only from the unspecified type locality in Eritrea. It is known only from two old specimens, one of which survives. It is possibly closely related to (or even synonymous with) <em>Rana ridibunda</em>. It is also possible that the species is not even native to Eritrea (<em>R. ridibunda</em> having been introduced widely elsewhere in the world), and the specimens were perhaps not even collected in that country, but the amphibian fauna of Eritrea is too poorly known for these issues to be resolved at present. Given the current state of knowledge, it is not possible to map this species' range.	eng
29675	habitat		If this is a valid species, it presumably occurs in or near water.	eng
29675	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
29675	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
29679	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. The subspecies, <em>Mustela eversmanii amurensis</em>, is on the Red Data Book in China and Russia (2001). In Russia its listing is due to reductions in population size, and in China it is listed as Near Threatened due to habitat loss	eng
29679	conservation	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Stubbe, M., Kryštufek B., Abramov A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. The subspecies, <em>Mustela eversmanii amurensis</em>, is on the Red Data Book in China and Russia (2001). In Russia its listing is due to reductions in population size, and in China it is listed as Near Threatened due to habitat loss	eng
29679	conservation	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention (Wolsan 1999). It occurs in many protected areas. There is a need to address the hunting and persecution issues for this species. It is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.	eng
29679	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia. Wozencraft (2005) lists the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan; it is also known from Kashmir (Pocock, 1941). According to Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western population of which (subspecies <em>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</em>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Yugoslavia, and western Romania; the eastern population (nominate subspecies) being restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
29679	distribution	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Stubbe, M., Kryštufek B., Abramov A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia. Wozencraft (2005) lists the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan; it is also known from Kashmir (Pocock, 1941). According to Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western population of which (subspecies <em>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</em>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Yugoslavia, and western Romania; the eastern population (nominate subspecies) being restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
29679	distribution	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The steppe polecat occurs from central and eastern Europe in the west through southern Russia, northern Georgia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan to Mongolia and northern and western China. Wilson and Reeder (2005) list the following countries of occurrence for this species: Austria, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. According to Wolsan (1999), in Europe this species is represented by two major populations that are separated by the Carpathians. The western of these two major populations (subspecies <em>Mustela eversmanii hungarica</em>) is found in the Czech Republic, eastern Austria, southern Slovakia, Ukraine south of the Carpathians, Hungary, northern Serbia, and western Romania; and the eastern (nominate subspecies) is restricted to northern Bulgaria, southern Romania, Moldova, Ukraine east and north of the Carpathians, southeastern Poland, southern European Russia, and Kazakhstan (Wolsan 1999). It occurs up to 800 m in Europe and to 2,600 m in central Asia.	eng
29679	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.	eng
29679	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Stubbe, M., Kryštufek B., Abramov A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.	eng
29679	habitat	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It inhabits a variety of relatively dry habitats including steppes, semi-deserts, pastures, and cultivated fields (Wolsan 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents, including sousliks, marmots, hamsters, pikas, gerbils and voles. It avoids forests, and is primarily nocturnal.	eng
29679	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	In Europe, this species is still numerous, particularly in southern European Russia and Kazakhstan, though it is unevenly spaced and abundant across its range, with unstable population densities, being strongly dependent on food resources, and capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al,</em> 1999). It is more widespread to the east of Europe. There has been no evidence for any decline (except in Austria and the Czech Republic), but the species is scarce. However, ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.	eng
29679	population	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Stubbe, M., Kryštufek B., Abramov A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	In Europe, this species is still numerous, particularly in southern European Russia and Kazakhstan, though it is unevenly spaced and abundant across its range, with unstable population densities, being strongly dependent on food resources, and capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al,</em> 1999). It is more widespread to the east of Europe. There has been no evidence for any decline (except in Austria and the Czech Republic), but the species is scarce. However, ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.	eng
29679	population	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	This species is still numerous in Europe, particularly in southern European Russia. However it is unevenly distributed across its range, and especially in the western parts of its range (e.g. in the EU) it is scarce and patchily distributed. Population densities vary spatially and temporally, with fluctuations linked to the abundance of prey species. It is capable of spreading and colonizing new areas rapidly (Wolsan 1999). There has been no evidence for any decline in Europe (except in Austria and the Czech Republic). However ground squirrels are declining and this is an important prey species, so this could have an impact on the population in Europe. It is widespread and common in Central Asia and Siberia.	eng
29679	threats	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Boris Kryštufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	In western Europe it is seldom intentionally hunted (although it may be taken as bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution (EMA Workshop 2006). However in at least parts of its range (e.g. Russia) it is commonly hunted for its fur.	eng
29679	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is not intentionally hunted (more bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range. However, in Russia it is a commonly hunted species for fur. It is impacted by habitat loss in China. Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> (1999) state that this species is hunted for its pelts.	eng
29679	threats	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Stubbe, M., Kryštufek B., Abramov A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is not intentionally hunted (more bycatch) but is heavily impacted by persecution in the western parts of its range. However, in Russia it is a commonly hunted species for fur. It is impacted by habitat loss in China. Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> (1999) state that this species is hunted for its pelts.	eng
29680	conservation	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Krystufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Hunting for this species is prohibited in most countries across its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but there is a need to increase the size of these. There is an urgent need to protect the remaining steppe habitat of this species. It is a flagship species for the steppe. A number of animals are in captivity, but a breeding program is not necessary. Russia's and China's Red Lists note the species as Vulnerable.	eng
29680	conservation	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Hunting for this species is prohibited in most countries across its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but there is a need to increase the size of these. There is an urgent need to protect the remaining steppe habitat of this species. It is a flagship species for the steppe. A number of animals are in captivity, but a breeding program is not necessary. Russia's and China's Red List note the species as Vulnerable.	eng
29680	conservation	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kry?tufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Hunting for this species is prohibited in most countries across its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but there is a need to increase the size of these. There is an urgent need to protect the remaining steppe habitat of this species. It is a flagship species for the steppe. A number of animals are in captivity, but a breeding program is not necessary. Russia's and China's Red List note the species as Vulnerable.	eng
29680	distribution	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Krystufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The marbled polecat has a distribution extending from south-east Europe, through Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, to northern China and Mongolia. In Europe, it is found in Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, and parts of Ukraine (the polecat has disappeared from most of this country and is now present only in the east) and the Russian Federation and the northern Caucasus (the steppe areas, not the mountains). It is also known to be widespread throughout the Middle East, having been recorded from just across the Sinai eastern border in Gaza (Harrison 1968), in Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and northern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Harrison 1968, Nader 1991). Saleh and Basuony (1998) report the first records of this species from Egypt, as it was recorded from two localities on the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula (southeast of Bir El Abd and just north of Gabal El Maghara). It occurs from sea level up to 3,000 m in the Tien Shan mountains.	eng
29680	distribution	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The marbled polecat has a distribution extending from south-east Europe, through Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, to northern China and Mongolia. In Europe, it is found in Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, and southern parts of Ukraine (has in fact disappeared from most of the Ukraine, only present in the east) and the Russian Federation and the northern Caucasus (the steppe areas, not the mountains). It is also known to be widespread throughout the Middle East, having been recorded from just across the Sinai eastern border in Gaza (Harrison 1968), in Israel/ Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and northern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951; Harrison 1968; Nader 1991). Saleh and Basuony (1998) report the first records of this species from Egypt, as it was recorded from two localities on the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula (southeast of Bir El Abd and just north of Gabal El Maghara). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.  It is found up to 3,000 m in the Tien Shan Mountains.	eng
29680	distribution	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kry?tufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The marbled polecat has a distribution extending from south-east Europe, through Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, to northern China and Mongolia. In Europe, it is found in Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkish Thrace, and southern parts of Ukraine (has in fact disappeared from most of the Ukraine, only present in the east) and the Russian Federation and the northern Caucasus (the steppe areas, not the mountains). It is also known to be widespread throughout the Middle East, having been recorded from just across the Sinai eastern border in Gaza (Harrison 1968), in Israel/ Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and northern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951; Harrison 1968; Nader 1991). Saleh and Basuony (1998) report the first records of this species from Egypt, as it was recorded from two localities on the northern part of the Sinai Peninsula (southeast of Bir El Abd and just north of Gabal El Maghara). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m.  It is found up to 3,000 m in the Tien Shan Mountains.	eng
29680	habitat	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Krystufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats. It is a specialized predator, feeding mainly on desert and steppe rodents such as gerbils, ground squirrels, and birds. It is the most fossorial of all weasels.	eng
29680	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species was recorded from a sparsely vegetated, sandy area southeast of Bir El Abd, northern Sinai, while another was recorded from a sandy area just north of Gabal El Maghara (Saleh and Basuony 1998). It inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats. It is a specialized predator, feeding mainly on desert and steppe rodents such as gerbils, ground squirrels, and birds. It is the most fossorial of all weasels.	eng
29680	habitat	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kry?tufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species was recorded from a sparsely vegetated, sandy area southeast of Bir El Abd, northern Sinai, while another was recorded from a sandy area just north of Gabal El Maghara (Saleh and Basuony 1998). It inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats. It is a specialized predator, feeding mainly on desert and steppe rodents such as gerbils, ground squirrels, and birds. It is the most fossorial of all weasels.	eng
29680	population	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is rare throughout much of its range, and is classed as 'Rare' in the Russian Federation. Its northerly range is receding in the Balkans and Ukraine, and in European Russia. It has declined substantially in Europe in line with the loss of steppe habitats. Declines are also suspected in central Asia. It is less rare in central Asia than elsewhere, but not common there. The species has always been naturally rare. Though it appears to be common throughout northern Sinai, and well known to the local Bedouins there (Saleh and Basuony 1998). The largest population in the Middle East is reported to be in Israel (Michael Stubbe pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29680	population	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kry?tufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is rare throughout much of its range, and is classed as 'Rare' in the Russian Federation. Its northerly range is receding in the Balkans and Ukraine, and in European Russia. It has declined substantially in Europe in line with the loss of steppe habitats. Declines are also suspected in central Asia. It is less rare in central Asia than elsewhere, but not common there. The species has always been naturally rare. Though it appears to be common throughout northern Sinai, and well known to the local Bedouins there (Saleh and Basuony 1998). The largest population in the Middle East is reported to be in Israel (Michael Stubbe pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29680	population	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Krystufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is rare throughout much of its range, and is classed as 'Rare' in the Russian Federation. Its northerly range is receding in the Balkans and Ukraine (Rozhnov 1999), and in European Russia. It has declined substantially in Europe in line with the loss of steppe habitats. Declines are also suspected in central Asia. It is less rare in central Asia than elsewhere, but not common there. The species has always been naturally rare in most areas, although it appears to be common throughout northern Sinai, and well known to the local Bedouins there (Saleh and Basuony 1998). The largest population in the Middle East is reported to be in Israel (Michael Stubbe pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29680	threats	Alexei Tikhonov, Paulo Cavallini, Tiit Maran, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Jim Conroy, Boris Krystufek, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The major threat to this species is the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to cultivated farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides may also be a threat, as are population declines in key prey species (a number of steppe rodent species are declining in Europe). In China, desertification is the major threat to the species.	eng
29680	threats	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The major threat to this species is the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to cultivated farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides may also be a threat, as are population declines in key prey species (a number of steppe rodent species are declining in Europe). In China, desertification is the major threat to the species.	eng
29680	threats	Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Krantz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kry?tufek, B., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The major threat to this species is the loss of natural steppe and desert habitats. Steppe habitats are declining in Europe as they are converted to cultivated farmland. Secondary poisoning by rodenticides may also be a threat, as are population declines in key prey species (a number of steppe rodent species are declining in Europe). In China, desertification is the major threat to the species.	eng
29684	conservation	Gunn, A. & Forchhammer, M., 2008	Unregulated commercial harvesting caused the disappearance of muskoxen from large areas of their Canadian continental ranges in the late 1880s and at the same time, ice storms probably reduced muskox numbers on Banks and western Victoria islands. After protection from hunting in 1917, muskoxen began to recover, and under the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Wildlife Act, are subject to aboriginal hunting limited by area-specific quotas and seasons. After 1980, the rights to hunt muskox could be transferred to non-aboriginal hunters for guided non-resident hunters and for commercial meat harvesting. In northern Canada, wildlife management is largely shifting from centralized government agencies to co-management boards and shared responsibility with aboriginal peoples. The wildlife management boards are developing management plans, and continue to regulate muskox hunting on the basis of sustainable yields. In the late 1990s, the annual quota for the NWT and Nunavut was 12,000 animals which includes 10,000 tags for Banks Island. The domestic harvest is relatively stable and while the commercial harvest for meat and hides (source of qiviut the fine underwool) annually varies, it averages about 1,000-2,000 muskoxen from Banks and Victoria islands. Management activities are mostly systematic aerial strip-transect surveys to track trends in population size, and as a basis for quota adjustments. No reserves are specifically set aside for muskoxen, but part of the rationale for establishing the Thelon Game Sanctuary was to protect a remnant muskox population from hunting. The species also occurs in three national parks: Quttinirpaaq (Ellesmere Island ), Aulavik (northern Banks Island) and Tuktu Nogait (Bluenose Lake,  western Arctic mainland). In national parks, land use activities are controlled, but aboriginal hunting is permitted subject to conservation provisions. Conservation measures proposed for Canada: 1) Maintain sufficiently frequent population monitoring to track trends in abundance and distribution. 2) Utilize environmental screening of individual developments to protect muskox ranges outside any formally protected areas. 3) Public education is essentially as muskox have recolonized large areas and many people are unfamiliar with muskox ecology and behavior. People are often concerned about effects of muskoxen on caribou especially in areas muskoxen have recolonized.<br/><br/>In the United States, all five extant populations are the result of re-introductions of the muskox within and outside its historic range. The re-introductions began in 1935 with the translocation of animals, originally from northeast Greenland, to Nunivak Island. From 1967 to the most recent transplants in 1970, the Nunivak island population has been the source for all other Alaskan translocations (Klein 1988). Fully protected by law, muskox occurs in five protected areas and hunting is allowed under permit, with limited quotas on three of the five populations. Local subsistence hunting is given preference. Its status within the country is Not Threatened. <br/><br/>In Greenland, muskoxen occur in four protected areas, with indigenous populations in the vast Northeast Greenland National Park, and three introduced populations in Arnangarnup Qoorua Nature Reserve, and Kangerlussuag and Maniitsoq Caribou Reserves. Within these protected areas, muskox receives full protection. Most natural populations are within Northeast Greenland National Park. Outside protected areas, controlled hunting is allowed on Jameson Land in East Greenland, and near Kangerlussuaq in West Greenland. In both, quotas are determined annually and hunting is permitted only by full-time subsistence hunters. Between 1963 and 1991, muskoxen were translocated to three areas in the southwest previously uninhabited by muskox (near Kangerlussuaq, central West Greenland; Nunavik Peninsula, West Greenland; and Ivittuut, south Greenland), and a fourth population was reintroduced into former muskox range in Avanersuaq (Thule) in north-western North Greenland. Conservation measures proposed for Greenland: A proposal for development of a long-term management plan for existing muskox populations in West Greenland, is presently being considered by the Home Rule administration. A new system of game wardens in the West Greenland region, between Disko Bay (68°30’N) and Paamiut icecap (62°30’N), is being established to strengthen the enforcement of renewable resource legislation, and to control the performance of hunters in general.	eng
29684	distribution	Gunn, A. & Forchhammer, M., 2008	Historically (1800s), muskoxen occurred from Point Barrow, Alaska (USA) east across Canada to northeast Greenland, south to northeast Manitoba (Canada), with the current range reduced (Grubb, 2005). In the Canadian Arctic, muskoxen inhabit most large islands (except Baffin Island) and the mainland tundra of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut from the coast of Hudson Bay west to almost the Mackenzie River and south to the tree line in the Northwest Territories and western Nunavut. Muskoxen  occur naturally over the entire Northeast and North Greenland west to Nyeboe Land. As well, there are several introduced populations, which are now well established in West Greenland and Qaannaaq. The species was re-introduced to Alaska (USA), and four locations in West Greenland (Denmark). Muskoxen were also introduced to Norway and Svalbard (Norway), although on Svalbard, they have since died out (Grubb, 2005). The species occurred in Russia until around 2,000 years ago, and has been introduced to the Taimyr Peninsula and Wrangel Island.	eng
29684	habitat	Gunn, A. & Forchhammer, M., 2008	Muskoxen are large-bodied herbivores in an environment characterized by a short and variable plant growing season (when diet quality is high) and a long winter when the availability of low quality forage is highly variable through the snow cover. Typically, muskoxen live in mixed sex and age herds or small male bachelor herds which have home ranges within which muskoxen move between seasonal ranges. Although primarily grazers adapted to a diet of sedges and grasses, muskoxen also browse shrubs and forage selectively for forbs. They calve well before snow melt so lactation is supported by the cow’s fat reserves which the cow has to replenish during the brief summer. Muskoxen have a high threshold of fat reserves before conceiving which reflects their conservative breeding strategies. Winter ranges typically have shallow snow to reduce the energetic costs of digging through snow to reach forage. Muskoxen may also be susceptible to internal parasites but their role in muskox foraging ecology and population dynamics is unknown. The implications of the low genetic variability of muskoxen are likewise unknown.	eng
29684	population	Gunn, A. & Forchhammer, M., 2008	In Canada, estimated muskox numbers in the Northwest Territories total 75,400 (1991-2005) of which 93% occur on the large arctic islands of Banks and western Victoria. Nunavut has an estimated 45,300 animals, of which 35,000 occur on the Arctic islands (unpublished data). A few muskoxen from the transplanted population on the Alaskan North Slope have strayed into Yukon. In northern Quebec (outside their natural range), Le Henaff and Crete (1989) counted 290 muskoxen in 1986.<br/><br/>In Alaska, 3,714 animals were estimated from aerial and ground counts between 2001 and 2005: Nunivak Island 609; Nelson Island 318; Seward Peninsula 2050; northwest Alaska 369; northeast Alaska 268. The re-established herds either fluctuate or are increasing in size and range, and in some areas, local people are concerned that they will compete with caribou and reindeer. <br/><br/>The population size in Greenland in 1991 was estimated to number 9,500-12,500. Of this total, (Boertmann <em>et al</em>., 1990) recorded the following population estimates:1,000 to 1,500 in North Greenland between Newman bight (82°N, 55’W) and Nioghalvfjerdfjorden (79°N); around 35 animals in the northern East Greenland region between 79°N and Jokelbugten (78°N); 450 to 550 between 78°N and Ardencable fjord (75°N); 2,900 to 4,600 in the areas between 75°N and Kong Oscar Fjord (72°N), and 4,600 to 5,000 the southernmost part of the species’ natural range in East Greenland, between 72°N and Scoresby Sund (70°N) (although recent unpublished surveys suggest that the population here has been reduced to approximately 4,000 animals (P. Aastrup pers. comm. to M. Forchhammer.).	eng
29684	threats	Gunn, A. & Forchhammer, M., 2008	Historically this species declined because of over-hunting, but population recovery has taken place following enforcement of hunting regulations. Management in the late 1900s was mostly conservative hunting quotas to foster recovery and recolonization from the historic declines. Currently, there is increasing realization that periodically on some arctic islands, die-offs of up to 40% of the island’s muskoxen occur when warmer fall weather leads to icing and deeper snow which restrict forage availability. On the North American mainland, typically muskoxen have expanded their range recolonizing historic ranges but behind the colonizing edge, abundance declines at least partially due to predation by wolves and grizzly bears. A persistent concern of people is that muskoxen through their presence (smell) and foraging are detrimental to caribou (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>). The environmental consequences of climate warming is likely to have an impact on this species.<br/><br/>In Greenland, there are no major threats, although the fact that populations are often small in size and scattered, make them vulnerable to local or regional fluctuations in climate. Most populations  are within the National Park, where they are protected from hunting. The portion of the population which is south of the National Park sustains a regulated quota harvest. Climate change in Northeast Greenland is expected to bring increased precipitation and milder winters, which might negatively affect the muskox population.	eng
29691	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Du?an Jeli?, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for a number of populations of this species.	eng
29691	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for a number of populations of this species.	eng
29691	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Du?an Jeli?, 2009	This species ranges from southern Slovakia and Hungary, through most of Serbia, the most eastern parts of continental Croatia (and newly discovered on Papuk Mountain in the central part of Croatia [Duŝan Jelić, in press]), southern Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania (lowland areas), Greece (including many Ionian and Aegean islands) and Turkey (western and central ). There is a single record from eastern Bosnia Herzegovina. Populations of the species in Hungary and southern Slovakia are very fragmented. Records from Cyprus refer to <em>Ablepharus budaki</em>. It is found up to 2,000 m asl (in Turkey).	eng
29691	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species ranges from southern Slovakia and Hungary, through most of Serbia, the most eastern parts of continental Croatia (and newly discovered on Papuk Mountain in the central part of Croatia [Dušan Jelić, in press]), southern Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania (lowland areas), Greece (including many Ionian and Aegean islands) and Turkey (western and central ). There is a single record from eastern Bosnia Herzegovina. Populations of the species in Hungary and southern Slovakia are very fragmented. Records from Cyprus refer to <em>Ablepharus budaki</em>. It is found up to 2,000m asl (in Turkey).	eng
29691	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Du?an Jeli?, 2009	This species is found in dry areas including south facing slopes, meadows, scrubland and clearings in woodland (both deciduous and pine). It is generally found close to ground cover such as leaf-litter, dead wood, stones, bushes and other vegetation. The female lays a clutch of two to four eggs.	eng
29691	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is found in dry areas including south facing slopes, meadows, scrubland and clearings in woodland (both deciduous and pine). It is generally found close to ground cover such as leaf-litter, dead wood, stones, bushes and other vegetation. The female lays a clutch of two to four eggs.	eng
29691	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Du?an Jeli?, 2009	It is generally a common species, but it is notably rarer at the edges of its range.	eng
29691	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is generally a common species, but it is notably rarer at the edges of its range.	eng
29691	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Du?an Jeli?, 2009	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey.  Overall, there appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its European range the species is threatened by afforestation, deforestation and conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural, forestry or industrial use (Gasc 1997; CoE, 2003).	eng
29691	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, László Krecsák, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey.  Overall, there appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its European range the species is threatened by afforestation, deforestation and conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural, forestry or industrial use (Gasc 1997; CoE, 2003).	eng
29730	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karataş, A., 2008	International legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas where this applies. Included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive in areas where this applies. Occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need to enforce measures to protect this species, especially to prevent the fumigation of caves.	eng
29730	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z.S., Kock, D., Sharifi, M., Karataş, A., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	International legal obligations for protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) in areas where this applies. Included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive in areas where this applies. Occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need to enforce measures to protect this species, especially to prevent the fumigation of caves.	eng
29730	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Found in "Senegal and Egypt south to South Africa; Cyprus, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, S Syria, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, S Iraq, S. Iran, Pakistan, NW India; islands in the Gulf of Guinea (São Tomé and Príncipe); adjacent small islands" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range falls within the European Mammal Assessment region.	eng
29730	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karataş, A., 2008	Patchily distributed across sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa; also ranges outside of Africa through south-west Asia to Iran and Pakistan; also on Cyprus. <br/><br/>In the Western Palaearctic it occurs as two forms: <em>R. a. arabicus</em> (Iran, southern Arabia, Pakistan), <em>R. a. aegyptiacus</em> (rest of range). In sub-Saharan Africa occurs as four forms: subspecies <em>leachi</em> is found in SW Ethiopia, S Sudan, E and S DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and the extreme E and south of South Africa, including Swaziland and Lesotho;  subspecies <em>princeps</em> is endemic to Principe Island in the Gulf of Guinea; subspecies <em>tomensis</em> is endemic to Sao Tome; and subspecies <em>unicolor</em> is found from Senegal and the Gambia east to Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, south to northern central Nigeria and W Cameroon and Bioko Island, then south from Gabon and Congo to western DRC and W Angola. <br/> <br/>Elevational range: from sea level to 4,000 m asl.	eng
29730	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z.S., Kock, D., Sharifi, M., Karataş, A., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Patchily distributed across sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa; also ranges outside of Africa through south-west Asia to Iran and Pakistan; also on Cyprus. <br/><br/>In the Western Palaearctic it occurs as two forms: <em>R. a. arabicus</em> (Iran, southern Arabia, Pakistan), <em>R. a. aegyptiacus</em> (rest of range). In sub-Saharan Africa occurs as four forms: subspecies <em>leachi</em> is found in SW Ethiopia, S Sudan, E and S DR Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and the extreme E and south of South Africa, including Swaziland and Lesotho;  subspecies <em>princeps</em> is endemic to Principe Island in the Gulf of Guinea; subspecies <em>tomensis</em> is endemic to Sao Tome; and subspecies <em>unicolor</em> is found from Senegal and the Gambia east to Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, south to northern central Nigeria and W Cameroon and Bioko Island, then south from Gabon and Congo to western DRC and W Angola. <br/> <br/>Elevational range: from sea level to 4,000 m asl.	eng
29730	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karataş, A., 2008	This species is found in arid to moist tropical and subtropical biomes. Has broad habitat tolerance, so long as abundant food and appropriate roosting sites are available. Feeds on soft fruits (date, carob, mulberry, azedarach, fig, apricot, peach and apple), flowers, occasionally takes leaves. Often forages in orchards. Roosts: a strictly cavernicolous species, roosting in moist natural caverns and artificial structures including underground irrigation tunnels (ghanats), ruins, tombs, mines, military bunkers and open wells. Often roosts with other bat species. Possible altitudinal migration in parts of its range (e.g., Lebanon).	eng
29730	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z.S., Kock, D., Sharifi, M., Karataş, A., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in arid to moist tropical and subtropical biomes. Has broad habitat tolerance, so long as abundant food and appropriate roosting sites are available. Feeds on soft fruits (date, carob, mulberry, azedarach, fig, apricot, peach and apple), flowers, occasionally takes leaves. Often forages in orchards. Roosts: a strictly cavernicolous species, roosting in moist natural caverns and artificial structures including underground irrigation tunnels (ghanats), ruins, tombs, mines, military bunkers and open wells. Often roosts with other bat species. Possible altitudinal migration in parts of its range (e.g., Lebanon).	eng
29730	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karataş, A., 2008	Common in parts of Africa; generally uncommon in SW Asia although locally abundant in Israel and Jordan (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in large colonies of up to 40,000 to 50,000 individuals. In SW Asia colonies generally number 50 to 500 individuals, although up to 3,000 individuals were recorded in a cave in Jordan. The population in Turkey is estimated at 5,000 to 10,000 individuals; the population there may be decreasing due to control measures in caves (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). In Syria only a single locality is known of 1,000 to 2,000 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29730	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z.S., Kock, D., Sharifi, M., Karataş, A., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	Common in parts of Africa; generally uncommon in SW Asia although locally abundant in Israel and Jordan (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005). <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in large colonies of up to 40,000 to 50,000 individuals. In SW Asia colonies generally number 50 to 500 individuals, although up to 3,000 individuals were recorded in a cave in Jordan. The population in Turkey is estimated at 5,000 to 10,000 individuals; the population there may be decreasing due to control measures in caves (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). In Syria only a single locality is known of 1,000 to 2,000 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007).	eng
29730	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J. & Karataş, A., 2008	This species faces a number of threats, but none of them are considered a serious threat to the species at the global level. Hunted for food in some cave systems in Africa. Cave disturbance and persecution are also a problem in parts of the range. The species is considered as a pest by fruit farmers and consequently cave roosts have been fumigated and destroyed in Israel, Turkey and Cyprus, resulting in incidental killing of many insectivorous bats of the genera <em>Rhinolophus</em> and <em>Myotis</em>. The Israeli Nature Conservation Society is trying to prevent this lethal control (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
29730	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z.S., Kock, D., Sharifi, M., Karataş, A., Mickleburgh, S., Bergmans, W. & Howell, K., 2008	This species faces a number of threats, but none of them are considered a serious threat to the species at the global level. Hunted for food in some cave systems in Africa. Cave disturbance and persecution are also a problem in parts of the range. The species is considered as a pest by fruit farmers and consequently cave roosts have been fumigated and destroyed in Israel, Turkey and Cyprus, resulting in incidental killing of many insectivorous bats of the genera <em>Rhinolophus</em> and <em>Myotis</em>. The Israeli Nature Conservation Society is trying to prevent this lethal control (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
29742	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus </em>is strictly protected under Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In eastern parts of Russia there are strict anti-hunting measures in place, but there is continued poaching (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Hunting in Norway is also strictly controlled. In Finland, a large fence has been constructed between areas occupied by semidomesticated reindeer and forest reindeer, to prevent hybridisation (Koubek and Zima 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Research is urgently required to determine the causes of population decline of <em>R. t. pearsoni</em> on Novaya Zemlya, and to identify appropriate conservation actions.	eng
29742	conservation	Henttonen, H. & Tikhonov, A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus </em>is strictly protected under Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In eastern parts of Russia there are strict anti-hunting measures in place, but there is continued poaching (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Hunting in Norway is also strictly controlled. In Finland, a large fence has been constructed between areas occupied by semi domesticated reindeer and forest reindeer, to prevent hybridisation (Koubek and Zima 1999, H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Research is urgently required to determine the causes of population decline of <em>R. t. pearsoni</em> on Novaya Zemlya, and to identify appropriate conservation actions.<br/><br/>In China the species is rare; only a few hundred animals remain there.  Most of its habitat was burned in great fires in 1986.  It is listed on the China Red List as Not Applicable.	eng
29742	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	The reindeer has a circumpolar distribution in the tundra and taiga zones of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Europe, wild populations have a fragmented distribution in Norway (including the island of Svalbard, where there is a separate subspecies <em>R. t. platyrhynchus</em>), Finland, and Russia (including the island of Novaya Zemlya, which also has an endemic subpecies <em>R. t. pearsoni</em>) (Herre 1986, Koubek and Zima 1999). In Finland, wild reindeer occur in two isolated subpopulations, one in the west and one in the east. Semi-domesticated reindeer are widespread in Lappland, and a feral population has historically become established on Iceland (Koubek and Zima 1999); these populations are not shown on the distribution map. It occurs from sea level to at least 2,000 m in Norway (Herre 1986).	eng
29742	distribution	Henttonen, H. & Tikhonov, A., 2008	The reindeer has a circumpolar distribution in the tundra and taiga zones of northern Europe, Siberia, and North America (Corbet 1978, Hall 1981, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In North America, the range formerly extended as far south as central Idaho, the Great Lakes area, and northern New England - however, wild populations currently remain only in Alaska, Canada, Washington, and northern Idaho. In Europe, wild populations have a fragmented distribution in Norway (including the island of Svalbard, where there is a separate subspecies <em>R. t. platyrhynchus</em>), Finland, and Russia (including the island of Novaya Zemlya, which also has an endemic subspecies <em>R. t. pearsoni</em>) (Herre 1986, Koubek and Zima 1999). In Finland, wild reindeer occur in two isolated subpopulations, one in the west and one in the east. Semi-domesticated reindeer are widespread in Lappland, and a feral population has historically become established on Iceland (Koubek and Zima 1999).	eng
29742	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	It inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra, open montane habitats, and open woodland, where it feeds on lichens, mosses, grasses, and shoots and leaves of deciduous shrubs and trees (especially willow <em>Salix </em>spp. and birch <em>Betula </em>spp.). In North America it is a migratory species, making seasonal movements from the coast in summer to the interior in winter, but in Europe reindeer are more sedentary (Herre 1986).	eng
29742	habitat	Henttonen, H. & Tikhonov, A., 2008	This species inhabits arctic (including tussock tundra and sedge meadow) and subarctic tundra, open montane habitats, and open woodland, often on high mountain slopes and in alpine zones at elevations of 2,300-3,000 meters, where it feeds on lichens, mosses herbs, ferns, grasses, and shoots and leaves of deciduous shrubs and trees (especially willow--Salix spp.--and birch--Betula spp.). <br/><br/>A social deer, this species forms large regional herds of 50,000-500,000 animals which band together during the spring, although this herd is composed of generally single-sex subgroups with 10-1,000 individuals.  Rutting takes place about October. Young are born in May and June after a gestation of about 228 days.  One or two young are born; they wean at about 6 months; reach maturity at 2.5-3.5 years; and live up to 20 years. Thick fur and short tail are adaptations to extreme cold winters. Its ability to smell and find lichens and other food under snow is a special adaptation.  The major predators are bears and wolves. <br/><br/>A highly nomadic species, caribou may travel 5,000 km/3,000 miles in a year, the longest documented movements of any terrestrial mammal.  In addition, most populations undertake extensive migrations in the spring and fall, travelling.  During these migrations, herds move at a rate of 19-55 kilometers/11-33 miles per day.  The caribou's maximum running speed is 60-80 kmph/36-48 mph.  Caribou are excellent swimmers, and will readily cross large rivers or lakes.  When swimming, adults can maintain a speed of 6.5 kpmh / 4 mph, and when pressed can swim at 10 kmph / 6 mph.   Population densities are very sparse - generally 0.5 animals per square kilometre of suitable habitat.  However, during the migration period, concentrations may exceed 19,000 animals per square kilometre.  In North America it is a migratory species, making seasonal movements from the coast in summer to the interior in winter, but in Europe reindeer are more sedentary (Herre 1986; Vevers and Pinner, 1948). The species migrates seasonally in Mongolia, but not over long distances (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992).	eng
29742	population	Heikki Henttonen, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	There are approximately 30,000 wild reindeer in southern Norway and 10,000 in Svalbard (Andersen and Hustad 2004). The population trend in Norway is believed to be stable, and hunting is controlled. In Finland, forest reindeer (subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus</em>) were driven extinct in the early 1900s, but are now starting to recover as a result of animals moving in from Karelia in Russia and from some captive bred stock that were released (Ruusila and Kojola in press). Forest Reindeer remain very rare in Finland (about 1,200 in the eastern subpopulation and 1,000 individuals in the western subpopulation). The Finnish population trend is difficult to determine, as the population in eastern Finland has expanded rapidly from c. 40 reintroduced individuals in 1980 to c.1,200 today, whereas the western subpopulation has declined from c.1,800 to c.1,000 during 2001-2006 (although in the last few years prior to 2001 it had been increasing) (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press). Overall, the current Finnish population trend is one of growth rather than decline.  Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semidomesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em> has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999). There are also large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. The feral population in Iceland numbers c.1000, and there are approximately 0.5 million semi-domesticated reindeer in Lappland (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
29742	population	Henttonen, H. & Tikhonov, A., 2008	There are large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. <br/><br/>There are approximately 30,000 wild reindeer in southern Norway and 10,000 in Svalbard (Andersen and Hustad 2004). The population trend in Norway is believed to be stable, and hunting is controlled. In Finland, forest reindeer (subspecies <em>R. t. fennicus</em>) were driven extinct in the early 1900s, but are now starting to recover as a result of animals moving in from Karelia in Russia and from some captive bred stock that were released (Ruusila and Kojola in press). Forest Reindeer remain very rare in Finland (about 1,200 in the eastern subpopulation and 1,000 individuals in the western subpopulation). <br/><br/>The Finnish population trend is difficult to determine, as the population in eastern Finland has expanded rapidly from c. 40 reintroduced individuals in 1980 to c.1,200 today, whereas the western subpopulation has declined from c.1,800 to c.1,000 during 2001-2006 (although in the last few years prior to 2001 it had been increasing) (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press). Overall, the current Finnish population trend is one of growth rather than decline.  Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semi domesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em> has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999). There are also large numbers of reindeer (locally known as caribou) in North America. The feral population in Iceland numbers c.1000, and there are approximately 0.5 million semi-domesticated reindeer in Lappland (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Numbers in European Russia are very low with presumed ongoing declines, and the reindeer is now absent from large tracts of tundra and taiga. It is not known whether the small Kola Peninsula population in Russia is derived from autochthonous wild reindeer or from semi domesticated animals (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies pearsoni has a small population (less than 1,000 mature individuals), which is undergoing continuing decline (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/>The reindeer's status in Asia is poorly known, although it is significantly more abundant there than in Europe, with a population estimated at 400,000 in the 1950s (Koubek and Zima 1999).  Two separate populations of this species are present in Mongolia (Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992). No robust data on population trends or abundance are currently available, although the total Mongolian population is believed to consist of fewer than 1,000 individuals.	eng
29742	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	Poaching is a major threat in the Russian Federation (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The causes of decline of the Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em>are not known (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Loss of habitat in Finland (through logging) may pose problems, and there is increased disturbance to the species in some areas due to winter sporting activities. Hybridization with semidomesticated reindeer is a potential problem for some subspecies and subpopulations (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).	eng
29742	threats	Henttonen, H. & Tikhonov, A., 2008	The Porcupine caribou herd in northeastern Alaska and adjacent northwestern Canada and the adjacent Central Arctic herd are potentially threatened by onshore petroleum exploration and development; industrial development on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge could increase calf mortality if calving were displaced south and east of potential development areas (Fancy and Whitten 1991). However, Pollard <em>et al.</em> (1996) documented high use of oil fields by caribou during periods of high mosquito and fly activity. <br/><br/>Poaching is a major threat in the Russian Federation (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). The causes of decline of the Novaya Zemlya subspecies <em>pearsoni </em>are not known (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). Loss of habitat in Finland (through logging) may pose problems, and there is increased disturbance to the species in some areas due to winter sporting activities. Hybridisation with semi domesticated reindeer is a potential problem for some subspecies and subpopulations (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).<br/><br/>White-tailed deer carry and disperse into the environment meningeal worms that usually are fatal to moose and caribou but are clinically benign in deer; hence, white-tailed deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur (see Schmitz and Nudds 1994). Predation by an expanding coyote population threatened a remnant caribou herd in southeastern Quebec (Crete and Desrosiers 1995). Long-term steady decline in the taiga-dwelling population in Ontario has been associated with the expansion of forest harvesting (Schaefer 2003).	eng
30208	conservation	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	The Bontebok (<em>D. p. pygargus</em>) is listed in the CITES Appendix II. However, strict control of trade means that existing trade does not seem to be adversely affecting the population, which is still exhibiting overall growth (Friedmann and Daly 2004).<br/><br/>The economic value and popularity of the Blesbok on private farms has enabled this subspecies to re-occupy large areas of its original range; substantial extralimital populations of the Blesbok have also been established on private land outside its natural range in South Africa and elsewhere. The survival of the Bontebok is more dependent on protected areas, especially Bontebok National Park and the De Hoop Nature Reserve, although they also occur on private property both within and outside their former range.	eng
30208	distribution	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	The Bontebok was historically confined to the coastal plain (60-200 m) of the Western Cape, South Africa, where overhunting reduced it from locally abundant to the verge of extinction. It was saved from extinction in the mid-19th century by a few Cape farming families who protected the small remnant populations. From a low of less than 20 animals in the original Bontebok National Park (established near Bredasdorp in 1931), the population of this antelope has gradually recovered. The population of Bontebok National Park had reached 84 when the animals were translocated to the more suitable site of the current Bontebok National Park near Swellendam in 1960, and increased to a population of 320 in 1981. The park’s Bontebok population has subsequently been maintained at around 250. Surplus animals removed from this national park have formed the nucleus of reintroduced populations in other protected areas such as provincial and local authority nature reserves. Extralimital populations have been established in West Coast National Park and at least two local authority reserves. Bontebok populations have also been established on private farms both within its natural range and elsewhere, e.g., in Eastern Cape and Free State provinces (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Blesbok’s historical distribution included the highveld of Free State and Gauteng provinces, parts of western and north-western KwaZulu-Natal, and the northern Karoo in the Eastern and Northern Cape, South Africa. It was separated by more than 300 km from the Bontebok’s historical range. Although the Blesbok occurred in enormous populations in regions such as the highveld when the South African hinterland was first explored by Europeans, excessive hunting had reduced its numbers to about 2,000 by the late 19th century. Since then it has made a spectacular recovery, mainly on private farmland, and it has been translocated to many parts of the country both within and outside its natural range. The largest numbers occur on private farms in Gauteng, Free State and Northern Cape. Smaller numbers occur in numerous provincial reserves, with the largest populations in areas such as Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve in Gauteng and Tussen-die-Riviere Game Farm, Willem Pretorius Game Reserve and Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve in Free State (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Blesbok was formerly present in western Lesotho, but exterminated before 1900 (Lynch 1994). There is no reliable historical evidence that Blesbok occurred in Swaziland, but they have been introduced to Malolotja Nature Reserve and Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary (Monadjem 1998). <br/><br/>The Blesbok has been introduced widely to privately owned game farms outside its natural range in Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe (East 1999).	eng
30208	habitat	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	This species is highly characteristic of the open plateau grasslands of the southern African highveld (Blesbok), up to 2,000 m asl, and coastal Cape fynbos (Bontebok) (East 1999). Both subspecies are almost exclusively grazers, with a preference for short grass; water is an essential habitat requirement (David and Lloyd in press).	eng
30208	population	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	East (1999) estimated there to be at least 235,000-240,000 Blesbok (stable or increasing), of which 97% occur on private farms and 3% in protected areas, and at least 2,300 Bontebok (increasing). Current estimates put the numbers of Bontebok at around 3,500; however, based on a 2001 survey, only about 1500 animals actually occur within the native historical range of the subspecies. The largest population is in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, and adjacent Overberg Test Range with some 700 animals (David and Lloyd in press).	eng
30208	threats	Lloyd, P. & David, J., 2008	As a species there do not seem to be any major threats to its long-term survival. While the Bontebok’s numbers are gradually recovering, this subspecies is threatened by hybridization with the much more numerous Blesbok (which has been widely reintroduced, and also introduced outside its former range). Interbreeding has produced numerous hybrids on private land. A photographically based statistical technique is used to differentiate between true Bontebok and Bontebok/Blesbok hybrids for the purpose of identifying registered Bontebok herds (Fabricius <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
30309	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	One subpopulation occurs in Grazelema National Park.	eng
30309	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Three healthy subpopulations are known. One in Grazelema National Park consists of a few thousand trees.	eng
30309	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overgrazing by goats, drought and the threat of fire affect the survival of all three subpopulations.	eng
30310	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Most of the population is contained within protected sites.	eng
30310	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to the Andalusian sierras.	eng
30310	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This shrubby species occurs on calcareous and ultrabasic rocks.	eng
30311	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Greece, the species is now restricted to a single large population on the Parnon Mountains in Peloponnissos. It is more widespread in southern Turkey.	eng
30311	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is used as a source of timber for carpentry and fuel.  There is also some threat of grazing but the foliage is very prickly and undesirable.	eng
30312	conservation	Güner, A., 1998	The species is now the target of a special conservation programme.	eng
30312	distribution	Güner, A., 1998	In Turkey the <em>Liquidambar</em> forests have been reduced from 63 km² to 13.5 km² since 1945.	eng
30312	threats	Güner, A., 1998	Much of the land has been converted for agriculture. Trees are cut for firewood and the resin is collected for the production of fixative in the perfume industry.	eng
30313	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is widely cultivated.	eng
30313	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Serbian spruce is known from fewer than 1,000 trees, occurring in 60 ha entirely within Pancic Narodni Nature Reserve in the Tara Mountains.	eng
30313	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
30313	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The only threat appears to come from competition with <em>P. abies</em> and <em>Fagus orientalis</em>.	eng
30314	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A conservation plan for the species is being developed  by Cordoba Botanic Garden.	eng
30314	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species endemic to the Andalusian Sierras.	eng
30314	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in dry montane scrub.	eng
30314	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are affected by fire, tourism and lack of pollinators.	eng
30315	habitat	Nikolic, T., 1998	A species scattered in lowland and submontane dry scrub.	eng
30317	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Part of the range is protected within a national reserve.	eng
30317	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small shrubby tree, known from dispersed populations, generally consisting of between 10 and 40 individuals in the coastal cordillera between Castellón and Tarragona.	eng
30317	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Sclerophyllous submontane scrub.	eng
30317	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The opening up of forestry roads has caused some habitat loss.	eng
30318	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The populations in Malta and southern Spain are highly threatened. In North Africa the species is also restricted in range.	eng
30318	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It coppices well.	eng
30319	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to Crete, occurring in small numbers in 15-20 localities on the three main mountain massifs, especially at the south-east corner of the Omalós Plain. There are differences of opinion as to whether the extent of the species' occurrence is regressing or not.	eng
30319	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no doubt that grazing goats have a strong impact in places, but it has lessened over the past 80 years and the trees regenerate well by suckering.	eng
30320	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species is restricted to Mts Babor and Tababor, and is highly scattered where it occurs.	eng
30320	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Recent collecting expeditions in the area uncovered only one plant.	eng
30321	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The taxon is listed in government legislature of 1991.	eng
30321	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Previously referred to as a distinct species, this tree is confined to the island of Gomera.	eng
30321	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest tree.	eng
30321	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In the past the timber was heavily harvested. As a result, populations are now small and fragmented.	eng
30321	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The major threat at present comes from fire.	eng
30322	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed in government legislature of 1991.	eng
30322	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to the islands of Tenerife, Gomera, Hierro and Gran Canaria.	eng
30322	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30322	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This tree is known from approximately 10 subpopulations, probably containing no more than 10,000 individuals. Numbers appear to be stable	eng
30322	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Declining water availability and fires may affect some areas.	eng
30323	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species endemic to the Gebel Akhdar on the coast of Libya.	eng
30323	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population range and status are little known at present.	eng
30325	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The main concentration is in Tassili N'Ajjer National Park, which has been designated a World Heritage Site.  The species has been successfully established in cultivation. One subpopulation in Morocco is fenced and attempts are being made to replant the species but the rates of success are very low.	eng
30325	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that flourished in a wetter climate.  Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.	eng
30325	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A paper by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) has summarised and updated what is know about this species in Algeria. Until the mid-1940s, it was thought that there were no more than ten living individuals of this cypress.  However, by 1949 the population was estimated to have 200 living trees.  The counting of the trees has gone on for a number of decades.  Between 1950 and 1965 various expeditions to the area undertook censuses of the living trees, but in most cases this was simply a record of the number of individuals in each wadi.  A methodological survey started in 1965, when 85 individuals were sufficiently described to be recognized again.  Between 1971 and 1972, a forester, Säid Grim, counted 230 living trees and numbered each one.  Those numbers are still evident today. An inventory between 1997 and 2001 conducted by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) discovered that 20 of the 230 trees counted by Grim had died, while there were 23 new ones added to the tally.  The current population size is therefore 233 living cypresses, in varying states of health.  About ten of the newly listed trees are very young, indicating that recruitment does continue in spite of the current drought. <br/> <br/>The 233 trees are distributed over a strip 12 km long by 6 km (on average) wide, along the southwestern border of the Tassili plateau. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, one or two small groves remain in dry woodland on steep scree slopes in Oued n'Fiss Valley south of Marrakech in the Atlas Mountains. Estimates of the area of occupancy have declined from 5,500 ha in 1950 to 1,460 ha in 1986.	eng
30325	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Regeneration in the wild is evident, but this is very limited. It is believed that the water table has sunk to an extent that regeneration is impeded.  There is evidence that cypresses were found further north in the mid-19th century, and the apparently rapid retreat of some 100 km in their northern limit has been ascribed to intense human exploitation (Abdoun and Beddiaf 2002). <br/> <br/>The total number of cypresses in the Tassili has fallen by almost 8% in 30 years.  The causes of this loss are not easy to identify.  On the majority of the dead trees, there are traces of branches having been chopped off (presumably by shepherds), and some have been burnt to death.  Two trees appear to have succumbed because of the drought.  At wadis frequented by shepherds and tourists, all dead cypress wood is rapidly removed. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, the decline is largely due to habitat degradation, overgrazing and to some extent exploitation. Observations during a visit to the area in 1997 indicated a complete absence of natural regeneration.	eng
30326	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is found on all the Azores, except Santa Maria and Graciosa.	eng
30326	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A shrub or small tree which forms a typical component of remaining laurel forest, mostly above 500 m.	eng
30326	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Sizeable trees are now rare and the species is represented largely by shrub-sized individuals.	eng
30326	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Continuous cutting of old stands for their high-quality wood has caused significant reductions in the population.	eng
30327	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It is listed in regional legislation and populations are also protected within national parks.	eng
30327	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	La Palma and Tenerife in the Canary Islands and only at higher altitudes on Madeira, where a total of 39 specimens have been counted in the wild.	eng
30327	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Remaining populations are confined to dry woodland in inaccessible rocky areas.	eng
30327	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species is dioecious and dispersal between the isolated populations is apparently failing because of declines in numbers in the avian-disperser population.	eng
30328	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
30328	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Canary Islands and Madeira. Subpopulations in both island groups are scattered and fragmented as a result of past habitat loss and timber exploitation.	eng
30328	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the major components of laurisilva.	eng
30328	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subpopulation in the Canary Islands has not been properly censored but probably contains fewer than 10,000 individuals in total. In Madeira it is possible that subpopulation numbers are increasing with the expansion of laurisilva.	eng
30328	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The most serious threat in the present day is fire.	eng
30329	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is listed in regional legislation and occurs within protected areas.	eng
30329	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The wild origin of the species is a little obscure. It appears to have been introduced to the Azores three centuries ago. Occurrences on these islands are therefore excluded for the purposes of assigning an IUCN Red List Category.	eng
30329	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are known from remaining laurisilva and cloud forest.	eng
30329	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although the extent of the stands is much reduced as a result of past exploitation of the highly valued wood, the species is still abundant in parts of Madeira and the Canaries.	eng
30330	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Once a dominant component of forest between 300 and 600 m on all of the Azores, except Graciosa.	eng
30330	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in coastal forest consisting mainly of introduced species.	eng
30330	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overexploitation of the wood and habitat loss have now led to the species becoming almost extinct on some islands.	eng
30331	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Now included in regional legislation.	eng
30331	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has a fragmented distribution but still appears to be relatively frequent in areas of cloud forest above 1,000 m on the Canaries.	eng
30331	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest and laurisilva.	eng
30331	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is rare and scattered over a slightly wider altitudinal range in laurisilva on Madeira.	eng
30331	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In the past it was exploited for its timber.	eng
30332	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
30332	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to the Canary Islands.	eng
30332	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry scrub.	eng
30332	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is distributed fairly abundantly.	eng
30332	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Housing developments, grazing and invasive plants all pose threats to the remaining populations.	eng
30333	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This uncommon species is largely contained within protected areas.  It is covered by regional legislation.	eng
30333	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in undisturbed cloud forest or <em>laurisilva</em> above 800 m.	eng
30333	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The greatest threat to remaining subpopulations comes from burning.	eng
30334	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
30334	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found only in the Cumbres and Barrancos in the south of Tenerife.	eng
30334	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occupies a wide altitudinal range in dry woodland and scrub.	eng
30334	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations appear to be stable, although restricted.	eng
30336	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is covered by regional legislation and occurs within protected areas.	eng
30336	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is commonly known incorrectly under the epithet <em>marmulano</em> and may possibly be divided into different varieties on different island groups, particularly the Cape Verde populations.	eng
30336	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in lowland dry forest and xerophytic scrub.	eng
30336	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	On the Canary Islands and Madeira the populations have become small and fragmented, and are under great pressure from grazing, burning and habitat conversion.	eng
30337	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recent grazing control has helped to improve the prospects of regeneration.	eng
30337	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Madeira.	eng
30337	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane woodland at 1,500 m.	eng
30337	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is reduced to a single population of about 30 trees in a small area.	eng
30337	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are still potential threats from burning and collectors.	eng
30338	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs within protected areas and is covered by regional legislation.	eng
30338	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Madeira and the Canary Islands.	eng
30338	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A widely scattered species of submontane laurisilva and cloud forest.	eng
30338	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is notably rare and considered threatened on Madeira. The subpopulations on the Canary Islands appear to be stable, although there have been reductions in the past.	eng
30339	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	Brandberg to southern Kaokoveld.	eng
30339	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	It occurs on granite outcrops, ridges and inselbergs.	eng
30339	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	Trees in the Twyfelfontein area are infested with insects, which may have some effect on recruitment and population size and structure. Many mature trees died during the severe drought in the 1980s. However, healthy levels of recruitment are observed in some subpopulations.	eng
30340	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to a small area in the Hlabisa District of northern Zululand. The species may be confused with the introduced <em>A. lebbeck</em>, which has become naturalized along the northern KwaZulu-Natal coast.	eng
30340	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Johnson, D., 1998	This tree occurs in forest, riverine thicket and open woodland.	eng
30340	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Johnson, D., 1998	The habitat became severely fragmented through agricultural activities and increasing settlement. Frequent fires are also a problem in parts of the range. Recent assessments of the population have revealed no evidence of recruitment.	eng
30341	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Dold, T., 1998	At least two of the localities are now contained within protected areas.  The future of the species should be secure provided that an alien eradication programme is maintained.	eng
30341	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Dold, T., 1998	Found in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth and supposedly further eastwards in the Transkei, although there are no records to confirm this. It has been recorded from several localities.	eng
30341	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Dold, T., 1998	A small tree found in forest and bush, often on steep wooded hill slopes.	eng
30341	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Dold, T., 1998	The extent of occurrence and number of mature trees have declined as a result of habitat loss through the invasion of introduced Acacia species.	eng
30342	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	Historically, this scrambling shrub or small tree was known from a few localities along the Eastern Cape coast (mainly in the Transkei).	eng
30342	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	Riverine scrub.	eng
30342	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	At present it is known from a single locality, where there are 20 mature plants. It is probable that the species will be discovered in other localities.	eng
30342	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	The observed declines have been largely caused by cutting for firewood and grazing by livestock.	eng
30343	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	Found along the Eastern Cape coast and further inland, mainly in Transkei.	eng
30343	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	Found in evergreen forest.	eng
30343	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Cloete, E., 1998	The species occurs in many localities which are supposedly protected as demarcated forest. However, the system of protection has not been successfully upheld since 1994. Much of the forest, including that which is not demarcated, is threatened by increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber.	eng
30344	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	On exposed quartzite rock ridges.	eng
30344	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	There is taxonomic confusion over this species. Little is known about its abundance and precise distribution. It has been found in only three definite localities.	eng
30344	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Its habitat is under threat from cutting for firewood and timber.	eng
30345	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has been recorded from a number of sites in the Pilanesberg Game Reserve.	eng
30345	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Until recently this species was thought to be endemic to a small area within South Africa. It is now known from at least nine localities within North-West and Northern Provinces in South Africa, three localities near Bulawayo in Zimbabwe and one locality in Botswana.	eng
30345	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species grows on stony or rocky hillsides in savannah vegetation	eng
30345	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is apparently not abundant in Zimbabwe or Botswana, but there are records of large subpopulations in South Africa.	eng
30345	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although some plants may have been lost through various developments, the increasing number of new localities indicates that this species is not as scarce or threatened as originally suspected.	eng
30346	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
30346	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small spiny succulent tree with a restricted distribution on a range of hills northwest of Lydenburg.	eng
30346	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Plants are found on rocky slopes and cliffs in shallow sandy and turfy soils, associated with mixed savanna.	eng
30346	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is not threatened but it is listed as protected. Any changes in land use could have some impact. None of the localities are contained within conservation areas.	eng
30347	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed as protected, but it is not recorded from any conservation areas. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
30347	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small spiny succulent tree restricted to the Zoutpansberg and Blouberg mountain ranges.	eng
30347	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Grows in mixed savanna on sandy soils on rocky, sandstone slopes of ridges and hills with a north and north-east aspect.	eng
30347	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Apart from slight pressure from succulent-collectors, no immediate threats exist. Any change in land use, however, would have a serious impact because of the species' restricted range.	eng
30348	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	At one time trees were harvested for their timber, but this is now strictly controlled. It is a protected species over much of its range and efforts are being made to improve the potential of recruitment.	eng
30348	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	From near Knysna in the Western Cape to Mariepskop in Mpumalanga (approx. 13 localities in South Africa). It is also recorded from a single forest in Swaziland. All the subpopulations are very small, except for a comparatively large and vigorous subpopulation in Lilyvlei forest at Gouna near Knysna in the Western Cape.  More research is needed to establish the relationship between this species and other <em>Faurea</em> species in East Africa, Madagascar and Zimbabwe.	eng
30348	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Forests and forest margins.	eng
30348	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A very widespread but scattered species.	eng
30348	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Regeneration in all except Lilyvlei forest subpopulation is non-existent, despite trees fruiting plentifully and the seed being viable.	eng
30349	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in only a few restricted localities, all on private land.	eng
30349	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree which grows on rocky, grassy hillsides.	eng
30349	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	No information is available on the size of the populations or degree of threat.	eng
30350	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Almost half of the entire population occurs within protected areas. Alien eradication programmes are in place.	eng
30350	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Scattered subpopulations are known from the slopes of Table Mt from Lion's Head to Orange Kloof, Cape Peninsula. There are also several subpopulations, which have probably been planted, including those on the Helderberg, Simonsberg and Paarl Mt These are excluded from the evaluation.	eng
30350	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species grows on moist, usually south-facing slopes, on granite clays in Mountain Fynbos and on the margins of Afromontane forest patches.	eng
30350	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Population counts indicate that there are more than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
30350	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The expansion of Cape Town and the establishment of tree plantations continue to cause reductions in population numbers. There is also concern in the mixing of genetic pools by the extensive planting of the species and increased fire frequency in some areas. Only about 10% of the subpopulations are considered to be viable and are showing signs of active recruitment at present.  All protected area populations suffer from invasions by alien plant species.	eng
30351	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The only form of protection received is within private nature reserves.	eng
30351	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A tall shrub, sometimes growing to the size of a tree, confined to the western side of the Piketberg range.	eng
30351	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It grows on rocky soils derived from sandstone in mountain fynbos.	eng
30351	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The total population of between 1,000 and 5,000 mature individuals is fragmented into three or four major subpopulations and a number of scattered individuals, occurring within an area of 20 km² (AOO).	eng
30351	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is threatened in the eastern parts of its range by agricultural activities, particularly the planting of fruit orchards. Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.	eng
30352	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in a privately owned nature reserve and a local authority reserve.	eng
30352	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Between Pretoria and Zeerust.	eng
30352	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A straggling shrub or small tree which occurs on ridges and hills in mixed savanna.	eng
30352	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There may have been some decline in numbers and the extent of occurrence because of agricultural activities and other developments. Its restricted distribution also renders it vulnerable to any future developments in the area.	eng
30353	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East and South Africa extending into Central Africa.	eng
30353	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species found in areas of moist forest.	eng
30353	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In some areas the populations are very small, e.g., the Zimbabwean population consists of four immature individuals. The subpopulations in South Africa are all contained within protected areas, but usually comprise of only isolated individuals or small groups of trees.	eng
30353	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It yields a superior hardwood which is heavily exploited through most of its range.	eng
30354	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Kenya this taxon is recorded from Emali and the Mutito Hills. It is also known from a similar habitat in northern Tanzania.	eng
30354	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest at medium elevations.	eng
30355	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is legally protected throughout its range. It also occurs in one publicly owned conservation area, where fire management measures are in place, and also in a privately owned Natural Heritage Site.	eng
30355	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are two disjunct areas where the species is found; one in the Kaapse Hoop and Barberton areas of Mpumalanga, just extending into Swaziland, and the other in KwaZulu-Natal with subpopulations in Vryheid, Louwsburg, the Itala Game Reserve and in Ngotshe District.	eng
30355	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is highly localised on steep south-facing slopes on quartzite outcrops in grassy savanna. It does, however, appear to be abundant or in pure stands in places.	eng
30355	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is some evidence of decline in numbers and extent of occurrence.	eng
30355	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is sensitive to frequent burning and appears to have low recruitment. Plants are also heavily grazed by large game animals and the bark is removed for use in traditional medicine by local people.	eng
30356	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A quarter of the known subpopulations occur in protected areas.	eng
30356	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found along the southern Cape coast from De Hoop to Mossel Bay. The area of occupancy is approximately 1,000 km².	eng
30356	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs on calcareous white sands in limestone fynbos and often at the ecotone with thicket communities. Near Mossel Bay, it occurs on gravels. Stands are very dense in places.	eng
30356	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Agricultural activities, particularly planting of cereal crops, and coastal developments have resulted in the decline of the species in places and this is likely to continue, especially in the Mossel Bay area. More than half of the subpopulations are threatened by alien invasive species, particularly Australian <em>Acacia</em> species.	eng
30357	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in a number of publicly owned protected areas in the region, including many of the demarcated forest areas in Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.	eng
30357	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree, endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape, near the coast from Uvongo to Port St. John's.	eng
30357	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is found along sandstone streams or in moist places in evergreen forests, sometimes in small groves.	eng
30357	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	At many localities there is poor regeneration.	eng
30357	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement pose a problem here and in southern KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
30358	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in at least two protected areas and possibly in a third.	eng
30358	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	From Humansdorp to Bathurst.	eng
30358	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree which occurs in coastal forest and scrub on dunes or rocky outcrops.	eng
30358	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Its range is slowly becoming fragmented by coastal developments, especially the construction of settlements and holiday resorts.	eng
30359	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The plants at Kosi Bay are not under threat and are contained within a conservation area, although local use of the plants is allowed. The 12 ha Bobole Special Reserve 40 km north of Maputo, is supposedly the most southerly occurrence of this species in Mozambique, and contains 150 plants.	eng
30359	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found around Kosi Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal, extending northwards along the coast of southern Mozambique, occurring along river valleys, as far as Inhambane.	eng
30359	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This very large palm occurs in swamp forest.  The plants flower once, after about 30 years, and then die after setting fruit.	eng
30359	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	They can form very dense groves and in some places they have naturalized after planting, e.g., at Mtunzini on the Zululand coast, which is now a national monument.	eng
30359	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The Bobole Special Reserve subpopulation is under threat because of habitat clearance for subsistence agriculture within the reserve.	eng
30360	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are subpopulations in a number of publicly owned protected areas in the region, including many of the demarcated forest areas in Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.	eng
30360	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A monotypic genus in a monotypic family endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape.	eng
30360	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found on forest margins and along streams and rivers.	eng
30360	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is locally common in places, although there is poor regeneration at some sites.	eng
30360	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement could pose a problem here and in southern KwaZulu-Natal, where there is also concern over encroaching agriculture.	eng
30361	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Two of the localities are in private nature reserves.	eng
30361	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is confined to a small area in the northern Drakensberg mountain range. It is also said to occur in North-West Province, but this is highly improbable. There are taxonomic problems with the species, which need to be resolved before its conservation status is assessed.	eng
30361	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs as scattered plants in Afromontane forest patches.	eng
30362	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A few plants are protected in the Groendal Wilderness Area. The Van Staaden's Wildflower Reserve is not particularly well-managed at present.	eng
30362	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in only a few localities: Winterhoek Mountains near Uitenhage, Van Staaden's Mountains near Port Elizabeth and near Kouga Dam at the start of the Baviaanskloof. It possibly occurs elsewhere in the remote Kouga Mts. and Baviaanskloof.	eng
30362	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small tree found on forest margins, in scrub, and on open slopes of valleys and ravines, sometimes near stream banks.	eng
30362	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	All the subpopulations appear to be very small, with the one in Van Staaden's Wildflower Reserve possibly being the largest and best known. Another subpopulation in the Van Staaden's Valley was probably destroyed many years ago when a national road was built.  Recruitment appears to be low, although plants coppice readily if damaged.	eng
30362	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is a threat of habitat destruction through increasing settlement, industrial developments and frequent fires.	eng
30363	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in the catchments of the central and upper Tugela and Upper Umfolozi Rivers in KwaZulu-Natal. There are two records of the species from Swaziland, but there is little information about these occurrences. The population in KwaZulu-Natal is stable and much of the habitat remains secure.  The population in KwaZulu-Natal is stable and much of the habitat remains secure.	eng
30363	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A savanna species, found on drainage lines or near streams and rivers.	eng
30363	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is some degree of threat from increasing settlement and local exploitation of the wood as a source of sticks and poles for building huts and the edible fruit.	eng
30364	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R., Burrows, J. & Hahn, N., 1998	Plants have been reintroduced into two protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal. Although there are subpopulations within protected areas, it is difficult to prevent exploitation. A number of projects are under way to provide a cultivated form.	eng
30364	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R., Burrows, J. & Hahn, N., 1998	The pepperbark tree has a scattered distribution in southern Africa, occurring in savanna woodland and coastal forest in northern KwaZulu-Natal, Afromontane forest patches along the Drakensberg Escarpment in Mpumalanga and on the Soutpansberg and Blouberg ranges in the Northern Province. Elsewhere it is recorded from Afromontane forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and from Afromontane and lowland forest patches in Swaziland and Mozambique. There are still large, relatively untouched subpopulations in the Northern Province. The precise northern distribution of the species and its relationship with closely related species in East Africa requires further investigation.	eng
30364	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R., Burrows, J. & Hahn, N., 1998	Occurs in savanna woodland, coastal forest and Afromontane forest. In KwaZulu-Natal, there is very little seed set and no seedlings have been reported; all plants seen have reproduced vegetatively.  The reasons for this are unknown.	eng
30364	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R., Burrows, J. & Hahn, N., 1998	There has been some habitat loss due to agricultural activities, expansion of human habitation and logging for firewood and timber. The major direct threat to the species is the exploitation of its bark, stems and roots for use in traditional medicinal practices as a treatment of head and chest ailments and also to cure people who are bewitched. This has led to the near extinction of the species in KwaZulu-Natal, parts of Mpumalanga, Swaziland and Zimbabwe.	eng
30365	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A restoration programme has been set up in a Cedar Reserve covering 53 km². Nursery-reared seedlings are planted out each year and a fire management regime has lessened the occurrence of intense wildfires.	eng
30365	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Forests of the Clanwilliam cedar extended some 30 km in the Cederberg Mountains earlier this century. Exploitation of the wood and inappropriate fire management have reduced the species to five remaining populations. An accidental fire early in 1998 may have destroyed a large number of individuals. The genus, containing three or four species, is endemic to southern Africa.	eng
30365	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Natural fires break out at intervals which are shorter than the maturation rate for tis species. Seed-bearing adults are largely confined to inaccessible locations and their numbers are so low that natural population recruitment is unlikely.	eng
30366	conservation	Evans, R., 1998	The subpopulation at Lago Yojoa is known to be reproducing and is given some protection within a forest reserve.	eng
30366	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	The species is confined to two widely-separated subpopulations on the west side of Lago Yojoa.	eng
30366	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	Occurring in lowland rainforest on steep slopes.  The flowers are unique in the genus in their ascending rather than arching position.	eng
30366	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Increasing agriculture, settlement and logging have caused population declines in the past.  The leaves are used locally for thatching and the palm heart is eaten for medicinal purposes.	eng
30367	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in Honduras where it is considered to be Critically Endangered, also recorded in south-east Mexico.	eng
30367	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A palm of humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
30367	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used for construction.	eng
30368	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	It is known only from localized populations along the banks of the Okavango, Linyanti, Chobe and upper Zambezi rivers.	eng
30368	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	A drooping shrub or tree with erect pods.	eng
30368	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	In Botswana there are reports of increasing numbers of elephants causing degradation of <em>Acacia</em> stands along the Chobe especially in the dry season.	eng
30369	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The taxon occurs within protected areas and is also covered by regional legislation.	eng
30369	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Madeira.	eng
30369	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a common tree of laurisilva and forest at higher altitudes.	eng
30369	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is evidence to suggest that laurisilva is expanding.	eng
30370	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies endemic to the Azores, on all the islands, except Graciosa. On Corvo only one specimen has been reported and the population on Santa Maria is under threat.	eng
30370	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the dominant components of remaining laurel forest.	eng
30371	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A recovery plan has been devised and the species is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
30371	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is restricted to just two populations in Garajonay National Park on Gomera.	eng
30371	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30371	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Both known populations consist of very few individuals.	eng
30372	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is covered in regional legislation and occurs in protected areas.	eng
30372	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon now includes subspecies from both the Canary Islands and Madeira, the latter previously being known as <em>O. e. maderensis</em>.	eng
30372	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low and medium elevation in dry woodland.	eng
30372	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is relatively abundant on most Canary Islands, on the south coast and some areas of north Madeira and on Desertas and Porto Santo Islands, where it is rare.	eng
30372	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat continues to experience general degradation and declines through increasing house-building, fires and invasive species.	eng
30373	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	This variety appears to be endemic to Honduras.	eng
30373	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Confined to a small area of humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
30373	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The timber is exploited for construction work.	eng
30374	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All the South African records are from Kruger National Park.	eng
30374	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found relatively widely on hills in the Zimbabwe lowveld, in adjacent parts of Mozambique, Canicadoa and Rio dos Elefantes, and into Northern Province, South Africa. Records from KwaZulu-Natal need confirmation.	eng
30374	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nowhere common.	eng
30375	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Both subpopulations are protected.	eng
30375	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In the wild this species is restricted to two healthy subpopulations occurring in Point Lobos and Point Cypress.	eng
30375	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A widely planted and naturalized species. The Point Lobos subpopulation is thought to contain between 500 and 1,000 individuals.	eng
30376	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Protection measures are helping in its recovery.	eng
30376	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species is marginally more common than <em>J. barbadensis</em>. A few stands remain in undisturbed areas.	eng
30376	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overexploitation in the past, as with <em>J. barbadensis</em>, has caused population reductions. However, the cause of more recent declines is an infestation of two accidentally introduced scale insects. The development of the island ensures that the species will never take up its former range.	eng
30377	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Captive subpopulations have been established at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery, Scotland, and at the Castle Gardens, Jamestown. The plants grow well in captivity although the currently number stands at less than 20. <br/> <br/>Th Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>P. polifolia</em> puts forward a number of recovery action objectives to encourage the long-term persistence of the Rosemary, through co-ordinated and agreed action between the members of the Species Recovery Working Group, the Environmental Conservation Section of the ANRD, and the SNCG. The specific objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. to maintain and encourage the growth of Rosemary’s at Lot and High Hill; <br/>2. to expand the field gene bank at Scotland for the Lot population and to establish others at Plantation (High Hill), Peak Dale/Norman Williams Nature Reserve and the Millennium Forest; <br/>3. encourage ‘guardians’ for other plantations of rosemary; and <br/>4. to maintain <em>ex situ</em> stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.	eng
30377	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly a small tree to 3 m, <em>P. polifolia</em> now exists in two growth forms; one a a low, usually straggling bush found at High Hill and the other an erect growing bush found at Lot.  These phenotypic differences have been maintained when planted at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery,  Scotland.  Subpopulations have been reduced to dry locations on cliffs.	eng
30377	population	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly widespread in the west of the island, for instance at Rosemary Plain, which derives its name from the former occurrence of this plant. <em>P. polifolia</em> is now reduced to three small subpopulations on trachytic or phonolilic cliffs at High Hill, Lot, and between Distant Cottage and the Asses Ears, 500-600 m. The total population size is about 100 plants.	eng
30377	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Vulnerable to competition from introduced plants.  Growing on or below rock outcrops the populations are also vulverable to stochastic factors.	eng
30378	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996).  Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.	eng
30378	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Within Diana’s Peak National Park the main sites of occurrence are both sides of Diana’s Peak, Mt Actaeon, Cuckhold’s, Jockies and Taylors. It also occurs at High Peak and within a small isolated site on the Sandy Bay Ridge facing Rose Cottage. There was one tree at the Depot.	eng
30378	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A tree, growing in damp tree-fern thickets on the central ridge 700 m.  A good interceptor of mist, water is condensed on the leaves and drops to the ground beneath the tree via a drip-tip.  Seedlings are sometimes to be found growing on the trunks of tree-ferns.  Main flowering season February – May.  The trees exhibit leaky dioecy: females are entirely male-sterile but males can set small amounts of seed.  Sex ratio of adult trees 3:2 in favour of males due to greater allocation of resources into vegetative survival (Percy and Cronk 1997).  Pollination is by small syrphid flies, including the endemic hoverfly, Loveridgeana beattiei, which is considered an important pollinator for all the cabbage trees on the Peaks.  Flowering times are successive (Black Cabbage, Dogwood, Whitewood and Gumwood) possibly avoiding competition for pollinators.	eng
30378	population	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	In 1997 the total population size was estimated as about 132.	eng
30378	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Until the planted individuals reach sexual maturity the number of mature Dogwoods remains low and fragmented.  The quality of the habitat at High Peak is deteriorating potentially threatening the Dogwoods growing there.	eng
30379	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Protected in Jonathan Dickinson State Park.  The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30379	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring near the Atlantic coast in Jonathan Dickinson State Park, a Palm Beach County park and several privately owned areas.	eng
30379	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large shrub or small tree of scrub vegetation.	eng
30379	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The total population consists of about 500 plants.	eng
30379	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The plant is adapted to disturbance, in the absence of which it becomes shaded out by oaks and pines.  Outside Jonathan Dickinson State Park stands have become confined and scattered as the habitat has been cleared for commercial and residential development.	eng
30380	conservation	Waldren, S., 1998	Henderson Island is a World Heritage Site.	eng
30380	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	An endemic to Henderson Island.	eng
30380	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	A caulescent shrub or tree, occurring with var. <em>subspathulata</em> in gaps in the plateau forest.	eng
30380	population	Waldren, S., 1998	The population of both varieties together is calculated to be about 40,000 individuals. Regeneration appears to be good, although the species appears to be monocarpic.	eng
30381	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30381	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A small tree or shrub which is restricted to a few valleys in the Eastern Haggier Mountains and adjacent limestone hills. Locally common in dense semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 280–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>The total population was formerly thought to consist of no more than 30 individuals. Although severely geographically restricted, the species actually occurs commonly in places and appears to be regenerating healthily.  The only other member of the genus is in Somalia. <br/> <br/>In the past this tree has been considered rare, even on the point of extinction. This is almost certainly because most expeditions have visited the island in January to February when the tree is not in flower; it is then rather nondescript and easily overlooked. However, it becomes far more conspicuous in summer (March to April) when it is covered in white flowers. It is particularly abundant in the dense woodland in the upper reaches of Wadi Ayheft. It is also less common in other areas, for instance on the higher seaward-facing cliffs at Reqadrihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture low cloud and drizzle during the winter and are a refugium for some species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggehr mountains.	eng
30381	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats to populations.	eng
30383	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is included on <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
30383	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mombassa-Kilifi area in Kenya. There is also a record of an occurrence in the South Pare Mts. in Tanzania.	eng
30383	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A succulent tree, best known from a population confined to coral cliffs and limestone outcrops.	eng
30384	conservation	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	The eastern part of the Hajar population is contained within Wadi Siren Nature Reserve.	eng
30384	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	The main distribution of this species lies in the eastern Hajar Mountains in northern Oman in wadis and at the summit above 1,500 m. An isolated subpopulation is recorded from Hadramaut in South Yemen.	eng
30384	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	In the north-west the population is not regenerating.	eng
30385	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Most of the 200 species occur within the boundaries of Urewera National Park.	eng
30385	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurring in scattered subpopulations from Northland to Hawkes Bay.	eng
30385	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The species occurs as a shrub or small tree in scrubby forest margins and flaxland.	eng
30385	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	About 200 plants exist in total.  A popular ornamental plant with large bright red flowers, it is possible that the Maori were partly responsible for the destruction of previously known occurrences on offshore islands, the East Cape and other parts of the North Island.	eng
30385	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Browsing by goats, pigs, deer and possums and the illegal collecting of seedlings have caused more recent declines in numbers.	eng
30386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From eastern Ogaden to central Somalia. The genus is monotypic.	eng
30386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An important  shrub or small tree species confined to semi-desert bushland.	eng
30386	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The seeds are highly nourishing and are exploited to such levels that regeneration may be hampered.	eng
30387	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	A species of ornamental interest, known from Mrima Forest Reserve, Marenje Forest Reserve, Kaya Muhaka National Monument and Gongoni Forest Reserve in Kenya and the Rondo Plateau in Tanzania.	eng
30387	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Moist coastal forest.	eng
30387	threats	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Destruction and degradation of coastal forest is ongoing.	eng
30388	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree collected from five locations distributed between Lac Ihotry, near Morombe, and Bereboka, north of Morondava.	eng
30388	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It probably occurred in dry deciduous forest, frequently close to bodies of water, but mature trees are now largely found in degraded agricultural lands where regeneration is poor.	eng
30388	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Poor regeneration.	eng
30389	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees are protected from cutting, in places, because of their valued uses.	eng
30389	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Until recently the species was thought to be restricted to the northern tip of Madagascar around the Baie d'Antsiranana. A subpopulation has since been found further south in Mahory Forest between Ankarana and Analamera Reserves.	eng
30389	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its natural habitat is deciduous forest on limestone, although small trees are also found in disturbed sublittoral scrub.	eng
30389	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Individuals are found in local abundance but are regenerating healthily only in Mahory.	eng
30389	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest's proximity to a rapidly growing mining town leads to intensive wood and charcoal extraction, grazing and hunting. Subpopulations elsewhere are smaller, show few signs of regeneration and are threatened by the rapid depletion of the habitat through charcoal and timber production.	eng
30390	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30390	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30391	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30391	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30392	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A few plants still exist in cultivation in botanic gardens but attempts at reintroduction of the species on Easter Island have failed.	eng
30392	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The last wild specimen was a plant in Rano Kao in 1935.	eng
30394	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed in regional, governmental and international legislation. It is widespread in cultivation.	eng
30394	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Long living, this species reaches maturity in 30 years.	eng
30394	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The wild subpopulations of the dragon tree have been in decline for a long time. The species is present in five of the seven islands in the Canaries and the total population is reduced to a few hundred trees. In Madeira and Porto Santo, it was once an important component of the vegetation in more arid areas but is reduced today to two individuals in the wild. A survey in 1996 revealed new subpopulations in North Africa, in the Anezi region of the Anti-Atlas Mts. in Morocco. Thousands of individuals exist on steep quartzite cliffs in inaccessible gorges. These subpopulations are likely to represent a distinct variant of the species.  Its closest relative is the dragon tree endemic to Socotra.	eng
30394	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dragon's blood had a wide range of uses as a medicine, for staining violins and for embalming the dead. Its closest relative is the dragon tree endemic to Socotra.	eng
30395	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A research programme to study and conserve <em>D. ombet</em> has been initiated in Gebel Elba and the surrounding Mountains (El Azzouni 2003).	eng
30395	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows on mountains in the desert. The mature fruits are edible and eaten by local people as a supplement to their meagre diet.	eng
30395	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A once widespread and abundant species known as the Nubian dragon tree, it has experienced population declines throughout its range. Scattered individuals remain in inaccessible areas. The subpopulations on the Red Sea Hills and Jebel Elba in Sudan and Egypt are particularly threatened. Other smaller subpopulations have been discovered in recent years in southeastern Egypt near the Sudanese border at Gebel Shindeeb, and it may also occur on Gebel Shinodai (El Azzouni 2003). <br/> <br/>A survey of the Gebel Shindeeb subpopulations shows that they comprise only mature plants, many of which appear unhealthy, either as a result of the drought conditions or an attach by a parasitic pest or disease (El Azzouni 2003). The infected subpopulations are showing signs of a marked decline and there was no evidence of any young plants (El Azzouni 2003). <br/> <br/>In northern Sudan it appears that the populations of <em>D. ombet</em> have completely vanished from Erowit, the only area where they are known to have existed in that country (El Azzouni 2003).	eng
30395	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overgrazing, overcutting, droughts and possibly attack by parasitic pests or disease have contributed to the decline.	eng
30396	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cuttings from the species in cultivation have been reintroduced into a fenced area at Kipuka Puaulu, in Volcanoes National Park. Nine individuals remain here.  The species is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30396	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30396	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The last of the original wild specimens on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, died in 1930.	eng
30396	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees show some signs of damage by rats and pests. The establishment of a viable population in the wild may be hampered by the decline of the plants' likely pollinator, the Hawaiian honey-creeper species.	eng
30397	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30397	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry forest lava fields.	eng
30397	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single tree was found in 1910 in Auwahi on Maui. It has since died and the species is presumed extinct.	eng
30398	conservation	Florence, J., 1998	Occurs in a nature reserve.	eng
30398	population	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree which at one time was thought to be reduced to a single individual surrounded by a few seedlings on Tahuata. A small colony covering a few hectares has now been found on Mohotane, a nature reserve. Although feral sheep are present on the island, they appear to find the plant unpalatable.	eng
30399	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30399	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and locally common in places, especially on inaccessible cliffs and steep slopes on limestone and on the grante pinnacles of the Haggeher. Found at 30–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>It is one of the characteristic pachycaul or bottle trees of Soqotra and when not in flower can easily be confused with <em>Adenium obesum</em>.	eng
30399	population	Miller, A., 2004	Abundant in some places.	eng
30399	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The species is of horticultural interest, and may be sought by collectors. The trunks are succulent and in drought years the wjole plant is cut and pulped as fodder for goats. During years of average rainfall the populations are largely untouched and not threatened because they grow in areas inaccessible to grazing goats.	eng
30400	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A multi-stemmed palm confined to the north banks of the Msikaba and Mtentu Rivers on the Transkei coast.  Records from the Mzintlava River near Manteku have not been confirmed and it is possible that this subpopulation was destroyed by deforestation.	eng
30400	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species grows from just above the water level to the tops of steep forested sandstone cliffs, even in the salt spray zone.  Reproduction from seed is poor, but plants sucker vigorously.	eng
30400	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Both localities are declared national monuments and although they are in a designated protected area, there is no management and enforcement to ensure effective protection. This species is traded internationally on a small scale as an ornamental and over exploitation is a potential threat.  The miniature coconut fruits are favoured by the local people and baboons.	eng
30401	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Seeds have been collected for cultivation.	eng
30401	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Found in desert oases.	eng
30401	population	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree was rediscovered in Sudan in 1995 in small fragmented subpopulations. There are signs of regeneration. The subpopulations in Egypt are assumed to be similarly small and fragmented.	eng
30402	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree occurring in lowland deserts.	eng
30402	population	Johnson, D., 1998	In Somalia, only 38 trees in two localities are known; there are approximately 2000 trees in three villages in Wadi Hadjen in the Jol, South Yemen; there is no information regarding the subpopulation status in Djibouti.	eng
30402	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Absence of regeneration (Somalia), excessive number of goats and local over-exploitation of the wood because of timber shortages (Yemen).  The South Yemen subpopulations are additionally threatened by local over-exploitation of the wood because of timber shortages.	eng
30403	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Tasman Mts. in north-west Nelson.	eng
30403	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree confined to montane beech forest.	eng
30403	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Browsing by deer and possum is heavy.	eng
30404	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. The only congeneric relative of the Pomegranate <em>P. granatum</em>.	eng
30404	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in moist woodland on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 300–1,200 m. <br/> <br/>Flowers and fruits from December and January through to the summer.	eng
30404	population	Miller, A., 2004	The species remains widespread throughout the island.	eng
30405	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Muguga population is protected. Ragati Forest Reserve allows controlled exploitation and Thiambethu Farm is a privately run ecotourist reserve. Only three plants have been successfully propagated <em>ex situ</em>.	eng
30405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Muguga, Ragati and Limuru, in central Kenya.	eng
30405	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This lower canopy tree is confined to upland dry forest.	eng
30405	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In 1995, fewer than 200 adults were counted, along with slightly more saplings and coppices.	eng
30406	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Last seen in 1908, the species was cut to extinction for its aromatic wood.	eng
30407	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring along the coast in Fujian, south-west Zhejiang, southern Guangdong and southern Guangxi.	eng
30407	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of the broadleaved forest.	eng
30407	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are steadily diminishing.	eng
30407	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing habitat loss and cutting.	eng
30408	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally occurring along the banks of Alatahama River in McIntosh County on the Coastal Plain of Georgia, the only known colony occurred in acidic bogs at the heads of sand-hill branches and was thought to have been brought to extinction largely through overcollection by nurserymen.	eng
30408	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree.	eng
30408	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has not been seen in the wild since 1803. Numerous expeditions to relocate the plant in the wild have failed. It is now a popular garden plant.	eng
30409	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality on the summit of  Cerro Tacarcuna in Darién.	eng
30409	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
30409	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the late 1970s only three trees were counted.	eng
30409	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears that the summit vegetation is dying of natural causes.	eng
30410	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of temperate oak and mixed coniferous forest.	eng
30410	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only trees growing in inaccessible areas and protected areas have survived.	eng
30410	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It provides high-quality fodder for livestock and is often excessively exploited. Once the tree has been severely hewed, it can no longer reproduce because the resulting coppice-sprouts do not produce flowers.	eng
30411	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30411	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Scattered small subpopulations occur in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland in mountain areas, particularly on limestone escarpments. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>One of the largest trees on the island and a characteristic emergent in succulent shrubland on the limestone escarpments. It is deciduous, the leaves dropping in summer and then appearing at the outset of the winter rains; it flowers at the end of the summer monsoon rains.	eng
30411	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Under no immediate threat.	eng
30412	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30412	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A major component of semi-deciduous, submontane woodland on the limestone escarpments and the semi-deciduous and evergreen woodlands of the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (220–)400–1,220 m. <br/> <br/>The commonest and dominant tree over large areas of the Haggeher mountains. Its leaves drop in summer and comes into leaf in winter, even if there is no rain. In some areas it seems to be virtually evergreen. It fruits in the winter and comes into fruit in the summer. Rhus thyrsiflora has an interesting distribution on Soqotra. It is common in areas, which attract low cloud and rain, in the Haggeher and the limestone of the NE (Hoq and Hamaderoh) of the island, but is absent from the high rainfall areas on Jebal Ma’alih in the west. However, there is a small population on the remote limestone ridge at Heger above Ra’s Shu’ub. The limestone pinnacles along this ridge trap mist and support a small outlying relict of semi-deciduous woodland in the otherwise dry SW of the island. It is interesting that on this ridge <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> occurs at only 220 m – its lowest recorded altitude on the island. It is possible that the long isolation of this remote refuge has resulted in the telescoping of habitats . The phenomenon of t elescoping is found on old oceanic islands and has the effect compressing habitats into a smaller altitudinal range than would be expected – it thus effectively provides islands with a relatively greater range of habitats than similar areas on the mainland.	eng
30412	population	Miller, A., 2004	A fairly common tree.	eng
30412	threats	Miller, A., 2004	It is under no immediate threat.	eng
30413	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species known from north-eastern Somalia and also Socotra and Oman.	eng
30413	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Its habitat type is vulnerable to overcutting for wood especially for charcoal production.	eng
30414	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
30414	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of (120–)500–750(–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>A hillside of trees of <em>B. ameero</em> in full flowers is one of the most dramatic sights on the island. There is some variation; certain populations, for instance in the dense woodland of the Muqadrihon Pass, differ in having pale, not bright, pink flowers. No trees bearing bright pink flowers have been observed growing on cliffs, however, there is some evidence for trees with pale pink flowers on cliffs. An extreme form of these is described under <em>Boswellia</em> sp. A.	eng
30414	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Although some <em>Boswellia</em> species in Socotra are exploited for the resin, none are commercially used.	eng
30415	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
30415	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widely scattered in dry, semi-deciduous woodland and less commonly in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 100–650 m.  <br/> <br/>Plants with simple leaves are possibly hybrids with <em>H. popoviana</em>.	eng
30415	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Although some <em>Boswellia</em> species in Socotra are exploited for the resin, none are commercially used.	eng
30416	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
30416	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widely distributed in dry, semi-deciduous woodland, and less commonly in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland. Altitude of 50–600 m. <br/> <br/>A ground-dwelling tree, readily distinguished from all other boswellias on the island by the leaves which have winged stalks and numerous, small leaflets and the inconspicuous pale yellow flowers which are borne in short, sparse panicles.	eng
30416	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Some <em>Boswellia</em> species are exploited for the resin but none at a commercial level.	eng
30417	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30417	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Moist woodland on limestone and granite hills. Emergent in <em>Croton</em> shrubland at 550 m on the western plateau; in Qatariyah woodland at (600 m) and Firmihin in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland at 750 m. Altitude of 550–750 m.	eng
30417	population	Miller, A., 2004	Collected only a few times, the species has a very scattered distribution.	eng
30417	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
30418	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30418	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A species of dry shrubland on the low-lying foothills and plains.  Locally common on the northern and Northwest inland plains; in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, open succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–700 m.	eng
30418	threats	Miller, A., 2004	At present the rates of exploitation are sustainable, since it is restricted to the local level, but increased demand could potentially put the species at risk.	eng
30419	distribution	Miller, A.G., 1998	This is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>E. laurina</em>. Both species are endemic to Socotra.	eng
30419	habitat	Miller, A.G., 1998	scattered in montane and submontane vegetation in both granite and limestone areas.	eng
30419	threats	Miller, A.G., 1998	There are no immediate threats to populations.	eng
30420	distribution	Miller, A.G., 1998	This is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>E. balfourii</em>. Both species are endemic to Socotra.	eng
30420	habitat	Miller, A.G., 1998	Scattered in montane and submontane vegetation in both granite and limestone areas.	eng
30420	threats	Miller, A.G., 1998	There are no immediate threats to populations.	eng
30421	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30421	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and in many places dominant on Soqotra; in shrubland on the coastal plains, succulent shrubland, submontane semi-deciduous thicket and mosaic communities on the limestone plateaus; abundant below 700 m over most parts of the island. Altitude of sea-level to 900 m. <br/> <br/>One of the commonest and widespread shrubs or small trees of Soqotra; suprisingly absent from the outer islands. A variable species with some very distinctive forms: on exposed limestone plateaus of West Soqotra it is often a low or completely prostrate shrub with small leaves but in sheltered woodlands (e.g., in Wadi Ayheft) they are small trees with relatively large leaves and graceful branches. Another, very distinctive form, described as <em>C. pachyclados</em>, has small, sessile leaves and thick horizontal branches, giving it a cedar-like appearance. Yet another form, found at higher altitudes, has white bark, but is otherwise morphologically indistinguishable from typical <em>C. socotranus</em>. This replaces more typical <em>C. socotranus</em> at higher altitudes (for instance on the Dixan plateau) and is considered useless by local people as its wood is soft and cannot be used for building. All these forms seem to be variants of this very common and widespread species. Small-leaved specimens mentioned by Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) under <em>C. sarocarpus</em> are treated here as <em>C. socotranus</em> because of their smaller leaves, fruit and overall size. Comes into leaf after rain: on the southern side of the island in response to the summer rains (June to September) of the Southwest monsoon; on the northern side of the island in response to the winter rains (October to January) of the Northeast monsoon.	eng
30421	population	Miller, A., 2004	This is one of the commonest trees on Socotra.	eng
30421	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Increasing development of the island may place the species under risk.	eng
30422	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30422	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common, sometimes dominant (E Haggeher), in montane semi-deciduous woodland on granite; locally common in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone (Reyged and Rewgid). Altitude of 350–950 m. <br/> <br/>A rather variable species. It can be a graceful tree with cordate leaves (growing on the limestone plateaus at Rewgid and Reyged) or an untidy shrub with cordate or oblong-ovate or oblong-elliptic leaves and more congested racemes (on granite, mainly at higher altitudes in the Haggeher mountains). <em>C. eleagnoides</em>, described by Balfour from material without fruit or male flowers, seems to be indistinguishable from <em>C. sulcifructus</em>.	eng
30422	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
30423	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30423	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, on limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–650 m.  <br/> <br/>A distinctive small tree typically found growing from vertical limestone rock faces	eng
30424	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
30424	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and dominant in succulent shrubland over most of Soqotra; common in semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone; rare on the granite of the Haggeher. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m; up to 1,050 m on Diksam Plateau. <br/> <br/>Probably the commonest and most widespread shrub of lower and middle altitudes on Soqotra. It is abundant in rocky areas on the plains and over large ares of the limestone escarpments and plateaus. Like the other common shrub, <em>Croton socotranus</em>, it is surprisingly absent from the outer islands. However, unlike <em>Croton socotranus</em>, over its range it shows little variation. The most distinct variation is a prostrate, gnarled form found on windswept areas found on exposed parts of the south west limestone plateau. On the Noged Plain is considered to be on the increase. Comes into leaf after rain: on the southern side of the island in response to the summer rains (June to September) of the Southwest monsoon; on the northern side of the island in response to the winter rains (October to January) of the Northeast monsoon.	eng
30425	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30425	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour in his <em>Botany of Socotra</em> (Bayley Balfour, 1888) has a record of an <em>Entada</em> sp. No specimen can be traced and the identity of his plant is a mystery. He notes this as a "A beautiful and graceful tree of which material is too fragmentary to permit identification, [which] is provisionally referred to this genus". He goes on to say that it has some resemblance to <em>Acacia pennivenia</em> Schweinf. and that the inhabitants give it the same name (Tomhor). No species of <em>Entada</em> has been recorded from the island and it seems likely that Balfour’s plant was in fact <em>Acacia pennivenia</em>.	eng
30428	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. Altitude of 500 to 1,550 m. <br/> <br/><em>Dracaena cinnabari</em> (the Dragon’s Blood tree) is perhaps the most famous and distinctive plant on Soqtora. It is a major component of the landscape and is important not only as a flagship species (a rallying point for conservation awareness) but also as an indicator species (a species which flags changes in biotic and abiotic conditions) and as an umbrella species (a species which, if protected, will bring other species under that protection). It comes into flower in February and takes five months from flower fully ripe fruit.	eng
30428	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Most commonly found in in evergreen and semi-deciduous woodland.	eng
30428	population	Miller, A., 2004	Common and often abundant on the granite of the Haggeher mountains and adjacent limestone plateaus (for instance at Diksam, Reyged, Rewgid and Firmihin). There are also important outliers at Homhil and Hamaderoh and Igliso in the east. Over much of the eastern and southern limestone plateaus it is less common occuring as small relict populations or as isolated trees. It is completely absent from the western end of the island and sparsely distributed or even absent from large areas of the eastern Haggeher. This pattern of distribution (with the exception of the eastern Haggeher and high areas in the western limestone) closely matches areas receiving frequent low cloud, rain and drizzle during the monsoon.	eng
30428	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Of its various uses it is most famously known as a commercial source of dragon's blood. Current exploitation is small-scale but there is potential for more harmful exploitation to take place.	eng
30429	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30429	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Drought-deciduous woodland, succulent shrubland and thickets along wadis. Altitude of 20–650 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its panicles bright yellow flowers, winged fruits and leathery, evergreen leaves.	eng
30429	population	Miller, A., 2004	A small tree or shrub, occurring as scattered solitary individuals.	eng
30429	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
30430	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
30430	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal plains and dry foothills; in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of 10–600 m. <br/> <br/>A widespread species of low-altitude woodland and shrubland. It is abundant in places on the lower slopes of limestone mountains and summit plateaux.	eng
30430	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The populations are under no immediate threat.	eng
30431	habitat	Miller, A.G., 1998	Found in areas of submontane woodland.	eng
30431	population	Miller, A.G., 1998	A fairly common tree.	eng
30431	threats	Miller, A.G., 1998	It is under no immediate threat.	eng
30433	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30433	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread but never common in semi-deciduous woodland on the Haggeher mountains and adjacent limestone plateau. Altitude of 200–650 m. <br/> <br/>Local people report that the flowers are yellow.	eng
30434	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30434	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dense submontane semi-deciduous thicket. Altitude of 1,050–1,200 m.  <br/> <br/>Much rarer and restricted than <em>Clerodendrum leucophloeum</em>; only found in the Haggeher mountains.	eng
30435	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
30435	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in deciduous and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–850 m. <br/> <br/>Commoner and more widespread than <em>C. galeatum</em>.	eng
30436	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is useful and the species is a focus of silvicultural studies.	eng
30436	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extreme south of Madagascar, beyond the Tropic of Capricorn.	eng
30436	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A major component of dry scrub and forest.	eng
30436	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat type has been replaced by grassland over much of its range.	eng
30437	conservation	Wiles, G., 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act and in Guam and Northern Marianas government legislation.	eng
30437	habitat	Wiles, G., 1998	A large tree of moist forest on limestone substrate.	eng
30437	population	Wiles, G., 1998	There are about 120 trees on Rota and only one remains on a military base on Guam.	eng
30437	threats	Wiles, G., 1998	Lack of regeneration seems to be the main cause of the population decline. Possible causes include insect predation on the seeds, ungulate predation of the seedlings and seedling mortality caused by introduced mealybugs. The subpopulation on Rota is likely to decline as older trees die.	eng
30438	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected only once, around the Bipindi area.	eng
30438	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest	eng
30438	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known whether the population still exists.	eng
30438	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been much habitat loss through expanding agriculture.	eng
30440	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Bipindi.	eng
30440	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large canopy tree which occurs sparsely in lowland rainforest.	eng
30440	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is frequently cleared for agriculture and settlements.	eng
30441	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Protection of the habitat of this species is recommended. Populations are protected in Korup National Park.	eng
30441	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from southwestern Cameroon, including two collections taken from Mt Cameroon. There have also been recent collections from Loum F.R. This large (to 40 m tall) tree is most famous as one of three species forming groves in the southern Korup NP. However, it also occurs around Mt Cameroon, in the western and northern foothills. It is not generally realized that this species is restricted to southwestern Cameroon and that records of it occurring elsewhere are spurious.	eng
30441	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This valuable timber species occurs in lowland rainforest areas, usually on sandy soils in flat areas. The species has ectomycorrhizal properties.	eng
30441	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Large-scale habitat decline (clearance for agriculture) and exploitation have caused population declines.	eng
30442	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the most threatened member of the genus. Recorded  from small localities at Muyuka, Eseka, Kribi, Maleke and Lolodorf in Cameroon, the species may already be extinct from most of these sites. It is closely related to <em>M. heitzii</em> but appears to grow to larger proportions and at a relatively rapid rate. There is considerable interest in its potential as a plantation tree.	eng
30442	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One location is converted to agricultural land. Another remains forested but attempts to find the species have failed and the third location appears now have been planted with bananas.	eng
30443	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in several protected areas. Increased and more effective policing of existing areas gazetted as protected, particularly the S Bakundu F.R., would secure the future of this species.	eng
30443	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Endemic to the foothills of Mt Cameroon in relatively well-protected areas: Mokoko Forest Reserve, Korup National Park, Bamuko Forest Reserve and the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve.	eng
30443	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 200–600 m alt.	eng
30443	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Where subpopulations are unprotected they are exposed to encroaching agriculture and land settlement. There is clearance of forest for expansion of plantations (Mt Cameroon, eastern slopes at Bimbia), increased small-holder agriculture and logging along the upgraded Kumba-Mamfe Rd, clearance of forest for yam farming in S Bakundu.	eng
30444	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Gabon only a single collection is known, but because of the relatively poor state of knowledge of these forests it may be found to be more widespread.	eng
30444	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over the extent to which forest is now under concession to logging companies.	eng
30445	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree known from occurrences at Batouri and Bertona in the Eastern Province of Cameroon and from Boukoko in Central African Republic.	eng
30445	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known on the status of the populations.	eng
30447	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Cameroon, in Bertona, Doume, Lomie, Akonolinga and Sangmelima.	eng
30447	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small understorey tree occurs locally in some abundance in lowland swamp forest .	eng
30447	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is being lost to agricultural development in places.	eng
30448	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	This species formerly made up extensive woodland on the slopes of two volcanoes, Sierra Negra and Cerra Azul on Isabela Island.	eng
30448	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A small tree.	eng
30448	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A continuing decline in the extent of the woodland is evident. Damage is being caused by introduced herbivores, invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation and areas are being cleared by local inhabitants. There is also the constant threat of volcanic eruption.	eng
30449	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	One of two varieties, this tree forms woodlands on the high slopes of  the volcanoes Wolf and Ecuador on Isabela Island.	eng
30449	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Introduced goats are responsible for damage to the trunks of mature trees and the lack of seedlings in the population. Volcanic eruptions pose an additional threat.	eng
30450	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	This variety occurs in populations on the high slopes of Fernandina Island and on Volcan Alcedo and Volcan Darwin on Isabela Island.	eng
30450	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A continuing decline in population numbers has been observed on Isabela, caused by the damage from introduced goats. There is an added threat of volcanic eruption.	eng
30451	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	One of the largest growing <em>Scalesia</em> species. It forms compact woodlands in the highlands of San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Santiago and Floreana.	eng
30451	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Recent declines in the extent of this habitat have occurred because of land settlement, grazing and the spread of invasive plants. These trends appear to be continuing. There is also a potential threat from volcanic eruption.	eng
30452	distribution	Mauchamp, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to the island of Floreana.	eng
30452	population	Mauchamp, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species was reported to occur in some abundance in the first half of the century. Large numbers of trees were felled for constructing houses during a period of settlement of the island and the total population is now estimated to include 2,600 adult trees, most of which are located on the Cerro de Pampa Bola. Regeneration is reasonable.	eng
30452	threats	Mauchamp, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is a potential threat of colonization by <em>Lantana camara</em> and <em>Psidium guajava</em>.	eng
30453	conservation	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Since the goats have been more effectively managed, a rapid recovery in population numbers has been observed and the species is now believed to be stable.	eng
30453	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Endemic to the islands of Pinta and Wolf.	eng
30453	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	This shrub or small tree forms part of the open understorey in dry deciduous steppe forest.	eng
30453	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The population on Wolf is not suffering from grazing damage. On Pinta, the species is relatively common but subject to damage by introduced goats. Severe declines in this population were recorded in the 1970s.	eng
30454	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30454	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus contains three species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.	eng
30454	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30454	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30455	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30455	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus contains three species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.	eng
30455	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30455	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30456	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30456	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
30456	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
30456	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30456	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30457	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30457	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
30457	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
30457	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30457	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30458	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30458	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
30458	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
30458	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30458	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30459	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30459	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
30459	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
30459	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30459	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30460	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30460	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus contains two species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.	eng
30460	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An arborescent species of Labiatae, confined to remaining upper montane forest.	eng
30460	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30460	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30461	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30461	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The genus contains two species, endemic to Juan Fernandez.	eng
30461	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An arborescent species, confined to the remaining upper montane forest.	eng
30461	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km² and declining in numbers. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30461	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
30462	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30462	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on Masa Fuera Is.	eng
30462	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dominant species of lowland dry forest.	eng
30462	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30462	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion.	eng
30463	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30463	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30463	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.	eng
30464	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30464	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the  species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30464	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.	eng
30465	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30465	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Masafuera Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. <em>Fagara</em> is now included in <em>Zanthoxylum</em>.	eng
30465	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.	eng
30466	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by *CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30466	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A good example of lower montane forest where the species occurs is found at Quebrada Villagra. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. <em>Fagara</em> is now included in <em>Zanthoxylum</em>.	eng
30466	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A characteristic species of lower montane forest.	eng
30467	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30467	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation. There are two species in the genus, the second being found on mainland Chile.	eng
30467	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of upper montane forest.	eng
30468	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
30468	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on Masatierra and Masafuera Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
30468	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dominant species of lowland dry forest and lower montane forest.	eng
30468	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion. Trees were cut in large numbers for lumber in the past.	eng
30469	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to the Marquesas.	eng
30469	population	Florence, J., 1998	The species is relatively common on Hiva Oa and also occurring on Fatu Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Huka.	eng
30470	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species, although restricted to the Marquesas, is widely spread on various islands; Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata, Ua Huka and Ua Pou.	eng
30471	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or small tree known from occurrences on Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tauhata and Ua Huka.	eng
30472	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This species is known from Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas.	eng
30472	population	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are thought to be stable.	eng
30472	threats	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are thought to be under no threat.	eng
30473	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to the Marquesas. Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.	eng
30473	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	Occurs abundantly in ravines.	eng
30474	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Mohotani and Nuku Hiva.	eng
30475	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been collected only from Ua Pou from the Pepehitoua valley at about 760 m.	eng
30476	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata.	eng
30477	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or small tree recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Tahuata and Ua Huka.	eng
30478	conservation	Farjon, A., Pasta, S. & Troìa, A., 2006	1). Legally: This species is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The woodland vegetation in which this species is found is listed in Annex I of the same Directive. <br/> <br/>2). <em>In situ</em>: Once rediscovered, foresters immediately initiated conservation measures. However, soil degradation of the natural habitat has made re-introduction difficult. Researchers from Palermo University are currently investigating the species' ideal growth conditions. The species has been grown well in several European botanic gardens. An EU LIFE-financed project is being carried out to conserve the existing population. The project includes implementing an action plan which would include forest management, conservation, and the gradual elimination of non-indigenous fir species. The goal is to stabilize the current population and improve the survival rate based on natural reproduction. Their location within the Madonie Regional Park guarantees some level of protection. <br/> <br/>3). <em>Ex situ</em>: In 1978, following seed collection, the Forestry Service cultivated 110,000 young trees in a nursery. Since the survival rate in nature is so low, an adoption program was set up in parallel. 40,000 young plants have been planted in the Botanical Garden of Palermo (Italy) as well as in summer villas and second homes in the Madonie Mountains, slightly apart from their natural area of distribution. Several mature trees also grow in botanic gardens and arboreta elsewhere in Europe. For <em>ex situ</em> cultivation of <em>A. nebrodensis</em>, areas should be selected that are not home to other fir trees to prevent genetic contamination.	eng
30478	distribution	Farjon, A., Pasta, S. & Troìa, A., 2006	Despite its scientific name, the Sicilian Fir (<em>Abies nebrodensis</em>) does not grow in the Nebrodi Mountains but is presently limited to the steep, dry slopes of Mt. Scalone in the Madonie Mountains in the north-central part of Sicily.	eng
30478	habitat	Farjon, A., Pasta, S. & Troìa, A., 2006	The species grows at around 1,500 m altitude on limestone soil. The Madonie Mountains, rising to 1,979 m, were once covered by <em>Abies nebrodensis</em>.	eng
30478	population	Farjon, A., Pasta, S. & Troìa, A., 2006	The Madronie Mountains, rising to 1,979 m, were once covered by <em>A. nebrodensis</em>. By 1900, the species was considered extinct, due to extensive logging and erosion, but was rediscovered in 1957. Examples of its wood can be seen in the doors and roof-bea,s of local churches. The current population is around 30 trees.	eng
30478	threats	Farjon, A., Pasta, S. & Troìa, A., 2006	Degraded natural habitat, the poor health of specimens propagated in tree nurseries, the limited population size, and threat from fire represent the biggest threats to the species. Hybridization with non-native firs resulting in genetic contamination and global warming also threaten the species.	eng
30479	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs as a small tree or shrub in regenerating kauri forest and coastal shrubland.	eng
30479	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thorough surveys have found this species to be widespread in north Auckland. Regeneration is good and the species is often planted as an ornamental.	eng
30480	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The islands are protected and goats have been removed.	eng
30480	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Endemic to Three King Islands.	eng
30480	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	This small tree occurs on steep scree slopes.	eng
30480	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	In 1981, three subpopulations of between one and twelve scattered trees were recorded.	eng
30481	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Some seedlings have been raised <em>ex situ</em>.	eng
30481	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Discovered in 1946 on Great Island in Three Kings Islands Group.	eng
30481	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A species which has only ever been known from a single tree. Although sexed as female, the tree has produced viable pollen.	eng
30481	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The decline of the species has been attributed to habitat destruction as a consequence of human occupation and browsing by goats.	eng
30482	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Representing a monotypic genus, endemic to the Three Kings Islands.	eng
30482	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of windswept scrub.	eng
30482	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The 1981 Red Data Book of New Zealand records a colony of about 12 small trees in an isolated area on West Island. A precise population estimate is not presently available, but the species is no longer dangerously low in numbers.	eng
30483	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Three Kings Islands.	eng
30483	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
30483	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information from the Red Data Book in 1981 indicated that very few individuals remained on Great Island. Current population figures are not available but are no longer believed to be at a critical low.	eng
30484	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is endemic to the Three Kings Islands.	eng
30485	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Lowland kahikatea/matai forest.	eng
30485	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurring on both islands, subpopulations are scarce and small. In the 1981 Red Data Book of New Zealand there were estimated to be fewer than 50 individuals in total. Regeneration is reported to be good in places.	eng
30486	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree growing on frost flats and in clearings in montane forest.	eng
30486	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Browsing possums are causing damage to this species.	eng
30487	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The species has been recorded from the Auckland area, the Coromandel Peninsula and Great Barrier Island.	eng
30487	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Along forest margins, in scrubland and regenerating kauri forest.	eng
30487	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Several hundred trees remain in the wild. It is locally abundant on Great Barrier Island. Most of the remaining colonies are found on land administered by the Forest Service.	eng
30487	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Habitat clearance for forestry and farming are responsible for past population declines.	eng
30488	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Endemic to Marlborough.	eng
30488	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	This small tree usually grows in scrubby sites near streams, except in one area where it forms its own forest type.	eng
30488	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Surveys in the early 1980s estimated a population figure of less than 200 individuals in total, but the number has now increased. There are only two species in the genus, both endemic to New Zealand.	eng
30488	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Habitat deterioration has resulted in the invasion of grasses and weeds in places, and regeneration is sometimes prevented by grazing deer and livestock.	eng
30489	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree, known only from Marlborough, where it occurs in valleys between the Wairau and Awatere Rivers. The genus consists of three species, endemic to New Zealand.	eng
30490	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree, confined to Marlborough, where it is found between Awatere and Kowhai Rivers. The genus consists of three species endemic to New Zealand.	eng
30491	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Once one of the major components of forest on the Chatham Islands.	eng
30491	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Complete destruction of the forest type has led to the species becoming rare and largely confined to paddocks. There is evidence of some regeneration.	eng
30492	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurs on the Chatham Islands, to which it is confined.	eng
30492	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree.	eng
30492	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Quite common.	eng
30492	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Subpopulations are under great pressure from the continuous damage caused by browsing possums.	eng
30493	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Endemic to the Chatham Islands.	eng
30493	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Once a significant component of forests in the Chatham Islands, this small tree is now reduced to four subpopulations and scattered isolated individuals.	eng
30493	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The species is severely browsed by livestock and more recently by possums.	eng
30494	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A spectacular recovery in numbers has since been made following the removal of goats.	eng
30494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small pioneer tree found only on Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group.	eng
30494	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	By the early 1970s only a few small groups of trees had survived the damage caused by feral goats.	eng
30495	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Appears to be increasing in numbers since the removal of goats.	eng
30495	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small pioneer tree which is confined to Raoul Island of the Kermedec Group, the population on Macaulay Island having become extinct.	eng
30495	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	It grows in forest clearings and disturbed areas.	eng
30496	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree with a local occurrence.	eng
30497	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is very widely planted throughout the world.	eng
30497	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Norfolk Island pine has experienced large historical population declines in its natural range.	eng
30497	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Much of the habitat continues to be converted into agriculture and human habitation.	eng
30498	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The entire species range lies largely within Morne Seychellois National Park. Propagation from seeds is now being attempted.	eng
30498	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A tree scattered as isolated individuals or small groups on Mahé. A single individual is also known near Vallee de Mai on Praslin.	eng
30498	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Moist forest.	eng
30498	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Historical records indicate populations were once large.	eng
30498	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Populations have declined through heavy exploitation for fuelwood and timber used in boat and house building. Natural regeneration is now rare and seriously hampered by the invasion of <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>.	eng
30499	conservation	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Most subpopulations are contained within areas which are protected. Work is being carried out to consolidate the taxonomic status of the three varieties, although material for var. <em>curiosae</em> is insufficient.	eng
30499	distribution	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Islands of Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette and Felicite.	eng
30499	habitat	Carlstrom, A., 1998	An understorey tree confined to remnant subpopulations in moist forest.	eng
30499	threats	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Poor recruitment and the continuing marginalisation and degradation of the habitat continue to cause declines.	eng
30500	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30500	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.	eng
30501	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30501	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30502	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a widespread distribution within the Seychelles, occurring on Mahé, Praslin, La Digue, Silhouette and several smaller islands.	eng
30502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
30502	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no obvious threats and populations appear to be healthy.	eng
30503	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species occurs within a very restricted area (<1,000 ha), on Mahé and Praslin.	eng
30503	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30504	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Subpopulations are recorded within Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks and in forest areas protected by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.	eng
30504	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	There are six sites on Mahé and single sites on Silhouette and Praslin. Montagne Planeau has a large and healthy population. Most other locations contain between one and five trees.	eng
30504	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The entire population amounts to fewer than 50 individuals. No seedlings have been reported.	eng
30505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30505	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30505	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30506	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Present in forest areas protected by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.	eng
30506	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A tree endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30506	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	In 1910 it was reported to be locally common on Mahé and Silhouette. The population on Mahé is now reduced to a single tree on Mount Simpson. he species remains relatively common on Silhouette.	eng
30506	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Has declined through forest clearance at medium altitudes and degradation at higher altitudes.	eng
30507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30507	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.	eng
30508	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The species is present in several national parks.	eng
30508	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Curieuse.	eng
30508	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Once a dominant component of palm forest, the species is now restricted to small riverine areas.	eng
30508	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Historical clearance of mid-altitude forest has been the main factor causing the species' decline.	eng
30508	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Invasive plants are the most serious concern now.	eng
30509	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30509	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Usually a shrub less than 2 m high, but occasionally arborescent.	eng
30509	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30510	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30510	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.	eng
30511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30511	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30512	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30512	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30512	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30513	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Aride Island is a Special Reserve.	eng
30513	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The only wild subpopulations remaining are confined to the Aride Islands.	eng
30513	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Subpopulations on Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Felicite Islands became extinct in the early part of the century. A count has been made of 922 mature plants which appear to be healthy and regenerating.	eng
30513	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	recent declines in numbers are thought to have been caused by shading from other species. Past declines on other islands are probably attributable to widespread forest clearance. Parasitism by the mealy bug (<em>Icerya seychellarum</em>), although often stated as a contributing factor, has little effect on the health and reproductive capacity of individuals.	eng
30514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the islands of Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Ile Longue and Felicite.	eng
30514	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exposed rocky areas.	eng
30514	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A once important timber tree now restricted to scattered stunted individuals	eng
30514	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population on Curieuse is now extinct because of a fire. Seed predation by rats hampers regeneration in localised areas.	eng
30515	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30515	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.	eng
30515	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30516	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Parts of the species range are contained in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks and forest areas protected by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.	eng
30516	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A Seychelles endemic confined to the islands of Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette.	eng
30516	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	It occurs sparsely in the understorey of primary and secondary upland forest.	eng
30516	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The total population contains fewer than 50 trees.	eng
30516	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Overexploitation of the wood and loss of habitat are the main contributors to the historical decline in the species. Habitat degradation and low recruitment continue to have an impact on remaining trees.	eng
30517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30517	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of the granitic islands.	eng
30518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
30518	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
30518	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
30519	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in Morne Seychelloise National Park and seedlings are being used in a reforestation programme.	eng
30519	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette, Curieuse and Felicite Islands. The genus is monotypic.	eng
30519	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common component of forest areas.	eng
30519	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threat to populations comes from the pervasive spread of introduced plants.	eng
30521	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Neither natural regeneration nor <em>ex situ</em> propagation have been successful.	eng
30521	distribution	Page, W., 1998	A species now known from just a single female tree at Magenta.	eng
30521	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
30521	population	Page, W., 1998	The only known tree fruited for the first time in five years in 1996 and again in 1997, which suggests there is a male individual in the vicinity.	eng
30522	distribution	Page, W., 1998	South-west and occasionally east and northern ranges.	eng
30522	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A relatively common species of upland and mid elevation forest.	eng
30522	threats	Page, W., 1998	The spread of invasive species and habitat degradation are causing considerable concern. The species responds poorly to disturbance and appears to be regenerating insufficiently.	eng
30523	distribution	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	It is found in Bel Ombre and in a few sites in the Bambous Mts.	eng
30523	habitat	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	Lowland tropical rain forest and lowland mountain crests.	eng
30523	population	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	There are probably less than 50 individuals, although it is difficult to estimate the population or the area of occupancy (which is probably less than 10 km² but this would have to be worked out).  It is a very rare tree, and has probably declined by 80% over the last 3 generations due to reduction and decline in quality of its habitat. The population size is likely to be less than 2,500 individuals and quite possibly less than 250, although further research is needed.	eng
30524	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
30524	population	Page, W., 1998	A relatively common species in the south-west and occasionally found in the eastern mountain ranges.	eng
30524	threats	Page, W., 1998	Natural regeneration is poor and appears to be hampered by the spread of exotic plants and predation of the seeds by monkeys.	eng
30525	population	Strahm, W., 1998	Only five individuals remain.	eng
30526	conservation	Strahm, W., 1998	Grows well in managed reserves where weeding is carried out.	eng
30526	habitat	Strahm, W., 1998	A pioneer species.	eng
30526	threats	Strahm, W., 1998	Regeneration is poor outside managed areas.	eng
30527	population	Strahm, W., 1998	No specimens have been found since 1976.	eng
30528	conservation	Strahm, W., 1998	The remaining subpopulations of this species are now managed in reserves, which should halt previous declines in numbers.	eng
30528	population	Strahm, W., 1998	The subpopulations are very small and confined to a few tiny islands.	eng
30530	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>In-situ</em> conservation at Conservation Management Area at Petrin Natural Reserve	eng
30530	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	High altitude, lateritic and marshy soil.	eng
30530	population	Rutty, R., 2000	The total population is recorded at less than 50 individuals. It was thought to be extinct but recently rediscovered at Petrin.	eng
30531	conservation	Page, W., 1998	An 8 ha conservation area has now been designated in the Savanne range.	eng
30531	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30531	population	Page, W., 1998	Just five individuals appear to remain of treelet, three in the Savanne range, and single plants have been recently discovered at Macchabe and Mt Cocotte. No flowering or seeding individuals have been observed and propagation has not been possible.	eng
30532	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Many localities are within protected areas, where management is directed towards conservation of this and other species.	eng
30532	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Restricted to the western and central highlands of Tasmania; EOO calculated based on distribution of herbarium specimens is 5,488 km², AOO 1,000 km².	eng
30532	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Dwarfed montane forest and temperate rain forest, often associated with the other species of <em>Athrotaxis</em>.	eng
30532	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	It is rarely encountered and occurs only in association with one or other of the latter two species. Populations are usually very small and consist of only a few individuals each.	eng
30532	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Fire has reduced the AOO of all species of <em>Athrotaxis</em>. In addition, in certain areas there is infestation with <em>Phytophtera</em> sp. (fungus) that has killed <em>Athrotaxis</em> and which could well spread to other areas if not managed or controlled. The species is extremely slow growing and may live up to 1,300 years. This species and its congeners are in cultivation as ornamentals and in arboreta, but there is no exploitation of wild growing populations.	eng
30533	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern Tasmania.	eng
30533	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only four stands survive, largely on private land. Calverts Hill harbours the largest subpopulation of 2,000 trees. East Risdon Nature Reserve has fewer than 20 trees and the other subpopulations are small and near roads.	eng
30533	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agricultural expansion is the main reason for the species' decline.	eng
30534	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Found in an area between Wentworth Falls and Katoomba Falls in the Blue Mountains.	eng
30534	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A dwarf conifer, usually decumbent, confined to moist montane scrub.	eng
30534	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A count has been made of 7 populations containing 455 individuals. The genus contains only one other species, which is endemic to Tasmania.	eng
30534	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are declining because of a number of factors, including competition with invasive plants and poor recruitment prospects on the sheltered unstable cliffs and waterfall ledges where the species occurs. Urban development is also threatening the catchment area of the site.	eng
30535	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A large percentage of the forests is now protected.	eng
30535	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Scattered in montane rainforest.	eng
30535	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Wherever logging is allowed exploitation has been very heavy and populations have declined.	eng
30536	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	70% of the forests are now protected.	eng
30536	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
30536	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	As with <em>A. atropurpurea</em>, this timber species is found in low densities in localized forests.	eng
30536	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Logging is heavy where the forest is unprotected. Before 1985 the population had been halved by logging.	eng
30537	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A good colonizer in regenerating forest.	eng
30537	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread species.	eng
30537	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is used for timber.	eng
30538	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Papua New Guinea, in Milne Bay Province. The Queensland subpopulation is considered threatened but more up-to-date information is required to consolidate the present IUCN category.	eng
30538	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is thought to be restricted to coastal rainforest.	eng
30538	population	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Very few, if any, mature individuals remain.	eng
30538	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It was heavily exploited in the early days of colonisation and harvested continually throughout the Second World War. It is poor at regenerating and has now become rare in Papua New Guinea.	eng
30539	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The trees on Ile aux Aigrettes are now benefiting from a number of protective measures, such as the eradication of exotic plants and rats.	eng
30539	population	Page, W., 1998	Once a dominant coastal ebony, the species is now reduced to fewer than 10 individuals on the mainland and a larger viable population on Ile aux Aigrettes, a coral island off the east coast.	eng
30539	threats	Page, W., 1998	It was heavily harvested in the past for timber and firewood.	eng
30540	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Generally found on exposed ridges and plateaux.	eng
30540	population	Page, W., 1998	The species is relatively common where it occurs in the south-west, less so in the northern ranges.	eng
30540	threats	Page, W., 1998	Although the trees fruit regularly and in abundance, regeneration appears to be poor and populations are declining where the habitat is susceptible to degradation.	eng
30541	conservation	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	Ex-situ conservation is already in practice and in-situ conservation should be initiated.	eng
30541	distribution	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	It was known from a single individual in Magenta, but W. Strahm found a new (small although probably less than 50 individuals) population at Chamarel and also additional trees in the BR Gorges, Yemen, and the Piton du Fouge.	eng
30541	population	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	Probably more than 50 individuals. However, it is growing in degraded habitat and has ceased regenerating, and must have been more widespread before in areas which have been cut down for sugarcane and/or become degraded land.	eng
30541	threats	Rutty, R. & Strahm, W., 2000	Invasive competitors and sugarcane plantations.	eng
30542	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Some small populations occur inside protected areas.	eng
30542	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Previously known only from Tasmania, the species has been recently found in New South Wales (NSW), although this could be a distinct taxon.	eng
30542	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Tasmanian populations are restricted to a small area of sclerophyllous scrubland.	eng
30542	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Tasmania, populations are confined to a small area (<100 km²) along the north-east coast and about 12,000 mature trees have been counted in NSW along intermittent streams.	eng
30542	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fires and conversion of the habitat to agriculture are the main threats to the species.	eng
30543	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Occurring as an occasional species in the south-west and lower eastern mountain ranges.	eng
30543	population	Page, W., 1998	Fewer than 250 adult trees are believed to exist.	eng
30543	threats	Page, W., 1998	Browsing of the seedlings by exotic deer is limiting regeneration.	eng
30544	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Individuals in Le Florin Nature Reserve are fenced and weeded of exotic invasives.	eng
30544	habitat	Page, W., 1998	They are scattered  in scrub forest or rainforest in Macchabe, Mare Longue Plateau and Brise Fer Ridge.	eng
30544	population	Page, W., 1998	Fewer than 20 adult trees are known but there are estimated to be more.	eng
30544	threats	Page, W., 1998	No natural regeneration is apparent.	eng
30545	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Some populations, e.g., in Florin and Le Petrin Nature Reserves, are fenced and weeded of invasive species.	eng
30545	distribution	Page, W., 1998	South-west Mauritius. Information on the population in Réunion has yet to be gathered.	eng
30545	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Generally a small shrub, but occasionally a tree, the species is scattered throughout scrub and transitional forest.	eng
30545	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is observed to be poor.	eng
30546	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Le Florin and Le Petrin Nature Reserves, which hold small subpopulations, are fenced and weeded.	eng
30546	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Mare Longue Plateau, Macchabe, Mt Cocotte and Brise Fer in the south-west.	eng
30546	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Upland scrub and heathland.	eng
30546	population	Page, W., 1998	An estimate of fewer than 250 individuals exist.	eng
30546	threats	Page, W., 1998	Most areas are heavily invaded by exotic species and no regeneration is apparent	eng
30547	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Some colonies are recorded from managed nature reserves.	eng
30547	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Mauritius and Réunion.	eng
30547	population	Page, W., 1998	The Mauritian subpopulation is estimated to number less than 50 individuals. Occurrences are known from Macchabe, Brise Fer, Mt Cocotte, Savanne and Mt Pouce. Information on the Réunion subpopulation is lacking.	eng
30547	threats	Page, W., 1998	The main cause of population decline has been the exploitation of tree ferns, <em>Cyathea borbonica</em> and <em>C. excelsa</em>, on which the species appears to depend as a substrate for regeneration.	eng
30548	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Mostly in the south-west but also on the east coast and eastern mountain ranges.	eng
30548	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A likely timber of past centuries this species is commonly found in dry deciduous lowland forest.	eng
30548	population	Page, W., 1998	In many places the populations are reduced to scattered individuals or small subpopulations.	eng
30548	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration appears to be poor because of the invasion of exotic plants and also exotic animals which destroy the seeds.	eng
30549	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Confined to the south-west and a few localities in the east.	eng
30549	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A small tree of moist evergreen submontane forest.	eng
30549	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is observed to be poor, especially in areas to which exotic species have spread.	eng
30550	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The species has not yet become established in <em>ex situ</em> collections.	eng
30550	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Occurs in the south-west and has also recently been found in northern and eastern ranges.	eng
30550	habitat	Page, W., 1998	The species occurs in upland moist evergreen forest in the mountains.	eng
30550	population	Page, W., 1998	The population is estimated to be very small, possibly numbering less than 10 individuals.	eng
30550	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is rarely apparent and is adversely affected by the spread of exotic invasives, especially in the north.	eng
30551	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Found mainly in the south-west, but also in the eastern and northern ranges. As field surveys are carried out, the species continues to be found in new locations.	eng
30551	habitat	Page, W., 1998	An occasional species of upland moist evergreen forest.	eng
30551	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is not good and is hampered, especially in the north, by invasive plants.	eng
30552	distribution	Page, W., 1998	South-west and eastern mountain ranges.	eng
30552	habitat	Page, W., 1998	This canopy tree forms a dominant component of lowland evergreen forest and upland rainforest.	eng
30552	threats	Page, W., 1998	The habitat is declining and regeneration is poor in areas which are degraded.	eng
30553	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Trees are being closely monitored.	eng
30553	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Degraded cloud forest.	eng
30553	population	Page, W., 1998	Fewer than 10 dwarfed trees are found close to an Indian temple in the Grand Bassin.	eng
30554	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>In-situ</em> conservation is already in practice.	eng
30554	habitat	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Fruits can develop with no viable seeds or no seeds at all.	eng
30554	population	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	A tree, reaching 15 m in height. Population is less than 100 (population estimate, in March 1997, is 51 individuals): one at Henrietta; two at Deux Mamelles; more than 50 individuals have been found in Brise-Fer.	eng
30554	threats	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Invasives competitors, and predators like rats and monkeys, intrinsic factors such as poor reproduction.	eng
30556	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Mauritius and Réunion.	eng
30556	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Individuals are confined to extremely wet areas in forest in the south-west uplands.	eng
30556	population	Page, W., 1998	The Mauritian subpopulation consists of fewer than 10 individuals, only three of which have been identified with complete confidence. There is no available information on the population which apparently exists on Réunion	eng
30557	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Trees are being closely monitored.	eng
30557	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30557	population	Page, W., 1998	A species which has only recently been rediscovered since the 1960s, when the single known individual died. A total of two trees have been found in the last two years in a single locality of on the southern slopes of Mt Cocotte.	eng
30558	distribution	Page, W., 1998	In Mauritius occurrences are known in Simonet and Morne Seche. Information on the Réunion population is required.	eng
30558	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Seasonal forest.	eng
30558	population	Page, W., 1998	In Mauritius, around 50 individuals have been counted and regeneration is observed to be occasional.	eng
30559	population	Page, W., 1998	On Mauritius a population of fewer than 50 adult trees is estimated to exist in fragmented subpopulations in Trou du Douce on the east coast and Brise Fer Mt in the south-west. More information is needed on the populations elsewhere.	eng
30559	threats	Page, W., 1998	Habitat degradation and the spread of invasive species appear to be limiting regeneration.	eng
30560	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The hybrid of cultivated forms of this species and <em>T. ebenus</em> is extremely vigorous and may provide the only chance of survival for this part of the gene pool.   <br/>The Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>T. erythroxylon</em> puts forward three recovery plan objectives, the aim of these objectives is to re-establish a viable population in nature.  The objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. to maintain all existing stock in local and international collections; <br/>2. to maintain a programme of cross-pollinations that minimises inbreeding; and <br/>3. to manage all planting programmes.	eng
30560	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The Redwood grew at mid elevations (500–750 m) in what historically was moist woodland within the range of both cabbage tree and moist gumwood woodlands. Formerly abundant under the Central Ridge and in Gullies on the Central Ridge.	eng
30560	population	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The Redwood soon became heavily exploited for its excellent timber and its bark which, like that of the Ebony, was used for tanning hides, after the settlement of the Island and had already become extremely rare by 1718.  <br/>Further losses of Redwoods were likely when flax plantations were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the mid 20th century only one redwood survived in Peak Gut. This single tree is the source of all the Redwoods we know today.	eng
30560	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Inbreeding depression and a depauperate gene pool are manifest in the poor growth and high mortality of cultivated specimens.	eng
30561	distribution	Cronk, Q.C.B., 1998	A dwarf ebony, the identity of which has been confused with <em>T. ebenus</em> for the past 170 years. It probably occurred as a small shrub in arid areas of the north under the rain shadow of the central ridge. The genus is made up of just three species endemic to St Helena, two of which are extinct in the wild.	eng
30561	population	Cronk, Q.C.B., 1998	The last sighting of it was recorded in 1771.	eng
30562	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The main populations are found within protected areas.	eng
30562	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the center and east of Panama.	eng
30562	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in moist evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
30562	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the habitat is susceptible to clearance and logging.	eng
30563	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from a few subpopulations in the provinces of Los Santos and Bocas del Toro. There may be other occurrences, possibly in Costa Rica.	eng
30563	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
30563	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	No specific protection or conservation measures are in place and the habitat is susceptible to logging and clearing in many areas.	eng
30564	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is possible that further populations remain to be found.	eng
30564	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Small subpopulations exist in the Bocas del Toro in Panama, and in Sixaola in Costa Rica, covering a combined area of approximately 10,000 km².	eng
30564	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occur in primary forest, principally along streams.	eng
30564	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The locations are affected by increasing habitat clearance and logging.	eng
30565	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The entire population is contained within protected areas.	eng
30565	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the Panama side of the Colombia-Panama border.	eng
30565	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
30565	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the entire population is contained within protected areas, it is restricted in range and numbers, particularly of larger individuals.	eng
30566	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The type collection for this species was supposedly taken from the province of Daríen but the herbarium specimen lacks details on the specific locality and the collection number. There has also been a claim that the specimen originated from Cabo Corrientes in Colombia.	eng
30567	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Its range extends from Costa Rica  through Panama to the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, close to the border with Colombia. In Panama most of the collections originate from Chiriquí.	eng
30567	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of rainforest or cloud forest, occurring from low altitude to 2,000 m.	eng
30567	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Only a few subpopulations are in protected areas and elsewhere the species is threatened by logging and burning.	eng
30568	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species is known only from the type collection made in 1940. It is reported from the mountains of Alajuela in Costa Rica, but there is no additional information on this population.	eng
30568	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Despite considerable botanical activity in the area, it has not been found at the type locality in Panama again. Field investigations are needed to determine whether the species still exists or whether it is a synonym of <em>S. sphaerocoma</em>.	eng
30569	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The only population occurs in a National Park.	eng
30569	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs in the Altos de Campana National Park.	eng
30569	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest between 800 and 900 m.	eng
30569	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A single population is known. Attempts to locate it outside of the park have been unsuccessful.	eng
30570	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is possible that there are Subpopulations in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and Darién National Park, which would improve the species' status.	eng
30570	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The few collections made all come from the same area on a highway from El Llano to Cartí.	eng
30570	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Trees are found within deciduous rainforest between 250 and 400 m.	eng
30570	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In recent years there has been much habitat clearance.	eng
30571	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species is recorded as locally common around the base of the mountains in Puerto Obaldia in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, near the Colombian border, and from the north-east of Darién Province. It is more widely distributed on the Pacific coast and in Antioquia in Colombia, although these subpopulations are, apparently, not large. The whole area is not well studied botanically and it is possible the species is more widespread.	eng
30571	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There is little human impact, although the cultivation of marijuana is increasing.	eng
30572	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a protected population within the Darién National Park.	eng
30572	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally known only from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and Darién near the border with Colombia, the species has now been collected from Veraguas, in central Panama. Future collecting may reveal the species in between these areas. Only two species exist in the genus.	eng
30572	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations are few and small.	eng
30572	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat is frequently cleared for settlements, agriculture and ranching.	eng
30573	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The major part of the range is contained within protected areas.	eng
30573	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Recorded from the provinces of Colón and Panamá, mainly in the central region of Panama and slightly to the east.	eng
30573	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in rainforest up to 1,000 m.	eng
30573	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the species occurs very rarely and is under severe threat from habitat clearance.	eng
30574	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only a small part of the population is protected within national parks.	eng
30574	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to Panama, the species is known from a few collections taken within an area stretching from the center of the country to the Colombian border.	eng
30574	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
30574	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	It is not common and in most parts of its range the habitat is declining because of the increasing settlement of the land, ranching and agriculture.	eng
30575	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has not been recorded in Panama since it was first collected in 1968. It is known from various collections in Nicaragua and Costa Rica and has been reported from Colombia. In Nicaragua it appears to be relatively common but generally confined to forest habitats.	eng
30575	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Forest habitats are subject to increasing human disturbance.	eng
30576	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are populations within protected areas.	eng
30576	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from Panama, the species is reported from four provinces, from the border with Costa Rica to the center-east of the country.	eng
30576	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in forest types below 500 m.	eng
30576	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations in many parts of the species' range have been strongly affected by encroaching agriculture, cattle ranching and increasing settlement.	eng
30577	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs along the Atlantic slopes of Panama and in Limón and La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica.	eng
30577	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
30577	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations are noted to be large, healthy and for the most part unthreatened.	eng
30578	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations in Panama are widespread on the Atlantic side of the provinces of Veraguas and Bocas del Toro. The species is also principally found on the Atlantic side of Costa Rica.	eng
30578	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Although numbers are small, the regenerative capacity of the species appears to be good.	eng
30578	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	New roads have been built into Bocas del Toro, which have opened up new areas for settlement and logging.	eng
30579	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The few reports of the species in Panama indicate that it is uncommon and restricted to a narrow range, occurring in the Canal area and in the provinces of Panamá and Colón. In Colombia it is known from Cartagena and Sucre, where it appears to be rare. The larger Venezuelan population is recorded under the genus <em>Tricera</em>. There are further suggestions of conspecific taxa occurring in the Caribbean.	eng
30580	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection in San Blas. The specimen is not complete and was probably described erroneously as a separate species from <em>C. filipes</em>, which occurs widely in the same area.	eng
30581	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Forest is protected within the national parks of Chagres and Portobelo.	eng
30581	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A small tree, known from very few collections taken from a small area to the north-east of the Panama Canal.	eng
30581	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
30581	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurrences are evidently rare, but it is possible further exploration will uncover additional localities.	eng
30581	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area has suffered much deforestation.	eng
30582	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a possibility that there are further populations occur in Chagres National Park in south-east Colón and around the Canal.	eng
30582	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	All collections of this species come from a small area to the north-east of Panamá City.	eng
30582	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
30582	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The populations are small and strongly affected by logging and other activities.	eng
30583	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally collected from Coclé in 1941 and identified as <em>C. baducca</em>, the specimen was redescribed as a new species, <em>C. uniflora</em>.	eng
30583	population	Mitré, M., 1998	No recent collections have been made and there is insufficient evidence to confirm the taxonomy.	eng
30584	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The type specimen was found in Pinogana District in Darién. The area, until now, has been difficult to access and is little studied. A second specimen came from Antioquia in Colombia in 1945.	eng
30584	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A poorly known plant, which has been collected just twice.	eng
30585	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the high-altitude locations are protected.	eng
30585	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species appears to be at the limits of its range, occurring only rarely in Chiriquí. In other Central American countries the species is widespread in lowland evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
30585	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
30586	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Cerro Jefe is contained within Chagres National Park.	eng
30586	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only three collections of this species exist: one from Cerro Colorado and two from Cerro Jefe.	eng
30586	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30586	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Mining for copper and gold threatens the subpopulation in Cerro Colorado.	eng
30587	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species appears to be known only from the type specimen, collected in Progresso in Chiriquí in the first half of the century, although it possibly occurs in the Golfo Dulce area in Costa Rica. Additional specimens originally recorded as this species from other parts of Panama have since been identified as <em>Senefeldera testiculata</em>.	eng
30587	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is not known whether the species is now extinct.	eng
30588	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the type specimen, it is uncertain whether the species is extinct or whether it has been incorrectly described as a separate taxon from <em>P. arborea</em>, which also occurs in the area. No specimens have been collected since 1941.	eng
30589	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species appears to be confined to the Atlantic side of three provinces.	eng
30589	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring chiefly along forested riversides.	eng
30589	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The few living specimens known are sparsely scattered in forest that is not well studied.	eng
30589	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The forest is disappearing through encroaching agriculture and settlements.	eng
30590	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from a narrow strip of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest running the length of the province of Darién. A large part of the subpopulation runs close to the border with, and is likely to extend into, Colombia.	eng
30590	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
30590	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	All known subpopulations are within Darién National Park, where they are officially protected but under some threat from gold mining and localised logging.	eng
30591	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Some subpopulations are protected in national parks	eng
30591	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	It is recorded from localities throughout Panama.	eng
30591	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Largely growing epiphytically, the species is scattered diffusely in areas of moist forest from low elevation to 1,800 m.	eng
30591	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Some subpopulations are seriously exposed to increasing habitat clearance for settlement and agriculture.	eng
30592	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are small subpopulations in Volcán Barú and Chagres National Parks and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
30592	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Principally known from the center-north of Panama, the species continues to be in found new sites, increasing its range so that it almost stretches from the border with Costa Rica to the border with Colombia.	eng
30592	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs almost exclusively in undisturbed rainforest up to 1,200 m.	eng
30592	population	Mitré, M., 1998	No record of the species has been made in either of the latter countries so far.	eng
30592	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the habitat is frequently threatened by settlement, logging and extensive agriculture.	eng
30593	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	At present, the species is known only from the Caribbean coast in Bocas del Toro and Colón.	eng
30593	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It is scattered in lowland semi-evergreen or evergreen forest.	eng
30593	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is not well explored but available information suggests the species is uncommon.	eng
30593	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	A small subpopulation in Santa Rita, Colón, is in grave danger of being cut down.	eng
30594	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Several of the localities are within protected areas.	eng
30594	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species ranges from the Canal region in Panama to an area just over the border with Colombia in the Chocó.	eng
30594	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in rainforest from low elevation to 1,500 m.	eng
30594	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Population numbers are not large.	eng
30594	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Increasing agriculture, settlement and logging threaten areas of unprotected forest.	eng
30596	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Found in the Cerro Jefe and Cerro Azul, the first of which is completely contained within the boundaries of Chagres National Park and the second only partially covered.	eng
30596	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of cloud forest, restricted to a small altitudinal range.	eng
30596	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It appears to be fairly common and regenerating well in localities within the park.	eng
30596	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In the Cerro Azul, unprotected forest is being lost because of the increasing settlement of the area and various industrial developments.	eng
30597	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Chiriquí Highlands, this species is poorly understood. Undetermined specimens from Costa Rica may also represent this taxon.	eng
30597	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30598	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known solely from the easternmost parts of the Cordillera de Talamanca, extending into the Chiriquí highlands in Panama.	eng
30598	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane elfin forest or drier sites at higher elevations.	eng
30599	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A widespread timber species which has suffered serious population declines most particularly in Central America and Brazil. However, is reported to still be common in Suriname (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
30599	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The timber is overexploitated and the species suffers from habitat loss.	eng
30600	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Almost every population is contained within a protected area, including one in Soberanía National Park.	eng
30600	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is restricted to Barro Colorado Island (BCI) and the surrounding area.	eng
30600	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in semi-deciduous rainforest on seasonally flooded plains.	eng
30600	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The populations are small	eng
30600	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Only a population on the Gigante Peninsula at the south of BCI is under serious pressure because of the expanding human population.	eng
30601	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species is known from forest along the highway running from El Llano to Carti-Tupile in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. It is easily confused with <em>G. grandibracteata</em>, which may explain why there have been no recent collections in this region. The species has also been identified from recent collections in Antioquia in Colombia, and in Darién in Panama.	eng
30601	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The forest is rapidly disappearing and being colonised by campesinos.	eng
30602	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	A small part of the Panamanian population is found in Darién National Park.	eng
30602	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	At present, the species is known from three isolated localities in Darién in Panama, and from localities in Colombia and Peru.	eng
30602	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs, occasionally commonly, in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest up to 600 m.	eng
30602	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside Darién National Park the habitat is exposed to increasing agriculture and settlement.	eng
30603	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations in Darién National Park appear to be slightly more common and well protected.	eng
30603	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the province of Darién, the species is uncommon and restricted to small groups of trees. Also recorded in Colombia, the species occurs equally infrequently in the Valle del Cauca and the Chocó.	eng
30603	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Principally occurring in open woodlands at river edges.	eng
30604	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to Panama, the species ranges from Coclé towards the east, to Darién and San Blas.	eng
30604	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, sometimes inundated forest.	eng
30604	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs in low numbers. Only in the Canal area does the species occur a little more frequently.	eng
30604	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Seedlings are notably scarce, indicating that regeneration may be poor.	eng
30605	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Although for many years the species was thought to be endemic to Panama, it is now known to range from Nicaragua to Peru.	eng
30605	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, often at the edges of roads and in secondary forest.	eng
30605	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama and Costa Rica, and probably in other countries, trees are found only in small numbers outside protected areas.	eng
30606	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is most common in the Canal area, where it occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
30606	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	So far the species has been found only in Panama.	eng
30606	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
30606	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs, nowhere in abundance.	eng
30606	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The larger part of its distribution coincides with areas experiencing an influx of people and increasing agricultural and farming activities.	eng
30607	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in Darién National Park.	eng
30607	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species is known from a few forest localities in Darién. Recent reports indicate the species also exists in the Chocó and Antioquia in Colombia.	eng
30607	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It doesn't appear to be common at any of the known sites.	eng
30607	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Where the habitat is unprotected it suffers increasing encroachment.	eng
30608	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Protected by law in Costa Rica.	eng
30608	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, this species is only known from Valle de Antón in Coclé. In Costa Rica it is known from the Cordillera de Tilarán in Alajuela.	eng
30608	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30608	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, this species appears to be very scarce. However, it is more common in Costa Rica where it less affected by external pressures.	eng
30608	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Industrial developments and other human activities in Panama.	eng
30609	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Protected in national park.	eng
30609	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Until recently the species was known only from the type specimen collected on a 1911 expedition to Chiriquí. Last year the species was identified on the Isla de Coiba in Coiba National Park, where it occurs commonly.	eng
30609	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Rainforest along beaches.	eng
30610	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Although, <em>L. guatemalensis</em> extends from Mexico to Panama, var. <em>proteranthus</em> has been collected only once, from Coclé in Panama.	eng
30610	population	Mitré, M., 1998	There have been no reports of the taxon for almost 90 years and it is possible that it is now extinct.	eng
30611	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from a collection taken from the province of Panamá.	eng
30611	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No further records of the species have been made since the type collection.	eng
30612	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was described from a collection made in 1908. No reports of the species have been made since.	eng
30613	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally known only from a few records, all from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, in recent years the species has also been found in the Chocó, Valle del Cauca and Antioquia in Colombia. There is a possibility that there are subpopulations in similar forest in Darién Province, Panama.	eng
30613	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Where it is known, the species is uncommon.	eng
30613	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Under some pressure of habitat loss, although the area remains relatively under developed.	eng
30614	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Collected only twice from the provinces of Chiriquí and Coclé.	eng
30614	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species and its status are very poorly known.	eng
30615	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A species which is known only from two localities, Isla Colón and Valle del Agua, in Bocas del Toro.	eng
30615	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen to semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
30615	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs fairly commonly at the known localities.	eng
30615	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There are some threats from logging and encroaching settlements and agriculture.	eng
30616	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the subpopulations in Cerro Jefe are protected within Chagres National Park.	eng
30616	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the species is known from various sites in Panama and north Colombia, this subspecies is considered endemic to the Cordillera de Cerro Jefe, to the north-east of Panamá city. It is uncommon and in Cerro Azul has experienced considerable habitat loss.	eng
30616	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Habitat loss through urban and industrial development.	eng
30617	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Found in the surroundings of Valle de Antón in Coclé, and in the mountains between the provinces of Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí, including the Fortuna Forest Reserve.	eng
30617	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest species, known only from localities, between 600 and 1,200 m.	eng
30617	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In primary areas it can be quite common, but it is generally rare elsewhere.	eng
30617	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a gradual influx of settlers into these areas and increasing in tourism is increasing.	eng
30618	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	In parts of the range the habitat continues to be affected by an influx of settlers and increasing agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
30618	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Central Panama.	eng
30618	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It has been found only in primary or old secondary forest between 700 and 1000 m.	eng
30618	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The few records of the species suggest it is very rare and scattered.	eng
30618	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In parts of the range the habitat continues to be affected by an influx of settlers and increasing agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
30619	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species occurs in the high mountains of Chiriquí, Bocas del Toro and Veraguas Provinces. TROPICOS records the species from Honduras but nothing more is known about this occurrence.	eng
30619	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,300 m.	eng
30619	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It appears to be more or less common in Panama.	eng
30619	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is influenced by human activities and ranching.	eng
30620	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Also found within national park boundaries.	eng
30620	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	For a short period, this cloud forest species was known only from the mountains of Chiriquí. Subpopulations have now been found in Bocas del Toro and the high mountains in the Canal region. There are occurrences in Volcán Barú and La Amistad National Parks, one within 3 km of the border with Costa Rica.	eng
30621	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only part of the total population is contained within Barú National Park.	eng
30621	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Up to the present, the species has been found only in Chiriquí around Volcán Barú, where it occurs in the highest part of the country.	eng
30621	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest between 1,800 and 3,300 m.	eng
30621	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There are tourism and agricultural developments in the area which may affect certain populations.	eng
30622	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Mostly found within protected areas.	eng
30622	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally known only from Cerro Jefe, to the north-east of Panamá city, the species has now been reported from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and from Darién Province in Panama, and also Valle del Cauca and the Chocó in Colombia.	eng
30622	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It is sparsely scattered in lowland, often inundated, forest.	eng
30622	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Unprotected forest is exposed to logging and development.	eng
30623	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring fairly commonly in the Valle de Antón area in Coclé and in populations of just a few individuals from Darién Province, close to the Colombian border in Panama, and in Puntarenas in Costa Rica. Although it is possible larger populations will be discovered, the species is poorly known in the latter two areas.	eng
30623	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
30623	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Under threat of habitat loss.	eng
30624	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The Panamanian form of a widely distributed species. It occurs relatively commonly in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, including Puerto Obaldía on the border with Colombia. Other collections from Colón, Bocas del Toro and Darién have not been identified down to the subspecies level.	eng
30625	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	A small part of the species range is contained within protected areas.	eng
30625	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama found from the Canal area to Darién. More information is needed on the population status in Colombia.	eng
30625	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species occurs in moist forest, woodland and scrub habitats.	eng
30625	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations in Panama are small and dispersed and there are few young individuals.	eng
30626	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in Boquete in the province of Chiriquí.	eng
30626	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only twice, although the area has been relatively well studied. There is not enough information to categorise the species as extinct and it is possible that more recent collections have been identified under a different species name.	eng
30627	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the vicinity of the highway which runs from El Llano to Cartí in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
30627	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Recorded very rarely. The area has been well covered botanically and the low number of collections of the species is a reasonable indication of its scarcity.	eng
30627	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In recent years the major part of the forest here has been cleared and the land colonised by campesinos.	eng
30628	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Recorded from the provinces of Panamá and Colón and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, restricted to a small range where the three zones meet.	eng
30628	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland seasonal rainforest.	eng
30628	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A rare species.	eng
30628	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There is considerable impact from human activities within this area and the lowland seasonal rainforest habitat is severely reduced in extent.	eng
30629	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only once from the province of Coclé.	eng
30629	population	Mitré, M., 1998	No further records have been made since the type collection, but many more collections from the family await identification.	eng
30630	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is a relatively common plant within a restricted area of Corcovado National Park in Puntarenas, Costa Rica. This is the only population which is protected.	eng
30630	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species is known only from the Cordillera Central in the province of Chiriquí.	eng
30630	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs sparsely in various open forest and scrub types up to 1,900 m, including areas opened up by ranching.	eng
30631	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the type specimen dated 1940, the species was collected from an area which is now a banana plantation. However, it is probable that the taxon represents a variation of another species.	eng
30632	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Although at present unprotected, the area is being considered for designation as a protected area.	eng
30632	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	All collections of the species come from two neighbouring localities in the Valle de Antón in Coclé Province.	eng
30632	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It is a relatively common component of undisturbed cloud forest between 600 and 1,000 m.	eng
30632	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	This area of forest is gradually disappearing through encroachment.	eng
30633	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only once from the province of Chiriquí in 1940.	eng
30634	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is supposed that the species will be found in neighbouring protected areas, Volcán Barú National Park and Fortuna Forest Reserve.	eng
30634	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to the mountains of Chiriquí Province.	eng
30634	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Confined to a small area of forest between 800 and 1,100 m.	eng
30634	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species appears to be fairly frequent.	eng
30634	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is becoming extensively converted to agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
30635	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species exists in sparsely scattered subpopulations, except in Chiriquí Province, Panama, where it appears to be relatively common. There are also records of occurrences in Coto Brus in Costa Rica and in the Chocó in Colombia.	eng
30635	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in various forest types over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
30635	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In Santa Rita, Colón Province, Panama, the subpopulation is threatened by extensive forest clearance.	eng
30636	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are populations recorded in Fortuna Forest Reserve and Volcán Barú National Park.	eng
30636	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally known only from the type collection from Cerro Hoqueta, the species name has now been attached to a number of previously unidentified herbarium collections from the same region.	eng
30636	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs between 2,000 and 2,300 m in cloud forest.	eng
30637	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to the Cordillera Central, the species is known only from a few records, all originating from high-altitude forest in the province of Chiriquí.	eng
30637	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	High-altitude forest.	eng
30637	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is possible the species range is more extensive but current information suggests the species is rare and restricted in range.	eng
30638	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from various localities in the Cordillera Central and the mountains which divide the provinces of Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro.	eng
30638	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in cloud forest above 1,500 m.	eng
30638	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs in Volcán Barú National Park and a small part in the south-east of La Amistad National Park.	eng
30639	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The forest is relatively well protected. Occurrences are also recorded in Fortuna Forest Reserve in Chiriquí and Valle de Antón in Coclé.	eng
30639	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from two main areas, from Cerro Jefe in Chagres National Park and from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
30639	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in moist evergreen forest between 700 and 1,500 m.	eng
30639	population	Mitré, M., 1998	There are few collections but the forest is relatively extensive.	eng
30640	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	This species is described on the basis of three collections, all from south-west of Fort Sherman in the Canal area. Other <em>Calyptranthes</em> in the same region are identified as other species.	eng
30641	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the type collection of 1938, the species remains poorly known. Other taxa of the same genus have been collected in the same area.	eng
30642	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is relatively well protected only in Darién National Park.	eng
30642	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from a few records, the species is endemic to areas in Darién Province.	eng
30642	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It appears to be uncommon. There are no recent records of the species but much of the forest remains under-studied.	eng
30642	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside Darién National Park the threats of habitat clearance are great.	eng
30643	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most subpopulations are contained within protected areas.	eng
30643	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally known from just Darién Province, the species now appears to have a sparse occurrence, ranging from Darién National Park up to the Canal area. Its distribution extends very close to the border with Colombia.	eng
30643	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
30643	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas habitat loss has been extensive.	eng
30644	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in Altos de Campana National Park, where the subpopulation is well protected.	eng
30644	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Collected from Valle de Antón in Coclé and more recently from the province of Panamá. Further investigation may reveal the species to be more widespread. There are several undetermined herbarium specimens, which may, prove identifiable to this species and a new record from Puntarenas indicates the species range extends into Costa Rica.	eng
30644	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of mid-elevation rainforest.	eng
30645	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in a number of national parks. In recent years it has also been reported from Costa Rica in Corcovado National Park, where it appears to be common.	eng
30645	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Well distributed in Panama, particularly in the Canal area.	eng
30645	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
30646	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A doubtful species known only from the type specimen of 1950.	eng
30647	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are a number of occurrences in protected areas.	eng
30647	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is recorded from various provinces in Panama.	eng
30647	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Rainforest, generally at higher altitudes, but ranging from sea level to 2,200 m.	eng
30647	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Common in places.	eng
30647	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Found also in areas heavily influenced by human activities.	eng
30648	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A doubtful variant of the species, which is known only from a type specimen collected from Darién Province. It is the only record of the species in the province.	eng
30649	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Collected from Bocas del Toro. The general area of collection has been little studied.	eng
30649	population	Mitré, M., 1998	No new reports of the species have been made since the original collection was taken.	eng
30650	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of lowland rainforest or semi-deciduous forest formations.	eng
30651	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in Chiriquí.	eng
30651	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded from rainforest at about 275 m.	eng
30652	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	A population exists within Volcán Barú National Park.	eng
30652	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is distributed in the high mountains of Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro. Only a few collections exist, taken from a very restricted but perhaps insufficiently explored area.	eng
30652	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,100+ m.	eng
30652	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Regeneration is observed to be poor.	eng
30653	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, collected only from San Blás and Darién.	eng
30653	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Various seasonal and non-seasonal lowland forest types.	eng
30654	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been found in several locations, ranging from north and west Colombia to Costa Rica.	eng
30654	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree in primary forest from sea level up to cloud forest.	eng
30655	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Certain areas are protected within national parks.	eng
30655	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from Costa Rica to Colombia. In Colombia the species distribution appears to be concentrated in the Chocó, especially the Urabá area.	eng
30655	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Evergreen rainforest up to 1,500 m.	eng
30655	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is relatively widespread. Populations in Panama are reported to be healthy. In Costa Rica the species is common at medium elevations.	eng
30655	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Certain areas are threatened with logging.	eng
30657	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The largest populations are contained entirely within protected areas.	eng
30657	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The largest populations are in the Cordillera de Talamanca between west Panama and east Costa Rica. Other smaller populations exist elsewhere, including one in the Volcán Mombacho in Nicaragua.	eng
30657	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of evergreen moist montane forest or cloud forest.	eng
30657	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In most sites the species is locally abundant.	eng
30657	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Unprotected forest is under some threat from logging and encroaching agriculture.	eng
30658	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the areas which the species occupies are under protection within national parks.	eng
30658	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of high-altitude cloud forest, occurring between 2,000-3,000 m or higher.	eng
30658	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations are rare and isolated. Regeneration appears to be good and large fruit crops are reported.	eng
30658	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There are increasing threats of habitat clearance for agriculture and logging.	eng
30659	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	All populations are within areas which receive some level of protection.	eng
30659	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A more common species than <em>I. costaricensis</em>. Populations are also found below 1,000 m in Cerro Jefe and Cerro Campana in Panama. In Costa Rica, the species is reported to be abundant above 1,500 m.	eng
30659	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in high-altitude cloud forest; sometimes also below 1,000 m.	eng
30659	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Despite this level of apparent protection, there still remain potential threats from logging and habitat clearance.	eng
30660	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The entire range coincides with protected areas.	eng
30660	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of cloud forest, occurring between 1,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
30660	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Growing in small, restricted subpopulations.	eng
30660	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There are increasing threats of habitat logging and clearance.	eng
30661	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although deforestation has been extensive in the past, these areas are now given some degree of protection.	eng
30661	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring on Volcan Irazu and Cerro Chirripó, the species is restricted to an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
30661	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
30662	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of uncertain taxonomic status, found in the mountains of central Costa Rica in Alajuela. One collection from 1896 is cited from Volcan Poas.	eng
30663	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
30663	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Although previously considered to be a Costa Rican endemic, it appears the species is also recorded in Mexico and Chiriquí in Panama and hence could be distributed throughout Central America.	eng
30663	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Areas of moist and wet evergreen forest.	eng
30663	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	It is sparse in occurrence, usually found as isolated individuals. Little is known of the regenerative capacity of the species, although it does not appear to be strong.	eng
30666	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the type locality near Esquinas, where it was once said to be common, and also from Rincón.	eng
30666	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
30667	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found near La Palma de San Ramón. It is possible that the taxon represents a unusual form of <em>P. veraguasensis</em>.	eng
30667	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from an area of wet evergreen forest, occurring between 1,100 and 1,200 m.	eng
30668	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Limón and Cartago.	eng
30668	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in montane rainforest between 450 and 1,400 m.	eng
30668	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss have been severe.	eng
30669	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Costa Rica.	eng
30669	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A treelet, up to 2 m in height, confined to montane and cloud forest between 600 and 1,200 m.	eng
30669	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only an estimated 1,037 km² of montane forest remain in Costa Rica.	eng
30670	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the Caribbean slopes of Costa Rica. Collections have been made at Cartago, Turialba and Alajuela, San Carlos.	eng
30670	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of wet evergreen forest between 500 and 1,100 m.	eng
30671	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of dry to humid pine forest, at middle elevations.	eng
30672	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from a single site, near Limón.	eng
30672	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
30672	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area was once covered with lowland rainforest but is now largely disturbed.	eng
30673	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to two forest refugia in Chiriquí and Darién in Panama and also apparently in Costa Rica.	eng
30673	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs over a wide altitudinal range, in the understorey of lowland forest and as an epiphyte in cloud forest.	eng
30674	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Atlantic lowlands in areas of varying humidity.	eng
30674	population	Nelson, C., 1998	Subpopulations are small and scattered.	eng
30674	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The habitat continues to diminish through conversion to agriculture.	eng
30675	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known mainly from the populations in Guatemala but also occurs in the northern mountains of Chiapas, where the species is considered to be vulnerable.	eng
30675	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree, occurring in oak forest and mesophyllous formations.	eng
30676	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in the Chiapas Highlands in Mexico and in mountainous parts of Guatemala.	eng
30676	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane forest in oak and mesophyllous formations, between 2,000 and 2,300 m.	eng
30676	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subpopulation in Mexico is considered Endangered.	eng
30677	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A little-known species. The only recent record from El Salvador is from Monte Cristo.	eng
30677	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in cloud forest to 1,500 m.	eng
30678	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Widely distributed with the largest subpopulations occurring in Colombia. It is found throughout Panama but is common only in protected areas.	eng
30678	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
30679	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	It was originally only known from Panama but has since been reported from as far north as the south of Mexico.	eng
30679	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of Central American lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
30679	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama a scarce occurrence and a fairly restricted range in areas that are affected by an increasing human activities, have led to the species being considered nationally threatened.	eng
30679	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Increased human activities.	eng
30680	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1927 from Valle de Talamanca, Bocas del Toro. TROPICOS records the species in Antioquia in Colombia but no further details are known.	eng
30681	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from Pacora, in Panamá Province, the species has not been collected since it was first discovered, despite the area being relatively well explored. A revision of the genus suggests that the taxon is just a form of <em>O. lucens</em>.	eng
30683	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Although, threatened in some countries, such as Panama, most high mountain areas are protected to some degree.	eng
30683	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	From Mexico to Panama.	eng
30683	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest species occurring over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
30684	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of rocky dry hillsides in lowland regions.	eng
30685	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A thicket species, usually occurring on rocky hillsides or plains, sometimes along creeks.	eng
30686	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only very few collections, the species occurs in Alta Verapaz between 300 and 900 m.	eng
30687	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A rare tree of the Atlantic rainforest. In Honduras, the species is known only from a single collection.	eng
30687	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Atlantic rainforest.	eng
30688	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to La Cumbre in Petén.	eng
30688	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in lowland seasonal semi-evergreen forest.	eng
30689	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a single known population in La Cumbre in Petén.	eng
30689	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is a component of seasonal semi-evergreen forest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>.	eng
30690	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A seldom-collected species of cloud forest.	eng
30691	conservation	Nelson, C., 1998	The species is found within Celaque National Park.	eng
30691	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Endemic to Honduras, the species is, so far, known only from an area in Celaque National Park.	eng
30691	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Wet montane forest.	eng
30692	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A cloud forest tree.	eng
30692	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in a habitat which is rapidly declining through deforestation.	eng
30693	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of pine forest, occurring at medium to high elevations.	eng
30694	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of pine forest at medium to high elevation.	eng
30695	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of somewhat dubious nomenclature.	eng
30695	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
30696	conservation	Nelson, C., 1998	Found in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.	eng
30696	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Restricted to the Atlantic wet lowlands of Honduras, the species occurs in low numbers in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.	eng
30696	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Atlantic wet lowlands.	eng
30697	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of <em>matorral</em>, thickets and dry forest along rivers, at low to middle elevations.	eng
30698	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of high-altitude mixed humid forest.	eng
30699	conservation	Nelson, C., 1998	Some subpopulations occur within protected areas.	eng
30699	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This tree occurs in mixed forest at high elevations.	eng
30699	population	Nelson, C., 1998	Population numbers are low for this endemic tree species.	eng
30699	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The habitat is in continuing decline.	eng
30700	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of the Atlantic lowlands, occurring as distinct varieties.	eng
30701	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	There is some doubt over the nomenclature of the species. It is confined to Honduras.	eng
30701	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Areas of medium-to high-elevation humid forest.	eng
30702	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of low elevations, occurring in moist thickets along streams within areas of dry forest.	eng
30703	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in thicket and forest, often near streams.	eng
30703	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The species is reduced to remnant subpopulations because of habitat loss.	eng
30704	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Pine-oak forest.	eng
30704	population	Nelson, C., 1998	A seldom collected tree.	eng
30705	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of submontane forest.	eng
30706	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Endemic to the wet Atlantic lowlands of Honduras, the species has a rare occurrence in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.	eng
30707	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of submontane oak woodland and thicket.	eng
30708	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species occurring disjunctly, with populations in Mexico and Honduras.	eng
30708	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	The species is found in deciduous forest.	eng
30710	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Endemic to Honduras. The genus is under taxonomic revision.	eng
30710	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This tree is found in a small area of submontane pine forest.	eng
30711	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to El Salvador, in Monte Cristo, Metapán, Santa Ana.	eng
30711	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to cloud forest.	eng
30711	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species.	eng
30712	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This species occurs in humid areas or near streams in dry forest.	eng
30713	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Programmes to improve its status are being run by CAMCORE. Felling is prohibited in some countries and the species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
30713	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Guatemalan Fir is the southernmost member of its genus.	eng
30713	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It was reported to be common until the 1940s and large subpopulations may still remain in Honduras. There is disputable evidence that the remaining stands in Guatemala extend no more than 3 ha.	eng
30713	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There has been heavy timber exploitation throughout the range. Isolated stands continue to be exploited heavily by local inhabitants and the deep fertile soils, on which the tree grows, are attractive to agricultural development. Cone crops are irregular and germination is poor.	eng
30714	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species, of somewhat dubious nomenclature.	eng
30714	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in humid forest in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
30723	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Of somewhat dubious nomenclature, the species is rarely collected.	eng
30723	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The population at the type locality has disappeared because of urban development.	eng
30724	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In north-east Mexico the species is locally common.	eng
30724	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Some interest has been shown by pharmaceutical companies in its medicinal properties. There is no evidence of active exploitation.	eng
30726	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in low density in the foothills of the Sierra Lazaro.	eng
30726	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Xeric habitat.	eng
30726	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area is subject to grazing pressure. Regeneration has not been observed in recent years.	eng
30727	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	More information on the regeneration of this species may allow it to qualify for the status of Endangered.	eng
30727	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species restricted to a specialised sclerophyllous habitat at lowland to montane altitudes.	eng
30727	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cedros Island suffers from overgrazing by goats.	eng
30728	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known only from one population system in the valley of Río Concho and north along Río Grande.	eng
30728	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of dry montane scrub.	eng
30730	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Two or three subpopulations occur. The mainland Mexican species, <em>Q. viminea</em>, may be synonymous, in which case the species would qualify for a status of lower risk.	eng
30730	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
30730	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Grazing pressure is high.	eng
30732	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to a small area (less than 10 km²) along a road.	eng
30732	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A submontane to montane dry forest species.	eng
30732	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Much of the area is in the process of conversion into avocado plantations and human settlements.	eng
30733	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is suspected that this species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated taking into account the altitudinal range of the species.	eng
30735	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A montane species.	eng
30735	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The number of localities and population status are unknown.	eng
30738	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The known subpopulations are small but their extent is not known.	eng
30739	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The extent of population declines is not documented.	eng
30739	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The level of forest destruction has been dramatic.	eng
30741	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from about four collections taken from a locality in the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica and from single localities in San Blás and Darién in Panama.	eng
30741	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large buttressed tree of evergreen lowland rainforest.	eng
30742	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The species has been collected relatively rarely from localities in Cundinamarca and Tolima in Colombia and parts of neighbouring Panama in Darién Province.	eng
30742	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
30743	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information is needed on the Guatemalan population.	eng
30743	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In El Salvador the species is confined to Santa Ana and Chalatenango.	eng
30743	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in pine-oak forest up to 2,000 m.	eng
30743	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been no recent reports of its occurrence and the area is unprotected.	eng
30743	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is susceptible to logging and expanding agricultural development. The wood is of wide importance in carpentry and construction.	eng
30744	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The species has also been propagated and reintroduced into Mondrain Nature Reserve. A few plants are grown in a nursery and elsewhere on Ile aux Aigrettes.	eng
30744	distribution	Page, W., 1998	The Mauritian population is known from fewer than five adult trees at the bases of the Chamarel range, Mt. Briseé and Mt. Creole. Information is required on the population in Réunion.	eng
30744	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Dry deciduous forest.	eng
30745	distribution	Page, W., 1998	A large canopy tree and useful timber species. In Mauritius scattered subpopulations occur in Yemen, Magenta, Chamarel and Black River Gorges in the south-west and in the eastern ranges of Mt des Creoles. More information is needed on the Réunion subpopulation.	eng
30745	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous and evergreen forest.	eng
30745	population	Page, W., 1998	The Mauritian subpopulations are estimated to contain fewer than 500 adults.	eng
30745	threats	Page, W., 1998	Browsing of seedlings by deer is thought to be limiting regeneration. The bark has medicinal properties and its illegal harvesting sometimes leads to ring-barking.	eng
30746	distribution	Strahm, W., 1998	Mauritius and Réunion.	eng
30746	population	Strahm, W., 1998	The subpopulation on Mauritius is extinct and remaining subpopulations on Réunion have experienced severe declines.	eng
30747	conservation	Thulin, M., 1998	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
30747	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Confined to northern Somalia.	eng
30747	population	Thulin, M., 1998	A tree aloe which was seen in considerable numbers in 1995.	eng
30747	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Continues to be threatened by the destruction of the habitat.	eng
30748	conservation	Firsov, G.A., 1998	Occurs in several reserves.	eng
30748	distribution	Firsov, G.A., 1998	Occurring in the subalpine belt of the central Caucasus range.	eng
30748	habitat	Firsov, G.A., 1998	Scattered throughout pine, mixed or beech forest in subalpine belt.	eng
30748	population	Firsov, G.A., 1998	This widespread species is represented by relatively large population numbers but occupies a range which is declining. It is listed as rare (Status 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia and USSR.	eng
30748	threats	Firsov, G.A., 1998	The main threats to the species are grazing and cutting for timber and firewood.	eng
30749	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to a single location in Darvaz, Tajikistan. Occupies a very restricted area of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
30749	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A shrub reaching up to 4 m or more in height. It can be easily cultivated and has potential as an ornamental.	eng
30749	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The only known location consists of only a few plants. The population is declining.	eng
30749	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include agricultural conversion and cutting, natural disasters, overgrazing.	eng
30750	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not known to occur in any protected area, but our herbarium based data do not include all known localities.	eng
30750	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Russia, Russian Far East, Primorye, from near Vladivostok north to the Anyuy River. A map in Kharkevich (1985) shows dots distributed more or less contiguously between Vladivostok and the Anyuy River. Assessment of herbarium specimens in LE was unable to confirm this due to imprecise locality data, but the range given in that publication is probably correct. The EOO is at least 70,000 km² estimated from this map.	eng
30750	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In mixed conifer forests and mixed angiosperm-conifer forests as undergrowth shrub, in subalpine vegetation associated with <em>Pinus pumila</em>, on steep stone slopes of mountains, often as a continuous cover. Elevation (from GIS): 32 to 1,365 m, from herbarium specimens 800 to 1,500 m (GIS in this case more reliable). This species is in cultivation and in the horticultural trade.	eng
30750	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Common.	eng
30750	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are know to occur that cause this species to decline in number of populations and/or localities. Fire could destroy it locally but it may regenerate by layering easily.	eng
30757	conservation	Vovides, A.P., 1998	Approximately 1,000 saplings have been produced <em>ex situ</em>, some of which are being planted at Jardín Botánico Francisco Javier Clavijero.	eng
30757	habitat	Vovides, A.P., 1998	Cloud forest between 600 and 1,600 m.	eng
30757	population	Vovides, A.P., 1998	About four or five relict subpopulations exist. The largest consists of between 80 and 100 individuals in disturbed cloud forest at Ixhuacan de los Reyes, Veracruz. Numbers are very small in Oaxaca and Hidalgo.	eng
30757	threats	Vovides, A.P., 1998	The reasons for declines have largely been habitat destruction, timber production and poor regeneration.	eng
30758	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Remaining stands show signs of disturbance or cutting. Regeneration is primarily vegetative, by resprouting from the roots and trunk bases. There appears to be low fertility.	eng
30761	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Gulf region.	eng
30761	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This canopy tree is restricted to remaining areas of rainforest.	eng
30763	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Endemic to the Gulf region, the species occurs in remaining rainforest, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.	eng
30767	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30767	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Found on the slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii. A subpopulation on East Maui along with another subpopulation on the northern slope of Mauna Kea have been referred to as ssp. <em>singulifera</em> but both are now extinct.	eng
30767	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub or tree which is epiphytic on tree ferns, <em>Metrosideros, Acacia</em> or <em>Cheirodendron</em> species, occurring in rainforest.	eng
30767	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There are four remaining subpopulations of the species, numbering no more than a few individuals.	eng
30767	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There is evidence of damage to the habitat caused by feral pigs, rats and the illegal cultivation of cannabis.	eng
30768	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to East Maui.	eng
30768	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A tree or shrub of montane rainforest, primarily along stream beds.	eng
30768	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The total population of <em>C. tuberculata</em> is less than 2,500 mature individuals. Over ten subpopulations have been recorded, with each subpopulation containing less then 250 mature individuals.	eng
30768	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threatened by invasive species including alien plants, feral pigs and possibly rats and invertebrates.	eng
30769	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30769	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A palm-like tree formerly found in the Kamalo region on Molokai, but recently rediscovered at Puu O Kaeha, west of Kamalo.	eng
30769	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thought to be extinct until it was recently rediscovered. A total of eight individuals have been found in three populations.	eng
30769	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is known to harbour feral goats.	eng
30770	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hawaii.	eng
30770	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of subalpine shrubland, woodland and also alpine desert.	eng
30770	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was once common around the flanks of Mauna Kea. It remains locally abundant above Puulaau.	eng
30770	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The impact of grazing feral animals has severely restricted its distribution.	eng
30771	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species known only from Kauai and Oahu.	eng
30771	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in various forest types.	eng
30772	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
30772	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Charpentiera densiflora</em> occurs only on the island of Kauai in the state of Hawaii. It is narrowly endemic to the district of Napali on the northwestern side of the island, in a series of valleys and gulches over a 6 km stretch.	eng
30772	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A tree of moist forests, especially in gulch bottoms.	eng
30772	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known from 10 subpopulations with no subpopulation containing more than 50 mature individuals. The total population of <em>C. densiflora</em> is less than 250 mature individuals.	eng
30772	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The remaining plants are threatened by feral goats and pigs, and by the spread of alien plants.	eng
30773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from three locations on Kauai Island, on Mt Kahili, Makaleha Mountains and the Powerline Trail.	eng
30773	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to rainforest up to 890 m.	eng
30774	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was thought to occur in rainforest at Kawaihae on Hawaii. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are either Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30774	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected just once before 1868, the species is now presumed extinct.	eng
30775	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.	eng
30775	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A sprawling to erect shrub or tree in dry forest and shrubland up to 350 m.	eng
30775	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from small populations.	eng
30776	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is distributed from Waimea Canyon to the ocean-facing valleys in the west and south-west on Kauai.	eng
30777	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30777	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species from a small genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Originally known from the hills of Makaku, Koko Head and Wailupe Valley on Oahu.	eng
30777	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was first recorded in 1888 and became extinct shortly afterwards.	eng
30778	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30778	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly collected in the north of the Koolau Mts. on Oahu and from Maunaloa on Molokai. The only extant populations are now restricted to Oahu.	eng
30778	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which, in the past, has been collected from lowland dry forest.	eng
30778	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fewer than 220 individuals now remain in eight populations in the Koolau Mts.	eng
30778	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Molokai populations have been replaced by fields of pineapples. Present populations are threatened mainly by the destructive activities of feral pigs and by invasions of introduced plants.	eng
30779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within an area stretching from Limahuli to Hanakoa Valley in north-western Kauai.	eng
30779	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree scattered in disturbed hala forest and wetter vegetation up to 550 m	eng
30779	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The invasion of alien plant species has affected the habitat in many areas.	eng
30780	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bobea sandwicensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu, Molokai, Lana'i and Maui. The genus <em>Bobea</em> consists of four species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30780	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Occurs in dry to moist forest and on open, sparsely vegetated lava flows up to 1,220 m altitude.	eng
30780	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, fire and invasive plant species.	eng
30781	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30781	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hawaii.	eng
30781	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered on lava fields.	eng
30781	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is considerably rarer than the type variety. It is known from approximately 24 individuals at Puuwaawaa in North Kona District on Hawaii.	eng
30781	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are persistent threats from grazing ungulates and spreading invasive plants.	eng
30782	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On all the main Hawaiian islands except Kauai.	eng
30782	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primarily on forested ridges or in shrubland at medium elevations.	eng
30782	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is uncommon and scattered.	eng
30783	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Haleakala on East Maui.	eng
30783	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is scattered in alpine shrubland on dry slopes up to 2,700 m, especially in fogswept areas.	eng
30784	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30784	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern part of the Kohala Mountains, the northern slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa on Hawaii. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30784	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A stout tree which occurs only rarely, generally confined to dry forest up to an altitude of 1,830 m.	eng
30784	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fewer than 50 individuals remain in six subpopulations.	eng
30784	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat conversion for residential and recreational purposes, the invasion of introduced plants, fire and grazing have all contributed to the decline in the species.	eng
30785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui and Hawaii.	eng
30785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested ridges between 450 and 1,600 m.	eng
30785	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently the species is uncommon and scattered.	eng
30787	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small number of cultivated trees have been reintroduced into two fenced sanctuaries.  The species is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30787	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally known from three subpopulations in Puuwaawaa on Hawaii. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30787	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species' natural habitat is dry to moist forest on lava fields between 915 and 1,020 m.	eng
30787	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The last known wild tree died in 1992.	eng
30787	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only remaining patches are heavily threatened by fire, grazers, invasive plants and ranching activities.	eng
30788	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lanai and on Mt Eke on West Maui.	eng
30788	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a restricted altitudinal band, the species occurs in a few areas on the highest ridge.	eng
30789	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is commonly found in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30789	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sri Lanka.	eng
30789	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subcanopy tree, restricted to wet lowland forest.	eng
30790	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30790	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30791	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was discovered in only three forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30792	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is frequent in many forest reserves including Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30792	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree confined to wet lowland evergreen forest.	eng
30793	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30793	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety occurs in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30794	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys by the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only five localities.	eng
30795	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in seven forests.	eng
30796	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
30796	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A prominent species of upper montane rainforest, occurring occasionally in lowland rainforest.	eng
30796	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only three of the localities surveyed during the extensive National Conservation Review.	eng
30797	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common tree in Sri Lanka. Only 31 km² of montane forest remains in Sri Lanka.	eng
30797	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper montane rainforest.	eng
30797	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sri Lanka.	eng
30798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An emergent tree found in upper montane rainforests; it occasionally occurs in the lowland rainforests.	eng
30799	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30799	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30800	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in protected areas.	eng
30800	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30800	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforests.	eng
30800	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been rediscovered in the Hinidumkanda MAB Reserve even though the area has been carefully surveyed. It has, however, been recorded recently during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys in several forest reserves and proposed reserves.	eng
30800	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbance caused by illegal felling.	eng
30801	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the western lowlands of Sri Lanka.	eng
30801	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
30801	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the recent National Conservation Review forest survey, only four individuals were discovered in a single locality.	eng
30801	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This ironwood tree is threatened because its habitat is being converted for rice cultivation.	eng
30802	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree restricted to rocky ridges of highland evergreen forest.	eng
30802	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30803	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Its habitat type is found only in the south-western corner of the island.	eng
30803	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30803	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was not found in the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30804	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
30804	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An emergent species found only in restricted lowland wet evergreen forests on well-drained deep soils.	eng
30804	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Populations have been eliminated from many areas because of excessive tapping for resin. Regeneration is also observed to be poor.	eng
30805	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	There are subpopulations in some forest reserves.	eng
30805	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30805	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30805	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It is reported to regenerate well.	eng
30806	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species occurs in an area that has been proposed as a reserve.	eng
30807	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to exist in forest reserves.	eng
30807	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A canopy tree scattered in restricted areas of lowland wet evergreen forest. It is also found as an emergent in semi-evergreen moist forest.	eng
30807	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is noted to be good. The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss and conversion.	eng
30807	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss and conversion.	eng
30808	population	Ashton, P., 1998	No evidence of the species was found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30809	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species' distribution is extremely restricted.	eng
30809	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurring in pure stands on ridges in lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30809	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It apparently regenerates sufficiently in its natural habitat. This species was found in seven forests during the surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30810	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
30811	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
30812	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs in some forest reserves.	eng
30812	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-west corner of Sri Lanka.	eng
30812	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A sizeable tree found scattered in the remnants of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30813	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree found in patches on shallow poor soil.	eng
30813	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It regenerates prolifically. The species was found in 11 of the forests surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30814	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.	eng
30814	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree occurs mainly on hillsides and river banks in remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30814	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is somewhat sparse.	eng
30815	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Kegalle and the South Peak Sanctuary.	eng
30815	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A dipterocarp restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30815	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30815	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is unable to reach reproductive maturity between the current cutting cycles.	eng
30816	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was discovered in only 12 of the forests surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30817	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in Sri Lanka.	eng
30817	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Relatively widely distributed in what remains of lowland wet evergreen forest, this dipterocarp is found scattered on deep rich soils on hillsides.	eng
30817	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is one of the dominant canopy species in the protected area at Sinharaja. However, it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting it has become extremely rare.	eng
30818	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30818	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A characteristic species of remnant lowland wet evergreen forest, forming one of the dominant components of the canopy.	eng
30818	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not discovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species has become rare.	eng
30818	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is an important component of plywood, which is mainly used to make tea chests.	eng
30819	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sri Lanka.	eng
30819	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A canopy species in the remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30819	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Signs of regeneration are meagre. This tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30820	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	It is found in Lenegal Kande Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and has previously been reported from Kanneliya and Gilimale.	eng
30820	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree with an extremely localised distribution in areas of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30821	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree confined to the remaining 700 km² of highland wet evergreen forest. It prefers deep well-drained soils.	eng
30821	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30822	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sri Lanka.	eng
30822	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An emergent tree, usually found by rivers and streams, confined to the remaining 1,422 km² of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30822	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30822	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Trees have been selectively logged in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30823	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-east Sri Lanka.	eng
30823	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A dipterocarp, confined to lowland and hill wet evergreen forest.	eng
30823	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30823	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Close to extinction because of the loss of its habitat.	eng
30824	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It forms one of the dominant components of the canopy in the protected area at Sinharaja.	eng
30824	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is found in fragments of lowland and sometimes highland wet evergreen forest, usually on deep soils.	eng
30824	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is good where selective logging is taking place. No populations were found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30824	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Most of the habitat has been converted into plantations, resulting in the species becoming localised. The timber is harvested mainly for plywood.	eng
30825	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species forms a dominant component in the canopy in the protected area at Sinharaja.	eng
30825	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Isolated patches of this species are found scattered on well-drained soil in remaining lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30825	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is extremely rare.	eng
30825	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is poor.	eng
30826	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree occurring in wet evergreen forest which becomes an emergent at higher altitudes.	eng
30826	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not discovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30827	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found only in small patches of remaining wet evergreen forest above 600 m.	eng
30827	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was found in 13 of the sites surveys for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30828	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Hunasgiriya.	eng
30828	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This small semi-gregarious tree is confined to the lower canopy of remaining patches of highland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30828	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30829	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Localized on the southern slopes of Adam's Peak in Ratnapura District.	eng
30829	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This gregarious understorey tree occurs in highland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30829	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found in three sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.	eng
30830	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species restricted to the southern slopes of Adam's Peak at around 1,000 m.	eng
30830	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was found in three of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30831	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on the south and east slopes of Adam's Peak and higher elevations of forest in Sinharaja.	eng
30831	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree which dominates highland wet evergreen forest at higher altitudes, sometimes extending into montane forest.	eng
30831	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species was found in only three of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30832	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to remaining patches of lowland wet evergreen forest, the species occurs in small clumps on steep rocky hillsides.	eng
30832	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found only once in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30833	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A very small tree which is found in a few hillside and river bank localities of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30833	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found only once in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30834	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Limited to a few patches of lowland wet evergreen forest on ridges.	eng
30834	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is known from a single collection. It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30835	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree endemic to Kitulgala and Gilimale.	eng
30835	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Grows on well-drained deep soil in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30835	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30836	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30836	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree confined to ridge crests in the remaining lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30836	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found in only two forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30837	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Known from one ridge overlooking the Sinharaja forest.	eng
30837	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree of highland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30837	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found only once during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30838	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found only in the Ambagamuwa region.	eng
30838	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This small tree had been collected only twice, in 1852 and 1860, but in 1981 a population of several hundred trees was discovered on the southern forested slopes of Peak Wilderness between 1,600 and 1,800 m. However, it was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30839	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
30839	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in the south-west.	eng
30839	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Widespread and scattered within lowland wet evergreen forest, this canopy tree is mainly found on hillsides and river banks.	eng
30839	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It appears to be regenerating sufficiently.	eng
30840	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30840	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is regenerating well in the remaining fragments of lowland wet evergreen forest. The species is usually found scattered along streams and on deep well-drained soils.	eng
30840	population	Ashton, P., 1998	During the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded from only two localities.	eng
30841	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs in Sri Lanka.	eng
30841	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found mainly along river banks in lowland semi-evergreen forest.	eng
30841	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is reported to be good. However, this species was not recorded during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
30842	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Also found in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30842	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30842	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30842	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was discovered in 25 forests during the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
30843	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Also found in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30843	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30843	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30843	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree was found in 33 forest localities in the recent National Conservation Review, including Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
30845	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed in the Sierra Madre Oriental.	eng
30845	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
30845	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its range has declined and populations are reduced to areas that have escaped agricultural expansion, such as deep gullies.	eng
30848	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30848	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in the lowland rainforest.	eng
30849	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30849	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree endemic to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30849	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in six localities in Galle and Kalutara districts.	eng
30850	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in 12 forest localities during the National Conservation Review.	eng
30851	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree apparently restricted to a single locality of forest in Ratnapura District.	eng
30851	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two trees were discovered during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30852	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this tree was found in only three forest localities in Kandy and Ratnapura Districts.	eng
30853	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
30853	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree occurs infrequently in lowland wet evergreen forest and in dry forest.	eng
30853	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found at 25 forest sites during the National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30853	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is threatened by overexploitation of its valuable variegated timber and by poor regeneration. In addition, the heartwood is used medicinally to heal wounds.	eng
30854	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30854	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
30855	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In India, forest is now protected within sanctuaries.	eng
30855	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Sri Lanka, a recent survey identified a total of three subpopulations, occurring in Ratnapura and Kalutara districts. In India subpopulations are restricted to the southernmost end of the Western Ghats, including the Agastyamalai Hills	eng
30855	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen forest (Sri Lanka) and submontane forest (India).	eng
30855	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In India forest has declined in extent.	eng
30856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree, restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30856	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in nine localities during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the Sri Lankan National Conservation Review.	eng
30857	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree was found to occur in only three forest reserves during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30858	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. This species is known from four localities: Kanneliya, Kottawa, Badullakele and Dediyagala.	eng
30858	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare tree restricted lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30859	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was discovered in 20 localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30859	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
30860	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
30860	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30861	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to a small conservation forest reserve in Matara district.	eng
30861	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single tree was found in the comprehensive forest surveys for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30862	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. Until recently, it was known only from Hinidumkanda Biosphere Reserve. Single collections were made in both Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and in Kanneliya Forest Reserve.	eng
30862	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species of lowland rainforest.	eng
30862	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest on the south-eastern slopes of Hinidumkanda is threatened by encroaching slash-and-burn cultivation and illegal logging, resulting from increases in human population numbers in the surrounding area.	eng
30863	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Included in the Sinharaja and Haycok Biosphere Reserves.	eng
30863	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30863	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30863	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, the species was found in six forest localities.	eng
30864	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was discovered in only two forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30865	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30865	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
30866	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30866	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30867	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was apparently locally common but occurred in only six of the surveyed localities in the districts of Nuwara Eliya and Kandy.	eng
30868	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in nine forest localities, mainly confined to Nuwara Eliya District.	eng
30869	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found at only three localities during the extensive forest surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30870	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ratnapura District. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30870	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30870	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in six sites during the extensive forest surveys of the National Conservation Review.	eng
30871	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30871	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in seven sites.	eng
30872	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30872	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
30872	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found at three localities.	eng
30873	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30873	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in 14 localities.	eng
30874	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30874	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in 13 localities. Asian	eng
30875	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
30875	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found at nine localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30876	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree was found in only four of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30877	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30877	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
30878	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs frequently in upper montane rainforest.	eng
30878	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was recorded in nine of the sites surveyed from the National Conservation Review.	eng
30879	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to Nuwara Eliya District.	eng
30879	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was recorded from seven sites during the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30880	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree from Sri Lanka.	eng
30880	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in wet and dry forest.	eng
30880	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only five of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review, including an occurrence in a strict nature reserve.	eng
30881	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in only three of the sites surveyed during the extensive National Conservation Review, one of which is a strict nature reserve.	eng
30882	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30882	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to scattered locations in lowland rainforest.	eng
30883	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30883	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
30884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review. No information is available at the variety level.	eng
30885	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30885	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
30887	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species with an extremely restricted distribution, in the south-west corner of Sri Lanka. It was discovered in only three forest localities within Kurunegala district, during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30887	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Scattered in the remnants of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
30888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30889	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was found in 11 forest sites during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
30889	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An understorey tree with a clumped distribution in remaining lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30890	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scattered species restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30890	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
30892	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30892	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
30892	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species as a whole was found in only seven of the forest sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30893	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species as a whole was found in only five forest sites during the extensive surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.	eng
30894	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only two forest sites in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review. The sites are not protected.	eng
30895	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30895	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30896	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
30896	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
30897	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	South of Bosaso and Qandala in north-eastern Somalia.	eng
30897	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A laxly branched, slender tree confined to a few localities on rocky limestone soils with sparse bushland.	eng
30897	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is under some threat from overcutting and overgrazing.	eng
30898	conservation	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Although the area is legally protected, civil insecurity has led to a lack of research and enforcement of protective measures. The species is included on <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
30898	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Confined to Witu Forest Reserve. The present population estimate includes 20 mature individuals.	eng
30898	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	A medium-sized tree of semi-deciduous swamp forest.	eng
30899	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/>CITES</a> Appendix II controls.	eng
30899	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One population is known in Mikindani in Tanzania and another in a protected area in south-east Zimbabwe. Coastal subpopulations in Mozambique may be extensive but more information is needed to confirm their status and extent.	eng
30899	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are few and disjunct.	eng
30900	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II controls.	eng
30900	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with succulent branches. It is endemic to localised areas of dry or riverine upland forest.	eng
30901	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs in at least two protected areas: one locality near Kwizu Forest Reserve and in Mkomazi Game Reserve (a sight record).	eng
30901	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded in the Taita Hills and at Nairobi River Falls (Kenya) and the South Pare Mts, Manyara escarpment, Ngubora River and Lake Eyassi (Tanzania).<br/><br/>Note that the distribution recorded in Reynolds (1966) as at the top of the Manyara Escarpment and Nguruman Escarpment refers to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aloe elata</span> S.Carter & L.E.Newton.	eng
30901	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in dry deciduous bushland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>and succulents and also in degraded bush on rocky hills.	eng
30901	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Never very common, all subpopulations tend to be small.	eng
30901	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	This dry bushland is extensively exploited for charcoal production and also by habitat clearance for exapnding agriculture.	eng
30902	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A taxon which is included in the wider concept of <em>A. koa</em>.  Recorded from the islands of Kauai, Oahu (a recent find, possibly planted), Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii. <em>A. koaia</em> occupies less than 20,000 km²	eng
30902	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This is a small and gnarled tree found in dry and open habitats.   Sometimes extending into the drier end of the moist habitats. Forests and shrublands.	eng
30902	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>A. koaia</em> has been severely impacted by ranching, agriculture and fires started by humans.  Other threats to the species are feral goats and pigs, deer, and invasive alien plants.	eng
30903	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of moist forests.	eng
30903	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Iocalised distribution in areas which have experienced habitat destruction.	eng
30904	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bobea timonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It has been collected from Puna and south Kona Districts on Hawaii and on the southern slopes of Haleakala on Maui. There are also collections elsewhere which may be assignable to the species. The genus <em>Bobea</em> consists of four species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30904	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Trees, up to 10 m tall, occurring in dry to occasionally moist forest up to an altitude of 580 m.	eng
30904	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include goats, deer and invasive plant species.	eng
30905	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or tall shrub is located in at least 15–20 sites.	eng
30905	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet forest below 600 m.	eng
30905	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are about 300 individuals in total. Sexual reproduction appears to be successful.	eng
30905	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The major threat to the habitat is the establishment of commercial and forestry plantations.	eng
30906	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30906	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Reports of the species occurring on St Croix in the US Virgin Islands date to the 1700s and the occurrence in Jamaica is also doubtful. In Puerto Rico, there are two locations: the nuclear power plant site at Rincon and Hato Tejas, Bayamon, consisting of 16 and 12 plants respectively. The Hato Tejas population was larger but was partially destroyed by limestone mining in the 1980s.	eng
30906	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of coastal limestone hills, restricted to forested ledges and ravines.	eng
30906	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The remaining individuals are threatened with development of a coal-fueled power plant, further mining and industrial or commercial developments.	eng
30907	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Localized in western Puerto Rico.	eng
30907	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist slopes.	eng
30907	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
30908	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Western Puerto Rico.	eng
30908	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On moist slopes.	eng
30908	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	As with <em>B. horneana</em> the species is rare and scattered.	eng
30909	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Seed germination trials have not been successful.	eng
30909	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Puerto Rico there is a population of about 30 individuals scattered in six or seven sites, mostly contained within state forest land.	eng
30909	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A seemingly dioecious tree of lower montane moist forest.	eng
30909	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evidence of natural regeneration is absent.	eng
30910	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Luquillo Mountains, in the El Verde region. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
30910	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in wet areas at middle elevation.	eng
30912	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30912	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Restricted to the Kohala Mountains on the island of Hawaii.	eng
30912	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A terrestrial or epiphytic tree of wet forests.	eng
30912	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The total population of <em>C. drepanomorpha</em> is less than 250 mature individuals. Several subpopulations have been recorded with no subpopulation consisting of more than 50 mature individuals.	eng
30912	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats come from human disturbance, invasive plants, feral pigs, deer and rats.	eng
30913	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is listed as Endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30913	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known only from the southern slope of Haleakala on Maui and the slopes on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii.	eng
30913	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	An uncommon terrestrial or epiphytic species occurring in montane rainforest up to 2,150 m altitude.	eng
30913	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The total population of <em>C. lindseyana</em> is less than 700 individuals. 15 subpopulations have been recorded, each containing no more than 250 mature individuals.	eng
30913	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The remaining plants are threatened by invasive alien plants, goats, pigs and rats.	eng
30914	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Two populations have been planted in enclosures at Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge. It is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30914	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia pyrularia</em> is a small tree restricted to the Island of Hawaii. It is found on the northeast slope of Mauna Kea.	eng
30914	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Mesic forest.	eng
30914	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Invasive plants and the damage caused by feral pigs are thought to have contributed significantly to the species decline. Other threats include invertebrates, rats and humans	eng
30915	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30915	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There are 10 extant populations in the Waianae Mountains on Oahu, in the Kohala Mountains, Muana Loa and Hualalai on Hawaii and a recently discovered individual on Maui.	eng
30915	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Dry to moist forest up to 920 m altitude.	eng
30915	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	One of the hardest native woods, the species was heavily harvested by ancient Hawaiians and is now only rarely found. It has been estimated that there are 280–300 individuals.	eng
30915	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The spread of alien plants, fire, damage caused by feral pigs and goats, and the black twig borer are among the major threats to remaining population. There is also a possible threat from rats.	eng
30916	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A straggling tree or woody vine of moist forest.	eng
30916	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from no recent sightings but recorded in 1991 from the type locality on the El Toro Trail.	eng
30917	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population is thought to be divided between three or four sites: Rio Abajo, Aricedo Observatory, Barrenquitas and possibly in the state forest at Susua.	eng
30917	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of dry serpentine or moist limestone locations.	eng
30917	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total population of eight individuals.	eng
30918	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The taxon is protected in Point Lobos Reserve.	eng
30918	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Five subpopulations known, in S.F.B. Morse Botanical Reserve, Point Lobos Reserve, where the species is protected, and along the coast in Mendocin and north-west Sonoma Counties. The coastal populations are sometimes known as var. <em>pygmaea</em>.	eng
30918	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Less than 1,000 individuals are thought to exist.	eng
30918	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	There are some pressures from local development, altered fire regimes and possibly from non-native plants.	eng
30919	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Type collection from a locality near Glenwood on Hawaii.	eng
30919	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A palm-like tree 5-10 m tall. Occurred in wet forests on gently sloping old volcanic substrates.	eng
30919	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is known only from the type material, which was collected in 1917.	eng
30920	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kona District on Hawaii.	eng
30920	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small palm-like tree recorded in rainforest.	eng
30920	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No adult trees have been found this century, although a population was located of what appeared to be precociously flowering juvenile individuals.	eng
30921	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was collected on the Kohala Mountains on Hawaii.	eng
30921	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Now presumed extinct, this species is known only from the type material.	eng
30922	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Several subpopulations occur in Volcanoes National Park.  The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30922	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the north-eastern slopes of Mauna Kea south to the eastern slopes of Mauna Loa.	eng
30922	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
30922	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small shrubby tree which is now known from 11 subpopulations. Estimates of the total population size lie in the region of 1,000 individuals.	eng
30922	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has disappeared from previously known sites and habitat damage caused by feral pigs, along with the invasion of introduced plants, continues to threaten remaining populations.	eng
30923	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Maui Island. It appears to have been eliminated from the vicinity of Puunianiau but remains locally abundant on the east side of Koolau Gap.	eng
30923	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane rainforest species.	eng
30924	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main subpopulation occurs in two colonies in El Verde. A subpopulation is also found at the edge of Carite Forest.	eng
30924	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
30924	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main subpopulation occurs in two colonies, totaling 50-100 plants. The Carite Forest subpopulation has about nine adults.	eng
30924	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no obvious threats to the El Verde colonies.	eng
30925	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30925	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small dioecious tree occurring on two Hawaiian islands.	eng
30925	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest, both moist and dry.	eng
30925	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present 15 populations, containing between 450 and 625 individuals, are recorded from the Waianae Mountains on Oahu and on the north-west coast of Kauai. All but one of the localities are on state-owned land.	eng
30925	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is steadily being degraded by feral goats, pigs and also deer and the spread of introduced plants is causing a decline in native flora.	eng
30926	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
30926	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Alerce has been logged since the middle of the 17th century. The largest concentration of the species, at the southern end of the Chilean depression, was exploited in the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving no remains except blackened stumps. By the early 1900s a third of the <em>Fitzroya</em> forests had been removed. In the 1930s motorised transport and the building of roads allowed access to the stands in the Coastal Cordillera and High Cordillera.  Present estimates of the area taken up by remaining stands lie at 20,000 ha, 15% of their original size.  Today the best stands may be found between latitudes of 41º and 42ºS in the High Cordillera. Elsewhere populations are small.	eng
30926	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Exploitation continued at such intensities that chances of regrowth and regeneration are annihilated.  Restrictions laid down by the Chilean Government have not been adhered to and illegal logging in remote areas has been impossible to halt.	eng
30927	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
30927	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Presently found on the islands of Lanai and Oahu; historically found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui and Molokai.	eng
30927	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub or tree of low elevation dry forest.	eng
30927	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Six subpopulations have been recorded, with a total population size of 15–19 individuals.	eng
30927	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>G. brighamii</em> include goats, deer, rats, cattle, competition with invasive alien species, invertebrate predation, fire and development.  This species is also used at a local level as a dye and used in the landscape trade.	eng
30928	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small understory tree of limestone forest.	eng
30928	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from eight populations of between 100 and 125 individuals.	eng
30928	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees are unprotected and experiencing various pressures. Road widening destroyed six individuals, which have since been replaced by numerous root suckers. Construction of a hotel complex, pipe-laying and predation of flowers are amongst the major concerns.	eng
30929	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30929	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a site along Wahiawa Stream on Kauai Island.	eng
30929	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of dense wet forest.	eng
30930	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30930	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a shrub or small tree, the species is known from a single population on the bluff above Koaie Stream in Waimea Canyon on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from species which are either Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30930	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry forest patch.	eng
30930	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fewer than 20 individuals.	eng
30931	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small number of individuals have been planted to augment the population in the wild. The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30931	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Kauai where it has been recorded from a number of location in the Nounou Mountains.	eng
30931	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a shrub or tree in dry forest up to 350 m.	eng
30931	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A group of four trees appears to be the only remaining population.	eng
30931	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The damage caused by cattle was realised in 1928 when the species was first brought into cultivation. That threat has been removed but the habitat continues to be steadily degraded by the spread of invasive plants, by feral pigs and potentially recreational activities.	eng
30932	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Living material has been obtained from the branch of a cultivated specimen discovered in 1970, and grafted onto <em>K. kauaiensis</em>.  The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30932	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly known from Mahana in western Molokai. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to Hawaii and either Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
30932	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally in relictual dryland forest.	eng
30932	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	When first discovered in the 1860s, only three small trees were found. By 1918 all the specimens in the wild had died. Some years after, the only known cultivated tree died without producing viable offspring and the species was thought extinct.	eng
30932	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The former site was central to a sheep run and the population was directly affected by browsing and trampling domestic and feral stock.	eng
30933	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species persists in cultivation. The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30933	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species from a small genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30933	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Reduced to a few individuals at Puuwaawaa and Huehue on Hawaii.	eng
30934	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30934	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At one time this species was known only from a single tree in Koaloha Canyon. It is now the most numerous member of the genus. At present six subpopulations are known in Paaiki, Kuia, Mahanaloa, Kalalau, Pohakuao and Koaie Valleys in the west of Kauai. All of these are on state land.	eng
30934	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
30934	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Estimates of the total population size range from 105 to 145, the largest containing no more than 50 individuals.	eng
30934	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Invasive plants and the activities of feral goats, deer and rats are the major threats to remaining populations.	eng
30935	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30935	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from few collections, the species is restricted to the Wahiawa Mountains on Kauai.	eng
30936	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of three varieties. Subpopulations are known from Lanai and from Mapulehu Valley on Molokai.	eng
30936	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
30937	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree with a very scattered distribution in three widely separated areas. The species is known from south-east Missouri and eastern Arkansas, where it is locally common, south-east Texas, southern Georgia and northern Florida. The family is monotypic.	eng
30937	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring along muddy riverbanks or in sawgrass marshes, usually within reach of seawater inundation.	eng
30937	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no evidence of any serious declines in the population.	eng
30938	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Luquillo Mountains. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
30938	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper wet ridges.	eng
30939	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The greatest concentration is on Gorda Peak in the British Virgin Islands, where at least 100 plants exist. Elsewhere there are single trees, which may possibly have suffered in Hurricane Hugo, on St Croix and St Thomas in the US Virgin Islands and a population of about 52 plants in two sites in Puerto Rico.	eng
30939	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of dry coastal woodland.	eng
30940	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Near Florida and Río Portugués, north of Ponce.	eng
30940	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of moist areas.	eng
30940	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is degraded and destroyed in places.	eng
30941	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is scattered in the Waianae Mountains and Koolau Mountains on Oahu, and also Lanai and Maui.	eng
30941	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sometimes dominating lowland rainforest.	eng
30941	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Not an uncommon species.	eng
30942	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai and known from several localities, Wahiawa, Powerline Trail, the headwaters of Hanalei River  and Kaloko Reservoir.	eng
30942	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a shrub or small tree of bogs and streamsides.	eng
30943	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from the ridge west of Hanapepe River on Kauai. It has been postulated that the species represents a hybrid between <em>M. kauaiensis</em> and <em>M. wawraea</em>, although the distribution of the latter does not coincide closely with that of <em>M. mezii</em>.	eng
30944	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Eastern half of Kauai and along Alakai Swamp Trail.	eng
30944	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Normally a shrub but occasionally a small tree the species mainly occurs in boggy shrubland and forest.	eng
30945	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is classified as endangered on the US Federal Register.	eng
30945	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally occurring from North Kona to Kau on Hawaii, this species is now known from two subpopulations on privately owned land in Kaloko and a US Army training area at Pohakuloa.	eng
30945	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry forest.	eng
30945	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The two known subpopulations have only five and six individuals.	eng
30945	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are persistent threats from browsing and habitat damage by feral goats and sheep, and invasions of introduced plants.	eng
30946	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai and Maui. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30946	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in various forest types between 460 and 1,530 m.	eng
30947	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30947	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai, where it is known from seven subpopulations located at Kalalau Lookout, Awaawapuhi and Makaha Valleys, Nualolo, Kawaiula and Waimea Canyon. The genus consists of four species all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
30947	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of montane rainforest.	eng
30947	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The number of individuals has declined to about 23 in total.	eng
30947	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Impact of invasive plants, feral goats, pigs, deer and jungle fowl.	eng
30948	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hamakua-Kohala area on Hawaii.	eng
30948	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree found only rarely in rainforest up to 1,080 m.	eng
30949	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three populations are known, accounting for 10–12 individuals. There are two individuals in El Yunque. The rest are found in Río Abajo State Park.	eng
30949	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of wet to moist submontane forest.	eng
30950	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of three or four very small subpopulations are known, principally in El Yunque.	eng
30950	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mossy wet forest on summits and peaks.	eng
30950	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no evidence of regeneration.	eng
30951	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai Island, in Kokee and Alakai Swamp.	eng
30951	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest between altitudes of 1,040 and 1,230 m.	eng
30952	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30952	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species grows on slopes and ridges in various lowland moist forest types.	eng
30952	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from nine subpopulations, consisting of between 500 and 1,000 individuals in total.	eng
30952	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat continues to be degraded by feral goats, pigs and invasive plants.	eng
30953	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Fewer than five localities of this woodland species are known to exist.	eng
30953	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are thought to be declining because of habitat destruction, mainly through grazing and conversion to farmland.	eng
30954	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Chisos Mts. Previous records from Mexico are erroneous.	eng
30954	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Riparian oak woodland.	eng
30954	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	One small isolated population exists.	eng
30954	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The locality is threatened by the activities of tourists from a nearby camping ground and by occasional drought.	eng
30955	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act and a recovery plan was devised in 1992.	eng
30955	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub with holly-like leaves, known from 11 isolated subpopulations, nine of which are in the Big Bend Ranch State Natural Area.	eng
30955	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Most subpopulations consist of fewer than 100 individuals and cover an area less than 5 acres. Historical climate change is thought to be the main factor that has caused the species to become rare.	eng
30955	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Hybridisation with other <em>Quercus</em> species, roadway construction, collecting by horticulturists, drought and grazing are threats today. Although acorn yields are good, all reproduction appears to be vegetative.	eng
30956	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is known from a small area in the piedmont of north-east Georgia, neighbouring western South Carolina and also from a disjunct population in Mississippi.	eng
30956	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The most common habitats are roadsides and old fence rows.	eng
30956	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In total, approximately 1,000 individuals, covering an area of occupancy less than 150 km², are estimated to exist.  A survey in 1985 failed to locate 11% of the previously known sites.	eng
30956	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Poor seed viability and chestnut blight are also reported.	eng
30957	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Two small subpopulations on Santa Cruz Island and 5–6 subpopulations in Santa Barbara County are known. No subpopulation extends over more than 10 km².	eng
30957	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in maritime chaparral and pine forest.	eng
30957	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Habitat degradation and grazing are threats on Santa Cruz Island.	eng
30958	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known from the Chisos Mts.	eng
30958	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry montane woodland.	eng
30958	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is thought no more than five trees exist. The hybrid is a product of <em>Q. hypoxantha</em> and <em>Q. gravesii</em>. One of the parents is now absent from the area.	eng
30959	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Channel islands of California and Guadelupe Island of Mexico.	eng
30959	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry forest.	eng
30959	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations on Guadelupe Island, in particular, have declined dramatically in recent years.	eng
30959	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The regeneration of the species is hampered by overgrazing in the dry forest areas to which it is restricted	eng
30960	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, confined to scattered sites from Pulaski and Early Counties in southern Georgia to Lake and northern Orange Counties in central peninsular Florida.	eng
30960	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in very wet soils, usually in dense swampy woods, often at streamsides.	eng
30960	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 12–15 sites are known, in some of which the species may now be extinct.	eng
30961	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A hemiparasitic tree.	eng
30961	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from about four sites containing 120 individuals in total. Isabela harbours the largest population. The Pinones population was heavily hit by Hurricane Hugo, but has produced large seed crops as a consequence.	eng
30962	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A spiny shrub or tree up to 10 ft. It occurs in thickets at the edge of pastureland. If allowed to, it has the potential to become a weed in disturbed areas.	eng
30962	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of between 50 and 150 individuals are known from a single site.	eng
30962	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vulnerable to cutting, burning and development.	eng
30963	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring at the margins of mangroves and in coastal forest.	eng
30963	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is extremely rare throughout its range. In Puerto Rico fewer than 20 trees are thought to exist in Boqueron and Sabana Grande.	eng
30964	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single site in the Caribbean National Forest.	eng
30964	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper montane wet forest.	eng
30964	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of four individuals are known.	eng
30965	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The known populations occupy an area of less than 10 km². They occur along the Appalachian River.	eng
30965	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	On steep rocky bluffs	eng
30965	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are unhealthy and highly restricted.	eng
30965	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A lowering of the water table in this limestone area may be responsible for significant levels of stress and the lowering of immunity to fungal diseases in the members of the population.	eng
30966	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The plant has proved difficult to grow in cultivation.	eng
30966	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to 4–6 sites with a few scattered individuals on slopes. The genus is in the process of being taxonomically revised.	eng
30966	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dwarf elfin forest or upper montane forest.	eng
30966	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are not many more than 10 individuals in total.	eng
30966	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The construction of communication towers and a road in the past is likely to have caused a loss of individuals from the original subpopulations.	eng
30967	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring principally in the Caribbean National Forest. A new locality has also been discovered in Carlos Rivera.	eng
30967	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of wet montane forest.	eng
30967	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the Caribbean National Forest, a total of three small subpopulations exist, containing a total of 30 individuals. In Carlos Rivera, 10–15 individuals are scattered throughout the forest. There is no evidence of natural regeneration.	eng
30968	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Fungicide treatments and propagation are being attempted. The species is listed in the US Federal Register Endangered Species Act.	eng
30968	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Since the late 1950s, there has been a sharp decline in the health and reproductive capacity of the species. At one time growing to heights of 80 ft, few specimens now reach 10 ft. In Georgia, 27 trees were recorded in 1981.	eng
30968	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Infections of three pathogenic fungal species are causing the death of individuals before they reach seed-bearing age. Lowering of the water table and habitat loss and degradation have also exacerbated the situation.	eng
30969	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a shrub or tree in semi-dry forest on limestone, mostly along roadsides or in ravines.	eng
30969	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in small populations. Between 50 and 55 individuals are estimated to exist in 5–6 sites in Guanica Forest and Boqueron.	eng
30969	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no evidence of natural regeneration. The construction of roads and houses is causing general loss of the habitat.	eng
30970	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30970	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the central to southern parts of the Waianae Mountains in Oahu.	eng
30970	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fast-growing shrub or tree, typically growing on slopes and gulches in moist lowland forest.	eng
30970	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The nine remaining subpopulations occur on privately owned land or federal and state land and comprise approximately 40 individuals.	eng
30970	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damage and habitat degradation caused by feral pigs and introduced plants are the greatest threats.	eng
30971	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known locations are in Hanalei and Kauhao Valleys on Kauai.	eng
30971	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears the species may be extinct from its only locations.	eng
30972	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Was known from the windward side of Hakeakala on East Maui and from two collections from the ridges in Wailuku Valley on West Maui.	eng
30972	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane rainforest species.	eng
30973	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
30973	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are known from Nualolo Trail, Kokee State Park, Napalikona Forest Reserve and Mahanaloa Valley.	eng
30973	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of montane forest up to 1,065 m.	eng
30973	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Each subpopulation consists of between one and six individuals.	eng
30973	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Invasive plants and damage caused by feral pigs are major threats.	eng
30974	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Mexico.	eng
30974	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	Scattered in forest in steep, rocky places on limestone soils.	eng
30975	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The land is privately owned but formal protection measures are being considered.	eng
30975	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population occurs within an area of approximately 10 km² on inaccessible summit ridges and eastern slopes of the Sierra de Morone near Juchipila.	eng
30975	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane dry forest.	eng
30975	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A total population of fewer than 10,000 trees exists.	eng
30975	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Regeneration is poor, possibly because the seeds are collected in considerable numbers for food. Cattle grazing and fires also pose threats.	eng
30977	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Four of the main subpopulations are protected within reserves at   Saille, Rivière Bleue, Mt Ongone and Thy. These are all low altitude sites in the southern part of its range.	eng
30977	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis lanceolata</span> is concentrated in the southern massif of New Caledonia with outlying localities in Province Nord on the Boulinda and Mé Maoya massifs and the Col Maré. Occurs at altitudes ranging from 200 to 1,100 m.	eng
30977	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A large emergent tree restricted to dense humid rainforest on ultramafic substrates.	eng
30977	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals with no subpopulation with more than 1,000 individuals.	eng
30977	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The species has a history of overexploitation. Although plantations have been established, illegal logging is still a problem. Habitat fragmentation due to the effects of repeated fires and land clearance is another problem with most subpopulations restricted to fragments of primary forest, generally in sheltered valleys.	eng
30978	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The majority of the population is within a relatively inaccessible protected area on Mt Panié.	eng
30978	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	A species restricted to the upper slopes of the Panié-Colnett-Ignambi massif in northeast New Caleonia. Occurs from 1,000 to 1,600 m.	eng
30978	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is only found in high altitude rainforests.	eng
30978	population	Thomas, P., 2009	It is locally abundant and dominant.	eng
30978	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Currently, no specific threats have been identified. Climate change impacts such as changes in precipitation patterns could be a problem in the future.	eng
30980	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Several subpopulations at higher altitudes occur in protected aresa such as the Rivière Bleue Provincial Park, Montagne des Sources and Mt Do.	eng
30980	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis ovata</span> occurs primarily in the Southern Massif with a few occurrences as far north as Kouaoua on the east coast. It occurs from 150 to 1,150 m.	eng
30980	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis ovata</span> occurs as an emergent tree in open shrublands (maquis) and as a canopy emergent (to 25 m) in angiosperm-dominated (closed) rainforests. It is restricted to ultramafic soils and in the maquis; it tends to be restricted to rocky outcrops.	eng
30980	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations are usually very small (in areas of < 2 ha) and isolated.	eng
30980	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Mining activities and fires are the main threats. The species is capable of establishing and persisting in both rainforest and maquis. Mature trees have some fire resistance but this depends on frequency and severity. Regeneration and general growth rates are very slow.	eng
30981	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is represented in protected areas including Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve. Northern subpopulations are all outside of protected areas and vulnerable to mining activities. All subpopulations are vulnerable to fire.	eng
30981	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucara bernieri</span> is mainly confined to areas of moist evergreen forest on the slopes of the lower mountains in the southern part of the island. Records from Poum and Tiebaghi in the north of the island have been re-identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum</span>. The most northern population currently known is at the Col de  Petchécara.	eng
30981	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is restricted to lower altitude moist evergreen forest and is occasionally found along stream beds. It is restricted  to soils derived from ultramafic rock.	eng
30981	population	Thomas, P., 2009	This species generally occurs as scattered emergent trees, rather than in dense stands.	eng
30981	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	In the past, this species was under some pressure from logging. Currently the major threats are various  activities associated with mining such as road building and waste storage and fires whose frequency prevents the regeneration or expansion of remnant stands.	eng
30982	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Well-protected subpopulations exist in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park.	eng
30982	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria biramulata</span> is primarily found in the southern part of New Caledonia although two localities are known from isolated ultramafic massifs in the north. Occurs from 190 to 1,150 m.	eng
30982	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Primarily found as a scattered emergent tree in dense humid evergreen forest at low to mid altitudes and in areas with 1,500 to 3,000 mm precipitation. It is restricted to ultrabasic soils.	eng
30982	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals; no single locality or subpopulation contains more than 1,000 trees.	eng
30982	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Open cast mining and its associated activities are the principal threats in the northern part of its range (Mt Kaala/ Piton de Pandoup and Kopeto). Southern populations, including those in protected areas are mainly threatened by fires which prevent regeneration and increase fragmentation.	eng
30983	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The main subpopulations are within protected areas such as Montagne des Sources and Mont Humboldt although it should be noted that some reserves are open to mining. Fire prevention measures are in place with fire brigades and water-bombing helicopters available if needed.	eng
30983	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is only known from the highest parts of four mountains in the southern massif&#160; - Mt Humboldt , Mt Kouakoué, Montagne des Sources and Mont Mou. A potential fifth area (Mamie) at much lower elevation has not been confirmed. Occurs from 750 to 1,600 m.	eng
30983	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to the highest ridges and summits on ultramafic soils.	eng
30983	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations on the summits and ridges of Mt Humboldt, Mt Kouakoué and Montagne des Sources are quite extensive although there has been significant die back over the last decade at Mt Humboldt. The subpopulation at Mt Mou is much smaller and more degraded. At Mamie, in an area that represents an atypical habitat at an altitude of 400-500 m asl, a relatively extensive and healthy subpopulation has recently been tentatively identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. humboldtensis</span>.	eng
30983	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Recent die back may have caused the death of at least 10% of the Mt Humboldt subpopulation. The cause is unknown but may relate to drought induced stress or perhaps an unknown pathogen. Wildfires are currently the main threat. As subpopulations are restricted to a narrow altitudinal range with little possibility for upward expansion, this species may be very susceptible to some of the potential impacts of climate change.	eng
30984	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Most of the southern subpopulations are within protected areas.	eng
30984	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria laubenfelsii </span>is concentrated in the southern ultramafic massifs of the Grand Terre at 400 to1,300 m.	eng
30984	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Usually found as an emergent in lower to middle-montane forest or as smaller trees in "maquis minier". Restricted to ultramafic substrates derived from serpentine or peridotite, or on lateritic soil at lower elevations. In some areas it is associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria montana</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biramulata.</span>	eng
30984	population	Thomas, P., 2009	It is relatively uncommon and confined to a limited number of locations.	eng
30984	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Open cast mining and its associated activities (road building, spoil dumping) may have effected subpopulations in Mt Kaala and those in the Canala area. In the southern parts of its range, where the majority of subpopulations and locations are, fires and the associated increased fragmentation pose the main threat.	eng
30985	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Small subpopulations are confined to fewer than ten locations in the central and southern part of the island with an isolated, disjunct subpopulation on the Ile d'Art. Has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,000 m.	eng
30985	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to ultramafic soils along the coast and in inland areas. Usually found in humid evergreen forest, often on cliffs, along streams and on steep slopes.	eng
30985	population	Thomas, P., 2009	There are extimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250.	eng
30985	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	None of the populations are protected and in places, e.g., in Plum they are seriously threatened by fire and erosion. Mining and the increasing settlement in other locations are also concerns.	eng
30986	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The largest subpopulation in Montagne des Sources is within a protected area. Other smaller subpopulations on Mont Koghis and Pic du Pin are also within protected areas.	eng
30986	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	The species is known only from small parts of the southern massif and the Goro plateau, New Caledonia. Occurs from 150 to 1,000 m.	eng
30986	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Predominantly found in maquis shrubland on ultramafic soils, rarely emergent in rainforest. Growth and regeneration are very slow.	eng
30986	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The largest subpopulation in Montagne des Sources is estimated to consist of more than 2,000 trees. Most other subpopulations contain less than 200 trees. Although most subpopulations are within 50 km of each other, they are considered to be severely fragmented due to physical and ecological barriers that permit little opportunity for recolonization or genetic exchange.	eng
30986	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Mining developments on the Goro plateau threaten subpopulations in that area. In other parts of its range, including protected areas, it is susceptible to wildfires and an increase in their frequency.	eng
30987	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The subpopulation at     Forêt Nord is the subject of an ongoing restoration programme that aims to protect that area and to eventually establish a corridor to the other subpopulations in the Port   Boisé area. This work is still at an early stage.	eng
30987	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is endemic to the Port Boisé area in southern New Caledonia, occurring at&#160; 20 to 185 m.	eng
30987	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	The main population of this species occurs on a level plateau just inland from Port Boisé at around 20-40 m asl. The trees stand in small groups or wide apart among low (to 10 m) and open to dense evergreen forest or scrub interspersed with nearly black, stony areas (cuirasse) almost devoid of vegetation.	eng
30987	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total popualtion size is estimated to be less than 5,000 mature individuals. More than 90% are located in seven small fragments in the Port   Boisé area. The remainder are in a small fragment known as   Forêt Nord, several kilometers inland. Ecological surveys indicate that this species was more widespread but has undergone significant reduction in the recent past. There is evidence of inbreeding throughout the population.	eng
30987	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Around Port   Boisé it is vulnerable to increasing widlfires, occasional felling and the expansion of human habitation. At   Forêt Nord the subpopulation is within a new mining development. Recent research has indicated that all subpopulations are showing signs of inbreeding.	eng
30988	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria rulei </span>has a wide but discontinuous distribution in New Caledonia. Most subpopulations are concentrated around Mt Boulinda and   Paéoua in the northwest or in the Canala and Poro area on the central northeast coast. Occurs from 400 to 800 m.	eng
30988	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to serpentine, often nickel bearing soils, in 'maquis-minier' shrubland. Trees are usually scattered and rarely form dense stands.	eng
30988	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Population size can vary from several thousand trees scattered over several kilometres to just a few localized trees.	eng
30988	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The species has experienced severe declines because of nickel mining (and associated) activities. In general, it regenerates poorly and grows slowly. None of the subpopulations are protected.	eng
30989	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The entire popualtion is located with the Mont Panié Special Botanical Reserve. This covers around 5,000 ha and was declared in 1950.	eng
30989	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is restricted to a single locality covering  less than 1 km² on the summit and highest slopes of Mount Panié. Botanical surveys on surrounding massifs have not located any additional subpopulations.	eng
30989	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria schmidii</span> is only found in montane cloud forest in the northeast of New Caledonia. It is the only New Caledonian <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> that grows exclusively on non-ultrabasic soils.	eng
30989	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is estimated to be considerably less than 1,000 mature trees.	eng
30989	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The small population size, limited distribution<em> </em>and restricted ecological niche make this species susceptible to stochastic events that may impact individuals or the general habitat. Potential threats include the introduction of pathogens such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytopthora</span> or freak weather events. <br/><strong></strong>	eng
30990	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	All subpopulations are outside of protected areas.	eng
30990	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is restricted to two main areas on the northwest and central northeast coast. The most southern occurrence is near Thio in the south and the most northern is on the Poum massif. The largest is on the Cap Bocage Peninsula near Houaïlou. The species occurs at altitudes ranging from 5 to 600 m.	eng
30990	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is restricted to <span style="font-style: italic;">maquis minier</span> shrublands on steep rocky slopes and ridges facing the sea	eng
30990	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum</span> are generally small and localized.	eng
30990	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scopulorum </span>coincides with nickel mining areas and many subpopulations are in or adjacent to active nickel mines.	eng
30991	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Several subpopulations occur in the Rivière Bleu Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve.	eng
30991	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is scattered on the ultramafic massifs in the central and southern mountains from Table Unio to the Rivière Bleue. Occassionally found at altitudes as low as 150 m but more common at higher altitudes, reaching as high as 1,070 m.	eng
30991	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	It occurs as an emergent tree in dense and humid rainforests, usually in ravines and steep valleys and mostly in montane areas	eng
30991	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The majority of the subpopulations are in the south.	eng
30991	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The main potential threats are an increase in the frequency of fire and the associated fragmentation of its habitat.	eng
30992	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Most subpopulations are protected in  Montagne des Sources and Mt. Humboldt Botanical Reserve.	eng
30992	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is restricted to the higher parts of the southern massif on New Caledonia at 950 to 1,350 m	eng
30992	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Mainly limited to higher altitude maquis the higher ridges and plateaus of the southern ultramafic massif.	eng
30992	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is estimated to be more than 10,000 individuals in several locations. This species is slow growing and there is little regeneration in most subpopulations.	eng
30992	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The major threat is wildfire; some subpopulations have been effected by trail construction to facilitate tourism.	eng
30993	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species does not occur in any protected area.	eng
30993	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callitris sulcata</span> is restricted to three river valleys, the Tontouta, Dumbéa and Kombwi, all in the Southern Massif and occurring at 40 to 200 m.	eng
30993	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Occurs in dense forest at low- and mid-elevation, usually in river valleys.	eng
30993	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature plants.	eng
30993	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The woodland is prone to wild fires and disturbance. One site in the Comboui valley has been logged. Regeneration has also been noted as poor. No subpopulations are within protected areas.	eng
30994	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations are known from the Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Montagne des Sources Nature Reserve. The northen subpopulation needs urgent protection.	eng
30994	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species occurs in several small subpopulations on a few of the higher mountains in the south, with a disjunct location on the summit of Mt Paéoua in the north. Occurs at 700 to 1,300 m.	eng
30994	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Generally found in the understory of dense humid rainforests on ultramafic substrates.	eng
30994	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Regeneration is evident in places.	eng
30994	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	On Mt. Paéoua mining and fires threaten the population. It may also be susceptible to impacts of climate change such as changes in precipitation patterns.	eng
30995	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The two sites in the south are within botanic reserves although mining in one of these (Mont   Kouakoué) is not forbidden.	eng
30995	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is mainly known from the summits of Mt Humboldt and Mt Kouakoué (1,450-1,600 m asl) in southern New Caledonia. These represent a single location under the IUCN definition. A third, very disjunct locality on the summit of Mt Ton Non (650 m asl) in the north  has been recorded based on specimens collected in the late 1970s (Farjon 2005). Since then, this species has not been recollected from that area. This locality is excluded from this assessment.	eng
30995	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	The species grows in high-altitude maquis shrubland.	eng
30995	population	Thomas, P., 2009	All subpopulations are small and highly localized.	eng
30995	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Fires are a serious risk throughout its range. Climate change impacts could also be significant as this species is restricted to summit areas.	eng
30996	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The subpopulation in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park is well protected, although situated closely to the tourist facilities and vulnerable to fire.	eng
30996	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	The species is sparsely distributed in two river valleys in the southern ultramafic massifs and a single northern location near Povila. Records from Roche Ouaieme (Jaffre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987) have been re-identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Libocedrus chevalieri</span> (Farjon 2005). Occurs at 150 to 600 m asl.	eng
30996	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Grows in riparian habitats in lowland forest.	eng
30996	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations are small and localized with little regeneration.	eng
30996	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Fire is a threat throughout its range.	eng
30997	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Several of the southern subpopulations occur in protected areas although these are still vulnerable to repeated burning. Restoration work has been initiated at the Chute de Madelaine reserve.	eng
30997	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Confined to a few localities in the south of Grand Terre, with a single very small subpopulation on the summit of Mt Paéoua, 180 km to the north. No subpopulations have been recorded from the intervening area. Recorded from 30 to 1,140 m asl.	eng
30997	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Only found in maquis shrublands on ultramafic substrates.	eng
30997	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000. Subpopulations range in size from a few to several hundred individuals (Plateau des Callitropsis). At Mont Paéoua only 45 mature trees have been found.	eng
30997	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Increasing fire frequency is currently the main threat throughout its range. The subpopulation on Mt. Paéoua is also threatened by mining activities. In the past this species was exploited for its resin and wood. Several subpopulations were also inundated by reservoirs behind the Yaté dam in the 1960s.	eng
30998	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is widespread in New Caledonia and occurs in several protected areas.	eng
30998	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is common in the lower and mid montane maquis vegetation in southern and central New Caledonia. Occurs at 100-750 m.	eng
30998	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Occurs in lower and mid-montane maquis vegetation on serpentine rocks. This species is not fire sensitive provided that fires are not too frequent.	eng
30998	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The population is stable and locally common.	eng
30998	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	In some places mining might be a threat.	eng
30999	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The largest subpopulation occurs at Chûtes de la Madeleine which is vulnerable to fires.	eng
30999	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Confined to a small area around Rivière des Lacs, Lac en Huit, Lac Intermédaire and Grand Lacs in southern New Caledonia. Occurs at 150 to 275 m asl.&#160; In the past it was probably more widespread but has declined due to fires and inundation from reservoirs.	eng
30999	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A rheophyte growing along the edges of streams in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Retrophyllum minus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Neocallitropsis pancheri</span> and a range of other flowering plants.	eng
30999	population	Thomas, P., 2009	A rare species with a total population of less than 100 trees.	eng
30999	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The main ongoing threat is fire. In the recent past several subpopulations were lost due to the construction of a dam. At the Chute de Madelaine Reserve, some degradation of its main habitat occurred due to increasing numbers of visitors. A new management plan has reduced their impact. The construction of a new hydro- metallurgical facility 10 km upstream may lead to pollution. Hybrids with <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrydium araucarioides</span> have recently been reported and described (Knopf <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This species has become more common in the areas where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. guillaminii </span>occurs.	eng
31000	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known from several protected areas in southern New Caledonia	eng
31000	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	A New Caledonian endemic confined to a few sites in the southern massif, from Mont Nekandi to Mont Dzumac and Mont Mou. Recorded from 750 to 1,450 m asl.	eng
31000	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to cloud forest on ultramafic substrates.	eng
31000	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Populations are small and confined to high, usually inaccessible, mountain ridges. There are estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
31000	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The increasing frequency of fires is the main threat to this species.	eng
31001	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	All the known localities are within protected areas.	eng
31001	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	A species known from just three sites in the southern ultramafic massifs occurring at 800 to 1,000 m.	eng
31001	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A prostrate mat forming shrub that only occurs in high-altitude maquis in areas of high precipitation.	eng
31001	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Only known from two locations 20 km apart. This species occurs in small patches (colonies) up to 20 m across.	eng
31001	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Although all three sites are relatively inaccessible and within protected areas, but all are vulnerable to fires. In one of the protected areas (Mont Kouakouée), mining is not prohibited. Due to its ecological specificity, this species may also be vulnerable to the predicted effects of climate change	eng
31002	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known from several proteceted areas such as Montagne des Sources, Rivière Bleue Provincial Park and Mont Panie.	eng
31002	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is found in isolated localities on Grand Terre in the mountains of the far south (Dzumac, Montagne des Sources), central west (Paéoua and Tchingou) and far north east (Colnett/Panie). Found from 600 to 1,200 m asl. It only occurs in association with its widespread host <span style="font-style: italic;">Falcatifolium taxoides</span>. However, it does not occur in all <span style="font-style: italic;">Falcatifolium</span> localities.	eng
31002	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A small shrub which parasitises the roots of <em>Falcatifolium taxoides</em> in cloud forest on both acidic and ultramafic substrates.	eng
31002	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations are small, highly localized and severely fragmented. The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 with no subpopulation containing more than 100 individuals.	eng
31002	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	There are direct threats from mining and its associated activities at Mt Paéoua. In other parts of its range it is threatened by an increase in fires and an overall loss of suitable habitat. It requires primary forest and is not known to survive or establish in secondary forests. It is also very sensitive to disturbance caused by tourists and others visiting the areas where it occurs.	eng
31003	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known to occur in protected areas such as Montagne des Sources	eng
31003	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	A relatively common species scattered throughout southern and central New Caledonia occurring at 150 to 500 m asl.	eng
31003	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Grows in lowland forest on ultramafic soils especially along river banks and in humid depressions.	eng
31003	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The population is stable and relatively common.	eng
31003	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
31004	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 2009	This species has been reported from the Nodela Reserve on Me Maoya. Apart from that, all other subpopulations are unprotected.	eng
31004	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 2009	This species is primarily known from four mountains in central New Caledonia where it has been recorded from 400 to 900 m asl.	eng
31004	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 2009	This species is restricted to dense montane forests. It occurs on ultramafic and schist substrates.	eng
31004	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 2009	No estimates have been made for the total population size.	eng
31004	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 2009	Mining is a direct threat to one of the subpopulations at Paéoua. The increasing frequency of fires is also a threat to the habitat.	eng
31005	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known from several protected areas including Montagne des Sources and the Riviere Bleue. In the north it is also known from Mount Panie botanical reserve.	eng
31005	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Endemic to New Caledonia where it is relatively rare but widespread. The majority of subpopulations are in the south.	eng
31005	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A small tree mainly found in the understory of lower and mid montane dense humid forests. It occurs at low densities on both ultramafic and schist substrates.	eng
31005	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Most stands occur in the southern massif with a few, more isolated stands in the north in places such as Mount Panie, the Massif du Tchingou, Mount Paeuoa and Boulinda.	eng
31005	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	At Paeoua and Boulinda mining activities and fire threaten areas where this species occurs.	eng
31006	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species has been recorded from protected areas such as Mont Panie.	eng
31006	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Austrotaxus spicata </span>occurs in the mountains of the center and the northeast of the main island of New Caledonia at 400 to 1,350 m asl.	eng
31006	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Usually found as a small tree in the understory of dense, humid rainforest. Most subpopulations occur on acidic substrates except those on Mé Maoya.	eng
31006	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population size is estimated to be less than 10,000. Subpopulations are small, usually with less than 100 mature trees.	eng
31006	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	An increase in fire frequencies may pose a threat in the near future. As a constituent of the montane rainforest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Austrotaxus </span>may also be vulnerable to climate change impacts in the near future.	eng
31008	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species known from four localities. One is in the south near Prony and more recently the species has been recorded from the Boulinda Massif.	eng
31008	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in diverse habitat types of maquis and forest up to an altitude of 850 m.	eng
31009	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species found rarely and confined to the southern massifs of Grand Terre.	eng
31009	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs largely on the coast in various types of moderate to dry habitats.	eng
31010	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species restricted to the east coast, where it has been recorded towards Balade and Canala.	eng
31010	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	On ultramafic substrate.	eng
31010	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The last collection was gathered in 1860 and the species has not been found since. It is questionable whether it should not now be considered Extinct.	eng
31011	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species has been collected five times in the region of Nouméa above Koé.	eng
31011	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Despite this being the botanically best known area of Grand Terre, the species has not been found since 1905.	eng
31012	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is confined to a few localities in the south-west.	eng
31012	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in maquis, open forest and riverine vegetation.	eng
31014	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	The species is included in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
31014	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	A single-stemmed aloe confined to a small area just north of Clanwilliam.	eng
31014	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	It occurs in karroid scrub.	eng
31014	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	No field assessments of the population status have been made.	eng
31014	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Illegall collection and land degradation through overgrazing and expanding agriculture may have some impact on the species.	eng
31015	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	The species is listed in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
31015	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	A single-stemmed aloe with a fairly restricted distribution in the mountainous areas of Namaqualand and from near Calvinia.	eng
31015	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	At some localities, the number of plants have declined markedly.	eng
31015	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Unscrupulous collection. However, it is not clear what affect this has had on the overall population.	eng
31016	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	The species is listed in <a href ="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
31016	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Largely restricted to an area in the Richtersveld in the Cape Province. There are records suggesting the species extends as far north as Brandberg in Namibia, but these need confirmation.	eng
31016	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Growing up to 10 m, this aloe is largely confined to an intensely hot and arid area. It has been suggested that this species, along with <em>A. dichotoma</em> and <em>Pachypodium namaquanum</em>, represents a keystone in the ecosystem, being one of the few perennial plants able to tolerate the conditions. It is an important source of shelter, nectar, food and moisture, especially to the avifauna.	eng
31016	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	A serious decline in the population has reduced the numbers to less than 200 individuals. There is no recruitment and the older plants are dying.	eng
31016	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	There is evidence of baboons and porcupines gnawing the stems in up to a third of the population. The impact of goats, donkeys and plant collectors may also be detrimental.	eng
31017	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species described in 1982 and known only from the location where the type specimen was collected on Mt Ignambi.	eng
31018	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species known only from locations on Mt. Colnett and Mt. Ignambi in the north-east of Grand Terre.	eng
31018	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in some abundance in forest between 1,000 and 1,350 m.	eng
31019	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Oua Némi and Mé Oué in the north of Grand Terre.	eng
31019	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in dense rainforest.	eng
31019	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species has been collected only rarely, perhaps twice.	eng
31020	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species which appears to be known from a single location on Mt Tonine.	eng
31020	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs in dense forest on schist substrate between 800 and 1,000 m.	eng
31022	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	This localized tree is known from two mountain tops: Tomauivi (Victoria Peak) and the west slopes of Taveuni.	eng
31022	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	It is confined to small areas of rainforest over 900 m.	eng
31022	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	Its restricted distribution renders the species susceptible to stochastic events, but there are no direct threats at the present time.	eng
31023	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Viti Levu.	eng
31023	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A small tree found in the lowlands.	eng
31024	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Fijian islands.	eng
31024	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	The species is found in dense forest between 150 and 900 m.	eng
31024	population	Frodin, D., 1998	Widespread but infrequent throughout most of Fijian islands.	eng
31025	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Found throughout Fiji.	eng
31025	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A forest tree.	eng
31026	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only in northern Viti Levu, principally in the vicinity of Nandarivatu. A single collection has also been taken from the Nausori Highlands.	eng
31026	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small sturdy tree, usually found in dense forest between 500 and 900 m.	eng
31026	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Each locality harbours about 40-50 individuals, the total population probably not exceeding 200 individuals.	eng
31027	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only found in Viti Levu.	eng
31027	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of dense forest or forest edges.	eng
31027	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The total population consists of a few hundred plants.	eng
31028	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only with certainty from Viti Levu.	eng
31028	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense, open or dry forest.	eng
31028	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to a few localities, each containing 30–40 plants.	eng
31029	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from at least five of the high islands and is expected to occur on others.	eng
31029	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dense or open forest, forest edges or open hillsides.	eng
31030	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly abundant tree in eastern Viti Levu. A single collection has been made in Ovalau.	eng
31030	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest and thickets on hillsides, crests and ridges.	eng
31031	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are recorded occurrences in Nadarivatu and Tomaniivi Nature Reserve.	eng
31031	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known with certainty only from a few subpopulations of about 20–30 plants in Viti Levu, although it has been erroneously recorded elsewhere.	eng
31031	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or shrub of dense forest and forest edges, occurring between 275 and 1,050 m.	eng
31032	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are now recorded from Viti Levu, Ovalau, Vanua Levu and possibly Kandavu.	eng
31032	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or sometimes a gnarled shrub, occurring in dense or dry forest, in forest-grassland transition or forest and thicket on ridges or more open places.	eng
31033	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Viti Levu and Taveuni.	eng
31033	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub of dense thickets on crests and ridges, occurring between 1,100 and 1,323 m.	eng
31033	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are few and small, containing about 20–30 plants.	eng
31034	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This scarce shrub or small tree is found only in Thakaundrove Province on Vanua Levu.	eng
31034	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in forest or thickets at low elevations.	eng
31034	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The single site known at present contains about 30-40 plants.	eng
31034	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs within a high fire-risk area.	eng
31035	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are located on the larger islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, and Taveuni.	eng
31035	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in areas of open or dry forest, thickets, ridge forest and dry slopes, between 100 and 1,100 m.	eng
31036	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from a single sterile herbarium specimen, which was collected from Ovalau in 1840 at low elevation. There is some doubt as to its taxonomic status.	eng
31037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from scattered localities on several islands.	eng
31037	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or compact shrub of dense forest or open places, occurring between 300 and 900 m.	eng
31037	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nowhere frequent but most abundant on Moala.	eng
31038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is restricted to Mt Kasi and its vicinity, Vanua Levu.	eng
31038	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in dense low forest between 300 and 430 m.	eng
31038	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only the type collection is known.	eng
31039	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to south-west Vanua Levu. Only two localities are known: one on Mt. Kasi where about 12 plants exist and the type locality on Mt. Seatura.	eng
31039	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland dense forest.	eng
31040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection gathered from the Seanggangga Plateau in the vicinity of Natua, Vanua Levu.	eng
31040	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees were reported to exist in patches of forest in open rolling country.	eng
31040	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type, collected in 1947	eng
31041	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is known from numerous collections from the two largest islands and from Rambi.	eng
31041	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dense or open forest or on forest edges.	eng
31042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	West and north of Vanua Levu.	eng
31042	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of lowland open forest and thickets.	eng
31042	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been reported to be locally abundant, but presently appears to be confined to a few small populations.	eng
31043	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mathuata Province on Vanua Levu, from forest on Kandavu and from Rambi Island.	eng
31043	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This lowland shrub or slender tree is recorded from open slopes in dry areas.	eng
31044	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from numerous collections from Viti Levu and Ovalau.	eng
31044	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender tree or shrub that occurs in forest and thickets up to 1,200 m.	eng
31045	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to south-east Viti Levu.	eng
31045	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This slender tree occurs below 150 m in areas of dense, dry or secondary forest.	eng
31046	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has only been collected from the eastern part of Mathuata Province in Vanua Levu.	eng
31046	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or shrub of lowland areas near the sea, occurring in open forest or on open slopes.	eng
31046	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a few small populations are known.	eng
31047	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species known from two upland locations on the Plateau de Dogny and in Baakin, Canala.	eng
31048	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A single locality is known in the Kalouéholo valley.	eng
31048	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest on ultramafic soils.	eng
31049	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mt. Humboldt is a well-visited and tramped botanical reserve.	eng
31049	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species occurring in two upland locations, one on Mt Humboldt and the other near Ngoye.	eng
31050	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Localized at two sites on Viti Levu: Mt Korombamba and Navua.	eng
31050	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender tree in dense lowland forest.	eng
31050	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One site of 27 plants on the southern slopes of Mt Korombamba was logged in 1980 but appears to be regenerating. The other site, consisting of 20 plants within an area of 10x20 m, exists at Navua.	eng
31051	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Endemic to the Nausori Highlands in western Viti Levu, the species occurs in small stands within a closely confined area.	eng
31051	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is evidence that regeneration is poor.	eng
31051	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area is unprotected and the stands are open to cutting, burning, agricultural and pastoral activities.	eng
31052	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Central Viti Levu.	eng
31052	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Forested mountain ridges.	eng
31052	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Very few individuals have been found and there is little evidence of regeneration.	eng
31055	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from just two locations in Fiji, on Mt. Korobamba on Viti Levu and on Koro Island, both at moderately high altitudes.	eng
31056	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to Taveuni Island.	eng
31056	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population is reported to be extensive.	eng
31077	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in two protected areas.	eng
31077	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one in Pouembout and one in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 95 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².	eng
31077	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
31077	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown but where found, this species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals. Less than 20 individuals are known.	eng
31077	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
31081	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Very similar to <em>J. scopulorum</em>, this species is known from three locations.	eng
31081	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Generally along streamsides in montane pine-oak forest.	eng
31081	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is locally common in Durango.	eng
31083	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Grows in pine - oak temperate forest.	eng
31083	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Trees can be coppiced and large individuals are left for shade, leading to an unbalanced population structure.	eng
31084	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This taxon is restricted, in the same way as var. <em>patoniana</em>, to areas where stands have been left to serve as shade trees.	eng
31084	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population structure is poor. The variety is dubiously separated by bark characteristics.	eng
31085	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Up to 10 localities are known, but more are likely to be found.	eng
31085	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A scarce species which favours openings in montane pine-oak forest.	eng
31085	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is possible the scarcity of collections is a reflection of the species being overlooked rather than low in numbers.	eng
31086	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species is restricted to two populations in Pueblo Nuevo, the Sierra Madre Occidental and Cuale in Jalisco.	eng
31086	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane pine-oak forest.	eng
31086	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	These forests are experiencing rapid deforestation rates.	eng
31087	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, the species is confined to the hills west of Waivunu Creek, Viti Levu.	eng
31087	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest, between 50 and 150 m.	eng
31087	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been seen since 1953.	eng
31088	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small slender tree only known from two forest localities on Viti Levu.	eng
31089	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Taveuni.	eng
31089	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest up to 900 m.	eng
31089	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
31092	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be highly localized. It is confined to the island of Ngau in Loma-i Viti, where it has been collected only twice in the hills around Herald Bay.	eng
31092	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31095	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree which is endemic to the island of Taveuni.  Collections have been made from the regions of Wairiki and Somosomo	eng
31095	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in dense forest between 700 and 850 m altitude.	eng
31098	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji, occurring in central and southern Viti Levu and Ovalau.	eng
31098	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is locally abundant in dense forest from sea level to 1,150 m and in thickets on ridges and crests.	eng
31098	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The most common of the <em>Cyrtandra</em> species endemic to Fiji.	eng
31102	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A spreading tree or shrub, which is confined to the island of Kandavu, where it occurs on the summit and slopes of Mt Mbuke Levu.	eng
31103	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected just twice, once in 1933 on the slopes of Mt Mbuke Levu, on the island of Kandavu, and once from near Lautoka,  Mba, on Viti Levu.	eng
31103	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scarce but distinct tree species of dense forest between 500 and 750 m.	eng
31107	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Mexico it occurs only in the Sierra de Manantlán. More information is needed on its distribution elsewhere.	eng
31107	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane mesophyllous forest, between 2,500 and 2,700 m.	eng
31108	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Golfo Dulce area of south-eastern Pacific Costa Rica.	eng
31108	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree of lowland evergreen rainforest.  The few collections made so far have all come from streamsides or river banks.	eng
31112	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is recorded from the base of various isolated massifs in the north-west, such as the southern slopes of Mt Kaala and Mt Poum.	eng
31112	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring on ultramafic soils.	eng
31114	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The genus has now been moved to <em>Pouteria</em>. The taxon has been collected from Mt Poume and from maquis in Koumea and a few localities in the vicinity.	eng
31114	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Maquis.	eng
31115	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The genus is no longer considered valid according to Pennington.	eng
31116	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The genus is no longer considered valid according to Pennington.	eng
31117	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in a few localities from the north and south, including sites on the lower slopes of Massif Tiebaghi and Mt Kaala. The genus has been transferred to <em>Pouteria</em>.	eng
31117	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has been collected from forest on serpentine.	eng
31118	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The genus is now included in <em>Niemeyera</em>.	eng
31119	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The genus is now included in <em>Niemeyera</em>.	eng
31121	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is known from four main localities in the regions of Koumac, Néavin and Col d'Amien, and also on the Ile de Pins.	eng
31121	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in lowland gallery forest on schist or calcareous substrates.	eng
31121	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	All sites are unprotected and exposed to threats, such as fire and agricultural encroachment.	eng
31122	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found only in a small area of forest on Mt Koghi in the south-west of Grand Terre.	eng
31122	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is unprotected and exposed to various threats, including tourist activities.	eng
31123	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species occurring in the north-east of Grand Terre.	eng
31124	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is known from two recorded sites, one on the summit of Mt. Tiébaghi and the other from an unknown locality labeled Wagap on the east coast.	eng
31124	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Both sites are unprotected and exposed to fires and encroaching activities.	eng
31125	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A relatively widely occurring species along the northern half of the west coast.	eng
31125	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to remnant patches of sclerophyllous forest.	eng
31125	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The habitat is fragmented and reduced in extent. Fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture are continuing threats.	eng
31126	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to a small area in the south-east of Grand Terre encompassing parts of the Ouinné valley and along the Coniboue River.	eng
31126	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
31128	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is confined to a few small subpopulations in the far south.	eng
31128	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	On ultramafic soils in the lowlands.	eng
31129	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species was last seen and collected in the vicinity of the upper Dothio.	eng
31129	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is questionable whether it should now be considered extinct.	eng
31130	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is effectively protected within Rivière Bleue National Park.	eng
31130	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to three mountain peaks.	eng
31130	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is a dominant component of stunted cloud forest on ultramafic soils.	eng
31130	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species' range is not believed to have been any more extensive in the past.	eng
31136	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Recorded from Rivière des Pirogues.	eng
31136	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
31139	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are believed to be effectively protected in Rivière Bleue Provincial  Park.	eng
31139	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to southern Grand Terre.	eng
31139	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in lowland rainforest and maquis formations on ultramafic soil.	eng
31141	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in three protected areas. It has been grown from seeds and 28 plants have been used in a restoration program in the Parc Zoologique Forestier (Nouméa).	eng
31141	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs in scattered subpopulations from Poya to Kone with a large subpopulation within the fenced reserve of Nekoro. Distances between occupied sites are (respectively and from south to north) 16, 25 and 17 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,869 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 40 km².	eng
31141	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is actually being taxonomically revised. It has mostly been found in dry forests but some specimens have been recently collected in mesic forests. Studies will show whether all specimens belong to the same species. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
31141	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. Where present, this species usually occurs as small groups of 5–10 clones. The Nekoro site holds a large subpopulation of more than a hundred individuals; the species is more discreet on the other sites. A recent genetic study suggests that Nekoro holds two distinct subpopulations, one being close to the Pindai subpopulation, and the other close to the Tiéa subpopulation. This study also shows that the genetic diversity is good and that the size of the population should be sufficient to maintain diversity if all the subpopulations are maintained.	eng
31141	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. In one of the subpopulations (Tiéa), it has been shown that <em>Captaincookia margaretae</em> fruit production was suffering from rat predation (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Rattus esculans</em>).	eng
31142	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Artificially propagated plants are now widely available and the demand for wild-collected plants has effectively been reduced. Richtersveld subpopulation is contained within a national park and provincial nature reserve.  The species is also protected by law in both South Africa and Namibia and it is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
31142	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found along both sides of the lower Orange River Valley from the Tantalite Valley and Pella mountain range in the east to the Richtersveld, Huib-Hoch and Huns Mountains in the west. It has been recorded from more than 50 localities within an extent of occurrence of approximately 15,000 km².	eng
31142	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A spiny succulent tree recorded in karroid shrubland.	eng
31142	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The subpopulations on the Namibian side of the Orange River are inaccessible and therefore generally secure. They are fairly large, with an average density of between 625 and 1,100 individuals per hectare. Similar densities, with a range of ages, are also found on Pella Mt.	eng
31142	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has been subjected to much illegal collecting, especially in the Richtersveld, as plants are highly sought-after on both the domestic and international markets. There are further threats from mining activities in Namibia and intense grazing and trampling of the surrounding vegetation by domestic livestock in the Richtersveld.  There are also low levels of recruitment in the latter subpopulation, apparently because of insect parasitism of the seeds.	eng
31151	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, which in New Guinea is mainly confined to the Bulolo/Wau region of Morobe Province.	eng
31151	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known exactly how many mature specimens remain here and this subpopulation is considered to be Critically Endangered.	eng
31151	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This region was once heavily exploited, logged and converted into <em>Araucaria</em> plantations.	eng
31155	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic species of Peninsular Malaysia, known only from Perak and Penang.	eng
31155	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species inhabits primary rainforest up to 960 m.	eng
31156	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
31156	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	A bushy aloe which is doubtfully distinct from <em>A. dichotoma</em>, except that the main stem rarely exceeds 60 cm. It is restricted to desert mountainsides and arid ravines in the Richtersveld of the Northern Cape and southern Namibia.	eng
31156	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	It is confined to desert mountainsides and arid ravines.	eng
31156	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 1998	Some localities are affected by mining activities and overgrazing by livestock. Limited field experience suggests there are few signs of regeneration.	eng
31158	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected from scattered localities along the Western Ghats from Wayanad to Anaimalai.	eng
31158	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the understorey of lowland evergreen forest up to 900 m.	eng
31159	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Four scattered occurrences are recorded, in two cases imprecisely, from the Anaimalai area and the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
31159	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the understorey of evergreen forest between approximately 500 and 1,000 m.	eng
31160	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in Wynaad in the Nilgiri Hills Biosphere Reserve.	eng
31160	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be scattered sparsely in the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
31160	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree of evergreen forest, ascending to altitudes of 1,200 m.	eng
31161	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Substantial areas are now protected.	eng
31161	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree was originally thought to be endemic to a small area in Wynaad and Tambracherry. Further collections have extended the species' range in the southern end of the Western Ghats, down to the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
31161	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in evergreen forest up to about 900 m.	eng
31161	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the forest has experienced large-scale encroachment throughout the range.	eng
31162	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the southern end of the Western Ghats. Populations are recorded from Cochin and Travancore in Kerala and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu.	eng
31162	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber-yielding species of evergreen hill forest.	eng
31162	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cutting of the trees and habitat clearance for the cultivation of commercial crops have caused population declines.	eng
31163	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
31163	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the upper slopes of the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats. It grows mostly in inaccessible and undisturbed areas.	eng
31163	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
31163	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some parts have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
31164	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	For a long time the species was known only from collections taken in the 19th century from Konni Forest in Quilon District, a large part of which has been logged and replaced with commercial crops. The species now appears to be sparsely distributed in a few additional localities in the area.	eng
31164	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31166	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
31166	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
31166	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31166	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once.	eng
31166	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
31167	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was collected just two or three times in 19th century in Travancore and Tirunelveli.	eng
31167	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen hill forest.	eng
31167	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was once a useful timber. Recent botanical surveys have failed to locate any specimens. It is not known for certain whether the species is now extinct.	eng
31167	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been severely reduced in extent.	eng
31168	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known only from very few scattered records at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
31168	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is confined to lowland evergreen forest.	eng
31169	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Used to occur in Kodugu in the Western Ghats.	eng
31169	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small dipterocarp found only once in evergreen forest.	eng
31169	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It may now be extinct.	eng
31170	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.	eng
31170	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An extremely localized species in the Western Ghats.	eng
31170	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurring in pure stands in evergreen forest at 1,200 m.	eng
31171	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations appear to be few and fragmented. The species occurs in various localities in the Eastern Ghats.	eng
31171	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland hill forest.	eng
31171	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been steady declines in the extent of the habitat.	eng
31172	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Reported to have been frequent in the past, this endemic of the Western Ghats has become restricted to scattered populations.	eng
31172	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
31172	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both the tree and its habitat have been extensively exploited.	eng
31173	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded from only a few localities in northern Kerala.	eng
31173	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in evergreen forest between 250 and 1,200 m.	eng
31174	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present five collections are known from scattered localities in the Anamalai and Travancore ranges.	eng
31174	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the canopy of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31175	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, collected three times from separate localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
31175	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
31176	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection made in 1859 on Sispara Ghat in the Nilgiri Hills.	eng
31176	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shola forest.	eng
31176	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has been repeatedly explored but no specimens have been found in the last few decades.	eng
31177	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in the past from a number of locations in the Nilgiri Hills and apparently also from two locations in southern Karnataka.	eng
31177	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen forest on slopes and river banks.	eng
31177	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to have disappeared from a number of sites.	eng
31177	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat conversion and possibly also fires.	eng
31178	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, so far only collected twice at two widely separated localities.	eng
31178	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small understorey tree, recorded only three times: once from an imprecisely recorded site in the Agastyamalai Hills and elsewhere from isolated localities in the Wyanad area.	eng
31180	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from a single imprecisely recorded location in the Nilgiri Hills.	eng
31181	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality at Nadari, Travancore District.	eng
31181	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A hill forest species.	eng
31181	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been recorded since colonial times.	eng
31182	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a few scattered collections in Travancore and Quilon districts.	eng
31182	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31183	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the Tirunelveli Hills.	eng
31183	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree has not been found this century despite botanical surveys of the area. There is still a possibility that the species may be rediscovered.	eng
31183	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Various developments have encroached upon and degraded the forest .	eng
31184	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, which has only ever been recorded from Tambacherry Ghat.	eng
31184	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found in submontane streamside forest.	eng
31184	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been found since 1870, despite intensive explorations.	eng
31184	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forestry plantations are now widely established where there was once primary forest.	eng
31185	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Appears to occur in two main areas: in South Kanara, Karnataka, and in the Agastyamalai range in Kerala.	eng
31185	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31185	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread and indiscriminate cutting and expansion of commercial agriculture have resulted in a significant reduction in the extent of these forests.	eng
31186	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall tree reported from about four scattered locations in the Western Ghats. In Karnataka the species occurs in Sollekallu in Chikmagalur and in Kerala there are records from the Palghat area and also apparently from the Travancore range.	eng
31186	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland evergreen forest on rocky slopes.	eng
31186	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been much loss of habitat because of road building, expanding agriculture and other developments.	eng
31187	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections of the species were made from Peermade and Courtallum at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
31187	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections of the species were made at the turn of the century. There do not appear to be any more recent records.	eng
31187	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern that extensive forest clearance and the spreading cultivation of cardamom have caused serious declines in population numbers.	eng
31188	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to southern parts of the Western Ghats, ranging from the Anamalai Hills to the Travancore range.	eng
31188	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common species of low to medium elevation evergreen forest.	eng
31189	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree recorded from two localities in the Western Ghats and throughout Sri Lanka.	eng
31189	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In India it was originally known to occur in shady places along stream sides up to 600 m, but there have been no records of it since 1874. It appears to be fairly common in Sri Lanka, occurring in 66 forest sites according to surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
31190	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Travancore range.	eng
31190	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31190	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection dating to the 19th century.	eng
31191	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree distributed throughout much of Andra Pradesh.	eng
31191	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous forest or thorny scrub, often on black cotton soils.	eng
31191	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been heavily collected as a fuelwood and its habitat has also declined in extent.	eng
31192	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known only from a single collection in the south of Karnataka, an additional collection, imprecisely located in the Nilgiris, and a record from the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
31193	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two locations, Chimunji and the Sethur Hills. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now contained within <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31193	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs very sparsely in evergreen forest between 1,300 and 1,400 m.	eng
31193	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The location in the Sethur Hills has been converted into cardamom plantations.	eng
31194	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Colleted from the Singampatti and Papanasam Hills. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now placed within the genus <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31194	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only collections of the species were made over 100  years ago. Dam construction at the Papanasam Hills and clearing for tea and other plantations at the former may have destroyed both populations. The species may now be extinct.	eng
31195	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from a monotypic genus. The only remaining population apparently occurs at Theerthundamala in Cannanore District.	eng
31195	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat for only remaining population is steadily declining. The populations in Wynnad and Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu are thought to have been destroyed.	eng
31196	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Nilgiris, the Agastyamalai Hills and a few scattered localities in between.	eng
31196	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest.	eng
31197	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection near the border with Tamil Nadu and from a field record on the coast.	eng
31197	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
31198	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species occurring at the southern end of the Western Ghats. Only two records are known, one from the Travancore range and the other from the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
31198	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
31199	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from scattered collections mostly from the southern end of the Western Ghats in Kerala but also from single isolated records in Karnataka.	eng
31199	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland riverine forest.	eng
31200	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Palghat Hills.	eng
31200	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree from montane forest.	eng
31200	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded in the last century, it has not been found since. The habitat is considerably reduced in extent and it is unknown whether the species is still extant.	eng
31201	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, recorded twice from unspecified localities in the Wayanad area in Kerala and just over the border into South Canara, Karnataka.	eng
31201	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to occur in evergreen forest at about 800 m.	eng
31202	population	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The total population is very small, numbering less than 200. The sacred grove of Aickad is reported to harbour four individuals and another subpopulation of 15 to 20 trees has been seen at Guddrikal.	eng
31202	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The swampy wetland habitat has been widely drained and converted into paddy fields.	eng
31203	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Kundha and Avalanche in the Nilgiri Hills.	eng
31203	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of high-altitude evergreen shola forest.	eng
31203	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to have become extremely scarce and has not been found in more recent decades despite repeated searches.	eng
31204	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality is in Sispara in the Nilgiri Hills.	eng
31204	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest (Palni Hills).	eng
31204	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been found there since it was first discovered. Elsewhere there is an occurrence further south in the Palni Hills.	eng
31204	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is possible the population has been wiped out by the large-scale conversion of forest to plantation crops.	eng
31205	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	This shrub or small tree has so far been collected twice in the Travancore Hills in the southern Western Ghats.	eng
31205	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31206	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from an imprecisely recorded location in the vicinity of Ernakulam on the Kerala coast.	eng
31206	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known whether the species is still extant.	eng
31207	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two records (from Coorg and Mannanthody) close to the Kerala-Karnataka border.	eng
31207	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31208	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly recorded tree, in the Palani Hills.	eng
31208	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the understorey of montane forest.	eng
31210	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Nilgiris, but also recorded from a single locality in the Anaimalai Hills.	eng
31210	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, mainly known from areas of submontane forest.	eng
31211	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby species, collected from forest in approximately five localities between the southern Nilgiris and the Agastyamalai Hills, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.	eng
31212	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree, poorly collected and recorded from few scattered sites between Travancore, the Nilgiris, Malabar and the northernmost part of Kerala.	eng
31212	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low- to medium-elevation evergreen forest.	eng
31213	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly found in Courtallum and Tirunelvelli. The area has been extensively searched for remaining specimens without success.	eng
31213	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low-altitude forest. Known to grow at riversides.	eng
31213	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is now presumed Extinct.	eng
31214	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species from the Western Ghats. Only two imprecise collections exist, one from the Agastyamalai Hills and the other from the Wayanad area.	eng
31214	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a small tree in submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31215	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is currently known from two records from widely separated localities (one of which is Mysore, Karnataka) in the Western Ghats.	eng
31215	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
31216	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only collections of this large tree were made in Ariankavu and Shendurni Valley in Quilon District and from further north in the Trissur vicinity.	eng
31216	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31216	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Repeated searches have failed to find living specimens.	eng
31216	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known to what extent the species has survived the continued exploitation of the habitat and of the trees for  timber.	eng
31217	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Existing records and collections have all come from a restricted area within the Anamalai and Palni ranges.	eng
31217	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest, occurring above 2,100 m.	eng
31218	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
31218	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills and Tirunelveli Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
31218	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
31219	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurring in scattered localities in the Western Ghats.	eng
31219	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A tree of swamp forest and other lowland forest types.	eng
31219	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The swamp habitat has been extensively drained for agriculture. There is additional evidence of low seed viability because of unfavourable soil conditions and pollination difficulties.	eng
31220	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only a small area in the Palani Hills, Kodaikanal.	eng
31220	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shola forest above 1,600 m.	eng
31220	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declines in habitat have resulted in subpopulations becoming further restricted.	eng
31221	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main concentration of populations occur along the Agastyamalai range and in the Tirunelveli Hills. A collection has also been made in an outlying area in the Elamalai.	eng
31221	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen forest between 1,200 and 1,800 m.	eng
31222	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 1,000 km² of forest are protected within sanctuaries.	eng
31222	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type locality, this variety occurs on the Agastyamalai Hills, Travancore.	eng
31222	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,300 m.	eng
31222	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
31223	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Nilgiri Hills, where there is only one recorded population.	eng
31223	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shola forest between 1,500 and 1,800 m.	eng
31223	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been no records since 1889.	eng
31224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type specimen was found in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu. A second occurrence has been recorded from the north of the Travancore range in Kerala.	eng
31224	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two collections of the species appear to have been made.	eng
31225	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in two main locations, the Nilgiri Hills and Anaimalai range.	eng
31225	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree of montane forest.	eng
31226	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Few collections of <em>C. riparium</em> exist.  It occurs along the coast, in the Travancore hills, and Coorg, Western Ghats. This species may also occur in the Travancore hills.	eng
31226	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland to medium elevation forest.	eng
31227	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected just four times from four widely separated locations, from Bababudan in the Karnataka to the Agastyamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, and the Tamancore Hills in Kerala.	eng
31227	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree of submontane forest.  Little is known about its habitat.	eng
31228	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree known only from three collections at the base of the Western Ghats in Travancore.	eng
31228	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31229	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species from the Travancore Hills, in the southern Western Ghats.	eng
31229	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest margins, from low to medium altitudes.	eng
31230	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species which has been collected once from the Bababudan range and twice from the Nilgiri range. It has also been recorded from an unspecified location in the Palni area.	eng
31230	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31231	conservation	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The Government of India has banned the export of the species.	eng
31231	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A small tree occurring in dry zones from the Deccan and west India to the north-west and Karachi, Sind and Balochistan in Pakistan.	eng
31231	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Dry areas.	eng
31231	population	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The unsustainable exploitation of the gum has caused declines, particularly in the southern populations. In the northern parts of its distribution it remains relatively common.	eng
31231	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The gum is of importance in international trade and it appears to be being extracted at unsustainable rates, causing declines.	eng
31233	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type gathering in Gilgit. More information may indicate a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
31233	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large shrub or tree, usually growing up to 5-7 m, between 1,600 and 2,450 m.	eng
31234	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of the Khasi Hills. It is known only from the Lailad area of Nongkyllen Forest Reserve in Meghalaya.	eng
31236	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree confined to Makum forest in Assam.	eng
31237	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-east India. Found in Nagaland and (Khasi Hills) Meghalaya.	eng
31237	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of open sunny places in moist forest.	eng
31237	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been no recent collections.	eng
31237	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both the species and its habitat are in decline because of overexploitation of the timber resources.	eng
31239	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	An endemic of the Khasi Hills.	eng
31239	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurring in mixed evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
31239	population	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Only three of four trees are known, confined to Shillong Peak.	eng
31239	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Regeneration is reported to be poor and the habitat has declined in extent and quality.	eng
31240	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Khasi Hills, the species is known mainly from populations in Sohrarim and Laaitlyngkot.	eng
31240	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known locations have been drastically cleared and the species is believed to be very scarce now.	eng
31240	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
31243	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mossy forest above 2,600 m.	eng
31243	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type specimen.	eng
31244	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is recorded from Cheju Island, Chiri-san, Halla-san and Tokyu-san in South Korea and from the Sikhote Alin range in Russia.	eng
31245	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Part of the population is contained in Changbaishan Nature Reserve.	eng
31245	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known from the Changbai Mountains and within the Jilin province, on the China-North Korea border. There is also apparently a record of the species from South Korea.	eng
31245	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The tree is scattered in patches of medium-altitude forest.	eng
31245	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The greatest threat comes from indiscriminate logging.	eng
31246	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Occurring in northern and southern parts of Chatienshan and in smaller populations in Tungshan and Agushan in Ilan County. The species is morphologically similar to and may turn out to be synonymous with <em>F. lucida</em> from the central provinces of China.	eng
31246	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The Taiwan beech is found in broadleaved submontane forest.	eng
31246	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Subpopulations are largely made up of old individuals.	eng
31246	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Trees are slow-growing and regeneration is poor, depending on the creation of gaps which are currently being invaded by alpine bamboo and broadleaved species.	eng
31247	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	The morphological similarity of the species to <em>P. formosana</em> and the existence of intermediate forms raise some doubt as to its current taxonomic status. Both species are confined to the Hengchun Peninsula, this taxon occurring in localities in Tawu and Chinshuiying.	eng
31247	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31247	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The subpopulations are small and little regeneration has been noted.	eng
31248	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Central and northern parts of the main mountain range. There are two other members of the genus, which occur in China and North America.	eng
31248	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A relict species confined to mixed evergreen forest above 1,200 m.	eng
31248	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Regeneration is rare and confined to gaps in the forest. Germinating seeds are frequently eaten by birds.	eng
31249	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A population is recorded in Kenting National Park	eng
31249	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Confined to the Hengchun Peninsula in the southern tip of Taiwan.	eng
31249	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Dry forest on rocky seashores and coastal localities.	eng
31249	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Subpopulations are small and isolated.	eng
31249	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Observations of poor regeneration and habitat clearance for housing developments have led to concerns for the species.	eng
31250	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A shrub or small tree which occurs in two widely separated localities, one in the north-east and the other in the southern tip of Taiwan.	eng
31250	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Wetland areas or at the side of rivers or ponds.	eng
31250	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are small and isolated.	eng
31250	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A large part of the habitat has been converted into paddy fields, fishing ponds and houses. No protection or conservation measures are in place.	eng
31251	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Part of the range is covered by Taroko National Park.	eng
31251	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species is confined to a few subpopulations in central Taiwan.	eng
31251	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Occurring in broadleaved evergreen forest above 800 m.	eng
31251	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Outside Taroko National Park, susceptible to increasing housing developments.	eng
31252	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Restricted to the northern part of the central mountain range, this ornamental tree occurs in isolated subpopulations.	eng
31252	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Mixed montane forest.	eng
31252	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species is unprotected throughout its range and observations indicate that regeneration is poor. The effects of increasing settlement of the land and forest management activities are also threatening some subpopulations.	eng
31253	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A shrubby tree, endemic to Taiwan and widely scattered in the northern half of the central mountain range.	eng
31253	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	It occurs in forest between 1,600 and 2,800 m.	eng
31254	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Outside protected areas felling and forest management activities pose threats.	eng
31254	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species is scattered in isolated subpopulations in the central and northern parts of Taiwan.	eng
31254	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Occurring in mixed evergreen forest, sometimes cloud forest, at medium elevations.	eng
31254	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Part of the range is covered by Shueipa National Park.	eng
31255	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Plantations have now been established. A recently discovered large subpopulation (at least 10,00 mature individuals) in southern Taiwan is relatively secure due to its extreme inaccessibility and the fact that the whole area of the Holy Lake is considered as a Holy Land by the local people.	eng
31255	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A large slow-growing tree from a monotypic genus, although the Chinese/Myanmar populations are frequently referred to as <em>T. flousiana</em>.	eng
31255	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is widely scattered as an emergent in mid- to high-elevation forest, usually with <em>Chamaecyparis</em> spp.	eng
31255	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Population have declined because of forest clearance and logging, exacerbated by poor regeneration.	eng
31256	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Similar to other species such as <em>Taiwania</em>, this forest tree has Yunnan and Taiwan subpopulations, each possibly representing separate species. The Yunnan taxon may be considered as <em>Schefflera shweliensis</em>. Regeneration is noted to occur after earthquakes.	eng
31257	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	There are protected populations within Yushan and Taroko National Parks.	eng
31257	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species occurs in areas of forest above 1,800 m.	eng
31257	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Widely distributed but locally very scarce.	eng
31257	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The habitat has been subject to extensive conversion into agricultural crops, commercial plantations and settlements.	eng
31258	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	There is a protected population in Yushan National Park (Taiwan). Some populations are recorded from Pu Mat, Pu Hoat and Xuan Lien nature reserves in Viet Nam. In Nghe An (Viet Nam), a research project is underway to determine the full extent of its distribution within the province and to study its biology and ecology. <em>Cunninghamia lanceolata</em> should not be planted in the districts with natural populations of <em>C. konishii</em> due to the risk of hybridisation.	eng
31258	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Northern and central Taiwan. Recently the species has apparently been found in two small stands in the wild, in Houa Phan Province in northern Lao and at Bu Huong Mt in Viet Nam. The species is sometimes known as a variety or form of <em>C. lanceolata</em>.	eng
31258	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A good-quality timber tree, which is mainly known from occurrences in evergreen submontane forest. Altitudinal range: 960 to 2,000 m.	eng
31258	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Many stands have been destroyed by felling and replaced with commercial plantations in Taiwan. Heavily exploited in the past, currently it is used locally for house construction as its wood is resistant to rot and termites and is easily worked. Deforestation caused by shifting cultivation is a problem in some areas (e.g., parts of Viet Nam).	eng
31259	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The entire species' range is contained within Kenting National Park.	eng
31259	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Hengchun Peninsula at the southern tip of Taiwan.	eng
31259	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A potentially valuable ornamental shrub, which is restricted to areas of evergreen forest on raised coral reef.	eng
31259	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are very small and suffering from poor regeneration.	eng
31260	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are found at distant localities, in Tatachia, Nengkaoyueh and Tienchin.	eng
31260	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A species which is restricted to a narrow altitudinal range, occurring in open rocky habitats between 2,700 and 2,900 m.	eng
31260	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	There is little sign of regeneration.	eng
31261	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Kenting National Park covers part of the range.	eng
31261	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A species at the most southerly limit of the family's range, in southern Taiwan from Taitung to the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
31261	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Occurring in areas of lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31261	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Subpopulations are healthy but fragmented.	eng
31261	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Outside the national park encroaching settlements are causing loss of habitat.	eng
31262	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A reserve has been set up specifically to help conserve the taxon. It is also protected under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Law.	eng
31262	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A close relative of <em>K. davidiana</em> in Yunnan, known from localities in the north and south, separated by 300 km.	eng
31262	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Lowland forest.	eng
31262	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The populations are small, numbering fewer than 150 mature trees.	eng
31262	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The lowland forest habitat is commonly invaded by broadleaved species, leading to very poor regeneration	eng
31263	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The location is contained within Kenting National Park.	eng
31263	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The notes under <em>P. dodonaeifolia</em> are relevant here. Both taxa are restricted to the Hengchun Peninsula and are morphologically closely related. The population is confined to the windward slopes of Nanjenshan.	eng
31263	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	This species is based on a single population of fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
31263	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Seed crops appear to be poor and heavily predated by squirrels. Little regeneration is evident.	eng
31264	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	All populations are contained within Kenting National Park.	eng
31264	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A species which is confined to the Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fengkang, in small subpopulations.	eng
31264	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	It occurs in lowland dry forest.	eng
31264	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Local people frequently collect wood for charcoal production. The habitat is also believed to be declining because of encroaching settlements and grazing.	eng
31265	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species is covered by Taiwan's Cultural Heritage Preservation Law and a reserve has been set up specifically to conserve the remaining populations.	eng
31265	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species was previously recognized as a variant of <em>A. argotaenia</em>. Populations restricted to four localities of cloud forest in the Hengchan Peninsula: Tawu, Kutzulunshan, Chachayalaishan and Lilungshan.	eng
31265	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Populations are small.	eng
31266	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	Partially contained within Kenting National Park.	eng
31266	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Confined to the southern part of the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
31266	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	A tree of dry lowland forest.	eng
31266	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Increasing human activities, agriculture and settlement have caused extensive habitat losses.	eng
31267	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	No protection or conservation measures appear to be in place.	eng
31267	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Populations are known from Weixi, Lijiang and Degin in north-west Yunnan.	eng
31267	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A species of mixed montane forest or cloud forest, occurring between 2,800 and 3,200 m.	eng
31267	population	Sun, W., 1998	Rapid declines in numbers have been recorded.	eng
31267	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Extensive habitat loss and degradation in the last few years.	eng
31268	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to mountainous areas on the south to west fringe of the Sichuan basin and Lichuan in western Hubei.	eng
31268	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in moist broadleaved forest between 700 and 1,600 m.	eng
31268	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncontrolled logging and habitat clearance are believed to have caused considerable population declines.	eng
31270	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A widespread species.	eng
31270	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This tree species is valued highly for its timber.  It occurs in montane coniferous forest.	eng
31270	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Population declines are not documented but are believed to be considerable.	eng
31270	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Coniferous forest is experiencing increasing rates of  logging and deforestation throughout the range of this species.	eng
31271	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	It is widely scattered in moist semi-deciduous forest between 1,200 and 3,000 m.	eng
31271	threats	Sun, W., 1998	A species of ornamental interest.	eng
31272	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	A relatively widespread species.	eng
31272	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Occurring in broadleaved or mixed forest above 2,000 m.	eng
31272	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Habitat declines and degradation have reduced population sizes.	eng
31273	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely occurring species of moist montane forest.	eng
31273	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is of commercial interest as an ornamental plant.	eng
31274	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	There are scattered populations within the range of western Sichuan, northern Yunnan and (Panxian) western Guizhou.	eng
31274	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Montane forest and thicket between 2,000 and 3,300 m.	eng
31274	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The forest has been extensively cleared and the bark of the tree is also exploited to a considerable degree.   Although this species contains the same medicinal extract as <em>M. officinalis</em>, it makes a relatively poor substitute.	eng
31276	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Southern slopes of the Qinling Range.	eng
31276	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane coniferous forest.	eng
31276	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is very rare and scattered within its range. The forest has experienced large reductions in extent and the entire population has declined in numbers, especially at Neixiang. A good stand is apparently still found in Xinja Shan.	eng
31276	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
31277	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to a small area west of Kangding in Sichuan.	eng
31277	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species of montane coniferous forest.	eng
31277	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations have declined and, as yet, there is no protection for the species.	eng
31277	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Forests in this area are increasingly under pressure from indiscriminate logging.	eng
31278	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Sichuan and (Lijiang) north-west Yunnan.	eng
31278	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species is confined to areas of mixed montane forest.	eng
31278	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Extensive habitat losses and the popularity of the species in traditional medicine have caused the subpopulations in the wild to decline.	eng
31280	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Plantations are being established with some difficulties.	eng
31280	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of a monotypic family, known from scattered subpopulations occurring over a relatively wide range, altitudinally, ecologically and geographically. Its range is not clearly defined.	eng
31280	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wide ecological range.	eng
31280	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely utilized and cultivated for the medicinal properties of its bark.	eng
31281	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	Most of the species' range is now contained within nature reserves.	eng
31281	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Ranging throughout much of Yunnan and into Sichuan.	eng
31281	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species is found in areas of monsoon forest between 1,100 and 2,500 m.	eng
31281	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The oil from the seeds is used in cooking and soap-making. Seeds are collected in some quantity for this purpose. Habitat declines are also extensive.	eng
31282	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	There are several occurrences within nature reserves.	eng
31282	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Endemic to parts of north-west (Lijiang) and south-east Yunnan.	eng
31282	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species occurs in subtropical monsoon forest between 1,200 and 2,600 m.	eng
31282	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Its bark is widely used, and in some instances overexploited, for its medicinal properties.	eng
31283	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest habitat.	eng
31283	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in Yunnan have been reduced through loss and degradation of the montane forest habitat.	eng
31284	distribution	Ban, N.T., 1998	Yangtze River valley and further south to northern Viet Nam. It is a relict species from a once widespread and species-rich genus.	eng
31284	habitat	Ban, N.T., 1998	The species is widely scattered in montane evergreen broadleaved forest.	eng
31284	threats	Ban, N.T., 1998	Poor regeneration, extensive logging and clearing of the habitat have affected populations throughout the range.	eng
31286	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The taxonomic status of the species is not resolved; it may represent a variety of <em>E. hamiltonianus</em>. It is confined to Mengzi in the south-east.	eng
31286	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Scattered in areas of semi-deciduous forest between 2,100 and 3,000 m.	eng
31286	threats	Sun, W., 1998	In places the habitat has become degraded in the last few years and population numbers are reported to be declining.	eng
31288	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Woodlands and mixed forest at 2,300-3,500 m along various river systems.	eng
31288	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Once occurring in large stands, the species has been reduced to isolated and sparse populations.	eng
31288	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The habitat continues to deteriorate because of overcutting and logging.	eng
31290	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An endemic to the Yatsugadake Mountains in central Honshu.	eng
31290	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Small groves.	eng
31290	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fewer than 250 individuals have been recorded.	eng
31290	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It has been the case that after typhoons the timber is harvested and the area is replanted with commercial species.	eng
31292	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Two varieties are in the same situation of being confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.	eng
31292	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Degraded montane woodland.	eng
31292	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Both the habitat and the tree have been overexploited. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.	eng
31293	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	As with var. <em>maximowiczii</em> this taxon is confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.	eng
31293	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Degraded montane woodland.	eng
31293	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overexploitation of the tree and the habitat has occurred in the past. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.	eng
31294	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Korea it is widespread and common. In Taiwan the species is only known to occur in two forest localities at Tungshih and Tawu Mt. The first consists of only a few trees and at Tawu trees are scattered over an area of about 200 ha.	eng
31294	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration appears to be occurring.	eng
31295	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known from only one locality (Klang Gates Ridge) in Selangor.	eng
31295	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Uncommon shrub or small tree known from a quartzite ridge in hill forest.	eng
31296	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Costan Rican populations are confined to protected areas. The species is listed on Appendix II of  <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
31296	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	In Costa Rica occurrences are very scarce and confined to protected areas. Similarly in Panama, the species is restricted to Darién and San Blas, where populations appear to be in a poor state with little evidence of regeneration. Subpopulations extend into the Chocó in Colombia. There may some confusion with subpopulations of the closely related species, <em>C. amygdaliforme</em>.	eng
31296	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is known from scattered populations in lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
31296	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Levels of exploitation of the timber are reported to be high but there are differences in opinion as to whether timber trade is a serious threat to the species. Habitat loss has, however, been severe.	eng
31297	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Confined to the central region of Panama, extending a little to the east.	eng
31297	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
31297	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It appears to be fairly common in Santa Rita, Colón, becoming rarer in other localities.	eng
31297	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Parts of the range come under heavy pressure from increasing settlement of the area and related activities.	eng
31298	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
31298	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is found in small localities along the road from El Llano to Cartí-Tupile in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. Other undetermined collections, suspected to be this species, come from the east, including some from Chagres National Park and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
31298	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest or woodlands.	eng
31298	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Within the confirmed range the forest continues to be destroyed by settlement, agriculture, farming and burning.	eng
31299	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	A large part of the range coincides with protected areas in both countries	eng
31299	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in west Panama and throughout Costa Rica.	eng
31299	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A widespread high-altitude species.	eng
31299	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The great number of collections and observations indicate that the populations are relatively extensive.	eng
31299	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas, there is increasing agriculture and settlement of the land.	eng
31300	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Some populations are contained within Volcán Barú and La Amistad National Parks.	eng
31300	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the species occupies a smaller altitudinal range than <em> V. costaricanum</em> it is similar in being widely distributed at high altitudes.	eng
31300	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations appear to be large and show good recruitment.	eng
31300	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Some populations are affected by logging and encroaching agriculture and settlement.	eng
31301	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Punta Mona, La Selva, Golfo Duce  in Costa Rica, near Almirante, Bocas del Toro in Panama and in an increasing number of other countries.	eng
31301	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
31302	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Closely related to <em>H. didymantha</em>, the species occurs from Guatemala to Coclé in Panama.	eng
31302	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
31304	distribution	Firsov, G.A., 1998	Occurs in the resort of Arzni, Mt Aragaz, and the Ervard Ravine, Armenia.	eng
31304	habitat	Firsov, G.A., 1998	A shrub reaching 3 m in height, restricted to dry, stony slopes.	eng
31305	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is apparently quite widespread but the range is confused by populations which may have been planted. It is very slow-growing. Occurs from 300 to 3,300 m in China.	eng
31305	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Considered threatened in Uzbekistan (lack of seed production).	eng
31308	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	So far the species has been recorded from two disjunct locations, one at an imprecise locality labeled Wagap on the east coast and the other on ultramafic substrates at Prony in the Dumbéa Valley in the south-west.	eng
31309	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Montagne des Sources is a Strict Nature Reserve and provides effective protection for the population.	eng
31309	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Various ultramafic massifs in the south, including Mt Humboldt, Pic du Rocher, Montagne des Sources.	eng
31309	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A bushy shrub or tree occurring in the high-altitude maquis.	eng
31310	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known from only a few locations near the south-east coast, e.g., Yaté.	eng
31310	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in remnants of hilly maquis or low forest.	eng
31310	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mining activities and fires are the most serious threats.	eng
31311	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Collected three times from Prony Bay, most recently in 1869.	eng
31311	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has not been found this century despite regular surveys in the area.	eng
31312	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Very few stands remain in Sulawesi, it is thought to be almost extinct in Sabah, and it is considered to be rare or vulnerable in Peninsular Malaysia, Kalimantan and Sri Lanka. In Papua New Guinea, this species is restricted to the heavily logged Oriomo River in the Western Province, where it is possibly now extinct.	eng
31312	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A fairly large tree mainly found scattered within coastal forests.	eng
31312	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The species has been heavily exploited for its beautiful timber, which is in great demand and realises high prices. Supplies are limited and trade and export are minimal.  It is threatened further by poor natural regeneration and lack of replanting.	eng
31313	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status of the species is based on the rate of habitat conversion and loss.	eng
31313	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	It is recorded in the sacred forest of Sanggen, Bali, and some forest reserves.	eng
31313	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31313	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat conversion and loss.	eng
31314	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is widely distributed, and locally common by rivers.	eng
31314	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is commonly cut as merawan timber.	eng
31315	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
31315	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree found in lowland semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
31315	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss. It is one of the important sources of <em>keruing</em> timber in Indo-China and is often used as a commercial grade plywood.	eng
31316	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Indonesia has banned the export of belian and Sarawak has placed restrictions on export. So far the species is only planted on a small scale because the supply of seeds and seedlings is inadequate.	eng
31316	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Belian or ironwood is one of the most renowned timbers of Borneo, the decline of which was first noted in 1955. Population reduction has been noted in the following regions: Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sabah, Sarawak and the Philippines.	eng
31316	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Generally a species of lowland primary forest.	eng
31316	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Overexploitation and shifting agriculture. Sabah and Kalimantan continue to export the timber.  Regeneration in logged-over forests is limited.	eng
31317	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in east Java and was once collected on Timor in 1968. The Bali specimen is now thought to belong to <em>E. variegata</em>.	eng
31317	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of Savannah areas.	eng
31317	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species, known only from a few herbarium specimens, the last of which was collected in 1975.	eng
31317	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded in Baluran National Park, where it is potentially threatened by human encroachment and competition with the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em>.	eng
31319	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.	eng
31319	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is endemic to Ujung Kulon in Java, where it is rare.	eng
31319	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
31323	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although this variety is not threatened in Turkey, it is heavily threatened in Lebanon and extremely restricted in Syria.	eng
31324	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on the conservation of this species. A 13 ha reserve has been created to protect the site from deer and cattle grazing one of the larger remnant populations. Conservation <em>ex situ</em> is ongoing with 125 individuals already planted in three different protected areas. Studies are underway on seed predators and a new reserve has been created with “pig and deer-proof” fences.	eng
31324	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is restricted to the Poya region of New Caledonia. Its total extent of occurrence is 86 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 37 km².	eng
31324	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. The fruit of <em>T. cherrieri</em> is a large dry samara that doesn't allow long-distance dispersal capacity. It probably doesn't disperse further than a few dozen metres, except maybe in case of hurricanes.	eng
31324	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown but when present, this species is usually common. However, regeneration is very poor because of different disturbance factors, including grazing by livestock and introduced Russa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>)  as well as severe seed predation by butterfly larva. Recruitment is close to zero and subpopulations mostly consist of adult trees.	eng
31324	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	An important threat is the impact of introduced Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and cattle that intensively graze on this species and strongly affect its regeneration. Predation of the seeds by the butterfly larva also contributes to the almost total absence of natural regeneration of <em>T. cherrieri</em>.Its lowland habitat has been cleared for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
31325	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This taxon presently includes subspecies <em>bornmuelleriana</em>, which stands as a separate taxon in Turkey. Populations are restricted to the northern mountain slopes in Kaz-Dagh and Ulu-Dagh.	eng
31325	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The stands appear to be reasonably extensive and healthy.	eng
31328	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species has been recorded in small populations from more than 10 National Parks and nature reserves in Vietnam including Bach Ma N.P., Ba Vi N.P. Tam Dao N.P., Chu Mom Ray N.R. and most of the protected areas around Bi Doup in Lam Dong. It should be strictly protected throughout its range, a propagation program should be established to supply material for plantation trials and to establish a living genebank, and seed storage should also be experimented with (Luu and Thomas 2004).	eng
31328	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Vietnam, north-east India, Lao PDR, north Myanmar, north Thailand, widespread in southern China. The subpopulations in China often only occur in low densities and in remote areas. Parts of the Indian subpopulation are sometimes referred to as <em>C. griffithii</em>.	eng
31328	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs scattered in small groups in subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests on a wide range of limestone and granite derived soils but not on dry soils. Altitudinal range: 500 to 1,500 m. Utilization: Produces high quality insect and termite resistant timber that is used for furniture, fine crafts and tool handles. Its seed has medicinal qualities.	eng
31328	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although widespread, the species has become rarer. Due to its fragmented but widespread distribution it is difficult to <br/>make an accurate assessment of the current size of its population.	eng
31328	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Heavy exploitation, initially of the timber in the 1960s, but now of the bark and leaves which contain medicinal extracts, shown to be effective against leukaemia and lymphoma.	eng
31329	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Khasi Hills and Manipur.	eng
31329	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be restricted to remaining sacred groves of moist evergreen or semi-evergreen forest.	eng
31330	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from Dehra Dun, Musoorie and Sahastradhara.	eng
31330	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, that was known to grow on hot rocky slopes up to 2,400 m.	eng
31330	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has become so scarce that specific searches for it have failed to locate a single specimen.	eng
31330	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale lime quarrying and degradation of the habitat are likely to have contributed to the decline.	eng
31331	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Found in Fen-Shui-Ling Valley at the China-Myanmar border. There are unconfirmed reports of other populations, some occurring further north along the Salween-Irawaddy divide. The current situation is not known because it has been impossible to visit the area.	eng
31331	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species is confined to coniferous montane forest.	eng
31331	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Habitat loss and logging are serious threats.	eng
31332	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely scattered.	eng
31332	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is usually found in broadleaved forest at low elevations.  It is a fast-growing and valuable timber tree	eng
31332	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a fast-growing and valuable timber tree. In China, overexploitation at a local level has caused mature individuals to become increasingly scarce.	eng
31333	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Nanfengshan and Chinshuiying.	eng
31333	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A shrub to small tree, which occurs in the understorey of broadleaved forest between 1,100 and 1,300 m.	eng
31333	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The populations are small and unprotected, in areas which are susceptible to housing developments. Regeneration is poor.	eng
31334	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	The species is widespread in lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31334	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations have come under heavy exploitation and have also declined in extent because of habitat loss.	eng
31335	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Only two subpopulations are known, confined to small areas in Wanli and Yingshihchien in the north of Taiwan.	eng
31335	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
31335	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species is mainly threatened by the uprooting of whole plants for ornamental use.	eng
31336	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A beautiful tree restricted to a few small subpopulations on Lanyu Island.	eng
31336	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31336	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	There are up to 200 or more mature trees.	eng
31336	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Only a small fraction of the 200 trees set seed.	eng
31337	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	An endemic to Lanyu Island off the south-east coast of Taiwan.	eng
31337	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	It occurs in lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31337	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The populations are unprotected and under some threat from encroaching settlements and agriculture.	eng
31341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Now known from four of the high islands.	eng
31341	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in areas of dense or secondary forest and thickets between 100 and 1,240 m.	eng
31342	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known only from north-west Viti Levu, the species occurs on Mt Evans and Mt Lomalagi.	eng
31342	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense wet forest between 800 and 1,190 m.	eng
31342	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Each population consists of between 12 and 20 individuals.	eng
31343	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or slender tree of lowland forest, thickets, rocky areas or sea cliffs on limestone.	eng
31343	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are rare on the six islands where it is known in Fiji. It may be more abundant on Tonga.	eng
31344	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from four localities on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.	eng
31344	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This slender tree or shrub is confined to areas of undisturbed dense forest.	eng
31344	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Each of the four sites harbours about 20–30 plants.	eng
31345	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Numerous collections have been made from four of the high islands.	eng
31347	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	No protection or conservation measures are in place.	eng
31347	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	A tree with a scarce distribution in Chinshuiying on the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
31347	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
31347	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	In the few subpopulations known, regeneration is poor, seed crops appear to be frequently decimated by squirrels and other animals.	eng
31348	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	There are a few protected localities in Kenting National Park.	eng
31348	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A species with scattered subpopulations occurring on the eastern hills of the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
31348	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Outside protected areas the species habitat is under some pressure from the establishment of industrial plantations and increasing land settlement and agriculture.	eng
31349	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	No protection or conservation measures are in place.	eng
31349	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	A Taiwanese form of a widely occurring and naturalized species. Subpopulations containing few mature individuals, are restricted to the northern part of the central mountain range.	eng
31349	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
31349	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Declines in numbers have occurred because of habitat clearance for settlements and industrial plantations.	eng
31350	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the north-east.	eng
31350	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in mixed submontane forest.	eng
31350	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The present status of the species requires further investigation.	eng
31350	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The bark has been a popular constituent of medicinal products for a long time. Forest clearance and overexploitation of the bark are the main causes for concern.	eng
31351	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I restrictions.	eng
31351	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Found mainly in Lanyu Island, Taiwan, and the Batan Islands in the Luzon Strait. The type collection was gathered from Luzon in the Philippines.	eng
31351	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species occurs in dry coastal scrubland or low forest in rocky or cliff top locations.	eng
31351	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The natural stands present in Taiwan before 1980 have been reduced to a few individuals as a result of whole plants being uprooted for the horticultural trade. It is also a popular ornamental plant in the Philippines.	eng
31352	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Chiayang area, Central Cross Island, Hwy.	eng
31352	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Mixed evergreen forest.	eng
31352	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	Only 13 mature trees appear to remain in the wild.	eng
31352	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The mixed evergreen forest habitat has been extensively destroyed to make way for apple and peach orchards. The species has also been overexploited in the past for its valuable timber.	eng
31353	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some populations exist within protected forest.	eng
31353	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A wide-ranging tree.	eng
31353	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,600 m.	eng
31353	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat declines have been extensive throughout the range.	eng
31355	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The Chilean and Argentinian populations are listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
31355	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Known widely as the Monkey Puzzle tree, this species ranges from the Coastal Cordillera of Chile to the Andes in Argentina.	eng
31355	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The populations on the coast are restricted and highly threatened. Andean populations are severely fragmented. Chile holds the largest populations.	eng
31355	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Most of the Chilean populations are being illegally felled in and outside national park boundaries.	eng
31356	distribution	González, M., 1998	A species which is known from two regions in central Chile, in the Coastal Cordillera.	eng
31356	habitat	González, M., 1998	Moist lowland forest.	eng
31356	threats	González, M., 1998	Populations are under threat throughout the area, mainly from logging and forest management activities.	eng
31357	distribution	González, M., 1998	A species of taxonomic interest, belonging to an ancient monotypic family. It is known from a very restricted distribution in the Coastal Cordillera of central Chile.	eng
31357	habitat	González, M., 1998	Occurring in forest on the south-facing slopes of humid ravines.	eng
31357	threats	González, M., 1998	The subpopulations are unprotected and under threat from logging and forest management activities, fire and agricultural encroachment.	eng
31358	distribution	González, M., 1998	Endemic to lowland forest between Regions IV to X, especially along the Coastal Cordillera.	eng
31358	habitat	González, M., 1998	A small tree of lowland forest.	eng
31359	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known to occur in two separate localities in Chile: Antuco in Bíobío and further south in Valdivia, Los Lagos, and also over the border in Questrihue in Argentina.	eng
31359	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species of submontane woodland and scrub.	eng
31359	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Declines in population numbers have been reported, at least in Argentina.	eng
31359	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Declines in population numbers have been reported, at least in Argentina, caused by logging and  habitat loss through fires, grazing and replanting with exotic conifers: 85% of the Argentinean population occurs outside protected areas and is being actively exploited. Insect predation of the seed is also, apparently, affecting regeneration in the wild and in small plantations.	eng
31360	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Can be found in Garajonay National Park. The species is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
31360	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to parts of Tenerife and Gomera.	eng
31360	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
31360	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The populations are small and fragmented.	eng
31361	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed in Government legislation of 1991.	eng
31361	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A dioecious species which is found scattered mainly as isolated individuals on the islands of La Palma, Gomera and Hierro.	eng
31361	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
31361	population	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The total population size is small.	eng
31361	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Regeneration is poor. There is also evidence of hybridisation occurring with <em>M. faya</em>.	eng
31362	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is still widespread.	eng
31362	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Appears to suffer from frequent fire damage.	eng
31363	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Lanai.	eng
31363	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to remaining patches of lowland dry forest.	eng
31364	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in north-western Kauai and in the Waianae and Koolau Mountains on O'ahu.	eng
31364	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in various forest types up to 610 m.	eng
31365	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
31365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from scattered subpopulations along the length of the Koolau Mts, from Kaunala Gulch and Kaunala-Waimea Ridge to Palolo, and in the Waianae Mts, ranging from Haleauau Valley to Kaluaa Gulch on Oahu.	eng
31365	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The number of subpopulations has steadily decreased. Of the remaining 27 subpopulations, the large majority consist of fewer than five plants and the total number of individuals is thought not to exceed 100.	eng
31365	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The major threats come from feral pigs and invasive plants.	eng
31366	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variant is known from Lanai and Maui.	eng
31366	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in a unique dry forest type.	eng
31366	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively common species with three morphologically overlapping varieties.	eng
31366	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat has steadily declined under the influence of grazing deer and spreading alien plant species.	eng
31367	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves where it has been recorded, the tree is conserved.	eng
31367	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded in the lowlands of Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Johore.	eng
31367	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree that has a small altitudinal range (40 m)	eng
31367	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	An uncommon tree	eng
31368	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare species in Perak and Johore.	eng
31368	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest and swamp forest, occurring on limestone below 150 m.	eng
31369	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in protected areas, as well as any permanent forest reserves occurring on limestone.	eng
31369	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is common within the limestone areas of Perak, Penang and Selangor.	eng
31369	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest species, restricted to limestone areas.	eng
31370	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare tree known only from two collections from Gopang in Perak. It is uncertain whether the species is still surviving as the locality from which it was collected has recently been developed.	eng
31370	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31370	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is uncertain whether the species is still surviving as the locality from which it was collected has recently been developed.	eng
31371	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species known from four localities in the Langkawi Islands and Perlis State.	eng
31371	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is restricted to forest on limestone hills.	eng
31371	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	These areas are rapidly being developed and destroyed by urban expansion.	eng
31372	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from a single collection in Perlis (Kaki Bukit).	eng
31372	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In moist scrub on a limestone hill.	eng
31373	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Perak.	eng
31373	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is distributed in lowland forest, below 200 m, mainly on limestone.	eng
31374	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In Gopeng, Perak.	eng
31374	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree of limestone forest.	eng
31374	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It has been collected only once.	eng
31375	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only in Gopeng, Perak.	eng
31375	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary species of lowland rainforest from limestone hills.	eng
31376	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Pahang.	eng
31376	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland forest on limestone.	eng
31377	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kinta, Perak.	eng
31377	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very rare species of lowland rainforest, scattered in limestone areas.	eng
31378	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known from only two collections from Kelantan.	eng
31378	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree can be found in open limestone lowland rainforest.	eng
31379	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree endemic to Andaman and Nicobar Islands.	eng
31379	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to wet evergreen forests.	eng
31379	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Many of the forests of the Andaman Islands have been affected in recent decades by over exploitation.	eng
31380	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern and central Philippines.	eng
31380	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of lowland evergreen forest.	eng
31380	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not abundant anywhere and the timber is available only in small quantities.	eng
31381	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Records of Philippine ebony are often from forest fragments smaller than 50 km².	eng
31381	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A timber species occurring in primary lowland forest up to 200 m.	eng
31381	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	In the Philippines exploitation of the ebony has caused the species to become rare; very little lowland forest remains. Despite a ban on log exports which came into force in 1989, there have been reports of an illegal trade.	eng
31382	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is sometimes used for mangrove restoration.	eng
31382	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in south Asia including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, and China (Hainan Island). It is also found in the Northern Maldives. In Australasia, its range includes Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.	eng
31382	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid-intertidal region. This species tolerates a maximum salinity of 65 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a hardy species, and fast-growing. This species can grow to 30 m. This species can be coppiced only in the eastern extremities of its range in Kosrae in The Federated States of Micronesia. In addition, sediment accretion increases the mortaility rate of seedlings. This species will not be an efficient colonizer of coastal areas exposed to sudden discharges of sediements such as those of highly eroding watersheds (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
31382	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is very common within its range. It can be found in densities of more than 500 trees/ha in South Sumatra with a mean diameter of 35 cm (Sukardjo 1987). In the Philippines, this species can be found in densities of more than 1000 trees/ha with a mean diameter of 6-10cm. In India, this species was found to be present in 40% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). There are two different forms of this species that are differentiated by the presence of spots under the leaves in the northern populations only (Duke and Bunt 1978).	eng
31382	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	In South Andaman, 30-80% of <em>Rhizophora</em> spp. Died due to continuous inundation after the tsunami in December 2004 (Roy and Krishnan 2005). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
31383	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the state of Perak.	eng
31383	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary lowland forest.	eng
31383	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected three times.	eng
31384	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Langkawi Island, Kedah.	eng
31384	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree is scattered in open lowland rainforest in areas of limestone, quartzite and shale.	eng
31384	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare species.	eng
31384	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The area which continues to be developed for tourism and other land uses.	eng
31385	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A population is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31385	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known under two varieties. This variety is confined to the state of Perak.	eng
31385	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
31386	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Tasik Dayong Bunting in Langkawi, Kedah.	eng
31386	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This rare tree is scattered in lowland limestone forest.	eng
31386	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The area is under intense pressure for development.	eng
31387	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perlis, Kedah, Upper Perak, Kelantan and Pahang.	eng
31387	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree inhabiting late secondary and primary forests on limestone areas at altitudes of 150 to 390 m. This species can occasionally growing on seasonally swampy land.	eng
31389	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a protected population in the biosphere reserve on the Mysore Plateau, India.	eng
31389	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The common mango has been cultivated for thousands of years and now has a pantropical distribution. Wild populations can be found in Assam, India and Myanmar, especially the Assam-Chittagong Hills.	eng
31391	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is conserved in the permanent forest reserves.	eng
31391	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered but widely distributed.	eng
31391	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in lowland wet evergreen forests.   The fruits of this species are favoured by the Temoq people of Pahang.	eng
31392	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wild subpopulations occur in western Malaysia, where trees are also commonly cultivated. The species has been introduced in areas with a pronounced dry season, for example, east Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, central Thailand and Indo-China.	eng
31392	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
31393	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is rarely found in cultivation as it flowers and fruits infrequently and the fruit is rarely, if ever, eaten. It is possibly extinct in Java.	eng
31393	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, extremely scattered and localised within lowland wet evergreen rainforest.	eng
31393	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland rainforests of Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo are threatened by conversion to agriculture and forest degradation through logging.	eng
31394	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Borneo.	eng
31394	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31394	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is rare within its natural habitat type. The only area where it is common is on the west coast plains of Sabah. It is found both wild and cultivated in Dayak gardens in the north-east and west of Kalimantan, but it is very rarely found in the south. It has not yet been cultivated widely outside its natural range. It may hybridize with <em>M. foetida</em>.	eng
31395	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species.	eng
31395	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in a variety of habitat types.	eng
31396	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The natural distribution of this species is possibly confined to the north of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31396	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen lowland forest.	eng
31396	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was once a common village tree in Peninsular Malaysia and old orchards are found in Peninsular Thailand. It is suspected that the interest in the species is declining in favour of <em>M. indica</em>, although it is still useful in improving the genetic stock of the common mango.	eng
31397	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to south Kalimantan and Palembang in Sumatra. It was introduced to Java, where it is now cultivated. The specimen from Sumatra is slightly different.	eng
31397	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare tree is found in lowland rainforests.	eng
31398	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far this species is known only from Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31398	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
31398	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is one of the most threatened mango species.	eng
31398	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large part of the habitat has been lost through clearance for agriculture, especially for large-scale cash crops.	eng
31400	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In some places occurring in designated reserves.	eng
31400	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Sri Lankan endemic. The tree produces tasty fruits but is not yet in cultivation.	eng
31400	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in both the wet and dry zones.	eng
31400	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very rare	eng
31401	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has never been found in the wild and its origin remains a mystery. The fruit is popular and trees are commonly cultivated in eastern Asia in areas of high rainfall, especially where <em>M. indica</em> can't be grown.	eng
31402	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread species.	eng
31402	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, found in lowland rainforest and cultivated locally for the pleasantly acidic fruit.	eng
31403	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In western Malesia, this is one of the most common and valuable mango species. It is believed to come from Borneo but it is commonly cultivated in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Bali, and more rarely cultivated in Java and other countries. The wani variety is very tasty in comparison to the wild form and is a possible candidate for wider cultivation. In addition, the wood is used for light construction.	eng
31403	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used for light construction.	eng
31404	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Islands of Luzon, Samar, Lete, Ticae and Quimaras.	eng
31404	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very scattered and uncommon tree found in wet evergreen lowland forest.	eng
31405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found throughout India and Indo-China.	eng
31405	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree.	eng
31405	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is traded together with the wood of <em>Mangifera indica</em>.	eng
31406	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species can be found in protected forests under the Permanent Forest Estate.	eng
31406	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
31406	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Less than 10,000 individuals are likely to exist in three separate populations. Individuals frequently display yellowing leaves suggestive of poor nutrient conditions.	eng
31407	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations occurring on the Gunung Tahan Massif are protected within a national park.	eng
31407	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Exposed ridges in stunted mossy montane forest.	eng
31407	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A relatively rarely collected shrub or small tree.	eng
31407	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In the southern part of the species range the habitat is threatened by infrastructural development.	eng
31408	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The known collections were recorded from the Taman Negara (Malaysia) and Gunung Leuser Reserves.	eng
31408	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Confined to Gunung Tahan in Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia and the Gajo Lands in north Sumatra (Indonesia).	eng
31408	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	A shrub or small tree of moist montane scrub. Locally dominant in some areas. Elevation from herbarium specimens 1,590 to 1,830 m.	eng
31408	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The two known populations are presumably small. The lack of recent collections in the herbaria is possibly an artifact and cannot be taken as direct evidence on population trends. This species is known from 10 to 12 herbarium collections only, all but one from the location in Malaysia (D. de Laubenfels pers. comm. 2006).	eng
31408	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Possible habitat degradation through fire.	eng
31409	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31409	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Cameron Highlands, Pahang.	eng
31409	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in hill and submontane secondary forest.	eng
31410	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Part of the range is contained within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31410	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is found at Fraser's Hill in the Genting Highlands, Pahang, and on Gunung Mandi Agin in Terengganu.	eng
31410	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in rainforest between 850 and 1,400 m.	eng
31411	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Outside the forest reserve areas pressures are exerted on the tree from felling activities.	eng
31411	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kelanatan and Terengganu.	eng
31411	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland and submontane forest, commonly found upon ridges.	eng
31412	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is believed to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of these states.	eng
31412	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found scattered in Penang, Kedah and Perak.	eng
31412	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland species of primary forests.	eng
31413	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of Perak it is conserved.	eng
31413	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Has only been recorded in Penang and Perak.	eng
31413	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical, lowland species.	eng
31414	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in protected forests, and also Taman Negara national park.	eng
31414	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang.	eng
31414	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree commonly occurs on mountain ridges.	eng
31415	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in the productive forests of these states.	eng
31415	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known to only occur in the states of Kedah and Penang.	eng
31415	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical lowland species.	eng
31415	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the areas of it's occurrence, distribution is common.	eng
31416	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of the previously mentioned states, the species is conserved.	eng
31416	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed within the states of Perak and Pahang.	eng
31416	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland tree species that occurs in primary forest.	eng
31416	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The entire plant is used for ornamental purposes, at a national or local trade level.	eng
31417	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Maxwell's Hill is a protected area.	eng
31417	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Maxwell's Hill, Perak.	eng
31417	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland and hill forest.	eng
31417	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A locally common tree.	eng
31418	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.	eng
31418	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found on the east coast of Pahang, Jahore and Terengganu.	eng
31418	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland tree.	eng
31418	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is common where it occurs.	eng
31418	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The entire plant is used for ornamental purposes and traded on a national or local scale.	eng
31419	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
31419	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in most states of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31419	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A commonly occurring hill and lowland tree species.	eng
31419	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Locally used for ornamental purposes.	eng
31420	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very localised species found in lowland dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.	eng
31421	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31421	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on coastal hills.	eng
31422	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31422	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is restricted to hill forest.	eng
31424	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are found within forest reserves.	eng
31424	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree which is restricted to eastern Johore.	eng
31424	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Often on hill ridges.	eng
31425	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to south Johore.	eng
31425	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This dipterocarp species occurs on well-drained lowland forest.	eng
31425	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Under severe threat of extinction.	eng
31426	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31426	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is often found on flat and hilly well-drained land.	eng
31426	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is relatively abundant in Pahang.	eng
31427	conservation	Lim, T.W., 2007	The population is almost entirely within a Permanent Reserved Forest gazetted under the National Forestry Act 1984 and zoned for recreational use.	eng
31427	distribution	Lim, T.W., 2007	A small tree, which is confined to a single location in Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 5 km².  Area of occupancy is estimated at 0.5 km².	eng
31427	habitat	Lim, T.W., 2007	Occupies moist lowland forest in valleys and on low ridges (Symington 2005).	eng
31427	population	Lim, T.W., 2007	A recent census (Chua <em>et al.</em> 2004) found a total of 444 individual stems (>1 cm dbh) of the species in and adjacent to the 478-ha Kanching Forest Reserve.  These were divided into two subpopulations - the first with 267 stems (>1 cm dbh) and the second with 177 stems (>1 cm dbh).  On the assumption that individuals reached maturity at 13.7 cm dbh, there were 49 mature individuals in the first sub-population and 32 mature individuals in the second subpopulation, giving a total of 81 mature individuals (18.35% of the population).	eng
31427	threats	Lim, T.W., 2007	The main threats are clear-cutting, selective logging, and habitat destruction caused by human settlement. The tree probably never reaches timber size but may make a useful pole (Symington 2005).	eng
31428	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	By Gunung Perak and Gunung Pahang.	eng
31428	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A locally abundant tree found on undulating land and low spurs up to 150 m.  The species is common along river basins.	eng
31429	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A gregarious tree.	eng
31429	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Restricted to forested ridges.	eng
31429	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally common.	eng
31430	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31430	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree scattered throughout the lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31430	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Timber exploitation.	eng
31431	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31431	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is locally common in deep valleys.	eng
31431	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The tree is slow-growing and cannot withstand logging because the reproductive cycle exceeds cutting cycles.	eng
31433	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree.	eng
31433	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Cut for red balau timber. It is directly threatened by logging because its slow growth  prevents the tree from reaching reproductive maturity within a logging cycle.	eng
31434	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	The one locality in Kuantan, where the species was discovered, has now been converted into a plantation.	eng
31435	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some trees are also found in forest reserves in this area.	eng
31435	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Limited in its range, this timber species occurs along the coastal hills of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31436	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The timber is used as yellow meranti, but its export has been banned.	eng
31436	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small tree that is scattered on hills and undulating land.	eng
31437	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large dipterocarp occurring on high hills in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31437	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally abundant.	eng
31438	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Southern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31438	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree species that is found in the lowland mixed dipterocarp forests and sometimes in hill forest.	eng
31439	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that occurs locally in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31439	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Inland ridges and coastal hills.	eng
31440	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Restricted to south Perak.	eng
31440	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
31440	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is close to becoming extinct.	eng
31442	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31442	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31442	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Seriously threatened by forest conversion.	eng
31444	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31444	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Common on coastal hills and inland ridges.	eng
31446	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31446	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally found on ridges and undulating land.	eng
31447	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved.	eng
31447	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	<em>Diospyros adenophora</em> is found in the states of Kelantan, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan of Peninsula Malaysia and also in Singapore.	eng
31447	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is found scattered in lowland forest.	eng
31448	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves, it is conserved.	eng
31448	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in most parts of Malaya.	eng
31448	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is common in primary lowland and hill forests.	eng
31448	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The root of the species is utilized on a local level for medicinal purposes	eng
31449	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves where it occurs.	eng
31449	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to northern Malaya, although there is a supposed occurrence in Singapore (Govaerts 2009). It is particularly evident in the schima-bamboo forest type in the states of Kedah, Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.	eng
31449	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	An open forest species.	eng
31449	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Used as a timber source on a local level.	eng
31450	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is classified as a protected forest.	eng
31450	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from a single collection taken from Gunung Belumut, Johore.	eng
31450	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31452	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is hoped that the species will be found in Piah Forest Reserve.	eng
31452	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known only from a single collection, this tree was collected from Lenggong, Perak. Govaerts (2009) records it from Singpaore, but this may be an error.	eng
31452	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31453	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from four collections from northern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31453	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31453	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations may be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of Kedah, Kelantan and north Pahang.	eng
31455	conservation	Loc, Phan Ke, 1998	Within these areas the tree is conserved in permanent forest reserves.	eng
31455	distribution	Loc, Phan Ke, 1998	Peninsular Malaysia. This species is locally common in the states of Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu.	eng
31455	habitat	Loc, Phan Ke, 1998	Occurring in the submontane and hill forests.	eng
31456	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest in the region is classified as protected.	eng
31456	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species, confined to the Keledang range, in the state of Perak. Only two collections are known, both of them from the same locality.	eng
31456	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31457	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.	eng
31457	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Distributed throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31457	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This commonly occurring tree is a lowland and sub-montane forest species.	eng
31457	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Utilized on a local level for it's timber.  Outside the permanent forest reserves where it is conserved, felling activities are a pressure exerted on the species.	eng
31458	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurs in Gunong Panti Forest Reserve, which is now considered a conservation area by the Johore Forest Department.	eng
31458	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection.	eng
31458	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest tree.	eng
31459	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought that the species is protected in the permanent forest reserves.	eng
31459	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to Perak, where it has been collected three times.	eng
31459	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31460	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves, the species is conserved.	eng
31460	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Most Malaysian states.	eng
31460	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is of scattered occurrence in the lowland and hill forests.	eng
31460	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Clear-felling and logging activities are current threats to forest areas, with harvested timber traded both locally and nationally.	eng
31461	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these distribution areas, the species is conserved.	eng
31461	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in Malaya, with the exception of Kedah, Penang and Malacca.	eng
31461	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is scattered in lowland, hill and montane forest areas.	eng
31461	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures are exerted by the logging and clear-felling of forested areas, with harvested timber being utilized locally.	eng
31462	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found on Gunong Ulu Semongkok in Selangor.	eng
31462	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31462	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree has been collected only once.	eng
31463	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of the state, the tree is conserved.	eng
31463	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Terengganu.	eng
31463	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree, found scattered in the lowland forests.	eng
31463	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is utilized locally, for it's timber.  Felling activities are a pressure exerted on the species.	eng
31464	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of the states where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
31464	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Johor and Terengganu.	eng
31464	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is widely scattered throughout the lowland and hill forest areas.	eng
31464	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Utilized on a local level for it's timber, the principle pressure exerted on the tree is from logging and felling activities.	eng
31465	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	In the protection forests of permanent forest estates, the species is conserved.	eng
31465	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species occurs in all the mountainous ranges in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31465	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A primary forest species, it is often found along exposed ridges and summits.	eng
31465	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Although threatened by the expansion of human habitation, this applies to the central and southern parts of the main range only.	eng
31466	conservation	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Occur in three forest reserves. Stricter conservation measures are required to secure these populations.	eng
31466	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from three collections from Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve in Selangor, Merlimau Forest Reserve in Malacca and Ulu Lebir Forest Reserve in Kelantan.	eng
31466	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A very rare species.	eng
31467	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Perak and Selangor.	eng
31467	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest species, occurring between 1,000 and 1,400 m.	eng
31467	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The forest in these mountain areas is generally protected.	eng
31468	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a restricted area in the Sungei Lebi Basin in south-east Kelantan.	eng
31468	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
31469	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Records of the species come from Perak and Melaka.	eng
31470	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area falls within a permanent forest reserve.	eng
31470	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in Ulu Tembeling in Pahang.	eng
31470	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31470	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
31471	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Perak, the species is recorded from just two localities.	eng
31471	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31472	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Perak and Terengganu.	eng
31472	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31472	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
31473	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Gunung Keledang in Perak.	eng
31473	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.	eng
31473	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection.	eng
31474	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area is conserved.	eng
31474	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Mount Ophir in Johore.	eng
31474	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is scattered in submontane forest at 500 m.	eng
31475	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Kemaman in south Terengganu.	eng
31475	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.	eng
31475	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection. Its continued existence is somewhat in doubt.	eng
31475	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has been under development of various kinds and much of the forest has been cleared.	eng
31476	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Penang and Perak.	eng
31476	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree, occurring between 90 and 150 m.	eng
31476	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected few times.	eng
31477	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Kelantan.	eng
31477	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.	eng
31477	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected only once.	eng
31478	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Gunung Pulai in Johore.	eng
31478	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree of primary evergreen rainforest.	eng
31478	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection.	eng
31479	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded by a single collection at Telok in Selangor which has since been developed for agriculture.	eng
31479	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was known from an area of peat swamp forest.	eng
31480	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only by a single collection from Perak. The exact locality remains unknown.	eng
31480	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary forest species.	eng
31481	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections from a single locality, in Gombak Forest Reserve, a permanent reserve in Selangor.	eng
31481	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to lowland forest.	eng
31482	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The exact locality of the species remains unknown. It has been collected only once from Penang.	eng
31482	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Primary forest.	eng
31482	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Most of the forest in the area has been cleared for development.	eng
31483	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is known from a single collection at the base of Fraser's Hill in Pahang.	eng
31483	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
31484	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is contained within the protected forests of Perak.	eng
31484	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Gunung Peninjau in Perak.	eng
31484	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest at 840 m.	eng
31484	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected twice from a single locality.	eng
31485	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected only once from lowland evergreen forest in Malacca. Most of the forest here has been cleared for plantations or colonisation.	eng
31485	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
31485	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is some doubt over the continued existence of the species.	eng
31485	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest clearing for plantations.	eng
31486	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The locality is a conserved area.	eng
31486	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is confined to Penang Hill.	eng
31486	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered in submontane rainforest.	eng
31487	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection from Batang Malaka Permanent Forest Reserve in Malacca.	eng
31487	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
31488	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected only once from Perak.	eng
31488	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary areas of lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
31488	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is questionable whether the species still exists.	eng
31489	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area is protected within Endau-Rompin National Park.	eng
31489	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded only from north Johore and south Pahang on the banks of Endau River.	eng
31489	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rheophyte confined to forest.	eng
31490	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Only a single collection of the species has been made, gathered from Bota Kiri Forest Reserve in Perek.	eng
31490	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The surrounding areas are being developed.	eng
31491	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve in Selangor.	eng
31491	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been recorded since the type collection was gathered, despite intense botanical work in the area.	eng
31492	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is known by a single collection on the island of Tioman.	eng
31492	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Primary rainforest.	eng
31492	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The island is rapidly being developed as a resort and the species' locality is unprotected.	eng
31493	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected only from Johore.	eng
31493	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary forest shrub.	eng
31494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the district of Gopeng, Perak.	eng
31494	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Open lowland rainforest.	eng
31494	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1886.	eng
31495	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The localities are given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31495	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs in Perak and Pahang.	eng
31495	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31495	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare tree.	eng
31495	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Large areas remain threatened by encroaching agriculture.	eng
31496	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree is known from only one collection in Fraser's Hill, Pahang.	eng
31496	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31496	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is reported as being common at the type locality.	eng
31497	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is also protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31497	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Penang, Kelantan, Pahang, Terengannu, Perak and Selangor.	eng
31497	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are known from areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
31498	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Terengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan.	eng
31498	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rainforest species, occurring up to an altitude of 900 m.	eng
31498	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Much of the lowland forest has been converted for non-forest land use.	eng
31499	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park and in protected forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31499	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in the states of Pahang, Terengganu and Selangor.	eng
31499	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of submontane and montane rainforest.	eng
31500	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Terengganu, and Johore.	eng
31500	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of  moist forest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.	eng
31501	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some localities are protected within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31501	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is recorded in Kedah, Kelantan, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Johore.	eng
31501	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of primary and secondary forest, and also swamps, up to an altitude of 300 m.	eng
31502	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore.	eng
31502	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A hill forest tree species.	eng
31503	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Most localities are in protected forest within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31503	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of moist submontane and hill forest.	eng
31504	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree confined to Penang and Perak.	eng
31504	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
31505	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Kedah peak, Kedah. Similar specimens, which could be this species, have been collected elsewhere in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
31505	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree of submontane and hill forest.	eng
31506	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree species is found only in Penang.	eng
31506	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
31507	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland species confined to the island of Pangkor, Perak.	eng
31507	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Tropical rainforest.	eng
31507	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very rare species	eng
31507	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree species is threatened by the expansion of human habitation and tourism.	eng
31508	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31508	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in rainforest below 210 m.	eng
31509	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Terengganu, Perak, Selangor and Pahang.	eng
31509	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A medium to large species inhabiting moist lowland and hill forest.	eng
31510	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree known from only two collections in Larut, Perak, and Klang Gates, Selangor.	eng
31510	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland open quartzite forest.	eng
31511	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are found in Selangor and Terengganu, where they are protected within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31511	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree of lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
31512	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in two coastal localities in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31512	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A primary lowland forest species.	eng
31512	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Increasing tourism and settlement in the vicinity are the main pressures faced by the species.	eng
31513	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small species of Malaca and Pahang.	eng
31513	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Frequently inhabiting lowland undulating secondary forest to a maximum altitude of 300 m.	eng
31514	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Part of the range is contained within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31514	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree ranges from Penang and Kelantan southwards.	eng
31514	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting rainforest up to 900 m.	eng
31515	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Commonly occurring in these areas, the species is conserved in the permanent and protected forests of Pahang and Terengganu.	eng
31515	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is an endemic of eastern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31515	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical tree that occurs in lowland and submontane forests.	eng
31516	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is conserved in protected forests and Taman Negara national park.	eng
31516	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurring in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31516	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical tree is confined to the upper montane forests.	eng
31517	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occur in protected area.	eng
31517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree so far only known from Wray's Camp at Gichon, Pahang at 900 m. Only two collections have been made but they are located within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31518	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in two protected areas.	eng
31518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little information is available on this species. It is known from two localities, one from Ulu Merala Forest Reserve, Kedah, and the other from Maxwell's Hill, Perak, where it is protected.	eng
31519	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is protected within permanent forest reserves.	eng
31519	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree widely distributed.	eng
31519	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered in lowland to montane forest.	eng
31520	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the protected forests where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
31520	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical species is mostly confined to the central and east coast mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31520	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree, it is found scattered in open and closed primary forests.	eng
31521	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Gunung Belumut falls within the protected forest and as such it is hoped that the species is conserved.	eng
31521	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the summit of Gunung Belumut in Johore, this forest species is so far known from only three collections, all from the same locality.	eng
31522	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is confined to montane forests. However, within these areas, it is widely distributed both at lower and upper altitudinal levels.	eng
31523	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Mt. Oplur falls within the protected forests of Johore.	eng
31523	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection from Mt Oplur in Johore.	eng
31523	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species was found in submontane forest.	eng
31524	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the mountain forests of Gunung Korber, (Perak) Gunung Tchonin, (Pahong) and Gunung Belumat (Johor).	eng
31524	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary forest species.	eng
31524	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within its elevated range area it occurs abundantly.	eng
31525	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within productive forests it is conserved.	eng
31525	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A widely distributed lowland and hill forest species.	eng
31526	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation measures protect it in forest reserves.	eng
31526	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is widely distributed throughout Malaya.	eng
31526	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest areas.	eng
31526	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Although no principle use is recorded, the species has potential horticultural importance.	eng
31527	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests of Perak and Pahang, the species is conserved.	eng
31527	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary species confined to lower montane forest, where it commonly occurs.	eng
31528	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is known only from two localities, one in north-east Pahang and the other in Perak.	eng
31528	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31528	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is not certain that these localities are still forested, as the area is threatened by land conversion for agriculture.	eng
31529	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In this reserve the tree is commonly occurring, and  conserved.	eng
31529	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to stand forest in Tg. Hantu Forest Reserve in the state of Perak.	eng
31529	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland species.	eng
31529	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Human activity in the form of agricultural and settlement expansion is a pressure currently exerted on the species.	eng
31530	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is also reported to be present in Endau Rompin National Park.	eng
31530	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	South-east Johore and south-east Pahang.	eng
31530	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to lowland forest.	eng
31530	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species occurs in areas which are earmarked for development.	eng
31531	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In permanent forest reserves the species is conserved.	eng
31531	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded from Malacca and central Pahang northwards, it is widely distributed within this area.	eng
31531	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical lowland and hill forest species.	eng
31532	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests of Teregganu the species is conserved.	eng
31532	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Terengganu.	eng
31532	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small tree confined to montane forest.	eng
31532	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	At Gunung Padang and Gunung Mandi it's occurrence is particularly common.	eng
31533	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within productive forests throughout the country, it is conserved.	eng
31533	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurs throughout Malaya.	eng
31533	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A widely distributed lowland and hill forest species.	eng
31533	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The stem of the tree is used as a food source, which is traded on local and national level.  Pressures from forestry activities are exerted on the species.	eng
31534	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are protected forests in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
31534	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection from 1,500 m in the Cameron Highlands, Pehang.	eng
31534	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
31534	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is thought to be locally common.	eng
31534	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas are given over to tea plantations.	eng
31535	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Protected subpopulations are found in Gunong Panti Forest Reserve and Gunung Belumut.	eng
31535	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known from only a few localities in south-east Johore. The genus is currently undergoing revision.	eng
31535	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
31535	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland areas in this state have largely been converted to agriculture.	eng
31536	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	These areas contain protected forests, within these the species is conserved.	eng
31536	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the Cameroon Highlands and Gunung Korbu. Currently the genus is undergoing revision.	eng
31536	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
31536	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Common occurrence.	eng
31537	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the future, the species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves, of the states where it is recorded.	eng
31537	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kelantan, Perak and Pahang.	eng
31537	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species commonly occurs along river banks in primary, lowland forests.	eng
31537	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A variety of tree parts are used in traditional medicine, (bark, leaves, roots) entirely on a local level.	eng
31538	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree from Pahang and Johor.	eng
31538	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowlands and hill forests up to 570 m.	eng
31538	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Increasing settlement is the principal pressure exerted on this already rare species.	eng
31539	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is confined to Maxwell Hill in the state of Perak.	eng
31539	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Steep ridges and hillsides in submontane forest, at approximately 600 m.	eng
31539	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The main threats to the tree come from expanding settlements and tourism.	eng
31540	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of Peninsular Malaysia, in Selangor and Perak.	eng
31540	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland primary rainforest.	eng
31540	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from two collections.	eng
31541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Tasek Glugor, Wellesley Province, Penang.	eng
31541	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
31541	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only one collection of the species has been made.	eng
31541	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is under increasing settlement.	eng
31542	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Gopeng in the state of Perak.	eng
31542	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This rare tree occurs in open forest on limestone hills.	eng
31542	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The area is experiencing mining activities and increasing settlement.	eng
31543	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to Mt Ophir in Johor.	eng
31543	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31543	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only one collection has been made.	eng
31543	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is experiencing some logging and increasing settlement.	eng
31544	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia known only from the state of Perak.	eng
31544	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
31545	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Johore.	eng
31545	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree occurs in lowland forest up to 240 m.	eng
31545	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Increasing agriculture and settlement are causing habitat declines.	eng
31546	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is scattered in lowland hill forest between 500 and 700 m.	eng
31546	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Continued settlement of the area has resulted in habitat declines.	eng
31547	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Mt Ophir, Johore.	eng
31547	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in hill forest, gathered from localities between 300 and 400 m.	eng
31547	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two collections have been made.	eng
31547	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is being increasingly settled.	eng
31548	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations are protected within forest reserves.	eng
31548	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak.	eng
31548	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree found in hill forests between 150 and 300 m.	eng
31548	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Main threats to the species include logging activities and increasing settlement of the area.	eng
31549	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Kuala Dipong, Perak.	eng
31549	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest species.	eng
31549	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only two collections.	eng
31549	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is under increasing conversion to agriculture.	eng
31550	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Perak.	eng
31550	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
31550	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Principally threatened by encroaching settlements, agriculture and logging activities.	eng
31551	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A sufficient part of the total population is believed to be contained in protective forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31551	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of submontane primary rainforest, occurring up to 2,000 m.	eng
31551	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some parts of the range are affected by increasing settlement and agriculture.	eng
31552	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31552	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting primary lowland rainforest.	eng
31553	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic species of Peninsular Malaysia, where it is confined to Johore.	eng
31553	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland and hill rainforests.	eng
31554	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31554	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting primary rainforest.	eng
31555	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, this tree is known only from Selangor, Negri Sembilan, Pahang and Johore.	eng
31555	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest and swamp forest.	eng
31555	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	No recent collections have been made of this species.	eng
31555	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Threatened by expanding settlements and logging activities.	eng
31556	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Jambi Province, Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31556	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A rare tree occurring in lowland rainforest up to 200 m.	eng
31556	threats	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia the species is threatened by urban expansion and logging activities.	eng
31557	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree scattered in lowland, hill and swamp forest.	eng
31557	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species has not been collected recently.	eng
31557	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Threatened by increasing settlement and logging of the area.	eng
31558	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from a collection from Trengganu and another from Pahang.	eng
31559	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is conserved in Taman Negara National Park, wildlife reserves and forest reserves.	eng
31559	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare tree found in moist forest up to 1,700 m.	eng
31559	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations are generally threatened by increasing settlement and logging activities.	eng
31560	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31560	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
31560	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	There are no recent collections of this species.	eng
31560	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Declining through the expansion of human habitation and logging activities.	eng
31561	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from four collections from Perak.	eng
31561	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is very rare and has not been collected recently. It is not known whether it still exists.	eng
31562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Peninsular Malaysia. There is also a single deviating collection from Sumatra.	eng
31562	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This lowland species is found on hillsides and crests up to 300 m.	eng
31563	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is not of conservation concern and is though to be conserved within the Virgin Jungle reserves and Taman Negara.	eng
31563	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of lowland and hill forest up to 600 m.	eng
31563	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Threatened by forestry activities and logging.	eng
31564	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is hoped the species is present in the protected forest reserves.	eng
31564	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found only in Perak.	eng
31564	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Hill and montane forest.	eng
31564	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is threatened by the increasing settlement of the area.	eng
31565	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Perak, this tree is known only from a few collections.	eng
31565	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31565	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area is experiencing forest clearance and increasing agriculture.	eng
31566	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species collected from Gopang District in Perak. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31566	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only by a single collection gathered in the 18th century. It is unknown whether the species exists today.	eng
31567	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species has been reported from Penang, Perak, Selangor and Pahang.	eng
31567	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to montane forest between 600 and 1,500 m.	eng
31567	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Despite montane forest being considered protected by the government, increasing developments in the region are threatening the species.	eng
31568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type locality in Perak. The exact location has not been recorded.	eng
31569	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Gunong Tahan in Pahang, within Taman Negara National Park. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31569	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although the species is known only from a single collection, it is expected to be locally frequent at the type locality.	eng
31570	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only collection is probably from Maxwell's Hill in Taiping. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31570	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The single collection of this species, made last century.	eng
31570	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The hill is now being developed into a resort area.	eng
31571	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is likely the species occurs in the high-altitude protected forests.	eng
31571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill, Pahang.	eng
31571	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to montane forest at about 1,500 m.	eng
31571	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both localities are hill stations which are being developed.	eng
31572	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within productive forest reserves, it is conserved.	eng
31572	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31572	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare tree found in the lowland, tropical rain forests.	eng
31572	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures exerted from increasing settlement and cultivation of once forested land, are the principle threats to the species.	eng
31573	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	To date it has only been recorded in the state of Perak, on the summit of Gunung Inas.	eng
31573	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This small tree is rare, occurring at an altitude of 1,700 m.	eng
31574	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the protected forests of this region, the tree is conserved.	eng
31574	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31574	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical moist species is confined to montane areas.	eng
31575	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Gunong Pulai. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31575	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Moist submontane forest.	eng
31575	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A very rare tree known from a single collection.	eng
31575	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This area is being developed into a holiday resort.	eng
31576	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the productive forests of Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor and Terengganu the species is conserved.	eng
31576	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31576	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical moist species, occurring in lowland, primary forests.	eng
31576	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures are exerted on the tree by settlement expansion.	eng
31577	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within production forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved	eng
31577	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31577	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical, moist species, confined to swamp and lowland forests.	eng
31577	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures are placed on the species as a result of agricultural expansion and logging activities.  Harvested timber is traded on a minor international level.	eng
31578	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from in Rantau Panjang in Selangor. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31578	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31578	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree known from a single collection. The present existence of the collection locality is doubtful and the species may be extinct.	eng
31579	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation measures for the species, are in place in productive forest reserves.	eng
31579	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31579	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical moist tree, widely distributed throughout the primary forest.	eng
31579	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is threatened by commercial logging activities, the harvested timber being traded on an international scale.	eng
31580	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in productive forest reserves, however in Malacca protection is increasingly difficult as most forested areas have been developed.	eng
31580	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kedah, Penang, Kelatan, Malacca and Johor.	eng
31580	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical moist species, is widely distributed throughout lowland and primary hill forest.	eng
31580	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Currently the expansion of human settlement in these areas is the greatest pressure being exerted on the tree.	eng
31581	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Perak. The exact locality has not been specified. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31581	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Probably from hill forest.	eng
31581	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is known by a single collection, made during the last century. It is uncertain whether the species still exists.	eng
31582	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Populations are expected to be found in protected forest reserves in Perak and Pahang.	eng
31582	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Gunong Ines, Perak and the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill, Pahang.	eng
31582	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A locally abundant tree confined to montane forest.	eng
31582	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The expansion of agriculture and settlement both threaten the habitat.	eng
31583	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests, the species is conserved.	eng
31583	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia, where it's local distribution is frequent.	eng
31583	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical moist species, is confined to mountain tops and ridges between 1,300-1,650 m, altitude.	eng
31584	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Some areas are given a degree of protection within protected forests.	eng
31584	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Restricted to Gunung Tapis, Pahang, and Gunung Belumut, Johore.	eng
31584	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest tree at 900 m.	eng
31584	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The habitat is generally threatened by the development of resorts.	eng
31585	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31585	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is known only from Fraser's Hill and Gunung Tahan, Pahang.	eng
31585	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurring in montane and alpine forest at about 1,500 m.	eng
31586	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is very rare, known only from a few collections from Perak and Pahang. It is hoped that the subpopulation around Pondok Tanjong Forest Reserve in Perak has survived along with a second subpopulation located along the banks of Semarang River near Temerloh, Pahang.	eng
31586	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It occurs in areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
31586	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest is threatened by encroaching agriculture and increasing settlement.  The area around Pondok Tanjong Forest Reserve in Perak, where a collection has been made, is now fully developed.	eng
31587	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Both localities are now ecotourist destinations and as such it is hoped these forests will be preserved.	eng
31587	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded from Maxwell's Hill, Perak, and Gunong Panti, Johore.	eng
31587	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
31588	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Riverine reserves are protected, consequently the species is conserved in areas where it occurs, and so has no commercial importance.	eng
31588	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Particularly in the states of Perak and Selangor.	eng
31588	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical, moist tree is found within a very low altitudinal range, (30 m) along river banks and swampy areas.	eng
31589	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is conserved in the permanent forest reserves of the states mentioned.	eng
31589	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurs in Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.	eng
31589	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical moist species.	eng
31589	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Many of the areas where this tree is found are free from development, the exception to this is Weld Hill forest reserve in Kuala Lumpur	eng
31590	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in the permanent forest estates of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johor.	eng
31590	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurs throughout Malaya. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31590	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tropical moist species.	eng
31590	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	An abundant species.	eng
31590	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Used as an ornamental tree-shrub.	eng
31591	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Perak. The exact locality is unknown. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31591	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
31591	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection.	eng
31592	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the production forest reserves of these areas, the trees are conserved.	eng
31592	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed throughout Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan.	eng
31592	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland tropical moist species.	eng
31592	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Threats to the species occur from clear-felling and logging activities.	eng
31593	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection gathered along the track to Gunung Tahan in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31593	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
31594	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a single locality, this species was found in Larut in Maxwell's Hills, Perak.	eng
31594	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This area, although protected as a nature reserve and water catchment, is under development as a resort.	eng
31595	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
31595	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered widely throughout most states of Malaya.	eng
31595	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical moist species.	eng
31595	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Principle threats to the tree arise from felling activities, as it is primarily used as a timber source traded on a minor international level.	eng
31596	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The locality is within a protected forest.	eng
31596	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Gunung Mengkueng in Selangor. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31596	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found in moist montane forest at 1,300 m.	eng
31596	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known from a single collection.	eng
31597	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Trengganu. Its exact locality is unknown. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31597	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species known only from a single collection.	eng
31598	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Expected to be found in permanent forest reserves.	eng
31598	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known by a few collections in two separate localities in Perak.	eng
31598	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland forest tree.	eng
31598	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is threatened by encroaching agriculture.	eng
31599	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Perak and Selangor.	eng
31599	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree occurs in peat-swamp forest and sometimes in freshwater swamps.	eng
31599	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Since the peat-swamp forests are no longer being converted for agriculture, the species is considered to be less threatened than in the past.	eng
31600	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single herbarium specimen of this species exists, collected from Gunung Pondok, Perak.	eng
31600	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31601	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these three states, the species is conserved.	eng
31601	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is localized in distribution, occurring in the eastern states of Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan.	eng
31601	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within lowland primary forest.	eng
31601	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures are exerted by increased settlement and cultivation of once forested land.	eng
31602	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area is protected within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31602	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Gunung Tahan in Pehang.	eng
31602	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree confined to montane forest.	eng
31603	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in Taiping, the only known locality of this species has probably been cleared.	eng
31603	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31603	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Habitat destruction for agriculture and human habitation.	eng
31604	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The mountain forests are considered protected.	eng
31604	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Mainly occurring in Perak and Pahang, the exact range of this species is uncertain as it is poorly represented in herbarium collections.	eng
31604	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Mountain forest.	eng
31605	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Contained within a national park.	eng
31605	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from Kuala Teku in Pahang.	eng
31605	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest tree.	eng
31606	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is known only from two collections from Pulau Tioman.	eng
31606	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The island is developing rapidly into a tourist resort.	eng
31607	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest estates of Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan it is conserved.	eng
31607	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A common tropical species which is small in size and occurs in lowland forest areas.	eng
31607	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures are exerted by cultivation of once forested areas.	eng
31608	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kanching Forest Reserve, where the species has been recorded, is now largely a recreational area.	eng
31608	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Selangor.	eng
31608	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Restricted to lowland forest.	eng
31608	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is experiencing rapid habitat loss through agricultural development and increasing settlement.	eng
31609	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests of these states, the species is conserved.	eng
31609	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Principally confined to the mountains of Perak, Selangor and Pahang. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
31609	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Primary forest species.	eng
31609	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is abundant within its range.	eng
31610	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the productive and protective forests of Malaya, it has a conserved status.	eng
31610	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is widely distributed in the states of Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.	eng
31610	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	From lowland to mountain forest areas.	eng
31611	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra del Cristal, Sierra de Micara and the upper Toa area in north-eastern Cuba.	eng
31611	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare tree, up to 8 m tall, found in montane shrubwoods and forests on ferritic soils derived from serpentine bedrock.	eng
31612	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree locally confined to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe in north-eastern Cuba.	eng
31612	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It occurs in montane shrubwoods and forests on ferritic soils.	eng
31613	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known only from two collections. One collection originated from Kamasul Forest Reserve, which is now being established as an artificial plantation. It is hoped that there is a population within the Virgin Jungle Reserve in Selangor.	eng
31613	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31614	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Perak and Pahang.	eng
31614	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31614	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
31614	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	There is a subpopulation on Fraser's Hill, but this area is rapidly being developed.	eng
31615	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak and Pehang (Cameron Highlands).	eng
31615	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting montane rainforest between 1,210 and 1,450 m.	eng
31615	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare tree.	eng
31616	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31616	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of montane rainforest up to 1,600 m.	eng
31617	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to one locality in Selangor.	eng
31617	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31618	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Pico Turquino and adjacent peaks in the Sierra Maesra mountain range in south-east Cuba.	eng
31618	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tree up to 10 m tall, restricted to submontane forest on rocky ridges.	eng
31618	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Population numbers are low.	eng
31619	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Serpentine area of Baracoa in eastern Cuba.	eng
31619	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree found in submontane rainforests, often along watercourses.	eng
31620	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Known only from forests near the conical karst complex of Monteverde in Guantánamo Province.	eng
31620	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This rare tree has not been collected recently.	eng
31620	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Disturbance has been heavy where logging and agricultural encroachment have occurred.	eng
31621	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra de Nipe on the border of the provinces of Santiago de Cuba and Holguin.	eng
31621	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the karstic hill complex.	eng
31621	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This endemic tree is not well collected.	eng
31621	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been degraded in accessible areas.	eng
31622	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in 10 localities.	eng
31622	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
31623	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree species occurring scattered in hill forest.	eng
31624	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in a national park.	eng
31624	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree species is scattered on ridge tops and hillsides of rainforest.	eng
31625	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Penang, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.	eng
31625	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree occurs in lowland and hill forest.	eng
31625	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Encroaching settlements are the largest threat to the species.	eng
31626	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Penang, Perak, Pahang and Singapore.	eng
31626	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree inhabiting open rainforest between 20 and 500 m.	eng
31627	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Scattered in Perak and Pehang.	eng
31627	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31627	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31628	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the hills of one forest reserve in the state of Perak.	eng
31628	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare, medium-sized tree.	eng
31628	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Tourism presents the main threat to the species.	eng
31629	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree up to 5 m tall confined to Hanabanilla River valley in south-central Cuba.	eng
31629	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This area is severely degraded by logging, agriculture, settlement and the construction of a river dam.	eng
31630	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A doubtful tree taxon found infrequently in Las Tunas and Hoguín Provinces.	eng
31631	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic tree apparently restricted to the Baracoa area of Guantanamo province.	eng
31631	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species has not been collected recently.	eng
31632	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Guamuhaya Massif, Sancti Spiritus province.	eng
31632	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This uncommon shrub or small tree is confined to montane forest.	eng
31632	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Cutting and logging are threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
31633	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Casilda, Sancti-Spíritus province. Another unconfirmed record of this species has been made from Pinar del Río.	eng
31633	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree known from coastal scrub and forest.	eng
31633	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat in this area has become severely degraded by urban expansion and tourism.	eng
31634	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Guantanamo province.	eng
31634	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This beautiful tree is localised in montane rainforest on limestone-derived soils.	eng
31634	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	No flowering specimens have ever been collected.	eng
31635	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Canasí, Matanzas province.	eng
31635	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree occurring locally near ravines and washes in serpentine outcrops.	eng
31635	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is under constant threat of being completely cut and cleared.	eng
31636	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Apparently endemic to the site where the capital city of Cuba was built, this tree was described from the area of Regla at the eastern side of Habana Bay more than a century and a half ago.	eng
31636	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A wide area of several kilometers around the harbour has been cleared and urbanized. There is very little chance of rediscovering the species.	eng
31637	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Maisí, eastern Cuba.	eng
31637	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This tree is locally restricted to coastal, dry, evergreen forests on limestone terraces.	eng
31638	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31638	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree occurs infrequently in semi-deciduous forest on shallow soils or on bare, deeply eroded limestone rocks.	eng
31639	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very rare tree in Pinar del Río Province and on Isla de Pinos.	eng
31639	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Natural pine forest along ravines and creeks	eng
31639	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Population numbers are probably too low to ensure the species' survival without intervention.	eng
31640	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra de Nipe in Holguín Province.	eng
31640	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Known only from the montane edaphic climax shrubwoods and forests.	eng
31640	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This rare tree is suffering from habitat destruction resulting from logging and mining activities.	eng
31641	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small, endemic tree locally restricted to the deeply eroded limestone mountains called the mogotes complex in Viñales, Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31641	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Limestone mountains.	eng
31642	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to Holguín in north-eastern Cuba.	eng
31642	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Serpentine outcrop.	eng
31642	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31642	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is severely degraded in most places, mainly due to grazing and urbanisation.	eng
31643	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to Habana, Matanzas, Villaclara and Camaguey provinces.	eng
31643	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to rocky serpentine hillsides.	eng
31643	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A fairly uncommon tree.	eng
31643	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	These areas are under constant pressure from cutting and clearing.	eng
31644	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Very restricted in range, this endemic tree, is restricted to Puerto Padre in north-eastern Cuba.	eng
31644	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry evergreen forests.	eng
31644	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is severely degraded in many places because of cutting, grazing and settlement.	eng
31645	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic shrub, sometimes a small tree, confined to the Peninsula de Zapata, Matanzas province in eastern Cuba.	eng
31645	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Development for tourism is currently the major threat to the species.	eng
31646	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to serpentine areas in south-east Holguín.	eng
31646	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Subpopulations have survived best near watercourses.	eng
31646	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species occurs in a habitat which has been largely replaced by secondary savannah and pastureland.	eng
31647	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31647	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Semi-deciduous forests, mainly in gallery communities along rivers and creeks.	eng
31647	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
31647	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has suffered intense degradation from logging and the ensuing invasion of exotic or secondary vegetation.	eng
31648	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree confined to the southern slopes of the Escambray mountain range in central Cuba.	eng
31648	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry forests.	eng
31648	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is degraded in places and felling or forest clearance is a constant threat.	eng
31649	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Pilón in Granma province.	eng
31649	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Populations of this shrub or small tree are restricted to the dry forests and scrublands on limestone terraces.	eng
31649	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is still locally common.	eng
31649	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat has declined and is threatened by overcutting and tourism-related development.	eng
31650	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurring on the southern slopes of the Guamuhaya Massif of Escambray in Cienfuegos Province.	eng
31650	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree, up to 10 m tall, confined to shrubwoods and forests.	eng
31650	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has declined through logging and cutting.	eng
31651	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Maisí coastal plain, at the easternmost end of Cuba.	eng
31651	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree reaching 5 m in height, confined to a small area of arid evergreen shrubwoods and scrub.	eng
31652	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree, imperfectly known, described more than half a century ago from El Morrillo in Pinar del Rio province.	eng
31652	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is needed to confirm whether the population still exists.	eng
31653	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree, along with its relative <em>C. arenicola</em>, was discovered many years ago at a single locality in Pinar del Río province.	eng
31653	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is necessary to verify the existence of this species.	eng
31653	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The site, near the Santa Cruz river, has suffered severe degradation from settlement and agriculture.	eng
31654	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe in north-eastern Cuba.	eng
31654	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree.	eng
31655	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Many years ago this small tree was reported to occur locally in the Rio del Medio region of Pinar del Río Province in western Cuba. The habitat in this area is very disturbed.	eng
31655	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is needed to check whether the original population still exists.	eng
31655	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
31656	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Monte Verde in the Nipe-Yateras district of eastern Cuba.	eng
31656	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub, sometimes a small tree, endemic to the scrub and karstic woods on limestone.	eng
31656	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Few collections have been made of this species.	eng
31657	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic tree confined to the terraces of Cabo Cruz in Gramna province.	eng
31657	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry evergreen forest on limestone.	eng
31657	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is very uncommon.	eng
31657	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Parts of Cabo Cruz have been degraded by logging and cutting.	eng
31658	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Loma del Gato in the province of Santiago de Cuba.	eng
31658	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree locally restricted to rainforest.	eng
31659	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An imperfectly known species, described from a specimen without flowers and fruits. It is a small tree, apparently restricted to the type locality, Toscano in Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31659	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	No recent collections have been made.	eng
31659	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Much of the area has been cleared for settlement and agriculture.	eng
31660	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Known only from a few localities, species occurs on the border of Santiago de Cuba with Holguin.	eng
31660	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Karstic hills and limestone plateaux.	eng
31660	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree.	eng
31661	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree confined to the karstic hill complex of Sierra de Nipe on the border of Santiago de Cuba and Holguin provinces.	eng
31661	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat degradation has occurred in the accessible areas.	eng
31662	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to Sierra Maestra and other mountain ranges in eastern Cuba.	eng
31662	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Rocky montane areas.	eng
31662	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This species is not well collected.	eng
31662	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	There has been extensive habitat loss from overcutting, mining and tourism but vegetation remains in areas which are inaccessible or unattractive to agriculture.	eng
31663	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree is locally confined to parts of the Sierra de Nipe mountain range in Holguin and Santiago de Cuba provinces.	eng
31663	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Very rare.	eng
31664	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to parts of the serpentine range, Sierra de Moas, in Holguín province.	eng
31664	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare shrub or small tree.	eng
31664	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Disturbance has been heavy in places.	eng
31665	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra Maestra range in eastern Cuba.	eng
31665	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the montane rainforests this tree thrives on shallower soils and rocky outcrops.	eng
31666	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This shrub, sometimes a small tree, is confined to the coastal areas of Casilda in Sancti Spiritus province.	eng
31666	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Very uncommon.	eng
31666	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Housing development and the expansion of tourism have caused extremely severe habitat decline.	eng
31667	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An imperfectly known species known only from a single locality in Cerro de Mendosa, Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31667	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Apparently the species is surviving precariously in a very threatened area.	eng
31668	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habana and Ciudad de la Habana provinces.	eng
31668	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree restricted to the remaining dry evergreen scrub and scrub forests on serpentine outcrops.	eng
31668	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat loss from cutting, burning, grazing and housing development has caused a decline in the species.	eng
31669	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Monteverde range in the Nipe-Yateras area of eastern Cuba.	eng
31669	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub, less often a small tree, locally confined to karstic limestone.	eng
31670	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to the Moa mountain group in eastern Cuba.	eng
31670	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon tree, up to 10 m tall, in montane rainforest on serpentine-derived soils between 400 and 900 m.	eng
31671	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Northern Isla de Pinos.	eng
31671	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon endemic shrub or small tree, restricted to savannah.	eng
31671	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Most of the original habitat in <em>Pinus tropicalis</em> forest has been converted into pastures.	eng
31672	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This endemic shrub or tree is restricted to the Sierra Maestra mountain range in eastern Cuba.	eng
31672	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurring in montane rainforest especially along creeks.	eng
31672	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It is still fairly common although in many places the species is becoming scarce.	eng
31673	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurring in Sierra Maestra and other high mountain ranges in Santiado and Guantánamo provinces.	eng
31673	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This shrub or small tree is confined to cloud forest.	eng
31673	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	There has been a reduction in the number of populations and individuals.	eng
31674	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This endemic tree is only found in the remaining forests of Cabo Cruz in Granma province of south-eastern Cuba.	eng
31674	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat is degraded in places.	eng
31675	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Discovered in the area of San Diego, Pinar del Río Province, another record of this species was made in Habana.	eng
31675	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	No collections or records have been made since its discovery in the early 19th century.	eng
31676	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Northern Sierra Maestra mountain range, province of Santiago de Cuba.	eng
31676	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree restricted to the karstic block mountains and limestone cliffs.	eng
31677	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in northern Camaguey, Las Tunas and Holguín Provinces.	eng
31677	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree recorded only from coastal dry forest.	eng
31677	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has suffered severe degradation in most places. A major present threat is development for tourism in the Tunas-Holguin coastal area.	eng
31678	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Localized to a few sites in Pinar del Río province and the adjacent Isla de Pinos. This species formerly occupied a much larger area in western Cuba.	eng
31678	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree.	eng
31679	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A monotypic genus endemic to the deeply eroded 'haystack' karstic hills of Viñales in the limestone range of Sierra de Los Organos, Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31681	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic to south-eastern Cuba.	eng
31681	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub that rarely attains the size of a small tree. It is occasionally found in dry, thorny shrubwoods on limestone.	eng
31682	conservation	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is needed to verify the number of remaining trees to assess whether the population is capable of recovery.	eng
31682	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A monotypic genus endemic to Cuba. Collections have been made in western Cuba but now this tall tree appears to be locally confined to the montane forests of central Cuba.	eng
31682	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31682	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Only a few individuals have been seen.	eng
31683	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Near the coast between Cajobabo and Jauco in Guantánamo province.	eng
31683	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub which sometimes attains the size of a small tree up to 5 m tall. It is very restricted in the dry shrubwoods and shrublands on limestone terraces.	eng
31684	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A locally endemic shrub or treelet confined to the coastal areas between Puerto Padre and Playa Herradura in north-east Cuba.	eng
31684	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It is scattered in dry evergreen forests and scrub on flat 'dog-tooth' limestone terraces.	eng
31684	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species has declined through cutting, logging and tourism.	eng
31685	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Camaguey and Ciego de Avila Provinces.	eng
31685	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree, up to 5 m tall, occurring in evergreen thorny shrubwoods on serpentine-derived soils in the lowlands.	eng
31685	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species' habitat has been severely degraded and transformed into savannah by burning and grazing.	eng
31686	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sancti Spiritus Province.	eng
31686	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree or shrub, restricted to lowland areas and savannah.	eng
31686	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It has become rare, since much of the habitat has been converted to agricultural land or pastures.	eng
31687	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the forests of El Yunque de Baracoas in Guantánamo Province.	eng
31687	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This localised shrub or small tree is found on an isolated 'monadnock' composed of limestone and dolomite.	eng
31688	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to Rangel, a small area in eastern Pinar del Río province.	eng
31688	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or small tree.	eng
31688	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species has been overcut for its valuable timber.	eng
31689	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	In Cuba, this small tree is known from the limestone hills of Baire on the northern side of the Sierra Maestra mountain range and from coastal limestone in Cabo Cruz. It has also been collected from Azua in the Dominican Republic and the Massif de la Hotte in Haiti.	eng
31689	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry forests on limestone.	eng
31690	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Santiago de Cuba Province.	eng
31690	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare shrub or tree, up to 15 m in height, locally confined to small areas of karstic semi-deciduous forest on limestone cliff.	eng
31691	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to Sierra de Anafe and other isolated limestone hills in Habana and Matanzas provinces.	eng
31691	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	There are active limestone quarries in this region.	eng
31692	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the northern karstic area of the Sierra Maestra in Santiago de Cuba Province.	eng
31692	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This uncommon shrub or small tree occurs locally in semi-deciduous and deciduous forest complex on eroded limestone.	eng
31693	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to the Sierra de Nipe mountain complex in Holguin and Santiago de Cuba provinces.	eng
31693	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Logging and cutting have resulted in habitat degradation in places.	eng
31694	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to the 'mogote complex' in Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31694	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree of subalpine deciduous forest on eroded limestone.	eng
31695	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A species typically confined to the Sierra Maestra mountain range in Santiago de Cuba and Granma Provinces.	eng
31695	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
31695	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This tree is not yet uncommon but habitat has been degraded in places and cutting is still a threat.	eng
31696	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic shrub or small tree locally confined to the mountainous area of Nagua in the west of the Sierra Maestra range in Granma province.	eng
31697	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
31697	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree, of up to 10 m in height, inhabiting semi-deciduous forest on eroded limestone.	eng
31697	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat in this region has been heavily degraded in places.	eng
31698	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in the Guanacahabibes Peninsula, Pinar del Río Province.	eng
31698	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree locally confined to the subcoastal deciduous forests on coral limestone.	eng
31698	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A paved road has been constructed to the lighthouse of Cabo San Antíonio, resulting in habitat degradation from logging and tourism.	eng
31699	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic tree.	eng
31699	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Up to 30 m tall, occurring in all types of seasonal forest, transitional between rainforest and semi-deciduous forest. The species is typical of pristine communities and acts as an indicator of minimal disturbance.	eng
31699	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Undisturbed stands are very rare.	eng
31699	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is one of the most suitable for tropical agriculture.	eng
31700	conservation	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Occurrences are recorded in forest reserves.	eng
31700	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	The species is localized in distribution, occurring in Kedah, Perak and Pahang.	eng
31700	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Occurring in lowland areas of primary and secondary forest.	eng
31700	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Pressures on the habitat are exerted by increasing settlement and cultivation of once forested areas.	eng
31701	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It occurs in Taman Nagara National Park and the protected forest of Mentigi in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
31701	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from the states of Perak and Pahang.	eng
31701	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree, restricted to lowland and submontane forest.	eng
31701	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The locality in Perak is no longer forested.	eng
31702	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the protected forests of Malaya, the tree is conserved.	eng
31702	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is confined to mountain forests at an altitude of 1,200-1,500 m,  where it is common in occurrence.	eng
31703	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	So far it has only been collected from Perak and the Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor.	eng
31703	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A very rare tree scattered in lowland forest.	eng
31704	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Maxwell's Hills is a protected resort area.	eng
31704	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Larut in Maxwell's Hills, Perak, and Bukit Kajong in Terengganu.	eng
31704	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is known only from lowland forest.	eng
31705	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area, home to many endemic plants, is currently conserved and protected	eng
31705	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree of lowland forest is known only from Larut in the Maxwell's Hills mountain range in Perak.	eng
31705	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	With increasing tourism Maxwell's Hills are likely be developed further.	eng
31706	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A large part of the area is now being developed.	eng
31706	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree restricted to the south-east Johore.	eng
31706	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland swamp forest.	eng
31707	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is mainly found on Bukit Kajong, which is a protected forest.	eng
31707	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Terengganu.	eng
31707	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31708	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the tree is conserved.	eng
31708	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is widely distributed in the lowlands and hills of Kelantan, Perak, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
31709	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Fraser's Hill by the Selangor border, this tree is known from a single locality.	eng
31709	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31709	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The main threat to the area is tourism. It is hoped that the proposed route of a new highway which is planned will not affect the population.	eng
31710	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Both localities fall within protected forest.	eng
31710	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Ulu Brang in Terengganu and the Cameron Highlands in Pahang, this tree is known only from two collections.	eng
31710	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31711	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
31711	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	With the exception of Perlis, Malacca and Jahore this lowland species is widely distributed throughout Malaya.	eng
31712	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection found in Malacca.	eng
31712	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31712	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is uncertain if this species still exists.	eng
31713	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Limestone areas are generally protected in Peninsular Malaysia, consequently the species is conserved.	eng
31713	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kedah and Perak.	eng
31713	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This small, rare tree is confined to lowland limestone areas.	eng
31714	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.	eng
31714	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Distributed in Perak, Selangor and Singapore.	eng
31714	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland species found in primary forest.	eng
31715	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from two herbarium specimens. The localities, one in Penang and the other in Malacca, are no longer forested.	eng
31715	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree was collected in lowland forest.	eng
31716	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from a single collection from Pulau Betong Reserve in Penang.	eng
31716	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
31716	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The only known location is threatened by increasing settlement and it is not certain whether this species still exists.	eng
31717	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kedah, Perak, Terengganu, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.	eng
31717	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree found in the lowland, submontane and montane forests.	eng
31717	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Common.	eng
31718	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected and permanent forests of these states the species is conserved.	eng
31718	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed throughout the states of Kedah, Perak, Trengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Jahor and Negeri Sembilan.	eng
31718	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical tree species of lowland and montane forests.	eng
31719	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree known only from the type collection, in Malacca.	eng
31719	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31719	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is uncertain whether this species is still surviving.	eng
31720	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Maxwells Hills are a protected site, consequently the species is conserved here.	eng
31720	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the Maxwells Hills in Perak.	eng
31720	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical, submontane forest species.	eng
31720	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the areas where it occurs, the tree is common.	eng
31721	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in Bukit Bauk Forest Reserve, a permanent forest reserve in Trengganu.	eng
31721	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31721	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection.	eng
31722	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It may occur in the permanent forest reserves in this state.	eng
31722	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to south-east Johore.	eng
31722	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31722	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The collection localities of this species are being developed for agriculture and resorts.	eng
31723	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is hoped that the species falls within the permanent forest reserve system.	eng
31723	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree known only from a single collection from the hill forests at Ulu Berang-tersat, Trengganu.	eng
31724	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Most of the existing forest will be conserved in the protected forests.	eng
31724	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Restricted to Maxwell's Hill in Perak.	eng
31724	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
31724	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A locally common species.	eng
31724	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This locality is going to be developed as a tourist resort.	eng
31725	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves where it is located, the tree is conserved.	eng
31725	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Malaysia.	eng
31725	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This primary species is commonly distributed throughout the lowland forests.	eng
31726	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the tree is conserved.	eng
31726	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	With the exception of Kelantan, Pahang and Johor, this tree is found scattered throughout the lowland forests of Malaya.	eng
31726	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest species.	eng
31726	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is utilized for it's timber and traded on a local level.	eng
31727	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of these states, the species is conserved.	eng
31727	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	With the exception of Penang and Jahor, this tree is distributed throughout the lowland and hill forests of Malaya.	eng
31727	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	lowland and hill forest species.	eng
31728	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from three herbarium collections. The taxonomy of the genus is in need of revision.	eng
31729	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.	eng
31729	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A medium-sized tree of rainforest.	eng
31729	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It has been collected only once in 1878.	eng
31730	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations are protected in Taman Negara National Park and elsewhere within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31730	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Malacca.	eng
31730	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree inhabiting montane rainforest between 1,000 and 1,300 m.	eng
31731	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31731	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak (on Gunung Korbu), Pahang and Johore.	eng
31731	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree of montane rainforest.	eng
31732	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A protected population is found in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31732	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pahang, Terrengganu and Perak.	eng
31732	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree inhabiting rainforest up to 2,000 m.	eng
31733	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31733	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pahang, Kedah and Selangor.	eng
31733	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of montane and submontane rainforest.	eng
31734	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree confined to the hill forest of Penang Hill, Penang.	eng
31735	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31735	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Gunung Ledang in Johore and Ulu Brang in Terengganu.	eng
31735	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree which is distributed rarely in montane rainforest.	eng
31736	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree is protected in Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31736	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found on Gunung Tahan in Pahang and on Gunung Rabong in Kelantan.	eng
31736	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A montane species.	eng
31737	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Terengganu, Kelantan, Pahang and Kedah (Gunung Jerai).	eng
31737	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of moist montane rainforest.	eng
31738	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is protected inside the Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31738	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to Terengganu.	eng
31738	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare small tree of lowland and montane rainforest.	eng
31738	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only two collections.	eng
31739	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Perak (Ulu Kerling, Slim Hills Forest Reserve at 800 m) and Selangor (Ulu Selangor at 400 m).	eng
31739	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of moist hill forest.	eng
31739	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare species.	eng
31742	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species occurs in areas of swampy hill forest.	eng
31742	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Habitat reductions have resulted from logging and increasing agriculture and settlement.	eng
31743	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This imperfectly known species is scattered in Perlis, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang.	eng
31743	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland and hill forest.	eng
31744	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in Perak and Selangor.	eng
31744	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of moist coastal hill forest	eng
31745	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Terengganu .	eng
31745	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31745	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Known from a single collection.	eng
31746	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31746	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of late secondary and primary forest of up to 600 m altitude.	eng
31747	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from Pehang in Jerantut.	eng
31747	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species occurs in moist forest at 60 m.	eng
31747	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
31748	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	States of Perak, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca.	eng
31748	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of moist forest up to 1,000 m altitude.	eng
31749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from Perak, Peninsular Malaysia, and another recent collection from Niah Cave National Park, Sarawak.	eng
31749	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31749	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from the type.	eng
31749	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is threatened by the large-scale clearance of the forest.	eng
31750	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31750	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	States of Kelantan, Terengganu and east Johore.	eng
31750	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree inhabiting rainforest between 60 and 730 m .	eng
31750	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside Taman Negara National Park it is threatened by large-scale forest clearance.	eng
31751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mount Tapis in the state of Pahang.	eng
31751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to hill forest.	eng
31751	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only a single collection.	eng
31752	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31752	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An uncommon shrub to small tree which resides in the understorey or in gaps of montane rainforest, also occurring in secondary forests at high elevation.	eng
31755	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Subpopulations are given a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.	eng
31755	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Trengganu and Pahang.	eng
31755	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31755	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from three collections.	eng
31755	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	There is still a threat from logging.	eng
31756	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Rengom Forest Reserve, a permanent forest reserve in Johore.	eng
31756	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of lowland forest.	eng
31756	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known from only two collections.	eng
31757	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The tree is conserved in the permanent forest reserves of these states.	eng
31757	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This lowland species is distributed throughout the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan.	eng
31757	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressure from felling activities is exerted on the species, as it is utilized locally for it's timber.	eng
31758	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Selangor, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.	eng
31758	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of up to 5 m, occurring in lowland rainforests and swamp forests.	eng
31758	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The main threat is encroaching settlements.	eng
31759	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia, this very large tree is an important source of keruing timber.	eng
31760	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Known to occur in a number of forest reserves.	eng
31760	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	It is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31760	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is locally common in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31761	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is found infrequently on hill slopes in dipterocarp forest.	eng
31762	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is locally common on lowland clay-rich fertile soil.	eng
31763	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of periodically inundated sandy soils.	eng
31764	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is contained within productive and protected forests in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31764	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31765	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
31765	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest degradation.	eng
31766	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A tree scattered mainly in lowland secondary forest.	eng
31766	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Threats include logging and urban encroachment.	eng
31767	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	So far it is known only from Keledang Saiong Forest Reserve in Perak, and Gunung Tapis in Pahang.	eng
31767	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A rare tree scattered in lowland and hill forest.	eng
31768	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Confined to Gunung Korbu, the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill.	eng
31768	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
31768	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This region is threatened by the expansion of human habitation and tourism.	eng
31770	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This forest species is known only from Gunung Mandi Angin, Ulu Sg. Terengganu and Ulu Bendong Kemaman in Terengganu.	eng
31770	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Rarely found.	eng
31771	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of moist lowland to hill forest.	eng
31772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found throughout Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is locally common in mixed dipterocarp forest and submontane forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
31773	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in rainforest up to 260 m.	eng
31773	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The most prominent threat to this species is the expansion of human habitations.	eng
31774	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Within national and state parks the tree is conserved.	eng
31774	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A widespread species found from lowlands to hill forests up to 900 m.  Often also occurs in secondary forests and along streams.	eng
31774	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The greatest pressure exerted on the species is from the expansion of human settlement.	eng
31775	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31775	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
31776	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to a single locality on the Kedah-Perak border.	eng
31776	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
31776	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Under pressure from increasing settlement of the area.	eng
31778	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are thought to receive some protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31778	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Cameron Highlands, in the state of Pahang. Information on the taxonomy and conservation of the species is insufficient.	eng
31778	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is confined to moist forest.	eng
31778	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The area is experiencing increasing settlement and tourism.	eng
31779	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
31779	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An uncommon tree found in moist lowland and submontane forest.	eng
31779	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Increasing settlement of the area is the greatest threat to the species.	eng
31780	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Malacca.	eng
31780	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31780	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Very rare tree.	eng
31780	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Under threat from increasing settlement of the area.	eng
31781	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A protected subpopulation is found in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31781	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Distributed in the states of Terengganu, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Johore.	eng
31781	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of rainforest and swamp forest.	eng
31782	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Bubu Forest Reserve, Perak.	eng
31782	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of hill forest.	eng
31783	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to a single locality in Selangor.	eng
31783	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very rare shrub or small tree.	eng
31784	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs entirely in protected area.	eng
31784	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found within the boundaries of the Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31784	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small tree is known from lowland, hill and peat-swamp forest.	eng
31785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two collections: one from Perak and the other from Kedah.	eng
31785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of rainforest.	eng
31786	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is confined to rainforest in Perak.	eng
31786	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
31787	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is confined to the state of Perak.	eng
31787	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A large tree inhabiting lowland rainforest and occasionally freshwater swamps.	eng
31788	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Perak.	eng
31788	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31789	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Penang and Perak.	eng
31789	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree inhabiting rainforest between 150 and 1,100 m.	eng
31789	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31790	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	States of Kelantan, Terengganu, Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan.	eng
31790	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A large tree up to 33 m tall, inhabiting lowland and hill forest.	eng
31791	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31791	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is found in lowland, primary forest.	eng
31791	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are unprotected and threatened by increasing settlement and logging.	eng
31792	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring only in the state of Selangor.	eng
31792	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of moist forest up to an altitude of 300 m.	eng
31793	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	North-eastern Johore.	eng
31793	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This is an uncommon small tree confined to shady, low-lying, seasonally swampy forests.	eng
31794	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The populations are protected within state parks and Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31794	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is recorded from Temerloh in Pahang and east Johore.	eng
31794	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in freshwater swamps and near streams in lowland and hill rainforest up to 480 m.	eng
31795	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is protected in state parks, wildlife reserves and forest reserves.	eng
31795	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Johore and Terengganu.	eng
31795	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree inhabiting the primary rainforest up to an altitude 540 m.	eng
31796	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is protected within Taman Negara National Park and other protected forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31796	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in montane and submontane rainforest areas.	eng
31797	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Within state parks, forest reserves and research forests the tree is conserved.	eng
31797	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31797	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tropical moist species, is found in primary and disturbed lowland and hill forest.  Occasionally the species may be found in swamp forest or near river banks.	eng
31797	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pressures from settlement expansion and timber felling activities are a threat.	eng
31799	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species inhabits both closed and open lowland rainforest and swamp or disturbed forests.	eng
31799	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Many such forests in the state of Johore have undergone conversion, particularly for housing developments.	eng
31800	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs at 1,300 m on Frasers Hill, Pahang.	eng
31800	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare species.	eng
31800	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The prime threat to this species is tourism.	eng
31801	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A few collections have been made, from the states of Kedah and Perak.	eng
31801	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of hill and submontane forest up to 900 m.	eng
31801	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Logging and increasing settlement are the principal threats to remaining populations.	eng
31802	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This endemic tree is scattered in Penang and Johore.	eng
31802	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland primary forest.	eng
31802	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Both states are undergoing rapid habitat clearance for increasing settlement.	eng
31803	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is found in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31803	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree of moist submontane rainforest up to 1,450 m.	eng
31804	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is protected within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31804	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Pahang on Gunung Tahan.	eng
31804	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of cloud forest, distributed between 1,700 and 1,800 m.	eng
31805	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Terengganu, Pahang (Gunung Tahan) and Johore.	eng
31805	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree occurring in lowland forest, hill forest and occasionally along sandy river banks.	eng
31807	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is protected in the Taman Negara National Park.	eng
31807	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pahang.	eng
31807	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
31808	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Johore.	eng
31808	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small or medium-sized tree which inhabits the lowland swamp forests.	eng
31809	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31809	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	States of Perak, Kelantan, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
31809	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree inhabiting rainforest between 100 and 2,000 m.	eng
31810	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs within National Park boundaries.	eng
31810	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest species, found only in Pahang, at Wray's camp on Gunung Tahan in Taman Negara National Park. The species taxonomic status is doubtful. It is similar to <em>A. malaccensis</em> but the specimen material is too poor to verify the floral characters.	eng
31810	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
31811	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Kuala, Terengganu.	eng
31811	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Lowland moist forest.	eng
31811	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31812	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from a single herbarium specimen which was collected on the bank of the Kinta River, Perak.	eng
31812	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31812	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31813	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Keledang Saiong Forest Reserve in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia, Lambill Hill, Sarawak and the Andulau Forest Reserve, Brunei.	eng
31813	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
31814	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu and Gunung Tapis in Pahang.	eng
31814	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This large tree is common at 600 m in moist montane forest.	eng
31815	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Found in Bukit Bauk, Jerangau, Ulu Sg. Loh and Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu.	eng
31815	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Open moist forest.	eng
31815	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A locally common tree.	eng
31816	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This tree grows in lowland and hill forests.	eng
31816	population	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Scattered and rare.	eng
31817	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Mersing and Mawai-Jemaluang, Johore.	eng
31817	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A rare tree of lowland moist forest.	eng
31818	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Ulu Sg. Anak Endau, Pahang.	eng
31818	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A tree of lowland moist forest.	eng
31819	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31819	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species grows in open clusters in moist coastal forest.	eng
31819	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Tourism and housing developments are this species' greatest threats.	eng
31820	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is conserved within the country's national park.	eng
31820	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31820	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is found scattered throughout primary and disturbed hill forests, where it is common in occurrence.	eng
31820	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The expansion of human settlements is the principle pressure exerted on the species.	eng
31821	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Within protected forests, permanent forest estates and forest reserves the species is conserved.	eng
31821	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A commonly occurring species of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31821	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in primary and disturbed lowland and submontane forests.	eng
31821	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Harvested timber is used on a local scale, however human activities such as felling, housing development and agricultural expansion exert pressure on the species.	eng
31822	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Scattered in Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and Malacca.	eng
31822	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31822	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species has experienced extensive habitat conversion for various land uses.	eng
31823	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Throughout Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
31823	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of lowland hill forest, occurring along streams.	eng
31823	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The habitat is under pressure from logging.	eng
31824	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An endemic tree of Peninsular Malaysia	eng
31824	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting primary rainforest up to 330 m.	eng
31825	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the protected forests of Selangor and Pahang the species is protected.	eng
31825	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is generally confined to mountain forests in Selangor and Pahang, within these areas occurrence is common.  A collection has also been found by the Tahon River, in the lowlands of Pahang.	eng
31825	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	mountain forests.	eng
31826	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Penang and Selangor.	eng
31826	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree scattered in moist hill forest between 300 and 450 m.	eng
31826	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Both localities are under plans for development.	eng
31827	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in permanent forest reserves.	eng
31827	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found throughout the states of Malaysia.	eng
31827	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A small, lowland, swamp forest primary species.	eng
31827	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Common.	eng
31828	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves in Malay the species is conserved.	eng
31828	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pahang, Perak, Penang, Selangor, Jahor and Singapore.	eng
31828	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is widely distributed throughout the lowland, primary forests.	eng
31829	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from localities in Johore and Bukit Timah Forest Reserve in Singapore. More information is needed to consolidate the species' occurrence in Viet Nam.	eng
31829	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland forest below 100 m.	eng
31830	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of Malaya, the specie is conserved.	eng
31830	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Distributed in Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Singapore.	eng
31830	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical forest species.	eng
31831	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known within forest reserves.	eng
31831	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is probably a synonym of <em>H. oblongifolia</em>.	eng
31833	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species, found locally on well-drained undulating low-lying ground.	eng
31834	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Although scattered and rare in lowland rainforest in Kedah, Pahang and Selangor, the species does not yet qualify as threatened.	eng
31834	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Although scattered and rare in Kedah, Pahang and Selangor, the species does not yet qualify as threatened. It is hoped there are subpopulations within the production forest reserves of these states.	eng
31834	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31835	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
31835	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species inhabits open and closed rainforest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.	eng
31836	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs in protective forest within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31836	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Not restricted in range.	eng
31836	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A primary hill forest species.	eng
31837	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the species is conserved.	eng
31837	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
31837	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This small tree is widely distributed throughout the lowland and submontane forests.	eng
31838	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Four small localities are contained within forest reserves.	eng
31838	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor, Malacca and Singapore.	eng
31838	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31838	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Much of the remaining habitat is under threat from development.	eng
31839	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Kelantan, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
31839	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring up to 1,600 m, the species is found in both open and closed rainforest.	eng
31840	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia it is known from Terengganu and Perak.	eng
31840	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
31840	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It has been rarely collected.	eng
31841	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded from Perak and Johore in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31841	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31841	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare species.	eng
31842	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31842	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Perak and Singapore.	eng
31842	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of moist forest up to 1,300 m.	eng
31844	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the productive forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.	eng
31844	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pahang and Terengganu.	eng
31844	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	An uncommon tree that is a tropical moist species, found in the lowland and hill forest areas.	eng
31844	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is threatened by felling activities.	eng
31845	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is expected the species will be found in the nearby production forest reserves in Perak and Selangor.	eng
31845	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
31845	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The collection localities of  this tree are being developed for agriculture and settlement.	eng
31846	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the production forest reserves where the tree occurs, the species is preserved.	eng
31846	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is widely distributed throughout Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
31846	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurring in lowland areas of primary forest.	eng
31846	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Traded on an minor international level as a fuel source, forestry activities are the principle pressure exerted on the species.	eng
31847	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of Peninsular Malaysia, the species is conserved.  Protection in Virgin jungle reserves and national parks is uncertain.	eng
31847	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.  Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now included in	eng
31847	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical moist species, scattered in primary forests.	eng
31847	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Timber of the tree is traded on a minor international level, consequently the resulting felling activities are the fundamental pressure exerted upon the species.	eng
31848	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The tree occurs in many permanent forest reserves, virgin jungle reserves and research forests, however, it is uncertain whether the species is protected within these.	eng
31848	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
31848	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This rain forest species, is widely distributed in the lowland and hill forest areas.	eng
31848	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Logging activities are a pressure commonly exerted on the species.	eng
31849	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from three collections from Selangor, Malacca and Johore.	eng
31849	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare tree of lowland rainforest .	eng
31849	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is threatened by increasing settlement and agriculture.	eng
31850	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Apparently endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31850	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This scattered species grows in lowland and hill rainforest up to 270 m.	eng
31850	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Expansion of settlements and forest clearance are the main threats.	eng
31852	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Export of the timber is banned from India.	eng
31852	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Regeneration is mostly vegetative by wood suckers or coppicing and is very successful in places. Viable seeds are produced after five years and dispersed by birds.	eng
31852	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Sandalwood is a hemi-parasitic plant which is widely scattered in dry deciduous forests.	eng
31852	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Fire, grazing and most importantly exploitation of the wood for fine furniture and carving and also oil are threatening the species. Smuggling has assumed alarming proportions.	eng
31853	conservation	Vovides, A.P., 1998	Natural regeneration is evident and the species is being grown from seed at the Botanic Garden in Xalapa.	eng
31853	distribution	Vovides, A.P., 1998	Three subpopulations of a few mature trees, exist in central Veracruz.	eng
31853	habitat	Vovides, A.P., 1998	Deciduous thorn forest on karst hills.	eng
31853	threats	Vovides, A.P., 1998	They are situated on relatively inaccessible slopes, but trees still appear to be cut for the wood.	eng
31854	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region. This small genus is endemic to Mexico.	eng
31854	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest tree confined to high-precipitation forest.	eng
31855	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Uxpananpa-Chimalapa region.	eng
31855	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen hill forest.	eng
31855	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively common tree.	eng
31856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An isolated and distinctive species of <em>Rinorea</em>. Type collection taken from Uxpanapa. The species appears to be more closely related to paleotropical members of the genus.	eng
31856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing in seasonal forest on karst limestone.	eng
31856	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection of 1982.	eng
31856	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although there has been much deforestation, the areas on karst are generally unattractive to cultivate or log.	eng
31858	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most parts of the range are protected.	eng
31858	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, occurs in small populations only in Chiriquí and Darién. In Costa Rica populations appear to be larger and scattered throughout the country at elevations above 1,000 m. Records also exist from Venezuela and it is likely that the species will be found in Colombia.	eng
31858	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
31858	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Extensive agriculture is beginning to affect some high-altitude areas in Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
31859	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	There have been no records of the species since 1980. The two collections known are from the same site. Fieldwork is needed in order to ascertain whether the species still exists.	eng
31860	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Several populations are contained within Chagres National Park.	eng
31860	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only small subpopulations are known, in Cerro Jefe.	eng
31860	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
31860	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Populations outside protected areas are increasingly threatened by encroaching agriculture, settlements and industrial developments.	eng
31861	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	In Central America the species is represented by a single collection from Swan Island, Honduras.	eng
31861	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall, occurring in thickets and woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
31861	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species has been heavily exploited for its timber over a long period on all the West Indian islands. Stands are now largely depleted of mature trees and the timber is extremely rare in international trade.	eng
31862	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Mt. Kinabalu population is almost entirely contained within a national park.	eng
31862	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is only known from Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah. There is also a disjunct population, which occurs within a highly restricted area on the summit ridge of Mt Moored in Sarawak. This latter occurrence has been referred to as <em>A. orbicula</em> by de Laubenfels.	eng
31862	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mossy ridge forest above 1,500 m.	eng
31862	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Apparently relatively common.	eng
31862	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Mt. Murud population is unprotected and the area is under considerable pressure for development.	eng
31863	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Moist lowland forest associated with sandstone kerangas.	eng
31863	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although the species is widespread, it occurs in isolated populations.	eng
31863	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The timber is heavily exploited.	eng
31864	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations in Mt. Kinabalu are relatively well protected.	eng
31864	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This large tree is known only from Mt. Kinabalu and the adjacent Crocker range.	eng
31864	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in lower montane forest and possibly hill forest.	eng
31864	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Crocker range is a large area with a poorly defined boundary. There are frequent illegal incursions, mainly to remove timber from this species.	eng
31865	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Ranging from southern Sabah to central Sarawak, this tree is found scattered in relatively few locations.	eng
31865	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Rainforests and kerangas on low mountains and plateaux.	eng
31865	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Levels of timber exploitation and the effects on populations are little known but are likely to be considerable.	eng
31866	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Bukit Siol, Sempadi Forest Reserve and Gunung Pueh, 1st Division.	eng
31866	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree, apparently a component of kerangas forest.	eng
31867	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known by only a single collection from Sabah. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.	eng
31868	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from the type collection only. However, the taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.	eng
31869	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collection. However, the taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.	eng
31870	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah. It is known from Mt Kinabalu, Ranau, Kota Marudu and Mt Rara.	eng
31870	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in rainforest and disturbed forest on hillsides up to 1,500 m, often on ultramafic soils.	eng
31872	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak.	eng
31872	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31872	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
31877	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection taken from Tawau, Sabah and from Brunei.	eng
31877	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31877	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
31878	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from a single collection from Kuching, Sarawak and from Brunei.	eng
31878	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31879	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak; type specimen collected on Mt Matang.	eng
31879	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31879	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type specimen.	eng
31886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, endemic to Sarawak. It is locally frequent in west Baram.	eng
31886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, found in lowland forest near rivers.	eng
31887	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak, known only from Bako National Park, Gunung Santubong and Mulu National Park.	eng
31887	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland and submontane forest.	eng
31888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus endemic to Sarawak. It is known only from Nyabau Forest Reserve, Bako National Park, Sri Aman and Bayai.	eng
31888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree grows in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest.	eng
31891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Western Borneo. In Sarawak, the only known occurrence is in the Kuching region.	eng
31891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small dioecious tree which occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached yellow soils.	eng
31893	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak, this species is known only from Mt Santubong.	eng
31893	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest at an elevation of 90 m.	eng
31894	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31894	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by habitat loss.	eng
31896	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An endemic tree.	eng
31896	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest on low hills.	eng
31896	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The demand for agricultural land exerts a strong pressure on remaining forest.	eng
31897	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	An occurrence is recorded in a site proposed  as a reserve.	eng
31897	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree which is locally common on clay-rich hillsides and spurs.	eng
31898	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A subspecies endemic to Borneo.	eng
31898	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs throughout mixed dipterocarp forest on rich clay soils.	eng
31899	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs locally on river banks.	eng
31900	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Western Sarawak.	eng
31900	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Restricted to granodiorite hill slopes.	eng
31900	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree may already be extinct.	eng
31901	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This small tree species is locally frequent in Sarawak.	eng
31902	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is recorded in sites proposed for reserve status.	eng
31902	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is locally abundant by streams.	eng
31903	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.	eng
31903	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is locally abundant in Sarawak.	eng
31904	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is restricted to Sarawak.	eng
31904	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31905	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is locally frequent in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31906	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed dipterocarp and heath forest.	eng
31906	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The habitat is threatened by clearance and degradation.	eng
31907	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
31907	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Northern Borneo.	eng
31907	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed peat-swamp forest.	eng
31907	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Peat-swamp forest is highly threatened in Borneo.	eng
31908	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations are also known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
31908	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally common in Perak forests.	eng
31909	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of northern Borneo.	eng
31909	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found growing in mixed dipterocarp forest on low hills.	eng
31910	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	There are subpopulations present in forest reserves.	eng
31910	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on leached soils.	eng
31912	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
31912	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A gregarious tree found on clay soils.	eng
31913	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It does occur in a protected reserve.	eng
31913	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The population of this species is extremely small.	eng
31915	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31915	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Ridges and hill forests.	eng
31915	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is slow-growing and therefore directly threatened by logging operations. The tree is cut for balau timber.	eng
31920	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sarawak.	eng
31920	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree confined to the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31921	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic in Sarawak and eastern Kalimantan.	eng
31921	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This rare tree is found on clay-rich soils on hill ridges.	eng
31922	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A magnificent yellow meranti timber species endemic to the Hose Mts. in Sarawak.	eng
31922	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Fertile volcanic soils.	eng
31923	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.	eng
31923	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sarawak.	eng
31923	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of remaining fragments of heath forest.	eng
31923	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is mainly threatened by habitat degradation.	eng
31924	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Borneo.	eng
31924	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An immense tree locally common on fertile clay-rich soil.	eng
31925	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Central Sarawak.	eng
31925	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31925	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is threatened by forest degradation.	eng
31926	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.	eng
31927	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Sarawak.	eng
31927	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31929	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is known to occur in some primary forest reserves.	eng
31929	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31929	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The main source of balau timber for Sabah. Logging poses a severe threat because the trees are unable to reach reproductive maturity between cutting cycles.	eng
31930	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species also occurs in some primary forest reserves.	eng
31930	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is endemic to Sabah.	eng
31930	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31930	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by habitat conversion and degradation.	eng
31931	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are also reported in primary forest reserves.	eng
31931	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Brunei and Sarawak.	eng
31931	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31932	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.	eng
31932	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of heath forest in coastal areas and on dry ridges.	eng
31932	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Suffering from habitat degradation.	eng
31933	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Sarawak.	eng
31933	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Heath forest dipterocarp.	eng
31933	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Seriously threatened with extinction because of forest conversion and degradation.	eng
31934	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species with a restricted range.	eng
31934	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found only in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31935	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Restricted to west Kalimantan and Sarawak.	eng
31935	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is confined to the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
31935	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
31936	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree that is found in the transitional zone between heath forest and mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31936	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is suffering from habitat conversion and degradation.	eng
31937	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree endemic to north-western Borneo.	eng
31937	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on clay alluvium river banks.	eng
31938	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is restricted to primary lowland dipterocarp forest and riverine forests.	eng
31939	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found throughout Borneo.	eng
31939	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Primary and disturbed lowland forest up to 600 m.	eng
31939	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
31940	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small slender tree apparently endemic to Sarawak and known from just four collections.	eng
31940	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in coastal kerangas and secondary forest on eroded white sand.	eng
31941	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs throughout much of Borneo, although it has not yet been collected in Sabah.	eng
31941	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest tree.	eng
31942	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected just four times from Sarawak and Sabah.	eng
31942	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in upper dipterocarp forest.	eng
31943	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This tree has a restricted distribution.	eng
31943	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A tall tree found in lowland mixed forest, <em>Agathis</em> forest and ridge forest.	eng
31943	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	No recent collections have been made.	eng
31944	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This species is locally frequent in northern Borneo including an occurrence on Nunukan Island.	eng
31944	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31945	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane species, endemic to Mt Kinabalu and the surrounding area.	eng
31945	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally common.	eng
31946	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from two collections from Sabah, a single collection from Sarawak and another from north-east Kalimantan.	eng
31946	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in logged forest and riverine forest.	eng
31947	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Restricted to Borneo.	eng
31947	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A locally frequent species.	eng
31950	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from three collections from south Kalimantan.	eng
31950	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland <em>Agathis</em> forest on sand ridges in peat forest.	eng
31951	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to two collections from Mount Majau, Sarawak.	eng
31952	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found in Sarawak, Sabah and East Kalimantan	eng
31952	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A locally common species.	eng
31953	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is locally common in Sarawak and Sabah.	eng
31953	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower montane.	eng
31954	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest up to an altitude of 700 m.	eng
31955	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found especially on and around Mt Kinabalu. A single collection has also been recorded from Sarawak.	eng
31955	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in montane forest.	eng
31956	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from two collections from the Third Division, Sarawak, a single collection from the Beaufort District, Sabah, and a recent collection from east Kalimantan.	eng
31957	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree found in the Third Division of Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan (including Nunukan Island).	eng
31958	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This species occurs in Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
31959	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is found at the foot of limestone mountains.	eng
31959	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from five collections.	eng
31960	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be restricted to Sarawak and west Kalimantan.	eng
31960	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from three collections.	eng
31962	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Miri, Bintulu and Tatau.	eng
31962	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31962	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncommon.	eng
31966	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah, in Ranau.	eng
31966	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known only from montane forest.	eng
31967	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is endemic to north-east Sarawak.	eng
31967	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found growing on the banks of rocky streams.	eng
31968	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to East Kalimantan.	eng
31968	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded on a sandstone ridge at 400 m.	eng
31969	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species also is found in forest reserves.	eng
31969	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that occurs locally on flat coastal swamps on yellow sandy soils and on low hills.	eng
31970	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	A lofty tree that is a source of balau timber. Logging is a serious threat because the reproductive cycle of the species exceeds the present cutting cycle.	eng
31971	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree that is found locally on ridges.	eng
31972	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of remaining patchy kerangas vegetation on podzols and sandstone cuestas.	eng
31972	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The population in Peninsular Malaysia has declined because of overexploitation.	eng
31973	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31974	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree with a local distribution in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
31974	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The main threat to the species is forest conversion and degradation.	eng
31975	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	One of the larger trees of this genus, scattered in mixed dipterocarp forest.  Some trees may also be found in primary forest reserves.	eng
31976	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in central Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
31976	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of low ridges and coastal hills.	eng
31977	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some areas receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
31977	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in Perak, Pahang, Penang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca, Johore and Singapore.	eng
31977	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of moist forest up to 1,300 m.	eng
31978	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Within forest reserves of Peninsular Malaysia the species is conserved.	eng
31978	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Principle distribution is mainly on ridges and summits of primary hill forests.	eng
31978	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A widely occurring tropical moist species, from lowlands to submontane forests.	eng
31979	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is conserved within permanent forest reserves throughout the country.	eng
31979	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is commonly found in primary forest throughout Malaya.	eng
31979	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical moist tree, occurring in lowland areas in primary forest.	eng
31980	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas, the species is conserved.	eng
31980	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found scattered in the southern lowlands of Malaya. It has been specifically recorded in the states of Negeri Sembilan and Johor.	eng
31980	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical, moist species.	eng
31981	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The tree is conserved in the productive forest reserves where it occurs.	eng
31981	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed in lowland and hill forests.	eng
31981	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical rainforest species.	eng
31981	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Locally used as a source of fuel, the felling activities which result from this, are the main threat to the species.	eng
31982	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is possible a population exists in the productive forest reserves in Kelantan.	eng
31982	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kelantan and Johore.	eng
31982	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree confined to freshwater swamp and lowland forest.	eng
31982	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species' localities are vulnerable to development, especially the swamp forests of Johore which are being rapidly settled.	eng
31984	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is now part of a conservation programme.	eng
31984	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China the species is confined to localities in Lanchang, Menglian, Ximeng and Mengla in southern Yunnan. Subpopulations are known to exist in north-west Thailand but further information on them is required.	eng
31984	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane evergreen forest.	eng
31984	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has declined through logging and clearing for agriculture	eng
31987	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Banten to Preanger.	eng
31987	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is locally common in montane forest remnants between 1,200 and 2,200 m.	eng
31987	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its high-altitude distribution avoids the worst levels of  habitat clearance and cutting but the species habitat  is nevertheless under severe pressure.	eng
31988	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In remaining forest patches in west and central Java.	eng
31988	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species occurring between 1,200 and 1,700 m.	eng
31988	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These areas, although they are not as badly affected as forest at lower elevations, are under severe pressure from the activities of the surrounding human populations.	eng
31989	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring only in areas of primary forest in west and central regions.	eng
31989	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both the species and the habitat are uncommon.	eng
31989	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The pressures on remaining forest patches are very high, especially at elevations below 1,400 m, where the forest is almost completely cleared.	eng
31990	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Slamet and further west.	eng
31990	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Patches of remaining submontane forest up to 1,800 m.	eng
31990	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively common species where it occurs.	eng
31990	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat has been almost completely cleared below 1,400 m and at higher elevations it is under severe pressure from the activities of surrounding human populations.	eng
31991	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is possibly synonymous with <em>A. dasyphylla</em>. It is found on Mt Papandayan, Malabar and Dieng.	eng
31991	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in montane forests between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
31992	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damp montane forests above 400 m.	eng
31992	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread but uncommon species.	eng
31992	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At lower elevation the species habitat has been almost completely cleared.	eng
31993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is apparently sparsely distributed on Mt Salak and near Pelabuhan Ratu.	eng
31993	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
31993	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas, close to Bogor city, appear to be without official protection and are susceptible to encroachment and cutting.	eng
31994	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Mt Tlerep, Merbabu and Sumbing.	eng
31994	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scrub or grassland.	eng
31994	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is uncommon.	eng
31994	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The soil is noted to be fertile. These areas, although less affected than those at lower elevations, are under severe pressure from the activities and demands of the surrounding human populations.	eng
31995	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been found only once at 1,350 m near the crater on Mt. Salak. It may be a natural hybrid of <em>R. javanicum</em> and <em>R. malayanum</em>.	eng
31996	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the west.	eng
31996	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In scattered remnants of hill forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
31996	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat has been almost completely cleared and remaining patches are under extremely severe pressure from the activities of local populations.	eng
31997	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thesubpopulation on the Kambangan is relatively well protected by the presence of three high-security prisons. A reserve of 20 km² is also patrolled by armed guards.	eng
31997	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are confined to the south-west corner of Java and to Nusa Kambangan.	eng
31997	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
31997	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Illegal logging. On the mainland the habitat is also under extreme pressure from local activities.	eng
31998	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	From Pacitan to Kawi.	eng
31998	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The species occurs in mixed lowland forest up to 700 m.	eng
31998	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	There have been no recent collections.	eng
31998	threats	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The habitat has been almost completely cleared at this altitude and there is intense pressure on remaining forested areas.	eng
31999	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the west.	eng
31999	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed montane forest at about 1,750 m.	eng
31999	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be very rare.	eng
31999	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The pressures from encroachment and cutting exerted on the habitat at this high elevation are less intense than at lower levels but are still very strong.	eng
32000	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vicinity of Bogor.	eng
32000	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species distributed in remnant hill forests.	eng
32000	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is unknown how much of the original population remains.	eng
32000	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of habitat clearance and cutting has been extremely high.	eng
32001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic on the islands of Karimunjawa and Kangean.	eng
32001	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Beach forest.	eng
32001	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	More information is needed on the present status of each population.	eng
32002	conservation	Wiles, G., 1998	The species is listed as endangered by the Guam government and two populations are effectively protected within military bases.	eng
32002	distribution	Wiles, G., 1998	The species is known from occurrences on Guam, Tinian, Saipan and Rota in the Mariana Islands, and also possibly on Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands.	eng
32002	habitat	Wiles, G., 1998	A medium-sized tree of moist forest on limestone cliffs and coastal windblown sites.	eng
32002	population	Wiles, G., 1998	There are about 1,000 trees on Guam, several hundred on Tinian and fewer than 100 on Saipan. The Rota subpopulation has not been found recently.	eng
32002	threats	Wiles, G., 1998	There is strong evidence to suggest that the species is not regenerating. Seedlings and seeds are predated by ungulates and crabs.	eng
32003	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Larger Marianne and Caroline Islands.	eng
32003	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found in thickets and secondary forest.	eng
32003	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat decline.	eng
32004	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the Chittagong District of Bangladesh.	eng
32004	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type.	eng
32005	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic family of just two species. This is the rarer taxon, occurring on Vanua Levu and Taveuni in small, scattered subpopulations.	eng
32006	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Populations occur on Moorea and Tahiti.	eng
32007	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is little information on this endemic to the Bahamas.	eng
32007	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are still substantial areas which remain undeveloped on the islands and the species is not thought to be under threat.	eng
32008	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in widely separated localities.	eng
32008	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
32008	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two collections.	eng
32009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main concentration of the species occurs in Travancore, along the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Collections have also been made further north in the Western Ghats into Karnataka.	eng
32009	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low- to medium-altitude forest.	eng
32010	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations, which are sometimes recognised as separate varieties, have been recorded in the Tubuai Group, on Raivavae, Rurutu and Rapa, apparently on Mauke in the Cook Islands and on all the main Hawaiian Islands with the exception of Niihau and Kahoolawe.	eng
32010	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Hawaii the species once formed a significant component of lowland dry forest, and is now restricted to remnant patches of forest on lava flows and slopes which are less attractive for cultivation or grazing.	eng
32010	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On Raivavae and Rurutu subpopulations are in a critical state, but on Rapa they are unthreatened.	eng
32010	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has become rare because of habitat loss.	eng
32012	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree occurring in primary and secondary forest up to 830 m.	eng
32012	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat.	eng
32013	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of mixed dry forest, occurring at middle elevations.	eng
32014	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The main part of the species range occurs in Costa Rica, concentrated in the region of Río San Juan and La Selva Biological Station in the north-west. In Panama collections have been made in Chiriquí, near the border with Costa Rica.	eng
32014	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32014	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The subpopulations in Panama appear to be very restricted and under some threat from cattle ranching and commercial banana cultivation.	eng
32015	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from a few collections all taken from a small area around Cerro Colorado in Chiriquí.	eng
32015	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
32015	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There is much activity in the area, particularly copper and gold mining.	eng
32016	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Type collection from Cerro Tute in Verguas.	eng
32016	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the type specimen collected in 1975. It is not known whether the species still exists and the area is little explored.	eng
32017	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. Quebracho is the national tree of Argentina.	eng
32017	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is a characteristic component of the Gran Chaco, especially in the eastern humid plains.  It apparently takes 120 years for the species to reach maturity.	eng
32017	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species, remains common over large areas.	eng
32017	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	It is a source of timber and more importantly tannin.  Quebracho forest has declined by 65% over the past 80 years through logging and clearance for cattle ranching and agriculture. Exploitation in the present day does not reach pre-1954 levels, but overselection of fit individuals has resulted in large areas of forest (80,000 km² in the dry Chaco subregion) being dominated by unproductive small bushes. More than 40,000 km² of forest is thought to have become totally degraded through overgrazing by cattle.	eng
32018	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally thought to be endemic to Tucumán in Argentina, the species has recently been discovered in a small area in Bolivia.	eng
32019	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is listed in Appendix I of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
32019	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations in Argentina are very small and scattered. Their exact locations are kept undisclosed for better protection.	eng
32019	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
32019	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Threatened mainly by loss of habitat, although also an important commercial timber.	eng
32020	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Some taxonomists still refer to the species under the small genus <em>Myracrodruon</em>.	eng
32020	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	A dominant component of caatinga, also occurring widely in cerrado.	eng
32020	threats	Prado, D., 1998	It is commercially overexploited for the decay-resistant dense wood. Large natural stands have become scarce in places. All size classes are exploited for a variety of uses: small trees for fencing and larger trees for railroad ties, posts and other construction work.	eng
32021	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A characteristic tree of the Chaco Serrano. In Argentina subpopulations range from the north-east up to San Juan, San Luis and Córdoba.	eng
32021	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is rapidly declining throughout the range, particularly in Córdoba.	eng
32022	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay.	eng
32022	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	It occurs abundantly and over a wide range in lowland dry forest types.  An important timber tree and source of tanin, fuelwood and fodder.	eng
32022	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The extent of occurrence is constantly contracting with the spread of cattle ranching, agriculture and indiscriminate logging, particularly in Santiago del Estero in Argentina.	eng
32023	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	<em>Peroba rosa</em> is a popular timber tree, which has suffered intense exploitation and habitat loss over the past few decades. The Brazilian subpopulations are largely eroded. Subpopulations in Colombia are seriously threatened. In Paraguay, the species was relatively recently described as one of the dominant components of some areas of forest, but here too rapid population declines have resulted in the species being hard to find and no longer commercially viable to exploit. In Argentina the species is rare and confined to the north of Misiones.	eng
32023	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Timber exploitation	eng
32024	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree found in diverse habitats, from pastureland to rainforest.	eng
32024	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The heavy, hard wood is used for carving and construction and is exploitated, notably in Brazil, at such a level as to cause significant population declines.	eng
32025	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed from Mexico to the Andes.	eng
32025	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread montane species.  It is common in cloud forest and montane rainforest but much of its original habitat in the drier inter-Andean valleys has disappeared over the centuries.  They coppice well and regenerate well.	eng
32025	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These trees are an important local source of fuelwood and timber for construction.	eng
32026	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Widely occurring and relatively common in the Chaco region. It reaches the margins of its range in Brazil, where it is confined to Porto Murtinho. In Bolivia the species is well represented in herbarium collections.	eng
32026	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is found in lowland deciduous forest.	eng
32026	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Throughout its range it is exploited as a popular source of timber, but the most serious threat is habitat loss.	eng
32027	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	The species is reported to be endemic to the endangered piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
32027	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The ecosystem is rapidly being converted to agriculture.	eng
32028	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large subpopulation occurs in Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park.	eng
32028	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Chaco endemic. One of the last and also the largest unexploited subpopulations is said to occur in the newly established Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park, which covers 34,410 km², in south-east Bolivia.	eng
32029	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A common species of low- to medium-altitude forest.	eng
32029	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Where it occurs in southern Chile there is the constant threat of logging and commercial forestry activities, for example planting eucalypti and Monterey pine.	eng
32030	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species which is said to occur abundantly in the central Andes and Coastal Cordillera, extending from Maule to Los Lagos (Regions VII-X). Several botanical visits to the area have failed to find a single large mature individual.	eng
32030	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Low- to medium-altitude forest.	eng
32030	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The habitat has been extensively logged and replanted with eucalypti and Monterey pine.	eng
32031	distribution	González, M., 1998	Appears to be scarce, particularly in Chile, where it is restricted to the Atacama region.	eng
32031	habitat	González, M., 1998	A dryland species.	eng
32032	distribution	González, M., 1998	The species occupies a relatively small area of subandean forest in central Chile.	eng
32032	habitat	González, M., 1998	Occurring at riversides or in swampy areas.	eng
32032	population	González, M., 1998	It does not appear to be common or well known.	eng
32033	conservation	González, M., 1998	About 13% of the species range is covered by protected areas.	eng
32033	distribution	González, M., 1998	Endemic to Maule region. It is recognised as a very primitive member of the genus.	eng
32033	habitat	González, M., 1998	Deciduous forest.	eng
32033	population	González, M., 1998	The species was once more widespread but is now restricted to eight scattered localities in a small area in the Coastal Cordillera. These stands all represent secondary growth from stump sprouts and between 1983 and 1991 their extent of occurrence was reduced by almost 60%.	eng
32033	threats	González, M., 1998	Establishment of plantations of <em>Pinus radiata</em>.	eng
32034	distribution	González, M., 1998	The species is endemic to central Chile, in both the Coastal Cordillera and the Andes.	eng
32034	habitat	González, M., 1998	Occurring on thin or rocky soils up to 1,500 m.	eng
32034	population	González, M., 1998	Regeneration in old growth stands is very good. The species is rarely contained within protected areas.	eng
32034	threats	González, M., 1998	Almost all the pure stands in the coastal range, known as Maule forest, have been logged and converted into <em>Pinus radiata</em> plantations. The Andean subpopulations are presently under conversion. Since 1985 the woodchip industry has increased the demand for timber.	eng
32036	distribution	González, M., 1998	Distributed over much of the Central Depression up to 900 m in Chile, extending into Argentina, the species is widespread.	eng
32036	threats	González, M., 1998	Suffering from extensive habitat loss. Logging, increasing agriculture and fires are the main concerns.	eng
32037	conservation	González, M., 1998	Attempts to plant the species within the area of its natural distribution have been successful.	eng
32037	distribution	González, M., 1998	Found only in the northernmost province of Chile.	eng
32037	habitat	González, M., 1998	The species occurs within a small area of dry woodland.	eng
32039	distribution	González, M., 1998	Occurring as isolated individuals or in small groups, ranging from south-east Peru to the Ariza Province of Chile.	eng
32039	habitat	González, M., 1998	The species is found in dry hot ravines in lowland areas.	eng
32040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of the island of Ponape in Micronesia.	eng
32040	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in primary forest.	eng
32040	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It does not appear to have been collected in the last 50 years.	eng
32041	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region, occurring in large but isolated subpopulations. This is the only member of Lecythidaceae in Mexico.	eng
32041	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest tree.	eng
32041	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Chimalapa area still harbours large tracts of relatively undisturbed forest, but is under potential threat from proposed large-scale forestry and development projects. Uxpanapa has suffered from substantial habitat clearance for agriculture and settlement in the government relocation scheme.	eng
32042	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species has been collected from the Ogasawara, Okinawa Senseki, Okinawa Kaigan and Fuji-Hakone-Izu Reserves, which represent locations on several islands.	eng
32042	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species is found throughout Ryuku Island, in southern Honshu and the Bonin Islands (Japan).	eng
32042	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Rocky and gravelly slopes near the shore or further inland, shingle beaches. Elevation (from GIS) 1 to 268 m. Junipers are bird dispersed (or perhaps mammals play a minor role, too) which accounts for the disjunct occurrence on oceanic islands of some of the species in this genus. This species is locally used as a wind break; it is also used in horticulture.	eng
32042	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Populations are extremely disjunct.	eng
32042	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are known to this species.	eng
32043	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A relatively widespread species.	eng
32043	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in various habitat types, thicket, maquis or gallery forest on rocky ultramafic soils.	eng
32043	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Various threats exist from fires, mining and agricultural encroachment.	eng
32044	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in a few localities in the north-west of Grand Terre.	eng
32044	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Maquis on ultramafic substrate.	eng
32044	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is nowhere protected and the habitat is exposed to threats from fires, mining and clearance.	eng
32049	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species which can be divided into two varieties, both endemic to New Caledonia, in the north-west of Grand Terre and possibly also on Ile Yandé.	eng
32049	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in lowland areas of maquis or forest on ultramafic substrate.	eng
32049	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	These areas are unprotected and exposed to various threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance or degradation.	eng
32050	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found only in sparse and scattered stands in the volcanic Western Cordillera in the border regions of Bolivia, Peru and Chile.	eng
32050	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is probably the only tree in the world growing up to altitudes of 5,200 m.	eng
32050	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations seriously declined in the past (more than three generations ago) but their present status appears to be stable.	eng
32050	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally it is of great importance as a source of firewood and even of construction timber.	eng
32051	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A morphologically distinct member of the genus, confined to the coastal regions of central Chile.	eng
32051	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in rocky ravines and coastal scrub.	eng
32053	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A relatively common tree occurring in medium altitude deciduous forest.	eng
32053	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The habitat is extensively logged. The wood of this species is exploited but the associated broadleaved species are more heavily harvested.	eng
32055	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	83% of the entire population is contained within protected areas.	eng
32055	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The genus is endemic to Tasmania and comprises three species.	eng
32055	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species has been observed to decline by 32% in less than 100 years through the effects of fire. No regeneration is evident after burning.	eng
32056	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The species is considered critically endangered in India and export has been prohibited. It is included in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
32056	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A large evergreen tree occurring in forests at the base of mountainous areas.	eng
32056	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	For centuries the species has been traded internationally for the wood infected with fungi, called agar or gaharu amongst other things; it is used as incense, perfume and in traditional medicine. Most of the agarwood on the market is collected from the wild since the few plantations set up in the early 1900s are either under serious pressure or have been destroyed.	eng
32057	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
32057	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is largely contained within the Agastyamalai range.	eng
32057	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
32059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kalimantan, mostly in the south. The species was native to the wet climate area around Banjarmasin, Indonesia.	eng
32059	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree produces delicious purple-black mango like fruits with very sweet, excellent flavored dark orange pulp.	eng
32059	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is now known only from cultivation.	eng
32060	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An occurrence is recorded in Berbak Nature Reserve in Sumatra.	eng
32060	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern Peninsular Malaysia, Riau Islands, Bangka Islands, Jambi and Palembang, Sumatra. Formerly also from Singapore.	eng
32060	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in freshwater marshy areas and mangrove swamp.	eng
32060	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to be extinct in Singapore because of the destruction of mangrove areas for urban growth. Elsewhere it is suspected to be in real danger of extinction.	eng
32060	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Destruction of mangrove areas for urban growth.	eng
32062	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is known only from the islands of Sumbawa and Flores.	eng
32062	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to montane wet evergreen rainforest.	eng
32062	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On the Lesser Sunda Islands, only small isolated patches of tropical rainforests remain and only an estimated total of 210 km² of montane rainforest is left. The original forests have been degraded by human activity or converted for agriculture.	eng
32064	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only three collections in Sabah, two from Sarawak, and single collections from Nunukan Island off east Kalimantan and Rotan Tunggal Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
32064	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is usually found in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32064	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree. The species has been reported to be in immediate danger of extinction.	eng
32067	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	South-east Kenya to north-east Tanzania. The only records from Kenya are from Pangani and the Tana Delta.	eng
32067	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This large tree is restricted to small areas of remaining moist or riverine forest.	eng
32068	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and another in the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
32068	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six collections in the southern Andes, within the province of Azuay and especially to the west and south of Loja.	eng
32068	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,000–3,450 m).	eng
32068	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
32069	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known only from north-west Ecuador, this middle-storey tree has been collected about five times. Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
32069	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Areas of lowland non-flooded forest.	eng
32069	population	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	It is apparently uncommon.	eng
32071	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Nariño.	eng
32072	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Valle.	eng
32073	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Boyacá.	eng
32075	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
32076	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species has been recorded in Valle, Santander and Huila.	eng
32077	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
32077	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	The species was originally recorded from an unspecified locality, probably in Antioquia, San Luis. According to the Missouri Botanical Garden database TROPICOS, this species has been collected (in flower and fruit) from Antioquia many times (14 collections) during the 1980s and 1990s, with the most recent collection being in 2001. It was also collected at Chocó in the late 1980s. The collections were mostly made at altitudes between 325 and 1,100 m. The collections from Chocó are probably at a lower elevation.	eng
32077	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Unknown, but presumably a lowland forest species.	eng
32077	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Unknown, but given the number of collections and the latitudinal range may be locally common.	eng
32077	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
32078	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A highland species, with a scattered distribution on the periphery of the Andes and in inter-Andean valleys, often as isolated individuals in agricultural land.	eng
32078	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Declines in habitat have been considerable and the species continues to be exploited for its timber, which is often used for decorative purposes. Its presence in the international timber trade is thought to be increasing. No commercial plantations have been established.	eng
32080	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections are known from Lopé Forest Reserve, Lastoursville and Moumba.	eng
32080	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging has taken place in these areas and is expected to continue over the large areas of forest which are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32081	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from a collection in Oyem in the north, in an area which has been degraded to some degree.	eng
32081	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only one collection.	eng
32081	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of Gabon's extensive forests have not been explored and are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32082	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Gabon endemic, so far found at Lopé Forest Reserve and near Lastoursville. The species may be more widespread, given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.	eng
32082	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is degraded where logging has taken place.  Areas are now largely under concession to logging companies.	eng
32083	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected only from Libreville. Much of the forest in the country remains unexplored and relatively intact.	eng
32083	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been extensively logged. Large parts of it are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32084	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are known from Lopé Forest Reserve and the relatively isolated Cristal Mountains, possibly extending into the remnant coastal forest in Cameroon.	eng
32084	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is degraded where logging has taken place. A large part of Gabon's forest is now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32085	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found along the coast of Gabon following the Oguooé valley inland to Lopé Forest Reserve. Suggestions that it occurs in Cameroon have not been consolidated. It ranges over an area covering at least 70,000 km² in extent.	eng
32085	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to dry forest.	eng
32085	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	he species is being felled for its timber, but the threat is not believed to be substantial at present. The long-term survival of the tree and its habitat is uncertain given the extent to which logging concessions have been made.	eng
32086	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lopé Forest Reserve, Ndjolé-Koumamejong, Sindoro and near Lastoursville.	eng
32086	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in areas of closed forest.	eng
32086	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is degraded where there has been logging. Gabon's extensive forests are relatively unexplored and are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32087	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lopé is being designated as Gabon's first national park.	eng
32087	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is so far known from the type locality next to an access road to a work site in Belinga and also from Lopé Forest Reserve further south. It is possible that it may be found to be more widespread.	eng
32087	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest.	eng
32087	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over the extent to which forest is now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32088	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type locality in Bélinga.	eng
32088	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is some agricultural encroachment in the area and there is concern over the lack of protection for the natural habitat.	eng
32089	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently known only from Ramba, the species may be found to be more widespread as large areas have yet to be explored. The taxonomic status of the genus is held in question.	eng
32089	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The future of Gabon's forest is uncertain as it is now almost completely concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
32090	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From a genus of only two species, this tree is apparently confined to the Libreville area. Its range may prove to be wider as the forest is further explored.	eng
32090	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern about the extent to which logging concessions have been made throughout the country.	eng
32091	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species so far collected only from Fernan Vaz. Forests in Gabon have not been well explored botanically and it is possible the species is more widespread.	eng
32091	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most areas are under concession to logging companies.	eng
32092	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Belinga Mts.	eng
32093	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ngounye and in Lopé Forest Reserve. Much of Gabon's forests are poorly explored and it is possible the species has a  wider range.	eng
32093	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species collected in areas of closed forest.	eng
32093	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over the extent to which these forests are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32094	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected only from Lastoursville. It may be found to be more widespread in the country's relatively unexplored forests.	eng
32094	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Lastoursville,  the only collecting locality, logging has been intensive and the forest is degraded. Other unexplored forests where the species could also occur are largely under concession to logging companies.	eng
32095	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently the species is known only from the vicinity of Lastoursville, where the habitat is largely disturbed. Further collecting is likely to uncover additional occurrences.	eng
32095	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Lastoursville,  the only collecting locality, logging has been intensive and the forest is degraded. Other unexplored forests where the species could also occur are largely under concession to logging companies.	eng
32098	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The species is protected under the Indian Forest Act, the export of logs or sawn timber being banned.	eng
32098	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Indian rosewood is principally a species of monsoon forests.	eng
32098	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Its timber is of high commercial value and wild subpopulations are widely overexploited. Considerable pressure continues to be exerted by illegal felling.	eng
32099	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in south-west Sri Lanka. A subpopulation has been discovered in the dry zone in Rahuna National Park.	eng
32099	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32101	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Small populations are known from six peaks, including the Smoky Mountains National Park.	eng
32101	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are small, windswept and unhealthy. Regeneration appears to be poor.	eng
32103	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	The entire range is contained within Kenting National Park.	eng
32103	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Nanjenshan area on the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
32103	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	A species restricted to dry lowland forest on windward hills and ridges.	eng
32103	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Little regeneration is evident.	eng
32104	conservation	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	International trade is now monitored through a <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II listing and plantations are being established.	eng
32104	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Red sandalwood is restricted to the southern parts of the Eastern Ghats.	eng
32104	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurring in dry deciduous forest.	eng
32104	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The tree is commercially valuable for its timber and for the extraction of dye, medicine and cosmetics. It has been overexploited in the past.	eng
32105	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree which occurs gregariously on slopes and peaks in dry savannah forest and dry mixed deciduous forest.	eng
32105	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The habitat is threatened with conversion to agriculture.	eng
32106	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from a monotypic genus. In Sarawak, the species is known from a single specimen collected in 1961 from primary riparian forest in the Labang Forest Reserve, Bintulu. This species is now extinct in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
32106	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Solitary trees or small groups of trees occur on stream banks, slopes and on ridge tops in primary and secondary forest in lowland areas.	eng
32108	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected only once, in Sabah from a stream bank in secondary forest in Sandakan.	eng
32108	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Solitary trees of this monotypic genus are scattered in lowland moist primary and secondary forest on stream banks and hill sides.	eng
32109	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Most records of the species come from Darién National Park, where small subpopulations occur.  An occurrence is also reported from the Urabá region in Columbia.	eng
32109	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32109	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There is little human or other impact here, although some small clearings have been made for cultivation.	eng
32110	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 10 collections have been taken from localities in Valle and Cundinamarca.	eng
32110	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of non-flooded forest from sea level to 1,100 m.	eng
32111	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree, known from a few localities in the departments of Valle and Chocó.	eng
32111	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland non-flooded forest.	eng
32112	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from the Pacific coast.	eng
32112	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland non-flooded forest	eng
32113	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to the Magdalena Valley in Santander.	eng
32113	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	A relatively common understorey tree in lowland non-flooded forest.	eng
32113	population	Calderon, E., 1998	It remains poorly known and rarely collected.	eng
32114	conservation	Calderon, E., 1998	Cultivated specimens are found in Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden, Singapore Botanical Garden and in Chelsea, UK.	eng
32114	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A small slender tree with an unconfirmed distribution in western Colombia, possibly occurring also in Antioquia, Chocó or Narino.	eng
32114	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32114	population	Calderon, E., 1998	It has been collected about four times.	eng
32115	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Now possibly extinct, the species is known only from the type specimen, which was collected from Cundinamarca.	eng
32116	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A poorly known species, recorded from approximately seven collections in Santander.	eng
32116	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32117	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	In Colombia, the species is recorded from the type locality in the Chocó.	eng
32117	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32118	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Presently known only from the type collection in Chocó.	eng
32118	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to dense forest.	eng
32119	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From mainland South-East Asia to Java and the Philippines.	eng
32119	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is very common.	eng
32119	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is considered vulnerable in the Philippines as it is traditionally used in the toy manufacturing industry and is now in short supply.	eng
32121	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Plantations are now established.	eng
32121	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The taxonomy and nomenclature of the species is still widely confused with <em>A. borneensis</em> and <em>A. philippinensis.</em>	eng
32121	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Agathis species are distinctive, highly sought and exploited for their valuable timber. Large stands of this species have been completely extracted throughout much of its range, most notably in Kalimantan. Exploitation continues to be heavy and regeneration in residual stands is insufficient to replace lost populations. In the past the tree has also been destructively exploited for copal.	eng
32122	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The species is now subject to special felling restrictions.	eng
32122	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	There are taxonomic difficulties with this genus, which is currently being revised.	eng
32122	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A timber species which is scattered in primary rainforests.	eng
32122	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Stands have been depleted by logging and shifting cultivation.	eng
32123	conservation	Madulid, D.A., Agoo, E.M.G. & Caringal, A.M., 2008	None of its known sites are protected.<br/><br/>A conservation programme is needed to re-establish a stable natural population of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> in its known habitat. A rapid assessment of the species and long-term ecological research is required to determine the physical and biological characteristics of the habitat, coupled with a recovery and management programme, public education, community consultation and resource stewardship, and policy initiatives. As part of the Global Trees Campaign, Fauna and Flora Iinternational (FFI) has funded a recovery programme for Philippine Teak, including all the above elements, led by the Philippine National Museum in Manila. The programme includes meetings with local stakeholders to integrate their concerns into the activities, and work on effective propagation of the tree for replanting. Work has been conducted in local schools to raise awareness of the plight of this rare tree. The programme involves local and regional representatives of the government Department of the Environment and Natural Resources, schools and universities in research, project implementation and monitoring. Attempts are being made to encourage the formulation of local policies for the recovery of the species.	eng
32123	distribution	Madulid, D.A., Agoo, E.M.G. & Caringal, A.M., 2008	<p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> is found in the Philippines on Luzon Island and Iling Island. On Luzon Island it is found in Lobo and San Juan municipalities, Batangas Province.  On Iling Island it is found in Katayungan and Baclayon barangays, Occidental Mindoro.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>  <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>	eng
32123	habitat	Madulid, D.A., Agoo, E.M.G. & Caringal, A.M., 2008	<p>The species is found in coastal to lowland limestone forest. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> tends to dominate the semi-deciduous forests and occurs in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia polyalthia</span>. Other associated species are <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitex parviflora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarindus indicus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mangifera indica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceiba pentandra</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Syzygium</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Parkia roxburghii</span>, and Ficus sp.	eng
32123	population	Madulid, D.A., Agoo, E.M.G. & Caringal, A.M., 2008	Based on molecular evidence, there are two subpopulations: Iling Island subpopulation and Luzon Island subpopulation. The Iling  Island subpopulation may be composed of less than 100 individuals. The species is more abundant in Batangas, Luzon Island.	eng
32123	threats	Madulid, D.A., Agoo, E.M.G. & Caringal, A.M., 2008	The habitat sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. philippinensis</span> on Luzon Island are mostly in privately owned land. These are presently being developed as tourist resorts and residential areas. In San Juan, part of the forest has been opened up for a road construction project. On the lower hillsides, the forest is also being converted to fruit tree orchards.	eng
32125	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in 1915 from Bhutan and subsequently from Kameng District in Arunachal Pradesh and China.	eng
32125	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An epiphytic shrub or small tree.	eng
32125	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Road building and other developmental projects are threatening the Indian population.	eng
32126	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is widely distributed along the west coast and in the south.	eng
32126	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small to medium tree inhabiting lowland forest in swampy (peat swamp or the edge of mangroves),  limestone areas (e.g., in Gopeng).	eng
32128	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
32128	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species which occurs in lowland primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest.  It is recorded as a common understorey tree.	eng
32129	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is commonly planted.	eng
32129	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Philippines.	eng
32129	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland primary forest tree.	eng
32130	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been divided into two varieties. Var. <em>pilosa</em> is endemic to Borneo and widely distributed, but not as widespread as var. <em>apiculata</em>.	eng
32132	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in Thailand and southern Viet Nam. Only a single collection from 1918 is known from Cambodia.	eng
32132	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species of mid-elevation wet evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest and bamboo thicket.	eng
32133	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, endemic to southern Viet Nam.	eng
32133	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the diminishing submontane wet evergreen forests.	eng
32134	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far this species is known only from the type specimen collected near Nhatrang, Annam.	eng
32135	conservation	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Parts of the population fall into protected areas.	eng
32135	distribution	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A subspecies known only from Matopos in the west.	eng
32135	habitat	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Granite hills.	eng
32135	population	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is fairly widespread but not common.	eng
32136	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species apparently endemic to Zimbabwe. Subpopulations occur in Chirinda forest, near the Chimanimani Mountains and more commonly in forest near Stapleford.	eng
32136	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of moist forest and on kloofs.	eng
32136	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
32137	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is now well protected.	eng
32137	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Existing information suggests this species is endemic to Chirinda Forest in Zimbabwe and the adjacent Espungabera Forest in Mozambique. This area is very restricted (6 km²).	eng
32137	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has been disturbed in the past by logging activities.	eng
32138	distribution	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A tree endemic to Zimbabwe. The type specimen is from Mutare.	eng
32138	habitat	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring within a narrow altitudinal belt in moist forest on granite hills.	eng
32138	population	Timberlake, J. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is apparently quite common in areas.	eng
32139	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the Chimanimani Mts. on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border.	eng
32139	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs fairly commonly on quartzite soils within a well-protected area of 600 km².	eng
32140	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far it is recorded only in the vicinity of the Kalambo Falls.	eng
32140	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in open bush, often on steep slopes on sandy or stony soil.	eng
32140	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no information on the population size (last seen in1955).	eng
32140	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No threats known.	eng
32141	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two localities are known.	eng
32141	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland dry evergreen forest and deciduous coastal forest on sand.	eng
32141	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One locality is within 200 m of a new railway line.	eng
32142	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected and the conservation of remaining natural resources and the control of exploitative activities are now a high priority.	eng
32142	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Mt Mulanje.	eng
32142	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is scattered at the edges of montane forest and in the adjoining grasslands.	eng
32142	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are threats of fire and in places encroaching agriculture and illegal collection of wood.	eng
32143	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is now some degree of protection. The conservation of remaining resources and prevention of illegal activities are now a high priority.	eng
32143	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a variant of a very polymorphic species. The taxonomy may need further confirmation. Occurs on Mt Mulanje.	eng
32143	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is apparently confined to patches of montane woodland.	eng
32143	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been considerable declines in the extent of forest and woodland on the mountain in the past, mainly through timber exploitation and also fires.	eng
32144	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, apparently known only from the type locality near Mboma stream in the Thyolo region.	eng
32144	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the original forest in this area has been supplanted by tea estates and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. In more recent years remaining forest areas have been steadily encroached upon for farming.	eng
32145	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah. It is found in Sandakan, Keningau and Lamag districts.	eng
32145	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in primary forest on ridges and hillsides up to 140 m.	eng
32146	habitat	Firsov, G.A., 1998	This tree, restricted to flood-land forests along rivers at low altitudes, has a disjunct distribution.  It is a relict species and is the only representative of the genus in western Asia.	eng
32146	threats	Firsov, G.A., 1998	This species is threatened in parts of its range by felling, grazing and agricultural encroachment.	eng
32147	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Endemic to northern Mozambique. More fieldwork is required to consolidate the range and status of this variety.	eng
32148	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are considerable stands of the species in the Musengezi area of northern Zimbabwe and the Nyamapanda and Ruenya Bridge areas of north-eastern Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique.	eng
32150	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	A poorly known species of Zanzibar-Inhambane woodland.	eng
32152	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	It currently appears to be confined to northern Mozambique. The taxonomic status of the species is likely to change.	eng
32153	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	A species of northern Mozambique. Information on the species' range and habitat are inadequate.	eng
32156	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	It is likely that the species is confined to central Mozambique but more fieldwork, especially in northern regions, is required to consolidate the distribution and status of the species.	eng
32158	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Endemic to southern Mozambique.	eng
32158	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	A common component of lowland scrub.	eng
32159	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Endemic to Mozambique, the species is widely distributed north of the Zambezi river.	eng
32161	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Occurring in scattered localities in northern Mozambique and possibly Tanzania.	eng
32161	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	A woodland species.	eng
32163	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	A species confined to central coastal areas of Mozambique. More fieldwork is required to consolidate the status of the population.	eng
32164	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Along  with <em>O. angustata</em>, this species is confined to the central coastal area of Mozambique.	eng
32164	population	Bandeira, S., 1998	More fieldwork is required to consolidate the status of the species.	eng
32165	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Little information is available on this endemic of Mozambique.	eng
32165	population	Bandeira, S., 1998	Few collections have been made.	eng
32167	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Known only from northern Mozambique but suspected to extend into Tanzania. More fieldwork is needed to consolidate the range and status of the species.	eng
32167	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
32168	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	The range of this species is small and confined to central Mozambique. Information is too limited to evaluate the species.	eng
32171	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Legal protection exists in various countries. Many uses of the tree, particularly the medicinal properties of the bark, are documented.	eng
32171	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A mahogany species, widespread in high-rainfall savannah woodland.	eng
32171	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging and local exploitation are largely uncontrolled and poorly monitored. In northern parts of the range exploitation may be leading to genetic erosion. Natural regeneration from the seed is poor but does occur from suckers	eng
32172	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Protected subpopulations and log export bans are in place in various countries.	eng
32172	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	An important timber species, commonly confused with <em>K. anthotheca</em> but less widespread.	eng
32172	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Occurring more frequently in dry semi-deciduous forest and forest outliers than <em>K. anthotheca</em>.	eng
32172	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploitation is heavy: extraction of mature individuals from subpopulations has been comprehensive. Regeneration is poor away from parent individuals and is best at the savannah-forest boundary.	eng
32173	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A timber species, which grows in dense stands, commonly in areas where savannah has been replaced by forest. Regeneration is good in disturbed forest.	eng
32173	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Genetic impoverishment is reported in outlying parts of the species' range. Exploitation is moderate. Sometimes large individuals are left after logging.	eng
32174	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Its range is extending because of its successful colonisation of logged and abandoned farm land.	eng
32174	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Obeche occurs in abundance in transitional forest formations.	eng
32174	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Exploitation of the wood  is very heavy and, in places, unsustainable, both for local use and the international timber trade. Of all West Africa timbers this species is extracted at the highest volumes.	eng
32175	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over its status in Sabah.	eng
32175	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon large tree found scattered in primary forest on undulating swamp land up to 280 m.	eng
32176	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present, is known only from the two collections from Mandji and Ndjolé. It is possible that the species may be found to be more widespread.	eng
32176	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree or shrub.	eng
32176	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
32177	habitat	Firsov, G.A., 1998	This understorey tree is a common species in ravine moist forest.	eng
32177	threats	Firsov, G.A., 1998	It is in decline because of forest clearance and environmental changes.	eng
32178	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree recorded in Lagos in Nigeria and from Dja and Kpoguidi in Benin.	eng
32179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Guinea.	eng
32179	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to remaining areas of upland forest.	eng
32180	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of dry savanna and dry river beds.	eng
32180	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from few collections, the precise localities of which are unknown.	eng
32181	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to upland forest.	eng
32181	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information on the population status is not available. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
32181	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The pressure on these few small remaining areas exerted by a dense human population is great.	eng
32182	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lopé is in the process of being designated Gabon's first national park.	eng
32182	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species which is confined to localities in Cameroon, Ngounié and Lopé Forest Reserve in Gabon and possibly Congo.	eng
32182	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32182	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over the rate at which logging has taken place and the decline in the habitat.	eng
32183	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from collections made around Lastoursville in 1929–1930. A collection in Wageningen comes from Echira. The species may be more widespread in Gabon's relatively unexplored forests.	eng
32183	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has been heavily logged and most areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
32184	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in Cameroon have become reduced. There are intact stands in Gabon, where large tracts of forest have remained undisturbed. This trend, however, is rapidly changing.	eng
32184	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing exploitation of the timber in Cameroon.  Almost all forest areas in Gabon are now concessioned off to timber companies.	eng
32185	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Once thought to be endemic to Ankasa in Ghana, this understorey tree has now been found in Liberia.	eng
32185	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It occurs, but rarely, in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32186	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Officially this is a Ghanaian endemic but it may have been overlooked elsewhere.	eng
32186	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is confined to extreme dry forest.	eng
32186	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Confined to the south, where the effects of human population growth and the expansion of agriculture have caused severe declines in the habitat. Most recorded occurrences are in forest which is unprotected and has since disappeared.	eng
32187	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Endemic to Ghana, this species is confined to Sekondi.	eng
32187	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Rocky dry forest.	eng
32187	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Habitat degradation has been extensive, although the species' preference for rocky sites lessens the threat of agricultural encroachment.	eng
32188	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Endemic to Ghana.	eng
32188	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
32188	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is rare.	eng
32188	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest has declined in extent because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
32189	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Little is known about this unusual species. In Ghana, few localities are known, all contained within the vicinity of Baku and Supong Forest Reserves, where deforestation has been severe.	eng
32189	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is usually found near stream banks in moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32189	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Deforestation.	eng
32190	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Moist evergreen or riverine forest.	eng
32190	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Although supportive evidence to indicate population declines is not available, the loss of the habitat of this species has been severe. It is found in one remnant area of coastal forest, which has been significantly reduced by farming, fuelwood collection and forestry plantations.	eng
32191	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Known only from Ghana but expected in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32191	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is confined to remaining patches of wet evergreen forest.	eng
32191	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Declines in wet evergreen forest because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities have been significant in the last few decades.	eng
32192	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Subpopulations are confined to Subri and Cape Three Points Forest Reserve in Ghana, in parts of the South West Province in Cameroon and in Gabon in an area to the north and in Lopé Forest Reserve.	eng
32192	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Areas of wet evergreen forest.	eng
32192	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species is rare, with a disjunct distribution.	eng
32192	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The forest has been converted into a commercial plantation in Subri and in Cape Three Points mining has destroyed areas of forest.	eng
32193	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	Occurring only within national park boundaries.	eng
32193	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	In Côte d'Ivoire it is known only from a few specimens in Tai National Park, a World Heritage Site. It is the sole member of the genus and the only close relative of <em>Breviea</em>, which is also a monotypic genus.	eng
32193	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	A large tree found scattered in moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32193	population	Assi, A., 1998	This species is very rare and declining in numbers. Its regeneration is observed to be poor.	eng
32193	threats	Assi, A., 1998	The habitat in both countries has substantially decreased in extent because of logging and agricultural encroachment.	eng
32194	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The location for the only known Cameroonian specimen, Nyasoso, 850 m alt., indicates that this species might already be lost to forest clearance. A search should be made to rediscover the tree, and a survey conducted to discover if any other trees of the species occur in the area, and whether regeneration is proceeding or not. Artificial propagation and public education might be suitable options to ensure the survival of this taxon.	eng
32194	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Ivory Coast, Ghana and Cameroon.	eng
32194	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	A rare species of wet evergreen forests to 850 m.	eng
32194	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Reductions in this habitat, caused by mining and forestry activities over the last few decades, have been significant, as has clearance of forest for agriculture.	eng
32195	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Confined to either side of the Dahomey Gap. It is the only member of the genus.	eng
32195	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet places in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32195	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This is a rare species.	eng
32195	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded through mining, logging and commercial forestry activities throughout its range.	eng
32196	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	In Ghana this species occurs in the region of the Krokosua Hills. It is also known on the other side of the Dahomey Gap and in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32196	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upland evergreen forest (Côte d'Ivoire).	eng
32196	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Farming, fire, forest management and mining are causes of habitat decline.	eng
32197	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32197	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree confined to the restricted area of wet evergreen forest.	eng
32197	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This forest has been affected by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
32199	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The status of this taxon in São Tomé and Bioko needs more investigation. Bali-Ngemba F.R. represents the most easily accessible and dense population of the taxon, followed by Mt Kupe; these are the more promising sites for demographic studies of the taxon.	eng
32199	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Lower Guinea region: Ghana; São Tomé; Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; SE Nigeria: Obudu Plateau (one site); Cameroon: Mt Etinde; Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (four sites), Bali-Ngemba F.R. The occurrence in Ghana is anomalous and it is highly localized. This is the only species in the genus.	eng
32199	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	A species which is found mainly in submontane forest and rarely lowland forest at 500–1,500 m alt. In Ghana it occurs in evergreen rainforest along a river bank.	eng
32199	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	On the Obudu Plateau fires and encroaching agriculture are causing damage to the restricted areas of remaining vegetation in forested valleys. General threats from mining, logging and commercial forestry can affect these areas.	eng
32200	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Three localities, which account for little more than a few square kilometers, are known: the Bandiagara scarps in Mali, Yankari Game Reserve in Nigeria and the dry forests of Bui and Akosombo in Ghana.	eng
32200	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	In Yankari  it grows on rocky hills, in dense stands. In Bui it is found in dry forests.	eng
32200	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	In Ghana the establishment of a plantation and the influx of people into the area have caused declines in the species' habitat.	eng
32201	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Endemic to Ghana. Records from Cameroon appear to be erroneous.  It is considered to be the species with the highest conservation priority within Ghana.	eng
32201	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This evergreen tree occurs in tiny stands in rocky areas of dry forest.	eng
32201	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The original area of dry forest has been extensively destroyed by incursions of people and subsequent exploitation of forested areas. This species is very slow-growing and does not seem to have a dispersal mechanism.	eng
32202	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Its area of occupancy is very small, a few tens of kilometers. In Ghana it is confined to Shai Hills Game Production Reserve, where it is relatively abundant and observed to be regenerating. In Cameroon occurrences are recorded on Mt Mandara, Mt Tinguelin, Garoua, Chlolire, Mt Alantika, Ladgo and Nakalba.	eng
32202	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree of montane dry forest.	eng
32202	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The area taken up by dry forest has declined drastically with the expansion of agriculture, the effects of fire and overgrazing.	eng
32204	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree with a disjunct, Guinea-wide distribution.	eng
32204	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is confined to areas of wet evergreen forest.	eng
32204	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Few records of it appear to exist.	eng
32204	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Extensive logging, mining and clearing of the forest for cultivating crops have caused considerable declines in the habitat.	eng
32205	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Endemic to Côte d'Ivoire, this species appears to be scattered throughout the country .	eng
32205	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Only in remnants of primary forest.	eng
32205	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Extensive logging in the country in the last three decades has caused the rapid decline of forest.	eng
32206	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	This species is known from few localities in coastal Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana.	eng
32206	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Occurring in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32206	threats	Assi, A., 1998	In these areas, the forest has severely declined in extent through logging, commercial forestry and mining activities.	eng
32207	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A species which, although common in places, is found only in dry forest areas in southern Ghana and in moist semi-deciduous forest between the rivers Bandama and Nzi in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32207	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Dry and moist semi-deciduous forests.	eng
32207	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Declines in this habitat have been severe, mainly because of the effects of human population growth, but also because of fires.	eng
32208	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The species also occurs in Banco National Park, near Abidjan, but it could have been introduced there.	eng
32208	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A Côte d'Ivoire endemic.	eng
32208	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Confined to coastal forests.	eng
32208	threats	Assi, A., 1998	There has been widespread degradation and loss of these forests.	eng
32209	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The Côte d'Ivoire population is restricted largely to Tai National Park.	eng
32209	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Also known under the synonym, <em>H. lastoursvillense</em>, this species occurs in two disjunct populations: the Côte d'Ivoire subpopulation is restricted largely to Tai National Park and in Gabon the species has been collected only from Lastoursville where it may be more widespread.	eng
32209	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Forested areas outside the park have been heavily logged and degraded. In Lastoursville logging has also been intensive and most forest areas there are now under concession to logging companies.	eng
32210	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some trees are found in a national park at Lopé.	eng
32210	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in Gabon and further west in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32210	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from lowland moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32210	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The distribution of this rare species is disjunct.	eng
32210	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland moist semi-deciduous forest in Côte d'Ivoire has disappeared outside protected areas. In Gabon forest areas are unprotected, with the exception of the newly established national park at Lopé, and are mostly under concession to logging companies.	eng
32211	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A species endemic to south-west Côte d'Ivoire, between the rivers Sassandra and Cavally.	eng
32211	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
32211	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Severe deforestation in the area has resulted in there being little forest outside Tai National Park.	eng
32212	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The largest part of the population is contained within the 3,300 km² of Tai National Park.	eng
32212	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	It is endemic to the remaining forest between the rivers Sassandra and Cavally.	eng
32212	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	A species of swampy areas.	eng
32212	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Outside the national park deforestation and habitat degradation have been severe in the past three decades.	eng
32213	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Represented by few known collections, this endemic of Côte d'Ivoire is scattered throughout the country.	eng
32213	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Primary forest.	eng
32213	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Extensive logging has severely reduced the extent of forest in the country in the last three decades.	eng
32214	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Found between Cavally and Sassandra Rivers, the largest part of which is contained within Tai National Park.	eng
32214	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	A shrubby tree, known to occur in moist forested areas.	eng
32214	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Extensive logging and an influx of people in the last few decades have led to a sharp decline in forest cover and condition.	eng
32215	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	Largely contained within Tai National Park.	eng
32215	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	An endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is known solely from remaining forested areas between the rivers of Sassandra and Cavally.	eng
32215	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32215	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Over the last few decades the effects of logging have been extensive. An influx of people into the area also threatens the integrity of the forest.	eng
32216	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	In Côte d'Ivoire it is restricted to the south-west, mainly in Tai National Park.	eng
32216	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Strictly confined to wet evergreen forests.	eng
32216	population	Assi, A., 1998	A tree which can be common where it occurs.	eng
32216	threats	Assi, A., 1998	This type of forest has reduced in extent significantly because of logging and mining and also the establishment of industrial plantations.	eng
32217	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Known only from a single herbarium specimen.	eng
32217	population	Assi, A., 1998	The species is believed to be extinct.	eng
32218	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Known only from coastal forest in Côte D'Ivoire. <em>Zanthoxylum</em> is now the accepted name for this genus.	eng
32218	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32218	population	Assi, A., 1998	A rare species.	eng
32218	threats	Assi, A., 1998	This forest type has been severely degraded and depleted.	eng
32219	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	An endemic known only from the region of Fresco.	eng
32219	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32219	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Much of this forest has been degraded and cleared over the last few decades.	eng
32220	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	Remaining forested areas are generally confined to protected areas, especially Tai National Park.	eng
32220	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A Côte D' Ivoire endemic. Remaining forested areas are small.	eng
32220	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	This species occurs commonly in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32220	threats	Assi, A., 1998	The rate of decline of in the extent of these forests has been severe in the last few decades, largely because of logging.	eng
32221	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A species which is endemic to Côte D' Ivoire.	eng
32221	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32221	population	Assi, A., 1998	A rare species.	eng
32221	threats	Assi, A., 1998	A significant part of these forests has been cleared and degraded.	eng
32222	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d' Ivoire.	eng
32222	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small rare tree confined to wet evergreen forests.	eng
32222	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Significant parts of this forest have been lost to mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
32223	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Known only from Côte d' Ivoire.	eng
32223	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
32223	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Clearing and degradation of the forest have been extensive in the last three decades.	eng
32224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It ranges from Côte D'Ivoire to Gabon.	eng
32224	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree of evergreen forests.	eng
32224	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Significant parts of the habitat have been lost to logging, mining and establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
32225	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The largest and most stable forest is contained within Tai National Park.	eng
32225	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	A Côte d' Ivoire endemic between Cavally and Sassandra Rivers.	eng
32225	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Confined to remaining patches of forest.	eng
32225	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Logging and the influx of people have caused the rapid decline and degradation of forests elsewhere.	eng
32226	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Edges of moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32226	population	Assi, A., 1998	This species is only known from the herbarium specimen collected in 1896.	eng
32227	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The large part of moist semi-deciduous forests now exists only in protected areas.	eng
32227	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	It occurs in remaining moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32227	population	Assi, A., 1998	At one time widespread, this species has become rare.	eng
32227	threats	Assi, A., 1998	This species has become rare because of the extent of deforestation in the country.	eng
32228	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32228	threats	Assi, A., 1998	The sites of moist semi-deciduous forest where this species was found in Côte d'Ivoire have been felled. The habitat in Cameroon has also declined because of logging operations.	eng
32229	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The largest part of the population occurs within Tai National Park.	eng
32229	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	An endemic of the areas of remaining forest within the region of the Sassandra and Cavally Rivers.	eng
32229	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Outside the park the forest has been heavily logged and degraded.	eng
32230	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ranging from Guinea to Cameroon.	eng
32230	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is found in areas of upland evergreen forest.	eng
32230	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This forest type has suffered from farming, fire, forest management activities and large-scale mining.	eng
32231	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Region in the south-west defined by three points, Kita, Bafoulabé and Kéméba. It is a significant component of Kololo forest.	eng
32231	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rocky wooded areas sheltered from fire.	eng
32231	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The present population is a remnant of what was once a widespread species, which has declined because of climatic reasons and fire.	eng
32231	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although it flowers and fruits abundantly and germinates well, there is no evidence of colonisation in new areas.	eng
32232	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although moderately exploited, this species is less commercially important than <em>G. cedrata</em>.  Growth is slow, reaching only 9 ft (DBH) in 200 years.	eng
32232	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs commonly in hilly moist evergreen forest.	eng
32233	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species found in some abundance in moist semi-deciduous forest and in the drier undisturbed areas of moist evergreen forest. Regeneration is more successful in undisturbed areas where there has been no burning.	eng
32233	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Levels of exploitation are moderate and the species often suffers from its similarity to <em>Entandrophragma angolense</em>, resulting in it being harvested with the same intensity.	eng
32234	conservation	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Log export bans and legal protection exist in various countries.	eng
32234	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The most important <em>Khaya</em> species for providing African mahogany.	eng
32234	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is found in various habitat types in west and central Africa but is most abundant in wet undisturbed evergreen forest.	eng
32234	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Levels of exploitation are very high. Little regeneration takes place after disturbance. Individuals reach a seed-producing age at 30 years, although large seed crops appear only at three to four year intervals.	eng
32235	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are protected subpopulations, log export bans and felling limits in various countries.	eng
32235	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is commonly confused with <em>K. grandifolia</em>.	eng
32235	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is widespread in areas of evergreen forest.	eng
32235	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	An important source of African mahogany. It is heavily exploited, particularly in East and West Africa. Regeneration is poor in places, especially where parent trees are scarce, and serious genetic erosion is believed to have occurred.	eng
32236	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are protected subpopulations and felling limits in various countries.	eng
32236	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	An important source of African mahogany.	eng
32236	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species is generally noted to be more light-demanding and tolerant of dry conditions.	eng
32236	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Regeneration is good after disturbance.	eng
32236	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This widespread species is heavily exploited throughout its range. Genetic erosion caused by the depletion of mature individuals from subpopulations has taken place in most countries. Local overcutting is also common in parts of West Africa. Growth rates are amongst the slowest in the genus and the seeds and seedlings suffer high mortality rates because of insect attack.	eng
32237	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species ranges from south-east Kenya into north-east Tanzania in the Pangani River basin.	eng
32237	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to patches of dry forest or thicket on coral or limestone.	eng
32238	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are reports of many trees in the Somalian population. The species is also known from a single record in the eastern Ogaden and one in an area north-east of Wajir in Kenya. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
32238	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bushland on limestone (Kenyan population).	eng
32238	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	threatened by overcollection for charcoal production and also by habitat degradation (Somalian population).	eng
32239	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	The species is confined to an area extending from central and southern Somalia to north-east Kenya and the Ogaden in Ethiopia. It is not common.	eng
32239	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Occurring in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland or riverine woodland, often on limestone.	eng
32239	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In places, the habitat is severely degraded by encroaching agriculture and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
32240	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to a small area in eastern Kenya.	eng
32240	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree occurs sparsely in localised areas of dry bushland on red sand.	eng
32241	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to localised areas in central and eastern Kenya.	eng
32241	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of dry upland forest.	eng
32241	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations at Emali and Lower Imenti are suffering from agricultural encroachment.	eng
32242	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g. Kimboza Forest Reserve, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, and Mrima Forest Reserve.	eng
32242	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from southern coastal Kenya, into Tanzania and extending inland to the East Usambara, Nguru and Uluguru Mts. There is a recent collection from Pugu Forest (only two plants found). A sterile collection from Mozambique by Quentin Luke has been identified by RBG Kew as this species, but seems unlikely, so is not included here (Q. Luke pers. comm).	eng
32242	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree growing in lowland rain forest (usually on limestone outcrops), also on an igneous intrusion with moist semi-deciduous forest. Foorest dominants include: <span style="font-style: italic;">Cola pseudoclavata</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lecaniodiscus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Antiaris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lannea welwitschii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros kabuyeana</span> and&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum schumannii</span>. Lianes: <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichapetalum, Salacia, Acacia, Combretum, Strychnos </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis</span>.	eng
32242	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Abundant at Kihansi (F. Mbago pers. comm.), but elsewhere quite scarce, e.g. only two plants recorded at Pugu Forest.	eng
32242	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by habitat loss due to forest loss and degradation (expanding agriculture, mining, fuelwood, charcoal, etc.).	eng
32243	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Kenyan Forestry authorities maintain plantations of it and also sell the seed.  Subpopulations in Mt. Kenya National Park and other forest reserves are legally protected.	eng
32243	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in distribution in central Kenya.	eng
32243	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to wet upland forest.	eng
32243	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is highly valued at a national level for its timber. Exploitation and habitat loss have led to the species becoming rarer.	eng
32244	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has a broken distribution, extending 700 km along the coastline. It is known from numerous localities.	eng
32244	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal vegetation on white sands usually associated with rivers or wetter areas.	eng
32245	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Coast of Kenya and southern Somalia. It occurs in abundance near Kiunga.	eng
32245	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A species confined to bushland or woodland.	eng
32247	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population in Meru National Park is protected. The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is managing living collections and seed stocks.	eng
32247	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Kenya.	eng
32247	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in open woodland on rocky domes or river banks.	eng
32247	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
32247	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declines in the extent of the habitat have been caused by cutting and changing land use.	eng
32248	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in Meru National Park are protected, although tourism may exert some pressure on them.	eng
32248	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the central mountains of Kenya.	eng
32248	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of riverine forest.	eng
32248	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside Meru National Park there is no protection and some threat from habitat clearance and land development.	eng
32249	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	The largest subpopulation of this small tree occurs in Kenya where it appears to be quite common near Wajir. It also extends into a small area of southern Somalia.	eng
32249	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Bushland.	eng
32250	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Seed and living stocks are maintained under the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya.	eng
32250	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known only from the Taita Hills.	eng
32250	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in remnants of moist evergreen forest.	eng
32250	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree has many local uses and illegal exploitation of the wood continues. The habitat is also reduced through encroaching agriculture, settlement, the planting of commercial species and road building.	eng
32251	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree, endemic to forest at Ngangao and Mbololo in the Teita Hills.	eng
32252	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Taita Hills.	eng
32252	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree to 12 m, from submontane forest.	eng
32253	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not possible to keep the seeds in long-term storage but the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains a living collection.	eng
32253	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Taita Hills. Specimens which are arguably a new and highly restricted species have been found at higher altitudes in the same location.	eng
32253	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to upland moist evergreen forest.	eng
32254	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kasigau.	eng
32254	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen forest between 1,400 and 1,600 m.	eng
32255	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species. Subpopulations are recorded from Chyulu, Mbololo, Kasigau, near Murka and Ngulia. There are only two species in the genus.	eng
32255	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist forest or thickets on rocky hills.	eng
32257	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Localities include Cha Simba, Gongoni, Muhaka and Dzombo.	eng
32257	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, confined to a few forest patches or shady crevices.	eng
32258	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The largest part of the species' range lies in Liberia. It extends from the south-west tip of Côte d'Ivoire towards the Nimba region of Liberia extending into Sierra Leone.	eng
32259	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Collected only from Vikindu in Uzaramo.	eng
32259	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree of dry forest.	eng
32260	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in good numbers in the North Udzungwa, Nguru Mountains and Uluguru Mts.	eng
32260	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
32261	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Illegal activities and encroachment are currently prevented by two forest guards employed under the Catchment Forestry Project.	eng
32261	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species endemic to Kimboza Forest Reserve, which covers just 4 km² in the foothills of the Uluguru Mts.	eng
32261	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
32261	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Disturbance has been caused by logging and planting of commercial timbers in the past. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for land is strong.	eng
32262	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An occurrence is recorded from the Kimboza Forest Reserve, where 4 km² of forest within a densely populated area are protected by two forest guards.	eng
32262	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A widely varying species known only from three localities. There are subpopulations in the south of the Nguru Mountains and possibly at Chita and Kihansi within the Udzungwa Mts. The latter occurrence is strange for its high elevation and may be a distinct taxon.	eng
32262	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
32263	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The distinctness of this species from the West African species, <em>M. africana</em>, is considered to be doubtful. Subpopulations in Tanzania occur in the West Usambara and South Pare Mts.	eng
32263	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
32264	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	There are now two forest guards working under the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project to prevent illegal logging, cutting and encroachment.	eng
32264	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A tree only known from Kimboza Forest, a 4 km² patch of forest in the foothills of the Uluguru Mountains.	eng
32264	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32264	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest has been heavily logged for valuable timber in the past and the planted Cedrela has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and there is a strong demand for land to cultivate.	eng
32265	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A conservation programme and the employment of forest guards has halted further exploitation.	eng
32265	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the Pugu Hills, the population is likely to be confined to the remaining forested areas contained within the Pugu (22 km²) and Kazimzumbwi (49 km²).	eng
32265	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	These areas are heavily disturbed by previous logging and charcoal production, and by industrial, agricultural, military and mining activities.	eng
32266	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Caesalpinia insolita</em>, this taxon is recognised as a new genus. It is known from Mwena River in Kenya and in several sites on the coastal plain between Pangani and Miligaji Rivers in Tanzania, including the relatively undisturbed Gendagenda Forest Reserve and a cattle ranch which may be added to the Sadaani Game Reserve. It is also reported from Madagascar.	eng
32266	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is known from a few coastal forest fragments.	eng
32267	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Continuing declines are prevented by the presence of forest guards and active conservation programmes.	eng
32267	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to the remaining forested areas at the foot of the East Usambara Mountains, Kimboza Forest Reserve at the foot of the Uluguru Mountains and possibly also in South Nguru.	eng
32267	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
32267	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	These forests have declined heavily in the past because of the increasing clearing of land for agriculture.	eng
32268	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In the vicinities of Udzungwa and Njombe in east Tanzania.	eng
32268	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A gregarious species, occurring in forest or grassland on upland exposed ridges.	eng
32269	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East and south-east Tanzania.	eng
32269	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree restricted to remaining areas of dry coastal forest and open woodland.	eng
32270	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to east and south-east Tanzania.	eng
32270	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist forest species of low elevation.	eng
32271	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two subpopulations are known. One occurs at the foot of the Uluguru Mts. and the other at Turiani.	eng
32271	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Both in moist lowland forest.	eng
32272	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs in one locality at the eastern foot of the Udzungwa range.	eng
32272	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry lowland forest.	eng
32272	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest is under some pressure from agricultural encroachment and local exploitation.	eng
32273	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs in several forest reserves.	eng
32273	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is locally dominant in three patches of coastal forest in the Pangani River basin. Two of them are contained within forest reserves: Gendagenda Forest Reserve (27 km²), and Tongwe Forest Reserve (12 km²), the remaining population occurs in the Pangani Falls Forest (1 km²). The species is also reported to occur in lowland forest in the East Usambara Mountains. FTEA notes this may be a species of <em>Scorodophloeus</em>.	eng
32273	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32273	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A hydroelectric dam has been built in the Pangani Falls Forest. The demand for agricultural land puts pressure on all these sites.	eng
32274	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species found only in Sigi valley at the foot of the East Usambara Mts.	eng
32274	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32275	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in east Usambara Mts. A subpopulation may also occur in the Pugu Forest Reserve (22 km²) near Dar es Salaam.	eng
32275	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is largely known from areas of moist lowland forest reaching 900 m.	eng
32276	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	There are now two forest guards to stop illegal cutting and encroachment.	eng
32276	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This tree is endemic to Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²) at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.	eng
32276	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest is disturbed because of previous logging and the planting of exotic species, including a  <em>Cedrela</em> species which has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for land to cultivate is strong.	eng
32277	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Rarely occurring on two mountain ranges; in the West Usambaras a subpopulation is known from Shagai and in the Udzungwas there are occurrences in Mwanihana and Nyumbanitu.	eng
32277	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist evergreen montane forest.	eng
32278	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to the South Nguru Mountains.	eng
32278	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree is located in a small area of moist forest at 1,200 m.	eng
32279	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	North Uluguru Mountains.	eng
32279	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub restricted to moist evergreen forest.	eng
32280	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	It occurs from southern Somalia along the lower Jubba River into eastern Kenya and Tanzania. Information on the possible occurrence in Madagascar may alter the current status of the species.	eng
32280	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	An evergreen tree of riverine forest.	eng
32280	population	Thulin, M., 1998	Although the range appears extensive, subpopulations are localised and confined to disappearing habitat.	eng
32280	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Disappearing habitat.	eng
32281	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Occurring from Côte d'Ivoire to Benin, this is an uncommon species from a heavily exploited  forest. The only other species in the genus, although apparently ecologically distinct, is very similar. If the two were to be taxonomically merged the species would be wide-ranging and at lower risk.	eng
32281	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32282	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is known to have declined severely.	eng
32282	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations have been recorded in Benin, on the Nigerian border at Oueme, in Ikom in Nigeria, extending into Cameroon and Bioko. Information on the extent of the species range and its status is incomplete	eng
32282	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree from Atlantic forest.	eng
32282	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been recorded in Benin, on the Nigerian border at Oueme, in Ikom in Nigeria, extending into Cameroon and Bioko. Although information on the extent of the species range and its status is incomplete	eng
32283	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It occurs particularly in disturbed areas or light gaps in lowland moist forest. Regeneration is good after disturbance.	eng
32284	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Taiwan, the species is restricted to forest areas on Lanyu Island.	eng
32284	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fewer than 250 individuals are thought to be in existence on Lanyu Island.	eng
32285	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring as two varieties; var. <em>tetrapterum</em> that is found throughout the species range, and var. <em>obovale</em> that is scattered in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
32285	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Well-drained mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
32285	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees are cut for bintangor timber.	eng
32288	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The most primitive member of the genus, confined to two main locations, Chachapoyas in Amazonas, and northern Cajamarca.	eng
32288	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs locally in humid montane forest.	eng
32289	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a variable species known from restricted areas occurring from northern Peru to north-west Bolivia. Subspecies in Bolivia are described separately. In the northern part of the range specimens are almost exclusively cultivated. Natural stands occur from Huánuco southwards, generally above 3,200 m. This species is fast-growing, more ecologically adaptable than others in the genus and a promising candidate for reforestation and agroforestry.	eng
32289	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Humid montane forest.	eng
32289	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has greatly declined because of continual burning, cutting for firewood and charcoal production.	eng
32290	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Concentrated in Lima and adjacent Ica, extending into restricted areas further east.	eng
32290	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally the species forms dense forest patches above 3,400 m.	eng
32290	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declines in the extent of the forest are being caused largely by burning and charcoal production.	eng
32291	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Small trees grow around granite outcrops where they are safe from commercial exploitation.	eng
32291	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A frequent tree of caatinga, occasional in the Andes, becoming rarer further south into Argentina.	eng
32291	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Catinga habitat and deciduous forest.	eng
32291	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	All stands of large trees are being or have been destroyed.  Regeneration appears to be poor where adequate management is not in place.	eng
32291	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	All stands of large trees are being or have been destroyed, previously through mahogany logging and now through selective logging.	eng
32292	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Subpopulations are protected within national parks and agricultural landscapes. Attempts are being made to establish plantations throughout the tropics.	eng
32292	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Large individuals have become scarce, especially in Amazonia.	eng
32292	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	One of the world's most important timber species. It occurs in humid or dry lowland forest, preferring well-drained soils.	eng
32292	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Exploitation has continued on a large scale over the past 200 years and the species is now widely threatened at the provenance level. Trees are often cut opportunistically while other species, such as mahogany, <em>Amburana</em> and <em>Machaerium</em>, are being sought-after. Natural regeneration is generally good, but there are reports of trees being felled before they reach maturity.	eng
32293	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	International trade in timber of the species is subject to the provisions of Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>. The Appendix II listing covers the Neotropical populations (including logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets and plywood) and entered into effect on 15 November 2003. Export quotas have been granted to certain countries.	eng
32293	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very large timber tree which has an extensive natural distribution.	eng
32293	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Various forest types. The ecology of northern subpopulations is relatively well understood whereas virtually nothing is known about Amazonian subpopulations.	eng
32293	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Basic inventories are lacking for most of its range. Good stands apparently still remain in parts of  Brazil and Bolivia.	eng
32293	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is the most commercially important of the mahoganies.  The level of exploitation has led to the exhaustion of supplies particularly in the northern parts of its range. Regeneration of the species is stochastic, depending in nature on large-scale disturbance. This ecological strategy makes mahogany vulnerable to logging regimes. Harvesting and processing are generally only 50 percent  efficient. There is, at present,  little economic incentive to manage natural stands sustainably.	eng
32294	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is apparently only known from a single collection dating back to the last century.	eng
32295	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the most widespread species in the genus.	eng
32295	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is the most important source of pulai timber.	eng
32296	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Both India and Sri Lanka have banned the export of this species.	eng
32296	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	An understorey tree of dry evergreen forests.	eng
32296	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Since ancient times the species has been renowned for its black wood and it is still regarded as the best commercial black ebony.	eng
32298	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Valle.	eng
32299	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, confined to the type locality on the Pacific slopes of Valle.	eng
32300	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from a few collections, gathered in western Ecuador and south-west Colombia.	eng
32300	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest between 500 and 2,000 m.	eng
32301	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Pacific coastal Colombia and Ecuador.	eng
32301	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32301	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species.	eng
32302	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The area is contained within Pedro Franco Davila Biological Station.	eng
32302	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known only from the type locality, on the road from Chone to Pichincha in Manabi. Altitude of 0–500 m.	eng
32302	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species occurs in lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32303	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single fenced tree is left in the wild on Mt Froding on Putuo Island in the Zhoushan Archipelago. The species is monoecious.	eng
32303	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally occurring in evergreen broadleaved forest, the remaining tree now exists at the edge of a sparse mixed forest.	eng
32304	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees are protected.	eng
32304	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wild population is now apparently confined to five damaged individuals on Xitianmu Mountain.	eng
32304	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees do not appear to be regenerating naturally.	eng
32305	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This widespread tree usually occurs in lowland riparian forest on deep rich soils. The Indian subpopulation, however, occurs in moist evergreen forest at higher altitudes, away from streams.	eng
32305	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	In Viet Nam a long period of selective logging has reduced the size of stands to small groups of trees or isolated individuals.	eng
32306	conservation	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A protected subpopulation occurs in Nam Cát Tiên National Park.	eng
32306	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The species occurs within a restricted distribution.	eng
32306	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Scattered in dense evergreen and semi-deciduous forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
32306	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Its beautiful red wood is overexploited.	eng
32309	distribution	Oates, M.R. & de Lange, P.J., 1998	Confined to a site in Clifford Bay in Marlborough. There are only two species in the genus, both endemic to New Zealand.	eng
32309	habitat	Oates, M.R. & de Lange, P.J., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32309	population	Oates, M.R. & de Lange, P.J., 1998	Only twelve wild plants survive in a remnant of coastal forest.	eng
32310	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia, trees are never common and rarely reach a commercial size. There are apparently good stands still in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.	eng
32310	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree which produces one of the most valuable timbers of South East Asia.	eng
32310	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been exploited so intensively for merbau timber that few sizeable natural stands remain. Few plantations are established.	eng
32311	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The natural distribution of the species is probably confined to west central Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh but it is obscured by the widespread cultivation of the plant.	eng
32311	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations do not appear to be large.	eng
32312	conservation	Farjon, A., Thomas, P. & Nguyen Duc To Luu, 2006	The population in Krong Bak Nature Reserve is protected, but regeneration is reported to be non-existent.	eng
32312	distribution	Farjon, A., Thomas, P. & Nguyen Duc To Luu, 2006	The only extant species of a genus which was species-rich in the Tertiary period. It is a prime timber tree, scattered in south and south-east China in areas which are densely populated. Primary localities exist in the Zhujiang Delta and the lower reaches of the Minjiang River. Populations in Viet Nam were once common but were reduced to fewer than 100 individuals in a few sites of in Dac Lac Province. Farjon (in litt. 2000) reported the species as Regionally Extinct in Viet Nam, however the natural occurrence at two localities in the province of Dac Lat has recently been confirmed (Nguyen Duc To Luu and Thomas, 2004).	eng
32312	habitat	Farjon, A., Thomas, P. & Nguyen Duc To Luu, 2006	Swamp forest (Viet Nam).	eng
32313	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This evergreen tree is so far only known from a region in south-west Guangxi Province.	eng
32314	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is found in numerous protected areas.	eng
32314	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Chengal is a valuable timber species. A large tree now only extant in Peninsular Malaysia. Populations in the southernmost part of Thailand and Singapore are believed to be extinct.	eng
32314	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The export of logs has been banned.	eng
32315	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are given formal protection over much of the range in China. The species was included in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> in 1985 and deleted from the Appendix in 1997.	eng
32315	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Guangxi extending into Viet Nam.	eng
32315	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted to wet areas of forest below 500 m.	eng
32315	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations continue to be threatened by overcollection of seedlings and habitat disturbance.	eng
32316	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A monospecific genus occurring in a few disjunct localities in the eastern Dalou Mts. and in the Yuecheng range.	eng
32316	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Around 30 small to medium-sized stands occur in areas which are fairly inaccessible.	eng
32316	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The populations are well protected but there is concern that they will be replaced by faster growing broadleaved species if regeneration continues to be poor.	eng
32317	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	All large trees are protected but the habitat is not.	eng
32317	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is known from sites in Shizhu in Sichuan, Lichuan in Hubei and Longshan and Sangzhi in Hunan.	eng
32317	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to slightly waterlogged areas of open forest.	eng
32317	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The subpopulations appear to have been reduced to a few mature individuals.	eng
32317	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Surrounding areas are heavily cultivated and there are poor prospects for natural regeneration.	eng
32318	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Baishanzu Mountain.	eng
32318	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species occurs in mixed forest.	eng
32318	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Only five living specimens are known in the wild.	eng
32318	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Expansive agriculture and fires, coupled with poor regeneration, are thought to have largely been responsible for the decline of the species.	eng
32319	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Effective protection of the population is given by the Forest Department.	eng
32319	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A relatively recently discovered species confined to Yuanbao Mountain, which is outside the general range of fir species.	eng
32319	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	There are in the region of 100 individuals mostly over 100 years old.	eng
32319	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Young trees are very rare and regeneration is hampered by long coning intervals, seed predation by squirrels and competition with <em>Sinarundinaria</em> species.	eng
32320	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An endemic of the Nanling Range on Mt Yinzhulao, Mt Shunhuang and Mt Erbaoding. As with <em>A. yuanbaoshanensis</em>, the distribution lies outside the general range of fir species.	eng
32320	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Population density is low and regeneration is poor because of the long coning interval and competition with other plants.	eng
32321	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Occurring in small groves or as isolated individuals, this relict species is recorded from a few forest localities in north-west Guangxi, south-east Guizhou, south-east Yunnan in China, and from a few localised populations in north and west Viet Nam. In China the species has been difficult to locate at recorded localities.	eng
32321	threats	Sun, W., 1998	In China the habitat has declined considerably with extensive agriculture and logging.	eng
32322	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	First discovered in the 1960s, the species is thought to have become extinct in its original location on Mt Hewei, which has been cleared of forest. Further localities have been identified in Xinyi in Guangdong and Guping in Guangxi, where it occurs in the remaining forest below 600 m. The genus is monospecific.	eng
32322	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest below 600 m.	eng
32323	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only recently discovered, the species occurs in Balibagai.	eng
32323	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet alkaline land dominated by herbaceous vegetation.	eng
32323	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population was apparently reduced to one sprouting stump when the only known site was taken over for farming.	eng
32324	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The species is protected under Taiwan's Cultural Heritage Preservation Law. The family is monotypic.	eng
32324	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The species is scattered throughout south-east China extending to Lai Chau in Viet Nam and Taibei and Ilan Counties in northern Taiwan.	eng
32324	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Low to middle elevation forest in ravines and by streams.	eng
32324	population	Sun, W., 1998	Uncommon and thought to be getting rarer. The subpopulation in Viet Nam is considered to be threatened and in Taiwan populations are highly localised and contain few individuals.	eng
32324	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Habitat loss and logging are the main causes of declines.	eng
32325	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,100 m.	eng
32325	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been considerable declines in the Chinese part of the range. Information is needed on populations in Thailand and Myanmar.	eng
32325	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is commercially useful and rates of logging, as well as general habitat loss, have caused massive losses in China.	eng
32326	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree found in northern Viet Nam and one location in Fangcheng, southern Guangxi.	eng
32326	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in forested valleys between 150 and 480 m.	eng
32326	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are constant threats of cutting or habitat clearance.	eng
32327	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in a few scattered locations in the east of China.	eng
32327	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of evergreen broadleaved forest between 150 and 500 m.	eng
32327	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The numbers of populations are steadily diminishing.	eng
32327	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing habitat loss and disturbance.	eng
32328	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The species occurs widely in cultivation.	eng
32328	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Although the species occurs widely in cultivation, wild subpopulations are restricted to mixed montane forest in western and central Yunnan.	eng
32328	population	Sun, W., 1998	Subpopulations in the wild are in decline.	eng
32328	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The demand from the horticultural industry is causing  significant depletion of plants in the wild.	eng
32329	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to Fangcheng in southern Guangxi.	eng
32329	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in forest between 180 and 440 m.	eng
32329	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are constant threats of cutting or habitat clearance.	eng
32330	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although closely related to <em>C. fortunei</em>, this species is considered to be a distinct taxon in China. It is found in Gongshan County. An occurrence in Myanmar is recorded, but there is no collected material from here.	eng
32330	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs in small groves within forested valleys up to 1,900 m.	eng
32330	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Exploitation of the taxon for the medicinal properties of its bark, and also of the habitat for its timber resources, are the main threats to the species.	eng
32331	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations of this relict species are being rapidly depleted through logging and clearing of the lowland moist forest habitat. The plant has strong sprouting capacity but regeneration by sexual reproduction appears to be slow, possibly because of its dioecious nature.	eng
32332	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Japan and China.	eng
32332	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Temperate beech forests in Japan and in remnant patches of broad-leaved forest in China.	eng
32332	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree.	eng
32332	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threat to the species is poor regeneration.	eng
32333	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Plantations are now being established.	eng
32333	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Over a hundred large trees have been preserved as a monument near Yuenyang Lake and Lala Mt.	eng
32333	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A long-living emergent, which usually forms pure stands in medium to high elevation cloud forest.	eng
32333	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Many large trees were felled in the past and exported as timber to Japan. Regeneration is good where it is not prevented by the planting of commercial species and the invasion of broadleaved species in the undergrowth.	eng
32334	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Hainan Island the species is now only found on Dialuo Mt. and Jingfeng Mt. Subpopulations in Ding'an Qiongzhong, Baoting and Yaxian have apparently disappeared. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
32334	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in forested gullies at altitudes of 600 to 700 m.	eng
32335	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Small subpopulations are scattered in Ruili, Malipo, Xichou and Lushui in Yunnan, in western Guangxi and Dushan County in southern Guizhou, and in north Viet Nam. Only two species have been described in this somewhat taxonomically unresolved genus.	eng
32335	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species habitat is monsoon forest between 500 and 1,000 m.	eng
32335	threats	Sun, W., 1998	It has been extensively cleared and degraded throughout the range.	eng
32336	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to eastern Tibet.	eng
32336	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species forms sparse pure stands along rivers on sheltered dry slopes. The largest individuals are said to be in a cemetery.	eng
32336	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Little regeneration is apparent except in the Yarlungzangbo river basin but the tree coppices well.	eng
32337	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The more threatened of the two varieties in this monospecific genus, with a distribution similar to that of the type variant.	eng
32337	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Occurring in montane or cloud forest.	eng
32337	population	Sun, W., 1998	Populations appear to be less common than those of the type variant..	eng
32337	threats	Sun, W., 1998	There is also a keen demand for the seeds and plants in the horticultural trade, and overcollection from wild populations has reduced natural regeneration severely.	eng
32338	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nature Reserves, for instance at Weishan in southern Yunnan, are now set up and help to protect certain subpopulations.	eng
32338	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China, the species has suffered rapid population declines over the past 20 years.	eng
32338	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
32339	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Mountains in southern China and in several localities in secondary forest in northern Viet Nam. The genus is monospecific.	eng
32339	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A small tree, widespread in submontane broadleaved forest on limestone.	eng
32339	population	Sun, W., 1998	In China, declines in population numbers have been recorded in the last decade.	eng
32339	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
32340	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The area is now under protection	eng
32340	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Known only from the counties of Mengzi and Wenshan in the south-east of Yunnan. It is a prized ornamental plant and one of just two species in the genus.	eng
32340	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species occurs at the edges of broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,800 and 2,400 m.	eng
32340	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The habitat has declined in extent because of logging and clearing for agriculture.	eng
32341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Xiangning, Hejin and Yicheng counties in Shanxi and Huxian county in Shaanxi.	eng
32341	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is scattered on mountain slopes between 800 and 1,500 m.	eng
32341	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The numbers of large individuals and the overall natural extent of the species is declining because of overcutting.	eng
32342	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A valuable timber tree. The species' range in Viet Nam extends from the border with China to Quang Nam-Da Nang Province.	eng
32342	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Occurring in monsoon or rainforest up to 800 m, it can form a scattered or dominant component.	eng
32342	population	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The Chinese subpopulations are largely reduced to trees left standing around living areas.	eng
32342	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Plantations were established in the 1950s to increase supplies of the hardwood but demands are still in excess of what can be sustainably provided.	eng
32343	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	A common tree endemic to Henderson Island.	eng
32343	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	Co-dominant in the plateau forest with <em> Xylosma suaveolens</em>. It also occurs in scrub vegetation and on cliff slopes.	eng
32343	population	Waldren, S., 1998	The total population is estimated to number between 20,000 and 40,000 individuals.	eng
32343	threats	Waldren, S., 1998	Under no threat at present.	eng
32344	conservation	Waldren, S., 1998	<em>Ex situ</em> germination tests have failed so far as many seeds appear to lack embryos.	eng
32344	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	One of the least common of the Henderson Island endemics.	eng
32344	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	Scattered in the plateau forest.	eng
32344	population	Waldren, S., 1998	Up to 7,000 individuals may exist.	eng
32344	threats	Waldren, S., 1998	The species is dioecious and may be suffering from the heavy predation of fruits, often before they are ripe, by doves.	eng
32345	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A small tree known only from Henderson and Pitcairn Islands.	eng
32345	habitat	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Beach forest and scrub.	eng
32345	population	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	On Henderson the species is relatively common, numbering about 20,000 individuals. The population is smaller, with fewer than 500 individuals, on Pitcairn.	eng
32345	threats	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Cutting and  the spread of the invasive <em>Syzygium jambos</em>. No regeneration has been observed.	eng
32346	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Endemic to Oeno Island.	eng
32346	habitat	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A caulescent tree or shrub, that occurs in  <em>Argusia argentea/Pisonia grandis</em> formations.	eng
32346	population	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A botanical expedition in 1991 failed to find any living specimens despite thorough searches. A sterile specimen was found in 1997 in the south-west of the island.	eng
32346	threats	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Natural vegetation changes may be the cause of the evident scarcity of the species.	eng
32347	conservation	Waldren, S., 1998	Henderson Island is a World Heritage Site.	eng
32347	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	This variety is endemic to Henderson Island.	eng
32347	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	Occurs with the type variety in open gaps in the plateau forest.	eng
32347	population	Waldren, S., 1998	The total number of individuals of the two varieties together has been calculated to be about 40,000. Regeneration appears to be good, although the species is possibly monocarpic.	eng
32348	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been reduced to two localities, Yangchong in Guangdong and Pingnan in Guangxi.  The genus is monospecific.	eng
32348	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Open forest on hilly slopes between 50 and 150 m.	eng
32348	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very few individuals are found..	eng
32348	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The remaining trees do not appear to be protected and are close to villages, where they are susceptible to cutting.	eng
32349	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The species remains in cultivation, frequently planted as an ornamental tree.	eng
32349	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The only remaining trees are those which have been planted around temples and villages. Wild populations were once believed to have existed in central and western Yunnan.	eng
32349	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Between 1,700 to 2,500 m.	eng
32349	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The forests here have been replaced by crops.	eng
32350	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	There are several occurrences within nature reserves, including Ba Be National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
32350	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The center of the species' distribution is in south-west Guangxi, extending into limestone areas of Yunnan. Populations in Viet Nam represent a separate species.	eng
32350	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A slow-growing tree, it is found, sometimes as a dominant component, in lowland semi-deciduous woodland. Regeneration is observed to be strong in forest gaps.	eng
32350	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The timber is highly valued, and in many parts of its range mature trees have become very scarce or been eliminated.  Habitat loss and degradation have also contributed to the decline.	eng
32351	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species has a wide range, although the exact extent of the truly wild populations is obscured by those which have been planted. The genus is monospecific.	eng
32351	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A common species. Regeneration is fire-dependent and appears to be good.	eng
32351	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Large-scale logging has resulted in the species disappearing or  becoming scarce in parts of its range, notably in northern Viet Nam and southern China.	eng
32352	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Populations are confined to central Guangxi and to Malipo in south-east Yunnan, extending into northern Viet Nam.	eng
32352	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Distributed in forest on limestone, rarely above 600 m.	eng
32352	threats	Sun, W., 1998	A timber species; large trees have been cut; very few remain. Regeneration also appears to be insufficient.	eng
32353	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The species has been widespread in cultivation for several centuries.	eng
32353	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The wild populations of this widely planted ornamental are apparently confined to Xitianmu Mt., Zhejiang. This is the only species in the genus. It is long-living and has an ancient geological record, appearing in the Jurassic.	eng
32353	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Scattered in broadleaved forests up to 1,100 m. This is the only species in the genus. It is long-living and has an ancient geological record, appearing in the Jurassic.	eng
32355	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A prized ornamental occurring in two main areas. It has not been found recently in the westernmost site in Xingshan, Hubei. In the east it is found in small numbers. It is the only member of the genus.	eng
32355	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In woodlands or on the edge of evergreen broadleaved forest.	eng
32355	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Population declines through indiscriminate cutting have been recorded.	eng
32356	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Shiwan Mountains.	eng
32356	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small evergreen tree restricted to monsoon forest.	eng
32356	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It provides a valuable timber, renowned as 'ten-thousand year wood'. Overcutting is a serious problem.	eng
32357	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The Chinese subpopulation is now protected from cutting.	eng
32357	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Hainan Island in China and Nghia Dan, Quy Chau, Quy Hop and Nhu Xuan and a few smaller localities in Viet Nam.	eng
32357	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A slow-growing tree, occurring in remaining areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
32357	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The Chinese subpopulation consists of several hundred mature trees	eng
32358	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Only recently discovered in south Yunnan and northern Viet Nam.	eng
32358	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Evergreen rainforest.	eng
32358	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Small stands still exist in a number of provinces in Viet Nam.	eng
32358	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	In China populations are disappearing because of deforestation and habitat degradation.	eng
32359	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from several localities in the south-west of Hainan Island, and also from a single locality in Xuwen County, Guangdong.	eng
32359	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy tree of middle elevation rainforest below 800 m.	eng
32359	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in a habitat which has experienced severe declines in extent over much of the taxon's range.	eng
32360	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species' range coincides with protected areas in both countries.	eng
32360	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Guangdong, southern Guangxi, Malipo and Pingbian in Yunnan and northern provinces of Viet Nam.	eng
32360	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large timber tree with a scattered distribution in lowland primary forest.	eng
32360	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Few large trees remain.	eng
32360	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been heavily exploited throughout the range.	eng
32361	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	A large population is under protection in Longzhou Nature Reserve.	eng
32361	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Scattered in western Guangxi and eastern Yunnan. The genus is monotypic.	eng
32361	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Limestone mountains up to 1,640 m.	eng
32361	population	Sun, W., 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
32361	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Wild populations are much reduced as a result of continued logging and habitat clearance.	eng
32362	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China the species is confined to the Changbai Mountains.	eng
32362	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thickets between 1,000 and 1,300 m.	eng
32362	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs infrequently.	eng
32362	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Clearing and altering of the habitat are believed to have affected regeneration and caused population declines.	eng
32363	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	<em>Malus sieversii</em> is believed to be the primary ancestor of the domesticated apple. The species is native to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (Lamboy <em>et al</em>. 1998). It also extends into China where pure stands of the species occur in the Ili River Valley in the western part of the Tianshan Mts. and on hillsides in western Junggar (National Environment Protection Bureau 1987, Li-kuo and Jian-ming 1992). Occurs between 1,100 and 1,600 m.	eng
32363	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A wild relative of domesticated cultivars and therefore a globally important genetic resource.	eng
32363	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Declining at a rapid rate. For example, in Kazakhstan its habitat has declined by over 70% in the last 30 years.	eng
32363	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural expansion and development, genetic erosion (grafting of commercial varieties and hybridization) and overgrazing.	eng
32364	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its range stretches from south-east Yunnan to south-west Guangxi.	eng
32364	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in monsoon forest on limestone hills between 800 and 1,550 m.	eng
32364	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a few scattered stands of this important timber tree remain. Several populations are reported to have become extinct in both provinces.	eng
32364	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overexploitation of the timber.	eng
32365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted largely to the lower reaches of the Anning and Yalong Rivers and Jinsha River Valley.	eng
32365	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shrubs or small trees are found singly or in small clumps, between 900 and 2,800 m. Populations frequently occur in inaccessible places in rock crevices and on steep cliffs.	eng
32365	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threat comes from firewood collection.	eng
32366	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Restricted to parts of the Dabieshan.	eng
32366	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to upland mixed forest.	eng
32366	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mature trees are few.	eng
32366	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Rates of regeneration and growth are poor.	eng
32367	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A variety confined to two main locations in the Yajia Range on Hainan Island.	eng
32367	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs individually or in small clumps on the margins of tropical montane rainforest and mossy summit woodland.	eng
32367	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is a danger that the area will be taken over for commercial forestry management.	eng
32368	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Highly restricted in range and population numbers in Xicho and Malipo, south-east Yunnan. It is also recorded in Viet Nam but the population there is poorly known.	eng
32368	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is confined to evergreen submontane forest on limestone mountains.	eng
32368	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is a threat of continued logging.	eng
32369	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in south-west China. Also occurring in scattered localities in northern and southern provinces in Viet Nam.	eng
32369	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is one of the dominant components of broadleaved semi-deciduous forest above 1,200 m.	eng
32369	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Stands in China are said to have become more sporadic because of the extensive logging and clearing of the species habitat. The timber is used domestically.	eng
32370	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The area has been designated as a nature reserve and the species is in cultivated as an ornamental.	eng
32370	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Gaoligongshan in south-west Yunnan.	eng
32370	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Submontane evergreen broadleaved forest.	eng
32370	population	Sun, W., 1998	Fewer than 100 trees are thought to exist. The population was rediscovered in 1981, 62 years after its first collection.	eng
32371	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is largely confined to southern China, with restricted populations in Lao Cai and Yen Bai just over the border into northern Viet Nam. The family is monotypic.	eng
32371	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a canopy tree in montane forest.	eng
32371	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees generally occur singly or in small groups. The species is a dominant element where recolonisation is taking place after forest clearance.	eng
32372	distribution	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	An endemic of Hainan Island.	eng
32372	habitat	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	Confined to remaining areas of semi-deciduous monsoon and rainforest in valleys below 500 m.	eng
32372	population	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	The species can occur commonly and regenerates well.	eng
32372	threats	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	It is cut for its timber and has experienced rapid rates of decline in its habitat because of logging and the increase in the amount of land coming under cultivation.	eng
32373	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations of the species are known to occur in some forest reserves.	eng
32373	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	The Chinese subpopulation is confined to Yingjiang. In India the species is known from healthy subpopulations, which are regenerating well.	eng
32373	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This gregarious tree occurs on slopes and along rivers in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32373	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by conversion of the forest to agriculture (China). The trees are cut for the commercially valuable plywood.	eng
32374	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dwarf tree restricted to a few localities close to Nanjing.	eng
32374	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs on hillsides below 400 m.	eng
32374	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although some populations appear to be protected, trees are still susceptible to being cut for firewood.	eng
32375	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One subpopulation is believed to be protected in Taibai Shan Nature Reserve.	eng
32375	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to central China. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
32375	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in mixed forest on mountain slopes and river banks between 1,100 and 1,600 m.	eng
32375	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside the protected area the species appears to be suffering from habitat degradation and declines.	eng
32376	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found throughout Asia.	eng
32376	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is a fast growing species.	eng
32376	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exploited for its timber and planted as an ornamental.	eng
32377	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species previously thought to be endemic to Hong Kong, but occurring in Heishan and Bofulin. A small subpopulation has since been discovered in Longzhou, Guangxi. This is the only member of the genus.	eng
32377	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to areas of rainforest at 590 m.	eng
32378	distribution	Xiang Qiaoping, Farjon, A., Li Zhenyu, Fu Likuo & Liu Zhengyu, 2003	In 1892, the French missionary P.G. Farges was the first westerner to conduct a botanical survey in Chengkou county, Chongqing Municipality (formerly eastern Sichuan Province), in central China. Among the many new species discovered by Farges, was <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em>. After his first collection, Farges returned a number of times to the area up until 1900 and collected additional specimens of this species. Later in the twentieth century, a number of botanical collecting trips were made to Chengkou by Chinese botanists. Some trips were specifically made to find <em>T. sutchuenensis</em>. However, nothing was found and it therefore remained known only from specimens collected by Farges and lodged in various European herbaria, although it was said to be in cultivation in China. Nothing was known about the habitat in which the species had been found, and it was not even certain that the species had been collected in the wild, as only the town of Chengkou was mentioned as its locality. As a result, the species was widely regarded to be Extinct in the Wild, and was considered to be the only conifer to have disappeared from nature in historic times (Farjon and Page 1999).  <br/> <br/>In October 1999, an expedition in search of rare and endangered plants of Chongqing Municipality organized by a local forest bureau carried out a thorough investigation of Chenkou county.  In the Dabashan Mountains they discovered a wild population of <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em>.	eng
32378	habitat	Xiang Qiaoping, Farjon, A., Li Zhenyu, Fu Likuo & Liu Zhengyu, 2003	Occurs on steep slopes and ridges of a limestone formation at altitudes between 800 and 2,100 m (but mostly between 1,000 and 1,500 m). The population grows on ridges and mountain summits where the soil is shallow and even grows in rock crevices, devoid of soil. The surrounding vegetation is largely deciduous broad-leaved temperate forest.	eng
32378	threats	Xiang Qiaoping, Farjon, A., Li Zhenyu, Fu Likuo & Liu Zhengyu, 2003	The fragrant and rot-resistant wood of <em>Thuja sutchuenensis</em> is a very desirable resource.  The wood is soft, light and very easily worked.  It is used for applications requiring decay resistance by local people, e.g., home construction, production of shingles, application for funeral services, etc.  As a result most of the easily accessible trees have been chopped down, leaving only a single very remote and largely inaccessible subpopulation. <br/> <br/>Inbreeding among the remaining individuals is potentially a problem which requires further investigation.  Plant diseases caused by microorganisms have also been observed, but it is not clear what impact, if any, these may have.	eng
32379	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This small tree is found in Pucheng in Zhejiang and Taining in Fujian.	eng
32379	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland forest or shrubland.	eng
32379	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area is very heavily populated and the habitat is being widely degraded.	eng
32380	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The lone tree is protected by guards assigned from the Forestry Department.	eng
32380	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Only a single tree of this recently discovered species is known to exist on Mt Liushai, Guangxi.	eng
32380	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Gully rainforest.	eng
32381	distribution	Rushforth, K., 1998	Subpopulations are known from south Yunnan and Lào Chi province in north Viet Nam.	eng
32381	habitat	Rushforth, K., 1998	Trees occur singly or in groves in remaining areas of semi-evergreen broadleaved forest on limestone mountains. The present knowledge of the species distribution is not complete.	eng
32381	threats	Rushforth, K., 1998	Significant habitat declines are occurring in the areas where the species is known, largely because of encroaching agriculture but also logging for timber.	eng
32382	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The species is restricted to Jinghong in Yunnan, Guangdong, including Hainan Island and Guangxi.	eng
32382	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	It is mainly found in semi-evergreen monsoon forest up to altitudes of 400 m.	eng
32382	threats	Sun, W., 1998	There is concern over the rates of exploitation and the damage to trees incurred during the harvesting of the medicinal balm. Habitat loss and clearance are also frequent.	eng
32383	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A timber species which occurs in broadleaved deciduous woodland up to 1,300 m.	eng
32383	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Population numbers have declined because of overexploitation and habitat loss.	eng
32384	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	In Viet Nam some populations are contained within protected areas, such as Ba Vi National Park and Bidoup Nature Reserve.	eng
32384	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Altitudinal range: 800 to 1,500 m. Forest type: small groups in dense, moist, evergreen montane forest on either limestone or granite derived soils.	eng
32384	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Throughout the species' range, populations are rapidly being reduced to the more inaccessible areas where logging and cutting are limited. It is still found commonly in some valleys in Yunnan. In Viet Nam the populations are small.	eng
32384	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat loss, overexploitation for timber and resin. Throughout Viet Nam this species has also been overexploited for its timber and resin and much of its habitat has been converted for agriculture.	eng
32385	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Shiwan Mts. in southern Guangxi, the species appears to occur in such low numbers that repeated recent searches for it have failed. In Viet Nam it appears to be more widespread in central provinces and mountain areas. Natural regeneration is reported to be good here.	eng
32385	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In secondary forest and forest margins.	eng
32386	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some populations, e.g., at Datan in Hong Kong and Chengman in Jiulong, are protected.	eng
32386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from scattered small subpopulations on low-lying hills on the coast from the mouth of Zhujiang River to Shiwan Mt.	eng
32386	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Numbers are believed to be very small and declining.	eng
32386	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging for timber.	eng
32387	distribution	Temperate Broadleaved Tree Specialist Group, 1998	Along the south-east coast of China and in Taiwain, and widespread in northern and central Viet Nam.	eng
32387	habitat	Temperate Broadleaved Tree Specialist Group, 1998	A massive tree scattered in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest along the coast.	eng
32387	threats	Temperate Broadleaved Tree Specialist Group, 1998	Trees are heavily cut in many areas for the timber, which is used in construction work. Regeneration, at least in Viet Nam, is reported to be poor and limited to forest edges.	eng
32388	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in south-west Guangxi, China, and in Cao Bang in Viet Nam.	eng
32388	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Limestone areas, where it can become dominant in moist forest below 500 m.	eng
32388	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam seedlings and young trees are abundant where the trees have been planted, but regeneration in the wild is almost non-existent. However, trees coppice well.	eng
32388	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overcutting and use of the tree as cattle forage are the main threats.	eng
32389	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring over a wide range. The genus is monotypic.	eng
32389	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to lowland forest.	eng
32389	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is in severe decline because of loss and degradation of this habitat. Regeneration is poor.	eng
32390	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal islands in China, throughout Taiwan and parts of North and South Korea and Japan.	eng
32390	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32390	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, occurring in isolated populations.	eng
32390	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Susceptible to habitat clearance and conversion to agriculture.	eng
32391	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Restricted to south-west Sichuan and north-east Yunnan.	eng
32391	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
32391	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The populations have been seriously reduced because of overexploitation of the bark for medicinal use and habitat clearance. Regeneration is reported to be poor and the species is being rapidly replaced by other broadleaved species in places.	eng
32392	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remaining subpopulations are believed to be well protected in nature reserves.	eng
32392	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32392	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although relatively widespread in, the species has experienced considerable habitat declines.	eng
32392	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has experienced considerable habitat declines, largely because of conversion to agriculture.	eng
32393	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Range covers parts of southern China, Son La, Lao Kai and Yen Bai in north Viet Nam and northern Myanmar. The genus contains only two species.	eng
32393	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Broadleaved forest on limestone.	eng
32393	population	Sun, W., 1998	This multi-purpose tree occurs in small populations over a relatively wide range.	eng
32393	threats	Sun, W., 1998	In China, particularly over the past 10 years, trees have been cut for timber at unsustainable levels. In Viet Nam the timber is said to be more rarely used because of its susceptibility to insect and termite attack.	eng
32394	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A relatively widely occurring component of middle elevation broadleaved forest.	eng
32394	population	Sun, W., 1998	Declines in the number of mature individuals have been reported.	eng
32394	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Declines are caused largely by overexploitation. Habitat loss and poor regeneration, apparently caused by the decimation of seed crops by birds, are also thought to have contributed to the present status of the species.	eng
32395	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been found at only a single locality in Langping. There are only two species in this somewhat taxonomically unresolved genus.	eng
32395	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing in forest on limestone hills at 1,400 m.	eng
32395	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extensive search in 1982 failed to relocate the species.	eng
32396	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China the main subpopulations are found at Mengla and Tengchong. Information is needed on the populations in Laos and Myanmar.	eng
32396	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	They are extremely small and largely made up of senescing trees in areas of monsoon forest on limestone hills.	eng
32396	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration is poor and the habitat degraded.	eng
32397	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	This variety is confined to localities at Simao, Meijiang, Jianchen and Jinghong in southern Yunnan.	eng
32397	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous forest. The taxon has been observed to occur quite frequently in scrub, regenerating after the destruction of forested areas.	eng
32397	population	Sun, W., 1998	Overcutting of the timber, encroaching cultivation and habitat degradation have caused population reductions.	eng
32398	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Hainan Island, the species is known only from stands of coppiced individuals.	eng
32398	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Secondary forest and scrub  up to 600 m altitude.	eng
32398	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees have been heavily harvested for the timber and scented wood.	eng
32399	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west of Hainan Island.	eng
32399	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the common and important components of low-elevation monsoon forest.	eng
32399	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale logging has taken out a considerable proportion of the population but trees are resprouting where allowed.	eng
32400	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	A nature reserve has been set up where the only Chinese population occur.	eng
32400	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	In China, the species is confined to an area of 30 km² in Yingjiang, where a nature reserve has been set up. The populations in Viet Nam, restricted to northern evergreen or monsoon forests, have been reduced to at least half their original size.	eng
32400	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large timber tree which is widespread in moist evergreen, sometimes semi-deciduous, montane forest.	eng
32401	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Center and south-west of China. The more widespread of the two species in the genus.	eng
32401	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in small stands scattered in mountainous moist forest areas.	eng
32401	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mature trees are said to be becoming scarcer because of cutting.	eng
32402	habitat	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	It has a wide altitudinal range within moist seasonal forest, sometimes bamboo forest.	eng
32402	population	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	Although the species has a wide distribution, subpopulations are small and declining.	eng
32404	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to the central mountain range.  The only other member of the genus is confined to Japan.	eng
32404	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in broadleaved forest up to 2,800 m.	eng
32404	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat destruction has been extensive but most intense at lower elevations.	eng
32405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The southernmost member of the genus. The few populations known are confined to Hainan Island.	eng
32405	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occur in seasonal rainforest between 400 and 900 m.	eng
32405	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extensive declines in the habitat because of logging and agricultural expansion have caused populations to decline throughout the species range.	eng
32406	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The two trees are protected and attempts to propagate the species are under way.	eng
32406	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-east slopes of Mt Hengshan.	eng
32406	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower limit of mixed forest.	eng
32406	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is reduced to two surviving individuals.	eng
32407	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China the species is known only from the mountain ranges of the south and west of Hainan Island. In Viet Nam it is recorded from Quanh Ninh Province.	eng
32407	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest (China) and lowland evergreen monsoon forest (Viet Nam).	eng
32407	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although parts of the range are designated nature reserves, the habitat is generally subject to logging and clearance.	eng
32408	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with a scattered occurrence in south-east China.	eng
32408	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in remaining areas of mid-elevation broadleaved forest on slopes and valleys.	eng
32408	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Throughout its range the species has been exposed to severe rates of habitat clearance and logging.	eng
32409	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Confined to south-west and west Yunnan.	eng
32409	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species occurs in areas of monsoon forest between 1,800 and 2,150 m.	eng
32409	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The extensive loss of habitat caused by logging and conversion to agriculture has incurred losses in population numbers and brought the species into serious risk of extinction.	eng
32410	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South of Hainan Island.	eng
32410	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to small areas of remaining forest below 500 m. It is a common component of this habitat type and sometimes occurs in pure stands.	eng
32410	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration is good.	eng
32410	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The rates of decline of the habitat have been considerable and the species has disappeared from parts of its range.	eng
32411	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	Protected populations exist in Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve.	eng
32411	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Restricted to Jinghong, Mengla and Gengma Counties in Yunnan.	eng
32411	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The variety is a scattered component of the upper canopy in monsoon or subtropical rainforest.	eng
32411	population	Sun, W., 1998	Remaining stands of this large tree are small.	eng
32411	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Large trees are increasingly scarce and continue to be cut for the timber. Regeneration, too, is insufficient.	eng
32412	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	Most of the range is contained within nature reserves.	eng
32412	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Endemic to southern Yunnan, occurring in Mengling, Xishuangbanna and Gengma.	eng
32412	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species is scattered sparsely in lowland monsoon forest.	eng
32412	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Overcollection of the seeds, which provide a commercial oil, and of the timber have caused declines in population numbers, particularly in the number of fertile female trees.	eng
32413	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Chinese subpopulation is largely found on Hainan Island.	eng
32413	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of monsoon forest occurring at low elevation in mountainous regions.	eng
32413	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Hainan levels of deforestation at this altitude have been very high. In Viet Nam there has also been extensive declines in the habitat and the species is reported to be regenerating poorly.	eng
32414	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Widely scattered in China	eng
32414	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A small to medium-sized tree occurring in lowland monsoon forest,	eng
32414	threats	Sun, W., 1998	This species has suffered extensive habitat loss.  One of the major subpopulations is found on Hainan Island, which has experienced large-scale habitat destruction over the last 30 years.	eng
32417	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	South and south-west Yunnan and north Thailand.	eng
32417	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A species found at forest edges and along roadsides between 800 to 1,500 m.	eng
32417	population	Sun, W., 1998	In Yunnan, subpopulations are scattered and very small.	eng
32417	threats	Sun, W., 1998	It appears to be naturally rare but loss of habitat and cutting for fuelwood has contributed significantly to the present scarcity.	eng
32418	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Its range is concentrated in the border region of Guangxi, Yunnan and Viet Nam. Additional subpopulations exist in the south-west of Yunnan.	eng
32418	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Ranging in stature from a small shrub to a tree of 15 m, this fast-growing species is a prominent component of monsoon forest on limestone hills between 700 and 1,000 m.	eng
32418	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Continuous declines and degradation of the habitat have caused the species to disappear from large parts of its range.	eng
32419	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a scattered distribution in a few mountain locations.	eng
32419	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in deciduous or mixed forest in mountain valleys between 800 and 1,100 m.	eng
32419	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been reports of population declines caused by large-scale logging and habitat degradation.	eng
32420	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The most substantial remaining subpopulations are confined to nature reserves.	eng
32420	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Endemic to south and south-west Yunnan.	eng
32420	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species occurs in dense monsoon forest in mountain valleys below 800 m.	eng
32420	threats	Sun, W., 1998	It is relatively uncommon and large trees have been cut for their valuable timber.	eng
32421	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Counties of Menghai, Jinghong and Mengla.	eng
32421	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A variety restricted to areas of monsoon forest between 800 and 1,500 m.	eng
32421	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The timber and oil, which goes to make perfume, are commercially valuable but population numbers are very low for large-scale exploitation. The loss and degradation of the habitat now appear to be the more serious threat.	eng
32422	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hainan Island and in Quang Ninh Province in Viet Nam where it is found in forest below 1,000 to 1,200 m.	eng
32422	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy tree of rainforest on the upper part of mountain slopes usually above 600 m.	eng
32422	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It provides a useful timber and overexploitation of both the tree and its habitat has caused considerable population declines.	eng
32423	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from small scattered stands, occurring in a restricted area just south of the mouth of the Yangtze River.	eng
32423	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hilly lowland mixed forest.	eng
32423	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found nowhere in large numbers.	eng
32423	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collection of flower buds for medicinal purposes is believed to be affecting the regeneration of the plant.	eng
32424	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from a restricted area in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River.	eng
32424	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in thickets and open forest up to 1,700 m.	eng
32424	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collection of the flower buds for medicinal use and general forest clearance are believed to be having detrimental effects throughout the species range.	eng
32425	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from south-east Yunnan to north-east Myanmar, Thailand and north Laos.	eng
32425	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in dry monsoon forest on limestone at low to medium elevations.	eng
32425	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extensive clearing and destruction of the forest in China has resulted in subpopulations there becoming scarce and threatened.	eng
32426	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within a small area encompassing western Yunnan, Mêdog County in Tibet and north-east Myanmar.	eng
32426	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree, occurring between 2,100 and 3,000 m.	eng
32426	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overexploitation and detrimental harvesting of the bark are believed to have caused considerable population declines.	eng
32427	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is a provincial reserve but no specific protection is given to these trees.	eng
32427	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality on the north slopes of Baohua Mt.	eng
32427	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed forest at an altitude of 220 m.	eng
32427	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently only a single population exists containing 18 individuals.	eng
32427	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No natural regeneration has been observed.	eng
32428	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from south-west Guangxi to south-east Yunnan.	eng
32428	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forested valleys on limestone mountains between 800 and 1,500 m.	eng
32428	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been extensively cleared and degraded, and population declines have been reported as a result.	eng
32429	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on Mt Caoguo, where the species occurs with <em>M. sinica</em>, Mt Laojun in south-east Yunnan and in Jingxi and Napo Counties in Guangxi.	eng
32429	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	They are restricted to broadleaved evergreen forest between altitudes of 450 and 1,500 m.	eng
32429	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The remaining populations are believed to be small.	eng
32429	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forests are unprotected and heavily exploited for firewood and timber. This species provides a construction timber given particular preference by local inhabitants.	eng
32430	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species recorded from four small localities in Mengla, in  Xishuangbanna. The species is extinct from two of these localities and approximately 20 trees have been recorded in remaining subpopulations. They appear to be unhealthy and rarely set seed.	eng
32430	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in low-elevation humid monsoon forest.	eng
32431	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The area is now under protection.	eng
32431	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Restricted to Jinghong County in the region of Xishuangbanna.	eng
32431	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	It occurs infrequently as a component of the upper canopy of monsoon forest between 540 and 850 m.	eng
32431	population	Sun, W., 1998	Known from a small population.	eng
32431	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Logging has contributed significantly to the decline in the extent of the species' range.	eng
32432	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The natural habitat of this species is in low-elevation broadleaved forest.	eng
32432	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are wide-ranging, but large individuals are reduced to areas around temples and houses.	eng
32432	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat conversion to agriculture and overexploitation of the species for its timber are the main causes of population declines.	eng
32433	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only recorded in Dialuo Mt Forest Region on Hainan Island and Yangchun County in Guangdong.	eng
32433	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was known to be restricted to montane rainforest.	eng
32433	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Despite extensive searches the species has not been found again in the two localities where it has been recorded.	eng
32433	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exposed to various threats of cutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
32434	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a location on the seashore in Foluo, Ledong County, south-west Hainan.	eng
32434	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thorny scrub.	eng
32434	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is now presumed to be extinct from its only known location. It was last seen in 1935.	eng
32436	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two localities in Mengla County.	eng
32436	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree which occurs in dense monsoon forest between 600 and 850 m.	eng
32436	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population has been reduced to a few hundred plants, including a few individuals within a nature reserve.	eng
32437	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Plantations have been established.	eng
32437	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A valuable timber, widely occurring as single trees or in groves in evergreen forest.	eng
32437	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Larger trees have become rare in places where there has been exploitation. The species' preference for fertile lowlands has also brought it into competition with the expansion of agriculture.	eng
32438	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Localised distribution.	eng
32438	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large evergreen tree in areas of evergreen broadleaved forest, where it frequently occurs as a dominant component.	eng
32438	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been overexploited for its timber in most of its range and the habitat has deteriorated in many places.	eng
32439	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	Some areas of forest are protected.	eng
32439	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	In Yunnan the species is known mainly from subpopulations in the south and west. It is only recorded from Meitus in south-east Tibet (Xizang).	eng
32439	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Monsoon forest.	eng
32439	threats	Sun, W., 1998	During the last 10 years subpopulations have been declining because of overcutting. The timber is excellent for building construction and furniture.	eng
32440	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large individuals are left around temples, parks and villages.	eng
32440	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations have been reduced in extent and are now mainly confined to semi-natural forest.	eng
32442	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Widely distributed but confined to south and south-west Yunnan.	eng
32442	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species is found in sunny open forest between 500 and 1,500 m.	eng
32442	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The main cause of population reductions has been overexploitation of the timber, and possibly also of the bark for medicinal use. Regeneration is reported to be poor and few young trees can be found.	eng
32443	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Confined to Babianjiang in Yunnan.	eng
32443	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	The species grows in forested valleys on limestone between 1,400 and 1,500 m.	eng
32443	population	Sun, W., 1998	There are very few adult individuals left, although the trees which have been cut are resprouting.	eng
32443	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The area is not protected and is susceptible to cutting and disturbance.	eng
32444	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	The population is contained within Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve and should be protected.	eng
32444	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	A species confined to a single locality in Menglun, Mengla County.	eng
32444	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Monsoon forest on limestone hills.	eng
32444	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Illegal cutting is known to take place.	eng
32445	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	A Yunnan endemic known only from two locations, Yiwa in Mengla County and Youluo Mt. in Jianghong County. The populations are relatively inaccessible.	eng
32445	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Limestone cliffs and summit ridges.	eng
32445	threats	Sun, W., 1998	There are few mature individuals and regeneration is poor.	eng
32446	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	Found through a range of altitudes and in various forest types.	eng
32446	population	Sun, W., 1998	Relatively widespread, it is, however, not common and believed to be becoming scarcer.	eng
32446	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Habitat declines and degradation.	eng
32447	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to a few localities on Shiwanshan.	eng
32447	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a scarce component of the understorey in monsoon forest.	eng
32447	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recent searches into some of the original locations have found the forest cleared and the population destroyed.	eng
32448	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Diancang Mt in Yunnan and in Muli in Sichuan.	eng
32448	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs as a shrub or small tree in remaining areas of forest above 3,000 m.	eng
32448	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overcutting and loss of the habitat are causing population declines.	eng
32449	conservation	Sun, W., 1998	Some of the sites are designated nature reserves but the effectiveness of their protection should be monitored.	eng
32449	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	North-west Yunnan and Muli in south-west Sichuan.	eng
32449	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A species of subalpine coniferous forest, occurring between 2,800 and 3,900 m.	eng
32449	threats	Sun, W., 1998	Trees, especially the larger individuals, have been heavily cut for fuelwood in places.	eng
32450	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is designated a nature reserve but, at present, the management measures are not thought to be sufficient to ensure the species' protection.	eng
32450	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of Diancang Mt in Dali, Yunnan.	eng
32450	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in subalpine coniferous forest between 3,500 and 3,900 m, where it frequently appears crooked and contorted from the effects of strong winds and heavy snow.	eng
32451	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subpopulation is protected in Mt. Wuliang Nature Reserve.	eng
32451	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widely occurring species in the wild and a famous ornamental in cultivation.	eng
32451	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subalpine evergreen forest.	eng
32451	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The status of the subpopulation in China is believed to be endangered because of its restriction to small areas of subalpine evergreen forest.	eng
32451	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fires and cutting have caused population declines in the past 10 years.	eng
32452	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations on Mt. Wolong are undisturbed as this is one of the sites where the giant panda occurs.	eng
32452	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to scattered localities in western Sichuan.	eng
32452	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in montane broadleaved evergreen forest in valleys by streams.	eng
32452	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Individuals are apparently becoming scarcer in places because of the destruction of the habitat.	eng
32453	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species' distribution is relatively widespread in southern China, extending into Lang Son and Son La Provinces in Viet Nam.	eng
32453	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland forests and open woodland by streamsides.	eng
32453	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is becoming scarcer because of overexploitation, habitat destruction and clearance for agriculture.	eng
32454	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some of the areas are designated nature reserves.	eng
32454	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in small localised colonies on Huangshan and Qingliang Mt. in southern Anhui, Lin'an and Longquan Counties in Zhejiang and Chong'an County in Fujian.	eng
32454	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Margins or gaps of montane forest.	eng
32454	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The degree of protection given to populations is largely unknown and the habitat continues to be cleared in places.	eng
32455	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely occurring species sparsely distributed in the Yangtze River basin.	eng
32455	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In moist forest, usually at streamsides, on mountain slopes between 400 and 1,600 m.	eng
32455	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a long interval between fruiting seasons, which leads to naturally poor regeneration. Extensive disturbance, clearance and logging of the habitat have caused population declines over most of the species' range.	eng
32457	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	North-west Yunnan and south-west Sichuan.	eng
32457	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species is scattered in areas of mixed montane forest.	eng
32457	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although the timber is not highly sought-after, the habitat of this species is subject to clear-felling throughout much of its range.	eng
32458	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a few localities in Anhui and Jiangsu.	eng
32458	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous broadleaved forest on limestone hills.	eng
32458	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The total population is small.	eng
32458	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration and the state of immature individuals have been noted to be poor. There is no effective protection in any part of the species' range.	eng
32459	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only recently described as a separate species, the tree is scattered in south-west Zhejiang, north-east Jiangxi and central Fujian.	eng
32459	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Open forest up to 900 m.	eng
32459	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a notable lack of mature seed-bearing trees and a constant threat of cutting and habitat clearance.	eng
32460	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Covering about 10 ha in the Langya Hills.	eng
32460	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to deciduous forest.	eng
32460	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The number of mature trees is estimated to be 30, most of which are senescing. There is some regeneration.	eng
32461	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread tree which is found in various habitat types, often on dry ridges.	eng
32461	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The subpopulation in China has been drastically reduced by logging and forest conversion. The tree is felled for its strong, durable resak timber.	eng
32462	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are widespread throughout southern China and in several of the northern provinces of Viet Nam. It is the only member of the genus.	eng
32462	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree concentrated in limestone areas at low elevation.	eng
32462	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In China constant overcutting of the tree and its habitat has resulted in the species becoming scarce. The species is apparently not specifically exploited in Viet Nam but is uncommon.	eng
32463	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A relict species occurring only in inaccessible areas on Fanjing Mountain.	eng
32463	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It grows on northern slopes at an elevation of 2,100-2,300 m, forming pure or mixed stands.	eng
32463	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are unlikely to be more than 250 mature trees.	eng
32463	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The populations are not obviously threatened.	eng
32464	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	China, Hainan Island; eastern Myanmar (Burma); Vietnam. The range of this species remains incompletely known. The type locality is Mt. Bana in Vietnam.	eng
32464	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	A tree scattered in rainforest areas on hillsides and ridges at medium altitudes.	eng
32464	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Populations confined to the mountains of southern Hainan Island in China are constantly subject to exploitation and have declined. Populations elsewhere are also subject to heavy logging.	eng
32465	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The subpopulation on Ganshi Mt. is contained within a designated nature reserve.	eng
32465	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Only recently discovered in Yaxian County of Hainan Province. The species presents several primitive features which are of phylogenetic interest.	eng
32465	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree of monsoon forest.	eng
32465	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The degree of habitat disturbance suggests that most of the trees are secondary growth. The species has a good regenerative capacity in its natural habitat.	eng
32466	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	A relatively recently discovered species, endemic to Yunnan, within a highly restricted area along the Nansa and Jingpiao River Valleys in Mengla County.	eng
32466	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	It occurs as a dominant component of the canopy in monsoon forest.	eng
32466	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The population is unprotected and susceptible to habitat clearance.	eng
32467	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its distribution in China is restricted to a small area of south-east Yunnan and south-west Guangxi. In Viet Nam populations are found in a number of northern provinces. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
32467	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which occurs sparsely in the lower storey of primary or slightly disturbed forest.	eng
32467	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Indiscriminate cutting and degradation of the habitat has caused declines in the mature population.	eng
32468	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An important timber tree with a distribution restricted to the mountains of southern Hainan Island and on Bu Kep Mt in northern Viet Nam.	eng
32468	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
32468	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a slow-growing tree which produces high-quality wood, susceptible to overexploitation.	eng
32469	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only in Tianquan, Lushan and Wenchuan Counties in Sichuan.	eng
32469	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the edges of forest and in scrub.	eng
32469	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been cleared in places and the trees may be detrimentally affected by frequent  bark-stripping. The bark contains a medicinal extract often used as a substitute for that of <em>M. officinalis</em>.	eng
32470	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	Known from occurrences in Menla, Menhai and Jinghong in south Yunnan and Hainan Island in China, and from populations in the northern half of Viet Nam.	eng
32470	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	A large evergreen tree of lowland tropical monsoon forest and rainforest.	eng
32470	threats	Sun, W., 1998	The levels of exploitation both of the tree as a timber and of the habitat in general have caused population declines throughout the species range.	eng
32471	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a highly restricted range in Yaxian County on Hainan Island.	eng
32471	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to woodland below 200 m.	eng
32471	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered singly or in small stands.	eng
32471	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Individuals have become scarcer because of cutting and habitat clearance. Remaining stands do not appear to be protected in any way.	eng
32472	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only five specimens are known to exist in Wenchang County, Hainan.	eng
32472	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to mangrove forest. The species is adapted to immersion in salty water and periodic drought.	eng
32472	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The seeds produced are minute and, although numerous, signs of regeneration are lacking.	eng
32473	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Tienping Mt. location is designated a nature reserve	eng
32473	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively newly discovered species, known only from populations on Huping Mt and Tienping Mt.	eng
32473	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in forest areas between 400 and 800 m.	eng
32473	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat in both areas is susceptible to disturbance.	eng
32474	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree known from two locations, Long'an and Daxin.	eng
32474	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in evergreen broadleaved forest at the base of  limestone mountains, between 190 and 230 m.	eng
32474	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are constant threats of cutting and habitat clearance.	eng
32475	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to a small area of dense forest in Qiongzhong and Baoting counties on Hainan Island.	eng
32475	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest.	eng
32475	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is exposed to the same levels of harvesting as A. hainanensis.	eng
32476	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in areas within Mengla, Maguan and Hekou in Yunnan, parts of south-west Guangxi and the northern provinces of Viet Nam. In China only a few large trees are left, the Yunnan subpopulation being restricted to an area of 20 km². In Viet Nam the species is sometimes found in pure stands.	eng
32476	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An emergent tree, reaching heights of 80 m, in primary forest areas.	eng
32476	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Insect attacks, resulting in premature fruit-fall, are frequent. Subpopulations have been overexploited for their timber in both countries.	eng
32477	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population in Viet Nam is confined to Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve.	eng
32477	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population in Viet Nam is confined to Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve and is considered to be in a critical state.	eng
32477	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to moist deciduous forest on limestone hills.	eng
32477	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Remaining populations are small and threatened.	eng
32477	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The forest habitat is being extensively cleared.	eng
32478	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A few locations are known.	eng
32478	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species dominates in mid-elevation coniferous forest on the flanks of gorges and arid valleys.	eng
32478	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Constant overcutting has eliminated the species in accessible sites and it is being replaced by thickets of other species.	eng
32479	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In canyons or on moist north-facing scree slopes.	eng
32479	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species known from about 25 sites, containing a few to several hundred trees.	eng
32479	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Regeneration is poor and inadequate. A continued decline in the population, especially of seeding trees, is expected.	eng
32480	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is observed to be relatively abundant in Veracruz but in Jalisco it occurs only in state forest outside Tapalpa.	eng
32480	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dioecious species, which grows along watercourses and streams in mountain areas, between 1,500 and 2,400 m.	eng
32480	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Throughout the range it is suffering from habitat loss.	eng
32482	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Jodensavanna.	eng
32482	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of rainforest or savannah forest.	eng
32482	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is rare.	eng
32483	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic, known only from Tafelberg, where it is found near the Table Mts.	eng
32483	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Creek forest.	eng
32483	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
32484	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was described in 1925, based upon incomplete material from a single tree. It is possibly a hybrid of <em>A. glabra</em> and <em>A. petonmo</em>.	eng
32488	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian trees compiled by IBAMA.	eng
32488	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Brazil, the species has a restricted range within flooded forest along the Rio Negro.  In Suriname the species is very rare and has only been collected from the Marowijne River.	eng
32488	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally important species which is widely-ranging within areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
32488	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Riverside communities harvest the species for fuelwood at uncontrolled levels.	eng
32490	population	Thulin, M., 1998	Less than 10 trees have been seen during the last 15 years in the escarpment area south of Mait. Two individuals were seen in January 1997 south-west of Qandala some 280 km to the east. More individuals are likely to exist in both areas.	eng
32490	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat and the wood from this tree are used for multiple purposes and remain unprotected.	eng
32491	distribution	Strahm, W., 1998	Réunion and Mauritius.	eng
32491	habitat	Strahm, W., 1998	A small tree distributed in areas of bush and forest from the coast to 1,200 m.	eng
32491	population	Strahm, W., 1998	It is very rare on Réunion but found in greater numbers on Mauritius, where it still survives in small area of relatively undisturbed dry land forest.	eng
32493	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected only seldom from localities in the Anamalai Hills, the Nilgiris and Wayanad area.	eng
32493	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane forest.	eng
32494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from a single locality in the central mountain range of Irian Jaya.	eng
32495	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.	eng
32495	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from a few localities in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
32495	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
32495	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
32496	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is narrowly distributed in the southern end of the Western Ghats, occurring in Chimunji and  Muthukuzhivayal and nearby areas.	eng
32496	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
32496	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest has been extensively cleared for a hydroelectric project.	eng
32497	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
32497	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills in southern India. Asian <em>Eugenia</em> are now contained within <em>Syzygium</em>.	eng
32497	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
32498	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, recorded only once, from an unspecified location in the Nilgiri Hills.	eng
32499	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A valuable timber tree, now restricted to small remnant populations.	eng
32499	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mixed or broadleaf montane forests.	eng
32499	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overexploitation and the subsequent degradation and changes in the forest vegetation have caused the decline.	eng
32500	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Relatively widespread within its range, stretching from Comitán in Mexico to north Guatemala.	eng
32500	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs on rocky hills in dry forests.	eng
32500	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species has suffered population losses from deforestation.	eng
32501	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Trees are legally protected but the law is not well respected.	eng
32501	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Less than a third of the original 700 km² extent of occurrence remains.	eng
32501	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	An uncommon tree or prostrate shrub, occurring in forest above 3,000 m.	eng
32501	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The wood is heavily exploited for local construction work and fuel, and the scarcity of the tree has now led to municipal boundary disputes.  In the rainy season grazing by sheep is heavy.	eng
32502	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of the wet Atlantic lowlands.	eng
32503	conservation	Strahm, W., 1998	Attempts at propagation have been successful and young specimens have been planted in the wild.	eng
32503	distribution	Strahm, W., 1998	Mainly occurs on Plaine Corail.	eng
32503	habitat	Strahm, W., 1998	On calcarenite and basalt.	eng
32503	population	Strahm, W., 1998	Less than 50 individuals exist in the wild as isolated specimens.	eng
32504	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in at least 26 sub-Saharan countries.	eng
32504	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in a range of woodland habitats.	eng
32504	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	As a species there is no imminent threat of extinction.	eng
32504	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its timber, mpingo, is widely used in the wood carving industry and in musical instrument manufacture. Levels of exploitation are very high and larger or suitably exploitable individuals are becoming increasingly scarce. There is cause for concern over genetic erosion in many populations.	eng
32505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kerala, just extending into South Kanara in Karnataka.	eng
32505	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree found in lowland moist dense forest.	eng
32505	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from widely scattered locations in the 19th century, the species had not been collected for almost a century and was suspected of being extinct until recently. Remaining subpopulations appear to be extremely rare and restricted. Further detailed information may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate. The seeds have been mistaken for nutmeg.	eng
32506	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree found in semi-evergreen and evergreen forests.	eng
32507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Mexico, subpopulations are restricted to the Gulf Region, occurring commonly in remaining rainforest in the Lacandon region, and the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region.	eng
32507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber tree and dominant component of lowland seasonal rainforest.	eng
32507	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of deforestation have been very high in all parts of the range.	eng
32508	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Further investigation may show that the species is more seriously threatened.	eng
32508	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A moist forest species.	eng
32508	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Has been subject to the general forest declines in the area.	eng
32509	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections, the species occurs in Cauca in coastal Colombia and in Los Ríos in coastal Ecuador.	eng
32510	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the Pacific coast, the species has been collected twice in Valle in Colombia and Esmeraldas in Ecuador.	eng
32510	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland non-flooded forest.	eng
32511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no recent information on the status of the populations in either El Salvador or Guatemala.	eng
32511	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
32511	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is evidently very scarce.	eng
32511	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Under some threat from logging, agriculture, fires and forest management activities.	eng
32512	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
32512	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Occurring in remnant dry forests and woodlands on flat ground, including disturbed or secondary forest.	eng
32512	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is scarce, individuals often show signs of genetic degradation and regeneration is largely absent. The timber is attractive and has been heavily exploited in Costa Rica but there is no evidence of it being present in international trade.	eng
32513	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Attempts at cultivation have been unsuccessful.	eng
32513	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both known sites are on private land.	eng
32513	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist limestone forest.	eng
32513	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two subpopulations, accounting for ten individuals in total, are known in the west. No evidence of flowering or fruiting is apparent.	eng
32514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The 40 km² of montane forest on Dominica has largely escaped deforestation.	eng
32514	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree up to 4 m tall, confined to montane rainforest between 700 and 800 m.	eng
32515	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	This Caribbean forest tree ranges from Dominica (and possibly Martinique) to western Dominican Republic.	eng
32515	population	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	The forest in most of these areas has been heavily exploited. The species was noted in 1896 as becoming rare as a result of excessive exploitation and in the last 70 years it has only been collected in Puerto Rico.	eng
32515	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Timber exploitation.	eng
32516	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only three localities. Subpopulations occur on Morne Anglais in Dominica, on Mt Pelée in Martinique and Guanacaste in Rincón de la Vieja National Park in Costa Rica.	eng
32516	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forests near volcanic summits.	eng
32516	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although it has been expected to become extinct at more than one of its localities after volcanic eruptions, it continues to recover.	eng
32517	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known from a locality near Constanza, Valle del Jaque.	eng
32517	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The increasing settlement of the area has reduced populations of this species to less accessible or attractive areas.	eng
32518	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is planted all over the Mediterranean.	eng
32518	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is sometimes referred to in different varieties. Only var. <em>horizontalis</em> is believed to originate from the wild and therefore is the only taxon considered in this context. The type specimen was collected from Crete. Populations which are questionably wild are also known from southern Turkey and northern Iran, where it is very vulnerable.	eng
32519	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Small quantities of timber from plantations are occasionally available on the international market. The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>. The listing designates saw-logs, sawn wood and veneer sheets.	eng
32519	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The Caribbean mahogany is found on the Caribbean islands and also in south Florida. Its natural distribution is hard to ascertain as it has been widely cultivated. It was the first mahogany to appear in the European market five centuries ago.	eng
32519	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Found in dry or moist forest, often on limestone.	eng
32519	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Natural stands are extensively exhausted and the species exhibits high levels of genetic erosion. Remaining individuals are usually weedy trees or bushes.	eng
32520	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32520	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
32521	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in four rainforest localities including the Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area.	eng
32522	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is present in the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
32522	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this tree was found in five localities, mainly in Nuwara Eliya District.	eng
32523	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32523	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
32524	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32524	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen lowland forest.	eng
32524	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree.	eng
32525	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to wet forest in Galle, Kalutara and Ratnapura Districts, this species was found in nine localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32526	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is scattered in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32526	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen lowland forest.	eng
32527	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the wet zone of Sri Lanka.	eng
32527	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare species. Until the National Conservation Review forest surveys of 1991–1996, this species went uncollected for over a century.	eng
32528	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species, restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32528	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32529	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32529	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32530	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32530	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32531	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in south-west Sri Lanka. It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
32531	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32531	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extremely rare species.	eng
32532	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32532	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32533	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, populations were found in single localities in Ratnapura District and Anuradapura District.	eng
32533	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in wet and dry forest.	eng
32533	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
32534	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species turned up in 13 forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32534	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Until recently this endemic tree had gone uncollected for over a century.	eng
32535	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32535	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32536	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was discovered in only four forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32537	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was discovered in only six forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32537	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to  lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32538	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was discovered in 13 forest localities during the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review	eng
32539	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32539	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32540	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found in only two sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32540	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This small tree is sparsely distributed in remaining patches of highland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species as a whole was found in only five forest sites during the extensive surveys carried out for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32542	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. The species as a whole was found in only seven of the forest sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32542	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
32543	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32543	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32544	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32544	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32545	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only two forest sites in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review. The sites are not protected.	eng
32546	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found twice only in the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32547	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found only at three localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
32548	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32548	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32548	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only four individuals were found at a single locality in Ratnapura district.	eng
32549	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32549	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
32549	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was not rediscovered during the comprehensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, suggesting it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32550	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32550	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32550	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was previously found in a single site within the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found again the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32551	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32551	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32552	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32552	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32553	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A threatened species apparently restricted to Ratnapura and Monaragala districts.	eng
32553	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was discovered in only five forest localities surveyed for the comprehensive National Conservation Review.	eng
32554	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32554	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32554	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species turned up in only four forest localities.	eng
32555	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. The species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review, none of which is protected.	eng
32555	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32556	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
32556	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of the wet lowlands.	eng
32556	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been considered on the verge of extinction for over a decade, and as it was not found in the recent National Conservation Review forest survey it is likely to be extinct. A single tree was supposed to exist in the Peradeniya Botanical Garden. However, it has not been refound in the garden despite an intensive search.	eng
32557	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extremely rare lowland tree. No records were made during the recent forest surveys by the National Conservation Review, but there is a possibility that a population is located in the dry zone, which was not extensively surveyed. The only cultivated specimen, located in the Peradeniya Botanical Garden, died in 1992.	eng
32558	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32558	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare tree is scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32558	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in only four of the National Conservation Review surveyed forest sites.	eng
32559	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only four trees of this species were discovered in a single forest site during the recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32560	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in tropical wet lowland and montane forest.	eng
32560	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in eight localities.	eng
32561	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single individual was found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32562	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32562	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in seven localities.	eng
32563	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species apparently restricted to the wet zone.	eng
32563	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded in five forest localities.	eng
32564	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only six of the sites.	eng
32565	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
32566	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32566	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32566	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was recorded from only five forest localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996.	eng
32567	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only two individuals were found within a single forest reserve in Ratnapura district.	eng
32568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32568	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32569	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32569	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32569	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found in only five forests in the Ratnapura and Matara districts during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32570	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to Ratnapura District.	eng
32570	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species has been found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be restricted to the districts of Kegalle and Kandy.	eng
32571	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only four of the localities surveyed.	eng
32572	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in 17 localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This endemic species is restricted to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet forest.	eng
32573	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from four collections in total. Two collections were made last century. The two recent collections were found in forest reserves during the comprehensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32574	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32574	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32574	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32575	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32575	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the recent National Conservation Review, this species was found in 14 forest localities.	eng
32576	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32576	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32577	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32577	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scattered tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32578	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32578	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland rainforest.	eng
32579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32579	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32580	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32580	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32581	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32581	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32581	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found at 10 localities during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
32582	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32582	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
32583	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32583	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32584	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32584	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32585	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32585	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32586	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32586	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32587	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32587	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32588	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32588	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32589	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, the species was found only in three localities in Ratnapura, Matara and Kalutara Districts.	eng
32589	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32590	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32590	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32591	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32591	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32592	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. This species was found in 25 localities during the forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32592	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32593	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32593	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32594	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32594	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to areas of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32594	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single individual was found in Knuckles State Forest during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review between 1991 and 1996. Previous surveys recorded populations in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and Gilimale Forest Reserve.	eng
32595	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32595	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32596	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka. In the past it has been found in Kottawa, Hinidumkanda and Kanneliya Forest Reserves and in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
32596	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32596	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review failed to find previously known or any other populations.	eng
32597	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32597	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32597	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although previously found at a single site in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, it was not found again during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32598	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32598	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32598	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extremely rare tree. In the past populations were known from Kanneliya and Gilimale Forest Reserves and Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, but the species was not found in the recent forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32599	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32600	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32600	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to the lowland rainforest.	eng
32601	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32601	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
32601	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously the species was found at a single locality within Sinhararja Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32602	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree confined to remnants of intermediate forest and in drier gallery forest.	eng
32602	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has recently been found in seven forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32603	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32603	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland rainforest.	eng
32603	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In previous surveys subpopulations have been located in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve. However, the species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32604	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32604	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32605	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32605	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32606	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a dominant component in areas of Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
32606	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32606	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32607	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32607	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32608	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species, if not extinct, occurs in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, a protected area.	eng
32608	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32608	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32608	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurred in a single plot in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve in the 1980s. However, it did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, suggesting that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
32609	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32609	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32610	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32610	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found mainly in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32610	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species was discovered in nine sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
32611	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32611	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32612	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32612	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32613	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
32613	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32613	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only one individual was found in a single forest reserve.	eng
32615	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare endemic on iron-capped hills in Brownsberg.	eng
32615	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
32615	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rare.	eng
32616	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from an area along the Tapanahony River.	eng
32616	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
32617	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, collected only twice from the Venezuelan Guyana and Suriname.	eng
32617	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
32620	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from forest on Tafelberg in 1944.	eng
32620	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type collection.	eng
32621	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.	eng
32621	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collections. It is not known whether the species is now extinct.	eng
32621	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been large declines in the extent of the forest habitat because of logging.	eng
32622	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type locality on Middle Andaman Island.	eng
32622	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Semi-evergreen forest.	eng
32622	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been large declines in the extent of the habitat because of logging.	eng
32623	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Nilgiris, the Anamalai Hills and the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
32623	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Poorly known, this shrubby species has been collected just three times.	eng
32624	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Found in Sumatra around Lake Toba following the mountains north-east, and also in the Philippines.	eng
32624	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	An important timber tree known from open pine woodlands.	eng
32624	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	High levels of exploitation have resulted in populations being reduced to very low levels in the Philippines.  In Sumatra the timber continues to be extracted. The effects on the population here are yet to be confirmed but are not thought to be as severe.	eng
32625	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The species is the focus of an ongoing IPGRI study of the distribution of genetic resources.	eng
32625	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	It is considered threatened in Viet Nam. In Thailand the pressures on the species have also caused concern.	eng
32625	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A large evergreen tree of open semi-deciduous forests.	eng
32625	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Exploitation of the prime timber.	eng
32626	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This slow-growing tree is found in seasonal lowland and evergreen dipterocarp hill forest.	eng
32628	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A unique species widely scattered in small populations in high valleys in the Sierra Madre Oriental.	eng
32628	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Restricted to limestone sites.	eng
32628	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are not larger than several hundred mature trees.	eng
32628	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overgrazing may pose a threat. None of the populations is protected.	eng
32629	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Submontane woodland or scrubland.	eng
32629	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Trees are scattered in disjunct and small populations. The species is not under any protection anywhere but it occurs widely outside areas where woodland resources are being exploited.	eng
32630	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	See assessments of varieties <em>greggii</em> and <em>australis</em> for more detailed documentation.	eng
32631	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Cerro Potosí and neighbouring peaks, covering an area of several hundred hectares.	eng
32631	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A decumbent shrub which occurs in monotypic stands on exposed rocky summits.	eng
32631	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Growth and regeneration are slow and susceptible to fire. None of the populations is within a protected area. A road to an observatory gives easy access to the largest population.	eng
32632	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in areas of inundated and swamp forest.	eng
32632	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little information is available on the conservation status of subpopulations.	eng
32632	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has suffered widely from logging, tourism and an expanding human population.	eng
32633	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In El Salvador, confined to Chalatenango. More information is needed on the Guatemalan subpopulation.	eng
32633	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shade-loving tree in various upland habitats from closed forest to pastureland.  The fruits are edible and both livestock and humans are believed to help in seed dispersal.	eng
32634	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is recorded in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador.	eng
32634	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Pacific coast. More information is needed on the Guatemalan populations.	eng
32634	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
32634	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been widely logged and also affected by tourism and industrial developments in places.	eng
32635	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Described in 1982, the species is found in the Chamela Biological Station in La Huerta.	eng
32635	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous forest.	eng
32636	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is monitoring wild populations and storing seeds.	eng
32636	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to the Lolokwi, Ndotes, Mathews/Oldoinyo Lenkiyo Mts. in the north.	eng
32636	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to upland riverine forest or woodland on rocky slopes.	eng
32636	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Seed predation may be hampering regeneration.	eng
32637	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Marsabit and Mathews.	eng
32637	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety confined to submontane forest patches, which exist as islands surrounded by semi-desert vegetation.	eng
32637	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is not greatly threatened at present.	eng
32638	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in a small area which is densely populated and much modified by human activities.	eng
32638	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of coastal forest or scrub.	eng
32639	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
32639	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the tallest trees in the genus, reaching 53 m in height, it is found scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32640	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Until recently, this rare species was known only from the protected Karura forest, in the Nairobi area. It has now been found in Naro Moru on Mt. Kenya, and is thought to occur in the Aberdares. Should be treated under the genus <em>Vepris</em>, but it apears that this varietal combination is not validly published under that generic name.	eng
32640	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been reduced by encroaching agriculture and land settlement.	eng
32641	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been found only once in a site south-east of Malka Mari.	eng
32642	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is possibly synonymous with <em>O. kenyensis</em>. It is endemic to Posta Hill, Mau.	eng
32642	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist forest above 2,200 m.	eng
32643	distribution	Strahm, W., 1998	Similar to <em>Tabernaemontana persicarifolia</em> but rarer.	eng
32643	habitat	Strahm, W., 1998	The species is found in small numbers in remaining dry forest.	eng
32644	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is represented in protected areas.	eng
32644	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly abundant species of primary forest up to an altitude of 1,200 m.	eng
32644	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species regenerates well.	eng
32644	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is under great pressures from logging, fires, the growing human population and agriculture.	eng
32645	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species of lowland forest and woodland understorey.	eng
32645	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is no information on the status of its populations.	eng
32645	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland habitat has experienced extensive declines, mainly through logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
32646	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Monte Cristo and Esesmiles in El Salvador.	eng
32646	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
32646	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	More information is needed on the status of populations.	eng
32646	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threat to the habitat is fire.	eng
32647	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of middle elevation, occurring in areas of humid forest.	eng
32647	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Forests are reduced in extent and continue to be extensively degraded.	eng
32648	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs between south-east Nicaragua and Panama.	eng
32648	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This understorey species occurs in primary or disturbed lowland to submontane rainforest. It is also found in forest/pasture margins.	eng
32648	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Well collected and apparently relatively abundant.	eng
32650	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the Uxpanapa region of Veracruz.	eng
32650	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
32650	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is greatly reduced through deforestation and clearance for crops, especially in the south where there are deep soils.	eng
32651	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species.	eng
32651	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is slow-growing species.  In Viet Nam subpopulations are scattered throughout the country on limestone mountains.	eng
32651	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of timber exploitation have caused such declines in population numbers that, at a national level, the species qualifies as critically endangered (CR A1cd).	eng
32652	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species found in primary forest up to 2,500 m.	eng
32653	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Fairly common in Bocas del Toro in Panama and more scarce in Limón in Costa Rica. It is hoped that subpopulations exist in La Amistad National Park in between these two sites and TROPICOS also records the species in Ecuador.	eng
32653	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
32653	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Although it is suggested that the species' range is wide, the known populations are not large.	eng
32653	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat is greatly threatened.	eng
32654	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the type locality, the species is found in an area of Coclé which is not well explored botanically.   It has been suggested that the species is actually a variety of <em>H. didymantha</em>, which is more widespread in Central and South America.	eng
32654	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is rapidly being colonised by an increasing number of settlers.	eng
32655	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Costa Rica the species is common in the mountains running from Valle Central to Valle de Parrita. In Panama it is reported to be fairly common in high-altitude forest in the central mountains of Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí Provinces. Further south the species continues to occur in montane forest up to the beginning of the Andes.	eng
32655	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
32656	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is very rare outside protected areas, large parts of the Panamanian subpopulation being in Altos de Campana and Darién National Parks.	eng
32656	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs in the provinces of Panamá and Darién in Panama, and in Colombia from Chocó, at the end of the Cordillera de Darién, and the Valle del Cauca.	eng
32656	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A rare species of moist semi-deciduous forest and cloud forest.	eng
32657	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in two neighbouring areas. One, in Santa Rita, Colón, the other in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve. The Kunayala area consists of a very small subpopulation. There is a considerable area of relatively unexplored forest and other subpopulations possibly exist.	eng
32657	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
32657	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The Colón area has experienced an influx of people in recent years, which has resulted in almost complete loss of the forest.	eng
32658	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only once, in 1975, although a second collection found almost 90 km away was once thought to be the same species. The type locality has not been revisited and it is not known whether the species still exists. If it does, it should be considered to be seriously threatened.	eng
32659	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A few collections are known from Coclé and some more doubtful ones from Darién. In Costa Rica the species is fairly common in the south-east and there are small subpopulations in La Selva and Limón. Recently the species has been recorded in Valle del Cauca, Colombia.	eng
32659	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, a large number of the original species' localities have been converted into fields, especially banana plantations, ranches and farms.	eng
32660	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The distribution of this species apparently extends the length of Central America from the border with Colombia to Mexico.	eng
32660	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
32660	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is generally scarce outside protected areas.	eng
32660	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Logging, encroaching agriculture and settlements have caused the habitat to decline.	eng
32661	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	First described from a collection from Coclé in Panama, the species has since been reported from Costa Rica, south Mexico, Colombia and probably elsewhere.	eng
32661	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs as a tree or liana in rainforest up to 1,200 m.	eng
32661	population	Mitré, M., 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
32662	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	At one time the species was divided into the Panamanian form, var. <em>caudata</em>, known only from the type collection from the province of Panamá in 1911, and the Costa Rican form, var. <em>diadema</em>, with a fairly common occurrence in San José and Puntarenas.	eng
32662	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32662	population	Mitré, M., 1998	There have been no further collections of the species in Panama, despite the area round the type locality being relatively well known.	eng
32663	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are occurrences within protected areas.	eng
32663	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	This species has been collected throughout Panama.	eng
32663	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Only in areas of undisturbed forest of low to medium elevation.	eng
32663	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A scarce species.	eng
32663	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the habitat is under severe pressures. A site on the El Llano-Cartí highway to the north-east of Panamá city is under threat of deforestation.	eng
32664	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Small subpopulations are protected in Darién National Park.	eng
32664	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	So far only known from Colón and Darién, being a little more abundant in the latter. It is also suspected to be in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and perhaps also Colombia.	eng
32664	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
32664	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurrences outside protected areas are exposed to habitat clearance.	eng
32665	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Colombia the species is known from the Chocó and Antioquia, appearing uncommon in both places. In Panama, all of the collections are identified under the variety <em>brevisurcularis</em>, which is considered threatened. Further work is needed to consolidate whether the separation into different varieties is valid.	eng
32666	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Range includes Darién National Park.	eng
32666	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to Panama, this variety is known from a few collections gathered in the province of Darién, and from a very sparse distribution in the coastal zone of Colón Province	eng
32666	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	It is under particular threat from human activities, especially in the coastal zone of Colón Province.	eng
32667	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from two collections from the Cerro Tute in Verguas, the species appears to be confined to an area which is not botanically well studied.	eng
32668	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The population in Chagres National Park is well protected.	eng
32668	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from populations in the proximity of the Cerro Azul to the north-east of the city of Panamá.	eng
32668	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs sparsely in semi-deciduous rainforest between 600 and 900 m.	eng
32669	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is thought to be an occurrence in La Amistad National Park between Panama and Costa Rica. Subpopulations appear to be larger in protected areas, most notably in Corcovado National Park.	eng
32669	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama is known from only a few localities on the Atlantic slopes in the provinces of Colón and Bocas del Toro. The species extends north on both Atlantic and Pacific sides up to the border with Nicaragua.	eng
32669	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A scarce rainforest species.	eng
32669	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is in danger of being lost from the Colón localities because the forest has rapidly disappeared in recent years.	eng
32670	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Protected within Darién National Park.	eng
32670	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Found in the Serranía de Pirre, close to the Colombian border. It is possible that the species range extends into Colombia.	eng
32670	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	This shrub or small tree is known only from evergreen rainforest, often on slopes.	eng
32670	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Regeneration appears to be good.	eng
32671	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A widely distributed species in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala, also reported from Mexico, and in small populations in the provinces of Bocas del Toro, Panamá and the Canal zone in Panama.	eng
32671	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Scattered in lowland semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32671	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is found in areas which are experiencing high rates of settlement and human population growth.	eng
32672	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only a few records of this species are known, all from the same region from Cerro Jefe and Cerro Azul towards the north-east of Panamá city.	eng
32672	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species appears to be rare and present in small numbers.	eng
32672	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Threatened by a growing urban population and various industrial developments.	eng
32673	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The type collection originated from an area of Boquete, in Chiriquí, above 2,000 m. The taxonomic status of the species is doubtful. The only other <em>Zinowiewia</em> specimens collected in the area are of <em>Z. costaricensis</em>.	eng
32673	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
32674	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A poorly known species, recorded only from the original collection from Cerro Tute in Verguas.	eng
32674	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is possible that a population still exists at the original collection site.	eng
32675	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known from two geographically close locations: one in Santa Rita in Colón and the other in Cerro Azul in Panamá Province.	eng
32675	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of lowland semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
32675	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The subpopulation in Santa Rita is threatened by increasing encroachment of the forest. More moderate pressures affect the larger Cerro Azul population.	eng
32676	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, the species has not been collected since the type collection was made in 1966. However, <em>H. punctulata</em>, a very similar species, has been collected in the surrounding area and other parts of Panama.	eng
32677	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection made in 1968.	eng
32678	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Cerro Jefe is the only protected area in which the species occurs.	eng
32678	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only a few times, in two provinces.	eng
32678	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
32678	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It does not appear to be common, although its full distribution may not yet have been revealed.	eng
32678	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside the only protected area where the species occurs, the habitat is under threat from increasing settlement and industrial, touristic and agricultural developments.	eng
32679	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in Colón and Coclé Provinces in Panama and in Heredia and Puntarenas, including a locality in Corcovado National Park, in Costa Rica. There are also specimens which are tentatively identified as this species in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
32679	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
32679	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In most of its range, the species appears to be uncommon and under considerable pressure from increasing settlement, agriculture and development.	eng
32680	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the habitat is declining because of increasing settlement of the land.	eng
32680	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally the species was known only from Cerro Jefe but it has since been recorded close by in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
32680	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
32680	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is fairly common.	eng
32680	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Its range is almost completely contained within protected areas.	eng
32681	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Some subpopulations are protected in national parks.	eng
32681	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is found throughout Panama from Darién, extending into Colombia, to the border with Costa Rica, possibly extending over that border as well. The only known Colombian population is restricted to a very small area.	eng
32681	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in semi-deciduous rainforest above 500 m.	eng
32681	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In places it is relatively common but never abundant.	eng
32681	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside national parks the species is under pressure from mining for copper and gold, as in Cerro Colorado, and from increasing settlement of the land in Coclé.	eng
32682	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species' description is based on a single collection gathered in 1911 from a relatively well explored area in Boquete.	eng
32682	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is not known whether the species is now extinct or wrongly identified.	eng
32683	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The taxonomic status of the species is uncertain. In Panama, it is thought to be endemic and confined to a small and threatened subpopulation in Darién, near the Colombian border. However, the species is also listed in Brako, L. and J. Zarucchi (1993) <em>Catalogue of Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru</em> as a synonym of <em>Tovomita krukovii</em>, which is widespread in South America. This relationship has not been confirmed.	eng
32684	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Almost all of the few existing collections of this species have come from an area along the highway running from Panamá Province to the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
32684	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32684	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is relatively common where forest remains.	eng
32684	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In the last 10 years an influx of campesinos into the area has resulted in extensive deforestation.	eng
32685	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are several occurrences in protected areas.	eng
32685	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	All provinces of Panama. It is less common in Coclé, Panamá and Bocas del Toro.	eng
32685	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	One of the most common cloud forest trees, the species occurs above 800 m.	eng
32685	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas subpopulations come under pressure from increasing habitat encroachment.	eng
32686	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found along the continental divide of Costa Rica and Panama. Collections have been made from more than five localities in Alajuela, Cartago and Heredia in Costa Rica and in Chiriquí and Coclé in Panama.	eng
32686	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane rainforest.	eng
32687	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is distributed relatively widely throughout the center and east of Panama and is also reported from San José del Palmar in Colombia.	eng
32687	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations do not appear to be large.	eng
32687	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Some areas are threatened by deforestation.	eng
32688	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in Kunayala Indigenous Reserve and the Serranía del Darién in Panama, and in the Chocó in Colombia.	eng
32688	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32688	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Current information indicates that populations of this shrubby species are very scarce.	eng
32689	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is found in botanic gardens throughout the world.	eng
32689	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occur on the Atlantic coast, either side of the Panama Canal, in Colón and Panamá Provinces.	eng
32689	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Wild populations of the species occur in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32689	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is not a common species.	eng
32689	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In some places the habitat is under serious threat from logging.	eng
32690	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Some occurrences coincide with protected areas.	eng
32690	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occur on the Atlantic side of Panamá and Colón Provinces.	eng
32690	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is restricted to lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
32690	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations are small and rare within an area which is potentially highly vulnerable to logging and habitat clearance.	eng
32691	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Active management of exotic species is aiding regeneration of native species.	eng
32691	distribution	Page, W., 1998	They occur in forest on the east coast and in Yemen on the mainland and also on Ile aux Aigrettes.	eng
32691	population	Page, W., 1998	The known subpopulations of this succulent heterophyllous tree are very small.	eng
32693	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The population in Le Petrin is fenced and weeded of exotic plants.	eng
32693	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Confined to plateau regions and the flanks of the northern mountain range, including Le Petrin Nature Reserve.	eng
32693	population	Page, W., 1998	A small tree known from fewer than 15 adult individuals.	eng
32693	threats	Page, W., 1998	The habitat is highly degraded and invaded by exotic species. Although seed production has been observed, there is no regeneration.	eng
32694	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The species has been propagated and reintroduced into Mondrain Nature Reserve.	eng
32694	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Occurring in Mondrain, Tamarind Falls and Piton du Fouge Ridge Forest.	eng
32694	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A small solitary tree.	eng
32694	population	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is poor and the number of adult trees is estimated to be less than 20.	eng
32694	threats	Page, W., 1998	These areas are heavily invaded by exotic plants and animals.	eng
32696	conservation	Florens, D. & Strahm, W., 2000	Further prospection need to be carried out to find plant at mount du Pouce and hence <em>ex situ</em> propagation will be done.	eng
32696	distribution	Florens, D. & Strahm, W., 2000	The tree has only recently been seen in one locality (Le Pouce), but was collected from another in 1983 (Deux Mamelles) although likely it is not still there. Both localities are being rapidly degraded by invasive species.	eng
32696	population	Florens, D. & Strahm, W., 2000	There are probably less than 50 individuals at the Pouce but this is difficult to say since it is growing in such a degraded and difficult to get to area.  However, it has certainly stopped regenerating and has declined from a much larger area.	eng
32696	threats	Florens, D. & Strahm, W., 2000	Habitat all cut down for sugar cane or being reduced to wasteland by invasive species.	eng
32697	distribution	Strahm, W., 1998	Mauritius and Réeunion.	eng
32697	population	Strahm, W., 1998	Less than 50 individuals are known on Mauritius. The species is also rare and scattered in forest on Réunion. More information may indicate Critically Endangered is a more appropriate category.	eng
32698	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area falls within a forest protected by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.	eng
32698	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from an area of 0.5 ha in a valley on Silhouette.	eng
32698	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population is estimated to contain 190 trees, many of which represent the same individual and the genetic diversity is believed to be low.	eng
32698	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Numerous seeds are set but germination is poor. There has been no success in bringing the species into cultivation either. The tree's main pollinator (<em>Epicroesa</em> sp.) appears also to be its main seed predator.	eng
32699	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety which is very similar to the Africa-wide type variety. Occurs only in south-west Nigeria.	eng
32699	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to occur in forest areas fringing forest-savannah mosaic.	eng
32699	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forests in the country have been extensively logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture.	eng
32700	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree, endemic to western Nigeria.	eng
32700	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a small area of forest remains and the extent of it continues to decline because of logging pressures and the demand for land for commercial crops and subsistence farming.	eng
32701	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be known only from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32701	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.	eng
32702	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oban population is relatively well protected within the 3,000 km² of the southern division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32702	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Supopulations of this forest tree were known in Eket and Oban.	eng
32702	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Eket subpopulation is likely to have been seriously or completely destroyed by oil exploration operations.	eng
32703	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species for which there is little information. Like <em>A. eketensis</em>, it is apparently endemic to the Eket area.	eng
32703	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
32703	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oil exploration operations have extensively, if not completely, destroyed the habitat.	eng
32704	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	As with <em>A. dichotoma</em>, this species is poorly known and endemic to Eket in south-east Nigeria.	eng
32704	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The effects of oil exploration operations have caused the extensive, if not complete, destruction of the habitat.	eng
32705	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small forest tree is relatively well protected within the national park.	eng
32705	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32705	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressures from commercial logging and agriculture are very strong outside the park.	eng
32706	conservation	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurring in two national parks.	eng
32706	distribution	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurring in an area extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon. The largest, if not the only, remaining subpopulations to occur in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and the contiguous Korup National Park in Cameroon. This is the only member of the genus.	eng
32706	habitat	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	An unusual small tree, which occurs in swamp forests (where it is gregarious, M. Cheek, pers. obs.) and submontane forest near streams; 200–1,000 m alt.	eng
32706	threats	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Forests outside protected areas have largely been logged and cleared for commercial crops and subsistence farming.	eng
32707	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species, along with <em>N. reptans</em>, is poorly documented and apparently confined to Eket in south-east Nigeria.	eng
32707	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
32707	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oil exploration operations in the area are causing extensive damage, to the habitat, if not it's complete destruction.	eng
32708	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species, along with <em>N. lutea</em>, is poorly documented and confined to the Eket area in south-east Nigeria.	eng
32708	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
32708	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oil exploration operations are causing extensive damage, if not complete destruction of the habitat.	eng
32709	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs within national park boundaries.	eng
32709	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This distinctive species is recorded solely from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32709	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population is well protected but logging and conversion of land to agriculture are extensive in the surrounding area.	eng
32710	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree with showy flowers is recorded only from south-western Nigeria.	eng
32710	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in swampy forests.	eng
32710	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale deforestation and clearing for commercial and subsistence agriculture in the country have caused a rapid decline in all forest types.	eng
32711	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to south-eastern Nigeria. Current information indicates that it does not occur in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.	eng
32711	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare forest tree.	eng
32711	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected areas have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
32712	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the largest remaining areas of forest is in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park.	eng
32712	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern Nigeria and the South-West Province of Cameroon.	eng
32712	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon and large canopy tree, sometimes gregarious near water. It is known from lowland rainforest.	eng
32712	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation and clearance for crops have been comprehensive outside protected areas.	eng
32713	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The most significant area of forest is contained within the Oban Division of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
32713	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from one outlying population west of the Niger River in Nigeria and otherwise confined to remaining forest in the east extending into Cameroon.	eng
32713	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shade-bearing lowland forest species.	eng
32713	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest habitat has been extensively felled outside protected areas.	eng
32714	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Records of this forest species are known only from south-east Nigeria. It is not known from the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32714	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest outside protected areas is almost completely cleared and planted with commercial  or subsistence crops.	eng
32715	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies endemic to forest areas in southern Nigeria.	eng
32715	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the habitat has unquestionably declined as there has been large-scale deforestation in the last three decades.	eng
32716	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations of this small forest tree are protected.	eng
32716	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park and the adjacent Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
32716	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale deforestation has taken place in surrounding areas.	eng
32717	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A little-known species, which has been recorded only from Eket in south-east Nigeria.	eng
32717	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oil exploration operations in this area have caused the destruction of most if not all the forest habitat.	eng
32718	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in two national parks. Research into the demography of this gregarious tree would inform development of a management plan. Since Loesenera talbotii is so frequent in Kupe-Bakossi, it is advisable that conservation efforts are focussed here. This tree could form the basis of a public education campaign due to its conspicuousness in Bakossi.	eng
32718	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	In Nigeria this species is known from the Oban Hills, where the population is protected within Cross River National Park and Calabar-Mamfe. In SW Cameroon found in Yingui-Yabassi, WSW Mamfe (one collection each), and Mt Kupe-Bakossi (numerous sites and collections).	eng
32718	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 180–1,000 m alt.	eng
32718	population	Cheek, M., 2004	A rare forest tree.	eng
32718	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Areas outside  protected areas have suffered serious habitat declines due to forest clearance for agriculture and wood, e.g., at Kupe village.	eng
32719	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in south-east Nigeria.	eng
32719	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A swamp forest species.	eng
32719	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Eket the habitat appears to have been almost completely destroyed because of oil exploration operations. Elsewhere levels of logging and clearing are high outside protected areas.	eng
32720	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which is recorded only in south-east Nigeria. The family is endemic to West Africa.	eng
32720	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.	eng
32721	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from Eket in south-eastern Nigeria.	eng
32721	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A botanical survey of the area is required to ascertain whether the species is now extinct.	eng
32721	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat of this species is likely to have been destroyed by operations for oil exploration.	eng
32722	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within National Park boundaries.	eng
32722	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species range appears to be confined to the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.	eng
32722	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale deforestation and clearance for crops have taken place extensively outside the park boundaries.	eng
32723	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama only two old collections are known but localities are unspecified. More recently the species has been identified in Colombia, occurring quite commonly in Chocó, Boyacá, Valle and other regions. The species has been recorded in Peru, but not frequently.	eng
32723	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Primary forest.	eng
32723	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat is declining through much of the species' distribution as a result of increasing settlement.	eng
32724	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree endemic, confined to an area on the coast at Degema.	eng
32725	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree is endemic to southern Nigeria.	eng
32726	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A little-known forest tree that occurs in south-east Nigeria and also in Gabon. In Gabon the species is found in Lopé Forest Reserve and most probably in other forest areas which have yet to be explored.	eng
32726	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Nigerian subpopulation to date appears to be unprotected. Forest outside protected areas has been extensively logged and cleared for agriculture. There is concern about the degree to which forest is now under concession in Gabon.	eng
32727	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety has, until now, been recorded only from the Eket and Degema area in the south-east.	eng
32727	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32727	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat of the Eket subpopulation has been degraded, if not completely destroyed, by oil exploration operations. The other subpopulation is unprotected and its habitat is vulnerable to severe degradation.	eng
32728	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, apparently confined to the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.	eng
32728	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Surrounding areas have been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.	eng
32729	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The largest, if not only, subpopulation of this species occurs in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32729	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only recorded in south-eastern Nigeria.	eng
32729	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The areas outside the park have been largely deforested and planted with commercial or subsistence crops.	eng
32730	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to the few remaining forested areas in south-west Nigeria.	eng
32730	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale logging, encroaching agriculture and the planting of commercial crops have resulted in large declines in the habitat.	eng
32731	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Management suggestions: marking and protecting individual trees might be a useful stopgap before making detailed population surveys.   A protected subpopulation exists in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32731	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Collected from Mt. Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Nigeria (ca. five collections).	eng
32731	population	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	<em>Cola nigerica</em> is extremely rare in each of the five disjunct areas in its range. For example in the 1992 survey of Mabeta-Moliwe, while 22 specimens of <em>Cola flavo-velutina</em> were recorded, only a single specimen of <em>Cola nigerica</em> was found.	eng
32731	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	All the areas in which <em>Cola nigerica</em> occurs(ed) have been cleared or are under threat of forest clearance and cultivation.	eng
32732	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby species, which has to date been recorded in only a small area near Ikom which lies between the northern and southern division of the Cross River National Park.	eng
32732	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been almost completely felled up to the park boundaries.	eng
32733	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small forest tree is recorded from the Oban Hills, within Cross River National Park.	eng
32733	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been extensively logged and cleared for cultivation.	eng
32734	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Part of the population occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
32734	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely recorded small tree of the violet family. It is known from the contiguous forest area covered by the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
32734	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas outside the parks have been heavily deforested and cleared for agriculture and commercial crops.	eng
32735	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Nigerian subpopulation of this tree appears to be restricted to the Obudu Plateau, the northern division of Cross River National Park. The species also appears to grow in dense subpopulations in various forest types in Cameroon, on the central plateau as well as in the coastal forest.	eng
32735	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested valleys.	eng
32735	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Parts of the forest are showing signs of fire damage and there is growing pressure to convert areas into commercial plantations, especially for growing bananas.	eng
32736	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Occurring largely in Democratic Republic of Congo, extending into Uganda.	eng
32736	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A useful tree occurring in areas of closed forest, often along rivers.	eng
32737	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A Mayombe endemic known from two localities in the Luki Forest Reserve.	eng
32737	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The habitat has been greatly reduced by logging, charcoal production and agriculture.	eng
32738	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A species found only on Mont Mukuen.	eng
32738	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Rocky areas of savannah.	eng
32738	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The area is vulnerable to fire and overcutting.	eng
32739	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The only known locality of this forest species is in Upemba National Park, east of Lake Upemba.	eng
32739	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The density of the human population is low and the threats from agricultural encroachment and logging are at a relatively low level.  The crushed leaves are used to wash infants.	eng
32740	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The species is restricted to a single locality in the Maringa valley.	eng
32740	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	It occurs in dense swamp forest often associated with <em>Gilbertiodendron dewevrei</em>.	eng
32740	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The habitat is threatened by logging and agriculture.	eng
32741	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A rare species found in one locality forest along the Pweto to Moba road on the Marungu Plateau, situated on the western shores of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
32741	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Gallery forest.	eng
32741	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	There are serious threats of habitat degradation because of logging and the erosion of stream banks caused by cattle.	eng
32742	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Known only from a single locality along the Congo River in the Lulonga region.	eng
32742	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Equatorial swamp forest.	eng
32742	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Overcutting and encroaching agriculture are putting pressure on the habitat.	eng
32743	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Known from a single locality north of the Forestier Centrale at Likimi.	eng
32743	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Closed <em>terra firme</em> forest.	eng
32743	population	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A species which seems to be rare.	eng
32743	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	There are some threats of overcutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
32744	conservation	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Within a protected area.	eng
32744	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A Mayombe endemic in the Luki area.	eng
32744	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Occurring in modified old forest.	eng
32744	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The surrounding area is densely populated and there are heavy demands on the forest for timber and charcoal production and also land for agriculture.	eng
32745	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Endemic to Mayombe.	eng
32745	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	occurring in remaining areas of closed forest.	eng
32745	population	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A rare species.	eng
32745	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	This habitat has been greatly reduced in extent because of logging and agriculture: 35% of the forest was under concession in 1980.	eng
32747	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively wide-ranging species, occurring from Democratic Republic of Congo to Ghana and possibly further west.	eng
32747	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined and scarce in wet evergreen forest.	eng
32747	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has experienced general declines in its extent.	eng
32747	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
32748	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A species endemic to the Forestier Central in the region of Ofala.	eng
32749	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A species of the Forestier Central. It is restricted to a zone in the north-east.	eng
32750	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	At the source of the Muye River.	eng
32750	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A tree from upland gallery forest.	eng
32750	population	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	It is known only from a single locality.	eng
32750	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The area is vulnerable to overcutting, fire and agricultural encroachment.	eng
32751	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	The distribution of this species is limited. It occurs in the Forestier Central.	eng
32751	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Lowland closed forest.	eng
32752	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	A species restricted to Ubangi-Uele.	eng
32752	habitat	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Gallery forest.	eng
32753	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only the subpopulations within Chagres National Park and Kunayala Indigenous Reserve are given some form of protection.	eng
32753	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from the center of Panama to the border with Colombia.	eng
32753	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
32753	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	It is found in areas which are experiencing increasing urbanisation.	eng
32754	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The area from which this relatively newly described species has been collected is geographically and altitudinally very restricted. The entire population is contained within Chagres National Park.	eng
32754	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Somewhat threatened by encroaching settlement and tourist activities.	eng
32755	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occur in Darién National Park.	eng
32755	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been collected only once near the Colombian border in Darién National Park. It is possible the population extends into Colombia but no record of the species has been made since 1975.	eng
32755	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
32755	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The locality has been opened up for agriculture somewhat.	eng
32756	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a subpopulation within Chagres National Park, in Cerro Jefe.	eng
32756	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Described in 1988, this species is known only from a few collections from central Panama.	eng
32756	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Evergreen rainforest between 800 and 1,000 m.	eng
32756	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Locations in Cerro Tute and in the Valle de Antón, which harbours the largest subpopulation, are strongly affected by urban development and tourism.	eng
32757	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A species first described in 1988 and known only from a few scattered localities in Veraguas and Coclé in Panama and from larger subpopulations in Costa Rica, principally located in San Ramón Forest Reserve.	eng
32757	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It is restricted to cloud forest between 800 and 1,200 m.	eng
32760	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Montane forest habitat.	eng
32760	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The montane forest habitat of this species has suffered serious declines in past decades.	eng
32762	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The US locality is vulnerable but protected.	eng
32762	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub scattered over a wide range.	eng
32762	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Montane grassland.	eng
32762	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Population sizes and declines are not documented.	eng
32763	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of submontane seasonal dry forest.	eng
32763	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Has experienced dramatic declines over the last few decades.	eng
32763	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Forest has been converted for agricultural use, especially coffee plantations.	eng
32764	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is suspected that the species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated taking into account its altitudinal range.	eng
32765	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A distinctive species known only from the type locality of Oaxaca.	eng
32765	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
32766	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
32766	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Abundant in areas.	eng
32766	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subject to general declines in habitat.	eng
32768	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is frequently planted.	eng
32768	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Moist montane forests.	eng
32768	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is widespread and often occurs in abundance.	eng
32768	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	General rates of deforestation in recent decades have caused significant population declines.	eng
32770	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Summit of the Pico.	eng
32770	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Rainforest above 1,300 m.	eng
32770	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is little threat to the habitat, although there was extensive deforestation earlier in the century up to 1,500 m.	eng
32771	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely distributed over the island.	eng
32771	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common upland forest tree between 500 and 1,600 m.	eng
32771	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees regenerate well.	eng
32772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known about the species. It has been collected twice. Large areas of the island remain to be explored.	eng
32772	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the forest below 1,500 m was felled in the first half of the century.	eng
32773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been located at a range of altitudes in Pico, Angolares and Monte Café in two locations, one in Esperanca. The remaining populations are now confined to higher altitudes which have evaded deforestation.	eng
32773	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree, known only from a few herbarium specimens and thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1968.	eng
32773	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation.	eng
32774	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sâo Tomé this tree is known from collections, both recent and old, from Ilheu das Rolas, Angolares, Ribeira Peixe, Lagoa Amalia, Bombaim and Jou.	eng
32774	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland localities are likely to have been lost in the first half of the century when forest at these altitudes was extensively cleared.	eng
32775	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only twice, in the last century from S. Nicaolau and more recently from S. Carlos. Areas remain to be explored, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32775	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of secondary forest.	eng
32776	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively well-collected shrub or small tree, found in wet and shady places in secondary forest between 500 and 1,000 m.	eng
32777	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is present in all high altitude sites.	eng
32777	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration is reported to be good.	eng
32778	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in secondary forest up to 1,060 m.	eng
32778	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is common.	eng
32779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Numerous collections, both old and recent, of the tree have been made in locations above 600 m.	eng
32779	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The original forest below 1,500 m was largely cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32780	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of lowland forest. Individuals are now found in areas which have been settled and cultivated, as most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32781	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Angolares and Diogo Vaz.	eng
32781	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree that is known from coastal areas. The island remains unexplored in places, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32782	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from several collections, both recent and old, from Rodia, Ilheu das Rolas and S. António de Mussacavu. Areas of Sâo Tomé remain to be explored, although most of the forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32783	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in the south-east of the island.	eng
32783	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been found since it was collected in 1954. It is not known whether there is still an extant population. Extensive areas of remote forest remain to be explored.	eng
32783	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no obvious threats to the habitat at present.	eng
32784	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two sites towards the north-west of the island at altitudes of 1,350 to 1,410 m.	eng
32784	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or shrub.	eng
32784	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations appear to be healthy and regenerating.	eng
32785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was collected from Macambrara and Pico.	eng
32785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest.	eng
32785	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No recent collections have been made.	eng
32786	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree in rainforest up to 1,950 m.	eng
32786	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from several collections, some recent.	eng
32786	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the rainforest below 1,500 m on Sâo Tomé was felled in the first half of the century.	eng
32787	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree collected several times, recently mostly from Pico.	eng
32788	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in forest in the south-west of the island in Porto Alegre and Monte Café.	eng
32788	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas remain to be explored, although most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32789	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree collected just once in the 19th Century. It is not known whether any populations survived the extensive deforestation which occurred in the first half of the century.	eng
32790	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sâo Tomé, from 1,300 m to the summit of Pico. The genus is represented elsewhere only by an East African Afromontane species of restricted range.	eng
32790	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in rainforests from 1,300 m.	eng
32790	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no significant threats, although the forest below 1,500 m was largely cleared at the beginning of the century.	eng
32791	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from single collections made in the last century from Saudade, Santa Ana, Batepa and S. Carlos and from a more recent collection from Santarém.	eng
32791	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the original forest below 1,500 m was cleared in the first half of the century.	eng
32792	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears that only two collections have been made, one being from the coast where just one tree was located. More detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.	eng
32793	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	One of the two varieties in this monospecific genus.	eng
32793	habitat	Sun, W., 1998	It occurs in small pure stands scattered over a fairly wide range in broadleaved forest between 1,000 and 2,200 m.	eng
32793	threats	Sun, W., 1998	It is a valuable ornamental tree and seed collecting coupled with high levels of habitat destruction, have caused the species to disappear from parts of its range.	eng
32794	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are recorded from Oquê Pipi on Principe and Lagoa Amelia, Morro Miguel Angelo and Esperanca on Sâo Tomé.	eng
32794	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An upland tree with a relatively wide altitudinal range, principally occurring in secondary forest.	eng
32794	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas on both islands remain to be inventoried and it is hoped there are regenerating populations in existence.	eng
32794	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although trees have been seen to set fruit, no regeneration is evident.	eng
32795	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is known from a single collection. More detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.	eng
32796	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known from a site above Neves Ferrieira.	eng
32796	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Detailed information is lacking. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.	eng
32797	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected only twice and no information on its exact locality has been recorded. There have been no recent botanical surveys of the island.	eng
32798	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in densely forested areas in limestone gullies or on cliffs.	eng
32798	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A generally rare and scattered species.	eng
32798	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In addition to habitat deterioration, the species appears to be suffering from inadequate pollination of female plants.	eng
32799	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in China are localised, occurring in Mengla, Jiangchen, Jingping, Hekou and Pingbian in south Yunnan and Longzhou in south-west Guangxi. The species is said to be relatively common in central and northern Viet Nam. No information is available on the subpopulations in Lao PDR.	eng
32799	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland forest habitat has suffered large-scale clearance and conversion to agriculture.	eng
32800	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to north Zambia.	eng
32800	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to a restricted range of scrub and thicket on sandy soil occurring at altitudes between 900 and 1,000 m.	eng
32803	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There are four occurrences within nature reserves: Ngoc Linh, Chu Yang Sinh, Dao Ngoan Muc and Nui Ba (Viet Nam) and also in a protected area in Lao PDR (see above).	eng
32803	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Until recently this species was only known from only one area near Dalat. It has now been found in four adjacent provinces, extending into central Viet Nam. In addition a small stand was recently discovered in Lao PDR, growing on an escarpment in the southern part of the Nakai Nam Theun protected area. Its distribution is still incompletely known.	eng
32803	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Montane evergreen forest. <em>Pinus dalatensis</em> is a montane pine growing in a tropical climate between 1,400 and 2,300 m and forms stands of a few to about 30 trees surrounded by evergreen angiosperm forest dominated by members of the Fagaceae. In most localities, the pines occupy rocky outcrops or ridges and adjacent slopes where competition from broadleaves is less intense. Some other conifers may also be present, among these are the rare pine <em>P. krempfii</em> and <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em>.	eng
32803	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	(Sub)populations tend to be very small and are increasingly reduced to isolated areas.	eng
32803	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown.	eng
32804	conservation	Loc, Phan Ke, 1998	It occurs within Nui Ba and Dao Ngoan Muc Nature Reserves.	eng
32804	distribution	Loc, Phan Ke, 1998	The species is known only from localised populations in Khanh Hoa and Lam Dong Provinces in the south.	eng
32806	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Various laws and programmes are in place in an effort to monitor and regulate both the exploitation and the trade. The species is listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
32806	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	In China declines in populations have been recorded and numbers are believed to be at a critical low in Tibet.	eng
32806	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	For several centuries the young shoots, leaves and bark have been used for their medicinal properties. More recently huge quantities of leaves have been collected for medicinal  extracts which have anti-cancer properties. Destructive means have been used frequently, e.g., felling the trees. The timber is also sought-after.	eng
32807	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Mexico. It occurs in both Gulf and Pacific regions.	eng
32807	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread rainforest tree, sometimes in drier forest types.	eng
32808	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Black water streams of the ancient Planalto habitat where it stands above associated tree species and bamboo canes.	eng
32808	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is rare and restricted to a few scattered individuals in central Brazil.	eng
32809	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Found in Luzon and Mindoro.	eng
32810	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree occurring in Thua Thien-Hue, Gia Lai, Kon Tum and Lam Dong Provinces.	eng
32810	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Usually in evergreen forests above 500 m on deep fertile soils.	eng
32810	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Natural regeneration does not appear to be good, despite good fruit crops. The fine timber is used for construction and making household appliances.	eng
32811	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A tree found throughout Indo-China.	eng
32811	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	It grows in dense forest, and in transitional areas between evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest.	eng
32811	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	In Viet Nam the hard, attractive wood is highly valued for carpentry. Because of high levels of exploitation and habitat loss, large trees are scarce and hard to find.	eng
32812	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Viet Nam, the species is confined to a single locality in Lam Dong Province (Lac Duong) in the south.	eng
32814	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The Red List category is largely based on the situation in Viet Nam, where the species is distributed sparsely but widely throughout the country.	eng
32814	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Primary and secondary forest.	eng
32814	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Exploitation of the diseased wood for the perfume industry has resulted in population declines exceeding 80% over recent years. There is a strong indication that the same losses are occurring in the rest of Indo-China. Other parts of the plant are also widely used: the roots for incense, cosmetics and medicines and the bark for fibre.	eng
32815	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to north Viet Nam, the species is found in a number of localities in Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Hoa Binh and Ha Tay.	eng
32816	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which appears to be confined to a single locality between 800 and 1,000 m at Dien Khanh in Khanh Hoa Province.	eng
32817	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species recorded to be rare in Viet Nam, where it is confined to central provinces.	eng
32818	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known from only a single locality in Da Nang.	eng
32819	distribution	Ban, N.T., 1998	A tree known from scattered subpopulations in Viet Nam and Hainan Island in China.	eng
32819	habitat	Ban, N.T., 1998	Primary and secondary forest.	eng
32819	threats	Ban, N.T., 1998	In Viet Nam heavy exploitation of the beautiful timber has led to considerable population declines. Habitat loss on Hainan Island through logging has also been significant.	eng
32820	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A protected population occurs in Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve.	eng
32820	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Throughout Indo-China south into Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia; the species is becoming rarer in many places. In Viet Nam, it is listed as threatened.	eng
32820	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in various forest types	eng
32820	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overexploitation of timber.	eng
32821	conservation	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Export is now banned. Some populations are protected in areas, such as Cuc Phuong National Park.	eng
32821	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A small, slow-growing tree endemic to Viet Nam, although there are reports of occurrences in Laos. Stands are found in the northern provinces of Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Lang Son, Hoa Binh, Ha Tinh and Quang Binh, and in the south in Cam Thinh Dong and Cam Thinh Tay communes.	eng
32821	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The species occurs on limestone mountains below 800 m.	eng
32821	population	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Populations in the wild are much reduced.	eng
32821	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The glossy black timber is highly valued and has been in great demand.	eng
32824	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	In Viet Nam this slow-growing tree is known only from Sapa and Moc Chau.	eng
32824	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	It is sometimes the dominant species in dense subtropical broadleaved forest.	eng
32824	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Regeneration is thought to be hampered by a thick layer of leaf litter on the forest floor.	eng
32826	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, restricted to Hainan Island in China and high mountains in north Viet Nam: Son La, Tuan Giao and Dien Bien.	eng
32829	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where the species is restricted to a single locality in Ba Vi, Ha Tay Province.	eng
32830	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern provinces of Viet Nam and Vieng Chan in Laos.	eng
32830	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree distributed widely at low altitudes near streams on alluvium, gravel soils or mud flats.	eng
32830	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Natural regeneration and coppicing is strong.	eng
32830	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam, the species has become threatened because of the rates of habitat loss.	eng
32831	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Endemic to the Fan Ci Pan range, extending from northern Viet Nam into Yunnan, China.	eng
32831	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	This tree is localised in forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
32832	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Very localised in the central highlands of Viet Nam, known from a single collection. The area is relatively poorly explored.	eng
32832	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A small tree.	eng
32833	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	This endemic tree is known from only a few collections.	eng
32833	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	The area is experiencing extensive habitat decline.	eng
32834	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection, made in Musondwa in 1958, is the only known record of this species.	eng
32836	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Small plantations of 8,000 ha exist in Papua New Guinea and it has been introduced to Australia, Fiji and Peninsular Malaysia on an experimental scale.  The export of  <em>Araucaria</em> logs has always been banned in Papua New Guinea.	eng
32836	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Recorded to be the tallest tree in Malesia, reaching 90 m in height, the species occurs mainly in Fagaceae forest between 520 and 2,100 m.	eng
32836	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It has been reduced to scattered stands because of heavy exploitation of the good-quality timber. The species habitat is also threatened by shifting agriculture, fire and damage caused  by feral pigs.	eng
32838	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, apparently endemic to Viet Nam and confined to two lowland localities in Dac Lac and Khanh Hoa.	eng
32841	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Malaysia.	eng
32841	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
32841	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common and widely distributed tree.	eng
32841	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is one of the main sources of kedondong timber and it is used for indoor construction.	eng
32842	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This widespread species has been split into two forms: <em>forma laevigata</em> and <em>forma glabrifolia</em>.	eng
32842	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in mixed dipterocarp, mixed peat swamp and kerangas forests up to 1,200 m.  It regenerates well in logged-over forest and has been found to become the dominant species five years after logging.	eng
32842	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is one of the main sources of kedondong timber; the wood is used for planks, posts, furniture and handles.	eng
32843	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
32844	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species is found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and northern Borneo.	eng
32844	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Common in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 700 m.	eng
32846	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species of lowland and hill forest, occurring up to 540 m.	eng
32848	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Amani Nature Reserve is in the area,but it is not clear if the specimen was collected within the reserve area or not.	eng
32848	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Collected in 1910 at Amani in the Usambara Mts and has not been collected or seen again.	eng
32848	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Presumably in montane forest.	eng
32848	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Only one collection.	eng
32848	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threats are unknown.	eng
32849	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic to the East Usambaras, including Sindeni Hill.	eng
32849	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is confined to patches of forest and evergreen bushland.	eng
32850	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas including Amani Nature Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, and Kwamkoro Forest Reserve.	eng
32850	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in the Muheza and Korogwe districts. Recorded from the east Usambara Mts, Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, and Mtai Forest Reserve.	eng
32850	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in sub-montane forest.	eng
32850	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not a very common species.	eng
32850	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The forests where this species occurs are suffering severe declines and encroachmentas a result of conversion for agriculture (tea, coffee, cardamom) and mining (gold).	eng
32851	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from several protected areas including Mtai Forest Reserve and Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
32851	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Was originally only known from the East Usambara Mts but is now recorded from the West Usambara Mts. Most records of the species are from lower elevations. There is supposedly a collection from the North Uluguru Mts much further to the south, but this area has been extensively surveyed and no sign of this taxon was found, so it appears that this was an erroneous record.	eng
32851	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A deciduous tree growing in lowland and sub-montane forest.	eng
32851	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not known, but appears to be fairly scarce.	eng
32851	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is habitat loss on the lower slopes due to clearance of forests for agricultural expansion. There was also mining in parts of the area in the past.	eng
32852	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recoprded from a number of protected areas: Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, Amani Nature Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Lulanda Forest Reserve, and Udzungwa Mountains National Park.	eng
32852	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the East and West Usambara Mts, the Nguru Mts, and in the Udzungwa range.	eng
32852	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or small to medium-sized tree found in lowland and montane evergreen forest.	eng
32852	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not common.	eng
32852	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is habitat loss due to forest clearance for agriculture, logging for timber in certain cases, fires, etc.	eng
32853	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in many forest reserves and other protected areas, e.g., Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kimboza Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, etc.	eng
32853	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occursd from the coastal forests in southern Kenya into Tanzania, extending inland to the Eeastern Arc Mts. There is one record from Mafia Island (Tanzania).	eng
32853	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This tree grows mainly in lowland and coastal moist forest. It is a pioneer species, comes in after disturbance and disappears as the forest re-establishes. Also occurs in disturbed sub-thicket woodland dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spiciformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Millettia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Elaeodendron</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Harrisonia abyssinica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis myrtifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">and Adenia rumicifolia</span>.	eng
32853	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Common in disturbed forest (is a pioneer species).	eng
32853	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are a number of threats to the coastal forests and woodland including expanding agriculture, urbanization, and logging for charcoal production.	eng
32854	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the several varieties of a widespread species. It has been collected only a few times, from a single locality on the upper ridges of the Mussoorie Hills, near Dehra Dun in Uttar Pradesh.	eng
32854	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It does not appear to have been seen in the wild for 40 years.	eng
32855	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Specimens from this tree were collected just once during colonial times from subtropical pine forest in the Mishmee Hills, Lohit District.	eng
32855	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is relatively remote but there is some concern that the forests have become vulnerable to clearance for jhum or extensive agriculture.	eng
32856	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
32856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats, where it is scattered in a few localities.	eng
32856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
32856	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
32857	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from the Delei Valley in north Assam.	eng
32857	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurred in thickets on a steep rocky slope.	eng
32857	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been found since its collection in 1928.	eng
32859	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g., Udzungwa Mountains National Park, West Kilombero and Amani Nature Reserves, Lulanda and Luhega Forest Reserves.	eng
32859	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of the Tanzanian Eastern Arc Mountains - Usambaras, Udzwungas, Kimboza (now gone), and in the Luhega and Lulanda Forest Reserves.	eng
32859	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This tree grows in lowland and montane forest.	eng
32859	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This is a very occasional species, which is never found in large numbers where it occurs.	eng
32859	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This species has probably gone from Kimboza Forest Reserve due to forest loss for agriculture, fire, and invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrela</span>. There are similar threats for the East Usambaras, the invasive species here being <span style="font-style: italic;">Maesopsis</span>.	eng
32860	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest), Banda and Kichi Hills Forest Reserves.	eng
32860	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from one location in Kenya (Mangea), now probably destroyed. In Tanzania, known from several localities along the coast and further inland. The Pugu subpopulation could be severely reduced.	eng
32860	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A straggling small tree or shrub found in dry evergreen lowland forest and also dry bushland.	eng
32860	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	In Mangea was only known from one plant, but at some sites in Tanzania, it is abundant.	eng
32860	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	At Mangea most if not all of the forest has gone as a result of agricultural expansion, at Ifakara there is also intensive agriculture so that locality has probably also gone. Pugu Forest Reserve has also been badly impacted by human activities. Other forest reserves where it occurs are better protected.	eng
32861	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Kwamsambia, Marimba and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves.	eng
32861	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found on the lower slopes of the East Usambara Mts and also Bungu in the West Usambara Mts, Tanzania.	eng
32861	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree found growing in dry evergreen forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum schumannii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lettowianthus stellatus</span> and other trees. Grows in on the lower mountain slopes often near rivers.	eng
32861	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very small population (less than ten trees have been recorded at Sigi).	eng
32861	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is ongoing forest loss and degradation because of expanding agricultural activities (e.g., tea plantation), etc. The forests around Bungu have been cleared.	eng
32862	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Amani Nature Reserve, Nguru South Forest Reserve, and in Udzungwa Mountains National Park.	eng
32862	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the East Usambara, South Nguru and Udzungwa Mts in Tanzania.	eng
32862	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree found in  sub-montane forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Allanblackia stuhlmannii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anthocleista grandiflora</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari excelsa</span>.	eng
32862	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Common where it occurs (forms clusters).	eng
32862	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The habitat is threatened by logging, cultivation in places, some of the range is well protected.	eng
32864	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A distinct variant of a widely distributed and variable montane tree. It is localised in the Uluguru Mts. and on the Lukwangule Plateau.	eng
32864	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forested ridge tops.	eng
32865	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are known from the Syreyngam, Khasi and the Jaintea Hills in Meghalaya and Bhutan Hill in Assam.	eng
32865	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in rainforest over 1,000 m.	eng
32865	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No collections appear to have been made more recently than 1937.	eng
32865	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	High rates of habitat loss have affected the entire range.	eng
32866	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest species recorded only from Merchiston in Trivandrum District and Colatoorpolay in Quilon District in a restricted area of forest.	eng
32866	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known whether any populations still remain. There has been much habitat destruction in places and the species has not been collected since 1895.	eng
32867	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently it is in cultivation in Sri Lankan gardens.	eng
32867	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from a single locality in the Courtallam Hills.	eng
32867	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been found for over 100 years despite the area being accessible and visited by tourists.	eng
32870	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The taxonomic status of this species is dubious.	eng
32872	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A forest species which has suffered extensive destruction of its habitat.	eng
32873	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the mountains to the north-east of Boquete in Chiriquí.	eng
32873	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Restricted to cloud forest between 1,800 and 2,300 m.	eng
32873	population	Mitré, M., 1998	A rare species.	eng
32873	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The main threats to the habitat are fires and tourism.	eng
32874	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Current forest management activities are discouraging further local exploitation.	eng
32874	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic subspecies of the Rondo Plateau.	eng
32874	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from only a few collections.	eng
32874	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The remaining forest in the area is contained within Rondo Forest Reserve, a large part of which has been disturbed by previous activities such as logging, the planting of commercial timbers and shifting cultivation.	eng
32875	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is known only from West Usambara. The genus is monotypic. The nearest related genus is <em>Wimmeria</em> in Central and South America.	eng
32875	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forests.	eng
32875	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A substantial area of the forest in which it occurred was cleared in the mid-1960s and it may now be extinct.	eng
32876	conservation	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Some of the population is protected in Itatiaia National Park.	eng
32876	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	It is restricted to remaining areas of Atlantic forest on the road to Engenheiro Passos in Sâo Paulo, in Itatiaia National Park in Rio de Janeiro and in Belmonte and Canavieiras in Bahia. The record from Itatiaia dates back to 1941.	eng
32876	population	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	In the last 20 years of herbarium collections and records, the species is notably scarce.	eng
32878	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland.	eng
32878	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Jamaica the tree appears to be locally common in relict woodland, especially in the western parishes.	eng
32879	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Al Miskat Mountains.	eng
32879	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Confined to semi-evergreen bushland on limestone;  occurring at higher altitudes than <em>A. ankokib.</em>	eng
32880	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	One of the subspecies, ssp. <em>littoralis</em>, is confined to the coastal dunes in southern Somalia and would be categorised as Vulnerable (VU D2). However, the differences between it and the type subspecies are not thought to be significant. The species occurs more widely from southern Somalia up to the eastern Ogaden.	eng
32880	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Ssp. <em>littoralis</em>, is confined to coastal dunes.	eng
32880	population	Thulin, M., 1998	It is not common.	eng
32880	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Its habitat is vulnerable to degradation.	eng
32881	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Eastern Java and Bali.	eng
32881	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of various forest types occurring up to an altitude of 800 m.	eng
32881	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All forested areas at these elevations have experienced heavy clearing and are under intense pressure from the activities of local populations.	eng
32882	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Tana, Athi and Uaso-Nyiro river systems in Kenya and the Ruvu river system of Tanzania.	eng
32882	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is one of the dominant components of riparian forest.	eng
32882	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is greatly reduced and the species is notably scarcer. Seed crops are frequently washed away in annual floods after vegetation clearance. In Kenya the habitat has also been widely irrigated and cleared for settlement programmes.	eng
32883	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A coastal forest species, often a shrub, known from populations in the Shimba Hills in Kenya and in north-east Tanzania. It is closely related to the West African species <em>D. gabunensis</em>.	eng
32884	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to the West Usambara Mts. It has a close affinity with <em>C. sylvaticus</em>.	eng
32884	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species occurs within dry montane forest.	eng
32885	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree is known only from the East Usambara Mts. and the South Nguru Mts.	eng
32885	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
32886	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subpopulation has recently been found in remnant forest at Pangani Rocks, in Kenya. Otherwise the species is known only from remaining dry coastal forest in east and south-east Tanzania.	eng
32886	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
32887	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found on the South Nguru Mts. It is possibly conspecific with <em>T. tenuifolium</em> from Cameroon.	eng
32887	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree confined to lower elevation forest.	eng
32888	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The only subpopulations known to occur in areas of moist evergreen submontane forest in the East Usambara Mts.	eng
32888	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist evergreen submontane forest.	eng
32889	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted in range to the West Usambara Mts.	eng
32889	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
32890	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species, endemic to Tanzania, occurring in northern and central eastern areas.	eng
32890	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Lowland dry forest.	eng
32891	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Type collect from Liwiri-Kiteza forest at Songea, southern Tanzania.	eng
32891	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs in moist semi-deciduous montane forest.	eng
32891	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
32892	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The Pugu Forest Reserve has an active conservation programme.	eng
32892	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This may only be a form of the more widespread var. <em>kirkii</em> rather than a distinct variety. It is known only from small areas at Bagamayo and in the Pugu Hills, close to Dar es Salaam.	eng
32892	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32892	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Both areas are disturbed by various human activities.	eng
32893	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only found in the mountains in the west. Each collecting trip appears to uncover a new subpopulation in a more remote area. There is also a report of a subpopulation in La Amistad National Park on the border with Costa Rica.	eng
32893	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A shrubby species which occurs in small subpopulations up to 3,000 m  in cloud forest.	eng
32893	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat is generally declining in extent, over much of the range, mainly because of logging and mining for copper and gold.	eng
32894	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Current information suggests the species is confined to Cerro Colorado and Cerro Horqueta in the province of Chiriquí.	eng
32894	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Confined to a narrow altitudinal range, between 1,500 and 1,900 m.	eng
32894	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The populations are large in places.	eng
32894	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is unprotected and parts of Cerro Colorado, in particular, are affected by mining for copper and gold, and the impact of an expanding human population.	eng
32895	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	An Ecuadorian endemic, currently known only from the High Andes in Loja Province.	eng
32895	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	The altitudinal range of the species extends between 2,000 and 3,300 m.	eng
32896	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in Udzungwa range and on Mt. Rungwe in Tanzania, and also in northern Malawi.	eng
32896	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species occurs in areas of moist montane forest.	eng
32897	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Current forest management activities are discouraging local exploitation.	eng
32897	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A forest tree which now appears to be restricted to the remaining undisturbed forest in Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
32897	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Human activities in the past; logging, shifting cultivation and the planting of exotic timbers, have caused extensive disturbance in the forest.	eng
32898	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to eastern Tanzania, this species is confined to the Usambara, Uluguru and North Udzungwa Mts.	eng
32898	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Upland moist evergreen forest.	eng
32899	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East Usambara Mts. and the North Udzungwa Mts.	eng
32899	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A large tree confined to moist submontane forest.	eng
32900	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Tong'omba Forest Reserve's boundaries are being cleared, which will help to prevent further declines.	eng
32900	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The only record of the species is from the Matumbi Hills, within Namakutwa and Tong'omba Forest Reserves (46 km² and 25 km² respectively).	eng
32900	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32900	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Namakutwa is a productive reserve: forest on the plateau continues to be cleared for agriculture and illegal logging has been occurring in the more riverine areas.  Tong'omba also experiences some agricultural encroachment.	eng
32901	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from the vicinity of Ifakara and Tiriani Fall in southern Tanzania. The area is not well explored.	eng
32901	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
32902	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is now thought to be restricted to undisturbed forest areas in the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
32902	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Undisturbed forest areas.	eng
32902	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Severe disturbance of the habitat has been caused by past activities, including logging of the largest East African population of <em>Milicia excelsa</em>, planting of exotic timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection.	eng
32903	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The whole species' range is within the boundaries of Chagres National Park.	eng
32903	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A scarce species which is confined to a small area in the region of Cerro Jefe, in the province of Panamá.  A single collection from Valle del Cauca in Colombia could possibly be included under this species.	eng
32903	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest between 800 and 1,000 m.	eng
32903	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Before the area was granted National Park status, a large part of the original forest was destroyed for housing and industrial developments.	eng
32904	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is widespread, extending across the African continent. This is a distinct subspecies, confined to eastern Tanzania.	eng
32904	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist lowland forest.	eng
32905	conservation	Sandiford, M., 1998	Much interest has been generated in replanting programmes and various institutes are involved in research into wild populations and the conservation of representative genetic samples of remaining populations in the form of, for example, clonal seed orchards. The species is grown in small-scale species trials in Kenya and the Solomon Islands.	eng
32905	distribution	Sandiford, M., 1998	A taxonomically controversial species, which has a strong possibility of being sunk into <em>Pachira</em>.  Distributed from southern Honduras to northern Colombia and Venezuela,	eng
32905	habitat	Sandiford, M., 1998	Subpopulations are fragmented within remaining areas of seasonally dry lowland forest.	eng
32905	threats	Sandiford, M., 1998	The species is threatened at the provenance level, most notably in the Choluteca valley in Honduras, eastern Nicaragua and northern Colombia. Burning, overexploitation of the timber and increasing settlement and conversion of the habitat for agriculture are the main causes of population and genetic losses. Although occurring in national parks, the habitat is relatively poorly represented in protected areas.	eng
32906	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of moist forest at a wide altitudinal range.	eng
32907	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest is protected by two forest guards, employed in the Catchment Forest Project.	eng
32907	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two subpopulations are known. One is restricted to Kimboza Forest Reserve, which covers 4 km² of moist semi-deciduous coastal forest within a densely populated area, the other is restricted to low elevations in the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
32907	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist semi-deciduous coastal forest.	eng
32907	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	High demand for wood.	eng
32908	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to south-east Tanzania.	eng
32908	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of dry coastal forest.	eng
32909	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	West Usambara Mts., Uluguru Mts. and at Lupembe in the Kipengere range.	eng
32909	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A montane taxon confined to moist forest.	eng
32910	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East and West Usambara Mts. A doubtful record also originates from the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
32910	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subspecies confined to moist evergreen forest at submontane altitudes.	eng
32911	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Mt. Rungwe and along Mkenja River. It is also apparently cultivated in Zambia.	eng
32911	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A tree of moist montane forest at altitudes of between 1,400 and 1,500 m.	eng
32912	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East Usambara and south Nguru Mts.	eng
32912	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species that occurs in lowland forest.	eng
32913	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species endemic to south-east Tanzania.	eng
32913	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to remaining areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
32914	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or tree from two locations in south-east Tanzania, one in Kilwa and the other near Lindi.	eng
32914	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
32915	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This monospecific genus is restricted to the East and possibly the West Usambara Mts.	eng
32915	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in moist forest at elevations of 760-1,000 m.	eng
32915	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species has suffered severe habitat losses and degradation in the past.	eng
32916	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Repeated searches for this species at its type locality have failed to rediscover it. It was collected in the 1930s in an area of forest on the sides of Lake Lutamba, which has since been cleared.	eng
32917	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is locally dominant in a 0.25 ha patch of forest near Lindi and elsewhere only from a single forest patch located 40 km away. The latter site has not been visited recently and the forest may have disappeared.	eng
32918	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is known from near Mkoe from a single collection made in the 1940s.	eng
32918	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
32918	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is possible the species' habitat has been destroyed.	eng
32919	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East and south-east Tanzania.	eng
32919	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to dry coastal forest patches.	eng
32920	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	There are proposals to re-gazette Kiwengoma Forest Reserve (20 km²).	eng
32920	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two areas on the Matumbi and Kichi Hills are the only known localities where the species is known.	eng
32920	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
32920	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The sites are not protected and are open to exploitation. Of particular concern are the logging of commercial species in the valleys and the potential level of encroachment of an increasing human population.	eng
32921	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An attempt is being made to halt intensive charcoal production and agricultural clearance.	eng
32921	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two varieties are recognised by FTEA. The species as a whole is known only from four forest areas, including Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Game Reserve (22 km² and 12 km² respectively).	eng
32921	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Both reserves are heavily disturbed, having suffered the logging of all valuable timbers and heavy cutting of wood in the forest fringes by local people. Pugu has also been affected by mining, military exercises and agricultural encroachment.	eng
32922	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Port Blair on South Andaman.	eng
32922	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of coastal forest.	eng
32922	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected since 1916. There are areas which have not been well explored.	eng
32922	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Commercial logging has resulted in the habitat becoming considerably more fragmented and reduced in extent.	eng
32923	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya.	eng
32923	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurred in subtropical forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
32923	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been collected since 1877 and is presumed extinct.	eng
32923	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been significant declines in the extent of the habitat, largely caused by extensive agriculture and fires.	eng
32924	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to Cherrapunji and Shongpung forests.	eng
32924	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been recorded since 1938	eng
32924	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has clearly suffered from habitat declines.  At Cherrapunji a cement factory has caused the loss of habitat.	eng
32925	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring mostly in protected areas.	eng
32925	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a fragmented and sparse distribution. It is found between the rivers of Sassandra and Cavally in south-west Côte d'Ivoire, including Tai National Park. In Cameroon populations are harboured in Korup National Park and Abong-Mbang. It is relatively widespread in Gabon, where large tracts of forest remain.	eng
32925	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland moist forest.	eng
32925	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	in Gabon large tracts of forests are under concession to logging companies.	eng
32926	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A lowland swamp forest species exploited for its timber.	eng
32926	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	There is little information on the status of subpopulations or their regeneration.	eng
32926	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is expected that overexploitation and habitat degradation are resulting in population declines.	eng
32927	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	The largest patch is contained within Tai National Park.	eng
32927	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Two isolated subpopulations are known. In Côte d'Ivoire, the species is confined between the rivers Cavally and Sassandra. More information is needed on the other subpopulation in Cameroon.	eng
32927	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Swampy areas within remaining forest patches (Côte d'Ivoire).	eng
32927	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Logging and the influx of people have caused a rapid decline and degradation of the habitat.	eng
32928	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to remaining forested areas in Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
32928	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
32929	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Extending from Côte d'Ivoire to Gabon. It is the sole member of the genus.	eng
32929	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It occurs in semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32929	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species is relatively widespread but rare within a rapidly declining habitat.	eng
32929	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Semi-deciduous forest has been heavily logged everywhere.	eng
32930	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is severely restricted in the Upper Guinea part of its range, where it was found once in Bafing, between Biankouma and Touba in Côte d'Ivoire. In Cameroon and the Central African Republic its status is not yet known.	eng
32930	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Riverine forest.	eng
32931	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is known from the Eastern, Western and Southern Highlands, Madang and Morobe Provinces.	eng
32931	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree occurring in primary or secondary rainforest or submontane forest from 600 to 1,300 m.	eng
32932	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs on the southern Pacific slopes, south-east of Palmar north.	eng
32932	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On steep slopes of evergreen lowland rainforest.	eng
32932	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a collection made in 1986.	eng
32933	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the areas of Uxpanapa-Chimalapa and Los Tuxtlas.	eng
32933	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of high precipitation rainforest.	eng
32934	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nicaragua.	eng
32934	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is known solely from montane and cloud forests.	eng
32935	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Two collections have been made in Puntarenas Province in Costa Rica and in Colón in Panama.	eng
32935	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Understorey tree in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
32936	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Known only from a single location, Bisiatabu in the Central Province.	eng
32936	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree occurs in forest at 450 m.	eng
32936	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The habitat is threatened by logging and the increasing settlement.	eng
32937	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in central-east Sumatra and throughout Borneo.	eng
32937	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest in the lowlands.	eng
32938	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread shrub or small tree found in the understorey of mixed dipterocarp forest and old secondary forest on various soil types.	eng
32940	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Known from the East and Western Highlands, Morobe, Northern and Central provinces of Papua New Guinea.	eng
32940	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree often found in <em>Castanopsis-Nothofagus</em> rainforest from 900 to 2,000 m.	eng
32940	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Its conservation is dependent upon the conservation of its montane habitat.	eng
32941	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A gregarious, often dominant tree of lowland freshwater swamp and peat-swamp forest.	eng
32941	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations have been heavily depleted as the most important source of ramin timber. The species is also threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss. A recent investigation by Dutch and Malaysian experts, following CITES debates on the species, concluded that <em>G. bancanus</em> is not threatened with extinction in Malaysian swamp forests although regeneration in overexploited forests may be a cause for concern.	eng
32944	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Within national and state parks the tree is conserved.	eng
32944	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
32944	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is found in lowland and hill forest.  It often occurs on hillsides and ridges, although it has also been recorded in seasonal swamps and disturbed forests.	eng
32944	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Common.	eng
32944	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pressures on the species occur from felling activities and the expansion of human settlements.	eng
32945	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Mt. Victoria in the central district.	eng
32945	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of secondary forest at 2,040 m.	eng
32946	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	High areas of Chiapas. The taxonomic status of the subspecies may need confirmation. The species is widespread in eastern North America.	eng
32946	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A medicinal plant, found scattered in dry montane forest above 1,500 m.	eng
32947	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This deciduous species is native to west and north Madagascar but is cultivated throughout this and many other tropical countries.	eng
32947	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The main native subpopulations found around Antsiranana occur in areas that are threatened from charcoal production.  It is used widely as an ornamental tree.	eng
32949	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type locality.	eng
32949	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest in a humid ravine.	eng
32950	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found only in the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica and in the Chiriquí Highlands in Panama, where it is fairly abundant	eng
32950	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane forest.	eng
32951	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Although reported from Panama, there is no information in the literature or in herbaria in Panama to indicate where the species is located.	eng
32952	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from sites in the San Ramón Forest Reserve, near Ciudad Quesada and east of Río Sarapiquí in Heredia Province.	eng
32952	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of wet submontane rainforest.	eng
32953	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is restricted to just three neighbouring localities on the Atlantic side of Panama. The largest subpopulation occurs in Santa Rita. A specimen collected in 1984 from Valle del Cauca in Colombia has also been included in this species.	eng
32953	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
32953	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Increasing settlement in Santa Rita has destroyed much of the remaining forest. The same pressures are affecting the subpopulation along the highway from El Lano to Cartí.	eng
32954	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> (only saw-logs, sawn wood and veneers are subject to CITES controls).	eng
32954	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees are usually  seen as scattered and isolated individuals, preserved in cultivated land and pastures.	eng
32954	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of dry deciduous forest, savanna, rough scrub, rocky hillsides and cultivated fields.	eng
32954	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large specimens are rare.	eng
32954	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is used in local carpentry, but is of little commercial importance.	eng
32955	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
32955	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A less valuable but rarely distinguished source of lignum-vitae than <em>G. officinale</em>. from most of the Caribbean islands. In Central America and Florida remaining subpopulations are confined to restricted areas.	eng
32955	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Occurring in lowland dry forest.	eng
32955	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is now extinct or extremely rare across its range. Regeneration is good but growth is very slow.	eng
32955	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	In Central America and Florida remaining populations are threatened with habitat loss or exploitation, e.g., in Guancaste in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Florida Keys. As with <em>G. officinale</em>, both the timber and medicinal resin are of commercial use and have been traded for several centuries.	eng
32956	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A monotypic species, widespread from Nicaragua to Bolivia and Peru.	eng
32956	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Lowland moist forest types.	eng
32956	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	It is locally common in the Guianas and other countries. Seed-producing trees are sometimes low in numbers but regeneration does not appear to be inadequate. The timber is scarce in international trade.	eng
32956	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Has become rarer in some areas where the wood is intensively harvested for local use, notably in Brazil and Colombia.	eng
32957	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species responds well to periodic burning.	eng
32957	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Pacific side of Central America and Mexico.	eng
32957	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A dry forest species.	eng
32957	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	There is a limited occurrence of the species north of the canal in Panama and reasonably sized subpopulations are reported to be found still in Mexico.	eng
32957	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Exploitation as a timber is intense and areas where the species was formerly widespread are almost completely exhausted; this is most notable in Costa Rica.  The habitat has been exploited for 400 years and continuing reductions are caused through cattle ranching and burning.	eng
32958	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
32958	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tall shrub or tree restricted to the dry evergreen forests and dry lowland shrubwoods.	eng
32958	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat declines have been considerable in both communities; logging activities, agriculture and urban development are resulting in land clearance and habitat degradation.	eng
32959	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in eastern Cuba.	eng
32959	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Rainforest and upper limit of the montane semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32959	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very rare tree.	eng
32959	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat declines have been severe in places.	eng
32960	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Subpopulations of this species have been recorded from numerous localities in western Cuba.	eng
32960	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Semi-deciduous forest on limestone or serpentine .	eng
32960	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon shrub or tree.	eng
32960	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is threatened by overexploitation, mainly as a source of medicine, and the habitat is threatened by urban development and conversion for agriculture, ranching and tourism.	eng
32961	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This uncommon tree occurs in remaining areas of semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32961	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It provides a good-quality timber which is overexploited.	eng
32962	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree found in remaining areas of semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32962	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Most of the forests are under constant threat of clearance. As a close relative of <em>T. eriostachya</em>, it has suffered from severe overcutting.	eng
32963	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Baracoa, eastern Cuba.	eng
32963	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very uncommon tree, up to 30 m tall, confined to montane rainforests on limestone.	eng
32963	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The reduced number of mature individuals makes the survival of this species very unlikely.	eng
32964	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurs in Matanzas province and eastern Cuba.	eng
32964	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry evergreen forest.	eng
32964	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon tree, up to 7 m tall.	eng
32964	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat declines have been considerable over the past decades.	eng
32965	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A slow-growing shrub or tree found only occasionally in woodlands and dry evergreen forests on dog-tooth limestone, rocky terraces and cliffs.	eng
32965	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species has been overexploited for its hard, precious wood.	eng
32966	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An imperfectly known species.	eng
32966	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in semi-deciduous forests on acid substrate, mainly along rivers and creeks.	eng
32966	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Degradation of the habitat has resulted in soil erosion and the invasion of exotic species.	eng
32967	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Central and eastern Cuba.	eng
32967	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree, restricted to areas of coastal dry forest.	eng
32967	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Severe habitat degradation and tourist development are the main threats to the species' survival.	eng
32968	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Provinces of Guantánamo, Baracoa and Holguín.	eng
32968	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Woodlands and dry forests over limestone and serpentine bedrocks.	eng
32969	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree known only from the mountains of south-western part of Sierra de Nipe in eastern Cuba.	eng
32969	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Deeply eroded limestone mountains.	eng
32970	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba.	eng
32970	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree known only from montane rainforest. It occurs mainly along creeks and watercourses.	eng
32971	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Pinar del Río Province and in the mountain ranges of south-central Cuba.	eng
32971	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A very rare tree, up to 10 m high, occurring in montane rainforest.	eng
32971	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Its habitat is degraded in places and the species seems particularly vulnerable to ecological impact.	eng
32972	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in coastal and subcoastal areas of eastern and south-central Cuba.	eng
32972	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry evergreen forest.	eng
32972	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very uncommon tree.	eng
32972	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The dry evergreen forests where this species thrives have experienced severe degradation in many places.	eng
32973	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic shrub or small tree confined to coastal thickets and dry evergreen forest.	eng
32973	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This very rare species has suffered from severe coastal habitat destruction throughout its range.	eng
32974	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Pinar del Río and the Isla de Pinos. The accepted genus of the taxon is now <em>Gordonia</em>.	eng
32974	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A very uncommon tree, up to 15 m tall, occurring in lowland and hill semi-deciduous forest.	eng
32974	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The area is under constant pressure from cutting and clearing.	eng
32975	conservation	Farjon, A., 2006	Since 2001 there has been an official Brazilian ban on log exports of this species. The Brazilian Government is also promotong several initiatives to protect Araucaria genetic resources.	eng
32975	distribution	Farjon, A., 2006	It occurs in southeastern Brazil (primarily in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande Do Sul, and locally in São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio De Janeiro) and adjacent areas of Argentina (Misiones) and Paraguay. Found at an altitude of 500-1,800 m in Brazil and 500-2,300 m in the adjoining countries.	eng
32975	habitat	Farjon, A., 2006	Grows in subtropical forest on acidic soils. Araucaria is usually dioecious, rarely monoecious and like other conifers is wind pollinated. pollen maturation and pollination in Brazil occur from August through October. The seed cones begin to mature two years after pollination, and the complete cycle from primitive carpel to seed takes about four years. Young trees begin to set seed between 12 and 15 years of age. Seeds are dispersed between May and August. The species appears to be able to regenerate fairly quickly.	eng
32975	population	Farjon, A., 2006	Although an abundant species, it has undergone continuous decline in the extent of its occurrence through logging. The original extent of Araucaria forest, estimated at 200,000 km², is believed to have declined by more than 97% in the last century.  In Rio Grande do Sul, for instance, the forest area, over half of which was made up of <em>Araucaria</em>, has plummeted from 40% land cover to 3% today. Araucaria forest in Sâo Paulo covers 4.3% of its original area. The Paraguay population is small and confined to Alto Paraná. Seeding trees are scarce. Small relict populations, covering less than 1,000 ha, in north-east Misiones, Argentina, are all that remain of the forest that in 1960 covered 210,000 ha. The species is included on the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.	eng
32975	threats	Farjon, A., 2006	Paraná pine is the most important timber species in Brazil. In addition to the massive exploitation for timber, 3,400 tonnes per annum of fruit and seeds are collected for human consumption. Loss of habitat for planting other agricultural crops (wheat, soya and corn) is also a threat.	eng
32976	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-east Brazil.	eng
32976	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This pioneer species is found in rainforest, dry forest and cerrado.	eng
32976	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This region is threatened by encroaching agriculture, ranching and charcoal production, which is causing a decline in this species.	eng
32977	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	The species' distribution is contained within an area extending from northern Argentina into Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia.	eng
32977	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Seasonally dry forest.	eng
32977	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The habitat is unprotected and in decline because of logging and encroaching agriculture and pastoralism. The species is sought-after as a source of timber. In Bolivia it is one of several species, native to semi-deciduous forest in eastern Santa Cruz, which are experiencing increased logging pressure.	eng
32978	conservation	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Several localities are protected and the species occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
32978	distribution	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	The largest subpopulations occur in south Paraná and north Santa Catarina, where the species occurs in almost pure stands. Suggestions that subpopulations exist in Argentina and Paraguay need verification.	eng
32978	habitat	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	One of the dominant species of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, also occurring in various other habitat types.	eng
32978	threats	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Although present in large numbers, the species is slow-growing and declining in numbers through timber exploitation. In rates of extraction, the species is second only to Paraná pine.	eng
32979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-east Brazil.	eng
32979	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Common on hillsides, this shrubby tree is found on caatinga.	eng
32979	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is slowly declining as a result of exploitation for timber and fuel.	eng
32980	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Brazil, from Minas Gerais to Paraná.	eng
32980	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species grows in highland dry forests.	eng
32980	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fairly widespread.	eng
32980	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation in this region has been severe.	eng
32981	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in east Minas Gerais, north Espírito Santo to the south of Bahia.	eng
32981	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
32981	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been in decline through forest conversion for agriculture, livestock and plantation projects. In addition, it is exploited for the valuable boleira wood.	eng
32982	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Plantations have been set up, but the demand for leaves is still, apparently, greater than the supply from cultivated stands.	eng
32982	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the subtropical and temperate regions of South America.	eng
32982	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree of mixed <em>Araucaria</em> forest.	eng
32982	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	For centuries the leaves have been used to make a tonic and stimulant drink. The rates of exploitation, in some areas, are believed to have caused a significant decline in population numbers.	eng
32983	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat of this species has been greatly reduced because of massive forest conversion over the last century for agriculture, livestock and plantations. The heavy, decay-resistant wood is of commercial value and the last stands are gradually being cut down.	eng
32984	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread in Brazil.	eng
32984	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is confined to cerrados.	eng
32984	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has suffered from habitat conversion for agriculture. In addition, exploitation of its excellent quality timber and medicinal seeds has led to massive declines in population numbers.	eng
32985	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	t is found in a number of protected areas and it is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA. Listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
32985	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	The highest concentrations of the species are located in southern Bahia and northern Espírito Santo.	eng
32985	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	Hygrophilous forest on rich soils.	eng
32985	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Brazilian rosewood is one of the most highly prized woods in Brazil. The timber has been harvested since colonial times for high-quality furniture and musical instruments. Rates of deforestation are great. Regeneration appears to be poor, possibly because of seed predation by rodents.	eng
32986	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	There are various subpopulations in protected areas and on protected corporate properties.  There have been relatively few successes at establishing plantations. The sustainable harvesting of nuts by indigenous people in extractive forest reserves offers the most promising protection for the remaining natural stands.	eng
32986	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Large natural stands still exist in northern Bolivia and the species is locally abundant in Suriname.	eng
32986	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A widely occurring emergent of the Amazonian forest.	eng
32986	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The Brazil nut tree has experienced major declines in its population because of deforestation.  One of the greatest concentrations of trees exists in Tocantins valley where various activities, from the construction of the trans-amazon railway to the building of a reservoir, have brought about a shrinking in the gene pool.  An area of 200,000 ha in south Pará has been purchased by the government with the aim of settling landless farmers. Trees remaining in the vast cattle ranches of Pará and Acre are neglected and dying.  The production of Brazil nuts more than halved between 1970 and 1980, apparently because of deforestation. Almost all Brazil nuts consumed around the world still come from wild trees. Little is known about the impact of seed gathering on regeneration, but it clearly can be detrimental under some regimes where agoutis, the natural disperser of the Brazil nut, are hunted or chased away.	eng
32987	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Occurs along the banks of the Paraná and Uruguay River systems. The genus is under taxonomic review.	eng
32987	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Lowland forest along river bank. It also extends into cerrado forest.	eng
32987	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A common species. The species has become scarce in places but it is still reported to occur in abundance in a large part of its range.	eng
32987	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Overexploitation of the timber and deforestation.	eng
32989	distribution	Llamozas, S., 1998	Colonising land after substantial disturbances, the species occurs in large, almost monodominant stands. In many areas these have been drastically reduced, the largest now remaining in regions of Santa Cruz, Bolivia.	eng
32989	habitat	Llamozas, S., 1998	Montane forest, occurring between 800 and 3,400 m.	eng
32990	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species' distribution is disjunct, ranging from north and central Ecuador to Ayacucho in Peru. Occurrences in Colombia and Bolivia are based on taxonomic misconceptions.	eng
32990	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees occur in small stands, pure or mixed with other <em>Polylepis</em> species, above 3,300 m.	eng
32990	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In all parts of the range the forests are severely affected by burning, as well as cutting for firewood and charcoal production. Commercial logging of this species, along with <em>P. weberbaueri</em>, has taken place within the boundaries of Huascarán National Park. The destruction of <em>Polylepis</em> forest in Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Cuzco has been particularly thorough.	eng
32991	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in northern Ecuador and in small areas of eastern central and south Peru.	eng
32991	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tallest of the <em>Polylepis</em> species. It is restricted to remaining small areas of mixed montane forest between 1,800 and 3,600 m.	eng
32991	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is threatened mainly by fires, which are lit to support grazing and which frequently encroach upon forested areas.	eng
32992	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, confined to a series of localities stretching along the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real from south-east Peru to north-east Bolivia.	eng
32992	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the transition zone between humid montane forests and puna grasslands.	eng
32992	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
32992	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its habitat is highly vulnerable to local activities, especially the fires which are induced to support grazing and which frequently encroach upon forested areas.	eng
32993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The distribution of this species is disjunct. Occurs in central and south-west Ecuador, and in Peru in the north-west and further south in the Cordillera Blanca and Cuzco-Apurimac area.	eng
32993	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations occur in humid montane forest above 3,000 m.  Both this species and <em>P. incana</em> are being logged inside Huascarán National Park.	eng
32993	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest covering 20 km² in Cuzco was completely destroyed by burning two years ago. Remaining stands are almost exclusively reduced to boulder-scree, stream ravines and rock ledges, where they are sheltered from most fires.	eng
32993	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is particularly sensitive to burning.	eng
32994	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Through most of its range it is well protected in Soberanía and Chagres National Parks and in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve.	eng
32994	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in various sites in Panama, nowhere very common. Outside protected areas it has been reported just once, from the province of Veraguas.	eng
32994	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
32996	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species has been treated as a synonym of <em>P. chihuahuana</em>. It is a timber tree confined to just two sites in Nuevo León.	eng
32996	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane forest near streams.	eng
32996	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Timber has been extracted in recent years in the larger of the two populations. The other population has fewer than 15 individuals	eng
32996	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fire is the main threat.	eng
32998	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the only mango species and one of the few tropical fruit trees that can grow at high altitudes, up to 1,700 m. It grows in wet evergreen forest in mountainous areas.	eng
33001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is some dispute over the wild origins of this species, but it is generally believed to be the more restricted in range of the two members of the genus. Wild populations are recorded in Son La in Viet Nam and in Myanmar.	eng
33001	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen broadleaved forest from low to medium elevation.	eng
33002	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species appears to be endemic to Isaurian Taurus.	eng
33003	distribution	Güner, A., 1998	Endemic to a small area in Babadag, near Fethiye in Mugla.	eng
33003	habitat	Güner, A., 1998	A tree of montane scrub.	eng
33004	habitat	Güner, A., 1998	A species of montane areas.	eng
33005	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species which occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest, mainly on coastal hills and inland ridges.	eng
33006	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species scattered in semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33006	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Regeneration is poor.	eng
33007	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Recently <em>D. philippinensis</em> has been discovered to be conspecific.	eng
33007	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	In Indo-China and Thailand the species occurs gregariously along river banks, and in the Philippines it is found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33007	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss.	eng
33007	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33008	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species found scattered in the greatly reduced lowland evergreen forests of South East Asia.	eng
33008	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
33008	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
33009	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree endemic to the Western Ghats, occurring principally in Kerala, with one or two occurrences extending into Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.	eng
33009	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
33010	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Populations are found within reserves.	eng
33010	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Natural hybrids are formed with <em>D. obtusifolius</em> in Thailand and with <em>D. gracilis</em> in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
33010	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is widely scattered in lowland, hill and upper dipterocarp forest.	eng
33011	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree of semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and <em>Schima</em>/bamboo forest.	eng
33011	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.	eng
33011	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33012	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to exist within reserves.	eng
33012	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relict species of the Pleistocene Sundaland, occurring in primary semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33012	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status of the species is based on rates of habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33012	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Substantial amounts of keruing timber and also large quantities of oleo-resin are harvested.	eng
33013	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species which is locally common in lowland semi-evergreen and evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33016	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are protected in reserves.	eng
33016	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree found in mixed deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.	eng
33016	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based on the rate of habitat loss.	eng
33016	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33017	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Collected only once from a site near Kudremukh.	eng
33017	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
33018	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to the southern end of the Western Ghats. The most northerly occurrence is recorded in the Nilgiri Hills, the most southerly in the Agastyamalai range.	eng
33018	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	The species has been collected from scattered localities in low to medium altitude evergreen forest.	eng
33019	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to occur within forest reserves.	eng
33019	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is locally common on leached soils.	eng
33020	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is very rare and restricted in range.	eng
33021	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to the south-west, the species is common and has a relatively wide distribution.	eng
33021	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Evergreen, semi-deciduous and deciduous moist forest from sea level to about 900 m.	eng
33021	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It appears to be regenerating well in the wild.	eng
33022	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is known from scarce and scattered collections from the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
33022	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
33023	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Thenmala and the Silent Valley in Kerala, and in Tirunelveli and Courtallam in Tamil Nadu.	eng
33023	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This slow-growing species is restricted to a small area of semi-evergreen forest, usually near large rivers.	eng
33023	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It regenerates copiously around the parent tree.	eng
33024	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It can occur frequently and regeneration is observed to be good.	eng
33026	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations of the species occur in some forest reserves.	eng
33026	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree found on well-drained soil in coastal areas.	eng
33028	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in forest reserves.	eng
33028	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread dipterocarp, unusual for its adaptation to withstand adverse climatic conditions and soil types. It occurs in dry evergreen or deciduous forest and bamboo forest, often on sandy soils.	eng
33028	population	Ashton, P., 1998	In India, there are healthy regenerating subpopulations in the south.	eng
33029	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are contained in forest reserves. Trees are being planted on a small scale.	eng
33029	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A slow-growing species, found primarily in the west coast evergreen forests, and also occasionally in secondary evergreen dipterocarp forest in the south.	eng
33029	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Few healthy populations remain. Regeneration is said to be good where allowed.	eng
33029	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The timber has been overexploited, particularly for the plywood industry. Loss of habitat and other human activities have also contributed to population declines.	eng
33030	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	No records were made during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct in Sri Lanka. In India, it is scattered in the Western Ghats.	eng
33030	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Evergreen rainforest, often occurring in patches near freshwater swamps and rivers.	eng
33031	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.	eng
33031	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations in Bangladesh and Myanmar are more localised than elsewhere.	eng
33031	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is scattered in moist forest.	eng
33032	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Dry forest and woodland.	eng
33032	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A widespread species which has declined in population numbers.	eng
33032	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Exploitation of the timber for the international market.	eng
33033	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A widespread rainforest species.	eng
33033	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is heavily exploited throughout its range for its valuable timber. In some areas there are reported to be few seed trees remaining.	eng
33034	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A rainforest species.	eng
33034	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Heavily exploited for its commercial timber. Relatively few seed trees remain throughout its range.	eng
33035	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A widespread and often common timber species which has suffered heavy exploitation. Mature individuals are scattered and becoming rare in places.	eng
33035	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Timber exploitation.	eng
33036	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A timber species which occurs in some abundance especially in wetter evergreen forest.	eng
33036	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Habitat loss and exploitation are serious threats in most places. Seeds have poor viability and regeneration has been observed to be poor.	eng
33037	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Scattered throughout semi-deciduous forests in tropical Africa.	eng
33037	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Emergent species in semi-deciduous forests.  It regenerates in canopy gaps.  It performs less well in burnt or heavily disturbed forests.	eng
33037	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Heavily exploited for its timber.	eng
33038	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Rainforest.	eng
33038	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A relatively rare rainforest species.	eng
33038	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Heavy exploitation for the timber is the main cause of its decline.	eng
33039	conservation	White, L., 1998	Minimum exploitable diameters have been set in several countries, these should be enforced where possible. Better protection and prevention of illegal logging in protected areas may ensure the future survival of this species.	eng
33039	distribution	White, L., 1998	<em>Baillonella</em> is a monotypic genus endemic to the Guinea-Congolian Regional Centre of Endemism.	eng
33039	habitat	White, L., 1998	Moabi is restricted to areas of primary evergreen and old secondary lowland rainforest, 0–500 m alt. Maturation rates are slow: 90–100 years, and regeneration occurs only under a closed canopy.	eng
33039	threats	White, L., 1998	The species is overexploited for its timber and is seriously declining in large parts of its range. It is the second most important exported wood in Gabon. Amongst other local uses the tree produces edible oil which can fetch high market prices.	eng
33041	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	An Upper Guinea endemic.	eng
33041	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Most abundant in moist evergreen forests.	eng
33041	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It can occur commonly and regeneration appears to be good.	eng
33041	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Exploitation of the timber, as well as habitat loss, throughout its range are causing population declines.	eng
33042	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A widespread timber species which occurs in closed forests and secondary formations.   It regenerates well after disturbance.	eng
33042	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It appears to be less common and more seriously threatened in the eastern parts of its range.	eng
33042	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Large-scale exploitation, as well as declines in the extent of the habitat, is occurring throughout its range.	eng
33043	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A timber species occurring in closed forest and secondary formations. It regenerates well in disturbed  forest; e.g., along logging roads.	eng
33043	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Exploitation is moderate and the current threatened status of the species should be kept under review.	eng
33044	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is uncommon in lowland and hill forest.	eng
33045	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A protected population is contained within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
33045	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
33045	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Moist forest up to an altitude of 1,060 m.	eng
33046	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A few localities are known in southernmost Somalia and from the Tana River in Kenya, where it can be locally dominant. It also extends into north-east Tanzania.	eng
33046	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A tree of riverine or groundwater forest, extending into periodically flooded bushland.	eng
33046	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is reduced and degraded through overcutting. The timber of this species is used for construction work.	eng
33047	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population in the Marsabit National Reserve is protected. The species is also being propagated as part of the Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya.	eng
33047	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to small localities near Meru and Marsabit.	eng
33047	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A buttressed tree of upland moist evergreen forest.	eng
33048	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33048	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Virtually all large trees of this species have been felled for the ebony wood, except perhaps in the most remote parts of its range.	eng
33049	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are protected populations and felling limits in various countries.	eng
33049	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	One of the main sources of African mahogany. The commercial exploitation of this timber species has resulted in the large-scale extraction of mature individuals throughout its range. Significant genetic erosion has been reported in some countries. It has the potential to occur commonly and regenerates well after logging damage but not after burning. The seed does not appear to disperse over great distances and regeneration is poor away from parent trees. A slow-growing species.	eng
33050	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are protected populations and felling limits in various countries.	eng
33050	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	One of the major sources of African mahogany. The species is widespread and heavily exploited throughout its range.	eng
33050	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Subpopulation densities are comparatively low and seed production is erratic, but regeneration appears to be good where parent trees remain and may also occur to some degree after burning.	eng
33051	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are protected subpopulations and felling limits in various countries.	eng
33051	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is scattered in semi-deciduous forests. In comparison with other species of <em>Entandrophragma</em>, this species can occur in drier habitats, including abandoned fields, but it does not respond well to burning.	eng
33051	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A major source of African hardwood. Growth rates are amongst the slowest in the genus.	eng
33051	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploited heavily throughout its range. Genetic erosion caused by the large-scale depletion of mature individuals from populations has taken place in some countries.	eng
33052	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Endemic to the Guineo-Congolian region.	eng
33052	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It grows in mature little-disturbed lowland rainforest.	eng
33052	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	This timber species is declining in population numbers. In the main Democratic Republic of Congo/Nigeria forest block it is generally rare or absent.	eng
33052	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Heavy exploitation and habitat loss.	eng
33053	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Different forest types, from closed rainforest to drier semi-deciduous forest.	eng
33053	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A West African timber which occurs in moderate densities.	eng
33053	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Exploitation rates of the wood are high and causing population declines. The timber acts as a popular substitute for rosewood.	eng
33054	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species can be found in state parks.	eng
33054	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Perak, Penang, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.	eng
33054	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in lowland, submontane and hill rainforests.	eng
33055	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tropical evergreen rainforest is the optimal habitat for this species. However, it occurs also in gallery forest and semi-deciduous forest and is often found in towns or on the outskirts of villages. It is restricted to fairly wet, well-drained loamy to clayey soils.	eng
33055	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Population numbers have declined through logging operations, the expansion of human settlements and poor natural regeneration.	eng
33056	conservation	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Improved protection and management (e.g., felling regimes) of existing forest reserves is required.	eng
33056	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Azobé is a pioneer species and occurs abundantly in wet evergreen forest.	eng
33056	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	In Cameroon it is common, widespread and regenerates easily in many areas and does not appear threatened, however, this is evidently not the case in other parts of its range.	eng
33056	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Wet evergreen forest continues to experience large-scale destruction. Slow growth rate, poor regeneration in less than optimum conditions and over exploitation as a timber species are contributing to the decline in population numbers through most of its range. Its timber, Azobe, rich in silica, is resistant to marine borer and favoured for use in jetties.	eng
33057	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	African walnut or dibetou occurs in evergreen and deciduous forest, generally in moist sites. Regeneration occurs only in canopy gaps.	eng
33057	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Germination success is somewhat limited by short-lived seeds which are heavily predated. Exploitation rates are high. It is one of the two principal timber species in Congo.	eng
33058	conservation	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Good management of lowland production forest reserves should ensure the survival of this species.	eng
33058	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, up to 800 m altitude (in Cameroon at least)	eng
33058	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A widespread species which is found in low densities in the wild.	eng
33058	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is heavily exploited for its timber, which is used in general construction work. Regeneration is good in large canopy gaps but the species is outcompeted by other pioneers after clear-felling.	eng
33059	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A timber species occurring in forest areas in West and Central Africa.	eng
33059	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is much rarer than, but commonly confused with, <em>P. macrocarpa</em>.	eng
33059	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species appears to be suffering declines because of levels of exploitation through most of  its range.	eng
33060	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A common tree of dry forests.	eng
33060	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Regeneration is reported to be abundant in areas of logging damage.	eng
33060	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploitation for the timber occurs at high levels throughout its range and is likely to be causing population declines.	eng
33061	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Widespread in closed forests in West and Central Africa.	eng
33061	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Although widespread, the species is not common.	eng
33061	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is exploited at a moderate level as a decorative timber. There is also evidence that regeneration may be hampered in places by the absence of its seed disperser, the elephant.	eng
33062	conservation	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Attempts at plantation growth have generally failed through frequent diebacks.	eng
33062	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Remaining forest areas. Apparently adult trees are common along roadsides.	eng
33062	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A West African timber species found scattered in low densities.	eng
33062	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploitation is moderate. Poor regeneration is often attributed to crop failure.	eng
33063	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	There are only two species in the genus.	eng
33063	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	An important timber species found mainly in wet evergreen rainforest.	eng
33063	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Overexploitation in some countries is leading to serious population declines, notably in Ghana and in Liberia, where there is a possibility of the species becoming extinct. Regeneration may also be limited in parts of its range because of the reduction in elephant numbers and other seed dispersers.	eng
33064	conservation	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The tree is sometimes planted on farmland.	eng
33064	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A monotypic genus endemic to the Guineo-Congolian regional center of endemism.	eng
33064	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The species is commonly found in moist semi-deciduous forest, often in poorly drained places.	eng
33064	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Regeneration appears to be sufficient.	eng
33064	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is exploited at moderate levels for its timber and is becoming rare in places.	eng
33065	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Recorded in a number of proposed reserve sites.	eng
33065	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A timber tree which is widespread.	eng
33065	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Land conversion and destruction over the past century.	eng
33066	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed peat-swamp forest and heath forest.	eng
33067	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree scattered throughout mixed dipterocarp forest on well-drained soil.	eng
33067	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The habitat has been widely cleared and destroyed.	eng
33068	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations occur within reserves.	eng
33068	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	On giant podzols and poor sandy soils, often near the coast and in lowland heath forest.	eng
33068	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that is locally common.	eng
33069	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Recorded within some reserves.	eng
33069	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is restricted to sandy low hills.	eng
33069	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It is widespread but populations are localised.	eng
33069	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Declining habitat.	eng
33070	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
33071	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland subspecies found on well-drained land in humid areas.	eng
33072	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status of this species is based on the rate of habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33072	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33073	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based upon the rate of habitat loss.	eng
33073	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33074	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of secondary and primary forest and freshwater swamp forest.	eng
33074	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.	eng
33074	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33075	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species with a localised distribution in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached clay soils.	eng
33076	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status is based on rates of habitat loss.	eng
33076	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33077	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species are found in forest reserve.	eng
33077	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree which is an important source of keruing timber.	eng
33079	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are found within forest reserves.	eng
33079	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree which occurs locally in dry forest on coastal hills.	eng
33080	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species occurs in both primary and secondary forest, especially along rivers and in freshwater swamps.	eng
33081	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree restricted to shallow acidic soils.	eng
33082	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
33082	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Widespread on coastal hills and inland ridges.	eng
33083	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is also contained within a number of forest reserves in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
33083	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Scattered throughout lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33084	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This variety is found growing in the evergreen and semi-evergreen dipterocarp forests. The species, as a whole, represents the only dipterocarp which readily reinvades cultivated land.	eng
33084	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status of the species is based upon the rate of habitat loss.	eng
33085	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland subspecies found locally in permanently wet zones.	eng
33086	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Sabah.	eng
33086	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on low coastal hills.	eng
33087	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Philippines.	eng
33087	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread species in the greatly diminished evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.	eng
33088	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of primary lowland forest.	eng
33088	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Seriously threatened by the loss of its habitat.	eng
33089	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Restricted to north-east Luzon.	eng
33089	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland primary forest.	eng
33089	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A locally abundant species.	eng
33089	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
33090	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread and locally common species.	eng
33091	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland primary forest.	eng
33091	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species may already be extinct.	eng
33092	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Philippines.	eng
33092	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Non-seasonal evergreen forest.	eng
33092	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
33093	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species which is locally common in lowland semi-evergreen forest.	eng
33094	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Proposed reserves occur within the range of this species.	eng
33094	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33095	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia the species is reported in several forest reserves.	eng
33095	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small dipterocarp, which is found mainly in lowland evergreen rainforest on sandy soils, and also in heath forest in parts of Indo-China.	eng
33095	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Populations in Cambodia are seriously reduced by past chemical warfare, exploitation and habitat reduction.	eng
33096	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	The preferred habitat of the species is semi-evergreen forest and sometimes evergreen forest.	eng
33096	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is one of the most popular timbers for heavy construction work in the Philippines.	eng
33097	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	This threatened species is located in a proposed reserve site.	eng
33097	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A very large dipterocarp tree of lowland primary forest.	eng
33097	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Used as white seraya timber and is the most important commercial timber of northern Borneo.	eng
33098	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on hills.	eng
33099	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	An area of forest covering about 50-60,000 ha in different types of peat swamp communities in Brunei may now contain the largest remaining undisturbed stand.	eng
33099	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large timber tree restricted to Brunei, Sarawak and West Kalimantan.	eng
33099	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	It is a characteristic component of the threatened peat-swamp forests, sometimes occurring locally on podzolic soils in heath forest.	eng
33099	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Peat-swamp forests are seriously threatened.  Regeneration is reported to be non-existent.	eng
33100	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree, found on hills in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33103	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Common tree of peat-swamp forest.	eng
33104	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree grows on yellow sandy loam on undulating land and ridges.	eng
33105	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found mostly on well-drained lowland coastal hills.	eng
33105	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is heavily exploited for white meranti timber, especially in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
33106	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations also occur in forest reserves.	eng
33106	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33107	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An endemic tree species of the Philippines.	eng
33107	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland primary evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33107	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
33108	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33108	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This large tree is found in the ever-decreasing lowland seasonal semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33108	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is suffering from exploitation for the light red meranti (or white lauan) timber.	eng
33109	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An endemic tree of Sarawak.	eng
33109	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33109	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
33111	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest on well-drained land and is cut for light red meranti timber.	eng
33112	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from some forest reserves.	eng
33112	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree locally distributed on deep yellow sandy soils and coastal hills.	eng
33112	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is often cut for dark red meranti timber. The tree is slow-growing and directly threatened by logging because it cannot reach reproductive maturity within a cutting cycle.	eng
33113	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A semi-gregarious species that is found on rocky hillsides and ridges.	eng
33114	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
33115	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	In Sarawak trees are protected for the illipe nuts.	eng
33115	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species found on leached sandy soils and in shallow peat-swamp.	eng
33116	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree often found along streams on clay-rich soils.	eng
33117	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This large tree is found in semi-evergreen and evergreen lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
33117	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree produces a good-quality resin (damar temak), which, in the past, was tapped commercially. The wood is used as white meranti timber.	eng
33118	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of the dwindling mixed peat-swamp forests.	eng
33118	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by logging for its valuable construction timber, semayur. It is unlikely to survive logging because trees are slow-growing and do not reach reproductive maturity within a logging cycle.	eng
33119	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	It produces a high-grade light red meranti timber and for this reason it is a priority plantation tree in Indonesia.	eng
33119	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lofty tree that occurs locally on well-drained soils at low altitude.	eng
33120	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.	eng
33120	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree specific to leached sandy clay soils.	eng
33120	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Felled for its valued red balau or red meranti timber.	eng
33122	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species occurs in some forest reserves.	eng
33122	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
33123	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is still found, sometimes in forest reserves.	eng
33123	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Has suffered a massive population reduction mainly because of the rates of exploitation of its light red meranti timber.	eng
33124	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sumatra and northern Borneo.	eng
33124	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An enormous tree of the declining mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33124	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is felled for yellow meranti timber.	eng
33126	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of this tree occur in forest reserves.	eng
33127	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some trees are found in forest reserves.	eng
33127	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	One of the main balau timber trees, occurring locally in some abundance on low ridges.	eng
33129	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread subspecies.	eng
33129	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33130	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies occurs in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33131	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in primary forest reserves.	eng
33131	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to northern Borneo.	eng
33131	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is restricted to lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33132	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is possibly the most common dipterocarp in Malesia.	eng
33132	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is heavily exploited as the main source of light red meranti timber in South East Asia.	eng
33133	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.	eng
33133	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is possibly the most common dipterocarp in Malesia.	eng
33133	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is heavily exploited as the main source of light red meranti timber in South East Asia.	eng
33134	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An immense tree of lowland and hill forest on well-drained soils.	eng
33134	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is exploited for its valuable dark red meranti timber.	eng
33135	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A timber tree specific to mixed peat-swamp forest.	eng
33136	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are found in primary forest reserves.	eng
33136	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species found in hilly and mountainous areas on deep fertile soils.	eng
33137	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Protected under the Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).	eng
33137	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A fairly large riverine tree, often occurring in patches in lowland areas.	eng
33138	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations are found in some forest reserves.	eng
33138	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of lowland areas.	eng
33138	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by rates of exploitation. It is the major source of light red meranti timber for north-east Borneo.	eng
33139	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of mixed peat-swamp forest.	eng
33140	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally abundant in mixed peat-swamp forest.	eng
33141	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded in some forest reserves.	eng
33141	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33141	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs in the remaining hill evergreen mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
33141	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is heavily exploited as the most important red meranti timber in the country.	eng
33143	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree that is found throughout the Philippines.	eng
33143	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Well-drained soils in what is left of the evergreen mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33144	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Philippines.	eng
33144	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large, often gregarious, tree that occurs in the remaining lowland seasonal and evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33145	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Philippines.	eng
33145	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species occurs in non-seasonal evergreen forest.	eng
33145	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is now very nearly extinct because of habitat loss.	eng
33146	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to the south-west Moluccas.	eng
33146	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This large tree, often the dominant species, occurs in lowland forest.	eng
33148	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A monotypic genus which is endemic to Borneo.	eng
33148	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It is a slow-growing species but regenerates well in the wild.	eng
33149	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A locally abundant lowland tree.	eng
33150	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Northern Borneo and the Philippines.	eng
33150	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	tree, often occurring on ridges, which is restricted to non-seasonal forest.	eng
33151	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Locally common in freshwater swamps and on river banks.	eng
33154	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species hybridizes with the closely related <em>V. umbonata</em>.	eng
33154	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small dipterocarp which is scattered in lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
33155	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A Malayan species, widely distributed from Peninsular Malaysia (Pahang, Tranganu) to Borneo (type locality) and the Philippines (Palawan).	eng
33155	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Common on river banks, but scattered on hillsides up to 1,300 m.	eng
33156	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Distribution is unknown.	eng
33157	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Eastern Luzon and Polillo.	eng
33157	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is restricted to very low-altitude evergreen dipterocarp forest.	eng
33158	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Eastern Sumatra and Bangka.	eng
33158	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in mixed swamp forest.	eng
33159	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Eastern Sumatra.	eng
33159	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found below 70 m on sandy soils on low hills.	eng
33160	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
33161	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A commercially important timber tree, which is commonly traded in isolation from other members of the genus under the name 'malut'.	eng
33162	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is recorded in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33163	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Distributed within Borneo.	eng
33163	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This locally abundant tree occurs on leached sandy soils, sometimes in periodically inundated areas or along streams.	eng
33164	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are known to occur within forest reserves.	eng
33164	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The conservation status of this tree is based upon the rate of habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33164	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33166	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur within reserves.	eng
33166	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of semi-evergreen dipterocarp, evergreen and humid lowland forest.	eng
33166	population	Ashton, P., 1998	In some areas it is an exceptionally rare tree; in the Philippines only a single collection exists.	eng
33166	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs on premium land for conversion to agriculture.	eng
33167	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found in heath forest.	eng
33167	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Severely threatened by habitat conversion and degradation.	eng
33168	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some trees are found in primary forest reserves.	eng
33168	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small dipterocarp, unusual for its ability to flourish in exposed areas, occurring on rocky, dry land and in bamboo forests.	eng
33170	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurrences in Kenya are recorded from the Shimba Hills, Buda and Witu. It is known from a number of forest reserves in Tanzania and is apparently newly found in Somalia in the Jubbada Hoose region.	eng
33170	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or tree confined to remaining patches of forest.	eng
33170	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The demand for agricultural land exerts heavy pressure throughout the range.	eng
33173	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest management operations are now discouraging any illegal encroachment or exploitation.	eng
33173	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The range of the species now appears to be confined to undisturbed areas within the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
33173	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Activities in the past resulting from logging and planting commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection have caused extensive damage to the forest.	eng
33174	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	In Kenya this small tree occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve and Buda Mafisini Forest Reserve. More information is needed on the populations in Zaraninge Forest in Bagamoyo and in Mrora forest on Mafia Island, Tanzania.	eng
33174	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
33174	threats	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Habitat loss and degradation has caused population declines.	eng
33180	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A small tree which occurs in lowland to lower montane rainforest up to 1,220 m, sometimes in swamp forest.	eng
33180	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It is exploited throughout its range as one of the best 'bintangor' timbers. The tree has many other uses; bark, roots and latex are used in local medicine and the fruit is edible.	eng
33182	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
33182	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in secondary forest, especially on periodically flooded sandy alluvium.	eng
33182	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is locally common.	eng
33182	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An important source of kedondong timber used in house construction.	eng
33183	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs at high densities in a number of forest reserves.	eng
33183	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Liberia.	eng
33183	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest timber species.	eng
33184	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Gabon, and neighbouring Congo. The Cameroon occurrence is doubtful.	eng
33184	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A speciality timber tree, restricted to areas of coastal forest.	eng
33184	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in many places are small and scattered, with less than one individual per km². Logging is currently not heavy and populations appear to be stable in areas of Gabon.	eng
33185	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kribi, Ebolowa and Bipindi in Cameroon and Ogoue and Njole in Gabon.	eng
33185	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large canopy timber tree found in abundance in lowland rainforest.	eng
33185	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The rates of harvesting of the timber are a primary concern throughout its range. Agricultural encroachment upon the habitat is also common.	eng
33186	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively restricted in range, this species occurs in the south of Cameroon on the border with Equatorial Guinea and north of the Ogooué River in Gabon.	eng
33186	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
33186	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both subpopulations are threatened because of the extent of felling and degradation of the habitat.	eng
33187	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species ranges from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
33187	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to wet evergreen and swampy forest.	eng
33187	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs commonly in parts of its range.	eng
33187	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The effects of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities have caused significant losses in the extent of its occurrence.	eng
33188	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declared a protected tree in Namibia.	eng
33188	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The dominant species of lowland tropical forest on Kalahari sands.	eng
33188	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland tropical forest.	eng
33188	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forests are now degraded and considerably diminished because of increased logging over the last 50 years. Older individuals are also scarce. However, the range of the species has declined fractionally as it can regenerate in modified habitat types and also coppices well.	eng
33188	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging.  Killed by frequent fires in Namibia.	eng
33189	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A timber species with a wide distribution. There are only two species in the genus.	eng
33189	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33189	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	No direct information is available on population declines but levels of exploitation are moderate. In much of West Africa habitat degradation is also a problem.	eng
33190	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are attempts to exploit remaining stands sustainably or at least in a regulated way.	eng
33190	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A key timber species throughout its distribution in woodland areas of East and Southern Africa.	eng
33190	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large stands are known to still occur in places, particularly in protected areas in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. Regeneration is sufficient but may be episodic, depending on fire or high rainfall. Individuals are reproductively mature at 15-20 years old.	eng
33190	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In most regions, however, the species has become less frequent, especially where it is heavily used by local populations. In most parts of the range there is no control over the rate of harvesting. Large individuals are reported to be suffering from fungal attack.	eng
33191	conservation	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The species is currently listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
33191	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A timber species, also known as <em> Afrormosia</em>, which provides an important alternative to teak. Found in Central and West Africa.	eng
33191	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	It is a gregarious species, restricted to the drier parts of semi-deciduous forests.	eng
33191	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Since 1948 trade in the timber has soared. Levels of exploitation have been unsustainable in all countries and the species' habitat has declined. Regeneration is insufficient to replace lost subpopulations.	eng
33192	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A slow-growing species scattered on low hills and ridges and temporarily inundated sites.	eng
33192	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The timber is regarded as very valuable locally and, in the past, exploitation has been considerable in the Philippines.	eng
33193	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	In populations on either side of the Dahomey Gap. Occurrence in Cameroon may be incorrect.	eng
33193	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species which can be found in a variety of moist forest formations.	eng
33193	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	General forest loss has been high in all three countries where it is found because of logging, mining, oil exploration and commercial forestry activities.	eng
33195	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Species of  lowland seasonal  forest and thicket	eng
33196	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A widespread tree. It is widely planted, both within and outside its natural range.	eng
33196	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Found on sandy beaches near the coast and sometimes inland on sandy soils up to 200 m altitude.	eng
33196	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The good quality timber is cut in fairly large amounts and is often traded separately as 'beach calophyllum'.	eng
33197	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Scattered below 300 m in primary freshwater swamp forests and hill forests in drier areas.	eng
33197	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	This tree is exploited for its highly valued timber. The heavy, hard wood has a similar fragrance to sandalwood and is often used as a substitute.	eng
33198	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	In Viet Nam, although the species occurs commonly in areas of evergreen rainforest in the north, there has been severe population declines, resulting in the species being Critically Endangered at a national level (CR A1cd).	eng
33198	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Evergreen rainforest.	eng
33198	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Exploitation of the roots for their commercial essence.	eng
33199	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very widespread tree.	eng
33199	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to coastal areas in scrub and occasionally in strand forest behind beaches or in thickets behind mangrove swamps.	eng
33199	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the Papuasian region, a major concern has been the heavy exploitation of the species for native carvings and artifacts for the tourist trade, resulting in the rapid disappearance of many mature trees.	eng
33200	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree.	eng
33200	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in various habitat types, including thickets in logged-over forest.	eng
33200	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is the most important source of geronggang timber.	eng
33201	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland forest.	eng
33202	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Throughout the Philippines.	eng
33202	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree which occurs in primary and secondary forest.	eng
33202	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It provides a useful timber and the fruits are edible and also have a medicinal value.	eng
33203	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Felling of the species is now only allowed by quota but continues illegally.	eng
33203	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found only in central and northern Sulawesi.	eng
33203	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland rainforest.	eng
33203	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been heavily exploited for its fine streaked ebony timber which is used for carving, inlay, furniture and musical instruments. The number of mature trees has declined and large parts of the habitat have been converted to crops.	eng
33206	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A timber tree most often found in rainforests.  In the Philippines it occurs in thickets.	eng
33206	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	This species is a fairly important source of malas timber.	eng
33208	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The trees are protected from cutting in Kalimantan because wild bees often build nests in the branches. It is also protected in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Bill of 1990.	eng
33208	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	There is concern over its conservation status in Sabah.	eng
33208	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	One of the tallest rainforest trees ever reported, reaching up to 85 m, found along rivers and in valleys in lowland primary forest and often in secondary growth.	eng
33208	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	<em>Koompassia</em> timber is currently gaining importance in trade because of the shortage of heavy hardwood timber.	eng
33209	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	It is protected in Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Bill of 1990.	eng
33209	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	This very large tree is found in freshwater peat-swamp forest, usually below 150 m.	eng
33209	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	It is a useful timber species for heavy construction. <em>Koompassia</em> timber is currently gaining importance in trade because of the shortage of heavy hardwood timber.	eng
33210	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species found mainly in lowland rainforest, sometimes in hill and montane forest up to 1,400 m.	eng
33210	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is traded as perupok timber.  In East Kalimantan, a project has selected out the "superior mother trees".	eng
33211	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread throughout India, Indo-China and Malaysia but uncommon in Sabah.	eng
33211	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree grows in ever wet lowland forest, riverine forest, temporarily inundated forest and also on sandy dryland and coral limestone.	eng
33211	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All members of the genus are exploited for perupok timber.	eng
33212	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Peninsular Malaysia has banned export of Jelutong logs.  It is also extensively planted.	eng
33212	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A large timber tree, preferring primary evergreen lowland or hill forest up to 300 m.  It is considered Low Risk - least concern because this species regenerates readily in logged-over forest, it coppices well and it is extremely resistant to girdling.	eng
33212	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Jelutong has long been exploited for timber and latex and the risk of extinction was recognised 60 years ago.	eng
33213	distribution	White, L., 1998	Okoumé occurs abundantly in an area covering west and central Gabon and small areas of neighbouring countries.	eng
33213	threats	White, L., 1998	It continues to be Gabon's most important commercial timber. Repeated felling has led to the deterioration of the gene pool in certain areas. There is some concern as to the long-term status of the species.	eng
33214	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A monotypic genus restricted to small areas in the Usambara Mts., Southern Nguru Mts., Uluguru Mts. and Udzungwa Mts. A population also occurs in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. The nearest relative is a small genus, <em>Brochoneura</em>, in Madagascar.	eng
33214	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Upper moist evergreen forest.	eng
33214	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The timber, used for veneer, has been overexploited in the recent past and habitat degradation has also caused population declines.	eng
33215	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Its distribution in Congo and Cameroon is very limited.	eng
33215	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Izombé is a timber species occurring in areas of primary forest and transitional formations.	eng
33215	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Levels of exploitation are high and have caused population declines.	eng
33216	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Licences are available now only for the exploitation of dead trees.	eng
33216	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The taxonomic validity of the Mulanje cedar is doubtful. It is most likely to represent a variant of <em>W. nodiflora</em>, which occurs in Zimbabwe and South Africa. It is endemic to Mt. Mulanje, a national park, where the timber has been heavily exploited in the past. The genus contains three or four species, endemic to southern Africa.	eng
33216	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mature individuals appear to be dying at a high rate, possibly because of their sensitivity to fires, which have become more frequent. Regeneration, on the other hand, depends on fire and appears to be extremely poor. <em>Pinus patula</em> has become invasive in areas suitable for <em>Widdringtonia</em> colonization.	eng
33217	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread from Arabia to Zimbabwe. Existing populations in the Arabian Peninsula represent a small fragment of  the woodlands that once existed. Outlying populations in Zimbabwe, the Republic of Congo and Malawi are extremely small and threatened.	eng
33217	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is found in mountainous areas on rocky ground, mostly between 1,750 and 2,500 m.	eng
33217	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At lower elevations populations appear to be regenerating extremely poorly, possibly because of climatic changes. Trees continue to be cut for fuelwood and timber at a local level, and in some places also for export. Changing land-use patterns, browsing, particularly by buffalo and elephants, and the increase in plantations of fast-growing exotic species are also contributing to the species' decline.	eng
33218	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A timber species of West and Central Africa.	eng
33218	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It occurs in various forest types, particularly secondary forest.	eng
33218	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploitation is moderate. Little is known about regeneration but it does not appear to be abundant and growth rates are slow.	eng
33219	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A species of central African semi-deciduous, sometimes swampy, forest.	eng
33219	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	In much of its range it is threatened with over exploitation for its decorative timber.	eng
33220	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in the Aegean region on the Greek islands and in Anatolia in Turkey.	eng
33220	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree very similar to <em>Q. coccifera</em>.	eng
33220	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are localised and isolated.	eng
33221	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is also widely planted in gardens and within its native range as part of a conservation initiative.	eng
33221	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring, sometimes commonly throughout the eastern end of the island, Harrington Sound, Walsingham and Abbotts Cliff.	eng
33221	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rocky upland hillsides.	eng
33221	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is under no immediate threat.	eng
33222	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has two forms: forma <em>cuspidata</em> and forma <em>rostrata</em>, both are very common and widespread.	eng
33222	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33223	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and the intervening islands.	eng
33223	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest subspecies.	eng
33223	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is cut for kedondong timber.	eng
33224	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is now the target of a special conservation programme.	eng
33224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Liquidambar forests have been reduced from 63 km² to 13.5 km² since 1945. There is some uncertainty in the taxonomy.	eng
33224	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the land has been converted for agriculture. Trees are cut for firewood and the resin is collected for the production of fixative in the perfume industry.	eng
33225	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree of lowland primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33225	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is strong and durable but difficult to work.	eng
33226	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is extremely rare in Papua New Guinea and occurs only on New Georgia and Choiseul in the Solomon Islands, where it is locally common. This species might eventually be split into several distinct species, as the present species concept might be too wide.	eng
33226	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree occurring in primary forest reaching an altitude of 1,500 m in some areas.	eng
33227	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread.	eng
33227	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.  Trees are frequently spared during habitat clearance because the wood is too hard to cut.	eng
33227	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threatened in some cases at a national level.	eng
33229	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A timber species found on low undulating land and hillsides.	eng
33230	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33230	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33231	habitat	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	A tree of mixed peat-swamp forest. <em>Alstonia</em> spp. Are a fast growing species that readily invades disturbed areas are not considered to be threatened.	eng
33231	threats	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	In some localities stands of palai are suffering from logging and shifting agriculture.   Traded with other members of the genus as 'pulai'  timber.	eng
33232	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been split into three subspecies. Subspecies <em>costata</em> and <em>rubiginosa</em> are both found throughout most of Malaysia.	eng
33233	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable species which has been split into two subspecies (ssp. <em>asperum</em> and ssp. <em>papuanum</em>); subspecies <em>asperum</em> is further divided into two varieties (var. <em>asperum</em> and var. <em>clementis</em>).	eng
33233	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is common and occurs in a wide variety of habitats from dry to wet forest, open forest and savanna.	eng
33233	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees are cut for kedondong timber. It is utilized as a fuelwood and has numerous social uses in the Solomon Islands.	eng
33235	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary lowland forest species.	eng
33235	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the Philippines stands have been depleted by logging and shifting agriculture.	eng
33236	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A species found in seasonally and permanent swamp areas and on river banks at low and medium altitudes.	eng
33236	threats	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The wood is used as 'penarahan' and the nut is used for nutmeg.	eng
33238	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A monotypic genus. Natural regeneration is sparse and scattered, but it can be good under favourable conditions. The tree is slow-growing; taking about 150 years to reach a diameter of 50 cm.	eng
33238	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Found scattered in the understorey, occasionally reaching the canopy, of primary and secondary lowland rainforest, often mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33239	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This monotypic genus is widespread in Malaysia.	eng
33239	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very large dioecious tree reaching up to 75 m in height. A pioneer species, it regenerates quickly in disturbed habitats such as logged-over forest and areas that were previously cultivated.	eng
33239	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is one of the major timbers exported from Papua New Guinea, where it is traded under the name 'crima'. In Malaysia and Indonesia, 'bintuang' trees are favoured by local people for the wild bees nesting in the branches.	eng
33241	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cultivated subpopulations are widely distributed throughout the tropics.	eng
33241	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Viet Nam subpopulation has been extinct for some 300 years. An extensive forest survey in Sri Lanka has failed to find the species and information on subpopulations in India, Indonesia and the Philippines indicate the species is seriously threatened. Exploitation of the few known stands in Peninsular Malaysia may have caused its extinction there and what are believed to be the largest remaining subpopulations, in New Guinea, are being heavily exploited.	eng
33241	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree found in lowland primary and some secondary forest, mainly along tidal creeks and rocky shores.	eng
33241	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations have declined because of overexploitation, sometimes illegal exploitation, of the narra timber, as well as from increasing general habitat loss.	eng
33242	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large evergreen tree found in open semi-deciduous forest.	eng
33242	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used in construction, ship-building, furniture-making and carvings.	eng
33243	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is scattered in swamp forest, peat-swamp forest and kerangas on groundwater podzols.	eng
33243	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Less well-known than the more common <em>D. costata</em>. The risk of extinction from overexploitation was recognised 60 years ago. Populations in Sarawak are considered endangered.	eng
33243	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is traded as jelutong timber and trees are tapped for the valuable latex.	eng
33244	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Papua New Guinea, in the Gulf and Madang Provinces and Bougainville in the North Solomons.	eng
33244	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs mainly in primary forest on the banks of streams and rivers.	eng
33244	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is under great threat from habitat destruction in these areas and is considered to be Endangered. The situation is likely to be similar elsewhere.	eng
33245	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
33246	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
33247	conservation	Nghia, N.H., 1998	It is protected from illegal cutting in Viet Nam and occurs in protected areas.	eng
33247	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A tree widely distributed and scattered in Indo-China.	eng
33247	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Lowland and submontane broadleaved forest.	eng
33247	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	There has been a rapid decline in the number of large trees because of overexploitation of the precious timber.	eng
33248	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	In Viet Nam, it is scattered from Dac Lac to Dong Nai.	eng
33248	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This variety occurs in moist forests up to 1,500 m.	eng
33248	population	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The population has declined.	eng
33248	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Overexpoitation of the timber.	eng
33249	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33249	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33250	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of primary lowland forest.	eng
33251	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of primary and secondary lowland forests.	eng
33251	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is exploited for its timber and edible fruits.	eng
33252	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
33257	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has a large range. It is uncommon in Sabah and Sarawak and of conservation concern in Sabah. It is considered vulnerable in Sri Lanka because it was found in only three localities during the National Conservation Review surveys. It is confined to the remnant lowland rainforests in the south-west.	eng
33257	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found below 100 m in lowland forest.	eng
33258	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Lowland forest species.	eng
33258	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	The timber of this species is used as sepetir. The supply is very limited.	eng
33259	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree restricted to Preanger and Banjumas.	eng
33259	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
33260	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	East Indian satinwood occurs in dry mixed evergreen forest.	eng
33260	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	It is a slow-growing species which has become very scarce in most areas because of timber exploitation.	eng
33261	distribution	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.	eng
33261	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	This tree is found in deciduous and semi-moist deciduous forests up to 100 m.	eng
33264	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which occurs in coastal forest.	eng
33265	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Luzon.	eng
33265	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of primary lowland forest.	eng
33266	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From south-east Asia. The wild origins of the species are obscured by cultivated and naturalised occurrences.	eng
33266	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rambutan is a widely-cultivated fruit tree.	eng
33267	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary forest tree.	eng
33268	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33268	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33271	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33271	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33273	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland primary forest species.	eng
33275	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations have been found in forest reserves.	eng
33275	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is often found on well-drained clay soils on ridges and undulating land.	eng
33276	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species occurs in some forest reserves.	eng
33276	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of seasonal wet and dry evergreen forest.	eng
33277	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Scattered in lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
33277	threats	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	This uncommon species, as well as others in the genus, may be seriously threatened by large-scale exploitation of forest.	eng
33278	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This species has been collected frequently.	eng
33279	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is mainly found in peat-swamp forest; it is rarely found on dry land.	eng
33280	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Boyacá.	eng
33281	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On the islands of Luzon and Siargao.	eng
33281	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in primary lowland forest.	eng
33281	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its timber is in short supply but is traded as white nato, together with that of other species of the genus.	eng
33282	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of primary forest.	eng
33285	conservation	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	Although its status is considered low risk, it is recommended that plantation management and development are continued and encouraged.	eng
33285	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A widespread tree found in primary rainforest up to 900 m.	eng
33287	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus, restricted to the vicinity of Malili.	eng
33287	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
33289	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Farming land.	eng
33289	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
33290	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type locality is in the Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
33290	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species known only from the type locality.	eng
33291	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An occurrence is recorded from INPA Experimental Reserve.	eng
33291	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Vicinity of Manaus.	eng
33291	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to non-flooded forest.	eng
33291	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is threatened by fires and urban expansion.	eng
33292	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree has been collected only once, along the Bartica-Potaro road in 1933.	eng
33292	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
33293	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in Acre and eastern Peru.	eng
33293	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
33293	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rarely collected species.	eng
33293	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The area is threatened by increasing land settlement.	eng
33294	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
33294	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species known only from the type locality.	eng
33295	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which is found scattered in north-east Brazil.	eng
33295	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33296	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Henri Pittier National Park.	eng
33296	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
33296	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected about three times, each specimen probably from the same tree.	eng
33297	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Pacific coastal Colombia in the departments of Chocó and Valle.	eng
33297	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large canopy or emergent tree.	eng
33297	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring commonly in places, but collected rarely.	eng
33298	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It occurs in the Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
33298	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from the vicinity of Manaus.	eng
33298	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of non-flooded forest.	eng
33299	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	So far the species is known from three populations in southern Bahia.	eng
33299	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forests and roadsides.	eng
33300	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Caribbean slopes of the mountains of north-central Venezuela.	eng
33300	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, restricted to lowland forest.	eng
33300	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected about four times.	eng
33301	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is present in Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
33301	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which has been collected several times around Manaus.	eng
33301	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
33301	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Outside Ducke forest reserve subpopulations are under pressure from urban expansion and fires.	eng
33302	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type locality in the floodplain of the Zuid River in the Kayser Mts.	eng
33302	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type locality.	eng
33303	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is confined to south-central and south-west Amazonas.	eng
33303	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
33304	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From an area along the Bartica-Potaro road.	eng
33304	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
33304	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree has been collected only once, in 1947.	eng
33305	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species occurs in the Amazon in Acre and Colombia.	eng
33305	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Periodically flooded forests.	eng
33306	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Near Manaus. It is not known to occur elsewhere.	eng
33306	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species has been collected from the roadside in non-flooded forest.	eng
33307	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known from a single location in the upper Rio Negro basin.	eng
33308	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Serra Parima.	eng
33308	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A canopy tree, unusual in the genus in occurring at submontane elevation. It has only been collected from cloud forest between 700 and 1,500 m.	eng
33309	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to French Guiana. It has been collected from two localities, one being in Saül.	eng
33309	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy or emergent tree of non-flooded forest.	eng
33310	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species has been collected twice from areas on Marajó Island. It is not known elsewhere.	eng
33310	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Forest margin and savannah.	eng
33311	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known from few localities.	eng
33311	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is scattered in secondary deciduous forest and savannah-like vegetation.	eng
33312	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Several collections have been made of this species, but it is thought only to exist in three subpopulations.	eng
33312	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Open forest on white sand in central Amazonia.	eng
33315	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Restricted to Roraima territory in Brazil and adjacent Guyana.	eng
33315	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A small savannah tree.	eng
33315	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Rarely collected.	eng
33316	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The species is distributed disjunctly with occurrences in the Magdalena Valley in Córdoba, Cundinamarca, Santander and Vaupés Departments in Colombia and in north-west Amazonia in Brazil.	eng
33316	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Occurring in areas of non-flooded forest.	eng
33317	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from the type collection from Campos dos Urupa's.	eng
33317	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A savannah tree.	eng
33317	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	There is a serious threat of habitat loss through increasing land settlement.	eng
33318	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from Mutumparaná.	eng
33318	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of savannah or open woodland.	eng
33318	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Much of the natural vegetation has been lost to agricultural encroachment.	eng
33319	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	Much of Tijuca Forest is protected. The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33319	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	A species known only from four collections in the Atlantic forests of Tijuca and Itaocara.	eng
33319	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Its proximity to Rio de Janeiro places it under serious pressure from urban encroachment and recent intensive fieldwork in the area has failed to find living specimens.	eng
33320	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A large tree, endemic to Sâo Paulo de Olivença.	eng
33320	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33320	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
33321	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The known distribution of this species is confined to its type locality in Imeri.	eng
33321	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
33322	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A Colombian endemic, collected relatively few times in Antioquia, Caldas and Santander.	eng
33322	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
33323	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central and south-east Bolivia and north-west Argentina. Unusually for the genus, it readily colonises open and disturbed areas, where it is soon supplanted by slower-growing trees. This characteristic makes it useful in the reclamation of eroded slopes.	eng
33323	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in restricted areas of <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest.	eng
33324	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to low altitudes in Trapécio Amazonico.	eng
33324	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a rare species.	eng
33325	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33325	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33326	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33326	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33327	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An important source of medang timber, this forest species has become rare.	eng
33329	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of lowland forest.	eng
33330	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of lowland and hill forest.	eng
33331	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33331	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33332	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree scattered in primary and secondary forest near the mangrove zone.	eng
33332	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat decline might threaten this species.	eng
33333	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33333	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33334	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33334	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33335	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree, of lowland primary forest.	eng
33336	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33336	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33337	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33337	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33338	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the islands of Homonhou, Dinagat, and the eastern tip of Leyte.	eng
33338	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is naturally rare.	eng
33338	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mangkono yields the hardest of Philippine timbers. The hardness of the wood gives the tree some protection against felling, but local people continue to cut trees of a small diameter because of the depletion of other hardwoods.	eng
33339	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is now subject to felling controls.	eng
33339	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Molave is the dominant timber species in monsoon forest in the Philippines.	eng
33339	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs on well-drained limestone soils in monsoon forest.	eng
33339	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exploitation of the highly prized timber has led to the reduction of molave forests.	eng
33340	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber tree, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33340	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33341	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33342	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33342	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33343	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33343	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33344	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33344	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33345	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in primary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 2,500 m altitude	eng
33347	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33347	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33348	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33348	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33349	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Taiwan the species is restricted to Lanyu Island.	eng
33349	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in very small numbers (<250).	eng
33350	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread monotypic genus.	eng
33350	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland primary and secondary forest.	eng
33351	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33351	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33352	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33352	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in primary forest at low to medium altitudes.	eng
33353	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33353	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33354	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species found mainly in lowland primary and secondary forest recorded on many soil types.	eng
33354	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used locally as derum and it is also cut for firewood and charcoal.	eng
33355	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33355	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33356	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33356	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33357	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found in the Philippines, the Fourth Division of Sarawak and north-west Ceram, this tree is the most common member of the genus in the Philippines. It has been collected only once from Sarawak.	eng
33358	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the Philippines.	eng
33358	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33359	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has only once been collected, in 1939 in Larecaja, La Paz.	eng
33360	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is an unusual species, which is known only from the type collection made in 1933 at the mouth of Rio Macauhan.	eng
33361	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within a protected area.	eng
33361	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from three subpopulations: at the confluence of the Tiputini and Tivacuno rivers in the Parque Nacional Yasuní, in the Cañon de los Monos, 15 km north of Coca and in the Jatun Sacha private reserve.	eng
33361	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of mainland Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 250–500 m.	eng
33361	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are oil exploitation, disorganized tourism, and colonization due to road construction.	eng
33362	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been found on the north side of Tijuca National Park.	eng
33362	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to forests around the city of Rio de Janeiro.	eng
33362	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species grows to a maximum of 2 m.	eng
33362	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare species.	eng
33362	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing urbanization places it under serious threat.	eng
33363	distribution	Buitrón, X. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Current information states that this species is reduced to a single tree in Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve, Ecuador. However, previous information suggests it may also be found in Brazil.	eng
33364	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is restricted to a fairly small area (less than 20,000 km²) on the coast of Paraíba and Pernambuco states.	eng
33364	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restinga vegetation.	eng
33364	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restinga vegetation is highly threatened.	eng
33365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from a small area along Río Magdalena north-west of Bogotá.	eng
33366	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree, endemic to Ubatuba. It may extend over an area greater than 20,000 km² but there is evidence that it is threatened.	eng
33367	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from a number of localities in Bolívar and Amazonas.	eng
33367	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in semideciduous or evergreen forest, frequently bordering igneous outcrops.	eng
33369	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is locally abundant in mixed dipterocarp forest and heath forest.	eng
33372	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree endemic to Kalimantan.	eng
33373	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of lowland dipterocarp forest or semi-swamp forest.	eng
33375	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	North-west Sumatra.	eng
33375	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This variety is confined to lowland and hill dipterocarp forest.	eng
33376	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to Nusa Kambangan Island, Java, this species is locally common, covering an area of about 80 km².	eng
33376	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland mixed rainforest.	eng
33376	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Despite the presence of three high-security prisons and armed guards patrolling a 20 km² reserve, the tree is illegally harvested.	eng
33377	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of lowland forest on almost swampy land.	eng
33377	population	Ashton, P., 1998	Close to extinction.	eng
33377	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is close to extinction because of the loss and degradation of its habitat.	eng
33378	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland species, which is locally abundant near freshwater swamps and streams.	eng
33378	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is often used as keruing timber in Sabah and parts of Sarawak, but is mainly threatened by habitat loss.	eng
33379	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland species always found near water.	eng
33380	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species occurs locally on sandy, podzolic soils in heath forest.	eng
33381	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Papua New Guinea.	eng
33381	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species forms pure stands in secondary forest.	eng
33382	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Sumatra	eng
33382	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is seriously threatened by the loss of its forest habitat.	eng
33383	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs on the sandy islands of Billiton and Banka.	eng
33383	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is locally common.	eng
33384	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Mindanao Island.	eng
33384	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species which occurs in lowland primary forest.	eng
33384	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is seriously threatened by the loss of its habitat.	eng
33385	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found scattered on low hills and ridges.	eng
33385	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is unlikely to survive logging activities because it doesn't reach reproductive age within a logging cycle.	eng
33390	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree endemic to Sumatra.	eng
33390	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
33390	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Severely threatened by the loss and degradation of the habitat.	eng
33392	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is possibly extinct.	eng
33393	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of seasonal evergreen forest.	eng
33394	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is under severe threat from the complete loss of its forest habitat.	eng
33396	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of lowland dipterocarp forest on clay-rich alluvium.	eng
33397	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33397	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Suffering from forest degradation.	eng
33398	population	Ashton, P., 1998	There is a possibility that this dipterocarp is extinct in the wild.	eng
33399	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Brunei and Sarawak.	eng
33399	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree which occurs in remaining patches of kerangas vegetation. It is locally abundant in heath forest.	eng
33400	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33400	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Under severe threat from habitat degradation.	eng
33401	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	An occurrence has been recorded in a proposed reserve.	eng
33401	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
33401	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large timber tree which is confined to moist clay-rich soils.	eng
33402	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
33402	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	An enormous tree, endemic to Borneo.	eng
33402	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, often on hills and ridges near the coast.	eng
33403	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations of this species occur in forest reserves.	eng
33404	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33404	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Suffering from habitat conversion.	eng
33405	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Borneo.	eng
33405	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that is restricted to mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33405	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is directly threatened by logging operations because its reproductive cycle exceeds the logging cycle.	eng
33406	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33406	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is threatened by forest conversion and habitat degradation.	eng
33407	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species occurs in some forest reserves.	eng
33407	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A slow-growing species of lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
33407	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened directly by logging; the tree is unlikely to reach reproductive maturity within a logging cycle. It is currently being exploited for its yellow meranti timber.	eng
33409	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is found on undulating land near the coast.	eng
33409	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is threatened by forest conversion and degradation.	eng
33410	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree occurring in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33411	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in forest reserves.	eng
33411	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to north-western Kalimantan and western Sarawak.	eng
33411	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33412	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This lowland species cannot withstand logging because of its slow growth. Balau consignments are often made up of this species.	eng
33413	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A massive tree of mixed dipterocarp forest on clay soils.	eng
33413	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Cut for balau timber. This slow growing species cannot reach reproductive maturity between logging cycles and is therefore threatened by logging activities.	eng
33414	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations of the species occur in some forest reserves.	eng
33414	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree occurring in mixed dipterocarp forest on leached yellow soils.	eng
33414	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is valued as the most solid balau timber in Brunei. Directly threatened by logging, trees do not reach reproductive maturity in the time between logging cycles.	eng
33415	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A slow-growing species of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33415	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Directly threatened by logging activities because trees do not reach reproductive maturity between the current logging cycles.	eng
33416	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are found in forest reserves.	eng
33416	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree found infrequently in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.	eng
33416	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is cut for balau timber but its slow growth does not allow it to reach maturity within the current logging cycle.	eng
33417	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree which occurs in the transitional forest between heath and mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33417	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest degradation and logging have brought the species close to extinction. Its slow growth makes it particularly vulnerable to the affects of continual logging.	eng
33418	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree.	eng
33418	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Particularly threatened by logging operations because of its slow growth.	eng
33419	population	Ashton, P., 1998	An endemic tree, which has suffered high rates of forest conversion and degradation and may now be extinct.	eng
33420	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some populations are found in forest reserves.	eng
33420	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to North-west Borneo	eng
33420	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found in the diminishing mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
33420	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is directly threatened by logging. Its slow growth and maturation rate make it particularly vulnerable to continual cutting.	eng
33421	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Populations are recorded in some forest reserves.	eng
33421	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	North-east Sarawak, Brunei and south-east Sabah.	eng
33421	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to coastal hills, the species occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33422	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree endemic to Sabah.	eng
33422	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
33423	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations of the species occur in forest reserves.	eng
33423	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A yellow meranti timber species, endemic to Borneo.	eng
33423	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found scattered on shallow peat or yellow sandy soils	eng
33424	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species occurs in the declining mixed peat-swamp forest.	eng
33425	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sabah.	eng
33425	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland tree found growing over the ultrabasic rocks.	eng
33425	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened mainly by forest conversion.	eng
33426	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree located in <em>S. selanica</em> hill forest.	eng
33427	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is also found in some forest reserves.	eng
33427	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that is found on moist hillsides and along rivers.	eng
33428	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Western Sarawak.	eng
33428	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is found only in the threatened mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
33429	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	North-west Borneo.	eng
33429	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A valuable dark red meranti timber species that is restricted to the highly threatened mixed peat-swamp forest, usually near the coast.	eng
33429	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	It is particularly threatened by logging operations because it grows too slowly to reach reproductive maturity between cutting cycles.	eng
33430	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree endemic to northern Borneo.	eng
33430	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Heath forest.	eng
33431	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations occur in primary forest reserves.	eng
33431	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is endemic to western Borneo.	eng
33431	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forests and heath forests.	eng
33431	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
33432	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Sometimes within primary forest reserves.	eng
33432	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species found on lowland coastal hills.	eng
33433	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Also occurs in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33433	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of mixed dipterocarp and heath forest.	eng
33434	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33434	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is found on coastal hills.	eng
33435	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33435	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Threatened by the decline and degradation of its habitat.	eng
33436	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree appears to be confined to dry coastal ridges.	eng
33437	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree grows on well-drained ground in the lowlands and is found in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33438	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species also occurs in some forest reserves.	eng
33438	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Northern Borneo.	eng
33438	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that is found in mixed dipterocarp forest on hills.	eng
33439	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to the Kalutara district.	eng
33439	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This small shrub is found in the understorey of swamp forests and in marshy, periodically inundated areas near slow-running streamlets.	eng
33439	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was found only once during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33439	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Most swamp forests have been converted to rice fields.	eng
33440	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sarawak.	eng
33440	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33441	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is endemic to Kalimantan.	eng
33441	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Usually found beside rivers.	eng
33442	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree, endemic to Borneo.	eng
33442	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on low hills, often on river banks or in moist areas.	eng
33443	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	North-west Borneo.	eng
33443	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurring in the patchy kerangas vegetation over podzols.	eng
33444	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Collected twice, this species is found on Mt. Kaladis in the Philippines.	eng
33444	population	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is considered to be very close to extinction.	eng
33445	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species restricted to south-east Sulawesi.	eng
33445	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Occurs on hillsides.	eng
33446	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest on coastal hills.	eng
33446	population	Ashton, P., 1998	An extremely localised tree.	eng
33447	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that is found on dry coastal hills in lowland forest.	eng
33448	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is found in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33448	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree, endemic to Borneo.	eng
33448	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to leached shallow soils on hills and ridges.	eng
33449	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.	eng
33449	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A subspecies that is found on deep sandy leached soils in what is left of the mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
33450	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is also found in some forest reserves.	eng
33450	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies is endemic to north-west Borneo.	eng
33450	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found growing on deep sandy soils on subcoastal hills.	eng
33451	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded in some forest reserves.	eng
33451	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Borneo.	eng
33451	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree that grows on deep fertile clay-rich soils.	eng
33452	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Sumatran endemic.	eng
33452	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Forest conversion has brought this species close to extinction.	eng
33453	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is restricted to fragmented heath forests.	eng
33454	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.	eng
33454	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Western Sarawak.	eng
33454	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An understorey tree endemic to patches of heath forest.	eng
33455	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is being brought close to extinction by forest conversion and degradation.	eng
33456	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree which is scattered in declining mixed dipterocarp forests on clay-soil hills.	eng
33457	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to east Sumatra.	eng
33457	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is very close to extinction.	eng
33459	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Viet Nam.	eng
33459	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species may now be extinct.	eng
33462	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Endemic to Viet Nam. Occurrences are known from mixed forest at about 950 m in Quang Ninh, Lang Son, Tuyen Quang, Ninh Binh and Nghe An Provinces.	eng
33462	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This slow-growing tree is valued highly for its hard, heavy timber, which is included in Viet Nam's 'precious timber' group.	eng
33464	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Sierra Leone to Ghana.	eng
33464	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet lowland evergreen forest/swampy areas.	eng
33464	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The general loss of its habitat, because of commercial forestry activities and mining, has been extensive.	eng
33465	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It ranges from Guinea to Sierra Leone.	eng
33465	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A rare tree which occurs in wet evergreen forests and along riversides in more deciduous  forests.	eng
33465	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A general decline in this habitat type has been caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
33466	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	The species occurs in Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo, where the species is fairly common but scattered. Elsewhere it is found uncommonly in small populations in a few localities in Uganda.	eng
33466	threats	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	General threats of mining, overcutting for charcoal production and expansive agriculture affect unprotected parts of the range.	eng
33467	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From north-east Tanzania, through Kenya into southern Somalia.	eng
33467	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species ranges along the coast in semi-evergreen forest or bushland.	eng
33467	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Much of the habitat is threatened with overcutting and clearing.	eng
33468	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Southern India.	eng
33468	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A species found in lowland humid evergreen forest. It regenerates prolifically in disturbed areas.	eng
33469	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree once locally exploited for house posts and now thought to be extinct.	eng
33470	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A gregarious tree, widely occurring in low to medium altitude evergreen forest, especially along riversides.	eng
33472	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species distribution is disjunct, with subpopulations known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon in the west and eastern Tanzania in the east. It is not under threat in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
33473	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Fairly common in places, e.g., Shimba Hills, from south-east Kenya to south Tanzania.	eng
33473	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This tree is restricted to pockets of moist coastal forest.	eng
33474	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in South Africa are secure, with a number of subpopulations occurring in protected areas. Dense stands have been recorded from the northern parts of Kruger National Park.	eng
33474	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species occurring in various forest types from upland semi-deciduous forest to coastal dry forest or thicket.	eng
33474	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is heavily exploited in the wood carving industries in Kenya and Tanzania.   Increased logging in Mozambique may pose a threat.	eng
33475	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains a living collection and seed stocks.	eng
33475	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in parts of the central highlands, including the north-east slopes of Mt. Kenya. It is also widely planted in the western highlands.	eng
33475	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the wild it is confined to moist evergreen forest.	eng
33475	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most subpopulations, although protected, are in danger of being overexploited.	eng
33476	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Populations are found within forest reserves.	eng
33476	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Conservation status of the species is based upon the rate of habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33476	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33476	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	Habitat loss and conversion.	eng
33477	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	In Viet Nam the species is reported to be common in dry forest.	eng
33480	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A dark red meranti timber species, usually found near lowland streams.	eng
33481	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	The population in south-east Peninsular Thailand appears to be extinct.	eng
33481	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree can be found along the banks of slow-flowing rivers.	eng
33484	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The tree occurs in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33484	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A widespread species.	eng
33485	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely but sparsely scattered species in the Western Ghats.	eng
33485	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in areas of low- to medium-altitude forest.	eng
33486	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	This species is fairly widespread.	eng
33486	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	It is cultivated as an ornamental.	eng
33487	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	The species as a whole is protected for its illipe nuts in Sarawak.	eng
33487	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A localised subspecies found on shallow peat-swamp and on leached sandy soils.	eng
33488	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Some subpopulations are recorded in primary forest reserves.	eng
33488	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is common in summit forest on Sarawak's granodiorite mountains.	eng
33489	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the island is designated as a wildlife sanctuary.	eng
33489	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree known only from the type location on Narcodam Island which covers an area of just 12 ha.	eng
33489	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recent explorations have failed to find the taxon.	eng
33490	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to South Andaman Island.	eng
33490	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently occurring in evergreen rainforest.	eng
33490	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been found since it was first collected. Intact forest remains in Jarwa Reserve, where it is possible the species may still be found.	eng
33490	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas of the species' habitat have been logged and cleared.	eng
33491	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Andaman Islands.	eng
33491	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen rainforest.	eng
33491	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very little is known about the species as it has not been collected since it was first discovered.	eng
33491	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation has been carried out on a large scale and few intact tracts of forest now remain.	eng
33492	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is possible that a subpopulation exists in the relatively intact Jarwa Reserve.	eng
33492	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to South Andaman Island.	eng
33492	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen rainforest.	eng
33492	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No living specimens have been found since the type collection.	eng
33492	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been severely deforested.	eng
33493	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively intact tract of forest remains in the Jarwa Reserve where it is possible the species occurs.	eng
33493	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to South Andaman Island.	eng
33493	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in areas of evergreen forest.	eng
33493	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest have declined severely in extent through logging activities.	eng
33494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree with subpopulations on Kamorta Island in the Nicobars and also on the Andaman Islands.	eng
33494	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale logging and conversion of the forest for agriculture have caused the loss of the species habitat from much of the Andamans.	eng
33495	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Nicobar and Andaman Islands.	eng
33495	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen forest.	eng
33495	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas of forest have been logged and lost to increasing agriculture and settlement.	eng
33496	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Intact forest remains in Jarwa Reserve, which is unexplored and may harbour further populations of the species.	eng
33496	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Middle Andaman Island.	eng
33496	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree, known only from the type collection.	eng
33496	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forests here have declined significantly through large-scale logging.	eng
33497	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to South Andaman Island, the species occurs in scattered small subpopulations.	eng
33497	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remnant patches of evergreen forest.	eng
33497	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale logging has caused significant population declines.	eng
33498	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fig tree endemic to South Andaman Island where it is sparsely distributed.	eng
33498	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
33498	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large declines in extent of the forest have been caused by logging.	eng
33499	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree collected from Middle and South Andaman Islands in the nineteenth century.	eng
33499	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No record of the species has been made since and little is known of its present status, if it still exists.	eng
33500	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from South Andaman Island.	eng
33500	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from scrub along the fringes of evergreen forest.	eng
33500	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been found again since it was first discovered.	eng
33500	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has declined because of logging and increasing agricultural developments.	eng
33501	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread small tree or shrub which grows on the banks of tidal rivers and in mangrove channels only in saline areas. The fruits are dispersed by water.	eng
33502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is widespread in primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,500 m altitude.	eng
33503	conservation	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	An attempt to introduce the plant in a nearby managed forest area, namely  Mondrain, in 1998 has failed. Currently, there are 54 seedlings at the forestry and National Park nurseries and further re-introduction  will be tried soon as well as an <em>ex situ</em> population set up.	eng
33503	distribution	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	Mauritian endemic known from very few individuals growing in two subpopulations a few kilometers apart.	eng
33503	habitat	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	A small tree reaching 4.5-6 m in height. Found in sub-tropical rain forest with annual rainfall of 1-2 m.	eng
33503	population	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	Only nine individuals are known in the wild, with only one fertile specimen. No natural regeneration has been noted. The largest subpopulation consists of only seven individuals scattered over five hectares of degraded forest at Tamarind Falls. Two other plants grows at Yemen.	eng
33503	threats	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	The main threat is the loss of habitat due to competition from introduced invasive plants. Browsing by introduced animals is certainly responsible for the absence of regeneration.	eng
33504	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species.	eng
33504	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33504	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not rediscovered during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, indicating it to be extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly common species occurring in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33505	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33506	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33506	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species scattered in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33508	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33508	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
33509	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33509	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
33509	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in only 10 localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
33510	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33510	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33510	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was scattered but fairly widespread in the lowland rainforests according to a survey in the late 1980s, but it was not recorded at any of the forest sites during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996, suggesting that this species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33511	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33512	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33512	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forests.	eng
33512	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was not found during the recent National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct. Previously a population was known from Kanneliya Forest Reserve.	eng
33513	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33513	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33513	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was previously found in the Haycock (Hinidumkanda) Biosphere Reserve. However, it was not found again during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33514	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33514	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33515	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33515	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33515	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33516	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33516	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33517	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33518	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33518	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in eight forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33519	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33519	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33519	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is apparently locally common but confined to a single forest reserve. Only nine individuals were discovered in at a single site during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys.	eng
33520	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33520	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33521	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33521	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33522	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33522	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare tree is restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33522	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct. Earlier surveys located a subpopulation in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
33523	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously recorded from Gilimale Forest Reserve in south-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33523	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland rainforest.	eng
33523	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33524	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is widespread from Sri Lanka east to the Pacific.	eng
33525	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka. It is cultivated in Singapore, Penang and Java.	eng
33525	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in lowland wet evergreen forest and disturbed forest.	eng
33525	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33526	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is one of the dominant subcanopy species in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
33526	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This Sri Lankan endemic is restricted to the wetter region of the island, where remaining rainforest covers an area of less than 1,440 km².	eng
33526	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is locally common in lowland and montane rainforest.	eng
33526	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected many times.	eng
33527	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously recorded in Sinharaja and Haycock  Biosphere Reserves.	eng
33527	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33527	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33527	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This extremely rare species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it might be extinct.	eng
33528	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33528	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
33528	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33529	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in south-west Sri Lanka and previously known from Kanneliya Forest Reserve.	eng
33529	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33529	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33530	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33530	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33530	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was previously found in Kottawa and Kanneliya Forest Reserves. However, it was not again found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33532	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33532	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
33532	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously found in Kottawa, Hinidumkanda, Sinharaja and Gilimale. This species was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33533	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33533	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33533	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appeared to be fairly common during a previous survey, but it was not found at all during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33534	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33534	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33534	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in several sites during a previous survey, but it was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33535	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33535	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33536	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33536	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33536	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three localities were identified during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33537	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33537	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33538	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33538	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33538	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three trees were found in a single site, proposed for reserve status, during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
33539	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33539	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33540	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is one of the dominant canopy species in the Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve and also occurs in several other forest reserves.	eng
33540	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
33540	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This canopy tree is restricted to the wet lowlands.	eng
33541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33541	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33541	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in eight sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33542	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33542	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33543	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33543	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33543	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded from several sites in Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve, but not during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
33545	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-west Sri Lanka.	eng
33545	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
33545	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was not recorded during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
33546	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	All populations are within areas which are given protection.	eng
33546	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The main subpopulation is confined to Silhouette. On Aldabra there are two trees and the subpopulation on Mahé became extinct by 1874, probably because of habitat clearance.	eng
33546	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	About 150 mature trees exist in total, a large population occurring at Mont Cocos Marrons.	eng
33546	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The trees were felled in the past for the production of aromatic oils and fuelwood for copra dryers.	eng
33547	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The area is under the protection of the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles. Attempts to bring the species into cultivation have failed.	eng
33547	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The species is confined to Silhouette Island, having become extinct on Mahé largely through the degradation of its habitat.	eng
33547	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The six remaining subpopulations are stable and confined to the main mountain ridges within an area of 100 ha.	eng
33548	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The main subpopulations are contained within protected areas.	eng
33548	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Islands of Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette.	eng
33548	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A typical understorey component of mist forest.	eng
33548	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Trees are locally abundant and recruitment is good.	eng
33548	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The species is sensitive to habitat disturbance.	eng
33549	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A conservation programme involving the planting of seeds and seedlings in other parts of the Seychelles is now set up. Its quality timber makes it an attractive candidate for reforestation programmes.	eng
33549	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Confined to several localised subpopulations on Mahé. Subpopulations on Praslin and Silhouette became extinct, probably because of historical deforestation.	eng
33549	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	This tree is known from about 30 individuals. The species' capacity to regenerate appears to be good.	eng
33549	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The habitat in these areas is under threat from increasing agriculture, invasive plants and possibly the absence of dispersal agents.	eng
33550	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
33550	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
33551	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species occurs within a very restricted area (less than 1,000 ha) on Mahé and Silhouette.	eng
33551	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Populations are healthy and stable.	eng
33552	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The results of research into the genetic profiles of these species is soon to be made available.	eng
33552	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Mission Casse Dent on Mahé Island.	eng
33552	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	One tree is found in secondary forest, the other in a tea estate.	eng
33552	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	At present the species is known from two mature individuals.	eng
33552	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	There is evidence of seed germination but no young plants are surviving. It has been suggested that the species is the result of a cross between <em>G. sechellarum</em> and <em>G. crassa</em> and that may provide the reason why recruitment is low.	eng
33553	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is critical that the goats on Guadelupe Island be removed or controlled soon, if the pines are to recover.	eng
33553	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Recorded from Guadelupe Island, an uninhabited island 250 km off the mainland, and from Cedros Island (part of Baja-California), Mexico. The name <em>P. binnata</em> var. <em>cedrosensis</em> is used by some people, for the Cedros Island population. <br/> <br/>The pines on Guadalupe Island are narrowly distributed at the north end of the island, along the uppermost slopes of the central ridge.	eng
33553	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A census, taken in May 2001, indicates a total population of approximately 200 trees, all of them over-mature (Rogers <em>et al</em>. 2002). No evidence of the pitch canker disease (caused by the fungus <em>Fusarium circinatum</em>) that has affected mainland (California) subpopulations of <em>P. radiata</em> was found. A few seedlings were found in 2001 (indicating natural regeneration is still feasible), but would no doubt soon be eaten by goats.  There has apparently been a 50% reduction in number of trees since 1964. <br/> <br/>On Cedros Island, there are two main subpopulations of pines: a central and northern subpopulation, separated by approximately 13 km, with some scattered trees and small stands outside these two occurrences. The pines are largely restricted to the upper, western slopes of the northern mountain range, which extends from the central to northern regions of Cedros Island in roughly a north-south alignment. There is no comprehensive census, but there are thousands of trees and no apparent losses of habitat over the last several decades. In May 2001, the pines were described as fairly young over much of the current range, with seedlings in all stands.	eng
33553	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There has apparently been no natural regeneration of the pines on Guadelupe for many decades, a result of grazing by introduced goats which have become feral. On Cedros Island, although the pines are currently regenerating well, they remain vulnerable to the introduction of pitch canker from the nearby Mexican mainland, and to the uncertain impacts of possibly frequent fires, climate change, and some introduced species.	eng
33554	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Puunianiau, a small cinder cone on the north-west slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.	eng
33554	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subalpine shrubland.	eng
33554	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has not been seen since it was first collected in 1910.	eng
33555	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. Specimens were known only from Oahu.	eng
33555	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	It has not been found in recent decades and is now presumed extinct.	eng
33556	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single tree was discovered on Puhielelu Ridge in 1981. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is known from either Extinct or Critically Endangered species.	eng
33556	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry slope.	eng
33556	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known tree has died since its discovery. Seeds were collected but none have germinated.	eng
33557	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33557	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which once grew in the mountains above Hana, on Maui, from where the type specimen was collected. Recent observations suggest that the taxon occurs over an area of several hundred hectares in Kipahulu Valley.	eng
33557	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Kipahulu Valley, it is said to be more common than <em>M. balloui</em>.	eng
33557	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is particularly vulnerable to seed predation by rats and insects. Invasive plants are also prevalent in the area.	eng
33558	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33558	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally known from localities on Oahu and Kauai.	eng
33558	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been reduced to six subpopulations confined to the latter island. About 156 individuals have been counted.	eng
33558	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat continues to be damaged by grazing feral animals and invasive plants.	eng
33559	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33559	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type colection from Wahiawa Bog on Kauai.	eng
33559	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type material collected in 1909, the species had been presumed extinct. However, a small subpopulation of 13 individuals was discovered in 1991.	eng
33559	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Potential threats of overcollecting and invading alien plants are present.	eng
33560	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is reported to be in cultivation on Hawaii.	eng
33560	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East Maui. Two collections have also been made, from Pololu Valley and Kalopa Gulch on Hawaii.	eng
33560	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in dry to moist forest, often on lava, between 700 and 1,200 m.	eng
33561	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Kauai Island on the Napali coast and on the slopes of Mt. Kahili.	eng
33561	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland moist forest up to 350 m.	eng
33561	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is uncommon.	eng
33562	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally collected only from Puuwaawaa and Kipuka Puaulu on Hawaii.	eng
33562	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
33562	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been recorded since the 1940s. It is possible that a subpopulation remains in the former site but recent surveys in the latter failed to uncover any remnant of a subpopulation.	eng
33562	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The montane rainforest habitat has been degraded by introduced plants, goats and fire.	eng
33563	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Oahu Island, where the species is scattered sparsely in the Waianae and Koolau Mts.	eng
33563	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist forest up to 730 m.	eng
33564	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	One of the four endemic <em>Cheirodendron</em> taxa restricted to Kauai. It is ecologically and altitudinally distinct. It occurs just below the summit of Mt. Waialeale.	eng
33564	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A tree or shrub of wet forests on the high central plateau of Kauai.	eng
33564	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	It has been estimated that the population for <em>C. dominii</em> is less than 2,500 mature individuals. There are probably only one or two subpopulations.	eng
33564	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>C. dominii</em> is threatened by habitat degradation from feral pigs and competition from aggressive alien plants.	eng
33565	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are recorded on Lanai, Maui and from Kilauea around the leeward side to the Kohala Mts., Hawaii.	eng
33565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species scattered in dry to moist forest extending over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
33566	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occasional distribution on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hilo and Puna Districts, Hawaii.	eng
33566	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
33567	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only in the vicinity of Kokee.	eng
33567	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest species.	eng
33568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species very localised in distribution known only from the Milolii-Kopiwai area on Kauai within an altitudinal band of just 10 m.	eng
33569	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is confined to Oahu Island.	eng
33569	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33570	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is recorded on Oahu from both the Koolau and Waianae Mts., more commonly from the latter.	eng
33570	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This terrestrial or epiphytic species is found in lowland rainforest.	eng
33571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to East Maui on the windward slopes of Haleakala.	eng
33571	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A palm-like tree occurring in rainforest between 945 and 1,450 m altitude.	eng
33572	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on all the main islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe.	eng
33572	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widespread, the species occurs in forest of various types over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
33573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Koolau Mts. on Oahu.	eng
33573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
33574	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  The remaining subpopulation is partly on State-owned land. A Recovery Plan for the species has been published and some measures are in place to protect the remaining plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).	eng
33574	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A variety confined to the leeward side of East Maui, where it occurred in Auwahi and Kanaio districts.	eng
33574	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (790–1,070 m).	eng
33574	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	In 1910, J.F. Rock found about 40 trees in the forest of Auwahi on the south slopes of Haleakala. The population size was reported to be large in the first half of the century but has subsequently declined to about twelve individuals within 29 ha of private and State-owned (but privately leased) ranchland.	eng
33574	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species. The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with the remaining subpopulation exhibiting severe defoliation and reduced vigor as a result of the infestation.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral pigs are impacting the habitat through grazing and trampling.  Grazing and trampling by cattle was a major problem in the past, but now all individuals of <em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> var. <em>auwahiensis</em> are protected from ungulates by small woven-wire excloures. <br/> <br/>Given the limited numbers and restricted range, a single natural or human-caused disturbance could be catastrophic.  Also gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.	eng
33575	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The taxon is presently classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33575	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known from a location in the south-eastern part of Kamakou Preserve, on Molokai.	eng
33575	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Wet forest. The species grows on forested slopes between 1,100 and 1,200 m altitude.	eng
33575	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This subspecies is known from a single population of less than 30 individuals.	eng
33575	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Feral pigs and goats are an immediate threat to the population, and rats and invertebrates may be predating the fruit and other plant parts.	eng
33576	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The single individual known is within a protected area. Attempts at propagation have so far failed. The taxon is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33576	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This subspecies is restricted to one locality on West Maui, populations on Lanai and East Maui having become extinct in 1913 and 1927 respectively.	eng
33576	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Montane wet forest.	eng
33576	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	On West Maui the taxon was first collected in the 1980s and is presently known from a single individual within a protected area. There still exist areas of rainforest on East Maui where a population may yet be discovered.	eng
33576	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are also a possible threat.	eng
33577	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on all the main islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
33577	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, the commonest in the genus, occurring in rainforest up to 1,620 m.	eng
33578	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai.	eng
33578	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This appears to be the rarest subspecies, known from just two collections.	eng
33579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai Island.	eng
33580	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The subspecies is classified as Endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33580	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known to have occurred at only three sites on the western slopes of Hualalai on Hawaii. One subpopulation is found at Honuaulu Forest Reserve and another at Keokea, 45 km away. In addition two subpopulations have been planted within the native range (45 at Honualua Forest Reserve and six at Puu Waawaa).	eng
33580	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A mesic montane rainforest taxon (1,220–1,740 m).	eng
33580	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The total population size to possibly more than 50 individuals. However, most of the planted individuals do not appear to have survived.	eng
33580	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Invasive plants and grazing are a persistent problem.	eng
33581	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to an area in the south of Kauai.	eng
33581	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forested valleys up to an altitude of 790 m.	eng
33582	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A palm-like tree known only from East Maui.	eng
33582	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Riparian habitat. It is restricted to rainforest and the margins of subalpine forest between altitudes of 1,520 and 2,000 m.	eng
33582	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, weeds, and possibly rats and invertebrates.	eng
33583	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to remnants of lowland dry forest in central Molokai and in more moist forest in Makawao and Olinda on Maui.	eng
33583	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland dry and moist forest.	eng
33584	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Waianae Mts. on Oahu. There are occasional occurrences also in the Kolau Mts.	eng
33584	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main subpopulation is found in various lowland forest types.	eng
33585	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Oahu.	eng
33585	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to dry and other lowland forest types.  This is a striking species which rarely flowers.	eng
33586	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is classified as endangered on the US Federal Register.	eng
33586	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is currently recorded from six to eight subpopulations in Puuwaawaa, the Kaloko/Kaloao area, the Kapua/Kahuku area and on Holei Pali.	eng
33586	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland dry forest on lava fields.	eng
33586	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Population estimates lie between 300 and 400 individuals.	eng
33586	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is threatened with conversion for residential or recreational use. Grazers, invasive plants and fire are also problems.	eng
33587	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from two subspecies, this one being the rarer. It is restricted to Lanai. The type subspecies is endemic to Maui.	eng
33587	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
33587	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected very rarely in the last 50 years.	eng
33588	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33588	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies recorded from the southern Koolau Mts., Oahu.	eng
33588	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).	eng
33588	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Last collected in 1932 and last seen in 1960.	eng
33588	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The major threats at the sites where the taxon had been recorded are alien plants and feral pigs.	eng
33589	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring from India to Malaysia.	eng
33589	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
33590	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
33590	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species of mixed dipterocarp forest at low to medium elevations.	eng
33590	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a rare species.	eng
33595	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type locality.	eng
33596	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from an area in the west of Kauai. A population once recorded in the north of the island near Kilauea is thought no longer to exist.	eng
33596	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in various forest types up to an altitude of 900 m altitiude.	eng
33597	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is known from low elevations on Lanai and near Manawainui on East Maui.	eng
33598	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. Found on Maui and Lanai, on which it has become particularly scarce.	eng
33598	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is one of the dominant components of high elevation dry forest	eng
33598	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbance caused by grazing, conversion to pastureland and the invasion of alien grasses, increasing the likelihood of serious fires, have all contributed to the decline in the habitat.	eng
33599	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is endemic to Kauai.	eng
33599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to rainforest at high elevations.	eng
33600	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The variety is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33600	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species.	eng
33600	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal dry shrubland.	eng
33600	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Approximately 10 subpopulations, consisting of about 545 individuals in total, are located principally at Kaena Point but with small subpopulations in Alau Gulch, Waianae Kai and Keawaula.	eng
33600	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fires and alien species are the major threats to remaining subpopulations.	eng
33601	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It is found on Niihau, Kauai, Molokai and Kahoolawe.	eng
33601	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Beach vegetation.	eng
33601	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been in rapid decline because of the spread of goats and other feral animals and invasive plants.	eng
33602	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Protective and monitoring measures are being carried out on the subpopulation in Pahole Natural Area Reserve. <em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).  The species is listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33602	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is known from four subpopulations in the north and central Waianae Mountains on Oahu.	eng
33602	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A tree, up to 8 m tall, occurring in moist forests in gulch bottoms or gulch slopes.	eng
33602	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There are estimated to be fewer than 170 plants in total.	eng
33602	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The lowland rainforest habitat is steadily being degraded by feral pigs and invasive plants (Koster's curse, silk oak, huehue haole, strawberry guava, and Christmas berry). Fire is also a possible threat to the species.  <em>Chamaesyce herbstii</em> is at risk of extinction from naturally occurring events (such as hurricanes) and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of remaining populations.	eng
33603	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species was once common over a wide altitudinal range on western Maui and Hawaii.	eng
33603	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Dry open forests up to 2,800 m.	eng
33603	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Disturbance caused by grazing, conversion to pastureland and the consequent invasion of introduced grasses increasing the likelihood of serious fires have all contributed to the decline in this habitat.	eng
33604	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>C. rockii</em> is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).   <br/>The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33604	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce rockii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is confined to the Koolau Mountains.	eng
33604	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Usually a compact shrub but sometimes a tree. Scattered in rainforest and shrublands, primarily along cloudswept ridges up to 830 m.	eng
33604	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Between 200 and 400 plants are estimated to exist in fewer than 10 subpopulations.	eng
33604	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The vegetation is liable to be damaged or degraded by feral pigs and invasive plants (strawberry guava and Koster's curse). Impacts from human activities, such as military activities, also pose a possible threat to the species.	eng
33605	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33605	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from approximately 13 populations in north-west Kauai, the Waianae Mts. on Oahu, Molokai, where the one specimen known has died, the south-west slope of Haleakala on Maui and the Kona coast on Hawaii.	eng
33605	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large forest tree.	eng
33605	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The total population comprises of fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
33605	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The decline in numbers has mainly been caused by the black twig borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>).	eng
33606	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is listed by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33606	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Restricted to populations found in the Waianae Mts. on Oahu, Hualalai on Hawaii and on Lanai. Subpopulations on Maui and Kauai are now apparently extinct.	eng
33606	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Dry and moist forest.	eng
33606	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Currently fewer than 50 reproductive individuals are known.	eng
33606	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Various factors have contributed to the decline, from overexploitation and habitat clearance to damage caused by feral animals and invasive plants.	eng
33607	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known localities were in the Aka Hills and Tuzu River Gorge.	eng
33607	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Windswept steep cliffs and slopes.	eng
33607	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Once reported to be common along windswept steep cliffs and slopes, the species has not been recollected since 1935. The area is remote and the species is likely to be found again.	eng
33608	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections of the species are concentrated on the Travancore Hills, just to the north of Agastyamalai. There is also a single record of it further north in the range.	eng
33608	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was noted to be scarce at the turn of the century and few, if any, more recent records have been made, despite the area being relatively well surveyed.	eng
33609	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from scattered populations in the Western Ghats. It has been collected mostly from isolated peaks in the Nilgiris. Subpopulations have also been recorded from outlying areas, mainly at high altitudes, from South Kanara in Karnataka and the Anamalai range.	eng
33609	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of evergreen forest. Occurring up to 2,500 m.	eng
33609	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is threatened in places with clearance for the cultivation of commercial crops.	eng
33610	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected four times from separate localities in southern Karnataka.	eng
33610	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in evergreen forest.	eng
33611	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
33611	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the southernmost part of the Western Ghats in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
33611	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively large tree occurring in evergreen forest between 500 and 1,300 m.	eng
33611	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected or recorded from approximately six localities.	eng
33611	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
33612	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the northern tip of Madagascar the species is known from just five sites.	eng
33612	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although further locations are likely to be found the known populations are evidently very small; only one, at Ambondromifehy, contains more than a dozen individuals.	eng
33612	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This region of northern Madagascar is considerably disturbed by fire and the extraction of firewood and timber. Seed predation by rats also appears to be limiting the chances of population recruitment.	eng
33613	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	In Taiwan, the population is confined to Lanyu Island. Information is needed on the populations in Philippines.	eng
33613	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
33613	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The number of mature individuals in Taiwan is very small (less than 250). Nothing is known of its status in the Philippines.	eng
33613	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Poor regeneration and housing developments cause the most serious concern for remaining populations.	eng
33614	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is common in the Philippines, however, the distribution in Taiwan is uncertain.	eng
33614	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows in disturbed forest and on forest edges.	eng
33614	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been 14 collections in the last 30 years.	eng
33615	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree of lowland forest found along rivers and near beaches.	eng
33615	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
33616	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species found in Indo-China and western Malaysia.	eng
33616	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam, this tree occurs in evergreen tropical rainforest or monsoon forest.	eng
33616	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used for construction of ships, vehicles, posts and agricultural tools.	eng
33617	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	An ornamental shrub confined to Lanyu Island.	eng
33617	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Areas of dry scrub.	eng
33617	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	Locally abundant.	eng
33617	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	None of the populations are protected and, in places, they are susceptible to increasing settlement and cultivation of the land.	eng
33618	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This widespread species is distributed from Hainan throughout Indo-China and Malaysia to New Guinea.	eng
33618	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forests.	eng
33618	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The populations in Sabah are under some threat.	eng
33619	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is highly variable. Found on eastern Kauai, the Koolau Mts. on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.	eng
33619	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered individuals are found in various forest types up to 1,830 m.	eng
33620	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is the major source of illipe nuts, which ensures its protection under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).	eng
33620	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This lowland tree is one of the fastest growing species of the genus. It is found frequently along rivers and in areas which are periodically inundated.	eng
33621	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is protected under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990) as a major source of illipe nuts.	eng
33621	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This large tree is a riverine and freshwater swamp species.	eng
33622	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	It is afforded  protection by Sarawak's  Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).	eng
33622	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A relatively small dipterocarp which occurs in river forest.	eng
33623	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is protected under Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Bill (1990).  Some populations also occur in primary forest reserves.	eng
33623	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	This timber species is locally common in the patchy lowland heath forest. It has been planted for its especially large illipe nuts.	eng
33624	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The taxon is classified as endangered on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33624	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly ranging from Waihanau Valley to Papalaua Valley on East Molokai, the taxon is now reduced to an area stretching for 5 km on the northern coast, where three subpopulations occur.	eng
33624	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Along steep cliffs.	eng
33624	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no more than 100 individuals in the only known extant location.	eng
33624	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Feral goats are a major cause of damage to the habitat.	eng
33625	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three localized populations, two on Kauai at Lihue and Olokele Canyon, and in the Waianae Mts. between Kawaihapai and Puupane on Oahu.	eng
33625	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dry forest and shrubland.	eng
33626	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-west Kaui	eng
33626	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is confined to forest up to 1,100 m.	eng
33627	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33627	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Kauai, where two remaining subpopulations occur in adjacent valleys, Limahuli and Hanakapiai, on the north coast. An additional subpopulation in Kalihiwai appears to be extinct.	eng
33627	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
33627	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	After Hurricane Iniki, the subpopulation in Hanakapiai Valley was halved to about 25 plants. The second population consists of between 50 and 100 plants.	eng
33627	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland rainforest habitat is frequently damaged by feral pigs and invaded by introduced plants.	eng
33628	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to populations in Puukeahiakahoe and Kawai Nui on the summit of Koolau Mts.	eng
33628	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small rainforest tree.	eng
33629	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Oahu along the crest of the Koolau Mts. from the south-eastern end to Castle Trail.	eng
33629	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from populations in cloudswept forest.	eng
33629	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
33630	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai in Kokee and Hanapepe Valley.	eng
33630	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in rainforest between 1,060 and 1,220 m in altitude.	eng
33631	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Mt. Cameroon Project has already conducted a detailed survey of this species on the mountain and has been energetic in developing methods for propagating and replanting it.	eng
33631	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane Africa (to East and South Africa) and Madagascar. This species is one of about ten Pan-African montane tree species (including e.g., <em>Agauria salicifolia, Ilex mitis</em> and <em>Myrica arborea</em>) and is not remotely in danger of extinction, so long as some montane forest survives somewhere within its enormous range.	eng
33631	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest, usually at about 1800-2200 m alt.	eng
33631	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally it can be very common.	eng
33631	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Harvesting of bark for the European medicinal market. On Mt Cameroon as with some other areas within the range of this species, many trees have died as a result of girdling caused by bark removal. The bark from the trees on Mt Cameroon is transported to the Plantecam factory at Mutengene where it is extracted to produce a powder for export to a company in France. A great deal of attention, and funding has been paid by International Conservation organizations to investigate and address this harvest and perhaps for this reason the species has received a high conservation rating. In the opinion of this author, it merits a "Lower Risk, near threatened"  at  best.	eng
33632	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety represents the most threatened of about eight varieties of this widely dominating and variable Hawaiian endemic.	eng
33632	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to remaining forms of forest and shrubland, usually along watercourses, from low to middle elevation.	eng
33633	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai from the Powerline Trail to the Maunahina-Wainiha drainage. It is thought a collection from Honopu Valley on the Napali coast may also represent this species.	eng
33633	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to forested valleys up to 650 m.	eng
33634	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Scattered individuals occur on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin and Felicité.	eng
33634	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Thought to be once more abundant, the subspecies is now restricted mainly to higher altitudes. Subpopulations once known on Round and Long Island are now extinct.	eng
33634	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Declines are probably attributable to historical deforestation.	eng
33635	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The status of this species is not well consolidated. It appears to have become extinct in the areas from which it was known. There is, however, a possibility that it occurs in Mississippi and Lousiana.	eng
33636	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall tree of evergreen forest.	eng
33636	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently known only from the type collection.	eng
33637	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species endemic to the Andaman Islands and Great Nicobar Island.	eng
33637	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen rainforest.	eng
33637	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale logging has taken place on the Andamans and there is no doubt that the species has declined as a result.	eng
33638	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is confined to the Khasi Hills.	eng
33638	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
33638	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single occurrence is known and numbers are believed to be very small.	eng
33639	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to the Palni and Kodaikanal Hills.	eng
33639	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the fringes of moist evergreen forest at an altitude of 2,150 m.	eng
33639	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been found in recent years.	eng
33639	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	May have suffered the conversion of its habitat to agricultural land.	eng
33640	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single locality in the Western Ghats.	eng
33640	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest at about 1,500 m.	eng
33640	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known about this species. It has been collected only once or twice.	eng
33641	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs over a wide range at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
33641	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen and shola forest between 600 and 2,000 m.	eng
33641	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33642	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to the Anamalai range and parts of the Nilgiris.	eng
33642	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in evergreen forest and shola forest above 1,800 m.	eng
33642	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its habitat has been strongly affected by fire and conversion to commercial plantations.	eng
33643	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus known only from the two collections from a small area in the Anamalai Hills in Coimbatore District.	eng
33643	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
33643	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are large areas of intact and well-protected forest. However, despite repeated botanical surveys, the species has not been found since 1912.	eng
33645	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to a small area in the Travancore range, occurring at Ponmudi and Ariankavu.	eng
33645	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of lowland forest.	eng
33645	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to have become extremely scarce. No collections have been made in the last 100 years. Only small remnants of forest now exist within its former range.	eng
33645	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest cutting.	eng
33646	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Aka Hills, Naga Hills and Garo Hills.	eng
33646	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in open situations in evergreen forest.	eng
33646	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No recent collections have been made and the species is believed to have become scarce.	eng
33646	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Encroaching agriculture has caused declines in the species' habitat.	eng
33647	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurs over a range extending from South Kanara in Karnataka to the southern tip of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu.	eng
33647	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A large tree sparsely distributed in evergreen hill forest and deciduous forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.	eng
33647	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The population has declined considerably because of overexploitation and habitat degradation. Regeneration appears to be very poor.	eng
33648	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The main concentration of subpopulations occurs near Muthukuzhivayal. Outlying subpopulations exist further north towards Anamalai.	eng
33648	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Evergreen hill forest.	eng
33648	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Large areas of forest have been destroyed for the Kodayar Hydroelectric Project and also for the establishment of plantation crops. Fruits have been overcollected.	eng
33649	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two forest localities in Kerempani, Assam, and Singtam, Sikkim.	eng
33649	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was last collected in 1938.	eng
33650	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Endemic to the Western Ghats in Kerala.	eng
33650	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The species occurs in scattered pockets of evergreen forest along streamsides.	eng
33650	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	It is believed to have been wiped out from several locations where there has been logging, clearing for commercial agriculture or other projects.	eng
33651	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to a single locality in the Nilgiris.	eng
33651	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest, occurring between 1,800 and 2,400 m.	eng
33652	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree scattered in forest remnants in the Western Ghats.	eng
33652	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Several occurrences recorded from the turn of the century no longer appear to exist. The most recent collections are from Bangare in Upper Bisle Ghat and the Bababudan Hills.	eng
33653	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a disjunct distribution, occurring in the Velligonda Hills in the south of the Eastern Ghats and in Quilon in coastal Kerala.	eng
33653	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known of the present status of the subpopulations as no record of them has been made since 1923.	eng
33654	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The only record of the species comes from a imprecisely located collection in the Deccan Peninsula. Botanical explorations in the Eastern and Western Ghats have failed to find the species.	eng
33655	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded from a single locality in Mangalore in South Kanara District, Karnataka.	eng
33655	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been found this century despite thorough searches.	eng
33655	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only fragments of the original forest now remain.	eng
33656	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats in Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.	eng
33656	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest slopes.	eng
33656	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is believed to have disappeared from all its recorded localities except for one on the forested eastern slopes of the Kalrayans Hills, where about 20 trees survive.	eng
33657	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A taxon known only from a few localities in Meghalaya.	eng
33657	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	How many of the localities harbour extant populations is not known. No record of the taxon has been made since 1935 despite explorations in the area.	eng
33657	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest in Meghalaya has been seriously fragmented and reduced to sacred groves in many places.	eng
33659	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fence is erected around it and continuing damage has led to construction of a further three fences. Cuttings have been propagated at Kew Botanic Gardens but attempts at re-introduction had failed until 1996, when cuttings raised in Rodrigues successfully rooted.	eng
33659	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Café marron</em> is reduced to just one surviving individual.	eng
33660	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Described in the mid-1800s, this species was apparently restricted to a single locality in Las Pozas, Pinar del Río Province.	eng
33660	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The type locality has been completely destroyed and the species has not been collected again despite thorough searches.	eng
33661	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33661	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-west Haleakala, Maui.	eng
33661	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane wet forest.	eng
33661	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sites where the species was historically known to occur no longer appear to harbour subpopulations. Only a relatively recently discovered locality in the Kipahulu Valley in Haleakala National Park still holds a subpopulation, which is estimated to consist of fewer than 300 individuals.	eng
33661	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Feral pigs, although presently controlled, require constant vigilance. The spread of introduced plants also presents a serious threat to the long-term survival of the species.	eng
33662	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Waianae Mts., Oahu.	eng
33662	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest between 910 and 1,220 m.	eng
33662	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon and restricted from Puukaua to Mt. Kaala.	eng
33663	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main subpopulation occurs in the Waianae Mts. There are also collections from Manoa and Palolo Valleys in the Koolau Mts. and a tentative specimen from Maui.	eng
33663	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33664	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a few collections, in Kaholuamanu and Mt. Waialeale on Kauai.	eng
33664	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree thought to be taken from boggy rainforest above 1,000 m.	eng
33664	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is now probably extinct.	eng
33665	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from Ukuele, on Maui.	eng
33665	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found in rainforest at 1,220 m.	eng
33665	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Last seen in 1919.	eng
33666	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33666	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally known only from the type locality on the north side of Haupu, on Kauai, the species has now been found in Waimea Canyon.	eng
33666	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The first subpopulation no longer exists and at the second site there are two trees 1.6 km apart.	eng
33666	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is frequently degraded by feral goats and the invasion of alien plants.	eng
33667	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.	eng
33667	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable species of dry, and occasionally moist, forest up to 1,220 m.	eng
33667	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is extensively degraded because of the impact of cattle, feral herbivores and introduced plants.	eng
33668	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to the Waianae Mts., Oahu, where it has been collected in an area extending from Puukaua to Piko Trail.	eng
33668	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33669	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33669	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Olokele Valley and Waimea on Kauai, and Auwahi and Kanaio, on Maui.	eng
33669	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On Kauai a total of four isolated individuals are known. On Maui, at one time locally common, the species has been reduced to 20 or 30 plants in two subpopulations.	eng
33669	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been steadily degraded by grazing and the invasion of introduced plants.	eng
33670	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai.	eng
33670	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from just a few collections from two localities, the Robinson's summer house and Kaholuamanu.	eng
33671	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree is endemic to Oahu, in the Waianae Mts. from Palawai to Makaha Valley.	eng
33671	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest up to an altitude of 1,220 m.	eng
33672	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33672	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the southern slope of Haleakala on East Maui, and from Kupaia Gulch on Molokai.	eng
33672	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of dryland forest.	eng
33672	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On East Maui, the species is kKnown from three collections taken in 1920. On Molokai, it is known from a single collection taken in 1985. The Maui population is likely to be extinct. The population on Molokai consists of just three individuals.	eng
33672	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Goats are evidently browsing the trees and there is an immediate threat of invasion by molasses grass.	eng
33673	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type, of unknown locality but thought to originate from Maui.	eng
33673	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Presumed to be extinct.	eng
33674	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Maui, where it is restricted from Pohakea to Honokahua in the west and from Makawao to Koolau Gap in the east.	eng
33674	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in medium-elevation rainforest.	eng
33675	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been taken from populations on the upper Lihue Ditch Trail at 875 m and from Waihiawa Bog at 580 m.	eng
33675	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three collections have been made of this small tree. The species has not been found in recent years and is now probably extinct.	eng
33676	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kalalau and Puuokila Look-outs.	eng
33676	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree reported to be scarce and restricted to rainforest above 1,070 m.	eng
33677	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33677	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Oahu, in an area between Puu Kaua and Puu Kanehoa to Mauna Kapu in the Waianae and Koolau Mts.	eng
33677	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species grows to an elevation of 853 m on forested ridges.	eng
33677	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Eight subpopulations, containing fewer than 150 individuals.	eng
33677	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Feral goats, pigs and invasive plants are continuing threats to the native flora.	eng
33678	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to Oahu, where it is known from subpopulations occurring in the Waianae Mts. and from Kahana Iki to Waimalu in the Koolau Mts.	eng
33678	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
33679	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wahiawa Bog and an area ranging from Alakai Swamp to Mt. Waialeale on Kauai.	eng
33679	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A many-branched shrub or tree which occurs in open bogs and bog hummocks.	eng
33680	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known primarily from occurrences in the Koolau Mts. and an occasional appearance in the Waianae Mts. on Oahu. A single collection has also been made from Wahiawa Bog on Kauai.	eng
33680	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree.	eng
33681	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
33681	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	To date the species has been found in three locations on Hawaii.	eng
33681	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only one location, a fenced site at Kipuka Pualu, still harbours an extant population, containing 30 to 35 individuals. Regeneration appears to be taking place.	eng
33681	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are threats of leafhopper infestations, invasive plants and rat damage.	eng
33682	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Found on Kauai, Oahu, and in Olowalu and Lao Valley on Maui. A single collection was also taken from Olokui Plateau on Molokai.	eng
33682	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are found in rainforest up to an altitude of 1,160 m.	eng
33682	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the most common of the species and the only one that attains the stature of a tree.	eng
33683	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Niihau, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii Islands.	eng
33683	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable species of dry to occasionally moist forest up to 800 m.	eng
33684	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33684	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Low montane shrubland and dwarf <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland; mainly on granite in the Haggeher, but also less commonly on limestone (Reyged). Typically above 600 m, lower altitudes are atypical. Altitude of (120–)600–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>H. mysorense</em> a species from Southern India and Sri Lanka.	eng
33684	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The subpopulations are believed to be stable and under no immediate threat.	eng
33685	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33685	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Evergreen and semi-deciduous montane woodland. Altitude of 500–1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Distinct from other species on the island in both its habit and habitat: it is the only species that grows as a tree rather than as a herbs or shrublet and is the only species restricted to the relatively moist submontane vegetation of higher altitudes in the Haggeher mountains. It is probable that I. socotrana has a different evolutionary history from that of most other Soqotran <em>Indigofereae</em>: these radiated in response to the advance of arid conditions throughout Northwest Africa (Schrire 1995) during the Miocene. <br/> <br/>One of the few arborescent <em>Indigofera</em> species. It is scattered relatively sparsely in areas of submontane and montane woodland.	eng
33686	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. Found on Socotra and also Samha, one of The Brothers.	eng
33686	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common over the limestone plateaus of Soqotra; rare in relict woodland at the base of the limestone escarpment on Samha. Altitude of 500–700 m.	eng
33686	population	Miller, A., 2004	Its occurrence is very scattered but subpopulations are under no immediate threat.	eng
33687	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in tropical Africa and Arabia; subspecies <em>socotranum</em> is endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33687	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread on the plains and limestone plateau, and often abundant in succulent shrubland on the escarpments and rocky foothills; extending into <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland in rocky places on the plains and into open semi-deciduous woodland at higher altitudes on the hills. Altitude of sea-level to 700 (–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>With its grotesquely swollen, almost human-like trunks and large bright pink flowers <em>Adenium obesum</em> is one of the most spectacular and characteristic plants of Soqotra. <em>A. obesum</em>, the desert rose , is widely distributed in Africa an Arabia. Across this wide range five subspecies have been recognized. The Soqotran plants have been placed in subspecies <em>socotranum</em> (Vierh.) <em>Lavranos</em> . This is endemic to Soqotra and is distinguished by its massive size and erect, conical stems. They can be up to 5 m high and 3 m across. Where they grow on the edge of escarpment their stems are covered in lichen and they appear to merge into the surrounding rocks. <em>Adenium</em> comes into leaf in winter, drops its leaves in summer and then comes into flower; it is one of the shrubs that does not need rain to flower.	eng
33687	population	Miller, A., 2004	It is very common in some areas.	eng
33688	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	A variety which is endemic to Soqotra. Usually found below 700 m, but rarely extending to over 1,000 m on the Diksam Plateau (100–1,1050 m).	eng
33688	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Found in succulent shrubland (also referred to as dry woodland) on the limstone escarpments and sides of wadis.	eng
33688	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The wood (although soft) was used in the past for making fishing platforms and rafts. The foliage is one of the most important fodders on the island, especially for cattle. If livestock numbers increase, the tree would come under increasing threat.	eng
33689	distribution	Miller.A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33689	habitat	Miller.A., 2004	Dominant in the drought-deciduous woodland which follow the wadis in the Zahr basin (such as Wadi Meyhah); also rare in the western part of the Noged Escarpment. Altitude of 100–500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to the small valleys which cross the western inland plains and in gullies and ravines in the western plateau. This is the first shrub in the west to comes into leaf after rain and last to die back with the onset of dry conditions. An unusually arborescent member of <em>Convolvulaceae</em>.	eng
33690	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33690	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Tree < 5 m, branches rather tortuous; bark smooth, grey. Leaves clustered, pinnate with 3–7 leaflets; leaflets ovate to broadly elliptic, 4–9 x 2–6 cm, entire, glabrous or thinly hairy to velvety. Flowers in raceme-like cymes, <em>ca</em>. 5 mm. Fruits fleshy, clustered  on stalks 5–15 cm long, bright green, grape-like, globose, <em>ca</em>. 10 mm long. <br/> <br/>Radcliffe-Smith recognised two varieties have been recognised: var. <em>glabra</em> (from eastern Soqotra) with glabrous leaves and var. <em>ornifolia</em> (from western Soqotra) with hairy leaves. However, there are many intermediates and they have not been maintained here.	eng
33690	population	Miller, A., 2004	Although widespread on coastal plains and foothills, the subpopulations are generally scattered and small.	eng
33690	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Increasing goat numbers could cause the species to become more seriously threatened.	eng
33691	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33691	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in dry areas on Soqotra; locally common in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland on the plains and locally abundant in succulent shrubland on limestone; less common on igneous rocks; rare on Samha. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/><em>Dendrosicyos socotranus</em> is a monotypic, endemic genus, and perhaps the best example of the swollen-trunked bottle-trees for which Soqotra is famous. On Soqotra it is widely distributed in several vegetation types but has a rather fragmented distribution; over large areas there are only isolated trees or small, relict populations, whilst in other ares it is relatively abundant. There are a few trees on the island of Samha, but none on Darsa or Abd al-Kuri.	eng
33691	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The whole plant is cut and pulped for livestock fodder. Although current levels of use are sustainable, there is a potential risk of increasing livestock numbers placing populations under severe pressure.	eng
33693	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
33693	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Frequent in submontane semi-deciduous woodland on granite; rare in succulent shrubland. Altitude of (100–)500–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other species of <em>Croton</em> on Soqotra by its large, cordate leaves and larger, more coarsely and densely stellate-hairy fruits.	eng
33693	population	Miller, A., 2004	The species is scattered, although occasionally common.	eng
33693	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
33694	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread in the Moluccas and New Guinea.	eng
33694	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in various habitat types, including secondary forest.	eng
33695	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Confined to north-west Borneo.	eng
33695	threats	Ashton, P., 1998	This tree is one of the major sources of light red meranti timber.	eng
33696	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	Found only in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
33696	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	The species is locally common in thickets on gravel.	eng
33698	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species grows in lowland forest up to 200 m altitude.	eng
33698	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.	eng
33700	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	An emergent lowland tree that grows on deep clay-rich soils.	eng
33701	conservation	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species is listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>.	eng
33701	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Barbados, Virgin Islands and Colombia. Extinct or almost extinct in Antigua, Anguilla and Barbuda.	eng
33701	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A slow-growing species of lowland dry forest, woodland and thicket, frequently growing in coastland areas.	eng
33701	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Where it still occurs, populations are now severely reduced. Regeneration is good but growth is very slow.	eng
33701	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The timber and medicinal resin have been traded for several centuries as lignum-vitae and overexploitation has taken place throughout the species' range.	eng
33702	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are scarce and restricted to coastal areas in the south.	eng
33703	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nusa Kambangan is an island controlled by the Prison Service, with very limited access.	eng
33703	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in forest remnants on Nusa Kambangan and possibly Ujung Kulon.	eng
33703	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was last collected in 1970.	eng
33703	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The vegetation of the island is threatened by timber thieves, who are removing timber regardless of the armed guard patrol.	eng
33704	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in scattered populations throughout India to Indo-China and Malaysia.	eng
33704	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree usually occurring in evergreen or monsoon or dry dipterocarp forest below 1,000 m.	eng
33704	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in Viet Nam are scarce.	eng
33705	conservation	Duke, N., Katherisan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
33705	distribution	Duke, N., Katherisan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is found in most of Southeast Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia and south Viet Nam. It is also found in the northeast tip of Australia and Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and to New Caledonia, and in Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) and Palau.	eng
33705	habitat	Duke, N., Katherisan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species grows in the upstream estuarine areas, riverine influenced areas, areas of high rainfall, and all across intertidal zones. This is a small, sprawling tree and is fast growing. This species is often associated with <em>Nypa fruticans</em> and <em>Acanthus ilicifolius</em>.	eng
33705	population	Duke, N., Katherisan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is uncommon throughout its range. It is rare in Australia and is only found in two esturies there (Duke 2006). It is also rare in the south of Viet Nam and in Yap. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
33705	threats	Duke, N., Katherisan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
33706	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found throughout Indo-China and much of Indonesia.	eng
33706	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in lowland to montane forests up to 2,400 m.	eng
33707	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in primary and secondary mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
33707	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Three varieties are recognised, all of which are fairly widespread and common.	eng
33709	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cutting of trees in Mathuata and Mbua is restricted.	eng
33709	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on four of the high islands. It has become rare on Viti Levu. The subpopulations on the north coast of Vanua Levu are probably the least disturbed.	eng
33709	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dry dense forest and occasionally on the inner edges of mangroves.	eng
33709	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is sometimes locally abundant.	eng
33709	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A desirable timber, used for house posts and marine constructions. Cutting and coastal developments are responsible for its decline.	eng
33710	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed in Indo-China and Malaysia.	eng
33710	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest up to 2,200 m.	eng
33711	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread small tree, sometimes a shrub.	eng
33711	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Utilized for its wood.	eng
33712	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Widespread.	eng
33712	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree.	eng
33712	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Common.	eng
33713	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	West Malaysia.	eng
33713	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Although fairly widespread, the species has been collected only twice in recent years.	eng
33715	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extremely widespread species.	eng
33715	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary forest, occurring on most soils types.	eng
33716	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree of primary forest and swamp forest up to 1,450 m.	eng
33716	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
33717	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A lowland dipterocarp forest species found growing on sandy clay soils.	eng
33718	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations of this species occur in some primary forest reserves.	eng
33719	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	In the national park and forest reserves of the area conservation measures are in place.	eng
33719	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Eastern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
33719	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species commonly occurs along streams and rivers, in lowland and hill forests.	eng
33719	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pressures from expanding human settlements and logging activities are exerted on the species.  The seed of the tree is used locally as a vertebrate poison.	eng
33720	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Java, Singapore and the states of Penang, Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Pahang, Selangor, Malacca and Johore.	eng
33720	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in moist forest between 150 and 1,000 m.	eng
33721	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	The species is locally abundant on limestone slopes.	eng
33723	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs from areas in the west to as far east as Gunung Telomojo.	eng
33723	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered in remnant montane and hill forest.	eng
33723	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat has been almost completely cleared in areas below 1,400 m and the pressures are intense on remaining areas.	eng
33724	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species found in many habitat types.	eng
33725	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely distributed species in west Malaysia. It is rare in Sumatra.	eng
33726	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This tree is commonly found in periodically inundated forest on river banks.	eng
33726	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The wood is used for construction and for making furniture and agricultural implements.	eng
33728	conservation	Page, W. & Florens, D., 2000	In-situ conservation at Mondrain already in practice. Propagation is carried out for public, as the plant has medicinal properties	eng
33728	distribution	Page, W. & Florens, D., 2000	Localities: Mondrain, Pieter Both, Gubbies, Piton du Fouge.	eng
33728	population	Page, W. & Florens, D., 2000	Fewer than 12 adult individuals are known, most of them in Piton du Fouge Ridge Forest. There is a chance there are more individuals in more remote areas.	eng
33729	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Recorded from the parishes of St Elizabeth and St James.	eng
33729	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Woodlands on limestone, between 400 and 610 m.	eng
33730	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts.	eng
33730	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety occurs in montane forest at higher altitudes, above 1,700 m.	eng
33731	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	A locally common species in St Andrew, St Thomas and Portland.	eng
33731	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Occurring in shady woodland on limestone or shale between 280 and 1,130 m.	eng
33731	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Almost all the forest at these altitudes has been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
33732	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Portland.	eng
33732	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in remaining areas of rainforest and mossy thickets on limestone between 530 and 900 m.	eng
33733	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species as a whole is distributed from Florida to Venezuela. This variety is endemic to Jamaica, where it is found in small subpopulations in St Andrew and Clarendon.	eng
33733	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thickets and woodland on limestone between 210 and 790 m.	eng
33734	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in small numbers, the species is confined to the southern John Crow Mts.	eng
33734	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On rocky serpentine hillsides, between 750 and 900 m.	eng
33735	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of two varieties of a Jamaican endemic. It has a local distribution in St James and Trelawny.	eng
33735	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in thickets and on open banks on rocky limestone.	eng
33736	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Jamaica. This variety is known only from the type, which was collected in Manchester.	eng
33737	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from populations in Clarendon and St Ann.	eng
33737	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender shrub or tree in woodland on limestone.	eng
33738	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three localities are known, containing small populations in St Catherine and St Thomas.	eng
33738	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation has almost removed all forest areas below 1,400 m in St Thomas.	eng
33739	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known whether the species occurs outside the type locality or whether it is now extinct.	eng
33739	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality of the species appears to have been cleared for charcoal production.	eng
33740	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very poorly known species, recorded only from a single herbarium specimen.	eng
33741	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are known from Westmoreland and Hanover.	eng
33741	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs locally in thickets and woodlands on limestone rocks.	eng
33742	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from Portland.	eng
33742	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs locally in wet mossy thickets and woodland on limestone areas.	eng
33743	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.	eng
33743	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of woodland on limestone rocks.	eng
33743	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in rare and local subpopulations.	eng
33744	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hanover.	eng
33744	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to a small area of woodland on limestone.	eng
33745	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are restricted to Peckham Woods and Douglas Castle Woods.	eng
33745	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is evidence of cutting and agricultural encroachment in both localities.	eng
33746	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found uncommonly in the western highlands.	eng
33746	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane rainforest species above 750 m.	eng
33747	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from the summit of Bubby Hill.	eng
33747	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland.	eng
33747	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is susceptible to selective logging and other disturbances.	eng
33748	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of two threatened varieties of a Jamaican endemic.	eng
33748	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be known from two subpopulations. The one on Quaco Rock is probably extinct as the vegetation has been cleared, largely for charcoal production. There is also a population along the road between Balcarres and Sunbury.	eng
33749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety or possibly a distinct species. It occurs in St Elizabeth, where the only known population is on Top Hill.	eng
33749	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is susceptible to cutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
33750	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently, the species is known only from the Ramgoat Cave area in Trelawny.	eng
33751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Parishes of Clarendon and St Ann.	eng
33751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Similar in many respects to <em>L. fawcettii</em>, the species occurs in thickets on limestone hills in a narrow altitudinal band.	eng
33752	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic found in a confined area in St James and Trelawny.	eng
33752	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
33753	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Trelawny.	eng
33753	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
33753	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33754	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to St Thomas Parish.	eng
33754	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest areas in the parish have almost completely disappeared or are severely degraded.	eng
33754	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest areas in the parish have almost completely disappeared or are severely degraded.	eng
33755	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Dolphin Head.	eng
33755	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to an area of woodland.	eng
33756	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only in Trelawny.	eng
33756	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
33757	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to highland areas in the parishes of Manchester and St Ann.	eng
33757	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare bushy tree of highland areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
33758	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Andrew and Portland Parishes.	eng
33758	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in exposed montane thickets and woodland on steep slopes, 1,200 to 1,500 m.	eng
33758	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbance and clearing of the habitat has been extensive but mostly at lower altitudes in more accessible sites.	eng
33759	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It has been recorded only from the parishes of Portland and St Thomas.	eng
33759	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A rare species of swampy forest on limestone between 450 and 760 m.	eng
33759	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A large part of the forest at these altitudes has been destroyed.	eng
33760	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Ann Parish.	eng
33760	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
33761	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in Portland, with a recently discovered population at a lower altitude above Ecclesdown.	eng
33761	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In moist mossy montane forest.	eng
33761	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree.	eng
33761	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The vegetation has been heavily cleared for agriculture and forestry activities.	eng
33762	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to St Ann Parish.	eng
33762	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An extremely rare species, which is poorly known and has not been recently collected.	eng
33763	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen, which was collected in St Ann.	eng
33763	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree of montane woodland.	eng
33764	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Westmoreland and Hanover.	eng
33764	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, restricted to woodland areas on limestone.	eng
33765	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus endemic to Jamaica in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
33765	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is rare and confined to lowland areas of arid thickets on limestone.	eng
33766	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Manchester Parish.	eng
33766	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree, in upland woodland in rocky limestone areas.	eng
33766	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very rare.	eng
33767	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic in Trelawny and St James.	eng
33767	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a large tree, valuable for its timber, confined to areas of woodland on limestone hills.	eng
33768	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known locality exists in Hanover Parish, part of the Dolphin Head.	eng
33768	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland area on limestone.	eng
33769	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The total population is estimated to contain fewer than 50 individuals and the number is declining. The single small tree which had survived out of a recorded population of six individuals on Hog House Hill, John Crow Mts., has not been found again. The area is now planted with bananas. Another population of about 30 trees is located in hurricane-damaged forest on Holland Mt. and a single tree has been found in One Day Cave near Bethel.	eng
33770	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	The type variety of a shrubby endemic, which is confined to St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
33770	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Remnants of dry lowland thicket and woodland on limestone.	eng
33770	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Almost all forest areas have been deforested or severely degraded.	eng
33771	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variant of a Jamaican endemic found in Trelawny.	eng
33771	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows largely as a shrub, in thickets on rocky limestone hillsides.	eng
33772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the western Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts.	eng
33772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane habitats between 1,160 and 1,700 m.	eng
33772	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has an occasional to common distribution.	eng
33773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to St Catherine and St Ann Parishes.	eng
33773	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33774	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Trelawny.	eng
33774	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of woodland on limestone hills.	eng
33774	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33775	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in Westmoreland.	eng
33775	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wooded limestone hillside.	eng
33775	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known and uncommon species.	eng
33776	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Dolphin Head.	eng
33776	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to areas of woodland on limestone in the north-east.	eng
33776	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very uncommon tree.	eng
33777	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring only in Trelawny.	eng
33777	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from an area of marsh and one other site along a brook in limestone hills.	eng
33778	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A large tree with a local distribution in St Elizabeth and St James.	eng
33778	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	On limestone hills.	eng
33778	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Population numbers are very low.	eng
33778	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The habitat is severely degraded in places and under constant threat from cutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
33779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Trelawny.	eng
33779	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to areas of woodland on limestone hilltops.	eng
33779	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
33780	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is endemic to the Cockpit Country in St Elizabeth, Hanover and Trelawny Parishes.	eng
33780	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of woodland on limestone hills.	eng
33780	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both tree and habitat are under pressure from rapid rates of clearing and cutting.	eng
33781	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	This species is found only in areas of woodland in St Andrew Parish.	eng
33781	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Woodland.	eng
33781	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Almost all forested areas in this parish are completely cleared or severely degraded.	eng
33782	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Confined to Clarendon Parish.	eng
33782	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurring in areas of wooded rocky limestone at about 760 m.	eng
33782	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species appears to be scarce.	eng
33783	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Ann Parish.	eng
33783	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found only in woodland areas on limestone hilltops.	eng
33784	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to have been found in only two locations in Trelawny. One is near a road extension west of Troy and the other is in woodland on a rocky limestone	eng
33784	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub.	eng
33785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to forested slopes on Dolphin Head.	eng
33785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested slopes.	eng
33785	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is rare.	eng
33785	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has experienced selective logging and hurricane damage.	eng
33786	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only a single locality, in Cooks Bottom, St Elizabeth Parish.	eng
33786	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs at the base of a wooded limestone cliff.	eng
33787	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	Confined to the St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
33787	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	It occurs on wooded hillsides.	eng
33787	population	Bellingham, P., 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
33787	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Almost all the forest in these parishes is either severely degraded or destroyed.	eng
33788	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby species occurs in south-west Haiti and Portland in Jamaica.	eng
33788	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of wet woodland or thicket on limestone.	eng
33788	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat in both islands has suffered severe decline largely because of forestry and agricultural expansion. Threats of cutting and clearing are still strong in remaining wooded areas.	eng
33789	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type locality in Peckham Woods.	eng
33789	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the area is degraded by cutting and lower slopes are planted with <em>Pinus caribaea</em>.	eng
33790	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in St Ann Parish.	eng
33790	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
33791	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	The species has a local distribution confined to Portland and St Thomas.	eng
33791	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Remaining areas of rainforest between 300 and 1,000 m.	eng
33791	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been heavily destroyed and degraded. Very little forest remains.	eng
33792	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in Trelawny and Clarendon. A doubtful record also comes from Hanover.	eng
33792	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of moist thickets, especially along streams.	eng
33793	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Dolphin Head and Bubby Hill where the species is found in low numbers on the summit.	eng
33793	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wooded areas.	eng
33794	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known from Copse Woods which is conserved by the landowners.	eng
33794	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single individual, which has not been satisfactorily identified, is the only currently known specimen of the species.	eng
33794	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbance has been limited to hurricane damage.	eng
33795	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is distributed between 670–950 m in St Ann and Clarendon Parishes.	eng
33796	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A subpopulation was once located in streamside thickets along the Mason River on the Clarendon-St Ann border.	eng
33796	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	No individuals have been seen or recorded since 1972 and the species is presently presumed extinct.	eng
33797	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Reported to occur in abundance, the species is confined to Portland.	eng
33797	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist forest on limestone between 450 and 600 m.	eng
33797	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Many areas have experienced logging and conversion to commercial plantations.	eng
33798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cockpit Country.	eng
33798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to forest areas in the highlands	eng
33799	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Jamaican endemic, known from just two locations in Cockpit Country.	eng
33799	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upland forest.	eng
33800	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the central parishes.	eng
33800	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub , appearing on wooded rocky limestone hilltops.	eng
33800	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncommon.	eng
33801	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic occurring in Trelawny and Clarendon Parishes.	eng
33801	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subpopulation is recorded from Peckham Woods, where cutting and agricultural encroachment are evident. Similar activities are frequent in other localities.	eng
33802	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare tree, known only from the type specimen, which was collected in the last century.	eng
33803	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs in Portland Parish.	eng
33803	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Mossy woodland on limestone above 510 m.	eng
33803	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Rare and localised.	eng
33804	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic.	eng
33804	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in areas of woodland on craggy limestone.	eng
33805	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in the parish of St Catherine.	eng
33805	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub confined to wooded limestone hills.	eng
33806	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from the parish of Clarendon.	eng
33806	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs on wooded rocky limestone hilltops at about 760 m.	eng
33807	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurs in separate localities in Clarendon.	eng
33807	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Apparently only two trees survive.	eng
33808	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas in Manchester Parish.	eng
33808	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree occurring in woodland on limestone hillsides.	eng
33809	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known from Clarendon, Trelawny and St James.	eng
33809	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Only three trees remain, in separate localities.	eng
33809	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The site at Broom Hall in Clarendon has been almost completely deforested.	eng
33810	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurring only in Trelawny.	eng
33810	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species is known from populations found on wooded limestone hills, between 450 and 600 m.	eng
33811	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of woodland on rocky hillsides along the base of limestone cliffs.	eng
33811	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is uncommon in a habitat that is constantly vulnerable to cutting.	eng
33812	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Dolphin Head, Hanover Parish.	eng
33812	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree which is localised in areas of hill forest between 300 and 500 m.	eng
33813	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to the western Blue Mts. It has been reported from the headwaters of the Mabess River and also, very rarely, from the Grand Ridge.	eng
33813	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
33814	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurs in Westmoreland, Manchester and St Catherine.	eng
33814	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Last collected from an area of damp thicket at the base of a wooded limestone hill.	eng
33814	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species is apparently scarce. The most recent collection was taken in 1965.	eng
33815	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hanover and Westmoreland Parishes.	eng
33815	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to wooded banks and hillsides.	eng
33816	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known from Dolphin Head, Hanover Parish.	eng
33816	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A small tree from limestone hillsides.	eng
33816	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known from three collections.	eng
33817	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly found in St Andrew Parish.	eng
33817	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree was known to occur in montane forests at about 1,200 m.	eng
33817	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost all the forest below 1,400 m has been cleared or severely degraded.	eng
33818	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The locality of this variety is unconfirmed. It was last reported in Egnor Gap in 1893. The species as a whole is local in distribution and confined to Jamaica.	eng
33819	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to parts of the John Crow Mts. in St Thomas Parish.	eng
33819	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to remaining areas of moist forest at about 500 m.	eng
33819	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
33819	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost all of the forest in this parish have been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
33820	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A poorly known species of Portland and St Andrews Parishes.	eng
33820	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Populations are found at an altitude of about 1,500 m.	eng
33820	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Populations are largely safe from high levels of disturbance and human activity.	eng
33821	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a small area on the Dolphin Head.	eng
33821	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of up to 20 m.	eng
33822	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Only known from the parish of St Elizabeth.	eng
33822	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species is very localised along riverbanks at sea level.	eng
33823	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the John Crow Mts.	eng
33823	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of montane forest at about 1,000 m.	eng
33823	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
33824	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of found only in St Ann Parish.	eng
33824	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wooded limestone hillsides.	eng
33825	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be known only from the vicinity of Aboukir in St Ann Parish.	eng
33825	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in woodland on a rocky limestone hilltop.	eng
33826	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Portland.	eng
33826	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs at altitudes of 600-900 m.	eng
33826	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the habitat has been affected by forestry activities and logging.	eng
33827	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to Hanover Parish, where it was collected in 1965 west of Hillsbrook.	eng
33827	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Glade between limestone hills.	eng
33828	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been reported in recent years from two locations, Hog House Hill and Holland Mt. in the John Crow Mts.	eng
33828	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest on limestone.	eng
33829	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic, known from localities in Trelawny and Clarendon Parishes.	eng
33829	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The woodland in Warsop, where the type specimen was collected, has been severely degraded and attempts to find the species have failed.	eng
33830	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is apparently known only from specimens which originated from John Crow Mts. in St Thomas.	eng
33830	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has since been almost comprehensively deforested and no living populations are known.	eng
33831	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Portland.	eng
33831	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Confined to moist thickets on limestone.	eng
33831	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
33832	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in St Andrew Parish.	eng
33832	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to areas of submontane woodland on steep hillsides.	eng
33832	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to have been collected only once or twice.	eng
33832	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the forest in the parish has been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
33833	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	St Thomas Parish.	eng
33833	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A small tree or shrub of mossy montane woodland. It is recorded between 1,830 and 2,000 m.	eng
33834	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Jamaica. This variety is confined to Portland Parish.	eng
33834	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in mossy woodland on limestone between 450 and 600 m.	eng
33835	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Clarendon, St James and Trelawny.	eng
33835	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in woodland on limestone.	eng
33835	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33836	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	This variety is known from only a single locality on Croft's Mountain, Clarendon.	eng
33836	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	On a steep densely wooded hillside.	eng
33837	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Portland.	eng
33837	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An epiphytic tree or shrub confined to mossy forest on limestone between 450 and 750 m.	eng
33838	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from Trelawny.	eng
33838	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	On limestone, at about 680 m.	eng
33838	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	This variety occurs very locally.	eng
33839	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in Portland.	eng
33839	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree found on wet mossy thickets on limestone at 750 m.	eng
33840	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Portland.	eng
33840	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in moist thickets on limestone above 600 m.	eng
33841	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected at the summit of Dolphin Head.	eng
33841	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wooded limestone hillsides.	eng
33841	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thorough searches for the species in 1989 failed to locate it.	eng
33841	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apart from habitat declines and degradation, it is possible that Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 caused serious damage.	eng
33842	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from the John Crow Mts.	eng
33842	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodlands and thickets in wet areas.	eng
33843	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single sterile specimen is known from a ridge of woodland south of Sunbury. Another subpopulation is known in forest in St Ann Parish.	eng
33843	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat has been severely degraded by cutting and intensive agriculture.	eng
33844	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Only recorded from Portland Parish.	eng
33844	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree of moist mossy limestone forest between 450 and 600 m.	eng
33845	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from four localities: Peckham, Douglas Castle Woods, a location on a ridge south of Sunbury, and a site on jagged limestone on White Rock Hill.	eng
33845	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At two localities, Peckham and Douglas Castle Woods, attempts to find the species have failed. The Sunbury site is severely degraded. The last site, on White Rock Hill, appears to harbour a population which is in good condition.	eng
33845	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cutting and intensive cultivation	eng
33846	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from a small range in Hanover.	eng
33846	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone hillsides.	eng
33847	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Cockpit Country, where it occurs locally.	eng
33847	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or straggling shrub in woodland on limestone rocks.	eng
33847	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally recorded from four locations, attempts to find the species at three of these sites, Peckham Woods, Mango Tree Hill and Miss Laura's Hill, have failed.	eng
33847	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Frequent cutting and agricultural encroachment.	eng
33848	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Clarendon and St Ann.	eng
33848	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to woodland on limestone hills.	eng
33849	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Manchester and  St Ann.	eng
33849	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
33849	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33850	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type, collected at the beginning of the century.	eng
33851	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded only from two localities on limestone hills within 5 miles of Troy and on Donkey Trail Hill.	eng
33851	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The areas are susceptible to cutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
33852	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only found in the parishes of Hanover, St James and Trelawny.	eng
33852	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are confined to hillside woodland on limestone.	eng
33853	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from St Catherine Parish. Collections are recorded from Port Henderson and Great Goat Island.	eng
33853	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to a few areas of dry thicket on rocky limestone hills.	eng
33854	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	Known only from disjunct limestone localities in St Andrew and St James.	eng
33854	population	Bellingham, P., 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
33854	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Has experienced almost complete destruction or degradation of its habitat, particularly in St Andrew.	eng
33855	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trelawny and Westmoreland.	eng
33855	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, which is restricted to areas of woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
33856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic recorded from Peckham and Douglas Castle Woods and other areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
33856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
33856	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is evidence of cutting and agricultural encroachment at both these sites.	eng
33857	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic with a disjunct subpopulation at the summit of Dolphin Head.	eng
33857	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations occur in areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
33858	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very restricted in range, the species occurs in the area of Port Henderson Hill.	eng
33858	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low coastal scrub on dog-tooth limestone.	eng
33859	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from St Ann and Portland Parishes.	eng
33859	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to sheltered moist woodland on limestone at about 450 m.	eng
33859	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Many areas have been logged or taken over by commercial plantations.	eng
33860	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Crown Lands  in Troy in Trelawny.	eng
33860	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
33861	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to Trelawny.	eng
33861	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in open glades or woodland on clay banks.	eng
33862	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from Portland Parish, the species has a very local distribution. There is also a putative specimen in the forest above Ecclesdown.	eng
33862	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Confined to mossy thickets in wet areas on limestone.	eng
33863	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Portland.	eng
33863	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to rainforest on limestone between 530 and 600 m.	eng
33864	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It evidently occurs very rarely in Portland at 750 m.	eng
33864	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is very little information on this species.	eng
33865	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It appears to have been collected from only a single location near Troy.	eng
33865	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A limestone woodland species at about 600 m.	eng
33866	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from localities in St Elizabeth and St Mary.	eng
33866	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
33867	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	An endemic to the Cockpit Country, in Clarendon and Trelawny.	eng
33867	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurring on rocky limestone.	eng
33868	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Recorded only from Portland.	eng
33868	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs in damp thickets and mossy forest on limestone.	eng
33868	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It has recently been found above Ecclesdown.	eng
33869	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A species known only from the summit slopes of Dolphin Head.	eng
33869	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurs locally in moist forest on limestone between 450 and 500 m.	eng
33870	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the northern parts of John Crow Mts.	eng
33870	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in areas of moist shady woodland on limestone.	eng
33871	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the summits of Dolphin Head and Bubby Hill.	eng
33871	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There appear to be only a few individuals.	eng
33871	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is evidence of selective logging and some hurricane damage.	eng
33872	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a variety of a Caribbean endemic. It is known only from St Thomas.	eng
33872	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane thickets.	eng
33873	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from St Catherine, Clarendon and Manchester Parishes.	eng
33873	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to coastal thickets.	eng
33873	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is very rare.	eng
33874	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to St Andrew and St Elizabeth. Populations have been recorded from the southern side of Long Mt. and Great Pedro Bluff.	eng
33874	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to a narrow altitudinal range, between 240 and 270 m, in dry thickets on limestone .	eng
33874	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is uncommon.	eng
33875	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Only found in the parish of Trelawny.	eng
33875	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A small tree or shrub which occurs very rarely on rocky limestone hills between 480 and 600 m.	eng
33876	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Until 1975 the species was known only from the type specimen collected in thickets in Trelawny Parish in 1780.	eng
33876	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was rediscovered in an area which was being rapidly cleared. It is not known whether the species has survived.	eng
33877	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is little information about this species and no recent collection material. It is, apparently, confined to St Ann and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
33877	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is evidently very uncommon.	eng
33877	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost all forested areas below 1,400 m  in the latter parish have been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
33878	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Hanover.	eng
33878	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is very uncommon and little known.	eng
33879	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from St Andrew and Manchester Parishes.	eng
33879	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Dense thicket on limestone hills.	eng
33879	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species is found in localised areas.	eng
33880	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no recent records of this obscure species. It is believed to be endemic and is evidently very uncommon.	eng
33881	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Small subpopulations are known only from Clarendon Parish.	eng
33881	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Restricted to rocky limestone hilltops at about 760 m.	eng
33882	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic. Confined to Trelawny and St Ann.	eng
33882	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurs in woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
33882	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It is uncommon.	eng
33883	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to John Crows Mts., the species has been recorded in few localities, one above Ecclesdown and another at Proctor's Pool (a single individual).	eng
33883	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Elfin or moist forest on limestone.	eng
33884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic, found in the central and west-central parishes.	eng
33884	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland and woodland margins on rocky limestone.	eng
33884	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in low densities.	eng
33884	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is under the constant threat of being cut or cleared for agricultural expansion, e.g., at Peckham Woods.	eng
33885	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are no known measures to protect the species.	eng
33885	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Keizanchin, Mt. Pungsan and Hamnam.	eng
33885	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A useful timber tree which is restricted to a few localities of upland coniferous forest along the coast.	eng
33886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This Cockpit Country endemic is distributed in St Elizabeth and Trelawny.	eng
33886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest on craggy limestone.	eng
33886	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Local and uncommon.	eng
33887	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Clarendon, St James and Trelawny.	eng
33887	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub occurring in woodland on limestone.	eng
33888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cockpit Country.	eng
33888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to thickets and woodlands in limestone areas.	eng
33888	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has experienced widespread clearance of its habitat.	eng
33889	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic, confined to Manchester, St Ann and Trelawny Parishes.	eng
33889	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
33890	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Once recognised as a distinct species, this variety is known from just one collection in Westmoreland.	eng
33890	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damp shady limestone bank.	eng
33891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic occurring in the west-central parishes.	eng
33891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exposed craggy limestone cliffs and woodland margins.	eng
33893	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A tree confined to wet evergreen forest.	eng
33893	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Significant declines in habitat because of logging, mining and the commercial planting of exotics.	eng
33894	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The only natural subpopulations appear to occur in Ghana. Occurrences in Côte d'Ivoire are reported to be planted.	eng
33894	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species regenerates freely in a wide ecological range, but is best established in upland evergreen forest.	eng
33894	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	There are threats from farming, fires, forest management activities and mining in upland evergreen forest.	eng
33895	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Endemic to Ghana.	eng
33895	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Confined to upland evergreen forest.	eng
33895	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This tree is generally rare. It is most common in the Atewa range and occurs in neighbouring forest reserves. Its status could prove to be more threatened after necessary survey work.	eng
33895	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Farming, fire, forest management and large-scale mining continue to put pressure on the species habitat.	eng
33898	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species, endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33898	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33899	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Philippines.	eng
33899	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
33900	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of seasonally dry climate, occurring in caatinga, cerrado and dry forest on deep soils.	eng
33900	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is common and widespread but population numbers are said to be in slow decline.	eng
33900	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used for construction, fuelwood and charcoal.	eng
33901	habitat	González, M., 1998	A highly exploited species of broadleaved evergreen forest.	eng
33901	population	González, M., 1998	The largest populations are in Chile.	eng
33901	threats	González, M., 1998	Under some threat because of the tree's use as the major source of fuelwood and charcoal for southern Chile.	eng
33902	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely ranging species, from the eastern Andes to the Atlantic coast.	eng
33902	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in rainforest up to 1,600 m.	eng
33903	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Iroko, common and widely distributed throughout tropical Africa.	eng
33903	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in different forest types.	eng
33903	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common species. Trees are often left standing after land clearance and natural regeneration is good in open places.	eng
33903	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Suffers from heavy exploitation. East Africa was once a major source of the timber, which was used as a teak substitute until supplies became short. West Africa continues to export large quantities of it. Some subpopulations suffer from gall attacks, especially in plantations, and its seed loses viability quickly.	eng
33904	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Especially common in evergreen forests.	eng
33904	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A timber species which occurs commonly.	eng
33904	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Exploitation rates are high and likely to be unsustainable.	eng
33905	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Logging companies do not distinguish this species from <em>M. excelsa</em>.	eng
33905	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The rates of timber exploitation have a more serious impact on this species, with its narrower distribution within a region which has experienced large-scale forest destruction.	eng
33909	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in east and eastern central Africa.	eng
33909	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is scattered in areas of upland semi-deciduous forest.	eng
33909	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unlike most other members of the genus, which are commercial sources of African mahogany, this species is too rare to be exploited as a major commercial source of timber. Habitat loss is a more serious threat.	eng
33910	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The largest and most stable population probably occurs in Cross River National Park in Nigeria.	eng
33910	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from several localities, including Ejagham, Mamfe, Tabo-agbokem in Cameroon.	eng
33910	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall straight timber tree of local cultural importance. Occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
33910	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest outside protected areas has significantly declined because of large-scale logging and clearing for agriculture.	eng
33911	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber tree restricted to remaining areas of Atlantic forest in Cameroon.	eng
33912	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of scattered occurrence occurring in river valleys and open woodland on rocky slopes or kopjes.	eng
33912	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unlike other members of the genus, which provide a commercial source of mahogany, this species is generally too rare for more than limited exploitation.	eng
33913	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species.	eng
33913	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This important timber tree occurs in lowland evergreen forest, often in swamps where it may be dominant.	eng
33913	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In many places it suffers from over-exploitation. M. Cheek (pers. comm.) reports that is not over-exploited in the Cameroon, but this may be the case elsewhere.	eng
33914	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A gregarious forest species restricted to swampy areas, rivers and also coastal regions. Regeneration is good in wet areas. It is able to reproduce vegetatively	eng
33914	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Overexploitation of the general-purpose timber and habitat degradation in large parts of its range are causing population declines.	eng
33915	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The range of this species is restricted to Côte d'Ivoire and neighbouring Ghana.	eng
33915	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
33915	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is uncommon and has suffered from the significant declines in its habitat caused by logging, mining and expansion of commercial plantations.	eng
33916	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Occurring only in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
33916	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is found in areas of upland evergreen forest.	eng
33916	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It can be common in some areas.	eng
33916	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The effects of fire, overgrazing, forest management activities and mining have caused declines in the extent of the species' habitat.	eng
33917	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is known from a few scattered populations, e.g., in Atewa and Subri Forest Reserves in Ghana. It is also recorded in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
33917	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Restricted to wet evergreen forest.	eng
33917	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	In both countries these habitats have suffered from the effects of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities, e.g., parts of Subri Forest Reserve have been deforested for industrial plantations.	eng
33918	conservation	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	It is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.	eng
33918	distribution	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Occurs in a few privately owned or inaccessible localities in Brazil.	eng
33918	habitat	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	A slow-growing timber species. It does not occur in open areas of forest or other vegetation types.	eng
33918	population	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Subpopulations are now reduced to remaining areas of high dense forest. In Suriname the species is still reasonably common (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
33918	threats	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Declines in numbers continue because of overexploitation.	eng
33919	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Known only from Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
33919	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species occurs in relatively dry or semi-deciduous forest.	eng
33919	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It can be quite common but the restriction of the species' range and the severe losses of its habitat render it vulnerable.	eng
33920	habitat	Asian Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Viet Nam), 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
33921	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A large dipterocarp of well-drained, undulating land.	eng
33922	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The main population of this subspecies occurs at the type locality in the Sierra de la Marta where it was nearly exterminated by a forest fire in 1975. There are possibly less threatened small populations at Cerro Mohihora in Chihuahua and in south-east Arizona.	eng
33922	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Coniferous montane forest.	eng
33923	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to Sierra el Cuale in the north-west part of Sierra Madre del Sur.	eng
33923	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is present in mostly undisturbed areas of submontane pine-oak forest.	eng
33923	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mining operations are under way in the area.	eng
33924	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Three disjunct populations occur on Cerro Chiqueritas, Cerro Ocotoso and Puerto del Pinabete.	eng
33924	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Distribution is restricted to limestone outcrops among huge boulders above 2,100 m.	eng
33924	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The two smallest populations contain fewer than 50 trees.	eng
33924	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fire is a hazard but the trees are respected as being unique and are safe from exploitation.	eng
33925	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from Panama to possibly Peru.	eng
33925	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs widely in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
33925	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat has seriously declined in Panama and there is almost no evidence of the species outside protected areas.	eng
33928	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Lowland forest types.	eng
33928	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	At one time an abundant and wide-ranging species. Overexploitation has resulted in the species becoming threatened in Colombia and Amazonian Peru. Most natural subpopulations in Ecuador have been destroyed. Some large trees remain in Cuyabeno but they are being felled for export to Colombia. The species has become rare in Bolivia and is now only harvested opportunistically whilst mahogany, <em>Amburana</em> and <em>Machaerium</em> are being sought-after. It is apparently still abundant in the Región Oriental in Paraguay, especially along the Paraná valley. Subpopulations in Argentina are restricted to the north, where they are partly contained within subandean piedmont forest, a habitat which is under severe threat. In Central America there are very few individuals in Costa Rica, if any at all, and few in Panama. The timber is considered inferior to <em>C. odorata</em>, but is sold with the latter in mixed batches. In Suriname, the species is still reasonably common (P. Teunissen pers. comm 2006).	eng
33928	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Subpopulations throughout its range have been decimated by overexploitation and habitat loss.	eng
33930	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Some subpopulations are found within protected areas.	eng
33930	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs on north-western or southern slopes. Subpopulations are recorded from a number of localities.	eng
33930	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mixed savanna. Specimens are often found growing between rocks, in fissures or along ledges in hilly and mountainous terrain.	eng
33930	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Outside protected areas, the species is showing some decline because of wood-cutting activities.	eng
33931	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Originally known only from a single locality at the Blyde River Canyon on the Drakensberg Escarpment, the species has since been found at another site on the escarpment north-east of Mariepskop.	eng
33931	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs on quartzite outcrops, where it forms an open <em>Protea</em> savanna woodland.	eng
33931	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	One subpopulation occurs in a publicly owned conservation area and the other is in a privately owned reserve.	eng
33931	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	No threats are known and no decline has been recorded.	eng
33932	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Small subpopulations of the species have been found in forest reserves.	eng
33932	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.	eng
33933	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in a variety of habitat types.	eng
33933	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common and widespread tree.	eng
33934	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree, ranging from north-east India to Borneo.	eng
33934	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in mixed dipterocarp forests.	eng
33935	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely distributed.	eng
33935	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in areas of primary and secondary forest, from sea level to 1,500 m.  The fruits are popular with many bird species, which is probably responsible for its wide distribution.	eng
33936	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed from southern China to Borneo.	eng
33936	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A timber species of primary and secondary forest, including kerangas forest and peat swamps.	eng
33936	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large trees are harvested for the derum timber.	eng
33937	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree found scattered in lowland primary and secondary forests.	eng
33937	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees are cut for derum timber but are not commercially exploited because they are too scarce.	eng
33938	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A timber tree of primary and secondary forest.	eng
33938	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
33939	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	An emergent tree mainly found in freshwater peat swamp forest.  The species is also found in dry heath forest, kerangas, lowland primary forest and hill forest.	eng
33939	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Peat swamp forest is an area particularly vulnerable to exploitation.	eng
33940	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree of western Malaysia, cultivated in Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
33940	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree.	eng
33944	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is expected that in future the tree will be protected in the permanent and protected forests of the above mentioned states.	eng
33944	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered species of Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor.	eng
33944	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is found in lowland to montane primary forest.	eng
33944	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures from logging activities are the principle threat to the species.  Harvested timber is traded on a local and national level.	eng
33945	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of the above mentioned states, the tree is conserved.	eng
33945	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed throughout the lowland/hill forest areas of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johor.	eng
33945	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is a primary forest species of lowland and hill forest areas.	eng
33945	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is threatened by felling activities in many locations.  Trade in harvested timber is on a national and local scale.	eng
33946	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Widespread.	eng
33946	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A tree, found in primary and secondary forest.	eng
33947	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species of lowland rainforest.	eng
33948	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species.	eng
33949	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A commonly scattered species of lowland forest and hill forest, found on a variety of substrates, including basalt and calcareous shale.	eng
33949	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is utilized locally for ornamental purposes.	eng
33951	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very widespread ranging from the east Mediterranean throughout the middle east to the south-east provinces of the Euro-Siberian region.	eng
33951	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only plane tree of the Old World.  It is confined to temporary, moist, stone or gravel ravines, as the species requires moisture throughout the dry season.	eng
33951	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wild populations of this widely cultivated species are rare in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Although considered Least Concern in the Caucasus, the origin of these populations needs to be determined.	eng
33951	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is considered to be endangered in parts its range because of changing water courses for irrigation purposes and the increased expansion of agriculture.	eng
33952	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	The species' range is large but declining.	eng
33952	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Occurring in savannah and campo.	eng
33952	threats	Prado, D., 1998	Increasing agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as other activities.	eng
33953	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Studies are under way to examine the consequences of population structure changes.	eng
33953	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In recent years this timber species has been heavily exploited, notably in the provinces of Formosa, Chaco and Santa Fé in Argentina. The population structure is reported to be fundamentally changed. Subpopulations in Bolivia are less rare and threatened.	eng
33954	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	An excellent timber tree, which occurs in abundance in lowland dry forest types.	eng
33954	threats	Prado, D., 1998	It is exploited widely as a timber, fuelwood and has various other uses.	eng
33955	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A widespread species confined to the lowland plains of eastern Madagascar.	eng
33955	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This fine rosewood timber species grows in lowland rainforest, often in marshy areas and near mangroves.	eng
33955	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	These forests have been greatly reduced. Large individuals are rare because of overexploitation.	eng
33956	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Azores, now probably extinct in Madeira. It occurs on all the Azorean Islands, except Graciosa and Corvo.	eng
33956	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In laurel-juniper forest up to 1,000 m. It appears to be a vigorous species which is little affected by habitat degradation.	eng
33957	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	As far as is known, the tree is given no protection.	eng
33957	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows in Nankan near the coast.	eng
33957	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows on a hillside at an altitude of 50 m.	eng
33957	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively recently discovered monoecious species known only from a single tree which apparently has flowered and set seed, although seldom.	eng
33958	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	Substantial wild stands are believed to exist still in areas which are unlikely to be exploited. Silvicultural studies are being carried out by FCAP with the assistance of UK institutions.	eng
33958	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Populations throughout the species range have seriously declined because of rosewood oil extraction.  where there has been exploitation the population is devoid of mature trees and significant signs of regeneration are absent. Trees of all sizes are harvested indiscriminately, the whole tree and its roots being destroyed. The sole producer at present is Brazil, although the species was wiped out through exploitation over large areas in French Guiana between 1910 and 1930. Harvesting is costly and is taking place in more and more remote locations concentrated around Amazon tributaries, principally in Amazonas and Pará states. Mobile distillation factories have also moved deep into the forest and trees. Levels of exploitation have significantly declined with increased use of synthetic oils, the current world market resting at about 100 tonnes pa.	eng
33959	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A primary species of swamp and inundated forest types. Also recorded from secondary forests.	eng
33959	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Although the species is listed as globally threatened it is one of the most common trees in lowland Suriname being found in almost all forest types, including secondary forest (P. Teunissen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
33959	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The timber is important in international trade.	eng
33961	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been cultivated outside its natural range in Jamaica, Trinidad and Singapore.	eng
33961	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is threatened at a national level in Colombia and is causing some concern in Venezuela.	eng
33961	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively wide ranging species of primary forest.	eng
33962	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinctive species within a 50 m altitudinal belt in the Peruvian Amazon. Similar, but undetermined, specimens occur in Napo, in Ecuador.	eng
33962	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
33963	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in Iparía National Forest.	eng
33963	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to an area possibly less than 20,000 km² in the Amazon of Peru and Ecuador.	eng
33963	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree.	eng
33964	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Extremely localised in eastern Ecuador.	eng
33964	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	This tree is threatened by increasing settlement and oil exploration.	eng
33965	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known to occur in the Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
33965	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of scattered occurrence in non-flooded forest on clay soil.	eng
33966	distribution	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The species distribution is fragmented, subpopulations occur in southern U.S.A., 800 km to the north of the subpopulations in Tamaulipas in Mexico.	eng
33966	population	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	In USA the species is abundant and the abandonment of farmlands may potentially result in rising subpopulation numbers.	eng
33966	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	The major threat to the subpopulations elsewhere is increasing conversion of the habitat for agriculture and grazing, which can prevent regrowth. The timber is harvested for international trade mainly from the lower Mississippi valley.  In Honduras balsam is tapped from the trees for commercial application.	eng
33967	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	East and Southern Africa. Subpopulations in Mozambique and Zimbabwe are confined to single localities: Garuso forest and Chirinda Forest Reserve, respectively.	eng
33967	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	This timber species occurs sparsely in small patches of remaining wet evergreen forest.	eng
33967	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Habitat loss and excessive exploitation of the seed-producing individuals are resulting in poor regeneration and a global population decline. Plantations have been unsuccessful because of infestation by <em>Hypsipyla</em>.	eng
33968	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A xerophytic species found growing mainly in deep alluvial soils.	eng
33968	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is suffering a slow decline through its use as a timber, fuelwood and charcoal and through habitat loss and degradation.	eng
33969	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The Panamanian subpopulation is confined to a few trees in two provinces.	eng
33969	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
33969	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is very widespread but not common anywhere.	eng
33969	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat of this species has declined widely because of clearing for settlement, timber and agriculture, resulting in populations becoming threatened at a national level.  The species is also very widely cultivated as an ornamental tree	eng
33970	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species found in diverse habitats and climates, ranging from lowland rainforest to cerrados.	eng
33970	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Selective exploitation of the timber, coupled with poor regeneration, is causing population declines, especially in the coastal areas of Espírito Santo.	eng
33971	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Apparently endemic to the department of Alajuela.	eng
33972	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slow-growing tree, sparsely but widely distributed in remaining areas of primary and slightly disturbed forest.	eng
33972	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam, the species produces one of the best woods in the country and is becoming increasingly scarce.	eng
33974	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The species is recorded in reserves in Bahia and Pernambuco. There is also a reintroduction programme at Linareas Reserve and the species is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA.	eng
33974	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	The species is recorded in reserves in Bahia and Pernambuco. There is also a reintroduction programme at Linareas Reserve and the species is listed on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants by IBAMA.	eng
33974	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Deforestation. The exploitation of this species as a dyewood dates back to 1501. The original collectors of the dyewood were called <em>brasileiros</em>, after whom the country is now named. Synthetic dyes only became available in 1875, by which time dramatic population declines had already taken place and continued to occur until the 1920s. Natural stands were almost completely destroyed but some subpopulations remained in a few areas on the coastal plain.	eng
33975	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	It is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33975	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	<em>Restinga</em> vegetation.	eng
33975	threats	Varty, N., 1998	The expansion of the tourist industry and holiday homes, as well as exploitation for fuelwood, threatens the species survival.	eng
33976	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The locality is contained within a protected area and the species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33976	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	Serra de Macaé in Nova Friburgo.	eng
33976	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	An understorey species which is confined to Atlantic forest.	eng
33976	population	Varty, N., 1998	It is believed to be naturally rare and only a few collections have been made, dating from the 1800s and more recently between 1987 and 1988.	eng
33977	conservation	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	It occurs on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33977	habitat	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	It occurs sparsely in remnant areas of restinga woodland.	eng
33977	threats	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	The habitat has been widely destroyed by urban expansion. The species is also suspected to suffer from habitat fragmentation because of its dioecious nature.	eng
33978	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33978	population	Varty, N., 1998	Formerly known along stream sides, this understorey species appears to have become extremely scarce. Extensive searches have located only two female specimens restricted to forest in Corcovado. One specimen has, however, set seed, suggesting there is at least a pollen-producing male individual in the vicinity.	eng
33979	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The locality is now protected and the species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33979	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	Alto Macaé, in Nova Friburgo.	eng
33979	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	This rare understorey species is confined to streamsides in areas of humid forest.	eng
33980	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The species is on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33980	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	Known from a restricted area in Nova Friburgo.	eng
33980	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
33980	population	Varty, N., 1998	This species has yet to be collected or recorded this century. Recent surveys have failed to locate living populations.	eng
33980	threats	Varty, N., 1998	The forest continues to be rapidly destroyed.	eng
33981	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	There is a biological reserve here within the Serra do Mar State Park. The species is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.	eng
33981	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	Serra de Paranapiacaba in Santo André.	eng
33981	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	This species is confined to a restricted area of Atlantic forest.	eng
33981	threats	Varty, N., 1998	It is under serious threat from uncontrolled industrial pollution.	eng
33982	conservation	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Several localities are protected within state parks and biological reserves. The species is included in the official list compiled by IBAMA of threatened Brazilian plants.	eng
33982	distribution	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	There is also a suggestion that populations exist in Misiones in Argentina and in Paraguay.	eng
33982	threats	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Formerly abundant, this slow-growing species has become rare because of the levels of exploitation of its timber. Essential oil is also harvested from the bark for the perfume industry. Its habitat also continues to decline.	eng
33983	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	Laws to set up the Serra do Cipó State Botanical Park and to protect the species are not yet well established. This species is included on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33983	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	This species occurs in low densities in a restricted area in the Serra do Cipó.	eng
33983	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	Areas of campos rupestres.	eng
33983	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Trees are indiscriminately cut for timber resources, at levels of exploitation that are unsustainable.	eng
33984	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	The species is included in the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
33984	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	The species' distribution is discontinuous, occurring in coastal forests and also in small woods and forest formations on the southern Brazilian plateau. There is also some indication that it may be found in Misiones in Argentina and also Paraguay.	eng
33984	habitat	Varty, N., 1998	Coastal forests and small woods and forest formations.	eng
33984	threats	Varty, N., 1998	Commonly known under the name of <em>O. odorifera</em>, the species is an important source of timber and essential oil. Coastal forests continue to be cleared despite legislative measures. Exploitation of the species as a source of sassafras oil has been uncontrolled but largely confined to Santa Catarina, which is the only area to contain trees with sufficiently high safrole content. Remaining stands are no longer capable of sustaining high levels of utilization and no replanting has taken place. Natural sources of safrole are still the preferred source and it is likely that the market will turn to alternative plant species to replace <em>O. pretiosa</em>.	eng
33985	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on all islands of the Greater Antilles except for Jamaica, where it was reported once but probably in error. In Puerto Rico, ten trees exist in La Silla de Calderon at 1,000 m. It is similarly uncommon on Cuba and Hispaniola but may be recorded under the name <em>J. insularis</em>.	eng
33985	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree occurring in wet montane forest.	eng
33985	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wet montane forest habitat has been extensively destroyed and degraded.	eng
33986	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to occur naturally in Banda Island in the Moluccas, but it is now widely cultivated in the tropics, becoming naturalised in many areas.	eng
33986	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest. The original source of nutmeg.	eng
33988	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2003	This species occurred in Nurpur, Tret, Murree Hills, Pakistan, but is now apparently extinct in that country. This was possibly due to over-utilization of this medicinal plant.	eng
33989	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Plantations have been established.	eng
33989	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Confined to Luchu in the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
33989	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Stands occur frequently near sea-water.	eng
33989	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	During and after the Second World War trees were heavily harvested. The present poor form of the remaining trees precludes further exploitation.	eng
33992	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Martinique.	eng
33992	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, rare within dense humid forest.	eng
33992	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from only four collections from before the 1940s.	eng
33993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species endemic to the Lesser Antilles. The record for Jamaica is based on a single collection from 1786. It is either erroneous or the species has become extinct there.	eng
33994	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	An endemic to Uganda, occurring relatively commonly in Kalinzu and Malamagambo Forest Reserve but scarce in Itwara Forest Reserve and elsewhere.	eng
33995	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of the Windward Islands in the Caribbean. Populations are recorded in Castle Bruce and St Davis Parish on Dominica, Morne Larcheux and La Trinité on Martinique and sites on Guadeloupe, St Lucia and St Vincent.	eng
33995	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a lowland forest tree.	eng
33996	habitat	Boratynski, A., 1998	The hybrid occurs at forest edges and in birch groves wherever the two parent species have met in the past.	eng
33996	population	Boratynski, A., 1998	In Poland the number of localities known has halved and the total population is now estimated to number 350 individuals. Regeneration is generally poor but has been observed in certain places.	eng
33997	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Kauai Island.	eng
33997	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree occurring in moist forest between 825 and 1,275 m.	eng
33997	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Infrequently collected and scattered in small numbers.	eng
33998	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs within several protected areas.	eng
33998	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known from at least twelve localities (groves) in the Piute Mts., Greenhorn Mts. and Kern Plateau area.	eng
33998	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The largest of the groves is approximately 200 ha in extent. Total area of occupancy is certainly less than 100 km², but the total number of mature individuals probably exceeds 1,000 trees.	eng
33998	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Some risk occurs from fires, grazing and mining.	eng
33999	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Species management guidelines are adopted in Cleveland National Forest.	eng
33999	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known only from Cleveland National Forest and Cuyamaca Rancho State Park.	eng
33999	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Only two populations, approximately 1,000 individuals, exist in fire-prone areas.	eng
33999	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Conejo fire of 1950 extirpated part of the population.	eng
34000	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	None of the subpopulations is officially protected.	eng
34000	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to fewer than ten groves in the Santa Cruz Mts.	eng
34000	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variety is rare. Each subpopulation is thought to have fewer than 100 individuals.	eng
34000	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are threats from residential and agricultural developments, alteration of fire regimes and introgression of conifer species, which may also increase the risk from fires.	eng
34001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Texas occurring near San Antonio and Edward's Plateau and in Mexico confined to the north.	eng
34001	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of brushlands and ravines.	eng
34002	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34002	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Koolau Mts., on Oahu, in Olokui Reserve on Molokai and in West Maui Reserve on Maui.	eng
34002	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small shrubby tree, occurring in scattered tiny populations on forested slopes and ridges.	eng
34002	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In total fewer than 100 individuals exist in 14 populations.	eng
34002	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Goats threaten the Molokai population and in other areas feral pigs and invasive plants pose immediate problems.	eng
34003	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comm., 1997). The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34003	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>H. arbuscula</em> is endemic to the island of Maui.	eng
34003	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A small shrubby tree or shrub, known from scattered subpopulations in lowland rainforest.	eng
34003	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	It is found in a very remote area and has around 25 individuals (V.L. Caraway, pers. comm.).	eng
34003	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Feral pigs and introduced plants pose the most serious threats.	eng
34004	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the United States Forest Service (USFS) try to prevent the spread of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora </span>through the use of road closures, monitoring, research and education.<br/><br/>Research is required on the dynamics and mechanisms by which <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytophthora </span>is spread. In additions attempts to breed resistant trees are required.	eng
34004	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Natural populations of Port Orford Cedar are confined to the coastal ranges of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, between Coos Bay in the north and the Mad River in the south. Isolated subpopulations occur near Mount Shasta and the Trinity Mountains in northern California. Occurs at elevations from 0 to 1,500 m.	eng
34004	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Grows in coniferous forest in coastal mountain valleys, often along streams.	eng
34004	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in the greatest abundance within about 64 km of the Pacific coast. Further inland, its distribution is patchy, and it is mostly limited to sites with sufficient soil moisture.	eng
34004	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	International trade in the timber has put enormous pressure on the remaining old growth stands. The spread of the introduced pathogen <em>Phytophthora lateralis</em> continues at a rapid rate and prevents successful regeneration in many areas, especially those accessible by road.	eng
34005	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea arborea</em> was endemic to the slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.	eng
34005	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A palm-like tree formerly known from a narrow altitudinal band in montane forest.	eng
34005	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	It was last collected in 1928.	eng
34006	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This palm-like tree is confined to western Kauai.	eng
34006	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in moist forest 1,000 and 1,300 m.	eng
34007	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34007	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Koolau Mts., Oahu.	eng
34007	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested summit ridges.	eng
34007	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has become increasingly scarce and is now restricted to 16 subpopulations. Few subpopulations exceed four individuals, although trees can be overlooked when infertile.	eng
34007	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Invasive plants and feral pigs continue to put serious pressure on remaining populations.	eng
34008	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Control of grazing and the removal of sheep have helped oak regeneration on Santa Cruz Island.	eng
34008	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is restricted to a few scrubby localities in Santa Rosa, Santa Catalina and Santa Cruz Islands.	eng
34008	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Scrub.	eng
34009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable subspecies known from scattered populations on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai and Maui. It is also presumed to be present on Hawaii.	eng
34009	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry to moist forest up to 800 m.	eng
34010	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Endemic to the Mendocino coast.	eng
34010	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A small tree occurring on white sand pine barrens.	eng
34010	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area comes under various pressures from development, overland vehicles and fires.	eng
34011	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Small isolated subpopulations occupying an area less than 500 km².	eng
34011	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to granite outcrops.	eng
34011	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The impact of tourism is considerable on Stone Mt Drought; poor regeneration, soil erosion and compaction are all weakening the status of the species.	eng
34012	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This beautiful tree occurs in the wild in the north-east and east of Puerto Rico. The record from St Thomas in the US Virgin Islands dates from over 100 years ago and the habitat there has largely been destroyed.	eng
34012	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Semi-dry woodland on coastal hills.	eng
34012	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main extant population consists of 121 plants in Palmas de Mar, Puerto Rico. There are thought to be a further three populations, making the population total 400–500 plants.	eng
34012	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threats of quarrying and development, especially of houses, tourist facilities and roads, are apparent.	eng
34013	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The entire population is protected.	eng
34013	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fewer than 250 trees exist in the coastal chaparral of Santa Rosa Island.	eng
34013	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Coastal abrasion and fires pose threats.	eng
34014	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Molokai.	eng
34014	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in rainforest at medium elevation in the east of the island.	eng
34015	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Most of the population is protected within Torrey Pines State Park.	eng
34015	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Suburban areas.	eng
34015	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is a very small population of fewer than 1,000 trees north of San Diego.	eng
34015	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Trees on unprotected land are highly vulnerable to fire, recreation activities and urban development. There has been a recent serious infestation of five-spined ips bark beetle in the park, but it is now apparently contained.	eng
34016	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forty six individuals have been planted in enclosures at Puuwaawaa and Kau Forest Reserve.  It is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34016	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the slopes of Mauna Loa.	eng
34016	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of montane rainforest.	eng
34016	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is now known from fewer than 20 individuals in three populations near Keauhou, Kohae and on Puuwaawaa.	eng
34016	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cattle grazing and trampling are major causes for the species decline.	eng
34017	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Waipio valley, Mauna Kea and the windward side of Mauna Loa on Hawaii.	eng
34017	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A palm-like tree occurring in rainforest up to 1,080 m altitude.	eng
34017	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damage by feral pigs has been recorded at a number of sites where the species is known.	eng
34018	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of three subspecies confined to Kauai.	eng
34019	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is now known to be more widespread in the Santa Lucia Mountains than originally thought.	eng
34019	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to mountain ridges.	eng
34019	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Fire is a threat but the area is generally inaccessible to grazing animals.	eng
34020	conservation	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Part of the population on Santa Rosa is protected in the Santa Rosa Plateau Reserve.	eng
34020	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Only one tree remains on Santa Catalina Island in California.	eng
34020	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Sclerophyllous habitat.	eng
34020	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Extensive declines of the habitat of the species have been observed over the past 50 years. Regeneration of the species is poor and the remaining habitat is under threat from grazing and urban, agricultural and industrial developments.	eng
34021	distribution	Hess, W.J., 1998	This species is confined to the Chisos Mts. in Brewster County.	eng
34021	habitat	Hess, W.J., 1998	Found in moist wooded canyons.	eng
34022	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34022	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The total population is restricted to private land in the Wahiawa drainage on Kauai.	eng
34022	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Along forested streamsides.	eng
34022	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Once estimated to contain 100 plants, only 20 or 30 plants survived Hurricane Iniki.	eng
34022	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Feral pigs and invasive plants are the primary threats to the habitat.	eng
34023	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	90% of the population is now protected. Schemes to improve management and to plant trees on cleared land are in place.	eng
34023	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An emergent of mixed montane forests.	eng
34023	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There was large-scale logging of populations between 1856 and 1955. Fire prevention policy, causing a build-up of undergrowth, may have hampered regeneration in the past.	eng
34024	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Most areas where the species occurs are protected and cutting or gathering wood is prohibited.	eng
34024	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In most populations very old, senescent and even dead trees predominate. These are some of the oldest trees in the world, reaching ages of 4,870 years. Their growth rate is extremely slow.	eng
34024	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is doubtful whether present rates of regeneration are sufficient to replace the population under present climatic and environmental conditions.	eng
34026	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is relatively common in the Sierra Nevada but less so in the coastal ranges.	eng
34026	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Much of the population outside protected areas has declined.	eng
34026	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The expansion of agriculture is mainly responsible for the decline.	eng
34027	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The commoner variety of the two which are recognised. Subpopulations are found on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai and Hawaii.	eng
34027	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry to moist forest from low to medium elevation.	eng
34028	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Protective measures and planting were being carried out at Pahole as part of a Recovery Plan. The taxon is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.  Plants are still extant in botanic gardens.	eng
34028	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).	eng
34028	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This subspecies was until recently still extant in the wild, as opposed to ssp. <em>regina</em>. It was known from two small subpopulations, totaling fewer than 10 plants, on the Waianae Mts., one on federal property in Kahanahaiki valley and the other on state land in Pahole Gulch. A third subpopulation, previously reported, appears to have been based on a misidentification.	eng
34028	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to the species and its habitats included invasive alien plants, and predation by feral pigs, rats and slugs.  Other major threats included wildfires generated by activities in the nearby military firing range.  The restricted range of the species also made it very vulnerable to small local disturbances, and hence the last few individuals were easily destroyed.	eng
34029	conservation	Farjon, A., 2003	In 1921 was declared the National Tree of Mexico because of its splendor, colossal dimensions, beauty and longevity.  Has been cultivated as an ornamental since the time of the Aztecs.  Many ancient trees are protected as "monuments" in Mexico. The Texas Organization for Endangered Species (TOES) has listed this species as being TOES category III: Texas Endangered, which is any species that lacks legal protection and is in danger of extinction or extirpation in Texas.	eng
34029	habitat	Farjon, A., 2003	It is an important component of gallery forests and always occurs next to rivers or streams where the base of the tree is submerged in water for much of the year. As with other species of <em>Taxodium</em> the roots of <em>T. mucronatum</em>  produce pneumatophores or breathing roots.  It produces seed all year round, but most abundantly from August to November. Its elevational range is from 300 to 2,500 m, though at higher altitudes it is less abundant.	eng
34030	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Edward's Plateau.	eng
34030	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A tree confined to scrub.	eng
34031	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Waianae Mts. on Oahu.	eng
34031	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree found in diverse forest types at altitudes between 450 and 950 m.	eng
34032	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in Cambalache forest in moist submontane limestone forest and in Maricao on serpentine gravel.	eng
34032	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist submontane limestone forest.	eng
34032	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very rare dioecious tree. Population estimates in 1989 were put at 14 individuals in total.	eng
34032	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are threats from cutting, burning and the development of the area.	eng
34033	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The trees have not been seen to seed but efforts are being made to cultivate the plant from tissue culture.	eng
34033	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on a limestone cliff.	eng
34033	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from a single site. There are 10 individuals in the population, the majority of which are on land owned by a development company.	eng
34034	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Hawaii Island, where it occurs in Puna and Kau districts.	eng
34034	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A terrestrial or epiphytic species in rainforest from low to high altitudes.	eng
34034	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the habitat has been logged and converted into pastureland. Remaining areas are strongly affected by grazing feral pigs.	eng
34035	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species which is recorded only from the type collection taken from an area between 915 and 1,220 m on the leeward slopes of Haleakala on East Maui.	eng
34036	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Molokai, Lanai and Maui Islands. Two subspecies are sometimes recognised, of which the type subspecies is locally common but confined to West Maui.	eng
34036	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in rainforest or the margins of bogs up to 1,975 m.	eng
34037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Nevarez, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands National Park on St John. Plants elsewhere are believed to be cultivated.	eng
34037	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a vine or tree.	eng
34037	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a small subpopulation of about 12 individuals in Nevarez, and from three to six isolated trees and a core subpopulation of 30-50 trees in Virgin Islands National Park.	eng
34037	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main subpopulation on St John is under little threat. Subpopulations elsewhere are potentially threatened by grazing and quarrying. In cultivation there is some indication that the plants die before reaching reproductive maturity.	eng
34038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of three subspecies. It was known to occur near Hanapepe Falls on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
34038	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
34038	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No record of it has been made since 1895.	eng
34039	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies was known only from a population occurring on the island of Niihau. The genus is endemic to Hawaiian islands.	eng
34039	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected since 1870.	eng
34040	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Seeds have been propagated and planted out in the area, increasing the population to approximately 50 plants. The species is classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only extant form of this species. It is represented by a single tree at Puuwaawaa on Hawaii. All other populations on West Maui, and on the slopes of Hulalai and Mauna Loa on Hawaii are believed extinct.	eng
34040	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree.	eng
34040	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only one tree known to exist.	eng
34040	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in an area leased for ranching where it is under immediate threat from grazing, fire and also from invasive plants.	eng
34041	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Plantation sources are now available. The species occurs in various national parks in the north-west.	eng
34041	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Native populations have been under considerable pressure from the scale of exploitation of the bark by pharmaceutical companies.	eng
34042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with questionable records dating back to the 1960s from two sites in the Cordillera Central.	eng
34042	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of wet montane forest.	eng
34042	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subpopulations have not been recently located.	eng
34043	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of 45 plants are contained within three populations.	eng
34043	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threats from fire, mining, grazing and road building are evident.	eng
34044	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as  Endangered under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>At least 95 seeds have been collected and stored at National Tropical Botanical <br/>Garden and 2 specimens are in tissue culture at Lyon Arboretum. <br/> <br/>A Recovery Plan has been developed for this taxon.	eng
34044	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Before 1970, <em>Cyanea hamatiflora</em> ssp. <em>hamatiflora</em> was known from the windward (northeastern) side of Haleakala, stretching from Puu o Kakae to Manawainui on the island of Maui.  Since 1970, this taxon has been recorded from seven subpopulations with a total of 12 individuals within the East Maui Watershed Partnership in Honomanu, Wailuaiki, Kipahulu Valley, Koukouai, and Puu Ahulili on State (Koolau and Kipahulu forest reserves), Federal (Haleakala National Park), and privately owned lands.	eng
34044	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived palm-like tree which occurs in rainforest between 1,200 and 1,400 m altitude.	eng
34044	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The population size is now estimated to be between 70 and 125 individuals spread between 10 to 12 subpopulations.	eng
34044	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The habitat and the taxon is threatened by introduced pigs; invasive alien plants like <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (Velvet Tree),<em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster’s Curse), and <em>Ageratina adenophora</em> (Maui Pamakani); rats and slugs. In addition unrestricted collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants is a potential threat.  Also threatened by landslides.	eng
34045	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  Two subpopulations occur on Federal property, eight are on State land, three in areas leased to the Federal government as part of the Makua Military Reservation and five are in a State Conservation District.  A Recovery Plan for the species has been published (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).	eng
34045	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This variety has been recorded from the Waianae and Koolau Mts. on O'ahu, in Waimea Canyon and Na Pali Coast State Park on Kauai, on Moloka'i and on the Honokowai Ditch Trail on West Maui.	eng
34045	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (360–1,070 m).	eng
34045	population	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Oahu holds the largest subpopulations, which totaled about 400 plants; while fewer than 100 plants existed on Kauai; and only a very few plants on the other islands (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997). It has disappeared from parts of its former range. There are 27 known subpopulations which at the time of the recovery plan in 1997 numbered about 500 individuals. This has since declined to less than 300 individuals.	eng
34045	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This taxon was once widespread on leeward sides off all the Hawaiian Islands, but is now almost completely eliminated. The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species, <em>Schinus terebinthifolius</em> (Christmas Berry) in particular is now replacing all native vegetation on the southern Waianae Mountains and threatens to occupy the range of all the O'ahu subpopulations.  The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with most subpopulations sustaining some damage from this.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral goats and pigs are impacting the habitat of most subpopulations through grazing, trampling and resultant soil erosion.  Accidental fires as a result of military activities are a potential problem for subpopulations in military training areas on O'ahu, Kauai and Maui. <br/> <br/>Given the limited size and scattered distribution of the subpopulations, gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.	eng
34046	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34046	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from a restricted area of the Luquillo Mts. within Toro Negro State Forest.	eng
34046	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dwarf or elfin forest on mountain summits.	eng
34046	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of 150 individuals exist within three populations.	eng
34046	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest has been cut through various forest management activities and also in the development of communication facilities.	eng
34047	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	This species is known from nine scattered sites in north California and the extreme south of Oregon. Only one of them extends as far as two miles in length. Locations once known have been lost.	eng
34047	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Although fire-adapted, it is vulnerable to intense fires, which break out when the fuel load has built up.	eng
34048	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the recognised varieties of a widespread and variable species. It occurs at low elevations on Nihoa, Niihau and Kauai.	eng
34049	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Part of the range is also managed as a wilderness area in the Siskiyou National Forest.	eng
34049	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species of conservation concern because of its restricted range in the Siskiyou Mts. of south-west Oregon and north-west California.	eng
34049	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is limited to areas of mixed conifer forest mostly on glacial moraines.	eng
34049	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is too rare to be exploited for its timber but it is cultivated on a small scale as an ornamental plant.	eng
34050	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland open forest and scrub on well-drained soils.	eng
34050	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is no evidence to suggest that populations have declined, as yet.	eng
34050	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although it is in part dependent on fire for regeneration, it is also especially vulnerable to intense forest fires.	eng
34051	distribution	Farjon, A. & members of the Conifer Specialist Group, 2006	U.S.A. (Oregon and California) in a coastal belt of forests 725 km long and 50 to 70 km maximal distance inland, from Curry Co. in Oregon to Monterey Co. in California. In the far south the occurrence becomes more patchy and is restricted to the coast.	eng
34051	population	Farjon, A. & members of the Conifer Specialist Group, 2006	Redwood forests presumably once stretched nearly unbroken from Santa Cruz, well into Orgeon along the coast (A. Farjon, pers. comm). Some 90 to 95% of old growth forest has been felled since, and the remainder is now almost entirely in parks and reserves (A. Farjon, pers. comm).	eng
34052	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of moist forest.	eng
34052	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Localised distribution in areas which have been experiencing habitat destruction.	eng
34053	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from widely disjunct populations. The current distribution is thought to reflect remnant populations of a more widespread Pleistocene or post-Pleistocene distribution.	eng
34053	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree occurring at the edges of ponds, small streams or standing water.	eng
34054	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Clermontia arborescens arborescens</em> is restricted to southern West Maui. The genus is endemic to the Hawaii Islands.	eng
34054	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An epiphytic or terrestrial tree or shrub of montane rainforest.	eng
34054	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been estimated that as much as 90% of the habitat has been logged and converted into pastureland. Remaining areas are affected by grazing feral pigs.	eng
34055	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been some success with propagation and plants have been reintroduced at Kauhao Ridge. The species is also listed in the annex of the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
34055	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kauai.	eng
34055	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mostly found on steep forested cliffs or slopes at low elevation.	eng
34055	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species, once widely scattered, is now confined to 15 subpopulations. It is restricted to the Napali Coast, Haupu Range and Nounou Mt., each subpopulation amounting to only one or two individuals, with the biggest one containing fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
34055	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Invasive plants and animals, including a longhorn beetle, rats and goats, pose serious threats to the survival of the species.	eng
34056	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A variety which is very scattered in the drier parts of <em>Taxodium</em> forests.	eng
34056	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is not under any threat.	eng
34057	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A slow-growing species, usually occurring in open stands on high rocky slopes.	eng
34057	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In the Rocky Mountains regeneration may be impeded by grazing livestock. Most stands are protected from cutting or damage. Climatic changes may also be a factor.	eng
34058	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is known from occurrences on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands in California and further down the Pacific coast in Mexico.	eng
34059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, which was recorded in 1981 from two localities in the upper regions of Monte del Estado, Maricao.	eng
34062	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Forestry Department in Vanuatu recognise this species as a synonym of <em>A. macrophylla</em>, which in turn is synonymous with <em>A. vitiensis</em>. The taxon encompassing <em>A. silbae</em> according to the SSC Conifer Specialist Group is confined to the island of Santo.	eng
34062	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Logging is a major threat, but at present land disputes have halted logging activities temporarily.	eng
34063	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
34063	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Scattered emergents survive in small exposed groves of rainforest in the eastern highlands.	eng
34063	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Over exploitation of the timber is a threat.	eng
34064	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Eight of the 39 herbarium collections were made within the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site. This means that a large proportion of the total population is outside this protected area.	eng
34064	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species is confined to the Atherton Tableland in north-east Queensland. EOO based on distribution data from herbarium specimens is calculated to be 2,670 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO 1,826 km<sup>2</sup> and is presumed to be inclusive of all localities known.	eng
34064	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Mesophyll vine forest (rainforest) in which it is a small understorey tree with large leaves. The elevation ranges from 57 to 971 m (GIS data), it is most common between 500 and 700 m. No uses have been recorded of this species.	eng
34064	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Subpopulations are usually small and individuals are scattered, but sometimes more abundant.	eng
34064	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Stochastic events like cyclones and fires.	eng
34065	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This species has previously been included in <em>C. mannii</em> and has likewise suffered population declines. It is endemic to, and widespread on Hainan Island.	eng
34065	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
34065	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Population decline due to logging and more recently exploitation of bark and leaves which contain the valuable medicinal extracts, cephalotaxine and harringtonine.  As with other members of the genus, the maturation rate of the seed is slow and regeneration is relatively infrequent.	eng
34066	conservation	Thomas, P., 2008	<p>This species&#160; does not appear on any lists of threatened species at state or national level within Australia (e.g., Briggs 1995, WAGG 2006).<u2:p></u2:p></p>  <u2:p></u2:p>	eng
34066	distribution	Thomas, P., 2008	This species is native to southwest Western Australia.   <br/><br/>Although its extent of occurrence (EOO) may be less than 20,000 km², there are more than 10 locations for this species, the locations are not severely fragmented and there is no current evidence for continued decline.	eng
34066	habitat	Thomas, P., 2008	<p></p>    <p><em>Podocarpus drouynianus</em> is a multi-stemmed shrub 1–3 m found in the understorey of jarrah and karri forests in SW Australia from Bunbury to Mt Barker, with some records from the <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Darling</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> east of <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Perth</st1:place></st1:city></st1:place></st1:city>. Usually occurs on lower slopes or lowalands near streams. It survives and regenerates after fire and is able to re-establish itself in disturbed areas and persist within mature managed native forests.</p><p><br/></p><p><u2:p></u2:p>  </p><p>The species is not known to be susceptible to the impacts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phytopthora</span>.</p>	eng
34066	population	Thomas, P., 2008	Within its main range it is widespread and locally very common.	eng
34066	threats	Thomas, P., 2008	Its total range and extent of occurrence has been reduced to some extent as a result of past activities such as the conversion of forest to pasture and the replacement of native forest with exotics.   Currently no other threats are known for this species.	eng
34067	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Although recognised as an endemic in Taiwan, populations on the Ryukyu Islands in Japan are also considered to belong to this species. In Taiwan populations are found in the north-central region, and in the far south in Tawushan Nature Reserve.	eng
34067	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Regeneration is poor.	eng
34068	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area is well protected.	eng
34068	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The entire range of the species is probably contained within Mt. Kinabalu National Park.	eng
34068	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to forest between 1200 and 2400 m on ultramafic substrates.	eng
34068	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is a potential threat presented by the attractiveness of the substrate for mining.	eng
34069	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	None of the presently known collections originates from protected areas.	eng
34069	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Malaysia, Sabah (and on the border with Sarawak). The currently known distribution is based on eight herbarium collections giving four separate localities. Most collections are by the author of the species, David de Laubenfels. It is possible that other localities will be discovered.	eng
34069	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Lower to middle montane rainforest on ridges and summits where the forest is not dominated by dipterocarps, in some localities on ultrabasic soil; elevation 310 to 1,530 m based on information on herbarium specimen labels. No uses have been recorded; podocarps are (dependent on their size) valuable timber trees.	eng
34069	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	At present the (sub)populations appear to be disjunct.	eng
34069	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Continuing deforestation and habitat degradation in the region may affect this species.	eng
34070	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree which is confined to Western Australia.	eng
34070	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not heavily exploited but if fires were to increase the species might become threatened.	eng
34071	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree confined to Western Australia.	eng
34071	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no obvious threats to the species other than its sensitivity to fires.	eng
34072	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Protection is afforded in various national parks.	eng
34072	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	As with all <em>Callitris</em> species, populations have declined because of previous exploitation.	eng
34072	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is vulnerable to grazing, logging and fire in the rest of its range.	eng
34073	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations in the south-west appear to be under threat from fire and overgrazing.	eng
34074	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species which is restricted in range.	eng
34074	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Under some threat from logging, fires and grazing.	eng
34075	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations in the south-west appear to under threat from logging.	eng
34076	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Protected populations occur in Yuanyang Lake Reserve and Yushan National Park. Plantations have also been established.	eng
34076	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	This taxon is sometimes known under the name <em>C. taiwanensis</em>.	eng
34076	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Occurring in association with, but in a more restricted range than, <em>C. formosensis</em>, this variety is found in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
34076	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It provides a valuable timber, and rates of exploitation have in the past been very high.	eng
34077	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area has  national park status.	eng
34077	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	They are confined to steep slopes in San Pedro Martír.	eng
34077	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Very few trees remain in the area where the variety was described.	eng
34077	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Large herds of cattle appear to be allowed to graze indiscriminately even though the area has  national park status.	eng
34078	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variant of the threatened <em>C. chengiana</em> is restricted to a single tree in Sichuan. It is monoecious.	eng
34079	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Traditional Buddhist culture protects certain trees.  Very few protected areas seem to contain the species. The species is widely cultivated in the region in certain areas, e.g., around Kunming, Yunnan, from where it has subsequently invaded e.g., the Western Hills.  These occurrences were formerly held to be natural and some local botanists still argue that this is the case, which may be the reason why this species does not appear the Red Data Book of Chinese Plants.	eng
34079	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	The native range of the species has only recently been better resolved. The truly wild natural stands are very scattered  and confined to deep river gorges of the Yangtse, Yalong (?), Lankong (Mekong) and Nu (Salween) Rivers, SW China. The stands in NW Yunnan appear to be mostly pure.  It was thought previously that these stands may have been planted.	eng
34079	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Grows in dry to moist (seasonal) coniferous forest at altitudes ranging from 1,900-3,300 m.	eng
34079	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Threatened by habitat clearance for agriculture and human settlements.  The timber is highly valued both for building and for fuel.  The species is also a popular ornamental tree.	eng
34080	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A population of 200 is thought to exist in two small stands.	eng
34080	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Regeneration is seriously hampered by goats.	eng
34081	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Fewer than five occurrences are known in California. Mexico also harbours few, perhaps two, subpopulations.	eng
34081	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Individuals can be found along roadsides.	eng
34081	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	One of the localities is relatively inaccessible but the others are susceptible to frequent wildfires and development.	eng
34082	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Border regions of several Mexican states.	eng
34082	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species occurs in montane forest, in oak and mesophillous formations.	eng
34083	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The typical variety is confined to a single inaccessible rocky outcrop on St. Lucia. Variety <em>lucayana</em> is more widespread, being recorded from the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti (now extinct there) and Jamaica. However, it is now rare in Cuba because of past overexploitation is rarely seen in the Bahamas.	eng
34083	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Found in remnant forests on steep slopes, and on inaccessible rocky outcrops.	eng
34083	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Overcutting in the past and overgrazing today have led to the confinement of the species to an inaccessible rocky outcrop, where it occurs in a dwarfed form. It is thought that forms growing to 15 m were more frequent at one time.	eng
34083	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Exploited for fuelwood and timber while overgrazing is a problem for the typical variety.	eng
34084	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including Area de Conservación Guanacaste, Altos de Campaña, Rincón de la Vieja, Rio Indio Maíz and Mountain Pine Ridge Reserves.	eng
34084	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Widespread across Central America with disjunct populations in Colombia, Equador and Venezuela. The disjunct known localities could indicate that this species occurs in areas of north-west South America (Colombia, Equador, Venezuela) where it has not yet been seen. The EOO calculated on the herbarium collections data is 3,323,940 km<sup>2</sup> and may well be larger than this.	eng
34084	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Mixed conifer-angiosperm forest or pine forest, often along streams. Elevation (from GIS) 1 to 2,369 m, from herbarium specimens 1 to 2,150 m.	eng
34084	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Reported to be fairly common in several localities.	eng
34084	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Locally threatened by logging and deforestation. Increasing human settlement and agriculture have brought about declines in the habitat.	eng
34086	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species is not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
34086	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Argentina (Missiones); Brazil (Bahía, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul)	eng
34086	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The exact habitat of this species is poorly indicated on herbarium labels, mostly if mentioned at all it is said to occur in ‘campo rupestre’, we assume in the vicinity of streams and/or in rocky areas. Elevation based on GIS data is between 108 and 1,704 m (one herbarium specimen label recorded 1,800 m).	eng
34086	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species, although wide-spread in southern Brazil, is nowhere abundant or even common and usually occurs as scattered individual trees.	eng
34086	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Habitat degradation and loss in the more densely populated coastal regions.	eng
34087	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Most collections were made in Mt. Kinabalu National Park. This species is not known from other protected areas.	eng
34087	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Malaysia: Saba (Mt. Kinabalu), Sarawak (Lawas); Indonesia: Borneo, Kalimantan Timur. The EOO is imperfectly known, due to a single location far to the south of where most other collections were made, which indicates the possibility of further locations in between. Based on present knowledge, the AOO is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
34087	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In primary rainforest with <em>Agathis</em>, often on waterlogged, acidic soils; scattered in primary rainforest and ‘moss forest’; growing as a large emergent tree on rocky ridges on kerangas; dominant in ‘heath forests’ at higher elevations. Elevation (from GIS) 86 to 2,203 m (920 to 1,650 m on herbarium labels, probably the elevation range where most trees occur). Harvested for use as timber.	eng
34087	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species occurs with scattered individuals in the forest, but can be dominant in 'heath forests' at higher elevations.	eng
34087	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Logging, deforestation for conversion to agriculture and grazing, habitat degradation (this tree does not occur in secondary forest).	eng
34088	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known only from two collections from a single locality, the species is confined to the summit of Mt. Tapulao in Luzon.	eng
34088	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	No recent reports have been made and it is not known whether the population is still extant.	eng
34089	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Restricted to northern Borneo, but due to the limited number of collections known, the AOO remains unknown.	eng
34089	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Montane tropical forest.	eng
34089	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The population sizes in the localities from where this species has been collected are unknown.	eng
34089	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are mentioned but it may be subject to logging and deforestation.	eng
34091	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Endemic to Taiwan, the species is restricted to a small area in the center of the island in Nan Ton County.	eng
34091	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Broadleaved evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
34091	population	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are small and isolated.	eng
34091	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Under threat from increasing settlement, forest management and agricultural activities.	eng
34092	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This species is not known from any protected area.	eng
34092	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	An endemic to the east Tongan Islands (southwestern Pacific). Very restricted, as far as known only on the island of ‘Eua. EOO less than 300 km<sup>2</sup> and AOO likely to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
34092	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Tropical low montane forest, dominated by angiosperms.	eng
34092	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	No data are available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
34092	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unknown.	eng
34093	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Not known to occur within a protected area.	eng
34093	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Venezuela: Andes, Cordillera do Merida. This species has been collected in the provinces of Edo Lara, Merida, Tachira and Trujillo.	eng
34093	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Montane mixed rainforest at elevations between 1,400 and 3,000 m, no details are indicated on the herbarium labels.	eng
34093	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There are <em>ca</em>.5 locations known, based on herbarium specimens. Young trees are said to be locally abundant.	eng
34093	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Logging. This species is utilized for timber.	eng
34094	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There is no legislation that regulates the logging or cutting of this species and it has not been found to occur within any protected area.	eng
34094	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Caribbean: Jamaica (Mt Diablo, Sander’s Hill). Limited to the central limestone region of Jamaica, with an EOO estimated to be 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> or less. The AOO is not known as it is uncertain how many subpopulations there are, but since these are likely to be small and scattered, it is probably not more than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. At present, only two locations are known.	eng
34094	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Wet tropical evergreen forest on limestone. The elevation is 800 m at the Mt. Diablo subpopulation.	eng
34094	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Subpopulations observed so far are very small, with 10 to 20 mature trees (one with a diameter at breast height of 1 m) and many seedlings and saplings.	eng
34094	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Logging has reduced the number of large trees dramatically, probably over a long period of time, and may now play a lesser role as a threat but has not disappeared. Evidence was seen of logs of this species perhaps felled 2 to 3 years before lying by the side of the track on Mt Diablo. Removal of saplings used for sticks in the yam growing industry is the current greatest threat. Forest degradation will lead to deforestation, as other land use will take its place where the terrain and soils permit.	eng
34095	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	One known location is within Roraima National Park.	eng
34095	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species occurs on Mt Roraima and the mountains lying on the border between Venezuela and Guyana. There are records from the departments of Bolivar and Amazonas. Its distribution is probably imperfectly known.	eng
34095	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Tropical montane rainforest. No specific details are known.	eng
34095	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No data are known about population sizes; judging from the number of collections made in one area in a decade it is probably fairly common there.	eng
34095	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are known to affect this species at present. No uses are known.	eng
34096	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The recent collection (2005) was made within the Tsaratanana Reserve.	eng
34096	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Madagascar (Antsiranana, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa provinces). The highly disjunct distribution of this species, if correct, seems to indicate a relict status.	eng
34096	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Recorded from rocky slopes on silicious rocks; the elevation is given as 1,800 to 2,400 m (herbarium data) but the range may be greater according to GIS calculations and information from literature.	eng
34096	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Nothing is known about the size of (sub)populations. A survey of known locations is desirable as only one collection, from Ampomotra, is recent.	eng
34096	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation and grazing.	eng
34098	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	An endemic to San Cristobal Island.	eng
34100	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The entire population is contained within the State Forest Reserve on Mt. Lewis near Mossman.	eng
34100	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is scattered in montane rainforest in summit localities.	eng
34100	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Felling is illegal without permission.	eng
34101	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is known from occurrences on Mt. Ophir in Peninsular Malaysia, Morotai in the north Moluccas, Rossel Island in the Louisiade Archipelago of Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
34102	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is known only from Mt. Omei in Sichuan and Yunnan.	eng
34105	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Endemic to Trinidad, the species appears to be confined to El Tucuche in the north.	eng
34106	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	The species is common to locally dominant in the Blue Mountains. Large populations exist on the Grand Ridge and in southern catchments.	eng
34106	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Montane rainforest. It is less common where slopes are steep or unstable.	eng
34106	population	Bellingham, P., 1998	At very high altitudes it is one of the commonest trees.	eng
34107	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The entire population is contained within a state forest reserve and felling is illegal without permit.	eng
34107	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Endemic to Mt. Spurgeon near Mossman.	eng
34107	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is scattered in montane rainforest in summit localities.	eng
34108	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	One subpopulation occurs in a reserve at the Chûte de la Madeleine Reserv. Before 1997, this area was freely accessible to the public and was becoming degraded. Since 1997, a management plan has been implemented and some restoration work undertaken. Other subpopulations are not protected.	eng
34108	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This small rheophyte is restricted to the margins of a few watercourses and lakes in the Plaine des Lacs area (at 5 to 250 m asl).	eng
34108	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Grows on river banks and lake shores on ultramafic soils.	eng
34108	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The population is smaller than 2,500 mature individuals and declining.	eng
34108	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The most direct threats come from wild fires and developments associated with mining such as the construction of a major metallurgical plant several kilometres upstream from a major subpopulation. Other longer term threats come from fluctuations in the water flows and the water table.	eng
34109	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An endemic to Serra Pacas Novos.	eng
34110	conservation	Farjon, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii</span> is presently not known to occur in protected areas.	eng
34110	distribution	Farjon, A., 2008	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii</span> occurs in Colombia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ecuador</st1:country-region>, central Peru and western Venezuela (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Merida</st1:place></st1:city> and Tachira).</p>	eng
34110	habitat	Farjon, A., 2008	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">R. rospigliosii </span>occurs in montane tropical rainforest, in which it can attain a large size. Its altitudinal range is from 1,500 to 3,300 m (up to 3,750 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>) a.s.l., so it occurs in wet rainforest up to high altitude cloud forest or 'mossy forest'. It can form more or less extensive pure stands on exposed sites, but is more often found scattered among flowering plants or sometimes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Prumnopitys</span> spp.</p>	eng
34110	threats	Farjon, A., 2008	The main threats are logging and conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
34111	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	From Fukushima to Hiroshima on Honshu Island, and also on Shikoku and Kyushu Islands.	eng
34111	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tree of low to medium elevations occurring in forested areas.	eng
34111	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It provides a useful timber and levels of exploitation have been considerable.	eng
34113	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Two collections are known in the Delei valley and a valley in the Dafla Hills in India, and another single collection has been made from Medog in China.	eng
34113	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Moist deciduous forest.	eng
34113	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation has occurred extensively in the area.	eng
34116	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species was described from a specimen in cultivation at Hilliers, UK.	eng
34116	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The populations in the wild remain unknown. Repeated attempts to discover the whereabouts of the wild population have failed.	eng
34117	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The distribution of the subspecies is fairly wide and unresolved.	eng
34117	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Populations are scattered and confined to areas of dense montane forest.	eng
34117	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Levels of exploitation of the forest habitat have been high throughout the area. Regeneration does not appear to be good.	eng
34118	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population is restricted to a small area of forest. Its status is not presently known but Lijiangshan is one of the best preserved areas.	eng
34118	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Forest.	eng
34120	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in a sparsely populated area, in two or three subpopulations.	eng
34120	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Restricted to wet north slopes in two river valleys.	eng
34120	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are no obvious threats to the two or three subpopulations that exist.	eng
34121	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
34121	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Found at lower altitudes than the other varieties.	eng
34121	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	As it is found at lower altitudes than the other varieties it may be more vulnerable to exploitation.	eng
34122	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
34122	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The taxon is restricted to forest areas up to 3,000 m or more.	eng
34123	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A variety which is found in very low densities.	eng
34123	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.	eng
34124	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Extensive forests of it were known to occur in south-west Sichuan and north-west Yunnan.	eng
34124	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Extensive forests of it were known to occur above 3,000 m.	eng
34124	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Populations have declined.	eng
34124	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Large-scale deforestation and replanting with commercial species.	eng
34125	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A variety which occurs in very low densities.	eng
34125	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.	eng
34126	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although this variety is less threatened than the Spanish variety, it is restricted to the Rif Mountains.	eng
34126	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Vulnerable to overgrazing.	eng
34127	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A rare variety with a very restricted range confined to Songpan. Var. <em>ernestii</em> appears to be more widespread in the west of Sichuan Province.	eng
34128	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Restricted to between 1,600 and 2,000 m altitude.	eng
34128	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variety is locally common, perhaps numbering 2,500 individuals on Mt. Tazaot.	eng
34130	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Forest.	eng
34130	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	High levels of deforestation and habitat degradation.	eng
34131	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variant is known from Shikoku island.	eng
34131	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are no obvious threats at present.	eng
34133	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is found in an area extending from north-west Sichuan into east Tibet.	eng
34134	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
34134	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	China: west Sichuan and south-east Xizang Zizhiqu (Tibet). The range of this species remains incompletely known.	eng
34134	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety occurs, with the species in a wider sense, in high montane to subalpine coniferous forests and sometimes in the ecotone to alpine steppe. The elevation based on herbarium specimen data is 3,180 to 3,560 m.	eng
34134	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.	eng
34136	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tree of pine-oak forest, restricted to limestone hillsides.	eng
34136	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Deforestation continues to occur on a large scale.	eng
34140	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The most common and widespread variety, <em>J. pingii</em> var. <em>wilsonii</em> is a low shrub. <em>J. pingii</em> var. <em>chengii</em> was described as a small tree.	eng
34140	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A very rare species but apparently not under threat of extinction.	eng
34140	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Deforestation is taking place extensively in north-west Yunnan.	eng
34141	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	As with <em>J. pingii</em> the species is relatively rare but apparently not overly threatened.	eng
34142	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Yunnan and north-west Myanmar.	eng
34142	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A fairly widespread variety of moist montane woodland.	eng
34142	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It has been harvested heavily in Yunnan but appears to regenerate well.	eng
34144	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The known populations are confined to Talasskij Ala Tau but they are suspected to extend into China. The species as a whole is considered threatened in China.	eng
34145	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs in the Sierra Santa Catarina, in a single locality that probably extends less than 100 km².	eng
34146	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Many populations are found in protected areas.	eng
34146	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A species with a wide but local distribution, occurring from the North Cape to East Cape in the North Island and in north-west Nelson in the South Island. Regeneration occurs in disturbed sites.	eng
34146	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
34146	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Some populations are exposed to forestry, agriculture, and mining activities.	eng
34147	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Almost all subpopulations occur within the Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area and are protected from exploitation, which has been considerable in the past.	eng
34147	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to the Baviaanskloof and Kogua Mountains. The genus contains three or four species, endemic to southern Africa.	eng
34147	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Present concerns lie in recruitment being low and the range being restricted to a degree that causes the species to be vulnerable to natural disasters and uncontrolled frequent fires.	eng
34148	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	From Mt. Triphylos.	eng
34148	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Only one population is known.	eng
34149	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species does not occur within a protected area.	eng
34149	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Known from one collection at a location 18 km south-west of Bernhard Camp on the Idenburg River, a remote locality in western Irian Jaya. EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km². Further field work could reveal a more substantial distribution.	eng
34149	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Canopy tree (to 34 m tall) in mossy montane rain forest.	eng
34149	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	A poorly-collected species. Nothing is known about the size of the population.	eng
34149	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are known or have been reported.	eng
34150	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Collected four times from just two localities near the coast at Bintulu and Kuching.	eng
34150	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A rare tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
34150	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Its diminutive size and scarcity render it unlikely to be exploited.	eng
34152	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Most populations are within protected areas.	eng
34152	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Only a few populations are known, between the North Cape and the Coromandel Peninsula.	eng
34152	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in areas of forest up to 700 m.	eng
34152	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Few seedlings and juvenile plants are apparent and the species appears to be dependent on disturbance (e.g., volcanic disturbance) for regeneration.	eng
34153	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Most of the range is protected within a World Heritage Site.	eng
34153	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	South-west Tasmania. Population ranges constricted during the last Glacial retreat.	eng
34153	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Huon pine, one of the longest living trees in the world, is found mostly in small stands in rainforest associated with the river systems.	eng
34153	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Significant areas are open to the persistent threats of mining, logging, hydroelectric schemes and fire regimes. A small proportion of trees are sexually reproductive in one season, a disproportionate number of them being the oldest trees. Regrowth by vegetative reproduction is, however, very strong. Recently heavy loggig has been a threat.	eng
34154	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A dwarf conifer and the only member of the genus on the continent. Its nearest relatives are in New Zealand.	eng
34154	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs as a pioneer in upland scrub in acidic bogs, often with <em>Fitzroya</em> and <em>Pilgerodendron</em>.	eng
34154	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area is vulnerable to fires and habitat degradation.	eng
34155	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Present information suggests the species is confined to the Mujong River drainage and Bako National Park, but it is possible other populations exist in nearby localities.	eng
34155	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An understorey tree of peat-swamp forest.	eng
34155	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area is vulnerable to disturbance from logging and habitat clearance for agriculture.	eng
34156	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species is recorded in Kenting and Yangmingshan National Parks.	eng
34156	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Southern China, Taiwan, and the southern islands of Japan. The species appears in populations in the northern end and southern tip of Taiwan, separated by the central range of mountains. Its distribution is imperfectly known: the range of natural occurrence (EOO) is probably substantially less extensive than the distribution given in for example the Atlas of the Gymnosperms of China (Ying <em>et al.</em> 2004) which makes no distinction between introduced/planted and occurrence in the wild.	eng
34156	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	An important timber species occurring in moist forest (mixed mesophytic evergreen forest and mixed mesophytic deciduous forest) at various elevations.	eng
34156	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Selective logging, habitat disturbances, deforestation. There is concern for populations on Shikoku and Kyushu Islands in Japan because of the levels of exploitation. Occurring in lowland mixed evergreen forest, the species has come under threat from habitat declines. Whole plants are also dug up for the horticultural trade.	eng
34158	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Neither of the two known localities is situated within a protected area.	eng
34158	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The species occurs in the Gajo Lands in northern Sumatra and the Wissel Lakes in Papua New Guinea. The hugely disjunct range of this species, as presently known, merits a critical revision of this species.	eng
34158	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	“In local forest populations, probably on poor soils, … at 2,500 to 3,300 m, near Wissel Lakes at 1,800 m.” (de Laubenfels 1988).	eng
34158	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Nothing is known about the population size in these two locations.	eng
34158	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown.	eng
34159	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Indonesia: Kalimantan (Borneo, incl. Karimata Island); Malaysia: Sarawak, Sabah. Due to the limited number of herbarium specimens with good geographical data available, the EOO and AOO could not be reliably calculated. The range is extensive and covers much of north-west and north Borneo at higher elevations.	eng
34159	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	On mossy rocky ridges, or scattered in nearby forest, in high kerangas forest and on white, sandy soils. Elevation (from literature) 700 to 2,070 m, one collection from a swamp at 360 m. No uses are recorded of this relatively small tree.	eng
34159	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Population sizes are unknown, but locally common or even dominant (e.g., on the Merurong Plateau).	eng
34159	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No particular threats are known affecting this species.	eng
34160	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not known to occur in a protected area.	eng
34160	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Endemic to Madagascar and restricted to Mount Ambatomenaloha, Itremo and Ibity Massifs. The EOO and AOO of 30,904 km<sup>2</sup> and 21,944 km<sup>2</sup> calculated using all known herbarium collections include the disjunct northern dot (see map) based on a 1920s collection that probably represents a subpopulation that no longer exists. If this is the case, both figures would come down to within the thresholds of the category EN under Criterion B.	eng
34160	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	On skeletal sandy soil over quarzite, along streams. Slow growing. Elevation from herbarium specimens 1,320 to 2,000 m.	eng
34160	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Population size thought to have been reduced.	eng
34160	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation, habitat loss, cutting for firewood, fires, grazing.	eng
34161	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A variety with a patchy distribution.	eng
34161	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Confined to remaining areas of natural forest.	eng
34161	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Young individuals were noted as being rare as early as 1930. Populations in the Carpathians may fare better.	eng
34161	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The forest does not appear to be healthy and has been degraded by war and exploitative activities.	eng
34162	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although the species is widespread, it appears to be very rare and poorly collected.	eng
34162	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Deforestation is a threat in most of its range.	eng
34164	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A taxon restricted to the Himalayas in Xizang Zizhiqu, apparently extending into Langtang Khola in Nepal.	eng
34165	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Endemic to the Yatsugadake Mts. this variety is restricted to a small area (less than 100 km²), most of it being state forest.	eng
34165	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
34166	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A few (less than five) small populations in scattered locations are confined to the volcanic Akaishi range of central Honshu.	eng
34166	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	They occur in mixed montane forest.	eng
34167	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A widespread valuable timber tree.	eng
34167	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Suffering from overexploitation and loss of the montane forest habitat to logging and clearing.	eng
34168	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34168	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34168	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34168	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34168	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34169	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34169	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34169	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34169	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34169	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34170	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34170	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34170	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34170	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34170	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34171	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34171	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34171	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34171	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34171	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34172	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34172	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34172	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34172	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34172	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34173	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34173	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34173	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34173	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34173	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34174	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34174	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Juan Fernández.	eng
34174	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus of palm-like pachycaul trees.	eng
34174	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the species in the genus are now reduced to a few individuals. More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34174	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing by feral animals and spread of introduced weeds.	eng
34175	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mountains of west Sichuan and neighbouring Tibet.	eng
34175	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variety is restricted to high-altitude coniferous forests.	eng
34175	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The tree provides a useful timber and levels of exploitation of both it and the forest in general have caused serious habitat fragmentation and population declines.	eng
34176	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	South-west Sichuan.	eng
34176	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A useful timber tree restricted to a small area of high-altitude coniferous forest.	eng
34176	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Levels of exploitation of both the tree and the forest in general have caused population declines. There are no signs of the pressure easing and no protection measures are enforced.	eng
34177	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
34177	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Masatierra Is. Preliminary data indicate the species is confined to less than 100 km². More detailed information on the species should become available to confirm this evaluation.	eng
34177	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dominant species of lowland dry forest and lower montane forest.	eng
34177	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the forest has declined through the effects of grazing by feral animals, spread of introduced weeds and soil erosion. Trees were also cut in large numbers for lumber in the past.	eng
34178	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Restricted to a small area along the Yalong River and north and west of Kangding in south-west Sichuan.	eng
34178	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tall tree of  high-altitude cloud forest.	eng
34178	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Levels of exploitation of the old growth coniferous forests are substantial and threatening the integrity of all populations.	eng
34180	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	This species is known from scattered populations on Yakushima and Tanegashima Islands.	eng
34180	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Lowland coniferous woodland.	eng
34180	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It was formerly exploited and seems slow to regenerate where conditions have become exposed.	eng
34181	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A timber tree endemic to Taiwan.	eng
34181	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Levels of exploitation and the degradation of its montane forest habitat have caused substantial declines in the population.	eng
34182	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are being monitored and protected against fire hazards.	eng
34182	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A number of isolated populations occur within protected areas in the Sierra Nevada at subalpine levels.	eng
34182	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Subalpine altitudes.	eng
34182	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The trees are extremely slow-growing and recruitment may be insufficient. Fire and grazing by wildlife are also problems.	eng
34183	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	The only certain population occurs on the Azerbaijan-Georgia border. May also occur in Azerbaijan and Iran. The range of this variety of <em>Pinus brutia</em> remains imperfectly known (Farjon 2005).	eng
34183	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Semi-dry pine forests, usually mixed with sclerophyllous angiosperms in an open canopy.	eng
34183	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Not known, presumably there is some logging.	eng
34184	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in Pinar del Río and Isla de Pinos.	eng
34184	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland and hill pine forest and mixed oak-pine forests on slatey rocks.	eng
34184	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A heavily exploited tree. Burning and logging of large areas of pine forest have transformed the habitat into savannah. Frequent fires also prevent regrowth of the species in favour of <em>P. tropicalis</em>.	eng
34185	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mostly in La Laguna, covering a range of about 100 km².	eng
34185	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It occurs in open stands in meadows or with oak above 1,600 m.	eng
34185	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although this taxon is not a valuable timber tree, it is the only pine in this remote region and is exploited at a low level. The area is not protected and, although not easily accessible, it is susceptible to fire and overgrazing.	eng
34189	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Afghanistan plantations have been established to supply the seeds.	eng
34189	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Montane open forest.	eng
34189	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are widespread but are small and low in density.	eng
34189	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In many areas the seed crop is exploited  unsustainably but the effects on regeneration are not yet clear.	eng
34191	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known only from Brac, Hvar, Korcula and Pelijesac Islands on the Dalmatian coast. There is evidence that this form hybridises with the mainland subspecies.	eng
34191	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This subspecies occurs in stands above the Aleppo pine forest.	eng
34191	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Threats come from overgrazing and habitat degradation.	eng
34195	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An endemic to the Damingshan.	eng
34196	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It is listed as a chief candidate for afforestation in Xitianmu Shan Nature Reserve.	eng
34196	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Also referred to as <em>P. kaempferi</em>, this species is found in the most densely populated areas of China along the lower and middle reaches of the Yangtze River.	eng
34196	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It is scattered in evergreen and deciduous mixed forest below 1,500 m.	eng
34197	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	This variety is given species status in China. Occurs in south-west Guangxi and southern Guizhou.	eng
34197	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It is confined to areas of sparse forest on limestone hills.	eng
34197	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There is some overcutting.	eng
34198	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The taxon is widespread, but scattered as isolated individuals or in small stands. The Taiwan subpopulations are known in the country under the synonym <em>P. wilsoniana</em>. They are restricted to the central and northern parts of the main mountain range.	eng
34198	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Primarily on mountain ridges in mixed submontane forest.	eng
34198	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Taiwan the forest is being extensively cleared for apple and peach orchards. The timber is extracted extensively throughout the species' range but most thoroughly in accessible areas.	eng
34199	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	A substantial population is protected in Lin'an County, Zhejiang.	eng
34199	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The taxon is treated as a distinct species in China. Occurs in south-east Anhui, north Zhejiang and Jiangxi. There is also a record from Jianning in Fujian.	eng
34199	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Trees are scattered on slopes and in valleys below 1,500 m.	eng
34199	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Constant overcutting of the tree and its habitat are a threat and the seeds are said to have poor viability.	eng
34200	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An endemic of the Appalachian Mountains.	eng
34201	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The large part of the range of this subspecies is contained in national parks.	eng
34201	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The taxon is ecologically restricted and occurs only in areas of high-altitude forest where there is plenty of snow cover. Trees which are bent over with a heavy snow burden have a habit of suddenly and unexpectedly springing upright.	eng
34201	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	One area is in a ski resort.	eng
34202	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unknown, possibly on Vancouver Island, BC, Canada. Not confirmed recently.	eng
34202	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Presumably mixed coniferous forests of the Pacific Coast of North America.	eng
34203	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Present in the following reserves in Tanzania: Chome, Hanang, Mafwomero, Mkusu, Nou, Shagayu and Wotta. The evidence is that this does not prevent illegal logging on a large scale using sawpits to remove and process individual trees.	eng
34203	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Highland regions (e.g., Usambara Mountains) in Tanzania, Chyulu Hills in Kenya; EOO 1,048,460 km² and AOO 553,798 km² based on locations of herbarium collections. The AOO is overestimated as there are large plains between the various locations which are unsuitable habitat.	eng
34203	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Evergreen rainforest, dry evergreen forest, mixed with co-dominant angiosperms. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 1,456 to 2,889 m and from data with herbarium specimens 1,550 to 3,000 m.	eng
34203	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Populations are rare and disjunct in much of Tanzania and in Kenya, more common in the Usambara Mountains. Last collected in 2005.	eng
34203	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is under severe threat from illegal logging in the Chome Forest Reserve in Tanzania (evidence from aerial photography); the same type of saw pit exploitation is known from other locations. General deforestation and fires are also reducing the rainforest, which is usually limited in extent even naturally. This species is the most valuable and specifically targeted tree for (illegal) logging in this type of forest. The timber of this species is highly valued for construction, furniture and other refined uses.	eng
34204	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are protected within the national park.	eng
34204	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
34204	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which is known only from elevations above 2,100 m.	eng
34204	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is thought to be susceptible to periodic droughts, but populations appear to have successfully survived recent dry spells.	eng
34205	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Sulawesi, on Latimodjong Mountains, lower slopes have been cleared in places for agriculture.	eng
34205	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Kalimantan it was known from a now extinct population near Balikpapan. In Sulawesi it is confined to the Latimodjong Mts. Populations in New Guinea are thought to be widespread.	eng
34205	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tree of submontane swamp or disturbed forest, where it can form pure stands.	eng
34205	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	In Kalimantan it was known from a now extinct population near Balikpapan. In Sulawesi it is confined to the Latimodjong Mts. Populations in New Guinea are thought to be widespread.	eng
34206	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No conservation measures are known. This species does not appear to occur within protected areas.	eng
34206	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Wissel Lakes and other localities.	eng
34206	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Dominant to nearly pure stands in swamp forests and perhaps also in mossy heath forests between 1,450 and 2,300 m elevation. A photograph in Flora Malesiana ser. I, vol. 10: 366 (1988) shows a dense stand of this tree in the ecotone between montane rainforest and swamp “on black peat”.	eng
34206	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown. Collections are few, largely because the area is poorly explored.	eng
34206	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are known to exist. No uses are known.	eng
34207	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurring in two locations on Mt. Dulit and Meruong Plateau.	eng
34207	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A locally abundant tree of primary mossy forest, occurring on exposed ridges. It appears to be confined to ultrabasic soils.	eng
34207	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The area could possibly come under the heavy logging regimes which have occurred throughout the country.	eng
34208	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population here is protected within the national park.	eng
34208	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Known only from Mt. Kinabalu and the summit ridge on Mt. Murud in Sarawak.	eng
34208	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A shrub or small tree. On Mt. Murud the species appears to be common at high elevations, particularly on ultramafic substrates.	eng
34210	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are known from the islands of Guadalcanal, Choiseul and Santa Ysabel in the Solomons, from the Louisades in Papua New Guinea and Obi Island in the Moluccas.	eng
34210	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Lowland rainforest, especially on ridge crests.	eng
34210	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is scattered to locally common.	eng
34210	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Forest management activities and agricultural pressures could cause rapid population losses to most or all parts of the range.	eng
34211	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not within a protected area.	eng
34211	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	A little-known tree confined to altitudes over 3,000 m on Mt. Goliath. Limited to a single mountain summit as far as is known, at 4º 32’ S, 139º 51’ E, at 3,000 to 3,600 m elevation. EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km².	eng
34211	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Mossy heath forest.	eng
34211	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown, but presumably less than 1000 mature trees.	eng
34211	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats to this species are known to occur. No uses are known.	eng
34212	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A relative of the heavily exploited medicinal pepper-bark tree, this species is confined to southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The Kenyan population occurs in Kaembeni-Dida near Kinango.	eng
34212	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest patches.	eng
34212	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Tanzania the species is confined to the Msumbugwe Forest Reserve (44 km²), where the forest is heavily disturbed by previous logging activities but otherwise free from the pressure of agricultural encroachment which threatens other coastal forests.	eng
34213	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Rabai Forest is sacred, and therefore more secure.	eng
34213	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree collected from Rabai and Mombasa over 70 years ago and also apparently from Potwe Forest in adjacent Tanzania.	eng
34213	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest localities outside Rabai Forest where the species occur, if they still exist, are far less secure.	eng
34214	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only a few times from Pangani, Longo and Magandi Forests.	eng
34214	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dense evergreen forest.	eng
34216	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are protected populations in some reserves, such as Mt. Kenya and Kakamega Forest, although some of these areas are being actively logged. The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya has raised seedlings.	eng
34216	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Kenya.	eng
34216	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is restricted to humid areas of upland evergreen or secondary forest.	eng
34216	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Loss of habitat to create land for agriculture and land settlement is the greatest threat to the species.	eng
34217	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	At the north of the species range two subpopulations occur in rocky places of semi-evergreen woodland and scrub in southern Somalia extending into Kenya near Kiunga. Further south new locations have been found in remaining patches of forest in Lindi and coastal Tanzania, possibly extending into northern Mozambique.	eng
34217	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Rocky places of semi-evergreen woodland and scrub.	eng
34218	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Kenya.	eng
34218	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is confined to a few remaining patches of lowland coastal forest.	eng
34219	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A local offshoot of the <em>M. capensis-M. kilimandscharica</em> complex. This species is restricted to two montane forests. A small subpopulation is known from the Taita Hills and another is found in the West Usambara Mts.	eng
34219	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
34219	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It has been recorded as common in the past, but recent tree plots suggest it is rare.	eng
34219	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The explosive increase in the human population in the surrounding area has exerted a heavy demand for wood and land.	eng
34220	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Talagwe Forest Reserve, North Mamiwa Kisara Forest Reserve, Mafwemera Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Moutains National Park and from Kipengere Forest Reserve.	eng
34220	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found only in Tanzania from the South Pare Mts in the north and then southwards to the Uluguru, Udzungwa, and Rubeho Mountains. Also recorded from Kipengere Forest Reserve.	eng
34220	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in montane rain forest on steep slopes and rocky ridges. From the specimens the habitat is variously described as: <span style="font-style: italic;">Allanblackia-Podocarpus-Melchiora-Zenkerella-Cussonia</span> forest; on dry slopes with much bracken; <span style="font-style: italic;">Dodonaea, Myrica</span>, merging into <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea </span>forest; elfin forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Philippia, Agauria, Myrica, Schleffera lukwangulensis, Tecomaria, Syzygium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus</span>, riverine forest; and on granitic rocks covered by evergreen heath or bush, etc.<br/><br/>Usually grows as a free-standing tree, but epiphytic plants have also been recorded, but it appears this is not common.	eng
34220	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Reported to be locally dominant and common.	eng
34220	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of habitat due to deforestation for expanding agriculture, logging, etc.	eng
34221	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Appears to be known from relatively widely separated localities. The Tanzanian subpopulation is restricted to the highly disturbed 22 km² patch of forest at the Pugu Forest Reserve, near Dar es Salaam. There are also occurrences within the restricted coastal forests of Mozambique, where further fieldwork is needed to consolidate whether the status of the species is more seriously threatened.	eng
34221	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry coastal forest species.	eng
34222	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The range of this species extends from Kwale and Kilifi districts in Kenya into northern Tanzania in the Pangani River basin.	eng
34222	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
34223	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Hahn, N., 1998	Populations are contained within several protected areas.	eng
34223	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Hahn, N., 1998	The main part of the distribution falls within South Africa.	eng
34223	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Hahn, N., 1998	A multi-stemmed shrub or tree which occurs in woodland, thorn scrub and grasslands on dry sandy hillsides and flats on soil that is usually derived from granite.	eng
34223	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Hahn, N., 1998	In South Africa it is recorded from numerous localities and appears to be abundant in places. It often spreads into overgrazed areas and can be regarded as a weed.	eng
34224	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A number of small isolated subpopulations exist. The Tanzanian subpopulation is confined to Mwanihana  in the Udzungwa Mts. In Zimbabwe, the species occurs in Chirinda Forest and in the Vumba Mts., near Mutare, where one or two individuals have been recorded. Poorly collected areas in Mozambique are expected to harbour additional subpopulations.	eng
34224	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A common understorey tree (Zimbabwe).	eng
34225	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the South Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34225	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
34226	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	South Nguru Mts., North Udzungwa Mts. and Mahenge.	eng
34226	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to moist evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
34227	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to the Uluguru Mts.	eng
34227	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs over 2,100 m in moist evergreen forest.	eng
34228	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to southern parts of the Nguru Mts. and northern parts of the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34228	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is confined to moist evergreen montane forest within a very narrow altitudinal band.	eng
34229	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree confined to three patches of moist lowland forest: Mvuma, Kiberege and Mohenge.	eng
34230	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been regarded as endemic to countries in the West, where it is uncommon and has suffered habitat losses, however, the concept of the species published in Flore du Gabon 1995 suggests that the species in broader in range and ecology, occurring in various forest and savanna types from Sierra Leone to Angola and Sudan.	eng
34231	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the North Uluguru Mts. The genus is monospecific.	eng
34231	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is a moist evergreen forest species recorded only at altitudes above 1,450 m.	eng
34232	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found around Lake Lutamba. It may also occur in the East Usambara Mts. The area around the lake has been completely cleared, with the exception of a 10 km² patch of forest protected as Litipo Forest Reserve.	eng
34232	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree or shrub is mainly known from a dry forest habitat.	eng
34232	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest clearing.	eng
34233	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34233	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic tree of Palawan.	eng
34233	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in thickets and forests at low altitudes, often adjacent to mangrove swamp.	eng
34234	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34234	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is an endemic of Palawan.	eng
34234	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forests at low or medium altitudes.	eng
34235	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34235	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to Palawan.	eng
34235	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forest along streams, at about 100 m.	eng
34236	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to Palawan.	eng
34236	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on forested slopes at low and medium altitudes.	eng
34236	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34237	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Palawan.	eng
34237	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found at low and medium altitudes in forest.	eng
34238	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to Palawan.	eng
34238	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forest at low altitudes.	eng
34239	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34239	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to Palawan.	eng
34239	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forests at low and medium altitudes.	eng
34240	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34240	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Palawan.	eng
34240	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species, between 200 and 450 m.	eng
34241	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34241	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree endemic to Palawan.	eng
34241	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on dry forested slopes at low altitude.	eng
34242	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34242	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to Palawan.	eng
34242	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Located in thin forests near seashore.	eng
34243	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34243	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan. The species is found on the upper part of Mt. Pulgar at about 1200 m.	eng
34244	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from south Palawan.	eng
34244	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest on rocky hills.	eng
34244	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree has been collected only once, 70 years ago.	eng
34244	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is threatened by forest loss, although Palawan has had less intense deforestation than some of the other Philippine Islands.	eng
34245	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	North-east of Mindanao.	eng
34245	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	An epiphytic shrub or small tree known from only two collections from montane forest.	eng
34245	population	Frodin, D., 1998	This species has not been collected since 1912.	eng
34246	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Occurs in central Palawan.	eng
34246	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A montane forest species found on ultramafic soils.	eng
34246	population	Frodin, D., 1998	It is known from only three herbarium specimens and was last seen in the 1970s–80s.	eng
34247	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	It is restricted to the north of Palawan.	eng
34247	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	This suberect shrub or small tree reaches about 4 m in height. It occurs in forest on limestone.	eng
34247	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	Habitat loss is a threat.	eng
34248	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34248	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of Palawan on Mt. Pulgar.	eng
34248	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dense thickets on exposed ridges at about 1,200 m.	eng
34249	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34249	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Palawan in the Philippines and a single collection from Semporna, Sabah.	eng
34249	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
34250	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34250	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Palawan in the Philippines and a single sterile collection on Balambangan Island, Sabah.	eng
34250	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known mainly from primary forest (Palawan) plus a single collection on a coastal limestone ridge (Sabah).	eng
34251	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34251	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species endemic to Palawan.	eng
34251	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in primary forests at low altitude.	eng
34252	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34252	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan.	eng
34252	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in primary forests at low altitude.	eng
34253	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34253	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of Palawan.	eng
34253	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on forested slopes at low altitude.	eng
34254	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34254	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of Palawan.	eng
34254	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on forested slopes at low altitude.	eng
34255	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34255	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan.	eng
34255	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in primary forest at low and medium altitude.	eng
34256	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34256	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Palawan.	eng
34256	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Surviving in old clearings.	eng
34257	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to the island of Camiguin.	eng
34257	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The present population status is not known and may be more seriously threatened.	eng
34258	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34258	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Palawan endemic.	eng
34258	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to remaining forest at low altitude.	eng
34259	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic genus to Palawan. The species is confined to Mt. Victoria.	eng
34259	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found along streams at about 150 m.	eng
34261	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34261	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Palawan endemic.	eng
34261	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in forest next to mangrove stands at sea level.	eng
34261	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mangrove areas continue to be depleted by local people collecting firewood and construction timber, despite their forest reserve status.	eng
34262	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34262	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan.	eng
34262	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in areas of lowland forest up to 150 m.	eng
34263	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34263	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only found in Palawan.	eng
34263	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of primary forest.	eng
34264	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan.	eng
34264	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest species at low altitudes.	eng
34264	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34265	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic variety to the Philippines.	eng
34265	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.	eng
34266	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	Known from only four collections from Palawan and Luzon.	eng
34266	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	A small forest mountain tree.	eng
34266	population	Kalkman, C., 1998	No new material of this species has been collected since 1965, even though there have been collecting expeditions to Palawan since.	eng
34266	threats	Kalkman, C., 1998	Both islands have suffered from massive deforestation.	eng
34268	conservation	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Work is being carried out to consolidate the taxonomic status of the three varieties, although material from this variety is insufficient.	eng
34268	distribution	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Confined to the island of Curieuse.	eng
34268	habitat	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Rocky crevice.	eng
34268	population	Carlstrom, A., 1998	The species is known from a single small tree.	eng
34268	threats	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Regeneration is not evident and infestations of weevils and other insects are a problem.	eng
34269	conservation	Carlstrom, A., 1998	This variety is presently protected in Morne Seychellois National Park.  Work is being carried out to consolidate the taxonomic status of the three varieties, although material for var. <em>curiosae</em> is insufficient.	eng
34269	distribution	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Found only in a single patch of moist forest near Mission Casse Dent.	eng
34269	habitat	Carlstrom, A., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
34269	threats	Carlstrom, A., 1998	The most serious threats come from invasive plants and encroaching housing developments.	eng
34270	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some populations are protected in national parks.	eng
34270	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette and Felicite.	eng
34270	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or shrub occurring in forest on exposed rocky outcrops or in well-drained places.	eng
34270	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species does not have a uniform distribution but exists in numerous small populations. Regeneration appears to be fairly good	eng
34271	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The endemic status of this tree is uncertain. In Sri Lanka, this forest species is possibly extinct due to over-exploitation. The conservation category is inferred from the situation in Sri Lanka.	eng
34271	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was not found in the recent National Conservation Review forest survey indicating that the species is either extremely rare or extinct.	eng
34271	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Over-exploitation.	eng
34272	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be locally common in Horton Plains National Park.	eng
34272	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, the species was found in three forest localities.	eng
34273	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree was commonly found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka but it is now very rare.	eng
34274	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles, the species qualifies as threatened by virtue of its restricted distribution.	eng
34274	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are healthy and stable.	eng
34275	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	In the Pitcairn Group the species occurs only on Henderson Island, within a restricted range in the north-west. The subpopulation on Rapa is poorly known	eng
34275	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	It is commonly found rooted in deep crevices.	eng
34275	population	Waldren, S., 1998	There are estimated to be 500 individuals on Henderson Island. The subpopulation on Rapa is not known.	eng
34275	threats	Waldren, S., 1998	It has been postulated that the Polynesian pigeon, now extinct on the island, alone was responsible for dispersing the seed.	eng
34276	distribution	Waldren, S., 1998	A variety of a widespread Polynesian species endemic to Henderson Island.	eng
34276	habitat	Waldren, S., 1998	In the plateau forests it is a semi-decumbent tree, becoming more shrubby and scarcer in cliff and more open communities.	eng
34276	population	Waldren, S., 1998	The total population size is calculated to be between 2,000 and 4,000 plants.	eng
34276	threats	Waldren, S., 1998	The regeneration potential of the taxon is likely to be affected by poor fruiting performance. It is also partially parasitic, which hampers the cultivation of the plant <em>ex situ</em>. <br/> <br/>Related taxa have been widely exterminated from their range through exploitation for the perfume and incense industry.	eng
34277	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known from relatively common occurrences in Makatea and Niau in the Tuamotus, Moorea, Tahaa and Tahiti in the Society Islands, Raivavae and Tubuai in the Tubuai Group. In the Pitcairn Group a subpopulation is known only from Henderson Island, where individuals occur in isolation or in small groups and are estimated to number about 100.	eng
34278	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to hillsides and valleys on Pitcairn Island.	eng
34278	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is still common and often dominates the vegetation that remains. The population probably consists of at least 2,000 mature individuals. Regeneration is strong from cut stumps but rare from the seed.	eng
34278	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Loss of habitat and spread of invasive plants have caused the subpopulations to be reduced to their present extent. In the past the timber was also frequently cut for use in construction work.	eng
34279	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Endemic to Henderson. The taxon on the Pitcairn Islands has yet to be determined.	eng
34279	habitat	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A dioecious tree, often partially decumbent, widespread in plateau forest and drier areas.	eng
34279	population	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	The subpopulation on Pitcairn has declined through habitat loss and cutting. Very few individuals there are expected to survive. The total population is estimated to be about 10,000 trees.	eng
34279	threats	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Habitat loss and cutting. Seeds are dispersed by the endemic fruit dove on Henderson but on Pitcairn there is a distinct lack of frugivorous birds.	eng
34281	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the population is from protected areas.	eng
34281	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known mainly from the relatively large and protected subpopulations in Costa Rica. Elsewhere subpopulations are small, scattered and show low recruitment. In Panama small subpopulations are apparently confined to Darién National Park. There are also occurrences in the Chocó in Colombia.	eng
34282	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	he main island of Palawan is a biosphere reserve.	eng
34282	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Palawan.	eng
34282	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to mossy scrub on ridges between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
34283	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of Perak and Malacca in the future.	eng
34283	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is reportedly located in the lowland primary forest of Perak, Malacca and Sinagapore.	eng
34283	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The tree is used as a timber source and traded on a local level.	eng
34284	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	There is hope that the species receives a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.	eng
34284	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to Selangor and Perak.	eng
34284	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Swamp forests.	eng
34284	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is known only from a few collections.	eng
34284	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is threatened by felling.	eng
34285	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Usually found in lowland peat swamp and <em>kerangas</em> forest.	eng
34285	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has come under pressure from habitat loss through most of its range.	eng
34286	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It can be found throughout western and southern parts of Peninsular Malaysia, in many areas which have been converted for non-forest land use.	eng
34286	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrubby tree up to 16 m tall, inhabiting moist lowland primary forest up to an altitude of 550 m.	eng
34287	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	There are no principle threats or pressures on the tree, however in-situ conservation measures are in place in wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves.	eng
34287	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.	eng
34287	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Species is distributed in the lowland and hill dipterocarp forests.	eng
34290	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent and protected forest reserves of Malaya the species is conserved.	eng
34290	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is widespread in distribution.	eng
34290	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary forest species of lowland to mountain forests of  up to 1,200 m.	eng
34290	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Harvested for it's timber and traded on a minor international level, such activities are now threats to the tree.	eng
34291	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in the states of Kelantan and Pahang.	eng
34291	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland rain forest species, commonly distributed along river banks.	eng
34291	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Decline in soil water content is an indirect pressure exerted on the species.	eng
34292	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is recorded to be common in Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
34292	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree which is found in lowland to submontane forests up to 1,250 m.	eng
34293	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	This lowland forest species is known from two collections from Johore, Peninsular Malaysia, and two disjunct, slightly differing subpopulations in Sarawak.	eng
34293	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
34293	population	Frodin, D., 1998	The subpopulation in western Sarawak was rediscovered 62 years after it was first found near Kuching.  A specimen collected in the late 1800s from Lingga Island is similar to this species.	eng
34293	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	The subpopulation in western Sarawak is in an area extremely threatened by urban expansion.	eng
34294	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species from dry forest fringes and forest outliers.	eng
34294	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Locally common	eng
34294	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Widely exploited as a source of chewsticks.	eng
34295	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Further occurrences are expected to be discovered and recovery work is under way to ensure the survival of known populations.	eng
34295	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	First discovered in 1975 near Cape Reinga.	eng
34295	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A large tree. The species is associated with streamsides or wetlands, a distribution which probably reflects land clearance patterns rather than a genuine preference. It favours dense forest, where it germinates in the crowns of canopy trees such as <em>Vitex lucens</em> and <em>Beilschmiedia taraire</em>.	eng
34295	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	At present, the entire known population comprises 30 trees at three sites.	eng
34295	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	There is particular pressure from browsing pigs, possums and livestock. Although widely cultivated, most <em>ex situ</em> plantings are derived from a single tree.	eng
34296	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree of forest and scrub on fertile soils.	eng
34296	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Approximately 1,000 individuals remain of this species, occurring in isolated subpopulations.	eng
34296	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Regeneration is almost absent.	eng
34297	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland beech forest.	eng
34297	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to a population of about 500 trees in Nelson.	eng
34298	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Endemic to the Chatham Islands.	eng
34298	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree.	eng
34298	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	It has suffered the whole scale destruction of the forest habitat type.	eng
34300	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in localised subpopulations on the Three Kings Islands and Whatupuke Island.	eng
34301	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	The coastal forests of the Chatham Islands were once dominated by this small tree. The comprehensive destruction of the forest type has reduced populations to scrubland on exposed cliffs, largely confined to the south shore of Chatham Island, and on Pitt and South East Islands.	eng
34301	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Scrubland on exposed cliffs.	eng
34302	conservation	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurring commonly in a few reserves.	eng
34302	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	It is a large tree of inland forest.	eng
34303	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree occurring sparsely in the North Island.	eng
34305	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Found in the east of South Island.	eng
34305	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree of lowland forest and scrub.	eng
34305	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	This species appears to be common in most areas but is showing little regeneration.	eng
34305	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	In the southern parts of its range it occurs on high-fertility soils, which are  highly sought-after by agriculturists and colonised by aggressive pasture grass.	eng
34306	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Known only from one locality, this species occurs in part of the Forestier Central at Bumbuli.	eng
34306	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Pressures exist from overcutting and agricultural expansion.	eng
34307	distribution	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Occurring near Kisangani, the species is known from a single locality along the Congo River.	eng
34307	threats	Ndjele, M.B., 1998	Its habitat is under threat from logging and agricultural encroachment.	eng
34308	distribution	Boratynski, A., 1998	No wild subpopulations are presently known, but there is a specimen planted in Krakow Botanical Garden. It is also thought to be possible to reconstruct the taxon from the natural hybrid, <em>B. oycoviensis</em>, produced when <em>B. szaferi</em> and <em>B. pendula</em> are crossed. Although the hybrid still occurs in the wild in several central European countries, the parent species evidently do not still coexist in the wild.	eng
34309	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Gulf region of Mexico.	eng
34309	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy tree of remnant rainforest.	eng
34310	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Portland.	eng
34310	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in wet areas of woodland on limestone, e.g., above Ecclesdown.	eng
34310	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has declined and continues to be threatened.	eng
34311	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Until now, the species has been found only in low numbers in Portland Parish. Observations in the 1980s also indicated that it may occur in Clarendon Parish.	eng
34311	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Humid woodland at 1,060 m.	eng
34312	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A species restricted to John Crow Peak.	eng
34312	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	On karst limestone near the summit. A few individuals were found on shale close to the limestone bluffs of the peak.	eng
34312	population	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It can be common or locally dominant.	eng
34313	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from Westmoreland Parish.	eng
34313	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs locally in woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
34314	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is well represented in protected areas.	eng
34314	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to the Cayman Islands. This variety is confined to Grand Cayman	eng
34314	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dry evergreen woodland on dolomite karst.	eng
34314	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Grand Cayman the habitat has been 95% destroyed in the west. Clearing continues and trees are cut for fence posts and house construction. No trees are retained for landscaping, nor are they being replanted. There are, however, some areas where the taxon occurs abundantly.	eng
34315	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Well represented in protected areas. Import restrictions and growing interest in the propagation of native trees may help to avoid the problem of hybridisation with the type variety.	eng
34315	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dry habitats on all three islands, this variety is widespread. There is potential for hybridization to occur with the type variety, which is being brought onto the islands for landscaping.	eng
34315	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat destruction is also extensive, but trees are often retained for landscaping.	eng
34315	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat destruction is also extensive, but trees are often retained for landscaping.	eng
34317	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The plant has not been successfully brought into cultivation.	eng
34317	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Like <em>P. carmichalii</em>, the species, which in this case is a tree growing to 10 m, is found in the marshland at Le Petrin. Isolated individuals also occur on river courses of Mare aus Vacoas ('Lake of Pandanus').	eng
34317	habitat	Page, W., 1998	Marshland and river courses.	eng
34317	population	Page, W., 1998	Fewer than 20 individuals have been counted.	eng
34318	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are under protection in a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard is inhabited by staff of a research station.	eng
34318	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree which appears to be very sparsely distributed on Malabar, Polymnie and the west of Picard.	eng
34318	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inland mixed scrub.	eng
34319	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted to a small area in Pedernales.	eng
34319	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in a unique coastal xerophytic vegetation on 'dog tooth' limestone substrate.	eng
34319	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The leaves are a popular source of fragrance and are sold in markets. If exploitation increases, the species will become seriously threatened.	eng
34320	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, collected twice from the same locality near the copper mine at Waimaro River, Viti Levu.	eng
34320	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In forest below 200 m.	eng
34320	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been seen since 1964.	eng
34321	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It is found in low densities.	eng
34321	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It could become of conservation concern if logging were to become more intensive.	eng
34322	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Within the genus, the species appears to have evolved in isolation. It is endemic to the subandean piedmont forest in north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
34322	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Appears to be restricted to gypsum-based soils.	eng
34322	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The ecosystem remains entirely unprotected and threatened by agriculture, logging and pastoralism.	eng
34323	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Central-west Argentina. Its distribution is highly fragmented within an area that has had a long history of human colonisation and pastoralism.	eng
34323	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	A scrubland species restricted to semi-arid and arid areas.	eng
34324	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
34324	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane forest.	eng
34324	population	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A rare tree species.	eng
34325	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Restricted to the High Andes of Ecuador. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
34325	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Occurs in the montane forest zone.	eng
34325	population	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A rare species of tree or shrub.	eng
34326	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
34326	population	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A rare tree species.	eng
34327	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
34327	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This small tree species inhabits cloud forest at an altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
34328	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree endemic to the High Andes in Ecuador. Populations are known to occur in the provinces of Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Cañar and Azuay. Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
34328	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forests.	eng
34329	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently the species is known only from Morona - Santiago Province.	eng
34329	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
34330	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the High Andes of Morona - Santiago Province in Ecuador.	eng
34330	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
34331	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is endemic to Ecuador, in Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
34331	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest between 1,100 and 2,200 m.	eng
34332	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
34332	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane cloud forest between 1,100 and 2,400 m.	eng
34333	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Morona - Santiago, Loja, and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
34333	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree inhabits montane cloud forest between 1,600 and 2,700 m.	eng
34334	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Morona - Santiago, Loja, and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
34334	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies inhabits montane cloud forest between 1,600 and 2,700 m.	eng
34335	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes and currently only known from the provinces of Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe. Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
34335	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small tree of montane cloud forest.	eng
34336	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small tree, up to 6 m tall, endemic to Ecuador. At present is only known from Sucumbíos province.	eng
34336	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This species inhabits cloud forest at an altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
34337	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the High Andes of Ecuador currently known only from the provinces of Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
34337	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
34338	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree up to 3 m tall, endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador and currently known from the province of Morona - Santiago.	eng
34338	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
34339	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree to Loja Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
34339	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
34340	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree endemic to Azauy Province in the High Andes of Ecuador.	eng
34340	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	It inhabits montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
34341	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, currently known to occur in the provinces of El Oro, Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
34341	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
34342	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently the species is known only from Morona - Santiago and Azuay.	eng
34342	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
34343	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, occurring in Morona - Santiago, Azuay and Loja.	eng
34343	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
34344	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An Ecuadorian endemic of the High Andes, in the provinces of Loja and Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
34344	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
34345	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree or shrub which is narrowly endemic to the southern High Andes of Ecuador.	eng
34345	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
34346	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This Ecuadorian endemic inhabits the High Andean areas of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
34346	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
34347	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador. Currently it is known only from the High Andean areas of Bolívar, Chimborazo and Azuay.	eng
34347	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This species inhabits cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
34348	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Pichincha and Azuay Provinces.	eng
34348	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
34349	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Provinces.	eng
34349	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 1,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
34350	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, in the High Andes of El Oro Province.	eng
34350	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This species is found in areas of cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
34351	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently known to occur only in the High Andean areas of Bolívar province, Ecuador.	eng
34351	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
34352	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of Ecuador's High Andean region, at present known only to occur in Pichincha province.	eng
34352	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 1,800 and 2,600 m.	eng
34353	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic to Loja Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
34353	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,600 and 2,950 m.	eng
34354	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Bolívar Provinces.	eng
34354	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest tree occurring between 1,800 and 2,800 m.	eng
34355	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It extends probably just over 20,000 km².	eng
34355	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland coastal forest.	eng
34355	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is threatened with the loss of its habitat.	eng
34357	distribution	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Atlantic forest in the north-east and south-east of Brazil.	eng
34357	population	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	A scarce species.	eng
34359	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From north-west Argentina to Tarÿa and Chuquisaca in Bolivia.	eng
34359	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A vigorous pioneer species which occurs in moist montane forest.	eng
34359	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bolivian populations are facing heavy exploitation.	eng
34360	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread species. It is well collected in Bolivia	eng
34360	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of deciduous forest, woodland or scrub.	eng
34360	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Bolivia it is present in areas which are subject to intense grazing by goats, sheep and cattle.  It is planted as an ornamental and a useful bee plant.	eng
34361	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	A tree or shrub, endemic to the subandean piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
34361	population	Prado, D., 1998	The species acts as a pioneer and is reported to be regenerating sufficiently.	eng
34361	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The ecosystem is unprotected and, at least in Argentina, the habitat is constantly declining because of encroaching agriculture and other human activities.	eng
34362	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Throughout India, Indo-China and Malaysia.	eng
34362	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread tree.	eng
34362	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Locally common.	eng
34363	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread taxonomically variable species.	eng
34363	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Vulnerable to habitat destruction.	eng
34364	conservation	Duke, N., Sukardjo, S. & Kathiresan, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is needed for this species as little is known about its distribution, habitat or ecology, or impact of major threats. It is recommended that mangrove areas should be included in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
34364	distribution	Duke, N., Sukardjo, S. & Kathiresan, K., 2008	This species is found in India (Orissa and Sunderbands), Bangladesh, and pennisular Malaysia. It is patchily distributed in Indonesia in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan, the southern coast of Sulawesi, Halmahera, Ambon, Aru, and Irian Jaya. The distribution in the Philippines is questionable.	eng
34364	habitat	Duke, N., Sukardjo, S. & Kathiresan, K., 2008	This species is not well known. It grows in upstream mid intertidal areas.	eng
34364	population	Duke, N., Sukardjo, S. & Kathiresan, K., 2008	There is no species-specific population information. However, it is assumed that the general declines in mangroves around the world apply to this species.	eng
34364	threats	Duke, N., Sukardjo, S. & Kathiresan, K., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
34365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species represents the easternmost member of the genus with definite occurrences on Viti Levu, Ovalau and Vanua Levu.	eng
34365	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small gnarled tree growing in thickets on ridges and crests in upland areas.	eng
34365	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are few trees in each location and the total population consists of less than a hundred individuals.	eng
34366	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only from Waya Island, Yasawas.	eng
34366	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known collection was made in 1937. It was said to be locally common and used in house-building, but no additional material has been gathered.	eng
34367	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small gnarled tree is known from the two major Fijian islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu).	eng
34367	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in dense forest and thickets on exposed ridges and open slopes at comparatively high elevations.	eng
34367	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Three or four subpopulations are known, containing 50 plants each.	eng
34368	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic family of just two species. This species is endemic to Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni.	eng
34368	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is relatively abundant.	eng
34368	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logged extensively.	eng
34369	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Numerous collections have been made in Viti Levu, with a single collection from Vanua Levu.	eng
34369	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in dense, dry or secondary forest or forest edges between 500 and 1,195 m.	eng
34370	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring within a restricted area of south-east Viti Levu.	eng
34370	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in dense or secondary forest up to 400 m.	eng
34371	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Taveuni.	eng
34371	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dense forest species.	eng
34371	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small subpopulations of about 20 plants are known from each of six sites.	eng
34372	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far populations are known only from Vanua Levu at the type locality and Viti Levu.	eng
34372	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with a compact crown, occurring in dense or open forest or forest edges up to 400 m.	eng
34373	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection gathered from the south-eastern slope of Mt Korombamba on Viti Levu.	eng
34373	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection, which was gathered in 1927.	eng
34374	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from numerous collections from Viti Levu, Ovalau and Moala.	eng
34374	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of dense or open forest or thicket.	eng
34375	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Vanua Levu.	eng
34375	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in dense forest or thickets on crests or open hillsides between 700 and 1,030 m.	eng
34375	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a few sites are known, each containing about 12 plants.	eng
34376	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is so far known from a few collections from western Viti Levu.	eng
34376	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree often occurring in dry forest or forest edges along watercourses up to 900 m.	eng
34377	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.	eng
34377	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs dry forest or forest edges up to 900 m.	eng
34378	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni	eng
34378	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in dense forest, often occurring along creeks and river banks.	eng
34378	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A well-collected species.	eng
34378	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is said to be used for house posts.	eng
34379	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Except for the type collection at Ovalau, the species is known only from Viti Levu.	eng
34379	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected in dense forest and thickets on crests and ridges between 30 and 1,153 m.	eng
34380	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in a restricted area of Namosi Province in Viti Levu.	eng
34380	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is found in thickets on crests and summits, between 600 and 1,200 m.	eng
34380	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively rarely collected.	eng
34381	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Mt. Kasi.	eng
34381	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest between 300 and 430 m.	eng
34381	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The single collection known was gathered in 1934.	eng
34381	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has been exposed to mineral exploitation and the species may now be extinct.	eng
34383	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	There are records of the species in  Yushan and Shueipa National Parks.	eng
34383	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	It is usually associated with <em>Tsuga chinensis</em> in areas of montane coniferous forest.	eng
34383	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	One of the most important timber species in Taiwan. Populations have declined because of overexploitation.	eng
34384	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Afar and Shewa in Ethiopia.	eng
34384	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from areas of dry woodland or semi-desert bushland.	eng
34384	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its habitat is vulnerable to  overgrazing and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
34385	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinct but little-known species which is recorded only from the type locality near Webi Schebele River in Ethiopia.	eng
34385	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to a small but relatively undisturbed area of bushland on limestone slopes.	eng
34386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the Sidamo region.	eng
34386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In open <em>Commiphora-Boswellia</em> bushland on steep rocky slopes.	eng
34386	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
34388	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a very restricted range known only on the track to Kelafo in the Ogaden.	eng
34388	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Limestone area of succulent shrubland.	eng
34388	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area, although susceptible to degradation, is relatively unthreatened.	eng
34389	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from only five collections made in the vicinity of the Sof Omar caves.	eng
34389	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense woodland on rocky limestone slopes.	eng
34390	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Eastern Ogaden.	eng
34390	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of dry <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland with a rich shrub and forb layer.	eng
34390	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected five times within an area of 2,500 km².	eng
34390	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although the habitat is affected by overgrazing and agricultural activities in some places, the area is not obviously threatened.	eng
34391	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is subject to <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II controls.	eng
34391	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from Shewa but its distribution may extend into Harerge and possibly Somalia.	eng
34391	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is locally common on lava flows in open deciduous woodland.	eng
34392	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species recorded only from a small area in Sidamo.	eng
34392	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	High <em>Commiphora</em> bushland.	eng
34393	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Harena forest, an Afromontane remnant of forest on the Bale Mt.	eng
34393	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest.	eng
34393	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest is disturbed by logging activities and the building of sawmills in the area has made the activity more intense.	eng
34394	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are isolated and restricted along the Tekeze, Abay and Gibe river systems.	eng
34394	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on steep rocky slopes.	eng
34394	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The human population and agricultural activities are increasing in the area.	eng
34395	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Ethiopian endemic occurring abundantly in the west.	eng
34395	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upland savannah.	eng
34395	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing human population and their activities threaten the habitat to some extent, especially in the north.	eng
34396	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Harerge. Cultivated specimens are found elsewhere in Ethiopia.	eng
34396	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from an area of bushland between 1,350 and 2,100 m.	eng
34396	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is relatively restricted in distribution but fast growing and under no present threat.	eng
34397	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to parts of west Eritrea, Tigray and Gondar on the high plateau where the majority of the Ethiopian population lives.	eng
34397	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A woodland species.	eng
34397	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The northern forests have diminished most noticeably because of the expansion of  farmed land and human habitation and overcutting for fuelwood.	eng
34398	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to upland scrub and forest margins in an area where the majority of the Ethiopian population lives.	eng
34399	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It ranges throughout the highlands.	eng
34399	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of Afromontane forest, especially along forest margins, and also secondary formations.	eng
34399	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the north the expanding human population and agricultural activities have caused a decline in the extent of the forest and continue to put pressure on the remaining habitat.	eng
34400	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be confined to woodland along river systems.	eng
34400	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration is apparently good.	eng
34400	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is distributed in an area heavily influenced by agricultural activities and the expansion of the human population	eng
34401	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the Kefa, Shewa, Bale and Sidamo regions. It is not known elsewhere.	eng
34401	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in the margins of upland forest or bamboo thicket above 3,000 m.	eng
34402	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring throughout Central America and Mexico.	eng
34402	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to areas of forest above 1,000 m.	eng
34402	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has become extremely sparse in some countries, such as Costa Rica and Panama, and it is almost extinct in El Salvador.	eng
34403	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is declared a biosphere reserve.	eng
34403	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Palawan endemic.	eng
34403	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to forested slopes at low altitude.	eng
34404	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An imperfectly known species. The only information available comes from the type collection, which was taken from Gonâve Island in Haiti in the first part of the century.	eng
34405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, so far known only from the type in the Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve.	eng
34405	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Atlantic rainforest.	eng
34406	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest species, which appears to be confined to Baja Verapaz in Guatemala.	eng
34407	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The range of the species is extensive geographically and altitudinally.	eng
34407	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Despite the extensive range, populations are rare and declining.	eng
34408	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, endemic to Costa Rica, where it has been collected twice from Heredia.	eng
34408	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
34409	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Costa Rica and recorded from a few sites in Alajuela and Cartago.	eng
34409	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
34410	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded from a single location in Puntarenas.	eng
34410	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet hill forest at about 600 m, near the coast.	eng
34412	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species so far known only from Los Tuxtlas Biological Station in central Veracruz.	eng
34412	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest over black clay.	eng
34416	conservation	Hiep, N.T., 2004	The species occurs in a nature reserve.	eng
34416	distribution	Hiep, N.T., 2004	Only known from Kon Tum Province in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. Also reported from two other areas but not yet confirmed.	eng
34416	habitat	Hiep, N.T., 2004	Occurs in montane evergreen forest up to 2,300 m.	eng
34416	population	Hiep, N.T., 2004	A rare montane species.	eng
34416	threats	Hiep, N.T., 2004	No direct threats observed; but there is general deforestation through cutting for firewood, timber, etc.	eng
34417	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far the species is known only from the southern part of the Sierra de Manantlán in Casimiro Castillo, Cuautitlán and Tuxcacyexco.	eng
34417	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing in semi-deciduous forest between 800 and 900 m.	eng
34418	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	All the BVI individuals are well inside Gorda Peak National Park, a nationally declared protected area whose boundaries are reasonably well respected.	eng
34418	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	In Puerto Rico three sites, each containing a single individual, were originally recorded, only one of which may still be extant. Another subpopulation on the Puerto Rican offshore island of Vieques was destroyed in the construction of a helipad. In the British Virgin Islands (BVI), it is restricted to the island of Virgin Gorda (21 km²) and within Gorda Peak National Park (236 acres). On Tortola, however, the species has not been seen for some time and is considered extinct.	eng
34418	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	A small tree of moist forest or wet areas in dry forest. Flowering and fruiting have been observed on Gorda to occur towards the end of the rainy season (November-December). No seedlings have been observed in the field indicating that either germination is not taking place or that the young seedlings do not survive the dry season (March-May).	eng
34418	population	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	The BVI population comprises 26 mature individuals.  25 individuals occur within one area (the <em>Calyptranthes</em> ridge). A single mature tree located about 100 m from the main group.	eng
34418	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	In Puerto Rico, habitat loss through developments has been a major threat. On BVI there are no obvious threats, apart from those inherent in such a small population size.  All the BVI individuals are well inside Gorda Peak National Park, a nationally declared protected area whose boundaries are reasonably well respected. There has been one fire in the Park in recent times, thought to have been due to a fire started for land clearance that got out of hand.  Although quite a lot of damage was done this was in an area well away from the <em>Calyptranthes kiaerskovii</em> subpopulation.	eng
34419	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in Puerto Rico. A record of the species from St John in the US Virgin Islands requires confirmation.	eng
34419	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of coastal woodlands on limestone.	eng
34420	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known to occur in the Jari Genetic Reserve and in Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
34420	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Although the species is wide-ranging, its habitat has undergone serious deterioration and declines.	eng
34421	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from a rocky limestone hilltop above 730 m, and possibly from Peckham Woods in Clarendon Parish.	eng
34421	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rocky limestone hilltop above 730 m.	eng
34422	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously the species was known only from the type specimen with no definite locality. In 1992 a population was found on Holland Mt.	eng
34422	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
34423	conservation	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	It is protected within Rwenzori Mountain National Park. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
34423	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Uganda: Semuliki, Bundibugyo district.	eng
34423	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	A tree with drooping branches which is confined to <em>Cynometra</em> forest.	eng
34423	threats	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Regeneration appears to be poor.	eng
34424	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Yucatán Peninsula.	eng
34424	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is an important component of the lowland rainforest.	eng
34424	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is generally disturbed and declining in extent.	eng
34426	conservation	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	The species is now on the official list of threatened species compiled by IBAMA in 1992.	eng
34426	habitat	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
34426	population	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	Formerly abundant.	eng
34426	threats	Varty, N. & Guadagnin, D.L., 1998	This species has been heavily exploited for its wood, used for making luxury furniture.  In Rondônia the number of sawmills, which principally process <em>A. acreana</em>, increased eightfold between 1975 and 1982.	eng
34427	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This species occurs in areas of riverine forest at medium elevations.	eng
34428	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with subpopulations in the Taita Hills, Kasigau, the Usambara and Uluguru Mts.	eng
34428	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of moist forest.	eng
34429	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species ranges from Pangani and Gongoni in south-east Kenya, through eastern Tanzania to Zanzibar.	eng
34429	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to dry coastal forest in limestone areas.	eng
34430	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains living stocks for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
34430	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Kenya.	eng
34430	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety occurs in riverine or rocky sites in dry bushland.	eng
34430	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is threatened by encroaching agriculture and land settlement in the area.	eng
34431	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Formerly known only from Kenya, this tree has recently been found in Selous National Park in Tanzania. The Kenya population is small and confined to the banks of the Tana River, near Wenje	eng
34431	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Riverine forest sometimes seasonally flooded.	eng
34431	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing human settlement and agriculture.	eng
34432	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Known from two collections west of Ramu in Kenya, from parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and from northern Somalia.	eng
34432	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Restricted to limestone outcrops.	eng
34433	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species known from southern Somalia and adjacent parts of Kenya.	eng
34433	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on sand.	eng
34433	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is frequently degraded because of overcutting and grazing.	eng
34434	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species extends in a range from south-east Kenya through to south-east Tanzania.	eng
34434	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to pockets of dry coastal forest or wooded bushland.	eng
34435	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Subpopulations of extremely small size are known from Gongoni Forest Reserve and Dzirihini in Kenya. It was also recorded in Langoya Nwaganid in 1968. In Tanzania there are records from sisal estates in Pangani and Korogwe.	eng
34435	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	A strangler fig of coastal dry open bushland.	eng
34435	threats	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	These areas are in danger of being completely cleared.	eng
34436	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from localities in Witu, Mangea and Arabuko-Sokoke.	eng
34436	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of lowland dry evergreen forest.	eng
34437	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	The species is recorded from Kaya Diani, Gongoni Forest Reserve, Kaya Dzombo, Chale Island and Kaya Kinondo. More information is needed on the Tanzanian population.	eng
34437	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Occurring in areas of moist semi-deciduous coastal forest.	eng
34437	threats	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	The loss and degradation of coastal forest continues at an alarming rate.	eng
34438	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya maintains living and seed collections.	eng
34438	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is endemic to central Kenya, such as Kamiti, Thika Falls, Rojwero Swamp and Kiambu. Population numbers are small.	eng
34438	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to areas of riverine or swamp forest.	eng
34438	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is under pressure from increasing agricultural and settlement of the area.	eng
34439	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A rare spiny shrub or tree. The only viable  population occurs in central Somalia in a few localities. A collection was also made from a male plant, near Garissa in Kenya.	eng
34439	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Bushland on gypsum soils (sandy soil for the only Kenyan collection).	eng
34439	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is under threat of degradation from overgrazing and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
34440	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Known from central and southern Somalia, parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and two localities in north-east Kenya, this species is restricted in range and rare.	eng
34440	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> woodland.	eng
34440	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In places, the habitat is degraded because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
34441	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the Shimba Hills in Kenya and to coastal forest patches in Tanzania.	eng
34441	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest at 375 m (Kenya) and coastal forest patches (Tanzania).	eng
34442	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Kenya the species is rare and confined to Witu, Mangea, Shimba Hills and Marenji. It has been suggested that the range of the species is more widespread, extending to Angola.	eng
34442	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Groundwater forest.	eng
34443	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Kenya it is confined to the Taita Hills. In neighbouring Tanzania the species is thought to be less rare than originally suspected. The subpopulation in Mozambique is very poorly known.	eng
34443	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to pockets of forest, especially coastal forest.	eng
34443	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species with disparate subpopulations.	eng
34445	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	This small tree is restricted in range from north-eastern Kenya to neighbouring Somalia.	eng
34445	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Occurring in dry bushland.	eng
34445	population	Thulin, M., 1998	It is very common near Wajir.	eng
34445	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is threatened with degradation through grazing and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
34446	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is known from only a few localities, ranging from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.	eng
34446	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to dry coastal forest or bushland, mostly on shale.	eng
34447	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2003	Occurs in the Meru National Park in Kenya.	eng
34447	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2003	A shrub or small tree, found across a large part of south-east Africa.	eng
34447	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2003	In Kenya, it is found in <em>Combretum</em> woodland at 790 m.	eng
34448	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single site in Somalia.	eng
34448	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, or commonly a shrub.  Found in <em>Acacia-Combretum</em> woodland.	eng
34448	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressures from charcoal production are high, from small populations in Arabuko-Sokoke and Mangea in Kenya, extending south to Tanzanian coastal forests and Southern Africa.	eng
34449	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Kenyan endemic occurring in localised populations in the Nairobi-Machakos region.	eng
34449	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry upland forest.	eng
34449	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The surrounding area is densely populated and agricultural activities, firewood collection and recent droughts are causing habitat degradation.	eng
34450	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from subpopulations in Arabuko-Sokoke and Mangea.	eng
34450	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is confined to areas of  <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland.	eng
34451	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are recorded in the Usambara Mts. and Uluguru Mts. in Tanzania and in Arabuko-Sokoke and Witu in Kenya.	eng
34451	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Brachystegia</em> woodland.	eng
34452	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Also found in protected area.	eng
34452	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Taita Hills, the species is scattered to scarce. Subpopulations are known from Mbololo, a protected reserve, and Ngangao.	eng
34452	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of moist montane forest.	eng
34452	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is some habitat encroachment by local farmers and settlers.	eng
34453	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally known from the north-east, east and south slopes of Mt. Kenya.	eng
34453	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Between 1,900 and 2,100 m in areas of moist <em>Ocotea</em> forest.	eng
34453	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree which is possibly extinct.	eng
34454	conservation	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Only the Pangani site is unprotected.	eng
34454	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Shimba Hills, Gongoni and Pangani.	eng
34454	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	This small tree is known only from areas of moist forest.	eng
34455	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from the lower Tana and lower Galana area in Kenya to eastern Tanzania.	eng
34455	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree or shrub is restricted to remaining areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
34456	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree, rarely described as climbing, endemic to the Shimba Hills.	eng
34457	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from the Taita Hills in Kenya to north-east Tanzania.	eng
34457	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is confined to areas of moist montane forest.	eng
34458	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to a few areas of forest or thicket in Kenya and to dry montane forest in Loliondo and Ufiomi in Tanzania.	eng
34458	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest or thickets.	eng
34459	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is found in Gongoni and Kinondo in Kenya and in remaining forest patches in Tanzania, some of which are given the status of forest reserves.	eng
34459	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A large tree of coastal forests and also woodland and thicket.	eng
34459	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Agricultural encroachment is the most serious threat to the habitat.	eng
34460	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Kenya.	eng
34460	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with prop roots.	eng
34461	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to localised populations on the East African coast.	eng
34461	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dry forest.	eng
34461	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressures exist from a growing human population and the demand for land to cultivate.	eng
34462	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The main subpopulation is in the Ngezi Nature Reserve.	eng
34462	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known from two localities on the island of Pemba: Ngezi Forest and Msitu Msenu forest 80 km east of Ngezi.	eng
34462	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in moist evergreen coastal forest.	eng
34462	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Although not large, the population appears to be stable at present. It comprises three subpopulations with one being larger than the other two.	eng
34462	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are no major threat to the species at present, but expanding tourist infrastructure could pose a problem in the future. It is occasionally used as poles (e.g., for football goal posts).	eng
34463	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in Brazil are vulnerable.	eng
34464	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34467	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation has been evaluated as LR/nt	eng
34469	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34471	distribution	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	In the past the species has been confused with <em>F. catappifolia</em> or <em>F. longifolia</em>. It has a scattered distribution in areas of Atlantic forest in the north-east and south-east.	eng
34471	habitat	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
34471	threats	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Loss and degradation of habitat and poor regeneration have resulted in subpopulation reductions.	eng
34472	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34474	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34475	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34476	population	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species which was once thought to be near extinction.	eng
34478	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A newly described species, apparently endemic to Pitcairn Island, where it is widespread.	eng
34478	habitat	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Disturbed scrub and open forest.	eng
34478	population	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	There are relatively few large individuals, but many shrubby specimens which appear to have reached flowering age. Probably 500–1,000 mature individuals exist.	eng
34478	threats	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	The timber was heavily exploited in the past for making into joists in construction. There has also been considerable habitat loss and degradation with the spread of exotic plants.	eng
34479	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34480	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34485	population	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34487	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34492	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34494	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Brazilian subpopulation is confined and declining.	eng
34496	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	This species is confined to a small area of along the Zambezi River. Further indications as to the extent of the species location and its reduction may lead to a more serious status of threat.	eng
34496	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	Woodland along River.	eng
34496	threats	Bandeira, S., 1998	The forest is currently being cleared for agriculture.	eng
34497	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Endemic to south-central Somalia.	eng
34497	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	This species occurs in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on sand.	eng
34497	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat continues to be degraded and destroyed by increasing agriculture and overcutting, particularly in the vicinity of Mogadishu.	eng
34500	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	No information is available on the location and habitat of this species.	eng
34501	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species of restricted range in north-eastern Somalia.	eng
34501	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Only known from semi-desert bushland, usually in rocky places on limestone.	eng
34501	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation.	eng
34502	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread.	eng
34502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree grows in lowland primary and secondary forest.	eng
34503	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fairly widespread.	eng
34503	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland to submontane forest.	eng
34505	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	A forest tree with a restricted and disjunct distribution. It is known from Penang Hill Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia and a site west of Kuching in Sarawak.	eng
34505	population	Frodin, D., 1998	The subpopulation in Singapore is presumed extinct.	eng
34505	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	Threatened by urban encroachment (Sarawak).	eng
34506	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Quite widely distributed. It is found in north and east Sumatra, south Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.	eng
34506	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A small, sometimes epiphytic tree.	eng
34507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species.	eng
34507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in a variety of habitat types.	eng
34508	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely occurring.	eng
34508	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary and secondary forests.	eng
34510	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A Somali endemic known only from the north-east of the country.	eng
34510	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Sparse vegetation on gypsum hills.	eng
34510	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation.	eng
34511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, collected from waterside localities on the plains on the southern side of the Zambezi.	eng
34512	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	The species is not protected within any designated protected areas, although it is given some protection on land registered as conservancies or as hunting concessions.	eng
34512	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	Outjo and Kaokoveld Districts. Its range extends up to the Angola border but, so far, it has not been recorded from Angola itself.	eng
34512	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	Occurring on granite outcrops, ridges and inselbergs.	eng
34512	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. & Craven, P., 1998	General habitat degradation through poor land management, coupled with recent droughts may have affected population size and recruitment.	eng
34513	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species found in northern Somalia and also on the island of Socotra.	eng
34513	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat degradation largely from overcutting and charcoal production is a threat.	eng
34514	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	A species which is taxonomically unconfirmed and poorly known. It may represent <em>A. burkei</em>.	eng
34515	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A distinct species of uncertain affinity.	eng
34515	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	It is confined to the coast, where it occurs in bushland on sand.	eng
34515	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat degradation is a threat.	eng
34516	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	This species is known from southern Somalia and eastern Tanzania.	eng
34516	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	It occurs in deciduous bushland or woodland in seasonally flooded areas.	eng
34516	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	It is highly restricted in occurrence, in a habitat which is experiencing declines because of overcutting for charcoal production and grazing.	eng
34517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Cameroon endemic restricted to remnant forest.	eng
34518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree collected from the south and known only from its type locality. The species may be more widespread given that the country's forests are relatively unexplored.	eng
34518	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Many forest areas are under concession to logging companies.	eng
34519	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves where it occurs, the species is conserved.	eng
34519	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	With the exception of Perlis, Kedah and Selangor, this species is found scattered throughout Malaya and into Indo-China.	eng
34519	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Primary lowland and hill forests.	eng
34520	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is also conserved in permanent and protected forest areas.	eng
34520	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Malaya.	eng
34520	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Common in primary forest, from lowland to submontane areas.	eng
34521	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pehang, Selangor and Johore in Peninsular Malaysia, and parts of Singapore.	eng
34521	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A medium-sized tree scattered throughout the freshwater and peat-swamp forest.	eng
34522	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is protected in Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
34522	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It can be found in Perak, Terengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Johore and Singapore.	eng
34522	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tall tree up to 39 m, inhabiting moist lowland and hill forest.	eng
34523	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Endemic to Mozambique.	eng
34523	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	A woodland species.	eng
34526	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	A common tree on the mountains extending from Dhofar in Oman to neighbouring Hauf in Yemen. It also occurs as an outlier in Yemen in Ras Fartak.	eng
34526	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Deciduous escarpment woodland on mountain.	eng
34526	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Trees near water-holes are severely damaged and in other areas grazing pressure is high, especially in Oman, where there has been a sharp rise in the population.	eng
34529	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is conserved within permanent forest reserves.	eng
34529	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found throughout Malaya.	eng
34529	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland species.	eng
34530	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	A species restricted to Dhofar, Oman, extending into Hauf and Ras Fartak in southern Yemen.	eng
34530	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Escarpment woodland.	eng
34530	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	In Oman, there has been a sharp population rise in the area and a subsequent increase in grazing pressure and the cutting of wood for domestic use.	eng
34531	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring south-east Yemen.	eng
34531	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	A small tree, sometimes dominant, in areas of escarpment woodland.	eng
34531	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	In some areas, particularly in Oman, where there has been dramatic population increase, the tree is vulnerable to overcutting for domestic use.	eng
34532	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	The species occurs in the foothills of the escarpment mountains in Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring south-east Yemen.	eng
34532	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	It is vulnerable to cutting for fodder, timber and firewood. Trees are frequently damaged and regeneration is not evident in several subpopulations. The problem is more acute in Oman, where there has been a sharp influx of people since 1975.	eng
34533	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	The largest and most widespread occurrence of the species is in northern Somalia. It is also a dominant component of desert-woodland on the escarpment mountains in Dhofar in Oman, extending into Yemen.	eng
34533	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Desert-woodland.	eng
34533	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In Oman the tree is so heavily browsed that it rarely flowers or sets seed. Trees appear to be dying and regeneration is poor.	eng
34534	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent reserves of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan, this tree is conserved.	eng
34534	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is scattered throughout most states.	eng
34534	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of lowland and hill forests, commonly found in primary forest.	eng
34535	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A timber tree of lowland forest, often on hillsides.	eng
34535	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34536	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A species found in many forest habitats.	eng
34536	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34537	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree found in primary and secondary, moist, lowland forest.	eng
34537	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat.	eng
34538	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A variable species noted to be common in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34538	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss is the main threat to this tree.	eng
34539	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread in Malaysia	eng
34539	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree that grows in lowland rainforest and lower montane forest up to 1,400 m.	eng
34540	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread tree found in evergreen forest, open bamboo forest and lowland rainforest below 300 m.	eng
34541	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland tree which is fairly widespread in marshy forest and freshwater peat-swamp forest.	eng
34542	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A tree of lowland and hill forest found up to 300 m.	eng
34543	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only infrequently.	eng
34543	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety found predominantly in freshwater swamp forest.	eng
34544	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34545	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A fairly widespread species.	eng
34546	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread tree found throughout Indo-China and Malaysia.	eng
34547	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A distinctive species which occurs from southern Peninsular Thailand to Sumatra; no recent collections have been made.	eng
34548	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.	eng
34549	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The species is fairly widespread and locally frequent.	eng
34550	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is conserved within the productive forest reserves of  Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34550	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely occurring throughout lowland Malaya, with distribution being more frequent locally.	eng
34550	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical, moist forest species.	eng
34550	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Primarily used for timber, it has a minor role in international trade.  Pressures are exerted on the species from felling activities.	eng
34551	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is protected within the Permanent Forest Estates.	eng
34551	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed throughout western Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34551	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A shrub or tree of lowland areas.	eng
34553	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widespread from south-west India to Borneo.	eng
34553	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland forest.	eng
34554	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This variety is confined to east Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34554	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Occurs in lowland rainforest.  The roots are used for making poultices to treat wounds.	eng
34555	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	It is relatively widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia, but known only from a single collection in Peninsular Thailand, two collections from northern Sumatra and one from Singapore.	eng
34555	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	An uncommon tree found in both primary and secondary dryland forest, as well as periodically inundated forest up to 350 m.	eng
34556	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to Mt. Salak near Bogor city in Java. The Singapore record needs confirmation.	eng
34556	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population occurs at 1,700 m.	eng
34556	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are intense pressures of habitat clearance, degradation and cutting.	eng
34557	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A widely distributed tree, found in a wide range of soil types, habitat types and altitudes. Although the species mainly occurs in lowland and hill forest, it has also been recorded in swamp, heath and limestone forests.	eng
34559	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This lowland tree is relatively common but restricted to remaining peat swamp forest.	eng
34560	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perlis, Kedah, Penang, Terengganu, Pahang, Johore and Singapore.	eng
34560	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	An uncommon medium-sized tree inhabiting lowland, hill and sometimes coastal forests.	eng
34561	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in lowland forest on hill slopes.	eng
34561	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.	eng
34562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found near Kuching, Sarawak.	eng
34562	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found in swamp forest and heath forest.	eng
34562	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The vegetation surrounding Kuching is extremely threatened by urban encroachment.	eng
34563	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This understorey tree occurs on poor sandy and clay-rich yellow soils, often in periodically inundated areas in lowland rainforest.	eng
34565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree found scattered in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34565	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest clearance and degradation because of agriculture and logging are major threats to the habitat. In addition this species is suffering from some genetic erosion.  The fruit is sold in local and urban markets, but the species is rarely planted because of its short fruiting period. The wood is probably one of the most important sources of durian timber in Sarawak.	eng
34567	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Borneo. It is only occasionally cultivated e.g., in Brunei.	eng
34567	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to lowland mixed dipterocarp rainforest.	eng
34567	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is suffering from some genetic erosion.   This species has edible fruits which are collected for consumption.	eng
34568	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is cultivated for its popular fruits throughout Malesia and are the most similar to those of <em>D. zibethinus</em>.	eng
34568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the foothills of the mountains in central Borneo.	eng
34568	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wild trees are confined to mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34568	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The natural habitat of this species is threatened by forest degradation due to logging and shifting agriculture and in Indonesia there is evidence of genetic erosion within populations.	eng
34570	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is possible that the species is conspecific with <em>D. affinis</em>.	eng
34570	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to the lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to north-west Borneo.	eng
34573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Peat swamp.	eng
34575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon represents the populations of the dragon tree in the southern escarpments of the Arabian Peninsula. The species, however, is likely to be taxonomically indistinct from <em>D. ombet</em>.	eng
34575	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Arabian populations are restricted to high altitudes in drier areas.	eng
34575	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Oman  trees on Jabal Samhan have been severely damaged in the last 10 years because of the cutting of leaves for camel fodder. No regeneration is apparent anywhere within its distribution in Oman.	eng
34576	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Scattered in northern Viet Nam and China.	eng
34576	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This pioneer species grows in lowland and submontane moist forest. Natural regeneration is strong on fallow land.	eng
34576	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Its distribution has been reduced by shifting cultivation.	eng
34577	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	North-west Viet Nam and Laos.	eng
34577	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This species occurs along rivers and streams and on slopes in lowland and submontane moist forest.	eng
34577	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Forest fragmentation and shifting cultivation are the main reasons for the decline of this variety.	eng
34578	conservation	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The species is now legally protected, but continues to be cut illegally.	eng
34578	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Central and southern Viet Nam.	eng
34578	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	A tree scattered throughout broadleaved forest up to 800 m.	eng
34578	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	The entire population has declined through overexploitation of the valuable timber.	eng
34579	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	It is widespread and quite common throughout western and northern Madagascar, as well as in localised forest patches in eastern Africa. However, this species distribution is highly fragmented largely because of extensive deforestation.	eng
34579	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A lowland tree or scandent shrub, occurring in deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland.	eng
34579	population	Du Puy, D., 1998	A 20–50% population decline is expected over the next 100 years in Madagascar.	eng
34579	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Extensive deforestation.	eng
34580	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A relatively wide-ranging species. It is known from south-east Kenya, in the Shimba Hills and at Taru. The range extends south through coastal Tanzania to Zanzibar Island.	eng
34580	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A scandent shrub occurring in patches of dry coastal forest at unusually high altitudes.	eng
34581	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is only known from the type collection.	eng
34582	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Endemic to the escarpment mountains from Dhofar in Oman to neighbouring south-east Yemen.	eng
34582	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	This species is a common component of  woodlands at lower altitudes.	eng
34582	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	There has been an influx of people into the area in Oman since 1975 and a subsequent rise in grazing pressure and cutting of wood.	eng
34583	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in lowland primary and logged-over forest.	eng
34584	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very localised within the Fourth Division, Sarawak and Beaufort Hill, Sabah.	eng
34584	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest tree.	eng
34585	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Mt. Kinabalu, the species is known from four collections.	eng
34585	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary forest.	eng
34586	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected once from Sabah and three times from Sarawak.	eng
34586	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
34587	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is apparently specific to primary lowland dipterocarp forests.	eng
34588	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to lowland areas of Borneo.	eng
34588	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a small tree that grows in heath forest, wet kerangas forest, peat-swamp forest and <em>Agathis-Casuarina</em> forest.	eng
34589	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the type collection in Andulau Forest Reserve and from another specimen from Kuala Belait District.	eng
34589	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland rainforest.	eng
34592	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Borneo. All the specimens from Sabah were collected from the vicinity of Mt. Kinabalu and they differ from the collections from Brunei and Sarawak.	eng
34592	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small to medium-sized tree found in montane and kerangas forest.	eng
34593	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from the First Division of Sarawak.	eng
34593	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary forest.	eng
34593	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	To date this species is known from just two collections.	eng
34594	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to East Kalimantan (two collections).	eng
34594	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in lowland dipterocarp forest and in ridge forest on limestone.	eng
34595	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from a single herbarium specimen collected from Sarawak. Nothing is known of its ecology or the specific location of the collection.	eng
34595	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
34596	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
34596	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of kerangas and forest on poor soils up to 50 m.	eng
34597	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type specimen collected in Bukit Kelawai in West Kalimantan. The area is relatively unexplored.	eng
34597	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type specimen collected in in 1939.	eng
34598	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	This species is endemic to the mountains extending from the Dhofar region in Oman to south-east Yemen.	eng
34598	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Occurring in escarpment woodlands and the drier summit plateau.	eng
34598	population	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	It is quite common.	eng
34598	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	At risk from overcutting for domestic use, especially in Oman, where there has been a sharp rise in the population since 1975.	eng
34599	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in Sarawak.	eng
34599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
34599	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once, in 1971.	eng
34599	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the peat-swamp forest in Sarawak has been licensed for timber extraction.	eng
34600	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	A regional endemic from a small area in Dhofar, Oman, and neighbouring Mahra, southern Yemen.	eng
34600	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Escarpment woodlands.	eng
34600	threats	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	Since 1975 the area in Oman has seen an influx of people and their livestock. There has been a subsequent rapid increase in the cutting of wood and grazing. Trees are also browsed by livestock.	eng
34601	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A species, endemic to Borneo.	eng
34601	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, kerangas forest and montane forest usually below 600 m but occasionally found at altitudes up to 1,500 m.	eng
34601	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The species has not been collected recently.	eng
34602	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally endemic to Tawau.	eng
34602	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or shrub is known only from four specimens.	eng
34603	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Kinabalu and the surrounding area. A collection which is doubtfully this species was taken from east Sarawak.	eng
34603	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found in montane forest.	eng
34604	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Restricted to the Beaufort Hill and Jesselton in Sabah and the First Division of Sarawak.	eng
34604	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	An understorey tree of lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
34605	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Mt. Dulit, Sarawak.	eng
34605	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known from only four collections.	eng
34606	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This species is widespread in Borneo and it is also found in Palembang, Sumatra.	eng
34607	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in primary forest and mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34608	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	West Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
34608	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree found in mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34609	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in north-east Sarawak and Sabah.	eng
34609	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary forest.	eng
34610	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All specimens found in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions of Sarawak.	eng
34610	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland and hill mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
34610	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is based on four specimens.	eng
34611	distribution	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	An Omani endemic which occurs commonly in the foothills of the Hajar Mts. in the north.	eng
34611	habitat	Ghazanfar, S.A., 1998	On rocky slopes and in wadis.	eng
34612	conservation	Kalkman, C., 1998	The subpopulation within Mount Kinabalu National Park is protected.	eng
34612	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	This tree is found on Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah, and has recently been discovered on Luzon in the Philippines.	eng
34613	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	Found on Mt. Kinabalu and in West Kalimantan.	eng
34613	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	This shrub or small tree is found in primary forest.	eng
34613	population	Kalkman, C., 1998	On Mt. Kinabalu, this species has not been collected since 1930, although the area is well explored. The only specimen from West Kalimantan was collected in 1989.	eng
34614	conservation	Kalkman, C., 1998	This species is protected in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.	eng
34614	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	This tree is endemic to Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
34614	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	Found in mossy forest.	eng
34614	population	Kalkman, C., 1998	It has been collected just four times, the most recent collection dating to 1964.	eng
34615	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	Occurs in Sarawak, although a similar specimen has been collected from West Kalimantan on the border with Sarawak. It may also occur in Brunei Darusalaam.	eng
34615	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	This tree is confined to peat-swamp forest.	eng
34615	population	Kalkman, C., 1998	There has been no botanical collecting in the area since 1961.	eng
34615	threats	Kalkman, C., 1998	The peat-swamp forest of Sarawak has been licensed for timber extraction.	eng
34616	conservation	Prado, D., 1998	The Argentinian population is in a protected area.	eng
34616	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Its distribution is restricted in Argentina to the north-west of Chubut in Lago Puelo, probably in the protected area of that name. Data are not yet available on the status and distribution of the species in Chile.	eng
34616	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Occurring in broadleaved evergreen montane forest.	eng
34618	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This tree occurs in lowland rainforest below 250 m altitude.	eng
34618	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The timber is traded as `Calophyllum' in New Guinea.	eng
34619	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It is very scattered on mainland Papua New Guinea but more common on the Solomon Islands.	eng
34619	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This large, possibly dioecious, tree is usually found growing in primary lowland rainforest, sometimes in seasonally inundated or swampy areas.	eng
34619	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The excellent timber is used in house and canoe building. It occurs in trade as 'calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea.	eng
34620	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dry zone tree.	eng
34620	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is declining in Sri Lanka, as it is exploited for its timber and its medicinal bark and latex.	eng
34622	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Found in Peninsular India.	eng
34622	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A shrub or small tree of dry deciduous woodland.	eng
34622	population	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	It remains fairly common but sparsely distributed.	eng
34622	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The gum is tapped and traded.	eng
34623	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurring in the south and central Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.	eng
34623	population	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	No subpopulations were found in Sri Lanka during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
34623	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	This small tree has become threatened in some parts of its range mainly through the loss of its habitat.	eng
34624	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
34624	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The ecosystem is entirely unprotected and in rapid decline as agriculture expands.	eng
34625	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	A scarce species of low to middle elevation forest types.	eng
34625	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The Argentinean population is threatened because its habitat is rapidly being converted into cattle ranches.	eng
34626	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Vogelkop, Irian Jaya and the Morobe, Gulf and Central provinces of Papua New Guinea.	eng
34626	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A primary rainforest tree occurring on coastal plain foothills and stony low hills.	eng
34626	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Observations of active exploitation for the timber of this species in Papua New Guinea were made in the 1960s; the timber continues to be in high demand and is heavily exploited in areas subject to logging. As it occurs in primary forest and in readily accessible areas, the species is considered highly vulnerable.	eng
34627	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Island of Luzon.	eng
34627	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in primary lowland forest.	eng
34628	distribution	González, M., 1998	Occurs in both the Coastal Cordillera and Andes in Chile, extending into Argentina. There are still extensive areas of intact forest. The species is little represented in Chilean protected areas.	eng
34628	habitat	González, M., 1998	The species occurs in moist seasonal forest up to 1,900 m.	eng
34628	threats	González, M., 1998	Most of the lower elevation forest has been logged and converted to agriculture, especially in the northern part of the range, and also to <em>Pinus radiata</em> plantations.	eng
34630	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is known from only a few locations. In Kenya it occurs in the region of the Shimba Hills, and in Tanzania, Chitoa Forest Reserve (8 km²) is one of the two reserves which harbour a population. The extent of occurrence in Mozambique is little known.	eng
34630	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to coastal forest.	eng
34631	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Extending from the south-east coast of Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina.	eng
34631	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	A good-quality commercial timber tree, which is widely occurring within an area of seasonally dry forest.	eng
34631	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The expansion of agriculture has caused severe habitat loss in Argentina.	eng
34632	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from Kwale and Kilifi districts in Kenya into Tanzania.	eng
34632	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrubby tree occurring in dry coastal forest patches. In some forest types it forms the dominant canopy element. Soils with impeded drainage and unpredictable water supply are especially favoured by the species.	eng
34633	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is found in remaining forest patches in east and south-east Tanzania into Mozambique. It has also been collected further north in limestone areas at Buda, Gongoni and Pangani in Kenya.	eng
34633	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist forest species which can occur in wetter  or riverine areas of dry forests.	eng
34634	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.	eng
34634	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to moist forest areas.	eng
34635	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Kenya, through Tanzania to Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.	eng
34635	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is restricted to pockets of dry coastal forest.	eng
34636	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The native range of the tamarillo tree is not resolved. It is often thought extinct. Putative wild subpopulations are small, occurring in restricted areas in Argentina and Bolivia. It is widely cultivated in the Andes, Europe, Africa and New Zealand. Wild representatives are important for the genetic improvement and understanding of cultivated forms.	eng
34637	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A spreading tree known from central and southern Somalia and from central Kenya.	eng
34637	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Open bushland, often on alluvium soils.	eng
34637	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Overcutting and grazing of this habitat are threats.	eng
34638	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	The largest subpopulation occurs in central and southern Somalia. The species extends into small areas of the Ogaden in Ethiopia and north-east Kenya.	eng
34638	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A rare species of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> woodland.	eng
34638	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In places the habitat is under some threat of degradation because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
34639	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two localities in Kenya are known, where the species occurs in forest along the Luma and Tana Rivers. The range extends to eastern Tanzania, where populations are restricted to remaining areas of moist forest.	eng
34639	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
34640	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranges from Kenya to Zimbabwe. It has been found only once in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. In Tanzania it occurs in the East Usambara Mts., the North Udzungwa Mts., and the Ngurdota Crater on Mt. Meru. The species is confined to Chirinda forest in Zimbabwe. It has also been recorded from Garuso forest in central Mozambique.	eng
34640	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
34640	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Although the species' range is from Kenya to Zimbabwe, it exists in small and restricted pockets of moist forest, which have declined in extent over the past few decades. It has been found only once in the Shimba Hills in Kenya. In Tanzania it is very scarce in the North Udzungwa Mts. In Zimbabwe, the species is confined to Chirinda forest, where there is a well-protected healthy population.	eng
34641	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are restricted and considered to be Critically Endangered (CR A1cd).	eng
34642	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	At one time more widespread, the species was heavily exploited in the past as a source of wood and fuel. It is currently restricted to small areas in the centre-south of Argentina.	eng
34642	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Campo and savannah.	eng
34643	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of scrubland and woodland.	eng
34643	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is unknown whether the species is regenerating.	eng
34643	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although occurring widely, it is found in areas which are heavily degraded and overgrazed by goats, sheep and cattle.	eng
34644	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It occurs in Ankasa Game Production Reserve, along with <em>A. strobilacea</em>, in Ghana.	eng
34644	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species found in swamp forest or along stream banks in wet evergreen forest.	eng
34644	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Too rare to be recorded in forest inventories.	eng
34644	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Although it is common on parts of Mt. Nimba in Liberia, the forest has been cleared extensively by mining operations and by the effects of an increasing population requiring land for farming.	eng
34645	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is restricted largely to swampy areas within lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
34645	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The general loss of its habitat, because of commercial forestry activities and mining, has continued at a considerable rate.	eng
34646	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Scattered from Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
34646	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
34646	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is relatively well represented in population numbers.	eng
34646	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Its habitat has substantially reduced in extent because of logging activities and the encroachment of agriculture.	eng
34647	distribution	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	This timber species is widespread throughout the African tropics.	eng
34647	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Occurring in drier areas of semi-deciduous forest.	eng
34647	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	The species provides a general-purpose timber and is overexploited in parts of its range. In the timber industry, it is frequently confused with <em>Aningeria robusta</em> (now <em>P. aningeri</em>).	eng
34649	conservation	Frodin, D., 1998	It is found in Gunung Leuser National Park.	eng
34649	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Collected five times in northern Sumatra.	eng
34649	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A small hemiepiphytic tree. This distinctive species is found in montane forest and along forest edges in deep ravines.	eng
34650	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Restricted to Gunung Sibajak, Sibalangit and Banda Baru of northern Sumatra.	eng
34650	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
34650	population	Frodin, D., 1998	The species' description was based on eight specimens, the most recent of which was collected in 1983.	eng
34650	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	The population on Gunung Sibajak is close to a popular tourist destination near Medan. The habitat is also threatened by shifting cultivation.	eng
34651	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree is known from the edges of Río Huallaga in Peru and from a more doubtful collection in Colombia. A record which may be erroneous has also been made in Argentina.	eng
34651	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland rainforest often along rivers.	eng
34652	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
34652	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is strictly confined to wet evergreen forest where it is an understorey tree.	eng
34652	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	General losses of this forest type have been significant over the past century.	eng
34653	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is endemic to Ethiopia and is found in various localities in the western and south-west highlands.	eng
34653	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dry <em>Juniperus</em> forest, forest margins and secondary forest.	eng
34654	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widespread.	eng
34654	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of deciduous woodland and scrub.	eng
34654	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Used locally as a fuelwood.  It is well collected in Boliva but present in areas which are subject to intense grazing by goats, sheep and cattle.	eng
34655	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree which is common but restricted to the southern dry forests of Ghana, from Tain II Forest Reserve to the Volta region and extending into Togo.	eng
34655	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
34655	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Dry forests have suffered the most serious losses of all the forest types in this area. They continue to decline because of fire, felling and agricultural expansion.	eng
34656	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and also on Mt. Nzo in Guinea.	eng
34656	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	An uncommon small evergreen tree which is confined to areas of upland evergreen forest.	eng
34656	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	These areas are under pressure from farming, fire, forest management activities and large-scale mining.	eng
34657	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to small enclaves of moist forest on the north-western highlands of Ethiopia and adjacent parts of Sudan on the Boma Plateau and Mt. Tomadur.	eng
34657	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in moist forest.	eng
34657	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Common in places.	eng
34657	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large expanses of this forest in Ethiopia have been replaced by coffee plantations in the last two decades.	eng
34658	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The distribution of this species is irregular from Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon. In Ghana it is best known from the Shai Hills. In Cameroon it is known only from an area along the banks of Sanaga River.	eng
34658	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Particularly dry forest, often along river banks.	eng
34658	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Although generally uncommon, it can occur in some abundance at certain sites.	eng
34658	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Its forest habitat, particularly dry forest in Ghana, has experienced serious reductions in extent, mainly because of agricultural expansion, settlement and fires.	eng
34659	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Information is limited, but indicates that the species is endemic to an area extending from northern Argentina into the Rio Uruguay valley in Brazil.	eng
34660	distribution	Hess, W.J., 1998	A hybrid between <em>Q. rugosa</em> and <em>Q. depressipes</em> known from four sites in Chihuahua and one in Durango.	eng
34660	habitat	Hess, W.J., 1998	Submontane woodland or scrub.	eng
34660	population	Hess, W.J., 1998	The subpopulations are isolated and none are believed to be large.	eng
34661	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is suspected that the species will prove to be threatened when the area of occupancy is calculated, taking into account the altitudinal range of the species.	eng
34662	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Lowland scrub.	eng
34662	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A number of subpopulations (e.g., Santa Barbara, Hollywood and Griffith Park) have disappeared.	eng
34662	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The habitat of the remaining populations is under threat from pollution and the expansion of urban and industrial areas.	eng
34663	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Although widely occurring, the range of the species has probably receded greatly.	eng
34663	threats	Prado, D., 1998	Spread and intensification of agriculture.	eng
34664	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to two subpopulations occupying a narrow band (150 x 10–20 km) from Galeana, Nuevo Leone, to the Miquihrana region in Tamaulipas.	eng
34664	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in submontane to montane chaparral.	eng
34664	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A rare species.	eng
34667	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	An endemic of Peña Nevada and Miquihuana, locally common, covering an area of less than 500 km².	eng
34667	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Montane pine-oak forest and also chaparral.	eng
34667	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Logging activities and overgrazing threaten the habitat.	eng
34668	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in a few localities in Nigeria and Cameroon and is recently recorded in Ghana.	eng
34668	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey species, a borderline shrub or tree. It occurs in rocky streamside forest.	eng
34668	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations in unprotected forest have been exposed to extensive logging and clearing for agriculture.	eng
34669	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea.	eng
34669	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree found in dry forest.	eng
34669	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Its habitat is most vulnerable to agricultural expansion and the effects of high population growth and fires.	eng
34672	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree occurring in many forest habitats and in seasonal swamps.	eng
34672	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.	eng
34673	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A large tree found in primary forest, secondary swamp forest and on forest margins.	eng
34673	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34674	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Extending from Sierra Leone to Ghana.	eng
34674	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species occurs only in a restricted wet evergreen forest habitat, generally along rivers.	eng
34674	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is uncommon and has suffered from general declines in this habitat because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34675	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from North Aceh.	eng
34675	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
34675	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single collection.	eng
34676	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Tapanuli and the east coast.	eng
34676	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree.	eng
34676	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just three collections.	eng
34677	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to Mt. Sago, central and northern Sumatra.	eng
34677	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane and riverine forest.	eng
34678	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from central and south Sumatra.	eng
34678	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from two collections.	eng
34679	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known from five collections on the east and west coast of Sumatra. A collection, which is only doubtfully this species, was taken from Mt. Damoes, West Kalimantan.	eng
34679	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and ravine forest.	eng
34680	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the Irdragiri Uplands.	eng
34680	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subspecies occurs in lowland swamp forest.	eng
34680	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
34681	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is present in the Gunung Leuser Nature Reserves.	eng
34681	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree has been found only in northern Sumatra.	eng
34682	distribution	Firsov, G.A., 1998	A rare tree endemic to Kokhida in western Georgia, with a small part of the range extending into Russia along the Black Sea coast.	eng
34682	threats	Firsov, G.A., 1998	The population is declining through felling and agriculture.	eng
34683	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Scarcely distributed.	eng
34683	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of shrub-thornland and limestone hillsides between 1,300 and 1,600 m.	eng
34685	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Declines in population numbers have not been recorded.	eng
34685	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Extensive forest destruction.	eng
34688	conservation	Red List Standards & Petitions Subcommittee, 2007	To enable continued harvesting of this species, it is imperative that a sustainable logging programme is developed. The TROPENBOS Foundation along with scientists like Dr. Hammond are working hard with the forestry companies and officials in Guyana to achieve this. The programme is looking at many aspects including the logging process itself, the retention of stands capable of ensuring continued production , the reduction of collateral damage, the reduction in the size of logging gaps, the creation of suitably large protected areas and general education of both the producers and the consumers.	eng
34688	distribution	Red List Standards & Petitions Subcommittee, 2007	<em>Chlorocardium rodiei</em> occurs primarily in Guyana, but is also found in Suriname and possibly in Venezuela but this is unsubstantiated. If the species occurs in western Venezuela it is only likely to be at very low densities. Similarly the species in Suriname is confined to a small area along Maratakka River.	eng
34688	habitat	Red List Standards & Petitions Subcommittee, 2007	The species is a dominant component of a restricted belt of lowland rainforest on brown sand and is also found occasionally in other forest types.	eng
34688	threats	Red List Standards & Petitions Subcommittee, 2007	Greenheart has been harvested as a commercial timber since the late 1700s, primarily because of the considerable durability and strength of the timber. Estimates based on official reports indicate that almost 4.9 million cubic metres have been harvested since 1850 and that this figure is likely to be closer to 5.5 million cubic metres if unreported harvests are added (Hammond, <em>in litt.</em>). Hammond <em>in litt</em> estimates that this means that between 15.1 and 28.6% of the original population has been harvested. Allegations that production of Greenheart timber has declined significantly over the past 50 years as reported in the <em>The World List of Threatened Trees</em> appear to be unfounded. Hammond <em>in litt.</em> has provided evidence that Greenheart timber production in 1998 was close to 80,000 cubic metres, a similar level of output to that achieved in 1953. Hammond <em>in litt</em> agrees that there was a decline in production between 1963 and 1991, but this was not steady or sustained. It appears this was due to the loss of human capacity and capital resources from the country during that period.  Regeneration in natural stands is very slow and poor germination success inhibits the establishment of plantations. According to work done by TROPENBOS (<em>in litt.</em>) the low growth rates are sufficient to maintain viable populations of the species in undisturbed forests, however, this life strategy is at odds with logging.	eng
34689	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to north-east Sulawesi, the species has been collected several times.	eng
34689	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From evergreen forest on volcanic soils.	eng
34692	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sulawesi.	eng
34692	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found near lowland streams.	eng
34692	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from only five collections.	eng
34693	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	All collections are from south-east Tanzania.	eng
34693	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Remaining areas of dry coastal forest or bushland.	eng
34693	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Only four collections of this subspecies have been recorded.	eng
34694	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Sulawesi, east of Malili. Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest on ultrabasic rock in the tropics.	eng
34694	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is restricted to primary and degraded forest on ultrabasic soils.	eng
34694	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is, at least relatively, secure from conversion to agriculture because of the ultramafic nature of the soil.	eng
34695	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the Moluccan islands of Ceram, Ambon and Sulawesi, including Kabaëna Island. It is running wild in the jungle garden of Singapore's Botanic Garden.	eng
34695	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest species.	eng
34696	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree collected four or five times in the Talaud Islands. There is a collection from mainland Sulawesi, but it is held in some doubt.	eng
34696	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Old forest at low altitudes on mountain slopes.	eng
34697	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Sulawesi, south of Lake Matano. There are no occurrences north of the lake, where the soils have a different origin. It is known from four collections.	eng
34697	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to lowland forest on ultrabasic soils.	eng
34698	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Sulawesi.	eng
34698	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from four collections.	eng
34699	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is endemic to north and central Sulawesi, from where it has been collected four times, north of Lake Matano. There are no occurrences south of the lake, where the soils have a different origin.	eng
34699	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs on poor soils.	eng
34701	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Found on Bacan, Halmahera, Ternate and Maluku, possibly extending to Waigeo, Irian Jaya. It is known from only a few collections but this could be due to undercollecting in the region. Varieties and subspecies are likely to be identified when more collections are made.	eng
34701	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	A shrub or tree.	eng
34702	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	South-east Kenya and eastern to south-west Tanzania. It is reported to be common in Diani in Kenya. The type variety is distributed from Central to West Africa.	eng
34702	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A forest tree existing in remaining areas of moist low-altitude forest.	eng
34703	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered populations occur on the Gebel Elba in Sudan and Egypt, from the Tigray region northwards through Eritrea and possibly into Saudi Arabia. There is some intergrading with the other subspecies to the south.	eng
34703	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen bushland.	eng
34704	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This widespread tree is found in patchy mountain top forests.	eng
34704	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It may be threatened in parts of its range i.e., Uganda, Ethiopia and the Comoros.	eng
34705	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from single collections from each of the following islands: Morotai, Halmaheira, Ceram and Ambon.	eng
34705	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
34708	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the islands of Ternate, Tidore and Bacan.	eng
34708	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland and montane primary forest.	eng
34709	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Proposals to give the area national park status have failed.	eng
34709	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from a forested area near the lake at Taman Hidup in Dataran Tinggi Yang or the Yang Plateau. A variety may possibly occur on Lombok.	eng
34709	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is relatively isolated, although logging has occurred in the past and commercial plantations have been established.	eng
34710	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in protected area.	eng
34710	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the island of Komodo, a national park, and to West Timor.	eng
34711	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree endemic to Flores Is.	eng
34712	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree only known from west Flores at about 800 m.	eng
34713	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Restricted to the north-eastern tip of Somalia.	eng
34713	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A rare evergreen tree of dry and open riverine forest.	eng
34713	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Overexploitation and degradation of the forest threaten the species.	eng
34714	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species of evergreen Guineo-Congolian forests.	eng
34714	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Apart from serious habitat losses the species is heavily exploited, with <em>G. afzelii</em>, as a source of chewsticks.	eng
34715	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo (Kinshasa).	eng
34715	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	A widespread tree of evergreen forest.	eng
34715	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	It is probably the most important source of chewsticks. Overexploitation has caused population declines. Seedlings are uncommon and slow-growing.	eng
34716	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	From Sierra Leone to Ghana, this species is very rare and has disappeared from previously recorded localities.	eng
34716	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Scattered along riversides in wet evergreen forest.	eng
34716	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Habitat losses have been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34717	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea region.	eng
34717	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A gregarious tree, occurring in swamps in the restricted wet evergreen forest habitat.	eng
34717	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Habitat declines have been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34718	distribution	Barroso, G.M., 1998	This small tree is confined to a small area of coastal forest in Santa Catarina.	eng
34718	habitat	Barroso, G.M., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
34718	population	Barroso, G.M., 1998	Common where it occurs.	eng
34718	threats	Barroso, G.M., 1998	The declines in this habitat over centuries have been dramatic.	eng
34719	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Endemic to the state of Thuringia, on the limestone slopes south of Arnstadt.	eng
34719	population	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	This apomict is found in a population of about 1,000 individuals.	eng
34720	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The area is remote and designated as a nature reserve. Signs of regeneration are evident but they are exceeded in rate by the natural loss of old trees. Attempts at supplementing the existing population of about 500 individuals by planting young trees has met with limited success.	eng
34720	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A small tree known from Glen Diomhan in Arran.	eng
34720	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Occurs in scrub on steep granite crags and in remnant woodland on a stream bank.	eng
34722	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Occurring in oak woodlands, this apomictic species is confined to a small area along the Devon and Somerset coasts.	eng
34722	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Occurring in oak woodlands.	eng
34722	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Most of the small populations are stable, with the one noted exception being the potentially threatened population above High Town in Minehead.	eng
34723	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Both locations are given limited protection as Sites of Special Scientific Interest and a small number of plants raised from seed have been incorporated into the population.	eng
34723	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Carboniferous limestone cliffs in southern Breconshire.	eng
34723	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	About 20 trees are known in total from two sites.	eng
34723	threats	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Quarrying has destroyed some of the former sites.	eng
34724	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Occurs in three small areas in the state of Bayern, northern Bavaria.	eng
34724	habitat	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	A small tree or shrub, occurring in beech forest, pine plantation on limestone and at forest edges.	eng
34725	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Populations occur in a small corridor of coast between Culbone in Somerset and an area just west of Trentishoe in Devon. The species is apomictic.	eng
34725	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A small tree, often multi-stemmed from the base. The species grows mainly in oak woodlands.	eng
34725	threats	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	There are no obvious threats to the populations, although inappropriate woodland management and the spread of <em>Rhododendron</em> are potential hazards.	eng
34726	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in Catalonia, Aragon, Mallorca, La Rioja and Navarra, possibly extending into France.	eng
34726	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The taxon occurs in dry montane forest.	eng
34726	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Fire, forest management activities and hybridisation pose threats to the taxon.	eng
34727	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Confined to an area of less than 200 km² in the mountain range of Fränkische Alb in the state of Bavaria.	eng
34727	habitat	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	A shrub to medium-sized tree.	eng
34728	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The majority of trees are in the Avon Gorge, where they are under some degree of protection and constructive management.	eng
34728	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Found in the Wye Valley, the Avon Gorge, other locations in Somerset, and also in Bangor in North Wales, a population which was formerly placed under <em>S. porrigentiformis</em>.	eng
34728	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A woodland tree, occurring very locally on carboniferous limestone.	eng
34728	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	About 250 trees exist in total.	eng
34729	habitat	Nikolic, T., 1998	A species found in submontane and montane mixed forest.	eng
34730	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Most sites are protected or inaccessible.	eng
34730	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Found in a number of sites within a 30 km radius of Morecambe Bay.	eng
34730	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A small tree of open woodland or woodland edges, occurring on carboniferous limestone.	eng
34731	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The species is well protected in a number of nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest.	eng
34731	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Occurs locally in small populations, in Devon, north Somerset, the Avon Gorge, Wye Valley, Shropshire, Brecon, Montgomery, Denbigh in the UK and Kerry in Ireland.	eng
34731	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A shrub or small tree, usually on carboniferous limestone, on the edges of woodland or in scrub.	eng
34731	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The total population numbers about 600 individuals, the largest subpopulation being on Eglwyseg Mt. in Denbigh.	eng
34731	threats	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Subpopulations have been noted to show some variability despite the species being an apomict. It is the product of a cross between <em>S. aucuparia</em> and <em>S. rupicola</em>.	eng
34732	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The area is managed so as to conserve the rare plants.	eng
34732	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Known from both sides of the Avon Gorge in Somerset and Gloucestershire.	eng
34732	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Woodland margins and on cliff edges with other rare <em>Sorbus</em> species.	eng
34732	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The species is one of the rarest <em>Sorbus</em> species in the UK. As few as 20 trees may remain.	eng
34732	threats	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	There have been recent reports of the illegal collection and cutting down of trees.	eng
34733	conservation	Nikolic, T., 1998	The species range is almost entirely within a nature reserve and is not considered to be of conservation concern.	eng
34733	distribution	Nikolic, T., 1998	A Croatian endemic, restricted to Velebit Mt.	eng
34733	habitat	Nikolic, T., 1998	Found growing in montane and alpine open dry forest. It is a slow-growing, xerophytic, heliophytic tree.	eng
34734	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Endemic to the states of Bayern and Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany.	eng
34734	habitat	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	This small tree or shrub occurs in woodlands and scrub on upland slopes.	eng
34735	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Most of the population is in Glen Diomhan Nature Reserve.	eng
34735	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Northern Arran.	eng
34735	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Scattered trees are confined to small remnants of woodland, mostly on inaccessible steep slopes, on very acidic soils.	eng
34735	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	About 500 plants remain in the two known sites.	eng
34735	threats	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Regeneration is believed to be insufficient for recruitment and grazing deer and sheep contribute to this failing.	eng
34736	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	This tree is restricted to the limestone slopes south of Arnstadt in Thuringia.	eng
34736	population	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	There are fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
34737	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Confined to the limestone area between the villages of Heilingen and Reinstädt in the state of Thuringia, this large tree has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km².	eng
34738	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	Restricted to a single locality on the southern slope of a hill in Greifenstein near Blakenburg in the state of Thuringia, this species occurs within an area of 100 km².	eng
34739	conservation	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Both sites are given some form of protection.	eng
34739	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Found at two sites in Breconshire.	eng
34739	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A sprawling tree known only fromsubpopulations on shady crags of carboniferous limestone.	eng
34739	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The subpopulation is stable and inaccessible to grazing animals. The latest count uncovered 44 trees. A small subpopulation of very similar trees is found at Craig Breidden in Montgomery. Further studies are needed to consolidate whether it belongs to this species.	eng
34740	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Japan has apparently turned to importing <em>C. lawsoniana</em> from the USA because of the low levels of supply of the native species. A ban on logging is now in effect.	eng
34740	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Remnant populations are known to occur in South Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Islands.	eng
34740	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Submontane forest.	eng
34740	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	There is concern over this species because of the extent of timber exploitation.	eng
34741	distribution	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	Endemic to the Avon Gorge, both the Somerset and Gloucestershire sides.	eng
34741	habitat	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	The species occurs on carboniferous limestone in woodland and scrub.	eng
34741	population	Wigginton, M.J., 1998	A population of about 100 plants exists and is increasing in number.	eng
34743	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Native stands of the type variety of Monterey Pine are found in three distinct areas of central-coastal California in San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Monterey, and San Luis Obispo Counties. The northernmost stand is east of point Año Nuevo, the central stand 48 km to the south near Monterey and Carmel, and the southernmost stand about 105 km away in the Pico Creek-Cambria area. The north-south range is about 209 km. <br/> <br/>The area occupied by natural stands of Monterey Pine was once well defined, even though estimates of the total area ranged from 4,860 to 6,480 ha. Precise natural limits, however, are now difficult to determine because of conspicuous amounts of new regeneration. The southern part of the forest at Año Nuevo, for example, is estimated to have increased by as much as 95 ha in recent decades. Additional trees have been planted, and these have also produced seed that led to many acres of new reproduction. Nevertheless, the total area currently occupied probably is thought to be no more than 8,000 ha.	eng
34743	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Monterey Pine is part of the coastal closed-cone coniferous woodland. This habitat is strongly influenced by its proximity to the Pacific Ocean from which the cold waters of southward-flowing currents result in high humidity, low temperatures, and summer fogs. The pine is seldom found more than 11 km from the sea. <br/> <br/>Fire is a major influence affecting the extent and makeup of Monterey Pine stands. Fire is frequent, sometimes of natural causes, often accidental, and sometimes deliberately set. Graziers at Cambria, for example, burned the woods to obtain more grass. At Año Nuevo, frequent fires have helped to maintain the pine forest. Without fire, the taller and longer-lived coast Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> var. <em>menziesii</em>) would usurp land occupied by pines. Much regeneration and a number of even-aged stands at all three main locations can be traced directly to the influence of fire.	eng
34743	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Only half of the historical range remains undeveloped on the Monterey Peninsula. Further land developments, genetic contamination (from ornamental plants), pine pitch canker disease and forest fragmentation are of concern. The three remaining native stands of var. <em>radiata</em> are infected and under threat of extinction from pitch canker, a fungal disease (caused by the fungus <em>Fusarium circinatum</em>) native to the southeast United States and found (in 1986) to have been introduced to California. When trees begin to die of the disease, they attract bark beetles which provide a pathway for infection of other trees. In some stands, 80-90% of trees are infected. The current status of this taxon therefore needs to be reassessed.	eng
34744	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the two largest islands.	eng
34744	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in areas of dense forest or forest patches and at the higher elevations on forested crests, ridges and hillsides.	eng
34744	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected on numerous occasions.	eng
34744	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The hard wood is valued as a timber.	eng
34745	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist upland forest.	eng
34745	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This tree may be found in some abundance in eastern Tanzania.	eng
34746	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are considered threatened at a national level in Ecuador, Mexico and throughout Central America.	eng
34746	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common canopy tree of lowland seasonal rainforest.	eng
34746	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat losses have been considerable in the last 50 years.	eng
34747	habitat	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	A large emergent tree, sparsely scattered in areas of lowland non-flooded rainforest, such as Atlantic forest, mesophyllous, riverine or hygrophyllous forest and semi-deciduous woodland. Large trees also remain in agricultural areas and coffee plantations.	eng
34747	threats	Americas Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Costa Rica), 1998	Populations frequently occur on fertile land and considerable habitat loss has caused declines in the species.	eng
34748	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The Colombian subpopulation is considered to be Endangered. In Panama, the largest subpopulations are found in the Canal area and in Darién. It is one of the few trees often left uncut after forest clearance because its large size makes handling difficult. Solitary individuals and scattered subpopulations are distributed throughout the rest of Panama, and in neighbouring Central American countries it is relatively common.	eng
34748	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A widely distributed species, occurring in lowland rainforest and in areas which have been disturbed or cleared of forest.	eng
34749	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring from Mexico to the north of South America.	eng
34749	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is widespread in various types of forest, mostly in areas of low precipitation. Regeneration is frequent, especially in areas which have been cleared.	eng
34750	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in Ilha do Cardosa Forest Reserve in Sâo Paulo.	eng
34750	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The extent of occurrence of this species is relatively wide.	eng
34750	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is found in both restinga vegetation and lowland rainforest.	eng
34751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread Fijian endemic, occurring on six islands.	eng
34751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Open and closed forest, in dry gullies and along riversides.	eng
34751	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has commercial value as a timber.	eng
34752	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread tree found in forest and seasonal swamp up to 1,570 m.	eng
34752	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is a potential threat to the species.	eng
34753	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found up to 1,000 m, this widespread tree occurs in forest.	eng
34753	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Potentially threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34754	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A single small population is confined to Chingshan in the centre of the island.	eng
34754	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	It occurs in dry open forest at 1,100 m.	eng
34754	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The area is given no protection and is somewhat threatened by increasing settlement. Regeneration appears to be poor.	eng
34755	distribution	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	The species is restricted to the Arishan area.	eng
34755	habitat	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	scattered in mixed evergreen forest between 1,500 and 2,200 m.	eng
34755	threats	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	Populations are unprotected and the area susceptible to forest management activities and expanding settlement.	eng
34756	distribution	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	The species is scattered in small subpopulations throughout the central mountain range.	eng
34756	habitat	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	Usually an epiphytic shrub occurring in broadleaved evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
34756	threats	IUCN SSC China Plants Specialist Group, 2004	Some subpopulations are protected in Yushan National Park; others are under pressure from encroaching housing developments.	eng
34757	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Endemic to the central mountain range on Taiwan, the species occurs in scattered subpopulations.	eng
34757	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Montane coniferous forest and woodland scrub.	eng
34757	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Regeneration is reported to be poor and no conservation or protection measures are in place.	eng
34758	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A fairly common tree of forest and kerangas.	eng
34758	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Possibly threatened in the future by habitat loss.	eng
34759	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found up to 1,700 m, this tree grows in primary and secondary forest as well as peat swamp forest.	eng
34759	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat to this species.	eng
34760	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Usually found in secondary forest.	eng
34760	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Potentially under threat from habitat destruction.	eng
34761	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A species of lowland, hill and ridge forest up to 1,740 m.	eng
34761	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Potentially threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34762	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A common tree found in both primary and secondary forest.	eng
34762	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat to this species.	eng
34763	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread, variable species of various habitat types, occurring up to 2,100 m.	eng
34763	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction could be a serious threat in the near future.	eng
34764	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread species found in the understorey of many different forest types.	eng
34764	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat.	eng
34766	distribution	Peguy, T., 1998	A species confined to remaining forested areas in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring Cameroon. In Nigeria the largest, if not only, population is in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park. It appears to be relatively widespread in Cameroon.	eng
34766	threats	Peguy, T., 1998	Deforestation and clearance for agriculture have been extensive outside protected areas.	eng
34767	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is an occurrence in the Oban Hills, where the population is protected.	eng
34767	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been recorded only in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring Cameroon.	eng
34767	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture	eng
34768	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs and is protected in the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park.	eng
34768	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to an area extending from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon.	eng
34768	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This understorey tree is not uncommon.	eng
34768	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside protected areas deforestation has occurred on a large scale.	eng
34769	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are recorded in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and from Douala, Edea and Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
34769	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A morphologically distinctive species. It is confined to forested areas extending from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon.	eng
34769	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside protected areas large-scale deforestation has taken place.	eng
34770	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
34770	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The range of this tree extends from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon. Populations are recorded in the Oban Hills of Cross River National Park in Nigeria and in Korup National Park, Masaka-Batanga and the Douala area in Cameroon.	eng
34770	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small lowland rainforest tree.	eng
34770	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Outside protected areas there has been extensive deforestation.	eng
34771	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Korup national park.	eng
34771	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The range extends from south-east Nigeria, including the Oban Hills in Cross River National Park, to Cameroon, where it is known from several localities including Mt. Cameroon, Korup National Park, Kribi, Kompina, Mamfe, Kumba and Campo.	eng
34771	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest and secondary forest.	eng
34771	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forested areas have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its range extends from south-eastern Nigeria, (although it does not appear to occur in Cross River National Park), to Cameroon, where it has been recorded from Japoma, Dibamba, Eseka, Kribi, Ebolowa and Campo.	eng
34772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a scattered occurrence in lowland rainforest, especially in swampy areas or along river banks.	eng
34772	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected areas have been extensively logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species ranges from south-east Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea.	eng
34773	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be abundant in secondary and disturbed forest.	eng
34773	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat clearance and logging have caused declines in the extent of lowland forest throughout its range.	eng
34774	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Extending from south-eastern Nigeria to Cameroon. There is a subpopulation in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and in Cameroon the species is recorded in Ebone, Mantoum and Mt. Cameroon.	eng
34774	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is found sparsely distributed in patches of old secondary and disturbed forest.	eng
34774	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34775	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The largest remaining forested area is contained within Oban Hills in Cross River National Park in Nigeria and the contiguous Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
34775	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Confined to forest patches in south-east Nigeria and neighbouring parts of Cameroon (SE Nigeria (one collection); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (six collections), Kumba, Kumba-Mamfe (one collection each), Bipindi (six collections); Gabon: Koumemayong (one collection)).	eng
34775	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 200 m alt.	eng
34775	population	Cheek, M., 2004	A rare species.	eng
34775	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Outside of protected areas forest has been comprehensively logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34776	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest species scattered within an area extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon. It is not recorded in the Oban Hills.	eng
34776	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The present status of remaining populations is unknown and may be more seriously threatened.	eng
34776	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its habitat outside protected areas has experienced heavy declines because of logging and clearing for commercial and subsistence agriculture.	eng
34777	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park, are protected.	eng
34777	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree which occurs within a range extending from south-east Nigeria just into Cameroon.	eng
34777	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been extensive deforestation in the surrounding area.	eng
34778	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Nigerian population occurs in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park.	eng
34778	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A morphologically unusual and rare <em>Baphia</em> species, which is confined to an area extending from south-east Nigeria into adjacent parts of Cameroon.	eng
34778	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and taken over for cultivation.	eng
34779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree, similar to <em>M. macrophylla</em>, with a range extending from south-east Nigeria into Cameroon.	eng
34779	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34780	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The best hope for the survival of this species is in well-protected lowland forest reserves, such as Korup. Future plans to better protect the Mungo River F.R. should also help secure the survival of this tree.	eng
34780	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree which occurs in areas of remaining forest, ranging from south-east Nigeria to Cameroon. Also recorded from Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There are only eight collections in the Kew Herbarium from Cameroon.	eng
34780	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 400 m alt.	eng
34780	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forest has been heavily logged and cleared for agriculture.	eng
34782	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a protected subpopulation in the Oban Hills, in Cross River National Park, Nigeria.	eng
34782	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Upper Guinea, extending across the Dahomey Gap to Nigeria and into Cameroon.	eng
34782	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in lowland rain forest.	eng
34782	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unprotected forests have been heavily logged and cleared for commercial and subsistence agriculture. Mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations have also caused decline in parts of Upper Guinea.	eng
34783	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It occurs in Kanching Forest Reserve in Selangor and Gunung Bubu in Perak, where some protection is provided.	eng
34783	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Although few collections have been made, the species is expected to be more widespread.	eng
34783	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland and submontane forest.	eng
34784	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A population of unproductive individuals is believed to exist on a wooded hillside in Fengkang. Populations are also recorded from Chuhai and Huiyang in China, and Hong Kong.	eng
34784	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A heavily-exploited ornamental species. Overcollecting in Taiwan, has led to the complete absence of mature trees in the wild.	eng
34785	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Confined to Upper Guinea.	eng
34785	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
34785	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is uncommon.	eng
34785	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The forest has declined over the past decades as a result of logging, mining and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34786	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea.	eng
34786	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species which is confined to riversides or swampy areas within lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
34786	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Losses of this habitat through felling for timber, mining and planting of commercial species have been extensive.	eng
34787	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Populations occur in the Tana River area and Kwale in south-east Kenya and in eastern Tanzania.	eng
34787	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species restricted to patches of riverine forest and moist forest.	eng
34789	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Tanzania to northern Mozambique.	eng
34789	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is found only in patches of dry forest.	eng
34789	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The habitat has suffered extensively from the exploitation of timber resources and agricultural encroachment.	eng
34790	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are known to occur in south-east Tanzania and further south in neighbouring Mozambique.	eng
34790	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
34791	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is known from the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mts. In the latter, populations are confined to Muraihara and Lulanda.	eng
34791	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small montane forest tree.	eng
34793	conservation	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Some subpopulations occur within national park boundaries.	eng
34793	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Subpopulations are known to occur in upland areas of  Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Ishasha Gorge and Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda and also in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
34794	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the West Usambara Mts.	eng
34794	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest.	eng
34794	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest, which has been reduced to 11% of its original cover.	eng
34794	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Establishment of commercial pine plantations and the excision of the Shume-Magamba Forest Reserve for local cultivation.	eng
34795	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the Usambara and Udzungwa Mts., the species is known from four localities at Shume-Magamba, Mwanihara, Myumbenito and Monga.	eng
34795	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest above 1,000 m.	eng
34796	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species ranges in south-east Tanzania.	eng
34796	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It occurs in moist semi-deciduous forest remnants.	eng
34797	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrubby tree which is known from remnant dry forest patches occurring in the Taita Hills in Kenya, and further south in Tanzania and Zanzibar.	eng
34797	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
34798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in abundance in the Kibwezi -Taita area, where the two varieties coexist and interbreed.	eng
34798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland or open woodland.	eng
34799	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A small tree with a fragmented range restricted to parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia, central and northern Somalia and eastern Kenya.	eng
34799	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat has been degraded in places because of farming activities and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
34800	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	A species known only from northern Uganda and neighbouring Sudan.	eng
34800	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Savannah.	eng
34801	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most specimens of the species in Kenya are ssp. <em>brevicaudata</em>. This subspecies survives only near Kibwezi and on Emali Hill.	eng
34801	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest patches.	eng
34802	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East Tanzania and the Gorongosa Mountains in Mozambique.	eng
34802	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies occurs in dry evergreen forest at elevations between 1,100 and 1,800 m.	eng
34803	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Although the species is widespread in Africa, from east to west, this subspecies is very rare. Few records of it exist in Ghana.	eng
34803	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Range of forest types.	eng
34804	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Only known from the Taitung coast where it occurs abundantly in a single small location.	eng
34804	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Dry scrub.	eng
34804	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	There are no conservation or protection measures in place and habitat clearance for agriculture or housing threatens much of the area.	eng
34805	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Restricted to the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34805	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Occurs in dry forests.	eng
34805	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	More information is needed on this species to confirm the status. It is not common.	eng
34805	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Dry forests have suffered extensively from the effects of human population growth, agricultural expansion and fire.	eng
34806	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	From an unusual genus of five species, this tree is found at low densities in a few localities from Upper and Lower Guinea. In Ghana, it occurs in Atewa and also Cape Three Points and Ankasa Game Park Reserves.	eng
34806	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Population numbers have been observed to decline rapidly.	eng
34806	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Much of its habitat has been lost to agriculture, mining and logging.	eng
34807	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ranging from Sierra Leone to Ghana.	eng
34807	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species is largely confined to lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
34807	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Loss of its habitat over the past decades has been caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
34808	habitat	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	A species of various rainforest types.	eng
34808	population	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Locally common in places. The current category applied should be kept under review.	eng
34808	threats	African Regional Workshop (Conservation & Sustainable Management of Trees, Zimbabwe), 1998	Levels of exploitation for its timber are moderate and are contributing to the declines in population numbers.	eng
34809	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely occurring from Sierra Leone to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
34809	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to the more restricted wetter evergreen forests.	eng
34809	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In certain areas, forests have been heavily logged and destroyed by oil exploration, mining and commercial forestry operations.	eng
34810	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
34810	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species which occurs commonly but only within a restricted and reduced area.	eng
34810	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This habitat has experienced significant pressure from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34811	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The range of this rare tree is almost confined to medium elevations in the Nimba Mts. in Liberia, possibly extending into Sierra Leone. It is also recorded in Ghana.	eng
34811	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest (Ghana).	eng
34811	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Mining for iron-ore, logging, the establishment of commercial plantations and the influx of people into these areas have caused large-scale destruction of the habitat.	eng
34812	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on both sides of the Dahomey Gap where it can be common. It is a slow-growing species from a monotypic genus.	eng
34812	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small understorey tree confined to areas of wet evergreen forest.	eng
34812	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been significant loss of this forest in all countries because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34813	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species which can occur in some abundance, at least in Ghana.	eng
34813	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is generally confined to wet evergreen forest, especially in upland areas.	eng
34813	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Much of the forest in the area has been adversely affected by mining, logging and commercial planting operations.	eng
34814	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Found solely in Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire, this species is restricted to small areas.	eng
34814	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Moist evergreen forest.	eng
34814	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Deforestation in this area has been caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry operations.	eng
34815	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
34815	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species restricted to areas of moist evergreen forest.	eng
34815	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Losses in the forest habitat have been incurred from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34816	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This a common tree in Ghana. Restricted to the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34816	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
34816	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A large part of the habitat has suffered losses because of mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34817	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Like <em>P. attenuatus</em>, this species occurs in remnants of coastal forest.  It is also found in areas of less disturbed wet evergreen or riverine  forest but only in the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34817	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The effects of farming, fuelwood collection and commercial forestry have been severe.	eng
34818	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Located in southern Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.	eng
34818	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Severely degraded dry forests.	eng
34818	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
34818	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	These areas are vulnerable to the effects of population growth and associated activities.	eng
34819	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species known from the restricted wet evergreen forests of the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34819	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
34819	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The extent of these forests have declined because of mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations.	eng
34820	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species which is rare and confined to small areas of swamp or riverine areas within evergreen forest.	eng
34820	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	These areas have suffered losses from mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34821	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The range of this species is confined to restricted areas in Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire. This species is hard to distinguish from a common species, <em>T. monadelpha</em>, and it is likely that it continues to  be overlooked.	eng
34821	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
34821	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The forest has suffered declines caused by mining, logging and commercial forestry activities.	eng
34824	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Few records exist of this species. Found in the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34824	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It is confined to wet evergreen forest (an understorey tree).	eng
34824	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Mining, logging and the establishment of industrial plantations have caused the decline of a significant proportion of this forest type.	eng
34826	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Relatively widespread, the species' range extends from Liberia to Cameroon.	eng
34826	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	It occurs in dry forests.	eng
34826	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Dry forests have been heavily degraded and lost to agricultural expansion, overgrazing, fire and in some cases the introduction of invasive species such as the neem tree.	eng
34827	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From eastern Tanzania, also said to occur in south-east Kenya.	eng
34827	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry coastal forest species.	eng
34828	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Extending from Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon.	eng
34828	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A swamp forest tree.	eng
34828	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The range of this forest type is restricted and has declined because of mining, logging and other commercial forestry activities in all areas.  Although much forest remains in Gabon, it is now largely under concession to logging companies.	eng
34829	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
34829	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species restricted to small areas of wet evergreen forest.	eng
34829	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This forest has declined through the effects of mining, logging and other commercial forestry activities.	eng
34830	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species occurs in the Upper Guinea region.	eng
34830	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Evergreen forest in rocky or upland areas.	eng
34830	population	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Not commonly recorded.	eng
34830	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The habitat has suffered from the effects of farming, fire, certain forestry management systems and large-scale mining.	eng
34831	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the coastal forests of Tanzania. Subpopulations have been recorded at four localities: Lake Lutamba, which has been cleared except for the 10 km² of Litipo Forest Reserve, Namatogoro, Mpangapanga Ridge and Nahomba Valley.	eng
34831	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of dry forest or woodland formations.	eng
34832	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	As with other varieties of this East African endemic, this taxon is restricted in range. Occur on two separate mountains. In the Udzungwa range there are populations at Mwanihana and Chita and to the east in Malundwe National Park.	eng
34832	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It occurs from lowland to submontane elevations in areas of moist forest.	eng
34833	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is contained within reserves over most of its range.	eng
34833	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to south-east Kenya and eastern Tanzania.	eng
34833	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This variant occurs within moist forest at high elevations.	eng
34834	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Current forestry management activities are discouraging illegal activities.	eng
34834	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species range now appears to be confined to the undisturbed areas of Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
34834	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection in the past have caused disturbance to much of the forest.	eng
34835	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in several forest reserves: Witu, Mrima, Kwamgumi and Rondo. Also in Shimba Hills National Reserve and Mafia Marine Park.	eng
34835	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A Kenyan and Tanzanian coastal species, also found on all the Tanzanian islands.	eng
34835	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A small tree growing in coastal forest.	eng
34835	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Reasonably common where it occurs.	eng
34835	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are a number of threats to the coastal forests, including expanding agriculture, tourism, mining, etc.	eng
34836	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea.	eng
34836	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	An uncommon species restricted to wet evergreen forest.	eng
34836	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	General losses to this habitat have been caused by mining activities, logging and commercial planting.	eng
34837	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Rare in Ghana and largely confined to Tai National Park in south-west Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
34837	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
34837	threats	Assi, A., 1998	This species has suffered extensive logging of its habitat, the effects of mining and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
34838	conservation	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Occurs within protected area.	eng
34838	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	In Uganda it occurs in Ishasha Gorge and Kayonza Forest in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.	eng
34838	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	A tree of mid-altitude rainforest.	eng
34838	population	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	There is no information on populations elsewhere.	eng
34838	threats	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	There are reports that regeneration is poor because seed dispersal agents are lacking. If it is assumed that the species occurs in Mayombe, subpopulations there are under heavy  pressure from logging and overcutting for charcoal.	eng
34839	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Tanzania into little-known areas of Mozambique.	eng
34839	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry coastal forest species.	eng
34840	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the West Usambara Mts. at Shagayu and Shuwe-Magamba.	eng
34840	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist montane forest species.	eng
34841	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subspecies which appears to extend from Tanzania into Malawi. In Tanzania records are known from the East Usambara Mts., North Uluguru Mts., Udzungwa Mts. and Rungwe Mt.	eng
34841	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the remaining moist forest areas at submontane to montane elevations.	eng
34842	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the Mombo Forest Reserve, Makuyuni.	eng
34842	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry forest species.	eng
34843	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A Tanzanian endemic restricted to areas in the east and south-east.	eng
34843	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
34844	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest management work in the forest reserve is discouraging further illegal activities and encroachment.	eng
34844	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies is known from two populations confined to the remaining forested areas on the Rondo Plateau and Lake Lutamba. It is thought that only 5 km² of the original undisturbed forest remains. Lake Lutamba has been largely cleared of forest except for 10 km² contained within the Litipo Forest Reserve.	eng
34844	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in dry coastal forest.	eng
34844	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest on the Rondo Plateau has been heavily disturbed by previous activities, especially logging and shifting cultivation.	eng
34845	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The presence of active forestry measures is helping to discourage local exploitation.	eng
34845	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Now thought to be confined to undisturbed areas of the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
34845	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
34845	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Disturbance in the past has been severe as a result of logging, planting of exotic timbers, shifting cultivation and  wood collection.	eng
34846	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widespread in Kenya extending into north-east Tanzania.	eng
34846	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies occurs in evergreen coastal forest and rocky woodland or bushland along rivers.	eng
34847	distribution	González, M., 1998	Restricted to central Chile in the Coastal Cordillera, subandean range and central plains.	eng
34847	habitat	González, M., 1998	The species occurs in moist seasonal forest.	eng
34847	threats	González, M., 1998	It is of some importance as a timber and is under threat from overexploitation in the north of its range.	eng
34848	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An active conservation programme is now in place.	eng
34848	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	East Usambara Mts. A population reported from the Katanga range in Democratic Republic of Congo is considered to be distinct but the taxonomy is not yet published.	eng
34848	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The entire population of this variant is believed to be restricted to moist evergreen forest at relatively low elevations.	eng
34848	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Heavy declines and exploitation of the forest have occurred in the past. There is continued pressure from the growing human population.	eng
34852	distribution	González, M., 1998	The largest of the South American <em>Nothofagus</em>.	eng
34852	habitat	González, M., 1998	An important component of numerous forest and soil types.	eng
34853	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Niassa Province, Mozambique, and south-east and east Tanzania.	eng
34853	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
34854	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	An endemic to the Albertine Rift along the Waki River in Uganda and Lake Albert in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
34854	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Confined to upland forest margins.	eng
34856	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The type was collected from the bank of the Mbakana River in the southern Uluguru Mts. It could represent a form of a more widespread species.	eng
34856	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The type specimen is the only record of this species.	eng
34857	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An African Dipterocarp. It is cited as occurring at Lake Lutamba, where the only remaining forest is contained within Litipo Forest Reserve (10 km²).	eng
34857	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Logging, clearing of the forest for agriculture and wood collection have taken place in the past and continue to put pressure on the reserve.	eng
34858	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From Nchisi Forest in Malawi to eastern Tanzania.	eng
34858	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is restricted to areas of moist forest at medium elevations.	eng
34859	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two forest guards are employed by the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project to prevent illegal activities.	eng
34859	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The East African form of a taxon also occurring as a distinct subspecies in Chirinda forest, Zimbabwe, and thereafter only in Madagascar. This subspecies is confined to a 4 km² patch of  forest contained within Kimboza Forest Reserve.	eng
34859	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest on limestone.	eng
34859	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The surrounding area is densely populated.	eng
34860	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety endemic to the West Usambara Mts.	eng
34860	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in moist semi-deciduous forest at elevations above 1,675 m.	eng
34861	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry montane forest shrub or small tree.	eng
34862	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Njombe, Udzungwa Mts. and Ukaguru.	eng
34862	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are restricted to areas of moist montane forest.	eng
34863	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A single population is known in the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34863	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
34864	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji and widespread throughout the archipelago.	eng
34864	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found at the edges of rocky shores and mangrove swamps or in dense forest up to 750 m.	eng
34864	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is prized for ship and canoe-building.	eng
34866	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the East Usambara Mts.	eng
34866	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree occurs in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
34867	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from low elevations in the East Usambara Mts. and at Lipindi  in Tanzania. The species also occurs in Mozambique.	eng
34867	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry forest tree.	eng
34868	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The type was collected at Kiwanda along the Sigi River in the East Usambara Mts.	eng
34868	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A poorly known tree recorded only from the type.	eng
34869	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forests are categorised as catchment forest reserves.	eng
34869	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Mbeya range and the nearby Mt. Rungwe.	eng
34869	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A scandent shrub or a small tree known only from moist montane forest.	eng
34869	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Fire is causing a decline in their extent in the Mbeya range.	eng
34870	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Distributed in the Shimba Hills, Rabai and Dzombo in south-east Kenya and parts of eastern Tanzania.	eng
34870	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A taxon of dry coastal forest.	eng
34870	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It has suffered from habitat degradation in much of its range.	eng
34871	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It ranges from Buda, Marenge, Shimba, Arabuko and Mangea in Kenya to areas of east and south-east Tanzania.	eng
34871	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A sometimes scrambling shrub or small tree from moist coastal forests.	eng
34872	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the Udzungwa Mts. at Sanje.	eng
34872	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to an area of moist montane forest.	eng
34873	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The East African member of this small tropical African genus. It is endemic to the North Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34873	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
34874	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from a few collections, this species is confined to the South Nguru Mts. There is also a collection from Kasigau in Kenya.	eng
34874	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Upper moist evergreen forest (1,200–2,000 m).	eng
34875	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Logging in the past has removed all valuable timbers and has now been banned.	eng
34875	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The entire population is restricted to Litipo Forest Reserve, which covers 10 km².	eng
34875	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is a unique, almost completely deciduous patch of coastal forest.	eng
34875	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	There is some pressure from pole and fuelwood collection inside the southern perimeter and also generally from the demand for land for the cultivation of cash crops in the surrounding area.	eng
34876	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This tree occurs at Luhomero.	eng
34876	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest at 1,750 m.	eng
34876	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
34877	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An Afromontane tree with an unusually disjunct distribution. The Cameroon subpopulations are Bamboutos Mts. (one collection in 1974), Ijim (one collection in 1996). The species may possibly be extinct in Cameroon now and survive only in Malawi and the Eastern Arc Mts. of Tanzania.	eng
34877	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Montane forest 1,500-2,100 m alt.	eng
34877	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest clearance.	eng
34878	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two forest guards, working under the Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project, are preventing illegal cutting and encroachment.	eng
34878	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A treelet known only from the Kimboza Forest Reserve, a 4 km²  patch of coastal forest at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.	eng
34878	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
34878	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest has already been cleared of valuable timber and planted with exotic timbers, of which a <em> Cedrela</em> species has become invasive. The surrounding area is densely populated and the demand for agricultural land is strong.	eng
34879	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the East Usambara Mts.	eng
34879	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Collected in an area of moist evergreen forest at 800 m.	eng
34879	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is known only from the type.	eng
34880	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The Mwanihana subpopulation is within a national park.	eng
34880	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A Tanzanian endemic. Two subpopulations are known, from the vicinity of Ifakara and at Mwanihana in the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34880	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
34880	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The habitat has declined rapidly in the past and is now widely taken over by agricultural land.	eng
34881	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to Arusha National Park, where it is confined to the Ngurdoto Crater to the east of Mt. Meru.	eng
34881	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry montane forest species.	eng
34882	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
34882	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in moist forest at medium elevation.	eng
34883	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety which is confined to the East Usambara Mts. The second variety is endemic to East Africa but widespread.	eng
34883	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
34883	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The habitat which has declined considerably in the past because of conversion to agricultural land.	eng
34884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in a range extending from Vohémar to Manakara.	eng
34884	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
34884	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest type is much reduced in extent.	eng
34885	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in the north-west and south-west in Antsiranana, and from Morondava to Toliary.	eng
34885	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In lowland areas of primary tropophilic forest, wooded savannah and clearings.	eng
34886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the south-west.	eng
34886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of tropophilic forest up to 600 m.	eng
34887	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Several protected areas fall within its distribution.	eng
34887	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous tree, widespread in western and northern Madagascar. Its distribution is estimated to be 200,000 km² (EOO).	eng
34887	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Confined to highly fragmented areas of native vegetation.	eng
34888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the north-west, the species occurs in Mahajanga, Port-Bergé, Mitsinjo, Ambilobe and also on the Comoros; further east on the mainland in Vohémas, Ambila and Mananjary.	eng
34888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are found in rainforest, along rivers, salt-water marshes and also in degraded forest.	eng
34888	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both habitat and trees have been heavily exploited.	eng
34889	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the east coast, the species occurs in three disjunct areas between Antalaha and Ambila.	eng
34889	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in sublittoral rainforest.	eng
34890	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area is protected.	eng
34890	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This subspecies has a very restricted distribution, confined to Potberg Mt. in De Hoop Nature Reserve in the southern Cape.	eng
34890	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It grows on the lower slopes and flats at the base of the mountain in fynbos in both sparse and dense isolated stands.	eng
34890	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is no evidence of a population decline, but frequent fires in the past may have had some impact. An estimated 2000 plants exist within an area of 15 km² (AOO).	eng
34890	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Invasion by alien pine trees and hakeas. Frequent fires could still pose a threat, as they may not allow sufficient time for plants to regenerate.	eng
34891	distribution	Güner, A., 1998	Restricted to the mountains in East Anatolia in Erzurum, Bingôl and Bitlis Provinces.	eng
34891	habitat	Güner, A., 1998	A tree of riverbanks, stream sides and swampy places.	eng
34892	habitat	Güner, A., 1998	This species is scattered in middle elevations in dry areas.	eng
34892	threats	Güner, A., 1998	Population numbers have been observed to decline through the effects of growing settlement and agriculture, pests and diseases and industrial development.	eng
34893	distribution	Güner, A., 1998	Has a restricted range.	eng
34893	habitat	Güner, A., 1998	Montane dry scrub and woodlands.	eng
34893	threats	Güner, A., 1998	The species is under some threat from grazing and cutting.	eng
34894	conservation	Güner, A. & Zielinski, J., 1998	Occurs within national park boundaries.	eng
34894	distribution	Güner, A. & Zielinski, J., 1998	A endemic to Hatila National Park.	eng
34899	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurring in beech forest.	eng
34899	population	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Recorded as a small tree, the species is known from very few adult plants.	eng
34899	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Seedlings and saplings are heavily browsed by deer and possums.	eng
34900	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	In the North Island only three localities are known and occurrences have been recorded from Nelson, Westland and Canterbury in the South Island.	eng
34900	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree with divaricating branches, found in lowland <em>kahikatea</em>/<em>matai</em> forest, frost flats and clearings.	eng
34900	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	There is evidence suggesting the species to be a poor competitor, suffering from the lack of periodic disturbance and sites available for recolonisation.	eng
34901	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest between 1,700 and 1,900 m.	eng
34901	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Taiwan the species has been found in a very restricted area to the north of the island in the boundary area between Taipei and Ilan Counties. The subpopulation here consists of fewer than 50 individuals.	eng
34902	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is endemic to the Kivu Plateau in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
34902	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in the transitional zone between forest and savannah between 1,000 and 1,350 m.	eng
34903	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single collection has been made of this subspecies.	eng
34904	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to a single area in south-east Tanzania.	eng
34904	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
34905	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Endemic to the island of New Guinea.	eng
34905	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This tree is scattered in lowland to midmontane primary and secondary forest.	eng
34905	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss is a potential threat to this species.	eng
34906	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A large, occasionally emergent, tree found growing in primary and evergreen forest.	eng
34906	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34907	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
34907	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This tree is quite common in primary and secondary forests.	eng
34907	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is potentially threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34908	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A rare, scattered timber tree primarily found in evergreen and primary forest along rocky coasts.	eng
34908	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is potentially threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34909	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is possibly a threat.	eng
34910	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest and swamp forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
34910	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This tree could be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34911	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree apparently confined to primary forest.	eng
34911	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
34912	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Occurring between 20 and 1,700 m, this tree is found in primary and secondary forest and in old wasteland.	eng
34912	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is a potential threat to the species.	eng
34913	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A shrub or small tree found in evergreen and secondary forest. It is an important ornamental species, commonly cultivated, especially the male specimens.	eng
34913	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The species' status in the wild remains unclear.	eng
34914	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Widespread in the Moluccas, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
34914	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This forest tree could soon be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
34915	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A taxonomically variable species endemic to Papua New Guinea.	eng
34915	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It occurs in rainforest from low to montane elevations.	eng
34915	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Potentially serious threats are posed by selective logging and conversion of forest to agriculture.	eng
34916	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A common species found scattered in primary and secondary evergreen forest on limestone.	eng
34916	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34917	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This shrub or tree is found in secondary forests along rivers and in coastal areas.	eng
34917	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat.	eng
34918	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Eastern Borneo.	eng
34918	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small, rheophytic tree confined to riverine forest on sandy soils.	eng
34918	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss poses a threat to the species.	eng
34919	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread small tree found up to 3,800 m.	eng
34920	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small, locally common tree found in lowland primary and coastal forests.	eng
34920	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction poses a threat to the species.	eng
34921	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found between 5 and 2,200 m in primary and secondary forest.	eng
34921	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
34922	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree of primary and secondary forest up to 2,570 m, often in periodically inundated areas.	eng
34922	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The main potential threat to the species is habitat destruction.	eng
34923	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, it is mainly restricted to the Central Province. It occurs also on the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia.	eng
34923	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree scattered in lowland coastal and monsoon forest, often in the transition zone between savannah woodland and lowland forest. In Papua New Guinea, it is mainly restricted to monsoon forest.	eng
34924	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has proved very difficult to cultivate.	eng
34924	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub known only from two localities near Mongarlowe in New South Wales.	eng
34924	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently 6 individuals remain and are genetically very similar.	eng
34925	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North Queensland and Papua New Guinea.	eng
34925	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A substage or canopy tree commonly found on forested ridges.	eng
34926	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population is monitored and propagation trials are under way.	eng
34926	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Wollemi pine was discovered in 1994 in Wollemi National Park. Although the genus is completely new, it is thought to be known from the Mesozoic fossil record.	eng
34926	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	It grows, probably with suckers, to a tall tree among various angiosperms along a small permanent stream at the bottom of a narrow sandstone canyon. Its long term ability to regenerate by seed in its present locality is unknown but seems doubtful due to competition with other trees.	eng
34926	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Considerably fewer than 50 mature individuals are known.	eng
34927	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a single population of about 20 plants is known to be relatively well protected within a state forest.	eng
34927	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in Childers District on the southern coast of Queensland.	eng
34927	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
34927	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is threatened because of habitat clearance.	eng
34928	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This understorey tree is fairly common in lowland primary and secondary forest up to 500 m.	eng
34928	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The main threat to the species is loss of habitat.	eng
34929	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Found in Queensland and is widespread in southern Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya; it is also found on the Aru Islands.	eng
34929	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	This tree.	eng
34930	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are protected populations in at least two nature reserves and two demarcated forests.	eng
34930	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.	eng
34930	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A coastal forest species confined to sandstone formations, usually found on forest margins.	eng
34930	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Very scarce and scattered in occurrence. It is not encountered as frequently as <em>E. erythrophylla</em> and regeneration appears to be poor, although the seed set is viable.	eng
34930	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In places, it is threatened by cutting for firewood and timber, and increasing settlement.	eng
34931	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are recorded populations within three nature reserves and a few demarcated forests.	eng
34931	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.	eng
34931	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A coastal forest species and attractive ornamental tree, confined to sandstone formations on forest margins and in the open on the banks and islands of some of the larger rivers.	eng
34931	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Locally common in places.	eng
34931	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Threats of increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber continue to put pressure on these remaining forest patches.	eng
34932	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A subpopulation is found in Mkambati Game Reserve and in demarcated forest reserves, although protection measures in the latter have largely collapsed since 1994.	eng
34932	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A palaeoendemic along the Transkei coast.	eng
34932	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to riverine forest patches in close proximity to, or overhanging the water. It grows in shallow acidic soils derived from sandstones.	eng
34932	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Initially, only three very small subpopulations were known, each containing between 10 and 15 plants. Additional subpopulations have since been found, the largest of which is near Port St John's where the species is described as locally common.	eng
34932	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	No seedlings have ever been recorded and, although plants flower prolifically, fruits are rarely seen.	eng
34933	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are populations in two provincial nature reserves and a local authority reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, also in a game reserve and a few demarcated forest areas in the Transkei.	eng
34933	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A Pondoland endemic in southern KwaZulu-Natal around Port Edward and in the eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape.	eng
34933	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to sandstone outcrops, as scattered single individuals on sandy soils among rocks on forest margins or streambanks.	eng
34933	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The few remaining patches of forest are under threat from cutting for firewood and timber, agricultural activities and coastal development.	eng
34934	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., Cloete, E., Abbott, T., Scott-Shaw, R. & Nichols, G., 1998	In KwaZulu-Natal, the species occurs in a number of protected areas, of which at least one is managed to exclude fire. In the Eastern Cape, there are subpopulations in several protected areas, but the protected area system has virtually collapsed since 1994.  The tree is also commonly planted as an ornamental.	eng
34934	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., Cloete, E., Abbott, T., Scott-Shaw, R. & Nichols, G., 1998	Largely occurring in KwaZulu-Natal but extending into the Eastern Cape.	eng
34934	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., Cloete, E., Abbott, T., Scott-Shaw, R. & Nichols, G., 1998	This species is found on the margins of small remnants of evergreen forest and on rocky sandstone outcrops, often near rivers and streams.	eng
34934	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., Cloete, E., Abbott, T., Scott-Shaw, R. & Nichols, G., 1998	Population numbers have almost certainly declined because of fire and other habitat disturbances.	eng
34934	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., Cloete, E., Abbott, T., Scott-Shaw, R. & Nichols, G., 1998	It is vulnerable to the effects of fire and other habitat disturbances. Although legally protected, the bark is widely used as a source of traditional medicine.	eng
34935	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in thicket vegetation on stony hill sides.	eng
34935	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species, for many years, was only known from the type locality. Three localities are now known. The species does not appear to be very abundant, but it is difficult to spot in the dense thickets where it grows. Habitat destruction may result in the species becoming fragmented and the subpopulations becoming isolated.	eng
34935	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Large tracts of the habitat have been cleared for agriculture, settlement and industrial development. Any developments at the type locality could seriously affect the species.	eng
34936	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Abbott, T., 1998	Although most of the localities are contained within protected areas, the degree of protection afforded to them varies greatly.	eng
34936	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Abbott, T., 1998	Highly scattered distribution in patches of coastal escarpment forest, from near Port St John's in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, northwards to Ngome forest in Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal. At present is known from only five localities within an area of 100 km².	eng
34936	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Abbott, T., 1998	Coastal escarpment forest; it appears to be associated with granite outcrops.	eng
34936	population	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Abbott, T., 1998	A very scarce tree.	eng
34936	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., Scott-Shaw, R. & Abbott, T., 1998	Uncontrolled activities, particularly cutting for firewood and timber, could rapidly result in the local demise of the species.	eng
34937	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	An unusual wild tobacco species confined to the Brandberg, Erongo and Spitzkuppe Mts. in northern Namibia. Occurs where there is some protection from human activities and browsing by livestock.	eng
34937	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	It occurs as a shrub or small tree of 2.5 m in very arid karroid shrubland in a semi-desert/desert environment, usually in inaccessible, shady areas between huge granite boulders.	eng
34937	population	Craven, P., 2004	Nothing is known about its reproductive strategy and few young plants have been seen. Cross-pollination between the isolated localities appears to be impossible, but there are no signs of any genetic decline.	eng
34937	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Although the species has a restricted range, and a disjunct distribution, no serious threats are known at present.	eng
34938	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs on the Drakensberg Escarpment near Barberton.	eng
34938	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Both populations are confined to dry summit ridges of schist hills in mixed savanna on serpentine soils.	eng
34938	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Only two subpopulations are known in low numbers.	eng
34938	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is no evidence of threats or population declines, but both subpopulations are on privately owned land and could easily be destroyed by any change in land-use.	eng
34939	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is protected in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Mkambati Game Reserve and several demarcated forest areas in the Transkei.	eng
34939	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape. The species has been recorded in fair numbers along several rivers in the Transkei.	eng
34939	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A willow-like tree found along streams and rivers. It is often associated with <em>Gymnosporia bachmannii</em> on the rocky banks and beds of rivers and streams, confined to sandstone outcrops.	eng
34939	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In Mkambati Game Reserve, the lack of effective protection, combined with rapid human population increases and proposed developments threaten this and many of the other sandstone endemics in the region. There are also threats from agricultural activities and increasing settlement in southern KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
34940	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree endemic to Pondoland in the Transkei in the area between the Mtentu River and Port St. Johns. It occurs in Mkambati Game Reserve and in a number of demarcated forests, which are no longer well protected.	eng
34940	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to the margins or understorey of evergreen coastal forest on sandstone outcrops.	eng
34940	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Under threat from increasing settlement, cutting for firewood and timber, agricultural activities and browsing by livestock.	eng
34941	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Transkei in the Eastern Cape.	eng
34941	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs on sandstone formations on dry evergreen forest margins on moister slopes or drainage lines.	eng
34941	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are small and very scattered, including those in two provincial reserves and on the margins of a number of demarcated forests in the Transkei.	eng
34941	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Transkei forests are no longer well-protected and the margins are particularly susceptible to increased disturbance from settlement, cutting for firewood and timber, and browsing by cattle and goats.	eng
34942	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	All the present localities are now in a strictly protected conservation area, with a clear management policy which controls the occurrence of fire and presence of alien invasives.	eng
34942	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is confined to the Kogelberg range.	eng
34942	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs on the upper south slopes in seeps growing in wet mountain fynbos.	eng
34942	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is usually encountered as single plants, although small subpopulations, never exceeding 100 individuals, are also known. There is a total of approximately 500 mature plants within an area of 10 km² (AOO). Subpopulations may have been more extensive in the past.	eng
34942	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations have declined because of frequent fires, to which the species is susceptible as it is a reseeder and takes eight years to reach maturity. The deliberate exclusion of fire for many years may not have had a totally beneficial effect because periodic fires are needed to ensure recruitment.	eng
34943	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Plants have been recorded from Mkuze Game Reserve and the species may also occur within Ndumu and Kosi Bay conservation areas.	eng
34943	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Northern Zululand and southern Mozambique.	eng
34943	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of mixed woodland and sand forests. It grows in deep sand on the Maputaland coastal plain within 60 km of the coast.	eng
34943	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Sand forest is under threat from cutting for firewood and timber. The area is also increasingly threatened by settlement and agricultural activities.	eng
34944	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Some plants are found in a national park and a few provincial and private nature reserves.	eng
34944	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found along the Suurberg inland from Port Elizabeth to the mountains around Grahamstown. Its extent of occurrence is only about 500 km². Most of the subpopulations occur on privately owned farms.	eng
34944	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree.  The species always occurs on outcrops of Witteberg quartzite in grassy fynbos.	eng
34944	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although there are threats from invasive alien species, especially wattles, and agricultural activities in places, there is no evidence of population declines.  This species is of potential ornamental interest.	eng
34945	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A large proportion of the subpopulations occur in protected areas.	eng
34945	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is found on the Kouga, Baviaanskloof and Willowmore mountain ranges. The area of occupancy is 6,300 km².	eng
34945	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mountain and grassy fynbos vegetation types. It grows on sandy slopes in soils derived from sandstone.	eng
34945	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Three major subpopulations have been discovered in the last five years, bringing the total number of subpopulations to nine, some of which comprise of more than 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
34945	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.	eng
34946	conservation	Craven, P., 2004	It is protected by forestry legislation and to a certain extent by the inaccessible terrain in which it occurs. If the new locality is confirmed, it will lie within a newly-formed conservancy.	eng
34946	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Damaraland, northern Namibia. There is possibly a new locality further to the east.	eng
34946	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	A species of very arid savannah, confined to dolomite mountain slopes.	eng
34946	threats	Craven, P., 2004	No evidence of serious threats at present, although fire is a potential threat.	eng
34947	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Umtamvuna River in southern KwaZulu-Natal and in a number of river valleys in the Port Shepstone area, including the Lusikisiki and Bizana Districts of the Transkei in the Eastern Cape.	eng
34947	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree growing among sandstone boulders on islands in river bed.	eng
34947	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In places it occurs in abundance.	eng
34947	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Susceptible to periodic flooding. The floods in 1978 destroyed most of the plants in the Umtamvuna River Valley, but the subpopulation was able to recover from the few remaining plants. Subpopulations are found in two provincial reserves and a number of demarcated forests, which are no longer strictly protected and under threat from increasing settlement and cutting for firewood and timber.	eng
34948	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There is considerable confusion in the literature about the identity of this taxon and its correct distribution. More recent accounts indicate that it is confined to the Eastern Cape but absent from KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga as recorded previously. Herbarium specimens are also misidentified and there is little field knowledge of the species.	eng
34949	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is recorded in two provincial nature reserves, a local authority reserve and a number of demarcated forests.	eng
34949	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the Pondoland area of the Eastern Cape.	eng
34949	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A coastal forest species confined to sandstone formations, usually found in rocky situations near streams or along the upper edge of sandstone cliffs.	eng
34949	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The nature reserves do not receive as much protection as they did prior to 1994, and they are increasingly being used as a source of firewood and timber. Some forest patches are also threatened by expanding settlement.	eng
34950	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Two of the extant subpopulations are healthy, with a range of size classes present; one is also contained within a national park and the other occurs in a local authority nature reserve.	eng
34950	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Along the Great Escarpment from Beaufort West in the east to near Sutherland in the west and northwards to Calvinia.	eng
34950	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A fynbos relic which occurs in karroid vegetation.	eng
34950	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Information from local farmers indicates that it was once very common along the edge of the escarpment. It was reduced to five remnant subpopulations. There is no evidence of any further declines in recent years.	eng
34950	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Being the only woody plant in the area, it was heavily used for firewood.	eng
34951	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Plants are abundant in the Umtiza Nature Reserve and show signs of good recruitment.	eng
34951	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found from East London to the Kentani District in southern Transkei.	eng
34951	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small, spiny shrub or evergreen tree, found in forests and thickets along river valleys in coastal areas.	eng
34951	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is locally abundant in places and has been recorded from six localities, but has almost certainly been lost from some of them.	eng
34951	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Losses have been incurred by habitat clearance for settlement, especially by the uncontrolled squatter camps in the East London area.  he recent collapse of effective conservation measures in the Eastern Cape is likely to lead to plundering of natural resources and habitat loss	eng
34952	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species can be found in several protected areas.	eng
34952	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern (mainly Transkei) parts of the Eastern Cape, where it can still be found in a large number of localities.	eng
34952	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A scrambling shrub or small tree found on forest margins and on cliff edges along coastal areas.	eng
34952	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Much of its habitat has been destroyed by agricultural activities and increasing settlement.  Provided most of the escarpment forest remains intact, there is no serious threat to this species. It has also been observed surviving successfully in areas which are subject to fairly intense browsing by cattle and goats.	eng
34953	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	No information can be traced on its precise distribution.	eng
34953	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	As no information can be traced on its precise distribution and abundance its conservation status must remain Data Deficient.	eng
34953	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A previous account by Prof. C. Stirton indicates that urban expansion, land drainage and dam building and frequent fires are major threats to the species.	eng
34954	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mainly found in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, but also in southern KwaZulu-Natal and in a disjunct subpopulation in Ngoye forest, northern KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
34954	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of coastal and riverine forest.	eng
34954	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is known from approximately six localities and does not seem to be common anywhere.	eng
34954	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although a number of localities are in demarcated forest reserves, these reserves have not been effectively protected since 1994. Many forest patches are under threat from people collecting firewood and timber and expanding settlements.	eng
34955	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A poorly known multi-stemmed species apparently confined to the lower Orange River Valley in the Goodhouse area of southern Namibia and the Northern Cape. It is recorded from at least three localities on non-perennial tributaries leading down to the Orange River.	eng
34955	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Karroid shrubland in a semi-desert environment.	eng
34955	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	At one locality only a few plants were seen, but all were healthy and flowering profusely. It is likely that this species occurs elsewhere and a field assessment is required to determine its conservation status.	eng
34955	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Mining activities in the area could pose a threat. One locality was beside a former main road between South Africa and Namibia.	eng
34956	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is known from a number of localities; it has not been found again at Ngoye forest, despite several searches and it is probably extinct at this locality; there are at least two plants in the Nqutu area; a single large tree, which is dying of old age, is in Umdoni Park; the largest number of trees are found in the remnant forest patches between the Msikaba and Umtamvuna Rivers.	eng
34956	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A palaeoendemic usually found on forest margins, both next to and away from stream banks. A few individuals have been recorded from within climax forest, but these were invariably very old and senescent.	eng
34956	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The total number of mature individuals is estimated to be less than 200.	eng
34956	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Regeneration from seed has not been recorded and plants in fruit are seldom recorded. This may be the result of the synchronised dichogamy, where male and female flowers are produced at different times. Their isolated occurrence then provides little chance of pollination.	eng
34957	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	More than 50% of the subpopulations are protected in nature reserves and there is no evidence for decline.	eng
34957	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to the Cape Peninsula, where it occurs from Table Mt. to Kommetjie. The larger dense subpopulations occur mainly on the Table Mt. and Constantiaberg ranges, with the southern Peninsula subpopulations being small and scattered.	eng
34957	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It grows on south-facing, damp, rocky  slopes in mountain <em>fynbos</em>.	eng
34957	population	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area of occupancy is only about 150 km² and the estimated population is 5,000 mature plants.	eng
34957	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Invasive alien species could pose a threat as scattered pine trees have been recorded from a number of localities. Frequent fires could also be a problem, as they may not allow the species sufficient time to regenerate from seed.	eng
34958	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A large subpopulation is protected in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and plants also occur in the Mkambati Game Reserve and a number of demarcated reserves in the Transkei.	eng
34958	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A Pondoland endemic found in remnant evergreen forest patches between Durban in KwaZulu-Natal and Port St John's in the Transkei, Eastern Cape. The species was previously confused with <em>M. acuminata</em> and could be more widespread than is currently known.	eng
34958	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in isolated groups as an understorey shrub or slender tree in coastal scarp forest, often on river banks.	eng
34958	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In two of the known localities, trees have been chopped down at an alarming rate for local use as firewood and timber and the habitat cleared for agriculture and settlement. Little protection is afforded to these forests in the Eastern Cape.	eng
34959	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in the Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and in a number of demarcated forest areas in the Transkei, which are no longer strictly protected.	eng
34959	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found in the Transkei, Eastern Cape, and southern KwaZulu-Natal, with a disjunct distribution in the Noodsberg area of KwaZulu-Natal and a very strange isolated occurrence on the Piketberg in the Western Cape.	eng
34959	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree, found mainly on forest margins. Many of the subpopulations occur on soils derived from sandstone.	eng
34959	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Habitat destruction through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement could pose a problem here, especially at forest margins.	eng
34960	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damiao Mt. in northern Guangxi, Rongjiang in south-east Guizhou, various mountain localities in Yunnan extending into Tibet and Myanmar.	eng
34960	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The taxon occurs in montane broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,400 and 1,500 m.	eng
34960	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It provides a useful timber and its exploitation as well as general habitat loss have caused considerable population declines. There is some concern that the androdioecious nature of the flowering system may be contributing to poor regeneration.	eng
34961	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species closely resembling <em>M. nitida</em> var. <em>nitida</em>, confined to Emei Mountain., where only male individuals have been found. It is unknown whether further localities and female individuals exist.	eng
34961	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
34961	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging appears to be continuing in the area and no special protection is yet in place to ensure that the population remains intact.	eng
34962	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed as Vulnerable (VU A1a) in Viet Nam, where it occurs mainly on the High Plateau in the central provinces.	eng
34962	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen broadleaved forest.	eng
34963	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very widespread tree endemic to China.	eng
34963	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It generally occurs in broadleaved deciduous forest up to 2,000 m.	eng
34963	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The rate of decline of forest and also the levels of bark-stripping of the tree have led to the species becoming rare outside cultivation.	eng
34964	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Previously considered to belong to a separate genus <em>Parakmeria</em>, this variety is scattered over parts of central and southern China and Taiwan.	eng
34964	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in broadleaved evergreen forest below 1,000 m.	eng
34964	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is thought to be scarcer now because of the affects of logging and habitat degradation.	eng
34965	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Caoguo Mt. and Nanchang Mt.	eng
34965	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested slopes between 1,300 and 1,550 m.	eng
34965	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from a single population, which consists of just seven mature individuals.	eng
34965	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No effective protective measures are in place and the area is open to cutting and clearance. Regeneration is non-existent.	eng
34966	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered occurrences are known from Hainan Island, southern Yunnan and south-west Guangxi.	eng
34966	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	They are restricted to remaining areas of lowland monsoon forest.	eng
34966	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland monsoon forests have been severely reduced by high rates of habitat clearance and logging.	eng
34967	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extending from southern China to northern Viet Nam.	eng
34967	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is relatively widespread in lowland moist forest.	eng
34967	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mature trees are said to be only rarely encountered.	eng
34967	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Population declines have occurred because of extensive logging and habitat clearance.	eng
34969	conservation	Güner, A. & Zielinski, J., 1998	The site has been declared a nature reserve.	eng
34969	distribution	Güner, A. & Zielinski, J., 1998	A recently described shrub known from just a single locality in the Kadincik Valley north of Mersin.	eng
34969	population	Güner, A. & Zielinski, J., 1998	About 100 individuals have been estimated to exist in an area of one hectare within the grounds of a dam.	eng
34970	distribution	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	It has a restricted range in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, extending into Uganda.	eng
34970	population	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	A difficult species to identify and apparently uncommon.	eng
34971	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	The best known subpopulation occurs in Gawen Gorge, near Hobyo. Other subpopulations are thought to exist.	eng
34971	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Bushland.	eng
34971	population	Thulin, M., 1998	The best known subpopulation is observed to have fewer than 10 individuals.	eng
34971	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Although few pressures threaten this population, it remains unprotected.	eng
34972	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From eastern Tanzania and Zanzibar just into Somalia. The type variety occurs from Sudan to Natal and differs in having hairy fruit.	eng
34972	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A riverine forest tree, occurring in coastal areas.	eng
34972	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is threatened by localised habitat degradation.	eng
34973	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subpopulation is known from Rungwe in Tanzania and further south in  Mozambique up to the mouth of the Zambesi River.	eng
34973	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to remnants of moist lowland and submontane coastal forest,	eng
34973	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A poorly known taxon, locally relatively common.	eng
34974	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	A species endemic to Mozambique.	eng
34974	population	Bandeira, S., 1998	The extent of the population and its status are not known.	eng
34976	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Occurring mainly in central Mozambique. Subpopulations may also exist in southern Malawi.	eng
34976	habitat	Bandeira, S., 1998	Areas of lowland forest.	eng
34976	threats	Bandeira, S., 1998	This species is severely threatened by the decline in quality and conversion of its habitat for agricultural purposes.	eng
34977	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Two collections of this species were made from northern parts of Mozambique 30 years ago, one from the Reserva Florestal  do Mucheve.	eng
34977	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in thicket on sandy soils and termite hills.	eng
34978	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Ngami valley.	eng
34978	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Open woodland.	eng
34978	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen, collected in 1941.	eng
34979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.	eng
34979	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is restricted to lowland rainforest in alluvial valleys.	eng
34980	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Solomon Islands.	eng
34980	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
34981	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Viti Levu in Fiji.	eng
34981	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of open forest, often near streams, below 100 m.	eng
34981	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree has been recorded rarely.	eng
34982	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender tree, endemic to Fiji.	eng
34982	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the two collections: the type was gathered from Viti Levu in 1840 and the second collection was from Vanua Levu in 1950.	eng
34985	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mostly occurring in dry or open forests.	eng
34985	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the most abundant trees on Fiji.	eng
34985	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Larger trees are considered useful as a timber.	eng
34986	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely distributed, collections have been made from eight islands, extending eastwards into the Lau Group.	eng
34986	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree occurring in open forest or on open slopes.	eng
34987	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been well collected in Viti Levu, Kandavu, Ngau and Vanua Levu.	eng
34987	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense forest between 90 and 900 m.	eng
34988	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on the islands of  Viti Levu, Ovalau, Vanua Levu and Taveuni.	eng
34988	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in dense forest and secondary forest.	eng
34989	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Ovalau.	eng
34989	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dense hill forest.	eng
34990	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread endemic tree to Fiji.	eng
34990	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland dense forest.	eng
34990	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood provides a useful timber.	eng
34991	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An inadequately known tree, similar to the type variety and collected only once from Rewa Province, Viti Levu.	eng
34992	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only with certainty from Vanua Levu in Mathuata Province.	eng
34992	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected from forest near creeks on the lower slopes of mountains.	eng
34993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on four of the high islands.	eng
34993	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in dense forest along creeks, rivers and their tributaries.	eng
34993	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected frequently.	eng
34994	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji, it has been collected from five of the high islands.	eng
34994	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in dense forest and forest patches in open country.	eng
34995	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Taveuni.	eng
34995	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of dense forest between 700 and 900 m.	eng
34995	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known from the type collection, dated 1934.	eng
34996	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Fijian endemic known from the type collection on Viti Levu and five collections from Vanua Levu.	eng
34996	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in dense or secondary forest, forest patches in open country, or on forested crests.	eng
35000	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji.	eng
35000	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender or spreading tree, occurring in dense forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
35001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on the two largest islands.	eng
35001	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dense forest or forest patches in open countryside, occurring up to 1,200 m.	eng
35002	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to the Mt. Evans range on Viti Levu, where it is known from the type locality and two collections.	eng
35002	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Crest thickets between 760 and 850 m.	eng
35003	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on five of the high islands.	eng
35003	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which is locally abundant in forest and thickets along streams.	eng
35004	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or slender tree, known only from southern Viti Levu.	eng
35004	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested areas at elevations of 50-429 m.	eng
35006	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji.	eng
35006	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Can be found in abundance at elevations up to 1,195 m in areas of dense, open or secondary forest, in thickets and in open, rocky sites.	eng
35006	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the most abundant species of the genus on these islands. It is known to occur on at least nine islands.	eng
35008	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to Fiji and known from eight islands.	eng
35008	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender tree, it can be found in several habitats, especially on the larger islands. It occurs from near sea level to the highest point at the summit of Mt. Tomaniivi, in dense, dry, or open forest, in the forest-grassland transition or in dense crest thickets.	eng
35008	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally the leaves and fruit are used as both poisons and medicines.	eng
35009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from Mbua Province, Vanua Levu.	eng
35009	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No record has been made of the species since the type collection, which was gathered in 1878.	eng
35010	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Fiji, the species is known definitely from seven islands.	eng
35010	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring below 250 m in dense or dry forests.	eng
35010	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is considered to be of commercial value.	eng
35011	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread endemic tree of Fiji, occurring on five or six islands.	eng
35011	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in open, dense or dry forest, sometimes along rocky coasts.	eng
35011	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood provides a useful timber.	eng
35012	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring relatively infrequently on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.	eng
35012	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree of rocky slopes.	eng
35013	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree with a wide distribution, occurring on five Fijian islands.	eng
35013	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of dense forest, forest edges and forested ridges.	eng
35013	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The hard wood may have commercial value.	eng
35014	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected numerous times from 10 Fijian islands but it is expected to occur on most of the high islands in Fiji.	eng
35014	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most frequently a tree but sometimes a shrub, this newly described species occurs in dense, open and secondary forest types, also thickets and infrequently on rocky coastlines.	eng
35015	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known to occur from south-west Nigeria to Gabon.	eng
35015	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A swamp forest tree.	eng
35015	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Appears to be rare.	eng
35015	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most parts of the range have suffered large-scale declines in its habitat because of logging and the demand for land for cultivation.	eng
35016	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation is needed.	eng
35016	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is known only from a population confined to marshland at Le Petrin.	eng
35016	population	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Although the plants appear to flower and fruit regularly, no regeneration has been observed. The species has not been successfully brought into cultivation. The population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals occupying a range of less than 100 km²	eng
35016	threats	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Invasive competitors and habitat removal for roads. It is in a very degraded area and no regeneration has been observed	eng
35018	conservation	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
35018	distribution	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	Only ten individuals of this species have been seen in Mauritius recently (1995 onwards) while it may be extinct in Reunion. In Mauritius the species has recently been seen at the top of the Tourelle du Tamarin (six individuals) and at Yemen (Gobert: one individual; Grosse Roches: three individuals).	eng
35018	habitat	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	Grows on exposed mountain slopes on rocky sclerophyllous woodland where  rainfall averages 1-2 m annually.	eng
35018	threats	Allet, M. & Strahm, W., 2000	There has been loss of habitat due to competition with invasive plants as well as clearing for deer ranching. Also the destruction of the fruits and seeds by introduced monkeys is a major problem.	eng
35019	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	Attempts at layering have been unsuccessful. Field surveys need to be done in appropriate habitat.	eng
35019	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	The known plant at Bonnefin was extinct in 1996. More field work need to be done to find any existing individual. Formerly eight individuals were known at Grotte Bonnefin near curepipe and a solitary plant in river reserves near La Marie (Flore des Mascareignes).	eng
35019	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	River banks and marshlands on the highlands of the central plateau.	eng
35019	population	Florens, D., 2000	No plants have been seen since the last plant at Bonnefin was lost in 1995 due to disease. It is possible that the species survives in areas which have not been surveyed.	eng
35019	threats	Florens, D., 2000	Habitat removal induced by human settlement and agriculture. No germinating seeds or young plants has been found.	eng
35020	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
35020	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from dry forests located between Bourail and Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 197 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 52 km².	eng
35020	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35020	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is not known. When present, the species is never abundant and is typically observed as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
35020	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35021	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in three protected areas. It has also been planted in one <em>ex situ</em> site.	eng
35021	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forest. Its southestern locality is in Paita; it is then found from la Foa to Pouembout with gaps in its distribution as large as 46 and 86 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,154 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 84 km².	eng
35021	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <br/><br/>This species doesn't seem to be as affected by this habitat destruction as other <em>Diospyros</em> species can be. In fact, it shows pioneer characteristics and a good regeneration capacity in case of moderate disturbances. This species can be common along roads and on the edges of slightly disturbed dry forests where it probably plays an important role of cicatrization and recolonization.	eng
35021	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. The subpopulations located between Bourail and Pouembout are vigorous but the species becomes rare and scattered in the southern part of its distribution.	eng
35021	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. If <em>D. minimifolia</em> can show pioneer characteristics and a good regeneration capacity in case of moderate disturbance, it can't regenerate in the face of multiple disturbances (repeated fire and clearings).	eng
35022	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area. It is grown from seeds in the Institut Agronomique Calédonien (IAC).	eng
35022	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is present in Noumea, Paita, Boulouparis, Poya and Pouembout. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north): 57, 99, 20 and 23 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,913 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².	eng
35022	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35022	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. This species is recorded from seven distinct locations in a fragmented habitat. When present, it can be locally common then totally absent from adjacent areas.	eng
35022	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35023	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas. This population is healthy with a good level of regeneration in one of the reserves, but there is not a single recruit in the other. Twentytwo juveniles have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in a reserve near Noumea.	eng
35023	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is mostly known from the Poya-Pouembout region where it can be locally common in preserved dry forest. Some subpopulations are also mentioned between Boulouparis and Paita.	eng
35023	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35023	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is not known. When present, this species can be scarce or common usually depending on the protection status of the site. In fact, it can show abundant regeneration when protected from cattle and deer grazing.	eng
35023	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35024	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is located on a private land. The owner has been informed of the critical conservation status of the species. The species need to be cultivated <em>ex situ</em>.	eng
35024	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from a single patch of 21 ha of degraded dry forest located in Paita region (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.2 km²). This patch is located on a private land except for the "50 géometric steps" belonging to the State's public maritim domain.	eng
35024	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35024	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population of adult trees may be of no more than a couple of dozen individuals. It had been estimated at 20 individuals but a recent trail (created by bulldozers) through the middle of the population may have destroyed a large part of it. Dry forests surrounding the only known location of <em>D. veillonii</em> are well known; they have been surveyed (unsuccessfully) for this species and there seems very little hope that it will be found in any other location.	eng
35024	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The presence of this species on a very small private piece of forest makes it difficult to protect. The population has already been dramatically reduced by the opening of a bulldozer-constructed trail that crosses the population and has felled several of these trees. The land, which currently is empty, will soon become a permanent residence. The owner has been informed of the presence of this rare species on his land and he seems willing to take some care of it. Still the conservation of <em>D. veillonii</em> in the wild is entirely dependant on the land-owner. The site holds a large population of the Rusa deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>). This deer was introduced in the 1880s and has adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damages to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems.	eng
35025	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) has financed a fence to prevent cattle, wild deer and pigs to come in, thus providing a safer environment for this and other species. A restoration program is underway with 2,500 individual trees planned to be planted in 2007 inside the fenced area in order to help natural regeneration colonizing all the open areas of this degraded patch.	eng
35025	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from a single location in Poya. The area is a small (36 ha) private residual dry forest surrounded by pastures, and it has been partly fenced (14 ha) for protection against cattle, deer and wild pigs. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.36 km².	eng
35025	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35025	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In its unique locality of occurrence, this species is common and the population of adult trees may be of more than a hundred individuals, homogeneously distributed over the forest.	eng
35025	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The population was split into two when the reserve was fenced. The population located inside the fence is vigorous and regenerates well. The other population, located outside the reserve, is still impacted by grazing and trampling by cattle, wild deer and pigs.	eng
35026	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in three protected areas.	eng
35026	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast, however today it is recorded from Noumea, Paita, Bourail, Pouembout and Koumac with gaps in the distribution as large as 125 and 92 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,474 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 44 km².	eng
35026	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including on calcareous substrate). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35026	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. When present, this species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals. Little regeneration is observed for this species.	eng
35026	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35027	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to a few locations.	eng
35027	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Sclerophyllous woodlands.	eng
35027	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has experienced the severe reduction and fragmentation of its habitat. It remains ineffectively protected and threatened by fire, grazing and encroaching agriculture.	eng
35028	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area.	eng
35028	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it has a disjunct distribution. It is mentioned from Bourail, Nepoui, Pouembout and Kaala-Gomen. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north) 42, 26 and 73 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,368 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 48 km².	eng
35028	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal and calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35028	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown but when present, this species occurs as rare and isolated individuals.	eng
35028	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35029	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is known from only a few locations.	eng
35029	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of sclerophyllous forest.	eng
35029	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Its habitat is severely threatened by fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture.	eng
35030	conservation	Suprin, B., 2004	Propagation of cuttings has failed. <br/> <br/>A steady survey of maturation of fruits have lead to punctual collects. Germination of seeds has been obtained in both nursery and laboratory. Seedlings will be educated in nursery in order to reintroduce the species in Lepredour Island, or to translocate it on surrounding sites (e.g., Pointe Maa, Montagnès peninsula). Before this time, actions of protection of the adult trees have been undertaken, in order to avoid damage from rats (on seeds) or deer (on trunk). At a larger scale, contacts have been taken with local authorities in order to protect the whole remnants of the forest of Lepredour. <br/> <br/><em>P. tanianum</em> is expected to be saved of extinction, and furthermore might be utilized as an ornamental species in gardens of Noumea.  <br/> <br/>All concerned by the precariousness of this type of forest, nine institutions have joined their efforts since 2001 : State of France, New Caledonia Territory, Northern Province, Southern Province, Agronomic Institute of New Caledonia (IAC), Research Institute for Development (IRD), University of New Caledonia (UNC), Centre of Initiation to Environment (CIE), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF). They gave birth to the Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle-Calédonie, which covers several programs, dealing with studies or experimentations, actions of protection, and formation or communication. The Program is placed under the responsibility of a coordinator which is based in Kone, in the northern part of New Caledonia.	eng
35030	distribution	Suprin, B., 2004	The species was first discovered in 1988 from two specimens on the island of Leprédour.	eng
35030	habitat	Suprin, B., 2004	Occurs in sclerophyllous forest.	eng
35030	population	Suprin, B., 2004	Five years after its discovery both known individuals died, one because the surrounding soil had eroded away.  <br/> <br/>In 2002, a single tree was rediscovered. Two additional mature trees were located in the months that followed the initial rediscovery. It is possible that further trees may be found, however, very little of the original forest habitat remains and much of this is still under severe threat.	eng
35030	threats	Suprin, B., 2004	Only about 1–2% of the initial area of sclerophyll forest is still maintained in New Caledonia, mainly because of high pressure from wild fires and clearing for husbandry. The forest is very fragmented, with islands not larger than a few tens of hectares, and the forest understorey is often invaded by shrubs or lianas and damaged through browsing by cattle and deer. The forest remnants where <em>P. tanianum</em> occurs total about 5 ha and are impacted by deer.	eng
35031	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in three protected areas. Moreover, more than 250 young produced from seeds have been planted in the course of restoration programmes.	eng
35031	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is found in dry forests from Noumea to Koumac.	eng
35031	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35031	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. It has been recorded from 16 different sites where the species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals.	eng
35031	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35032	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Region of Nouméa.	eng
35032	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species confined to a restricted area of sclerophyllous forest.	eng
35032	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Fires, grazing and encroaching agriculture are continual problems and have caused a severe reduction in the habitat.	eng
35033	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is not present in any protected area.	eng
35033	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been common all along west coast. It is now present from Paita to Pouembout, with gaps in the distribution as large as 102 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,450 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 68 km².	eng
35033	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35033	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown but this species is never common when present.	eng
35033	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35034	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Once known from the Caves of Hienghène.	eng
35034	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has not been found since 1871. It is questionable whether it should not now be considered extinct.	eng
35036	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species once collected from an area north-east of La Conception near Nouméa.	eng
35036	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It has not been found since 1869 despite this being the botanically best known region of Grand Terre.	eng
35037	distribution	Wiles, G., 1998	Endemic to the island of Rota.	eng
35037	habitat	Wiles, G., 1998	The species is scattered in moist forest on limestone.	eng
35037	population	Wiles, G., 1998	There have been no recent surveys but the population certainly contains fewer than 100 or possibly 50 trees, confined to an area of 15 km².	eng
35037	threats	Wiles, G., 1998	Lack of regeneration is a serious problem but the causes are unknown.	eng
35038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extending from Egypt through Arabia into southern Iraq.	eng
35038	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An important component of and often the sole tree species in desert wadis and hilly areas.	eng
35038	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is very vulnerable to overcutting and overgrazing and appears to have become extinct in Kuwait. In the Negev Desert in Israel mortality rates have been observed to be as high as 60%, largely because road building has cut off vital river beds. In other areas, such as the northern mountains of Oman, populations are well established and not threatened.	eng
35039	conservation	Hess, W.J., 1998	Contained within a national forest.	eng
35039	distribution	Hess, W.J., 1998	Three localities of this species are known, two of them having been discovered recently in central-west Arkansas.	eng
35039	habitat	Hess, W.J., 1998	Open glades and shrubland.	eng
35039	population	Hess, W.J., 1998	The subpopulations are small, each numbering less than 500, but stable.	eng
35040	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is hoped the species is conserved in the protected area of Maxwell's Hills. The collection from Perak possibly comes from these hills.	eng
35040	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected once in Perak and once in Pahang.	eng
35040	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
35040	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A very rare species, collected only twice.	eng
35041	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations occur on Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Huka.	eng
35042	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A species originally known from Nuku Hiva.	eng
35043	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been recorded only from Fatu Hiva.	eng
35044	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been recorded only from Nuku Hiva.	eng
35045	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been recorded only from Tahiti.	eng
35046	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are known from Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.	eng
35047	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is widespread on the islands of Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata, Ua Huka and Ua Pou in the Marquesas.	eng
35048	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Rapa Iti.	eng
35049	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35050	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.	eng
35051	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35052	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35053	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Raiatea and Tahaa.	eng
35054	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35055	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic of Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35056	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to the Society Islands. It occurs relatively commonly on Tahiti and less abundantly on Huahine, Moorea and Raiatea.	eng
35056	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree.	eng
35057	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. It occurs in small subpopulations on Fatu Hiva, Hatutaa, Hiva Oa, Mohotani, Nuku Hiva, Tahuata and Ua Pou.	eng
35058	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. This one is endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35059	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. The subpopulations of this taxon are confined to the Tubuai Group, on the islands of Raivavae, Rurutu and Tubuai.	eng
35060	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of four varieties found on various island groups in French Polynesia. Small subpopulations are recorded from the islands of Agakauitai, Akamaru, Kamaka, Mangareva, Taravai in the Gambier Islands and Anaa in the Tuamotus.	eng
35063	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic of Raiatea.	eng
35064	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Only known from the island of Rapa Iti.	eng
35064	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree or shrub.	eng
35064	population	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are stable and under no threat.	eng
35065	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Raiatea and Tahiti, where the species is most seriously threatened.	eng
35066	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Raivavae and Tubuai.	eng
35067	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35068	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Rapa Iti.	eng
35068	population	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.	eng
35069	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
35070	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.	eng
35071	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is confined to Rapa Iti.	eng
35071	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	Occurring on hill ridges.	eng
35071	population	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.	eng
35072	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations occur on Moorea and Tahiti, where the species is most seriously threatened.	eng
35073	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35074	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations occur on Raiatea and Tahaa.	eng
35075	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Known only from the Tubuai Islands, the species is recorded from Raivavae, Rurutu and Tubuai.	eng
35076	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35078	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Populations occur on Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35079	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raivavae.	eng
35080	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35081	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35082	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Rapa.	eng
35083	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35084	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Mangareva.	eng
35085	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raivavae.	eng
35087	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Hiva Oa and Tahuata.	eng
35088	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Makatea.	eng
35089	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of four subspecies. This taxon occurs in the Tubuai and Tuamotu Groups, subpopulations having been recorded from the islands Raivavae, Rurutu, Tubuai in the Tubuais and Anaa in the Tuamotus.	eng
35090	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This subspecies is known from relatively common occurrences on most of the Marquesas Islands and also on Makatea in the Tuamotus.	eng
35091	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species occurs relatively commonly on the islands of Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.	eng
35092	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Originally known from Moorea.	eng
35092	population	Florence, J., 1998	An extinct species.	eng
35093	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to the Tubuai Group, the subspecies is recorded only from the islands of Raivave and Tubuai. The latter subpopulation is poorly known.	eng
35094	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Recorded from the island of Tubuai in the Tubuai Group and from Raiatea and Tahiti in the Society Islands.	eng
35094	population	Florence, J., 1998	Little is known about the subpopulations of this species.	eng
35095	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35096	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Fatu Hiva.	eng
35097	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Fatu Hiva.	eng
35098	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahuata.	eng
35099	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Hiva Oa.	eng
35100	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Rapa.	eng
35101	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Rapa.	eng
35101	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or tree.	eng
35102	conservation	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been propagated at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. in the USA.	eng
35102	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Only recorded from the Marquesas, the species is found in small subpopulations on the islands of Eiao, Hatutaa, Hiva Oa, Mohotani and Nuku Hiva.	eng
35102	population	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations on Eiao and Hatutaa are in a notably critical state.	eng
35103	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35103	population	Florence, J., 1998	The Tahitian subpopulation is notably threatened.	eng
35104	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are known from Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35105	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35106	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Raiatea.	eng
35107	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35108	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	In the Marquesas the species is confined to Nuku Hiva. In the Society Islands, subpopulations are recorded from Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35108	population	Florence, J., 1998	The Raiatea subpopulation is Critically Endangered.	eng
35109	population	Florence, J., 1998	Little is known about the subpopulation on Raivavae, but on Rurutu the species is in a critical state.	eng
35110	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are restricted to Rapa Iti.	eng
35110	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A glabrous tree with a fragrant wood.	eng
35110	population	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are not thought to be under any threat.	eng
35110	threats	Florence, J., 1998	It is not thought to be under any threat.	eng
35111	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A species which has been recorded only from Rimatara Island in the Tubuai Group.	eng
35112	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species has been recorded from Matotea and Maunganui on the island of Raivavae in the Tubuai Group.	eng
35113	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
35114	population	Florence, J., 1998	Although little is known about the subpopulations on Rapa, the species is in a critical state on the islands of Raivavae and Tubuai.	eng
35115	population	Florence, J., 1998	Little is known about the subpopulation on Tubuai, but the species is critically threatened on the island of Raivavae.	eng
35117	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea and Raiatea.	eng
35118	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Hiva Oa.	eng
35119	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Nuku Hiva.	eng
35120	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35121	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35122	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Raiatea.	eng
35123	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
35124	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Huahine, Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
35125	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
35126	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
35127	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahuata.	eng
35128	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
35129	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Moorea.	eng
35130	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
35131	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Raivavae.	eng
35132	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Rapa.	eng
35133	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are recorded on Nuku Hiva and Ua Pou.	eng
35134	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or small tree which is known only from the island of Raiatea in the Society Group.	eng
35135	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The rarer of two varieties of the species occurring on Tahiti. This taxon is also recorded from Moorea.	eng
35136	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	As with var. <em>glabrata</em>, the taxon is confined to the island of Raiatea.	eng
35137	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Restricted to Lanyu Island.	eng
35137	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	The species occurs in lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
35137	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	The population appears to be healthy.	eng
35137	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The population is unprotected and under considerable threat from the expansion of housing and agriculture in the area.	eng
35138	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Taroko National Park, Hualien, eastern Taiwan.	eng
35138	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A species localised in wooded limestone areas.	eng
35138	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	There is some threat from mining activities and regeneration does not appear to be good.	eng
35139	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	Little regeneration is evident. No protection or conservation measures are in place.	eng
35139	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Occurring in the eastern part of the island.	eng
35139	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	This shrub or small tree is found in small fragmented subpopulations in lowland dry deciduous scrub.	eng
35139	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The loss of habitat has been severe, caused mainly by increasing land settlement.	eng
35140	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Central mountain range.	eng
35140	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	This species is confined to coniferous scrub at elevations above 2,400 m.	eng
35140	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Subpopulations are fragmented and suffering from poor regeneration.	eng
35142	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Confined to a few isolated populations in the region of Hsinchu and Taitung.	eng
35142	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
35142	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	Once widely scattered, the species has become scarce.	eng
35142	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	The future prospects of its survival are poor as regeneration is severely hampered by the use of the tree as a rootstock in citrus plantations and by the extensive loss of habitat.	eng
35143	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	The Kenting National Park covers the entire range.	eng
35143	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Known only from the Nanjenshan area in the Hengchun Peninsula.	eng
35143	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
35143	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	The species occurs in very small and isolated populations.	eng
35143	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Little regeneration is evident and the expansion of housing developments has caused declines in the habitat.	eng
35144	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	None of the subpopulations are protected.	eng
35144	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Only a few small subpopulations are known in areas of at Lienhunchi in the centre of Taiwan.	eng
35144	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Lowland broadleaved forest.	eng
35144	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	There is little evidence of regeneration.	eng
35145	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Taiwan subpopulations are few and restricted to isolated localities in Chingshuishan and Bashienshan. Information is needed on the subpopulation in Japan.	eng
35145	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Broadleaved submontane forest.	eng
35145	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	They are unprotected and regenerating poorly.	eng
35146	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are scattered over a relatively wide range.	eng
35146	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A tree of low to mid-elevation broadleaved forest.	eng
35147	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Ranging from Ghana to Cameroon.	eng
35147	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A wet evergreen forest tree.	eng
35147	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	The species habitat has declined because of mining and logging activities and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
35148	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea.	eng
35148	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Confined to wet evergreen forest.	eng
35148	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This species has experienced general losses in habitat caused by mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
35149	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	The species range is confined to the valley between Hualien and Taitung on the eastern side of the island.	eng
35149	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Shrubs are common in scrub along river banks and on lowland plains on sandy soils.	eng
35149	population	Pan, F.J., 1998	No large individuals are found in the wild.	eng
35149	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Exploitation of the plant both for commercial trade and at a local level has led to population declines. Field surveys indicate that seedlings are scattered and few. No conservation or protection measures are in place.	eng
35150	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Found mainly in Ghana, possibly extending into Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
35150	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A small tree of wet evergreen forest.	eng
35150	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This forest has declined in extent because of the effects of mining, logging and the establishment of commercial plantations.	eng
35151	distribution	Hawthorne, W., 1998	Upper Guinea region.	eng
35151	habitat	Hawthorne, W., 1998	A species confined to the restricted areas where wet evergreen forest remains.	eng
35151	threats	Hawthorne, W., 1998	This habitat has been lost from the sites where mining, logging and commercial forestry have occurred.	eng
35152	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is relatively wide-ranging from Ghana to Gabon.	eng
35152	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey shrubby tree restricted to but locally abundant in wet evergreen forest.	eng
35152	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mining, logging and other forestry activities, particularly in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon, have caused the general decline and degradation of these forests.	eng
35153	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
35153	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in 1991. It is known only from the site of discovery in Kalalau Valley in Napali Coast State Park on Kauai. The genus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is only known from species which are Extinct or Critically Endangered.	eng
35153	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing on cliff walls in montane rainforest.	eng
35153	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only four trees have been found.	eng
35153	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threats to the population come from feral goats and pigs and invasive plants.	eng
35154	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species may be divided into two varieties, vars. <em>californica</em> and <em>hindsii</em>, both endemic to California. Walnut forest is a much fragmented and declining habitat. There are just two or three stands remaining of var. <em>hindsii</em>, although it is widely naturalised in parts of California and was formerly cultivated as a rootstock for <em>J. regia</em>, with which it readily hybridizes.	eng
35154	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threatened in several counties by urbanisation, grazing and possibly by the lack of natural reproduction.	eng
35156	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from Fresno County.	eng
35156	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland.	eng
35157	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
35157	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii.	eng
35157	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species scattered mainly in dry forest on lava flows up to 1,740 m.	eng
35157	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At least 11 populations are said to remain on four of the islands, amounting to over 250 individuals. The majority of them are found on Hawaii at Puuwaawaa and Pohakuloa and areas in between.	eng
35157	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Competition with alien plants and feral and domesticated grazers continues to put pressure on the remaining subpopulations.	eng
35158	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species which is endemic to northern Somalia.	eng
35158	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat degradation.	eng
35159	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Known only from central Somalia.	eng
35159	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	This small tree is restricted to <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland in limestone areas.	eng
35159	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Large-scale charcoal production is causing the loss and degradation of the habitat.	eng
35160	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Known only from north-eastern Somalia. It occurs in an area less than 20,000 km².	eng
35160	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A tree of exposed limestone ridges in low vegetation.	eng
35160	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Its habitat continues to be degraded and destroyed by overgrazing and overcutting.	eng
35161	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	South of Beled Weyne.	eng
35161	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A shrubby spreading tree known only from <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on limestone.	eng
35161	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	This habitat is vulnerable to degradation.	eng
35162	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Endemic to south-west Somalia.	eng
35162	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	It occurs in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland, usually in shallow soil over limestone.	eng
35162	population	Thulin, M., 1998	Numerous trees were recorded in 1990 in the south-west, where the species is endemic.	eng
35162	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat destruction because of charcoal production and overgrazing  is a continuing threat.	eng
35163	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	In a small area in the south-west of Somalia.	eng
35163	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	This species is confined to bushland on sand over limestone.	eng
35163	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is under pressure from degradation and overcutting for charcoal production.	eng
35164	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Only a few localities are known in central and southern Somalia, in the Ogaden in Ethiopia and a small area in north-east Kenya.	eng
35164	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	<em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland.	eng
35164	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland habitat is vulnerable to overcutting for charcoal production and the expansion of agricultural activities.	eng
35165	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Only a few localities where this species occurs are known. All are confined to northern and central Somalia.	eng
35165	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Bushland.	eng
35165	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Bushland habitat is vulnerable to  degradation.	eng
35166	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Relatively wide-ranging, the species is found in central eastern parts of Kenya, central and southern Somalia and Sidamo in Ethiopia.	eng
35166	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In some areas the habitat is vulnerable to degradation from agricultural expansion and charcoal production.	eng
35167	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Scattered in central Somalia and adjacent parts of Ethiopia, the species is not widely spread.	eng
35168	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	South of Dhurbo in north-east Somalia.	eng
35168	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A small tree known only from a limestone escarpment, vegetated with sparse low bushes.	eng
35168	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The area is vulnerable to degradation.	eng
35169	conservation	Thulin, M., 1998	The population is unprotected but local inhabitants are aware of its uniqueness.	eng
35169	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Most specimens have been found in the vicinity of El Ellan.	eng
35169	population	Thulin, M., 1998	In the last 10 years fewer than 10 individuals have been found. Although the true population size is likely to be greater, the tree and its habitat are threatened.	eng
35169	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Overcutting and grazing.	eng
35170	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Confined to northern Somalia.	eng
35170	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The subspecies is threatened by habitat degradation caused by general overcutting and grazing.	eng
35171	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	One collection has been made in Ethiopia but otherwise the species is endemic to southern Somalia.	eng
35171	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is vulnerable to degradation caused by overcutting for charcoal production and expanding agricultural activities.	eng
35172	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A tree from a monotypic genus. It is confined to southern Somalia.	eng
35172	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	The habitat is extensively degraded because of overcutting for charcoal production and overgrazing.	eng
35173	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Formerly known from a single individual in Kenya, which was felled in the 1980's, the species is now known to occur in a 0.1 ha patch of forest near Ngarama Forest Reserve in Tanzania.	eng
35173	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Only a single individual exists.	eng
35174	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The presence of forest management staff activities is helping to discourage local exploitation.	eng
35174	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²).	eng
35174	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species which appears now to be confined to remaining areas of undisturbed coastal forest.	eng
35174	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest has been severely disturbed by logging, shifting cultivation, wood collection and plantation establishment in the past.	eng
35175	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The presence of an active forestry programme is discouraging local exploitation at the present time.	eng
35175	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Appears to be confined to the remaining areas of undisturbed forest within Rondo Forest Reserve.	eng
35175	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
35175	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Logging activities, shifting cultivation, pole and fuelwood collection and the establishment of commercial plantations have disturbed the forest extensively in the past.	eng
35176	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	One subpopulation is protected, occurring in Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²), where human activities have caused extensive disturbance in the past but are presently discouraged by an active forestry programme.	eng
35176	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to coastal forest in Tanzania, this species is known only from four sites.	eng
35176	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
35177	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The Tanzanian Catchment Forest Project employs two forest guards to prevent illegal activities.	eng
35177	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is confined to an area no greater than 0.1 km² in Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²).	eng
35177	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The surrounding area is densely populated and there is strong pressure on the reserve because of the demand for land.	eng
35178	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The stability of the remaining forest is maintained by the presence of forest management activities which discourage local exploitation.	eng
35178	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic species of the Rondo Forest Reserve (140 km²), limited to areas which remain undisturbed.	eng
35178	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting cultivation and wood collection have all contributed to the disturbance of forested areas within the reserve.	eng
35179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
35179	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist evergreen or semi-deciduous forest.	eng
35179	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which is very rare in places but ranges widely.	eng
35180	conservation	Assi, A., 1998	In Côte d'Ivoire the subpopulation is mainly contained within Tai National Park.	eng
35180	distribution	Assi, A., 1998	Upper Guinea region, from Guinea to Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
35180	habitat	Assi, A., 1998	This species is confined to moist forest.	eng
35180	threats	Assi, A., 1998	Forested areas outside the park have been widely logged and degraded.	eng
35186	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is not present in any protected area.	eng
35186	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is recorded from the Noumea and Paita region, and is also recorded from Nepoui and the Pouembout region. Distances between known sites can be up to 146 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,628 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 32 km².	eng
35186	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35186	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in five distinct locations in a very fragmented habitat where it always occurs as rare and isolated individuals.	eng
35186	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35187	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to a very limited area on the west coast. There is a possibility that the species is conspecific with <em>S. veitchii</em>, four specimens of which have been collected in the Bourail region.	eng
35187	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A tree of lowland forest.	eng
35187	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	No new material has been recorded since the late 1800s.	eng
35187	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Habitat destruction has been considerable.	eng
35191	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Collected from the eastern slopes of Mt. Aoupinié .	eng
35191	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Humid forest at 600 m occurring on an unusual and highly restricted substrate.	eng
35191	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Apparently only collected once, in 1972.	eng
35192	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species known from two small subpopulations, the type locality in Kouaoua and the second location at Petit Koum.	eng
35192	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Rainforest understory on serpentine soils (type locality) and with <em>Agathis lanceolata</em> in rainforest on granite (second locality).	eng
35193	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Only a single location is known where the species occurs on Mt. Mandjélia.	eng
35193	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In dense forest at 600 m.	eng
35203	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only a few, possibly only three, localities on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes.	eng
35203	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of low forest up to 2,700 m.	eng
35204	distribution	Pedralli, G., 1998	Distributed in south-east Brazil.	eng
35204	habitat	Pedralli, G., 1998	A secondary forest species.	eng
35205	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Type collected from Boyaca.	eng
35205	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
35205	population	Calderon, E., 1998	Known only from the type collected in 1933.	eng
35206	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is confined to black water areas in the Upper Río Negro.	eng
35207	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Sâo Paulo.	eng
35207	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to gallery forest within the cerrado.	eng
35209	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has a relatively wide distribution.	eng
35209	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found within mainland forest.	eng
35210	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection fwas gathered from Goiás.	eng
35210	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection is the only record of this species.	eng
35212	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodlands and thickets on rocky limestone.	eng
35212	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon and local in the central and north-west parishes.	eng
35213	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species extends in range from Costa Rica to the Urabá region of north-west Colombia. In Panama, subpopulations are small and scattered principally in the humid forests on the Pacific side, few collections coming from the Atlantic slopes. In Costa Rica populations are also largely confined to the Pacific side.	eng
35213	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest.	eng
35213	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Most parts of the range are experiencing moderate to high human impact.	eng
35214	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the high-altitude localities are contained within protected areas.	eng
35214	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Distributed widely from mid to high elevations in Costa Rica but only in a restricted area of high forest in Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro in Panama near the Costa Rica border.	eng
35214	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest tree.	eng
35214	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations are relatively sparse, with few juvenile individuals.	eng
35214	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations outside protected areas are highly susceptible to clearing and encroaching agriculture.	eng
35215	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is endemic to the vicinity of Manaus.	eng
35215	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to high non-flooded forest.	eng
35215	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increasing human settlement is a serious threat.	eng
35216	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be confined to the Venezuelan Amazon.	eng
35216	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	High, non-flooded forests.	eng
35216	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
35217	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species, endemic to Bahía, is fairly wide-ranging but confined to an area which continues to be deforested.	eng
35217	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to an area which continues to be deforested.	eng
35218	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A high-altitude species, confined to Cauca and Meta.	eng
35219	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35219	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known solely from a type specimen collected in 1938.	eng
35220	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection gathered at Tafelberg.	eng
35220	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species only recorded from the type collection.	eng
35222	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been recorded in various sites, covering a relatively wide range.	eng
35222	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a cloud forest species from 1,400 to 2,300 m.	eng
35223	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to a small area of high Amazon forest and secondary growth.	eng
35223	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary lowland evergreen forest.	eng
35224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to Vaupés.	eng
35224	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen.	eng
35225	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from the Caribbean lowlands to upland areas in Venezuela. It has been collected from one locality near Siquirres in Costa Rica, the Chocó in Colombia.	eng
35225	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen rainforest tree.	eng
35226	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central parishes.	eng
35226	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is scattered in pasture margins and woodlands on limestone.	eng
35227	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only occasionally in woodlands on limestone in moderately wet areas.	eng
35228	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species has been found only in Darién Province.	eng
35228	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is present in reasonable numbers in Cerro Pirre within Darién National Park.	eng
35229	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from localities in Westmoreland, Hanover and St James.	eng
35229	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Generally confined to rocky limestone hilltops.	eng
35229	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is infrequent.	eng
35231	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to the Chaco of Argentina and neighbouring Paraguay.	eng
35231	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland dry forest.	eng
35231	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species range may be extensive but the ecosystem is susceptible to damage caused by human activities.	eng
35232	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Upper Rio Negro.	eng
35232	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Flooded forest.	eng
35232	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which grows quite abundantly, but only in flooded forest.	eng
35234	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species can be divided into three subspecies, which take up distributions in the north-west, north-east and southern regions of Grand Terre, including some of the neighbouring islands.	eng
35234	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	All forms occur largely in rainforest on ultramafic soils.	eng
35234	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Exposed to threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance or degradation.	eng
35236	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species which appears to have two disjunct subpopulations, one near Koumac in the north-west and the other further south on the east coast.	eng
35236	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Both populations occur in littoral maquis on ultramafic soils.	eng
35237	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the  in the central and western parishes.	eng
35237	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thickets and woodlands on limestone.	eng
35237	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
35237	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat declines have been considerable, mostly caused by increasing agriculture.	eng
35238	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has a precarious existence in cultivated fields and also on river borders.	eng
35238	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Collected very rarely and only recently from an area near Sarraméa.	eng
35240	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to coastal woodlands on limestone and sand dunes.	eng
35243	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.	eng
35243	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in two small peninsulas covered by very degraded dry forest. One site is 9 ha and is located in the industrial zone of Noumea; the other is 100 ha and located in Paita region. They are distant of 5 km and separated by the sea. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 1.09 km².	eng
35243	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. This habitat, which was probably characteristic of Noumea and the surrounding area a century ago, is now basically confined to very small and highly degraded patches.	eng
35243	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The subpopulation of this species in Paita is confined to a small patch of more or less preserved forest. It is locally abundant with several dozens individuals over two or three hectares. In the other known location, the species seems to be represented by very few individuals.	eng
35243	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat to <em>E. daenikeri</em> is urbanization. Its two locations are in urban or suburban zones. The biggest subpopulation is close to Paita's public dump; the other is at the extreme west of Noumea's industrial zone. The subpopulations are extremely localized and a single fire could destroy of each of them. Although the Noumea area is safe from wild deer, the Paita location holds a big population of wild deer. These deer consume a wide variety of plant species and also cause severe damage to trees by rubbing their antlers against tree stems.	eng
35244	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.	eng
35244	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present nearly all along the west coast. From south to north, it is found in Mont Dore, Noumea and Paita, Poya, Koné and Voh, Koumac and Poum. Distance between subpopulations can be as high as 127 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,970 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 60 km².	eng
35244	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species inhabits tropical dry forests and maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Maquis are also extremely vulnerable habitats because of the richness of their soil and their mining value.	eng
35244	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is unknown. The species is present in several localities where it is never abundant.	eng
35244	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35249	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species found in only a few localities confined to Grand Terre. Populations are recorded from the vicinity of Prony, Grand Lac, the Yaté barrage and two sites on the east coast.	eng
35249	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations occur in maquis or low forest.	eng
35249	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Fires and in some places mining activities are continuing threats.	eng
35250	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35250	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species has been recorded from littoral habitats and small mountains.	eng
35250	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The paucity of recent collections suggests that the species has become scarce.	eng
35251	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	An endemic of Mt. Kaala.	eng
35251	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in maquis on ultramafic soils at altitudes of between 600 and 700 m.	eng
35253	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is known from a small number of scattered localities on the southern ultramafic massifs.	eng
35253	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35254	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic shrub to the Puerto Padre area of central Cuba.	eng
35254	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Coastal and subcoastal dry evergreen forests and scrub.	eng
35254	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat is severely degraded in many places and the remaining areas continue to be susceptible to cutting and clearing. Development for tourism is the present major threat.	eng
35255	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in three locations in Creek Pernod, La Madeleine and the summits of hills to south-east of Yaté.	eng
35255	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A bushy shrub, sometimes a small tree in low forest or maquis.	eng
35255	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although La Madeleine is protected as a botanical reserve, declines in the habitat have been observed, probably because of the large number of visitors. In other places mining activities and fires are causing serious damage.	eng
35256	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A bushy shrub or small tree which is well represented in the southern ultramafic massifs and also on isolated massifs in the north.	eng
35256	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in low forest or maquis.	eng
35256	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	In many places the habitat is degraded and exposed to threats of mining, fires and clearance.	eng
35262	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	One individual is present in a protected area and 10 individuals have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in restoration projects.	eng
35262	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from two locations, 2 km apart, in the Pouembout region. Its total extent of occurrence is 4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.3 km².	eng
35262	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35262	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The exact population size of this rare and discreet species is not known but an estimate can be made. Forty individuals have been identified and are located immediately outside of a fenced reserve (Conservatoire Botanique de Tiéa); only one has been seen inside this reserve. Two more individuals have been found at a second location, 2 km away on private land. It is therefore estimated that there may be less than 100 living individuals of this species.	eng
35262	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.<br/><br/>Unfortunately, most of the known individuals from the largest subpopulation are located immediately outside a fenced reserve. That population was discovered after the limits of the reserve were drawn. A large part of the surrounding forest has already been cleared for agriculture and the remnant patches are highly degraded.	eng
35264	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Secondary thickets, along paths and gullies, generally on limestone.	eng
35264	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively commonly occurring species.	eng
35265	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in thickets and woodlands on limestone, mostly in dry coastal or exposed areas.	eng
35265	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common species.	eng
35266	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
35266	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Scattered subpopulations of the species are met from Poya to Voh with distances between sites never exceeding 26 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 577 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 40 km².	eng
35266	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35266	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Little is known about the population of this rare and discreet species. It mostly occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
35266	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35268	conservation	Varty, N., 1998	It occurs in Tijuca National Park and on the official list of threatened Brazilian plants compiled by IBAMA.	eng
35268	distribution	Varty, N., 1998	Subpopulations are now very restricted and largely confined to the Serra do Mar.	eng
35268	threats	Varty, N., 1998	The habitat of this species continues to be rapidly destroyed.	eng
35269	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, this subspecies is restricted to Boyacá.	eng
35270	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species endemic to the Ecuadorian Andes.	eng
35271	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
35272	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
35273	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species endemic to the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
35273	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper montane forest zone.	eng
35274	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Boyacá.	eng
35278	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The few collections known have come from the Cordillera del Darién in Panama, and only recently from Colombia.	eng
35278	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in evergreen rainforest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
35278	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is scarce and highly restricted in distribution.	eng
35278	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the species range is entirely contained within a national park, there is still some risk of deforestation.	eng
35279	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
35279	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Brunellia ecuadoriensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
35279	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–2,800 m).	eng
35279	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
35280	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Norte de Santander.	eng
35281	conservation	Calderon, E., 1998	It is protected within Farallones de Cali National Park.	eng
35281	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Although restricted to a small area near Cali, the species is not threatened. The area is steeply sloping and unsuitable for agriculture or other uses.	eng
35282	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cauca.	eng
35283	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A Colombian endemic, occurring only in Caquetá and Huila.	eng
35284	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Considered to be endemic to Panama but possibly also exists in Costa Rica. Only a few collections are known in the Central Cordillera.	eng
35284	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest species between 1,000 and 2,500 m .	eng
35284	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	There are no protective measures in place and the habitat is somewhat exposed to clearing for settlements and agriculture.	eng
35285	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
35285	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Brunellia ovalifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 11 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, El Oro, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
35285	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramo (2,000–3,700 m).	eng
35285	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
35286	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
35287	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
35288	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Caquetá.	eng
35289	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
35291	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
35291	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Brunellia zamorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay, Cotopaxi and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
35291	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
35291	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
35292	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species occurring commonly near the summit of John Crow Peak, scattered in southern catchments and rare in northern catchments.	eng
35292	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its restriction to altitudes above 1,400 m has led to the species escaping much of the disturbance at lower elevations, although soil erosion and invasive plants still cause habitat degradation.	eng
35293	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from occurrences in St Catherine, Clarendon and Trelawny.	eng
35293	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to woodland on limestone.	eng
35293	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is uncommon.	eng
35294	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is not present in any protected areas.	eng
35294	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is present on the west coast in Tontouta (Uitoe and Montagnes), Pindaï, Poya (Ile Grimault), Koné (Koniambo) and Gomen (Cap Deverd). Distances between sites are (respectively and from south to north) 145, 38 and 55 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,143 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
35294	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in dry forests (including calcareous forests) and on ultramafic soils. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Formations on ultramafic soils have also been very impacted by mining activities and fires in New Caledonia.	eng
35294	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. When present, this species can be locally common in the understorey (Pindai), but mostly it is rare.	eng
35294	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. The Koniambo subpopulation is threatened by nickel industry projects on this mountain.	eng
35296	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are restricted to Trelawny and St Ann.	eng
35296	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone	eng
35297	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is locally common in dry thickets and woodlands on limestone near the sea.	eng
35298	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The taxon is confined to a small area where it is relatively safe from threat.	eng
35298	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Submontane <em>cerrado</em>.	eng
35301	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A poorly known species, thought to occur in Valle.	eng
35307	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species occurs in two protected areas.	eng
35307	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to dry forests of the Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 102 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².	eng
35307	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
35307	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. In Nekoro, from where the species has been named, it is common and the subpopulation is healthy and regenerates well. In all other sites it occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
35307	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
35316	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Mindanao Island.	eng
35316	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest understorey species, often found along creeks.	eng
35317	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vicinity of Manaus.	eng
35317	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found on terra firme forest.	eng
35318	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found near Manaus, Amazonas.	eng
35318	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found in non-inundated forest.	eng
35319	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted to forest on limestone hills.	eng
35320	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are distributed throughout Panama, but most are apparently from cultivation or planted along roadsides. A naturally-occurring population is recorded from an area near the Panama Canal. Naturalised and wild populations are scattered along the Peruvian Andes.	eng
35320	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree occurring widely in the understorey of moist woodland and forest.	eng
35322	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the southern end of the Western Ghats, occurring from Anaimalai to the southern tip of the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
35322	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey shrub or small tree which has been well collected in areas of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
35323	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Manchester and Trelawny. The somewhat inaccessible distribution of the species' habitat is likely to have impeded excessive clearing.	eng
35323	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found on jagged limestone cliffs.	eng
35324	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to Manchester Parish.	eng
35324	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to arid limestone rocks.	eng
35325	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The distribution of the species is disjunct, with populations - possibly representing different taxa - occurring in St James in the west and Portland in the east.	eng
35325	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to moist wooded limestone hills.	eng
35326	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Portland and St Thomas.	eng
35326	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to mossy woodland areas between 450 and 900 m.	eng
35326	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas in the former are also reduced and threatened by forestry activities.	eng
35327	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to lowland south-west India.	eng
35327	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, found in bush or forest up to 600 m.	eng
35328	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the mountains of Rio de Janeiro near Petrópolis and Terezópolis.	eng
35328	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree was last collected in 1968. It is not known whether the species is still extant.	eng
35329	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree apparently restricted to the mountains around Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35329	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The most recent collection is dated 1961.	eng
35330	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection supposedly came from Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35330	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection, gathered in 1825. Although this area has since been well studied, the species has not been found again.	eng
35331	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to the remaining patches of coastal forest in Sâo Paulo and Paraná.	eng
35331	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
35331	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale destruction of these forests has taken place over several centuries.	eng
35332	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is also cultivated on a small scale for its much appreciated edible fruits which are shaped like Indian clay pots, or <em>cambuci</em>, from which it derives its vernacular name.	eng
35332	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from sites near Sâo Paulo city and Serra dos Orgâos National Park near Teresópolis in Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35333	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected at a location called Rio Manso in Minas Gerais.	eng
35333	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from a collection made in the last century. There is more than one Rio Manso in the state and the species has not been found again.	eng
35334	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is apparently restricted to Minas Gerais.	eng
35334	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It probably occurs in <em>cerrado</em> vegetation.	eng
35334	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is poorly known.	eng
35335	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From locations in Paraná and Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35335	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Atlantic coastal forest tree.	eng
35335	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The decline in its habitat has been dramatic.	eng
35336	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	According to current knowledge, this variety is confined to coastal forests in Sâo Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35336	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forests.	eng
35336	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections from the last century and one more recent collection. The other varieties appear to be more commonly collected and located in the interior.	eng
35337	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Believed to be distributed on the banks of Rio Sâo Francisco in coastal Alagoas.	eng
35337	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In forest on river bank.	eng
35337	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently collected only twice, this rare species is poorly known.	eng
35338	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has a local distribution on rocky banks or in thickets and pastures on coral limestone or sandy soils near the sea.	eng
35339	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It occurs in the Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
35339	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to non-flooded forest of central Amazonia, near Manaus.	eng
35339	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35339	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is under threat from increasing land settlement and fires.	eng
35340	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species has only ever been collected from a single site along the Manaus to Itacoatiana road.	eng
35340	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Puntarenas Province.	eng
35341	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey shrub or small tree restricted to forest.	eng
35342	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Apparently endemic to Colombia, the species is known to occur in Antioquia, Bolívar, Caldas, Santander, Tolima and possibly Caquetá. The Peruvian distribution requires confirmation. There may also be a collection from Darién in Panama.	eng
35343	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Restricted to the Chapado do Araripe in Brazil.	eng
35343	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	A species of <em>cerrado</em>.	eng
35344	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is widespread across Mexico.	eng
35344	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found in low forest or thicket.	eng
35344	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively well collected.	eng
35346	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in central parishes.	eng
35346	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
35346	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
35347	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the mountains of the Nipe-Baracoa Massif in eastern Cuba.	eng
35347	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It occurs in pine woodland and forest.	eng
35348	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	This endemic Colombian species occurs in Valle and Vaupes.	eng
35349	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of Ecuador. Currently this species is only known from the High Andean areas of Imbabura and Pichincha. Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
35349	habitat	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting montane and upper montane cloud forest.	eng
35350	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Previously recorded in Tolima and possibly Quindio.	eng
35350	population	Calderon, E., 1998	An extinct species.	eng
35351	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree endemic to Fiji.	eng
35356	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Relatively widespread on the Grand Terre and also occurring on Ile des Pins.	eng
35356	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has been found in diverse habitats including  humid forest and degraded maquis on ultramafic or schist substrates.	eng
35357	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area is given some protection as a special botanical  reserve.	eng
35357	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Collections were taken from Mt. Panié.	eng
35357	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
35357	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species appears to be known from just two collections.	eng
35359	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The population is believed to be effectively protected.	eng
35359	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Type locality in Rivière Bleue Provincial Park.	eng
35359	population	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A large tree known only from the type locality.	eng
35360	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Old trees are protected from being cut or damaged.	eng
35360	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A few isolated populations occur on the Klamath Mountains within USDA National Forest lands.	eng
35360	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Subalpine altitudes.	eng
35360	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The trees are extremely slow-growing and populations may be susceptible to fire and the grazing of wildlife.	eng
35361	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Pacific side of the Cordillera Central throughout Panama, and in the Chocó in Colombia and Alajuela in Costa Rica.	eng
35361	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in medium-altitude forest.	eng
35361	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is found in scattered subpopulations, which are never large.	eng
35361	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Throughout the species range, there is evidence of medium to high human disturbance. In Chiriquí, Panama, the population is affected by annual burning.	eng
35362	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the central and eastern parishes.	eng
35362	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found occasionally in woodland on steep limestone hillsides.	eng
35362	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat declines have been considerable, mostly caused by increasing agriculture.	eng
35363	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely known under the genus <em>Afrosersalisia</em>, this species is known from subpopulations in the Shimba Hills in Kenya, coastal forest in Tanzania, Makurupini  National Park (1.5 km²) in Zimbabwe and the lower slopes of the Chimanimani Mountains. in Mozambique.	eng
35363	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in some abundance in some areas, especially towards the drier regions of forest.	eng
35363	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is being actively cut in places (e.g., Mangea in Kenya).	eng
35364	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is well protected and the population is healthy.	eng
35364	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Chirinda forest, this subspecies occupies an area of just 0.5 km². Other subspecies of this taxon are known from Tanzania and Madagascar.	eng
35364	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest has been logged in the past and is most heavily disturbed at the perimeter, where it is at risk from invasive species, drought and fire.	eng
35365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This monotypic genus is confined to the remnant rainforest of the Gulf region of Mexico, only occurring in abundance in Uxpanapa. It is the only New World member of its tribe.	eng
35366	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Other subspecies are confined to the Lesser Antilles and Cuba.	eng
35366	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found infrequently in remaining areas of woodland on limestone in areas of high rainfall.	eng
35367	conservation	Phiri, P.S.M., 1998	Subpopulations in traditional areas are given a degree of protection.	eng
35367	distribution	Phiri, P.S.M., 1998	this species occurs in Mongu and Senanga districts of western Zambia and adjacent parts of Angola.	eng
35367	habitat	Phiri, P.S.M., 1998	Confined to woodland on Kalahari sands in areas of low rainfall.  It is associated with <em>Baikaea plurijuga</em>.	eng
35368	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the two species which exist in this genus. This species ranges from the north of Amazonas, in Brazil, to Guyana.	eng
35368	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dry evergreen forest over white sand, usually along creeksides.	eng
35369	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern Venezuela and central Amazonian Brazil.	eng
35369	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland periodically flooded forest, occurring along riversides.	eng
35370	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	In a few sites in western Amazonia.	eng
35370	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A timber species recorded from várzea and non-flooded lowland forests.	eng
35371	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from San Martín.	eng
35371	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest between 400 and 800 m.	eng
35371	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently the species has not been recorded since it was first collected in the first half of the century.	eng
35372	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Widely scattered in dry open forest locations.	eng
35372	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is relatively well collected and does not appear to be declining in any way.	eng
35373	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species currently known from two main locations in the western Amazon. Recorded in Loreto in Peru and further east in Brazil.	eng
35373	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Several occurrences are recorded in non-flooded forest, usually on white sand.	eng
35374	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	From the north of Manaus.	eng
35374	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree species of non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
35374	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
35375	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A newly described species. The type was collected from César some 50 years ago and from one other collection from Bolívar.	eng
35375	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	It is recorded as a straggling treelet scattered on the forest edge and in savannah.	eng
35375	population	Calderon, E., 1998	Currently known from the type specimen.	eng
35376	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Distribution includes Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35376	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It has recently been collected from a number of new sites, including Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35376	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A small tree of lowland coastal rainforest and gallery forest in drier inland localities.	eng
35377	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic coast.	eng
35377	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A large tree known from several sites of lowland rainforest, one being a plantation.	eng
35377	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The natural habitat of the species has been greatly reduced in recent decades.	eng
35378	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It also occurs in Ilha do Cordoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35378	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A small tree of coastal rainforest.	eng
35378	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The known range of this species has increased.	eng
35379	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree of lowland coastal rainforest.	eng
35379	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It has been collected only from the type locality in Laranjeiras Forest, Rio de Janeiro, but it can no longer be found there.	eng
35380	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A newly described species, endemic to Colombia, and currently known only from Cauca.	eng
35380	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Montane rainforest between 2,700 and 3,000 m.	eng
35381	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It has been recorded in Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo.	eng
35381	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The more restricted of the two subspecies. The taxon is confined to the coast of Brazil between Bahía and Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35381	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The lowland forest habitat has seriously declined in extent and continues to be threatened by development and settlement.	eng
35383	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from separate localities, one in Amazonian Peru and the other in the border area between Acre in Brazil and Beni in Bolivia.	eng
35383	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
35384	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A taxon located in pockets of remaining forest in a range stretching from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania, Zanzibar and the Pemba Islands. The type variety is widespread.	eng
35384	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
35385	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree confined to lowland evergreen coastal forest.	eng
35385	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Increasing development and settlement are causing serious habitat declines.	eng
35386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is currently known from two widely separated areas, occurring in several sites in Carabobo and Lara in northern Venezuela and in a small endangered population in Valle in Colombia.	eng
35386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest (Venezuela) and montane forest at 2,000 m (Colombia).	eng
35387	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas: Ambangulu Private Forest, Kwamngumi Forest Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, Kwamkoro Forest Reserve, and Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
35387	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from the East and West Usambara Mtns.	eng
35387	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree growing in dry evergreen forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra webberi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.	eng
35387	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Rare wherever it occurs, usually only very few trees.	eng
35387	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by loss of forest habitat for agricultural activities (cultivation, e.g. cocoa, tea and cinchona&#160; plantations).	eng
35388	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are recorded from the serpentine barrens in Puerto Rico and from St Croix, St John and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands.	eng
35388	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of semi-deciduous dry forest and thickets on hills up to 750 m.	eng
35389	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Kilombero Nature Reserve, and Mazumbai Forest Reserve.	eng
35389	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in the West Usambara Mts and again in the Udzwunga Mts (has a disjunct distribution), Tanzania.	eng
35389	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree found in sub-montane to montane forest on steep slopes with small streams and swamps, and patches of elfin forest on ridge top.	eng
35389	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not very common.	eng
35389	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This species is fairly secure in the Udzungwa Mts, but the habitat is under threat in the Usambara Mts due to exapnsion of agricultural and other human activities, increasing use of fire, etc.	eng
35390	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the region of Tarapoto in San Martín.	eng
35390	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in rainforest at an altitude of 750 m.	eng
35391	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality and several subpopulations are found in Aragua and Miranda in Venezuela, including occurrences in Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional Aragua. A further more tentative record originates from Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru.	eng
35391	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A heavily buttressed tree, which is newly described as a species. It appears to be found in lowland and montane evergreen forest in widely separated locations.	eng
35392	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A Tanzanian endemic. It is known from two sites: Nakilala in Kilwa district and Lake Lutamba.	eng
35392	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs in deciduous coastal thicket and open woodland.	eng
35392	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Areas around Lake Lutamba were extensively cleared 50 years ago for the cultivation of commercial crops, leaving only a small area of forest contained within Litipo Forest Reserve.	eng
35393	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An occurrence is recorded in the Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo.	eng
35393	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species restricted to remaining wet coastal rainforest.	eng
35393	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Seriously threatened by increasing settlement and development.	eng
35394	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It apparently occurs in two sites.	eng
35394	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
35394	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Little information is available on this species.	eng
35395	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Type collection from western Amazonia.	eng
35395	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
35395	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Only known from the type collection made in 1941.	eng
35396	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Active conservation programmes are now in place.	eng
35396	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic species within the Udzungwa Forest Reserve and Lulanda.	eng
35396	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest confined to a 70 m elevation band.	eng
35396	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	These forests have been heavily exploited and disturbed in the past.	eng
35397	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An active conservation programme is in place in Lulanda Forest.	eng
35397	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species as a whole is confined to a region covering eastern Tanzania and south-east Kenya. This variety is restricted to the Lulanda Forest in the Udzungwa range.	eng
35398	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two forest guards are employed under the Tanzanian Catchment  Forest Project to prevent illegal encroachment.	eng
35398	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to Kimboza Forest Reserve (4 km²), this variety is similarly restricted in range as other varieties of the species.	eng
35398	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to moist coastal forest.	eng
35398	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forest is disturbed, mainly from previous logging activities, and contained within a densely populated area where the demand for land is strong.	eng
35399	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The largest population occurs in forest on the Grand Ridge. Hybridisation takes place between this species and <em>C. occidentalis</em>.	eng
35399	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest and forest margins and gaps.	eng
35399	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be common to abundant, especially above 1,800 m.	eng
35399	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest at lower altitudes has suffered more serious degradation because of logging and the ensuing soil erosion and invasion of aggressive exotic plants.	eng
35402	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central and western parishes.	eng
35402	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of moist savannahs, thickets and woodlands on limestone.	eng
35402	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat declines have been considerable.	eng
35403	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations occur in two main areas, Trelawny and St James, and Portland and St Thomas.	eng
35403	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	They are confined to remaining areas of woodland on limestone and serpentine soils.	eng
35403	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation has occurred extensively in the latter two parishes.	eng
35404	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania.	eng
35404	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is restricted to areas of dry coastal forest, often on coral.	eng
35405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found along the south coast.	eng
35405	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On dry limestone along the coast.	eng
35405	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is locally common in places.	eng
35406	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A scarce species of Guatemala and Honduras.	eng
35406	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Atlantic wet lowlands.	eng
35406	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Continuing conversion of the habitat for agriculture has caused population reductions.	eng
35407	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Relatively well protected by guards or active conservation programmes.	eng
35407	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in eastern Tanzania, this tree is known from Kimboza Forest Reserve, the East Usambara Mts. and possibly also the North Udzungwa Mts.	eng
35407	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to patches of moist evergreen forest.	eng
35407	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	All these localities are in densely populated areas.	eng
35409	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only in Darién National Park is there a well-protected subpopulation.	eng
35409	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The main subpopulation of this variety is concentrated in the province of Darién in Panama, with additional occurrences in the Canal area in Panama, and also just over the border into Colombia, in the Serranía del Darién in the Chocó, and Urabá.	eng
35409	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in lowland, sometimes inundated, forest up to 300 m.	eng
35409	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is scarce throughout much of its range	eng
35411	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The type subspecies of a Tanzanian endemic. Populations are known from the Uluguru Mts. and South Nguru Mts.	eng
35411	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to moist montane forest above 1,430 m.	eng
35412	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are known from the East and West Usambara Mts.	eng
35412	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The more northerly distributed subspecies of this montane forest tree.	eng
35413	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in St Mary, Portland and St Thomas.	eng
35413	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of moist woodland areas below 750 m.	eng
35413	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been extensively destroyed and degraded.	eng
35414	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from only two sites this tree occurs in the Uluguru Mts. and Malundwe.	eng
35414	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Areas of moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
35415	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the East Usambara Mts.	eng
35415	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A tree of moist evergreen forest confined to a narrow altitudinal range.	eng
35416	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts. and Mt. Mlinga.	eng
35416	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to a narrow altitudinal range in moist evergreen submontane forest.	eng
35417	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
35417	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in an area of moist montane forest.	eng
35418	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in secondary rainforest on limestone hills.	eng
35418	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species in central and eastern parishes.	eng
35419	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in woodland margins on limestone hills.	eng
35419	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exposed to frequent habitat degradation.	eng
35420	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively small tree of non-flooded rainforest, riverine or swamp forest.	eng
35420	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from about 15 collections. The genus is made up of four species.	eng
35421	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species restricted to the East Usambara Mts.	eng
35421	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Within moist evergreen forest in upland areas.	eng
35422	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Pugu is now part of an active conservation programme and the forest management activities in Rondo are discouraging local exploitation.	eng
35422	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrubby species known from remaining forest patches largely existing within Forest Reserves. Subpopulations are known from Pugu and Rondo Forest Reserves.	eng
35422	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The forests reserves where it occurs have been heavily disturbed in the past by a range of human activities including logging and agriculture.	eng
35423	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forest covering 140 km² is protected in the Rondo Plateau as a forest reserve.  The presence of an active forest management programme is discouraging further exploitative activities.	eng
35423	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from three sites in south-east Tanzania. It has been collected from an unprotected tract of forest on the Noto Plateau and from the nearby Rondo Plateau.	eng
35423	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
35423	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Much of the forest is heavily disturbed because of previous logging, planting of commercial timbers, shifting agriculture and local exploitation.	eng
35424	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The range of the species appears to be confined to the Usambara Mts.	eng
35424	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It occurs in moist montane forest.	eng
35425	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The range of the species is confined to the East Usambara Mts.	eng
35425	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It occurs within moist forests at altitudes of 800 to 1,050 m.	eng
35426	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from the East Usambara, North Udzungwa and also probably the Nguru Mts.	eng
35426	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is found in moist evergreen forest at altitudes of 1,150 to 1,400 m.	eng
35427	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A Tanzania endemic, this subspecies is restricted to the Kiboriani and Udzungwa Mts.	eng
35427	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forests.	eng
35428	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from Tendaguru.	eng
35428	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of dry forest or open woodland.	eng
35429	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is relatively well protected in the two forest reserves. Local activities and encroachment are discouraged by the presence of forest management operations.	eng
35429	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from Litipo (10 km²) and Rondo (140 km²) Forest Reserves.	eng
35429	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Both forests have been extensively logged and other activities have contributed to large areas being disturbed. The demand for land for commercial and subsistence agriculture is also strongly felt.	eng
35430	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found in three localities: Nyumbanitu, Lulanda and west Mufindi.	eng
35430	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist montane forest tree, occurring at elevations exceeding 1,500 m.	eng
35431	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies is known only from Mwanihana in the North Udzungwa Mts.	eng
35431	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in moist submontane forest.	eng
35432	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The only population known occurs on the North Udzungwa Mts. at Bandwa	eng
35432	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	2,050 m elevation in moist evergreen forest.	eng
35433	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35433	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies occurs in moist evergreen montane forest.	eng
35434	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Vicinity of Manaus.	eng
35434	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known only from areas of non-flooded forest.	eng
35434	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Fires, felling and cutting the buttresses are the most major threats.	eng
35435	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is now confined to forested areas around Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35435	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	At one time the species may have represented a commonly occurring tree.	eng
35436	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An infrequent species known from a few widely geographically separated collections.	eng
35436	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35437	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Common in Darién National Park in Panama.	eng
35437	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Scattered sparsely throughout El Salvador to Ecuador.	eng
35437	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, sometimes in swampy areas.	eng
35437	population	Mitré, M., 1998	It is noted as common in Nicaragua and in Darién National Park in Panama.	eng
35437	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat, especially where unprotected, is under pressure from increasing settlement, logging and agriculture.	eng
35439	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35439	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in moist evergreen montane forest.	eng
35440	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to eastern Tanzania.	eng
35440	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree of dry coastal forest.	eng
35441	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree known from Shagayu in the West Usambara Mts. and Binduki in the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35441	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist evergreen forest at medium elevations.	eng
35442	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree with a very restricted range in Kigogo.	eng
35442	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring within a 50 m altitudinal belt in moist montane forest.	eng
35443	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	South-east Tanzania.	eng
35443	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree from moist forest or open woodland ranging from low to medium elevations.	eng
35444	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This taxon is found only in a restricted area on Lupembe Hill.	eng
35444	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
35445	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations are known from the East Usambara Mts. and the South Nguru Mts.	eng
35445	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs at medium elevations in moist evergreen forest.	eng
35446	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from a single population on Mt. Njombe in Tanzania. The other variant of the species is similarly restricted to East African montane forest but is more widespread.	eng
35446	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub in an area of moist montane forest.	eng
35447	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Tolima.	eng
35448	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	South-east Tanzania.	eng
35448	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety restricted to coastal thickets.	eng
35449	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic to South Nguru.	eng
35449	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest at 1,800 m.	eng
35450	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from a single site in east Tanzania.	eng
35450	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub, known from dry montane forest.	eng
35451	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to north-east Tanzania.	eng
35451	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Shrubby tree which occurs in patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
35452	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are confined to areas of woodland on craggy limestone.	eng
35453	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrubby tree confined to a few localities in Kilosa.	eng
35453	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
35454	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variant of a Tanzanian endemic found in Mlinguru, Tendaguru and the Rondo Plateau.	eng
35454	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry lowland forest.	eng
35455	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Type locality: Tendaguru.	eng
35455	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A poorly known small tree or bush.	eng
35455	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the type locality.	eng
35456	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to a small area in the department of La Paz, although it may appear in southern Peru.	eng
35456	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
35456	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat degradation has been caused by the expansion of agriculture and fires.	eng
35457	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A diminutive tree or shrub restricted to the valleys of Río Beni and Río Chapare..	eng
35457	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncommon.	eng
35458	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Columbia to northern Peru.	eng
35458	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of Andean forest, occurring especially on the western slopes, between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
35458	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is seriously threatened by encroaching agriculture and fires.	eng
35459	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Locally common in the West Usambara Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and also Mt. Kilimanjaro.	eng
35459	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist montane forest tree.	eng
35460	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the Uluguru Mts., this species is confined to high elevations.	eng
35460	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist evergreen forest.	eng
35461	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to south-east of Brazil.	eng
35461	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the remaining areas of Atlantic coastal rainforest.	eng
35461	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Quite well collected and widespread.	eng
35461	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat has suffered large-scale destruction over the past centuries.	eng
35462	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variant of an east Tanzanian endemic.	eng
35462	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is a shrub or small tree restricted to areas of moist evergreen forest over 1,100 m in altitude.	eng
35463	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variant of slightly lower altitudes than the type variety.	eng
35463	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is confined to areas of moist semi-deciduous forest between 950 and 1,650 m.	eng
35464	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the Uluguru Mts., Mahenge and Kigogo.	eng
35464	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree from moist montane forest.	eng
35465	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed in a restricted area of coastal Venezuela.	eng
35465	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree colonises disturbed areas and light gaps in cloud forest over 500 m.	eng
35466	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Panama may contain the only extant populations. Further fieldwork may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
35466	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The taxon is restricted to montane or cloud forest between 900 and 1,800 m.	eng
35466	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species.	eng
35467	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the North and South Uluguru Mts.	eng
35467	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This shrub or small tree is confined to areas of moist montane evergreen forest.	eng
35468	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The range of this subspecies is quite disjunct from the rest of the species, which occurs in the western Amazon basin. It is known from disturbed areas of lowland rainforest in French Guiana and adjacent parts of Brazil, covering an area well over 20,000 km².	eng
35469	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A conservation programme is now in place.	eng
35469	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species with a very restricted range, known from a small area in the East Usambara Mts. There is a doubtful record from the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35469	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist evergreen forest between 900 and 1,000 m.	eng
35469	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Population pressure and the demand for fertile land have caused a reduction in the forest.	eng
35470	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Ranging relatively widely in the valleys of Magdalena, Cauca and Patía Rivers. It is geographically isolated from the more widespread type species.	eng
35470	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	The subspecies occurs in rainforest and cloud forest.	eng
35471	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All collections are from isolated localities on the south-east coast.	eng
35471	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An unusual species which is morphologically specialised to survive in restinga vegetation along seashores.	eng
35471	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from four collections, none more recent than 1971.	eng
35471	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The loss of this habitat continues to be dramatic.	eng
35472	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Jauneche forest in western Ecuador.	eng
35472	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An unusual species restricted to ravines and forest pockets. It endures a more severe dry season than other species in this section of the genus.	eng
35473	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to east and south-east Tanzania.	eng
35473	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry coastal species.	eng
35474	distribution	Bohs, L., 1998	Collections originate from coastal restinga vegetation in Pernambuco and caatinga of Bahia. This is the only species in this section of the genus to be found in caatinga.	eng
35474	habitat	Bohs, L., 1998	Coastal restinga vegetation and caatinga.	eng
35474	population	Bohs, L., 1998	A small shrub or herb which may be extinct in the wild. The last collection in the wild was gathered in 1933.	eng
35475	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The northern populations in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo are separated from those in the south by 250 km (and by morphologically different leaves and corolla).	eng
35475	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in secondary vegetation and disturbed areas in primary forest, coastal cloud forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest.	eng
35475	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Destruction of these forests has been extensive.	eng
35476	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety confined to areas in east and south-east Tanzania and on Zanzibar Island.	eng
35476	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
35477	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sibundoy and surrounding areas.	eng
35477	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small cloud forest tree, between 1,400 and 2,300 m.	eng
35478	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It ranges over about 1,000 km of the southern Brazilian coast.	eng
35478	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An unusual succulent species, which has become specialised and is restricted to restinga vegetation on seashores.	eng
35478	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat is seriously threatened and continues to decline.	eng
35479	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the Guyana Highlands the species exists in two subpopulations on either side of the Orinoco Delta. Some differentiation has evidently arisen between the subpopulations.	eng
35479	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both subpopulations are restricted to primary forest over 400 m or cloud forest.	eng
35480	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the North Udzungwa Mts., at Sanje and Udekwa.	eng
35480	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
35482	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	One of the subspecies of a Tanzanian endemic. It is found at Mufindi in the Udzungwa Mts. and at Nditima along the upper Ruhudje River.	eng
35482	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
35483	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the two varieties of a species which is endemic to the Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts., especially the Grand Ridge.	eng
35483	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows as a shrub or gnarled tree below 1,700 m on ridges	eng
35484	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most common on the Grand Ridge in the Blue Mts.	eng
35484	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which occurs as a shrub or small tree, mostly on ridge crests. It is locally common below 1,850,m.	eng
35485	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to the South Uluguru Mts.	eng
35485	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to high-altitude moist evergreen forest.	eng
35486	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic of the North Uluguru Mts.	eng
35486	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Cloud forests.	eng
35487	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ukaguru Mts., South Uluguru Mts. and at Mwanihana in the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
35487	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree occurring in moist montane forest areas.	eng
35488	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The distribution of this small tree is not consolidated. There is a population at Amani and possibly another at Ambangula.	eng
35488	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Medium elevations in moist evergreen forest.	eng
35489	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An endemic from the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35489	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to upper moist evergreen forest.	eng
35490	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to Poroto and Mt. Rungwe. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
35490	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub of moist montane forest.	eng
35491	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Kimboza Forest Reserve, Misufini, Mtibwa and Mzelezi.	eng
35491	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree from remnant moist coastal forests.	eng
35492	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from the Usambara and Uluguru Mts.	eng
35492	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
35493	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Endemic to eastern Tanzania.	eng
35493	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is a small tree or shrub confined to dry coastal forest remnants.	eng
35494	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to south-east Tanzania. Only two subpopulations have been recorded. One is found at Lake Lutamba, which has been completely cleared apart from the 10 km² contained within Litipo Forest Reserve. The other is further south at Masasi, an area which is relatively unexplored and unprotected.	eng
35494	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of dry coastal forest.	eng
35495	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small shrub or tree, endemic to south-east Tanzania.	eng
35495	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs in patches of remaining dry coastal forest.	eng
35496	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variant known only from a single collection made in Mwakeleli.	eng
35496	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Montane bamboo forest.	eng
35497	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variant of a Tanzanian endemic, in the South Nguru Mts., the Uluguru Mts. and Kurekese Forest Reserve.	eng
35497	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Subpopulations occur in areas of moist montane forest.	eng
35498	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two forest guards are employed to prevent illegal activities or encroachment within the reserve.	eng
35498	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is the lowland variant of a Tanzanian endemic. A single population is known and confined to Kimboza Forest Reserve, 4 km² of disturbed moist forest at the foot of the Uluguru Mts.	eng
35498	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Lowland disturbed moist forest.	eng
35498	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The area is densely populated and the demand for land for cultivation is strong.	eng
35499	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from only two collections: one from forest on the slopes of Mt. Roraima and the other from Kaieteur savanna.	eng
35500	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, currently known only from southern sites in Amazonas, Venezuela and from an adjacent site in Brazil.	eng
35500	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in high non-flooded rainforest.	eng
35501	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A shrub or tree known from very few collections originating from central Brazilian Amazonia.	eng
35501	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Permanently flooded forest.	eng
35502	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A treelet with a distribution confined to a small area in Amazonas.	eng
35502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Periodically flooded sandy savannah.	eng
35503	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, currently known from just two collections taken from a site near Puerto Ayacucho.	eng
35503	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low forest over granitic rocks.	eng
35505	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All areas of distribution are protected within national parks.	eng
35505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Roraima, Ptari-tepui, Cerro Jáua and the Chimantá Massif in Bolívar State.	eng
35505	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species recorded from localities of dwarf mossy forest or scrub.	eng
35506	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ogaden.	eng
35506	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies confined to dense deciduous bushland on limestone slopes.	eng
35506	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Not an uncommon taxon.	eng
35506	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Source of firewood, charcoal and wood for making tools and implements.	eng
35507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Three varieties exist within this subspecies, all of which are endemic to Ethiopia. Variety <em>unifoliata</em> is most restricted in range, known only from the type collection in the Gojam region. Specimens from the other varieties are confused.	eng
35507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows well after forest clearance.	eng
35507	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subspecies as a whole is not threatened.	eng
35508	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sidamo and adjacent parts of Shewa. The type variety is not ecologically distinct and is widely spread from Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania to Saudi Arabia.	eng
35508	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known only from Afromontane forest and forest margins.	eng
35509	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Cuba and Hispaniola. In Cuba and Haiti, the species has disappeared from most places. In the Dominican Republic it has been reported only from Sierra de Barahona.	eng
35509	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree confined to semi-deciduous forest.	eng
35509	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Logging, settlement and agricultural expansion.	eng
35510	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to Amazonas State.	eng
35510	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of periodically or permanently flooded forest.	eng
35510	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The rarest of the four species in the genus.	eng
35511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree with an apparently disjunct distribution, occurring in the remaining forest in south-east Nigeria and also in Democratic Republic of Congo, where the extent of its occurrence is not at present known. In Nigeria the largest, if not only, intact population occurs in the Oban Division of the Cross River National Park	eng
35511	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation in the region has been extensive.	eng
35513	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the central parishes.	eng
35513	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is locally common in woodland margins on rough limestone.	eng
35513	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat declines have been considerable.	eng
35514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Clarendon, Manchester and St Ann.	eng
35514	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to woodland on limestone.	eng
35514	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General habitat declines have been considerable.	eng
35515	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	included in the Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
35515	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Although the species is restricted in range in the vicinity of Manaus, it is known from many localities.	eng
35515	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurring in non-flooded forest.	eng
35516	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type locality in the department of Amazonas.	eng
35516	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower montane cloud forest, occurring between 1,700 and 2,100 m.	eng
35516	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree, relatively newly described. It is known only from the type locality.	eng
35517	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Around Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35517	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to non-flooded forests.	eng
35517	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species range has been extensively reduced through urban expansion and exploitation.	eng
35518	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Included in INPA Biological Reserve and Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
35518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the vicinity of Manaus.	eng
35518	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy tree of non-flooded forest.	eng
35519	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Small subpopulations are protected in Chagres National Park.	eng
35519	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	On the summits of mountains in the Cordillera Central in central-eastern Panama.	eng
35519	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species largely confined to cloud forest.	eng
35519	population	Mitré, M., 1998	In localised areas it may be common, but on the whole it is not frequent.	eng
35519	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In Santa Rita and along the road from El Llano to Cartí, in the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve, a large part of the forest has been destroyed.	eng
35520	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from the type specimen taken from Veraguas in 1974 and from a recent collection from Costa Rica. Similar specimens in the area have been identified as <em>E. panamensis</em>.	eng
35521	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An occurrence is recorded in Jari Genetic Reserve.	eng
35521	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Subpopulations are small but relatively widely scattered.	eng
35522	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Currently known only from one location on the Belém-Brasília highway.	eng
35522	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Tree of periodically flooded forest.	eng
35522	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Has experienced serious habitat loss over the last two decades.	eng
35523	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known solely from the type locality surrounding Saül.	eng
35523	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland moist forest.	eng
35523	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	To date only two individuals have been located.	eng
35524	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from west-central Guyana. More collections of flowering material are needed to consolidate the taxonomy.	eng
35524	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, recorded only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1943.	eng
35526	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Jamaican subspecies of a Central American taxon most commonly found in the western parishes.	eng
35526	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland.	eng
35527	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, uncommon and confined to areas of woodland on limestone hillsides.	eng
35528	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Manchester, St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes. It may represent a form of <em>E. harrisii</em>.	eng
35528	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree found uncommonly on steep wooded hillsides.	eng
35528	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat in St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes has been almost completely cleared or severely degraded.	eng
35529	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to the Blue Mts.	eng
35529	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs occasionally to commonly on wooded slopes below 1,650 m, mostly in the southern catchments.	eng
35529	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbance from encroaching agriculture has been very severe.	eng
35530	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is an uncommon species found on lowland wooded limestone hillsides.	eng
35531	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Slightly more widespread than the type variety, this taxon occurs in St Catherine and St Elizabeth.	eng
35531	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to woodland on limestone.	eng
35531	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncommon.	eng
35532	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the western Blue Mts. the species is scattered but moderately common, especially in the relatively extensive forests of the northern catchments.	eng
35532	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest, especially on steep slopes.	eng
35533	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Blue Mts. and John Crow Mts. Two varieties have been described but they commonly intergrade.	eng
35533	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread common component of most forest types	eng
35534	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in central and western parishes, this tree has a local distribution.	eng
35534	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to remaining areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
35534	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	General declines in the habitat have been considerable.	eng
35535	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The distribution is disjunct, with occurrences in Clarendon, Manchester and Portland Parishes.	eng
35535	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to damp shady woodlands on limestone.	eng
35535	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been severely degraded and converted into commercial plantations in many places.	eng
35536	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations occurring occasionally in western parishes.	eng
35536	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub in shaded gullies and on sheltered banks.	eng
35537	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in central and eastern parishes.	eng
35537	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thickets and on rocky banks.	eng
35537	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common species.	eng
35539	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to the Peruvian Amazon at the mouth of Río Santiago.	eng
35539	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently known only from the type collection.	eng
35540	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	This species is known from few collections, at the base of the Pacific slopes of the Andes, occurring at the type locality in Valle, Colombia, and in Los Ríos, Ecuador.	eng
35540	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
35541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to the Peruvian Amazon at Yurimaguas in the department of Loreto.	eng
35541	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently known only from the type collection.	eng
35542	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia.	eng
35542	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Probably occurring in rainforest.	eng
35542	population	Calderon, E., 1998	the species is known only from a few collections from the department of Valle on the Pacific coast.	eng
35543	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known only from central Amazonia.	eng
35543	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35544	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Occurs in Valle.	eng
35544	population	Calderon, E., 1998	A poorly known species, recorded only from the type locality.	eng
35545	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to central Amazonia.	eng
35545	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35545	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	the species is known from rare collections on the Manaus-Porto Vello road.	eng
35546	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which is confined to forested areas from the Javari River area between Brazil and Peru.	eng
35547	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of western Amazonia.	eng
35547	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurring in non-flooded forest from sea level to 600 m.	eng
35548	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	South-west Amazonia.	eng
35548	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is confined to non-flooded forest.	eng
35549	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species appears to be restricted to the extreme western part of Amazonia.	eng
35549	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurring in non-flooded forest.	eng
35550	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known with certainty from the Lesser Antilles. The other subspecies are widespread in the Amazon.	eng
35550	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in remaining areas of lowland rainforest, often at riversides.	eng
35551	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A tree of Pacific coastal forest. Known from only a few collections taken from the department of Valle in Colombia and Esmeraldas in Ecuador.	eng
35552	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from the Massif de la Hotte in Haiti and near Rincón in Dominican Republic.	eng
35552	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of forested limestone hills.	eng
35553	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Type collection from the Rio Negro basin.	eng
35553	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
35554	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Despite its wide distribution in Amazonian Peru, Brazil, and the border area between Brazil and Guyana, this tree has been collected rarely.	eng
35554	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Scattered in non-flooded forest.	eng
35555	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species occurring in the middle and upper Rio Negro and adjacent Roraima territory. It has also been collected once south of the Amazon in Pará.	eng
35556	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This understorey species, although locally abundant in places, is confined to western and south-western Amazonia.	eng
35557	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to St Catherine, Hanover and Trelawny.	eng
35557	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is uncommon and local in its distribution.	eng
35558	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Amazonian Brazil and adjacent parts of Venezuela.	eng
35558	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species appears to be restricted to non-flooded forest between 1,250 and 1,300 m.	eng
35559	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Locally common but confined to the vicinity of the type locality in the Tapajós River region.	eng
35559	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An understorey tree in non-flooded forest.	eng
35559	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Locally common.	eng
35560	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type locality is in the Rio Cuminá-Mirim region.	eng
35560	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded lowland rainforest.	eng
35560	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A very small tree, known only from the type locality.	eng
35561	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A subspecies which is known in Panama solely from a collection from Darién made in 1962. Similar collections in the area have been identified as ssp. <em>rhodantha</em>. In Colombia there is a collection of the subspecies from the Chocó but no further information is available.	eng
35562	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The greater part of the range is in protected areas.	eng
35562	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring largely in Colombia and extending into Darién and the Kunayala Indigenous Reserve in Panama.	eng
35562	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	This subspecies is recorded from low to medium elevation rainforest, often along streamsides.	eng
35562	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The taxon is reported to relatively common and regenerating well in places.	eng
35563	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An occasional species of the eastern parishes.	eng
35563	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in moist woodlands on limestone.	eng
35564	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is distributed in central and western parishes.	eng
35564	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of woodlands on limestone.	eng
35564	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Abundant where it occurs.	eng
35565	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, Amapá, Brazil and Guyana.	eng
35565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree.	eng
35566	distribution	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Upper Amazon.	eng
35566	habitat	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A tree of non-flooded forest.	eng
35567	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which occurs in the parishes of Portland and St Thomas.	eng
35567	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	By streams and in damp ravines in submontane woodland.	eng
35567	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally common.	eng
35567	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deforestation has almost completely removed the habitat in the latter parish, areas in ravines probably representing the only remaining fragments.	eng
35568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from western and north-western parishes.	eng
35568	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is confined to areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
35569	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central and western Puerto Rica.	eng
35569	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of moist hills and mountain forest.	eng
35570	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Andrew, Clarendon, St Ann and Portland Parishes.	eng
35570	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree, confined to moist woodlands on limestone between 700 and 900 m .	eng
35570	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The loss of habitat has been particularly severe in St Andrew.	eng
35571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from central parishes.	eng
35571	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to rocky limestone woodland.	eng
35572	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to be endemic.	eng
35572	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to coastal vegetation on limestone.	eng
35573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Blue Mts., sometimes in abundance, on the Grand Ridge and on steep slopes in the headwaters of the Clyde, Green and Mabess Rivers.	eng
35573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane woodland species.	eng
35574	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Eastern parishes and Clarendon.	eng
35574	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Jamaica the variety occurs in thickets and woodlands.	eng
35575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined at the headwaters of Green River in St Andrews Parish.	eng
35575	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary montane forest above 1,800 m.	eng
35575	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common species.	eng
35575	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring above 1,800 m, the species' habitat has largely escaped the forest destruction and degradation which have been extensive at lower altitudes.	eng
35576	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Throughout Panama and in Chocó and Antioquia in Colombia. The species is generally scarce except in the Canal area and in Darién National Park, Panama.	eng
35576	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations occur in lowland semi-deciduous rainforest, rarely in secondary forest.	eng
35576	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Much of the unprotected forest at these low altitudes is exposed to increasing settlement, farming and agriculture.	eng
35577	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sagua-Baracoa range in eastern Cuba.	eng
35577	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree found in pine forests, serpentine shrubwoods and shrublands.	eng
35577	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has been degraded in places. Logging and mining activities are constant threats.	eng
35578	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Jamaica.	eng
35578	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type variety is found in crevices of precipitous rocks.	eng
35578	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat is relatively well protected from the extensive clearance which has taken place in more accessible habitats.	eng
35579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively recently described species, in La Huerta on the coast of Jalisco.	eng
35579	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a small tree in deciduous forest.	eng
35579	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type locality.	eng
35580	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon is recorded in Ilha do Cardosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35580	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Atlantic forest species which is closely related to <em>L. pubescens</em>, also an endemic to Brazilian Atlantic forest but more widely ranging in five states. The separation of the two taxa in Sâo Paulo poses such difficulty that it is possible they may be considered taxonomically the same species.	eng
35581	distribution	Torres, R.B., 1998	An endemic species.	eng
35581	habitat	Torres, R.B., 1998	Atlantic Forest.	eng
35581	threats	Torres, R.B., 1998	Although it has suffered dramatic habitat losses it is not under immediate threat of extinction.	eng
35582	habitat	Cavalcanti, T.B., 1998	This species is widely distributed in cerrado vegetation types.	eng
35582	threats	Cavalcanti, T.B., 1998	Extensive areas of the habitat type are being cleared and replaced with crops and pastureland.	eng
35583	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are known from Westmoreland, Hanover and Trelawny parishes. The species has a local distribution.	eng
35583	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of thickets and woodlands on limestone.	eng
35584	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Frequently common along the south coast.	eng
35584	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in dry thickets on limestone.	eng
35585	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a few collections from the Roraima territory of Brazil and adjacent Guyana.	eng
35585	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small savannah tree.	eng
35586	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known to occur in Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
35586	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A relatively widely occurring species of Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
35587	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Collections suggest that this tree is widespread both geographically and ecologically.	eng
35588	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from central Amazonia	eng
35588	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A canopy tree, occurring in non-flooded forest.	eng
35589	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known to occur in the Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
35589	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Vicinity of Manaus.	eng
35589	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to non-flooded forests.	eng
35589	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is under some pressure from urban expansion.	eng
35590	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in the Ducke Forest Reserve and INPA Experimental Reserve.	eng
35590	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Amazonia.	eng
35590	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy tree confined to non-flooded forest.	eng
35591	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Evidence from collections indicate that this is a wide-ranging species.	eng
35591	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Scattered in non-flooded forest.	eng
35592	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to the Sierra Maestra mountain range.	eng
35592	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Montane semi-deciduous forest.	eng
35592	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Subpopulations of this tree are uncommon.	eng
35593	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Clarendon, Portland and St Thomas.	eng
35593	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree of hillside woodlands, occurring at altitudes of 480 to 900 m.	eng
35593	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging and encroaching agriculture have caused extensive disturbance, causing almost complete loss or severe degradation of forest in St Thomas in particular.	eng
35594	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Ann, St Mary and St Thomas.	eng
35594	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree found in woodland at about 600 m.	eng
35594	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost all forested areas at this altitude have been removed or severely degraded in St Thomas.	eng
35595	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Blue Mts.	eng
35595	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mostly in secondary montane forest at altitudes below 1,650 m, the species is relatively common in southern catchments at forest margins. It colonises exposed well-drained sites.	eng
35596	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Blue Mts.	eng
35596	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is generally rare, although locally dominant in a few sites on ridge tops, especially on the Grand Ridge.	eng
35597	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is very localised near Monte Verde in the Nipe-Baracoa Massif, Guantánamo.	eng
35597	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Shrub or small tree occurring only in rainforest on ferralitic soils.	eng
35597	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This is a rare species.	eng
35597	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat is susceptible to cutting and logging.	eng
35599	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found mostly in the north-central and eastern parishes.	eng
35599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in rocky rainforest and in pasture margins.	eng
35599	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not common and habitat degradation has been severe in places.	eng
35600	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sierra de Manantlán and Cacoma in Jalisco. There is also a disjunct subpopulation in Guerrero.	eng
35600	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A majestic tree in mesophyllous montane forest.	eng
35601	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety which appears to be known only from a few localities from Zapopan and San Cristóbal.	eng
35601	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ravines and gorges.	eng
35602	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a protected population in La Amistad National Park.	eng
35602	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Recently described, the species is presently known from the Cordillera Central in Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí Provinces, right up to the border with Costa Rica. There is almost no doubt that the species continues into Costa Rica on the Cordillera de Talamanca, although it has yet to be collected here.	eng
35602	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Forest between 2,000 and 2,600 m.	eng
35603	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	It is fairly common in Volcán Barú National Park and is expected to be found in other protected areas.	eng
35603	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	This subspecies is recorded from Chiriquí and Coclé Provinces. The other subspecies is endemic to Costa Rica.	eng
35603	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in cloud forest between 1,000 and 2,600 m.	eng
35603	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The subpopulations in Coclé are facing significant increase in the human population, and in industrial and tourist activities.	eng
35604	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Brazilian Atlantic coast.	eng
35604	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A primary forest tree, restricted to an altitudinal range between 600 and 700 m.	eng
35604	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It provides an excellent timber. Overexploitation of both the tree and the habitat as a whole has caused the species to become scarce.	eng
35605	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within Canaima National Park.	eng
35605	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a location headwaters of Río Pacairao in the Gran Sabana in Bolívar.	eng
35605	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to gallery forest at 1,100 m.	eng
35605	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found some 30 years ago and it has apparently not been found since.	eng
35606	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is present in the Duke Forest Reserve near Manaus.	eng
35606	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Northern Brazil.	eng
35606	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurring in non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
35606	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is threatened  primarily by logging activities.	eng
35607	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A small tree restricted to a small area in Pernambuco.	eng
35607	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal forest and old secondary forest.	eng
35607	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The habitat is threatened by felling and increasing settlement.	eng
35608	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Collected between Maraú and Campinhos.	eng
35608	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Restinga forest on roadside.	eng
35608	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A treelet which has been collected only once, in 1982.	eng
35609	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type collection originates from Bahia. The only other record was made in 1965, when the species was reported to be relatively abundant in Linhares in Espírito Santo.	eng
35609	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	No recent collections in either of the known locations have since been made and the species is reported to have suffered population declines.	eng
35610	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs within the boundaries of the Tapajós National Forest.	eng
35610	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Banks of the Tapajós River.	eng
35610	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A large tree confined to periodically flooded forest on river bank.	eng
35611	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It is native to Jamaica and Cuba.	eng
35611	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The subspecies occurs in lowland semi-deciduous forest.	eng
35611	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Most of lowland semi-deciduous forest has been heavily degraded in Cuba. Although it is a small tree, it has been overexploited for its valuable timber.	eng
35612	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree is found in various sites throughout Cuba.	eng
35612	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Both in coastal dry evergreen forests on limestone and in dry serpentine woodland.	eng
35612	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has suffered severe degradation in many places and continues to be threatened with cutting and burning.	eng
35613	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
35613	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Recorded to be abundant in Espírito Santo in 1965. This area has been heavily cleared since and recent collections of the species have been rare.	eng
35613	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
35614	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is confined to restinga vegetation.	eng
35615	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to the province of Oriente.	eng
35615	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurs in montane serpentine shrubwoods, mainly along creeks, ravines and watercourses.	eng
35615	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Mining is a constant threat to its habitat.	eng
35616	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Recorded from Belmonte Experimental Station.	eng
35616	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species has only been found once, in 1970.	eng
35617	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species occurs in the Caxiuaná  National Forest.	eng
35617	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The range of this species is restricted to non-flooded forest.	eng
35617	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Much of its range has been affected by large-scale deforestation.	eng
35618	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Kanuku Mountains.	eng
35618	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
35618	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall tree, known solely from the type collection, gathered 50 years ago.	eng
35619	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
35619	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Populations of this species are numerous. However, recent collections have suggested a decline in the numbers of individuals.	eng
35620	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in Pinar del Río and Oriente in Cuba. Two localities are recorded in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. There are also unconfirmed reports of occurrences in Puerto Rico.	eng
35620	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Subpopulations of this tall shrub or tree are found in areas of coastal and subcoastal semi-deciduous forest.	eng
35620	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Declines in the habitat have been large-scale because of logging, charcoal production and increasing settlement.	eng
35621	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There is a record from La Yeguada Forest Reserve, which lies just to the west of the principal subpopulation.	eng
35621	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Central Cordillera. Subpopulations are reported to be healthy.	eng
35621	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is restricted to areas of evergreen rainforest between 650 and 1,000 m .	eng
35621	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Much of the area has been altered by cattle ranching and increasing urbanisation.	eng
35622	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A small tree or shrub, endemic to Colombia, recorded only in Cundinamarca.	eng
35623	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded in Antioquia, Cundinamarca and Tolima.	eng
35624	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in central parishes, the species has a local distribution.	eng
35624	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to woodland on limestone hills.	eng
35625	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from central and western parishes	eng
35625	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in woodland on rough limestone.	eng
35626	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the eastern half of the island. A  variety is reported in Cuba.	eng
35626	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist thickets and forested areas.	eng
35627	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described tree known only from Loreto.	eng
35627	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in forest over white sand at altitudes between 150 and 200 m.	eng
35628	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a few collections have been made of this species, which appears to be scattered sparsely from southern Venezuela to central Brazilian Amazonia.	eng
35628	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded forest over clay up to medium elevation.	eng
35629	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, so far known only from the Manaus to Porto Velho road where the type was collected.	eng
35629	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded Amazonian forest.	eng
35629	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Unknown.	eng
35630	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From French Guiana to adjacent Amapá in Brazil, the species is especially frequent on slopes and ridge tops in the vicinity of Saül in French Guiana.	eng
35630	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35631	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree known from a few scattered sites.	eng
35631	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal rainforest.	eng
35632	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A subpopulation occurs in Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
35632	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Ranging from Bahía southwards to Sâo Paulo.	eng
35632	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
35632	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species habitat has suffered greatly from intensive logging.	eng
35633	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from western Brazilian Amazonia to Loreto in Peru.	eng
35633	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest, usually in areas which are not flooded.	eng
35634	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A shrub or small tree, restricted in distribution to areas of campo rupestre on sandstone outcrops.	eng
35634	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Overcutting is a particular threat.	eng
35635	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Puerto Rico in the Sierra de Naguabo and Luquillo Mts.	eng
35635	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is a common upper storey component of old secondary and undisturbed submontane forest.	eng
35636	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It ranges from Pernambuco to Mato Grosso but the populations appear to be highly fragmented.	eng
35636	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree of submontane cerrado, caatinga and rocky outcrops.	eng
35637	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The only known collectino originates from Neblina National Park on the Brazilian side.	eng
35637	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A single collection of the species is known.	eng
35638	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower Rio Negro in Amazonas.	eng
35638	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of igapó forest and periodically flooded savannah.	eng
35639	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type was was collected from an altitude of 1,200 m in Loreto.	eng
35639	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type is the only record of this species, collected in the first part of the century	eng
35640	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed in central and western Amazonian Brazil and in Loreto in Peru.	eng
35640	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
35641	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to a small area of southern Amazonas in Venezuela and neighbouring Brazil.	eng
35641	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in non-flooded lowland rainforest.	eng
35642	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A Cuban endemic confined to Oriente Province.	eng
35642	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
35642	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This species has suffered from overcutting.	eng
35643	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded highland and lowland forest.	eng
35643	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is known only from a few collections.	eng
35644	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type specimen is from the north-west of the Brazilian Amazon.	eng
35644	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
35644	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
35645	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in central and western parishes, the species has a sporadic distribution.	eng
35645	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mostly in open situations on limestone hills.	eng
35646	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An apparently disjunct distribution, occurring in French Guiana and neighbouring Brazil and then in the west in Loreto, Peru.	eng
35646	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
35647	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far this species has been recorded only from the site where it was first collected, north-east of Luepa in Bolívar.	eng
35647	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
35648	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only with certainty from southern Amazonas in Venezuela and adjacent Brazil. Tentative occurrences have been recorded from French Guiana and Amapá in Brazil.	eng
35649	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described tree, so far known only from the type collection in central Brazilian Amazonia.	eng
35649	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded forest over sand.	eng
35650	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Bolívar and  Amazonas.	eng
35650	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or shrub occurs in bush islands in the savannah or dwarf forest along watercourses between 1,300 and 2,000 m.	eng
35651	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is represented by two herbarium specimens, collected on or near Cerro Venamo in Bolívar.	eng
35651	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet montane mossy forest.	eng
35651	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
35653	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Holguín, Pinar del Río and Habana.	eng
35653	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This variety occurs very occasionally in dry serpentine woodland, mostly on deeper soils near ravines.	eng
35653	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places.	eng
35655	habitat	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	A widespread species of montane forest.	eng
35656	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35657	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35658	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35659	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35660	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35661	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35662	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
35663	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are almost no subpopulations outside protected areas or in disturbed forest.	eng
35663	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from the Canal area towards Darién National Park in the east.	eng
35663	population	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is very common in places, such as Barro Colorado Island and the forest around the Canal.	eng
35664	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Brazilian Atlantic forest.	eng
35664	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
35664	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species.	eng
35665	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus which is divided into two varieties. Found in Rio de Janeiro. The other variety is widespread in temperate and subtropical South America.	eng
35665	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is restricted to restinga vegetation.	eng
35665	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It does not appear to have been collected recently.	eng
35665	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This habitat is in serious danger of disappearing.	eng
35666	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	A species known from just three locations on the eastern slopes of the Andes from central and southern parts of Bolivia. It is closely related to <em>N. longifolia</em>, a more widespread species in the same region.	eng
35666	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	One of the most important timber trees in the area, it is being heavily exploited in at least one of these sites.	eng
35667	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected from just one site on the Cochabamba to Santa Cruz road. More material is needed to ascertain whether similar collections nearby are the same species.	eng
35667	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to cloud forest.	eng
35668	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from a site near Moyobamba.	eng
35668	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane species.	eng
35668	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
35669	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the banks of the Orinoco. Its range covers an area greater than 20,000 km². It is possible that this will increase as additional undetermined material is studied.	eng
35669	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A gallery forest tree.	eng
35670	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest species is known from just a few collections in south-east Brazil.	eng
35670	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rates of deforestation have been considerable.	eng
35671	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on both sides of the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela. This includes records from forest reserves, Ticoporo and Caparo.	eng
35671	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively wide-ranging tree from lowland moist forest.	eng
35672	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is well protected and essential as a watershed.	eng
35672	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from just a small population confined to a unique forest on the Cerro Jefe.	eng
35672	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Low-altitude cloud forest.	eng
35672	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Very little is actually known about the species.	eng
35673	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	An understorey species, which occurs in disjunct subpopulations. The 1886 type collection is from La Paz.	eng
35673	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	In Peru, the tree has been collected in pastures and in tall forest.	eng
35674	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The park protects 15,328 km² of forest.	eng
35674	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type specimen is from Manu National Park.	eng
35674	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
35674	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are threats from oil exploitation.	eng
35675	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Type specimen is from Limonococha. Altitude of 240 m.	eng
35675	population	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree which is known only from the type collection.	eng
35676	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered on the Massif de la Hotte.	eng
35676	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is even less well collected than its close relative <em>N. pulchra</em>. It is known only from the type collection, which was made in 1929. Fieldwork is needed to confirm whether the population is still intact.	eng
35676	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These forests are under considerable pressure from local exploitation and encroaching agriculture.	eng
35677	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Collected on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Cutucú. Altitude of 2,000 m.	eng
35677	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Elfin forest.	eng
35677	population	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Since the collection in 1976, no other record of this small tree species is known.	eng
35678	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree was originally described from an 1892 collection in Bolivia. Since then another subpopulation has been found along the banks of Río Mayo in Peru.	eng
35679	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Occurs in Jatun Sacha Biological Reserve. Collections from Morona Santiago also seem to concur with this species. Altitude of 250–1,750 m.	eng
35679	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	It occurs in humid forest.	eng
35680	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1933. Information on its ecology and habitat are lacking.	eng
35681	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	This species is apparently confined to two adjacent localities. Altitude of 250–1,800 m.	eng
35681	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Occurring as a tall tree in primary and secondary rainforest.	eng
35682	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Atlantic forest species.	eng
35682	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Has not been collected for over 100 years.	eng
35682	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tiny fraction of these forests has survived the past centuries of deforestation.	eng
35683	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest, which extends to 5,708 km².	eng
35683	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
35684	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Collected from the Cordillera de Cutucu. Altitude of 800 m.	eng
35684	population	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A species known only from a collection, in 1989.	eng
35685	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within a national park.	eng
35685	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs on the Río Mawarinuma near the Neblina Base Camp.	eng
35685	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only one population is known.	eng
35685	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbances have been caused by gold mining, and pressures also exist from the influx of people.	eng
35686	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	A newly described species. The number of sites where it is found continues to increase.	eng
35686	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	An Amazon tree species, occurring in seasonally inundated forest.	eng
35687	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from one locality on the banks of Rio Japurá.	eng
35687	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in várzea forest.	eng
35688	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from three localities along the western part of the Colombian/Ecuadorean border. The species is considered threatened by INEFAN.	eng
35688	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall tree of primary lowland rainforest.	eng
35689	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree discovered near Aguas Calientes train station in Machupicchu Historical Sanctuary.	eng
35689	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
35689	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The cloud forest extends c. 3,260 km² and is heavily visited by tourists on foot and by train. Aguas Calientes is expanding rapidly as a tourist town. However, regular burning of the forest, including a very serious fire in 1997, remains the greatest threat to the area.	eng
35690	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species confined to a small area in forest in the Iquitos region.	eng
35691	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species which has been recorded from two sites.	eng
35691	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
35692	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected.	eng
35692	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Central American <em>Nectandra</em> species which is most closely related to Amazonian species. This tree is known with certainty from La Selva Biological Station along the Río Puerto Viejo. More material is needed to confirm the species' occurrence in the Sirena Field Station in Puntarenas.	eng
35692	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Secondary woodlands and alluvial forest.	eng
35692	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area occupies a small corridor of forest now surrounded by pastureland and crops.	eng
35693	population	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	This species is known only from the type specimen collected in the last century. It has not been found since and its locality in the wild remains unknown.	eng
35694	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Province of Beni. A more serious threat category may apply if the area of occupancy were determined.	eng
35694	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a small tree or shrub, this species is confined to islands of forest in savannah.	eng
35695	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A seriously restricted species.	eng
35695	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is recorded only from tall evergreen forest in Chiapas.	eng
35695	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These forests, in particular, have suffered dramatic declines in extent, largely because of land settlement and cattle ranching.	eng
35696	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from three collections near Limón.	eng
35696	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower ridges in remnant primary forest.	eng
35696	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There has been large-scale conversion of these forests over the last 50 years into pastureland.	eng
35697	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Closely related to <em>N. globosa</em>, this species is known from southern coastal Bahia and adjacent Mato Grosso. A disjunct and doubtful locality also exists 1,800 km inland.	eng
35697	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Gallery forest, secondary vegetation and cocoa plantations, where it is used as a shade tree.	eng
35698	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to deciduous or secondary forests.	eng
35698	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been considerable declines in the extent of the forest, largely because of land settlement and cattle ranching.	eng
35699	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	With more up-to-date information a more serious threat category might apply.	eng
35699	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree species is restricted to the remnants of  coastal rainforest and the cocoa plantations which have taken the place of forest.	eng
35700	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Collected from Isla de Pinos and the adjacent mainland.	eng
35700	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The only collections of this shrub or small tree were made over 50 years ago. Fieldwork is necessary to determine how many individuals exist.	eng
35700	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Natural vegetation remains only where land is unsuitable for agriculture.	eng
35701	conservation	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Part of the population is in Río Guajalito Floristic Reserve.	eng
35701	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	A tree species collected from southernmost Colombia to Ecuador. The number of collections in Ecuador appears to be increasing	eng
35701	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Andean cloud and montane forests.	eng
35702	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Restricted to a fairly small range from southern Ecuador to northern Peru on the eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
35702	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
35702	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Threats exist from fires and encroaching farming activities.	eng
35703	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-east Brazil. In Sâo Paulo it is restricted to Carlos Botelho State Park.	eng
35703	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is confined to primary rainforest.	eng
35704	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Largely known from the region of  Río Pastaza. Another slightly different collection has been made in Loreto.  Despite intensive collecting in Ecuador the species has not been found to be more widespread.	eng
35704	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Primary forest species.	eng
35705	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Restinga vegetation.	eng
35705	population	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Only four collections have been made in the last 50 years.	eng
35705	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	The restinga vegetation to which the species is confined is being rapidly destroyed, especially in the region of Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35706	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to forest in the foothills of the Peruvian Andes.	eng
35706	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fires are frequent.	eng
35707	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from the vicinity of Miragoane.	eng
35707	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Limestone crags.	eng
35707	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been collected since 1927.	eng
35707	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest areas in Haiti have declined rapidly in the past century and the demand for land to cultivate continues to put pressure on remaining areas.	eng
35708	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From central Costa Rica to Coclé in Panama.	eng
35708	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree species is confined to drier montane forest.	eng
35708	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the area is covered by La Amistad Biosphere Reserve but forest destruction in the past decades has been considerable and pressures are still exerted by various activities: expanding agriculture, logging, industrial plantations, oil exploration, hydroelectric projects.	eng
35709	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in montane forests.	eng
35709	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forests have declined in extent and continue to be under serious threat of deforestation.	eng
35710	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species which is restricted to the lowland link between the Orinoco and Amazon basins in Venezuela. Its extent of occurrence covers in the region of 50,000 km².	eng
35711	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally recorded only from Costa Rican cloud forest, this tree may now have been found in Panama.	eng
35711	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in submontane forest.	eng
35712	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is relatively widespread.	eng
35712	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to remnant primary forest, mostly in coffee plantations.	eng
35712	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The potentially unbalanced structure of the subpopulations and their location put the species at risk.	eng
35713	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the surroundings of Rio de Janeiro city.	eng
35713	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Under serious threat from habitat destruction.	eng
35714	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type was taken on the road from Mérida to La Azulita. It is very closely related to the more widespread <em>N. cissiflora</em>.	eng
35714	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species which is known only from the type, gathered in 1982.	eng
35715	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Peru.	eng
35715	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in Andean forests.	eng
35715	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from only two locations and has not been collected again for some years, which may indicate that there has been a serious decline in the population.	eng
35715	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It apparently has the reputation of being the most-used general-purpose timber in the Chachapoyas area.	eng
35716	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a poorly known tree species from Serra do Frio in Minas Gerais.	eng
35716	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from only herbarium specimens, the most recent of which is from 1864.	eng
35717	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species collected only from within a 250 km radius of Rio de Janeiro city.	eng
35718	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	A little-known species with only one recorded location along Río Marañon near Teniente Pingo in Loreto.	eng
35718	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Amazon rainforest.	eng
35719	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known solely from two collections in the Río Ucayali, one being in the Iparía National Forest. More material would help determine its taxonomic position.	eng
35720	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A Colombian endemic, found in Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander.	eng
35721	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in St Ann, St Elizabeth and Clarendon Parishes.	eng
35721	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
35722	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the regions of Uxpanapa and Los Tuxtlas.	eng
35722	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree of riparian forest.	eng
35722	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Half of the forest in Uxpanapa has disappeared through resettlement projects in the 1970s. The forests of Los Tuxtlas are rapidly disappearing and are considered to be extremely threatened.	eng
35724	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas including Selous Game Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, various Kaya forests, Witu Forest Reserve, Pongwe Forest Reserve, and Kimboza Forest Reserve.	eng
35724	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs along the coast of Kenya into Tanzania and inland to the East Usambara and Uluguru Mts. Also on Pemba (at Ngezi) and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania).	eng
35724	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or small tree found growing in evergreen coastal forest, often on coral. Specific habitat associations recorded are as follows:<br/><ul><li>Igneous intrusion with moist semi-deciduous forest. Dominants: <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeos, Cola pseudoclavata, C. minor, Ricinodendron, Combretum schumannii, Craibia, Manilkara, Haplocoelopsis, Drypetes</span>. Lianes: <span style="font-style: italic;">Combretum, Salacia, Dichapetalum</span>.</li><li><span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena</span> forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span>. </li><li>In riverine thicket at Selous. </li><li>Dry evergreen forest on coral limestone rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Stuhlmannia moavi, Cynometra brachyrrachis, Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>, etc.</li></ul>Said to be a characteristic species of cave wells on Zanzibar.	eng
35724	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Common where it occurs; usually healthy populations.	eng
35724	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The locality at Mangea has been almost if not entirely destroyed by forest clearance for agriculture. Is threatened elsewhere by habitat loss due to forest loss and degradation (agriculture, tourism, mining, fuelwood, charcoal, etc.).	eng
35725	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with an occasional distribution in central and western parishes.	eng
35725	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland and pasture margins on limestone.	eng
35726	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Kenya to eastern Tanzania and Zanzibar Island and possibly Mozambique.	eng
35726	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or tree of dry coastal forest or open woodland.	eng
35727	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring in eastern Tanzania and extending south into north-east Mozambique.	eng
35727	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is found in remaining riverine forest or thicket.	eng
35728	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found from the vicinity of the Shimba Hills in south-east Kenya, through eastern Tanzania to Zanzibar Island.	eng
35728	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree found only in areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
35729	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from the Taita Hills in Kenya, the West Usambara Mts. and Pare Mts. in Tanzania. There is also an unusual record of occurrence at Nou in Mbulu based on a single collection.	eng
35729	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	An upland moist forest species.	eng
35730	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The bulk of the population is found in areas on the eastern mountains of Tanzania. Another subpopulation, which shows some morphological distinctness and was originally published under the name of <em>M. henriquesii</em>, occurs on the island of Sâo Tomé. The population here is small and found in areas which were forest at the turn of the century but are now cultivated or secondary forest.	eng
35730	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Moist evergreen forest.	eng
35731	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A Colombian endemic, known only from Antioquia and Chocó.	eng
35732	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A single collection is known from south-west Mau in Kenya. In Tanzania occurrences are known from Mt. Kilamanjaro, Kilomeni and the Nguru Mts.	eng
35732	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subspecies of dry montane forest.	eng
35733	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Scattered in a relatively unexplored region extending from Kilwa in southern Tanzania to northern Mozambique.	eng
35733	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety from dry forest patches.	eng
35734	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is possibly cultivated in Madagascar.	eng
35734	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging in a relatively unexplored area from southern Tanzania in the Kilwa district to northern Mozambique.	eng
35734	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is confined to patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
35735	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Jamaican variety of a Caribbean species. It occurs in the central and north-western parishes.	eng
35735	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodlands on limestone.	eng
35736	distribution	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Collected from Sâo Paulo de Olivença.	eng
35736	population	Pereira, J.P. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Only one collection exists, made in 1932	eng
35737	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species confined to relatively unexplored coastal areas in Kingupira in Tanzania and northern Mozambique.	eng
35737	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
35738	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is hard to distinguish from the type variety. Both are endemic to the Blue Mts.	eng
35738	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This form apparently is locally common in montane thickets on shale above 750 m.	eng
35739	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the western Blue Mts., the population is restricted to a small area north of the Grand Ridge at the headwaters of the Mabess River.	eng
35739	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable species with distinctive subpopulations in middle-elevation and montane woodlands on limestone.	eng
35740	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon slender tree, occurring in thickets and woodlands on limestone, especially in wet areas.	eng
35741	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Andrew and St Catherine.	eng
35741	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree which occurs in some abundance in dry thickets on low limestone ridges, cliffs and ledges.	eng
35742	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in western and central parishes.	eng
35742	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland and thickets on limestone.	eng
35742	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An apparently abundant species.	eng
35743	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Kenya this shrubby species is known from the Arabuko-Sokoke forest. It ranges south to south-east Tanzania.	eng
35743	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
35744	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from the Shimba Hills, Dzombo and Witu in Kenya to eastern Tanzania.	eng
35744	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species confined to areas of moist coastal forest.	eng
35745	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Huila.	eng
35746	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Shimba Hills, Buda and Arabuko-Sokoke in Kenya to eastern Tanzania and Pemba Island.	eng
35746	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species confined to areas of moist coastal forest.	eng
35747	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to Cuba.	eng
35747	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This shrub or small tree is confined to coastal habitats in dry forests on limestone.	eng
35747	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Only areas which are unsuitable for agriculture or inaccessible have survived. Overcutting, burning and settlement are constant threats.	eng
35748	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A poorly known species, found only in one location on the coast in Pinar del Río Province.	eng
35748	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is necessary to locate viable populations.	eng
35748	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Overcutting and tourism are the main threats but vegetation remains in rugged and inaccessible areas.	eng
35749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to the highlands of Jamaica.	eng
35749	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Highlands above 600 m.	eng
35749	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A popular source of firewood but populations are probably most seriously threatened by habitat degradation.	eng
35750	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree restricted to the province of Baracoa. Unspoiled areas remain where the terrain is rugged and inaccessible.	eng
35750	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has experienced declines because of logging, overcutting, mining and tourism.	eng
35751	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Known only from Sierra de Nipe in the Oriente, this shrub or small tree is poorly documented. Only areas which are inaccessible remain relatively unspoiled.	eng
35751	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to a habitat declining through logging, overcutting, mining and tourism.	eng
35752	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A morphologically interesting species which is known only from the type location, near a stream in Oriente Province.	eng
35752	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Fieldwork is necessary to search for populations in more inaccessible, intact areas.	eng
35752	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has been extensively degraded by logging, overcutting, mining and tourism. The spread of invasive plants along streams is also a major threat.	eng
35753	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from about four localities in Sâo Paulo and Santa Catarina. The type variety is found further inland.	eng
35753	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A coastal forest taxon.	eng
35753	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large-scale deforestation and habitat degradation have occurred over the centuries.	eng
35754	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Hispaniola endemic found in a number of locations.	eng
35754	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remaining upland broadleaved forest.	eng
35754	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The decline in the extent of forest has been drastic.	eng
35755	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Two localities are known. One is in Kenya in Mkongani North and the other is in the East Usambara Mts.	eng
35755	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
35756	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to north-central Hispaniola.	eng
35756	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety grows in forest and woodland areas.	eng
35756	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been drastically reduced in extent.	eng
35757	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The nominate variant of an East African endemic. Populations occur in the Shimba Hills, Gongoni and Pangani rocks in Kenya. They extend into remaining forest patches in eastern Tanzania.	eng
35757	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
35758	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the vicinity of Peninsular Samaná.	eng
35758	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety occurs in areas of forest on limestone.	eng
35758	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest has been dramatically reduced in extent and continues to be threatened by grazing, agricultural encroachment and logging.	eng
35759	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	An important timber tree. It is scattered thinly in nine Mexican states. More information may indicate that a threat category is appropriate.	eng
35759	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Coniferous montane forest.	eng
35759	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The population is concentrated around México city and must be under great pressure from urban and other developments. The timber is highly sought-after.	eng
35760	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Kenya to north-east Tanzania.	eng
35760	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This small tree or shrub is confined to patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
35761	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This taxon is the more widespread of the two variants of the subspecies <em>nyassica</em>. It is distributed in two small areas in Tanzania and further south in Malawi.	eng
35761	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
35762	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The variety is known from the Udzungwa Mts., Njombe and Rungwe Mts. in Tanzania, also occurring in Malawi. The type variety is more restricted in range.	eng
35762	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree of moist montane forests, above 1,800 m.	eng
35763	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted in range. It is possible that the range of this variety extends into Mozambique.	eng
35763	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This is a shrub or small tree found in dry deciduous coastal thickets on sand.	eng
35764	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Plantations have been established but no conservation measures are in place.	eng
35764	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The exact limits of its range are imperfectly known.	eng
35764	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is found in upland valleys and plateaux, often growing on deep rich fertile soil, sometimes forming pure stands.	eng
35764	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A tree increasingly exploited for its quality timber. Frequently cleared and replaced by secondary shrubland, with <em>P. oocarpa</em>.	eng
35765	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Kenya this variety has been recorded from Taita Hills and Loitokitok. It also occurs in northern Tanzania.	eng
35765	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Groundwater or riverine forest and rocky bushland.	eng
35766	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A taxon known from a single locality at Mufindi, Tanzania, and also from a population in Malawi.	eng
35766	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
35767	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the species ranges from Costa Rica to northern South America, this variant is thought to be endemic to Panama, where it occurs in a number of provinces. It is scarce outside protected areas. The taxon's range closely approaches both national borders and possibly extends into Costa Rica and Colombia, but is recognised there only at the species level.	eng
35767	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Mainly in undisturbed rainforest up to 1,300 m.	eng
35768	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree with an occasional occurrence in central parishes.	eng
35768	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In remaining areas of woodland on craggy limestone.	eng
35769	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known only from Ngangao forest in the Taita Hills in Kenya and a slightly larger area in Tanzania.	eng
35769	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This shrub or small tree is restricted to patches of dry forest at medium to high altitude.	eng
35770	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species occurs in east and south Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe.	eng
35770	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Confined to areas of moist montane forest.	eng
35771	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species ranging from a few localities in Kenya to areas of east Tanzania.	eng
35771	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest or thicket.	eng
35772	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from south-east Tanzania to Mozambique.	eng
35772	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A dry coastal forest small tree.	eng
35773	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The higher altitude variant of the species. Populations are known from the Nyika Plateau within Malawi and Zambia and further north in parts of Tanzania.	eng
35773	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
35774	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This variant, as with the type variety, occurs in the Nyika Plateau and parts of Tanzania.	eng
35774	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest. It is restricted to lower altitudes, from 1,800 to 1,950 m.	eng
35775	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs in four localities, including Ukaguru, Rungwe and Songea in Tanzania.	eng
35775	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to areas of moist montane forest.	eng
35776	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging from the Taita Hills to eastern Tanzania.	eng
35776	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree from forest fringes, rocky bushland and moist forest at medium elevation.	eng
35777	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This variant is more widespread than the type variety. Subpopulations are known from the Uluguru Mts., Mt. Rungwe in Tanzania and also from Malawi.	eng
35777	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to montane forest at higher altitudes.	eng
35778	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Found from Shimba, Mrima, Marenje and Miongoni in Kenya and further south in east and north-east Tanzania.	eng
35778	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub known from areas of coastal forest.	eng
35779	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to small areas in three locations. There is a population on the Kivu Plateau, another in Rwanda and a third in Kwiro Forest Reserve in Tanzania.	eng
35779	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub of moist montane forest.	eng
35779	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Pressures from a growing agricultural population continue to affect all locations.	eng
35780	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The distribution of this variant is disjunct with populations confined to forest patches in south-east Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar.	eng
35780	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry coastal forest.	eng
35781	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Ranging in distribution from Arabuko and Mangea in south-east Kenya to parts of north-east Tanzania.	eng
35781	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub occurring in patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
35782	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from the West Usambara Mts. and also sighted in the South Nguru Mts., this species is locally common.	eng
35782	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Within a 200 m altitudinal range in moist forest.	eng
35783	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The demand for land is high but two forest guards prevent illegal encroachment and activities.	eng
35783	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from three localities in Tanzania. A population is confined to Kimboza Forest Reserve, 4 km² of forest in a densely populated area. There are also populations also at low elevations in the East Usambara Mts. and North Udzungwa Mountains.	eng
35783	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A moist lowland forest tree.	eng
35784	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A shrub or small tree endemic to the northern part of the Usambara Mountains.	eng
35784	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It is found only in dry forest areas at low to medium altitudes.	eng
35784	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The extent of lowland forest has declined severely and agricultural land has taken its place.	eng
35785	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurring only in the Nguru Mts. and in the south of the Udzungwa Mountains at Kihanzi.	eng
35785	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of moist semi-deciduous submontane forests.	eng
35787	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Three localities are known: the East Usambara Mts., Makuyuni and Mahenge.	eng
35787	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The species is found in moist forest within a narrow altitudinal belt, between 900 and 1,000 m	eng
35788	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	An uncommon species along the banks of Ríos Paraná and Paraguay.	eng
35788	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Restricted to gallery forest.	eng
35788	population	Prado, D., 1998	Collections appear to be declining in number and in extent of occurrence.	eng
35788	threats	Prado, D., 1998	Existing threats to remaining subpopulations include dam construction, tourism and fishing.	eng
35790	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Isolated subpopulations are known from forested areas in the Uluguru Mts., West Usambara Mts. and the Albertine Rift. There is a distinct variance between the subpopulations but it is not thought to be taxonomically significant. The only other member of the genus is endemic to Sâo Tomé.	eng
35790	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Forested areas.	eng
35791	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This variety occurs in south-east Tanzania and Mozambique.	eng
35791	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Remaining areas of dry coastal forest.	eng
35792	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The range of this species extends from eastern Tanzania and Mafia Island to northern Mozambique.	eng
35792	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
35792	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The subpopulations in Mozambique may be extensive.	eng
35792	threats	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Much of the habitat has suffered from conversion to agriculture and local exploitation.	eng
35793	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub known only from one locality in St Andrews. Similar specimens come from other parts of the island but their identity has not been confirmed.	eng
35793	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Limestone rocks and cliffs.	eng
35794	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is cultivated as an ornamental in the Old World.	eng
35794	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to thickets and woodlands on limestone.	eng
35794	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is fairly common.	eng
35797	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is protected as a forest reserve. Plans have now been drawn up to ensure the conservation of the remaining natural resources and the prevention of further illegal activities.	eng
35797	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Originally known under the genus <em>Dasylepis</em>, this tree is confined to a small area on Mt. Mulanje.	eng
35797	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane evergreen forest.	eng
35797	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been significant declines in the extent and quality of the habitat because of exploitation for wood, encroachment of subsistence cultivation and fire.	eng
35798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic species endemic to Guinea and neighbouring Sierra Leone.	eng
35798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upland areas between 700 and 1,000 m.	eng
35798	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is little information on its population status.	eng
35798	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Few areas exist which are not threatened with overcutting and agricultural activities.	eng
35799	conservation	Katende, A.B., 1998	The area is designated as a forest reserve and timber is being extracted.	eng
35799	distribution	Katende, A.B., 1998	Known only from central Kasyoha-Kitomi.	eng
35799	habitat	Katende, A.B., 1998	Upland evergreen rainforest.	eng
35799	population	Katende, A.B., 1998	At present the species is known from a single population of about 20 trees.	eng
35800	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A treelet newly described as a species and, at present, known only from Amapá.	eng
35800	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Upland dry forest.	eng
35801	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	At present, the Mucugê region of Bahia is the only site where this species is known.	eng
35801	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
35801	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Logging is the most serious threat to its dry forest habitat.	eng
35802	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species of northern Venezuela. Collections have been made from several localities in Barinas, Falcón, Yaracuy and Zulia.	eng
35802	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35803	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the site where it was first collected in Amazonas.	eng
35803	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35804	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A species which appears to be confined to a restricted area on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Cesar.	eng
35804	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	It is restricted to montane rainforest between 1,300 and 2,300 m.	eng
35805	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It has been recorded from the provinces of Pinar del Río, Habana and Oriente and an unconfirmed report suggests it is also present in Las Villas.	eng
35805	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree of coastal thickets and dry thickets on limestone hills.	eng
35805	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is rarely seen today because of extensive habitat degradation.	eng
35806	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only a few collections of this species are known. They originate from the Rio Negro above Manaus in Amazonas, Brazil, and from further north along Río Atabapo in Amazonas, Venezuela.	eng
35807	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species from the Welo and Hararge highlands of Ethiopia, west Eritrea and also across the Red Sea in Yemen.	eng
35807	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in upland wooded grasslands above 1,700 m.	eng
35808	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree species which is known only from Bahia.	eng
35808	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal rainforest.	eng
35809	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A population is known to occur in Ilha do Cordosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35809	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A lowland rainforest treelet.	eng
35809	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to an area where logging activities are intense.	eng
35810	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Presumably a lowland forest species.	eng
35810	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections.	eng
35811	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from the Cerros Campanquiz in Loreto.	eng
35811	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from just two collections.	eng
35813	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Western highlands of Eritrea, Tigray and Welo.	eng
35813	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to wooded grasslands.	eng
35813	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety continues to lose large parts of its habitat to agriculture, human settlement and overcutting for fuelwood.	eng
35814	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	This small tree is known from scattered localities from  northern and south-central Somalia to Sidamo, southern Ethiopia	eng
35814	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	Occurring in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland on limestone substrate.	eng
35814	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat is being degraded in places where there is overcutting for charcoal production and the expansion of agriculture.	eng
35815	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A species which is fairly widespread in Somalia and also in adjacent parts of the Ogaden in Ethiopia.	eng
35815	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	It is found in <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland, always on gypsum soils.	eng
35815	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	Habitat is being degraded in places where there is overcutting for charcoal production and also an expansion of agricultural activities.	eng
35816	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A large tree, newly described as a species and so far known with certainty only from the site where the type specimen was collected on the Pacific slopes of Colombia in Valle. A second specimen is similar but only tentatively grouped with this species.	eng
35816	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
35816	population	Calderon, E., 1998	Collections do not seem to have been made in the last 50 years.	eng
35817	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from a few collections in Breves, Marajo.	eng
35817	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is confined to non-flooded forest.	eng
35817	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Increasing settlement of the area poses the most serious threat.	eng
35818	distribution	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A newly described species. Type collection from El Oro.	eng
35818	habitat	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	On steep forested slopes at about 800 m.	eng
35818	population	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently known only from the type collection.	eng
35819	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree which is restricted to coastal rainforest, up to 900 m.	eng
35819	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Relatively few collections have been made.	eng
35819	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The continuing clearance of the habitat poses a serious threat to any remaining populations.	eng
35820	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Found between southern Bahia and Espírito Santo.	eng
35820	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A large tree confined to a small area of wet coastal forest.	eng
35821	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a few sites in Bolívar.	eng
35821	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of shrub savannah and periodically flooded areas.	eng
35822	conservation	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	It is sometimes very common in pasture, where it is protected as a shade tree.	eng
35822	distribution	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species is found in a small area of Pacific Ecuador in Los Ríos, where it is recorded from Río Palenque Biological Station, and Pichincha.	eng
35822	habitat	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest up to 700 m.	eng
35823	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from southern Venezuela to French Guiana in several mountain localities, including the Morabukea forest in the Pakaraima Mts., in Guyana and Monts la Fumée in the Saül region of French Guiana.	eng
35823	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded in forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
35824	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Although the species has a very restricted range in the Ogaden in Ethiopia, it is widespread in Somalia.	eng
35825	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	Fairly widespread in Somalia extending into Harerge in Ethiopia.	eng
35825	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	This tree occurs in wooded grassland and bushland overlying limestone.	eng
35826	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is very little information on this species, there being only a single incomplete herbarium specimen. It was found in the Chocó region in 1946.	eng
35826	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tall rainforest.	eng
35827	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species. Historical collections indicate the species' range to be greater than 20,000 km². More recent collections suggest there has been a reduction in this area.	eng
35828	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection is from Cuzco.	eng
35828	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurred in subxerophilous forest.	eng
35828	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information on the species is poor. It is known only from the type collection made at the turn of the century. The current status of the species, if it is still extant, is unknown.	eng
35828	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the vegetation in the area is under threat from burning and clearance.	eng
35829	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Farming area.	eng
35829	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type collection is the only known occurrence of this species.	eng
35830	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Pacific coast tree with two populations, occurring in lowland rainforest in the Valle del Cauca in Colombia and from submontane rainforest in Alto Tambo in Esmeraldas in Ecuador.	eng
35830	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland and submontane rainforest.	eng
35831	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	It is fairly widespread in Somalia but known only from Harerge in Ethiopia.	eng
35831	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	A species of <em>Acacia-Commiphora</em> bushland overlying limestone.	eng
35831	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In places there is a threat to the habitat from overcutting for charcoal production and from expanding agricultural activities.	eng
35832	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which is known only from Amapá.	eng
35832	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forests.	eng
35832	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The most serious threat to the species is logging.	eng
35833	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A Cuban endemic confined to the Sierra Maestra mountain range.	eng
35833	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Seasonal rainforest and the lowest elevation wet montane rainforest between 200 and 900 m.	eng
35833	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat of this rare tree has been degraded in many places.	eng
35834	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A few collections of this tree are known from north-west Pará. Records show it occurs in some abundance in Jari on terraced hills, but its distribution is highly restricted.	eng
35834	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Dry forest .	eng
35835	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The Cuban form of a Caribbean species.	eng
35835	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Remaining areas of lowland semi-deciduous forest over limestone.	eng
35835	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurs infrequently.	eng
35835	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The tree has been overexploited for its valuable timber and a great part of its habitat has been deforested.	eng
35837	distribution	Thulin, M., 1998	A variable species known from central and southern Somalia extending to the eastern Ogaden in Ethiopia.	eng
35837	habitat	Thulin, M., 1998	It occurs in dry deciduous bushland.	eng
35837	threats	Thulin, M., 1998	In places the habitat is suffering from degradation caused by overcutting for charcoal production and by expanding agricultural activities.	eng
35839	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	This species is apparently confined to a small area of Magdalena on the slopes of the Santa Marta range.	eng
35839	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Occurs in montane forest above 2,000 m.	eng
35840	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, at present known only from the site where it was first collected along River Vatuma.	eng
35840	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35842	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species has been rarely collected but its range is extensive.	eng
35842	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Várzea forest.	eng
35842	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Individuals are believed to be scattered and few.	eng
35843	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species, newly described, known from just two collections from the Rio Solimôes area in Amazonas.	eng
35843	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
35844	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species.	eng
35844	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Scattered in dry lowland forest and cerrado.	eng
35844	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Some areas are under threat from expanding developments and land settlement.	eng
35845	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Colombian, Venezuelan and Brazilian Amazon.	eng
35845	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Várzea forest below 200 m.	eng
35845	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although occupying a relatively wide range, the species is actually known from only a few collections.	eng
35846	distribution	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Río Palenque Science Center in Pacific coastal Ecuador.	eng
35846	habitat	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A canopy tree known only from lowland rainforest.	eng
35847	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species. So far it has been collected from only two sites in Loreto.	eng
35847	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland swampy forest.	eng
35848	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, which has been recorded only from the site where it was first collected in Tocache Nuevo in San Martin in 1972.	eng
35848	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population was found in rainforest between 700 and 800 m.	eng
35849	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Ranging over an area greater than 20,000 km², assuming that populations still exist in the collection sites. Further evidence may reveal that the species has been lost from some of these sites.	eng
35849	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species distributed in restinga.	eng
35849	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Habitat clearance has been extensive.	eng
35851	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Western Amazonia in Brazil and in the department of Putamayo in Colombia. More specimen data are needed to confirm its taxonomic status.	eng
35851	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	The species is known from two sites of lowland rainforest.	eng
35852	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from several locations on the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela.	eng
35853	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, which appears to be confined to a single population on the Kaieteur Plateau.	eng
35853	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Savannah and low savannah forest.	eng
35854	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections at the mouth of Macauhan in Acré, and from Yanomono Explorama Camp in Loreto, Peru.	eng
35854	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in lowland, periodically flooded forest.	eng
35855	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species. At present it is known from only two sites in Amapá.	eng
35855	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Mixed lowland forest.	eng
35856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Amazonian Peru and Bolivia. Populations have been recorded in two or three widely separated sites, one in San Martin in Peru, the others in La Paz in Bolivia.	eng
35856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of montane forest, occurring up to 900 m.	eng
35857	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From upper Rio Negro and Rio Japurá regions.	eng
35857	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is known only from igapó forest.	eng
35858	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type specimen was collected in 1910 from Rio de Janeiro. Otherwise known from Bahia.	eng
35858	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species occurs in restinga vegetation and inland forests.	eng
35859	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Southern Venezuela extending to the upper Rio Negro in Brazil.	eng
35859	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A component of igapó forest.	eng
35860	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Monts la Fumée in the Saül region in French Guiana and Brownsberg Nature Park in Suriname.	eng
35860	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland hill forest.	eng
35861	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix II.	eng
35861	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Not to be confused with <em>A. ballyi</em> this species is confined to the cliffs in the lower Rusitu valley, south Chimanimani in Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique.	eng
35861	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cliffs.	eng
35862	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Sierra de Nipe, Oriente Province.	eng
35862	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree apparently confined to submontane serpentine forest in what is known as the manacles.	eng
35862	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is poorly known and has been rarely collected.	eng
35863	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species with a restricted distribution, ranging from Bahia to Espírito Santo.	eng
35863	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35863	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The habitat has been extensively logged and cleared.	eng
35864	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, the only records of which occur in two sites in the Rio Vaupes region in western Brazilian Amazonia.	eng
35865	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Collected from Sierra de Moa in Oriente province.	eng
35865	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree known only from the site where it was first gathered in 1955.	eng
35865	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The main threat to the species is from the mining of the ferritic soils.	eng
35866	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with an anomalous floral structure compared to the rest of the family.	eng
35866	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A few recent collections now indicate that the species is not as rare as was once assumed.	eng
35867	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three collections have been made of this species. They originate from the mouth of Rio Embira in Amazonas, Brazil, and from Loreto, Peru.	eng
35867	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Periodically flooded or várzea forest and upland forest.	eng
35868	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to a single high mountain locality, Sa Pa in Lao Kai Province in north Viet Nam.	eng
35868	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in subtropical open forests at about 1,500 m.	eng
35869	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species which appears to occur in both moist and drier lowland forest types.	eng
35870	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to the centre and south of Venezuela.	eng
35870	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A component of riverside gallery forest and adjacent areas of deciduous scrub and savanna edges.	eng
35871	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species currently known from just two collections.	eng
35871	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland secondary forest.	eng
35871	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Threatened most seriously by increasing habitat clearance and settlement of the area.	eng
35872	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species. Present information suggests that it is confined to Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
35872	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest on sandy soils.	eng
35873	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree species which is confined to the Brazilian Amazon.	eng
35873	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in periodically and permanently flooded forest.	eng
35873	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The habitat is generally threatened by logging activities.	eng
35874	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, currently known only from the site where it was first collected in 1963 from Porto Velho.	eng
35874	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
35875	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very poorly known species. The only knowledge of it comes from the herbarium type specimen, which was collected in the last century from a locality which has not been precisely recorded.	eng
35875	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Unknown.	eng
35876	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest on laterite.	eng
35876	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the site where it was first collected in 1941.	eng
35877	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although the species is known only with certainty from the type collection, there may be other collections from the Amazon which belong to this taxon. The type specimen was gathered in the Cerros Campanquiz in Loreto.	eng
35877	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
35878	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in Ducke Forest Reserve.	eng
35878	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, confined to two localities.	eng
35878	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35878	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The most serious threat comes from continuing logging.	eng
35879	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or bushy tree is known only from populations in Amazonas.	eng
35879	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in savannah and occasionally along flooded river margins.	eng
35880	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type specimen was collected from Ucayali.	eng
35880	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35880	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1942.	eng
35881	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Few collections exist, one from Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru, and several from Amazonian Brazil.	eng
35881	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
35882	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Its only known occurrence is at the mouth of the Rio Javari.	eng
35882	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A large tree in non-flooded forest.	eng
35883	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is recorded in the Ilha do Cardoso State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
35883	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Along the Atlantic coast.	eng
35883	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree of restinga vegetation and granitic outcrops.	eng
35883	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Large areas of the habitat are being lost to housing, tourist and other developments.	eng
35884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, known only from the site where it was first collected in 1977 at 750 m in Miranda.	eng
35884	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
35885	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree has been collected from just two sites so far, one in the Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in Loreto, Peru, and the other in Sâo Paulo de Olivença in Amazonas, Brazil.	eng
35887	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species. So far populations have been recorded from two sites in Loreto in Peru, including the Jenaro Herrera Arboretum, and from Rondônia in Brazil.	eng
35887	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded forest over sand.	eng
35888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from various provinces of Viet Nam.	eng
35888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree of lowland secondary forest and forest margins.  It regenerates abundantly on waste land, abandoned after shifting cultivation.	eng
35888	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rare and scattered.	eng
35888	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is used for construction and making implements.	eng
35889	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Guyana to Pará in Brazil. Not as widely ranging as the type subspecies.	eng
35889	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in mixed lowland rainforest.	eng
35891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Saül area of French Guiana and along the Rio Negro in Amazonas, Brazil.	eng
35891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
35892	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub found in sandstone scrub and forest islands in savannah, dwarf mossy forest over sandstone and <em>Bonnetia</em> forest up to 2,200 m.	eng
35893	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam, it is a dominant component of some forest localities and has been observed to regenerate well, although population reductions have occurred. In China the species, recognised under the synonym <em>A. tienlinensis</em>, is restricted to limestone areas in the Dayao Mountains., Tianlin and Leye counties in Guangxi and Luodian, Wangmo and Zhenfeng counties in Guizhou.	eng
35893	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely occurring in primary rainforest. In China the species is restricted to limestone areas.	eng
35893	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A valuable timber is harvested from the tree and in some places is overexploited.	eng
35894	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is confined to just a few sites in Bolívar and  Amazonas.	eng
35894	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dwarf forest or low scrub on stony mountain slopes.	eng
35895	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to northern Venezuela, occurring in Anzoátegui, Distrito Federal, Monagas and Sucre.	eng
35895	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of wet montane forest and shrubby cloud forest.	eng
35896	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species known from several sites in the Guianas and adjacent parts of Brazil.	eng
35896	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in lowland rainforest, usually on non-flooded land up to 700 m.	eng
35897	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub which appears to be endemic to Viet Nam.	eng
35897	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is very rare and restricted to Tây Quàng Nam in Da Nang.	eng
35898	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been recorded in the Guianas and adjacent Pará in Brazil.	eng
35898	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread tree of rainforest over sand or laterite.	eng
35899	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs on the southern Venezuelan Highlands and in Serra Aracá in northern Amazonas in Brazil.	eng
35899	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in wet or riverside forest on steep slopes up 1,600 m.	eng
35900	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species, currently known only from the type locality in Jenaro Herrera Arboretum.	eng
35900	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35902	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species which, so far, is known from just two collections in forest in southern Venezuela.	eng
35903	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree known at one time to be confined to Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35903	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal hill forest.	eng
35903	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Although the area has been visited numerous times by botanists, no recent record of the species has been made.	eng
35904	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species appears to be confined to a small area near Mucugê.	eng
35904	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A treelet of sandy campo rupestre vegetation.	eng
35905	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Centre of the Brazilian Amazon, especially in the region of Manaus.	eng
35905	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species confined to non-flooded forest over sand.	eng
35905	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Logging activities and fires in the area are the most serious threats.	eng
35906	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from collections made in northern Pará and Amapá, Brazil, and from adjacent French Guiana.	eng
35906	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species of várzea forest, transitional várzea and non-flooded forest.	eng
35907	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected from only a few localities in the Guianas.	eng
35907	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded in wet and dry forest type.	eng
35908	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, as yet known from just a few collections in Huánuco in Peru, and from various localities, including Ducke Forest Reserve in Amazonas, Brazil.	eng
35908	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35910	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widely ranging species. It is a component of clump Walaba forest and Morabukea forest in Guyana and it is also recorded in Ducke Reserve in Brazil.	eng
35910	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from lowland non-flooded rainforest.	eng
35912	distribution	Ban, N.T., 1998	Extending from southern China to northern Viet Nam.	eng
35912	habitat	Ban, N.T., 1998	The species is confined to forest in limestone areas.	eng
35912	population	Ban, N.T., 1998	Considerable population declines have been observed.	eng
35912	threats	Ban, N.T., 1998	Overexploitation of the timber and lack of sufficient regeneration.	eng
35913	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the Cajamarca area.	eng
35913	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection dating back about 180 years. No record of the tree has been made since.	eng
35914	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Western Amazonia.	eng
35914	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland periodically flooded or non-flooded forest.	eng
35915	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in Nam Ha (Phu Li), Ninh Binh (Pho Sau) and Ha Tay (Chua Huong). Its status and distribution elsewhere are poorly known.	eng
35915	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species restricted to primary and secondary evergreen forest on limestone mountains.	eng
35916	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is known only from two localities, Ninh Hoà and Diên Khánh in Khánh Hoà on the east coast.	eng
35918	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Currently known from just two collections from Valle.	eng
35918	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large buttressed tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
35919	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Type collection from the Rio Taruma region near Manaus.	eng
35919	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
35919	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
35920	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Two collections of this species were made in Rio de Janeiro.	eng
35920	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The area has since been extensively visited and no evidence of the species has been uncovered.	eng
35921	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A newly described species, which appears to be confined to the north of Brazil.	eng
35921	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35921	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The most serious threat is from mining activities.	eng
35922	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known mainly from subpopulations in Venezuela, in areas of Bolívar, Territorio Federal Delta Amacuro and Miranda. The subpopulation's locality and status on Trinidad is unknown.	eng
35922	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35924	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is apparently confined to in Rio de Janeiro. It has been frequently cited from other Brazilian states but these records have not been authenticated and confusion with another taxon is quite possible.	eng
35924	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
35924	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Urban expansion exerts considerable pressure on the habitat.	eng
35925	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species recorded from a small area on the dry Pacific slopes.	eng
35925	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous forest.	eng
35926	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A very poorly known species with no precise data on locality or habitat.	eng
35926	population	Calderon, E., 1998	It has been described from four collections made in the first half of the century.	eng
35927	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree of the Brazilian central Amazon.	eng
35927	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
35927	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known from just a few collections.	eng
35928	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree apparently confined to the Pernambuco Highlands.	eng
35928	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Seasonal forest.	eng
35928	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The habitat is under threat, particularly from agricultural expansion.	eng
35929	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are recorded in Monts la Fumée in French Guiana and along the Manaus to Itacoatiara road.	eng
35929	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of mixed lowland rainforest on high ground.	eng
35930	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where it occurs at about 300 m in Phu Tho in Vinh Phu Province.	eng
35931	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which has been collected only from Hoi Xuan in Thanh Hoa Province, near the Laos border.	eng
35932	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to Panama, the species is recorded only from the provinces of Panamá and Darién. The collections from Panamá come from a restricted area and only a single population is so far known from Darién, within a national park.	eng
35932	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Regeneration appears to be sufficient.	eng
35933	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species is widely distributed on the Pacific side, the largest populations being in the Canal and Darién regions. Regeneration appears to be healthy here. Elsewhere in the Panama and Costa Rica, populations are sparse, showing little recruitment.	eng
35933	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
35933	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	In places populations are imminently threatened with deforestation.	eng
35934	distribution	González, M., 1998	A timber tree with a fragmented distribution in the central Andean range.	eng
35934	habitat	González, M., 1998	Low- to medium-altitude forest.	eng
35934	population	González, M., 1998	Populations are small, containing not more than a few hundred individuals.	eng
35934	threats	González, M., 1998	Exploitation is at a high level throughout the range of this species, largely for the woodchip industry.	eng
35936	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Viet Nam, in the north of the country.	eng
35936	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in the middle storey of primary and secondary evergreen forest below 1,000 m.	eng
35936	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has come to be considered threatened here largely because of exploitation of the hard heavy wood, used as a construction timber.	eng
35937	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hà Tây (Ba Vì) and Ninh Bình (Cúc Phuong) in northern Viet Nam.	eng
35937	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree restricted to lowland primary evergreen forest.	eng
35937	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very little habitat remains and the species is also suffering from poor regeneration, with a complete absence of seedlings and young trees under the canopy of parent trees.	eng
35938	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scarce tree, which appears to be known only from Hòa Binh (Muòng Thôn, Luong Son: Lâm Son) in north Viet Nam.	eng
35939	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are recorded from several provinces in Viet Nam.	eng
35939	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small pioneer tree found in areas of lowland secondary, disturbed and recolonising forest.	eng
35940	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Viet Nam, in Gia Lai, Kon Tum, Phu Yen and Khanh Hoa Provinces.	eng
35940	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is scattered sparsely or found in dominant stands in dense evergreen broadleaved and mixed forest.	eng
35941	distribution	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	A forest species known only from the coastal region between Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina.	eng
35942	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known from only a single locality in Kien Giang Province.	eng
35944	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Endemic to Viet Nam, in Phú Yên and Khánh Hòa provinces.	eng
35944	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This small tree is scattered in lowland dry open forest.	eng
35944	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This species is endangered by overexploitation for its valuable wood.	eng
35946	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the central parishes.	eng
35946	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in thickets and woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
35946	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is not uncommon.	eng
35947	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of two varieties of a Jamaican endemic, this is the less common one, confined to central parishes.	eng
35947	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Margins of woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
35954	distribution	Ban, N.T., 1998	In Viet Nam, the species occurs in Hà Giang (Bác Quang: Dông Tâm) and Ba Mùn Island of Quang Ninh.	eng
35954	habitat	Ban, N.T., 1998	A small tree.	eng
35955	distribution	Ban, N.T., 1998	The species appears to be endemic to a restricted area in the north, confined to the provinces of Ha Tay, Hoa Binh and Thanh Hoa.	eng
35956	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species is known only from a small subpopulation, containing few mature individuals, in the Cerro Tute in Veraguas. It is a little more widely distributed in Costa Rica, but again few mature individuals exist. Further fieldwork is needed to search for subpopulations in the intervening zone between these two locations.	eng
35956	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of evergreen rainforest with a restricted altitudinal range, occurring between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
35956	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The Panamanian subpopulation is unprotected and under some threat from deforestation.	eng
35957	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only a single subpopulation in San Ramón in Costa Rica occurs within a forest reserve.	eng
35957	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in an area extending from north-west Panama to north-east Costa Rica, the species occurs in sparsely scattered small subpopulations within a rapidly developing region.	eng
35957	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Restricted to lowland forest.	eng
35957	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	All but one subpopulation are unprotected and under severe threat from agricultural and industrial developments, and from urbanisation.	eng
35958	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, this small to medium-sized tree is known only from Ba Vi, a number of localities in Hoa Binh and Cuc Phuong in Ninh Binh.	eng
35959	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in the Palo Seco Protection Forest.	eng
35959	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occupies a small area between north-east Costa Rica and north-west Panama. In Costa Rica only a few records exist, all in the vicinity of Río Yorkín, very near the Panama border. There are various distinct occurrences in Panama.	eng
35959	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Restricted to lowland areas of semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
35959	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Elsewhere the habitat is unprotected and extensively cleared for cultivating bananas, cocoa and other commercial crops.	eng
35960	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species' description is based on a single collection from 1932. It came from an area in the Santa Rita Hills, Colón.	eng
35960	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
35960	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of original collection area has been cleared for agriculture and grazing.	eng
35961	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Until the taxonomy of Central American specimens is confirmed, the exact range of this species cannot be consolidated but could extend to southern parts of Central America.	eng
35961	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Moist forest.	eng
35961	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Because of the rate of destruction of the moist forest habitat in the last few decades the species qualifies as threatened.	eng
35962	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far recorded only from Viet Nam, this small tree appears to be restricted to Mong Cai in Quang Ninh, on the border with China.	eng
35965	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	East and central Guatemala.	eng
35965	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
35965	population	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species has experienced declines in its habitat in the last 50 years.	eng
35965	threats	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	There are a number of estimated rates of deforestation: all exceed an annual rate of one percent.	eng
35966	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The taxonomic status of the species is uncertain. It is confined to Chiriquí in Costa Rica and Cartago in Panama.	eng
35966	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Wet montane forests.	eng
35967	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a local distribution confined to north-western parishes.	eng
35967	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
35968	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Possibly ranging through all of Central America.	eng
35968	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is recorded in high areas in various forest types.	eng
35975	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Type location is in Nechí.	eng
35975	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
35975	population	Calderon, E., 1998	Although recorded as locally common, this small tree is still known only from its type location.	eng
35976	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type location is near Tefé.	eng
35976	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested river bank.	eng
35976	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is known only from the type collection made in 1927.	eng
35977	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A distinctive species which is known only from the type location in the northern part of the valley of Río Magdalena in north-west Colombia.	eng
35977	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
35978	distribution	Cedeño, A., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	This small tree has not been collected anywhere other than the type locality in Chimborazo forest near Atacama.	eng
35978	habitat	Cedeño, A., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–500 m.	eng
35979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although relatively widely ranging, this species is confined to the lower Orinoco basin and adjacent areas in Guyana.	eng
35979	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Understorey species of primary forest.	eng
35980	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	It is probably endemic to north-west Colombia where it is known from three locations in Nechí and the valley of the Río Magdalena.	eng
35980	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
35981	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be endemic to an area, exceeding 40,000 km², in Chocó and adjacent forested areas in Panama, such as Nechí and Darién.	eng
35981	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey species of lowland rainforest.	eng
35983	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Closely related to the more widespread <em>R. ulmifolia</em>, this species is known from two locations: one in the northern forests of the Río Magdalena valley and the other near Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
35984	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Type collection is from the valley of Río Magdalena.	eng
35984	population	Calderon, E., 1998	This tree species is known only from the type collection, which was made in 1936.	eng
35985	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has not been collected from anywhere other than its type locality.	eng
35985	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to non-flooded forest.	eng
35986	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A species collected only from the river banks of the southern Río Magdalena valley.	eng
35987	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality, to which the species appears to be confined, was discovered nearly 200 years ago in Espírito Santo.	eng
35987	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal rainforest.	eng
35988	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which appears to be confined to its type location on the slopes of the Coastal Cordillera in Venezuela, between 700 and 800 m.	eng
35989	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection located along a road in northern French Guiana.	eng
35989	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the 1982 type collection.	eng
35990	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the north of Rio de Janeiro and Alegre.	eng
35990	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to coastal forest refuges and savannah forest.	eng
35991	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A species which, although endemic to north-west Colombia, is relatively well collected in the Río Magdalena valley from Bogotá to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
35992	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to the type locality along a road in the estate of Santa Maria.	eng
35992	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in non-flooded forest.	eng
35993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been widely collected although it does have a relatively wide extent of occurrence (>70,000 km²).	eng
35993	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to areas of montane forest, between 1,200 and 1,900 m.	eng
35995	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from two disjunct locations in the Amazon. The range may be found to be more extensive after further collections have been fully determined.	eng
35997	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From northern Venezuela this tree is recorded in an area extending over 50,000 km².	eng
35997	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in forests, savannahs, woods and pastures over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
35999	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is located close to the Chinese border in Phong Tho, Lai Chau Province, between 1,600 and 1,700 m.	eng
36000	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in two disjunct locations in Peru, including Tambopata Wildlife Reserve, and in Bolivia.	eng
36000	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree or shrub is recorded in forest and savannah areas.	eng
36001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, this shrub or small tree is confined to a single locality in Cuc Phuong, Ninh Binh.	eng
36003	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The species is confined to  Valle.	eng
36003	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36003	threats	Calderon, E., 1998	The site of a 1985 collection coincides with the proposed route for a road to a military base.	eng
36004	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree from forest in Rio de Janeiro.	eng
36004	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from several locations and is not uncommon.	eng
36005	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fairly wide-ranging, the species is found in Boyacá to Barinas.	eng
36005	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low-altitude forests.	eng
36006	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranges over an area greater than 40,000 km².	eng
36006	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree or shrub on the margin of campo cerrado.	eng
36007	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A monotypic genus, confined to Magdalena Valley in Boyacá and Santander.	eng
36008	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in Portland and St Thomas.	eng
36008	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree or shrub, restricted to moist secondary forest on limestone hills between 360 and 680 m.	eng
36008	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat, especially in St Thomas, has been almost completely destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
36009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	St Catherine, Trelawny and St Ann.	eng
36009	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scrambling shrub or tree, the species has a local distribution in woodland on sheltered limestone banks.	eng
36010	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Hanover, Trelawny and St Ann.	eng
36010	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in woodland on limestone.	eng
36010	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small uncommon tree or shrub.	eng
36011	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small shrub or tree known only from Portland and St Thomas.	eng
36011	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs between 120 and 550 m in lowland forested ravines.	eng
36011	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the more accessible places forest areas are almost completely destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
36012	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	A small tree or shrub which is locally frequent in St Andrew and St Thomas.	eng
36012	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Thickets and woodland on steep rocky slopes between 240 and 900 m.	eng
36012	threats	Bellingham, P., 1998	Most of the accessible areas of forest have been destroyed.	eng
36013	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Portland and St Thomas.	eng
36013	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs up to 600 m in woodland on limestone, especially where it is wet.	eng
36013	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uncommon.	eng
36013	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most, if not all, of the forest, especially in the latter parish, has been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
36014	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Portland, St Andrew and St Thomas.	eng
36014	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of submontane forest.	eng
36014	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost all the accessible forest below 1,400 m in the latter two parishes has been destroyed or severely degraded.	eng
36015	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam the species is very rare, found in Tam Dao in Vinh Phu in the north. On Hainan Island there are records of the species in Lo Tung.	eng
36015	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring only between 900 and 1,200 m.	eng
36017	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations in Viet Nam are concentrated in the south, but also occur near the border with China.	eng
36017	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary and slightly disturbed forest, occurring over a wide altitudinal range.  Regeneration is evident along roads and in open places.	eng
36017	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Considered threatened, mainly because of their increasing localisation.	eng
36018	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub which appears to be endemic to Vo Xa, Nam Ha Province, in northern Viet Nam.	eng
36020	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia.	eng
36020	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rarely collected species.	eng
36021	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A Colombian form of a widespread South American species. It is believed to have occurred in Tolima and/or Cundinamarca.	eng
36022	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type variety of a Jamaican endemic.	eng
36022	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally common in clearings and glades in forest or sheltered thickets on limestone.	eng
36023	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from St Thomas and Portland.	eng
36023	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to thickets on limestone in wet areas between altitudes of 250 and 900 m.	eng
36023	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both this and <em>S. villosa</em> are uncommon, small trees.	eng
36024	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in Clarendon, Manchester and Trelawny.	eng
36024	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to pastures, thickets and woodland on limestone.	eng
36024	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is uncommon.	eng
36025	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A pioneer species of the Blue Mts.	eng
36025	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in colonies in forest gaps and as sparsely scattered large trees in submontane forest, especially on steep unstable slopes.	eng
36026	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree of the central Brazilian Amazon.	eng
36026	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in non-flooded forest.	eng
36026	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Logging activities are a threat to some populations.	eng
36027	distribution	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree of the Ecuadorian Amazon in Morona-Santiago and the north-east of Zamora.	eng
36027	habitat	Hernández, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	It occurs in submontane forest.	eng
36028	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Western Amazon of Brazil.	eng
36028	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species confined to várzea forest.	eng
36028	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Logging activities are the most serious threat to the area.	eng
36029	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present the species is known from just two herbarium collections. The specimens were collected from Amazonas in Peru near Teniente Pinglo.	eng
36029	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Were found in lowland rainforest.	eng
36030	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species apparently endemic to Viet Nam, where it is known only from Phu Loc in Lang Co in the centre of the country.	eng
36031	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Some localities are within protected areas, where regeneration has been observed to be relatively good.	eng
36031	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	This species is relatively common in the low mountains of Heredia, Alajuela, Guanacaste and Limón in Costa Rica. In Panama there are a few minor subpopulations around the Canal region and in the province of Panamá and it is expected to be found further west.	eng
36031	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Moist evergreen forest and woodlands.	eng
36031	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas subpopulations are affected by the growing settlement of land, logging and extensive agriculture.	eng
36032	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam the species is localised and considered to be Vulnerable.	eng
36033	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to ultramafic soils in the central Punta range of Puerto Rico.	eng
36033	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
36034	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	A species which ranges from Brazil to Argentina. This taxon represents a localised variety which occurs in a calcareous region in the upper reaches of the Río Apa.	eng
36034	population	Prado, D., 1998	It is known only from the type locality.	eng
36035	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Andes from Venezuela to Peru.	eng
36035	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is recorded from open pastures and dry forest at medium elevation and from cloud forest at 2,700 m in Peru.	eng
36035	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which is becoming increasingly scarce.	eng
36035	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Naturally uncommon, the species has come under intense pressure from habitat clearance.	eng
36036	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from the central parishes.	eng
36036	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree has an occasional distribution in woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
36037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Related to <em>S. angustatum</em>, this species is also confined to Oriente Province.	eng
36038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Hidalgo and Querétaro states, the species has been recorded only a few times.	eng
36038	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest and matorral, from the lower limit of the pine-juniper belt.	eng
36039	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Apparently restricted to the serpentine plateau of Sierra de Nipe.	eng
36039	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree of dry thickets between 300 and 500 m.	eng
36039	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	So far it has been collected just three times.	eng
36040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the site where it was first collected in Barahona at about 700 m.	eng
36041	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring relatively widely, the species ranges from Jalisco to Oaxaca.	eng
36041	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous forest from near sea level up to 1,600 m.	eng
36042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs over an area extending from Sinaloa to Guerrero.	eng
36042	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, frequently on igneous rock.	eng
36043	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Not a well-known species, it is confined to the provinces of Oriente and Pinar del Río.	eng
36043	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurs in forest by mangroves and also in dry manacales up to 900 m.	eng
36043	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Overexploitation of its timber has caused population decline. Overcutting and clearing are constant threats to the habitat.	eng
36044	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered sparsely over a relatively wide range. Populations occur on the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, Guatemala and Costa Rica and more recently it has been collected from Cerro Jefe in Panama.	eng
36044	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest species of lowland to medium elevation.	eng
36045	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest on limestone.	eng
36045	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small treelet recorded, up to now, only twice.	eng
36046	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which appears to be confined to the Jacinto Hills in Belize, although a specimen collected in Chiapas in Mexico could possibly be the same species.	eng
36047	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a few collections in Niño Perdido and Baja Verapaz in Guatemala and in the Apatlanco area in Veracruz.	eng
36047	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest and submontane secondary forest.	eng
36048	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species. It is known only from small subpopulations in the Chilpancingo area in Guerrero and south of San Marcos Arteaga in Oaxaca.	eng
36048	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Arid thorn forest or oak forest on calcareous soil between 1,600 and 2,000 m.	eng
36049	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Izabal and Petén, in Guatemala, and to Toledo in Belize. The type subspecies is confined to Jamaica.	eng
36049	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest species, confined to lowland limestone sites.	eng
36050	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A taxon endemic to the central parishes of Jamaica.	eng
36050	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurs within restricted areas of forest between 600 and 760 m.	eng
36051	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from a single locality at La Cumbre, Petén.	eng
36051	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland rainforest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>.	eng
36052	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected only a few times from its range in Baja Verapaz.	eng
36052	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland rainforest.	eng
36053	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
36053	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A valuable timber tree, up to 30 m tall, fairly widespread in the humid mountainous areas, where it grows in submontane and montane rainforest and seasonal evergreen forest.	eng
36053	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Population numbers continue to decline because of overcutting.	eng
36054	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs over a wide range of altitudes and soil types, sometimes on unstable slopes.	eng
36054	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is especially common on the Grand Ridge.	eng
36054	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At lower elevations there has been logging.	eng
36055	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the central parishes.	eng
36055	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Well-drained rocky limestone.	eng
36055	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
36056	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, which is confined to two sites in the southern tip of Baja California.	eng
36056	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Along stream beds and gullies.	eng
36057	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the more localised subspecies of a widely occurring Central American tree, covering a range from Chihuahua to Jalisco and Colima.	eng
36057	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations are found along watercourses in dwarf deciduous forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
36058	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Central Honduras.	eng
36058	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A small tree, confined to an area of submontane pine-oak woodland and rocky thickets.	eng
36059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in central and western parishes.	eng
36059	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of woodland and thicket on limestone.	eng
36059	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is actually quite common where it occurs.	eng
36060	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very poorly known species. The type collection was taken from a hilltop in Santo Domingo.	eng
36060	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type and only collection was gathred in the early part of the century. It has not been recorded since.	eng
36061	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from Socorro Island and the Revilla Gigedo Islands.	eng
36061	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Humid forest up to 900 m.	eng
36062	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to Petén in Guatemala and adjacent Belize.	eng
36062	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in lowland rainforest dominated by <em>Manilkara zapota</em>, ascending to medium elevations.	eng
36063	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Viet Nam, the species is known from a few localities in Khanh Hoa, Dac Lac and Dong Nai Provinces in the south of the country.	eng
36065	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A gregarious species found in hilly areas in the central parishes. A distinct but similar species appears to have been found in Trelawny.	eng
36066	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Widespread in the Sagua-Baracoa serpentine mountain ranges of north-east Cuba.	eng
36066	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree is typical of the pine forest belt between 600 and 900 m and is also found in the lowland serpentine shrublands in the subcoastal zone (north of the Moa Mountains).	eng
36066	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is not yet uncommon but has suffered from overcutting and habitat loss.	eng
36067	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	North-east Holguín.	eng
36067	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree up to 8 m tall, confined to dry scrub and scrub-woodland communities in the serpentine areas.	eng
36067	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Overcutting, overgrazing and urban expansion have confined the population to small areas.	eng
36068	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Viet Nam, the species is known from only two localities, one on the mainland in Bien Hoa and the other on the island of Con Son.	eng
36069	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Valle.	eng
36070	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic of Santander.	eng
36071	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree localised to the mountains of the Guamuhaya Massif.	eng
36072	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Found in the Nipe-Baracoa Massif.	eng
36072	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A canopy tree found mainly in montane serpentine rainforest thriving on acid ferralitic soils.	eng
36072	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is not yet uncommon but overexploitation and habit disturbance have caused a decline in numbers. Logging, cutting and mining are constant threats.	eng
36073	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to the Nagua mountain group in Sierra Maestra.	eng
36073	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon tree.	eng
36074	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree endemic to the Sierra Maestra and other mountains in Guantanamo Province.	eng
36074	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
36074	population	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The species is still fairly common but subpopulations have declined over the past few decades.	eng
36075	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree sparsely scattered in central and western parishes.	eng
36075	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
36076	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
36076	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Populations of this shrub or small tree are confined to areas of bare limestone with dry littoral scrub woodlands on coastal terraces and seaside karstic slopes.	eng
36076	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded in places by burning and cutting.	eng
36077	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or tree widespread in many forest types.	eng
36077	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places, especially in western and central Cuba. Cutting and clearing remains a threat in the remaining areas and in north-east Cuba mining is a major threat.	eng
36078	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Jamaica, in scattered localities throughout the island.	eng
36078	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is found in forest on limestone between 350 and 900 m.	eng
36079	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species endemic to French Guiana and principally found in the vicinity of La Fumée.	eng
36079	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary rainforest.	eng
36080	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is protected.	eng
36080	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to Panama, the species is known from a small area in the Cerro Jefe region.	eng
36080	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in cloud forest between 800 and 1,000 m.	eng
36080	population	Mitré, M., 1998	Although current information indicates that the species is very low in numbers, it is possible there are undiscovered populations elsewhere.	eng
36081	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is covered by a forest reserve.	eng
36081	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is recorded only from Fortuna in Chiriquí and the border between Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro.	eng
36081	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The surrounding forest has gradually disappeared over recent years through increasing settlement and logging.	eng
36082	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The only known protected population occurs in La Selva, Costa Rica.	eng
36082	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama this species is known only from the type collection and may now be nationally extinct, but it is also found in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.	eng
36082	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36082	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Most of the species' range coincides with areas being converted into banana plantations.	eng
36084	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Restricted to a small area of Colombia, in the departments of Atlántico, Bolívar and Cundinamarca, and in neighbouring Panama, in the province of Darién.	eng
36084	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
36085	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to parts of central and eastern Amazonia.	eng
36085	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of non-flooded forests.	eng
36086	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Southern Bahia.	eng
36086	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to coastal forest.	eng
36086	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species occurs in a habitat constantly under threat of destruction.	eng
36087	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Known only from a small area of the Atlantic lowlands in northern Honduras, Alta Verapaz and southern Petén in Guatemala and adjacent Belize.	eng
36087	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A small tree of lowland wet evergreen forest.	eng
36088	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known from central Amazonia, mainly from Humaita and the road from Manaus to Porto Velho.	eng
36089	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Relatively widespread.	eng
36089	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species generally occupies river banks.	eng
36089	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A zone which has experienced serious forest destruction and continues to be threatened.	eng
36090	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	From rainforest in Pará.	eng
36090	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The type collection is the only record of this species.	eng
36091	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known only from Rio Acre in the Brazil/Peru border area.	eng
36091	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A species of periodically flooded forest.	eng
36092	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species of coastal forest, confined to the few remaining patches of forest above 400 m in the area.	eng
36093	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Just four collections are known, three taken from western Amazonia and one in Rio Tapajós.	eng
36093	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
36094	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Type collection is from Bahia.	eng
36094	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
36094	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36094	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is seriously threatened with the loss of its habitat.	eng
36095	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to Cerro Huachamacari in the Venezuelan Amazon.	eng
36095	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality.	eng
36096	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It is known from only two collections in western Amazonia.	eng
36096	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species occurs in both non-flooded and periodically flooded rainforest.	eng
36098	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It occurs in Jari Genetic Reserve and Monte Dourado National Park.	eng
36098	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Recent collections of this species have been made in non-flooded forests.	eng
36099	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
36099	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The coastal forests, to which this tree is confined, continue to be seriously threatened.	eng
36100	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Relatively widespread. It occurs in the Ilha do Cardosa State Park in Sâo Paulo.	eng
36100	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is confined to coastal forest.	eng
36100	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Destruction has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.	eng
36101	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is known from only a few collections in south-east Brazil.	eng
36101	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36101	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Forest destruction has been severe and continues to be a threat.	eng
36102	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	At present, the species is known only from a small area at the mouth of the River Amazon. The species may prove to be more widespread.	eng
36102	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Deforestation has destroyed a large part of the habitat.	eng
36103	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Relatively widespread.	eng
36103	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to Atlantic coastal forests.	eng
36103	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Well collected. This species is not under imminent threat.	eng
36103	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic coastal forests continue to be cleared.	eng
36104	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast.	eng
36104	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An apparently common understorey species.	eng
36104	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Forest destruction in the area has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.	eng
36105	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A relatively wide-ranging species.	eng
36105	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Restricted to areas of coastal scrub or restinga.	eng
36105	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Only a few collections have been made, which suggests the species is rare.	eng
36106	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to areas of woodland on well-drained limestone.	eng
36106	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although widely scattered, the tree is nowhere common.	eng
36107	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It occurs in the Jari Genetic Reserve in Pará.	eng
36107	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is wide-ranging but poorly collected, in western and south-western areas of Brazilian Amazonia and eastern Colombia.	eng
36107	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
36108	conservation	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	It occurs in Linhares Forest Reserve and Ilha do Cardosa State Park.	eng
36108	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Confined to remnant patches of Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
36108	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Poorly collected.	eng
36108	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	This species is vulnerable to ongoing forest destruction.	eng
36109	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A relatively wide-ranging species which is known from only a few collections in western and south-western Amazon.	eng
36109	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
36110	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species exists in a number of disjunct populations within dry forest and scrub.	eng
36110	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Brazil its status is vulnerable. Elsewhere it appears to be common and unthreatened.	eng
36111	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known only from the Roraima area.	eng
36111	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	An understorey species.	eng
36112	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Occurs in a narrow band of coastal forest.	eng
36112	population	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A poorly collected species.	eng
36112	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Deforestation has been severe in the past and continues to be a threat.	eng
36113	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	No recent accounts of this species appear to be available. Older collections indicate that the species occurs in south-east Brazil.	eng
36113	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Forest destruction has been and continues to be severe in the area.	eng
36114	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently known from just two collections, the species is confined to Tarapoto in Loreto Department.	eng
36115	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Portland. The type variety is endemic to the Blue Mts.	eng
36115	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to damp rocky thickets around 500 to 600 m.	eng
36115	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is uncommon.	eng
36116	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mostly occurring in the central and western parishes.	eng
36116	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to remaining areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
36117	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Generally found in the central parishes.	eng
36117	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to remaining areas of woodland and thicket on limestone crags and cliffs.	eng
36118	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree with a local distribution confined to St Andrew and St Thomas Parishes.	eng
36118	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to rocky shale banks on serpentine between 270 and 900 m.	eng
36119	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to St Catherine, St James and Trelawny.	eng
36119	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland on limestone hills.	eng
36119	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is an uncommon species.	eng
36121	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species scattered throughout the Blue Mountains.	eng
36121	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest above 1,200 m. It occurs mostly on steep unstable shale slopes in northern catchments, e.g., Spanish and Mabess Rivers. At higher altitudes it grows as a small shrub.	eng
36121	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sometimes locally common.	eng
36122	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in the western parishes.	eng
36122	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remaining areas of woodland on rocky limestone.	eng
36122	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon species.	eng
36123	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Clarendon, Trelawny and St Ann Parishes.	eng
36123	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is locally common in areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
36124	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in central parishes.	eng
36124	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to remaining areas of woodland on rough limestone.	eng
36125	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from occurrences in west-central and western parishes.	eng
36125	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has an occasional distribution in areas of woodland on limestone.	eng
36126	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is relatively widespread in woodlands on limestone.	eng
36126	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declines have been recorded in population numbers.	eng
36126	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is widely used and the trees are frequently coppiced.	eng
36127	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs largely within national parks.	eng
36127	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the Canal zone.	eng
36127	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in dense forest.	eng
36127	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Despite the protected status of these subpopulations, there is concern that growing population pressure will result in much of this habitat  being destroyed.	eng
36128	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has an occasional distribution in the central parishes.	eng
36128	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thickets and woodland on limestone.	eng
36129	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cesar.	eng
36130	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Widespread in the Chaco.	eng
36130	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	Dry subtropical forest.	eng
36130	threats	Prado, D., 1998	Widely used, the species occurs within an area of considerable human disturbance.	eng
36131	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A relatively widely ranging tree.	eng
36131	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Dry scrub on plains and hillsides, often in rocky areas.	eng
36132	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of low elevations, occurring in rocky thickets along streams.	eng
36132	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Fires are a frequent threat.	eng
36133	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on Mt. Mombacho and Ometepe in Nicaragua and various localities in Costa Rica.	eng
36133	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36133	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively common species.	eng
36133	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In parts of its range, especially in Costa Rica its habitat has declined and populations are threatened.	eng
36134	conservation	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	It occurs in Rincón de la Vieja National Park.	eng
36134	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	One collection made in Mexico is probably a new species.	eng
36134	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	In Costa Rica and Panama the species is confined to montane forests, between 370 and 2,000 m.	eng
36134	population	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	This species does not appear to be rare where it occurs but the dramatic declines in the habitat may qualify it for a threat category.	eng
36134	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
36135	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	It may be divided up into subspecies.	eng
36135	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of moist wooded ravines or rocky hills and dense wet mixed forest at medium to high altitudes.	eng
36136	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from seven localities in Beni and La Paz.	eng
36136	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A river or submontane forest species.	eng
36136	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forests in the area have declined because of encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.	eng
36137	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from a single locality near Mapiri in La Paz, most recently collected in 1939.	eng
36137	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fieldwork is needed to ascertain whether it is now extinct.	eng
36138	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections of this species have not been made for over 100 years since it was found in the Yungas, La Paz. The present status of its population is unknown but likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.	eng
36139	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Gulf region, extending as far north as northern Veracruz.	eng
36139	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in most areas of remaining rainforest.	eng
36140	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly found species, known only from the type locality. There are only three species in the genus. Much of Gabon's forests remain to be explored.	eng
36140	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of Gabon's forests are also largely covered by logging concessions.	eng
36141	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread Mexican endemic in the Gulf region and the Pacific slopes.	eng
36141	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in rainforest and also drier forest types.	eng
36142	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Gulf region, ranging no further north than southern Veracruz.	eng
36142	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to the remaining rainforests.	eng
36143	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Gulf region from northern Veracruz southwards.	eng
36143	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon occurs in remaining rainforest.	eng
36144	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species, endemic to remaining rainforest in the Gulf region, occurring as far north as southern Veracruz.	eng
36144	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36145	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the regions of Los Tuxtlas, Tuxtepec and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa.	eng
36145	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of high precipitation rainforest.	eng
36146	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Tuxtepec and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa regions.	eng
36146	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of high precipitation rainforest.	eng
36147	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring largely in the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region.	eng
36147	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of high precipitation rainforest.	eng
36148	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Gulf region, the species occurs in remaining areas of rainforest, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.	eng
36148	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36149	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Gulf region, ranging as far north as northern Veracruz.	eng
36149	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in remaining rainforest.	eng
36150	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the Gulf region and from the Pacific slope.	eng
36150	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest species with a distribution confined to high precipitation forest.	eng
36151	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This canopy tree is restricted to the remaining rainforest in the Gulf region, from southern Veracruz to the adjacent states further south.	eng
36151	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36152	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the regions of Los Tuxtlas and Uxpanapa-Chimalapa.	eng
36152	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of high precipitation rainforest.	eng
36153	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread endemic, occurring in the Gulf and Pacific regions.	eng
36153	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36154	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of its distribution lies in protected areas.	eng
36154	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Palmira and Poás through the Cordillera de Talamanca to the Chiriquí highlands in Panama. It has also recently been collected from the Central Cordilleral of Nicaragua.	eng
36154	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinctive tree found only in montane and cloud forest.	eng
36154	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is still some threat of deforestation.	eng
36155	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is planted in Brasília Federal District.	eng
36155	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Savanna regions of central Brazil.	eng
36155	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An easily overlooked tree of gallery forest and dry forest.	eng
36156	conservation	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	It is well represented in protected areas.	eng
36156	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	An evergreen species known from a few locations in dry forest or cloud forest, between 750 and 2,400 m.	eng
36156	threats	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	There is considerable population pressure in much of its range.	eng
36157	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type specimen was collected from Bipinde in western Cameroon.	eng
36157	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only evidence of this species is the type specimen, which was collected in 1746. The species may be considered to be extinct.	eng
36158	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from five localities. The two Haitian localities occur in the Massif de la Selle and Massif de la Hotte and date back the 1920s. It is unknown whether these subpopulations remain intact.	eng
36158	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud and pine forests.	eng
36158	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Considerable pressure is exerted upon these small areas of forest because of the demand for farming land and wood.	eng
36159	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected from only six localities in Hispaniola. The two collections from Haiti from the Massif de la Selle date back over 50 years. It is unknown whether the populations remain intact.	eng
36159	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36159	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is considerable pressure exerted on these small forests because of the demand for farming land and wood.	eng
36160	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Oaxaca region of Mexico.	eng
36160	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
36160	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Several localities are known but most are not definite and more fieldwork is necessary to confirm the distribution of this rare species.	eng
36161	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection made in 1984, from the Cordillera de Talamanca.	eng
36161	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An elfin forest species.	eng
36162	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Ecuadorian subpopulation is located within Podocarpus National Park .	eng
36162	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two localities: Huánuco in Peru and Loja-Zamora, Ecuador.	eng
36162	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane or elfin forest species.	eng
36162	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Peruvian subpopulation is unprotected and vulnerable to habitat degradation.	eng
36163	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species known only from two localities in Tumango in Huánuco and Oxapampa in Pasco.	eng
36163	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been few, illustrating that the species may be very rare.	eng
36164	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only two localities: Cordillera Vilcabamba in Peru and Sandillani in Bolivia.	eng
36164	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36164	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been no collections from Bolivia since 1866 and the original subpopulations may now be extinct.	eng
36164	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agricultural expansion, cutting for wood and charcoal production and fires have caused extensive degradation and loss of this forest habitat.	eng
36165	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs within national park boundaries.	eng
36165	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen, this morphologically distinctive species occurs within in Munchique National Park.	eng
36165	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36166	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is poorly known. The locality of the type collection dating back to the 18th century is unknown. Another locality in Valle is tentative. The species has not been definitely collected for over 100 years and may now be extinct.	eng
36167	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from only two localities in San Martin and Loreto.	eng
36167	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No habitat information is available.	eng
36168	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type, this species was collected in 1976 from the Chocó, between Alto del Galápago and San José del Palmar.	eng
36168	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fieldwork is needed to ascertain the current status of the population.	eng
36169	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only two localities in Peru; Bongará in the Amazonas region (collected in 1915) and the Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cuzco.	eng
36169	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An elfin forest species.	eng
36169	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The known subpopulations may be more seriously threatened but fieldwork is needed to give an accurate assessment of their status.	eng
36169	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest in these areas has suffered from the encroachment of farming activities, burning and cutting for charcoal production.	eng
36170	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type specimen collected from Alto de Santo Inés.	eng
36170	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species recorded only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1941.	eng
36171	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected from just three localities. In Peru subpopulations are known from Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cuzco and Oxapampa in Pasco. In Bolivia it was collected over 50 years ago in the Mapiri region of La Paz.	eng
36171	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of primary cloud forest.	eng
36171	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forests in these areas have been extensively degraded by encroaching farming activities, fires and overcutting for fuelwood and charcoal production.	eng
36172	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The exact location of this species is not known. The only collections date back to 1842 and are likely to have been taken from forests to the south of Roraima. Reports suggest that this area is no longer forested because of heavy burning. Surrounding forests have not been botanically well explored.	eng
36172	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fires.	eng
36173	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is confined to three localities: Las Orquideas Natural National Park, between Alto del Galápago, San José del Palmar in Chocó and La Argentina in Huila.	eng
36173	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in cloud forest.	eng
36174	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species once collected in 1926 in thickets in the vicinity of Las Vegas, Santander.	eng
36175	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Huánuco.	eng
36175	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little information on this species is available. It has been collected only once in 1923.	eng
36176	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from Cerro Patascoy in Putumayo.	eng
36176	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, this species has not been seen in the wild since 1869.	eng
36177	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in three localities: Tolima in Colombia and from Cantón Montúfar in Carchi and Playón de San Francisco in Napo in Ecuador. The Colombian collection dates back over 100 years and its present status is unknown, possibly extinct.	eng
36177	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36178	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected over 140 years ago in the department of La Paz from forests above Sandillani.	eng
36178	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The current status of this species is not known but is likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.	eng
36178	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These areas have been seriously degraded  by encroaching farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood and charcoal production.	eng
36179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection located in Suri-Negracota, in the department of La Paz in 1928.	eng
36179	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested areas have been seriously degraded because of encroaching farming activities, fire and overcutting for wood and charcoal production.	eng
36179	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The current status of the population is not known and it is likely to be seriously threatened, possibly extinct.	eng
36180	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from a single locality in the summit savanna of Ptari-tepui, in Canaima National Park in Bolívar.	eng
36180	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Savannah.	eng
36180	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is very fragile. At lower elevations, out of the range of this species, pressures exist from mining and tourism.	eng
36181	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from two localities on Cerro Yutaje in Amazonas.  The area is a Natural Monument but not otherwise protected.	eng
36181	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the fragile habitat of the tepui summit.	eng
36182	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from three localities in Bolívar; Uaipán-tepui and Aprada-tepui.	eng
36182	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In fragile summit savannah.	eng
36182	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	t occurs in Canaima National Park, where mining and tourism are threatening habitats at lower elevations.	eng
36183	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is given the status of a National Monument but is otherwise unprotected.	eng
36183	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type specimen, which was collected in 1974 from the summit savanna of Cerro Guanacoco in Bolívar.	eng
36183	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Savannah.	eng
36183	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is very fragile, although not imminently threatened.	eng
36184	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from three localities in Amazonas and Vaupés, Colombia.	eng
36184	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No habitat information is available.	eng
36185	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs within Jáua-Sarisariñama National Park.	eng
36185	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from two localities in Bolívar.	eng
36185	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tepui summit savannah.	eng
36185	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tepui summit savannah is a very fragile habitat.	eng
36186	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within Canaima National Park.	eng
36186	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species collected only once, in 1978, on the summit of Ptari-tepui, Bolívar, within Canaima National Park.	eng
36186	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Densely wooded area.	eng
36186	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been seen recently despite efforts to locate it. It is clearly extremely rare or perhaps even extinct.	eng
36187	distribution	Pedralli, G., 1998	Most recent collections have come from Tapajós in Pará. In the past, the species was known from Maranhâo further north.	eng
36187	habitat	Pedralli, G., 1998	Non-flooded forest.	eng
36187	threats	Pedralli, G., 1998	Intense exploitation of the bark to make essential oils has caused the species to become rare.	eng
36188	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species described in 1988, known only from Sambé, near Rio Bonito.	eng
36189	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only with certainty from Rio de Janeiro, where it was last collected in 1959. The Bahian occurrence is incorrect.	eng
36190	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the Atlantic coast, the species is known from a few collections in the area surrounding Rio de Janeiro city and also rarely from Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo.	eng
36190	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36191	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Last collected in 1978, the species is concentrated around Rio de Janeiro, but is also known from forests further inland.	eng
36192	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-east of Carmen del Atrato, Chocó.	eng
36192	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from the edge of secondary forest.	eng
36193	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to Vanuatu, occurring on the islands of Erromango, Pentecost and Banks.	eng
36193	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not uncommon but logging and habitat destruction have led to the species becoming increasingly hard to find.	eng
36194	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from just two collections. The type specimen was gathered from a forest island in the Sipaliwini Savannah.	eng
36194	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen seasonal forest.	eng
36195	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Described in 1842, the type collection is from the Kwitaro River.	eng
36195	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has not been recorded since the type collection.	eng
36198	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to areas of the Gran Sabanna and Cerro Guaiquinima of Venezuela.	eng
36198	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree.	eng
36199	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection was gathered on the Pakaraima Mts.	eng
36199	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36199	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type collection.	eng
36200	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Described in 1988, this small tree is known only from the type specimen collected in Montagne Bellevue de l'Inini.	eng
36202	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected.	eng
36202	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Roraima on the Venezuela-Guyana border.	eng
36202	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to upland rainforest.	eng
36202	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Affected to some extent by tourism.	eng
36203	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected.	eng
36203	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to south Venezuela and south Guyana in the vicinity of Roraima.	eng
36203	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in scrub forest and on the summit of sandstone mountains.	eng
36203	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressure from tourism.	eng
36204	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected.	eng
36204	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the slopes of Mt. Roraima on the border of Venezuela and Guyana.	eng
36204	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane species found in rainforest.	eng
36204	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressure from tourism.	eng
36206	distribution	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Bolívar Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
36206	habitat	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	A cloud forest shrub, growing to 30 cm in height.	eng
36207	distribution	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	This Ecuadorian endemic is found in Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, and Azuay Provinces.	eng
36207	habitat	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest between 2,850 and 4,300 m.	eng
36208	habitat	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	An Atlantic forest species.	eng
36208	threats	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Threatened by loss and degradation of the habitat and poor regeneration.	eng
36210	distribution	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Widely occurring in north, north-east and south-east Brazil.	eng
36210	habitat	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	An Atlantic forest species.	eng
36210	threats	Carauta, J.P.P., 1998	Subpopulations have declined because of habitat loss, degradation and poor regeneration.	eng
36211	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in clearings and forest edges in Atlantic coastal rainforest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest.	eng
36211	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These forests has suffered heavy declines over the past centuries.	eng
36212	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Two localities are known, one in Paraná, south-east of Curitiba, and one around Sâo Joaquim. It occurs within an area of 10,000 km².	eng
36212	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Clearings, thickets and waste places in the dwarf montane forest.	eng
36213	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Atlantic coast.	eng
36213	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widespread species of primary or secondary forest, often in <em>Araucaria</em> groves.	eng
36213	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Declines in this habitat have been dramatic.	eng
36214	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36214	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Cameron Highlands of Pahang.	eng
36214	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is confined to open or closed rainforest at an altitude of 1,500 to 1,900 m.	eng
36215	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree is conserved within forest reserves and permanent forest estates where it occurs.	eng
36215	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36215	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of lowlands and hill forests	eng
36215	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The expansion of settlements is the principle pressure placed upon the species, it is also locally utilized as a fuel source.	eng
36216	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only by a single collection from Kinta, Perak.	eng
36216	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland forest.	eng
36216	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Kinta area is now mainly mined over and the survival of the species is doubtful.	eng
36217	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is conserved within the permanent forest reserves where it occurs.	eng
36217	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Penang, Kelantan and Selangor.	eng
36217	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of lowland primary forests.	eng
36217	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A relatively uncommon species.	eng
36218	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded only from Larut in Perak. Its exact location is unknown.	eng
36218	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
36219	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Range includes some protected areas.	eng
36219	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	North-east Madagascar. Its estimated range covers 20,000 km² (AOO).	eng
36219	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	An emergent tree confined to low-altitude evergreen humid forest.	eng
36219	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The forest is being degraded by exploitation and agriculture.	eng
36220	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities are protected in Ankarana Reserve.	eng
36220	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree known only from a few localities around Autsiranana and the Ankarana Massif. Subpopulations are fragmented.	eng
36220	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Areas of limestone outcrops.	eng
36220	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Much of the range is decreasing through forest destruction. The main threat comes from selective felling for timber and charcoal.	eng
36221	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous tree known only from two locations within a very restricted area north of Morondava. It covers an estimated 1,500 km² (EOO) within a region of fragmented and declining native vegetation.	eng
36221	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Declining native vegetation.	eng
36223	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some protected areas exist within its range, notably Ankarafantsika natural reserve.	eng
36223	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A deciduous tree restricted to lowland, seasonally dry forest and woodland.   Whilst the primary vegetation is declining throughout its range, this species occurs in degraded vegetation and will coppice when cut.	eng
36223	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Areas of suitable vegetation are declining and the species is selectively felled for wood, charcoal and fuel.	eng
36224	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species has a very restricted distribution in south-east Madagascar.	eng
36224	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Woodland and scrubland on sand.	eng
36224	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The vegetation in this area is very fragmented.	eng
36225	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Little or no conservation measures in existence.	eng
36225	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Recorded from only a few scattered localities in a restricted area of southern Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 16,000 km²	eng
36225	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This deciduous tree occurs on sand near the coast.	eng
36225	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Habitat continuing degradation. It is selectively felled for timber	eng
36226	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A small area is protected beside Lake Tsimanampetsotsa.	eng
36226	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Mahafaly Plateau of southern Madagascar, covering an estimated 18,000 km² (EOO).	eng
36226	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A xerophytic species restricted to limestone.	eng
36226	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The area is already fragmented and grazed and is continuing to be cleared.	eng
36227	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Contained within a protected reserve.	eng
36227	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Ankarana Massif, north Madagascar. Its area of occupancy covers an estimated 500 km².	eng
36227	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	An uncommon tree of limestone outcrops.	eng
36228	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Subpopulations are found in Andasibe/Perinet Reserve.	eng
36228	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Currently known from only four localities. Its range is broad, extending  over 1,000 km² and it is likely that further localities exist.	eng
36228	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This submontane species is uncommon and localised in stands of primary vegetation.	eng
36229	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Widespread in west and north Madagascar.	eng
36229	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous species that has some capability of regeneration in secondary vegetation.	eng
36230	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from a single location in an area of highly fragmented vegetation on Ankara Plateau, this species occupies an area of approximately 100 km².	eng
36230	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Trees are very rare, scattered and low in numbers.	eng
36230	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The remaining vegetation is declining rapidly as a result of burning and encroachment.	eng
36231	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It is included within Ankarana and Analamerana Reserves.	eng
36231	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from two localities restricted to the Ankarana-Analamerana Massif of north Madagascar.	eng
36231	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36231	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It is uncommon, covering an estimated area of 500 km² (AOO), within which the forests are declining.	eng
36232	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Its range extends 40,000 km² (EOO).	eng
36232	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36232	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Restricted and uncommon.	eng
36232	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Highly fragmented as a result of agriculture and burning. Recent cotton plantations have had a strong impact and it is likely that at least 50% of the forest has been cleared or degraded in the last 100 years. This decline is continuing although this species is included within Ankarafantsika Reserve.	eng
36233	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known from only three localities, confined to eastern Madagascar.	eng
36233	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
36233	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Its range is estimated to lie between 500 and 1,000 km² (AOO), but it is uncommon.	eng
36233	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The habitat is almost entirely destroyed, with only small vestiges remaining.	eng
36234	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Recorded from only two sites, at Ambila-Lemaitsu which extends less than 500 km² (AOO).	eng
36234	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This eastern coastal forest species is confined to a forest remnant.	eng
36234	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Suffers continual degradation.	eng
36235	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from two restricted sites: Nosy Mangabe and Antongil and Taolanaro. The southern subpopulation extends less than 500 km² (AOO).	eng
36235	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A coastal forest species.	eng
36235	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The southern population is threatened by mining.	eng
36236	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A species that is widespread and relatively frequent in localised areas throughout west and north Madagascar.	eng
36236	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Found in deciduous woodland.	eng
36237	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It is confined to an area of less than 500 km² (AOO) in south-east Madagascar.	eng
36237	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A transitional forest species between dry and humid vegetation.	eng
36237	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The area is under threat from development, exploitation and mining, and the remaining forest is already highly fragmented.	eng
36238	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It occurs within some reserves such as Ankarafantsika.	eng
36238	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A species of west and central Madagascar.	eng
36238	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A widespread deciduous or evergreen species found in fragmented vegetation.  It can regenerate in secondary or disturbed vegetation.	eng
36238	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The extent of native vegetation is declining.	eng
36239	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	An important coastal forest species known from only two highly restricted localities in the northern tip of Madagascar near Irodo village. Its entire range is estimated to be just 10 km² (AOO) and only one site has been confirmed recently, on a small patch of highly specialised vegetation .	eng
36239	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Threatened by disturbance and exploitation. The site is not protected.	eng
36240	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Both areas are reserves.	eng
36240	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous species known only from the Bemaraha Massif and Namoroka in west Madagascar. It is confined to this very specialised habitat, which is of little interest for agriculture or exploitation.	eng
36240	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs on exposed limestone.	eng
36241	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Widespread in central and west Madagascar.	eng
36241	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Lowland or submontane woodland.	eng
36241	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This species is uncommon.	eng
36241	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The remaining native vegetation is very fragmented and continues to decline.	eng
36242	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs within the protected Namoroka Reserve.	eng
36242	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Ankara Plateau of west Madagascar. Its range is restricted to an estimated 400 km² (AOO) and areas outside the reserve are declining. It may now be restricted to a single locality within the reserve.	eng
36242	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species restricted to limestone outcrops.	eng
36243	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	No protection exists in this area.	eng
36243	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from the small marble outcrops to the south of Amatofinandrahana on the eastern margin of the Itremo Massif in central Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be less than 10 km² (AOO).	eng
36243	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A sclerophyllous woodland species.	eng
36243	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	These areas are being actively mined for marble and the forest remnants are also being rapidly degraded.	eng
36244	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known from only two localities, occurs in the upper Mandrare River basin and Ihosy River valley of south-central Madagascar. Its range is restricted to an estimated 1,500 km² (area of occupancy).	eng
36244	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
36244	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The vegetation is highly fragmented and decreasing.	eng
36245	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Confined to a small area of south and south-east Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 15,000 km² (extent of occurrence) and includes Andohahela Reserve (Parcelle 2).	eng
36245	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A xerophytic scrub and woodland species.	eng
36245	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	All vegetation in this area is fragmented and declining.	eng
36246	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Confined to the Mahafaly Plateau between the Manombo River and Itambono Corridor, with an estimated range of 5,000 km² (EOO).	eng
36246	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Scrubland species.	eng
36246	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The vegetation is fragmented, often disturbed and declining as a result of felling for charcoal and grazing.	eng
36247	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from Baie de Rigney and Baie d'Irodo forests in north-east Madagascar, with an estimated range of less than 10 km² (AOO).	eng
36247	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A coastal forest and woodland species.	eng
36247	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	These areas are under severe local pressure from selective cutting and degradation.	eng
36248	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It occurs within Analamerana Reserve.	eng
36248	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from a very restricted area of north-east Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 250 km² (EOO) based mainly on old records, and is likely to be considerably smaller.	eng
36248	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36248	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This species is declining through habitat destruction and selective cutting of its highly sought-after timber.	eng
36249	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It is found within some reserves such as Ankarafantsika, Bemaraha and Namoroka.	eng
36249	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Widespread but uncommon in west Madagascar. Its range extends an estimated 10,000 km² (AOO).	eng
36249	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36249	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A rapid decline is expected.	eng
36249	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs within extremely fragmented and decreasing patches of vegetation. This species is selectively and intensively felled for its construction properties and for fuel.	eng
36250	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	No conservation measures exist.	eng
36250	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known only from a single recent collection, this species occurs in a highly populated area near a main road, south-east of Antsiranana in north Madagascar. Its range is probably considerably less than the estimated 100 km² (EOO), as there are very few remnants of native vegetation in the area.	eng
36250	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
36250	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Habitat destruction through development.	eng
36251	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs in the Ankarana Reserve.	eng
36251	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs in the northern tip of Madagascar: Montagne des Français and Ankarana Massif. Its estimated range is 100 km² (area of occupancy).	eng
36251	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous species that is uncommon and restricted to two limestone outcrops.	eng
36251	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Selective and intensive felling for its favoured construction properties mean it is expected to decline rapidly.	eng
36252	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	An evergreen species last recorded over 40 years ago from a single very restricted area estimated to cover less than 10 km² at Tampoketsa d'Ankazobe in central Madagascar.	eng
36252	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The vegetation is extremely degraded and declining and few small remnant forested patches remain.	eng
36253	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A widespread species in the north and east of Madagascar, with a substantial subpopulation in the coastal forest in the south-east, north of Taolañaro. The largest area of possible occurrence includes Andasibe/Perinet, Montagne d'Ambre and Mont Tsaratanana Reserves.	eng
36253	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Evergreen, humid forest.	eng
36253	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The subpopulation north of Taolañaro contains many individuals but will be felled for the RTZ (QIT) titanium mines in the near future, reducing the known population by at least 20%.	eng
36253	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Felling for the RTZ (QIT) titanium mines.	eng
36254	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Known from only two localities in the Ankarana Massif and Montagne des Français in north Madagascar. Its range extends less than 300 km² (AOO).	eng
36254	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Deciduous woodland species in limestone areas.	eng
36254	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Subpopulations near Antsiranana are declining as a result of forest degradation and selective felling.	eng
36255	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A very widespread and often frequent species of western Madagascar.	eng
36255	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Deciduous forest.	eng
36255	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Although widespread, all vegetation in the area is fragmented and declining rapidly.	eng
36256	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Occurs in Namoroka and Bemaraha in west Madagascar.	eng
36256	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	This species is restricted to limestone outcrops.	eng
36256	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Covering an estimated 2,000 km² (AOO), the population is declining, especially in the northern extremity (Mahajunga), where it may now be extinct.	eng
36257	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Confined to only four known localities, all in fragments of now very restricted (200 km² area of occupancy) and continually decreasing forest in eastern coastal Madagascar, near Toamasina.	eng
36257	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A coastal, evergreen forest species.	eng
36257	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Trees are selectively felled for construction timber.	eng
36258	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The Ankarana subpopulation is protected within the Ankarana Reserve.	eng
36258	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Confined to the Ankarana Massif and around Antsiranana at the northern tip of Madagascar.	eng
36258	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A rare deciduous woodland subspecies on limestone.	eng
36258	population	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Covering an estimated 250 km² (AOO), most of the area is very fragmented and declining rapidly.	eng
36259	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A rare and poorly known woodland species confined to the coastal plains of western Madagascar, with a known distribution of 20,000 km² (extent of occurrence). Vegetation in the area is already very fragmented and declining.	eng
36260	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It may be included within Andohahela Reserve (Parcelle 2).	eng
36260	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A species with an uncommon but relatively broad distribution in southern Madagascar. Its range is estimated to be 15,000 km² (AOO) but is entirely fragmented and declining rapidly.	eng
36260	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A xerophytic scrub and woodland species on non-calcareous substrates.	eng
36260	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	The timber is selectively felled for construction purposes.	eng
36261	conservation	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	It is included within Namoroka and Ankarana Reserves.	eng
36261	distribution	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Found in west and north Madagascar towards the coast and on limestone outcrops, covering a range of about 9,000 km² (AOO).	eng
36261	habitat	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36261	threats	Du Puy, D. & Labat, H., 1998	Selective logging takes place for fuelwood and construction purposes.	eng
36262	conservation	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Exists within protected areas that are not imminently threatened.	eng
36262	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs throughout north, south and west regions of Madagascar.	eng
36262	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A deciduous woodland and forest species.	eng
36262	population	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is locally common.	eng
36263	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Scattered and widespread distribution across west, south-west and south-east areas of Madagascar. Its distribution is similar to that of <em>D. boiviniana</em> and indeed it may not qualify as a separate species.	eng
36263	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Deciduous woodland species.	eng
36264	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to a narrow strip near the coast of south and south-west Madagascar, the range of this species is extensive.	eng
36264	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
36264	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs in areas under increasing threat from charcoal production. It is highly utilised locally.	eng
36265	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs commonly in the south-west and west of Madagascar.	eng
36265	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A deciduous woodland species.	eng
36265	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Its main subpopulations are in areas of the south-west that are being increasingly reduced for charcoal production.	eng
36266	conservation	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurs in a fairly inaccessible location within a reserve where it is not threatened.	eng
36266	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known only from a small population in west Madagascar.	eng
36266	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Lowland deciduous woodland.	eng
36266	population	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It was not recorded in a recent botanical survey.	eng
36267	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs within a reserve where exploitation is limited because of the area's remoteness.	eng
36267	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single herbarium specimen collected from Tsingy de Bemaraha in west Madagascar.	eng
36267	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
36268	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted mainly to south-west Madagascar.	eng
36268	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Deciduous woodland.	eng
36268	population	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is uncommon where it occurs.	eng
36268	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Threatened by charcoal burning.	eng
36269	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known only from two subpopulations in south-west Madagascar, on La Table Hill, with a smaller subpopulation on the plateau above St Augustin.	eng
36269	habitat	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is restricted to areas of xerophytic scrubland.	eng
36269	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Threats to La Table Hill subpopulation exist from road widening and the collection of mature individuals for the ornamental trade. Both subpopulations are susceptible to fires and neither is protected.	eng
36270	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This deciduous species, previously known only from the type collected from the Ankara Plateau in the Boina, has recently been reported from a small population on the Ankarana Massif. Its location is very inaccessible and no recent survey has been done.	eng
36270	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Periodic fires on the Ankara Plateau are a threat.	eng
36271	distribution	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known from only a few small subpopulations in north Madagascar, the main locality of this species is Orangea Peninsula. It has been recorded once from a protected site at Ankarana.	eng
36271	population	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A rare deciduous species.	eng
36271	threats	Du Puy, D. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is severely threatened by charcoal burning.	eng
36273	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to northern Borneo.	eng
36273	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest up to 800 m.	eng
36301	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is given a degree of protection, where it occurs within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36301	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pahang (Cameron Highlands) and Kelantan (Gunung Stong).	eng
36301	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree inhabiting montane rainforest.	eng
36302	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Kelantan.	eng
36302	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
36302	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species is known only from a single collection.	eng
36303	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	States of Pahang, Kelantan, Kedah, Perak and Selangor.	eng
36303	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of lowland and hills up to 610 m.	eng
36304	conservation	Frodin, D., 2003	Subpopulations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36304	distribution	Frodin, D., 2003	Last collected in 1970, north of the Genting Highlands Casino complex and also found in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
36304	habitat	Frodin, D., 2003	This small epiphytic tree occurs in montane forest and forest edges. It sometimes grows as a crown epiphyte, hence it is seldom collected and may be commoner than realised.	eng
36304	threats	Frodin, D., 2003	Deforestation for human settlements, agriculture and tourism developments are the key threats.	eng
36305	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	All forms are highly localised. The first form is confined to the Cameron Highlands; the second form is from the Genting Highlands resort complex; and the third form occurs locally in Terangannu.	eng
36305	population	Frodin, D., 1998	The Cameron Highlands form has been collected twice from an isolated area, most recently in 1938. The Genting Highlands form was last seen in 1977. The Terangannu form is known from five collections, the most recent dating from the 1960s.	eng
36306	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate in Perak and the Cameron Highlands in Pahang.	eng
36306	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare large shrub or small tree found in montane cloud forest at about 1,370 m.	eng
36307	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree known only from one specimen collected in 1888 south of Ringlet. This remote locality has not been revisited.	eng
36308	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves however, the species is conserved.	eng
36308	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is scattered throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia. Also found in Singapore and in Thailand and its range extends to Sarawak on Borneo (to Malaysia) and to Sumatra and Java (to Indonesia).	eng
36308	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of lowland and hill forest.	eng
36308	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Timber from the tree is traded on a minor international level, consequently felling activities by man are the main pressure exerted upon the species.	eng
36310	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is common and conserved where it occurs.	eng
36310	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Locally distributed in Langkawi and upper Pirea.	eng
36310	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of hilly limestone.	eng
36311	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Regeneration under the canopy of wet forests is reported to be profuse in Viet Nam, where it is known from Ninh Binh (Cuc Phuong National Park), Thanh Hoa and Lam Dong Provinces. Populations are localised in Peninsular Malaysia in Kelantan, Terengganu and Perak.	eng
36311	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A large tree of primary forest, on valley and mountain slopes up to 330 m.	eng
36312	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It receives protection within a national park and the permanent forest estate.	eng
36312	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in Gunung Padang, Gunung Mandi Angin in Terengganu and Fraser's Hill, Gunung Ulu and the Kali/Genting Highlands in Pahang.	eng
36312	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in montane and submontane rainforest.	eng
36312	population	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This is an uncommon species.	eng
36313	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Endemic to southern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36313	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Montane forest up to 1,510 m.	eng
36313	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Infrastructural development.	eng
36314	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some areas receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36314	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Extending from the Cameron Highlands to Gunung Angsi and Gunung Panti in Johore. It is locally common on Gunung Inas and Gunung Jerai in Kedah.	eng
36314	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species found between 450 and 1,830 m.	eng
36315	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some localities receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36315	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is found in Perak, Pahang, Selangor and Johore.	eng
36315	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Scattered in moist forest between 1,000 and 2,000 m.	eng
36316	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is protected within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park and within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36316	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	State of Pahang.	eng
36316	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in primary submontane to montane rainforest.	eng
36317	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Populations are protected in the Taman Negara National Park and in the permanent forest estate.	eng
36317	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Gunung Rabong in Kelantan, Gunung Bubu in Perak, Gunung Tahan in Pahang and on Gunung Blumut in Johore.	eng
36317	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrubby tree, inhabiting moist forest between 1,000 and 2,000 m.	eng
36318	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36318	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Pahang and Terengganu.	eng
36318	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species inhabiting hill and mountain rainforest up to 1,070 m.	eng
36319	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Protected populations are found within Taman Negara National Park and the permanent forest estate.	eng
36319	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak in Gunung Bubu, Terengganu in Gunung Mandi Angin and Pahang  in the Cameron Highlands, Gunung Berebun.	eng
36319	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of montane rainforest, distributed between 1,400 and 2,200 m.	eng
36320	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	One locality in Ulu Endau is protected within Endau Rompin National Park and the other in Gunung Panti is also a conserved area.	eng
36320	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A relatively recently discovered species in Pahang and Johore.	eng
36320	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known from areas of rainforest between 500 and 700 m.	eng
36320	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The full distribution and abundance of the species is still unknown.	eng
36321	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from Kuala Triang in Pahang.	eng
36321	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species has been collected only a single time from forest on the banks of the Pahang River.	eng
36322	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The forest at Gunong Nuong is protected.	eng
36322	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	There are two main subpopulations; one in mountain forest at Gunong Nuong in Selangor and the other in lowland seasonal swamp in south-east Johore.	eng
36322	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of mountain forest and lowland seasonal swamp.	eng
36322	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The Johore subpopulation is being deforested for the construction of resorts and it is doubtful that the species will survive there.	eng
36323	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A medium-sized tree inhabiting montane rainforest.	eng
36323	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some localities are being cleared for agriculture despite being contained within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36324	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Langkawi and Perak. It is unclear whether the species occurs in Peninsular Thailand or not.	eng
36324	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small to medium-sized tree occurring mainly in limestone hill forest.	eng
36324	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Threatened by increasing settlement and logging.	eng
36325	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Populations are conserved in production and protected forests throughout the country.	eng
36325	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed.	eng
36325	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species occurs in lowland and submontane forest.	eng
36325	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species might be synonymous with <em>G. rostrata</em>.	eng
36326	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Although confined to the limestone hills of north Malaya, this species is commonly found within such areas.	eng
36326	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary regenerations species of limestone hills.  Distribution occurs within a narrow elevation band of approximately 100 m.	eng
36327	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation of the species occurs within forest reserve areas.	eng
36327	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered from the north to the south of Malaya.	eng
36327	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of lowland forest that is cultivated in villages for it's fruit.	eng
36327	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Cultivation is on a small scale, generally for local use only, with agricultural pressures being a serious threat.	eng
36328	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Ulu Bera in Perak, a single collection of this small tree was made in the last century.	eng
36328	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is uncertain whether the collection locality is still forested as there has been much settlement and forest clearance in the area.	eng
36329	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Restricted to the Ulu Bubong Hills.	eng
36329	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36329	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree has been collected twice only.	eng
36330	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known from very few collections from Pahang and Johore.	eng
36330	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
36330	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Threatened by land conversion for agriculture.	eng
36331	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved in the protected forests of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor.	eng
36331	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Occurring within most Peninsular Malaysia states.	eng
36331	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical tree species of mountain forests and low hills.	eng
36332	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	There is hope that the species receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36332	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree confined to the states of Terengganu and Pahang.	eng
36332	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36332	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It is known only from a few herbarium specimens.	eng
36333	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Common in Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.	eng
36333	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical montane forest species.	eng
36333	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved within the protected forests of Kedah, Penang, Perak and Selangor.	eng
36334	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species may receive a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36334	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the State of Perak.	eng
36334	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
36335	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the future, this tree is expected to be conserved within permanent and protected forests.	eng
36335	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Distributed in Perak, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor.	eng
36335	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary forest species of lowland to mountain forests.	eng
36335	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Used as a timber source on a local and national trade level, pressures are therefore exerted on the species as a result of felling activities.	eng
36336	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species may receive a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves.	eng
36336	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A scattered tree confined to Johore.	eng
36336	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
36336	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Most of the lowland forest has been cleared for agriculture in this region.	eng
36337	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation measures in the permanent forest reserves of these states, are expected in the future.	eng
36337	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A widely distributed species found in Terengganu, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
36337	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland species.	eng
36337	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressures from logging activities are a threat to the species, with harvested timber traded on a local and national level.	eng
36338	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It may receive a degree of protection within permanent forest reserves or virgin jungle reserves.	eng
36338	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang by a single collection from each state.	eng
36338	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species grows in lowland forest between the altitudes of 30 and 60 m.	eng
36339	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is believed to be protected in permanent forest reserves and/or Taman Negara National Park.	eng
36339	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections originate from Pahang and Perak.	eng
36339	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A hill forest tree known only from two collections.	eng
36340	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from a single collection from Penare Bukit, Penang at about 300 m.	eng
36340	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most parts of Penang have been developed since the collection was made, so the species' existence is uncertain.	eng
36340	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Development.	eng
36354	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A newly described species, known only from two collections, found in Selangor and Negri Sembilan.	eng
36354	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Hill forest.	eng
36355	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is expected to be conserved within the productive forest reserves of Pahang and Perak.	eng
36355	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Subpopulations have been recorded within Pahang and Perak.	eng
36355	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Tropical, lowland/hill species, occurring in primary forest.	eng
36356	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved within the protected forests of Perak, Pahang and Johor.	eng
36356	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Commonly found in the states of Perak, Pahang and Johor.	eng
36356	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of montane or submontane environments.	eng
36357	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Perak and Pahang.	eng
36357	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Mountain forest.	eng
36357	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A rare species.	eng
36358	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the future, the species is expected to be conserved in the permanent forest reserves of the previously mentioned states.	eng
36358	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found within the states of Kedah, Perak and Selangor.	eng
36358	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of hill forest and lowlands.  Distribution begins at an altitude of 300 meters.	eng
36359	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Penang Hill.	eng
36359	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36359	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species may be extinct as most of Penang has been developed.	eng
36359	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest destruction because of development.	eng
36360	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation of the species occurs in two protected forests in the state of Pahang.	eng
36360	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Widely distributed within the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hill areas in Pahang.	eng
36360	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
36361	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests of Perak and Pahang, the species is conserved.	eng
36361	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Perak and Pahang.	eng
36361	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest species	eng
36361	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Locally abundant.	eng
36362	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the protected forests of these states, the tree is protected.	eng
36362	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found scattered within Kedah, Selangor, Pahang and the Langkawi islands.	eng
36362	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A species of mountain and hill forests.	eng
36363	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Taiping, Perak.	eng
36363	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species was found in lowland forest.	eng
36363	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only by a single collection.	eng
36364	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from Penang Hill, a conservation area.	eng
36364	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree occurs in lowland forest.	eng
36365	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Collected from Temengor, Perak.	eng
36365	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36365	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A single collection of this species has been made. Some forest remains around Temengor, in which the species may survive.	eng
36365	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	There has been much forest conversion for agriculture and it is uncertain whether the species still exists.	eng
36366	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	It occurs in Taiping near Maxwell's Hills, which is a conservation area.	eng
36366	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the states of Perak and Kelantan.	eng
36366	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Hill forest.	eng
36366	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species has been collected only a few times.	eng
36366	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Agriculture is a threat.	eng
36367	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conserved within the protected forests of these states.	eng
36367	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Kedah, Penang, Perak, Pahang and Kelantan.	eng
36367	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical tree frequently found in the hill and mountain forests.	eng
36367	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	An abundant species.	eng
36368	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Perak.	eng
36368	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
36368	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once. The locality is no longer forested but there is a possibility that subpopulations have survived in surrounding areas.	eng
36369	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved within the permanent forest reserves where it is found.	eng
36369	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Located in most states of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36369	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland tree	eng
36369	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A commonly occurring species.	eng
36370	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of these states the species is conserved.	eng
36370	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found within the states of Kedah, Perak and Negeri Sembilan.	eng
36370	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, tropical tree species of lowland and hill forest.	eng
36371	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Gunung Terai in Kedah.	eng
36371	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is scattered in montane forest at 1,000 m.	eng
36372	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The locality is within a protected forest.	eng
36372	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known only from Gunong Batu Puteh in Perak.	eng
36372	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
36372	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is known from a single collection.	eng
36373	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Endemic to Langkawi Island.	eng
36373	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Lowland seasonal forest.	eng
36373	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is known only from a single collection.	eng
36373	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Langkawi Island is being rapidly developed as a tourist resort.	eng
36374	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Mountain forests are protected forests in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36374	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the Cameron Highlands in Pahang.	eng
36374	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
36375	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Maxwell's Hill is a protected area.	eng
36375	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Recorded only from Maxwell's Hill in Perak.	eng
36375	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This tree is scattered in montane forest.	eng
36376	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree is found in both Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.	eng
36376	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabiting primary hill rainforest.	eng
36377	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the lowlands of Perak.	eng
36377	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This small understorey species is principally threatened by increasing settlement.	eng
36378	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the Kluang Forest Reserve in the state of Johor.	eng
36378	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of lowland moist areas.	eng
36378	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The principal threat to remaining populations is logging.	eng
36379	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	North-west Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36379	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This rare species is a small tree confined to lowland tropical rainforest.	eng
36380	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs in protected areas, such as national parks and forest reserves.	eng
36380	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Not restricted in range.	eng
36380	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A hill forest species.	eng
36382	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Maxwell Hill, Taiping, in the state of Perak.	eng
36382	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree grows up to 16 m tall and is confined to upper hill forest.	eng
36383	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small, rare tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
36384	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is afforded protection in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
36384	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is recorded in Kelantan, Terengganu, Perak and Pahang.	eng
36384	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree inhabiting forested ridge tops between 700 and 2,100 m.	eng
36385	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The species is conserved within the permanent and protected forests of Malaya.	eng
36385	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36385	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tropical moist species, located in primary forest throughout lowland and montane areas.	eng
36385	population	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A common species.	eng
36385	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The tree is threatened by logging activities, with harvested timber being traded on a local and national level.	eng
36386	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The locality is thought to be contained within the protected forests of Perak State.	eng
36386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Gunong Batu Puteh in Perak.	eng
36386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
36386	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single collection of this species was made.	eng
36387	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both localities lie within the boundaries of protected forest reserves.	eng
36387	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from Bukit Kutu, Selangor, and Raka Hill Forest Reserve, Pahang.	eng
36387	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland and hill rainforest.	eng
36388	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is conserved in protected forests throughout Malaysia.	eng
36388	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A primary, open forest species that is confined to the summits and ridges of mountain forests.	eng
36389	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This endemic tree is found in the states of Perak, Terengganu and Selangor.	eng
36389	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland primary forest between 75 and 450 m, often along stream banks and on moist ground.	eng
36389	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Habitat losses have resulted from logging and increasing settlement.	eng
36390	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Believed to be sufficiently well contained in protective forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36390	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is not restricted in range.	eng
36390	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in areas of submontane primary rainforest.	eng
36390	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some parts of the range are still affected by increasing settlement and agriculture.	eng
36391	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are protected within national and state parks.	eng
36391	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	States of Pahang and Johore.	eng
36391	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of primary hill forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.	eng
36391	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	There are few pressures on the species or habitat.	eng
36392	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This endemic species occurs in the states of Perak, Kelantan and Pahang.	eng
36392	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurs in lowland primary forest, often on ridges.	eng
36392	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Logging has caused habitat declines.	eng
36393	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Perak.	eng
36393	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A primary species of lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
36393	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Habitat reductions have been caused by logging and conversion to agriculture.	eng
36394	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Endau State Park, Johore.	eng
36394	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	On a ridge top in hill forest at 180 m alt.	eng
36394	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from only one collection.	eng
36395	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It is protected in Taman Negara National Park.	eng
36395	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded in Selangor, Pahang and Johore.	eng
36395	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of lowland and hill forest, rarely reaching an altitude of 900 m, occasionally found on quartz ridges.	eng
36396	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Mt. Oplur in Johore State.	eng
36396	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to hill forest.	eng
36397	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The area is contained within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.	eng
36397	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Mt. Tahan in the state of Pehang.	eng
36397	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A rare shrub or small tree, confined to montane rainforest.	eng
36398	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species which occurs throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36398	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Lowland and hill forests up to 900 m.	eng
36399	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca.	eng
36399	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A late secondary and primary species found in lowland open rainforest	eng
36400	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some localities lie within the wildlife sanctuary in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
36400	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree can be found in Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore.	eng
36400	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of lowland open and closed rainforest on sandy soils.	eng
36401	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	It receives a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
36401	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Perak and Pahang.	eng
36401	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This rare tree inhabits cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,000 m.	eng
36402	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	An endemic tree most common in hill forest.	eng
36403	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A subpopulation occurs at the north of  Lake Nyasa, the Tanzanian part of Lake Malawi, and the species is believed to range into northern Malawi.	eng
36403	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
36404	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A distinct variant of an East African endemic. It has a restricted range in northern Tanzania. Specimens from northern Kenya previously placed here are now known as var. <em>borenensis</em>.	eng
36404	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
36405	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	From south-east Kenya to Tanzania.	eng
36405	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree or shrub confined to patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
36406	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	There are subpopulations in parts of eastern Tanzania and Malawi.	eng
36406	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A species of moist forest of medium to high elevations.	eng
36407	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Known from Mafia Island and parts of south-east Tanzania.	eng
36407	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This sometimes scandent small tree or shrub occurs in dry coastal forest or bushland.	eng
36408	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	The Rondo Plateau is protected by the activities of a forest management programme.	eng
36408	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Currently the species is known only from Mlinguru forest. This area has not been visited recently but, if it still exists, it is believed to be 10–20 km from Lindi. Specimens that possibly represent the same species have been found on the Rondo Plateau, 140 km² of mostly disturbed forest.	eng
36409	conservation	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In the Rondo Plateau, the little remaining undisturbed forest is protected in a reserve with an active forest management programme, which discourages any illegal activities or encroachment.	eng
36409	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	In Tanzania two populations are known. One is recorded in the Rondo Plateau, the other population is found at the Mozambique border at Kitangari. The species is also found in Mozambique.	eng
36409	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A scandent shrub or small tree. occurs in patches of dry coastal forest.	eng
36410	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was made a century ago in the north-west of the country.	eng
36410	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has not been collected since the type collection was made.	eng
36417	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A species restricted to West Java.	eng
36417	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Primary forest.	eng
36418	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Found on well-drained undulating land, this variety grows in lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
36433	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	During the comprehensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only three localities in Kegalle and Ratnapura.	eng
36433	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	A tree restricted to lower montane forest.	eng
36434	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This small tree is known only from the type collection. It did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36435	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	A small tree known only from Gilimale forest in Ratnapura District.	eng
36435	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36436	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A single tree was found in Ratnapura district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
36437	population	Ashton, P., 1998	A spindly tree, known only from the type locality. This species did not turn up during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36438	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This species is known only from an area of river bank on a tributary of the Kelani River.	eng
36438	population	Ashton, P., 1998	It was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36439	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This species was found only once in Haycock Biosphere Reserve during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that the species is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36440	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This small tree was not found during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting that it is either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36441	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
36441	population	Ashton, P., 1998	This dipterocarp was known from Kanneliya and Hinidumkande, however, it was not found during the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, indicating that it is extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
36442	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from four localities. In Nigeria, it exists only on the Obudu Plateau in Cross Rivers National Park, where it is confined to forested valleys. In Cameroon, the species is restricted to the west, at sites near Obang, Limbe and Ediki.	eng
36442	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest treelet.	eng
36442	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damage to the habitat is incurred from frequent fires and also from encroaching agriculture, especially banana plantations but also subsistence farming.	eng
36443	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Near Libreville. The species distribution may be more extensive given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.	eng
36443	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This treelet has been collected in rainforest.	eng
36443	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is degraded where there has been logging. Most areas are under concession to timber companies and their future remains uncertain.	eng
36444	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Closed forest.	eng
36444	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections. Further collecting may extend the distribution.	eng
36444	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern about logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
36445	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of semi-deciduous forests.	eng
36445	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections. It is possible that further collecting may extend the distribution.	eng
36445	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is concern over logging and the extent to which forest areas are now concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
36446	distribution	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in two nearby locations in the Sierra Lamata.	eng
36446	habitat	Nixon, K. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
36447	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Records of three localities have been made within a small area in the department of La Paz. Two of these are over 100 years old.	eng
36447	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36447	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the forest in this area has declined because of widespread fires, encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.	eng
36448	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to a small number of localities, all from the La Paz region.	eng
36448	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36448	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of forest has been reduced by increasing fires, encroaching farming activities and cutting for wood and charcoal production.	eng
36449	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from several localities in La Paz and Cochabamba in Bolivia, extending into Cusco, Peru. Of the six Bolivian collections four were made in 1866.	eng
36449	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36449	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agricultural expansion and local exploitation and burning of forested areas have caused a decline in the habitat.	eng
36450	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Probably only two localities exist where this species occurs. One is in Chuquisaca and the other in Santa Cruz, mainly in Samaipata.	eng
36450	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Deciduous forest.	eng
36450	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest in this area has declined or  become degraded because of heavy exploitation for wood and the encroachment of farming activities.	eng
36451	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three localities: Cordillera Vilcabamba in Cusco, Pan de Azúcar and Tumango	eng
36451	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An elfin or cloud forest species.	eng
36451	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Encroachment of farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood and charcoal production are causing widespread degradation of forested areas.	eng
36452	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from five localities in Magdalena, Risaralda, Cundinamarca and Valle regions of Columbia.	eng
36452	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in cloud forest.	eng
36453	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from four localities in the Azuay and Loja regions of Ecuador.	eng
36453	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small cloud forest species.	eng
36453	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The populations may be more seriously threatened but fieldwork is needed to give an accurate assessment of their status.	eng
36454	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected in various localities in central Antioquia.	eng
36454	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in cloud forest.	eng
36454	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Nowhere is it found to be common.	eng
36455	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from five localities, in Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha (Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve) and Tangurahua.	eng
36455	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary or secondary cloud forest.	eng
36455	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some of the collections date back over 100 years and fieldwork is needed to evaluate the current situation.	eng
36456	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36456	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although relatively widespread in areas of cloud forest, this species is rare wherever it occurs.	eng
36456	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In most of its range the habitat has been degraded or destroyed through burning and encroaching agriculture.	eng
36457	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Several localities, all in the department of La Paz.	eng
36457	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36457	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest has suffered from the encroachment of agriculture and farming activities, burning and overcutting for wood or charcoal production.	eng
36458	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs within the Canaima National Park.	eng
36458	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree collected from several localities on the Chimantá Massif in the Bolíar region.	eng
36458	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Summit savannah.	eng
36459	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its range is contained within Sipapo Forest Reserve.	eng
36459	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from only two localities on the summits of Cerro Sipapo and Cerro Autana (a single collection) in Amazonas State.	eng
36459	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low forests and thickets.	eng
36460	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is a Natural Monument within La Paragua Forest Reserve.	eng
36460	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from various localities on the summit and slopes of a single mountain, Cerro Guaquinima, in Bolívar.	eng
36460	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swampy flats or savannah on mountain summit and slopes.	eng
36461	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within national park boundaries.	eng
36461	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from several localities on the summit plateau and slopes of a single mountain, Cerro de la Neblina inside Serranía de la Neblina National Park, Amazonas State.	eng
36462	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Within national park boundaries.	eng
36462	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three <em>tepui</em> summits in Bolívar State: Ilu-tepui, Yuruaní-tepui and Sierra de Lema, all of which are contained within the borders of Canaima National Park.	eng
36462	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Woodland species.	eng
36462	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mining and tourism threaten habitats at lower elevations.	eng
36463	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from three localities in exposed summit areas at Roraima, Wokomung and Ayanganna.	eng
36463	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Exposed summit areas.	eng
36464	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Region of west Eritrea, Tigray and Gonder.	eng
36464	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a dominant component of <em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland and wooded grassland.	eng
36464	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Factors of agricultural expansion and increasing human activities are causing declines and degradation of the habitat.	eng
36465	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to a relatively small range covering west Eritrea, north-west Ethiopia and adjacent areas of Sudan.	eng
36465	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland.	eng
36465	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Reported to be often common.	eng
36465	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agricultural expansion and human activities are causing declines in the extent of this habitat in the area.	eng
36466	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the boundary area between Bale and Harerge.	eng
36466	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense bushland.	eng
36466	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
36467	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type locality in Bale.	eng
36467	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bushland.	eng
36468	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A bushy tree known only from two disjunct localities, one in Wogera, on the Maye-Borhha Plateau in Tigray, and another in Choa in Shewa.	eng
36468	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Beside streams.	eng
36468	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected recently.	eng
36469	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species apparently occurs disjunctly, with subpopulations in eastern Eritrea and in Illubabor in the west of Ethiopia. It is also reported in Sudan.	eng
36469	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland wooded grasslands.	eng
36470	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Three localities in Kefa, Gamo Gofa and Sidamo regions are known.	eng
36470	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in <em>Combretum-Terminalia</em> woodland.	eng
36471	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree endemic to the lower Tana River.	eng
36471	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in areas of riverine forest or woodland.	eng
36472	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A variety endemic to Zanzibar Island.	eng
36472	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	It occurs in small areas of moist semi-deciduous forest.	eng
36473	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A narrow-leaf form of a widespread species. It is found on the Zimbabwe/Mozambique border and also on Mt. Mulanje in Malawi.	eng
36473	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
36474	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
36474	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
36475	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
36475	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
36476	conservation	Pan, F.J., 1998	No conservation or protection measures are in place in any part of the species' range.	eng
36476	distribution	Pan, F.J., 1998	Populations are scattered in central to northern parts of Taiwan.	eng
36476	habitat	Pan, F.J., 1998	Submontane broadleaved forest.	eng
36476	threats	Pan, F.J., 1998	Declines in numbers have been caused by the illegal digging up of whole trees for the trade in ornamental plants.	eng
36477	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is a subpopulation in Lopé Forest Reserve, a portion of which has become Gabon's first national park.	eng
36477	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is confined to remaining areas of coastal forest in the south of Cameroon, extending into Gabon. It is also locally common in the rabi-Kounga area.	eng
36477	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
36478	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree limited to two localities in mountainous areas in the east and central south. The species may be found to be more widespread, given that large areas of Gabon's forests are unexplored.	eng
36478	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	These areas are also largely under concession to logging companies.	eng
36479	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In southern Cameroon. One subpopulation is also known in central south Gabon.	eng
36479	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is known to occur in coastal forest extending inland along rivers.	eng
36479	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas of forest have been heavily degraded in places where there have been logging and agricultural activities.	eng
36480	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species which is known only from an area near Mbel. It may be more widespread given that Gabon's forests are relatively unexplored.	eng
36480	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most areas of forest are now concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
36481	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population in the wild is unknown. The species is known only from herbarium specimens.	eng
36482	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wild population remains unknown. The species is known only from herbarium specimens.	eng
36483	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Described in 1994 from Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve in the Morogoro region.	eng
36483	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is confined to dry evergreen forest, characterised by the frequency of <em>Euphorbia</em> and <em>Encephalartos</em>.	eng
36484	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was first described in 1994. It is known from two localities: Mafia Island and the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
36484	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in patches of forest, woody savannah or <em>Brachystegia</em> thicket.	eng
36485	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of the Belinga Mts. Several other restricted-range variants of this species exist because of the tendency for variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.	eng
36485	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The vegetation in some areas is degraded by agricultural encroachment.	eng
36486	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from the type locality in the Forestier Central. Several other restricted-range variants of this species exist because of the tendency of variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.	eng
36487	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Heightened protection of remaining forest at the Bakossi Forest Reserve may help to preserve this taxon. Further botanical inventory work in lowland sites, such as the neighbouring Loum Forest Reserve, may reveal further populations; care should be taken to accurately identify all future collections of <em>S. lehmbachii</em> to variety level.	eng
36487	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	This variety is localised in the remaining protected forests in the Oban Hills (Cross River State, Nigeria), and is also found in Cameroon (S.W. Province):  Bakossi Forest Reserve (1 coll.), 15km S. of Akwaya (1 coll.), and in the S. Province: S. of Ebolowa (3 coll.). <br/> <br/><em>Salacia lehmbachii sensu lato</em> is distributed from Sierre Leone to Tanzania; the complex comprises seven varieties of which var. <em>pes-ranulae</em> is both the most localised in distribution and the most distinct morphologically. Several restricted range variants of this species exist because of the tendency for variable characteristics to stabilise when populations become isolated.	eng
36487	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in dense lowland forest understorey, 450–700 m alt.	eng
36487	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Forests outside protected areas have been extensively felled and cleared for agriculture. There is continued loss of lowland forest throughout the species range, particularly in Cross River State, Nigeria and the forests of South Province, Cameroon. Illegal encroachment of agriculture into the Bakossi Forest Reserve, facilitated by European Community road building, threatens this population.	eng
36488	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from six sites, this newly described species is confined to a small area in central-southern Bahia.	eng
36488	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It can occur as a climbing shrub or a treelet in semi-deciduous forest.	eng
36489	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which is known only from and probably endemic to the Grao Mogol in Minas Gerais.	eng
36489	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs scattered amongst rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
36490	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is the only species of the genus in India. It is endemic to Great Nicobar Island where it is found on the north to south road near South Bay.	eng
36490	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested slopes.	eng
36490	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is a rare species.	eng
36490	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is evidence of insect damage on the flowers.	eng
36491	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described genus, endemic to Rossel Island in the Louisiade Archipelago. The area was thickly forested a century ago.	eng
36492	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species occurring in the Monteverde and Heredia Biological Reserve in Costa Rica and from areas along Río San Juan near Caño Chontaleño in Nicaragua.	eng
36492	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cloud forest.	eng
36493	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinctive small tree known from one location in the Uruçua municipality of Bahia.	eng
36494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two localities immediately to the east and south of the Chimanimani Mts. in western Mozambique.	eng
36494	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of moist deciduous woodland at about 600 m.	eng
36494	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although this area is largely unexplored and further subpopulations may be found, the species distribution is very restricted and the populations are unprotected and small, one locality containing in the region of 20 individuals.	eng
36494	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This woodland type is being extensively destroyed throughout south and central Africa.	eng
36495	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species from Morapitiya and Kanneliya Forest Reserves.	eng
36495	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
36495	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In some places logging is threatening the habitat.	eng
36498	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree, newly described and known only from the type collection in Pico das Almas.	eng
36498	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree in secondary vegetation at the edge of forest.	eng
36499	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to a small area stretching from northern Zambia to Shaba Province in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
36499	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland on lake shores or river terraces, often on termite hills.	eng
36500	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A few localities are known in the region of Kuching. All forms of this species are restricted in range.	eng
36500	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The taxon occurs in primary lowland forest.	eng
36501	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of Sarawak occurring in a number of localities in Lundu District. All the forms of this species are restricted in range.	eng
36501	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest.	eng
36502	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, this newly described subspecies is found in Sumatra.	eng
36502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland ridge forest.	eng
36503	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species known from Gunung Leuser National Park in Sumatra.	eng
36503	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane rainforest and mossy forest.	eng
36505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mindanao, Mindoro, Luzon and possibly Sibuyan.	eng
36505	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in remaining upland forest.	eng
36506	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was collected from Tayabas on Luzon.	eng
36506	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is very poorly known and the status of any remaining subpopulations in the wild is completely unknown.	eng
36507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is recorded in Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and one location in Kalimantan.	eng
36507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in open shrubland.	eng
36508	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was collected in 1919 from two small islands, Bucas Grande and Dinagrat, off the north-east tip of Mindanao.	eng
36508	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known about the present status of this lowland species.	eng
36509	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Peninsular Malaysia, this species is probably endemic to Fraser's Hill in Pahang. A more serious threat category may be appropriate pending further information.	eng
36509	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
36510	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area has national park status.	eng
36510	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from Mt. Apo on Mindanao. Other specimens from Leyte Island are similar but more material is needed to confirm they are the same species.	eng
36510	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Steep sloping forest.	eng
36510	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree only definitely known from the 1909 type collection. The mountain has been relatively well-visited.	eng
36510	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shifting cultivation and illegal logging continue to take place.	eng
36511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A New Guinea endemic recorded from a few locations.	eng
36511	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected in recent years.	eng
36512	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occur in protected area.	eng
36512	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from one location in Mt. Kinabalu National Park.	eng
36512	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scrubby forest.	eng
36513	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two collections, this species occurs in Tutong District in Brunei and in Sarawak.	eng
36513	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Near river banks in valley forest.	eng
36514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described species known only from the type collection. It occurs along Bot River in Merauke District.	eng
36515	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from one location on Simalue Island, north-west Sumatra.	eng
36515	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
36516	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree restricted to a few locations in  Java and Bali.	eng
36517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36517	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary forest.	eng
36517	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected since 1929.	eng
36518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kalimantan and the Mt. Kinabalu region in Sabah.	eng
36518	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest tree.	eng
36519	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality is in the Cuernos Mts.	eng
36519	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies known only from the type locality, where it was collected in 1908. New information may indicate that the species is extinct or that a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
36520	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree that is found in Mindoro, Negros and Mindanao.	eng
36520	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Damp montane forest habitats.	eng
36521	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type locality is in Zamboanga District in Mindanao.	eng
36521	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Monsoon forest.	eng
36521	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known only from its type locality, from where it was collected at the beginning of the century.	eng
36521	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The monsoon forest here has been almost completely degraded.	eng
36522	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recently found and described, this tree is known only from in Dumoga Bone National Park.	eng
36522	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower montane forest.	eng
36524	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variant known only from the type locality in the Moluccas.	eng
36524	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In thinned-out forest at the sides of a river.	eng
36524	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is said to be common where it occurs.	eng
36525	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland tree known only from a relatively recent collection made on a ridge top in Morowali in north-east Sulawesi.	eng
36526	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Minahasa, north Sulawesi. There are reports from the early part of the century that it was planted and protected as a sacred tree. New information may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
36526	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from one collection.	eng
36527	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Sulawesi endemic known only from Minahasa.	eng
36528	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree, apparently restricted to a single location in forest on Cerro Avila in north Venezuela.	eng
36529	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the coastal forest of Bahía.	eng
36529	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small evergreen tree is little known and rare.	eng
36530	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Presumed to be an evergreen tree, collected from Minas Gerais.	eng
36530	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was collected only once, over a century ago.	eng
36531	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from one location along Río Marañón in the Amazonas region of Peru.	eng
36532	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively wide ranging species of Malaya. It is also cultivated in Ecuador as an ornamental tree.	eng
36532	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A deciduous species occurring only in remnants of semi-deciduous forest, often on hillsides.	eng
36533	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in south-east coastal Brazil.	eng
36533	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen species found in rainforest, often near rivers.	eng
36533	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is well collected which may indicate that it is common.	eng
36533	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to a habitat which has been extensively destroyed.	eng
36534	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from remnant forest in Rio de Janeiro state.	eng
36534	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which has been collected only once, over 50 years ago.	eng
36535	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species with a very local distribution. It was once well collected, probably because of its proximity to the city of Rio de Janeiro.	eng
36535	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It does not appear to have been collected this century.	eng
36536	conservation	Cornejo, X., Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla.	eng
36536	distribution	Cornejo, X., Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's dry coastal forest (in Guayas, Loja, Manabí and El Oro provinces). Described in 1991 from a poor-quality type collection collected in Portovelo in 1923. In 1993 the species was rediscovered in the Río Ayampe watershed, inside and close to the southern border of the Parque Nacional Machalilla. Other records are from the Quemazones creek of the Bosque Petrificado Puyango; from the Cerro Montecristi (a single tree); and in forest patches along the road 8 km from Bahía de Caráquez (four trees).	eng
36536	habitat	Cornejo, X., Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	A rare deciduous tree found in dry coastal forest to lower montane coast (0–1,000 m).	eng
36536	population	Cornejo, X., Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Its estimated population is under 500 individuals.	eng
36536	threats	Cornejo, X., Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Threatened by logging, anthropogenic fires and ongoing habitat destruction. The the native vegetation at the type locality has been destroyed by deforestation and mining. Even inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla, the species is logged (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).	eng
36537	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Bahia in Brazil, the species is presently known from just two locations. Evidence suggests that the species is unusual for its family in possibly being dioecious.	eng
36537	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Campo rupestre or in sandy grassland.	eng
36538	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described forest species, known only from Rondônia in Brazil.	eng
36539	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree, relatively poorly known but distributed over a relatively large area from Pakistan to Western China. It was once common in the Western Himalayas.	eng
36539	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Usually found in open grassy places and in moist patches of broadleaved forest.	eng
36539	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Overexploitation of the timber for commercial and local use has caused a decline in population numbers. Seeds and plants are also present in the ornamental trade.	eng
36540	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is recognised as a species in China. It is recorded infrequently in the Chengdu Plain in Sichuan and also in Guangdong.	eng
36540	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently valuable as a timber, the species is threatened with overcutting and loss of habitat.	eng
36541	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>A. yangjuech</em> subpopulation is given protection from felling or damage.	eng
36541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree known from two main subpopulations which occur disjunctly and were previously known under two different species names, <em>A. miaotaiense</em> and ,<em>A. yangjuechi</em>. The former is confined to the Qinling and Bashan Mountains. The second subpopulation contains two individuals on Xitianmu Mountain. To the east in Zhejiang.	eng
36541	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>A. miaotaiense</em> subpopulation shows poor regeneration and is under some threat from forest clearance.  <em>A. yangjuech</em> subpopulation produce seeds that appear to be frequently sterile.	eng
36543	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Bolívar in the Venezuelan Guayana.	eng
36543	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree or shrub grows on rocky summits, cliff ledges and in gullies in the sandstone table mountains.	eng
36545	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest tree is only known from the Reserva Ducke near Manaus, central Amazonian Brazil.	eng
36546	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two disjunct collections, one gathered from North Antioquia, Colombia, the other from Esmeraldas, Ecuador.	eng
36546	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland wet forest species.	eng
36549	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Gran Sabana in Venezuela, Pakaraima and Kanuku Mts. in Guyana and Tafelberg, Surinam.	eng
36549	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane savanna-forest species.	eng
36551	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub restricted to an area along Río Vaupés and Apaporis in Vaupés.	eng
36552	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is extremely local in terra firme forest in Manaus.	eng
36553	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known from the east slope of the Cordillera Central in Antioquia.	eng
36553	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane rainforest.	eng
36554	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the Cordillera Central in Antioquia.	eng
36554	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the margin of humid montane forest.	eng
36555	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from a single collection from Caldas, Colombia, and from two localities on the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes.	eng
36555	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in submontane and montane forest, meadows and open hillsides. Trees sometimes survive forest clearing.	eng
36556	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from near Turrialba in Cartago and Villa Quesada in Alajuela.	eng
36556	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wooded hills.	eng
36557	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the east and north-central Minas Gerais.	eng
36557	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to wooded hillsides.	eng
36558	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland wet Atlantic forest and restinga along the coast of Bahia and Espírito Santo.	eng
36558	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A formerly common tree.	eng
36559	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to the remnants of Atlantic coastal forest and restinga along the coast of Bahia between 14°S and 16°S.	eng
36559	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Atlantic coastal forest and restinga.	eng
36560	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Atlantic coastal forest, disjunctly distributed from Paraíba to Bahía.	eng
36560	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree or arborescent shrub of the Atlantic coastal forest, and on disturbed mato do cípo, cerrado or campo rupestre, sometimes reaching an altitude of 1,100 m.	eng
36561	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Jamaican endemic.	eng
36561	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in remaining areas of woodland or thicket on limestone soils.	eng
36562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Jamaican endemic.	eng
36562	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in remaining areas of woodland and thickets on limestone soils.	eng
36563	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to north-east Dominican Republic.	eng
36563	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to broadleaved woodland on limestone soils.	eng
36565	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from the Cordillera Guajiquiro, south-west Honduras.	eng
36565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed montane forest.	eng
36565	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection dating to 1964.	eng
36566	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree localised to the upper tributaries of the Río Negro in Venezuela. An unconfirmed variant of the species is also found growing in terra firme forest in the lower Río Negro basin in Brazil.	eng
36566	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Periodically inundated riparian forest.	eng
36567	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality. It was found near the west boundary of Comisaría del  Caquetá.	eng
36567	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane woodland.	eng
36568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only on the east slope of the Bolivian Andes.	eng
36568	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from humid montane forest.	eng
36569	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to south-eastern Cuba.	eng
36569	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This tree grows in palm-savannah and subcoastal dry evergreen forest.	eng
36569	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The good-quality construction timber has been overexploited for years.	eng
36570	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	An endemic to a small area of subandean piedmont forest, occurring from north-west Argentina to Paraguay, possibly extending into Bolivia.	eng
36570	threats	Prado, D., 1998	It is a notably uncommon tree within a habitat which is unprotected and under constant decline with logging, encroaching agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
36571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type locality, in the lower Río Paragua, Bolívar State.	eng
36572	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection, gathered from north Bahía.	eng
36572	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Semi-deciduous woodland.	eng
36573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Along the coast of Rio de Janeiro state.	eng
36573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree restricted to restinga and thickets on sandy soils along the coast.	eng
36575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree endemic to Bolívar.	eng
36575	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Xeromorphic scrub woodland.	eng
36578	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, known only from Rio Xingú, near Altamira.	eng
36578	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing on the margins of flooded forest.	eng
36579	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring locally in Vaupés in Colombia, Amazonas in Venezuela and Amazonas in Brazil.	eng
36579	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland igapó woodland.	eng
36580	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only know from sites along the Rio Aracá in north Amazonas.	eng
36580	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree is found growing on seasonally inundated white sand savannah and on sandy riverbanks.	eng
36581	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to Atlantic forest in the Atlantic-Uruguay River watershed.	eng
36581	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Araucaria forest and mata branca.	eng
36582	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only in south-west Paraná and west Santa Catarina in the basins of Río Iguaçú and Río Uruguai.	eng
36582	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of Araucaria woodland.	eng
36584	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	North-west of Haiti.	eng
36584	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, localised in dry thickets.	eng
36586	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Caribbean lowlands of north Colombia and north-west Venezuela.	eng
36586	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally abundant tree.	eng
36587	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type locality in the Maracaibo basin.	eng
36589	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are three small disjunct subpopulations of this species, one occurring in the lower Magdalena valley, Bolívar State in Venezuela extending into north Magdalena in Colombia, another in the Orinoco valley, Venezuela and one in Guayas, Ecuador.	eng
36589	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species grows on periodically inundated forest in seasonally dry areas where it is locally common.	eng
36591	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type collection, near San Benito, in Cajamarca.	eng
36592	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in the main Amazon river valley and its tributaries.	eng
36592	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in terra firme forest.	eng
36594	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub so far found only along the Orinoco River between Pto Ayacucho and Sanariapo,  Amazonas.	eng
36595	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Acre.	eng
36595	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from non-inundated Amazonian forest.	eng
36598	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections taken from an unspecified location in Minas Gerais.	eng
36598	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Campo.	eng
36598	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from two collections, the most recent dated 1906.	eng
36599	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Chapada do Contagem, Distrito Federal.	eng
36599	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in cerrado and gallery woodland.	eng
36608	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Cook District, Queensland.	eng
36608	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This small tree occurs in lowland rainforest, coastal rainforest and complex mesophyll forest.	eng
36608	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	More information is needed on the status of the forest in this region.	eng
36609	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Restricted to New Guinea.	eng
36609	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Understorey forest species.	eng
36609	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Fairly widespread but rare.	eng
36609	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	There is a potential threat from logging and forest conversion.	eng
36610	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Endemic to the east side of the Cape York Peninsula from Atherton Tableland south to Mount Bartle Frere.	eng
36610	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It occurs mainly in montane and ridge-top rainforest.	eng
36610	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Loss of habitat is the main threat to the species.	eng
36611	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Collected along the Terengganu-Besut road.	eng
36611	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection found in 1953. It may now be extinct.	eng
36612	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Borneo.	eng
36612	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	An understorey tree restricted to primary forest on limestone.	eng
36612	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is a threat to this species.	eng
36613	conservation	Pannell, C.M., 1998	About 1,000 km² of forest are protected within sanctuaries.	eng
36613	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is restricted to the Agastyamalai Hills in southern India.	eng
36613	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing and the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
36614	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A species endemic to Sarawak.	eng
36614	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Confined to primary and riverine forest.	eng
36615	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree endemic to New Guinea.	eng
36615	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Lowland and hill forest.	eng
36615	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction poses a threat to this species.	eng
36616	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree scattered throughout primary and secondary forest, kerangas, swamps and along rivers between 200 and 430 m.	eng
36616	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss is the main threat to the species.	eng
36617	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree endemic to the Philippines.	eng
36617	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
36618	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Southern India and Sri Lanka.	eng
36618	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Wet evergreen forest, primary and secondary forests.	eng
36618	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
36619	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is restricted to primary forest on limestone.	eng
36619	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
36620	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree confined to the island of New Guinea. So far it is known from only four localities.	eng
36621	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Restricted to the Solomon Islands.	eng
36621	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This small tree is found in primary montane forest.	eng
36622	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is found in both secondary and primary forests.	eng
36622	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Loss of habitat is a potential threat to the species.	eng
36623	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Collected from between Mt. Nanggaranambuluta and Mt. Namama, Viti  Levu.	eng
36623	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Forest on mountain ridge.	eng
36623	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection taken in 1947. It is possibly extinct.	eng
36624	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Endemic to Papua New Guinea.	eng
36624	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	An understorey tree.	eng
36624	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
36625	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree endemic to Papua New Guinea.	eng
36625	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It grows in secondary forest and hill forest.	eng
36625	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction.	eng
36626	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Colleted from Eua Island, Tonga.	eng
36626	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is known only from the type collection in 1952. It might be extinct.	eng
36627	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia. It is known from only four localities.	eng
36627	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Restricted to primary forest.	eng
36628	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Known from only three localities.	eng
36628	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small rheophyte, locally common but confined to riverine forest on granite soils, especially next to the deeper areas of fast-flowing stony rivers.	eng
36629	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A Fijian endemic known only from three collections.	eng
36629	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Dense forest.	eng
36630	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A very small tree, endemic to New Guinea. The species is probably confined to only four localities.	eng
36630	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found growing in the understorey of primary and montane forest.	eng
36631	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree found in many forest habitats up to 2,100 m.	eng
36631	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could threaten this species.	eng
36632	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small, shrubby tree endemic to New Guinea. It is apparently confined to two forest localities.	eng
36633	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Endemic to the Moluccas; it is apparently confined to four localities.	eng
36633	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Primary forest.	eng
36634	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree of lowland primary forest.	eng
36634	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
36635	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Endemic to Fiji.	eng
36635	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found between 50 and 1,075 m in primary forest.	eng
36635	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss is a threat to this species.	eng
36636	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Confined to the Mt. Evans range of north-west Viti Levu.	eng
36636	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A forest shrub or tree.	eng
36637	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
36637	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is confined to primary forest between 430 and 840 m.	eng
36637	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
36638	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree endemic to the Philippines.	eng
36638	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The species is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
36639	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	New Guinea.	eng
36639	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is restricted to primary forest between 60 and 2,000 m.	eng
36639	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss threatens this species.	eng
36640	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Confined to northern Borneo and the Philippines.	eng
36640	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A species of primary, secondary and gallery forest up to 1,330 m.	eng
36640	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Forest destruction threatens this species.	eng
36641	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Borneo, excluding Sarawak.	eng
36641	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree species restricted to primary forest and periodically inundated dipterocarp forest.	eng
36641	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Loss of habitat threatens this species.	eng
36642	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This tree is known only from two collections from Luzon.	eng
36642	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It was last collected in 1916 and may be extinct.	eng
36643	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Found in only a few localities in east and central Peninsular Malaysia. On Borneo, this species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36643	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree of primary lowland forest.	eng
36643	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by forest destruction.	eng
36644	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree found only in south Viet Nam, although there are unconfirmed reports of an occurrence in Cambodia.	eng
36644	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is only known from two nineteenth-century collections. This species might be extinct.	eng
36645	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is confined to Sabah and Kalimantan, except for a single collection from eastern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
36645	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small forest tree ascending up to altitudes of 2,000 m, sometimes occurring in freshwater swamp forest.	eng
36645	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is potentially threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
36646	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Malawi endemic known from two forest reserves 70 km apart. Near Blantyre the species occurs on Mt. Soche in a forest that has been reduced to 1.5 km² and continues to suffer from illegal logging. A subpopulation also occurs on Mt. Chese in the Mulanje Massif, where the forest is also much reduced.	eng
36646	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Illegal logging and encroaching agriculture.	eng
36647	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Known only from five localities in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.	eng
36647	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Tree of primary forest between 330 and 500 m.	eng
36647	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It is threatened by habitat loss.	eng
36648	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A forest tree endemic to Fiji.	eng
36648	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	It appears to be confined to a single locality, but may be extinct.	eng
36649	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	So far it is known from only four localities in Papua New Guinea.	eng
36649	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree restricted to lowland deciduous hill forest.	eng
36650	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Known only from three localities.	eng
36650	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
36651	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A forest tree known only from three localities on Viti Levu.	eng
36652	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Restricted to the type locality in northern Kerala. There is also a second field record of an occurrence further north in Wayanad.	eng
36652	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
36652	population	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A fairly common tree where it occurs.	eng
36654	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Cuzco.	eng
36654	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of semi-deciduous forest.	eng
36654	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36659	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest species was collected from Puno.	eng
36659	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen.	eng
36660	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered from a site in the department of Amazonas.	eng
36660	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36664	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded from forest in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36664	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36665	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36665	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36666	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36666	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36666	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36667	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded from the department of Amazonas.	eng
36667	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36667	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36674	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36674	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36674	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36675	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection site occurs above 1,500 m in the department of Junín.	eng
36675	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36677	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36677	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shrubland above 2,500 m.	eng
36677	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36681	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection is from Huánuco.	eng
36681	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in elfin forest.	eng
36681	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36683	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest in the department of San Martin.	eng
36683	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36684	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widespread, the species is endemic to Peru.	eng
36684	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forests.	eng
36686	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be confined to the department of Cuzco.	eng
36686	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Andean cloud forest above 2,000 m.	eng
36687	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Ancash, Cuzco and Huánuco.	eng
36687	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring above 3,500 m, the species is recorded from areas of forest.	eng
36689	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Ayacucho.	eng
36689	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known from elfin forest.	eng
36690	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Peru.	eng
36690	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs relatively widely in forest up to 2,000 m.	eng
36692	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Presently known only from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36692	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest and shrubland between 1,500 and 2,000 m.	eng
36693	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Pasco.	eng
36693	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species recorded from forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
36696	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded in the departments of Cuzco and Pasco.	eng
36696	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of montane forest above 3,000 m.	eng
36700	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Junín and Pasco.	eng
36700	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in grassland areas between 2,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
36701	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Huánuco and San Martin.	eng
36701	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species occurring in montane forest above 3,500 m.	eng
36707	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of Ayacucho.	eng
36707	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest on rocky slopes above 3,500 m.	eng
36709	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Cuzco and Pasco.	eng
36709	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies occurs in forest roughly between 2,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
36714	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to the departments of Cuzco and Puno.	eng
36714	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest between roughly 2,500 and 4,000 m.	eng
36715	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of Cuzco.	eng
36715	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies of cloud forest to 2,500 m.	eng
36716	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of Peru, it is relatively widespread within its range.	eng
36716	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Peruvian lowland rainforest.	eng
36718	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Piura.	eng
36718	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shrubland.	eng
36718	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36723	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Loreto.	eng
36723	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
36723	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36725	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered from near Yurimaguas in the department of Loreto.	eng
36725	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36725	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently the species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36728	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36728	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36728	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36729	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection originates from the department of San Martin.	eng
36729	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36729	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from the type collection.	eng
36732	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Species of the Peruvian Andes, in the departments of Apurímac and Cuzco.	eng
36732	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
36735	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of San Martin.	eng
36735	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species occurring roughly between 3,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
36736	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This cloud forest species occurs in the department of Amazonas.	eng
36736	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36737	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Cuzco.	eng
36737	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This cloud forest species occurs within the altitudinal range of 2,500 to 4,000 m.	eng
36738	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of Piura.	eng
36738	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36739	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered in the department of Puno.	eng
36739	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36745	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the department of La Libertad.	eng
36745	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36745	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36746	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36746	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36749	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in forest between roughly 2,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
36749	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36750	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collectino was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36750	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.	eng
36750	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the department of Junín.	eng
36751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of forest above 2,500 m.	eng
36751	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36752	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from Cajamarca.	eng
36752	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.	eng
36752	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36753	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the department of Loreto.	eng
36753	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
36754	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from the department of La Libertad.	eng
36754	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest above 2,500 m.	eng
36754	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36755	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Cuzco and Puno.	eng
36755	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This cloud forest species occurs in forest between 3,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
36760	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest species has been recorded only from the department of Cuzco.	eng
36760	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
36761	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is recorded in the departments of Cuzco and Huancavelica.	eng
36761	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to areas of cloud forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.	eng
36763	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36763	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in areas of forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
36765	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Cuzco.	eng
36765	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to cloud and elfin forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
36766	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered in the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36766	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in cloud forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.	eng
36766	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36767	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was gathered from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36767	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest species.	eng
36767	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36770	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree occurs in San Martin.	eng
36770	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36770	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36772	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36774	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was taken from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36774	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36778	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36778	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in terra firme forest.	eng
36778	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36788	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of La Libertad.	eng
36788	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in areas of grassland and shrubland, between 1,500 and 2,000 m.	eng
36791	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of San Martin.	eng
36791	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
36791	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36797	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found within the departments of Amazonas, Huánuco and Madre de Dios.	eng
36797	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Amazonian species, which occurs at low elevation in disturbed areas and riversides.	eng
36798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from lowland Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
36798	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known only from the type collection.	eng
36799	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are known to occur within the departments of Huánuco, Junín, Loreto and Pasco.	eng
36799	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland species.	eng
36800	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collectino taken from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36800	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rocky slopes between 2,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
36800	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far the species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36801	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the departments of Amazonas and Huánuco.	eng
36801	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in various habitats including forest, grassland and shrublands, especially along riversides, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
36808	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type specimen collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36808	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36808	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species, so far, known only from the type specimen.	eng
36809	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from San Martin.	eng
36809	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present the species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36810	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36810	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36810	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Currently known only from the type collection.	eng
36812	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in San Martin.	eng
36812	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Terra firme</em> forest.	eng
36812	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36813	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Peru endemic, occurring in Amazonian forest in Huánuco, Loreto and Madre de Dios.	eng
36813	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazonian forest.	eng
36814	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36814	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species of elfin forest and shrublands between 2,000 and 4,000 m.	eng
36815	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the departments of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Huánuco.	eng
36815	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs at middle elevations in disturbed areas of forest.	eng
36816	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the Cajamarca region of the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36816	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbed areas of lowland forest and shrublands.	eng
36816	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species currently known only from the type collection.	eng
36817	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Departments of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura.	eng
36817	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found on rocky slopes at medium elevation.	eng
36818	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the Andes in Cuzco, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
36819	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Currently restricted to the departments of Cuzco, Huánuco and Pasco.	eng
36819	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety of middle elevation forest.	eng
36820	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widespread, this subspecies occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
36820	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Up to 2,000 m altitude in disturbed areas and <em>terra firme</em> forest.	eng
36823	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from lowland Amazonian forest in Loreto.	eng
36823	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazonian forest.	eng
36823	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collection.	eng
36824	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Currently known only from the Tumbes delta in the north-west.	eng
36824	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of submontane forest.	eng
36825	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of Amazonas.	eng
36825	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36825	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only record of the species is from the type collection.	eng
36826	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland  Amazon forest in Loreto.	eng
36826	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36826	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Currently recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36827	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in Loreto.	eng
36827	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest on white sand.	eng
36827	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36828	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to the lowland eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru.	eng
36829	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Loreto and San Martin.	eng
36829	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
36830	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the departments of Amazonas, Loreto and Madre de Dios.	eng
36830	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in seasonally inundated areas and <em>terra firme</em> forest.	eng
36831	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which has a relatively wide range on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36831	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recent collections have been few.	eng
36833	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from San Martin.	eng
36833	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collection.	eng
36834	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the departments of Loreto, Madre de Dios and Pasco.	eng
36834	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of <em>terra firme</em> forest.	eng
36835	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in <em>terra firme</em> forest on white sand.	eng
36835	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36838	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to the departments of Amazonas, Cuzco and Junín.	eng
36838	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36839	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Huánuco.	eng
36839	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
36839	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collected.	eng
36840	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Amazonas Department.	eng
36840	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
36840	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from the type only.	eng
36842	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in Huánuco Department.	eng
36842	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from a single collection.	eng
36843	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species apparently confined to the department of Huánuco in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36843	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species between altitudes of 3,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
36845	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from Amazonas Department in the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
36845	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from its type.	eng
36847	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species confined to the Peruvian Andes, recorded from the departments of Cajamarca, Cuzco, Lima and La Libertad.	eng
36847	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rocky areas of forest between 2,500 and 4,000 m.	eng
36847	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extensive burning and clearing have caused declines and fragmentation of the habitat.	eng
36848	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree apparently confined to a single area in the department of Apirímac in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36848	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbed forest between the altitudes of 2,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
36848	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Extensive burning and clearing have caused declines and fragmentation of the habitat.	eng
36850	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only found in the department of Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36850	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest species, found between 2,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
36851	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Peru, the species is found in the departments of Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios and San Martin.	eng
36851	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36855	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in San Martin Department.	eng
36855	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In lowland rainforest.	eng
36855	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36856	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in San Martin Department.	eng
36856	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In lowland rainforest.	eng
36856	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36857	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36857	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
36857	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36859	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes, from the department of San Martin.	eng
36859	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
36859	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected only once.	eng
36860	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Junín.	eng
36860	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36860	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36862	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the department of Huánuco.	eng
36862	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which has been collected only once.	eng
36863	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Huánuco Department.	eng
36863	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is recorded only from the type.	eng
36864	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Huánuco Department.	eng
36864	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is recorded only from the type.	eng
36865	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the department of Loreto.	eng
36865	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36865	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from its type.	eng
36867	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36867	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in Amazon forest.	eng
36867	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only record of the species is its type collection.	eng
36871	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus endemic to the Andes.	eng
36871	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type, collected in Loreto.	eng
36872	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus endemic to the Andes.	eng
36872	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type, which was collected in Loreto.	eng
36873	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A genus endemic to the Andes.	eng
36873	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type, which was collected in Loreto.	eng
36883	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36883	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
36883	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36884	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Junín.	eng
36884	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest between 2,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
36884	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of San Martin in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
36886	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36892	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36892	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality.	eng
36894	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
36894	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently known from four subpopulations on the central Ecuadorean coast. The first is in the Jauneche private reserve, where it is very common within primary and secondary forest (Gentry (1986) reports 36 individuals >2.5 cm dbh in 0.1 ha). The second is 39 km northeast of Balzar and the third in El Barro, 6 km from Quevedo and currently flooded by the Daule-Peripa dam (C. Bonifaz, pers. comm.). Valverde (1991) reports a fourth subpopulation in secondary forests of the Cordillera de Chongón Colonche, in Cerro Vacas Muertas.	eng
36894	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of wet coastal forests, found within an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
36894	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and conversion of coastal forest to croplands over the last 50 years.	eng
36896	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively widely ranging, the species occurs in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
36896	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest up to 4,000 m.	eng
36897	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36897	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
36897	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
36900	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of La Libertad.	eng
36900	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
36900	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36901	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species from the coast in the department of Tumbes.	eng
36901	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
36904	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in San Martin Department.	eng
36904	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from its type.	eng
36905	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36905	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in forest up to 1,500 m.	eng
36905	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from its type.	eng
36906	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Amazon forest species. Type collection taken from the department of Loreto.	eng
36906	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection .	eng
36907	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in Amazon forest in the Loreto Department.	eng
36907	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36909	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36909	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36912	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to the department of Apurímac.	eng
36912	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest roughly between 1,500 and 2,000 m.	eng
36914	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of Junín.	eng
36914	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from its type collection.	eng
36917	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36917	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36917	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36920	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Huánuco region.	eng
36920	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from forest between 1,500 and 2,000 m.	eng
36921	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36921	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
36921	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36922	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the department of San Martin.	eng
36922	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known only from the type.	eng
36923	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of La Libertad.	eng
36923	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of submontane forest.	eng
36923	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36924	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Loreto.	eng
36924	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36926	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36926	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collection.	eng
36927	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36927	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36928	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Amazonas.	eng
36928	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36929	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.	eng
36929	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36930	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36930	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36931	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Junín.	eng
36931	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36932	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Loreto.	eng
36932	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36936	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection in the department of San Martin.	eng
36936	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon rainforest.	eng
36936	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36937	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36937	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon rainforest.	eng
36937	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36939	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is relatively widespread.	eng
36939	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Peruvian Andes up to 2,500 m.	eng
36940	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.	eng
36940	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in terra firme forest above 2,000 m.	eng
36940	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36944	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the department of Puno.	eng
36944	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36945	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type found in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36945	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36946	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Puno.	eng
36946	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36947	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36947	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36948	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Puno.	eng
36948	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36949	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Amazonas.	eng
36949	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36953	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36953	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from type collection.	eng
36954	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only twice, in Huánuco.	eng
36954	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in sclerophyllous bush between 1,800 and 2,500 m.	eng
36960	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An arborescent <em>Ipomoea</em> species from a savannah area above 1,000 m.	eng
36960	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36961	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36961	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Terra firme</em> forest.	eng
36961	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36963	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been collected just once, from Lima.	eng
36964	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in the department of San Martin.	eng
36964	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Terra firme</em> forest over 1,000 m.	eng
36964	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36965	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from below 2,000 m in the department of San Martin.	eng
36965	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest species is recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36966	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36966	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type.	eng
36969	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Puno.	eng
36969	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland rainforest along a riverside.	eng
36969	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36970	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the department of Puno.	eng
36970	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
36971	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the department of Cajamarca.	eng
36971	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36972	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from the department of Loreto.	eng
36972	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland grassland species.	eng
36972	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded just a single time.	eng
36973	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of San Martin.	eng
36973	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
36973	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36974	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Loreto.	eng
36974	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from lowland Amazon rainforest.	eng
36975	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
36975	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
36975	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36976	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36976	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Along a riverside in shrubland above 3,000 m.	eng
36976	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36978	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Loreto.	eng
36978	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Department of Tumbes.	eng
36979	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to coastal forest.	eng
36983	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of  Amazonas.	eng
36983	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36985	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Peruvian Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36985	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36986	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected taken from lowland Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36986	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
36987	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This Amazonian forest species occurs in Loreto.	eng
36987	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
36990	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from Amazonian forest in Loreto.	eng
36990	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36993	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
36993	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is recorded only from the type collection.	eng
36996	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Huánuco.	eng
36996	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from submontane forest up to about 3,500 m.	eng
36997	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from Amazon forest in Loreto.	eng
36997	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is known only from the type collection.	eng
36999	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.	eng
36999	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in submontane forest.	eng
36999	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37000	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from the Amazon in Loreto.	eng
37000	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest species.	eng
37000	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37002	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of San Martin.	eng
37002	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37002	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37004	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known to occur in a number of national parks and reserves.	eng
37004	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Peruvian form of a widely distributed rainforest species. Found in Amazonian Peru, within the departments of Amazonas, Loreto, Madre de Dios and Ucayali.	eng
37004	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of terra firme forest.	eng
37006	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in the Peruvian Andes in the departments of Puno and Cuzco.	eng
37006	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to cloud forest.	eng
37006	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once or twice.	eng
37007	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of Junín in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
37007	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
37008	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of lowland forest on white sand.	eng
37008	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a few collections, the last of which is dated 1974.	eng
37009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Appears to be fairly widespread on the slopes of the eastern Andes. Specimens identified as this species have also been collected a few times from Brazil and Ecuador, although these may represent distinct subspecies.	eng
37009	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
37010	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection taken from the department of San Martin.	eng
37010	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
37014	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Amazon forest in the department of Loreto.	eng
37014	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37022	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be confined to the department of Cajamarca in the Andes.	eng
37022	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane shrubland.	eng
37022	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type locality.	eng
37024	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known only from the type locality in the department of Junín.	eng
37024	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
37025	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection from the department of Huánuco.	eng
37025	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
37027	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.	eng
37027	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in submontane forest.	eng
37027	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the type collection.	eng
37029	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This Andean species appears to be confined to Cajamarca.	eng
37029	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane shrubland.	eng
37029	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded only from the type collection.	eng
37030	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Cuzco Department.	eng
37030	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubland species, in scrub occurring below 1,500 m.	eng
37030	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37033	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was recorded from the department of Junín.	eng
37033	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only the type collection is known.	eng
37034	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the department of Amazonas.	eng
37034	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
37034	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37036	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Peruvian endemic. The type was collected from the department of Cajamarca.	eng
37036	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to the department of Cajamarca.	eng
37037	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Amazon forest species, apparently restricted to Amazonas and Loreto Departments.	eng
37048	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to be endemic to Jenaro Herrera Arboretum in the department of Loreto.	eng
37051	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Pasco.	eng
37051	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in submontane shrubland.	eng
37051	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37052	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Amazonas.	eng
37052	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in submontane forest.	eng
37052	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37053	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Huánuco region.	eng
37053	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collected.	eng
37054	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Puno Department.	eng
37054	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to subandean forest.	eng
37054	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37058	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from in San Martin.	eng
37058	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37058	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety has been collected just once.	eng
37059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collection was taken near Iquitos in the department of Loreto.	eng
37059	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37059	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
37060	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Loreto.	eng
37060	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species restricted to terra firme forest.	eng
37060	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known only from the type collection.	eng
37063	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Arequipa.	eng
37063	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37065	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the department of Apurímac.	eng
37065	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in forest between 3,000 and 3,500 m.	eng
37066	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the department of Huánuco.	eng
37066	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety occurs in submontane forest.	eng
37066	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37069	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in the departments of Loreto and San Martin.	eng
37069	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
37069	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37070	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from Cajamarca.	eng
37070	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
37070	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37071	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is endemic to the Peruvian Andes in Junín Department.	eng
37071	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in cloud forest.	eng
37073	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from San Martin.	eng
37073	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
37073	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37074	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Peruvian Andes.	eng
37074	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland and submontane rainforest.	eng
37074	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two collections are known.	eng
37076	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type specimen is recorded with no specific location.	eng
37076	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type specimen.	eng
37077	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Amazon forests in Ucayali.	eng
37077	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37081	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in Loreto.	eng
37081	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland Amazon forest.	eng
37081	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37083	conservation	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	It is poorly represented in protected areas but is occasionally given protection or planted in farmed areas.	eng
37083	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	Restricted to dry savannah and woodland.	eng
37083	threats	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	This species has been overexploited for timber, firewood and charcoal production. Its habitat is also suffering from agricultural encroachment and increasing population pressure.	eng
37084	habitat	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	It occurs in forests, usually in swampy areas.	eng
37084	threats	Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998	The tree is felled to make dugout canoes. It is also used in mine shafts and as a fuelwood. The levels of exploitation, notably in Uganda, as well as a general decline in the extent or condition of the habitat, are major threats.	eng
37086	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37086	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	The species is found in damp forest or secondary formations, often on limestone and occasionally pine ridges.	eng
37087	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to eastern Cuba. There is an unconfirmed record from a relatively inaccessible montane area in south-central Cuba.	eng
37087	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree is found in dry forests, savannahs and coastal areas.	eng
37087	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Logging, grazing, urban expansion and mining have significantly reduced the original subpopulations. Tourism is also a major threat.	eng
37088	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been collected from four locations, S. Vicente, Jou, a site between Nova Moka and Bom Sucesso and also Monte Café.	eng
37088	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of secondary forest, occurring up to 1,000 m.	eng
37089	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the island of Babeldaop in the Republic of Palau.	eng
37089	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest tree.	eng
37089	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It does not appear to have been collected in the last 50 years.	eng
37090	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This monotypic genus is quite widespread but restricted to the threatened Atlantic coastal forests of south-east Brazil.	eng
37090	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Atlantic coastal forests.	eng
37091	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is confined to Cochinchina, south Viet Nam.	eng
37091	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower montane forest.	eng
37091	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from five collections.	eng
37092	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected in Chantabun, south-east Thailand in 1930.	eng
37092	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in evergreen forest.	eng
37092	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
37093	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.	eng
37093	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rainforest tree.	eng
37094	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All known collections were taken from Nicobar Island, Pinang Island in Peninsular Malaysia and Atjeh in Sumatra.	eng
37094	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
37094	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of six collections are known of this tree.	eng
37095	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected in Thailand, including some island localities.	eng
37095	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
37095	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies has been collected only four times.	eng
37096	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once in Annam.	eng
37096	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest tree.	eng
37098	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found in Malaysia, Simaloer Island off Sumatra, and west Java.	eng
37098	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A tree.	eng
37099	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper Laos and Tonkin, Viet Nam.	eng
37099	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in montane forest.	eng
37100	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Borneo.	eng
37100	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in primary forest.	eng
37101	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in central-east Kalimantan and Sarawak.	eng
37101	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest variety.	eng
37102	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of five collections have been found on the east coast and Riouw Island off Sumatra and the Anambas Islands off Borneo.	eng
37104	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is endemic to Palawan; it has been further divided into two varieties: var. <em>latericia</em> and var. <em>subtilis</em>.	eng
37104	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The variety <em>subtilis</em> grows in primary dipterocarp forest.	eng
37104	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging.	eng
37105	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Found throughout Borneo.	eng
37105	population	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A locally frequent subspecies.	eng
37106	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Some populations are contained within a wildlife sanctuary and protected forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
37106	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to the mountains of Pahang and Selangor.	eng
37106	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The known localities are under pressure from infrastructural development.	eng
37107	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Known only from a single locality in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
37107	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A subspecies of montane forest.	eng
37107	threats	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	The locality is under pressure from infrastructural development.	eng
37108	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sabah.	eng
37108	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found in lowland primary forests.	eng
37108	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three collections.	eng
37109	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sabah.	eng
37109	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies occurs in primary forest	eng
37109	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type.	eng
37110	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree appears to be restricted to Kanchanaburi Province.	eng
37110	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in mixed deciduous forest.	eng
37112	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected from Annam.	eng
37112	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
37112	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from type collection, this tree was found in 1939.	eng
37114	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Very localised, this variety is known only from the type collected in Brunei.	eng
37114	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37115	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Borneo.	eng
37115	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon variety is restricted to sandy ridges.	eng
37115	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has not been collected recently.	eng
37117	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Type collected near Da Nang in Annam.	eng
37117	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in evergreen montane forest.	eng
37117	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection.	eng
37118	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies occurs in the Forth Division in Sarawak, Brunei and west Sabah.	eng
37119	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	First Division, Sarawak. A collection from Brunei possibly belongs to it.	eng
37119	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is apparently restricted to primary lowland dipterocarp forest.	eng
37120	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on Sulu and Mindanao Islands.	eng
37120	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This is a rare species.	eng
37121	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From the province of Nueva Ecija in the Philippines.	eng
37121	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from only two collections.	eng
37122	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely and commonly scattered species found in the Western Ghats.	eng
37122	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in lowland to medium elevation forest.	eng
37123	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from four collections in south-east Thailand.	eng
37123	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in evergreen forest.	eng
37124	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Near Da Nang, Annam.	eng
37124	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in montane forest.	eng
37125	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, known only from the type collection, in Annam in 1923.	eng
37125	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Was found growing in montane forest on rocky clay soil.	eng
37126	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species collected only twice, in Annam, Viet Nam.	eng
37128	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from occurrences in east Kalimantan, east Sabah and from a collection in Sarawak.	eng
37129	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A frequent subspecies endemic to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
37131	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Borneo.	eng
37131	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies usually found in peat-swamp forest.	eng
37131	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
37132	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sarawak, Sabah and west and south Kalimantan.	eng
37132	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies of submontane to montane forest.	eng
37133	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known from only five collections on the Samar Islands.	eng
37135	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is usually found in lowland primary riverine forest.	eng
37136	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This subspecies is found throughout Peninsular Malaysia and from a couple of collections from Indragiri, Sumatra.	eng
37137	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This subspecies is widespread in Borneo.	eng
37138	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three or four collections in Bukit Raya, central Kalimantan, and from a slightly different collection from Sarawak.	eng
37138	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary riverine forest.	eng
37139	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies appears to be restricted to the Fifth Division, where it has been collected only three times.	eng
37140	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recently described and known only from three collections from Bukit Tawau and Keningau in Sabah and Gunung Maeru Tagal in north-east Kalimantan.	eng
37140	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of hillside forest.	eng
37141	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A recently described small tree, which has been collected four times in the upper reaches of Katingan and Kahayan Rivers.	eng
37141	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is locally common in secondary forest.	eng
37142	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This recently described subspecies is known only from the type collection in west Kalimantan.	eng
37142	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found in primary hill dipterocarp forest.	eng
37143	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections in Fourth Division of Sarawak and west-central Kalimantan.	eng
37143	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is found in hillside forest and occasionally mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37144	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area receives limited protection as a wilderness area.	eng
37144	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type collection in Palanan, north-east Luzon.	eng
37144	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found growing by a stream on ultrabasic soil.	eng
37144	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Illegal logging and expansion of settlements.	eng
37145	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies which frequently hybridises with related species. It is confined to Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, where it occurs in small stands totaling no more than a few tens of square kilometers.	eng
37145	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Between 3,000 and 4,100 m.	eng
37145	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Burning activities, combined with overgrazing, soil erosion and firewood collection, continue to have a serious impact on remaining subpopulations.	eng
37146	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined mainly to the northern part of the Titicaca basin, where it is the only naturally occurring <em>Polylepis</em>. Other <em>Polylepis</em> species have been planted in the area and the subspecies readily hybridises with <em>P. racemosa</em> ssp. <em>triacontandra</em>. Subpopulations in Bolivia may all be planted. It has been estimated that the stands cover 166 km² in total. Growth rates are fast and the tree is a good candidate for reforestation programmes.	eng
37146	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree growing in large stands on limestone hills.	eng
37147	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is variable and readily hybridises with other <em>Polylepis</em> in its range. It is endemic to central Bolivia.	eng
37147	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest above 3,000 m.	eng
37147	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Fires and overcutting are the main causes of concern.	eng
37148	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was included within <em>P. besseri</em>. It is believed to be of hybrid origin. Small stands, totaling less than 100 km² in area, occur in central to south-east Bolivia.	eng
37148	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Above 3,200 m or at lower elevations, down to 2,500 m, found in mixed <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest.	eng
37149	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recently discovered, the species occurs mainly in the Chuquisaca and Cochabamba area.	eng
37149	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in more humid areas of <em>Podocarpus-Alnus</em> forest. It rarely forms the dominant component.	eng
37149	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Continual burning of large areas of vegetation, firewood collection and charcoal production are causing the decline of these forests.	eng
37150	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies intergrades and hybridises with ssp. <em>triacontandra</em>. It is known only from the wetter parts of the Cordillera Tunari in Cochabamba, where it can form a dominant element of the vegetation.	eng
37150	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The continual burning of vegetation is clearly causing the decline in the extent of the forest.	eng
37151	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies intergrades and hybridises with ssp. <em>lanata</em>. It occurs within a small range in the Cordillera de Apolobamba. It is a fast-growing and frequently planted tree.	eng
37151	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Above 3,600 m, at the upper limit of the humid montane forest.	eng
37151	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Continual burning, as well as cutting for firewood and charcoal production, are causing declines in the extent of the forest.	eng
37152	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small and dispersed patches of the species occur from Arequipa, Moquegua, Tacna and possibly Puno into northern Chile. It is generally the only tree in the area.	eng
37152	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Arid regions above 3,400 m.	eng
37152	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The extent of the habitat is declining, with constant overgrazing and overcutting for firewood and charcoal production.	eng
37153	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree, usually dominating, in a small area of forest, totaling about 20 km², between 2,500 and 3,400 m in the Cochabamba area.	eng
37153	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Burning activities are a major threat to the habitat.	eng
37154	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tiny shrub found in a very restricted mountainous locality, south-east of Cochabamba in northern central Bolivia. It covers an area of just 75 ha.	eng
37154	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in degraded woodland.	eng
37154	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is affected by firewood collection and domestic grazing.	eng
37155	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variable subspecies. It is relatively widespread, occurring in dispersed stands between 3,200 and 4,500 m in south-east Bolivia extending into north-west Argentina. There are some large stands, up to 60 km² in area, growing on lava and pumice where they are safe from burning.	eng
37156	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found throughout the Moluccas and possibly in Sulawesi.  There is a deviating collection from Luzon.	eng
37156	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree which is found in disturbed forest and forest with sparse undergrowth.	eng
37158	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only five times, in Annam.	eng
37158	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be restricted to submontane evergreen forest.	eng
37161	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Obi and Morotai Islands.	eng
37161	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in well-drained forest.	eng
37162	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common variety found in Vogelkop and on the islands of Noemfoer, Meos, Waar, Japen and Waigeo.	eng
37162	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37163	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three collections from the Vogelkop Peninsula and Batanta Island.	eng
37163	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The variety grows in lowland secondary and coastal forest on limestone.	eng
37164	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known from four collections from the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37164	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is common in primary and secondary forest on limestone.	eng
37165	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree restricted to Luzon, where it has been collected just three times.	eng
37166	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A Philippines endemic found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Samar and Leyte.	eng
37166	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forests in moist valleys.	eng
37167	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known only from the type, which was collected on Samar Island.	eng
37168	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only on the Palau Islands.	eng
37168	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is locally common in primary lowland forest.	eng
37169	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Located in Digul, Irian Jaya and the Western province of Papua New Guinea.	eng
37169	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found in many habitat types.	eng
37170	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far it is only known from three collections from East Sepik Province.	eng
37170	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in both primary and secondary forest.	eng
37172	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Morobe Province. It has been collected only six times.	eng
37172	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, which is restricted to mixed lowland rainforest.	eng
37173	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although locally common, has been collected only three times in the Northern Province.	eng
37173	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree from tall lowland forest on well-drained soils.	eng
37174	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection which was found in Sepik Province.	eng
37174	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense humid forest.	eng
37175	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two collections, one from Sepik Province and the other from Morobe Province.	eng
37175	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lower montane rainforest.	eng
37177	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type collection, which was gathered from a site in south-west New Guinea.	eng
37179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection from Etappenberg, Sepik Province.	eng
37179	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety of mossy montane forest.	eng
37180	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Known only to occur in the Solomon Islands.	eng
37180	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	A primary and secondary forest species collected many times on a variety of soils.	eng
37182	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree endemic to central and south Sulawesi. Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest over ultrabasic soils in the tropics. The nature of the soil renders it unattractive to agriculture.	eng
37182	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest areas on ultrabasic soils	eng
37183	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three or four collections from Misima, Tagula and Rossel Islands. The collection from San Cristobal is doubtful.	eng
37183	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subcanopy tree.	eng
37184	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known from six or seven collections from areas in Vogelkop in Irian Jaya and  West Sepik in Papua New Guinea.	eng
37184	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary forest.	eng
37185	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from only four collections from northern Papua New Guinea.	eng
37187	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East Sabah and east and south Kalimantan.	eng
37187	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies found in lowland forest and <em>Shorea laevifolia</em> forest.	eng
37188	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sarawak and west Sabah. The collection from West Kalimantan is doubtful.	eng
37188	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety found in primary lowland and lower montane forest.	eng
37189	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from the type collected in west Sabah and one other dubious collection from East Kalimantan.	eng
37189	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37190	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two collections.	eng
37190	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety found in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37191	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from five localities.	eng
37191	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37192	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from five collections from Pahang and Johore and from a single sterile collection from Jambi, Sumatra.	eng
37192	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree of lowland primary forest and swamp forest.	eng
37193	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found only once in Sarawak. In addition, three slightly different collections have been identified as this species. They may represent intermediates between <em>H. paucinervis</em> and <em>H. gracilis</em>.	eng
37193	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary lowland forest.	eng
37194	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are 8 collections in total.	eng
37194	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree found growing in lowland primary mixed dipterocarp forest and swamp forest.	eng
37195	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in Sarawak, Sabah and East Kalimantan.	eng
37195	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland mixed forest.	eng
37196	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is apparently endemic to the Cameron Highlands, from where it has been collected three times.	eng
37196	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lower montane forest on granite and in ridge forest.	eng
37198	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three collections are known, two from east Sarawak and one from Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah.	eng
37198	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest species.	eng
37199	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Sulawesi.	eng
37199	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to primary and disturbed forest on ultrabasic soil.	eng
37200	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from only two collections.	eng
37201	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to west and central Java, this variety has been collected just five times.	eng
37201	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
37202	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common understorey shrub or small tree restricted to the Western Province and known only from three collections.	eng
37203	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected two or three times.	eng
37203	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub from lowland primary rainforest.	eng
37205	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection from Fraser's Hill.	eng
37206	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from the type collection, gathered in East Kalimantan, and from some doubtful specimens from Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
37207	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from seven collections from Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.	eng
37207	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in primary dry montane forest.	eng
37208	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known from four collections from Borneo.	eng
37208	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in forest on hills and ridges.	eng
37209	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small slender tree known only from the type collection from the Ulu Endau Forest  Reserve.	eng
37210	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from four collections in Bacan, Obi and Buru Islands.	eng
37210	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, found on limestone.	eng
37211	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is locally common in forest on Morotai Island of the Moluccas and is also known from the Vogelkop Peninsula, Irian Jaya. It has been collected 5 times.	eng
37212	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is locally common on the northern Moluccan Islands (Sula, Halmaheira and Obi).	eng
37212	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland well-drained forest.	eng
37213	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Mainly known from Mindanao Island of the Philippines and the Moluccas, but also known from a deviating specimen from south-east Kalimantan.	eng
37213	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This subspecies is found in well-drained forest.	eng
37214	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from Bacan Island.	eng
37214	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
37215	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vogelkop peninsula  and Waigeo Island, Irian Jaya and Obi Island of the Moluccas. It is locally common along creeks on Waigeo Island, Irian Jaya.	eng
37215	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found in hillside and riverine forest over limestone.	eng
37216	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies found throughout the Lesser Sunda Islands and Moloccas in forest areas.	eng
37217	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies, known from five collections, is found in south-west New Guinea and in Aru and Pulau Wokam Islands of the Moluccas.	eng
37217	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37219	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far the species is known from four collections, all from Halmaheira and Obi.	eng
37219	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Solitary trees are found in both open and dense primary forest.	eng
37220	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinctive solitary tree, known only from the type collection.	eng
37220	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in disturbed lowland forest with little undergrowth.	eng
37220	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The lowland forest in Bacan is rapidly disappearing.	eng
37221	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is locally common in Gunung Sangawo of Morotai Island and it has also been found on Halmaheira and Bacan Islands.	eng
37221	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in submontane rainforest on volcanic ridges.	eng
37222	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vogelkop peninsula and nearby islands of Irian Jaya, and on the Moluccan islands of Ceram, Obi and Morotai.	eng
37222	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in lowland and submontane forest over limestone.	eng
37224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from four collections, this small tree is found locally in Mission Beach area of north-east Queensland.	eng
37224	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37225	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally common subspecies, described recently, in the north-west Northern Territory, including Melville Island.	eng
37225	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland rainforest, monsoon forest and riparian evergreen vine forest.	eng
37227	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This tree appears to be restricted to the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides.  It has been split into four forms: forma <em>procera</em>, forma <em>platyphylla</em>, forma <em>mesophylla</em> and forma <em>nanophylla</em>.	eng
37227	habitat	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	Usually found growing in lowland forest on well-drained soils, but sometimes found in alluvial forest or swamp forest.	eng
37228	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the islands of Guadalcanal, Rennell and Malaita.	eng
37228	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in well-drained primary and secondary forest.	eng
37229	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Guadalcanal and San Cristóbal.	eng
37229	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree locally common in well-drained forest.	eng
37230	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from only two collections, both from Choiseul.	eng
37230	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest tree, possibly restricted to ultrabasic soils.	eng
37232	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Islands of Santa Ysabel, San Cristóbal and Guadalcanal.	eng
37232	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree that occurs in well-drained forest and ridge forest up to 250 m.	eng
37233	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree known only from two collections: Santa Ysabel and Big Nggela Island.	eng
37235	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Vanua Levu Islands in Fij and east, north-east and Vanikoro of the Santa Cruz Islands.	eng
37235	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in both primary and secondary well-drained forest.	eng
37237	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections from the Arfak Mts. in north-east Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37237	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small montane forest tree.	eng
37238	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type specimen is the only known collection of the tree. It was gathered near the border of Papua New Guinea in south-eastern Irian Jaya.	eng
37238	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37240	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to Manus Island and the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
37240	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in lowland forest near rivers over limestone.	eng
37241	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type species was gathered in 1955 in logged-over forest near the Seribi River in the Gulf Province. It is the only known collection of the species.	eng
37242	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree collected only on one occasion in tall foothill forest in the Central Province.	eng
37243	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only two collections from the Northern Province.	eng
37243	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest.	eng
37244	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection of 1968 in West Sepik Province.	eng
37244	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in degraded Fagaceous forest.	eng
37245	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which provisionally unites three collections until further material becomes available. So far its distribution is restricted to the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37245	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary forest.	eng
37246	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mount Suckling, Milne Bay Province. It is known from only two collections.	eng
37246	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is found in open montane <em>Araucaria</em> forest near creeks.	eng
37247	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from the coastal mountains of northern Irian Jaya.	eng
37247	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest subspecies.	eng
37248	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the northern side of the main range. It is known from four collections.	eng
37248	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary montane forest.	eng
37249	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected three times, this species is locally common in the upper Sepik River region of Sepik Province.	eng
37249	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary forest.	eng
37250	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is locally endemic to the Buso River area of the Morobe Province. It has been collected six times.	eng
37250	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal swamp forest, river flat forest and lowland secondary forest.	eng
37251	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea.	eng
37251	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree found in lowland forest.	eng
37252	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type collection taken from the Kebar Valley in the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37252	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in old primary forest.	eng
37253	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected four times from localities near Isuarava and Lala, Central Province.	eng
37253	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies of primary and secondary montane forest.	eng
37254	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East Sepik, Gulf and Madang Provinces, known only from four collections.	eng
37254	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in foothill and montane forest.	eng
37255	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	West Irian Jaya.	eng
37255	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found only once in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.	eng
37256	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known only from the type specimen, collected from the lower Lorentz River in south-west Irian Jaya.	eng
37257	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type specimen collected on Rossel Island.	eng
37257	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This island has a fragile ecosystem, with very poor soils, which is possibly threatened by gold and copper mining and logging.	eng
37258	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen, this species occurs in Kiunga, Western Province.	eng
37258	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Seasonally inundated swamp forest.	eng
37259	distribution	de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1998	This subspecies has been further split into two varieties: var. <em>papuana</em> and var. <em>foremaniana</em>. The variety <em>foremaniana</em> is only known from the type collected in forest in Madang Province.	eng
37260	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	South-east Irian Jaya, the Western Province and possibly West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
37260	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
37261	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tentative new subspecies described from one specimen in Southern Highlands Province.	eng
37261	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in primary forest over limestone.	eng
37262	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has only been collected only twice from the Kuper Range area of the Morobe Province.	eng
37262	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subcanopy species, occurring as solitary trees in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.	eng
37263	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality, near Busilmin, West Sepik Province.	eng
37263	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in secondary regrowth at medium elevation.	eng
37264	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single locality exists on mainland Irian Jaya and three collections come from Japen Island.	eng
37264	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is reported to be locally common in primary forest.	eng
37265	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known from two collections, along the Bodem River, Irian Jaya and East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
37265	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in primary forest.	eng
37266	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from the southern border between Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea.	eng
37266	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in disturbed forest or semi-swamp in valley forest.	eng
37267	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree known from two collections in south-east Irian Jaya.	eng
37267	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
37268	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known from four collections, locally endemic to forest in the Central and Milne Bay Provinces.	eng
37269	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from four collections from near Amazon Bay, Central Province.	eng
37269	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey rainforest tree.	eng
37270	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen, the tree was discovered in the Kiunga area, Western Province.	eng
37270	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37271	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from the type collection. It was found on Mt. Don of Rossel Island.	eng
37271	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland hill forest.	eng
37271	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rossel Island has quite a fragile ecosystem with very poor soils; possible threats include mining and logging.	eng
37272	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type locality on Mt. Dayman, Milne Bay Province.	eng
37272	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Oak forest.	eng
37273	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found only once near Ingambit in the Western Province, near the border with Irian Jaya.	eng
37273	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Valley forest.	eng
37274	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from a site at the junction of the Ugat and Mayu Rivers in Milne Bay Province.	eng
37274	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Castanopsis</em> forest.	eng
37275	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Goodenough Island, where it has been collected twice. The D'Entrecasteaux Islands harbour many locally endemic species and require botanical investigation.	eng
37275	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A canopy or subcanopy tree.	eng
37276	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Manus Island, this tree has been collected twice.	eng
37276	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37277	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, endemic to Morobe Province, where it has been collected twice.	eng
37277	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest and logged forest.	eng
37278	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only specimen of this understorey tree was collected in 1908 in forest near Pema, Morobe Province.	eng
37279	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The sole collection of this tree was gathered at Modewa Bay, Milne Bay Province.	eng
37279	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Riverine rainforest.	eng
37280	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A total of five collections have been gathered from Morobe Province.	eng
37280	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This understorey tree grows in  <em>Castanopsis</em> forest.	eng
37281	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Sogeri region of Central Province, it has been collected twice in foothill forest.	eng
37281	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Shrub or small tree in foothill forest.	eng
37282	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from five collections.	eng
37282	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in montane <em>Nothofagus</em> or <em>Castanopsis</em> forest.	eng
37283	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known from three disjunct localities of forest in the Vogelkop Peninsula, Irian Jaya, and Western and Sepik Provinces, Papua New Guinea.	eng
37284	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality in the Gulf Province.	eng
37284	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, near streamside in lowland rainforest.	eng
37286	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree restricted to the Tamrau Range of the northern Vogelkop Peninsula, where it has been collected twice.	eng
37286	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary oak forest.	eng
37287	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection from Fergusson Island and a single collection from Rossel Island.	eng
37287	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subspecies of hill forest.	eng
37288	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Jayapura area, this small tree has been collected twice.	eng
37288	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland periodically flooded forest.	eng
37289	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known from two collections, one in south-east Irian Jaya and the other in south-west Papua New Guinea.	eng
37289	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Secondary forest.	eng
37290	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single collection from Sudest (Tagula) Island and from one or two collections from Rossel Island.	eng
37290	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A subcanopy tree of lowland forest.	eng
37291	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is restricted to the West Sepik and Western Provinces, where it has been collected five times.	eng
37291	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
37293	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East Highlands Province, where it has been collected twice, and possibly Sepik Province.	eng
37293	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is restricted to mixed primary montane forest.	eng
37294	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies has been collected five times from the northern slopes of New Guinea.	eng
37295	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in Sarmi, northern Irian Jaya.	eng
37295	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree from mixed primary lowland forest.	eng
37296	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from five collections from the Vogelkop and Bombarai Peninsulas.	eng
37296	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in secondary forest on limestone.	eng
37297	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from only four collections on the Vogelkop peninsula.	eng
37297	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Gathered in forest on bedrock.	eng
37298	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is newly described, based on three herbarium specimens on the islands of Luzon and Sibuyan.	eng
37298	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in lower montane forest.	eng
37299	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only species in the genus to be found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It has been collected a total of eight times, three times in the nineteenth century.	eng
37299	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A handsome tree of evergreen hill forest, rainforest or mixed forest.	eng
37300	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described tree known only from the type collected from Basilan Island in 1912.	eng
37301	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree restricted to the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats in the Tinnevelly District. This subspecies has been collected only twice.	eng
37301	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet evergreen forest.	eng
37302	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Kerala and East Madras. Only five collections are known.	eng
37302	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in montane wet and relatively dry evergreen forest.	eng
37303	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Palanan area of north-east Luzon, this recently described tree has been collected three times.	eng
37303	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest over ultrabasic soil.	eng
37304	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single collection from Brunei and four collections from Sabah.	eng
37304	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland primary forest and logged-over forest.	eng
37305	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to lowland primary mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37306	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central Sulawesi, this tree has been collected three times from the area north of Lake Matano.	eng
37306	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest on ultrabasic rock.	eng
37307	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Five collections have been gathered from Sarawak, a single collection is known from Brunei and two collections have come from central and east Kalimantan.	eng
37307	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland primary forest.	eng
37309	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the islands of Luzon, Leyte and Mindoro. It is known from five collections.	eng
37309	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree, of primary and disturbed lowland forest.	eng
37310	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in central and south-west Sulawesi, known only from four collections.	eng
37310	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A primary forest tree.	eng
37311	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies is known from only two collections from forest on Mt. Sohoton, Samar Island.	eng
37312	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection from south Surigao, north-east Mindanao.	eng
37312	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in hillside forest.	eng
37313	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This forest tree is known only from three collections from the islands of Luzon and Biliran.	eng
37314	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agastyamalai Hills. There are also two records of the species occurring in northern Kerala and North Kanara in Karnataka. Very little of the habitat remains.	eng
37314	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree and dominant component of a restricted area of lowland evergreen swamp forest.	eng
37315	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described subspecies, known only from three collections from Sarawak.	eng
37317	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Discovered in 1990, this tree is known only from the type collection found in the Ruwa catchment area of Ceram.	eng
37318	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to Samar and Mindanao and known from only two herbarium specimens.	eng
37319	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main island is a biosphere reserve.	eng
37319	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far this variety is known only from three collections from Palawan.	eng
37319	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in stunted montane rainforest, sometimes on ultrabasic rock.	eng
37320	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Islands of Palawan, Mindoro and Leyte. It is known from a total of only five collections.	eng
37320	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A newly described variety found in rainforest, montane and ridge forest.	eng
37322	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Flores Island. It has been collected a total of nine times.	eng
37322	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is confined to montane forest.	eng
37324	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	To date it is known from west and north-east Kalimantan and west Sarawak.	eng
37324	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A forest tree, usually found on limestone.	eng
37325	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the Moluccan islands of Obi, Morotai and East Ceram.	eng
37325	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland subspecies.	eng
37326	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A solitary species, known from a single collection on Bacan Island.	eng
37326	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37327	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Sulawesi. It has been collected four times.	eng
37327	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to forest over ultrabasic (nickel) soils.	eng
37328	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree currently known only from two collections from the lower eastern slopes of the Andes at the rim of the Amazon basin. The type was collected in central Peru and the other specimen is from southern Ecuador. The area is botanically undercollected.	eng
37329	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
37329	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known only from the type (in Pichincha province). Discovered by V. Zak in 1986, along the Quito-San Juan de Chiriboga-El Empalme road at kilometer 59, 16 km northeast of the main road, in a forest fragment. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
37329	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,700–2,000 m).	eng
37329	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Road construction in the area has been responsible for the removal of a considerable area of forest. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
37330	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not collected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
37330	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes. Apparently restricted to the Bosque Protector Maquipucuna, in northwestern Pichincha province. Grows along the Río Tulambi, to the northeast of Loma Cachillacta and Cerro Santa Lucia.	eng
37330	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low Andean secondary forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
37330	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
37331	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	One subpopulation is confirmed in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
37331	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from six subpopulations (in Carchi, Imbabura, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). One subpopulation is confirmed in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus; others are along roads and around towns.	eng
37331	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An understorey shrub, treelet or tree found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (2,000–3,500 m). Possibly persists or thrives in disturbed forests.	eng
37331	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
37333	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur in inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
37333	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from the 1988 type collection (in Napo province). The type locale is Challua Yacu, near the Volcán Sumaco, along the road between the Río Hollín and Loreto, and inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
37333	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in lower montane Amazonian forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
37333	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
37334	distribution	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	Known only from the type locality, on Waigeo Island, where it is locally common.	eng
37334	habitat	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	This small tree is found in open woodland.	eng
37335	distribution	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	To date this tree has been collected only three times from a single locality.	eng
37335	habitat	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	Dry montane forest.	eng
37336	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only three times.	eng
37336	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in secondary and primary montane forest.	eng
37337	distribution	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	This species is known from only two collections from Penang Island.	eng
37337	habitat	Sidiyasa, K., 1998	Primary and disturbed forest.	eng
37338	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Papua New Guinea, this tree has been collected twice.	eng
37338	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary and secondary montane forest.	eng
37339	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central and south-east Sulawesi. The species is only recently described and is known from three collections.	eng
37339	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A treelet restricted to the coralline limestone or serpentine soils.	eng
37340	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a single locality, Mount Bulusan on Luzon.	eng
37340	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
37341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on the islands of Catanduances, Luzon, Leyte and Surigao.	eng
37341	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of hill forest between 150 and 525 m.	eng
37342	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, known only from the type collection. It is apparently endemic to Davao Province of Mindanao Island.	eng
37342	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forest on deep rich soils at an altitude of 40 m.	eng
37343	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Sibuyan Island, this tree has been collected only once.	eng
37343	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
37344	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to the Philippines, so far found only on Samar and Leyte Islands.	eng
37345	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Samar Island. It has been collected only three times.	eng
37345	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Samar Island, this small evergreen tree occurs in dipterocarp forest on river banks between altitudes of 100 and 250 m.	eng
37346	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in Luzon and Mindanao, this tree is known only from three herbarium specimens.	eng
37346	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in forest in the foothills of mountains.	eng
37347	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Johore in Peninsular Malaysia, Kalong and Marundi in Sarawak and in west, east and south Kalimantan.	eng
37347	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An evergreen tree of swamp and montane forest.	eng
37348	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A rare tree restricted to Mindanao, Samar, Leyte and Luzon.	eng
37348	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Primary dipterocarp forest.	eng
37349	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	This forest species is endemic to Luzon and known only from one or two collections.	eng
37350	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Luzon and Polillo. It is known only from five collections.	eng
37350	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A small tree found in secondary forest.	eng
37351	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Restricted to Timor and Flores, this small tree is known only from six collections.	eng
37352	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is only known from a total of seven collections from Luzon, Mindanao and Sabtang.	eng
37352	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded in logged-over forest.	eng
37353	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Known only from four herbarium specimens, this small tree is confined to Luzon and Samar.	eng
37353	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Primary dipterocarp forest.	eng
37354	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	An extremely localised species known only from four collections near the Buso River.	eng
37354	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	From lowland rainforest and advanced secondary forest.	eng
37354	threats	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Large areas of lowland forest in Papua New Guinea are threatened by increased logging activity.	eng
37355	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	The only record of this species is the type specimen collected in 1890 in Gulf Province. Despite the area being relatively well studied, it has not been recorded since.	eng
37356	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Known only from the type specimen, this small tree is endemic to Waigeo Island, which is an undercollected area.	eng
37358	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A tree known from 2 collections, both from Morotai Island.	eng
37359	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A very localised tree, collected twice in the 1940s, found in Jayapura.	eng
37359	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Rainforest on river banks.	eng
37360	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	To date there are just two collections from the 1950-'60s.	eng
37360	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Understorey tree of alluvial swamp.	eng
37360	threats	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	The area is not under threat but it is not well visited by botanists.	eng
37361	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Known only from two collections from the early 1900s.	eng
37361	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	This small tree is found in the rainforest/savannah transition zone on steep ground and in old secondary forest.	eng
37362	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Endemic to Luzon, this forest species, known from 19 specimens, has not been collected since the 1940s.	eng
37363	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Confined to the Milne Bay province on Normanby Island, this tree is known from only four collections to date.	eng
37364	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A tree known only from the type specimen, collected in west New Britain.	eng
37364	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	<em>Casuarina rumphiana</em>-dominated montane forest.	eng
37365	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A small tree or shrub endemic to Palawan, where it has been collected only a few times.	eng
37365	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Lowland forest on ultrabasic rock and in stunted montane rainforest.	eng
37366	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A small tree, known only from three collections in the Southern Division of Irian Jaya and the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. These areas are underexplored.	eng
37366	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Found in lowland secondary forest.	eng
37367	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	This species was found only once in the Ilocos Norte province of Luzon.	eng
37367	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Dry slopes.	eng
37368	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	It is known from a total of seven collections from the islands of Ambon, Buru, Ceram and Obi.	eng
37368	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A small tree confined to the transitional area between coral sand beach and open forest on nickel-rich soils.	eng
37369	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A shrubby tree only known from three disjunct collections in an area which is underexplored.	eng
37370	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	To date this species is known only from three collections in Milne Bay Province in Rossel Island. There has been little collecting from this island.	eng
37370	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Secondary hill rainforest.	eng
37371	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Confined to the diminishing forests of Luzon. It has not been collected since the 1960s-'70s.	eng
37371	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A secondary forest tree.	eng
37372	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Morobe province. It has been collected only twice.	eng
37372	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted to primary montane forest.	eng
37373	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Found only on Mindanao Island. Collected only twice, it has not been recorded since the 1960s.	eng
37373	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	A tree of dense moist mossy forest.	eng
37374	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from four collections.	eng
37375	distribution	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Schouten and Japen Islands;  this small tree has been collected three times, most recently in 1945.	eng
37375	habitat	van Welzen, P.C., 1998	Restricted to secondary scrubby vegetation.	eng
37376	distribution	Adema, F., 1998	A large, very distinctive tree known only from a few collections near Tawau. There is a possibility that this species is extinct, as it is suspected that the locality has been deforested.	eng
37378	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small palmoid tree known only from the type collection from Madang province.	eng
37379	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sulawesi, this small palmoid tree has been collected only a few times.	eng
37380	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in the Northern Province.	eng
37380	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small palmoid tree occurs in <em>Euphorbia-Ficus</em> forest.	eng
37381	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare understorey tree of lowland rainforest, often found on riverbanks and near swamps.	eng
37382	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub known only from the type collection from Central Province.	eng
37383	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Province;  known only from the type collection.	eng
37383	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in secondary vegetation.	eng
37385	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is only known from the type collection, gathered from West Highlands Province.	eng
37386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type collection, which was located near a dry creek in Central Province.	eng
37386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scrub.	eng
37387	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An tree from Western Province, known only from a single collection .	eng
37387	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Understorey tree.	eng
37388	distribution	Adema, F., 1998	This species is known only from the type collection from Mt. Bonthain.	eng
37389	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	A small tree which is confined to a few locations in the greatly diminished lowland coastal forests of Java. It is known from 10 collections, most of which are from the early 1900s; the last collection was made in 1960. Populations are found in Ujung Kulon National Park and on Nusa Kambangan, an island which is controlled by the Prison Service.	eng
37389	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	Lowland coastal forests.	eng
37389	threats	Kalkman, C., 1998	Despite the very limited access to the island, the vegetation is threatened by timber thieves who are removing timber regardless of the armed guard patrol.	eng
37390	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	Mindanao Island in the Philippines, and north and central Sulawesi. There have been no recent collections from the Philippines and only a few new collections from Sulawesi. Central Sulawesi has the largest tract of forest on ultrabasic rock in the tropics.	eng
37390	habitat	Kalkman, C., 1998	This tree occurs in primary and secondary forest on volcanic and ultrabasic soils.	eng
37391	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	A very rare forest tree known from only five collections from Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan and Mindanao Islands.	eng
37392	distribution	Kalkman, C., 1998	A small tree restricted to forest on Mt. Pulog and Mt. Tabayog on Luzon. Despite Mt. Pulog being relatively well explored, the species remains poorly known and has been collected only three times, most recently in 1968.	eng
37393	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Viet Nam.	eng
37393	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon is scattered in secondary forest and on forest edges especially near streams in several provinces. It is also planted in major cities.	eng
37394	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of medium- to high-altitude mixed forest.	eng
37395	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	this large-flowered and conspicuous species is known from only a few locations in Loreto, including  Alexander von Humboldt National Forest, and in Beni and Pando. A collection of doubtful identity has also been found in Manabí in Ecuador.	eng
37395	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Occurring in moist lowland forest.	eng
37396	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	So far only three locations are known. Localities include Río Zubineta in Loreto, Peru, and Rio Envira in Amazonas, Brazil. Each subpopulation in each country is notably distinct.	eng
37396	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Várzea forest or rainforest at the mouth of rivers.	eng
37397	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	The complete distribution of the species is not consolidated. It occurs for certain in the western Amazon. In Peru subpopulations have been recorded in Iparía in Huánuco National Forest, near Vitoc in Junín, and in three locations near rivers in Loreto. A subpopulation occurs along Rio Japurá in Amazonas in Brazil. Specimens with some similarities have been collected in two locations in the Peruvian Andes.	eng
37397	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37398	distribution	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	This species is known from a few collections, each so different that they may be worthy of distinction. In Ecuador the species is found in the Cordillera de Cutucu. In Peru it has been collected from a location near Quebrada, from Cajamarca and from three locations in Pasco.	eng
37398	habitat	Rohwer, J.G., 1998	Populations are found in pastureland or primary forest.	eng
37399	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is some question over the existence of this large forest tree in the wild. A subpopulation is known from an area between Semarang and Yogyakarta in central Java. There are also possible occurrences in Madura, Java, Bali and Sumatra and perhaps further afield.	eng
37399	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Java encroaching agriculture and logging have almost completely eradicated lowland forest. This species is obviously highly valued for its fruit, which appears in large quantities in local markets.	eng
37400	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to west Java, the species is known only from a 1975 collection made in the Ciapus Gorge on Mt. Salak near Bogor city. More information is needed on its present status.	eng
37401	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs throughout Java and also in Bali.	eng
37401	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most of the forests in lowland areas have been cleared.	eng
37402	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to west Java.	eng
37402	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most lowland forest has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.	eng
37403	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to west Java.	eng
37403	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most lowland forest has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.	eng
37404	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species distributed throughout Java.	eng
37404	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most forest in lowland areas has been cleared and population pressure continues to be the greatest threat to remaining forested areas.	eng
37405	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is not known whether the species is still extant in the wild. The only known location, which was situated in a seasonally dry area in Pugur in the Lampesan Valley and Watangan Hills, is now deforested.	eng
37405	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Intense population pressure has been the main cause of habitat loss.	eng
37406	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known locations of this species are in Nusa Barung and Puger, nearby on the mainland.	eng
37406	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The whole of Barung is actually a nature reserve but there is evidence of disturbance caused by illegal logging. Encroachment and habitat clearance threaten the mainland population.	eng
37407	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An area of 60 km² on Mt. Lawu is being proposed as a nature reserve.	eng
37407	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known location of this species is on Mt. Lawu.	eng
37407	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest from 1,500 to 1,700 m.	eng
37407	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Pressures of encroachment and cutting are severe.	eng
37408	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from subpopulations near Pelabuhan Ratu and a formerly forested area near Pringombo. The current status of these subpopulations is unknown.	eng
37408	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
37408	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations are bound to be affected by the almost complete clearance of their habitat.	eng
37409	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has not been collected since the last century; it occurred near Meru Betiri National Park. Given the extent of habitat loss, it is very likely that the species is now extinct.	eng
37409	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurred in lowland forest.	eng
37409	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat loss.	eng
37410	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known about this species other than that it was collected only once before 1850, probably from forest in west Java. Given the extent of habitat clearance, it is very likely this species is now extinct.	eng
37410	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Habitat clearance.	eng
37411	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known from a single specimen, collected from Mt. Payung in Ujung Kulon National Park. It is not known whether the species is now extinct.	eng
37412	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known about this species which is endemic to central Java, but it is believed to be seriously endangered.	eng
37412	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are intense pressures on remaining areas of natural vegetation.	eng
37414	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from Ujung Kulon and Sukawayana, a remnant of forest near Pelabuhan Ratu.	eng
37414	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Ujung Kulon population occurs in a national park but continues to be threatened by illegal logging, fuelwood collection and agricultural encroachment. The latter is unprotected and under intense pressure.	eng
37415	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is known from just two upland locations in the region of Kouaoua at Mé Ori and Aréha.	eng
37415	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	On ultramafic soils.	eng
37415	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area is unprotected and exposed to threats from mining activities, fires and habitat clearance.	eng
37416	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is known from just two collections from the Kouaoua area.	eng
37416	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Only a small tree or shrub in relict lowland forests and maquis on ultramafic substrate.	eng
37416	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The area is unprotected and exposed to threats from fire, mining activities and habitat clearance.	eng
37417	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Found on Mt. Panié; collected infrequently	eng
37417	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A small tree from wooded slopes at various altitudes.	eng
37417	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Although the area is given the status of a botanical reserve, it is thought that these plant populations are given insufficient protection.	eng
37419	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area.	eng
37419	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Historically, it was present between Noumea and Paita, and was also was recorded 90 km north in Bourail and on Pine Island. However, the two unique (wild) collections from Noumea date back to 1981 and 1969; they both come from the Promenade Pierre Vernier that is a very busy pedestrian trail from where <em>Acropogon</em> has obviously disappeared today. The locality of Noumea should probably not be considered as valid anymore. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,506 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 60 km².	eng
37419	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests and calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>Acropogon bullatus</em> prefers the proximity of the sea; it mostly grows in the littoral parts of dry forests.	eng
37419	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in 13 distinct locations and is never abundant.	eng
37419	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. The subpopulation mentioned from Noumea has probably disappeared due to intense urbanization of the city and its suburbs.	eng
37424	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	None for the moment.	eng
37424	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is only present in the south part of the main island (Grande Terre) and has a fragmented distribution. It is found between Paita and Dumbea, then in Bourail, Farino and Canala. Distances between sites are 70, 30 and 32 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,063 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
37424	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	It is known from dry forests and mesic forests. There's a need to clarify habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
37424	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown but the species is never common and only known from a few herbarium specimens.	eng
37424	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
37429	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A small tree or treelet of wet thickets within thin forest or in second growth, principally in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37429	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The habitat is reduced through conversion to agriculture.	eng
37430	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Although widespread, the species is never abundant.	eng
37430	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in remaining areas of lowland rainforest and thickets, often in marshy places.	eng
37431	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	An uncommon species of humid forest, occurring at medium elevation.	eng
37432	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in areas of submontane pine-dominated humid forest.	eng
37432	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	The greatest threat to this variety is frequent fires.	eng
37433	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of open forest on dry lowland plains.	eng
37433	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Frequently affected by fires.	eng
37434	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A rare species of wet lowland forest.	eng
37435	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of doubtful nomenclature.	eng
37435	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Known only from an area of dry submontane forest.	eng
37436	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Its nomenclatural status is somewhat uncertain.	eng
37436	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of humid forest at high elevations.	eng
37437	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring on the Pacific coast.	eng
37437	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A scarce species of lowland dry forest.	eng
37437	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Fires and encroaching agriculture are frequent threats.	eng
37438	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree restricted to the Atlantic drainage, occurring at low to middle elevations.	eng
37439	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	An endemic species.	eng
37439	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Found along rocky streams in dry forest at middle elevations.	eng
37440	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A scarce species, collected only once in Honduras from a locality.	eng
37440	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Atlantic wet lowlands.	eng
37441	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species known from small subpopulations.	eng
37441	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Lowland wet mixed forest.	eng
37443	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of high-elevation cloud forest.	eng
37445	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A lowland tree of dry rocky hillsides.	eng
37446	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of the dry Atlantic lowlands. There are doubts surrounding the nomenclature.	eng
37447	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This variety occurs in mixed forest types of varying humidity.	eng
37448	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A rarely collected tree.	eng
37448	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Found in groves near river banks and on forested plains at medium elevation.	eng
37449	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Only a small population is known, occurring in the wet Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37451	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree confined to the wet Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37451	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	It has experienced gradual habitat loss to encroaching agriculture.	eng
37452	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree found in thicket on lowland plains, sometimes along rocky creeks or on hillsides.	eng
37453	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A rarely collected tree.	eng
37453	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
37454	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This tree occurs on rocky wooded river banks and open areas in pine-oak forest.	eng
37455	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is mainly known from the critically endangered population in Honduras. The distribution apparently extends to southern Mexico.	eng
37455	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in medium to high elevation mixed forest.	eng
37457	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A rainforest tree of the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37459	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Confined to the wet Caribbean lowlands, the species is scattered in sparse subpopulations, including a rare occurrence in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.	eng
37460	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	The species occurs in moist lowland thickets, often in secondary growth.	eng
37461	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Mainly occurring at middle and upper elevations of mountain slopes, the species is found in areas of rainforest or cloud forest.	eng
37462	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Occurring in Lancetilla Biological Reserve.	eng
37462	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of the wet Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37463	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree restricted to mixed rainforest on Atlantic slopes.	eng
37464	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A rarely collected species, of somewhat uncertain nomenclature.	eng
37465	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Collected only once in Honduras. Its occurrence in Guatemala is uncertain.	eng
37465	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of moist forest.	eng
37465	threats	Nelson, C., 1998	Various developments are causing considerable loss of habitat.	eng
37466	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A rarely collected species.	eng
37466	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Lowland moist forest.	eng
37468	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of the wet Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37469	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This species is restricted to high-altitude pine forest.	eng
37470	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This tree occurs in damp thickets in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37471	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of lowland damp forest, sometimes pine forest on Atlantic slopes.	eng
37473	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	In Honduras this species has been collected only once.	eng
37473	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Submontane pine forest.	eng
37474	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A tree of wet forest and thickets in the Atlantic lowlands.	eng
37475	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of moist forest or thickets in ravines or sometimes dry hillsides.	eng
37476	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of uncertain nomenclature, found mainly on the Caribbean side.	eng
37476	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	Monsoon forest and semi-evergreen forest.	eng
37477	distribution	Nelson, C., 1998	Found on both sides of the continental divide.	eng
37477	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	This species occurs in monsoon or semi-evergreen forest and cloud forest.	eng
37478	habitat	Nelson, C., 1998	A species of wet mixed forest, occurring at medium to high elevations.	eng
37479	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	Trees are occasionally cultivated for the production of pods.	eng
37479	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	Geographically restricted, both the varieties of this species are known from only a few wild subpopulations.	eng
37479	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	Grazing pressure and the harvesting of pods for their edible seeds put considerable pressure on the remaining subpopulations.	eng
37480	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	Trees are occasionally cultivated for the production of pods.	eng
37480	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	The more restricted in range of the two varieties of this Mexican endemic. Few wild subpopulations are known.	eng
37480	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	There are strong pressures from grazing and collection of the pods for their edible seeds.	eng
37481	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	Trees are often protected within the traditional agricultural system.	eng
37481	habitat	Hughes, C., 1998	A species confined to the forest understorey within a restricted range. It is only occasionally found outside forest areas.	eng
37481	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	Grazing pressures have reduced the species distribution to less accessible areas.	eng
37482	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	A species restricted in range, low in numbers.	eng
37482	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	Generally reduced to inaccessible areas because of the pressures of constant grazing.	eng
37483	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	This species is poorly known but seemingly very restricted in range. During the last 50 years it has been recorded from a single site in central Sonora.	eng
37484	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	The protection afforded the species within traditional agroforestry systems mitigates the threats to remaining stands.	eng
37484	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	A highly localised species confined to northern Honduras	eng
37484	habitat	Hughes, C., 1998	Degraded forest.	eng
37485	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	The total population is restricted to fewer than 400 individuals, occupying an area of less than 400 km² in south-eastern Chiquimula.	eng
37485	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	The species is unprotected and exposed to pressures of grazing and habitat degradation.	eng
37486	habitat	Hughes, C., 1998	A species which is confined to a very small area of remaining dry forest.	eng
37486	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	The stands are exposed to pressures from grazing and habitat degradation.	eng
37487	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	An endemic species of the Tehuacan Valley. It is never found in abundance.	eng
37487	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	Subpopulations have been largely reduced to areas which escape from the pressure of grazing.	eng
37488	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	The species is frequently protected within traditional agroforestry systems.	eng
37488	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	The species occurs relatively commonly across southern Honduras and northern Nicaragua with a very restricted population in eastern El Salvador.	eng
37488	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	The habitat is severely degraded in places.	eng
37489	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A locally common species, restricted to a single locality on Bukit Irau in the Kebar Valley of the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37489	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Primary rainforest.	eng
37489	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Its restricted occurrence and narrow genetic base place the species in a precarious state.	eng
37490	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree known from a single collection near the Tauri River in the Gulf province, which is outside the general range of <em>Nothofagus</em> in New Guinea. A future taxonomic revision may change the status of this species.	eng
37490	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Mixed lower montane forest.	eng
37491	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common canopy tree, endemic to the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa area.	eng
37492	distribution	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	An apomictic species of the <em>S. latifolia</em> complex, arising from a cross between <em>S. aria</em> and <em>S. torminalis</em>.  Occurs in Burgberg, Thuringia State. At the beginning of the 19th century about 100 individuals were counted, but now only 50 individuals remain within an area of less than 100 km².	eng
37492	habitat	Schmidt, P.A., 1998	It is confined to submontane open woodland on one limestone hill.	eng
37493	conservation	Hughes, C., 1998	Trees are protected and also cultivated in local agroforestry systems for the production of pods bearing edible seeds.	eng
37493	distribution	Hughes, C., 1998	This subspecies is uncommon.	eng
37493	threats	Hughes, C., 1998	Confined to a habitat which is restricted in extent and severely degraded.	eng
37494	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common species confined to Lopé Forest Reserve and a 50 km radius around the northern boundary.	eng
37494	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging. The species is notable in being wholly dependent on the lowland gorilla for seed dispersal.	eng
37495	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species to Lopé Forest Reserve, extending about 100 km outside the reserve's boundaries.	eng
37495	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging.	eng
37496	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree confined to the central part of Lopé Forest Reserve, extending a few kilometers to the south.	eng
37496	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Part of the range is under concession to logging companies and there is concern over future plans for intensive logging.	eng
37497	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A reintroduction progamme is being developed at Cordoba Botanic Garden.	eng
37497	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in three mountain systems in Spain, the Sistema Central, Sierra Nevada and Sierra de Cazorla and possibly also the Sierra Moreno, and in the Rif Mountains in Morocco. The subpopulations are small and dispersed.	eng
37497	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of dry montane woodland.	eng
37497	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The spread of housing developments, as well as decline in water availability, fires, cutting and tourism, pose serious threats.	eng
37498	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Some subpopulations are protected.	eng
37498	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A taxon restricted to areas along Rio Estena in Montes de Toledo and to the Sierra de Río Frio in the Sierra Morena.	eng
37498	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Lowland dry forest.	eng
37498	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Some subpopulations are exposed to housing and tourist developments, declines in water availability and fires.	eng
37499	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Trees are legally protected throughout the range.	eng
37499	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is present in a large part of the Iberian Peninsula. It is locally abundant, forming extensive woodlands in places.	eng
37499	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Lowland dry forest up to 2,000 m.	eng
37499	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Subpopulations are exposed to overcutting, fires, expanding agriculture and declining water availability.	eng
37500	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is also legally protected in Spain.	eng
37500	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is abundant over a relatively wide range.	eng
37500	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in moist forest up to altitudes of 1,800 m.	eng
37502	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scarce species which is known only from the type locality on the island of Great Nicobar.	eng
37502	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland mixed dense rainforest.	eng
37503	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Yet to be found in the wild, this species is cultivated widely in Sabah, Sarawak and also south Kalimantan and probably Sumatra.	eng
37503	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is adapted to wet lowland conditions and is best grown in areas without a pronounced dry season.	eng
37505	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This massive tree is known only from the type locality in North Sumatra Leuser Nature Reserve.	eng
37505	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland rainforest at 400 m.	eng
37506	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There is very little known about this species on the basis of a collection found in south-western Yunnan at 1,500 m. It is even doubtful that the specimen fits the limits of the genus <em>Mangifera</em>.	eng
37507	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Chiang Mai region in north Thailand.	eng
37507	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is found in montane, wet evergreen and deciduous forests.	eng
37508	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is found on the Karimun Djawa Islands, north of Java. It is cultivated in south Sulawesi.	eng
37509	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs commonly in Salem and Coorg Districts.	eng
37509	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remnants of shola forest.	eng
37511	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is based on a sterile herbarium specimen collected from a mountain locality in Sikkim.	eng
37513	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from two sterile herbarium collections from northern Sumatra and from dubious collections from Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah.	eng
37513	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is reported to be fairly common in well-drained rainforest at 900 m.	eng
37514	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A distinctive tree, which superficially looks like a <em>Campnosperma</em> species. It is known from only a single sterile specimen collected in Purukcau near Kelaseh in south Kalimantan.	eng
37514	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Well-drained wet evergreen forest at 260 m.	eng
37514	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest near Purukacau has been destroyed and the species may already be extinct.	eng
37516	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in the district of Funing in south-east Yunnan, south-west Guizhou and south Guangxi. It is frequently found or planted near villages.	eng
37516	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is frequently found or planted near villages.	eng
37517	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very little is known about this species.	eng
37518	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was originally described in 1755 as a remarkable species with fruit hanging transversely off the stalks. It is recorded as being endemic to Banda-Neira Island and introduced to Amboina Island. In 1993, this species was described by Kostermans based on a small cultivated tree, which is reputed to be common on Banda-Neira Island.	eng
37524	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from a single collection from Samar Island.	eng
37527	conservation	Ashton, P., 1998	Subpopulations of this species are known to occur in forest reserves.	eng
37534	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to the Philippines.	eng
37534	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	It grows in mixed dipterocarp forest and is confined to ridges in permanently wet areas.	eng
37535	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to Borneo.	eng
37535	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Grows in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 600 m.	eng
37545	distribution	Ashton, P., 1998	This subspecies is restricted to coastal Pahang and Trengganu.	eng
37545	habitat	Ashton, P., 1998	Grows in forest on low hills.	eng
37546	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found only on Vanua Lava Island and at Tisbel on Malekula Island in medium-altitude forest.	eng
37547	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species for which there is little information and few collections. It is found in the mountains in the west.	eng
37548	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of coastal forest occurring in one location in eastern Cameroon and further south around Libreville in Gabon.  The present status of these subpopulations, if they are still extant, is uncertain.	eng
37548	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
37548	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There have been large declines in the extent of this habitat, mainly through logging.	eng
37549	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The possible wild progenitor of cultivated durian.  The species can be locally common. There are possible occurrences in Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
37550	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, which was relatively well collected on expeditions at the turn of the century and before.	eng
37550	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the present day it appears to be localised to a number of primary forest sites at high altitudes (>1,000 m).	eng
37550	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The bark is an important ingredient in a fortifying drink for swordfish hunters and also in an aphrodisiac drink. There is evidence that some trees are dying from overcollection of the bark.	eng
37551	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a few sites on Morro Claudino.	eng
37551	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An upland forest tree found above 1,000 m.	eng
37551	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Regeneration is reported to be very feeble or non-existent in the 5 sites where it has been studied.	eng
37552	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Relatively well collected, most recently in Diogo Vaz in 1972. The original forest habitat was extensively felled and cleared for agriculture in the first half of the century.	eng
37552	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs on cultivated or abandoned plantations.	eng
37553	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees must be planted if the resource is to be harvested sustainably over the long term (its fruit is edible and traded locally).	eng
37553	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree collected numerous times.	eng
37554	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rarely collected, the taxon is known from two locations, S. Pedro and S. Nicolau. It is noticeably absent from recent collections, although large areas of Sâo Tomé remain to be explored.	eng
37554	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
37556	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Protective measures are in place and a large-scale replanting programme has resulted in the establishment of 20 subpopulations of sub-adult trees. The species is interfertile with <em>B. lenta</em> and introduced subpopulations contain hybrids. It is listed as threatened in the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
37556	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Described in 1918 and subsequently thought to have become extinct, the species was rediscovered along the banks of Cressy Creek in 1975.   The population is found in highly disturbed second-growth forest along a 1 km stretch of the river owned by private and federal government parties. The number of individuals has been reduced from 41 to 11.	eng
37556	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Highly disturbed second-growth forest along river.	eng
37558	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Confined to New Guinea.	eng
37558	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This species is suffering from habitat destruction.	eng
37561	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Increased control of feral pigs and deer has brought about improved regenerative capacity. Stump sprouting and seedlings have recently been observed.	eng
37561	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Santa Catalina Island, mainly on the Channel slopes. The species' range has shown historical declines, presumably as a consequence of climate changes.	eng
37561	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies occurs in groves in moist humid areas of canyons and mountain sides.	eng
37561	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The introduced Acorn Woodpecker may also be causing damage by drilling into tree trunks.	eng
37562	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which is endemic to Catalina Island. A single wild population exists, consisting of seven individuals in a canyon covering an area of approximately 250 m².	eng
37563	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree endemic to Catalina Island.	eng
37564	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and are uninhabited.	eng
37564	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is endemic to the Aldabras, where it occurs only on Malabar, the east of Grand Terre and Michel Island.	eng
37564	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small slender tree with an occasional distribution in mixed scrub.	eng
37565	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known from the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island in Papua New Guinea and Murray Island in Australia.	eng
37565	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of scrub and savannah.	eng
37566	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This endemic tree is so far known only from areas in the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island.	eng
37566	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Monsoon forest.	eng
37567	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Aldabran Islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and  only Picard is inhabited with a research station.	eng
37567	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found only on Malabar, the west of Picard, the east of Grand Terre in the Aldabras and Menai on Cosmoledo.	eng
37567	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An occasional constituent of mixed scrub.	eng
37568	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from two collections in the Kuper range, Morobe District.	eng
37568	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This medium-sized tree is confined to submontane rainforest on steep slopes.	eng
37569	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Central and Northern provinces.	eng
37569	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree of lower montane rainforest between 1,050 and 1,525 m.	eng
37570	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This variety is found near Jayapura, Irian Jaya and in the West Sepik District of Papua New Guinea.	eng
37570	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest up to 300 m altitude.	eng
37570	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is a fine timber tree restricted to areas being extensively logged and therefore is threatened by felling and habitat loss.	eng
37571	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard has a population of staff from a research station.	eng
37571	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is found infrequently on Polymnie, the east of Picard and the east of Grand Terre.	eng
37571	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed scrub.	eng
37572	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree known only from the New Georgia group.	eng
37572	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In well-drained, lowland, primary rainforest.	eng
37573	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Aldabra is protected as a Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
37573	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears on Assumption and all the main islands of Aldabra, except the western portion of Grand Terre.	eng
37573	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occupies crevices on limestone pavement (<em>platin</em>) and on pinnacled micro-karst limestone (<em>champignon</em>).	eng
37573	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Assumption has experienced some habitat clearance for strip-mining for phosphate or guano.	eng
37574	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Known only from Rossel Island.	eng
37574	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This canopy species is found on ridges in colline forest.	eng
37574	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The fragile ecosystem of Rossel Island is possibly threatened by logging and mining for copper and gold.	eng
37575	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The island is protected within a Strict Nature Reserve and is uninhabited.	eng
37575	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from just a few individuals in Takamaka Grove on Grand Terre, in the Aldabras. It was once locally common.	eng
37575	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Changes in the vegetation appear to have reduced the population significantly.	eng
37576	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The islands are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve. Only Picard has a small number of inhabitants in the research station.	eng
37576	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Found only in the Gionnet Channel and in the Takamaka area on Picard and Grand Terre. The entire population occurs within an area of less than 1,000 ha.	eng
37576	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A small tree of mixed and tall scrub.  The fruits are eaten and apparently dispersed by tortoises.	eng
37577	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences have been recorded from the islands of Sâo Miguel, Terceira, Sâo Jorge and Pico but in recent years only a few specimens have been found on Pico da Vara and Lombadas on Sâo Miguel and on Pico.	eng
37577	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A low-growing tree which is found in deep narrow ravines and in stands of undisturbed laurel-juniper forest.	eng
37577	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Clearing of the habitat for agriculture and plantations, and the invasion of introduced plants and animals, are the most serious problems.	eng
37578	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A poorly known species collected only once from Japen Island.	eng
37579	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is known only from the islands in Geelvink Bay.	eng
37579	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It occurs in colline rainforest at approximately 200 m altitude.	eng
37579	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Because of its restricted distribution and the possibility of exploitation, this species is considered seriously endangered.	eng
37580	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A very poorly known species of Gebeh Island, known only from the type collection made last century.	eng
37581	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Endemic to Morobe Province.	eng
37581	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree occurs in lowland rainforest on alluvium.	eng
37581	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is under threat mainly from logging.	eng
37582	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found on the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel and Malaita.	eng
37582	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to primary forest on ridges or flooded coral platforms.	eng
37583	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance 7 of 1996.  Present within the Sandy Bay National Park, as described in the SLUP (revised 1998/9).	eng
37583	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly a very abundant tree of the mid-altitudes, 300-600 m.  By the time the Island was first settled in 1659 the Gumwood and other native forests had already suffered one and a half centuries of browsing by goats and rooting by pigs.  Fewer and fewer seedlings survived and the aging forest was already unable to regenerate.  The only woodland now remaining is at Peak Dale where about 1,000 trees grow on steep slopes in an area of 3 ha. There are smaller, scattered subpopulations at Deep Valley (21 trees), Marias (less than five trees), Rock Rose (seven trees), Longwood (two mature trees growing adjacent to farm land and were probably planted to mark a boundary), and Thompson’s Wood (one tree). Most of these are found growing close to or out of cliffs.  It is possible that there is genetic exchange between the trees at Peak Dale and Marias but the other sites are geographically and reproductively isolated.  Large scale replanting has taken place at Peak Dale (500 trees in 2002) and Horse Point (2,400 between 1986–1992 although survival rates are less than  50% and 5,000 between 2000–2003), Ebony Plain (where it is planted with its congener, <em>C. rugosum</em> with which it is known to hybridise), Longwood and at Deep Valley.  Peak Dale has been the source of all material for plantings at Horse Point (now known as the Millennium Forest), Ebony Plain  and elsewhere. The Longwood and Deep Valley provenances have been maintained separate at only material from these sites has been used when planting at either Longwood or Deep Valley.	eng
37583	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Tree, formerly up to 10 m, but now typically half this. The trunk of this species is  usually knarled and crooked and the canopy is umbrella shaped due to the regular di- or trichotomous branching immediately under the terminal inflorescence.  <em>C. robustum</em> has inflorescences of one or few capitula, the capitulum of ray florets are female and disc florets are hermaphrodite.  Seeds germinate freely and natural regeneration is rapid as long as there is no interference by grazing animals or pests. The seedlings do not resemble the adults, being quick growing, slender and straight with much larger leaves. They develop the adult shape when they reach the canopy.	eng
37583	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Regeneration of <em>C. robustum</em> can be good, especially when grazing is restricted, however, a number of factors restrict recovery:  <br/>1.  Occasionally animals still stray into Peak Dale, although it is fully fenced, causing damage to planted seedlings. The subpopulation at Marias is on privately owned land which is rented for grazing cattle, thus preventing  regeneration. <br/>2.  Competition from introduced plants at all the sites where the Gumwood now grow.  Introduced plants are competitors for space and when not kept under regular control, can crowd out the Gumwoods. <br/>3. The introduced scale insect, <em>Orthezia insignis</em> Browne, which inflicted considerable damage to the population between 1991-3 and threatened to destroy the whole woodland by 1995.  This species was brought under control with a biological control programme using the agent <em>Hyperaspis pantherina</em> (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Fowler 2001).  <em>Orthezia insignis</em> continues to infect small numbers of trees and has been observed on young seedlings (Rebecca Cairns-Wicks, pers obs). Whilst the infestations are brought under control by the <em>Hyperaspis</em>, and are not considered a threat to adult trees, it is possible that the impact on seedlings and thus regeneration is more significant.	eng
37584	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Manus Island.	eng
37584	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A species restricted to lowland rainforest on ridges.	eng
37584	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The habitat has been heavily logged and degraded.	eng
37585	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Known only from Morobe district, the species is rarely collected.	eng
37585	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Occurring on ridges and hillsides between 30 and 300 m, often associated with dipterocarps.	eng
37586	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	So far it is only known from Japen Island and from an area near Jayapura.	eng
37586	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree found in secondary forest and as the main component of forest clumps in secondary savannah.	eng
37587	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In the Morobe district and near Ioma in the Northern district. However, the limits of this taxon are unclear.	eng
37587	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This uncommon tree is found in lowland rainforest.	eng
37587	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is vulnerable on account of restricted distribution and possible exploitation.	eng
37588	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	There is a real need to have regular site visits, weed control and annual seed collection and thereafter seed sowing.  The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species has a number of recovery action objectives, these are: <br/>1. To care for all existing individuals in wild and cultivated sites. <br/>2. To propagate all individuals from both wild and cultivated sites. <br/>3. To establish seed orchards where individuals from all sites can be grown together. <br/>4. To carry out a programme of reciprocal pollinations.	eng
37588	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Known from just eight individuals in the wild: one old plant on a cliff at Coles Rock and seven plants on a cliff (690 m.) at Mt. Vesey. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to St Helena.	eng
37588	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A small branching tree growing to 3 m., flowering from November to March.  According to Cronk (1989) the False Gumwood would once have been a constituent species of the wet gumwood woodland which existed on the slopes and cliffs just below the central ridge (500-650 m.) and a subdominant species of the Cabbage tree woodland (600 – 750 m.).	eng
37588	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Historically used as a fuel wood.  <em>C. spurium</em> also suffered from habitat loss, primarily through land clearance to make way for pasture and New Zealand Flax Plantations.  <br/>Current cause of continued decline is considered to be the lack of consistency in conservation efforts.  This species also has a self-incompatibility mechanism, that prevents individuals sharing s-alleles from reproducting.	eng
37589	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A very poorly known tree known only from Geelvink Bay.	eng
37589	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It was found in <em>Agathis</em> forest at 400 m altitude.	eng
37590	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Known from only two specimens, one from Gebeh Island of the Moluccas and the other from Waigeo Island of Irian Jaya.	eng
37590	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A montane forest species.	eng
37591	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Trees have been successfully established in cultivation at Pounceys and the ECS Nursery at Scotland and form the basis of recovery efforts for the species. Seedlings raised in 2002 from seed from tree 8 at Pounceys have now been planted at Barren Ground. However because of barriers to reproduction this species still faces an uncertain future in cultivation unless consistent effort is made to propagate it through seed.	eng
37591	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	<em>C. rotundifolium</em> is extinct in the wild.	eng
37591	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A tree, formerly common on dry areas, 400 – 520 m.  According to Cronk (1989) the Bastard Gumwood was associated with the dry gumwood woodland 300-500 m. and to some extent wet gumwood woodland 500-650 m.	eng
37591	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Historically used a fuel wood. Regeneration prevented by browsing livestock.   <br/> <br/>All trees currently growing at Pounceys are smothered in lichen growth. Lichens are parasitic and will be an additional burden on already weakened trees but they also harbour moth larvae which are known to burrow into living wood (of Redwoods, Gumwood and She Cabbage, RCW pers. obs) further compounding senescence. White Ants <em>Cryptotermes</em> are pests present at both Pounceys and Scotland sites.	eng
37592	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	In Digul, Irian Jaya and the Western district of Papua New Guinea; this area is poorly collected.	eng
37592	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree found in forest in or near swamps below 40 m altitude.	eng
37593	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or small tree is restricted to the Port Moresby region and Morupore Island.  It is known only from five or six collections.	eng
37593	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in savannah or scrub.	eng
37594	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996). Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.	eng
37594	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The most abundant of the cabbage trees, found on the central ridge between 580 – 820 m, usually common above 700 m.  Patchy distribution across the Peaks within Diana’s Peak National Park and at High Peak.	eng
37594	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A tree, characteristic of damp flushes on the mountain slopes. Often observed to germinate on the tree-fern trunks, rooting into the soil when the tree-fern falls.	eng
37594	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Threats to this species arise from it's small area of occupancy and vulnerability to competition from <em>Phormium tenax</em>.	eng
37595	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>L. arborea</em> has been produced and over the next five years the objective is to encourage the long-term persistence of the She-Cabbage through coordinated and agreed action between the Environmental Conservation Section of the ANRD, the SNCG and RBG Kew.  The specific objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the healthy growth of She Cabbages at Osbornes, near Coles Rock and Grape Vine Gut/Beales.  <br/>2. To maintain the existing gene banks at Scotland and Behind High Peak and to establish a third field gene bank at Taylors. (and possibly Newfoundland – She cabbage quick growing short lived tree – might help establish succession of endemics in this area which is heavily invaded with exotic pioneers – e.g., Whiteweed) <br/>3. To extend plantings at Napoleon’s Tomb and Mount Pleasant to complement field gene banks.   <br/>4. To describe the life history characteristics, genetic diversity and reproductive biology of the She Cabbages as an aid to recovery planning. <br/>5. To establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.  <br/> <br/>Seedlings have been raised and planted out. It is a short-lived tree (c. 20yrs), which takes considerable effort to conserve in cultivation.	eng
37595	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Once a common tree, occurring on the central ridge between 600 and 800 m, the species was thought to have become extinct until three old trees and some seedlings were discovered in 1976 above Osborne's Cottage. Today only seven wild plants are known to exist at the Osborne's site.  It is not known how many species are left at Coles Rock.	eng
37595	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A small tree 6(-7.5) m, flowering in the winter and spring months.  Found in 1976 in Pastureland.  The genus is monotypic.	eng
37595	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly used in building (roofing timbers of old houses like Mount Pleasant).  Former habitat range cleared for pasture and flax plantation.	eng
37596	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1995 although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.  <br/> <br/>Regeneration has been successful where invasive plants, such as New Zealand flax, have been cleared.	eng
37596	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Rare tree of the central ridge, at High Peak and from Cuckhold’s Point to Mount Actaeon. Grows at 720 – 800 m but has probably occurred at lower altitudes in the past (Cronk 2000).  The total population size is probably less than 50 mature individuals.	eng
37596	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The seed viability of the He Cabbage is variable, which partly explains the low numbers of seedlings raised at the Environmental Conservation Nursery at Scotland and subsequently reintroduced. It is suspected that like the She Cabbage, seed viability is affected by incompatibility magnified by low populations numbers and inbreeding. He cabbage resembles the She Cabbage, which it is allied to (Mabberley 1975) in its soft bark, susceptibility to damage by moth caterpillars and its fast growth and shorter life span compared to the other cabbage trees.	eng
37596	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A seed orchard bringing together most of the germplasm of He cabbage has been established at Taylors, however, management of the site has been erratic since 1998.  Low subpopulation numbers, small area of occupancy, fragmented distribution, low levels of re-introductions and lack of regular seed collection threaten the recovery of this species.	eng
37597	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1995, although it still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.	eng
37597	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Local on the central ridge above 600 m. In 1995 the subpopulation size within the Diana’s Peak National Park was estimated as about 80.  Since then consistent alien plant control has been carried out as part of a management plan for Diana’s Peak National Park and restocking of the endemic trees including Whitewood.  Between 1996 and 2000 about 780 seedlings and cuttings were planted.  A much smaller (<20) but significant population exists at High Peak.	eng
37597	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The smallest of the cabbage trees, this species grows in damp, relict tree-fern thicket or cabbage tree woodland.  It is dioecious. However, the sexuality requires further investigation and it may prove gynodioecious. Female plants appear to be much rarer than the ‘males’ (Cronk 2000). Flowering in the months of March to June.	eng
37597	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Because larger numbers of seedlings have been successfully reintroduced and flowering and seedling production has been observed the status of the Whitewood is not considered as threatened as that of the He-Cabbage. Further investigation however is required into sexuality in <em>Petrobium</em> to determine whether skewed sex ratios might impact upon recovery.  Seed viability of the Whitewood is also notably higher than that of He-cabbage.  Competition from alien plants and small area of occupancy are the greatest threat to this species.	eng
37598	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2004	The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species set out a number of objectives to encourage the long-term persistence of the Olive, these objectives were: <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the growth of the Olive at Pounceys <br/>2. To carry out pollinations when the tree is in flower <br/>3. To establish seed in micropropagation at the RBG Kew	eng
37598	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2004	Previously known from localised subpopulations on the highest parts of the eastern central ridge. <em>N. elliptica</em> became noticeably rare in the nineteenth century, when the subpopulation was recorded as consisting of only 12 to 15 trees on the northern side of Diana's Peak, after a time this subpopulation was thought to be extinct. In 1977 a single tree was discovered on a precipitous cliff near Diana's Peak, this was reported to have died in 1994. The last remaining plant in cultivation died in December 2003. The genus is monotypic.	eng
37598	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2004	A small tree, that was known to be pollinated by an endemic syrphid fly, which also visits other endemic trees.	eng
37598	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2004	The threat to this species was loss of habitat through felling for timber and to make way for plantations. <br/><em>N. elliptica</em> also has a self-incompatibility mechanism (99% self-incompatible), making successful propagation difficult. Pests and systemic fungal infections that are carried through to seed are other threats that are affecting the survival of <em>N. elliptica</em>.	eng
37600	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly understood species, collected twice from Mt. Carstensz and Mt. Tamrau, Mimika District.	eng
37600	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest between 200 and 860 m.	eng
37601	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An unarmed succulent tree which was recorded, up to 1977, as locally common in several localities. Recent surveys have been less successful in locating the species. In total no more than 250 plants exist around Saddle Peak on North Andaman, representing a serious decline from original population numbers.	eng
37601	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are no known reasons for the decline as the area is relatively isolated and unthreatened.	eng
37602	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from a single site, where it occurs commonly, on the banks of the Rouffaer River in Jayapura district.	eng
37602	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	River bank.	eng
37603	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small semi-erect tree found only once on Guadalcanal.	eng
37603	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hillside secondary forest on well-drained soil.	eng
37605	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to the Morobe district.	eng
37605	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is restricted to a small area of <em>Nothofagus</em>- dominated forest on ridges up to 1,800 m.	eng
37606	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Dayman.	eng
37606	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, so far known only from lower montane forest between 2,000 and 2,200 m.	eng
37608	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree found is known only from Milne Bay District.	eng
37608	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in ridge forest between 1,600 and 1,900 m.	eng
37609	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This small tree is restricted to Manus Island in the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
37609	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurs in ridge forest between the elevations of 100 and 550 m.	eng
37609	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This species may face extinction through the commercial logging of its habitat.	eng
37610	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This lowland tree is known only from Namatanai, New Ireland.	eng
37610	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to occur in coastal forest.	eng
37611	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is subject to the provisions of CITES Appendix II.	eng
37611	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Tamil Nadu. Populations occur in Kalakkad Forest, Kodyar, Sirumalai and Highwavys. More detailed information is needed on their status.	eng
37611	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small succulent tree or shrub occurs in submontane forest.	eng
37612	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
37612	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A succulent species localised to the sward-covered summit of Mt. Agasthya on the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border.	eng
37612	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Individuals survive in sheltered and moist places.	eng
37612	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Most localities have apparently been destroyed, frequently because of accidental and intentional fires. Trees are also cut and dried to be used as firewood by pilgrims trekking up to the temple on the summit of Mt. Agasthya.	eng
37613	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been successfully cultivated. The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
37613	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was described in 1940 from three old specimens growing on a rocky ledge on the eastern spur of a hill in Pallasana situated in the Palghat Gap. The vegetation is monsoon forest and succulent plants are absent apart from this single species. It has been postulated that the climate in the past was drier and this small remnant of a previously xerophytic community survived because of its exposed position. Thorough searches have failed to locate any living wild specimens today.	eng
37614	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tall tree found only once near Wagau in the Morobe province.	eng
37614	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Mid-montane open forest at 1,350 m.	eng
37615	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This tree is found in Western District and has recently been discovered on Sudest Island.  The taxonomic limits of the species are presently unknown. It could represent more than one taxon.	eng
37615	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It occurs in lowland seasonally flooded or ridge forest.	eng
37616	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Known from two collections: one from Geelvink Bay, Irian Jaya, and the other from an area near Angoram in the East Sepik district of Papua New Guinea.	eng
37616	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
37617	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This small tree, known only from the type collection, was found along Pinini Creek in the Gulf province. The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.	eng
37618	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It is known from a few scattered localities in an area that is poorly known.	eng
37618	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree that occurs in primary well-drained forest between 60 and 420 m.	eng
37619	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A rainforest tree known only from two collections from East Sepik. The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.	eng
37620	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A small tree, known only from the type collection, found in Buso, south of Lae in the Morobe district.	eng
37621	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The description of this species is based on two herbarium specimens. This tree is found along the Veimauri River, where it is reported to be quite common.	eng
37621	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37622	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, so far known only from two collections taken in the Vogelkop district.	eng
37622	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is reported to be common in young secondary lowland forest.	eng
37623	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are relatively well protected within sanctuaries.	eng
37623	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the trees endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
37623	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large parts of the forest here have been affected by fires, grazing, the incursion of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
37624	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
37624	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
37624	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the margins of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
37624	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
37625	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
37625	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of the Agastyamalai Hills at the southern end of the Western Ghats. The species has been collected only twice.	eng
37625	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
37625	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
37626	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality, the species is endemic to a small area in the Agastyamalai Hills. More information is needed on the status of the species and direct threats to its populations.	eng
37626	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Margin of montane forest.	eng
37626	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although relatively intact, large parts of the forest have been affected by fires, grazing, the increasing incursion of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
37627	distribution	Frodin, D., 1998	Known only from an area near Kuching. It is known from a total of four collections, two of which were recently gathered from the Sumengo Arboretum.	eng
37627	habitat	Frodin, D., 1998	Multi-stemmed tree, sometimes epiphytic.	eng
37627	threats	Frodin, D., 1998	Extremely threatened by urban expansion.	eng
37629	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Coastal semi-dry region around Noumea and Anse Vata in south-east New Caledonia. A lot of urban development has taken place in this region. Anse Vata is a fully developed beach resort area and the species was last collected there in 1925. It was collected in 1926 in the Montravel Reserve. It was introduced into cultivation in the 1860s in the UK, where it became a popular table pot plant. It may still be in cultivation. The specimens from Bourail are most likely to be <em>S. apioidea</em>.	eng
37629	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This tree is restricted to lowland forest below 100 m.	eng
37629	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Urbanization.	eng
37630	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to central and south New Ireland.	eng
37630	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree in ridge-top forest on limestone between 750 and 850 m.	eng
37631	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A sparsley branched tree, known from only a single imperfect collection of no precise locality. It is likely to come from Triton Bay, Fakfak district.	eng
37632	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Santa Isabel, this species is known only from the site where it was first collected.	eng
37632	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Steep hill forest at 700 m.	eng
37633	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type collection on Guadalcanal Island.	eng
37633	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type was found in a riverine community on the debris banks of a deep gorge at 300 m.	eng
37634	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Guadalcanal, known only from the type specimen.	eng
37634	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree was collected at 1,470 m.	eng
37635	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Milne Bay district.	eng
37635	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A many-branched tree, presently known only from areas of secondary or disturbed lowland hill forest.	eng
37637	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, so far known only from the type collection from the Malaita district.	eng
37642	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Guadalcanal; it is known only from the type collection.	eng
37642	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from coastal forest.	eng
37643	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Port Moresby region and Motupore Island. Two trees had been recorded but were not found in 1990.	eng
37643	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grassland-savannah border.	eng
37644	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It is found in the Central and Milne Bay districts of Papua New Guinea and on the islands of Geelvink Bay and on the Vogelkop peninsula of Irian Jaya. It is also found on the Aru Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago (except New Ireland).	eng
37644	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This tree is found scattered in primary rainforest up to 610 m altitude.	eng
37644	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This tree is cut for its bintangor timber and is traded as `Calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea.	eng
37645	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	New Guinea and Morotai Island of the Moluccas.	eng
37645	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree scattered in well-drained forest up to 800 m altitude.	eng
37645	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Papua New Guinea might trade this species as `Calophyllum' timber.	eng
37646	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A large tree found in well-drained lowland or lower montane rainforest.	eng
37648	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Abundant on the Solomon Islands and on Vanuatu.	eng
37648	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A large tree found in well-drained primary forest usually on ridges up to 800 m altitude.	eng
37648	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The wood is used locally to make canoes, houses, bowls and spears.	eng
37649	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	This canopy tree is found in lowland to montane forest up to 1850 m altitude.	eng
37649	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The timber is traded in Papua New Guinea as 'Calophyllum'.	eng
37650	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Found near Kiunga. This species is poorly known and variation is seen in the sterile material.	eng
37650	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A rainforest tree occurring up to 560 m altitude.	eng
37651	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Found in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.	eng
37651	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Possibly dioecious, this tree is found in lowland or colline rainforest; it is found in swampy areas in the Western province and Woodlark Island.	eng
37651	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The wood, which is good for veneer, hardboard and paper, is traded in Papua New Guinea as 'Calophyllum'.	eng
37653	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Endemic to New Guinea, this species is found in the Snow Mountains, Irian Jaya and the Western and Morobe districts of Papua New Guinea. These areas are poorly collected.	eng
37653	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Lowland and hill forest up to an elevation of 500 m.	eng
37665	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
37665	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Known only from Gran Canaria and Tenerife, the species exists in fragmented subpopulations in inaccessible areas.	eng
37665	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Dry woodland.	eng
37666	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Found throughout New Guinea mainland except for the Vogelkop Peninsula.	eng
37666	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree of montane forest, usually lower montane forest.  This species is possibly dioecious.	eng
37666	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	The timber is likely to be traded as 'Calophyllum' in Papua New Guinea. The green wood is also utilized as fuel.	eng
37667	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Indo-China and northern Thailand, this species occurs as a shrub or small tree, widely scattered in rocky or sandy places near streams. In Malaysia, it is found as a larger tree in swamp or riverine forest below 50 m.	eng
37667	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Probably cut as bintangor timber	eng
37669	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in protected areas and regional legislation.	eng
37669	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Laurisilva in Madeira is now said to be increasing in extent.	eng
37669	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	An uncommon species of laurisilva and, at higher altitudes, cloud forest.	eng
37669	threats	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Past exploitation of its habitat has resulted in the reduction and fragmentation of populations. Areas close to habitations are still under the threat of fire.	eng
37671	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is listed in government legislation of 1991.	eng
37671	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species known from Tenerife, Gomera and Hierro.	eng
37671	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in areas of woodland from low to medium elevation.	eng
37672	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A tree of savannah woodland, riverine gallery forest and sometimes secondary forest up to 200 m altitude.  A slightly different form from the Moluccas and northern New Guinea is found in rainforest up to 650 m altitude.  The taxonomic limits of this species are unclear.	eng
37672	threats	Stevens, P.F., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, trees are cut to make canoes.	eng
37673	conservation	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is listed in government legislature of 1991.	eng
37673	distribution	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to the Canary Islands, populations are found on all the main islands except for Lanzarote. The extent of its known occurrence appears to be expanding.	eng
37673	habitat	Bañares, A. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or small tree, locally common in scrub on steep cliffs and in rocky areas.	eng
37677	conservation	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The Cordoba Botanic Garden is carrying out work on the wild populations in order to determine their status and to establish the species in cultivation.	eng
37677	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species occurring within a restricted area of the Sierras de Algeciras in the south of Spain. It is possibly also found in Portugal.	eng
37677	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Largely confined to forest patches in humid ravines and inaccessible places.	eng
37677	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Of the various threats to the remaining plants, fire appears to be the most significant.	eng
37678	distribution	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species represents a relict component of a Tertiary ecosystem which has retreated with the drying of the climate. Remaining populations are isolated	eng
37678	habitat	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Widely scattered in moist forest enclaves in the Iberian Peninsula and in humid ravines in the north of the Rif Mts. in Morocco.	eng
37678	threats	Vivero, J.L. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Threatened with fire, overcutting and forest management activities, as well as a decline in the availability of water.	eng
37679	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species extends along the west coast from near Itampolo in the south-west to Soalala in the north-west.	eng
37679	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in spiny and dry forest.	eng
37679	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This wide distribution ensures the species is conservationally secure, although populations north of Toliara are threatened with destruction for charcoal production. There has been considerable population declines in the past because of the dramatic rate of habitat loss. The long generation time of baobabs makes them more vulnerable.	eng
37680	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Andohahela and the Mandrare River in the south-west through southern and western Madagascar to the Boina region and the Sambirano River basin. It is less abundant and restricted to riverine areas in the north-west.	eng
37680	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of dry or spiny forest, savannahs and scrubland.	eng
37680	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The abundance and the wide range of the species ensures that it is relatively safe. However, several subpopulations are threatened with forest clearance and, given the long generation time of the baobab and the dramatic habitat loss that has occurred in the past, the species may be more vulnerable.	eng
37681	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species extends from Antsiranana to the Sambirano region and perhaps Soalala. Occurrences in the south-east of the country appear to be  Adansonia za.	eng
37681	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dry or moist forest.	eng
37681	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little is known of the conservation status but the clearance of the habitat has been extensive in places.	eng
37682	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type specimen collected from Ulu Balleh in the Kapit district.	eng
37682	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37683	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A generally uncommon tree, though locally abundant in places.	eng
37683	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 600 m.	eng
37684	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from its type locality in Bengkoka in the Kudat district.	eng
37684	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of open secondary vegetation at the edge of a steep gully.	eng
37685	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection from Bengkoka in the Kudat district.	eng
37685	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in secondary lowland forest at an altitude of 50 m.	eng
37686	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is highly localised and known only from Kuala Penyu in south-west Sabah and the Niah area of north-east Sarawak.	eng
37686	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in lowland secondary or disturbed mixed dipterocarp forest on sandy soils.	eng
37687	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This monotypic genus is found in Borneo, Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
37687	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to all types of peat-swamp forest. Larger trees occur in the wetter swamp forests.	eng
37691	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been made from two sites in Haiti and two from the Dominican Republic. There are also unconfirmed reports of an occurrence in Puerto Rico.	eng
37691	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of forest on rocky limestone hills up to 400 m.	eng
37691	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The timber is exploited locally but the destruction of the habitat is the main cause of concern.	eng
37693	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from two collections,  in Gunung Lambir and Gunung Raya.	eng
37693	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37694	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak.  So far collections are known from Kapit, Lubok Antu, Gunung Penrissen and Simanggang.	eng
37694	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small uncommon tree occurs in lowland to low submontane forest.	eng
37695	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from few collections. Occurrences have been recorded in Tabasco, from Lake Izabal and the Subin River in Guatemala and from an unknown locality in Belize.	eng
37696	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is scattered in several localities in Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
37696	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in remnants of lowland forest.	eng
37697	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently a Peruvian endemic, although there are, as yet, unconfirmed reports of the species occurring in Panama, in Cocha Cashu in Madre de Dios, from the area of the Yurimagunas in Loreto and from Tarapoto in San Martin.	eng
37697	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been recorded from lowland rainforest, sometimes periodically flooded.	eng
37698	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Windward Islands in the Caribbean. A single population is recorded on each of Dominica, Martinique, St Lucia and Guadeloupe, where the exact locality of the species is unknown.	eng
37698	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in lowland rainforest up to 600 m.	eng
37698	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Little rainforest remains on Martinique.	eng
37699	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Massif de la Hotte in Haiti and in Maricao Insular Forest in Puerto Rico.	eng
37699	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Populations have been recorded in forest over limestone at about 1,200 m.	eng
37700	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At present only three sites are recorded, one in Izabal in Guatemala and the other two in the Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region between Oaxaca and Veracruz States in Mexico.	eng
37700	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland evergreen forest, occurring in damp valleys and along streamsides.	eng
37701	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The variety is known only from Bukit Hampuan in Ranau district, in Sabah, and from scattered populations in the 3rd, 4th and 5th districts in Sarawak. It is also found in Brunei.	eng
37701	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in lowland to submontane forest.	eng
37702	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from Kalimantan and from a single collection from Sabah.	eng
37702	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to coastal mixed swamp forest.	eng
37703	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak, this small tree has only been collected once in the Nyabau catchment area, Bintulu.	eng
37703	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37704	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection. This tree was found in Sabal Forest Reserve.	eng
37704	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Hill forest at an altitude of 360 m.	eng
37705	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known from only four collections, two from Kapit in Sarawak and two from Ranau in Sabah.	eng
37705	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare emergent tree of lowland hill forest.	eng
37706	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collected from Ulu Balleh of Kapit. Another collection from Sabah might also be identified as this species.	eng
37706	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37707	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is uncommon in Sarawak, where it has been collected only once on Ulu Sg. Maria, Lawas.	eng
37707	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ridge top at 1,400 m.	eng
37708	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type, this small tree was found near the Pamerario River at Bario in the Kelabit Highlands.	eng
37708	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Old secondary forest.	eng
37709	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rarely occurring, known only from a few collections from Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
37709	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tree of lowland and hill forest.	eng
37710	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded in just two isolated sites: one in Heredia in Costa Rica and the other from the Santa Rita Ridge in Panama.	eng
37710	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to lowland and submontane rainforest.	eng
37711	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak. So far it is known only from Sg. Jelalong, Selampit, Balingian, Mulu National Park and Lambir National Park.	eng
37711	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is scattered in mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1,600 m.	eng
37712	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is common in the threatened swamp forests of Sarawak.	eng
37712	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
37712	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat has been licensed for timber extraction by the year 2000. The wood is cut for kedondong timber; small amounts of <em>Santiria</em> timber are exported to Japan.	eng
37713	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak, this variety is known from only two collections from the Lambir National Park.	eng
37713	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It was found in mixed dipterocarp forest on ridges at 250 m.	eng
37714	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is endemic to Sarawak. It is known only from two collections, from the Miri and Sabel Forest Reserve.	eng
37714	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tree of lowland forest up to 120 m.	eng
37716	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed from central Costa Rica to central Panama. Collections have been made from Cartago, Puntarenas and San José Provinces in Costa Rica and Coclé, Colón and Barro Colorado Island in Panama.	eng
37716	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland evergreen forest and seasonal semi-evergreen forest up to 600 m.	eng
37717	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in two main areas: one in Panama in adjacent Colón and Panamá Provinces, the other in Colombia on the Pacific side in Norte de Santander and Valle.	eng
37717	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from sea level to 2,000 m, the species occurs in wet rainforest.	eng
37718	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information on this species may not be complete. Collections have been made from the provinces of Chiriquí and the Canal Zone. There is a possibly erroneous record from Costa Rica in the Flora of Panama checklist.	eng
37718	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Remaining areas of wet lowland forest.	eng
37719	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A buttressed tree, newly described as a species. It is confined to two main areas, in Chontales, Nicaragua, and in Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica.	eng
37719	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas are near sea level in lowland rainforest.	eng
37720	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from scattered collections from the south of Panama in Darién Province and from single sites in Amazonian Ecuador and Colombia.	eng
37720	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
37721	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from Guatemala to Nicaragua.	eng
37721	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in well-drained Atlantic forest near sea level.	eng
37722	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only certain occurrences of this tree are recorded in Petén in Guatemala and adjacent parts of Belize.	eng
37722	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in seasonal semi-evergreen forest over limestone in sites up to 800 m.	eng
37723	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern Borneo and the Philippines. It is widely distributed in Sarawak, but restricted to Mt. Kinabalu National Park in Sabah.	eng
37723	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in hill and montane forest.	eng
37724	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It has been recorded in Santa Rosa, Braulio Carillo and Santa Ana National Parks in Costa Rica.	eng
37724	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species mainly known from Costa Rica, but also occurring in Coclé in Panama.	eng
37724	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in semi-deciduous forest and in association with oak, ascending to 1,100 m.	eng
37725	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah, the species has been collected only once from Ranau and once from Sandakan.	eng
37725	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37725	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is threatened by the large-scale clearance of the forest.	eng
37726	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known only from the type collection found in Limbang.	eng
37726	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37727	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally abundant in Bako National Park.	eng
37727	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is found in heath forest.	eng
37729	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded from a number of sites in Alajuela in Costa Rica and Coclé, Colón and Panamá provinces in Panama.	eng
37729	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane or cloud forest species.	eng
37730	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from Nabawan, Tawau and Sandakan.	eng
37730	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree, occurring infrequently in lowland swamp and hill forest.	eng
37731	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widely occurring species of the Atlantic slopes of Brazil from Espírito Santo to Santa Catarina and Paraná.	eng
37731	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in rainforest up to 1,000 m and also in periodically flooded forest.	eng
37734	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on a plateau in Belaga, this small tree is known only from a single collection.	eng
37734	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in kerangas forest.	eng
37735	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree locally abundant on Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah. In Sarawak, it is known only from a single collection found in the Lambir National Park.	eng
37735	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows in kerangas and montane forest up to an altitude of 2,400 m.	eng
37736	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from five collections.	eng
37736	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon small tree is found in mixed dipterocarp forest and kerangas forest, usually growing near streams, up to 500 m.	eng
37737	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sarawak, this variety is so far known from only two specimens, one collected from Bukit Panjo of Lundu and the other from Lubok Antu.	eng
37737	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland and hill forest.	eng
37738	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A variety known from the type collection only.	eng
37739	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon shrub or small tree is known only from Lanas, Keningau.	eng
37739	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest.	eng
37741	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah, known only from the type specimen collected from Kinabatangan.	eng
37741	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland and seasonal swamp forest.	eng
37742	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Sarawak, that has been collected only once.	eng
37742	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland forest near streams.	eng
37744	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is endemic to Sabah.	eng
37744	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This large tree is locally common on ultramafic soils up to 1,200 m.	eng
37746	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree, endemic to Sabah s known only from Lanad Datu, Sandakan and Tawau.	eng
37746	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in lowland forest and in forest along streams.	eng
37748	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	To date this small tree is known only from Sandakan and Mostyn of Sabah.	eng
37748	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to primary mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is known only from Luzon in the Philippines and from Miri in Sarawak.	eng
37749	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grows in mixed dipterocarp forest at 75 m.	eng
37751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
37751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Small tree or shrub from upper montane forest between the altitudes of 2,500 and 3,000 m.	eng
37753	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two collections are known from Gunong Api in the Gunong Mulu National Park.	eng
37753	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The shrub up to 1 m high, is found on exposed ridges and cliff faces of limestone.	eng
37754	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Probably endemic, recorded only from Mt. Tambuyukon	eng
37754	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very small tree or shrub in stunted subalpine vegetation on ultramafic soils at an elevation of 2,500 m.	eng
37756	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree restricted to Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
37756	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in primary forest between 1,200 and 2,000 m.	eng
37758	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection found in the Ulu Segama Forest Reserve.	eng
37758	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37759	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the Mamut Copper Mine and the Mesilau area in Kundasang, Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
37759	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp and submontane forest.	eng
37760	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This uncommon tree is known only from the type specimen, which was collected in Mendalom Forest Reserve.	eng
37760	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37763	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Bukit Ampuan area in Ranau.	eng
37763	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in hill forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
37766	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah, this small tree of hill forest seems to be restricted to Mt. Silam in Lahad Datau District.	eng
37768	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to west Borneo. It is restricted to the 1st Division of Sarawak and Kalimantan.	eng
37768	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
37769	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found occasionally in Sabah and Sarawak.	eng
37769	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest, occurring up to 1,200 m.	eng
37772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known only from three localities; Bukit Pa'it and Bukit Bra'ang in Kuching District and Bukit Mentagai in Baram District.	eng
37772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the rocky limestone slopes between 150 and 300 m.	eng
37773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type locality, this variety is found on limestone near the Bidi Cave, Kuching.	eng
37775	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree known only from Mount Pueh.	eng
37776	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Kuching district, this small lowland tree is known from only 4 collections.	eng
37776	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in primary kerangas forest and secondary forest.	eng
37778	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or tree is endemic to Sabah.	eng
37778	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to forest between 22,50 and 2,400 m.	eng
37779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree endemic to Sabah.	eng
37779	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is restricted to forest between the altitudes of 1,500 and 2,400 m.	eng
37780	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah.	eng
37780	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrub or tree occurs in primary montane forest between 1,200 and 2,600 m, descending occasionally to as low as 180 m.	eng
37781	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Shoots of this species have been successfully rooted in culture and weaned in a hydroponic system so that plants can be repatriated back to the Seychelles for planting back in the wild (<em>Kew Scientist</em> 29: 5 (April 2006)). Prior to this breakthrough the slow growth and poor rooting of cuttings had limited <em>ex situ</em> micro-propagation.	eng
37781	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The jellyfish tree comes from a monospecific family endemic to the Seychelles. The species is confined to Mahé Island, where it is found at Bernica, Mt. Sebert, Copolia and Mt. Jasmin.	eng
37781	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Grows in rocky fissures on massive granitic outcrops.	eng
37781	population	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Occurs as scattered individuals or in small groups.	eng
37781	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The seeds appear unable to germinate in the wild. It has been suggested that the species requires more humid conditions than are found in the vegetated rocky fissures where it is growing.	eng
37782	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah. Often this species is solitary or in small subpopulations.	eng
37782	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rather uncommon tree or shrub is found in the understorey of lowland forest, usually on slopes and ridges of low hills.	eng
37784	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Sabah. It is located in the foothills and low mountainous regions of Kota Marudu, Ranau and Tambunan districts and on the offshore islands of Pulau Banggi and Pulau Bohayan.	eng
37784	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in primary and secondary inland forest up to an elevation of 1,300 m.	eng
37785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in Peninsular Malaysia and throughout Borneo.	eng
37785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree of primary mixed dipterocarp forest, reaching up to 90 m in height,	eng
37786	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known only from around Sandakan and Lahad Datu. Subpopulations in localities to the south of Telupid have most probably disappeared.	eng
37786	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This enormous tree, sometimes reaching heights of 90 m, is found on ultramafic soils.	eng
37790	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Sarawak, the species is only known from a single collection from Belaga.	eng
37790	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An uncommon tree restricted to lowland primary forest.	eng
37792	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Aldabran Islands are under protection within a Strict Nature Reserve and only Picard is inhabited with a research station.	eng
37792	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on the islands of Malabar, Polymnie, Picard, Grande Terre, Michel,  Assumption and Menai.	eng
37792	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A frequent constituent of inland mixed scrub.	eng
37792	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of Assumption have been disturbed by strip mining for phosphate or guano.	eng
37793	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only by the type specimen in Ulu Balleh, Kapit.	eng
37793	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest at 500 m.	eng
37794	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Aldabra is protected as a Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
37794	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs on most of the islands making up Aldabra, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove.	eng
37794	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub, it is a constituent of inland mixed scrub.	eng
37794	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Assumption has experienced strip-mining for phosphate or guano and the other islands have been cleared to some degree for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.	eng
37795	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The islands of Aldabra are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
37795	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found on most of the islands in Aldabra, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove. The species is found on the African mainland.	eng
37795	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A frequent constituent of mixed scrub.	eng
37795	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees are frequently infested by woolly coccids. Strip-mining for phosphate or guano has taken place on Assumption and areas of Cosmoledo and Astove have been cleared and planted with coconuts and <em>Casuarina</em>.	eng
37796	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Aldabran Islands are under protection within a Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
37796	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree or shrub on the islands of Malabar, Polymnie, Picard, Grand Terre, Assumption, Cosmoledo and Astove.	eng
37796	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inland scrub communities.	eng
37796	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some disturbance has occurred on Assumption because of strip-mining for phosphate or guano, and on Cosmoledo and Astove, where areas have been cleared for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.	eng
37797	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Aldabras are protected within a Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
37797	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or shrub is found on most of the Aldabran islands and also Menai and Astove.	eng
37797	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in inland scrub.	eng
37797	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Areas of Cosmoledo and Astove have been cleared for the establishment of coconut and <em>Casuarina</em> plantations.	eng
37798	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	El Salvador. More information is required on the population status in Guatemala.	eng
37798	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to cloud forest, where it ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 m.	eng
37798	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threats are posed mainly by fires and tourism.	eng
37799	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to El Salvador, the species occurs in Chalatenango, Los Esesmiles and in the east of la Palma.	eng
37799	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is found in montane pine-oak forest.	eng
37799	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Widely exposed to threats of logging, agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
37800	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are restrictions on threats in the national park.	eng
37800	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Chalatenango and El Imposible National Park.	eng
37800	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is scattered in forest areas up to 1,200 m.	eng
37800	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main threats to the subpopulations are posed by habitat loss through logging, forest management activities and the spread of agriculture.	eng
37801	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally the species was thought to be restricted to central Panama, including Altos de Campana National Park. Recent reports indicate that the species occurs in Bocas del Toro and La Amistad National Park on the border with Costa Rica.	eng
37801	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Rainforest along rivers and lakesides.	eng
37801	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurrences are uncommon and outside protected areas populations are severely threatened by habitat loss.	eng
37802	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in Darién National Park.	eng
37802	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from the Gulf Region of Mexico to Colombia. the species is reported to be most common in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In Panama small populations have been recorded from the provinces of Panamá and Darién. The Colombian population appears to be confined to Antioquia.	eng
37802	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37802	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Throughout the species range the habitat has been extensively cleared for agriculture, settlement and its timber resources.	eng
37803	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Ranging from Mexico probably to Colombia, the species is widely occurring and frequent in some areas.	eng
37803	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It is found in semi-deciduous forest and woodland up to 1,600 m, sometimes occurring in cloud forest or swamp forest.	eng
37803	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Although the habitat is declining in much of its range and some populations are considered threatened at a national level, the species is not threatened at a global level.	eng
37804	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring mainly on the Atlantic side of Panama, and on the Pacific coast in Colombia. There are also reports of occurrences in Costa Rica. None of the populations appears to be large.	eng
37804	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is scattered in areas of evergreen rainforest up to about 1,200 m.	eng
37804	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Occur in areas which are largely unprotected and prone to logging.	eng
37805	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	There is an unconsolidated report that the species has been found in Panama. Otherwise subpopulations are confined to Chocó, Córdoba, Valle del Cauca and other parts of Colombia and also Ecuador. Population numbers do not appear to be large.	eng
37805	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in forest types of varying humidity.	eng
37805	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Much of the habitat is under threat from increasing settlement, logging and agriculture.	eng
37806	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Costa Rica several collections have been made in Burica, Puntarenas, near the Panama border. In Panama collections have come from the Atlantic slopes through the length of the country to Colombia, into which it possibly extends.	eng
37806	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest species.	eng
37806	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Subpopulations are small and under pressure from increasing land settlement, logging and agriculture, particularly banana plantations.	eng
37807	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Scattered as isolated individuals.  It is recorded from Alajuela and Guanacaste in Costa Rica, from Bocas del Toro to Darién in Panama, being present in larger numbers in the Canal area and Barro Colorado Island, and from Urabá and other areas of Colombia. No information is available on its distribution in Venezuela.	eng
37807	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is distributed in lowland evergreen to semi-evergreen rainforest, preferring humid or swampy zones.	eng
37807	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Throughout the range the habitat is affected by the growing human population, agricultural activities and logging.	eng
37808	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is rarely collected and, so far, known only from eastern Vanua Levu and a site in Taveuni.	eng
37808	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which occurs infrequently in dense forest between 400 and 820 m.	eng
37809	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently this shrub or small tree is endemic to Fiji, on the two largest islands and Ovaluau.	eng
37809	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from dense forest in rocky places up to 1,130 m.	eng
37810	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively widely occurring endemic to Fiji.  Found on 6 islands, it is probably found on other high Fijian islands.	eng
37810	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring as a shrub or tree to 8 m, the species is found in various habitat types from sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
37811	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Only the Panamanian subpopulation is contained within a protected area.	eng
37811	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama, the species has been collected only from San Blas, very close to the border with Colombia. There are reported to be a few dispersed individuals, including a very few adult trees. The species' range in Colombia is restricted to a small area in Antioquia.	eng
37811	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous rainforest along river banks.	eng
37812	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Collections have been made only in Darién, the type collection coming from Darién National Park.	eng
37813	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Found in three provinces in the east of Panama, including Chiriquí near the border with Costa Rica.	eng
37813	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs principally as a shrub, in areas of semi-deciduous rainforest up to 1,100 m.	eng
37813	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The habitat is declining under increasing human activities, logging, agriculture and farming.	eng
37814	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A common species of forest habitats, occurring from sea level to 1,500 m.	eng
37814	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	It provides various useful products, including a commercial timber.	eng
37815	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	A number of populations here are in reserves of various kinds.	eng
37815	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A few collections have recently been made between 1,800 and 2,000 m on the Cordillera de Talamanca, mostly within La Amistad National Park, Costa Rica. Elsewhere the species is known from Panama in the Cordillera Central in Coclé towards the west.	eng
37815	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Cloud forest above 800 m.	eng
37815	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Where no protection exists the habitat is susceptible to clearance and conversion into agriculture.	eng
37816	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Panama the species is known solely from the type collection from the Valle de Antón, in Coclé. The area has since been relatively well explored but no more specimens have been reported. A record of the species has now been made in Amazonian Peru.	eng
37817	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The variety <em>Pithecellobium rufescens</em> var. <em>vallense</em>, is known from just four collections taken from the Valle de Antón, in Coclé in Panama, has been included within this species.	eng
37818	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found only in the vicinity of Libreville.  It is possible, with further exploration, that the species may be found to be more widespread.	eng
37818	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Logging has taken place in the area and nearly all the remaining forest is concessioned off to logging companies.	eng
37819	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a small area near Lastoursville.	eng
37819	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small forest tree.	eng
37819	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is under exploitation and there is a serious likelihood that the species' habitat is already lost.	eng
37821	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A beautiful ornamental shrub, which became extinct in 1984 during the construction of a dam and the flooding of its only known locality in the wild at Feitsui. For several centuries it has been in cultivation and is widely planted in gardens around the country.	eng
37822	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Two small subpopulations are known to exist on Chiben Mt. in the south.	eng
37822	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Trees are scattered sparsely in mixed forest between 1,800 and 2,100 m.	eng
37822	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Regeneration is noted to be poor and no conservation or protection measures are in place.	eng
37823	conservation	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The area is partially protected as a national park.	eng
37823	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	A relict species confined to a small area in the Yangmingshan area, northern Taiwan.	eng
37823	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Broadleaved evergreen forest.	eng
37824	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Although the species is widely scattered throughout the island, populations are mostly isolated.	eng
37824	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Low to medium elevation forest.	eng
37824	threats	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Heavy exploitation for the medicinal extract that can be obtained from the leaves and bark. Establishment of industrial plantations and increasing land settlement have also had an extensive impact on the habitat.	eng
37826	distribution	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	Endemic to Taiwan in a small area to the east around Tienshiang.	eng
37826	habitat	Lu, S.Y. & Pan, F.J., 1998	The species occurs in lowland forest.	eng
37827	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The populations in China are confined to south and west Yunnan and are steadily being reduced. The distribution in Viet Nam is not known.	eng
37827	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small composite tree scattered in hot dry valleys.	eng
37827	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Local exploitation of the wood for fuel and the bark for medicine (China)	eng
37828	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Subpopulations across part of its range are found at Man and Horse Cliffs and Mt Vesey, both sites are within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9, however, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species	eng
37828	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Cronk (2000) records it as growing at: Horse Point (one plant – now surrounded by Gumwoods within the Millennium Forest), Flagstaff Hill, Bank’s Valley, Pipe Ridge, The Barn, Cliffs, Turk’s Cap (in 1986 there were 10 on the lower slope of the southern side and by 1995 there were 100), Prosperous Bay House, Boxwood Hill, Long Range, Great Stone Top, Deep Valley (about 50 plants on the eastern side of the cliffs viewable from Rock Rose), nr Powells Valley Battery, Partridge Rock, Sandy Bay Barn, Cole’s Rock, Lot, Peak Gut waterfall (cliffs), Distant Cottage, Great Hollow, Asses Ears, Devil Hole Cap, cliffs from Manati Bay to Man and Horse (where it was seen spreading well in 1995), High Hill and Horse Pasture.  Population monitoring has been carried out by staff of the Environmental Conservation Section between 1995 – 2001.  The estimated population size is 5,000.	eng
37828	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	<em>C. rugosum</em> occupies a wide range of habitats: steep coastal cliffs, deep gorges and dry anthropogenic eroded wastelands known as the Crown Wastes. This species has spread  from the Crown Wastes since the removal of goats (although continued vigilance is needed to ensure that goats and donkeys do not again become established on the Crown Wastes).  <em> C. rugosum</em> is able to tolerate severe drought once established, and can grow in very poor eroded and saline soils occupied by <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>.  It is a good condenser of fog, and the fallen leaves trapped under its canopy add useful humus to the eroded saline soils on which it grows.  It is even able to germinate amongst the carpet forming <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> through which it subsequently grows and eventually shades out.  Scrubwoods can be found in flower most of the year, except in drought. Seed set is good.	eng
37828	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Most subpopulations are very small and restricted geographically, making them vulnerable to intrinsic and stochastic events.  Threats to this species also include poor levels of recruitment at sites and seed predation by moth larvae.	eng
37830	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent and protected forests of these states, the species is conserved.	eng
37830	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Predominantly found in the states of Kedah, Perak, Pahang, Terengganu and Johor.	eng
37830	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A widely distributed species, occurring within lowland to montane forest areas.	eng
37831	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A rare tree known only from Penang, Perak and the east coast from Terengganu to Johore.	eng
37831	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Grows in lowland rainforest.	eng
37832	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Widespread within Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
37832	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
37833	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	An uncommon tree in Fraser's Hill and the Genting Highlands.	eng
37833	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Lowland and hill forest.	eng
37833	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Both areas are threatened by the encroachment of settlements and tourism.	eng
37834	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	West coast from Perak to Johore.	eng
37834	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Confined to lowland moist forest.	eng
37834	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This tree is threatened by urban encroachment and habitat felling.	eng
37835	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known from a single collection, this tree was found on Gunung Bubu, Perak.	eng
37835	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
37836	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Perak, Selangor, Trennganu and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia. A single collection has been made from near Belaga, Sarawak.	eng
37836	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A species of seasonal lowland and montane forest with a single collection from mixed dipterocarp forest (Sarawak).	eng
37837	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This tree is known only from Lanit Hills, Perak.	eng
37837	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Scattered in lowland and hill open forest.	eng
37837	threats	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Threatened by tourism and expanding settlements.	eng
37838	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Usually occurring on the coastal hills of Penang, Perak and Pahang.	eng
37838	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A tree found scattered within open forest.	eng
37839	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Known only from Bubu Forest Reserve in Perak and Bukit Bauk Forest Reserve in Terengganu.	eng
37839	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A scattered tree of lowland and hill forest.	eng
37840	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves where the species is found, it has a conserved status.	eng
37840	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is widely distributed among the lowland forests of Malaya, with the exception of Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan.	eng
37841	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within permanent forest reserves this species is conserved.	eng
37841	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Species is widely distributed throughout lowland areas of Malaysia.	eng
37841	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Timber is traded on a local and national level.	eng
37842	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A variety confined to north-west Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
37842	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Scattered in lowland moist forest.	eng
37843	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This variety is confined to Johore.	eng
37843	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	A shrub or small tree (18 m high) found on the edges of lowland rainforest and in swamps.	eng
37844	distribution	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	Confined to Aceh, Sumatra.	eng
37844	habitat	Chung, R.C.K., 1998	This variety occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
37845	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Conservation of the species occurs in permanent forest reserves.	eng
37845	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in most Malaysian states.	eng
37845	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Scattered in lowland, hill and montane primary forests.	eng
37846	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to Pulau Tioman. Only two collections have been made.	eng
37846	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland forest tree.	eng
37846	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The island is being developed into a resort and the chances of the conserving the species are remote.	eng
37847	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of these areas the species is conserved.	eng
37847	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in Penang, Selangor, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor	eng
37847	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A scattered lowland and hill forest species.	eng
37847	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Felling activities outside of conservation zones are a threat to the species, with the harvested timber being traded on a local and national level.	eng
37848	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of Kedah, Perak and Pahang, conservation measures are in place.	eng
37848	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found in the states of Kedah, Perak and Pahang.	eng
37848	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland, primary forest species.	eng
37848	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Felling/logging pressures is the primary threat to this species.	eng
37849	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Found at 1,200 m, this tree is known only from Fraser's Hill, Pahang.	eng
37849	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Montane forest.	eng
37849	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	The area is under threat from rapid development as a tourist resort. It is hoped that the species will survive in remnant forest.	eng
37850	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Confined to the south Johore in Pontina and Sg. Sedili, the species has doubtfully survived the conversion of both localities for agricultural use. A population may possibly remain in the Sg. Sedili swamps.	eng
37850	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Swamp forest.	eng
37851	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Distributed from Kunayala Indigenous Reserve in Panama, to Venezuela and Colombia, where the largest subpopulations are found. The Panamanian subpopulation is very restricted and considered to be endangered.	eng
37851	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring in forest from low altitude to 1,500 m.	eng
37852	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Widely distributed from Costa Rica to Bolivia.  In Central America it occurs on both the Atlantic and Pacfic sides, appearing abundant in La Selva, Costa Rica, and in old forest in Bocas del Toro, the Canal area and Darién in Panama. Little information is available on the species in Ecuador and Bolivia. In Peru it is reported to be abundant and in Colombia it is found chiefly in the Chocó.	eng
37852	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
37852	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Habitat declines have occurred throughout the range and the species is rare outside protected areas.	eng
37853	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The entire range is contained within the National Park of Madeira.  Efforts are being made to propagate the species, with limited success.	eng
37853	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Few individuals are known in the wild. A new subpopulation has recently been discovered, but total population numbers do not greatly exceed 30 trees.	eng
37853	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Growing in deep ravines in the laurisilva.	eng
37853	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are still potential threats from fire and grazing. There is no observed natural seed germination, the only regeneration being vegetative.	eng
37854	distribution	Cronk, Q.C.B., 1998	It became extinct in 1870.	eng
37854	habitat	Cronk, Q.C.B., 1998	Formerly a rare shrub or small tree of thickets on the central ridge above 600 m.	eng
37855	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Cuttings were collected from the upper plant on the cliff in 1980 which rooted readily. Approximately 4,000 plants were propagated between 1980 and 1992 and planted out on the island. Planting has been carried out at Pounceys, High Peak Ebony Plain, Casons, Scotland, the Jamestown Public Gardens, and in many other private gardens.   <br/>The Draft Recovery Action Plan for <em>T. ebenus</em> has set out a number of objectives in order to encourage the long-term persistence of the Ebony through coordinated and agreed action between the members of the ANRD, the SNCG and the Species Recovery Group. The specific objectives are: <br/>1. To carry out a programme of propagation and seed collection.  <br/>2. To maintain and expand the established gene banks, at Whites Cottage – Norman Williams Nature Reserve, Pounceys and Scotland and establish a new field gene bank at the Millennium Forest.  <br/>3. To maintain ex-situ stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.	eng
37855	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Once distributed commonly in dry places between 200 and 500 m, especially in northern and western parts of the island. The populations declined sharply in the eighteenth century, principally because of goat grazing, and was thought at one time to be extinct.  In 1980, two low shrubs were discovered near the Asses Ears.  The genus is made up of just three species endemic to St Helena, two of which are extinct in the wild.	eng
37855	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly a small tree up to 4-5 m., now a low shrub.  The only individuals of <em>T. ebenus</em> known to exist in the wild were discovered on a cliff.	eng
37855	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	All existing material in cultivation is derived from two individuals, inbreeding inevitable and potential inbreeding depression. Current plantings dominated by one clone and planted with hybrid supporting problems associated with inbreeding or introgression. The ebony has not yet been properly secured in an ex-situ gene bank where it is isolated from the hybrid.  <br/> <br/>This species was previously burnt in limekilns to produce mortar.  The wood was also used in 19th century for turnery and ornament making and was introduced to British gardens around 1800.	eng
37856	distribution	Cronk, Q.C.B., 1998	Although it is doubtful whether any pure material of this subspecies still exists, its characters are frequently seen in hybrid populations at Peak Dale. The taxon was at one time distributed on the central ridge between 400 and 700 m. There is also a tree of questionable identity found in Deep Valley. The genus consists of four species, all endemic to St Helena.	eng
37857	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Frequently found on ridge tops between 300 and 1,300 m.	eng
37858	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The only known locality is in Mt. Galunggung, where it may have suffered damage from a volcanic eruption in 1982.	eng
37858	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In forest from 1,300 to 1,400 m.	eng
37858	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat is under constant pressure from the activities of surrounding populations.	eng
37859	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is confined to Mt. Willis in central Java.	eng
37859	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest between 1,300 and 1,500 m.	eng
37859	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Strong pressures are exerted by the activities of surrounding populations.	eng
37860	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to the Haggier Mts., Soqotra,  the species occurs very rarely.  The populations are stable. Atlitude of 600–750 m.	eng
37860	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A rare small tree or shrub known from a handful of sites in sheltered submontane woodland. Also recorded by Popov (in 1957) in a limestone gorge, known as the RAF Pass; this locality has not been traced. An attractive tree with large white flowers. It is night-flowering.	eng
37861	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37861	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A fairly common small tree or shrub, occurring in submontane, drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 250–600 m.  <br/> <br/>Leaves provide good livestock fodder, and trees are frequently damaged to obtain them. Often heavily grazed.	eng
37862	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37862	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Deciduous woodland; usually on cliffs. Altitude of 600–1,000 m.  <br/> <br/>The species occurs as a scattered solitary small tree or shrub in dry woodland or shrubland.	eng
37862	threats	Miller, A., 2004	At present populations are under no major threat. But its restricted range makes it vulnerable.	eng
37863	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37863	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Limestone cliffs, boulders and wadi sides. Altitude of 30–650 m.	eng
37865	conservation	Miller, A., 2004	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
37865	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra. Approximately 15 small subpopulations, each of about 10 mature individuals, are known. All subpopoulations are confined to Jebel Saleh on the western side of Abd al Kuri, an island to the west of Soqotra.	eng
37865	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent shrubland (associated with <em>Euphorbia balsamifera</em> and <em>E. schimperi</em>) on rocky slopes; only on Abd al Kuri (J. Saleh). Altitude of 200–350 m. <br/> <br/>This remarkable shrub is endemic to Abd al Kuri and has been described as the most remarkable species of <em>Euphorbia</em> (Lavranos 1971). It is locally common on J Hassala where it grows in sandy soils in open semi-desert shrubland and is not reported from other places on the island.	eng
37866	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37866	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Scattered on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–550(–1,050) m. <br/> <br/>A narrower concept of this species has been adopted here (compared to that of Thulin and Al-Gifri 1998), including all cliff-rooting trees bearing leaves with white-felted undersurfaces. It is found on limestone (and occasionally granite) cliffs in central-northern and central-southern Soqotra and includes. Two, distinct forms can be recognized: those with entire, rather regularly crenate leaves, found in the wadis draining to the south of the island; and those with simple or deeply lobed leaves with irregularly crenate and somewhat sinuate margins from the limestone areas to the northwest of the Haggeher mountains. Trees in Wadi Terubah bearing both entire and simple leaves are possibly the result of hybridsation with <em>B. elongata</em>.  A dwarf, prostrate form of <em>B. popoviana</em> (cf. forms of <em>B. nana</em>) was recently also found on the limestone ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) limestone in the extreme west of Soqotra above Bandar Shu'ub.	eng
37866	threats	Miller, A., 2004	Some <em>Boswellia</em> species are exploited for the resin but none at a commercial level.	eng
37868	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
37868	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Uncommon, in dense montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–1,300 m.  <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) notes that he found it in the valley opening upon the Kadhab [Qadhub] plain . This is presumably Wadi Ayheft and it probably grows at the headwaters of the valley.	eng
37869	conservation	Miller, A., 2004	Trees are planted near settlements as dry season fodder for livestock.  The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
37869	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra, Samha and Abd al Kuri. There is a doubtfully distinct variety which is rare and confined to higher altitudes.	eng
37869	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on Soqotra in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and occasional in drought-deciduous woodland; a common emergent and sometimes form small groves on the desertic plains; also there are small populations on Samha and Abd al Kuri. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>A common emergent over most of the island, sometimes planted, and forming small groves, in places on the plains. It flowers in the hot, dry season and survives severe drought. On Abd al Kuri there is a small but flourishing colony. Here goats do not browse the young plants and trees are found at all stages of growth. The small population on Samha shows no signs of regeneration. On Soqotra low and windswept forms occurring at higher altitudes have been called var. <em>montana</em>.	eng
37870	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. Subpopulations appear to be scattered and relatively rare.	eng
37870	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in succulent shrubland and dry, semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone plateaus; also found but less frequent in montane semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 450–900 m. <br/> <br/>A tree, or rarely a shrub, which is readily distinguished by its pale brown or almost white bark and the glaucous leaves which are clustered at the tips of branches and persist on the tree well into the dry season. It drops its leaves in summer and comes into new leaf only if it rains. Reported to be on the increase in the western Haggeher.	eng
37871	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37871	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	An attractive small tree or shrub which is scattered, occasionally common, in areas of moist submontane woodland, with large bluish flowers and distictive grandular-hairy calyces.	eng
37871	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
37872	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37872	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A local tree of cliffs in ravines on limestone plateaus in the west of Soqotra; less commonly on granite in the Haggeher. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>The attractive sweet-smelling cream flowers emerge before the leaves.	eng
37873	distribution	Miller. A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. <br/> <br/>A species which has been collected only once. The paucity of material available prevents the taxonomy from being consolidated.	eng
37873	habitat	Miller. A., 2004	Rare in semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 450–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>Much rarer than <em>Vernonia cockburniana</em> Balf.f. Far less ecologically tolerant and restricted to the eastern Haggeher where it is found as isolated inviduals.	eng
37874	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A large tree found on flat land and hillsides up to 700 m altitude.	eng
37875	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
37875	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and in places abundant in drought-deciduous woodland and succulent shrubland on both limestone and granite on the escarpments and plateaus; also in patches of woodland by wadis on the inland plains. Altitude of 50–1,100 m.	eng
37875	threats	Miller, A., 2004	The subpopulations are under no immediate threat.	eng
37876	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to evergreen rainforest up to 1,200 m.	eng
37877	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A widespread species fairly common in evergreen to deciduous forest and beach forest up to 400 m.	eng
37877	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Trees are cut for 'penarahan' timber in the Philippines and sometimes in Sabah.	eng
37878	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in New Guinea, New Britain and New Ireland.	eng
37878	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
37878	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The wood is likely to used as 'penarahan' timber.	eng
37880	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In the main part of its range in North and East Africa, the species is fairly abundant. There is an outlying subpopulation in Arabia, restricted to Jebel Iraf on the old North Yemen-South Yemen border.  The species is also thought to be extinct in Eritrea.	eng
37880	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The woodland here is believed to be in good condition, although it may come under threat after the completion of a new road to the area. The tree produces a high-quality gum mastic and damage is frequently incurred from the tapping process. The subpopulations around Nairobi are said to be wiped out from overexploitation.	eng
37881	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Luzon. No recent collections of this species have been made.	eng
37881	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree restricted to the lowlands.	eng
37882	distribution	Miller, A.G., 1998	One of the largest trees in Yemen. It occurs as ancient solitary individuals or in small groups, restricted to the large wadis which dissect the inhospitable limestone plateau of the Hadramaut in South Yemen. Regeneration is lacking in most areas.	eng
37883	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree from a genus of just two species. The natural distribution is thought to be restricted to populations in the region of Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Bari and Nugaal in Somalia and in Hadramaut in South Yemen. It occurs in cultivation elsewhere in East and North Africa and Arabia.	eng
37883	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wild subpopulations are confined to localities along water courses in the semi-desert coastal zone.	eng
37884	distribution	Miller, A.G., 1998	Known only from the Mahra region of South Yemen. Further fieldwork is needed to estimate subpopulation sizes.	eng
37884	habitat	Miller, A.G., 1998	The species is scarce and scattered in a few dry valleys.	eng
37885	conservation	Miller, A.G., 1998	The species is subject to CITES Appendix II controls.	eng
37885	distribution	Miller, A.G., 1998	It has now become scarce, particularly in Saudi Arabia and South Yemen, although it remains common in places in North Yemen.	eng
37885	habitat	Miller, A.G., 1998	A succulent tree, once an important component of the succulent shrubland between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
37886	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree with populations divided between Somalia and Yemen. In the latter country the species is very sparsely scattered along a few wadis near Turbah in the south.	eng
37886	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is restricted to areas of riverine forest and bushland in the northern mountains of Somalia. Trees are often stunted because of browsing.	eng
37886	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The increasing demand for timber and wood is putting remaining populations under some pressure.	eng
37887	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to east Sabah.	eng
37887	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland primary dipterocarp forest.	eng
37888	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from a single collection in Serawai, west Kalimantan.	eng
37888	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Primary dipterocarp forest at 1,200 m.	eng
37889	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a restricted area in south Brunei.	eng
37889	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in mixed dipterocarp forest on ridges between 50 and 350 m.	eng
37890	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in the Sugud Recreation Park, Penampang District.	eng
37890	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree was found on a ridge at 400 m.	eng
37891	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection found south of Tabilong in north Sabah.	eng
37891	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subspecies was found on a hill at 650 m.	eng
37892	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A recently described species known only from the type specimen gathered in the Arfak Mts.	eng
37892	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ridge forest.	eng
37893	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from two collections, one from Sudest Island and the other from Rossel Island.	eng
37893	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in rainforest on ridge crests between 100 and 300 m.	eng
37894	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in the Waskuk Hills, East Sepik Province. Another collection from Irian Jaya might belong to this recently described species.	eng
37894	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This subcanopy tree was found growing on a ridge at approximately 50 m.	eng
37895	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic, occurring in the parishes of Clarendon and Trelawny.	eng
37895	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Moist wooded limestone crags, between 600 and 900 m.	eng
37896	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A very large tree of moist lowland and hill forest .	eng
37896	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The timber is traded internationally, but the greatest threat to the species is from the expansion of settlements.	eng
37897	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is given a degree of protection within the permanent forest estate.	eng
37897	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
37897	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree inhabiting montane and submontane rainforest.	eng
37898	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Protected subpopulations are found within Taman Negara National Park.	eng
37898	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
37898	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A medium-sized tree, distributed in lowland rainforest areas.	eng
37899	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurring in low-lying parts of Manchester and Clarendon Parishes.	eng
37899	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A species of scrub and woodland on arid rocky limestone.	eng
37899	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The woodland has been extensively destroyed in this area since 1980, mainly for the production of charcoal.	eng
37900	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A rare and localised species in Trelawny. A single tree is recorded on Mango Tree Hill, near Spring Garden, in low disturbed woodland.	eng
37900	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occurring on limestone cliffs and ledges.	eng
37901	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Known only from Trelawny, the species occurs very locally.	eng
37901	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Dry scrubby woodland on rocky hillsides.	eng
37901	threats	Kelly, D.L., 1998	There is a constant threat of overcutting and encroaching agriculture.	eng
37902	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Confined to Trelawny, this species has a localised distribution.	eng
37902	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Wooded limestone hilltop.	eng
37903	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A Cockpit Country endemic which is found in Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.	eng
37903	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Woodland on limestone.	eng
37904	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Once known from a restricted area of streamside thicket in Clarendon, the species has not been collected since 1976 and is now presumed extinct. The habitat in the area has been completely cleared.	eng
37905	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Recorded only from Portland Parish.	eng
37905	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A very uncommon small tree or shrub of mossy woodlands on limestone between 450 and 760 m.	eng
37906	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species is known from a single locality in Peckham Woods, Clarendon.	eng
37906	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It occurs on a rocky limestone hilltop at about 760 m.	eng
37907	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Little is known about this species, other than that it was known to occur in the parish of St Ann and has not been recorded or collected since the beginning of the century.	eng
37908	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Occasional distribution in the Blue Mountains.	eng
37908	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A montane woodland species between 1,400 and 1,700 m.	eng
37909	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Recorded from the parishes of Clarendon and St Ann. A locality at Broom Hall in Clarendon was destroyed in 1983/4.	eng
37909	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs in areas of wooded limestone on slopes between 450 and 670 m.	eng
37910	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A rare Cockpit Country endemic, only foin Clarendon and Trelawny Parishes.	eng
37910	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Open woodland on arid limestone between 400 and 760 m.	eng
37911	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	The species occurs locally in St Andrew and St Catherine Parishes.	eng
37911	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	In thickets on limestone.	eng
37912	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	Recorded from Clarendon and St Ann Parishes.	eng
37912	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	This small tree or shrub occurs locally in thickets and open woodland on limestone.	eng
37913	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It is recorded only from the parishes of Clarendon and St Ann.	eng
37913	habitat	Kelly, D.L., 1998	A rare small tree or shrub of exposed craggy sites on limestone.	eng
37914	distribution	Kelly, D.L., 1998	It is known only from the parish of Trelawny from a locality at about 530 m.	eng
37915	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Located on the islands of Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Taveuni.	eng
37915	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A compact shrub or small tree of dry forest, thickets on crests, ridges and exposed places, occurring between 350 and 1,323 m.	eng
37917	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only known from the type collection of 1947, the species was found on summit of Mt. Numbuiloa, east of Lambasa, Vanua Levu.	eng
37917	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Dense thickets on summit ridge.	eng
37918	distribution	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Widely distributed but scattered.	eng
37918	habitat	Nghia, N.H., 1998	This tree occurs in moist lowland forest.	eng
37918	threats	Nghia, N.H., 1998	Its wood is valuable and continues to be exploited illegally.	eng
37921	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Recorded from Raivavae, Tubuai and Rapa Iti in the Tubuai Group and Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Group. The Raivavae subpopulation is in a critical state and the subpopulation on Henderson consists of fewer than 6 adult plants in tall forest on the north-west beach.	eng
37921	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or tree.	eng
37922	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A small genus endemic to East Polynesia. This species is recorded only on Bora Bora.	eng
37923	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A small genus endemic to East Polynesia. This taxon represents one of 2 subspecies. It is confined to Raiatea.	eng
37924	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Only ever known from Taravai in the Gambier Islands.  The genus is endemic to East Polynesia.	eng
37924	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	Occurring as either a shrub or small tree.	eng
37925	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This species comes from a small genus, endemic to East Polynesia. It has been found only on Tahiti.	eng
37926	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the six species in the genus, which is endemic to East Polynesia. It occurs only on Tahiti.	eng
37927	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Rapa Iti.  This species is the least threatened of the 6 species in the genus.	eng
37927	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	Small tree.	eng
37928	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the two species in the genus, both of which are endemic to the Rapa Group.	eng
37928	threats	Florence, J., 1998	Although subpopulations are restricted, they are under no threat.	eng
37929	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the two species in the genus, both of which are endemic to the Rapa Group.	eng
37929	threats	Florence, J., 1998	Although subpopulations are restricted, they are under no threat.	eng
37930	conservation	Florence, J., 1998	This taxon has horticultural potential as an ornamental. At was planted around houses and the flowers used for personal decoration by the people of Raiatea in the 1700s (Sachet 1987).	eng
37930	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This subspecies is a shrub or small tree which occurs on various islands in the Marquesas, Tuamotu and Society Groups. As the subspecies varies from island to island, these different subpopulations have been treated as five varieties. Populations on Moorea, Raiatea, Tahiti, Tetiaroa are apparently now extinct and on other islands they are under some threat.	eng
37930	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	Grows on coral sandy beach crests and 'motu'. Where the habitat is not transformed, the subspecies appears to thrive. The seeds are very hard and long-lived; they germinate readily after scarification and seedlings grow easily and fast (Sachet 1987). The plant can form large groves, with many germinations in the undergrowth, in full sun or in the dappled shade of native strand trees or even under coconut plantations (Sachet 1987).	eng
37930	threats	Florence, J., 1998	Threatened by expanding human settlements on the islands (Sachet 1987). Hurricanes which hit the Society and Tuamotu Islands in 1983 destruopyed the known stands on Tupai and Tikehua Atolls, but some seeds survived and restored the subpopulations. There may be cases where they are wiped out, if sand is completely washed off the atoll or flooding is prolonged (Sachet 1987).	eng
37931	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Only occurring on Rapa Iti, populations are thought to be stable and under no threat.	eng
37932	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Although the species is restricted to Rapa Iti, subpopulations are stable and not thought to be under any threat.	eng
37933	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Rapa Iti, the species is not thought to be under any threat.	eng
37934	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas.	eng
37935	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species, found only on Tahiti.	eng
37936	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. This taxon was once abundant in areas of humid forest and was the main source of wood for early European colonists.	eng
37936	threats	Florence, J., 1998	Overexploitation led to extensive deforestation and the reduction of the taxon to small remnants of its former population.	eng
37937	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. It is known from a small population at Tanga on Rapa Iti.	eng
37938	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. The main population occurs on Moorea. It is also known from Raiatea, where its status is critically endangered.	eng
37939	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of a variable species. It occurs only on Raivavae in the Tubuai Group.	eng
37940	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	This species is endemic to Rapa Iti.	eng
37941	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The genus is made up of the three poorly defined species. This represents the taxon endemic to Tahiti.	eng
37942	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Endemic to Rapa Iti, subpopulations are stable and are under no threat.	eng
37943	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The subspecies occurs on Hiva Oa and Nuku Hiva.	eng
37944	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A species which is only known from Tahiti. Subpopulations are stable and under no threat.	eng
37945	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	One of the numerous varieties of this Polynesian species. It is known only from Ua Pou in the Marquesas.	eng
37945	threats	Florence, J., 1998	An important tree for various uses: a source of fibre, thatch, wood and also a famine food.	eng
37947	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species was described in 1991 from collections originating from Jari. So far only four individuals are known.	eng
37948	distribution	Cavalcanti, T.B., 1998	A species with sparse distribution.  Subpopulations in Atlantic forest have declined extensively, especially in Bahia, as the habitat has been cleared and logged.	eng
37948	habitat	Cavalcanti, T.B., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
37948	threats	Cavalcanti, T.B., 1998	Habitat loss through clearance and logging.	eng
37949	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Known from few collections. The type specimen is from Santa Catarina and it has also been found at Parati in Rio de Janeiro near the border with Sâo Paulo.	eng
37949	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is confined to areas of rainforest on the Atlantic coast.	eng
37950	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A tree or treelet, which occurs infrequently in remaining areas of Atlantic forest.	eng
37950	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37951	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Present information suggests the species is endemic to Rio de Janeiro. It has been found in the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and on Mage.	eng
37952	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
37953	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Restricted to Atlantic coastal forest in the south-east.	eng
37953	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
37953	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species has suffered from extensive reductions in habitat.	eng
37954	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Restricted to Atlantic coastal forest in the south-east.	eng
37954	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Coastal forest.	eng
37954	threats	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species has suffered from extensive reductions in habitat.	eng
37955	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
37956	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rarely occurring species of Atlantic forest. It is recorded from only two states.	eng
37956	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37958	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The species was collected twice in the early part of the 19th century, but since then it has not been found.	eng
37959	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	First described in 1857, the species has only recently been rediscovered from a population in the Poça d'Antas Biological Reserve.	eng
37960	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
37961	distribution	Barroso, G.M., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
37962	distribution	Barroso, G.M., 1998	The main centre of distribution of the genus is in Chile and Argentina. The Brazilian species are localised, 1,000 km further north, in the south-eastern states, where their occurrence is scarce.	eng
37963	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.	eng
37963	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37964	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.	eng
37964	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37965	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.	eng
37965	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37966	distribution	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	A rare species of Brazilian Atlantic forest.	eng
37966	habitat	Pires O'Brien, J., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37973	distribution	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Confined to the states of Sâo Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.	eng
37973	habitat	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37973	threats	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	The species has suffered dramatic habitat loss and has been extensively exploited for its timber.	eng
37974	distribution	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Confined to the slopes of the Serra do Mar.	eng
37974	habitat	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	A species of montane forest.	eng
37975	distribution	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Subpopulations of the species are principally confined to forest on the slopes of the Serra do Mar.	eng
37976	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The distribution of this species is restricted, occurring in Atlantic forest in the south of the state.  The current status of remaining subpopulations is uncertain.	eng
37976	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The habitat appears to have been taken over by commercial crops.	eng
37977	distribution	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Known only from a restricted distribution.	eng
37977	habitat	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37977	threats	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	The species has suffered dramatic habitat declines and levels of exploitation.	eng
37978	distribution	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Endemic to one state in Brazil.	eng
37978	habitat	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	Atlantic forest.	eng
37978	threats	Vaz, A.M.S., 1998	The species has suffered dramatic habitat declines.	eng
37979	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to areas of Atlantic forest in the south of the state.	eng
37980	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Peninsular Malaysia it is apparently restricted to the Kledang Saiong range in Perak. The taxonomy of this genus is in need of revision.	eng
37980	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare shrub to small tree found in lowland rainforest.	eng
37981	distribution	Torres, R.B., 1998	Although the species is geographically widespread, its distribution is discontinuous. Occurrences are rare in Sâo Paulo and questionable in Rio de Janeiro. It has, however, been recently collected from Paraná.	eng
37981	habitat	Torres, R.B., 1998	It is found principally in areas of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, but also in more open areas and pastureland.	eng
37982	distribution	Torres, R.B., 1998	The species is poorly known.	eng
37982	habitat	Torres, R.B., 1998	Collections indicate that it occurs in restinga and other Atlantic forest types.	eng
37983	distribution	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	Although widely distributed in Atlantic forest in the south and south-east of Brazil, the species occurs sparsely and populations are in decline.	eng
37983	threats	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	Extensive habitat loss and degradation.	eng
37984	distribution	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	The species is known from few localities and populations are believed to be small.	eng
37984	habitat	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	Occurring in areas of montane evergreen rainforest.	eng
37985	distribution	Peixoto, A.L., 1998	An Atlantic forest species which is restricted to localities in the Linhares Reserve in Espírito Santo and to forest on Mussununga. The subpopulations are reported to be small.	eng
37986	conservation	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
37986	distribution	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	A frequent species of Atlantic coastal vegetation types in the south and south-east.	eng
37986	habitat	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	Coastal vegetation.	eng
37987	habitat	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	An Atlantic forest species.	eng
37988	habitat	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	A relatively widely ranging species of Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
37989	conservation	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
37989	distribution	Carvalho, L.d'A.F., 1998	The species appears to occur in isolated subpopulations.	eng
37992	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	First described in 1981 from a specimen taken from scrubby vegetation in Santa Izabel, the species is poorly known. Only two additional collections are recorded, from earlier dates, one of unknown origin and the other from Miguel Arcanjo.	eng
37993	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is confined to Thailand and the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
37993	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Inhabits open and closed rainforest below 300 m. It is occasionally found in coastal and limestone forest.	eng
37994	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Known only from the Linares Forest Reserve, the species is extremely rare and has not been collected since 1982.	eng
37995	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Subpopulations have been recorded at Boracéia Biological Station, Salenópolis in Sâo Paulo and Linhares Forest Reserve in Espírito Santo. It was last collected in 1985. Of the three collections from Salenópolis, the most recent dates to 1967.	eng
37996	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Once occurring in Atlantic forest, principally in the state of Rio de Janeiro, the species has been extinct in the wild since 1942. There still exist two individuals in the Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden.	eng
37997	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Restricted to a relatively small range.	eng
37997	habitat	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	The species occurs in remaining areas of Atlantic forest, preferring riverside locations.	eng
37998	conservation	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	It is under some protection in Linhares Forest Reserve.	eng
37998	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Besides the type specimen of 1943 the species is known from two other collections in Ilhéus in Bahia and from Linhares Forest Reserve in Rio de Janeiro.	eng
37999	distribution	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	Appears to be confined to the Vale of Mid Itajaí and Serra do Madador in Santa Catarina.	eng
37999	habitat	Silva, N.M.F., 1998	An Atlantic forest species.	eng
38000	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A monotypic genus, first discovered in 1909 in the northwest of the island (known only from a single plant initially). Attempts to find the species again had failed until a healthy population of about 250 trees was discovered in 1997 in the Anjahanaribe-Sud Special Reserve in the northeast, 150 km from the original locality.	eng
38001	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the state of Perak.	eng
38001	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree of hill rainforest.	eng
38002	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
38003	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Nariño.	eng
38004	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree which is found in three sites. Regeneration is good in at least one of the sites.	eng
38004	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs commonly in secondary forest above 1,300 m.	eng
38005	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only two individuals were found at a single locality in Kegalle district.	eng
38005	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest	eng
38006	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Kedah, Perak, Penang, Pahang and Selangor.	eng
38006	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A variety found in lowland forest.	eng
38007	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in only five forest localities during the extensive forest surveys for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38007	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dry zone tree.	eng
38008	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was found in only two sites: Horton Plains National Park and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.	eng
38009	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree recorded only twice in a single locality in Knuckles State Forest, which covers 300 km², during the extensive forest surveys by the National Conservation Review.	eng
38010	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only one individual was found in a single forest site in Ratnapura District.	eng
38011	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, only five individuals were found in the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
38012	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be fairly common in the Peak Wilderness  wildlife sanctuary.	eng
38012	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species turned up in only two forest localities.	eng
38013	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species only turned up in only four forest localities.	eng
38014	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to the wet zone of Sri Lanka, this species was collected in five forests during the extensive fieldwork carried out for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
38015	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One population occurs in Rammalakanda Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38015	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review located this species in four forest localities in Ratnapura and in a population consisting of five individuals in Rammalakanda Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38015	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet-zone.	eng
38016	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species which was found in only two localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38016	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet zone forest.	eng
38017	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species turned up in only four localities in Kalutara and Ratnapura during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
38018	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Sri Lanka, a recent survey uncovered the species in only three localities. In India, populations are widely scattered over a large altitudinal range in the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38019	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the recent National Conservation Review, this species was discovered in eight of the surveyed forest sites.	eng
38020	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in the Peak Wilderness wildlife sanctuary.	eng
38020	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This rare species turned up in only four forest localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
38021	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species found in only two forest localities during the comprehensive forest surveys conducted for the recent National Conservation Review.	eng
38021	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet zone.	eng
38022	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species which was found in only four wet zone forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38022	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet zone forest.	eng
38023	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in only 10 localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38024	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in only eight localities in the districts of Kurunegala, Badulla and Monarangala during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38025	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review between 1991 and 1996, this species was discovered in only three forest localities.	eng
38026	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species found in only six forest localities in Ratnapura District and in a single locality in Kalutara District during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38027	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in seven forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38028	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species which was found in only three localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38029	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species found in only five localities during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38030	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A rare species found in only two forests during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38030	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Wet zone forests.	eng
38031	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review, this wet zone species was found in only seven of the surveyed sites.	eng
38032	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of lowland and hill rainforest up to 700 m.	eng
38032	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Threatened mainly by the expansion of settlements.	eng
38033	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found in the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johor.	eng
38033	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Occurring in swampy or semi-swampy rainforest.	eng
38033	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree is exploited as timber for major international trade and as a medicine for minor international trade. The greatest threats are increasing settlement and logging activities.	eng
38034	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only six individuals of this species were found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, suggesting it to be either extremely rare or possibly extinct.	eng
38035	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has been found in only six forest sites during the extensive forest surveys conducted for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38036	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.	eng
38036	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently it is restricted to forest in the wet zone.	eng
38037	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only three trees were found in a single proposed reserve in Ratnapura District during the surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38038	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be locally common in Knuckles State Forest.	eng
38038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in three of the sites surveyed by the National Conservation Review.	eng
38040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species was found in only seven of the sites surveyed for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38041	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was recorded only once in Matara district during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species was found in 10 forest localities, mainly in Nuwara Eliya district, during the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review.	eng
38043	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive National Conservation Review forest surveys, this species was recorded  in seven forests.	eng
38044	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in three forest localities including the Peak Wilderness Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
38045	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	During the extensive forest surveys conducted between 1991 and 1996 for the National Conservation Review, this species was found in only one forest locality in Badulla District.	eng
38046	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to western Borneo.	eng
38046	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of primary rainforest and heath forest up to 100 m.	eng
38055	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland species, of primary or old secondary forest up to 400 m altitude.	eng
38056	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to the lowlands of Sarawak.	eng
38057	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to Sarawak up to 500 m.	eng
38059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Borneo.	eng
38059	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree scattered in evergreen, non-inundated rainforest.	eng
38060	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree confined to the lowlands of Brunei and Sarawak.	eng
38062	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is endemic to Sarawak.	eng
38062	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to limestone hills.	eng
38063	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland species endemic to Sarawak.	eng
38064	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to the lowlands of south-west Sarawak.	eng
38065	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland tree endemic to Sarawak.	eng
38066	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree endemic to Sarawak.	eng
38067	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in primary and secondary forest, sometimes in swamp forest, up to 800 m.	eng
38067	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value for making incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.	eng
38068	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	East Kalimantan, the Moluccas and the Philippines.	eng
38068	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of primary forest.	eng
38068	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The fungi-infected heartwood, characteristic of all members of the genus, has high commercial value in the production of incense, perfume and traditional medicine. Numerous trees are cut down, many uninfected, to harvest just a few kilograms of the diseased wood. The increase in levels of trade over the past decade has resulted in overexploitation throughout its range.	eng
38069	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Eucador’s protected areas network, but should be searched for in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
38069	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Restricted to the Andes of south-east Ecuador in Zamora-Chinchipe province. So far it is known only from two localities and one historical record. The species may occur in more inaccessible areas of south-east Ecuador.	eng
38069	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	This small palm tree is scattered in cloud forest and montane open forest (high Andean forest) <br/>between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
38069	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least one of the subpopulations has suffered from a severe reduction in numbers from fire and felling. Habitat destruction due to agricultural activities is also a threat.	eng
38070	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
38070	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Three subpopulations have been reported, apparently restricted to the Papallacta lake district inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, within the Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
38070	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38070	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Possible threats could be the various engineering projects in the area of the Empresa Municipal de Alcantarilla and Agua Potable de Quito.	eng
38071	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38071	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least four collections from the central Andes. The first collection was made between Pomallacta and Alausí, later records were reported from the slopes of Chimborazo and near Ambato.	eng
38071	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
38071	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38072	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Three subpopulations have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
38072	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations confined to the southwestern slopes of the Andes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador.	eng
38072	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree in high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
38072	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38073	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38073	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree endemic to Ecuador. Widely distributed in the northern and central Andes, especially on the western slopes, where 11 of its 12 subpopulations have been reported.	eng
38073	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
38073	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38074	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several collections have been recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
38074	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from several subpopulations confined to the northern Andes, within the provinces of Imbabura, Pichincha and especially Carchi.	eng
38074	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest and high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
38074	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires set by humans and grazing.	eng
38075	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38075	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, within the provinces of Loja and Azuay, Ecuador.  One subpopulation was recorded north of Sevilla de Oro and another 12 km off the Loja-Zamora road, in the property of D. Espinosa.	eng
38075	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38075	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38076	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38076	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in the central Andes. The first collection was recorded on the slopes of Mount Chimborazo. The second collection was recorded in 1937 somewhere on Volcán Tungurahua.	eng
38076	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
38076	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38077	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locale, in the surroundings of Cuicocha lake, is currently protected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
38077	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 12 subpopulations, ten in the southern Andes and two in the northern Andes.  Recorded within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha, Ecuador.	eng
38077	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
38077	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38078	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38078	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four locales in the central and southern Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo and Cañar.	eng
38078	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
38078	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38079	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38079	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four Andean collections, within the Azuay, Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha Provinces, Ecuador.	eng
38079	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38079	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38080	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38080	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations within the Chimborazo, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha Provinces, Ecuador.	eng
38080	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38080	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38081	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38081	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in Azuay province, two of them near Parroquia Baños and one in the southeast of the province. The Baños collections were recorded at the Hacienda Yanasacha and in the Cruz Pambo region; the other collection was made 3 km southeast of Gima on the road to San Miguel de Cuyes.	eng
38081	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest to shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38081	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
38082	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Parque Nacional Cajas	eng
38082	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, one near the border with Colombia and four in the central Andes, between Chimborazo and Azuay provinces. The northern subpopulation was reported on the Tulcán-Maldonado road, near the western slopes of Volcán Chiles. The four central subpopulations were recorded in a small area between Chimborazo, Cañar, and Azuay provinces.	eng
38082	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest (2500–3500 m).	eng
38082	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38083	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two subpopulations are protected inside the Parque Nacional Cajas, and others have been recorded near the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
38083	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andes and known from at least 15 subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces. <br/>.	eng
38083	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, growing by roadsides, trails and in disturbed areas (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
38083	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
38084	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree species endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador.	eng
38085	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38085	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tournefortia ramosissima</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
38085	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
38085	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
38086	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
38086	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Brunellia pauciflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi province.	eng
38086	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean Forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
38086	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
38087	conservation	Tye, A., 2000	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
38089	conservation	Tye, A., 2000	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
38093	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of Ecuador, currently known to occur only in Azuay and Loja. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
38093	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	In areas of montane and upper montane cloud forest.	eng
38094	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of Ecuador, found only in the provinces of Loja and Azuay. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
38094	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	It occurs in montane and upper montane cloud forest.	eng
38095	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An Ecuadorian endemic in the High Andes, known from the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Cotopaxi.	eng
38095	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane and upper montane cloud forest.	eng
38096	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Restricted to the western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes.	eng
38096	habitat	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	This small tree occurs on steep slopes in remnant forest fragments and disturbed areas between 1,550 and 1,770 m. This region was formerly covered in cloud forest.	eng
38097	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Ecuadorian Andes.	eng
38097	habitat	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Found between 1,700 and 1,900 m, this tree is restricted to the upper Amazonian slopes in disturbed areas, roadsides and pastures. This region was formerly covered in montane rainforest.	eng
38098	conservation	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	The area is in a precarious position, threatened by fires and encroachment.	eng
38098	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confined to the 100 ha Jauneche Reserve in Los Ríos Province. Altitude of 50–200 m.	eng
38098	habitat	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small understorey tree of seasonal lowland mixed forest.	eng
38099	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Yasuní National Park. Altitude of 200–250 m.	eng
38099	habitat	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	An understorey tree, known only from non-flooded lowland rainforest.	eng
38100	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic tree of Ecuador in the High Andes.	eng
38100	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inhabiting montane cloud forest, between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
38101	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Provinces.	eng
38101	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree, growing up to 8 m. It inhabits cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m .	eng
38102	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the provinces of Loja, Chimborazo and Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
38102	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small tree of the High Andes, found in areas of montane and upper montane cloud forest between 1,700 and 3,500 m	eng
38103	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Ecuadorian High Andes, known only from Loja and Azuay Provinces.	eng
38103	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small tree of cloud forest between 2,400 and 3,500 m.	eng
38104	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the High Andes in Ecuador, in the provinces of Pichincha, Morona - Santiago, Cañar, Azuay and Loja.	eng
38104	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,000 and 4,000 m.	eng
38105	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This small tree is endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador, currently known only from Azuay Province.	eng
38105	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest, between 2,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
38106	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confined to Azuay Province in the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
38106	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A species of montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
38108	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes. The species can be found in he province of Azuay.	eng
38108	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
38109	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Morona - Santiago, Cañar, Azuay and Zamora - Chinchipe.	eng
38109	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
38110	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador in Azuay Province.	eng
38110	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A small tree, 5-6 m tall, confined to cloud forest at 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
38111	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in Napo and Pichincha Provinces.	eng
38111	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest between 2,500 and 3,500 m.	eng
38112	conservation	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
38112	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from two populations (in Loja province). One was recorded along the Loja-La Toma road, close to Cerro Villonaco, 20 km from Loja; the other was recorded in Saraguro, along the roadside at kilometer 25 of the detour to Buena Vista and Taquil. Previously classified as Vulnerable (Oldfield <em>et al</em>. 1998), but currently considered Endangered due to its geographic range of < 5,000 km².	eng
38112	habitat	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree found in high Andean cloud forest (2,200–2,650 m).	eng
38112	threats	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
38113	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Although widely distributed, the species has not been recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. However, it is expected to be found in the Los Ilinizas, Machalilla and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas, and perhaps in Mache-Chindul and the forested areas of Manglares-Churute.	eng
38113	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 21 subpopulations to the west of the Andes and one disjunct subpopulation on the eastern slopes, near Valladolid and Zamora (Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). The subpopulations on the coast were recorded in dry areas near Cordillera de Chongón y Colonche and on the western Andean slopes.	eng
38113	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in humid and dry coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).	eng
38113	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	There has been massive alteration of the species' habitat over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
38114	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	One subpopulation is occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
38114	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where four subpopulations are known (in Bolívar, Loja and Napo provinces). One is confirmed inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
38114	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in high Andean forest to páramo (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
38114	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The principal threats are fires set by people and forest conversion to pasture.	eng
38115	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
38115	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from seven subpopulations (in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Collected in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa, la Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Maquipucuna private reserve. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, but apparently this has not hampered identification of new specimens.	eng
38115	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet or tree found in Andean cloud forest to humid paramos (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
38115	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
38116	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Two subpopulations are in protected areas: the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, in southern Ecuador; and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua near Quito.	eng
38116	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Two of the five known subpopulations are in protected areas. The others are mostly along roadsides.	eng
38116	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
38116	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
38117	distribution	Bonifaz, C., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Ecuadorean endemic in the province of Azuay.	eng
38117	habitat	Bonifaz, C., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,600 and 2,700 m.	eng
38118	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ecuadorean endemic from Loja Province.	eng
38118	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inhabits montane cloud forest.	eng
38119	distribution	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorean High Andes, currently known to occur in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cañar and Azuay Provinces.	eng
38119	habitat	Romoleroux, K. & Pitman, N., 2004	Tree of cloud forest between 2,750 and 3,500 m	eng
38120	distribution	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Ecuadorian endemic. Currently it is known to occur in the High Andean regions of Morona-Santiago and Loja.	eng
38120	habitat	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,250 and 3,500 m.	eng
38121	distribution	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes, in  Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
38121	habitat	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently known only from an area of montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,700 m.	eng
38122	distribution	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	An Ecuadorean endemic of the High Andean regions in Imbabura, Morona - Santiago and Azuay.	eng
38122	habitat	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	The habitat of this species is cloud forest between 2,260 and 3,450 m.	eng
38123	distribution	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the Ecuadorean High Andes in the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Bolívar and Loja.	eng
38123	habitat	Jaramillo, T., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting areas of cloud forest between 3,200 and 3,290 m .	eng
38124	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This endemic of Ecuador is known to occur in Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
38124	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane cloud forest.	eng
38125	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the High Andean areas of Pichincha, Ecuador.	eng
38125	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A montane cloud forest tree.	eng
38126	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of Ecuador currently known from Chimborazo in the High Andes.	eng
38126	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Upper montane cloud forest.	eng
38127	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic of Ecuador, in Chimborazo Province in the High Andes.	eng
38127	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inhabiting cloud forest at 2,850 m.	eng
38128	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	High Andean regions of Carchi and Pichincha.	eng
38128	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of Ecuador, inhabiting upper montane cloud forest.	eng
38129	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic of the Ecuadorean High Andes, in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe Province.	eng
38129	habitat	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently known to occur in areas of cloud forest between 2,300 and 3,400 m.	eng
38130	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in the High Andean areas of Imbabura.	eng
38130	habitat	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently known to inhabit montane cloud forest. Altitude of 2,400–3,100 m.	eng
38131	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	This tree is endemic to the High Andes of Ecuador. Currently known from Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja.	eng
38131	habitat	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabits cloud forest between 2,700 m and 3,400 m.	eng
38132	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Found in the Ecuadorean High Andes; currently only known to occur in Cañar and Azuay Provinces.	eng
38132	habitat	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A cloud forest tree. Altitude of 2,250–3,000 m.	eng
38133	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	An Ecuadorean endemic in the High Andean areas of Bolívar.	eng
38133	habitat	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabiting cloud forest at an altitude of 1,400–2,600 m.	eng
38134	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
38134	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree of montane and upper montane cloud forest. Altitude of 1,800–3,200 m.	eng
38135	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes.	eng
38135	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forest between 2,000 and 4,000 m.	eng
38136	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An endemic tree of Ecuador, in Cotopaxi and Bolívar.	eng
38136	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane cloud forest at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,500 m .	eng
38137	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	This Ecuadorian endemic is currently known only from Azuay province.	eng
38137	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Inhabits cloud forest at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,000 m.	eng
38138	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This endemic tree of Ecuador is found in the High Andean areas of Bolívar province.	eng
38138	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Inhabits cloud forest at 2,600 m altitude.	eng
38139	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic tree of the Ecuadorian High Andes in Bolívar.	eng
38139	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane cloud forest at 2,500 m.	eng
38140	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to Western Province in south Papua New Guinea and adjacent Digul District, Irian Jaya, extending into the Aru Islands.	eng
38140	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is scattered in lowland rainforest and monsoon forest.	eng
38140	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The subpopulation around the Oriomo River in Western Province, is a relatively restricted and confined to a fragile ecosystem, which is under pressure from logging and destructive activities. It is expected that the subpopulation across the border into Irian Jaya is similarly threatened.	eng
38141	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	An uncommon species of isolated occurrence. It has been recorded from the Vogelkop Peninsula and Jayapura in Irian Jaya and the East Sepik and Morobe provinces in Papua New Guinea.	eng
38141	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Lower montane forest on serpentine soils.	eng
38141	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
38142	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, it is known only from the Western province.  The status of this species in Northern Australia has not been considered in this threat category.	eng
38142	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree usually found in patches of rainforest along rivers and streams.	eng
38142	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Its restricted occurrence renders it vulnerable.	eng
38143	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Normanby and Fergusson Islands of the D'Entrecasteaux Group.	eng
38143	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A small tree found in mossy forest on ridge crests at 800 to 950 m.	eng
38144	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurring in the Gulf, Central, Milne Bay and Northern Provinces of Papua New Guinea and New Britain of the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
38144	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree scattered on slopes and ridges in primary and secondary rainforest up to 800 m.	eng
38145	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurs only on New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
38145	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree of primary and secondary forest up to 400 m.	eng
38145	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is potentially threatened by ongoing and future logging activities and encroaching agriculture.	eng
38146	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A large tree, widespread but of sporadic occurrence on mainland Papua New Guinea, Seram Island and Tanimbar Islands of the Moluccas.	eng
38146	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Throughout lowland and submontane rainforest.	eng
38146	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The main threat to the species is logging. The wood has commercial value as a veneer and is used to make high-class furniture.	eng
38147	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Papua New Guinea. The species occurs in the Oriomo River ecosystem in Western Province. The above threat category applies only to the population in Papua New Guinea. More information is needed from Queensland.	eng
38147	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is found in monsoon and gallery forest up to 50 m.	eng
38147	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The area is relatively restricted, fragile and threatened by logging activities.	eng
38148	conservation	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It has a sporadic occurrence in hill forest in Varirata National Park, Central Province, where it is hoped populations will survive.	eng
38148	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This large tree is threatened in New Guinea by exploitation and logging activities.  Its status in Australia is not considered in this evaluation.	eng
38148	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Found in monsoon, gallery and hill forest on elevated ground.	eng
38149	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, the species is widespread but uncommon and sporadic. The population status in Australia is not taken into consideration in this evaluation.	eng
38149	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A large tree found mainly in lower montane rainforest or in foothill rainforest.	eng
38149	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It has been heavily exploited in the Bulolo/Wau region of Morobe Province. Populations on spurs and ridges of mountain ranges may be spared from future exploitation.	eng
38150	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The above threat category refers to the species' situation in New Guinea.	eng
38150	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This species is widespread in monsoon, hill and lower montane forest.	eng
38150	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, it was subject to exploitation in two major logging areas in Morobe and Western Provinces. Subpopulations in the rugged mountains of Owen Stanley Range may be spared from exploitation.	eng
38151	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Mostly confined to the Bulolo/Wau region in Morobe Province. It is not certain how many mature specimens remain but it is certainly less than 250.	eng
38151	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is scattered in submontane and montane rainforest between 1,200 and 2,700 m.	eng
38151	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The region has been heavily exploited, logged and converted into <em>Araucaria</em> plantations.	eng
38152	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Endemic to New Guinea. It is restricted to Gulf and Western Provinces.	eng
38152	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree grows in seasonally inundated forest along rivers, in freshwater swamps and on well-drained soils up to 50 m.	eng
38152	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The area is now subject to heavy logging activities. The timber is sought-after for its decorative grain.	eng
38153	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurring on the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
38153	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This large well-formed tree can be locally dominant in lowland primary rainforest.	eng
38153	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It has been and still is heavily exploited through intensive logging practices. It is much sought-after for the production of plywood.	eng
38154	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to Central Province.	eng
38154	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The species is found mainly in small pockets of riverine forest surrounded by savannah woodland, and occasionally in lowland rainforest.	eng
38154	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is mainly threatened by urban expansion, local exploitation and logging activities.	eng
38155	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Restricted to San Cristobal and Guadalcanal.	eng
38155	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38155	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This timber species is subject to overexploitation. It is further threatened by habitat loss from indiscriminate logging practices.	eng
38156	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A species confined to north-east Madagascar. This rare species is poorly known, apparently having a restricted distribution.	eng
38156	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Humid, broadleaved evergreen forest between the altitudes of 400 and  500 m.	eng
38156	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Declining forest.	eng
38157	distribution	Bellingham, P., 1998	A recent taxonomic revision includes this species in the relatively common <em>G. haematoxylon</em> but this arrangement is disputed. Endemic to the Blue Mts., small subpopulations are restricted to a very small range.	eng
38157	habitat	Bellingham, P., 1998	Montane rainforests between 1,550 and 1,700 m. The plant is stunted and seldom exceeds 2 m in height because it grows in nutrient-starved conditions on deep acid mor humus.	eng
38158	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to south-west Papua New Guinea and south-east Irian Jaya.	eng
38158	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This large tree grows in lowland seasonal moist forest.	eng
38158	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This species occurs in a large forest logging concession area of Papua New Guinea which is subject to ongoing exploitation for log exports; continued exploitation will render it vulnerable.	eng
38159	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Restricted to New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands.	eng
38159	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A large timber tree of primary lowland rainforest.	eng
38159	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	New Britain is one of the most intensively logged islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, thereby threatening this species with habitat destruction. The Solomon Islands subpopulation is also at risk from logging activities.	eng
38160	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	It has been collected only once from an area between the Marivorahona Massif north of the Tsaratanana Massif. This restricted area is little known.	eng
38160	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A submontane, rainforest tree.	eng
38160	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Suffering from a decline in natural vegetation.	eng
38161	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea subpopulations are mainly confined to Western Province. More information is needed on the subopulation status in Australia.	eng
38161	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Scattered in primary rainforest or monsoon forest.	eng
38161	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to an area which is heavily logged. Ongoing exploitation will result in population decline and habitat destruction.	eng
38162	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Restricted to the Solomon Islands. It is locally common in parts of the New Georgia group.	eng
38162	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A lowland rainforest tree.	eng
38162	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Populations are located in a prime logging area and the tree makes up a fairly large proportion (6-10%) of the logs exported to Japan. Habitat loss is also a threat.	eng
38163	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Very few adult specimens have been recorded and the population is severely fragmented.	eng
38163	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	North and south of Toamasina, eastern Madagascar.	eng
38163	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree confined to a few small areas of lowland, evergreen, humid forest, mainly along river margins.	eng
38163	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species is a fine rosewood and is traded nationally and locally. As a result of selective exploitation, this species is now very rare.	eng
38164	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to the islands of Bougainville in the North Solomons and Guadalcanal in the South Solomons.	eng
38164	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This timber tree is found mainly in primary lowland rainforest.	eng
38164	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is threatened by logging activities and over-exploitation, especially as it occurs in a region subject to heavy logging activities.	eng
38165	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	New Guinea and the Moluccas. In Papua New Guinea, this species is extremely rare and known from a single sterile collection made from the Vanimo area, West Sepik province.  The above threat category applies to the situation in Papua New Guinea only.	eng
38165	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree of primary lowland forest.	eng
38165	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This part of Papua New Guinea is heavily logged and there is grave doubt as to its continuing existence in this country.	eng
38166	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Relatively widespread but uncommon. It occurs mainly in areas where intense logging is being carried out, such as New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago and the north-west of Papua New Guinea.	eng
38166	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This timber tree is scattered in primary lowland rainforest.	eng
38166	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Logging.	eng
38167	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A rare climbing species known from very few collections in an area of eastern Madagascar.  The total population is fragmented and few mature individuals remain.	eng
38167	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The area has been largely cleared of lowland forest.	eng
38168	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Currently the only population known can be found north of Lake Aloatra in a region with only a few patchy forest remnants; these remnants are still in decline.	eng
38168	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species occurs in evergreen, humid forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m.	eng
38168	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species is traded locally and nationally as fuel and timber.	eng
38169	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree scattered in lowland coastal and monsoon forest, often in the transition zone between savannah woodland and lowland forest. It is mainly restricted to monsoon forest in Central Province.	eng
38170	conservation	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Irian Jaya, the species is known only from Geelvink Bay and Jayapura.	eng
38170	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Endemic to New Guinea, this tree is known from only a few collections. In Papua New Guinea, the species was collected once in an area in Madang Province.	eng
38170	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Primary and secondary rainforest.	eng
38170	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The forest is subject to ongoing logging, including 'wood chipping' operations.	eng
38171	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	Known only from the Western district in Papua New Guina and Irian Jaya.  Sterile material may be incorrectly assigned to this species.	eng
38171	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A montane forest tree mainly between 400 and 900 m altitude.	eng
38172	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A small tree collected only once, from Dalmar in Geelvink Bay.	eng
38173	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is so far known from the Vogelkop Peninsula and the Snow Mountains in Irian Jaya and in the Western province in Papua New Guinea.	eng
38173	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species appears to grow into canopy trees on low ridges at 100 m altitude but forms only shrubs and treelets on poor loam soils at 1,200 to 1,300 m.	eng
38174	distribution	Stevens, P.F., 1998	A locally abundant small tree confined to the Arfak Mountains and the Wissel Lake region.	eng
38174	habitat	Stevens, P.F., 1998	It occurs mainly in <em>Nothofagus</em>-conifer forest.	eng
38175	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species has a scattered distribution within Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.	eng
38175	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, found in many habitat types ranging from fresh-water swamps to dry thickets by the coast.	eng
38176	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Thailand. It has been collected several times in a single locality, at Sam Roy Yot National Park.	eng
38176	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree grows in dry rocky areas on limestone up to 300 m.	eng
38177	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known by the type specimen, collected in Cambodia, and by an additional three specimens from Thailand.	eng
38178	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from three collections.	eng
38179	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is known from several collections from Sulawesi and Rossel Island of Papua New Guinea.	eng
38179	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree up to 10 m high, occurring in submontane scrub or forest.	eng
38179	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The fragile ecosystem of Rossel Island is threatened by logging and mining activities.	eng
38180	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far it is known from a total of seven localities. In Brunei this species is confined to Mt. Biang and in Sabah it is confined to Kota Kinabalu.	eng
38180	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree occurring in the understorey of lowland forest up to 250 m.	eng
38181	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Seed production is monitored.  This species is widely cultivated in gardens in Mauritius.	eng
38181	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Réunion and south-west Mauritius. On the latter island only a single population of 150 mature individuals in Etoile valley in the eastern range remains viable. Regeneration is occasional.	eng
38181	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A palm tree of mixed moist forest, occurring between 250 and 650 m altitude.	eng
38182	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities lie within the Manakambahin Natural Reserve.	eng
38182	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A species restricted to remnants of forest around the capital, Antananarivo, and Lake Aloatra.	eng
38182	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
38182	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some areas are exposed to exploitation and clearance.	eng
38183	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	A widespread palm that is the most frequently collected in the genus.	eng
38184	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Myola area and Black Mountain in the Kuranda range. The total population is estimated to contain 400 to 500 mature trees and remains unprotected. Regeneration is good.	eng
38184	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Restricted to an altitudinal range of 350 to 400 m, the species occurs in riverine rainforest on metamorphic rocks.	eng
38185	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A rare species known from only four collections from two localities in remnants of forest in central Madagascar.	eng
38185	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Evergreen forest between 1,200 and 1,300 m.	eng
38185	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	These forest fragments are seriously threatened and declining.	eng
38186	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
38186	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This small clustering palm tree is restricted to lowland rainforest.	eng
38186	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Its habitat is threatened by the expansion of human habitation.	eng
38187	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	An endemic palm tree of the Moluccas. More fieldwork is needed to assign a category.	eng
38187	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest.	eng
38187	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	It is likely to be threatened by increasing agriculture and forest management activities.	eng
38188	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Trees are planted in sacred places and cemeteries.	eng
38188	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.	eng
38188	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A small palm tree of primary forest.	eng
38188	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	It is under threat from logging, increasing agriculture and mining.	eng
38189	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species occurs in humid, evergreen forest up to 1,000 m altitude.	eng
38189	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Although widespread, it occurs mainly in lowland forest which has been and continues to be extensively cleared.	eng
38190	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Christmas Island.  Christmas Island is only 140 km² .	eng
38190	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree is scattered in lowland rainforest on plateaux and terraces.	eng
38190	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Phosphate mining is a major threat to all of the native flora. The species, which has only one flowering phase during its life cycle, is further threatened by seed-predating crabs which limit the potential for regeneration.	eng
38191	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A monocarpic palm of dense forest, occurring on slopes between 150 and 1,000 m.	eng
38191	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	It is threatened by logging activities and increasing settlement and agriculture.	eng
38192	distribution	Stauffer, F., 1998	Restricted to the Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela.	eng
38192	habitat	Stauffer, F., 1998	This is a small palm tree that is scattered in montane cloud forest between 750 and 1,000 m altitude.	eng
38192	threats	Stauffer, F., 1998	Urban expansion is a potential threat up to 800 m.	eng
38193	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Protected populations are known from Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve, Namoroka Reserve and Bemaraha Reserve.	eng
38193	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A Madagascan endemic fairly widespread in western Madagascar.	eng
38193	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Occurring in lowland, seasonally dry deciduous forest.	eng
38193	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The primary vegetation in this area has been extensively destroyed and is still decreasing. The species is selectively felled for timber and fuel for export.	eng
38194	distribution	Stauffer, F., 1998	A palm tree of lowland rainforest, restricted to Guatopo National Park and Cerro Bachiller of Miranda State.  No reports exist of occurrences elsewhere in suitable habitat types.	eng
38194	threats	Stauffer, F., 1998	Increasing settlement has caused habitat losses in some areas.	eng
38195	distribution	Stauffer, F., 1998	Confined to the mountain ridge of Santa María and on La Chapa ridge in Yaracuy state.  This tree was not found in any of the neighbouring cloud forests and is presumed to have a very restricted distribution.	eng
38195	habitat	Stauffer, F., 1998	A small palm, up to 5 m tall, restricted to cloud forest.	eng
38195	threats	Stauffer, F., 1998	Two years ago, a team from the Herbario Nacional de Venezuela visited this area and found a massive deterioration of the habitat mainly due to agriculture and logging.	eng
38196	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Despite its presence in Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve, the species is still under threat from logging.	eng
38196	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Known only from a single locality.	eng
38196	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This tree occurs in lowland, seasonally dry, deciduous forest.	eng
38196	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Occurs in an area where <em>Dalbergia</em> species are being selectively felled for the export market.	eng
38197	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	Rainforest found along the Atlantic coast.	eng
38197	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	A small palm tree common in the fragmented lowland rainforest.	eng
38197	threats	Henderson, A., 1998	The main threat is the expansion of human habitation. It is possibly conspecific with A. alatum.	eng
38198	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	It is in cultivation at the Fairchild Tropical Garden, but the mature palms do not flower.	eng
38198	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to the south-west peninsula of Haiti. In 1996, fewer than 30 individuals were found in two adjacent river valleys.	eng
38198	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree of lowland forest in river valleys.	eng
38198	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is threatened by encroaching agriculture and local exploitation of the edible seeds.	eng
38199	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	South-east Madagascar, near Taolanaro.	eng
38199	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species occurs in lowland, evergreen, humid forest.	eng
38199	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Selective felling for export, coupled with the fragmented and declining state of the habitat has brought the species into danger. Its restricted distribution coincides with a proposed site for titanium mining, which threatens all the remaining forest in the area.	eng
38200	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	Widespread in the western Amazon region.  It is possibly of hybrid origin.	eng
38200	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	This palm tree grows in lowland terra firme rainforest.	eng
38201	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities are protected within Andohahela Natural Reserve.	eng
38201	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A widespread species in southern Madagascar. It is relatively common.	eng
38201	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Deciduous, dry vegetation.	eng
38201	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Mainly found in rapidly-declining areas of forest, the species is selectively felled for minor timber trade.	eng
38202	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several subpopulations have been reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocapus.	eng
38202	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 15 subpopulations, mainly distributed in the eastern Andes. Well represented near Baños where it can be common in shady, wet places, mainly in forests near the Río Pastaza at 1,300–1,800 m elevation.	eng
38202	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist montane forest found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.	eng
38202	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
38203	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A species known from two forest remnants in a very restricted area of Ivohibe.	eng
38203	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Submontane, evergreen forest.	eng
38203	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Trees are selectively felled and the habitat is in decline.	eng
38204	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
38205	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38205	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38206	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38206	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38207	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	The species appears to be endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38207	threats	Prado, D., 1998	Occurs in an unprotected ecosystem which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38208	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Populations are recorded in Ankarana and Bemaraha Reserves.	eng
38208	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Two subspecies are recognised. Both have a restricted range within declining areas.	eng
38208	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Seasonally dry forest and woodland on limestone outcrops.	eng
38208	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Trees are selectively felled to supply local and national markets.	eng
38209	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38209	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38210	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Thought to be endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38210	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38211	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38211	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38212	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38212	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38213	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38213	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species occurs in an unprotected ecosystem, which is rapidly being replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38214	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Currently this species is known only from the Sambrino margins of north-west Madagascar.  Its habitat is severely fragmented.	eng
38214	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Deciduous, seasonally dry, sandstone forest.	eng
38214	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	It is selectively felled for the local and national timber markets.	eng
38215	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38215	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38216	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38216	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38217	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38217	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38218	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38218	habitat	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38219	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.	eng
38219	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38220	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38220	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38221	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest of north-west Argentina and Bolivia.	eng
38221	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38222	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.	eng
38222	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38223	distribution	Prado, D., 1998	Endemic to the piedmont forest in Bolivia.	eng
38223	threats	Prado, D., 1998	The species is confined to an unprotected ecosystem which is being rapidly replaced by agricultural systems.	eng
38224	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities are protected in Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve and in Ankarana Special Reserve.	eng
38224	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Still widespread in western Madagascar, but population numbers have declined over the entire range.	eng
38224	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species occurs in deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland up to 800 m.	eng
38224	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Trees are sought after and selectively felled for the high-quality wood which forms the bulk of timber wood exports from western Madagascar.	eng
38225	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Information on the species is somewhat limited. Currently known only from the type collection from eastern Bolivia.	eng
38225	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is thought to be a tree of montane forest.	eng
38226	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to the department of Santander del Sur in Colombia, this small tree is known from two collections, which were gathered between 1,800 and 1,900 m. There is no available information on the species habitat type.	eng
38227	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tall tree known only from the type collection, gathered at 2,100 m in Antioquia.	eng
38228	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, the species is locally common in forest on the lower slopes of the Cerro Neblina near the Brazilian Venezuelan border.	eng
38229	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted to a small area of rainforest between 600 and 700 m.	eng
38230	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the state of Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38230	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of coastal forest between 500 and 1,000 m.	eng
38231	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Although widespread, the species is uncommon.	eng
38231	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Lowland dry forest and woodland.	eng
38231	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The habitat is being gradually reduced and fragmented.  The species is selectively felled for the valuable rosewood timber.	eng
38232	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Tafelberg Mountain.	eng
38232	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from a few locations of low bush or <em>Clusia</em> bush.	eng
38233	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Amazon River in Pará.	eng
38233	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree up to 8 m tall, found only along flooded banks.	eng
38234	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A recently described species known only from the type collection on the bank of the River Xingu in Pará.	eng
38234	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
38235	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This recently described species is known only from Cuzco and Manu National Park and Río Sotileja in Madre de Dios.	eng
38235	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found between 350 and 400 m in lowland flood plain forest.	eng
38236	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species is known only from a single forest remnant at Tsiroanomandidy.	eng
38236	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Found in evergreen, seasonally dry forest between 900 and 1,100 m.	eng
38236	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The total population is selectively felled and the entire forest exploited.	eng
38237	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Espírto Santo.	eng
38237	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree, found in rainforest on the coastal plains and in hill forest up to 800 m.	eng
38238	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently only in Sâo Paulo.	eng
38238	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree up to 2.5 m in height, found on sand dunes and in beach scrub.	eng
38239	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Protected areas in which the species is found are Ankarana Special Reserve and Bemeraha.	eng
38239	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	West and north Madagascar.	eng
38239	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree restricted to deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland on a few isolated limestone massifs.	eng
38239	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Although these areas are largely protected, selective felling still takes place and populations are declining.	eng
38240	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from two collections without exact locality.	eng
38241	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from only two collections in Juan Guerra in Loreto and from Río Huallaga in San Martin.	eng
38241	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest at 250 m.	eng
38242	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Western Madagascar.	eng
38242	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree confined to deciduous, seasonally dry forest on sand.	eng
38242	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Although apparently widespread, most records are from near Morondava, where the habitat is being rapidly reduced and the trees are selectively felled.	eng
38243	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to central Amazonas near Manaus, this tree is known only from a few collections.	eng
38243	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Non-flooded lowland rainforest.	eng
38244	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Eastern Madagascar. Populations of this rare rosewood species are now severely fragmented.	eng
38244	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A species confined to the drastically reduced lowland, humid forest.	eng
38244	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Selectively felled for the export market.	eng
38245	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from a few collections in Bahia and Espírito Santo.	eng
38245	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rainforest.	eng
38246	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection from Rio de Janeiro; its present status and location, if it is still in existence, are unknown.	eng
38246	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is likely to have occurred in rainforest.	eng
38247	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38247	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This treelet, up to 4 m tall, is restricted to dense low arboreal restinga near the coast.	eng
38248	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three collections from the River Tapajoz in Pará.	eng
38248	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in non-flooded lowland forest.	eng
38249	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	In the permanent forest reserves of Malaya the species is conserved.	eng
38249	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Located in Kelantan, Perak, Pahang and Malacca.	eng
38249	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A lowland hill species.	eng
38250	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type collection in Sierra de la Macarena Natural National Park.	eng
38250	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	At 1,700 m in dense mossy forest.	eng
38251	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	North and east Madagascar.	eng
38251	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A widespread species found along river margins in the humid, evergreen forest.	eng
38251	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The extent of the forest is in decline and trees are selectively felled for the timber.	eng
38252	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type collection found at 2,200 m on Sororopán-tepui in southern Venezuela.	eng
38253	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection from western Amazonas.	eng
38253	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland forest on terra firme.	eng
38254	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Costa Rica, subpopulations are restricted to the Osa Peninsula and it is also apparently reported from Colombia.	eng
38254	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree found in lowland evergreen forest up to 200 m.	eng
38255	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A lowland tree restricted to humid, evergreen, coastal forest.	eng
38255	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This type of forest has been almost completely destroyed. The remaining forests are seriously threatened by exploitation and clearing. Selective felling for export, fragmented subpopulations and titanium mining activities threaten this endemic species.	eng
38257	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to Santa Caterina and Rio Grande do Sul.	eng
38257	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs in cloud forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest between 900 and 1,000 m.	eng
38258	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38258	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree occurring in rainforest on hills between 900 and 1,200 m.	eng
38259	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Many localities receive protection in Perinet/Andasibe, Zahamena, and Ranomafana Protected Areas.	eng
38259	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Extensive distribution along the eastern escarpment of Madagascar, including areas with extensive forest cover.	eng
38259	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree of evergreen, humid forest.	eng
38259	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This much sought-after rosewood is selectively felled for export and mature trees are considered rare.	eng
38260	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, endemic to Costa Rica. An estimated total of 1,037 km² montane forest remain in Costa Rica.	eng
38260	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to wet montane forest between 900 and 1,750 m.	eng
38261	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known only from the type locality in the Amboró National Park, Santa Cruz.	eng
38261	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in montane rainforest at 1,380 m.	eng
38262	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mainly found in Rio de Janeiro, but also from Rio Grande do Sul, where a single collection has been made and provisionally included in this species.	eng
38262	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree confined to restinga forest.	eng
38263	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Los Tuxtlas region of southern Veracruz.	eng
38263	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, restricted to an area of rainforest adjacent to mangroves.	eng
38264	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest estates of the area, the tree is conserved.	eng
38264	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	This species is widely distributed throughout lowland and hill forest regions of Malaysia.	eng
38264	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Pressure is exerted on the species from felling activities, with the harvested timber used and traded at a local and national level.	eng
38265	distribution	González, M., 1998	There is some confusion over the taxonomy. It appears that the same taxon occurs in Argentina as two species, <em>Temu divaricatum</em> and <em>T. crucksanksii</em>.  Whether these are all the same entity remains to be confirmed.	eng
38265	habitat	González, M., 1998	The species occurs in wet or swampy areas in lowland forest.	eng
38265	threats	González, M., 1998	The habitat is under particular pressure in the Metropolitana region (IV-VI) of Chile, mainly from felling and clearing for agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
38266	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently confined to the state of Pará, only a few collections of this small tree have been found.	eng
38266	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disturbed rainforest on non-flooded sites.	eng
38267	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Good subpopulations are recorded at Bemaraha Reserve.	eng
38267	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Western Madagascar. Only a few isolated subpopulations are known.	eng
38267	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species occurs in lowland, seasonally dry, deciduous forest, mainly confined to specialised limestone habitats.	eng
38267	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The area of forest is declining and the species is selectively felled.	eng
38268	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Tarapoto region of San Martin.	eng
38268	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or shrub grows in dry low forest between 200 and 300 m.	eng
38269	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from central Panama.	eng
38269	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of wet lowland and montane forest up to 900 m.	eng
38270	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A very rare species known from only two localities, Antalaha and the Isle Sainte Marie in north-east Madagascar.	eng
38270	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	It inhabits very fragmented humid, evergreen, coastal forest.	eng
38270	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This tree has been severely exploited for the excellent quality of its rosewood.	eng
38271	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A little-known and rare species is distributed through eastern Madagascar. It is most frequently recorded around Fort Carnot, east of Fianarantsoa.	eng
38271	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Evergreen humid forest between 100 and 1,200 m altitude.	eng
38271	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The forest is decreasing and this species is selectively felled for timber.	eng
38272	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to the states of Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.	eng
38272	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tree is found in rainforest on hills and along riversides up to 1,000 m.	eng
38273	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from south-east Costa Rica.	eng
38273	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in disturbed lowland to montane rainforest up to 1,300 m.	eng
38274	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Central Panama.	eng
38274	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree confined to a restricted area of lowland rainforest near rivers.	eng
38275	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Western Madagascar.	eng
38275	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A widespread species of deciduous, seasonally dry, lowland forest on sand.	eng
38275	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The species is still relatively common and less sought-after than other <em>rosewoods</em> because of its softer wood.	eng
38276	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A dry forest tree found along rivers and the Pacific coast at low altitudes.	eng
38277	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities fall within protected area boundaries.	eng
38277	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	This locally common species is very widespread in southern, western and northern Madagascar.	eng
38277	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree occurring in broadleaved, deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland, usually between 50 and 300 m altitude.	eng
38277	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The vegetation in this zone is fragmented and the species is selectively felled.	eng
38278	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is known from two localities on the lower slopes of Cerro Neblina.	eng
38278	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Periodically flooded gravel bars and in swamp forest up to 800 m	eng
38279	conservation	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Within the permanent forest reserves of this region, the species is conserved.	eng
38279	distribution	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Known to occur within the states of Penang, Perak and southern Kedah.	eng
38279	habitat	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	A tree of hill and mountain ridges.	eng
38279	threats	Kochummen, K.M., 1998	Clear-felling activities.  The timber from this tree is traded on a minor international scale.	eng
38280	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	The species is mainly recorded from northern Madagascar. Little is known about its frequency, but population reductions have occurred.	eng
38280	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Occurring in evergreen, humid forest between 50 and 1,000 m.	eng
38280	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Selective felling for the high-quality timber, which is sold on national and local markets.	eng
38281	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A collection labeled Rio de Janeiro is suspected to be misidentified.	eng
38281	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of hill forest occurring between 900 and 1,000 m.	eng
38282	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the states of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38282	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of coastal rainforest.	eng
38283	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Discovered in Qiaojiaxian in 1991 and described a year later, the species is so far known from a total population of 20 trees. More fieldwork is needed to establish the health and status of this population and whether there are any more subpopulations in the vicinity. The closest relative of the taxon is <em>P. bungeana</em>, which occurs 500 km to the south.	eng
38283	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Moist montane woodland.	eng
38284	conservation	Du Puy, D., 1998	Some localities are in the protected areas of Ankarana, Namoroka and Bemaraha.	eng
38284	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Widespread in east, west and south-west Madagascar, where it is locally common.	eng
38284	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This species produces a notably attractive high-quality rosewood which is selectively felled, seriously reducing populations.	eng
38285	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree known from several collections from Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38285	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in rainforest on hills at approximately 1,200 m.	eng
38286	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Bahia to Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38286	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree, reaching 6 m in height, found in disturbed lowland wet forest.	eng
38287	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Osa Peninsula in south-eastern Costa Rica.	eng
38287	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree in high rainforest.	eng
38288	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree occurring in the northern tip of Madagascar, around Antsiranana. The extent of occurrence is very small, and the forest very fragmented within it.	eng
38288	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Lowland deciduous forest.	eng
38288	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Selective felling of this species has drastically reduced the population.	eng
38289	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Osa Peninsula in south-eastern Costa Rica.	eng
38289	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of undisturbed lowland rainforest between 50 and 150 m.	eng
38290	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Minas Gerais and the coastal zone of Bahia.	eng
38290	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree of lowland rainforest up to 600 m.	eng
38291	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from three localities in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz.	eng
38291	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree occurs in cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
38292	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Uxpanapa region of Veracruz and the Tuxtepec area of Oaxaca.	eng
38292	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of lowland evergreen rainforest. It grows on deep soils on limestone outcrops below 200 m.	eng
38292	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The forest at Uxpanapa has been severely reduced through clearance for a government relocation scheme.	eng
38293	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	This uncommon species has a distinct distribution.	eng
38293	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree occurring in lowland deciduous, seasonally dry forest and woodland.	eng
38293	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Selective felling in fragmented vegetation is causing a reduction in the total population.	eng
38294	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	From Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro.	eng
38294	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in wet forest between 400 and 800 m.	eng
38295	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs within the Carará Biological Reserve.	eng
38295	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to a small area of San José Province.	eng
38295	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree of seasonal semi-deciduous rainforest.	eng
38296	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This treelet, up to 3.5 m tall, is known only from Manu National Park in Madre de Dios.	eng
38296	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to flood plain forest between 350 and 400 m	eng
38297	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A poorly known rosewood tree in north-east Madagascar. The species is known from only three rapidly diminishing sites, all of which are fragmented and isolated.	eng
38297	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Restricted to broadleaved transition forest.	eng
38298	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, between Shintuya and Manu in Madre de Dios in 1974.	eng
38298	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree was found in lowland rainforest.	eng
38299	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from two collections from eastern Peru.	eng
38299	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in wet forest between 200 and 300 m.	eng
38300	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known only from the type locality in Alajuela.	eng
38300	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows on poorly drained flat land in rainforest near sea level.	eng
38301	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Few subpopulations are known and all are confined to the Tsaratanana Massif in Madagascar.	eng
38301	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Broadleaved, submontane, moist forest.	eng
38301	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	Trees are selectively felled and the habitat is in rapid decline because of increasing cultivation.	eng
38302	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to central Panama. It is known only from four collections.	eng
38302	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tree of wet lowland forest.	eng
38303	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Pacific drainage region of Costa Rica.	eng
38303	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in semi-deciduous forest extending into evergreen forest near the Pacific coast.	eng
38304	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	Very restricted, this poorly known species occurs around Soalala and Mahajanga in western Madagascar.	eng
38304	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Coastal, lowland, moist forest.	eng
38304	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	The habitat of this species is very reduced and fragmented. This good-quality rosewood is selectively felled.	eng
38305	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is present in Rincon de la Vieja National Park.	eng
38305	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Guanacaste Province.	eng
38305	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This localised tree is found in forest at around 400 m.	eng
38306	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Northern edge of the Central Depression in Chiapas and Uxpanapa in Veracruz. This population is similar to and may prove to be <em>I. dasycarp</em>.	eng
38306	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of deciduous forest high evergreen rainforest.	eng
38306	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Half of the forest in the Uxpanapa has disappeared through land clearance for a government relocation scheme.	eng
38307	distribution	Du Puy, D., 1998	A tree known from only one locality near Antsiranana.	eng
38307	habitat	Du Puy, D., 1998	Lowland, deciduous, seasonally dry forest.	eng
38307	threats	Du Puy, D., 1998	This rare species is easily accessible, selectively felled and in an area of forest degradation and clearance.	eng
38308	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree is restricted to Isla Margarita off the north coast of Venezuela.	eng
38308	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It grows in windswept evergreen cloud forest between 400 and 850 m.	eng
38309	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly collected subspecies from the Osa Peninsula and from a single collection from montane forest in San José.	eng
38309	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Mixed lowland rainforest up to 500 m.	eng
38310	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz. Most collections of this species were made near the Los Tuxtlas Biological Station.	eng
38310	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree is found in evergreen rainforest up to 200 m.	eng
38311	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Tuxtepec district of Oaxaca.	eng
38311	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This understorey tree occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest on limestone.	eng
38311	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although there has been extensive deforestation, this area is perhaps less susceptible to development and clearance because of the difficulty of working on the karst substrate.	eng
38312	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two collections from the middle Tapajoz River.	eng
38312	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of secondary forest on non-flooded land.	eng
38313	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently restricted to Manaus. It is known from two collections.	eng
38313	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This recently described tree grows in mixed rainforest on non-flooded sites.	eng
38314	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bahia.	eng
38314	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree restricted to the threatened Atlantic coastal lowland rainforest.	eng
38314	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest destruction.	eng
38315	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from the type collection from Rio Maturacá in Amazonas.	eng
38316	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bahia.	eng
38316	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found below 100 m, this small tree occurs in secondary vegetation derived from wet lowland rainforest.	eng
38317	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently endemic to Bahia.	eng
38317	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This treelet is confined to restinga over white sand at sea level.	eng
38318	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Bahia.	eng
38318	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found below 100 m, this small tree occurs in wet lowland rainforest and associated secondary vegetation.	eng
38319	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is cultivated in the CEPEC Arboretum.	eng
38319	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A treelet known from only two collections.	eng
38319	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restinga and disturbed wet lowland forest.	eng
38320	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is known to occur on Cephalonia, Euboea and Peloponnesos.	eng
38321	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	All areas are contained within effective national parks.	eng
38321	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Brazil (Amazonas, Serra da Neblina), Venezuela (Amazonas, Sierra da Neblina, Bolivar, Chimanta, south-west Amuri-tepui)	eng
38321	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	High montane tropical rain forest and cloud forest.	eng
38321	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Sizes of the two disjunct populations are not known.	eng
38321	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are at present known, but road access to the Serra da Neblina area from Brazil has been established, which may result in threats affecting the species in the future.	eng
38322	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Distributed from Paraíba to Espírito Santo.	eng
38322	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of arboreal restinga on sand near the coast. In Espírito Santo, the species is also found in lowland rainforest near sea level.	eng
38324	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Endemic to Costa Rica, populations are known only from Volcan de Poas and Cerro las Vueltas.	eng
38325	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far known only from a few collections from Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.	eng
38325	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in lowland secondary forest and swampy areas.	eng
38326	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the state of Sâo Paulo.	eng
38326	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This treelet occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
38327	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a small area of Amazonian Peru near Iquitos.	eng
38327	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of undisturbed lowland rainforest on non-flooded land  between 120 and 150 m.	eng
38328	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It appears to be restricted to the Osa Peninsula.	eng
38328	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree found in gallery forest and secondary vegetation.	eng
38329	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to central Panama.	eng
38329	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This tree occurs in gallery forest along rivers and sandbars below 100 m.	eng
38330	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded under the name <em>Oncodostigma hainanensie</em> in the China Plant Red Data book, the species is endemic to Hainan Island, with the exception of a population which apparently can be found at Hepu in Guangxi. Found in the Guoling, Limu, Bawang and Jianfeng Mountains and also other localities.	eng
38330	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in dense montane forest.	eng
38330	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rapid population declines have taken place because of increasing habitat loss through logging and clearing for cultivation.	eng
38331	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No collections have been made of this species since it was first discovered by Humboldt and Bonpland on the Río Atabapo in Amazonas, early in the nineteenth century.	eng
38331	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Flooded riparian forest.	eng
38332	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Venezuelan Guyana, the species occurs in the upper reaches of the Río Parguaza in Bolívar and on Río Sipapo near the confluence with Río Orinoco in Amazonas.	eng
38332	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Secondary forest and riparian forest.	eng
38333	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is protected within the national and state parks where it occurs.	eng
38333	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Found throughout Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
38333	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A tree of primary, hill and lowland forest species.  Often located on ridges in such environments.	eng
38333	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This tree is used on a national and local scale for it's timber.  Logging activities by man, are the greatest pressure exerted on the species.	eng
38334	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in a number of localities in Amazonas.	eng
38334	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A treelet which occurs in shrub islands in white-sand savannah.	eng
38335	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Ranging from central to south-western Amazonas.	eng
38335	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species occurs along smaller rivers and creeks, probably in seasonally flooded sites.	eng
38336	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	With occurrences in Serranía de los Pijiguaos in Bolívar and in western Amazonas.	eng
38336	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of riverine forest.	eng
38337	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas.	eng
38337	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs within a restricted altitudinal range in lower montane <em>Clusia</em> forest.	eng
38337	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected but has suffered from fires and illegal mining.	eng
38338	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring along Río Casiquiare in Amazonas.	eng
38338	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of non-flooded evergreen forest.	eng
38339	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been found in localities along Río Casiquiare and Río Negro in Amazonas.	eng
38339	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in seasonally flooded evergreen forest.	eng
38340	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within a national park.	eng
38340	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or low tree, which is endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina.	eng
38340	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper montane forest.	eng
38341	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas are contained within national parks.	eng
38341	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is so far known from two disjunct populations, one on Cerro Marahuaka and the second further south on the border with Brazil on the Sierra de la Neblina.	eng
38341	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Upper montane forest.	eng
38342	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Gran Sabana within Canaima National Park.	eng
38342	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in riparian forest on sandstone plateaux.	eng
38342	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The tourist industry is rapidly growing, with some damaging consequences.	eng
38343	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within a national park.	eng
38343	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree so far only known from a restricted zone on Cerro Aracamuni in Amazonas.	eng
38343	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Semi-open montane forest.	eng
38344	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Apparently confined to Misima Island in Milne Bay Province.	eng
38344	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This small rare tree occurs in streamside rainforest in a gorge.	eng
38344	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The population is threatened by mining and cutting for local use.	eng
38345	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree scattered throughout the small coral islands in the Kiriwina (Trobriand) Group and the Louisiade Archipelago. Very few mature trees, if any, remain.	eng
38345	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurs in beach scrub on coral limestone at sea level.	eng
38345	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is heavily exploited by the local people for its black heartwood, which is used in carvings, native hair combs and ceremonial pieces.	eng
38346	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Found in only a few localities in the Solomon Islands and New Ireland of the Bismarck Archipelago.	eng
38346	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree of primary lowland rainforest.	eng
38346	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Overexploitation and logging have resulted in the species becoming highly endangered, possibly critically endangered.	eng
38347	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	So far the species has been found in only a small area in the Serra Pirapucú in Brazil, near the Venezuelan border.	eng
38347	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest	eng
38348	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is contained within a national park.	eng
38348	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas.	eng
38348	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane forest bordering streams between 1,100 and 1,200 m.	eng
38350	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Bolívar, in an area stretching from El Paují to Uaiparú near Kavanayén.	eng
38350	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in semi-deciduous to evergreen submontane forest.	eng
38351	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is contained within Duida Marahuaca National Park.	eng
38351	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from Cerro Huachamacari in Amazonas.	eng
38351	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in a site of dense montane forest along a creek at about 1,800 m.	eng
38352	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The only recorded occurrence of this tree is located at Usino near the Bigei River in Madang Province. The population may no longer exist.	eng
38352	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Open hillside forest.	eng
38353	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A slender tree, found only in the Río Pasimoni basin in Amazonas State.	eng
38353	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in periodically flooded riparian forest.	eng
38354	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Venezuelan Guyana, the species occurs in the vicinity of Icabarú and Santa Elena in Bolívar State and in the basins of Ríos Casiquiare, Cuao and Siapa in Amazonas State.	eng
38354	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Riparian forest.	eng
38355	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Confined to Adi Island in Kaimana district.	eng
38355	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree occurs in rainforest below altitudes of 15 m.	eng
38356	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within a national park.	eng
38356	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina.	eng
38356	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs on forested slopes along streams between 700 and 800 m.	eng
38357	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaka are contained within a national park.	eng
38357	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cerro Coro Coro, Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas.	eng
38357	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree, which is found in dwarf forests on tepui summits.	eng
38358	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cerro Guaiquinima in Bolívar State.	eng
38358	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of seasonally dry evergreen forest, occurring between 700 and 900 m.	eng
38359	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Duida Marahuaka National Park covers the locality.	eng
38359	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which is very similar to <em>I. oliveriana</em> and may prove to be conspecific. It is known only from a restricted area on Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas State.	eng
38359	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38360	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In New Guinea, this tree is restricted to Digul District in Irian Jaya and the Oriomo River area in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. More information is needed on subpopulations in eastern and northern Australia.	eng
38360	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Savannah and monsoon forest up to an altitude of 50 m.	eng
38360	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Part of the range is subject to logging. Continued exploitation and habitat destruction have reduced the number of mature individuals and, if not halted, will render the species as a whole vulnerable.	eng
38361	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both populations are protected within national parks.	eng
38361	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Disjunct populations are known from Auyán-tepui in Bolívar, and Cerro Huachamacari in Amazonas. The former may prove to be a distinct taxon.	eng
38361	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of shrubby meadows and dwarf riparian and mossy forest, generally on sandy soils.	eng
38362	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on Serranía de los Pijiguaos in Bolívar State and Cerro Aratitiyope in Amazonas State.	eng
38362	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in submontane semi-deciduous and evergreen forest on igneous rock.	eng
38363	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Cerro Jáua population is contained within a national park.	eng
38363	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on Cerro Jáua and Serranía Marutaní in Bolívar State.	eng
38363	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane riparian forest.	eng
38364	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species appears to be endemic to the lower slopes of Ptari-tepui, near Río Caruay in Canaima National Park.	eng
38364	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in dense riparian forest and semi-deciduous and evergreen forest on sandstone.	eng
38365	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the vicinity of Kavanayén.	eng
38365	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found on slopes in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest.	eng
38366	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Restricted to the Western Province, Papua New Guinea, and to Queensland, Australia.	eng
38366	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree of savannah woodland, monsoon forest and gallery-type forest at altitudes of between 10 and 30 m.	eng
38366	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Logging is occurring and the timber is actively sought-after.	eng
38367	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from localities on Cerro Parú, Cerro Ualipano, Cerro Yutajé, Río Coro Coro and Río Parucito in Amazonas State.	eng
38367	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Gallery forest or semi-deciduous to evergreen forest up to 1,800 m.	eng
38368	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas are contained within Duida Marahuaka National Park.	eng
38368	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to Cerro Huachamacari and Cerro Marahuaka in Amazonas State.	eng
38368	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane slope forest.	eng
38369	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both areas are contained within Canaima National Park.	eng
38369	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on Auyán-tepui and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.	eng
38369	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of dwarf cloud forest and <em>Bonnetia</em> shrublands.	eng
38369	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Tourism is a rapidly growing industry with some damaging consequences.	eng
38370	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is protected within a national park.	eng
38370	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the Sierra de la Neblina on the Venezuela-Brazilian border.	eng
38370	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree found on steep forested slopes along sandstone escarpments.	eng
38371	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cerro Guaiquinima in Bolívar State. It is similar to and may be conspecific with <em>I. steyermarkii</em>.	eng
38371	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of broadleaved meadows and riparian montane forests between 1,600 and 1,700 m.	eng
38372	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found in the Río Icabarú basin and along Río Paragua at the base of Cerro Guaiquinima.	eng
38372	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of savannah and forest margins.	eng
38373	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It is confined to the Central province.	eng
38373	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A late secondary tree scattered in lowland rainforest.	eng
38373	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The species is threatened by habitat destruction from felling and urban expansion.	eng
38374	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in several localities in Bolívar State.	eng
38374	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree which occurs in forest and shrubby savannah on tepui summits and slopes.	eng
38375	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Cerro Moriche in Amazonas State.	eng
38375	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The variety occurs in shrublands and broadleaved meadows between 1,200 and 1,300 m.	eng
38376	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences have been recorded from Caño Yagua and the basins of Río Atabapo, Río Guainía and Río Pasimoni in Amazonas State.	eng
38376	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is known from areas of white-sand savannah, bordering streams or forests or in shrub islands.	eng
38377	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Sierra de la Neblina population is contained within a national park.	eng
38377	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Río Erebato basin in Bolívar State and in the Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas State.	eng
38377	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree which occurs in savannahs and submontane forest.	eng
38378	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in a locality east of Los Pijiguaos in Bolívar State and elsewhere on Cerro Guanay and Cerro Sipapo in Amazonas State.	eng
38378	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A montane forest and shrubland species.	eng
38379	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in a number of localities in Amazonas State.	eng
38379	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland shrub or tree, which occurs in white-sand savannahs on exposed igneous rock and in riparian forest.	eng
38380	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the range is contained within a national park.	eng
38380	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species may prove to be conspecific with <em>I. parvifructa</em>. It is known from Bolívar State, in places such as Auyán-tepui, Gran Sabana and Toronó-tepui in Macizo del Chimantá.	eng
38380	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurs in forest from mid to high elevation at the base of sandstone escarpments.	eng
38381	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the range is contained within a national park.	eng
38381	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been made on Auyán-tepui, Cerro Venama, Gran Sabana and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.	eng
38381	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree of shrubland, gallery forest and swampy depressions in meadows at mid to high elevation.	eng
38382	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	All the localities are contained within national parks.	eng
38382	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Cerro Aracamuni, Cerro Duida and Sierra de la Neblina in Amazonas State.	eng
38382	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree which has been collected from riparian and semi-open forest between 1,400 and 1,500 m.	eng
38383	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Both localities are contained within Canaima National Park.	eng
38383	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been made from Auyán-tepui and Macizo del Chimantá in Bolívar State.	eng
38383	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or small tree of montane thicket and riparian forest on sandstone.	eng
38384	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in various localities in Bolívar and Amazonas States.	eng
38384	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in tepui meadows, dwarf riparian forests, forested slopes and on the edges of escarpments.	eng
38385	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Restricted to East Sepik province, New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago.  Its long-term survival is highly questionable.	eng
38385	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree grows in lowland rainforest.	eng
38385	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Found mainly in areas under siege from intensive logging activities.	eng
38386	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Much of the range is contained within protected areas.	eng
38386	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from various localities in Bolívar State, including the Gran Sabana and Macizo del Chimantá, and on Cerro Sipapo in Amazonas State. It is possible that the specimens from high elevations on the Macizo del Chimantá represent a distinct species.	eng
38386	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in shrublands, swampy depressions in meadows or savannahs and at the margins of gallery forest between 500 and 2,200 m.	eng
38387	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is conserved within national parks and protective forest in permanent forest estates.	eng
38387	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	This species is located in lowland and hill forests of Peninsular Malaysia, up to 1,100 m.	eng
38387	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Felling activities and human settlement expansion are the chief pressures exerted on the species, it's timber is traded on an international scale.	eng
38388	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Occurs along the coast of the Central Province.	eng
38388	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree occurring in monsoon forest, <em>Eucalyptus</em> savannah and swamps near mangroves.	eng
38388	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Its restricted distribution, coupled with local exploitation, renders the species vulnerable.	eng
38389	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	It occurs in a small patch on Woodlark Island, in the headwaters of the Watut River in the Morobe Province and in the Western and East Sepik Provinces.	eng
38389	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	This tree is locally common, sometimes forming pure stands, in scattered areas of rainforest up to 1,500 m.	eng
38389	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	The species has been logged and exported from Woodlark Island and occurs in areas subject to further exploitation.	eng
38390	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Found in the eastern part of Western Province and possibly also in south-east Irian Jaya.	eng
38390	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A parasitic or semi-parasitic species found in open savannah vegetation and in savannah forest in gullies.	eng
38390	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	As with all other sources of sandalwood, this species is overexploited for its scented wood, which is used for incense, perfume, essential oil and carving. In Papua New Guinea the exploitation began at the turn of the last century; now the resource is greatly depleted as there are few mature trees or virgin stands.	eng
38391	distribution	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	Found in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.	eng
38391	habitat	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	A tree scattered in monsoon forest, savannah woodland and lower montane forest up to 1,200 m.	eng
38391	threats	Eddowes, P.J., 1998	In Papua New Guinea, the subpopulation has suffered from logging activities over recent years in the Oriomo River area, Western Province, where the species was once fairly common.	eng
38392	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Parts of the range occur within the National Park of Madeira.	eng
38392	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Madeira the species has a sporadic distribution. In some of the lower zones it is locally abundant.  A population also exists on Desertas Island in the Madeira Group.	eng
38392	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest and laurisilva up to 1,000 m.	eng
38392	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	There are pressures from grazing and burning throughout the island.	eng
38393	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Parts of the range are protected within the National Park of Madeira.	eng
38393	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A common tree in most forest areas of Madeira and the Canary Islands.	eng
38393	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is frequent in laurisilva, a forest type which appears to be on the increase.	eng
38393	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Some areas are under pressure from habitat conversion and invasive species.	eng
38394	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Subpopulations occur within protected areas.	eng
38394	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring sporadically but in local abundance.	eng
38394	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found mainly at lower altitudes in scrub and laurisilva.	eng
38394	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Laurisilva may be increasing in Madeira, but throughout much of the range there are pressures, particularly from grazing and fires.	eng
38395	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Parts of its range are protected within the National Park of Madeira.	eng
38395	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Madeira.	eng
38395	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the major components of laurisilva.  There is evidence that this habitat type is increasing in extent.	eng
38396	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In Madeira, the species is known only from a single location on the north coast in a small area of the within the National Park of Madeira.	eng
38396	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Laurisilva.	eng
38397	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One of the major components of laurisilva, occurring over a wide altitudinal range.	eng
38397	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threats exist from grazing, fires and habitat conversion, but recent evidence suggests the laurisilva is now expanding.	eng
38398	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A locally abundant component of laurisilva, occurring in lower altitudes mostly in areas which are disturbed.	eng
38399	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Known only from Mt. Percy.	eng
38399	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree or shrub.	eng
38400	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Localised distribution only on the east coast of the North Island.	eng
38400	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A small tree or shrub.	eng
38401	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	A shrub or small tree, occurring in scattered localities in the North and South Islands.	eng
38401	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	It appears to be a poor competitor and has suffered from the lack of periodic disturbance and available sites to recolonise.	eng
38402	distribution	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Confined to Canterbury, this small tree is found in one main population near Peel Forest and a few smaller populations. The total population consists of a few hundred individuals. Reproduction is sufficient in the main population. The genus consists of three species endemic to New Zealand.	eng
38402	habitat	de Lange, P.J., 1998	Occurring on steep rocky slopes in riparian scrub or on forest margins.	eng
38402	threats	de Lange, P.J., 1998	An increase in farming has caused a retraction of the species.	eng
38403	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Populations are stable and there are extensive primary stands of the habitat remaining.	eng
38403	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in dry evergreen woodland on dolomite karst.	eng
38403	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	If the trends in real estate development spread from Grand Cayman, there is potential for rapid deforestation.	eng
38404	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	The subpopulations in Campana National Park are well protected.	eng
38404	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Found along the Cordillera Central, in the provinces of Veraguas, Coclé and Panamá. It is known from only a few records, but a large part of these mountains remains poorly explored.	eng
38404	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is distributed in rainforest up to 1,000 m.	eng
38404	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas there are strong influences from encroaching settlement, agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
38405	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known under the genus <em>Talauma</em> in Panama, the species occurs in small sporadic populations in Darién National Park and slightly more frequently in the Serranía de Pirre, both in Panama. In Colombia, populations are recorded in Antioquia and more recently in Valle del Cauca.	eng
38405	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Usually in inundated forest.	eng
38405	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Outside protected areas the habitat has been extensively cleared for settlement and agriculture.	eng
38406	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Endemic to the mountains of El Copé in Coclé Province.  It appears to be common in this small area.	eng
38406	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	The species occurs in cloud forest, mostly on riversides.	eng
38406	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The forest here has been much reduced by increasing settlement.	eng
38407	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Widely distributed from Mexico to Panama, possibly extending into Colombia, the species is relatively common throughout its range.	eng
38407	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurs in secondary and primary forest types.	eng
38408	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only the type specimen is known. It was collected from Púcuro within Darién National Park, where a large area of forest is still intact and unexplored.	eng
38409	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38410	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	A small tree, endemic and relatively widely scattered in moist forest in Colombia.	eng
38410	habitat	Calderon, E., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
38411	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree occurring in lowland and hill forest up to 830 m.	eng
38411	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat loss could pose a threat.	eng
38412	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Collections from the Moluccas and New Guinea may represent a distinct species.	eng
38412	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A widespread tree of primary and secondary forest up to 1,670 m.	eng
38412	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Declines in habitat could pose a threat to this species.	eng
38413	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	This widespread tree is found in primary and secondary forest up to 2,000 m.	eng
38413	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Loss of habitat is a potential threat to the species.	eng
38414	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Philippines, Bumbun Island of Sabah, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores and Sulawesi of Indonesia.	eng
38414	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A tree found in forest, including swamp forests.	eng
38414	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The species might be at risk in the near future from habitat loss.	eng
38415	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	The species was probably introduced to Niue.	eng
38415	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Occurring in lowland forest up to 520 m.	eng
38415	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Threatened by habitat loss.	eng
38416	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A small tree mainly found in coastal forest.	eng
38416	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
38417	distribution	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Trees may be easily overlooked as this dioecious species is only identified from the fruit. It is only definitely known from the type locality. Additional collections, which differ from the type specimen but may represent the same species, have been gathered from three localities.	eng
38417	habitat	Pannell, C.M., 1998	A canopy tree most commonly found in mid-elevation forest.	eng
38417	threats	Pannell, C.M., 1998	Forest fragmentation is likely to impede reproduction as it has been found that pollination is most efficient when individuals are less than 250 m apart.	eng
38418	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Valle.	eng
38419	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A scarce species known only from a few collections in the region of Santa Rita in Colón Province. The area is relatively well studied.	eng
38419	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland moist open forest.	eng
38419	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The area is unprotected and has experienced an influx of people over recent years, resulting in the loss of a large part of the forest.	eng
38420	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic of the Santander area.	eng
38421	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known under the genus <em>Ardisia</em> in Panama, this species is restricted to Fortuna Forest Reserve and its vicinity in Gualaca, Chiriquí Province. It is known only from a few collections and appears to be particularly sparse outside the reserve boundaries.	eng
38421	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Confined to cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,600 m.	eng
38421	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	The growth in ranching and agriculture has caused considerable habitat loss.	eng
38423	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
38424	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Much of the species range coincides with either Chagres National Park or Darién National Park.	eng
38424	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring commonly in the Cordillera de Cerro Jefe, including the Cerro Azul, and in the Serrania de Pirre, very close to the border with Colombia.	eng
38424	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A cloud forest species.	eng
38425	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	There are protected subpopulations in La Amistad National Park and in the Valle de Antón in Panama.	eng
38425	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Usually known under the genus Ardisia, the species occurs in the Cordillera de Talamanca in south-east Costa Rica and western Panama, where it is fairly common. Apart from subpopulations in protected areas, large subpopulations also occur in Boquete and Volcán in Chiriquí, Panama, but these are diminishing.	eng
38425	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Areas of closed and open rainforest above 800 m.	eng
38425	threats	Mitré, M., 1998	Chiriquí subpopulations in Panama are diminishing because of agricultural development.	eng
38426	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
38427	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Santander.	eng
38428	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Occurring in lowland dry forest.	eng
38428	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The species is mainly threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat through forest management activities, increasing agriculture and settlement.	eng
38429	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Restricted to John Crow Mountain and Cockpit Country.	eng
38429	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This rare palm tree grows in submontane rainforest between 300 and 750 m. The species can survive forest degradation and destruction and is reputed to grow in pastures.	eng
38430	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A small palm tree of  lowland rainforest, occurring up to 1,000 m.	eng
38430	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Alajuela, Heredia and Limón.	eng
38430	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is scarce and threatened by habitat destruction and disturbance.	eng
38431	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A small palm tree, up to 2.5 m tall, scattered in lowland Atlantic rainforest and restinga up to 500 m.  The species does not survive outside the rainforest.	eng
38431	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	Subpopulations have been greatly reduced because of building work and plantation agriculture near the coast.	eng
38432	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	A widely occurring palm tree of rainforest up to 1,700 m.	eng
38432	threats	Henderson, A., 1998	Many areas are subject to forest clearance.	eng
38433	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Endemic to Viti Levu.	eng
38433	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	This endemic palm occurs in various forest types, from lowland to submontane elevations.	eng
38433	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Ceremonial spears are made from the trunk and the kernal is edible.	eng
38434	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Confined to Viti Levu.	eng
38434	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	A palm of submontane dense forest.	eng
38434	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Its habitat is severely reduced because of conversion to agriculture and forestry plantations.	eng
38435	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	The species is confined to localities on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.	eng
38435	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Occurring in dense lowland forest over a very narrow altitudinal range.	eng
38435	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Its habitat is severely reduced because of conversion to agriculture and forestry plantations.	eng
38436	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	This species occurs in some frequency in various forest types on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.	eng
38436	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Various forest types.	eng
38438	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is confined to a small area on Mont Banié.	eng
38440	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is effectively protected in a national park.	eng
38440	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species is confined to a small area in the south-east.	eng
38441	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species occurring as solitary individuals in the north-east.	eng
38441	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Wet forest on ridges on schist or mica-schist soils.	eng
38443	conservation	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is effectively protected within a national park.	eng
38443	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A localised species, confined to the south-west.	eng
38443	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is found in wet forest on serpentine between 900 and 950 m	eng
38445	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is confined to a ridge on Mt Nakada.	eng
38445	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Schistose ridge between 1,000 and 1,100 m.	eng
38448	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Only two subpopulations are known, occurring in Mantady and the south-west.	eng
38449	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	It is also present in protected areas and planted in several botanic gardens.	eng
38449	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A single-stemmed palm tree, confined to the southern Western Ghats.	eng
38449	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	It occurs on slopes in moist evergreen hill forest.	eng
38450	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm of importance ornamentally, known only from Great Nicobar Island.  No recent collections exist.	eng
38450	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Increasing settlement has caused habitat losses.	eng
38451	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	Northern Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand. A number of high-density subpopulations are known.	eng
38451	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	his palm species occurs in lowland rainforest up to 500 m.	eng
38451	threats	Saw, L.G., 1998	Forest management activities and limestone mining.	eng
38452	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Endemic to western Madagascar.  Some consider the species to be conspecific with <em>B. aethiopum</em>.	eng
38452	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species inhabits lowland open forest along rivers, on alluvium.	eng
38452	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Encroaching settlement is the most imminent threat.	eng
38453	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This majestic species is endemic to the lowland alluvial plains of north-west Madagascar. It has been poorly collected. Fifteen mature individuals have been found in Sambirano. Although seedlings exist there are no young trees.	eng
38453	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Fire is suspected to prevent establishment.	eng
38454	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of open forest, occurring in very dry areas on rocky soils up to 600 m.	eng
38455	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Guadalupe Island. Approximately 1,100 moribund individuals were counted in 1988	eng
38455	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This ornamental palm tree is confined to dry scrub on rocky volcanic slopes and cliffs on the foggy north-west slope.	eng
38455	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Introduced feral goats predate the seeds and are believed to be inhibiting natural regeneration.	eng
38456	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	A palm of oak forest, occurring in dry areas on limestone hills between 900 and 1,500 m.	eng
38456	threats	Quero, H.J., 1998	Regeneration is poor.	eng
38457	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	A Mexican endemic, confined to the west. Population numbers are small.	eng
38457	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	Confined to temperate and tropical pine-oak forest in areas near streams and on hillside.	eng
38457	threats	Quero, H.J., 1998	Fibre from the leaves is traded in local markets and used locally in handicraft.	eng
38458	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Confined to the north-east.	eng
38458	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of wet forests on schists and siliceous soils.	eng
38462	conservation	Noblick, L., 1998	The species is widely cultivated.	eng
38462	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Restricted to southern Brazil. Wild subpopulations are declining.	eng
38462	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A small palm tree of open forest and <em>Araucaria</em> forest between 700 and 1,200 m.	eng
38463	conservation	Noblick, L., 1998	The subpopulation near Jataí is in an area protected by the Brazilian military.	eng
38463	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	A small palm tree known only from an area of  <em>cerrado</em> in Goiás. The only confirmed population occurs near Jataí, where individuals are doing well. Trees in nearby pastureland are not regenerating.	eng
38463	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	Seed predation by bean weevils is very high.	eng
38465	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	The species is protected and the subject of a conservation plan managed by the Vanuatu Forestry Department.	eng
38465	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Aneityum, Tanna and Futuna. Approximately 40 individuals exist in the wild and another 120 mature trees are cultivated around villages. Regeneration is moderate.	eng
38465	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
38465	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm tree of ornamental interest.	eng
38467	conservation	Bernal, R., 1998	There is now mounting pressure to halt overcollection.	eng
38467	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	The national tree of Colombia, occurring in the Andes.	eng
38467	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
38467	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The habitat has come under severe pressure from increasing agriculture. Adult trees, although protected by law, are removed for ornamental use. The leaves, too, are collected in large quantities for use in religious festivals.	eng
38468	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Principally found in the Cordillera Oriental.	eng
38468	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A palm tree of montane rainforest. Trees survive in coffee plantations.	eng
38468	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Leaves are used in religious festivals.	eng
38469	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to the north-east of the island.	eng
38469	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of schistose soils.	eng
38471	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Found  the Pacific lowlands of Colombia. In some undisturbed areas, the species occurs in abundance and is under little threat at present.	eng
38471	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A single-stemmed palm of rainforest, occurring on well-drained soils.	eng
38471	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Leaf sheath fibre is used locally for pillow stuffing.	eng
38473	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Occurring on Viti Levu, Gau, Vanua Levu and Taveuni, the species is found in numerous subpopulations.	eng
38473	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Dense forest and crest thickets up to 900 m.	eng
38474	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Restricted to south-east Santa Isabel.	eng
38474	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm tree of lowland <em>Casuarina</em> forest on ultrabasic soils.	eng
38475	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to Vanuatu. The population is extensive with 100,000s of mature trees. Regeneration is good.	eng
38475	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree occurs in wet rainforest on ridge tops and the adjacent steep slopes.	eng
38476	distribution	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	A palm confined to Upolu Island, Western Samoa. Remaining subpopulations appear to be healthy and stable, the species occasionally being quite common.	eng
38476	habitat	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	Broadleaved lowland forest.	eng
38476	threats	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	The major part of the broadleaved lowland forest habitat is now destroyed.	eng
38477	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A rare palm tree endemic to the Bonin Islands. Very little has been published on this species.	eng
38477	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Wet forest.	eng
38478	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	This palm is restricted to Matanzas. The area of occupancy is less than 10 km².	eng
38478	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	Occurring on raised limestone beaches near the sea.	eng
38479	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	A Cuban endemic.	eng
38479	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	Found in lowland, seasonally flooded savannah up to 500 m.	eng
38479	threats	Moya, C., 1998	Habitat destruction and local exploitation of the plant parts are causing population reductions.  The species is traded locally as an ornamental.	eng
38480	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	A Cuban endemic.	eng
38480	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	Lowland, seasonally-flooded savannah up to 500 m.	eng
38480	threats	Moya, C., 1998	Habitat destruction and local exploitation of the plant parts are causing population reductions.  The species is traded locally as an ornamental.	eng
38481	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Little is known about the species status in Dominican Republic but it is very likely to be threatened in Haiti.	eng
38481	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree found in dry scrub forest on limestone on rocky hills or near the sea.	eng
38482	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	A palm tree found near the coast of central and eastern Cuba.	eng
38483	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A rare palm found in coastal areas.  Little information is available on its conservation status.	eng
38483	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This species occurs in scrub on sandy or limestone soils.	eng
38484	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Confined to Camagüey, Holguin and Oriente in Cuba. The area of occupancy is small and populations are declining.	eng
38484	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	This small tree, grows in open forest on limestone hills or on serpentine savannah between 200 and 250 m.	eng
38485	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Restricted to Pinar del Río and Isla de Pinos.	eng
38485	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	A palm tree of lowland savannah on quartzine soils.	eng
38485	threats	Moya, C., 1998	It is suffering from excessive exploitation of trunk wood, leaves and fruit for local use. Regeneration is poor.	eng
38487	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Las Villas and Pinar del Río are the only known localities of this palm tree.	eng
38487	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	It occurs in lowland woodlands and in open wetlands.	eng
38487	threats	Moya, C., 1998	Local overexploitation of the timber and leaf fibre is causing a decline in population number and few individuals remain in the wild.	eng
38488	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Restricted to north-west Haiti.  In 1996, a field survey found about 1,200 individuals in four subpopulations, ranging from a single relict tree to healthy subpopulations numbering around 500.	eng
38488	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree occurs in lowland scrub on rocky shores near the sea.	eng
38488	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The leaves are used locally for thatching and the trunks are used for construction; this exploitation is the major threat to this species.	eng
38489	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
38489	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	A palm tree confined to seasonally flooded woodland and savannah.	eng
38489	threats	Moya, C., 1998	It is suffering from excessive local exploitation of the trunk wood and leaves.	eng
38491	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree known only from the middle and south Andaman Islands. Its present status is unknown.	eng
38492	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	The species distribution is not confirmed. It appears to be confined to Biliran Island.	eng
38492	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38493	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Plants are in cultivation and the single plant on Dhaka University campus needs to be monitored, so that when it flowers seed can be collected for distribution and <em>ex situ</em> propagation.	eng
38493	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	This monocarpic palm tree is not known in the wild. Specimens are growing in the Indian Botanic Garden and the Fairchild Tropical Garden. The identity of the single plant found growing in the scrub jungle on the Dhaka University campus in Bangladesh, back in the 1950s still needs to be confirmed.	eng
38494	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Restricted to Karnataka and the Malabar coast of Kerala. It is difficult to distinguish between wild and semi-wild subpopulations.	eng
38494	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A monocarpic palm of moist forest.	eng
38495	conservation	Evans, R., 1998	A few plants are protected in Tortu Guero National Park.	eng
38495	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	The most morphologically distinct species in the genus. Individuals or small groups are scattered in Atlantic lowland rainforest near Limon. The present adult population is estimated to number less than 100 individuals. The range of the species is presumed to have been larger in the past.	eng
38495	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	Atlantic lowland rainforest.	eng
38495	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Habitat conversion to agriculture has caused major population declines. Logging, increasing settlements and decline in dispersal/pollination agent populations have also contributed to losses.  The palm heart is eaten locally for medicinal purposes.	eng
38496	conservation	Evans, R., 1998	There is a protected population in Carava Biological Reserve.	eng
38496	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	Subpopulations are small and widely scattered.	eng
38496	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	A single-stemmed palm of lowland rainforest, occurring on limestone on the Pacific slope.	eng
38496	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Increasing agriculture and settlement and logging.	eng
38497	conservation	Evans, R., 1998	Large subpopulations still exist in protected areas in Costa Rica, including Corcorado National Park, Carava Biological Reserve and Golfito Wildlife Reserve.	eng
38497	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	A palm tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
38497	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Lowland rainforest has greatly declined through conversion to agriculture.  The heart of the palm is eaten locally for medicinal purposes.	eng
38498	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	Ranging from eastern Panama to western Madalena, Colombia. The Colombian subpopulations have been divided into two subspecies, both of which are considered endangered by the Instituto de Investigacion de Recursos Biologicos Alexander von Humboldt.  In remote, undisturbed areas the species remains relatively common.	eng
38498	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	A single-stemmed palm of lowland to submontane rainforest.	eng
38498	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Much of the original habitat has been converted for agriculture and the species has become rare or absent in places.	eng
38499	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	Subpopulations have become scarce or have completely disappeared at lower elevations. In relatively undisturbed areas in upper altitudinal limits, the species can be common.	eng
38499	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	Occurring on the Pacific coast, the species is found in areas of dry deciduous forest, often pine-oak woodland, up to 1,700 m.	eng
38499	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Much of the original dry forest along the coast is cleared or greatly altered as a result of logging and conversion to agriculture and settlements.	eng
38501	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	This species is localised to the north-east.	eng
38501	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Low-lying areas of schistose rocks.	eng
38502	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The entire population is reduced to a small area on the north-east coast of Lifou in the Loyalty Islands.  The only other species in the genus is also threatened and confined to north-east New Caledonia.	eng
38502	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Forest on raised coral.	eng
38502	threats	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Regeneration is poor.	eng
38504	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Only a few subpopulations are known, confined to areas on Viti Levu.	eng
38504	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Dense forest.	eng
38504	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Cutting by the Forestry Department resulted in the serious depletion of one subpopulation in 1970 and also continues to affect another more recently discovered subpopulation. Seed crops of reasonable size appear to be extremely infrequent.	eng
38505	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	A few small subpopulations are known from areas on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.	eng
38505	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Dense forest between 600 and 760 m.	eng
38505	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Some areas are being cleared for coconut plantations.	eng
38506	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	It is restricted to the Cumberland Peninsula and Espírito Santo. Less than 100 mature individuals are known.	eng
38506	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A small palm tree scattered in rainforest on volcanic soils.	eng
38507	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm endemic to the islands of Choiseul and Baga.	eng
38507	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Scattered in lowland to submontane rainforest.	eng
38508	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Some stands are naturally protected on rocky, inaccessible cliffs. The species is legally protected and seedlings, raised in nurseries, are distributed to the public for planting.	eng
38508	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Population numbers are declining.	eng
38508	habitat	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	A palm tree, reaching up to 40 m in height, scattered in lowland forest up to 600 m.	eng
38508	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Exploitation of the edible palm hearts.	eng
38509	conservation	Page, W., 1998	The trees are protected in a managed, weeded and fenced reserve. Seed production is monitored.	eng
38509	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Known only from Florin Reserve in south-west Mauritius. Less than 10 mature individuals remain and there are no authenticated reports of natural regeneration.	eng
38509	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A palm tree of submontane forest.	eng
38510	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Seeds were obtained from the tree before it died and 25 offspring were raised. These individuals have been introduced to a 25 ha island reserve called Ile aux Aigrettes. The remaining wild tree produced seeds for the first time in December 1996.	eng
38510	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Restricted to l'ile Ronde off the north-east coast of Mauritius, this palm tree has been reduced to a single wild individual. Two trees survived until 1994, when a cyclone killed one of them.	eng
38511	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Restricted to the Solomon Islands. The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
38511	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A rainforest palm, occurring up to 600 m.	eng
38512	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to Ambon Island. The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
38512	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A single-stemmed palm of lowland rainforest.	eng
38513	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to Makira Island.  The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
38513	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree is located inland in moist lowland forest up to 600 m.	eng
38514	distribution	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	Savai'i and Upolu Islands.	eng
38514	habitat	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	A rare palm of montane cloud forest.	eng
38514	threats	Whistler, A. & Johnson, D., 1998	Natural disasters pose the most serious threat.	eng
38515	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	The genus is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
38515	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm tree, scattered in lowland rainforest.	eng
38516	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	This endemic of Madagascar has not been collected for over 80 years and is possibly extinct.	eng
38516	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
38517	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Both sites are protected within Lokobe Special Reserve.	eng
38517	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This Madagascan endemic is known from only two locations in Nosy Be and Manongarivo Mts.	eng
38517	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	On steep slopes in moist lowland forest.	eng
38517	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Tree poaching occurs.	eng
38518	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Restricted to Manangarivo and the Marojejy Massif in north Madagascar.	eng
38518	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A small branching palm of open montane forest or heath, although occasionally it is found on rocks in denser forest.	eng
38519	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Restricted to Mananara Avaratra Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38519	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to Mananara Avaratra Biosphere Reserve. There are fewer than 50 individuals in total.	eng
38519	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Trees are scattered between 250 and 290 m on steep slopes and ridge tops in open rainforest on ultramafic soils.	eng
38520	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It is confined to an area lying between Soanierana-Ivango and Vatomandry.  Population numbers are thought to be very low.	eng
38520	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A littoral forest species, found near fresh water.	eng
38520	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Various developments and fires continue to threaten the habitat.	eng
38521	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Vatovavy, Madagascar.	eng
38521	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This tree is confined to small crown submontane forest on gneiss.	eng
38522	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic of Madagascar, known from only two sites in the bay of Antongil.	eng
38522	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Moist lowland forest.	eng
38523	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	One of the localities is protected.	eng
38523	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It is known only from three sites in north-eastern Madagascar, only one of which is protected. The population is estimated to consist of 50 individuals.	eng
38523	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This palm of forest undergrowth inhabits open lowland rainforest or sand forest next to black water and peat swamps.	eng
38524	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The species has not been seen since 1951 and may possibly be extinct.  Known from two locations which are geographically far apart, one in the Manongarivo area and another from Ampasimanolotra.	eng
38524	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	The two known collections were gathered from lowland forest on sandstone.  Its flowers remain unknown to science.	eng
38525	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	This species has not been seen for over 50 years and may now be extinct. There is confusion over the type locality, which could either be at Ambaliha on the Ampasindava Peninsula or Ambaliha on the left bank of the Sambirano River.	eng
38525	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	The habitat is defined as lowland moist forest on sandstone.	eng
38526	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Marojejy area and Betampona. It has not been seen since 1949.	eng
38526	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This species is known only from moist lowland forest.	eng
38527	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A little known Madagascan endemic.	eng
38527	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	South-eastern lowland rainforest.	eng
38527	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Most of the habitat has been cleared and the remainder is under intense pressure from the expanding human population.	eng
38528	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A Madagascan endemic. Subpopulations are confined to Masoala, Mananara and Betampona. One site is protected.	eng
38528	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Lowland rainforest in peat swamps, on ridge tops or flat ground.	eng
38529	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to a protected area.	eng
38529	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The global population is confined to the Marojejy area, which is restricted in size.	eng
38529	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm of moist montane forest or dense sclerophyll forest on ridges, usually found on gneiss and quartzite between 900 and 1,850 m.	eng
38530	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Occur in Mananara Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38530	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	An endemic palm of Madagascar, in Manongarivo, Masoala Peninsula and Mananara Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38530	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to areas of lowland open forest. Seedlings require frequent submerging in water, which may explain the species' common occurrence by streamsides.	eng
38531	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It is listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
38531	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species is confined to a small area of southern Madagascar. About 1,000 individuals are thought to exist in the wild. In cultivation the species is widespread and grown in a wide variety of climates.	eng
38531	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Dry forest or bush on stony soils.	eng
38531	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Fire is a major threat and nearly all the seeds are harvested for export.	eng
38532	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
38532	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species is restricted to central Madagascar, between Ankazobe and Fianarantsoa. The number of individuals in the wild is estimated at about 100.	eng
38532	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	They inhabit remnant forest near streams or on rocky sites between 1,400 and 2,000 m.	eng
38532	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Prone to forest destruction and fire. Cultivation of the palm remains small-scale .	eng
38533	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species inhabits a single site on the western side of Masoala Peninsula in north-east Madagascar.	eng
38533	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Littoral forest on coastal white sand.	eng
38533	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The habitat is fragile and prone to grazing and clearance for agriculture or settlements.	eng
38534	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic species confined to areas in Maroantsetra, Mananara and near Fenoarivo. Fewer than 50 individuals are estimated to exist in total.	eng
38534	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Areas of littoral forest or lowland moist forest.	eng
38534	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The lowland rainforest in these areas is not well protected.	eng
38535	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Within an area stretching from Antalaha and Marojejy to Betampona in the north-east of Madagascar.	eng
38535	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A coastal forest palm, rarely extending inland.	eng
38535	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The habitat is often affected by fires.	eng
38536	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Confined to Tsaratanana, Marojejy and Anjanaharibe in northern Madagascar. The area is not botanically well known.	eng
38536	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm of moist montane forest.	eng
38537	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Known only from Maroantsetra and Mananara. The known subpopulations consist of few individuals.	eng
38537	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An impressive rainforest tree growing on steep slopes or ridge crests.	eng
38537	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Both sites are under pressure from increasing agriculture.	eng
38538	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Ifanadiana area. Fewer than 50 individuals are known in total.	eng
38538	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A slender palm, known only from lowland rainforest	eng
38538	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The area is undergoing continuous deforestation.	eng
38539	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Fewer than 50 individuals are confined to a single locality in Manombo in Madagascar.	eng
38539	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38539	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Steadily dwindling lowland rainforest.	eng
38540	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Currently known only from a single collection in the south-east of Madagascar around Ifanadiana and Ambinanindrano.	eng
38540	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An ornamental palm of hill forest undergrowth.	eng
38540	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The forests of Ambinanindrano are gradually being destroyed by shifting cultivation.	eng
38541	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is restricted to Grande Comore and Moheli in the Comoro Islands. Information is lacking on the current population status and the species may be more seriously threatened.	eng
38541	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It inhabits rainforest between 500 and 1,000 m.	eng
38542	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A tree last seen over 70 years ago in the lowland moist forest of north-west Madagascar.	eng
38543	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Although rare, the species is widespread in north-west and western Madagascar. The total population consists of several thousand individuals.	eng
38543	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	It occurs in moist rainforest and semi-deciduous dry or plateau forest up to 650 m. Populations are also found rarely in palm grassland, dry bushland and coastal forest.	eng
38543	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Habitat destruction is reducing the number of subpopulations. Harvesting of palm heart and wood continues, even in the single protected location in Lokobe Special Reserve.	eng
38544	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Occur in protected area only.	eng
38544	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm is known only from Andohahela Special Reserve.	eng
38544	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Inhabits submontane moist forest on slight or steep slopes, occasionally near forest streams.	eng
38545	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Between Vatomandry and Talanaro in eastern Madagascar.	eng
38545	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species is confined to lowland moist and dry forest remnants.	eng
38545	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The entire area suffers high levels of habitat destruction as a result of various anthropogenic activities.	eng
38546	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic, confined to Mananara Biosphere Reserve. There is an old collection from the lower Mangoro River. Only a single sighting has been made recently, consisting of fewer than 20 individuals in a forest patch surrounded by agriculture.	eng
38546	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Littoral or lowland rainforest.	eng
38546	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Agricultural conversion.	eng
38547	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The area of occurrence is partially protected.	eng
38547	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic, confined to the mountains in the south-east. The area of occurrence is small.	eng
38547	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Rainforest edges between 300 and 1,100 m.	eng
38548	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic known only from two recent collections in Fianarantsoa Province. Fewer than 20 trees are known to exist.	eng
38548	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Coastal lowland forest.	eng
38548	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The area is being rapidly cut down.	eng
38549	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A timber species, confined to Lokobe Forest in the north-west. Fewer than 25 trees have been counted.	eng
38549	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A number of palm species are being felled for timber in this area.	eng
38550	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to north-west, west and south-central Madagascar. Total numbers are estimated to be less than 1000. The species is most abundant within the flood level on the rocky banks of the Analabe River. The area of occurrence is fairly large.	eng
38550	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Riverine forest and evergreen forest.	eng
38550	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The habitat is prone to outbreaks of fire.	eng
38551	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Madagascar confined to areas in Tsaratanana, Marojejy, high ground near Maroansterta and Mandritsara.	eng
38551	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
38551	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The distribution is limited and the palm heart is highly esteemed, putting the species under considerable pressure.	eng
38552	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This palm is known only from two sites on the western side of Madagascar's central plateau.	eng
38552	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting relict dry evergreen forest on steep-sided valleys between 1,100 and 1,450 m.	eng
38552	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Neither subpopulation is protected and their habitat is under severe threat from cutting and annual fires.	eng
38553	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Contained within Mananara Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38553	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagasacan endemic, known from a single population of fewer than 10 individuals contained within Mananara Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38553	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It is found in moist submontane forest on ultramafic soil with a deep humus layer.	eng
38554	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm.	eng
38554	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurring along the east coast in small pockets of peat swamp developed on white sand adjacent to the beach zone and also found in swampy areas further inland.	eng
38554	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Although the coastal lowland forest, which the species inhabits, is widespread it is threatened.	eng
38555	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	An endemic palm of Madagascar, in Marojejy, Masoala and Mananara Avaratra. Despite its fairly wide distribution, the species is uncommon wherever it is found.	eng
38555	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Inhabiting moist forest between 150 and 800 m.	eng
38555	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Overexploitation of the palm heart is a major threat.	eng
38556	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This endemic palm of Madagascar is confined to the Sambirano region, Marojejy and Mantady.	eng
38556	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Moist montane forest.	eng
38556	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Harvesting of the palm heart continues even within Marojejy and Mantady protected areas.	eng
38557	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The entire population does not exceed 200 individuals, confined to the Midongy area. The former subpopulation in Mahanoro appears to be extinct.	eng
38557	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	In no part of its range is it protected.	eng
38558	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic, confined to the area around Antongil.	eng
38558	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38558	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The lowland rainforest habitat in this area is under threat from shifting cultivation.	eng
38559	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to east Madagascar, between Soanierana Ivongo and Ambila-Lemaitso. The area of occupancy is small, containing fewer than 100 trees.	eng
38559	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland coastal forest.	eng
38559	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The lowland coastal forest habitat is being destroyed.	eng
38560	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to Mananjeba River, at Manongarivo and Ankarafantsika. The total population is estimated to contain less than 100 individuals.	eng
38560	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It inhabits streamside forest between 130 and 300 m.	eng
38561	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Local taboos do provide some form of protection.	eng
38561	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Formerly known only from the type collection of 1911, the species has now been found in an area on Mt. Vatovavy, eastern Madagascar. Population numbers are low.	eng
38561	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Submontane rainforest.	eng
38561	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The forest is unprotected. The status will become critical in the next few years if forest clearance continues.	eng
38562	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Confined to a single site in Sainte-Luce Forest, the species is known from a total population of 50 individuals.	eng
38562	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The area is threatened by proposed mining operations for mineral sand (ilmenite ore).	eng
38563	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of south-east Madagascar.	eng
38563	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting forest and heath scrub on white sand between 10 and 515 m.	eng
38563	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species range is small and the habitat is under threat from mining operations and fire.	eng
38564	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to Mananara Biosphere Reserve in Madagascar, where it is locally abundant.	eng
38564	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest on steep slopes and ridgetops on ultramafic soils, between 240 and 280 m.	eng
38565	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Confined to Manombo Forest. The number of trees remaining is estimated to be less than 100.	eng
38565	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species inhabits lowland rainforest at the base of slopes.	eng
38565	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Shifting cultivation, fire and logging have gradually destroyed the forest.	eng
38566	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This palm, endemic to Madagascar, has not been seen for 70 years. Mt. Tsaratanana, where the species occurs, has not been visited for a long time.	eng
38567	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This endemic palm is confined to Marojejy,  Maroantsetra and Mananara. Population numbers are low and two of the sites are under pressure from agriculture.	eng
38567	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurs in submontane primary woodland on steep slopes or ridgetop hollows.	eng
38568	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This gregarious palm is restricted to eastern Madagascar. Numbers are thought to be small.	eng
38568	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It is restricted to only a few streamside sites of swamp or moist forest between 950 and 1,000 m.	eng
38569	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	A clustered palm tree of great taxonomic interest, restricted to Cordillera Yanachaga.	eng
38569	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	It occurs in the understorey of moist cloud forest between 2,000 and 2,500 m.	eng
38569	threats	Henderson, A., 1998	The species range is extremely small and threatened by forest clearance.	eng
38570	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	Puerto Rico.	eng
38570	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	A palm tree confined to steep-sided, extremely well-drained limestone hills.	eng
38571	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	The population size is small.	eng
38571	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	A forest species, scattered in rocky places on limestone soils at low elevations.	eng
38572	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	An endemic to Jatibonico, a limestone plateau in central Cuba. Fewer than 150 mature trees remain in five subpopulations.	eng
38573	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to the Solomon Islands.	eng
38573	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree is scattered in broadleaved, swamp and cloud forest on ultrabasic soils from 100 to 1,500 m.	eng
38574	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Only found on the islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.	eng
38574	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	A scarce species of steep forested slopes, occurring between 180 and 260 m.	eng
38574	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Some areas have been lost to agriculture and logging.	eng
38575	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site, most of which is a permanent park reserve.	eng
38575	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Lord Howe Island, on the slopes of Mt. Glower and Mt. Lidgbird.	eng
38575	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree dominates palm forest.	eng
38576	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	A valuable ornamental, the seeds of wild trees are collected and germinated, and the seedlings are exported. The seed industry is strictly regulated. Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site, most of which is a permanent park reserve.	eng
38576	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Lord Howe Island.	eng
38576	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree of lowland and submontane moist forest between 100 and 300 m.	eng
38577	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Lord Howe Island is a World Heritage Site. The seeds of wild trees are collected and germinated, and the seedlings are exported. The seed industry is strictly regulated.	eng
38577	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree endemic to Lord Howe Island.	eng
38577	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurs in lowland and submontane moist forest up to 300 m.	eng
38578	conservation	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Collection are storage of pollen for self pollination under controlled conditions.  Cloning of remaining genotype:  Material has already sent to Kew Garden by National Parks and Conservation Service and they are using <em>H. lagenicaulis</em> as test plant whereby they have been successful with the somatic embryogenesis of the said species.	eng
38578	distribution	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Last individual existing in the wild and hence the risk of extinction is very high.  Also intrinsic factors in the only plant preventing pollination. Last specimen of this species growing in Curepipe Botanical Garden.  Had been reported in the past on the top of Peter Both Mountain.  For a very long time it has been confused with <em>H. ilagenicaulis</em> (Round Island bottle palm). This single specimen has persisted within the Curepipe Botanical Garden for over fifty years, and flowers and fruits regularly.  However, the fruits are sterile because the male flower open before the female, thus precluding any pollination.  Although this palm does not produce viable seeds, plants have on several occasions, been cloned by tissue culture of the embryo at Wye, Edinburg, and Kew.  Unfortunately, each time the plants were removed from sterile medium, they died.	eng
38578	habitat	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Tropical degraded forest (upland forest).	eng
38578	threats	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Only individual existing in the wild.  Hence very susceptible to disease, and cyclone.  Prone to hybridization.  No natural pollination because of intrinsic factors	eng
38579	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Persisting in low numbers only.	eng
38579	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree of moist primary forest between 175 and 600 m.	eng
38579	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	It is threatened by the expansion of agriculture and human habitation.	eng
38580	conservation	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is increasing since rabbits and goats were eradicated from the island. The island is a managed reserve.	eng
38580	distribution	Page, W., 1998	Round Island. Fewer than 10 mature trees remain in the wild.	eng
38580	habitat	Page, W., 1998	A palm tree with a bottle-shaped bole, confined to lowland palm savannah.	eng
38580	threats	Page, W., 1998	Regeneration is sporadic <em>in situ</em>.	eng
38581	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	It is already planted in Conservation Management Area where there is a wild subpopulation. Collection of seeds and propagation of the plant should be continued.	eng
38581	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	Occurs at Mauritius-Macchabee, Brise Fer, Mare Longue, Florin. The population size is less than 50 individuals.	eng
38581	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	It grows in montane tropical rain forest at 400-550 m altitude.	eng
38582	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Fewer than 60 individuals remain in the wild, occurring in Grand Montagne, Anse Quitor and Ravine de la Cascade, St Louis.	eng
38582	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Limestone areas.	eng
38582	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	There is no evidence of regeneration and grazing pressures are strong. There is also a threat of hybridisation with the introduced <em>H. lagenicaulis</em>.  The species is of commercial interest as an ornamental.	eng
38583	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree restricted to the coastal areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra between the latitudes of 18° and 23°.	eng
38583	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The area is mainly threatened by increasing settlement and development.	eng
38584	conservation	Bernal, R., 1998	In Colombia it is known from a remote locality in a national park.	eng
38584	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Confined to the western Amazon regions of Brazil, Colombia and Peru. In Colombia it is known from a remote locality in a national park.	eng
38584	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	An understorey palm of lowland rainforest.	eng
38584	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	At a local level the trunk is burned for the production of salt and leaves are used for thatch.	eng
38585	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Felling of the tree has been prohibited. The Juan Fernandez islands are designated as a national park and biosphere reserve and work is being carried out by CONAF to save the native plants.	eng
38585	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the Masatierra Is.	eng
38585	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This palm tree occurs on steep slopes and ridges in lowland rainforest between 190 and 900 m.	eng
38586	distribution	González, M., 1998	Subpopulations were once relatively common between the latitudes of 32° and 35° south, but they are now confined to a few small areas.	eng
38586	habitat	González, M., 1998	A palm tree of dry river valleys in the Andean foothills and of open hillsides in seasonally dry regions.	eng
38586	threats	González, M., 1998	This species is felled as a source of palm wine, which is reduced to make honey.	eng
38587	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in the lowlands, the species is restricted to a small area of the south-west and centre of the island.	eng
38588	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Regeneration has been good since the eradication of goats and rabbits. The species is widely cultivated as an ornamental.	eng
38588	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Remaining wild subpopulations are confined to offshore islands.	eng
38588	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm of coastal savanna.	eng
38589	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurring on the coast between Petite Ile and Saint-Philippe, the species was once common.	eng
38589	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species has declined in extent through increasing agriculture and settlement.  It is traded internationally as an ornamental.	eng
38590	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Confined to Fond la Bonté, Baie aux Huîtres, remaining populations account for about 500 individuals.	eng
38590	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	There is almost no evidence of regeneration and the harvesting of leaves for use as thatch is not controlled, despite regulations.	eng
38591	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	An endemic to Mt. Panié.	eng
38591	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring in wet forest on a steep rocky slope at 500 m.	eng
38592	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Madagascar known only from two subpopulations, totaling an estimated 50 individuals.	eng
38592	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	They occur in submontane primary forest on steep slopes and in a deep narrow valleys at elevations between 200 and 450 m.	eng
38592	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species is used as an ornament for minor international, national and local trade.	eng
38593	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	It is adequately represented in national parks and World Heritage areas.	eng
38593	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to north-east Queensland.	eng
38593	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This small palm tree, up to 2 m in height, is commonly found in lowland to montane rainforest near the coast.	eng
38594	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	The population is conserved within Millstream National Park.	eng
38594	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to Western Australia.	eng
38594	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree is scattered in dry open forest between 100 and 150 m.	eng
38594	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Potential threats include fires, natural disasters and tourism.	eng
38595	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	It is listed in the Nature Conservation Act (Queensland) 1994.	eng
38595	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to an area extending from Kurramine Beach and Hinchin Island southward to Conway Beach.	eng
38595	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm tree of moist open forest up to an altitude of 150 m.	eng
38595	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	The main cause of population decline is land clearance. The species is mainly found on privately owned land.	eng
38596	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	Existing in two disjunct subpopulations. One subpopulation is in Endau Rompin State Park and the other is found in the coastal hills of south Terengganu.	eng
38596	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	A lowland palm tree of open and closed forest.	eng
38597	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurs entirely within a protected area.	eng
38597	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The entire range of this palm tree falls within Finke Gorge National Park.	eng
38597	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurs in dry sparsely vegetated habitats along creeks and watercourses.	eng
38598	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	Endemic to the island of Palillo, the species has been little studied.	eng
38598	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38598	threats	Madulid, D., 1998	Its lowland rainforest habitat is under pressure from logging and increasing agriculture and settlement.	eng
38599	conservation	Saw, L.G., 1998	Occurs entirely in protected area.	eng
38599	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	Restricted to Gunung Tahan within the boundaries of Taman Negara National Park.	eng
38599	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	A locally common palm tree of upper montane forest on peat soils between 1,000 and 1,200 m.	eng
38600	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The description on which the species is based in insufficient.	eng
38601	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to Nggela Island.	eng
38601	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A palm tree of lowland rainforest and swamp forest.	eng
38602	conservation	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The species is now protected and the nut trade is legally controlled by the coco-de-mer Management Decree of 1995.	eng
38602	distribution	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	Famous for its distinctively large double nut, the coco-de-mer occurs naturally only on Praslin and Curieuse Islands and is now extinct on St Pierre, Chauve-Souris and Round Islands. Planted subpopulations occur on Mahé and Silhouette Islands. An important subpopulation at Fond Ferdinand has been burnt repeatedly and the only significant adult subpopulation left is at Vallée de Mai.	eng
38602	threats	Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles, 1998	The long-term overexploitation of the unusual nuts has virtually wiped out natural recruitment. Fire is another major threat to the species.	eng
38603	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	It occurs within Sinharaja Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38603	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Monotypic genus.	eng
38603	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree, occurring in moist closed forest between 300 and 742 m.	eng
38603	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	This monotypic genus is present within the national ornamental trade and the seeds are used locally as a betel nut substitute.	eng
38604	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to north-east New Caledonia.	eng
38604	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in wet montane forest or gallery forest on schistose rocks.	eng
38605	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This solitary species is known only from a single site near Maroantsetra.	eng
38605	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Upland swamp in a valley bottom between 400 and 450 m.	eng
38606	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Madagascar. Despite its wide distribution, ranging from Marojejy to Andohahela, the size of individual subpopulations are small. The total number of individuals is estimated at less than 2,000.	eng
38606	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting rainforest on ridge tops or steep slopes.	eng
38606	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Harvesting of the palm heart continues.	eng
38607	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A relatively newly described species, currently known only from the Ifanandiana area.	eng
38607	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It inhabits rainforest on sandy/quartz soils between 450 and 550 m.	eng
38607	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The forest and the subpopulations in this small area are steadily disappearing because of shifting cultivation.	eng
38608	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This endemic palm is known only from Marojejy, Masoala and Mananara. The number of individuals in all known sites is low.	eng
38608	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting lowland rainforest on dry hillside or swampy valley bottoms, occasionally on ultramafic soils.	eng
38609	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	Widespread but uncommon, this species is found in the Amazon region.	eng
38609	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	A palm tree of lowland forest.	eng
38610	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree endemic to Ponape and Truk in the Caroline Islands. Areas are remote and unattractive for settlement.	eng
38610	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This scarce species is found in moist forest up to 550 m in mountainous areas.	eng
38611	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This species has a very large, widely distributed population.	eng
38612	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Restricted to north-east New Caledonia.	eng
38612	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in wet forest on schistose soils between 500 and 800 m.	eng
38613	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Endemic to Viti Levu, in Naitasiri Province. It is the only species in the genus.	eng
38613	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	The species is reduced to a small area of secondary forest.	eng
38613	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Over the past few decades the decline in population numbers has been rapid as the habitat has been logged and cleared for cultivation of commercial crops, such as bananas.	eng
38614	distribution	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	A palm tree endemic to Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse and St. Anne.	eng
38614	habitat	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	Grows abundantly in lowland moist forest.	eng
38614	threats	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	Presently there is no threat to the species.	eng
38615	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	It is listed in the Nature Conservancy Act (Queensland) 1994.	eng
38615	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Restricted to north-east Queensland.	eng
38615	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	An ornamental palm tree of coastal rainforest up to 300 m.	eng
38615	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This uncommon species is in decline because of land clearance.	eng
38616	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Endemic Colombian palm found in Amazonas. The species is restricted to two remote localities, where few pressures are evident.	eng
38616	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Lowland scrub, often in white sand areas or on rocky outcrops.	eng
38617	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	The species is known only from one location in a remote area of north-western Amazonia.	eng
38617	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A palm of lowland rainforest, bordering areas of white sand.	eng
38618	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Known only from an undisturbed remote area in the north-west Amazon.	eng
38618	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	An understorey species of lowland rainforest.	eng
38619	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
38619	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree of the wet lowland.	eng
38620	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	Confined to the island of Negros.	eng
38620	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	A species of primary forest at low to medium elevations.	eng
38621	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	Endemic to Mindoro.	eng
38621	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	A primary forest species.	eng
38622	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A rare palm endemic to Madagascar, known only in the north-west and east.	eng
38622	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species inhabits lowland and submontane rainforest between 40 and 550 m.	eng
38623	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This Madagascan endemic is known only from three sites in the north-east. The total population is estimated to consist of 500 individuals.	eng
38623	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38624	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The subpopulation in West Java has been reduced to fewer than 200 individuals in a single locality. The species is extinct in Singapore.	eng
38624	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree is confined to coastal rainforest up to 200 m.	eng
38625	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Fewer than 50 individuals are known from three locations, all of which are under threat of destruction.	eng
38625	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38626	conservation	Moraes, M., 1998	Although local communities are concerned about the species' conservation and two subpopulations are now contained within a protected area at El Palmar, no research or action has been taken to deal with the lack of regeneration.	eng
38626	distribution	Moraes, M., 1998	Endemic to the Bolivian Andes.	eng
38626	habitat	Moraes, M., 1998	The species is scattered in dry forest on steep rocky slopes between 2,400 and 3,400 m in inter-Andean valleys.	eng
38626	threats	Moraes, M., 1998	There is little evidence of regeneration: most stands almost completely lack seedlings and juveniles.	eng
38627	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A monotypic palm genus restricted to Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas.	eng
38627	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	It grows in rainforest at 40 m.	eng
38627	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The main threats are grazing by feral pigs and land clearance for agriculture and human habitation.	eng
38628	distribution	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	Endemic to the Seychelles. This species is locally abundant.	eng
38628	habitat	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	A forest palm tree that easily colonises bare eroded lands.	eng
38629	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Occurring in the lower Himalayas Mts.	eng
38629	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A small palm tree of rocky slopes up to 450 m.	eng
38629	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Increasing settlement of the area is the main threat.	eng
38630	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	The largest subpopulation is protected under Greek law.	eng
38630	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	On Crete, there are eight subpopulations; the largest contains a few thousand individuals. Four subpopulations are known in Turkey.	eng
38630	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree found in the sandy beds of temporary streams up to 250 m.	eng
38631	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
38631	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	Restricted to swamp forest.	eng
38631	threats	Saw, L.G., 1998	This palm tree is threatened by rapid habitat conversion for agriculture and urbanisation.	eng
38632	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	Restricted to Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.	eng
38632	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	A palm tree of swamp forest up to 500 m.	eng
38632	threats	Saw, L.G., 1998	Most of the swamp forests are subject to forest conversion and forestry activities.	eng
38633	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A palm tree found in gullies and on lower hill slopes in damp shaded forests between 200 and 700 m.	eng
38634	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to Vanuatu. It is regenerating well.	eng
38634	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree occurs in rainforest and mossy cloud forest between 200 and 1,000 m.	eng
38635	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Small subpopulations exist on mountain summits, such as Mt. Kambalau, Mt. Mariko, Mt. Seatura and Mt. Sori on Vanua Levu. There are also a few plants on Taveuni.	eng
38635	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Some areas are affected by logging.	eng
38636	conservation	Bernal, R., 1998	Conservation activities are taking place, and a recent project on the sustainable use of the seeds has resulted in local awareness of the importance of the species and its protection.	eng
38636	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Large subpopulations remain along some rivers on the Pacific coast of Colombia.	eng
38636	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A small tree of lowland rainforest.	eng
38636	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Seeds are used for vegetable ivory, which is traded at a minor international level.	eng
38638	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	An endemic palm of Colombia.	eng
38638	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Found in lowland moist forest on alluvial soils.	eng
38638	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Subpopulations have been severely decimated by agriculture and are now restricted to only a few rivers.  The species has a variety of uses as a food, thatching and as a source of vegetable ivory. Utilization and trade continue at local and minor international levels.	eng
38639	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Found in Colombia and Peru.  Although known from a small number of collections, its range is relatively wide and includes large areas of undisturbed forest.	eng
38639	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A small palm of lowland and premontane rainforest.	eng
38640	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	Restricted to the Guyana Highlands.	eng
38640	habitat	Henderson, A., 1998	This palm tree grows in cloud forest between 1,200 and 2,000 m.	eng
38641	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38641	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Confined to an area stretching from South Kona to Punaluu. About 60 trees are known in the wild, although some of these might be aboriginal.	eng
38641	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	This tree is scattered in lowland open forest on the leeward coast and in inland gulches.	eng
38641	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Severe damage is caused by rats and pigs.  Regeneration is limited.	eng
38642	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Two individuals are confined to Kaali Cliff on Niihau Island.	eng
38642	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Dry scrub.	eng
38643	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Restricted to Kumoa Valley, Lanai Island, the species was not found during a 1992 survey of the vicinity. The taxonomy is questionable.	eng
38644	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	Subpopulations are recovering well in areas where feral pigs have been eradicated.	eng
38644	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Restricted to Mount 'Eke in the Honokohau drainage basin in west Maui.	eng
38644	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm tree of wet montane open forest.	eng
38645	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	A very small palm tree, known only from Iao Needle in Maui.	eng
38645	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Restricted to moist open forest and scrubland at about 550 m.	eng
38645	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Damage is caused by feral pigs, rats and goats and competitive pressure is exerted by invasive plants such as <em>Rubus rosifolius</em>.	eng
38646	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Found along the Powerline Trail on Kauai Island. Only 30 individuals are known in the wild and regeneration is limited.	eng
38646	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A small palm tree, up to 5 m high, scattered in wet open forest between 500 and 750 m along.	eng
38647	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38647	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Fewer than 130 individuals are known from five subpopulations in the central and north-central Waianae Mountains.	eng
38647	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm tree of lowland moist forest on slopes and cliffs between 450 and 980 m.	eng
38647	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Regeneration is by seed predation by rats and goats.	eng
38648	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Restricted to the Kohala Mts. on Oahu Island.	eng
38648	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	This small palm tree occurs in dense rainforest on a flat, boggy plateau between 1,000 and 2,000 m.	eng
38648	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Subpopulations are in decline and there is limited regeneration. Habitat degradation caused by pigs is the major threat to the species.	eng
38649	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Known only from a few localities near the northern shore of Molokai Island.	eng
38649	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	This small palm tree is not regenerating well because of seed predation by rats, pigs and goats.	eng
38650	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	A fence has been erected to keep feral pigs and goats out of the immediate area. The species is listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38650	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	A single wild tree remains on the leeward side of Molokai Island. A second immature individual may exist.	eng
38650	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Dry shrubland.	eng
38651	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	A few trees exist within an enclosure but the fence is not secure. The species is listed under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38651	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Found along the Napali coast. Fewer than 90 individuals are left in the wild.	eng
38651	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm tree of moist lowland forest.	eng
38651	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Regeneration is limited, mainly as a result of seed predation by rats and goats.	eng
38652	conservation	Gemmill, C., 1998	The species is proposed for listing under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38652	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Known from only two populations containing approximately 680 individuals.	eng
38652	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm tree of dry lowland scrub.	eng
38652	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	The area is apparently free from feral animal.	eng
38653	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Only 12 individuals in three subpopulations remain in the wild on Hawaii.	eng
38653	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Areas of lowland moist forest between 600 and 800 m.	eng
38653	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	The remaining trees are threatened by seed predation, grazing and agriculture.	eng
38654	conservation	Fuller, D., 1998	It is widely cultivated.	eng
38654	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	An important ornamental palm which is confined to the Lau Group in eastern Fiji.	eng
38654	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	The species is locally abundant on limestone soils.	eng
38655	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Restricted to the windward side of Kauai Island. Only two wild trees were known until recently, when two more were discovered; one of which has been harvested.	eng
38655	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm tree of open wet forest between 500 and 700 m.	eng
38655	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Hurricane Iniki caused a decline in the population. The current threat is seed predation by rats, pigs and humans.	eng
38656	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Endemic to Kauai Island.	eng
38656	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	This palm tree is scattered in wet lowland open forest between 450 and 800 m.	eng
38656	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	It is threatened by seed predation by rats.	eng
38657	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to Nggela Island. There is some indication that the taxon represents a form of <em>P. pacifica</em>.	eng
38657	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree occurs in moist open forest up to 20 m.	eng
38658	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	The species occurs in the south-west.	eng
38658	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Grows on a steep slope on serpentine soils at 200 m.	eng
38659	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Barahona Peninsula. The population has been depleted by the previous felling of trees for the production of palm wine.	eng
38659	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This palm tree is restricted to dry lowland scrub.	eng
38659	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Present threats are grazing and agriculture.	eng
38660	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Found in the south-west peninsula. In 1989 only 30 trees were found in the wild.	eng
38660	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A rare palm tree restricted to dry scrub in river valleys.	eng
38660	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	Locally the fruit is fed to livestock.	eng
38662	distribution	Essig, F.B., 1998	Confined to New Ireland and New Britain.	eng
38662	habitat	Essig, F.B., 1998	This palm tree is scattered in rainforest on both limestone and volcanic soils. This species can survive in open vegetation or in secondary forest if it is allowed to regenerate.	eng
38662	threats	Essig, F.B., 1998	Subpopulations have declined because of rapid and extensive deforestation for plantation agriculture.	eng
38663	distribution	Essig, F.B., 1998	A taxonomically unique species, restricted to eastern New Britain.	eng
38663	habitat	Essig, F.B., 1998	Palm tree of lowland forest.	eng
38663	threats	Essig, F.B., 1998	Rapid and extensive deforestation for plantation agriculture has caused population decline.	eng
38664	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm known from two recently identified localities. One subpopulation contains up to 40 trees with trunks, 100 young trees without trunks and several seedlings.	eng
38664	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Lowland moist forest on ultramafic soil.	eng
38665	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic confined to the area between Marojejy Mountains and Ifanadiana. Subpopulation numbers at each site are low.	eng
38665	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Moist forest.	eng
38665	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Subpopulations at Ifanadiana are under threat of destruction.	eng
38666	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic confined to the centre and south. The status of subpopulations in Andringitra is unknown, no collections having been made there since 1922. Elsewhere it is known only from Isalo, where the subpopulation size is estimated to be made up of a few hundred individuals.	eng
38666	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Dry forest.	eng
38667	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Confined to the islands of Grand Comore, Moheli and Anjouan. No collections have been made for a considerable time.	eng
38667	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species is considered endangered because all forest in the Comoros Islands is under severe threat.	eng
38668	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species is restricted to east Madagascar between Mananara Avaratra and Vangaindran. The population numbers are very low: fewer than 50 trees have been counted. The more southern localities, where most of the trees are found, are rapidly being destroyed.	eng
38668	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurring in moist lowland forest.	eng
38668	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Habitat destruction.	eng
38669	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm found only in one site at Andohahela in Madagascar. There are approximately 60 individuals at this site.	eng
38669	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Submontane moist forest.	eng
38670	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of eastern Madagascar, occurring between Andasibe and Vangaindrano. The species is found in a very limited number of sites. The two more southerly subpopulations contain fewer than 20 trunked trees.	eng
38670	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Moist lowland forest on slight mid-slopes or ridge crests.	eng
38670	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Several of the sites are being rapidly destroyed. The subpopulation at Mantady consists of pruned rosettes as a result of the harvesting of the young leaves for fibre.	eng
38672	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Confined to Andasibe in Madagascar. There are fewer than 25 individuals with trunks and rejuvenation is minimal.	eng
38672	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This species inhabits moist forest on a steep slope near the crest between 800 and 1,000 m.	eng
38672	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The population exists outside the protected area.	eng
38673	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	One subpopulation is protected in Mantady National Park.	eng
38673	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic of central and east Madagascar. The species is fairly widespread and in some areas locally common.	eng
38673	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting moist to dry hill forest on steep slopes or hill crests between 25 and 1,700 m.	eng
38674	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Only two female palm trees are known from a patch of forest last seen in October 1993.	eng
38674	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Secondary submontane rainforest.	eng
38675	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A true water palm, endemic to south Madagascar. The population consists of about 450 trees.	eng
38675	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	It inhabits flowing water to a depth of 0.5-2.5 m along a single river.	eng
38675	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	This aquatic environment is very changeable and the palm is somewhat exposed and vulnerable.	eng
38676	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to eastern Madagascar, between Marojejy and Andohahela. The species is known only from three localities and has not been collected for 30 years.	eng
38676	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabits montane ericoid bush or forest on rocky sites on gneiss and quartzite.	eng
38677	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of south-central Madagascar, confined to Mangoky and Onilahy River Valleys. Only two subpopulations are known.	eng
38677	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurring in shallow standing water, river banks and swampy valley bottoms.	eng
38678	conservation	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species is recorded in Ranomafana National Park, Marojejy, Manongarivo Reserve and at Analamazaotra.	eng
38678	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic. Its occurrence, although widespread, ranging from Manongarivo to Marojejy and south to Andohahela, is not common.	eng
38678	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurring in moist forest in valley bottoms near water or on hill crests up to 1,000 m.	eng
38678	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Trees continue to be cut within the reserves. If harvesting of palm heart and cutting for the timber continue at present rates, the status of the species may become threatened.	eng
38679	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Occurring in north-west, west and east Madagascar.	eng
38679	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species is found in various habitats, such as littoral forest on white sand, dense moist forest, dry montane forest and riverine forest remnants	eng
38679	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Although widespread, the subpopulations are small and threatened by felling, exploitation of the palm heart and increasing settlement.	eng
38680	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Known only from south Madagascar, between Ampanihy and Anpingaratra Mts. In recent studies two subpopulations have been located, consisting of 65 trunked trees and 80 seedlings.	eng
38680	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species inhabits dry spiny bush or low dry forest on laterite or gneiss.	eng
38680	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Overgrazing is destroying the Tranoroa site.	eng
38681	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Nicobar Island.	eng
38681	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree of lowland forest in moist hill valleys and slopes.	eng
38682	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Solomon Islands.	eng
38682	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A primary forest palm tree found in moist lowland.	eng
38683	conservation	Saw, L.G., 1998	Healthy subpopulations exist in protected areas.	eng
38683	distribution	Saw, L.G., 1998	This species is common in south Peninsular Malaysia and in the remnant forests of Singapore.	eng
38683	habitat	Saw, L.G., 1998	Scattered in lowland rainforest.	eng
38683	threats	Saw, L.G., 1998	Outside the parks, subpopulations are subject to forestry activities and are becoming locally extinct.	eng
38684	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	The Norfolk Island Group is a World Heritage Site.	eng
38684	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	National park on Norfolk Island.	eng
38684	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This variety is now largely confined to rainforest.	eng
38684	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is widely cultivated and traded as an ornamental.	eng
38685	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Raoul Island is a nature reserve.	eng
38685	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	This variety is abundant on Raoul Island of the Kermadec Group.	eng
38685	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Rainforest.	eng
38685	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is widely cultivated and traded.	eng
38686	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	An ornamental palm tree found in lowland moist forest up to 400 m.	eng
38687	distribution	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	Subpopulations are restricted to Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette Islands.	eng
38687	habitat	Murugaiyan, P., 1998	A common palm tree found in moist forest on steep hillsides and slopes.  This species regenerates well.	eng
38688	distribution	Zona, S., 1998	Confined to Guantánamo province. This species is difficult to distinguish from the common <em>R. regia</em>.	eng
38688	habitat	Zona, S., 1998	This early pioneer palm tree occurs in lowland open forest and anthropic landscapes between 350 and 420 m.	eng
38689	distribution	Zona, S., 1998	Occurs in the Great Morass region of western Jamaica. Two main subpopulations exist, covering an area of less than 400 km². The total population size is unknown but estimated at between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.	eng
38689	habitat	Zona, S., 1998	An early pioneer which occurs in wetland areas below 10 m.	eng
38689	threats	Zona, S., 1998	Increasing settlement and the decline in soil water content are the main threats.	eng
38690	distribution	Zona, S., 1998	Confined to Yagruma Terrace in the Maisí region of Cuba. No trees were found in 1990 during a search of the area.	eng
38690	habitat	Zona, S., 1998	This palm tree occurs in lowland open forest.	eng
38690	threats	Zona, S., 1998	For the last four decades, its preferred habitat has been converted to coffee plantations.	eng
38691	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	Natural stands are protected under the Tree Preservation Orders and the Woodland Preservation Orders.	eng
38691	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	The largest subpopulation is in Paget Marsh.	eng
38691	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	An endemic species confined to the few remaining patches of lowland dry or marshy scrub.	eng
38691	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	This ornamental palm tree is widely cultivated and traded internationally.	eng
38692	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	A palm confined to the Yucatán Peninsula.	eng
38692	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting open disturbed herbaceous vegetation on sandy soils at low elevations.	eng
38692	threats	Quero, H.J., 1998	It is used locally as a source of timber, food, fibre and thatching.	eng
38693	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Mexico confined to the Balsas Valley.	eng
38693	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	Found on sandy soils in the transition zone between tropical deciduous forest and oak forest.	eng
38693	threats	Quero, H.J., 1998	Increasing agriculture is causing habitat loss.	eng
38694	distribution	Quero, H.J., 1998	An endemic palm of Mexico, confined to the Sierra Madre Occidental.	eng
38694	habitat	Quero, H.J., 1998	Scattered in thorn forest and oak forest along watercourses.	eng
38695	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	A reserve has been set up to protect the subpopulations on Ishigaki Island.	eng
38695	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree endemic to Ishigaki Island and Iriomote Island in the southern Ryukyus.	eng
38696	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Endemic to Manara Biosphere Reserve. A single population is known, consisting of 30 trunked trees, 40 immature individuals and many seedlings.	eng
38696	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species inhabits moist forest on shallow soils, overlying ultramafic rock.	eng
38697	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	An ornamental palm tree restricted to Mountain Pine Ridge and Cayo District.	eng
38697	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Scattered in open and closed dry forest up to 500 m.	eng
38697	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is threatened by habitat destruction and encroachment by agriculture and forestry.	eng
38698	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A tree of Atlantic coastal rainforest.	eng
38698	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	The species responds badly to forest clearance. Seed production and seedling survival decline outside forest areas.	eng
38699	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Confined to Serra da Diamantina of Minas Gerais. Population numbers are declining at an alarming rate. Only a few small trees remain and mature individuals are almost completely absent from certain rocky areas. There is evidence that adult palms have been collected, possibly transplanted into cultivation.	eng
38699	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A small palm tree of cerrado and campo rupestre on rocky outcrops.	eng
38700	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	It is particularly rare in Espírito Santo. No large subpopulations are known.	eng
38700	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	The species is confined to Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
38700	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	Trees are so sparsely scattered that outcrossing may be seriously limited.	eng
38701	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Confined to the Serra do Mar.	eng
38701	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	This pioneer tree grows in Atlantic coastal rainforest between 300 and 500 m.  The survival of certain subpopulations is safeguarded by their location in inaccessible localities on igneous and metamorphic rock faces.	eng
38702	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Sâo Paulo.	eng
38702	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	Endemic to Atlantic forest, this palm tree is found at sea level in the south but only in the mountains up to 900 m in the north.  Stands are found on good-quality soils and also rocky outcrops on steep slopes with less agricultural value.	eng
38703	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	South-eastern Brazil.  It is distributed in an area which is unattractive for agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
38703	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A palm tree, endemic to Atlantic forest between 100 and 400 m.	eng
38703	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	The only threat is fire.	eng
38704	distribution	Henderson, A., 1998	A widespread palm of the north-western Amazon region.	eng
38705	conservation	de Granville, J.J, 1998	In French Guiana one of these sites is in Las Neuragus Nature Reserve.	eng
38705	distribution	de Granville, J.J, 1998	A palm tree that occurs in fewer than 10 localities in the Guianas.	eng
38705	habitat	de Granville, J.J, 1998	Granite outcrops in low transitional moist forest.	eng
38705	threats	de Granville, J.J, 1998	Fire and poor regeneration are the principal threats.	eng
38706	habitat	Strahm, W., 1998	The species remains in upland areas, occurring between 570 and 650 m.	eng
38706	threats	Strahm, W., 1998	Regeneration is hampered by the invasion of alien weeds and by seed predation.	eng
38707	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Only a single wild population is known, in Las Villas. Fewer than 100 mature individuals remain and regeneration is poor.	eng
38707	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	Seasonal scrub.	eng
38708	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Restricted to Oriente and Sierra de Moa.	eng
38708	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	A palm of wet savannah or wooded areas near streams up to 20 m.	eng
38708	threats	Moya, C., 1998	The region of Cuba is attracting increasing settlement.	eng
38709	distribution	Moya, C., 1998	Restricted to Oriente and Sierra de Moa.	eng
38709	habitat	Moya, C., 1998	A palm of wet savanna or wooded areas near streams up to 20 m.	eng
38709	threats	Moya, C., 1998	The region is attracting increasing settlement.	eng
38710	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Occurs in southern Brazil.  Subpopulations in Paraná are under considerable threat but the status of subpopulations in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina is not known.	eng
38710	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A palm tree of Atlantic rainforest.	eng
38713	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Although the species is not frequent, it occurs fairly widely on most of the major Fijian islands.	eng
38714	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Very large subpopulations are found throughout Espiritu Santo, Malakula and Pentecost.	eng
38714	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree is found in rainforest on volcanic soils over limestone substrate.	eng
38715	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Only a small population of this palm species exists, on Vanua Lava.	eng
38715	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Scattered in rainforest on basalt between 400 and 1,000 m.	eng
38716	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to Efaté Island. Only small subpopulations remain.	eng
38716	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	An ornamental palm tree, scattered in lowland rainforest at 350 m.	eng
38716	threats	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Land clearance for expanding agriculture, forestry and settlement has caused a decline in this species.	eng
38719	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Endemic to Vanua Levu and Taveuni, the species occurs in small subpopulations.	eng
38719	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Dense forest between 300 and 600 m.	eng
38719	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	Some areas have been logged or cleared for agriculture.	eng
38720	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Endemic to Aneityum and Futuna Islands. A subpopulation with thousands of mature plants was discovered recently in eastern Ameityum.	eng
38720	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	This palm tree is abundant in lowland rainforest up to 400 m.	eng
38721	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	Small subpopulations occur on the islands of Viti Levu, Kandavu, Ovalau and Beqa.	eng
38721	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Dense or open forest up to 900 m	eng
38722	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	It occurs in Praslin National Park.	eng
38722	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Found on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin.	eng
38722	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	This ornamental palm tree grows in submontane forest on steep hillsides and slopes.	eng
38723	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	A Madagascan endemic on the Masoala Peninsula. Fewer than 10 trees are known to exist in the wild.	eng
38723	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Inhabiting primary forest on gentle slopes at about 400 m.	eng
38723	threats	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Deforestation and palm heart exploitation are the main threats. Unless effective protection can be given to areas of forest on the Masoala Peninsula and the trees are safeguarded against exploitation, the species is unlikely to survive.	eng
38724	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A small palm of dense forest on humid soil.	eng
38725	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	An estimated 25,000 wild desert palm trees exist in the Sonoran Desert.	eng
38725	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	Found in about 116 seeps, springs and streams.	eng
38725	threats	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is traded internationally as an ornamental.	eng
38726	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
38726	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	This palm is found in rainforest and cloud forests.	eng
38727	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	This endemic Colombian is found on the Pacific slope of the Andes.	eng
38727	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Palm of 3 to 6 m height which occurs abundantly in montane cloud forests.	eng
38728	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Found in the north-west Amazon.	eng
38728	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A widespread species of lowland rainforest.	eng
38729	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Confined to the Andes and particularly abundant along the western slopes of the western Cordillera, where large areas of forest still remain.  Subpopulations of smaller trees in the northern part of the range are at some risk.	eng
38729	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A montane rainforest palm.	eng
38730	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	This endemic Colombian is found in the valleys of Río Magdalena and Río Sinu.	eng
38730	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Palm tree of between 4 and 12 m in height found in lowland and montane rainforest.	eng
38730	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Much of the forest is fragmented in the middle Magdalena Valley because of encroaching agriculture and the species has become scarce here.	eng
38731	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Found in the Andes. It is abundant along the western slope of the Western Cordillera in Colombia, where large areas of forest still remain.	eng
38731	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Palm tree found in lowland and montane cloud forest.	eng
38731	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The timber is used locally for construction work.	eng
38732	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
38732	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador. No additional subpopulations were found in the range in 1995, suggesting the species is highly localised.	eng
38732	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A montane rainforest (low Andean forest) tree up to 6 m high, that occurs at 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
38732	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat to this poorly-known species is deforestation in areas close to the cordillera.	eng
38733	conservation	Dowl, J.L., 1998	The entire population is protected within the Cape Melville National Park, where it appears to be regenerating well. The species is listed in the Nature Conservation Act (Queensland) 1994.	eng
38733	distribution	Dowl, J.L., 1998	Confined to the Melville range, Cape York Peninsula.	eng
38733	habitat	Dowl, J.L., 1998	A canopy tree of open woodland between 50 and 400 m.	eng
38735	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Occurring over a wide altitudinal range, the species is relatively common on the Pacific slopes of Costa Rica, in all mountain areas of Panama and in the Chocó in Colombia. Almost all localities in Panama are in areas of minimal human impact.	eng
38736	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Common in Darién National Park and the Canal area in Panama, and also occurring at the beginning of the Andes in Peru and Colombia.	eng
38736	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A species of lowland rainforest.	eng
38737	distribution	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	Currently only known to occur in the central region near Ambositra.	eng
38737	habitat	Dransfield, J. & Beentje, H.J., 1998	The species is found among rocks and in remnant of riverine forest between 1,300 and 1,500 m.	eng
38740	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Confined to an area stretching from the upper Nannalli drainage gulch to the Waialala gulch.	eng
38740	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	A palm of lowland mesic shrubland.	eng
38740	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	No regeneration has been observed and the species is suffering from seed predation by rats and deer.	eng
38741	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Fewer than 100 individuals of this palm tree are known from Limuhuli Valley, Kauai.	eng
38741	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Lowland moist forest.	eng
38741	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Regeneration is limited, mainly because of seed predation by rats and pigs.	eng
38742	distribution	Gemmill, C., 1998	Fewer than 500 individuals are scattered in Waioli Valley on Kauai Island.	eng
38742	habitat	Gemmill, C., 1998	Moist lowland forest.	eng
38742	threats	Gemmill, C., 1998	Regeneration is poor because of seed predation by rats and pigs.	eng
38743	distribution	Bandeira, S., 1998	Occurring along the southern coast of Mozambique, the species is reported to occur in large subpopulations in dry forest. Regeneration is good and there is no reason to suspect population declines.	eng
38744	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A well-collected species, endemic to an area running the length of the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38744	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38745	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This taxon is poorly recorded, known only from a single site in Wynaad near the border with Karnataka.	eng
38745	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38746	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known tree from an imprecisely recorded localities on the border between Karnataka and Maharashtra.	eng
38747	conservation	Johnson, D., 1998	The species is protected by its inaccessible location. The supply of plants and seeds in the nursery trade appear to be abundant.	eng
38747	distribution	Johnson, D., 1998	Coastal areas of Coron, Palawan Island.	eng
38747	habitat	Johnson, D., 1998	A palm tree occurring in open forest on steep limestone slopes in coastal areas.	eng
38748	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurrences are sparsely scattered; three records have been made in the Agastyamalai Hills and three from sites further north, including the Nilgiri Hills and the Karnataka and Kerala border.	eng
38748	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species, which occurs in the understorey of stunted evergreen forest between 900 and 1,600 m.	eng
38749	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly collected species, known from a few scattered localities. In Kerala records have been made to the north of the Agastyamalai Hills, near Trissur, and in the Vavulmalai Hills. A single collection also originates from central Karnataka.	eng
38749	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
38750	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38750	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree collected only from a small area in the Agastyamalai Hills on the Kerala/Tamil Nadu border.	eng
38750	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38750	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38751	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from sparse collections from the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38751	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree from submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38752	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in suitable habitats of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
38752	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from western Ecuador in the provinces of Azuay, Esmeraldas and Pichincha. <br/>.	eng
38752	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A small palm tree up to 3 m in height, occurring in moist forest and cloud forest (humid coastal forest to low Andean forest) between 300 and 2,100 m.	eng
38752	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
38753	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Confined to the Western Ghats within an area stretching from the Nilgiri Hills to a site at the north of Shencottah, this understorey tree has been rarely collected.	eng
38753	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Scattered sites within submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38754	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been recorded only twice from a small area to the north-west of the Nilgiri range.	eng
38754	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38755	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	A palm of the Atlantic rainforest, occurring up to 1,000 m.	eng
38755	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	The species is able to survive forest clearance, but reappears in a shorter shrubbier form, which is doubtfully capable of reproduction. Cattle too tend to avoid it.	eng
38756	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from scattered occurrences in the Western Ghats between Anamalai and Travancore.	eng
38756	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
38757	distribution	Noblick, L., 1998	Endemic to Atlantic coastal forest, the species occurs between 50 and 800 m.	eng
38757	habitat	Noblick, L., 1998	Atlantic coastal forest.	eng
38757	threats	Noblick, L., 1998	Over-exploitation of the leaves as building materials and grazing has apparently caused a decline in reproductive potential. Germination is poor in full sun.	eng
38758	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly collected species, reported from a few scattered locations.	eng
38758	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38759	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a few reports and even fewer herbarium specimens, the species occurs in scattered locations in the Western Ghats.	eng
38759	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In low to medium altitude forest.	eng
38760	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Two collections of the species have been gathered from widely separated localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38760	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38761	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only once in the Bababudan range.	eng
38761	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of stunted montane forest.	eng
38762	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest is now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38762	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only from the Agastymalai range.	eng
38762	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree in submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38762	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38763	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only a few times, the species occurs in scattered localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38763	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Low to medium elevation evergreen forest.	eng
38764	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single collection, the species occurs on the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border.	eng
38764	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
38765	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in two main areas: in the west of the Nilgiri range and in the Anaimalai range. Only a few collections are known.	eng
38765	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38766	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two collections, this variety appears to be endemic to the Travancore range.	eng
38766	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38767	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although relatively wide-ranging, the species is known from only a few collections.	eng
38767	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38768	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in a single locality in the Nilgiris.	eng
38768	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
38769	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected only rarely from sites at medium elevation in southern Karnataka. It has also apparently been found in the Travancore range.	eng
38769	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring on forest margins.	eng
38770	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species which has been collected rarely from scattered localities along the coast and base of the Western Ghats.	eng
38770	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A lowland forest species.	eng
38771	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Travancore range. Since the type specimen was collected in the last century, a second record of the species has been made in an area close by.	eng
38771	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This variety is sympatric with var. <em>trijuga</em>, occurring in a small area of submontane forest .	eng
38772	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, the species is located in the north of the Nilgiris.	eng
38772	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane forest between 1,350 and 2,000 m.	eng
38773	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from seven collections, the species occurs in scattered localities.	eng
38773	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest at low to medium elevations.	eng
38774	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in scattered localities in Wayanad and the Nilgiris with some outlying subpopulations further south.	eng
38774	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of low to medium elevation evergreen forest.	eng
38775	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38775	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38775	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This canopy tree occurs in a restricted area of submontane forest.	eng
38775	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38776	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections are recorded from the Travancore range down to the Agastyamalai Hills and field data have identified further subpopulations to the south of the Nilgiris.	eng
38776	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the lower storey of evergreen forest, mainly at low altitudes.	eng
38777	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The type collection was taken from the Bababudan range. An occurrence has also been recorded from Wayanad in Kerala.	eng
38777	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
38778	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.	eng
38778	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38778	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species occurs in the forest understorey at 1,400 m.	eng
38778	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood	eng
38779	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from three or four collections from scattered localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38779	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of submontane forest.	eng
38781	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A very poorly known species, recorded from a single unspecified locality.	eng
38782	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree known from a single collection.	eng
38782	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in a restricted area of submontane forest.	eng
38783	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected three or four times from three widely separated localities.	eng
38783	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species of submontane forest.	eng
38784	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Rarely collected, the species occurs in widely scattered localities along the Western Ghats, from Kodachadri to the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38784	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38785	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38785	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been collected twice, only in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38785	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest between 1,200 and 1,350 m.	eng
38785	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood	eng
38786	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from only a few collections from scattered localities in Wayanad and the Nilgiris, the Palni Hills and Elamalai range.	eng
38786	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in submontane forest.	eng
38787	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree, known only from the type collection near Shencottah.	eng
38787	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38788	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is endemic to the Anamalai and Palni Hills.	eng
38788	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring from 1,000 to 2,500 m.	eng
38789	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Apparently collected only twice, the species is known from two forest localities to the north and south of the Travancore range.	eng
38790	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38790	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected only from the Agastyamalai range.	eng
38790	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane forest.	eng
38790	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38792	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A bushy species, restricted to two small populations in north-west Santa Cruz and Eden Islet.	eng
38792	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Lowland scrub.	eng
38792	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The Santa Cruz population is subject to grazing by introduced goats, but there is no firm evidence of decline.	eng
38793	conservation	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 2000	A fence is under construction to prevent access. A single plant has been raised in cultivation in the Galápagos and the vegetatively produced offspring of two other adults are growing in Copenhagen Botanical Garden.	eng
38793	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 2000	A single population of three individuals exists in a crater on Santiago Island. In 1997, seven seedlings were also counted.	eng
38793	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 2000	The plants are subject to grazing by introduced goats.	eng
38794	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Restricted to Pinzón Island.	eng
38794	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The subspecies occurs in areas of open woodland and scrub which are free of introduced herbivores.	eng
38794	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	As long as goats and other grazing animals are denied access to the island, the subpopulations are likely to remain stable.	eng
38795	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Found on three of the Galápagos Islands. There is a single population on North Seymour, two on Baltra and several small populations on the north and east coasts of Santa Cruz.	eng
38795	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Most typically a bush, the species is confined to areas of lowland scrub.	eng
38795	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	There is no firm evidence of decline, despite the damage caused by introduced herbivores on Santa Cruz.	eng
38796	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Restricted to the north-eastern half of San Cristóbal Island, the species, most typically occurring as a bush, has become scarce in areas where it was previously recorded as abundant.	eng
38796	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Introduced goats, the main cause of these population declines, continue to cause extensive damage to remaining stands.	eng
38797	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Confined to the south-west coast of San Cristóbal Island, this bushy species occurs in a single population of 200 to 300 individuals, including all age groups.	eng
38797	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The area is susceptible to damage caused by introduced herbivores and also, to some extent, by tourism.	eng
38798	conservation	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	It is hoped that Santa Fé population will fully recover now that the animals have been eradicated from the island.	eng
38798	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A bushy species, existing in two populations. The population on Santa Cruz Island is very low in numbers and confined to the south-east. There is some indication that this latter population actually represents a hybrid form between <em>helleri</em> and <em>retroflexa</em>.	eng
38798	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	On Santa Fé Island, population numbers have been severely reduced by introduced goats. Goats also cause damage on Santa Cruz, but there is no firm evidence of population declines.	eng
38799	conservation	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The species is used as a garden plant in Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz.	eng
38799	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	A bushy species, represented by several small subpopulations principally confined to the south-west coast of Santa Cruz Island, with a few individuals on La Fe Islet.	eng
38799	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Although the Santa Cruz populations are subject to damage by introduced goats, there is no firm evidence of a decline.	eng
38800	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Endemic to San Cristóbal Island, this small tree is scattered in a restricted area in the east.	eng
38800	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Trees are subject to damage by introduced goats, but there is no firm evidence of a population decline.	eng
38801	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Six small subpopulations occur within 6 ha on the south-east coast of Santa Cruz Island. About 4,600 plants, including 1,400 adults, are thought to exist.	eng
38801	habitat	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Open forest and scrub.	eng
38801	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Although there is evidence of damage by introduced goats, there is no firm indication that the population is declining as a result.	eng
38802	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	This tree species is restricted to a sparsely vegetated area in the east of Santiago Island and to a population of fewer than 250 individuals on the neighbouring islet of Bartolomé.	eng
38802	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The Santiago localities are vulnerable to introduced goats, although no decline in population numbers has yet been documented.	eng
38803	distribution	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	Typically occurring as a bush, the species is found on Floreana Island and the islets of Champion, Enderby, Caldwell and Gardner-near-Floreana.	eng
38803	threats	Tye, A. & Loving, J., 1998	The population on the main island is subject to damage by introduced goats, although no decline in numbers has yet been documented.	eng
38804	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon species found in eastern and central Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola.	eng
38804	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Dry evergreen forest.	eng
38805	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Occurring in central and eastern parts of Cuba and in the province of Pinar del Río, and also Hispaniola.	eng
38805	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree of montane rainforest and submontane semi-deciduous forest.	eng
38805	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat of this species is under threat from felling.	eng
38806	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	In Cuba this small tree is confined to the deeply eroded haystack mountain ranges of Pinar del Río Province and the Isla de Pinos.	eng
38807	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This tree was formerly common in some areas throughout Cuba.	eng
38807	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Lowland semi-deciduous forest.	eng
38807	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	As a result of burning and grazing, the habitat has been largely replaced by secondary savannah.	eng
38808	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habana and Matanzas provinces. In the past this species was locally abundant.	eng
38808	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree restricted in range to dry serpentine shrubwoods.	eng
38808	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has declined considerably through urbanisation, agriculture and grazing.	eng
38809	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species which has been recorded just once from an unspecified locality in the Palni Hills.	eng
38810	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An uncommon species, it is confined to the Moa Mountains.	eng
38810	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This shrub rarely attains the size of a small tree. It is confined to coastal lowland serpentine shrubland.	eng
38810	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	In some places the habitat is degraded.	eng
38811	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from just two collections, the species occurs at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38811	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38812	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Probably also extending into Tamil Nadu, the species has only been collected from scattered localities in the Anamalai Hills. A single occurrence is also recorded further south nearer the Travancore range.	eng
38812	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38813	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Very poorly known and collected only once from North Kanara in Karnataka and once from an imprecise locality in the Wayanad area in Kerala.	eng
38813	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of lowland evergreen forest.	eng
38814	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	In Cuba, where it is uncommon.	eng
38814	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall, occurring in montane rainforest and cloud forest.	eng
38815	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collections have been made from areas along the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38815	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
38816	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from single records from three different locations at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38816	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An understorey tree of evergreen forest.	eng
38817	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known largely from field data and a few collections, occurring along the Tamil Nadu/Kerala border.	eng
38817	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38818	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A shrub or small tree up to 8 m tall, endemic to western Cuba.	eng
38818	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Coastal dry evergreen forest.	eng
38818	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Habitat declines have been great in the past decades; overcutting and clearing for urbanisation continue to be threats.	eng
38819	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single collection in the Agastyamalai Hills and from a less precisely located record in the Anaimalai range.	eng
38819	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively large tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38820	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected seven times, the species occurs in scattered localities in the Nilgiris, Anamalai and Palni Hills.	eng
38820	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest, above 1,500 m.	eng
38821	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from two collections in two separate localities on the border with Kerala, the species is poorly known but appears to be confined to the Agastyamalai Hills and Elamalai Hills.	eng
38821	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
38822	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The main concentration of collections comes from the Agastyamalai Hills. A single collection has also been made in the Anaimalai Hills.	eng
38822	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38823	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from an imprecisely recorded collection taken from North Kanara.	eng
38823	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of evergreen forest.	eng
38824	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Endemic to a relatively small area in the north of Pinar del Río province in the Cajalbana range.	eng
38824	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This shrub or small tree is confined to sclerophyllous evergreen scrub and woodland on serpentine-derived soils.	eng
38825	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38825	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type collection  in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38825	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Montane forest.	eng
38825	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38826	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A medium-sized tree, recorded from scattered localities in the Agastyamalai Hills and in two sites in the mountain ranges further north.	eng
38826	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in evergreen forest between 700 and 1,500 m.	eng
38827	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	About 1,000 km² of forest remain protected within sanctuaries.	eng
38827	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Recorded only rarely from scattered localities in the vicinity of the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38827	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of lowland forest.	eng
38827	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38828	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, currently known only from a single record from a locality at the base of the Nilgiris.	eng
38829	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to the Nilgiris.	eng
38829	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in montane forest above 1,900 m.	eng
38830	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known from a collection taken from a confined area in the Elamalai Hills and from an imprecisely recorded locality further south.	eng
38830	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38831	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the Nilgiris and in the Agastymalai Hills further south.	eng
38831	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of montane forest.	eng
38832	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A relatively large tree, which has only been recorded from a small locality in south Kerala.	eng
38832	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
38833	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, recorded from scattered localities.	eng
38833	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland forest along the coast.	eng
38834	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from a few collections between the Anaimalai Hills and the Travancore range.	eng
38834	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest between 600 and 1,000 m.	eng
38835	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, poorly collected but recorded from a few scattered localities from the Pushpagiri Hills to the Nilgiris and Anaimalai range.	eng
38835	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38836	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from a few collections and field records in the Anamalai Hills and an imprecisely recorded location in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38836	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane forest.	eng
38837	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree described from a single locality in El Retiro, Santa Cruz, Pinar del Río province.	eng
38837	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat in the area has been severely degraded.	eng
38838	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38838	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known only from the type collection, this small tree is recorded from a restricted area in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38838	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forest at medium elevation.	eng
38838	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38839	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This shrubby tree has been collected only once from the Travancore range.	eng
38839	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Evergreen forest.	eng
38840	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Only two collections are known, one from the Nilgiris and the other from the Palni Hills.	eng
38840	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrubby tree of montane forest, occurring above 2,000 m.	eng
38841	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from only a few collections, mainly from the Nilgiris but also from scattered localities extending into southern Karnataka.	eng
38841	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane forest.	eng
38842	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Agastyamalai Hills and Elamalai Hills.	eng
38842	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species of forest margins, recorded from restricted areas of forest between 1,400 and 1,600 m.	eng
38843	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected twice, this relatively large tree is recorded from two localities in the region of the Anamalai Hills.	eng
38843	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Lowland evergreen forest.	eng
38844	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Although scattered over a wide area from north of the Kalinadi River in Karnataka to the Agastyamalai Hills in Kerala, the taxon has rarely been collected or recorded. The type subspecies is well collected but confined to the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38844	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It occurs in evergreen forest up to 1,000 m.	eng
38845	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Collected from 2 localities at the southern end of the Western Ghats.	eng
38845	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of submontane evergreen forest.	eng
38846	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Almost 1,000 km² of forest are now under protection within sanctuaries.	eng
38846	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree, known only from the type specimen collected from a restricted area in the Agastyamalai Hills.	eng
38846	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Submontane forest.	eng
38846	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Large areas have been exposed to fires, grazing, the establishment of commercial plantations and cutting for fuelwood.	eng
38847	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Zapata Peninsula in Matanzas Province.	eng
38847	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A subspecies restricted to fenwoods and swamp forests on peat.	eng
38847	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has been degraded by logging and charcoal production.	eng
38848	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	An endemic tree discovered in the mid 19th century in Loma Pelada, Los Palacios, Pinar del Ríos Province. Thorough searches for the species over the past 25 years have been unable to locate it.	eng
38848	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded by cutting and clearing.	eng
38849	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Eastern Cuba.	eng
38849	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A tree found in lowland semi-deciduous forest on rocky limestone soils.	eng
38849	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Subpopulations have declined substantially in the past decades through habitat clearance and burning for logging, grazing and agricultural encroachment.	eng
38850	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Cuba and infrequently on Hispaniola.	eng
38850	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare tree found in the remaining stands of semi-deciduous forest on limestone-derived soils.	eng
38850	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat has been severely degraded in most places in Cuba.	eng
38851	distribution	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	A small dioecious tree, endemic to Pitcairn. Only 10 individuals of flowering size were seen in 1997, and these are mostly well scattered in the eastern half of the island. Evidence of natural regeneration is limited to a single sapling.	eng
38851	habitat	Waldren, S. & Kingston, N., 1998	Degraded areas of forest.	eng
38852	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This rare species is confined to the Sierra Maestra range.	eng
38852	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small, aromatic tree occurring in montane rainforests.	eng
38853	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Cauca, Santander and Tolima.	eng
38854	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The species is known from Cauca according to confirmed records and from Valle from less definite records.	eng
38855	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron calimaense</em>. It is recorded only from Valle.	eng
38856	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron calophyllum</em>. The species is recorded from Naraiño.	eng
38857	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron cararense</em>. The species is recorded only from Norte de Santander.	eng
38858	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron colombianum</em>. The species has been recorded only from Huila.	eng
38859	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron guatapense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38860	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron lenticellatum</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38861	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron mahechae</em>. The species is recorded only from Valle.	eng
38862	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron urraoense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38863	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Dugandiodendron yarumalense</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38864	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma caricifragrans</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander.	eng
38865	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma cespedesii</em>. The species is recorded from Cundinamarca and from a less definite record in Boyaca.	eng
38866	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma espinalii</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38867	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma georgii</em>. The species has been recorded only from localities in Boyaca and Santander.	eng
38868	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma gilbertoi</em>. The species is restricted to Risaralda and Valle.	eng
38869	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Western Sierra Maestra mountain range, Santiago de Cuba province.	eng
38869	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare shrub or small tree found in cloud forest on the highest peaks.	eng
38870	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma hernandezii</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Antioquia, Qiomdío, Risaralda and Valle.	eng
38871	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma henaoi</em>. The species is recorded only from Huila.	eng
38872	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma katiorum</em>. The species is known only from Antioquia.	eng
38873	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma narinensis</em>. The species is known only from Nariño.	eng
38874	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma polyhypsophylla</em>. The species is recorded only from Antioquia.	eng
38875	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma sanderiana</em>. The species is recorded only from Santander.	eng
38876	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma virolinensis</em>. The species is recorded from localities in Boyaca and Santander.	eng
38877	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	The accepted name for <em>Talauma wolfii</em>. The species is recorded only from Risaralda.	eng
38878	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Possibly now extinct, the species was known from a locality in Tolima.	eng
38879	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38880	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species has been recorded from Cundinamarca, Huila and Santander.	eng
38881	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38882	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Tolima.	eng
38883	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
38884	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Cundinamarca, Huila, Meta and Tolima.	eng
38885	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Magdalena.	eng
38886	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Boayaca.	eng
38887	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic species known to occur in Santander and possibly also Boyaca.	eng
38888	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded from Boyaca and Santander.	eng
38889	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cauca.	eng
38890	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Huila.	eng
38891	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is recorded to Cundinamarca and Valle.	eng
38892	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Possibly now extinct, the species has been recorded only from Cundinamarca.	eng
38893	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38894	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic of Antioquia.	eng
38895	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Cundinamarca.	eng
38896	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Guajira.	eng
38897	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Huila.	eng
38898	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	<em>Metteniusa</em> is a small genus of trees, endemic to north-west South America. This species is recorded from Santander.	eng
38899	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Antioquia.	eng
38900	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic of Nariño.	eng
38901	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38902	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Cundinamarca.	eng
38903	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Valle.	eng
38904	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	An endemic to Putumayo.	eng
38905	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to Cundinamarca, Tolima and Valle.	eng
38906	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in the departments of Cundinamarca and Tolima.	eng
38907	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in the departments of Norte de Santander and Santander.	eng
38908	distribution	Calderon, E., 1998	Endemic to Colombia, the species is restricted to localities in Cundinamarca and Tolima.	eng
38909	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	It has been overexploited for its valuable timber in the West Indies and is now reduced to very small populations on most islands: one tree on Jamaica, five trees on Puerto Rico. More information is needed on the Central American populations.	eng
38909	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A relatively widespread tree of semi-deciduous forest.	eng
38909	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Logging and habitat destruction continue to pose a serious threat.	eng
38910	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A single population, now thought to be extinct, was once recorded from El Sabalo in Pinar del Río Province, Cuba, where the habitat has largely been deforested. Elsewhere in the Greater Antilles, the species and habitat have also suffered from overcutting. A record exists from northern Venezuela.	eng
38910	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Deforestation.	eng
38912	distribution	Carter-Holmes, S., 1998	Originally described from a cultivated plant, the wild population was discovered in 1990 in the Ruaha Valley. The area measures little more than a square kilometre and is situated a short distance from the main road.	eng
38912	habitat	Carter-Holmes, S., 1998	Confined to an area of scrub on limestone.	eng
38912	threats	Carter-Holmes, S., 1998	There is no current threat from collecting, but grazing and loss of habitat may be a problem.	eng
38913	distribution	Carter-Holmes, S., 1998	Occurring in the same area as <em>M. arborescens</em> in the Ruaha Valley, this species is more abundant and not restricted to limestone but more widely distributed on hillsides and the summits of the surrounding mountains.	eng
38914	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Known in Cuba from a single locality in the coastal areas of Daiquirí, Santiago de Cuba province. The species is more widespread and more common in Hispaniola.	eng
38914	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	This small tree occurs infrequently in dry evergreen shrubwood and shrubland on limestone.	eng
38914	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Its habitat type has been degraded in many places. Tourism is the major threat in Cuba.	eng
38916	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Its distribution extends from Sierra Madre in Chiapas, Mexico to Honduras.	eng
38916	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of oak forest occurring at medium elevations.	eng
38917	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring from the Gulf region of Mexico to Guatemala.	eng
38917	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is found in areas of moist seasonal forest from medium to high elevations.	eng
38918	conservation	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Parts of the range are contained within protected areas.	eng
38918	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Occurring from central and southern Mexico to Guatemala.	eng
38918	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A species of montane pine-oak forest.	eng
38918	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Most regions have experienced large-scale deforestation.	eng
38919	conservation	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Parts of the range are contained within protected areas.	eng
38919	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Occurring from central and southern Mexico to Guatemala.	eng
38919	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A species of montane pine-oak forest.	eng
38919	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Most regions have experienced large-scale deforestation.	eng
38920	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A scarce species of cloud forest or mesophyllous montane forest.	eng
38921	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A scarce species of pine-oak forest and mesophyllous montane forest.	eng
38922	conservation	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	There is an occurrence in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
38922	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	So far known only from Mexico but possibly also occurring in Guatemala.	eng
38922	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A tree of oak forest or mesophyllous montane forest.	eng
38923	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	The species is restricted in altitudinal range and distribution. Populations are recorded from southern Mexico and Guatemala.	eng
38923	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Occurring in dry montane scrub or pine-oak formations.	eng
38923	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	The habitat is considerably reduced by the effects of growing agriculture and pastoralism.	eng
38924	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Occurring in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala.	eng
38924	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A species of mesophyllous montane forest.	eng
38924	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	The habitat has been considerably reduced by logging, increasing agriculture and ranching.	eng
38925	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Occurring in the highlands of southern Mexico and Guatemala.	eng
38925	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A species of mesophyllous montane forest or cloud forest.	eng
38925	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	The habitat has been considerably reduced by logging, increasing agriculture and ranching.	eng
38926	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	Although it is scarce, it is relatively wide-ranging and the habitat is well represented in protected areas.	eng
38926	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A species of moist seasonal montane forest or cloud forest.	eng
38927	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A small tree rare in and locally confined to the Trinidad Mts. in the Guamuhaya Massif in Cienfuegos Province.	eng
38927	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Rainforests.	eng
38928	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A weedy tree, abundant in but confined to the Yucatán Peninsula.	eng
38928	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Semi-evergreen forest and secondary formations.	eng
38929	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The numbers of plants in cultivation, mostly located in Fairchild Tropical Garden, exceed those in the wild.	eng
38929	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A horticulturally attractive small tree, known from two populations in the wild, accounting for about 18 individuals.	eng
38929	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	One population occurs on a moist limestone hill.	eng
38929	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The population from moist limestone hill may be under potential threat from quarrying. Grazing and farming are also concerns.	eng
38930	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
38930	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Known from a single tree with four root sprouts on Cerro de Punta and a few small plants and seedlings scattered along ridge tops on Monte Jayuya in Toro Negro State Forest. The species is thought to be dioecious, although male flowers have never been observed.	eng
38930	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A small tree of cloud forest.	eng
38930	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The construction of communication towers is likely to have destroyed a large part of the original population on Cerro de Punta. Further development, road building and trampling threaten remaining plants.	eng
38932	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Only two records of the species have been made since the type specimen was collected from Cerro Pate Macho in Chiriquí Province. All records come from the same region. Although it would be possible tentatively to evaluate the species status as Critically Endangered, it may not be appropriate given that the species described by Lundell are frequently identified as synonyms.	eng
38933	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Originally collected from Cerro Punta in Chiriquí Province, the species is known from few other collections in the same region and from Cerro Azul in Panamá Province. Although no further occurrences have been identified, it is possible that subpopulations exist in the Cordillera Central in between these two areas.	eng
38933	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	It occurs in moist evergreen forest from 800 to 2,500 m and appears to be uncommon.	eng
38934	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species is known from three collections: the type from the El Llano-Cartí highway, from Cerro Campana in Altos de Campana National Park and most recently in 1982 from a collection without a named locality but with co-ordinates which fall in the middle of the ocean.	eng
38935	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Known only from the type collection, gathered from Cerro Tute in Veraguas in 1975. There are problems of identification with the members of this family in Panama and a taxonomic revision is needed.	eng
38936	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	In Chiriquí, Panama, occurring in Volcán Barú National Park, La Amistad National Park, on both the Panama and Costa Rica sides, and Fortuna Forest Reserve. It is also reported from Bocas del Toro, Panama, and in high areas of the provinces of Alajuela and Puntarenas in Costa Rica.	eng
38936	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	A common species of montane forest.	eng
38937	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	The species was described in 1971 on the basis of a single collection from Bocas del Toro in 1928. The exact locality from which the specimen was collected is not known. The family in Panama is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
38938	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species known only from two collections.	eng
38939	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	Collected only once, the species is restricted to a region which has been poorly explored until now. <em>Stylogyne</em> is known from several collections in Darién, identified as other species.	eng
38940	conservation	Mitré, M., 1998	Much of the range lies within protected areas, outside which occurrences are less common.	eng
38940	distribution	Mitré, M., 1998	A relatively common species in Panama occurring in Darién Province, Valle de Antón in Coclé, and the Canal area. In Colombia, there are populations in the Chocó and Valle de Cauca.	eng
38940	habitat	Mitré, M., 1998	Lowland seasonal rainforest.	eng
38941	conservation	Bernal, R., 1998	It is primarily found in Munchique and Farallones de Cali National Parks.	eng
38941	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Endemic to an area of approximately 200 km² in the Cordillera Occidental. It is primarily found in Munchique and Farallones de Cali National Parks.	eng
38941	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A montane rainforest species.	eng
38941	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Agricultural expansion and forest management activities are the principal causes of habitat loss.	eng
38942	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Occurring only in a few forest fragments in the Cordillera Central.	eng
38942	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A species of broadleaved montane rainforest.	eng
38942	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	Increasing pressure is felt from habitat conversion to agriculture and plantations.	eng
38943	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	A widely distributed endemic occurring in the central and eastern cordilleras.	eng
38943	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	Montane rainforest.	eng
38943	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The habitat is gradually losing way to increasing agriculture and forestry activities.	eng
38944	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti and Moorea.	eng
38945	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Occurring on the slopes of the western cordillera of Colombia.	eng
38945	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A common species of montane rainforest.	eng
38945	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The seeds are edible and exploited on a local level.	eng
38946	conservation	Dransfield, J., 1998	It is known to occur in the Entiman-Lanjak Wildlife Sanctuary, and is in cultivation at Semengoh Arboretum near Kuching, Sarawak.	eng
38946	habitat	Dransfield, J., 1998	A single-stemmed palm of lowland moist forest, often located near river banks, on slopes or in open areas.	eng
38946	threats	Dransfield, J., 1998	Forest management activities are affecting some areas within the species range.	eng
38947	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38948	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
38949	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Populations are recorded from Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Ua Huka.	eng
38950	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is only known from Niau.	eng
38951	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is only known from Nuku Hiva.	eng
38952	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is only known from Makatea.	eng
38953	distribution	Dransfield, J., 1998	A single collection is also recorded in Brunei.	eng
38953	habitat	Dransfield, J., 1998	A solitary palm of lowland moist forest, often occurring in limestone crevices.	eng
38954	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Bora Bora, Huahine, Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.	eng
38955	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
38956	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38957	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
38958	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tubuai Island.	eng
38959	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Moorea.	eng
38960	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
38961	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
38962	distribution	de Granville, J.J, 1998	An extremely rare species that occurs in the western Amazon basin and more recently two individuals were discovered on the Mont Grand Maroury, near Cayenne, French Guiana.	eng
38962	threats	de Granville, J.J, 1998	The principal threats to remaining individuals are fire and logging.	eng
38963	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raivavae.	eng
38964	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.	eng
38965	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Huahine.	eng
38966	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Raiatea.	eng
38967	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38968	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Huahine.	eng
38969	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Raiatea.	eng
38970	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.	eng
38971	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
38972	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
38973	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is endemic to Raivavae.	eng
38974	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38975	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38976	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tahiti.	eng
38977	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Tubuai.	eng
38978	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A small glabrous tree or shrub, endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
38979	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic to Nuku Hiva.	eng
38980	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Moorea and Tahiti.	eng
38981	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are recorded from Raiatea, Tahaa and Tahiti.	eng
38983	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	An endemic of Tahiti.	eng
38984	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A threatened subpopulation occurs on Raivavae in the Tubuai Group. In the Society Group there are subpopulations on Moorea, Raiatea and Tahiti.	eng
38985	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Its distribution is currently restricted to forest fragments in the middle Magdalena River valley.	eng
38985	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A lowland rainforest palm, which occurs on alluvial plains or gentle slopes.	eng
38985	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	The main threats come from increasing agriculture and forest management.	eng
38987	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species occurs on Moorea and Tahiti.	eng
38988	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The subpopulations on Tubuai and Raivavae are severely threatened. The species also apparently occurs on Rapa but is little known. In the Society Group the species only occurs on Tahiti.	eng
38989	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is known only from Tahiti.	eng
38990	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species only occurs on Raiatea.	eng
38991	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	Confined to Río Miriti-Paraná.  It has previously been listed as Endangered according to the pre-1994 IUCN Red List Categories. However, it has not been possible to attain an accurate reflection of the species' abundance and status since it is located in a remote and poorly-visited area.	eng
38991	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	The species occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
38992	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	The species is endemic to the Marquesas, occurring as a herb, shrub or small tree in Eiao, Nuku Hiva, Ua Huka, Ua Pou in the northern group and Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Mohotani in the south.	eng
38992	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	It is a strictly littoral species, occurring from sea level to 450 m on rocky beaches, cliffs and rarely in secondary forest and abandoned pasturage.	eng
38993	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Occurring in the same lagoon on the sister islands of Tahaa and Raiatea, the species is localised on the summital crest of Mt. Ohiri on the former and scattered on the plateaux of Temehani Rahi and Temehani Ute Ute on the latter. The populations are fragmented and reduced in extent.	eng
38994	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree.  Endemic to Moorea, occurring in the north. The subpopulations are small and fragmented.	eng
38994	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree, usually found in local abundance in mesophyllous open forest on crests between 420 and 800 m.	eng
38995	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Confined to a single locality in the Papenoo Valley.	eng
38995	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or tree at the edge of riverine forest.	eng
38995	threats	Florence, J., 1998	A hydroelectric project has been responsible for the destruction of large parts of the natural vegetation in the valley and the invasion of <em>Miconia calvescens</em> also presents a threat to the survival of the species.	eng
38996	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	It appears to be relatively common but never abundant.	eng
38996	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	A shrub or very small tree of mesophyllous or riverine forest, humid rocks or cliffs in mountain or littoral areas.	eng
38997	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A small tree confined to the Toovii Plateau in the central part of Nuku Hiva. Although restricted in range, the species is relatively common.	eng
38997	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	It has been collected between 710 and 1,000 m from primary riverine forest, on moist forested crests, in secondary forest and relict forest within pasture land.	eng
38998	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	A dioecious tree, restricted to the central crest of Huahine Nui, on Mts. Mato Ereere and Turi.	eng
38998	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	It is common or co-dominant in ridge forest between 390 and 669 m.	eng
38998	threats	Florence, J., 1998	There are signs of a spreading invasion of <em>Merremia peltata</em>.	eng
38999	distribution	Florence, J., 1998	Subpopulations are found on the islands of Fatu Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata.	eng
38999	habitat	Florence, J., 1998	The species occurs between 330 and 780 m in humid or riverine areas of forest or mesophyllous forest, and also in open dry rocky areas and basalt cliffs.	eng
38999	threats	Florence, J., 1998	It is relatively scarce and distributed in areas sensitive to degradation.	eng
39000	conservation	de Granville, J.J, 1998	In French Guiana, the species is found in Les Nouragues and La Trinite nature reserves.	eng
39000	distribution	de Granville, J.J, 1998	Found in the eastern Amazon basin, French Guiana (14 collections), Suriname (six collections) and Guyana (two collections).	eng
39000	habitat	de Granville, J.J, 1998	This multi-stemmed palm tree occurs in the understorey of moist forest and wetland areas.	eng
39001	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to Florida, the species ranges from Leon and Wakulla counties westward to Santa Rosa county along the southern half of the Florida Panhandle. A record in Texas appears to be a misidentification. The species is sporadic and scarce in distribution.	eng
39001	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in broadleaved or mixed forest on ravine slopes and bluffs.	eng
39001	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	It doesn't respond well to disturbance and competition with more aggressive plants.	eng
39002	distribution	de Granville, J.J, 1998	Only two specimens are known: occurring south of the Cayenne area. One has been transplanted to Orstom Botanical Garden, where it has been observed to flower. The other specimen is located close to a road.	eng
39002	habitat	de Granville, J.J, 1998	A small multi-stemmed palm found in the understorey of swamp forest.	eng
39002	threats	de Granville, J.J, 1998	The specimen located close to a road may come under threat from logging activities or clearing for settlement and agriculture.	eng
39003	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Restricted to Baracoa in eastern Cuba.	eng
39003	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare tree of montane rainforest and cloud forest.	eng
39004	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A widespread species, occurring over a wide range of altitudes, soil types and habitats.	eng
39004	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The tree is used at a local or national level as a timber and ornamental.	eng
39006	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	Confined to the Sierra Maestra.	eng
39006	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A scarce tree of lower montane rainforest.	eng
39006	threats	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The habitat has been disturbed by logging and overcutting.	eng
39007	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	known from restricted localities in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is a little more widespread in Kenya in Diani, Mrima and Witu. The Madagascan material could be genetically different.	eng
39007	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A tree of the evergreen forest.	eng
39008	distribution	Burrows, J., 1998	The species is confined to an area stretching from Namacurra to Quelimane and the Zambezi Delta.	eng
39008	habitat	Burrows, J., 1998	Scattered in woodland remnants in swampy or wetland places.	eng
39008	threats	Burrows, J., 1998	The subpopulations are unprotected and contained within a zone which is under pressure from growing human populations and their activities.	eng
39009	conservation	Evans, R., 1998	One small subpopulation is protected within Chagres National Park.	eng
39009	distribution	Evans, R., 1998	The species is known only from a few small scattered subpopulations in the vicinity of Lago Alajuela.	eng
39009	habitat	Evans, R., 1998	Occurring in lowland areas.	eng
39009	threats	Evans, R., 1998	Much of the original habitat was flooded by the construction of this artificial lake. Logging and increasing agriculture and settlements are the principal threats to remaining subpopulations.	eng
39012	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The species is endemic to Maguan in the south-east.	eng
39016	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	The species is known only from Xichou in the south-east.	eng
39017	distribution	Sun, W., 1998	An endemic to Xishuangbanna.	eng
39018	distribution	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	The conservation status of the species needs to be assessed for Hispaniola and Dominica.	eng
39018	habitat	Areces-Mallea, A.E., 1998	A rare shrub or small tree, up to 12 m tall, occurring in montane shrubwoods and rainforests.	eng
39019	distribution	Bernal, R., 1998	This species occurs in Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador.  It is particularly widespread on the Pacific slopes of Colombia and Ecuador.	eng
39019	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A lowland to montane forest palm, that reaches a height of 2-10 m.  Often found in shady areas.	eng
39020	habitat	Bernal, R., 1998	A species of montane rainforest.	eng
39020	threats	Bernal, R., 1998	In Colombia, the species is particularly under threat from habitat conversion to agriculture, but trees survive in deforested areas or coffee plantations. Regeneration is poor.	eng
39022	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A species of south-eastern New Caledonia.	eng
39022	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Occurring on serpentine soils in wet forest at an altitude of 850-880 m.	eng
39023	distribution	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A localised species of north-eastern New Caledonia.	eng
39023	habitat	Jaffré, T. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It occurs in wet forest, often on schists or mica-schists.	eng
39024	distribution	Fuller, D., 1998	A monotypic genus, restricted to Taveuni, Vanua Levu.	eng
39024	habitat	Fuller, D., 1998	Subpopulations occur on ridges and steep slopes in moist forest.	eng
39024	threats	Fuller, D., 1998	The habitat suffers some pressure from increasing agriculture and forestry activities.	eng
39025	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	A poorly known species found in only a few localities in Mindanao.	eng
39025	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	Primary forest at low altitude.	eng
39026	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	It is confined to southern Luzon.	eng
39026	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	A species of streamsides and forest at low to medium altitude.	eng
39027	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	Very scanty information is available on the species. It may be a variety of <em>A. catechu</em>. Subpopulations appear to be confined to lowland rainforest in Zambanga, Mindanao.	eng
39027	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	Lowland rainforest.	eng
39028	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	Carnarines Province in Luzon.	eng
39028	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	A species of lowland rainforest, occurring along streamsides.	eng
39028	threats	Madulid, D., 1998	The area is strongly affected by slash and burn agriculture.	eng
39029	distribution	Madulid, D., 1998	The species occurs in several localities in Luzon and Mindoro.	eng
39029	habitat	Madulid, D., 1998	Semi-swampy forest at low altitude.	eng
39029	threats	Madulid, D., 1998	Slash and burn agriculture affects most localities.	eng
39030	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	In areas where it was once noted as abundant, the species is almost extinct.	eng
39030	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is located at elevations in the dry Andean valleys and transition zones to the puna, where agricultural activity is most intense.	eng
39030	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Grazing, habitat clearing and collection as a fuelwood is affecting remaining subpopulations.	eng
39031	distribution	Ibisch, P.L. & Vargas, I., 1998	Originally described under the genus <em>Talauma</em>, the species is known only from forest in the foothills of Amboro Park and the Chapare region.	eng
39031	threats	Ibisch, P.L. & Vargas, I., 1998	Deforestation is ongoing.	eng
39032	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A recently described species, known only from very few sites in Santa Cruz. It appears to be a relict species, occurring in the outskirts of a rapidly growing city.	eng
39033	conservation	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Of the four sites, only Kaya Rabai is not legally protected.	eng
39033	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	Reportedly common in places. Populations are known from Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kaya Rabai, a locality along Mwache River and Mkongani North.	eng
39033	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	A small tree of rocky riverine areas.	eng
39033	threats	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	There is a threat of habitat degradation and increasing elephant numbers could also pose a problem.	eng
39034	conservation	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	The entire species range is contained within protected areas, although there is no enforcement of protective measures.	eng
39034	distribution	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	There are populations in Witu Forest Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve and the Shimba Hills National Reserve. It is also thought to extend into Tanzania.	eng
39034	habitat	CAMP Workshop, Kenya, 1998	A coastal shrub or small tree up to 8 m, confined to a few isolated areas of semi-deciduous lowland moist or riverine forest and dense bushland/woodland.	eng
39035	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in the state of Trengganu, in Peninsular Malaysia. It has been collected only once and little is known about its altitudinal range.	eng
39035	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This small tree or shrub is confined to rainforest.	eng
39035	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The area is under some pressure from increasing settlement.	eng
39036	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is confined to two sites in the Genting Highlands and Fraser's Hill, both in Pahang.  One of these sites is a forest reserve, which offers little protection; the other is privately owned.	eng
39036	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A small tree or shrub, found in primary montane forest.	eng
39036	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Both areas are likely to undergo tourism-related development.	eng
39037	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of lowland hill forest on steep slopes.	eng
39037	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The habitat has declined through logging and increasing settlement.	eng
39038	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Feral herbivores have been removed from San Clemente and stump-sprouting has now been observed.	eng
39038	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Restricted to the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Clemente, the subspecies is limited in occurrence.	eng
39038	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threatened in parts of its range by damage caused by grazing animals.	eng
39039	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of no recorded locality, endemic to Suriname.	eng
39040	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A species of no recorded locality, endemic to Suriname.	eng
39041	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	No locality is recorded for the species.	eng
39042	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known from the type locality in central Suriname and the Nassau Mountains.	eng
39042	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Forested slopes.	eng
39043	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is known only from the type locality at Tafelberg.	eng
39044	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	This species is endemic to an area around the upper Saramacca River.	eng
39045	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A poorly known species which has been collected only from a single locality at 1,200 m on Julianatop.	eng
39046	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic to Brownsberg.	eng
39047	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Locally abundant in places. It is endemic to Brownsberg and the Tapanahony River.	eng
39047	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An upland rainforest tree.	eng
39048	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An endemic species known only from the type locality along the Left Coppename River.	eng
39049	conservation	Reuling, M., 2008	The Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation is working with government agencies to mitigate the decline of Whitebark Pine. Some individual Whitebark Pine trees have been found to be resistant to blister rust. Seeds from these trees are being collected and propagated in nurseries then re-planted in the wild. Unfortunately these “rust resistant” trees are not immune to beetle attacks. </span>Verbenone, an anti-aggregation pheromone, has been used to protect high-value trees such as the rust resistant ones, but is not practical for widespread use in a beetle epidemic. Prescribed burns may be effective in fighting beetle attacks and are very advantageous at clearing areas for whitebark pine regeneration. However, fires are risky to undertake and politically sensitive.	eng
39049	distribution	Reuling, M., 2008	Whitebark Pine is limited in distribution to the high mountains of western <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>, where it has been present for the past 8,000 years. It occurs along high-elevation ridges, and is therefore not contiguous. Whitebark Pine forests extend longitudinally between 107°</span> and 128° West and latitudinally between 37° and 55° North (Arno and Hoff 1990, McCaughey and Schmidt 1990).&#160; In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region>, it grows along the coastal range in <st1:state w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:state> and in the Rocky Mountains in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alberta</st1:place></st1:state>.&#160; </span>In the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> the range extends from the Canadian border of the Cascade Mountains through <st1:state w:st="on">Washington</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Oregon</st1:state> to southern California and is at high altitudes throughout the Rocky Mountains of Montana, <st1:state w:st="on">Idaho</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Wyoming</st1:place></st1:state>.<br/><br/>  Many Whitebark Pine stands are geographically isolated by large intervening valleys between them (Arno and Hoff 1990). Whitebark Pine is typically found just below the alpine timberline and extends downward in elevation into associations with several other conifers.&#160; The upper elevation limits of Whitebark Pine decrease with increasing latitude.&#160; </span>It occurs as high as 3,050–3,660 m in the Sierra Nevada and 2,590–3,200 m in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Wyoming</st1:place></st1:state>; and as low as 900 m in the northern limits of its range in British Colombia (Arno and Hoff 1990).	eng
39049	habitat	Reuling, M., 2008	<p>Whitebark Pine is a keystone species of the upper subalpine ecosystem and serves several important ecological functions throughout its range, such as protecting watersheds, promoting post-fire forest regeneration, and providing an important food source for wildlife. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Whitebark Pine seeds and ungulates are considered the two most important foods of the grizzly bear. Whitebark Pine has the largest seeds of all conifers in its range, having about 52% fat by weight and a supplying high-energy food source for wildlife, particularly valuable for animals during cold weather and for bears who need a source of fat for hibernation.&#160; </span></p>	eng
39049	population	Reuling, M., 2008	The population is decreasing.	eng
39049	threats	Reuling, M., 2008	<p>Whitebark Pine is facing three major threats that are working together to reduce the population:</p>    <ol><li>White Pine Blister Rust:&#160; This disease specific to five-needled pines is caused by a fungus, <em>Cronartium ribicola,</em> which was introduced in the early 1900s. Since introduction of the fungus, blister rust has steadily spread throughout the range of Whitebark Pine and in some areas mortality has reached 90%.<br/></span></li><li> </span>Mountain Pine beetle epidemic:&#160; This native pest, <em>Dendroctonus ponderosae, </em>is at record high levels within Whitebark Pine communities.&#160; There is currently an epidemic throughout western <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place> and warming temperatures have allowed the beetles to move into normally protected high altitude forests.</li><li> </span>Fire exclusion: Stand replacement fires provide Whitebark Pine a successional advantage over other conifers because its seeds are planted by nutcrackers throughout the burned areas. Since about 1929 fire exclusion has led to extensive successional replacement of Whitebark Pine by shade-tolerant species and in some areas sampled, there are no Whitebark Pine trees under 50 years old.</li></ol>	eng
39053	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Protection is also given populations in forest reserves or protective forests under the permanent forest estate.	eng
39053	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Confined to the Genting Highlands.	eng
39053	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	The species is found in hill rainforest on sandstone between 600 and 1,500 m.	eng
39053	threats	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	There are pressures of increasing settlement and tourism development in the area.	eng
39054	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations are found in a Wildlife Sanctuary and in the protective forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
39054	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A primary species of submontane rainforest, occurring between 800 and 1,500 m.	eng
39055	conservation	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Subpopulations in Peninsular Malaysia are contained in a national park and protective forests within the permanent forest estate.	eng
39055	distribution	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	Scattered in Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia.	eng
39055	habitat	Chua, L.S.L., 1998	A species of hill forest and cloud forest.	eng
39056	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is listed in Appendix I of CITES.	eng
39056	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An arborescent aloe, endemic to southern Madagascar, where two or three subpopulations are known to occur in the Fort Dauphin region. Each subpopulation consists of less than 10 adult individuals. No regeneration has been observed.	eng
39056	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thorny bush on sandy shores.	eng
39057	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species has been cultivated from wild seed, but fewer than six reared plants exist in nurserys in Madagascar. The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
39057	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	An arborescent aloe confined to the Amboasary region and Itampolo in south and south-west Madagascar. Only a few adult individuals are known in each subpopulation and there is no evidence of regeneration.	eng
39057	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Thorny bush on sandy shores.	eng
39058	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	It is widely ranging throughout India up to the sub Himalayas.	eng
39058	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A small tree of open waste land and degraded places.	eng
39058	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	The flowers are traded for use in ayurvedic formulations and the species is grown in numerous gardens.	eng
39059	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Attempts at propagation have failed.	eng
39059	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is confined to the central region of Jalcomulco, Rinconada, Plan del Rio and Sierra de Manuel Diaz on karst topography. The forest is fragmented and widely disturbed. There is evidence of natural regeneration.	eng
39059	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Occurring in a range of forest types from evergreen rainforest to more deciduous forest.	eng
39060	conservation	Vovides, A.P., 1998	There is great interest in the species as an ornamental and cuttings have been propagated at Xalapa Botanic Garden.	eng
39060	distribution	Vovides, A.P., 1998	This shrub or small tree is now confined to a single locality near Mozomboa in the Sierra de Manuel Diaz, where about 500 individuals survive.	eng
39060	habitat	Vovides, A.P., 1998	On rocky shallow soils.	eng
39060	threats	Vovides, A.P., 1998	The only evident regeneration is vegetative from stolons.	eng
39061	distribution	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	A cloud forest species with a wide range, extending from northern Mexico through Central America.	eng
39061	habitat	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	It is mainly found in the upper ranges of cloud forest, penetrating into pine-oak forest, between 1,900 and 2,250 m.	eng
39061	threats	Ramirez-Marcial, N. & González-Espinosa, M., 1998	The timber is exploited and the habitat has declined significantly.	eng
39062	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Occurring in central India and Orissa, Gujarat and Maharashtra. About 20 fragmented populations are known within a range of less than 20,000 km². It is not known if population or habitat declines have taken place.	eng
39062	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	A small tree of dry deciduous forest.	eng
39063	distribution	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Information from India indicates the species has declined by 50% in population numbers in the last 10 years. Fewer than 20 locations are known in northeastern India. More information is needed on the subpopulation status in Myanmar.	eng
39063	habitat	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Evergreen forest between 200 and 800 m (India).	eng
39063	threats	CAMP Workshops on Medicinal Plants, India, 1998	Oil is harvested from the fruits and traded locally.	eng
39064	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	Endemic to Pondoland in southern KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Transkei area of the Eastern Cape.	eng
39064	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	A shrub or rarely a small straggling tree. It occurs on sandstone outcrops on the rocky banks and beds of rivers and streams.	eng
39064	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C. <i>et al.</i>, 1998	It is present in most of the protected areas in the region and also many of the demarcated forest areas in the Transkei, which are ineffectively protected and under threat of losing their habitat through cutting for firewood and timber and increasing settlement. Agricultural activities upstream have also caused habitat loss through the siltation of rivers.	eng
39068	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A once-abundant tree which has reduced in area of occupancy from 24 million ha to 1.6 million ha in 1985. Subpopulations continue to become increasingly scattered and restricted to parks and reserves.	eng
39068	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Areas where the species once occurred have been taken over by plantations of <em>P. taeda</em> and <em>P. elliottii</em>.	eng
39112	conservation	Tye, A., 2000	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
39146	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	This taxon is now rare in Cuba because of past overexploitation. It is technically extinct in Haiti and is rarely seen in the Bahamas. Of all trees in the Blue Mountains in Jamaica, this is considered to be under the most direct threat. It has a local and scattered distribution, mostly on steep slopes.  Regeneration is spasmodic and young trees frequently colonise exposed sites and landslides.	eng
39146	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Exploitation for fuelwood and timber. In the Blue Mountains it occurs most commonly on southern slopes, where deforestation is prevalent and once remote populations are now accessible by road.	eng
39148	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Like <em>T. jackii</em> this taxon is confined to heavily populated areas. Habitat degradation and destruction have been considerable	eng
39150	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Occurrences are recorded from Morne la Selle and Morne la Visite, although the latter subpopulation is now thought to be extinct.	eng
39151	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Viable populations were recorded in 1984 in Pic la Selle. Since then attempts to find this shrubby taxon have failed. It appears to be reduced to inaccessible areas.	eng
39151	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Much of its habitat has been destroyed.	eng
39154	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Some collections were made in the following protected areas: El Trunfo Reserve, Reserva de la Biósfera El Cielo, Cuenca Hidrografica del Rio Necaxa and Pico Pijol Reserves in Mexico and Honduras.	eng
39154	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Mexico (Chiapas, Jalisco, Puebla, Tamaulipas, Veracruz); El Salvador; Guatemala (Huehuetenango); Honduras. Although reported from El Salvador and Guatemala, no herbarium collections were seen by the assessors from these countries, and only one from Honduras. This indicates two major disjunct subpopulations (possibly three): in eastern Mexico (possibly disjunct from western Mexico) and in Chiapas through to Honduras.	eng
39154	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Found in mixed pine forest, pine-oak forest (along stream beds), montane rain forest and evergreen cloud forest. Elevation based on data on herbarium labels is 1,050 to 2,418 m, GIS based calculations indicate it could occur as low as 250 m above sea-level, but due to the method of calculation (average of altitudes in the 1 km<sup>2</sup> in which the specimen has been reported; the exact location is often inferred from information given on the herbarium label and may be farther out than 1 km) this would need verification. This species is utilized for timber.	eng
39154	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There are no indications of population sizes; generally, trees of this genus in the area are scattered and confined to moist sites or stream beds.	eng
39154	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Logging and deforestation, habitat degradation.	eng
39155	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The status of this widely occurring forest taxon is affected by slow growth rates, infrequent regeneration, poor seed dispersal and predation by rats. Forest clearing and habitat modification have also contributed to population declines.	eng
39156	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Coastal Oregon, Sutton Lake Swamp Preserve.  Known from two localities, but has been refound recently at only one of these. It has been extensively looked for in the region, but no new locality has been found.	eng
39156	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Near a road adjacent to a lake on wet rotten wood, leaf litter, etc.	eng
39156	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Housing development, water pollution, earthquake-related subsidence, and human-induced changes in hydrology are the primary threats.	eng
39157	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two localities in North Auckland.	eng
39157	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On coastal rocks.	eng
39157	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Human activities.	eng
39158	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from the type collection made in 1911 in Santa Cruz Cordillera.	eng
39158	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic in forest.	eng
39158	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The forest of the type locality and vicinity has been logged and cultivated over the years.	eng
39159	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from a few localities in Siberia in Altai Mountains and Western Sayan Mountains.	eng
39159	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On rotten old logs in Pinus-Larix forest.	eng
39159	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The old-growth forest is fast-disappearing.	eng
39160	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Less than five known localities in Madeira.	eng
39160	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On moist and dripping volcanic rocks in shaded streams in Laurus forest.	eng
39160	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat threatened by the recent logging and clearing of Laurus forest for agricultural development and pasture land.	eng
39161	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from two localities in the western coastal region of the Andean foothills.	eng
39161	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On trees in humid premontane forests.	eng
39161	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation and over-collecting.	eng
39162	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two collections in Uttar Pradesh.	eng
39162	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On montane forest soil.	eng
39162	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Human activities.	eng
39163	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from only one locality in Cornwall. In recent years, the population is known to have disappeared from one of the three original sites.	eng
39163	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The species is known from copper mine waste in a granite area.  Plants grow on compacted, well-drained peaty, loamy or gravelly soil where the vegetation is sparse and open.	eng
39163	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat is threatened by encroachment of rank vegetation and excessive human disturbance, for example from vehicular activity.	eng
39164	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from a few localities in South Georgia and part of Fuegian Island.	eng
39164	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Associated with <em>Sphagnum</em> in boggy areas.	eng
39164	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Increasing human activities.	eng
39165	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from three small localities in Sichuan, Daliang-shan at Yanyuan; Lungdschu-shan at Huili and Yunnan, Lidjiang.	eng
39165	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Submerged in clean, flowing rivers.	eng
39165	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The natural vegetation at the sites is seriously disturbed today by a growing human population, deforestation and industrialisation which cause rivers to be heavily blocked with silt.	eng
39166	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only one locality remains in Texas, Edwards County.	eng
39166	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Growing on boulders in calcareous spring water.	eng
39166	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The calcareous spring habitat is unusual and is easily degraded by settlements, dam constructions, and water pollution.	eng
39167	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Less than ten known localities on five islands in the Azores.	eng
39167	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On rocks in forested, deeply shaded ravines and craters above 500 m altitude.	eng
39167	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Because of changes in land policy the Laurel forest habitat is threatened by logging activities.	eng
39168	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Confined to less than five localities in northwestern Madeira.	eng
39168	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On stones in deep and narrow valleys among shading ferns.	eng
39168	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Natural forest habitat is potentially threatened by changing land uses.	eng
39169	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from less than five localities in the mountains of northern Luzon.	eng
39169	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic on trees in montane mossy forests.	eng
39169	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat has been disturbed for decades by agricultural expansion, logging and mining operations.	eng
39170	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	South-eastern area at the foot of the Andes along Rio Bombonasa in Amazonia.  Known only from the type collected in 1857.	eng
39170	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Submerged in flowing rivers in rainforest.	eng
39170	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The forest in the area has been disturbed.	eng
39171	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from the type collection in Witpütz.	eng
39171	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On quartzite outcrops in dwarf succulent shrublands.	eng
39171	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The small locality is surrounded by diamond mines. The threat is resulting from these mining activities that may be on the increase.	eng
39172	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Four localities in the States of Querétaro and Zacatecas. One of the locality in Zacatecas may have been destroyed by human interference.	eng
39172	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On soil-covered rocks in dry lands.	eng
39172	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitats are threatened by farmland expansion and housing.	eng
39173	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Cerro Arizona, Veraquas Province.  Not known outside the type locality.	eng
39173	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic in tree crowns in elfin cloud forest.	eng
39173	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Rapid deforestation is threatening habitat of this species.	eng
39174	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Know only from the type collection made in 1932 in Sarawak.	eng
39174	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic on rotten logs and lianas inside primary lowland rainforests.	eng
39174	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Logging.	eng
39175	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from one locality in the Nizke Tatry Mountains.	eng
39175	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On granite stones in streams at subalpine elevation.	eng
39175	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Human activities.	eng
39176	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from between five and seven localities in Russian Far East near Khabarovsk, however, fewer than five of these localities are recent.	eng
39176	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	In mixed deciduous forest.	eng
39176	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Forests seriously threatened by on-going economic development.	eng
39177	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only one locality in Mayotte.	eng
39177	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On boulders in mesic evergreen forest.	eng
39177	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Excessive logging.	eng
39178	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from a single locality in Uttar Kanad, formerly North Kanara, District of Karnataka State.	eng
39178	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Rheophyte attached to rocks in a fast flowing stream.	eng
39178	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Rapid destruction of forests due to population expansion.	eng
39179	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Formerly known from Ontario, Hastings County.  Known only from the type and two other collections made in the same general locality between 1862 and 1864.	eng
39179	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Formerly found on elms in a swamp.	eng
39180	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Last recorded subpopulations were in Montevideo in Uruguay and Isla Recreo in Argentina.  But it is not currently known from any locality.  The old collections were made more than 100 years ago. The genus <em>Orthotrichum</em> may be under-recorded in southern South America, and therefore more field work is needed to confirm its extent and population size.	eng
39180	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On trees near human settlements.	eng
39180	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Heavy urbanization.	eng
39181	conservation	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Protection of the host trees through management agreements and the establishment of areas of minimal <br/>intervention would be useful measures for the conservation of this species.	eng
39181	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found in 15 countries, in mountainous areas, under submediterranean and continental climate throughout Europe. However, except for Spain and Portugal, its distribution is based mostly on old reports and it is considered endangered or extinct in several countries. The number of present sub-regions may be less than 10. In Portugal two new localities in the same 10 km grid square have been reported. The Portuguese localities are restricted to a glacial valley from the <br/>central part of Serra da Estrela. In the rest of Europe, this taxon has been little reported, and its presence in Spain has been only recently substantiated (Garilleti <em>et al</em>. 1999). It exhibits important populations in central Pyrenees, but outside these mountains, it is only known from a single locality in NW Spain, where it is very scarce. Portuguese localities of Serra da Estrela represent the southern border of <em>O. scanicum</em> distribution range in Western Europe. However, unpublished data from recent prospecting of different Mediterranean countries reveal that <em>O. scanicum</em> is not as rare as it has been considered to be. Recorded from altitudes ranging from 0 to 1,600 m.	eng
39181	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	It occurs on trunk and branches of conifers as well as broad-leaf deciduous trees. Very rare on rocks <br/>(Garilleti <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
39181	population	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Its overall range is declining in Europe.  Many local subpopulations are now extinct. It seems to have abundant populations in some mountains of the Mediterranean basin (from an unpublished paper by F. Lara, R. Garilleti, V. Mazimpaka, C. Sérgio and C. Garcia).	eng
39181	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Threatened by the felling of host trees and by air pollution and tourism action.	eng
39182	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from a single locality in Kansas.	eng
39182	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Strongly calcareous, porous rock outcrop ledges charged with moisture, surrounded by prairie.	eng
39182	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Cattle grazing and human disturbance.	eng
39183	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from three counties in Kansas.	eng
39183	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Quartz pebbles in sandy Pleistocene gravel covered partly by the persistent protonema of this species.	eng
39183	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Because of its rarity, the populations are now severely threatened by over collection and also by cattle grazing in the area.	eng
39185	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from two localities in Sagara Ridge of West Usambara Mts. and Uzungwe Mts.	eng
39185	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyte on branches in mossy montane forest.	eng
39185	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Illegal deforestation.	eng
39186	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Less than ten localities are known in Honshu.  It has disappeared from at least one of these (the type locality) by cutting of host trees.  The others are only small colonies.	eng
39186	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Grows on the bark of <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> (it may occasionally also grow on the bark of pines; <em>Pinus</em> spp.) in gardens of Buddhist temples, shinto shrines and old castles.	eng
39186	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The subpopulation at the type locality has disappeared because the trees have been felled or damaged by typhoons.  At the remaining sites the growth is threatened by tree removal, most of the sites being very close to human settlements.	eng
39187	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Less than five localities in Oaxaca State.	eng
39187	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On tree bark in forested ravines in cloud forest belt (3,000–3,200 m).	eng
39187	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from one small region which is heavily disturbed and where large areas of forest have been felled recently.	eng
39189	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found in Nepal, Sikkim, Xizang, Yunnan and Aleutian Islands (the largest subpopulation).	eng
39189	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On shaded, damp cliffs and very wet ground with late snow cover.	eng
39189	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Human activities.	eng
39190	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	This species is restricted to less than five locations in Madeira.	eng
39190	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	It has been recorded in permanently wet habitats, such as dripping rocks or waterfalls above 1,000 m.	eng
39190	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The main threat to the species is the expansion of agriculture and grazing.	eng
39191	conservation	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The only locality is in a nature reserve.	eng
39191	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only one locality in Derbyshire, England.	eng
39191	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Shaded cliff beside a calcareous spring or on limestone in a stream.	eng
39191	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	This species is sensitive to disturbance from a possible new footpath, rock-climbers and cavers, collection by bryologists. Any pollution of the spring in which it grows may also threaten it. Possibly the greatest threat is desiccation caused by extensive periods of drought when the spring does not flow.	eng
39192	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Western Himalayas: Himchal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.  Recorded from several localities at 1,000–2,500 m a.s.l., but has disappeared from some of them.	eng
39192	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Moist rocks between 1,000 and 2,500 m	eng
39198	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two localities in Sikkim and one in Nepal.	eng
39198	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic on bark in montane forest at 3,650–4,000 m.	eng
39198	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.  Therefore, following the precautionary principle, we consider it important to highlight the species on the Red List.	eng
39199	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Several old localities are known but it has disappeared from most of these in Europe; very few sites are unspoiled today except for several recently found sites in northern Asia (Siberia, Chukotka, Kamchatka, Manchuria) where it may be more common than is currently known.	eng
39199	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	In fens and mires.	eng
39199	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destruction by drainage, flooding for reservoirs, forest planting and cattle grazing.	eng
39200	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Taiwan, five localities; Yunnan; Bhutan, one locality;  recently found in East Nepal.  A subspecies <em>villosum</em> Schust. has recently been separated and the Himalayan (and probably also the Yunnan) specimens belong to this subspecies. while the subpopulations on Taiwan belong to subspecies <em>speciosum</em>.	eng
39200	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	In Taiwan occurring on forest floor at 2,000–2,400 m asl.  In Bhutan on a damp mossy log in a shady ravine in wet mixed broad-leaved forest.	eng
39201	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Southern Japan. Formerly known from three localities. It is currently known only from one of these sites.	eng
39201	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyte in evergreen forest.	eng
39201	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation of evergreen forest in the vicinity and the subsequent changes in humidity and light conditions.	eng
39202	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	South part of New Caledonia.  Known only from three localities within a small area, 580–880 m a.s.l.	eng
39202	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On rotten logs and bark in moist forest.	eng
39202	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.  Since neither sexual nor asexual reproduction has been found the future of this species is by no means assured.	eng
39203	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from only one locality in the southern part of Bhutan.	eng
39203	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On crumbling shaded rock faces in subtropical forest.	eng
39203	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation and other human activities.	eng
39204	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only known from the type specimen in Zhejiang province.	eng
39204	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Humid forest, 300 m a.s.l.	eng
39204	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destruction caused by rapid development resulting from growth in the tourism industry.	eng
39206	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Three localities in East Nepal and one in Bhutan.	eng
39206	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On trunks of <em>Juniperus</em> in damp <em>Abies</em>/<em>Juniperus</em> forests.	eng
39206	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39207	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from five localities.	eng
39207	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On tree trunks in montane Araucaria forests.	eng
39207	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39208	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from the type collection.	eng
39208	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On tree bark in humid rainforest, 450 m a.s.l.	eng
39208	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destroyed by a hurricane.	eng
39210	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Kalimantan and two localities in Sarawak.	eng
39210	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Submontane rainforest.	eng
39210	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39211	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Canary Islands and Madeira.	eng
39211	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On wet shaded rocks in evergreen forests.	eng
39211	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39212	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two localities and not seen since 1938.	eng
39213	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Kola Peninsula, one old locality which probably was destroyed, and S. Siberia, four more recent localities.	eng
39213	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On acidic boulders in dry habitats.	eng
39213	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Small distribution area.	eng
39214	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only known from the type locality in West Sepik Province.	eng
39214	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On fallen trunks in undisturbed tropical rainforest, 800–1,050 m asl.	eng
39214	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Mining of copper and logging activities.	eng
39215	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	One locality in Yunnan and one in Bhutan.	eng
39215	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	In Yunnan, on plant stems in monsoon forest and in Bhutan on a damp mossy log in a shaded ravine in wet mixed broad-leaved forest.	eng
39215	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39216	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	In eight localities in Western Himalayas: Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.  However, six of them are old and probably destroyed.  During fieldtrips in 1988 and 1991 it was found at only two localities.	eng
39216	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On muddy exposed slopes, moist rocks and seeping cliffs, 2,000?2,950 m.	eng
39216	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destruction (road construction) and sparse reproduction.	eng
39217	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The only two recent localities are found in Austria.	eng
39217	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Clay–loam soils in open areas.  Seems to be restricted to crop fields (primary habitat unknown).	eng
39217	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Its habitat has undergone drastic changes due to changes in agricultural practices.	eng
39218	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Taiwan, Central Japan, Ryukyu and Bonin Islands, and Kusaie.	eng
39218	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On tree-trunks or rocks in temperate evergreen forest.	eng
39218	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation and forest degradation.	eng
39219	conservation	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	One locality (Cocos Islands) in a nature reserve.	eng
39219	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Three localities on the mainland and one recently found in a nature reserve on Cocos Island.	eng
39219	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphytic on trunks in rainforest.	eng
39219	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Few localities makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
39220	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Four localities in the Orient province in east Cuba.	eng
39220	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On bark and rotten logs in undisturbed lower montane rainforest.	eng
39220	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39221	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found in less than five localities at the foot of Mt. Roraima.	eng
39221	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On rotten logs in periodically flooded, riverine forest and in dense, submontane "mossy" forest between 550 and 1,550 m.	eng
39221	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Small distribution area.	eng
39223	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Western Himalayas: Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, 1,000–2,700 m asl.	eng
39223	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Exposed soil.	eng
39223	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destruction due to urbanization.	eng
39224	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two localities in Southeast of the country (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States).  Not found since 1922.	eng
39224	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous in old-growth rainforest.	eng
39224	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39225	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from the type specimen found in 1957 in Chocó Department.	eng
39225	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous in old-growth lowland rainforest.	eng
39225	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Habitat destruction.	eng
39226	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only one extant locality known in El Ríos Department, western Ecuador.	eng
39226	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The original habitat was lowland evergreen forest, however, today remaining just on the trunks of five old cocoa trees in a site close to remnant natural forest in the bottom of a narrow valley and influenced by periodically inundation.	eng
39226	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Destruction of nearby lowland evergreen forest.	eng
39227	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from the type collection in Cauca Department.	eng
39227	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous in montane forest.	eng
39227	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39228	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Along the Rio Topo in the Amazonian sector.  Known only from the type collection made in 1857.  Recent efforts to relocate the species have been unsuccessful.	eng
39228	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On twigs of shrubs located near streams in undisturbed rainforest areas, about 1,000 m.	eng
39228	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation and deterioration of water courses.	eng
39229	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found only once since 1900 (1996) on Réunion island.  The only locations previous to that are in Northern Madagascar.	eng
39229	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyte in rainforest.	eng
39230	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only known from the type specimen.	eng
39230	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous.	eng
39230	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39232	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Less than five localities.	eng
39232	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Dead wood in lowland to submontane forest.	eng
39232	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation of the lowland rain forest.	eng
39233	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from two nearby localities in east Usambara Mountains.	eng
39233	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous on ferns in mountain forests.	eng
39233	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39234	conservation	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Two recent localities in mainland China are in protected reserve.	eng
39234	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from the type locality in Taiwan (not seen since 1934) and two recently discovered localities in mainland China (Zhejiang province).	eng
39234	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous and epiphytic on trunks in forest.	eng
39234	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39235	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Two localities in Northern Madagascar.	eng
39235	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On bark of stems and dead wood in undisturbed lowland rainforest.	eng
39235	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation.	eng
39236	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found in less than five localities in Northeast Madagascar and the Seychelles.	eng
39236	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On bark in lowland rainforest.	eng
39237	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	It is currently known from three localities in Belize and Costa Rica.  Four old records are known from Guatemala, Belize and Panama.	eng
39237	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Shade epiphyte in undisturbed wet lowland rainforest.	eng
39237	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39238	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known from three localities in Luzon island.	eng
39238	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Epiphyllous in evergreen forest.	eng
39238	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Extensive logging and agricultural expansion.	eng
39241	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	East Madeira in a restricted area.	eng
39241	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On volcanic deposits near cliffs exposed to the sea.	eng
39241	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39242	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Found in Southern California.  Previously known only from the immediate vicinity of San Diego (eight subpopulations in less than five localities in a small area), but recently found in a reserve 110 km to the north.	eng
39242	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On soil in extremely xeric conditions.	eng
39242	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Rapid and intense urban development.	eng
39243	conservation	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The recently discovered new locality is in an ecological reserve without any immediate human threat.	eng
39243	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	California: Known from seven localities within one small region around San Diego (some of them, however, having been recently destroyed), plus a recent one on Santa Rosa Plateau, approximately 110 km north of the localities around San Diego.	eng
39243	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Under shade of coastal sage brush.  Appears to be associated with <em>Geothallus tuberosus</em>.	eng
39243	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Most localities are within urbanised areas and are therefore threatened by urban development.	eng
39244	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Only known from the type locality in Tasmania.	eng
39244	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On rotten logs in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus delegatensis</em>.	eng
39244	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Although the threats to this species are not well understood, it is clearly extremely rare, and grows in a generally threatened area and habitat.	eng
39245	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Known only from four localities.  Germany (2 sites in Bayern), Austria (RE), Switzerland (RE), Japan (1 site in Honshu), and China (1 site in Sichuan).	eng
39245	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	On wet cliffs in wooded ravines and on tree trunks in deciduous forest in mountains.	eng
39245	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Seems to be very sensitive to subtle changes of habitat conditions, for example changes caused by air pollution.	eng
39246	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Confined to very few localities in Plateau de Dogny, Forêt de Tao, and Mt Panie.	eng
39246	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Growing on rocks in small streams in shaded forest between 730 m and 1,200 m.	eng
39246	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Pollution of stream water.	eng
39247	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Few localities in southwestern Tasmania.	eng
39247	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Buried in wet sandy soil in alluvial wash sites.	eng
39247	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Uncontrolled, intensive burning of the sedge vegetation.	eng
39248	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	This species is only known from a single locality on Tenerife in the Canary Islands.	eng
39248	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	The plant grows submerged on rocks in a waterfall.	eng
39248	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, although a change in waterflow or pollution of the river is a potential threat to the species.	eng
39249	distribution	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	This species is endemic to the state of Sao Paulo (southeast Brazil) and known from only three localities, two from the 19th century and one from 1975.	eng
39249	habitat	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	A rheophyte, occurring in and along rivers.	eng
39249	threats	Bryophyte Specialist Group, 2000	Deforestation and deterioration of water courses due to hydroelectric schemes and water pollution.	eng
39250	conservation	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	In Canada, three National Parks (Kluane, Nahanni and Ivvavik), covering 36,976 km², protect <em>ca.</em> 3,200 Dall’s sheep (i.e., <em>ca.</em> 12% of the estimated total Canadian population) from industrial development and sport-hunting. Territorial wildlife reserves include no provision for habitat protection, but <em>ca.</em> 2,700 Dall’s sheep within these reserves are off limits to non-aboriginal hunters. Protected areas in British Columbia are strictly managed to allow a limited harvest of thinhorn sheep. Management of thinhorn sheep populations involves regulating annual licensed harvests, habitat enhancement (usually through burning), limited predator control, and involvement in the environmental screening process with respect to access, mining, forestry and agriculture on crown land. Aboriginal peoples are permitted by Yukon and Northwest Territories Acts (1898) to hunt thinhorn sheep for subsistence purposes within and outside national and territorial parks, and wildlife reserves. Similar treaty rights were granted to aboriginal people in northeastern British Columbia in 1906. A recent federal court ruling in British Columbia has inferred that all Canadian Indians have subsistence rights, subject to conservation considerations. Outside national parks, licensed harvest of thinhorn sheep is regulated by territorial or provincial wildlife acts and associated regulations. Status Indians are not required to possess a hunting license. Only in Yukon is the aboriginal sheep harvest systematically estimated, and overall, it is believed to be minimal. Adult males with horns of 4/5 curl (Northwest Territories) or full curl (Yukon and British Columbia) can be hunted by non-aboriginal hunters under license, with mandatory reporting of kills. Wildlife regulations can be amended annually with ministerial consent, and are strictly enforced. Typically, trends in the number and age of males killed by licensed hunters provide the basis for more restrictive management. Quotas or limited-entry hunting, that set a ceiling on the harvest or ‘which restrict hunting opportunities, have been implemented in some areas to further control hunting pressure. The licensed annual harvest of thinhorn sheep typically averages 280 in Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), 200 in the Northwest Territories (Poole and Graf, 1985) and 500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, unpubl. data). Guided, non-resident hunters account for about 70% of the total licensed thinhorn sheep harvest.<br/><br/>In the United States, Dall’s sheep occurs in eight Federal protected areas in Alaska: Denali, Gates of the Arctic, Lake Clark, Noatak, and Wrangell-St. Elias National Parks; Arctic, Kenai, and Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuges; and Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve. Seven of these areas are among the largest such reserves in the United States. About 70% of all Dall’s sheep in Alaska occur in hunted areas. Most harvest is regulated by the state, though federal regulations are being used for some federal lands. Under Alaska Department of Fish and Game regulations, most harvesting of Dall’s sheep is conservative, with only mature males being hunted. Dall’s sheep are prized as big game trophies. Primarily males are hunted, with around 1,200 to 1,300 mature males taken each year. Native subsistence hunting is allowed in some areas and may threaten local populations. The Department monitors populations, and with other agencies, conducts research on the species. Dall’s sheep is rated secure in the US because it is abundant, widely distributed throughout its native range, and occurs in many areas protected such as national parks, preserves, and wildlife refuges.	eng
39250	distribution	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	This species is found in the United States (Alaska), through to northern British Columbia, Yukon, and Northwest Territories (Canada). <br/><br/>Thinhorn sheep are represented by two subspecies in Canada. Dall’s sheep (<em>O. d. dalli</em>) occurs west of the Mackenzie River throughout the Richardson and the Mackenzie mountains on the Yukon-Northwest Territories border, throughout the mountainous regions in Yukon, and south into the extreme northwest corner of British Columbia. Stone’s sheep (<em>O. d. stonei</em>) is found only in Canada, and here its range extends from an area of integration with Dall’s sheep in south-central Yukon (Cassiar and Pelly mountains, MacArthur ranges, and White Mountains), south to the Cassiar range (<em>ca.</em> 56° N) in British Columbia. In Alaska, Dall’s sheep occupies drier areas of the Kenai, Chugach, Wrangell, and Talkeeetna mountains, and the Alaska and Brooks ranges. Scattered populations also occur in the low mountains between the Tanana and Yukon rivers. Separate herds are not usually identified in these large areas.  A recent genetic analysis has confirmed the presence of two subspecies (Worley <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
39250	habitat	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	This species has broad habitat preferences in the arctic and sub-arctic regions but occurs mostly in high mountain ranges. They typically inhabit dry mountainous regions and select subalpine grasslands and shrublands (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992). They are dependent upon steep, rugged cliffs and outcrops that provide escape terrain from predators. They use nearby open grass and meadows for feeding. In winter they prefer areas with light snowfall and strong winds that remove snow and expose forage (Nichols and Bunnell, 1999). Most populations occupy distinct summer and winter ranges, although some are sedentary. Migrations are correlated with snow depth, temperature and plant phenology. Most of the year is spent in the winter range in wind-swept areas that expose forage (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).<br/><br/>Adult males can occupy six seasonal home ranges: pre-rutting, rutting, midwinter, late winter and spring, salt-lick, and summer (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992). Females usually have four ranges: winter, spring, lambing, and summer. Lambs inherit home ranges from older individuals and they return annually to these inherited ranges (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).There seems to be no competition with other ungulates in their ranges for food or space. Wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) prey on the sheep in regions where their ranges overlap and may decrease the populations severely if no other prey is available. Coyotes (<em>Canis latrans</em>), golden eagles (<em>Aquila chrysaetos), grizzly bears (<em>Ursus arctos</em>), and wolverines (<em>Gulo gulo</em>) are also predators. Deaths from accidental falls and avalanches are also common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Deep snow, low temperatures, high population density, disease, low-quality forage, and predation are primary sources of mortality, especially among lambs (Bowyer and Leslie, 1992).	eng
39250	population	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	The total population of thinhorn sheep in Canada is <em>ca.</em> 41,500 animals. Of this total, 27,000 are Dall’s sheep (with 19,000 in the Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), 7,500 in the Northwest Territories (Poole and Graf, 1985; unpubl. data), and 500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, <em>in litt.</em> to D. Hebert)), and 14,500 Stone’s sheep (with 3,000 in the Yukon (Hoefs and Barichello, 1985), and 11,500 in British Columbia (J. Elliot, <em>in litt.</em> to D. Hebert)). The total U.S. population is estimated at 70,000 to 75,000 animals.	eng
39250	threats	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	This species is primarily affected by hunting, both for sport and subsistence, but for the most part this is tightly managed, and hunting is not believed to constitute an overall threat to the species.	eng
39255	conservation	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, 2006	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>balcanica</em> is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and subspecies <em>tatrica</em> is listed on Annexes II* and IV. Chamois occur in a number of protected areas. Subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> has been subject to intensive conservation management, including reintroductions. Detailed conservation recommendations are given in Shackleton (1997). In general, conservation recommendations that apply to all subspecies include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and awareness-raising, and provision of alternative livelihoods where necessary), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and protecting the genetic integrity of populations (by avoiding translocations of 'foreign' subspecies that could hybridise with the local population) (Shackleton 1997). Monitoring of all subspecies is required, especially those that are rare and/or declining. <br/><br/>To protect the High Tatras subspecies, Jurdíková (2000) recommends reducing illegal hunting (by closing and guarding parts of the western Tatra mountains). <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> introduced into Slovakia (e.g. the Lower Tatras National Park) should be removed as they pose a threat to the wild population of <em>R. r. tatrica</em> (Shackleton 1997).	eng
39255	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and subspecies <em>tatrica</em> is listed on Annexes II* and IV. Chamois occur in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> has been subject to intensive conservation management, including r-eintroductions. Detailed conservation recommendations for the species were given in Shackleton (1997). In general, conservation recommendations that apply to all subspecies include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and awareness-raising, and provision of alternative livelihoods where necessary), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and protecting the genetic integrity of populations (by avoiding translocations of 'foreign' subspecies that could hybridise with the local population) (Shackleton 1997). Monitoring of all subspecies is required, especially those that are rare and/or declining. <br/><br/>To protect the High Tatras subspecies, Jurdíková (2000) recommends reducing illegal hunting (by closing and guarding parts of the western Tatra mountains). <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> introduced into Slovakia (e.g. the Lower Tatras National Park) should be removed as they pose a threat to the wild population of <em>R. r. tatrica</em> (Shackleton 1997).	eng
39255	conservation	Masseti, M., Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and subspecies <em>tatrica</em> is listed on Annexes II* and IV. Chamois occur in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> has been subject to intensive conservation management, including r-eintroductions. Detailed conservation recommendations for the species were given in Shackleton (1997). In general, conservation recommendations that apply to all subspecies include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and awareness-raising, and provision of alternative livelihoods where necessary), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and protecting the genetic integrity of populations (by avoiding translocations of 'foreign' subspecies that could hybridise with the local population) (Shackleton 1997). Monitoring of all subspecies is required, especially those that are rare and/or declining. <br/><br/>To protect the High Tatras subspecies, Jurdíková (2000) recommends reducing illegal hunting (by closing and guarding parts of the western Tatra mountains). <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> introduced into Slovakia (e.g. the Lower Tatras National Park) should be removed as they pose a threat to the wild population of <em>R. r. tatrica</em> (Shackleton 1997).	eng
39255	distribution	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, 2006	The Alpine chamois is native to mountainous parts of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor, where it occurs as  seven subspecies: <em>balcanica</em>, <em>carpatica</em>, <em>cartusiana</em>, <em>rupicapra</em>, <em>tatrica</em>, <em>asiatica </em>and <em>caucasica</em>(Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). It has been introduced to Argentina and New Zealand. Subspecies <em>balcanica</em> inhabits most of the mountain regions of Albania, as well as Bulgaria's four main massifs. In Greece, it is currently restricted to 11 mountains, and comprising at least six distinct and widely scattered population groups from Mount Rodopi in the northeast and the Epirus mountains in the northwest, to Mount Giona in central Greece (Shackleton 1997). Subspecies <em>carpatica</em> occurs in many populations throughout the Transylvania alps and the Carpathian mountains. There have been a number of successful reintroductions (Shackleton 1997). Subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> is endemic to France, where it is restricted to a 350 km<sup>2 </sup>area of the Chartreuse limestone massif, centred around Grenoble, at the western edge of the French Alps. Subspecies <em>rupicapra </em>is found in the Alps of Austria, Germany, and eastern France, and subspecies <em>tatrica </em>occurs in the Tatra mountains of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, it has also been introduced to the Low Tatras (Shackleton 1997). <em>R. r. asiatica </em>occurs in Asia Minor and <em>R. r. caucasica </em>has a restricted range in the Caucasus. It occurs from 500 m to 3,100 m in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
39255	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The northern chamois is native to mountainous parts of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor, where it occurs as  seven subspecies: <em>balcanica</em>, <em>carpatica</em>, <em>cartusiana</em>, <em>rupicapra</em>, <em>tatrica</em>, <em>asiatica </em>and <em>caucasica</em>(Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). It occurs from 500 m to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002). It has been introduced to Argentina and New Zealand (not mapped). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>asiatica </em>occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> inhabits most of the mountain regions of Albania, as well as Bulgaria's four main massifs. In Greece, it is currently restricted to 11 mountains, and comprising at least six distinct and widely scattered population groups from Mount Rodopi in the northeast and the Epirus mountains in the northwest, to Mount Giona in central Greece (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>carpatica</em> occurs in many populations throughout the Transylvania alps and the Carpathian mountains. There have been a number of successful re-introductions (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> is endemic to France, where it is restricted to a 350 km<sup>2 </sup>area of the Chartreuse limestone massif, centred around Grenoble, at the western edge of the French Alps. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>caucasica</em> is restricted to the Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It occurs on both sides of the Greater Caucasus from just east of Pshada River near Gelendjik, southeast for about 900 km to Mount Babadag in Azerbaijan (Alekperov <em>et al</em>., 1976; Durov, 1977). Although still relatively continuously distributed, it becomes increasingly less numerous east of North Ossetia, particularly in Daghestan, and more occur on the southern slopes in Azerbaijan than on northern ones. However, its range in the Greater Caucasus is beginning to fragment all over. In the Caucasus Minor, populations are scattered and isolated, and are confined mainly to the Meskhet and Trialeti ridges in Georgia, which are the wetter parts of the Caucasus Minor.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>rupicapra </em>is found in the Alps of Austria, Germany, and eastern France. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>tatrica </em>occurs in the Tatra mountains of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, it has also been introduced to the Low Tatras (Shackleton 1997).	eng
39255	distribution	Masseti, M., Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The northern chamois is native to mountainous parts of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor, where it occurs as  seven subspecies: <em>balcanica</em>, <em>carpatica</em>, <em>cartusiana</em>, <em>rupicapra</em>, <em>tatrica</em>, <em>asiatica </em>and <em>caucasica</em>(Shackleton 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). It occurs from 500 m to 3,100 m asl in the Alps (Spitzenberger 2002). It has been introduced to Argentina and New Zealand (not mapped). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>asiatica </em>occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Turkey.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>balcanica</em> inhabits most of the mountain regions of Albania, as well as Bulgaria's four main massifs. In Greece, it is currently restricted to 11 mountains, and comprising at least six distinct and widely scattered population groups from Mount Rodopi in the northeast and the Epirus mountains in the northwest, to Mount Giona in central Greece (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>carpatica</em> occurs in many populations throughout the Transylvania alps and the Carpathian mountains. There have been a number of successful re-introductions (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>cartusiana</em> is endemic to France, where it is restricted to a 350 km<sup>2 </sup>area of the Chartreuse limestone massif, centred around Grenoble, at the western edge of the French Alps. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>caucasica</em> is restricted to the Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It occurs on both sides of the Greater Caucasus from just east of Pshada River near Gelendjik, southeast for about 900 km to Mount Babadag in Azerbaijan (Alekperov <em>et al</em>., 1976; Durov, 1977). Although still relatively continuously distributed, it becomes increasingly less numerous east of North Ossetia, particularly in Daghestan, and more occur on the southern slopes in Azerbaijan than on northern ones. However, its range in the Greater Caucasus is beginning to fragment all over. In the Caucasus Minor, populations are scattered and isolated, and are confined mainly to the Meskhet and Trialeti ridges in Georgia, which are the wetter parts of the Caucasus Minor.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>rupicapra </em>is found in the Alps of Austria, Germany, and eastern France. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>tatrica </em>occurs in the Tatra mountains of Poland and Slovakia. In Slovakia, it has also been introduced to the Low Tatras (Shackleton 1997).	eng
39255	habitat	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, 2006	Alpine chamois inhabit steep, rocky areas in the mountains, utilising a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, open rocky areas, mixed broadleaf woodland, and coniferous woodland (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). They feed on grasses and herbs, and on the leaves of trees (Sägesser and Krapp 1986).	eng
39255	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	Alpine chamois inhabit steep, rocky areas in the mountains, utilizing a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, open rocky areas, mixed broadleaf woodland, and coniferous woodland (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). This species occupies rocky areas and alpine meadows, and feeds on grasses, herbs, leaves of trees, buds, shoots, and fungi (Sägesser and Krapp 1986). Females gestate for 170 days, and usually have 1 offspring per pregnancy.  Females are sexually mature at 2.5 years, while males mature 1-1.5 years later.  They live 14-22 years.  Females and young occur in flocks of 5-30 animals, while adult males remain solitary.	eng
39255	habitat	Masseti, M., Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	Alpine chamois inhabit steep, rocky areas in the mountains, utilizing a variety of habitats including alpine meadows, open rocky areas, mixed broadleaf woodland, and coniferous woodland (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). This species occupies rocky areas and alpine meadows, and feeds on grasses, herbs, leaves of trees, buds, shoots, and fungi (Sägesser and Krapp 1986). Females gestate for 170 days, and usually have 1 offspring per pregnancy.  Females are sexually mature at 2.5 years, while males mature 1-1.5 years later.  They live 14-22 years.  Females and young occur in flocks of 5-30 animals, while adult males remain solitary.	eng
39255	population	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, 2006	The Alpine chamois is widespread and generally increasing. Excluding the Caucasus population, there are an estimated 440,000 individuals in Europe, and in some protected areas densities may exceed 20 individuals per hectare (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, with the exception of the Alpine subspecies <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>, many subspecies are rare and/or declining: <br/><br/><em>R. r. asiatica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is believed to have undergone substantial declines (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. balcanica</em>: The total population numbers some thousands of individuals. Numbers are believed to be declining in all subpopulations (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/><em>R. r. carpatica</em>: In 1990, the total population was estimated to be around 9,000 animals (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/><em>R. r. cartusiana</em>: The population was estimated at 300 to 400 individuals in the 1970s, and 150 individuals in 1986-1987, but has since increased to c.2,000 individuals (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. caucasica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is declining and has virtually disappeared outside protected areas (EMA Workshop 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. rupicapra</em>: This subspecies is widespread and abundant in the Alps. The number of individuals culled per year in the Swiss Alps and Jura mountains has increased steadily from c.4,000 individuals in 1950 to c.17,000 individuals in 2000 (Loison <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>R. r. tatrica</em>: The population was estimated at 220 in 1999 (Jurdíková 2000), and had dropped below 200 by 2002 (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have been declining steadily since the 1960s (Jurdíková 2000).	eng
39255	population	Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The northern chamois is widespread and generally increasing. Excluding the Caucasus population, there are an estimated 440,000 individuals in Europe, and in some protected areas densities may exceed 20 individuals per hectare (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, with the exception of the Alpine subspecies <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>, many subspecies are rare and/or declining: <br/><br/><em>R. r. asiatica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is believed to have undergone substantial declines.<br/><br/><em>R. r. balcanica</em>: The total population numbers some thousands of individuals. Numbers are believed to be declining in all subpopulations (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/><em>R. r. carpatica</em>: In 1990, the total population was estimated to be around 9,000 animals (Shackleton 1997). I. Coroui (pers. comm. 2006) confirmed that the population of this subspecies in Romania is increasing.<br/><br/><em>R. r. cartusiana</em>: The population was estimated at 300 to 400 individuals in the 1970s, and 150 individuals in 1986-1987, but has since increased to <em>c</em>. 2,000 individuals (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. caucasica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is declining and has virtually disappeared outside protected areas. The total population was estimated in the early 1990s to be <em>c</em>. 15,000 chamois, with about half in the western half of the Greater Caucasus and only ca. 500 in the Caucasus Minor. Of total chamois, an estimated 5,000 occur in Georgia. Numbers of this chamois have decreased drastically over the last 20 years throughout their range, and are still declining. Over the last two to three years, the decline has accelerated and numbers are believed to have been reduced by as much as 50% (P. Weinberg, unpubl. data).<br/><br/><em>R. r. rupicapra</em>: This subspecies comprises the bulk of the global northern chamois population, and is widespread and abundant in the Alps. The number of individuals culled per year in the Swiss Alps and Jura mountains has increased steadily from c.4,000 individuals in 1950 to c.17,000 individuals in 2000 (Loison <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>R. r. tatrica</em>: The population was estimated at 220 in 1999 (Jurdíková 2000), and had dropped below 200 by 2002 (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have been declining steadily since the 1960s (Jurdíková 2000).	eng
39255	population	Masseti, M., Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	The northern chamois is widespread and generally increasing. Excluding the Caucasus population, there are an estimated 440,000 individuals in Europe, and in some protected areas densities may exceed 20 individuals per hectare (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, with the exception of the Alpine subspecies <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>, many subspecies are rare and/or declining: <br/><br/><em>R. r. asiatica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is believed to have undergone substantial declines.<br/><br/><em>R. r. balcanica</em>: The total population numbers some thousands of individuals. Numbers are believed to be declining in all subpopulations (Shackleton 1997). <br/><br/><em>R. r. carpatica</em>: In 1990, the total population was estimated to be around 9,000 animals (Shackleton 1997). I. Coroui (pers. comm. 2006) confirmed that the population of this subspecies in Romania is increasing.<br/><br/><em>R. r. cartusiana</em>: The population was estimated at 300 to 400 individuals in the 1970s, and 150 individuals in 1986-1987, but has since increased to <em>c</em>. 2,000 individuals (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>R. r. caucasica</em>: There is very little data on the status of this subspecies, but it is declining and has virtually disappeared outside protected areas. The total population was estimated in the early 1990s to be <em>c</em>. 15,000 chamois, with about half in the western half of the Greater Caucasus and only ca. 500 in the Caucasus Minor. Of total chamois, an estimated 5,000 occur in Georgia. Numbers of this chamois have decreased drastically over the last 20 years throughout their range, and are still declining. Over the last two to three years, the decline has accelerated and numbers are believed to have been reduced by as much as 50% (P. Weinberg, unpubl. data).<br/><br/><em>R. r. rupicapra</em>: This subspecies comprises the bulk of the global northern chamois population, and is widespread and abundant in the Alps. The number of individuals culled per year in the Swiss Alps and Jura mountains has increased steadily from c.4,000 individuals in 1950 to c.17,000 individuals in 2000 (Loison <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><em>R. r. tatrica</em>: The population was estimated at 220 in 1999 (Jurdíková 2000), and had dropped below 200 by 2002 (S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). Numbers have been declining steadily since the 1960s (Jurdíková 2000).	eng
39255	threats	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, 2006	Poaching and over-hunting may be a problem for the species in parts of its range, especially where it occurs outside protected areas and private hunting reserves (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Many of the less numerous subspecies (e.g. <em>R. r. balcanica</em>, <em>R. r. cartusiana</em>, and <em>R. r. tatrica</em>) are threatened by the deliberate introduction of subspecies from other geographic areas (especially <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>), leading to hybridisation and genetic swamping (Shackleton 1997). Human disturbance, particularly as a result of increased tourism and leisure activities in mountain areas, may also be a problem (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Competition with domestic livestock and introduced species such as the mouflon <em>Ovis aries</em> is a threat to the more vulnerable subspecies, although it is not considered to be a major problem for <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>. <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> does, however, suffer periodic outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, causing local population declines (Shackleton 1997). In 2006 a new disease, pestivirus, was first recorded in this subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In general, habitat loss is not a major threat to the species, as much of its range falls within protected areas. However, habitat loss may be a problem in some areas (e.g. for subspecies <em>balcanica </em>in Albania) (Shackleton 1997). Because its population is very small indeed, subspecies <em>cartusiana </em>is susceptible to extinction as a result of stochastic demographic or environmental events (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).	eng
39255	threats	Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	Poaching and over-hunting may be a problem for the species in parts of its range, especially where it occurs outside protected areas and private hunting reserves (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Many of the less numerous subspecies (e.g. <em>R. r. balcanica</em>, <em>R. r. cartusiana</em>, and <em>R. r. tatrica</em>) are threatened by the deliberate introduction of subspecies from other geographic areas (especially <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>), leading to hybridisation and genetic swamping (Shackleton 1997). Human disturbance, particularly as a result of increased tourism and leisure activities in mountain areas, may also be a problem (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Competition with domestic livestock and introduced species such as the mouflon <em>Ovis aries</em> is a threat to the more vulnerable subspecies, although it is not considered to be a major problem for <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>. <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> does, however, suffer periodic outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, causing local population declines (Shackleton 1997). In 2006 a new disease, pestivirus, was first recorded in this subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In general, habitat loss is not a major threat to the species, as much of its range falls within protected areas. However, habitat loss may be a problem in some areas (e.g. for subspecies <em>balcanica </em>in Albania) (Shackleton 1997). Because its population is very small indeed, subspecies <em>cartusiana </em>is susceptible to extinction as a result of stochastic demographic or environmental events (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra asiatica</em><br/>The main threats are poaching and competition with livestock, coupled with natural predation (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica</em><br/>In Albania, habitat loss is a major threat in some regions due to land demands from expanding human populations. There appears to be no competition from domestic livestock. Poaching does occur but the extent is not known. In Bulgaria, the major threat is hybridization with Alpine chamois. In Rhodope this is almost complete, and is also a potential danger at Rila. The Balkan population which has been isolated for about 100 years is still small and vulnerable, and poaching has not yet been eliminated. The majority of the populations in Rila and Pirin are not directly threatened, but neighbouring populations are potentially threatened by hybridization. Outside the protected areas, poaching remains a problem. In Greece, poaching facilitated by road developments, and predation by feral dogs are the main threats to chamois survival (Hatzirvassanis, 1991). Another serious threat is domestic livestock grazing which creates ecological competition and habitat loss, and all three threats occur both within and outside national parks (Hatzirvassanis, 1991; Tsunis, 1988). Forestry and tourist developments are the main causes of increased road construction, which in turn create access for poachers. In some areas, recreation activities may significantly disturb chamois (Adamakopoulos, in prep.).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra carpatica</em><br/>Grazing by domestic sheep in summer tends to disturb chamois causing them to be more dispersed. In some areas, high densities of these domestic animals create intense grazing pressure.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra cartusiana</em><br/>Many factors threaten this subspecies, and the most important include: food and space competition with domestic livestock, red deer and introduced mouflon; hybridization with introduced Alpine chamois; over-harvesting and poaching; forestry; summer tourism and winter cross-country skiers. <br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica</em><br/>Until recently, this chamois was common in the western half of the Greater Caucasus but very rare in Daghestan where they are often displaced by wild goats (<em>Capra aegagrus</em>). The reason for the decline in numbers in some populations, even in protected areas, is unknown, although outside of these areas, poaching related to political unrest is a major threat. In some areas, competition with domestic livestock is a problem, and competition with tur, red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), and roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>) is also possible.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra</em><br/>Sarcoptic mange is a problem in Austria and will continue to be so unless measures are taken to prevent its spread. There are also concerns about the relative over-harvesting of older males (e.g. Zeiler <em>et al</em>., 1990, 1992). Although not threatened overall in Germany, the small sub-alpine populations are vulnerable to poaching and stochastic events, and possibly to inbreeding depression. Disturbance acts as a major threat to small populations and has caused declines in some. Unless steps are taken to reverse this threat, declines will continue and most small populations are on the verge of extinction. Even large populations face threats. Numbers in the Bavarian Alps are currently decreasing due to sharply increased harvest rates. Tourist development has also affected many subpopulations negatively (e.g., disturbance, habitat isolation). In Italy, competition with introduced mouflon may cause problems for Alpine chamois in some parts of its range.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica</em><br/>Major threats include poaching, because access to firearms is now relatively easy, and disturbance and habitat loss caused by tourists. An estimated three million people visited Tatra National Park in 1990. In Slovakia, interbreeding with animals from introduced populations of Alpine chamois threaten one of the two remaining populations of <em>R. r. tatrica</em>. Both populations are relatively small and their effective population sizes may make the maintenance of genetic diversity and adaptability limited over the long-term.	eng
39255	threats	Masseti, M., Aulagnier, S., Giannatos, G. & Herrero, J., 2008	Poaching and over-hunting may be a problem for the species in parts of its range, especially where it occurs outside protected areas and private hunting reserves (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Many of the less numerous subspecies (e.g. <em>R. r. balcanica</em>, <em>R. r. cartusiana</em>, and <em>R. r. tatrica</em>) are threatened by the deliberate introduction of subspecies from other geographic areas (especially <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>), leading to hybridisation and genetic swamping (Shackleton 1997). Human disturbance, particularly as a result of increased tourism and leisure activities in mountain areas, may also be a problem (Shackleton 1997, Jurdíková 2000). Competition with domestic livestock and introduced species such as the mouflon <em>Ovis aries</em> is a threat to the more vulnerable subspecies, although it is not considered to be a major problem for <em>R. r. rupicapra</em>. <em>R. r. rupicapra</em> does, however, suffer periodic outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, causing local population declines (Shackleton 1997). In 2006 a new disease, pestivirus, was first recorded in this subspecies (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). In general, habitat loss is not a major threat to the species, as much of its range falls within protected areas. However, habitat loss may be a problem in some areas (e.g. for subspecies <em>balcanica </em>in Albania) (Shackleton 1997). Because its population is very small indeed, subspecies <em>cartusiana </em>is susceptible to extinction as a result of stochastic demographic or environmental events (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra asiatica</em><br/>The main threats are poaching and competition with livestock, coupled with natural predation (Shackleton 1997).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica</em><br/>In Albania, habitat loss is a major threat in some regions due to land demands from expanding human populations. There appears to be no competition from domestic livestock. Poaching does occur but the extent is not known. In Bulgaria, the major threat is hybridization with Alpine chamois. In Rhodope this is almost complete, and is also a potential danger at Rila. The Balkan population which has been isolated for about 100 years is still small and vulnerable, and poaching has not yet been eliminated. The majority of the populations in Rila and Pirin are not directly threatened, but neighbouring populations are potentially threatened by hybridization. Outside the protected areas, poaching remains a problem. In Greece, poaching facilitated by road developments, and predation by feral dogs are the main threats to chamois survival (Hatzirvassanis, 1991). Another serious threat is domestic livestock grazing which creates ecological competition and habitat loss, and all three threats occur both within and outside national parks (Hatzirvassanis, 1991; Tsunis, 1988). Forestry and tourist developments are the main causes of increased road construction, which in turn create access for poachers. In some areas, recreation activities may significantly disturb chamois (Adamakopoulos, in prep.).<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra carpatica</em><br/>Grazing by domestic sheep in summer tends to disturb chamois causing them to be more dispersed. In some areas, high densities of these domestic animals create intense grazing pressure.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra cartusiana</em><br/>Many factors threaten this subspecies, and the most important include: food and space competition with domestic livestock, red deer and introduced mouflon; hybridization with introduced Alpine chamois; over-harvesting and poaching; forestry; summer tourism and winter cross-country skiers. <br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica</em><br/>Until recently, this chamois was common in the western half of the Greater Caucasus but very rare in Daghestan where they are often displaced by wild goats (<em>Capra aegagrus</em>). The reason for the decline in numbers in some populations, even in protected areas, is unknown, although outside of these areas, poaching related to political unrest is a major threat. In some areas, competition with domestic livestock is a problem, and competition with tur, red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>), and roe deer (<em>Capreolus capreolus</em>) is also possible.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra</em><br/>Sarcoptic mange is a problem in Austria and will continue to be so unless measures are taken to prevent its spread. There are also concerns about the relative over-harvesting of older males (e.g. Zeiler <em>et al</em>., 1990, 1992). Although not threatened overall in Germany, the small sub-alpine populations are vulnerable to poaching and stochastic events, and possibly to inbreeding depression. Disturbance acts as a major threat to small populations and has caused declines in some. Unless steps are taken to reverse this threat, declines will continue and most small populations are on the verge of extinction. Even large populations face threats. Numbers in the Bavarian Alps are currently decreasing due to sharply increased harvest rates. Tourist development has also affected many subpopulations negatively (e.g., disturbance, habitat isolation). In Italy, competition with introduced mouflon may cause problems for Alpine chamois in some parts of its range.<br/><br/><em>Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica</em><br/>Major threats include poaching, because access to firearms is now relatively easy, and disturbance and habitat loss caused by tourists. An estimated three million people visited Tatra National Park in 1990. In Slovakia, interbreeding with animals from introduced populations of Alpine chamois threaten one of the two remaining populations of <em>R. r. tatrica</em>. Both populations are relatively small and their effective population sizes may make the maintenance of genetic diversity and adaptability limited over the long-term.	eng
39258	conservation	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Law 64-00, General Law on Environment and Natural Resources of the Dominican Republic establishes general protection for all its biodiversity, under articles 138 and 140. Article 139 gives protected status to all species considered endangered. Presidential Decree 801-02 reconfirms this protection for all wild reptile species and other taxa of the Dominican Republic. <br/> <br/>An intensive field survey is required to determine if this species still exists, and if so, to develop an appropriate species recovery and management plan.	eng
39258	distribution	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Recorded from south-central Dominican Republic up to moderate elevations.	eng
39258	habitat	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Presumed to be a burrowing species that occurs in mesic lowland broadleaf forest.	eng
39258	population	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	If still extant, has an extant of occurrence of < 100 km², an area of occupancy of < 10 km², and is presumably a single subpopulation of < 50 individuals.	eng
39258	threats	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Threatened by loss of habitat, especially deforestation for agricultural activities (planting crops and creating pastures). This species may also be killed by local people who mistakenly consider these lizards to be venomous. Lizards are also killed by dogs, cats and mongooses. The introduction and spread of the mongoose on Hispaniola combined with habitat alteration, are most likely the proximate causes for the recent precipitous decline in giant species of <em>Celestus</em> (Powell and Henderson 2003).	eng
39260	conservation	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Law 64-00, General Law on Environment and Natural Resources of the Dominican Republic establishes general protection for all its biodiversity, under articles 138 and 140. Article 139 gives protected status to all species considered endangered. Presidential Decree 801-02 reconfirms this protection for all wild reptile species and other taxa of the Dominican Republic. <br/> <br/>Field surveys are required to determine the remaining population size and distribution, so that a species recovery and management plan can be put in place.  Animals are being successfully captive bred at Nashville Zoo (McGinnity 2002). This captive breeding programme should be intensified or increased.	eng
39260	distribution	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	The entire distribution is on Hispaniola (northern Haiti and northern Dominican Republic) where it occurs up to moderate elevations.	eng
39260	habitat	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Presumed to be a burrowing species that occurs in mesic lowland broadleaf forest. The captive longevity record is 11 years.  But this occurred at a time when the captive husbandry requirements for these species were poorly understood. Based on captive specimens it appears that sexual maturity is reached at 3–4 years of age.  A conservative estimate of generation time based on the known captive longevity record and age of sexual maturity from the captives would be 7 years.  However, it is probable that once more data is collected over time that this figure will be significantly larger.  McGinnity (pers. comm., 2003) believes these animals are long lived (25–30 years, maybe longer), but that we may not know this for sure for a very long time.	eng
39260	population	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Most of the population appears to be in Haiti, and it appears that all the subpopulations in the Dominican Republic (those that constituted <em>C. carraui</em> may be largely extirpated. The last collection was of a female collected in the Puerto Plata area, but there are occasional reports of sightings made by local people (S.J. Incháustegui and M. Hernández, pers. comm. 2004). In Haiti, the species is known with confidence from only a single locality.	eng
39260	threats	McGinnity, D. & Powell, R., 2004	Threatened by loss of habitat, especially deforestation for agricultural activities (planting crops and creating pastures). This species is killed by local people who mistakenly consider these lizards to be venomous (the species reportedly has significance in Voodoo religion). Lizards are also killed by dogs, cats and mongooses. The introduction and spread of the mongoose in Hispaniola combined with habitat alteration, are most likley the proximate causes for the recent precipitous decline in giant species of <em>Celestus</em> (Powell and Henderson 2003).	eng
39262	conservation		Listed as Endangered by the state of Texas and by the Federal Government. There is a need for continued close monitoring of this species.	eng
39262	distribution		This species can be found in San Marcos Pool of the Edwards Aquifer, Hays County, south-central Texas, USA (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). They are unlikely to range beyond this region.	eng
39262	habitat		It can be found in water-filled subterranean caverns, and have been observed climbing rock surfaces or swimming in open water. In some sites it is known only from individuals washed out of artesian wells. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown in nature; however, this species has bred on several occasions in captivity, at the Dallas Aquarium at Fair Park, Cincinnati Zoo, Aquarena Centre (San Marcos), and San Marcos National Fish Hatchery and Technology Centre (L. Ables pers. comm.).	eng
39262	population		The total adult population size is unknown. Individuals of this species still appear common in outflows of Diversion Spring, a pipe that carries outflows from the Edwards Aquifer at San Marcos Springs. However, numbers collected vary widely from year to year; currently, most individuals recovered are juveniles (Chippindale 2005).	eng
39262	threats		It is sensitive to changes in water quality and thus vulnerable to groundwater pollutants (Matthews and Moseley 1990). It is potentially threatened by falling groundwater levels that have resulted from increased pumping to support residential and commercial development in the region. Over collecting in the past (1960s) might have reduced populations in accessible locations.	eng
39263	conservation		It is listed as "threatened" by the state of Texas.	eng
39263	distribution		This species is apparently parapatric with <em>Eurycea rathbuni</em> in the San Marcos pool of the Balcones aquifer, in south-central Texas, USA. The type locality has been recorded as beneath the Blanco River, 178m asl, 5km north-east of Hays County Courthouse, San Marcos, Hays County, Texas.	eng
39263	habitat		This species apparently occurs in subterranean caves, and is completely aquatic and does not appear to metamorphose.	eng
39263	population		This species is known from four specimens observed in 1951. Two were eaten by a heron, two were preserved, and one of these is now lost (Potter 1963; Potter and Sweet 1981). Its current population status is unknown, although its subterranean aquatic habitat might be largely inaccessible to attempts to survey for it.	eng
39263	threats		The threats to this species are presumably aquifer degradation or depletion.	eng
39270	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
39270	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
39270	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	&#160;North, Baltic, White, Black (south to Rioni drainage) and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France; possibly introduced southward of Loire) and Mediterranean basin in France (Hérault and Rhône drainages). In Aral, Marmara and Anatolian Black Sea basins west of Ankara. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Adriatic basin, Crimea, Great Britain (except southeast), Scandinavia north of Sundsvall (Sweden) and 65°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Spain and northeastern Italy. In France apparently introduced in small coastal drainages of Var.	eng
39270	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North, Baltic, White, Black (south to Rioni drainage) and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France; possibly introduced southward of Loire) and Mediterranean basin in France (Hérault and Rhône drainages). In Aral, Marmara and Anatolian Black Sea basins west of Ankara. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Adriatic basin, Crimea, Great Britain (except southeast), Scandinavia north of Sundsvall (Sweden) and 65°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Spain, northeastern Italy. In France apparently introduced in small coastal drainages of Var.	eng
39270	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of shallow, warm lowland lakes and slow-flowing lower reaches of large rivers and canals. Often very abundant on bottom of large sandy rivers. Spawns along shores on submerged vegetation, roots or even on shallow gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predominantly nocturnal. Gregarious. Lives more than 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Most individuals spawn 2-3 times per season, at intervals of about 10 days and spawn in more than one year. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 15°C, in early morning. Eggs are sticky and larvae inhabit still water bodies. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Often hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Vimba vimba</span>. Most reported hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em> in fact are <em>A. brama</em> with pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2 (vs. usually 5-5).	eng
39270	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of shallow, warm lowland lakes and slow-flowing lower reaches of large rivers and canals. Often very abundant on bottom of large sandy rivers. Spawns along shores on submerged vegetation, roots or even on shallow gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Predominantly nocturnal. Gregarious. Lives more than 10 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Most individuals spawn 2-3 times per season, at intervals of about 10 days and spawn in more than one year. Spawns in May-July at temperatures above 15°C, in early morning. Eggs are sticky and larvae inhabit still water bodies. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Often hybridizes with Vimba vimba. Most reported hybrids with <em>Abramis brama</em> in fact are <em>A. brama</em> with pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2 (vs. usually 5-5).	eng
39270	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
39270	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
39270	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
39270	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
39272	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39272	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Axios river basin in Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and to the lower part of the Aliakmon, Strymon, and Pinios river basins in Greece. Also reported in the Karla river basin.	eng
39272	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in rivers, canals, ditches, and lakes. Does not appear to require clear waters.	eng
39272	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
39272	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat alteration.	eng
39273	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39273	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is known only from the Cetina river basin and to the Livanjsko, Glamocko, and Grahovo Polje karsts in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. It is possibly absent in the Cetina river basin (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm).	eng
39273	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in streams in the karst region.	eng
39273	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm)	eng
39273	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, drought, water pollution (fertilizers and pesticides from intensive agriculture), dam construction and introduced fish species.	eng
39274	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39274	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to endoreihic river systems in the karst region in Croatia including Jadova, Novcica, Ricica, Otuca and in Gacko Polje.	eng
39274	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers in karst region and can be found in caves.	eng
39274	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
39274	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (from intensive agriculture), water extraction, dam construction and introduced alien species.	eng
39276	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39276	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to karstic streams (e.g., Buna River) and springs in Popovo Polje, Ljubomirsko Polje, Dabarsko Polje and Fatnicko Polje and springs in coastal southern Dalmatia.	eng
39276	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in streams, springs and subterranean cavities.	eng
39276	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
39276	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, introduction of fish exotic species.	eng
39277	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39277	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to karstic streams and springs in the Musica river, Nevesinjsko polje, Gatacko Polje, Cernicko Polje, Dabarsko Polje and Ljuta river in southern Dalmatia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.	eng
39277	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers, springs and caves in the karst region.	eng
39277	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
39277	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species (trout).	eng
39280	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
39280	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the right-hand tributary of the Neretva river (Matica, Norin, Tihaljina and Trebizat rivres) and some polje karst (Imocko) in Bosnia-Hercegovina and in Croatia. It is also present in the Kuti lake and Bacena lake (Mrakovcic pers comm).	eng
39280	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers of the karst region and in lakes.	eng
39280	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
39280	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and agricultural pollution (Mrakovcic pers comm).	eng
39281	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
39281	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	It is restricted to tributaries Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was thought to have disappeared after the introduction of <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. However, in 1993 the species was found in one spring connected to the lake.	eng
39281	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	A small species. Occurs in brooks and springs. Prefers slow-moving water (not lacustrine).	eng
39281	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	In 1993, the species was caught from a spring connected with Egirdir Lake. However, it is no longer known from other tributaries of the lake.	eng
39281	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	Introduction of exotic fish predator. In 1955 was introduced the Zander, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. Three species of <em>Phoxinellus</em>, perfect prey for the Zander, totally disappeared 30 years later. <em>P. egridiri</em> was thought to have disappeared, but it was rediscovered in 1993 (Erk'akan, F. pers. comm).	eng
39288	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
39288	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Strymon, Varda and Nestos river basins in northern Greece and Bulgaria. It is also reported to be present in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) but the actual distribution information was not obtained.	eng
39288	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small riverine species that prefers the larger streams and is not found in the smaller creeks. It is absent in channelised habitats and prefers the fast flowing water in mid-stream.	eng
39288	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A non-commercial species for which there is little population data.	eng
39288	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Channelisation, modification of stream morphology, water abstraction, pollution and dams.	eng
39290	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from the Çaysuyu Stream in Turkey.	eng
39290	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Inhabits highland water courses.	eng
39296	habitat	Contreras-Balderas, S. & Almada-Villela, P., 1996	Cave-dwelling species.	eng
39300	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
39300	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. boueti</span>, type species of the monotypic genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Typhlosynbranchus</span> Pellegrin, 1922, junior synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Monopterus</span>, has been caught in the surroundings of Monrovia (Liberia), in a small freshwater rivulet flowing into a swamp, at a distance of 2 or 3 km from the sea	eng
39300	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 34.0 cm TL maximum size	eng
39300	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
39300	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
39303	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. More information is needed on potential spawning aggregation sites and, once located, protection should be afforded these areas.<br/><br/><em>D. inermis</em> was included on the Red List of the IUCN in 1996. Marbled grouper were classified as vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society based on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)’s concept of District Population Segments (DPS) (Musick <em>et al</em> 2000).	eng
39303	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is a western Atlantic species ranging from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A separate range exists from northern Brazil to Rio de Janeiro, including the off-shore islands.	eng
39303	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is a reef-associated species usually found on deep ledges, at depths to 210 m and on reefs, usually in caves or deep crevices. Marbled grouper are solitary and secretive, but presumably form spawning aggregation like other species of the genus.	eng
39303	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is relatively rare throughout its range and rarely seen in markets.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/>There are very few studies for this Atlantic species. <em>D. inermis</em> is scarce in catches from US waters or apparently elsewhere (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Huntsman <em>et al</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS) Research Team has conducted 187 remotely operated vehicle (ROV) surveys for a duration of 218 H 13 M between February 2001 and March 2007. The survey times ranged from 0.5 H to approximately 4 H at average depths of 68.5 m. Of these 187 surveys, 144 were conducted at the FGBNMS, located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The remaining 43 were conducted at other shelf edge and mid shelf banks in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, outside of the Sanctuary boundaries. During these surveys, 150 records of individual <em>D. inermis</em> were made. It is estimated, based on annotations and dive tracks that conservatively, 10% of these animals were repeat counts, leaving 135 records of individuals. The most animals seen in one location was nine individuals. Based on these observations and compared to other observations Caribbean wide, the reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico are hotspots for this species, although still at relatively low abundance levels. The majority of the observations are of adult-size animals (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: records of <em>D. inermis</em> sighted on remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives between February 2001 and March 2007.<br/><br/>This species was also sighted during manned submersible fish surveys in 2002. Six surveys were conducted between 19 and 90 meters depth for a duration of 28 H (Table 2). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: records from submersible dives targeting fishes in 2002.<br/><br/>During these submersible surveys, several juvenile <em>D. inermis</em> were filmed taking refuge in and around spines of sea urchin that were creating mounds on the sea floor.<br/><br/>In addition to these observations, unquantified sightings of <em>D. inermis</em> have been made by qualified SCUBA divers at Stetson Bank, East and West Flower Garden Banks and at Bright and Geyer Banks (source: Emma Hickerson, P.P. Schmahl, Flower Garden Banks NMS, Galveston, Texas).<br/><br/>The Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF)’s Fish Survey Project (www.reef.org) allows volunteer SCUBA divers and snorkelers to collect and report information on marine fish populations in the USA from 1993 to present.  Throughout the sampling period 1993 to 2005, it seems that the sighting frequency of <em>D. inermis</em> could be regarded as a rare species (<0.6% of all surveys) (Table 3).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: sighting frequency estimates collected by volunteer divers and snorkelers (1993-2005) by the Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF).<br/><br/>A recreational fishing charter (head boat) operator, Captain Elliot’s, out of Freeport, Texas, confirmed landing 67 <em>D. inermis</em> between August 23-25 2006. Due to the large number of fish, this could possibly represent the only known spawning aggregation. The location of the catch was not reported specifically, but as on the shelf edge banks off the coast of Louisiana. This corresponds to the shelf edge banks in the vicinity of the Flower Garden Banks NMS. (NOAA Fisheries, Pascagoula, MS SEAMAP Data; source:  Christopher Gledhill and Kevin Rademacher, NOAA Fisheries, Pascagoula, MS).<br/><br/>In drop-camera surveys conducted in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico from 1992 to 1997, 2001, and 2004 to 2005, over a duration of 1,260 hours 44 minutes of video, a total minimum count of sixty six (66) <em>D. inermis</em> was documented. "Mincount" is the minimum count (see MAXNO in Ellis and DiMartini 1995), the largest number of fish observed in a single frame of video. Mincount was not available for 1992, however it can be estimated that a further three animals were present. <br/><br/>Chris Koenig (PhD. Reef Fish Ecology Group, Florida State University Coastal and Marine Laboratory) gives the following expert personal assessment of the species: the species is “rare almost everywhere; the only place where we find them is in the western Gulf of Mexico Banks, and they are being systematically fished out. I spoke with fish collectors in the Fla Keys, including Billy Causey in his former life, and they say that they don't see them anymore, but did in the distant past.  I consider this fish similar to the ivory-billed woodpecker, never abundant, but existing now only in small pockets".<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/><em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> represented only 2.5 % of the total weight recorded during a survey using long-line in the shelf break in the Central coast of Brazil, with a maximum catch rate of 2.6 kg per 1,000 hooks in the 100 to 300 depth.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/><em>Gulf of Mexico region</em><br/>According to NMFS annual landings of commercial catches in the USA from 1986 to 2004, the quantity caught ranged from 0.4 in 1987 to 19.7 metric tonnes in 1993. From 1999 to 2004, the average annual landings were less than 1.4 metric tonnes (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 5th Jan 2006) (Table 4).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: commercial catch estimates from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) from 1986 to 2004.<br/><br/>According to NMFS’s annual harvest estimates from 1981 to 2004, a total number of 7,891 fish (8,955+ lbs) were caught for recreational purpose. (Note: there are very large proportional standard errors associated with the annual estimates of landings by number, which suggest these are rare-event landings in the recreational fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico). (Tom Sminskey pers. comm., 10th Jan 06) (Table 5).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: recreational catches of <em>D. inermis</em> between 1981 and 2004.<br/><br/>Head boat landings collected by NOAA Fisheries, Beaufort, since 1986 report <em>D. inermis</em> landings from headboats originating from two areas in Texas (see Table 6).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 6</strong>: head boat landing statistics from Areas 25 (Sabine Pass to Freeport, TX) and Area 26 (Pt. Aransas, TX) between 1995 and 2006.<br/><br/>The increased level of landings in 2006 suggests extraction from a spawning aggregation.	eng
39303	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis inermis</em> is threatened by overfishing both as adults within the commercial and recreational fishery and as juveniles by the aquarium trade, including on spawning aggregations.	eng
39314	conservation	Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	Further studies into the distribution, habitat, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
39314	distribution	Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	This poorly-known species occurs in Ecuador and Peru east of the Andes (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). The type locality is Gualea, at 1,300 m, Mount Pichincha, in the western slopes of the Andes, but this seems erroneous since all others known records are from the lowlands of the eastern side (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
39314	habitat	Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is an arboreal species. Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It occurs in lowland and perhaps montane rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
39314	population	Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is rare, known from fewer than 10 individuals (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
39314	threats	Vivar, E. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats to this species, if any, are not known.	eng
39315	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. No specific conservation measures required.	eng
39315	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Microtus gerbei </em>is endemic to the western Mediterranean, where it occurs in northern Spain and western and central France (Shenbrot and Krasnov 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m in the Pyrenees (Palomo 1999).	eng
39315	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	At lower altitudes, it is found in pastures and arable land, whereas in the mountains it inhabits grassland and rocky woodland edges. Relatively cool (15º - 16º annual medium temperature) and dry areas are preferred (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is a fossorial species, although it burrows less in mountainous areas (Palomo 1999).	eng
39315	population	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is locally abundant in at least parts of its range, reaching densities of up to 100 individuals per hectare (Palomo 1999). It is most abundant in western France (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).	eng
39315	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
39316	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juskaitis, R., 2008	It is listed on Appenix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas throught its range.	eng
39316	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	It is listed on Appenix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas throught its range.	eng
39316	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is listed on Appenix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in protected areas throught its range.	eng
39316	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to northern Iran and the Caucasus. In Europe, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kryštufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kryštufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
39316	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Turkmenistan. In the Mediterranean, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kryštufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kryštufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
39316	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juskaitis, R., 2008	<em>Glis glis </em>has a global distribution that extends across Europe and through northern Turkey to the Caucasus, northern Iran and Turkmenistan. In the Mediterranean, it occurs from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe, as far as Latvia in the north and Italy and the Balkan Peninsula in the south (Kry?tufek 1999). It is found on a number of Mediterranean islands, but the population in the British Isles is the result of an introduction in 1902 (Kry?tufek 1999, Battersby 2005). It is recorded from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
39316	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kryštufek 1999).	eng
39316	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kryštufek 1999).	eng
39316	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juskaitis, R., 2008	It is typically found in mature deciduous and mixed woodland, where it frequents the canopy, although it also occurs in maquis and shrubland on rocky areas along the Mediterranean coast. Man-made habitats such as gardens and orchards are sometimes used, and the species often enters buildings (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
39316	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
39316	population	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
39316	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juskaitis, R., 2008	In northern parts of its range it is scarce and may be declining, whereas in southern parts of its range it is sufficiently abundant to be considered an agricultural pest in years of high population density. In central Europe, typical population densities may be c.5 individuals per hectare, although densities of 20-22 individuals per hectare have been recorded (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
39316	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juškaitis, R., 2008	In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kryštufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Juškaitis 2003).	eng
39316	threats	Boris Kryštufek, Holger Meinig, Giovanni Amori, Rimvydas Juškaitis, 2006	In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kryštufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Juškaitis 2003).	eng
39316	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P, Meinig, H. & Juskaitis, R., 2008	In parts of its range, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Italy, there is a tradition of hunting this species. In the past, it was a source of meat, fat, and skins for subsistence and trade, but today it is hunted recreationally (Kry?tufek 1999). The species is protected in Italy, but is sometimes illegally hunted (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). In northeastern Europe, cutting of oak forests is a threat (Ju?kaitis 2003).	eng
39322	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>In situ</em> conservation is already in practice and <em>ex situ</em> conservation is to be carried out.	eng
39322	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	A herbaceous plant reaching 0.3-0.8 m. A recent collection shows that there is a possible introgression with <em>F. flexuosa</em>.  The range of this species is less than 100 km².	eng
39322	habitat	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Montane and tropical rain forest, at altitude 500-600 m.	eng
39322	threats	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Invasive competitors and traditional use of the species.	eng
39323	conservation	Tezoo, V., 2000	The species is the focus of both <em>in-situ</em> (active management in nature reserve) and <em>ex-situ</em> conservation.	eng
39323	distribution	Tezoo, V., 2000	This species can be found on Ilot Bernache, Round island, Ile aux Aigrettes.	eng
39323	habitat	Tezoo, V., 2000	This is a prostrate or an ascending herb of short life cycle with branches reaching 30 cm in length. Found on coastal rocky cliffs and slopes.	eng
39323	threats	Tezoo, V., 2000	Invasive competitors, and grazing are the main threats to this species.	eng
39324	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There is generally no management of fisheries or protection for this species, although it occurs in at least one marine reserve in South Africa.	eng
39324	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This shark is wide ranging, appearing in mostly temperate coastal seas worldwide. It has been reported from the following areas: <br/><br/><strong>Western South Atlantic</strong>: southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern South Atlantic and Indian Ocean</strong>: Namibia and South Africa, Tristan da Cunha, possibly India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong>: possibly Siberia, southern Japan, the Koreas, Taiwan (Province of China), China, possibly Vietnam, Australia (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia) and New Zealand.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: British Columbia, Canada, to southern California, USA, also northern Gulf of California, Mexico, off Peru and central Chile.<br/><br/>The species occurs on the continental shelves at depths to at least 136 m, but mostly at less than 50 m and often in shallow water less than 1 m deep and at the surface (Compagno in prep. a).<br/><br/>The Broadnose Sevengill Shark's disjunct distribution suggests that subpopulations may occur at least in the western South Atlantic and eastern South Pacific (possibly continuous across the Patagonian region but this is not certain), Tristan da Cunha, southern Africa (Atlantic and western Indian Ocean), western North Pacific, southern Australia, New Zealand, the eastern North Pacific from British Columbia to southern California, USA and possibly with an isolated subpopulation in the Gulf of California off Mexico (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
39324	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This large, powerful shark has a diet of other sharks, bony fish, seals and carrion (Last and Stevens 1994). The gestation period is unknown, but may be a year or less. It has relatively large litters; 82 young recorded, with counts of large eggs in ovaries of mature females suggesting a range of 67?104 (Ebert 1996). Born at a size of 40?45 cm, age at maturity is 4?5 years (150 cm) for males and 11?21 years (220 cm) for females (Van Dykhuizen and Mollet 1992). Maximum lifespan is estimated at about 30 years (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
39324	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This shark's flesh is of good quality and it is also taken in some areas for its hide and liver oil. Intensive commercial and sports fisheries in San Francisco Bay targeting it for its fine meat caused a marked local decline in numbers during the early 1980s. It is utilised in China for its skin and liver. Pollution may be a possible threat to inshore bays which are nurseries.<br/><br/>Although wide ranging in temperate waters and moderately common where not heavily exploited (e.g., southern Africa), this large shark has a limited inshore bathymetric range in heavily fished temperate waters and is often concentrated in shallow bays. This exposes it to intensive inshore bycatch and sometimes targeted commercial, sports and semi-commercial fisheries over most of its range, particularly off China, California, Argentina, Namibia and South Africa (Compagno in prep. a). Catch statistics are not reported, except for the west coast of the USA, which show a peak in landings of 1.55 t in 1981 with a sharp decline to less than 0.1 t in 1986 (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
39325	conservation	Guallart, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H., Ebert, D.A., Clarke, M. & Stenberg, C., 2006	<strong>Existing</strong>:  <br/>The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) - the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m. The decision was adopted at the 29<sup>th</sup> session of the GFCM held in Rome in February 2005. Unless objections from member countries arise, it will come into force in July 2005. For more information, see: <a href="www.iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf"><em>Mediterranean Conservationists and Fishermen Work Together to Protect Deep Seas</em></a>. <br/> <br/><strong>Recommended</strong>:  <br/>Further study is required for taxonomic resolution of the genus, and on reproductive cycle and general life history, validation of ageing methods, population identification, and determination of nursery areas, migrations and spatial distribution. Monitoring fishing pressure is essential. This must include recording specific fishery statistics (including bycatch), and monitoring possible plans for development of target fisheries or increasing fishing pressure in their habitat. <br/> <br/>There are currently no conservation measures at this time in the Northwest or the Southeast Atlantic. Examination of the <em>Centrophourus</em> spp. which occur in the latter region is strongly recommended to determine the proper identification of the species involved.	eng
39325	distribution	Guallart, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H., Ebert, D.A., Clarke, M. & Stenberg, C., 2006	Thought to be a circumglobal species, in temperate and tropical waters, however considerable taxonomic confusion of the genus still persists (see Taxonomy). This species occurs in the following regions and countries: <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: France, Spain, Portugal, Madeira. <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: Albania, Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey. Absent from the Black Sea. (Baino et al. 2001, Boutan 1926, Maurin 1968, Jardas 1984, Fischer et al. 1987, Papakonstatinou 1988, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Kabaskal 2002). <br/><strong>West Africa</strong>: Canary Islands, Morocco, Sahara Republic, Senegal, Liberia, Ivory Coast to Nigeria, Cameroon to Congo.  <br/><strong>Sub Equatorial Africa</strong>: Angola, Namibia, and the west coast of South Africa (Northern Cape Province. Southern Mozambique, Madagascar, Aldabra Island.  <br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong>: Yemen, Somalia (the Gulf of Aden), nominal records from India, which are at least in part based on <em>Centrophorus atromarginatus</em>. <br/><strong>Australia and Oceania</strong>: Probably Australia (temperate waters off Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales as <em>C. uyato</em>, but possibly including other species). <br/><strong>Asia and the Northwest Pacific</strong>: Taiwan Island and Japan. <br/><strong>Northeast Pacific</strong>: Possibly Hawaiian Islands. <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: Northern Gulf of Mexico (United States). <br/><strong>Central America</strong>: possibly wide ranging in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean (the north coast of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Caribbean off the Lesser Antilles (Burgess pers. comm.), possibly Colombia and Venezuela, and off French Guiana.  <br/><strong>South America</strong>: Brazil (Northern). <br/> <br/>Note that the species from the SE Atlantic may not be the same as found elsewhere, or may represent two or more species. The species needs to be critically evaluated from different regions. This or a similar species has also been found in Taiwanese waters (D.A. Ebert, unpubl. data).	eng
39325	habitat	Guallart, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H., Ebert, D.A., Clarke, M. & Stenberg, C., 2006	A large deepwater species inhabiting the upper continental slopes and outer continental shelves. Usually demersal or benthopelagic, at depths from 100 to 1,490 m (Mediterranean Sea), with most records between 300 to 800 m depth (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Compagno 1984, Gilat and Gelman 1984, Guallart 1998). <br/> <br/>It is thought to have schooling habits (Maurin 1962, Gilat and Gelman 1984, Compagno 1984, Compagno in prep. a) because of the abundance in some catches or by the simultaneous presence of several individuals in baited cameras set over the bottom. It may also aggregate in particular areas of the slope, particularly in the margins of submarine canyons (Guallart 1998). Some evidence suggests that individuals present in the lower half of the depth range are mainly juveniles (Guallart 1998).  <br/> <br/>Age at maturity is estimated at 12 to 16 years (females) and 7 to 8 years (males) (Guallart 1998) with earlier estimates of 4 to 5 years for both males and females (Rizzo <em>et al</em>. 1995). Estimates of female size at maturity are 89 to 102 cm (93 cm when half mature) (Gullart 1998) and earlier estimates range between 70 to 95 cm (Capapé 1985, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Mature male size estimates are 79 to 85 cm (80 cm at half maturity) (Guallart 1998) and 70 to 80 cm (Capapé 1985, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987, Rizzo <em>et al</em>. 1995). Maximum recorded size is about 120 cm (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987, Guallart 1998). Size at birth range from 30 to 46 cm (Guallart and Vicent 2001, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987) and <em>C. granulosus</em> can live for over 30 years (Guallart 1998). The average reproductive age of this species is unknown. <br/> <br/>A lecitotrophic aplacental viviparous (ovoviviparous) species (Ranzi 1932, Guallart and Vicent 2001, <em>C. granulosus</em> has an extremely low reproductive rate, with only one pup/litter (Tortonese 1956, Capapé 1985, Guallart 1998), a gestation period of about two years and occasional resting periods between pregnancies (Guallart 1998). The three-generation period is estimated to be about 50 to 60 years. This probably makes it the elasmobranch species with the lowest reproductive potential. <br/> <br/>Feeds on a variety of prey, mainly fishes but also cephalopods and other invertebrates, both benthic and mesopelagic; also probable scavenging habits (Boutan 1926, Capapé 1985, Guallart 1998).	eng
39325	population	Guallart, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H., Ebert, D.A., Clarke, M. & Stenberg, C., 2006	The determination of the range and population of this species is hindered by unresolved taxonomic issues (see taxonomy section). Within the Mediterranean, there is no evidence of the existence of different populations. No information is available on relationships between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations of <em>Centrophorus</em>. However, like most Mediterranean deepwater species, some degree of isolation is expected due to the barrier of the Straits of Gibraltar. Analysis of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) data from 1994 to 1999 show a low frequency of occurrence (only 2% of total hauls), for <em>C. granulosus</em>. Its overall biomass was estimated to be 2.9 kg/km², with a presence throughout the Mediterranean, though more abundant in the western central and in the western area (5.5 and 2.7 kg/km² respectively). The depth distribution of the biomass index show values of less than 0.1 from 50 to 100 m of depth and between 1 to >10 kg/km² between 200 to 800 m. Baino <em>et al</em>. give a standing stock biomass estimate of only 1,528 t (3%) for the west, north and east Mediterranean from 0?800 m depth. These data clearly indicate that this species is very rare. The MEDITS experimental trawl program surveys waters up to 800 m in depth. The depth range of this demersal deepwater shark extends from 100 to 1,490 m, however it is most commonly recorded between 300 and 800 m, therefore this data can serve as a good indicator of the abundance of this species.	eng
39325	threats	Guallart, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H., Ebert, D.A., Clarke, M. & Stenberg, C., 2006	This is a widespread species that is reported to be heavily fished and caught as bycatch in the Northeast Atlantic, the Northwest Pacific and other regions. As the global fishing fleet tends towards deeper and deeper unexploited fishing grounds, the threat from incidental catch to this species grows.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic this species is caught with bottom trawls, long lines, fixed bottom nets, hook and line and pelagic trawls (Compagno in prep). For this region, landings data were obtained from ICES (2006) for the Portuguese coast (main distribution range). These show a strong decline in catch from about 1,000 t in 1990 to less than 100 t in 2004. As a crude index of abundance a delury depletion model was implemented, assuming constant effort over the time series. The results of this suggest that the stock has declined by between 80 and 95% of its initial size when fishing began. This is based on two assumptions of effort. This assumes that recruitment does not occur. Though this is clearly not true, the extreme low fecundity and reproductive output suggests that effect of recruitment is very low indeed. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>Within the Mediterranean, one of the main threats facing this species is development of target fisheries with longlines and gillnets in areas on the continental slope, where this species tends to aggregate. However, the global trend for fisheries reaching deeper unexploited grounds may not necessarily be the case for within the Mediterranean, due to the relative low level of biomass found in the deepwaters of this sea and as the fishing fleets are composed mainly of artisanal vessels. Local factors such as the fleet characteristics, the distance from the coast to suitable substrates and the perceived appreciation of the flesh and other by products of this species may, in many countries limit the potential for a targeted fishery to develop. A number of authors have commented on the economic potential to develop a targeted fishery for <em>Centrophorus</em> species (e.g., Boutan 1926 in Algeria, Rancurel 1983 in France, Gilat and Gelman 1984 in Israel), however there is no information regarding potential developments at present. Given the record low reproductive potential of this species, it is highly vulnerable to overexploitation and population depletion under even moderate fishing pressure. Therefore extreme caution should be exercised before the development of any targeted fishery. <br/> <br/>There are a few examples of fisheries targeting <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em> in the Balearic Sea over the last 10 years (Guallart pers. comm. 2003). One of which was an alternative fishery, which developed in periods when other target species had declined, this artisanal fleet used bottom longline gears. Abundance (catches of about 50?80 specimens or 300?400 kg/ship and journey) and price of flesh was comparable to that of the original target species. However, catches decreased dramatically within a matter of weeks. An increase in abundance within these depleted areas took place after several months, presumably by migration from other unexploited areas. In another example, a semi-industrial fishery was carried out for several years. One ship made trips of several days covering wide areas unexploited for this species. Catches reached up to 900 specimens (about 5,000 kg). Flesh, livers and tails (as lower quality shark fins) were marketed.  <br/> <br/>Within the Mediterranean this species is also caught as bycatch, with bottom longlines and bottom gillnets and in bottom trawls targeting red shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Further information on the catch rates of this species by this trawling fleet are required before the impact that this has on the <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em> population can truly be assessed. <br/> <br/><strong>Other regions</strong> <br/>This species is widespread throughout the Western North Atlantic at appropriate depths where it is only taken as bycatch in longline fisheries. At this time it appears that it does not constitute significant numbers in the fisheries, but data is lacking. <br/> <br/>In southern Africa it is occasionally taken as a bycatch and possibly in the experimental Namibian deepsea fishery. However, it is uncommon relative to several other species, e.g. <em>C. squamosus, Centroscymnus</em> spp. and <em>Deania</em> spp. which are taken in far greater numbers. <br/> <br/>Along the west African coast, this species is widespread, but scattered. It is infrequently caught along the Namibian coast, but this may represent a different species and possibly two or more species may be involved in this taxonomic confusion. Proper identification of this species in southeastern Atlantic waters is critical before this species can be reassessed.	eng
39326	conservation	Fordham, S., Fowler, S.L., Coelho, R., Goldman, K.J. & Francis, M., 2006	Despite several decades of warnings of unsustainable fishing pressure and reported steep stock declines, very few conservation or management measures are in place for spiny dogfish; measures in place have not been effective in terms of rebuilding populations. A notable exception may be New Zealand, where quotas have been introduced to limit catches to sustainable levels in response to the first signs of fishery development to meet European demand for meat. Spiny dogfish were brought under the New Zealand Quota Management System in October 2004 (M. Francis, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>Holden (1968) first warned that part of the Northeast Atlantic stock was over-exploited, but there is still no effective management in this region despite wide-spread recognition that fishing levels are unsustainable and several parts of the stock have collapsed. A minimum landing size established in Norway in order to protect mature females is of limited value for a migratory species that is intensively fished in other parts of its range. Total Allowable Catches in EU waters, first established in 1998, have consistently exceeded recent landings and do not appear, therefore, to have had any constraint upon current unsustainable levels of fishing pressure. This fishery needs to be closed if the stock is to recover, ICES recommended a zero quota in 2006, but this advice was not heeded by the EU.  <br/> <br/>In the Northwest Atlantic, the 1999/2000 US federal dogfish rebuilding plan has yet to reverse population decline and fishing mortality targets continue to be grossly exceeded.  <br/> <br/>Federal Fishery Management Councils in the eastern US developed a spiny dogfish rebuilding plan in the late 1990s coincident with the stock being officially declared overfished. Low priority and controversy over cuts led to serious delays. Implemented in mid 2000, the plan aimed to rebuild the population through a low fishing mortality target (F=0.03) and corresponding quota (four million lbs) and trip limits (300 to 600 lbs for two periods) that would discourage targeted fishing and yet allow some landing of incidental catch. Once that the ten-year legal limit to recover the population became impossible, federal law allowed the rebuilding period to be extended, opening the plan up for relaxation of measures. <br/> <br/>As Federal measures developed, the dogfish fishery shifted into state waters (within three miles from shore). Continued state fisheries have undermined the federal plan ever since. Most notably, Massachusetts, the Atlantic state with the largest directed dogfish fishery, adopted a 2000 state quota at nearly twice the Federal allotment for the entire Atlantic and excessive possession limits that allowed for continued directed dogfish fishing. Under the federal plan, overages are not deducted from the subsequent year?s quota.  <br/> <br/>n late 2002, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) adopted a federally compatible dogfish rebuilding plan for state waters. In early 2003, however, the ASMFC rejected scientific advice and accepted a Massachusetts proposal to more than double the quota (to 8.8 million lbs) and increase trip limits by an order of magnitude (to 7,000 lbs) to allow directed dogfish fishing. The ASMFC did impose scientifically defensible limits for the 2004 fishing year (beginning in May), but rejected the 2005 advice for a 50% quota cut for 2006 in favour of the status quo (4 million lbs). This advice, from a joint state and federal technical committee, was also rejected by the New England Fishery Management Council, but adopted by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council (MAFMC). The decision on catch limits for the 2006 fishing season now lies with the NMFS, but pressure to relax recovery efforts is increasing due to the movement of a larger percentage of the population to nearshore waters and therefore fishing gear. The ability to set catch limits for a multi-year period (3 to 5 years) is currently being considered by both state and federal authorities and may be realized as soon as this year. <br/> <br/>Canada began restricting Atlantic dogfish catch in May of 2002, following a significant increase in landings in years just prior. The government capped 2002 commercial landings at 2,500 metric tons for the fixed gear groundfish sector off Nova Scotia and in the Bay of Fundy, based on landings history at the time. In addition, bycatch caps for other fisheries consistent with historical landings and an additional 700 mt for a cooperative industry sampling program were granted. The Canadian government has stated that the caps are aimed to limit harvest while future sustainable catch levels are investigated. The Canadian government intends to maintain dogfish catches at roughly 3,200 mt for directed fishing and research while they collect data and develop their own population assessment, expected by 2007 (Campana 2002, pers comm). <br/> <br/>In the Northeast Pacific, British Columbia spiny dogfish have been broadly and minimally managed through groundfish regulations since 1978. A quota of 3,000 tonnes has been in place for the Straight of Georgia (British Columbia) and 12,000 t for the rest of the Northeast Pacific for decades; landings in recent years average 1,200 tonnes under constant catch per unit effort and appear sustainable (King and McFarlane 2005). In 1998, Alaska prohibited commercial shark fishing, although experimental dogfish fisheries in the region are being authorized.  <br/> <br/>Washington includes dogfish in bottomfish management plans, but there are few species-specific measures. Concern over large catches from pupping grounds prompted closure of East Sound. In 2005, NMFS addressed concern over a growing directed Pacific spiny dogfish by imposing a control date of April 2005 as a first step to limiting entry into the dogfish fishery and announced trip limits of 100 to 200,000 lbs per two months for the last nine months of 2006. Trip limits were deemed necessary as a precautionary measure until the stock is assessed and subject to species-specific quotas. Other new measures include gear-specific and depth-based closed areas designed primarily to reduce mortality on overfished rockfish stocks, but expected to reduce fishing pressure on spiny dogfish. Although the U.S and Canada conduct cooperative surveys for Northeast Pacific spiny dogfish, there is no coordinated, international management for the stock (Camhi 1999). <br/> <br/>There are no management programs for spiny dogfish in Australia (Simpfendorfer, pers. comm.), nor in Japan.  <br/> <br/>In southern Africa, South African fisheries for teleosts (mainly hake), which take dogfish as bycatch, appear to be managed sustainably although efforts to improve observer data for these fisheries have not yet been implemented.	eng
39326	distribution	Fordham, S., Fowler, S.L., Coelho, R., Goldman, K.J. & Francis, M., 2006	Spiny dogfish are a boreal and temperate cosmopolitan species with principal populations found in the east and west North Atlantic, the eastern South Pacific, the South Atlantic off South America, the Cape coast of South Africa, the southern coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and in the east and west North Pacific. (Compagno 1984).	eng
39326	habitat	Fordham, S., Fowler, S.L., Coelho, R., Goldman, K.J. & Francis, M., 2006	Spiny dogfish are ovoviviparous. Their 18 to 22 month gestation period (Compagno 1984) is among the longest of any animal. Pups measure between 20 and 30 cm at birth (Castro 1983). Fecundity increases with size (Templeman 1944, Nammack <em>et al</em>. 1985). Castro (1983) reported that, in the North Atlantic, dogfish pup offshore in deepwater wintering grounds, while Templeman (1944) suggested mature females off Newfoundland pup inshore January through May. Spiny dogfish move into the waters off the San Juan Islands of Washington (US) to pup in July and August (Camhi 1999). <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish prey opportunistically on a variety of small fish and invertebrates (Castro 1983). Aside from humans, adult dogfish have few enemies. They are eaten by larger sharks, large bony fishes, seals, and killer whales (Castro 1983, Compagno 1984). Although dogfish are regularly blamed for preying heavily on economically valuable groundfish, stomach content analyses reveal that most groundfish are uncommon in dogfish diets and the amount of groundfish removed by dogfish is a small fraction of fishery removal and stock sizes (Link <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish are highly migratory, travelling in large, dense "packs", segregated by size and sex. Primarily epibenthic, they are not known to associate with any particular habitat (McMillan and Morse 1999). They are thought to mate in winter (Castro 1983, Compagno 1984). In Australia, breeding occurs in large bays and estuaries (Last and Stevens 1994), while North Atlantic mating grounds are still unknown. <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish reach maturity late and are very long-lived. Nammack <em>et al</em>. (1985) reported that individuals in the Pacific grow more slowly and larger than those in the Atlantic. Life history characteristics are summarized below. Smith et al. (1998) found spiny dogfish to have the lowest intrinsic rebound potential of 26 shark species analysed.	eng
39326	population	Fordham, S., Fowler, S.L., Coelho, R., Goldman, K.J. & Francis, M., 2006	Little mixing occurs between populations. They are found from the intertidal zone to depths of 900 m, but mostly <200 m (at least in the Mediterranean). Usually coastal and demersal, they migrate north and south as well as near shore and offshore in 7 to 15°C water (Compagno 1984).	eng
39326	threats	Fordham, S., Fowler, S.L., Coelho, R., Goldman, K.J. & Francis, M., 2006	The principal threat to this species worldwide is over-exploitation, by target and bycatch fisheries. This is a valuable commercial species in many parts of the world, caught in bottom trawls, gillnets, line gear, and by rod and reel. <br/> <br/>France was the largest importer of dogfish meat within the EU from 1990-1994, importing an annual average of 5,000 tonnes (98% spiny) with the UK as their top European supplier. During 1988?1994, Norway was the largest of nine non-EU suppliers to the EU of fresh or chilled spiny dogfish, followed by the US. As European stocks decline, demand is being met by frozen imports from 25 countries, dominated by the US and Argentina.  <br/> <br/>According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), dogfish catches reached a peak in 1972 (73,500 t) then declined and stabilized in a range between 36,000 and 51,000 t in the 1990s. Most of the catch reported to FAO comes from the North Atlantic, with minor amounts reported from the Northeast Pacific (maximum 5,314 t in 1988) and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. There are, however, some data discrepancies: in 1999, the US landed nearly 15,000 t of spiny dogfish and 9,800 t was landed from ICES areas, most of this by the UK fleet (UK fisheries statistics report over 9,000 t landed), yet FAO reports 1999 global catch at 22,756 t with the largest catches coming from Canada (5,536 t) and Norway (1,461 t) (FAO 2000). <br/> <br/>Locally high biomass initially supports large catches, but most large-scale spiny dogfish fisheries have depleted populations and collapsed (Ocean Wildlife Campaign 1996). An aggregating habit makes it possible for fishers to continue to target highest value mature females even after stocks have been depleted to a few percent of baseline. The species is also taken as a bycatch in mixed species fisheries, meaning that fishing pressure can continue even after stocks have been so seriously depleted that they can no longer support viable fisheries.  <br/> <br/>There are potential impacts on spiny dogfish associated with habitat loss and degradation. Coastal development, pollution, dredging and bottom trawling affect coastal or benthic habitat on which spiny dogfish or their prey rely (ASMFC 2002). <br/> <br/>Where spiny dogfish are taken as an unwanted bycatch in fisheries and discarded, their high survival rates and competitive release from retained demersal fish species may well lead to increased stocks of dogfish. This may have occurred in the Northwest Atlantic before declining fish stocks and high demand from European markets caused the species to be targeted there.  <br/> <br/>We must take into account that official fisheries statistics in most regions only consider landed biomass, and not actual captures. If we consider the possibility that a decade ago discards of these non targeted species were higher than discards nowadays (and this fact can easily be explained due to the collapse in most traditional fishing stocks, that lead to an increase in the commercialisation of these by-catch species), then the real decrease in the population biomass can be much higher than many of the estimates presented here. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Rey (1928) refers that in the 1920s this was a very abundant species in the Iberia Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) both for the Atlantic and the Mediterranean coasts. He added that this species probably aggregated during some periods because sometimes huge amounts were captured with longlines and nets. Heessen <em>et al</em>. (2003) identified a single Northeast Atlantic stock of spurdog, distributed from the north of the Bay of Biscay to the Norwegian Sea. This has been fished off Europe (mainly in the North and Irish Seas) since the early 1900s, primarily by British and Norwegian fishermen, later by the French and Irish as well (Bonfil 1994). Today, the UK fishery lands around 80% of the European Union catch. Annual catches were well below 10,000 t throughout the ICES area before the 1930s, had more than doubled by 1937, then reached a peak of over 58,000 t in 1963 (Heessen <em>et al</em>. 2003 and see Figure). Holden (1968) considered the female portion of the Scottish-Norwegian stock to be overfished in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s, landings continued to decline and by 1978, the Norwegian fishery north of Scotland had collapsed (Hjertenes 1980). The important North Sea fishery declined steeply from around 37,000 t in the early 1970s, to 3,000?4,000 in recent years, while the more recent Celtic Seas fishery peaked at about 22,000 t in 1987, since declining to under 5,000 t. Total landings from the entire ICES area are now under 10,000 t, around 17% of peak landings.  <br/> <br/>Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Squalus acanthias</em> for fishes captured in Portuguese waters, have shown a decrease of 51% between 1987 and 2000. Since then, landings increased again until 2002, so the overall decrease from 1987 to 2002 has been 11.3% (DGPA, 1988?2004). When a linear regression was fitted to the log transformed data of these annual landings, projections were made for a three-generation period in the past, with a reduction of landed biomass of 43%. Taking into account that this species continues to be fished nowadays and there are no perspectives of reducing exploitation levels for the future, future projections were also made, and another 43% reduction of landed biomass in the next three generations estimated. <br/> <br/>We must take into account that official fisheries statistics only consider landed biomass, and not actual captures. If we consider the possibility that 15 years ago discards of these non targeted species were higher than discards nowadays (and this fact can easily be explained due to the collapse in most traditional fishing stocks, that lead to an increase in the commercialisation of these by-catch species), then the real decrease in the population biomass can be much higher than one estimated here. <br/> <br/>The species is still the region?s most commercially important elasmobranch, with most of the catch being incidental although there are still local, directed fisheries in the north (Pawson and Vince 1998). Heessen <em>et al</em>. (2003) describe the stock as severely depleted, with an estimated decline in biomass from 1977 of over 5,000,000 (at which time landings had already fallen to 60% of peak catches) to well under 100,000 in 2001; a decline in biomass of well over 98%. Estimates of total numbers of mature adults in 2000 range from 100,000 to 600,000 individuals. Hammond and Ellis (2004) estimate depletion of this stock to about 5% of virgin biomass. The decline in biomass over the >75 year three generation period for this stock is also greater than 90% and the stock therefore assessed as Critically Endangered. There is currently no indication that effective management will be introduced to regulate the fishery and allow the stock to rebuild; quotas apply to only part of the stock (North Sea) and significantly exceed recent landings for this area, while ICES advice for a zero quota in 2006 was not adopted by the EU.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>Depth distribution is from 20?30 m down to 800 m, with peaks of abundance in shallow water (to 50 m) and from 200?500 m. The species is most abundant in the Eastern Central area (southern Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian Sea), less so in the Eastern Aegean, and fairly scarce elsewhere. Spiny dogfish occurred in 5% of MEDITS trawls (1994-98). These data were used to calculate a total standing stock biomass in the entire MEDITS area of 6,682 tonnes (Serena in lit.). There are very few trend data. Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. (2001) do not report any significant change in occurrence of <em>S. acanthias</em>. Aldebert (1997) reports a decline in observations of <em>S. acanthias</em> landings beginning in the 1980s. Anecdotal evidence from fishermen interviews in the Balearics indicates a significant decline in abundance in captures with bottom longlines and gillnets over the 17 years from 1985/6 (Gabriel Morey, personal communication). Directed fisheries undertaken for this species during the 1970s ceased as a result of these stock declines. This stock is therefore assessed as Endangered.  <br/> <br/><strong>Black Sea</strong>: <br/>Although trend data are scarce for the Black Seas, some declines have been observed. A stock assessment for the Black Sea stock (Prodanov <em>et al</em>. 1997) identified a decline in abundance of <em>Squalus acanthias</em> of 60% between 1981 and 1992. Overall, the stock seems likely to be in a better state than in the Northeast Atlantic, which has been fished more intensively and for much longer. Fishing pressure is, however, likely to continue to remain high and the declines seem likely to continue and therefore the stock is assessed as Vulnerable.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Spiny dogfish were fished intensively for liver oil off the eastern US during World War II until the synthesis of vitamin A (Castro 1983). Landings increased from 500 t in the early 1960s to 9,689 t in 1966 and peaked in 1974 at 25,620 t. Foreign fleets (from the former USSR and East German Republic, Poland, Japan and Canada) accounted for virtually all the reported catch from 1966 to 1977 (NOAA 1995). Annual US commercial dogfish landings from the Atlantic increased from only a few hundred tonnes in the late 1970s to around 4,500 t during 1979?1989. Increasing European demand led to a sevenfold increase in landings, to a peak of 27,200 t in 1996. Estimates of dogfish discards have ranged from 3,700 mt to 47,000mt for the years 1990?2002 (NEFSC 2003). Landings fell to 14,906 t in 1999, prior to the introduction of management (Rago and Sosebee 2002), but federal mortality targets have yet to be achieved. US recreational catches increased from about 350 t annually in 1979?1980 to about 1,700 t in 1989, averaged about 1,300 t from 1990-1994, then declined in 1996 to 386 t (NOAA 1998). Recreational landings remained stable through 2000 and then rose to roughly 2,000 mt in 2001 and 2002, a level that for the first time is considered significant (NEFSC 2003). Stock assessments indicate that total biomass was stable at a high level into the late 1990s, but, based on declines in targeted mature females, the stock was declared overfished in 1997. In the first stages of management, actual fishing mortality (F=0.27) greatly exceeded the target level (F=0.03) (MAFMC 2001). By 2002, fishing mortality had dropped to F=0.09, but still exceeded the rebuilding target by a factor of 3. Reproductive biomass peaked in 1989 and then declined by more than 75% by 2002 (NEFSC 2003). Average weight of landed females declined from 4 kg in 1987 to 2 kg in 2000 (Rago and Sosebee 2002). Recruitment estimates from 1997?2003 are the seven lowest in the 35-year time series. Average size of pups taken in surveys has also declined, consistent with new data regarding reduced average size of pups produced by smaller females. Reproductive potential is expected to continue to decline as these weak year classes mature. (NEFSC 2003). Overall, US federal efforts to manage the Northwest Atlantic stock for recovery have been hampered by delays, non-compliance and continued exploitation in state waters to supply European market demand. Whereas significant rebuilding (90% of SSB target) was anticipated by 2003, the population in 2005 had yet to show signs of recovery in mature females or significant improvement in recruitment. (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). The U.S. Atlantic federal plan?s fishing mortality target was scheduled to increase from 0.03 to 0.08 in 2004 based on this stock rebuilding that was anticipated but not realized (MAFMC 2001). Increases in fishing mortality are now possible under the FMP, but scientists recommended maintaining a target fishing mortality rate of 0.03 because of lack of rebuilding. Under the most optimistic scenario, rebuilding will take at least 15 years. Recovery under the target fishing mortality rate (yet to be realized) could take three decades. Long term projections, which account for lower survivorship of pups, predict stock collapse under current fishing mortality (NEFSC 2003). <br/> <br/>US commercial landings of spiny dogfish amounted to 1,170 mt (approximately 2.5 million lbs) in 2003 and 980 mt (roughly 2 million lbs) in 2004; total landings are approximately 99% was female (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). NMFS reported Massachusetts landings for the fishing year spanning May 1, 2004 to April 30, 2005 at less than 1 million pounds; however, Massachusetts officials claim two processors in New Bedford processed about 2 million pounds, collectively during that time period (Pierce 2006). The average size of females landed is increasing over time, primarily due to a shift in fisheries (more landings from gill net and hook fishing, fewer from trawls). The ratio of total landings to numbers removed reveal that the number of females landed increased roughly 16-fold, indicating that the average size has greatly decreased. Dead discards from US commercial fisheries were estimated to be between 6,400 to 13,285 mt (14.1 and 29.3 million pounds) depending on the assumed discard mortality by gear type. Recreational landings of spiny dogfish increased from a very low number in 2000 to a high value of 81,972 animals in 2002. In 2005, the relevant scientific committee recommended the continuation of very low possession limits and a quota (?bycatch cap?) reduction of 50% (down to 2 million lbs annually). In recent years, the fraction of the dogfish population found in nearshore waters has increased markedly for unknown reasons (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005).  <br/> <br/>Resulting increased interactions with fishermen have sparked widespread demands for loosening dogfish restrictions.  <br/> <br/>The Dogfish Technical Committee in 2005 expressed concern about constraining effects that dogfish discards in commercial fisheries and the directed Canadian dogfish fishery are having on progress toward spiny dogfish population recovery. They recommended a 50% reduction in the quota (?bycatch cap?), continuation of low trip limits and measures to reduce discarding (ASMFC and MAFMC 2005). A full ?benchmark? population assessment for this stock is scheduled for July 2006. <br/> <br/>In the Canadian Atlantic, dogfish are targeted in the Bay of Fundy, Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Foreign landings on the Scotian Shelf peaked at 24,000 t in 1972?1975, but were then replaced by national fisheries (ICES 1997). Atlantic Canadian landings prior to 1979 were insignificant (OWC 1996). A directed fishery then developed off the Maritimes and took off as the US fishery came under regulation. Canadian Atlantic landings increased from an average of 500 t from 1979-1988 to 1,800 t in 1994. After a subsequent decline to roughly 400 t in 1996 and 1997, catches (primarily from Nova Scotia) rose nearly six times from 1997 to 2001 (as U.S. regulations went into effect) and soon represented the largest proportion of the landings from the stock (NEFSC 2003). Canadian landings dropped slightly in 2002 and 2003, but were back up again in 2004 at 2336 mt (approximately 5 million lbs) allocated for the fishery as well as a 700-ton research fishery (ASMFC and MAMFC 2005). The driving force behind these fisheries continues to be international trade to satisfy the European market demand. <br/> <br/>In 2003, Canada announced its intention to develop their own dogfish population assessment after a five year data collection program and their anticipation to maintain Canadian fishing effort, deemed unsustainable in U.S. assessments, in the meantime (Bundy 2003). Canadian Maritime officials note increased interest in the species from U.S. buyers and their industry?s reports of good markets for dogfish. According to Department of Fisheries and Oceans statistics, in just two years (1999 to 2001), the volume of dogfish exports doubled while its value nearly tripled. <br/> <br/>At its annual meeting in 2005, Parties to the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO), in accordance with the recommendations from the 2002 NAFO Symposium on Elasmobranch Fisheries that ?the NAFO Scientific Council [be directed] to investigate the status and management needs of elasmobranchs in NAFO waters,? requested the NAFO Scientific Council (SC) to review all available information from both research vessel surveys and commercial catches on the stock structure, relative biomass, geographic distribution, life history, and size/age/sex composition of spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) occurring within the NAFO Regulatory Area. The SC was also requested to provide historical and recent information on catches and by-catches, and to identify those fisheries in which spiny dogfish is taken as bycatch. <br/> <br/>This stock is currently assessed as Endangered (A2+4bd) on the basis of past and continuing declines, persistent market demand and targeted fishing, increasing discarding, and growing pressure to reopen fisheries. The population would be assessed as Vulnerable (A1) if science-based management measures were introduced and adhered to over the long term across the whole stock. <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong>:  <br/>Spiny dogfish have been fished in British Columbia (Canada) for over 4,000 years. More intense exploitation (for liver oil and meat) began in the late 1800s (Ketchen 1986) and evolved into the region?s most important shark fishery. By 1870, dogfish were surpassing whales in economic importance, producing 50,000 gallons of oil, mostly for export to Great Britain. In 1876, oil exports constituted at least 24% of the total value of all fish. Production peaked in 1883 at more than one million litres, equivalent to 9,000?14,000 t of round weight exports (Bonfil 1999). Ketchen (1986) speculates that a combination of factors (including the advent of petroleum lubricants, lighting fuels and electric lamps) led to fishery collapse around 1910. From 1917 to 1939, dogfish was used for fishmeal and meat exported to the US. Increased value of liver oil resulted in an expansion of the fishery and, by 1944, spiny dogfish supported the most valuable Canadian west coast fishery (Ketchen 1986). Landings reached 31,000 t then fell to <3,000 t in 1949. Fishable biomass had been reduced 75% (reviewed in Anderson 1990) by 1950, when the synthetic production of vitamin A led to the collapse of the oil market. Dogfish fisheries within this region were re-instituted in the mid 1970s as European and Asian markets for dogfish meat developed. Quotas of 3,000t within the Straight of Georgia and 12,000t for outside waters have been in place since the 1980s but as these are well over twice as high as any landings made since the 1940s collapse. Recent catch data for the northeast Pacific indicate a steep upward trend in landings since the early 1990s.  <br/> <br/>Washington state?s directed dogfish fishery was re-established by the early 1980s. Most of the state?s landings came from Puget Sound, yet both this and the coastal fishery have declined dramatically. Annual landings averaged 1,500 t between 1982 and 1998. Catches from Washington waters declined from a peak of 8.6 million pounds in 1979 to a less than 140,000 pounds in 2000. Puget Sound population estimates fell from 25?42 million pounds from 1987 to 1991 to less than 7 million pounds for comparable areas in recent years. Dogfish in Puget Sound are now taken primarily by recreational fishermen and as bycatch (Palsson 2005).  <br/> <br/>Spiny dogfish are also the predominant shark species taken off Alaska, which banned directed shark fishing in 1998, but where dogfish bycatch (90% discarded) comprises the bulk of shark landings (Camhi 1999). In 1997, over 1,000 t of total shark catches were reported from the region?s groundfish fisheries. Spiny dogfish in the Gulf of Alaska are now included in a category known as ?other species? for which limits are set at a percentage of the total allowable catch for target species. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council is in the process of changing the limit from 5% to  <br/>Based on a generation time of 42 years, the current three-generation period therefore commences in the 1870s, when liver oil production first peaked. This has been followed by several periods of boom followed by collapse. Recent analyses suggest that abundance of spiny dogfish in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia has declined very slightly in recent years; landings of 1,200 mt annually on average over the last five years appear to be sustainable and catch per unit effort has remained constant (King and McFarlane 2005). However, the aggregating habit of spiny dogfish means that catch per unit effort (CPUE) is not an adequate indicator of stock status; high CPUE can be maintained even when populations are severely depleted. Scientists describe the overall Northeast Pacific dogfish population as stable, with a possible shift northward in distribution (McFarlane <em>et al</em>. 2005). This stock is likely still to be reduced to around 50% of baseline, although could be recovering under current low exploitation pressures. Recognizing much variation among regions with the Northeast Pacific, this population is considered to be Vulnerable. <br/> <br/><strong>Western North Pacific</strong>: <br/>Japanese coastal and offshore fisheries (longline, trawl and gillnet) have historically taken large amounts of spiny dogfish and have shown similar patterns of decline to those in the North Atlantic (reviewed by Anon 2004). Catches dropped from more than 50,000 t in 1952 to only 10,000 t in 1965 (Taniuchi 1990) The following trends are reported by the Government of Japan Fisheries Agency (2003): offshore trawl catches of spiny dogfish were over 700 t in 1974?1979; since then, catches have decreased to 1?200 t in the late 1990s and up to 2001; catch rates for Danish seines and bull trawls fell from 100?200 kg per haul in the mid 1970s to 10?20 kg per haul in the late 1990s; this 90% reduction in CPUE (catch per unit effort) may indicate that stocks have declined to a similar extent during this period. According to the same source, in the Sea of Japan, spiny dogfish have been fully exploited with longlines and trawl-nets since before 1897. Harvests in this region from 1927 to 1929 were 7,500 to 11,250 t, accounting for 17?25% of Japan?s overall catch. Available statistics since 1970 show a decrease in CPUE from 8?28 units in the 1970s, to only 1?5 between 1995 and 2001, an overall decrease of around 80?90%. Spiny dogfish make up 16.8% of the shark bycatch associated with salmon gillnet fisheries (Nakano 1999). CPUE and stock assessment data are lacking, but the decline seems to be to less than 50% of baseline, fishing pressure continues, and no management is in place to enable the stock to rebuild. This stock is at least Endangered, but may prove to be Critically Endangered once a full regional review can be undertaken. <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong>: <br/>Considered coarse, dogfish meat is of little value to Australians (Last and Stevens 1994). Tasmanian recreational gillnet fisheries do, however, take substantial amounts (Simpfendorfer, pers. comm. in Fordham 2005).  <br/> <br/>Reported New Zealand landings increased from 3,000?4,000 t during the 1980s to 7,000?11,000 t from the mid 1990s to the mid 2000s (Manning <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sullivan et al. 2005). However some, if not most, of the apparent increase was probably a result of better reporting. It is not known if this level of fishing is sustainable, but catch rate analyses and trawl survey biomass indices show no sign of significant declines; indeed one of the main stocks on the Chatham Rise has shown a 5-fold biomass increase since 1991 (Manning et al. 2004, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Population assessments for spiny dogfish off New Zealand are not yet available. Spiny dogfish were introduced to the New Zealand Quota Management System in October 2004 with a TAC of 12,660 t (M. Francis, pers. comm.). As such, this stock can be assessed as Least Concern. <br/> <br/><strong>South America</strong>:  <br/><em>Squalus acanthias</em> is, together with the similar shortspine spurdog <em>S. mitsukurii</em> and shortnose spurdog <em>S. megalops</em>, one of the more important coastal commercial species in Brazil, where landings of the genus have declined considerably. It is also taken as bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries and the target fishery for <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em>. Unregulated and expanding target and bycatch fisheries take spiny dogfish in Uruguay and Argentina, where declines of ~50% have been reported (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2002). Patagonian trawlers fishing for hake and shrimp take a bycatch of spiny dogfish. Rising effort in these fisheries and a lack of bycatch control is considered to be a threat to this and other elasmobranch populations in the region (Van Der Molen <em>et al</em>. 1998). As in so many other regions, pregnant females are commonly targeted. The South American stocks are assessed as Vulnerable, but may prove to be Endangered when a more detailed regional review can be undertaken.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southern Africa</strong>: <br/>Spiny dogfish are considered a nuisance off South Africa and are not currently targeted. Demersal trawl dogfish catch for the South Coast was recently estimated at 4.7 t, 99% of which is discarded. Off the West coast, an estimated 3.4 t is taken annually (100% discarded). The lack of data on historical dogfish catch will make it difficult to monitor future trends.	eng
39327	conservation	Walker, T.I. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>P. cirratus</em> has been harvested as byproduct or bycatch to the targeting of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> and <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined) (since 2002). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. During 2002, the TAC for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> was 191 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 124 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 31 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. The three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species.	eng
39327	distribution	Walker, T.I. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	<em>P. cirratus</em> is endemic to the waters of southern Australia?s outer continental shelf. Last and Stevens (1994) considered that the distribution was poorly defined, but most likely to be between Jurien Bay in Western Australia and Eden in New South Wales, including Tasmania. Compagno (1984) reported a possible occurrence in the Philippines. The recorded depth range is 40 to 310 m (Last and Stevens 1994). The highest concentrations are in Bass Strait (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
39327	habitat	Walker, T.I. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	<em>P. cirratus</em> is a small, slightly dorso-ventrally compressed, shark with a long rostrum (snout), narrow and tapering with numerous lateral rostral teeth. Paired elongated barbels originate from the ventral side of the rostrum and the second dorsal fin is nearly as large as the first. The upper body is pale yellow to greyish brown with distinctive dark markings incorporating spots and wide bands. Detailed descriptions can be found in Compagno (1984a) and Last and Stevens (1994). Sawsharks can be distinguished from the morphologically similar sawfishes by lateral (as opposed to ventral) gill slits and the presence of barbels originating from the rostrum. <br/> <br/>Maximum total length and maximum total body mass are higher for females (149 cm, 8.5 kg) than for males (132 cm, 3.5 kg). Ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of 15 years and hence has comparatively high productivity among chondrichthyans. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity and produces 6 to 19 offspring biennially, and the young are born at approximately 38 cm total length. Total length at which 50% of the females matured is 107 cm. The diet consists of mainly small teleosts and, to a lesser extent, crustaceans (T.I. Walker, unpublished data).	eng
39327	threats	Walker, T.I. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	One threat to the population of <em>P. cirratus</em> is their capture as byproduct from targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6?6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia (Walker 1999), Victoria and Tasmania. During 1970?01 the catch of <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>Pristiophorus nudipinnis</em> combined from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 43?301 tonnes (carcass weight), 7% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Another threat is their capture as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off New South Wales, eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The sawshark catch from this sector was 106 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>In addition, small quantities of <em>P. cirratus</em> are taken by the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. The catch from this sector was 28 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>Minor threats include gillnets in the shark fishery of Western Australia and fishing with long-lines and other methods. <br/> <br/>In Bass Strait, observed catch rates from research vessels during 1973 to 1976 and from scientific observations on board commercial vessels during 1998?01 indicate that the number of animals per thousand km-hours in bottom-set gillnets of six-inch mesh-size declined from 381 to 292. This is a decline to 67% of former levels over a 25-year period. (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press). Catch per unit effort reported by commercial fishers over this same period declined from 15.32 to 7.71 kg per km-lift for <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and <em>P. cirratus</em> combined; i.e., a decline to 50% of former levels.  The decline in the commercial catch rate for these species occurred during 1974 to 1982 and catch rates subsequently stabilized during 1983 to 2001. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid 1980s and adoption of a Total Allowable Catch during 2002 for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> jointly are expected to help secure the stocks of these species. There is negligible targeting of <em>P. cirratus</em>; most of the catch of these species is taken as byproduct to targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em>.	eng
39328	conservation	Cailliet, G.M., 2005	The Pacific Angelshark is considered to be overfished. The fishery is now indirectly regulated, mainly through the ban on nearshore gillnet fisheries in southern California, which originally targeted the California halibut (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1992, Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nevertheless, an interest still remains in commercially exploiting this species and conservation measures should be implemented to protect its populations in the future.	eng
39328	distribution	Cailliet, G.M., 2005	The Pacific Angelshark occurs off the coast of North America from Alaska to the tip of Baja California, Mexico (including the Gulf of California) and perhaps to Ecuador and southern Chile, but the taxonomy of the southern population has not yet been validated. It is relatively common in central and southern California (US) waters, especially off the coast of Santa Barbara (Natanson and Cailliet 1986, 1990, Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001). It lives in relatively shallow waters to depths of 100 m, but it is much more abundant in nearshore, coastal waters (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
39328	habitat	Cailliet, G.M., 2005	Pacific Angelsharks are relatively small, bottom-dwelling elasmobranchs, which commonly remain partially buried on flat, sandy bottoms during the daytime, but which can become active at night (Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001). They are primarily piscivores, apparently waiting for vulnerable prey to swim overhead. In southern California, they are reported to eat croakers, damselfish and squid (Leet <em>et al.</em> 1992, 2001), but their diet extends to pelagic fishes as well. Numerous techniques of ageing and age verification have been used on Pacific angelsharks, but none except tag-recapture have been successful at estimating their growth rates or age-specific processes (Natanson and Cailliet 1990, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1992). These tag-recapture data, however, allowed an estimate of von Bertalanffy growth and demography parameters that predicted relatively slow growth and moderate fecundity, with maturity occurring relatively late in life. Reproduction starts in both males and females at about 90?100 cm TL or ~13 years of age, with gestation taking approximately 10 months, resulting in up to 11 pups (mean of six) per female born between March and June.	eng
39328	threats	Cailliet, G.M., 2005	The growth and demography parameters from the tag-recapture study indicated that Pacific Angelsharks grew slowly enough and had relatively few offspring relatively late in life to indicate that they could not handle strong exploitation (see Richards 1987). There was a rapid increase in angel shark landings between 1983?1986 (Richards 1987), leading to concern that stocks could be over-exploited. Even though a minimum size was proposed for the gillnet fishery targeting both California Halibut (<em>Paralichthys californicus</em>) and Pacific Angelsharks, this measure proved not to be effective at reversing the declining population levels along the Santa Barbara/ Ventura coast and Channel Islands areas, California (Richards 1987, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993). Because of the gillnet fishery ban (Proposition 132) voted into law by Californians in 1990, there is now a reduced threat to the California population of Pacific Angelsharks. However, little is known about the effect of fisheries on the overall stock of this population, which is being heavily fished along both the Pacific and Gulf coasts of Baja California (C. Villavicencio pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Because of its rather limited geographical range and evidence of only limited exchange among regional stocks within this range, resident stocks near large population centres may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localised fishing pressure. This is especially true since past commercial catch data have exhibited a typical elasmobranch fisheries pattern. Angel shark landings in California increased from about 45.4 t in the late 1970s, to >545 t in 1985 and 1986. This was followed by a rapid decline in total catch to <90t in 1989 and an almost complete collapse by the early 1990s (Richards 1987, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
39329	conservation	Vooren, C.M. & Chiaramonte, G.E., 2006	Since 1992 there is a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel sharks in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003).  <br/> <br/>In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult. A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez pers. comm). The conservation status of this species will rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels should provide accurate monitoring of trends in the future.	eng
39329	distribution	Vooren, C.M. & Chiaramonte, G.E., 2006	<em>Squatina argentina</em> is endemic to the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 32°S (Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (north Patagonia, Argentina) (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991). Nursery areas of the species have not been found in southern Brazil and may exist further south off Uruguay and/or Argentina.	eng
39329	habitat	Vooren, C.M. & Chiaramonte, G.E., 2006	<em>Squatina argentina</em> is a bottom-dwelling shark of smooth sandy and muddy grounds on the outer shelf and upper slope at depths of 120 to 320 m, at temperatures of 14 to 16°C, but has also been sporadically recorded to 50 m (Vooren and Silva 1991, Vooren 1997).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size is 138 cm TL; size at maturity ~120 cm TL for both sexes (Silva 1996). Aplacental yolksac viviparous with two functional ovaries. Fecundity is 7 to 11 embryos per litter (Vooren and Silva 1991), with most females carrying 9 or 10 young. The breeding cycle of the female lasts at least two years.	eng
39329	population	Vooren, C.M. & Chiaramonte, G.E., 2006	<em>Squatina argentina</em> appears to be the less abundant of the three angel shark species captured by fisheries off Rio Grande do Sul State (30°S to 34°S), Brazil (Perez and Warhlich 2005).	eng
39329	threats	Vooren, C.M. & Chiaramonte, G.E., 2006	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between angel shark populations makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>S. guggenheim, S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> combined. The term ?angel shark? in the present assessment refers to this assemblage of species. These three species occur on the continental shelf with <em>S. argentina</em> and <em>S. occulta</em> also occurring on the upper slope. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000 t in 1986 to 1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003). In the trawl and gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> at the shelf edge and upper slope, <em>S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> have been significant bycatch species, indicating that there is also considerable pressure on the outer shelf and slope for <em>S. argentina</em>. Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of <em>S. argentina</em> has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Perez and Warhlich (2005) noted that <em>Squatina argentina</em> was one of the most retained bycatch species in the gillnet monkfish fishery, with bycatch estimated at 1.052 per 100 nets in 2001 (total 8,698 individuals), and these authors suggest that this is unlikely to be sustainable for the species. <br/> <br/>At present there is no evidence of the existence of abundant populations of the species outside southern Brazil. In Uruguay and Argentina the species is uncommon in commercial landings but its distribution and abundance have not been studied. In Argentina, angel shark landings have shown a negative trend since a peak in 1998 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004), but landings apparently consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but the largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm). While most information is available from Brazil, trawl and other demersal fisheries operate over the species' area of occurrence, exerting fishing pressure across both the latitudinal and bathymetrical range of the species.	eng
39330	conservation	Chiaramonte, G. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Since 1992 there has been a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel shark in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult.    <br/> <br/>Vooren and Klippel (2005) recommend the protection of the coastal nursery grounds in southern Brazil (waters south of 32°30?S) from fishing as an essential measure for the conservation of this species.	eng
39330	distribution	Chiaramonte, G. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Squatina guggenheim</em> is endemic to the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 24°S (Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (northern Patagonia, Argentina). Gosztonyi (1981) recorded specimens of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from 47°S, which may be this species, however this requires confirmation. Gravid females migrate in spring to shallow inshore nursery grounds to give birth (Silva 1996).	eng
39330	habitat	Chiaramonte, G. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Squatina guggenheim</em> is a relatively small, shelf bottom-dwelling shark. In Brazil the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 80 m at bottom temperatures of 10 to 22°C (Vooren and Silva 1991). Cousseau (1973) refers to captures of <em>S. guggenheim</em> from the coast to 150 m in Argentinean waters, Gosztonyi (1981) at depths of 26 to 135 m, and Menni <em>et al.</em> (1981) at 22 to 121 m.  <br/> <br/>Maximum size in Brazil is 92 cm TL (Silva 1996); size at maturity 70 to 80 cm TL for both sexes (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991). Aplacental yolksac viviparous with one functional ovary. Number of embryos per litter is 3 to 9 (Vooren and Klippel 2005, Compagno in prep). The breeding cycle of the female is triennial (Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> migrates in spring to shallow coastal waters where the females give birth and where small juveniles occur all year round (Vooren and Silva 1991, Vooren and Klippel 2005). For <em>S. guggenheim</em> in southern Brazil, Vieira (1996) established the following Von Bertalanffy parameters: K=0.274, L<sub>?</sub>=94.7 cm TL, and t<sub>0</sub>=-1.145. The age at sexual maturity was calculated as 4 to 5 years and longevity 12 years. For Argentina, Chiaramonte (unpublished data) calculated K= 0.107 using the indirect methods of Holden (1974).	eng
39330	population	Chiaramonte, G. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Although the species lives in a geographical continuum of ~20 degrees of latitude, the range is probably composed of local populations each with its own inshore-offshore migration pattern within their local temperature regime. One such population exists in southern Brazil. These local populations can be extirpated by fishing activities. Shallow inshore regions are important as nursery grounds throughout the geographical range of the species.	eng
39330	threats	Chiaramonte, G. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005).   <br/> <br/>Gravid females of <em>S. guggenheim</em> have been observed to abort embryos easily upon capture, further reducing the reproductive capacity (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between populations also makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. Furthermore, pupping and nursery areas in Brazil occur in shallow inshore waters at depths of <30 m. Intensive fishing by gillnet and trawl in these nursery areas results in additional pressure on gravid females and juveniles of the species (Silva 1996, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>S. guggenheim, S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> combined. The term ?angel shark? in the present assessment refers to this assemblage of species. These three species occur on the continental shelf with <em>S. argentina</em> also occurring on the upper slope. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000t in 1986-1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003, Vooren and Klippel 2005). While <em>S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> have been significant bycatch species in the trawl and gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> at the shelf edge and uppermost slope, <em>S. guggenheim</em> occurs shallower than that fishery. <br/> <br/>Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of <em>S. guggenheim</em> has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the shark bycatch from gillnet and bottom trawl fleets targeting species such as school shark, croakers and flatfishes is poorly known. However, Cousseau (1973), based on Nani and Gonzalez Alberdi (1966), estimated <em>Squatina</em> as 6% of the total weight of the catches of the coastal bottom trawling fleet. The predominant size in these catches was about 70 to 80 cm TL; small sizes (25 to 45 cm TL) were uncommon. Cousseau (1973), based on García Cabrejos and Malaret (1969) calculated the total landings of angel shark in Mar del Plata harbour in 1964 to be 1,074 MT and 2,355 MT in 1965. Otero <em>et al.</em> (1982) considered the angel sharks to be species with a low concentration on the Buenos Aires coast, with an annual biomass for 1981/2 estimated at 4,050 tons. However, in 1991 as much as 4,167 MT were taken, and 4,281 MT in 1996. Chiaramonte (1998) stated that the angel sharks were the second most important fish landed by the gillnet fleet of Puerto Quequen. Total captures of angel sharks in Argentina oscillated around 1,000 MT between 1979 and 1984 then increased to maximums of over 4,000 MT in the 1990s. Catches consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. Peaks were reached in 1997 and 1998, before landings dropped in 2002 to >2,000 MT, rising again in 2003 to 3,550 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus there has been an overall negative trend in landings during the period 1998-2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, Vooren and Klippel (2005) (citing Massa and Hozbor 2003) suggested a 58% decline in the CPUE of angel shark in the coastal bottom trawl fleet. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm).	eng
39331	conservation	Vooren, C.M. & Chiramonte, G., 2007	Since 1992 there is a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel sharks in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003).  <br/> <br/>In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult. A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez pers. comm). The conservation status of this species will rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels should provide accurate monitoring of trends in the future.	eng
39331	distribution	Vooren, C.M. & Chiramonte, G., 2007	<em>Squatina occulta</em> is an endemic species of the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 24°S (Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 38°S (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina).	eng
39331	habitat	Vooren, C.M. & Chiramonte, G., 2007	<em>Squatina occulta</em> is a bottom-dwelling shark of smooth sandy and muddy grounds on the shelf and upper slope at depths of 10 to 350 m and at bottom temperatures of 14 to 19°C (Vooren and Silva 1991, Vooren 1997, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size ~130 cm TL; size at maturity ~110 cm TL; size at birth ~33 cm TL. Aplacental yolksac viviparous with a single functional ovary. Number of embryos per litter is 6 to 8 (Vooren and Silva 1991). Gestation period ~11 months, and young are born in spring. The breeding cycle of the female may take four or five years, with variation between individuals (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Vieira (1996) established the following Von Bertalanffy parameters: K=0.129, L<sub>?</sub>=137.9 cm TL and t<sub>0</sub>= 1.937. The age at sexual maturity was calculated as 10 years and longevity ~21 years. Chiaramonte (unpublished data) calculated K= 0.147 using the indirect methods of Holden (1974).	eng
39331	population	Vooren, C.M. & Chiramonte, G., 2007	This species does not appear to make seasonal migrations to different depths (Vooren and Klippel 2005). There is apparently a nursery area located off Rio Grande do Sul at depths of 60 to 80 m (Vooren and Klippel 2005).	eng
39331	threats	Vooren, C.M. & Chiramonte, G., 2007	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Gravid females of the species have been observed to abort embryos easily upon capture, further reducing the reproductive capacity (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between angel shark populations makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>S. guggenheim, S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> combined. The term ?angel shark? in the present assessment refers to this assemblage of species. These three species occur on the continental shelf with <em>S. argentina</em> and <em>S. occulta</em> also occurring on the upper slope. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000 t in 1986 to 1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003). In the trawl and gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> at the shelf edge and upper slope, <em>S. occulta</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> have been significant bycatch species, indicating that there is also considerable pressure on the outer shelf and slope for <em>S. occulta</em>. Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of <em>S. occulta</em> has decreased to 20% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>At present there is no evidence of the existence of abundant populations of the species outside southern Brazil. In Uruguay and Argentina the species is uncommon in commercial landings but its distribution and abundance have not been studied. In Argentina, angel shark landings have shown a negative trend since a peak in 1998 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004), but landings apparently consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but the largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm). While most information is available from Brazil, trawl and other demersal fisheries operate over the species' area of occurrence, exerting fishing pressure across both the latitudinal and bathymetrical range of the species.	eng
39332	conservation	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Fowler, S.L., Dipper, F. & Ellis, J., 2006	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within three Balearic Islands marine reserves, where fishing for these species is forbidden. <em>Squatina squatina</em> was proposed for strict protection under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act in 2001; a decision is still (2006) awaited from government [Update by LRH May 27th 2010 - species now listed under UK Wildlife and Countryside Act, and will be protected against killing, injuring or taking (section 9(1)) on land and up to 3 nautical miles (nm) from English coastal baselines]. UK and Belgium proposed <em>S. squatina</em> for listing on the OSPAR Priority List of Threatened and Endangered Species, and although the proposal was deemed appropriate by the Study Group on Elasmobranch Fishes (ICES, 2002), the nomination was not accepted. <em>Squatina squatina</em> is listed on Annex III of the Barcelona Convention. <br/> <br/>There is an urgent need to confirm the status of this species in the southern Mediterranean, Canary Islands and other areas where populations may still persist. If so appropriate conservation measures are needed to protect this species there.	eng
39332	distribution	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Fowler, S.L., Dipper, F. & Ellis, J., 2006	Original range from Scandinavia to North-western Africa (Mauritania and the Canary Islands), including the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Current distribution appears to be reduced from this historic range, as a result of severe population depletion, local extirpations, and some contraction in range; for example it is now considered to be extinct in the North Sea (ICES ACFM 2005) and is no longer encountered in most areas of the northern Mediterranean.	eng
39332	habitat	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Fowler, S.L., Dipper, F. & Ellis, J., 2006	A temperate-water bottom-dwelling angel shark of the European and North African continental shelves, occurring on or near the bottom from close inshore (5 m) in the intertidal or subtidal zone to at least 150 m depth. This shark prefers mud or sandy bottom, where it lies buried with little more than its eyes protruding. It may penetrate estuaries and brackish water. The angelshark is nocturnal and can be found swimming strongly up off the bottom at night, but is torpid in the daytime and rests on the bottom. In the northern parts of its range the angelshark is seasonally migratory, and makes northwards incursions during the summer. (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>Most life history data were provided by Capape <em>et al</em>. (1990) for the Mediterranean. Females reach maturity at 128 to 169 cm, and males at 80 to 132 cm (Lipej <em>et al</em>. 2004), with maximum sizes of 183 cm and possibly up to 244 cm (Compagno 1984, in prep.), with estimates of less than 240 cm in the Mediterranean Sea (Tortonese 1956). Age at maturity and longevity are unknown. This shark is ovoviviparous, with both ovaries functional. It has moderate-sized litters of 7 to 25 young which vary according to the size of the female (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990, Compagno in prep). Records of size at birth are 24 to 30 cm (Compagno in prep.) and 24 cm (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967). Gestation period is 8 to 10 months (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990, Compagno in prep.), born in December to February in the Mediterranean but apparently later in northern parts of its range (July in England). Reproductive age and periodicity, rate of population increase and mortality are unknown. <br/> <br/>The angelshark feeds primarily on bony fishes, especially flatfishes (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996) but also other demersal fishes and skates, crustaceans and molluscs. Specific items include hake (<em>Merlucius merlucius</em>, Merluciidae), sparids (<em>Pagellus erythrinus</em>, Sparidae), grunts (<em>Pomadasys</em> sp., Haemulidae) flatfish (<em>Bothus</em> sp., Bothidae, <em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae), sole (<em>Solea solea</em>, Soleidae), squid (<em>Loligo vulgaris</em>), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>, <em>Sepiola</em> spp.), and crustaceans (<em>Dorippe lanata</em>, <em>Geryon tridens</em>, <em>Dromia vulgaris</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em>, <em>Macropipus corregatus</em>, <em>Atelecyclus rotundatus</em>). It occasionally swallows odd items, including eelgrass and seabirds (a cormorant was once recorded) (Compagno in prep.).	eng
39332	population	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Fowler, S.L., Dipper, F. & Ellis, J., 2006	<em>Squatina squatina</em> was reported to be common, or at least frequently or regularly recorded in many areas, during the 19<sup>th</sup> century and early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries. For example, It was particularly common on the south and east English coasts (Yarrell 1836, Day 1880?04), and also common in the North Sea, on the Dogger Bank, in the Bristol Channel and Cornwall, and ?by no means uncommon? in the Firth of Clyde (Day 1880?4). Historically it has also been caught in Tralee Bay and Clew Bay, Ireland. It was still being caught regularly and considered common in the UK at the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Garstang 1903). Although more common off the Atlantic Iberian coasts, <em>Squatina squatina</em> was also reported as frequent in the Mediterranean during the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century by Lozano Rey (1928). Steep population declines have, however, now been reported from several parts of this species? range, including in the North Sea (ICES ACFM 2005) UK coastal waters (Rogers and Ellis 2000), the French coast (Quero and Cendrero 1996, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2000), and large areas of the Mediterranean (e.g., Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). During the early 1900s, an average of one specimen was taken during every ten hours of trawl survey, but in recent years the species has virtually vanished (Rogers and Ellis, 2000). CEFAS surveys recorded angel sharks in low numbers in Cardigan Bay during the 1980s (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996) but report just one individual in the last 15 years. The population is clearly becoming increasingly fragmented and records are now extremely infrequent (for more information, see ?Threats?). It has now virtually disappeared from much of its former range in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean. Off the North Africa coastline the species may be more common, e.g., as reported off the coast of Tunisia (although it is considered rare in the Gulf of Gabès) (Bradai 2000).  <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898 to 1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922.  <br/> <br/>Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously relatively frequent, may now be absent. Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina squatina</em> was historically documented in checklists (Delaroche 1809, Ramis 1814, Barceló I Combis 1868, Fage 1907, De Buen 1935). Captures of <em>S. squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970?s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980?s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), lobster tanglenets, trawls and bottom longline fisheries. Since the mid 1990?s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (Gabriel Morey, pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46 to 1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics.  <br/> <br/>Catch data for this species in the north Mediterranean exist for the period from 1985 to 1999, when two major trawl surveys were carried out: the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) and the Italian National Project (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND)).  <br/> <br/>During the MEDITS program (1995?1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline from west Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10 to 800 m, <em>S. squatina</em> appeared in only two of a total of 9,095 tows, at a depth range of 50 to 100 m, resulting in an estimated standing biomass of 14 t throughout the survey area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001), which equates to 1,400 individuals assuming an average individual weight of 10 kg.  <br/> <br/>In the Italian survey, captures of <em>S. squatina</em> were reported in only 0.41% of 9,281 hauls (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000). <em>Squatina squatina</em> was reported from trawl surveys carried out in the Adriatic Sea in 1948, but MEDITS trawls in 1998 indicated this species may now be absent from this area (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, evidence points to angel sharks being absent nowadays from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>Landings in the Northeast Atlantic compiled by WGEF (2004) from 1978 to 2002 for all ICES Areas are variable because of recent misreporting of other species (primarily <em>Lophius</em>) as this non-quota species. After deleting these records, landings have declined from 15 to 20 t in the 1980s, to 1 to 2 t in the 1990s, with the last reported landing in 1998.	eng
39332	threats	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Fowler, S.L., Dipper, F. & Ellis, J., 2006	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area of the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat.There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations may makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Tunisia reported small catches of this species during the past decade (10 to 53 t), with the 1997 catch at 37 t; other Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. Landings in the Northeast Atlantic collated by WGEF (ICES 2004) may include some misreporting of other (quota) species (e.g., <em>Lophius</em>) as angel shark is a non-quota species, but otherwise landings have declined from an average of 17 t/annum in the 1980s, to 1 to 2 t in the 1990s.	eng
39333	conservation	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Like other hornsharks, <em>Heterodontus francisci</em> is a hardy species and can survive capture in drift and trawl nets. Individuals should be returned to the water if alive after capture. <br/> <br/>Further information on distribution, population structure and biology is required. <br/> <br/>The development and/or implementation of National Shark Plans under the FAO IPOA-Sharks, where necessary.	eng
39333	distribution	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	In the US, it is most common off southern California but ranges to Monterey Bay and may occasionally penetrate as far north as San Francisco Bay (where it is not resident) during northern influxes of warm water (Compagno 2001). In Mexico, it occurs off Baja California, in the Gulf of California and slightly further south.	eng
39333	habitat	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	The horn shark is a common small warm temperate to subtropical benthic endemic shark. It is found on the continental shelf from the intertidal zone out to a depth of 152 m, although it is most common at a depth of 2 to 11 m. During the winter, horn sharks migrate into deeper waters, usually below 30 m. They exhibit a high degree of segregation corresponding to their life history. Adolescent sharks (between 35 to 48 cm) tend to remain in deeper water, usually between 40 to 150m, and as they mature they migrate back into relatively shallow water. This segregation of habitat by size and stage of maturity reduces competition for food and habitat between younger and older sharks. Habitat also changes ontogenetically, with juveniles inhabiting sandy bottoms with little vertical relief and adults inhabiting rocky reefs with caves and crevices, or areas of thick algae cover. Juveniles use bat ray <em>Myliobatis californica</em> feeding pits in sandy areas as shelter and foraging areas. Adults that occur in the algal habitat have noticeably longer fin spines than those in the reef habitat. This is due to their spines being worn down by going in and out of caves. Horn sharks show distinct diel patterns of activity, which is controlled by light intensity. Adults are relatively inactive diurnally, but are very active nocturnally. They are site specific, returning to the same resting place at dawn and remaining there until the evening. They have a small home range, usually no larger than 1,000 m², and they long-term site fidelity as sharks have been recovered in their tagging locations after up to 11.25 years at liberty. The furthest distance a horn shark has been documented as traveling is 16.3 km. Water temperature is an important factor controlling the relative abundance of the horn shark, as they prefer water over 70°F (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Nelson and Johnson 1970, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Finstad and Nelson 1975, Strong 1989, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Horn sharks are oviparous, and females lay two eggs every 11 to 14 days usually between February and April, depositing up the 24 eggs in a single breeding season. Egg cases are usually laid in shallow water between 2 and 13 m deep. Development of embryos lasts 6 to 10 months, depending on temperature. Size at birth is 15 to 17 cm. Males mature at 56 to 61 cm and reach a maximum length of 83cm, while females over 58 cm are mature, with a maximum length of 96 cm, but possibly up to 120 cm. Very little is known about age and growth of this species. Growth rates are generally slow and very variable, and they do not correspond to size. The unconfirmed maximum age is 25 years (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Dempster and Herald 1961, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Michael 1993, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Horn sharks feed on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates and on small teleosts. Adults prey upon gastropods, crabs, shrimp, squid, sea urchins, sea stars, and small teleosts, namely the blacksmith <em>Chromis punctipinna</em>. Juveniles feed on polychaetes, small clams, and sea anemones in addition to opportunistically feeding on squid and small teleosts when available (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Strong 1989, Compagno 2001, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>: Unknown (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>: Female: >58 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995); Male: 56 to 61 cm (Strong 1989). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>: 25 years (unconfirmed) (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>: Female: 96 cm, possibly up to 120 cm; Male: 83 cm (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974). <br/><strong>Size at birth </strong>: 15 to 17 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>: 6 to 10 months (Dempster and Herald 1961, Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 24 eggs in a single breeding season (Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>: Unknown.	eng
39333	population	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Rare north of southern California. Occurs year-round in San Ignacio Lagoon, Mexico with lower abundance in summer and fall (Segura-Zarzosa <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Differences in egg case morphology between the Channel Islands, California and the mainland suggest that they may be separate populations (Ebert 2003).	eng
39333	threats	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	In California horn sharks are of no commercial value. They are taken as bycatch in traps and trawls and occasionally by recreational anglers. In Mexico they are caught as a bycatch of the shrimp fishery and other bottom-trawling operations. Caught as bycatch in the demersal gillnet fishery in the northern Gulf of Mexico and likely on the Pacific side of Baja California during the winter and spring. The Mexican population could have problems in the future if the gillnet fishery expands (Wade Smith, pers comm). They have been captured by divers for sport and for the large fin spines, which are made into jewellery; decreases in numbers of horn sharks have been noted in areas with intense diver activity in Southern California. Horn sharks are often harassed and grabbed by divers, but when provoked may swim after their assailants and bite them. These sharks are kept in many public aquaria in the US. They are hardy, attractive, readily maintained, will breed in captivity, and have been displayed for many years (Compagno 2001, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Captured as bycatch, large sharks are eaten, but smaller ones are discarded. They have also been captured by divers for sport and for the large fin spines, which are made into jewellery. Also utilized (non-consumptive) for display in public aquaria in the US. In Mexico these sharks are probably utilized (or formerly utilized) for fishmeal.	eng
39334	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The only specific management regulation that exists for Port Jackson Sharks is the recreational trip limit for sharks imposed by Western Australia (four of any species). No other States have bag or size limits that cover Port Jackson Sharks. Commercial collectors of live specimens for the aquarium trade are normally licensed by State Governmental legislation.	eng
39334	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The Port Jackson Shark is a common inhabitant of the Australian continental shelf south of 20°S. It has been recorded from estuarine areas, to depths of 245m (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39334	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	Port Jackson Sharks feed mostly on benthic invertebrates, especially sea urchins (Last and Stevens 1994). Other reported prey include sea stars, polychaete worms, gastropods, prawns, crabs and small fish (Compagno 1984a). <br/>The Port Jackson shark is oviparous, with mature females producing 10?16 eggs each year. The eggs are deposited in fissures and caves of shallow rocky reefs. Juveniles hatch at a size of 23 cm from the eggs after 12 months. Males mature at an age of 8?10 years at a size of 75 cm, while females mature at 11?14 years and 80?95 cm. These ages at maturity are based on captive animals and the age and growth of the wild population needs to be examined to confirm these estimates. Males grow to a maximum size of 105 cm; females grow to at least 123 cm (McGaughlin and O?Gower 1971, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Port Jackson sharks are abundant inhabitants of coastal reefs throughout their ranges (Last and Stevens 1994). They are most active at night when they are feeding. McGaughlin and O?Gower (1971) gave a detailed description of the habitat use and movements of Port Jackson sharks in the waters off New South Wales. Males and females move into inshore reef areas in July. Mating occurs in July and August and eggs are laid in August and September. At the end of the breeding season males move into deeper water, followed by females at the end of their egg laying period. Some adults remain offshore over summer, while others migrate. Animals have been recorded up to 850 km from the reproductive areas. Females appear to migrate further than males. Juveniles hatch in the nearshore reef areas and normally remain there until they near maturity. <br/><br/>McGaughlin and O?Gower (1971) estimated that the growth rates of captive animals were 5?6 cm for juveniles and 2?4 cm for adults.	eng
39334	threats	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	Port Jackson Sharks are commonly caught in demersal gillnet fisheries operating in southern Australia. At times they may account for the majority of the catch (in numbers). Catch figures, however, are unavailable as fishermen do not land this species. Their flesh and fins are considered of poor quality and they are not used commercially. Most are discarded, often alive. Some fishers consider them to be a pest and kill them before discarding them. Observations on catches of demersal gillnet fishers in southern Western Australia have indicated that stocks remain relatively healthy, with large catches regularly made after 20 years of intensive fishing (Simpfendorfer unpubl.).<br/><br/>Small individuals are captured for use in the hobbyist aquarium trade and fetch good prices. Live animals are sold both domestically and internationally. Port Jackson Sharks advertised by aquarium suppliers in the US sell for up to US$180. Specimens are also collected by commercial aquaria for display purposes, but in relatively small numbers. Large commercial aquariums are able to successfully breed Port Jackson Sharks in captivity, reducing the reliance on wild caught animals.<br/><br/>Recreational fishers occasionally catch Port Jackson Sharks, but they are not specifically targeted because of their low flesh quality. A survey of recreational boat anglers on the lower west coast of Western Australia estimated that the recreational catch by this sector of the recreational fishery was 273 individuals in the period from September 1996 to August 1997 (N. Sumner pers. comm.). These levels of catch are very minor when compared to commercial catches.	eng
39335	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Last, P. & Stevens, J., 2005	Only limited areas of its habitat are protected on the Great Barrier Reef, and the species is not directly protected.	eng
39335	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Last, P. & Stevens, J., 2005	Inshore on the continental shelf in shallow water (5 m), of the east Coast of Australia, western South Pacific. Most records are from Moreton Bay near Brisbane, Queensland, with a few records from southern Queensland between Gladstone and Coolangatta, and in north-eastern Queensland off York Peninsula and the Great Barrier Reef (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). No subpopulation details; possibly only one population exists.	eng
39335	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Last, P. & Stevens, J., 2005	An ovoviviparous species, with 6?8 pups per litter. Term foetuses are 174?186 mm; size at birth is probably 17?18 cm. Maximum size is at least 75.5 cm. Pregnant females have been recorded at 65.8?75.5cm and males are adolescent at about 48.2?51.6 cm. Age at maturity, average reproductive age and longevity are all unknown (Compagno 2001). The behavioural ecology of this shark needs to be investigated. Studies should include underwater census and tagging.	eng
39335	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Last, P. & Stevens, J., 2005	Bluegrey Carpetsharks are caught as limited inshore bycatch of fisheries and exploited at low levels for the marine aquarium trade. No information is available on trends in numbers or range, but they are not found in quantity at any locality despite reasonable survey coverage. Habitat degradation could become a problem as human usage of coastal waters increases, since it has a restricted distribution to areas heavily utilized by humans.	eng
39336	conservation	Amorim, A.F., Arfelli, C.A. & Fagundes, L., 2005	None.	eng
39336	distribution	Amorim, A.F., Arfelli, C.A. & Fagundes, L., 2005	This shark is very rarely recorded, but apparently with a wide but disjunct distribution in the Atlantic (centre of distribution possibly in Brazilian waters) and Pacific Oceans. <em>Odontaspis noronhai</em> (Maul 1955), was described from a single specimen from Madeira, caught in 1941. There were no further records, until nine specimens were reported from Brazilian waters (24ºS? 44ºW) in 1981. Two more specimens were also caught off Brazil from the same area in 1982 and 1984 and Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> (1984) provided the second published record of this species and confirmed its existence.<br/><br/>Further records of single fish have been reported from the Gulf of Mexico (1984) and Madeira (1952) (Branstetter and McEachran 1986), Hawaii (Humphreys et al. 1989) and southern Brazil (31ºS?49ºW, in 1991) (Araujo and Teixeira 1993). The species was also seen another nine times from November 1982 to April 1985 at 23º?26ºS and again in 1989 (U.L. Gomes pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A jaw of <em>O. noronhai</em> has been collected from the Indian Ocean or South China Sea (Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> 1984) and some teeth were also collected from bottom deposits in the central North Pacific, although not clearly identified as <em>O. noronhai</em> (Belyaev and Glikman 1970).	eng
39336	habitat	Amorim, A.F., Arfelli, C.A. & Fagundes, L., 2005	Very little information has been collected from the few specimens obtained. The maximum size reported was 367cm total length (TL) (male). A female of 321 cm TL was still immature. The reproduction of this species is presumably similar to that of the better-known laminids (oviphagous, see above).	eng
39336	threats	Amorim, A.F., Arfelli, C.A. & Fagundes, L., 2005	<em>Odontaspis noronhai</em> is rarely captured by fishing. All catches of <em>O. noronhai</em> from Brazil were made by tuna longliners based in Santos, except the one from southern Brazil, caught by gillnet (Sadowsky <em>et al.</em> 1984, Araújo and Teixeira 1993, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Presumably it is taken occasionally by deepwater fisheries with line and net gear, including pelagic gillnets, purse-seines and deep-set longlines. It may live mostly below the depths normally fished by horizontal pelagic longlines and purse-seines and is possibly too large to be a regular bottom or pelagic trawl catch (Compagno 2001).	eng
39337	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Musick, J.A., 2005	None.	eng
39337	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Musick, J.A., 2005	An oceanic and circumtropical species that occurs at the surface to at least 590 m depth, usually found offshore and far from land but sometimes occurring inshore and near the bottom (Compagno 1984a).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: off Brazil, eastern Atlantic: south¬east of Cape Verde Islands, between them and Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Angola and South Africa (Western Cape).<br/><br/><strong>Western Indian Ocean</strong>: Mozambique Channel south¬west of southern Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Indian Ocean</strong>: Bay of Bengal (possibly erroneous).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Pacific</strong>: off Japan, Taiwan (Province of China) and the Koreas.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Pacific</strong>: west of New Zealand (North Island), Coral Sea, Indonesia (south of Sumatra near Sunda Straits and off Java).<br/> <br/><strong>Central Pacific</strong>: Marquesas Islands, Hawaiian Islands, open ocean between Marquesas and Hawaiian islands, open ocean between Hawaiian Islands and Baja California.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: off Costa Rica and Panama.<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown (Compagno 2001).	eng
39337	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Musick, J.A., 2005	A small wide-ranging and apparently uncommon pelagic species, for which very little biological data are available. Large eyes suggest nocturnal activity or deepwater existence (Last and Stevens 1994). Feeding habits of this shark are sketchily known. Its long, flexed teeth, strong and long jaws, and its vigorous activity when captured adapt it to moderately large, active, oceanic prey. Of seven specimens examined for stomach contents, the stomachs of four were empty and three others had a number of small bristlemouths (gonostomatids), possibly lanternfish (myctophids), unidentified fish scales, small shrimp and squid beaks in their stomachs (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is oviphagous, with a litter size of four, born at about 40 cm. Males mature by 74 cm and females by 89 cm. Maximum reported length 110 cm. Age at maturity, gestation period, longevity and average reproductive age/generation time are all unknown (Compagno 1984a).	eng
39337	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Musick, J.A., 2005	This species is too small to be of much value for fins and is little utilised for flesh and so is a generally discarded and largely unrecorded bycatch of large-scale pelagic longlining operations targeting scombroids and possibly other oceanic fisheries. It has a relatively large mouth and strong teeth and is readily caught on longline hooks fished near the surface. Catch records are very limited and largely confined to a small number of specimens (fewer than 50) deposited in museums. It does not appear to be abundant anywhere, with the known exception of the Mozambique Channel in the western Indian Ocean during the 1960s (Compagno 2001).	eng
39338	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None.	eng
39338	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is known from only a few specimens but probably it is circumtropical and wide ranging. Known records are from the following areas:<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: Brazil. <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Senegal.<br/><strong>South-eastern Indian Ocean</strong>: Western Australia.<br/><strong>Northwest Pacific</strong>: Japan, Philippines, Indonesia.<br/><strong>Central Pacific</strong>: Hawaiian Islands (Oahu).<br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: USA (southern California).<br/><br/>A coastal and oceanic, epipelagic and neritic species, it has been found in water as shallow as 5m in a bay and 40 m deep on the continental shelf. It has also been recorded offshore in the epipelagic zone at 8?165 m depth in water 348?4,600 m deep and some have been washed ashore (Yano <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
39338	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The only known prey of the Megamouth Shark are epipelagic and mesopelagic euphausiid shrimp, copepods and jellyfish (Yano <em>et al.</em> 1997). The feeding structures of this shark may allow it to feed on other pelagic invertebrates and even small fishes, but so far the stomach contents studied suggest that it primarily targets euphausiid shrimp (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Observations made on a live-captured megamouth shark which was later tagged with an acoustic telemetric tag and tracked for two days, suggested it could breathe readily by gill-pumping and was not dependent on constant swimming like other lamnoid sharks. During the tracking period, the shark revealed a pattern of vertical, crepuscular migration in the epipelagic zone. It has been suggested that the Megamouth Shark may follow vertical migrations of euphausiid prey during diel cycles (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>The mode of reproduction is probably aplacental viviparous with uterine cannabilism or cannibal vivipary suspected in the form of oophagy. A late immature or early adolescent female had two ovaries with many tiny oocytes, while an adult female had numerous larger oocytes. This is similar to the ovaries of other lamnoids.	eng
39338	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rare shark is known from less than 20 specimens since its discovery in 1976.	eng
39338	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Taken as a rare incidental bycatch of various high-seas and coastal fisheries, including commercial littoral drift gillnets, set fish traps, and pelagic longlines and purse-seines, vulnerable to pelagic gillnets and pelagic trawls. Seldom reported. So far, specimens have been utilised by museums and oceanaria for research and display.	eng
39339	conservation	Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T., 2007	Time and area restrictions were imposed off California, USA, since 1990, but <em>A. vulpinus</em> is not managed internationally and there are no quotas.<br/><br/>Family Alopiidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the fishing of thresher sharks for their fins alone.	eng
39339	distribution	Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T., 2007	This oceanic and coastal shark is virtually circumglobal in tropical to cold-temperate seas, but is most common in temperate waters (Compagno 2001). <br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from Canada (from Bay of Chaleur, Gulf of St. Lawrence, south), USA (whole Atlantic Coast, although it is rare south of New England and in the Gulf of Mexico), Cuba, Mexico, Venezuela, south to Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Russell 1993, Anonymous 1997, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic: ranges from Norway and the UK, south, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas, Madeira, the Azores, and down the coast of western Africa (Ghana, Côte d?Ivoire) to Angola, Namibia, and South Africa (Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: South Africa, Tanzania, Somalia, Kenya, northwestern coast of Madagascar, Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Gulf of Aden, northwest Red Sea, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Australia (Western and South Australia) (Gubanov 1972, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). Presence off Oman is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>Western Pacific: southern Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan (Province of China), Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia), New Zealand and several of the Pacific Islands, including, New Caledonia, Society Islands, Fanning Islands (Kiribati) (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Pacific: From British Columbia south, along the western coast of the USA (Washington, Oregon, California), Mexico, south to Panama, and from Colombia to southern Chile (Compagno 2001). Also reported off the Hawaiian Islands (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Nursery areas (inshore temperate waters appear to be preferred) have been identified in the Adriatic Sea (Notabartolo Di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Constantini 1997), northeastern Atlantic, western Mediterranean (Alboran Sea), southern California, South Africa and probably elsewhere, with young sharks occurring in shallow bays (Moreno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno 2001, S.E. Smith pers. comm.).	eng
39339	habitat	Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T., 2007	The Common Thresher Shark is virtually circumglobal in temperate oceans, penetrates into tropical waters (Compagno 1984), and also has a noted tolerance for cold waters (Castro 1983, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.1989). While found both in coastal and oceanic waters, it is most abundant in waters up to 40 or 50 miles offshore (Strasburg 1958, Gubanov 1972, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992). It ranges between surface waters and 366 m depth (Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>Maximum recorded size varies with sex and geographic location and ranges from 415-573 cm total length (TL) (Gubanov 1972, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Compagno 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Size at maturity varies. Females are reported to mature from 260-465 cm total length (Strasburg 1958, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Bedford 1983, Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Gubanov 1978, Ebert 2003) and males at 260-426.7 cm TL (Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). Estimated age at maturity for females ranges from 3-9 years (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Strasburg 1958, Gubanov 1978, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Hanan 1984) and from 3-7 years for males (Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Cailliet and Bedford 1983). The species reaches an age of at least 24 years (Gervelis 2005) and Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1983) stated that off California it may reach an age of 50 years; providing k coefficients from the von Bertalanffy growth equation ranging from 0.158-0.215. These parameters were early estimates based on a sample size of 143 specimens (16 male, 23 female, 104 unknown). The most recent estimates of generation time are 8-14 years (Cortés 2008 unpubl. data).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Alopias vulpinus</span> is viviparous, with oophagy and a gestation period of nine months (Gubanov 1978, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992, Gilmore 1993, Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983). Litter sizes range from only two in the Indian Ocean to between 3-7 in the Northeast Atlantic, while 3-4 (predominantly four) pups are common in the eastern Pacific (Gubanov 1972, Gubanov 1978, Holts 1988, Cailliet and Bedford 1983, Hanan 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Size at birth is 100-158 cm TL (Cailliet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1983, Hanan 1984). Ratios of male to female pups also vary geographically. Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1989) noted a high degree of sexual and size segregation in the northeast Atlantic during pupping season. Mating occurs in middle to late summer and parturition occurs during the spring in both the Northeast Atlantic and the eastern Pacific (Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989, Bedford 1992). In the Indian Ocean, there is a high degree of sexual segregation, between January and May, with pregnant females in the western Indian Ocean and males around the Maldives (Gubanov 1972). However, pregnant females have also been noted in August and November indicating that birth of young thresher sharks in this area occurs throughout the year (Gubanov 1978). Size at parturition varies considerably, from 115 cm and 156 cm TL with slight variation among geographical locations (Compagno 1984, Moreno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989). Young A. vulpinus, in all locations, generally remain close to shore after parturition and during their first few years (Moreno et al. 1989).<br/><br/>The range of prey items taken varies geographically, however their diet consists mostly of small bait fish. Prey items include anchovies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Engraulis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa</span>), herring (Clupeidae), mackerel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Scomber</span>), Pacific hake (<span style="font-style: italic;">Merluccius</span>), lancetfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alepisaurus</span>), lanternfishes (Myctophhidae), Pacific salmon (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorynchus</span>), squids, octopus, pelagic crabs and shrimp (Gubanov 1972, Stick and Hreha 1989, Bedford 1992, Goldman pers. obsv.).	eng
39339	population	Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T., 2007	Common Thresher Sharks appear to exhibit little to no immigration and emigration between geographic areas. The California drift gill net fishery provided insight into the population dynamics of this species, indicating that numerous isolated subpopulations or stocks exist globally (see Threats section). An ongoing global population genetic study (Trejo 2004) using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates significant structuring of <em>A. vulpinus</em> populations within the Pacific Ocean, and significant structure between Pacific and northwest Atlantic populations. Differences in length at maturity and fecundity of specimens examined from different regions of the world also provides evidence for isolated subpopulations or stocks (Gubanov 1972, Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Bedford 1992). In the absence of records of transatlantic migrations a single northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean stock of <em>A. vulpinus</em> is assumed (ICES 2007).	eng
39339	threats	Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries. <br/><br/>Many countries fish thresher sharks commercially throughout their extensive ranges, with <em>A. vulpinus</em> probably being the most important species (Compagno 1990). This species is frequently caught by offshore longline and pelagic gillnet fisheries (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006), is also fished with anchored bottom and surface gillnets, and is a bycatch of other gear including bottom trawls and fish traps (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Although sometimes referred to as a bycatch in fisheries for other pelagic fishes, this bycatch is normally utilised and would better be described as a secondary target catch. They are also an important sport fishery resource, the meat is considered excellent for consumption, and the large fins highly valued. The growing and largely unregulated shark fin trade also represents a serious threat to thresher sharks. Clarke <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that thresher sharks compose at least 2?6% of the trade in a market study using DNA-based species identification techniques.<br/><br/>The impact of fisheries on <em>A. vulpinus</em> on a global scale, while difficult to assess, has most likely been significant. For example, Japanese and Russian vessels fish the northwest Indian Ocean and central Pacific, and Mexican-Japanese joint ventures have operated longline vessels off Baja California, Mexico, for many years. Furthermore, the number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, catch statistics are not available (Compagno 2001, Holts 1988, Smith 1998) and where they are, they are under-reported. A recent FAO review of the status of highly migratory pelagic species states: ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider <em>Alopias</em> species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Pacific</strong><br/>A target pelagic gillnet fishery for this species developed off the west coast of the USA, Eastern Central Pacific (particularly California, and also Washington and Oregon) in the late 1970s (Goldman 2005, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). This fishery serves as a well documented case of population depletion and provides strong evidence that there are numerous isolated subpopulations or stocks globally. Starting with 15 vessels in 1977, the fishery expanded to over 225 vessels in 1982 (Holts 1988, Hanan <em>et al</em>. 1993). The fishery peaked in 1982 with reported landings of 1,089.5 t (Anonymous 1993), declining due to overfishing to less than 300 t by the late 1980s (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fishing had heavily reduced the number of juvenile and subadult <em>A. vulpinus</em> off central and southern California, virtually eliminating them from the catch. In 1996, California catches of Common Thresher Shark were down to one-fifth of former levels (Smith 1998). This fishery was effectively eliminated by restrictions on the use of gill nets by 1990 (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). It was originally believed that a Pacific-wide distribution of the species would act as a buffer against over-harvesting (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998). However, this was shown not to be the case, as that portion of the population remained at low levels for several years, and is only reappeared in the catch records and in market places some time later (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998). The species is still caught as bycatch or as a secondary target, although to a far lesser extent, of the swordfish gillnet fishery and may be sold for higher prices in the market than swordfish (Bedford 1992, Smith 1998, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>While the majority of fishery data for this species in the Pacific has come from California, it is fished in numerous locations throughout its range there. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific, with effort expanding from the traditional grounds in the southeast Pacific into the central south Pacific and areas of the north Pacific in recent years (Mejuto 2005). <em>A. vulpinus</em> is taken in both artisanal and commercial longline fisheries in areas off South America, including Peru and Chile (M. Romero pers. comm., Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005). Hong Kong customs data shows that Peru is amongst the 20 countries that export the most dried fins to Hong Kong (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>Little information is currently available on <em>A. vulpinus</em> in the Indo-West Pacific. Whereas records of <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. pelagicus</em> are recorded in the catches of fisheries operating in this region, albeit very under-reported, very little information is available on catches of <em>A. vulpinus</em>. Although pelagic fishing effort in this region is high, with reported increases in recent years, <em>A. vulpinus</em> is more characteristic of cooler waters and further information needs to be collected on records and catches of the species in this region.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Thresher sharks are also an important pelagic species in the north Atlantic, although <em>A. vulpinus</em> is only sporadically recorded in the northwest and western central Atlantic and <em>A. superciliosus</em> is the more common thresher shark in this area. Thresher sharks are generally recorded by genus by observers as well as in logbooks. Analysis of U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline data from their scientific observer program for 1992?2005, suggest that the region of the US east coast where <em>A. vulpinus</em> is somewhat common is from about 35°N?40°N (approximately North Carolina to Philadelphia), where <em>A. vulpinus</em>: <em>A. superciliosus</em> are caught in a ratio of ~1:3 (Baum unpublished data). The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fishing pressure is high and ongoing and as <em>A. vulpinus</em> is an incidental catch in these fisheries monitoring of catches of this species is extremely limited. Currently, there are no management measures specific to this species in any EEZ or within international waters, and no stock assessments have been done. In Canada and the U.S., less than 5% of the pelagic longlining fleets are monitored by observers, making it difficult to elucidate reliable trends in abundance from these data. Fisheries monitoring in international waters is even more limited. The pelagic longline fishing grounds for the US fleet extend from the Grand Banks (about 45°N) in the northwest Atlantic to 5?10°S off the South American coast, within which geographical areas of longline fishing are defined for classification (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Baum <em>et al</em>. (2003) concluded from their analysis of Northwest Atlantic pelagic longline data that the relative abundance of all thresher sharks (<em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em> combined) had declined 80% from 1986?2000. This analysis is based on estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S. pelagic longline fishery logbook data, and the fifteen year time period is over one generation length for this species. Although the analysis is not species specific, the sample size of thresher sharks in this data is over 20,000. Furthermore, the area covered by the dataset analysed, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the confirmed range of <em>A. vulpinus</em> in these two regions (Compagno 2001). An alternative analysis of the same logbook dataset for 1986-2005 that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>, resulted in an overall decline of 63% (Cortés <em>et al. </em>2007). Fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of this time series, thus the estimated declines are not from virgin biomass.<br/><br/>A more recent analysis of <em>Alopias</em> species trends from scientific observer data between 1992 and 2005 in the same U.S. pelagic longline fishery found an almost identical instantaneous rate of decline (-0.12 up to the year 2000) as in the logbook analysis (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). For this nine year period (1992?2000), the decline amounts to 68%, therefore the decline back to when the fishery started in the 1960s (less than three generation period of 51 years) would be much greater. However, because of recent increases in the catch rates in 2004 and 2005, the overall trend from 1992-2005 of -0.024 was non-significant, and would amount to only a 26% decline (Baum <em>et al</em>. unpublished manuscript). Cortés <em>et al.</em> (2007) also conducted an alternative analysis of this same observer dataset for the same time period that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>. This analysis of the observer dataset showed a trend opposite to that of the logbook analysis, with a 28% increase since 1992. In contrast, the nominal observer series showed a 39% decline and the logbook index for the same time period showed a decrease of 50%. Furthermore the sample size in the observer analysis was much smaller (n=14?84) than that in the logbook analysis (n=112?1,292) and thus the trend estimated should be regarded with caution. Cortés <em>et al.</em>'s (2007) observer analysis was restricted to four out of the 11 geographical areas covered by the pelagic longline fishing fleet to keep a balanced statistical design (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007). Their full logbook analysis, which showed an overall decline of 63%, had much larger sample sizes and is thus better to estimate trends with more certainty (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>The thresher shark <em>A. vulpinus</em> is not as common in regional longline catches compared as the bigeye thresher <em>A. superciliosus</em>. Amorim <em>et al</em>. (1998) document its occurrence in the Santos (São Paulo) tuna longline fishery as ?low? with only six specimens observed from 1974 to 1996. Gadig <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported on small numbers of juveniles taken by gillnet off São Paulo State.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Adults and juveniles of <em>Alopias vulpinus</em> are regularly caught as bycatch in longline, purse seine and mid-water fisheries throughout the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in recreational fisheries (Lipej <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species has some important parturition and nursery areas in the Mediterranean (Adriatic and Alboran Seas). Moreno and Moron (1992) observed aggregations of pregnant females of <em>A. vulpinus</em> in the Strait of Gibraltar.<br/><br/>Even though driftnetting is banned in Mediterranean waters, this practise has continued illegally (WWF 2005). The Moroccan swordfish driftnet fleet in the Alboran Sea operates year round, resulting in high annual effort levels (Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2005). Even though sharks are a secondary target or bycatch of this fishery, some boats deploy driftnets 1?2 miles from the coast where the chance of capturing pelagic sharks is higher. The catch rate for <em>A. vulpinus</em> is higher in boats actively fishing for sharks (from 0.7 to 1.5 N/fishing operation and 0.09 to 0.11 catch per km net). Both annual catches and mean weights of <em>Alopias vulpinus</em> have fallen as a result of fishing mortality in the Moroccan driftnet fishery, illustrating the likely impact of this illegal fishery on stocks in the Alboran Sea and adjacent Atlantic (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). Valeiras <em>et al.</em> (2003) also report that pelagic sharks are forming an increasing proportion of the catch of Spanish swordfish sleets. Pelagic fishing pressure is high and ongoing throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Tudela 2004, Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>A. vulpinus</em> is caught primarily as a bycatch of longline fisheries for tuna and swordfish in the northeast Atlantic, and are also taken in driftnets and gillnets (ICES 2005, 2007). As a highly valuable species, it is very likely that this bycatch is retained (ICES 2005). Limited information is available on thresher shark catch in this region. ICES 2006 reports estimated landings of thresher shark at 13?107 t from 1996 to 2005 in the ICES area, however these data are still considered incomplete. Prior to 2000, estimated landings fluctuated at 17?13 t, in 2000?2001 they exceeded 100 t, after which they dropped to 4 t in 2002 and have not exceeded 7 t since. Increased targeting of pelagic sharks by Moroccan drift-netters in the Alboran Sea and Strait of Gibraltar (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005), mentioned above, has also likely impacted <em>A. vulpinus</em> in this area.	eng
39340	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2005	Basking Sharks occur in temperate and boreal oceans. In the North Atlantic, the species occurs from the transition between Atlantic and Arctic waters (including the Gulf of Maine, south and west of Iceland and off the North Cape of Norway and Russia) to the Mediterranean, and occasionally as far south as Senegal and Florida. The different morphological characteristics of Basking Sharks in the Pacific and the north and south Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984), but geographically isolated populations.	eng
39341	conservation	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	A vast improvement in the collection of data is required and effective conservation of this species will require international agreements. Fishing pressure must be considerably decreased through reduction in effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture, when released and possibly through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Closed areas can only be effective if overall fishing effort is reduced, rather than merely displacing effort outside of the closed area (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of listed species. To date, there has been little progress (see http://www.unclos.com for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO?s) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for species such as shortfin mako whose stocks are exploited by many State on the high seas. Steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks. To date two RFOs, ICCAT and IATTC, have adopted finning bans, as have several range states (e.g., Canada, USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.). More are likely to follow suit.<br/><br/>A recent shark stock assessment (ICCAT 2005) reported that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of sharks and that the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the catch of sharks and by-catch species. The workshop recommended larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular and by-catch species. The group also identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to be applied internationally.<br/><br/>In 2004 ICCAT requested that management recommendations for this species be developed in 2005 for consideration by the Commission (ICCAT 2004), so far without effect. In the fall of 2008, ICCAT and the ICES Working Group on Elasmobranch Fishes (WGEF) plan to assess shortfin mako jointly. In 2007, at the data preparatory meeting of ICCAT?s Shark Sub-committee, it was emphasized that the contribution of CPUE and historical catch data by the member countries would be very important for the stock assessment of this species to be made at the 2008 meeting.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and western central Atlantic</strong><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993; Joyce 1999).  In the US, this species is included in the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP). The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 100 t for Shortfin Makos in the longline pelagic shark fishery. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) recently assessed Shortfin Mako in Canada as ?threatened?. It has undergone a Recovery Potential Assessment and it is being determined whether the species will be placed on Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, by-catch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied.<br/><br/>Within the north Atlantic and Mediterranean this species has been identified as a high priority for management. Anonymous (2003) suggested that a collaborative stock assessment should be carried out in the future.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) highlights that the Shortfin Mako, along with other large pelagic sharks (whether as target or bycatch), urgently require measures to ensure their sustainable management in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/><strong>Pacific </strong><br/>On the west coast of the US, declines in the coastal driftnet fishery taking thresher and shortfin makos led to management actions in 1985. Management now comprises of limited entry, mandatory logbooks, and specific time-area closures. An experimental longline fishery targeting Shortfin Makos was terminated (Hanan <em>et al</em>. 1993, Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). Bag limits for recreational take of makos in California were introduced in 1991. The draft Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (PFMC 2003) indicates that the shortfin mako population is not overfished and they have set a harvest guideline of 150 t off California, Oregon and Washington. US west coast based longline fishing for swordfish is currently prohibited and expected to reopen in the fall of 2005 under new restrictions. The Hawaii based swordfish longline fishery recently reopened with restrictions aimed at preventing turtle mortalities. New Zealand included shortfin mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>In Chile, there are gear regulations for the shortfin mako artisanal fishery and since 2002 fishing areas and register of boats in the National Marine Service is required, the access to the fishery is also regulated (E. Acuña pers. comm.).	eng
39341	distribution	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Shortfin Mako is a coastal, oceanic species occurring from the surface to at least 500 m depth and is widespread in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans from about 50°N (up to 60°N in the northeast Atlantic) to 50°S. It is occasionally found close inshore where the continental shelf is narrow. It is not normally found in waters below 16°C (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Summary of range</strong> <br/>Western Atlantic: Grand Banks (Canada) to Uruguay and northern Argentina, including Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Eastern Atlantic: Norway, British Isles and Mediterranean to Morocco, Azores, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Côte d?Ivoire, Ghana, southern Angola, probably Namibia, and South Africa (west coast). <br/><br/>Indo-West Pacific: South Africa (east coast), Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Kenya north to Red Sea and east to Maldives, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan (Province of China), North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Russia (Primorskiyi Kray), Australia (all states and entire coast except for Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait), New Zealand (including Norfolk Island), New Caledonia, Fiji. Central Pacific: From south of Aleutian Islands to Society Islands, including Hawaiian Islands. Eastern Pacific: USA (Southern California and exceptionally Washington), south to Mexico, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru and central Chile.<br/><br/>In addition to the distribution given in Compagno (2001), Shortfin Mako may also occur from 20?50° between Australia and Chile, and to almost 60° Southeast of New Zealand (Yatsu 1995, M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic</strong><br/>Casey and Kohler (1992) suggest that the core distribution in the western north Atlantic is between 20?40°N, bordered by the Gulf Stream in the west and the mid-Atlantic ridge in the east (see Habitat and Ecology section for more details). Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canadian waters represent the margins of the distribution of the population (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the eastern North Atlantic, it is presumed that the Strait of Gibraltar is nursery (Buencuerpo <em>et al</em>. 1998 and Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The area between 17° to 35°S off the coast of Brazil is an area of birth, growth and mating (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). Pregnant females with near term embryos have been found there, but not females in early pregnancy stages (Costa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Costa 1994). The presence of this species in Uruguayan waters year round has been confirmed by the observers on board the Uruguayan tuna fleet. Although a few new borns were captured, no pregnant females have been found (Domingo pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Highest abundance is reported in the western Mediterranean and mako are rarely reported in eastern waters (Aegean Sea and Sea of Marmara). Recent investigations suggest that the western basin is a nursery area (Buencuerpo <em>et al. </em>1998). It is possible that this nursery area is from the eastern central Atlantic population, which is affected by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. Two Shortfin Makos a few months old were reported in the western Ligurian Sea as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). They are not reported from the Black Sea. In the eastern Adriatic Sea, Shortfin Makos were reported as common a century ago (Katuri 1893 and Kosi 1903), recent publications consider it to be rare (Mili?i? 1994, Jardas 1996). Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of Shortfin Mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong><br/>There are comparatively few records of pregnant females, especially in the eastern north Pacific. However, there are a large number of juveniles and young of the year fish in the southern California Bight indicating that it is a nursery area. In summer, the Southern California Bight is home to a large population of Shortfin Mako sharks (Klimley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Holts and Kohin 2003). Abundance surveys and fishing reports indicate that juvenile mako sharks appear in the Bight in spring when water temperatures rise above 16°C and may depart from the area in fall when water temperatures decline.	eng
39341	habitat	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al</em>. 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001). This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17?22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern Californian waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20?21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford 1992). However, this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>. Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three shortfin makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118?275 cm TL) in June?July 2002 for 2?4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20?911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23?43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviours. Sepulveda <em>et al.</em> (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7?9 years for males, and 19?21 years for females Bishop <em>et al.</em> (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al</em>. 2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29?32 years (Bishop <em>et al.</em> 2006, Natanson <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265?280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198?204 cm and females at 301?307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203?215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275?293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15?18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Litter size is 4?25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10?18), which are about 60?70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos (over 3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish <em>Xiphias gladius</em>. It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).	eng
39341	population	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Shortfin Mako contribute some 9.5?10% of the pelagic sharks caught by Spanish longline fleets (targeting sharks and swordfish) in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>Shortfin Mako in the north and the south Atlantic constitute genetically distinct groups (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996). Casey and Kohler (1992) hypothesized from tag-recapture data that western north Atlantic makos form a separate population from those in the eastern Atlantic although limited intermixing is possible as shown by crossings to the Azores and Europe. Mitochondrial DNA data indicate separation of female makos between the western and eastern north Atlantic, but a lack of differentiation in nuclear DNA suggests male mixing across the north Atlantic (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996, Schrey and Heist 2003). For fishery assessment purposes, mixing between the western and eastern North Atlantic is considered minimal.<br/><br/>Mature males were occasionally caught in the western English Channel in the 1960s and 1970s but are now rarely encountered (J. D. Stevens, pers. comm.), suggesting possible range contraction in the north-east Atlantic.<br/><br/>Analyses of catch per unit effort (CPUE) from US pelagic longline fishery logbooks reported that <em>Isurus</em> spp. may have declined by about 40% in the northwest Atlantic between 1986 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). A more recent assessment of observer data for the same fishery found a similar instantaneous rate of decline of 38% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al.</em> in prep). A similar analysis of the same dataset and species grouping that restricted the areas of analysis to account for unbalanced observations, resulted in an overall decline of 48% from beginning to end of the time series (1992-2005; Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press). A 2004 ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for north Atlantic Shortfin Mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more. Demographic model results varied widely, with one approach suggesting present stock size is about 80% of virgin level, and another approach suggesting reductions to about 30% of virgin biomass (1950s) (Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>In the South Atlantic, the magnitude of decline appears to be smaller than in the north Atlantic and the stock size appears to lie above MSY, although only one modeling approach could be applied to the available data and assessments results were more uncertain than for the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>For both north and south Atlantic populations, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available catch data indicate that further analysis is necessary to properly delineate stock status. If historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). A standardized catch rate index from the commercial large pelagic fishery off Canada suggested a decline in the 1970s and stable abundance since 1988 (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the analysis did not have the statistical power to detect anything less than a severe decline and these sharks represent the margins of the population. The most heavily fished areas lie outside of Canadian waters. The median size of mako sharks in the commercial catch has declined since 1988, possibly indicating a loss of larger sharks (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Off Brazil, the highest and lowest catches of shortfin mako from Santos longliners were 235 and 29 t from 1971?2001. The CPUE and average weight decreased from 4.5 to 4.1 kg/1,000 hooks and 60 to 37.3 kg respectively (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 2002). About 20 t/yr were caught by gillnetters in southern Brazil between 1993?94 (Jorge Kotas, pers comm, CEPSUL-IBAMA, Brazil). The unstandardised CPUE in the Uruguayan longline fleet was low and stable (average 35 kg/1,000 hooks) from 1983 to 1998 and has increased steadily to 2004 (185 kg/1,000 hooks), lower in 2005 (90 kg/1000 hooks) (ICCAT data). According to Mourato <em>et al.</em> (in press), based on the landings records and logbooks from the Sao Paulo fleet operating off Southern Brazil, the standardized CPUE for the period 1971-2006 was fluctuating but showed a slight decline. In contrast, the standardization of the CPUE of 29 years in the Brazilian tuna longline fleet showed a slight upward trend (Hazin <em>et al.</em> in press). In Uruguay, the total captures oscillated through the years, mainly in low values (8 to 21 tons per year), and reached maximum values in 2003?2005 (up to 200 tons per year) (Domingo 2002, Domingo <em>et al.</em> 2008). The standardization of the mako shark CPUE in the Uruguayan pelagic longline fleet for the period 1981?2006 show a slight increase between 1989 and 2003, and a decreasing trend towards 2006 (Pons and Domingo in press).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, ?Tonnarella? (tuna-trap) catches in the Ligurian Sea from 1950 to the 1970s show a rapid decline and eventual disappearance of the Shortfin Mako (Boero and Carli 1979). Landings data from Maltese waters for 1979?2001 (data from the Maltese fishery department) shows a decline although the fishing pressure was not changed. Historically described as common (end of 19th/beginning of 20th century), Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of Shortfin Mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972. Since 1998, there have been few records of mako sharks from the central and eastern Mediterranean (A. Soldo pers. comm.). Previously, the species was considered common throughout the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>In the eastern north Pacific, tagging studies have been carried out by the California Department of Fish and Game (Anon. 2001), and more recently by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center (Holts and Kohin 2003, Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004). Using a consistent sample size of 28 sets of 200 hooks during each of eight years (1994?1997, 2000?2003), CPUE data showed a slight decline (Holts <em>et al.</em> (2004); y = -0.0696x + 1.0982, R2 = 0.5107). However, it does not appear to be sufficient to warrant serious concern about the population. The large horizontal (primarily north-south along the coastline, but with some inshore-offshore movements) (Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004) and vertical (up to ~500 m) (Holts and Kohin 2003, Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2004) movements of Shortfin Makos, a behaviour that could make them more or less available to the gear spatially but not necessarily indicating a population decline.  Likewise, for males and females, there appeared to be a slight increase in the average size caught over the same eight years (y = 1.8368x + 112.38, R2 = 0.3751). This, combined with the CPUE changes would suggest that the biomass indices had not changed. The variability among years in CPUE can also be attributed to inter-annual oceanographic and climate changes, especially water temperature (http://www.pcouncil.org/hms/hmsback.html). Thus, although there are no precise or accurate population estimates, it appears that the population of shortfin makos in the eastern North Pacific has been relatively stable. (Taylor and Holts 2001, PFMC 2003).	eng
39341	threats	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	The Shortfin Mako is an important species for pelagic longline, drifting or set gill nets and on hook-and-line fisheries wherever it occurs, particularly from nations with high seas fleets (Holts <em>et al</em>. 1998), because of its relatively high abundance (9.5?10% of pelagic sharks caught in Spanish long line fleets (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007) and high quality meat. It is taken as a bycatch from tuna and swordfish longline fisheries worldwide, with carcasses and fins being retained. Big-game sports angling for mako sharks is widespread, New Zealand and South Africa being traditional places for offshore sports fishing.  The International Game Fish Association lists the shortfin mako as a record game fish. In the 1980s mako angling became popular in the USA off southern California, with numerous anglers involved and mako tournaments rivaling competitive angling for marlin (Compagno 2001). Recreational fishing has also been reported in the Mediterranean, although there are no official data (A. Soldo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fisheries for Shortfin Mako exist or existed in the eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, off Cuba, in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, off southern California, and in the western and central Pacific (Compagno 2001). This is also a target of pelagic swordfish fisheries in the Atlantic and Pacific (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> IBID).<br/><br/>Despite the role of Shortfin Makos in worldwide pelagic fisheries, catches have been poorly reported to FAO. Catch data are incomplete, and the extent of finning in high seas fisheries is unclear. Brazil, New Zealand and the United States reported very small catches (2?76 t) to FAO from 1987?1997 (FAO FishStat Plus database 2000). Although it is difficult to accurately assess the conservation status of this shark because it is migratory and caught in numerous poorly monitored fisheries worldwide, it is reasonable to assume that decreases may be occurring in those areas for which there are limited or no data (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic</strong><br/>Shortfin Makos have been caught in large numbers particularly on the high seas in pelagic longline fisheries, but also in other commercial pelagic fisheries and recreational fisheries. The first longline fisheries were prosecuted by Japan in western equatorial waters beginning in 1956 (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Throughout the Atlantic, the fleet landed mako sharks and fins (Nakano 1993). In the US and Canadian pelagic longline fisheries, Shortfin Mako is one of the most commonly caught sharks. The index of abundance in the commercial longline fishery off the Atlantic coast of US has shown a steady decline (Cramer 1996) and other reports on declines are now available (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003, Baum <em>et al.</em>, in prep, ICCAT 2005, Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press: see Population section for details). As for recreational fishing, Casey and Hoey (1985) stated that the recreational catch of Shortfin Makos along the US Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico in 1978 was 17,973 fish weighing some 1,223 t. Between 1987 and 1989, the catch was about 1000 t/year (Casey and Kohler 1992) taken by longline and gillnet in the Southwest Atlantic (see Population section). Shortfin Mako shark is a high value bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries on the Atlantic coast of Canada and therefore retained (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In 1989, Bonfil (1994) estimated that 5,932 Shortfin Makos were caught by Korean longliners in the (mainly equatorial) Atlantic and that 763 t of makos were landed in the Spanish swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Mejuto (1985) noted that 304?366 t of mako shark was landed by longliners operating from northern Spain in 1983?84. More recently, shortfin mako sharks have comprised about 7% (~2,500 t) of the total catch of the large Spanish pelagic longline swordfish fleet in the Atlantic (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2005). Munoz-Chapuli <em>et al.</em> (1993) estimated that some 4,500 makos/year are landed from a longline fishery based at Algeciras, southern Spain (given an average weight of 20 kg this would represent about 90 t). The landings of Shortfin Makos as bycatch from the swordfish fishery of the Azorean fleet also showed a decrease (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). Shortfin Mako landings reported to ICCAT from Portuguese surface longline fisheries in the north Atlantic averaged about 698 t during 1993?1996 and 340 t for the period 1997?2002. Off Namibia, the large pelagic fisheries caught an estimated 123 t in 2001, 399 t in 2002 and 393 t in 2003 by means of pelagic longline. The 2001 catch is an underestimate as many boats grouped different shark species as ?sharks? (MFMR catch data). Domingo (2002) records high catches of Shortfin Makos by the Uruguayan fleet in the early-mid 1980s (to a maximum of 144 t in 1984), followed by much lower catches (10?20 t/annum) in the 1990s. This does not necessarily reflect stock abundance because changes in the distribution and depth of fishing operations and rising mean temperature of water masses in the area had also occurred.<br/><br/>It has been estimated that in the early 1990s, the Spanish longline fleet caught approximately 750 t/y of Shortfin Mako sharks in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). The Brazilian longlining fleet based in Santos landed between 13.3 and 138.3 t annually between 1971 and 1990 (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1996, Compagno 2001). Despite increasing fishing effort during this period, the CPUE of Shortfin Makos has remained relatively stable with an initial slight decreasing trend followed by a slight increasing trend (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>No complete data are available for the northeast Atlantic, but the species is taken as a bycatch of the pelagic fishery. The area around the Strait of Gibraltar is considered a nursery area for central Atlantic Shortfin Makos and most specimens caught are juveniles. This area is heavily fished by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. There is also evidence that Shortfin Makos are becoming increasingly targeted in the western Mediterranean. EU vessels fishing for small pelagic species off the western coast of Africa are also known to take significant elasmobranch bycatch, including Shortfin Makos in unknown numbers.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Reports of ?Tonnarella? catches in the Ligurian Sea from 1950 until the 1970s show a rapid decline and eventual disappearance of the Shortfin Mako (INP 2000). Recent investigations of the shortfin mako bycatch from the swordfish longline fishery in the western basin show that catches from this fishery consist almost exclusively of juveniles. It is likely that the western Mediterranean is a nursery area for the eastern Central Atlantic population Soldo and Jardas (2002) report that there have been no records of shortfin mako in the eastern Adriatic since 1972 (where they were historically common).<br/><br/>Even though driftnetting is banned in Mediterranean waters, this practise has continued illegally (WWF 2005). The Moroccan swordfish driftnet fleet in the Alboran Sea operates year round, resulting in high annual effort levels (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). Even though sharks are a secondary target or bycatch of this fishery, some boats deploy driftnets 1?2 miles from the coast where the chance of capturing pelagic sharks is higher. The catch rate for Shortfin Mako is nearly three times higher in boats actively fishing for sharks (from 0.6 to 1.9 N/fishing operation and 0.06 to 0.14 catch per km net). Both annual catches and mean weights of shortfin mako have fallen as a result of fishing mortality in the Moroccan driftnet fishery, illustrating the likely impact of this illegal fishery on stocks in the Alboran Sea and adjacent Atlantic (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported 321 specimens caught as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Of those, 268 specimens were caught in Alboran Sea, 42 in Balearic Islands area, three in Catalonian Sea, while only eight specimens were caught in central and eastern Mediterranean area, e.g., Levantine basin. Furthermore, most of caught specimens were juveniles, with only a few large specimens from Levantine basin. Of 595 specimens caught in south Spain waters all of them were immature juveniles (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998).  Reports from the Ligurian Sea show a significant decline since the 1970s (Boero and Carli 1979).<br/><br/><strong>Pacific</strong><br/>Estimates of mako bycatch in various gillnet fisheries in the north Pacific are given in Bonfil (1994). Bycatch in the Japanese salmon fishery in 1989 was about 15 t, and about 63 t was taken in the squid fishery in 1990. In the Japanese large-mesh driftnet fishery in the South Pacific, about 286 t of Shortfin Mako was caught in 1990. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific. Shortfin Makos comprise about 5% (~600?700 t) of the total catch of this fleet (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Reported average catch rates for Shortfin Makos vary from 0.3?3.4 sharks per 1,000 hooks (Stevens and Wayte 1999). Stevens (in press) used stratified catch rates in conjunction with fishing effort and average weights to estimate a catch of 4,100 t caught by high-seas longlining in the Pacific in 1994. Longline fleets take about 100?200 t from around New Zealand each year (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group 2006) and about 100 t were taken in Australian EEZ waters by Japanese tuna vessels each season (Stevens and Wayte 1999).<br/><br/>A coastal driftnet fishery for juvenile Shortfin Mako shark developed during the late 1970s in California; landings reached 242 t in 1982, fluctuated between 102-278 t from 1983?91 and declined to less than 100 t after 1991 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). An experimental coastal longline fishery targeting makos took between 50 and 120 t annually during 1988?91 before the fishery was closed. Bycatch will continue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline fisheries until effective measures are developed which reduce the bycatch to close to zero (Crooke 2001). Although makos are not targeted in these fisheries, they are kept as the third most valuable species. The Short?n Mako shark was taken by the high seas shark and sword?sh drift longline ?shery, which developed between 1991 and 1994 (Taylor and Holts 2001) outside the US 200-nm Exclusive Economic Zone prior to its closure in spring 2004. A small portion of the catch was landed in California with annual landings ranging from 9,523 to 128,116 pounds between 1991 and 1999.<br/><br/>The present status of the short?n mako shark in state and federal waters off California is not known but is of some concern (Taylor and Holts 2001). This is mainly because adult mako sharks do not frequent California?s coastal waters. A possible threat to the mako population off California and in the eastern Paci?c would be the potential for over-development of ?sheries within the coastal nursery. Therefore, continued efforts to monitor the Short?n Mako shark juveniles are needed.<br/><br/>Makos have long been prized game fish along the east coast of the U.S. (Taylor and Holts 2001) (see Threats section). In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually: the principal target being Shortfin Mako. After the increase during the 1980s, the sport fishery has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308 pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger fishing vessels run fishing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in southern California.<br/><br/>In Chile, the only target fishery for shortfin mako is a spring-summer longline fishery off the northern coast (Acuña <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Ecuador, there is evidence that catches of Shortfin Makos have declined from a high of 2,000 t in 1994 to lows approaching 100 t in 2000 and 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Off California, early juvenile shortfin makos were targeted by a short-lived experimental drift longline fishery and are a welcome bycatch in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993, Compagno 2001). Up to 475 t of Shortfin Makos were taken jointly by these fisheries in 1987, and although CPUE did not show a declining trend there, concerns over the heavy exploitation of immature fish prompted the closure of the experimental longline fishery in 1992 (O?Brien and Sunada 1994, Compagno 2001). Total bycatch of shortfin makos in the former high-seas driftnet fisheries in the North Pacific in the early 1990s was estimated at about 360 t/y (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). This species is apparently very common in the tuna fisheries of Indonesia: unconfirmed reports indicate that landings of shortfin makos from Indonesian waters attained 5 200 t in 1995 and that the estimated potential is about 16 000 t/y (Priyono 1998, Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>This species is taken by tuna and shark longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006). Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured on using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the worlds largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited. Its distribution overlaps many intensive pelagic fisheries in this area. Although species-specific catch data are not currently available from this region, given the declines observed where it is heavily fished elsewhere, declines in this area are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.	eng
39342	conservation	Goldman, K., Kohin, S., Cailliet, G.M. & Musick, J.A., 2008	Sharks are currently listed in the Federal Groundfish Management Plans for the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands as ?other species? and are allowed as bycatch. They are included in the commercial bycatch TAC (Total Allowable Catch) for Alaska Federal waters. How much of this bycatch is salmon shark (vs. Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) and Sleeper Shark (<em>Somniosus pacificus</em>)) is unknown. The North Pacific Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) is considering closure of directed commercial fishing for sharks in Federal waters as no Federal Management plan exists specifically for sharks in the Gulf of Alaska, Aleutians and the Bering Sea (J. DiCosimo, personal communication 2007).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing for all shark species in Alaska State waters has been illegal since 1997. State of Alaska regulations prohibit directed commercial fishing of sharks statewide except for a spiny dogfish permit fishery adopted by the Alaska Board of Fisheries for the Cook Inlet area in 2005. Sharks taken incidentally to commercial groundfish and salmon fisheries may be retained and sold provided that the fish are fully utilized. The state limits the amount of incidentally taken sharks that may be retained to 20% of the round weight of the directed species on board a vessel except in the Southeast District where a longline vessel or a troller may retain up to 35% round weight of sharks to round weight of the target species on board. All sharks landed must be recorded on an Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) fish ticket.<br/><br/>The ADF&G manages the recreational shark fishery in state and federal waters with a daily bag limit of one shark of any species per person per day, and an annual limit of two sharks of any species per person. There is a directed fishery for salmon sharks in Prince William Sound involving a small number of charter boats. There have been no reported incidents of sport-caught sharks being finned and discarded, and state regulations prohibit the intentional waste or destruction of any sport-caught species. Recreational harvest of all shark species combined is estimated through a mail survey of sport fishing license holders. In addition, harvest of salmon sharks by guided anglers is required to be reported in charter logbooks. About 1,600 sharks of all species were harvested by the sport fishery in state and federal waters of Southeast and Southcentral Alaska in 2005 (most recent estimate). No sport harvest of sharks was reported in western Alaska. Charter boats reported a salmon shark harvest of about 240 fish statewide in 2005. Although estimates of salmon shark harvest are not available for unguided anglers, the charter fleet is believed to account for the majority of salmon shark harvest. In addition to the mail survey and logbook, shark fisheries are monitored in Southcentral Alaska through biological sampling for species, size, age, and sex composition, as well as spatial distribution of the harvest.<br/><br/>Family Lamnidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g. USA), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (IATTC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the harvesting of salmon shark bycatch on the high seas for their fins alone.	eng
39342	distribution	Goldman, K., Kohin, S., Cailliet, G.M. & Musick, J.A., 2008	The Salmon Shark is a coastal and oceanic inhabitant of the north and central Pacific Ocean, ranging between 35°N-65°N in the Northwest Pacific (greatest densities between 42°N?52°N) and 30°N?65°N in the northeast and eastern central Pacific (appear to be most concentrated between 50°N?60°N) (Neave and Hanavan 1960, Farquhar 1963, Compagno 1984, Blagoderov 1994, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996). They have been caught as far as 67°N and a few specimens have been taken at around 10°N (Nagasawa 1998). In general, the southern boundary of this sharks? range in the western Pacific is the transitional domain separating the subarctic current from the central Pacific current (McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Nagasawa 1998). In the eastern central Pacific, Salmon Sharks occur as far south as 30°N (Croker 1942, Strasburg 1958, Hart 1973) to Baja California, Mexico (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Recent electronic tagging studies have demonstrated that the salmon shark is extremely wide ranging throughout the north Pacific with individuals traveling from Prince William Sound, Alaska into waters as far south as Baja California, Mexico and Hawaii (Weng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Weng <em>et al</em>. 2005). Bycatch of Salmon Sharks are reported in the equatorial central Pacific (Nakano and Bayliff 2003), although the authors are convinced that the reports are misidentifications since the shark is otherwise not reported in waters south of 20°N. An improved set of criteria will be used for fishery observers in the Eastern Central Pacific starting in 2004, and should help to resolve the misidentifications.<br/><br/>This species is abundant in water temperatures ranging from 5?18°C, and high catches have been recorded in sea surface temperatures (SST) of 9?16°C (Nakano and Nagasawa 1996).	eng
39342	habitat	Goldman, K., Kohin, S., Cailliet, G.M. & Musick, J.A., 2008	Salmon Sharks occur in both the nearshore and oceanic environments. Typical vertical distribution is from surface waters to 150 m (Farquhar 1963, McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Robinson and Jamieson 1984), with recent tagging studies showing they penetrate depths >600 m (Weng <em>et al</em>. 2003, Weng <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Adult Salmon Sharks typically range in size from 180?210 cm PCL (where TL = 1.1529?PCL + 15.186, from Goldman and Musick 2006) for northeast Pacific ? no conversions are given in the literature for Salmon Sharks in the northwest Pacific), and can weigh upwards of 220 kg. Reported lengths of 260 cm PCL (>300 cm TL) and greater with weights exceeding 450 kg are unsubstantiated. Length-at-maturity in the northwest Pacific has been estimated to occur at approximately 140 cm PCL (age five) for males and between 170 and 180 cm PCL (ages 8?10) for females (Tanaka 1980), while length-at-maturity in the northeast Pacific has been estimated to occur between 125 and 145 cm PCL (age 3?5) for males and between 160 and 180 cm PCL (ages 6?9) for females (Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>In addition to length and age-at-maturity, growth rates and weight-at-length of <em>L. ditropis</em> also differ between males and females from northeast Pacific and the northwest Pacific. Tanaka (1980), (also see Nagasawa 1998) states that maximum age from vertebral analysis for northwest Pacific <em>L. ditropis</em> is at least 25 years for males and 17 for females, and that the growth coefficient (k) for males and females are 0.17 and 0.14 respectively. Goldman (2002) and Goldman and Musick (2006) gave maximum ages for Northeast Pacific <em>L. ditropis</em> (also from vertebral analysis) of 17 years for males and 20 years for females, with growth coefficients of 0.23 and 0.17 for males and females, respectively. Longevity estimates are similar (20?30 years) for the northeast and northwest Pacific. Salmon sharks in the northeast and northwest Pacific attain the same maximum length (approximately 215 cm PCL for females and about 190 cm PCL for males). However, past approximately 140 cm PCL for males and 110 cm PCL for females, salmon sharks in the northeast Pacific are of a greater weight-at-length than their same-sex counterparts in the northwest Pacific (Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>The reproductive mode of salmon sharks is aplacental viviparity and includes an oophagous stage (Tanaka 1986, cited in Nagasawa 1998). Litter size in the western Pacific is three to five pups and litters are reportedly male dominated 2.2:1 (Nagasawa 1998). Data from a single pregnant female taken in Alaska waters in December 2006 provide the only insight to litter size and sex ratio of pups in the northeast Pacific. That shark had four pups with a 1:1 sex ratio (Gallucci <em>et al</em>. unpub. data). Gestation times throughout the north Pacific appear to be nine months with mating occurring during the late summer and early fall, and parturition occurring in the spring (Tanaka 1980, Nagasawa 1998, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Human 2005, Goldman and Musick 2006, Goldman and Musick in press, Tribuzio unpub. data). Size at parturition is between 60?65 cm PCL in both the northeast and northwest Pacific (Tanaka 1980, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick 2006).<br/><br/>In the northwest Pacific, a salmon shark pupping and nursery ground may exist just north of the transitional domain in oceanic waters. According to Nakano and Nagasawa (1996), larger juveniles than term (70?110 cm PCL) were caught in waters with SST?s of 14?16°C with adults occurring in colder waters further north. Another pupping and nursery area appears to range from southeast Alaska to northern Baja California, Mexico, in the northeast Pacific (Goldman and Musick in press).<br/><br/>Salmon Sharks are opportunistic feeders, sharing the highest trophic level of the food web in subarctic Pacific waters with marine mammals and seabirds (Brodeur 1988, Nagasawa, 1998, Goldman and Human 2005). They feed on a wide variety of prey including salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus</em>), rockfishes (<em>Sebastes</em>), Sablefish (<em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>), lancetfish (<em>Alepisaurus</em>), daggerteeth (<em>Anotopterus</em>), lumpfishes (Cyclopteridae), sculpins (Cottidae), atka mackerel (<em>Pleurogrammus</em>), mackerel (<em>Scomber</em>), pollock and tomcod (Gadidae), herring (Clupeidae), Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>), tanner crab (<em>Chionocetes</em>), squid and shrimp (Sano 1960, 1962; Farquhar 1963; Hart 1973; Urquhart 1981; Compagno 1984, 2001, Nagasawa 1998).<br/><br/>As with all members of the family Lamnidae, this species is endothermic, retaining heat created by its own oxidative metabolism (Carey <em>et al</em>. 1985, Goldman 1997). Body temperatures from moribund or recently dead specimens have shown elevations (over water temperature) of 8?11°C in smaller specimens and up to 13.6°C in larger specimens (Smith and Rhodes 1983, Anderson and Goldman 2001). Body temperature can exceed ambient water temperature in free-swimming salmon sharks by as much as 21.2°C (Goldman 2002, Goldman <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
39342	population	Goldman, K., Kohin, S., Cailliet, G.M. & Musick, J.A., 2008	No detailed information exists on salmon shark abundance, and nothing is known about stock structure. No abundance estimates are available for salmon sharks in the Northeast Pacific. Minimum stock size for the Northwest and Western Central Pacific has been estimated via catch data from several Japanese drift/gillnet fisheries to range from 1.66 x 106 to 2.19 x 106 (Shimida and Nakano unpublished data, cited in Nagasawa 1998), however no detailed information was given as to how these estimates were obtained.<br/><br/>While sexual segregation is relatively common in sharks, a remarkable sex ratio difference occurs in salmon sharks across the North Pacific basin. The western side is male dominated and the eastern side is female dominated, with dominance increasing with latitude (Sano 1962, Nagasawa 1998, Goldman 2002, Goldman and Musick in press). Larger sharks range farther north than smaller individuals, and southern catches generally occur in deeper waters (Nagasawa 1998, Goldman and Musick unpublished data).	eng
39342	threats	Goldman, K., Kohin, S., Cailliet, G.M. & Musick, J.A., 2008	Historical records of commercial catch and bycatch of salmon sharks are sparse.  Japanese commercial catch was reported to the FAO between 1952 and 1965 totaling 110.4 metric tons (mt), with 40.1 mt being the highest amount taken in any single year (Compagno 1990). The current fishing mortality on salmon sharks comes mainly from their being taken as bycatch in purse seine fisheries (e.g. for salmon), but they are also taken in longline fisheries for halibut and sablefish. There is also a small amount of directed commercial and sport fishing taking place off Japan and in Alaska, respectively.<br/><br/>Historically, salmon sharks were commonly caught in gillnets set for salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus</em> species) and flying squid (<em>Ommastrephes</em>) primarily by Canadian, Japanese and Russian fisheries, with smaller numbers taken by Taiwanese and North Korean fisheries (Blagoderov 1994, McKinnell and Waddell 1993, Nakano and Nagasawa 1996, Robinson and Jamieson 1984).  Based on the number of boats, average number of sets and the average CPUE reported in Robinson and Jamieson (1984), flying squid fisheries may have taken between 105,000 and 155,000 salmon sharks as bycatch over a four-month period each year (Goldman and Human 2005).<br/><br/>With the elimination of open ocean driftnet fishing and the cessation of the Japanese open ocean salmon fishery, it is likely that there is considerably less salmon shark bycatch in the open north Pacific and the population appears to have rebounded to its former levels (Nagasawa <em>et al</em>. 2002, H. Nakano pers. comm.). However, Salmon Sharks are still taken in U.S. waters (particularly the Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound, PWS) as bycatch in trawl, gillnet, and seine fisheries, but this bycatch has been poorly documented (Camhi 1999), and salmon shark bycatch from other countries fisheries is not reported. However, according to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), trawl, gillnet, and (particularly) seine fisheries are probably responsible for a large number of shark interactions. The state extended the sport fishing regulations to include the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) (to 200 miles). Anecdotal reports from fishermen are that there are less salmon sharks in PWS in recent years, and that there is more time between hook-ups. However, there are no abundance estimates to support a decrease in the number of salmon sharks at this time.<br/><br/>The most recent demographic analysis support the contention that salmon shark populations in the eastern and western north Pacific are stable at this time (Goldman 2002).<br/><br/>The State of Alaska and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation has also noted high levels of methyl mercury content in Salmon Shark muscle tissue samples provided by the ADF&G, suggesting that pollution is having an affect on this species.<br/><br/>The conservation status of this species is still of some concern because there is so little data on catch in other fisheries, discards and potential finning from the major pelagic fisheries in the north Pacific. There is a great need to document the bycatch in U.S. State and Federal waters in order to foster responsible management of this species, as well as to obtain catch records from the northwest and central Pacific.	eng
39343	conservation	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Norway is allocated a quota of 200 t of porbeagle in European Community (EC) waters, reduced in 1985 from the 500 t established in 1982 (Gauld 1989). Since 1985, the Faeroe Islands can also take 125 t from EC waters (originally 300 t in 1982, 150 t in 1984a). These quotas currently exceed total landings from shelf areas in the region and yield no management benefit.  <br/> <br/>Annex V of the Convention on the Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area [also called OSPAR (Oslo-Paris) Convention] requires OSPAR to develop a list of threatened and/or declining species and habitats in need of protection or conservation in the OSPAR maritime area (Northeast Atlantic). OSPAR member states were invited in 2001 to submit proposals for inclusion on this list. In response, Portugal – on behalf of the Azores, proposed to list porbeagle Lamna nasus in the wider Atlantic because of its biological sensitivity, keystone importance and the severe decline in its population. This proposal has not yet been adopted.  <br/> <br/>The status of the largely unmanaged, unmonitored Northeast Atlantic stock is likely worse than the seriously depleted Northwest stock, with stringent conservation and management action (fisheries closure and stock assessment) needed urgently to enable stocks to rebuild to levels where sustainable commercial and recreational fisheries are possible.	eng
39343	distribution	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
39343	habitat	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December–February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen et al. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
39343	population	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of sub-populations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.	eng
39343	threats	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle has been fished in this region by many European countries, principally Denmark, France, Norway and Spain. There has never been any restriction on fishing effort on this stock. The Northeast Atlantic fishery began when Norway started targeting porbeagle in the 1930s using longlines. Norwegian landings first reached a peak of 3,884 t in 1933. About 6,000 t were taken by the Norwegian fleet in 1947, when the fishery reopened after the Second World War, followed by a progressive drop in landings to between 1,200–1,900 t from 1953–1960. The collapse of this fishery led to the redirection of fishing effort by Norwegian and Danish longline shark fishing vessels into the Northwest Atlantic. Norwegian landings from the Northeast Atlantic subsequently decreased from 160 to 300 t/annum in the early 1970s to only 10 to 40 t/year in the late 1980s/early 1990s, while average Danish landings fell from over 1,500 t in the early 1950s to less than 100 t throughout the 1990s (DFO 2001a, Gauld 1989).  <br/> <br/>French and Spanish longliners have operated directed fisheries for porbeagle since the 1970s. Reported landings from the main French fishing grounds in the Celtic Sea and Bay of Biscay decreased from over 1,092 t in 1979 to 300 to 400 t in the late 1990s. Spanish vessels appear to have taken porbeagle opportunistically both in the early and late 1970s and since 1998. Landings off Spain tend to be greater during the spring and autumn, with a drop in the summer (Mejuto 1985, Lallemand-Lemoine 1991). It is unclear, however, whether the very variable early landings data from the Spanish fleet (from nil to nearly 4,000 t/year) represents huge variations in catches, possibly the result of ‘boom and bust’ fisheries removing different segments of the stock, or differences in catch reporting. Bonfil (1994) estimated that 50t of porbeagle were taken as a supplementary catch in the Spanish longline swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic during 1989. The long line fishery in the Bay of Biscay (ICES Area VIII), directed at the more abundant blue shark, also landed about 30 t of mainly porbeagle and some shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus during 1998–2000. ICES data (Heessen 2003) indicate that annual landings from Area IXa into mainland Portugal peaked at almost 3,000 t in 1987 to 1988 and have since declined (these records do not appear in the FAO statistics).  <br/> <br/>Reported landings from the historically most important fisheries, around the UK and in the North Sea and adjacent inshore waters have decreased to very low levels during the past 30 to 40 years, while catches from the offshore ICES sub-regions west of Portugal, west of the Bay of Biscay and around the Azores have increased since 1989. This is attributed to a decline in heavily fished and depleted inshore populations and redirection of effort to previously lightly exploited offshore stocks.	eng
39344	conservation	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 1,500 t for porbeagle in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). The porbeagle TAC was reduced to 1,000 t in 1997 (O’Boyle <em>et al</em>. 1998), then to 1,700 t during the two years 2000–2001 while additional scientific information was collected (DFO 2001b). As a result of these studies, it was concluded that the population was seriously depleted (to 10–20% of virgin biomass) and would require a greatly decreased fishing mortality if recovery is to occur. An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth. However, annual catch levels of about 1,000 t would be sustainable over the long term once the population has recovered. These DFO analyses, which are the basis for the regional assessment, are contested by COSEWIC (2004), who notes that the quota for 2002 to 2007 of 200 to 250 t represents a substantial reduction from catches in the mid-1990s, but even this amount now corresponds to a high exploitation rate because of the low population abundance. It is highly uncertain if this quota reduction will be sufficient to halt the porbeagle decline, and if so, to what extent the population will recover, given that there is uncertainty in estimating FMSY and the quota, the low number of mature animals remaining in the population, that at its current low abundance the population may experience depensation (Allee effects), and that reduction in fishing pressure is not always sufficient for population recovery (Hutchings 2001). COSEWIC (Committee on the status of endangered wildlife in Canada) designated porbeagle as Endangered in 2004 (COSEWIC 2004). <br/> <br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas in the US EEZ for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited.	eng
39344	distribution	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1 to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers.comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 and 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances travelled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nautical miles (nm), with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002). Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
39344	habitat	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for <em>Lamna nasus</em> (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December to February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8–9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
39344	population	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of subpopulations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.	eng
39344	threats	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Porbeagle fishing in the Northwest Atlantic started in 1961, when the fleet of Norwegian shark longliners began operating off the coast of New England and Newfoundland after the Northeast Atlantic stocks had been depleted. Catches increased rapidly from about 1,900 t in 1961 to more than 9,000 t in 1964. By 1965 many of the vessels had switched to other species or moved to other grounds because of the population decline. The fishery collapsed after only six years, landing less than 1,000 t in 1970. Smaller landings were also reported by Faeroese fishing vessels from around the same time and throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Norwegian and Faeroese fleets have been excluded from Canadian waters since the establishment of Canada’s EEZ in 1995. Canadian and US authorities reported all landings after 1995. Porbeagle sharks are now taken almost exclusively by a Canadian directed longline fishery. Bycatch in swordfish longline fisheries and various inshore fisheries are minimal, rarely exceeding 40 t in recent years (DFO 2001a).  <br/> <br/>Following the collapse of the fishery in the 1960s, it took ~25 years for recovery to ~30% of virgin biomass to take place. Three Canadian vessels entered the targeted Northwest Atlantic fishery in 1994. Catches of 1,000 to 2,000 t/year throughout much of the 1990s reduced population levels to a new low in under ten years: the average size of sharks and catch rates (number/hook) were the smallest on record in 1999 and 2000. By 2000, catch rates of mature sharks were reduced to 10% of the 1992 peak, and immature catch rates to 30% of the 1991 peak. The biomass in 2000 was estimated as 11 to 17% of virgin biomass and fully recruited F estimated as 0.26 (DFO 2001a). The current porbeagle population is seriously depleted and will require a greatly reduced fishing mortality if recovery is to occur (DFO 2001). The 2001 stock assessment by the Canadian Department of Fisheries states: ‘An annual catch of 200 to 250 t would correspond to fishing at about MSY and would allow population growth.’ Following this advice, the Canadian quota was reduced to 250 t for the period 2002 to 2007 to allow population growth and recovery. There is a small quota (92 t) for porbeagle in the US EEZ.	eng
39345	conservation	Human, B., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. The population size needs to be reassessed given its reduced range and previous misidentification of other species for this one. The recent taxonomic revision of this genus should make species identification easier for the genus.	eng
39345	distribution	Human, B., 2008	<em>H. edwardsii</em> is endemic to South Africa, and a recent taxonomic revision has shown that this species occurs from Langebaan Lagoon, Western Cape, to Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape. In the west of its range it prefers shallow rocky reef and kelp forest, however, in the east of its range it prefers deeper water on sandy bottom. This species has been recorded as being abundant, but this may be incorrect due to species misidentification. The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be close to 20,000 km².	eng
39345	habitat	Human, B., 2008	Depth range of this species varies within its range. In the west of its range, it occurs from the intertidal to 30m (pers. obs.) in kelp forests and rocky reefs, whereas in the east of its range it has been recorded from the intertidal, on rocky reef and kelp forest, but is found predominantly on sandy bottom where it has been recorded as deep as 130m (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>H. edwardsii has an extended single oviparous reproductive strategy and lays two egg cases without an obvious breeding season (Bertolini 1993, Dainty 2002). Size at 50% maturity was given by Bertolini (1993) as about 325 mm TL, for sexes combined, for the False Bay population, and 450 mm TL, for sexes combined, for the Eastern Cape population. Dainty (2002), using an annual vertebral band deposition rate, determined that <em>H. edwardsii</em> is seven years old at 50% maturity for sexes combined, and lives to at least 22 years of age. Bertolini (1993) reported that two egg cases collected by him hatched after three months in an aquarium, and hatching size was 93 mm TL. Egg cases collected by Dainty (2002) had not hatched after seven months. Smith and Griffiths (1997) found that <em>Haploblepharus</em> sharks have a high rate of hatching success (60?75%).	eng
39345	population	Human, B., 2008	Previously recorded as abundant, <em>H. edwardii</em>?s population size may be overestimated due to misidentification of other species for this species. Different maximum sizes and habitat preferences for this species within its range suggest multiple populations. Anecdotal observations also suggest that these catsharks are highly site specific, suggesting severely fragmented populations. It is likely that at least two populations exist, given that this species grows to a larger size in the east of its range, and the population size and population sub-structuring needs quantifying (Human 2003, 2007).	eng
39345	threats	Human, B., 2008	The main threat is recreational fishing, where this shark is commonly taken as discarded bycatch, generally regarded as a nuisance by the fishermen, and persecuted as such. Survival rates from recreational angling are unknown, although are presumed to be low (Human 2003, 2007). <em>H. edwardsii</em> is used in aquaria, however, there is no directed fishery for this species for the aquarium trade at present (Human 2003, 2007). As with any endemic with a restricted range, it is vulnerable to habitat degradation and loss. It occurs on a heavily utilized and narrow strip of habitat with heavy and increasing human utilization including extensive and intensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing, coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.	eng
39346	conservation	Human, B., 2008	The biology of this species is virtually unknown, which is of concern given that this is an inshore shark and caught with relatively high frequency by shore anglers in the Eastern Cape. The gathering of biological data for this species should be considered a priority given that it is an endemic with a restricted range, with a habitat preference that is in a zone that experiences significant fishing pressure (Human 2007). Recommend that recreational catches be monitored. Education and awareness is recommended, to reduce/prevent persecution.	eng
39346	distribution	Human, B., 2008	<em>H. fuscus</em> endemic to a relatively small stretch (less than 1,000 km) of the South African coastline, ranging from Storms River mouth, eastern Western Cape, to just south of Durban in KwaZulu-Natal. It is a rare vagrant west of the Storms River mouth, with one record from the western Western Cape (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975; Human 2003, 2007). This inshore highly site-specific species? estimated area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².	eng
39346	habitat	Human, B., 2008	<em>H. fuscus</em> prefers inshore rocky reef habitats. All specimens examined by Human (2003, 2007) were collected very close to shore (rock and surf angling), with no records of specimens being caught by offshore fishing activities.<br/><br/>Very little of the life history is known for <em>H. fuscus</em>. Maximum size is reported at 73 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1984). Males are juvenile at 43.8?46.0 cm TL, adolescent at 49.5?54.3 cm TL, and mature at 55.0?64.9 cm TL. Females are adolescent at 49.6?56.8 cm TL, and mature at 60.9?63.1 cm TL. The juveniles of this species are scarce and there appears to be an unknown habitat that is used by <em>H. fuscus</em> for egg laying, and where juveniles spend that stage of their life history (Human 2003, 2007). Other members of this genus produce a single eggcase per uterus which is assumed here for this species.	eng
39346	population	Human, B., 2008	There is anecdotal evidence that these catsharks are highly site-specific and that the population is very sub-structured, suggesting that it may be severely fragmented.	eng
39346	threats	Human, B., 2008	Persecution from recreational anglers and potential loss of habitat are the greatest threats to this inshore, restricted endemic. It appears not to be taken by other inshore fisheries, suggesting a very shallow habitat preference for this species, giving rise to this sharks potential vulnerability to habitat degradation. Survival rates from recreational angling, where it is a common bycatch within its range, are unknown. This shark is released alive during angling competitions, but this situation my not hold true in other forms of recreational angling, as is seen with other species of catshark in South Africa. This species is also occasionally used in aquaria, however, there is no directed fishery for this species for the aquarium trade at present (Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>This species? inshore habitat is subject to heavy and increasing human utilizations, including extensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.	eng
39347	conservation	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2005	Captures of this species in fisheries are not recorded and there are no conservation or management initiatives underway.	eng
39347	distribution	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2005	The Narrowmouth Catshark is an endemic shark from the coasts of South America within the Magellanic province (Norman 1937). It originates from the Pacific basin (Krefft 1968), and inhabits the Southwest Atlantic from Brazil (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1995) to the Beagle Channel (Lloris and Rucabado 1991, Matallanas <em>et al.</em> 1993) and the Southeast Pacific to north of Chile (Compagno 1984b). It occurs from the surface to 179m in the Atlantic Ocean (Bellisio <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni <em>et al</em>. 1979) and reaches 359 m in the Pacific Ocean (Ojeda 1983).	eng
39347	habitat	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2005	The Narrowmouth Catshark shows an unusual secondary sexual dimorphism, with longer males than females and females heavier than males (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986). It reaches a maximum size of about 80 cm total length (TL) in males and 70 cm in females (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986). Males reach sexual maturity at 53 cm TL and are all sexually mature at 66.5 cm TL; females reach sexual maturity at 40 cm TL and are all sexually mature at 45 cm TL (Gosztonyi 1973, Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Menni 1986).<br/><br/>It is an oviparous species, probably laying one egg at a time per oviduct (Gosztonyi 1973, Menni <em>et al.</em> 1979, Compagno 1984b, Menni 1986). Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) reported females carrying egg capsules in autumn (April? May) and spring (August?September). The egg cases are anchored onto the seabed in estuaries and other sheltered areas.The Narrowmouth Catshark uses estuaries and other sheltered areas to lay  their egg cases and as nurseries. Egg cases have so far only been  recovered from the estuary of Ria Deseado (Gosztonyi 1973). There have  been no reports made of egg cases from continental shelves. <br/><br/>Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) pointed out that females from 42.2? 44.2 cm TL showed neither a nidamental gland nor widening of the uterus and oocytes measured under 2 mm. From lengths of 45?51.2 cm TL, oocytes of 1?15 mm were observed. Nidamental gland width was 3?22 mm and a wider uterus (22×3 mm to 45×7 mm) was observed in 66% of individuals. From 51.2?62.5 cm TL, egg capsules were absent in 49.1% of the sample, 3.8% showed a flaccid and vascularised uterus (probably recently emptied), 15% of the sample had oviductal eggs and 32% carried egg capsules, always one in each organ. The same authors reported that when maturity begins, the right ovary develops, while the left one goes into regression.<br/><br/>Gosztonyi (1973) shows that both the mouth and teeth shape are sexually dimorphic in this species and that this change starts in both sexes at 30 cm TL. Teeth in adult males are unicuspidate and twice as high as the tricuspidate teeth of females of similar size. Although Menni <em>et al.</em> (1979) and Menni (1986) pointed out some sexual segregation, with more numerous females in the shallow stratum (below 100 m) while large numbers of males occur between 100?130 m, Matallanas <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not find any segregation with depth in their sample.<br/><br/>The diet of this shark, according to Matallanas <em>et al.</em> (1993), in the Beagle Channel during summer is predominantly monophagous, consisting mainly of <em>Munida subrugosa</em> (Crustacea: Decapoda). The presence of other incidental prey was higher in males than in females. For example, the frequency of teleosts in the diet was higher in males of over 40 cm TL, but not significantly. In comparison, analysis of data from two cruises on the Southwest Atlantic continental shelf indicated that the diet was less selective than in the Beagle Channel (although the methodology of analysis was different and the results not strictly comparable). This variation can be explained by a change in predation behaviour in different habitats: leptobenthic behaviour on the continental shelves, as defined by Compagno (1990a) for <em>Schroederychthys</em> species and a crab-eating littoral behaviour in the more restricted habitat of the Beagle Channel, typical of the smoothhounds and related species (Compagno 1990a).	eng
39347	threats	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2005	Local sport and commercial fishermen have not caught any pintarroja in the above estuary in the last eight years, although it was formerly very common there.<br/><br/>The marked increase in the use of Patagonian natural harbours by fishing and oil vessels over the last 15 years, with consequent disturbance, oil and noise pollution in these estuaries and bays, has not been assessed in terms of its impact on shark breeding grounds. However, acoustic pollution in these inlets could be one reason for the loss of this reproductive habitat. For example, a study of the association between noise levels in the Ria Deseado and the behaviour of Commerson?s Dolphin (<em>Cephalorhynchus commersonii</em>), has demonstrated an association between rising noise levels and escape behaviour (M. Iniguez pers. comm.). However, other sharks, such as Narrownose Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus schmitti</em>) and probably the Broadnose Sevengill Shark (<em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>) (Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000), also use the estuaries and sheltered areas in Patagonia as nursery grounds, and these species have apparently not shown any decline in connection with human use of the areas.<br/><br/>The species is taken as bycatch by bottom-trawlers and outriggers in Patagonian waters, but it has not been possible to estimate the scale of capture. This species may also be taken by directed commercial fisheries and possibly exported (Chiaramonte 1996).	eng
39348	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The species occurs in two marine reserves within its range, but is not specially protected within these reserves. <br/>The South African Sea Fisheries Research Institute is considering laws to decommercialise the pyjama shark along with its congener the Leopard Catshark (<em>Poroderma pantherinum</em>). This would not specifically protect either species from being killed as commercial bycatch, nor would it prevent sports fishers from catching them, but it would restrict targeted commercial fishing for export including the aquarium, shark meat and fin trade as well as sport fisheries for lobster bait.	eng
39348	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This endemic coastal species is confined to the extreme Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean off South Africa, from the intertidal to 100 m depth, but mostly found in waters shallower than 100 m. It is restricted to temperate waters of South Africa off the Northern, Western and Eastern Cape Provinces, but has its centre of abundance off the Western Cape. There are old records of this species from Madagascar and Mauritius, but these require confirmation and may be erroneous (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39348	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Most male Pyjama Sharks are adolescent at about 78?81 cm and adult males are recorded between 75? 91 cm. Most females are adolescent at about 79?83 cm and adult between 75?93 cm. All individuals of both sexes are mature above 89 cm (10?13 years old). Size at hatching is about 14?15 cm. This species apparently reproduces all year long, with both sexes gonadally active (Compagno in prep. b).<br/><br/>The oviparous (egg-laying) females produce one egg from each of the two oviducts at a time, but the number of eggs laid yearly is unknown (probably two or more). The single ovary averages about 15?20 ovae between 4?35 mm in diameter all year, but it is not known if all of these mature and are laid during a given year. Eggs are laid in large (5×10 cm) egg cases which hatch after several months on the bottom (over five months in captivity).<br/><br/>In the intertidal and subtidal zone this social shark congregates and rests in favoured caves and crevices on rocky reefs and in kelp beds during the daytime. It is more active at night but will feed by day. Prey includes a variety of small marine organisms including cephalopods, crustaceans, bony fishes, hagfishes, small batoids, bivalves and polychaete worms as well as fish offal. Cephalopods are favoured food items but the food spectrum varies by size and area. It readily takes baited hooks on fishing tackle.	eng
39348	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is taken as bycatch locally in unregulated inshore line and net fisheries and caught on longlines, in gillnets and beach-seines, and in bottom-trawls in open access waters. This bycatch is largely unutilized. There is little human consumption but the species is sometimes taken for lobster bait. <br/>Adults attain a sufficiently large size and are common enough locally in the Western Cape to have the potential for a high-value export fishery for human consumption, though it is unlikely that this could be sustained for more than a short period. The Nursehound (<em>Scyliorhinus stellaris</em>) and the Smallspotted Catshark (<em>S. canicula</em>) are fished in the northeast Atlantic for human consumption, but these species are far more wide ranging than the Pyjama Shark.<br/><br/>Sports anglers regularly catch the species throughout its limited range but the catch is usually not utilised and either killed or released after capture. Some individuals are tagged and released. The species is also taken in small numbers for the aquarium trade. It is a hardy shark that regularly survives capture trauma and thrives in captivity.<br/><br/>There are no data to indicate any past reduction or ongoing decline in numbers, range or habitat quality, but this could possibly have already occurred, or may occur in future. For example, this species and other local catsharks deposit their eggs in benthic spawning areas which could be adversely affected by pollution or by ecological changes that increase egg predation by gastropods and other benthic predators.	eng
39349	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Krose M. & Brash, J., 2004	Need for monitoring of bycatch and potential habitat degradation by demersal trawl fisheries.	eng
39349	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Krose M. & Brash, J., 2004	A limited distribution in Eastern South Atlantic and Western Indian Ocean, common inshore to offshore on the continental shelf and upper slope of South Africa, uncommon to rare northwestwards to KwaZulu-Natal and northeastwards to Namibia. Depths recorded 26 to 530 m, possibly confined to deep water (420 m) off KwaZulu Natal than off the Cape Provinces of South Africa, where it occurs in shallow bays such as False Bay and Table Bay (Compagno in prep. b). This may be an example of tropical submergence, in which minimum depth range becomes greater in warmer waters.	eng
39349	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Krose M. & Brash, J., 2004	Oviparous, laying one egg from each of the paired oviducts at a time, rate of deposition per year unknown. Maximum total length 122 cm, but most of over 200 specimens examined were below 100 cm. Size at hatching near 25 to 27 cm (size of smallest free-living individual). Males immature at 27 to 84 cm, adolescent at 61 to 83 cm, and adult at 72 to 102 cm. Females immature at 25 to 73 cm, adolescent at 55 to 80 cm, and adult at 75 to 88 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Both adults and juveniles tend to occupy rocky reef habitats more than soft bottom substrates (D. Ebert, pers.comm. 2004).	eng
39349	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Krose M. & Brash, J., 2004	Possible single population throughout its range.	eng
39349	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Krose M. & Brash, J., 2004	This species is not targeted, but regularly caught, mostly as unutilised bycatch in the large demersal South African hake trawl fishery, and probably in other benthic fisheries. Its chief fishery, the trawl fishery for hake species, is regulated but based on sustainability for hake, not for this or other elasmobranchs of the hake fishing zone. No statistics are available on catches. It is also occasionally caught by skiboat anglers and of minor interest in the international aquarium trade. Habitat degradation may occur as a result of trawling on the fishing grounds where it occurs, although there should be some areas of refuge over untrawlable grounds. None of its habitat is legally protected.	eng
39350	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None in place.	eng
39350	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This shark occurs in the eastern Atlantic: Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola, possibly ranging north to Morocco and Mediterranean. Found inshore at depths of 5?75m (Compagno 1984b).	eng
39350	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	No life history parameters are known for this live-bearing (placentally viviparous) species.	eng
39350	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This small, coastal and inshore benthic shark is or was moderately common but irregularly caught in heavily fished tropical inshore coastal waters of West Africa, and was formerly reported as being particularly common off Goree, Senegal and the Congo and Cuanza River mouths. It is probably of limited importance to intensive inshore artisanal and commercial fisheries in the West African area, where it is taken with hook-and-line, fixed bottom gillnets and by bottom¬trawlers. The bycatch may be discarded by some fisheries, but its flesh is utilised fresh, smoked, or dried-salted for human consumption and its skin is used for leather. No fisheries statistics are available for this species. Probably not taken for sport except incidentally.	eng
39351	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Management measures in the Western Australian gillnet fishery are in part targeted at conservation of whiskery sharks. These measures include effort controls and mesh size restrictions. At present there are no other conservation measures in place.	eng
39351	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & McAuley, R., 2003	This species is distributed form North-West Cape in Western Australia to eastern Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994).  Its distribution also includes northern Tasmania.  It is found in greatest abundance in south-western Australia from Albany to Kalbarri.	eng
39351	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & McAuley, R., 2003	The whiskery shark is most commonly found in rocky reef seagrass areas on the continental shelf. Its diet is highly specialized, with cephalopods making up approximately 95% of food eaten (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2001). Mature females produce litters of 4 to 29 (mean 19) young every second year (Simpfendorfer and Unsworth 1998). The young are born at 25 cm, males and females mature at around 110 cm, and reach a maximum of 150 cm. The age at maturity is 4.5 years for males and 6.5 years for females (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2000). Maximum age is probably 15 years.	eng
39351	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & McAuley, R., 2003	There is no evidence supporting the existence of subpopulations. Regular stock assessments are carried out for this species as it is targeted by gillnet fishing in Western Australia (see Threats for results of stock assessment).	eng
39351	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Whiskery sharks have been caught in commercial fisheries in Western Australia since the 1940s (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998). Early longline fisheries captured small numbers in the 1940s and 1950s, but the introduction of multifilament gillnets in the 1960s increased catches. Concerns about mercury in sharks in the mid-1970s saw a reduction in catches for a few years. However, once these concerns were addressed and dedicated well equipped shark fishing vessels entered the fishery levels of fishing effort and catch rose dramatically. The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the whiskery shark population reduced to less than 30% of virgin levels (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the mid-1980s Western Australia introduced management to the gillnet fishery, restricting effort levels and other management measures. Since then whiskery shark abundance has remained relatively stable at 25 to 30% of virgin over a period of 20 years. Whilst management has not yet rebuilt the stock to the 40% of virgin biomass target, the final phase of effort reductions in the target fishery was not implemented until 2000/01. Early indications are that there have been significant and steady increases in CPUE in the center of the species' range (and an overall increase) for the last 4 to 5 years and that a 'pulse' of young adult whiskery sharks are currently recruiting into the fishery. Continued management of the fishery, including several effort reductions, has maintained whiskery shark abundance at this lower level and should do for the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>In addition to catches in Western Australia this species is also caught in the Southern Shark Fishery, especially in Western Australia. Catches in this fishery, however appear to be low and pose no threat to the population.	eng
39352	conservation	Walker, T.I., Cavanagh, R.D., Stevens, J.D., Carlisle, A.B., Chiramonte, G., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Mancusi, C.M., Massa, A., McCord, M., Morey, G., Paul, L.J., Serena, F. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Outside Australia and New Zealand there are no, or few, regulations established for populations of <em>G.galeus</em>, see Walker (1999) for a fairly recent review. However, there is increasing international recognition of the threats facing this species. At the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP) 13 held in 2004, the CITES Animals Committee had a specific recommendation regarding <em>G. galeus</em>. The following text is taken from CoP13 Doc. 35, Annex 2 (<a href="www.cites.org">CITES</a>): <em>G. galeus</em> are valued for their meat and fins and are (or have been) important in target and multispecies fisheries in temperate waters world-wide. Most stocks are shared between several range States, and in most regions are seriously depleted. Only a small number of States have achieved successful management of this biologically-vulnerable species. The Animals Committee recommends that range States request FAO's assistance with developing a capacity building workshop for this species in order to train managers from developing States and other States where coastal shark fisheries are not being managed. This would also serve as a case study for the management of other coastal shark fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition, CITES CoP13, Decision 13.42 directed to Parties states that Parties "should take note of the species-specific recommendations in document CoP13 Doc. 35 Annex 2 with a view to ensuring that international trade is not detrimental to the status of these species." This includes <em>G. galeus</em>. <br/> <br/>See Walker (1999) for a fairly recent and thorough review of relevant management measures, some updates are provided below: <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>Management measures in the fishery of southern Australia where the stock is most depleted include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, TAC (since 2000). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>G. galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. Closed areas to commercial gillnetting in inshore waters of Tasmania have been variously implemented since 1954 to protect newborn, juvenile and pregnant <em>G. galeus</em> on nursery areas. A more extensive closed area was adopted during 1988 when all Victoria proclaimed waters (inside three-mile limit) were closed to the use of shark gillnets and longlines. Legal minimum lengths were phased in by the States and Commonwealth during 1949 and the early 1950s and remain current. During 2002, the TAC for <em>G. galeus</em> was 269 t for the Southern Shark Fishery, 33 t for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 2 t for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery. <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, minimum mesh-sizes of 125 mm and 150 mm apply for <em>G. galeus</em> in northern New Zealand and southern New Zealand, respectively. Numerous general restrictions apply to the use of commercial and recreational gillnets and longlines, including limits on the length of gillnets, number of hooks per longline, number of longlines, soak time, the amount of an estuary or bay that can be blocked by a gillnet, and areas that can be fished. The restrictions vary regionally and are designed to reduce the number of nets lost and the amount of fish wasted to sea lice and decay because of excessively long sets, and to minimise conflict with other users of inshore waters. Also, <em>G. galeus</em> is covered by the mixed species daily bag limits for recreational fishers of 20 and 30 fish for the northern and central regions and southern region of New Zealand, respectively. In October 1986, the commercial TAC was set at 2,590 t, but this had increased to 3,107 t by 1995 to 1996 (as a consequence of quota appeals, not stock assessment) and was current in 2003. The commercial TAC was exceeded by up to 10% in the late 1990s. <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the El Rincon area of Argentina where gravid females occur, a restriction has been established for the fishing fleet during the months in which these sharks approach the shore (A. Massa pers. comm). No other conservation or management measures are in place for this species. A ban on fishing <em>G. galeus</em> is recommended at the regional level involving Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>There are no conservation measures in place at present. Proposed policy for 2005 indicates that long-term rights for the elasmobranch fishery will be allocated and multi-species permits will be revoked and replaced with single-species permits. It is envisaged that only six demersal longline permits will be issued to target soupfin sharks. The number of traditional handline vessels permitted to catch traditional linefish (including sharks) will also be restricted in terms of numbers. This will alter the characteristics of the fishery and it is highly recommended that another stock assessment be completed within 3?5 years to evaluate the effect of the aforementioned changes on the population. McCord (2005) made several management recommendations for the period 2005?2010 including restrictive licensing, size restrictions and seasonal/area closures. <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>There are no conservation measures in place currently other than in California, gillnets are prohibited in State waters, although gear regulations do not apply specifically to <em>G.galeus</em> here or in other areas of its Eastern North Pacific range. The status of the population is unknown, and this species hasn?t been intensively studied for over 50 years. The situation needs to be studied in detail in terms of stock assessment and biological parameters (e.g., age and growth has never been studied for the species in this region), and this assessment revisited when more information is available.	eng
39352	distribution	Walker, T.I., Cavanagh, R.D., Stevens, J.D., Carlisle, A.B., Chiramonte, G., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Mancusi, C.M., Massa, A., McCord, M., Morey, G., Paul, L.J., Serena, F. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Widespread in temperate waters. <br/> <br/>In southern Australia the species occurs from Perth in Western Australia to Morton Bay in Queensland, including Lord Howe Island (uncertain) and Tasmania. It also occurs in the Southwest Atlantic (on the shelf from southern Brazil to Patagonia) and Northeast Atlantic (including the Mediterranean where it is present but uncommon (Whitehead 1984, Notarbartolo e Bianchi 1998), eastern North Pacific (from British Columbia to southern Baja California including the Gulf of California), off Peru and Chile, and in the South Pacific, New Zealand and off South Africa (Compagno in prep b). In the Subequatorial Africa region, it ranges from Namibia to East London on the southeast coast of South Africa (Compagno in prep b). It is absent from the Northwest Atlantic and Northwest Pacific.	eng
39352	habitat	Walker, T.I., Cavanagh, R.D., Stevens, J.D., Carlisle, A.B., Chiramonte, G., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Mancusi, C.M., Massa, A., McCord, M., Morey, G., Paul, L.J., Serena, F. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Most abundant in cold to warm temperate continental seas, from the surfline and very shallow water to well offshore (Compagno in prep b). In Australasia <em>G. galeus</em> occurs over the continental shelf from shallow, inshore bays (mainly juveniles) to about 800 m depth on the continental slope. At least in some areas (Northeast Atlantic, Tasman Sea) they also extend offshore up to 1,610 km from the coast (Fitzmaurice 1979, Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species is primarily found near the bottom but ranges through the water column even into the pelagic zone. Similar to the Australian and South American populations, the South African population inhabits cool waters from the coastal surfline to the continental shelf (>400 m). <br/> <br/>The life history parameters of <em>G. galeus</em> varies between regions. For a review of life history from different regions see Walker (1999) which draws on a number of sources including: Ripley (1946), Olsen (1954, 1959, 1984), Freer (1992), Capape and Mellinger (1988) and Peres and Vooren 1991). For a summary of life history characteristics by regional population see the tables at the end of this assessment (these will be specifically drawn upon for regional reports). <br/> <br/>The maximum size varies considerably: the maximum size recorded is ~200 cm total length (female) in the Mediterranean (Capape and Mellinger 1998), but is somewhat smaller in the Southwest Atlantic with a maximum size of 155 cm (female); 148 cm (male) (Peres and Vooren 1991). Differences are also apparent in the size at maturity in different regions. The smallest sizes at sexual maturity are in the Southwest Atlantic where males attain sexual maturity at 107?117 cm and females at 118 to 128 cm (Peres and Vooren 1991), elsewhere the range is generally between 120 and 135 cm for males and 134 to 140 cm for females (Olsen 1954, Capape and Mellinger 1988, Peres and Vooren 1991, Freer 1992), although Ripley (1946) noted 150 cm for females and McCord (2005) reports 101 cm for males. <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparity with average litters of 20 to 35 pups, with as few as six and as many as 52 observed with an average of 35 in the Eastern North Pacific (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2003)) produced in spring or early summer after a gestation period of ~12 months; the young vary in length at birth between 26 and 40 cm, depending on the region. The litter size increases in larger females. Males appear to breed every year but individual females have been reported to breed every year in the Mediterranean, every second year in Australia, and every third year in Brazil (Capape and Mellinger 1988, Peres and Vooren 1991, Olsen 1954). These may reflect real differences or may be due to the difficulties of sampling a species, which shows marked temporal and spatial sexual and size segregation, and which makes extensive movements. <br/> <br/>These animals are very long-lived and are estimated to live for up to 60 years, although estimates vary (from around 22 years to around 40 years to up to 60 years) with region and ageing methods used. In Australia, tags have been returned from animals at liberty for more than 40 years. Age at maturity is 8 to 10 for males and 10 to 15 for females (Olsen 1954, Peres and Vooren 1991, Freer 1992, Walker 1999, Ebert 2003). The annual rate of population increase has been estimated by Cortes (2002) at 1.077 ( 95% C.I. 1.037 to 1.128) and the natural mortality by Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) at 0.113. <br/> <br/>The species feeds mainly on teleost fish, most often on bottom-associated species although pelagic fish are also taken (Walker 1999). Cephalopods, mostly squid and octopus, are also important in their diet. Small juveniles include a high proportion of crustaceans and other prey such as annelids and gastropods in their diet (Olsen 1954, Stevens and West 1997, Walker and Punt 1998). Predators (especially of juveniles) include the great white shark <em>Carcharadon carcharias</em>, sevengill shark <em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>, and possibly marine mammals (Ripley 1946; Ebert 2001, 2003).	eng
39352	population	Walker, T.I., Cavanagh, R.D., Stevens, J.D., Carlisle, A.B., Chiramonte, G., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Mancusi, C.M., Massa, A., McCord, M., Morey, G., Paul, L.J., Serena, F. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	This species makes extensive migrations, for example, animals tagged in the United Kingdom showing mixing throughout their Northeast Atlantic distribution and being recaptured as far away as to the north of Iceland (2,461 km), the Canary Islands (2,526 km) and the Azores (1,610 km off the coast of Portugal) (Fitzmaurice 1979, Holden and Horrod 1979, Stevens 1990). In Australia, tagging has shown mixing across most of the southern half of the continent (with movements of up to 1,260 km) and a number of animals have moved across the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand (Olsen 1984, Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Spatial and temporal variations in size structure and sex ratio are apparent for various populations of <em>G. galeus</em> (see Walker 1999), which have implications for management. The species appears to have fairly discrete pupping and nursery areas, which are often in shallow, protected bays and estuaries (Olsen 1954). <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>Inshore waters of Victoria and Tasmania include nursery areas for this species. Olsen (1959,1984) reported a decline in abundance of juveniles in two Tasmanian nursery areas sampled regularly over a five-year period. He attributed this decline to fishing pressure on pregnant females during their pupping migration and to intensified fishing of juveniles in inshore areas such as Port Phillip Bay during the period 1940 to 50. In Port Phillip Bay during 1943 to 1945, 60,000 juveniles averaging 0.9 kg in weight were caught annually. A continuation of this nursery area sampling during the 1990s (Stevens and West 1997) indicated a substantial further reduction in abundance of school shark pups and small juveniles in Tasmanian and Victorian embayments and estuaries. Since the abundance of pups sampled in these areas seems insufficient to account for the current adult stock size it is likely that other pupping areas exist, either outside Victoria and Tasmania, or more likely, close inshore along ocean beach coastlines. In New Zealand inshore embayments such as Kaipara Harbour are nursery areas for this species (Walker 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>The southwest Atlantic population of <em>G. galeus</em> migrates seasonally between wintering grounds off south Brazil and Uruguay, and summer grounds off Argentina where the pupping and nursery areas are situated. <br/> <br/>In the wintering area off south Brazil the species occurs from April to November, south of latitude 33°S over smooth bottom at depths of 40 to 330 m (Vooren 1997). Only large juveniles (mostly with TL from about 70 cm onwards) and adults of both sexes migrate in winter to south Brazil, where at that time the gravid females concentrate during the final phase of gestation and where the non-gravid adult females copulate in a specific area on the upper continental slope (Peres and Vooren 1991, Ferreira and Vooren 1991). Birth does not occur in south Brazil. <br/> <br/>In Argentina the commercial fishery operates inshore at depths of 18 to 57 m, from September to December off Buenos Aires Province, then in January and February in northern Patagonia, then in March-April again off Buenos Aires (Chiaramonte 1998, Elías <em>et al</em>. 2004). These periods correspond with the months of departure and arrival of the species in south Brazil. It is inferred that the age groups older than about five years of the population as a whole migrate between Argentina and south Brazil, and that the nursery grounds are situated in Argentine waters and in some cases are where critical habitat is known to have been lost (e.g., Bahía Blanca and El Rincón). <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>Little is known about the movements of the South African population of <em>G. galeus</em> (Freer 1992). Seasonal differences exist in catch composition, females comprise the majority of the catch (~90%) from December to January and males comprise close to 100% of the catch between April and September (Freer 1992, M. Kroese pers. comm. 2003). Catch records from the RV Sardinops and RV Africana indicate that midsummer (December) catches are dominated by pregnant females (Freer 1992). Individuals have been caught up to depths exceeding 400 m, although they are most frequently caught between 55 to 150 m (McCord 2005). It is thought that female <em>G. galeus</em> give birth in lagoons and estuaries along the west coast of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), and although no nursery areas have been conclusively identified, Freer (1992) suggests shallow embayments such as Struis, St.Helena, Walker and False Bays, and data from the Gansbaai longline fishery with a high proportion of the catch being immature females may also be a nursery area for this species (M. McCord pers. comm). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Little is known regarding critical habitats but nursery areas may occur off Portugal and around the Canary Islands (Munoz-Chapuli 1984), and possibly in the Bristol Channel, UK (see Walker 1999 for further details). <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>In the eastern North Pacific, young and immature sharks are caught off Ventura Flats, San Francisco Bay, Monterey and Tomales Bay. Southern California below Point Conception (especially Ventura Flats, east of Santa Barbara) is an important <em>G. galeus</em> nursery ground, with considerable numbers of adult females and newborns being found there in the spring.  They are known to segregate by sex and size. South of Point Conception, adult males tend to be found further offshore in deeper water (>20 m), while females are in usually found in shallower water (<15 m). The proportion of large mature males is highest in northern California, while mature females are most abundant in southern California. North of Point Conception there is a greater proportion of smaller immature females, but in central California the sex ratio is about even (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2001, 2003). They are highly migratory, moving north during the summer and south during the winter or into deeper waters. They are swift moving and can travel up to 34 miles per day and have been reported to travel at a sustained rate of 10 miles per day for up to 100 days. One shark tagged off Ventura in southern California was captured 26 months later off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Another shark was tagged in San Francisco Bay and recaptured 12 months later in the same location.	eng
39352	threats	Walker, T.I., Cavanagh, R.D., Stevens, J.D., Carlisle, A.B., Chiramonte, G., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Mancusi, C.M., Massa, A., McCord, M., Morey, G., Paul, L.J., Serena, F. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	<em>G. galeus</em> has a long history of exploitation in target fisheries in most parts of its range where the species has been in demand for liver-oil, meat and fins. The main threat to the various populations of <em>G. galeus</em> is from targeting widely with gillnets and longlines. Minor threats include fishing with trawls and other methods. There is accidental capture of pups on nursery grounds in gillnets of small mesh-size and recreational fishers operating in inshore shallow-water areas. Habitat degradation in potential nursery areas due to development and siltation may also negatively affect recruitment to populations of this species.  Other threats are habitat degradation by the effects of trawling through disturbance of substrates (Walker 1998) and installation of high voltage direct current sub-sea cables with induced magnetic and electric fields across their migration lanes (Walker 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Australasia</strong> <br/>In south-eastern Australia, the harvest of <em>G. galeus</em> began in the mid-1920s, but increased markedly during the war years with the market for shark liver oil. Catches levelled off at about 2,000 t live weight during 1949 to 1957 with the decline of the liver market and as the fishery spread from inshore to offshore waters (Olsen 1959). Establishment of the shark meat market and the introduction of gillnets in 1964, production rose rapidly to peak during 1969 at 3,158 t. Following a ban on the sale of large school sharks in 1972 because of high mercury levels, catches declined for about 10 years. With relaxation of the mercury laws catches again increased, reaching 3,060 t during 1986. Since 1986, the total annual catch from the Southern Shark Fishery had declined to 172 t by 2001 (Walker 1999, Walker <em>et al</em>. 2002). The mature biomass has been estimated from age-based model outputs to be below 20% of the level before commercial target fishing began (Punt <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, <em>G. galeus</em> have been exploited since the mid-1940s. With the demise of the liver oil fishery in the 1950s, a market for the meat developed (some is exported to Australia) and catches peaked at 5,000 t live weight in 1984 (Francis 1998, Paul and Sanders 2001). Catch levels have been ~3,000 t for the past decade, but it is not known if this, or the current commercial TACs (3,107 t), are sustainable, or if they are at levels that will allow the stocks to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield. <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>In this region mean annual individual fecundity is only seven pups, age at first breeding is about 13 years in both sexes, and natural mortality rate is low as evidenced from the longevity of 40 years (Peres and Vooren 1991, Ferreira and Vooren 1991). These parameter values characterize the species as susceptible to recuitment overfishing. In Uruguay the species was fished intensively in the 1940s for liver oil. The southwestern Atlantic population of the species has been subject to intensive fishing in its entire area of distribution since about 1985. Statistics of the fishery CPUE in south Brazil and Uruguay are evidence that as a result of intensive fishing from 1985 the abundance of the species had decreased by 85% in 1997, and the fishery in this region continues without restraint (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Since 1995 the species has disappeared in the coastal fishery off Uruguay (A. Domingo unpublished data). The species migrates seasonally between wintering grounds in south Brazil and Uruguay and summer grounds off Argentina where the pupping and nursery areas are situated, where intense and directed fishery of gravid females occurs and where critical habitat is known to have been lost (e.g., Bahía Blanca and El Rincón). Yields in Argentina dropped sharply after intensive fishing and high landings in the years 1988 to 1992 (Chiaramonte 1998). Since then declines have continued. The declared landings for ?sharks+cazón? in the SAGyP statistics (the national authority for fisheries in Argentina), and in which <em>G. galeus</em> comprises most of these landings, show overall declines of over 80% between 1992 (4,012 t) and 2004 (757 t), with landings around 1,000t or less since 2000, yet in the mid-1980s the landings were >5,000 t. These declines are attributed to recruitment overfishing and if the fishery continues, the population will very likely be extirpated. Despite this, in the late 1990s new access to the fishery was granted to a large number of artisanal fishermen (at present around 700 are registered in Buenos Aires province), and no management is in place. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa</strong> <br/>In South Africa <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> is targeted (mainly when catches from other non-elasmobranch fisheries are low) in longline and handline fisheries and taken incidentally in artisanal and recreational fisheries. In 2003, 23 permits were issued to shark fishermen, however no seasonal/temporal restrictions have been placed on the fishery nor on number or size of <em>G. galeus</em> landed. Kroese and Sauer (1998) determined that the landed catch of soupfin shark between 1992 and 1994 reached a peak of 48 t (1994, dressed carcass weight) and a minimum of 5.2 t in 1993. Anecdotal evidence suggests that CPUE of soupfin sharks has declined in the last 15 years (G. Kingma, soupfin shark longline fishermen, Hout Bay, Western Province, pers. comm. February, 2003) and data from the South African Shark Management Plan (MCM 2002) indicates that the annual commercial linefish catch of soupfin shark has significantly declined, from a peak of 249 t in 1992 to 71 t in 1999. It is unclear whether this is due to a change in target species, change in effort, or change in the population size. According to Freer (1992), 41.6% of total catch by mass in the Gansbaai longline fishery is female, 87.4% of which are immature females. This indicates that a relatively high number of immature females are being extracted from the population, thereby possibly influencing future recruitment (Freer 1992). Similar to other populations of soupfin shark, those in South Africa segregate according to sex and size. This combined with life-history parameters make these sharks vulnerable to over-exploitation. There are indications that the South African population is currently being fully exploited and any increase in fishing pressure may result in a decline of biomass to below 40% of the pre-exploitation condition (McCord 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Tope is of limited commercial importance in commercial fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic where it is typically a bycatch of mixed demersal and pelagic fisheries, especially French vessels fishing in the English Channel, Western Approaches and northern Bay of Biscay. Data is apparently limited, as landings data are often included as "dogfishes and hounds". Nevertheless, England and France have species-specific landings data and there are limited data from Denmark and Ireland in recent years (ICES 2004). France appears to target tope, and reported landings of approximately 350 to 500 t/year during the 1990s (landings were higher in 1987 at 600 t, some 6% of the total shark catches, with tope ranking third behind spurdog and lesser spotted dogfish). Tope also feature in catch statistics for Portugal Mainland and in the Azores. In the Azores this species is a bycatch of the demersal longline fishery. Biological data for Northeast Atlantic stocks are limited (SGRST 2002). <br/> <br/>Tope is important in recreational fisheries with some anglers specializing in tope catching. Recently, a newspaper article (Fishing News, June 17th 2005) urged English North Sea fishermen to target tope for meat and for the fin trade out of Lowestoft, East Anglia. This has raised cause for concern, including among the recreational fishers (see www.sharktrust.org for further details). The value of this species for recreational angling on the south coast of England (and presumably elsewhere off the UK) is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Although no direct fisheries for <em>G. galeus</em> exist in the Mediterranean, it was traditionally caught as bycatch in gillnets and trammel nets in the Northern Adriatic Sea, also as bycatch of semi-industrial (Adriatic Sea and Sicily) and artisanal fisheries in pelagic and demersal nets, deep longlines, drift lines and troll lines (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 1987). A small directed gillnet fishery targeting <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Squalus</em> spp. operated off the Balearic Islands in the past which reported catches of <em>G. galeus</em>. In recent times, only bottom trawl and longline fisheries have reported continuous bycatch of <em>G. galeus</em>, and such reports are very rare nowadays. The development of the bottom trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean over the first half of the 20th century in the northern range, and during the latter half in the southern range, is considered as one of the principal factors responsible of the decline of many demersal elasmobranch species. In this sense, both overfishing and habitat degradation must be considered as factors potentially responsible for declines. The analysis of the Medits trawl survey data from 1994?1999 shows a very low frequency of occurrence for <em>G. galeus</em> in the Mediterranean (only five positive hauls or 0.05 %), although it should be noted that trawling is a minor threat to this species and numbers in trawl surveys would not be expected to be high. Its overall biomass was estimated to be 0.2 kg/km² for the Mediterranean. The standing stock biomass was estimated at 126 t (0.23%) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Off Italy, Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported the capture of <em>G. galeus</em> in only one of the 11 zones studied as part of the Italian national project (9,281 hauls in total, around the Italian coast, from 1985?1998), although data on biomass for this species were not provided. Tuna trap data from the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea from 1898 to 1992 shows a dramatic decrease in the abundance of <em>G. galeus</em> catches (80 individuals between 1898 and 1905; only eight for the 1906 to 1913 period and 0 from 1914 to 1922) (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). Thus, these data can perhaps be interpreted as an indication of early depletion of the population at least in shallow waters in this area, which could also have occurred in other Mediterranean areas where similar practices historically operated. Data from the Medits survey for the Adriatic Sea were compared with those from the survey Hvar, carried out in 1948 (Jukic-Peladic 2001). Although no data on individual species captured biomass are reported, <em>G. galeus</em> appeared in the 1948 survey, but not in the Medits survey. Data on elasmobranch landings from the long-line fleet at the Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands) central fish auction wharf reported only one specimen in 1996 (B. Reviriego pers.comm.), six in 1999 (G. Morey pers.comm.) and recent regular visits have reported no further specimens. In addition, <em>G. galeus</em> was not specifically reported in the official landing statistics, since it did not appear in the 1999 to 2001 period, thus furthering the difficulties in monitoring of the population. For the Spanish long-line fleet off the Levantine coast, operating mainly in the Alboran Sea and around the Balearic Islands, the observed catch rate (as bycatch) of <em>G. galeus</em> is about five specimens per ship and year (D. Macías pers.comm.) In Tunisian waters, where there exists a lower fishing pressure than off the northern Mediterranean coasts, the species is considered to be very rare (Bradai 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern North Pacific</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Pacific the shark fishery off California rapidly expanded during the 1930s due to the demand for liver-oil. Catches increased, peaking at 4,185 t in 1939 with around 75 to 80% of the catch being <em>G. galeus</em> and prices for the liver-oil rose from some US$50/t in 1937 to US$2,000/t in 1941 (Ripley 1946). While the fishery was intensive and expanded rapidly it only lasted eight years, during which CPUE was reported to decline dramatically. Although the fishery collapsed in the 1940s (due primarily to the synthetic production of Vitamin A) it seems unlikely that the stock itself collapsed. Only the large animals were being targeted, with 10-inch mesh size, fishermen were not interested in catching the young animals, which had lower grade Vitamin A in the liver oil. Therefore while it appeared that the adult stock might have collapsed there would have been large stocks of juveniles to allow for a population recovery. Since the 1940s given the low price for soupfin shark and low interest in the meat there has been no economic incentive to target it, and it is now caught at low levels as bycatch with bottom and pelagic gillnets, bottom and pelagic longlines, bottom and pelagic trawls, and with hook-and-line. (Ripley 1946, Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep b). Thus although there has been no stock assessment for over 50 years, the fishing mortality can be expected to be low. Cailliet <em>et al</em>. (1992) reported the fishery over the past several decades had remained fairly steady, even declining due to increasing fishing restrictions.	eng
39353	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None.	eng
39353	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species occurs ion the Northwest Pacific: Philippine Islands (Dumaguete, Negros, also Bagac Bay, Bataan Prov., Luzon). It is found inshore down to 48 m.	eng
39353	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Most details of ecology and life history parameters are unknown, for this species is only known from two free-swimming individuals reported. The only gravid female reported was 96 cm total length (TL) and had 12 foetuses. Size at birth at least 20?22 cm (term foetuses).	eng
39353	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The species is probably taken as utilized bycatch by local fisheries in the Philippines. The holotype was taken in a fish trap. No statistics are available for fisheries catches ? there have been no confirmed records of this species for over 50 years. However, past and continuing population reduction is probable, due to the heavy inshore fishing occurring throughout its limited area of distribution. It may also be suffering from habitat loss and deterioration, for dynamite and cyanide fishing have affected much of the reef habitat in its area. A further complication is that there are apparently two Philippine <em>Hemitriakis</em> that have been confused under this species, but they differ in vertebral counts, colouration and possibly morphometrics (Compagno 1970, 1984b, 1988, in prep. b).	eng
39354	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There are currently no specific management or conservation measures in place for this species. However, the directed shark fishery in Western Australia that catches this species is a limited entry fishery with effort controls and gear restrictions (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998).	eng
39354	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Recorded in the western Pacific from Japan (Miyosi 1939), Taiwan (Province of China) (Chen 1963) and Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, southern Queensland (Heald 1987, Last and Stevens 1994); in the Western Indian Ocean from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania (Zanzibar) and Kenya (Smith 1957, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975b). Compagno (1988) dismissed the reported occurrence of this species from the Arabian Gulf as a case of a mis-identified species of <em>Paragaleus randalli</em>. Generally believed to have an Indo-West Pacific distribution (Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994) although this may be discontinuous and the species is apparently rare or uncommon except off southern Australia. The occurrence of this species in the deeper waters of the continental shelf (40?230m), however, may make recording its precise distribution more difficult (Compagno 1988). It has only been reported in Australian waters in recent years, and the distribution map of Compagno (1984b) failed to recognise its occurrence there. Last and Stevens (1994) gave the distribution in Australian waters as south of 20°S. However, it is observed to occur only very infrequently in the shark fishery in south-eastern Australia (T. Walker pers. Comm.), suggesting that it rarely occurs in this part of its range. It is unknown whether there are discrete subpopulations in the Western Indian Ocean, off Australia and in the Northwest Pacific off Japan and Taiwan (POC).	eng
39354	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There are few details of the biology of Blacktip Topeshark available in the literature. To supplement this published information, unpublished data from a biological monitoring project in the Western Australian shark fishery is also included below. Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) reported specimens up to 127 cm total length (TL) from the east African coast. Reports of this species from Asia are all for specimens less than 90 cm. Last and Stevens (1994) reported a maximum length of 130 cm. The maximum size of this species recorded from extensive catch sampling in the Western Australia shark fishery is 117 cm (Simpfendorfer pers. Data). Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975b) reported stomach contents from two specimens from Africa, both of which contained teleosts. Stevens (1990) reported that of nine specimens caught in southern Western Australia six contained teleosts and four cephalopods. Blacktip Topeshark is placentally viviparous and has been reported to have a seasonal reproductive cycle by Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) and Stevens (1990). Recent results from the biological monitoring of the catch of the Western Australia commercial shark fishery have provided a clearer picture of the reproductive biology of Blacktip Topeshark (Simpfendorfer unpublished data). Males mature at approximately 98 cm and females at approximately 102 cm. Ovulation occurs in March and April, while the largest embryos are observed from December to February. Last and Stevens (1994) suggest that the gestation period was greater that 12 months, with parturition around February. The gestation period is probably around 10?11 months. Litter sizes range from 3?15, with a mean of 10. On the basis of full term embryos the size at birth is approximately 30 cm, a value similar to that of 33?35 cm suggested by Bass <em>et al</em>. (1975b) from full term embryos observed in southern Africa. Pregnant females do not produce yolky ova, suggesting that breeding occurs every second year.	eng
39354	threats	Simpfendorfer, C. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There are no targeted fisheries for Blacktip Topeshark, but it is caught as bycatch in a number of fisheries throughout its range, including Australia, South Africa and Japan. It is taken in demersal gillnets set by commercial shark fishers in western Australia (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998). Catch and effort data are available in this fishery from 1989?1990 and show that although catches have decreased from 12t to 6t over this period the catch rates have remained stable, suggesting there has been little impact on the stocks (Simpfendorfer unpubl.). The species is also caught in trawl fisheries off the east coast of southern and east Africa, including the shrimp trawl fishery off KwaZulu-Natal. Little data are available for this fishery, but intensive fishing may have caused some decline in the stocks. There are currently no data available on the occurrence of this species in other commercial fisheries. However, it is probable that it is caught in bottom fisheries (e.g., trawl, gillnet and longline) on the outer continental shelf where it occurs. It is unlikely to be caught regularly in artisanal fisheries because of its restriction to deeper parts of the shelf.	eng
39355	conservation	Walker, T.I., 2003	Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (since 2000) and various input controls. Limits apply to length of net (since 1988) (initially 6,000 m but subsequently reduced to 4,200 m) and depth of net (20-meshes). Various 4 to 6 week closed seasons have been in place to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994). There is a legal minimum mesh-size of 6 inches (since 1975) and a legal maximum length of 6.5 inches (since 1997) for gillnets for most of the fished area. Closed areas to commercial gillnetting in inshore waters of Tasmania have been variously implemented since 1954 to protect newborn, juvenile and pregnant <em>G. galeus</em> on nursery areas. A more extensive closed area was adopted during 1988 when all Victorian proclaimed waters (inside three-mile limit) were closed to the use of shark gillnets and longlines. Legal minimum lengths were phased in by the States and Commonwealth during 1949 and the early 1950s and remain current. During 2002, the TAC for <em>M. antarcticus</em> was 1,750 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 86 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 28 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery.	eng
39355	distribution	Walker, T.I., 2003	<em>M. antarcticus</em> is endemic to southern Australia from about Port Stephens in New South Wales (32°S) to about Geraldton in Western Australia (28°S). The species is demersal, occurring mainly on the continental shelf from the shore to about 80 m depth, but also on the upper slope down to 350 m. Very similar (possibly the same) species occur on the east and west coasts of Australia between latitudes of about 17° and 30°S in depths between 120 and 400 m (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39355	habitat	Walker, T.I., 2003	Female <em>M. antarcticus</em> reach a longer total length (185 cm) than the males (148 cm) (T. I. Walker, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Victoria, Australia, unpublished data), and reach a maximum weight of 24.8 kg (Walker 1983). Tagging and ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of about 16 years (Moulton <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/> <br/>The species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine compartments. Ovulation occurs October to mid-December in Bass Strait and off South Australia (Walker 1996) and November to February off Western Australia (Lenanton <em>et al.</em> 1990). Pregnant sharks carry 1 to 38 young, and large mothers carry more embryos than smaller ones. The length at first maturity and the proportion of sharks longer than this length found to be pregnant increases from east to west (Walker 1996). In Bass Strait about half of the population of large female sharks breed each year whereas off South Australia (Walker 1994a) and Western Australia (Lenanton <em>et al.</em> 1990) most breed each year. The sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 and mean length at birth is about 33 cm (Walker 1983). The young are usually born in shallow coastal areas. <br/> <br/>The blunt, flattened teeth of gummy sharks are more suited to crushing rather than cutting their prey. They prey on a wide variety of demersal species from areas of sandy and, to a lesser extent, rocky substrate. Studies of stomach contents show that gummy sharks in Bass Strait feed on at least 95 species and that squid and octopus contribute most weight (36%) to their diet. Crustaceans contribute 25% by weight and teleost fish 11%. The remaining 28% consist of 12 other classes of organism and unidentifiable material (Walker 1996). These animals do not exhibit well defined migration patterns, but tag data indicate that some large females leave Bass Strait and move to waters off South Australia and Western Australia. Movements rates from South Australia to Bass Strait are much lower (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
39355	population	Walker, T.I., 2003	Tagging (Walker 1983, Walker <em>et al.</em> 2000), genetic (MacDonald 1988, Gardner and Ward 1998) and morphometric (Heemstra 1973) studies indicate the presence of three genetic stocks of <em>M. antarcticus</em>. One ranges along the southern coast of Australia from Bunbury in the west to Eden (Bermagui based on tag data) in the east, a second is located off New South Wales in the region from Newcastle to Clarence River, and a third is located off Queensland near Townsville. Shark fisheries mainly harvest animals from the stock on the south coast.	eng
39355	threats	Walker, T.I., 2003	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> have been targeted in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. <br/> <br/>Today the main threat to populations of <em>M. antarcticus</em> are from targeting widely across southern Australia with gillnets of 6 to 6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania of 6½ to 7-inch mesh-size off Western Australia. In Bass Strait (Walker 1994, 1998), South Australia (Walker 1994b), and Western Australia (Simpfendorfer 1999), stock assessment indicates that the level of biomass was 40 to 55% of initial biomass for most of the past two decades. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid-1980s and adoption of a total allowable catch during 2000 led to a steady increase in abundance. There is negligible targeting for <em>M. antarcticus</em> off New South Wales and south of Bass Strait off Tasmania. In accordance with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing, the biomass is above the level required to provide the maximum sustainable yield. <br/> <br/>Application of age-based fishery assessment models, allowing for age- and density-dependent natural mortality and incorporating information on growth and reproduction of the species and on selectivity of gillnets indicates that current catch levels are sustainable and shows that while the number of births is closely related to the number of maternal animals, recruitment to the fishery at age two years is remarkably stable for a wide range of population sizes (Walker 1992, 1994a,b, 1998). For this species, there are advantages in harvesting the middle-sized sharks and in protecting the large older sharks for breeding purposes and for protecting the young animals to improve the yield from growth. This is achieved by gillnets of mesh-size ranging 6 to 6½ inches (Walker 1998, 1999). <br/> <br/>Minor threats include fishing with long-lines, trawls, and other methods.	eng
39356	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	Managed under Quota Management System.	eng
39356	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Occurs throughout mainland New Zealand and the Stewart Is ? Snares Is Shelf. Absent from Chatham Islands and subantarctic islands.	eng
39356	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Female rig grow longer (151 cm total length (TL)) than males (126 cm TL). Length at maturity varies among stocks, but females mature at larger sizes than do males. Growth studies indicate that rig grow rapidly, reaching maturity at 5-8 years depending on the sex and stock. They live at least 15 years. Natural mortality (M) is estimated to be in the range 0.2 to 0.3. The Maximum Constant Yield (Annala <em>et al.</em> 1999) for rig populations is estimated to be about 3 to 7% of virgin biomass. <br/> <br/>Rig are ovoviviparous, the gestation period is about 11 months, and young are born at a length of 20 to 32 cm. Fecundity increases with the length of the mother; it ranges from 2 to 37 embryos with a mean of about 11. Most mature females probably breed every year, with only a short resting period (1 to 2 months) between pregnancies. Parturition, ovulation and mating occur mainly during spring and early summer. The young are either born in, or make their way to, shallow coastal areas including harbours, bays and sheltered coastlines. They remain there for the summer and autumn before migrating into deeper water. <br/> <br/>Rig feed on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates, especially brachyuran and pagurid crustaceans, echiurans and molluscs.	eng
39356	population	Francis, M.P., 2003	Recent analyses indicate that one fishstock (management area) has increasing catch per unit effort (CPUE), several have stable CPUE, and one has declining CPUE. These varying trends reflect the differing knowledge of stock status, and the ability to set appropriate total allowable catches (TACs), when individual transferable quotas (ITQs) were introduced in 1986. Overall, the rig population has probably remained stable for 17 years.	eng
39356	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Commercial fisheries (mainly set net and bottom trawl) take 1,600 to 1,900 tonnes per year.	eng
39357	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/>Few species-specific landings data exist and improved data collection on commercial landings are required. There are some inshore areas where this species is locally abundant, including potential nursery grounds in outer estuaries and bays, and such areas should be monitored appropriately.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>Improved data collection on commercial landings to species-level is required. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>species are protected within Balearic Island marine reserves. Management measures are needed to prevent further declines in this region.	eng
39357	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	Starry Smoothhound is distributed from the Shetland Islands and southern Norway in the Northeast Atlantic, south, including the Mediterranean to northwestern Africa in the Eastern Central Atlantic (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span>: from Scotland and southern Norway in the North to North-west Africa in the south, occurring in the waters of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, France, United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.<br/><br/>Whole Mediterranean Sea, but not in the Black Sea (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central Atlantic</span>: Morocco, Western Sahara.	eng
39357	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	Starry Smoothhound is a demersal species found in waters of up to ~200 m in depth, on sandy and gravelly bottoms (Compagno 1984, Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a), and may migrate inshore during the summer. It attains a maximum length of 140?150 cm and matures at a length of approximately 80?85 cm (Fischer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987). This species is viviparous and produces 7?15 pups per litter after a 12 month gestation period (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Size at birth is approximately 30 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). The stomach contents of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species have been studied by Ford (1921) and Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1996). Age data are not available for this species, but they are available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus</span>. Da Silva (2007) reported that female <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> mature at 10.75 years of age and live to a maximum observed age of 25 years. Using these data and the formula: age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustleus</span> can be estimated at 17.8 years. This may provide a rough proxy for the generation period for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span>. Starry Smoothhound feeds predominantly on crustaceans, including squat lobsters and crabs, and especially swimming crabs. Predation on other taxa is low.	eng
39357	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus asterias</span> is more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in the Northeast Atlantic. Within UK waters, it seems to be most abundant in large bays, outer parts of large estuaries and in coastal areas, including the Outer Thames, Solent, Bristol Channel and Cardigan Bay (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005a). Fishery-independent surveys suggest stable trends in catch per unit effort (Ellis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005b), though the numbers caught are generally quite low in these surveys. Though it has a continuous distribution, there are certain areas where it is locally abundant, including potential nursery grounds in outer estuaries and large bays.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus asterias</span> is less common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in the Mediterranean Sea. Frequency of occurrence in scientific surveys (MEDITS) of the northern Mediterranean Sea was very low, with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> recorded in only five of 6,446 hauls conducted from 1994?1999 at 10?800 m depth (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Aldebert (1997) reports a clear decrease in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species in comparable surveys in the Gulf of Lions, southern France, from 1970 onwards. The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> also decreased in comparable trawl surveys conducted in 1948 and 1998 in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Hvar trawl surveys conducted in 1948 in the Adriatic Sea occurrence (frequency log-transformed) of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias</span> was ~1.0, compared to ~0.1 in comparable MEDITS surveys conducted in the same area in 1998.	eng
39357	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/> <em>Mustelus</em> species are generally regarded as locally  common, although they are not very abundant. They are occasionally taken by  trawl and gill net, although they have little market value in northern European  seas, and are often discarded. They may be landed for human consumption and also  as bait for the inshore whelk fishery in England and Ireland. ICES landing  statistics combine dogfish and hounds together and so there are little accurate  data on North Atlantic landings, and levels of bycatch are unknown. In some  areas, such as the Bristol Channel and English Channel in the United Kingdom,  they are a relatively important sport fish (Ellis pers. obs.).<br/> <br/> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>There is a high level of exploitation on the  continental shelf and upper slope to about 800 m depth in the Mediterranean Sea  (Massuti and Moranta 2003). <em>Mustelus</em> species are captured with demersal  trawls, trammel nets, gillnets and longlines in this region (Bauchot 1987, STECF  2003). Semi-industrial fisheries in the Adriatic Sea, off Sicily, Spain and  Cyprus are known to take these species, and also artisanal fisheries elsewhere.  <em>Mustelus</em> species are retained and utilised in the Mediterranean Sea, where  they regularly sold for human consumption in many areas (Fischer 1987). Trawl  surveys in areas of the northern Mediterranean Sea show that frequency of  occurrence of this species has declined over the last 50 years. Landings data  reported to FAO show that landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>spp (probably including <em>M.  mustelus, M. asterias and M. punctulatus</em>) steadily increased between 1950  and 1978 to 14,000 t, after which they fluctuated between ~6,500 t and 14,000 t from  1978?1994 (FAO 2008). After 1994, landings dropped significantly, decreasing to 2,980 t in 1997 and did not exceed 2,200 t from 2001?2006 (FAO 2008). Although these  landings are not species-specific, combined with the results of  fishery-independent trawl surveys described above, they also suggest that this  species has declined in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
39358	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Clò, S., Ellis, J. & Valenti, S.V., 2004	There are no specific management measures in place for <em>M. mustelus  </em>throughout the majority of its range. <em>Mustelus</em> species are protected  within Balearic Island (Spain) marine reserves.<br/><br/>Few species-specific  landings data exist and improved data collection on commercial landings are  needed in all areas of its range. Current catch levels appear to be  unsustainable throughout the majority of this species? range and management  intervention is required to reduce catches. Da Silva reported that size and  fishing effort control methods may be most effective for <em>M. mustelus</em>.	eng
39358	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Clò, S., Ellis, J. & Valenti, S.V., 2004	Distributed from the UK in the Northeast Atlantic, south, including the  Mediterranean Sea, Canary Islands, Morocco and south along the western African  coast to eastern South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Serena 2005,  Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span>: UK, Republic of  Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal, possibly Azores and Madeira.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span>: Whole Mediterranean, not in the Black Sea.  <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</span>: Morocco, south to South  Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Indian Ocean</span>: Eastern Cape of South Africa and Kwa-Zulu  Natal.	eng
39358	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Clò, S., Ellis, J. & Valenti, S.V., 2004	This demersal coastal species is found on the continental shelves and uppermost  slopes, from the intertidal to at least 350 m depth, but usually in shallow  waters from 5?50 m on sandy and muddy substrates (Bauchot 1987, Zamboni 1999,  Serena 2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Reproduction is viviparous with yolk-sac placenta. Biological information is  available from Tunisia, South Africa, Mauritania and other areas of the  Mediterranean Sea. Males mature at 70?112 cm total length (TL) and females at  107.5?124 cm TL (Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008, Da Silva 2007) and 80cm TL reported in  the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987, Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984, Serena 2005).  Saïdi <em>et al.</em> (2008) report that reproduction is annual with parturition  taking place during late April and early May and mating during May and early  June off Tunisia. The gestation period is 9?11 months (Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008,  Da Silva 2007, Smale and Compagno 1997, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Females  give birth to 4?18 pups per litter and larger females have significantly larger  litters (Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987, Saïdi <em>et al.</em> 2008, Smale and  Compagno 1997). Size at birth is 34?42 cm TL (Saïdi <em>et al. </em>2008, Bauchot  1987, Serena 2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Da Silva (2007) studied the  age and growth of <em>M. mustelus</em> off South Africa. Maximum observed age was  25 years. Age at 50% maturity was determined at 10.75 years for females and 9.1  years for males. Using these data and the formula: age of maturity + 0.5*(length  of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period can be estimated at  17.8 years. Natural mortality (M) for <em>M. mustelus</em> was estimated at 0.05  yr<sup>-1</sup> (Da Silva 2007). The species preys on fishes (mainly anchovy), crustaceans  (<em>Squilla mantis</em>) and mollusks bivalve (<em>Ensis</em> spp.) and cephalopods  (<em>Eledone moscata</em>) (Costantini <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
39358	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Clò, S., Ellis, J. & Valenti, S.V., 2004	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus </span>is less common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M. asterias </span>in the  Northeast Atlantic. Trend data are not available for this species for this  region. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus mustelus </span>is more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">M.  asterias </span>in the Mediterranean Sea. Scientific surveys (MEDITS) of the northern  Mediterranean Sea conducted between 1994 and 1999 at 10?800 m depth recorded this  species in 111 (2%) of 6,336 hauls (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Aldebert (1997) reports  a clear decrease in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus </span>species in comparable surveys in the Gulf  of Lions, southern France, from 1970 onwards. The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> in  comparable trawl surveys conducted on the shelf of the Adriatic Sea in 1948 and  1998 remained approximately the same (Jukic-Peladic <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). In Hvar trawl  surveys conducted in 1948 on the shelf of the Adriatic Sea occurrence (frequency  log-transformed) of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustleus</span> was ~1.0, compared to ~1.0 in comparable MEDITS  surveys conducted in the same area in 1998. In Grund surveys conducted in  Italian seas between 1985 and 1998, percentage presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> was 21.9%.  Most of the population was concentrated in the Adriatic Sea and southern waters  of Sicily and the species was absent from the Ligurian Sea and Sardinian waters  (Relini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Central Atlantic</span><br/>Trends in abundance  are available from data from scientific trawl surveys conducted off Mauritania  from 1982?2006, from 5?200 m depth (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Biomass estimates were  made for 24 different demersal species over the whole continental shelf,  including <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span>, using standard linear model techniques. Estimated biomass  for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mustelus</span> decreased significantly over this period, with biomass declining  from ~150,000 t in 1982 and 1988, to ~40,000 t in 2006 (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The  mean yearly rate of decrease in biomass was estimated at -0.3%. The decrease in  abundance mainly occurred in areas of low densities and marginal habitat for  this species, in the deepest strata sampled (80?200 m depth), suggesting that  there may have been a contraction in the distribution of this species (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southeast Atlantic</span><br/>Relative survey biomass indices from  fishery independent research trawl surveys conducted along the western and  southern coasts of South Africa are available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustelus</span> species from 1986?2003  (Da Silva 2007). Survey biomass indices for the southern coast showed a clear  decline in trend from 1986 to 2003 (Da Silva 2007). The survey biomass indices  for the western coast increased from 1984 to 1994 and then decreased to levels  similar to indices observed prior to 1994 (Da Silva 2007).	eng
39358	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Clò, S., Ellis, J. & Valenti, S.V., 2004	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Atlantic</span><br/><em>Mustelus</em> spp. are generally regarded as locally  common, although they are not very abundant. They are occasionally taken by  trawl and gill net, although they have little market value, and are often  discarded in this region. They may be landed for human consumption and also as  bait for the inshore whelk fishery in England and Ireland. ICES landing  statistics combine dogfish and hounds together and so there is little accurate  data on North Atlantic landings, and levels of bycatch are unknown. In some  areas, such as the Bristol Channel and English Channel in the United Kingdom,  they are a relatively important sport fish (Ellis pers.  obs.).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mediterranean Sea</span><br/>There is a high level of exploitation on the  continental shelf and upper slope to about 800m depth in the Mediterranean Sea  (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Mustelus spp are captured with demersal trawls,  trammel nets, gillnets and longlines in this region (Bauchot 1987, STECF 2003).  Semi-industrial fisheries in the Adriatic Sea, off Sicily, Spain and Cyprus are  known to take these species, and also artisanal fisheries elsewhere.  <em>Mustelus</em> spp are retained and utilised in the Mediterranean Sea, where  they regularly sold for human consumption in many areas (Fischer 1987). Landings  data reported to FAO show that landings of Mustelus spp (probably including  <em>M. mustelus, M. asterias</em> and <em>M. punctulatus</em>, of which <em>M.  mustelus</em> is the most common in this region) steadily increased between 1950  and 1978 to 14,000 t, after which they fluctuated between ~6,500 t and 14,000 t from  1978?1994 (FAO 2008). After 1994, landings dropped significantly, decreasing to  2,980 t in 1997 and did not exceed 2,200 t from 2001?2006 (FAO 2008). Although these  landings are not species-specific, combined with the results of  fishery-independent trawl surveys described above, they also suggest that this  species has declined in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern  Central Atlantic</span><br/>This coastal species? range is heavily exploited by demersal  fisheries off western Africa. Fishing effort has increased in both efficiency  and intensity in this area during the past 50 years. For example, effective  fishing effort of the small scale fleet operating off Mauritania is estimated to  have increased by a factor of 10 during the past 25 years (Gascuel <em>et al.  </em>2007). The number of and effort exerted by industrial fishing vessels off  Mauritania has also increased dramatically, from ~150 vessels to more than 300  and from <40,000 days to >60,000 days, respectively, from 1982?1997  (Gascuel <em>et al.</em> 2007). Fisheries in other countries in the region have  also undergone similar development. Increased fishing pressure has been linked  with declines in demersal fish stocks in several areas of the region, including,  Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea, most notably, higher-trophic level predators,  such as sharks (Gascuel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Fishing pressure has not decreased and the  declining trend in abundance in <em>M. mustelus</em> observed off Mauritania from  1988?2006 described above, is likely to continue. Declines are also inferred to  have occurred elsewhere, given that fishing pressure is high throughout much of  this species? range in this region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southeast Atlantic</span><br/>Declines in  linefish species off South Africa has led to increased exploitation of demersal  sharks, such as <em>Mustelus mustelus</em> as both target and bycatch. Fisheries  catch data for <em>M. mustleus</em> in this area is problematic due to  misidentification and high levels of underreporting. Da Silva (2007) present  information on catches and conducted a stock assessment for <em>M. mustelus</em>  off South Africa, using three dynamic pool models (yield per recruit, spawner  biomass per recruit and an extended yield and spawner biomass per recruit). The  replacement yield model showed that average catches over the past decade are 2.5  times higher than the replacement yield is on the South Coast and 1.30 on the  West Coast of South Africa. A comparison of the models showed that current  catches need to be halved for exploitation of smoothhound sharks to be  sustainable. The species is also taken by recreational anglers off Namibia  (NATMIRC 2003).	eng
39359	conservation	Conrath, C., 2005	No demographic modelling has been done to predict how the North Atlantic population of Dusky Smoothhounds will respond to this recent increase in fishing pressure and what management measures will be most appropriate. Currently there is no management for this species.	eng
39359	distribution	Conrath, C., 2005	Dusky Smoothhounds are found in the western Atlantic from Massachusetts to Florida, USA, in the northern Gulf of Mexico including Cuba, Jamaica, Barbados, Bermuda, Bahamas and southern Brazil to northern Argentina (Compagno 1984b). There are probably several discrete populations separated by large areas geographically with little movement between different populations (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Dusky smoothhounds are primarily demersal sharks that inhabit continental and insular shelves and upper slopes and are typically found in inshore waters down to 200 m depth (Compagno 1984b).	eng
39359	habitat	Conrath, C., 2005	The maximum reported size of Dusky Smoothhound is about 150 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1984b). Data on longevity of the species is sparse in the literature. Dusky Smoothhounds are viviparous sharks that form a yolk-sac placenta and have litters ranging in size from 4?20, but averaging 10?20 per litter. The north Atlantic population has a yearly seasonal reproductive cycle with the mating season occurring from mid to late summer. The gestation period is about 10 months with parturition occurring from early May to the middle of July (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Female Dusky Smoothhounds reach maturity at about 102 cm and males reach maturity about 84 cm (Conrath unpubl.). Rountree and Able (1996) suggest that Mid-Atlantic Bight estuaries may serve as critical nursery grounds for this species. They report the size at birth to be around 28?39 cm. The north Atlantic population undergoes a seasonal migration responding to changes in the water temperature. This population winters between Chesapeake Bay and South Carolina. In early spring Dusky Smoothhounds begin migrating to their summer grounds between Delaware Bay and Cape Cod, remaining there until late autumn before migrating south again (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Castro 1983). Dusky smoothhounds possess low, flattened teeth specialised for crushing crustacean prey. Their diet consists primarily of large crustaceans but also includes squid, small bony fish (menhaden, stickleback, wrasses, porgies, sculpins and puffers), gastropods, bivalves, marine annelid worms and occasionally garbage (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Gelsleichter <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that adult dusky smoothhounds captured in Virginia waters had a diet dominated by crustaceans, especially by rock crabs, lady crabs and blue crabs, but also included other crustaceans, molluscs, teleosts, horseshoe crabs and polychaetes.	eng
39359	threats	Conrath, C., 2005	Historically this species has not been utilized in fisheries, except for collection to use in classroom exercises (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Compagno reports that this species is fished off Cuba, Venezuela, Brazil and possibly other locations in the Caribbean, using longline gear and bottom-trawls and is utilised as a food resource (Compagno 1984b). Recently a gillnet fishery for dusky smoothhounds has started on the eastern shore of Virginia and North Carolina. Total landings of Dusky Smoothhounds in Virginia waters remained fairly low (less than 25,000 lbs or 11 t) until 1993 when landings exceeded 220,000 pounds (100 t). Total landings remained around this level for two more years but decreased to around 140,000 pounds (63.5 t) in 1996 (Virginia Marine Resources Commission unpubl.). In North Carolina Dusky Smoothhound landings have only been reported separately from Spiny Dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>) landings since 1995. In 1995 total landings reached 2,182,577 lb (990 t) but dropped in 1996 to 463,047 pounds (210 t) (North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries unpubl.).	eng
39360	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None.	eng
39360	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species has an extremely restricted range in the Western Indian Ocean, off the east coast of South Africa (north¬eastern part of the Eastern Cape to northern KwaZulu-Natal). The Flapnose Houndshark is found close inshore at the surfline and in the intertidal (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39360	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This is a little-known and uncommon inshore demersal shark with an extremely restricted range. Less than 30 specimens recorded, including unpublished material. A live-bearing species (with presence or absence of placenta uncertain) with litter size of 2?4 (usually two or three) young and a gestation period of 9?10 months. It is unknown whether there is a year break in the reproductive cycle, but the low litter size suggests a year-long cycle and a yearly fecundity of similar numbers, 2?4 young per year (this needs further investigation). The species feeds predominantly on crustaceans, also squid (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39360	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The Flapnose Houndshark occurs in inshore waters that are subjected to heavy commercial and sports hook-and-line fisheries. Small numbers have been taken in directed inshore fisheries for small sharks and the species has been sporadically utilised for its flesh recently in southern KwaZulu-Natal. No fisheries statistics are available on catches. It may also be a possible bycatch of inshore fisheries, but details are lacking. The species is caught by sports surf anglers and possibly recreational boat anglers. Increased fishing pressure in its limited environment suggests that the population may be vulnerable and could decline. Loss of habitat as a result of development and pollution along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal (where there is extensive coastal development) and the Eastern Cape during the last few decades may also be a threat.	eng
39361	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Kyne, P.M. & Domingo, A., 2008	There is little effective management of inshore fishing activities in continental Ecuador. Specific management regulations have been lacking, but the recent development of a shark plan and recently introduced measures should lead to improvements. Decree 2130 banned target fisheries and fin trade in 2004, but implementation and enforcement was insufficient and fins continued to be exported illegally. Subsequently, Decree 486 permitted trade in fins from bycatch, mandated the full utilisation of all shark meat, and required monitoring of all bycatch and a licensing system for the trade of fins. This decree provided an important means of monitoring shark catches. <br/><br/>Field surveys are required to accurately document the species? distribution and habitat requirements. An assessment of what fisheries are catching the species and where it is being landed is also required. The sharpfin houndshark, along with other inshore elasmobranch species, would then benefit from effective regulation of these fisheries. However, given the rarity of this species, along with its occurrence in exploited inshore waters, it likely requires more immediate conservation actions, i.e. full protection.	eng
39361	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Kyne, P.M. & Domingo, A., 2008	Southeast Pacific: found only in tropical continental waters of the Province of Manabí in Ecuador. The type locality is Isla de La Plata (01°16?29.28?S, 81°04?12.10?W) (Kato 1968, Compagno in prep. b), and it has also been recorded in landings of the coastal fishing port of Daniel López (21 nm from Isla de La Plata) (J. Martínez pers. comm.).	eng
39361	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Kyne, P.M. & Domingo, A., 2008	The habitat and ecology of <em>Triakis acutipinna</em> is virtually unknown. Documented specimens are a 102 cm TL adult female and a 90 cm TL adult male caught inshore (Kato 1968, Compagno in prep. b). All life-history parameters are unknown.	eng
39361	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Kyne, P.M. & Domingo, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
39361	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Kyne, P.M. & Domingo, A., 2008	Throughout Ecuador, several (mainly artisanal) fisheries land various species of carcharhinoid sharks (including houndsharks) as bycatch. In some cases, small-scale fishing communities have specifically targeted sharks, however target fisheries for sharks were prohibited in 2004 (see Conservation Measures). Catch statistics are limited, with inadequate monitoring of fishing activities and landings. Bostock and Herdson (1985) estimated that in the early 1980s small-scale fishers landed some 1,800?2,000 t of sharks per year. Later catch estimates from only a subset of landing ports amounted to ~4,000 t/year for 1993?1995. Martínez (1999) noticed a reduction in shark landings in small-scale coastal fisheries in more recent years when compared with those of the early 1980s.<br/><br/>The sharpfin houndshark is rarely landed in coastal monofilament gillnet artisanal fisheries in the fishing port of Daniel López in Manabí, Ecuador (J. Martínez pers. comm.). It is unknown if the species is taken in other inshore artisanal fisheries.	eng
39362	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The species occurs in at least one marine reserve, but it is not specifically protected. There is a proposal currently under consideration at Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the main fisheries research and body in South Africa, to decommercialise the spotted gully shark and protect it from expanding commercial export fisheries for small sharks, although it still could be caught by sports anglers.	eng
39362	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Found in the eastern south Atlantic and western Indian Ocean in temperate coastal waters of southern Angola, Namibia and South Africa (Northern, Western and Eastern Cape coasts, rarely north-east to KwaZulu-Natal).	eng
39362	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	An inshore, bottom-dwelling shark of temperate coastal waters with a limited geographic and bathymetric range, found often in shallow water up to the surfline. It prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in shallow bays. During summertime this shark congregates in schools, particularly in False Bay and off the Cape Peninsula, Western Cape, South Africa, which may include pregnant females. Development is ovoviviparous, without a yolk-sac placenta and the number of young is 6?10 per litter. This shark eats crabs, bony fishes and small sharks (one had eaten a <em>Scyliorhinus capensis</em>) (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39362	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is uncommon to locally common in the intertidal and surfline to less than 50 m (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39362	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There is a fairly large directed commercial shark demersal longline fishery centred in Gansbaai and False Bay in South Africa, which takes the Spotted Gully Shark as a minor bycatch along with the target species, Soupfin or Vaalhai (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>), and other more abundant bycatch species such as Common Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus mustelus</em>) and Bronze Whaler (<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em>). There are no separate statistics available for commercial catches of Spotted Gully Sharks. The meat of such sharks is dried into shark ?biltong? or jerky, which sells for a relatively high price locally, or is shipped fresh or frozen overseas (Italy or Taiwan (POC)). Also caught recreational anglers in South Africa and Namibia, but not eaten much locally although perfectly edible.	eng
39363	conservation	Carlisle, A. & Smith, S.E., 2004	The Leopard Shark is one of the many species considered, but not now actively regulated, under the Pacific Fishery Management Council?s Groundfish Management Plan (PFMC 1982). <br/><br/>Regulatory actions enacted by the State of California have contributed significantly toward protecting this species in recent years. In 1991, efforts increased to protect the leopard shark in California, and late that year California established new sport fishing regulations which took effect on January 1, 1992, establishing a 36-inch (91cm) minimum size and a possession limit of three fish. The recreational fishing sector not only strongly supported the move, but also did much to promote it. Effective January 1, 1993, an 18-inch (45.7cm) minimum size limit was extended to the commercial fishery for leopard sharks and all sharks and rays, to prevent over-harvesting for the aquarium trade (State of California 1996).<br/><br/>Commercial sportfishing boat catches of leopard shark in California have dropped from an average of 6.8 fish per trip between 1980-91 to an average of 4.0 fish after the size limit was imposed 1992-95, as more fish are being released (Kevin Hill pers. comm.). Also encouraging is evidence that mortality from hooking injuries is quite low (Smith and Abramson 1990).<br/><br/>Additionally, the state has general restrictions on usage of certain types of commercial gear in the near shore zone, which offers a good degree of protection for the leopard shark, at least for the present time.<br/><br/>The State of California?s imposition of a sport and commercial fishing size limit and general curtailment of gillnetting within this slow-growing species' near shore range appears to have halted the increase if not reduced total fishing mortality over the past decade (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
39363	distribution	Carlisle, A. & Smith, S.E., 2004	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: Oregon, USA to Mazatlan, Mexico, including the northern Gulf of California (Ebert 2003). This species is commonly found in bays and estuaries (including Elkhorn Slough, Drakes Estero, and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, San Pedro, Alamitos, Anaheim, Newport, Mission, and San Diego Bays in California) but is also found along the open coast and around offshore islands (Monaco <em>et al.</em> 1990, Ebert 2003).	eng
39363	habitat	Carlisle, A. & Smith, S.E., 2004	This shark occurs in cool to warm temperate waters, both inshore and offshore (Compagno in prep). It is most often found on or near the bottom in shallow water from the intertidal to 20m depth, and less commonly down to 91m depth, in flat sandy areas, mud flats, and bottoms strewn with rocks near rocky reefs and kelp beds (Compagno in prep). The leopard shark is commonly found in shallow, enclosed, muddy bays, often entering them as the tide rises and leaving when it retreats (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/>Leopard sharks are viviparous, without a yolk sac placenta, and the female produces from 4 to 36 offspring in an annual reproductive cycle. Gestation time is 12 months, and size at birth is 17 to 25 cm TL (Ackerman 1971, Compagno 1984, Kusher 1987, Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992, Smith 2001, Compagno in preparation). Age at maturity for females is between 10 and 15 years and 105 to 135 cm TL. Males mature between 7 and 13 years and at 100 to 105 cm TL. Maximum age is at least 24 yrs, but is estimated to be about 30 years, and the maximum size is 198 cm TL with reports of sharks up to 213 cm TL (Miller and Lea 1972, Feder et al. 1974, Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Leopard sharks grow slowly, reportedly averaging less than 2.2 cm per year, with fish of the same age varying greatly in size (Kusher <em>et al.</em> 1992). The fastest growth takes place prior to maturity; large fish are particularly slow growers, e.g., a 125 cm fish released in September 1979 in San Francisco Bay measured only 129 cm when it was recaptured in November 1991 at Santa Cruz--gaining only 4 cm in twelve years (S.E. Smith unpublished data). <br/><br/>Bays and sloughs appear to be important nursery areas in the north. Reported nursery areas include San Francisco Bay, Tomales Bay, Elkhorn Slough, Humboldt Bay, San Diego Bay, Catalina Harbor, and Bodega Bay (Eigenmann 1891, Bane and Bane 1971, Talent 1985, Smith 2001, Ebert 2003). In San Francisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough, California, parturition appears to occur from March through September, with a peak in April and May (Ackerman, 1971, Talent 1985, Smith and Abramson 1990). It also reportedly occurs between March and July in Humboldt Bay, Tomales Bay, Morro Bay, Santa Monica Bay and San Pedro Bay (Monaco et al. 1990). In San Diego Bay parturition is reported as occurring in September (Eigenmann, 1891). In Humboldt and San Francisco Bay, females have been observed releasing their young in beds of eel grass (Ebert 2003), while in southern California females are thought to release their pups along more open coastal areas, and have been observed giving birth to young in water 1m in depth over a shallow flat in Catalina Harbor, the pups milling about in water only 0.3 m deep (Smith 2001). Newly born pups are reportedly found in northern California bays and sloughs in April and May; also in the shallow surf zone in more southerly areas such as Santa Monica Bay in southern California around late May and June where they were harvested by hook and line for the aquarium trade in the late 1980s and early 1990s (S.E. Smith pers. obs. 1991). Juveniles are often found in more sheltered, shallow, inshore areas such as bays, mudflats, and tidal creeks (Barry and Cailliet 1983).  <br/><br/>This shark is an opportunistic benthic feeder, devouring a variety of invertebrates and fishes, including the fat innkeeper worm (Urechis caupo), crustaceans (grapsid crabs and shrimp), clam siphons, teleosts, fish eggs, and small elasmobranchs. They may disturb the mud and use suction to capture prey.  Their diet shifts with the season and the size of the shark (Russo 1975, Talent 1976, Ebert 2003).  Pups caught in the surf zone along sandy ocean beaches in southern California reportedly feed heavily on sand crabs and presumably other sandy-bottom invertebrates. Predators on leopard sharks include the sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus), and the great white shark (Carcharadon carcharias); man is probably the most important predator. <br/><br/>Strong swimming and nomadic, they are known to suddenly appear in an area, and then move on ? possibly in relation to feeding or reproductive behaviour. They often occur in schools, sometimes with smoothhounds, spiny dogfishes, sevengills, and bat rays. Schools are often segregated by sex and size, and newborn leopard sharks have been observed to form loose schools (Feder et al. 1974; Ebert 2003). They are seasonally abundant in bays and estuaries (such as Elkhorn Slough, Humboldt Bay, Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, and San Francisco Bay) during the spring and summer, and during the winter they often move out of the bays to coastal waters, likely as a result of decreased salinity and temperature due to winter storms and rain. In San Francisco Bay, California, the population is mainly resident but about 10% move out of the bay in fall and winter (Smith and Abramson 1990, Hopkins 1993, Ebert 2003). Their movements in several bays are strongly correlated to tides. During incoming tides they move into shallow mudflats to forage and retreat to deeper water as the tide goes out (Ackerman et al. 2000, Ebert, 2003). They appear to exhibit limited long distance movement. There have been several instances of sharks travelling between Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay, and one shark tagged in San Francisco Bay was recaptured in Santa Monica Bay in southern California 10 years later, but in general movements appear to be limited (Smith 2001).<br/><br/>Along beaches in southern California it is not uncommon to observe large groups of leopard sharks in or just beyond the surf zone. Generally timid and wary around divers, this species is not considered dangerous, though there is a recorded minor attack on a skin diver in 1955 in California (Feder et al. 1974). Groups confined in aquaria have been observed to form a loose social hierarchy, where larger individuals assert dominance over smaller ones by gentle pectoral fin nipping (Smith pers. obs. 1979).	eng
39363	population	Carlisle, A. & Smith, S.E., 2004	This is one of the most common nearshore sharks along the west coast of North America. It is thought that the population consists of regional stocks with limited exchange (Smith and Abramson 1990). Centers of abundance in U.S. Pacific coast estuaries appear to be Elkhorn Slough, and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, and San Pedro bays in California. In Oregon waters, Emmett <em>et al.</em> (1991), in their survey of Pacific coast estuaries recorded this species only from Coos Bay, where it is listed as ?rare?. According to port samplers (ODFW, Seabourne pers. comm.), it seldom enters the Oregon commercial and recreational catch. In Mexican waters, the Pacific coast and Gulf of California stocks may be disjunct populations, since there are few taken in the southern Gulf of California (Carlos Villavicencio pers. comm.).	eng
39363	threats	Carlisle, A. & Smith, S.E., 2004	In California, where nearly all of the US catches occur, the leopard shark is taken primarily by recreational anglers. It is considered a desirable food fish. Over the past two decades, leopard sharks have been harvested by angling with baited hooks from piers, jetties, beaches, banks and skiffs; spearfishing by divers; commercial gillnetting along the coast; and commercial longlining. Some fish are taken incidentally in ocean bottom trawl nets. The species has also been captured for the cold-water aquarium trade and is highly prized for its distinctive markings and hardiness (commercial collectors C. Winkler and F. Nielson pers. comms). There have also been reports of illegal poaching of juvenile leopard sharks for the aquarium trade, for example from San Francisco Bay (Anon 2006). <br/><br/>The commercial and recreational catch of leopard sharks in the extreme northerly part of its range in Oregon is thought to be negligible (Emmett <em>et al.</em> 1991, Seabourne, Oregon Dept. Fish and Wildlife pers. comm. 1999). <br/><br/>A problem exists in accurately judging the extent of the commercial harvest because an unknown portion of the commercial catch may be landed under the general category ?shark, unspecified? and different species are often marketed under the generic name ?shark.? California commercial landings specifically reported under the ?leopard shark? category are relatively minor, and have ranged from 9270 pounds (4.2t) in 1958 to a high of 101 417 (46t) pounds in 1983. Curtailment of inshore gillnetting in the San Francisco/Monterey Bay area probably contributed to a decline in California landings after 1986 (Smith 1992). <br/><br/>The recreational leopard shark catch is much more extensive than the commercial catch reported specifically for this species. Estimated sport landings in California between 1980 and 1995, for years when data were collected, averaged over 304 000 pounds (138t) per year (US Dep. Commerce, Pacific Coast Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey, W. Buskirk pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Habitat loss could potentially be a problem, as bays and estuaries, which are often used as nursery grounds, are being greatly altered and destroyed through development, agriculture, aquaculture, pollution, etc, throughout the range of the leopard shark. However, the dependence of leopard sharks on these habitats has not been evaluated.<br/><br/>The size of the California leopard shark population has not been estimated, but considerable work has been done on its biology and population dynamics. In 1990, tagging and other life history data were used to estimate fishing mortality, yield, and stock replenishment rates to determine the degree of vulnerability to fishing pressure (Smith and Abramson 1990). Researchers indicated that, given the amount of fishing pressure exerted in the 1980s and that leopard sharks are more susceptible to overexploitation than previously thought, some measure of protection was necessary to assure replenishment of the population (Au and Smith 1997).<br/><br/>Because of its rather limited geographical range and evidence of only limited exchange among regional stocks within this range (Smith and Abramson 1990), resident stocks near large population centres may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localized fishing pressure. <br/><br/>Even though the commercial catch may be under-estimated because of reporting problems, this species does not appear to be at risk judging by the combined landings in relation to previously calculated estimates of fishing mortality (mean F=0.084) and exploitation rates (mean E=0.075) (Smith and Abramson 1990). Additionally, current management measures appear to have reduced these rates (see below).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology and full extent of harvest of this species in Mexican waters, but it is estimated that less than one percent of the Pacific Ocean catch off Baja California under the category of ?small sharks? is comprised of this species (Villavicencio pers. comm.) and most of the shark catch in the central Gulf of California fishery is comprised of other, larger species (e.g., Alopias, Carcharhinus and Sphyrna spp., (Villavicencio <em>et al. </em>1996).	eng
39365	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2005	Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) found this species to have moderate rebound potential, so it should respond positively to effective management measures. Because Grey Reef Sharks are found in clear tropical waters over coral reefs, they are ideal for non-consumptive (but much more lucrative) use in the form of tourism diving, as has been shown by Anderson and Ahmed (1993). For this reason, shark populations at some of the most important reef diving sites in the Maldives are now protected.	eng
39365	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2005	The Grey Reef Shark is a widespread species occurring in the central Pacific and westwards to the eastern Indian Ocean. Garrick (1982) notes his most eastern records of this species from Tuamoto Archipelago in the south and the Hawaiian Islands in the north, west through the Pacific, northern coast of Australia, Indonesia, Sumatra and west to Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles and Reunion (see Compagno 1984 and Last and Stevens 1994 for maps).	eng
39365	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2005	The species is found in clear tropical waters often from 10 m to more than 50 m around coral reefs, particularly near drop-offs and passes of fringing reefs. It is more common at ancient atolls, and less common at high profile islands with extensive human habitation, or in turbid continental waters (Randall 1986, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). At unexploited sites Grey Reef Sharks are one of the most common tropical reef sharks that may be found in groups or individually. Potentially dangerous when harassed, they have been shown to display stereotypical threats (Johnson and Nelson 1973, Nelson 1981, Randall 1986). Divers are advised to keep their distance and not take strobe photographs when sharks display erratic swimming.<br/><br/>Males mature at 120?140 cm total length (TL) and attain a size of 185 cm; females mature at about 125 cm TL and attain 190 cm (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997) at about seven years. Litters are small, up to six embryos (Compagno 1984b, Last and Stevens 1994, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Seasonality is uncertain because of limited data. Parturition may be in August with a nine month gestation possible in the southern hemisphere (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Mating and fertilisation take place in March?May (or July). Pupping appears to occur from March to July off Hawaii, suggesting a 12 month gestation, but females reproduce every other year (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Fishes form the bulk of the prey while squids, octopuses and crustaceans are less important food items (Salini <em>et al.</em> 1992, Wetherbee <em>et al. </em>1997).	eng
39365	population	Smale, M.J., 2005	This shark has been recorded as locally highly abundant at some sites. Some local populations have been severely depleted.	eng
39365	threats	Smale, M.J., 2005	This shark shows high site fidelity and some local populations have been severely depleted by modest fishing pressure, as has been shown off Hawaii (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1997). Very marked declines of sharks, including Grey Reef Sharks, have been reported in the Chagos Archipelago (Indian Ocean) between the 1970s and 1996. Shark numbers here were reduced to only 14% of the numbers found in the 1970s (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998). The quality of its coral reef habitat is threatened in many parts of the world.	eng
39366	conservation	Cliff, G., 2005	Given the low incidence of this species in commercial catches, there are no known conservation and management initiatives.	eng
39366	distribution	Cliff, G., 2005	The Pigeye Shark is sporadically distributed in tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-West Pacific Ocean, including the east coast of southern Africa, Madagascar, Gulf of Aden, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and northern Australia (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1973, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (1984) indicates several localities in the Indo-West Pacific where its suspected occurrence awaits confirmation. It also occurs in Nigeria (Compagno 1984). This species inhabits coastal waters, usually close to the bottom. It also occasionally enters brackish water (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39366	habitat	Cliff, G., 2005	The following information, unless otherwise acknowledged, is based on studies by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) in northern Australia and Cliff and Dudley (1991) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/>Males mature at about 210 cm and females at 215?220 cm. The largest Australian individuals were a 231 cm male and a 242 cm female; in South Africa they were a 238 cm male and a 245 cm female. Fourmanoir (1961) recorded a 280 cm female from west Madagascar. Size at birth is 60?75 cm. In Australia the largest embryo was 59 cm and the smallest free-swimming individual was 66 cm. In South Africa the smallest free-swimming individual was 75 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973) and the largest embryo 79 cm. These findings imply that there may be a regional difference in size at birth. Litter sizes range from 3?13, averaging five in South Africa and nine in Australia. In South Africa gestation appears to be about 12 months, with mating in January?February and term embryos found in December?January. Five out of eight South African mature females were pregnant. Data from Australia indicated a nine-month gestation, with birth in November?December. In both studies males and females were sampled in equal numbers.<br/><br/>In South Africa, the Pigeye Shark feeds on teleosts (62% frequency of occurrence), elasmobranchs (45%), crustaceans (13%) and cephalopods (12%). Most of the prey were demersal, associated with soft bottoms; Australian sharks had similar diets. Tag returns from juveniles in Australia indicated that their movements are relatively localised (up to 60 km), while two larger sharks moved 240 and 1,080 km (Last and Stevens 1994). On the east coast of South Africa, two tagged sharks were recaptured after 76 and 320 days, 23 and 84 km from their respective tagging localities. Based on catches in the nets that protect the swimming beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, this species is often solitary and does not appear to swim in large packs. No information is available on age and growth.	eng
39366	threats	Cliff, G., 2005	This species is caught in small numbers for its meat and fins in the Northern Shark Fishery which comprises longlining and pelagic and demersal gillnetting off northern Australia (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1994). The Northern Pelagic Fish Stock Programme sampled in this fishing area with similar gear between January 1984?May 1985 and found that <em>C. amboinensis</em> comprised 0.5% of the pelagic gillnet and 3.5% of the longline catch of sharks (Bentley 1996).<br/><br/>Pigeye Shark constituted 0.5% (16 specimens) of the annual shark catch in the nets protecting swimming beaches in KwaZulu-Natal. The catch rate fluctuated at about 0.4 sharks per km of net per year between 1978?1990; data from the early years of this fishery (1952?1977) are not available. Richards Bay, the northernmost netted beach, where nets were introduced in 1981, had the highest catch of this species (annual average six, range 0?25). At this locality there was a significant decline in catch rates (Cliff and Dudley 1991), suggesting highly localised depletion. Immature sharks dominated the catches in all the above fisheries, and mature sharks may occur to the north of the netted region in this area.	eng
39367	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
39367	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The Borneo Shark is an Indo-West Pacific species, recorded from Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia and Sarawak, Malaysia) and possibly also China (Chusan Island). Nominal and possible records also exist from Java (Indonesia) and the Philippines but these cannot yet be confirmed (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, 1988, in prep. b).	eng
39367	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This is a small, rare inshore coastal shark, known only from five undoubted specimens (four of which were collected from Borneo) and very few valid localities. Virtually all details of its biology and life history parameters are unknown. The maximum size is estimated to be around 70 cm.	eng
39367	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This is a rare shark that has not been recorded since 1937. Only five confirmed specimens are known.	eng
39367	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rare shark is (or was) found in areas that have been and are being heavily exploited by artisanal and commercial fisheries. These are likely to have detrimentally affected the population of this species, which has not been recorded since 1937.	eng
39368	conservation	Burgess, G.H., 2005	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
39368	distribution	Burgess, G.H., 2005	The Spinner Shark is cosmopolitan in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical continental and insular shelf waters. It is known from off Cape Cod, Massachusetts (USA), to southern Brazil in the western Atlantic. It is found from the Mediterranean Sea southward to central Africa in the eastern Atlantic; the species is widespread in the Indian Ocean from South Africa to western Australia, including the Red Sea and Gulf of Oman; and in the western Pacific Ocean it is recorded from throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, the China Sea and the north and east coasts of Australia (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39368	habitat	Burgess, G.H., 2005	The Spinner Shark is common in nearshore waters off beaches, in bays and off river mouths and also occurs pelagically offshore. It is common year round in southern areas of the United States and occasionally migrates north in the summer into the Middle Atlantic Bight. <br/><br/>This shark has an unusual habit of leaping from the water, rotating as many as three times and falling back in the water, usually on its back. Spinner Sharks are often found in schools that may include large numbers of individuals (Compagno in prep. b). The species has an 11?15 month gestation period and is placentally viviparous, producing 3?20 pups (usually 7?11). The reproductive cycle is two years (Castro 1993). In the western North Atlantic, ovulation occurs in late June and mating occurs in late June through early July; pups are born in late May?July at 60?75 cm total length (TL). In South Africa newborns of 60?80 cm TL have been reported, with parturition in April?May. Pregnant females have been caught in February?March in southeastern Australia, with parturition occurring in March?April; pup lengths of 66?77 cm TL are reported. Young are also born in the summer off the north-west coast of Africa and in the eastern Mediterranean and Red seas. The Spinner Shark uses nearshore beaches and bays, and higher saline portions of estuaries throughout the south-east United States as nursery grounds, but parturition probably takes place in waters deeper than 5 m. <br/><br/>Compared to many shark species, the Spinner Shark grows at a relatively fast rate, although only one growth study exists for this species, that addressing a north-west Atlantic population. Since other populations differ greatly in many life history characteristics and maximum sizes, the values reported here may not be applicable to those regions. For the northwest Atlantic, neonates born at 60?75 cm TL increase by as much as 30 cm in length by the onset of winter (<em>circa</em> six months). One-year olds continue to grow at about 25 cm/year, with the growth rate slowly declining to about 10 cm/year through adolescence. Males mature at ~130 cm TL, or at 4?5 years of age, females at 150?155 cm TL or 7?8 years of age. Maximum recorded age is 11 years (a 208 cm TL female) but the species attains a much larger size (225? 250 cm TL). Age at the largest known sizes (assuming a continued 5 cm annual growth) would be 15?20 years, although as the sharks get older, incremental growth should decline, thus age at maximum size may be substantially greater (Branstetter 1987a). <br/><br/>The species is primarily a fish-eater, with diet including 10-pounders (<em>Elops</em>), sardines and herring, anchovies, sea catfish, lizardfish, mullets, bluefish, tunas, bonito, croakers, jacks, mojarras, grunts, tongue-soles, stingrays, cuttlefish, squid and octopuses. It frequently uses an unusual method of feeding on schools of small, bony fishes that gives this shark its common name; it swims rapidly upwards through the schools with open mouth, spinning along its long axis and snapping in all directions, and then shoots out of the water after its feeding run. Off Madagascar this species is associated with and probably feeds on migrating schools of scombrids and jacks. As with <em>C. limbatus</em>, this shark will congregate to eat trash fish dumped off shrimp trawlers and no doubt participates in feeding frenzies like its smaller relative (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39368	threats	Burgess, G.H., 2005	In the northwest Atlantic this species is part of the recreational fishery and is one of a suite of carcharhinids targeted by the directed commercial fishery operating along the southeast coast from North Carolina to Florida and throughout the Gulf of Mexico. It is a common component of the commercial catch in the north-central Gulf of Mexico, but is less often caught in the fisheries along the eastern seaboard of the United States. As with most carcharhinid species, the Spinner Shark meat is sold under the name ?Blacktip Shark? because of wide consumer preference for the product. It is a constituent of the substantial Mexican Gulf of Mexico shark catch. Probably it is represented in the shark catches in most areas within its range, but owing to confusion with the Blacktip Shark, it is likely that the species is not recorded in landings data. Fins are dried and shipped to the Far East where they are used in shark fin soup. In some areas the hides are likely to be utilized in preparing leather and the livers are used to extract oil.	eng
39369	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., White, W. & Fowler, S., 2003	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
39369	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., White, W. & Fowler, S., 2003	This Indo-West Pacific species has only been recorded from a small number of widely-separated sites (most of them in India) and is represented by fewer than twenty specimens in museum collections, most of which were captured before 1900. The last record was in 1979 in India; it has not been seen since anywhere, despite detailed surveys in Borneo, Philippines and Indonesia.	eng
39369	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., White, W. & Fowler, S., 2003	Occurs inshore on continental and insular shelves. No information available on the biology or life history parameters of this rarely recorded and poorly known inshore shark.	eng
39369	population	Compagno, L.J.V., White, W. & Fowler, S., 2003	Considered to be extremely rare globally (possibly even extinct).	eng
39369	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., White, W. & Fowler, S., 2003	This apparently rare shark occurs (or occurred) in inshore localities and habitats subject to large, expanding, and unregulated artisanal and commercial fisheries. If still extant, it is probably caught and utilized as bycatch of other fisheries, although market surveys have failed to locate it. Its populations are thought to have been severely depleted as a result of this exploitation.	eng
39370	conservation	Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W., 2007	Silky Shark is a member of the family <em>Carcharhinidae</em>, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g. ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone.	eng
39370	distribution	Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W., 2007	Silky Shark has a circumglobal distribution in tropical waters (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from Massachusetts, USA, to southern Brazil, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Also from St. Paul's Rocks in the Central Atlantic (Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno in prep). Eastern Atlantic: ranges from Madeira, the Atlantic coast of Spain, and from Senegal to northern Angola (Compagno in prep). Indian Ocean: occurs off Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Comoros and Aldabra Island, also from Somalia to the Maldives, Oman, Red Sea, and Sri Lanka (Compagno in prep.). Western Pacific: occurs off Thailand, Philippines, New Caledonia, New Zealand, China and Taiwan (Province of China). Also Caroline Islands, Phoenix and Line Islands westwards (Compagno in prep). Eastern Pacific: ranges from Southern Baja California to Peru. Also Hawaiian Islands, Cocos Island, Revillagigedo Islands, Clipperton and Malpelos Islands (Compagno in prep.).	eng
39370	habitat	Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W., 2007	The Silky Shark is essentially pelagic and is most often found near the edge of continental and insular shelves at depths of 200 m or more in the epipelagic zone although it occurs to at least 500 m depth offshore (Compagno in prep). It is often associated with islands, near insular slopes and over deepwater reefs. It has also been recorded inshore to as shallow as 18 m depth (Compagno in prep). It is an active swift species, preferring warmer waters (about 23°C). Smaller sharks are often found in coastal nurseries and adults further offshore over deeper water. However, in the central Indian Ocean juveniles are oceanic, associated with drifting objects (C. Anderson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Silky Shark is a live bearer, usually having around 6?12 pups every one or two years (2?15 per litter, Last and Stevens 1994). The gestation period is 12 months (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). Life history parameters of silky sharks seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins. In the Gulf of Mexico, Silky Sharks grow at a moderate rate and first attain maturity at about 215?225 cm TL for males and 232?246 cm TL for females, or around 6?10 years and 7?12+ years respectively (Branstetter 1987, Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). They can live to at least 22+ years (Bonfil 1990) and attain a length of up to 330 cm TL. In this part of the world, the young are born at about 76 cm TL during the summer, whereas in other oceans the species seems to have no seasonality in reproduction (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 1993). This species has a moderate to low intrinsic rate of increase; estimated at 0.043 by Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) (moderate range: 0.04?0.07). Hoyos (2003) provides information on the life-history parameters of silky sharks from Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific and Ruíz and Ixquiac (2000), Morales (2002) and Villatoro and Rivera (1994) from Guatemala and El Salvador. Both males and females reportedly mature at 180?182 cm TL off Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific, with females reaching a maximum size of 316 TL and producing 2?9 pups per litter (Hoyos 2003). Oshitani <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported on the age and growth of silky sharks in the Pacific Ocean (using samples collected from Japanese tuna longline and purse seine fisheries). They found that males mature at >186 cm TL and at 5?6 years of age, and females at 193?200 cm TL and 6?7 years of age. Size at birth ranged from 65?81 cm TL. In contrast to earlier studies in the Pacific Ocean, Oshitani <em>et al</em>. (2003) noted that their results were similar to those of studies in the Atlantic Ocean. In the Maldives, Indian Ocean, males are estimated to mature at about 205 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 242 cm TL; females reaching a maximum size of 263 cm TL (Anderson unpublished data). Size at birth is reported at 56?72 cm TL in this area (Anderson unpublished data).<br/><br/>Recently, intensive demographic modelling of shark populations revealed that the silky shark from southern and northern Gulf of Mexico has moderate levels of intrinsic rate of increase (ca. 0.10 and 0.055) (Cortés 2002).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks generally leave their coastal nursery grounds and move offshore to a more oceanic existence as sub-adults, frequently joining tuna schools on which they seem to feed (Branstetter 1987). The Silky Shark is a piscivorous shark feeding on sea catfish, mullets, mackerel, yellowfin tuna, albacore, porcupine fish and other fish species, as well as on a variety of cephalopods (Compagno 1984, Bonfil 1990).	eng
39370	population	Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W., 2007	This oceanic and coastal-pelagic shark is circumglobal in tropical waters, where it dominates as a target species or bycatch in certain pelagic fisheries, particularly purse seines on drifting FADs (fish aggregating devices). Population dynamics and structure are poorly known, although life history parameters seem to vary geographically, perhaps reflecting the existence of distinct stocks for different ocean basins.	eng
39370	threats	Bonfil, R., Amorim, A., Anderson, C., Arauz, R., Baum, J., Clarke, S.C., Graham, R.T., Gonzalez, M., Jolón, M., Kyne, P.M., Mancini, P., Márquez, F., Ruíz, C. & Smith, W., 2007	The Silky Shark is probably fished either directly or as a bycatch throughout its range. It is taken in coastal longline fisheries, oceanic purse seine fisheries on drifting FADs (fish aggregating devices) (particularly the latter) targeting tuna, swordfish and other billfish around the world, as well as by coastal artisanal fisheries. Whether they are an incidental catch or not, Silky Sharks are often retained for their meat and fins. Catch statistics for this species are under-reported. Total catch reported to FAO has decreased steadily since 2000; 11,680 t were reported in 2000, 9,330 in 2001, 8,384 in 2002, 5,305 in 2003, to 4,358 in 2004 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific, with effort expanding from the traditional grounds in the southeast Pacific into the central south Pacific and areas of the North Pacific in recent years (Mejuto 2005).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks were found to represent at least 3?4% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center?the 3rd highest after Blue Sharks (<em>Prionace glauca</em>) and Scalloped Hammerhead Sharks (<em>Sphyrna lewini</em>) (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2006a)?and Hong Kong is thought to make up more than 50% of the global shark fin trade (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006b). Silky Shark fins are valuable to the trade, although they are not one of the highest value fin types (S. Clarke, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Rough estimates of numbers of Silky Sharks taken as bycatch in tuna longline fisheries of the south and central Pacific Ocean (Bonfil 1994) indicate that perhaps up to 900,000 individuals were taken there during 1989. However, there is large uncertainty surrounding these calculations and there are no estimates of numbers discarded alive and numbers actually killed. Large numbers of Silky Shark are caught in Mexico, Yemen and Sri Lanka. Bonfil <em>et al</em> (1993) conclude that local stocks of this species cannot support sustained heavy fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>Silky Sharks are taken in pelagic commercial fisheries in the eastern central and southeast Pacific, as well as in artisanal fisheries. Fishing pressure from longline and purse seine fisheries targeting tunas and swordfish is high, and it is the main shark species caught using fish aggregating devices (FADs). The IATTC observer database from 1993-2005 shows that silky sharks were caught throughout the ocean west of central America, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru out to about 170°W on purse seines set on FADs. Accurate identification is an issue because of the similarity to other Carcharhinids and it is often grouped with other Carcharhinid species. Silky Sharks are the most commonly caught species of shark in the purse seine fishery for tunas in the eastern Pacific Ocean (IATTC 2007). Preliminary estimates of relative abundance trends for large Silky Sharks derived from purse-seine fisheries in the eastern Pacific Ocean show steadily decreasing trends over the period 1993?2004 for each of three types of purse-seine sets, from a catch per set of 10.4 in 1994 to 3.6 in 2005 (decline of ~65%) (IATTC 2007). According to IATTC it is not known whether these decreasing trends are due to fishing, changes in the environment (e.g., the 1997?98 El Niño event), or other processes. These results were also consistent, however, with a preliminary descriptive study of Silky Shark bycatch rates in dolphin sets. Whilst it is thought that Silky Sharks are attracted to floating objects, Silky Sharks caught in dolphin sets may have been caught simply by chance. Because the distribution of Silky Shark bycatch per set in dolphin sets is extremely right-skewed, the descriptive analysis focused on bycatches above and below the following three thresholds: presence or absence of any sharks, presence or absence of more than five sharks per set, and presence or absence of more than 20 sharks per set. This analysis showed a decrease in the probability of obtaining sets with bycatches greater than or equal to each of the three threshold levels from 1994?2005 (IATTC 2007).<br/><br/>Strasburg (1958 in Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999) noted that Silky Sharks comprised 52% of all sharks caught south of 10°N latitude in the equatorial Pacific, in a sample of 4,157 sharks. Silky Sharks are important in many fisheries along the Pacific coast of Central America. Observations made on a longline research vessel that sampled waters in the EEZs of Panama, El Salvador, and Guatemala found that silky sharks constituted 30.94%, 47.21% and 29.11% of the total catch respectively, and 79.80%, 63.3% and 44.29% of the shark catch respectively (Porras 1996). Off Chiapas, southern Mexico, Silky Sharks along with Scalloped Hammerheads form the large bulk of the shark catch (Soriano-Velásquez and Acal Sánchez 2008). In Tres Marías Islands, Mexico, Silky Sharks are one of the most important species, constituting 27% of landed sharks in 1996 (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>, 2005). In San José and Buena Vista, Guatemala, Silky Sharks constituted 73% of recorded catches landed, in a sample of 4,211 sharks, from 1996 to 1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). In Acajutla, El Salvador, from 1991?1992, Silky Shark landings ranged from 60.3% to 32.6% of the total catch, in a sample of 412 sharks (Villatoro-Vaquiz and Rivera-González 1994).<br/><br/>International longline vessels operating in the eastern central Pacific landed and exported over 8,000 tons of shark carcasses and 900 tons of shark fins from Costa Rica in 2002 (Costa Rica official INCOPESCA Fishery Statistics 2003), the large majority of which are recorded as Silky Sharks. However, these figures are likely underestimates, because landings also occur at private docks where enforcement and monitoring is very difficult. Furthermore, international vessels are known to trans ship shark products on the high seas, going unreported. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991?2000 showed a decrease of 60%, with Silky Sharks comprising 60?70% of recorded shark catch (Arauz <em>et al</em>. 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, 71% of which were Silky Sharks. In 2003, the proportion of sharks in the total catch decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% of which were silky sharks (Arauz <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In Manta (the largest fishing port in Ecuador), Southeast Pacific, artisanal fisheries data from September 2003 to the end of 2006 showed the total landings of sharks was 150,321 individuals, of which <em>C. falciformis</em> represented 15% of the total (over 22,000 individuals) (J. Martínez pers. comm. Feb. 2007). The females ranged in length from 61-309cm total length, and the males ranged in length from 63 -288cm total length. In the tuna purse seine fishery, Silky Shark is caught as a bycatch, and is the main shark species caught using FADs) (J. Martínez pers. comm. Feb. 2007.<br/><br/>Recent information from the tropical Central Pacific suggest community biomass reductions to only 11% of historic levels, from the 1950s to the 1990s, with a current community of smaller fish and fewer large predators (Ward and Myers 2005). This study estimated that the Silky Shark population had declined in abundance by about 90% and in biomass by more than 90% (Ward and Myers 2005). These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific</strong><br/>This species is a very common component of shark and tuna longline and tuna gillnet fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. They are usually retained and marketed. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954?1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006) and Mejuto <em>et al</em>. (2006) report that fishing effort has increased since 1993. Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the world?s largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Pelagic fishing effort is high and continuing. Silky Sharks were the most commonly caught shark at FADS in the Indian Ocean during a small pilot study of observers onboard French vessels - 61.5% of silkies were discarded dead at sea, 30.5% partially alive kept onboard, ~7% discarded alive (Viare and Pianet 2006).<br/><br/>In the Maldives, it is estimated that some 85% of oceanic shark catch is <em>C. falciformis</em> (C. Anderson unpublished data). Although no specific data are available, Maldivian shark fishermen who specialize in longlining for oceanic sharks report declining catch rates of Silky Sharks (C. Anderson unpublished data). A fishery for Silky Sharks has operated off Sri Lanka for many years and Sri Lanka are one of the only countries to report species-specific Silky Shark catch to FAO (although Bonfil noted that only 75% of the reported catch may be attributed to silky sharks). Landings reported to FAO progressively rose from 5,000 t in 1960 to a peak of 25,400 t in 1994, after which they began to decline to 20,875 t in 1998, 8,240 t in 2001, 6,830 t in 2002, and continued to decrease to just 1,960 t in 2006, suggesting that the fishery collapsed.<br/><br/>The tropical waters of the western and central Pacific Ocean currently support the largest industrial tuna fishery in the world with an annual catch approaching one million metric tonnes. The two main gear types, longline and purse seine, accounted for over 90% of the target tuna catch in this area in 1999 (Williams 1999). The most prevalent species found in longline sets are Blue Shark, Silky Shark, Pelagic Stingray and the Oceanic Whitetip. The most prevalent species found in purse seine sets are Silky Shark and the Oceanic Whitetip (Williams 1999).<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that silky shark catch per unit effort showed no remarkable change in the 1990s when compared to levels in the 1970s. In recent years, based on longline logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of Silky Sharks worldwide ranged from 0?11 mt with an average of 2.2 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/>Whilst the Japanese longline surveys described above showed no change in CPUE of Silky Sharks between the 1970s and 1990s, pelagic effort began 20 years earlier in the 1950s and has reportedly increased in recent years. Given the significant declines observed in other areas including the central tropical Pacific, the large decline in reported landings off Sri Lanka after 1994, reports of declines in catch rates off the Maldives and high fishing pressure across this region, with reports of increasing effort, continued fishing pressure is thought to be unsustainable. <br/><br/>There are data on Silky Shark catches from the Australian east coast Tuna and Billfish Fishery, however, these have not been analyzed to date, and need to be looked at in the future (J.D. Stevens pers. comm. Feb. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fishing pressure is high and ongoing. In the US, Silky Sharks are caught by the commercial shark bottom longline and the pelagic longline fishery, and in recreational shark fisheries. The northwest and western central Atlantic assessment is based on several estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices. The first analysis is for the Gulf of Mexico, and is based on data from U.S. pelagic longline research surveys in the mid-1950s and U.S. pelagic longline observer data in the late-1990s. This analysis suggests that silky sharks in the Gulf of Mexico declined by 91% (95%CI: 85-95%) over this forty year period (Baum and Myers 2004), which is similar to the length of three generations (~45 years).<br/><br/>The second analysis, which encompasses both the northwest and western central Atlantic regions, is of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). This analysis is not species-specific (because of problems with identification among Carcharhinid sharks), but instead estimated a decline of 61% (95%CI: 55?66%) over this time period for six species in the genus <em>Carcharhinus</em> combined. Species-specific analysis on the same US logbook data set for 1992?2000 by Brown and Cramer (2002) reveals a non-significant trend, although accurate identification of Silky Sharks in the data set is an issue, as stated above. Another species-specific analysis of the same logbook data for the same time period by Cortés <em>et al</em>. (2007) estimated a decrease of 50% in Silky Shark since 1992. Cortés <em>et al</em>. (2007) also report the results of this logbook analysis restricted to the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas only, for the 1992?2000 period, which showed a decline of 48%. This analysis had little temporal overlap with Baum and Myers (2004) analysis of data from the longline research surveys and observer data in the same area (described above), which covered almost the entire three generation period for this species (1950s-1990s).<br/><br/>The most recent analysis of observer data from the US Atlantic pelagic longline fishery from 1992?2005 (which combined catches of Dusky Sharks, Silky Sharks, and Night Sharks because of identification problems) suggests that this species complex has continued to decline significantly, by 70% (95%CI: 54?81%) during this recent time period (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep). When the two estimates obtained by (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep) for <em>Carcharhinus</em> species are combined (i.e., 1986?2005), the estimated decline amounts to 85%. However, it should be noted, again, that this is not a species-specific estimate for silky shark, but it is difficult to obtain species-specific estimates for silky sharks because of difficulties distinguishing it with other carcharhinid sharks. Cortés <em>et al</em>.?s (2007) species-specific analysis of the observer dataset for the same time period, showed a similar decline since 1992 to that they estimated in the logbook data (46% vs 50%), but larger inter-annual variation (r=?0.047, 95% CI: ?0.290 to 0.197). The nominal observer series showed a 40% decline from beginning to end.<br/><br/>Silky Shark is one of the five most important shark species caught in the Cuban longline fishery (Espinosa 2004). In Belize, Silky Sharks were frequently caught off the barrier reef and atolls by commercial pelagic longline fisheries during the 1980s and 1990s. Although no landings data are available, anecdotal observations by former shark fishers noted a decline in catches and mean size for all shark species caught and pelagic fishing pressure has declined as a result (R. Carcamo and D. Neal pers. comm.). Landings data recorded at artisanal shark fishing ports in Mexico and Central America also indicate that Silky Sharks constitute one of the main components of the catch. In 1987, the Silky Shark (and Scalloped Hammerhead Shark), represented >80% of the shark by-catch of the winter swordfish/tuna longline fishery of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (Branstetter 1987).<br/><br/>Silky Sharks are thought to be overexploited as juveniles in the fishery of Yucatan (Bonfil 1990), but due to the lack of estimates of total catches of this species and the size of the population, the status of the stock as a whole is unknown.<br/><br/>In Venezuela, sharks are targeted by both artisanal and industrial longline fisheries, and Tavares (2005) comments on a history of over-exploitation. In artisanal longline fisheries targeting sharks around Venezuelan offshore islands, the Silky Shark is one of the most important species (Tavares 2005). Shark fishing is increasing at these Venezuelan oceanic islands and a monitoring programme has been instigated (Tavares 2005). However, given the life-history of the species, it is unlikely that Silky Sharks will be able to sustain continued, let alone increasing, directed fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is taken in several longline fisheries in the Southwest Atlantic, including those off Santos, southern Brazil (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998), Natal, northeastern Brazil (Hazin <em>et al</em>. 1990) and Uruguay (Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is primarily oceanic and epipelagic, although it is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries off southern Paraná State (Costa and Chaves 2006). Lessa <em>et al</em>. (2000) also noted that Silky Shark was the main species to be targeted by fisheries in northeastern Brazil. They are generally retained and marketed (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Marín <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>Rincon <em>et al</em>. (2000) analysed fins unloaded in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, from April to July, 1998. This species represented 50% of total fins sampled; however the number of shark fins did not correspond to the number of carcasses. In 1997, 233 tons of dry fin corresponded to 15,533 tons of carcasses, while only 2,603 tons of unloaded carcasses were registered. This may indicate extensive finning practices being carried out at sea.	eng
39371	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None in place.	eng
39371	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The Smoothtooth Blacktip Shark occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, where it has only been recorded from Qishn, southern Saudi Arabia, in the Gulf of Aden.	eng
39371	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The holotype  was a 75 cm long immature male, probably collected from inshore waters. The species has not been recorded elsewhere since being described and details of biology and life history are completely unknown.	eng
39371	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This shark is known only from the holotype. It is presumed that the population size is small.	eng
39371	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Presumably the species is taken as bycatch in local fisheries.	eng
39372	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C. & Burgess, G.H., 2005	No specific management or conservation programmes are known for this species. It is managed in the U.S. east coast shark fisheries as part of the ?large coastal? groups of species. The current quota for this group is 1,285 t/year (1997), but Bull Sharks make up only small percentage of this group (see above). Recent closures of coastal waters in several states in the southern US to gillnetting have removed pressure on the juveniles in estuarine and coastal nursery areas.	eng
39372	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C. & Burgess, G.H., 2005	The Bull Shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate areas, with seasonal appearances in cool, temperate waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). This has resulted in multiple descriptions and numerous common names for the species (including Zambezi Shark, Swan River Shark and Lake Nicaragua Shark) from throughout its range (see Compagno (1984) for a full list of synonyms).<br/><br/>Primarily the Bull Shark is an inhabitant of continental shelf waters to a depth of about 150 m (but mostly less than 30 m), but it commonly moves into estuarine and fresh waters. It has been documented as travelling large distances up rivers (Thorson 1972), including the Amazon, Gambia, Ganges, Mississippi, San Juan (and Lake Nicaragua), Tigris and Zambezi. It also has been observed to tolerate hypersaline conditions up to 53 parts per thousand (ppt) (sea water is approximately 35 ppt). Although mostly a continental species, there are insular records from the Philippines and the South Pacific islands of New Caledonia, Fiji and Rangiroa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
39372	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C. & Burgess, G.H., 2005	The Bull Shark is one of the few shark species that can tolerate long periods of time in freshwater, often penetrating long distances up freshwater rivers that connect to the ocean. For example, Thorson (1971) reported the movement of Bull Sharks from the ocean through the Rio San Juan system and into Lake Nicaragua, a large freshwater lake. <em>C. leucas</em> move into estuarine or fresh waters to give birth to their young (Springer 1963), while neonates and young juveniles appear to use these habitats as nursery areas (Snelson <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Bull Sharks grow up to about 340 cm in total length. The young are born at between 56?81 cm. Males mature at 157?226 cm and females at 180?230 cm (Compagno 1984b).<br/><br/>The diet of this species is relatively diverse, including turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms, teleost fishes and elasmobranchs (Last and Stevens 1994). However, the most diverse diet is restricted to larger individuals that are capable of consuming larger prey. The most commonly eaten prey items are teleost fishes and elasmobranchs. In the coastal lagoons of Florida, Snelson and Williams (1981) recorded a wide array of species in the diet including jacks, snook, tarpon, mullets, catfish, croaker, stingrays and sandbar sharks, but noted that saltwater catfish and stingrays (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) were most commonly eaten.<br/><br/>Reproduction is by placental viviparity. Litter sizes range from 1?13 (Compagno 1984b), with most between 6?8 (Pattillo <em>et al.</em> 1997). The gestation period is 10?11 months, with birth normally occurring in late spring and summer (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Branstetter 1981). In warmer areas (e.g., Nicaragua) breeding (and hence parturition) may occur year?round (Castro 1983). The length of the reproductive cycle has not been published, but is probably biennial (Compagno in prep. b).<br/><br/>Thorson and Lacy (1982) and Branstetter and Stiles (1987) have provided age and growth data for this species. Thorson and Lacy (1982) used tag recapture information to estimate the growth rates of Bull Sharks in Lake Nicaragua. They estimated that the growth rates in the first two years of life were 18 and 16 cm per year, respectively. Growth subsequently slowed to 11?12 cm per year and finally to 9?10 cm per year. They estimated that females would live up to 16 years and males to 12 years.<br/><br/>Branstetter and Stiles (1987) used vertebral ageing techniques to estimate growth parameters for animals from the northern Gulf of Mexico. They estimated the von Bertalanffy parameters to be L?=285 cm, k=0.076 year<sup>-1</sup> and t = -3.0 years. The oldest estimated male was 21.3 years and the oldest female 24.2 years. Their estimates of growth for early years were similar to those of Thorson and Lacy (1982), but growth in later years was thought to be much slower (4?5 cm per year), accounting for the larger maximum ages. Ages at maturity based on Branstetter and Stiles (1987) data are 14?15 years for males and 18+ years for females.<br/><br/>A number of migratory habits have been documented for this shark. Pregnant females migrate to estuarine areas to give birth. The juveniles remain in these areas until temperatures drop below optimum levels and then migrate to warmer offshore waters. A general migration along the United States east coast is also observed, with movement northwards during the summer as water temperatures rise and southwards again as temperatures cool in the north (Castro 1983).<br/><br/>Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) have reported the results of demographic analysis for <em>C. leucas</em>. The technique that these authors used estimated the rebound potential (r2M, similar to the intrinsic rate of increase) from litter size, age at maturity, maximum age and natural mortality. They estimated natural mortality to be 0.166 year<sup>-1</sup> based on a maximum age of 27 years. The estimated the rebound potential was 0.027?0.039 year<sup>-1</sup>.	eng
39372	threats	Simpfendorfer, C. & Burgess, G.H., 2005	The frequent use of estuarine and freshwater areas by the Bull Shark makes it more susceptible to deleterious human impacts than species of sharks occurring in other coastal or offshore areas. Bull sharks more frequently encounter humans while in waters of low salinity, and are thereby subjected to increased fishing pressure and environmental changes associated with habitat modification.<br/><br/>Bull Sharks are commonly caught in both commercial and recreational fisheries. Thorson (1982a) reported that a commercial fishery existed for <em>C. leucas</em> in Lake Nicaragua and the Rio San Juan river system in Central America. However, in most situations, Bull Sharks are not normally a fishery target species but are caught as bycatch or as part of a multi-species fishery. For example, in the US Atlantic region they are an important component of inshore ecosystems, but only comprise 1?6% of the large coastal shark catch for this area (Branstetter and Burgess 1997). <br/><br/>While the Bull Shark has been exploited commercially for its skin, liver oil and flesh, currently its fins are the major product driving demand for this and many other species. There are limited data on recreational catches of this species. The best data come from the Gulf of Mexico where Casey and Hoey (1985) reported that in 1978 <em>C. leucas</em> made up about 11% (by weight) of the recreational shark catch of around three million pounds (Casey and Hoey 1985). Recreational catches of large sharks in the Gulf of Mexico have decreased substantially since the 1970s, but Casey and Hoey?s results illustrate that recreational fishing may have a substantial impact on Bull Shark populations.<br/><br/>Beach protection programmes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Queensland, Australia also regularly catch Bull Sharks. Cliff and Dudley (1992) reported that between 1978 and 1990 the South African programme caught 59 Bull Sharks, 21% of which were released alive. Species identification problems occurred in the Queensland programme until the early 1990s, thus the importance of <em>C. leucas</em> can only be based on data from latter years. Gribble <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that after identification was improved 16% of the sharks caught state-wide were Bull Sharks, with the majority caught in the central part of the state. The lack of historical data for the Queensland programme and the low abundance in the South African programme make it impossible to assess the impact of beach meshing on Bull Shark populations.<br/><br/>The location of nursery areas in estuarine and freshwater systems makes the species vulnerable to pollution and habitat modification, but there has been only limited study of these impacts on Bull Sharks. Canal developments have been prolific in some estuarine areas where the species is commonly found. It is not known whether these developments have negative impacts. In Florida, USA and the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia, these developments have substantially altered the environment. Bull Sharks occur frequently in Gold Coast canals and the species has been responsible for a number of attacks on humans (Simpfendorfer unpubl.). The warm water effluent from power stations may also impact this shark. In Florida, USA, juveniles have been reported to be trapped in the warm water outfalls during winter when they would normally have migrated to warmer water areas (Snelson <em>et al. </em>1984, <em>C. Manire</em>, Center for Shark Research, Mote Marine Laboratory pers. Comm.). The potential impacts of pollution and habitat modification need to be further investigated for this species.<br/><br/>This shark is also exploited by large aquariums. The species is good for public display, adapting well to life in a tank and providing a good example of a larger, aggressive shark. With the number of public aquaria rising worldwide there is an increasing demand for this and other species of sharks for display. While populations are healthy the needs of aquaria can probably be met without affecting the wild population. However, if a wild subpopulation is depleted this may not be the case and aquaria need to have responsible collection policies that will not result in further pressure being placed on a species. At present there is no evidence that collecting for aquariums has any impact on the wild population of Bull Shark.	eng
39374	conservation	Baum, J., Medina, E., Musick, J.A. & Smale, M., 2006	Conservation and management action are urgently required for this species; the only known conservation measure at present is a broad, multi-species pelagic shark quota for U.S. Atlantic waters. Specifically, fishing pressure on this species must be considerably decreased through reduction in fishing effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture and possibly also through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Effective conservation of this species will require international cooperation. The oceanic whitetip is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details. Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>C. longimanus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines (R. Cavanagh, pers. comm).	eng
39374	distribution	Baum, J., Medina, E., Musick, J.A. & Smale, M., 2006	This is one of the most widespread of shark species, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters, usually found far offshore between about 30°N and 35°S in all oceans.	eng
39374	habitat	Baum, J., Medina, E., Musick, J.A. & Smale, M., 2006	This is one of the most widespread sharks, ranging across entire oceans in tropical and subtropical waters. The oceanic whitetip is an oceanic-epipelagic shark, usually found far offshore in the open sea in waters >200 m deep, between about 30°N and 35°S in all oceans; it is normally found in surface waters, although it has been recorded to 152 m. It has occasionally been recorded inshore, but is more typically found offshore or around oceanic islands and areas with narrow continental shelves (Fourmanoir 1961, Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). Temperatures of waters in which it regularly occurs are 18 to 28°C, with water above 20°C preferred. Although one whitetip was caught in water of 15°C it tends to withdraw from waters that are cooling below this, as in the Gulf of Mexico in winter (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>This is a slow-moving but quite active shark, apparently equally active at daytime or night (Compagno in prep., Ebert 2003).  <br/> <br/>Development is viviparous and embryos have a yolk sac placenta that attaches to the uterine wall of the mother (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948). Born at about 60 to 65 cm TL after a gestation period of about 10 to 12 months (Compagno in prep.), males mature at about 170 to 96 cm and females at 170 to 190 cm TL (Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998). Oceanic whitetip sharks grow to a large size, with some individual reaching almost 4 m. However, most known specimens are <3 m in length. Litter sizes vary from about 1 to 14 (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Stevens 1984, Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998), although 15 foetuses were recorded from a female of 245 cm TL from the Red Sea (Gohar and Mazure 1964) and larger females appear to carry more young, although there may be regional variation (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973). Birth is thought to occur in early summer in the northwest Atlantic and south west Indian Oceans (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973), and January to March off New South Wales (Stevens 1984), whereas Seki <em>et al</em>. (1998) found that parturition was February to July in the North Pacific. Pregnant females of this species are less frequently found in the Indian Ocean than other sharks of this genus (Gubanov 1978). In the Central Pacific, females with small embryos have been found throughout the year, suggesting a less tight seasonality of birth (and presumably mating) than the Western Atlantic (Compagno in prep). Also, non-breeding adult females have been found to outnumber gravid females in the equatorial Central Pacific (Compagno in prep). The location of nurseries has not been reported, but very young oceanic whitetip sharks have been found well offshore along the southeastern US, suggesting offshore nurseries over the continental shelves (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/>Seki <em>et al</em>. (1998) studied the age, growth and reproduction of the oceanic whitetip in the north Pacific. They found similar growth rates in both males and females with a Von Bertalanffy equation of: L<sub>t</sub> = 299.58 * {1 - e<sup>-0.103</sup> x (t + 2.698)} where L<sub>t</sub> is expressed as precaudal length in cm at age t. They used Bass <em>et al</em>.?s (1973) transformation of TL = 1.397 x PL for conversions to total length. Using vertebral analysis they showed that annular formation occurred in spring. Both male and female oceanic whitetips matured at 4 to 5 years of age. Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) investigated the intrinsic rebound potential of Pacific sharks and found that oceanic whitetips to be among a moderate rebound potential, because of their relatively fast growth and early maturation. <br/> <br/>This pelagic species feeds mainly on bony fishes (including tunas, barracuda, white marlin, dolphinfish, lancetfish, oarfish, threadfish, swordfish) and cephalopods and to a lesser extent, seabirds, marine mammals, stingrays, and flotsam, including garbage.	eng
39374	population	Baum, J., Medina, E., Musick, J.A. & Smale, M., 2006	This species, together with the silky shark <em>Carcharhinus falciformis</em> and blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em>, has often been described as one of the three most abundant species of oceanic sharks and large marine animals (Compagno 1984, Taniuchi 1990, Bonfil 1994, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). Recent observations, however, indicate that this species that was formerly ?nearly ubiquitous in water deeper than 180 m and above 20°C? (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999) is now only occasionally recorded (e.g., Baum and Myers 2004, Domingo 2004).  <br/> <br/>The population dynamics and structure of this species are unknown. Distribution appears to depend on size and sex and the nursery areas appear to be oceanic (Seki <em>et al</em>. 1998). Larger individuals are caught deeper than smaller ones and there is geographic and sexual segregation (Anderson and Ahmed 1993). Longline catches in the Central Pacific show that this species definitely increases in abundance as a function of increasing distance from land, and, unlike the silky shark <em>Carcharhinus falcifomis</em>, it does not congregate around land masses (Compagno in prep.).  <br/> <br/>In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic enormous declines are estimated to have occurred. Two estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices have been made from independent datasets. An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 and 2000, which covers the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic regions, estimated declines of 70% (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). An analysis of the Gulf of Mexico, which used data from US pelagic longline surveys in the mid-1950s and US pelagic longline observer data in the late-1990s, estimated a decline of 99.3% over this forty year time period (Baum and Myers 2004). When trends in abundance from the former analysis are extrapolated back to the mid-1950s, they match the latter analysis almost exactly (99.8%). Over a period of three generations (30 years), the estimated decline is 98%. However, the latter study has recently been criticized because temporal changes in fishing gear and practices over the time period were not taken fully into account and the study may, therefore, have exaggerated or underestimated the magnitude of the declines (Burgess <em>et al</em>. 2005, Baum <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39374	threats	Baum, J., Medina, E., Musick, J.A. & Smale, M., 2006	Oceanic whitetip sharks have been caught in large numbers virtually everywhere they occur, particularly in pelagic longline and drift net fisheries. This species was initially described as the most common pelagic shark beyond the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico (Wathne 1959, Bullis 1961), and throughout the warm-temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic and Pacific (Mather and Day 1954, Strasburg 1957). In the Gulf of Mexico, for example, between 2 and 25 of these sharks were usually observed following the vessel during longline retrieval on the exploratory surveys in the 1950s and their abundance was considered as a serious problem because of the high proportion of tunas they damaged (Bullis and Captiva 1955, Backus <em>et al</em>. 1956, Wathne 1959). Recent shark papers on the Gulf of Mexico have either not mentioned this species or have dismissed it as rare, not recognising its former prevalence in the area (Baum and Myers 2004). <br/> <br/>Few data are available on the catch rate of these sharks, and this is a serious hindrance to assessing the status of this species in regions other than the Northwest Atlantic and Eastern Central Pacific. Strasburg (1958) reported that the oceanic whitetip shark constituted 28% of the total shark catch in exploratory tuna longline fishing south of 100 N latitude in the central Pacific Ocean. According to Berkeley and Campos (1988), oceanic whitetip sharks constituted 2.1% of the shark bycatch in the swordfish fishery along the east coast of Florida in 1981 to 1983. Taniuchi (1990) analysed Japanese fishery statistics and noted that this species was most commonly taken by fishery boats in the Pacific, where they made up 20 to 30% of the number of sharks taken by tuna longliners, compared to about 3 to 4% in the Indian Ocean, because the boats are fishing for southern bluefin tuna in cooler waters. Guitart Manday (1975) demonstrated a marked decline in the oceanic whitetip shark landings in Cuba from 1971 to 1973. In the Maldives, Anderson and Ahmed (1993) reported that oceanic whitetip sharks were taken commercially by pelagic shark longliners and incidentally by tuna fishermen, and that in a previous exploratory fishing survey oceanic whitetip sharks constituted 23% of all sharks caught.  <br/> <br/>Domingo (2004) reported that the Uruguayan longline fleet observer programme in 1998 to 2003 recorded catch rates of only 0.006 sharks/1,000 hooks in Uruguayan and adjacent high seas South Atlantic waters (latitude 26° to 37°, 16 to 23°C) and 0.09 sharks/1,000 hooks in international waters off the Atlantic coast of Africa. He notes that similarly infrequent records are obtained by Brazilian and Ecuadorian Atlantic longline fleets.	eng
39375	conservation	Heupel, M., 2005	There are currently no conservation or management plans in effect for this species.	eng
39375	distribution	Heupel, M., 2005	Blacktip Reef Shark is a common tropical Indo-West Pacific and Central Pacific species with a range extending from Thailand to China, Japan, the Philippines, New Caledonia and northern Australia (Compagno 1984). Blacktip Reef Sharks have been reported from many Pacific Islands including: the Marshall Islands (Bonham 1960), the Solomon Islands (Blaber and Milton 1990) the Gilbert Islands, the Society Islands south to the Tuamotu Archipelago (Randall and Helfman 1973) and also the Hawaiian Islands (Randall and Helfman 1973, Compagno 1984, Taylor and Wisner 1989). The species is also present in South Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles and Madagascar to the Red Sea, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Andaman and the Maldive Islands (Compagno 1984). This shark has also penetrated the eastern Mediterranean Sea, probably via the Suez Canal from the Red Sea. The Blacktip Reef Shark is commonly found in shallow waters on and near coral reefs (Randall and Helfman 1973, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). This species is often seen in water only a few metres deep and is occasionally present in brackish waters (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39375	habitat	Heupel, M., 2005	Most authors agree that Blacktip Reef Sharks range from 30?50 cm at birth. Adults reach total lengths of up to 180 cm and mature between 90?110 cm (Compagno 1984, Stevens 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Stomach contents show the primary item of prey to be teleost fishes (Lyle 1987, Stevens 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Prey items also include crustaceans, cephalopods and other molluscs (Stevens 1984, Lyle 1987, Last and Stevens 1994). Interestingly, the species is also reported to have consumed terrestrial and sea snakes (Lyle 1987, Lyle and Timms 1987). Lyle (1987) also reported that predation upon other elasmobranchs was rare. <br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology is limited and conflicting. Blacktip Reef Sharks are viviparous with a yolk sac placenta and give birth to 2?4 pups (usually four) (Compagno 1984, Lyle 1987, Last and Stevens 1994). In northern Australia mating probably occurs in January and February, with parturition occurring in November (Lyle 1987). This cycle would allow an 8?9-month gestation period, however, Compagno (1984b), Melouk (1957) and Randall and Helfman (1973) list the gestation period for this species as being possibly 16 months. Observations of Blacktip Reef Sharks at the Aldabra Atoll (Indian Ocean) showed mating to occur in October?November and parturition the following October. These animals would therefore undergo a 10?11 month gestation period (Stevens 1984b). Stevens (1984b) also noted that individuals in this area generally breed every other year, but that this may be due to competition for food in the area because of its high shark population.	eng
39375	population	Heupel, M., 2005	Common in tropical and subtropical waters.	eng
39375	threats	Heupel, M., 2005	The Blacktip Reef Shark is not a target of major fisheries, but is regularly caught by inshore fisheries in India and Thailand (Compagno 1984b). It is rarely taken by northern Australian gillnet fisheries because of its shallow habitat (Last and Stevens 1994). Although this species is used fresh and dry salted for human consumption and for its liver-oil (Last and Stevens 1994) it is considered to be of little commercial importance (Lyle 1987). Data concerning the take of this species in artisanal fisheries is scarce, but due to its inshore, shallow water habitat it is likely to be a target of such activities. However, it is common in tropical and subtropical waters and not, therefore, considered to be in any immediate danger of serious population depletion worldwide.	eng
39376	habitat	Camhi, M., Musick, J.A. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2000	<em>C. obscurus</em> is a coastal-pelagic species found inshore and offshore in warm-temperate and tropical waters of the continental and insular shelves and the oceanic waters adjacent to them. The species ranges from close inshore in the surf zone to well out to sea and from the surface to 400 m depth. It does not prefer areas with reduced salinities and tends to avoid estuaries. Adult dusky sharks are often seen offshore and commonly follow ships. This shark is strongly migratory in temperate and subtropical areas in the eastern north Pacific and western north Atlantic, moving north during the warmer months of summer and retreating south when the water cools. Dusky sharks eat a wide variety of reef, bottom, and pelagic bony fishes, as well as other elasmobranchs, crustaceans, octopi, cuttlefish, squid, starfish, barnacles, bryozoans, whale meat, and occasional garbage (Compagno 1984).	eng
39376	threats	Camhi, M., Musick, J.A. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2000	The species has a very slow growth rate, with late maturation, long gestation period, and small litters. Its very low intrinsic rate of increase makes it particularly vulnerable to depletion by man. The species is taken with other more productive sharks in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch.	eng
39377	conservation	Musick, J.A., 2000	A management plan in US waters implemented in 1993 has led to stock stabilisation and the beginning of a recovery.	eng
39377	habitat	Musick, J.A., 2000	<em>C. plumbeus</em> occurs inshore and offshore. It is a coastal-pelagic shark of temperate and tropical waters, found on continental and insular shelves and in deep water adjacent to them, and oceanic banks. It is also common at bay mouths, in harbours, inside shallow muddy or sandy bays, and at river mouths, but tends to avoid sandy beaches and the surf zone, coral reefs and rough bottom, and the surface. Depths range from the intertidal in water barely deep enough to cover it to 280 m. Although common in inshore environments, it does not ascend rivers into fresh water. It favours the bottom, and normally is not seen at the surface unless travelling in water so shallow that its large first dorsal fin comes out of the water. This species has an annual migration cycle along the Western North Atlantic seaboard of the United States, heading south for the winter and north for the summer. Seasonal temperature changes apparently are a prime cause of these migrations, but they are strongly influenced by the pattern of currents and locally by upwelling. Southward-migrating sharks often travel in large schools. In the Western North Atlantic pupping grounds are in temperate waters, in shallow bays and estuaries of the east-central USA. The sandbar shark is primarily a predator on relatively small bottom fishes, with some molluscs and crustaceans taken. It does not consume garbage and mammalian carrion as a rule, unlike some other members of its genus (Compagno 1984).	eng
39377	threats	Musick, J.A., 2000	Severely overfished in the western North Atlantic. It is caught with longlines, hook-and-line, and set bottom nets and is also fished with rod and reel by sports anglers as a game fish. It is utilized fresh, fresh-frozen, smoked and dried salted for human consumption; the hides are prized for leather and other products; the fins are prepared as the base for shark-fin soup; and the liver is extracted for oil (rich in vitamins) (Compagno 1984).	eng
39378	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	There are no specific conservation or management measures in place for the Tiger Shark. However, in the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico this species is managed under a Fisheries Management Program (FMP) introduced in 1993. It is included in the large coastal group which has an annual quota of 1,285 t. This group is dominated by Sandbar Shark (<em>C. plumbeus</em>) and the Blacktip Shark (<em>C. limbatus</em>). A new FMP was introduced in early 1999, placing Tiger Sharks in the ridgeback large coastal group which have a quota of 622 t and a minimum size of 137 cm fork length. A court placed an injunction on these new regulations pending further court action by commercial fishers.	eng
39378	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The Tiger Shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas. Randall (1992) described its distribution as follows: ?In the western Atlantic it ranges from Cape Cod to Uruguay, including the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and islands of the Caribbean; in the eastern Atlantic it is found on the West African coast from Morocco to Angola; it remains unknown from the Mediterranean Sea, but there are reports from Iceland and the United Kingdom (these were probably based on vagrants transported there during a warm year by the Gulf Stream) (Compagno 1984). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific region from the northern Red Sea to South Africa and east through the islands of Oceania and northern New Zealand (though not yet reported from Easter Island); in the eastern Pacific it ranges from southern California to Peru, including the Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.?<br/><br/>Little is known of the Tiger Shark's depth range. Clark and Kristof (1990) illustrate a female Tiger Shark of about 250 cm total length (TL) from a photograph taken from a submersible in 350 m of water off Grand Cayman. The species is also encountered in very shallow water.	eng
39378	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	Randall (1992) reviewed a large number of studies on the feeding behaviour of Tiger Sharks, including Norman and Fraser (1937), Springer (1938), Whitley (1940), Bigelow and Schroeder (1948), Gudger (1948a,b, 1949), Kauffman (1950), Ikehara (1960), Springer in Gilbert (1963), Gohar and Mazhar (1964), Clark and von Schmidt (1965), Randall (1967, 1980), Tester (1969), Fujimoto and Sakuda (1972), Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975), De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) and Stevens (1984). He concluded that this species has probably the most diverse diet of any shark species. Prey includes numerous bony fish, sharks, rays, turtles, sea birds, seals, dolphins, sea snakes, cephalopods, crabs, lobsters, gastropods and jellyfish. They consume carrion and readily take baited hooks. Tiger Sharks also have a propensity to consume ?garbage? of human origin, including plastics, metal, sacks, kitchen scraps and almost any other item discarded in the sea.<br/><br/>The age and growth characteristics of Tiger Sharks have been investigated by a number of authors, most notably De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) and Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987). Working in the north-west Hawaiian Islands De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) estimated that a Tiger Shark with a precaudal length of 200 cm is about five years old and that one of 300 cm is about 15 years old. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) used similar techniques to De Crosta <em>et al.</em> (1984) to produce growth curves for Tiger Sharks from the coast of Virginia and the northern Gulf of Mexico. They estimated that initial growth was very fast, but that the rate of growth of very large animals is 5?10 cm year<sup>-1</sup>; thus, individuals of 400?450 cm TL would be 20?25 years of age. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) gave a maximum age of 45?50 years. Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase of a tiger shark population at MSY to be 0.043 year<sup>-1</sup>. Randall (1992) summarised that the size at maturity of male Tiger Sharks is 226?290 cm TL and in females 250?350 cm TL.<br/><br/>The Tiger Shark is the only species of the family Carcharhinidae that is ovoviviparous. Litter sizes are large, with between 10?82 embryos reported from a single female. Mean litter sizes of 30?35 have been reported (Tester 1969, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975, Simpfendorfer 1992). The size at birth is 51?90 cm TL (Randall 1992, Simpfendorfer 1992). Clark and von Schmidt (1965) gave the gestation period as 13?16 months. There have been few other estimates of gestation period. Mating is reported to take place in the Northern Hemisphere in spring, with pupping the following spring to summer. Mating occurs before full-term females have given birth to young, indicating that litters are produced every two years or less. In the Southern Hemisphere Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) and Simpfendorfer (1992) have reported pupping during summer. The young are very slender with a flexible body and caudal fin; they swim with an inefficient anguilliform motion. Branstetter <em>et al.</em> (1987) concluded that they are probably very vulnerable to predation at this stage, especially by sharks, including their own kind. <br/><br/>Tagging studies, particularly in the western Atlantic, have provided the best information on the movements of Tiger Sharks. Randall (1992) provided data from a range of studies that indicated that two patterns of movement are observed in tagging studies. The first of these is where the release and recapture positions are close together, suggesting that the individual may have remained in a relatively small area. The other pattern observed is where the individual is recaptured a long distance from the release site, often after a short period at liberty. The maximum reported distance between release and recapture for a Tiger Shark was approximately 3,430 km.	eng
39378	threats	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	Tiger sharks are caught in numerous fisheries world wide, both as target species and bycatch. Products utilised from Tiger Sharks include flesh, fins, skin, liver oil and cartilage. Although not considered of high quality, the mercury content of this shark's flesh is lower than other large carcharhinid species (Simpfendorfer pers. data). The fins, skin and liver oil from Tiger Sharks are all considered to be of high quality and can fetch good prices. The high value of products has increased commercial fishing pressure on this and similar species worldwide, especially since demand for high quality shark fins has increased. Catches of Tiger Sharks in directed shark fisheries have been documented for a number of areas including the western Atlantic (e.g., Kleijn 1974, Hoey and Casey 1986, Berkeley and Campos 1988, Bonfil 1994, GSAFDF 1996), Australia (Stevens <em>et al. </em>1982, Lyle <em>et al.</em> 1984), India (Burman 1994), Papua New Guinea (Chapau and Opnai 1986), Brazil and Taiwan (Province of China) (Bonfil 1994). Commercial catches are also taken in many other areas but few records of their capture exist. Tiger Sharks are not typically the target species in these fisheries but are bycatch in fisheries targeting other shark species. Catches of Tiger Sharks in these fisheries are often not reported directly, but observer data on the species composition can be used to make estimates.<br/><br/>In the US East Coast/Gulf of Mexico shark fishery tiger sharks are the third most common large, coastal species caught in the fishery, accounting for 12?20% of the catch (GSAFDF 1996). However, they account for only 5% of the landed weight as they are considered of limited value since finning is not allowed in this fishery. Most of the individuals caught in this fishery are juveniles less than 150 cm FL, although large animals are also taken (S. Branstetter pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northern Australia gillnet fisheries catch Tiger Sharks, although the mesh sizes used have precluded the capture of significant numbers (Lyle <em>et al.</em> 1984). In northern West Australia a number of fishers have used heavy drumlines to fish for large sharks. Tiger Sharks have been a major target of these fishers, with catches reaching 116 t (live weight) in 1994/95 (Simpfendorfer and Lenanton 1995). All operators who have targeted Tiger Sharks in this area have now ceased fishing.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are taken as bycatch in a variety of fisheries including tuna and swordfish longline fisheries (e.g., Anderson 1985, Berkeley and Campos 1988), particularly those operating on, or close to, the continental and insular shelves. They are also taken in trawl fisheries  (e.g., squid, fish and crustacean trawl fisheries), although normally in small numbers. There are few records of Tiger Shark catches for these fisheries. Tiger Sharks are undoubtedly caught in tropical and subtropical artisanal fisheries. However, gear limitations in these fisheries probably precludes the capture of large numbers, especially of larger individuals. There are few published data on artisanal fishery captures and it is not possible to quantify catches or the impact that these may have on Tiger Shark populations.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are caught by recreational fishers. The species is one that has International Game Fish Association (IGFA) status, the current record being 596 kg. Catches have been documented off the east coast of the United States, Australia and South Africa (e.g., Stevens 1984, Anderson 1985, Casey and Hoey 1985, Pepperell 1992, Anon. 1994). Estimates of total catches of shark by recreational anglers off the east coast of the United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) in 1978 are 10,300 t (Casey and Hoey 1985) and in 1980 over 15,000 t (Anderson 1985). Estimates of the species composition of the recreational catch indicates that Tiger Sharks represent 0.8?2.1% of the catch. Based on these estimates of species composition, the recreational Tiger Shark catches in 1978 and 1980 would have been approximately 10?20 t and 15?30 t, respectively. More recently recreational catches have declined, and tagging and release has become more common. In Australian waters Pepperell (1992) estimated that Tiger Sharks represented approximately 10% of the sharks captured by IGFA associated clubs off the New South Wales coast during the 1970s. This increased to approximately 20% during the 1980s, due to increased targeting. Size composition data provided by Pepperell (1992) indicate that the bulk of the catch was 80?130 kg. Stevens (1984) estimated that Tiger Sharks comprised 17% of the recreational catch by anglers off New South Wales between 1979 and 1982, based on catch sampling.<br/><br/>Tiger Sharks are undoubtedly caught by recreational fishers in many countries, and not only those documented above. Recreational fishing is likely to account for significant mortality in Tiger Shark populations in coastal waters of some countries.<br/><br/>The large size, and propensity to occasionally attack humans, makes Tiger Sharks a target of shark control programmes, particularly those operating in tropical areas (e.g., Queensland (Paterson 1990) and Hawaii (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1994)). However, they are also taken in other programmes (e.g., South Africa (Dudley and Cliff 1993) and New SouthWales (Reid and Krough 1992)). These control programmes use either large mesh gillnets and/or heavy lines to capture large, dangerous sharks. The theory behind the programmes is that fishing reduces the abundance of the large, dangerous sharks and so reduces the probability of attacks in areas where there has previously been relatively high records of shark attacks. There is conflicting evidence as to whether these control programmes are effective in reducing the abundance of Tiger Sharks. Evidence from Paterson (1990), Simpfendorfer (1992) and Dudley and Cliff (1993) indicates that Tiger Shark abundance has either remained steady, or even increased in ?meshed? areas. Catch rate data from Hawaii indicated that shark control programmes did reduce Tiger Shark abundance (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1994). These data suggest that at best the use of shark control programmes to reduce population levels of Tiger Sharks may be of only limited value.<br/><br/>Tiger Shark populations face a variety of threats. These include not only a large range of directed and bycatch fisheries, but also problems such as the ingestion of human garbage. The high value of some products (especially fins) from Tiger Sharks has resulted in increased fishing pressures on this species in recent years. Musick <em>et al. </em>(1993) noted a precipitous decline in Tiger Sharks off Virginia, USA, due to both recreational and commercial harvesting between 1980 and 1992. There is anecdotal evidence that in areas where catches in commercial fisheries are high, abundance has been significantly reduced (e.g., Taiwan (POC) (Bonfil 1994)). There is some evidence from shark control programmes that localised catches of Tiger Sharks do not affect abundance.<br/><br/>The widespread distribution of this species increases the likelihood that it will survive increasing levels of exploitation in certain areas. Its growth and reproductive rates are also relatively high, making the levels of mortality that the Tiger Shark can survive higher than for many other species of shark. Additionally, juvenile survivorship increases where adult Tiger Shark populations have been depleted by fisheries and hence predation of young is lessened. However, the overall life history constraints to increased mortality applicable to all sharks must also be borne in mind when considering the conservation status of this species.	eng
39379	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2005	In Australia,   this species is protected in Commonwealth waters, listed as Critically Endangered on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999. It is listed as Vulnerable under the Territory  Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000, but no management program was in place as of June 2002 (Stirrat and Larson 2002). A Recovery Plan is currently being drafted and will be completed by mid-2003 (S. Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
39379	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2005	The Speartooth Shark is   known from few specimens in scattered localities off northern Australia and New Guinea (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recorded from relatively fresh water in the Bizant and Wenlock Rivers (Queensland), Adelaide and East and South Alligator Rivers (Northern Territory) in Australia and from close to Port Romilly and Fly River in New Guinea (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The holotype is stuffed (no vertebral column except that of the caudal fin) and without locality. There are two similar species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>in the Western Pacific. Recent comparison of specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>sp. A has confirmed that they are conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis glyphis</span>. This species appears to be a large inshore marine and freshwater, euryhaline species like the Bull Shark (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carcharhinus leucas</span>), but far rarer, less wide ranging and perhaps more restricted in habitat and habits. A survey in mid-late 2002 of freshwater elasmobranchs using gillnets and longlines in northern Australia (Kimberleys, Western  Australia east to the Cape York drainages of Queensland) yielded no additional specimens of this species despite collecting in 38 rivers and 136 sites (J. D. Stevens, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
39379	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2005	The Speartooth Shark occurs inshore, in estuarine and freshwater habitats. The largest whole specimen was a 175 cm total length (TL) female (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but they may reach 200-300 cm TL (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). One adolescent male measured 144.7 cm TL and all other males examined were juveniles (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Size at birth is estimated at ~59 cm TL (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The ecology (i.e., critical habitat, salinity tolerances) and life history parameters (age and size at maturity for males and females, litter sizes, longevity) of this species need further investigation. The small eyes and slender teeth of <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis </span>species suggest that they are primarily fish eaters adapted to living in turbid waters with poor visibility (Compagno 1984, Fowler 1997).	eng
39379	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2005	The population size is unknown, but is suspected to be small based on current knowledge and their apparent rarity. The number and size of subpopulations is also unknown. All populations need to be preserved to maintain the genetic diversity within this species. Kakadu National Park (Northern Territory) is probably an important site for this species as it may be afforded more protection here than in other areas.	eng
39379	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2005	Speartooth Sharks occur in the lower reaches of the Bizant River in Queensland, Australia, in rivers in Northern Territory, in inshore or estuarine waters of southern Papua New Guinea and far up the Fly River (which has had severe problems because of release of toxic substances from mining operations up the river). Some of the most threatened chondrichthyan species are those restricted to such habitats, and with naturally very small populations. In addition to all the biological constraints of the marine chondrichthyans, freshwater/brackish species are more seriously limited by threats (such as fisheries and habitat degradation) affecting their restricted populations than are more widely ranging marine species (Compagno 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Glyphis glyphis </span>is likely to be threatened by both commercial and recreational fishing and possible habitat degradation. Commercial fishing may be in the form of gillnetting (legal or illegal) or longlining. Recreational fishing may be in the form of illegal gillnetting or hook and line fishing (using bait and/or lures). The potential impacts of fishing operations on this species need further investigation.	eng
39380	conservation	Sundström, L.F., 2005	There are no management plans in place for the Lemon Shark. Some research, however, has dealt with related issues so there is a base of knowledge should a plan ever be implemented.	eng
39380	distribution	Sundström, L.F., 2005	This inshore species is common along the coasts in the Atlantic Ocean ranging from the US in the north down to southern Brazil and possibly in some areas on the West African Coast. It is not known whether these populations are the same species (Compagno 1984). Lemon Sharks also occur in the Pacific Ocean from Baja California in the north to Ecuador in the south.	eng
39380	habitat	Sundström, L.F., 2005	The Lemon Shark inhabits shallow waters around coral keys, mangrove fringes, around docks, on sand or coral mud bottoms, in saline creeks, in enclosed sounds or bays and in river mouths. It may enter fresh water but has not been found far up in rivers (Compagno 1984b). Occasionally it ventures into the open ocean and has been found down at depths of at least 90 m (Springer 1950).<br/><br/>Mating occurs during spring and summer with parturition in shallow nursery grounds the following year after a 10?12 month gestation period (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Springer 1950, Clark and von Schmidt 1965). The female Lemon Shark gives birth to 4?17 young (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Compagno 1984b) of 50?60 cm TL (Gruber and Stout 1983, Brown and Gruber 1988). Maturity is reached at 225 cm (males) and 235 cm (females) or at an age of 12 and 13 years, respectively (Compagno 1984b, Brown and Gruber 1988). Growth follows the von Bertalanffy equation (Brown and Gruber 1988): <br/><br/>PCL = 317.65 × (1-e -0.057 (t + 2.302)), n = 110, r2 = 0.99 , where PCL is precaudal length (m) at time t (yrs). <br/><br/>This equation assumes the maximum length to be 317 cm, but the lemon shark can become bigger. Hueter and Gruber (1982) examined a 368 cm large male. The normal size range of the adult is 250?290 cm with females being slightly bigger than males (Brown and Gruber 1988) but sizes of up to 3 m or more are not unusual (Clark and von Schmidt 1965). At this size the shark would have a weight of approximately 250 kg (Gruber 1984) and is probably more than 30 years old.<br/><br/>Activity space ranges from a few km² in the highly site-attached juveniles (Morrissey and Gruber 1993a) up to several hundred km² in the more active adults (Compagno 1984b). Juvenile Lemon Sharks appear to select shallow (0?50 cm) and warmer water (30°C or more). They also prefer rocky or sandy substrate (Morrissey and Gruber 1993b). Almost all field research on the Lemon Shark originates from the waters in and around the Bimini Lagoon, Bahamas where a high annual, density-dependent mortality rate (35?62%) for young-of-the-year Lemon Sharks was found (Gruber <em>et al</em>. 2001). This is probably due to predation by larger sharks (Manire and Gruber 1993). Jacobsen (1987) suggested that the same area could support about 250 juveniles while Henningsen and Gruber (1985) estimated the population to be around 500 specimens with a density of five sharks per km². The annual production of these Lemon Sharks was 320 kg corresponding to about 0.3 g of new Lemon Shark tissue for every m² of lagoon (Henningsen 1989). Later, Gruber <em>et al</em>. (2001) estimated that the maximum number of juveniles that could survive each year in the Bimini Lagoon was 30. Young Lemon Sharks feed mainly on teleosts, crustaceans (small portunid crabs and panaeid shrimp) and octopods. As they grow the diet becomes dominated by teleost and cartilaginous fishes and the adults even eat sea birds (Springer 1950, Cortés and Gruber 1990). The energy consumed and later used for growth depends on the daily feeding rate but maximum conversion rate is probably close to 25% (Cortés and Gruber 1994).	eng
39380	threats	Sundström, L.F., 2005	Lemon Sharks are caught commercially on longlines and the meat is dried, salted, or smoked. The fins fetch a very high price. The Lemon Shark is consumed in the United States and in Central and South America (Rose 1996). The rough and heavy skin has made the lemon shark preferable among tanneries for the production of leather. However, it is not included in TRAFFIC Network?s list of species frequently appearing in available information on worldwide shark fisheries (Rose 1996). It is a target species in Belize, Mexico and USA and reported as bycatch in St Lucia (Oliver 1996, Anon. 1997). Lemon Sharks were seen at a fish market in Cameroon in 1991, but not since then (C. Grist pers. comm.). The species is also caught in recreational fishing and was reported as the 13th most common shark species in the US recreational fishery (Casey and Hoey 1985). A decrease in the number of juvenile Lemon Sharks between 1986?1989 in the lower Florida Keys may have been caused by several years of shark fishing tournaments and 20 years of targeting with gillnets affecting the return of females to bear new litters (Manire and Gruber 1990). The Lemon Shark is a popular aquarium species and it is also used extensively for research purposes. Lemon Sharks used to be common in the western Atlantic, from New Jersey, USA to Brazil, but lately their numbers have been depleted, especially around Florida (S.H. Gruber pers. comm.).	eng
39381	conservation	Stevens, J., 2005	The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 250 t for Blue Shark in the target shark fishery. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, bycatch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook-and-release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998).<br/><br/>In 1991, Australia brought in legislation that prevented Japanese longliners fishing in the EEZ from landing shark fins unless they were accompanied by the carcass.<br/><br/>Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. Commercial fishers require an annual shark permit, and finning is prohibited. In Mexico, a high-seas longline fishery taking pelagic sharks was banned within the EEZ in 1990 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
39381	distribution	Stevens, J., 2005	The Blue Shark is one of the most wide ranging of all sharks, being found throughout tropical and temperate seas from latitudes of about 60°N?50°S. It is oceanic and pelagic, found from the surface to about 350 m depth; occasionally it occurs close inshore where the continental shelf is narrow. The Blue Shark prefers temperatures of 12?20°C and is found at greater depths in tropical waters (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39381	habitat	Stevens, J., 2005	The Blue Shark reaches a maximum size of about 380 cm TL. About 50% of males in the Atlantic are sexually mature by 218 cm, although some may reach maturity as small as 182 cm. Females are sub-adult from 173?221 cm and fully mature from 221 cm (Pratt 1979), although pregnant fish as small as 183 cm have been recorded from the eastern Pacific (Williams 1977).<br/><br/>Blue Sharks are placentally viviparous, producing litters averaging about 35 (maximum recorded 135) after a gestation period of 9?12 months. At birth the pups are 35?50 cm long. Reproduction has been reported as seasonal in most areas, with the young often born in spring or summer (Pratt 1979, Stevens 1984a, Nakano 1994) although the periods of ovulation and parturition may be extended (Strasburg 1958, Hazin <em>et al. </em>1994). The skin of females is about three times thicker than that of males to withstand the extensive courtship bites of males. Females can store sperm in their nidamental glands for extended periods, for later fertilisation (Pratt 1979). Ageing studies suggest a longevity of about 20 years with males maturing at 4?6 and females at 5?7 years (Stevens 1975, Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1983b, Nakano 1994). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of population increase at MSY to be 0.061.<br/><br/>Blue Sharks are highly migratory with complex movement patterns and spatial structure related to reproduction and the distribution of prey. There tends to be a seasonal shift in population abundance to higher latitudes associated with oceanic convergence or boundary zones as these are areas of higher productivity. Tagging studies of blue sharks have demonstrated extensive movements of blue sharks in the Atlantic with numerous trans-Atlantic migrations which are probably accomplished by swimming slowly and utilising the major current systems (Stevens 1976, Casey 1985, Stevens 1990). More limited tagging in the Pacific has also shown extensive movements of up to 9,200 km (P. Saul pers. comm.). Substantial data from the North Atlantic on the distribution, movements and reproductive behaviour of different segments of the population suggest a complex reproductive cycle. This involves major oceanic migrations associated with mating areas in the north-western Atlantic and pupping areas in the north-eastern Atlantic (Pratt 1979, Casey 1985, Stevens 1990).<br/><br/>The diet of Blue Sharks consists mainly of small pelagic fish and cephalopods, particularly squid; however, invertebrates (mainly pelagic crustaceans), small sharks, cetaceans (possibly carrion) and seabirds are also taken (Compagno 1984b). While most of the fish prey is pelagic, bottom fishes also feature in the diet. Blue sharks are known to feed throughout the 24-hour period but have been reported to be more active at night, with highest activity in the early evening (Sciarrotta and Nelson 1977).	eng
39381	threats	Stevens, J., 2005	Blue Sharks are rarely target commercial species but are a major bycatch of longline and driftnet fisheries, particularly from nations with high-seas fleets. Much of this bycatch is often unrecorded. Blue sharks are also taken by sport fishermen, particularly in the United States, Europe and Australia. <br/><br/>Periodically, small target fisheries have existed for Blue Sharks such as a seasonal longline fishery for juveniles of 50?150 cm near Vigo, Spain. Some 3t of gutted individuals were observed over a two-day period at Vigo fish market (A. Kingman pers. comm.). A Taiwanese (POC) longline fishery in Indonesian waters took about 13,000 t live weight of blue sharks in 1993 (N. Bentley pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Blue Shark catch rates reported from commercial longlining in the Atlantic Ocean range in average values from 2.9?100 (Stevens and Wayte 1999), while average catch rates as high as 145.0 have been recorded from research longlining (A. da Silva pers. comm.). Stevens (in press) estimated a catch of 137,800 t of Blue Shark from high-seas longline fleets, and 2,300 t from high-seas purse¬seining, in the Pacific in 1994. Bonfil (1994) calculated that 21,152 t of Blue Shark were taken by high-seas driftnet fleets in the Pacific during the 1989?90 period. The annual global catch of blue sharks is likely to be around 20 million individuals.<br/><br/>The limited fishery assessments carried out to date have shown no evidence of a declining trend in catch rates of Blue Sharks with time in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans. However, a 20% decrease was evident in the North Pacific between the periods 1971?1982 to 1983?1993 (Nakano 1996). No consistent decline in catch rates through the fishing season was evident for Japanese longliners fishing in Australian waters (Stevens and Wayte 1999).	eng
39382	conservation	Cortés, E., 2005	In the United States, the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is classified as a small coastal species in the Federal Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, together with the Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcarhinus acronotus</em>), the Finetooth Shark (<em>C. isodon</em>), the Bonnethead Sharl (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>), the Smalltail Shark (<em>C. porosus</em>), the Atlantic Angel Shark (<em>Squatina dumeril</em>) and the Caribbean Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon porosus</em>) (NMFS 1993). The small coastal shark complex is not currently considered to be overfished, but there are fishing regulations in effect, which include an annual commercial quota of 1,760 t dressed weight, and a recreational daily bag limit of two sharks per vessel per trip, with an additional allowance of two Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks per person per trip. A more recent FMP (NMFS 1999) called for more stringent measures, including a reduction of the annual commercial quota for small coastal sharks to 359 t and making the Atlantic angelshark, Caribbean sharpnose and smalltail sharks prohibited species.<br/><br/>This is a very abundant species, with early age at maturity, short lifespan and generation time, and moderately high litter size and population growth rates, capable of withstanding a higher level of removals than many other species of sharks. It is thus considered to be of low risk of extinction because of its life history and population characteristics.	eng
39382	distribution	Cortés, E., 2005	The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark occurs in the western North Atlantic, ranging as far north as New Brunswick, Canada, to the Yucatan Peninsula in the south, including the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
39382	habitat	Cortés, E., 2005	This species is commonly found off sandy beaches and in estuaries and enclosed bays and sounds, mostly over mud and sand bottoms. There is a seasonal inshore-offshore migration, with individuals moving to deeper offshore waters in winter (Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is a small, coastal carcharhinid that rarely exceeds 110 cm total length (TL). The life history of this species in the US Gulf of Mexico has been fairly well described. In this area, female seldom exceeds 107 cm TL and males rarely surpass 105 cm TL. Females generally mature between 85?90 cm TL (or 2.8?3.9 years of age) and males mature between 80?85 cm TL (or 2.4?3.5 years of age) (Parsons 1985, Branstetter 1987). Thus, both males and females reach maturity at about 80% of their maximum size. Maximum observed ages in two separate studies were 6+ years and 7+ years for both sexes combined, whereas theoretical longevities derived from von Bertalanffy growth curves predict that this species should reach at least 10 years (Cortés 2000a). Recent tag-recapture information has shown that this species can live to at least nine years (J. Carlson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is a placental viviparous species that reproduces annually. Gestation period has been reported to last from 10?12 months; litter size is generally 4?6, ranging from 1?7. Offspring are born at 30?35 cm TL or about 30% of maximum adult size. There is a positive correlation between maternal size and litter size and evidence of a trade-off between the number and size of offspring, i.e. there is a negative correlation between litter size and offspring size (Parsons 1983). Mating occurs between mid-May and mid-July and parturition generally takes place mostly in June. The sex ratio at birth is 1:1.<br/><br/>This species uses enclosed bays and sounds as nursery areas. Despite the abundance of this shark, its diet has not been very well described quantitatively. It is dominated by teleost fishes (66%) and crustaceans (32%), but also includes some molluscs (Branstetter 1981, Gelsleichter <em>et al.</em> 1999, Cortés unpubl. data). <br/><br/>Cortés (1995) extensively studied the demography of the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark in the Gulf of Mexico and found that the life history characteristics of this species did not allow it to withstand the levels of fishing mortality it was thought to be subjected to. Recent demographic studies of this species by Cortés (in press) that incorporate uncertainty in estimates of vital rates indicate that the Atlantic Sharpnose Shark has moderate population growth rates (?) (mean=1.056 yr<sup>-1</sup>; 95% confidence interval = 0.970?1.195 yr<sup>-1</sup>) and short generation times (?) (mean=4.9 years, 95% CI = 4.0?5.4 years). Elasticity analysis (which examines the proportional sensitivity of ? to a proportional change in a vital rate) also showed that ? is more sensitive to juvenile survival and adult survival than to fertility (which includes survival to age-1). Annual survivorship values used in Cortés (2002) were estimated through five indirect life history methods and ranged from 55?79%.	eng
39382	population	Cortés, E., 2005	The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is an abundant, small coastal shark of warm temperate and tropical waters (Compagno 1984b).	eng
39382	threats	Cortés, E., 2005	In the United States, Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks are caught in commercial and recreational fisheries and also as bycatch. Recent commercial landings of this species indicate that it accounted for over one-third of all landings of small coastal sharks in the south-eastern United States during 1996?1999. In 1998 and 1999, over 90% of small coastal sharks were landed in Florida?s east coast, the majority of which were caught with drift gillnet gear. Commercial landings of Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks averaged 61,000 individuals from 1995?1999 (Cortés 2000b).<br/><br/>Recreational catch estimates from several surveys indicate that about 72,000 Atlantic Sharpnose Sharks were caught annually from 1981?1998, ranging from a minimum of about 18,000 sharks in 1985 to a peak of about 137,000 sharks caught in 1991 (Cortés 2000b). Additionally, bycatch estimates from the shrimp trawl fishery operating in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that about 1.75 million individuals were caught annually from 1972?1999 (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>The Atlantic Sharpnose Shark is also heavily exploited in Mexico. A monitoring programme conducted in the Gulf of Mexico between November 1993 and December 1994 showed that it is the most important species in the artisanal fisheries, accounting for 46% of the landings numerically, especially in Campeche where 46% of the total is landed (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 1998). By month, the highest landings corresponded to May and October. This species is caught mostly with gillnets. Elsewhere this species has been documented as bycatch in Canada.<br/><br/>Nursery areas for this species are located inshore and adults frequent inshore waters, making this species vulnerable to exploitation and human-induced habitat degradation.	eng
39383	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	There are no known conservation or management measures that apply specifically to this species.	eng
39383	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The Spadenose Shark is an abundant inshore species throughout Southeast Asia and north-eastern Africa. It occurs in the Indonesian archipelago as far as Java and Kalimantan. It is commonly recorded from the lower reaches of rivers in at least Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo (Compagno 1984b).	eng
39383	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The Spadenose Shark is a small species, growing to a maximum length of approximately 74 cm. It feeds mostly on small benthic fish, cephalopods, crabs and stomatopods (Setna <em>et al. </em>1948, Compagno 1984b, Wang <em>et al. </em>1996).<br/><br/>This shark is placentally viviparous, with arguably the most advanced reproductive mode of the elasmobranchs. Eggs are ovulated at only 1 mm in diameter and the stalked placenta forms when the embryos are only a few millimetres in length (Wourms 1993). The young are born at a length of 12?15 cm. Males mature at 24?36 cm and females at 33?35 cm (Devadoss 1979, Compagno 1984b). Breeding occurs throughout the year (Devadoss 1979) and females probably mate at least once each year. Litter sizes range from 6?18, with a mean of 13 (Devadoss 1979). The young are born throughout the year, after a gestation period of five or six months (Compagno 1984b).<br/><br/>There are limited age and growth data available for the Spadenose Shark. Nair (1976) and Kasim (1991) used length frequency data to estimate age and growth parameters. Nair (1976) estimated that they mature at one or two years of age, and that males live approximately five years and females six years. Kasim (1991) gave more rapid estimates of growth, producing growth curves that estimate the size of maturity being reached in less than six months. The use of length frequency data to estimate growth parameters, however, may be erroneous for the Spadenose Shark since the young are born throughout the year, making age-class identification problematic. Further work on the age and growth of this species using vertebral ageing and/or tag-recapture would prove useful. <br/>Kasim (1991) used his growth data from length-frequency analysis to make estimates of natural mortality (M). Using the method of Pauly (1980) he estimated that M = 1.53 year<sup>-1</sup> for females and M = 1.76 year<sup>-1</sup> for males. He also estimated total mortality to be very high, in the range of 3.32 year<sup>-1</sup> to 8.73 year<sup>-1</sup>. These estimates are very high and suggest that the methods or data used were inappropriate.	eng
39383	threats	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	The abundance of this species in inshore waters makes it a major component of a variety of fisheries in Southeast Asia. For example, Kasim (1991) reported that the annual recorded catch of Spadenose Shark in the Verval coast, India from 1979?1981 averaged 823 t. This was taken mostly by trawl and gillnet fishing. Parry-Jones (1996) reported that the Spadenose Shark was the most commonly observed coastal species in Chinese market surveys. Unfortunately, there are no data available on the overall catch of this species, or the impact of fishing on stocks.<br/><br/>The occurrence of this species in estuarine and inshore areas may also make this species susceptible to the impacts of habitat degradation and modification. However, there are no data available on this subject.	eng
39384	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2005	No specific management or conservation plans are known to exist for this species and it must be regarded as potentially under threat from continuing tropical multi-species fisheries. Marine reserves of appropriate size and locality could protect this species, given the pattern of residency shown by Randall (1977). Its distribution in clear waters over coral reefs makes this species ideal for non-consumptive use in the form of tourism diving, as has been shown in a preliminary analysis by Anderson and Ahmed (1993).	eng
39384	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2005	The Whitetip Reef Shark is wide ranging in the Indo-Pacific. It occurs along the east coast of Africa from South Africa to Red Sea, Indian Ocean islands, northern Indian Ocean, including India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, New Guinea and Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia to the Hawaiian Islands and Pitcairn group. The species is also found in the eastern Pacific, Cocos Islands, Galapagos and Panama to Costa Rica (Compagno 1984b). It is found in shallow tropical waters from about 1 m down to 330 m depth, but mainly between 10?40 m (Randall 1977).	eng
39384	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2005	Whitetip Reef Sharks are closely associated with coral reefs in clear, tropical waters. Primarily nocturnal, they shelter in caves by day, often communally. They often return to a home cave for periods of days, weeks or more (Randall 1977). Active at night, they hunt fish and other prey, often in caves and crevices. Maturity is attained at about 105 cm, although a mature male of 95 cm and a pregnant female of 102 cm have been recorded in the Maldives (Anderson and Ahmed 1993). Mating has been recorded in the wild by Tricas and Le Feuvre (1985) and pups are born at 52?60 cm after a gestation period of at least five months. Litter size has been recorded as 2?3 in Madagascar (Fourmanoir 1961, Last and Stevens 1994) and 1?5 elsewhere (Randall 1977, Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Growth is slow in the wild, estimated at 2.1?4.2 cm year<sup>-1</sup> (Randall 1977), and they may attain sexual maturity at eight to nine years and live to about 16 years (Randall 1977, Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size is around 200 cm TL but adults are very rare over 160 cm (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
39384	threats	Smale, M.J., 2005	Taken in line and net trawl fisheries operating in shallow reef areas, this shark has been recorded as part of the multi-species shark catch taken by tropical fisheries, e.g. Barnett (1996), Hayes (1996) and Keong (1996). Although its life history pattern suggests a moderate capacity for rebound (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998), heavy fishing pressure inshore and lack of management plan in most places suggest that this species may be under threat in heavily fished areas, including remote tropical reefs (Anderson <em>et al.</em>1998).	eng
39385	conservation	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Scalloped hammerhead is a member of the family Sphyrnidae, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone.<br/><br/>Management plans, fishing regulation, and monitoring programs are needed throughout this species? range.<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong> (including Caribbean Sea)<br/>In the U.S. this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit, on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). There are, however, no management measures specific to this species, and no stock assessments. Efforts to limit catches of this species, and increased monitoring of incidental catches in commercial fisheries are both recommended.<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In Brazil, there are laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than three nautical miles from shore (equivalent depths of less than about 10 m), however enforcement of these laws has been difficult. Therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has continued and gillnetting within nursery areas is not regulated. Some fisheries along the coast are poorly documented and the multi-species nature of many of the fisheries makes species-specific regulation very difficult. Therefore, it is recommended that coastal protected sea areas are established, in which fishing is banned, to protect nursery grounds.<br/><br/>In 1998, the Brazilian Government?s Environmental Agency (IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) made a first effort to control "finning" by issuing a federal regulation (Portaria IBAMA nnordm; 121 of August 24th, 1998), prohibiting shark finning by all vessels licensed to fish in Brazilian waters (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002). The enforcement of this law has been proven difficult and probably will require international financial aid, trained personnel for sampling work along the main fishing harbours and the establishment of a national observer program (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>S. lewini</em> in the Eastern Pacific, although steps are being taken towards the management of elasmobranch fisheries. In Ecuador the current regulations prohibit shark fishing in the core zone of the Galápagos marine reserve, however extensive poaching has been reported. Ecuador issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec). In Mexico, some known adult aggregating sites are protected within the Revillagigedo Island archipelago, however enforcement is lacking and there are many reports of poaching. Protection of known nursery adult aggregating sites is recommended. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>Although Australian fisheries are generally well-managed, the recent increase in illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing vessels in the waters of northern Australia is of concern for this species.	eng
39385	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	The Scalloped Hammerhead has a circumglobal distribution in coastal warm temperate and tropical seas (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Western Atlantic the species ranges from New Jersey to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>This shark possibly occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Azores. Probably present all along the western Africa coast, confirmed from Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Gabon, and Congo (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Recorded from South Africa (Western Cape to kwaZulu-Natal), Maldives, and Red Sea to Pakistan, India, Myanmar (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong><br/>In the Western pacific, this shark occurs from Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, China (including Taiwan, Province of China), Japan, Philippines, Australia (Queensland, Western Australia), New Caledonia (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, the Scalloped Hammerhead ranges from southern California and Gulf of California to Panama, Ecuador and possibly northern Peru (Compagno in prep). Also Hawaii and Tahiti (Compagno in prep.).	eng
39385	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2?10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20?24°C) and give birth in spring (November?February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species? range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40?45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40?50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9?12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12?41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31?57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219?340 cm TL for males and 296?346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140?198 cm TL and females at around 210?250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter?s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>?s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054?0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ?medium growth species? (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
39385	population	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Recent studies indicate that the Northwest Atlantic, Caribbean Sea and Southwest Atlantic populations of this species are each genetically distinct from each other, and from Eastern Central Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations (D. Chapman and M. Shivji, Nova Southeastern University unpublished data). The boundaries between each population are not yet completely defined due to sampling constraints, but the "Caribbean Sea" population includes Belize and Panama and the "U.S. Gulf Of Mexico" sample covers from Texas to south-western Florida, the boundary or transition zone will be in between Texas and Northern Belize (D. Chapman and M. Shivji, Nova Southeastern University pers. comm. 2007). Further studies are planned to obtain more samples from the Caribbean Sea. Adult site fidelity and annual homing to seamounts are known to occur in the Gulf of California (Klimley 1988, Klimley unpublished data).	eng
39385	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	The Scalloped Hammerhead is taken as both a target and bycatch by trawls, purse-seines, gillnets, fixed bottom longlines, pelagic longlines and inshore artisanal fisheries. The latter catch large numbers of pups and juveniles in some regions. The species? aggregating habit makes them vulnerable to capture in large schools. This also means that they may appear more abundant in landings, where they are caught in high, localised concentrations. Intense fishing pressure can deplete regional stocks rapidly, and re-colonization of depleted areas from neighboring regions is expected to be a slow and complex process. This species is expected to have a low resilience to exploitation because of its life-history characteristics (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species? fins are highly valued and they are being increasingly targeted in some areas in response to increasing demand for shark fins. Hammerhead shark species <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> were found to represent at least 4-5% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Hammerhead shark fins are generally high value compared to other species because of their high fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 1.3 and 2.7 million <em>S. zygaena</em> or <em>S. lewini</em> are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 49,000 to 90,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong> (including Caribbean Sea)<br/>In the USA this species is caught in both commercial coastal shark bottom longline and gillnet fisheries and the pelagic longline fishery, where it suffers high mortality (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also taken in recreational shark fisheries. The USA pelagic longline fishery has operated since the 1960s and encompasses the entire range of this species in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, from the equator to about 50°N. Although this is quite a fecund shark, its late age at maturity in this region (15 years) will render it quite vulnerable to overexploitation, and limit its recovery potential.<br/><br/>Estimates of trends in abundance of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are available from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S.A. pelagic longline fishery, from logbook data between 1986 and 2000 and from observer data between 1992 and 2005. The area covered by this fishery, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the range of this species in these two regions. Although this fishery will not sample individuals closest to the coast, the sample size of hammerheads recorded in the logbook data (the majority of which are thought to be <em>S. lewini</em>) is substantial, with over 60,000 recorded during this period. This subpopulation of Scalloped Hammerhead sharks is estimated from the logbook data to have declined by 89% over the 15 year time period, from 1986?2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), which is less than one generation. A more recent analysis of the pelagic longline observer data indicates that <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. declined by 76% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The pelagic longline fishery has operated in these regions since the 1960s, thus declines from 1986 were certainly not from virgin population abundance.<br/><br/>Using logistic regression of <em>S. lewini</em>, Ha (2006) showed that the probability of capture in a fisheries independent sampling program off Virginia, USA, declined by an order of magnitude between 1975 and 2005. Species-specific trends in abundance are available for <em>S. lewini</em> from a shark-targeted longline survey conducted annually between 1972 and 2003 near Cape Lookout, North Carolina, by Dr. F.J. Schwarz at the University of North Carolina. Standardized CPUE from this research survey based on a sample size of 495 <em>S. lewini</em> indicates that it has declined by 98% over this 32 year time period (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Off southern Carolina, Ulrich (1996) reported a 66% decrease between 1983/84 and 1991/95. In contrast to all other data, a more recent research survey (1989?2005) along the southeast U.S. coast shows a significant increase in juvenile scalloped hammerheads (Myers <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Off the Atlantic coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Hammerheads are a favoured target species for their large fins. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs). This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined "hammerhead" category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewini</em>) is a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing high. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is also taken in various fisheries along the Caribbean coast of South America. It is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries targeting mackerel off Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and in pelagic tuna fisheries of the eastern Caribbean (Chan A Shing 1999). <br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>The Scalloped Hammerhead faces two main threats related to fisheries in this region: 1) fishing of juveniles and neonates on the continental shelf by gillnets and trawl nets (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and 2) fishing of adults by gillnets (only in Brazil) and longlines on the continental shelf and oceanic waters, mostly for fins (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure throughout its range in this area and at all points in its life cycle. Because all Brazilian fisheries statistics for hammerhead sharks are grouped under the headings ?shark? or ?hammerhead shark?, it is not possible to determine species-specific trends. Annual landings of hammerhead sharks (six species of hammerhead sharks occur off Brazil) in the ports of Rio Grande and Itajaí (Brazil) combined increased rapidly from ~30 t in 1992 to 700 t in 1994, after which catches decreased, fluctuating between 100?300 t from 1995?2002. The majority of this catch was taken by surface gillnet fisheries that targeted hammerhead sharks on the outer shelf and slope between 27° and 35°S (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Neonates and small juveniles are caught in coastal waters by directed gillnet fishing and as bycatch by bottom trawls (Vooren and Klippel 2005). In the inshore nursery area (depths down to 10 m), neonates are fished intensively by coastal gillnets and are also caught as bycatch by shrimp trawl, pair trawl and intensive recreational fisheries. Their abundance in coastal waters has decreased markedly as a result (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). Finning of hammerhead sharks, with discarding of the carcasses at sea, is often practised (Kotas 2004, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Fisheries statistics only refer to the landed carcasses and therefore the true extent of catches is unknown.<br/><br/>In southern Brazil and northern Uruguay, adult hammerhead catches (<em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em>) by monofilament longliners are highest in winter and spring at the shelf edge and the continental slope between 30° and 35°S (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The Brazilian pelagic fishery based in Santos catches significant numbers of sharks, including <em>S. lewini</em> (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Until 1997, most of this shark catch was discarded but greater demand for fins and flesh has resulted in a substantial increase in retention rates and targeting of sharks (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Because hammerhead shark fins are highly valued for their high fin-ray count, this species is unlikely to be released alive. The artisanal fishing fleet in São Paulo has operated since 1996 and also takes sharks. The majority of the hammerheads caught by this fishery were newborns or juveniles (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Uruguay (oceanic coast) some neonates are also captured (together with <em>S. zygaena</em>) in artisanal gill nets, in summer (between December and February) (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007). In view of the intensive fisheries in the coastal and offshore areas where <em>S. lewini</em> occurs in this region and documented declining trends where the species has been heavily fished in other areas of its range, the species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Southwest Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Data to indicate trends in abundance are generally not available for the Eastern Central Atlantic. Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that similar population trends for hammerheads (grouped) to those documented in the Northwest Atlantic can be expected in the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic because longline fleets in this area exert comparable fishing effort, and effort is seen to shift from western to eastern Atlantic waters (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998, Serafy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006). European industrial freeze trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate on the northwestern African shelf nearly year-round with five to ten large vessels (9,000-18,000 horse power). A study of bycatch rates in more than 1,400 trawl sets off Mauritania from 2001?2005, showed that <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of total bycatch during this period (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Hammerheads are caught by both inshore artisanal fisheries and offshore European fisheries operating along the coast of western Africa. The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26?28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anonymous 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the West African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also noted that there is concern for <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> off Mauritania, with catches comprised exclusively of juveniles, often newborn. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is frequently caught along the western African coast and is heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). There is anecdotal evidence for some declines in catches off Senegal and Gambia (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles are very susceptible to coastal fisheries using drift or fixed gill nets such as sole, sciaenid and Sepia spp fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). They were taken as bycatch in the milk shark fishery and in the Banc d'Aguin national park, Mauritania, until the fishery was stopped in 2003 and they are still caught in large quantities in the Sciaenid fishery. A specialized artisanal fishery for carcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has been continuous (M. Seisay pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Western Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Reliable species-specific catch information is available for shark nets set off the beaches of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, in the southewestern Indian Ocean, from 1978?2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Catch per unit effort of <em>S. lewini </em>declined significantly during this period from approximately 5.5/km net/year to approximately 2/km net/year (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This fishery independent data indicates a decline of approximately 64% over a 25 year period. About 120 longline vessels were reportedly operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean prior to 2005, and this number was expected to increase (IOTC 2005). These vessels are primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and Giant Guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em>) for their fins (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Illegal fishing by industrial vessels and shark finning are reported in other areas of the Indian Ocean also (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) also report large catches of newborn <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> by prawn trawlers on the Tudela Bank, South Africa, ranging from an estimated 3,288 in 1989 to 1,742 in 1992, with almost 98% mortality. An inshore, artisanal fishery that uses multiple gear types (including seine nets and gillnets) along the coast of Mozambique and takes sharks as bycatch also potentially affects <em>S. lewini</em> (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is captured in various other fisheries throughout the rest of its range in the Indian Ocean. Few species-specific data are available from other areas, however, declines are also likely to have occurred in other areas where this species is heavily fished. Other countries with major fisheries for sharks include the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles and United Republic of Tanzania (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Sharks are considered fully to over-exploited in these waters (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Landings data are available from FAO for Oman since 1985. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is one of five dominant species in the catches of Oman. Landings of sharks for Oman varied between 2,800? 8,300 t, since 1985, with peaks noted from 1986?1988 and 1995?1997. After 1997 landings continued to decline to under 4,000 t in 2000 (FAO 2008). Oman has a long-established traditional shark fishery (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) surveyed landings sites in Oman between 2002 and 2003 and report a notable decline in catches of <em>S. lewini</em> in 2003, although the trend varied between areas. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) note that large pelagic sharks such as <em>S. lewini</em> were displaced during 2003 by smaller shark species. Although it is possible that this is due to sampling bias, informal interviews with fishermen revealed a general trend of declining shark catches over the last number of years, particularly large pelagic species (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Artisanal gillnet and longline fisheries also target sharks off Madagascar for their fins, which are exported in the international shark fin trade. A study of directed shark fisheries at two sites in southwest Madagascar from 2001?2002 showed that hammerhead sharks represented 29% of sharks caught and 24% of the total wet weight, but species-specific data are not available because fishermen do not differentiate between <em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em> (McVean <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is also high in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, with many countries in this region among the largest shark fishing nations in terms of global catch in the world (Clarke and Rose 2005, SEAFDEC 2006). Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, with a reported 105,000 and 118,000 tonnes landed in 2002 and 2003 respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is a target and bycatch of shark longline, tuna gillnet fisheries and trawls in several areas of this region (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). The species is utilised for its fins (high value in adults), meat, skin and cartilage (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). White <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest that this species is prone to overfishing in Indonesian waters, where substantial catches of <em>S. lewini</em> are taken in gillnet and longline fisheries. They found that almost all of the <em>S. lewini </em>caught by gillnetting, and the majority caught by longlining, were immature, and were therefore removed from the population before they had the opportunity to breed. Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout Southeast Asia and juveniles and neonates are very heavily exploited, with large numbers of immature sharks in catches in other areas also (SEAFDEC 2006). Foreign vessels are also reported to target sharks in eastern Indonesian waters (Clarke and Rose 2005). Given the marked declines in this species? abundance in areas for which data are available, there is every reason to suspect that declines have also occurred in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where fishing pressure is high.<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports totaled 11?34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong><br/>Throughout this species? range in the Eastern Pacific, juveniles and neonates are heavily exploited in directed fisheries, and are also taken as bycatch of shrimp trawlers and coastal fisheries targeting teleost fish. Fishing pressure directed at juveniles also appears to have increased in parts of the Gulf of California and in Costa Rica, and is likely to be increasing elsewhere as other, more valuable fishery stocks are depleted. Patchy distribution resulting from aggregating behavior of adults and the use of historic nurseries, where neonates shoal with spatially confined movements, make this species particularly easy to target. As in other areas, the large fins of this species are highly prized for their value in the international shark fin trade. Increased fishing pressure from international longline fleets in the Eastern Central Pacific and Southeast Pacific, driven by increasing demand for fins, is of concern. Furthermore, as traditional and coastal fisheries in Central America are depleted, domestic fleets have increased pressure at adult aggregating sites such as Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), or along the slopes of the continental shelf where high catch rates of juveniles can be obtained (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California, <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is a common catch in the directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries of Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, Mexico. Juveniles, including neonates, dominate the overall landings of this species; most are less than 100 cm total length (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> in press). Bottom set gillnets and longlines produce the majority of the catch. Adults are landed in artisanal pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries, but represented less than 20% of the total <em>S. lewini</em> observed in artisanal catches during 1998 and 1999 fisheries surveys (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> In Press). The indirect take by trawlers and artisanal teleost and shrimp fishermen is unknown. Landings data for 1996?1998 from the Gulf of Tehauntepec, Mexico, indicates that Scalloped Hammerheads were the second most important shark caught in the artisanal shark fishery, representing 36% of the total catch from a sample of 8,659 individuals (Soriano-Velassquez  <em>et al.</em> 2002). The size of the individuals in this sample is unknown. Marquez (2000) reports that this species represented only 4.61% of the total catch of the artisanal fishery in the Gulf of California, contrasting with reports for Sinaloa, Mexico in 1994, 1995 and 1996, in which scalloped hammerheads represented 80.3%, 52.54% and 85.68% of the shark catch respectively (Marquez 2000). Off Pacific Guatemala, the importance of this species in the fishery landings appears to vary across areas, from 6% (n=339) to 74% (n=800) of the total catch from 1996?1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). Data from El Salvador collected from July of 1991 to June of 1992, indicate this species represented 11.9% of the landed catch in a sample of 412 (Villatoro and Rivera 1994).<br/><br/>The number of adult individuals at a well-known <em>S. lewini</em> aggregation site in the Gulf of California (Espiritu Santo seamount) has declined sharply since 1980. In 1981 Klimley and Nelson estimated the size of a school at 525 individuals using Lincon Index mark recapture methods. Between 1998 and 2004 at least 20 attempts have been made to recreate this study, however in most cases fewer than 8 individuals have been observed at one time (Klimley 1999, Klimley and Jorgensen unpublished data).<br/><br/>Large hammerheads were formerly abundant in coastal waters off Central America, but were reportedly depleted in the 1970s (Cooke 1990). Industrial longlining initiated in the early 1980s, and again large hammerheads provided valuable fins for this market. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991?2000 showed a decrease of 60% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, and in 2003 this decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 2001 and 2003, scalloped hammerheads only constituted 0.14% and .09% of the total catch by individuals, respectively.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, catch records (grouped for the entire family Sphyrnidae) indicate a peak of approximately 1,000 tons in 1996, followed by a steady reduction until 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Landings in the port of Manta (accounting for 80% of shark landing in Ecuador) of <em>S. lewini</em>, caught by artisanal longline and drift net fleet were about 160 t in 2004, 96 t in 2005 and 82 t (2006). Artisanal fishery landings into the port of Manta for <em>Sphyrna</em> spp declined by 51% between 2004 and 2006 (Martínez-Ortíz <em>et al. </em>2007). According to Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) the percentage of juveniles in landings is 83% for females and 71% for males. Most of the landings for this species (74%) take place between January and June.<br/><br/>Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark numbers and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers. comm.). Illegal fishing around the Galapagos is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleet from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). These illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins. There are no species specific data for these fisheries, but <em>S. lewini </em>is one of the most common species around the Galapagos (J. Martinez pers.obs.), and given the high value of fins of this species, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. In an effort to help stopping the illegal finning occurring in the Galapagos, the Ecuadorian Government issued Decree 2130 in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador. Unfortunately, the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes, with fins being exported mainly via Peru and Colombia where there is no finning ban in place. Interviews with fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggested that illegal trade routes operated for fins transported both from Ecuador and directly from Galapagos to Peru (Saenz 2005, WildAid 2005). Ecuador then abolished Decree 2130 and issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec).<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>There has been a large increase in illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Hammerheads are known to feature in the catches, and are suspected targets for their large valuable fins, although no specific data are available. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory, and this likely includes hammerheads. There is an urgent need to obtain data to form an accurate assessment of the population in this region.	eng
39386	conservation	Denham, J., Stevens, J., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Heupel, M.R., Cliff, G., Morgan, A., Graham, R., Ducrocq, M., Dulvy, N.D, Seisay, M., Asber, M., Valenti, S.V., Litvinov, F., Martins, P., Lemine Ould Sidi, M., Tous, P. and Bucal, D., 2007	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for <em>S. mokarran</em>. <br/> <br/>This species is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this unproductive shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. <br/> <br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (ICCAT) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the harvesting of hammerhead sharks for their fins alone. <br/> <br/>In the U.S. this species is managed as a Large Coastal Shark on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). <br/> <br/>In South Africa there is a shark bycatch limit in the tuna longline fishery of 10% of the weight of tuna landed, and a recreational line fishery Bag Limit of one shark per angler per day.	eng
39386	distribution	Denham, J., Stevens, J., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Heupel, M.R., Cliff, G., Morgan, A., Graham, R., Ducrocq, M., Dulvy, N.D, Seisay, M., Asber, M., Valenti, S.V., Litvinov, F., Martins, P., Lemine Ould Sidi, M., Tous, P. and Bucal, D., 2007	The great hammerhead ranges widely throughout the tropical waters of the world, from latitudes 40°N to 35°S (Last and Stevens 1994). It is apparently nomadic and migratory, with some populations moving polewards in the summer, as off Florida and in the South China Sea (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Widespread in the south-west Indian Ocean but in South Africa is confined to the KwaZulu-Natal coast, where it co-exists with the scalloped hammerhead <em>S. lewini</em>, also an inhabitant of the tropic, and the smooth hammerhead <em>S. zygaena</em>, which favours cooler waters (Cliff 1995, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). There is a pupping and nursery ground in a coastal mangrove estuarine area of southern Belize (R.T. Graham pers. obs).	eng
39386	habitat	Denham, J., Stevens, J., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Heupel, M.R., Cliff, G., Morgan, A., Graham, R., Ducrocq, M., Dulvy, N.D, Seisay, M., Asber, M., Valenti, S.V., Litvinov, F., Martins, P., Lemine Ould Sidi, M., Tous, P. and Bucal, D., 2007	<em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> is a coastal-pelagic and semi-oceanic tropical hammerhead occurring close inshore and well offshore, over the continental shelves, island terraces, and in passes and lagoons of coral atolls, as well as over deep water near land, at depths ranging  from near-surface to over 80 m (Compagno in prep. b). The maximum total size is reported as 550 to 610 cm by Compagno (in prep. b), though 400 cm is more common for a mature adult (Compagno in prep. b, Last and Stevens 1994). Males mature at about 234 to 269 cm, and reach at least 341 cm, and females mature at about 250 to 300 cm and reach 482 to 549 cm (Compagno in prep. b). <em>S. mokarran</em> is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta. Litter size ranges from 6 to 42 pups after 11 months? gestation (Compagno in prep. b). Size at birth is 50 to 70 cm. Females breed once every two years (Stevens and Lyle 1989). Pups are born in late spring to summer in the Northern Hemisphere and between December and January off Australia (Compagno in prep. b, Last and Stevens 1994).   <br/> <br/>The diet includes fish (mainly demersal species), other elasmobranchs, crustacea and cephalopods (Compagno in prep. b). Strong <em>et al.</em> (1990) observed a large (<em>ca</em> 4 m) great hammerhead feeding on a southern stingray <em>Dasyatis americana</em> (disc width 1.5 m).	eng
39386	threats	Denham, J., Stevens, J., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Heupel, M.R., Cliff, G., Morgan, A., Graham, R., Ducrocq, M., Dulvy, N.D, Seisay, M., Asber, M., Valenti, S.V., Litvinov, F., Martins, P., Lemine Ould Sidi, M., Tous, P. and Bucal, D., 2007	Due to the distinctive head shape of this genus, it is typical for catches to be reported at the genus level, <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. Therefore, it is rare to find fisheries statistics that are specific to one species of hammerhead shark. Due to the great hammerhead?s preference for warmer waters, it can be expected to make up a greater proportion of tropical catches of hammerheads than more temperate fisheries. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> is taken by target and bycatch, fisheries (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006, Zeeberg <em>et al</em>. 2006) and is regularly caught in the tropics, with longlines, fixed bottom nets, hook-and-line, and possibly with pelagic and bottom trawls (Compagno in prep). Hammerhead sharks, <em>S. mokarran</em> in particular, have been noted as a favoured target species due to the size of their fins (R.T. Graham pers. comm). Fin prices are rising, driven by the Asian Fin market (R.T. Graham pers. obs). <br/> <br/>There was a directed shark fishery operated by Taiwan around the northern coast of Australia that regularly caught great hammerheads up until 1986 (Stevens and Lyle 1989). Other possible threats include sport fishing (Pepperell 1992) and capture in anti-shark measures around the beaches of Australia and South Africa (Paterson 1990, Cliff 1995). Bonfil (1994) gives an overview of global shark fisheries. This species is mentioned specifically with reference to fisheries in Brazil, East USA and Mexico, however <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are mentioned in the majority of tropical fisheries cited. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Mainly taken by drift gillnets, bottom gillnets and on longlines, hook and line, pelagic and bottom trawls (Schneider 1990). This species is a bycatch in both the industrial and artisanal fisheries but a specialised artisanal fishery for charcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has not decreased (M. Seisay pers. obs). The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26-28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Ducrocq 2002) noted the high threat to sharks in the west African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. This workshop identified <em>S. mokkarran </em>as particularly threatened. The subsequent sub-regional plan of action for sharks of West Africa (member states of the Sub Regional Fishing Commission) states that landings of <em>S. mokarran</em> have collapsed and lists this as one of the four most threatened species, deserving the greatest attention in the whole region (Ducrocq 2002). <br/> <br/>Previously observed from Mauritania to Angola, reportedly abundant from November to January in Senegal, and in October in Mauritania (Cadenat and Blache 1981). However, recent scientific trawl surveys off Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia and Guinea-Conakry between 20 to 1,000 m have failed to record it, except in very low numbers off Guinea-Conakry and one record from Senegal in 1995 (FISA unpublished data). Anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen in Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Guinea suggest there was a large decline in all shark species during the 1990s and that <em>S. mokarran</em> is almost extirpated from these areas (M. Ducrocq pers. obs.).   <br/> <br/>Data are lacking as there is little species specific data collection in the region, however this is a very distinctive species with a large dorsal fin which is highly valued for the shark fin trade. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of bycatch in the European industrial pelagic trawl fishery off Northwest Africa (Zeeberg 2006). <br/> <br/>Although there are very little species specific data available, the absence of recent records and region-wide recognition of the extent of the decline, give cause to suspect that the population has decreased by least 80% in the past 25 years. Fisheries in this region remain largely unmonitored and unmanaged, leading to an assessment of Critically Endangered in the Eastern Atlantic.   <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Indian Ocean</strong> <br/>This species is widely distributed in the SW Indian Ocean and is a summer migrant to KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) (east coast of South Africa), where the annual catch in the KZN shark nets is 11 sharks (1978 to 1999), consisting mainly of adolescents and adults. Over this period there has been a significant decline in annual catch (18 to 4 sharks) and catch rate (0.5 to 0.2 sharks.km-net<sup>-1</sup>.yr<sup>-1</sup> (p = 0.000) (Dudley 2002). A continued decline in catch rate was reported for the period 1978 to 2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Over this period, regression of catch and catch rate against year revealed a significant decline in annual catch from 18 to two sharks (89%) and in catch rate from 0.44 to 0.09 sharks.km-net<sup>-1</sup>.yr<sup>-1</sup> (79%) (S. Dudley pers. obs. 2006). It is uncertain whether these declines reflect highly localized stock depletion or whether they reflect a general decline in the Southwest Indian Ocean, but large numbers of longline vessels have been reported to be operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean where they are targeting primarily hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> (IOTC 2005 in Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This species is generally regarded as solitary, and is therefore unlikely to be abundant wherever it occurs. This is in contrast to other large hammerheads, such as <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> which forms large schools. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em>, like other hammerheads, readily takes baited hooks and is sought after for its fins. Based on these characteristics, together with the decline of 79% in catch rates in the KZN shark nets, this species is assessed as Endangered in the southwest Indian Ocean. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is caught primarily as a bycatch in the pelagic longline, bottom longline and net fisheries along the northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. It is also caught in the recreational fishery. The species represents 0.7% of the species catch and suffers from greater than 90% at-vessel fishing mortality in the U.S. bottom longline fishery (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpubl. data). The U.S. pelagic fishery logbook data has shown a decline close to 90%, however this data-set is known for inaccurate data reporting (Beerkircher <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is probably a lack of reporting of the catch of great hammerheads because this species is routinely finned and discarded, which is illegal in the US Atlantic Federal Waters (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpub. data). Both the pelagic and bottom longline observer programs have recorded a 2 to 3:1 ratio for <em>S. Lewini</em> to <em>S. mokarran</em>. The meat is not valuable but the fins are high grade and bring in a good price, thus finning still occurs in the U.S. fishery. Interview with shark fishermen in Belize indicate that hammerheads (<em>S. mokarran</em> in particular) are a favoured target species for their large fins (R.T. Graham pers. obs.). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs).  This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined ?hammerhead? category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewin</em>i) a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing even greater for this species. In the Pacific Ocean off of Guatemala this species is caught as by-catch in the commercial longline fishery. <br/> <br/>There appear to be little data for landings and catch effort for this species in Central America and the Caribbean. Off the coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs). The Cuban directed shark fishery (longline) between 1983 and 1991 recorded <em>S. mokarran</em> (subadults and juveniles) as one of 23 species caught. Since 1992 small increases in mean sizes were noted, indicating partial recovery of the species. In Mexico between November 1993 and December 1994 (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan) 901 vessels were monitored every day. <em>Sphyrna mokarran</em> represented 86% of the total catch. <br/> <br/>The difficulty in species identification and accurate recording make an assessment of this species very difficult. However, low survival at capture makes this species very vulnerable to fishing pressure, whether directed or incidental. This species is listed as Endangered in the Northwest Atlantic under criterion A2 based on a suspected decline of at least >50% over the past 10 years. The decline is poorly documented and has not been curtailed. <br/> <br/><strong>Australia</strong> <br/>There has been a large increase in the illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Hammerheads are known to feature in the catches, and are suspected targets for their large valuable fins, although no specific data are available. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory, and this likely includes hammerheads (J. Stevens pers. obs). It is not a productive species and is coming out at the ?high-risk? end in recent Risk Assessments of northern Australian elasmobranchs (J. Stevens pers. obs). There is concern that this species is being increasingly targeted, and therefore an urgent need to obtain data to form an accurate assessment of the population in this region.	eng
39387	conservation	Cortés, E., 2005	In the USA, the Bonnethead Shark is classified as a small coastal species in the Federal Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean, together with the Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcarhinus acronotus</em>), the Finetooth Shark (<em>C. isodon</em>), the Smalltail Shark (<em>C. porosus</em>), the Atlantic Angel (<em>Squatina dumeril</em>), the Atlantic Sharpnose (<em>Rhizoprionodon terranovae</em>) and the Caribbean Sharpnose (<em>R. porosus</em>) sharks (NMFS 1993). The small coastal shark complex is not currently considered to be overfished, but there are fishing regulations in effect. A more recent FMP (NMFS 1999) called for more stringent measures, including a reduction of the annual commercial quota for small coastal sharks to 359 t.<br/><br/>The Bonnethead Shark is a very abundant species, with early age at maturity, short lifespan and generation time, and high litter size and population growth rates, capable of withstanding much higher removal levels than many other species of sharks. It is thus considered to be of lesser risk because of its life history and population characteristics.	eng
39387	distribution	Cortés, E., 2005	This species occurs off the American continent only. In the western Atlantic it has been reported from southern Brazil to North Carolina, USA, and occasionally further north. It is also common in the Gulf of Mexico and part of the Caribbean. In the eastern Pacific it is reported from southern California to Ecuador (Compagno 1984b). <br/>The bonnethead shark is an abundant, small coastal shark commonly found in shallow estuaries and bays over grass, mud and sandy bottoms. Off Florida?s west coast it is very abundant in shallow estuaries during the summer months and moves to deeper water off the beaches in winter (Hueter and Manire 1994). This species shows sexual segregation.	eng
39387	habitat	Cortés, E., 2005	The Bonnethead Shark is a small coastal sphyrnid that reaches about 150 cm total length (TL). The life history of this species in the Gulf of Mexico has received considerable attention. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, female Bonnethead Sharks seldom exceed 130 cm TL, whereas males rarely surpass 110 cm TL. Females generally mature between 80?95 cm TL (or 2?3 years of age) and males mature between 68?85 cm TL (two years of age). Maximum observed ages are 6?7 years or more for females and 5?6 years or more for males, whereas theoretical longevities derived from von Bertalanffy growth curves range from 5?6 years for males and from 10?12 years for females (Parsons 1993a, Carlson and Parsons 1997). Empirical data for populations of this species in the eastern Gulf of Mexico reveal a latitudinal increase in maximum size, size at maturity and offspring size (Parsons 1993, Carlson and Parsons 1997, C.A. Manire pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The Bonnethead Shark is a placental viviparous species that reproduces annually. Its gestation period is one of the shortest known in sharks, lasting approximately 4.5?5 months; litter size averages nine. The periodicity of parturition also varies latitudinally, taking place in mid to late August in Florida Bay (southernmost location), early September in Tampa Bay (middle location) and mid to late September off north-west Florida (northernmost location) (Manire <em>et al.</em> 1995, J. Carlson pers. comm.). Size at birth ranges from an average of 27 cm TL in Florida Bay to 35 cm TL in Tampa Bay (Parsons 1983). Parsons (1993) and Manire <em>et al.</em> (1995) found that mating occurs in November and sperm is stored until ovulation/fertilisation the following March or April. Ongoing tagging studies along the west coast of Florida (R.E. Hueter and C.A. Manire pers. Comm.) indicate that individuals of this species are highly site-attached, with little evidence for long-distance migrations and mixing of populations.<br/><br/>The shallow grass bottoms off Florida?s west coast are documented nursery grounds for this species, which probably utilises similar habitats as nursery areas throughout its range (Hueter and Manire 1994). The Bonnethead Shark's diet off south-west Florida is very homogeneous, dominated by crustaceans, consisting mostly of portunid crabs (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996). Stomach contents also show a high incidence of angiosperms, which are likely ingested incidentally to prey capture and denote the benthic feeding habits of this species (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species also feeds on cephalopods and fish, but to a much lesser extent. Bonnethead sharks are specialist hunters (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 1996) that appear to have higher daily rations than other species of sharks for which quantitative food consumption data exist (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>Cortés and Parsons (1996) compared the demography of two populations off Florida?s west coast and found short generation times (4?5 years) and high population growth rates (1?28% per year). Recent demographic studies of this species by Cortés (in press) incorporating uncertainty in estimates of vital rates indicate that the bonnethead has very high population growth rates (l) (mean=1.304 yr<sup>-1</sup>; 95% confidence interval=1.150?1.165 yr<sup>-1</sup>) and short generation times (A) (mean=3.9 years, 95% CI=2.6?4.5 years). Elasticity analysis (which examines the proportional sensitivity of l to a proportional change in a vital rate) also showed that l is most sensitive to juvenile survival and adult survival than to fertility (which includes survival to age<sup>-1</sup>). Annual survivorship values used in Cortés (in press) were estimated through five indirect life history methods and ranged from 55?81%. The high l values and elasticity patterns for this species are a result of its ?fast? life history characteristics.	eng
39387	threats	Cortés, E., 2005	In the USA, Bonnethead Sharks are caught in commercial and recreational fisheries and also as bycatch. Recent commercial landings of this species indicate that it accounted for over 50% of all landings of small coastal sharks in the south-eastern USA in 1995, but was the least important small coastal species of shark represented in commercial landings from 1996?1999. Commercial landings of bonnetheads in numbers averaged about 22,000 individuals from 1995?1999 (Cortés 2000b).<br/><br/>Recreational catch estimates from several surveys indicate that about 29,000 bonnetheads were caught annually from 1981?1998, ranging from a minimum of about 13,000 sharks in 1991 to a peak of about 53,000 sharks caught in 1986 (Cortés 2000b). Additionally, bycatch estimates from the shrimp trawl fishery operating in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that about 410,000 individuals were caught annually from 1972?1999 (Cortés unpubl.).<br/><br/>Bonnetheads are also exploited in Mexico. In Mexican coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico, <em>S. tiburo</em> is the second most important species in the artisanal fisheries, accounting for 15% of the landings numerically (Castillo <em>et al.</em> 1998). Targeted fisheries for this species have also been documented for Trinidad and Tobago (Shing 1999) and Ecuador (Martinez 1999). Bycatch in other fisheries, mainly from shrimp trawling, is probably also significant in other fishing nations of the American continent. <br/>Nursery areas for this species are located inshore and adults frequent inshore waters, making this species vulnerable to exploitation and human-induced habitat degradation. Preliminary results of an ongoing study on the reproductive endocrinology of this species off Florida?s west coast show that high levels of organochlorine contaminants are present in tissues of sampled individuals (C.A. Manire pers. comm.).	eng
39388	conservation	Casper, B.M., Domingo, A., Gaibor, N., Heupel, M.R., Kotas, E., Lamónaca, A.F., Pérez-Jimenez, J.C., Simpfendorfer, C., Smith, W.D., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A. & Vooren, C.M., 2005	Smooth hammerhead is a member of the family Sphyrnidae, which is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. States are urged to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this highly migratory species. It is also essential to improve and sustain data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia, Brazil), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g. ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the capture of oceanic sharks for their fins alone. Strict enforcement of these bans is required if they are to be effective.<br/><br/>Management plans, fishing regulation, and monitoring programs are needed throughout this species? range. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters and further research on the species? life-history characteristics is required. Protection of known adult aggregation sites and coastal nursery areas is also recommended.<br/><br/>In the USA, this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit on the US Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan, however there are no management measures specific to this species and no stock assessments have been undertaken for it. Enforcement of Brazilian laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than 3 nm from shore has been difficult and therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has persisted.	eng
39388	distribution	Casper, B.M., Domingo, A., Gaibor, N., Heupel, M.R., Kotas, E., Lamónaca, A.F., Pérez-Jimenez, J.C., Simpfendorfer, C., Smith, W.D., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A. & Vooren, C.M., 2005	This shark is found in coastal and open ocean (Domingo in prep) temperate and tropical waters, with a wider range than other members of its family (Compagno in prep). The full extent of this species? range in tropical waters may be incompletely known at present, due to probably confusion with the more abundant Scalloped Hammerhead (<em>S. lewini</em>) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: From Nova Scotia to Florida, USA and Virgin Islands to southern Argentina (Compagno in prep, Domingo in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: From the UK and as a vagrant in the North Sea, southwards, including the Mediterranean Sea, where has been reported as more common in the western basin (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998), to Mauritania, Senegal, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Angola (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong>: South Africa and southern Mozambique, Comoros Islands, southern India, Sri Lanka, and Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania) (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Western Pacific</strong>: From Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin) to Japan and southern Russia in the Northwest Pacific. Australia (New South Wales), New Zealand, Lord Howe and Kermadec Islands in the Southwest Pacific (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: From northern California, USA, to Gulf of California, Mexico, Panama, and from Ecuador to Chile, including Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><br/>Also occurs off the Hawaiian Islands, USA and possibly off Samoa (Compagno in prep, Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39388	habitat	Casper, B.M., Domingo, A., Gaibor, N., Heupel, M.R., Kotas, E., Lamónaca, A.F., Pérez-Jimenez, J.C., Simpfendorfer, C., Smith, W.D., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A. & Vooren, C.M., 2005	The large majority of the information for this section is taken from Simpfendorfer (2005). <br/><br/>The Smooth Hammerhead is a coastal-pelagic and semi-oceanic and occurs on the continental shelf, to 200 m depth (Ebert 2003). Smale (1991) reported that large individuals were commonly found over deep reefs on the edge of the continental shelf. The species has also been observed in freshwater in Indian River, Florida, USA (G. Burgess pers. comm.) and in the Rio de la Plata estuary in Uruguay (Doño 2008, Domingo in prep.). In the demersal gillnet fishery in southern Western Australia, juvenile <em>S. zygaena</em> are caught on the bottom in depths from the shore to at least 60 m (C. Simpfendorfer pers. comm.). Compagno (in prep.) reports that this species occurs at or near the surface in the East China Sea, whereas <em>S. mokarran</em> and <em>S. lewini </em>range into deeper water in this area. The nursery habitat of this species is smooth sandy substrate in shallow waters, down to depths of 10m. Large schools of juvenile <em>S. zygaena</em> have been reported from off South Africa (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). Off southern Brazil in South America, <em>S. zygaena</em> occurs at depths of 10?100 m (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nursery areas and juveniles have been reported in coastal waters off Uruguay from mid-Rio de la Plata to the Atlantic Ocean bordering with Brazilian waters from November to March at temperatures of 16?23°C and salinities of 12?27 ups (Doño 2008, Domingo in prep.).<br/><br/>There are only limited published biological data on <em>S. zygaena</em>, despite its widespread occurrence. Compagno (1984, in prep.) reported that the species reaches a maximum size of 370?400 cm total length (TL). Stevens (1984) reported that off the east coast of Australia males mature at about 250?260 cm TL and females at about 265 cm TL. Castro and Mejuto (1995) reported gravid females between 220 and 255 cm fork length (FL), but gave no relationship between fork and total length. Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) reported a female <em>S. zygaena</em> from South Africa that appeared to have recently mated in February and another female caught in November that contained full-term embryos. Stevens (1984) reported that off the east coast of Australia parturition occurs between January and March, with ovulation at about the same time. The gestation period off eastern Australia would appear to be 10?11 months. Castro and Mejuto (1995) reported 21 gravid females with a mean litter size of 33.5 from the waters of western Africa. Off eastern Australia Stevens (1975) reported litter sizes between 20?49 (mean 32). The sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Stevens 1984, Castro and Mejuto 1995). Compagno (1984, in prep) gave the size at birth as 50?61 cm. Smale (1991) and Doño (2008) reported juveniles with open umbilical scars from South Africa at sizes between 59 and 63 cm, and from Uruguay between 49 and 55 cm TL, respectively. Possible pupping grounds and nursery areas for this species include the northern Gulf of California and shallow coastal waters off southern Brazil and Uruguay (Vooren 1997, 1999, Vooren and Klippel 2005, Doño <em>et al.</em> in prep). In Uruguay pupping grounds and nursery areas were reported in coastal waters by Doño (2008).<br/><br/>Although maximum age has yet to be determined for this species, it is thought that the lifespan of the smooth hammerhead may be 20 years or longer (FLMNH 2008). Further information is required on the biology and life-history parameters of this species.<br/><br/>Squid and teleosts are the most common prey. Based on specimens caught by recreational anglers off New South Wales, Australia, Stevens (1984) reported that 76% of specimens with food in their stomachs contained squid and 54% teleosts. For <em>S. zygaena</em> less than 2 m in length from the waters off South Africa, Smale (1991) reported that the diet was dominated by inshore squid (mostly <em>Loligo v. reynaudii</em>), with teleosts such as Hake, Horse Mackerel and Ribbonfish also important. Crustaceans and elasmobranchs have also been reported from stomach analyses (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (1984) reported that sharks and rays were a favoured food, presumably of larger specimens. However, of 145 <em>S. zygaena</em> from South Africa examined by Dudley and Cliff (1993) only 0.7% contained elasmobranch prey.	eng
39388	population	Casper, B.M., Domingo, A., Gaibor, N., Heupel, M.R., Kotas, E., Lamónaca, A.F., Pérez-Jimenez, J.C., Simpfendorfer, C., Smith, W.D., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A. & Vooren, C.M., 2005	Specific data on populations of this species are generally unavailable in many areas because hammerhead shark catches are often grouped to include several <em>Sphyrna</em> species. Furthermore, this species has sometimes been confused with the Scalloped Hammerhead (<em>S. lewini</em>) in the tropics and these two species are probably misidentified with each other.	eng
39388	threats	Casper, B.M., Domingo, A., Gaibor, N., Heupel, M.R., Kotas, E., Lamónaca, A.F., Pérez-Jimenez, J.C., Simpfendorfer, C., Smith, W.D., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A. & Vooren, C.M., 2005	Smooth Hammerhead is caught with a variety of gears, including with pelagic longlines, handlines, gillnets, purse-seines and pelagic and bottom trawls (Bonfil 1994, Compagno in prep, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). In a review of world elasmobranch fisheries Bonfil (1994) listed <em>S. zygaena</em> as being reported in catches from directed shark fisheries off the east and west coasts of the USA, Brazil, Spain, Taiwan and Philippines. It also is taken in the shark fishery off south-western Australia (Heald 1987) and western Africa (Castro and Mejuto 1995). This shark is undoubtedly caught in shark fisheries in other parts of its range, but has not been reported separately from other hammerhead species. Very often these sharks are finned and the carcasses discarded. Bonfil (1994) also reported that this species is caught as bycatch in a number of non-shark fisheries, particularly pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries that operate close to temperate and subtropical continental shelves (e.g., South Pacific driftnet fishery, Mediterranean drift net fishery, Spanish longline fishery operating in the Mediterranean Sea and eastern Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean tuna longline fishery). The capture of <em>S. zygaena</em> in many of these fisheries is infrequent (Bonfil 1994). Although size data are limited, catches in pelagic fisheries appear to be dominated by larger individuals, while juveniles are common in inshore shelf fisheries.<br/><br/>This species? fins are highly valued and they are being increasingly targeted in some areas in response to increasing demand for shark fins. Hammerhead shark species <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> were found to represent at least 4?5% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2006a). Hammerhead shark fins are generally high value compared to other species because of their high fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 1.3 and 2.7 million <em>S. zygaena</em> and/or <em>S. lewini</em> are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 49,000 to 90,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b).<br/><br/>Catches of Sphyrnidae have been reported only from the Atlantic Ocean since 1991 and these landings are undoubtedly under-reported. The catch was near 2,200 tonnes in 2004 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Only <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini</em> are reported as individual species in the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) fisheries statistics, but hammerhead catches are often grouped in one category as, Sphyrna species, which makes identification of actual catches of <em>S. zygaena</em> difficult.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Smooth Hammerhead appears to be less common in the central Mediterranean, in comparison to the western regions of this sea. Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that 757 specimens were captured during their pelagic longline and gillnet survey from July 1991-July 1992 off southern Spain. Most of these specimens were presumed to be part of the Atlantic population. In the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea this species is mainly caught by longlines and gillnets, particularly as bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries. Despite a ban on driftnetting in Mediterranean waters, this practice continues illegally (WWF 2005). A recent study of the Moroccan driftnet fleet operating in the Alboran Sea (southwest Mediterranean) and around the Strait of Gibraltar by Tudela <em>et al.</em> (2005) indicates that pelagic fishing pressure in this area is beyond the reproductive capacity of several other semi-oceanic shark species that were previously caught with <em>S. zygaena</em> (such as Alopias vulpinus). Some of these vessels appear to be increasingly targeting sharks by deploying driftnets closer to shore (Tudela <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is not mentioned in this study. However, this species was reported in Buencuerpo <em>et al.?s</em> (1998) survey of longline and gillnet landings from the same area in 1992. Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> (1998) report the highest catches of <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> in the Spanish swordfish fishery from the western African coasts and near the Strait of Gibraltar.<br/><br/>Ferretti <em>et al. </em>(2008) compiled nine time series of abundance indices from commercial and recreational fishery landings, scientific surveys and sighting records, to reconstruct long-term population trends of large sharks in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Of the taxa for which there were enough data to investigate, hammerhead sharks (<em>Sphyrna</em> spp) declined the fastest; they appeared to disappear from coastal waters after 1963 and catches declines consistently in pelagic waters in the early 1980s in all sectors. Meta-analysis showed an average instantaneous rate of decline of -0.17 (CI 95%: ?0.34, ?0.003; time range 178 years) in abundance and -0.36 (CI 95%: -0.56, -0.1?6; time range: 107 years) in biomass, which translated into an estimated species decline of >99.99% in both cases. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also report that the species has virtually disappeared from the central-southern Mediterranean Sea since 1986.<br/><br/>Mejuto <em>et al. </em>(2002) estimate landings of 240 tons of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. And 1.1 ton of <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> in the North Atlantic for the Spanish Surface longline fleet in 1999. De la Serna <em>et al.</em> (2002) reported only eight specimens of <em>S. zyagaena</em> (0.05%) in a total 17,759 sharks caught during a survey of the Spanish Mediterranean Fisheries from 1997?1999. This is significantly lower when compared to results of the same fishery along the west African coast and Iberian peninsula (where 757 specimens in period July 1991?July 1992 were caught). Megalofonou <em>et al.</em> (2000) only recorded four specimens during their survey of shark bycatches and discards in Mediterranean large pelagic fisheries in 1998?1999 (one in the Adriatic, two in the Ionian Sea and one in Spanish Mediterranean waters). There are few recent records of Sphyrna species in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. A total of 16 records of <em>S. zygaena</em> were collected in the eastern Adriatic from the 19th century to the 1950s, including reported catches were distributed throughout whole of the eastern coast. A higher number of records were reported during the 19th century in comparison to the 20th century (10 vs. 6, respectively) and the species has not been reported in this area since 1956 (Soldo and Jardas 2002). Although it occurs in open waters of southern Adriatic, it is only caught very rarely (Bello 1999). There were only 13 records of <em>S. zygaena</em> in the Northern Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas from the 1960s-1995 and there are no reports of this species during the last five years (F. Serena pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Longline fleets exert intense fishing pressure throughout the Northwest Atlantic (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). Baum <em>et al. </em>(2003) estimated that hammerhead sharks (grouped data for <em>S. lewini, S. mokarran</em> and <em>S. zygaena</em>) have declined in abundance by 89% since 1986 (95% confidence interval (CI): 86 to 91%) in their analysis of U.S. pelagic longline logbook data. This group is primarily composed of <em>S. lewini</em>; in Virginia Institute of Marine Science sampling programmes since 1973, <em>S. lewini</em> outnumbered <em>S. zygaena</em> by more than ten to one (Ha 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Southwest Atlantic <em>S. zygaena</em> faces two main threats related to fisheries: catches of juveniles and pups along the continental shelf by different fishing gears (mainly bottom gillnets and trawlers (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and adult and juvenile catches by gillnets and longlines throughout the continental shelf and oceanic environments for the international fin market (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002ab, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998, Domingo in prep). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure at all points in its life-cycle in this area. Off southern Brazil; from 1983?2005, indices of abundance of neonates of <em>S. zygaena</em> varied from 1?5% of the abundance of those of <em>S. lewini</em> in the same area (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Catches of neonates, juveniles and adults are taken by longline fleets based in Itajaí, which operate along the coast of southern Brazil (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The species is also a known bycatch of domestic, as well as Taiwanese, Japanese and other international longline fishing fleets operating throughout the South Atlantic Ocean (Joung <em>et al.</em> 2005, Matsushita and Matsunaga 2002). Juveniles and adults are also taken as bycatch by longline fleets operating in shelf and oceanic waters off Uruguay and Brazil (200-3000m). Given the declining trends apparent in other areas of the species? range where it is heavily fished, for example the Mediterranean Sea, the population in the Southwest Atlantic may be unable to withstand continued fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/><em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is taken as both target and bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries along the eastern Pacific coast of the Americas. Landings of this species in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama and Mexico have been reported as 1% of the total chondrichthyan catch. Seasonal surveys of fisheries on the eastern coast of Mexico, conducted during 1998?1999, showed that <em>S. zygaena</em> was a common component of the landings of directed shark fisheries. The majority of those landed were juveniles in many areas (Bizzaro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This study reports that large sharks, such as <em>S. zygaena</em> were usually targeted in directed drift gillnet, or to a lesser extent, surface longline fisheries. Márquez-Farías (2000) report an overall decline in catch rates for all shark species in the Gulf of California. This species has also been reported as bycatch in longline, bottom trawl and gillnets in the landings of other Central and South American countries, down to Peru. In Ecuador, <em>S. zygaena</em> represents 11% of the total chondrichthyan landings. There is a high proportion of juveniles in these Ecuadorian landings; 91% of female (measuring <240 cm TL) and 89% of male (measuring <215 cm TL) specimens landed by the Ecuadorian fleet are juveniles (Martinez in prep). In Peru, <em>S. zygaena</em> represented 12.5% of total chondrichthyan landings over the period 1996-2005 (Romero, M. PANtiburones).<br/><br/>An artisanal fishing fleet targeting sharks south of Tres Marias Islands in the Central Mexican Pacific operated out of La Cruz Huanacaxtle from the early 1990s to 1997, after which they moved to Yavaros in the Central Gulf of California, apparently following the migratory movements of some of the shark species (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>. (2005) monitored the shark landings of this fleet from 1995?1996. <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> was the most important of 10 species recorded in 607 sets taken south of the Tres Marias Islands, composing 35% of 2,004 sharks recorded. This artisanal fleet has not caught sharks south of the Tres Marias Islands or in the Central Gulf of California since the late-1990s (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins around the Galapagos Islands. There are no specific data for these fisheries, but given the high value of its fins, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. Illegal fishing in this area is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleets from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark number and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers comm.). The Ecuadorian Government issued a decree in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador, in an attempt to help stop illegal finning in the Galapagos. Unfortunately the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes with fins now being exported mainly via adjacent Peru and Colombia, where there is no regulation banning finning. Interviews within fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggest that there are illegal trade routes for fins transported both from continental Ecuador and directly from the Galapagos to Peru, and illegal finning activity is ongoing (Sáenz 2005, WildAid 2005).<br/><br/>Hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, are also caught by international purse seine fleets targeting tunas in the high seas of the Eastern Pacific, particularly those associated with Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) (Román-Verdesoto and Orozco-Zöller 2005). IATTC conducted a one year species sampling programme to determine the accuracy of identification by fisheries observers on these vessels. <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> was found to represent 1.7% and <em>S. lewini</em>, 3.6% of the sharks recorded during this programme, respectively.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>In the West Australian demersal gillnet fishery <em>Sphyrna zygaena</em> is an important bycatch species, but appears not to be impacted by this low fishing pressure. The species is reasonably abundant around the northern North Island of New Zealand, and the most abundant shark species recorded in aerial surveys along the northwest coast. In New Zealand, neonates and small juveniles are a common bycatch in commercial gillnet fisheries for flatfish, and are also commonly taken by trawlers and Danish seiners. They are usually discarded, although juveniles discarded from gillnets are usually dead. Adults are mainly taken by gamefishers as bycatch when targeting marlin with live baits, and consequently the annual catch is small. Many of the sharks taken by game fishers are released alive (C. Duffy, pers. comm.). <em>S. zygaena</em> is abundant in the region, and significant numbers of adults do not appear to be taken in commercial fisheries.<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>, along with <em>S. lewini</em> and <em>S. mokarran</em>, are exploited by the commercial line fishery and recreational game fishery off New South Wales. The majority of the hammerhead catch in commercial and recreational fisheries is composed of <em>S. zygaena</em> and <em>S. lewini </em>(Scandol <em>et al.</em> 2008). Total commercial hammerhead landings peaked in 1993/94 at 15/7 t. Annual commercial catches have averaged ~3 t in the last five years. Most hammerhead landings come from the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (74%), but they are also taken in the Estuary General and Ocean Trawl Fisheries.<br/><br/>Information on catches of <em>S. zygaena</em> by recreational anglers is very limited due to the lack of species identification. Total catch of hammerhead sharks by recreational gamefishing and protective beach meshing remained at about 250 sharks per year between the 1970s and 2001, with >95% of recreational gamefishing catches being tagged and released. It is likely that <em>S. zygaena</em> is caught in recreational fisheries off temperate and subtropical coasts. This species has also been reported from nets set in the New South Wales beach protection programme (Krough 1994). This employs large mesh gillnets to catch large sharks as a measure to protect beach users from shark attack. In the New South Wales programme, hammerheads (mostly <em>S. zygaena</em>) made up nearly 50% of the catch of 4,715 sharks in the period from 1972?73 to 1989?90 (Reid and Krough 1992). The large mesh nets used by shark control programmes appear to be very efficient at catching hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, while catches are very low on the large baited lines used in some programmes (Simpfendorfer 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>Hammerhead sharks, including <em>S. zygaena</em>, are taken in a variety of artisanal and commercial fisheries in this region as both target and bycatch, however, no reliable species specific data are available because catches tend to be grouped into ?<em>Sphyrna</em> spp.?, if recorded at all. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954?1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2005). Large hook and line and in mesh gillnet fisheries are known to target sharks off India, where this species occurs (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006) reported that sharks in this area are considered fully to over-exploited. Large numbers of longline vessels have also been reported to be operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean, primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005, Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan?s coastal ports totaled 11-34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).	eng
39389	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F., Oetinger, M.I. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	<em>Anoxypristis cuspidata</em> has been assessed as Vulnerable by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2000) and may be nominated for protection as ?at Conservation-risk? under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC). <br/> <br/>India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected all species of sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001.  <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>All species of Pristidae have been listed under Appendix I of CITES (2007), except <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristis microdon</span> which is listed under Appendix II.<br/><br/>Also found within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
39389	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F., Oetinger, M.I. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	The knifetooth sawfish was historically a relatively common euryhaline or marginal large-bodied sawfish of the Indo-Pacific Region. It has been reported in inshore and estuarine environments from the mouth of the Suez Canal, Egypt, throughout the Red Sea, the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the Indo-Australian Archipelago from Australia north to Borneo, but not reported from the Philippines (Last and Stevens 1994). In Southeast Asia it was reported from the Gulf of Thailand, Kampuchea (Cambodia) and Vietnam. In eastern Asia it was reported from China to Korea and out to the southern portion of Japan (Honshu), as well as the north west corner of Taiwan (Annandale 1909, Fowler 1941, Blegvad and Loppenthin 1944, Stead 1963, Misra 1969, Chen and Chung 1971, Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984, Sainsbury <em>et al</em>. 1985, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a).  <br/> <br/>Brackish water records have been reported from the Oriomo River estuary, Papua-New Guinea (Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1991). Records of this species occurring well up rivers in India (Day 1873), Malaysia (Stead 1963) and Thailand (Smith 1945) need verification (Compagno and Cook 1995a).	eng
39389	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F., Oetinger, M.I. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	A marine, euryhaline (moving between fresh and salt water) or marginal (brackish water) species found from inshore waters to a depth of 40 m. Though details of its ecology are not precisely known, it probably spends most of its time on or near the bottom in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries it inhabits. The sawfishes are all ovoviviparous. Females of this species can be pregnant at 246 to 282 cm. Litters range from 6 to 23 young. Age at maturity, longevity and average generation time are unknown. Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Last and Stevens 1994, Setna and Sarangdhar 1948 and 1949, Southwell 1910.	eng
39389	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F., Oetinger, M.I. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	Populations are becoming increasingly rare and fragmented and all those known are severely threatened by target and bycatch fisheries and deterioration of habitats.	eng
39389	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F., Oetinger, M.I. & Fowler, S.L., 2006	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products (meat is high quality and fins and rostral saws extremely valuable in international trade). They are also targeted opportunistically for the same reasons. <br/> <br/>This species has been landed intensively in broad spectrum fisheries from India to Thailand and most other locales where it occurs in the Indo-Pacific. It is caught for its flesh in parts of Asia, and has an oil-rich liver. The rostrum has been reported ground up for use in traditional Chinese medicine (McDavitt 1996). <br/> <br/>According to the FAO online database, FIGIS, sawfish landings were recorded between 1962 and 2001, with a peak of 1,759 t in 1978 worldwide, but many of these were from the Atlantic and some annual figures appear to be extrapolations from previous years. A strong decline in reported landings took place between 1984 and 1995, partly masked by estimates of constant landings by FAO (it is unclear how these estimates were reached). Landings declared by Pakistan between 1987 and 1995, reaching an unlikely 84 t in 1990, may have included this species. Reported landings have since declined steeply. Most reports suggest that numbers taken by fisheries from a great many localities have fallen noticeably since the 1960s, if not earlier.<br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria. The mortality rates associated with securing live sawfishes for this use is unknown.<br/> <br/>During Stanford University's field collection expeditions for the George Vanderbilt Foundation (GVF) from 1959?1962 in the Gulf of Thailand this species was commonly reported in commercial catches. A number of specimens were returned to the United States and are currently housed with the GVF collection at the California Academy of Sciences, Department of Ichthyology, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, CA 94118. In recent visits to Thailand (1993 and 1996), Sabah (N. Borneo, Malaysia) (1996), mainland Malaysia (1996), and Singapore (1996), the account authors did not observe any specimens of this species in the commercial catch in 25 market visits. Local observers in Thailand report this species has not been seen in the catch there for most of the past 15 years. There is one small fairly recently-collected specimen of knifetooth sawfish in the Zoological Research Collection (ZRC), at the National University of Singapore (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Due the virtual disappearance of this species from commercial catches in regions where it was once considered fairly common, the global population of this species is considered to be much less than 80% of its former levels 30 to 50 years ago.	eng
39390	conservation	Cook, S.F., Compagno, L.J.V. & Last, P.R., 2006	<em>Pristis clavata</em> was assessed as Endangered by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species possibly occurs within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland, towards the south-eastern edge of its range.  <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002 recommended listing this species as a threatened species under Australia?s Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC). <br/> <br/>In January 2006, eBay announced it would ban the sale of sawfish parts and products on their on-line auction site. This measure will require vigilant monitoring within eBay with the help of outside experts.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II.	eng
39390	distribution	Cook, S.F., Compagno, L.J.V. & Last, P.R., 2006	Confirmed from tropical coastal and estuarine habitats in Northern and Northwestern Australia. Other records unconfirmed, but it may occur or have occurred more widely in adjacent Indo-Pacific areas.	eng
39390	habitat	Cook, S.F., Compagno, L.J.V. & Last, P.R., 2006	Coastal and estuarine habitats in tropical Australia, particularly over mudflats in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). It occurs some distance upriver, almost into freshwater (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
39390	population	Cook, S.F., Compagno, L.J.V. & Last, P.R., 2006	No information is available on range or populations outside Australia, but if this species occurs outside Australian waters, it is likely to be nearing extirpation there. Populations have been significantly reduced in Australia, as a result of bycatch in various commercial and recreational fisheries (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). Fishing pressure continues and these declines are, therefore, also likely to continue.	eng
39390	threats	Cook, S.F., Compagno, L.J.V. & Last, P.R., 2006	The principal threat to all sawfishes is fisheries, both targeted and bycatch, commercial and subsistence. Their morphology, particularly the long tooth-studded saw, makes them extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including primitive fishing technology, and regardless of population size (which was probably always fairly small). When sawfish are taken in bycatch, they are often retained (particularly in areas where there is no legal protection) because of the very high value of their products. The meat of this species is likely to be good eating (Last and Stevens 1994). Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) noted that sawfish fins were valued at up to A$250/kg dried weight in Asian markets. Rostral saws can also be valuable in international trade, particularly for large specimens from other species). These species are also targeted opportunistically, for the same reasons.  <br/> <br/>This species is taken as bycatch in commercial and recreational fisheries (particularly gill nets and trawls, possibly also fish traps) throughout its limited confirmed range in northern and north-western Australia. Populations have been significantly reduced in this area, where sawfish have been identified as the species least likely to be subject to sustainable levels of bycatch (Stobutski <em>et al</em>. 2000). Bycatch of members of the family Pristidae (four or five Australian species, including <em>P. clavata</em>, combined) has been recorded in commercial catch and effort logbooks for a targeted shark fishery in northern Australia. Reported catches have declined steeply during the past decade (4,944 kg in 1994/95, 985 kg in 1995/96, 1,604 kg in 1996/97, 139 kg in 1997/98, 230 kg in 1998/99) (Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002, NTDPIF 2000).  <br/> <br/>There is increasing demand for live sawfish to put on display in public aquaria, with most exports for this purpose currently coming from Australia. The mortality rates associated with securing sawfishes for this use is unknown.  <br/> <br/>This species? known distribution could extend outside Australia, but these areas are far more intensively fished and it is, therefore, likely to be nearing extirpation elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific. In this case, the global population of this species will have declined to significantly less than 80% of its former levels 30 to 50 years ago. Even in Australia, where bycatch pressures are less acute, population declines are likely to continue, particularly in the absence of legal protection for this species.	eng
39393	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Oetinger, M.I., 2006	India?s Ministry of Environment and Forests has protected sawfishes under the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) 1972 since 2001. <br/> <br/>This species may occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia.  <br/> <br/>The species was listed as an Endangered Species in New South Wales (Australia) waters in 1999, under the Fisheries Management Act 1994. <br/> <br/>Listed as Endangered by the Australian Society for Fish Biology.  <br/> <br/>Nominated and considered for listing as Vulnerable under the Commonwealth's Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, but listing not made because of lack of information.  <br/> <br/>Actions needed:  Strict legal protection throughout range; monitoring of bycatch; collection of biological and demographic data from accidental captures and aquarium specimens.<br/><br/>                    All species of Pristidae have been listed under   Appendix I of CITES (2007), except Pristis microdon which is listed under Appendix II (comment added by LRH May 27th 2010).	eng
39393	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Oetinger, M.I., 2006	This Indo-Pacific species has been recorded from South Africa to the Persian/Arabian Gulf, Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago (Fowler 1941, Blegvad and Løppenthin 1944, Smith 1945, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Stead 1963, Misra 1969, Grant 1972, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. in press b, Last and Stevens 1994). Freshwater records have been made from Thailand, possibly in the Tachin River and Songkhla Lake (where the species has not been recorded for many years, Cook and Compagno 1994), Malaysia, Indonesia (Kalimantan at Bandjermassing, Java and Ternate Islands) and in Australia from Queensland in Lake Macquarie, and New South Wales in the Clarence River (Fowler 1941, Smith 1945, Stead 1963, Grant 1972, Paxton <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno <em>et al</em>. in press b).  <br/> <br/>Contraction of the range of this species has been reported in Australia, where green sawfish once occurred at least as far south as Sydney, but now are virtually extinct in New South Wales and are very rarely found south of Townsville (CSIRO Media Release - Ref PR04_158 - Sep 01, 2004), and in South Africa, where sawfishes are apparently no longer resident in areas such as Lake St Lucia.	eng
39393	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Oetinger, M.I., 2006	<em>Pristis zijsron</em> inhabits muddy bottom habitats and enters estuaries (Allen 1997). It has been recorded in inshore marine waters to at least 40 m depth, in brackish water (estuaries and coastal lakes) and in rivers. Stead (1963) reported that this species was frequently found in shallow water. Its habitat is heavily fished and often also subject to pollution, habitat loss and degradation from coastal, riverine and catchment developments.  <br/> <br/>This is the largest sawfish species, growing to at least 5 m and possibly over 7.3 metres long. Males are mature by 430 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). It is ovoviviparous, giving birth to large young. Grant (1978) suggested that adult males use their saws during mating battles. Sawfishes generally feed on slow-moving shoaling fish such as mullet, which are stunned by sideswipes of the snout. Molluscs and small crustaceans are also swept out of the sand and mud by the saw (Allen 1982, Cliff and Wilson 1994). A male captured as a juvenile survived 35 years in captivity.	eng
39393	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Oetinger, M.I., 2006	No information available on original population size or abundance, but this formerly common very large sawfish has undergone significant contraction of its range and a huge decline in abundance in areas where it is still reported to occur.	eng
39393	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Cook, S.F. & Oetinger, M.I., 2006	This species has been exploited intensively, both as a target species and as incidental bycatch in commercial, sport or shark-control net fisheries and for aquarium display throughout its range. As a result of past landings, combined with its strongly K-selected life history pattern, it has become severely depleted in recent decades and now appears to have been extirpated from many parts of its range, including South Africa, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. It also has not been seen in some of its former freshwater habitats (i.e., Songklha Lake, (Malay Peninsula) Thailand for some 30 to 40 years (Cook and Compagno 1994). The species is probably now only easy to find in Australia, where it is commonly entangled in net gear set for barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>), considered a good eating species for human consumption and finds ready markets where landed (Last and Stevens 1994). Even in Australia, the species has declined significantly in range and abundance. In the past, net fishermen working the muddy estuaries of the Queensland coastline found high bycatch of <em>Pristis zijsron</em> to be a serious problem, even though the meat was high quality and marketed (Grant 1978, Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). An average of 0.0020 <em>Pristis zijsron</em> (standard deviation of 0.0020) per hour trawled per km of headrope length (n/h/km) were taken as bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1997 to 1998 (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Moreton Bay area there have been no reports of this species since the 1960s (Johnson 1999). It has also been extremely rare anywhere on the east coast of Australia in the last 25 to 30 years, with no new specimens having been secured by museum and research institute collections (Pognoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
39394	conservation	Dudley, S.F.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Monitoring and documentation and direct and indirect artisanal and commercial catches is required where the species is being fished. Species-specific catch and effort data should be collected throughout its range, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Further investigation into the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology of <em>R. djiddensis</em> is urgently required. Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities where they occur and as such precautionary curtailment of commercial exploitation throughout its range is recommended given that it will not be able to sustain intense and uncontrolled targeting. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. djiddensis</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. djiddensis</em>.	eng
39394	distribution	Dudley, S.F.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to the Eastern Cape in South Africa.	eng
39394	habitat	Dudley, S.F.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Occurs on the continental shelf to 70 m (generally to 35 m). A large (reaching 300 cm TL) inshore guitarfish. Relatively little information is available on this species across its range. Off KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa it occurs mainly off sandy beaches during summer (van der Elst 1988), where it is especially abundant in the surf zone but does occur along the edges of deeper reefs down to 30 m. Tagged animals have been shown to travel a mean distance of only 49 km, reflecting local movement during the summer (Mann 2003). It is unknown where the animals go in winter but it is possible that they move north into the warmer waters of Mozambique. <br/> <br/>Over the period 1981 to 2000 <em>R. djiddensis</em> catches constituted 33.5% of the total batoid catches in the protective shark nets of KZN, South Africa (Young 2001). Females dominated by 1.95:1, significantly different from unity. Catches are strongly seasonal, occurring primarily (77%) in the summer months of December to April. The median size of females caught (175 cm precaudal length; PCL) was significantly greater than that of males (148 cm PCL) and there was no significant change in size of animals caught between 1981 and 2000. <br/> <br/>Initial indications from tagging data are that growth is very slow (Bullen and Mann 2003). This species is aplacental viviparous, with low fecundity (four pups/litter; van der Elst 1988), but little other details of reproductive biology are known. <br/> <br/>Diet includes crabs, bivalve molluscs and small fish (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  150 cm TL (sex not specified; van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  310 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  60 cm TL (van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 pups/litter (periodicity not given; van der Elst 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
39394	population	Dudley, S.F.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	In South Africa, although it reaches the Eastern Cape Province, it is common only in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN).	eng
39394	threats	Dudley, S.F.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	The restricted coastal habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. <br/> <br/>Most detailed information on catches of <em>R. djiddensis</em> is from South Africa and further data are required from throughout its range where the species faces a number of threats. <br/> <br/><strong>South Africa:</strong> <br/>The mean annual catch in the KZN protective shark nets, South Africa, over the period 1981?2000 was 118 individuals, of which 74% were released alive (Young 2001). There was no significant trend overall (Young 2001) but catch and catch rate declined during the 1990s. Survival of released animals is unknown but, of 460 netted animals tagged and released between 1988 and 2002, 32 (7%) were recaptured (Natal Sharks Board unpublished data). There was no change in the mean size of animals caught in the nets during the time period examined (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Catch rate (number of fish per angler hour) in competition shore angling in KZN showed an increase over the period 1977?2000, as did the mean mass of animals caught (Pradervand 2003). By contrast, anecdotal reports from anglers indicate that the species is less commonly caught than in previous years (Mann 2003). Pradervand (2003) notes that targeting biases do occur in competition shore angling. Hence it is possible that such biases may mask any decline in abundance. A popular target species for shore anglers because of its fighting ability, it has become common practice to release these fish (van der Elst 1988). Of a total of 3,426 animals tagged (including those caught in the shark nets), 198 (5.8%) have been recaptured (Mann 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> is taken as bycatch by demersal prawn trawlers operating in 20 to 45 m depth on the Tugela Bank off central KZN, primarily in summer and at a rate of 123 to 231 per year (Fennessy 1994). Most (82%) of those caught in a sample of 100 trawls were alive and released, although subsequent survival is not known. <br/> <br/><strong>Outside South Africa:</strong> <br/>Various fishing activities impact <em>R. djiddensis</em> over most of its range outside of South Africa. In most, if not all cases, however specific data are limited. Increased local and foreign targeting and landing of giant guitarfish threatens the species across its range. <br/> <br/>The fins from large animals of this species and other members of its genus fetch exceptionally high prices, creating a significant incentive for bycatch to be retained. The species is exploited commercially, primarily for its fins, off Tanzania in bottom-set gillnets and possibly also by spearfishermen (Barnett 1997, Saleh Yahya pers. comm. Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar, September 2003). Given the ready accessibility of the species (due to its size and inshore habitat) and the high value of its fins, these catches are cause for particular concern (Barnett 1997). It is also taken as bycatch by prawn trawlers off Tanzania (Barnett 1997). In neighbouring Kenya there is artisanal gillnetting as well as prawn trawling, and there is an established trade in shark fins (Marshall 1997). Although species-specific data are not provided, it is likely that <em>R. djiddensis</em> is an important component of coastal elasmobranch catches in Kenya. <br/> <br/>Similar fisheries occur in Mozambique (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 1997) and where fins were the main product supporting the shark fishing industry (Mihara and Donato 1986 in Sousa et al. 1997). Large <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> are landed for their fins by artisanal fisherman in southern and central Mozambique and this practice is increasing (Andrea Marshall, University of Queensland, pers. comm). Furthermore, catches of <em>R. djiddensis</em> by recreational anglers have also been recorded in southern Mozambique (Sousa <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Inshore fisheries (including gillnet and trawl) are also prevalent in the Red Sea, where it is an important landed species (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Catch data from this area are required. <br/> <br/>It is not, however, solely local fishing activities that impact upon <em>R. djiddensis</em>. Of great concern is the large number of foreign vessels targeting guitarfish fin in the region. At the time of writing, there was some 150 to 200 Taiwanese operated fishing vessels (most Taiwanese flagged vessels, some Indonesian flagged) fishing for shark fin off East Africa and the Middle East in the Western Indian Ocean (IOTC 2005). The main target species for these fishers is reportedly hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005). The fishing grounds targeted by these vessels can be divided into two areas: 1). Offshore Mozambique, Tanzania and Madagascar (almost year-round fishing season), and 2). Offshore Oman, Yemen and Somalia (April to July) (IOTC 2005). These areas represent large proportions of the giant guitarfish?s range. These foreign vessels are known to be poaching from territorial waters where surveillance and policing are insufficient (IOTC 2005). A recent report of illegal fishing by foreign vessels in Mozambican waters included a seizure of an entire cargo consisting of sharks, mostly <em>R. djiddensis</em>. See: <a href="?http://www.environment.gov.za/NewsMedia/MedStat/2004Mar19/foreignVessels_19032004.html?">South Africa And Mozambique Tighten Noose On Foreign Vessels For Illegal Fishing</a>. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore occurrence.	eng
39396	conservation	Neer, J.A., 2005	The Pacific Electric Ray is not presently one of the species actively regulated by the Pacific Fisheries Management Council. The demand for electric ray has been relatively low, with no indication that this trend will change.	eng
39396	distribution	Neer, J.A., 2005	The Pacific Electric Ray is the only member of the family Torpedinidae occurring along the west coast of the United States (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). It ranges from Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California to Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, occurring at depths between 3?274 m (Miller and Lea 1972). It is most common south of Point Conception, California (Love 1996).	eng
39396	habitat	Neer, J.A., 2005	Information regarding movement patterns of the Pacific Electric Ray is scarce. Limited telemetry studies indicate that Pacific electric rays begin active movements after dusk and are primarily nocturnal (R. Bray pers. comm.). Traditionally thought to be sluggishand passive hunters, in situ observations indicate that <em>T. californica</em> actively hunt for prey in the water column near rocky reefs and kelp beds and move rapidly in both offensive and defensive situations (Bray and Hixon 1978, R. Bray pers. comm.). Catch records from southern California suggest summer inshore migratory patterns and possible segregation by sex (R. Fey pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The diet of the Pacific Electric Ray is not well documented. They are effective piscivores, capturing prey by electric discharge using either an ?ambush-style predation? by day or a ?search-and-attack-style? predation at night (Lowe <em>et al.</em> 1995). Their diet in southern California consists mainly of Northern Anchovy (<em>Engraulis mordax</em>), Olive Rockfish (<em>Sebastes serranoides</em>), California Tonguefish (<em>Symphurus atricauda</em>), White Croaker (<em>Genyonemus lineatus</em>) and White Surfperch (<em>Phanerodon furcatus</em>) (R. Bray pers. comm.).	eng
39396	threats	Neer, J.A., 2005	A small fishery exists for the acquisition of biological and biomedical research specimens (Love 1996). Small numbers of animals are harvested, either directed or as bycatch in bottom-trawls, for their electric organs. The fishery may currently have as few as two active fishers.	eng
39397	conservation	Dulvy, N.K., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Tinti, F. & Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	It is recommended that suitable non-trawling areas are defined to protect both adults and deposited eggs as these are both susceptible to capture by trawling gear.  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction). <em>Diptutus batis</em> has been identified by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Study Group on Elasmobranch Fish as one which ?requires information on either fisheries statistics, biology or status of exploitation? or in the case of <em>D. batis</em>, all three (Anonymous 1995). Demographic information indicates that population recovery might be achieved by allowing increasing juvenile survival (Walker and Hislop 1998). <em>Dipturus batis</em> was proposed for strict protection under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act in 2001; a decision is still (2006) awaited from government. <em>D. batis</em> is also a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species in the UK, and was listed on the OSPAR Priority List of Threatened and Endangered Species. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>For the conservation of chondrichthyans within the Mediterranean region, the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem recommended that all fishing states implement a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of chondrichthyans, in line with IPOA sharks (International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of chondrichthyans). <br/> <br/>The MEDLEM project was adopted at the last SAC meeting (FAO, Rome 2005) for data collection within the Mediterranean basin on large elasmobranches. The Bern Convention encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of chondrichthyans in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Italy a national action plan (PAN-SHARKS) was co-ordinated by ICCRAM (Central Institute for Marine Research) within the guidelines of the Bern Convention and FAO IPOA-Sharks (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). The Barcelona Convention proposed this species for urgent legal protection under its Mediterranean Action Plan.<br/><br/>A new European requirement is that common skates, when caught, should be returned to the sea - applies only to the North Sea.	eng
39397	distribution	Dulvy, N.K., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Tinti, F. & Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	The historical geographical range of <em>D. batis</em> covered much of the continental shelf of the North-east Atlantic, from Madeira and the coast of northern Morocco in the south, to Iceland and northern Norway in the north, including the Mediterranean Sea. In several parts of its range, including the Western Baltic, western Mediterranean and southern North Sea, it is considered scarce (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). It is absent from the Black Sea and Levantine Mediterranean basin (Serena 2005). At the start of the twentieth century it was considered to have a wide distribution over the shallower waters of the continental shelf surrounding the British Isles, albeit more common in the northern and western regions (Walker and Heesen 1996). Though individual specimens are reported very occasionally from the Irish Sea, Bristol Channel and central North Sea, the current range tends to occupy the deeper waters off northwestern Scotland and in Celtic Sea, and along the edge of the continental shelf.	eng
39397	habitat	Dulvy, N.K., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Tinti, F. & Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	This demersal species is found from shallow coastal waters down to depths of 600 m, although it is primarily within the 200 m depth range (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bouchot 1987, Serena 2005). This is the largest species of skate attaining a length of more than 250 cm. The age and growth of <em>D. batis</em> has been reported by Du Buit (1972 1976) and more recently by Fahy (1991) who examined the vertebrae of 75 individuals landed in Ireland. Du Buit (1976) gave the following growth parameters: Maximum length 253.73 cm; k = 0.057; t<sub>0</sub> = -1.629. Males are thought to mature at a length of 125 cm (Du Buit 1972) and although the size at maturity has not been accurately determined for females, an estimate of 150 cm was presented in the 2000 Red List assessment (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2000). Du Buit (1976) determined that maturity is reached at 11 years of age and that individuals may live for 50 years. The overall sex ratio has been reported to be approximately 1:1, although this may differ geographically and seasonally (Fulton 1903, Steven 1933). The fecundity has not been accurately determined but was estimated at 40 eggs/year over the spawning season (Brander 1981) and the rate of reproduction has been calculated at 0.38. Oviparous, with large egg-cases covered with close-felted fibres (150 to 250 mm long and 80 to 150 mm wide reported in the Mediterranean (Serena 2005) and 145 to 245 mm long in the UK (Clark 1922, Wheeler 1969). The egg-cases are deposited in spring and summer in both the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic (Clark 1922, Wheeler 1969, Serena 2005). The young hatch at a lengths of up to 21.2 to 22.3 cm (Clark 1926). There is no detailed information on the developmental time.  <br/> <br/><em>Dipturus batis</em> preys mostly on crustaceans and teleost fish, although Steven (1947) reported several species of elasmobranch, including other species of rajid, in the stomach contents of fish landed in Devon and Cornwall. The skate hunts actively and envelops its prey prior to capture and ingestion. The dark ventral surface may facilitate hunting in the pelagic phase. <br/> <br/>While there is almost no life history and ecological information specific to the Mediterranean it is likely that it is similar to that exhibited in more northerly waters.	eng
39397	population	Dulvy, N.K., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Tinti, F. & Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	North-east Atlantic: Common skate, as the name implies, was historically one of the most abundant skates and rays in the North-east Atlantic. It was widely distributed in the seas surrounding the British Isles, though catch rates of this species in this area declined during the 20<sup>th</sup> century. By the 1970?s common skate was considered extirpated from the Irish Sea (Brander 1981), and they have also disappeared from the English Channel and the southern and central North Sea (Walker 1999, Rogers and Ellis 2000). Though individual specimens are reported occasionally from these areas (e.g., Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005), common skate are now only regularly observed off northern and north-western Scotland, Celtic Sea and along the edge of the continental shelf (>150 m depth).  <br/> <br/>A time series of comparative trawl surveys in the Gulf of Lions between 1957?1960 indicate that <em>D. batis</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys. It was captured in 10% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys (coast?150 m depth) and in approximately 17% of hauls (n=37) in slope surveys (150?800 m) (Aldebert 1997). In contrast, comparable surveys carried out from 1966?1995 in the Gulf of Lions (totalling 1,295 hauls) did not record this species (Aldebert 1997). In the Adriatic Sea, the ?Hvar? 1948 trawl surveys (based on 138 valid hauls taken in the spring-summer of 1948) revealed <em>D. batis</em> present in 3.2% of hauls. In a comparable survey conducted in the spring-summer of 1998 (127 valid hauls) (MEDITS) it was not recaptured, suggesting <em>D. batis</em> may now be absent from this area (Jukic-Peladic 2001). The MEDITS survey began in 1994 while another study of the Adriatic Sea had begun in 1985 (GRUND), with each project carrying out one survey per year. A single individual was captured in the first GRUND survey of 1985 and since then no specimens have appeared in the Adriatic in either of these surveys (Marano <em>et al</em>. in press). It is now regarded as locally extinct in the Adriatic Sea (Tinti <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although these surveys are exhaustive, it should be noted that the MEDITS net is thought to have a low sampling efficiency of truly benthic species (Jukic-Peladic 2001). Along the Algerian coast from 1996?1997, regular systematic surveys of elasmobranchs present in markets have been undertaken. Although eight species of skate have been recorded, <em>D. batis</em> has not been reported (Hemida 1998). Tunisian fisheries use prawn trawl and larger ?French? trawls, which frequently capture skates and demersal sharks. While this species has been documented from Tunisian waters in the early part of the 20th century, it has not been recorded since 1971 and it is now presumed absent from this area (Bradaï 2000). <br/> <br/>The former range of this skate included much of the west, north and eastern shelf and slope habitat of the Mediterranean. These results suggest that this species may only be found in the western area of the Mediterranean (Morocco, Spain and France) representing a substantial reduction in area of occurrence of this species.	eng
39397	threats	Dulvy, N.K., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Tinti, F. & Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J., 2006	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>: <br/>Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of northwest Europe (Holden 1977) and Dipturus batis has traditionally been landed due to its large size (see Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2000 for details). It has taken in targeted fisheries where/when abundant, and as a bycatch elsewhere within its range. Accurate species-specific landings data are not available, though species-specific data from Iceland indicate declining landings of this species. Though French data appear more stable, these landings include landings from fisheries operating towards the edge of the continental shelf, where the population now appears to be concentrated. Given that this species is likely to be taken in trawl and gillnet fisheries that target high-value telesosts (e.g., megrim, anglerfish and hake), it is unlikely that fishing effort will decrease. Common skate are targeted by recreational fisheries (e.g., off Scotland), most anglers release captured individuals.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The situation appears similar in the Mediterranean, where <em>D. batis</em> is probably captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic et al. 2001). The large body size, slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are taken in fishing nets, including the eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003), as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm. Considering the large size at maturity (around 130 cm) this means that the exploitation of juveniles is likely to be high. Additionally <em>D. batis</em> has been found to have undergone declines and disappearance from other shelf seas, notably the Irish and North Sea (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
39399	conservation	Ellis, J., 2005	Several of the UK?s local Sea Fisheries Committees have by-laws for a minimum landing size (e.g., 40 cm DW in the Southern and the Kent and Essex Sea Fisheries Districts). Such localised management initiatives will not, however, be of significant effect in conserving regional populations. Due to European rajid fisheries being a component of multispecies fisheries, which also target several species of flatfish and gadoid, gear restriction using mesh size is not a viable management measure. Minimum landing sizes have been implemented in some areas of the UK by Sea Fisheries Committees.	eng
39399	distribution	Ellis, J., 2005	The Thornback Skate, or roker, is one of the most abundant rajids in north European coastal waters and can be the dominant rajid in commercial landings and research vessel catches (Rousset 1990a, Ellis unpubl.). It is widely distributed from Iceland and Norway (south of the Arctic Circle), to the North Sea (where it is now less abundant in south-eastern areas (Walker 1998), the Mediterranean, the western Black Sea, Madeira, the Atlantic coasts of Africa, and as far south as South Africa and the south-western Indian Ocean (Stehmann 1995). The status of this species in West and South African waters, and its relationship with <em>Raja (Raja) cf. clavata</em>, which is reported from the waters off Namibia and southern Africa (Macpherson 1986, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1991, Smale and Cowley 1992) needs further research.	eng
39399	habitat	Ellis, J., 2005	The Thornback Skate is a demersal coastal species which inhabits a variety of substrates, including mud, sand, shingle, gravel and rocky areas, in water down to 300 m, although it is most abundant in 10? 60 m of water off coastal areas (Wheeler 1969, Stehmann and Buerkel 1984). Rousset (1990a) studied the elasmobranch assemblage off the coast of Brittany and found that <em>R. clavata</em> was the most abundant rajid due to the fact that it was able to inhabit this range of benthic habitats. Thornback Skate is the second most important species, after the Smallspotted Catshark (<em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em>), in the demersal elasmobranch assemblage in the northern Bristol Channel and constitutes between 7.4?8.8% of the elasmobranch biomass (Ellis unpubl.). The age and growth of this species have been studied by examining the vertebrae of fish caught in the Bristol Channel (Ryland and Ajayi 1984), although Brander and Palmer (1985), using length-frequency analysis, have indicated inconsistencies for the smaller sized fish used in this work. Ryland and Ajayi (1984) gave maximum age and length of 12 years and 1,047 mm (k = 0.090). Vertebral growth rings have been shown to be annual (Holden and Vince 1973). Growth has also been estimated from tagging studies (Holden 1972). Validated age studies of specimens from the southern North Sea have shown thornback skates to have a maximum length of 118 cm for females and 98cm for males (Walker 1998). The size at maturity for females and males have been estimated at 45?50 cm disc width (DW) and 38?44 cm DW (Fitzmaurice 1974); 85 cm total length (TL) (54 cm DW) and 75 cm TL (48 cm DW) (Capapé 1976); 45 cm DW and 42 cm DW (Nottage and Perkins 1983) and 59 cm TL and 60 cm TL (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Walker (1998) estimated length at 50% maturity to be 77 cm TL for males and 68 cm TL for females. The corresponding ages at 50% maturity were eight and seven years. It has been reported that <em>R. clavata</em> first spawn in their fifth year (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Eggs are laid during a protracted breeding season from February to September (Holden 1975), with a peak in May and June. However, this is for the population as a whole and the egg-laying period for individual fish may be shorter. Ellis and Shackley (1995) maintained one female in captivity and reported that egg laying lasted six weeks, with a mean egg-laying rate of 1.07 eggs per day, a pair of eggs being laid on alternate days. These data concur with the observations of Holden (1971). Development lasts 16?20.5 weeks (Ellis and Shackley 1995), although this period may vary with temperature. The young hatch at a length of 10?13 cm. The nursery areas used are coastal, estuarine and tidal flat areas (e.g., the Wash and Thames estuary in the UK). The fecundity of <em>R. clavata</em> in British waters has been estimated at 150 eggs per year (Holden 1971), 140 eggs per year (Holden 1975) and 100 eggs per year (minimum of 62? 74) (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Capapé (1976, 1977a) estimated a fecundity of 70?167 eggs per year in Tunisian waters, although it may be as low as 48 (Ellis and Shackley 1995). The feeding habits have been well documented from many areas over its geographical range, including British waters (Holden and Tucker 1974, Ajayi 1982, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996), Ireland (Fitzmaurice 1974), France (Du Buit 1968, 1978?79, Quiniou and Andriamirado 1979), Portugal (Marques and Re 1978, Cunha <em>et al.</em> 1986), the Mediterranean (Capapé 1975, 1977; Abdel-Aziz 1986), the Southeast Atlantic waters off Namibia (Macpherson 1986) and southern Africa (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1991). Young and juvenile <em>R. clavata</em> predominantly eat small crustaceans, such as shrimps, mysids, amphipods and small crabs. Larger specimens prey on larger crustaceans, including prawns and crabs and will also consume fish. The migratory habits have been studied by Steven (1936) who found that very little movement occurred, especially in young fish, with 71% of tagged fish moving less than five miles. Fish tagged in the southern North Sea also showed a sedentary pattern, with 80% being recaptured within 40 nautical miles of their release position (Walker <em>et al.</em> 1997). The recapture percentage was nearly 30%. Fitzmaurice (1974) studied the populations within two bays in Ireland and reported a sex ratio of 1:1 and, of 71 tagged, eight (11.3%) recaptures. Rousset (1990b) observed that mature females were more common in exposed areas and juveniles and mature males were more common in more sheltered areas.	eng
39399	threats	Ellis, J., 2005	Thornback Skate is a very important component of demersal fisheries in most European waters and is taken by trawl and gillnet, particularly as bycatch. There is or has been limited directed longlining and netting for the species. Landings of this species are not known, as landings of all rajids are combined in the records (ICES 1958?1987). Holden (1963) looked at the species composition of rajids landed by commercial trawlers at Milford Haven and Fleetwood, UK, during 1961 and 1962 and <em>R. clavata</em> accounted for 34.9% and 12.72% respectively. There is no evidence of severe population depletion, as has been documented for the Common Skate (<em>Dipturus batis</em>), although landings are considered to be in decline and a management strategy is required. Thornback Skates are also regularly caught by recreational anglers, although mortality from this source of fishing pressure will be of little impact for the population as a whole, particularly in areas where catch and release is practised.	eng
39400	conservation	Ellis, J., 2006	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of South Wales. Though there are no species-specific management measures, they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations).	eng
39400	distribution	Ellis, J., 2006	The Smalleyed Ray is restricted primarily to the Atlantic coasts of Northwest Europe, from the British Isles southwards to Gibraltar and northwestern Africa (Morocco and Western Sahara) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1989) and is most abundant in bays and other inshore sandy areas.	eng
39400	habitat	Ellis, J., 2006	Juveniles tend to occur in relatively shallow water, with larger individuals more abundant further from shore, though it is uncommon in waters more than 100m deep (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). The Smalleyed Ray attains a maximum length of 91 cm total length (LT ) and begins to mature at 57.5?58 cm LT (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). The fecundity has been estimated at 54-61 eggs per year, with egg-laying activity peaking between June and September (Ryland and Ajayi 1984). Size at birth is approximately 10 cm TL (Ryland and Ajayi 1984).The feeding habits have been described for those populations inhabiting Carmarthen Bay (Ajayi 1977, 1982; Ellis unpublished) and the Cove of Bertheaume in Brittany (Rousset 1987) and it is known that they feed on a variety of crustaceans and teleosts (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2005). Juveniles predate primarily on small shrimps and amphipods, with fishes (e.g., sand eels and dragonets) becoming more important in the diets of larger individuals.	eng
39400	population	Ellis, J., 2006	Over much of its geographical range it is relatively rare, though it can be locally abundant in certain areas, for example smalleyed ray is one of the dominant rajids occurring in the Bristol Channel (ICES division VIIf), Bertheaume Bay (Brittany) and south-eastern Ireland (Fahy and O'Reilly 1990, Rousset 1990, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b). No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. The Smalleyed Ray?s geographic range is smaller than many of the more common European skates and rays. Furthermore there are certain areas where it is particularly abundant. For example, within UK waters it is only reported occasionally in the Irish Sea and North Sea, caught in low numbers in the English Channel and is very abundant in the Bristol Channel. Hence, this inshore species seems to have a fragmented population, possibly due to the fragmented nature of its favoured habitat. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys of the Bristol Channel appear steady (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), though this is based on catch rates of all individuals. It is likely that the equipment used in this survey does not sample mature fish effectively, and fishery-independent data for mature fish are limited.	eng
39400	threats	Ellis, J., 2006	Taken as a bycatch in trawl and set net fisheries, with most landings from the Bristol Channel (ICES Division VIIf). <em>R. microocellata</em> is commercially important for ports in South Wales, Devon and Cornwall in the UK. Exploitation in areas further south is not known. Due to its restricted distribution, inshore habitats and overall scarcity, albeit with areas of localised abundance, it may be at risk from overfishing and habitat disturbance. Sand banks in the Bristol Channel (UK) are regularly dredged to supply the aggregate industry and the potential consequences of this activity on <em>R. microocellata</em> are unknown (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
39402	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Monitoring of the unregulated ornamental fish trade, policing of the illegal trade, and education to limit persecution are essential. Although the population has not been negatively affected by the Tucuruí Dam, it is important to estimate the impact of a series of dams along the Tocantins river.	eng
39402	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	A black-backed stingray endemic to the Rio Tocantins and Rio Araguaia.	eng
39402	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	It seems to prefer mud bottoms where it hunts gastropod molluscs, their most important food item (Pantano-Neto 2001). Maximum size 104.2 cm total length (TL) (71 cm disc width (DW)). Females mature at approximately 80 to 85 cm TL (around 50 cm DW). Ovoviviparous, number of young ranges from 1 up to nine embryos a litter and number of embryos is related to maternal size. Size at birth is approximately 25 to 30 cm TL. Gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown. In the area of the Tucuruí reservoir it breeds year-round, probably due to the artificial water level control inside the reservoir.	eng
39402	population	Rincon, G., 2004	An important population increase occurred after the construction of the Tucuruí dam, lower Rio Tocantins.	eng
39402	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	Persecution occurs along the sandy beaches in some parts of its range in summer or during the dry season (July and August), however there are no estimates available for the numbers of this species killed. This species is exported for the ornamental trade as <em>P. motoro</em>, officially from Manaus and illegally from Belém. Legal ornamental fishing of this species was recently approved on the grounds that scientific research is also carried out in order to provide sustainable levels. Habitat degradation caused by illegal mining activities is likely to be indirectly impacting this species.	eng
39403	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P., Rosa, R.S. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Further management plans and legislation improvement are required conservation measures for <em>P. leopoldi</em>. Local residents and communities should be involved in the management of this species and it is essential to develop public awareness through education and capacity building programmes. Public awareness could also help reduce persecution (due to fear of injury) associated with tourism, recreation and human settlement.<br/><br/>Sustainable yield limits for ornamental purposes must be monitored to ensure the survival of this species. Preliminary data (Charvet-Almeida unpublished data) indicate that illegal captures have reduced significantly after the establishment of an export quota system but further study is needed to ensure this is maintained. Adequate law enforcement is an essential conservation measure when it comes to the ornamental fish trade.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation are also fundamental aspects to be included in management plans and need to be enforced by existing and new legislation. Headwaters are certainly among a priority.<br/><br/>Further studies about life history and population dynamics are already underway.	eng
39403	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P., Rosa, R.S. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	South America inland waters: Northern Brazil. Possibly endemic to the Xingu River Basin (Brazil) (Rosa 1985). Incorrectly indicated as being restricted to a single river (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003), this species has been observed and photographed in the Xingu River and at least two of its tributaries (Curuá and Iriri Rivers) (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.).	eng
39403	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P., Rosa, R.S. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	This species seems to prefer rocky river bottoms where it probably more easily finds freshwater snails and crabs that are among its main food items (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.).<br/><br/>The available unpublished data indicates that this species has a relatively high fecundity compared with other potamotrygonids, ranging from 4 to 12 pups per litter (average of 7?8) (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data).<br/><br/>Further information regarding habitat and ecology aspects of <em>P. leopoldi</em> are currently under study.	eng
39403	population	Charvet-Almeida, P., Rosa, R.S. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species but are currently under study.	eng
39403	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P., Rosa, R.S. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Despite occurring in a large river basin, this species has a relatively restricted range (limited to the Xingu River Basin), and serious impacts in this region may result in population declines.<br/><br/>Habitat loss/degradation involving the development and expansion of agriculture, livestock, ongoing gold mining, fisheries and logging are a threat to this species. Water contaminants originating mainly from agricultural, domestic, sediment, sewage and solid wastes, as a consequence of this development, are also considered threats for <em>P. leopoldi</em>.<br/><br/>Inadequate land management and deforestation, mainly in the Xingu River headwaters and some of its tributaries, are significantly increasing and could bring serious impacts to the entire basin.<br/><br/>Geological characteristics of the Xingu River favour the building of dams throughout the basin and potentially represent a threat to this species; however, it is uncertain how <em>P. leopoldi</em> populations will be affected by this impact. Genetic isolation is likely to take place if the proposed dams of the Belo Monte Hydroelectric Complex are built in the near future.<br/><br/>Human settlement, tourism and recreation often lead to persecution (killing freshwater stingrays due to fear of sting injuries).<br/><br/>This species is seldom used as a food source but is captured as bycatch (mainly by hooking, netting, entanglement and occasionally by poisoning) in other target species fisheries.<br/><br/>Juveniles are captured for the international ornamental fish trade and at present this activity is regulated by an export quota system that must be correctly enforced by the environmental and export related national agencies. It is important to note that captures for ornamental purposes represents an important socio-economic activity for riparian residents in this region.<br/><br/>Historically, severe droughts (associated with the El-Niño phenomenon) in some small tributaries of the Xingu river have caused high mortality (Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.).	eng
39404	conservation	Drioli, M. & Chiaramonte, G., 2005	None.	eng
39404	distribution	Drioli, M. & Chiaramonte, G., 2005	Rio Paraná, middle and lower reaches; Río Uruguay middle, Río de la Plata, Río Pilcomayo and Río Bermejo. Río Guapore, Río Negro, Río Branco, Río de Janeiro and Río Paraguay.	eng
39404	habitat	Drioli, M. & Chiaramonte, G., 2005	Like all river rays, the ocellate river ray is found in calm waters, especially on the sandy margins of lagoons, brooks and streams. They are most commonly caught when water levels are low (August? September and March?April in Río Paraná, Santa Fe region (Castex and Maciel 1965b)), and observed still and partly buried during the warmest period of the day (09.00?20.00). Fishermen also harpoon these rays during floods when they are found resting over vegetation in shallow water. <em>Potamotrygon motoro</em> catches coincide with a rise in water temperature (Castex and Maciel 1965a), with abundance increasing in the Paraná Medio from September to mid January, stabilising in early March, declining in April then disappearing (Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach 1976). It is possible that they remain permanently in the area, but are concealed on the bottom at other times. Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach (1976) consider that <em>Potamotrygon</em> species are ovoviviparous. <em>Potamotrygon motoro</em> reaches sexual maturity during its third year, at a disk width of 30?35cm. A specimen with a disk of 30 cm expelled nine foetuses immediately after being captured. Another, with a disk of 45 cm, gave birth to a litter of 15 young, eight females and seven males. The largest foetus was 13.5 cm in diameter and the smallest 9.5 cm. The diameter of the females was between 11? 13.5 cm, whereas the diameter of the males ranged between 9.5?12cm. Female <em>P. motoro</em> were in an advanced stage of pregnancy in January (Castex 1963). Smaller females give birth to fewer young. The litter size is always odd, varying from 3?21 (Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach 1976).<br/><br/>According to Martinez Achenbach and Martinez Achenbach, plankton is the first food taken after birth. Juveniles complement their diet with small molluscs (Lamellibranchs and Gastropods), crustaceans and the larvae of aquatic insects. Fish of the family Loricaridae, <em>Astyanax</em> sp. and <em>Pimelodella gracilis</em> were found in the stomach contents of adults.	eng
39404	population	Drioli, M. & Chiaramonte, G., 2005	This is the most abundant and widespread endemic ray species of the Parano-plata.	eng
39404	threats	Drioli, M. & Chiaramonte, G., 2005	All species of river stingray in the Parano-plata Basin have delicious meat and are harpooned by fishermen when seen in shallow water. Artisanal and commercial fishermen also catch some specimens on lines. The attractively patterned juveniles of this species are collected for the ornamental fish trade. The major threats to the species possibly derive from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Río Paraná system for navigation and hydroelectric plants and the construction of many ports along the river.	eng
39406	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None.	eng
39406	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
39406	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
39406	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, collected from the Sanaga River and Cross River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, known from the Niger and Benue Rivers, and the Lagos Lagoon (Compagno and Roberts 1984). <em>Dasyatis garouaensis</em> is restricted to fresh waters (Séret 1990). D. garouaensis is rare in collections.	eng
39406	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The Smooth Freshwater Stingray is a primarily freshwater elasmobranch known from Benue River in Cameroon and Nigeria, from the Niger River downstream of Jebba dam, Lagos Lagoon, Cross River (Compagno and Roberts 1984).<strong><strong> </strong></strong>Recently recorded from the Sanaga River (Cameroon).	eng
39406	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is restricted to freshwater habitats. It is recorded from three West African river systems in Nigeria and Cameroon; the Niger and Benoue, Cross and Sanaga Rivers. Also occurs in Lagos, Nigeria, from uncertain habitat, possibly transported from elsewhere (Compagno and Roberts 1984a, b). Subpopulation details are unknown.	eng
39406	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dasyatis garouaensis</em> is a demersal, ovoviviparous species (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It exhibits ovoviparity (aplacental viviparity), with embryos feeding initially on yolk, then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus, fat or protein through specialised structures (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It has distinct pairing with embrace (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
39406	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It grows to 40 cm in diameter. Bottom dwelling fish. Ovoviviparous with the embryos initially feeding on yolk. Low fecundity with less than 10 young expected. Migratory.	eng
39406	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This freshwater stingray is present primarily in the Niger-Benoue river system of West Africa. The few specimens examined for diet had eaten aquatic insects. Age at maturity is estimated at about two years for both sexes, with a maximum lifespan of five years for males and seven years for females. Generation time and average annual fecundity are unknown.	eng
39406	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	A rare to common small stingray.	eng
39406	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
39406	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
39406	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Dredging of river for water transportation. In addition the habitat quality and quantity is declining throughout it's range due to the combined effects of agriculture, deforestation and urban development. The range is also being restircted through dam construction.	eng
39406	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Its conservation status is uncertain, given its restricted distribution (known from only four rivers) in a region with known habitat degradation. This species has apparently become less common after the construction of a dam on the Benue River (Séret pers. obs.).	eng
39406	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is caught as bycatch of fisheries on the rivers and subject to increasing fisheries pressure and habitat degradation in an area of dense and expanding human populations and political problems. Although dull-coloured, young of this species are sufficiently small to be usable in the ornamental fish trade, as are a number of species of South American Potamotrygonidae, although there is no evidence that this has happened to date.<br/><br/>A declining population in its former main centre of abundance, the Niger-Benoue system, is suggested by sequential attempts to collect these rays by Stauch and Blanc (1962) and Thorson and Watson (1975). It has declined or disappeared at the type locality at Garoua in the Benoue River in Cameroon, where it was formerly abundant, due (according to local residents) to local drought. On the other hand, this ray was fairly common in the Sanaga River near Edea, Cameroon (Taniuchi 1991) but with no baseline on former abundance.	eng
39407	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There is no <em>in situ</em> protection for the species or its habitat. The Thai government started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater stingrays in captivity at Chai Nat above the dam on the Chao Phraya River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river. The project was visited by S. Cook, S. Fowler and the author from the IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group in 1993, when four specimens of this ray were seen (including adults and a newborn specimen born in captivity) along with the Giant Freshwater Stingray (<em>Himantura chaophraya</em>), Longnose Marbled Whipray (<em>H. oxyrhyncha</em>) and White-edge Freshwater Whipray (<em>H. signifer</em>). We later (1996) learned that the project had been put on hold, at least temporarily.	eng
39407	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This stingray is known from the Mekong River at the border between Laos and Thailand, ,and the Chao Phraya River near Chai Nat in Thailand. These two locations are presumed to support isolated subpopulations.	eng
39407	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is restricted to freshwater habitats. Very few specimens are known and only seven are deposited in museum collections. Little life history information is available for this species, other than that a single pup was born in captivity at Chai Nat, Thailand (see below).	eng
39407	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is subjected to heavy fishing pressure, being taken as bycatch of intensive fisheries for freshwater teleosts in the large rivers where it occurs. Young are sufficiently small to be suitable for the aquarium trade, but it is not known if this species is collected. More importantly, the Mekong stingray is being subjected to massive habitat degradation, through dam-building and pollution from agricultural and industrial development, which has apparently drastically decreased fish diversity in the rivers where this stingray occurs. Its population is supposed to have declined as a result and this decline in numbers is projected to continue (Roberts and Karnasuta 1987, Cook and Compagno 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995b).	eng
39409	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	None.	eng
39409	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is mostly restricted to freshwater habitats in the Ganges river system, extending 1,000 miles (1,609 km) above the tidal reach and from several localities, however there are also also marine records of the species in the Bay of Bengal and off Madras (Annandale 1910, 1922, Chaudhuri 1912, Compagno and Cook 1995a). Subpopulation details are unknown. It is uncertain whether the Ganges Stingray is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, or if other similar freshwater stingrays in Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Australia (including <em>H. chaophraya</em>) are conspecific. If the latter, the Ganges Stingray is likely to be completely isolated from other populations.	eng
39409	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species is known from only a very few specimens, none of which are in museums. All life history parameters are unknown and there is no ecological information on this species, although it is apparently able to enter seawater.	eng
39409	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The species is probably taken as bycatch in fisheries for teleosts. Because it lives in an area of enormous human population density, it is considered to be threatened by fisheries, pollution and habitat degradation.	eng
39411	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The Thai government started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater stingrays in captivity at Chai Nat above the dam on the Chao Phraya River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river. Two specimens of what was possibly this species (or a closely related species) were seen in captivity here in 1993. We later (1996) learned that the project had been put on hold, at least temporarily.	eng
39411	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This is a freshwater species, occurring in the rivers of Southeast Asia. It is known from the Kapuas River in western Kalimantan and Indragiri River, Sumatra, Indonesia; Perak River, western Peninsular Malaysia; and Chao Phrya River, Thailand (Taniuchi 1979, Compagno and Roberts 1982).<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown. If, as seems likely, this ray is unable to transit marine habitats, each riverine population will be completely isolated.	eng
39411	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rarely recorded freshwater species is known from about 10 specimens in museum collections, mostly from the Kapuas River, Kalimantan. No information is available on any of this species? life history parameters.	eng
39411	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Rare.	eng
39411	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rare ray is taken infrequently as bycatch in freshwater teleost fisheries, which are intensive through much of its range. It is possibly taken for the aquarium trade (unverified). It lives in areas where riverine pollution and habitat degradation are continuing apace. Populations (which are probably isolated in each river where it occurs) are likely to be under serious continued threat as a result of logging activities and pollution from agricultural chemicals, sewage and industrial waste in the river catchments and loss of habitat due to dam construction (e.g., Chao Phraya River). Habitat loss and degradation are likely a major impact on the species.	eng
39412	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	No conservation or management initiatives have been identified.	eng
39412	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, including South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Tanzania (Zanzibar), Kenya, Red Sea (Lohaja and Massaua), Saudi Arabia, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomons, Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia (Fowler 1941, Herre 1953, Last and Stevens 1994, Last and Compagno 1999). <br/>No information exists on subpopulations.	eng
39412	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	A small stingray characteristic of coral reef habitats. Also found foraging near seagrass patches (Yahya and Jiddawi pers. comm.). Moves with rising tide into shallow, sandy areas to feed on molluscs, and shelters in caves and under ledges when the tide falls (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Despite its relative abundance in some areas, almost no information is available on its life history parameters (age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, generation time and annual fecundity are all unknown).	eng
39412	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This ray is commonly taken where heavy artisanal and small-scale commercial fisheries occur in or around coral reef habitats. Additionally, it may possibly be exploited locally for capture for the marine aquarium trade. It is at risk in many areas because of its dependence on coral reef habitats. These are under massive assault from net, dynamite and cyanide fisheries for teleosts in many places where the species occurs. In East Africa, artisanal fishers catch <em>T. lymna</em> using bottom¬set gillnets, longlines and skin-diving with spears, and also as bycatch in fence traps (S. Yahya and N. Jiddawi pers. obs.). Habitat loss and degradation therefore likely exert a significant impact on populations.	eng
39413	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	No conservation or management initiatives have been identified.	eng
39413	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Wide ranging, but relatively uncommon, in the Indo-West Pacific; also possibly tropical West Africa (Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast) and invasive in the eastern Mediterranean (via Suez Canal).<br/><br/>Localities include South Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, Seychelles, Red Sea (Koseir), Saudi Arabia, Oman (Muscat), Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India (Bombay, Madras, Malpe, South Canara on Malabar Coast), Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Penang), Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia (Jakarta, Java, Kalimantan), possibly the Philippines, Vietnam (Cholon), Australia (Queensland, Western Australia, Northern Territory), New Guinea and Melanesia (Fowler 1941, Herre 1953, Capape and Desoutter 1990, Last and Stevens 1994, Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
39413	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species. Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, generation time and average annual fecundity are all unknown. Although very wide ranging, this ray appears to be uncommon compared to various species of <em>Himantura</em>, <em>Dasyatis</em>, <em>Pastinachus</em> and <em>Taeniura</em> which are sympatric with it.	eng
39413	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The species is presumably largely taken as bycatch in unregulated fisheries in open access and nearshore waters. It appears to have disappeared or become extremely rare (compared to certain other batoids) in the batoid catches landed in Bangkok from the Gulf of Thailand over the last three decades (Compagno and Cook unpubl.). This suggests probable local over-exploitation here and possibly also in the Bay of Bengal. Similar trends are likely to be occurring or will occur in other areas where batoids are taken in multi-species fisheries. Human modification and degradation of the ray?s habitat is also possibly occurring in some of the more highly populated and polluted coastal areas as a result of human influences. Overfishing in these areas could also affect populations of prey species.	eng
39414	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	No conservation or management initiatives are known.	eng
39414	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
39414	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
39414	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	A freshwater species, occurring in rivers and lakes of West Africa: Nigeria from Old Calabar River, Gabon from Lake Ezanga and the Ogooué River system and Democratic Republic of Congo from the Congo River at Binda (Smith 1863, Compagno and Roberts 1984a,b). Also possibly from marine coastal waters of Nigeria, according to the original description (Smith 1863), but this needs verification. All modern records are from fresh water.<br/><br/>Subpopulation details are unknown. There could be discrete populations in different rivers, or interchange between the river systems may take place by individuals transiting in coastal marine environments.	eng
39414	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Specimens of <em>Urogymnus ukpam</em> from Binda on the lower Congo River are here confirmed as <em>D. ukpam</em>. Elsewhere, there are confirmed records from the Lower Guinea region from various localities on the Ogowe River, Gabon, and the lower Sanaga. Elsewhere it was originally described from Old Calabar River, Nigeria, where it was reported by Smith (1893) to be “abundant”, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and Guinea-Bissau. This species is sometimes placed in <em>Urogymnus</em> (Compagno 1999). The few known specimens of the species indicate that it has a wide but scattered distribution in a handful of western and central African tropical rivers (Séret 1990). The present-day rarity of such a large fresh water stingray, once reported to be abundant, is a probable indication that it is severely threatened.	eng
39414	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Specimens have been identified from photographs in Guinea Bissau and Côte d'Ivoire. Also recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is widely distributed in Ogowe River (Gabon), Sanaga River (Cameroon) and Binda and Azingo Lakes in Congo.	eng
39414	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Urogymnus ukpam</em> is a demersal species that is found in rivers and lakes of West Africa. It is ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). It has distinct pairing with embrace (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
39414	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Freshwater bottom dwelling fish. Ovoviviparous with the embryos initially feeding on yolk. Low fecundity with less than 10 young expected. Migratory.	eng
39414	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	There is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species. Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age and generation time are all unknown. One adult female has been recorded with two foetuses, but number of litters and average annual fecundity is also unknown.	eng
39414	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
39414	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The subpopulation from the rivers around Calabar (Nigeria) are reported to have declined significantly.	eng
39414	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	All known specimens were collected by local artisanal fisheries. There are heavy local marine and riverine fisheries in West Africa with a burgeoning human population. Over-exploitation for food is, therefore, a possibility; the ray was described as being abundant in the rivers of ?Old Calabar? in the nineteenth century, but it has seldom been reported since Binda (Smith 1863; Compagno and Roberts 1984a,b; Capape and Desoutter 1990). <br/>Human modification and degradation of the ray?s habitat is also possibly occurring in the area as a result of population increase.	eng
39414	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Dredging of rivers for water transportation. Dams have limited its distribution.	eng
39414	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
39415	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Ishihara, H, Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Fisheries taking <em>A. narinari</em> are generally unmanaged throughout large parts of the species? range. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>A. narinari</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. <br/> <br/>Of highest priority is the resolution of taxonomic issues to better define the actual ranges of the various forms/species of the <em>A. narinari</em> species-complex. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>A. narinari</em>. <br/> <br/>This species is protected in Florida State waters under the Florida Adminstrative Code, with the purpose of increasing public awareness of the need for extensive conservation action. As such, the spotted eagle ray cannot be harvested, possessed, landed, purchased, sold or exchanged in Florida. <br/> <br/>The species is afforded protection on the east coast of Australia in the extensive Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (although only a third of the park is closed to commercial fishing) and the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) in prawn trawl fisheries across northern Australia is mandatory. TEDs are likely to decrease the catch of at least large individuals, as was shown for numerous batoid species by Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002). The spiritual significance of these rays to some indigenous communities has limited traditional catches in parts of northern Australia (Puruntatameri <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Maldives, the species is afforded protection in marine reserves created around diving sites in recognition of the high value of sharks and rays to tourism (Anderson and Waheed 2001). The Maldives also banned the export of rays in 1995 and the export of ray skins in 1996. Again, this was to protect the tourism resource (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>A. narinari</em>.	eng
39415	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Ishihara, H, Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Widespread in tropical and warm temperate waters. <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> is probably a species-complex with different forms having more restricted ranges than the presently considered wide-ranging single species.	eng
39415	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Ishihara, H, Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Coastal and semipelagic over the continental shelf from the surface to 60 m depth. Sometimes enters lagoons and estuaries and often associated with coral-reef ecosystems (Michael 1993, Homma <em>et al</em>. 1994, Last and Stevens 1994). Solitary or found in large schools of up to several hundred individuals (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Although primarily observed near the coast and around islands and reefs, the species is likely to be capable of crossing ocean basins (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Around coral reef environments, spotted eagle rays often enter coral lagoons to feed (Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia; Homma <em>et al</em>. 1994). Diet consists of a wide variety of benthic species including polychaetes, bivalve and gastropod molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans and teleost fishes (Homma and Ishihara 1994, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) with fish important prey items for adults (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous. Little information available on reproductive biology although known to have low fecundity, bearing 1 to 4 pups/litter (Last and Stevens 1994). Homma <em>et al</em>. (1994) observed three gravid females in the Caroline Islands, two individuals carrying a single embryo and one carrying two embryos. Gestation has been reported at 12 months (Michael 1993) and reproductive periodicity may not be annual. These factors combine for limited reproductive output. Reported to reach sexual maturity after 4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994). Although reaches 330 cm DW most observed are less than 200 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Catches taken in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, occur throughout the year but peak in summer (January and February) (Young 2001). The overall sex ratio is unity but there is a significant association between sex and time of year, with more males than females caught in summer and more females than males in winter. Median disc width for each sex is 100 cm (Young 2001). Catches are rare in the southern part of the netted region, an apparent consequence of lower water temperatures (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>It should be recognised that life history parameters are likely to vary between the different forms of <em>A. narinari</em>, which may turn out to represent interspecific differences. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994) (female); 4 to 6 years (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); Between 100 and 115 cm DW (Indonesia; W. White unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  330 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  26 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994), 17 to 36 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months (Michael 1993), but may be less.. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 4 pups/litter (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
39415	population	Kyne, P.M., Ishihara, H, Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Population structure of the various forms will likely differ and will need to be considered on a species by species basis once taxonomic issues are resolved.	eng
39415	threats	Kyne, P.M., Ishihara, H, Dudley, S.F.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Details of catches of this species throughout its range are scant. Nevertheless its small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl etc.), its marketability and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species? range warrant a global listing of Near Threatened, and a Vulnerable listing in Southeast Asia where fishing pressure is particularly intense and the species is a common component of landings. With further data it will likely fall into a threatened category in other regions also. <br/> <br/>This species occurs in coastal inshore waters where fishing pressure is typically very heavy, especially in SE Asian waters, in parts of Africa and through portions of the species? range in the Americas. The strong swimming nature of this species makes it quite susceptible to a range of fisheries, especially inshore gill net fisheries, which are extremely intensive in some regions (for example, Kalimantan in Indonesia). The species also enters estuarine waters where fishing pressure is also extremely high and where (in SE Asia at least) pollution is also a major factor for all marine life.  <br/> <br/>The species is likely to contribute substantially to numerous inshore artisanal fisheries across its range and it is known to be landed regularly in some places. In Southeast Asia, <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> is landed in most countries within its range, for example, Indonesia (W. White unpublished data), Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002), the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (W. White and P. Kyne pers. obs.) and Malaysia (Manjaji 2002), all of which are countries where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is intense and generally unregulated. In Indonesia the species is presently caught consistently but in only small numbers in many fisheries (W. White unpublished data) and expected future declines in SE Asia are the basis for the Vulnerable listing there. The species is probably widely utilized across its range (Compagno and Last 1999) due to its availability to fisheries. Fishing pressure on the inshore environment across most of the species? range is only likely to increase in the future. <br/> <br/>Off eastern Africa, it is commonly caught by artisanal fishermen, in bottom set gillnets, trawls and longlines in Tanzania (Bianchi 1985), by artisanal gillnet fisheries off northern Madagascar (Doukakis and Jonahson 2003, Robinson in prep.) and by hook and line and harpoon off Somalia (Sommer <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/> <br/>Although specific details are not available, pressure on the inshore environment through artisanal fishing activities off West Africa, throughout the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and in large portions of the species? American range has likely affecting this species. There is nothing to suggest that pressure will decrease in these regions in the future. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, between 1981 and 2000 there was a non-significant increasing trend in catch of <em>A. narinari</em> in the protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal (Young 2001). Of the mean annual catch of 16 animals, 82% were released alive. The species contributed 4.6% to the total batoid catch. Aetobatus narinari is taken in small numbers as bycatch in a shallow water prawn trawl fishery that operates off central KwaZulu-Natal (Fennessy 1994). <br/> <br/>It is a popular public aquarium species and is collected for the marine aquarium trade. In some localities it is likely to be persecuted when considered a pest of mollusc aquaculture farms, as has occurred with other myliobatid species, for example <em>Myliobatis californicus</em> (Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>In a few parts of its range the species faces lower levels of threat. These include South Africa where catch levels are low, the USA where the species is protected in Florida (see Conservation Measures below), the Maldives where the exportation of ray product is banned, parts of Oceania where human populations are low, and Australia. The species is afforded some protection and impact reduction in parts of Australia in Marine Protected Areas, by the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices in prawn trawl fisheries and because of spiritual significance in some indigenous communities (see Conservation Measures). However, there is still concern for the species in Australia where it is taken as bycatch in inshore net fisheries and marketed as ?skate wings?, ?ray flaps? or ?eagle ray flaps?. Eagle ray is becoming an increasingly popular seafood product in Australia and the landing of this product is likely to increase in the future.	eng
39416	conservation	Cailliet, G.M. & Smith, W.D., 2006	The Bat Ray is presently one of the many species considered, but not yet actively regulated, under the Pacific Fishery Management Council?s Groundfish Management Plan for the U.S. eastern Pacific. Additionally, the state has general restrictions on usage of certain types of commercial gear in the nearshore zone, which offers a good degree of protection for Bat Rays and Angel Sharks <em>Squatina californica</em> (Leet <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, despite the fact that there are no current conservation measures the demand for bat ray has been relatively low allowing for some protection for this species, at least within the centre of its U.S. distribution at the present time. More needs to be learned about the status of critical reproductive and nursery habitat. Possible future fishing mortality increases within regulatory constraints could be a concern if mature females become an increasingly important component of the catch, or if inshore fisheries develop that are efficient at targeting this species. Considering its localised and limited distribution, it is unknown how much additional fishing pressure might be necessary to exceed its intrinsic compensatory limits and subject it to recruitment overfishing. In addition, a re-assessment of the combined sport and commercial harvest is recommended. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>M. californicus</em> specifically or for most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly monitored and lack species specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya? in catch records. Although easily identified, these rays are rarely documented on a species-specific basis in México. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México is necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific landings and bycatch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range are needed from the southern portion of the species? range. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations of this ray. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).	eng
39416	distribution	Cailliet, G.M. & Smith, W.D., 2006	The bat ray occurs from Oregon, USA to Baja California, México (including the Gulf of California) in the eastern Pacific Ocean.	eng
39416	habitat	Cailliet, G.M. & Smith, W.D., 2006	Bat rays are commonly found in shallow bays and have been reported from intertidal zones to 108 m but are more common in shallower waters (Morris <em>et al</em>. 1996). In southern California, it occurs along the open coast and around islands where it frequents kelp beds and sandy bottoms near rocky reefs and sandy beaches. <br/> <br/>The reproductive mode of bat rays is aplacental viviparity. Females produce up to 12 offspring (more commonly smaller litter sizes) in an annual reproductive cycle, with gestation lasting about one year (Baxter 1980, Martin and Cailliet 1988a). The pups are born at ~20 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a). Females reach a larger size and age and have a growth coefficient (k) in the von Bertalanffy growth equation of 0.0995 (Martin and Cailliet 1988b), reaching its asymptotic size (~159 cm DW) in approximately 25 years. Age at maturity for females has been observed by Martin and Cailliet (1988a) to be ~5 years, at ~88 cm DW. Males reportedly mature at ~60 cm DW and an age of ~2 to 3 years. Ageing by means of counting rings in the vertebral centra of this species has not been validated, either by tagging or by vertebral marginal increment or centrum edge analyses. In southern Baja California, México, these rays apparently mature at smaller size than reported from California with males attaining maturity between 40 and 50 cm DW and females ?70 cm DW have been found to be immature (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, 1996), however limited biological information on the species from this region is available. <br/> <br/>In San Francisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough in Monterey County California, parturition appears to occur from March through June, with a peak in April and May. It also reportedly occurs at approximately the same time in other bays (Humboldt, Tomales, Morro, Santa Monica and San Pedro Bay) in California (Talent 1985, Martin and Cailliet 1988a). Bays and sloughs appear to be important nursery areas. Females are also thought to release their pups along more open coastal areas in southern California, and have been observed giving birth to young in water 1m in depth over a shallow flat in Catalina Harbor. Newly born pups are reportedly found in northern California sloughs in April and May; also in the shallow surf zone in more southerly areas such as Santa Monica Bay in southern California around late May and June (Talent 1985, Martin and Cailliet 1988a, Monaco <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Estero de Punta Banda along the northern portion of the Baja California peninsula, <em>M. californicus</em> abundance increases from October to a maximum in January and become uncommon in the spring and summer months (Beltrán-Félix <em>et al</em>. 1986). Peak abundance of bat rays in Bahía Almejas, México along the southern portion of the Pacific Baja California peninsula occurs in March and consists primarily of adults (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, 1996). Both locations appear to serve as pupping and reproductive grounds for the bat ray. <br/> <br/>This ray is an opportunistic benthic feeder, consuming numerous types of bottom-dwelling invertebrates, including the eggs of some fish species such as herring, topsmelt, jacksmelt, and midshipman (Talent 1982). Pups caught in places like Elkhorn Slough consume crustaceans and molluscs (Barry et al. 1996). Bat rays are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the sevengill, <em>Notorynchus cepedianus</em>, and white, <em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>, (Ebert 1989) as well as pinnipeds. However, man is probably the most important predator. The bat ray occasionally occurs in epipelagic schools (Walford 1935, Roedel and Ripley 1950). Movement patterns may be associated with thermal tolerance or preference (Matern <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although it possesses a spine, this ray is not considered dangerous. Groups kept in aquaria have been observed to interact with each other and with visitors (G. and V. Dykhuizen, pers. comm). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  50% maturity: 5 years (Martin and Cailliet 1988b) (female); First maturity: 2 to 3 years (Martin and Cailliet 1988b) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50% maturity: 88.1 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a) (female); Maturity: 45 to 62.2 cm DW (Martin and Cailliet 1988a), first maturity (Bahía Almejas): 50 cm DW, 100% maturity: 60 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1996) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  At least 24 years (females) (Martin and Cailliet 1988b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  22 to 35.6 cm DW (Baxter 1980, Martin and Cailliet 1988b). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  9 to 12 months (Martin and Cailliet 1988a). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 12 pups (Baxter 1980; Martin and Cailliet 1988a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
39416	population	Cailliet, G.M. & Smith, W.D., 2006	The Pacific coast and Gulf of California stocks may be disjunct subpopulations, since there are few taken in the southern Gulf of California (C. Villavicencio-Garayzar pers. comm.). No information on the population size or subpopulations is available. <br/> <br/>Centres of abundance in US Pacific coast estuaries appear to be Elkhorn Slough and San Francisco, Tomales, Humboldt, Morro, Santa Monica, and San Pedro Bays in California (Talent 1985, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ebert 2003). Other California bays such as Drakes Estero in northern California, and Alamitos, Anaheim, Newport, Mission, and San Diego Bays in southern California are also frequented by this species (Monaco <em>et al</em>. 1990). In México, these rays are uncommonly reported in the southern Gulf of California but are often observed or captured in the Pacific coast of Baja and the northern Gulf of California.	eng
39416	threats	Cailliet, G.M. & Smith, W.D., 2006	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries (in México). <br/> <br/>Recreational fisheries (in U.S.). <br/> <br/>Indirect landings by demersal trawls, longlines, and gillnets (in U.S. and México). <br/> <br/>Bat rays are not directly targeted but are landed in multi-species artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in México. Fishery surveys conducted in the Gulf of California (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data) and Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith unpublished data) indicate that this species is not a common component of artisanal landings. No information is available on the species? contribution to bycatch in other artisanal or trawl fisheries, but they are taken in shrimp trawls. <br/> <br/>In Humboldt Bay, California, bat rays were persecuted because of perceived predation on commercial oyster beds. This activity was undertaken under permit by the oyster company and an average of over 1,100 individuals (minimum in one year, two; maximum, 9,197) were removed from 1956, with a total reported catch of 42,996 rays from 1956 to 1992 (Gray 1994, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997). Bat rays were captured by trawl, longline and trap, however, information on fishing effort is not available. Furthermore, there are no details of population size that would allow the detection of changes in density as a result of this removal policy, and so the localized affect of this practice is unknown. Gray (1994) demonstrated that predation by bat rays in oyster beds was in fact rare which later prompted a change in the oyster company permit and extermination effectively ceased. Ironically, bat rays fed extensively on red rock crabs, a major oyster predator (Gray 1994, Gray <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
39417	conservation	Marshall, A., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J., Clark, T.B., Jorgensen, S., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Because of its large size, migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, life history information is limited, preventing an accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries.  <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch catches in most parts of the world generally lack species-specific details. For example, in Mexico, Eastern Africa and parts of South East Asia, many batoids especially eagle rays and smaller devil rays are broadly grouped as ?manta rays?. Clearer catch records could help detect potential trends in fishing effort and mortality. <br/> <br/>Mantas receive protection in some marine protected areas. The Komodo National Park, established in 1980, provides a refuge for manta rays. Mantas are also protected in marine park designated areas within Mexican waters, primarily in the Revillagigedo biosphere, following enforcement of a fishing closure, which began in early 2002. In Hawaii, legislative protection for manta rays from fishing or intentional harm was proposed in 2005 and 2006 through House Bill 960, but the bill is still under review as of 2006. <br/> <br/>Fishing was banned in the Philippines in 1998 (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998), but this ban was lifted in 1999 due to pressure from fishermen and lack of data on the fishery. During a yearlong survey, from March 2002 to March 2003, 156 manta rays (<em>M. birostris</em>) were caught, mostly in the months from November to January. Since the study, the ban has been re-established for <em>M. birostris</em>.  <br/> <br/>Fishing was additionally banned in Mexico in 2002, when the Mexican government issued Official Rules Regulating Shark and Ray Fisheries in Mexican Waters, making it illegal to capture or kill <em>Manta birostris</em> in Mexican waters. However, the ban was lifted three months after its implementation due to lack of consensus between the different stakeholders, environmental, and tourism sectors. As of 2004, the legislation is still undergoing reviews and changes and has not been enacted, but it still currently provides specific protection for mantas and mobulids in all Mexican waters and prohibits their possession and trade (version 6.2 - Proyecto de Norma Oficial Mexicana Proy-Nom-029-Pesc-2004, pesca responsable de tiburones y rayas. Especificaciones para su aprovechamiento, 2004).  <br/> <br/>Even in protected areas such as marine parks and no-catch zones, there is evidence from around the world that targeted fishing still exists for manta rays. In Mexico, enforcement is somewhat suspect, as many fishing boats have been observed/caught deploying longlines, gillnets and seines within the Revillagigedo biosphere, which extends as a 12 mile buffer around each of the islands in the archipelago. Mantas have also been targeted in the Komodo Marine Park, very close to Lamakera, despite regulations forbidding fishing. Local dive operators and park rangers continue to report a decline in abundance in the park (H. Dewar, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>There is an extreme paucity of data on this species throughout its range. The limited information from current studies indicate vast differences in the localised ecology and movement patterns of manta rays in different area. As such, much more work is needed on this species to determine life history parameters and fishing pressures in specific populations. In the meantime, a reduction in manta ray landings is essential throughout their range.	eng
39417	distribution	Marshall, A., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J., Clark, T.B., Jorgensen, S., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters. Largest populations occur along areas of continental shelves supported by upwelling, in island chains, and near seamounts. Observed primarily in near-shore waters. <br/> <br/>Found in the west Atlantic from North Carolina, USA to northern Brazil, east Atlantic from the Canary Islands to Liberia, Indian Ocean from South Africa to western Australia (including the Red Sea), northern New Zealand, west Pacific from eastern Australia to the Izu Peninsula, Japan, central Pacific from New Caledonia, Tahiti to Hawaii Islands and in the east Pacific from Santa Barbara, California to Peru including the Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Last and Stevens 1994, Grove and Lavenberg 1997, Duffy and Abbott 2003, Ebert 2003, H. Ishihara unpub. data).	eng
39417	habitat	Marshall, A., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J., Clark, T.B., Jorgensen, S., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters. Largest populations occur along areas of continental shelves supported by upwelling, in island chains, and near seamounts. Observed primarily in near shore waters. <br/> <br/>Although <em>Manta birostris</em> is circumglobally distributed in tropical and warm temperate waters, very little is known of the species? life history or ecology.  <br/> <br/>Most often they are sighted while frequenting cleaning stations on inshore reefs, where they possibly have parasites removed or their skin and wounds cleaned (A. Marshall unpublished data, T. Clark unpub. data, B. Rubin pers. comm). <br/> <br/>They are also seen frequently, in areas of high productivity where they often collectively come to feed. The main prey of the manta ray is planktonic crustacea and small bony fishes. Sharks and possibly killer whales are the main natural predators (Michael 1993, Ishihara and Homma 1995, Andrea Marshall unpub. data, Mozambique). <br/> <br/>Manta rays are known to live in excess of 20 years (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999, R. Rubin, unpub. data, Revillagigedos Islands, Mexico).  <br/> <br/>Mating occurs in Mozambique and other parts of southern hemisphere distribution (Yap Islands, Bora Bora, French Polynesia, and Australia) from November-January based on witnessed mating events, courtship behaviour and swollen and scarred claspers in males (Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique; Mocava de Rosemont, pers. comm., Bora Bora, French Polynesia; Tim Rock pers. comm., Yap). Mating behaviour and copulation events have been witnessed in May-June in the northern hemisphere (Ogasawara Islands, Japan: Yano <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Mantas, like other myliobatiform rays, possess a highly specialized form of aplacental viviparity in which embryos are nourished via uterine villi that secrete a thick, protein/lipid rich liquid termed histotrophe (Wourms 1977). Reproductive potential of the species is extremely limited due to single functional uterus and an average fecundity of one (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999), although litters of two have apparently been reported (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Gestation period is estimated to be between 10 and 14 months (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999; Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique; Mocava de Rosemont pers. comm. Bora Bora, French Polynesia). Largest recorded embryo size 1.27 m DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and smallest recorded free-swimming individual between 1.2 and 1.5 m DW (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999, Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique, Mocava de Rosemont pers. comm. Bora Bora, French Polynesia). Mature females have been documented to give birth annually in some populations (Mocava de Rosemont pers. comm., Bora Bora, French Polynesia) where other populations have not recorded pregnancies in consecutive years in any of the mature females (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999, Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique). The smallest females confirmed to be mature from recorded pregnancies in the field or from dissections are 4.0 to 4.5 m DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique, Mocava de Rosemont, pers. comm. Bora Bora, French Polynesia). Age at maturity in male mantas in Hawaii appears to be 6 to 8 years based on time for claspers to extend past the pelvic fins (Tim Clark, unpublished data) and 3.5 to 4 m DW in Mozambique (Andrea Marshall, unpub. data).	eng
39417	population	Marshall, A., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J., Clark, T.B., Jorgensen, S., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Photo identification studies suggest local population sizes in the order of 50 to 350 individuals (R. Rubin, pers. comm., Revillagigedos Islands, Mexico; Tim Clark, unpublished data, Hawaii; Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique; Moeava de Rosemont, pers. comm., Bora Bora, French Polynesia; Bill Acker, pers. comm., Yap Island; Takashi Itoh, pers. comm., Yaeyama Islands, Japan; Paul Ahuja, pers. comm.). A colour variant of the species whose ventral side is dark is called ?Black Manta? (Barton 1948, Homma <em>et al</em>. 1997) which may represent up to 25% of the total population in some areas but is quite rare in others (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999, R. Rubin pers. comm., Revillagigedos Islands, Mexico). Albino individuals of the manta ray have been found in Sumbawa Island, Indonesia and northern Borneo, Malaysia (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Populations appear to be stable in Hawaii, Yap and Japan, but may be declining in Mexico, the Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and other parts of Southeast Asia where they are fished. In the Gulf of California (Mexico) in 2003, zero individuals were sighted (P. Ahuja, pers. comm.). Based on data from 2001 and 2002 alone, Chapman and Peterson mark-recapture estimates indicate a local population of approximately 177 to 220 individuals in the Gulf of California. The observation of zero sightings in 2003 is unexplained but may be of concern. Mantas are now reported to be rare in the Philippines, especially around the Bohol Sea where a major manta fishery was centred. Additionally, Japanese sports divers suggest that the population of manta rays at one site in the Sulu Sea (probably part of the same population fished at Pamilacan Island, Philippines) fell by one half to two-thirds in seven years from the end of the 1980s (Michiyo Nishitani, pers. comm. 1996). Data from observations in Okinawa Island by T. Itoh suggest that the number of individuals in a school is decreasing from 30 to 50 in the 1970?s to at most 14 to 15 in the 1990?s (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Some populations of mantas, like those in the Hawaiian Islands and the Island of Yap, have a closed population structure with high site fidelity and little to no migration away from island groups (Tim Clark, unpublished data, Hawaii; Bill Acker, pers. comm., Yap Island). Other studies on populations with year-round sightings and high re-sighting rates reveal that a portion of the population is resident while a subset of the population appears to undertake larger migrations (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1999, Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique), Mocava de Rosemont, pers. comm., Bora Bora, French Polynesia). Annual migration range in Japan has been documented to 350 km (Ishihara and Homma 1995). In a few sites, mantas have been well documented to be seasonal (Kathy Townsend, pers. comm., North Stradbroke Island (Australia), R. Rubin, pers. comm., Revillagigedos Islands, Mexico). Observations on mantas frequenting remote seamounts in Socorro (Mexico), Malpelo (Ecuador) and off some remote island groups (Cocos Island, Costa Rica; Galapagos, Ecuador) show a degree of philopatry to these sites but also indicate that these mantas make migrations away from these areas during parts of the year (R. Rubin pers. comm., Andrea Marshall unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Acoustic tracking in Hawaii suggests that mantas rarely venture from coastal waters, and migrate on a regular basis between several cleaning stations and feeding areas (Tim Clark unpublished data). Many preliminary reports from population studies on manta rays suggest the existence of small populations with a high degree of visitation to or occurrence in specific areas and critical habitats (Tim Clark, unpublished data, Hawaii; Andrea Marshall, unpublished data, Tofo, Mozambique; Bill Acker, pers. comm. Yap Island). Results also suggest a high degree of fragmentation between populations.	eng
39417	threats	Marshall, A., Ishihara, H., Dudley, S.F.J., Clark, T.B., Jorgensen, S., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Throughout most of their range there are neither directed fisheries for manta rays nor do they make-up large percentages of bycatch in non-target fisheries. However, their large size, slow speed, and tendency to be found on the surface make manta rays an easy target for fishermen. The main threats for this species are fishing activities where mantas are targeted or caught as bycatch. Recent demand for their fins and for their liver and branchial filaments, used in traditional Chinese medicine, has increased fishing activity worldwide for this species.Target fisheries for this species currently exist in several countries, including the Philippines, Mexico, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Tanzania and Indonesia (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Alava and Trono 2002, Sea Watch, Portland, Oregon, pers. comm. 1996, H. Dewar, pers. comm., A. Marshall, unpublished data (Mozambique), William White, pers. comm. (Indonesia)). <br/> <br/>Traditionally, in many of these areas of South East Asia, Eastern Africa, and Mexico, target fisheries for this species was for local consumption. In Madagascar, Tanzania and Mozambique, mantas were and are occasionally fished in artisanal gillnets and with harpoons. The flesh is primarily used for local consumption (Bianchi 1985, Jiddawi and Stanley 1999, Cooke 2003, Antananarivo 2003, A. Marshall, unpub. data, N. Jiddawi and S. Yahya, Institute of Marine Sciences, (Zanzibar) pers. comm.; and S. Semesi, TRAFFIC ? Tanzania, pers. comm.). Isolated reports of fishing for mantas have continued in the Gulf of California. Artisanal pelagic gillnet fishermen throughout the Gulf of California have been observed to retain mantas as bait as well as utilize landed specimens for personal consumption and sale of meat. <br/> <br/>Many parts of the manta (skin, liver, fins and dried branchial filaments) are used for local and export trade. The recent increase in the demand for many of these parts has resulted in dramatic increases in fishing pressure for mobulids, including mantas, throughout South East Asia and Eastern Africa, causing a switch from a subsistence fisheries to a commercial export fisheries (Alava and Trono, 2002; A. Marshall, unpublished data (Mozambique)).  <br/> <br/>In the Pamilacan Island, Philippines, it was reported that approximately 1,000 rays, including the manta ray and a few species of the genus <em>Mobula</em>, were taken between December 1995 and May 1996 by local fishermen using drift nets or harpoon. As a result, fishing was banned in the Philippines in 1998, but this ban was lifted in 1999 due to pressure from fishermen and lack of data on the fishery. During a yearlong survey, from March 2002 to March 2003, 156 manta rays (<em>M. birostris</em>) were caught, mostly in the months from November to January. Since the study, the ban has been re-established for <em>M. birostris</em>. Mantas are now reported to be rare in the Philippines, especially around the Bohol Sea where the fishery was focused. Additionally, Japanese sports divers suggest that the population of manta rays at one site in the Sulu Sea (probably part of the same population fished at Pamilacan Island, Philippines) fell by one half to two-thirds in seven years from the end of the 1980s. (Michiyo Nishitani, pers. comm. 1996). Data from observations in Okinawa Island by T. Itoh, the number of schooling is decreasing from 50 to 30 in 1970s to at most 14 to 15 in 1990s (Homma <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>In 2002, the World Wildlife Fund sponsored a trip to the islands of Lamakera and Lamalera in Indonesia to assess the manta ray fishery. Both islands have had traditional subsistence fisheries for manta rays, however Lamakera started fishing for manta rays commercially around 1998. This fishery developed to supply a specific demand from Asia for dried brachial elements, which are used in traditional Chinese medicines. Dewar (2002) estimated traditional catch rates in the village of Lamakera to be 200?300 mantas per year, with catch rates in 2002 estimated at 1,050?2,400 per year. Fishermen indicate that they no longer catch mantas in the traditional areas and are having to travel further to find mantas, and the fishermen on Lamalera caught almost no mantas in 2001, suggesting a substantial decline in the local populations that overlap with the Lamakera fishing grounds.  <br/> <br/>In Mexico, the species appears to be rare after several decades of fishing. Fishing was banned in Mexico in 2002, when the Mexican government issued Official Rules Regulating Shark and Ray Fisheries in Mexican Waters, making it illegal to capture or kill Manta birostris in Mexican waters. However, the ban was lifted three months after its implementation due to lack of consensus between the different stakeholders, environmental, and tourism sectors. As of 2004, the legislation is still undergoing reviews and changes and has not been enacted, but it still currently provides specific protection for mantas and mobulids in all Mexican waters and prohibits their possession and trade (version 6.2 - Proyecto de Norma Oficial Mexicana Proy-Nom-029-Pesc-2004, pesca responsable de tiburones y rayas. Especificaciones para su aprovechamiento, 2004). Mantas are protected in marine park designated areas within Mexican waters, primarily in the Revillagigedo biosphere, following enforcement of a fishing closure, which began in early 2002. <br/> <br/>Even in protected areas such as marine parks and no-catch zones, there is evidence from around the world that targeted fishing still exists for this highly sought after species. In Mexico, enforcement for manta protection has been somewhat suspect as many fishing boats have been observed and caught deploying loglines, gillnets and seines within the Revillagigedo biosphere, which extends as a 12 mile buffer around each of the islands in the archipelago. Mantas have also been targeted in the Komodo Marine Park, very close to Lamakera, despite regulations forbidding fishing. Local dive operators and park rangers report a decline in abundance in the park (H. Dewar, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Manta rays are also a by-catch in unknown numbers in the tuna purse seine fisheries as well as in other fisheries (Sri Lankan Gill Net Fishery) and shark protection net programs (pers. comm., Natal Sharks Board (South Africa)). Manta rays, which are caught regularly as by-catch in the Sri Lankan gillnet fishery, are used as shark bait and for human consumption (C. Anderson pers. comm.). There is no further information on bycatch in other fisheries. Incidental catches of manta rays in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, peak from November to February (49% of the total annual manta catch), although the species is caught throughout the year (Young 2001). Mantas rays comprise 16.9% of the total batoid catches from these nets, with a mean annual catch of 60 individuals and an overall 33.7% mortality rate (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Unfished populations are not thought to be threatened, however it is not well understood how their use of inshore areas around inhabited coastlines might be affected by anthropogenic influences like pollution, coastal development, and eco-tourism pressures (Tim Clark, unpublished data (Hawaii); Andrea Marshall, unpublished data (Tofo, Mozambique); Bill Acker, pers. comm. (Yap Island); Mocava de Rosemont, pers. comm. (Bora Bora, French Polynesia). <br/> <br/>The existence of anthropogenic pressures, from direct/indirect fisheries to pollution and exploitation of costal environments, in areas (like Mozambique and Bora Bora, French Polynesia) supporting critical habitats like breeding, birthing, and nursery grounds, is an increased threat to these populations which congregate in mass numbers in these areas or use them as refuges for their young. Increased densities of these individuals during certain seasons, combined with their ease of capture and the lack of regulated fishing management, could result in unsustainable fishing pressure during these times.	eng
39418	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	The giant devilray is included in the Annex II ?List of endangered or threatened species? to the Protocol concerning Special Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean of the Barcelona Convention, which came into force in 2001. Recent regional legislation (e.g., GFCM, ICCAT) has introduced new basin-wide banning of pelagic driftnets; if implemented, this would eliminate one of the most severe threats to the species.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the future are the incorporation of <em>Mobula mobular</em> into the nat. I legislation of the Contracting parties to the SPA Protocol to the Barcelona Convention and the implementation of this policy. The Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary could be an effective for this species against driftnets. Raising awareness with fishermen to maximise the live release of bycatch, after disentanglement, is also important.	eng
39418	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	The giant devilray occurs in offshore, deep waters and, occasionally, in shallow waters (Bradai and Capapé 2001) throughout the Mediterranean Sea, in waters ranging in depth from few tens of metres to several thousands (with the exception of the northern Adriatic) and possibly in the nearby North Atlantic. Outside the Mediterranean it occurs along the coast of Africa from Morocco to Senegal, the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Portugal, and as a vagrant, off southern Ireland (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987). However, since expert examination is needed to distinguish <em>M. mobular</em> from <em>M. japanica</em>, a species known from the tropical Atlantic (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987), past reports of giant devilrays from the Atlantic may have been due to incorrect identification of spinetail devilrays.	eng
39418	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	Like all mobulids, the giant devilray is an epipelagic batoid feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small schooling fishes, which are trapped on its specialised branchial filter plates. In the Mediterranean a likely important prey item for the giant devilray is the euphasiid shrimp <em>Meganyctiphanes norveggica</em>. Mobulids are aplacental viviparous matrotroph rays, in that the pups receive their nourishment from uterine milk secretion (Wourms 1977). They give birth to a single huge pup. A term embryo of <em>M. mobular</em> born from a specimen, caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea in late spring 1986 (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Serena, 1988), with a disc 1659 mm wide and a weight of 35 kg is the largest <em>Mobula</em> embryo on record (Notarbartolo di Sciara, 1987). It is not apparent from the literature whether <em>M. mobular</em> has a restricted reproductive season in the Mediterranean. Tortonese (1957) described a rather undeveloped embryo from a female caught in Palermo in September. The observations of Notarbartolo di Sciara and Serena (1988) suggest that in the northern Mediterranean the species gives birth in summer and that the pup could be up to 1,660 mm disc width at birth after 25 months of gestation (Serena 2000).	eng
39418	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	There are no population estimates for the giant devilray. The species appears to live in very low densities throughout its range.	eng
39418	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	Although there is no direct fishery for giant devilrays, high mortality rates are reported for this species from accidental takes in swordfish pelagic driftnets in the Mediterranean (Muñoz-Chàpuli <em>et al</em>. 1994), to unsustainable levels. Giant devilrays are also accidentally captured in longlines, purse seines, trawls (Bauchot 1987), and fixed traditional tuna traps ?tonnare?. They are also occasionally caught as bycatch in the western central Ligurian Sea, where long line catches have been monitored since 1999, especially from the harbours of Imperia and Sanremo. Devilray bycatch in the Ligurian Sea is always discarded (Orsi Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <br/> <br/>The extent of influence of Mediterranean habitat degradation on giant devilrays is unknown. Given their low position in the trophic web, high levels of contamination from organochlorine compounds or trace elements are unlikely. However, their epipelagic habits make devilrays particularly vulnerable to oil spills and to disturbance from high levels of maritime traffic.	eng
39419	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of both the USSR and Russia.	eng
39419	distribution		This species is known from northeastern China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and the Russian Far East (part of Sikhote-Alin Mountains in the south of Primorye Region). It has been recorded in China at around 1,000m asl.	eng
39419	habitat		This species is a habitat specialist; it is adapted to the upper reaches of small mountain streams in both coniferous and mixed cedar pine and broad-leafed forests. Inhabited streams have both a thick bed of pebbles and rich, humid vegetation on moist banks surrounding the streams. Animals are present in the stream sections that have minimal direct sunlight, a maximum size of pebbles and abundant hiding places, such as holes under logs, snags, and large stones. It may also be found in underground spring habitats. It breeds in streams; larval development takes place in the streams. The species is presumed to be very sensitive to habitat change.	eng
39419	population		It is generally uncommon over its range, with populations in China being relatively difficult to find. In the Republic of Korea this species is considered to be nationally threatened.	eng
39419	threats		The loss of specialized habitat, such as that caused by tree felling in stream headwaters, appears to be the main threat to this species. Pollution of stream headwaters and extraction of pebbles from streams might be potential threats to the species. Further research into the threats to this species is needed.	eng
39420	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is recorded from many protected areas. It is present in the largely protected Hyrcanian Forests of Iran. The species was re-introduced near Sochi Town in Sochi National Park (Russia).	eng
39420	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists. It is recorded from many protected areas. It is present in the largely protected Hyrcanian Forests of Iran. The species was re-introduced near Sochi Town in Sochi National Park (Russia).	eng
39420	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	This species ranges from the eastern side of the Balkan Peninsula (extreme southeastern Serbia, eastern FYR Macedonia, most of Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, and European Turkey) through western and northern Turkey along the edges of the Black Sea, to the Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan). There are apparently isolated populations in central Serbia, on the Crimean Peninsula (Ukraine), and in the southern Caspian region of northern Iran. The map for this species largely follows Arntzen, (2003). It can be found from sea level to elevations approaching 2,100m asl (southern Caucasus).	eng
39420	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	This species ranges from the eastern side of the Balkan Peninsula (extreme southeastern Serbia, eastern FYR Macedonia, most of Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, and European Turkey) through western and northern Turkey along the edges of the Black Sea, to the Caucasus (Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan). There are apparently isolated populations in central Serbia, on the Crimean Peninsula (Ukraine), and in the southern Caspian region of northern Iran. The map for this species largely follows Arntzen, (2003). It can be found from sea level to elevations approaching 2,100m asl (southern Caucasus).	eng
39420	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	It can be found in mountain forests (broad-leaved and coniferous species) and their surroundings; the forest steppe and even true steppe sites within the mountains. The majority of such populations are the relics of a former forest fauna. Within these landscapes, these populations inhabit slopes and plateau covered with meadows or xerophytic vegetation. Such habitats are especially widespread in the parts of the species' range in Crimea and southern Azerbaijan. In general, <em>T. karelinii</em> seems to be more resistant to xeric habitat conditions than other <em>Triturus</em> newts. Breeding takes place in slow moving stream pools, ponds and occasionally drainage ditches. The female deposits approximately 100-250 eggs; these are individually wrapped in aquatic vegetation. The species can withstand some degree of habitat modification.	eng
39420	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	It can be found in mountain forests (broad-leaved and coniferous species) and their surroundings; the forest steppe and even true steppe sites within the mountains. The majority of such populations are the relics of a former forest fauna. Within these landscapes, these populations inhabit slopes and plateau covered with meadows or xerophytic vegetation. Such habitats are especially widespread in the parts of the species' range in Crimea and southern Azerbaijan. In general, <em>T. karelinii</em> seems to be more resistant to xeric habitat conditions than other <em>Triturus</em> newts. Breeding takes place in slow moving stream pools, ponds and occasionally drainage ditches. The female deposits approximately 100-250 eggs; these are individually wrapped in aquatic vegetation. The species can withstand some degree of habitat modification.	eng
39420	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	In West Asia it is reasonably common in suitable habitat. Within the former Soviet Union habitat loss has caused the decline of many populations (especially in the Crimea and the Caucasus).	eng
39420	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	In West Asia it is reasonably common in suitable habitat. Within the former Soviet Union habitat loss has caused the decline of many populations (especially in the Crimea and the Caucasus).	eng
39420	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	Deforestation and pollution of wetlands by agrochemicals appear to be the main threats to this species. In the former Soviet Union there is significant commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. In Turkey there are no immediate threats to this species, as it is widespread and found in many habitat types. Within Iran it is threatened by urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation) and logging. In the Balkans, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change. In Greece the loss of aquatic habitats is a serious threat to this species.	eng
39420	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Wiesiek Babik, Claude Miaud, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	Deforestation and pollution of wetlands by agrochemicals appear to be the main threats to this species. In the former Soviet Union there is significant commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. In Turkey there are no immediate threats to this species, as it is widespread and found in many habitat types. Within Iran it is threatened by urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation) and logging. In the Balkans, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change. In Greece the loss of aquatic habitats is a serious threat to this species.	eng
39421	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	Listed in the Red Data Books of Azerbaijan and Russia (and in the Red List of Krasnodar Region and Adygea in particular). It has been recorded from one nature reserve (and two national parks) in Russia, nine nature reserves in Georgia, three in Azerbaijan. In Iran the species is present in the protected northern Hyrcanian forests. Further research into populations in northeastern Turkey is needed to better determine the presence and distribution in this country of <em>Bufo verrucosissimus</em> and <em>Bufo bufo</em>.	eng
39421	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	This species inhabits the Caucasus, including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia (records from Chechnya require further verification; not present in Dagestan [Mazanaeva, 2000]), northeastern Turkey (although records here might be confused with <em>Bufo bufo</em>) and the Caspian coastline of northwestern Iran. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,900m asl (former Soviet Union).	eng
39421	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	Its habitat is mountain coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests upwards to the sub alpine belt. The toad prefers wet, shaded sites in forests, bush lands, their edges and glades. Spawning occurs in clear, flowing or semi-flowing water, mainly in brooks, springs and small rivers, but also in puddles, ponds, lakes and seepage pools.	eng
39421	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	There is no information on the population of this species.	eng
39421	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Sergius Kuzmin, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	Destruction of forests and drainage of wetlands by people might result in population declines of this hygrophilous forest species. Some Iranian populations might be impacted by development in the Caspian coastal area. Because of its highly specialized habitat requirements, this species is particularly susceptible to anthropogenic threats. The recent spread within the Caucasus of the predatory North American Raccoon <em>Procyon lotor</em> has resulted in population declines of <em>Bufo verrucosissimus</em>.	eng
39422	conservation	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Sako Tuniyev, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	Listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR, Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, as well as the Adygea and Krasnodar Regions (Russia). The species occurs in the Caucasian Biosphere Reserve and Sochi National Park (500,000 ha). It is present in several protected areas of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It is not known as to whether or not the Turkish populations occur in protected areas, or are protected by national legislation. There is a need to eradicate raccoons from the range of this species. There is a need to monitor breeding localities to record any further changes in species abundance.	eng
39422	distribution	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Sako Tuniyev, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	This species is known from the Caucasus Mountains in the mountainous parts of Krasnodar Region, Russia through the northern slope through Georgia and small area in northwestern Azerbaijan to mountainous areas of the eastern Black sea region (northeast Anatolia) Turkey. The presence in North Ossetia and Chechnya (Russia), require verification. It is found from sea level to 2,300m asl.	eng
39422	habitat	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Sako Tuniyev, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	This species is associated with broad leaved, mixed coniferous deciduous and, rarely, coniferous mountain forests. It generally occurs in dense vegetation (bushes and grasses). Aquatic habitats of the species include the shores and banks of ponds and streams with clear and cold flowing water, and still waters. Adults can be found in shady damp areas, sheltering under stones and other cover during the day. The species breeds in slow moving streams or stagnant waters with 1,000-2,000 eggs laid during warm period (generally May to Oct and June to Aug. in mountains). It requires leaf liter and is not tolerant of leaf litter removal (i.e. clear cutting). It is a rather subterranean species only being encountered, after rain and during the breeding season.	eng
39422	population	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Sako Tuniyev, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	Very abundant locally in appropriate habitat. It has apparently declined in the former Soviet Union.	eng
39422	threats	Ugur Kaya, Boris Tuniyev, Sako Tuniyev, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, 2008	Population declines of this species in the former Soviet Union are poorly known, but in addition to a general loss and pollution of habitats (including through pesticides, mineral fertilizers, and cattle), populations are increasingly threatened by predation from the introduced North America Raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>). Within Turkey, the Uzungol Lake (Trabzon) population of this species is seriously threatened by the localized loss of suitable vegetation (especially the horsetail <em>Equesetum telmatera</em>) through drainage of areas surrounding the lake as part of tourism development. Other populations within the country are patchily distributed.	eng
39426	conservation	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas including Ranomafana, Mantadia, Marojejy, Montagne d'Ambre and Bemaraha National Parks, and Analamazaotra Special Reserve. Further field research on the taxonomic distinction of both the northern and western subspecies from the eastern nominate subspecies would be useful.	eng
39426	distribution	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in the eastern, northern and western forests from sea level to around 1,950 m asl on the Andringitra massif (Albignac 1973; Goodman 1997).	eng
39426	habitat	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This largely terrestrial, diurnal species is present in tropical humid lowland and montane forest, and tropical dry deciduous forest in the west of its range. An agile climber, it has occassionaly been seen in trees, and is also an adept swimmer. It has been recorded preying on crayfish in freshwater (Dunham 1997). It is recorded from secondary forests, although only where immediately adjacent to primary forest, and can be found at the forest edge, close to areas of slash-and-burn cultivation. This species is also regularly known to scavenge in human refuse in primary forest camps. Animals typically spend the night in burrows in the forest. Although sometimes solitary, it is a social species usually found in pairs with up to three offspring (Dunham 1997).The gestation period is unclear, but it appears to be between 52 and 90 days, after which a single young is born (Goodman 2003). Sexual maturity is attained at about two years.	eng
39426	population	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	This is the most common and widespread native carnivore species on Madagascar (Goodman 2003).	eng
39426	threats	Hawkins, A.F.A., 2008	The species, which remains widespread, is found at reasonably high population densities, and it occurs in a number of protected areas and even persists in forest fragments. As with most forest-dwelling animals in Madagascar, deforestation for the conversion of forested areas to cultivated land is the most important threat. This species is also certainly hunted in some areas, and is persecuted for raiding local poultry (Golden 2005) and killed by dogs accompanying hunters in the forest. Certain parts of the animal (e.g. the tail) are used for cultural purposes by some tribal groups (Goodman 2003). Competition with the introduced <em>Viverricula indica</em> and feral cats and dogs may threaten this species in parts of its range.	eng
39427	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The subspecies is restricted to waters of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New   Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region>; therefore national conservation measures are discussed here. The New Zealand Marine Mammals Protection Act (MMPA) prohibits deliberate killing or injury of marine mammals.&#160; Bycatch in fishing gear is not illegal but can be regulated. Hector's Dolphins are listed as threatened under <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> legislation.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The New Zealand Government has created a protected area for <em>C. h. maui</em> where gillnetting is prohibited along 390 km of coastline, but the area does not extend far enough south to cover the range of recent sightings and falls well short of covering the historic range. The latter has clear implications for the prospects of recovery. Gillnetting continues inside harbors, trawling is not restricted, and there are no observer programs to estimate the number of dolphins taken (Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006b).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Discussions between the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries and Department of Conservation are currently (early 2008) underway to develop a comprehensive management plan for Hector’s dolphin (including <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin). Species-wide, a continuing high level of bycatch mortality indicates that stronger protection from entanglement in commercial and recreational fisheries is needed.&#160; Protected areas, reduced gillnet fishing effort, and changes in fishing methods have been recommended as necessary to ensure the long-term persistence of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin (e.g. Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999, Burkhart and Slooten 2003, Slooten 2007; DOC and Mfish 2007).&#160; </span>Meetings of stakeholders have concluded that fishery mortality must be reduced to zero to allow the subspecies to recover (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b).&#160; Recent surveys (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2004, Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006a,b) indicate that restricting gillnet fisheries to waters >100m deep would have a major benefit in terms of reducing bycatch.&#160; In waters <100m deep it would also be advisable to institute observer programs on any trawl fisheries that operate in the habitat of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin habitat. </p>	eng
39427	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Hector's dolphin (<em>C. hectori</em>) is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> waters (Dawson and Slooten 1988).&#160; The North Island subpopulation (<em>C. h. maui</em>) is currently restricted to the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand, between Taranaki and Ninety Mile Beach (Russell 1999; Baker <em>et al.</em> 2002; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006).&#160; The range of the subspecies has undergone a marked reduction (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160; Previous sightings off the east coast of the North Island (e.g., Russell 1999) suggest either that there used to be a much larger contiguous population or that a separate subpopulation on the <st1:place w:st="on">North Island</st1:place> has already become extinct.</span>	eng
39427	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The habits and biology of Hector's dolphins in the South Island have been well studied in the last couple of decades (Dawson 2002) and there has been increasing research effort on <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins also.&#160; Maui’s dolphins appear to have similar behaviour and ecology to those belonging to the <st1:place w:st="on">South  Island</st1:place> subspecies.&#160; </p>  <p><strong><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></strong></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">There is little information on the feeding ecology of <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins but it is thought to be broadly similar to that of other Hector's dolphins, which feed opportunistically on several species of small fish and squid (Dawson 2002).&#160; </p>	eng
39427	population	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Studies of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA show that North Island Hector's dolphins are genetically distinct from any of the <st1:place w:st="on">South Island</st1:place> subpopulations (Pichler <em>et al.</em> 1998). Every sampled individual (n=11) in the contemporary <st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> subpopulation has a single maternal lineage that has not been detected in the <st1:place w:st="on">South  Island</st1:place> (n=97).&#160; In addition, these animals have unique microsatellite alleles at three of the ten loci surveyed.&#160; A further four loci have alleles that are either fixed or at high frequency, yet are rare in <st1:place w:st="on">South Island</st1:place> subpopulations.&#160; Such differences over such a small geographic scale have not been observed in any other genetic studies of marine mammals (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; </span>For example, two subspecies of Commerson's dolphin show less genetic divergence yet are separated by 8,500 km.&#160; The <st1:place w:st="on">North Island</st1:place> subpopulation also has morphological and coloration differences, and taken together this evidence has allowed it to be recognized as a distinct subspecies (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Recent surveys show that the South Island Hector’s dolphin populations collectively number about 7,270 individuals (CV=15.8%; Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2004), while the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">North</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> population numbers around 111 (CV=44%; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b). The latter’s range appears to have been drastically reduced (Russell 1999; Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2005). </span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">An age-structured model (Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2000) indicates that approximately 50% of Hector’s dolphins are mature individuals.&#160; If about half of the estimated 111 <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphins are mature, and half of them are females, it means that only around 28 mature females remain.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Population viability analyses using current abundance together with entanglement rates and historical and current fishing effort indicated a high risk of decline, and that gillnet entanglement had caused a decline since 1970 in the North Island subspecies population (Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999; Slooten 2007).&#160; Estimated abundance in the late 1990s was around 25% of the 1970 estimate of 437 individuals (Martien <em>et al.</em> 1999), and the most recent estimate of depletion is that about 7% of the 1970 population remains (Slooten 2007).</p>	eng
39427	threats	Reeves, R.R., Dawson, S.M., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Like the species as a whole, <st1:place w:st="on">Maui</st1:place>’s dolphin faces serious pressures from human activities.&#160; The main threat is entanglement in gillnets (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001; Slooten 2005; Slooten <em>et al.</em> 2006b).&#160; Of 14 stranded dolphins in which cause of death could be determined, seven had clear net markings, and an additional four had injuries suggestive of removal from nets (Dawson <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; Recreational gillnet fishing may be a more serious problem than commercial gillnet fishing, due to the proximity of Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city. Bycatches in trawl nets also have been reported.&#160; </span>Additional potential threats include those listed for Hector’s dolphin, i.e. pollution, disease, vessel traffic and habitat modification (Stone and Yoshinaga 2000) although there is no direct evidence that pollution or disease is affecting this subspecies.</p>	eng
39428	conservation	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Kreb, D., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The Action Plan for the Conservation of Freshwater Populations of Irrawaddy Dolphins (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2007; also see Kreb and Budiono 2005) recommended that core conservation zones be established in the Mahakam at key river confluences, including of about 10 km of river in both upstream and downstream directions.&#160; </span>The Action Plan also recommended a strict ban on gillnetting in the proposed core conservation zones, to be implemented on a step-wise basis as alternative gears or employment options are provided.&#160; Outside the core conservation zones, current regulations prohibiting the use of gillnets with a mesh size of 10 cm or greater should be enforced (Kreb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007 found that most of the documented deaths of <st1:place w:st="on">Irrawaddy</st1:place> dolphins in the Mahakam were due to entanglement in nets of mesh size 10-18 cm). Additional regulations requiring net attendance and prohibiting nighttime fishing also should be adopted. The use of large coal barges in narrow tributaries needs to be replaced by some form of land transport. Regular patrols are needed to prevent illegal fishing techniques such as electro-fishing, poison, and trawling, and better protection is needed for fish spawning sites in and near areas with high densities of dolphins.</span>	eng
39428	distribution	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Kreb, D., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The subpopulation of <st1:place w:st="on">Irrawaddy</st1:place> dolphins in the Mahakam River of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, ranges in the mainstem of the river from about 180 km above the mouth to 600 km upstream, seasonally inclusive of Kedang Kepala, Kedang Rantau, Belayan, Kedang Pahu, and Ratah tributaries, as well as Semayang and Melintang lakes (Kreb 1999, 2004).&#160; In the early 1980s, dolphins were still commonly reported in Samarinda, about 60km upstream of the coast, but in the early 1990s they rapidly disappeared and are now observed only upstream of about 180 km from the coast.&#160; The apparent 120 km range decline represents a loss of about 15% of their historic range (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
39428	habitat	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Kreb, D., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p>Significant differences have been recorded among encounter rates of dolphins in the Mahakam for eight 40-km long segments of the river mainstem and tributaries (χ² = 35.91, df = 7, P < 0.01). The three segments with the highest rates included particularly large numbers of confluences and appended lakes. Also, the confluence at Muara Pahu and another confluence about 10 km upstream, in the Kedang Pahu tributary, accounted for 89% of the sightings of newborns (N = 9). The majority of deaths (54%) with known location (N = 46) between 1995 and 2005 also occurred in confluences (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <span times="" new="" roman=""="">  <p>The average daily home ranges of 27 groups, which were followed for more than six hours, was 10 km of river length (SD = 8.6, range = 1-45 km). River length ranges were also calculated for 53 photo-identified dolphins during 3.5 consecutive years. Individuals were identified on average 12.5 times (SD = 9.5, range = 2-39) and during 6.2 different survey days (SD = 3.7, range = 2-20). These dolphins moved within the river an average of 61 linear km (SD = 44, range = 4-181) (Kreb <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>	eng
39428	population	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Kreb, D., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The most recent (2005) best estimates of total population size varied between 67 and 70 dolphins (CV<em> </em>= 10%; CL<em> </em>= 59-79), based on direct counts and Petersen mark-recapture analyses of photo-identified dolphins, respectively (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>	eng
39428	threats	Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Kreb, D., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Reeves, R.R., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p>The main threat to this subpopulation is undoubtedly gillnet entanglement, which accounted for approximately 66% of the 46 deaths documented between 1995 and 2005. Five of these dolphins were eaten by local people, and the skins of two were used as medicine for skin allergy. Dolphins in the Mahakam often are observed feeding in close proximity to gillnets and fishermen use the dolphins’ feeding patterns to determine the location and time to set their gillnets. Deliberate kills accounted for 9% of the documented deaths, occurring mostly in isolated areas where the animals were rarely found. Vessel strikes caused 7% of the deaths. Seven percent of the deaths were judged to represent fetal or neonatal mortality, and electro-fishing and hook-fishing each caused 2% of the deaths (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). </p>  <p><u1:p>&#160;</u1:p></p>  <p>From 1974 until 1988, 28 dolphins were live-captured and taken to Jaya Ancol oceanarium in <st1:city u4:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on">Jakarta</st1:place></st1:city>. Local people provided detailed accounts of illegal captures in 1997 (three dolphins) and 1998 (four dolphins). The fates and destinations of these animals remain unknown (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  The high density of gillnets in Semayang and Melintang lakes physically obstructs dolphin movements, thereby reducing available habitat. This problem, together with high sedimentation caused by de-vegetation of the surrounding shorelines, has probably eliminated these lakes as primary areas of occupancy, as reported by Tas’an and Leatherwood (1984). Leaks of chemical wastes, including mercury and cyanide, from retention dams at gold mines in the upper reaches occurred in 1997 and resulted in a massive fish kill (D. Kreb, pers. comm.). Cleaning waste from coal mines enters the Kedang Pahu tributary during floods, and on two occasions dolphins have been observed there with changes skin pigmentation (Kreb <em>et al.</em> 2007). An additional threat is heavy vessel traffic, particularly large coal barges that operate in narrow tributaries and which the dolphins actively avoid (Kreb and Rahadi 2004).</span>	eng
39430	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39431	conservation	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	The species is easily propagated by cuttings and seeds.  More than 200 plants currently stand in NPCS nursery.	eng
39431	distribution	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	Known in the wild from ten plants in the Corps de Garde Mountain of Mauritius and 26 new plants very recently discovered on the top of Le Morne Brabant mountain.	eng
39431	habitat	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species has been recorded in exposed dryish positions in mountainous areas.  It is an ornamental tender, evergreen shrub with pink to carmine red flowers and luxuriant deep green glossy foliage. Regeneration is poor.	eng
39431	threats	Bachraz, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	There is very heavily invasion by exotics in the natural habitat of this species (threatened by exotic competitors and hybridization).	eng
39433	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation. Cuttings and fruits need to be propagated.	eng
39433	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species occurs in Plaine des Roches, Montagne de Chat.	eng
39433	habitat	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	It has been collected from tropical rain forest areas and mountain crests.	eng
39434	conservation	Bachraz, V., 2000	It is recommended that the species be secured <em>ex-situ</em>.	eng
39434	distribution	Bachraz, V., 2000	This species occurs on Lion mountain, Case Noyale, and Montagne Le Chat.	eng
39434	habitat	Bachraz, V., 2000	The plant has been recorded in montane tropical rainforest on mountain tops. It has a smooth pale pinkish bark.	eng
39435	conservation	Bachraz, V., 2000	The species is the focus of both <em>ex-situ</em> and <em>in-situ</em> conservation.	eng
39435	distribution	Bachraz, V., 2000	This species is reported to occur at Mt. St Pierre, Plaine des Roches and Mt Villars (total range less than 100 km²).  The population contains less than 50 individuals.	eng
39436	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	It is recommended that this species is planted in a Conservation Management Area.	eng
39436	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is recorded from Perrier, Henrietta Vallee des Couleurs, and Gavarnny.  The population is less than 50 occurring within a range of less than 100 km².	eng
39437	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is rare. It is known only from the Maccabe forest and two other collections from unknown localities.  It is thought that there are less than five plants remaining.	eng
39438	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	In-situ conservation of this species is already in practice. It is recommended that <em>ex-situ</em> conservation is instigated.	eng
39438	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  It has been recorded from Fixson, Perrier, and Brise Fer, with a further, unconfirmed collection in Mont Ver.  The total population is estimated at less than 12, occupying a range of less than 100 km².	eng
39438	threats	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	The main threats to this species are invasive competitors and predators (rats and monkeys), and human-induced habitat removal.	eng
39439	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation of this species is recommended.	eng
39439	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  The population is estimated at less than 50 and declining.  Total range is less than 100 km².  The species is not well known and <em>G. truncata</em> may be a simple variation of <em>G. psychotrioides</em>.	eng
39440	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation of this species has already been implemented, and it occurs in cultivation as ornamental plants in private gardens.	eng
39440	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is endemic to Mauritius.  It has been recorded from Corps de garde, Trois Mamelles, Yemen, Magenta, and Chamarel.  Total population is recorded as less than 50 occurring within a range area of less than 100 km².  A net decline in area of occupancy has been recorded based on direct observation.	eng
39440	habitat	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	The species occurs in tropical lowland montane forest at 300-500 m altitude.	eng
39441	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex-situ</em> and <em>in-situ</em> conservation of this species have already been implemented.	eng
39441	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is known from  Mont du Pouce, Bassin Blanc, La Fenetre, Pieter Both and Cascade Cinq Cent Pieds.  This rare herbaceous plant occurs within a range of less than 100 km².	eng
39441	habitat	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>P. laevicaulis</em> has been recorded from montane tropical degraded forest. It grows on exposed sites such as cliffs and rock crevices filled with humus.	eng
39442	conservation	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	<em>Ex-situ</em> conservation.	eng
39442	distribution	Tezoo, V. & Strahm, W., 2000	This species is confined to North-West of island in the region of the Pouce and Deux Mamelles.  Total range is less than 100 km².	eng
39443	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	One plant has been propagated (in 1996).  There is a need to create awareness about this species and future propagation and reintroduction should be carried out.	eng
39443	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	Endemic to Mauritius, the total population of this species is recorded as 30 plants occurring at Yemen (Grosse Roche).  The population is localised and there is a net decline based on direct observation.	eng
39443	threats	Florens, D., 2000	The main threats to the population are invasive competitors and grazing of seedlings.	eng
39444	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	It is proposed to propagate this plant through seeds.	eng
39444	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	Endemic to Mauritius, this species has been recorded from Goat Rock, Snail Rock, and Corps de Garde. Around 60 individuals have been found at these sites and the total existing population is estimated at less than 100.	eng
39444	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	The species grows on exposed rocky cliffs in mountainous areas.	eng
39445	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	It is proposed that plants be propagated through cuttings.	eng
39445	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	This species occurs at Gaullette Serre and Montagne Cocotte.	eng
39445	threats	Florens, D., 2000	The main threat to the species is the presence of invasive competitors.	eng
39446	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	Propagation through cuttings and reintroduction of the species into appropriate habitat is being carried out.	eng
39446	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	This species is known from the Tamarin Falls area of Mauritius.	eng
39446	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	The species has been recorded in montane tropical rain forest, especially in exposed humid areas.	eng
39447	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation through cuttings and seeds, and <em>in situ</em> conservation in secured areas are already in practice.	eng
39447	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	Only five mature individuals of the species remain.	eng
39447	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	The species occurs in montane tropical degraded forest.	eng
39449	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	The cauliflorous fruit is protected against monkeys. It is proposed to fence the saplings	eng
39449	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	Less than seven mature individuals and seven browsed saplings found at Magenta mountain slopes.	eng
39449	habitat	Florens, D., 2000	Mountain slopes in dry region	eng
39449	threats	Florens, D., 2000	Invasive competitors and predators (monkeys and browsed by deer).	eng
39450	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	<em>In situ</em> conservation is already in practice and there are three known plants in a Conservation Management Area. In future more propagation should be carried out using cuttings and layering.	eng
39450	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	There is only one population remaining at Montagne Cocotte.	eng
39450	threats	Florens, D., 2000	The main threats to the species are the presence of invasive competitors combined with the fact that no male tree has been seen. Young fruits were last recorded in December 1978 and January 1979. There is also a poor pollination record for this species.	eng
39451	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	<em>In situ</em> conservation of this species is already in practice at Mondrain. For this to be successful, the plant must be grown beyond the seedling stage and <em>Achatina</em> species (which are mainly responsible for destroying the seedlings) eliminated.	eng
39451	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	This species is recorded from Flanc sud de Pieter Both, Mountain Lagrave, and Bassin Blanc, Macchabee.  The total population is recorded as less than 50.	eng
39452	conservation	Florens, D., 2000	The species has been planted in the arboretum of the Forestry Service at Curepipe, National Parks and Conservation Greenhouse. In future there will be reintroduction of the species in a Conservation Management Area.	eng
39452	distribution	Florens, D., 2000	The total population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals: 30 individuals exist at Cascade Cinq Cent Pieds, and 10 at Mt. Le Pouce.	eng
39454	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation has successfully been implemented at the National Parks Conservation Service and Forestry Service.	eng
39454	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	This species is endemic to Mauritius.	eng
39454	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	It has been recorded from mid altitude dry forest.	eng
39454	threats	Rutty, R., 2000	The main threat to the population are invasive species (competitors) and fire.	eng
39455	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	It is recommended that both <em>ex situ</em> and <em>in situ</em> conservation measures be implemented.	eng
39455	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	The species has been recorded from Cogliano River at Perriet and at S.L Mont Vert.	eng
39455	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	It occurs in montane and tropical rain forest at an altitude of 550 m.	eng
39455	threats	Rutty, R., 2000	The main threats are habitat removal for forest plantation, and invasive competitors such as <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> and <em>Ligustrum</em>.	eng
39456	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species is currently in progress at the National Park Conservation Service and at the Forestry Service.	eng
39456	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	This species occurs at Montagne Le Pouce.	eng
39456	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	It is found in montane tropical rain forest areas on wind exposed sites.	eng
39457	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>In situ</em> conservation of this species has already been implemented at the Petrin Conservation Management Area.	eng
39457	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	This species has been recorded from the region of Petrin.	eng
39457	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	It occurs in montane tropical rain forest areas with short layered laterite soil.	eng
39458	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	It is recommended that in-situ conservation be initiated. <em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species is already in practice.	eng
39458	threats	Rutty, R., 2000	The main threat to the species comes from invasive competitors such as <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> and <em>Ligustrum</em>.	eng
39459	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of this species should be initiated immediately.	eng
39459	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	Only one individual exists at Ilot Sanchot, Riviere des Gallets.	eng
39459	threats	Rutty, R., 2000	The main threat to the species is the presence of invasive competitors such as <em>Latana camara</em>.	eng
39460	conservation	Rutty, R., 2000	<em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species is in progress at the National Park Conservation Service and the Forestry Service.	eng
39460	distribution	Rutty, R., 2000	Formally found at Trou Kanaka, this species is now no longer seen in the area. One individual is found at Bel Ombre.	eng
39460	habitat	Rutty, R., 2000	The species is recorded from montane tropical rain forest amongst waterfalls, on humus.  It is rarely epiphytic.	eng
39462	distribution	Birstein, V., 2000	Recorded from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers.	eng
39462	habitat	Birstein, V., 2000	Prefers river channels. Rarely found in lakes.	eng
39463	distribution	Birstein, V., 2000	was in the Aral Sea where it was extirpated, but still extant in the Amu Darya River.	eng
39466	conservation	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	Some of the populations are located within the National Park and Nature Reserves in the Conservation Management Area where alien species are regularly controlled.	eng
39466	distribution	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	This species is mainly located in the uplands within most of the native forest.  It has a rather broad distribution extending from southwest of the island to the east at Mt. des Creoles, and as far north as Gaulettes Serres.  Historically it has been collected at Le Pouce (in 1864), but no collection from this locality has been made since.  The Pouce forest is extremely degraded by alien species.  It has been collected from Savanne, Colville near Moka, Mt. Bambous and Mt. Blanche, in the past but is now extirpated from these localities.	eng
39466	habitat	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	The species has been recorded in climax montane rain forest and lowland moist forest to open <em>Sideroxylon</em> forest.  Altitude ranges from 280 to 700 m.	eng
39467	distribution	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	This species is known from at least five locations with one subpopulation known to number more than 50 individuals. area of occupancy is less than 10 km² and the total population is estimated at less than 150 individuals.	eng
39467	habitat	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	The species has been recorded in evergreen dry forest at an altitude ranging from 115 to 300 m.	eng
39467	threats	Dulloo, M.E., 2000	There is a marked deterioration of the habitat caused by alien and animal species.  The principal invasive plants are <em>Schinus terebinthifolius, Hiptage benghalensis</em> and <em>Eugenia uniflora</em>.  In addition the ground flora is browsed by exotic Javanese Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>).  Monkey (<em>Macaca fascicularis</em>) damage to fruiting plants is also very evident.	eng
39468	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The high altitude sites in Bakossi may prove important for the conservation of this taxon and so should be assessed more fully; atypically for Acanthaceae taxa, this species is readily identifiable when sterile, aiding population assessments.	eng
39468	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	This species has been recorded from Nigeria (Cross River State), Equatorial Guinea (one collection from Bioko) and southwestern Cameroon. In Cameroon, it is known from Korup (seven collections), where it is locally abundant. It has also been recorded from Mt. Cameroon (14 collections). The inventories of the 1990s yielded a further nine specimens of this species from Mt. Cameroon, from all lowland forest areas, except from Mokoko. There are two collections from Bakossi and one from Banyang-Mbo. It seems relatively abundant in Onge. Occurs at 0–500 m, rarely in mid-elevation forest 900–1,400 m (Bakossi).	eng
39468	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The species occurs in lowland closed-canopy evergreen forest, often growing in damp, shady spots on the forest floor.	eng
39468	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Forest clearance is the main threat to the survival of the species. However, higher altitude sites discovered in Bakossi are less threatened.	eng
39469	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The range of this species should be investigated to determine whether it really is confined to Mann Spring or is widespread in the montane forest. Further information is also required on the size of the population, whether regeneration is occurring, and current and potential threats to the species.  Care must be taken to avoid confusion with <em>Isoglossa glandulifera</em> which occurs at lower altitudes and is widespread.	eng
39469	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	this species has been collected from Mt. Cameroon.  The type specimen was collected in 1862 and the species was not recollected until 130 years later.  The last known collection was from an area west of Mann Spring in 1993. The species is known only from these three collections.	eng
39469	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in montane forest at 2,000-2,500 m altitude.	eng
39470	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	More data are needed on the range and population size of this species.  An evaluation of the extent of the threat posed by exploitation for trapping is also recommended, and local trappers should be encouraged to use alternative, more common taxa.	eng
39470	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	This species has been collected on the Obudu Plateau, Nigeria (one collection); and from Mt. Cameroon (two collections) and Mt Kupe (three collections), Cameroon.	eng
39470	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	An understorey shrub of closed canopy submontane and montane forest, 1,100–1,400 m alt.	eng
39470	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Current threats to the species on Mt Cameroon are unknown. Stems are cut for trap "springing sticks" on Mt Kupe (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); this is likely to have an impact upon the population of mature individuals at the two Kupe sites.	eng
39471	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Botanical surveys of other suitable sites in S.W. and Littoral Provinces should reveal further populations of this taxon; monitoring of the riparian plant communities in response to increased upstream run-off should be carried out.	eng
39471	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	This species has been recorded from Cross River State, Nigeria (two collections); Cameroon S.W. Province: Onge, Mt. Cameroon (six collections), south Bakundu Forest reserve (one collection), Bakossi (two collections), and in the Littoral Province: near Nkongjok (one collection) and near Yingui (one collection).	eng
39471	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The species occurs in fast-flowing rivers, growing half submerged and rooted amongst boulders; often around waterfalls, 0–750 m alt.	eng
39471	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The proposed conversion of lowland forest around Mt Cameroon to plantation is likely to threaten the plant communities of the rivers that drain the area, such as the Onge, an important site for this taxon, through flooding and excessive silting of their habitat. Illegal logging for timber in lowland Bakossi is likely to have a similar impact.	eng
39472	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Was originally though to be confined to Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Mt Cameroon (Cameroon), but now known to have a wider distribution with records from Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Guinea.  Although discovered on Bioko, the species has not been recollected there this century. It is possibly extinct there due to clearance of almost all forest below 1,000 m altitude. In Cameroon, it is known from Likomba (where it is now probably extinct) and Mabeta-Moliwe where numerous specimens were collected in 1992.	eng
39472	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	A shrub or samll tree (up to 20 m) found in lowland rain forest .	eng
39472	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.	eng
39474	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from southern Cameroon and Gabon. On Mt. Cameroon the species known only from a single sterile specimen from Mokoko collected in 1994. It needs to be recollected in this area to confirm the species identity.	eng
39474	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for timber and agriculture.	eng
39475	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An attempt should be made to rediscover this tree and to determine whether there are scattered individuals in the area.  Incorporation of some individuals in a heavily protected area might be investigated.	eng
39475	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to coastal Cameroon and Bioko. It is known from 8 specimens, occurring at only five localities. The type specimen is from Bipindi and it is also known from Kribi and Korup, besides Bioko. On Mt. Cameroon, it is known only from Nkeng 69.  This species has conspicuous flowers and fruits, and is not easily overlooked when fertile. Consequently, the sparse and scattered collections probably indicate rarity, rather than undercollection.	eng
39475	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The clearance of forest for timber extraction, followed by agriculture and plantations threaten the survival of this species. Plantations in the Idenau area are believed to be scheduled for expansion soon. Lowland forest is probably the most heavily threatened vegetation type on Mt Cameroon.	eng
39476	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Although <em>U. fuscum</em> is restricted in its range to Mt. Cameroon and Bioko, within its range it seems widely spread (particularly on Mt. Cameroon) and is common at some locations. Compared with many other species with such a range, it seems in no immediate danger of extinction.	eng
39476	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from collections made at Bioko, and Mt. Cameroon.  The two collections on Bioko are both historic and there is no evidence of a recent sighting.  Care should be taken not to confuse this species with its congeners, for example <em>U. giganteum, U. mirabile</em> or <em>U. connivens</em>.	eng
39476	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is recorded from lowland to submontane areas of evergreen forest (sea-level to 1,500 m altitude).	eng
39476	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	There is no evidence that traditional use is a threat to this species, but this should be investigated further.	eng
39477	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This ornamental species is a prime candidate for cultivation and multiplication at Limbe Botanic Garden, with a view to reintroduction to the wild at secure sites.	eng
39477	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, and the southern Province, Cameroon.  This species was only known from a leafless specimen, until a collection was found in the southern Bakundu area.  Recently it was recollected in Mabeta-Moliwe, on the southern base line, at 400 m from the original collection site.  This species is undoubtedly very rare. More work is needed on the delimitation of this species from <em>P. ceropegioides</em>, also on Mt. Cameroon and also rare.	eng
39477	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Specimens were collected from disturbed lowland forest areas.	eng
39477	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species comes from forest clearance. All known sites of this species are under pressure from timber extraction or forest clearance.	eng
39478	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The now well-known plant above Likombe should be protected by agreement with the local landowner. A search for more individuals in the same area was carried out without success in 1995. This species may be a candidate for propagation at Limbe Botanic Garden for reintroduction to a protected, managed area or areas. The site at Mt Kupe remains the primary hope for the survival of this species in the wild. Regular monitoring by Martin Etuge and the author over the last eight years has shown the subpopulation at this site to be stable.	eng
39478	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Known from Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Kupe; Côte d'Ivoire; and the Central African Republic.	eng
39478	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland to submontane forest, withstanding and perhaps benefiting from some disturbance (sea-level to 1,000 m altitude).	eng
39478	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Although known to withstand some disturbance, presumably being able to regenerate after cutting, there is no doubt that intensive agriculture and tree clearance would destroy this rare species.	eng
39481	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39481	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is found in large parts of Portugal and Spain and most of France except the north and west. In Switzerland, it occurs in Vaud, Valais and the Jura. It is rare in South Germany, Northwest Italy and Austria. The extent of distribution is not clear yet. Its elevation range is 300-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species. The status of this species in the northeast of Turkey requires revision.	eng
39481	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This grizzled skipper occurs in warm, flower-rich grasslands, preferring those in sheltered situations, for example on slopes or near shrubs or woodland. In the northern part of its range, it is only found in very warm places. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), choosing the smaller plants. This butterfly hibernates as a very tiny caterpillar in the egg, in which it remains until the spring. It then emerges and spins a small shelter from leaves. In the last larval instar, this is replaced by a parchment-like shelter. It pupates in a cocoon. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), inland sand-dunes (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%).	eng
39481	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Switzerland. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39481	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
39482	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
39482	distribution	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	This species is declining in Turkey, but the status in the Caucasian republics is poorly known.	eng
39482	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present on the southern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, northwest of the Caucasus. Up to 1,800 m (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
39482	habitat	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	It inhabits moist, herbaceous clearings, roadsides and other open places in mixed and deciduous woodland and feeds on species of <em>Aristolochia</em> (Aristolochiaceae).	eng
39482	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Caucasian Festoon occurs in moist bushy clearing and other open places in deciduous and mixed forests and on wet meadows on hills. female lays its eggsThe female lays its eggs mostly on a birthwort species (<em>Aristolochia iberica</em>). The species has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage (Tshikolovets 2003, Baytas 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
39482	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is not clear if there are populations in the part of Southern Russia considered to be European.	eng
39482	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	There are no main threats known in Europe.	eng
39483	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A well coordinated search for the species should be conducted to make sure that there is not a population left somewhere on the island. If a remaining population is found, immediate research on the ecology and conservation should be carried out.	eng
39483	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39483	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly was mostly found in north-exposed valleys in the Laurisilva forests on Madeira. They occurred in many habitat types where the larval hostplant grows in abundance and where many nectar-rich plants, such as thistles and knapweed, were available as a source of nectar. The females deposited the eggs in batches on the leaves of diverse genera and species of crucifers, such as Caper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Capparis spinosa</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropaelum majus</span>. The caterpillars lived in small groups, dispersing in the later instars, when they were ready to pupate. Hibernation took place in the pupal stage. This butterfly produced several generation a year and could be found from March until late October. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
39483	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Madeiran Large White is an extremely local species, restricted to the island of Madeira. In the 1970s, it was considered rare. There are some reports from the 1980s, in which lepidopterists reported it to be widely distributed, but searches for this species in the early 1990s were unsuccessful. As the species has not been seen on this relatively small island for at least 20 years, it is believed to probably be extinct.	eng
39483	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The causes for the decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris wollastoni </span>are unknown, but Gardiner (2003) proposed the introduction of diseases and Lozan<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2008) the introduction of the alien parasitoid <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotesia glomerata</span> as possible causes.	eng
39484	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39484	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Islands Large White is restricted to the Canary Islands. This species is widespread and locally common on La Palma. On Tenerife, it is restricted to the northern coastal region. It is probably extinct on Gomera. Its elevational range is 200-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39484	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Islands Large White occurs in wet and shaded, rocky gullies in laurel forests and wet cliffs. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of Crambe strigosa, a plant species endemic to wet places in laurel forests and on the introduced species <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropaelum majus</span>. The caterpillars live in much the same way as those of the Large White (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris brassicae</span>). They are gregarious but disperse in the late larval instars. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
39484	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39484	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Destruction of primary, natural habitat appears to be largely responsible for the decline in many areas and possibly for its extinction on some islands. The habitat is endangered because of anthropogenic pressure (Wiemers, 1995). Like with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris wollastoni, </span>the introduction of the alien parasites <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotesia glomerata </span>(Lozan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) might be a possible cause of the decline, as the former population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pieris cheiranthi</span> on La Gomera also became extinct in the 1970s.	eng
39485	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39485	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Madeiran Brimstone is restricted to the island of Madeira at elevations between 500-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39485	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Madeiran Brimstone occurs only in the dense primary laurel forest at middle altitudes. The larval foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus glandulosa</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnaceae</span>). The number of generations per year is unknown. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).	eng
39485	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This butterfly has low population densities. It is declining on Madeira.	eng
39485	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is restricted to primary vegetation, susceptible to human interference. The most direct threat comes from habitat loss because of reclamation and change to agricultural land.	eng
39486	conservation	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	There is legal protection for some important butterfly habitats in three countries and has been a research subject in at least one country.	eng
39486	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
39486	distribution	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	This species is restricted to southeastern Europe, with the main distribution focused on Albania, Greece and Turkey.	eng
39486	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from Bosnia and Herzegovina via Montenegro to Bulgaria and Greece (including some islands). Very rare in the northern part of distribution range. 0-1,600 m, although mostly below 1,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
39486	habitat	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	Found in wet valleys and wet areas near the coast in Mediterranean evergreen woodlands and maquis, broad-leaved woodlands, heathland and scrubland. Feeds on species of <em>Rumex</em> (Polygonaceae).	eng
39486	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grecian Copper can be found in low, scrubby vegetation, maquis and woodland clearings and also occurs in dry and moist grassland at the bottom of valleys. Sorrel, especially Sheep's Sorrel (<em>Rumex acetosella</em>), is used as larval foodplant. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (8%).	eng
39486	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
39486	threats	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	It is threatened by any coastal developments and human activity.	eng
39486	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
39488	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39488	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs very locally: only in Switzerland (Berner Alps and Walliser Alps) and in the north of Italy (Piedmont -Val di Cogne and Val d'Ossola- and Val Venosta), between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39488	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a butterfly of warm, dry grassland and dry, coniferous forests on calcareous soils. In Switzerland, it is only found where its foodplant <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus exscapus</span> grows. In Italy, it also lays its eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">A. centralpinus</span>, a milk-vetch that does not occur in Switzerland. The caterpillars hibernate when they are half-grown and resume feeding in spring, choosing young shoots near to the ground. They are also attended by <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica </span>ants. This blue has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
39488	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39488	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The most severe threats comes from agricultural improvements, especially irrigation of xerothermophilous steppes and the intensification of grazing by sheep. Habitats abandonment is also a threat.	eng
39489	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39489	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in isolated populations in several mountainous areas in south and central Spain: near Granada (Sierra Nevada, S. de Alfacar), near Teruel (S. de Albarracin), near Madrid and Toledo. Found at altitudes from 400-1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39489	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Blue mostly occurs on dry grassland, waste ground and scrub. The caterpillars feed on the milk-vetches <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus alopecurioides</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. turolensis</span> and possibly other <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus </span>species. The milk-vetches only occur very locally which explains the local occurrence of this butterfly. The female deposits the eggs on the leaves of the foodplant where the caterpillars feed. Hibernation takes place in the early larval instars. It has one generation a year and both the caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of species from several genera, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span>. When the caterpillars are ready for pupation, they often search for a safe place in the entrance of an ant nest. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).	eng
39489	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39489	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
39490	habitat	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	Found on uncultivated shrub land.	eng
39490	population	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	Known only from the type locality where the species still survives in low numbers.	eng
39490	threats	Van Swaay, C.A.M. & Warren, M.S., 2000	The construction of a nearby dam does not appear to have affected the species, and no actual threats were observed. However, a number of potential threats were identified.	eng
39491	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Italy, not all populations are in the European Natura 2000 networking programme areas.	eng
39491	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in a very small area in the southern part of the Simplon in Switzerland and Italy. In all, there are five locations known in Switzerland in an area of 10 x 10 km² and only two in Italy. It occurs between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39491	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Rätzer’s Ringlet is found on steep, sunny slopes on acid soil with patches of grassy vegetation and rocks and scattered larch or fir trees. It is one of the rarest European butterflies, with not more than six or seven populations. The butterflies often bask in the sun with their wings wide open. The males congregate regularly on damp ground. The females visit different nectar plants and are especially fond of thyme. They lay their eggs on the dry grass stems of Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>). Before completing their development, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
39491	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. A strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% has been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). In Switzerland, in the 1980s, road building destroyed some of the largest subpopulations. After that there is no information on the trend in Switzerland.	eng
39491	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is mainly threatened by habitat destruction. The species is popular with collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline.	eng
39492	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In the Czech Republic, Poland and Romania, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
39492	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a European species that occurs very locally in widely separated areas: in France in the Massif Central (Monts du Cantal) and the Alps (Savoie and Isère), in central Switzerland (Grindelwald), in Czech Republic (Sudeten) and in Romania in three places in the Carpathians. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39492	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sudeten Ringlet occurs on alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, especially those near the tree-line. They are most numerous on damp grasslands with tall grasses and flowering plants, but they also reproduce on dry grassland. Although Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) is probably the most important foodplant, other grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>), are also used. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), coniferous woodland (25%), mixed woodland (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).	eng
39492	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sudeten Ringlet is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland. Populations are more or less stable in France. In Czech Republic, there is a (quite strong) range decline, but the population size appears to be stable (Eionet 2010).	eng
39492	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threats are intensified grazing and abandonment. Considering its limited distribution, the Sudeten Ringlet may become threatened in the long term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.	eng
39494	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
39494	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.	eng
39494	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found in areas with herbaceous covering above 1,000 m and in areas of the Laurisilva where heath is predominant. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), volcanic features (20%).	eng
39494	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39494	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
39497	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Ukraine the type-locality is under protection in the Ialta state reserve.	eng
39497	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Crimea, Ukraine. The extent of occurrence (EOO) is smaller than 5,000  km². This is a European endemic species.	eng
39497	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly occurs in Ukraine on the Crimean mountain steppes and in pine forest on a limestone mountain area covered by grassland. The foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pennata</span>. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).	eng
39497	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
39497	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Populations are reported to be threatened by tourist activities and fires.	eng
39498	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that an attempt be made to relocate and safeguard the rediscovery site on Mt. Cameroon.  Propagation of the species should be considered.	eng
39498	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known from southwestern Cameroon, Kivu, and Uganda. The species was first collected in Rio del Rey, Cameroons in 1887 but the associated notes are poor and the habitat and altitude of Rio Del Rey are unlikely.  It was first reliably found on Mt. Cameroon on 14 February 1927, near Buea and was rediscovered many decades later.	eng
39498	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The plant occurs in submontane forest 850-1,200 m altitude.	eng
39498	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance.	eng
39499	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is not such a high priority for action as are the threatened strictly endemic species. However, it would be useful to relocate the plant from which the 1995 collection was made and attempt to propagate it with a view to reintroduction. Data on the range of this species on the mountain would be useful for conservation management.	eng
39499	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Bioko, and the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania.  It was discovered on Mt. Cameroon in 1995 northwest of and above Likombe at 1,050 m altitude.  The species is known from only four collections: two in Tanzania and one each in Bioko and Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39499	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from montane forest at 1,000-1,600 m altitude.	eng
39499	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The creation of new cocoyam farms in the submontane belt may threaten this species on Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39500	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species should be relocated in the wet season and the state and extent of the population assessed.	eng
39500	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon  and is known only from a single collection taken in 1979.	eng
39500	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The type specimen is epiphytic, collected from deeply shaded montane forest at 1,150 m altitude.	eng
39501	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that the population be monitored.	eng
39501	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	<em>I. etindensis</em> is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It was first collected near the summit of Mt. Etinde in 1990, and again in 1992.  Three other collections have been made since.  This species, related to <em>Impatiens grandisepala</em>, is common as an epiphyte on the peak  and ridges of Etinde, but not known elsewhere apart from the Njoni collection.	eng
39501	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in submontane-montane forest at 1,500-1,700 m altitude.  This plant grows in the forks of stunted trees only 3 m from the ground near the peak of Etinde, but the Njonji collection was taken from the upper part of a tall fallen tree.	eng
39502	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Subpopulations in the S.W. Province of Cameroon, and probably also in Bioko, are fairly secure, lacking threats. In the N.W. Province of Cameroon the substantial subpopulation in the well protected Kilum-Ijim site (Mt Oku and the Ijim Ridge) may be the only locality where the taxon will survive, unfortunately, thus protection here is important.	eng
39502	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	The species occurs in Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (four collections), Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (five collections), Rumpi Hills (one collection), Bamboutos Mts (two collections), Muanenguba (one collection), Bamenda Highlands (17 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (six collections from two sites); and southeastern Nigeria (one collection). The range data are from the account of the species in the recently published revision of <em>Begonia</em> sect. <em>Tetraphila</em> (de Wilde 2002).	eng
39502	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Known from submontane and montane forest at 1,200–2,200(–2,400) m altitude. The increasing density of this species, moving northwards (Mt Cameroon and Bioko only <em>ca</em>. 2 sites each; Bamenda Highlands numerous sites and coll.) is perhaps a reflection of a longer dry season requirement.	eng
39502	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for wood and agriculture (mainly in the Bamenda Highlands).	eng
39503	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This taxon is most likely to survive in lowland forest reserves such as the Bakossi F.R. and Mokoko F.R., but only if their boundaries are respected. Resources need to be found to achieve this.	eng
39503	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (one collection); Cameroon: Edea-Kumba (15 collections); and Nigeria (three collectons).  It is closely related to <em>B. oxyanthera</em>.	eng
39503	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen forest, 850–1,000 m alt.	eng
39503	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	clearance of forest for wood and agricultural land (especially plantations) is a major threat throughout its range and probably accounts for the lack of collections from Bioko in the last century (where forest was largely cleared below 1,000 m alt.).	eng
39504	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that this subspecies be relocated, and its range and population re-assessed. Care should be taken  not to confuse it with the six other yellow-flowered <em>Begonia</em> taxa on the mountain.	eng
39504	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This plant is strictly endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Only two of the earlier collections have detailed locality data, and both are from Bakingili, so it appears that the subspecies may be restricted to a belt between 500-800 m altitude between Bakingili and Njonji. <br/>This taxon is one of seven yellow-flowered Begonias on the mountain, one of largest conglomerations in Africa and perhaps indicative (see Sosef 1994) of its importance as a refuge area.	eng
39504	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Found on tree trunks or wet rocks in deeply shaded undergrowth of forest at 500-800 m altitude.	eng
39504	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the taxon is forest disturbance for timber extraction and clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.	eng
39505	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Bioko, Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku and the Bamenda Highlands, Chappal Wadi and Mambila Plateau. This Giant Lobelia is the only representative in West Africa of a group for which East African mountains are famous. Although there are numerous collections from Mount Cameroon, was found to be extremely rare during the 1992 survey of Etinde, when only one or two specimens were seen. In contrast, it is relatively abundant in many localities on Mt. Oku (M. Cheek, pers. obs., Nov. 1996), where it is gregarious with 10-50 plants being found at each site.	eng
39505	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs on the boundary between montane forest and grassland at an altitude of 2000-2200 m.	eng
39506	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Assessing the size of the subpopulations, ideally when the plants are in flower and most conspicuous, is advisable. Monitoring variation in numbers of individuals present from year to year would also help better assess the threat to this taxon.	eng
39506	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (four collections), Bamenda Highlands (two collections), Muanenguba, Chappal Wadi and Mambila Plateau (only one collection from each of these places).  This species was first collected on Mt. Cameroon in Dec. 1861. The third collection was made in Dec. 1930. In 1992, it was twice recollected between Mann’s Spring and Bokwangwo Hut 3.	eng
39506	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Grows in montane grassland along the forest ecotone. This small (4–15 cm tall) erect, blue-flowered annual herb is usually found between <em>Sporobolus</em> grass tussocks with <em>Radiola</em> and on shady banks, at an altitude of 1,500–2,600 m.	eng
39506	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Unknown, but possibly trampling by cattle during the wet (growing) season.	eng
39507	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is scattered thinly, between Mann’s Spring and Bokwango Hut 3 on Mt. Cameroon (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Its closest relative may be <em>S. burchellii</em> Otth., a species of montane eastern Africa. However, <em>S.  lynesii</em> Norman is less geographically distant, occurring in the Tibesti as well as in S. Sudan and is also noted to occur on volcanic soils. Ten historic specimens are known, the earliest being the type, collected at Mann’s Spring in November 1862. It has also been collected above Buea at Huts 2 and 3, and so appears to be distributed around a good swathe of the mountain, perhaps around its whole circumference.	eng
39507	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It favours sparse grassy areas, often on lava and cinder slopes at an altitude of 2,700-3,600 m.	eng
39508	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Kwahu in Ghana. Apparently known from only two collections, one in each part of its range. The Mt. Cameroon specimen was probably collected before 1910. No modern specimen is known from Cameroon. The lacerated sepal margin of this species is unusual in the genus and the source of the specific epithet.	eng
39508	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Was said to be found in a "flowing stream", presumably in submontane forest at an altitude of 1,000 m.	eng
39508	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Since this species has not been recollected recently there is cause for concern regarding its survival, especially since Buea, which is given as the locality, has lost much of its natural vegetation through deforestation.	eng
39509	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It should be feasible to retrace this plant to the plot in which it was discovered in Mabeta-Moliwe, and thence to survey the area to acquire the information necessary to protect this species at that site.	eng
39509	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species has been recorded in Mt. Cameroon, Abang Mbang, and Gabon.  It is known from only three sites and appears to be extremely rare, even though the range covers a fairly widespread area.	eng
39510	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Since all of the sites from which this species is known are under heavy threat, it is advisable to assess the surviving population of with the aim of developing a means of protecting the species.	eng
39510	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is known from Bioko, where it may already be extinct,  and Mt. Cameroon where three collections were made, all before 1988. The type collection, and the only record from Bioko refers to a "climbing shrub’". However, Maitland records it as "a small tree of 30 ft on edge of forest". Two other historic collections are also from above Buea and from Kumba, but the only modern collection is from the Onge forest. The species is known from a total of only 5 collections.	eng
39511	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The range of this species includes Bioko (three collections), Mt. Cameroon (14 pre-1988 collections), and the Bamboutos Mountains (one collection).  Segregated from <em>C. vitellinum, C. bougheyanum</em> is a larger plant (90-180 cm tall), with a more restricted distribution. <em>C. montuosum</em> is another closely related species and care should be taken to avoid confusion in identification. On Mt. Cameroon,  <em>C. bougheyanum</em> has been collected most frequently from above Buea and from near Mann’s  Spring. It is curious that no recent collections have been made. Perhaps this reflects the "weedy" look of this species.	eng
39511	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from clearings and at the edge of montane forest (1,500-2,500 m altitude).	eng
39512	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	High priority should be given to finding this species, preferably searching in December, in the forest (grassland ecotone). An attempt to investigate the range and numbers of individuals of this species to discover whether it is really restricted to only Mann’s Spring is important for conservation planning. If the species does occur at this ecotone, it is hoped that its range extends to cover a larger part of the grassland-forest perimeter than just that near Mann’s Spring.	eng
39512	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species has been recorded from Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from only two collections. The type specimen was collected in 1862" and is probably from somewhere in the vicinity of Mann’s Spring. The second collection was made in 1952 and is described as a  "woody herb in second tongue of forest from Mann’s Spring". Recent inventories have not found this plant, but since searches are not known to have been conducted in this habitat during December, the species may have been overlooked.	eng
39512	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from the edge of montane forest at 2,100-2,200 m altitude.	eng
39512	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, but the potential threat of lava flow over Mann’s Spring could destroy this species, if it is as localized as it appears to be.	eng
39513	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku, Bafut-Ngemba, and Chappal Waddi. It is apparently absent from Bioko.	eng
39513	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Specimens have been collected from montane grassland areas, particularly on old lava flows at 1,900-3,000 m altitude.	eng
39514	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known from Bioko, and Mt. Cameroon. The absence of specimens of <em>H. mannii</em> in the 1992 inventory probably indicates the lack of coverage of altitudes above 3,000 m. This species was collected above Buea in 1995.	eng
39514	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in montane grassland areas, particularly on cinders at high altitudes (up to 4,000 m).	eng
39515	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This rarely-seen species is perhaps most easily refound and studied at the sites where it has most recently been seen, both in Bakossi. Data on demography and population size would better inform management decisions. In the meantime, education of the public by means of e.g., conservation posters might help reduce pressure on subpopulations that survive.	eng
39515	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	The range of this species includes Nigeria: Chappal Waddi (two collections), Bioko (one collection), Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (five collections), Bakossi-Kupe (two collections at two sites). It appears not to have been collected much during the last decade.	eng
39515	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in montane forest gaps, sometimes with <em>Mimulopsis solmsii</em> (1,000–2,200 m altitude).	eng
39515	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly likely at the lower part of its altitudinal range at sites such as Chappal Waddi and Mt Cameroon (plantation expansion to the 1,000 m contour is a major threat).	eng
39516	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species appears to be in no immediate danger of extinction, being relatively common within its range. Nonetheless, if surveys at the montane forest grassland ecotone are being conducted, the opportunity should be taken to collect data on the population size and range of this species.  There is insufficient data currently available to suggest management regime, but fire is possibly important at intervals in preventing shading-out by shrubs and trees.  The underground rootstock is likely to provide protection in the event of dry season fire.  The large lax leaves help minimise competition from adjoining herbs by smothering them.	eng
39516	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species has been collected from Mt. Cameroon, the Bamboutos Mountains, and Mt. Oku.	eng
39516	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The plant ocurs in montane grassland, near boundary with forest at 2,000-2,800 m altitude.  Observations on Mt. Oku, above Oku-Elak in October 1996, showed that this species survived, though not abundantly, and was flowering in fired grassland that was being cattle grazed. Cattle seem to avoid eating <em>S. trichotocephala</em>. On Kilum, dense populations were seen in <em>Gnidia glauca</em> woodland and in a <em>Pteridium</em>-grassland island inside montane forest.	eng
39516	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	There are no apparent threats to this species within the Kilum-Ijim area, beyond clearance of forest to facilitate agriculture.  Grazing by horses and cattle was prevalent in one area where the species was observed to be fairly common but appeared to cause no adverse effects to the <em>Succisa</em>.  The absence of intermittent fire may threaten the existence of this species.	eng
39517	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	If further inventory work is conducted in the eastern foothills, this species should be looked out for.	eng
39517	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is endemic to Cameroon.  It has been collected from Rio Muni and Mt. Cameroon.  The type specimen was collected in Rio Muni in 1908/09 and had not been recollected until a specimen believed to be conspecific was collected at Likomba in November 1928.	eng
39518	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A population census, focussing upon the known sites at Kupe-Bakossi and Bali-Ngemba, should be carried out and specific threats recorded. A poster campaign focussing on this striking species may serve to promote forest conservation to the local communities.	eng
39518	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (c. 6 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (13 coll. at 6 sites), Bamenda Highlands: Bali-Ngemba.	eng
39518	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found insubmontane to montane evergreen forest; (400–)800–1,950 m alt.	eng
39518	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for wood and agriculture. This is most significant at the lower parts of the altitudinal range (below 1,000 m) at all three areas. In the Bamenda Highlands the tree is probably now restricted to the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve. These extensive highlands were probably once home to the main subpopulation of the species given the density of the species at the Bali Ngemba remnant. Elsewhere in the Bamenda Highlands, 25% loss of forest in the eight years between 1987–1995 is recorded by Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. (2000). With 13 collections at six sites, Kupe-Bakossi appears to be the stronghold for this species, where it is relatively secure and unthreatened.	eng
39519	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Kupe, and the Bakossi Mountains. It may also occur in Nigeria.  The species can be locally dominant, as in parts of the saddle between Fako and Mt. Etinde, or in montane forest near Kodmin (Bakossi Mountains). Two collections were made on Mt. Cameroon during the inventories of the 1990s.	eng
39519	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in submontane/montane forest areas at 1,000-1,400 m altitude.	eng
39520	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	In view of the extreme rarity of this species and the evolutionary isolation of the genus, it is worth considerable effort to relocate it. The best starting point would be Mokoko, where the most recent collection has been made. It is recommended that the site where the original collection was made be pinpointed.	eng
39520	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	<em>H. pierreanum</em> occurs in coastal Cameroon evergreen forest, including Mt. Cameroon. This tree, one of only two species in this  tropical African family, is endemic to Cameroon and only known from the type collections at Bipindi in 1903-08 (no recent collections from this area have been seen) and from the foothills of Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39520	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in lowland evergreen coastal forest at or near sea-level.	eng
39520	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for timber and agriculture, especially plantations.	eng
39521	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that the vicinity of Buea be searched for this species.	eng
39521	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known only from Mt Cameroon. It is possibly extinct.	eng
39521	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species was collected from submontane forest at 940 m altitude.	eng
39521	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture and habitation.	eng
39522	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Re-evaluation of the Oxford University specimens against the FDC account is a priority. Searching for fertile <em>Beilschmeidia</em> in the Mabeta-Moliwe area in March should follow. Given that no other species is recorded from that area, but that at least 10 specimens of the genus are known from Mabeta-Moliwe, there must be a fair chance that this species persists. If this is confirmed, population data should be gathered to enable formulation of a management plan for this species.	eng
39522	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known only from the type specimen collected from Mt. Cameroon a century ago. It may already be extinct.	eng
39522	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for small-holder agriculture, housing, plantations of <em>Hevea</em> and <em>Elaeis</em>.	eng
39523	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known only from two collections from coastal Cameroon forest, including Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39523	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This distinctive tree occurs in lowland coastal evergreen forest, particularly near rivers.	eng
39524	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Rediscovery of this possibly extinct species is necessary if its population biology and habitat requirements are to be discovered.	eng
39524	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is apparently endemic to Mt. Cameroon. It is known only from two collections, both taken before 1988.  It may now be extinct. However, as far as we are aware, no effort has yet been made to look for this tree. For want of tree climbers, tree species have been undercollected in recent surveys, so this species may simply have been passed by.	eng
39524	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A lowland or possibly submontane species found in evergreen forest.	eng
39524	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations, is the main threat to the species.	eng
39525	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is worth conducting a survey for any surviving patches of natural vegetation in the lowland belt of the eastern slopes. If this fails to yield more plants of this species, Mabeta-Moliwe may be the best hope for rediscovering this species on Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39525	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon, and Gabon.  The shrub was collected on Mt. Cameroon below Buea in 1931. It has not been collected since. The only other collections (two) of this species are from Gabon, both dating from the last century. Forest on the eastern slopes of Mt. Cameroon has virtually ceased to exist, apart from at Mabeta-Moliwe, and this species may be extinct in Cameroon. The best chance of this species surviving is in Gabon where habitat destruction is believed to have been less extensive than in its Cameroonian locality. However, there have been no recent collections of  <em>O. klainei</em> from that country.	eng
39525	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species has been collected from lowland forest at circa. 450 m altitude.	eng
39525	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Clearance for agriculture and housing areas is the main threat to the survival of this species.	eng
39526	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is known from Cameroon coastal forest areas, including Mt. Cameroon.  It may yet be found in Equatorial Guinea, and even Nigeria.	eng
39527	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The Mt. Cameroon specimens of this genus need to be evaluated against Taton’s revision to establish if any more collections of this taxon can be found. An attempt should then be made to evaluate the population of this species in the field.	eng
39527	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known only from two collections in Cameroon: one from Mt. Cameroon, the other from Eseka.	eng
39527	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Collections have been made from lowland/submontane forest at circa. 600 m altitude.	eng
39528	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Weberbauer’s itinerary should be researched and . Existing Ardisia specimens from Mt Cameroon should be reassessed against the criteria for this species listed by Taton.	eng
39528	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known only from one collection and it is thought that the species may already be extinct.	eng
39528	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The habitat of the species is unrecorded, but is probably montane or submontane forest.	eng
39528	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown in absence of locality data, but the main threat is probably forest clearance.	eng
39529	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Weberbauer’s itinerary should be researched. Existing <em>Ardisia</em> specimens from Mt. Cameroon should be reassessed against the criteria for this species listed by Taton.	eng
39529	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known only from Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39529	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The habitat of the species is presumably lowland evergreen forest, near sea-level.	eng
39529	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Lava-flows, clearance for agriculture and settlement.	eng
39530	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (6 collections) and the Bamenda Highlands (1 collection). The type collection was made at Mann’s Spring presumably in about 1928.  Four recent collections  are probably this species, so may be commoner than thought.	eng
39530	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Found in montane forest at 1,800-3,200 m alt.	eng
39530	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species, though rare, appears to be widespread in the montane forest of Mt Cameroon and is in no immediate danger of extinction. The main threat would be clearance of forest for agriculture.	eng
39531	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Some attempt should be made to rediscover this species on Mt Cameroon. A search for Myrtaceae between Bibundi and Debundscha would be worthwhile, as would research on Dusen’s itinerary to identify the locality of the type specimen.	eng
39531	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known only from a single pre-1988 collection made on Mt. Cameroon and is possibly extinct.	eng
39531	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Probably grew in lowland evergreen rainforestat c. 200 m alt.	eng
39532	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Although threatened at Manenguba, it appears secure at the other known sites. This species should be looked for during any further surveys in the montane forest on the mountain. Care should be taken to discriminate it from the seven other species of the genus on the mountain, e.g., the larger and more common <em>P. vulcanica</em>. <em>Peperomia kamerunana</em> can be recognized by its broadly obovate leaves only 1–1.5 cm long. Quantitative data on each of the subpopulations would be valuable for developing a management plan for the taxon.	eng
39532	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (two collections); Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (five pre-1988 collections), Mt Kupe (two collections) and Manenguba (one collection). Owing to imprecise data on the seven specimens known from Bioko and Mt Cameroon, it is known with certainty from only three sites at these places. If the new specimens are added, the species is known from a total of ten collections at five sites. While the species is locally plentiful, it must be extremely local, given that it has not been collected again on Mt Cameroon in over 50 years, despite intensive surveys there in the 1990s, including a large and expert botanical survey team based for a week in 1992 at or very near the site where it was collected previously. Although two specimens were recently discovered (1992) at Mt Kupe, this is in comparison to 24 specimens of <em>P. fernandopoiana</em> from the same area. It may simply have been overlooked in view of its inconspicuous green flowers.	eng
39532	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	An epiphytic species found in submontane and montane forest at an altitude of 1,400–2,300 m.	eng
39532	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest reduction at Manenguba for firewood and due to man-made fires set by pastoralists.	eng
39533	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	No extra protection is required as long as the existing Kilum-Ijim boundaries are respected.	eng
39533	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Sao Tome (three collections), Bioko (one collection), Mt Cameroon (five pre-1988 collections) and the Bamenda Highlands (three collections). This species appears not to have been recollected in recent surveys on Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39533	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Epiphytic in montane forest at 1,460-2,100 m alt.	eng
39534	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A survey of the range of this subspecies on the mountain is advisable. Rootstock presence should be investigated since this has implications for the fire ecology of the taxon.	eng
39534	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Mt Cameroon (seven pre-1988 collections) and Bamboutos/Bamenda Highlands (three collections). This subspecies overlaps in the Bamboutos and Bamenda Highlands with <em>P. tenuicaulis</em> subsp. <em>tayloriana</em> Paiva which extends to Mambila Plateau, and Chappal Waddi. The first collections on Mt Cameroon are from near Mann’s Spring and subsequent collections on the mountain have been made in the same area, and not from above Buea, so its range may be limited.	eng
39534	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Grows in montane grassland, within a few hundred metres of the forest boundary, but not at the forest edge; 2100-2400 m alt.	eng
39534	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This subspecies may require fire for regeneration.	eng
39535	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	If this species can be relocated, the forestry department authorities at Kumba, who manage this forest, should be notified and involved in any protection measures taken.	eng
39535	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Strictly endemic to Mt Cameroon and known only from two collections made near Banga in the S. Bakundu Forest Reserve before 1988 (possibly extinct). <br/>.	eng
39535	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The S. Bakundu Forest Reserve. has suffered from illegal timber extraction in recent decades and Nigerian yam farmers are reported to be cultivating the southern part.	eng
39536	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of the population of this species is advisable, as are measures to protect what remains from further destruction. It seems relatively common in the western foothills and this area seems most suited for developing a plan for the conservation of this species. Improved policing of existing protected areas and reinforcement of the level of official protected status, would help secure the future of the species. The main site for this species is the Onge forest in the western foothills of Mt Cameroon. It is advised that resources for the conservation of this species be focussed here.	eng
39536	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Mt Cameroon (one pre-1988 collection) and Mt Kupe. <em>Cola praeacuta</em> is only known from about 10 collections in the northern and western foothills, and in the coastal strip. It is unknown from Mabeta-Moliwe. It seems to be relatively common in the western foothills.	eng
39536	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 0–400 m alt.	eng
39536	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for timber, followed by agriculture.	eng
39537	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Site protection is required.	eng
39537	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	From southwestern and southern Cameroon and Bipindi. Known only from four collections fide Nordal and Poulsen, pers. comm.	eng
39537	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Conversion of forest to oil-palm plantations poses a major threat.	eng
39538	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Rocky areas and cliff faces around Buea should be searched during the flowering period in order to rediscover the species on Mt Cameroon. Further analysis of the subpopulation on Mt Nlonako should be made to determine whether this is a distinct subspecies. A fuller assessment of its status in the Bakossi Mts should be carried out.	eng
39538	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (1 site, 3 collections), Bakossi (1 collection at Bangem, recorded but not collected elsewhere), Mt Cameroon (1 site, 2 collections), Littoral Province: Mt Nlonako (1 collection), W. Province: Bangou nr. Bangwa (1 collection). <br/> <br/>This taxon was originally described in 1892 based upon 2 specimens from Buea, Mt Cameroon, from where it has not subsequently been collected and may be extinct. However, it has since been recorded in the 1960s at Bangou and in the 1970s on the western slopes of Mt Nlonako. Inventory work in the 1990s revealed this species to be locally abundant above Nyasoso on the western slopes of Mt Kupe; it has also been collected at Bangem and recorded flowering elsewhere in the Bakossi Mts (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). This species is sometimes locally gregarious, as recorded on Mt Kupe and on Mt Nlonako, where Letouzey recorded it as "abundant".	eng
39538	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in the understorey of montane forest, particularly on rocky slopes; 800–1,600 m alt. <br/> <br/><em>A. preussii</em> is not easily confused with other African species of the genus when in flower; it more closely resembles some Asian species (Hetterscheid and Ittenbach (1996). In the S.W. Province, Cameroon, it has been recorded in flower in December to January.	eng
39538	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Subpopulations at the lower altitudinal limit of its range (<em>ca</em>. 800 m) on Mt Kupe are threatened by agricultural encroachment linked to the expansion of Nyasoso town. The Mt Cameroon subpopulation is feared extinct following habitat loss above Buea.	eng
39539	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The only known subpopulation on Mt. Kupe is protected (through a rental agreement) and regularly monitored. The continuation of this is recommended.	eng
39539	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is known only from Mt. Cameroon, where it may now be extinct, and Mt. Kupe.  It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and has not been rediscovered since on Mt. Cameroon, despite searches. The species was rediscovered on Mt. Kupe in October 1995.	eng
39539	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca.</em> 700 m alt.	eng
39539	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest areas for agriculture and plantations form the main threat to the survival of this species. Stochastic events could easily wipe out the remaining plants.	eng
39540	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The population is protected (through a rental agreement) and regularly monitored on Mt. Kupe. This needs to be continued.	eng
39540	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This species occurs in Cameroon, Nigeria and Uganda. It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and despite searches, it has not been rediscovered since on Mt Cameroon. The species was discovered on Mt Kupe in May 1996 and since then new sites have been discovered, at Korup and at Banyang Mbo, both in S.W. Province, Cameroon.  The Nigerian material has been suggested as belonging to a different, new, unpublished species.	eng
39540	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–700 m alt.	eng
39540	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, timber and plantations.	eng
39543	conservation	Cliff, G., 2005	There are no known conservation and management initiatives.	eng
39543	distribution	Cliff, G., 2005	This subpopulation occurs in the Southwest Indian Ocean from Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa.	eng
39543	habitat	Cliff, G., 2005	The following information, unless otherwise acknowledged, is based on studies by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) in northern Australia and Cliff and Dudley (1991) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/>Males mature at about 210 cm and females at 215–220 cm. The largest Australian individuals were a 231 cm male and a 242 cm female; in South Africa they were a 238 cm male and a 245 cm female. Fourmanoir (1961) recorded a 280 cm female from west Madagascar. Size at birth is 60–75 cm. In Australia the largest embryo was 59 cm and the smallest free-swimming individual was 66 cm. In South Africa the smallest free-swimming individual was 75 cm (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973) and the largest embryo 79 cm. These findings imply that there may be a regional difference in size at birth. Litter sizes range from 3–13, averaging five in South Africa and nine in Australia. In South Africa gestation appears to be about 12 months, with mating in January–February and term embryos found in December–January. Five out of eight South African mature females were pregnant. Data from Australia indicated a nine-month gestation, with birth in November–December. In both studies males and females were sampled in equal numbers.<br/><br/>In South Africa, the Pigeye Shark feeds on teleosts (62% frequency of occurrence), elasmobranchs (45%), crustaceans (13%) and cephalopods (12%). Most of the prey were demersal, associated with soft bottoms; Australian sharks had similar diets. Tag returns from juveniles in Australia indicated that their movements are relatively localised (up to 60 km), while two larger sharks moved 240 and 1,080 km (Last and Stevens 1994). On the east coast of South Africa, two tagged sharks were recaptured after 76 and 320 days, 23 and 84 km from their respective tagging localities. Based on catches in the nets that protect the swimming beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, this species is often solitary and does not appear to swim in large packs. No information is available on age and growth.	eng
39543	threats	Cliff, G., 2005	This species constituted 0.5 % (16 specimens) of the annual shark catch in the nets protecting swimming beaches in KwaZulu-Natal. The catch rate fluctuated at about 0.4 sharks per km of net per year between 1978–1990; data from the early years of this fishery (1952–1977) are not available. Richards Bay, the northernmost netted beach, where nets were introduced in 1981, had the highest catch of this species (annual average six, range 0–25). At this locality there was a significant decline in catch rates (Cliff and Dudley 1991), suggesting highly localised depletion.	eng
39545	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2005	In the North Pacific, the species occurs around Japan and off the Chinese coast, and from California north to British Columbia. The different morphological characteristics of Basking Sharks in the Pacific and the north and south Atlantic oceans are not thought to indicate separate species (Compagno 1984), but are geographically isolated subpopulations.	eng
39548	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39551	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Widespread and locally reasonably common species, but occurs in substantial numbers in the food trade.	eng
39552	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
39552	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Considered threatened by the levels of trade and scarcity of this species.	eng
39553	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. Subspecies <em>fuscus</em> and <em>coloratus</em> of the Appalachian Mountains are listed by USFWS as Endangered.	eng
39553	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a wide distribution throughout northern North America from Alaska in the United States, across Canada to the eastern provinces. It extends into the United States in several prongs. One extends to southern California, another to southern Utah, a third to northeastern South Dakota, and a fourth to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. There are many disjunct populations in the southern portions of the range.	eng
39553	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers coniferous and mixed forest, but will utilize deciduous woods and riparian woods. Optimal conditions have been reported as cool, moist, mature forest with abundant standing and down snags. Often most abundant near surface water; that is, swamps or streams (Heaney, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In the Oregon Cascades, Rosenberg and Anthony (1992) concluded that flying squirrels are habitat generalists and are not more abundant in old growth than in younger, second-growth stands. Occupies tree cavities, leaf nests, underground burrows; uses large number in alternate den sites in Alaska. Prefers cavities in mature trees as den sites. In winter in British Columbia, squirrels appeared to select nest trees more for suitable nest sites than for tree size: diameter at breast height was 16.7-79.0 cm, age was 42-174 years, and height was 11.2-32.7 m (Cotton and Parker 2000). Small outside twig nests sometimes are used for den sites. Sometimes uses bluebird boxes. <br/><br/>Breeding season: February-May; July. Gestation lasts 37-42 days. One or two litters of 2-6 young (average 4-5) are born March-early July, and late August to early September (apparently one litter in spring or summer in the southern Appalachians). Weaned at about two months. Sexually mature at 6-12 months.<br/><br/>Highly social, especially in winter when nests may be shared. Apparently lives in family groups of adults and juveniles. Weigl (1978) recorded <em>G. sabrinus</em> home ranges of up to 35 ha. Summer home range estimated at 2-3 ha in North Carolina, 5-7 ha in West Virginia . Home range has been estimated at about 3-7 ha and 5-13 ha in North Carolina and Pennsylvania, respectively (see Witt 1992). In western Oregon, home range was estimated at about 3-5 ha (Witt 1992).<br/><br/>Diet consists largely of fungi and lichens plus plant and animal material (insects, nuts, buds, seeds, fruit). Apparently can subsist on lichens and fungi for extended periods, and may depend on having these food items available. Spends considerable time foraging on the ground. Active at night. Peak activity in the southern Appalachians occurs from sunset to two hours after and one hour before sunrise (Wells-Gosling and Heaney 1984). Active throughout the year.	eng
39553	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a large range in North America and is common in many areas. Recorded densities vary from <1/ha to 10/ha. In western Oregon, population density was 0-0.24/ha (mean 0.12) in second growth forest and 0.52-1.28/ha (mean 0.85) in old-growth forest (Witt 1992). Density averaged 2.0-2.3/ha in Douglas-fir habitats in western Oregon (Rosenberg and Anthony 1992). In Utah, density was 0.2-1.8/ha in <em>populus</em>-dominated forest, 1.2-5.8/ha in <em>Abies</em>-dominated forest, and 0.2-2.1/ha in <em>Picea</em>-dominated forest (see Witt 1992).	eng
39553	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. Declines in the southern Appalachians may be due to a roundworm parasite (<em>Strongyloides robustus</em>) of southern flying squirrels that is lethal or debilitating to northern flying squirrels. Habitat changes favourable to <em>Glaucomys volans</em> are likely to be detrimental to <em>Glaucomys sabrinus</em>.	eng
39554	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39555	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39556	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Continued searches for this species on Mt. Cameroon are recommended.	eng
39556	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Mt. Cameroon.  It was first collected near Moliwe in 1905 and has not been rediscovered since on Mt. Cameroon, despite searches. The Oxford University expedition to Mt. Cameroon in 1993 had the rediscovery of this species, together with <em>Afrothismia</em> as a key objective.	eng
39556	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Main threats to the species are forest clearance for agriculture and plantations.	eng
39557	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This species should be relocated and its range and population density assessed. Efforts to protect this species should be centred on the eastern slopes of Mt Cameroon where it appears to be most common. More material on the Mt Kupe subpopulation is needed to determine whether this is either aberrant, or represents a distinct taxonomic entity.	eng
39557	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (one collection); Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (seven collections) and Mt Kupe (one collection).  Five new collections, mostly from the eastern slopes of Mt cameroon, were made of this species in the 1990s and it appears to be in no danger of immediate extinction.	eng
39557	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane/montane forest; 1,200–2,000 m alt.	eng
39557	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for agriculture e.g., cocoyam farms on Mt Cameroon, is the main threat to the species.	eng
39558	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	More data on the size of each subpopulation is required to fully assess its vulnerability to local stochastic events. Further botanical inventory work on montane grassland sites in e.g., the Bamenda Highlands, or Mt Nlonako in Littoral Province, may reveal further populations, in which case the conservation status might be downgraded.	eng
39558	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Cameroon (one site, two collections), Mt Kupe (one collection), Littoral Province: Mt Muanenguba (one collection), N.W. Province: Bali Ngemba F.R. (one collection). This diminutive sedge, probably an annual, was only known from the types until it was recollected in the 1992 inventory, 130 years later, in the same general area of the mountain, near Mann’s Spring. However, it is an inconspicuous plant, so may also have been overlooked.  Care must be taken not to confuse this plant with the sympatric typical variety. It has subsequently been recorded at Mt Kupe, Muanenguba and the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve. There are no records as yet from the Bakossi Mts.	eng
39558	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in montane grassland; 1,800–3,000 m altitude.	eng
39558	threats	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	This species is vulnerable to local stochastic change, such as lava flow on Mt Cameroon or natural fires.	eng
39559	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is not the highest priority for conservation, since it appears widespread and relatively common on the mountain and extends to the Bamenda Highlands. If surveys of rare plants in the montane grassland are being conducted however, this species should be included. More data on the density of individuals in the population, and the range of the species on the mountain would be useful.	eng
39559	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, the Bamenda Highlands, Chappal Waddi, and a specimen from the Loma Mountains (Sierra Leone).  The most recent specimens date from the 1992 `Etinde’ inventory.	eng
39559	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in montane grassland at 2,400-3,300 m altitude.	eng
39559	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the population is the absence of annual burning that may favour this species in order to reduce competition from other species, or to trigger flowering.	eng
39560	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The range of this speies includes Mt. Cameroon, and the Bamenda Highlands, including seven collections from Mt. Oku, and one from Mambila Plateau. Although restricted in distribution on Mt. Cameroon, it appears widespread, and perhaps common, in the Bamenda Highlands.	eng
39560	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in gaps in the montane forest (2,100-2,400 m altitude).	eng
39560	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Current threats to the species on Mt Cameroon are unknown, but clearance of montane forest in the Bamenda Highlands is a major threat.	eng
39561	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Only the gathering of further fertile specimens will enable us to sort out the tree <em>Dracaena</em> on the mountain and establish which are rare and in need of protection.	eng
39561	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known from Mt. Cameroon where it is possibly extinct (one pre-1988 collection) and from one collection in Ghana.	eng
39562	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known from Bioko (six collections), Mt. Cameroon (15 pre-1988 collections), and the Cameroon Highlands (one collection each from Bamboutos and Oku).  The number of collections suggests that this species is relatively abundant on Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39562	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in montane grassland, sometimes at the forest edge (1,850-3,800 m altitude).	eng
39563	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	<em>H. mannii</em> is known from Bioko (four collections) and Mt. Cameroon (10 collections, all pre-1988).  The most recent collections of the species from the mountain were in 1992 and in 1995.	eng
39563	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in clearings in forest and on deep soils in montane grassland (1,700-3,000 m altitude).	eng
39564	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	More ecological, range and population data are needed on this scarce endemic, but it is possible that, as an annual of the lusher, lower altitude grassland it needs open areas for establishment, and regular firing of grassland may be found to favour the survival of this species.	eng
39564	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from only six collections and is the rarest and the only incontestably strictly endemic grass on the mountain.	eng
39564	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in montane grassland at 2,100- 2,800 m. Frequent between tufts of high grass, 2,800 m, and in grassland strewn with boulders.	eng
39565	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  It is known from 20 collections, all taken before 1988.  It is notable that this plant is not found on neighbouring mountains, such as Bioko or Mount Oku, nor is any other <em>Pentaschistis</em> although those mountains have sufficient altitude to sustain this species.  Most botanists ascending to the peak (where it is one of only six flowering plant species) collect it. The absence of recent collections owes to the fact that altitudes above 3,000 m were not covered in the 1992 inventory.	eng
39565	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in upper montane grassland (2,700-4,000 m altitude). Habitat has been described as "summit with mosses in tussocks on bare volcanic ash" .	eng
39566	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that the site be revisited to see if this species can be rediscovered. Numbers of individuals present should be recorded, and possible threats (if any) evaluated.	eng
39566	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Described as a new species only recently (Cribb 1996), this species is known only from the type collection made during an ODA funded botanical inventory of Etinde.	eng
39566	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in montane mist forest dominated by <em>Agauria salicifolia</em> and <em>Schefflera</em> on old lava flow, adjacent to grassland areas (1,900-2,000 m altitude).	eng
39567	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	This species should be introduced into cultivation, commencing at the CRES site at Nyasoso.	eng
39567	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (3 collections), Muanenguba (1 collection), Bamboutos Mts (1 collection), Bakossi Mts (3 collections), Kodmin (2 collections) and Enyandong (1 collection); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (four collections).	eng
39567	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The species is an epiphyte of montane forest; 1,200–1,500 m altitude.	eng
39567	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Threatened by conversion of forest to small-scale agriculture or plantations.	eng
39568	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. Much of the  forest around this crater lake survives due to the steepness of the walls being inconvenient inter alia for timber extraction and agriculture.	eng
39568	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species occurs in Gabon, and Mt. Cameroon (Mbalomayo and the Bakossi Mountains).  This species is spectacular in bloom, with 4-5 white flowers each 7-8 cm across on each spike. It is unlikely to be overlooked in flower and so the scarcity of collections suggests that it has not been overlooked by collectors, but is actually highly rare.	eng
39568	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is epiphytic in lowland forest.	eng
39569	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	It is recommended that efforts be made to rediscover this species and safeguard it.	eng
39569	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is known from Mt. Cameroon, Korup, and the Niger Delta.  It was described from a collection made between Bimbia and Limbe in 1984 and was recollected later at Man O War Bay.  In March 1995 it was rediscovered at Mabeta-Moliwe, i.e., in the same general area as the original collections, during an Earthwatch funded expedition.	eng
39569	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This is a species of lowland evergreen forest, where it occurs as an epiphyte.	eng
39569	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.	eng
39570	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats.	eng
39570	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is known from Bioko and Mt. Cameroon.	eng
39570	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species is epiphytic in montane forest (1,500 m altitude).	eng
39570	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	On Mt Cameroon, past and future forest clearing for cocoyam farms pose a moderate threat.	eng
39571	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.	eng
39571	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon.  Published in 1957, this species is known only from three collections, all from Buea.  A fourth possible collection from Bambui (Bamenda) is dubious since it is sterile.	eng
39571	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An epiphytic species from montane forest (900-1,200 m).	eng
39571	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A possible threat is forest clearance for agriculture, firewood, and housing, all believed to be at their most intense in this vegetation type in the Buea area.	eng
39572	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. An exhaustive survey of the 1922 lava flow in 1995 did not turn up this species.	eng
39572	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from S. Nigeria (Okumu, Sapoba and Usonigbe Forest Reserves, and Calabar: at least five collections), Mt Cameroon (two pre-1988 collections) and Congo (one collection). Known on  Mt Cameroon from only two collections, it is debatable whether this species qualifies as sufficiently rare for this list in view of its widespread distribution, but it seems to be scarce wherever it occurs.	eng
39572	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Grows as an epiphyte, but also reported to occur on the 1922 lava flow as a lithophyte.	eng
39573	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.	eng
39573	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Cameroon and the Cameroon Highlands. As the specific epithet suggests, <em>D. bueae</em> was first collected at Buea and was rediscovered there over 40 years later. More recently it has been found near Mt. Oku. A possible record of this species from the Ivory Coast is still to be confirmed.	eng
39573	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species occurs in submontane forest as an epiphyte.	eng
39573	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	All localities known are believed to be under pressure for forest clearance for agriculture, firewood collection, and, in Buea, urban expansion.	eng
39574	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An attempt to rediscover this species should be followed by an evaluation of its population in terms of size, regeneration levels, and threats. The identification of the whereabouts of "Musake Camp" would allow a potential second locality for the species to be searched and a better idea of the natural range (possibly former) of this species.	eng
39574	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded only from Mt Cameroon where it is known from two pre-1988 collections. This species is possibly extinct as it has not been seen since 1930. It is curious that this species was not recollected in 1992 during the "Etinde" inventory, since this was conducted in the same habitat as that in which the type collection was made, at the same time of year. It may be that the species is localized to Buea area, which was not covered so thoroughly as other areas in 1992.	eng
39574	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A terrestrial species occurring in montane and submontane forest, at 1,100-1,800 m alt.	eng
39575	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known only from Mt Cameroon possibly Mt Kala. This appears to be the western most and only native African species of a genus of about 35 species of mycotrophic, sometimes edible and medicinal orchids, mostly found in S.E. Asia and tropical Australia. Collected by Dusen at Mt Cameroon between "Love and Ndiva" in the month of April, it is unclear where these localities are or were. However, if the letter 'v' in these words is converted to 'b'  then the localities are rendered Lobe and Ndibe, recognizable as a major plantation area immediately to the north of Mt Cameroon. The type was destroyed by the Allied bombing of Berlin in March 1943.	eng
39575	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Unknown, but presumably lowland forest.	eng
39575	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Unknown, but if lowland forest, then forest clearance at low altitude poses a major threat to this species, if it is not already extinct.	eng
39576	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Collection sites should be revisited to see if this species can be rediscovered. Numbers of individuals present should be recorded, and possible threats, if any, evaluated.	eng
39576	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge.	eng
39576	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An epiphytic species occurring on tree trunks at the margin of mist forest (2,260 m altitude).	eng
39577	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Effort should be made to rediscover this species and protect it.	eng
39577	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known only from two collections made on Mt Cameroon.  A third collection from Douala-Edea  awaits confirmation, but may well extend the range of this species.	eng
39577	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An epihyte in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
39577	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations, and urban spread.	eng
39578	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A survey to estimate the range, density and threats (if any) to the population on Mt Cameroon seems worthwhile.	eng
39578	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Bioko (one collection),  Mt. Cameroon (three pre-1988 collections), and the Bamenda Highlands (two collections).  This species was rediscovered in October 1992 on Mt. Cameroon, when two collections were made at 2,400 m alt.	eng
39578	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Montane grassland, sometimes at the ecotone with forest (rarely epiphytic); 2,000-3,050  m alt.	eng
39578	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Unknown, but grazing and trampling by cattle, sheep and goats are a cause for concern in the summit area.	eng
39579	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	A survey to estimate the range, density and threats (if any) to the population on Mt Cameroon seems worthwhile.	eng
39579	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Mt. Cameroon (seven collections) and Mt. Oku. This species was rediscovered in grassland at 2,820 m alt. in early October 1992 above Mann’s Spring where it was said to be "reasonably common in grassland, seen down to around 2,400 m alt."	eng
39579	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Terrestrial orchid in montane grassland at 2,150-3,050 m alt.	eng
39579	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Unknown, but fire, grazing and trampling are potential threats to this species in its habitat at the summit of Mt Oku.	eng
39580	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Although this species was not rediscovered in the botanical inventory of Mabeta-Moliwe in 1992, nor in 1993, it may not yet be extinct on Mt. Cameroon, and efforts should be made to rediscover it in Mabeta-Moliwe.	eng
39580	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	There has been one collection of this species in Nigeria and three collections in west Cameroon, one of which was from Mt. Cameroon. The type collection is from Moliwe and the only other collections known are from south of Ngu at the Plain of Mbaw, Takamanda, and the Niger Estuary.	eng
39580	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Terrestrial in evergreen forest usually of foothills.	eng
39580	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Forest clearance for agriculture (particularly plantations) and firewood.	eng
39581	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	<em>P. albescens</em> merits effort to rediscover it and to assess population size and threats. It is possible, from the collection data available, that it may be restricted to the edge of the large town of Buea, and so threatened by urban expansion and proximity. Relocation of plants and the promotion of the rarity of this species to those unwittingly threatening it should be considered.	eng
39581	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Four collections of this species have been made on Mt. Cameroon. It was discovered in 1947, and the four collections from which this epiphyte is known (all collected before 1988), are all from near Buea.	eng
39581	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The species has been recorded from submontane forest at about 900 m altitude.	eng
39581	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Possibly forest clearance for agriculture, firewood, and housing forms the main threat to this species.	eng
39582	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Confirmation of this species’ presence on Bioko is required. Surveys of this taxon at each of the collection localities should be made in order to assess its abundance. Continued protection of the submontane forest on Mt Kupe should ensure this species’ future survival.	eng
39582	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Recorded from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (1 doubtful collection); Cameroon, S.W. Province: Banyong Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 collection), Buea (3 collections), Mt Cameroon (unlocated, 1 collection), Mt Etinde (1 collection), Mt Kupe (2 collections at 2 locations); W. Province: Bamboutos Mts (1 collection); N.W. Province: Mt Oku (1 collection).	eng
39582	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte of submontane and montane forest; 950–2,000 m alt.	eng
39582	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and firewood, particularly in the Bamboutos Mts and above Buea on Mt Cameroon.	eng
39583	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Although this species was not rediscovered in the botanical inventory of Mabeta-Moliwe in 1992, nor in 1993, it may not yet be extinct on Mt. Cameroon, and efforts should be made to rediscover it in Mabeta-Moliwe.	eng
39583	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Recorded from Bioko (one collection), Mt. Cameroon (two pre-1988 collections) and Mt. Oku. No recent collections are known.	eng
39583	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An epiphytic species growing in submontane and montane forest at c. 900-2000 m. alt.	eng
39583	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Forest clearance for agriculture (particularly plantations) and firewood.	eng
39584	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Found in coastal Gabon (one collection) and Cameroon (six collections, two of which are from Mt. Cameroon).	eng
39584	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	An epiphytic species growing in lowland evergreen forest.	eng
39584	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Forest clearance for agriculture, particularly plantations.	eng
39585	conservation	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	The site at Bulutu should be revisited. If this forest has not been cleared, as is feared, a survey of the subpopulation of <em>Belonophora ongensis</em> should be conducted as a baseline for future monitoring and an education programme initiated concerning the species. Conservation efforts for the species should be concentrated at the Onge Forest (Mt Cameroon) since the densest population is found here.	eng
39585	distribution	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Known from Mt. Cameroon, northern part of Korup National Park and Kupe-Bakossi. This species only came to light during the identifications made after the Onge inventory of October 1993. Five specimens are known from Onge and initially the species was thought to be endemic to that forest. However, a further specimen, from the northern Korup came to light at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew whilst the species was being described. The range has been further expanded by the collection in 1999 of another specimen from a single site in the Kupe-Bakossi area, in the Mungo River Forest Reserve, just north of Bulutu on the Ebonji-Ngusi road (only two plants were found). Southwestern Cameroon is the centre of diversity for this small genus.	eng
39585	habitat	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 200–500 m alt.	eng
39585	threats	Cheek, M. & Cable, S., 2000	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture. In the western foothills of Mt Cameroon, the type locality, <em>Belonophora ongensis</em> is threatened by expansion of timber plantations. The forest at the new Kupe-Bakossi locality was threatened (M. Cheek, pers. obs. 1999) by upgrading of the Ebonji-Ngusi road – then in progress under EU sponsorship.	eng
39586	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	<em>Aloe peglerae</em> is protected in the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989, Section 16.  In Gauteng it also occurs in Saronde Private Nature Reserve and the Kings Kloof Natural Heritage Site near Krugersdorp.  In the North West Province it is found in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve although many of the plants have disappeared from the <em>Aloe peglerae</em> trail, probably removed by hikers.  Less than ten plants were counted along this trail during a survey in 1999.	eng
39586	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This distinctive species is found mainly in the Magaliesberg range of South Africa in the provinces of Gauteng and North West Province, with outlier subpopulations near Krugersdorp and on the Witwatersberg. Known from three locations (subpopulations). The extent of occurrence is between 3,000 and 5,000 km² (best estimate 3,809 km²), and the area of occupancy is 300 to 600 km² (best estimate 489 km²). <br/> <br/>All regions of the Magaliesberg falling within the border of Gauteng were surveyed for <em>Aloe peglerae</em> by walking transects along the mountain.  An average number of plants per km was calculated for regions of the Magaliesberg within urban areas and those in rural areas.  The number of plants within rural and urban areas both inside and outside the province of Gauteng was then calculated by multiplying the length of the Magaliesberg (in km) by the average number of plants per km.  Scattered subpopulations in Krugersdorp area were added to this number.  Due to reports of small subpopulations of the plants on the Witwatersberg, a population size was assumed for the Witwatersberg. <br/> <br/>Observed size of Magaliesberg subpopulation within Gauteng = 18,270. <br/>Estimated size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside Gauteng = 45,720. <br/>Observed size of Krugersdorp subpopulation = 1,024. <br/>Estimated size of Witwatersberg subpopulation = 2,925 (estimated using lower density figures from Magaliesberg since access higher on this range). <br/> <br/>Results of surveys in the Magaliesberg seem to indicate that areas impacted by mining, pipelines, hiking trails, urbanization are the cause for lower <em>Aloe peglerae</em> densities.  It is hypothesized that increased access to the Magaliesberg through these activities (especially hiking, e.g., the <em>Aloe peglerae</em> trail in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve has no more than 10 plants along the trail) has resulted in significant population declines of the species.  Many international plant collectors and nurseries advertize <em>Aloe peglerae</em> plants, even though only limited trade has been recorded by TRAFFIC since 1981.  Advertisements for the species range from packets of seed (15 to 10,000 seeds per packet) to plants which are sometimes advertised as wild-collected (Pfab and Patterson 1998). <br/> <br/>It was therefore assumed that areas presently unimpacted show ideal population sizes for the species.  An average of plants per km was calculated for these unimpacted areas and taken as the probable plant densities per km 60 to 105 years ago.  Krugersdorp and Witwatersberg populations were assumed to be at least double their present sizes - accounts from the Witwatersrand national botanical gardens indicate that the species used to be common on the ridges of Krugersdorp area, but have declined steadily with an increase in urban sprawl. <br/> <br/>Assumed past size of Magaliesberg subpopulation within Gauteng = 39,600. <br/>Assumed past size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside of Gauteng = 79,200. <br/>Assumed past size of Krugersdorp subpopulation = 2,048. <br/>Assumed past size of Witwatersberg subpopulation = 13,500. <br/> <br/>It was assumed that access will continually increase with an increased impact and that harvesting of plants and seed will continue into the future.  The average number of plants per km in three generations time was calculated by using current plant densities from surveys in impacted and accessible areas. <br/> <br/>Future size of Magaliesberg subpopulation in Gauteng = 5,830. <br/>Future size of Magaliesberg subpopulation outside of Gauteng = 19,800. <br/>Krugersdorp subpopulation = 1,024 (no further decline assumed since all plants occur in fairly inaccessible and protected areas). <br/>Witwatersberg subpopulation = 900 (access to Witwatersberg is expected to increase).	eng
39586	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	A stemless plant, growing singly or in small groups.  Leaves about 30, in a compact rosette, curved inwards, having a reddish tint in hot weather, with the lower surface covered with a few sharp spines with white, tubercled bases.  Inflorescence single, occasionally two or three, a densely-flowered, cylindrical raceme.  Flowers tubular, reddish in bud, greenish cream tinged with red on opening.  Flowering time July and August (Germishuizen 1997). <br/> <br/>Grows in rocky places, often on gravelly quartzite. Confined mainly to the Magaliesberg range, usually on the northern slopes and summit, in scanty grassland and in areas with very little soil.	eng
39586	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The major threat is the removal of wild plants, seedlings and entire fruiting heads from entire subpopulations by overzealous collectors.  The species is expected to become locally extinct in highly accessible areas, for example, only one plant was located on cable Hill, Pretoria, a very accessible area.  Urbanization  has threatened the Krugersdorp subpopulation.  Most of the remaining habitat falls into protected areas, hence no decline in quality, extent or area of habitat is expected.	eng
39587	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Occurs in the Bronberg Nature Area, however, this nature area has no legislative backing and if the status quo remains, half this area will have become urbanized (western portion) within 5 to 10 years. Found in Faerie Glen Nature Reserve, however, the reserve is neglected and threatened by frequent fires, erosion, trampling and alien vegetation. Historically also recorded from Wonderboom Nature Reserve where again threats such as urbanization, trampling and alien vegetation may have lead to the loss of the species.	eng
39587	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Known from ten locations in the area between Donkerhoek and Hartebeestpoort Dam, Pretoria area, Gauteng, South Africa.  The extent of occurrence is 50 km² and the area of occupancy is only 8 km². <br/> <br/>The population is estimated to be 1,000 mature individuals or less.  This estimate was obtained by surveying 50% of the historically recorded localities. For localities not yet searched, population sizes were estimated by calculating average subpopulation sizes of those areas surveyed. <br/> <br/>Subpopulations in areas currently threatened with new urbanization (western portion of Bronberg) will decrease to resemble subpopulations currently isolated in urban areas. These isolated urban occurrences are expected to become extinct (e.g., Meintjieskop above the Union Buildings and the Muckleneuk Hills).  The subpopulations in relatively rural areas, where urbanization is not expected or is not likely to occur due to legislative backing (Daspoort range, Magaliesberg), should remain of similar sizes.	eng
39587	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Grows in direct sunshine or shaded situations, in rocky outcrops of the quartzitic Magaliesberg mountain series, in pockets of soil among rocks, in shade of shrubs and low trees, can be seen twining around grass spikes.	eng
39587	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Alien vegetation, habitat fragmentation and transformation through urbanization	eng
39588	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The Klipriveirsberg Nature Reserve population comprises 25 to 50 individuals.  This subpopulation is becoming increasingly isolated by urban development. The largest known subpopulation is protected in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve where between 82 and 200 mature individuals have been counted.  There is, however, no specific management plan for this species in the Nature Reserve.	eng
39588	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	<em>Cineraria longipes</em> is apparently endemic to the Witwatersrand area and confined mainly to the environs of the city of Johannesburg, with a possible "relative" or form with scabrid hairs known only from Harrismith in the Free State. <br/> <br/>During the Gauteng Red Data plant project, 7 of the 10 known localities for this specieswere searched.  Subpopulation sizes were recorded as follows: Rietvlei (50-100), Mondeor (55-85), Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve (82-200), Naturena (200-300), Eikenhof quarry (80-150), Opposite Eikenhof quarry (8-15), and Klipriviersberg Nature Reserve (25-50).  The sizes of the remaining subpopulations were estimated as follows: Brakfontein (56) - rural area, Turffontein (0) - highly urbanized area of Johannesburg, and Heidelberg (8) - urbanized area. <br/> <br/>The Turffonmtein subpopulation is assumed to have become extinct in the last ten years, while the Rietvlei, Mondeor, Eikenhof quarry, ooposit Eikenhof and Naturena subpopulations are all expected to become extinct or be substantially reduced.	eng
39588	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	It grows on the hills to the south of Johannesburg, amongst rocks and along seep lines in association with <em>Pteridium</em>, occurring exclusively on basalt on south-facing slopes. This herb has a perennial growth form, resprouting from the woody base, but may be forced into an annual cycle if the habitat is badly burned or a drought is too severe.	eng
39588	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Threatened by urbanization, gold mining activities and encroachment by alien invasive vegetation.	eng
39590	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	An endemic to the Kuen Luen Mts.	eng
39591	conservation	Abe, H. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species is present in protected areas.	eng
39591	distribution	Abe, H. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	This Japanese endemic is found on Hokkaido, at high elevations, including Hidaka, Daisetsu, Teshio, and Kitami Mountains, and Shiribeshi, Yootei, and Oshima districts. It is also found on the islands of Rishiri, Rebun, as well as Shikotan (South Kuril Islands) and Shibotsu (Habomai Islands) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
39591	habitat	Abe, H. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species is found in montane forests on mainland Hokkaido (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It is also found in conifer plantations, scrublands, and grasslands on Hokkaido. The species is found in grasslands and abandoned farmlands on Rishiri and Rebun Islands. In areas of co-occurrence with <em>Clethrionomys rufocanus bedfordiae</em>, the latter species is dominant.	eng
39591	population	Abe, H. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is a naturally rare species.	eng
39591	threats	Abe, H. & Kaneko, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
39592	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Although confined to the Nevada de Colima, the species is abundant where it is found, numbering tens of thousands of individuals. The population is not obviously threatened and may occur in additional locations.  The taxonomy of the species is held in some doubt.	eng
39593	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	Found in several protected areas in India: Eturnagaram WS, Gundlabrahmeshwaram Metta WS, Kawal WS, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam TR, Bori WS and NP, Pench NP, Pench (Priyadarshini) NP, Tadoba NP, Chandaka Dampara WS, Satkosia Gorge WS (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39593	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	Endemic to peninsular India. Present in eastern, central, southwestern and southern parts of peninsular India. It does not occur in a very wide area of northern and central India south of the Ganges.	eng
39593	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	The species occurs in scrub jungle, dry and moist deciduous forests and in montane sholas (wet evergreen forests) (Chakraborty 2005).	eng
39593	population	Molur, S., 2008	Locally common in appropriate habitat.	eng
39593	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats, but the species has undergone localized declines mainly due to habitat loss (due to dams, wood plantations, human settlement, logging and clear-cutting); there is also limited mortality due to road kills, and some trade for medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39594	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas in its range. Detailed surveys are recommended to better determine its distribution, population abundance and ecological requirements (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39594	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to southern India, where it is known only from a few records from Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is inferred to be widely distributed occurring up to an elevation of 700 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39594	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	It inhabits dry deciduous scrubby areas with acacia and rocky habitats. It is fossorial and nocturnal in habit (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39594	population	Chakraborty, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	It is locally common in appropriate habitats in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39594	threats	Chakraborty, S., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	Habitat loss due to collection of fuel wood, logging, agriculture and urbanisation are major threats (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39595	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	In Cambodia the species is confined to the Elephant Mts.	eng
39596	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39596	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Burrowing species	eng
39596	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Recent rediscovery of a few specimens in markets in Myanmar and across the border in China confirm the rarity and threatened status of this rarely-seen species.	eng
39599	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39599	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Terrestrial nest sites	eng
39599	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Known from only 4 specimens this species has acquired a mythical reputation that will make any further animals extremely valuable in the pet trade. There are no data to estimate its extent of occurrence, but it is presumed to be either extremely rare or restricted to one or very few small localities.	eng
39602	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Most locations recorded are outside protected areas, only one collection was from the Wudaoxia Reserve. There are probably other reserves that have this species growing in the wild.	eng
39602	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	China: south Gansu, south Hebei, west Henan, Hubei (Badong Xian), Shaanxi, west Shandong, Shanxi, north Sichuan.  Distribution is based on the mapping of herbarium specimens, mostly in Beijing, which we believe have been collected from trees growing in the wild. This map is roughly in agreement with that given by Ying <em>et al.</em> (2003). Other sources mention a wider distribution but seem to include planted specimens as well. This species is highly ornamental (bark is attractive) and has been planted in temple grounds etc. for many centuries. A conservative estimate of the EOO based on our data is 347,807 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
39602	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In mountains, often on limestone rocks and on south-facing slopes, scattered and mixed with <em>Pinus tabuliformis</em> and angiosperms. Its altitudinal range is probably between 500 and 2,150 m; records from lower elevations are probably not from natural occurrences but from planted trees. Highly valued as an ornamental and therefore widely planted in China. Fairly common in arboreta and parks in Europe and North America.	eng
39602	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species forms populations of scattered individuals.	eng
39602	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No specific threats are known to affect this species.	eng
39606	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	China: Guangdong (Gaoyao, Longmen, Zengcheng), Guangxi (Hepu), Yunnan (Mengzi, Pingbian); Vietnam. This species is also reported from Cambodia and Lao PDR, but this has not been verified with herbarium specimens and we think these reports probably pertain to <em>Nageia wallichiana</em>.	eng
39606	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Most often found on limestone formations (karst) in mixed angiosperm/conifer forest; also in montane tropical rainforest dominated by evergreen broadleaved angiosperm trees.	eng
39606	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species occurs in disjunct populations and/or in disjunct forest remnants.	eng
39606	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Selective logging, habitat disturbances, deforestation.	eng
39608	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not recorded from any protected area.	eng
39608	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Restricted to a limited area in San José Province of Costa Rica (earlier records from Panama are based on erroneous identifications). EEO not calculated but estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on 8 collections in 4 locations.	eng
39608	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Lower montane tropical rainforest. No specific uses are known, the wood is probably valuable.	eng
39608	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is uncommon and (sub)population sizes are presumably small.	eng
39608	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation, conversion to agriculture and grazing.	eng
39609	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species has been collected in the following protected areas: Tsaratanana Reserve, Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Only one collection, from Mont Tsaratanana, was made recently, in 2001.	eng
39609	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The known localities are all in Antsiranana in the northern tip of Madagascar, important sites are Mont Anjanaharibe, Mont Tsaratanana and Mont Marojezy. The EOO is 2,103 km<sup>2</sup> and the AOO 588 km<sup>2</sup> based on the distribution of herbarium specimens.	eng
39609	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is reported from sub-humid forest, dry lowland deciduous forest, and ericoid thickets or wooded heath on mountain summits of gneiss and granite. The elevation ranges from 934 m to 2,410 m (GIS and herbarium data).	eng
39609	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There are no data indicating the size of subpopulations.	eng
39609	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Whereas the heath-like habitat on mountain summits may be relatively safe, woodlands and forests at lower elevations are likely to be under pressure from fires and grazing.	eng
39611	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Populations are known from Mt. Beratus in east Kalimantan and Mt. Banajao, Lucban on Luzon in the Philippines.	eng
39613	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39613	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	A decline has been observed in the market supply of this species.	eng
39616	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39618	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
39618	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is traded in East Asian markets at volumes of 30–40 tons/week.	eng
39619	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
39619	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species is traded in East Asian markets at volumes of 60 to 80 tons/week.	eng
39620	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	While this species is commercially farmed in vast numbers (several millions per year) for the food trade, the wild populations continue to be exploited for food and possibly farm founder stock, resulting in a decline in abundance throughout its wide range.	eng
39621	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix III (China).	eng
39621	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	The only confirmed area of occurrence for this species is seriously impacted by pollution. These animals are intensively exploited for food trade and would be for pet trade if captured alive.	eng
39622	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	The international live animal trade has placed some pressure on this restricted-range species, especially in Indonesia. There is also some local consumption in Papua New Guinea, where it does not appear to be seriously threatened at this time.	eng
39623	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	This species has a restricted range and is utilized for local consumption and the international live animal trade.	eng
39624	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39624	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Common in peat-swamp forest dominated by <em>Shorea albida</em>; also occasionally in heath forest on white sand soils; from sea-level to 950 m altitude.	eng
39625	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39625	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Found in central Sumatra on Singgalang and Talang mountains.	eng
39625	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs in forest at 1,000-2,700 m alt.	eng
39626	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
39626	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The species is known from only a single locality from Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa.  The locality is described as "camp above Louis Botha Home" which may be a small hillside on the Rietondale Experimental Farm in Queenswood.	eng
39626	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This perennial herb or subshrub up to 500 mm tall occurs in mixed grassland and shrubland.	eng
39626	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is the modification of land through urbanization.  Other threats as a result of urbanization can be assumed such as trampling damage, pollution, and invasive vegetation.	eng
39627	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	May occur in the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve.	eng
39627	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Occurs in the Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa from Bronkhorstspruit between Verena and Groblersdal.  Has a very restricted distribution being known from only two localities.  The plants are locally common, but do not occur outside of this area. Collections from Swaziland have allegedaly been named as this species, but these are probably misidentifications, and are more likely to be <em>Gladiolus sericeovillous</em> Hook.f.	eng
39627	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Grows in bushveld on granite outcrops, often among loose boulders, with their corms firmly wedged in rock crevices, making it virtually impossible to extract them.	eng
39628	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Not protected in any conservation areas at present.	eng
39628	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This mat-forming, succulent species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Known only from three locations. Has an extent of occurrence of <250 km² and an area of occupancy of <0.2 km², but because the population is not considered to be severely fragmented does not qualify for CR under criterion B. <br/> <br/>Only one extant subpopulation has been confirmed at Spaarwater Dam comprising 50-80 individuals.  Of the remaining three locations, there is no reason to suspect that the species has become extinct at two of the sites, therefore size estimated at 50-80 for south of Nigel.  On road to Balfour evidence of plant collection was noted but presence of the subpopulation was not confirmed (Chesselet <em>et al</em>. 1998) - reduced subpopulation size assumed at 20-30 individuals.  It is unlikely that the species remains at the other location (Johannesburg).	eng
39628	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Open areas on shallow surfaces above rocks in grassland.	eng
39628	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization, road building and invasive alien plant species are the main threats. Quarries have also resulted in the destruction of suitable habitat. Removal by succulent collectors may also pose a problem.	eng
39629	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Conserved in the core of the Sterkfontein World Heritage Site.	eng
39629	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa and known only from three locations. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation sizes are as follows:   Cornwall Hill, Irene (100-120 individuals surveyed), Lanseria Road (100-120 individuals surveyed), Krugersdorp - Waterval (assumed extinct), and roadside at Hennops River (100-120 individuals assumed).  The latter is in a rural area with no apparent threats.  The Cornwall Hill subpopulation will be destroyed in the next two years by the Cornwall Hill Estate project (urban development).	eng
39629	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	An erect shrublet found growing in grassland.  Recruitment in <em>Melolobium</em> seems to be stimulated by fire.  Fire frequency in grassland is estimated at 2-3 years.  As a small shrublet, longevity is estimated at not more than 10 years, but average age of parents estimated between 3 and 6 years.	eng
39629	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Habitat transformation and fragmentation by urbanization is the main threat.	eng
39636	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II	eng
39637	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39637	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in mossy forest at 800-2,400 m altitude.	eng
39638	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II	eng
39638	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to east-central Sumatra.	eng
39638	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Specific habitat is unrecorded, but the species has been collected from altitudes of 100-1,000 m.	eng
39639	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39639	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species has been recorded in lowland kerengas forest, or on exposed ridge-tops.  It occurs on limestone or sand-stone from sea-level to 1,100 m.	eng
39640	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39640	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in damp, shady forest, in Borneo swamp forests, in New-Guinea Araucaria forests, also in secondary forests, open microphyllous vegetation, or swamp grassland. The species has been recorded from sea-level to 2,100 m altitude.	eng
39641	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39641	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Found in moist montane woodland at 1,500 m altitude.	eng
39642	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39643	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39643	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to the Philippines, occurring in Sibuyan and Romblon Province.	eng
39643	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species has been recorded from subalpine shrubbery with a smooth wind-clipped canopy 30 cm tall on an ultrabasic ridge (1,400 m altitude).	eng
39644	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39644	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. aristolochioides</em> is known from Mt. Kerici in Sumatra.	eng
39644	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in mossy forests at 2,000-2,200 m altitude.	eng
39645	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39645	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known from Mindanao and Surigao provinces in the Philippines.	eng
39645	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It occurs at 250-800 m altitude.	eng
39650	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	On CITES Appendix II. Plants are now in cultivation.	eng
39650	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Found in East Kalimantan at Ilas Bungaan.	eng
39650	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2006	Grows onsheer limestone walls at 300 m alt.	eng
39651	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39651	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from Halmahera (Moluccas) and on the north coast of Waigeo island (Papua New Guinea).	eng
39651	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most commonly in open scrub or on bare soils on ultrabasic rock, also in forest, but then not bearing pitchers. Occurs from sea-level to 300 m alt.	eng
39652	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39652	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in eastern Borneo on Mt. Kelam.	eng
39652	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows on sheer granite walls.	eng
39653	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39653	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Known only from the type collection.	eng
39654	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39654	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from Aceh Province (northern Sumatera)	eng
39654	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Found in montane scrub at 1,700-3,000 m alt.	eng
39655	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39655	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Confined to northern Sumatera.	eng
39655	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in montane scrub and mossy forest at 2,400-2,600 m alt.	eng
39656	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39656	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in waterlogged open scrub, along road embankments and other cleared areas, also in forest; from sea-level to 700 m.	eng
39657	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39657	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Confined to central Sumatera.	eng
39657	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs at 1,000-2,500 m alt.	eng
39658	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39658	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from the mountains of central Kalimantan (Mt. Raya and Mt. Lesong).	eng
39658	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in forest at 1,000-1,900 m alt.	eng
39659	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39659	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded on Sumatera, from Lake Toba in the north to the Padang region in the south.	eng
39659	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs on forest margins, from sea-level to 1,600 m alt.	eng
39660	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39660	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Found on the eastern arm of central Sulawesi.	eng
39660	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows on narrow mossy ridges from 1,500-1,800 m alt.	eng
39662	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39662	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Found in central Sulawesi.	eng
39662	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in open, high forest at 1,600-2,000 m alt.	eng
39663	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39663	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in lowland peat-swamp forest or disturbed areas on poor soils, podsol heath scrub, swamp edges, on sandstone or ultrabasic soils; from sea level to 800 m alt.	eng
39664	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39664	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in western and central Java.	eng
39664	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	A forest species found at 1,000-2,750 m alt.	eng
39665	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39665	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in thick peat on sandstone soils along ridgetops at 600-1,000 m alt.	eng
39666	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39666	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in heath forest at 100-800 m alt.	eng
39667	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39667	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Epiphytic species growing rooted in thick moss layer, particularly on trees overhanging rivers, more occasionally growing in sediment bars along rivers at 80-800 m alt.	eng
39668	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39668	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Habitat unknown, probably grassland between 100 m and 2000 m alt., where it is apparently sympatric with <em>N. maxima</em>.	eng
39669	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most, if not all, of the population occurs in protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39669	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	In Sabah occurs on Mts. Kinabalu and Trus Madi, while in Sarawak it is on Hose Mts., G. Buli, Tama Abu Range, Bario, Mt. Murud and Mt. Mulu.	eng
39669	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in mossy forest along ridge tops at 1,600-2,600 m alt.	eng
39670	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most, if not all, of the population found occurs in protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39670	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows on mountain ridges, usually in shady sites on mossy banks at 1,000-2,150 m alt.	eng
39671	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39671	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Known only from Mt. Trus Madi in Sabah.	eng
39671	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in mossy forest along ridge tops at 2,000-2,600 m alt.	eng
39672	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39672	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs along the east coast as far north as Masoala peninsula, commonest in south around Fort Dauphin.	eng
39672	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Found along the edges of swamps and in peaty/sandy soils at low altitudes.	eng
39673	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39673	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to east Kalimantan (the Sambaliung range).	eng
39673	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It has been recorded from limestone areas at 700-800 m altitude.	eng
39674	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39674	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known only from east Madagascar (the Masoala peninsula and the Mt. Ambato region).	eng
39674	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from pandanus and sphagnum swamp, mountain ridgetops, and xerophytic vegetation (30-400 m altitude).	eng
39675	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39675	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species has been recorded as epiphytic in mossy forest, or terrestrial in swamp grassland or on ridge tops. It is usually found at 600-2,500 m, but occasionally at lower altitudes (for example, it has been recorded at 40 m at Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea).	eng
39676	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39676	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (the Surigao Province, including Dinagat Island).	eng
39676	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It has been collected from forest areas on steep slopes near the coast (20-1,700 m altitude).	eng
39677	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39677	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Endemic to Sumatra, this species has been recorded from Aceh (Gajo and the Leuser Mountains), and Riau (G.Pangulubao).	eng
39677	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in mossy forests and montane scrub areas at altitudes of 100-2,400 m.	eng
39678	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39678	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. mirabilis</em> is found in a remarkable range of habitats, but usually is most abundant in disturbed, swampy, or grassland areas. Mostly it is found at low altitudes (up to 200 m), but can occur up to 1,000 m, and, more rarely, to 1,500 m.	eng
39679	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39679	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The habitat of this species is not recorded.  It is noted as having been collected from an area at 1,500 m altitude.	eng
39680	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most, if not all, of the population is located within protected areas. On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39680	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Known only from Mt. Mulu on Sarawak.	eng
39680	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in shrub vegetation at 1,900-2,400 m alt.	eng
39681	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39681	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Known only from Gunung Murud (also known as Mt. Muru) on Sarawak.	eng
39681	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows in stunted scrub forest, or moss forest on sandstone at 2,200-2,500 m alt.	eng
39682	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
39682	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	From the Papua New Guinea mainland and d'Entrecastaux archipelago.	eng
39682	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Grows on river edges and river gravel bars, ridge crests, rarely open grassland or disturbed forest. From sea-level to 900(-1400) m alt.	eng
39683	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39683	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Mt. Pangulubao).	eng
39683	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It is recorded as being a climber or epiphyte occurring in open, wet mossy forest at 1,800 m altitude.	eng
39684	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39684	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. paniculata</em> is known from Irian Jaya (Doorman Top).	eng
39684	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species has been recorded from mossy forest on a ridge top at 1,460 m altitude.	eng
39685	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39685	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is known from southern Irian Jaya (from Fakfak to Balim valley).	eng
39685	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It has been collected from forest edges at 250-900 m altitude.	eng
39686	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39686	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. pectinata</em> is endemic to central Sumatra.	eng
39686	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in undisturbed dense forest, hill dipterocarp forest, and wet mossy forest on ridge tops (950-2,750 m altitude).	eng
39687	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. pervillei</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39687	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	A species endemic to the Seychelles, this has been recorded from Mahé and Silhouette.	eng
39687	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in rocky areas near granitic mountain summits (350-500 m altitude).	eng
39688	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39688	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from ridge top forest at 1,000-1,800 m altitude.	eng
39689	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. rafflesiana</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39689	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This is a common lowland species in Borneo, but is rare in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
39689	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Occurs in open areas to shady forest, from sea-level to 1,000 m.	eng
39690	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most, or possibly all, of the population occurs within a protected area.  The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
39690	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known from Sabah (Mt. Kinabalu and Mt. Tamboyukon), Borneo .	eng
39690	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It has been recorded from open sites in mossy forests, on ridges or landslips (1,500-2,650 m altitude), and is restricted to serpentine soils.	eng
39691	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. ramispina</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39691	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia.  It has been recorded in the western mountain ranges, and Banjaran Titiwangsa.	eng
39691	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs at forest edges, and ridgetops at 900-2,000 m altitude.	eng
39692	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39692	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from lowland peat-swamp forest, high altitude ridges (sandstone or limestone), or more rarely moss forest. The species is occasionally found on ultrabasic soils.  It occurs from sea level to 1,450 m.	eng
39693	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. rhombicaulis</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39693	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known only from G. Pangulubao in northern Sumatra.	eng
39693	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The main habitats of the species are not recorded.	eng
39694	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. sanguinea</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39694	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs on mountain ridges amongst scrub of <em>Dacrydium</em> and <em>Rhododendron</em> (900-1,800 m altitude).	eng
39695	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39696	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39696	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded from montane forest at 2,000-2,900 m altitude.	eng
39697	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39697	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. spathulata</em> is endemic to southern Sumatra.	eng
39697	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species has been recorded from forest habitat to the top of mountains 1,500-2,000 m altitude).	eng
39698	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39698	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to northern Sumatra. It has been recorded from Aceh to the Lake Toba area.	eng
39698	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. spectabilis</em> has been collected from sub-alpine shrubberies at 1,450-2,000 m altitude.	eng
39699	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39699	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Recorded on wet sandy soils and noted as abundant in open areas or on ridge tops at 1,000-2,600 m altitude.	eng
39700	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39700	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Thought to have been collected from forest areas from sea-level to 1,000 m altitude.	eng
39701	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39702	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39702	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Collected from peaty soils in mossy forest at 1,200-2,550 m altitude.	eng
39703	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. tenuis</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39703	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known only from type collection.	eng
39704	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. thorelii</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39704	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species occurs in seasonally dry savannah grassland from sea-level to 200 m altitude.	eng
39705	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. tobaica</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39705	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known only from northern Sumatra.	eng
39705	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It is recorded from forest edges, with <em>Leptospermum/Rhodomyrtus</em>. It is found in the scrub of old clearings at altitudes of 950-2,750 m.	eng
39706	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39706	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. tomoriana</em> is endemic to central Sulawesi.	eng
39706	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in open scrubland areas, mangrove swamps, and on ultrabasic soils. It has been recorded from sea-level to 400 m.	eng
39707	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. treubiana</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39707	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is known from western New-Guinea (Sorong and Misool Island).	eng
39707	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	It has been recorded from forest edge areas.	eng
39708	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. truncata</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39708	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (Surigao and Agusan provinces).	eng
39708	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs on open mountainside from 230-600 m altitude.	eng
39709	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39709	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	This species has been recorded from lowland Dipterocarp forest (especially near rivers), and on ridgetops in mossy forest areas (55-1,200 m altitude). It is rarely epiphytic.	eng
39710	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. ventricosa</em> is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Luzon.	eng
39710	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in low mossy oak forest at 1,200-1,500 m altitude.	eng
39711	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. veillardii</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39711	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species is found in scrub areas, and in forests by streams (30-800 m altitude).	eng
39712	conservation	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	Most, or possibly all, of the population is located within a protected area. Listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39712	distribution	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	<em>N. villosa</em> is known only from Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo.	eng
39712	habitat	Clarke, C., Cantley, R., Nerz, J., Rischer, H. & Witsuba, A., 2000	The species occurs in mossy forest with <em>Dacrydium</em> and <em>Leptospermum</em>, or among boulders, shrubs, and grass in open conditions. It is found only on ultrabasic soils (2,400-3,200 m altitude).	eng
39713	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. alata</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39713	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.	eng
39713	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39715	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. flava</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39715	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage areas and open savanna bogs.	eng
39715	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39716	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. leucophylla</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39716	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.	eng
39716	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39717	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. minor</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39717	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.	eng
39717	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39718	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. oreophila</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
39718	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage bogs and streambanks.	eng
39718	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39719	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	<em>S. psittacina</em> is currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39719	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage areas and savanna bogs.	eng
39719	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39720	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39720	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.	eng
39720	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39722	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39722	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.	eng
39722	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39723	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39723	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage, savanna, and mountain bogs.	eng
39723	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39724	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39724	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage bogs.	eng
39724	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39725	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
39725	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from seepage bogs.	eng
39725	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
39726	conservation	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2000	Half of the population is located within the Gamka Mountain Reserve, a protected area. Plants are also grown at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden as part of an <em>ex situ</em> programme.	eng
39726	distribution	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2000	This species occurs primarily on the Gamka Mountain range on the south-eastern margin of the little Karoo of the Western Cape.  It is known from eight subpopulations comprising approximately 1,000-1,500 mature individuals scattered over just 60 km² of rugged mountainous terrain.	eng
39726	habitat	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2000	The species has been recorded from relatively dense dry mountain fynbos vegetation, usually on steep southeast facing sandstone slopes at elevations between 800 and 1,040 m. It flowers mainly in April and May and the fruits take eight months to mature before they are shed in December. The species regenerates purely from seed, therefore it is important that fires are not too frequent to prevent the maintenance of the soil-stored seedbanks.	eng
39726	threats	Hilton-Taylor, C., 2000	Frequent fires, especially uncontrolled wildfires pose a major threat. If too frequent the plants would be prevented from reaching flowering maturity and the seedbanks would rapidly be depleted. Invasive alien species, in particular <em>Hakea</em> from Australia, is present in low densities at all of the locations.	eng
39727	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This taxon is completely unprotected.  It is recommended that efforts be made to protect the surviving forest patch at Tum (site of the largest known subpopulation of this taxon but outside of present protected area boundary) and to establish whether other sites for this variety exist apart from the three listed.	eng
39727	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>P. a. ijimense</em> is only known from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge.	eng
39727	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It occupies lower montane forest with <em>Garcinia smeathmannii, Solanecio mannii, Cuviera longiflora</em> and <em>Pouteria altissima</em> (1,750-1,900 m altitude).	eng
39727	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main threat to the taxon is clearance of forest for the cultivation of crops.	eng
39728	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	It is recommended that during surveys of cliff spaces in forest in the Kilum-Ijim area, this species should be looked out for, and, if located, the number of plants and localities recorded.	eng
39728	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	The species is known from collections made from Obudu Plateau in Nigeria, and Manenguba, Mt Nlonako, Bamboutos Mts, Bamenda Highlands, and the Kongoa Mountains, Cameroon.	eng
39728	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is found on rocks and vertical rock faces, in moist to comparatively dry places, in primary submontane to montane forest, the latter sometimes with trees not higher than 6–12 m (1,500–2,300 m altitude).	eng
39728	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	While cliff faces generally are unlikely to be disturbed, clearance of adjoining forest for fuel and agriculture could endanger this species by removing the shade necessary for its survival.	eng
39729	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	A survey is needed to find all the sites for this species at Kilum-Ijim, and to confirm that it is indeed specific to rock outcrops. Information on its palatability would be useful.	eng
39729	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, Mbam, and Mambilla Plateau.	eng
39729	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been collected from rock outcrops at 1,800-2,800 m altitude.	eng
39729	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main threat to this species is grazing by herbivores.	eng
39730	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species still awaits rediscovery in the Kilum-Ujim area.  It may be extinct within the checklist area, in which case consideration might be given to its reintroduction, providing that a source of seed-bearing plants can be found.	eng
39730	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Known from Cameroon (Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau).  It is curious that despite collecting expeditions in 1996,1998 and 1999, this species has not been rediscovered from its type locality.  It may be that it is not only narrowly endemic, but within its small range, extremely rare and possibly declining.	eng
39730	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is found on grassy slopes, sometimes near forest boundary or in wet hollows (1,500-2,500 m altitude).	eng
39730	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The current threats to this species are unknown, but the incidence of grazing and fire are likely to be important factors in the survival of this species.	eng
39731	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The reason for the rarity of this species is not clear and needs more study.	eng
39731	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is endemic to western Cameroon. It is known only from the Bamenda Highlands (principally Kilum-Ijim) and the Bamboutos Mountains. Only three localities are known with about 30 plants seen in 1996-1999.	eng
39731	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species occurs on banks and cliffs or cliff edges, in scrub or grassland near forest (2,000 m altitude).	eng
39731	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	There are no known obvious threats to this species.  However, it appears so rare that unintentional clearance (for example, for a cattle compound or road diversion) at any of its three known sites might endanger it.	eng
39732	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More research is required on the management regime necessary for this plant. Plants seen in long grass at the Mbesa swamp in 1998 seemed less healthy and were far fewer than those seen in close cropped grass at Afusa swamp.	eng
39732	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands.  The largest population of this species seen was at Afua swamp in November 1999 where it lines the border of the swamp for about 100 m or more.	eng
39732	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It occurs in damp grassland at the edge of swamps, or banks (1,800-2,600 m).	eng
39732	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Main threats to the species are drainage or development of swamp areas, shading-out by the growth of grasses, and possibly trampling by cattle.	eng
39733	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More data is needed on the numbers of individuals at each site, and on the type and level of regeneration.	eng
39733	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species was recognised in 1996 from four localities in Bamenda Highlands, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the adjoining Mambilla Plateau. It has been located since then in three further locations, all at Ijim.	eng
39733	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Occurs in swamp grassland, often at the interface with montane forest or scrub (1,800-2,460 m altitude).	eng
39733	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, but may include trampling by cattle.	eng
39734	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The range and frequency of this species at Kilum-Ijim and the factors influencing recruitment and survival need to be established.	eng
39734	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Recorded from montane grassland areas at 1,800-2,500 m altitude.	eng
39734	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The current threats to this species are unknown, however, fire and grazing may adversely affect the population.	eng
39735	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The natural habitat of <em>Crotalaria ledermannii</em> is not well characterized.  More research is needed to rectify this. A survey to find the range of this species and levels of regeneration is recommended.	eng
39735	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from Cameroon (Manenguba Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau). There is also a recent collection from Bali-Ngemba.	eng
39735	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been recorded from grassland and forest edge areas (1,200–2,200 m altitude).	eng
39735	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the species are unknown, but conversion of land to cultivation and grazing areas, trampling, or fires may be the main sources. This is an annual or short-lived perennial species and a deleterious change in the habitat or poor seed set in one year could reduce the population within 12 months.	eng
39736	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	An attempt should be made to rediscover this species in the wild and to assess whether, as is suspected, it is threatened.	eng
39736	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is known only from two collections from the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon.	eng
39736	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main habitats of this species are probably grassland areas and forest edges at about 1,000-2,200 m altitude.	eng
39736	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, but conversion of land to cultivation and grazing areas, trampling, or fires main form the main threats.	eng
39737	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	A field survey of <em>Indigofera</em> is recommended at Kilum-Ijim in order to facilitate identification of this narrowly endemic subspecies and to gather data on its distribution and frequency.	eng
39737	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge, Cameroon. Although known from only two specimens, this taxon may be undercollected. Its habitat can include fallow fields, which are not the usual target areas for plant collecting.	eng
39737	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main habitats include montane grassland and fallows areas (2,000-2,300 m altitude).	eng
39738	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Every effort should be made to rediscover and protect any trees that might be left of this species, if it is not already extinct. Forest destruction in the Bamboutos Mountains is as extensive, perhaps more so, than in the Bamenda Highlands.	eng
39738	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>N. camerunensis</em> is endemic to the Bamenda Highlands and the Bamboutos Mountains of Cameroon.  Only five specimens are known. Both the earliest and latest collections were made from the Ijim area, below the Ijim ridge on the north side at Nchian and on the west side at Njinikom.  Two collections were made near Bamendou in the Bamboutos Mountains. Despite plant collections in this area over several years, this tree has not been recorded recently.  All collecting locations are in densely populated areas now.  Indications are that this species is extremely rare, even within this small range.	eng
39738	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Recorded from montane forest with <em>Albizia gummifera, Carapa grandiflora, Syzygium staudtii</em>, and <em>Prunus africana</em> (1,600-1,800 m altitude).	eng
39738	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It is likely that this substantial tree is used as a timber and it may well have been over-exploited. This species may already be extinct.	eng
39739	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More detailed data is required on the size of the population and its area in Kilum-Ijim.	eng
39739	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>T. letouzeyi</em> is endemic to the Bamenda highlands, Cameroon. It is known only from five collections, all taken before 1996.	eng
39739	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is parasitic on trees, particularly <em>Gnidia glauca</em> on the edges of montane forest (1,300-2,500 m altitude).	eng
39739	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Some harvesting of host-parasite haustorial connections occurs in this area and may have an effect on this species. The extent of this threat is unknown, but is thought unlikely to be severe. The felling of host trees for firewood and to clear ground for agriculture is the main threat.	eng
39740	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	No individuals are known to occur in any protected areas. The possibility of protecting the subpopulation at Mbingo should be investigated.	eng
39740	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Recorded from Cameroon (the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda highlands, and Ngaoundere), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau). The largest subpopulation is estimated at about 50 trees (at Mbingo).	eng
39740	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from lower montane forest areas, often at edges of the forest (1,500-2,000 m altitude).	eng
39740	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The clearance of forest areas for wood and agricultural land forms the main threat to the survival of this species.	eng
39741	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Communication and education is needed to raise awareness on species protection. Also, the site needs to be protected to conserve the habitat of this species. Further research on species ecology, current threats and population trends is also needed.	eng
39741	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Endemic to Cameroon. It is known only from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge area, Cameroon.	eng
39741	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Rocks at water-level in small streams; steep granite cliff-face under dripping water, on basalt boulders in clear, turbulent running water in full sunlight.	eng
39741	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Population trends are unknown.	eng
39741	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Habitat loss due to land management of non-agricultural areas, and extraction of groundwater have been identified as threats. It may also be affected by cultivation upstream of the site which causes erosion  and introduction of silt to the stream.	eng
39742	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Wetlands protection, conservation and research actions are needed to protect this species.	eng
39742	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	This species has been collected only in Cameroon and Nigeria. It may also be present in <span class="bold">Ghana and Niger but records need to be confirmed.	eng
39742	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	It has been recorded on exposed basalt boulders below a high waterfall (c.30 m) at 1,400 m altitude above sea level. It is a moss-like plant on smooth rocks in fast-flowing streams.	eng
39742	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species with small occurrence in west Africa and populations are severely fragmented.<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src">	eng
39742	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Drought and water pollution have been identified as major threats. The species may be   threatened by pollution from laundry operations at the town of Fundong, Cameroon just upstream from the waterfall. Also, a lot of debris has been seen at the side of this pool.	eng
39743	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from Cameroon (the Bamboutos Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, and Ngaoundere), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau and Vogel Peak).	eng
39743	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been recorded in rocky grassland areas at 1,900-2,400 m altitude.	eng
39744	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Monitoring of the population is required to determine whether this taxon is declining.	eng
39744	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>A. fischeri</em> is confined to the summit of Mt. Oku where it is relatively abundant within a small area.	eng
39744	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species was recorded from rocky grassland and scrub areas at 2,800-3,000 m altitude.	eng
39744	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main threats to the population are fires, grazing by cattle, goats and sheep, and direct attacks from insect larvae.	eng
39745	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	A survey of this species on Mt. Oku is required to determine numbers of plants, their distribution, regeneration levels, and current threats to the species.	eng
39745	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>A. asperuloides</em> is known from Bioco, Mt. Cameroon, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon.	eng
39745	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been collected from upper montane grassland and scrub areas at 2,400-3,000 m altitude.	eng
39745	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, but it is thought that grazing, fire, and trampling, known to occur in this habitat, may have adverse effects on the species.	eng
39746	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More information is required on the location, numbers of individuals on the mountain, and on the extent of the threats posed by fire and grazing on this species.	eng
39746	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species has been recorded from Bioko, Mt. Cameroon, and Mt. Oku.	eng
39746	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It occurs in montane grassland areas at 2,700-4,000 m altitude.	eng
39746	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Possible threats to the species are grazing pressures and/or fires.	eng
39747	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More information is required on the extent, distribution, and current threats to the species.	eng
39747	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from Cameroon (the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau and Jos Plateau).	eng
39747	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been recorded from woodland areas at 1,220-1,980 m altitude.	eng
39747	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The main threats to the population are clearance for agriculture and over-exploitation for bast fibre.	eng
39748	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More detailed data is required on the frequency and range of this species. Surveys should probably be carried out in October and November, when the plant is conspicuously in flower. Direct observations of the current threats to this species are desirable.	eng
39748	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	<em>P. angustisectum</em> occurs in the Cameroon Highlands from Mt. Cameroon to the Bamboutos Mountains, extending to the Mambilla Plateau (Chappal Waddi, Nigeria).	eng
39748	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been recorded in rocky montane grassland areas at 1,900-3,200 m altitude.	eng
39748	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, grassland fires and grazing by domesticated animals are likely to affect the survival and establishment of this species.	eng
39749	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	More detailed data on frequency and range of this species is required.  October and November, when the plant is conspicuously in flower, is probably the best time to conduct this work. Direct observations of current threats to this species are desirable.	eng
39749	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species has been recorded from rocky montane grassland areas at 2,300-2,800 m altitude.	eng
39749	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, grassland fires and grazing by domesticated animals are likely to affect the survival and establishment of this species.	eng
39750	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Annual monitoring of the three sites is required to determine numbers of individuals, signs of damage to plants, and regeneration. Afua should be revisited to confirm that this species has indeed disappeared from the area.  Similar sites to those already known should be searched for to discover potential new locations.  Some evidence of fire scorching on the Afua specimens was noted, therefore some burning at the correct season may be required in management of habitat for this species or important for promoting flowering.  Propagation by seed and replanting in, for example, Afua Swamp may be considered.	eng
39750	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is known from Kinkolong near the summit of Mt. Oku, Mbi crater, and Ijim Ridge.	eng
39750	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It has been recorded from swamps or stream edges at 1,750-2,900 m altitude.	eng
39750	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species has suffered from extensive recent habitat destruction.	eng
39751	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, G., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Ankarafantsika National Park is the only protected area in which it is confirmed to occur. No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Additional survey work is needed to determine the full extent of the species' range. Serious consideration should be given to establishing a protected area that includes the Mariarano Classified Forest.	eng
39751	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, G., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. The type specimen for this species was collected adjacent to Lac Ravelobe, from which its scientific name is derived. Based on morphological measurements, Zimmermann <em>et al.</em> (1997, 1998) concluded that two species of mouse lemur inhabited the forests of Ankarafantsika in north-western Madagascar, where <em>M. ravelobensis</em> is now known to occur sympatrically with <em>M. murinus</em>. It is also known from the Bongolava Classified Forest and Mariarano Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008). Sea-level to 500 m.	eng
39751	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, G., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits dry deciduous lowland forest and can be observed even in degraded patches. It appears to prefer forests with a lower canopy height and more lianas than those inhabited by <em>M. murinus</em>, and also uses tree holes less often than that of other species.	eng
39751	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, G., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common in Ankarafantsika.	eng
39751	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, G., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture and seasonal bushfires. The species also may be susceptible to predation from feral carnivores and invasive non-endemic carnivores.	eng
39758	conservation	Streicher, U., Singh, M., Timmins, R.J. & Brockelman, W., 2008	This species is listed in Bangladesh as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974. In India, it is listed in Schedule I, part I, under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002. This species is protected in Thailand under the Wildlife Protection of 1992; in China it is Class I, and is given the highest protection in Viet Nam under the Wildlife Protection Law (List IB, Decree 32, 2006) on a par with tigers, elephants and bears. In Cambodia, it is protected under law 359 of the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries, 1994.<br/><br/>This species is found in a large number of protected areas throughout its range, but possibly at low numbers. Actual surveys rather than anecdotal reports are necessary to determine the true abundance of this species in the wild (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008). The species has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007).	eng
39758	distribution	Streicher, U., Singh, M., Timmins, R.J. & Brockelman, W., 2008	This species occurs in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (southern Yunnan and possibly southern Guangxi), north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), Thailand, and Viet Nam (except the south). It may possibly occur as well in northern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
39758	habitat	Streicher, U., Singh, M., Timmins, R.J. & Brockelman, W., 2008	This is an arboreal, nocturnal species that inhabits tropical evergreen rainforest, semi-evergreen forest, and moist deciduous forest. In Viet Nam it is found only in secondary forests, and on the edge of primary forests; they are also known to come close to agricultural fields and plantations (V. Thanh pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level (U. Streicher pers. comm.) up to 2,400 m (Choudhury 2001). It feeds on fruits and gums, but very few insects as compared to slender or pygmy lorises (U. Streicher pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This animal?s life span is about 15 years, and generation time is 7-8 years. Females give birth to one offspring per litter once every two years in semi-wild conditions (Rowe 1996). In captivity, this rate may be slightly higher (U. Streicher pers. comm.).	eng
39758	population	Streicher, U., Singh, M., Timmins, R.J. & Brockelman, W., 2008	In Lao PDR, the population seems to be fairly undisturbed and occurs in large forest tracts (R. Timmins pers. comm.). Duckworth (1994) and Ratajszczak (1998) both reported the species as being very rare in Lao PDR, with the former reporting abundance indices of about 0.30-0.65/km, and the latter detecting only three after a several week survey. It is recorded in two areas in Bangladesh: Chittagong and Sylhet (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). In India, the encounter rates vary from 0.1 to 0.77/km (Radhakrishna <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Viet Nam, the populations are severely reduced and have disappeared from many forests (Fitch-Snyder and Thanh 2002; V. Thanh pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is widespread, though a long-term survey by Starr has also failed to detect this species in most forests. It is also widespread in Thailand (W. Brockelman pers. comm.), though an on-going study by Pliwsungnoen has found that they are absent from many forests, and are at very low densities when they are present (Pliwsungnoen pers. comm.).	eng
39758	threats	Streicher, U., Singh, M., Timmins, R.J. & Brockelman, W., 2008	The major threats that this species' habitat faces include farming, timber removal, human settlement, road building, dams, power lines, fragmentations, soil loss and erosion, and deliberately set fires. They are hunted and traded for food, traditional ?medicine,? sport, and as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Nekaris and Nijman 2007; V. Thanh and U. Streicher pers. comm.). Road kills represent another threat to this species.	eng
39759	conservation	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Studies on Sumatra are urgently needed to confirm conservation status. The species is protected by law in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia, and has been recently transfer from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris and Nijman 2007).	eng
39759	distribution	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	This species occurs in Indonesia (Sumatra, Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago, and Pulau Tebingtinggi and Bunguran in the North Natuna Islands), Malaysia (on the Peninsula and the island of Pulau Tioman), southern peninsular Thailand (from the Isthmus of Kra southward), and Singapore (Groves 2001; M. Shekelle pers. comm.)	eng
39759	habitat	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest, gardens, and plantations (Timm and Birney 1992). It is seen more often in edge habitat of forest, possibly because the edge has more supports that may increase foraging efficiency (Johns 1986), but this also may be due to sampling bias, as they are more easily seen on forest edges (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in press). It is frugivorous, but will also eat insects, leaves, and bird eggs (Johns 1986). One long-term study has shown that they consume mainly nectar gum and sap, with fruit and arthropods forming small proportion of diet. Nectar from the flowers of the burtram palm (<em>Eugeissona tristus</em>) seems to be a key resource (Wiens and Zitzmann 2003).	eng
39759	population	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	Surveys in Sumatra have found this species to occur at very low densities. Its presence is patchy through Peninsular Malaysia. Several short-term studies indicated that it usually occurs at low densities: Pasoh Forestry Research Centre, Peninsular Malaysia (0.01-0.02 animals/km); Petalang Jaya, Malaysia (0.40 animals/km); Genting Sempah, Malaysia (3 captures after 30,000 trap nights) (Barret 1981; Rudd and Stevens 1992; Nekaris <em>et al.</em> in press). It was described as uncommon in Panang Island, where one was shot after 11 nights (Liat <em>et al</em> 1971). But at sites where long-term studies were chosen found forests where they occur at particularly high densities (Sungai Tekam Forestry Concession, Malaysia, 0.3-0.8 animals/km in logged primary forest, 0.5-1.2 animals/km in unlogged primary forest; Manjung District, Perak, Malaysia, 1.6-4.0 animals/km in unlogged primary forest and 0.4-1.0 animals/km in logged swamp forest and secondary savanna). In general, though, slow lorises of all taxa appear to occur at very low densities (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
39759	threats	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	The species is collected for use as pets, and the animals are sold throughout Southeast Asia (Nekaris and Bearder 2007; Nekaris and Nijman 2007). The teeth are often pulled, resulting in infection and/or death. If animals survive, lack of teeth makes reintroduction impossible. Well-meaning rescue centres haphazardly reintroduce lorises into local forests without knowledge of their taxonomy or social needs. Sumatran populations are particularly impacted by the pet trade. There is little information available on other threats to this species. It is relatively adaptable to anthropogenic habitats, and so it might less affected by forest loss than some other primate species. Nevertheless, forest loss has been so severe in the region that it is likely to have had some negative impacts. Animals are shot as crop pests and for other reasons (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
39760	conservation	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	This species is included in Appendix I of CITES and is protected by Indonesian law. Surveys to study the status of all populations, including those from the Philippines and other small Indonesian islands are required. Some forest fragments where the species occur remain protected. There is a particular need for field guides for this and other nocturnal Indonesian primate species, as they are often confused in rescue centers and elsewhere. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, though its status there is uncertain (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
39760	distribution	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	This species is found in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan Borneo, Belitung and Banka), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak Borneo) and the Philippines (Tawi Tawi, Bongao, Sangasanga, and perhaps some other small islands in the Sulu Archipelago) (Fooden 1991; Timm and Birney 1992). Ethnographic survey records suggest local extinction in some islands in the Tawi Tawi group (Philippines), though the species is still likely to be found on smaller islands (Garcia pers. comm. 2006).	eng
39760	habitat	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	The species occurs in primary and secondary lowland forest, gardens, and plantations (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985; Timm and Birney 1992), at elevations between 35-100 m. According to interviews with local people in the Philippines, the species tends to be sighted in citrus trees (<em>calamansi</em>) (Garcia pers. comm. 2006) and may be tolerant of a variety of habitats. It is nocturnal, and almost entirely arboreal. In Sabangau National Park, of four sightings of lorises, 50% contained two or more individuals, feeding together in the same tree (<em>Callophylum hosei</em> and <em>Szygium cf. nigricans</em>).	eng
39760	population	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	Based on data collected from researchers in the field and old specimens from museum collections, Meijaard <em>et al</em>. (2005) claimed that this species is common throughout Borneo. However, loris ?presence? is usually not determined first-hand (Chivers and Burton 1988; Indrawan and Rangkuti 2001), and it also cannot be presumed that lorises still occur in areas from where they were once collected. The species actually seems to be very uncommon throughout its range. It has a very limited distribution in the Philippines (Dagosto and Gebo 1995; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Kalimantan, a 3-month survey in a protected peat swamp forest (Sabangau National Park) revealed very low densities of slow lorises, 0.21 - 0.38 animals/km (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in review). When comparing this to other studies of <em>Nycticebus</em>, it seems clear that this species, when it does occur, is rare. Indeed, in 46,000 trapping nights in Kinabalu National Park, Wells <em>et al</em>. (2004) trapped this species only 3 times, and noted that in nocturnal walks over five years, it was rarely seen.	eng
39760	threats	Nekaris, A. & Streicher, U., 2008	Burning of habitat and conversion, especially to palm oil plantations, almost certainly represents a threat to this species. Although it is relatively adaptable to anthropogenic habitats, and so it might less affected by forest loss than some other primate species, forest loss has been so severe in the region that it is likely to have had some negative impacts. The species is collected locally for use as pets; subsequent uncontrolled release of pets in some areas is also a threat.	eng
39761	conservation	Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is protected by Indonesian law and is listed on CITES Appendix I. It occurs in several protected areas, though its status there is uncertain (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. 2008), and is currently represented in at least three captive collections (Prague, Czech Republic; Jakarta, Indonesia; Singapore). There is a need for field guides for this and other Southeast Asian nocturnal primate species as they are often confused in rescue centers and elsewhere.	eng
39761	distribution	Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is only known from western and central Java in Indonesia.	eng
39761	habitat	Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is nocturnal and arboreal, and is found in both primary and secondary disturbed forest. It needs arboreal connectivity (vines and lianas) due to its unique locomotive adaptations. It feeds on sap and floral florescence and on gum and insects. Thought to occur between 0 and 1,600 m, although it seems to be more common at higher elevations (likely due to the fact that lower elevation habitat is rare) (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Further studies are urgently needed.	eng
39761	population	Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species has been recorded at very low densities (0.20-0.02/km) (Nekaris <em>et al</em>. in review).	eng
39761	threats	Nekaris, A. & Shekelle, M., 2008	This species is used for traditional ?medicines? (Nekaris and Nijman 2007). Due to their non-saltatory locomotion, their choice of sleeping sites on exposed branches, and nocturnal habits, the animals are easily caught by humans, who seek them both for the pet trade as well as opportunistically collect them during forest felling (Nekaris and Bearder 2007). It is also threatened locally by the loss of forest habitat.	eng
39771	conservation	Dulvy, N.K., 2003	The status of the barndoor skate has been the subject of considerable debate since Casey and Myers (1998) reported on its decline, which they described as a ?near extinction?, and a number of petitions were made to list the species under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA). <br/> <br/>As a result, fisheries scientists used US Northeastern Fisheries Science Centre (NEFSC) research survey data from the southern part of the barndoor skate?s range (<45°S from the Gulf of Maine to southern New England) to assess its status. These data indicate declines in biomass and abundance indices of 96% and 99% respectively over approximately three generations (18 to 33 years), with mean catch rates in 1963 to 1965 of 1.922 kg/tow and average 1.82 individuals/tow, declining to 0.0786 kg and 0.025 individuals in 1996 to 1998 (Table B17, Anonymous 2000). However, there have been apparent recent increase in abundance and biomass in surveys in US and Canadian waters and the species has been discovered in waters deeper than previously covered by these surveys (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2000), where fishing effort is very low. It was concluded that there was no evidence that 'they were in danger of extinction or likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future' (Anonymous 2000). The ESA petitions were not accepted.  <br/> <br/>To date no management or regulatory measures are in place apart from ad hoc protection in closed areas of the Georges Bank, although the increased numbers of juveniles reported from this area indicates that recovery is possible.	eng
39771	distribution	Dulvy, N.K., 2003	Restricted to the NW Atlantic continental shelf and slope of Canada and the USA. Its range was thought to extend from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to southwestern Grand Bank, Canada (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). Recent fisheries observer data, however, indicate the barndoor skate extends further north along the Labrador shelf edge and slope as far as 63°N in deep slope waters (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). The barndoor skate is found on most bottom types and is typically caught in cool water, with a preferred temperature range between 0.4 to 10.9 ºC and up to 20 ºC (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2002, McEachran and Musick 1975, Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). Historically it was found as shallow as the tideline (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Anonymous 2000) and the lower depth distribution was thought to be around 715 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Musick 1975, Scott and Scott 1988) but recent observer data indicate a depth distribution down to 1,400 m (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
39771	habitat	Dulvy, N.K., 2003	The barndoor skate attains a maximum length of 153 cm and a maximum weight of 20 kg; the largest skate species in the Northwest Atlantic and eleventh largest in the world (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Age at maturity was assumed to be similar to that of the common skate <em>D. batis</em> (the sister species from the Northeast Atlantic): an estimated 11 years (Casey and Myers 1998), but this is likely to be an overestimate. Age at maturity has been estimated as eight years by extrapolating from skate allometric relationships (Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001). The average age of mature individuals in the population (generation length) therefore can be estimated to be 10 to 14 years. It is likely that the lower value for age at maturity is closer to reality. Longevity has been estimated as between 13 and 18 years, assuming that the age of maturity is 60% of the lifespan, then age at maturity can be assumed to be 8 to 11 years (Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001). Length frequency data indicate few adult individuals remaining in the population, with these generally less than 130 cm long. However, these data were using a sample gear (scallop dredge) that may underestimate the abundance of larger size classes. <br/> <br/>Length at maturity has been estimated to be 115 cm for females and 112 cm for males (T. Gedamke, pers. comm.), but these may have changed due to variations in population density, food availability and exploitation rates. Egg production is estimated as 47 per year, based on the inverse relationship between fecundity and weight of hatchlings and common skate life history parameters (Casey and Myers 1998). Body size is a good general predictor of demography and vulnerability to exploitation in skates; the large size of the barndoor skate suggests that it is one of the most vulnerable of all the skates (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002, Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2002, Frisk <em>et al.</em> 2001, Musick <em>et al.</em> 1999, Walker and Hislop 1998).  <br/> <br/>The diet includes bivalves, squid, rock crabs, lobsters, shrimps, worms and fishes (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003, Robbins and Ray 1986).	eng
39771	population	Dulvy, N.K., 2003	Historically, it is not exactly known how abundant the barndoor skate was on the continental shelf, but it is now generally uncommon throughout its range. A comprehensive examination of all available data indicates they were captured in only 1,015 of a total of 80,427 gear sets (1.26%) (Simon <em>et al</em>. 2002). These data came from nine surveys, including both non-standard and standardised research vessel surveys, and covered virtually all of the Canadian continental shelf waters. Surveys off Newfoundland have been carried out since 1950, the Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence surveys commenced in 1970 and 1971 respectively. The species is currently more abundant in the southern part of its range, including the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, Scotian Shelf and southern New England (Anonymous 2000). But it appears to be very rare on the shallower continental shelf and the main part of the population is now found in shelf channels and along the continental shelf edge in waters > 450 m deep (Anonymous 2000, Kulka 1999). The shelf locations where barndoor skate can be captured with any regularity are along the southern and eastern edge of the Georges Bank and inside areas closed to trawling on the Georges Bank and along the Scotian Shelf (J.A. Musick, T. Gedamke and S. Murawski, pers. comms., Simon <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
39771	threats	Dulvy, N.K., 2003	The barndoor is too rare to be specifically targeted, but is captured as part of the skate complex in USA waters (Anonymous 2000). Skate landings are not recorded by species and total skate catch in the USA never exceeded several hundred metric tonnes until the advent of distant water fleets during the 1960s (Anonymous 2000). Skate landings reached 9,500 mt in 1969 then rapidly declined during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981 (this excludes landings in Canada, including the Grand Banks and Scotian Shelf.) <br/> <br/>Since 1981, USA skate landings have increased substantially, primarily due to the increased export market for 'skate wings' and to a lesser extent because of the increased demand for lobster bait (Anonymous 2000). It is thought that the winter, thorny and little skates comprised most of this catch. Total skate landings increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and declined to 7,200 mt in 1995, since then landings have increased to 17,000 mt, the highest on record (Anonymous 2000). It must be noted that there is little fishing activity in waters greater than 200 m deep, where the remainder of the barndoor skate population exists. Landings data were aggregated across species. However, the large size and distinctive colouration of barndoor skate may mean some have been identified correctly, indicating commercial fishery discards of a few hundred metric tonnes per year (Anonymous 2000). <br/> <br/>In Canada, a directed fishery for all skates began in 1994 in northerly areas of the barndoor skates distribution, on the Scotian Shelf and Grand Banks. However, the major threat to this species? continued existence is bycatch in commercial fisheries (Casey and Myers 1998), particularly the benthic trawl fisheries for cod and redfish (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.) and dredge fisheries for scallops. It should be noted that fishing effort on demersal fish in Canadian waters has declined substantially in the past decade as a result of several moratoria (cod, plaice), closed fisheries (grenadier) and reduced quotas (redfish, witch) (D. Kulka, pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>A number of fishery-independent trawl survey data collected in both spring and autumn consistently indicate declines in the abundance and biomass of the barndoor skate and a truncation of the population size structure, indicating the loss of the largest individuals in USA waters (Anonymous 2000). Historical abundance is unknown but must have been higher given the North Atlantic-wide depletion of large high trophic level fishes (Christensen <em>et al</em>. 2003); consequently the patterns of decline observed could be regarded as conservative. Surveys in most areas off Canada began in the early 1960s, but some areas have been surveyed since the 1950s (S. Grand Bank, St Pierre Bank, Sydney Bight). In northerly parts of the barndoor skate distribution, the major abundance decline, according to survey data, was from the 1950s. In more southerly areas, namely USA waters, the major decline in abundance occurred between the 1960s-1970s. On average the mean catch rate was 1.922 kg per hour in 1963?5, which declined to an average of 0.0786 kg per hour in 1996?8. This represents a 96% decline in abundance (catch rate) over approximately three generations (30?42 years) (Table B17, Anonymous 2000). According to Casey and Myers (1999) the barndoor range has also contracted over this time. They described it as being currently found in three of the nine NAFO statistical areas in which it was formerly abundant. This is not strictly correct, it continues to be found in all NAFO areas, but at reduced numbers (Kulka 1999, Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002, Simon <em>et al.</em> 2002). The trends in abundance and biomass of barndoor skate in deepwater (> 200 fathoms) off the US coast are unknown. One highly regulated fishery (for monkfish) currently operating in waters > 200 fathoms could catch barndoor skate (D. Kulka, pers. comm.).   <br/> <br/>According to these survey data there appears to have been a steady increase in the barndoor skate abundance in the centre of their range on the SE Georges Bank and the SW of Browns Bank since 1992. An alternative interpretation of these data has been suggested. It has been argued that the census biomass was not statistically significant from zero (i.e., the species was ?statistically extinct?) in 17 of the 18 years from 1980 to 1998 inclusive. Thus, the trawl surveys from which the population trends are derived may have very low power to detect either further increases or decreases in abundance (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, it has been argued that such patterns are common even in more abundant fishes due to the large extent to which they are aggregated or clumped (contagion) (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). Such patterns will produce highly skewed sampling distributions that would invalidate the use of statistics based on the assumption of normality.    <br/> <br/>Trends in survey abundance and biomass indices for barndoor skate in shallow waters (< 200 fathoms) are well documented for Canada (Kulka 1999, Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2002). A decline in the survey indices occurred in the mid-1960s to early 1970s, likely caused by the high fishing effort of the distant water fleet on Georges Bank, followed by a period of low to zero catches. In 1985, consistent catches of barndoor skate began occurring and increases in survey indices were observed that have continued through 2001. <br/> <br/>The current overall population trend should be considered uncertain at the worst or increasing at best. Some areas of the Georges Bank and southern New England shelf have been closed to fishing since 1993, primarily to protect scallop stocks, and there is good evidence for an increase in the abundance of barndoor skate within these no-take areas (S. Murawski, pers. comm.). Also, fishing effort surrounding these areas has declined with the closure of the cod fishery. It is possible that opening the no-take areas and increasing fishing effort will again lead to the decline of the barndoor skate in these areas. However, this evidence for increase should be considered in light of the sampling issues touched upon above. In addition to this problem it is worth considering other sampling issues that would provide cause for a more optimistic view of the barndoor skate abundance.  The historical trawl data comprising the early parts of the time series compiled by Casey and Myers (1999) have been criticised (Kenchington 1999). It is argued that the survey gears and design were not optimised for barndoor skate also that historical data are not comparable with more recent surveys (Kenchington 1999). It should be noted that survey estimates are not absolute abundance, but they are estimates of relative abundance, this results in two reasons for a more cautious and more optimistic view of the reported declines can be taken. A large part of the barndoor skate is rarely or never sampled, particularly the northern > 520 and in deep water > 400 m, thus abundance indices may not fully reflect population trends (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). The survey abundance estimates should be considered as minimum estimates of the population because it is believed that the catchability of barndoor skate by the survey gear is low (D. Kulka, pers. comm.). For example, using underwater cameras attached to the head ropes of standard trawl gear, it was noted that the barndoor skate were, "extraordinarily adept at avoiding capture" (Edwards 1968). Also the escapement of all sizes of skates from ?Engels? survey gear was high (Walsh 1992). Consequently this makes any assessment of the conservation status of the barndoor skate quite uncertain because catchability may well change with skate density and changing gears or technological creep. Therefore accounting for and understanding the influence of this potential source of error upon the estimate of population trends is difficult.	eng
39773	conservation	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Kulbicki, M. & Carpenter, K., 2008	Currently there are no known conservation or management initiatives for <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em>. Chocolate hind occur in a number of marine protected areas, some in need of better management.	eng
39773	distribution	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Kulbicki, M. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species with a broad distribution from East Africa (Kenya to southern Mozambique), to southern India, and the western Pacific, including the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Taiwan, and China, and extending south to New Caledonia and northern Australia. <br/><br/>Chocolate hind are exported from the Arafura Sea, but the species is not reported from oceanic islands in the Indian Ocean, except for Aldabra (Seychelles), Comoros, Madagascar, and the Andaman and Lakshadweep islands (India). It is also unknown from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and from the islands of Micronesia, except for Palau. The record from Rodríguez by Heemstra and Randall (1984) could not be verified and is probably erroneous, as is the record from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Country range reference: <a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> accessed on 19th April 2006.	eng
39773	habitat	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Kulbicki, M. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species, mainly found in coastal areas down to 30 m. The chocolate hind inhabits silty dead reefs in protected waters and is secretive, but may also be seen on live coral (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The species is the most abundant in Hong Kong although it is infrequently taken in the coldest winter months when water temperatures go down to 15 to 16°C. More information on biology and fishery is needed for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The chocolate hind feeds mainly on fish and crustaceans. Based on a preliminary study on the gut contents of 406 <em>C. boenak</em> collected from the market from Oct 1997 to Mar 1999, identified food items included the body remains of crustaceans (crabs and shrimps), fish, worms and other unknown items (Chan 2000). Myers (1991) and Shao <em>et al.</em> (1992) also recorded <em>C. boenak</em> feeding primarily on fish and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Courtship and pair spawning were observed by Donaldson (1989) in Papua New Guinea. In Hong Kong, it was observed that <em>C. boenak</em> spawned around 22:00 to 01:00 from August to September 2000 for 35 consecutive days and unrelated to moon phase in captivity, where it was taken from local reefs (Liu and Sadovy 2001). Spawning is in pairs and stable groups of a single male and several females were also recorded in the field in Hong Kong (Liu and Sadovy 2005). Based on the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and histological examination of gonads (n=490), the natural spawning season of <em>C. boenak</em> in Hong Kong is from April to October (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><em>C. boenak</em> is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite, with the smallest female and male maturing at 80 mm SL and 116 mm SL, respectively (Chan and Sadovy 2002). The smallest and largest transitionals (i.e. apparently changing from female to male) were 128 mm SL (one year old) and 145 mm SL (four years old), respectively (Chan and Sadovy 2002). In captivity, the species can also change sex from adult male to adult female and the sex of juveniles is plastic and can depend on social factors (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b).<br/><br/>No information is available on fecundity or recruitment. The sex ratio of mature females to mature males was 1.6:1 in Hong Kong according to market samples; it is not known whether this reflects natural sex ratios (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Maturity and growth</strong><br/>Among other similar-sized <em>Cephalopholis</em> species, <em>C. boenak</em> has the smallest size of female maturation, sex change (diandric) and faster growth rate (Chan and Sadovy 2002); the species also exhibits plasticity of sexual development in juveniles which can be mediated by social conditions, as well as male to female sex change (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b). Such characteristics may make <em>C. boenak</em> more resilient to local fisheries than related species that take longer to mature or that exhibit monandry.<br/><br/>Length-age relationship: Length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>C. boenak</em> (n=461) was  SL =147.66 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.49(Age+1.52)) in Hong Kong (Chan and Sadovy 2002).	eng
39773	population	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Kulbicki, M. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although widespread, the geographic range of the chocolate hind is centered in southeast Asia where there is extensive destruction of reef habitat. Following the declines in larger groupers in the Hong Kong area, this species has become a significant component of the grouper catch. Heavy exploitation of the species and absence of management is expected to cause declines in populations in the long term, however, further information is required on abundance and landings in the northern sector of the South China Sea before the extent of the fisheries threat to the population can be determined.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>Chan (2000) described <em>C. boenak</em> as the last remaining commercially important grouper in Hong Kong, which is being heavily fished in its smaller size and age classes; half of all specimens sampled from local municipal markets within the last few years were small (112 mm and 143 mm SL) and young (ages two to four years). Despite its importance, there are no official records of landings in Hong Kong (Chan and Sadovy 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Among other similar-sized <em>Cephalopholis</em> species, <em>C. boenak</em> has the smallest size of female maturation, sex change (diandric) and faster growth rate (Chan and Sadovy 2002); the species also exhibits plasticity of sexual development in juveniles which can be mediated by social conditions, as well as male to female sex change (Liu and Sadovy 2004a, b). Such characteristics may make <em>C. boenak</em> more resilient to local fisheries than related species that take longer to mature or that exhibit monandry.<br/><br/>More information on biology and fishery is needed for this species.	eng
39773	threats	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Kulbicki, M. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em> was once considered to be too small to be of commercial importance (Heemstra and Randall 1993) it does occur in local markets in Southeast Asia (Sadovy pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is heavily exploited in some areas in southeast Asia now that many larger groupers have become severely reduced in commercial catches. It is only a small component of the live reef food fish trade, however, in Hong Kong, a major consumer market for live fish, and there is no management for the species. It is also taken for the marine aquarium trade in Sri Lanka. Nonetheless, if larger groupers continue to decline, it is probable that pressure on this species will increase. In other areas, the species is unlikely to be targeted, but it is a species that occurs as incidental catch in handline fisheries in Australia and speared in Okinawa.	eng
39774	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Thierry, C., Choat, J.H. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>Conservation Measures by Country</strong><br/><strong>Indonesia</strong><br/>In Indonesia, about 1 million and more than 3 million juveniles (4-5 cm TL) were produced by hatcheries in 2000 and 2001, respectively. In 2003, 2 government, 7 commercial and more than 100 farmer backyard hatcheries were actively producing juveniles (Sugama <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hatchery-produced fish are used exclusively for the grow-out industry and aquarium trade. <br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/><em>C. altivelis</em> is listed as a protected species under the <a href="http://bar.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_reg/gbrmpr1983366/s29.html">Great Barrier Reef Marine Regulations 1983 – Reg 29</a> (accessed on 18th Jan 2006). <br/><br/><em>C. altivelis</em> is also listed as Lower Risk (conservation dependent) in Australia (see <a href="http://www.asfb.org.au/research/tscr/tf_constat2001.htm?print=1">Conservation Status of Australian Fishes - 2001</a>; accessed on 18th Jan 2006). According to Division 3, Part 2 of Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003 (Reprint No. 2), taking or possessing of <em>C. altivelis</em>  in Queensland is prohibited by both state (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland) and federal (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) agencies (<a href="http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/F/FisherCRFFMP03.pdf">Queensland Fisheries Act 1994: Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003</a>; accessed on 18th Jan 2006).  However, it is permissible to take small numbers under permit for aquaculture (broodstock) purposes under the approvals from both the state and federal governments (Mike Rimmer, Northern Fisheries Centre of Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, PO Box 5396, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.  pers. comm. on 25th Jan 06).<br/><br/><strong>Papua New Guinea</strong><br/>The minimum size limit for exporting <em>C. altivelis</em> is 40 cm TL (<a href="http://www.pngbd.com/forum/showthread.php?s=2a61aeff60b0ae90dd1fde40c5516ec0&p=29704#post29704">Live Reef Fish Food Trade (LRFFT) in Papua New Guinea</a>; accessed on 19th Jan 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Vanuatu</strong><br/>Listed as an Endangered Species in Vanuatu (<a href="http://www.volcanolive.com/vanuatu68.html">Endangered Species in Vanuatu</a>; accessed on 19 Jan 2006).	eng
39774	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Thierry, C., Choat, J.H. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> can be found in the western Pacific from southern Japan (Ogasawara) to Palau, Guam, New Caledonia, Fiji and southern Queensland (Australia). One report from western Indian Ocean (Kenya) has not been confirmed. Records from Hawaii are probably based on released aquarium fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
39774	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Thierry, C., Choat, J.H. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The species is found in lagoons and seaward well developed coral reefs, typically in dead or silty areas. It also occurs in tide pools and can be caught at depths of 40 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juveniles (<15 cm) are found inshore, in lagoons and in fringing reefs and seagrass. Recorded maximum size is 70 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Preliminary data suggests a maximum age of at least 14 years (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1999). Feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Myers 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Gardner <em>et al.</em> 2005) and matures at 39 cm TL (Lau and Li 2000). Spawning aggregations are not known, although spawning activities were observed in captivity. <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> can spawn many times within a reproductive season (Ou<em> et al.</em> 1999b). There has been one anecdotal report of a spawning aggregation formation from northern Papua New Guinea (Sadovy pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Natural (without hormonal treatment) spawning activities in floating cages among 15 males and 24 females (in 2 cages) were observed in Komodo, Indonesia over a period from October 2000 to July 2003.  <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> spawned in pairs between 2100h to midnight, and occurred from the 3rd quarter to the 1st quarter of the moon. Cage spawning was observed to last for at least 8 consecutive days (Sudaryanto <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Induced gonad development by hormone injection of a female (380 mm TL, 1.5kg) and a male (405 mm TL, 2kg) under experimental conditions spawned 390,000 eggs, in which 40,000 were fertilized. The majority of the hatched fry had abnormal morphology and died after 30 hours (Ou <em>et al.</em> 1999b)	eng
39774	population	Sadovy, Y., Thierry, C., Choat, J.H. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is naturally uncommon over most of its range. The species is a favored target species within the live reef fish trade and is, therefore, likely experiencing population declines in areas where the trade operates; it is reported to be increasingly harder to find for import into live reef food fish trade markets. <br/><br/>Individuals are recorded more commonly from sheltered versus exposed sites. Divers and spearfishers typically record greater abundances from inner shelf reefs. Individuals are often encountered in pairs although small aggregations of three to six individuals have been recorded at some sites. It is not known if these small groups are reproductive.<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/>Global and regional abundance of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is virtually unknown from both fishery dependent and independent data. Several underwater visual censuses suggested that this species is rare in nature (CRC 2001, Halford and Russell 2001, Allen 2003, Halford 2003, Sabetian 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent Data</strong><br/>Underwater visual census is the main tool for estimating its abundance in the wild. Currently, no coordinated or comprehensive stock assessment has been done on <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in the region. Existing data has been sporadically collected and assessments have not used standardized methodologies, making population trend analysis using fisheries-independent data problematic. <br/><br/><em>Additional Abundance Data: Pears (2005)</em><br/>Due to the highly cryptic nature of this species standard UVC data for <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> are suspect. Pears (2005) estimated abundance of this and other cryptic serranids using a special search protocol. The resultant estimates confirm the observations of survey divers that this species is rare and patchily distributed in reef habitats.<br/><br/>Individuals (+/- SD) per 1,000 m² on mid shelf reefs at four regions on the GBR in a north/south gradient:<br/> <br/>Lizard I. 0.2 (0.04)<br/>Townsville   0.1 (0.02)<br/>McKay 0.3 (0.09)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Partitioning of reefs into exposed and sheltered sites at these four localities:<br/><br/>Sheltered sites<br/>Lizard I. 0.08 (0.01)<br/>Townsville   0.2 (0.08)<br/>McKay 0.5 (0.05)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Exposed sites<br/>Lizard I. 0.2 (0.08)<br/>Townsville   0 (0)<br/>McKay 0.3 (0.09)<br/>Pompey 0 (0)<br/><br/>Abundance estimates of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> from New Caledonia were 0.063 individuals/1000 sq. m and is consistent with other localities in terms of the extreme rarity of this species (IRD database). <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/><em>Great Barrier Reef, Australia</em><br/>According to underwater visual census and video-recordings in early 2001, counts of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> indicated that they were relatively rare on mid- and outer-shelf reefs (CRC 2001). <br/><br/><em>Bali, Indonesia</em><br/>From 28th April to 5th May 2001, no <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> was observed during a 80-hour underwater visual survey in 60 sites using SCUBA (depth up to 45 m) in Sangihe-Talud (Halford and Russell 2001).<br/><br/><em>Papua, Indonesia</em><br/>From 30th October to 22nd November 2002, only five <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> were observed in 57 sites in 70 hours of underwater visual survey using SCUBA (depth up to 52 m) in the Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia (Allen 2003).<br/><br/><em>Wakatobi National Park, Indonesia</em><br/>In May 2003, no <em>C. altivelis</em> were observed during a 14-day 50-hour underwater visual survey in 33 sites (depth up to 40 to 45 m) in the Wakatobi islands group (Halford 2003).  <br/><br/><em>Kolombangara Island, Solomon Islands</em><br/>Underwater visual census (2x100 m transect at depths 10 and 20 m) estimated the density of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> at < 0.5 fish/m² (Sabetian 2003).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, the population of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> appears to be decreasing (Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>The landing and export volumes of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in the region are lacking or incomplete. For example, official figures from Indonesia only cover all groupers as a whole, without differentiating the statistics into different species.  However, import figures from the Census and Statistics Department of the Hong Kong SAR Government since 1997 provides useful information on the harvesting of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>Papua New Guinea (PNG)</em><br/>From February to April 1998, only three <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> (6 kg) were exported from PNG, comprising 0.02% of all live reef fish exported (0.05% by weight) (Lokani and Kibikibi 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Demography and population dynamics</strong><br/>Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) aged 199 of a sample of 228 individuals from the GBR. Samples ranged in size from 350 to 710 mm FL and between 1 and 19 years of age. The median age distribution was 6 to 7 years and strongly skewed to younger individuals. <br/><br/><strong>Growth parameters</strong><br/>Tmax was 19 years with L max 610 mm FL, Linf  738 mm FL, K  0.08 , Z  0.28.<br/>Linear growth was relatively rapid with FL of ~ 410 mm being achieved in five years. Demographic analysis was compromised by the absence of small individuals in the samples. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) identify <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> as a protogynous hermaphrodite, although in the absence of histological data and analysis of gonads of small individuals; thus, protogyny cannot be confirmed. Males were present in the population as young as four years of  age with the proportion of males showing a gradual increase with 50% male representation occurring at 8.2 years of age. However a number of sexually transitional individuals between six and ten years of age were recorded. Sexual maturity was estimated to occur at two years of age and 330 mm FL. A more comprehensive analysis of the pattern of sexual ontogeny must await increased sampling of smaller individuals.<strong><br/><br/></strong><strong>Trade</strong><br/>Live Reef Food Fish Trade (LRFFT)<br/><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> is considered to be a high-valued principal LRFFT species (Sadovy <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, the wholesale price of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> in 1999 was about US$64 per kg (Chan 2000). In July 2003, the wholesale and retail prices averaged US$ 62 and $110 per kg (unpublished data from the International Marinelife Alliance Hong Kong 2003).<br/><br/>According to Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department declaration forms, the volume (kg) of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> imported into Hong Kong decreased from 14.4 metric tonnes (mt) (valued at > US$ 460,000) to 4.4 mt (>US$ 131,000) in 2000. The second peak occurred in 2002 (11.9 mt, US$ 402,000) and then declined again to 1.5 mt (<us$ 50,000)="" in="" 2004.="" from="" 1997="" to="" 2003,="" indonesia="" was="" the="" major="" exporter="" of=""><em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> into Hong Kong.<br/><br/>Combining the figures of the imports of <em>C. altivelis</em> from the Census and Statistics Department and the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (which collects data from fish traders on a voluntary basis), more than 133 mt (valued at US$ 9.95 million) of <em>C. altivelis</em> were imported into Hong Kong. The lowest quantity of <8.8 mt (< US$ 0.4 million) was observed in 2003, probably due to the poor sale performance of the catering industry during/after the outbreak of the SARS.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Tables 1</strong> and <strong>2</strong>, showing the volume (kg) and value (US$) of <em>Cromileptes altivelis</em> imported into Hong Kong from 1997 to September 2005 (Source: Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong SAR Government).</us$><br/><us$ 50,000)="" in="" 2004.="" from="" 1997="" to="" 2003,="" indonesia="" was="" the="" major="" exporter="" of=""></us$>	eng
39774	threats	Sadovy, Y., Thierry, C., Choat, J.H. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>In Southeast Asia, <em>C. altivelis</em> is heavily exploited and its habitat is being degraded.  <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Live reef fish trade</em><br/>Juveniles are taken for the aquarium trade, sometimes using cyanide (Min pers. comm.), while adults are highly prized in the live reef fish trade centered in Southeast Asia. Individuals are taken in quite high numbers according to general observations and anecdotal information (Lee and Sadovy 1998) at about 40-70 cm (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999). The live fish fishery for this species operated in Queensland from 1995 (Elmer 1998) to 2003, but is now closed. The grouper's geographic distribution lies almost exclusively within an area of considerable exploitation for this species and where its habitat is likely to be subject to damage (Cesar <em>et al.</em> 1997). Humpback groupers are among the more important (by volume) species imported into the major live food fish centre (Hong Kong) and come principally from Indonesia, China and the Philippines.<br/><br/>Continued high prices in Hong Kong will inevitably lead to localised depletions. Further pressures are likely to be placed on this species in other parts of its range (e.g. Australia or other Southeast Asian countries), once Indonesian populations are reduced. The live reef fish trade is a potential threat to the survival of the species, particularly in Southeast Asia where it is heavily targeted.<br/><br/>There is an illegal trade of the species (and other live reef food fish) from the Philippines through Malaysia (Cabanban pers. comm.).	eng
39775	conservation	Bleisch, B., Geissmann, T., Timmins, R.J. & Xuelong, J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. In China, about three-quarters of the Wuliang Mountain population?s range is protected, much of it within the Wuliang Mountain Nature Reserve and Ailao Mountain Nature Reserve; the species occurs as well in Huanglianshan Nature Reserve, Fenshuilin Nature Reserve, Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Lancangjiang Nature Reserve (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Lao PDR it occurs in two protected areas, Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area. The provincial governor of Luang Namtha province (Lao PDR) in 2004 set very steep fines for wildlife trade and also instigated measures for gun control; both actions, if enforced, should protect the Laotian gibbon populations from opportunistic hunting (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39775	distribution	Bleisch, B., Geissmann, T., Timmins, R.J. & Xuelong, J., 2008	The species as a whole occurs discontinuously in southwestern China, northwestern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). One thousand years ago, gibbons that may have been crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus </em>) were distributed over a large part of southern and central China up to the Yellow River (Geissmann 1995; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; van Gulik 1967).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor concolor</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (southwestern Yunnan) and northern Viet Nam (Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Son La, and  Lai Chau provinces) (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).  It is found between the Song Da (Black) and Song Hong (Red) Rivers, north to 23°45?N and south to about 20°N (Groves 2001). Reported occurrences west of the Black River are unconfirmed (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor furvogaster</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (southwestern Yunnan).  It is found only in a small region near the Myanmar border, west of the Mekong River (23°15??23°40?N, 99°05??99°29?E) (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>Nomascus concolor jingdongensis</em> <br/>This taxon occurs in southern China (west-central Yunnan).  It is found only in a small region around Wuliang Mountain, between the Mekong and Chuanhe rivers (about 24 to 25°N) (Groves 2001).<br/><br/><em>N. concolor lu</em><br/>This taxon occurs in northwestern Lao PDR. An isolated population, it is known for certain only in a tiny area in on the east bank of the Mekong at about 20°17?? 20°25?N (Groves 2001). It is confirmed in Nam Ha National Protected Area, Luang Namtha province, and in the Nam Kan Provincial Protected Area, Bokeo province (Geissmann 2007; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39775	habitat	Bleisch, B., Geissmann, T., Timmins, R.J. & Xuelong, J., 2008	This species occurs in subtropical and montane evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forest (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2006). In China it is likely restricted to broadleaved evergreen forests (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Yunnan province, <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> occur at altitudes ranging from 1,900 to 2,700 m (Bleisch and Chen 1991; Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), but at other sites in Yunnan the species may also occur at elevations as low as 500 m (Lan 1989a,b). In northern Viet Nam, the species was reported to occur at elevations of 1,600-2,000 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). A survey area in Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao PDR, covered an altitudes range of about 440?900 m, but gibbon habitat and gibbons mainly occurred at altitudes above 550 m (Geissmann 2007).<br/><br/>Most gibbon species are mainly frugivorous (Leighton 1987). Field studies on Chinese <em>N. concolor</em>, however, report a lower intake of fruits and flowers (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) as compared to most other gibbon species except siamangs. On Mount Wuliang (central Yunnan), <em>N. concolor jingdongensis</em> eat more fruit during the rainy season, whereas they eat a higher percentage of leaves and spend more time foraging during the dry season (Sheeran 1993, 1995).<br/><br/>Average group sizes for <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> in Yunnan province also appear to vary strongly according to locality and/or study, ranging from 2.9 to 6.6 individuals (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005), with a mean of 5.0 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). This mean value is clearly higher than average group sizes found in other gibbon species (Leighton, 1987). It is unknown whether this high value applies to other populations of this species, such as <em>N. c. lu</em> in Lao PDR, <em>N. c. furvogaster</em> in western Yunnan or <em>N. c. concolo</em>r in Viet Nam. Based on five groups of <em>N. c. lu</em> observed in Nam Kan PPA in Lao PDR, an average group size of 3.6?3.8 individuals was determined (Geissmann 2007).	eng
39775	population	Bleisch, B., Geissmann, T., Timmins, R.J. & Xuelong, J., 2008	The global population is estimated at approximately 1,300-2,000 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm.2006). There are known declines and local population extinctions throughout the species? range (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2003; Ni and Ma 2006). The overall rate of decline is extremely severe.<br/><br/>Density estimates for <em>N. c. concolor</em> and <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> in Yunnan province (China) range from 0.43 to 0.82 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005), with a mean of 0.6 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). Using an average group size of 5.0 individuals, this would translate into a density of about 3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006). For <em>N. c. lu</em> in Lao PDR, a short survey covering an area of 20 km<sup>2</sup> in the Nam Kan National Biodiversity Conservation Area suggests a density of 0.45 groups/km<sup>2</sup> or 1.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, using a more conservative average group size of 3.4 individuals (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Population estimates for the Chinese portion of this species range from about 200 to 260 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). Using an average group size of 5.0 individuals, this would translate into 1,000 to 1,300 individuals. Perhaps the most important subpopulation in China resides in the Wuliang Mountains and numbers about 100 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are 98 groups of <em>N. c. jingdongensis</em> (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), with a total of about 490 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used. For <em>N. c. furvogaster</em> there are about 26-42 groups remaining (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), which would represent about 130-210 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used. A survey in the northern part of Ailao Mountain National Nature Reserve found approximately 45 groups of <em>N. c. concolor</em>, with around 200-250 individuals (X. Jiang pers. comm. 2006). In southern Yunnan there are three areas where this species occurs, in Bajiaohe, Jingping County (2 groups recorded), Jinpingfenshuiling Nature Reserve (only one group recorded), and Huanglianshan Nature Reserve (3 groups recorded) (Ni and Ma 2006). The total population in Yunnan was reported to be 74-106 groups (Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006), which translates to about 370-530 individuals, if an average groups size of 5 individuals is used.<br/><br/>The Laotian population in the Nam Kan PPA is small. At least 13 distinct groups were recorded in the Nam Kan valley in a survey area of about 6 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a density of about 2.2 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann 2007). The total population of the Nam Kan could be up to 200 individuals, although this is a very tentative extrapolation (T. Geissman pers. comm. 2006). Five groups were recorded from Nam Ha NPA (Johnson <em>et al.</em> 2005), but there is no population estimate. There are forest blocks in northern Lao PDR where there have not been any surveys for gibbons, and there could be populations in these areas.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, field surveys carried out by Fauna and Flora International throughout most of the remaining larger forest areas in the historic range of the species in Viet Nam lead to an estimate of less then 100 individuals. The two largest populations may live in Che Tao and Ho Nam Mu forests (Yen Bai and Son La provinces) with about 70 and 20 individuals, respectively (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). As of 2000, <em>N. concolor</em> in Viet Nam has been confirmed in Nam Pam commune of Muong La District in Son La Province with 15-20 individuals (Tri and Long 2000). This is probably the same population that survives in Che Tao commune of Mu Cang Chai district in Yen Bai Province (Tallents <em>et al.</em> 2000). Another population has been confirmed in Nam Xe commune of Van Ban District in Lao Cai Province. This commune borders Yen Bai Province as well, to the north (Dat <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are known subpopulation extinctions in Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
39775	threats	Bleisch, B., Geissmann, T., Timmins, R.J. & Xuelong, J., 2008	The biggest threats to <em>Nomascus concolor</em> throughout its range include destructive local forest use and hunting (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Jiang <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Lao PDR, despite the presence of local taboos on hunting gibbons (Geissmann 2007), these animals are captured and killed for subsistence as well as the pet and ?medicine? trades (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Viet Nam, depending on the locality, these gibbons are threatened by mostly human impact on habitat (Van Ban, Lao Cai Province) or mostly hunting pressure (Mu Cang Chai, Yen Bai Province and Son La Province), but it is ultimately always a combination of the two (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000; Tallents <em>et al</em>. 2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b; Le Trong Dat <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001; Ngo Van Tri and Long 2000).	eng
39776	conservation	Geissmann, T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Timmins, R., Traeholt, C. & Walston, J., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Viet Nam it is listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32, 2006. In Cambodia, yellow-cheeked gibbons have been recorded from several protected areas, including Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary, and Virachey National Park (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Lao PDR, they are present in effectively all protected areas within their range (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, Bach Ma National Park, Cat Tien National Park, Bu Gia Map National Park and Nui Chua National Park hold important populations (T. Geissmann <em>et al</em>. pers comm.).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation actions for this species include: regulation of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically sound recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/>The species is the second-most common species of crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) maintained in zoos (Gibbon Network 2006; Moisson and Baudier 2005; Varsik 2000).	eng
39776	distribution	Geissmann, T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Timmins, R., Traeholt, C. & Walston, J., 2008	Traditionally, the range of <em>N. gabriellae</em> includes northeastern Cambodia, south of Ratanakari province, and southern Viet Nam, south of Bach Ma. The range here extends further to the north to include animals that, at least phenotypically (coloration), are <em>N. gabriellae</em>, to include southern Lao PDR, as far north as Savannakhet and to Thua Thien Hue province (and possibly Quang Tri province) in central Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
39776	habitat	Geissmann, T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Timmins, R., Traeholt, C. & Walston, J., 2008	This species is found in tall evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Geissman <em>et al.</em> 2000), although it probably ranges into other forest types (like mixed bamboo and woodland forest) adjacent to these, and may also occur in riverine and gallery forest associations. In Bach Ma National Park (central Viet Nam), gibbons appeared to live in lowland evergreen forest at altitudes between 400 and 800 m, although the park area also includes forest areas at higher altitudes (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to at least 1,550 in the Phou Ahyon area, and 1,650 m in Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), but the species is scarce above an altitude of 1,500 m (Eames and Robson, 1993).<br/><br/>Like other gibbons, yellow-cheeked crested gibbons are arboreal and diurnal. Average group size is on the order 3?5 individuals. They feed mainly on fruit and leaves (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Home range sizes in Nam Cat Tien National Park range from less than 30 ha in evergreen forest to up to 100 ha in bamboo forest (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39776	population	Geissmann, T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Timmins, R., Traeholt, C. & Walston, J., 2008	It is likely that this species is the most common of the crested gibbons in Viet Nam, although this is difficult to assess given the uncertainty of the identity of animals in the northern part of the range (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Brickle <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that it was fairly common in some areas of Dak Lak province, and the Lam Dong Plateau seems to support a relatively large population of this species (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bach Ma National Park (central Viet Nam), eight groups were recorded during a survey covering one 6 km<sup>2</sup> of the park (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Cat Tien National Park the population has been estimated at 150 groups and around 500 individuals (Hao <em>et al</em>. 2005). Based on a status report, Geissmann <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded 15 localities where traditional <em>N. gabriellae</em> should occur, of which five no longer held any populations. There were an additional nine localities for the questionable <em>N. gabriellae</em> area, and gibbons no longer occurred in three of these. These must have been relatively recent losses. Recent disappearance of individual groups (for undetermined reasons) was also reported for Bach Ma National Park (Tallents <em>et al</em>. 2001), and disappearance of individual groups as a result of habitat clearance was reported for Nam Cat Tien (Geissmann 1995).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, the population is estimated at between 1,300 and 1,700 groups (Rawson and Clements in prep.), but including the surrounding forested areas the total population may be twice this size (Traeholt <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other estimates include: about 850 groups in Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary; about 360 groups in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary estimated; 330 groups in Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary; 5,750 groups in Virachey National Park, and 1,100 groups in the Pheapimex concession (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, high gibbon densities have been reported from Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1999). There is an estimated 400-6,720 groups from Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1995). The large Xe Pian-Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Areas population is of major global significance for gibbon conservation (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>During a survey of about 6 km<sup>2</sup> of Bach Ma National Park (Thua Thien Hue province, central Viet Nam) where forests occupy 220 km², a density of about 1.3 goups/km<sup>2</sup> was estimated (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2007). Among six provinces from Thua Thien Hue (central Viet Nam) to Thanh Hoa (southern part of north Viet Nam), Dak Rong Nature Reserve (Quang Tri province, central Viet Nam) was identified as one locality with the highest gibbon density, with an estimated density of only 0.06 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al</em>. 2005). Estimated population densities in Cambodia range from 0.00 to 3.73 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (n = 15), with an average of 1.47 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Traeholt <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39776	threats	Geissmann, T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Timmins, R., Traeholt, C. & Walston, J., 2008	The major threat in Cambodia and Viet Nam is hunting for the pet trade, although in Lao PDR hunting takes place mainly for food. Areas in southern Viet Nam have been heavily degraded by the spraying of aerial defoliant, agricultural encroachment, and logging, though this species appears to survive in moderately disturbed forest, as suggested by its continued presence in Cat Tien National Park and Dak Uyn Sate Forest Enterprise (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
39779	conservation	Nijman, V. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species is protected throughout its range, both by local laws as well as internationally through its listing on CITES Appendix I (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is known to occur in at least nine protected areas: Bukit Barisan National Park, Gunung Leuser National Park, Way Kambas National Park, West Langkat R (Indonesia); Fraser?s Hill R, Gunong Besout Forest Reserve, Krau Wildlife Reserve, Ulu Gombak Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia); Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) (M. Richardson pers. comm.). There is a large worldwide captive population, in 96 collections.	eng
39779	distribution	Nijman, V. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia (Barisan Mountains of west-central Sumatra), Malaysia (mountains of the Malay Peninsula south of the Perak River), and a small area of southern peninsular Thailand (Chivers 1974; Khan, 1970; O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Treesucon and Tantithadapitak 1997). It may have formerly occurred on the island of Bangka (Indonesia) as well. Reports of this species from Myanmar are almost certainly erroneous.	eng
39779	habitat	Nijman, V. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species lives in primary and secondary semi-deciduous and tropical evergreen forest. All levels of the canopy are used, although emergent trees are required for resting and sleeping. Siamangs occur at lower densities in secondary forest, but can persist in secondary areas. They range from the lowlands up to 1,500 m in elevation. During a short survey in southern Sumatra, siamangs appeared to be less sensitive to habitat degradation than sympatric agile gibbons, <em>Hylobates agilis </em>(Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2006). Since Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park coffee plantations have no canopy, they provide no habitat for this species (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Though this species is primarily folivorous in mainland Asia (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1984), it is primarily frugivorous on Sumatra (Palombit 1992; West 1982), feeding mostly on figs (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Palombit (1992) argues that these animals are flexible foragers, preferring fruit when available, but able to switch to leaves when necessary. Such flexibility may help reduce siamang vulnerability to habitat disturbance (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Siamang are strictly arboreal, highly territorial, and primarily monogamous (Chivers 1974). Extra-pair copulations have been reported in Ketambe, Gunung Leuser National Park, Sumatra (Palombit 1994), and groups with more than one adult male have been reported in the Way Kambas National Park population, Sumatra (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Lappan 2005, 2007). Home range has been recorded at 15-47 ha on the Malayan peninsula (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1977; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1980), and dispersal distance is less than 3 km. O?Brien <em>et al.</em> (2003) found that monogamy and strict territoriality may limit the range of possible response to fire and other severe disturbances by this species.	eng
39779	population	Nijman, V. & Geissman, T., 2008	In a study on this species in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, O?Brien <em>et al.</em> (2004) calculated an average group density of one group for every 2.23 km<sup>2</sup>, with an average group size of 3.9, and a population estimate of 22,390 individuals. Healthy populations persist at the southern limit of its range in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, and these populations should survive over the long-term if the park maintains its present forest area, and if illegal hunting and habitat degradation are stopped (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). While some populations of this species appear secure today, its future is uncertain and will depend on vastly improved conservation efforts, especially in Sumatra?s remaining parks and protected areas (O?Brien <em>et al</em>. 2004). Population densities for this species range from 2.4 to 24.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
39779	threats	Nijman, V. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species is threatened by forest conversion and opportunistic collection for pet trade on Sumatra, where both of these threats extend to populations in national parks and protection forests (O?Brien <em>et al.</em> 2004). Between 1995 and 2000, almost 40% of the habitat for this species on Sumatra was damaged or destroyed by logging, road development (barrier and hunting) and conversion to agriculture or plantations (O?Brien unpubl. data). Legal logging seems to be accelerating in Sumatra (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2006). Forests, where they remain, are extremely fragmented. Coffee plantations present an increasing threat (O?Brien and Kinnaird 2003). The siamang is one of the most heavily traded gibbon species for illegal pet trade (V. Nijman pers. comm.).	eng
39780	conservation	Singleton, I., Wich, S.A. & Griffiths, M., 2008	Pongo abelii is listed on Appendix I of CITES and is strictly protected under Indonesian domestic legislation (UU No 5/1990). Protection of large areas of primary forest below 1,000 m asl is needed to secure their long term future.<br/><br/>A major stronghold is the Leuser Ecosystem conservation area: 2.6 million ha supporting circa 75% of remaining Sumatran orangutans. The Leuser Ecosystem was inaugurated by Presidential Decree in 1998 and its conservation is called for in the Act of Parliament No 11/2006 concerning Governance in Aceh. Management of the Ecosystem does not exclude non-forest uses, but stresses the importance of sustainable management with conservation of natural resources as the primary goal. Within the Leuser Ecosystem is the designated 900,000 ha Gunung Leuser National Park, but this mountainous area supports only 25% of the orangutans. The Gunung Leuser National Park is also a Man and Biosphere reserve and part of the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra World Heritage Cluster Site. Outside of the Leuser Ecosystem there are no other notable large conservation areas harbouring this species.<br/><br/>In the wake of the December 2004 tsunami, efforts are also underway to establish a second ?Ulu Masen? ecosystem along similar lines to Leuser, incorporating the North East and North West Aceh populations. However, this process is in its early stages and there are already threats to open at least four large logging concessions in this area.	eng
39780	distribution	Singleton, I., Wich, S.A. & Griffiths, M., 2008	<em>Pongo abelii</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is generally restricted to the north of the island, north of the Batang Toru river on the west coast of North Sumatra province (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2003). It was once far more widespread and populations occurred as far south as Jambi and Padang up until at least the mid 1800s (see Rijksen 1978). There were reports of its existence in some parts of West Sumatra province as recently as the 1960s. However, surveys by Wich <em>et al</em>. (2003) found no evidence of their continuing survival south of the Batang Toru river.<br/><br/>The majority of wild Sumatran orangutans survive in the province of Aceh (more formally known as Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, or NAD), at the northernmost tip of the island. There are populations within North Sumatra province, but the largest of these also straddles the border with Aceh. Only two potentially viable populations lie entirely within North Sumatra province: West Batang Toru and East Sarulla, both near, but south-west of lake Toba (for precise locations see Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Within Aceh, almost all remaining forest patches of any size still harbour orangutans at the lower altitudes, but there are few, if any reproducing populations in the large tracts of forest above 1,000 m asl.	eng
39780	habitat	Singleton, I., Wich, S.A. & Griffiths, M., 2008	The Sumatran orangutan is almost exclusively arboreal. Females virtually never travel on the ground and adult males do so only rarely. This is in contrast to Bornean orangutans (especially adult males) which more often descend to the ground. While both species depend on high-quality primary forests, Bornean orangutans appear better able to tolerate habitat disturbance. In Sumatra densities plummet by up to 60% with even selective logging (see Rao and van Schaik 1997).<br/><br/>Sumatran orangutans are primarily frugivores, but also eat leaves, insects (termites and ants) and on occasion, the meat of slow loris (Fox <em>et al</em>. 2004, Wich <em>et al</em>. 2006). Female home ranges are 800 to 1,500 ha. The true extent of male home range size is not fully known, although ranges in excess of 3,000 ha are inferred (Singleton and van Schaik 2001).<br/><br/>Females first give birth at about 15 years of age (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004). Interbirth intervals are 8.2 to 9.3 years (compared with 6.1 to 7.7 years for <em>P. pygmaeus</em>; Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004, van Noordwijk and van Schaik 2005) and gestation lasts approximately 254 days (Kingsley 1981). Males exhibit bimaturism, whereby fully flanged adult males and the smaller unflanged males are both capable of reproducing, but employ differing mating strategies to do so (see Utami Atmoko <em>et al</em>. 2002). Longevity in the wild has been estimated at 58 years for males and 53 years for females (Wich <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
39780	population	Singleton, I., Wich, S.A. & Griffiths, M., 2008	The most recent estimate for <em>Pongo abelii</em> is around 7,300 (Singleton <em>et al</em>. 2004), occupying forests that cover 20,552 km², but of which only those regions below 1,000 m asl (circa 8,992 km²) harbour permanent orangutan populations. Each population listed in Table 1 is considered to comprise a single contiguous population, but increasing fragmentation may result in further subdivisions in the near future. All except Seulawah have been adopted by the UNEP/UNESCO GRASP (Great Ape Survival Programme: see Caldecott and Miles 2005) initiative as priority populations for conservation. A few small fragments of forest outside of those listed may still contain small numbers of orangutans but none are considered viable in the long term. (See supporting documentation).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for Table 1: <em>Pongo abelii</em> populations.<br/><br/>In addition to the above, original wild populations, a new population is being established in the Bukit Tigapuluh National Park (Jambi and Riau Provinces) via the re-introduction of confiscated illegal pets. This population currently numbers around 70 individuals and is reproducing.	eng
39780	threats	Singleton, I., Wich, S.A. & Griffiths, M., 2008	This species is seriously threatened by logging (both legal and illegal), wholesale conversion of forest to agricultural land and oil palm plantations, and fragmentation by roads. Animals are also illegally hunted and captured for the international pet trade but this appears to be more a symptom of habitat conversion, as orangutans are killed as pests when they raid fruit crops at the forest edge.<br/><br/>A new threat is the Ladia Galaska road network in Aceh province, which if legitimized by the government will rapidly fragment most of the populations listed above. Another major concern is the re-issuing of logging permits for large tracts of forest in Aceh.<br/><br/>An assessment of forest loss in the 1990s concluded that forests supporting at least 1,000 orangutans were lost each year within the Leuser Ecosystem alone (van Schaik <em>et al</em>. 2001). These loss rates subsequently dropped dramatically during major civil conflict in the province, and the imposition of a moratorium on logging in Aceh. A peace deal negotiated in 2005 led to political stability and many new applications to open up logging concessions and palm oil estates in orangutan habitat.<br/><br/>In parts of North Sumatra orangutans are also still hunted on occasions for food.	eng
39781	conservation	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39781	distribution	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39781	habitat	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39781	population	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39781	threats	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39782	conservation	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39782	distribution	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39782	habitat	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39782	population	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39782	threats	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
39792	conservation	Boonratana, R., Das, J., Yongcheng, L., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J, 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. It is listed as Schedule III in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, Category I under the Chinese Wildlife Protection Act (1989), and as Schedule II under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003) amended up to 2002. <br/><br/>Northern pig-tailed macaques are known to occur in numerous protected areas, including Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Lawachara National Park, Rema-Kelanga Wildlife Sanctuary (Bangladesh); Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Nanguanhe Nature Reserve, Wuliangshan Nature Reserve, Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve (China); Balpakhram National Park, Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, Fakim Wildlife Sanctuary, Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary, Intanki National Park, Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary, Lengteng Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park, Namdapha National Park, Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, Padumoni-Bherjan-Borajan Wildlife Sanctuary, Phawngpui Blue Mountain National Park, Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary, Siju WS, Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary (India); Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary (Myanmar); Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand); Cat Tien National Park, Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam). May possibly occur in Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR) (M. Richardson pers. comm.; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
39792	distribution	Boonratana, R., Das, J., Yongcheng, L., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J, 2008	This species occurs in eastern Bangladesh, Cambodia, southern China (southwestern Yunnan), northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura), Lao PDR, Myanmar (including the Mergui Archipelago), Thailand (from about 8°N and including adjacent islands), and central and southern Viet Nam. There might be a gap in the distribution in central and northeastern Myanmar between about 20 and 25°N, where it has not been recorded except on the coast at Arakan. In India found north to the Brahmaputra River (Groves 2001).<br/>Records from Xizang (China) are probably misidentified rhesus macaques (MacKinnon in press).  It has recently been recorded from Namdapha National Park in northeastern India (Chetry <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>The precise taxonomic boundary between <em>M. leonina</em> and <em>M. nemestrina</em> is not well defined. There are populations of the two taxa found on either side of the distribution limits in the Isthmus of Kra, but many of these populations are the result of release by humans. The two species hybridize in a small area of southern peninsular Thailand, as well as on the islands of Phuket and Yao Yai (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/>In Viet Nam, there are historical records from as far north as Nghe An province, but there is uncertainty as to whether the species was ever found north of this province. It is widely distributed throughout the lower elevations (below 500 m) of Lao PDR and Cambodia (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is found over much Myanmar except in areas of human settlements.	eng
39792	habitat	Boonratana, R., Das, J., Yongcheng, L., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J, 2008	This is a predominantly terrestrial animal, although it readily climbs and forages in the canopy. It is diurnal and frugivorous. It occupies tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, tropical wet evergreen forest, tropical moist deciduous forest, coastal forest, swamp forest, low elevation pine forests (in Lao PDR and China) and montane forest, including degraded forests. In China the species occupies elevations between 50-2,000 m (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; Choudhury 2003). In Lao PDR and Viet Nam the species is associated with lowlands, usually below 500 m. Its generation time is 10-12 years (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). According to secondary information and recent records, populations in Myanmar live between 190-400 m (S. Htun pers. comm.).	eng
39792	population	Boonratana, R., Das, J., Yongcheng, L., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J, 2008	In China, the species’ population is estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2002). No information is available on the status of the population, but is thought to be declining rapidly. A very small population occurs in Bangladesh, which is isolated from the neighboring Indian locations. This habitat is degrading rapidly, thereby causing a continuing decline in mature individuals in the country (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). A group density of 0.07 individuals/km² was recorded in Namdapha National Park, India, by Chetry <em>et al</em>. (2003). There is no precise information available on population numbers in Myanmar or India, but populations are declining rapidly in India, and declining steadily in Myanmar. The animals are very patchily distributed in Myanmar. <br/> <br/>The species is widely distributed and common in large forest blocks remaining in south and central Lao PDR, but the species is much scarcer in northern Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R. Timmins pers. comm.). It is widely distributed through the remaining forest areas of Cambodia. Populations are stable in Thailand. <br/>Declines are due to different threats in different countries. There have been declines of more than 30% in the last 30-35 years in India, Bangladesh, China, Viet Nam and Myanmar. There are perceptible declines in Lao PDR and Cambodia, but the rates are close to or lower than 30%. In most of the countries, the species is predicted to decline at a rate higher than 30% over the next three generations.	eng
39792	threats	Boonratana, R., Das, J., Yongcheng, L., Htun, S. & Timmins, R.J, 2008	Habitat disturbances that affect this species' survival include: selective logging; timber and firewood collection for making charcoal; building roads, dams, power lines; and deliberately setting fires. These threats lead to forest fragmentation and soil loss/erosion. Specifically, a decrease in habitat quality has been due to the loss of fruiting trees and sleeping sites through monocultures and plantations, selective felling, and a subsequent increase in the canopy gaps. These animals are hunted and traded for food, sport and traditional “medicine”, and accidental mortality due to trapping occurs. There is a local trade for bones, meat for food and the live animals as pets (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Habitat loss and poaching are the major threats in India and Bangladesh. There has been a reduction in forest in Assam by over 10% in two years between 2001 and 2003 (Forest Survey of India 2003).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia, hunting for food and trade is the primary threat, but as a predominantly lowland species habitat loss likely is also a major threat to the species.  In Thailand, the males of this species are exploited for picking coconuts by the industry.  Sometimes, a well-trained macaque is sold for 1,000USD. They are also in demand by resorts for show (R. Boonratana pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, hunting, trade, habitat loss in varying degrees, shifting cultivation in the north, logging in the east and south, and rubber plantations are the major threats (S. Htun pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In China, hunting, habitat loss and disturbance are major threats. There is a perceptible change in habitat quality that has an impact on the species (Huang <em>et al.</em> pers. comm.).	eng
39794	conservation	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The species does not occur in any protected areas. Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: protection of areas in the Pagai Islands by cooperating with a logging corporation that has practiced sustainable logging technique there since 1971; conservation education, especially regarding hunting; and the development of alternative economic models for the local people, to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39794	distribution	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species occurs exclusively on the southern Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Pagai Selatan, Pagai Utara, and Sipora) (Roos <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39794	habitat	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in both primary and disturbed areas (Whitten and Whitten 1982; Fuentes 1996/1997), preferring primary riverine coastal swamp forest (Wilson and Wilson 1976). It is primarily frugivorous (Whitten and Whitten 1982).	eng
39794	population	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	All populations of this species are urgently in need of protective measures (Whittaker 2006). The most recent estimates of density for it suggest 7-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in suitable habitat in the Pagai Islands (Paciulli 2004), giving a total of about 2,100 to 3,700 individuals (down from 15,000 in 1980) (Whittaker 2006). This species lives at much higher densities in logged forest than in unlogged forest, and their highest density is in forest logged 20 years ago (Whittaker 2006).	eng
39794	threats	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as by conversion to oil palm plantations and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Only 10-15% of the original forest cover remains on Sipora (Fuentes 1996/1997). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (anything larger is illegal in Indonesia) (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat to this species (Whittaker 2006). Though this species is not a preferred food item, it is still hunted and poisoned as it is considered a crop pest (Whittaker 2006). While habitat disturbance appears to positively affect population densities, it is found in lower densities near human settlements (Whittaker 2006).	eng
39795	conservation	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but its legal protection in Indonesia is questionable as it is a new species. It occurs in one protected area, Siberut National Park. There are no specimens in captivity.<br/><br/>Whittaker (2006) suggests the following conservation actions: increased protection for Siberut National Park, which currently lacks enforcement, formal protection of the Peleonan forest in North Siberut, which is home to unusually high primate populations and is easily accessible, conservation education, especially regarding hunting, and the development of alternative economic models for the local people to reduce the likelihood of selling off their lands to logging companies.	eng
39795	distribution	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is endemic to Siberut, one of the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra (Roos <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39795	habitat	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	It is found in both primary and disturbed areas (Whitten and Whitten 1982; Fuentes 1996/1997), preferring primary riverine coastal swamp forest (Wilson and Wilson 1976). It is primarily frugivorous (Whitten and Whitten 1982).	eng
39795	population	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The total population is estimated to be between 17,000 and 30,000, down from 39,000 in 1980 (Whittaker 2006). They have higher densities in logged than unlogged forest, and reach their highest densities in forest logged 20 years ago (Paciulli 2004).	eng
39795	threats	Whittaker, D. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is threatened mainly by hunting and commercial logging (Whittaker 2006), as well as by conversion to oil palm plantations, and forest clearing and product extraction by local people (Whittaker 2006). Recently, hunting pressure has increased because of improved access to remote areas due to logging roads and tracks, as well as the replacement of bows and arrows with .177 caliber air rifles (anything larger is illegal in Indonesia) (Whittaker 2006). Also, local rituals and taboos that formerly regulated hunting have been replaced by Christianity (Whittaker 2006). The pet trade is also a threat (Whittaker 2006). Though this species is not a preferred food item, it is still hunted and poisoned as it is considered a crop pest (Whittaker 2006). While habitat disturbance appears to positively affect population densities, it is found in lower densities near human settlements (Whittaker 2006).	eng
39803	conservation	Nijman, V., Hon, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. The majority of the remaining populations are found in national parks. The species is protected in Sarawak. Further research and surveys are necessary to confirm the persistence and population size of the five remaining sites, which include Maludam National Park, Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Similajau National Park, and Tanjung Datu National Park in Malaysia, and possibly Betung Kerihun National Park in Indonesia. It is present as well in the Lingga area of Sarawak, which has recently been proposed as a protected area.	eng
39803	distribution	Nijman, V., Hon, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo, it occurs in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). It is found north and northeast of the Kapuas River in northwestern Kalimantan, and through Sarawak (mainly in coastal areas) and Brunei as far as Melalap, Sabah (Groves 2001). The species is found only in remaining habitat within its extent of occurrence; much of its mapped range is historical. There is some confusion about where this species still remains, as many of the records are also historical.<br/><br/><em>P. c. chrysomelas</em>: <br/>Occurs in western Brunei, northwestern Kalimantan (northeast of the Kapuas River) and western Sarawak, as far as the IV Division of Sarawak (Groves 2001).  <br/><br/><em>P. c. cruciger:</em><br/>Ranges from the Baram District (in northeastern Sarawak) to Sabah (Groves 2001).	eng
39803	habitat	Nijman, V., Hon, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is found in swamp and lowland forests, as well as mangrove. Group size is 3-7 individuals (J. Hon pers. comm.).	eng
39803	population	Nijman, V., Hon, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species was reported as common in the early 20th century (Baccari 1904; Banks 1931), in areas where today it no longer occurs. Recent records are from five sites: Maludam National Park (Malaysia); Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary (Malaysia); Similajau National Park (Malaysia); Tanjung Datu National Park (Malaysia); the Lingga area of Sarawak (Malaysia); and possibly Betung Kerihun National Park (Indonesia) (J. Hon pers. comm.). Combined population estimates from these sites are very low (approximately 200-500 individuals) (J. Hon and V. Nijman pers. comm.).	eng
39803	threats	Nijman, V., Hon, J. & Richardson, M., 2008	Habitat conversion has historically been the main threat to this species, resulting in its disappearance from most of its former range. It has in particular been affected by expanding plantations, especially oil palm, in recent years.	eng
39826	conservation	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Timmins, R.J. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, as well as under Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. Both Viet Nam and Lao PDR have legislation regarding the hunting of this species, but this is not enforced (Lippold 1989; Timmins and Duckworth 1999).<br/><br/><em>P. nemaeus</em> has been recorded from a number of protected areas throughout its range, including Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phou Xang He National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Bang Nouan National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR); Bach Ma National Park, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Pu Mat National Park (Viet Nam). The species also occurs in Viet Nam in the proposed Khe Net Nature Reserve (M. Richardson pers. comm.) and Son Tra Nature Reserve (Lippold and Thanh 2008).<br/><br/>There is an ongoing captive-breeding program at the Endangered Primate Rescue Centre at Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
39826	distribution	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Timmins, R.J. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Lao PDR and northern and central Viet Nam and has recently been recorded in northern Cambodia. In Viet Nam, the southern limit is Kon Tum province and the northerly limit is Nghe An Province. This species is the only one of its genus found for certain in Lao PDR (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2004), ranging from Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Bolkhamsay in the north south to the Xe Kong River in Attapeu Province. Doucs occur south of the Xe Kong, but pelage characteristics are ambiguous making identification problematic (Timmins and Duckworth 1999). The species was recently confirmed for northern Cambodia in Voensei district, Ratanakiri through genetic analysis, however, the extent of the species distribution in Cambodia is still to be determined. It should, however, be noted that these individuals show the same pelage characteristics as those described from southernmost Lao PDR (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; B. Rawson pers. comm.).	eng
39826	habitat	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Timmins, R.J. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	This species occurs in undisturbed primary and secondary evergreen and semi-evergreen broadleaf forests (Lippold 1989); it is also associated with forests on limestone (karst). It is diurnal and arboreal (Timmins and Duckworth 1999), although the animals are sometimes seen on the ground. In Lao PDR, the species was recorded at up to 1,600 m in elevation (Timmins and Duckworth 1999).<br/><br/>They are mainly folivorous (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003), with an estimated 75% of their diet consisting of small tender leaves (Lippold 1989). They will also eat buds, fruit, seeds, and flowers (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Behavioral characteristics of this species make it easy to hunt (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Recent fieldwork has substantiated that groups vary in size, and that this variation may be related to environmental and human disturbance, especially hunting (Lippold 1989), although this may also be attributable to a fission-fusion social structure.	eng
39826	population	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Timmins, R.J. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	The population in Lao PDR is likely to be large, and is much more stable than that in Viet Nam, where after several decades of intense human pressure, populations have undergone significant declines. However, a recent survey conducted in the Son Tra Nature Reserve, revealed twelve groups of red-shanked douc langurs with at least 171 individuals at high densities (Lippold and Thanh 2008). In Lao PDR, the largest population occurs in the Nam Theun basin and surroundings, and encompasses several protected areas, representing the most important global population of the species (Timmins and Duckworth 1999).	eng
39826	threats	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Timmins, R.J. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	Hunting is currently the major threat to this species, most often for subsistence use and traditional “medicine”, as well as sometimes for the international pet trade, especially from Lao PDR to Viet Nam and Thailand (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2004). Destruction of its natural habitat is also a threat to this species; a large portion in the central part of Viet Nam has suffered from post-war human demographic explosion and extensive logging for coffee, rubber, and cashew plantations (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2004), as well as wood collecting. The translocation of some 3 million people from the north of Viet Nam to the central highlands is likely to exacerbate rates of habitat loss through the Viet Namese range of the species. In Lao PDR and Viet Nam, general infrastructure development, and specifically the construction of the Ho Chi Minh Highway, poses a major threat to the habitat of this species.	eng
39827	conservation	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Nadler, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I, and listed on Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam. The species occurs in several protected areas in Viet Nam, especially Song Thanh, Ngoc Linh, Kon Kai Kinh, and Kon Cha Rang; however, protection against hunting and habitat disturbance is not completely enforced (Ha Thanh Long 2004). A long-term study in Gia Lai Province included in the ?Viet Nam Primate Conservation Program? of the Frankfurt Zoological Society is currently in place (Ha Thanh Long 2004), and additional surveys in the distribution area are also included in the program, which may perhaps identify new populations. There is an ongoing captive-breeding program for this species at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center at Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam, which also incorporates an education component.	eng
39827	distribution	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Nadler, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in central Viet Nam, in Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Kon Tum, and Gia Lai provinces (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003; Ha Thang Long 2004).	eng
39827	habitat	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Nadler, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen primary and highly degraded forest. Like the other doucs, <em>Pygathrix cinerea</em> is largely arboreal and mainly folivorous, though plant buds, fruit, seeds, and flowers are also taken (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39827	population	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Nadler, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The total population for this species is estimated at 550 to 700 individuals, but some areas with assumed occurrence are not yet surveyed (Ha Thang Long 2004).	eng
39827	threats	Ngoc Thanh, V., Lippold, L., Nadler, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Viet Namese Central Highland forests where these animals occur lose almost 10,000 ha of forest annually due to logging and agricultural conversion. This creates a progressively more fragmented habitat and population structure. Additionally, they are hunted for food, traditional "medicine" (for example it is used in the preparation of "monkey balm"), and for sale as pets (Ha Thanh Long 2004). Their behavioural responses to hunting, hiding motionless in the canopy rather than fleeing, make them more vulnerable (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003); they also become susceptible to snaring when they come to the ground to move in degraded habitats.	eng
39828	conservation	Rawson, B., Lippold, L., Timmins, R., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix I, as well as under Appendix 1B of Decree 32 (2006) in Viet Nam and is protected under The Law on Forestry NS/RKM/0802/016, article 49, identified as <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em> in Prakas 020 PR.MAFF in Cambodia.<br/><br/>It is known to occur in several protected areas: Mondulkiri Protection Forest, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary (Cambodia); Bu Gia Map National Park, Cat Tien National Park, Kon Kai Kinh National Park, Kong Cha Rang Nature Reserve, Mom Ray Nature Reserve, Nui Chua National Park (Viet Nam) (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 2007; BirdLife unpubl. data; Timmins and Ou Rattanak 2001; Walston <em>et al</em>. 2001; Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). A recommended action for the conservation of this species in Viet Nam is the expansion Bu Gia Map National Park to include all unprotected contiguous forests, particularly since this is adjacent to a protected area network containing the largest population of black-shanked doucs in neighboring Cambodia. Additional survey work is also required to identify key populations.	eng
39828	distribution	Rawson, B., Lippold, L., Timmins, R., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	The species is found in north-eastern Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. Although once thought to be rare with a limited distribution, recent fieldwork has demonstrated that populations of this species are quite widespread (Lippold 1995). In Cambodia, they are found only east of the Mekong with an unknown northerly extent, although it provisionally occurs sympatrically with <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em> in Voensei district, Ratanakiri (B. Rawson pers. comm.). The diversity and species identities of populations found in northernmost Cambodia, specifically Virachey National Park, is unknown. The presence of this species in Lao PDR has never been confirmed (Nadler<em>et al</em>. 2003). In southern Viet Nam, this species has a fragmented distribution extending from Sa Tay district (Kon Tum Province) in the north to just south of Cat Tien National Park in the south.	eng
39828	habitat	Rawson, B., Lippold, L., Timmins, R., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	These animals are predominantly arboreal but may occasionally come to the ground. They are found in evergreen, semi-evergreen and semi-evergreen-mixed deciduous forest mosaics, as well as in coastal dry forest. It seems that species of this genus can adapt to relatively heavily disturbed forest (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Diet is apparently variable by site, being mainly composed of leaves with differing levels of supplementation with seeds, fruits and flowers (Hoang Minh Duc and Baxter 2006; Rawson 2006). Behavioral characteristics of this species make it easy to hunt (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39828	population	Rawson, B., Lippold, L., Timmins, R., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	The largest known population exists in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri province, Cambodia, where distance estimates provide a population estimate of approximately 42,000 individuals (95% confidence interval of 27,309 – 66,460) (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 2007). The densities found in Seima are probably close to carrying capacity for the species in such habitat. The largest population in Viet Nam may be in Nui Chua National Park (Ninh Thuan Province), which is estimated at 500-700 individuals (Hoang Minh Duc and Ly Ngoc Sam 2005). The only other known population estimate comes from the Nam Cat Tien sector of Cat Tien NP (Dong Nai, Binh Phuoc and Lam Dong Provinces) and is estimated at 109 individuals (Phan Duy Thuc <em>et al.</em> 2005). In southern Viet Nam, this species survives in a large number of small, isolated forest fragments, in comparison with the situation with the red-shanked doucs in the north, where the species is not able to persist in small forest fragments.	eng
39828	threats	Rawson, B., Lippold, L., Timmins, R., Ngoc Thanh, V. & Manh Ha, N., 2008	Hunting is currently the major threat to this species (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is most often hunted for traditional “medicine”, mainly from people coming from the north of Viet Nam where hunting of doucs for this purpose is more common; in the southern part of Viet Nam, hunting is primarily for the pet trade.<br/><br/>Destruction of its natural habitat is also a threat to this species; a large portion in the centre and south of Viet Nam suffered from massive wartime damage, and the post-war human demographic explosion and extensive logging for coffee, rubber, and cashew plantations have reduced its natural habitat. Most forest at lowland elevations has been cleared and little forest remains undisturbed (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). The translocation of some 3 million people from the north of Viet Nam to the central highlands is likely to exacerbate rates of habitat loss through the Viet Namese range of the species.	eng
39832	conservation	Mitra, S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is on Schedule II, Part I, Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002, and Bangladesh: Schedule III, Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species occurs in at least 7 protected areas: Achanakmar Sanctuary, Bhitarkanika National Park, Chandaka-Dampara Sanctuary, Gomarda Sanctuary, Palamau Sanctuary, Valmiki National Park and Valmiki Sanctuary. Its status in captivity is difficult to determine, owing to taxonomic confusion with related forms.<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) recommended research on taxonomy, human-animal conflicts, and more surveys, as well as habitat management, wild population management, public education, monitoring, and limiting factor management.	eng
39832	distribution	Mitra, S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in western Bangladesh and eastern India (in Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, and West Bengal). The Bangladesh population is very likely to have originated from a single pair introduced by Hindu pilgrims on the bank of the River Jalangi (Delhi Gazette 2 March 1867; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; Brandon-Jones 2004)	eng
39832	habitat	Mitra, S. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is mainly terrestrial, folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is found in a wide variety of habitats, including close to human habitations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003) at elevations up to 400 m (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
39832	population	Mitra, S. & Molur, S., 2008	The total population of this species is unknown. Most of the populations occupy human-dominated landscapes, with very few actually occurring in forested areas. Conflict with humans are a major cause of concern and predicted declines are based on this.	eng
39832	threats	Mitra, S. & Molur, S., 2008	Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) lists the following threats for this species: intensive agriculture, habitat loss, man-animal conflict, and fires. Hunting for food by newly settled human populations in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa is very rampant and many populations are affected locally.	eng
39833	conservation	Groves, C.P. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II Part I, of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its occurrence in protected areas is difficult to determine owing to taxonomic uncertainty. The following areas are in need of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, limiting factor research, behavioral ecology. The following management actions for the conservation of this species are needed: wild population management, monitoring, public education, and limiting factor management (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
39833	distribution	Groves, C.P. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is reported as occurring in northwestern India in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (Groves 2001). It is claimed by Brandon-Jones (2004) that this species occurs in Melemchi, Nepal. Concrete evidence indicates its occurrence only in Chamba Valley in Himachal Pradesh (C. Groves pers. comm.). The species range is very restricted (<5,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and therefore also its area of occupancy (<500 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
39833	habitat	Groves, C.P. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in pine, moist temperate and alpine cedar forest from 2,200 to 4,000 m. It is folivorous, diurnal, and mainly terrestrial (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39833	population	Groves, C.P. & Molur, S., 2008	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated a total population of this species of less than 500 individuals (250 mature). The valley where it lives is surrounded by snow peaks and therefore it has remained isolated from other langurs, and the population is very small (M. Singh and C. Groves pers. comm.). Decline in the past is not known but it is predicted to decline by less than 10% in the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39833	threats	Groves, C.P. & Molur, S., 2008	Molur <em>et al. </em>(2003) list the following past threats: overgrazing, building roads through forests, logging, deforestation, agriculture, and fire. Present and future threats include agriculture and development (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39835	conservation	Groves, C.P. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II, Part II, Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed in the taxonomy of this species.	eng
39835	distribution	Groves, C.P. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern and west-central India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharshtra, Goa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). It is found from the Godavari east to Diguvamatta and south through the foothills of the Nilgiri and other hill systems to Shernelly, but not including the enclave where <em>S. hypoleucos</em> is found (Groves 2001). The distribution of this species is very wide, with large subpopulations.	eng
39835	habitat	Groves, C.P. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species ranges from 100-1,700 m in tropical rainforest, dry deciduous forest, sacred groves, moist deciduous forest, gardens, riparian forest, and open scrub, and is commensal in many places (Molur, <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is well adapted to cultivated areas, and provisioning (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, primarily folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Group size varies from 15 to 150 (A. Chhangani and M. Singh pers. comm.).	eng
39835	population	Groves, C.P. & Chhangani, A., 2008	Total population size is unknown, but likely runs into several hundred thousands. Current decline is not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). There seems to be a high fluctuation in the population in Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).	eng
39835	threats	Groves, C.P. & Chhangani, A., 2008	No major threats are identified for this species. In some areas there are serious local threats such as road kills, predation and domestic animal diseases, like mange, in commensal areas. Some areas in the Aravalis are under threat from mining (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).	eng
39837	conservation	Molur, S. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and the Nepal National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) lists it as a common animal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Occurrence in protected areas and in captivity are difficult to determine owing to taxonomic uncertainty (M. Richardson pers. comm.), though it is known to occur in Rajaji National Park and Valmiki Sanctuary (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following areas in need of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, and limiting factor research. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, wild population management, monitoring, and public education.	eng
39837	distribution	Molur, S. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species occurs in Bhutan, northern India (Uttaranachal, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal), and Nepal. It is found in the Himalayan foothills from Rajaji National Park (Uttaranchal) in the west to near Pankhabari (southwestern Bhutan) in the east, and throughout in between (Brandon-Jones 2004).	eng
39837	habitat	Molur, S. & Chhangani, A., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats, such as moist deciduous forest of the Siwaliks, to oak forest in higher altitudes (A. Kumar pers. comm.). It ranges from 150 m to 1,600 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al. </em>2003). It is arboreal, mainly terrestrial, diurnal, folivorous, and occurs in multi-male multi-female groups (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been observed feeding in orchards and crop fields outside of Rajaji National Park (A. Chhangani pers. comm.).	eng
39837	population	Molur, S. & Chhangani, A., 2008	The population numbers are not known. It has avery patchy distribution due to human settlements and habitat loss. A continuing decline has been observed in extent, area and quality of habitat, and inferred in locations and mature individuals.	eng
39837	threats	Molur, S. & Chhangani, A., 2008	Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following threats: mining, firewood and charcoal collection and production, timber collection, and land distribution (resettlement) for landless people. Loss of habitat, urbanization, and electrocution by power lines are other threats identified for this species.	eng
39838	conservation	Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and Schedule II, Part II, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Karnataka it occurs in the Bhadra Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Kudremukh National Park, Nagarahole National Park, Pushpagiri Sanctuary, Sharavathi Valley Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), and in Kerala in the Aralam Sanctuary and Wayanad Sanctuary.<br/><br/>Molur<em>et al.</em> (2003) list the following areas in need of research: taxonomy (on captive animals also), life history, survey, ecology and behavior. The following management actions are needed: habitat management, monitoring, and Population and Habitat Viability Assessment.	eng
39838	distribution	Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in south-western India (Goa, Karnataka and Kerala), centred on the Western Ghats. It is found from Molem in Goa in the north to the periphery of Silent Valley in the south. The total range covers over 35,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with the species occurring both in and outside of protected areas.	eng
39838	habitat	Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in tropical rainforest, moist deciduous forest, sacred groves, gardens, and riparian forest, from 100 to 1,200 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unusual among <em>Semnopithecus</em> species in that it is a specialized wet forest form (Groves pers. comm.). This species is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, primarily folivorous, and diurnal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
39838	population	Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	The total population size is unknown, and current decline is not known, yet it is predicted to decline by more than 10% in the next 10 years (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In some areas (south of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary), hunting is serious and the population is expected to decline (M. Singh pers. comm.). The species has been extirpated from the eastern slopes of the Brahmagiri Hills in Coorg (except in Nagarahole National Park) due to hunting pressures (S. Molur pers. comm.)	eng
39838	threats	Singh, M. & Molur, S., 2008	In the past, expanding timber plantations were threats; in the present and future, threats include agriculture, human settlement, fragmentation, habitat loss, mining, deforestation, hunting, deliberate fires, and local trade for live animals and meat for food and traditional medicine (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hunting is considered the most serious threat to the taxon.	eng
39840	conservation	Kumar, A., Yongzu, Z. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. The species is found in at least 10 protected areas in South Asia: Chail WLS, Changthang WLS, Dachigam NP, Hemis NP, Kanchanjunga NP and Karakoram WLS in India; Langtang NP, Makalu Barun NP and Everest Nature Reserve in Nepal; and Manshi WLS in Pakistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
39840	distribution	Kumar, A., Yongzu, Z. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in the monsoon forests of North Western Frontier province of Pakistan through the high Himalayan elevations (1,500-4,000 m) of India, Nepal and up to the Sankosh river in Bhutan. In China it is found in the Tibetan regions in Bo Qu, Ji Long Zang Bu and the Chumbi valleys.	eng
39840	habitat	Kumar, A., Yongzu, Z. & Molur, S., 2008	This species inhabits subtropical to temperate broadleaved forest, pine forest, riparian, montane forest, riverine forest, rocky outcrops, and scrub jungle (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). A. Kumar (pers. comm.) has observed this species at 3,500 m, but has reports of its occurrence above this elevation, may be up to 4,000 m. It is diurnal, terrestrial, arboreal, and folivorous.	eng
39840	population	Kumar, A., Yongzu, Z. & Molur, S., 2008	Global population numbers are unknown, although the species is generally common. It occurs at relatively low densities in Sikkim (India), where it occupies mixed pine forests (A. Kumar pers. comm.). There are four locations of occurrence in China with more than 1,000 individuals (Zhang Yongzu pers. comm.).	eng
39840	threats	Kumar, A., Yongzu, Z. & Molur, S., 2008	The taxon, although widely distributed across the Himalayas, is subject to various threats from human interference including logging, habitat loss, fires, human habitations, expansion, developmental activities, encroachment, and war, which makes it susceptible to declines in areas subject to such threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting is a threat in China (Zhang Yongzu pers. comm.); this species is used in traditional native “medicine” in Tibet.	eng
39853	conservation	Bleisch, B., Manh Ha, N., Khat Quyet, L. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Since the 1980s, in China, it has been listed as a Category I species under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1989.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam it occurs in several protected areas, including two national parks. At least two protected areas have been established specifically for this species: Sinh Long-Lung Nhoi Species and Habitat Conservation Area (Tuyen Quang Province) and Nam Xuan Lac Species and Habitat Conservation Area (Bac Kan Province).<br/><br/>In China it is found in 21 protected areas, three of which are national level (Lou <em>et al</em>. in litt.) Also, it is legally protected from hunting, though it faces additional threats there from unrestricted resource extraction and habitat disturbance (Hu <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is a successful captive-breeding program for this species now underway in China in Wushou (Nadler <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
39853	distribution	Bleisch, B., Manh Ha, N., Khat Quyet, L. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species occurs in southern China (Chongqing, Guangxi and Guizhou provinces and Chongqing Municipality in Sichuan province), and northeastern Viet Nam. It is found from the Song Hong (Red River) in Viet Nam across the Chinese border as far as the Daming Hills in Guangxi, and about 25°N 105°E in Guizhou (Groves 2001).	eng
39853	habitat	Bleisch, B., Manh Ha, N., Khat Quyet, L. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is found in semi-tropical monsoon and moist tropical and subtropical rainforests in limestone (karst) areas (Marsh 1987), though not in cone karsts. The animals utilize the cave formations and overhangs in these areas as shelter from weather, and for refuge. It ranges in elevation up to 1,500 m.  <br/><br/>Like other <em>Trachypithecus</em>, <em>T. francoisi</em> is mostly folivorous, with the remainder of its diet consisting of shoots, fruits, flowers, and bark. Males and females reach sexual maturity in five and four years, respectively. Litter size is usually one, and birth intervals for this species are recorded at about 20 months (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
39853	population	Bleisch, B., Manh Ha, N., Khat Quyet, L. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	This species is widespread, but populations are highly fragmented and isolated. There is no reliable population estimate for Viet Nam, but they are not likely to number more than 500 individuals there; no subpopulation contains more than 50 mature individuals (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). In China, in the southern part of the range (Guangxi Province), the largest population is estimated at 75 individuals in Nonggang Nature Reserve (Li <em>et al.</em> 2007). In the northern part of the range, the largest population is in Mayanghe Nature Reserve, where the population is estimated at roughly 700 individuals. The population estimate for 2003 in China was 1,400-1,650 individuals (Lou <em>et al</em>. in litt.).	eng
39853	threats	Bleisch, B., Manh Ha, N., Khat Quyet, L. & Yongcheng, L., 2008	In Viet Nam, the major threat to this species is hunting, although some populations face pressures from mining and other resource extraction in the karst hills (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting mainly takes place for traditional “medicines” and to a lesser degree for meat (feeding predominantly Chinese restaurant markets). The isolation of populations due to habitat fragmentation taking place for agricultural development (rice paddies, maize) also threatens the genetic viability of small populations in Viet Nam (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Guangxi province, China, the threat of hunting is extremely severe, due to the illegal production of “black ape wine,” which is made specifically from this species; the animals are even imported illegally from Viet Nam for this purpose. Throughout the range in China, populations are threatened by habitat loss due to local cultivation and firewood extraction (Li <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Unmanaged fires that spread into limestone karst habitats also result in the loss of habitat.	eng
39869	conservation	Htun, S., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. In Myanmar it is a protected species under the Wildlife Protection Law and occurs in at least two protected areas: Hukaung Tiger Reserve where taxonomic status is unresolved, Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary and Hkakaborazi National Park. In China it is a protected species and occurs in one protected area, Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.).	eng
39869	distribution	Htun, S., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern China (Dulongjiang Valley, northwestern Yunnan) and northeastern Myanmar. In Myanmar, south of the Hukaung valley, it is found only east of the Chindwin River, with allied <em>T. pileatus</em> to the west (Pocock 1939). The situation in the Chindwin headwaters (Hukawng valley) is unclear, because animals show morphological variation suggesting the possibility of intergradation with <em>T. pileatus</em> and/or undescribed variation within <em>T. shortridgei</em> (Duckworth and Tizard pers. comm.). Morphologically typical animals also occur east of the Hukaung (Pidaung) and north almost to Hkakaborazi (Pocock 1939). It also occurs along the Dulong River in Gongshan District, Yunnan (Groves 2001).	eng
39869	habitat	Htun, S., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species occurs primarily in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. It is largely arboreal, sometimes terrestrial, and folivorous. Records with known altitudes range from 200 to 2,500 m (Pocock 1939) but it is possible that the species does not have viable populations in the upper 600-1,200 m of this range: collecting expeditions very rarely encountered it in the highlands, compared with its evident abundance in the Chindwin lowlands. It does not occur in the lower Chindwin, below the change from largely evergreen forest to largely deciduous.	eng
39869	population	Htun, S., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	Numbers are not known, but are believed to be declining owing to loss of habitat and hunting. The total population must be small, given the species’ restricted geographical  range.	eng
39869	threats	Htun, S., Yongcheng, L. & Richardson, M., 2008	These animals are hunted for food and traditional “medicine,” sometimes as illegal exports to China. Habitat loss for agriculture and wood extraction is also a major threat. A large length of the Chindwin (where the species was discovered) and its adjacent plains are scheduled to be inundated by the Tazone hydro-electric power dam. As well as direct loss of habitat through inundation this will result in massive increases in hunting as the construction labourers will be expected to live off the land, and the reservoir formed will greatly increase accessibility to a huge area of foothill forest; without specific, directed, management, hunters will no doubt take advantage of this. A very large area of suitable habitat falls within the proposed Hukaung Tiger Reserve, but it is unclear whether this area supports morphologically typical animals. If they do not occur in Hukaung, habitat loss is a sever threat to the species, because most other protected areas in the Myanmar part of its range are highland, and habitat below 900 m is heavily degraded and fragmented, and such processes are ongoing.	eng
39874	conservation	Nadler, T., Timmins, R.J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from Phu Quoc National Park (Viet Nam), and probably still occurs in Cat Tien National Park (Viet Nam), and it occurs in several protected areas in Thailand. Further survey and taxonomic work is needed to elucidate and better understand the population status and limits of distribution of this species, and especially to resolve the status of the form <em>margarita</em> relative to <em>germaini</em>.	eng
39874	distribution	Nadler, T., Timmins, R.J. & Richardson, M., 2008	The precise limits of distribution of this species are unclear. It is reliably recorded from Cambodia, Viet Nam, and from southern Lao PDR, where Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported them as far north as about 15.4°N. To the west of this, they extend to Kanchamburi Province in southern Thailand right to the Bay of Bengal in Myanmar, as Groves (2001) notes intersecting between the distributions of <em>T. obscurus</em> and <em>T. phayrei</em>. Records from Assam and elsewhere in north-east India, which have been attributed to this species, presumably relate to another species and indeed it is not mentioned as part of the range of this species by Groves (2005).	eng
39874	habitat	Nadler, T., Timmins, R.J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This is primarily a lowland species, with a preference for evergreen and semi-evergreen, mixed deciduous, riverine and gallery forest. Records in hilly areas or at higher elevations are few.	eng
39874	population	Nadler, T., Timmins, R.J. & Richardson, M., 2008	This is a widespread but very rare species throughout most of its range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). The apparently extremely low density of this species in Viet Nam suggests that the population has been seriously reduced due to human pressure (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are only a few sightings documented in that country over the last 50 years, though this may be a result of limited surveys conducted in the species' range (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been recorded in Cat Tien National Park but its relative abundance is not as high as douc langurs (<em>Pygathrix</em> spp.). In Lao PDR, it is probably localized though possibly common in a small number of areas; however, no large continuous area is known to support high populations (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is widespread in Cambodia, and, in certain areas (such as the lowlands of northern Mondulkiri) it may be the most common primate; in other areas, it is surprisingly rare or uncommon (R. Timmins pers. comm.). In Thailand the taxon is moderately common in several protected areas, but has declined significantly (W. Brockelmann pers. comm.). In Kien Giang Province (confirmed <em>germaini</em>), five or six limestone hills have significant remaining populations. Overall, the impression is one of a significantly declining population.	eng
39874	threats	Nadler, T., Timmins, R.J. & Richardson, M., 2008	The major threats to this species are hunting, mainly for subsistence use and traditional “medicine”, the pet trade and habitat loss, mainly due to agricultural expansion.	eng
39876	conservation	Brockelman, W., Molur, S. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I and on schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Overall, it is found in 30 protected areas in India (Choudhury 2001) and many others throughout its range.	eng
39876	distribution	Brockelman, W., Molur, S. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is found in eastern Bangladesh, northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), and northwestern Myanmar (west of the Chindwin River). It might possibly occur in China (extreme southeastern Tibet). The distribution in India is restricted to points south of the Brahmaputra and east of the Dibang (Dingba Qu) Rivers (Choudhury 2001). Animals that once were common in the plains of Arunachal Pradesh (northeasternmost India) before that habitat was cultivated for agriculture and tea are not so anymore (Islam and Feeroz 1992). <br/><br/>The boundary between the two species of <em>Hoolock</em> is the Chindwin River, which flows into the Ayerawady (Irrawady) River. At the headwaters in the north there is a hybrid zone or cline between the two species (since they are almost certainly not reproductively isolated). Das <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported the discovery of a population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India, which has traditionally been considered to be part of the range of <em>H. hoolock</em>.	eng
39876	habitat	Brockelman, W., Molur, S. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is a forest-dweller that, depending on its locale, inhabits tropical evergreen rainforests, tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, tropical mixed deciduous forests, and subtropical broadleaf hill forests. It has also been noted in bamboo “brakes” and hollock (<em>Terminalia myriocarpa</em>) and ajhar (<em>Largerstroemia flosreginae</em>) plantations. One gibbon pair in the Borajan Reserved Forest (north-east India) was observed to habitually descend from the trees to move over scrub and short bamboo especially while trying to reach the isolated food trees inside a village. This pair was found sleeping at heights of 0 m or less in bamboo clumps (Kakati 1997). Although gibbons may be moving through, or sleeping in, bamboo forest or plantations, they cannot survive in monocultures (W. Brockleman pers. comm.). Additionally, the species has been observed in two plains forest locations (Choudhury 1991). Its preferred habitat, however, is dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (Choudhury 2001). It has been recorded at altitudes of up to 2,500 m in Manipur, northeast India (Choudhury 2001).<br/><br/>Home ranges in most populations range from 8-63 ha (Ahsan 2001; Alfred 1992; Alfred and Sati 1986, 1990; Feeroz and Islam 1992; Gittins and Tilson 1984; Islam and Feeroz 1992; Kakati 2004; Mukherjee 1986; Tilson 1979), but unusually large home ranges of 200-400 ha were reported from Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India (Mukherjee 1982; Mukherjee <em>et al</em>. 1988). The western hoolock is a frugivorous species, with ripe fruits composing a majority of its diet (Ahsan 2001; Alfred and Sati 1986, 1994; Feeroz and Islam 1992; Islam and Feeroz 1992; Kakati 1997; Tilson 1979). A dominantly folivorous diet was reported during studies carried out in Assam’s Borajan Reserved Forest, and in Tripura (Kakati 1997; Mukherjee 1986), and gibbons living in small forest fragments were observed to experience a period of almost total lack of fruit in their diet at the end of the dry season (Kakati, 2004). Low fruit availability may contribute to the relatively large home range sizes of some populations. In northeast India, the hoolock gibbon is recognized as being an important disperser of undigested seeds from large and small fruit-bearing trees (Das 2003).	eng
39876	population	Brockelman, W., Molur, S. & Geissmann, T., 2008	There are estimated to be about 200-280 hoolocks in Bangladesh (Islam <em>et al.</em> 2006; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, a population has been identified in Medog Nature Reserve in southeastern Tibet, just across the border from Arunachal Pradesh, but the identity of this taxon is not established and there has been no survey conducted to determine the population numbers (W. Bleisch pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species occurs in several of India’s northeastern states, but populations there tend to be isolated. It is common in certain areas of occurrence, but rare in others due to intense hunting by local tribes (Choudhury 1991), and is considered rare throughout its range (Choudhury 2001). The species was found in all forested patches in northeastern India about 30 years ago, but they are reduced to a few forest fragments now. The total population in northeastern India was estimated to be about 2,600, of which the majority—about 2,000—occurs in the state of Assam (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). A population of about 170 gibbons has more recently been identified as <em>H. leuconedys</em> (Das <em>et al</em>. 2006) and should be subtracted from the population estimate if this identity is proven. Moreover, there are surveys needed in Mehao region, where there is uncertainty as to which species the gibbons there represent (Das <em>et al.</em> 2006; Das pers. comm.). Namdapha National Park in the Changlang District of Arunachal Pradesh is a relative stronghold for this species in India, offering the population there its largest contiguous stretch of protected habitat (Chetry <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>There are no population estimates available for Myanmar. It is possible that the largest and most viable populations of western hoolock are to be found in this country, where at present almost no attention is paid to it (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). There are several thousand square kilometers of unsurveyed forest habitat in the central-west and north-west of this country, with a particular need to survey the western areas west of Chindwin/Ayerawady River. There are reports of gibbons in Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, but there is no knowledge of the actual population level there (W. Brockelman pers. comm. 2006). The western part of Hukuang Tiger Reserve with a large area of forest (>1,000 km<sup>2</sup>) has not been surveyed, but is likely to have this species. The northern limit is just south of Hkakaraborazi National Park.	eng
39876	threats	Brockelman, W., Molur, S. & Geissmann, T., 2008	In Bangladesh, the main threats are the combined effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, human interference and hunting (Islam and Feeroz 1992; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Hunting is universal all over Bangladesh as well as India, and may be in Myanmar also. In China, the Tibetan population could be under threat from hunting for food or non-targeted hunting, but this is not established.<br/><br/>In some Indian locales, these animals are rare due to large scale hunting for food and because some ethnic groups believe the gibbons have medicinal properties (Gupta 2005; J. Das pers. comm.). Additionally, jhoom cultivation threatens the habitats of Indian populations, some of which are relatively isolated already (Choudhury 1991). Affecting all northeastern Indian primate populations are harvesting of bamboo for paper mills, oil mining and exploration, and coal mining, which deplete habitat and cause pollution and disturbance (Choudhury 2001). Habitat fragmentation and loss are major threats in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Small and restricted groups may not be viable because of genetic and demographic instabilities and because they are more affected by hunting pressure and habitat loss. Many small forest fragments are reported to have only one or a few gibbon groups. These have limited chances of surviving more than a few generations without translocation.<br/><br/>In Myanmar, shifting cultivation is a major threat, and so is hunting. Although logging is restricted on the western side of the Chindwin, it is still considered a threat for this species. Political and ethnic conflicts have prevented the Myanmar government to promote development and conservation activities effectively in areas of northwestern and central western Myanmar along the borders with India and Bangladesh. Thus, most conservation efforts have been concentrated within the range of <em>H. leuconedys</em>.	eng
39877	conservation	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. In China there are two nature reserves with eastern hoolocks (Gaoligongshan and Tongbiguan National Nature Reserves). In Myanmar, the Mahamyaing Sanctuary was created in part as a gibbon refuge, and the species occurs as well in the Bumhpabum, Hponkan Razi and Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuaries, and in the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve (W. Brockelman unpub.). Unfortunately, there is no viable protected area in Myanmar between the northern Ayerawady and Salween Rivers, near the borders with Yunnan and Thailand. Gibbons in this zone could be genetically different from those along the Chindwin; therefore, it is critical to save the small numbers that survive west of the Salween River in Yunnan. A project has been implemented by Wildlife Conservation Society to help educate local residents – especially school children – around Mahamyiang Sanctuary, and to urge them not to hunt wildlife. The project also provides some support to the wildlife sanctuary for increased patrols. Such projects need to be implemented in the Hukaung Tiger Reserve as well, in order to reduce hunting pressures. At present tourism is not promoted in the Hukaung Valley because it is a politically sensitive area, but there is great potential for tourism to have a positive impact on local development in the future. In the meantime, alternative sources of income are needed to compensate for the bans on direct resource exploitation (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
39877	distribution	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is found in southern China (western Yunnan) and northeastern Myanmar (east of the Chindwin River). In China it is found as far east as the Salween River, and north to nearly 26°N (Groves 2001). Das <em>et al.</em> (2006) reported the discovery of a population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India, which has traditionally been considered to be part of the distribution area of <em>H. hoolock</em>. This record has yet to be proven (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The boundary between the two species of hoolock gibbon is uncertain in the Chindwin headwaters in the north, and possibly includes a zone of intermediates or variable population (T. Geissmann pers. comm.). More fieldwork is needed to investigate populations on both sides of the river and in the headwaters of the Chindwin, where there is likely to be one or more hybrid zones or clines (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
39877	habitat	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This gibbon is a forest-dweller that inhabits primary evergreen, scrub and semi-deciduous hill forest, as well as mountainous broadleaf and pine-dominated forest. It ranges up to 2,700 m in elevation, as reported by the Vernay-Cutting expedition (Anthony 1941), in mixed pine/broadleaf forest in northeastern Myanmar.<br/><br/>It is a frugivorous species, with ripe fruits composing a majority of its diet. Individuals also eat a large proportion of figs and some amount of leaves, shoots, and petioles. This diet contributes to a relatively large home range of some populations.<br/><br/>No intensive studies have been carried out on the behaviour or ecology of <em>H. leuconedys</em>, but it may be assumed to be similar to that of <em>H. hoolock</em>, with diet varying somewhat by habitat (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
39877	population	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	There are an estimated 50-300 individuals in western Yunnan province, China (Lan 1994; Tian <em>et al.</em> 1996; Zhang 1998; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). In India, a population of about 170 gibbons, which have been tentatively identified as <em>H. leuconedys</em>, occurs in the Mehao region, in eastern Arunachal Pradesh state (Das <em>et al.</em> 2006), but further surveys are needed (J. Das pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The total population of <em>H. leuconedys</em> in Myanmar is over 10,000 individuals, and perhaps up to 50,000 or so; however, much more survey work is needed. There have been some Wildlife Conservation Society surveys in Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, which have approximately two groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Htun pers. comm. 2006). There are approximately two groups/km<sup>2</sup> in Mahamyaing Wildlife Sanctuary based on vocal surveys, with a total population of 4,000–8,100 individual gibbons (about half of which would be adult animals) (Brockelman 2006 unpub. draft).<br/><br/>The species is doing relatively well in Myanmar, but there is no guarantee of continued political protection in the next few decades (W. Brockelman pers. comm.). Political instability is presently slowing down logging (W. Bleisch pers. comm.).	eng
39877	threats	Brockelman, W. & Geissmann, T., 2008	Eastern hoolocks are threatened by habitat loss and hunting, both for meat as well as for use in traditional “medicine” (M. Richardson pers. comm.). In Myanmar, commercial logging may eliminate most forest habitats outside of protected areas, but in and around Mahamyiang Sanctuary, selectively logged forests (with dipterocarps removed) still contain many gibbons. The more than 50,000 people settled in the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve constitute a threat to all wildlife in the area, and the future of the reserve will depend on the ability of the government as well as international conservation groups to curtail hunting. Gold mining has become a threat to conservation in Kachin State (W. Brockelman pers. comm.).	eng
39879	conservation	Nijman, V., Richardson, M. & Geissmann, T., 2008	Bornean white-bearded gibbons are protected throughout their range by Indonesian law and are listed on CITES, Appendix I. They are found in a number of protected areas, including Bukit Baka ? Bukit Raya National Park, Ganung Palung National Park, and Tanjung Puting National Park.	eng
39879	distribution	Nijman, V., Richardson, M. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is found in Kalimantan, Indonesia south of the Kapuas River and west of the Barito River (Marshall and Sugardjito 1986).	eng
39879	habitat	Nijman, V., Richardson, M. & Geissmann, T., 2008	The species is found in primary, secondary and selectively logged tropical evergreen forests, as well as peat swamp forest types (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al.</em> 2006). These arboreal and diurnal primates are dominantly frugivorous, preferring fruits high in sugar, but will also eat immature leaves and insects. They are recorded from forests up to 1,200 m asl (V. Nijman pers. comm.) with densities decreasing at higher elevations. Average home range sizes of 28 ha and 45 ha were determined at Gunung Palung and the Sabangau catchment area, respectively (Buckley <em>et al</em>. 2006; Mitani 1990).	eng
39879	population	Nijman, V., Richardson, M. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is generally common in suitable habitat (J. Hon pers. comm.). A tentative estimate suggests a population size of 19,000 individuals within the mixed-swamp forest habitat subtype in Sabangau, representing one of the largest remaining continuous populations of this species (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al.</em> 2006). Density estimates range from 7.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (2.16 groups/km<sup>2</sup>) in the logged peat swamp forest of the Sabangau catchment area of central Kalimantan (Buckley 2004; Buckley <em>et al</em>. 2006), and 8.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in primarily heath forest of Tanjung Puting National Park (Mather 1992), to 14.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in a dominantly mountain forest area of the Gunung Palung Reserve (Mitani 1990).	eng
39879	threats	Nijman, V., Richardson, M. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species was certainly affected by fires of 1990s and continuing deforestation (legal and illegal logging, draining of peat swamps, expanding oil palm plantations, etc), but no recent surveys are available on population trends. A large part of the species range is in peat swamp ? an extremely threatened ecosystem. From 2003-2004, Nijman (2005) observed 79 individuals in markets in Kalimantan. It is also hunted for human consumption.	eng
39895	conservation	Bleisch, B., Geissmann,T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed in CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in Viet Nam (Appendix 1B of Decree 32, 2006), though enforcement against forest encroachment and poaching is not adequate in most cases. In China it is protected by wildlife protection law (issued in 1989) (L. Yongcheng pers. comm.). It occurs in a mixture of protected areas and national parks throughout its range. In Viet Nam it is present in Pu Huong Nature Reserve and Ben En National Park. In Lao PDR, it is present in Nam Et and Phou Loey, Nam Xam, Phou Khao Khoay, Phou Panang, Nam Kading, and Phou Dene Din National Protected Areas, and also in Santong Training and Model Forest. In China, it was previously reported in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, but only in the two sections bordering Lao PDR.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include prevention of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically tape recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area of the taxon relative to <em>N. siki</em>. This is among the most common species of crested gibbon (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) maintained in zoos (Varsik 2000; Gibbon Network 2006; Moisson and Baudier 2005).	eng
39895	distribution	Bleisch, B., Geissmann,T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species occurs in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China. In Viet Nam, it occurs west and south of the Black River; it has been extirpated from several areas from which it was previously recorded and is now only known from a few localities in the north-west and north-central parts of this country (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Lao PDR, it occurs in the northern parts, east of the Mekong River, except for a small area in northwestern Lao PDR on the east bank of the Mekong at about 20°17??20°25?N, where it was replaced by <em>N. concolor</em> (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In the 1980s, a very small population still occurred in Xishuangbanna in southernmost Yunnan province, China, just across the border from Viet Nam (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1990), but the species might no longer survive there (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). It was formerly sympatric with <em>N. concolor </em>in Luchin, Yunnan (China), and possibly also in the Ma River region in Viet Nam (Dao Van Tien 1983; Ma and Wang 1988; Geissmann <em>et a</em>l. 2000). There may be an apparent overlap or interdigitation between the ranges of <em>N. leucogenys</em> and <em>N. siki</em> between about 19 and 20°N (Groves 2001).	eng
39895	habitat	Bleisch, B., Geissmann,T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is found in tall primary and heavily degraded evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. In northeastern Viet Nam and northern Lao PDR, the animals live in the lowland, in a subtropical climate with a short and not very cold winter without frost, at elevations of 200?600 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). In Yunnan province, China, the species was observed at altitudes of 700?1,000 m (Hu <em>et al</em>. 1989). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to at least 1,650 m in Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Gibbons are strictly arboreal and mainly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000), but there is very little field data on the behavioral ecology of <em>N. leucogenys</em>. Dao Van Tien (1983) studied the content of the stomach of six wild-shot crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) from Viet Nam, including three <em>N. leucogenys</em>, and found 90?100% fruits, associated with some leaves and insects. This data cannot be directly compared to field observations, which usually measure the time spent eating various food items (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). Food composition in Xishuangbanna (southern Yunnan) included fruits (39%), leaves (36%), and flowers (5%) (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). During the rainy season (May?October), when many fruits are available, gibbons travel less, whereas in the dry season (November?April), the gibbons eat more leaves and travel for longer distances (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). Average group size in Yunnan province, China, was 3.78 (range 3-5, n = 9) (Hu <em>et al.</em> 1989). In anecdotal reports, group sizes of three gibbon groups from Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces (southern part of north Viet Nam) were specified as 3, 3, and 4 individuals, respectively (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39895	population	Bleisch, B., Geissmann,T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	There have been no records of this species from China since 1990 despite survey work, and it might now be extinct in that country (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). In Lao PDR, population numbers of this species are highest due to the larger areas of remaining natural habitat, though increased hunting since 1990 to support the wildlife trade threatens these animals. Relative to <em>N. siki </em>and <em>N. gabriellae</em>, densities and numbers of this species in equivalent forest blocks are significantly lower due to higher exploitation. Forest fragmentation is also much higher in the range of <em>N. leucogenys</em> than in the ranges of the other two gibbon species (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Viet Nam, the forest habitat for this species is particularly fragmented, and the data from two provinces (Lai Chau and Son La) suggest that gibbons here cannot be sustained on the remaining forest patches (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Pu Huong Nature Reserve, the number of groups remaining is less than 10, while in Pu Hoat Nature Reserve fewer than three groups survive (Nguyen Man Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005). In a status survey report, Geissmann <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded 27 sites at which this species should have occurred, but it was only confirmed surviving at four, and may survive in a further three. Even protected areas that are known to have suitable remaining habitat, such as Cuc Phuong National Park, no longer hold any surviving gibbon populations (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
39895	threats	Bleisch, B., Geissmann,T., Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	<em>Nomascus leucogenys</em> has suffered from deforestation through agricultural encroachment into mountainous areas and fuel-wood and timber extraction from remaining forests, especially in China and Viet Nam. Hunting for food, traditional ?medicines,? and their cultural value is a major threat across the range, and is likely to have been the primary cause for the decline of the species in all three countries, including the presumed extinction of this species in China (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2000).	eng
39896	conservation	Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Geissmann, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. Although it occurs in a mixture of protected areas and national parks throughout its range and is legally protected in Viet Nam (Appendix 1b of Decree 32, 2006), there is inadequate enforcement against forest encroachment and poaching. Recommended conservation measures include prevention of hunting and wildlife trade; minimization of habitat disturbance; and research and field surveys throughout the range, specifically tape recordings, genetic analysis and photographic recordings to help better define the distribution area of the taxon relative to <em>N. gabriellae </em>and <em>N. leucogenys</em>.<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, the most important populations are in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and Pu Mat National Park (Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et a</em>l. 2005). In Lao PDR, the most important population is in Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Timmins and Evans 1996).	eng
39896	distribution	Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Geissmann, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is distributed in southern Lao PDR and north-central Viet Nam east of the Mekong River, and is found between 17°N and about 19.3°N (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). There is an apparent overlap or interdigitation between the ranges of<em>N. siki</em>and <em>N. leucogenys</em> between about 19 and 20°N. Traditionally, the range of <em>N. siki</em> includes central Viet Nam as far south as Bach Ma, but it here extends less to the south to exclude animals that, at least phenotypically (coloration), are <em>N. gabriellae</em>, such that the range extends only as far south as Savannakhet in southern Lao PDR and Quang Binh province, and possibly Quang Tri province in central Viet Nam (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
39896	habitat	Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Geissmann, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	It lives in tall primary broadleaf evergreen forest, and is found in the lowlands at elevations of 30–100 m, in a typical wet tropical climate, with no influence of the north east monsoon and no conspicuous dry season (Dao Van Tien 1983). In some areas such as Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in central Viet Nam, these gibbons live in steep karst forest (Ruppell 2007). In Lao PDR, gibbons are found from the Mekong plains up to 1,800 m in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Gibbons are strictly arboreal, diurnal and mainly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al.</em>2000), but there are virtually no field data on the behavioral ecology of <em>N. siki.</em> Dao Van Tien (1985) studied the contents of the stomach of six wild-shot crested gibbons (genus <em>Nomascus</em>) from Viet Nam, including one <em>N. siki,</em> and found 90–100% fruits, associated with some leaves and insects. These data cannot be compared directly to field observations, which usually measure the time spent eating various food items (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Average group size is unknown. A gibbon group with three individuals was reported from Khe Giua State forest enterprise (Quang Binh province, central Viet Nam), and in another gibbon group in Nui Giang Man area (also Quang Binh province), five individuals were counted (Le Khac Quyet 2004; Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39896	population	Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Geissmann, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Many populations in Viet Nam are supported by too little contiguous habitat and experience too high a degree of human disturbance to remain viable, especially those in forested areas that are not shared with Lao PDR (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Pu Mat, numbers are believed to have declined where encounter rates declined from 22.6 per 100 survey days in 1999 to 14 in 2004 (Grieser Johns <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a status survey report, Geissmann <em>et al. </em>(2003) recorded six localities where traditional<em>N. siki</em>were previously known to occur, of which all but one still had surviving populations at the time. During a survey covering about 15 km<sup>2</sup> of the Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park (Quang Binh province, central Viet Nam; total area: 858 km<sup>2</sup>), 13 gibbon groups were heard, suggesting a density of about 0.7 groups/km<sup>2</sup> (Ruppell 2007). There are no available population estimates in Lao PDR, but the species is widespread and common in all large forest blocks within its distribution area (T. Geissmann pers. comm.).	eng
39896	threats	Manh Ha, N., Rawson, B., Geissmann, T. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Unlike in Lao PDR, the forest habitat of <em>Nomascus siki</em> in Viet Nam is heavily fragmented due to logging and agricultural encroachment, and a high population density of humans continues to threaten this species’ habitat and population numbers. Hunting, in particular, is a major threat in both Viet Nam and Lao PDR where they are used both in traditional “medicine,” food, and in the pet trade (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000; Nguyen Manh Ha <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
39900	distribution	Franco, F.L., 2000	<em>Dipsas indica cavalheiroi</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island, an area of only 0.43 km².	eng
39900	habitat	Franco, F.L., 2000	The species occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas.	eng
39900	threats	Franco, F.L., 2000	The main threat to the population is loss and declining quality of habitat.  The island habitat has already been partially destroyed by the construction of access routes to a lighthouse.	eng
39901	distribution	Martins, M., 2000	<em>Liophis atraventer</em> is known from only three localities in Brazil.	eng
39901	habitat	Martins, M., 2000	This snake occurs in montane rainforest areas.	eng
39901	threats	Martins, M., 2000	The rainforest habitat of this species is becoming increasingly fragmented due to forest clearance to make way for agriculture and urban areas.	eng
39902	distribution	Argolo, A.J.S., 2000	<em>Bothrops pirajai</em> is known from Brazil.	eng
39902	habitat	Argolo, A.J.S., 2000	Piraja's lancehead occurs in lowland tropical rainforest areas.	eng
39902	threats	Argolo, A.J.S., 2000	The deforestation of rainforest areas to make way for cocoa plantations is the main threat to this species.  The population has a very restricted distribution and continuing deforestation is causing increasing habitat fragmentation.	eng
39903	distribution	Martins, M. & Marques, O.A.V., 2000	The Atlantic bushmaster is endemic to Brazil.	eng
39903	habitat	Martins, M. & Marques, O.A.V., 2000	The species occurs in lowland tropical rainforest habitat.	eng
39903	threats	Martins, M. & Marques, O.A.V., 2000	The expansion of agriculture and urbanization is causing increasing fragmentation of the rainforest habitat.  The resulting decline in extent and quality of habitat is threatening the <em>L. m. rhombeata</em> population.	eng
39904	conservation	Marques, O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. Conservation measures, such as area management, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the Atlantic Forest. Further research is required to assess and monitor the population of this species, due to its restricted range and presumed small population size.	eng
39904	distribution	Marques, O., 2009	This species has a very limited distribution at Miracatu in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The range of this species is known to be 300 km²<sup></sup> (Stafford and Henderson 1996). This species is only known to be found between 40 and 45 m above sea level.	eng
39904	habitat	Marques, O., 2009	This species is found on or near the coastal plain in the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest (O. Marques pers. comm.).   This large and conspicuous snake feeds on mammals. An arboreal tendency is obvious, but its morphology (size of tail and lateral compression) suggests that this snake spends more time on the ground than the sympatric boid <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hortulanus</span> (Pizzatto<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
39904	population	Marques, O., 2009	This species is arguably the rarest boid in the world, but is unquestionably the rarest boid in the New World (Stafford and Henderson 1996). Despite over 100 years of sampling, the   Instituto Butantan has only collected four specimens of the species. Two specimens were collected in the 1960s and another in 1970. The last specimen was collected on 26 May 2003 (33 years after). In comparison, another sympatric boid of the same genus, <em>C. hortulanus</em> has been well sampled by the Instituto  Butantan (O. Marques pers. comm.). There are many people living within the distribution of these species, who usually collect several snakes and send these to the Instituto Butantan. Therefore the lack of specimens of this large snake is likely to reflect genuine rarity.	eng
39904	threats	Marques, O., 2009	The three localities from which this species has been taken all occur within a narrow strip of degraded forest, and all are within 50-100 km of Sao Paulo. The Atlantic Forest was estimated to have at one time covered 1.0-1.5 million km sq., but 90 to 98% of habitat has been lost to anthropogenic activities or has become severely degraded. Most of the clearing is a result of shifting agriculture. Stafford and Henderson (1996) state that within its 300 km²<sup></sup> range, the area of suitable habitat is significantly less.	eng
39910	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix chrysoleuca</span>).	eng
39910	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Very poorly known species that occurs in a sliver south of the Rio Amazonas, between the Rios Madeira and lower Aripuanã in the west and the Rio Canumã (= Cunumã) in the east (Hershkovitz 1977; Silva Jr. and Noronha 1996; Ferrari 2008). It occurs on the north (left) bank of the Paraná Urariá (<em>M. mauesi</em>.  Silva Jr. and Noronha (1996) observed <em>M. chrysoleucus</em> at Santa Bárbara on the left bank of the Rio Canumã. The southernmost locality is Prainha, a short distance north of the mouth of the Rio Roosevelt, on the east (right) bank of the Rio Aripuanã. It is probable that Prainha is near to the southern limit to its distribution, which may be marked by the headwaters of Rio Sucundurí, Serra do Sucundurí towards 8ºS.	eng
39910	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals.  Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 19.5-23.6, TL 29.8-35.5 cm (n=28) (Ferrari 2008).	eng
39910	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
39910	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information available on major threats. They are probably not hunted, although there may be some use as pets.	eng
39911	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix intermedia</span>).	eng
39911	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	<em>Mico intermedius</em> occurs between the Rios Roosevelt and Aripuanã including the entire basin of the Rio Guariba. <em>Mico intermedius</em> and <em>M. melanurus</em> are not sympatric between the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt (as had been suggested by Hershkovitz 1977). The exact southern limits are not known, but probably around the headwaters of these two rivers.	eng
39911	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat. The lowest densities were found in areas of tall old growth forest with a sparse understorey. The highest densities were in areas with abundant secondary growth patches and denses understoreys, arising either from tree falls or human activities (Rylands 1982, 1986a, 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Rylands (1982) found a mean group size of 11.5 ±2.78 (range 8-15, n=8 groups) at the village of Aripuanã, left bank of the Rio Aripuanã, Mato Grosso. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. A single <em>Mico intermedius</em> group studied by Rylands (1982, 1986a) used a home range of 28.25 ha.<br/><br/>The ecology and behaviour of <em>Mico intermedius</em> were studied by Rylands (1979, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986a,b).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult males and females 400-450 g (Rylands 1982).	eng
39911	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Population censuses carried out by Rylands (1982) indicated densities that ranged from 0.44-4.69 groups/km² or 7.53-54.37 individuals/km². The lowest densities were found in areas of tall old growth forest with a sparse understorey. The highest densities were in areas with abundant secondary growth patches and denses understoreys, arisiing either from tree falls or human activities.	eng
39911	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The range of this species is in the arc of deforestation resulting from the northerly progressing agricultural frontier in northern Mato Grosso. Much of its range is being logged and clear-cut for cattle ranching and agro-industry. The northern part of its range is bisected by the Cuiabá-Porto Velho highway resulting in intensive and widespread logging with accompanying settlement and forest destruction and degradation. In spite of this, as noted under habitat, the species apparently is adapted to some anthropogenic disturbance. Generally not hunted, but some use as pets.	eng
39912	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Does not occur in any protected areas. The buffer zone of the Amazônia National Park, proposed in its management plan (Brazil, MA-IBDF and FBCN 1979), would include populations of this marmoset. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix leucippe</span>).	eng
39912	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Mico leucippe</em> is known only from a small area in the state of Pará, between the Rios Cuparí and Tapajós (right bank of the Rio Tapajos), south to the Rio Jamanxim, (Hershkovitz 1977; Pimenta and Silva Jr. 2005).	eng
39912	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat (Vivo 1979). Vivo (1979, 1991) observed <em>Mico leucippe</em> at Pimental during surveys in the Amazônia National Park. Vivo found it to be most common in degraded and secondary forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 20.5-23.5 cm, TL 26.5-37.0 cm (n=7) (Ferrari 2008).	eng
39912	population	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
39912	threats	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The region where this species occurs was already being impacted in 1973 by the construction of the Transamazon (BR-230) highway and subsequently by the Cuiabá-Santarem (BR 163) highway (Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977; Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978; Rylands and Mittermeier 1982), and now is a focal area for the establishment of soy plantations which has resulted in substantial loss of habitat. It is generally not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.	eng
39913	conservation	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix nigriceps</span>).<br/>Further research is needed to better determine the geographic range, demography, and ecology of this species. Also surveys are needed to evaluate threats with increasing development in the region.	eng
39913	distribution	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This marmoset is believed to occur between the Rio dos Marmelos in the north and east, the Rio Madeira in the west and the Rio Jiparaná in the south, in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. Ferrari (1993) reported on the capture of two adult male <em>M. nigriceps</em> at the Tenharin Indian settlement, on the west bank of the Rio dos Marmelos (07º57’S, 62º03’W). (The location of Tenharin on the map, Figure 1, in Ferrari [1993] was incorrect. The correct location was shown in Ferrari [1994].) Ferrari and Lopes (1992) and Ferrari (1993) argued that it is unlikely to extend further west than the Rios Madeira and Jiparaná, nor east to the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt, and the south-eastern limits are defined by an area of savanna/cerrado vegetation at the headwaters of the Rio dos Marmelos and along the middle Rio Jiparaná.	eng
39913	habitat	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Inhabits humid tropical rain forest, with a preference for secondary growth and edge habitat.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimgra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Information on the gut morphology of <em>M. nigriceps</em> and its relation to gum feeding is provided in Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (1993).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>H&B 21.1 cm. TL 33.2 cm (n = 6) (Ferrari 2008)<br/>Male weight 380 g (n=3) (Ferrari 1993).	eng
39913	population	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Nothing is known of population size and densities in the wild.	eng
39913	threats	Rylands, A.B, Ferrari, S.F. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Major threats to this species are generally not understood. The area can be reached by paved road from Rondônia and is traversed by the Transamazon highway where cattle-ranching and logging are underway (Ferrari and Lopes 1992). It is not hunted, but there is some use as pets.	eng
39914	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not recorded from any protected area. A priority species for further survey work. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix marcai</span>).	eng
39914	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Its range is unknown but probably extends south along the left bank of the Rio Roosevelt and at least part way north to meet, somewhere, the southern limits of the range of <em>M. manicorensis</em>. Ferrari (1993, 1994) reported the collection of an adult female “<em>C. emiliae</em>” on the east bank of the Rio dos Marmelos opposite the Tenharin Indian settlement (on the west bank, 07º57'S, 62º03'W). (For the correct location of Tenharin, see Ferrari 1994). Ferrari (1993) said it was easily distinguished from <em>M. nigriceps</em> (collected on the west bank at the same location) by the lack of pigmentation on the facial skin. It would seem that Ferrari (1993) presumed the identity of this animal to be <em>C. emiliae</em> based on Vivo (1985, 1991) who stated that <em>C. emiliae</em> occurred on the left (west) bank of the Rio Aripuanã: a belief arising from his interpretation of the identity of the marmoset of the Rio Castanho, here listed as <em>Mico marcai</em> (Alperin 1993). However, the true identity of the marmoset from the east bank of the Rio dos Marmelos at Tenharin has yet to be determined in light of this.<br/><br/>Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000) inadvertently indicated that <em>Mico manicorensis</em> occurred at the type locality of this species.	eng
39914	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Inhabits dense tropical rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>No behavioural-ecological field studies have been carried out on this species.	eng
39914	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Known only from type locality. Never been seen in the wild.	eng
39914	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information on major or potential threats. Probably not hunted, possibly some use as pets.	eng
39915	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (possibly in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (possibly in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Solano 1985, 1986).<br/><br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Aotus lemurinus brumbacki</span>).	eng
39915	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Aotus brumbacki</em> is a lowland night monkey, that extends east from the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia between the Ríos Arauca and Guaviare (Hershkovitz 1983; Defler 2003, 2004). The form occurring along the middle and lower reaches of the Meta, Tomo and Vichada and Guaviare has not been ascertained. Based on a specimen collected at Maipures, near the mouth of the Río Tomo on the Río Orinoco, Defler and Bueno (2007) indicated that the night monkeys of eastern central Colombia north of the Río Guaviare may be <em>A. brumbacki</em>, extending the range of this species to the Río Orinoco. Neither Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) nor Linares (1998) give any indication of the occurrence of <em>A. brumbacki</em> in Venezuela, north of the lower Río Arauca.	eng
39915	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk.  The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007). <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Solano (1995) estimated a home range of 17.5 ha for <em>A. brumbacki</em> on the Río Duda in Tinigua Natural National Park, Colombia. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1985) recorded a weight of 875 g for one individual (sex unknown), and 455 g for a female, probably not fully grown.	eng
39915	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	No population information available. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
39915	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Except for the region around Villavicencio, Meta, the distribution of this species remains poorly known. However, over much of the known range, their habitat is declining rapidly due to expanding illicit crops, armed conflict and expanding cattle ranching. The taxon may extend south to the Rio Guaviare, where there would be healthy populations protected by one or two large national parks.<br/><br/>Many <em>Aotus </em>have been released from captivity outside of their range and could be hybridizing, but very little is known of the effects of this practice.	eng
39916	conservation	Mendes, S.L., Rylands. A.B., Keirulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Cruce Caballero Provincial park (435 ha) (at least two groups, Di Bitteti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Parera 2002)<br/>Urugua-í Provincial Park (Parera 2002)<br/>Piñalito Natural Reserve (3,796 ha) (Parera 2002). (<em>A. caraya</em> also occurs in this park, between the Rios Uruguai and Paraná, and hybrids have been recorded there (Di Bitteti 2005). Di Bitetti (2005) suggested <em>A. caraya</em> was replacing <em>A. guariba</em> in ths region due to forest destruction and degradation).<br/><br/>Brazil<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (Companhia Vale do Rio Doce) (22,000 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1995).<br/>Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (3,572 ha) (Mendes, 1991; Pinto <em>et al</em>. 1993)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (rare, Chiarello 1999)<br/>Córrego Grande Biological Station (1,489 ha)<br/>Pedra Azul State Biological Reserve (1,200 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve (2,910 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Fazenda Montes Verdes Forest  Reserve (1,500 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>Santa Lúcia Biological Station (400 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/>São Lourenço Biological Station (22 ha) (Mendes 1991) <br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>Caparaó National Park (across the Espírito Santo border) (31,853 ha)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (35.973 ha) (Stallings and Robinson 1991; Hirsch 1995)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (13,210 ha) (Cosenza 1993)<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (1,488 ha) (Hirsch <em>et al.</em> 1994)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station RPPN Feliciano Abdala (Mendes 1985, 1989)<br/><br/>Paraná<br/>Ilha Grande National Park (108,166 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/>Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area (1,003,059 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/><br/>Rio de Janeiro<br/>Serra dos Órgãos National Park (10,527 ha)<br/>Serra da Bocaina National Park (across border with São Paulo) (98,115 ha)<br/>Itatiaia National Park (28,155 ha) (Diblasi-Filho and Borsoi Jr. 1983)<br/>Tinguá Biologica Reserve (24.902 ha)<br/>Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,065 ha)<br/>Desengano State Park (22,500 ha)<br/>Floresta da Cicuta State Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest (144 ha)<br/><br/>São Paulo<br/>Turístico Alto Ribeira State Park (36,712 ha) (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001) <br/>Carlos Botelho State Park (37,644 ha) (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001) <br/>Morro do Diabo State Park (Coimbra Filho 1976b)<br/>Serra do Mar State Park<br/>Cantareira State Park (7,000 ha) (Cordeiro da Silva 1981; Oliveira and Ades 1993)<br/>Paranapiacaba State Biological Reserve (336 ha)<br/>Juréia-Itatins State Ecological Station (79,270 ha)<br/>Xitué State Ecological Station (González-Solís <em>et al.</em> 2001)<br/><br/>Rio Grande do Sul<br/>Aparados da Serra National Park (13,081 ha)<br/>Itapuã State Park (5,566 ha) (Prates <em>et al</em>. 1990; Buss 2001; Marques 2003)<br/>Espigão Alto State Park (1,319 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Rondinha State Park (1,000 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Turvo State Park (17,491 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Serra Geral State Biological Reserve (4,846 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ibicuí-mirim Biological Reserve (598 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Aracuri-Esmeralda Ecological Station (277 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Lami Municipal Biological Reserve (Marques 2003)<br/>São Francisco de Paula National Forest (1,607 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Parque do Morro do Osso (Marques 2003)<br/>Rota do Sol Environmental Protection Area (52,535 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Cruce Caballero Provincial park (435 ha) (at least two groups, Di Bitteti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Parera 2002)<br/>Urugua-í Provincial Park (Parera 2002)<br/>Piñalito Natural Reserve (Parera 2002). (<em>A. caraya</em> also occurs in this park, between the Rios Uruguai and Paraná, and hybrids have been recorded there [Di Bitteti 2005]. Di Bitetti (2005) suggested <em>A. caraya</em> was replacing <em>A. guariba</em> in ths region due to forest destruction and degradation).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39916	distribution	Mendes, S.L., Rylands. A.B., Keirulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species inhabits a large part of the Atlantic forest of Brazil, south from southern Bahia (formerly south from the Rio Paraguaçú), extending south into basin of the Rio Jacuí, municipality of São Lourenço do Sul, state of Rio Grande do Sul (Printes <em>et al</em>. 2001), and the extreme north of Argentina in the Department of Misiones (Crespo 1954; Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988; Di Bitetti <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rylands 1994; Marques 2003). Aguiar <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded sympatry and probable hybridization with <em>A. caraya</em> in riparian forest along the left margin of the Rio Paraná (between Porto Figueira and Port Camargo) in the Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Preotection Area on the state of Paraná. This region is considered to be an ecotone between Cerrado (the typical domain of <em>A. caraya</em>) and the Atlantic forest (<em>A. guariba</em>).<br/><br/>Kinsey (1981) argued that the Rio Doce separated a northern subspecies (the nominate) from the southern subspecies (<em>A. g. clamitans</em>). However, through a large part north of the Rio Doce, howler monkeys were indistinguishable from those south (S. Mendes pers. comm.). Surveys by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (1988) resulted in the discovery of groups just south of the lower Jequitinhonha, which were all pale gold in colour, whereas further west, north of the middle Jequitinhonha, groups in dedicuous forests showed sexual dichromatism typical of <em>clamitans</em> further south (females dark brown, males golden brown). North of the Jequitinhonha, there are very few records of any Brown Howler Monkeys at all, and few significant populations remain. If the uniformly pale howlers of the lower Jequitinhonha are, in fact, a distinct subspecies (the nominate), then the populations can only be miniscule. But, the validity of the two subspecies remains doubtful, and confused even with a recent genetic analysis comparing populations in the south of its range in the states of Santa Catarina, Sao Paolo and Rio de Janeiro suggesting strong subpopulation differentiation in <em>clamitans</em>.	eng
39916	habitat	Mendes, S.L., Rylands. A.B., Keirulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	An inhabitant of lowland, submontane and montane forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, extending inland to mesophytic semideciduous seasonal forest inland in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Mendes 1985, 1989; Chiarello 1993, 1995, 1999; Marques 2001). In Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul, it occurs in the highly seasonal subtropical and temperate, mixed broadleaf/<em>Araucaria</em> forest (Schneider and Marques 1999; Buss 2001). Aguiar <em>et al.</em> (2007) recorded it in periodically flooded, seasonal, semideciduous forest in the floodplains of the Rio Paraná, Paraná.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).  <br/><br/>Brown Howler Monkeys an be seen in groups of four or five, but up to 11 or so, individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being subordinate younger male, sub-adults, or juveniles, with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 6.73 kg (n=4) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Adult female weight mean 4.35 kg (n=5) (Smith and Jungers 1997).	eng
39916	population	Mendes, S.L., Rylands. A.B., Keirulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	There have been a fair number of population estimates thorughout the range of this species. Most of them in very small forest fragments. González-Solís <em>et al.</em> (2001) provide a recent summary. They list 11 sites (forests) where brown howlers were counted, ranging from from 50 ha to 100,000 ha. Densities can be very high. When not hunted, densities can vary in even very small forests due to their folivory and dietary flexibility. In the 50 ha site (Lageadinho, São Paulo) group size was 6-12, and the density 98 individuals/km² (Torres de Assumpção 1983). Chiarello (1993) recorded a density of 177 individuals/km² at the Santa Genebre Reserve (259 ha), São Paulo. Estimates of densities at the Caratinga Biological Statiion (survey area ranging from 570 to 800 ha), Minas Gerais, have varied from 92 to 149 individuals/km² (Mendes 1985, 1989; Hirsch 1995). Lower densities, 10.1 individuals/km², were recorded in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (4,000 ha), Espírito Santo, by Pinto <em>et al</em>. (1993). Hirsch (1995) estimated densities of 1.8 to 49.0 individuals/km² in the Rio Doce State Park (32,210 ha), Minas Gerais.  González-Solís <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimated a density of 0.79 individuals/km² in the Serra do  Paranapiacaba, in four contiguous protected areas in the state of São Paulo totalling 140,000 ha (the state parks of Intervales, Turístico Alto Ribeira and Carlos Botelho, and the Xitué State Ecological Station). Surveys by Chiarello (1995) in the Linhares Forest Reserve, Espírito Santo failed to register howlers even though they were present. In later surveys in the same reserve, Chiarello (1999) recorded an encounter rate of 0.15 groups/10 km. Schneider and Marques (1999) estimated a density of 92-125 individuals/km² in the southern part of the range of this species, in mixed broadleaf/<em>Araucaria</em> forest in the Aracuri-Esmeralda Ecological Station. Buss (2001) estimated 65 to 85 individuals/km² in the Itapuã State Park.<br/><br/>Note that there have been quite a number of behavioural-ecological field studies of this species, and a number of density estimates available in the literature are a result of these studies. The study sites chosen were those where howler monkeys were found to be numerous and visible, so these high densities are undoubteldy at the top end of the densities possible for this species and do not reflect a situation typical of the entire range of the species. Where they are hunted they will occur in very much lower numbers or not at all. In some areas they are scarce even though hunting is minimal or absent (for example, the Rio Doce State Park, or the Augusto Ruschi Biological Station). The explanation for low population densities in these cases is generally sought in disease epidemics, especially yellow fever.<br/><br/>In Misiones, Argentina, densities of both <em>A. guariba</em> and <em>A. caraya</em> are extremely low probably as a result of the dramatic habitat fragmentation suffered in the last few decades, and of an older yellow fever outbreak that occurred in 1966.	eng
39916	threats	Mendes, S.L., Rylands. A.B., Keirulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Widespread forest loss and fragmentation throughout its range, hunting, and disease epidemics are the main threats. However, the species is able to survive in even quite small forest fragments if there is no hunting. Selective logging for prized <em>Araucaria</em> pine is a threat in the south of its range. Mortality has also been reported due to electrocution from power lines, mainly in the small populations surviving in urban parks such as Lami Municipal Reserve, Porto Alegre (Lokschin <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
39924	conservation	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including: Abiseo National Park (274,500 ha) (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007); Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo (182,000 ha) (DeLuycker 2007); and Reserved Zone Cordillera de Colán (64,100 ha) (established in 2002 with assistance from the Asociación Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza ? APECO). However, this last mentioned protected area is still awaiting a formal categorization of its status. There have been proposals for a number of other parks, including the National Sanctuaries of Cordillera de Colán and Este del Marañón (Rios and Ponce del Prado 1989).<br/>This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Urgent conservation initiatives necessary for the Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey?s survival include: increased protection within designated parks, reserves, and protected forests, which currently lack enforcement; the establishment of a contiguous area of protected forest, to create a biological corridor; the establishment of a national park or reserve in the semi-isolated Valle de los Chilchos area; control of illegal logging; purchase of land; the provision of alternative economic models for local communities living along buffer zones, in order to prevent further migration into the primary cloud forests; and the implementation of a strong conservation education plan (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).	eng
39924	distribution	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	The Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey is endemic to the montane rain forests and cloud forests of the Departments of San Martín (eastern part) and Amazonas (western part) in the Peruvian Andes, south and east of the Río Marañón, at altitudes of 1,400 to 2,700 m above sea level. Shanee <em>et al. </em>(2007) reported that it may still also occur in small areas of Cajamarca, Huanuco, Loreto and La Libertad departments (Mittermeier 1975; Graves and O?Neil 1980; Leo Luna 1980, 1982, 1989; Parker and Barkley 1981), but according to DeLuycker and Heymann (2007) they are now restricted to irregular, scattered parts of only two Departments: Amazonas and San Martín.	eng
39924	habitat	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	<em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> is known to persist only in primary premontane, montane and cloud forest between 1,500 and 2,700 m above sea level (Leo Luna 1982; Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>Sizes of multi-male/multi-female groups range from 5 to 18 individuals (Leo Luna 1989). <em>Oreonax flavicauda</em> eats a variety of fruits, flowers, leaves, lichens, leaf bases of bromeliads, epiphyte roots and bulbs, and possibly insects (Leo Luna 1982; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>About 10 kg (Leo Luna 1984).	eng
39924	population	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	There are no current estimates of remaining population numbers (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007). They have been recorded occurring in low densities, from 0.25 to 1 group per km² (Leo Luna 1987). This is not too dissimilar from the density of 1-2 groups/km² recorded in a small forest fragment, with groups ranging in size from 7-10 individuals (F. Cornejo pers. comm., 2007).	eng
39924	threats	Cornejo, F., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Heymann, E., 2008	As reported by Leo Luna (1987, 1989), the inaccessibility of its habitat protected the species until the 1950s. However, colonization projects, road-building (the carretera central through the cloud forests of the region and new construction throughout their distribution), selective logging, deforestation, forest fragmentation, and subsistence hunting, have contributed to a drastic change in their status (Leo Luna 1987, 1989; Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Butchart <em>et al.</em> 1995; DeLuycker 2007, DeLuycker and Heymann 2007; Shanee <em>et al</em>. 2007). Recently, mining companies have been granted concessions in areas where this species occurs and these growing mining operations (including open pit mining) represent an increasing threat to the habitat and habitat quality. The species appears to be highly sensitive to alterations in its habitat (Leo Luna 1987; DeLuycker 2007).<br/><br/>In 1981, it was estimated that its potential forested habitat was at least 11,240 km² (Leo Luna 1984). It was predicted that at least 1,600 km² would be deforested for agriculture by 1991 (Leo Luna 1984). Projecting this value for 15 additional years, and using a very conservative similar rate of deforestation, this leaves an estimated 7,240 km² of potential habitat area, undoubtedly optimistic (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).<br/><br/>Clearing the forest for agriculture continues at an alarming rate, even in protected areas, such as the Protected Forest of Alto Mayo (BPAM). It has been estimated that between 2,300 and 2,500 ha of forest have been destroyed in BPAM (ParksWatch, Peru). The forest of the BPAM is now considerably fragmented, a result of lack of enforcement and a substantial population living in the Protected Forest itself. The BPAM also suffers from illegal selective logging (De Luycker 2007; DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).<br/><br/>The species is heavily hunted for subsistence by native communities. Illegal hunting still occurs, and if the monkeys are encountered, they are likely shot, because of their large size and trusting behaviour toward humans, and because they are believed to cause damage to crops. The species? velvety, thick, long fur, its skin and skull, and yellow genital hair-tuft are sought after as trophy items. Mothers are shot so that infants can be taken and sold in markets as pets (DeLuycker and Heymann 2007).	eng
39925	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species occurs, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana cana</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha) (in range)<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Jaru Biological Reserve (353,386 ha) (in range)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha) (in range)<br/>Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) (in range)<br/>Jatuarana National Forest (837,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Macauá National Forest (173,475 ha) (in range)<br/>São Francisco National Forest (21,235 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Rosa do Purus National Forest (230,257 ha) (in range)<br/>Humaita National Forest (468,790 ha) (in range)<br/>Jamari National Forest (215,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Bom Futuro National Forest (280,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Purus National Forest (256,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapiá-Inauini National Forest (311,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Pau Rosa National Forest (827,877 ha) (in range)<br/>Tefe National Forest (1,020,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em><br/><br/>Entire known range in Bolivia is within two protected areas:<br/>Apolobamba Natural Area of Integrated Management <br/>Madidi National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39925	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Lagothrix cana cana</em><br/>Occurs south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões in Brazil, between the Rio Juruá and the rios Tapajós and Juruena. There are localities on the upper reaches of the Juruena (Fooden 1963), and possibly west extends from there to the Rio Guaporé on the Bolivian border (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1996). Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) clarified the southern limits to the range of <em>L. cana</em> in the state of Rondônia. They found that <em>L. cana</em> was absent from all of the sites they surveyed in the interfluvium of the rios Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná. It was recorded at two sites on the BR364 highway north of the rios Abunã and Madeira, and it occurs along the right (north) bank of the Rio Jiparaná and its tributary the Rio Pimenta Bueno. They also found it at two localities south of the Rio São Pedro, west of the Rio Pimenta Bueno. The south of Rondônia is a mix of montane and lowland areas and forest and savanna and Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) concluded that <em>L. cana</em> may be limited in the southernmost part of its range by areas of unsuitable low transitional forest on sandy soils. <em>Lagothrix cana</em> is evidently absent from the Guaporé grasslands and from the right bank of the Rio Abunã in Bolivia (Iwanaga and Ferrari 2002). In Peru, it occurs between the ríos Pachitea and Ucayali and south from the Río Inuya to both sides of the Río Madre de Dios and the Río Tambopata basin, as far as the Río Inambari to the frontier with Bolivia (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). However, surveys in Tambopata and lowland Bahuaja-Sonene have not registered this species over the past 10 years. Peres (1987) reported that woolly monkeys do not occur between the upper Rio Purus and Iaco. A large part of the range of <em>L. cana</em> in Peru may well in fact be that of <em>L. cana tschudii</em>, perhaps at least in the higher elevations of the Andean forests (see below).<br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em><br/>Groves (2001, 2005) recognized the form <em>tschudii</em> as a valid subspecies, but the type locality is not known (Bolivia or Peru). He indicated that two forms with more precise type localities were junior synonyms:<br/><em>Alouatta nigra</em> J. Allen, 1900 – Peru, Puno, “Juliaca” [= Inca mines], 5,000 ft, Allen, 1901, field notes.<br/><em>Lagothrix thomasi</em> Elliot, 1909, Peru: Cuzco, Rio Comberciato, Callanga, 1,500 m. BM 98.11.6.2. <br/>Both are localities in the south east of Peru.<br/><br/>An isolated population of <em>Lagothrix</em> was discovered by Wallace and Painter (1999) in Madidi National Park, Bolivia, at 1,500 m which may be a new taxon or quite possibly <em>L. cana tschudii</em> Pucheran, 1857. There was some variation but “overall Individuals were dark smoky gray with ventral area noticeably darker and head and face essentially black." Wallace and Painter (1999) concluded that the population was localized and isolated. There is no evidence of its occurrence in the adjacent Bolivian lowland forests below 1,000 m. Further investigation is required. This is the only modern record of <em>Lagothrix</em> occurring in Bolivia.	eng
39925	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> is typical of lowland rain forest in the upper Amazon. Peres (1996) found that they preferred high terra fimra forest to low-lying, water logged for most of the year. Only 2.6% of their time was spent in creekside forest. Wallace and Painter (1999) observed an isolated population of woolly monkeys in Madidi, Bolivia, which may be <em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em>. The habitat they described as low-elevation Andean cloud forest, with abundant mosses, tree ferns, bromeliads and orchids and a mossy ground layer on step slopes. Small basins where canopy reaches 30-35 m but they also use dryer and lower forest found on the steeper slopes. In Madidi, informants told Wallace and Painter (1999) that they were common in higher cloud forest between 1,500 m and 2,500 m. They are not found below 700 m (the lowest record in Madidi).<br/><br/>Ramirez (1980, 1988) studied <em>L. l. tschudii</em> in the Manu National Park (see also Terborgh 1983). Peres (1994b, 1996) studied <em>Lagothrix cana</em> at an undisturbed <em>terra firma</em> forest on the upper Rio Urucu in 1998/1989. The study group comprised 39-41 independantly locomoting individuals that ranged over 962 ha. They ranged in large, loose social units, covering several to many hectares of forest at any one time. They were not observed to split into separate units, foraging and travelling independantly. The spread of the group averaged 431 m (range 60-1,920 m, n=76 mapped locations). The woollies were most cohesive during the middle of the wet season and least cohesive during the late dry season. They fed mainly in large- to very large-crowned trees. The diet recorded by Peres (1994a) comprised ripe and unripe fruits (80.7% of records), young leaves (14.4%), mature leaves (0.1% from a single tree <em>Couratari stellata</em>, Lecythidaceae), petioles (1.7%) and flowers (3.1%). They also eat exudates of <em>Parkia</em> seed pods. Young leaves, flowers, seeds and exudates tend to be eaten more when fruit availability is low (Peres 1994).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male H&B 49.5 cm, TL 70.5 cm; adult female H&B 46.7 cm, TL 65.8 cm (as for <em>L. puruensis</em> Lönnberg, 1940).<br/>Adult male weight mean 9.49 kg (8.93-10.2 kg, n=3), adult female weight 7.65 kg (n=1) (Peres 1994a,b).	eng
39925	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	Peres (1990) compared densities of <em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> in hunted and unhunted sites:<br/>Hunted: Tahuayo (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1988) 1.2 individuals/km²; Ponta da Castanha (Johns 1985, 1986) 6.0 individuals/km².<br/>Not hunted: Igarapé Acu (Peres 1988) 30.5 individuals/km²; Urucú (Peres 1988) 27.7 individuals/km²; Tefé (Peres 1988) 20.0 individuals/km²; Açaituba (Johns 1985, 1986) 17.0 individuals/km². <br/><br/>Peres (1997) estimated the densities of <em>Lagothrix cana cana</em> at two sites in the Brazilan Amazon: Condor 11.1 individuals/km²; Altamira 26.2 individuals/km². Rylands (1982) estimated densities of (hunted) woolly monkeys in <em>terra firma</em> forest ranging from 7.4 to 13.3 individuals/km² (four trails) at Aripuanã, northern Mato Grosso (left bank of the Rio Aripuanã.	eng
39925	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species is heavily hunted and infants are much favoured as pets. In his primate population surveys in a number of sites in the upper Amazon, south of the Rio Solimões in Brazil, Peres (1990) found that <em>Lagothrix</em>, <em>Ateles</em> and <em>Alouatta</em> were prime targets for hunting. Both the woolly monkeys and the spider monkeys were "extremely rare, if not locally extinct", he believed because of hunting, at three of the sites. They were not seen during his transect surveys at the three sites (150 km walked). At one of these sites (Riozinho), between the rios Juruá and Tefé , Peres (1990) reported that the single extended family of rubber tappers (three hunters) there killed over 200 woolly monkeys in a little less than two years, resulting in their local extinction (spider monkeys were nearly extinct there and howlers "drastically reduced"). For these larger species, hunting is the main threat prior to deforestation, and even low-intensity colonization severely reduces their numbers. The females with offspring tend to be targeted by hunters, so that they can sell the infants as pets. Heavy deforestation also occurs in many parts of this species' range, notably in the east and south (Mato Grosso, Rondonia). Mining (e.g., cassiterite) is a cause of forest loss and hunting in the south of its range, <br/><br/><em>Lagothrix cana tschudii</em> would appear to have a very restricted range, but large parts of it are completely uninhabited (Wallace and Painter 1999).	eng
39926	conservation	Stevenson, P. & Link, A., 2008	This species occurs in the three contiguous protected areas of: <br/><br/>La Macarena National Park (630,000 ha) (see Nishimura and Izawa 1975; Nishimura 1986; 1988, 1990a,b; Stevenson 1992)<br/>Tinigua National Natural Park (201,875 ha) (see Stevenson <em>et al.</em> 1994; Stevenson 2000; Stevenson and Castellanos 2000)<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range: Defler 2003, 2004).<br/><br/>Also present in Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989).<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39926	distribution	Stevenson, P. & Link, A., 2008	The range was delimited by Defler (2003, 1004) and Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976). Occurs to the north of the lower Río Guayabero, where it is scarce (Klein and Klein 1976). More common through the piedmont of the Uribe region (between La Macarena and the Cordillera Oriental and in the Serrania La Macarena). It extends north to the along the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental to about 3,000 m. In Central Colombia, <em>L.  lugens</em> extends from the upper Magdalena valley to at least southern Tolima, west of the of the Río Magdalena and historically at least to the southern part of the Department of Cesar, on the west side of the Cordillera. It is almost certainly extinct there today. There is an isolated enclave in the Serrania de San Lucas in south-eastern Bolivar and northern Antioquia at the northern end of the Central Cordillera. The San Lucas population, studied briefly by Kavanagh and Dresdale, 1975), may have been connected to the populations of the upper Magdalena valley when there was forest there.  <em>L. lugens</em> meets <em>L. lagothricha</em> somewhere in the Department of Caquetá, but exactly where is not known.<br/><br/>Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) reported that no woolly monkeys have been collected in Venezuela, but that they would expect <em>L. lugen</em>s to occur in the Selva San Camilo. State of Apure (following the distribution proposed by Fooden [1963] and Hernández-Camacho and Cooper [1976]).	eng
39926	habitat	Stevenson, P. & Link, A., 2008	Occurs in primary forest from lowlands up to elevations of 3,000 m. They have also been recorded in gallery and Mauritia palm forest odf the eastern plains of Colombia as well as in seasonally flooded forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Klein and Klein 1976; Moynihan 1976). Studying a group of <em>L. lugens</em> in the Tinigua National Park, Colombia, Stevenson <em>et al</em>. (1994) observed a preference for mature forest (82% of the group's time spent there) over open, degraded forest (11%) and flooded forest (5%).<br/><br/>In 1967, Klein and Klein (1976) made some observations on the habitat and distribution of this species in La Macarena Natural National Park, Colombia, and Bernstein <em>et al</em>. (1976a) and Kavanagh and Dresdale (1975) made a brief study of its behaviour in a patch of cloud forest in the Serrania de San Lucas, Bolívar, Colombia. Woolly monkeys are frugivores, eating also young leaves, leaf buds, flowers, nectar and bark (Ramirez 1980). Stevenson <em>et al.</em> (1994) reviewed observations on group sizes in the Tinigua National Park. Seven groups observed during the late 1980s and early 1990s ranged in size from 14 to about 33. One of the groups (17 individuals: 4 adult males, 5 adult females, 1 subadult male, 1 subadult female, 2 infant males and 2 infant females) ranged over 169 ha.<br/><br/>Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals (typically around 3 years) makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats. Females begin mating at 5 or 6 years of age, when they leave their natal groups, but do not conceive until 1.5-3 years later (Nishimura <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
39926	population	Stevenson, P. & Link, A., 2008	Occurs at densities of up to 50 individuals/km² in protected areas (P. Stevenson pers. comm.).	eng
39926	threats	Stevenson, P. & Link, A., 2008	The major threats are hunting for food (mainly subsistence) and habitat loss due agricultural development/expansion. Habitat loss is also taking place due to clearance of forest for coca plantations, accompanied by fumigation of coca plantations that results in defoliation of contiguous forests. Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals (typically around 3 years) makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.	eng
39927	conservation	Stevenson, P., Link, A., Di Fiore, A., de la Torre, S. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Lopes and Rehg 2003) <br/>Jutaí -Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha)<br/>Javarí-Burití Area of Ecological Interest (15,000 ha)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Di Fiore 2003; Tirira 2007)<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Soini 1990)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39927	distribution	Stevenson, P., Link, A., Di Fiore, A., de la Torre, S. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Lagothrix poeppigii</em> occurs south of the Ríos Napo and Amazonas (in Ecuador below 1,800 m), north of the Marañon it extends east from the Cordillera Oriental (Río Morona), but south of the Río Marañón to the west of the Río Huallaga as far south as the east (left bank) of the Rio Mayo. From there, the species is known from the east of the Hualaga soiuth as far as the Rio Aguaytia and Pachitea. <em>Lagothrix cana</em> occurs between the Ríos Ucayali and Pachitea. <em>L. poeppigii</em> occurs east of the Río Ucaylai as far south as the Río Inuya (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). According to Fooden (1963), the eastern range limit of <em>L. poeppigii</em> is the Rio Juruá, but variable shapes of reddish brown typical of the species extend through to the Rio Purus.	eng
39927	habitat	Stevenson, P., Link, A., Di Fiore, A., de la Torre, S. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Occurs in primary forest, and does not occur in disturbed and secondary forests. In Ecuador, it occurs on tropical and subtropical <em>terra firma</em> and seasonally inundated forests at altitudes of 200 to 1,600 m above sea level<br/><br/>Field studes of this species have been carried out in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru (Soini 1986a,b, 1990) and the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador (Di Fiore and Rodman 2001; Di Fiore 2003, 2004, 2005; Di Fiore and Fleischer 2005). Di Fiore (1997) observed two groups in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador; one of 22-23 and the other of 24-25, each woth multiple adult males and females. The home range of the former group was 124 ha, and the latter 108 ha (Di Fiore 2003). <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male weight mean 7.1 kg (n=6), adult female weight 4.53 kg (n=9) (Lu 1999, in Di Fiore and Campbell 2007))	eng
39927	population	Stevenson, P., Link, A., Di Fiore, A., de la Torre, S. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	In lowland Ecuador, where they have not been hunted, they are the most abundant primate in terms of biomass and numbers of individuals (T. di Fiore pers. comm.). Di Fiore (1997) recorded a density of more than 31 individuals/km² in the Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.	eng
39927	threats	Stevenson, P., Link, A., Di Fiore, A., de la Torre, S. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	The major threat to this species is subsistence and market hunting for food, and habitat loss due to small-holder agriculture.	eng
39928	conservation	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	This species occurs in La Macarena National Park and Tinigua National Park. Although some populations are found within protected areas, guerilla activity makes it difficult to monitor these areas (T. Defler, pers comm.).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39928	distribution	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Colombia, in the department of Cundinamarca (Medina) north as far as the lower Río Upía/Río Meta, and south into the department of Meta, along the base of the Cordillera Oriental and the Sierra de la Macarena to the Río Guayabero/upper Río Guaviare. It is the only member of the <em>cupreus</em> and <em>moloch</em> group occurring north of the Rios Amazonas/Solimões/Napo axis, in the upper Río Orinoco basin and is separated from the nearest other member of the <em>cupreus</em> group (<em>Callicebus discolor</em>) in the south by at least 350 km (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
39928	habitat	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Callicebus ornatus</em> typically occurs in lowland tropical forests (canopy 15-20 m) (Defler 2004) and disturbed habitats (Mason 1968). <br/><br/>The ecology of this species has been studied in the department of Meta by Mason (1965, 1966a, 1966b, 1968, 1971) and Robinson (1977, 1979a, 1979b, 1981, 1982a,b). Polanco (1992) and Porras (2000) studied a population near the Duda River.	eng
39928	population	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Robinson (1977) recorded a population density of 5 individuals/km².	eng
39928	threats	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	This species occurs in an area subject to intense human colonization that has been subject to widespread habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
39929	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	The species is not found in any officially protected area. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39929	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Endemic to Brazil, the Blond Titi Monkey occurs in the states of Bahia (Hershkovitz 1990) and Sergipe at approximately 240-900 m asl (Printes 2007) from the Rio Paraguaçu river basin to the border between the states of Bahia and Sergipe along the margins of the Rio Real. Prior to the survey of Printes (2005, 2007), this species was known from only four localities: Lamarão (type locality), Formosa, Bandeira de Melo and Mirorós in the municipality of Ibipeba all in the State of Bahia (Hershkovitz 1990; Marinho-Filho and Veríssimo 1997). However, the taxon has now been confirmed at over 55 sites in Bahia and Sergipe (Printes 2007; Estrela <em>et al.</em> 2007). In recent surveys (195 km) undertaken in Lamarão in Bahia, the species was registered in four locations, all caatinga scrubland fragments (Estrela <em>et al</em>. 2007), some considerably smaller than previously estimated (A. Estrela pers. comm.). In the past, the coastal forests of the ‘Agreste’ in eastern Bahia probably supported large populations; however, this type of vegetation is rare today (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Populations have been located in three main regions: Agreste, Lamarão and north of the Chapada Diamantina. No titis were recorded in the region west of Araci and Nova Soure, which is dominated by the Cerrado. However, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> was recorded in the Caatinga of the moister uplands northeast of Araci (Mandacaru, Mirandela and Serra Branca). The species was also recorded in Caatinga habitat further north as far as the Salitre river, 170 km from Juazeiro, but titis were not recorded west of the Chapada Diamantina (Printes 2007; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.)<br/><br/><em>Callicebus melanochir</em> replaces <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> in the region known as the ‘Recôncavo Baiano’ (south of the Paraguaçu river in the municipality of Igrapiuna). The lower Paraguaçu forms the limit between the geographic ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em>, restricted to the left or north bank, and <em>C. melanochir</em>, found on the right bank. Further west, in the region of Feira de Santana, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> occurs on both banks of the Paraguaçu. There appears to be no physical barrier between the eastern limit of the range of <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> and the western limit of <em>C. coimbrai</em> (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>The extent of occurrence of the Blond Titi Monkey is estimated to cover an area of some 291,438 km², but its area of occupancy is only thought to be 2,636 km² (Printes 2007; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Approximately 90% of all records are between 37º and 41ºW and 09º and 13ºS (Printes 2007).	eng
39929	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Occurs in caatinga (dry scrubland) with a preferences for dense arboreal caatinga (Printes 2007). There are no available data on ecology.	eng
39929	population	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	The estimated minimum population is 260 individuals (Printes 2007).	eng
39929	threats	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Rylands, A.B., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Occurs in a region of Brazil with widespread deforestation and habitat fragmentation. Cattle ranching, agriculture and continuing urbanisation are the main threats. The area is characterized by rapid development facilitated by an extensive network of highways. Other threats include potential dangers from roads and power-lines and predation by domestic pets. This species occurs in small fragmented populations that are exposed to synergistic genetic and demographic risks. Hunting pressure needs to be ascertained, but it is probably moderate due to the small body size. During surveys, a few individuals were found being kept as pets (Printes <em>et al.</em> in prep).	eng
39930	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including the Pau Brasil National Park, south of the Jequitinhonha. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39930	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	According to Hershkovitz (1990), <em>Callicebus melanochir</em> is found in Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil between the right margin of the rio Paraguaçu in the state of Bahia and the left bank of the rio Mucur in northern Espírito Santo. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) claimed that the species may overlap with <em>C. personatus</em> in the Itaúnas and Mucuri river valleys, in the north of Espírito Santo. Cerrado (savanna) acts as a barrier to the distribution of titis today and it is likely that <em>C. melanochir</em> ranges no further west into Minas Gerais than Montes Claros (Printes 2005). To the north, <em>C. melanochir</em> extends as far as the Rio Paraguaçu, where it meets the ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em> and <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> (Hershkovitz 1990; Oliver and Santos 1991; Flesher 1999; Sousa in prep). It may formerly have occurred in the Pardo-Jequitinhonha interfluvium, but the forests of this region have now been replaced by cattle pasture and recent surveys found no <em>Callicebus</em> there (Printes <em>et al</em>. in press). This species may reach as far south as the Rio Doce (300 km to the south), while to the west it is replaced by <em>C. personatus</em> (Printes in press).	eng
39930	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic forest, where it occurs also in areas of degraded habitat. There are very few studies on the ecology and behaviour of members of the <em>personatus</em> group. However, <em>Callicebus melanochir</em> has been the subject of  a few studies in Bahia. They live in small family groups, with a home range of 22–24 ha (Müller 1996; Heiduck 2002) and a mean day range of approximately 1 km (Müller 1996). The diet comprises mainly fleshy fruit parts, seeds and young leaves (Heiduck 1997). A group in Serra do Teimoso Reserve, Jussari, was highly frugivorous, with 90% of their diet composed of fruit, complemented by leaves, flowers and other items (Cardoso and Santos 2005).	eng
39930	population	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. The populations are highly fragmented.	eng
39930	threats	Veiga, L.M., Printes, R.C., Ferrari, S.F., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species inhabits the most developed and populous region of Brazil, in a region that has suffered from extensive habitat loss and fragmentation and where there is now very little remaining forest cover (estimated from between 5 to 10%). The reduction of available habitat for the eastern Brazilian titis is ongoing, mainly due to pressures for cattle ranching and agriculture. Hunting pressure is probably negligible to moderate in most cases, given their small body size.	eng
39931	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Management suggestions for <em>E. asteroides</em>: <br/>(1) A survey of basalt pavement should be made in the Kilum-Ijim area.  When areas are located, these species should be searched for and vouchered if found.  A rough number of the area of occupancy and total number of plants should be made.  This will allow a more complete mapping of the species and a more comprehensive understanding of their population size. <br/>(2) Considerations should be given to using experimental means to examine the effects of the possible threats mentioned above.  Several square metres of one population could be fenced off and protected from fire and grazing.  The effects of these could be monitored on an annual basis.  Another area could be subjected to cattle or horse trampling to look at the effect of this on the soil that hosts these species.  The results of this experimentation could then be used to guide management of the habitat of these species.	eng
39931	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is known from Cameroon (Mamenda Highlands, Mt. Oku, and the Ijim Ridge area), and Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau (Chappal Waddi)).  Six localities are known.	eng
39931	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Occurs on Basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt; with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> (circa. 1,700-2,500 m altitude).	eng
39931	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the species are unknown, however, too much trampling by cattle may cause damage to these small annual <em>Eriocaulon</em> plants by dislodging them from the basalt substrate the thin layer of peaty soil in which they grow.  Conversely, lack of grazing or of intermittent grassland fires might permit the built-up of enough soil on the pavement to allow a <em>Sporolobus</em>-based community to encroach upon the basalt pavement and smother or compete with the <em>Eriocaulon</em>.	eng
39932	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	A population census of the known sites should be completed, and the sites monitored for changes in numbers of individuals annually. Information on the demography of this species is deficient.  Work is needed to discover the relative importance and levels of recruitment from division of clumps, seeds and parthenogenesis from viviparous capitula.	eng
39932	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is known from Cameroon (Mt. Oku, the Ijim Ridge, and the Bamenda Highlands), and Nigeria (Mayo Daga).	eng
39932	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The plant occurs on basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt; with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> (circa. 1,700-2,500 m altitude).	eng
39932	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is vulnerable, above all, to changes to the water table. Drainage of swamps or conversely, flooding for use as reservoirs would threaten this species with extinction.  The species is also vulnerable to trampling by cattle.	eng
39933	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Management suggestions for <em>E. parvulum</em>: <br/>(1) A survey of basalt pavement should be made in the Kilum-Ijim area.  When areas are located, these species should be searched for and vouchered if found.  A rough number of the area of occupancy and total number of plants should be made.  This will allow a more complete mapping of the species and a more comprehensive understanding of their population size. <br/>(2) Considerations should be given to using experimental means to examine the effects of the possible threats mentioned above.  Several square metres of one population could be fenced off and protected from fire and grazing.  The effects of these could be monitored on an annual basis.  Another area could be subjected to cattle or horse trampling to look at the effect of this on the soil that hosts these species.  Results of this experimentation could then be used to guide management of the habitat of these species.	eng
39933	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	This species is endemic to Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge in Cameroon.	eng
39933	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	It is known to occur on basalt pavement, i.e., thin, peaty, seasonally waterlogged soil in the cracks between blocks of basalt, with <em>Utricularia scandens, Loudetia simplex</em> and <em>Scleria interrupta</em> at altitudes of 1,700-2,500 m.	eng
39933	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Current threats to the population are unknown, however, trampling by cattle may damage these small annual <em>Eriocaulon</em> plants by dislodging them from the basalt substrate the thin layer of peaty soil in which they grow.  Conversely, lack of grazing or of intermittent grassland fires might permit the built-up of enough soil on the pavement to allow a <em>Sporolobus</em>-based community to encroach upon the basalt pavement and smother or compete with the <em>Eriocaulon</em>.	eng
39934	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Recorded from Bioko, Mt Cameroon, Bamboutos Mountains and Mt. Oku.	eng
39934	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Occurs in montane grassland, sometimes at forest edges at 1,850-3,800 m alt.	eng
39935	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Management is best focused upon the Kilum-Ijim subpopulation which is best protected and at which the species appears from the surveys done so far to be at its most numerous.	eng
39935	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in the Cameroon Highlands from Manenguba (one collection) to the Bamenda Highlands (five collections from four locations) including Mts Neshele, Lake Bambuluwe and Lake Ohu.	eng
39935	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Grows on lower branches or leaning trunks of trees, rarely terrestrial, in densely canopied areas of montane forests at 1,800–2,800 m alt.	eng
39935	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Continued clearance of remaining montane forest at Muanenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands outside of protected areas, together with possible future encroachment into protected areas, severely threaten this species.	eng
39937	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Known only from the type collection at Ijim at Nchian, Ijim Ridge, Cameroon. <br/>This species has not been seen since it was first discovered in 1931, which suggests that it may be highly localised geographically, and possibly extinct.	eng
39937	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Grows in rocky grassland at 1,860 m alt.	eng
39938	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The species has been found in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.	eng
39938	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	In the Limpopo Province it has been recorded from the Waterberg district, while in Gauteng it has been recorded from the Heidelberg area and Bronberg/Magaliesberg area east of Pretoria. Known from five locations.	eng
39938	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	A terrestrial orchid restricted to steep slopes, growing among grass or bush on sandstone-derived soils.	eng
39938	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Habitat transformation and fragmentation mainly through urbanization and agriculture are the main threats. The Bronberg subpopulation is severely threatened by expanding urbanization.  Also  threatened by collectors.  This orchid is highly sought after by orchid collectors because it is so rare.	eng
39939	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Occurs in the Tweedsmere Ranch Natural Heritage site and Nature Reserve. Also occurs in the Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve and the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.	eng
39939	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This species is apparently endemic to the Gauteng Province of South Africa, although there are indications that it may formerly have occurred near Queenstown in the Eastern Cape Province (C. Archer, pers. comm.). The extent of occurrence is less than 2,600 km² and the area of occupancy <5 km².  The species is known from seven locations and is not considered severely fragmented, hence does not qualify for listing as Critically Endangered under criterion B. <br/> <br/>All seven known localities have been surveyed in recent years. The Uitkomst-Tweedsmere Ranch (Sterkfontein World Heritage Site) locality comprises 61-70 individuals; the Irene Koppie locality (which is currently being urbanized) still has 35-40 individuals, but these will disappear as the development grows; the <br/>Thorntree Kloof, Johannesburg locality probably has 12-15 individuals based on an unconfirmed observation, in an urbanized area; the Waterval WNW of Krugersdorp locality could not be found and is presumed to be extinct; the Sterkfontein locality comprises 35-40 individuals in a relatively rural area; the Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve locality also comprises 35-40 individuals and the Linksfield Ridge locality is assumed to comprise 12-15 individuals, based on an unconfirmed observation from this urban site.	eng
39939	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	An erect herb rising from an ellipsoid tuber which grows in open grassland on dolomite or in black sandy soil.	eng
39939	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Expanding urbanization is the greatest threat.  One of the sites is now an aerodrome.	eng
39940	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2004	More information is needed on the number of individuals at the known sites and about levels of regeneration. Enforcement of existing protected area boundaries would help protect a significant portion of the surviving plants.	eng
39940	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2004	Known from the Bamenda Highlands (several sites) and Muanenguba (one collection) in Cameroon and Mambilla Plateau in Nigeria (one collection).	eng
39940	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2004	Grows in the understorey of montane evergreen forest at 1,650–2,000(-2,400) m alt.	eng
39940	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2004	Clearance of forest primarily for agricultural expansion.	eng
39941	conservation	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Both the Lake Oku and Ajung cliffs are inside the Kilum-Ijim boundary, and so are protected, so long as the boundaries are respected.  More information is needed on the number of individuals present at the two known sites, and on levels of regeneration.  The plant at the potential third site (Ntum) should be vouchered.  This species should be looked for in other areas of forest in the Bamenda highlands.	eng
39941	distribution	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Known only from Mt. Oku and the Ijim Ridge in Cameroon.	eng
39941	habitat	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	Found in the understorey of montane evergreen forest (1,800-2,200 m altitude).	eng
39941	threats	Cheek, M. & Pollard, B.J., 2000	The species is possibly cut for firewood.  This along with forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
39942	distribution	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	In rock slides, at base of cliff on north side of Magazine Mountain at around 2,800 ft.	eng
39943	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas, including the Serra do Mar reserve complex, the Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA Sul), in the municipality of Nova Lima, south of the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte and even the Cantareira State Park in the centre of the city of São Paulo. The extensive fragmentation of remaining habitat throughout its range may necessitate a metapopulation management strategy in the future (Printes <em>et al.</em> in prep).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39943	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	<em>Callicebus nigrifrons</em> is distributed over a relatively wide area in south-eastern Brazil. Its range includes much of São Paulo, southern Minas Gerais, and eastern Rio de Janeiro states. It has the largest distribution of any species in the <em>personatus</em> group (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002), It is found north of the Tietê and east of the Rios Paraná and Parnaíba, and on both margins of the upper Rio São Francisco. The species extends east as far as the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço ranges, where it meets the range of <em>C. personatus</em>.	eng
39943	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	An inhabitant of the Atlantic forest, occurring in both mature rain forest and disturbed fragments. The ecology of this species is relatively unknown, with most data coming from inferences based on studies of other members in the genus, which suggest that this species is frugivorous, monogamous, lives in small family groups (2 to 5 individuals) and is territorial (Cäsar <em>et al.</em> in press). A considerable amount of time is spent of foraging and feeding (47%), and a significant amount of time resting (21%) (Franco 2006).	eng
39943	population	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	The population density of <em>C. nigrifrons</em> in a 50-ha forest fragment was estimated at 80–100 individuals per km² (Soares 2006), which is six times higher than for <em>C. personatus</em> (a similar-sized species living in the same habitat). In the Atlantic forest, a mean density of 15.67 ± 6.51 individuals/km² has been recorded (Chiarello and Melo 2001).	eng
39943	threats	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C.M., de Oliveira, M.M. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This species inhabits the most developed and populous region of Brazil, and has suffered extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. Although the species is widespread, urbanization, expanding agriculture and logging practices have led to extreme fragmentation of the forests within its range and resulting small isolated populations. In many places, they have been locally or regionally extirpated even where forests patches remain.	eng
39944	conservation	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Occurs in La Paya National Park (Defler 2004), but due to the park's remote location, land tenure problems, and local political conflicts, it a difficult area to manage. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39944	distribution	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Occurs in the Colombian Amazon between the Ríos Caquetá and Putumayo in the Intendencia del Putumayo and the southern part of the Intendencia de Caquetá (Hershkovitz 1990). Martinez and Rowe (2003) confirmed that the species that occurs in Ecuador is <em>C. lucifer</em> not <em>C. medemi</em> as suggested by van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
39944	habitat	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
39944	population	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
39944	threats	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	The main threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation due to timber extraction, uncontrolled slash-and-burn agriculture and cattle grazing, and the planting of illegal crops and aerial spraying (even within the La Paya National Park; E. Palacios pers. comm.). There is also some hunting and trapping of animals for food and pets.	eng
39945	conservation	de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of protected areas.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus n. nigricollis</em><br/><br/>If it occurs north of the Río Içá in Brazil, it may be present in the 745,830-ha Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station. In Colombia, it probably occurs in the Amacayacú National Natural Park, and possibly in the La Paya National Natural Park and the Cahuinarí National Natural Park (Defler 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus. n. graellsi</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>None<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (4,613 ha) (S. de la Torre, in litt. 1996; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve (655,781 ha) (de la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995b; Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambé-Coca Faunal Ecological Reserve (350,000 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Faunal Ecologicla Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus. n. hernadezi</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Tinigua National Park (Tovar 1994)<br/>It is not known if it occurs in the Cordillera de los Picachos National Natural Park to the north of Tinigua, and also on the west bank of the Río Guayabero.	eng
39945	distribution	de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis nigricollis</em><br/>Hershkovitz (1977) recorded that it occurs between the Rios Solimões-Amazonas and Içá-Putumayo, at least as far west as the mouth of the Río Napo. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) documented its occurrence west from there along the left (north) bank of the Río Napo in Peru, upstream at least as far as the Ríos Aguarico, Lagartococha and Güepi on the border with Ecuador, where it is replaced by <em>S. n. graellsi</em>, as was proposed by Hershkovitz (1982). In Colombia, its distribution is poorly known, but Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (1994) reported that it occurs north of the Río Putumayo to the Río Caquetá, and east to the Brazilian border, indicating its, as yet undocumented, presence between the Rios Japurá and Iça in Brazil (Hershkovitz 1977, 1982). However, evidence for its occurrence north of the Río Putumayo in Colombia is sparse. Its supposed presence in two large protected areas in this region (La Paya National Natural Park and Cahuinarí National Natural Park) has not yet been confirmed (Defler 1994). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) reported that they observed <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> groups mixed with <em>S. f. fuscus</em> at Puerto Leguízamo, located on the north bank of the upper Putumayo. According to them <em>S. n. graellsi</em> is sympatric with <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> at Puerto Leguízamo, and west from there between the Ríos Putumayo and Caquetá. For this reason, they argued that the form <em>graellsi</em> should be considered a distinct species (see also Defler 1994). Otherwise the only evidence is that of a young specimen collected in 1960 by H. Granados and H. Arévalo labeled “Caquetá-Putumayo”, as reported by Hershkovitz (1982) who pointed out that it may have been taken from the left bank of the Río Putumayo. Hershkovitz (1982) argued that the evidence for the occurrence of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> north of the Río Putumayo is not yet conclusive. In this case, the possibility remains that its range is restricted to the right bank of the Río Putumayo. This being so, Hershkovitz (1982) pointed out that there would be a gap between the ranges of <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> (north of the Río Caquetá) and <em>S. n. graellsi</em> (south of the Río Putumayo). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), however, give place <em>S. n. graellsi</em> as occurring north of the upper reaches of the Río Putumayo, north to the Río Caquetá, in which case the ranges would be continuous with <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> north of the Río Caquetá. The exact range of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> in Colombia remains unclear. North of the Río Putumayo, <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> would be sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis fuscus</em>.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis graellsi</em><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis graellsi</em> occurs in the upper Amazon, in southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and north-eastern Peru. Its range is not well known, however, and our interpretation of the current evidence indicates that it is probably more restricted than is indicated by Hershkovitz (1977, 1982). According to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), in Colombia it occurs south from right (south) bank of the upper Río Caquetá to the Ríos Sucumbios and Putumayo on the border with Ecuador. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) recorded that it occurred in the neighborhood of Puerto Asís on the upper Putumayo, east as far as Puerto Leguízamo. These authors informed that <em>S. n. graellsi</em> is sympatric with <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> in the region of Puerto Leguízamo, and the form <em>graellsi</em> should, therefore, be considered a distinct species, although doubts remain. Defler (1989, 1994) argued for this possibility, although Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1988) listed it as a subspecies of <em>S. n. nigricollis</em>. Hershkovitz (1982) argued that there is no definite evidence for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> occurring north of Ecuador, and suggested that Black-mantle Tamarins reported by Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) may be either of the other two subspecies. He restricted its northern limit to the Ríos Putumayo and Sucumbios, indicating as such that it does not occur in Colombia at all. According to Hershkovitz (1982), in Ecuador <em>S. n. graellsi</em> extends throughout a large part of the Amazon region, south from the Río Putumayo, west to the foothills of the Andes. The altitudinal range is between 100 m and 1,000 m (Hershkovitz 1982). Hershkovitz (1977) suggested that the range in Ecuador may extend as far south as the right bank of the upper Río Santiago, although in a later publication (Hershkovitz 1982) he was more conservative, giving the north (right) bank of the Río Pastaza as the limit. The only specimens from the Ríos Pastaza and Tigre are from their uppermost reaches in Ecuador. <br/><br/>According to Aquino and Encarnación (1994), eastwards, <em>S. n. graellsi</em> extends into Peru along the right (south) banks of the Río Napo to its mouth, and restricted to the north (right) banks of the Ríos Amazonas and Marañón. However, <em>S. n. graellsi</em> has not been recorded in Peru except for the banks of the Napo and Curaray, and its occurrence in the basins of the northern tributaries of the Río Marañón has yet to be confirmed. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that <em>S. n. graellsi</em> has never been found along the Rios Tigre and Pastaza, for example, despite a number of primatological surveys along these rivers between 1981 and 1986. The known distribution in Peru is restricted to the region between the Ríos Nanay and Napo. Although occurring north of the Río Napo in Ecuador, it extends east only as far the Ríos Güepí and Lagartococha on the frontier with Peru (Hershkovitz 1982), where it is replaced by <em>S. n. nigricollis</em> (Hershkovitz 1982; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It has been recorded recently in a number of localities in northern Ecuador between the Ríos Napo and Putumayo, including the basins of the Río Aguarico, Cuyabeno and Pacuyacu (S. de la Torre, in litt. 1996). However, it has not been found in the Yasuní National Park, covering the basin of the Rio Yasuní, where it would seem that only <em>S. tripartitus</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em> occur (Albuja 1994; S. de la Torre, in litt., 1996). Although Hershkovitz (1977) argued for the restriction of the type locality to the right bank of the Río Napo above the mouth of the Rio Curaray, no definite records or specimens are available for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> in Ecuador between these rivers (Hershkovitz 1977, 1982; Albuja 1994), and it would seem probable that only two <em>Saguinus</em> species occur there: <em>S. tripartitus</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em>.<br/><br/>The distribution of <em>S. n. graellsi </em> therefore has yet to be clearly defined. However, if it occurs in Colombia it would be sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis fuscus</em>, and in Ecuador and Peru it is sympatric, at least in some areas such as the upper reaches of the Rios Napo, Curaray, Pindo Yacu and Pastaza, with <em>S. fuscicollis lagonotus</em> (see Hershkovitz 1982; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It would appear that it does not occur between the Ríos Curaray and Napo in Peru and Ecuador, and is not, therefore, sympatric with <em>S. tripartitus</em>. Tirira (2007) reported that the limjits of its range in Ecuador are poorly defined. In the north of the country, it is not known if it reaches the ríos Sucumbíos and Putumayo, and that the identity of the tamarins to the south of the Río Napo in the provinces of Oreallana and Pastaza is uncertain. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis hernandezi</em><br/><em>Saguinus n. hernandezi</em> occurs in eastern Colombia between the Ríos Caquetá, Caguan, and Orteguaza and the base of the Cordillera Oriental, Intendencia de Caquetá (Hershkovitz 1982). K. Izawa (in Hershkovitz 1982) reported that <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> was not seen on the north bank of the Río Caquetá, but it has been found to the north and north-east of the Caquetá in the Department of Meta, Angostura I, on the right bank of the Río Guayabero (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1988; Tovar 1994). Presumably it occurs at least along the eastern slopes of the Andes from the headwaters of the Río Caguan to the Río Guayabero. The altitudinal range is 150-500 m above sea level (Hershkovitz 1982).	eng
39945	habitat	de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	The Black-mantled Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, dry forests in Colombia, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Izawam 1978; Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tovar 1994; De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995a). Tovar (1992) observed <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> on the south bank of the Río Guayabero in highly seasonal dry forest and spiny-leaved scleromophic scub (<em>arrabal</em>). In Ecuador, Tirira (2007) describes the habitat of <em>S. n. graellsi</em> as tropical and subtropical humid forests between 200 and 1,300 m above sea level, although most commonly found below 400 m above sea level. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects) (Izawa, 1978). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Tovar (1994) studied a group which ranged in size from 7 to 11. Eight groups of <em>S. n. graellsi</em> observed by de la Torre <em>et al.</em> (1992, 1995a) ranged in size from 2-9. Ten groups of <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> observed by Izawa (1978) averaged 6.3 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus n. graellsi</em> group of 7-9 was found to use a home range of 56.2 ha in the dry season and 41.7 ha in the wet season (De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995a). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult males weigh 468 g (n=8) (Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 2004)<br/>Adult females weigh 484 g (n=6) (Hershkovitz 1977; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 2004)<br/>Adult males and females 390-470 g (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus nigricollis hernandezi</em><br/>Adult female holotype H&B 22.0, TL 34.0 cm (Hershkovitz, 1977).	eng
39945	population	de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Izawa (1978) calculated an ecological density for <em>S. n. hernandezi</em> on the Río Peneya, Colombia, of 1-24 individuals/km², and a crude density of 10-13 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Population density estimated for <em>S. n. graellsi</em> in the Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve, Ecuador, by De la Torre <em>et al</em>. (1995a) was 22-33 individuals/km². Delfer (2004) recorded crude denties at four sites aloing the upper Río Purité, Colombia, that ranged from 4-15 individuals/km².	eng
39945	threats	de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Saguinus n. nigricollis</em> is regarded as common in Peru by Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989), and although it was heavily exploited for export for biomedical research in the 1960/1970s, it was reported by Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) to be common in Colombia too. Its status in Brazil is unknown. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus n. graellsi</em> in Ecuador remains widespread north of the Río Napo, but its distribution overlaps a region that is experiencing high rates of forest loss.<br/> <br/><em>Saguinus n. hernandezi</em>, on the other hand, has a small distribution restricted to Colombia, but, although there is little information available regarding its conservation status, it occurs in the Tinigua National Park, is evidently adaptable, and there is no reason to believe that there are any major threats to its survival in the short term  (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985; Defler 1994).	eng
39947	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/>This species occurs, or may occur, in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284,285 ha), within range, unconfirmed<br/><br/>Peru <br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (745,830 ha), within supposed range, unconfirmed<br/>Mamirauá State Ecological Station (1,124,000 ha) within supposed range, unconfirmed<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>La Paya National Natural Park (422,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Cahuinarí National Natural Park (575,000 ha), possible, unconfirmed (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha), possibly on left bank of Rio Purus<br/>Lago Ayapuá State Environment Protection Area (610,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (1,478,800 ha) (Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Abiseo National Park, possibly above altitudinal range<br/>Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (122,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Alto Mayo Protection Forest (182,000 ha), probably the low-lying parts.<br/>Panguana Biological Station (200 ha), south of its range (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Yanesha Communal Reserve (34,744 ha), possible, within range<br/>San Matias-San Carlos Protection Forest (145,818 ha), possible, within range <br/>Pui-pui Protection Forest (60,000 ha), possible, within range<br/>It has not been recorded for the Río Abiseo National Park probably due to the high altitude.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em><br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em><br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi National Reserve (1,844,375 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (77,500 ha)<br/>Cuniã State Environmental Protection Area (104,000 ha)<br/>Samuel State Ecological Station (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Serra dos Três Irmãos State Park (99,813 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al</em>, 1996a)<br/>Guajará-Mirim State Park (258,000 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>Pimenta Bueno Municipal Park (532 ha) (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1996b)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha)<br/>Tambopata Natural Wildlife Reserve (5,500 ha).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>None	eng
39947	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are 10 recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis</em> (Brazil, Peru)<br/>Spix’s Saddleback Tamarin occurs to the south of the Rio Solimões in Brazil, between the Rio Javarí in the west, east through the Rio Jutaí basin to the Rio Juruá (left bank) (Hershkovitz 1977, Peres 1993a). Hodun <em>et al.</em> (1981, see also Soini 1990a,b; Aquino and Encarnación 1994) also found it in Peru, west of the Río Yavarí as far as the Río Tapiche, an eastern tributary of the Río Ucayali, and extending north from there as far as the Río Blanco (left or western bank), where it meets the range of <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> (right, eastern bank of Río Blanco). <em>S. f. illigeri</em> occurs west of the Río Tapiche (left bank), and <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> is replaced by <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> again at the headwaters of the Río Tapiche. In the south, it is replaced by <em>S. f. weddelli</em> on the uppermost reaches of the Rios Javarí and Juruá near the frontier with Peru (see Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Peres 1993a; Peres <em>et al</em>. 1996). The altitudinal range is 75–150 m above sea level (Hershkovitz 1977). <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> is sympatric with Spix’s Moustached Tamarin, <em>S. m. mystax</em>, throughout its geographic distribution.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus</em> (Brazil, Colombia)<br/>Lesson’s Saddle-back Tamarin is the most northerly known subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin. It occurs in the lowland forests north of the Rio Solimões, ranging north-west between the Rio Japurá-Caquetá and Içá-Putumayo in Brazil and Colombia (Hershkovitz 1968). In Brazil, the easternmost locality known for <em>S. f. fuscus</em> is the Rio Tonantins, a north bank tributary of the Rio Solimões (Hershkovitz 1977). According to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976), in Colombia <em>S. f. fuscus</em> also extends north of the middle Río Caquetá, west of the Río Yarí (a northern tributary), through the basin of the Rio Caguán, and lower parts of the Río Orteguaza, west to the Andean foothills to an altitude of 500 m above sea level. It extends north to the right bank of the Río Guayabero and possibly east to the region of around San José de Guaviare on the southern bank of the Río Guaviare, about 1 hour by boat downstream from the confluence of the Ríos Guayabero and Ariari, to the headwaters of the Ríos Vaupés and Apaporis in the southern department of Meta (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). To the east from there it is replaced by <em>Saguinus inustus</em> (see Defler 1994, 2004). On the upper Río Putumayo it follows the left (north) bank of the Río Sucumbíos (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989). Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976, see also Defler 1994) indicated that the form found north of the Río Caquetá, to the region of San José de Guaviare is possibly not <em>S. f. fuscus</em> but a subspecies which has yet to be described. It is not known if <em>S. f. fuscus</em> or some undescribed form of <em>S. fuscicollis</em> occurs between the Riós Apaporis and Caquetá, along the left (east) bank of the Río Yarí (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In this region, <em>S. inustus</em> is believed to be limited to the north (left) bank of the Río Apaporis. Regarding the occurrence of <em>S. f. fuscus</em> to the north of the Río Caquetá, it should be noted that Hershkovitz (1977, 1982) restricted its range to the basin of the Río Orteguaza and the right bank of the Río Caguán.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi </em> (Brazil)<br/>Although based only on its type locality at the mouth of the Lago de Tefé, south bank of the Río Solimões, and a specimen from Ayapuá, left bank of the Rio Purus (Napier 1976), more recent evidence has confirmed the distribution of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> proposed by Hershkovitz (1977) as extending along the south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Juruá and Purus, including the basins of the Rios Urucu and Coarí, and probably the Río Tefé. Johns (1985, 1986) recorded <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> at his study site on the Lago de Tefé, left bank of the Rio Tefé, although it was very uncommon there, and Peres (1991) recorded the subspecies from Jaraqui, on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá. These records confirm the distribution proposed by Hershkovitz (1977). The southern limits are not known but possibly in the region of the north bank of the Rio Tapauá, an affluent of the Rio Purus, but Saddleback Tamarins have not been recorded for this region.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em> (Brazil?, Peru)?<br/>The distribution of this subspecies is not known with certainty. Through some rather complicated detective work, as well as indications concerning its affinities in pelage colour and patterns, Hershkovitz (1968) concluded that the most likely provenance of this distinct Saddleback Tamarin is the upper Rio Purus in Brazil. Hershkovitz (1968, 1977, p.636) placed it tentatively in the upper Rio Purus region, south of the Rio Tapauá to the Rio Pauiní, both left bank tributaries of the Rio Purus. However, following the discovery of <em>S. f. primitivus</em>, described by Hershkovitz (1977) in an addendum and evidently occupying this region, he placed it, equally tentatively, north of the Rio Tapauá, where no Saddleback Tamarins have recorded to date (Hershkovitz 1977, p. 622). This is to the south of the known geographic range of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em>, at the headwaters of the Rio Coarí, and the Rio Repartimento, a right bank tributary of the Rio Tefé. <br/><br/>Van Roosmalen (5 August 2003) reported locating <em>S. fuscicollis cruzlimai</em> in the wild, and informed that Hershkovitz (1977) had been correct in believing that it occurred between the Rios Pauiní and Tapauá, west of the Rio Purus. It was observed by T. van Roosmalen on 21 June 2002, on the west bank of the Rio Purus, opposite the mouth of the Rio Sepatini (Van Roosmalen, 16 August, 2003).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies is confined to north-central Peru, from San Martin, through Huanaco and Pasco to the Río Perene, northern Juno, east to the río Ucayali in Loreto to as far north as the Río Pisqui (Hershkovitz 1977). To the west, it is limited by the Andes, probably not occurring above altitudes of about 900-1,000 m (Hershkovitz 1977). Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) observed no primate species at Moyobamba, in the upper Mayo Forest Reserve, at an altitude of 1,000 m above sea level. <em>S. fuscicollis</em> occurs in the Panguana Biological Station, on the left (south) bank of the Río Yuyapichis, a tributary of the Río Pachitea, in Department of Pasco, about 150 km south of Pucallpa, in the eastern central part of Peru (9º37'S, 74º56'W) (Hutterer <em>et al</em>. 1995), and is presumably <em>S. f. leucogenys</em>.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs in Peru, between the Ríos Amazonas and Yavarí, and along the right bank of the Río Ucayali as far as the Río Blanco (Hodun <em>et al</em>. 1981; Soini 1990a; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Upstream of the Río Ucayali along both sides of the river (to the south of the Rio Blanco), it is replaced by Illiger’s Saddleback Tamarin, <em>S. f. illigeri</em>. Strangely, <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em> appears again on the the right (east) bank of the Río Ucayali at the headwaters of the Río Tapiche, a left bank tributary of the Rio Blanco, probably extending east as far as the Río Yavarí, on the border with Brazil. This southern population is based on a specimen collected by R. W. Hendee in the Cerro Azul, Contamana, in 1927 (Hershkovitz 1977). The southern limit is given by Hershkovitz (1977) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) as the right bank of the Río Ucayali across the river from Pucallpa. There are, therefore, two disjunct populations of <em>S. f. nigrifrons</em>, separated by <em>S. f. illigeri</em> (between the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche/Blanco), and <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> which crossed the Río Yavarí from the east to occupy the left bank of the Río Blanco (as far as the mouth of the Río Tapiche) and the right bank of the Río Tapiche (Soini 1990a,b).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> (Ecuador, Peru)<br/><em>Saguinus. f. lagonotus</em> occurs between the Ríos Napo and Marañón, west to the Andes in Peru and eastern Ecuador (Hershkovitz 1968, 1977). In Peru, it occurs north of the Río Marañón as far west as the Río Chinchipe along the foothills of the Cordillera del Condor (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Hodun <em>et al.</em> (1981) confirmed its presence on the left bank of the Río Marañón, and Aquino and Encarnación (1996) recorded it from the right bank of the Rio Napo from Pantoja (frontier with Ecuador) to its confluence with the Rio Amazonas. <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> is in this case sympatric with <em>S. tripartitus</em> between the Ríos Curaray and Napo in Ecuador (see Albúja 1994; Tirira 2007). Thorington (1988) argued that Hershkovitz’s (1977) restriction of <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> to the right bank of the Río Napo is not necessarily valid and that it may extend north of the river, where it would be sympatric with (but not necessarily occurring in the same habitats) as <em>S. tripartitus</em>. For this reason, Thorington (1988) regarded <em>S. tripartitus</em> to be a full species, whereas Hershkovitz (1977) regards it as subspecific to <em>S. fuscicollis</em>. Aquino and Encarnación (1996) were unable to provide any evidence for the presence of <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> on the north (left) bank of the Río Napo in Peru. The only locality where it is known to extend north of the Napo is in Ecuador at La Coca, mouth of the Río Coca, a northern tributary (Hershkovitz 1977). The altitudinal range is from 100 m to approximately 1,200 m in the far west of its range (Hershkovitz 1977). Tirira (2007) gives and altitudinal range of 200 m to 1,160 m above sea level in Ecuador.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> (Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs in Peru, between the Ríos Huallaga and Ucayali, south of the Río Marañon (Hershkovitz 1977). <em>S. f. illigeri</em> also extends east of the Río Ucayali, from the mouth of the Río Blanco and along the left bank of the Río Tapiche (Hodun <em>et al</em>. 1981, Soini 1990a,b; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). How far south it occurs, east of the Río Ucayali, is not clearly known, although Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it is limited to the Ríos Caxiabatay or Pisqui, west of the Río Ucayali, in the region of Contamana. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated that it occurs south to about 6º10'S, north of Hershkovitz’s projection, although in their distribution map (p.108) they extended the range to nearly 9ºS.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> (Bolivia, Brazil, Peru)<br/><em>Saguinus f. weddelli</em> has the widest distribution of the <em>S. fuscicollis</em> subspecies. It ranges from southern Peru, from the Río Abujao (east tributary of the Río Ucayali), south along both banks of the Río Ucayali east of the Andes, east of the Río Apurimac, and along the upper reaches of such rivers as the Apurimac, Inambari, Urubamaba and Tambopata, to the Rios Madeira and Beni or Mamoré in Bolivia. It extends north in Brazil between the Rios Purus and Madeira in Acre and Amazonas and part of Rondônia, but is known only as far north as the Rio Pixuna (Hershkovitz 1977). It crosses the upper Rio Madeira to its right bank in Rondônia in the region of the Rio Jamarí, south of the Rio Ji-paraná, forming mixed-species groups there with <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em> (see Vivo 1985; Lopes and Ferrari 1994). Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (1995) also recorded <em>S. f. weddelli</em> (but not <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em>) from the Guajará-Mirim State Park in Rondônia, just north of the Rio Guaporé.<br/><br/>Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1976) and Izawa and Bejarano (1981) believed it to be the only tamarin occurring south of the Río Madre de Dios, although judging from the distribution map supplied by Aquino and Encarnación (1994) it would seem that the Rio Madidi, south of the Río Madre de Dios might be the southern limit for the Bearded Emperor Tamarin, <em>S. i. subgrisescens</em>. The southern limit to its range is given by Hershkovitz (1977) as the upper Río Mamoré in Bolivia (about 16ºS), although he provided no evidence for its occurrence east of the Rio Beni. In Peru, it follows the Andean foothills extending as far south as the upper reaches of such rivers as the Apurimac. Heltne <em>et al</em>. (1976) observed it at Ixiamas, Bolivia (13° 46' S, west of the Río Beni) where it was found to be less common than other primates in the area, and they indicated that this locality may be near to the southern limit of its range.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em> (Brazil)<br/><em>Saguinus f. primitivus</em> is known from Pauiní, below the mouth of the Rio Pauiní on the Rio Purus, and from an unspecified locality on the Rio Juruá. Hershkovitz (1977) suggested that the geographic range extends from north (left) bank of the Rio Pauiní, along the left (east) bank of the Rio Purus, north to the Rio Tapauá (right or south bank). It extends west between the Rios Pauiní and Tapauá to the right bank of the Rio Juruá, and Rio Tarauacá (Hershkovitz 1977). Whether Saddleback Tamarins occur on the left (north) bank of the Rio Tapauá is not known. Cruz Lima’s Saddleback Tamarin, <em>S. f. cruzlimai</em>, may occur there or, alternatively, the Rio Tapauá may mark the southern limit to the range of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
39947	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Saddleback Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland and lower montane rain forests, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988). Altitude ranges from 100 m to 1,200 m above sea level (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> groups defend home ranges of 16-120 ha (see Garber 1993), the size depending on seasonality, availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. <br/><br/>Saddleback Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). Saddleback Tamarins tend to form mixed-species groups with the larger, sympatric moustached tamarins: <em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em> (see Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1990; Peres 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The moustached tamarins trravel higher on the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m. In Bolivia, they also travel with <em>Callimico goeldii</em> (Pook and Pook 1982; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991a; Porter 2001, 2007).<br/><br/>Peres (1991) observed <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> in stable groups of 5-8 individuals, always, during the day, associated with somewhat larger groups of 8-11 <em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em>. Home range sizes were found to be larger than any previously recorded for the genus, estimated at 145 ha. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size. <br/>Mean adult male body weight for:<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> 412.8  ±25.7 g (range 365.0-482.5 g, n=33) (Garber and Teaford 1986)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em> 354 g (n=39) (Soini and Cóppula 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 405 g (n=4) (Yoneda 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> 320 g (n = about 13) (Soini and Cóppula 1981)<br/>Mean adult body weight for:<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 315 g (n=7 males and one female) (Ferrari and Martins 1992)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> 330-560 g (Tirira 2007).	eng
39947	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Recorded densities of saddleback tamarins include the following: <br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresii</em> Igarapé Jaraqui 31.5 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresii</em> Vai Quem Quer 30.2 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri</em> 15.0 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em> 4.8-29.4 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al.</em> 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em> 2.4-13.8 individuals/km² (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicillos nigrifrons</em> 23.0 individuals/km² (Soini 1987)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 16.0 individuals/km² (Terborgh 1983)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> 12.8-20.8 individuals/km² (Yoneda 1981)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Barro Vermelho 20.0 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Fortuna 29.7 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Vira Volta 28.1 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollisi</em> Riozinho 24.4 individuals/km² (Peres 1997)<br/><br/>The population density of <em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em> at Urucu, Amazonas, was very low: 1.78 groups/km² or 9.8 individuals/km² -- below the lowest values reported for any site where mixed species groups of tamarins have been studied. Peres (1990, 1991) also surveyed two other sites where <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> and <em>S . mystax pileatus</em> occur. The density of <em>S. f. avilapiresi</em> at the Igarapé Açu, downstream of his study site on the left bank of the Rio Urucu, was 8.9 individuals/km² (mean group size 5.0), and at a site denominated SUC, on the right bank of the Rio Tefé, 10 individuals/km² (mean group size 4). Peres (1993b) attributed these low densities to a lack of heterogeneity of successional and climax forest, along with nutrient-poor soils, strong seasonality in ripe fruit production, lack of successional forest, and a weak staggering of fruiting peaks between different habitats.	eng
39947	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis </em><br/>The status of Spix’s Saddle-back Tamarin is unknown in Brazil, but Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) consider that all the Peruvian subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin are common. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus </em><br/>Moynihan (1976b) found the distribution of <em>S. f. fuscus</em> to be patchy but reported it common in many areas between the Ríos Caquetá and Putumayo in Colombia. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) concluded that, although hunted to some extent both for food and for pets, it is not threatened. Its status in Brazil is unknown. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi</em><br/>Status unknown, but there is no evident reason to believe it is vulnerable or threatened. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai</em><br/>The conservation status of <em>S. f. cruzlimai</em> is unknown, but if it occurs north of the Rio Tapuauá, in the Rio Purus basin, it is probably not under threat, the region being isolated and little exposed to human activities.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri </em><br/>Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it to be common along with the other Peruvian subspecies of the Saddleback Tamarin. It adapts quite well to areas with human disturbance, often seen visiting plantations of bananas and other cultivated fruits. They are rarely hunted in areas where the human population density is low, and threats to their survival arise only when forests are completely eliminated or fragmented over wide areas for cattle pasture and agriculture.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis leucogenys</em><br/>Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported that <em>S. fuscicollis</em> (presumably <em>S. f. leucogenys</em>) was common in their Pucallpa survey area to the west of the Río Ucayali. Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it as common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons</em><br/>Soini <em>et al. </em>(1989) and Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported it to be common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus</em><br/>Freese <em>et al.</em> (1982) reported that <em>S. f. lagonotus</em> was one of the most frequently encountered primates on the Río Nanay, a left bank tributary of the Río Amazonas a short distance above the Río Napo (see also Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978). Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) regarded it as common.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em><br/>Brown and Rumiz (1986) reported it common in Bolivia. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) found it to be the most common of the callitrichids in a large area of the Pando region, north-west Bolivia, between the Ríos Acre and Madre de Dios. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis primitivus</em><br/>Endemic to the Brazilian Amazon, it is completely unknown in terms of its ecology, behaviour and conservation status.	eng
39948	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Saguinus imperator</em> is included on the national official lists of threatened species of both Brazil and Peru. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>The Rio Acre Ecological Station (77,500 ha) is within the distribution described by Hershkovitz (1979). It probably also occurs in a number of other protected areas, including the Chico Mendes Extractivist Reserve (970,570 ha), the Macauá National Forest (173,475 ha), and the Macauá and Antimari State Forests to the north, all lying between the Rios Acre and Purus, although none of them are specifically for the preservation of wildlife.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus i. subgrisescens</em> has a larger range than <em>S. i. imperator</em>, and is protected in the Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) in south-eastern Peru (Terborgh 1983; Terborgh and Goldizen 1985; Terborgh and Janson 1985). There are no protected areas within its range in Brazil, but in Bolivia it occurs in the Manuripí Heath Nature Reserve (1,844,375 ha) in the Pando region.	eng
39948	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus imperator imperator</em> (Brazil, Peru)<br/>South-western Amazon, east of the upper Rio Purus, between the Purus and the Rio Acre (Hershkovitz, 1979). Izawa and Bejarano (1981) did not record <em>S. i. imperator</em> for Bolivia, but reported an isolated population on the left bank of the Rio Acre, in the basin of the Rio São Pedro in Brazil, in an area otherwise occupied by <em>S. l. labiatus</em>. Encarnación and Castro (1990) found populations of <em>S. i. imperator</em> (but not <em>S. l. labiatus</em>) on the right and left banks of the Rio Acre near the Quebrada Río Branco, approximately 20 km west of Inapari, close to the region indicated by Izawa and Bejarano (1981). The population on the south bank of the Río Acre is evidently highly restricted, the subspecies not having been found anywhere else further south in Peru despite a number of surveys (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1990). It is not known how far it extends into Peru along the Rio Acre, nor whether it occurs between the Rio Purus and Pauiní and the Rios Purus and Ituxí (Hershkovitz 1979).  <br/><br/><em>Saguinus imperator subgrisescens</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>South-western Amazon, in Brazil along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá east to the Rios Tarauacá and Juruparí, to the Brazil/Peruvian frontier. Into Peru, west from the Juruá headwaters, it occurs as far as the foothills of the Andes in the upper Río Ucayali, east of the mouth of the Río Apurimac and to the south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. Its range extends east into Bolivia on both sides of the Río Madre de Dios (Izawa 1979). It is probably limited to the south of the Río Tahuamanú. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported it only from the Río Muyumanu basin, a south bank tributary of the Río Tahuamanú. Castro <em>et al.</em> (1990) found that it was absent from the area between Iñapari (just south of the Río Acre) and Iberia (north bank of the Río Tahuamanú) in Peru where <em>S. l. labiatus</em> occurs. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) extended the range indicated by Hershkovitz (1979) east to the basin of the Río Tambopata to the Bolivian border, indicating that the Río Madidi, an eastern tributary of the Río Beni in Bolivia, may mark the southern limit to this species.	eng
39948	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Emperor Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland and lower montane rain forests, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Terborgh 1983).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Average group size recorded by Terborgh (1983; Terborgh and Janson 1985) was 8-10 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds. Home range size found to be about 30 ha, in Manu National Park (Terborgh 1983). <br/><br/>Emperor Tamarins tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric saddleback tamarins: <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The Emperor Tamarins travel higher in the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m, whereas the saddlebacks spend more time foraging and travlleing at 10 m or lower. Azevedo Lopes and Rehg (2003) observed <em>S. imperator</em> travelling with <em>Callimico</em> in the Serra do Divisor Nastional Park, Acre, Brazil.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult 500 g (Terborgh 1983) <br/>Adult 474 g  (Smith and Ungers 1997).	eng
39948	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Population densities in Manu National Park have been estimated at 8-12 individuals/km² (Terborgh and Janson 1985).	eng
39948	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Much of the range of <em>Saguinus imperator</em>, previously remote, is increasingly subject to progressive deforestation largely as a result of colonization along highways, associated with logging and cattle ranching (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1993). The species is probably not hunted, but they may be subject to some trade as pets.	eng
39949	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II.<em><br/>Cebus apella apella</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, many of which are very large.<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecological Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Terra do Meio Ecological Station (3,373,111 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000a)<br/>La Trinité Natural Reserve<br/>Kaw Reserved Area  (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Galibi Nature Reserve (100 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em> <br/>Several recommendations have been proposed for the conservation of the Margarita Island capuchin (Marquez and Sanz 1991; Sanz and Marquez 1994; Martinez <em>et al.</em> 2000; Sanz 2001, 2003): <br/><br/>•To survey accurately the natural population of <em>Cebus apella margaritae</em>.<br/>•To carry out population demography studies.<br/>•To determine accurately home range and use of habitat.<br/>•To carry out productivity studies.<br/>•To solve the monkey-farmer conflict for crop raiding.<br/>•To determine the presence/absence of <em>Cebus olivaceous</em> in the mountains.<br/>•To control the illegal hunting and the illegal traffic of monkeys.<br/>•To evaluate risks of zoonoses.<br/>•To declare a protected area including the mountains in the north part of the island, in order to facilitate the movements of the monkeys between those mountains.<br/>•To conduct environmental educational programmes. <br/>•To conduct genetic studies <br/><br/>Unfortunately, most of these recommendations have not yet been implemented. The regional office of INPARQUES (National Parks Institute) about seven years ago started to plan the increase in area of the Cerro El Copey National Park, in order to include the mountains in the north and the west of the park. Nevertheless, this plan has not been executed until now. There is still a need to develop proper management strategies for the Margarita capuchin monkey and its habitat. There is an ongoing project of ecology and conservation of the Margarita Island capuchin that will generate actual information about this monkey population.	eng
39949	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Cebus apella apella </em><br/>This is a wide ranging subspecies in the lower Amazon. The definition of <em>Cebus apella apella</em> of course determines the geographic range. As this is still controversial, the geographic range is correspondingly uncertain. Here we follow the taxonomy and proposed distributions of Silva Jr (2001). The taxonomic arrangement proposed by Groves (2001) was discussed by Rylands <em>et al</em>. (2005), especially in relation to the work of Torres de Assumpção (1983). It was not possible to delimit the ranges of the subspecies he recognized, but those of the species were mapped in Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> (2004). The one exception is in the lack of precision in the ranges of <em>C. libidinosus</em> and <em>C. apella</em>. Groves (2001) recognized <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> as the form occurring from the upper Juruá (type locality: Brazil: Frente a João Pessôa, Rio Juruá) extending east in a swathe through northern Mato Grosso. In the map provided in Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> is restricted to the upper Juruá (a range proposed by Hill [1960]), and entirely surrounded by <em>C. apella</em>, which of course is unreasonable: it should have a range which is contiguous with other <em>C. libidinosus</em> subspecies. If a valid taxon, the range of <em>C. l. juruanus</em> should extend through northern Mato Grosso to meet the range <em>C. l. libidinosus</em>, but its limits are unclear. The requirements for any conservation assessment and subsequent conservation action are that the taxon is defined and its geographic distribution delineated. Silva Jr. (2001) provided a taxonomy and distribution maps. This in no way discards the taxonomy proposed by Groves (2001). Further research is needed.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Cebus apella apella</em> described here includes that of <em>C. apella tocantinus</em> Lönnberg, 1939, from the south of the lower to middle Amazon, <em>Cebus libidinosus pallidus</em> Gray, 1866 from the central and northern Bolivia (as indicated by Groves 2001), part of the range of <em>C. macrocephalus</em> Spix, 1823 (lower to middle Amazon north of the Rio Amazonas), and the part of that of <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> that Groves (2001) proposed extended through Rondônia to northern Mato Grosso.<br/><br/>The stronghold of the type species is the Guianas, and Brazil, at least east of the Rio Negro. Boher-Bentti and Cordero-Rodríguez (2000) extended it to the southern extreme of the Orinoco Delta, although it is otherwise not recognized as occurring in eastern Venezuela (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linares 1998). In Venezuela, it occurs in the Federal Territory of Amazonas, along both sides of the upper Rio Orinoco, its precise range being limited by savannas.  The range to the west is constrained by <em>C. macrocephalus</em> and to the south by <em>C. libidinosus</em>. In the east to the interfluvium of the rios Itapecuru and Parnaiba in the state of Maranhão. In Bolivia, <em>Cebus apella</em> occurs south of the Madre de Dios, south to the headwaters of the ríos Mamoré and Beni, where it meets the range of <em>C. cay</em> occurring in southern Bolivia, the Brazilian Mato Grosso, Paraguay and Argentina. It extends into south-east Peru along the south of the Río Madre de Dios, west as far the Rio Inambari (recognized as <em>C. a. pallidus</em> by Aquino and Encarnación [1994]). In the southern Amazon, <em>C. apella</em> would be restricted by the transition to Cerrado, the bush savanna of central Brazil where <em>C. libidinosus</em> occurs.<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em> lives in four forest fragments on the east side of Margarita Island in Venezuela: El Copey Nacional Park (7,130 ha) rising to 930 m above sea level; the Serranía of Cerro Tragaplata (~4,400 ha) an unprotected area rising to 680 m above seas level; Cerro Matasiete Natural Monument (1,145 ha) rising to 660 m asl; and Cerro Taguantar (~1,000 ha) an unprotected area rising to 520 m above sea level. Monkeys were reported in Cerro Taguantar in 2007 (Ceballos-Mago, direct observation).	eng
39949	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	Tropical lowland and submontane and montane rain forest, seasonally inundated forest, mangroves and savanna forests. <em>Cebus apella</em> inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types in Suriname and is probably more flexible in choice of habitat than any other primate species in the Guianas. It is common in high rain forest, low rain forest, riverbank high forest, mountain savanna forest, liana forest marsh forest (including <em>Mora</em> forest), swamp forest (including <em>Euterpe</em> <em>Symphonia</em> swamp forest and <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> open swamp forest), swamp woodland (including <em>Erythrina glauca</em>and <em>Pterocarpus Tabebuia</em> associations) and various secondary formations, and also has been reported from high forest and white sand savanna forest, savanna scrub, ridge forest (littoral woodland) and mangrove forest (<em>Avicennia</em>) along the coast (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1981). In Guyana, it is one of the species most often encountered along rivers (Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> 1976). Arboreal quadrupeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understory (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Largely sympatric with the untufted capuchins, either<em>Cebus olivaceus</em> or <em>C. albifrons</em>. The species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus apella</em> is 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). Zhang (1994, 1995a,b; Zhang and Wang 1995a,b) carried out a field study of the ecology and behaviour of this species in French Guiana. <br/><br/>In the Guianas, <em>C. apella</em> group sizes usually range from 10-20 animals (Mittermeier 1977; Spironello 1991; Zhang 1995b). Groups sometimes split into subgroups and forage on their own in different directions. The home range of the best known group in the Voltzberg site of Mittermeier (1977) was roughly 146 ha, and a second group, which ranged outside as well, covered 62 ha of his study area. Larger home ranges have been recorded by Zhang (1995b) in French Guiana (approximately 355 ha) and by Spironello (2001) north of Manaus in Brazil (around 900 ha). <br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/>The vegetation cover of the mountains inhabit by Margarita Island Capuchins have particular ecological interest, because they support an isolated cloud forest at an exceptionally low altitude (ca. 600 m above sea level) contrasting with an arid lowland (Sugden 1986). Home range is about 78 ha (Márquez and Sanz 1991; Sanz and Márquez 1994). The diet is comprised of fruits, insects, flowers, leaves, seeds and piths. Margarita Island Capuchins are particularly shy and cryptic, avoiding human contact probably due to the hunting pressure.	eng
39949	population	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	The nominate subspecies is widespread and common.<br/><br/>Population density of the Margarita Island Capuchin has not been properly estimated yet. Results of an ongoing project about ecology and conservation of the Margarita Island Capuchin will allow the determination of densities in the near future. According to Sanz and Marquez (1994), total population is only 250-300 animals. Marquez and Sanz (1991) estimated between 0.02 and 0.23 groups/hours of observation in different forest fragments. Group size was 4.5 ind/group in average. During surveys conducted in 2007, group size varied between 2 and 15 individuals (N. Ceballos-Mago, direct observation).	eng
39949	threats	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Cebus apella apella </em><br/>The Guianan tufted capuchin is hunted for food and as pets (this is the most common primate kept as pets), but is an adaptable species.<br/><br/><em>Cebus apella margaritae</em><br/>Although part of the distribution of the Margarita Island Capuchins is within protected areas (Cerro el Copey National Park and Cerro Matasiete Natural Monument), they are still threatened by hunting pressure and by habitat loss and fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation on Margarita Island is mainly caused by road construction and growth of towns. Sanz and Marquez (1994) considered that hunting pressure for pest control could be the main factor driving this subspecies to extinction in a few years. Currently, hunting pressure for pest control has been reduced only in the Cerro el Copey National Park. Capture of monkeys for pet trade in the whole distribution area of the monkeys has increased and can be currently one of the most important threats (Ceballos-Mago direct observation). Preliminary results of surveys have revealed an important national and international illegal traffic of primates. Release of monkey pets in the habitat of the Margarita Island Capuchin is another threat for these primates (Martinez <em>et al.</em> 2000). Such releases must be considered in terms of the level of risk of disease transmission and hybridization.	eng
39950	conservation	de la Torre, S., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Cornejo, F., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range:<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em><br/><br/>Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary (6483 ha) (Bacon and ffrench 1972)<br/>Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary and immediate surrounding area (1,550 ha) (Bacon and ffrench 1972)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons versicolor</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Nevado del Huila National Park (158,000 ha) ? (Defler 1994)<br/>Catatumbo-Bari National Park (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/>Venezuela <br/>Perija National Park (295,288 ha)?<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons malitiosus</em><br/><br/>Tayrona National Park  (15,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Sierra Nevada de Sanata Marta National Park (383,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cesarae</em><br/><br/>Macuira National Park (25,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Los Flamencos Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (7,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (23,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonas National Park<br/>Serra do Divisor Narional Park<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha)<br/>Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Puinawai Natrual Reserve (1,092,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>Nukak Natural Reserve (855,000 ha)? (Defler 1994)<br/>El Tuparro National Park (548,000 ha) (Defler 1979a,b)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Protection Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh 1983)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Serrania de la Neblina National Park (1,360,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Parima Tapirapecó National Park (3,420,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Jauá-Sarisarinama National Park (330,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Yapacana National Park (320,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons aequatorialis</em><br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Machalilla National Park (56,814 ha)<br/>Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (119,172 ha)<br/>Manglares Churute Ecological Reserve (49,894 ha)<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Cerros de Amotape National Park (91,300 ha)<br/>Tumbes Reserved Zone	eng
39950	distribution	de la Torre, S., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Cornejo, F., 2008	<em>Cebus albifrons</em> extends from northern coastal Colombia (<em>C. a. malitiosus</em>) along the northern slopes of the Sierra Santa Marta, south the Río Magdalena valley into the Department of Tolima (exact southern limit unclear) and the lower Río Cauca valley to the eastern parts of central Antioquia and southern parts of the Department of Sucre in the west (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). It occurs in western Ecuador and extreme north-eastern Peru and from the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru and Ecuador to the Venezuelan Amazon, south through eastern Peru, east to the Rio Tapajós in Brazil, and south into northern and central Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em>. (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela)<br/>In Colombia, Defler (2004) indicated that <em>C. a. albifrons</em> is the form occurring in the Department of Arauca (south of the Río Arauca) and also in Vichada between the ríos Meta and Tuparro. A population also occurs between the upper reaches of the ríos Vaupés and Isan in the Department of Vaupes (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). Its occurrence in other parts of central Colombia, east of the Cordillera Oriental is otherwise supposed but not yet ascertained. <em>Cebus a. albifrons</em> occurs throughout the Colombian Amazon north of the Rio Napo and east of the Río Ucayali in Peru south as far as right bank of the upper Río Purus (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). It occurs in the Venezuelan Amazon, south into Brazil into the states of Amazonas and Roraima, along the right (west) banks of the Rios Branco and Negro, and further east south of the Rio Amazonas as far as the Rio Tapajós, south through the Madeira-Tapajós interfluvium to the north-west Mato Grosso and northern Rondônia, extending south of the Madre de Dios, across the Río Beni basin to Río Mamoré-Guaporé to about 17ºS (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997). The range limits in the southern part of the distributions of <em>C. a .cuscinus</em> and <em>C. a. albifrons</em> are poorly defined.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cuscinus</em>. (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru)<br/>This capuchin (here considered a senior synonym of <em>C. albifrons yuracus</em>, following Groves [2001]) occurs south of the Río Guamés in Colombia according to Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (2004). However, they place <em>C. albifrons albifrons</em> between the Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in the Colombian trapezium. Aquino and Encarnación (1994), on the other hand, regard the form between the Napo and Putumayo to be <em>C. a. yuracus</em> (= <em>cuscinus</em>). So, the identity of the White-fronted Capuchin between the Napo and Putumayo is confused. A provisional hypothesis would be that that, from the Rio Guamés, <em>C. a. cuscinus</em> south of the Rio Aguarico in Ecuador and south of the Río Napo as far as the Amazonas, in Peru. It extends south along the left (west) bank of the Río Ucayali, occurring along south (right) bank of the Purus to the Rio Acre and taking in the far north-west corner of Bolivia., north of the Río Madre de Dios (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Aquino and Encarnacíon 1994; Anderson 1997). The range limits in the southern part of the distributions of <em>C. a .cuscinus</em> and <em>C. a. albifrons</em> are poorly defined.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons cesarae</em>. (Colombia)<br/><em>Cebus a. cesarae</em>, is a well-defined, light coloured subspecies occurring in the Department of Magdalena, southward from Ciénaga Grande, and the lowlands of the Department of Cesar, right bank and north of the Río Magdalena as far as the west bank of the Río César, north to the deciduous and gallery forests of the Río Ranchería, Department of Guajira (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons malitiosus</em>. (Colombia)<br/>Central and northern Colombia. Deciduous and humid forests of the northern slopes of the Santa Marta Mountains at least as high as 1,300 m, although the eastern and southern limits of its range are not well defined (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons versicolor</em>. (Colombia)<br/>Cauca-Magdalena interfluvium, including the eastern parts of central Antioquia and southern parts of Sucre to the west. It extends north along the slopes of the northernmost reaches of the Cordillera Oriental and along the Serranía de Perijá, west of Lake Maracaibo, and east of Lake Maracaibo to the Serranía de Merida (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Bodini 1989; Linares 1998). To the east of the Cordillera Oriental it occurs in Norte de Santander, and Santander (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em>. (Trinidad)<br/>An isolated population on the Island of Trinidad.<br/><br/><em>Cebus albifrons aequatorialis</em>. (Ecuador, Peru)<br/>All of western Ecuador along the Pacific coast, extending into the Department of Tumbes in Peru (Encarnación and Cook 1998; Tirira and da la Torre 2001).	eng
39950	habitat	de la Torre, S., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Inhabits dry, deciduous forest in the north of its range, tropical lowland and submontane and montane rain forest, seasonally inundated forest, and savanna forests. Arboreal quadrupeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007; Tirira 2007). <br/><br/>Frugivores-insectivores. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Largely sympatric with the tufted capuchins, either<em>Cebus apella</em> or <em>C. macrocephalus</em>, but the species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus albifrons</em> is 19.8 individuals, with numbers of males similar to numers of females (adult sex ratio of 1.08). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, with males dominant to females (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). A field study of the ecology and behaviour of <em>C. albifrons albifrons</em> was carried out by Defler (1979a,b) in the llanos of El Tuparro Natinal Park, Colombia. There he observed groups of 8-15 individuals, with one group using a home range of about 120 ha. Groups of up to 35 indviduals use  home ranges of similar size (120-150 ha in the tropical humds forests of Ecuador (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.7 kg-3.3 kg (mean 2.48 kg); adult female: 1.4-2.3 kg (mean 1.8 kg) (Jack 2007).	eng
39950	population	de la Torre, S., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Cornejo, F., 2008	In eastern Vichada (El Tuparro), Colombia, ecological densities of this species reach 30 individuals/km² (Defler 1979a). Densties on the Río Purité, Colombia, (four sites) were found to range from 4.4 to 15.8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004).<br/>Desnties of <em>Cebus albifrons</em> tend to be lower when sympatric with <em>Cebus macrocephalus</em> (Defler 2004). Freese (1975) estimated a density of 24 individuals/km² in Manu National Park, Peru.<br/><br/>Peres (1988) estimated population densities of <em>Cebus albifrons albifrons</em> at a number of sites in the Braziliian Amazon: Lago da Fortuna (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 7.81 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna (<em>várzea</em> forest) 45.8 individuals/km²; Igarapé Açú (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 15.47 individuals/km²; SM1 (<em>terra firma</em> forest) 9.5 individuals/km²; São Domingos(<em>terra firma</em> forest) 25.64 individuals/km². <br/><br/>Rylands (1982) estimated a population density of 4.7-7.5 individuals/km² at Aripuanã, northern Mato Grosso (<em>terra firma</em> forest). <br/> <br/>The total population of <em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em> is estimated at around 61 with an effective population size of 35 (Census from December 1996 to November 2000, by Kimberly A. Phillips). In Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary and the immediate area (Nariva Swamp - a 24,000-ha wetland) surrounding the sanctuary, the subpopulation was 49. Troops were commonly encountered in Bush Bush. However, in Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary, the subpopulation totals 12 and capuchins are encountered very rarely (Agoramoorthy and Hsu 1995; Phillips and Abercrombie 2003).	eng
39950	threats	de la Torre, S., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Cornejo, F., 2008	The major threat to this species across its range is hunting combined with forest loss and fragmentation. . <br/><br/>On Trinidad, <em>Cebus albifrons trinitatis</em> the two subpopulations in Trinity Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and Bush Bush Wildlife Sanctuary are entirely isolated. In Trinity Hills, hunting is allowed in some areas adjacent to the sanctuary. Hunting camps are established near the border of the sanctuary, though the extent of incursions into the sanctuary per se is unknown. In Bush Bush, the main threats are habitat destruction due to illegal logging and planting of marijuana, which occurs regularly (Phillips and Abercrombie 2003).	eng
39953	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Palacios, E., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Ensenada de Utría Natural National Park (54,300 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Farallones de Cali Natural National Park (150, 000 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989) In Defler 2003<br/>Las Orquídeas Natural National Park (32,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Munchique Natural National Park (44,000 ha) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (Colombia, INDERENA, 1989) (could be <em>A. griseimembra</em> Defler 2003)<br/>Tatamá Natural National Park (could be <em>A. jorgehernandezi</em>) (in range Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>La Selva Biological Reserve (possibly: Timm 1988)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Bastimentos National Marine Park (15,000 ha) (Timm 1988)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sarigua National Park (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (13,040 ha) (in range)<br/>Serranias de Majé (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/>More research is need on this species population status, habitat and threats.	eng
39953	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Palacios, E., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>Aotus zonalis </em>occurs in the lowlands of Panama and the Chocó region of Colombia, extending south, west of the Andes, to the Río Raposo just south of Buenaventura, and including the Urabá region and eastward to the Ro Sinú, and possibly including the upper San Jorge valley to the region of Puerto Valdivia in northern Antioquia (Hall 1981). The range limits with <em>A. griseimembra</em> are not known. Its occurrence in Costa Rica is possible, but not documented (Timm 1988; Timm <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><br/>Defler and Bueno (2007) described <em>A. jorgehernandezi</em> from a specimen in captivity in Quindío Department, Colombia, said to be from the Parque de los Nevados on the border between Quindío and Riseralda. This locality is within the range currently considered to be that of <em>A. zonalis</em>.	eng
39953	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Palacios, E., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This nocturnal species is poorly known. It is found in lowland, submontane forests up to 1,000 m in Panama and western Colombia, west of the Andes (Defler 2004). It occurs in secondary forest and plantations (Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.889 kg (n=6), adult female weight 0.916 kg (n=11) (Crile and Quiring 1985).	eng
39953	population	Cuarón, A.D., Palacios, E., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
39953	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Palacios, E., Morales, A., Shedden, A., Rodriguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Major threats to this species are largely unknown, although deforestation is known to be taking place in parts of its range. For example, in Panama forests have been converted to agriculture in an approximately 30% of its range (as described in Central American Ecosystem Map (CATIE, J. Jones, 1999). However, in Colombia, forests in less than 10% of its range have been converted to pastures and agriculture (Alba Lucia Morales pers. comm.).	eng
39954	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Sousa, M.C., Jerusalinsky, L., Ferrari, S.F., de Oliveira, M.M., Santos, S.S.D., Valente, M.C.M. & Printes, R.C., 2008	A state protected area "Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Mata do Junco" was created in December 2007. This protected area was created in part to protect <em>Callicebus coimbrai</em>. The distribution of the species appears to occur within the newly decreed Serra de Itaiana National Park, although its presence has yet to be confirmed at this site (Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006). At both state and municipal levels, less specific initiatives have already been implemented; more are being planned, including privately owned reserves.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39954	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Sousa, M.C., Jerusalinsky, L., Ferrari, S.F., de Oliveira, M.M., Santos, S.S.D., Valente, M.C.M. & Printes, R.C., 2008	Kobayashi and Langguth (1999) believed the range of <em>Callicebus coimbrai</em> was limited to the coastal rainforests at the mouth of the rio São Francisco in Sergipe and the mouth of the rio Itapicuru in northern Bahia, Brazil. Printes (2005) recorded the species at Lamarão do Passé, extending its range some 200 km further south. Knowledge of this species’ range and conservation status has increased substantially in the recent years (Kobayashi and Langguth 1999; Sousa 2000, 2003; Printes 2005; Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006; Sousa <em>et al</em>. in prep). The taxon has now been confirmed at at least 70 sites in the states of Bahia and Sergipe. The largest is a 3,000 ha tract in São Francisco do Paraguaçu, Bahia; the smallest is a 6 ha fragment in Nossa Senhora da Glória, Sergipe (Sousa 2003). The sites where this species has been confirmed encompass an estimated total area of 15,400 ha (154 km²), 4,800 ha of this in Sergipe, and 10,600 ha in Bahia (Sousa <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/><br/>The lower Paraguaçu forms the limit between the geographic ranges of <em>C. coimbrai</em>, restricted to the left or north bank, and <em>C. melanochir</em>, found on the right bank. Further west, in the region of Feira de Santana, <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> occurs on both banks of the Paraguaçu. There does not appear to be a physical barrier between the eastern limit of the range of <em>C. barbarabrownae</em> and the western limit of <em>C. coimbrai</em> (Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Further surveys are needed.	eng
39954	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Sousa, M.C., Jerusalinsky, L., Ferrari, S.F., de Oliveira, M.M., Santos, S.S.D., Valente, M.C.M. & Printes, R.C., 2008	This species occurs in primary tropical rainforest, seasonal and dry forests, and forests with a Caatinga influence.	eng
39954	population	Veiga, L.M., Sousa, M.C., Jerusalinsky, L., Ferrari, S.F., de Oliveira, M.M., Santos, S.S.D., Valente, M.C.M. & Printes, R.C., 2008	Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> (2006) calculated that (based on very generous estimates of four individuals per group and five groups/km²), the 30 confirmed sites in the State of Sergipe (covering approximately 5,000 ha), would contain a theoretical population of approximately 1,000 individuals. Using the same calculations, and taking only total area into account, the estimated total population of <em>C. coimbrai</em> in both Sergipe and Bahia would be as high as 2,000 individuals. However, as the area of occupancy is split into 70 separate fragments, over half of which are 100 ha or less, a more realistic estimate of total population is likely to be in the range of 500-1000 individuals.	eng
39954	threats	Veiga, L.M., Sousa, M.C., Jerusalinsky, L., Ferrari, S.F., de Oliveira, M.M., Santos, S.S.D., Valente, M.C.M. & Printes, R.C., 2008	An inhabitant of Brazil's Atlantic Forest, a region of widespread deforestation where only an estimated 5-10% of original cover remains distributed in isolated fragments. Cattle ranching, agriculture and continuing urbanization are the main threats. The area is characterized by rapid development facilitated by an extensive network of highways. In addition to loss of habitat, other threats include potential dangers from roads and power-lines and predation by domestic pets. The small fragmented populations of titi monkeys are exposed to synergistic genetic and demographic risks. Hunting pressure needs to be determined, but it is probably moderate due to the small body size. During extensive surveys, a few individuals were found being kept as pets (Jerusalinsky <em>et al.</em> 2006; Printes <em>et al</em>. in prep).	eng
39956	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Ferrari, S.F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/>The primary federal protected area within this region is the Gurupi Biological Reserve (REBIO Gurupi) in Maranhão State (original area 341,650 ha). Together with contiguous Amerindian reservations, it forms a nucleus of continuous forest covering an estimated one million hectares. Despite its potential importance for the conservation of <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> (and the threatened <em>Cebus kaapori</em>), this area suffers intense pressure from local ranchers, timber companies and illegal land settlers, and almost one-third of the Gurupi Reserve?s forest has already been lost. <br/><br/>The following state protected areas occur within the range of this species, although their presence within all these areas has not been confirmed: Pará state - APA Lago de Tucuruí ? margem direita (568,667 ha); Maranhão state - APA do Maracanã (18,131 ha), APA da Baixada Maranhense (1,775,035 ha), APA das Reentrâncias Maranhenses (2,680,911 ha), APA Upaon-Açu/Miritiba/Alto Preguiça (1,535,310). They may also occur in the following extractive and forest reserves (Maranhão): RESEX do Ciriaco (7,550 ha), RESEX do Quilombo do Frechal (9,542 ha) RESEX Mata Grande (10,450 ha), and Reserva Florestal de Buriticupu (9,454 ha) (Veiga <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout Brazil. ICM/CPB together with local has been working towards the resolution of some of the key problems in the REBIO Gurupi but a large-scale operation and continuous monitoring are required to ensure its effective protection. An international committee (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos) was established by the Chico Mendes Institute (ICM) in conjunction with the the CPB to discuss and define the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa, and together with members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG) are developing a Conservation Action Plan for the Black Bearded Saki. <br/><br/>Surveys are needed to identify remaining populations both in protected reserves and other areas. The CPB implemented ?Projeto Kaapori? for the <em>Cebus kaapori</em> and have undertaken surveys and conducted interviews with local people in the central-north, north and west of Maranhão. They collected data on all primate species including <em>C. satanas</em>, which will be used in the development of the Action Plan. Given the current situation of the REBIO Gurupi and the lack of other federal protected areas, both privately owned reserves and Amerindian reservations are becoming increasingly important for the long-term conservation of <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999). Research on the effects of fragmentation on isolated populations is also key if we are to be able to evaluate the long-term chances of survival and manage the remaining populations. As the range of <em>C. satanas</em> coincides largely with that of <em>Cebus kaapori</em>, joint research and conservative initiatives can be planned to benefit both species.	eng
39956	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Ferrari, S.F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Endemic to eastern Amazonia in Brazil, this species has a restricted range between the right bank of the rio Tocantins and the eastern limits of the Amazon forest in the Brazilian states of Pará and Maranhão. Although it resides in terra firme forests, its distribution extends as far as the coastal (mangrove) forests and forested areas in the transitional zone between Amazon Forest and Cerrado (savanna) at the southern and eastern borders of its distribution. The most southerly record is at -06 31' 59'' -47 27'00'' in Estreito, Maranhão State (Hershkovitz 1985; Silva Jr. 1991; Lopes 1993).	eng
39956	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Ferrari, S.F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Endemic to the fluvial plain of eastern Amazonia, where predominantly found at low altitudes in tall terra firme rain forests; it has also been observed in secondary forests and on rare occasions in mangroves (Silva Jr. 1991; Lopes 1993). Recent field studies (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999b; Port-Carvalho and Ferrari 2002; Santo 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006) have demonstrated that this taxon is able to survive and reproduce (in the absence of hunting), in fragments much smaller than previously thought possible. Small groups have been found in fragments and on islands of less than 20 ha, some of which have been isolated for over 20 years. They are relatively abundant in tracts of forest of between 100 and 1,000 ha, suggesting a degree of tolerance to anthropogenic habitat disturbance and behavioural flexibility in the face of change. Groups with 4 to 39 individuals have been recorded in fragmented habitats (Ferrari <em>et al</em>. 1999; Port-Carvalho and Ferrari 2002, 2004; Santos 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006). <br/><br/>The species is a highly frugivorous and is a specialist seed predator: immature seeds can represent as much as 90% of their diet in certain months. Other important plant resources are fruit pulp and flowers. Small quantities of pith, shoots and young leaves are also eaten, as well as a range of arthropods including caterpillars, termites, ants and spiders (Veiga and Ferrari 2006). One means by which some groups coped with extreme fragmentation is by increasing the proportion of flowers and non-reproductive plant parts in the diet (Santos 2002; Silva 2003; Veiga 2006). The home range of a group (39 members) residing in a forest fragment (1,300 ha) over a period of 12 months was 98.6 ha (Veiga 2006). No studies have been undertaken in areas of continuous forest, but it is likely that groups would range over much larger areas, probably covering several hundred hectares; a group of <em>Chiropotes albinasus</em> was recorded using an area in excess of 1,000 ha over an 11-month period (Pinto 2008).	eng
39956	population	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Ferrari, S.F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	From studies using standardized line transects, population densities and sightings/10 km, have been calculated for the a number of areas (see table 1). Density varies depending on the differing influences of hunting pressure and habitat disturbance, but appears to be greater in smaller fragments with lower levels of hunting pressure.	eng
39956	threats	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Ferrari, S.F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The greatest risks for the future survival of the Black Bearded Saki are the loss and fragmentation of its habitat and hunting pressure. It has the smallest range of the genus, which coincides with the most densely populated part of Brazilian Amazonia, a region with a long tradition of colonization, and which now has deforestation levels that begin to rival those of the Atlantic Forest. Over the last few decades, the establishment of highways, implantation of the Tucuruí hydroelectric dam, logging, and agricultural and ranching activities have lead to widespread devastation of forested areas in this region. The proliferation of secondary roads has further exacerbated this process. <em>Chiropotes satanas</em> is already locally extinct in a large part of its original range and what remains is extremely fragmented and under constant deforestation pressure. <br/><br/>Despite not being particularly lucrative or an easy target, this species is also hunted for its meat and fur. Habitat fragmentation processes are probably increasing hunting pressure on this species by providing easier access and through the loss of preferred game. Although this species is more tolerant of habitat fragmentation than previously thought, this should not be considered a motive for complacency with regard to the importance of the implementation of conservation measures, particularly the establishment and adequate control of protected areas. In addition, small populations living in isolated fragments with few opportunities for dispersal are probably not genetically viable in the long-term. There is an obvious need for some management of metapopulations.	eng
39957	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	In the Atlantic Forest, the species occurs in Guaribas Biological Reserve, Paraiba (2,71 ha) (re-introduced), RPPN Pacatuba, and RPPN Mata da Estrela. In the Amazon, it occurs in a number of protected areas, including Caxiuanã National Forest (200,000 ha) (see Jardim and Oliveira 1997; Pina <em>et al</em>. 2002), Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) and Tapirapé Biological Reserve (99,703 ha).<br/>   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39957	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Alouatta belzebul</em> occurs in the lower Amazon, states of Amapá, Pará and Maranhão and in north-east Brazil, in the Atlantic forest of the states of Rio Grande do Norte, Piauí, Pernambucoo, Paraiba and Alagoas. It occurs in a small area of southern Amapá and on the islands of Marajó and Caviana in the Amazon estuary. It is limited to the east of the rios Xingu and Iriri. The range limits of <em>Alouatta discolor</em> and <em>A. belzebul</em> south along the lower Amazon are poorly understood and confused. Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) attributed the howler monkeys on Marajo and the other islands of the Amazon estuary to the form <em>discolor</em>, but Fernandes (1994) subsequently identified the howlers on the islands of Marajó, Caviana and Mexiana as <em>A. belzebul</em> (Gurupá, he found, was occupied by <em>Alouatta macconelli</em>). Gregorin (2006), likewise identified <em>A. belzebul</em> as the howler occupying Marajo, Caviana and Mexiana. Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) also identified a howler from the Rio Pracupy, Portel (their locality number 35) just south of the estuary as <em>A. discolor</em>. Ferrari and Lopes (1996) suggested, and Gregorin (2006) confirmed, its identity as <em>A. belzebul</em>, and not <em>A. discolor</em>. This would mean that <em>discolor</em> would be confined to a narrow strip to the immediate south of the Rio Amazonas extending west from Gurupá, across the Xingu.<br/><br/>Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1995) argued that <em>A. belzebul</em> once occurred throughout the north-east (except the coastal populations now ascribed to <em>A. ululata</em>) as far as the left (north) bank of the Rio São Francisco. Neiva and Penna (1916) recorded the species on southern Piaui at the beginning of the early 20th century (see Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> 1995). They have been eliminated from a large part of this range by hunting and the almost total elimination of their forests (Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996).	eng
39957	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Occurs in a mix of habitats including lowland Amazon rainforest, Marajó várzea forest, and fragments of the northern Atlantic Forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 km (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen  is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pina <em>et al.</em> (2002) studied two groups of 5-6 and 7-9 individuals (each with just one adult male and two adult females), with home ranges of 13.5 ha and 18.05 ha, respectively. <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. The diet of two <em>A. belzebul</em> groups in the Caxiuanã National Forest was studied by Souza <em>et al.</em> (2002). They were largely folivorous but would switch to fruits whenever available, especially during the wet season. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 7.27 kg (n=27), adult female weight 5.52 kg (n=26) (Peres 1994a)<br/>Adult male weight 6.5-8.0 kg (mean 7.3 kg, n=27), adult female weight 4.85-6.2 kg (mean 5.5 kg, n=26) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
39957	population	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Extremely common in some areas (such as Marajó), but very rare in the Atlantic Forest portion of the range (Rio Grande do Norte, Alagoas, Paraíba and Pernambuco). There are around 200 individuals surving in a total of 10 isolated locations: six populations in Paraiba, two in Rio Grande de Norte, one in Pernambuco, and one in Alagoas. The largest population in the Atlantic Forest is in Pacatuba in Paraiba with about 80 animals. There have been five registered local extirpations from forest fragments in the last 50 years.	eng
39957	threats	Veiga, L.M., Kierulff, C. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	In the Amazon, the species is widespread, although they are hunted. The Amazon populations have suffered severely from forest loss throughout their range in southern Pará over the last decade. In the Atlantic Forest population, the major threat is the fragility of the remaining small forest patches to stochastic and demographic affects (habitat loss and fragmentation has been mainly due to sugar-cane plantations).	eng
39960	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C., Link, A., Palacios, E. & Morales, A., 2008	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Costa Rica </span><br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Fedigan and Rose 1995; Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996) <br/>Tortuguero National Park (18,946 ha) (in range)<br/>Braulio Carrillo National Park (44,898 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Manuel Antonio National Park (682 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Volcán Irazú National Park (2,309 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuita National Park (1,067 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad (Talamanca) International Park (193,929 ha) (in range)<br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (in range)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Volcán Tenorio National Park (12,819 ha)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha)<br/>Lomas de Barbudal Biological Reserve (2,279 ha) (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1989)<br/>Carara Biological Reserve (4,700 ha) (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve (9,154 ha)  (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve (7,683 ha) (in range)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve (14,258 ha) (Lippold 1989)<br/>La Selva Protection Zone (2,815 ha) (Fishkind and Sussman 1987; Campbell and Sussman 1994)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Honduras</span><br/>Punta Sal National Park (78,200 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Montaña de Cusuco National Park (18,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Pico Bonito National Park (68,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Pico Pijol National Park (11,400 ha) (in range)<br/>Montaña de Yoro National Park (15,500 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Santa Bárbara National Park (13,000 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Cerro Azul Meambar National Park (39,000 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998) <br/>Sierra de Agalta National Park(27,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Celaque National Park(18,000 ha (in range)<br/>Montaña de Comayagua National Park (9918,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Montecristo-Trifinio National Park (5,400 ha) (in range<br/>La Tigra National Park (7,571 ha) in range)<br/>Laguna de Guaymoreto (5,000 ha) ((Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/>Capiro Calentura National Park (5,500 ha) (Matomoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Laguna de Caratasca Wildlife Refuge (120,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Misoco Biological Reserve (4,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Pacayita Biological Reserve (9,700 ha) (in range)<br/>Guisayote Biological Reserve (7,000 ha) (in range)<br/>El Pital Biological Reserve (3,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Opalaca Biological Reserve (14,500 ha) (in range)<br/>El Chile Biological Reserve (6,000 ha (in range)<br/>Montecillos Biological Reserve (12,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Montaña San Pablo Biological Reserve (in range)<br/>Guajiquiro Biological Reserve (7,000 ha) (in range<br/>Yerba Buena Biological Reserve (3,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Chiflador Biological Reserve (500 ha) (in range<br/>Uyuca Biological Reserve (1,100 ha) (in range<br/>Yuscarán Biological Reserve (2,300 ha) (in range)<br/>Río Negro Biological Reserve (60,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Barras Cuero y Salado Wildlife Refuge (12,300 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Texiguat Wildlife Refuge (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Muralla National Park 7,000 ha (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Armado Wildlife Refuge (3,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Erapuca Wildlife Refuge (5,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Puca Wildlife Refuge (4,900 ha) (in range<br/>Montaña Verde Wildlife Refuge (8,300 ha) (in range)<br/>Mixcure Wildlife Refuge (8,000 ha) (in range<br/>Montaña de Corralitos (5,500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Nicaragua</span><br/>Saslaya National Park (11,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Masaya National Park (5,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Archipelago Zapatera (5,227 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Escalante – Chococente Wildlife Refuge (4,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Bismuna – Pahau – Cayos – Miskitos (80,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerros de Bana Cruz Natural Reserve (10,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Cordiella Diplito y Jalapa (1,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna Wonta (30,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Wailwas (1,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Kilambe Natural Reserve (6,000 ha (in range)<br/>Peñas Blancas (7,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Santa Maria de Osuma (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Lagunas de Wancarlaya (8,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Salto del Rio Estanzuela (200 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Musún Natural Reserve (4,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Boca del Rio Grande de Matagalpa (68,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Lagunas Tecomapa, Moyua y La Playitas (in range)<br/>Cordillera de Amerisque Natural Reserve (1,500 ha (in range)<br/>Costa Sur del Pacifico (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Tomasu (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Cosiguina Natural Reserve (12,240 ha (in range)<br/>Estero Real Natural Reserve (38,725 ha) (in range)<br/>Complejo Volcánico Momotombo y Momotombito Natural Reserve (10,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Peninsula de Chiltepe (1,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Laguna de Tisma Natural Reserve (4,438 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Mombacho – Laguna Mecatepe Natural Reserve (2,847 ha) (reported) (Crockett <em>et al</em>. 1997)<br/>Volcan Madera Natural Reserve (4,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Concepción Natural Reserve (2,200 ha) (in range)<br/>Los Maribios (in range)<br/>Estero Padre Ramos Natural Reserve (7,815 ha) (in range)<br/>Reserva de la Biosfera Bosawas (1,100,000 ha) (Crockett <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br/>Refugio Bartola / Río Indio-Maíz Biological Reserve (295,000 ha) (Crockett <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Guatemala</span><br/>Rio Dulce National Park (24,200 ha) (Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998)<br/>Colcán Pacaya National Park (4,800 ha) (in range)<br/>Lake Atitlan National Park (3,250 ha) (possible, Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sipacate-Naranjo National Park (2,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera Quetzal (1,150 ha) (<em>A. pigra</em> according to Curdts (1993), but <em>A. palliata</em> according to Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo de Chocon Machacas (7,000 ha) (sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo Cerro Cahui (700 ha) (Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Biotopo San Miguel La Palotada (49,300 ha) (sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve (236,300 ha) (Silva-Lopes <em>et al</em>. 1995) (Sympatric with <em>A. pigra</em>; Curdts 1993; Silva-López <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1998;  Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Mexico</span><br/>Cañon del Sumidero National Park (21,789 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984)<br/>Volcán de San Martin Special Biosphere Reserve (1,500 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1988; Mexico, SEDUE, 1989; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Sierra de Santa Marta Special Biosphere Reserve (20,000 ha) (Silva-López 1982; Silva-López and Portilla-Ochoa 2002; Silva-López and Garcia-Orduña 1984; Silva-López <em>et al.</em> 1988, 1993; Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/>Selva del Ocote Special Biosphere Reserve (48,140 ha) ( Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Triunfo National Biosphere Reserve (119,595 ha) (in range)<br/>Estación Biologica Tropical ‘Los Tuxtlas” (700 ha) (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1994)<br/>Naja (Hernandez-Yañez pers. comm. in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Metzaboc (Hernandez-Yañez pers. comm. in Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al.</em> 1996)<br/>Parque La Venta Municipal Park (8 ha) (Fuentes <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Parque Yumká Municipal Park (101 ha) (Estrada <em>et al</em>. 2001; Del Valle <em>et al.</em> 2001; Muñoz <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Colombia</span><br/>Ensenada de Utría Natural National Park (54,300 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Munchique Natural National Park (44,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/>Sanquinaga Natural National Park (80,000 ha) (Defler 1994)<br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/>Los Farallones Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (possibly, Defler 1994)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ecuador</span><br/>Machalilla Nartional Park (56,814 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve (119,172 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Manglares Churute  Ecological Reserve (49,894 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (in range)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Amistad International Park (207,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (in range)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (in range)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Altos de Campana National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Fortuna Water Production Reserve (26,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Yeguada Forest Reserve (7,090 ha) (in range)<br/>Canglón National Park (31,650 ha) (in range)<br/>Cienega de Changuinola (in range)<br/>Peninsula Valiente (in range)<br/>Estero Rio Bayano (in range)<br/>Cienega de Urey (in range)<br/>Ensenada de Copal (in range)<br/>Estero Golfo de San Miguel (in range)<br/>Cienega de Matsugarati (in range)<br/>Cerre Cerrezuela – Rio Grande (in range)<br/>Estero Bahia de Muertos (in range)<br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agricola (5,935 ha) (in range)<br/>Estero Río Fonseca (in range)<br/>Estero Ríos Tabasara – Bubi (in range)<br/>Estero Golfo de Montijo Recreation Area (89,452 ha) (in range)<br/>Palo Seco Protection Forest (244,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Serranias de Majé (in range)<br/>Cayo Swan (in range)<br/>Cayo Tigre (in range)<br/>Lagunas del Volcán (142 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Gaital (in range)<br/>Cerro Chame (in range)<br/>Picachos de Ola (in range)<br/>Gran Valera de Chorcha (in range)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Carpenter 1965)<br/>Isla de Majé Scientific Reserve (1,433 ha) (in range)<br/>Kunayala Private Reserve (2,357 ha) (in range)<br/>Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (14,740 ha) (in range)<br/>Lago Gatún Recreation Area (348 ha) (in range)<br/>Metropolitano Natural Park  (265 ha) (in range)<br/>Alto de Darien Protection Forest (201,000 ha) (in range)<br/>San San Pond Sak (16,125 ha) (in range)<br/>Punta Patiño (13,805 ha) (in range)<br/>Los Pozos de Calobre(3.5 ha) (in range)<br/>El Salto de Las Palmas (348 ha) (in range)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Filo del Tallo (in range)<br/>Maski Private Reserve (544 ha) (in range)<br/>San Blas Reserve (141,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata coibensis</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Isla Coiba National Park and Jicarón (270,125 ha) (Milton and Mittermeier 1977)<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Panama</span><br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Rowe 2000; Matamoros and Seal 2001).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
39960	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C., Link, A., Palacios, E. & Morales, A., 2008	There are five recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/>The range limits separating <em>A. p. aequatorialis</em> from <em>A. p. palliata</em> are not clear. Lawrence (1933) cited a specimen of <em>A. p. palliata</em> from Cotó, extreme western Panama, and Hill (1962, p.106) mentioned that specimens from Sevilla Island, western Panama, collected by J. H. Batty were “manifestly” <em>A. p. palliata</em>. Hall (1981), on the other hand, lists Sevilla Island, and Puerto Cortez, Costa Rica, as marginal records for <em>A. p. aequatorialis</em>. Many individuals from Panama are intermediate (Lawrence 1933). From eastern Costa Rica, at least, <em>A. p. palliata</em> extends through Nicaragua to northern Honduras and, according to Curdts (1993), it just extends into Guatemala to the Río Motagua and possibly along the coast a short distance to the Cabo de Tres Puntas, where it meets <em>A. pigra</em>. Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) found the northern most limit of <em>A. palliata palliata</em> in the south margin of Rio Dulce. It is not known to occur in El Salvador to the south (Burt and Stirton 1961). There are no current records of this subspecies in El Salvador, although it evidently occurred there in the past (Daugherty 1972). <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/>The range of <em>A. p. mexicana</em> extends eastward from south-eastern Mexico, provinces of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and northern Chiapas and Oaxaca. As discussed by Smith (1970), in Tabasco <em>A. p. mexicana</em> meets, and is sympatric with, <em>A. pigra</em> in a region five miles south-east of Macuspana. García-Orduña <em>et al.</em> (1999) found mixed populations of the two species in small habitat fragments in Tabasco (see also Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 2001). Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> (2003) recorded a zone of contact and possible hybridization between <em>A. palliata mexicana</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> between the ríos Grijalva and Usamacinta on the Mexico-Guatemala border. Although several published maps include its range as extending into the highlands of Chiapas and into north-central Guatemala, an ongoing study (A. Cuarón) indicates that this subspecies range is restricted to western Chiapas, central and western Tabasco, south-eastern Veracruz, and eastern Oaxaca.<br/><br/>Baumgarten and Williamson (2007) provide the most recent review of the limits of the distributions of <em>Alouatta palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em> in Central America and Mexico. They found that the highland massif of northern Central America (including the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and central highland of Guatemala) and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation formed a geographic barrier separating <em>A. pigra</em> from <em>A. palliata</em>, and define the southern limit of <em>A. pigra</em>. They discussed the two contact zones between them: the broad range of overlap north of the highland massif in Mexico over the lowlands of the states of Tabasco and Campeche, and a narrow area of contiguous, non-overlapping ranges in eastern Guatemala where the highlands extend almost to the Caribbean. In the first, the localities where parapatry has been observed include Macuspana, Tabasco (Smith 1970, Horwich and Johnson 1986), around Zapata, Tabasco (Horwich and Johnson 1986) and the northern point of the Laguna de Términos in Campeche (Serio-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no geographical barrier separating the species, both occur in the same forests and on both sides of the Rio Usamacinta, for example (Cortés-Ortiz <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the second, the ranges are narrowly parapatric, separated by the Río Dulce and the Lago Izabal: <em>A. palliata</em> to the south and <em>A. pigra</em> to the north and west. South-west of Lake Izabal, <em>A. pigra</em> occurs in the highlands of the Sierra de las Minas, but not in the lowlands, occupied by <em>A. palliata</em>. Any past range overlap in this region will have been lost by the extensive loss of forest (the area is heavily farmed).  Baumgarten (2006) found no evidence to support sympatry supposed previously by Horwich and Johnson (1986), Curdts (1993) and Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1998).<br/><br/>Baumgarten ansd Williamson (2007) argued that <em>A. palliata</em> will have occurred on the Pacific side of the highland massif of northern Central America in the past. There are historical records in Mexico (Estrada and Coates-Estrada 1984), Guatemala (Handley 1950), and El Salvador (Daugherty 1972).<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/><em>A. p. aequatorialis</em> occurs in Panama, from the southern limit to the range of <em>A. p. palliata</em> (either in western Panama or extreme eastern Costa Rica), through the Serranía del Darién (Anthony 1916, Lawrence 1933) into western Colombia, north through the basins of the Ríos Sinú and Atrato to the Caribbean coast, and south through the Serranía del Baudó (Defler 2003) and the foothills, lowlands and lower montane areas west of the Andes to the Pacific coast, through Colombia and Ecuador, just into the Tumbes and Piura region of northern Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994; Encarnación and Cook 1998; Tirira 2001, 2007).<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata coibensis</em> <br/>This howler monkey is known only from Coiba Island and neighbouring Jicarón, off the Pacific coast of Panama.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/>This subspecies is endemic to the Azuero Peninsula, Panama (Froehlich and Froehlich 1987, Rowe 2000, Mendes-Carvajal 2005).	eng
39960	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C., Link, A., Palacios, E. & Morales, A., 2008	This species occupies a number of vegetation types and can be found in seasonal and nonseasonal forests, and in mangroves and swamps (Baumgarten and Williamson 2007). According to the last authors, <em>A. palliata</em> does not occur above 2,000 m, and most of its montane localities are at lower elevations.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Howler monkeys have small incisors and large, sexually dimorphic canines. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1–2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier, 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/><br/>The Mantled Howler Monkey is exceptional in the genus in that it may form large groups of more than 40 individuals, with a number of breeding males, although group size is generally less, averaging 14. For the other species, 14 is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982a).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria. Red howler monkeys have also been seen to eat and lick clay at so-called “salado” sites in the Colombian Amazon (Izawa 1975). The reason for this and the consumption of soil from termitaria is still not clearly understood, but may involve the need for certain minerals, or may be due to the properties of clay which, by adsorption, can reduce the effects of toxins ingested with leaves.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>A. macconnelli</em> has been studied by Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) in Suriname and more recently during a long-term study in the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana (Julliot and Sabatier 1993; Julliot 1994b,c, 1996a,b). It feeds mainly on soft parts of many different kinds of fruits, as well as flowers and young leaves.  Also included in the diet are mature leaves, immature fruits, moss, bark, and the soil of termitaria. Julliot and Sabatier (1993) recorded the use of 195 plant species from 47 families. Seeds are ingested but only rarely eaten. As a result <em>Alouatta</em>, like <em>Ateles</em>, is an important seed disperser. Julliot (1996a) found that <em>A. macconnelli</em> dispersed the seeds of more than 95% of more than 100 plant species (especially Sapotaceae) from which they eat fruit over the two years of her observations. <br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier 1977). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2–4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).<br/><br/>Size (see Glander (2006) for a discussion of body weight in mantled howling monkeys):<br/>Adult male weight 7.15 kg (n=110+) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 5.35 kg (n=177+) (Peres 1994).<br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Adult male weight 6.53 kg (n=14) (Glander <em>et al</em>. 1991)<br/>Adult female weight 5.35 kg (n=18) (Glander <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Adult male weight 7.8 kg (n=15) (Thorington Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1979)<br/>Adult female weight 6.6 kg (n=15) (Thorington Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1979)<br/>See Glander (2006) for a  discussion of body weight in mantled howling monkeys.	eng
39960	population	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C., Link, A., Palacios, E. & Morales, A., 2008	<em>Alouatta palliata palliata</em><br/>This subspecies is known to occur in densities of 8–10 individuals/ha in fragmented habitats. In Nicaragua (Williams-Guillen, Otterstrom, Hagell, Gomez-Fuentes, 2007) and Costa Rica this subspecies is abundant.<br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata mexicana</em><br/>Although this subspecies has a very restricted range, encompassing areas of highly disturbed vegetation with extremely high rate of loss, in some fragments the subspecies may be locally common. <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em><br/>In one study in Colombia, 20 individuals/km² were recorded near a biological station Armargal (Ramirez-Sanchez 2003). Recent faunal surveys in Utria National Park found them to be extremely rare, in areas where they were much more common in years past (H. Rubio pers. comm.). On the Osa pennisula, Costa Rica, in Corcovado National Park, densities were recorded at 0.2 groups/km² and in Golfo Dulce at 0.1/groups/km² (Carrillo <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata trabeata</em><br/>There is an observation of 430 individuals in 35 troops recorded within 355 km² of fragmented forest (Méndez-Carvajal 2005).	eng
39960	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C., Link, A., Palacios, E. & Morales, A., 2008	Across its range, there are no major threats, although it is certainly susceptible to hunting and habitat loss. For example, forests on the Azuero Peninsula (the range of <em>A. p. trabeata</em>) have been largely destroyed and are highly fragmented. Likewise, habitat within the range of A. p. mexicana are known to have experienced very high rates of decline (Cuarón 1997).<br/><br/>In the Chocó region of Colombia, <em>Alouatta palliata aequatorialis</em> is at risk of widespread hunting by Afro-Colombian and indigenous people. Furthermore, over 90% of forests on the Atlantic coast of Colombia have been destroyed for agricultural and pasture; it is estimated that at least 31% of forest has been lost over the past 10 years alone (based on calculations from satellite photos; Miller <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ground truthing of this data found only 2.5% of viable secondary forest habitat remaining in this region (Miller <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
39961	conservation	Urbani, B., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Ateles hybridus hybridus </em>is found in several protected areas in Colombia, including: Catatumbo-Bari National Natural Reserve (158,125 ha); Tamá National Natural Park (48,000 ha); El Cocoy National Natural Park (306,000 ha); and<br/>Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (383,000 ha) (Defler 2004). They may also occur in Chingaza Natural National Park (50,374 ha). <br/><br/>In Venezuela, the species occurs in the Guatopo National Park (92,640 ha), which is of particular importance because it is one the major water reservoirs for the capital city, Caracas. The Sierra de Perijá National Park (295,288 ha) is the other major protected area with brown spider monkeys. In these national parks, enforcement against hunting and wood extraction is needed. There are no NGOs working actively with <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> as target species, and governmental agencies should improve their conservation efforts. However, there is interest for continuing with surveys on these primates especially in central Venezuela as well as an awareness programme particularly at a local level. It is also fundamental to increase the number of park rangers and improving their economical condition. They also occur in Caparo Forest Reserve (Venezuela) (B. Urbani pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976a) showed the effect of forest disturbance, especially on <em>A. h. brunneus </em>(and <em>Lagothrix lugens</em>), and (1976b) made a plea for the establishment of reserves for this and other threatened primate taxa. Fortunately, the Serranía de San Lucas in southern Bolívar still contains extensive forest which has been identified as a possible national park site. The establishment of a San Lucas National Park ought to have high priority in Colombia, since it would preserve many elements of the Nechí refugium, including <em>Saguinus leucopus</em> and <em>Lagothrix lugens</em>. However, the presence of political insurgents, the military and some mine fields make the region very difficult for work and for the presence of the government. The Cienaga de Barbacoas represents another priority area for consideration for the creation of a protected area.<br/><br/>Censuses are required for a better understanding of the status of <em>Ateles hybridus</em>, and local populations need to be clearly identified and actively managed, something that is not taking place even in the protected areas where <em>A. h. hybridus</em> is known to occur.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
39961	distribution	Urbani, B., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	In Colombia, <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> is found from the right bank of the Río Magdalena in the Departments of Magdalena, César (northward to the southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta), the south-western portions of Guajira in the northernmost parts of the Serranía de Perijá, and in the middle Río Magdalena valley at least to the Departments of Caldas and Cundinamarca. There are also two populations of this subspecies on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes on the Venezuelan border: one population is found in the Río Catatumbo watershed in the Department of Norte de Santander and the other population is found in the north-east piedmont forest of the Department of Arauca (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>The subspecies has a disrupted distribution in Venezuela (Mondolfi and Eisenberg 1979). It is located in the north, along the south-eastern part of the Central Mountain Range (Cordillera de la Costa) in the state of Miranda, and probably the state of Vargas. It is also located on both sides of the Venezuelan Andean Mountains (states of Zulia, Táchira, Mérida, Trujillo, Portuguesa, Apure and Barinas). In its eastern part, this primate is distributed on the piedmont forest and in the highly threatened lowland forests of San Camilo and Ticoporo. On the western side, it is also distributed in the piedmont of the Andes throughout the lowland areas of southern Lake Maracaibo to the Perijá Mountains (Sierra de Perijá) along the border with Colombia (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linares 1998; Cordero-Rodríguez and Biord 2001; Portillo and Velásquez 2006; Duque 2007; B. Urbani, unpubl.).<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>Ateles hybridus brunneus</em> is found between the lower Cauca and Magdalena Rivers in the Department of Bolívar, Antioquia and Caldas. This population has sometimes been included with <em>A. h. hybridus</em>, but is here considered distinct.	eng
39961	habitat	Urbani, B., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	In Venezuela, <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> inhabits mainly the high and lowland primary evergreen rainforests from 20 to 700 m asl. <br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em> was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition, the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for the closely related <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976).<br/><br/>Congdon (1996) provided a brief remark on the behaviour of these monkeys at the Reserva Forestal Caparo, and Duque (2007) provided a list of potential feeding trees for <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> in the El Ávila National Park (however, this primate species was not observed at the time of Duque´s survey). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals makes it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.<br/><br/>Size<br/>Adult male weight 7.9-8.6 kg (mean 8.25 kg, n=2) (see Di Fiore and Campbell 2007<br/>Adult female weight 7.5-10.5 kg (mean 9.1 kg, n=7) (see Di Fiore and Campbell 2007).	eng
39961	population	Urbani, B., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	In Colombia, Bernstein <em>et al.</em> (1976a) calculated a density of 9-14 individuals/km² for <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> in the San Lucas mountains. Green (1978) calculated densities of 8.2-9.6 groups/km² at his study site, which if multiplied by his average group size (3.3 individuals) seems to suggest higher densities at his Cerro Bran site when compared with the other study site.<br/><br/>There is no reliable population information available for Venezuela (B. Urbani pers. comm.).	eng
39961	threats	Urbani, B., Morales, A. L., Link, A. & Stevenson, P., 2008	In Colombia, both <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> and <em>Ateles hybridus brunneus</em> are subject to habitat loss and to hunting. The habitat of <em>A. h. hybridus</em> is extremely fragmented, and there may be few populations of an adequate size to be viable in the mid- to long-term (Defler <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Habitat alteration appears to be the most important threat to the Venezuelan population of <em>A. h. hybridus</em>. The lowland forest of the state of Zulia and the piedmond of the Perijá Mountains are heavily destroyed from expanding cattle-ranching activities (B. Urbani, unpubl.). Portillo and Velásquez (2006) undertook a gap analysis for this primate species within the Perijá Mountains and found that, while the total forest extent is still very large (813,257 ha), only 30% is relatively well preserved and protected. The rest remains affected by rapid human expansion and land clearance. Also in the Perijá Mountains, these monkeys seem to be favourite game animals (Lizarralde 2002). In central Venezuela, some areas that were reported with these monkeys (Cordero-Rodríguez and Biord 2001) were resurveyed by Duque (2007) without reports of any sightings; most of the area is already converted to secondary vegetation. Also in this region, B. Urbani (unpubl.) found that buffer areas around the protected areas—with confirmed populations of <em>Ateles hybridus hybridus</em> (P. N. Guatopo) and unconfirmed populations (M. N. Cueva Alfredo Jahn, P. N. Henry Pittier, P. N. San Esteban and P. N. El Ávila)—are transformed into cleared areas for slash-and-burn agriculture and human settlements as well as secondary forests. The lowland forest from the eastern part of the Andean Mountains, which are San Camilo and Ticoporo, are under severe pressure from logging.	eng
39974	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No known protection measures are in place for this species. Lemmings are listed as unclassified game by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service with no closed season and bag limit. No protection measures currently are needed; however, populations should be monitored to ensure that protection needs do not change.<br/><br/>Research needs include: 1) Genetic analysis to substantiate species status of <em>Dicrostonyx unalascensis</em>. 2) Determine factors that affect cyclicity of lemming populations on Unalaska and Umnak islands. 3) Study habitat preferences and ecosystem structure involving lemmings. 4) Determine effects of winter breeding and reproductive patterns in relation to cyclicity. 5) Determine the impact of introduced species on the populations.	eng
39974	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range includes Umnak and Unalaska Islands, in the Aleutian Archipelago, Alaska, United States (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993, 2005). Umnak Island is approximately 85,920 hectares and Unalaska Island is 137,849 hectares (total 2,238 square kilometers).	eng
39974	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is an Arctic tundra inhabitant, but specific ecological information is sparse.	eng
39974	population	Linzey, A.V., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No population estimates are available (Jarrell 1997), but the total adult population size (though variable) presumably exceeds 10,000. Each of the two occupied islands could be regarded as a single occurrence or subpopulation.<br/><br/>No population trend information is available. Although Fay and Murie did not believe that lemming populations on Umnak Island are cyclic (Fay pers. comm.; Murie 1959, in Fay and Sease 1985), they noted that populations fluctuate widely from scarce to abundant. However, according to Stenseth and Ims (1993), "Lemmings are characterized by, and known for, their pronounced density cycles combined with shifts in habitat use both at a local and regional scale." They discussed reasons for controversy over accepting cyclicity in lemmings and possible ways to account for this phenomenon. No information has suggested a positive or negative population trend, so the population may be stable.	eng
39974	threats	Linzey, A.V., Garibaldi, A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The restricted range of this species increases its vulnerability to outside threats (e.g., rat introduction). Effects from the development of Nikolski village, Umnak Island, appear to be insignificant (Fay and Sease 1985). This is an important prey species for red fox and predatory birds on both islands (Fay and Sease 1985; Peterson 1967); however, red fox is native to these islands (not introduced) so the <em>Dicrostonyx</em> population may be able to tolerate fox predation. The effects of Norway rat, house mouse, and ground squirrel introductions on Unalaska Island and European hare introduction on Umnak Island are unknown. The Arctic fox was introduced on Unalaska Island in 1922 but has since disappeared (Bailey 1993).	eng
39985	conservation	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	<em>P. m. milleri</em> occurs in the La Paya National Park (422,000 ha) (T. Defler pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>P. m. monachus</em> occurs in the following national parks in Colombia: Cahuinaría, Amacayacu, and Puré (T. Defler pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The species occurs in several reserves and protected areas in Peru, but protection may be limited. Reported to occur in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Ecuador (de la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
39985	distribution	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Pithecia monachus monachus</em> has a relatively wide range in the upper Amazon. It is found throughout eastern Ecuador and Peru, south to Ucayali and east to the Rio Juruá in Brazil. In Colombia, it occurs south of the Caquetá River (including the Columbian trapezium) to the region of Puerto Lopez (Defler 2004).<br/><br/><em>Pithecia monachus milleri</em> has a poorly known range, but is thought to occur between the Orteguaza River to the Putumayo River up to about 500-600 m in Colombia. (T. Defler pers. comm.). The exact limit between the subspecies is unknown. It may be found between the Ríos Caguán and Yarí.	eng
39985	habitat	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	The nominate subspecies prefers terra firme tropical forest in Ecuador (de la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995), but may use flooded forest and can survive in forest patches (Defler 2003). <em>P. m. milleri</em> occurs in primary forest and flooded forest (Igapó).	eng
39985	population	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	Near the Purite river in Colombia, densities were calculated at between 2 and 14.5 individuals/km² (Defler 2003). Palacios and Peres (2005) estimated a density of 11 individuals/km² in Ayo, below the Caqueta River.	eng
39985	threats	Marsh, L.K. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to human settlement and land-use changes (Defler 2003). It is also subject to hunting.	eng
39992	conservation	Struhsaker, T. & Siex, K., 2008	Listed as Class A under the African Convention, and on Appendix I of CITES. In Tanzania, this taxon is nominally protected under the Forest Resource Management and Conservation Act of 1996. <br/><br/>Less than half of the taxon is legally protected within the small Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park (about 60 km²) where<br/>the monkeys are reasonably secure. The installation of speedbumps at Jozani has also reduced the incidence of road kills. The creation of a new protected at Kiwengwa, protection of the remaining patches of coral thicket in the south, and corridors between remaining habitat patches, are needed (Siex and Struhsaker in press).	eng
39992	distribution	Struhsaker, T. & Siex, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Zanzibar Island where it occurs at elevations of 0-110 m (Siex and Struhsaker in press). Kirk's Red Colobus may once have occurred on the mainland (as, for example, does Aders' Duiker <em>Cephalophus adersi</em>), but is certainly extirpated there now. On Zanzibar, it is found mainly in the south-eastern part of the island in Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park, the adjacent agricultural areas to the south, and the coral thickets and mangrove swamps of Uzi Island 10 km to the south-west. Also found at low densities in isolated populations in the coral thickets along Zanzibar’s eastern coast from Kiwengwa in the north to Mnyambiji in the south, and on the west coast there is a small isolated group in the mangrove swamps of Maji Mekundu. A small translocated population of ca. 56 individuals also occurs in Masingini Forest Reserve (Siex and Struhsaker in press). <br/><br/>Approximately 14 animals were introduced to Ngezi Forest Reserve, Pemba Island, around 1974 (Struhsaker and Siex 1998: Oryx), where the species is believed to persist in small numbers (Camperio Ciani <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
39992	habitat	Struhsaker, T. & Siex, K., 2008	This species lives primarily in areas of ground-water forest, and scrub forest on coral rag on the southern and eastern side of the island; it is also found in mangrove swamp (Struhsaker and Siex 1998: Primate Conservation; Siex and Struhsaker in press). It lives in multi-male groups (average 30 individuals), with overlapping home ranges. Young leaves and leaf buds account for more than 50% of the diet. In forest-dwelling groups, unripe fruit accounts for an additional quarter of the diet, whereas in groups living in agricultural areas, leaves from herbaceous species are the second most consumed item (approx. 15% of the annual diet). Some groups frequently feed on mangrove leaves, and the populations on coral rag appear to subsist on a drier, coarser diet than any recorded for red colobus (Siex 2003).	eng
39992	population	Struhsaker, T. & Siex, K., 2008	The total population is estimated to be less than 2,000 individuals (Siex 2003; Struhsaker 2005; Siex and Struhsaker in press). The Jozani subpopulation was thought to contain ~500 animals. The highest densities occur in ca. 40 ha of agricultural lands adjacent to the southern border of the national park (784 individuals/km² in 1999); these high densities are due to population compression following destruction of adjacent habitat rather than to intrinsic growth (Siex 2003). Density in the coral thickets adjacent to Jozani Forest is probably less than 50 individuals/km² (Siex and Struhsaker 1999).	eng
39992	threats	Struhsaker, T. & Siex, K., 2008	The remaining populations are severely threatened by habitat destruction resulting from timber felling, charcoal production, clearance for cultivation, and bush-burning. This species is occasionally shot for food, sport, or as a supposed crop pest, but habitat loss remains the most serious threat (Siex 2003). In Jozani Chwaka Bay National Park, habitat degradation occurred in the past mainly from commercial logging, agriculture, tree-cutting for fuelwood, and charcoal production, but this has now stopped. There are occasional deaths due to road kills south of the park.	eng
39993	conservation	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This taxon is listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in several protected areas across its range, and at least two of these, Kibale National Park and the Tana River Primate Reserve, are the last true bastions for the survival of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> and <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, respectively (see below).<br/><br/>Approximately 40% of the population of <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> occurs within 13 km² of forest within the 169 km² Tana River Primate National Reserve. Stringent habitat protection is required and there is a need to re-establish the Mchelo Research Station.<br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is present in the 766 km² Kibale Forest National Park in Uganda, which may contain the only viable population; hunting by humans is virtually non-existant in this park (Struhsaker 2005). It is also present in the Gombe and Mahale National Parks in Tanzania. Long-term monitoring of the Ngogo situation is required, as well as a comprehensive, long-term monitoring programme for the colobus throughout Kibale. Kibale has the largest and perhaps only viable population of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> (although the population in Mbizi exceeds 1,000), and is the last hope for conservation of this taxon. <br/><br/>The southernmost population in the Mbizi forest should be protected; this is the only remaining montane forest of any size in Ufipa, and the only source of water for Sumbawanga’s growing population. There is also a need for immediate intervention if Mbuzi is not to be lost completely following the recent fate of both the Misheta and Nsangu forests. The forest patch is very small, isolated and has no protected status or management (Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is present in the Salongo National Park.<br/><br/>The range of <em>P. r. oustaleti</em> overlaps with the Okapi Faunal Reserve in DR Congo, and the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue national park in CAR.<br/><br/><em>P. r. ellioti</em> may persist in the Semliki Forest Reserve, Uganda, and is possibly found in the Kahuzi-Beiga and Maiko National Parks, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>P. r. permentieri</em> and <em>P. r. langi</em> are not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this species is extremely complex and much debated (see Struhsaker and Grubb in press; Groves in press; and references therein), and in need of urgent revision.	eng
39993	distribution	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	North of the Congo River, this species ranges widely from about the River Sangha in the west to Lake Albert; south of the Congo River, it occurs as far south as the Kasai and Sankuru Rivers. Also occurs in isolated fragments (as <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em>) east of the Albertine Rift, and an isolated form, <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, persists on the lower Tana River in Kenya (Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> 1999; Struhsaker and Grubb in press). The species ranges from near sea-level to 2,500 m.<br/><br/>In this treatment, the species includes nine subspecies: <br/><br/><em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is found only on the levees of the lower Tana River in Kenya. The total known range is 60 km from Kipende in the north to Mitipani in the south, where the Lamu-Garsen road enters the Tana River floodplain. It is restricted to ca. 34 patches of fragmented gallery forest, notably Guru South, Sifa East, Baomo South, Mnazini East, Bubesa West 1, Hewani South 2 forests (Butynski and Mwangi 1994). <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is broadly sympatric with <em>Cercocebus galeritus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus</em>, and narrowly sympatric on the forest edges with <em>Papio cynocephalus ibeanus</em> and <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is present on the eastern border of the Rift Valley in western Uganda and western Tanzania (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). Five distinct populations are known in western Uganda in Kibale, and in western Tanzania in Biharamulo on the south-western shores of Lake Victoria, Gombe and Mahale Mountains on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, and Mbizi and Misheta on the Ufipa Plateau (Rodgers <em>et al</em>. 1984). However, recent surveys in Misheta found little if any forest left of any consequence in the area, and the red colobus population is probably now extinct there (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007). A subpopulation subsequently recorded in a forest patch near the village of Nsangu (post the surveys by Rodgers et al.) is probably also now extinct (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007). Davenport <em>et al</em>. (2007) reported a new and previously unrecorded population of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> in Mbuzi forest. They also surveyed the Chala forest, which was in poor condition; no primates were seen, although it is not known if red colobus ever existed there. This subspecies may be present in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, but its presence has not yet been confirmed.<br/><br/><em>P. r. foai</em> from Democratic Republic of the Congo between the Rivers Lowa and Osa in the north and about 6°S in the south along the western side of Lake Tanganyika (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. oustaleti</em>, occurs in Congo, southern Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo and marginally in southern Sudan, from the River Sangha in the west across the Oubangui River east to Lake Albert; the southern border of its range is the Congo River, the eastern limit is the River Aruwimi-Ituri, and in the north its range extends into the savanna woodlands north of the River Uele (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999; Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. lulindicus</em> is present in Democratic Republic of Congo in lowland forest east of the Lualaba River from the Lowa-Osa River in the north to the Elila River in the south (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. langi</em> occurs in pure form in the cul-de-sac between the Lualaba and Aruwimi-ituri Rivers in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo and extends as a variant within the population eastward to the vicinity of Lake Kivu (P. Grubb unpubl.).<br/><br/><em>P. r. ellioti</em> ranges from Congo-Lualaba River east to the Semliki Valley, and the west shore of Lake Edward and Lake Kivu. The northern limit is the Aruwimi-Ituri River, and the southern limit the Maiko River (Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. parmentieri</em> in the area between the Lomami and Lualaba Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo, as far south as the Rivers Ruiki and Lutanga (Colyn and Verheyen 1987; Struhsaker and Grubb in press).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is a little-known taxon that occurs in a patchy distribution from south of the great bend of the Congo River, west of the River Lomami, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Southern limits bounded by the Kasai and Sankuru Rivers (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). Except for <em>P. r. parmentieri</em>, this is the only red colobus taxon to occur south of the Congo River.	eng
39993	habitat	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of forest types, including riverine and gallery forest (e.g., the nominate subspecies <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> in Kenya, where the forests are dominated by <em>Pachystela</em> and <em>Barringtonia</em>), forest-miombo savanna mosaic, old-growth lowland, mid-altitude, and montane moist rain forest, degraded secondary forests, and raphia palm swamps (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). <br/><br/>In Kibale, <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is most abundant in moist, old-growth, evergreen forest with emergent trees reaching 50 m in height (Struhsaker and Grubb in press, and refs therein). It can persist in lightly logged forest as long as important food trees remain (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1988). Groups of <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> average about 45-50 individuals in Kibale, and 55-59 individuals in Gombe (Struhsaker and Grubb in press, and refs therein). The mean group size recorded in Mbizi was 41 and in Mbuzi, 34 (Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/><em>P. r.oustaleti</em>, the most widespread subspecies, is found in mature primary lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest and gallery forest, as well as in in savanna woodland. However, in Ngotto Forest in Central African Republic, this species only occurs in flooded forests on alluvial river banks (Gautier-Hion and Brugiere 2005). Galat-Luong and Galat (1979) reported that they spent 30% of their time <10 m above ground and regularly enter into water to collect bulbs of aquatic plants.<br/><br/>In the Congo Basin, <em>P. r. tholloni</em> is common in flooded forests where they eat a lot of seeds (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
39993	population	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There are no overall population estimates for most of the forms of red colobus assigned to this species. <br/><br/><em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> numbers at least 20,000 animals, with the largest and most viable population in Kibale Forest in Uganda where the population is estimated at ≥17,000 (Struhsaker 2005). Approximately 60% of the Kibale park represents suitable habitat for red colobus and published density estimates for them in this habitat range from 93-313/km² (Struhsaker 2005). Although Kibale would appear to have a healthy and viable population, long-term studies in two areas of the park indicate statistically significant declines in red colobus numbers. In the Ngogo study area, census data spanning nearly 24 years indicate a 43% decline in groups (Mitani <em>et al.</em> 2000), mainly due to Chimpanzee <em>Pan troglodytes</em> predation. A similar long-term study spanning 28 years at the Kanyawara site of Kibale also indicated a 40% decline in red colobus numbers within old growth and protected forest, as well as in nearby selectively logged forest (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 2000). Red colobus density in forest fragments on the western boundary of Kibale averaged 2.1 animals per hectare and ranged from 0 to 8.33 animals / ha (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The red colobus in Gombe National Park also seem to have declined in numbers due to predation by Chimpanzees. Red colobus group sizes have declined by nearly 50% over a 25-year period (Stanford 1998) and 16–40% of them are killed each year by chimpanzees (Wrangham and Bergmann-Riss 1990).<br/><br/>Recent survey work by Davenport <em>et al</em>. (2007) shows that a total of at least 1,354 red colobus survive on the Ufipa Plateau, with 1,217 in Mbizi and 137 in Mbuzi.<br/><br/>The total population of <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> is estimated at 1,100-1,300, down from an estimated 1,200-1,800 in 1975 (Butynski and Mwangi 1994, 1995; Mbora 2003). This is not considered a significant decrease and suggests that the species may have developed strategies to cope with the shrinking habitat. Recent surveys indicate at least 86 groups occur in 34 forest patches (Butynski and Mwangi 1994; Mbora 2003); mean group size has declined by about 50% since the 1970s (Struhsaker and Grubb in press; and refs therein). Densities of <em>P. r. ufomitratus</em> along the Tana River, Kenya have ranged from 33-253 individuals/per km² (Marsh 1978; Decker 1994; Mbora 2003).<br/><br/><em>P. r. oustaleti</em> is likely to be among the more numerous of the Red Colobus taxa, given the size of the range (Struhsaker and Grubb in press). This was the third most observed species in the flooded forests of Ngotto Forest in south-western CAR (Brugiere <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39993	threats	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Across the range, localized declines are taking place due to ongoing habitat loss (mainly as a result of deforestation for timber and agricultural land), and from hunting for meat and skins (although, in most cases, levels of offtake due to hunting are not well quantified). The two forms most at risk are <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> (which also suffers exceptionally high rates of predation from Chimpanzees) and <em>P. r. rufomitratus</em>, although <em>P. r. tholloni</em> is also certainly at risk<br/><br/><em>P. r. rufomitratus</em> appears to have declined as a result of several causes: (a) drastic changes in vegetation due to dam construction, irrigation projects, and water diversion which changed the water table; (b) forest clearance for agriculture; (c) fires eroding levee forests; (d) degradation due to livestock and wood collection; (e) selective felling of Ficus trees for canoes; and (f) hunting. Because all remaining forest patches inhabited by colobus are small and seriously threatened, the population is highly vulnerable. The proposed Tana Integrated Sugar Project in Tana River and Lamu Districts threatens more than 200 km² of semi-natural habitat in the area.<br/><br/>The main threat to <em>P. r. tephrosceles</em> is habitat loss through selective logging of mature forest for timber, conversion to agricultural land, the production of charcoal, and forest fires. To some degree, hunting for meat and skins remains a threat (e.g., around Mbizi; Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2007). The taxon also appears to be heavily predated by chimpanzees. At Ngogo in Kibale National Park, the colobus live with the largest community of chimps recorded anywhere. They form huge hunting parties against the reds that result in the highest hunting success rate known for any large vertebrate predator (T. Struhsaker pers. comm.). The population in Gombe National Park appears to be seriously threatened with extinction because of predation by chimpanzees and because of the very small size (ca. 80 km²) and isolation of the Gombe park (Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/><em>P. r. tholloni</em> is vulnerable to hunting which has increased markedly since the Congo war (1996-2003), and habitat loss for timber and agricultural land likely effects some populations locally. It is known to be extensively hunted throughout its range (J. Thompson pers. comm.); A. Vesper (pers. comm.) reports that between the Tshuapa and the Lomami Rivers they are usually one of the first primates hunted out because they are so large and slow to flee.<br/><br/>The status of most of the remaining taxa included here is poorly known.	eng
39994	conservation	Robbins, M. & Williamson, L., 2008	Detailed information on conservation measures to protect the Eastern Gorilla and its two subspecies can be found in chapters 8, 13 and 16 of Caldecott and Miles (2005). <br/><br/>The Eastern Gorilla is listed under Class A of the African Convention and Appendix I of CITES. The subspecies is found only within National Parks. These protected areas all have active national programmes for conservation management, assisted by international NGOs. Although the protected areas are relatively well monitored, measures of the impacts of illegal activities on the gorillas should continue.<br/><br/>Most subpopulations of <em>G. b. graueri</em> are found in protected areas, where international NGOs are supporting rehabilitation and conservation programmes, such as in Kahuzi-Biega NP, Maïko NP, Tayna Nature Reserve and Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserve. However, due to the presence of armed militia groups in some areas, conservation activities sometimes require assistance from the United Nations Mission in the Congo (MONUC). Efforts are underway to establish up-to-date distribution, abundance, and threats to improve conservation management. It is important to identify key populations of <em>G. b. graueri</em> and continue to provide active protection. Work must continue to document the post-conflict distribution, abundance and conservation status of Grauer’s Gorilla throughout its range. Efforts must also be made to support and maintain active protection for Grauer’s Gorilla where it is already established, while simultaneously developing and mobilizing conservation activities in the more remote and inaccessible sectors of its range.	eng
39994	distribution	Robbins, M. & Williamson, L., 2008	Eastern Gorillas are found in Rwanda, Uganda, and eastern DR Congo. There are two subspecies.<br/><br/><em>G. b. beringei</em> (Matschie, 1903) is found in the Virunga Volcanoes region, an area of 440 km² straddling the border between Uganda (Mgahinga Gorilla National Park), Rwanda (Volcanoes National Park), and DRC (Virunga National Park), and also in the 330 km² Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in southwestern Uganda (Schaller 1963; Butynski 2001).<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em> (Matschie, 1914) is endemic to eastern DRC, and is found from the lowlands east of the Lualaba River and the Mitumba Range from Mount Tshiaberimu in the north of Virunga National Park, south to the Itombwe Massif, and formerly even further south in the area west of Fizi on the escarpment west of Lake Tanganyika (Schaller 1963; Butynski 2001; Mehlman 2008). The southern limit of the current Grauer’s Gorilla range has been extended by the discovery in late 2007 of a hitherto unreported population in the Hewa Bora region east of Kilembwe in Fizi District (J. Hart, pers comm.).	eng
39994	habitat	Robbins, M. & Williamson, L., 2008	The Mountain Gorillas of the Virunga Volcanoes are confined by surrounding cultivation to altitudes above 1,500 m, extending up perhaps to 4,000 m. That range of altitude covers many Afromontane habitat types, from bamboo forest to subalpine zones, typically with dense ground vegetation and relatively little canopy cover (Schaller 1963; Vedder 1984; Watts 1984). The Mountain Gorillas of Bwindi live at altitudes of 1,100-2,400 m, in a forest characterized by steep hills of predominantly mixed forest habitat with a dense understorey. While both subpopulations feed mainly on herbaceous vegetation, diet composition varies greatly with altitude, and the Bwindi gorillas incorporate a considerable amount of fruit into their diet (Ganas <em>et al.</em> 2004; Robbins <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em> is distributed from lowland tropical rainforest habitat through transitional forests to Afromontane habitat (500–2800 m). <em>G. b. graueri</em> has a different diet from that of <em>G. b. beringei</em>, largely due to differences in what plant species are present, but they also feed predominantly on herbaceous vegetation, as well as on fruit from many species (Ferriss <em>et al</em>. 2005; Yamagiwa <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
39994	population	Robbins, M. & Williamson, L., 2008	<em>G. b beringei</em><br/><br/>The Mountain Gorilla subspecies is found in only two isolated subpopulations in Rwanda, Uganda, and the DRC. The Virunga subpopulation was estimated at 380 individuals in 2003, an increase from 320 in 1989 (Gray <em>et al.</em> 2006). Approximately half of the subpopulation is mature individuals (Kalpers <em>et al.</em> 2003; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, all population growth in the Virungas between 1989 and 2003 has been limited to one sector of the population, the four gorilla groups in perhaps ecologically the richest area, which is also relatively well protected (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006). Not only do unhabituated (and therefore less well-protected) groups have a lower ratio of juveniles to adults, but the current rate of growth of the whole population is lower than that during the 1980s (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003). Additionally, a resurgence in poaching and killing of gorillas (approximately 3% of the entire Virunga subpopulation in 2007: see below) directly limits population growth and emphasizes the fragile nature of this small population.<br/><br/>While the <em>G. b. beringei</em> subpopulation in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park was believed to have increased from about 300 gorillas in 1997 to 320 individuals in 2003 (McNeilage <em>et al</em>. 2006), a census in 2006 that combined genetic analysis of the entire population with traditional census methods revealed that there are only approximately 300 individuals in Bwindi (Guschanski <em>et al</em>. in review). These new results do not lead to the conclusion that the population has declined in size; instead, due to the ‘sweep census’ method used, it is not possible to put error estimates around the population estimates and therefore it is difficult to assess how the population size has been changing over time.<br/><br/>In total, the subspecies <em>G. b. beringei</em> has only approximately 680 individuals remaining in two isolated populations.<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em><br/>In 1995, the population of <em>G. b. graueri</em> was estimated at 16,900 animals (Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998; Hall, White <em>et al</em>. 1998). In the last decade, it is believed that the total population has declined dramatically, as the lowland populations have been progressively fragmented and reduced (Hart and Liengola 2005; Hart <em>et al</em>. 2007). Many populations have disappeared in the last 30 years (comparing Schaller 1963 and Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998); for example, Itombwe lost about half of its subpopulations between 1960 and 1996 (Omari <em>et al</em>. 1999). Their habitat continues to become fragmented and discontinuous; the current occupancy range for Grauer’s Gorilla is estimated at 21,600 km², a decline of 25% from surveys completed in 1959 (Mehlman 2008). However, data are lacking to determine the extent of decline, apart from in the uplands of Kahuzi-Biega National Park, where the population dropped from an estimated 270 in 1996 to only 170 animals in 2000 (WCS 2000).	eng
39994	threats	Robbins, M. & Williamson, L., 2008	Detailed information on the threats to the Eastern Gorilla and its two subspecies can be found in chapters 8, 13 and 16 of Caldecott and Miles (2005). <br/><br/><em>G. b. beringei</em><br/><br/>For the Mountain Gorilla, <em>G. b. beringei</em>, the Virunga Volcanoes region and Bwindi Impenetrable NP are surrounded by some of the highest human densities in Africa (Plumptre and Williamson 2001; CIESIN and CIAT 2005) in countries with some of the fastest increasing human populations in Africa (World Resources Institute 2007). So many people with so much need for land pose significant threats to both subpopulations of Mountain Gorilla. While a key conservation strategy for both subpopulations of Mountain Gorillas is tourism, there is concern about the risk of disease transmission and disturbance to the gorillas, both of which could jeopardize these conservation programmes (e.g. Butynski and Kalina 1998; Homsy 1999). Transmission of infectious disease agents has been proven among habituated wild gorillas, people, domestic animals and other wild animals. Although not yet documented in gorillas, human-origin viral respiratory disease has recently been shown to cause high mortality among habituated chimpanzees (Köndgen <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, overall, Mountain Gorillas visited by researchers and tourists have consistently done better than those not visited, due to the level of protection afforded to areas and groups that are monitored daily (Harcourt 1986; Weber 1993). For instance, in both the 1981 census and 2003 census of the Virunga gorillas, the ratio of immatures to adults were higher in gorilla groups visited by researchers or tourists than in groups not visited (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1983; Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006), at 0.4 vs. 0.6 juveniles per non-silverback adult in 2001 (Gray <em>et al</em>. 2006, Table 3). Nevertheless, the threats remain considerable, and intensive conservation activities must continue.<br/><br/>The Virunga subpopulation of <em>G. b. beringei</em> suffered numerous impacts from more than a decade of war and instability in the region (Plumptre and Williamson 2001). Threats included incursions by militia, habitat destruction for firewood and farmland, illegal cattle grazing, illegal timber extraction, and illegal hunting, including snares set for other mammals such as antelope that can injure or kill gorillas. In 2004, 15 km² was deforested for conversion to farmland (NASA 2005) and recently there has been a sharp increase in timber extraction for the illegal production of charcoal. There has also been a resurgence of poaching for the illegal pet trade and bushmeat (Kalpers <em>et al</em>. 2003) and since 2003, 12 orphans (both Grauer’s and Mountain Gorillas) have been confiscated and taken into the care of veterinarians. In 2007, at least eight gorillas were shot dead in three incidents in Virunga NP (Williamson and Fawcett 2008). These losses amount to about 3% of the Virunga subpopulation. Since September, the Mikeno sector, where DRC’s Mountain Gorillas are found, has been under rebel control and park authorities have been prevented from monitoring the gorillas. The failure of the 2008 Peace Conference means that the region remains volatile and the gorillas vulnerable, despite the efforts of international NGOs and UN observers. <br/><br/>Threats to the Bwindi subpopulation of <em>G. b. beringei</em> include illegal use of forest resources (poaching, pit-sawing, firewood collection, etc.), encroachment and demand for land, human-induced fires, invasive exotic species and human-wildlife disease transmission (McNeilage <em>et al</em>. 2006). The forest is also recovering from high levels of timber extraction, gold-mining, encroachment and poaching that occurred prior to designation of National Park status in 1991.<br/><br/><em>G. b. graueri</em><br/><br/>In eastern DRC, Grauer’s Gorillas face substantial threats to their survival: agriculture and pastoral activities are leading to massive loss and fragmentation of forest habitat (as noted already, the current occupancy range for Grauer’s Gorilla is approximately 21,600 km², a decline of 25% since 1959; Mehlman 2008); widespread illegal mining activities in the forests increase demand for bushmeat, including consumption of gorillas; and illegal capture of infants (and concomitant killing of group members), which has increased substantially since 2002. Ongoing political unrest and military activity, including occupation of national parks, and killing of gorillas for food, have compounded the problems (Hall, Saltonstall <em>et al</em>. 1998; Plumptre <em>et al</em>. 2003; Yamagiwa 1999, 2003). At present, there is no commercial logging in the Grauer’s range, but there are continuous low-level extractive activities (charcoal production, bamboo harvesting and wood cutting), which put further stress on the habitat (J. Hart pers. comm. 2007). As some of the country emerges from civil war, new concessions for timber, minerals, and possibly petroleum will pose conservation challenges for the future (Caldecott and Miles 2005, Ch. 16).	eng
39996	conservation	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T. & Ting, N., 2008	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. <br/><br/>The remaining populations of <em>P. p. pennantii</em> on Bioko are confined to Gran Caldera and Southern Highlands Scientific Reserve (510 km²), and perhaps still to Pico Basile National Park (330 km²); however, there is almost no control of hunting within these protected areas. Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) have called for an immediate ban on shotgun hunting and the confiscation of all shotguns on Bioko Island. <br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni</em> is not represented in any protected areas, although a forest reserve, Apoi Creek, near Gbanraun had been proposed. Protection of the remaining habitat of this taxon is an urgent priority.<br/><br/>The range of <em>P. p. bouvieri</em> overlaps with the Lefini Reserve. This taxon is a priority for further survey work to determine whether it remains extant in the wild.	eng
39996	distribution	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T. & Ting, N., 2008	This species has a discontinuous distribution, being found on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea), the Niger Delta, and from a small area roughly between the Lefini and lower River Sangha in the Republic of Congo (Groves in press; Grubb in press). It ranges in elevation to at least 1,500 m asl, and perhaps even 1,800 m on Bioko (Grubb <em>et al.</em> in press). The ranges of the three subspecies are as follows:<br/><br/><em>P. p. pennantii</em> is endemic to the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, where it is now restricted mainly to the south-west of the island with a range of less than 500 km² (Butynski and Koster 1994; Hearn and Mora 2001; Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are no confirmed historical or present records from Pico Basile (contra the map in Hearn <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>P. p. bouvieri</em> is known to occur on the right bank of the Congo River, along the lower reaches of the Alima to the mouth of the Likouala-aux-Herbes (i.e., west of the Sangha River), tributaries of the lower Congo River, in Republic of Congo (Gautier-Hion <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grubb <em>et al</em>. in press). However, records from Inoni, Lefini Reserve (see Groves in press), at 3ºS, 15º30?E, some way south of the known distribution, require confirmation.<br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni</em> is present between the Forcados-Nikrogha Creek and the Sagbama-Osiama-Agboi Creek in the marsh forest of the Niger Delta, Nigeria (Grubb and Powell 1999; Werre 2000).	eng
39996	habitat	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T. & Ting, N., 2008	It is a largely arboreal species found in lowland and mid-montane tropical moist forest, and marsh forest. On Bioko, they can form groups of more than 30 animals. Often found in polyspecific associations (Grubb <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
39996	population	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T. & Ting, N., 2008	The total numbers across its range are not known. There appear to have been no reliable sightings of <em>P. p. bouvieri</em> for 25 years and it may be extinct (Oates <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>There are probably less than 5,000 animals remaining on Bioko, where Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a 45% decline in numbers between 1986 and 2006.<br/><br/><em>P. p. epieni </em> was discovered only in 1993, and was then quite common within its limited range in the mid-1990s (Werre and Powell 1997), but recent reports suggest rapid declines as a result of habitat degradation and hunting (Grubb and Powell 1999; L. Werre pers. comm.).	eng
39996	threats	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T. & Ting, N., 2008	The major threat to this species is hunting (e.g., Butynski and Koster 1994) and habitat degradation. On Bioko, Hearn <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated that more than 550 individuals were killed in 2004 alone. Artisanal scale logging has seriously degraded the habitat of <em>P. p. epieni</em>, removing many important red colobus food trees, such as <em>Hallea ledermannii</em> (Werre and Powell 1997; Grubb and Powell 1999).	eng
39998	conservation	Oates, J.F., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn, A., 2008	A series of three workshops has identified priority actions for the conservation of <em>G. g. diehli</em>, and these have been formulated into an IUCN Action Plan (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007). There are several cross-cutting actions which require attention throughout Cross River gorilla range, notably increasing conservation education and awareness, fostering improved community participation in conservation issues, increasing trans-boundary conservation activities such as joint patrols to control timber and bushmeat between the two countries, and further research. The most urgently-needed actions identified, which must be undertaken for any longer-term measures to be effective, are habitat protection and the control of hunting. In Nigeria the majority of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population occurs within formal protected areas (Cross River National Park and Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary), but in Cameroon none of the population is as yet protected in this way (although two areas are in process of establishment: Takamanda National Park and Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary). Further areas, including migration corridors, need to be brought under conservation management to increase the chances for the long-term survival of a viable population of Cross River gorillas, and the effectiveness of existing management improved.	eng
39998	distribution	Oates, J.F., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn, A., 2008	<em>G. g. diehli</em> (Matschie, 1903) occurs in a small area on the Nigeria-Cameroon border, extending a short distance on either side of the border in the forests on the upper drainage of the Cross River.	eng
39998	habitat	Oates, J.F., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn, A., 2008	Two studies of <em>G. g. diehli</em> (at Afi and Kagwene) demonstrated flexible grouping patterns with groups ranging in size from 2 to 20. These grouping patterns likely occur for several reasons, including restricted habitat, feeding competition related to fruit consumption, high hunting pressure, and limited opportunities for male migration between nuclei (McFarland 2007). Each group’s home range may be as large as 20 km² and group ranges overlap extensively. Today, Cross River gorillas are restricted mostly to hilly areas, and range from lowland to submontane forest (Allen 1932, Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sunderland-Groves <em>et al</em>. 2003), although they occasionally use lowland areas between hills (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003, Bergl 2006).	eng
39998	population	Oates, J.F., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn, A., 2008	Although gorillas in the Cross River region first became known to science in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, little attention was paid to their conservation status until the late 1980s (Harcourt <em>et al</em>. 1989). Early reports had referred to their precarious situation, but little had been done to thoroughly examine their distribution and abundance, or to protect the remaining population and habitat (Anon 1934, Critchley 1968, March 1957). Intensive surveys over the last decade have found that approximately 250 to 300 <em>G. g. diehli</em> persist in a forested area of roughly 8,000 km². This estimate is of uncertain accuracy and is based primarily on nest counts and estimated range size. The gorillas are found in at least 10 localities (Groves 2002, Beamont 2004, Bergl 2006, Bergl and Vigilant 2007). Though the localities where the gorillas are found are geographically distinct, the majority of these areas are connected by forested land. Recent genetic evidence suggests that three subpopulations are present, but that these subpopulations do have limited reproductive contact (Bergl and Vigilant 2007). These localities are primarily rugged highlands, typically in areas relatively less disturbed by human activity. While there may be an ecological component to this distribution, the gorilla’s concentration in highland areas is almost certainly strongly influenced by human hunting pressure, which is more intense in the lowlands. Ebola has not been reported in the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population, but their close proximity to dense human populations puts them at high potential risk of acquiring human pathogens (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
39998	threats	Oates, J.F., Bergl, R.A., Sunderland-Groves, J. & Dunn, A., 2008	The remaining population of <em>G. g. diehli</em> is small and fragmented, occurs mostly outside of protected areas (especially in Cameroon) and is surrounded by some of the most densely populated human settlements in Africa. This subspecies is at risk from its small size and associated increases in inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. The lack of strictly protected areas throughout much of the range of <em>G. g. diehli</em> makes the future of sizeable portions of gorilla habitat uncertain. Conversion of forest for agriculture and grazing is occurring rapidly in many parts of the gorillas’ range and the largest current protected area in which Cross River gorillas occur (the Okwangwo Division of Nigeria’s Cross River National Park) contains enclaves of human settlements whose farmlands have spread beyond their legal boundaries and threaten to divide the park into two. The construction and improvement of roads in both Cameroon and Nigeria also threatens to increase subdivision of the population. Though legal prohibitions against the killing of gorillas exist in Nigeria and Cameroon, enforcement of wildlife laws is often lax, and most protected areas suffer from poorly-controlled poaching. Although recent conservation efforts have reduced hunting of Cross River gorillas to a low level, the threat remains and the small size of the <em>G. g. diehli</em> population means that almost any level of hunting off-take is likely to be unsustainable and have a significant negative effect on population size.	eng
40014	conservation	Oates, J.F., Dunn, A., Greengrass, E. & Morgan, B.J., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
40014	distribution	Oates, J.F., Dunn, A., Greengrass, E. & Morgan, B.J., 2008	<em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> (Gray, 1862) is found only in Nigeria and Cameroon, north of the Sanaga River.	eng
40014	habitat	Oates, J.F., Dunn, A., Greengrass, E. & Morgan, B.J., 2008	Chimpanzees are found predominantly in moist and dry forests, and forest galleries extending into savanna woodlands. They are omnivorous, and their diet is highly variable according to individual populations and seasons. Fruit comprises about half the diet, but leaves, bark, and stems are also important. Mammals comprise a small but significant component of the diet of many populations. Chimpanzees form social communities of 5 to 150 animals. Home ranges are larger in woodland forest mosaics than in mixed forest, and average 12.5 km² (range 5 to 400 km²).	eng
40014	population	Oates, J.F., Dunn, A., Greengrass, E. & Morgan, B.J., 2008	<em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span> is the least numerous subspecies with a total population of less than 6,500 individuals remaining (B. Morgan and J. Oates pers. comm. 2006). The only relatively large and secure population of <em>P. t. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">ellioti</span><em></em> is in Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria, with an estimated population of up to 1,500 (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
40014	threats	Oates, J.F., Dunn, A., Greengrass, E. & Morgan, B.J., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/15933/doc"><em>Pan troglodytes</em></a>).	eng
40015	conservation	Struhsaker, T, Butynski, T.M. & Ehardt, C., 2008	It is listed as Class A under the African Convention, and under Appendix II of CITES. At present, only about half of the range of this species is protected within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and this population is reasonably secure. The remaining habitat is unprotected either on public land or in forest reserves (including New Dabaga/Ulangambi Forest Reserve) that are not effectively protected (e.g., Magombero Forest Reserve, which still needs to be legally incorporated into Selous Game Reserve, which the Government of Tanzania had promised to do in 1980). This species is nominally protected by law in Tanzania as ‘Presidential Game’, and enforcement of these laws is essential in areas where the species is hunted.<br/><br/>Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> (in press) highlight the following conservation priorities for this species:<br/><br/>1) annexation of the following Forest Reserves to the Udzungwa Mountains National Park: West Kilombero (including: Ndundulu, Nyumbanitu, Ukami, Iyondo), Udzungwa Scarp, Matundu, and Nyanganje;<br/>2) annexation of the following forests to the Selous Game Reserve: Magombera, Ibiki, and all other forest remnants along the Msolwa River;<br/>3) prevention of fire to allow forest expansion and establishment of corridors between forest blocks, thereby facilitating the dispersal and increase of forest-dependent species, including <em>P. gordonorum</em>;<br/>4) and more effective law enforcement to prevent fires, illegal logging, and poaching.<br/><br/>Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. (2004, in press) outline recommendations for future research.	eng
40015	distribution	Struhsaker, T, Butynski, T.M. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is restricted to the Udzungwa Mountains, including the Uduzngwa Mountains National Park and several adjacent forest reserves, namely West Kilombero, Matundu, Udzungwa Scarp, Nyanganje, Kiranzi-Kitungulu, and New Dabaga/Ulangambi (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press). Also present in the Kilombero Valley at the eastern base of the Udzungwa Mountains in several forest patches (Magombera, Kiwanga, and Kalunga, the last mentioned of which is now essentially gone), and in gallery forest along the Msolwa River south of the railway to its confluence with the Kilombero River, including the Ibiki and Msitu ya Kinjugu Forests (Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. in press). It is found at elevations ranging from 250-2,200 m, although abundance is lowest at high elevations (Marshall <em>et al</em>. 2005; Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
40015	habitat	Struhsaker, T, Butynski, T.M. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species inhabits a variety of forest habitats, including lowland old-growth, secondary and montane forests of the Udzungwa Mountains, and miombo Brachystegia woodland adjacent to old-growth or secondary forest in the lower parts of the Mwanihana forest and elsewhere (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press). Group size, as recorded by Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. (2004), is highly variable, ranging from 7–83. Groups are smaller in forests that are small (<5 km²), dominated by deciduous trees, and/or are heavily degraded by human activities than are groups living in large, intact, and relatively mature blocks of moist, mixed evergreen and semi-deciduous forest (Struhsaker <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
40015	population	Struhsaker, T, Butynski, T.M. & Ehardt, C., 2008	The total population of this species is unknown and difficult to determine, but clearly in the thousands. At least one published estimate puts the population at 15,400 individuals (Dinesen <em>et al.</em> 2001), but this might be too high. An earlier estimate by Rodgers and Homewood (1982) is 10,000 red colobus; however, they emphasized that the largest single interbreeding population is certainly <2,000 individuals. The Magombero forest in the Kilombero Valley appears to hold at least 1,000 individuals (Struhsaker 2005). In the Udzungwa Mountains, this was the most frequently seen primate (mean= 0.59 groups/km walked) (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40015	threats	Struhsaker, T, Butynski, T.M. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss, due to logging, conversion to agriculture, collection of firewood, and charcoal production, and hunting. The population in Magombera, in the Kilombera Valley, was severely affected by the construction of the Tanzania-Zambia railway (in 1972-1975) which bisected the Magombero forest, as well as by selective logging and agricultural expansion.  The presence of the railway facilitated agricultural encroachment onto the reserve, and increased the number of bush fires. Agriculture was responsible for a decline in reserve size from 15 km² in 1955 to less than 11 km² by 1979. The area was threatened with total destruction in 2002 when the Government of Tanzania agreed to relocate squatters there from the nearby Kilombero Sugar Estate. Fortunately, the international conservation community was alerted in enough time to launch an appeal to the Government of Tanzania that averted destruction of this forest, which contains >1,000 red colobus (Struhsaker 2005).<br/><br/>The local Wahehe people reportedly hunt <em>P. gordonorum</em>, particularly in the western and south-western parts of the range (Struhsaker <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
40019	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	This species is recorded from the Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) (Queiroz 1992) and Lago de Tucuruí State Environmental Protection Area (568,667 ha) (Cunha <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40019	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	<em>Cebus kaapori</em> was described from the eastern Amazon in the state of Maranhão and eastern part of the state of Pará in 1992. The distribution of this form is now quite well known, occurring east of the lower Rio Tocantins to the right bank of the Rio Grajaú in Maranhão where it entres the Zona dos Cocais (Queiroz 1992; Ferrari and Queiroz 1994; Ferrari and Souza Jr 1994; Ferrari and Lopes 1996; Silva, Jr. and Cerqueira 1998; Carvalho, Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1999; Cunha <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although possibly extending as far east as the Mearim-Itapecuru interfluvium in the past, Silva Jr and Cerqueira (1998) concluded that it can be "considered practically absent from the right bank of the Rio Grajaú, eastwards".	eng
40019	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Undisturbed and and slightly disturbed dense lowland Amazonian high forest, at altitudes of 200 m or less (Queiroz 1992). Can also be found in edge habitat in the transition with the Zona dos Cocais due to its propensity to feed on palm fruit. Capuchin monkeys are arboreal quadrepeds, and are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchin monkeys are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Groups seen by Carvalho Jr <em>et al.</em> (1999) ranged in size from 1 to 7 individuals. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Paratype. Adult male HB 46.5 cm, TL 51.0 cm, 3.05 kg (Queiroz 1982).	eng
40019	population	Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Ferrari and Lopes (1996) estimated a density of 0.98 individuals/km² in the Gurupí Biological Reserve. Ferrari and Lopes (1996) attribute the scarcity of this species to hunting and to interspecific competition with sympatric <em>Cebus apella</em>.<br/><br/>Carvalho Jr. <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported  a population survey in the Fazenda Cauaxi in Paragominas, north-eastern Pará, Brazil. The realtive abundance of <em>Cebus kaapori</em> was 0.99 groups/10 km (over 71 km). Lopes (1993) saw three groups in 480 km walked in the Gurupí Biological Reserve.	eng
40019	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss, as its forests in southern Pará and Maranhão have been extensively destroyed over the last 10 years and continue to be so. It is the region with the highest human population density and the highest level of deforestation and habitat degradation in the entire Brazilian Amazon (Carvalho Jr. <em>et al.</em> 1999). The Gurupí Biological Reserve is the only protected area where it is known to occur, but the reserve has lost more than half of its forest. Lopes (1993) concluded that selective logging was particularly prejudicial to <em>Cebus kaapori</em> due to the loss of trees providing fruits that are a significant component of its diet. The species is also hunted. Guajá indians keep them as pets (Queiroz 1992).	eng
40020	conservation	Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus capucinus</em><br/><br/>Panama<br/>Porto Belo National Park (34,848 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Darién National Park (555,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus imitator</em><br/><br/>Costa Rica<br/>Santa Rosa National Park (21,913 ha) (Reid 1997; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Rincón La Vieja National Park (14,083 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Piedras Blancas National Park (14,100 ha) (in range)<br/>Chirripó National Park (50,150 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Corcovado National Park (41,788 ha) (in range)<br/>Guanacaste National Park (33,786 ha)  (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1989)<br/>Palo Verde National Park (5,704 ha) (Reid 1997)<br/>Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve  (14,258 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>La Amistad International Park (207,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Soberanía National Park (22,104 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Copé – Comar Torrijos Herrera (25,275 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Volcán Baru National Park (14,000 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Altos de Campaña National Park (4,816 ha) (in range)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,557 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Coiba National Park and Jicarón (270,125 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Isla Barro Colorado Natural Monument (5,600 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus limitaneus</em><br/><br/>Honduras<br/>Montaña de Cusuco National Park (18,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Pico Bonito National Park (68,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos, 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Montaña de Yoro National Park (15,500 ha) (Matamoros and Seal 2001) <br/>Sierra de Agalta National Park (27,000 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998; Matamoros and Seal 2001)<br/>Punto Isopo Wildlife Refuge (11,200 ha) (Marineros and Gallegos 1998)<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus curtus </em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Isla Gorgona National Natural Park (1568 ha)	eng
40020	distribution	Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	<em>Cebus capucinus</em> is the only capuchin monkey in Central America, ranging from Honduras in the north, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama and through the Chocó-Darién into Colombia (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Rodríguez-Luna <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reid, 1997; Marineros and Gallegos 1998). Four subspecies are recognized here:<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus capucinus</em><br/>In Colombia, the White-throated Capuchin occurs south from the Panamanian border along the Pacific Coast, west of the Andes (up to 1,800–2,000 m above sea level) into northwestern Ecuador. It is restricted to the west bank of the upper Río Cauca (between the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central) and extends north across the Río Sinu into Cordoba, Sucre and Atlantico to the town of Barranquilla on the northern coast of Colombia (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). In Central America, <em>C. c. capucinus</em> extends west as far the Panama Canal (Baldwin and Baldwin 1977; Hall 1981).<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus limitaneus</em><br/>In Honduras, Marineros and Gallegos (1998) recorded this subspecies from throughout the north (Departments of Gracias a Dios, Colón, Atlantida, and Cortés) besides Santa Bárbara in the north-west, and Olancho and El Paraíso in the east. Hollister (1914) also listed a skin from British Honduras (Belize). There have been unauthenticated reports of capuchins in the Mayan Mountains of western Belize (the Chiquebul forest and in the region of the Trio and Bladen branches of the Monkey River) and in Sarstoon National Park on the southern border. Its occurrence in Belize has never been confirmed (McCarthy 1982; Dahl 1984, 1987; Hubrecht 1986). Silva-López <em>et al.</em> (1995; Silva-López 1998) also reported on the possible occurrence of <em>C. c. limitaneus</em> in Guatemala, in the Sierra del Espíritu Santo near the Guatemala-Honduras border. This also remains to be substantiated.<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus imitator</em><br/>Hall (1981) places this subspecies in western Panama, west from the Canal, and in adjacent areas of Costa Rica.  Populations also occur on the islands of Coiba and nearby Jicarón. Baldwin and Baldwin (1976, 1977) documented the occurrence of <em>C. capucinus</em> in a number of localities in the Province of Chiriquí, south-western Panama.  Crockett <em>et al.</em> (1997) listed localities in Nicaragua, and Allen (1908, 1910) recorded specimens of <em>Cebus capucinus</em> (referred to as <em>Cebus hypoleucus</em> in Allen, 1908), from Ocotal (northern highlands, 4,500 ft), and localities on the east slope of the highlands, Savala (800 ft), Chontales (lowlands east of Lake Nicaragua, altitudes 500-1,500 ft), and the Río Tuma (500 ft) and Muy Muy (Matagalpa Province, 1,500-2,000 ft).<br/><br/><em>Cebus capucinus curtus</em><br/>Gorgona Island, Colombia, possibly introduced in the 16th or 17th centuries.	eng
40020	habitat	Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In Central America, present in dry deciduous forests on Pacific coast (rainfall less than 1,750 mm) and, humid subtropical forests on the Caribbean coast (rainfall as much as 5,000 mm), mangroves and second growth (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981: Reid 1997).  In Colombia, <em>C. capucinus</em> occurs in primary and advanced secondary forest remnants, degraded forests and forests with large concentrations of palms, especially <em>Scheelea magdalenica</em> at altitudes up to 2,000 m above sea level (Defler 2004). In Ecuador, it occurs in humid tropical and sutropical forests from sea level to 1,800 m (Tirira 2007). <br/><br/>Capucins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Multi-male groups range in size from 5-30 individuals. Fedigan and Jack (2001) recorded a mean group size of 15.8 for 20 groups in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. The adult sex-ratio was 0.71. In Chiriqui, Panama, Baldwin and Baldwin (1977) found <em>C. capucinus</em> occupying small forest patches of 0.2 to 40 ha in small groups of 2-5 individuals, whereas groups in larger forests reached sizes do 20 or more iindividuals.<br/><br/>Although new born offspring can be seen year round, <em>C. capucinus</em> in the Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, shows a birth peak in the dry season and early rainny season (Fedigan <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>HB 33.0-49.5 cm, TL 39.7-54.0 cm.<br/>Weight 1.8-4.3 kg (Reid 1997).	eng
40020	population	Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No information on population densities are available for this species.	eng
40020	threats	Causado, J., Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Although habitat loss is certainly a threat, all subspecies have a varied diet, and are able to live in a variety of different habitats and disturbed areas. They are sometimes kept as pets and hunted.<br/><br/>There are no current major threats to <em>Cebus capucinus curtus</em> on Gorgona Island, which is a protected area (Parque Nacional Gorgona). However, as this is the only location in which this subspecies is found (Gorgona Island has an area of 15 km², it remains very susceptible to any natural or anthropogenic threats in the near future.	eng
40021	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs in many protected areas across its range:<br/><br/><em>Cebus olivaceus olivaceus</em><br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecological Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/>Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve (56,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Tafelberg Nature Reserve (140,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Eilerts de Haan Gebergte Nature Reserve (220,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (within range)<br/> <br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur Falls National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha) (Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Canaima National Park (3,000,000 ha)<br/>Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park (330,000 ha) <br/><br/><em>Cebus o. brunneus</em><br/><br/>Venezuela <br/>Sierra Nevada National Park<br/>Henri Pittier National Park<br/>El Tama National Park?<br/>Yurubi National Park? <br/>Yacambu National Park? <br/>Guatopo National Park? <br/><br/><em>C. o. nigrivittatus</em><br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Yapacana National Park <br/>Duida-Marahuaca National Park <br/><br/>Undescribed subspecies <br/>Aguaro-Guariquito National Park?	eng
40021	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is found in lower Brazilian Amazonia, north of the mainstream of the Amazon and east of the Rio Negro, extending north through the Guianas and into northern Venezuela (Hill I960; Napier 1976). In the northern parts of its range, <em>C. olivaceus</em> extends north to the Río Orinoco and west to the Río Caroni. It has been recorded on the Island of Caviana in the Marajó Archipelago (Fernandes <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/><br/><em>C. o. olivaceus</em> extends south from there throughout the Guianas it would seem (excepting a possible hiatus in French Guiana where the form <em>castaneus</em> might occur), but the limits to its range in Brazil are unclear. <em>C. o. olivaceus</em>, type locality São Joaquim, upper Rio Branco, Roraima, Brazil, is the form occurring in the Venezuelan Amazon (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) and to the south and east it perhaps extends across the Rio Branco into Brazil, limited in the north by the Serra Parima and Serra Pacaraima, meeting with <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> somewhere in northern Pará or Amapá, but this is conjecture. Hill (1960) extends the range of <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> as far as the Rio Parú, a north bank tributary of the Amazon just above the Rio Jari. In Suriname, <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> is almost entirely restricted to the interior. Like <em>Chiropotes</em> and <em>Ateles</em>, it just enters the old coastal plain in a small part of western Surinam (Mittermeier 1977). Sussman and Phillips-Conroy (1995) indicated that it occurs throughout Guyana, and there is no evidence to suggest otherwise for French Guiana.<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. brunneus</em> probably occurs throughout the Cordillera de la Costa and it would seem the Cordillera de Merida of extreme north-western Venezuela (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987).<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. apiculatus</em> is distributed throughout central Venezuela, south of the Orinoco between the ríos Caroni and Ventuari (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987).<br/><br/><em>Cebus o. nigrivittatus</em> occurs in the Venezuelan Amazon, north of the Rio Orinoco, east into Roraima, and across upper the Rio Branco, restricted to the south of the Serra Pacaraima and the highlands along the southern boundaries of the Guyana to the Rio Paru do Oeste. It is not known which subspecies of <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> occurs in northern Pará and Amapá in Brazil, but possibly the Rio Jari marks the boundary between <em>C. o. olivaceus</em> (to the east) and <em>C. o. nigrivittatus</em> (to the west).<br/><br/>Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate an as yet undescribed form north of the Rio Orinoco, and <em>C. o. apiculatus</em> west of the Rio Caroni, extending west to the Río Orinoco.	eng
40021	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	In Suriname, <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is for the most part restricted to undisturbed high forest, although it is occasionally seen in liana forest and mountain savanna forest as well. Although Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) never observed <em>C. olivaceus</em> along rivers in Surinam, Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) sighted four groups in river edge forest in Guyana. However, it is not clear from their description if the sightings were in marsh forest or riverbank high forest. In Venezuela, <em>C. olivaceus</em> occurs in habitats quite different from those occupied in Suriname. In Suriname, they were found to use mainly the lower canopy and understory, a pattern very similar to the tufted capuchins (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1981). Superficially, the locomotor repertoire of <em>Cebus olivaceus</em> is similar to that of <em>C. apella</em>, with quadrupedal walking and running, bounding and galloping, climbing and leaping being the major patterns.<br/><br/>The best information available on the ecology and behaviour of <em>C. olivaceus</em> comes from studies of a population on a cattle ranch, Hato Masaguaral, in low, seasonally dry gallery forest (14–23 m in height) in the Venezuelan <em>llanos</em>, pioneered by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973) and continued by Robinson (1981, 1984a,b, 1986, 1988a,b; De Ruiter (1986), Srikosomatara (1987), Fragaszy (1986, 1990), O’Brien (1990), and others. Miller (1996a,b, 1998) has carried out a study over three years of the feeding ecology and social behaviour of the species in another ranch in the Venezuelan llanos, Hato Piñero.<br/><br/>The species lives in multimale-multifemale groups of 8-40 individuals; generally larger than <em>C. apella</em>. Miller (1996b) made a special study of the effects of group size on seasonal foraging costs, intergoup and intragroup competition and aggression. Her two study groups ranged in size from 15-18 (1-2 adult males and 0-4 adult females) and 35-39 (5-6 adult males and 17-19 adult females) over two years of her study. Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) counted 11 groups in Guyana which ranged in size from 6-15 and averaged 9.0 per group. Two groups accurately counted by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973) in Venezuela contained 19 (one adult male, one subadult male, eight females, six juveniles, three infants) and 33 animals (four adult males, three subadult males, eight females, 12 juveniles, six infants). Eleven groups observed at Hato Masaguaral ranged from eight to more than 40 animals (De Ruiter 1986; Robinson 1986) and the group of 22 animals studied by Fragaszy (1986) contained three adult males.  The groups studied by Robinson (1988a) all had more females than males. This resulted from a bias in the birth sex ratio, higher female than male survivorship (irrespective of group size) between the ages of 3 and 7 when the males disperse, and differences in maturation rates between the sexes. Males and especially females form quite stable dominance hierarchies in the group. The highest-ranking female is dominant to all except for the highest-ranking male (Robinson 1981). Females may sometimes emigrate, and males emigrate from their natal groups usually between the age of two and eight, but do not appear to reach adult size until they are about 15, and even then may remain reproductively inactive if they have not assumed a dominant position in a new group (Robinson and Janson 1987).<br/><br/>A group in the Voltzberg study area of Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) covered roughly 100 ha, although this was only a small portion of the group's range. Robinson (1986) recorded a range size of 275 ha (over 14 months) for his group of about 20 animals at Hato Masaguaral. <br/><br/>Less information on diet is available for <em>C. olivaceus</em> than for any other Guianan primate. They eat fruits, seeds, insects and other arthropods, supplemented by some leaves and flowers. At Hato Masaguaral, Robinson (1986) recorded that fruits, mostly ripe and fleshy, constituted the largest category of food items (56%), and included 50 species from 30 families, especially Moraceae and Rubiaceae. Fig trees (<em>Ficus</em>) which fruit throughout the year, were a staple almost every month. Buds, leaves and shoots were infrequent items in the diet, and were generally chewed and the fibrous remains spat out. They spend a  large amount of time foraging for insects and small animal prey. Robinson (1986) recorded that they spent almost 70% of their day searching for and processing food. Foraging behaviour, including age and sex differences, is described by Fragaszy (1986). The range of animal prey is enormous, and includes snails, arthropods including spiders, millipedes, and insects (cockroaches, mantids, stick insects, termites, grasshoppers, cicadas and scale insects, caterpillars, beetles and their grubs, ants, bees and wasps), frogs and their eggs, iguanas, bird’s eggs and nestlings and even an adult ground dove (<em>Columbina talpacoti</em>), and squirrels (<em>Sciureus granatensis</em>). The relative proportions of different items in the diet changed throughout the year.  Invertebrates replaced ripe fruit as the chief item in the diet as the number of fruiting species declined (November and December). The beginning of the rainy season (April, May) was marked by a flush of new leaves and an increase in phytophagous insects taken by the monkeys. The amount of fruit in the diet peaked in the late wet season, declining towards the beginning of the dry season.<br/><br/>Unlike the tufted capuchins which are often seen with squirrel monkeys, <em>C. olivaceus</em> groups rarely associate with other species although, <br/><br/>The data currently available are insufficient to determine if <em>C. olivaceus</em> has a distinct breeding season.  Newborn infants have been seen in the Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve in December and early January, in the middle of the wet season (Mittermeier 1977). In northern Venezuela, the birth season is from May to August, during the wet season (Robinson and Janson 1987). Males reach maturity in about eight years but reach fully adult size at about 12, whereas females become reproductively active at about six years of age (Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer 1973; Robinson 1988a). Adulthood lasts about 30 years in females and 24 in males (Robinson 1988a). They give birth to single young, which maintain close contact with their mothers for the first nine months (Levy and Bodini 1986).  Vocalizations and a number of behaviour patterns, including such as urine rubbing, “bouncing”, tooth grinding, and head-shaking are described in the pioneer study by Oppenheimer and Oppenheimer (1973; see also Freese and Oppenheimer 1981) and a detailed analysis of their vocalizations was carried out Robinson (1984b).	eng
40021	population	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is common. The density of <em>C. olivaceus</em> in the Voltzberg Study area in Surinam was estimated by Mittermeier (1977) to be about 4 individuals/km². At the Nourague Field Station in French Guiana, <em>C. olivaceus</em> is much rarer than <em>Cebus apella</em>. Guillotin <em>et al.</em> (1993) estimated densities of 2/km² and a biomass of 6.3 kg/km², compared with 29.1/km² and a biomass of 86.9 kg/km² for the tufted capuchins. The only other density data for this species comes from Guyana, where Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) found a range of 1.8-22.2 animals/km² in five different localities.	eng
40021	threats	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are no major threats, but they are certainly impacted by hunting in some regions.	eng
40022	conservation	Hutson, T., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
40022	distribution	Hutson, T., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens caught in northern Madagascar near Analamera in the Irodo River Valley in 1910 (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 1995) and has not be found in recent surveys of northern and western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
40022	habitat	Hutson, T., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	There is nothing known about the natural history of this species.	eng
40022	population	Hutson, T., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	It is known only from two specimens and has not been recorded since 1910. There was a team in 2003 that surveyed this area, but did not find this species.	eng
40022	threats	Hutson, T., Racey, P.A. & Ravino, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
40023	conservation	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in India like Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Nagarjuna Sagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve and Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, and Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
40023	distribution	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia. It is presently known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra) and Sri Lanka (Central, North Central, Southern and Western provinces) in South Asia (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded from sea level to an elevation of around 800 m asl. The extent of occurrence is  greater than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
40023	habitat	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is primarily a found in dense dry and tropical moist forests. It roosts either as solitary animals or in pairs in caves, dilapidated buildings, large trees with hollows, wells, ledges in cave systems, old and unused tunnels (A. Madhavan pers. comm. March 2002; Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). This is a low flyer and feeds on a variety of insects especially beetles and termites (Bates and Harrison 1997).	eng
40023	population	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	Though this is a widely distributed species, the overall population is considered to be relatively small because of its great dependence on forest habitats and vulnerability to habitat destruction (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
40023	threats	Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
40024	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known from Kirindy CFPF and Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also common in villages adjacent to several protected areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
40024	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known from Madagascar, where it is found from the north to the south-west of the island (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995) at an elevation span of 5 to 950 m above sea level (Eger and Mitchell 2003). It also occurs on two islands, Mohéli and Anjouan, on the Comorian archipelago (F. Ratrimomanarivo pers. comm.)	eng
40024	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	Most of the recorded roosts of this species are in buildings, but it has also been recorded from some caves and a hollow baobab tree (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is frequently associated with buildings near dry deciduous forest and although it does not require intact forest to survive (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) it is occasionally netted inside forest habitats (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In the east of Madagascar, it is known to feed on coleopterans and hemipterans (Andrianaivoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
40024	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The population and local abundance of this species are not known.	eng
40024	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	In some areas it is hunted for food (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008) or persecuted, but these are not thought to be serious threats.	eng
40025	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known to occur in three protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana and Daraina forest (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Russell <em>et al.</em> 2007). Conservation should be focused at the known cave roosts to secure the existing populations and closely monitor seasonal and annual population changes.	eng
40025	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it has a restricted range in the north-western tip of the island, ranging between 50 m and 160 m above sea-level (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Andrafiamena Mountains likely form the southern limit of this species (S. M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
40025	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This is an obligate cave-dwelling species that can be locally abundant, but has also been noted as rare within certain parts of its range (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its patchy local distribution and density may be related to the presence of suitable caves for roosting (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and this species seems to prefer relatively narrow caves (Cardiff 2006). This species is thought to be dependent on relatively intact forest for foraging (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40025	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is thought to be relatively abundant within a localized area in the northern part of Madagascar. The largest roost recorded was 2,000 individuals in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (S. G. Cardiff pers. obs.) and up to 1,000 individuals were recorded from a mine tunnel approximately 5 km from Andavokoera (J. Ranivo pers. comm.).	eng
40025	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	As a forest dependent species any decline in extent or quality of the remaining forest poses a threat to this species. In northern Madagascar, forest is lost because of expanding agriculture. There is also the threat of disturbance to cave roosting sites.	eng
40026	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known to occur in many protected areas: Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana, Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National de Tsimanampetsotsa, Parc National d’Ankarafantsika, Parc National d’Isalo, Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, Parc National de Masoala and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Tsaratanana (Ranivo and Goodman 2006; Russ <em>et al.</em> 2003; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
40026	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995), where it is widespread (Ranivo and Goodman 2006). It is not thought to be common on the central plateau of the eastern humid forest (Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003), but is common along the west coast (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and occurs between sea-level and 1,300 m above sea-level.	eng
40026	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is generally associated with tropical forests, but it may not need large areas of intact habitat and is not considered to be forest-dependent (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known from the spiny forest of the south-west and also in dry deciduous forest, and in the rainforest of the north-east of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Russ <em>et al</em>. 2003). It roosts in caves which it frequently cohabits with <em>Triaenops furculus</em> (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Olsson <em>et al</em>. 2006). It feeds mainly on lepidopterans (Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and frequently forages at the edge of relatively intact forest rather than inside (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007; Rakotoarivelo <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
40026	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The species is thought to be locally common in many parts of western Madagascar. A single roost in deciduous forest near the Onilahy River in southern Madagascar contained over 40,000 individuals (Olsson <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40026	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no significant threats to this species even though its is occasionally hunted for food (Goodman 2006) and is often associated with forests that are subject to ongoing degradation (Russell <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
40027	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Conservation of Amazon forests.. The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40027	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil (Handley and Ochoa, 1997; Engstrom and Lim, 2000; Lim and Engstrom 2000).	eng
40027	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Strongly associated with granitic outcrops and similar rock formations. Occurs in lowland raindforest. It is associated with multistratal tropical forest. This bat is an aerial insectivore (Sampaio pers. comm.). Other aspects of the species biology are poorly known.	eng
40027	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The population status is unknown. The species may be more widely distributed than its currently known range suggests.	eng
40027	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is expected to decline in response to increasing habitat destruction.	eng
40028	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Forest conservation.	eng
40028	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil (Xingu, Peters pers. comm.), Guyana, French Guiana and Peru (Simmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Specimen from Sao Paulo also (Simmons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Also Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.	eng
40028	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Bats in this genus feed on insects and occasionally fruit. Found in mature rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Almost nothing else is known of the species.	eng
40028	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare (Emmons and Feer 1997). There may be disjunct populations in northern Amazonia and the Atlantic forests of Brazil. Little else is known about the population of this species.	eng
40028	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
40029	conservation	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Few conservations areas - existing ones do not protect areas well.	eng
40029	distribution	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in the northeast of Brazil (Simmons, 2005).	eng
40029	habitat	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This small bat is likely insectivorous.	eng
40029	population	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species might be rare.	eng
40029	threats	Tavares, V. & Aguirre, L., 2008	None known - however, found in Caatinga which is a fragile and threatened ecoregion.	eng
40031	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40031	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	This species is known from Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Thailand (Chiang Mai Province, Amphoe (District) Mae Ai, Doi (Mount) Pha Hom Pok, at 1,500 m asl) and possibly neighbouring China although there are no records from there yet.	eng
40031	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	The mapped range probably does not represent the real range of the species, which could be due to lack of surveys. It is probably associated with hills; early records are known from mountainous regions (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In Viet Nam it is found in limestone and non limestone forest (N. Furey pers. comm.), and has been recorded from primary and mildly disturbed forest and also flying around a stream there at 1,200 m asl (Son pers. comm.). In Thailand it is found from 2,000 m asl in hill evergreen forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
40031	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	Its population status is unknown.	eng
40031	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Csorba, G. & Furey, N., 2008	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
40032	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is present in protected areas. Research is required in the areas of population status, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. This species has been regionally Red Listed in China as Endangered C2a(i,ii); D (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
40032	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It is known only from remote mountain areas of the Indomalayan Regions (Csorba and Lee 1999); however, it is likely that the species is widely distributed on the island (Csorba, G. pers. comm.). The type locality was recorded at 1,800 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
40032	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Csorba, G., 2008	Specimens have been collected from forests in the highlands of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
40032	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no data regarding the current population status of this species.  It is suspected that the population is stable (Csorba, G. pers. comm.).	eng
40032	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Csorba, G., 2008	Deforestation as a result of expanding infrastructure development for housing, industry, roads, etc. as well as large scale agriculture is a threat in the lowlands of Taiwan, but its habitat at higher elevations is most likely secure.	eng
40033	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species has yet to be recorded from inside protected areas, but is known to use agricultural land adjacent to Parc National de Mantadia (Randrianandriananina <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40033	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar and appears to be largely restricted to an area in the eastern highlands between 970 and 1,300 m above sea level (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40033	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is found alongside humid forests and has also been recorded from open anthropogenic agricultural and grassland areas (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandriananina <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been netted emerging from buildings and Bates <em>et al</em>. (2006) consider it to be relatively common in synanthropic settings (although published evidence of this is lacking).	eng
40033	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The population and local abundance of this species are not known, but it is thought to be locally common (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40033	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
40035	conservation	Francis, C. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It is found in Gomantong Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, ecology and threats.	eng
40035	distribution	Francis, C. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species is only known from two localities in Sabah, Borneo: Gomantong Caves and Baturong Caves (Francis and Hill 1998). It is probably also found in most major cave systems in Borneo.	eng
40035	habitat	Francis, C. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species roosts in limestone caves, and lives in small colonies. It is not known what kind of foraging habitat the species prefers.	eng
40035	population	Francis, C. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	It occurs in small numbers in some places (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
40035	threats	Francis, C. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	There are no known threats to this species, however, cave destruction could be a threat.	eng
40036	conservation	Francis, C. & Maeda, K., 2008	The known locality in Thailand is in a protected area, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas elsewhere in its range. Further information is needed on the range, ecology and threats to this poorly known species. It is listed as Data Deficient (DD) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
40036	distribution	Francis, C. & Maeda, K., 2008	This species is known from northeastern coastal China (in the provinces of Hebei, Beijing, Nei Mongol, Liaoning and Shandong), north and central Lao PDR, and just across the border into north central Thailand. In Japan, there are only three records, all of vagrants, on Amami-oshima, Kuchinoerabu Island, and Yoron Island (Kagoshima Prefecture) (Abe <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records from Lao PDR were originally identified as <em>T. teniotis</em> and are assumed to be <em>T. latouchei</em> based on range.	eng
40036	habitat	Francis, C. & Maeda, K., 2008	This species roosts in caves, and forages in the surrounding forest. In Thailand it has been recorded from dry evergreen forest at 1,500 m asl, on top of a mountain (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
40036	population	Francis, C. & Maeda, K., 2008	It is probably locally rare, as usually only a single specimen is ever collected. One large colony is known from Lao PDR. The record from central Lao PDR was purchased in a market (C. Francis pers. comm.). It presumably originated nearby. Three specimens have been found in Japan, after the type was recorded in China 1917.	eng
40036	threats	Francis, C. & Maeda, K., 2008	Disturbance of the cave habitat of the species is a potential threat, including mining. In some parts of its range, such as northern Lao PDR, it is known to be trapped for food and this may be occurring in other parts of its range.	eng
40037	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species' known range in Lao PDR is outside of any protected area (G. Csorba pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
40037	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species is recorded from Malaysia (Pahang State, Cameron Highlands, Tana Rata, Gunung Jasar at 4º28'N and 101º'22'E) and from Lao PDR.	eng
40037	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species was found in upper montane forest in Malaysia at 1,600 m asl (G. Csorba pers. comm.). The Lao PDR specimen was collected in front of a cave.	eng
40037	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known only from three to four specimens from two localities (G. Csorba pers. comm.). There is no information known about population status and trends.	eng
40037	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
40039	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species is reported from a few protected areas, such as Parc National de Masoala and Parc National de Mantadia (Russ and Bennett 1999; Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006). Some of these records may need to be reassessed in view of the ongoing taxonomy of this genus in Madagascar (Goodman and Maminirina 2007).	eng
40039	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar and has a sympatric distribution with <em>Miniopterus sororculus</em> in the highlands of Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) and is widely, but patchily, distributed across the island (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008). Records from the Comoros Islands are thought to be from bats collected in Madagascar (Goodman and Maminirina 2007).	eng
40039	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species is known to roost in caves with <em>Miniopterus manavi</em>, <em>Miniopterus gleni</em> (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 2005) and <em>Miniopterus sororculus</em> in Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been trapped roosting in a cave within relatively intact humid forest (Randrianandrianina <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is known to occur in a variety of vegetation types, including humid forest and spiny bush (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
40039	population	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	There is no information on its population status.	eng
40039	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known. It could be susceptible to cave disturbance in some sites and it could perhaps be hunted in some areas.	eng
40040	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species occurs in many of the forest protected areas in western and eastern Madagascar and as such does not require specific conservation measures. Additional information on its ecology would be helpful to better understand how it responds to deforestation and roost disturbance. There is some uncertainty about the taxonomy of <em>M. manavi</em> and that this taxon is actually a complex of new species (F. Ratromomanarivo pers. comm.). Further studies on morphology, acoustics and genetics are therefore needed.	eng
40040	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is found on Madagascar and the Comoros islands (Peterson <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Madagascar, it is widely distributed (Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005) and has a wide elevational range, from 20 to 1,500 m above sea-level.	eng
40040	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species occurs in wide variety of vegetation types, such as dry deciduous forest, humid rainforest, degraded forest, plantations and agricultural areas (Goodman 1999; Eger and Mitchell 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007), but requires the presence of suitable roost sites. It is not thought to be forest dependent, but is unlikely to forage in completely open areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40040	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is locally abundant in cavities or rocky overhangs that provide suitable roosting features. A colony of approximately 4,000 was found in Makira (Bayliss and Hayes 1999).	eng
40040	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. In Makira, this species is eaten by people (Golden 2005), but it is not known if this species is hunted in other parts of its range. It is probably not forest dependent, but is rarely netted in areas without vegetation stands.	eng
40042	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	There are two subpopulations, a healthy one and one which has been exposed to a plastic spill.	eng
40043	threats	Mollusc Specialist Group, 2000	Main threats are habitat disturbance, agricultural improvement of grassland (pesticides) and fire. Building development for tourism in the region of Paul do Mar over the last ten years, has reduced the habitat quality in the area.  If part of the region was protected then abundance at the sites would probably allow reduction to Near Threatened.	eng
40045	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	A cave snail living in streams within Foushee Cave system. It is almost totally blind.	eng
40049	habitat	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species requires a free-flowing, cold water environments. It lives on stable rocks in flowing waters in the free flowing reaches of the Snake River and in several cold-water springs in the Hagerman Valley. During the daytime, the snail resides on the sides and undersides of rocks.	eng
40049	threats	Bogan, A.E., 2000	This species habitat is subjected to modification and deteriorating water quality from altered natural flow conditions and water pollution.	eng
40054	habitat	Tattersfield, P., 2000	Found in coastal forest along a gorge. Occurs at a fairly low density in leaf litter.  This group is predatory, but details of the prey are not known.	eng
40055	habitat	Tattersfield, P., 2000	This species lives at a fairly low density in the leaf litter layer. This group is predatory, but details of the prey are not known.	eng
40057	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	This species occurs on tree trunks and dead wood in <em>laurisilva</em> forest.	eng
40058	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry, and Vasiha, Southeastern Madagascar (300–860 m asl) and also on St. Louis (500–530 m), Mounts Vohibololo (340–420 m) and Teloboko (640 m) near Mount Mahermana.	eng
40059	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry, and Vasiha, Southeastern Madagascar, (100–600 m asl) and also on St. Louis at (380–530 m), Mounts Vohibololo (110–310 m), Teloboko (530–640 m), Esetra (summit), and near Mount Maher.	eng
40059	threats	Emberton, K.C., 2000	It is restricted to the southern third of Madagascar’s eastern rainforest, with severely fragmented populations that occur in deteriorating forest habitats.	eng
40060	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Ilapiry and Vasiha (200–400 m asl), but not in the northern Vohimena chain. It is found on Andohahela (430–1,600 m), but not at Col Beampingaratra. It is apparently restricted to the Anosy and Vohimena chains.	eng
40061	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is known only from the Vohimena chain from Mounts Mahermana and Ilapiry (200–540 m asl) and Pic St Jacques (520 m).	eng
40063	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, but is restricted to the Vohimena Mountain chain.	eng
40064	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on the two eastern Vohimena Mountain chain from Mounts Mahermana and Ilapiry (200–540 m asl). It is considered to be a very wide-ranging species within Madagascar’s eastern rainforest.	eng
40065	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in southeastern Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry and Vasiha (100–860 m asl). It was originally described from the Anosy chain, north of Mt Vasiha, at about 1,000 m asl.	eng
40066	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mount Mahermana (100–300 m asl) and is also reported from Mounts Mahermana and Varabe (part of the Vohimena Mountain chain), from Col Beampingaratra (Anosy chain), and 40 km east of Midongy.	eng
40067	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, on Mounts Maherma, Ilapiry and Vasiha, southeastern Madagascar, through the full range of elevations (100–860 m asl). It is also found on three other peaks in the Vohimena Mountain chain (St Louis, Vohibolo and Esetra) and in two patches of coastal forest amongst other locations.	eng
40068	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is found on Mounts Mahermana and Vasiha (300–860 m asl). It is also reported from Mounts Teloboko, near Mahermana, Andohahela (400–1,100 m) and Beampingaratra in the Anosy chain (380–500 m) amongst other locations.	eng
40069	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is only known from Mount Ilapiry (400–540 m asl).	eng
40070	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province, and is known from only Mount Vasiha, on a local summit of 860 m asl.	eng
40071	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs Madagascar, Tulear Province: on both Vohimena-Chain mountains (Mahermana and Ilapiry), from 100–340 m elevation and also found in  two patches of coastal forest just east of the Vohimena Chain (Ste. Luce and 4.6 km south of Manambato), and other locations.	eng
40072	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: Mounts Ilapiry and Vasiha (540–860 m elevation) and also on Andohahela (800–1,900 m) but nowhere else (Emberton, in press). Its range, therefore, seems to be restricted to southern Anosy and Vohimena Chains.	eng
40073	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: Mount Ilapiry (500 m elevation). Emberton (in press) also gives localities from Androhahela (430–1,400 m), Col Beampingaratra (600–800 m), and Mount Ramabeafo (580–700 m). Thus with a range in the Anosy and southern Vohimena Chains.	eng
40073	habitat	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species is threatened by a decline in area and quality of habitat and exists in extremely fragmented populations in high-elevation "islands" of forest.	eng
40074	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province and is known only from Mount Ilapiry (500 m elevation) (Emberton, in press).	eng
40075	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: the summit of Mount Mahermana (340 m elevation) and is also found at high elevations (530 m) on the adjacent Mount Teloboko, but nowhere else (Emberton, in press).	eng
40075	population	Emberton, K.C., 2000	This species is fragmented into two isolated subpopulations.	eng
40076	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, Tulear Province: on Mounts Mahermana, Ilapiry and Vasiha (100–700 m elevation).	eng
40077	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., 2010	This is a protected species in Tuscany and it has been listed in Annexes A (both natural and semi-natural habitats and also animal and vegetables species of regional interest, whose preservation can ask for the designation of SIR) and B (protected animal species) of the Tuscany Regional Law 56/2000. It is also in the Tuscany Naturalistic Repertoire (Re.Na.To), originally listed as a “Vulnerable” species and, since 2008, as an “Endangered” species.	eng
40077	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis etrusca&#160;</span> is endemic to southern Tuscany (Italy) where it lives in a small areas of thermal springs.&#160; The range has been declining over the last few decades and now is only known from 4 locations all with multiple springs.<br/></p><a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/40077/0"></a>	eng
40077	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., 2010	The species is restricted to thermal springs.	eng
40077	population	Cianfanelli, S., 2010	The loss of recent subpopulations means that the species has a declining population (Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2010).	eng
40077	threats	Cianfanelli, S., 2010	The site at Poggetti Vecchi (Grosseto), inside the Ceccarelli’s Farm, represents one out of seven last sites where the mollusc is still alive, and here the species is currently threatened with extinction, as water was temporary removed from the pool in which most of the population lived. This operation, started in September 2009 and still in progress, has caused the death of thousands of individuals. Today the population, even if seriously compromised, is still present in the near pool but Farm’s owner is working with the aim to empty temporarily all the wet area. This will lead to the extinction of the sub-population.	eng
40078	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Occurs in Madagascar, previously known only from Vato Vavy and Vato Lahy summits near Mananjary, <em>ca</em>. 500 m elevation (Emberton 1994). Emberton and Pearce (1999) recorded specimens from Mount Ilapiry (300 m).	eng
40079	distribution	Emberton, K.C., 2000	Madagascar, Tulear Province: known only from Mount Mahermana (100–200 m elevation).	eng
40081	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	Occurs in Southeastern Madagascar, Tulear Province: Known only from Mount Ilapiry (200–500 m).	eng
40083	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Occurs in South Africa and is known only from the Port St. Johns Area, eastern Cape.	eng
40083	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Occurs in coastal forest.	eng
40084	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Occurs in South Africa on the coastal plain of north Zululand and south Mozambique (St. Lucia- Maputo).	eng
40084	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2000	A carnivorous species. Occurs in coastal and coastal Scarp Forest.	eng
40085	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Occurs in South Africa and is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
40085	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2000	It is known only from the coastal region between Durban and the Mtamvuna River, with one inland record from Qudeni Forest in the Kranskop area. Only known from forested habitats, primarily coastal lowland and coastal scarp forests.	eng
40086	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Occurs in South Africa from the foot hills of central Natal Drakensberg to northeastern Cape (foothills of central Natal Drakensberg to Port St. Johns).	eng
40086	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Found in afromontane Podocarpus forest; in leaf litter, under logs and stones.	eng
40087	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
40087	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
40087	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
40087	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
40087	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Neritina oweniana</em> ranges along the western African coastline from Liberia to Angola. In central Africa, this species occurs all along the coastal region.	eng
40087	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Recorded from fresh to brackish waters along the Angolan coast, however the distribution within Angola is not well known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Liberia to Angola.	eng
40087	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found along the coast from Liberia to Angola.	eng
40087	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found from Liberia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs all along the coastal region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from fresh to brackish waters along the Angolan coast, however the distribution within Angola is not well known. Its distribution extends to Port St Johns in South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present Liberia to Cameroon along the coast.	eng
40087	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.	eng
40087	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	It is found in very low salinity (0.3 to 1.1 parts per th) between freshwater and brackish water.	eng
40087	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Salinity range 0-1.1 0/00 (parts per thousand)	eng
40087	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Tolerates salinity range 0-1.1 0/00 (parts per thousand)	eng
40087	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Little information available. In the Ebrie Lagoon, Cote d'Ivoire, out of 185 sites, this species was only found in 15, suggesting that it may not be common even where it is present.	eng
40087	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No information.	eng
40087	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
40087	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
40087	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats	eng
40087	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
40087	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
40087	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
40088	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Known only from Table Mountain, southwestern Cape, South Africa.	eng
40089	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2000	Known only from Table Mountain, southwestern Cape, South Africa.	eng
40090	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
40090	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
40090	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
40090	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Neritina rubricata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Cameroon.	eng
40090	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Neritina rubricata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Cameroon.	eng
40090	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found from Gambia to Cameroon.	eng
40090	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Inhabits mangroves.	eng
40090	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.	eng
40090	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in mangroves, mudflats and lagoons.	eng
40090	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
40090	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes. The population is likely to be declining as mangroves are destroyed in central Africa, but the rate of decline is not known.	eng
40090	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes. The population is likely declining as mangroves are destroyed in central Africa, but the rate of decline is not known.	eng
40090	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Destruction of mangrove habitat.	eng
40090	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats	eng
40090	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is threatened by the destruction of its mangrove habitat, coastal erosion and sedimentation in the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
40091	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail was historically present in the Morne Seychellois National Park.	eng
40091	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this extinct snail was found only on Mahé island.	eng
40091	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail once inhabited  high forests, requiring constant humidity levels in excess of 90%. By the early 1990s, it was restricted to the dampest area of moss forests, and by 1994 it had become extinct.	eng
40091	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Being vulnerable to dessication, this species was historically threatened by habitat degradation and climatic changes. Hybridization with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachnodus niger</span> led to the extinction of this species in 1994.	eng
40092	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation action has been taken. Legal protection of Silhouette island is required to protect 75% of the known populations. Research is also needed into the species' life history and ecology.	eng
40092	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé (Riviere Cascade, Le Niol) and Silhouette (Grande Riviere, Riviere Macabee and west of Mt. Dauban). A record from Somalia is believed to be erroneous.	eng
40092	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail inhabits mid-altitude, shallow, gravel-based pools in high altitude streams (240-250 m a.s.l.).	eng
40092	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 1994, four populations were known and the total population size was estimated to be 125 individuals. There was a 20% decline in 2002 due to loss of one site, and the associated subpopulations, to pollution. Since 2002, only three sites have been occupied, with a total population of approximately 100 adults.	eng
40092	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Pollution has caused the loss of one of the sites the species inhabited. The remaining populations are currently secure from this threat, but vulnerable to changes in water conditions caused by development or habitat change.	eng
40093	distribution	Seddon, M.B., 2000	This species occurs in Italy and is endemic to the Alpi Apuana.	eng
40093	habitat	Seddon, M.B., 2000	<em>Rupstrelle</em> species are found on rock faces, usually limestone (calciphile), between 150-1500 m asl.	eng
40094	distribution	Manganelli, G., 2000	This species occurs in Italy and is endemic to the Isola di Monticristo and Scoglio La Scola.	eng
40095	distribution	Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2000	Occurs in Italy and is only known from sandy dunes of Is Arenas (e.g., Riu Piscinas, Riu di Naracauli, Sisca, Cuccura Pranu) on coast of Sardinia.	eng
40095	habitat	Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2000	Occurs at the base of bushes or in sparse leaf litter, or under vegetation, where it is usually buried in sand during the day.	eng
40096	distribution	Manganelli, G., 2000	Occurs in Italy, Toscano meridionale, and is only known in region of Colline Metallifere.	eng
40097	distribution	Manganelli, G., 2000	Known from Toscano, Isola di Montecristo in Italy.	eng
40097	habitat	Manganelli, G., 2000	Found under stones, on fallen tree trunks or in leaf litter particularly in damp sites.	eng
40098	distribution	Manganelli, G., 2000	Occurs in Italy, Alpi Pennine, at a single site in Valle d'Aosta.	eng
40098	habitat	Manganelli, G., 2000	Found on granite rocks between 900-2,800 m.	eng
40099	distribution	Manganelli, G., 2000	Occurs in Sicily between Trapani and Cefalu.	eng
40104	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40104	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Known only from the type collection made in southern Kalimantan on Mt.Sakoembang.	eng
40104	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs at an altitude of 950 m.	eng
40105	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40105	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Endemic to Mt. Kinabalu.	eng
40105	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Restricted to ultrabasic soils at 1,200-2,250 m alt.	eng
40107	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Known only from Mt Kinabalu and Mt Tamboyukon.	eng
40107	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	A large climber, occasionally epiphytic, in mossy forest at 1,500-2,700 m alt.	eng
40108	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded only from the Malaysian part of Borneo.	eng
40108	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Grows on wet sandy soils, abundant in open areas or on ridge tops at 1,000-2,600 m alt.	eng
40109	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Found in mossy forests on ridge tops at 1,200-2,500 m alt.	eng
40110	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40110	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Found in Peninsular Malaysia on the eastern mountain ranges, Banjaran Timur, G.Tahan and G.Tapis.	eng
40110	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs in open areas or amongst scrub, on quartzitic soils or heavily weathered rock; 1,300-2,100 m alt.	eng
40111	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40111	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs on open ridge-tops, rooted in moss and climbing into trees at 1,400-2,500 m alt.	eng
40112	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40112	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Epiphyte in mossy forest at 2,300-2,590 m alt.	eng
40113	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40114	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40114	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Grows in shrubberies, landslides and cliffs only on ultrabasic soils at 300-1,220 m alt.	eng
40115	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	On CITES Appendix II.	eng
40115	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	From near Bau on Sarawak.	eng
40115	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Apparently confined to limestone cliff faces with permanent water seepage; 300 m alt.	eng
40116	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40116	distribution	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Recorded from the Appalachians Mountains.	eng
40116	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs in seepage, savanna and mountain bogs.	eng
40116	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
40117	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40117	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Occurs in seepage bogs.	eng
40117	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
40118	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
40118	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Found on streamside edges and mountain bogs, usually on soils of the Toxaway silt loam or Hatboro loam series. Most sites are depression bogs apart from the streamside edges.	eng
40118	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
40119	conservation	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Currently listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40119	habitat	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	Grows in seepage bogs.	eng
40119	threats	Schnell, D., Catling, P., Folkerts, G., Frost, C., Gardner, R., <i>et al.</i>, 2000	This species is subject to a variety of threats including the loss or degradation of wetland habitat, often through conversion for cultivation, housing, and the development of recreational areas; direct use of and drift from herbicides (particularly on roadside areas); invasive exotic species such as kudzu <em>Pueraria lobata</em>, Chinese privet, and Japanese Honeysuckle <em>Microstigium</em>; suppression and elimination of the natural processes essential for the maintenance of bog habitat (for example, through fire, or the activities of beavers); and direct collection of the species (more recently, seed collection has threatened smaller subpopulations).	eng
40488	conservation	Lunney, D., Dickman, C., Copley, P., Grant, T., Munks, S., Carrick, F., Serena, M. & Ellis, M., 2008	Conservation of the Platypus is limited to its listing as a legally protected species in all states in which it occurs and its incidental inclusion in some national parks and reserves. Legislation prohibiting or controlling problematic fishing activities has been enacted in New South Wales and Victoria, but regulations concerning illegal netting and trapping are often poorly enforced. The most widespread field monitoring program for the species is in Victoria (Australian Platypus Conservancy). There are also a few system-specific studies in other states and community-based reporting of anecdotal occurrences of the species to a variety of institutional and private databases. Still more information about population numbers and monitoring are crucial, especially for a long-lived species such as the Platypus where a lack of recruitment can be masked until a dramatic population crash occurs as adults reach the end of their lifespan.<br/><br/>Population studies of fragmented populations should be a research priority, together with studies to help verify the current distribution and baseline population parameters in areas where the species has declined (Grant and Temple-Smith 2003). Once the Platypus becomes extinct in a river system, the likelihood of its re-colonising that system without human intervention is minimal (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). One reintroduction program is underway in a single fire-affected stream in Victoria (Australian Platypus Conservancy). <br/><br/>Some populations of Platypuses have exhibited antibodies to <em>Leptospirosis</em>, probably transmitted via cattle, but no clinical symptoms have been observed. Mortality from an ulcerative dermatitis caused by Mucor fungus, however, has been recorded in at least one river system in Tasmania. There is currently no active investigation of this disease, which should be a research priority both in that state and on the mainland where the fungus is also found (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.).	eng
40488	distribution	Lunney, D., Dickman, C., Copley, P., Grant, T., Munks, S., Carrick, F., Serena, M. & Ellis, M., 2008	The Platypus is endemic to Australia, where it is dependent on rivers, streams, and bodies of freshwater. It is present in eastern Queensland and New South Wales, in eastern, central, and south-western Victoria, throughout Tasmania, and on King Island. An introduced population is established at the western end of Kangaroo Island (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its occurrence is reasonably continuous within some catchments, but discontinuous in others (e.g., the Bega River catchment in New South Wales; Lunney <em>et al.</em> 1998), and in many catchments its actual distribution is poorly known. In Victoria, fewer than 200 individuals occupy the Wimmera-Avon River basin (distributed over an area of >2,400,000 ha), and the species appears to have recently become extinct in the neighbouring Avoca River basin (Australian Platypus Conservancy, unpublished data) (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). The species now appears to be extinct also from its former range in the Adelaide Hills and Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia.	eng
40488	habitat	Lunney, D., Dickman, C., Copley, P., Grant, T., Munks, S., Carrick, F., Serena, M. & Ellis, M., 2008	The Platypus is restricted to streams and suitable freshwater bodies, including some shallow water storage lakes and ponds (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its food is almost exclusively benthic macroinvertebrates and so the species is water-dependent. Platypuses are largely solitary, and when not foraging in water they normally occupy a resting or nesting burrow in earth banks, although some individuals have been found resting in accumulated stream debris or in low dense vegetation. The species is seldom observed moving on land in mainland Australia, but is frequently seen out of the water in Tasmania, where its predator, the fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>), has been introduced only relatively recently (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). The breeding season varies widely depending on location. Females produce one to three eggs annually, but usually two (Carrick <em>et al.</em> 2008). Platypuses are long-lived animals (up to 20 years in the wild).	eng
40488	population	Lunney, D., Dickman, C., Copley, P., Grant, T., Munks, S., Carrick, F., Serena, M. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a common species. Its overall distribution appears to be little changed from its historical distribution (except in South Australia). However, many local populations are known to have declined or disappeared within the last few decades, and in general there is a surprising lack of knowledge about its abundance (T. Grant, S. Munks, F. Carrick, and M. Serena pers. comm.). Specifically, there are insufficient data at the catchment and local levels to predict population trends reliably in the long term.	eng
40488	threats	Lunney, D., Dickman, C., Copley, P., Grant, T., Munks, S., Carrick, F., Serena, M. & Ellis, M., 2008	Currently, the predominant threat to the species on the mainland is reduction in stream and river flows due to recent successive droughts, stream regulation, and extraction of water for agricultural, domestic, and industrial supplies. It is also at risk from the opposite extremes associated with climate change – extensive flooding both in space and time associated with recent tropical cyclones that have resulted in increased mortality and all but eliminated recruitment in 2006 over a substantial part of the species’ northern range. Habitat modification due to bank erosion and stream sedimentation (as a result of poor land management practices in agriculture, forestry, and urbanization) are also of great concern. In the case of urban streams, Platypus populations may be adversely affected both by poor water quality (in the form of suspended solids and nutrient enrichment) and contamination of sediment by heavy metals (Serena and Pettigrove 2005). Accidental drowning in nets and traps set for fish and crustaceans has the potential to impact Platypus distribution and abundance in all parts of its range, especially in small streams where populations may be critically small.	eng
40489	conservation	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40489	distribution	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	The species occurs from northeast Brazil to central Argentina.	eng
40489	habitat	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Encountered in a wide variety of habitats, on plains, marshes, grasslands, marginal and rain forests at high altitudes and at subtropical latitudes. Tolerates areas next to cultivation, cultivated lands, and deforested zones. In the Caatinga, they are found in zones of high and low chaparral and thorny vegetation, and in dísturbed areas (Mares <em>et al.</em> 1981, Streilen 1992).	eng
40489	population	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40489	threats	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	There no known threats to this species.	eng
40500	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40500	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in coastal Brazil from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul, west of the lower Rio Paraguay, to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Gardner 2007).	eng
40500	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	<em>D. aurita</em> is found in the Atlantic and Aracaria forests, living in primary and secondary forests, also found in forests that have been fragmented by urban development and deforestation (Grelle 2003). The diet of <em>D. aurita</em> is omnivore (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>D. aurita</em> is scansorial, nocturnal and solitary. It is mainly terrestrial, but its forelimbs and claws allow it to climb trees (Grelle 2003).	eng
40500	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species can be very abundant. D. aurita often move long distances (Gentile and Cerqueira 1995) and are habitat generalists (Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
40500	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	There are no major threats known although deforestation effects some populations.	eng
40501	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D, Helgen, K., Reid, R. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This species can be found in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40501	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D, Helgen, K., Reid, R. & Vazquez, E., 2008	The species is found from Tamaulipas, Mexico and is Cozumel and the Yucatan, south to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina, including Trinidad and the Lesser Antilles (Emmons and Feer, 1997; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Gardner, 2007). It can be found to about 2,000 m elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40501	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D, Helgen, K., Reid, R. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This species tolerates a wide variety of habitats, including rainforest and subtropical forest, secondary forest, and near human settlements where they feed on garbage. However, this species appears to be more sensitive to human disturbances than <em>Didelphis albiventris</em>. This species does not live at extreme altitudes (above 2,232 m) or in extremely arid zones. <br/><br/>This species has been reasonably well studied in the northern portion of its range. It is nocturnal, arboreal, and usually solitary, although two or more may be encountered together during the breeding season when males actively court females. The females build a leaf nest in a tree cavity or burrow. Litter size varies with latitude, with smallest litters near the equator. Gestation period takes fourteen to fifteen days (Eisenberg, 1989). Given adequate shelter and a sustained food supply, the home range of a lactating female may be rather stable, but the animals are opportunistic feeders and readily shift home ranges to adapt to fluctuating resources. Mean Home-range ranged up to 123 ha for males, and to 16 ha for females. This species can be sympatric with D. albiventris in southeastern Brazil.	eng
40501	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D, Helgen, K., Reid, R. & Vazquez, E., 2008	This species is common, and is hunted for meat only where other game is scarce (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Densities of 0.25-0.75 individuals per hectare are found in Venezuela (O'Connell, 1979), and of 0.09-1.32 in Panamá (Fleming 1972).	eng
40501	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D, Helgen, K., Reid, R. & Vazquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. In Suriname, it is collected for its meat which is illegally exported to French-Guiana (John de Bruin, in litt.).	eng
40502	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no specific measures in place to protect the Virginia opposum, it likely occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40502	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in Central America, from Costa Rica to Mexico and in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and north into southwestern Ontario, Canada. Some populations are also found along the west coast of the United States. Their range, limited by winter temperatures and snow depth, appears to be expanding northwards (Gardner, 2005).This species can be found from lowlands to 3,000 m (Reid, 1997).	eng
40502	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats, ranging from relatively arid to mesic environments. They prefer wet areas, however, especially woodlands and thickets near streams and swamps. Also in suburban areas. The opportunistic denning and feeding habits of the Virginia opossum has led to the success of the species, especially in areas of habitat fragmentation. High reproductive potential further contributes to increasing population size (McManus, 1974). Abandoned burrows, buildings, hollow logs, and tree cavities are generally used for den sites.	eng
40502	population	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	D. virginiana is common and widespread.	eng
40502	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K., Reid, F., Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Opossums are hunted and trapped for food and fur in certain areas of their range, but the majority of mortality is caused by collision with motor vehicles (Gardner, 2005).	eng
40503	conservation	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Soliano, P., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40503	distribution	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Soliano, P., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	The species has a disjunct range in South America. The species is found from north-central Argentina to Uruguay, Paraguay, part of Bolivia, and the southern region of Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro through to the Beni River in Bolivia. The northern range is from eastern Colombia, Venezuela through western Guyana (Gardner, 2007). The species has been recorded from southeastern Peru on the border of Bolivia (Romo <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The species is suspected to be found continuously down the Orinoco River in Venezuela, although there are no records (D. Lew and P. Soriano pers. comm.).	eng
40503	habitat	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Soliano, P., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	Very little information is available on this species. Occurs in wet grasslands It is reported to be nocturnal, preying on small vertebrates, fish, and insects. One stomach contained remnants of mollusk shells and sand, and this species has been caught in traps baited with mice. In captivity Lutreolina will eat insects and fruit and kills birds and mammals up to the size of Microcavia. This mesic-adapted animal is found along areas of permanent water. It is somewhat weasel-like in shape and apparently in habits as well. It can swim, and it climbs well. To at least 2,000 m elevation in the Andes of southern Bolivia (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40503	population	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Soliano, P., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is generally rare but can be common in appropriate habitats.	eng
40503	threats	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Soliano, P., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	No major threats although in the southern part of its range, drainage of wetlands for agriculture may be affecting the species.	eng
40504	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K. & Reid, F., 2008	Occurs in national parks as well as orchards, roadsides, etc.	eng
40504	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs from Tamaulipas, México to western Panamá (Gardner, 2005). It usually occurs from lowlands to 1,800 m (Reid, 1997). It is found up to 3,000 m at the Volcan Tacana.	eng
40504	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K. & Reid, F., 2008	This marsupial can be found in a variety of habitats, from dry deciduous forest to highland evergreen forest, second growth, and grassland. It also appears to tolerate plantations.<br/><br/>This nocturnal, solitary species is mainly arboreal, although it can occationally be caught on the ground, probably when traveling from one foraging area to another. It is active in understory, subcanopy, and canopy levels, to at least 30 m. Its diet includes insects and fruit. A nest was found inside a burrow on a bank in Veracruz (Hall and Dalquest, 1963); however, nests may be more commonly located above ground. Like other mouse opossums, this species is secretive and seldom seen, but it may be fairly common, as indicated by the predominance of its bone fragments in regurgitated pellets of Spectacled Owls (Timm <em>et al.</em>, 1989).	eng
40504	population	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
40504	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Emmons, L., Helgen, K. & Reid, F., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
40505	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40505	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is found in Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Surinam, Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, north and central Brazil, eastern Bolivia, and Trinidad and Tobago (Gardner, 2007). In Venezuela it extends through the north coast range to the Maracaibo basin. It is found at elevations below 1,300 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40505	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This marsupial is strongly associated with moist habitats and tropical evergreen forest. It is found in rainforest, often in the dense, tangled forest understory or in weedy areas. It is also found in vegetation along rivers and in secondary forests. This species is especially common in swampy, disturbed areas such as those dominated by Heliconia species in areas of modified forest. It tolerates secondary gowth and disturbed areas, such as plantations, fields, orchards, and human settlements.<br/><br/>This mouse opossum is arboreal, nocturnal, and insectivorous, but it is versatile in its habitat exploitation and is frequently trapped on the ground, sometimes near human dwellings. Its diet consists of about two-thirds insects and other small animals,and one-third fruit. The female is tolerant of the male only during estrus; copulation may last several hours, and gestation takes thirteen days. The litter size averages 5.8. The female constructs a leaf nest by transporting nesting material with her prehensile tail. Young are weaned at about 12 g body weight (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40505	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is widespread and often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40505	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
40506	conservation	Solari, S., Soriano, P., Lew, D., Patterson, B. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40506	distribution	Solari, S., Soriano, P., Lew, D., Patterson, B. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in Belize, Honduras (Isla Roatán), Guatemala, El Salvador, Panamá, Colombia, west Ecuador, northwest Peru, north Venezuela, and Grenada (Lesser Antilles) (Gardner, 2007). Also it is found in Trinidad and Tobago. Its is found from sea level to 2,000 m. The specimen from Honduras, Guat., and El Salvador may be <em>Marmosa mexicana</em>. There is confusion about the taxonomy of these specimen (F. Reid pers. comm).	eng
40506	habitat	Solari, S., Soriano, P., Lew, D., Patterson, B. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats, from evergreen or cloud forest to deciduous and thorn forest, secondary vegetation, and mesic grasslands. It also is frequently associated with thick, brushy undergrowth and thickets adjacent to deforested lands. It is found in arid zones in the south of Ecuador and the north of Peru. It tolerates dry seasons, deciduous habitats, and low habitats as seen in the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela.  It is basically nocturnal, solitary, and arboreal, although it uses the lower vegetation strata and the ground, such as for foraging.This species feeds mainly on insects, and some fruit (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40506	population	Solari, S., Soriano, P., Lew, D., Patterson, B. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40506	threats	Solari, S., Soriano, P., Lew, D., Patterson, B. & Reid, F., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
40507	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
40507	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in the Amazon River basin adjacent to the Andes in eastern Ecuador and Peru (Gardner, 2007).	eng
40507	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species has been trapped on the ground and in the thatched roof of a house. It is found in lowland forest and secondary forest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40507	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species can be locally common, but may have a patchy distribution (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40507	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
40508	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas.	eng
40508	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador, Peru, and western Brazil south of the Amazon, and Bolivia (Gardner, 2007).	eng
40508	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in rainforests. It prefers wetland areas and zones close to bodies of water with dense formations of Platanillos (Heliconia spp.). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, disturbed, and secondary forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is found also in open areas well outside of the forest in agricultural fields.	eng
40508	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40508	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats.	eng
40509	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D., Helgen, K., Reid, R., Vazquez, E. & Sarmudio, R., 2008	This species occurs in number of protected areas, but the taxonomy needs to be revised.	eng
40509	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D., Helgen, K., Reid, R., Vazquez, E. & Sarmudio, R., 2008	This species is distributed from southern Nicaragua to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Emmons and Feer, 1997). There is a record from southern Mexico (Gardner, 2007)  It is found from lowlands to 1,200 m (Reid, 1997). This species may also be encountered in Bolivia (Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 1993). In Colombia, this species is found up to 1,500 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). Quite rare in parts of Central America. Just one record in Chiapas (F. Reid pers. comm.). Locally common in Panama.	eng
40509	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D., Helgen, K., Reid, R., Vazquez, E. & Sarmudio, R., 2008	This species is usually found in mature evergreen forests in lowlands and foothills, and occasionally in deciduous or dense secondary forest (Reid, 1997). Individuals seem to prefer mature forests with little undergrowth, although they can also be present in dense vegetation. M. nudicaudatus is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary (Emmons and Feer ,1997). It is omnivorous with a diet that includes fruit, small vertebrates, and insects and other invertebrates. Unlike other opossums, these are extremely nervous and wary. They travel on the ground and along the tops of fallen logs, trotting or walking quickly and silently. Their nests are in well-hidden hollows in or near the ground. Litter size ranges from one to nine, with a mean of five (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40509	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D., Helgen, K., Reid, R., Vazquez, E. & Sarmudio, R., 2008	Widespread and often common, this species lives at low population densities (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40509	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P., Emmons, L., Cuarón, A.D., Helgen, K., Reid, R., Vazquez, E. & Sarmudio, R., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
40510	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40510	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found from Péru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela through the Guianas, south to northern and central Brazil to southern Bahia (Gardner 2007). In Colombia, this species is found up to 1,800 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
40510	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species forages both arborally and on the ground. In Venezuela it was trapped 46% of the time on the ground and 53% in trees and bushes. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, it was found in brushy and forested habitats, though almost always off the ground. Feeds on insects and small animals, fruit, and nectar, but an examination of three stomachs showed only insects. It is nocturnal, solitary, and constructs open, arboreal nests. This species is usually seen in the middle to upper levels of the forest, but they will descend to the ground when food is scarce in the dry season.  From the limited data from southern South America, it appears that this species lives mostly in rich subtropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40510	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Widespread and often common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40510	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats.	eng
40511	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
40511	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in the western Amazon Basin and eastern Andean slopes from Colombia, Ecuador, to southern Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil at least until the Rio Jurua. It is found up to 1,634 m in the Andean foothills (Emmons and Feer 1997; Gardner 2007; D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
40511	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in humid tropical forests forests along the eastern flanks of the Andes, and in secondary growth (Gardner, 2007).	eng
40511	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40511	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
40512	conservation	Solari, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
40512	distribution	Solari, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is distributed in eastern Panamá, Colombia, and eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, western Venezuela and north and central Bolivia (Gardner 2007). This species has an altitudinal range of 110 to 2,200 m (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
40512	habitat	Solari, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is terrestrial and feeds on invertebrates (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is less arboreal than most opossums (Eisenberg, 1989). It is found mostly in a variety of habitats, including Pacific wet forest, lowland rainforests, and montane wet forests at mid elevations (1,400 to 2,200 m), however, it is sometimes found as low as 200 m in rainforest and wet grassland (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species seems to tolerate human presence, as it has been caught in human dwellings (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
40512	population	Solari, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is estimated to be widespread with locally low densities. The rarity of this species may be due to unknown ecological factors. In Bolivia, this species is known from three specimens. It is locally common in some localities in Peru (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
40512	threats	Solari, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
40513	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Costa, P., Lew D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Found in several protected areas.	eng
40513	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Costa, P., Lew D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, south to northern Brazil (bounded by Orinoco, Negro and Amazon) (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001; Gardner 2005).	eng
40513	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Costa, P., Lew D. & Soriano, P., 2008	It tolerates a variety of habitats types. Although occurs in rain forests in all strata, including secondary forest. It also may be found in edge habitats around clearings. It is less abundant in dry deciduous forests. Found in mature, disturbed, and secondary rainforest, gardens, and plantations. This species is predominantly terrestrial and crepuscular in its habits. It is apparently chiefly insectivorous. Up to seven young are born in a single litter. In northern Venezuela the breeding season extends from May through August. The behaviour patterns and breeding biology are probably similar to those of M. domestica, a species well studied in captivity (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997). It occurs at up to 1,200 m elevation (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40513	population	Catzeflis, F., Costa, P., Lew D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Sometimes common, but populations show large year-to-year variation: they may be common one year and absent the next (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40513	threats	Catzeflis, F., Costa, P., Lew D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats, however, there is habitat loss in parts of its range.	eng
40514	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40514	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	This species is distributed in eastern and central Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and north Argentina (Gardner, 2007).	eng
40514	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Primarily found in xeric situations, this species has been trapped in grassy areas, brush piles, and among jumbled rocks in a dry riverbed. It is also tolerant of man-made clearings. It is an accomplished predator, feeding primarily on invertebrates (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Extensive work on colony animals has made <em>M. domestica</em> one of the best studied of the South American small opossums. In captivity this species breeds throughout the year, and some females produce four litters a year, some studies suggest up to six litters. The female builds a compact, complicated nest, carrying nesting material with her tail. Gestation lasts fourteen or fifteen days; young are born at about 0.10 g; litter size is three to fourteen, with an average of seven ; and the oestrous cycle is twenty-eight days. Other studies give age of first reproduction is five to seven months, and a litter range from 6 to 11 with an average of 8.4. Young are attached to the nipple for about two weeks and then enter a nest phase. The female does not have a pouch but will transport young on her back. Young eat solid food at four to five weeks, can be separated from the females at seven weeks, and can reproduce at fifteen months. In captivity males often weigh considerably more than females.	eng
40514	population	Bonvicino, C. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Monodelphis domestica is both common in the wild and in the pet trade. (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Emmons and Feer 1997).	eng
40514	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	No major threats.	eng
40515	conservation	Patton, J.L. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40515	distribution	Patton, J.L. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Found in southern Venezuela, in the upper reaches of the Amazon Basin, in eastern Colombia, Ecuador, the Department of Ucayali in Peru, and the state of Acre in western Brazil. In Colombia, this species is found up to 500 m asl (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
40515	habitat	Patton, J.L. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Found in mature and disturbed lowland rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997) Nocturnal, terrestrial, arboreal and solitary.	eng
40515	population	Patton, J.L. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Locally common (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
40515	threats	Patton, J.L. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	No major threats.	eng
40516	conservation	Brito, D., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	More research is needed on methods to provide for more habitat protection and for surveys to establish range of occurrence and occupation, ecology, and abundance. This species occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
40516	distribution	Brito, D., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is found from Tamaulipas, southern Mexico including the Yucatan, south to Boliva and western Ecuador, eastern Peru, and southwestern Brazil. It is found in lowlands to up to 1,600 m (Reid 1997).	eng
40516	habitat	Brito, D., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is found in humid forest, secondary growth, and along watercourses. It is found most commonly in moist areas, but it occurs through nearly all vegetation types. Can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest, second growth, and sometimes disturbed habitat; often found near streams (Reid, 1997). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, with good swimming abilities.	eng
40516	population	Brito, D., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species is common and widespread; sometimes abundant (Reid, 1997).	eng
40516	threats	Brito, D., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Emmons, L., 2008	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
40517	conservation	Solari, S. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
40517	distribution	Solari, S. & Teta, P., 2008	This specie is found west of the Andes in central Chile (Gardner 2007).	eng
40517	habitat	Solari, S. & Teta, P., 2008	Tolerates a wide variety of habitats, including cloud forests, brushlands, and riverbank chaparral. lt is typical of chaparral brusblands of Chile. This species presents an ample altitudinal range, from sea level to elevations of 2,500 m asl. Can be arboreal or terrestrial. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arobreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
40517	population	Solari, S. & Teta, P., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species.	eng
40517	threats	Solari, S. & Teta, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, numerous populations are in decline. Central Chile is a highly perturbed ecosystem, which has high rates of deforestation for forestry and agricultural activities.	eng
40518	conservation	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is found in numerous protected areas across its range. Surveys are needed to establish extent of occurrence and natural history.	eng
40518	distribution	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	This species is found from central coastal Peru south along the Andes and east to central Argentina.	eng
40518	habitat	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	T. pallidior exhibits the broadest geographic and elevational range of any species in the genus (Braun <em>et al.</em> 2005). Arid and semiarid pre-Andean foothills and Andean mountain ranges. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
40518	population	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	Braun <em>et al.</em> (2005) through molecular studies show that T. pallidior is divided into 2 separate clades, 1 comprised of northern samples (Chile and Bolivia) and 1 comprised of southern samples (Argentina).	eng
40518	threats	Diaz M. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats are known for the species, however, some populations are threatened by habitat conversion.	eng
40519	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas. Surveys Are needed to establish range and natural history.	eng
40519	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species occurs in northern Argentina, southern central Bolivia, and Paraguay (Gardner 2007)	eng
40519	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Found in dry places with thorny, chaparral vegetation (in Salta, Argentina), along waterways with dense vegetation, and up to elevations of 3,500 m asl (Jujuy, Argentina). Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). This species is found in the Chaco and Monte region of South America (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
40519	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species is not abundant.	eng
40519	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	There are no major threats to the species although some populations are affected by deforestation.	eng
40520	conservation	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Occurs in at least two protected areas.	eng
40520	distribution	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	The species has been recorded in the cerrado and caatinga of east-central Brazil (Eisenberg and Redford 1999; Gardner 2007).	eng
40520	habitat	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	The species occurs in the cerrado and caatinga. This species appears to be omnivorous, and 75% of its diet is animal in origin, including 44% arthropods. Home ranges based on recaptures were estimated at 2.3 ha for males and 1.7 ha for a female. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). This species is found in the Cerrado and Caatinga of Brazil (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
40520	population	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	Appears locally rare over its wide distribution range (Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
40520	threats	Vieira, E., Astua de Moraes, D. & Brito, D., 2008	There are no major threats. However, there is intense habitat destruction over much of its range.	eng
40521	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species occurs in Cajas National Park (Ecuador) (Barnett, 1999). This species needs further research into its distribution, population and natural history.	eng
40521	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in central Ecuador and northwestern Peru (Gardner, 2007). The species occurs above 1,500 m (Albuja and Patterson 1996).	eng
40521	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is known from subtropical forests (Gardner, 2007). The diet of this species most likely consists of invertebrates including worms, small vertebrates, fruit, and other vegetation (Nowak, 1999). Other information on the ecology of this species is unknown, but likely similar to that of large forest shrews (Nowak, 1999). This species is mostly terrestrial, but a good climber, and is nocturnal (Nowak, 1999). It prefers cool, wet areas covered by thick vegetation. This species is found in subtropical and lower montane forest (Albuja and Patterson, 1996). The species is likely dependent on forest.	eng
40521	population	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	Few specimens of this species have been collected, possibly due to poor sampling, rather than the rarity of the species (GMA Andes).	eng
40521	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation. In its Ecuador range, much of the land is under conversion for agriculture, while in Peru the forest is being removed for timber sales.	eng
40522	conservation	Patterson, B. & Gomez-Laverde, M., 2008	There is a need for further research on this species' distribution and natural history. The species has been recorded from some protected areas, Tatama National Park in Colombia, and Antisana and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserves in Ecuador.	eng
40522	distribution	Patterson, B. & Gomez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is found in two range sections in the Andes of western Colombia and north central Ecuador (Gardner, 2007)). In Colombia, it is found from 1,800 to 3,800 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Ecuador, it is found from 1,100 to 2,980 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.). There is a record at 4,100 m in the eastern cordillera in Ecuador (Albuja and Patterson 1996).	eng
40522	habitat	Patterson, B. & Gomez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is found in lower to upper montane forest, and has been found in secondary forest and adjacent to forested areas.	eng
40522	population	Patterson, B. & Gomez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
40522	threats	Patterson, B. & Gomez-Laverde, M., 2008	Deforestation for agriculture occurs in both range segments; however, historic deforestation was more intense in the southern range segment.	eng
40523	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	The species is present in several protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park). Further studies are needed into possible threats (response to fire and toads) to the species. Monitoring is needed, along with increased management of the area.	eng
40523	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the tropical monsoonal part of Northern Territory (Watson and Calaby 2008). It is present in Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park.	eng
40523	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	It is found in areas of woodland and open forest, dominated by eucalypts, with a grassy or shrubby understorey (Watson and Calaby 2008). The females may give birth to 10 young (Watson and Calaby 2008).	eng
40523	population	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	The population size of this species fluctuates. The species is patchily distributed, even in appropriate habitat.	eng
40523	threats	Woinarski, J. & Oakwood, M., 2008	Cane toads may be a threat (research underway). The spread of exotic grasses and changes in fire regime may be threats (affecting foraging success).	eng
40524	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Friend, T., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is found in a number of protected areas.	eng
40524	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Friend, T., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges through the east of the country from north-eastern Queensland to extreme south-eastern South Australia, and is also present as a disjunct population in south-western Western Australia. It is the most widespread of Antechinus species.	eng
40524	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Friend, T., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is found in many habitat types including tropical moist forest, dry sclerophyll forest, swampy habitat, mulga and suburban areas (e.g., in Brisbane) (Crowther 2008). It breeds once a year with the female giving birth to as many as 12 young (Crowther 2008).	eng
40524	population	Menkhorst, P., Friend, T., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is common, although sparsely distributed.	eng
40524	threats	Menkhorst, P., Friend, T., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but it is occasionally preyed upon by feral cats. There is some evidence that the species survives fragmentation better than most small marsupials.	eng
40525	conservation	van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Swamp Antechinus is present in a few protected areas; most of the mainland population is found in protected areas (and, indeed, there have been a few efforts to protect and maintain suitable habitat in grazed areas in South Australia). Much of the species' range in the western half of Tasmania is in a World Heritage Site. There is a need for a systematic survey of the current range of <em>A. m. minimus</em> to obtain accurate distribution baseline and determine current threats, as has recently been done for <em>A. m. maritimus</em> in South Australia (Bachmann and van Weenen 2001), as the subspecies is probably undergoing declines and the amount of suitable habitat available is likely to be small.	eng
40525	distribution	van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Swamp Antechinus is endemic to Australia. The subspecies <em>A. m. maritimus</em> (Finlayson 1958) is found as fragmented populations in near-coastal areas of south-eastern South Australia and Victoria west of and including Sunday Island and Wilsons Promontory. Isolated populations in southern Gippsland Plain have been most affected by habitat modification and/or alienation. In South Australia, recorded since 1970 from coastal lakes and swamps south of Robe. In Victoria, recorded since 1970 from three main areas, the south-western Wannon region, the Otways, and the southern Gippsland Plain (Menkhorst 1995; Bachmann and van Weenen 2001). <br/><br/><em>A. m. minimus</em> (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1803) is present on Tasmania and the Bass Strait Islands (Wilson and Bachmann 2008).	eng
40525	habitat	van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species occurs in damp habitats with dense understorey vegetation. It has been found in forest, woodland, heathland, tussock grassland, and sedgeland. It prefers lower elevation areas, with a southerly aspect and moderate slope (Wilson and Bachmann 2008).	eng
40525	population	van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Swamp Antechinus is rare in South Australia and Victoria, and patchily distributed given the habitat, but more common in Tasmania (Wilson and Bachmann 2008). The largest population densities have been recorded on Great Glennie Island off Wilsons Promontory (Victoria) with an estimated 80 individuals per hectare (Wainer 1976). Wilson <em>et al.</em> (1986) recorded a maximum density of 14 per hectare near Anglesea in the Otways.	eng
40525	threats	van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The subspecies <em>A. m. maritimus</em> is likely to be further threatened from continuing drainage and grazing of swamp habitats (and clearance of swamp vegetation), habitat/population fragmentation into small remnant habitat 'islands', and wildfire (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Currently <em>A. m. maritimus</em> is impacted by introduced predators (Bachmann and van Weenen 2001). The habitat of this subspecies also could be greatly reduced due to future climate change (Brereton <em>et al.</em> 1995; Burgman and Lindenmeyer 1998). There appear to be no major threats to <em>A. m. minimus</em>.	eng
40526	conservation	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Brown Antechinus is present in protected areas. This species is not believed to be a conservation concern due to its abundance and widespread range (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).	eng
40526	distribution	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Brown Antechinus is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from southern Queensland to southern New South Wales (Crowther and Braithwaite 2008). Sea level to around 1,500 m.	eng
40526	habitat	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is found in a wide variety of forest types; seldom found in anthropogenically disturbed habitats.	eng
40526	population	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	Van Dyck and Crowther (2000) consider this species to be one of the most common and widespread species of small mammals in eastern Australia.	eng
40526	threats	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, with the exception of some localized habitat loss.	eng
40527	conservation	Burbidge, A., 2008	Present in Rudall River and Kennedy Range National Parks. Monitoring of the species is needed.	eng
40527	distribution	Burbidge, A., 2008	This Kaluta is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the Pilbara region, Carnarvon Basin and the Little Sandy Desert of Western Australia. The species is present in Rudall River National Park, Kennedy Range National Park, and on Potter Island.	eng
40527	habitat	Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is found in Triodia hummock grassland and tussock grassland on sand plains and dunes (Woolley 2008).	eng
40527	population	Burbidge, A., 2008	The Kaluta is widespread and abundant within its range.	eng
40527	threats	Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40529	conservation	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Wongai Ningaui is present in a number of protected areas including Wanjarri and Gibson Desert Nature Reserve (Western Australia), Uluru National Park (Northern Territory), and Simpson Desert National Park (Queensland). This species is also found in several nature reserves in Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.).	eng
40529	distribution	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs throughout much of the arid areas of Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland, and South Australia (McKenzie and Dickman 2008).	eng
40529	habitat	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in sandplain areas, arid spinifex (Triodia) grasslands, mallee, and open shrublands (McKenzie and Dickman 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter in their lifetime of between five and eight young (McKenzie and Dickman 2008).	eng
40529	population	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Wongai Ningaui is common in suitable habitat (McKenzie and Dickman 2008). Numbers fluctuate with rainfall.	eng
40529	threats	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40530	conservation	Burbidge, A., 2008	The Pilbara Ningaui is present in the Hamersley Range National Park and Chichester Range National Park. The species is also found in the Meentheena pastoral lease station, which is being converted into a conservation area.	eng
40530	distribution	Burbidge, A., 2008	The Pilbara Ningaui is endemic to Australia, where it is found mainly in the Pilbara region, but also in the Gascoyne region and the Little Sandy Desert of Western Australia.	eng
40530	habitat	Burbidge, A., 2008	The Pilbara Ningaui is found in semi-arid spinifex grasslands on outwash plains close to rocky outcrops and ridges (Dunlop <em>et al.</em> 2008). Females gives birth to usually five or six young. Animals can survive into a second breeding season (Dunlop <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40530	population	Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is reasonably abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
40530	threats	Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40531	conservation	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas – several of which are located Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
40531	distribution	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, and has a broad distribution across semi-arid regions of southern Australia (Carthew and Bos 2008).	eng
40531	habitat	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is most common in areas of spinifex (Triodia) grassland, but is also found in heathland and mallee scrub vegetation (Carthew and Bos 2008). It is a little known species, with only one population (on Eyre Peninsula in South Australia) studied in any detail (S. Carthew pers. comm.). Triodia seems to be an important component of its habitat, and it is normally found where there is at least some Triodia - the dense spiny nature of which provides permanent cover as well as invertebrate prey (Bos <em>et al.</em> 2002; Bos and Carthew 2003). Breeding is seasonal, and takes place in mid- to late spring, with 5-7 young in a litter (Carthew and Bos 2008). Beginning in February, dispersing juveniles are present in the population. By this time, most adults in the population have died, and juveniles make up 97% of the population (Bos and Carthew 2001; Carthew and Bos 2008).	eng
40531	population	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species can be rare or locally common, but is generally patchily distributed, and often only captured in small numbers (S. Carthew pers. comm.). It is most common when associated with spinifex (Triodia), with highest population densities recorded to date at a site in the Middleback Ranges on Eyre Peninsula (Bos and Carthew 2001), where it is the most commonly captured small mammal species (Carthew and Keynes 2000).	eng
40531	threats	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Inappropriate fire regimes, sheep grazing, and mineral sand mining are localized threats and may lead to habitat fragmentation.	eng
40533	conservation	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is presumably found in many protected areas.	eng
40533	distribution	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Pennay, M., 2008	Giles' Planigale is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in the arid and semiarid portions of south-western Queensland and western New South Wales to eastern South Australia, and includes small portions of Victoria and the Northern Territory.	eng
40533	habitat	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Pennay, M., 2008	Giles' Planigale is found in areas with deep cracking clay soils on the floodplains of creeks and rivers, on grassy plains and in interdune areas among sandhills (Read 2008). Females give birth to one or two litters of six to eight young after a gestation period of 16 days (Read 2008).	eng
40533	population	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Pennay, M., 2008	It is sparsely distributed within abundant suitable habitat (Read 2008). This species is irruptive after rain.	eng
40533	threats	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Pennay, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Giles' Planigale is affected by cultivation in parts of its range. It is probably not impacted much by sheep and cows. Cats adversely affect the species in parts of its range.	eng
40534	conservation	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Long-tailed Planigales occur in many protected areas, although it is unknown from some within its range.	eng
40534	distribution	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The Long-tailed Planigale is endemic to Australia, where it has been recorded mainly across the northern part of the country.	eng
40534	habitat	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Long-tailed Planigales are the smallest marsupials. They are found mainly on cracking clay grasslands. Females give birth to between four and eight young (Fisher 2008).	eng
40534	population	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is extremely abundant within its range.	eng
40534	threats	Woinarski, J., van Weenen, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the Long-tailed Planigale. Pastoralism reduces the abundance of this species. Localized predation by cats affects Long-tailed Planigales.	eng
40535	conservation	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	Common Planigales are present in many protected areas.	eng
40535	distribution	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in northern and eastern parts of the country.	eng
40535	habitat	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	Common Planigales occur in a wide variety of habitats, including sclerophyll and temperate forest, grasslands, marshland, mangroves, and rocky areas. It can be found in gardens at the fringes of urban areas and in some agricultural areas. Females give birth to a litter of up to 10 young in the east and as many as 12 in the Top End (Burnett 2008).	eng
40535	population	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is an abundant species (Burnett 2008).	eng
40535	threats	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although it is preyed upon by domestic cats. Coastal urban development may result in declines in some areas.	eng
40536	conservation	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
40536	distribution	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the eastern interior of the country (Read 2008).	eng
40536	habitat	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is found in open grassland, mallee scrub, and bankside vegetation in areas with cracked clay soils (Read 2008). This species is nocturnal and spends much of its time hunting within the clay cracks. In captivity females give birth to two litters of an average of six young annually, but in the wild probably only a single litter is produced (Read 2008).	eng
40536	population	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	It is a locally common species in appropriate habitat (a hectare or more of cracking clay). The population fluctuates with rainfall. There have been declines in the eastern portion of range due to habitat conversion.	eng
40536	threats	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Burnett, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species. There is a localized threat through habitat conversion to agriculture.	eng
40537	conservation	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., van Weenen, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is found in a number of protected areas. There is some monitoring in the MacDonnell Ranges in Northern Territory.	eng
40537	distribution	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., van Weenen, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in central parts of Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, and presumably South Australia, with an isolated record from Queensland).	eng
40537	habitat	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., van Weenen, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in sparsely vegetated rocky localities, and sometimes in association with termite mounds (in the Tanami Desert), in mostly arid areas (Woolley 2008). Females produce a single litter of up to six young a year (Woolley 2008).	eng
40537	population	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., van Weenen, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
40537	threats	Woinarski, J., Burbidge, A., van Weenen, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The habitats they live in are rugged and not affected by rabbits or pastoralism. Cats may be a threat locally.	eng
40538	conservation	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is known from several protected areas, including several national parks. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40538	distribution	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia and into north-western Northern Territory. It is known from Augustus Island and the Heywood Islands off the Kimberley coast (Woolley 2008).	eng
40538	habitat	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	<em>Pseudantechinus ningbing</em> is found in rocky habitats. It is potentially a generalist insectivore.	eng
40538	population	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is probably common (Woolley 2008).	eng
40538	threats	Burbidge, A. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Altered fire regimes could potentially affect it, though possibly less so in the rocky habitats (due to its dietary habits).	eng
40539	conservation	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N., Woolley, P. & Morris, K., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g., Barlee Range Nature Reserve, Rudall River National Park, and Chichester Range National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40539	distribution	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N., Woolley, P. & Morris, K., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in arid portions of western Western Australia.	eng
40539	habitat	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N., Woolley, P. & Morris, K., 2008	It is found in a variety of vegetation types, but favors rocky areas (Woolley 2008). Little is known about the breeding habitats of this species (Woolley 2008).	eng
40539	population	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N., Woolley, P. & Morris, K., 2008	The abundance of this species is unknown, though it is probably common.	eng
40539	threats	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N., Woolley, P. & Morris, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40540	conservation	Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M., 2008	As of May 2008, the Tasmanian Devil is listed as Endangered under the Tasmanian Government's <em>Threatened Species Protection Act 1995</em>. It is also listed as Vulnerable under the Australian Government <em>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</em>. <br/><br/>At the end of 2003, the Tasmanian State Government's Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment (now Department of Primary Industries and Water) launched the Tasmanian Devil Disease Program to investigate and respond to the threat of Devil Facial Tumour Disease. This program, now called the <em>Save the Tasmanian Devil Program</em>, has attracted many collaborative researchers. A forum exclusive to those directly involved in DFTD research in February 2007 was attended by approximately 80 people. The mission of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program is ?to maintain the Tasmanian Devil as an ecologically functional species in the wild? (AUSVET 2005). Conservation actions, including research directed towards improving conservation management, are driven by three future scenarios that have the potential to turn the epidemic around and bring devils back into the landscape as an ecologically functional species (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2007). These are extinction in the wild and reintroduction, the evolution of resistance, and the broad-scale application of a vaccine. Four management actions can therefore potentially be employed: establishing insurance populations; disease suppression in wild populations; selection for disease resistance; and development of a vaccine (McCallum and Jones 2006). Each of these is included in the current Strategic Plan of the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program.<br/><br/><strong>Insurance strategy</strong><br/>The highest priority is to establish insurance populations of healthy devils in places isolated from the disease, firstly to avoid total extinction and, secondly, as a source for reintroduction to the wild if devils, and therefore also the disease, become extinct. Because these populations will possibly carry the species for 25-50 years and because devils already have low genetic diversity, a conservative retention of genetic diversity of 95% is recommended (Jones et  al. 2007; Save the Tasmanian Devil Program Insurance Population Strategy 2007). A large founder base of 150 individuals is recommended, to be built up to an effective population size of 500 individuals. This would mean maintaining an actual population size of about 1700 individuals, if they were all maintained in captivity where breeding is closely managed, or 5,000 individuals if they were all wild-living (Jones et  al. 2007; Save the Tasmanian Devil Program Insurance Population Strategy 2007). <br/><br/>Insurance populations would ideally be managed as a metapopulation of multiple captive and wild populations with managed migration between populations to maintain genetic diversity (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Maintenance of wild as well as captive insurance populations is important because wild-living animals retain natural behaviours and natural suites of parasites, pathogens and commensals, all of which are progressively lost in captive animals (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). The options for wild insurance populations are offshore islands, and fenced enclosures on mainland Australia and disease free areas on mainland Tasmania. There are a number of issues to be considered with these possible types of insurance populations, including the number of potential sites, the number of devils that could be held, balancing the conservation value of the sites for other purposes, ecological functionality, biosecurity risk, whether the site is currently disease-free or whether disease eradication would be required (see disease suppression below), cost of establishment and maintenance, stakeholders and timescale. <br/><br/>To date, there have been three intakes of founders for captive insurance populations from the wild: 26 devils from eastern (n=13) and north-western (n=12) genetic provenances in 2005, 25 north-western founders in 2007, and 63 north-western founders in 2008. Founders were collected from as wide a geographic area as assurity of disease-free status permitted at the time (established though intensive and extensive surveys and including a buffer zone). This intake area gets smaller each year as DFTD spreads, and is currently the north-west corner and a strip down the west coast. Founder devils were accepted for collection according to a strict set of protocols: recently weaned and likely to be pre-dispersal, no biting injuries and no signs of sexual maturity / oestrus in females. The first two intakes were maintained in quarantine in Tasmania for 20 months and 8 months, respectively, in facilities where there are no wild devils on the outside (e.g. suburban, island). The current intake will be maintained in quarantine for a shorter period. These founder devils are transferred to mainland zoos where they are managed by the Australasian Regional Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (ARAZPA).<br/><br/>A risk reduction document has been distributed to wildlife park operators and the zoological industry (DPIW 2005; Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease Management Strategy) outlining biosecurity measures to maintain the health of current captive populations. These measures include adaptation of husbandry protocols to include use of footbaths, employ appropriate waste disposal principles or secure enclosures to prevent contact between wild and captive Tasmanian Devils. Actions have been moderately successful in terms of increasing biosecurity at existing wildlife parks. An intra-state movement guideline was established requiring special permits to transfer Tasmanian Devils between parks.<br/><br/>Updates on the disease and quarantine protocols are regularly disseminated to all stakeholders. <br/><br/><strong>Disease suppression adaptive management trial</strong><br/>The only technique currently available to manage or even eradicate the disease in wild populations is detection and removal (euthanasia) of infected individuals. This comes lower in the decision tree than establishment of insurance populations (McCallum and Jones 2006), but is also part of an insurance strategy (McCallum and Jones submitted). If this technique works, it is a means of eradicating the disease in isolatable areas. If eradication is not achievable, disease suppression is still potentially a cost-effective way of protecting wild devil populations (per devil cost per annum of A$1,000 cf. A$12,000 to maintain a devil in captivity). Disease suppression has other uses as well, such as maintaining buffer zones around fenced enclosures and eradicating incursions (McCallum and Jones submitted).<br/><br/>An adaptive management trial in disease suppression commenced in January 2006 (after an 18-month pilot study) on the Forestier peninsula, where the disease has newly arrived and prevalence was low, and where movement of diseased Tasmanian Devils across a bridge and canal can be restricted. Work is underway with the state road authority and an engineering consulting firm to construct a barrier to devils on the bridge. Diseased Tasmanian Devils are being removed from the peninsula population through intensive trapping, in the hope of reducing or extirpating the disease there and to learn more about possibilities of controlling DFTD elsewhere. If it is not possible to eradicate or even control the disease in this isolated site, it is probably not possible to do so elsewhere. The suppression has succeeded in limiting the extent of the population decline, age structure changes and geographic spread and the size of the tumours now being detected is smaller (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007, unpubl.). In late 2006, the rate of transitions to new disease cases peaked and prevalence is now in decline (Lachish <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It is too early to say whether eradication is possible (M. Jones unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Selection for resistance </strong><br/>Research is in progress to identify resistant genotypes, in the MHC gene complex associated with tumour recognition (Siddle <em>et al</em>. 2007), and in the peri-centric inversion in chromosome 5 (Pearse and Swift 2006). If resistant individuals are found, management could be directed towards artificial selection in captive or wild populations, or in translocating resistant individuals to depleted parts of the devil?s range.<br/><br/>Current evidence suggests that lack of diversity at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is responsible for the disease being able to transmit between devils (Siddle <em>et al</em>. 2007). There is evidence that some individuals from the as yet uninfected West Coast have MHC profiles that differ from those found in the infected Eastern populations (Belov pers. comm). Whether these differences are sufficient to be protective is currently unknown, but it is an area of active research.<br/><br/><strong>Vaccine and treatment research</strong><br/>Vaccine research is ongoing and potentially promising, but is expected to take many years to achieve success. To be effective for disease control in wild populations in Tasmania, much of which is rugged and inaccessible by vehicle, a vaccine would need to be orally delivered, preferably by aerial baiting.<br/><br/>Research into treatment using cytotoxic drugs is underway. Treatment could be a viable option for saving captive individuals with valuable bloodlines but is too intensive and expensive to ever be useful for conserving wild populations (Stephen Pyecroft pers. comm. in Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Currently, approximately 40% of the state of Tasmania is protected, but this is unlikely to counter the effects of DFTD.	eng
40540	distribution	Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M., 2008	The Tasmanian Devil is found throughout mainland Tasmania, Australia, an area of 64,030 km². The species disappeared from the Australian mainland 430 +/-160 years ago (Archer and Baynes 1972), possibly through competition with dingos (Guiler 1982) and Aboriginals (Johnson and Wroe 2003). Tasmanian Devils were introduced to the small offshore Badger Island in the mid-1990s, but as of August 2007 all Tasmanian Devils were thought to have been removed from this island (N.Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils were present on Bruny Island (a large inshore island off south-eastern Tasmania) in the early 1800s, but there are no confirmed records from after 1900. Tasmanian Devils also occur on Robbins Island, a large inshore island to the north-west, semi-connected to mainland Tasmania.	eng
40540	habitat	Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M., 2008	Tasmanian Devils are found throughout Tasmania, in all native terrestrial habitats, as well as in forestry plantations and pasture, from sea level to all but the highest peaks of Tasmania (Jones and Rose 1996, Jones and Barmuta 2000). Densities are lowest in the buttongrass plains of the south-west and, prior to Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) emergence, highest in the dry and mixed sclerophyll forests and coastal heath of Tasmania's eastern half and north-west coast (Jones and Rose 1996). Open forests and woodlands are preferred, while tall or dense wet forests are avoided (Jones and Rose 1996; Jones and Barmuta 2000). The highest population densities are found in mixed patches of grazing land and forest or woodland. Relative trapping success and spool-and-line tracking indicate that Tasmanian Devils travel through lowlands, saddles and along creeks, avoiding steep slopes and rocky areas, and favouring predictably rich sources of food such as bush/pasture mosaics on farms, carcass and rubbish dumps, and roads (Jones and Barmuta 2000, Pukk 2005; N. Mooney and D. Pemberton pers. comm.).  Tasmanian Devils are able to reach very high densities, even in suboptimal habitat, if sufficient food and den sites are available. The 14 km² Badger Island at one time supported 120 Tasmanian Devils.<br/><br/>Seabird colonies, such as Short-tailed Shearwaters (or muttonbirds, <em>Puffinus tenuirostris</em>), are thought to have traditionally been a preferred habitat for Tasmanian Devils, providing an important food source. These are now much reduced along the east coast, but some sites remain along the west coast (D. Pemberton pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Dens are typically underground burrows (such as old wombat burrows), dense riparian vegetation, thick grass tussocks and caves. Adults are thought to remain faithful to their dens for life so den disturbance is destabilizing to populations (Owen and Pemberton 2005). In settled areas, dens are often under buildings which may be occupied by people.<br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils are the sole host to the only threatened invertebrate parasite, a tapeworm, <em>Dasyurotaenia robusta</em>, which is currently listed as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Tasmanian Devils are considered to be generalist predators and specialized scavengers; prey comprise primarily medium- to large-sized mammals, although they will eat large invertebrates such as bogong moths (<em>Agrotis infusa</em>) and the carcasses of any dead vertebrates, leading them to focus on areas where lambing, calving or wallaby shooting are in progress (Guiler 1970a, Jones and Barmuta 2000, Jones 2003, Owen and Pemberton 2005). Tasmanian Devils solitarily and actively hunt prey up to about 20 kg in size (including Bennett?s Wallabies, <em>Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus</em>, and Common Wombats, <em>Vombattus ursinus</em>) using a combination of ambush and short, moderate-speed pursuits (Jones 1998, 2003; Owen and Pemberton 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Movement patterns</strong><br/>Devils are usually nocturnal. There are no data to suggest seasonal changes in pattern of movement, apart from reduced activity of females with young in their dens (Pemberton 1990), although longer range movements (see below) are observed more frequently in winter. Tasmanian Devils occupy several different dens, changing dens every 1-3 days, and travelling a mean nightly distance of 8.6 km (Pemberton 1990). However, individuals have occasionally been observed to move up to 50 km in a single night (M. Jones pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Home ranges are found to overlap considerably. A typical home range across a two to four week period is estimated to be 13 km², ranging from 4-27 km² (Pemberton 1990). Different breeding females may be caught outside the same den site (Badger Island, N. Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Life-cycle</strong><br/>The Tasmanian Devil is promiscuous and breeds once a year during February to June (Hesterman <em>et al.</em> 2008; M. Jones pers. comm., Save the Tasmanian Devil Program unpubl.). In earlier studies the mating season was found to occur over a much shorter period, primarily during February-March (Guiler 1970b; D. Pemberton pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The majority of individuals mature at two years old; in DFTD-free areas, 5-10% of females typically mature at one year (Guiler 1970b; Hughes 1982; Pemberton 1990; Jones <em>et al</em>. in review; Hesterman <em>et al.</em>, in prep.). <br/><br/>Reproductive success is high in wild, non-diseased populations, with nearly all females of breeding age (2-4) bringing the full complement (n = 4) of pouched young through to weaning (Pemberton 1990; H. Hesterman unpubl.). Success to maturity of post-weaning individuals is unknown. <br/><br/>Tasmanian Devils are thought to breed and raise their young in traditional dens (Owen and Pemberton 2005), but new sites (e.g. under buildings) are also used. <br/><br/>Longevity in the wild is 5-6 years (Guiler 1978; Jones 2001; Jones <em>et al</em>. in press). The sum effect of mortality and emigration at Mount William (pre-disease) was estimated as 80% between the first and second year, followed by 20% in subsequent years (Pemberton 1990). <br/><br/>Increased contact between individuals in breeding season results in higher injury rates as a result of intra/inter-sexual aggression. DFTD is thought most likely to be most easily transmitted between Tasmanian Devils through biting (AUSVET 2005; Pearse and Swift 2006; Hamede 2007), therefore this is a time of higher potential for disease spread.	eng
40540	population	Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M., 2008	In the early to mid-1990s, the total population estimate was 130,000 ? 150,000 individuals (M. Jones pers. comm.; N. Mooney pers. comm.; DPIW unpubl.), based on extrapolations of population density estimates according to habitat. Systematic statewide spotlighting surveys have been carried out since 1985. Spotlighting sightings of Tasmanian Devils across the state have declined significantly since emergence of Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) in the mid-1990s: by 27% by early 2004, by 41% by early 2006, by 53% by early 2007 (Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 2006; McCallum <em>et al.</em> 2007), and by 64% by early 2008 (C. Hawkins <em>et al</em>. unpubl.). The decline was significantly sharper in regions where DFTD had been reported earliest, such that in north-east Tasmania, mean sightings have declined by 95% from 1992-1995 to 2005-2007, with no indication of recovery or plateau in decline. Comparison of mark-recapture results in the same area from the mid-1980s and 2007 supports this finding (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). At the Freycinet peninsula, on the east coast of Tasmania, where the population has been monitored through trapping from 1999 to the present, the population has declined by at least 60% since the disease was first detected in 2001 and the adult population still appears to be halving annually (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007). Other indicators of devil abundance, such as roadkills, predation on stock, and carrion removal, also support this conclusion of a substantial decline.<br/><br/>If a 64% decline based on spotlighting surveys is applied to the population estimates from the mid-1990s, the 2007 population size would have been an estimated 25,000 mature individuals (50,000 individuals total). Another method generated an estimated total population size in 2004 of approximately 21,000 mature individuals (C. Hawkins, unpubl.). This estimate was derived from mark-recapture density estimates from ten sites (four disease-free sites, six diseased sites) in the highest density areas (north-east and south-east Tasmania) and from one disease free site outside the high density area. The population estimate at each trapping site incorporated 95% confidence intervals of +/-c. 25%. A standard buffer was placed around each trap site to calculate the area from which Tasmanian Devils are trapped during a survey, and this area varies between sites, affecting density calculations. If this estimate is of a population that had declined by 27% of the pre-disease population size, then the 2007 population (estimated to have declined by 64%) would be 10,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>For both estimates, the potential error is high and still under discussion. The estimation of mature individuals is particularly subject to error since the disease has so reduced the proportion of older individuals: in disease-free sites, half of all individuals trapped are typically mature, but this proportion is much less in diseased sites (varying locally according to time since disease emergence). Acknowledging these provisos, the best estimate of total population size based on current evidence thus lies within the range of 10,000-25,000 mature individuals.<br/><br/>While Tasmanian Devil distribution across the state appears to be continuous, two management units have been identified, with devils in north-western Tasmania being genetically distinct from those found across the rest of the State (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004; Farmer 2006).<br/><br/><strong>North-western</strong>. Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004) identified a genetically distinct management unit in northwestern Tasmania, across approximately 13,400 km², west of the Forth river and south to Macquarie Heads (Farmer 2006). This region encompasses four sites intensively surveyed by the Devil Disease Team since 2004, and one surveyed by C. Hawkins (unpubl.) in 2003. One of the Devil Disease Team sites, Woolnorth, holds the highest population density of Tasmanian Devils found in any of the Team's surveys, which is more than double that at the other sites. Extrapolating from the resulting density estimates, this management unit may currently consist of between 3,000 and 12,500 mature individuals. This management unit is not currently declining, but DFTD is expected to continue to spread into it.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern/South-western</strong>. The remaining 50,630 km² area covers nine sites surveyed by the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program since 2004. The mean of the density estimates for each of these sites applied to this area (separating formerly high eastern areas and from long term low density southeastern areas as described above) indicates an approximate population size of 7,000 ? 12,500 mature individuals. <br/><br/>Jones and Rose (1996) related statewide survey results to environmental and climatic features, generating a CORTEX spatial model predicting distribution and relative densities across the state (Figure 1). Findings from mark-recapture trapping surveys and other trapping work by the Department of Primary Industry and Water (DPIW) Save the Tasmanian Devil Program broadly support these predictions for DFTD-free regions. However, in central and eastern regions, marked population declines have been detected, in association with the earlier reports of Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006; McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007), subsequent to the time of the Jones and Rose survey. The north-west region is thus now thought to support the highest population densities.<br/><br/>The general population trend for the entire species is a decline (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007; Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006; DPIWE, 2005).	eng
40540	threats	Hawkins, C.E., McCallum, H., Mooney, N., Jones, M. & Holdsworth, M., 2008	The major threat to this species at present is Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD), compounded by roadkills, dog kills and persecution.<br/><br/><strong>Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD)</strong><br/>Current evidence suggests that DFTD is an infectious, widespread disease (McCallum <em>et al.</em> 2007), so that any attempt to delineate boundaries between affected and unaffected locations is likely to be outdated swiftly. DFTD has been associated with local population declines of up to 89% since first reported (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006, McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007), indicated by long-term spotlighting data, widespread trapping and laboratory results. The declines, and the prevalence of the disease, have not eased off in any monitoring sites, and DFTD is present even in very low density areas. It is estimated that the adult population is approximately halving annually on the Freycinet peninsula (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007) with extinction predicted at this site 10-15 years after disease arrival (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). Declines were most marked in areas where the disease had been reported earliest, in north-eastern and central eastern Tasmania.<br/><br/>Mean spotlighting sightings of Tasmanian Devils per 10 km route, obtained from across the core Tasmanian Devil range (eastern and north-western Tasmania), have declined by 53% since the first report of DFTD-like symptoms in 1996 (McCallum <em>et al</em>. 2007). The most immediately threatened location is thought to be the region where DFTD was reported prior to 2003: across 15,000 km² of eastern Tasmania. By 2005, the Devil Disease Project Team had confirmed DFTD in individuals found across 36,000 km² of eastern and central Tasmania (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006). DFTD is now confirmed across more than 60% of the devil?s overall distribution (C. Hawkins unpubl.), and there is evidence for continued geographical spread of the disease (Hawkins <em>et al</em>. 2006), so that Tasmanian Devils across between 51% and 100% of Tasmania may be, or have already been, subject to >90% declines in a ten-year period. The currently affected region covers the majority of the formerly high-density eastern management unit, involving what was perhaps around 80% of the total population.<br/><br/>DTFD has resulted in the progressive loss of first the older adults from the population and then the younger adults (Lachish <em>et al</em>. 2007) so that populations are comprised of one and two year olds (Jones <em>et al</em>. in press, Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted). As female devils usually breed for the first time at age two, they may not successfully raise a litter before they die of DFTD (Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted). An increase in precocial breeding indicates some compensatory response, but as yet this appears to have been insufficient to counter mortality (Jones <em>et al</em>. in press, Lachish <em>et al</em>. submitted).<br/><br/>DFTD behaves like a frequency-dependent disease, probably because the majority of the injurious biting, which is the type of contact most likely to lead to disease transmission, occurs between adults during the mating season (Hamede <em>et al</em>. in press). Frequency-dependent diseases, which are typically sexually transmitted, can lead to extinction (McCallum and Jones 2006). Because transmission occurs between the sexes at mating irrespective of population density, these types of diseases lack a threshold density below which they become extinct.<br/><br/>Cannibalism is considered fairly common in Tasmanian Devils and renders the species particularly vulnerable to disease transmission (Pfennig <em>et al</em>. 1998; Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, modes of transmission of DFTD are not as yet known.<br/><br/><strong>Road-kills</strong><br/>A recent three-year study of roadkill frequency on the main roads of Tasmania estimated 2,205 Tasmanian Devils are killed on roads annually (Hobday and Minstrell submitted). This suggests that 2-3.% of the total Tasmanian Devil population are killed on roads (based on an estimated population of 60,000 ? 90,000 individuals at the time of the survey). The roaded parts of Tasmania closely match the core distribution area for Tasmanian Devils.<br/><br/>Roadkill was attributed as the cause of up to 50% and 20% of Tasmanian Devil death during a recording period of 17 months at Cradle Mountain and 12 months at Freycinet National Parks, respectively (Jones 2000; M. Jones pers. comm.). Local extinction and a similar rate of population decline at Cradle Mountain indicates that roadkill can cause local extinction, in which the road becomes a local sink (Jones 2000). Future impact is likely to remain at the same level.<br/><br/><strong>Dog kills</strong><br/>Reports of about 50 devils killed per year by poorly controlled dogs are served from about 20 dog owners. There is no obligation or incentive for such reports, and generally some hesitance even among those providing them, so the real figures are more likely of the order of several hundred devils killed by dogs each year.<br/><br/><strong>Foxes</strong><br/>There have been spasmodic, small-scale introductions of the red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>) into Tasmania since early European colonisation. Early incursions were sometimes efforts at acclimatisation and others for short-term hunting. More recently, there has been at least one accidental incursion (from a container ship in 1998) and credible reports of a concerted, malicious campaign of introduction. Hard evidence (confirmed scats, carcasses) of foxes has been found in the north-west and northern and southern midlands. Credible sighting reports have come from most of the eastern half of the State including the central highlands and the far north-west (Fox Free Tasmania, 2006), mostly areas where Tasmanian Devil populations are suppressed by DFTD.<br/><br/>A commonly held view has been that the abundance of Tasmanian Devils has prevented fox establishment through interference competition, either aggressive exclusion or predation on denned juveniles (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Red Foxes and Tasmanian Devils share preferences for den sites and habitat, and are of a similar size. Tasmanian Devils abundance is likely to slow, if not prevent, fox establishment. It is possible that foxes have been present in Tasmania for many decades at sub-detectable levels, and that a degree of ecological release has occurred due to DFTD, with foxes increasing to detectable numbers. The current impact of the red fox has been quantified (N. Mooney pers. comm.), and it is unlikely that fox numbers are currently at a level to impose a measurable impact.<br/><br/>A decline in Tasmanian Devils number may create a short to medium-term surplus of food, for example carrion; ideal for fox establishment. Fox establishment may cause both direct and indirect effects on Tasmanian Devils. Direct effects include (reciprocal) killing by then abundant foxes of then rare juvenile devils at dens while the female forages (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fox establishment may also cause ecosystem disruptions through changes in other species (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2007) - a feature of foxes on mainland Australia (e.g. Saunders <em>et al</em>. 1995) and something that might then also indirectly affect Tasmanian Devils. Tasmania has the potential to hold up to 250,000 foxes (based on modelling of habitat preferences and densities in south-east mainland Australian) which could replace most medium- to large-sized marsupial carnivores (N. Mooney unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Persecution</strong><br/>In the past, persecution of the Tasmanian Devil has been very high throughout settled parts of Tasmania, and is thought to have brought about very low numbers at times. Through the 1980s and 1990s, systematic poisoning in many sheep-growing areas (particularly fine-wool with its reliance on merinos) was widespread and probably killed in excess of 5000 devils per year (N. Mooney unpubl., from interviews with landowners). In the 1990s, control permits were occasionally issued to individuals who were able to argue that Tasmanian Devils were pests (e.g. killing valuable lambs).<br/><br/>Current persecution is much reduced, but can still be locally intense with in excess of 500 devils thought to be killed per year (N. Mooney pers. comm.). However, this is reducing since devil numbers have declined. While the small amount of current persecution is likely to persist it is unlikely to constitute a major threat unless the Tasmanian Devil population becomes extremely small and fragmented.<br/><br/><strong>Low genetic diversity</strong><br/>Jones <em>et al</em>. (2004) found the genetic diversity of Tasmanian Devils to be low relative to many Australian marsupials as well as placental carnivores. This was consistent with an island founder effect, but previous marked reductions in population size may also have played a role. Low genetic diversity can reduce population viability (Eldridge <em>et al</em>. 1999) and resistance to disease (Acevedo-Whitehouse <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40541	conservation	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T., Ellis, M., Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	The Fat-tailed Dunnart is found in a number of protected areas.	eng
40541	distribution	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T., Ellis, M., Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is widespread over much of western, southern, central, and eastern Australia.	eng
40541	habitat	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T., Ellis, M., Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	Fat-tailed Dunnarts are found in a variety of grasslands, shrubland, and open woodland. They also occur in farmland (Morton and Dickman 2008). Females give birth to between eight and ten young, of which an average of five survive (Morton and Dickman 2008).	eng
40541	population	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T., Ellis, M., Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	Fat-tailed Dunnarts are common (Morton and Dickman 2008). They are common even in degraded and agricultural areas.	eng
40541	threats	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T., Ellis, M., Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40542	conservation	McKenzie, N., van Weenen, J. & Kemper, K., 2008	This species is present in numerous protected areas (Friend and Pearson 2008). Further work taxonomic work is needed in order better define its distribution in relation to other species of the genus (Friend and Pearson 2008).	eng
40542	distribution	McKenzie, N., van Weenen, J. & Kemper, K., 2008	The Little Long-tailed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it is found in arid parts of south-western Western Australia and southern South Australia (Friend and Pearson 2008).	eng
40542	habitat	McKenzie, N., van Weenen, J. & Kemper, K., 2008	Little Long-tailed Dunnarts are found in arid and semi-arid woodlands, shrubland, heathland, and hummock grassland (Friend and Pearson 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter of up to eight young (Friend and Pearson 2008).	eng
40542	population	McKenzie, N., van Weenen, J. & Kemper, K., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat (Friend and Pearson 2008). Populations might fluctuate.	eng
40542	threats	McKenzie, N., van Weenen, J. & Kemper, K., 2008	The species is probably preyed upon by introduced foxes and cats, although populations generally seem to be secure (Friend and Pearson 2008). The Wheatbelt habitat has contracted in the last century. Little Long-tailed Dunnarts are not found in agricultural lands, but they do occur in intervening areas.	eng
40543	conservation	McKenzie, N., 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas including the Tuttanning Flora and Fauna Reserve, Dragon Rocks Nature Reserve, and Nuytsland Nature Reserves.	eng
40543	distribution	McKenzie, N., 2008	Gilbert's Dunnart is endemic to Australia. It is restricted to Western Australia, where it is found from the Darling Scarp near Perth and across the central and southern wheat belt, with outlying populations on the Roe Plain (Morris and McKenzie 2008).	eng
40543	habitat	McKenzie, N., 2008	It is found in heathland, mallee, shrubland, and open woodlands (Morris and McKenzie 2008). One female captured had seven young (Morris and McKenzie 2008).	eng
40543	population	McKenzie, N., 2008	Gilbert's Dunnart is a common species (Morris and McKenzie 2008). It was one of the most common species recorded during a 2000-2002 wheatbelt survey (Keighery <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
40543	threats	McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to Gilbert's Dunnart. Salinity and rising water tables through land degradation is a threat to remnant habitat.	eng
40544	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Kalbarri National Park, François Peron National Park, Wanjarri Nature Reserve, Neale Junction Nature Reserve, Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve (all Western Australia), Uluru National Park (Northern Territory), and the 'Unnamed' Conservation Park (South Australia) (Pearson and McKenzie 2008).	eng
40544	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Hairy-footed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in arid and semi-arid habitats from Western Australia to western Queensland, with an outlying population in the Eyre Peninsula. There is a historical record from Bernier (or Dorre) Island, but it is no longer present there.	eng
40544	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in areas of sand plains, sand dunes, open woodland, shrubland, mallee, and hummock grasslands (Pearson and McKenzie 2008).	eng
40544	population	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	Hairy-footed Dunnarts are common (Pearson and McKenzie 2008). The species is abundant in good rainfall seasons. On Peron Peninsula, they are regularly caught, but in lower numbers than <em>S. dolichura</em>.	eng
40544	threats	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Broad-scale, altered fire regimes and foxes/cats are threats in local areas.	eng
40545	conservation	McKenzie, N., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is also listed as Vulnerable by the Northern Territory (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000). <br/><br/>It is present in a few protected areas (e.g., Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, West MacDonnell National Park, Kennedy Range National Park). This species needs studies on its distribution, population size, and threats facing it (Pavey 2002).	eng
40545	distribution	McKenzie, N., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in rocky areas of central Western Australia and central southern Northern Territory. In Northern Territory, this species has been recorded at only six sites, all in West MacDonnell National Park between Serpentine Gorge and Mt. Sonder (Pavey 2002). In Western Australia it is found in the Pilbara, Murchinson, Northeastern Goldfields, Ashburton, and Gibson Desert regions (Pavey 2002).	eng
40545	habitat	McKenzie, N., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is found in rocky scree and plateau areas, generally with little vegetation or of spinifex hummock grassland, shrubs, and open woodland (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is nocturnal, and its diet includes a variety of invertebrates. Females in captivity give birth to up to five young between the months of October and December (Pavey 2002).	eng
40545	population	McKenzie, N., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a rare species that is patchily distributed, but at times it can be locally common (Burbidge <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40545	threats	McKenzie, N., Woinarski, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In the range within central Australia this species is affected by the spread of exotic buffel grass, which increases frequency and intensity of fires. This is also likely to be an issue in some areas in Western Australia.	eng
40546	conservation	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this is a species complex.	eng
40546	distribution	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widespread over much of arid and semi-arid inland Australia. The species range has been lost from the agricultural band of south-east New South Wales and Victoria.	eng
40546	habitat	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in tussock and spinifex grasslands, shrubland, and rocky areas. Females generally give birth to two litters of around eight young in captivity, but it is unknown how many litters are produced in the wild (Woolley 1990; Morton and Dickman 2008).	eng
40546	population	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is a common species (Morton and Dickman 2008).	eng
40546	threats	Woinarski, J. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There are localized threats from high levels of cattle and sheep grazing, which seemed to have played a role in the loss of this species in the south-eastern part of its range (Frank and Soderquist 2005).	eng
40547	conservation	Dickman, C., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to reassess the taxonomic status of the subspecies <em>Sminthopsis murina tatei</em> from Queensland. Populations of this species should be monitored because there may be declines in the southern part of its range.	eng
40547	distribution	Dickman, C., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed over much of the south-east extending into north-eastern Queensland (Fox 2008).	eng
40547	habitat	Dickman, C., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is found in woodland, open forest, and heathland and is also known from transitional habitat at the edge of tropical moist forest (Fox 2008). The species appears to benefit from periodic burning of its habitat (Fox 2008). The female usually gives birth to two litters of up to ten young a year (Fox 2008).	eng
40547	population	Dickman, C., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	It is common in some parts of its range, but rare elsewhere (for example, thought to be uncommon in the southern part of its range). There may be declines happening in parts of its range.	eng
40547	threats	Dickman, C., Burnett, S. & McKenzie, N., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species, although predation by cats and foxes and habitat degradation may be resulting in some localized declines.	eng
40548	conservation	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including: Uluru National Park, West MacDonnell National Park, Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, Plumridge Nature Reserve, Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Lands, and in the Maralinga Tjarutja Lands (Foulkes 2008).	eng
40548	distribution	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs in the arid central parts of the country.	eng
40548	habitat	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is found in loams, compacted soils, mulga woodland, shrubland, and hummock grassland (Foulkes 2008). Females give birth to seven or eight young in captivity, and probably less than this in the wild (Foulkes 2008).	eng
40548	population	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T. & Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is sparely distributed, but can be locally common. The populations fluctuate with rainfall.	eng
40548	threats	Burbidge, A., Robinson, T. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40549	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Burnett, S., Woinarski, J. & Woolley, P., 2008	It occurs in a single protected area on the island of New Guinea; present in numerous reserves in Australia. Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed (the species having once been separated into a number of distinct species).	eng
40549	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Burnett, S., Woinarski, J. & Woolley, P., 2008	This species is present on the Aru Islands of Indonesia, the southern Trans-Fly regions of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and from northern Australia where it exists as distinct populations in north-eastern Queensland, the Northern Territory (including Melville and Bathurst Islands), and northern Western Australia (Flannery 1995a,b; Woolley 2008).	eng
40549	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Burnett, S., Woinarski, J. & Woolley, P., 2008	In New Guinea it occurs in grassland savanna (Flannery 1995a). In Australia they are associated with woodland savanna and grassland, and swampy areas and wetland habitats; also found in agricultural landscapes such as sugar cane plantations. Teat number varies between populations and females may have up to six or eight young in the pouch (Woolley 2008).	eng
40549	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Burnett, S., Woinarski, J. & Woolley, P., 2008	It is believed to be common in New Guinea, but uncommon and localised in Australia. In the Aru Islands, it is known only from a single specimen.	eng
40549	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Burnett, S., Woinarski, J. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no major threats, although in Australia the species is thought to be subject to predation by feral and domestic cats.	eng
40550	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Rudall River National Park (Western Australia) and Uluru National Park (Northern Territory).	eng
40550	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed through the arid regions of Western Australia, Northern Territory, the top edge of South Australia, and Queensland (McKenzie and Cole 2008).	eng
40550	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	It has been recorded in areas of sand plains, sand dunes, inter-dune habitats, hummock grasslands, tussock grasslands and open shrubland (McKenzie and Cole 2008). Females give birth to five or six young (McKenzie and Cole 2008).	eng
40550	population	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat. There is no evidence of widescale population declines.	eng
40550	threats	McKenzie, N. & Dickman, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Predation from introduced cats and frequent, large-scale fires are localized threats.	eng
40551	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	It has been recorded from Kakadu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40551	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the Top End region of Northern Territory (Woinarski 2008). It occurs from sea level to a few hundred meters.	eng
40551	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	Kakadu Dunnart has been recorded from stony hills within eucalypt woodlands (Woinarski 2008).	eng
40551	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is rarely recorded (Woinarski 2008). There are only about 20 records in total.	eng
40551	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Feral cats are probably predators, but only at low levels based on body size.	eng
40552	conservation	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Woinarski, J., 2008	Northern Brown Bandicoots are present in several protected areas.	eng
40552	distribution	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species ranges through much of northern and eastern Australia, and occurs in the lowlands of southern and south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from sea level to 1,200 m asl. In Queensland, Australia its range has contracted from parts of inland pastoral country and it has undergone local contraction in distribution elsewhere due to the impacts of development, farming, and grazing (G. Gordon pers. comm.).	eng
40552	habitat	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Woinarski, J., 2008	Northern Brown Bandicoot is found in areas of tall grassland, shrubland, savanna and various forested habitats containing some grassy or open areas. It can be found in disturbed areas including suburban gardens (Gordon 2008). Females give birth to a litter of between one and seven young, with several litters born during the breeding season (Gordon 2008).	eng
40552	population	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is common in some parts of its range in suitable habitat, although somewhat sparsely distributed in the tropical savanna regions in the north.	eng
40552	threats	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Woinarski, J., 2008	On New Guinea, the species is threatened by overhunting for meat. Although the range of the species contracted in Australia with European settlement, the species is adaptable and has survived well even in modified habitat (Gordon 2008). Depredation by domestic dogs, however, may be a problem in some areas. <br/><br/>In Queensland, Australia it has contracted from part if its range in inland pastoral country and has undergone local contraction in distribution elsewhere due to the impact of development, farming, and grazing (G. Gordon pers. comm.). Inappropriate fire regimes, in the form of too frequent burning, have resulted in declines in some regions, particularly across the tropical savanna in the north.	eng
40553	conservation	Friend, T., Morris, K., van Weenen, J., Winter, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Taxonomic work is needed to determine its relationship to <em>I. auratus</em>. Populations require close monitoring, especially for some subspecies that are particularly at risk. The Southern Brown Bandicoot has been reintroduced successfully to a number of locations. Reintroduction efforts should continue as well as exotic predator control. Fire management, maintenance of habitat integrity, and preservation of habitat are all important to this species.	eng
40553	distribution	Friend, T., Morris, K., van Weenen, J., Winter, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Southern Brown Bandicoot is endemic to Australia. It is absent from the interior of the country but occurs from south-western Western Australia to south-eastern Victoria and into New South Wales. It also occurs on the island of Tasmania and in a widely disjunct populations in northern Queensland.	eng
40553	habitat	Friend, T., Morris, K., van Weenen, J., Winter, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Southern Brown Bandicoot inhabits a range of forest, woodland, shrub, and heath communities (Paul 2008). It is omnivorous and active in both the day and night. Females give birth to up to six young, but usually only two survive until they are weaned (Paul 2008).	eng
40553	population	Friend, T., Morris, K., van Weenen, J., Winter, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is rare and scattered overall (Paul 2008). It is thought to be numerous in Western Australia, but greatly reduced in terms of numbers and extent of occurrence since European settlement. It occurs in highly fragmented locations in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales. It is common within its small range in Queensland. There is no information about populations in Tasmania.	eng
40553	threats	Friend, T., Morris, K., van Weenen, J., Winter, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is primarily threatened by introduced predators (mainly foxes and cats), and by changes to the fire regime. These factors have resulted in a large decline in the species since European settlement, but the species has also declined due to the clearing of native vegetation and habitat modification.	eng
40554	conservation	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is present in several protected areas. There is an urgent need for habitat maintenance across the range of the species.	eng
40554	distribution	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Long-nosed Bandicoot is endemic to Australia, where it is widely distributed in the east from just south of Cooktown to Wilsons Promontory. An isolated population also occurs well north of Cooktown, on upper Cape York Peninsula in the McIlwraith Range and Iron Range regions (G. Gordon pers. comm.). The elevational range of this species is sea level to 1,400 m asl, but it is most abundant below 1,000 m.	eng
40554	habitat	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is found in a variety of habitats including suburban gardens in towns and cities. Its preferred habitat is heath and forested areas near open, grassy feeding sites (Dickman and Stodart 2008). It is a nocturnal, solitary animal that spends the day in a nest (Dickman and Stodart 2008). Females can give birth to up to five young (usually 2 or 3), and may produce litters in quick succession (Dickman and Stodart 2008). The species is generally poorly studied.	eng
40554	population	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	Long-nosed Bandicoots are common. Their populations probably fluctuate to some degree.	eng
40554	threats	Lunney, D., Dickman, C. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Long-nosed Bandicoot is primarily found at lower elevations, where it is adversely affected by continuing agricultural clearing, logging, burning, and predation by foxes, dogs, and cats.	eng
40555	conservation	Taggart, D. & Robinson, T., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas in South Australia. There is a need to reduce inbreeding among York Peninsula populations, likely through translocation and the introduction of individuals.	eng
40555	distribution	Taggart, D. & Robinson, T., 2008	The Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat is endemic to Australia, where it is largely distributed in southern South Australia, west of the Murray River, and patchily distributed on the York Peninsula and Eyre Peninsula; also present across the Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia. There are two colonies in New South Wales. Its range may have expanded in the last 45 years.	eng
40555	habitat	Taggart, D. & Robinson, T., 2008	It is found in semi-arid areas of grassland, open plains, shrublands, savanna, and open woodland. Animals live in colonies within extensive burrow systems. Each warren contains several animals (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). The species is long-lived (reaching more than 15 years in the wild) (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008), and has a low rate of recruitment. Females are thought to be monogamous, and they produce a single young that lives in the pouch for six to seven months and is weaned after about a year (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). However, in drought years reproduction may cease and three consecutive years of ample rainfall are needed for there to be an increase in a population (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). Animals become sexually mature at about 3 years of age (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008).	eng
40555	population	Taggart, D. & Robinson, T., 2008	This species is patchily distributed within its range. It is abundant on the Nullarbor Plain, where there are estimates of between 50,000 and 100,000 in the South Australia portion. There are no population estimates for the Western Australia portion of the Nullarbor Plain. In the Murray Lands, there seem to be 10,000 - 15,000 individuals, but the population has declined by about 70 percent here since 2002, probably due to drought and sarcoptic mange. The species is now highly fragmented on the Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas. Remnant York Peninsula populations include: Wool Bay with about 100 individuals, Port Victoria has about 400, Urania has about 200; and there are 50 - 100 on Kadina. There are 100 - 1,000 estimated in Lake Eberard. The Bawler Ranges hold about 10,000 individuals (but this estimate is about 25 years old). Ellistron holds approximately 3,000 individuals. Small Kellidie contains about 100, and there are about 100 on Wedge Island (the latter is an introduced population).	eng
40555	threats	Taggart, D. & Robinson, T., 2008	Presumably the range of the Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat declined through conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land (in the past, for part of its range, though much of the current range is in pastoral lands). It is threatened by competition for grazing by domestic stock and introduced rabbits (Taggart and Temple-Smith 2008). Sarcoptic mange is now major a threat in the Murray Lands to the east; it kills 80-90 percent of affected populations/groups. Drought is another threat, especially for successful reproduction (the species needs a minimum of three years without drought to increase in number and reproduction ceases during drought years).	eng
40556	conservation	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is present in some protected areas. It is protected in most states except for eastern Victoria where it is classed as vermin, mainly because of the damage it causes to fencing.	eng
40556	distribution	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The Common Wombat is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it has a discontinuous and fragmented range from south-eastern Queensland to south-eastern South Australia on the mainland, and on Flinders Island and Tasmania (McIlroy 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,800 m.	eng
40556	habitat	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is found in temperate forested areas, sclerophyll forest, coastal scrub, and heathland (McIlroy 2008). It is a largely solitary species, that lives in a system of burrows. Breeding can take place at any time of the year, with a single young being born (McIlroy 2008). The young are dependent on the female for at least 17 months. Common Wombats become sexually mature at about two years, and can live up to 11 years in the wild (McIlroy 2008).	eng
40556	population	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is common.	eng
40556	threats	Taggart, D., Martin, R. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has historically declined through conversion of native vegetation to agricultural land, and may continue to be threatened by this in parts of its range. Individual animals may be killed by feral dogs and by road vehicles. Populations at the fringes of the range are susceptible to sarcoptic mange.	eng
40557	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Winter, J. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
40557	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Winter, J. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland and in southern coastal New South Wales to about Newcastle (How 2008). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
40557	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Winter, J. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a nocturnal, mostly scansorial species, of various tall open and closed forest types. It is most common in forested gullies containing trees with hollows (How 2008). It also occurs in exotic pine plantations where it can do considerable damage (How 2008). The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days; the young have a pouch life of five to six months (How 2008).	eng
40557	population	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Winter, J. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a common species (How 2008).	eng
40557	threats	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Winter, J. & Ellis, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range. Foxes also can be a problem. It is shot as a pest in pine plantations and was harvested for its pelt by trappers during regulated open seasons around a century ago.	eng
40558	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. Population monitoring of the species would be a useful measure.	eng
40558	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread in the east of the country from near Cooktown to north of Newcastle. It formerly in the Murray Valley of New South Wales and Victoria.	eng
40558	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This nocturnal species is found in wooded areas with a grassy understorey. It has been recorded from tall coastal eucalypt forests, and dry open woodlands west of the Great Dividing Range (Dennis and Johnson 2008); also occurs in grazing lands. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of 22-24 days (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40558	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is common in Queensland and fairly common in New South Wales (where it still occurs in coastal habitats). Population densities of the species vary markedly depending on the area (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40558	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species. It has undergone declines and loss of range in the south due to intensification of agricultural practices, increases in numbers of introduced, predatory foxes, and habitat destruction from introduced rabbits (Dennis and Johnson 2008). Foxes, rabbits, and climate change could each become major threats in the future (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40559	conservation	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas, including national parks, forest reserves, and the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40559	distribution	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to the tropical forests of north-eastern Queensland (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It ranges from Mount Amos in the north to Mount Lee in the south (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It is found from sea level to around 1,100 m (S. Burnett pers. comm.).	eng
40559	habitat	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in lowland and highland wet tropical rainforests, and does not persist in forest fragments (Dennis and Johnson 2008). It is a diurnal, generally solitary, species that spends the night in nests (Dennis and Johnson 2008). The females give birth to one to four young (usually 2) (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40559	population	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common and secure (Dennis and Johnson 2008).	eng
40559	threats	Burnett, S., Winter, J. & Martin, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, although feral cats and dogs may be causing some localized declines. The species does not survive in forest fragments. Its former range has been reduced through conversion of tropical forest to agricultural and pastoral land, particularly in the coastal lowlands.	eng
40560	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Woinarski, J. & Winter, J., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas in Indonesia or Papua New Guinea, but it is known to be present in a number of protected areas in northern Australia.	eng
40560	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Woinarski, J. & Winter, J., 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands of southern and extreme south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea); on Goodenough (Vivigani Plains), Fergusson, and Kiriwina islands (Papua New Guinea); and throughout much of northern Australia (isolated populations occur on North and South Stradbroke Island, Peel, and Groote Islands). The species was introduced to Vanderlin Island. It may also be present on the islands of Normanby and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).	eng
40560	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Woinarski, J. & Winter, J., 2008	Within Indonesia and Papua New Guinea it occurs in lowland savanna grasslands. In Australia, it is generally found along rivers and streams in open woodland and grassland habitats, but can also occur in areas of coastal sand dunes and inland hilly regions (Merchant 2008). It shelters in dense vegetation. It is gregarious and generally lives in groups of up to ten animals, which may form larger aggregations with other groups (Merchant 2008). In Australia, breeding can take place throughout the year with a single young being born (Merchant 2008).	eng
40560	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Woinarski, J. & Winter, J., 2008	In New Guinea, it is uncommon in the south-eastern portion of its range, but it is abundant in suitable habitat in the southern, largely uninhabited, part of its range. It is a common species in northern Australia and is widespread (Merchant 2008).	eng
40560	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Woinarski, J. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Within New Guinea, the species is locally threatened by overhunting for meat in the south-eastern part of its range. It is considered to be a pest species over some of its Australian range, where it is largely controlled by shooting and, in the past, directed poisoning campaigns (however, whereas people were actually hired in the past to shoot them in some regions, such as Western Australia, such actions no longer appear required as they are not so abundant). There is an illicit commercial trade in the species in parts of northern Australia.	eng
40561	conservation	Woinarski, J., Ritchie, E. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. A monitoring program for it is required. About 50 sites across Australia have been surveyed, recording distribution and abundance, habitat preferences, social organisation, diet, and the genetics between populations (E. Ritchie pers. comm.).	eng
40561	distribution	Woinarski, J., Ritchie, E. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in the northern monsoonal tropical woodlands (Ritchie 2008). It typically occurs below 500 m asl.	eng
40561	habitat	Woinarski, J., Ritchie, E. & Winter, J., 2008	It is found in open monsoonal woodlands of <em>Eucalyptus</em>, with an understorey of perennial grasses (Ritchie 2008). It is also found in regenerating woodlands and open grassland. This species is gregarious and it may be observed in groups of up to 30 animals.	eng
40561	population	Woinarski, J., Ritchie, E. & Winter, J., 2008	This species sparsely, and patchily distributed. There is concern that this species is undergoing a gradual, minor decline in numbers; localized declines have occurred (E. Ritchie pers. comm.).	eng
40561	threats	Woinarski, J., Ritchie, E. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is probably threatened to some extent by increased pastoral activities and development on available land. Inappropriate fire regimes and traditional hunting are also possible threats.	eng
40562	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
40562	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from north-eastern Queensland to north-eastern New South Wales. There seems to have been a contraction in the species' distribution range in New South Wales.	eng
40562	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is generally found in forested country with a dense shrub understorey (Johnson 2008); in the northern part of its range it occurs in dry vine thickets and adjacent grasslands. It is gregarious and forms groups of about 20 animals (Johnson 2008). The gestation period of the species is 33 to 36 days, with a pouch life of 192 to 225 days (Johnson 2008).	eng
40562	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is locally abundant, but patchily distributed.	eng
40562	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Although much of the original habitat of this species has been destroyed or modified for agricultural use (some of which may still be happening, though introduction of Queensland Management Act means no new land clearing claims), the species is still locally abundant and is considered to be an agricultural pest in these areas (Johnson 2008). There is still some illegal shooting.	eng
40563	conservation	Burbidge, A., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Copley, P., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas and is well protected by national legislation. This species has the longest running monitoring program of any Australian vertebrate.	eng
40563	distribution	Burbidge, A., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Australia, where it is widespread from the Indian Ocean in the west to western Victoria and New South Wales (Coulson 2008). The subspecies <em>Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus</em> is endemic to Kangaroo Island (South Australia). The range is expanding in mainland South Australia, and expanding eastward within New South Wales.	eng
40563	habitat	Burbidge, A., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Copley, P., 2008	This species is found in various types of open woodland, scrubland, and grassland areas. It occurs in pastureland.	eng
40563	population	Burbidge, A., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Copley, P., 2008	It is an abundant species that is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. The population estimate for areas subject to commercial harvest (which does not cover the species' entire range) in 2005 was 5,251,000 animals (P. Mawson pers. comm.).	eng
40563	threats	Burbidge, A., Menkhorst, P., Ellis, M. & Copley, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The population has expanded markedly in recent decades. In addition to commercial take permits, animals may be shot under license to prevent damage to crops or pasture.	eng
40564	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
40564	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from Cooktown, north-eastern Queensland to northern New South Wales (Johnson 2008). It ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
40564	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in undulating country with open forest and a grass understorey (Johnson 2008); sometimes found in agricultural landscapes. It is gregarious and lives in groups of up to 50 animals (Johnson 2008).	eng
40564	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common, but patchily distributed. It is not thought to be declining.	eng
40564	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although land clearing has probably resulted in the loss of suitable habitat and certainly has been responsible for range contraction at the southern end of its range. This species is commercially harvested in Queensland.	eng
40565	conservation	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J., Burbidge, A., Copley, P., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Mawson, P. & Morris, K., 2008	Mainland populations are present in a number of protected areas.	eng
40565	distribution	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J., Burbidge, A., Copley, P., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Mawson, P. & Morris, K., 2008	This species ranges throughout much of Australia. The subspecies <em>Macropus robustus isabellinus</em> is known only from Barrow Island, off the Pilbara coast of Western Australia.	eng
40565	habitat	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J., Burbidge, A., Copley, P., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Mawson, P. & Morris, K., 2008	The species is generally found in varied habitats, usually with steep escarpments, rocky hills, overhangs, and caves that provide shelter during periods of high temperature (Clancy and Croft 2008). It also shelter in dense shrub around streams. The species grazes on grasses and shrubs.	eng
40565	population	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J., Burbidge, A., Copley, P., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Mawson, P. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is widespread and relatively common in appropriate habitats. It is sparse in the wheatbelt of New South Wales, common in other areas of its range. In Queensland, it is common in some agricultural areas with removal of <em>M. giganteus</em>. It is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. Total population size on Barrow Island is estimated at 1,800 individuals.	eng
40565	threats	Ellis, M., Menkhorst, P., van Weenen, J., Burbidge, A., Copley, P., Denny, M., Woinarski, J., Mawson, P. & Morris, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. The Barrow Island population has recently been found to suffer from anaemia and poor condition and this may be related to nutritional stress (S. D. Bradshaw pers. comm.).	eng
40566	conservation	McKenzie, N., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
40566	distribution	McKenzie, N., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it ranges through the south-east of the country. It is present on Tasmania, King Island, and on the Furneaux Group.	eng
40566	habitat	McKenzie, N., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	It is generally found in eucalypt forests with a shrub understorey and nearby open areas. It has also been recorded from tall coastal heathland communities (Johnson and Calaby 2008). This species can be found in crop or pastureland. It is mostly solitary, but may aggregate to feed, especially in winter (Johnson and Calaby 2008). Females give birth to a single young; the population on Tasmania breeds seasonally, while the mainland population breeds throughout the year (Johnson and Calaby 2008).	eng
40566	population	McKenzie, N., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is very common in Tasmania. On the mainland, they have declined in some parts of Victoria and southern New South Wales, but they have increased at some sites in south-east Queensland and are still common in northern New South Wales.	eng
40566	threats	McKenzie, N., Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, on Tasmania it is sometimes killed under license where it is a pest of crops or pasture, and are commercially harvested for their meat.	eng
40567	conservation	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J., Copley, P., Dickman, C., Mawson, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. Harvesting of the species is regulated.	eng
40567	distribution	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J., Copley, P., Dickman, C., Mawson, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed throughout the arid regions of the country.	eng
40567	habitat	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J., Copley, P., Dickman, C., Mawson, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is found in arid and semi arid habitats. Animals are dependant on green herbage, and populations subsequently decline during drought periods (Croft and Clancy 2008). It is capable of traveling long distances (over 200 km) in response to localized rainfall.	eng
40567	population	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J., Copley, P., Dickman, C., Mawson, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	It is an abundant species (Croft and Clancy 2008) that is subject to commercial take under nationally approved management plans. Its abundance is limited by dingo predation, hence it is generally greater in abundance south of the dog fence or within dingo controlled zones. The species has benefited from pastoral infrastructure (i.e., artificial water sources).	eng
40567	threats	Ellis, M., van Weenen, J., Copley, P., Dickman, C., Mawson, P. & Woinarski, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is regulated harvesting of this species for meat and hides.	eng
40568	conservation	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is found in some protected areas, although the preferred habitats of this species are poorly represented in the region's protected areas (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). None of the protected areas in Northern Territory hold high population numbers, and almost all records in Western Australia are from outside of protected areas. The population numbers of this species should be monitored in order to detect any declines early on that might occur, particularly if foxes expand their range northward.	eng
40568	distribution	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is widespread in the northern part of the country.	eng
40568	habitat	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	The species is usually found within ecotones between sandy loams and clay. It is found in areas of open woodland with tussock grasslands and shrublands with scattered trees or shrubs (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). It is also found in coastal plains with scattered <em>Melaleuca</em> thickets (Ingleby and Gordon 2008). It is generally a solitary, nocturnal animal.	eng
40568	population	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is generally scarce and patchily distributed within its range, though it can be locally abundant. There have been no known population declines in the last few decades.	eng
40568	threats	Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is potentially affected by changing fire regimes and pastoralism. It has declined from the southern portions of its range, potentially from fox predation. If foxes move further north, this could pose a risk to the species. The two congeners of this species have suffered under similar threats; one becoming extinct and the other confined to a small population.	eng
40569	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas, including Blackbraes National Park and Bowling Green Bay National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
40569	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it generally ranges from Townsville to the Burdekin and Bowen Rivers, north-west to Croydon and south-west to Hughenden in north-eastern Queensland (Eldridge and Close 2008). Populations are also present on the Magnetic and Palm Islands. It is found from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
40569	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in rocky areas with open forest or tropical woodlands (Eldridge and Close 2008). It persists in habitats surrounded by grazing areas.	eng
40569	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common within its limited suitable habitat, although it is rarer in the west (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
40569	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but more intensive pastoralism could affect populations. Introduced cats may predate on young.	eng
40570	conservation	Woinarski, J., Telfer, W. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is locally common in several protected areas (e.g., Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park, Purnululu National Park, Drysdale River National Park). There is a need to monitor populations, research possible threats, and to study its responses to changes in the fire regime.	eng
40570	distribution	Woinarski, J., Telfer, W. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it occurs in Kimberley, Arnhem Land, and islands in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Eldridge and Telfer 2008).	eng
40570	habitat	Woinarski, J., Telfer, W. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species occurs in low rocky cliffs, hills, and gorges within savanna grassland and monsoon rainforest (Eldridge and Telfer 2008). A research project on its ecology was recently completed by Wendy Telfer.	eng
40570	population	Woinarski, J., Telfer, W. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is locally common, though highly patchily distributed. There is evidence for local extirpations at least in the southern parts of its range in Northern Territory, though no data exists on Western Australia populations.	eng
40570	threats	Woinarski, J., Telfer, W. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. It could be adversely affected by changed fire regimes in parts of its range.	eng
40571	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Denny, M., 2008	It is present in many protected areas in Tasmania. Fox control programs should be implemented in Tasmania.	eng
40571	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Denny, M., 2008	This species is present on the island of Tasmania and the larger islands of the Bass Strait, Australia. It was formerly present in south-eastern South Australia and Victoria (Johnson and Rose 2008), but became extinct in this region in the 1920's. It occurs up to around 1,400 m asl in Tasmania.	eng
40571	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Denny, M., 2008	It is found in areas of dense vegetation within wet sclerophyll forest, temperate moist forest, scrubland and open grassy areas containing refuges of dense vegetation (Johnson and Rose 2008). It may form loose groups of up to ten animals when feeding (Johnson and Rose 2008). Breeding is continuous throughout the year (Johnson and Rose 2008). It is tolerant of some degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
40571	population	Menkhorst, P. & Denny, M., 2008	It is an abundant species in Tasmania (Johnson and Rose 2008).	eng
40571	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Denny, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its Tasmanian range it is considered to be a pest species of agricultural crops (Johnson and Rose 2008). The mainland populations were driven to extinction mainly by introduced foxes. In Tasmania the recent introduction of foxes could become a major threat if they are not controlled.	eng
40573	conservation	Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
40573	distribution	Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from extreme south-east Queensland (Lamington National Park) to central eastern New South Wales. It previously occurred on the far south coast of New South Wales but has not been recorded from here since the 1890's.	eng
40573	habitat	Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	This species is generally found close to the edge of dense rainforest and eucalypt forest; it often occurs where forest meets grassy areas or pasture (Johnson 2008). It is sometimes considered a pest in agricultural lands. The females reach sexual maturity at about 17 months of age and breed continuously (Johnson 2008).	eng
40573	population	Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	It is a common species (Johnson 2008).	eng
40573	threats	Ellis, M., Denny, M., Burnett, S. & Lunney, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Clearing for agricultural land resulted in the extinction of the southern New South Wales populations, and decreased the range of the northern populations.	eng
40574	conservation	Burnett, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas in Australia. It does not occur in any protected areas in New Guinea.	eng
40574	distribution	Burnett, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is found in the extreme southern Fly region of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and throughout much of eastern Australia, where it ranges from the Cape York Peninsula to eastern New South Wales. It is found from sea level to 1,200 m asl.	eng
40574	habitat	Burnett, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	This species is a largely solitary forest species. In Australia, it has been recorded from lowland and highland tropical moist forest, wet sclerophyll forests, deciduous vine thickets and is occasionally found in lantana thickets in formerly forested areas (Johnson and Vernes 2008). In New Guinea, it is largely confined to the gallery forests, and is not present in adjacent grasslands. This species is out competed by <em>T. brunii</em> in New Guinea with which it shares similar habitat affiliations.	eng
40574	population	Burnett, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	In Australia, it is common within suitable habitat (Johnson and Vernes 2008). It is believed to be uncommon in New Guinea.	eng
40574	threats	Burnett, S. & Ellis, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. In Australia, the species may be somewhat threatened by fragmentation of suitable forested areas (the species generally does not persist within fragments, and has, for example, disappeared from patches of scrub in Cape York and on the Atherton Tablelands) and by predation by dogs. Within New Guinea, overhunting for meat is a threat to this species.	eng
40575	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Winter, J., Burnett, S., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas.	eng
40575	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Winter, J., Burnett, S., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from Cape York, Queensland in the north, to Victoria and south-eastern South Australia (Merchant 2008). There are populations of this species on the islands of Fraser, Bribie, Moreton, and North and South Stradbroke, Queensland (Merchant 2008). It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,800 m asl.	eng
40575	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Winter, J., Burnett, S., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is generally a solitary species, associated with dense vegetation within various forest, woodland, heath, and scrub type habitats. It can be found grazing in pasture, agricultural crops, and exotic tree plantations (Merchant 2008). The species breeds throughout the year, when both sexes are between 15 and 18 months old (Merchant 2008). A single young is born after a gestation period of 33 to 38 days; the young have a pouch life of eight to nine months (Merchant 2008).	eng
40575	population	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Winter, J., Burnett, S., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is a common species (Merchant 2008), and its population is expanding along the western drainages of its range. On the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland it is a scarce species. Its range is also expanding in south-east South Australia.	eng
40575	threats	Menkhorst, P., Denny, M., Ellis, M., Winter, J., Burnett, S., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
40576	conservation	Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
40576	distribution	Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Australia, where it ranges from Western Australia to southwestern Victoria. There are recent records of the species from New South Wales. It is present on Kangaroo Island, South Australia.	eng
40576	habitat	Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This nocturnal and mainly arboreal species is generally found in mallee heath and in dry sclerophyll forest with an undergrowth of shrubs (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008). Animals usually spend the day in a leaf-lined nest. The species breeds throughout the year. Females can give birth to up to three litters consecutively of six young, but that is under ideal conditions (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40576	population	Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is an abundant species within suitable habitat (Carthew <em>et al.</em> 2008). It has a large population overall, although there are no estimates. The population likely fluctuates with climatic conditions.	eng
40576	threats	Burbidge, A., Morris, K., Ellis, M., van Weenen, J. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. Although it is preyed upon by domestic and feral cats, it has a high reproductive rate and is adapted to heavy predation. The species is locally threatened in parts of its range by clearance of suitable scrub habitat through rural or urban development.	eng
40577	conservation	Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
40577	distribution	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it occurs throughout much of Tasmania and western Kangaroo Island, and on the mainland at the border between south-eastern South Australia and northwestern Victoria.	eng
40577	habitat	Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is a little-known, nocturnal species. In Victoria, it has been recorded from mallee scrub, dry sclerophyll forests, and from heath on Kangaroo Island and in eastern Tasmania, and from wet sclerophyll forests in western Tasmania. Females gives birth to litters of three or four young (Carthew and Cadzow 2008).	eng
40577	population	Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is not common.	eng
40577	threats	Menkhorst, P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, but inappropriate fire regimes on the mainland and continued clearance of sclerophyll forests in Tasmania are problems, and in some areas degradation of habitat by spreading of weeds, and predation by introduced cats may cause localized declines.	eng
40578	conservation	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The species is present in protected areas. Research is needed into methods to determine abundance, as the species is notoriously difficult to catch.	eng
40578	distribution	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern and southeastern Australia, including the island of Tasmania (and Flinders and King Islands).	eng
40578	habitat	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is found in temperate rainforest, dry and wet sclerophyll forest, banksia woodland, and coastal heath (Ward and Turner 2008). It is generally nocturnal and arboreal. The species shelters in a spherical nest of bark and leaves in tree hollows or other crannies (Menkhorst 2001). Females give birth usually to litters of four young (Ward and Turner 2008).	eng
40578	population	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is usually common. At a number of sites where the habitat appears to be suitable they have not been caught, but this may be because it is a difficult species to capture.	eng
40578	threats	Dickman, C., Lunney, D. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is a mid-story species and is susceptible to habitat loss from clearing and grazing. Inappropriate fire regimes (fires taking place at more frequent intervals or at higher intensity) may also be adversely affect this species.	eng
40579	conservation	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Strahan, R., Oakwood, M., Burnett, S., Denny, M. & Martin, R., 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas. The maintenance of undisturbed forest containing suitable hollows for nesting is needed to conserve this species.	eng
40579	distribution	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Strahan, R., Oakwood, M., Burnett, S., Denny, M. & Martin, R., 2008	The Greater Glider is endemic to eastern Australia, where it ranges from Windsor Tableland in far northern Queensland to the Wombat Forest in central Victoria. It occurs from sea level up to around 1,200 m asl.	eng
40579	habitat	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Strahan, R., Oakwood, M., Burnett, S., Denny, M. & Martin, R., 2008	It is a strictly nocturnal, and largely solitary, arboreal species of various undisturbed eucalypt-dominated woodland and forest habitat types. It does not inhabit rainforest or pine plantations (McKay 2008). The female gives birth to a single young which has a pouch life of three to four months, after which it is carried on the mothers back and becomes independent at about nine months of age (McKay 2008). It requires large tree hollows so it is therefore dependent on mature forest (McKay 2008).	eng
40579	population	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Strahan, R., Oakwood, M., Burnett, S., Denny, M. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is locally common, including in forest patches surrounded by farmland.	eng
40579	threats	Lunney, D., Menkhorst, P., Winter, J., Ellis, M., Strahan, R., Oakwood, M., Burnett, S., Denny, M. & Martin, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Land clearing for agriculture, logging, and bushfires adversely affects this species throughout its range.	eng
40580	conservation	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Runcie, M., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas including Kakadu National Park and Lawn Hill National Park, Queensland. Research is needed into the abundance and population trends of this species, as well as into the effects of changed fire regimes.	eng
40580	distribution	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Runcie, M., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it ranges from the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the west, through areas of suitable habitat in Northern Territory, to Lawn Hill National Park in north-western Queensland. It is also present on the offshore Groote Eylandt (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40580	habitat	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Runcie, M., 2008	It is a nocturnal species of rocky outcrops with nearby trees and foliage (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008). It eats a variety of foliage and fruits. This species is very social and lives is small groups where the males contribute to rearing young (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40580	population	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Runcie, M., 2008	The species is patchily distributed and locally uncommon. There is some concern that there might be ongoing population declines, but as yet there is no evidence of this and more research into its abundance and trends is required.	eng
40580	threats	Burbidge, A., Woinarski, J., Winter, J. & Runcie, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, its habitat is specialized and many populations are isolated. Changes to the fire regime are a potential threat, and managers should use fire judiciously to maintain a high diversity of food trees near rock outcrops for this species (Webb <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
40581	conservation	Winter, J., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
40581	distribution	Winter, J., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is widespread from Cape York south through eastern Australia, to south-eastern Australia as far west as south-eastern South Australia (McKay and Ong 2008). It is present on the island of Tasmania and also on many offshore islands (e.g., Fraser Island).	eng
40581	habitat	Winter, J., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	It is a nocturnal species, found in many habitat types ranging from tropical moist forest and temperate forest, coastal scrub, to rural gardens and urban areas. The female gives birth to one or two litters of two young annually (McKay and Ong 2008).	eng
40581	population	Winter, J., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is common, though very sparse on the Cape York Peninsula.	eng
40581	threats	Winter, J., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. & van Weenen, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some localized declines due to inappropriate fire regimes, bushfires, clearing of land, and predation by domestic cats and dogs.	eng
40582	conservation	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. &  Salas, L., 2008	This species occurs in a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, harvesting levels, and threats to this species.	eng
40582	distribution	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. &  Salas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It may be distributed more widely on the Vogelkop Peninsula. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,250 m asl.	eng
40582	habitat	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. &  Salas, L., 2008	It appears to be restricted to undisturbed tropical montane forest.	eng
40582	population	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. &  Salas, L., 2008	This species is considered to be rare. It is known from only three adult specimens and a few trophy skulls.	eng
40582	threats	Flannery, T., Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K., Dickman, C. &  Salas, L., 2008	It is threatened by overhunting for food by local people. Its forest habitat is also declining.	eng
40583	conservation	Friend, T., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas. Reserves should be managed to decrease the likelihood of extensive and frequent wildfires.	eng
40583	distribution	Friend, T., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This species is endemic to south-western Western Australia (Australia).	eng
40583	habitat	Friend, T., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & McKenzie, N., 2008	This is a crepuscular species. Its diet includes nectar and some pollen. It is commonly found in diverse vegetation communities on the coastal sand plain heaths of south-western Western Australia (Renfree 2008). In cold weather animals may become torpid. The females give birth to two to three young, and may give birth twice a year (Renfree 2008).	eng
40583	population	Friend, T., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There are no reliable estimates of its global population, but it is likely to number in the hundreds of thousands.	eng
40583	threats	Friend, T., Morris, K., Burbidge, A. & McKenzie, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is adversely affected by changes to the fire regime and destruction of habitat by the water mould <em>Phytophthora cinnamomi</em>. Cats and foxes may have some affect on populations.	eng
40584	conservation	Dickman, C., McKenzie, N. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
40584	distribution	Dickman, C., McKenzie, N. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it ranges throughout much of the east and southeast of the country; also on Fraser Island. Sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
40584	habitat	Dickman, C., McKenzie, N. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	This nocturnal species most frequently inhabits tall subtropical and temperate forests and mature woodland (Ward and Woodside 2008); it also occurs in suburban fringes. Females may have two litters of three or four young annually (Ward and Woodside 2008).	eng
40584	population	Dickman, C., McKenzie, N. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	It is believed to be a common species in some parts of its range (i.e., north-east Queensland), although rarer in the south. It is apparently more common in wet and old-growth forest than in dry or regenerating forest (Menkhorst 2001).	eng
40584	threats	Dickman, C., McKenzie, N. & Menkhorst, P., 2008	While there appear to be no major threats to this species, it may be locally threatened by logging of stands of mature forests and predation by cats and foxes.	eng
40585	conservation	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Foulkes, J., Kerle, A. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is present in many protected areas. Fox control is crucial in semi-arid and arid areas.	eng
40585	distribution	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Foulkes, J., Kerle, A. & Ellis, M., 2008	The Common Brushtail Possum is endemic to Australia where it is widespread. It ranges over much of northern, eastern, and south-western Australia. It occurs as scattered populations in the arid central part of the country. It is also present on the island of Tasmania and a number of offshore islands (e.g., Barrow, Kangaroo, and the Bass Strait Islands) (Kerle and How 2008). There is a large, introduced population in New Zealand (not mapped) (Kerle and How 2008).	eng
40585	habitat	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Foulkes, J., Kerle, A. & Ellis, M., 2008	It is a largely arboreal, nocturnal species, that is generally found in dry eucalypt forests and woodlands. Large populations of this species can be found in pine plantations and suburban and urban areas (Kerle and How 2008). It breeds year round in some areas, in others it will breed in one or two seasons. Females begin breeding at about one year of age and a single young is born after a getstation period of 16 to 18 days; it has a pouch life of four to five months (Kerle and How 2008).<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested in Tasmania. On Kangaroo Island, it is treated as a pest species (to humans and other threatened species) and there are removal permits. It is major a pest species in pine plantations in Australia where it can do considerable damage, and acts as a host of bovine tuberculosis in New Zealand (Kerle and How 2008).	eng
40585	population	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Foulkes, J., Kerle, A. & Ellis, M., 2008	The species can be locally abundant, particularly in south-eastern Australia, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island. In many other areas it has declined drastically, especially in arid and semi-arid Australia. <br/><br/>It is generally sparse and declining in monsoonal northern Australia. In South Australia it is only common on the offshore islands and in metropolitan areas. Populations on the western plains of New South Wales are restricted to riverine habitat. In the iron bark forest of the Brigalow belt bioregion of New South Wales, there has been 90% decline in the last 15 years.	eng
40585	threats	Morris, K., Woinarski, J., Friend, T., Foulkes, J., Kerle, A. & Ellis, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Predation by introduced dingoes, cats, and foxes, as well as by native pythons can impact populations where the species is rare. Changed fire regimes in South Australia and the Northern Territory adversely affect Common Brushtail Possums, especially with the decline of large trees.	eng
40586	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Andohahela National Park and Marotandrano Special Reserve. Further studies of this species taxonomy, biology and ecology are needed.	eng
40586	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it ranges throughout the eastern humid forests. It has an altitudinal range of between 810 and 2,450 m asl.	eng
40586	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that occurs in tropical humid forest, forest margin habitats, pseudo-steppe (anthropogenic grassland), pine plantations, heavily disturbed areas and agricultural land.	eng
40586	population	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
40586	threats	Jenkins, P. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
40587	conservation	Andrianjakavelo, V., Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Marojejy National Park; Ankarafantsika National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park and Kalambatsitra Special Reserve.	eng
40587	distribution	Andrianjakavelo, V., Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is widespread in the lowland to montane forests of eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between sea level to 2,050 m asl (above the treeline).	eng
40587	habitat	Andrianjakavelo, V., Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a terrestrial species that occurs in lowland to montane eastern humid forests, forest margin habitats, pine plantations, heavily disturbed areas, agricultural land, and non-forested regions of the eastern humid forest.	eng
40587	population	Andrianjakavelo, V., Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
40587	threats	Andrianjakavelo, V., Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
40589	conservation	Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas including the Marojejy National Park; Andringitra National Park; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Mangerivola Special Reserve and Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve. There are no specific conservation measures for this species currently needed.	eng
40589	distribution	Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is relatively widespread in the eastern rainforest belt and central highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 140 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
40589	habitat	Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is widely distributed in the humid forest zone of the island and outside the forests in bottomlands, including natural marshes and those converted to rice paddies. Also recorded in disturbed habitats such as the edge of gardens and in fields. It is a semi-fossorial species.	eng
40589	population	Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	Based on standard trapping techniques it appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
40589	threats	Raherisehena, M. & Goodman, S., 2008	Drainage of suitable wetland habitat (for example, through conversion to urban areas) is the main threat to this species.	eng
40591	conservation	Goodman, S., Jenkins, P. & Olson, L., 2008	It has been recorded from the Andringitra National Park. Further studies are needed into the ecology, population abundance and threats to this species.	eng
40591	distribution	Goodman, S., Jenkins, P. & Olson, L., 2008	This species appears to be restricted to the south-central highlands and the flank of the eastern escarpment of Madagascar. It is only known from less than 10 sites, although it may be difficult to trap. It is found between 850 and 2,450 m asl.	eng
40591	habitat	Goodman, S., Jenkins, P. & Olson, L., 2008	Appears to be largely confined to montane areas of the central eastern portion of the central highlands (only above the forest zone in Andringitra). It tends to occur in moist bottomland. It is semi-fossorial. There is nothing known about the ecology of this species, and it is not known if it can be found in modified habitats.	eng
40591	population	Goodman, S., Jenkins, P. & Olson, L., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. It may be difficult to trap.	eng
40591	threats	Goodman, S., Jenkins, P. & Olson, L., 2008	The threats to this species are generally not known, and it may be that there are no major threats to the species. It occurs outside forested zones, and may be less affected by current levels of deforestation than many other species of forest-dependent small mammals.	eng
40592	conservation	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in numerous protected areas, including Andohahela National Park and Berenty Private Reserve. No conservation measures are needed.	eng
40592	distribution	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is generally distributed in southern and south-western Madagascar. It has recently been recorded in south-eastern Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
40592	habitat	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found in the dry deciduous forest areas of western Madagascar and the xerophytic spiny forest and gallery regions of southwest Madagascar. It has also has been found in open grasslands tens of kilometres from forest, including in disturbed habitats of non-native vegetation (S.M. Goodman pers. comm).	eng
40592	population	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is relatively common where sampled.	eng
40592	threats	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
40593	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas including Pic d’Ivohibe, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Masoala National Park, Andringitra National Park, and Analamazaotra Special Reserve.	eng
40593	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs in the eastern and northern parts of the island from sea level to 1,550 m asl.	eng
40593	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary tropical humid forest, and also occurs in agricultural land and gardens. This species is often found in pseudo-steppe (anthropogenically created grasslands).	eng
40593	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	The species is very abundant, including in urban areas.	eng
40593	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species and it adapts well to anthropogenic environments. It is sometimes hunted for food.	eng
40594	conservation	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is known from many protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Ankarana Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Ankarafantsika National Park; Bora Special Reserve; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Andohahela National Park; Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve; Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park and Isalo National Park. There are no conservation measures needed for this adaptable species.	eng
40594	distribution	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is generally found throughout the island. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to around 2,250 m asl.	eng
40594	habitat	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	Found throughout the island in all habitat types with the exception of wetlands and marshes. Recorded even from some urban areas, such as Antananarivo, and is occasionally encountered in areas with extensive human disturbance. Widepsread omnivore favouring eastern forests and lower elevations, but found in moist and dry zones.	eng
40594	population	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is very abundant in some areas, and seems to adapt well to disturbed habitats.	eng
40594	threats	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by overhunting in some parts of its range.	eng
40595	conservation	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no conservation measures needed for this species. It is known from many protected areas including the Ambohitantely Special Reserve; Analamerana Special Reserve; Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Ankarana Special Reserve; Forêt d'Ambre Special Reserve; Inetegral Lokobe National Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Montagne d'Ambre National Park; Tsaratanana RNI; Andringitra National Park; Isalo National Park; Manombo Special Reserve; Manombo Special Reserve; Midongy du Sud National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Ambohijanahary Special Reserve; Ankarafantsika National Park; Baie de Baly National Park; Bemaraha National Park; Bemaraha RNI; Bemarivo Special Reserve; Bora Special Reserve; Kasijy Special Reserve; Maningoza Special Reserve; Marotandrano Special Reserve; Tampoketsa-Analamaitso Special Reserve; Betampona RNI; Ambatovaky Special Reserve; Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mananara-Nord National Park; Mangerivola Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Masoala National Park; Zahamena National Park; Andohahela National Park; Andranomena Special Reserve; Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve; Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve; Kirindy Mitea National Park; Tsimanampetsotsa RNI; Vohibasia National Park and Zombitse National Park.	eng
40595	distribution	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found throughout the island. It has been introduced onto the neighbouring Indian Ocean islands of the Comoros, Rèunion, Mauritius, and the Seychelles, originally as food for plantation workers. It ranges from sea level up to 2,050 m asl.	eng
40595	habitat	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found in all natural forest formations and plantations, farmlands, secondary open wooded grasslands, and has even been recorded from urban centres. The largest tenrec species weighing up to 2 kg. It is omnivorous; enters seasonal torpor. This species has the highest reproductive potential of any mammal; the female gives birth to up to 32 young and may breed twice per year.	eng
40595	population	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
40595	threats	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by overhunting in some parts of its range and by fires particularly in lowland dry deciduous areas.	eng
40596	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Occurs in the following conservation areas: Inyanga National Park; Mtarazi Falls National Park; Chimanimani National Park; Vumba Botanical Reserve; and Bunga Forest Reserve. However, recent reports suggest that baseline management and policing of these conservation areas has collapsed owing to political and economic instability, so the extent of protection these areas afford is uncertain.	eng
40596	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	The species occurs in the Inyanga Highlands of eastern Zimbabwe between latitudes 18°S and 20°S, and altitudes of 850–2,000 m, with a marginal intrusion into the Vila Perey district of western Mozambique.	eng
40596	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Favours loamy soils in montane grasslands and the fringes of rainforests, but is dependent on areas with less cover (Lundholm 1955), and does not penetrate deep into forests (Smithers and Lobao-Tello 1976, Smithers and Wilson 1979). Also common in cultivated lands and gardens.	eng
40596	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common but no abundance data.	eng
40596	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Habitat alteration associated with political instability and land transformation initiatives in Zimbabwe, and a breakdown of conservation management in protected areas, is likely to be a major threat. The extent and intensity thereof, and impacts on this species, are not known. Predation by domestic cats and dogs probably represents a more localized threat.	eng
40597	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	it is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the distribution limits and systematic status of this species and of described subspecies.	eng
40597	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Recorded only from scattered localities in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic. <em>C. l. leucorhinus</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of Congo southwards to northern Angola. <em>C. l. cahni</em> is known from Cameroon and Central African Republic. Variation in some dental characters (Bronner 1995) suggests that this taxon may include cryptic species.	eng
40597	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Lowland equatorial and montane forests.	eng
40597	population	Bronner, G., 2008	No data on abundance.	eng
40597	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	There is no information available on the major threats to this species.	eng
40600	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Protected in many national and provincial conservation areas. No species-specific conservation actions deemed necessary. Research to clarify status of described forms/subspecies is needed, as some of these may be distinct taxa given that their range largely corresponds with the Western Cape fold mountains which may serve as barriers to gene flow between some populations.	eng
40600	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. Cape Peninsula (Western Cape) eastwards across Cape Flats to Bredasdorp and Swellendam, and northwards along the Atlantic coast to Port Nolloth in Northern Cape. Occurs inland to Ceres, Worcester and Stellenbosch in the south, and Calvinia, Garies and Kamieskroon in the north, but not in the arid Karoo. One specimen (type of <em>C. damarensis</em>) recorded from Damaraland in Namibia is probably a misidentified specimen from Little Namaqualand (Meester <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
40600	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Sandy soils in the Fynbos and Nama-Karoo biomes. Recorded from a wide variety of vegetation types, most commonly in Renosterveld, Fynbos and Strandveld Succulent Karoo. Common in parks, gardens and cultivated lands, readily invade lawns. Also forages on beaches, presumably for amphipods and isopods associated with kelp wracks (Bennett and Spinks 1995). Coexists with <em>A. hottentotus</em> at Stellenbosch, but prefers drier, sandier soils (Broom 1907).	eng
40600	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Common in most habitats, depending on soil friability and invertebrate prey resources; less common on rocky mountain slopes, but nevertheless have still colonized even mountain plateaux. Inferred densities of up to four per hectare in prime habitat.	eng
40600	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Natural habitats of this species have undoubtedly been dramatically altered by urbanization, coastal tourism developments, mining for alluvial diamonds and agriculture during the past 350 years, but is not considered a threat as it coexists (indeed even thrives) in close association with humans. Persecuted by gardeners and greenkeepers, regularly caught by domestic dogs and cats, but such mortalities are negligible given the abundance of this widespread species, and its wary nature.	eng
40601	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Present in a number of protected areas across its range.	eng
40601	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	Known from scattered localities in central and eastern Africa, with a relict population in Cameroon. <em>C. s. stuhlmanni</em> known from Ruwenzori Mountains along border of Uganda and DR Congo, southwards to Rutshuru and Rukiga district of Rwanda. <em>C. s. fosteri</em> recorded from Mt. Elgon, Uganda and Cherangani Hills, Kenya. <em>C. s. tropicalis</em> ocurs in the Uluguru mountains and Rungwe district, Tanzania. <em>C. s. balsaci</em>, described by Lamotte and Petter (1981), reported from only Mt. Oku, Cameroon.	eng
40601	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Well-drained soils at high-altitudes, from 1,700-3,500 m. Widespread in montane grasslands, bamboo thickets and ericaceous vegetation, as well as Podocarpus and Hagenia/Hypericum woodlands. Prefer light soils with sparse vegetation cover. Less common in heavily grazed grasslands above 3,000 m; avoids exotic plantations (Duncan and Wrangham 1971).	eng
40601	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common but no quantitative data. Given its wide range, the global population is presumed to be large.	eng
40601	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	No data, except that they tend to avoid overgrazed areas.	eng
40602	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably found within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
40602	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is widespread in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa. It ranges from Senegal and southern Mauritania in the west, through the savanna areas of West Africa, and northern Central Africa, to Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia, from here it ranges south into East Africa, ranging as far south as Malawi and southern Zambia, with possible records from northern Mozambique.	eng
40602	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This seemingly little known, but widespread, species inhabits savanna and grassy areas with light undergrowth. Animals form nests in rock crevices, in hollow trees and similar habitats.	eng
40602	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a fairly common species.	eng
40602	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40603	conservation	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and abundance of this species. If it is shown to comprise several species, it is possible that some of these might prove to be threatened. Research should be carried out to determine whether or not this species can survive in large-scale oil-palm plantations.	eng
40603	distribution	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The Moonrat occurs in the Sundaic region of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand and southern Myanmar. It can be found throughout Borneo (Brunei, Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak), Labuan island (off Sabah), Sumatra, Tebingtinggi island (off the east coast of Sumatra), Peninsular Malaysia, Peninsular Thailand south of 12ºN, and extreme southern Myanmar (Corbet 1988). It has not been reported from Singapore, though it might once have occurred there. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,000 m asl.	eng
40603	habitat	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The Moonrat prefers primary and secondary lowland forests, including very moist areas such as mangroves and swamp forests. It is also found in hilly forests. The species can also tolerate a certain degree of habitat modification, and can be found in rubber plantations and other cultivated areas. According to Lekagul and McNeely (1977), moonrats prefers wet areas and often enters water.	eng
40603	population	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The population size of this species is not known, but it is believed to be relatively common in sutable locations.	eng
40603	threats	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	Serious forest loss is taking place through much of the range of this species, especially at lower elevations. In particular, forest in being cleared for oil palm plantations, and forests are being burnt in many places. Although these large-scale changes must be having an impact on the species, it is relatively adaptable, and so is probably not seriously threatened at present.	eng
40604	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
40604	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species occurs in lowland China from about 29'N (i.e. a little south of the Yangtze) north to the Amur Basin and Korea. It may also occur in Sichuan, China (Corbet and Hill, 1992).	eng
40604	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits different biotopes excluding highlands, extensive marches and cultivated fields. It preferrs valleys and lowlands with mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, with high grass. Usually lives at border line between forest and open spaces. Active mostly during dark. Feeds on earthworms and other ground invertebrates, rarely small vertebrates and fruits.	eng
40604	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common species in Russian Far East.	eng
40604	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
40605	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There is no information on any conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
40605	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	There is no information on any conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
40605	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Found on Rhodes (Greece); also "Asia Minor to Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq and Iran; S Caucasus" (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Less than 1% of its global range lies within the European Mammal Assessment region.	eng
40605	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Its global range is Asia Minor to Israel, Syria, Lebanon, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran; and the southern Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean region, <em>Erinaceus concolor</em> occurs on Greece (Rhodes), Anatolian Turkey, Israel, Syria and Lebanon.	eng
40605	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Its global range is Asia Minor to Israel, Syria, Lebanon, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran; and the southern Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean region, <em>Erinaceus concolor</em> occurs on Greece (Rhodes), Anatolian Turkey, Israel, Syria and Lebanon.	eng
40605	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species' preferred habitat is urban, suburban and agricultural areas to natural vegetation. Hedgehogs are primarily nocturnal, feeding primarily on beetles and earthworms. The duration of pregnancy of <em>E. concolor</em> in captivity is 35 to 36 days and litters were 3-7 young (Zherebtsova 1992).	eng
40605	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The species' preferred habitat is urban, suburban and agricultural areas to natural vegetation. Hedgehogs are primarily nocturnal, feeding primarily on beetles and earthworms. The duration of pregnancy of <em>E. concolor</em> in captivity is 35 to 36 days and litters were 3-7 young (Zherebtsova 1992).	eng
40605	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Very little population information is available. It is widespread in Turkey, and considered common in Jordan (Amr 2000).	eng
40605	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Very little population information is available. It is widespread in Turkey, and considered common in Jordan (Amr 2000).	eng
40605	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no serious threats to this species at present.	eng
40605	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	There are no serious threats to this species at present.	eng
40606	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
40606	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
40606	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Sahara and the Middle East. In Africa, it is distributed from Mauritania, Western Sahara and Morocco in the west, to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia in the east. In the Middle East, it has been recorded from Syria, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and marginally in Iran, and from most of the Arabian Peninsula. Insular populations occur on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain and Tanb (Persian Gulf). It is also thought to occur on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands through introduction (although it may also have been mistaken for <em>Aletrix algirus</em>) (Stone 1996).	eng
40606	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Sahara and the Middle East. In Africa, it is distributed from Mauritania, Western Sahara and Morocco in the west, to Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Ethiopia in the east. In the Middle East, it has been recorded from Syria, Israel, Jordan, Iraq and marginally in Iran, and from most of the Arabian Peninsula. Insular populations occur on Djerba (Tunisia), Bahrain and Tanb (Persian Gulf). It is also thought to occur on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands through introduction (although it may also have been mistaken for <em>Aletrix algirus</em>) (Stone 1996).	eng
40606	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is widespread throughout arid desert and dry steppes (Harrison and Bates 1991; Stone 1996). It tends to favour areas where food is more easily available, such as oasis and vegetated wadis (Harrison 1991).	eng
40606	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is widespread throughout arid desert and dry steppes (Harrison and Bates 1991; Stone 1996). It tends to favour areas where food is more easily available, such as oasis and vegetated wadis (Harrison 1991).	eng
40606	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This is generally a common species.	eng
40606	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is generally a common species.	eng
40606	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40606	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40607	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. There are no specific conservation measures necessary for this species.	eng
40607	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Zagorodniuk, I., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. There are no specific conservation measures necessary for this species.	eng
40607	conservation	Igor Zagorodniuk, 2007	It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its wide range. The species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.	eng
40607	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> has a global range that extends from the eastern Mediterranean region, through southwest Asia to western Pakistan in the south; and from eastern Ukraine through Mongolia (Gobi desert), to China (Xinjiang).	eng
40607	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Zagorodniuk, I., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> has a global range that extends from the eastern Mediterranean region, through southwest Asia to western Pakistan in the south; and from eastern Ukraine through Mongolia (Gobi desert), to China (Xinjiang).	eng
40607	distribution	Igor Zagorodniuk, 2007	Widespread in the steppe zone from Northeast Africa to Central Asia. In Europe it occurs in Southeast Ukraine, the lower Don River and Volga River basin steppes (Russian Federation) and Cis-Caucasus.	eng
40607	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>H. auritus</em> inhabits different types of dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. It prefers dry river valleys, gullies, forest shelter belts, abandoned irrigation ditches and shrubby areas, and often settles in oases and around human settlements (sometimes in cultivated habitats). It avoids tugais and high herbage.<br/><br/>This mainly solitary, nocturnal species lives in burrows that it usually digs itself, although sometimes it occupies abandoned burrows of turtles, gerbils, foxes and otters. It hibernates in the winter and may also aestivate in hot, dry weather.	eng
40607	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Zagorodniuk, I., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>H. auritus</em> inhabits different types of dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. It prefers dry river valleys, gullies, forest shelter belts, abandoned irrigation ditches and shrubby areas, and often settles in oases and around human settlements (sometimes in cultivated habitats). It avoids tugais and high herbage.<br/><br/>This mainly solitary, nocturnal species lives in burrows that it usually digs itself, although sometimes it occupies abandoned burrows of turtles, gerbils, foxes and otters. It hibernates in the winter and may also aestivate in hot, dry weather.	eng
40607	habitat	Igor Zagorodniuk, 2007	Inhabits different types of dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. Prefers dry river valleys, gullies, forest shelter belts, abandoned irrigation ditches and shrubby areas. Often settles in oases and around human settlements. Avoids tugais and high herbage. Lives in burrows that it usually digs itself, although sometimes it occupies abandoned burrows of turtles, gerbils, foxes and otters. Active at night. In nothern parts of distribution area hibernates from late October/early November to late March/early April. Heat occurs in April after hibernation. Gestation is about 40 days, females give birth to 3 to 8 pups (5-6 on average). In the European part of the distribution area it usually gives birth once a year, in southern parts often twice.	eng
40607	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is a widespread and common species across most of the distribution area, although some marginal populations are fragmented and declining (e.g., in Ukraine).	eng
40607	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Zagorodniuk, I., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is a widespread and common species across most of the distribution area, although some marginal populations are fragmented and declining (e.g., in Ukraine).	eng
40607	population	Igor Zagorodniuk, 2007	It is a widespread and common species in most of the distribution area, but in marginal parts of its range populations are usually fragmented and often declining. There is a lack of detailed data on population size in the European part of the distribution area, but it is considered Critically Endangered in the Ukraine owing to its very small range and declining trend in that country (I. Zagorodnuik pers. comm. 2006). Since 1950 three fragmented populations have been recorded in Ukraine: one around the Streltsovskie Stepi Nature Reserve (last record about 50 years ago), one record from amateur source found near Lugansk city in 2001/2, and one in the Donetsk Region near shore of Azov sea. The third population is the only stable one and is largest in Ukraine. It is partly covered by the Kamennye Mogily Nature Reserve (I. Zagorodnuik pers. comm.).	eng
40607	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., & Palomo, L.J., 2008	No major threats are known for most of the distribution area.	eng
40607	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M., Zagorodniuk, I., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats are known for most of the distribution area.	eng
40607	threats	Igor Zagorodniuk, 2007	No major threats are known for most of the distribution area. In marginal populations (e.g., Ukraine) it could suffer from habitat loss.	eng
40608	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is known from Narayan Sarovar Wildlife Sanctuary, Desert National Park (India), Lal Suhanra National Park, Kirthar National Park and Indus Game Reserve (Pakistan). Detailed surveys are recommended to determine its distribution and population structure, with general ecological studies also needed (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
40608	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This south Asian species is endemic to Pakistan (North West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh) and India (Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh). It is widely distributed occurring up to an elevation of 2,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
40608	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a nocturnal, semi-fossorial species inhabiting deserts, and semi-deserts close to water bodies and is also found in agricultural fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roberts 1997).	eng
40608	population	Molur, S., 2008	It the most common hedgehog species in Pakistan (Roberts 1997).	eng
40608	threats	Molur, S., 2008	No major threats have been identified, although some populations might be locally threatened (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40609	conservation	Chakraborty, S., Bhattacharyya, T. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is seen in the Narayan Sarobar Wildlife Sanctuary (Gujarat) and Desert National Park (Rajasthan) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Taxonomic, ecological and monitoring studies, surveys and effect of changing habitat on the population structure are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
40609	distribution	Chakraborty, S., Bhattacharyya, T. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it is distributed in Pakistan (largely east of the Indus River in Punjab and Sindh provinces) as well as northwestern India (Rajasthan, Gujarat and a single record from Maharashtra). It is widely distributed in the arid regions of the two countries at an altitudinal range of sea level to 700 m asl (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
40609	habitat	Chakraborty, S., Bhattacharyya, T. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal and crepescular, semifossorial species occuring in semi-arid and arid habitats, often being found under hedges and bushes (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is absent from the dryer parts of Rajasthan it does occur in the extreme eastern part where monsoon influence produces slightly more mesic conditions (Roberts 1997). Largely insectivorous but feeds on frogs, toads, lizards, and fallen fruits (Roberts 1997).	eng
40609	population	Chakraborty, S., Bhattacharyya, T. & Molur, S., 2008	It is comparatively uncommon in Pakistan and of very local distribution (Roberts 1997).	eng
40609	threats	Chakraborty, S., Bhattacharyya, T. & Molur, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is threatened by encroachment of the invasive introduced shrub <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>, agricultural expansion into the arid areas that this species inhabits (including the associated construction of canal and irrigation systems). There is some localised hunting for subsistence food and medicinal purposes (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
40610	conservation	Bhattacharyya, T., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	In Pakistan, it has been recorded in Hazarganji National Park, Baluchistan (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
40610	distribution	Bhattacharyya, T., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed from the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, through southern areas of Central Asia to western South Asia. The distribution is little known on the Arabian Peninsula, although it has been recorded from Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates and on the islands of Tanb and Kharg (to Iran) in the Persian Gulf (Harrison and Bates 1991). Harrison and Bates (1991) suggest that it might be a relict species in the region, largely limited to montane areas. It appears to range over much of Iran. In Central Asia, it is generally limited to more southern parts of the region, occurring in Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and adjacent parts of Tajikistan. In South Asia, most records are from eastern, southern and western Afghanistan (Habibi 2003), with the species widely distributed in many provinces along river Indus in Pakistan up to an elevation of 1,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40610	habitat	Bhattacharyya, T., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	It is a nocturnal species prefering riverine and moist steppe of semi desert and desert habitats (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).  It appears to prefers clay and loess soils (Habibi 2003).	eng
40610	population	Bhattacharyya, T., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	There is little information on the abundance of this species. According to Roberts (1997) the population in Pakistan is declining and it is nowhere plentiful. Habibi (2003) reports on few records of this species in Afghanistan.	eng
40610	threats	Bhattacharyya, T., Srinivasulu, C. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
40611	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas.	eng
40611	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species ranges widely in southeast Asia. It ranges from southern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), through eastern and southern Myanmar, most of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, northern Cambodia and most of Thailand, south to Penininsular Malaysia, Tioman (Malaysia), Sumatra (mainly in the mountain chain), Java, and Borneo (Brunei, northern Kalimantan, Sabah and northern Sarawak) (Ruedi <em>et al</em>. 1994; Ruedi and Fumagalli 1996). It is generally, though not always, found in hilly areas. A survey conducted by Nor (2001) on Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia, found individuals of this species at 1,700 m asl and higher. In other areas, such as in Sumatra, the species can be found as high as 3,000 m asl, while on the Asian mainland it has been found as low as 90 m asl.	eng
40611	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species prefers humid montane habitats, but it is also found in lowland forests. Individuals found on the Bolaven Plateau in southern Lao PDR were living in degraded scrubland, and the species appears to be adaptable to a number of anthropogenic habitats. These animals find shelter in nests of dead leaves located in hollow structures on the ground and under rocks. The diet is predominately composed of invertebrates, including insects and earthworms, but it can also feed on fruits. The species breeds throughout the year, giving birth to up to three young. The lifespan does not usually exceed two years.	eng
40611	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This is a common species in many places. Its population is probably stable, as it is adaptable to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
40611	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
40612	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997). Approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Listed as a rare species in Russia and protected in Daurskii State Reserve. Conservation measures as expanding of protected areas, protection against fires, insecticides and poison use prohibition are required.<br/>Further research and public awareness is required to aid conservation of this species.	eng
40612	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in a semi-arid zone in North East China, ranging from Inner Mongolia to West Manchuria, northeast Mongolia and the Transbaikalia and upper Amur Basin in Russia. Steppe and forest-steppe habitats in north-eastern Mongolia, along the Halh River in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range, Orhon and Selenge river basins in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Dulamtseren <em>et al.</em>, 1989), Mongol Daguur Steppe and Eastern Mongolia. Recently recorded in northern portions of Ikh Nartiin Chuluu Nature Reserve in Eastern Govi.	eng
40612	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits steppe and forest steppe, in south taiga also occurs in grassland areas, associated with birch, poplar, larch, willow, Vaccinium spp, pea shrubs and Poaceae. Often found near human settelments, in agricultural fields. Higher density found near water, at places with good food sources and mixed biotopes. Inhabits abandoned burrows of other species such as marmots, susliks and ground squirrels, and hibernates through the winter until April. <br/>Breeds once per year in June/July. Litter size is 3 to 7 pups, youngs become independent at 7-8 weeks old. Youngs cover long distances during depersal before hibernation. Base of the diet are beetles, orthopteroids and other invertebrates. Sometimes feeds on small reptiles, bird eggs and nestlings, small rodents and carrion. Main predator is badger, rarely wolf, fox, eagle, and eagle owl.<br/>(Sokolov and Orlov, 1980; Pavlinov, 2002).	eng
40612	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There is no reliable data on population size available, but it is thought to be abundant with a wide range in Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.). In Russia it is rare protected species. Evident population decrease happened in 1960s due to poisoning of rodent plague carriers. Current population trend is stable, though there are no data on precise population size. In steppe zone of Chita region at the beginning of breeding period abundance is 1 - 1.5 animals per 10 ha. High density found near human settlements because of lower predator pressure and higher food availability.	eng
40612	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat loss through increased mining activities, and grazing by increasing livestock numbers may create habitat degradation. Occasional accidental vehicular mortality also constitutes a low level threat. Poisoning against plague carriers doesn't occur at large scales, but still occurs locally due to local people's initiatives.	eng
40613	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is probably present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, habitat status, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for liusting as Vulnerable B1ab(i,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
40613	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the province of Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,500-3,000 m asl (Jiang <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
40613	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species typically occurs in riparian habitats ranging from coniferous forests to the alpine zone, but sometimes occupies secondary forest away from streams (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
40613	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
40613	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Deforestation due to agriculture, urban development and logging are a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
40614	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of South Asian populations are recommended (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40614	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species is found in northern South Asia, central to southeast China, and northern parts of Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from India (Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal) and Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Beijing, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hubei, Sichuan, Ningxia and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). It is present on the island of Taiwan. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam (Francis 2008). It is found at altitudes of 800 to 1,500 m asl in the Himalayas (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
40614	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a semi-aquatic animal that is generally associated with clear streams in temperate evergreen forests. It inhabits burrows on the banks or near streams (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
40614	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
40614	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In Nepal, habitat loss due to agriculture expansion, selective logging, harvesting for medical use, poisoning, pest control activities and decline in prey species are some threats to the species (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
40615	conservation	Abe, H., 2008	It is known to be present in numerous protected areas.	eng
40615	distribution	Abe, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Honshu and Kyushu in Japan, and occurs primarily above 300 m asl in southern regions, and in the northern regions nearly from sea level.	eng
40615	habitat	Abe, H., 2008	It favours rapid streams (and therefore streams usually at high elevations), with abundant boulders, large rocks or fallen logs.	eng
40615	population	Abe, H., 2008	It has been recorded from more than half of all survey sites ranging all over Honshu, but only a quarter of survey sites on Kyushu; thus, the species is believed to be common on Honshu, while the population in Kyushu appears smaller and fragmented.	eng
40615	threats	Abe, H., 2008	There are no major threats, although small dam construction and the paving of river embankments is a problem across the range.	eng
40616	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
40616	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species distribution ranges widely in China, where it is found in southeastern Xizang (Tibet), northern and western Yunnan, Sichuan, southern Qinghai, and southern Gansu (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It also extends into northern Myanmar, and might possibly occur in Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India, though there are not records. Its elevational range is 1,570-3,500 m asl.	eng
40616	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is semi-aquatic (Lunde and Musser 2002). In China it occurs in high-altitude areas between 1,700-3,500 m asl, where it is found in or adjacent to cool mountain streams, often in forest. In Myanmar, individuals were recorded in high altitudes between 1,570-3,100 m asl. Very little is known about this species, but it is likely to be altitudinally allopatric with the Himalayan Water Shrew, although they are geographically sympatric. It is morphologically distinct from other members of its genus, as it lacks the brown body color, and is predominantly grey.	eng
40616	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. However, it is believed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat.	eng
40616	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range. It is believed to be susceptible to stream degradation.	eng
40617	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
40617	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura aleksandrisi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region; it is restricted to Cyrenaica in Libya. It is found from sea level up to 200 to 300 m.	eng
40617	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Suitable habitat includes Mediterranean vegetation, including littoral and rocky areas. It is likely to be found in degraded habitats. A terrestrial and nocturnal species.	eng
40617	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	At least three surveys have been carried out, all of which have collected <em>C. aleksandrisi</em>. Therefore, it is not thought to be extremely rare. More than 100 skulls have been found in owl pellets.	eng
40617	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	No major threats are known at present. The species could be affected by habitat loss.	eng
40618	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	In a preliminary status of the terrestrial mammals of Oman, the species was considered Data Deficient (Fisher 1999). No specific conservation measures are known.	eng
40618	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	Occurs in the southern Arabian Peninsula, specifically Yemen and Oman (including the exclave of Musandam, which is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates).	eng
40618	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	"Coastal plains" (Hutterer 2005).	eng
40618	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	Population size and trends have not been quantified, but the population does not appear to be declining.	eng
40618	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Unknown.	eng
40619	conservation	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas (eg. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, India). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species in South Asia (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40619	distribution	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread Asian species ranges from India and perhaps Pakistan in the west of its range, through much of eastern China and mainland Southeast Asia. It is present on the islands of Hainan and Taiwan. In the Philippines, the species was believed to be restricted to Batan Island (Heaney and Ruedi 1994), however, a 2004 survey recorded the species from Calayan Island and the Babuyan Islands (Oliveros <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is unclear if the species is present on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is found from sea level up to 3,000 m asl.	eng
40619	habitat	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including lowland and montane tropical and subtropical moist forest, bamboo forest, herbaceous vegetation, scrubland, foothills of Terai and Babbar regions (South Asia). It can be found in secondary forest close to rivers (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
40619	population	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is generally abundant and stable, although there have been some localised population declines. It is often the most common shrew present in any given habitat throughout its range.	eng
40619	threats	Heaney, L. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia it is locally threatened by habitat loss and invasive species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
40620	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	Has been reported from several protected sites in Gabon (including the newly established Minkebe Forest) and the Central African Republic. Additional taxonomic studies are needed to better understand the validity of this species.	eng
40620	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from southern Cameroon to northern and central Gabon. Although it has additionally been reported from southeastern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and adjacent parts of Congo. However, it is difficult to define a distribution because of the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding this taxon.	eng
40620	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is associated with primary lowland forest, and is not considered to be present in degraded areas.	eng
40620	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is relatively common.	eng
40620	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened by deforestation	eng
40621	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
40621	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	<em>Crocidura bottegi</em> has been recorded from sites in Ethiopia (including the type locality of 'north-east of Lake Turkana, "between Badditu and Dime"' [Hutterer 2005]) and a single locality in northern Kenya (Marsabit). There are taxonomic uncertainties related to this species which need to be resolved. All populations previously recorded in West Africa have been found to be other species such as <em>Crocidura obscurior</em> and <em>Crocidura eburnea</em>. It has been recorded at an elevation of 1,750 m asl.	eng
40621	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
40621	population	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
40621	threats	Hutterer, R. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
40622	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	In Ghana, one of the specimens was collected from the Adumanya Sacred Grove which is a traditionally protected 1.5 ha remnant of forest near Dodowa on the Accra Plains (Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has also been found at the Draw River Forest Reserve in south-west Ghana. It may be present in Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, but the specimen from there is unconfirmed. There is a need to protect remaining patches of suitable habitat for this species.	eng
40622	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known from four localities in Nigeria and has also been recorded in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia and Guinea. It is thought that this species may also occur in Sierra Leone (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Ghana, one of the specimens was collected from the Adumanya Sacred Grove which is a traditionally protected 1.5 ha remnant of forest near Dodowa on the Accra Plains (Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). Two other specimens where collected at the Draw River Forest Reserve in southwestern Ghana by McCullough <em>et al.</em> (2005). The Nigerian specimens are described by Hutterer and Happold (1983).  <em>C. buettikoferi </em> occurs at elevations from near sea-level, up to a few hundred metres.	eng
40622	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. buettikoferi</em> is restricted to patches of undisturbed primary lowland forest. Its habitat is very fragmented into isolated patches. The fact that this species has been collected from both the dry semideciduous forest of the Adumanya Sacred Grove on the Accra Plains and the Draw River Forest Reserve which is located within the Wet Evergreen Zone indicates that this species is able to tolerate a range of climatic conditions (Decher pers. comm.).	eng
40622	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is thought to be uncommon throughout its range.	eng
40622	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This main threat facing this species is habitat loss. The forest patches it inhabits can also be invaded by other more common shrew species which can become an additional threat as competitors to <em>C.buettikoferi</em>.	eng
40623	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as a subspecies of <em>Crocidura russula</em>). Further research is required to determine population status and trends and to investigate potential threats.	eng
40623	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as a subspecies of <em>Crocidura russula</em>). Further research is required to determine population status and trends and to investigate potential threats.	eng
40623	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Crocidura pachyura</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It occurs on the islands of Ibiza (Spain), and Sardinia and Pantelleria (Italy). It also occurs in North Africa, where its range is poorly known but includes Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Its range in Algeria may extend further west than is shown on the map (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The Pantelleria population may be a separate subspecies (<em>cossyrensis</em>). It occurs from sea level to 800-1,000 m above sea level (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). Populations on the islands are certainly the result of introductions from the mainland (prior to 1500 A.D. for Sardinia at least) (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
40623	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	This species occurs on the islands of Ibiza (Spain), and Sardinia and Pantelleria (Italy). It also occurs in North Africa, where its range is poorly known but includes Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Wilson and Reeder 2005). The Pantelleria population may be a separate subspecies (<em>cossyrensis</em>). It occurs from sea level to 800-1,000 m above sea level (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
40623	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>C. pachyura</em> occupies a very wide range of habitats on Sardinia (R. Hutterer pers comm. 2007). It occurs in a variety of habitats including pastures, cultivated fields, low shrubland, gardens, and old agricultural terraces with dry-stone walls (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
40623	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It occurs in a variety of habitats including pastures, cultivated fields, low shrubland, gardens, and old agricultural terraces with dry-stone walls.	eng
40623	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Little is known about population size and trends for this species, but it is not rare (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). On Sardinia it is common and widespread (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
40623	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, but it is not rare (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
40623	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	No serious threats are known at present, although accidental poisoning with pesticides may be a problem. The population on Pantelleria may be threatened because of its highly restricted range.	eng
40623	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No serious threats are known at present, although accidental poisoning with pesticides may be a problem. The population on Pantelleria may be threatened because of its highly restricted range (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
40624	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It has been recorded from the Gambari Forest Reserve (Happold 1997) and is presumably present in a number of West African protected areas. Further research is needed into the range of both this species and the partially sympatric <em>Crocidura jouvenetae</em>. This is a widespread and common species of no immediate conservation concern.	eng
40624	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	Hutterer (2005) records this West African species as probably ranging through lowland forest from Guinea to western Cameroon. Although it is largely a lowland species, there is a record from Mount Cameroon.	eng
40624	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	In Nigeria, this species has been recorded from primary lowland tropical moist forest, or relict forests in derived savanna, and is possibly present in tree plantations (Hutterer and Happold 1983; Happold 1987; Decher <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is a terrestrial species that searches through leaf litter and siimilar ground cover for food (Happold 1987).	eng
40624	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This is thought to be the commonest shrew in Nigerian rainforest (Happold 1975; Happold 1987). Comprised 70% of the two species of shrew captured during a three-year study in the Gambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria (Hutterer and Happold 1983).	eng
40624	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40625	conservation	Baxter, R., Hutterer, R., Griffin, M. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in several well-protected areas. It is present in at least ten protected areas in Namibia.	eng
40625	distribution	Baxter, R., Hutterer, R., Griffin, M. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura cyanea is a southern African species which occurs in Angola, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho (recorded from Mahlanapeng and Sehonghong [Lynch 1994]), Swaziland, Zambia (where the species overlaps in range with <em>C. parvipes), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It may also be present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi and Tanzania but its presence has not been confirmed. Records from Kenya and to the north of this country are of <em>C. parvipes</em>. <em>Crocidura cyanea is found from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
40625	habitat	Baxter, R., Hutterer, R., Griffin, M. & Howell, K., 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of montane grasslands and temperate and subtropical forests. In Namibia, a population has been found inhabiting a cave, where they feed on cave invertebrates and possibly dead bats (Marais and Irish 1990).	eng
40625	population	Baxter, R., Hutterer, R., Griffin, M. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is locally abundant in certain areas.	eng
40625	threats	Baxter, R., Hutterer, R., Griffin, M. & Howell, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40626	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas in Gabon, Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species, and into the taxonomic status of populations of <em>Crocidura</em> from west Africa currently allocated to this species.	eng
40626	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura denti has a disjunct distribution in Central and West Africa. In Central Africa, it is found in the mountains of Cameroon, the Congo basin including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the type locality is Ituri forest), Gabon and Uganda (and possibly Congo and Central African Republic). There are isolated records of this species from mountain tops in West Africa from Guinea and Sierra Leone (at Mount Loma), however, it is unclear whether these records truly represent <em>C. denti because of taxonomic difficulties with this species (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2002). It might be present near Lake Tana in Ethiopia, however, this needs confirmation. Its elevational range is approximately 500 to 1,500 m asl (Mount Oku, Cameroon).	eng
40626	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in subtropical and tropical moist lowland forest and moist savanna. It is not known if it can persist in secondary habitats.	eng
40626	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There in no population information available for this species.	eng
40626	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats as a whole to this species.	eng
40627	conservation	Motokawa, M., 2008	It is known to be present in protected areas.	eng
40627	distribution	Motokawa, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Mishima Island, Oki Islands, Sado Island, Izu Islands, Tane Island, Yaku Island, Nakanoshima Island (Tokara Islands), Okinoshima Island (Fukuoka Prefecture) and other small islands in Japan. Populations on Hokkaido and Cheju Island (Republic of Korea) are introduced from northern Honshu and northern Kyushu, respectively (Ohdachi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It occurs from sea level up to less than 1,000 m asl.	eng
40627	habitat	Motokawa, M., 2008	It is found along river banks, waterfronts, and in bushes around cultivated lands at low-lying elevations (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
40627	population	Motokawa, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
40627	threats	Motokawa, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
40628	conservation	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas including the Kongana Forest in southern Central African Republic, Korup National Park in Cameroon and Kibira National Park in Burundi.	eng
40628	distribution	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Crocidura dolichura is generally distributed in western West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon (Mount Cameroon and Korup National Park), Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), the Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic of the Congo and Uganda (including the Ruwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest), Burundi (Kibira National Park) and possibly Rwanda. It is generally a lowland species, however, in West Africa it reaches elevations of up to 1,500 m asl, and can be found up to 2,310 m asl in the eastern parts of its range (Kibira National Park).</em>	eng
40628	habitat	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is associated with both lowland and montane tropical moist forest. It is a climbing shrew that probably uses its long tail for balancing (Happold 1987).	eng
40628	population	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is never abundant, but it is widely distributed. The species is infrequently found in surveys.	eng
40628	threats	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There is some localised habitat loss over much of this species range. In eastern parts of the species range, people displaced by social instability have established settlements within the forest.	eng
40629	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little known species.	eng
40629	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<p><em>This species is found in the forest-savanna border of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guinea</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, and possibly <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nigeria</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The Nigerian records, which are based on specimens recovered from owl pellets, might be misidentifications (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Adiopodoume (type locality) and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Taï</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Côte d’Ivoire</st1:country-region>, and from Sérédou in upper <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</em><em></em></p>	eng
40629	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. douceti is a semi-arboreal species that inhabits the inner parts of primary forests. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
40629	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs at very low densities.	eng
40629	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The current threats to this species are not well known, but presumably include general deforestation.	eng
40630	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is presumably present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
40630	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to northern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005).	eng
40630	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in lowland and montane rain forests. It can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, and can be found in degraded and sedondary forests, and scrubland at lower elevations.	eng
40630	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is common above 1,000 m asl.	eng
40630	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Habitat loss from clearing of primary rainforests, quarrying, and conversion to agriculture can threaten local populations of this species.	eng
40631	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas.	eng
40631	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in central and southern China and most of mainland Southeast Asia. The species has been recorded from India, however, the distribution in this country is unclear (Sanjay Molur pers. comm.) and it is not mapped here.	eng
40631	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats, and has been recorded from primary and degraded tropical moist forest, open disturbed areas, and possibly from drier habitats (Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
40631	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
40631	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40632	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
40632	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Crocidura fulvastra</em> is found discontinuously from Mali in the east to Kenya and Ethiopia, through the Sudan savanna zone. It is largely restricted to dry, savanna-filled valleys. A mummified specimen was found in Thebes, Egypt, but this species is now extinct in that area.	eng
40632	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>C.fulvastra</em> occurs in Sudan savanna habitats and in arid parts of Kenya.	eng
40632	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
40632	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
40633	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It seems probable that the species is present within many protected areas.	eng
40633	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura fuscomurina</em>is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal, through West African and Central Africa to southern Sudan and Ethiopia in the east, and from here into southern Africa, ranging as far south as northeastern South Africa	eng
40633	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	In southern part of its range, this species tends to prefer drier regions and occurs in dry savanna, grasslands and the Kalahari. In the eastern part of its range it is found in woodland and moist bush savanna.	eng
40633	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is relatively common locally.	eng
40633	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
40635	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impact of possible threats on this species.	eng
40635	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There have been many sightings at widespread locations in the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2003). The distribution is not fully known, but it appears to be limited to the Indo-Pacific region (Culik 2004). The collected specimens are from Australia, Somalia, South Africa, the Maldives, Kenya, the Philippines, Taiwan and Japan. These beaked whales are relatively infrequently seen in the eastern tropical Pacific and may be more common in the western Pacific. They also appear to be more common in the western Indian Ocean, especially around the Maldives archipelago (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
40635	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The sightings of this species come from scattered locations, many in deep, oceanic waters, in the tropical to subtropical Indo-Pacific. Sightings have occurred in areas with surface water temperatures of 21-31°C.<br/><br/>Nothing is known of its feeding habits, except for the stomach contents of a single specimen from Japan (Yamada 2003). These suggested that the species feeds primarily on cephalopods, like other beaked whales.	eng
40635	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	While it is certainly not the rarest of beaked whales, the paucity of recent sightings of Longman’s beaked whales indicate that it is not particularly common either. The only estimates of abundance available are of 1,007 individuals (CV=126%) in the waters around Hawaii (Barlow 2006), and 291 (CV=100%) in the eastern North Pacific (Ferguson and Barlow 2001).<br/><br/>There is no information on trends in the global abundance of this species.	eng
40635	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Pervasive gillnet and longline fisheries throughout the species' range raises concern that some bycatch is likely. Even low levels of bycatch might cause unsustainable impacts on this naturally rare cetacean.<br/><br/>It is unknown if military, seismic or other loud noise-producing human activities resulted in the live stranding of a possible mother/calf pair in NE Taiwan (Wang and Yang 2006; Yang <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, “bubble-like lesions” were reported in at least one of these whales by Yang <em>et al</em> (2008). There is some evidence from Sri Lanka for occasional incidental or directed takes of animals identified as ‘bottlenose whales’ which are likely to be <em>Indopacetus</em> (Dayaratne and Joseph 1993).<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species of beaked whales indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.<br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect this species of whale, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
40636	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is present in several protected areas. Surveys should be conducted in appropriate habitat for other populations, and monitoring of existing populations is very important. Fire management is needed in national parks.	eng
40636	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia. It is most abundant in the Western Arnhem Land escarpment, but it also occurs on Marchinbar Island, in the Table Top Range, and at Wollogorang Station (Woolley 2008).	eng
40636	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is found in rugged, or rocky, areas of sandstone with a vegetation covering of open eucalypt woodland and perennial grasses (Woolley 2008). It might move into deciduous vine thickets during the dry season (Woolley 2008). Females give birth to up to four or five young annually (Woolley 2008).	eng
40636	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is locally common within its range, but it is declining in some areas. The global population is less than 10,000 mature individuals. There have been 20-30% declines at 2 sites, and the species was completely lost from another site.	eng
40636	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	Threats to this species are not well known. The species' range is subject to frequent fires, which are a major threat. Cane toads might be a threat.	eng
40637	conservation	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Flannery, T., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas, including: Tangkoko-DuaSudara Nature Reserve, Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Morowali National Park, and a host of forest reserves. This species is nominally protected by Indonesian law.	eng
40637	distribution	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Flannery, T., 2008	This species occurs on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia, and the adjacent Indonesian islands of Butung, the Peleng Islands, the Togian Islands, and possibly Muna (Flannery 1995). It ranges from sea level to over 600 m asl.	eng
40637	habitat	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Flannery, T., 2008	It is typically found in undisturbed tropical lowland moist forests. This species does not readily use disturbed habitats, thus it is not usually found in gardens or plantations (M. Kinnaird pers. comm.). It is a largely diurnal, arboreal species that is often found in pairs. Its diet consists of a variety of leaves, preferring young leaves, and like many other arboreal folivores it spends much of its day resting in order to digest (Dwiyahreni <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
40637	population	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Flannery, T., 2008	It is widespread and common in suitable habitat. A density estimate (based on line transects) of 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> was reported for North Sulawesi in the 1993-1994 (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996). This species, however, was at one time much more plentiful. From 1979-1994, there had been a 95% decline in Tangkoko-DuaSudara Nature Reserve due to hunting and this decline may be indicative of trends for North Sulawesi (O'Brien and Kinnaird 1996). This decline is only getting worse due to hunting and the pet trade (M. Kinnaird pers. comm.).	eng
40637	threats	Salas, L., Dickman, C., Helgen, K. & Flannery, T., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to clearance of forest for small-scale agriculture and through large-scale logging. It is also heavily hunted by local people for food, and collected for the pet trade.	eng
40638	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in a couple of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40638	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly-known species is widespread throughout the lowland hill forests in the central region of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), from the Vogelkop Peninsula (Papua Province, Indonesia) in the west to Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) in the east. It is also present on the islands of Salawati and Yapen (Indonesia). It has been recorded between sea level and 1,300 m asl.	eng
40638	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in both primary and secondary lowland tropical hill forest. Females have been collected with between one and three young; the species is thought to breed throughout the year (Flannery 1995a).	eng
40638	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is generally rare throughout its range. It is rarer at higher elevations.	eng
40638	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is threatened by overhunting for food by local people in about 25% of its range. It is also threatened to some degree by habitat loss through conversion of forest to small-scale agricultural use and general human encroachment.	eng
40639	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40639	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to New Guinea, where it occurs in the south-east portion of the island (Papua New Guinea).	eng
40639	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is a tropical forest species found in both primary and disturbed habitats. Animals nest in dreys and tree hollows.	eng
40639	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
40639	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known. It is presumably hunted for food by local people.	eng
40640	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40640	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is widespread along the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It ranges from 1,500 to 3,600 m asl.	eng
40640	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is found in montane primary tropical forest. Animals may use degraded forest but not regrowth. This species has a wide diet (Flannery 1995). Animals build dreys in which they spend the day (Flannery 1995).	eng
40640	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is highly abundant in some areas.	eng
40640	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people, however, the highlands where it occurs are least affected by hunting as people seldom visit these areas.	eng
40641	conservation	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It has been recorded from a national park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
40641	distribution	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This little-known species is restricted to the Arfak mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua Province, Indonesia on the island of New Guinea. It is known from a handful of localities, but there is reason to believe that this species occurs throughout the Arfaks. It ranges between 750 m and 1,900 m asl.	eng
40641	habitat	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It has been found in lower primary montane mossy forest. Little more is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
40641	population	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	This species is rare. Less than 10 specimens have been collected.	eng
40641	threats	Helgen, K., Dickman, C. & Salas, L., 2008	It is threatened by hunting for food by local people, and also by conversion of suitable forest habitat to cultivated land.	eng
40642	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is present in numerous, and large, protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha)<br/>Kaw Reserved Area  (76,800 ha) <br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaietur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Iwokrama Forest Reserve (364,000 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
40642	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Alouatta macconnelli</em> occurs throughout a large part of the Guiana Shield, north of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Negro and east and south of the Rio Orinoco (Gregorin 2006). It would seem that it occurs on the Ilha Tupinambarana, between the rios Tapajós and Madeira south the Rio Amazonas, along with <em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> (Gregorin 2006). The distribution and taxonomy in Brazil were discussed by Gregorin (2006), and the distribution in Venezuela by Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987).	eng
40642	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in primary lowland rain forest, gallery forest, and dry deciduous forest. In Suriname, <em>A. macconnelli</em> is found most often in high rain forest, but occurs in many other forest types as well, including riverbank high forest, marsh forest (creek forest and Mora forest), swamp forest, <em>Pterocarpus</em>-<em>Tabebuia </em>swamp, savanna forest (including <em>Eperua falcata</em> forest), mountain savanna forest and ridge forest. It is also sometimes seen in liana forest, in swamp scrub and mangrove forest, although it appears to be quite rare in these formations (Mittermeier 1977). In Guyana, it is one of the commonest species along rivers (Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> 1975). Kinzey <em>et al</em>. (1988) reported it to be common in the areas they surveyed in the eastern part of the state of Bolívar in Venezuela (Río Caroni and Río Supamo), and elsewhere in the country it is known from secondary forests, highly seasonal semi-deciduous forests, gallery forests and mangrove forest, as well as forest tracts in the llanos (Neville <em>et al.</em> 1988). Howlers spend most of their time in the middle to upper canopy, although they will use all levels, and may even go to the ground to cover short distances between trees.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are frugivore-folivores. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/> <br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>A. macconnelli</em> has been studied by Mittermeier and van Roosmalen (1981) in Suriname and more recently during a long-term study in the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana (Julliot and Sabatier 1993; Julliot 1994a,b, 1996a,b). It feeds mainly on soft parts of many different kinds of fruits, as well as flowers and young leaves.  Also included in the diet are mature leaves, immature fruits, moss, bark, and the soil of termitaria. Julliot and Sabatier (1993) recorded the use of 195 plant species from 47 families. Seeds are ingested, but only rarely eaten. As a result <em>Alouatta</em>, like <em>Ateles</em>, is an important seed disperser. Julliot (1996a) found that <em>A. macconnelli</em> dispersed the seeds of more than 95% of more than 100 plant species (especially Sapotaceae) from which they ate fruit over the two years of her observations. <br/><br/><em>Alouatta palliata</em> may form large groups of more than 40 individuals, with a number of breeding males but group sizes can be smaller, averaging 14. For the other species, 14 is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. In Suriname, <em>A. macconnelli</em> lives in small groups that usually include one adult male, one or more adult females and one or more juveniles and infants. Twenty-four groups counted in various parts of Suriname ranged in size from 2-8 and averaged 4.25 animals per group (Mittermeier, 1977).  In the largest group observed (eight animals), one of the two adult males was definitely peripheral. Husson (1957) mentions groups of 5-6 in Suriname, and in French Guiana, Julliot (1992) studied a group over two years which varied from 6-8 individuals. In Mittermeier’s (1977) study, the home ranges for three groups in the Voltzberg study area on which adequate data are available were 6 ha, 10 ha and 11 ha over a one-year period. Julliot’s (1992) study group in French Guiana had a larger home range, however, encompassing 45 ha over two years.<br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. In Suriname, newborn infants have been seen in March, April, and November, and January (Mittermeier, 1977). Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days.  Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 5.2-7.1 kg (mean 6.2 kg, n=4), adult female weight 4.1-5.0 kg (mean 4.5 kg, n=3) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
40642	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The population density of <em>A. macconnelli</em> at the Voltzberg study area in Suriname has been estimated at 17 individuals/km² (Mittermeier 1977). In Guyana, Muckenhirn <em>et al.</em> (1975) registered an overall density of 7.5 animals/km², but local densities varied from 4.7-63.8 individuals/km². The population density estimated over nine years at the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana was 18.9 individuals/km², having the largest biomass of the primate community there at 144.6 kg/km² (Guillotin <em>et al</em>. 1994). More recent surveys at Nouragues by Kessler (1998) provided density estimates of 11-15 individuals/km² or 2-3 groups/km².	eng
40642	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are no major range-wide threats, but they are affected locally by some hunting, and, in the southern part of its range, there is deforestation due to cattle ranching.	eng
40643	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B.,  Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Included on the Brazilian Official List of Species Threatened with Extinction (Lista Oficial de Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Edict No. 1.522/19th December 1989, see Bernardes <em>et al</em>., 1990; Fonseca <em>et al</em>., 1994), and likewise on the regional threatened species list of the state of Minas Gerais (Machado <em>et al.,</em> 1998). It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>The Una Biological Reserve (18,500 ha), created to protect <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, has an estimated population of about 400-450 animals, and a key strategy which has guided conservation efforts over the last decade has been to promote the preservation of the forests adjacent to the Reserve (Alger and Araújo 1996; Alger <em>et al</em>. 1996; Blanes and Mallinson 1997; Santos and Blanes 1997, 1999). Besides the Una Biological Reserve, this species also occurs in: Serra sa Lontras National Park (16,800 ha), Una Wildlife Refuge (23,000 ha), Lemos Maia Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (495 ha), and Canavieiras Experimental Station (CEPLAC/CEPEC) (500 ha). <br/><br/>There is a well-managed captive breeding programme for <em>L. chrysomelas</em> with a good founder stock (Ballou <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although not currently contributing directly to the conservation of Golden-headed Lion Tamarins in the wild, the captive population of <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, which arose from animals confiscated from illegal trade in the 1980s (Mallinson 1984; Konstant 1986), is an important genetic reservoir: a guarantee of a portion of the genetic variation in this species, while the wild populations continue to decline with ongoing deforestation.	eng
40643	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B.,  Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	A species of the Atlantic forest, in forest fragments in the state of Bahia, and at least formerly in extreme northeastern Minas Gerais. The distribution of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> originally extended between the Rio de Contas (northern limit) and the Rio Pardo (southern limit) in southern Bahia (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1977), but it has also been found south of the Rio Pardo along its middle reaches to the Rio Jequitinhonha on the border between the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais; probably a recent range extension due to forest destruction and the silting of the Rio Pardo (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1988, 1991/1992). In the north-west, it occurs on both banks of the lower Rio Gongoji, a southern tributary of the Rio de Contas, but along its middle reaches, it is limited to the west of the river, and to the west of the Rio Novo. It crosses the Rio Gongoji, westward, again at its headwaters, occurring in the basin of the Rio Catolé Grande, a northern tributary of the Rio Pardo, which forms the westernmost extent of its range (Pinto and Rylands 1997). The western limits are defined by vegetational changes (mesophytic forest changing to liana forest in the west of its range) associated with an increase in altitude approaching the plateau of Vitoria da Conquista. The westernmost point is about 150 km from the coast. To the south, <em>L. chrysomelas</em> crosses the Rio Pardo, occurring in the lower basin of the Rio Maiquinique and east of the Córrego Pau Grande, south to the Rio Jequitinhonha in extreme north-east Minas Gerais (Pinto and Rylands 1997). The range of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin extends over approximately 19,000 km².<br/><br/>There are two lacunae in the range, one in the north near the coast south of the lower Rio de Contas to the mouth of the Rio Ilhéus, and the other between the lower reaches of the Rio Pardo and the Rio Jequitinhonha (Pinto and Tavares 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997). Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1973, 1977) argued that the original range of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> extended south only to the Rio Pardo, and that deforestation and the silting up of the river (see Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996) has resulted in lion tamarins crossing it along its middle reaches in recent times (the last century), thus explaining its presence there today, and its absence between the Jequitinhonha and Pardo downriver, further east. There is no obvious explanation for the absence of <em>L. chrysomelas</em> between the Rio de Contas and Ilhéus to the north-east of its range.	eng
40643	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B.,  Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	Lowland seasonal rain forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil, <em>restinga</em> and white sand piaçava forest, and secondary forest. Also know to use cabruca - cacao plantations which are shaded with some few native trees remaining from the original forest. They have been observed in secondary growth forest in abandoned rubber plantations, but evidently always require old-growth forest for its abundance of tree holes, which they use as sleeping sites, and epiphytic bromeliads, which are key foraging sites. Lion tamarins are an adaptable species well able to live in degraded and secondary forests, depending on sufficient year round food sources and foraging sites, along with the tree holes they use as sleeping sites (see Coimbra-Filho 1969, 1976; Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1973). Near the coast, in the cocoa growing region, there is no distinct dry season wth rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm a year (the heaviest rains are from March to June), but in the west of their range the forests are mesophytic with a distinct dry season, and in some areas the forests are semideciduous, with rainfall as low as 1,000 mm a year (Rylands 1989; Pinto and Rylands 1997). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects (see Rylands 1993; Kierulff <em>et al.</em> 2002a).<br/><br/>Kierulff <em>et al.</em> (2002a) provide a comprehensive review of the behavioural ecology of the lion tamarins. They differ from other callithrichids in having long fingers and hands, which allow them to forage for prey efficiently in nooks and crannies and in epiphytic tank bromeliads. Lion tamarins live in extended family groups of usually 4 to 8 individuals. Four groups observed by Rylands (1989) had a mean size of 6.7 (range 5-8) individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. They breed once a year. The groups defend home ranges of 40 to more than 100 ha (the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches). A group studied by Rylands (1982, 1989) in the Lemos Maia Experimental Station, Una, used a home range of about 40 ha. Home ranges in the Una Biological Reserve were found to be larger, from 90 to more than 100 ha (Dietz <em>et al</em>. 1996). The smaller home range of the group in Lemos Maia may have have been due to a higher availability of food due to surrounding secondary forest. <br/><br/>French <em>et al.</em> (2002) review the reproductive biology of lion tamarins, Baker <em>et al.</em> (2002) review their mating system and group dynamics (focussing particularly on <em>L. rosalia</em>) and Tardif <em>et al.</em> (2002) aspects of infant care and development.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male 620 g (n=2) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984)<br/>Adult female 535 g (n=6) (Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984).	eng
40643	population	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B.,  Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	The total wild population is estimated at 6,000-15,000 animals (Pinto 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997). The estimated population in the Una Biological Reserve (7,059 ha) is about 400-450 individuals.<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include 5.0 individuals/km² in the Una Biological Reserve (Dietz <em>et al.</em> 1996), and 5.0-17.0 individuals/km² or 0.90-3.0 groups/km² in Lemos Maia Experimental Sytation, Una, Bahia (Rylands, 1982, 1989).	eng
40643	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M., Rylands, A.B.,  Mendes. S.L. & de Oliveira, M.M., 2008	With records of over 100 localities where <em>L. chrysomelas</em> still occur through the region bounded by the Rio de Contas in the north and the Rio Jequitinhonha in the south, more populations remain than of all the other three lion tamarin species combined. However, the remaining forests are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate for the region and the populations surviving are seriously depleted and fragmented. An important aspect which has contributed to the more favourable situation of the Golden-headed Lion Tamarin is the traditional and fairly widespread use of the “cabruca” system for shading cacao trees. Some of the original canopy trees are left standing, and this allows for connectivity between forest patches. If well managed, this could be an important management tool for future conservation efforts. <br/><br/>Threats to Golden-headed Lion Tamarins come from socio-economic transformations resulting from the difficulties of the cocoa industry (low prices and disease epidemics), that have dominated the region over the last 15 years, resulting in the expansion of alternative crops, notably African palm oil and coconuts (Alger and Caldas 1994). In the west of its range, the forest is increasingly destroyed and fragmented as a result of cattle ranching (Pinto 1994; Pinto and Rylands 1997).<br/><br/>A study by Dietz <em>et a</em>l. (2000) examined inbreeding depression in small (50 or less) isolated populations of <em>L. rosalia</em>. They concluded that it reduced probability of long-term survival by about one-third. There is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of <em>L. chrysomelas</em>, most especially in the western half of its range where forest fragmentation is extreme (Pinto and Rylands, 1997).	eng
40644	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I and on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/>The conservation and management of this species (<em>in situ </em>and <em>ex situ</em>) is overseen by the Committee for the Conservation and Management of Amazonian Primates, coordinated by the Center for the Protection of Brazilian Primates (<em>Centro de Protecao de Primatas Brasileiros – CPB</em>) of the <em>Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade - ICMBIO</em> of the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (Baker and Bampi 1999; Oliveira <em>et al.</em>  2005).<br/><br/>This species is recorded from a number of protected areas, including: <br/>Sumauma State Park<br/>Rio Negro State Park<br/>Sauim-castanheiras Wildlife Refuce (97 ha)<br/>Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) (10,000 ha)<br/>Walter Egler Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) (630 ha). <br/>Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve<br/>Margem Esquerda do Rio Negro Environmemtal Protection Area - Tarumã-Açú/Tarumã-mirim Sector<br/><br/>A very important reserved area, the largest for the species, is a 115,000-ha forest just east of Manaus that is owned by the military - the Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (CIGS). There is just a small corridor of forest remaining that connects the east side of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve with the area of CIGS. The Adolfo Ducke Reserve is otherwise now completely isolated.<br/><br/>The main areas of the urban district of Manaus where <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> still survives are the Mindu Municipal Park (26.5 ha), the campus of the Fundação Universidade do Amazonas (670 ha), around the two airports of Manaus, Eduardo Gomes (800 ha) and Ponte Pelada (57.6 ha), in the worker's country clubs of SESCI (49.5 ha) and SESI (100 ha), on the campus of the Instituto Nacuonal de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA) (14 ha), and around the Manaus military zoo (1ºBIS/CIGS).<br/><br/>There is a captive breedng programme (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2005), derived laergely from pied tamarins from the Rio de Janeior Primnate Centre (CPRJ) and the Universität Bielefeld, Germany. All of the pied tamarins are registered as the property of the Brazilian government. The studbook of 2004 (31 December 2004), recorded 117 pied tamarins in captivity in 19 institutions (Baker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Since the early 1980s, there have been a number of environmental education campaigns in Manaus on behalf of the pied tamarin. An example of one of the most recent is "Sauim-de-Coleira, Ele Tem o Direito de Viver", by the Fundação Vitória Amazônica (FVA) and the Centro de Ciência do Ambiente of the Universidade do Amazonas, Manaus (Subirá <em>et al</em>., undated)	eng
40644	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Saguinus bicolor</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Negro, in the vicinity of Manaus, the capital of the state of Amazonas, Brazil. Surveys by Ayres <em>et al.</em> (1980, 1982) reported that the range extended only approximately 30-45 km to the north of Manaus and to the east as far as the town of Itacoatiara, approximately 100 km from the capital. Localities beyond these points indicate only the presence of <em>S. midas</em>. Ayres <em>et al.</em> (1980, 1982) and Egler (1983) supposed that it might occur as far north as the Rio Jauapurí right bank tributary of the Rio Negro, but this seems unlikely (Subirá 1998a,b). The known range today extends from the left bank of the Rio Negro, south from the Rio Cuieiras, east, north of the Rios Negro and Amazonas, to the Rio Urubu (Subirá 1998a,b). Subirá (1998b) found <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> only as far as 35 km from Manaus on the BR174 highway. North of there, she found only <em>S. midas</em>.	eng
40644	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Lowland rain forest in the central Amazon. Vidal and Cintra (2006) reported on a census carried out in the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve, Manaus. They found 41 groups widely distrbiuted in areas of plateau (20 groups at altitudes between 11 and 140 m above saea level), slopes (12 groups at 70-100 m above sea level) and stream valley bottoms (nine groups at 40-60 m above sea level). In the city of Manaus, they apparantly thrive in secondary forest, but are dependent on forest canopy (Rylands 1994).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Subirá (1998b) recorded group sizes of 3 to 15 individuals (mean 6.19 ±2.62, n=46). Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded group sizes that ranged from 2 to 11 and averaged 4.8 individuals (n = 41). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Tamarin groups defend home ranges of 10-100 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. A <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> group studied in the extensive forest of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve was found to use a home range of about 100 ha (M. Gordo pers. comm. in Vidal and Cintra 2006).<br/><br/>Aspects of the  behaviour and ecology of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> were studied by Egler (1986, 1992, 1993) at Tarumã-Açú, near Manaus. She studied a group of 6-10 individuals for 11 months in 1983-1984. Twins were born to a single breeding female in May and November 1983. The group used 12 ha of forest, which included mature old growth, old and young secondary forest and white sand forest (<em>campinarana</em>). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>H&B 20.8-28.3 cm, TL 33.5-42.0 cm (Gregorin and Tahara 2008)<br/>Males 428 g (n=4) (Smith and Jungers 1997).	eng
40644	population	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Commonly seen in habitats where it occurs. <em>S. bicolor</em> groups survive in small, highly degraded forest patches around housing estates and in the suburbs of Manaus. <em>S. midas</em> populations are gradually replacing <em>S. bicolor</em>, either naturally, or through alteration and degradation of the forests by human activities (Ayres <em>et al.</em> 1980, 1982; Subirá 1998b).<br/><br/>Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded 41 groups of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> in the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha). They indicated that it was probable that this gives a rough estimate of the entire population in the reserve. <br/><br/>Subirá (1998b) carried out population surveys for <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> at a number of sites and recorded several Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (115,000 ha) - 1.85 individuals/km² or 0.37 groups/km² (indicating around 426 groups or about 2,100 individuals)<br/>Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha) - 2.35 individuals/km² or 0.4 groups/km² (indicating about 43 groups or 235 individiuals)<br/>Forest fragment Souza Arnold (10.5 ha) - 57.14 individuals/km² or 9.52 groups/km² <br/>Forest fragment João Bosco (12.8 ha) - 62.5 individuals/km² or 7.81 groups/km².	eng
40644	threats	Mittermeier, R.A., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The main threat is habitat loss through urban growth and agriculture and cattle ranching in the vicinity of the capital of the state of Amazonas, Manaus. However, more importantly, the species is disappearing rapidly in areas of contact on the northern and eastern periphery of its range, where it is being replaced by the Golden-handed Tamarin <em>Saguinus midas</em>. They are probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.	eng
40647	conservation	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	It is listed under Appendix II of CITES, and as Vermin under the African Convention. Found in a number of protected areas, including Tsavo and Lake Manyara National Parks. The isolated subpopulations on Saharan massifs merit further research.	eng
40647	distribution	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This is the most extensively distributed of the baboons, ranging throughout the Sahelian woodland and forest-mosaic habitats from southern Mauritania and Mali to the Sudan and southwards to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania. Outlying populations inhabit the Tibesti and Air massifs in the Sahara. In East Africa, the distribution is actively changing. Wherever the range of this species encounters that of other species there are hybrid zones and a strong implication that it is a species which is still in a phase of active expansion. For example, it forms a narrow hybrid zone with <em>P. hamadryas</em> below the Awash Falls and elsewhere in northern Ethiopia, and hybridizes with <em>P. cynocephalus</em> in the eastern part of Tsavo and Amboseli National Parks in Kenya. There is a broad clinal hybrid zone of <em>P. anubis</em> x <em>P. cynocephalus</em> between Laikipia District, just to the north-east and east of Mt. Kenya, and the Lower Tana River, Kenya coast. Baboons in this >200-km wide region are intermediate and cannot be readily allocated to either <em>P. anubis</em> or <em>P. cynocephalus</em> (baboons become increasingly “yellow-like” in their phenotypes towards the Kenya Coast; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). <em>Papio anubis</em> x <em>P. cynocephalus</em> are found in the Pare and Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, and elsewhere sporadically along a north-east/south-west trending line across the region. It is possible that this species has caused the ranges of neighbouring, smaller baboon species to contract. Sympatric with <em>Cercopithecus pygerythrus</em>, <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> and <em>Cercopithecus mitis</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Ranges to 2,500 m asl (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
40647	habitat	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Inhabits Sahelian woodland and forest-mosaic habitats; able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas. This species is an omnivorous opportunist, and its diet varies according to region, season, and even the time of day. In open areas, it primarily feed on grasses, while in forests the principal food is fruits. Resin or gum act as buffers in dry seasons and locusts provide the occasional glut. As a result of this variable feeding strategy, there are differences in social organization and behaviour. Males may form associations called 'cabals' which can show co-operation or have elements of hierarchy.	eng
40647	population	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The Olive Baboon is widespread and locally common in spite of vigorous trapping, shooting, and poisoning campaigns.	eng
40647	threats	Kingdon, J., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	In the long term, the Olive Baboon is probably excluded from closed forests by competition and disease. Is actively persecuted in places as a pest species.	eng
40649	conservation	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
40649	distribution	Bearder, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from Sierra Leone in the west through southern parts of West Africa and throughout Central Africa, to possibly as far east as north of Lake Victoria in Uganda and Tanzania, west of Lake Victoria. It is found as far south as the southern Congo Basin (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Lunda District (Angola), and possibly as far south as the Lukuga River in the east. Widely sympatric with <em>Galagoides thomasi</em>.	eng
40649	habitat	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is associated with the understory of secondary forest and forest edge habitats. It is also present in primary tropical moist forest, particularly in tree-fall zones. It sleeps in small groups of up to 10 individuals. It appears to be restricted to dense undergrowth with fine branches. It gives birth to one or two young per year.	eng
40649	population	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is common and widespread.	eng
40649	threats	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is presumably locally threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
40650	conservation	Honess, P., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the East Ngorima Reserve and Chimanimani National Park of Zimbabwe.	eng
40650	distribution	Honess, P., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species occurs along the East African coast between the Rufiji River (Tanzania) in the north and the Limpopo River in southern Mozambique, and is also found inland in montane areas (the Thylo mountains of western Malawi (Wallace 2005), extending westwards into Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. Recorded to at least 1,800 m asl (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). A record from Mount Namuli in Mozambique requires verification.	eng
40650	habitat	Honess, P., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is present in coastal and submontane evergreen forest, gallery forest, and species-rich woodlands, including some hilly miombo woodlands (e.g., Mahenge foothills) (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.	eng
40650	population	Honess, P., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	It is a common and widespread species.	eng
40650	threats	Honess, P., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be threatened in parts of its range, such as in the coastal areas, by localised habitat loss.	eng
40651	conservation	Butynski, T.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in a number of protected areas throughout the range, including the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, both in Tanzania, and Taiti Hills Forest Reserve, Kenya. Further studies on the taxonomy, population range and numbers, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
40651	distribution	Butynski, T.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Ehardt, C., 2008	This species is present is present in many of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded from the West and East Usumbara Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains, the Udzungwa Mountains, and Rubehos (all Tanzania). Similar forms have been recorded from the Taita Hills, Kenya (Perkin <em>et al.</em> 2002), and from Rungwe Mountain in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania (A. Perkin and S. Bearder pers. comm.). Appears to occur at elevations from 1,200 to 2,000 m. Sympatric with <em>G. zanzibaricus</em> and <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>.	eng
40651	habitat	Butynski, T.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Ehardt, C., 2008	It is found in the mid- to high canopy of submontane and montane tropical forest. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.	eng
40651	population	Butynski, T.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Ehardt, C., 2008	Widespread, but fragmented range, and present at low densities.	eng
40651	threats	Butynski, T.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S. & Ehardt, C., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss through deforestation for timber, and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
40652	conservation	Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Rondo Forest Reserve and the Litipo Forest Reserve and from Pugu Forest Reserve, Tanzania. All currently known sites of occurrence require improved management. Additional surveys in the intervening areas to determine whether the species is present or not are urgently required.	eng
40652	distribution	Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is known from seven isolated forest patches: Zareninge, Pande Game Reserve, Pugu/Kazimzumbwe, Rondo, Latipo and Ziwani. It occurs at elevations of 100-900 m. The known distribution encompasses 92 km² of coastal forest. The occurrence of the species between these forest patches is unknown.	eng
40652	habitat	Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is found in coastal dry forest and scrub in forest patches usually on east facing slopes and escarpments. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.	eng
40652	population	Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	Uncommon. A. Perkin (pers. comm.) recorded four individuals in a 0.5-heactare plot.	eng
40652	threats	Perkin, A., Bearder, S., Honess, P. & Butynski, T.M., 2008	It is highly threatened by the logging of remaining forest fragments.	eng
40653	conservation	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
40653	distribution	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is found in West and Central Africa. Animals currently assigned to this species have been recorded from Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), Gabon, Congo, Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Zambia. The species may also occur in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Central African Republic, Togo, Senegal, Burundi and Rwanda and southern Sudan. There are possible records of this species from Mount Marsabit, Kenya, but this remains to be confirmed. <br/><br/>Grubb <em>et al.</em> (2003) indicate the following areas and localities from which animals currently identified as this species have been reported: Côte d'Ivoire (Tai National Park); Nigeria (Mambilla Plateau in the Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve); Cameroon (Ebom; Dja Reserve; Lobeké Reserve; Korup; Mount Kupe; Mount Cameroon; Mount Oku); Equatorial Guinea (Moreca on Bioko Island); Gabon (Makokou; Makandé; Franceville; Gamba); Angola (Loanda (= Luanda) highlands); Democratic Republic of the Congo (localities north of the Congo River; along, and to the south of the Aruwimi River; the Itombwe Massif; the Ubangi-Uele River Basin; Bili; and the region between Dilolo and Kolwezi); Uganda (west of the Victoria Nile; Kibale and Bwindi Forests; Semliki Forest; Mabiru Forest Reserve). Its presence has recently been confirmed in northern Tanzania (S. Bearder pers. comm.), though these are not mapped.	eng
40653	habitat	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is found in all strata in savanna and open woodland areas (e.g. Miombo), and at the margins of montane forest. This species avoids areas of grassland. They have been found in forests where no other galagos are present. They build nests in thorn trees or nest in tree holes. Group size is 1-5, though they forage separately at night. This species is presumed to give birth to between one and two young annually.	eng
40653	population	Bearder, S., 2008	This is a common, widespread and adaptable species.	eng
40653	threats	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is very locally threatened by habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to agricultural land, but there are no major threats to the species as a whole.	eng
40690	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Surveys of known and potential habitat should attempt to determine the presence and abundance of blunt-nosed leopard lizards throughout the range (USFWS 1998). An effort should be made to determine appropriate habitat management and compatible land uses (USFWS 1998). Remaining populations on public and private land should be protected, as should additional suitable habitat for the species (see Recovery Plan, USFWS 1998). It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
40690	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to California in the United States. The historical range encompassed the San Joaquin Valley and adjacent foothills of southern California, from Stanislaus County to extreme northern Santa Barbara and Ventura counties, at elevations below 800 m (2,600 feet) (Jennings 1995, USFWS 1998). The currently known occupied range includes scattered parcels of undeveloped land on the floor of the San Joaquin Valley and in the foothills of the Coast Range (see USFWS 1998 for further details). In the northern part of the San Joaquin Valley,  Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizards have been found in the Firebaugh and Madera Essential Habitat Areas (Williams 1990). Other northern locations include the Ciervo, Tumey, and Panoche Hills, Anticline Ridge, Pleasant Valley, and the Lone Tree, Sandy Mush Road, Whitesbridge, Horse Pasture, and Kettleman Hills Essential Habitat Areas. In the southern San Joaquin Valley, known extant populations exists in the following locations: Pixley National Wildlife Refuge, Liberty Farm, Allensworth, Kern National Wildlife Refuge, Antelope Plain, Buttonwillow, Elk Hills, and Tupman Essential Habitat Areas; on the Carrizo and Elkhorn Plains; north of Bakersfield around Poso Creek; in western Kern County in the area around the towns of Maricopa, McKittrick, and Taft; at the Kern Front oil field; at the base of the Tehachapi Mountains on Tejon Ranch; and just west of the California Aqueduct on the Tejon and San Emizdio Ranches (USFWS 1998). The species is presumed to be extant in the upper Cuyama Valley (USFWS 1998). The distribution approaches that of <em>Gambelia wislizenii</em> in the Cuyama Valley drainage, where <em>wislizenii</em> occurs above 1,100 m and sila occurs below 790 m (see McGuire 1996).	eng
40690	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species inhabits semi-arid grasslands, alkali flats, low foothills, canyon floors, large washes, and arroyos, usually on sandy, gravelly, or loamy substrate, sometimes on hardpan. It is common where there are abundant rodent burrows, and rare or absent in dense vegetation or tall grass. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: 1) clump grass and saltbush grassland, with sandy soil, 2) washes with brush, in grassland, with sandy soil, 3) alkali flats, with saltbush in sandy or gravelly soil, and 4) grassland with hardpan soil. See Warrick <em>et al</em>. (1998) for additional habitat information. This lizard cannot survive on lands under cultivation (it may use edges adjacent to suitable habitat); repopulation of an area after tilling ends requires at least 10 years. It basks on kangaroo rat mounds and often seeks cover at the base of shrubs, in the burrows of small mammals, or in rock piles. Adults may excavate shallow burrows for shelter but depend on deeper burrows of rodents for hibernation (and egg laying). Eggs typically are laid in an abandoned rodent burrow, at a depth of about 50 cm (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1980).	eng
40690	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There are not many more than a few dozen distinct populations. The total population size is unknown but probably includes more than 1,000 adults. The species had been eliminated from 94% of the original range since the mid-1800s (Jennings 1995). Populations fluctuate greatly with environmental conditions, so determination of the trend in abundance is difficult. However, the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have probably continued to decrease.	eng
40690	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its distribution and abundance have been greatly reduced, and populations are now severely fragmented, due primarily to loss of habitat to urbanization, water development projects, and agricultural development; intensive mineral development, off-road vehicle activity, pesticide application (for ground squirrels), overgrazing, and flooding also have been detrimental (USFWS 1998). Thick cover of non-native grasses degrades the habitat in some years and locations (Germano and Williams 2005). These lizards use mammal burrows for shelter, so activities that compact soil or crush burrows should be avoided. Habitat disturbance, destruction, and fragmentation continue as the greatest threats to Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard populations (USFWS 1998).	eng
40692	distribution	Wager, R., 1996	This species is known only from the Murray-Darling River system. It has been reported from a number of lakes including Alexandrina (South Australia), Hattah (Victoria) and the Kerang Lakes area (New South Wales).	eng
40692	habitat	Wager, R., 1996	This species inhabits the margins of slow, lowland rivers, and lakes, billabongs and backwaters.	eng
40693	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Occurs in Lake Poso in central Sulawesi.	eng
40697	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known.	eng
40697	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the small tributaries of two rivers, the Loukkos and Sebou, of the Atlantic coast of northern Morocco.	eng
40697	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No information available.	eng
40697	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This is an abundant species where found (Azeroual, A. pers. comm.).	eng
40697	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduced competitor <em>Lepomis</em> spp could threaten this species, and in the Loukkos river there is the threat of pollution from agriculture but only in main channel and not in the tributaries.	eng
40698	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
40698	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Europe north of the Alps, from Meuse eastward to Neva drainages and Lake Ladoga; northern Black Sea basin from Danube eastward to Kuban; Caspian basin in Volga and Ural drainages. In Black Sea basin, absent south of Danube and Kuban. Not native to Great Britain, Scandinavia, Apennine and Iberian Peninsulas, Crimea, and Adriatic, Aegean and White Sea basins. Locally introduced in Rhône drainage (France) and perhaps elsewhere.	eng
40698	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Backwaters and side channels of lowland streams, rivers and lakes. Mostly restricted to densely vegetated habitats with slow or no current and soft, mud bottom. Spawns in dense vegetation, often in flooded meadows. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, at about 110 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Males have a larger second pectoral ray and shallow vertical swellings of flanks above anal base, enlarged during spawning time. Male follows female into dense vegetation and forms a complete ring around her body, behind dorsal fin. Sticky eggs are released into vegetation. Larvae move to bottom and hide in mud. Larvae have large external gill filaments, resorbed after 10-12 days. Adults nocturnal, burrows into mud to hide during day and, especially in shallow habitats, during dry periods and strong frosts. Usually burrows 200-300 mm deep, occasionally down to 700 mm during dry periods. Able to survive in habitats with low oxygen concentrations by cutaneous and intestinal respiration. Frequently swallows air, oxygen being absorbed through the walls of the gut. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Swims slowly above bottom and dig for invertebrates, which are localized by olfaction.	eng
40698	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Slowly declining.	eng
40698	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	River regulation for water transport,  has reduced the number of back waters (oxbow lakes etc) where, in the last phases of succession the species is found. The species moves between the backwaters during times of flooding, which has also been regulated by the channelization and damming of the rivers. The succession of the back waters takes many years and the number of available and suitable sites for the species is slowly reducing as they dry out and no new ones are created. The species is known to have been extirpated from many locations.	eng
40703	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
40703	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from a few isolated wells in the vicinity of Bud-bud Uaesele, in central Somalia.	eng
40703	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This blind, hypogenean cavefish has been found in seven localities within a range of 30 km around the type locality. All specimens are completely anophthalmic and highly anatomically specialized, and found only in a few isolated wells in this arid region.	eng
40703	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
40703	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no information available on particular threats. However, this species is highly specialised to a few wells, where it is vulnerable to any changes, particularly from pollution.	eng
40705	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Restocked in Chiemsee.	eng
40705	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Austrian subalpine Lakes Attersee, Mondsee and Wolfgangsee. A small population seems to exist in Austrian stretch of Danube. Extirpated in Lakes Traunsee (Austria) and Chiemsee (Germany). Stocked in Chiemsee. Rutilus populations of unclear identity from upper Tisza system (Slovakia, Hungary) might belong to this species.	eng
40705	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water layers of subalpine lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Spawns in May-June in lake tributaries or streams connecting lakes, in shallow areas with current, near shore. In spawning season, males have conspicuous, strong, almost spiny, nuptial tubercles on head and upper half of body.	eng
40705	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant and stable in Attersee and Mondsee.	eng
40705	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Damming of spawning rivers (the species spawns downstream). Chiemsee was dammed in the 1960s and the last individual was caught in the 1993 as the species is long lived. Traunsee the spawning river was also dammed (unknown date) and is now extirpated.	eng
40706	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
40707	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Lake Towuti in central Sulawesi.	eng
40708	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	A (EU) Natura 2000 species.	eng
40708	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin, from Italy to Montenegro.	eng
40708	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, lakes and large to medium size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Found mainly on open sand or mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter in March-July. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
40708	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant.	eng
40708	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
40709	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	The Balkhash perch occurs naturally in Lake Balkhash and the Alakol lake group (Kazakhstan), and associated catchment areas (extending into China) (Sokolovsky, pers. comm). It has also been introduced into Kyrgyzstan (MEP 1998, Sokolovsky pers. comm.) and Uzbekistan (Kamilov 1966, Nuriyev 1967).	eng
40709	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	<em>Perca schrenkii</em> has several ecological forms (ecomorphs): pelagic, shoreline and dwarfish, which allows the species to occur in different biotopes and maximize food resources in the water body.	eng
40709	population	Kottelat, M., 1996	Before acclimatization works were carried out in catchment areas of Balkhash and Alakol lakes, <em>Perca schrenkii</em> was the predominating species in the lakes and lowland rivers. In the 1930s and 1940s this fish constituted up to one third of commercial fishery volume in Balkhash Lake and two thirds in the lakes in the Alakol group (Sokolovsky <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the mid-1960s the population decreased in Balkhash Lake and it catchment area, and since the mid-1970s the species has no longer been accounted for in statistical reports on yields in Balkhash Lake and Elee River (Sokolovsky, pers. comm.).  In the Alakol catchment area, <em>P. schrenkii</em> were no longer caught in Sasykkol and Kaschkarkol lakes since the mid-1980s, although the species does still remain in the shoreline areas (Sokolovsky, pers. comm.). However, the perch population in Alakol lake is still substantial and is used by commercial fisheries (Sokolvsky, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, this species migrated or was introduced into many other water bodies in Kazakhstan and Middle Asia, including Chyrchyk River (Kamylov 1966) and Kattakurgan Reservoir (Nuriev 1967) in Uzbekistan, and the Nizhne-Ala-Archa Reservoir in Kyrgyzstan (Pivnev 1985). <br/> <br/>Information on subpopulatons of Balkhash perch in China is currently unavailable.	eng
40709	threats	Kottelat, M., 1996	Population declines in Balkhash Lake and the surrounding rivers have been attributed to the introduction of bream and predatory fish species, such as Zander <em>Sander volgensis</em>.	eng
40712	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
40712	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia and Amvrakia in western Greece. In the 1980s it was introduced to Lake Volvi, northern Greece and to Lake Pahvotis in western Greece (date of introduction unknown).	eng
40712	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in lakes exclusively.	eng
40712	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
40712	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution. Overfishing.	eng
40713	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
40713	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
40713	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North, Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, as far north as southern Sweden and Finland; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Stuma to Sperchios drainages; Turkey. Absent from rest of Mediterranean basin. Introduced in Rhône drainage in 1857 and in British Isles during second half of 19th century. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe and Lake Balkhash basin (Kazakhstan).	eng
40713	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	North, Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins, as far north as southern Sweden and Finland; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Stuma to Sperchios drainages; Turkey. Absent from rest of Mediterranean basin. Introduced in Rhône drainage in 1857 and in British Isles during second half of 19th century. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe and Lake Balkhash basin (Kazakhstan).	eng
40713	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large and medium size lowland rivers, backwaters and well vegetated lakes. Spawns in shallow, warm and well vegetated riverine habitats without current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 80 years in the wild. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and 1-2 kg. Spawns in April-June, in northern areas until August, when temperature reaches about 20°C. In spawning grounds, males defend small territories and build nests of plant material, dig shallow depressions or clean spawning substrate such as willow (<em>Salix</em>) roots. Nests are defended by males until larvae emerge. Spawns in pairs. During spawning act, the male embraces the female. Eggs hatch in 2-3 days and larvae remain in nest until yolk sack is absorbed (2-4 days). A nocturnal predator, feeding near bottom and in water column. Very sensitive to extra-aquatic sounds. Head sensory canal system allows to track the wakes [a trail of hydrodynamic and chemical signatures left by a swimming fish] of prey up to 10 seconds old over distances up to 55 times the length of the prey. Larvae and juveniles benthic and negatively phototactic, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates and fish. Adults feed on fish and other aquatic vertebrates.	eng
40713	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large and medium size lowland rivers, backwaters and well vegetated lakes. Spawns in shallow, warm and well vegetated riverine habitats without current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 80 years in the wild. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and 1-2 kg. Spawns in April-June, in northern areas until August, when temperature reaches about 20°C. In spawning grounds, males defend small territories and build nests of plant material, dig shallow depressions or clean spawning substrate such as willow (<em>Salix</em>) roots. Nests are defended by males until larvae emerge. Spawns in pairs. During spawning act, the male embraces the female. Eggs hatch in 2-3 days and larvae remain in nest until yolk sack is absorbed (2-4 days). A nocturnal predator, feeding near bottom and in water column. Very sensitive to extra-aquatic sounds. Head sensory canal system allows to track the wakes [a trail of hydrodynamic and chemical signatures left by a swimming fish] of prey up to 10 seconds old over distances up to 55 times the length of the prey. Larvae and juveniles benthic and negatively phototactic, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates and fish. Adults feed on fish and other aquatic vertebrates.	eng
40713	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
40713	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
40713	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	River regulation destroying shallow spawning sites.	eng
40713	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	River regulation destroying shallow spawning sites.	eng
40715	conservation	Bartnik, S., Morgan, Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2008	This species has been identified or protected by the following conservation actions. <br/><ul><li>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> all syngnathids became subject to the export controls of the Commonwealth <em>Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982</em> on 1 January 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</li><li>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, all syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under section 248 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation&#160; (EPBC) Act 1999 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</li><li>This species is listed as Data Deficient by the Australian Society for Fish Biology (ASFB) in its 2001 Conservation Status of Australian Fishes document, the most recent AFSB listing available (ASFB 2007).</li></ul>	eng
40715	distribution	Bartnik, S., Morgan, Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2008	<p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> has a wide geographic range. It has been recorded in surveys and taxonomic overviews from the Red Sea and the African east coast to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Knysna</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Dawson 1985, Dawson 1986).&#160; It is also found in the Indo-Pacific from the east coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, throughout the South China Sea and has been recorded as far northward as northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It has been found in three states and one territory in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>: <st1:state w:st="on">Western  Australia</st1:state>, the <st1:state w:st="on">Northern Territory</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state> (Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989). It has been recorded near the islands of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Micronesia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Samoa</st1:place> (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>Australian Marine Protected Areas in Which Has Been Recorded (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002): In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, <em>S. biaculeatus</em> is found in the following marine protected areas: Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, off northern <st1:state w:st="on">Western Australia</st1:state>, Cartier Island Marine Protected Area, <st1:city w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef  Marine Park</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, and <st1:placename w:st="on">Coburg</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Marine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype>, in the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Northern Territory</st1:place></st1:state> (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>    <p>Museum Records Worldwide: in Australia, there are 106 specimens (standard length 100-288 mm), collected from a depth range of 0 to 5 m, ranging in geographical distribution from the Timor Sea, Northern Territory south-eastwards to Batemans Bay (35°44’S), New South Wales on the east coast of Australia, and from Ashmore Reef (12°13’S) southwards to Geraldton (28°46’S) on the west coast of Australia. Outside <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> there are specimens from the Andaman Islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, Malay Archipelago, <st1:city w:st="on">Guam</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Papua New Guinea</st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Solomon Islands</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Specimens were collected between circa 1879 and 1998 (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Other museum records are available from FishBase and the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) and include specimens collected from Suva Harbor in Fiji, Singapore, Kenya, and Yemen (Froese and Pauly 2007, Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2007). Specimens listed in Fishbase/OBIS have collection dates from 1828 to 2004.	eng
40715	habitat	Bartnik, S., Morgan, Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2008	<p>Habitat</p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> is generally found in seagrass beds or algal flats in the protected shallow waters of lagoons and bays, its colouring matching plants well<em> </em>(Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). Adults are found in large <em>Sargassum</em> rafts (Kuiter 1996) and juveniles are occasionally found among debris floating offshore (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Dawson</st1:place></st1:city> 1985). In <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, this species is found in estuaries, usually in association with <em>Zostera </em>seagrass, to which it anchors itself by means of its prehensile tail (Grant 1978).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Behaviour and Biology<u></u></p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus </em>has a breeding season of between October and April in <st1:city w:st="on">Moreton Bay</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) but year-round in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bootless</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype></st1:place>, PNG (Barrows <em>et al</em>. unpub). Males mature and can begin brooding at a length of about 180 mm (Dawson, 1985; Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) although smaller mature males have been observed (Barrows <em>et al</em>., unpub). Brood size for males was comparable to that of other syngnathids, at 60-200 eggs (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) although ongoing research suggests that larger broods can occur (Barrows <em>et al</em>., unpub). The eggs can vary in colour (they can be clear, white, brown, or green) as they develop and are carried on the abdomen of the male until they hatch (Grant 1978, Takahashi 2000).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> is a poor swimmer, propelling itself by the winnowing action of the dorsal and pectoral fins (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Some individuals have been observed near the surface of the water or jumping out of the water entirely (Dawson 1986, Kuiter 1996). Prey items<em> </em>include shrimps, fish, and amphipods (Nakamura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) as well as other tiny crustaceans (Allen and Swainston 1992).<strong></strong></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p>Size<u></u></p>  <p><em>Syngnathoides biaculeatus</em> has been reported to achieve a maximum length of between 260 to 300 mm (Kuiter 1996, Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003) and displays significant size dimorphism, with males growing bigger than females (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although growth of <em>S. biaculeatus</em> has been reported as rapid over a life span of less than two years (Takahashi <em>et al.</em> 2003), more recent studies suggest that growth rates are slower and life spans can reach three years (Barrows <em>et al</em>. unpub data). </p>	eng
40715	population	Bartnik, S., Morgan, Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2008	<p>While <em>S. biaculeatus</em> has been reported by many authors in its range, there is no information available to our knowledge about population structure or sizes. Takahashi <em>et al.</em> (2003) (and earlier thesis Takahashi 2000) report on index of population size (CPUE) and seasonal changes in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Moreton Bay</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place>. Work in Bootless Bay, PNG (Barrows, Baine and Martin-Smith unpub. data) shows they are very common (found at all seagrass sites) in moderate abundance (2-6 individuals/100 m²) with no systematic changes across the year.</p>	eng
40715	threats	Bartnik, S., Morgan, Pogonoski, J., Pollard, D. & Paxton, J., 2008	<p>This species has a history of use in the Chinese traditional medicine trade. Known as Hailong (Shi <em>et al.</em> 1993), it has been observed for sale in traditional medicine stores in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Woodfield, pers. comm., Martin-Smith and Vincent 2006). The origins of the specimens that enter the medicine trade have not been established, although it is likely there are from wild populations as <em>S. biaculeatus</em> rearing in aquaculture facilities has not been reported. Live specimens are also sold as pets for home aquariums and this trade could threaten wild populations if individuals are being removed from the wild to fulfill the home aquarium industry demand (S. Bartnik, pers. obs).</p>	eng
40747	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
40747	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	This species is restricted to Lake Egirdir in Central Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
40747	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	It is a pelagic lacustrine species. Unlikely to move into tributaries.	eng
40747	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	No data on population size. The species may be extinct: it was not found during surveys in 1993 (F. Erk'akan pers. comm.).	eng
40747	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	Introduction of exotic fish predator: in 1955 was introduced the Zander, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>. Three species of <em>Phoxinellus</em>, perfect prey for the Zander, totally disappeared 30–40 years ago.	eng
40758	distribution	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	This species is known only from the headwaters of the Namoi and Gwydir Rivers, west of Armidale New South Wales, between 700 and 800 m asl. A disjunct and possibly distinct population also occurs in Bald Rock Creek, southeastern Queensland. The western boundary of the distribution coincides with where the rivers leave the escarpment before meeting the Darling River.	eng
40758	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Occurs in the upper reaches and smaller tributaries of major rivers flowing through granitic bedrock. The riverbed is sandy and rocky, with small beds of aquatic vegetation. Has terrestrial nest sites. <br/> <br/>Much of the land surrounding the rivers is used for grazing sheep and cattle. Some riparian vegetation remains in the form of numerous Eucalypts and introduced willows.	eng
40761	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40761	threats	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Trade in the species in East Asian markets, discovered among shipments in the early 1990s, peaked at an estimated annual level of 2,000–3,000 animals in 1998 and collapsed to 100 animals in 1999.	eng
40762	habitat	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	Semi-aquatic	eng
40765	conservation	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	Control exotic species and access to the island, and enact a program to prevent the introduction of common rats.	eng
40765	distribution	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Galápagos Islands. It occurs in Fernandina (= Narborough) Island (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
40765	habitat	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is terrestrial and nocturnal. There is no information about its diet. This species co-occurs with <em>N. fernandinae</em>. It has been captured in lowland and highland areas into the Fernandina Island; at high-elevation (about 1,300 m) along the volcano rim the vegetation is primarily Scalesia spp., and was most dense (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
40765	population	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rat is locally common (Dowler <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
40765	threats	Tirira, D., Dowler, R., Boada, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The main current threat to the species is possible introduction of exotic species, in particular <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>.	eng
40766	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There are currently no active conservation measures in place. The species does not occur in any protected area (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Further searches for this species are urgently needed.	eng
40766	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The only known specimen was trapped near the source of the Little Abbai River (flows into Lake Tana and then into the Blue Nile), at Gojjam, north western Ethiopia (11°7'20"N, 37°12'40"W). It was collected at an elevation of 2,600 m asl.	eng
40766	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It was recorded from highland, riparian habitat (Nowak, 1999) and the species represents the most extreme adaptation to an aquatic environment amongst the African Murids.	eng
40766	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen, and it may now be extinct. Leonid Lavrenchenko (pers. comm.) has attempted to recollect this species on two occasions (Duane Schlitter has also tried, but without any success).	eng
40766	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The habitat was already severely degraded when the type specimen was collected in the 1920s. Leonid Lavrenchenko (pers. comm.) confirms that the area today is pure pastureland.	eng
40767	conservation	Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is not currently known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
40767	distribution	Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is currently known only from type locality: 1.6 km east of Ziarat, northeastern Baluchistan Province, Pakistan (Holden, 1996). Its distributional limits are unknown, but it is believed to be restricted to a relatively small area within Baluchistan, and so its extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
40767	habitat	Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is apparently restricted to dry steppe juniper forest in the Baluchistan Province, Pakistan.	eng
40767	population	Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is currently known only from three specimens, although an additional five specimens may exist in the collections of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (Holden 2005).	eng
40767	threats	Gippoliti, S., 2008	The dry steppe juniper forest in the Baluchistan Province, on which this species depends, has been greatly fragmented and degraded due overgrazing by livestock, removal of wood, and expanding agriculture and human settlements.	eng
40768	conservation	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	There is a few of protected areas in its range.	eng
40768	distribution	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity: Chile, Valdivia Province, Region de Los Lagos, 42 km N and slightly E Valdivia, near Mehuín, 100 m; 39°26′S, 73°10′W. But this species may inhabit other areas of the Valdivian temperate rainforest zone, west-central Chile (Musser and Carleton 2005). D'Elia <em>et al.</em> (2006) have recorded four new localities in southern Chile.	eng
40768	habitat	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	The species appears to to be endemic to southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> forest) in the Valdivian temperate rainforest zone (see Patterson 1992).The Valdivian temperate rainforest habitat is characterized by a majority of evergreen and a few deciduous trees, high annual rainfall (1500–3000 mm), wet and frost-free winters, and short dry summers (D'Elia <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
40768	population	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	It is considered a rare species.	eng
40768	threats	Patterson, B. & D'elia, G., 2008	In the region, forests are highly fragmented and under increasing pressure from logging activities.	eng
40773	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40773	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. subelongatus</em> is known from Freemantle, Perth, Swan River, and Houtman Abrolhos Islands in Western Australia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
40773	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	The species is found on the edge of rocky areas, muddy bottoms, and areas of high sediment load; jetty piles and mooring; and it is often associated with sponges or sea squirts or attached to man-made objects. They have been reported to occur at depths of 1 to 25 m and to move to deeper waters in winter (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>. in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
40773	population	Project Seahorse, 2002	Data are not currently available on wild populations.	eng
40773	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. subelongatus</em> is collected for the aquarium trade, but the effects of this collection on the persistence of populations is debated. In addition to exploitation for the aquarium trade, habitat degeneration is a potential threat to the species.	eng
40774	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research on this species is needed	eng
40774	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. zebra</em> is endemic to Australia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
40774	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995) and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
40775	conservation	Hutson, A.M. & Francis, C., 2008	The species occurs in Sepilok Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species. There is need of urgent survey work using a variety of survey methods for this species.	eng
40775	distribution	Hutson, A.M. & Francis, C., 2008	The species is known only from Sepilok Forest Reserve (05°52'N, 117°56'E) in Sabah in Malaysian Borneo at close to sea level.	eng
40775	habitat	Hutson, A.M. & Francis, C., 2008	The only known habitat for this species is lowland dipterocarp forest. The only known specimens were trapped in the understorey of tall forest, but the species is probably a canopy species, and so perhaps under collected.	eng
40775	population	Hutson, A.M. & Francis, C., 2008	It is known only from three specimens (two from which the species was described). It has not been recorded since 1992 but is probably declining if restricted to lowland forest.	eng
40775	threats	Hutson, A.M. & Francis, C., 2008	The only known location for this species is a forest reserve. Outside of the reserve, forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat.	eng
40776	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in Krau protected area (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
40776	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	The species is known from western Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
40776	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	According to available information this is a lowland species (G. Csorba pers. comm.). It was found at the type locality  in primary and secondary forest near a stream at 266 m asl (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
40776	population	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is probably a rare species.	eng
40776	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	Deforestation due to logging, agriculture, plantations and forest fires is a major threat to this species.	eng
40782	conservation	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	This species is now extinct.	eng
40782	distribution	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	<em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> is mostly known from southern localities of coastal to lowland Madagascar (see a list of locality in Stuenes 1989). Last appearance datum of Madagascan dwarf hippopotamids remains uncertain. Most recent dates were provided through 14C dating and indicate ca. 1000 AD (Dewar 1984; Burney <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, MacPhee and Flemming (1999) proposed it as recent on the basis of local oral tradition (Flacourt 1661; and see Burney and Ramilisonina 1999) and possible younger age of some localities. However, this may only reflect sporadic occurrence of <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>.	eng
40782	habitat	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	Stuenes (1989) indicated that <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> was probably well adapted to the amphibious way of life observed in the extant <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>. She based her conclusion notably on the relatively prominent orbits and developed muzzle of this species. In terms of diet, cranio-mandibular morphology may also indicate similarity with <em>Hip. amphibius</em> (Stuenes 1989), i.e. a diet mainly based on fresh grass. Overall, <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em> seems to have been a dweller of freshwater rivers crossing the lowlands of Madagascar.	eng
40782	population	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	This species is now extinct.	eng
40782	threats	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	Island dwarf hippopotamids were probably easy preys for human hunters. This may have lead to their quick extinction in the Mediterranean (Simmons 1988). The same impact from human hunters may have been effective in at least accelerating extinction of Madagascan hippopotamids. MacPhee and Burney (1991) indicate evidence for hippopotamid butchery in south-western Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD. Co-occurrence of humans and hippopotamids on Madagascar, therefore, lasted for at minimum of 1,000 years. How much humans have contributed to this extinction is yet to be determined.	eng
40783	conservation	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	This species is now extinct.	eng
40783	distribution	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	<em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> is mostly known from localities of highland Madagascar (see a list of locality in Stuenes 1989). Last appearance datum of Madagascan dwarf hippopotamids remains uncertain. Most recent dates were provided through 14C dating and indicate ca. 1000 AD (Dewar 1984; Burney <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, MacPhee and Flemming (1999) proposed it as recent on the basis of local oral tradition (Flacourt 1661) and the possible younger age of some localities. However, this may only reflect sporadic occurrence of <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>.	eng
40783	habitat	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	<em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> retains low orbits and a relatively short muzzle. Stuenes (1989) used these features to propose a more terrestrial way of life for this species than in <em>Hippopotamus amphibius</em>. Similarly, Stuenes (1989) indicated a cranio-mandibular morphology closer to that of <em>Choeropsis liberiensis</em>, the extant Pigmy Hippo from western Africa. She further noted that <em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> exhibited teeth generally more worn than in <em>Hippopotamus lemerlei</em>. These characters both suggest a diet differing from that of the other Madagascan dwarf hippopotamid.<br/><br/>The ecology of <em>Hippopotamus madagascariensis</em> may have been close to that of Mediterranean extinct dwarf hippopotamids, but further investigation of this question is required, notably on postcranial anatomy, stable isotope enamel/bone contents, and dental wear.	eng
40783	threats	Boisserie, J.-R., 2008	Island dwarf hippopotamids were probably easy prey for human hunters. This may have lead to their quick extinction in the Mediterranean (Simmons 1988). The same impact from human hunters may have been effective in at least accelerating extinction of Madagascan hippopotamids. MacPhee and Burney (1991) indicate evidence for hippopotamid butchery in south-western Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD. Co-occurrence of humans and hippopotamids on Madagascar, therefore, lasted for a minimum of 1,000 years. How much humans have contributed to this extinction is yet to be determined.	eng
40784	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
40784	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Formerly occurred along the coasts of Canada (New Brunswick, Newfoundland) and in coastal eastern North America (Massachusetts, Maine). The Sea Mink apparently had been exterminated, last record collected in 1894 (Campbell 1988, Nowak 2005). Its range seems subsequently to have been occupied by <em>M. vison</em> (Nowak 1999).	eng
40784	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	The sea mink reportedly made its home among the rocks along the ocean. The diet consisted mainly of fish and probably also included mollusks (Nowak 2005).	eng
40784	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
40784	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was hunted to extinction (fur trade).	eng
40785	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Protection and maintenance of its existing habitat is a priority for this species, as it is currently not known from any protected area.	eng
40785	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only from Farellones (33° 32'S; 70°19'W), Central Chile, 35km north-east of Santiago, at an altitudinal range of 2,300-3,000m asl, though it is possibly more widely distributed.	eng
40785	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This stream-breeding species has been found under stones, close to mountain streams, where the surrounding vegetation comprises grasses and shrubs characteristic of cold Andean areas. It has free-swimming tadpoles.	eng
40785	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The population is currently believed to comprise only a few adults. Like its congener, <em>A. montanus</em>, it was last collected in 2003, and the population has declined substantially in recent years. Areas where the species is known to breed were found to have been completely destroyed by February 2002.	eng
40785	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Currently, the primary threat to this species is from recreational skiing and tourist infrastructure development, since the only known locality where the species is found is in a ski resort.	eng
40789	conservation	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), and small numbers are present as well in Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. A protected area has been proposed in Quang Tri Province, but there is a need for the elimination of poaching of this species. Nadler <em>et al.</em> (2003) outlines the following recommended conservation action for the species in Viet Nam: conduct further field status surveys and reinforcement of conservation in the protected areas network. <br/>There is a need for further survey and taxonomic research to resolve the status of this species relative to <em>T. laotum</em> and <em>T. ebenus</em>, and to determine the current population status of this species with more accuracy.	eng
40789	distribution	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Although the historical range of this species may once have been much more extensive, it seems to be currently restricted to limestone areas in the western part of Quang Binh and Quang Tri Provinces (from 19°39’N, 105°29’E south to 16°10’N, 107°40’E), and in the eastern part of Khammouan Savannakhet Provinces in Lao PDR (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Its range in Lao PDR appears to be limited (Nadler <em>et a</em>l. 2003), where it has only been recorded with certainty from Hin Nam No National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). The western limit of the range of the species in Lao PDR is unclear.  In Viet Nam, it is confirmed from Tuyen Hoa, Minh Hoa, Bo Trach, Le Thuy, and Quang Ninh districts in Quang Binh Province (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Huoug Hoa in Quang Tri Province (BirdLife International 2005). There is no current evidence for the distribution of the species north of Quang Binh, but the extent of limestone suggests that historically it may well have occurred further north. Records from Gia Lai Province are based on misidentification. The form <em>ebenus</em> is restricted to Khammouane and Savannakhet Provinces in Lao PDR, with a marginal extension into the western part of Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam. The precise limits of the range are unclear, particularly in Viet Nam. The overlap zones of this form with <em>laotum</em> and <em>hatinhensis</em> are not well defined.	eng
40789	habitat	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is typically found in forested habitats associated with karst/limestone environments (Pham Nhat 2002). The natural habitat in Quang Binh and Quang Tri is now restricted to a band of forest near the Lao border (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003), and forests are heavily degraded in Tuyen Hoa and northern Minh Hoa Districts (Pham Nhat <em>et al</em>. 1996a). In Lao PDR, the species is associated with non-limestone rock outcrops on steep or precipitous mountain slopes. It reaches approximately 1,500 m in elevation. It is folivorous, terrestrial and arboreal, and diurnal.	eng
40789	population	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	There is no reliable population estimate available for this species. The Phong Nha-Khe Bang area probably has the largest remaining single population of <em>hatinhensis</em> globally (Nadler <em>et a</em>l. 2003). Sightings in Lao PDR are occasional (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Although a large area of suitable habitat remains in Phong Nha, population density appears very low (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Based on interviews and field observations, Pham Nhat <em>et al.</em> (1996) estimated 530-670 individuals in Phong Nha-Ke Bang; 50-70 in the Hoa Son area; 250-350 in the Thuong Hoa area; and 200-250 in the Phong Nha area. However, this is very likely to be a significant underestimate of the size of this population, and may also include individuals currently assigned to the form <em>T. ebenus</em> in Lao PDR. Individuals assigned to <em>T. ebenus</em> are also <em>hatinhensis</em>, assuming it is confirmed that this form is only a morph of the species.	eng
40789	threats	Xuan Canh, L., Khac Quyet, L., Thanh Hai, D. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The main threat to this species is hunting, as shooting of primates is quite common throughout its range (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). The animals are killed for meat, as well as for traditional “medicine” and the wildlife trade (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Snaring is reported to be the predominant hunting method in Phong Nha-Ke Bang (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 1999), with an increase since 1996 (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Hunting with rifles has appeared to diminish since 1995, probably due to gun legislation controls, confiscation of guns by local authorities, and a decrease of hunting success (Nadler <em>et al</em>. 2003). Road construction around Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park has increased hunting and illegal logging (Nadler <em>et al.</em> 2003). Habitat loss is also a problem in some areas.	eng
40792	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Enhanced protection of riparian zones in desert canyons would benefit this species. It appears not to be known from any protected areas, though it might occur in some.	eng
40792	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known only from California in the United States. It is known several locations in desert mountains of Inyo and Mono counties, east-central California (Stebbins 2003). Some specific locations include the following: Panamint Mountains (Brewery and Limekiln springs, Surprise Canyon, Pleasant Canyon, Wildrose Canyon, middle fork of Hanaupah Canyon), Nelson Mountains (Grapevine Canyon), Inyo Mountains (Daisy Canyon, Lime Hill, Long John Canyon, French Spring), White Mountains (Batchelder Spring, Westgard Pass, Marble Canyon, Tollhouse Spring, Black Canyon, Cottonwood Canyon, Silver Creek Canyon, Coldwater Creek, above Chalfant and Hammil valleys), eastern Argus Mountains, Cosos Mountains (Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Its occurrence in talus habitat suggested to Banta <em>et al</em>. (1996) that the geographic range may be broader than is now known. However, the known area of occupancy is very small (probably less than 5 sq. km if one assumes that each occupied patch is 2 km long and 0.1 km wide). Elevational range is about 2,500 to 7,500 feet (760 to 2,300 m).	eng
40792	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in regions dominated by scrub desert, Joshua tree woodland, and the lower edge of the pinyon-juniper belt (Stebbins 1985). Most known locations are in canyon riparian zones below permanent springs; but individuals may range into talus slopes some distance from the immediate riparian zone (Good 1988, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Individuals have been found under willow thickets along watercourses, under shrubs in drier areas, and in rock slides. When inactive, the lizards hide underground, under stones or wood, or in crevices. Habitats in order of decreasing favourability: (1) along creeks with riparian vegetation, (2) along small springs with riparian vegetation, (3) near small springs in pinyon-juniper or Joshua tree woodland, (4) pinyon juniper and Joshua tree woodland in canyons or washes. Occupied riparian zones are typically only a few metres wide and less than three km long (Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
40792	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Only 24 museum specimens from 16 localities and an additional 11 sight records have accumulated since the species was described in 1958 (Banta <em>et al</em>. 1996). Banta <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 23 locations. The total adult population size of this secretive and apparently rare lizard is unknown, but probably it is at least 1,000 (assuming at least 20 subpopulations of 50 or more adults). Population trends cannot be determined with certainty, but the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have probably been relatively stable over the long term. Abundance probably has declined in some areas where the habitat has been degraded.	eng
40792	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	According to Jennings and Hayes (1994), all but a few of the known populations occur on private lands and are currently at risk from mining, feral and domestic livestock grazing, and increasing off-road vehicle activity.	eng
40793	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	Being rare, this species  has some protection in Japan. According to the 2000 Red List of Japan, the subspecies <em>G. k. toyamai</em> is Critically Endangered, <em>G. k. yamashinae</em>, <em>G. k. splendens</em> and <em>G. k. orientalis</em> are considered Endangered and <em>G. k. kuroiwae</em> is considered Vulnerable. Population monitoring is required for this species.	eng
40793	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species inhabits the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan and is divided into several subspecies, which have the following distribution: <em>G. kuroiwae yamashinae</em> on the island of Kumejima, <em>G. k. splendens</em> on the island of Tokunoshima, <em>G. k. orientalis</em> on the islands of Tonakijima, Akajima, Tokashikijima and Iejima, <em>G. k. toyamai</em> on Iheyajima Island, and <em>G. k. kuroiwae</em> on the islands of Okinawajima, Sesokojima and Kourijima (Grismer <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>The distributional area of this species has been calculated as 1,601 km²<sup></sup>. It ranges from sea level to 450 m above sea level.	eng
40793	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species inhabits the leaf litter of subtropical forests in karst limestone areas (Dial and Grismer 1992). It chiefly preys at night on small invertebrates on the ground surface by switching motive and passive (ambushing) foraging tactics (Werner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, 2006). Each adult female lays one to three clutches per breeding season (from late May to early August), and each clutch consists of no more than two eggs (H. Ota pers. comm. 2010). Hatchlings, appearing from late August to early October, usually become mature in the late breeding season of the next year or in the early breeding season in two years later (Tanaka and Nishihira 1987, 1989; H. Ota pers. comm. 2010).	eng
40793	population	Ota, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
40793	threats	Ota, H., 2009	This species is threatened by human activities including deforestation (Ota 2000). Large areas of the native subtropical forest on the Ryukyu Islands was cleared and converted for agriculture, and habitat degradation took place during World War II (Watanabe <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is also seriously threatened by predation by introduced carnivores, such as the mongoose (on Okinawajima), weasel (on Akajima), and domestic and feral cats (everywhere). The species has also been collected by illegal pet traders (on Tokunoshima, Okinawajima, Kumejima, and Iheyajima).	eng
40797	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	Currently there are no conservation or management measures targeted at this species. In northern Australia shark fisheries are regulated limiting the exploitation of this species.	eng
40797	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	This species occurs in continental shelf waters of the tropical Indo-West Pacific, including Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Viet Nam, China, Thailand, India, Sri Lanka and the Gulf of Aden (Compagno 1984, Parry-Jones 1996). Distribution records from this region are not continuous. However, given its relatively low abundance, and morphological similarity to other more abundant species of <em>Carcharhinus</em>, its distribution is likely to be continuous through southern Asia.	eng
40797	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	This species is found on continental and insular shelves. <br/><br/>Information on the ecology and life history of the Graceful Shark is scant. The only available data are from the waters of northern Australia. The largest recorded size for this species is 167 cm from the Gulf of Thailand (Garrick 1982), while the largest size from Australian waters is 162 cm (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Males and females mature at 110?115 cm and probably mate each year. Litter size ranges from 1?9 pups, with a mean of three and the size at birth is 50?60 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mating probably occurs in February and ovulation in March or April. The gestation period is 9?10 months with parturition occurring in January and February (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991).<br/><br/>The Graceful Shark's diet is composed mostly of bony fishes. Stevens and McLoughlin (1991) reported fish from 91% of specimens with food in the stomach, while crustaceans occurred in 6% and cephalopods in 4%. In a study of predatory fish around Groote Eylandt in Australia?s Gulf of Carpentaria, Brewer <em>et al.</em> (1995) reported that 88.5% of specimens with food in the stomach had consumed fish, 1.3% crabs and 8.5% cephalopods. Over 60% of the fish eaten were from the family Carangidae.	eng
40797	threats	Simpfendorfer, C., 2005	This shark is caught regularly in gillnet and longline fisheries throughout its range. In northern Australia, Lyle and Timms (1984) reported that in gillnets <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> made up 1.5% of the shark catch by numbers and 2.7% by weight. Lyle and Griffin (1987) reported that in longline catches in northern Australia it comprised 0.2% of the shark catch by number and 0.6% by weight. Current levels of the catch of sharks in northern Australia are low. However, catch levels during the 1970s and 1980s were considerably higher when foreign gillnet vessels operated in the fishery. Foreign vessels caught up to 17,000 t of sharks annually during this period (Bentley 1996), but ceased fishing in Australian waters in 1986 when the length of gillnets was restricted.<br/><br/>Records of <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> catches in other countries are scant. Parry-Jones (1996) reported landings in China, and Keong (1996) reported their occurrence in fish markets in Thailand. Catches are probably also taken by commercial fisheries in India and Sri Lanka (Compagno 1984b). The Graceful Shark is exploited for its flesh and fins. There is no information available on the impact of fishing on <em>C. amblyrhynchoides</em> stocks.	eng
40798	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Improved protection of the remaining montane rainforest of Mindanao is needed.	eng
40798	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of north-western and central Mindanao Island, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
40798	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and has not been found outside forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
40798	population		It is known from only a few specimens, and is considered to be rare, although it is poorly known.	eng
40798	threats		It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion and agriculture and human encroachment. However, some populations of this species are subject to these threats.	eng
40799	conservation		There remains a need for much improved protection of the remaining rainforest habitats on Mindanao, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. Human exploitation of this species needs to be investigated to determine if this activity needs to be regulated.	eng
40799	distribution		This species is recorded from the Diuata Mountains and Mount Kitanglade, in Mindanao, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
40799	habitat		It inhabits streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
40799	population		It is a common species.	eng
40799	threats		Threats to this species include deforestation due to agriculture, and the pollution and siltation of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine tailings. Harvesting for human subsistence is a possible threat.	eng
40800	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em>.  There are very little data concerning the habitat, ecology, status of the population and its habitat.  Research in these areas is recommended.	eng
40800	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> occurs in a restricted geographic range (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occupies the subalpine regions of the Hentiyn Nuruu ridge of the Bayan-Ulan range in Mongolia, as well as the Erman Mountain range of the Russian Federation (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 1996; Formozov and Baklushinskaya 1999).  The total extent of occurrence is approximately 600 sq. km (Formozov pers. comm.)	eng
40800	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The preferred habitat of <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> is rock and talus.	eng
40800	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the current population status of this species.	eng
40800	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is threatened by rising global temperatures.  As a rock dwelling species, <em>Ochotona hoffmanni</em> is unable to disperse to more suitable habitat due to the intolerable ambient temperatures of connecting terrain.	eng
40802	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
40802	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. barbouri</em> is recorded from the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
40802	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	A marine species, occurring in shallow seagrass habitat. This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
40802	population	Project Seahorse, 2002	Population declines are inferred based on substantial exploitation, decreased availability in the trade, and habitat degeneration.	eng
40802	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. barbouri</em> is sold in the aquarium, curiosity, and TM trades, particularly the first (Pajaro, unpubl. data).  It is also a by-catch in other gears used in its shallow seagrass habitat (Pajaro, unpubl. data).  In addition to the substantial demand for this species for TM and aquaria, its seagrass habitats are also threatened.	eng
40816	conservation	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40816	distribution	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	One single location of approximately 400 km². Total population is size is ca. 3,000 and is comprised of a number of small subpopulations.	eng
40816	habitat	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Lower slopes of calcareous hills with alluvial ridges of pebble.	eng
40816	threats	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Construction of roads and settlements and expanding agriculture.	eng
40817	conservation	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40817	distribution	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Geographically isolated on the eastern slopes of Sierra Madre Oriental, known only in one valley around Acultzingo (range is 300 km²). In the last untouched corners of the valley the population is still healthy but comprises only a few hundred plants.	eng
40817	habitat	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Lava-soil with grass and small bushes.	eng
40817	threats	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Any extension of human activities in the valley pose a threat.	eng
40818	conservation	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.   Plants are being propagated through <em>ex situ</em> cultivation.	eng
40818	distribution	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Plants are very scattered on the prairies west of Cerro Potosi in Nuevo Leon (range is 7,000 km²).	eng
40818	habitat	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Sandy-loamy alluvial plains.	eng
40818	threats	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Constant loss of plants by agricultural activities (cultivation) has been observed in recent years. The size of the untouched prairie is diminishing from year to year.	eng
40819	conservation	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40819	distribution	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Found in the Río Verde, Villa Juárez y Cd. del Maíz Municipalities.  The plants at all locations are scattered and form large groups. There are several thousand plants left.	eng
40819	habitat	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	The main site is in the dry lagoon of Las Tablas in gypsum soil with grass.  The habitat is locally classified as: eastern subpopulation - Zacatal (Grassland); central subpopulation - Matorral Desértico Micrófilo with Yuccas (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40819	threats	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	There is constant loss of plants due to agricultural cultivation. Road construction decimated one of the locations. Illegal collection is an ongoing problem.	eng
40820	conservation	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40820	distribution	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	The exent of occurrence is large (28,000 km²), but there are only a few locations left, most of them containing less than 20 plants. In total the remaining population probably only totals several hundred plants.	eng
40820	habitat	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Deep and flat lava soils in grass or besides anthills. Occurs together with opuntias.	eng
40820	threats	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	The remaining portions of habitat with suitably  large enough populations should be protected. Plants should also be propagated.	eng
40821	conservation	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Extensive surveys have been conducted by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and various conservation measures have been proposed.	eng
40821	distribution	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	There are several hundred plants scattered in endangered habitats.  The small range is treated as a single location, 600 km² in extent.	eng
40821	habitat	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Occurs in flat and sparsely vegetated areas or on flat hilltops in semi-desert grasslands.	eng
40821	threats	Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Threatened primarily by expanding urbanization.  However the introduced and invasive Lehman's lovegrass has a major impact, as do off-road vehicles, fires and illegal removal by collectors.	eng
40822	conservation	Stuppy, W. & Kiesling, R., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  However, the laws governing international trade in this species need to be enforced in the countries of destination.	eng
40822	distribution	Stuppy, W. & Kiesling, R., 2002	Without doubt a 'good' species. However, this was originally described in the genus <em>Puna</em>, a recent study (Stuppy 2001) has shown that the taxon undoubtedly belongs to the genus <em>Tephrocactus</em>. The extent of occurrence is about 20 km². The range may extend to the tops of the hills or even higher up the mountains south of the present location. But this needs verification.	eng
40822	habitat	Stuppy, W. & Kiesling, R., 2002	Occurs in semi-desert scrub.	eng
40822	threats	Stuppy, W. & Kiesling, R., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. However, the type locality is no longer on the main route (a new road was made and the old one abandoned), and the other places where Kiesling found <em>T. bonnieae</em> again are unknown to others. It is also difficult to find the plants because of their geophytic habit.	eng
40823	conservation	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  Protection of the habitat and propagation in cultivation are urgently required.	eng
40823	distribution	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Confined to a small area (<9 km²) east of the town of San Luis Potosí, Cerro de San Pedro Municipality. There are about 3,000 mature individuals, usually forming large clumps. Two locations where the species was formerly known to occur have been completely destroyed in recent years.	eng
40823	habitat	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Grows in clusters hidden in the grass on lava soils.  The habitat is now an induced grassland as a result of the felling of the <em>Quercus</em> woodland which previously dominated the area.  The habitat is locally classified as pastizal inducido (Induced Grassland) (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40823	threats	Sotomayor, M.M., Arredondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., Dicht, R.F. & Lüthy, A.D., 2002	Erosion, deforestation and over-pasturing.  Illegal collection is also a problem.	eng
40824	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is a need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination (listed on CITES App. II). Recently a portion of the site has been enclosed with a chain link fence by El Charco del Ingenio of San Miguel de Allende with the support of the British Cactus and Succulent Society. Under the circumstances, it appears this measure may well be effective. The species has long been propagated around the world.	eng
40824	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The population of this species has been diminished by an estimated 50% over the past 20 years. Current estimated population is 5,000 individuals growing over 5 km². Occurs to the south of Pozos.	eng
40824	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows on sloping calcareous rock in semi desert at about 2,000 m altitude.	eng
40824	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. A residential development is in progress in the area and the developers are cooperative with the idea of establishing a protected area.	eng
40825	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination (listed on CITES App. II). These plants have been widely propagated worldwide for 20 years.	eng
40825	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs on Cerro Bernal where it grows on a steep volcanic rock face over about 2,000 square meters (plan view). Current estimated population is less than 500 individuals.	eng
40825	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,400 m altitude.	eng
40825	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors and is protected only by the difficulty of access.	eng
40826	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination.	eng
40826	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs northeast of San Luis Potosí where there are many subpopulations over a range of 250 km² with a total population estimated to be less than 10,000 individuals.	eng
40826	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found on flat to sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert at about 1,800 m altitude.	eng
40826	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur.	eng
40827	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination.	eng
40827	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs north of San Andreas from two sites about 3 km apart, probably best considered a single location. The estimated total range is 25 km². It is estimated that the total area of occupancy of the two subpopulations is less than 1 km², and with a total population estimated to be less than 100 individuals.	eng
40827	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Sloping volcanic rocky terrain in semi-desert at about 1,600 m altitude.	eng
40827	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Currently little threatened by collectors. Although the habitat is known to collectors, the trip to the type locality from and back to the nearest rudimentary facilities takes a full day thus discouraging tour groups and casual collectors. Natural disasters seem to be the main cause for concern.	eng
40829	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Insufficient data.	eng
40829	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	From San Luis Potosí State and perhaps other adjacent states.	eng
40829	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,800 m altitude, based on the <em>M. leucantha</em> description of the type locality.	eng
40829	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Unknown.	eng
40831	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40831	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Range unknown from the description but presumably in Hidalgo State near Venado and perhaps also in adjacent states.	eng
40831	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Unknown.	eng
40831	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Unknown.	eng
40832	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is required. Plants from the type locality have been widely propagated, although collecting by individuals and tour groups continues.	eng
40832	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The southern most of the two known populations has been somewhat diminished by collecting over the past 10 years. Current estimated population is estimated at 500 individuals.	eng
40832	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found on volcanic rock in semi-desert at an altitude of 2,000 m.	eng
40832	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting and land development.	eng
40833	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. This species is widely propagated.	eng
40833	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs near Lake Chapala in Jalisco State and near Irapuato in Guanajuato State. Only four small subpopulations are known, extending over a total range of less than 2,500 km² (Fitz Maurice 1992, Pilbeam 1999). It is estimated that the total area of occupancy of the four subpopulations is less than 10 km², with a total population estimated to be less than 2,500 individuals.	eng
40833	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On sloping volcanic rocky terrain (calcareous soils) in semi-desert at 1,600 to 1,900 m altitude.	eng
40833	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	threatened by illegal collecting, both commercial and amateur.	eng
40834	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II ,but need to enforce the laws in the countries of destination. The number of habitats where this species occurs which have quite difficult access make it a low conservation priority.	eng
40834	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Since this species was discovered near San Pedro by Moeller (Fitz Maurice 1997), the population has been diminished somewhat. Current estimated population is less than 2,500 individuals in a 30 km² area.	eng
40834	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On volcanic and calcareous rock in semi desert at about 1,400 m.	eng
40834	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Moderately threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40835	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40835	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grew on steep volcanic rock at about 700 m altitude in a deep canyon in semi-desert.	eng
40835	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting has apparently resulted in the extinction of this species.	eng
40836	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is required. New plants are currently being propagated from seed sown <em>in situ</em>. This propagation should also counteract the impacts of the illegal collections.	eng
40836	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	This species is found west of Nazas in an area of about 6 km². It had an estimated population size of more than 10,000 plants in 1994. A subsequent visit in 2000 revealed a population reduced by more than 95% to less than 500, apparently largely a result of the 1997 freeze on Mexico’s altiplano.	eng
40836	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On volcanic rocky outcroppings in semi-desert at about 1,400 m altitude.	eng
40836	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and temperature extremes.	eng
40837	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40837	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Plants meeting the description given for <em>M. guillauminiana</em> had been found plentifully by a number of well known cactus specialists at eight known locations from 31 km west-southwest of Cd. Durango to 214 km west of El Palmito in the State of Sinaloa, a range of about 100 km. This range includes what appears to be the type locality. The population is estimated to have been more than 2,000 individuals.	eng
40837	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grew on steep volcanic rock at about 2,200 m altitude in semi-desert.	eng
40837	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Minor collecting before the freeze.	eng
40838	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The species has long been propagated around the world.	eng
40838	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Current estimated population is less than 50 individuals growing over 1 km² to the west of Presa Zimapan.	eng
40838	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows on sloping calcareous rock in semi desert at about 1,800 m altitude.	eng
40838	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Very threatened by illegal collecting. The population of this species has been diminished by an estimated 95% over the past 20 years. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. A nearby commercial cactus nursery has almost stripped the site. Local children collect and offer plants to visitors. A very small amount of residential development is in progress in the area.	eng
40839	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The plants are widely available throughout the world as a result of propagation from illegally exported specimens propagated from the original collection with approval of low level Mexican government officials. At this time, conservation measures would be counterproductive if they involved the type locality.	eng
40839	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows over a range of less than 200 square meters. Current estimated population is less than 200 individuals.	eng
40839	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows on sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert at an altitude of about 800 m.	eng
40839	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The precise locality is known only to Hinton and Luethy. An intensive search for the locality continues by ego driven amateurs and commercial collectors.	eng
40840	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed.	eng
40840	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found east of Xichu where it grows over a range of less than 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 150 individuals.	eng
40840	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On steeply sloping volcanic rocky terrain in semi-desert at an altitude of about 1,200 m.	eng
40840	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40841	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The number of sites unknown to amateur and commercial collectors make conservation action for this species a low priority.	eng
40841	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs east and north of Querétaro in a 100 km² area.	eng
40841	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows among volcanic rocks in semi-desert at about 1,800 m.	eng
40841	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting and land development. The type locality is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40842	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The small decline in number of mature individuals does not constitute a major threat at present but needs to be monitored.	eng
40842	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found over a 7,200 km²r range in the central part of the state, with a population estimated to be more than 2,500 individuals.	eng
40842	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows among volcanic rock in semi-desert at 2,000 to 2,600 m altitude.	eng
40842	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40843	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40843	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The type locality is given as near San Juan del Rio, Guanajuato and <em>M. crinita</em> subsp. <em>crinita</em> is commonly found there.	eng
40843	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Volcanic based soil (based on type locality).	eng
40843	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Unknown.	eng
40844	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been propagated worldwide for 25 years.	eng
40844	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Current estimated population is less than 250 individuals over a range of about 2,500 square meters to the north of Durango.	eng
40844	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,500 m altitude.	eng
40844	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40845	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been widely propagated worldwide for more than 40 years.	eng
40845	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Current estimated population is less than 1,000 individuals over a range of about 250 km² northwest of Gómez Palacio.	eng
40845	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,300 to 1,500 m altitude.	eng
40845	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40846	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. Plants have been widely propagated worldwide for more than 40 years.	eng
40846	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Current estimated population is less than 1,250 individuals over a range of about 250 km² northwest of Gómez Palacio and north of Durango.	eng
40846	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 1,300 to 1,500 m altitude.	eng
40846	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40849	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. The number of subpopulations and individuals makes conservation action a low priority.	eng
40849	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Subpopulations of <em>M. rettigiana</em> found to the area noted by Pilbeam, occupy a 5,000 km² area with a total population size estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.	eng
40849	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Among volcanic rocks in semi-desert at about 1,900 m altitude.	eng
40849	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. There is evidence of a substantial decrease in the number of individuals as a result of the 1997 freeze with some subpopulations extirpated.	eng
40850	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the laws in the countries of destination is needed. This species is widely propagated.	eng
40850	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Since this species was discovered by Gonzalez more than 15 years ago, the population has diminished by an estimated 75%. Grows among low calcareous rock outcroppings over a range of 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 500 individuals.	eng
40850	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,300 m altitude.	eng
40850	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Very threatened by illegal collecting. The location is well known to both commercial and amateur collectors. While the area is enclosed by an electric fence to prevent theft of farming machinery, access is available for a small fee.	eng
40851	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed. This species has been widely propagated worldwide for 40 years.	eng
40851	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows near San Felipe on a steep volcanic rock face about 100 m (plan view) by 4 km long. Current estimated population size is less than 1,000 individuals.	eng
40851	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows on steep volcanic rock in semi-desert at about 2,300 m altitude.	eng
40851	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	very threatened by illegal collecting. The locality is a standard stop for cactus tour groups from Europe and is now well known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
40854	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed.	eng
40854	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Less than 10 subpopulations are known from north of Ascension and to the south of Rayones, about 50 km, with an east-west range of about 25 km. The total population is estimated to be less than 2,500 individual plants.	eng
40854	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Sloping terrain among calcareous rocks in semi-desert at an altitude of about 2,100 m.	eng
40854	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur. There has been an overall reduction of more than 10% during the past 10 years.	eng
40855	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II, but enforcement of the law in countries of destination is needed. These plants have been very widely propagated worldwide for 40 years and the locality probably remains unknown to collectors.	eng
40855	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Since this species or form was rediscovered near San Miguel de Allende in 1987 (Fitz Maurice 1988), the number of individuals has varied widely as is typical for <em>M. crinita</em> (Fitz Maurice 1989). The range is about 1 km². Current estimated population size is less than 250 individuals.	eng
40855	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows on steep volcanic rock face in semi-desert at about 2,000 m.	eng
40855	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	To the best of our knowledge, this locality is not known to either amateur or commercial collectors and is threatened only by natural causes.	eng
40857	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. It has been taken into cultivation as a hedge plant in the region where it is native.	eng
40857	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the drainage of the Rio Doce, central-southern and eastern Minas Gerais to central Espírito Santo, apparently cultivated elsewhere. Endemic to the core area within South-eastern Brazil.	eng
40857	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid/subhumid forest element: drier phases of Mata atlântica, c. 50–1,400 m.	eng
40857	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Its native habitat continues to decline.	eng
40858	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40858	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in central-southern Bahia to central-northern and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil. Extent of occurrence is 60,627 km².	eng
40858	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern caatinga (inselberg) element: in caatinga/agreste, especially in association with gneiss/granite inselbergs or derived substrates, 300–920 m.	eng
40859	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40859	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the drainage of the Rios Paraguaçu, de Contas and Jequitinhonha, eastern Bahia and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil.	eng
40859	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga element: margins of gneiss/granite outcrops, on inselbergs and occasionally on calcareous soils, in caatinga-agreste, 100–650 m.	eng
40859	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Mining and loss of habitat.	eng
40860	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II under <em>Opuntia</em>.	eng
40860	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found east of the Rio São Francisco, Mun. Iuiú, southern Bahia.	eng
40860	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed Bambuí limestone outcrops in caatinga, c. 500–550 m.	eng
40861	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40861	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found east of the Chapada Diamantina crestline in northern and central-eastern Bahia, and in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha (associated with gneiss/granite inselbergs and lajedos) of north-eastern Minas Gerais (apparently disjunct, but possibly under-recorded through destruction of habitat in intervening areas).	eng
40861	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga-agreste element: within and at the margins of caatinga-agreste, 40–700 m.	eng
40861	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40862	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
40862	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found from the Chapada Diamantina and Serra do Espinhaço eastwards, Bahia, Minas Gerais and (?) Espírito Santo; Central-western (Goiás and Mato Grosso) and South-eastern Brazil (São Paulo).	eng
40862	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread humid forest/campo rupestre element: epilithic or epiphytic, campo rupestre, mata de brejo and Mata atlántica and their ecotones with caatinga-agreste, 50–1,050 m.	eng
40862	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.	eng
40863	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
40863	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in south-eastern Bahia (and Espírito Santo?); to South-eastern Brazil (São Paulo, Serra do Mar).	eng
40863	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Humid forest element: epiphyte in perhumid Mata atlântica, at low elevations.	eng
40863	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.	eng
40864	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40864	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in Mun. Caruaru, eastern Pernambuco; South-eastern Brazil (coast E of Rio de Janeiro between Niterói and Cabo Frio, and inner São Paulo). The single record from Pernambuco is markedly disjunct from other known sites in Rio de Janeiro (Cabo Frio, Silva Jardim, Saquarema and Itacoatiara) and São Paulo (Rio Claro and Altinópolis).	eng
40864	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Humid/subhumid forest element: epiphyte in mata de brejo. <em>Rhipsalis crispata</em> is a species of more markedly seasonal or drier habitats, where it has been found as an epiphyte or lithophyte, both near the coast and far inland, but it can also grow in the sand of the restinga (Cabo Frio, RJ).	eng
40864	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.	eng
40865	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40865	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in eastern Pernambuco, eastern Bahia, central-eastern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Endemic to Eastern Brazil.	eng
40865	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Humid forest element: epiphyte in Mata atlântica, low elevations to c. 900 m.	eng
40865	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40866	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40866	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (Mun. Nova Friburgo). Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.	eng
40866	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: at c. 900 m.	eng
40866	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40867	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40867	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (Mun. Nova Friburgo). Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.	eng
40867	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: at c. 900 m.	eng
40867	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40868	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40868	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); Rio de Janeiro (both sides of the Baía de Guanabara).	eng
40868	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest (inselberg) element: lithophyte on gneissic inselbergs (rarely epiphytic on nearby trees).	eng
40868	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40869	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40869	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Range poorly understood; only one collection of documented provenance has been seen.	eng
40869	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: ecology poorly understood.	eng
40869	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40870	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40870	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in region of Catolés (Mun. Abaíra), Chapada Diamantina, eastern and central Bahia. Endemic to Bahia.	eng
40870	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Disjunct Bahian humid forest element: epiphyte (rarely lithophyte) in Mata atlântica (Hileia Baiana), at low elevations to c. 500 m, and in mata de neblina (1,650–1,800 m).	eng
40870	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40871	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40871	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in southern Minas Gerais (Rio Preto) and southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); South-eastern and Southern Brazil (to Paraná).	eng
40871	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte (rarely lithophyte) in Mata atlantica, 500–900 m.	eng
40871	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40872	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40872	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Details unknown	eng
40872	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: precise habitat details unknown.	eng
40872	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40873	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40873	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in central-southern Espírito Santo. Endemic.	eng
40873	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest (inselberg) element: lithophytic on inselbergs, rarely epiphytic, Mata atlântica, 900–1300 m.	eng
40873	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40874	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Most of the remaining population is in protected areas.	eng
40874	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in Serra do Caparaó, Minas Gerais / Espírito Santo; Rio de Janeiro (Serra de Itatiaia).	eng
40874	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: lithophytic or epiphytic, mata de neblina, at >2,000 m.	eng
40874	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40875	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Included within some protected areas.	eng
40875	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in Serra da Mantiqueira, southern Minas Gerais; to north-western Rio de Janeiro (Itatiaia) and eastern São Paulo (Campos do Jordão).	eng
40875	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: lithophytic/epiphytic, mata de neblina, c. 1,700 m.	eng
40875	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40876	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40876	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 850–1,000 m in the region of Grão Mogol, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40876	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: carrasco.	eng
40876	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40877	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40877	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs at c. 150–750 m in south-western Maranhão and western Bahia to central northern and western Minas Gerais (Rio São Francisco drainage), and disjunctly in east central Minas Gerais (Rio Doce/Rio Jequitinhohna watershed); occurrence in eastern Goiás is uncertain.	eng
40877	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Cerrado element: mostly in sandy phases of the cerrado and more open places of the cerrado-caatinga ecotone.	eng
40877	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40878	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. The range of the species is entirely within the Reserva Particular de Patrimônio Natural do Caraça.	eng
40878	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 1000–1500 m on the Serra do Caraça, south-central Minas Gerais. Endemic to Minas Gerais.	eng
40878	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: deeply fissured quartzitic outcrops on steep hill slopes and cliffs in campo rupestre, in constant association with <em>Philodendron cipoense</em>. The plant is most abundant at lower elevations, below 1,400 m. Above this elevation the populations are very small and appear to be marginal, probably being limited by winter frosts. Plants at these elevations occur only under the protection of rocks or bushes and exposed stems are invariably damaged and re-sprout from below.	eng
40879	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40879	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found north of Diamantina, Serra Negra and east side of Serra do Espinhaço at 500–1200 m, Minas Gerais.	eng
40879	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: in sandy cerrado/carrasco associated with crystalline rock outcrops.	eng
40879	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat, especially because of the activities of charcoal producers. The species hybridizes with <em>C. minensis</em> when they come into contact.	eng
40880	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40880	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 500–1200 m in Serra do Cabral and west slope of Serra do Espinhaço, Minas Gerais. Endemic to this area.	eng
40880	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre, carrasco or cerrado.	eng
40880	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat and exploitation of seed.	eng
40881	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population is in a protected area.	eng
40881	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 900–1,300 m on the Serra do Cipó and Lapinha, southwards to Cocais and Itabirito, central-southern Minas Gerais.	eng
40881	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: on cliffs and between rocks.	eng
40881	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat through excessive burning, mining and logging.	eng
40882	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Maintained in a few <em>ex situ</em> collections in Europe, including that at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.	eng
40882	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 800–1,000 m on the west slope of Serra Geral (northern Serra do Espinhaço), east of Monte Azul, central-northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40882	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: on cliffs and ledges of crystalline rocks.	eng
40883	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population is in a protected area.	eng
40883	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Endemic to central Bahia.	eng
40883	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on cliffs and rock ledges in sun or deep shade, campo rupestre, c. 1000–2000 m.	eng
40883	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Threatened by collectors.	eng
40885	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40885	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 550–1400 m in central-southern Bahia (from c. 13º55'S southwards) and northern Minas Gerais (south to Bocaiúva) in the Serra do Espinhaço (and Serra Geral). Endemic to the core area within Eastern Brazil.	eng
40885	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: sandy cerrado, campo rupestre (sometimes on rocks), gerais and in the caatinga / campo rupestre ecotone.	eng
40885	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Threatened by habitat loss (particularly through the activities of charcoal producers) and collectors.	eng
40886	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40886	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found on SE edge of the Chapada Diamantina and eastern drainage of Serra do Espinhaço, at 700–950 m, in central-southern Bahia and northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40886	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: in sandy cerrado.	eng
40886	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Threatened by habitat loss (particularly through the activities of charcoal producers) and collectors.	eng
40887	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40887	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs north of Salvador (BA) to Rio Grande do Norte, extending up the São Francisco River valley and westwards to the caatinga region around the borders of Bahia (Raso da Catarina), Alagoas, Sergipe and Pernambuco. Endemic to North-eastern Brazil.	eng
40887	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread caatinga / humid forest (restinga) element: in dense or sparse restinga on sand-dunes. Locally co-dominant with other arborescent vegetation, near sea level to 550 m. The pollination of this subspecies by the phyllostomid bat, <em>Glossophaga soricina</em> Pallas, and by hawkmoths, has been documented and photographed by Locatelli <em>et al</em>. (1997).	eng
40887	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.	eng
40888	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40888	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	known only from the region of Pedra Azul, Minas Gerais (and from perhaps the same area recorded as a vaguely localized collection from south of Vitória da Conquista, Bahia). Endemic to the core area within Eastern Brazil. A single living specimen of this taxon has been observed in semi-shade of dry forest (agreste), sympatric with <em>Pilosocereus floccosus</em> subsp. <em>quadricostatus</em>. Although flowering material has yet to be examined, vegetative morphology and seeds suggest that this species belongs to the <em>P. arrabidae</em> Group, which is otherwise unrepresented in the region of the Rio Jequitinhonha drainage, where all other Groups in Subg. <em>Pilosocereus</em> are present. The alternative explanation, that it is a hybrid involving <em>P. floccosus</em> subsp. <em>quadricostatus</em> and one of the other <em>Pilosocereus</em> from the area (eg. <em>P. multicostatus</em>, <em>P. pachycladus</em>), does not seem plausible given the characters it displays.	eng
40888	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: associated with gneissic inselbergs in caatinga-agreste.	eng
40888	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40889	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40889	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From southern Bahia and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro.	eng
40889	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest (restinga) element: in dense or sparse, sandy restinga, near sea level.	eng
40889	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40890	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40890	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs in Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. Endemic to South-eastern Brazil.	eng
40890	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest (restinga) element: in restinga and gneissic inselbergs of the coast, to 100 m.	eng
40890	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to agriculture and tourism developments.	eng
40891	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40891	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in southern and south-eastern Bahia and north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area of Eastern Brazil.	eng
40891	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga element: in dense caatinga-agreste of the Rio de Contas (Rio Gavião) and Rio Pardo drainage systems, c. 400–900 m.	eng
40891	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40892	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40892	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Known only from Chapada Diamantina, in central Bahia.	eng
40892	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Caatinga / Northern campos rupestres (Chapada Diamantina) element: in ‘caatinga de altitude’, c. 740–950 m, on calcareous substrates.	eng
40892	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40893	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40893	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40893	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga element: in caatinga and on associated gneissic inselbergs within the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and high ground separating it from the Rio Pardo, c. 250–800 m. Also in the Rio São Francisco (Rio das Velhas) caatinga / mata seca element: mostly on Bambuí limestone outcrops west of the Serra do Espinhaço.	eng
40893	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss. Limestone quarrying may pose a problem in the future.	eng
40894	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40894	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40894	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Rio São Francisco (Rio das Velhas) caatinga / mata seca element: mostly on Bambuí limestone outcrops west of the Serra do Espinhaço, c. 600–800 m.	eng
40894	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss. Limestone quarrying may pose a problem in the future.	eng
40895	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40895	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in north-eastern Minas.	eng
40895	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga element: in caatinga and on associated gneissic inselbergs within the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and high ground separating it from the Rio Pardo, c. 250–800 m.	eng
40895	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40896	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40896	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	In central-northern and northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40896	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol region and Rio São Francisco drainage) element: locally co-dominant with other woody vegetation on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre, Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha and Rio das Velhas, c. 720–1,000 m.	eng
40896	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss and collecting.	eng
40897	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40897	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, c. 720–1000 m, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40897	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol region) element: locally co-dominant with other woody vegetation on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre.	eng
40897	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss, collecting and inundation.	eng
40898	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40898	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in Serra do Espinhaço, in the drainage of the Rio das Velhas, central-northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40898	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Rio São Francisco drainage) element: on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre, c. 800 m.	eng
40898	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat is being lost through the development of infrastructure and also impacted by collection of plants.	eng
40899	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40899	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40899	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: locally co-dominant with other arborescent cacti on gneissic inselbergs in caatinga-agreste, c. 250–700 m.	eng
40899	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss and collecting.	eng
40900	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40900	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 800–900 m on the Serra do Cabral, Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40900	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra do Cabral) element: locally co-dominant with other cacti on quartzitic rock outcrops, campo rupestre.	eng
40900	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40901	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40901	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From central Bahia, east bank of the Rio São Francisco.	eng
40901	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Western cerrado element: amongst arenitic rocks in cerrado, c. 450–550 m.	eng
40901	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40902	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40902	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in north-eastern Minas Gerais.	eng
40902	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs amongst caatinga-agreste in the drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha, c. 670–900 m.	eng
40902	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40903	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. The southernmost subpopulation is protected within Parque Nacional da Serra da Capivara.	eng
40903	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in south-eastern Piauí, Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte. Endemic to North-eastern Brazil.	eng
40903	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern caatinga element: on arenitic/granitic rock outcrops associated with caatinga, c. 200–850 m.	eng
40904	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40904	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From Serra da Bocaina and Serranópolis, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40904	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre (N Serra do Espinhaço) element: amongst rocks at c. 900–1100 m.	eng
40904	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40905	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40905	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From Serra do Espinhaço (Serra Geral) northern Minas Gerais and adjacent southernmost Bahia.	eng
40905	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: between crystalline rocks and on cliffs in campo rupestre, c. 800–1000 m.	eng
40905	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40906	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.	eng
40906	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From Serra do Barão and vicinity, northern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the core area within Minas Gerais.	eng
40906	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: between crystalline rocks and in quartz sand, c. 750–1000 m.	eng
40906	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat due to inundation.	eng
40907	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40907	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs west of Seabra in central Bahia.	eng
40907	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: in the campo rupestre/cerrado de altitude ecotone, c. 1100 m.	eng
40907	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40908	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40908	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From Mun. Caitité in southern Bahia.	eng
40908	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: in quartz sand amongst crystalline rocks, c. 900–1000 m.	eng
40908	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat due to mining.	eng
40909	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40909	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found west of the Rio São Francisco in south-western Bahia.	eng
40909	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on Bambuí limestone outcrops surrounded by caatinga or forest with caatinga elements, c. 450–650 m.	eng
40909	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat due to quarrying and destructive collection of seeds.	eng
40910	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40910	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Has a disjunct distribution, being found south-eastern and south-western Minas Gerais.	eng
40910	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid/subhumid forest (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs/lajedos (100–1,000 m).	eng
40910	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to mining.	eng
40911	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40911	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Rio Jequitinhonha valley, north-eastern Minas Gerais. Endemic to the Rio Jequitinhonha valley.	eng
40911	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneiss/granite outcrops/inselbergs in caatinga-agreste (170–350 m).	eng
40911	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss.	eng
40912	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40912	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From north-eastern Minas Gerais.	eng
40912	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid/subhumid forest (inselberg) element: locally dominant on gneissic inselbergs/lajedos, in the agreste/Mata atlântica transition, c. 650 m.	eng
40912	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to urban expansion.	eng
40913	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40913	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 250–300 m near the Rio Jequitinhonha, north-eastern Minas Gerais. The range of this species deserves further investigation, but is clearly much more restricted than that of its sister species, <em>C. aureus</em>, and is currently known only from a single locality. Uebelmann (1996) states it is from Itaobim, which is here assumed to refer to the Itinga locality, since the former is the closest town of any size and is the likely starting point for the short journey to Itinga. However, it should not be difficult to determine the extent of the species’ range more precisely, working eastwards from the known locality along the Rio Jequitinhonha valley.	eng
40913	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern caatinga (inselberg) element: on gneissic inselbergs and lajedos in caatinga.	eng
40913	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss and collection of seed and plants.	eng
40914	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.  Occurs in a protected area.	eng
40914	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found near Serra do Periperi, Mun. Vitória da Conquista, south-eastern Bahia. The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is estimated to be <10 km².	eng
40914	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga/Northern campo rupestre element: under and between shrubs in quartz gravel, campo sujo / cerrado de altitude, c. 1,050 m.	eng
40914	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat due to mining and removal of plants and seed by collectors.	eng
40915	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40915	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From central-southern Bahia ,where it appears to have a very limited distribution east of the Rio São Francisco and is presently known from only one locality, where it is a co-dominant element of the rupicolous vegetation.	eng
40915	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on a gneissic inselberg in caatinga east of the Rio São Francisco, 500–540 m.	eng
40915	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat and impact of collectors.	eng
40917	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40917	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the region of Irecê and lower drainage of the Rio Jacaré, central-northern Bahia.	eng
40917	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at c. 450–750 m.	eng
40917	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat and impact of collectors.	eng
40918	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40918	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the upper drainage of the Rio Jacaré and tributaries, between América Dourada, Barro Alto and Souto Soares, central Bahia.	eng
40918	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on raised, exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at c. 700–850 m.	eng
40918	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat, mining and impact of collectors.	eng
40919	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40919	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found near the Rio Salitre and in the region of Irecê, northern Bahia.	eng
40919	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 520–750 m.	eng
40919	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat and collecting.	eng
40920	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40920	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found near the Rio Salitre, northern Bahia.	eng
40920	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 520–620 m.	eng
40920	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat by urban and agricultural expansion.	eng
40921	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40921	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the region of Irecê, central-northern Bahia.	eng
40921	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on flat, ± exposed Bambuí limestone in caatinga at 700–750 m.	eng
40921	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat by agricultural expansion.	eng
40922	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40922	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Known from Mun. Caetés, south-eastern Pernambuco, but may also occur elsewhere.	eng
40922	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga element: on exposed granitic outcrops of serras in caatinga, c. 900 m	eng
40922	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Loss of habitat.	eng
40923	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.  A reserve has been proposed to protect this species.	eng
40923	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From Chapada Diamantina, Mun. Morro do Chapéu, Bahia.	eng
40923	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Caatinga / Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: in the open and between low shrubs of the caatinga on flat or sloping, ± exposed, crystalline rock outcrops with accumulation of gravel, 700–900 m.	eng
40923	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Collectors and loss of habitat.	eng
40924	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40924	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in the Chapada Diamantina and northern Serra do Espinhaço, central to southern Bahia.	eng
40924	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre element: in sand or quartz gravel, cerrado de altitude and campo rupestre, c. 1,100–1,500 m.	eng
40924	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Collectors and loss of habitat.	eng
40925	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40925	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Rio Grande do Norte to Rio de Janeiro, but apparently rather discontinuous, perhaps for lack of suitable habitats and due to extensive habitat destruction.	eng
40925	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread humid forest (Mata atlântica/restinga) and Northern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: between shrubs in sand of the coastal restinga, riverine sand-dunes and similar habitats further inland, 0–150 m (in sandy cerrado de altitude at 1,100 m.	eng
40925	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.	eng
40926	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40926	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Rio Grande do Norte to Rio de Janeiro, but apparently rather discontinuous, perhaps for lack of suitable habitats and due to extensive habitat destruction.	eng
40926	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread humid forest (Mata atlântica/restinga) and Northern campo rupestre (cerrado) element: between shrubs in sand of the coastal restinga, riverine sand-dunes and similar habitats further inland, 0–150 m (in sandy cerrado de altitude at 1,100 m, NE Minas Gerais only).	eng
40926	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss due to a variety of factors.	eng
40927	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40927	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found near Jacobina and above Rui Barbosa, central-eastern Bahia.	eng
40927	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Eastern caatinga / Northern campo rupestre element: between Vellozia shrubs in fine quartz sand or gravel, campo rupestre, c. 450–860 m.	eng
40927	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss and collectors.	eng
40928	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II. Away from the coast it is most abundant and currently best protected in the state ecological reserve at the Serra de Itabaiana, Sergipe, managed by the local office of IBAMA.	eng
40928	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Alagoas, Sergipe and eastern Bahia (south to Salvador).	eng
40928	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern humid/subhumid forest (restinga) element: on coastal dunes of fine, white sand and inland (Serra de Itabaiana, SE), near sea level to c. 400 m.	eng
40928	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Habitat loss, especially due to tourist developments.	eng
40929	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40929	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	From north-western edges of the Chapada Diamantina, from the region of Xique-Xique to the Serra da Chapada, central-northern Bahia.	eng
40929	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: in caatinga at c. 500 m or more.	eng
40929	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Not known	eng
40930	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40930	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 550–750 m in south-central and south-western Bahia (W of the Rio São Francisco) and central-northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40930	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: locally co-dominant on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone within caatinga/cerradão.	eng
40930	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Limestone mining.	eng
40931	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40931	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 550–750 m in south-western Bahia (W of the Rio São Francisco) and central-northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40931	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: locally co-dominant on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone within caatinga/cerradão.	eng
40931	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Limestone mining.	eng
40932	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40932	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Known from a single locality in central-southern Bahia (east of the Rio São Francisco).	eng
40932	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on outcrops of raised Bambuí limestone amidst high caatinga forest, at 600–650 m.	eng
40932	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Limestone mining.	eng
40933	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40933	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	The distribution of this isolated species is markedly disjunct between northern and eastern Bahia (Rio de Contas valley), the southern form showing some differences (notably smaller stems and more exserted olive-brown fruits) that could justify subspecific status. The better-known northern population, whence the type came, covers an extensive area within the município of Jaguarari and in some parts of this region the plant dominates the vegetation, forming impenetrable groves around and upon quartzitic outcrops. The southern populations are found on gneissic inselbergs (not quartzite) and are associated with a quite different suite of caatinga Cactaceae. Its disjunct distribution and the differences between the plants from the two areas implies that the species may be an ancient relict in decline.	eng
40933	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found in eastern caatinga element: dominant or co-dominant on gneiss/granite inselbergs or quartzitic rock outcrops and in the surrounding caatinga, at 300–650 m.	eng
40934	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40934	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 900-1,500 m, in central, southern and south-western Minas Gerais.	eng
40934	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: in sandy, gravelly and rocky places in campo rupestre.	eng
40935	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40935	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	In south-western Minas Gerais.	eng
40935	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: in sandy, gravelly and rocky places in campo rupestre, drainage of the Rio Grande.	eng
40936	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40936	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 1,500 m on the Serra do Ibitipoca in southern Minas Gerais.	eng
40936	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: amongst rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
40937	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40937	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 900 m in central-southern Minas Gerais.	eng
40937	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: amongst rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
40938	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40938	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 700–1,200 m on the Serra do Cabral and west slope of Serra do Espinhaço in central Minas Gerais.	eng
40938	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: between rocks and in bushy places, campo rupestre.	eng
40939	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40939	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 1,300–1,750 m, east and south of Belo Horizonte, central-southern Minas Gerais	eng
40939	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre element: on iron-rich rock (canga) in campo rupestre.	eng
40940	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40940	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 450–500 m in Mun. Sento Sé, Bahia and at c. 700–1,000 m, in northern Bahia.	eng
40940	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs in the Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed arenitic rocks and gravelly soil in caatinga. Also in the Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on exposed arenitic rocks often with an accumulation of gravel or in pure quartz sand, caatinga/campo rupestre.	eng
40941	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40941	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 450 to 500 m, Mun. Sento Sé, northern Bahia.	eng
40941	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on exposed arenitic rocks and gravelly soil in caatinga.	eng
40942	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40942	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 700–1,000 m in northern Bahia.	eng
40942	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern campo rupestre (Chapada Diamantina) element: on exposed arenitic rocks often with an accumulation of gravel or in pure quartz sand, caatinga/campo rupestre.	eng
40943	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40943	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 380–650 m, in the Rio São Francisco drainage of northern Bahia (probably in adjacent Pernambuco), Ceará and north-western Piauí (Rio Canindé).	eng
40943	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Northern caatinga element: on exposed, gravelly river terraces amongst limestone or iron-stained quartzite, and seasonally inundated river flood plain, under and between jurema-preta (<em>Mimosa tenuiflora</em>) and carnaúba (<em>Copernicia prunifera</em>) within the caatinga.	eng
40944	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40945	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40945	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 450–700 m, south-western Piauí, western and central-southern Bahia and north-western Minas Gerais.	eng
40945	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Western cerrado element: on exposed gravel or sand, cerrado and cerrado-caatinga ecotone.	eng
40946	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40946	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 550–1,275 m, east of the Rio São Francisco, in central and northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40946	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread South-eastern campo rupestre/cerrado element: on arenitic rocks, quartz sand and gravel, cerrado/campo rupestre, rarely within the southern limits of the caatinga.	eng
40947	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.	eng
40947	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 700–1,000 m, Mun. Cristália and Mun. Grão Mogol, in northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40947	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: in pure quartz sand or sand between arenitic rocks, campo rupestre.	eng
40948	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  A state reserve has recently been established (‘Reserva Estadual da Serra do Barão’) and should result in increased protection, the authorities being well aware of the interest in the plant (M. Machado, in litt. 2000).	eng
40948	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 1,000 m on the Serra do Barão in northern Minas Gerais.	eng
40948	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Grão Mogol) element: in quartz gravel and sand beneath shrubs in campo rupestre.	eng
40948	threats	Taylor, N.P., 2002	This remarkable Brazilian cactus was heavily collected in the 1970's for the European horticultural market (Buining 1974: 70).	eng
40949	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40949	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 1,200 m on the Serra Negra in Minas Gerais.	eng
40949	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra Negra) element: on slabs of quartzitic rock amongst gravel, campo rupestre.	eng
40950	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40950	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at 900–1,600 m on the Serra Negra in Minas Gerais.	eng
40950	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Serra Negra / Serra do Ambrósio) element: in quartz sand, campo rupestre.	eng
40951	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40951	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 650–1,250 m on Serra do Espinhaço, north-east and south of Diamantina, Minas Gerais.	eng
40951	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
40952	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40952	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 1,200–1,350 m on Serra do Espinhaço, west of Diamantina, Minas Gerais.	eng
40952	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
40953	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40953	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 700–850 m on the western slopes of the Serra do Espinhaço (‘Serra Mineira’), Mun. Bocaiúva, Minas Gerais.	eng
40953	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Rio São Francisco drainage) element: on sandstone outcrops.	eng
40954	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	No official conservation measures are in place, although the best known tree is on a private cattle ranch and is protected by the owners.	eng
40954	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Known from the Davis Mts and the Guadalupe Mts in western Texas, USA.  There is also an uncertain record from a locality in Sonora, Mexico.	eng
40954	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Grows in canyons on rocky slopes in dry, temperate scrub vegetation.  Found at an altitude of 1,800 - 2,000 m.	eng
40954	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2002	Threatened by fire, grazing and felling.	eng
40955	conservation	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I.	eng
40955	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Found at c. 650 to 1,350 m on the Serra do Espinhaço in Minas Gerais.	eng
40955	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	South-eastern campo rupestre (Diamantina) element: crystalline rocks in campo rupestre.	eng
40956	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are widely propagated in the trade. The illegal collecting is relatively less important with the larger number of plants now known.	eng
40956	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Early observations indicated that this species occurred in few areas around the city of Tula and were being heavily impacted by illegal collecting and urban development (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994). However, recent fieldwork in the past 10 years (Fitz Maurice 1999) has clearly shown the species to occur over 400 km² and numbering more than 100,000 individuals in at least six known subpopulations.	eng
40956	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Semi-desert among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.	eng
40956	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40957	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are propagated in the trade.	eng
40957	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Found on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert near Nuñez, and in the Desert proper near Matehuala.  Early observations indicated that this species occurred in a single small area where it had been accidentally discovered. The original location has become well known to collectors and the population has been severely depleted, with more than 70% of the plants removed within the last five years. However, recent fieldwork has shown additional nearby subpopulations that are at present undisturbed. The decision to place <em>Ariocarpus fissuratus</em> var. <em> hintonii</em> as a subspecies under this species, greatly expanded the known range. The species population exceeds 10,000 individuals in several distinct colonies comprising more than ten locations.	eng
40957	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Chihuahuan Desert, among outcroppings of limestone rocks at an altitude of 1,500-2,000 m.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40957	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	One location is very near a village, and there is a serious threat of habitat alteration. The site is also known to collectors and there is definite evidence of illegal collecting.  In fact, plants of this species have been confiscated in Europe.  Other sites are far from villages or other human activities, so there is less likelihood that those localities will be affected by habitat alteration.  However, the number of individual plants in each locality (except for the newly discovered one) is only in the thousands, so collectors could quickly decimate any of these small populations.  Local people also use several <em>Ariocarpus</em> species, including <em>A. bravoanus</em>, for medicinal purposes.	eng
40958	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The plants are propagated in the trade.	eng
40958	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Early observations indicated that this subspecies occurred in a single small area where it had been accidentally discovered. The original location has become well known to collectors and the population has been severely depleted, with more than 70% of the plants removed within the last five years. However, recent fieldwork has shown additional nearby subpopulations that are at present undisturbed. The subspecies totals In the order of 3,000 mature individuals in several distinct colonies extending over a known range of approximately six km². This whole range is considered a single location.	eng
40958	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Chihuahuan Desert, among outcroppings of limestone rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m altitude.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40958	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and collecting by indigenous people for medicine.	eng
40959	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This taxon has been widely propagated for ten years.	eng
40959	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	There are three isolated subpopulations (one colony in the southern subpopulation, five colonies in the middle and five large colonies in the north) separated by a distance of about 75 km.  In total approximately 100,000 plants are known to date, distributed over 200 km² with an area of occupancy <7 km².	eng
40959	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Grows on flat and slightly sloping terrain among calcareous rocks in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) at about 2,000 m altitude.  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40959	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	One location is very near a village, and there is a serious threat of habitat alteration. The site is also well-known to both commercial and amateur collectors and there is definite evidence of illegal collecting.  The other sites are far from villages or other human activities, so there is less likelihood that they will be affected by habitat alteration.  Local people also use several <em>Ariocarpus</em> species, including this taxon, for medicinal purposes. Seed predation by rodents also seems to be a problem at two of the colonies.  The type locality was depleted through intense illegal collecting.	eng
40960	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G.S., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is being propagated, but for a long time most plants traded were field-collected.	eng
40960	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G.S., 2002	Early observations indicated that this species was restricted to one small locality in the Valley of Rayones. More recently G.S. Hinton (pers. comm.) has found a wider distribution in this location (all within 10 sq km). Large numbers of plants occur on several hills, considered to be a single location. The population is estimated to total more than 25,000 individuals in this area.	eng
40960	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G.S., 2002	Semi-desert (on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert), on calcareous shale hills and slopes.	eng
40960	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G.S., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40961	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A. & Hoock, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App. I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  In the US the species is recorded from two National Wildlife Refuges - Lower Rio Grande Valley NWR and Sanata Ana NWR.	eng
40961	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A. & Hoock, A., 2002	Much of its original habitat has been destroyed by agriculture in Texas and in Tamaulipas. Once fairly widely distributed in south Texas, the species is now known from only one locality near Rio Grande City. Several localities are known in Mexico, both north and south of Ciudad Victoria. The species may also have occurred in the State of Nuevo León and is hence Regionally Extinct there (NatureServe 2002). The total population numbers more than 5,000 plants from known localities in both countries.	eng
40961	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A. & Hoock, A., 2002	Currently, this species is found in sparse, fairly open thorny shrubland (semi-desert). It is most often found growing in gravelly, sometimes saline or calcareous, clays or loams in the partial shade of other plants or rocks. The vegetation in these areas was originally a subtropical grassland or grassland/savanna, but fire suppression, overgrazing, and pasture improvement have converted it to thorny shrublands and stands of non-native pasture grass (NatureServe 2002). It is uncertain what habitat this species occupied in the original grassland ecosystem. Occurs below 500 m, with most records being below 200 m.	eng
40961	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A. & Hoock, A., 2002	The species continues to be threatened by cactus collectors (despite successful commercial propagation techniques) and by habitat alteration/destruction due to severe overgrazing, brush eradication, and conversion to cropland (NatureServe 2002).	eng
40962	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This is one of the most widely propagated cacti, with literally millions of individuals grown by commercial nurseries and hobbyists, thus making it very readily available throughout the world, but that does not stop the ongoing poaching.	eng
40962	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	This species occurs on medium to steep slopes of volcanic rock near Mesa de Léon.  The extent of occurrence is 25 km² whereas the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².  The total number of plants is estimated to be less than 250.	eng
40962	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert, among volcanic rocks on medium to steep slopes at an altitude of about 1,400 m.	eng
40962	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40966	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is in propagation.	eng
40966	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Occurs in Sierra de la Paila over a range of 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.	eng
40966	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.	eng
40966	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40967	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.	eng
40967	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows in an area of about 400 km² in a valley north of Vizarrónan, with a population estimated at less than 5,000 individuals.	eng
40967	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert in calcareous soils at an altitude of about 2,000 m.	eng
40967	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and use by indigenous people for medicine.	eng
40968	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  The species is widely propagated.	eng
40968	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	This species has been the object of several surveys during the past 20 years.  An international team sponsored by WWF studied it in 1986 (Anderson, <em>et al</em>. 1994), and a CITES-funded project monitored a major population in the early 1990s (CANTE A.C. and Desert Botanical Garden 1997). In addition, W.A. and B. Fitz Maurice have visited the population three times. The total population is estimated to have decreased by about 50% in the past 50 years. The current population is estimated to be about 5,000 individuals.	eng
40968	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert (or Tamaulipan Shrubland according to Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994)) in the Valley of Jaumave at an altitude of about 1,000 m.	eng
40968	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Erosion is being accelerated by the grazing activities of livestock and plants uprooted as a result have been recorded (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Illegal commercial collecting and collecting by local people for medicinal purposes (used to treat rheumatism) affect some subpopulations.  Road construction and urban development at one site may also pose a threat.	eng
40969	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.	eng
40969	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs near Sandia over a range of 3 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,500 plants.	eng
40969	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In coniferous forest among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 to 2,100 m.	eng
40969	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40970	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Hinton, G.B., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated for many years.	eng
40970	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Hinton, G.B., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found near the town of Aramberri where it grows over a range of 20 km². It is estimated that there are more than 3,000 individuals	eng
40970	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Hinton, G.B., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows in semi-desert (on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks at about 1,500 m altitude.	eng
40970	threats	Anderson, E.F., Hinton, G.B., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40971	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.II, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  The number of plants and the current threat of collecting make this a low priority for conservation measures.	eng
40971	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs near near Mesa de León in an area of about 50 sq. km. It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.	eng
40971	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert (a disjunct extension of the Chihuahuan Desert) on calcareous soil at about 1,900 m altitude.	eng
40971	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Some illegal collecting, limited as a consequence of difficult access.	eng
40972	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is currently propagated in Europe from illegally collected plants.	eng
40972	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Since its discovery, the population has been reduced by more than 50%.  It grows in a single location of less than 10 km² near Xichu. The current estimated population size is less than 5,000 individuals.	eng
40972	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert on steep rocky calcareous slopes at about 1,900 m altitude.	eng
40972	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors.	eng
40973	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been widely propagated for many years.	eng
40973	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	It occurs over a range of 450 km² near Via Juarez in the Rí Verde and Via Juarez Municipalities.  It is estimated that there are about 5,000 mature individuals.	eng
40973	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	In semi-desert in calcareous soil among outcrops of limestone rocks and in rock crevices at about 1,000 m altitude. The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40973	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting is the main threat followed by mining for road construction material, road construction and human induced fires.	eng
40974	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.	eng
40974	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs over a range of 5 km² near Galeana.  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.	eng
40974	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert in calcareous soil at about 1,800 m altitude.	eng
40974	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40975	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated and made widely available for 60 years, yet the demand for field collected plants remains.	eng
40975	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Since this species was rediscovered in 1988 near Cuidad Maiz (Fitz Maurice 1988), the population has been diminished substantially (at least by 80% in the last five years).  Grows on a slope, in an area of about 0.9 km².  Current estimated population size is about 4,000 mature individuals.	eng
40975	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Semi-desert on rocky calcareous slope at about 1,500 m altitude.  The species is strongly dependent on edpahic conditions.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo, (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40975	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors.	eng
40976	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species has been propagated and made widely available for many years.	eng
40976	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Known only from a single location near the town of Aramberri.  It has a range of less than 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants	eng
40976	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at about 1,800 m altitude.	eng
40976	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40977	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is widely propagated.	eng
40977	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The range is about 500 km². The current population is estimated to be less than 50,000 individuals.	eng
40977	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert vegetation among calcareous rocks.	eng
40977	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting continues.	eng
40978	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced.  This species is widely propagated.	eng
40978	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs in the Cd. Del Maíz Municipality over a range of 10 km². It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 individuals	eng
40978	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks and in rock crevices.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Desértico Micrófilo (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40978	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40979	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. The large number of plants widely scattered over 400 km² makes conservation measures of low priority.	eng
40979	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	This species occurs near Villar over a total estimated range of 400 km² (Sotomayor <em>et al</em>. 2001). The total number of plants is probably more than 30,000.	eng
40979	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert on calcareous soil among pinon and juniper trees and in open meadows at an altitude of about 1,800 m.	eng
40979	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40980	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated, yet the demand for field collected plants remains.	eng
40980	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	This species occurs in the Cerritos and Villa Juárez Municipalities. Six subpopulations are known in a restricted area of about 250 km² (gypsum or gypsum-calcareous soil) and an area of occupancy of less than 5 km². The total population is estimated to comprise 4,000 mature individuals.	eng
40980	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Grows in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert, although not typical) among bare areas with <em>Helieta parvifolia</em> and <em>Ptelea trifoliata</em> as neighbouring vegetation. Occurs on gypsum-calcareous or gypsum soils (a stenoendemic) at about 1,000 m altitude.  One of the localities is characterised by massive, dark-coloured limestone rocks (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40980	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and fires.  The type locality has been quarried for limestone in the past, but it seems unlikely that this would be reactivated.	eng
40981	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  The substantial number of plants makes this a low priority for conservation action.	eng
40981	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., 2002	Found in the Río Verde, Villa Juárez, Ciudad del Maíz and Ciudad Fernández Municipalities over a range of about 1,700 km². The population is estimated to comprise 20,000 mature individuals.  This species always grows in association with <em>Coryphantha maiz-tablasensis</em>. But there are some areas with <em>C. maiz-tablasensis</em> without <em>T. lophophoroides</em>.	eng
40981	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., 2002	Grows in semi-desert or short grassland vegetation with <em>Prosopis juliflora</em>.  Occurs in agricultural and livestock areas. Grows on calcareous-gypsum and gypsum soils.  The habitat is locally classified as Zacatal (Grassland) and Matorral Desértico Micrófilo with <em>Larrea tridentata</em> (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
40981	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G., Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting, agricultural activities and road construction.  Insect parasitism is also a problem in places.	eng
40982	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated for 40 years.	eng
40982	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G., 2002	It grows south of Parras on rocky calcareous hills over an area of about 5 km². Current estimated population is more than 25,000 individuals.	eng
40982	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G., 2002	Semi-desert on rocky calcareous hills at about 1,500 m altitude.	eng
40982	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hinton, G., 2002	This species is threatened by illegal collecting. The habitat has become widely known to collectors although it is difficult to reach.	eng
40983	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.	eng
40983	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Has a fairly wide range of about 900 sq. km extending over the States of Hidalgo and Querétaro.  The total population size is about 7,000 plants.	eng
40983	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.	eng
40983	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and mining of limestone.	eng
40984	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.	eng
40984	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs over a range of 20 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.	eng
40984	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.	eng
40984	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40985	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.	eng
40985	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It has a range of about 900 km² straddling the States of Hidalgo and Querétaro.  It is estimated that there are less than 5,000 plants.	eng
40985	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks.	eng
40985	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting and to a lesser degree mining of limestone.	eng
40986	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated, although Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported that not many were being grown from seed.	eng
40986	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The range is about 30,000 km² extending over the states of Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas. The current population is estimated to be less than 10,000 individuals.	eng
40986	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Most of the known sites are at a higher altitude than true Chihuahuan Desert.  Some of the sites occur in pinyon pine and juniper woodland or even grassland with virtually no woody vegetation (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  All the sites have calcareous soils.	eng
40986	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting is the main threat.  Anderson <em>et al</em>. (1994) reported that alarming numbers were being exported.  Agricultural development does not appear to be a problem, although trampling by livestock and increased erosion as a result of over-grazing may be a problem in some places.	eng
40987	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species has been widely propagated for many years.	eng
40987	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs over a range of 12 km² near Río Verde.  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.	eng
40987	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert in calcareous soil at about 1,000 m altitude.	eng
40987	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40988	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated for 40 years.	eng
40988	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Since the locality near Tula was visited in 1987 (Fitz Maurice 1988), the population has diminished by more than 50%. It grows over an area of about 1 km². Current estimated population is less than 200 individuals.	eng
40988	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Semi-desert among calcareous rocks on a hill at about 1,250 m altitude.	eng
40988	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	These plants are threatened by illegal collecting.	eng
40989	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.	eng
40989	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Found over a wide area in the States of Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.	eng
40989	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Grows in semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks.	eng
40989	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting is the major threat, although overgrazing and subsequent erosion poses a lesser threat.  Other agricultural activities and building of infrastructure seems to have minimal impact.	eng
40990	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40990	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs east of Matehuala over a range of about 3 km² . It is estimated that there are less than 500 plants	eng
40990	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert (Chihuahuan Desert) among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 m.	eng
40990	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40991	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40991	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs near the town of Aramberri over a range of 5 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.	eng
40991	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert on a steep slope, among limestone rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.	eng
40991	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40992	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40992	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs near Santa Rita del Rucio over a range of about 3 km².  It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants.	eng
40992	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,800 m.	eng
40992	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40993	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40993	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs near the twon of Aramberri over a range of 12 km².  It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 individuals.	eng
40993	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,250 m.	eng
40993	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
40994	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40994	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	It occurs near Entronque Huizache in the Guadalcazar Municipality.  There are thousands of adult plants (>20,000) occurring in four disjunct subpopulations at eight locations, scattered over an area of 450 km².	eng
40994	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Grows in typical Chihuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks and in rock crevices at the tops of limestone hills an altitude of about 1,780-2,200 m.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40994	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and road construction.  The habitat is unsuitable for agriculture other than grazing by livestock and there does not appear to be any threat from mining (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
40995	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40995	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	It occurs near Matehuala, San Luis Potosí  (Matehuala and Villa de Guadalupe Municipalities) but also extends into neighbouring areas of Nuevo León State.  The etxent of occurrence is about 275 km².  The population is dividid into thgree disjunct subpopulations.  It is estimated that there are less than 100,000 plants.	eng
40995	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	In the Chihuahuan Desert on fairly steep limestone hills at an altitude of about 1,600 m. The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40995	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and habitat loss.  The population occurs near a small settlement, thus people and their livestock may have some impact (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
40996	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40996	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	This subspecies occurs in a very restricted area (1 sq. km) and is only known from the rocks and low hills west of Miquihuana.  Although difficult to count, it is estimated that there are less than 1,000 plants	eng
40996	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert among calcareous rocks on the eastern edge of the Chihuahuan Desert at an altitude of about 2,000 m.	eng
40996	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.  Grazing does not pose a problem as the plants are barely accessible to the mouths of goats (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
40997	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This subspecies is widely propagated.	eng
40997	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	It occurs near Charco Blanco (Guadalcazar Municipality) over a range of 5 km². It is estimated that there are less than 3,000 mature individuals.  The area of occupancy is only about 0.1 km²	eng
40997	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	In semi-desert vegetation in the heart of the Chihuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 1,500 m.  The habitat is locally classified as Matorral Rosetófilo and Matorral Submontano (Rzedowski 1965).	eng
40997	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.  The population has been heavily impacted by collectors.	eng
40998	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.  The large distribution area and number of widely distributed plants makes conservation measures a relatively low priority.	eng
40998	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Early observations indicated that this species occurred in very few locations and was being heavily impacted by illegal collecting. However, fieldwork in the past 10 years has clearly shown the species to be more widespread over 1,000 km² and numbering fewer than 10,000 individuals located in no more than 10 subpopulations/locations.	eng
40998	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	In typical Chihuahuan Desert (usually growing under other shrubs)  among calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 2,000 m.	eng
40998	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B., Hofer, A., Sotomayor, M., Arrendondo, A.G. & Sánchez, B., 2002	Illegal collecting continues with the help of the local inhabitants.	eng
40999	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.	eng
40999	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs near Rayones over a range of 1 km². It is estimated that there are less than 2,000 plants.	eng
40999	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert among steep calcareous rocks at an altitude of about 2,000 m.	eng
40999	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting, although access is difficult.	eng
41000	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.	eng
41000	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs from Saltillo, in Coahuila State southwards nearly to Matehuala in San Luis Potosí State, an area of 40,000 km². It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.	eng
41000	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In typical Chiuhuahuan Desert among calcareous rocks at altitudes ranging from 1,400 to 1,600 m.	eng
41000	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting and human activities.  The northernmost subpopulations near Saltillo are those affected by the construction of an airport and the expanding chicken farms.	eng
41001	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.	eng
41001	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	It occurs over a range of 2,000 km². It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 plants.	eng
41001	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	In semi-desert (Tamaulipan Shrubland) among calcareous rocks.	eng
41001	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A., Fitz Maurice, B. & Hofer, A., 2002	Illegal collecting.  Some localities have been cleared of plants through selective collecting (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
41002	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated.	eng
41002	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It grows near Tula in an area about 20,000 square meters. Current estimated population is less than 250 individuals.	eng
41002	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert among calcareous rock at about 1,250 m altitude.	eng
41002	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting.	eng
41003	conservation	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated. The relative stability of the number of individuals makes conservation measures a low priority	eng
41003	distribution	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	This species occurs on gypsum hills near Zaragosa over a total estimated range of 25 km². Individuals are scattered in no more than 10 known locations. The total number of plants is estimated at less than 10,000.	eng
41003	habitat	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi-desert, on gypsum hills at an altitude of about 1,500 m.	eng
41003	threats	Anderson, E.F., Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Some illegal collecting.  The construction of a road through the area may have had some impact.  Trampling by goats and overgrazing leading to erosion may be a problem.	eng
41004	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. angustus</em> was moved under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act in 1998. Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41004	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	Very little is known about the species that is now recognised as <em>H. angustus</em>.	eng
41004	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	The species has been trawled from depths of 3-63 m (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999) and has also been collected from algal reef habitat from 12-25 m depth (Kuiter 2000).  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41004	population	Project Seahorse, 2002	Unknown.	eng
41004	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species is known to be caught as by-catch in trawls in northern Australia (S. Lourie, pers. comm.).	eng
41005	conservation	Morgan, S., 2006	The entire genus <em>Hipppocampus</em> is listed on Appendix II of the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), effective May 2004.  <em>H. mohnikei</em> is listed (as <em>H. japonicus</em>) as Vulnerable in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41005	distribution	Morgan, S., 2006	Confirmed distribution: Japan, Suspected distribution: Cambodia, China, Thailand, Viet Nam (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>H. mohnikei</em>.	eng
41005	habitat	Morgan, S., 2006	No research has focused on the <em>in situ</em> ecology of adult <em>H. mohnikei</em>. One study has examined planktonic juveniles of the species that range in size from 6.0–65.3 mm (standard length (SL) as measured from the tip of the tail to the dorsal margin of the opercular opening and from this point to the tip of the snout) (Kanou and Kohno 2001). These juveniles were found in plankton tows from May–January. Young from 15–34 mm SL showed high gut fullness and had consumed small prey including <em>Oithona davisae</em> and <em>Penilia avirostris</em>. In contrast, large planktonic individuals ≥35 mm showed low gut fullness, preying on larger but less abundant prey items such as species of <em>Brachyura</em>.	eng
41005	population	Morgan, S., 2006	Unknown.	eng
41005	threats	Morgan, S., 2006	Unknown.	eng
41006	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Full declaration of the trade in live and dead syngnathids is required in the European Union, and full monitoring of the dried trade is underway there. <em>Hippocampus guttulatus</em> is protected in Slovenia under the 1993 Protection of Threatened Animals Act. It is also included in the Red Data Books of France and Portugal.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance and distribution is needed.	eng
41006	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	<em>Hippocampus guttulatus</em> is primarily a species of European waters, occurring in the Eastern Atlantic from the Netherlands, south to Portugal, and the Mediterranean. It may also occur in the Suez Canal.	eng
41006	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species occurs in shallow, muddy waters amongst eelgrass and seagrass beds (Lythgoe and Lythgoe 1971, Whitehead 1986, Wheeler 1985); estuaries; and rocky areas (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). It may overwinter in deeper water (Boisseau 1967). <br/> <br/>This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. The information on habitat suggests they inhabit shallow seagrass beds (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999) that are susceptible to human degradation, as well as making them susceptible to being caught as bycatch.  All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vincent <em>et al</em>., in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
41006	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	Seahorses are caught both intentionally and incidentally in Portugal, and sold for curiosities (J. Curtis, in litt. to P. LaFrance).  They are also caught incidentally in Italy, France, Spain and Croatia (pers. comm. to P. LaFrance).  The volume of this trade is unknown, but without appropriate management this trade might represent a threat to the species. <br/> <br/>The species might also be threatened due to the vulnerability of its shallow habitats to human influence.  These habitats are often degraded by humans, and animals located in the habitat are vulnerable to incidental capture in other fisheries	eng
41007	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	Further research on this species is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41007	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species is known to occur in Atlantic coastal areas of West Africa.	eng
41007	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	Habitat preferences are currently unknown (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999).  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41007	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	Major threats to the species are currently unknown.	eng
41008	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>Hippocampus comes</em> has been studied <em>in situ</em> in the central Philippines since 1995, as part of a conservation program in an area where this species is of considerable economic importance (Vincent and Pajaro unpubl. data). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41008	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	The primary range of <em>H. comes</em> is the Philippines, where they are heavily exploited by subsistence fishers. <em>H. comes</em> are also collected for the aquarium industry in Lampung, Sumatera, Indonesia, but were not found elsewhere in Indonesia during an intensive three-month field survey (Lourie unpubl. data). Moreover <em>H. comes</em> is known in the Andaman Islands only from a single photograph, and in Malaysia only from a single specimen (Lourie unpubl. data).	eng
41008	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. comes</em> are found on coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove habitats. This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41008	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>Hippocampus comes</em> is targeted by fishers supplying a substantial trade in seahorses for medicinal and aquarium uses. This species is also incidentally caught (bycatch) in other fisheries and affected by habitat degradation.	eng
41009	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	As of 1998, all syngnathids caught in Australian waters require export permits.  Further research is needed on this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41009	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. fisheri</em> is known from Hawaii. A single specimen from Lord Howe Island, Australia is tentatively assigned to this species, although further specimens need to be seen to confirm its occurrence there (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999). Similarly, further specimens from New Caledonia need to be examined to confirm the species' occurrence in that region.	eng
41009	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	Habitat preferences for this species are currently unknown.  This species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41009	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	Current threats to the species are unknown. The species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> in review, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41010	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. kelloggi</em> is listed in the 1994 Viet Nam Red Data Book, although the accompanying image is of <em>H. trimaculatus</em> (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). Australian populations have been protected under the Australian Wildlife Protection Act since 1998. The species is also listed under wildlife protection laws in the People's Republic of China (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41010	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. kelloggi</em> has a relatively wide range. It has been recorded from Zanzibar in Tanzania, Pakistan, India, and southeast Asia, and north to China and Japan. Specimens from Australia have been trawled from depths of 18–156 m, however, further research is required to determine whether these are <em>H. kelloggi</em> or a separate species (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41010	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	This species may be particularly susceptible to declines. All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Parante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41010	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>Hipocampus kelloggi</em> is heavily traded for traditional medicines, and also sold for aquaria and souvenirs, but the volume of this trade, and the proportion of the population that it represents, is unknown at this point.	eng
41011	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2002	Further research is required on this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41011	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2002	<em>H. lichtensteinii</em> is only known from type specimens collected from the Red Sea. Exact localities are not stated (Lourie <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41011	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2002	Habitat preferences are currently unknown. The species may be particularly susceptible to decline. All seahorse species have vital parental care and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vincent <em>et al.</em> in review), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie <em>et al.</em> 1999). The importance of life history parameters in determining response to exploitation has been demonstrated for a number of species (Jennings <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41011	population	Project Seahorse, 2002	Known only from the type specimens.	eng
41011	threats	Project Seahorse, 2002	Major threats to the species are currently unknown.	eng
41013	conservation	Hack, M.A & Lorenzen, E., 2008	Plains Zebra occur in numerous protected areas across their range, including the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania), Tsavo and Masaai Mara (Kenya), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), Etosha National Park (Namibia), and Kruger National Park (South Africa).<br/><br/>Hack <em>et al.</em> (2002) proposed the following conservation actions for the species: 1) Improve coverage and frequency of monitoring; 2) Improve risk assessment; 3) Quantify and manage genetic diversity both globally and locally; 4) Increase the understanding of the species' basic biology'; and 5) Investigare the economics of alternative utilization stategies.	eng
41013	distribution	Hack, M.A & Lorenzen, E., 2008	Plains Zebra range from southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia, east of the Nile River, to southern Angola and northern Namibia and northern South Africa (formerly ranging south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers to the Cape) (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002; Klingel in press). They are now extinct in two countries in which they formerly occurred: Burundi and Lesotho. There is no information on their status in Angola, where they may also be extinct.<br/><br/>The six morphologically defined subspecies are distributed as follows (following Groves and Bell 2004, and Klingel in press): <br/><br/><em>E. q. crawshaii</em>(Crawshay’s Zebra) occurs in Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, south-eastern Tanzania from Lake Rukwa east to Mahungoi, and Mozambique as far south as the Gorongoza district; <br/><br/><em>E. q. borensis</em> ranges in north-west Kenya, from Guas ngishu and Lake Baringo, to the Karamoja district of Uganda and south-east Sudan, east of the Nile River to the northern limit of the species at 32°N; <br/><br/><em>E. q. boehmi</em> (Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra) is found in Zambia, west of the Luangwa River, west to Kariba, Shaba Province of DR Congo north to Kibanzao Plateau; Tanzania north from Nyangaui and Kibwezi into south-west Uganda, south-west Kenya as far as Sotik, and east Kenya, east of the Rift Valley, into southern Ethiopia and perhaps to the Juba River in Somalia. <br/><br/><em>E. q. chapmani</em> (Chapman's Zebra) ranges from north-east South Africa, from about 24°S, 31°E, north to Zimbabwe, west into Botswana at about 19°S, 24°E, the Caprivi Strip in Namibia, and southern Angola;<br/><br/><em>E. q. burchellii</em> (Burchell's Zebra) formerly occurred north of the Vaal/Orange Rivers, extending north-west via southern Botswana to Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld, south-east to KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland. It is now extinct in the middle of its range. <em>E.b. antiquorum</em> is now included in this subspecies;<br/><br/><em>E. q. quagga</em> (Quagga) occurred in the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers and west of the Drakensberg. Now extinct.	eng
41013	habitat	Hack, M.A & Lorenzen, E., 2008	Plains Zebra live in all habitats in Africa from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya, with the exception of rain forests, deserts, dune forests, and Cape Sclerophyllous vegetation (Duncan 1992; Klingel in press). Plains Zebra are selective grazers, and in the Serengeti Grogan’s (1973) research indicated that <em>Pennisetum mezianum</em> was a preferred species. He compared proportions ingested to their availability in the sward and found that there was significant selection and rejection of grass species. <br/><br/>In several areas, their movements are directly correlated with the availability of water, moving to grazing areas during the rains and concentrating near permanent rivers or pools during the dry season. The Serengeti migratory subpopulation concentrates during the rains from November to May in the Serengeti plains. At the beginning of the dry season in June it migrates to the western and northern parts of the Serengeti National Park and adjacent areas, and into the Mara National Reserve in Kenya (Klingel in press).	eng
41013	population	Hack, M.A & Lorenzen, E., 2008	Plains Zebra are locally common throughout their range both in and also outside protected areas (especially in Kenya and Tanzania). Total numbers were estimated at ~660,000 in 2002 (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002). Over 75% of the world’s Plains Zebra are of the Grant’s subspecies (<em>E. q. boehmi</em>), with some 200,000 in the greater Serengeti/Mara ecosystem; Serengeti National Park supports the world’s single largest Plains Zebra population (151,000) (East 1997; Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002). Current information on total population size is limited. Aerial survey data from Tanzania indicate that there may have been a population decline of approximately 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000’s (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002; TAWIRI/TWCM pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The True Quagga subspecies (<em>E. q. quagga</em>) has been extinct since the end of the 19th century (ca. 1883).<br/><br/>Recorded densities of Plains Zebra include 0.9/km² in Kruger National Park (Smuts 1976) and 22/km² in Ngorongoro (ground count) (Klingel 1967).	eng
41013	threats	Hack, M.A & Lorenzen, E., 2008	No major threats appear to be resulting in range-wide population declines, but habitat loss and overhunting are resulting in localized declines in some areas. Although no country within this species’ range is free of either problem, loss of habitat appears to be more of a concern in the southern half of the range, while poaching appears to be more significant in the northern half. Nonetheless, the Plains Zebra is a relatively resilient species that has demonstrated a remarkable ability to recover from population declines when provided with suitable habitat and protection from overhunting (Hack <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The Quagga was driven to extinction in the late 19th century by overhunting and competition with livestock.	eng
41023	conservation	Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	Based on the current destruction of this environment, it has been suggested that today <em>M. bororo</em> is the most threatened deer species in Brazil.  It will be necessary to join forces to protect and conserve it (Duarte and Jorge, 2003). Wemmer (1998) recommended a scientific description of the species to establish its biological reality.	eng
41023	distribution	Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	<em>Mazama bororo</em> is known from the southeastern part of the state of São Paulo to the northeastern part of the state of Paraná, Brazil.	eng
41023	habitat	Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	<em>Mazama bororo</em> lives in small fragments of the remaining Atlantic Forest.	eng
41023	population	Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	This taxon has been proposed as a new species (Duarte and Giannoni 1996), but has not yet been formally described with vouchered material. The current size and distribution of the population is not known., as it was only discovered in 1992 (Duarte and Giannoni 1996). A population is known to exist in an isolated patch of Atlantic rain forest near the city of Capao Bonito in the state of São Paulo. The maximum population size for species is 4,500 individuals (Duarte <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41023	threats	Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	The main threat to the population is thought to be habitat fragmentation as Atlantic rainforest is being broken into isolated patches in the region (Duarte and Giannoni 1996).	eng
41026	conservation	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Morgan, B., Linder, J. & Ting, N., 2008	This taxon is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. <em>P. p. preussi</em> is present in Korup National Park (1,260 km²) and its perimeter in Cameroon, with a small number residing in the adjacent Oban division of Cross River National Park (Nigeria). It is also recorded from Ebo Wildlife Reserve, just north of the Sanaga River, which has been proposed as a new national park.	eng
41026	distribution	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Morgan, B., Linder, J. & Ting, N., 2008	<em>P. p. preussi</em> is present in south-eastern Nigeria in the Cross River National Park (Oban Division) extending into the adjacent Korup National Park and surrounds in south-western Cameroon; they also occur in Ebo Forest just north of the Sanaga River (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 2000; Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2001), and at least until fairly recently still persisted in Makombe forest to the north of Ebo where the were heard in 2003 (B. Morgan pers. comm.).	eng
41026	habitat	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Morgan, B., Linder, J. & Ting, N., 2008	An inhabitant of lowland and mid-altitude moist forest up to 1,400 m (Kingdon and Butynski in press). Edwards (1992) recorded group sizes of 20-64 animals for <em>P. p. preussi</em>, similar to those recorded by J. Linder (pers. comm.).	eng
41026	population	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Morgan, B., Linder, J. & Ting, N., 2008	Between 10,000 and 15,000 <em>P. p. preussi</em> may be present in Korup National Park, the stronhold for the taxon (Oates 1996). Edwards (1992) estimated group densities in north-eastern Korup at 0.52-0.56 groups/km², which is not too dissimilar from more recent estimates by J. Linder (pers. comm.) in the same area (0.46 grps/sq. km). No absolute  density is available for southern Korup, but J. Linder (pers. comm.) encountered 12 groups in 243 km walked.	eng
41026	threats	Oates, J.F., Struhsaker, T., Morgan, B., Linder, J. & Ting, N., 2008	The major threat to this species is hunting (e.g., Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2001) and habitat degradation. <em>P. p. preussi</em> made up a relatively large proportion of the total primate offtake in Korup National Park, especially in the north-east (22% of carcasses) (J. Linder pers. comm.).	eng
41027	distribution	Ryan, S. & Griffiths, H.I., 2002	<em>G. macedonica</em> was endemic to Lake Dorjan. It was first described from shells taken from a site on the western shore of the lake, on the border of Macedonia and Greece (Ryan and Griffiths 2001).	eng
41027	habitat	Ryan, S. & Griffiths, H.I., 2002	<em>G. macedonica</em> was a freshwater species. It was restricted to sandy and stony substrates in the littoral zone of Lake Dorjan, usually at depths of 0 to approximately 50 cm (Ryan and Griffiths 2001).	eng
41027	population	Ryan, S. & Griffiths, H.I., 2002	The population was noted to have suffered declines in the 1970s as the lake's water levels lowered. In 1987, densities were estimated at 2,500 individuals per m², however, in 1988 the lake's water level decreased by a further 60 cm as a result of a single outflow event (Ryan and Griffiths 2001). The species has not been recorded in the area, despite repeated visits, since 1992.	eng
41027	threats	Ryan, S. & Griffiths, H.I., 2002	The species is now thought to be extinct as a result of habitat loss through water abstraction. Lake levels have declined from maximum water depth of 10.4 m in the 1930s to 5.6 m in 1995. Water abstraction is still ongoing in the area as the lake's feeder streams and underlying aquifer continue to be used for agricultural purposes (Ryan and Griffiths 2001).	eng
41028	conservation		All populations are found within Cape Melville National Park. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restricted range.	eng
41028	distribution		This species is known only from four streams in boulder fields in northern Queensland, Australia, above 60m asl.	eng
41028	habitat		This species is found associated with rocky streams with large granite boulders and granite bedrock in rainforest and mesophyll vine forest with Melaleuca emergents. It is often seen sitting on rocks, vines and twigs adjacent to cascades and riffles. It shelters under rocks and vegetation. It breeds in summer with the onset of the wet season. Males can be heard calling in late November.	eng
41028	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, but it is believed to be stable.	eng
41028	threats		There are no known major threats.	eng
41029	conservation		Development of a management plan is under way, but much further research and survey work is needed as is protection and rehabilitation of remaining habitat. The range of the species includes several protected areas, and it is given protection where it occurs in state forests. Given the probable threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
41029	distribution		This Australian endemic ranges from the Queensland border south down the Great Dividing Range almost to the Victorian border. It has not been recorded from the Northern Tablelands during the past 15 years despite extensive surveys. The only extant population in Northern New South Wales is near Tamworth. The area of occupancy of this species is only approximately 10km² and is severely fragmented. It has been recorded between 200 and 1,000m asl.	eng
41029	habitat		This is a highland species associated with western-flowing rocky streams on the slopes and tablelands of the Great Dividing Range. Streams are slow-flowing and bordered by grassy vegetation. Males begin calling in August from rocks in or near the water. It is most active at night but also often found in daylight on rocks on the waters edge.	eng
41029	population		There have been very few records of the species in the past five years and the species is believed to have undergone massive declines over its entire range.	eng
41029	threats		The widespread disappearance of this species across most of its range is probably due to chytridiomycosis. In addition, introduced fish occur in many streams where the species has been recorded, which exert predatory pressure upon tadpoles of this species. Land clearing, forest grazing and timber harvesting have occurred adjacent to or in the headwaters of catchments in which the species has been recorded. Flow modification and weed invasion (particularly by willows) has also occurred along many streams where the species occurs.	eng
41030	conservation	Sorensen, M. & Bills, R., 2009	<p>The South African National Water Act 1998 (Act 36) requires that all rivers should have an Ecological Reserve amount set aside. The Ecological Reserve relates to "the water required to protect the aquatic ecosystems of the water resource", including both rivers and estuaries (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a).&#160; Ecological reserves have been determined for some systems in South Africa but not for any estuaries inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span>. When dams were built on the Kariega and its tributary rivers, a water release policy was issued for downstream agriculture but the environmental requirements of estuaries and rivers were not included (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008a).</p>	eng
41030	distribution	Sorensen, M. & Bills, R., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>is known only from the Bushmans, Kariega, and Kasouga estuaries on the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa (Whitfield 1995, Cowley 1998, Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
41030	habitat	Sorensen, M. & Bills, R., 2009	<strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen&#160;1966). Sexual maturity is attained at approximately 10 cm standard length with males retaining up to 44 embryos. Reproductively active specimens were collected in the Kariega estuary during late September (Whitfield 1995). The life cycle is completed within the estuary.<br/><strong><br/>Habitat</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>occurs in&#160;brackish, tidal areas of rivers&#160;and is found primarily in association with the eelgrass <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera capensis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ruppia cirrhosa</span>, where it feeds almost exclusively on zooplankton (Whitfield 1995).	eng
41030	population	Sorensen, M. & Bills, R., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus watermeyeri </span>has been recorded in small numbers and its presence/absence in surveys has fluctuated dramatically since these surveys began. Initial surveys in 1963 found 10 River Pipefish in the Bushmans estuary, 11 in the Kariega estuary and two in the Kasouga estuary (Whitfield 1995). Between 1989 and 1992, intensive surveys were conducted in all three estuaries with no specimens recorded. As a result, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>was listed as officially Extinct in the 1994 IUCN Red List but in 1996 a new breeding population was discovered in the East Kleinemonde estuary (Cowley 1998). This new population, however, was declared locally extinct in 2003 when a large flood was thought to have washed their preferred eelgrass habitat out to sea, no specimens have since been found in the East Kleinemonde (James <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>The most recent surveys occurred in 2006 and found juvenile <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>once again in its historic range (Bushmans, Kariega and Kasouga estuaries) where it had not been reported for over four decades (Whitfield and Bruton 1996). These intensive surveys found a total of 20 juvenile specimens in the Kariega estuary, ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 individuals per square metre (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). No mature individuals were found. Peaks in abundance were found in areas where mesohaline conditions prevailed and the percentage vegetation cover exceeded 80% (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/></p>	eng
41030	threats	Sorensen, M. & Bills, R., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus watermeyeri</span> relies on freshwater pulses which provide the nutrients that enable phytoplankton development and, together with particulate organic material brought down by the rivers, support the zooplankton community upon which these pipefish depend for food. The construction of dams and other impoundments have caused a deprivation of fresh water pulses and a subsequent decline in food supply (Whitfield 1995). Dry conditions in the last few years have caused the Kariega river to stop flowing, which will likely result in the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span> in this system once again (A.K.Whitfield pers. comm.).<br/>&#160;<br/>This species may also be particularly susceptible to hypersaline conditions and to large flood events (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). A flood event in the East Kleinemonde estuary in 1996 (Cowley 1998) resulted in the apparent localized extinction of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri</span>. This was thought to be the result of primary <span style="font-style: italic;">S. watermeyeri </span>habitat, submerged eelgrass beds, being flushed out to sea (Vorwerk <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
41031	conservation		Its known range is in a very remote area, and might include Drysdale River National Park.	eng
41031	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from the Kimberley region of Western Australia, where its estimated altitudinal range is 150-300m asl.	eng
41031	habitat		It is a species that is known only from caves and refuges between boulders in the sandstone gorges flanking the Mitchell Plateau of the Kimberley region.	eng
41031	population		There is no specific information regarding its population status.	eng
41031	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
41032	conservation		Most of the population is protected in the Cooloola or Great Sandy National Park. Fraser Island was inscribed into the list of UNESCO World Heritage Areas in 1992. Measures need to be taken to prevent the spread of <em>Gambusia</em> within its range, and to control the impacts of tourism.	eng
41032	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from south-eastern Queensland in Cooloola (or Great Sandy) National Park on Fraser Island, and North Stradbroke Island.	eng
41032	habitat		The species is found in sandy coastal and island freshwater lakes and wallum creeks, where it has a preference for dense reed beds. It is a spring and summer breeder, with males calling from reeds or trees around freshwater lakes. Eggs are deposited on submerged vegetation; larvae are free-swimming.	eng
41032	population		It occurs in large numbers on Fraser Island.	eng
41032	threats		High human visitation to the freshwater lakes important for breeding is a major threat, as is the trampling of reed beds and the pollution of water. Water extraction for sand mining and domestic use has had significant impacts on populations on North Stradbroke Island through habitat loss, deterioration in water quality and alterations in hydrology. More significantly, this species has virtually disappeared from Brown Lake on North Stradbroke Island following the introduction of predatory <em>Gambusia</em> fish there in 2003. However, overall these threats are relatively localized.	eng
41033	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas, including Fraser Island National Park.	eng
41033	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from Fraser Island in Queensland, south to Jervis Bay in mid-eastern New South Wales.	eng
41033	habitat		This species occupies a variety of habitats, but is most commonly seen in the vicinity of temporary coastal swamps (wallum). These areas typically have low nutrient soils and heath, sedge land, Melaleuca swamp or Banksia woodland vegetation. It is mostly a nocturnal species, and is a spring and summer breeder. Eggs are demersal and laid in shallow water, and the larvae are free-swimming.	eng
41033	population		There is no information on population status.	eng
41033	threats		Clearing of habitat for agriculture, pine plantations, housing and other infrastructure is a threat; they occur in an area with the highest rate of human population growth in Australia. Other threats include habitat degradation through alterations in hydrology and increased nutrient loads, invading weeds, and inappropriate fire regimes.	eng
41034	conservation		A recovery plan for the frog species in the Wet Tropics has been written which will benefit this species. Its range includes a few protected areas within its range. The taxonomic status of the different populations needs to be assessed. Some of the taxonomically distinct populations might require specific conservation actions.	eng
41034	distribution		This species is found in Australia in the Queensland Wet Tropics. As currently recognized taxonomically in New Guinea, this species is widespread across most of central New Guinea and also occurs on islands off the west coast. It occurs up to 1,500m asl in New Guinea, and occurs from around 100m to 1,500m asl in Australia.	eng
41034	habitat		This species occurs in small streams and rocky creek beds in lowland and foothill rainforest, and also persists in degraded forest and rural gardens. In Australia breeding starts in August. It breeds in slow-moving or still streams and temporary pools. Egg clumps of 843 eggs in a firm jelly have been recorded, laid in a pool.	eng
41034	population		<em>Litoria genimaculata</em> is currently common throughout the Australian Wet Tropics but underwent population declines in the early 1990s (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). Populations appear to have recovered to pre-decline levels across the Wet Tropics (McDonald and Alford, 1999; Richards and Alford, 2005).In In New Guinea, this species is abundant wherever it occurs. In Australia it is common throughout the year, but it is sparsely distributed.	eng
41034	threats		Declines were noted in the Wet Tropics in Australia in the 1990s. A chytridiomycete fungus (<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) has been identified as the most likely proximate cause of these declines (Berger <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and chytrid is known to be a source of mortality in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Speare and Berger, 2005). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Topaz, Queensland.	eng
41035	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. There are also disease control protocols.	eng
41035	distribution		This Australian endemic occupies the eastern coastal strip only, from far southeastern Queensland to southeastern New South Wales. It is uncertain whether or not populations north of Sydney represent this species or another taxa.	eng
41035	habitat		It can be found in coastal lowlands only-coastal swamps, heath and woodlands. They are found around lagoons, hind-dune creeks, swamps and waterholes. The substrate is usually loose sand. Males call in spring and summer from on the ground or in low vegetation at pond edges. Eggs are in small jelly clumps attached to vegetation. Tadpoles are found in still water in dams, ditches, isolated pools and flooded hollows.	eng
41035	population		No indications of population decline in recent years. Populations apparently stable, but data very patchy and limited.	eng
41035	threats		The major threats are uncertain. Coastal developments that fill in swamps and adjacent lands are most likely a threat.	eng
41036	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41036	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the east coast from central New South Wales to eastern Victoria, from 280-1,200m asl, although it might occur at lower altitudes than this.	eng
41036	habitat		This species inhabits wet or dry sclerophyll forest associated with sandstone outcrops on the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range. In some areas it prefers flowing rocky streams and is often found with L. citropa. In the northern part of its range, it calls around permanent and ephemeral pools in heath, woodland and forest. It calls all year round but sporadically but has a peak of activity from July to October. Eggs are in small jelly clumps attached to vegetation. Tadpoles are found in still water in dams, ditches, isolated pools and flooded hollows.	eng
41036	population		It is a relatively uncommon species.	eng
41036	threats		Logging might be a threat to the species' habitat. It has been found to persist in some logged areas but whether or not it can persist long-term is not known.	eng
41037	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41037	distribution		This species is distributed from Lake Woongeel, Fraser Island, south to near Woolgoolga including Bribie, Moreton and Stradbroke Island, south-east Queensland, Australia (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999).	eng
41037	habitat		This species inhabits coastal sand plains and dunes of "the wallum" (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Vegetation types typical of these environments include heath land, Melaleuca swamp, sedge land and Banksia woodland (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). It is associated with low pH waters characteristic of wallum environments, usually found in sedge swamps, and less commonly in coastal lakes and creek environs (Liem and Ingram 1977; James 1996; Ehmann 1997). During wet periods these swamps are heavily inundated and the species can be found clinging to emergent vegetation (grasses, reeds and Bungwall Fern; E. Meyers pers. comm.). During dry periods individuals may be found at the base of sedges, grass clumps and/or Bungwall Fern in the same swamps (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Ingram and Corben (1975) termed this species an ‘acid’ frog as it is confined to sandy heaths and their acidic water. Non-breeding habitat is not known. Limited information is available on the breeding biology of the species. Ehmann (1997) recorded males calling in spring, summer and early autumn at night and by day when swamps were rising or ample water was available. It mainly breeds following heavy rain in perched swamps, amidst sedges, grasses and/or Bungwell Fern (<em>Blechnum indicum</em>) in still water 0.5-1.5m deep (E. Meyer pers. comm.). The wallum waters in which the species breeds are typically heavily tanin-stained, highly acidic and generally dilute (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Eggs are attached to grasses and sedges and larvae are nektonic in form and dwell amongst reeds and grasses in water 0.5-1.5m deep (E. Meyer pers. comm.). Fish are largely absent from habitat occupied by the species (E. Meyer pers. comm.).	eng
41037	population		There is no information on population size, structure or dynamics (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). The species exhibits genetic structuring on a north-south gradient (James 1996). Populations in northern New South Wales, North Stradbroke Island, Moreton Island and Cooloola-Fraser are each genetically different and significantly divergent from each other, and should be considered demographically independent due to their insular nature (James 1996).	eng
41037	threats		Populations appear to be relatively stable in protected habitat; however, this species is at risk from continuing loss of habitat through clearing for agriculture, pine plantations, housing and infrastructure such as canal development, drainage projects and transport corridors (Ingram and McDonald 1993; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Melaleuca forest and heathland are particularly threatened and have been extensively cleared since 1974 (Catterall and Kingston 1993) suggesting an extensive loss of habitat. Other threats include habitat degradation through changes in hydrological regimes, increased nutrients or sediments, weed invasion, inappropriate fire management, competition from invading frog species and predation from introduced fish (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Weed invasion is a potentially threatening process (Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999). Competition from invading frog species and predation from introduced fish (i.e., <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) have been identified as potentially threatening processes (Ehmann 1997; Hines, Mahony and McDonald 1999) but further research is required.	eng
41038	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41038	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs on the eastern escarpment of the Great Dividing Range from "The Flags" near Walcha, New South Wales, in the south, to Girraween National Park, Queensland, in the north (Mahoney <em>et al.</em> 2001). It occurs at altitudes above 600m, and possibly up to 1,400m asl.	eng
41038	habitat		The species lives near slow-flowing and small streams in dry and wet sclerophyll forest, rainforest, montane forest and heath land. It is also found in semi-cleared grazing lands. It breeds in spring and tadpoles have tentacles around their mouths (rather than a horny beak).	eng
41038	population		It appears that this species underwent historical declines. However, most populations were discovered from 1990 onwards and so little historical basis exists for assessing the level of these declines. Noticeable declines have been recorded in three populations on the coast of northern New South Wales. It is now absent from some sites, but the status of populations at other sites is not well known.	eng
41038	threats		The removal of riparian vegetation, especially by grazing and timber harvesting, is a major threat. Pollution of streams by agricultural and domestic by-products is a threat to this riparian species. Trout have also been released into streams that support small populations of the frog.	eng
41039	conservation		All populations occur within a protected area in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, which was inscribed in 1988. Plans for wildfire management and cool controlled burning have been developed.	eng
41039	distribution		This Australian endemic is found only in a small area called Bowling Green Bay National Park on Mount Elliott, south-east of Townsville in northern Queensland. It has been recorded at 900-1,200m asl.	eng
41039	habitat		Individuals are usually seen on palm fronds in the rainforest. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
41039	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
41039	threats		The threats to this species mainly come from human impacts on existing protected areas, primarily habitat degradation due to erosion following increased human traffic and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. The increased occurrence of wildfires is also a threat, and the species may be at risk of climate change.	eng
41040	conservation		All populations occur within a protected area in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, which was inscribed in 1988. Further monitoring of this species is needed in order to determine whether its range is receding altitudinally due to the impacts of climate change.	eng
41040	distribution		This Australian endemic is found between Cairns and Innisfail, in northern Queensland. The species occurs between approximately 900 and 1,500m asl, although there is evidence to suggest that the lower altitudinal limit is receding. In particular, recent surveys in 2000 and 2001 failed to record the species below 1,150m asl, and in 2001 to 2004, there were no records from below 1,200m asl.	eng
41040	habitat		This species is found beneath cover on the floor of high-altitude rainforest. It calls from under leaves and bark, for example. Eggs are laid on the ground; a group of 14 eggs were observed being attended by an adult frog (other clutches have been as large as 32 eggs). The young develop directly into fully formed froglets.	eng
41040	population		It occurs at moderate to high densities in some parts of its range.	eng
41040	threats		The threats to this species mainly come from human impacts on existing protected areas, primarily habitat degradation due to erosion following increased human traffic and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. Climate change could have serious implications for this species and may already be impacting the lower elevational range of the species.	eng
41041	conservation		All populations are within Black Mountain National Park, which lies at the northern end of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
41041	distribution		This Australian endemic is restricted to Black Mountain, south of Cooktown, in Far North Queensland.	eng
41041	habitat		The species inhabits rainforest patches. It is found on an unusual formation of granite boulders on Black Mountain where the frog lives in caverns formed between the huge boulders. It breeds by direct development.	eng
41041	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
41041	threats		The main threats to this species derive mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example, erosion following human traffic, and habitat degradation as a result of the development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.	eng
41042	conservation		There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41042	distribution		This species was collected from an area 30km north-east of Coen, in northern Queensland, Australia.	eng
41042	habitat		The known specimens were found in low vegetation at the edge of a creek in rainforest.	eng
41042	population		Only two specimens currently exist.	eng
41042	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
41043	conservation		It is found in Cape Melville National Park.	eng
41043	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from northern Queensland.	eng
41043	habitat		It is a rainforest inhabitant that is suspected to be a terrestrial breeder, as with other members of the genus.	eng
41043	population		Only three specimens are known.	eng
41043	threats		Logging was a threat to this species in the past. It is more likely to be threatened now by habitat degradation resulting from increased visitation to the area.	eng
41044	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place. Studies are urgently needed on this species, since it could prove to be threatened.	eng
41044	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from mid New South Wales and south into Victoria, but its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
41044	habitat		It is known to be associated with temporary pools in grassland, and it is usually only found after rains. Males call whilst floating in water.	eng
41044	population		This is an uncommon species and there have only been a few records.	eng
41044	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
41045	conservation		It is protected in some National Parks in both Queensland and New South Wales (including Fraser Island).	eng
41045	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from Litabella National Park on the south-east coast of Queensland, south to Kurnell in mid-eastern New South Wales. It also occurs on a number of offshore islands including Fraser Island, Bribie Island, Moreton and North Stradbroke Island.	eng
41045	habitat		This species is found in a range of habitats, usually in association with coastal sand plains and dunes; it is commonly associated with acidic swamps, and may breed in drainage ditches as well as shallow ephemeral waters in marsh/swamp areas. It breeds throughout the year, though breeding peaks in colder months. Eggs are deposited in water with a pH value of 4.3-5.2.	eng
41045	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
41045	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to mining, infrastructure development (for human settlement and for tourism), and the spread of invasive species.	eng
41046	conservation	Hero, J.-M., Lemckert, F., Gillespie, G., Robertson, P. & Littlejohn, M., 2004	It is listed as Vulnerable in the states where it occurs (Victoria and New South Wales) and is therefore protected by State legislation. It is also protected where its habitat occurs within State Forest or National Parks. This species is the subject of two major studies in New South Wales.	eng
41046	distribution	Hero, J.-M., Lemckert, F., Gillespie, G., Robertson, P. & Littlejohn, M., 2004	This species is confined to the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range and coastal regions from the south end of the Olney State Forest north of Sydney, New South Wales (Australian Museum records), to Walhalla in the central highlands of eastern Victoria (Littlejohn and Martin 1967). It has been found from near sea level up to 1,000 m asl, from the coast to almost 100 km inland along the escarpment of the Great Dividing Range (Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997, Australian Museum records). Most records are either from the north end of the range in the Sydney region, or eastern Victoria and south-eastern New South Wales (see Gillespie 1990, Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). There is a notable disjunction in records between Jervis Bay and the Eden District, which might be due to either the rarity of the species or the limited survey effort in the region. However, recent records have nearly filled in this gap (F. Lemckert pers. comm.). Large river valleys seem to have played a major role in determining the distribution of this species (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).	eng
41046	habitat	Hero, J.-M., Lemckert, F., Gillespie, G., Robertson, P. & Littlejohn, M., 2004	In the south end of its range the species occurs in a wide range of forest communities including montane sclerophyll woodland, montane riparian woodland, wet, damp and dry sclerophyll forest (Gillespie 1990). In the central coast of New South Wales the species is associated with sandy soils that support heath vegetation (Mahony 1993). Breeding activity occurs in spring to autumn (Gillespie 1990), although the species has been found to be active throughout the entire year, with activity peaks in the months of February, April and May (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Males call from partially flooded burrows at the base of creek banks or beneath dense vegetation beside creeks (Littlejohn and Martin 1967, Gillespie 1990). Breeding occurs at ephemeral pools and sometimes-permanent pools. Watson and Martin (1973) recorded 775-1,239 eggs (2.6mm diameter) from four foamy egg masses deposited in standing or slow water in vegetation or burrows, while near Jervis Bay they ranged from 698-807 (Daly 1996 in Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Tadpoles are free-living and metamorphosis occurs at 3 and 11 months (Daly 1996).	eng
41046	population	Hero, J.-M., Lemckert, F., Gillespie, G., Robertson, P. & Littlejohn, M., 2004	Available information indicates that <em>H. australiacus</em> is now rare (Webb 1987, Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997), and populations appear to have declined. However, information is lacking on the demography of the species and on the size of populations. With few exceptions, recent records of this species have been of a single individual or few individuals (Gillespie 1990, Daly 1996).	eng
41046	threats	Hero, J.-M., Lemckert, F., Gillespie, G., Robertson, P. & Littlejohn, M., 2004	There are a number of threatening processes operating across the range of this species, including intensive timber harvesting, cattle grazing, fuel reduction burning, introduced terrestrial and aquatic predators, and disturbances resulting from urbanization (Gillespie 1990, Rescei 1997), in addition to pollution and disease (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Road mortality has also been observed (Mahony 1993). The potential impacts of most of these processes have not been examined. Foxes and cats are common and widespread throughout south-eastern Australia and are potentially a major threatening process to terrestrial frog species such as <em>H. australiacus</em> (Gillespie and Hines 1999). Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Springwood, New South Wales. Fires may also constitute a threat to this species (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and while logging is currently excluded from the species' known breeding habitat, it has the potential to impact individuals that may occur beyond these habitats (Penman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Different degrees of suspended sediments in water (that may result from e.g. storms, logging activities) were found not to affect growth of tadpoles; however, survivorship was found to be higher in the high sediment regime (Green <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).	eng
41047	conservation		It occurs in Mitchell River National Park.	eng
41047	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia, where its estimated altitudinal range is 0-300m asl.	eng
41047	habitat		It is found on rock platforms near the Mitchell River in northern Western Australia, and has also been found at the entrance to a small gorge at Mount Elizabeth Station. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
41047	population		There is no information available regarding its population status.	eng
41047	threats		There are no threats known to this species, and there are unlikely to be any due to the isolation of its range.	eng
41048	conservation		It is listed as threatened in Australian legislation. A comprehensive recovery plan was developed for this species (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000), and is now probably in need of revision.	eng
41048	distribution		This species is known only from a small area near Ravenshoe, north Queensland, were it has been found at 22 discrete sites with 36 populations (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species has only a small area of occupancy (less than 50ha; McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). All records of the species have been from above 800m asl (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is known from Timber Reserve 245, State Forest 754,488, and 251; Millstream National Park and Ravenshoe rubbish dump reserve, road reserves and freehold land (Ingram and Corben 1994; McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41048	habitat		This species appears to be restricted to specific habitats with all records being from the rhyolites of the Glen Gorden Volcanics (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has been found around seepage areas in open eucalypt forests with an understorey comprising <em>Themeda triandra</em>, <em>Xanthorrhoea</em> sp., <em>Gahnia</em> sp., <em>Lophostemon suaveolens</em>, <em>Allocasuarina littoralis</em> and <em>A. torulosa</em> (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). In areas where cattle grazing has reduced ground cover the species has also been located in leaf-litter build up in first order streams (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its non-breeding habitat is unknown. It generally calls from seepage areas at the base of grass tussocks on wet summer and autumn nights (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Though primarily nocturnal, it may also call on overcast days (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). The call is very similar to the winter-breeding <em>Pseudophryne major</em>, from south and central Queensland (Ingram and Corben 1994). From 6-82 eggs are laid on moist soil in or near seepage, usually under vegetation (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). Observations suggest that the development of eggs pauses prior to hatching (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000). After hatching, the larva makes its way down the seepage or is washed into first order streams where development continues in small pools (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41048	population		Limited information is available on its population size, although known populations cover small areas (the largest being approximately 0.5ha, but most less than 0.1ha) and the number of calling males at each site ranges from 1-20 (McDonald <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41048	threats		Habitat loss and degradation appears to be the major threat. Its habitat occurs on land under a variety of tenures, including national parks, state forests, local government reserves, grazing leasehold properties, crown land, freehold lands and road reserves. Ninety-seven percent of frog sites are located on unprotected land, most of which is in state forest or timber reserve. There are several activities likely to occur on these lands, which may impact on the amount and quality of the frog’s habitat, including grazing, logging, road works, clearing and development. Habitat in the south-east of Timber Reserve 245 and Tumoulin State Forest has been severely affected by cattle grazing. Grazing and trampling has the potential to degrade and destroy the seepage areas used by the frogs for breeding. Similarly, erosion and subsequent siltation may cover seepage areas if future logging or clearing occurs. Roads and cuttings can alter the water quality and hydrology and may affect seepage areas and first order streams. Regrowth forest uses more water than old growth and therefore has the potential to reduce seepages. The population at the Ravenshoe rubbish dump has declined. Dump activities have destroyed or modified habitat, and previously known populations are now absent.	eng
41049	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41049	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the arid zone of Western Australia, from the northwest Cape and Pilbara highlands. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 77,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-1,200m asl.	eng
41049	habitat		The species inhabits deep, shaded, well-vegetated, permanent pools or permanent seeps in gorges and canyons. They have also been seen in shallow creeks and streams where they have burrows under stones at the water’s edge. Breeding has been recorded in spring when 90 large eggs were found in a watery depression under stones with a female on the nest.	eng
41049	population		The species is restricted to small, localized populations. It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.	eng
41049	threats		There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a region with very little human disturbance.	eng
41050	conservation		It is listed as endangered in Australian legislation. Much of the species' habitat is protected within reserves and state forests. Research and monitoring protocols are in place for this species.	eng
41050	distribution		Examination of museum records indicate that this species, an Australian endemic (recorded at the time as the northern form of the Corroboree Frog <em>Pseudophryne corroboree</em>; see Pengilley 1966; Osborne, Zentelis and Lau 1996) was most frequently collected in the Brindabella and Bimberi Ranges near Canberra. Specimens were examined from Snowy Flats, Ginini Flats, Bulls Head, Lees Spring, Coree Flats, California Flats and Hume Sawmill. Osborne (1989) found that the species was still present at most of these sites, but was unable to find frogs in the vicinity of Hume Sawmill at the northern extremity of its range. Osborne (1989) also found the species to be widely distributed and common throughout the Fiery Range and Mount Bogong. This species occurs in two allopatric populations (Osborne 1989): the Fiery Range population occurs from Yarrangobilly to Buccleuch State Forest at 960-1,520m asl (Osborne 1989), while the Brindabella Range population occupies only 60km² from California Flats to Mount Bimberi at 1,090-1,840m asl (Osborne 1989).	eng
41050	habitat		The Northern Corroboree Frog is restricted to montane and sub-alpine woodlands, heathland and grassland above about 1,000m asl (Osborne 1990a). It prefers to breed in sphagnum bogs and wet heath in sub-alpine areas and dense patches of herbaceous vegetation in openings or seepages amongst fallen tussocks at lower elevations (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Non-breeding habitat occurs in forest, woodland and heath adjacent to breeding sites (Osborne 1990a). It breeds in bog pools at high altitudes (above 1,400m asl) and in shallow seepage pools in gullies at lower altitudes (1,000-1,400m asl) (Osborne 1990a). Osborne (1990a) summarized the main features of the reproductive ecology of this species (after Pengilley 1966, 1971, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.). Field measurements (Pengilley 1973) suggest that the species reaches sexual maturity at three years of age (i.e. one year as an embryo/larva and two years as a juvenile/sub-adult), which is consistent with observations of captive-reared individuals (Osborne 1990a). It is unlikely that many adults survive for more than one breeding season (Osborne 1990a). Breeding occurs from January to March (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl..) and 16-40 eggs (Pengilley 1973) of ovum diameter 3.1-3.6mm (capsule diameter 6.0-10.0mm, W. Osborne unpubl.) are deposited terrestrially (Pengilley 1966; W. Osborne unpubl.). Larvae develop within the egg capsule and hatching occurs when high ground-water levels after rain cause the nest to become flooded (Osborne 1990a). Hatching occurs at 4-6 months (W. Osborne unpubl.) and the larval development period is 6-8 months (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.). Metamorphosis occurs between December and early February (Pengilley 1966, 1973; W. Osborne unpubl.).	eng
41050	population		Between 1994 and 1998, restricted surveys were undertaken (mainly along vehicle tracks) throughout the known range in the Fiery Range and Mount Bogong. More extensive surveys were conducted in the Brindabella Range and Bimberi Range (Osborne and Hunter unpubl.). The species was still relatively abundant and widespread in the Fiery Range; however, it was not found in the Yarrangobilly-Peppercorn Hill area where it was previously recorded by Pengilley (1966) and Osborne (1989). It was found at breeding sites (often remote from each other) throughout suitable parts of the Brindabella and Bimberi Range, both in the Australian Capital Territory and contiguous areas of New South Wales (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). The numbers present at breeding sites in the region were considerably lower than was recorded by Osborne (1989 and unpubl.). Long-term monitoring was only undertaken in the Brindabella Range. Only one population, Ginini Flats-a sub-alpine site (1,600m asl) in the Australian Capital Territory was subject to annual monitoring. Numbers present at Ginini Flats declined substantially during the first few years of monitoring and have remained low ever since. Less-regular monitoring was undertaken at Coree Flats (980m asl) in New South Wales. By contrast, the Coree Flats population has supported a larger number of calling males (at least during the years the survey was carried out). However, monitoring at Coree Flats commenced after a major drop in numbers had occurred at other sites. Earlier collecting and observations by Pengilley (1966 and pers. comm.) at this site indicated that the population was very large (perhaps over 500 individuals). The low numbers detected in 1998 are likely to be a direct response to the extreme drought conditions prevailing during the breeding season. The Northern Corroboree Frog has declined at higher altitudes (above 1,400m asl) but remains common at montane altitudes in the Fiery Range (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). The species is known from Namadgi National Park (Australian Capital Territory), Kosciuszko National Park (New South Wales) and Buccleuch State Forest.	eng
41050	threats		The Northern Corroboree Frog is one of a number of Australian alpine amphibian species that have experienced pronounced population declines for unknown reasons (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). There is no single aspect of the field biology of these species that stands out as a feature in common that may help explain the declines (Osborne, Hunter and Hollis 1999). Osborne, Hunter and Hollis (1999) reviewed some of the possible factors contributing to population declines at high altitudes including long-term weather patterns and pathogens such as the chytrid fungus (Berger, Speare and Hyatt 1999). Chytrid fungus has recently been detected in some museum specimens by R. Speare (W. Osborne pers. comm.). Management of Buccleuch State Forest in the northern Fiery Range and exotic conifer plantations, which cover a considerable extent of the northern part of the region, is also a concern (Osborne 1990a). Osborne (1990b) noted that invasive exotic plant species occurred at a number of breeding sites in the Fiery Range and northern Brindabella Range. The two most prominent species in terms of their potential to cover large areas of breeding habitat were Blackberry <em>Rubus fruticosus</em> and Monkey Musk <em>Mimulus moschatus</em>. Blackberry has the potential to completely smother and shade breeding habitat rendering it unsuitable for frogs. In contrast, Monkey Musk, a short, broad-leafed herb, forms dense patches in seepages where it often occurs with a similar-sized native species, <em>Gratiola latifolia</em>. Breeding was observed in areas with Monkey Musk and it is not known if it has any detrimental affect. Excavation by feral pigs and trampling by horses have also been identified as potentially threatening processes for the species (Osborne 1990a; W. Osborne pers. comm.).	eng
41051	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41051	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in southern Victoria and eastern Tasmania, and a small population in northwestern Tasmania, as well as the Bass Strait Islands. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 99,400km2.	eng
41051	habitat		The species inhabits dry forest, woodland, shrubland, grassland and heaths at lower elevations. They shelter under leaf-litter and other debris in moist soaks and depressions. Late summer to early winter breeding (February to June). Between 70 and 170 eggs are laid in shallow burrows under litter or in grassy depressions in low areas near water. The nests are often covered over with soil. The burrows are flooded after heavy rain and tadpoles released into pools. Tadpoles develop in 6-8 months.	eng
41051	population		Some declines are suspected, but the population sizes and trends are unknown.	eng
41051	threats		Infrastructure development and agro-industry farming are threats to the species habitat.	eng
41052	conservation		Fourteen populations are on private property north, west and east of Bow Bridge, with the remainder in the Mount Franklin National Park or on land designated to form part of the Mount Roe-Mount Lindesay National Park but not yet declared (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; D. Roberts pers. comm.). There are no threats to populations on publicly owned lands that cannot be controlled by appropriate management but there has been no analysis of threats to populations found on private property (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Fieldwork is currently being undertaken to evaluate declines and variation in population size by assessing population size more directly using mark-recapture techniques and surveys of tadpole populations (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).	eng
41052	distribution		This species, an Australian endemic, was discovered in 1994 (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). When first described in 1997, the species was only known from three well-separated peat swamps in the south-west corner of Western Australia (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, survey work undertaken from 1997 to 2000 increased the number of known populations to 27, all occurring near the Western Australia south coast, east and north-east of Walpole (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; Burbidge and Roberts 2001). This species has a small area of occupancy (135ha) and a very fragmented range (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999; Burbidge and Roberts 2001).	eng
41052	habitat		<em>Spicospina flammocaerulea</em> is a habitat specialist. The region from which it has been recorded is thought to have undergone a change from a subtropical wet to a seasonally arid climate about 5 to 6 million years ago and the peat swamps where the species occurs are considered to be relicts of an earlier environment (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996). The persistence of the species in well-separated swamps is no doubt attributable to this change in environment (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996). The species is found in isolated and permanently moist peat-based swamps with organically rich soils (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997), in a high rainfall area of moderate relief with granite outcrops and associated ranges of hills rising to 300-400m asl (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). These sites have high moisture content in the soil and are protected from climatic extremes, often by local seepages that maintain water availability uncharacteristically into spring and summer (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Males call between October and December from shallow pools, water seepages, large hollows containing water, or in open water along creek margins (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996; Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Less than 200 eggs are deposited singly and may be supported by algal mats just below the waters surface (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). The tadpole stage is presumably free swimming (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Explosive breeding appears unlikely as numbers of calling males have been observed to remain relatively stable over extended periods throughout the breeding season at some sites (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).	eng
41052	population		No reliable data on population size are available, however, counts of males have been recorded at several sites from 1994-1997 (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Surveys of calling males usually report less then ten individuals, however, 150 males were estimated to be present at Trent Road (Bow River) in 1997 (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). An apparent decline in the number of calling males has been recorded at Mountain Road (north and south) where 120 males were observed calling in 1994 and three years later only two males were recorded (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). The actual population size at sites with few or no calling males is unknown (D. Roberts pers. comm.). Two sites with a long history of visitation and no calling activity contained individuals in 2000 (D. Roberts pers. comm.). Overall, there is little evidence of a decline, and the population is probably stable (D. Roberts pers. comm.).	eng
41052	threats		An extremely small geographic range makes this species particularly susceptible to local catastrophes. An apparent decline in frog numbers at one locality (Mountain Road, Mount Franklin National Park) following wildfires in 1994 suggests a possible risk from fire (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Frequency of fire varies between localities but the majority of sites have experienced wildfires in the last 50 years (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). This suggests some capacity to recover post-fire but the time and conditions required for full recovery, which could set an optimal fire interval and intensity regime, are unknown (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999). Fires, which burn the substrate (peaty swamps), or changing fire regimes, which lead to a greater propensity of substrate ignition, might well be detrimental to the persistence of the species (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Loss of vegetation through fire or disease (such as the fungus <em>Phytophthora</em>) might alter soil water tables affecting both availability of breeding sites and peat formation and maintenance (Wardell-Johnson, Roberts and Horwitz 1996; Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). Excavation by feral pigs is common in swamps close to the type locality and pigs might have a direct impact on frog survival (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, monitoring of known populations and adjacent control sites from 1997-1998 has shown little indication of pig damage (Roberts, Conroy and Williams 1999).	eng
41053	conservation		Its range includes Kakadu National Park.	eng
41053	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from a small area in the north-west section of Northern Territory, on the western edge of the Arnhem Land escarpment, where it has a restricted distribution. This very flat area is at a low altitude.	eng
41053	habitat		This species is known from sandy soils at the edge of temporary creeks. Only males have ever been seen.	eng
41053	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
41053	threats		It does not have any known threats.	eng
41054	conservation		Its range includes Curtin Air base, a military training area northeast of Derby. It is not known from any National Parks or other nature reserves.	eng
41054	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to the Kimberley region in the vicinity of Derby and Broome in northern Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 20,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.	eng
41054	habitat		The species is known from grassland at the edge of filled gravel-scrapes. It only occurs in flooded sites where there are clumps of grass and rain creates temporary pools. Breeding biology is unknown.	eng
41054	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.	eng
41054	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present, although it is not well known.	eng
41055	conservation		Its range includes a national park in the Western Australia and Northern Territory border region (Keep River).	eng
41055	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the eastern section of the Kimberley region of Western Australia extending east into the Northern Territory. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 36,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41055	habitat		This species inhabits sparsely vegetated areas of temporarily inundated grassland. Males call from February from the base of grass tussocks or among stones in static or flowing water.	eng
41055	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the relatively small known range of the species.	eng
41055	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present, although it is not well known.	eng
41056	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41056	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Mitchell Plateau in the remote western coast of the Kimberley Division of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.	eng
41056	habitat		The species inhabits areas that are partially flooded and cleared areas surrounded by sparse Livistonia and Eucalyptus forest. Breeding has been observed in January when males call from the base of grass tussocks close to the water in flooded areas. A female has been observed laying 368 eggs.	eng
41056	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.	eng
41056	threats		There are no known threats to the species and its range is in an area with little human disturbance.	eng
41057	conservation		Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
41057	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to coastal East Gippsland in Victoria, although its range is very uncertain.	eng
41057	habitat		It is found in dry forest, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands in open and disturbed areas. It is most common near water but can be found in dry depressions that flood in winter or spring. Males call in spring and summer from the pond edge or from low vegetation overhanging the water.	eng
41057	population		This species' population status is very unclear.	eng
41057	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41058	conservation		Its range does not overlap any protected areas.	eng
41058	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only in the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory and the adjacent north-eastern arid zone of Western Australia. It is only known from 2 sites in Western Australia, Stafford’s Bore and Well 38 canning Stock Route. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 46,900km2.	eng
41058	habitat		The species is found in an area of red soil and sand plain bearing scattered mulga trees (Acacia aneura) and a dominant understorey of spinifex (Triodia species) and soft grasses. It emerges after heavy rain to breed in flooded clay pans.	eng
41058	population		It is probably a common species.	eng
41058	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with very little human influence.	eng
41059	conservation		The range of the species includes Keep River National Park and Mitchell River National Park.	eng
41059	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from a few specimens collected from the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and from Keep River and Kirkimbie Station in the Northern Territory. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-300m asl.	eng
41059	habitat		The species inhabits dense grassland subject to flooding. Breeding biology is unknown.	eng
41059	population		It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
41059	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
41060	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
41060	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to the lower Fitzroy River in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 38,400km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.	eng
41060	habitat		The species inhabits shrubland and open floodplains. It shelters under dense low growing vegetation and logs. Breeding occurs in February after cyclonic rains. Spawn and tadpoles are unknown.	eng
41060	population		It is a common species.	eng
41060	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
41061	conservation		The species' range is likely to overlap with King Leopold Ranges Nature Reserve.	eng
41061	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to the vicinity of the lower Fitzroy River in the Kimberley zone of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 49,700km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.	eng
41061	habitat		The species occurs in areas of sparsely vegetated grassland with sandy soils that are subject to flooding. Males call in summer from leaf-litter and from holes at the base of isolated eucalypt and baobab trees. Details of spawn and tadpoles are unknown.	eng
41061	population		It is a common species.	eng
41061	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
41062	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41062	distribution		This Australian endemic is currently known from a large area of land stretching across central Northern Territory, around the region of Elliott, and in northwestern Queensland, and into a small area of northeastern Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 241,000km2.	eng
41062	habitat		The species is found amongst grassland on blacksoils and grey self-mulching cracking clays. The areas flood during the wet season. Breeding biology and tadpoles are unknown.	eng
41062	population		It is known from only 10 specimens.	eng
41062	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
41063	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
41063	distribution		This Australian endemic is found along the coast of New South Wales, from mid-eastern New South Wales to the border of Victoria and into coastal East Gippsland, Victoria. Its range is very uncertain.	eng
41063	habitat		It is found in dry forest, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands in open and disturbed areas. It is commonly found near water, but can be found in dry depressions that flood in winter and spring. Males call in spring and summer from the ground or in litter along the water’s edge. The eggs are small and the larvae are aquatic.	eng
41063	population		This is a rare species.	eng
41063	threats		The major threat to this species is infrastructure development for human settlement around the central coast of New South Wales.	eng
41064	conservation	Lessa, R. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii </em>has been listed as Critically Endangered on the Brazilian federal law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species since 2004 (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Permits for directed fishing of the species are no longer issued, transport and sale of the species are prohibited, and incidental catches of the species must be discarded at sea. This law is gradually becoming more effectively enforced. Also the prohibition of trawl fishing within three nautical miles from the coast of southern Brazil is now being enforced satisfactorily. However, the species is still caught as bycatch in the legally permitted coastal gillnet fisheries and offshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. For the conservation and recovery of the stocks of <em>R. horkelii</em> and several other critically threatened elasmobranchs, Vooren <em>et al.</em> (2005) recommend fishery exclusion areas (no-take areas) on the continental shelf of southern Brazil (latitudes 28°30'S to 34°30'S) as follows: one continuous area along the entire coastline, within 5 to 10 nautical miles from the coast, for the protection of the coastal nursery; three large shelf areas, one starting from the coastline, two from mid-shelf, and all three extending to the shelf edge. The latter three protected shelf areas are critical wintering areas of <em>R. horkelii</em>. The four proposed no-take areas constitute 46% of the total shelf area. The Law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species determines that actions for the recovery of these species must be taken. In this context, steps will be taken towards implementing the proposed no-take areas on the shelf of southern Brazil.	eng
41064	distribution	Lessa, R. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> was named the Brazilian guitarfish by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) for its wide distribution along the Brazilian Coast and further south to Mar del Plata (Argentina). These authors recorded the southern guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos percellens</em> as having the same distribution, but Refi (1973) concludes that <em>R. percellens</em> does not occur on the Argentinean coast, and that these Argentinean records of <em>R. percellens</em> refer to <em>R. horkelii</em> (Devincenzi 1920, Lahille 1921, Devincenzi and Barattini 1926, Lopez 1946 in Refi 1973). Specimens examined by all those authors are deposited at the Museo de La Plata, Argentina. Fishery statistics of <em>R. horkelii</em> show important commercial catches of the species only in southern Brazil between latitudes 28 to 34°S. This is evidence that the species has its centre of distribution in southern Brazil and is scarce elsewhere (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41064	habitat	Lessa, R. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal species. Its seasonal migration and breeding cycle in southern Brazil are described below, from data published by Lessa (1982), Lessa <em>et al. </em>(1986) and Vooren <em>et al.</em> (2005). In southern Brazil the adults migrate to coastal waters with depths of less than 20 m from November to March. At that time artisanal fisheries operate from the beaches, and the guitarfish catches are 98% pregnant females. Adult males reach the beach fishing grounds at the end of February. Parturition and mating take place in March. Soon after, the males and females return to deeper waters and disperse to depths of 40 to 150 m over the continental shelf. Newborn pups and juveniles remain in shallow waters throughout the year. The smallest pregnant females found were 91 cm TL. The proportion of pregnant females increases with size, and 100% pregnancy occurs in females of >119 cm TL. Litter size is 4 to 12 pups, the number increasing with the size of the mother. Pregnancy is divided into two stages: <strong>a) Period of dormancy</strong> (embryonic diapause). This occurs from April to November, while the pregnant females are in deeper water (40 to 150 m), at temperatures of 13 to 18°C. Ovulation occurs in April when the fertilized eggs are enclosed within a common shell (candle). However, they remain dormant in the uterus with no embryonic development. <strong>b) Period of embryonic development.</strong> This requires higher summer temperatures in shallow waters and does not start until females return to shallow waters in November. From November to March, bottom temperature at depths of 10 to 20 m near the coast are 20 to 25°C. Embryonic development starts when the common shell (or candle) breaks up in December and ends with birth in February. Embryos are found only from December to late February. Their size increases from 1 cm TL in December to 29 cm TL in February, when birth takes place. A von Bertalanffy growth curve was established on the basis of annuli counts in vertebrae of 289 individuals from 36 to 123.1 cm TL. Annulus formation occurred in September, and growth parameters obtained for observed length-at-age were: L<sub>8</sub>=135.51 cm TL; K=0.1940 and T<sub>o</sub>=-1.0785. Full maturity is reached at nine years for females and six years for males. The fact that the females grow to a larger size and reach greater ages (longevity 28 years) than the males (longevity 15 years) reflect differences in mortality rates between the sexes. From the analysis of catch curves (Ricker 1975) carried out on a large sample collected in 1983 in southern Brazil, it was observed that females recruited to the fishery from the age of four years, with complete recruitment at the age of nine years. A total mortality coefficient of Z=0.72 was calculated for females. In contrast, males entered the fisheries at the age of four years, and recruitment was complete at the age of six years. A mortality coefficient Z=0.98 was determined for males.	eng
41064	threats	Lessa, R. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	<em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> was formerly abundant in southern Brazil, where in the 1980s it was the only economically important species of batoid caught in the area. In southern Brazil the main fishery ports are Rio Grande and Itajaí. <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> is fished by otter trawl, pair trawl, shrimp trawl, beach seine and gillnet (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005). Statistics on the annual catch and effort of the Rio Grande fleet of otter trawl and pair trawl provide a record from 1975 onwards. Total landings at Rio Grande by fishery methods combined increased from 842 t in 1975 to 1804t in 1984 and then declined continuously to 157 t in 2001. The average trawl CPUE of <em>R. horkelii</em> in southern Brazil over the years 1993 to 1999 was 17% of that observed during 1975 to 1986, indicating a decline in abundance of >80% since 1986 in southern Brazil (Miranda and Vooren 2003, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Catches increased slightly after 2000 to 0.3 tons/trip in 2002, when trawl fleets from Itajaí and Rio Grande exploited a refuge area for a part of the Rio Grande do Sul population (Martins and Schwingel 2003, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Following this, CPUE fell again by 31% from 2002 to 2003 and the overall population is still considered to be at critically low levels (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Monitoring of beach-seine catches and reports from fishers in 2004 confirmed that <em>R. horkelii</em> is now scarce in coastal waters, and in a trawl survey in February 2004 of 62 trawl stations at depths of 7 to 20 m along 700 km of southern Brazil coastline, only 23 individuals were caught, 17 of which were juveniles (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005).   <br/> <br/>Across the rest of the species range, where it is scarce, inshore fishing pressure is generally high. For example, a coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates off Quequén, Argentina (38°37'S, 58°50'S), in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total catch (Tamini <em>et. al.</em> 2006).	eng
41065	conservation	Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Diesmos, A., Matsui, M., Hero, J.-M., Richards, S., Coloma, L., Ron, S., La Marca, E., Hardy, J., Powell, R., Bolaños, F., Chaves, G. & Ponce, P., 2008	There are no conservation measures needed for this highly invasive species; rather, conservation measures for those species adversely affected by the expansion of the range of this species are what is required. Research on biology, impacts and methods to control their population growth in Australia are in place, but to date no effective controls have been implemented. In Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Philippines and Japan, the impacts of this species on native frogs should be examined. An officially organized eradication programme has been initiated in the Grenadines (Daudin and Silva 2007).	eng
41065	distribution	Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Diesmos, A., Matsui, M., Hero, J.-M., Richards, S., Coloma, L., Ron, S., La Marca, E., Hardy, J., Powell, R., Bolaños, F., Chaves, G. & Ponce, P., 2008	This species ranges from southern Texas, USA, through tropical Mexico and Central America to northern South America (central Brazil and Amazonian Peru and northern parts of Amazonian Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela [including Margarita Island] and the Guianas, throughout Trinidad and Tobago). It is introduced in southern Florida, Puerto Rico (introduced in the 1920s), St Croix, St Thomas, Hawaii (introduced from Puerto Rico in 1932, now common on all main islands), Jamaica (including Cabarita Island) (introduced from Barbados in 1844, common throughout island in lowlands), the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, the Grenadines, Martinique, St Lucia, St Vincent, Barbados, Aruba, Grenada, Guam (McCoid 1993), Saipan (Wiles and Guerrero 1996), and many other tropical and subtropical localities (Schwartz and Henderson 1988). It is also an invasive and introduced species in much of the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, the Admiralty and Bismarck Islands and the Solomon Islands. It was introduced to Australia in 1935, to north tropical Queensland to control sugar cane pests (which it failed to do). Now the southern limit of its distribution is near Coffs Harbour in northeastern New South Wales, and its range extends through most of Queensland and into the Northern Territory to Kakadu National Park (first recorded at Koolpin Gorge, 24 June 2002 and Twin Falls, 10 June 2002). It is also introduced and now widespread in the Philippines. It is found on most of the major islands. It was introduced into Japan first from Hawaii to Taiwan, Province of China, and then from Taiwan through Daito Islands (1930) to Ishigaki Island (1978). The population of Bonin Island was introduced from Guam, which in itself had the species introduced in 1937 (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is also found on Hatomajima. It occurs from sea level up to 3,000 m asl.	eng
41065	habitat	Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Diesmos, A., Matsui, M., Hero, J.-M., Richards, S., Coloma, L., Ron, S., La Marca, E., Hardy, J., Powell, R., Bolaños, F., Chaves, G. & Ponce, P., 2008	A nocturnal and terrestrial toad that inhabits humid areas with adequate cover, including cane fields, savannah, open forest, well watered yards and gardens. It also inhabits dry equatorial forests. It thrives in degraded habitats and man-made environments, and is occasionally found in pristine lowland and montane rainforests, but generally prefers open or disturbed habitat such as tracks, roads, low grassland and areas that are near human settlement, e.g. grazing land, suburban parks and gardens. It tends to avoid more densely vegetated areas (eg. wet sclerophyll and rainforest), which can then act as a barrier to their dispersal. It can be found by day beneath fallen trees, loose boards, matted coconut leaves, and similar cover (Lynn 1940). It feeds on arthropods (especially ants and termites) and small vertebrates. It is flexible regards breeding site (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1996); eggs and larvae develop in slow or still shallow waters of ponds, ditches, temporary pools, reservoirs, canals, and streams. Clutch size is between 8,000 and 17,000. Eggs and tadpoles are poisonous and displace native tadpoles. It may sometimes breed in slightly brackish water in Hawaii. Larvae are tolerant of high temperatures.	eng
41065	population	Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Diesmos, A., Matsui, M., Hero, J.-M., Richards, S., Coloma, L., Ron, S., La Marca, E., Hardy, J., Powell, R., Bolaños, F., Chaves, G. & Ponce, P., 2008	It is a very abundant species, and its range is increasing.	eng
41065	threats	Solís, F., Ibáñez, R., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Diesmos, A., Matsui, M., Hero, J.-M., Richards, S., Coloma, L., Ron, S., La Marca, E., Hardy, J., Powell, R., Bolaños, F., Chaves, G. & Ponce, P., 2008	Overall, there are no significant threats to this very adaptable, invasive species. Introduced animals are carrying salmonella in Puerto Rico, putting other native species at risk. In some parts of its introduced range it competes with native frogs and has a negative impact on native wildlife that attempt to consume it. Survival and development of tadpoles<em></em> in Bermuda are being affected both by contaminants found in a number of its ponds and by transfer of accumulated contaminants (Bacon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
41066	conservation		It occurs within a few conservation parks and reserves.	eng
41066	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from the northeastern corner of the Northern Territory, throughout coastal and sub-coastal Queensland and into New South Wales.	eng
41066	habitat		It is found in temporarily inundated grasslands and open forest in semi-arid and drier/seasonally wet coastal areas. They are generally associated with clay soils. Activity has a positive correlation with rainfall and the availability of freestanding water. In drier times they spend most of their time buried underground close to temporary ponds (in aestivation). An opportunistic breeder, it lays its eggs in temporary pools when there is sufficient rainfall. Tadpoles develop quickly to avoid desiccation. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming.	eng
41066	population		More information is needed.	eng
41066	threats		One major threat is agricultural expansion (sugar cane and cotton farming in particular) resulting in extensive habitat loss and degradation. Land pollution associated with the widespread use of agrochemicals might also adversely affect this species.	eng
41067	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41067	distribution		This species is an endemic of northern Australia, and it occurs from the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, east through the Northern Territory and into the Gulf District of northern Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.	eng
41067	habitat		A large ground-dwelling frog, it principally inhabits grassland and open woodland. In the wet season it is active during the day and can be found basking beside temporary pools. At night it is active in poorly vegetated areas and is commonly sighted on roads. In the dry season it burrows underground. Breeding occurs from December to February and females lay up to 7,000 eggs in temporary ponds. The spawn clumps sink to the bottom while tadpoles swim in large shoals and can tolerate water temperatures up to 43ºC. Development takes between 30-50 days.	eng
41067	population		It is the most commonly sighted native frog in northern Australia.	eng
41067	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41068	conservation		The species might occur in some protected areas.	eng
41068	distribution		There is some uncertainty regarding the extent of occurrence of this species. It is known with certainty to be from northeastern New South Wales extending northwards to mid-eastern Queensland and into central Queensland. Ingram and Longmore (1991) recorded the species from Cape York and the Gulf of Carpentaria, however the specific identity of the specimens from these localities is unclear. Cogger (2000) gave the geographic range as occurring from extreme northeastern New South Wales northwards along coastal and inland Queensland including Cape York, but excluding the Gulf of Carpentaria.	eng
41068	habitat		An inhabitant of open grassland and lightly forested areas. It is active during and after rain. It spends drier times in aestivation buried near temporary pools. Males emerge after heavy rain to call from the margins of ponds. The eggs are laid in the pools and tadpoles are free-swimming and are quick to develop. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming.	eng
41068	population		More information is needed.	eng
41068	threats		Agro-industry farming, in particular the expansion of farming and the widespread use of agrochemicals will have resulted, and will continue to result in, habitat loss and degradation. Secondary salinity associated with land clearing might also impact significantly on this species.	eng
41069	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41069	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from the lower reaches of the Ord and Fitzroy Valleys in the Kimberley zone, Western Australia, east into the Northern Territory and just over the border into Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.	eng
41069	habitat		It is found in open grassland associated with clay soils. Males call from the base of tall grasses at the edge of temporary water and flooded depressions in summer (January and February). Spawn is deposited in large irregular masses. The water is usually milky from clay and can reach temperatures above 40ºC. Tadpoles metamorphose in about 1 month.	eng
41069	population		It is a common species.	eng
41069	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41070	conservation		It is not known whether or not its range overlaps any protected areas.	eng
41070	distribution		This species is an Australian endemic known from the eastern portion of the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, east through southern Northern Territory and southwest Queensland. It is widespread in the Northern Territory and Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 401,800km2.	eng
41070	habitat		It occurs in open grassland and sparsely wooded areas, floodplains adjacent to creeks and other low-lying areas exposed to flooding in the wet season. Breeding begins in January when the grassland is flooded and males call from open positions within one metre of a small pool. The tadpoles of this species have not been observed.	eng
41070	population		It is a common species.	eng
41070	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41071	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41071	distribution		This widespread species is known from throughout the Kimberley zone of Western Australia, extending eastwards through the northern portion of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.	eng
41071	habitat		A ground-dwelling frog found in open grassland. It is capable of burrowing and surviving in a wide variety of soil types. Breeding occurs in summer at the commencement of the wet season. Spawn clumps of 50-2000 eggs are laid in shallow water and sink to the bottom. Tadpoles develop after 1 month.	eng
41071	population		It is a commonly sighted species.	eng
41071	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41072	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
41072	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to central Northern Territory and just over the Queensland border. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. Its extent of occurrence is approximately 557,400km2.	eng
41072	habitat		An inhabitant of open grassland in the arid zone, its breeding cycle and tadpoles are unknown. It is presumed to respond to rainfall like other species of Cyclorana.	eng
41072	population		It is a common species.	eng
41072	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41073	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41073	distribution		This species is an Australian endemic occurring in the central arid zone of Western Australia and into the southern portion of the Northern Territory and the northwest corner of South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
41073	habitat		This species lives in some of the harshest country in central Australia. Habitats include open grassland, clay pans, lightly forested areas and temporary marshes and streambeds in temporary flood plains. It is an opportunistic breeder that responds to heavy rainfall. It breeds in temporary pools and tadpoles are quick to develop. In "Habitat Preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41073	population		It is a common species.	eng
41073	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41074	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41074	distribution		This species is known only from the central coastal portion of Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, Australia. Its extent of occurrence is approximately 48,000km2.	eng
41074	habitat		An inhabitant of open grassland, it is a summer breeder. Males call after heavy rainfall whilst floating in temporary, shallow puddles in grassy depressions. Spawn and tadpoles are unknown.	eng
41074	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41075	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
41075	distribution		This species occurs throughout almost all of Queensland, except for the far western areas, and into the northeastern corner of New South Wales, in Australia.	eng
41075	habitat		It occurs in varied habitat. It does not occur at high altitudes or in heavily forested areas; mostly occurs in semi-arid/seasonally dry areas; it may breed in roadside ditches. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming. Eggs are deposited in clumps of about 1,000 in shallow, static or slowly flowing water, larvae are free swimmers, males call from waters edge. It spends dry/drought periods in aestivation underground.	eng
41075	population		It is a commonly sighted species.	eng
41075	threats		The species might be affected by secondary salinity with clearing. Some habitat loss/degradation is attributable to agro-industry farming. It might also be adversely affected by the expansion of the range of the Cane Toad (B. marinus). It is reared in the USA as a vivarium species.	eng
41076	conservation		The range of the species most likely overlaps at least one protected area, but this is not confirmed.	eng
41076	distribution		There are three separate populations of this species in Australia. One in the central arid zone of Western Australia from Winning Pool east to Lake Disappointment and south to Morawa and Laverton. There is a small area in the northeastern Northern Territory. These regions are very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. Another large area extends from northern South Australia into New South Wales and southwestern Queensland; including southeastern Northern Territory.	eng
41076	habitat		This species is found in grasslands, temporary swamps, clay pans and billabongs in arid and semi-arid areas and is usually associated with clay soils. It is able to survive extended dry periods (months to years) in aestivation underground. Spawn is laid in large masses of up to 500 eggs in temporary pools and static waters such as those that occur during flooding; larvae are free-swimming.	eng
41076	population		This species is commonly sighted.	eng
41076	threats		Is likely to have suffered habitat loss/disturbance as a result of agro-industry farming; and might also be affected by secondary salinity associated with land clearing.	eng
41077	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41077	distribution		This species is known from two locations in the Kimberley region, Western Australia; King Sound and Joseph Bonaparte Gulf. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.	eng
41077	habitat		An inhabitant of open grassland, the males call from the edge of shallow, temporary static water during the wet season. It is presumed to breed by larval development in water.	eng
41077	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the fact that it is known from only two localities.	eng
41077	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41078	conservation		It occurs in a small number of conservation parks/reserves.	eng
41078	distribution		This species is confined to inland southeastern Queensland and into central New South Wales in Australia.	eng
41078	habitat		It occurs in open grassland; woodland on clay soils; emerges from underground (spends dry periods underground in aestivation) following heavy rain. It breeds in spring/summer and autumn; eggs are laid in shallow water; larvae are free swimming. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species.	eng
41078	population		More information is needed.	eng
41078	threats		Agro-industry farming has resulted in; and will continue to result in habitat loss/degradation.	eng
41079	conservation		There is a big conservation estate covering most of the range of the species. It has been bred in captivity in Perth Zoo in 2004.	eng
41079	distribution		This species is found in the southwest region of Western Australia, from Port Gregory south and east to Bremer Bay and from Esperance to Mount Ragged. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41079	habitat		This species is found in permanent swamps and lagoons. Frogs are usually found on the ground or among emergent vegetation at the water’s edge of static or slow-flowing water. Breeding occurs in spring, and males call from the water or adjacent soil and vegetation. Spawn is laid in a loose mass attached to submerged vegetation at the surface of the water.	eng
41079	population		It is a common species.	eng
41079	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species at Lake Gwelup and Perth in Western Australia.	eng
41080	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas in Australia. The taxonomic status and Extent of Occurrence of the southern New Guinea populations need to be determined.	eng
41080	distribution		This species is widespread in Australia, from the Kimberley zone of Western Australia through northern part of the Northern Territory and into northern Queensland and down the coast to Bowen in coastal Queensland. In the New Guinea region, it is known only from the Aru Islands including Naiguli and Terangan. There is some doubt regarding whether or not the specimens assigned to this species in the Aru Islands is actually another species.	eng
41080	habitat		This species is most abundant in grassland or marshy areas, often forming vast populations. It is found around permanent or semi-permanent streams, billabongs, and floodplains. Breeding begins with the summer rain. Males call from grass stems, bushes and small trees inundated by or surrounding water. About 10-20 eggs are laid in temporary pools in small clumps attached to submerged vegetation. Tadpoles metamorphose in 70-80 days.<br/>Its habitat preferences on the Aru Islands are not known. If it presumed that, the habitat preferences are similar to that of the Australian populations and to other members of this species complex.	eng
41080	population		The population status of the species in the Aru Islands is unknown.	eng
41080	threats		Agriculture might pose a threat in Queensland. Sometimes individuals are relocated through transportation of fresh produce. There are no threats specifically known for this species on the Aru Islands, however the Aru Islands are being logged and cleared for agricultural land, which is most likely affecting the species' habitat.	eng
41081	conservation		Most of the species' habitat is within the Western Tasmanian World Heritage Area and other crown land.	eng
41081	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to western Tasmania. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 23,300km2.	eng
41081	habitat		The species is restricted to montane areas, especially grassland, rainforests and sedge land. It is typically found near ponds and dams and is a spring and summer breeder. Spawn is attached to vegetation in static or slowly flowing water. Eggs hatch after 6 days and larvae are free-swimming.	eng
41081	population		More information is needed.	eng
41081	threats		Drainage of wetlands and ponds is a threat to this species.	eng
41082	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. In New Guinea its distribution, ecological requirements and population status need to be documented, especially in relation to the impacts of wild harvest. In Australia restrictions on the pet industry are in place i.e. must have a permit to keep frogs. It has been bred in captivity at some Australian zoos.	eng
41082	distribution		This species is distributed widely, in Australia from the Kimberley Region of Western Australia, through most of Northern Territory, all of Queensland, northern and central New South Wales and the northeast corner of South Australia. In New Guinea this species is known from widely scattered locations in the northern and southern lowlands and from the Vogelkop Peninsula, occurring in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. In New Guinea it lives in lowlands below 200m asl.	eng
41082	habitat		In Australian it is found in a range of habitats including dry forest/woodland and grassland; rarely in wet forest, near streams and swamps on rocks and trees or in crevices in rocks and hollow tree trunks. It also found in woodlands on hills and plains often far from water. It is also found in domestic environments, including letterboxes, toilet bowls and cisterns, bathrooms and meter boxes. It is commonly kept as a pet within Australia and overseas (but it is now protected). Breeding occurs from November to February. Males call near water and often down pipes. Clumps of 200-2000 eggs are deposited on the surface of still water. The spawn sinks within 24 hours. Development is usually complete in 6 weeks; larvae are free swimming. In New Guinea it occurs in open, monsoon forest, and around human habitation such as rural gardens and houses in townships. It breeds in temporarily flooded ponds and ditches.	eng
41082	population		In New Guinea it is probably common but occurs patchily.	eng
41082	threats		Pollution and predation by cats and dogs is a threat where the species occurs in suburban areas. Some animals have been found to be sick with chytrid fungus. The collection of tadpoles and movement of tadpoles; juveniles often relocated by the transportation of fresh produce. It is kept as a pet outside Australia. Habitat loss associated with urban expansion is a significant threat in coastal areas. Although its distribution is poorly documented in New Guinea, its occurrence in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed habitats, in Australia suggests that it is unlikely to be at risk in New Guinea. However, 75,000 animals were exported from Indonesia in 2002 for the international pet trade, and this level of trade is increasing. Such harvest might impact some populations locally.<br/>Overall the only major threat to this very widespread species in the near future is the potential for a disease epidemic.	eng
41083	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas and its habitat is protected where it occurs in rainforests.	eng
41083	distribution		This species has a scattered distribution along the Queensland and New South Wales coastline, from Prosperine in the north to mid-eastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 220,000km2.	eng
41083	habitat		Usually associated with rainforest or wet sclerophyll forest. It spends much of its life high in the trees and is usually only seen in association with heavy rain when it descends to breed. Breeding is in spring and summer (October-February) after heavy rain when they congregate around flooded roadside ditches and dams in or near wet forest or along rainforest streams. Calling, amplexus and oviposition occurs in permanent and semi-permanent shallow pools in or beside streams, eggs are laid singly or in small clumps entangled in vegetation. Larvae are free swimming.	eng
41083	population		More information is needed.	eng
41083	threats		Habitat loss is a threat to some populations. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat to the species.	eng
41084	conservation		The species range includes several protected areas. It is sometimes bred in some Australian zoos.	eng
41084	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast from mid-eastern New South Wales to eastern Victoria. It has been recorded between 100-800m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 60,000km2.	eng
41084	habitat		This species occurs in wet or dry forest, temperate rainforest and woodland. Its preferred habitat is rocky flowing streams in heavily forested areas. It often hides under rocks along streams. It is restricted to streams with intact riparian vegetation. Breeding occurs in spring (September and October). Males call from a variety of positions, including from rocks and low vegetation within a few metres of shallow slow-flowing water. About 650-900 eggs are laid and sink to the bottom where they adhere to rocks in pools and backwaters of streams.	eng
41084	population		This species is rarely seen.	eng
41084	threats		Loss of habitat for farming and urbanization is a localized threat. Disturbances upstream of breeding sites are also a problem	eng
41085	conservation		The range of the species includes Kakadu National Park and the Musselbrook Reserve.	eng
41085	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and Arnhem Land in the northern region of the Northern Territory. It has also been recorded from far northwestern Queensland in the Musselbrook Reserve (Horner, 1998). It most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between but for now the map records only this locality. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.	eng
41085	habitat		This species inhabits rock escarpments and scree slopes. It shelters in rock caves and deep crevices by day and in the dry season and by night it is active along the edges of creeks passing over rock. Breeding occurs from October to December. Males call from open sandstone rock surfaces near water after rain. The eggs are scattered singly or in small clumps, falling to the floor of rock pools or slow-moving temporary streams in rocky areas. Tadpoles emerge after about 52 days. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "Rocky escarpments".	eng
41085	population		It is a common species.	eng
41085	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41086	conservation		The range of the species is well covered in National Parks and Nature Reserves in Western Australia.	eng
41086	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and arid zones of Western Australia, from Dalyup River east to Israelite Bay and inland to Scaddan and Coragina Rock. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41086	habitat		This species occurs near swamps and permanent water. It breeds in spring and summer. The details of egg masses and tadpoles are not yet known.	eng
41086	population		It is a common species.	eng
41086	threats		Clearing of land is leading to an increase in the salinity of the waterbodies/streams. This species hybridises with L. moorei at the western edge of its range.	eng
41087	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41087	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the eastern corner of the Kimberley region in Western Australia, east along the coast of the Northern Territory and into northwestern Queensland in Cape York Peninsula. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.	eng
41087	habitat		This species is associated with large expanses of water upon the flood plains and savannah woodlands of northern Australia. It commonly occurs around the edges of permanent water or areas where the water remains for several months during the wet season. During the day it may be seen basking on the ground beside water. In the dry season it hides in cracks and crevices in the soil. It breeds during the summer-wet season from February to March. Males have been observed calling whilst floating in water. Spawning and larvae have not been witnessed.	eng
41087	population		It is a common species.	eng
41087	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41088	conservation		It presumably occurs in some protected areas.	eng
41088	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from central and northwestern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 105,000km2.	eng
41088	habitat		This species is found in a wide range of habitats. It is usually found around the periphery of semi-permanent swamps and temporary waterholes in eucalypt woodland. It is also found within buildings. Calling has been recorded in December after summer rains cause flooding in swamps.	eng
41088	population		More information is needed.	eng
41088	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41089	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas within its range. There are no conservation measures required at present for this abundant species.	eng
41089	distribution		This species is known in Australia from the Mc Ilwraith Ranges and northern Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland. It is widespread throughout the lowlands and foothills of New Guinea, where it occurs up to 1,500m asl.	eng
41089	habitat		This species is closely associated with rainforest streams and rocky creek beds in lowland and foothill rainforests. It is a spring and summer breeder. About 800-900 eggs are laid in a sticky clump in a slow-moving water body. Tadpoles are adapted to flowing water. Development is complete within 60-80 days. It also persists in gardens and disturbed habitats such as slow streams running through gardens and re-growth forest.	eng
41089	population		In New Guinea it is an extremely abundant species.	eng
41089	threats		In the past habitat loss through logging was a threat in Queensland. Now threats are more likely to be habitat degradation through recreation or agricultural practices, like grazing that affects water quality. In New Guinea there are no major threats to this species.	eng
41090	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring of the population is necessary in order to detect any occurrence of chytridiomycosis.	eng
41090	distribution		This Australian species occurs from the southeastern corner of South Australia, east along the south coast of Victoria and into far southeastern New South Wales. Isolated populations occur along the coast and ranges of central New South Wales. It is widely distributed in Tasmania. It has also been introduced to New Zealand where it is widespread across South Island and in the southwest North Island. It has recently been discovered in Northland near Dragaville and they are known from around Auckland. It has been recorded up to 1,200m asl.	eng
41090	habitat		This species is found in various habitats from alpine to semi-arid shrubland, but most commonly in flooded grassland or marshes. It can also be found in suburban gardens. It is common in both temporary and permanent water. Breeding occurs at any time of year with peaks in spring and autumn. Males call from the ground or in low vegetation (up to 2m above the ground) at the water’s edge or in water on floating vegetation. About 500-700 eggs are laid in small clumps attached to submerged vegetation, in still water in ponds, dams, lakes, streamside ponds and flooded roadside ditches. Metamorphosis takes 6-7 months.	eng
41090	population		It is a widespread and common species in Australia. In New Zealand there are many thousands, but local declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis have been observed.	eng
41090	threats		Water pollution where the species occurs in urban areas, drainage of wetlands and the construction of dams are localized threats. Chytrid fungus or other/associated pathogens might be a threat to the species in its native range, and might already be affecting the species in its introduced range in New Zealand. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Woodville, South Australia. The Utilisation information refers to New Zealand populations.	eng
41091	conservation	Hero, J.-M., Meyer, E. & Clarke, J., 2004	The range of the species includes several protected areas including Fraser Island National Park. It is sometimes bred in Australian zoos.	eng
41091	distribution	Hero, J.-M., Meyer, E. & Clarke, J., 2004	This Australian species occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas from Cairns in northern Queensland south to southern New South Wales, including Fraser Island.  It has been introduced to Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 300,000 km².	eng
41091	habitat	Hero, J.-M., Meyer, E. & Clarke, J., 2004	It is usually found in vegetation bordering swamps, streams, lagoons, ponds and farm dams often in large numbers. In the day it shelters in the leaf-axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>and emergent vegetation and or/nearby trees. It can be found well away from water/breeding sites. Breeding occurs throughout spring/summer, usually after rain. Small clumps of eggs are laid attached to submerged vegetation; larvae are free swimming.	eng
41091	population	Hero, J.-M., Meyer, E. & Clarke, J., 2004	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
41091	threats	Hero, J.-M., Meyer, E. & Clarke, J., 2004	Loss of habitat and habitat degradation associated with development of infrastructure is a threat.	eng
41092	conservation		The species' range overlaps a few protected areas.	eng
41092	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the mountain ranges and associated rivers and streams of central Australia in south-central Northern Territory (McDonnell Ranges). This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 7,600km2	eng
41092	habitat		This species is confined to rock gorges where there are permanent streams and waterholes or temporary water. It hides in cool spaces beneath boulders during the day. The breeding biology is largely unknown.	eng
41092	population		It is a common species.	eng
41092	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41093	conservation		There are several protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
41093	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast of Queensland and northern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 320,500km2. This species is commonly relocated in the transportation of fresh produce.	eng
41093	habitat		The species is found in moist forest or woodland habitats. It is also common in disturbed habitats such as fruit plantations. During winter it shelters in the crowns of trees well away from water. Breeds in spring and summer, usually in ephemeral waters. Eggs are attached to stems of grass in ponds. Tadpoles take about 14 weeks to mature. outside the breeding season it shelters in trees and low vegetation, sometimes some distance from water.	eng
41093	population		This is a common species.	eng
41093	threats		This species might be adversely affected by habitat loss/degradation associated with coastal development.	eng
41094	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
41094	distribution		This Australian endemic is found from the Kimberley Region of northern Western Australia, through the northern part of the Northern Territory and northeastern Queensland to the central coast of Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,700,000km2.	eng
41094	habitat		This species inhabits coastal and river floodplains, monsoon forest, savannah woodland and open grassland. Breeding occurs in spring and summer from November to March. Males call from exposed sites (usually steeply sloping banks) adjacent to temporary pools. About 100-330 eggs are laid in free-floating clumps in pools where there is little to no emergent vegetation. Pools are often surrounded by gravel or sandy soil. Development takes about 10 weeks.	eng
41094	population		It is a common species.	eng
41094	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41095	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed. The range of the species includes a few protected areas, however in New Guinea these are in need of better management. The impacts of capture in Indonesia for the pet trade need to be assessed, but it is unlikely to be a threat to the species overall. It is often bred in captivity in Australian zoos.	eng
41095	distribution		This species occurs in Indonesia and East Timor on the islands of Timor and Karakelong (Talaud Group). In Australia this species is known from coastal and adjacent areas of northeastern Queensland, north of Townsville and extending around Cape York Peninsula and into the Gulf of Carpentaria. It is also widespread throughout the lowlands of New Guinea, and on the Maluku Islands to the west, and to the east as far as New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago. It occurs up to about 600m asl in New Guinea.	eng
41095	habitat		It inhabits a wide variety of habitats including tropical rainforest, monsoon woodlands, and wet sclerophyll forest. It persists in heavily modified environments including human habitation such as in gardens, within houses, parks, fields, agricultural areas, and roadsides and disturbed forest. It is usually active on warm and humid nights. Breeding is in the spring and summer, in forest pools, deep and slow streams, and in ditches and pools in disturbed (including urban) areas. Eggs are laid in clumps and tadpoles develop in about 8 weeks.	eng
41095	population		This species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
41095	threats		Loss of habitat through logging is a threat within its Australian range. It is sold for the pet trade in Indonesia and internationally, but this is unlikely to represent a threat to its survival. Impacts on local populations of the trade have not been documented.	eng
41096	conservation		The range of the species includes a number of protected areas.	eng
41096	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs on the coast and in the interior of eastern Australia, from central Queensland to central New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,542,000km2.	eng
41096	habitat		This species inhabits open forest, woodland, coastal and riverine floodplains, and is found in both dry inland and mesic coastal environs including near permanent or semi-permanent pools and billabongs. Breeding begins in spring when rain coincides with high temperatures, and continues to the end of summer. Males call from the edge of ephemeral and semi-permanent ponds. Eggs are laid in loose clumps amongst vegetation in shallow water. Tadpoles are free-swimming and development takes 50-90 days.	eng
41096	threats		Development and forestry in coastal and near-coastal areas are threats to the species' habitat.	eng
41097	conservation		The range of the species includes at least one protected area.	eng
41097	distribution		This Australian endemic is restricted to Rocky River in the McIlwraith Range, Cape York Peninsula northern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 7,100km2.	eng
41097	habitat		This species inhabits upland rainforest streams and monsoon closed forest. Frogs have been spotted sheltering in the buttress roots of trees and upon rocks in or adjacent to a rainforest stream. Breeding takes place in September and males call from leaves over water. Approximately 29-60 lime green eggs are laid out of water. The eggs have been found on tree trunks, upon rocks, under leaves and in or on dead palm fronds near gently flowing or static water.	eng
41097	population		More information is needed.	eng
41097	threats		Logging was a threat to the species in the past.	eng
41098	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41098	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the Kimberley region of Western Australia and across into Arnhem Land in the north of Northern Territory. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 342,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.	eng
41098	habitat		This species is closely associated with permanent creeks, small pools and waterholes on the face of rock outcrops. It is active by day and has the ability to "skip" across the surface of water to escape danger. By night it congregates on floating vegetation or at the water’s edge. It shelters in caves. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter and open rock faces at the edges of streams and pools. About 30-40 eggs are laid in small static pools upon or at the foot of rock escarpments on submerged rocks. Development takes 3-4 weeks.	eng
41098	population		It is a common species.	eng
41098	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41099	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41099	distribution		This Australian endemic is known in coastal Queensland, from northern to central Queensland, and also occurs from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and the coast of the Northern Territory. It might occur across all of northern Australia in suitable habitat, but is extremely difficult to detect due to its tiny size (16mm).	eng
41099	habitat		This species occurs in wet regions. It is often found among long grass surrounding swamps, marshy areas and ponds. It also hides in tufts of low-growing grasses and beneath large rocks and logs. Breeding occurs in summer when males call from vegetation up to 30cm off the ground. Spawn clumps contain 60 small eggs, which are laid in shallow water in temporarily flooded areas.	eng
41099	population		More information is needed.	eng
41099	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41100	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41100	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the southwest corner of Western Australia, from the Murchison River southeast to Pallinup River. It also is found on Rottnest Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41100	habitat		This species is associated with permanent water-streams, swamps, lagoons, farm dams and ponds. It hides beneath bark, logs or other large objects. It is a spring breeder. Spawn clumps are laid as a large floating mass attached to vegetation.	eng
41100	population		It is a common species.	eng
41100	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species.	eng
41101	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41101	distribution		This species occurs along the coast and adjacent areas of northern and eastern Australia, from the Kimberley region of Western Australia along the coastline to mid-eastern New South Wales. It is also widespread in open forest in the southern lowlands and southeastern peninsula of New Guinea, occurring in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It lives near sea level, below 50m in New Guinea.	eng
41101	habitat		In Australia it is known from open forests and woodland in coastal/sub coastal areas with understorey of grasses and/or sedges. Forages among the leaf-litter of the forest floor and on the open flats exposed by receding waters. In New Guinea it occurs in open, woody savannah, and breeds in swamps. In Australia breeding takes place in spring and summer mostly in ephemeral waters (isolated pools; inundated grass/sedge land). Eggs are laid in clumps of 50-100 in static water. Tadpoles take between 1-5 months to develop depending on the time the eggs were laid.	eng
41101	population		It is an extremely abundant species in New Guinea.	eng
41101	threats		Human settlement, and in some areas agro-industry farming, along the east coast especially, is a threat to the species habitat. It is unlikely to be at risk in its savannah habitats in New Guinea. There is a small international pet trade, with 750 animals that were exported from Indonesia in 2002. The information given in the Utilisation section refers to Indonesia.	eng
41102	conservation		Its distribution needs to be better documented in New Guinea. Its range includes the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in New Guinea as well as a few protected areas in Australia.	eng
41102	distribution		This species occurs in Australia in northern Queensland, on the Upper Cape York Peninsula and Torres Strait Islands. It is also moderately widespread in the lowland savannahs of southern New Guinea in Papua New Guinea. It occurs in lowlands up to 250m asl.	eng
41102	habitat		Primarily in seasonally dry forest and woodland habitats. Also occurs in small dams and marshy areas. Congregates around creeks and flooded depressions where there is ground cover during the wet season. In the dry season it emerges to forage in moist microhabitats (creekbeds and soaks). Breeding takes place in summer. Males call from the banks of temporary pools. Spawn consists of around 450 eggs and is deposited in pools in creeks and streamside pools. It has also been observed in artificial waterbodies (dams and cattle water tanks). In New Guinea this species inhabits open woody savannah. It breeds in swamps and temporary pools.	eng
41102	population		It occurs at moderate densities in New Guinea.	eng
41102	threats		The major threats are habitat loss from development and logging Australia.	eng
41103	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
41103	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region in Western Australia through the northern part of the Northern Territory and into northern Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 922,000km2.	eng
41103	habitat		The habitat of this species ranges from dry, open forest to the periphery of floodplains and temporarily flooded grasslands. Males call from November to March from the edge of water. About 50-350 eggs are laid on the surface of water in temporary pools. Tadpoles develop in 8-10 weeks.	eng
41103	population		More information is needed.	eng
41103	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41104	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41104	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from a small area of northeastern Victoria. It has been recorded from between 200-800m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 28,000km2.	eng
41104	habitat		This species inhabits woodlands, open and disturbed areas including alpine habitats, slow flowing creeks or backwaters of rivers, still water in ponds, roadside ditches, dams and lakes. Males call in water floating among vegetation or from the ground, or in low vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.	eng
41104	population		It is a common species.	eng
41104	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41105	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.	eng
41105	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern and southwestern Queensland, from Kroombit Tops south throughout all of New South Wales and into Victoria and southeastern South Australia. There are recent records from near Bollon and Winton in west Queensland. It also occurs on North Stradbroke Island.	eng
41105	habitat		This species is found in varied habitats; wet and dries forest, woodlands, shrublands and open areas. Along the coast it is often found in trees and shrubs among streamside vegetation. In inland regions it is often found in low-lying areas adjacent to creeks, rivers and lagoons. It is often found a long distance from water. Males call from the ground or in vegetation near water in spring and summer. Eggs are laid in still water; larvae are free swimming. Outside the breeding season, individuals are generally highly arboreal and occur in the canopy of forests.	eng
41105	population		More information is needed.	eng
41105	threats		Development in southeastern Queensland and central New South Wales is a threat to the species. Clearing for farming is another threat.	eng
41106	conservation		The range of the species includes Kakadu National Park.	eng
41106	distribution		This Australian endemic has been recorded from the edge of escarpments of Western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 14,000km2	eng
41106	habitat		This species occurs in open forest, woodland and grassland. It often seeks refuge beneath boulders and in cracks in the rock surface, and in the wet season is found near permanent and temporary water. During the dry season they are found among sedges and shrubs bordering small, permanent streams. Males call November to late January from exposed positions upon the rock face. Breeding takes place in pools and rock crevices. Eggs are unknown.	eng
41106	population		It has only a restricted distribution.	eng
41106	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41107	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41107	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas of New South Wales (from the Wollondilly River northwards) and southeastern Queensland (north to the Connondale Ranges, with an isolated population further north in Kroombit Tops) (Donnellan <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41107	habitat		The species inhabits rocky and mountain streams in rainforest and wet and dry forest including swamps. It is often found on shrubs and low vegetation beside creeks and streamside ponds, seldom in still water. It breeds in summer and spring. Males call from rocky riverbanks or streamside vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in streams and ponds. Larvae take 12 weeks to metamorphose.	eng
41107	population		It is a common species.	eng
41107	threats		In the past logging in forest was a threat. Development and clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and drainage of swamps are now more serious threats. It is probably also impacted by introduced fish, notably trout. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species by PCR testing. There has been extensive monitoring across the distribution and significant declines have been noted in high altitude populations, some of which have disappeared.  However, there is also a recorded recovery of population numbers in one closely monitored population of this species, and overall it remains abundant in many places and is not significantly threatened.	eng
41108	conservation		Listed as rare in Queensland and protected in southeast Queensland where some of its habitat occurs in Lamington National Park. Its range includes a few other protected areas as well.	eng
41108	distribution		There are three known populations of this Australian endemic species, one in the Atherton Tablelands in northeastern Queensland, one in the Clarke Range in mid-eastern Queensland and one occurring from Mount Tamborine (Southeast Queensland) to Ballina northeastern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 190,000km2.	eng
41108	habitat		This species is found from coastal swamps and ponds to montane rainforests. It is a spring and summer breeder. It breeds in still water (swamps and ponds) where males call from reeds and grasses around or in water; larvae are free-swimming. It is also found in pastureland.	eng
41108	population		This species is locally abundant. There is no information on population size and structure. There have been no recorded declines.	eng
41108	threats		Some sites continue to be disturbed through clearing, timber harvesting and associated activities and cattle grazing. Although the species is quite frequently detected at disturbed sites, like farm dams, the viability of these populations is unknown as are the impacts of disturbance on the species.	eng
41109	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and abundance of this species in Papua New Guinea need to be properly assessed. It occurs within the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea and in several protected areas in Australia.	eng
41109	distribution		This species occurs in Northern Australia, from the Kimberley region in Western Australia, throughout the northern part of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland and down the coast to Fraser Island (but not including the island). It is also known from several localities along the south-central coast of New Guinea, in Papua New Guinea. It occurs in lowlands up to about 50m asl in Papua New Guinea, and up to 500m asl, and possibly even 1,000m asl in Australia.	eng
41109	habitat		This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, from wet eastern coastal forests to more inland areas, usually in association with large river systems in inland habitat. It is found on trees and shrubs beside watercourses (rivers or streams), temporary or permanent swamps, lagoons and large temporary pools. It is also common on buildings and in fruit plantations. It breeds at the end of spring and into summer after heavy rains. Males call from elevated positions near water. The spawn is deposited in small clumps in temporarily flooded areas and temporary pools. Tadpoles take around 65 days to complete development. In Papua New Guinea it occurs in savannah habitats, but few data are available for the New Guinea populations. It breeds in temporary flooded pools.	eng
41109	population		It is a relatively uncommon species in Papua New Guinea, but is common in Australia.	eng
41109	threats		It is sometimes relocated in the transportation of fresh produce. There are no known threats to the species in Papua New Guinea. Its savannah habitats In Papua New Guinea are unlikely to be at risk.	eng
41110	conservation		It is known to occur in several protected areas in Australia.	eng
41110	distribution		This species is widespread across most of Australia except the extreme south. It is also known from several locations in the southern savannahs of western Papua New Guinea, including Daru Island, and Timor island in East Timor and Indonesia. It has not yet been recorded from the Indonesian side of New Guinea. All records are from below 50m in New Guinea. It has an estimated altitudinal range of 0-500m asl, possibly even as high as 1,000m asl in Australia.	eng
41110	habitat		It occurs in a wide range of habitats, from eastern coastal forest to desert, generally associated with more open vegetation (ie. open forest/woodland). In inland regions it is largely confined to ranges or larger watercourses. It is usually found in trees and shrubs beside watercourses, temporary or permanent swamps and lagoons. It also makes use of water pipes in houses and buildings. It avoids extreme temperatures by sheltering beneath stones, bark, logs, buildings etc. In Australia it breeds after the summer rains. Males call from the ground in open grassy areas near water. The spawn clumps of 40-300 eggs are laid on the surface of static water. Larval life is brief, lasting only 2-4 weeks (shorter where the temperature is high). In Papua New Guinea it lives in open, savannah habitats and human-made grasslands. It breeds in temporary pools, and human-made ditches, and drains.	eng
41110	population		It is common where it is found in New Guinea, and also in Australia, but there is no information on population for Timor.	eng
41110	threats		There are no known major threats to this species. Within parts of the species' range in Australia there is some habitat loss in coastal areas due to human settlement, and in inland areas there is some habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming.	eng
41111	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.	eng
41111	distribution		This Australia endemic is known from the Kimberley Region, Western Australia, and northwestern Northern Territory to Bradshaw Station. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 119,900km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl, and it possibly occurs even as high as 900m asl.	eng
41111	habitat		This species occurs in a large variety of moist forest habitats and rural and urban environments. During the daytime it can be found sheltering in caves, crevices beneath boulders and in and around buildings and public toilets. It breeds early in the wet season at the onset of monsoon rains. A female lays up to 6,500 small, separate eggs, which sink to the bottom of the pool. Larvae take 1-4 months to develop depending on the time the eggs were laid.	eng
41111	population		It is a common species.	eng
41111	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41112	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41112	distribution		This species is endemic to northern Australia. It occurs from the Kimberley region of Western Australia into Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and over the border into the northwestern corner of Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.	eng
41112	habitat		This species occurs in a variety of habitats including forest, woodland, coastal floodplains, grassland, and permanent swamps. It is commonly found around temporary pools. Breeding occurs from October to April. Males call from the ground beneath leaves or at the base of grass tussocks, around the edges of shallow, temporary pools. Eggs are laid in large clumps floating on the surface of water. Tadpoles take 6-7 weeks to develop.	eng
41112	population		It is a common species.	eng
41112	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41113	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41113	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the eastern Coast of Australia from southeastern Queensland to southern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 73,000km2.	eng
41113	habitat		The species occurs in a wide range of habitats: Melaleuca woodland, upland, and lowland wet sclerophyll forest. It is often found in trees and other vegetation overhanging permanent ponds. It is a spring breeder. Males call from vegetation surrounding still water where spawn is deposited and tadpoles develop. It breeds in permanent and semi-permanent water. It also occurs in pasture lands.	eng
41113	population		More information is needed.	eng
41113	threats		Loss of habitat in southeastern Queensland is a major threat.	eng
41115	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41115	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in Northern Australia, from the Kimberley region of Western Australia into Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and the northwestern corner of Queensland. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 616,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl.	eng
41115	habitat		The species inhabits open forest and the banks of permanent and semi-permanent swamps, streams and soaks throughout its range. It is commonly found at the foot of rock outcrops. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call in open areas close to water. Spawn is laid in floating clumps of 30-200 eggs in temporary pools with sandy or gravel substrate. Development takes 8 weeks.	eng
41115	population		It is a common species.	eng
41115	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41116	conservation		It is protected within the National Parks in the Wet Tropics.	eng
41116	distribution		These Australian endemics occur along the northern Queensland coastline between Cooktown and Townsville. It has been recorded from around 100m to 1,500m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 19,600km2.	eng
41116	habitat		The species is confined to dense rainforest where it lives in the tree canopy and descends to the ground only to breed. It emerges after heavy rain. Details of breeding are unknown but are believed to be similar to the very closely related Litoria chloris.	eng
41116	population		This species is common, predominantly in warmer months.	eng
41116	threats		In the past, loss of habitat from logging was a threat. Now habitat degradation due to tourism in northern Queensland's rainforest is more of a threat.	eng
41117	conservation		It only occurs in a small area of state forest (McDonald 1992), which provides protection for its habitat, although the species does not occur in a national park.	eng
41117	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from Windsor Tableland, Thornton Peak, Shiptons Flat, Mount Boolbun South and Cape Tribulation, in northern Queensland, Australia, from 900-1,300m asl.	eng
41117	habitat		It inhabits moist vine forest, and calls from sticks, logs and low vegetation, and from under leaves on the forest floor. It appears to have persisted in areas selectively logged within the past 15 years. Breeding is believed to take place by direct development.	eng
41117	population		It occurs at high densities.	eng
41117	threats		The major threat to this species is surface water extraction and resulting changes in flow regimes.	eng
41118	conservation		The range of the species is wholly within Daintree National Park in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.	eng
41118	distribution		This Australian endemic is found at elevations above 1,100m asl on Thornton Peak, between Mossman and Cooktown in north-eastern Queensland. The area of suitable habitat available to this species is only 718ha.	eng
41118	habitat		A terrestrial species, it inhabits rainforest and boulder fields at high elevations, and is often found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It calls from tree trunks, logs, and bushes. It breeds by direct development; unpigmented eggs are laid in a string under rocks or logs in moist soil.	eng
41118	population		It is known to be an abundant species, with a large population size.	eng
41118	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat degradation as a result of human impacts associated with touristic activities and infrastructure development for these. However, overall, these threats are localized. Of greater significance is a predicted decline in the coming years because of climate change (C.J. Hoskin pers. comm.).	eng
41119	conservation		Its range is within a protected area.	eng
41119	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from a single location, north-east of Coen, in the McIlwraith Range, eastern Cape York Peninsula, in the far north of Queensland.	eng
41119	habitat		This species is confined to vine forest within tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
41119	population		It has a large population, spread over a moderate area, despite being known only from a single location.	eng
41119	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat degradation resulting from tourist activities.	eng
41120	conservation		Improved management of the protected areas in this species' range is necessary to limit the disturbance caused by tourist activities.	eng
41120	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in a small area south of Cooktown, north-eastern Queensland, where, after a gap of 25 years, it was recently collected from Big Tableland, between 555 and 620m asl.	eng
41120	habitat		This species is found beneath cover (logs, stones, and leaf-litter) in rainforest comprising vine forest, including areas with <em>Acacia</em>. It calls from beneath leaves and in hollow tree trunks. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
41120	population		It is an abundant species within its restricted range.	eng
41120	threats		Threats to this species arise mainly from human impacts on the national parks it inhabits, including for example: erosion following human traffic, and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.	eng
41121	conservation	Hero, J.-M., McDonald, K., Cunningham, M., Hoskin, C., Alford, R. & Retallick, R., 2009	The range of this species includes a few protected areas within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
41121	distribution	Hero, J.-M., McDonald, K., Cunningham, M., Hoskin, C., Alford, R. & Retallick, R., 2009	This Australian endemic is found in a small area north of Cairns and Mount Lewis, in northern Queensland. It has been recorded from between 800 and 1,370 m asl.	eng
41121	habitat	Hero, J.-M., McDonald, K., Cunningham, M., Hoskin, C., Alford, R. & Retallick, R., 2009	This species inhabits rainforest. Males call from sticks, palms, and vegetation up to 1 m above ground. The eggs are laid terrestrially and develop directly into fully formed froglets.	eng
41121	population	Hero, J.-M., McDonald, K., Cunningham, M., Hoskin, C., Alford, R. & Retallick, R., 2009	The species has a relatively large population, and is one of the most frequently encountered amphibians within its known range.	eng
41121	threats	Hero, J.-M., McDonald, K., Cunningham, M., Hoskin, C., Alford, R. & Retallick, R., 2009	The major threat to this species comes mainly from human impacts on parks, for example, erosion following human traffic, and habitat degradation from the development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. However, these threats are localized, and overall, the species is probably not significantly threatened at present. Climate change is a potential future threat.	eng
41122	conservation		The habitat of the species is protected within National Park, but better management is required for the mitigation of impacts resulting from tourism.	eng
41122	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to the area between Cairns and Ingham, in northeastern Queensland. It has been recorded up to 900m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 8,400km2.	eng
41122	habitat		This is a rainforest inhabitant. It calls from sticks, logs, standing vegetation and debris on the forest floor, and is often associated with rocky substrate. It lays its eggs terrestrially, laying 8-13 eggs in a connected string in a moist situation away from water. Entire development occurs within egg membrane and the young develop directly into fully formed froglets.	eng
41122	population		It appears to be patchily distributed and not a very common species. This can be explained by the availability of the rocky substrate that is seems to prefer.	eng
41122	threats		The species occurs in National Parks in the Wet Tropics. Threats are mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example: erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities.	eng
41123	conservation		This species occurs in many sites within a World Heritage Area.	eng
41123	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in mid-eastern Queensland between Mossman and Townsville, from sea level up to 1,500m asl. It also occurs on Hinchinbrook Island. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 15,000km2.	eng
41123	habitat		This is a rainforest inhabitant. It hides under ground cover, logs and rocks by day. By night, males call from either the ground or more commonly from shrubs and trees up to 2m off the ground. It is a terrestrial breeder. It lays between 11 and 22 eggs in a string in a concealed position. An adult frog generally tends the nest and the young develop directly in to fully formed froglets.	eng
41123	population		It can be a very abundant species in parts of its range, in particular in the middle of its altitudinal range.	eng
41123	threats		It occurs in National Parks in the Wet Tropics. Threats are mainly from human impacts on the parks, for example: erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation and development of walking tracks and other tourist facilities. However, overall this species is not thought to be very seriously threatened at present.	eng
41129	conservation		It is protected in Shark Bay due to World Heritage Listing and also protected in Kalbarri National Park and Zuytdorp National Park.	eng
41129	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in a strip along the coast in the southwest and arid zones from Edel Land (Shark Bay) south to Murchison River, Western Australia. It is also on Dirk Hartog Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.	eng
41129	habitat		The species is found in course-grained coastal sand dunes. It relies on moisture in the sand and rainfall. It burrows in the soft sand and shelters up to 10cm underground. It is active in the winter months when it emerges from the burrow to feed. Males call in the spring. Pairs spend summer together underground and then eggs are deposited in Autumn (April). Large eggs are laid in deep burrows up to 80cm under the ground in moist sand. There is no free-swimming tadpole and tiny frogs hatch from the eggs after about 2 months.	eng
41129	population		It is a common species.	eng
41129	threats		There is no human infrastructure development within the species' range as there is no freshwater and the coastline is comprised of cliffs. There is a minor threat from cattle grazing in the range. Desiccation through drought is a possible threat. But overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
41130	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is within protected areas. It is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales.	eng
41130	distribution		This Australian endemic has disjunctive distributions from the Conondale and Blackall Ranges in southeastern Queensland south to the Dorrigo Plateau in northeastern New South Wales. Populations also occur on the D’Aguilar, Main, Gibraltar and Border Ranges.	eng
41130	habitat		The species is generally found in wet forest environs amongst leaf-litter. About 10 eggs are laid in a large mass of jelly on the ground in late summer. The male approaches hatching tadpoles and allows them to wriggle up onto his back and into hip pouches where they remain for about 2 months before emerging as tiny frogs. There is evidence to suggest that logging has had a negative impact on this species.	eng
41130	population		The species is common in some areas with suitable habitat (eg. Lamington National Park, southeast Queensland). There is no data on population size, structure or dynamics.	eng
41130	threats		In the past much of its habitat was cleared or logged for timber resources. A majority of its remaining habitat however is in protected areas.	eng
41132	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41132	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley region of Western Australia and further east into the Northern Territory. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41132	habitat		This species is closely associated with marginal vegetation of temporary swamps and creeks. Spawn is laid in small clumps attached to aquatic vegetation and metamorphosis only takes around 14 days.	eng
41132	population		It is a common species.	eng
41132	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41133	conservation		There are none in place.	eng
41133	distribution		This Australian endemic is found mainly in the dry mid-region of Australia, but it is also known from the coast in Queensland where it has been recorded often in Townsville and near Cooktown. In the mid-region it is distributed from the mid-western border of northern Territory, southeast into Queensland and New South Wales and the northeast corner of South Australia.	eng
41133	habitat		The species is found in arid regions. It is often associated with static temporary or permanent waterbodies where it shelters under leaves. It has also been found in artificial habitats, like farm dams, and sheltering under corrugated iron and timber piles. It is commonly found in areas of black soil. Spawn clumps are attached to submerged vegetation in pools or swamps.	eng
41133	population		More information is needed.	eng
41133	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41134	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41134	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from Gingin in the north, inland to Dumbleyung and east to the vicinity of Cape Le Grand. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
41134	habitat		The species occurs in coastal plains and forests where there is ample shallow water in winter. It lives amongst vegetation beside creeks or soaks. Breeding occurs from July to October on cold nights. About 70 large eggs are laid separately in shallow seep water and sometimes in roadside gutters. Tadpoles develop in about 4-7 weeks. It also inhabits anthropogenic habitats such as agricultural lands and rural gardens.	eng
41134	population		It is a common species.	eng
41134	threats		There are no threats listed, but increasing development along the coast of Western Australia might pose a threat in the future. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Elleker, near Albany in Western Australia.	eng
41135	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41135	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41135	habitat		The species is found in areas of permanent moisture, such as the edge of marshes. Females lay approximately 70 eggs singly, in shallow water. It is often found in association with C. georgiana. Tadpoles take about 4 months to develop. It also found in human habitats such as agricultural lands and rural gardens.	eng
41135	population		It is a common species.	eng
41135	threats		There are no known threats to the species, but coastal development in the southwest of Australia might be a threat in the future.	eng
41136	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41136	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, between Gingin and Busselton. It also occurs on Rottnest Island. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.	eng
41136	habitat		The species inhabits temporary swamps on coastal plains after rains. At other times it shelters under logs, debris etc.<br/>Males call in winter. Eggs are laid or in small clumps in shallow water and fall to the floor. Females lay 66-268 eggs and tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop.	eng
41136	population		It is a common species.	eng
41136	threats		The species inhabits temporary swamps on coastal plains after rains. At other times it shelters under logs, debris etc. Males call in winter. Eggs are laid or in small clumps in shallow water and fall to the floor. Females lay 66-268 eggs and tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop.	eng
41137	conservation		The range of the species includes several conservation parks and reserves.	eng
41137	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in central Queensland, south through New South Wales and into mid-Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl.	eng
41137	habitat		This species occurs in seasonally dry areas in forest, woodland and grassland habitat, it is also moderately common in disturbed habitat. It is often found beneath debris at the edge of swamps and ponds. It breeds in shallow ephemeral water, including inundated drainage ditches. Calling can be heard from Autumn to Spring. Males call around permanent ponds and pools in streams. Breeding takes place in mid-winter and tadpoles take 11-12 weeks to develop.	eng
41137	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
41137	threats		Habitat loss and degradation through urban development is a future threat, but there are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
41138	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41138	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from the southwest corner of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41138	habitat		The species occurs in temporary swamps associated with run-off from granites on the Pre-Cambrian shield in the extreme west of Western Australia. Males call in winter from July to September. Females lay 77-207 single eggs in shallow water. Tadpoles metamorphose after three months. It is also found in disturbed habitats.	eng
41138	population		It is a common species.	eng
41138	threats		Vegetation clearing for agriculture leads to salinity increases over most of the species range as well as habitat fragmentation. Future infrastructure development is also a threat. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Sawyer's Valley in Western Australia.	eng
41139	conservation		The extent of occurrence for this species needs to be documented in New Guinea. It occurs in the Tonda Wildlife Management Area and the Wasur Nature Reserve in New Guinea and several protected areas in Australia.	eng
41139	distribution		This species occurs in Australia along the coastline of the Northern Territory and northern Queensland. It also occurs in the southern lowlands of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) below 50m asl.	eng
41139	habitat		In Australia this species occurs in diverse habitats including flooded grassland or at the edge of swamps and billabongs. In New Guinea it inhabits low-lying grassy areas in mixed tropical savannahs. It breeds in temporary pools and ditches. It is not known how adaptable it is to secondary habitats.	eng
41139	population		It is an uncommon species in New Guinea.	eng
41139	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41140	conservation		The species is found in Flinders Ranges National Park.	eng
41140	distribution		The range of this Australian endemic is restricted to a small area of the Flinders Ranges in central South Australia. It has been recorded from 200-600m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 56,000km2.	eng
41140	habitat		This species is found beneath boulders and stones on the edges of rock-strewn creeks. Spawn is laid beneath rocks at the edge of creeks. The tadpoles are adapted to fast-flowing creeks. It apparently breeds in spring.	eng
41140	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
41140	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41141	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41141	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from Kroombit Tops in southeast Queensland south throughout the New South Wales coast and into Victoria and the southeast corner of South Australia. It also occurs throughout Tasmania. It also is known from North Stradbroke Island in Queensland. It has a broad altitudinal range, occurring between 0-1,000m asl.	eng
41141	habitat		The species occurs in a wide range of habitats (disturbed and undisturbed, natural and man-made). It is found beneath rocks, vegetation and debris at the edge of creeks, ponds, swamps and areas of seepage. It is also found in urban and suburban environments too. It breeds throughout the year, except mid-summer. Females lay 100 -150 eggs in small clumps in shallow water. Tadpoles take 1-3 months to develop. Females may produce more than one clutch per season.	eng
41141	population		This is the most common, most widely spread frog in southeast Australia. It is the least threatened of probably all Australian frogs.	eng
41141	threats		There are no known threats to this common and widespread species	eng
41142	conservation		The range of the species includes several parks and state forests across the south coast, including Stirling Range National Park.	eng
41142	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from Manjimup south and east to Cheyne Beach, extending to Cape Arid. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.	eng
41142	habitat		This species inhabits temporary Melaleuca swamps after rains. At other times it shelters under logs and debris etc. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is presumably by larval development in water.	eng
41142	population		It is a common species.	eng
41142	threats		Clearing for agro-industry farming can increase salinity. Future development might also pose a threat.	eng
41143	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41143	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from Tasmania, but it is widespread across the island. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 56,500km2. Frequently found between 1,000 and 1,160m asl, but it does occur down to sea level.	eng
41143	habitat		The species is very aquatic and is always near shallow water. It is most commonly at the edge of streams, roadside gutters, near marshes or areas of shallow seepage. Males call in spring. About 40-70 eggs are laid singly or in small clumps in shallow pools. Tadpoles develop in 3-4 months.	eng
41143	population		More information is needed on the population status of this species.	eng
41143	threats		Drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land, and drainage of waterways reduces the available habitat for the species.	eng
41144	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41144	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in southwestern Victoria and into South Australia. It also occurs over a significant portion of Tasmania. The population is less dense in South Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 77,400km2.	eng
41144	habitat		The species inhabits dry sclerophyll and pine forests at low altitudes. It is often found amongst leaf-litter, under logs and stones in areas subject to temporary flooding or in permanent and non-permanent swamps. It breeds late summer and autumn. About 70-150 large eggs are laid in March or April in loose, elongated masses attached to vegetation in temporary pools or along the margins of permanent waterbodies. Larvae continue development in egg capsules until the breeding site is flooded and then they are released as tadpoles. Tadpoles are free-swimming and take approximately 6 months to complete development.	eng
41144	population		There are at least 100,000 individuals in Tasmania.	eng
41144	threats		Habitat clearing for agriculture and grazing are a major threat. Logging is a threat in Tasmania.	eng
41145	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41145	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from the south-west corner of Western Australia, along coastal and near coastal regions from Dandaragan south and east to Two Peoples Bay, and inland to Nannup and the Porongorups. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 80,700km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41145	habitat		This species is associated with vegetation along streams and in swamps in jarrah forest and coastal areas. It breeds from autumn to winter and is reported to lay spawn containing 52-96 eggs attached to aquatic vegetation above the water line. The larvae fall into the water when they hatch and take 120 days to metamorphose.	eng
41145	population		It is a common species.	eng
41145	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41146	conservation		Its habitat is protected within Walpole-Nornalup National Park and Mount Frankland National Park, and most of its range is within state forest. There are many new protected areas also being created in this region.	eng
41146	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in the south-west corner of Western Australia, near Walpole and in Nornalup National Park, from 0-300m asl.	eng
41146	habitat		It is found in dense vegetation adjacent to streams, and also hides in wet forest litter on peaty sand. Males call from tunnels in hummocks of mud or clay covered with low matted vegetation, where females lay 25-30 eggs. The larvae undergo direct development and emerge after approximately 50 days.	eng
41146	population		This is a common species that occurs at many sites within its restricted range.	eng
41146	threats		Too frequent fires can be a major threat to the species. However, most of its habitat is protected so it is not significantly threatened.	eng
41147	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41147	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 2,300km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-300m asl.	eng
41147	habitat		This species is confined to wet karri forest. It is found in tunnels under streamside vegetation, or in and under rotting logs. Breeding occurs in spring (from September to October). Females lay 26-32 eggs out of water in shallow depressions or tunnels beside the stream. The tadpoles remain in the eggs and hatch as small frogs in November.	eng
41147	population		It is a common species.	eng
41147	threats		There are no known threats to this species, although its restricted range increases its vulnerability to threatening processes. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Big Brook, Western Australia.	eng
41148	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41148	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in southeastern Victoria, and the very southeastern tip of New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 123,200km2. It is found up to 1,500m asl.	eng
41148	habitat		It is found in moist areas ranging from rainforest through wet and dry forests, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands and even alpine bogs. About 90-162 eggs are laid in moist leaf-litter or at the bases of grass tussocks in areas that will later flood. The larvae can survive in the egg capsule for 4 months before hatching into water at the onset of rain. Tadpoles are found in dams, flooded ditches and ponds.	eng
41148	population		It is widespread and common, but secretive.	eng
41148	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41149	conservation		Most of the range of the species is within reserves and state forest.	eng
41149	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, on the Darling Range from Bullsrock south to Mount Williams and Dryandra. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.	eng
41149	habitat		Its burrows can be found along the banks of temporary watercourses that flow in winter. The watercourses are generally on clay or granite, where the water is clear and turbulent. Males call during autumn. Amplexus occurs in the burrow. Eggs are laid in a foam nest in burrows excavated in the side of a vertical bank by the male frog. Tadpoles enter the water after flooding of the nest.	eng
41149	population		It is a common species.	eng
41149	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41150	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41150	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, along the coastline from Irwin River south and east to Cape Arid, then inland to Marchagee, Boddington and Darkan. It also occurs on Rottnest and Bald Islands. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 92,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41150	habitat		Burrows of this species are found in sandy swamps. Males call from April to May. Amplexus takes place in the male’s burrow. About 80-500 eggs are laid in burrows, which are dug at 45 degrees to the land surface. Tadpoles enter the water after rains flood the burrows.	eng
41150	population		It is a common species.	eng
41150	threats		There are no known threats to this species. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Elleker, near Albany in Western Australia.	eng
41151	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41151	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia, in the Darling Range from Chidlow south to the vicinity of Nannup and east to Walpole and Mount Barker. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.	eng
41151	habitat		The species is usually found in sandy acid peat bogs where the principal vegetation is Xanthorrhoea (grass trees). It is a winter breeder. Females select a mate and amplexus takes place within the burrows built by the males. About 100-250 eggs are laid in a foam nest within a burrow often penetrating the side of a bank or sloping ground near water. In flooding the tadpoles are released from the nest.	eng
41151	population		It is a common species.	eng
41151	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41152	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41152	distribution		This species occurs in the southwest zone of Western Australia on the Darling Range from Geraldton south to Walpole and east to Mount Barker, then inland to Coorow and Dongolocking. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 78,500km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41152	habitat		The species is confined to angular fine-grained sands and sandy clays. Males call from burrows in April and May. Amplexus and oviposition takes place in the burrows in the banks of watercourses. Embryos develop in the froth of the nest until the flooding of the burrow stimulates them to hatch. They can delay hatching for a considerable amount of time.	eng
41152	population		It is a common species.	eng
41152	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present.	eng
41156	conservation		Protected where it occurs in National Parks as in Queensland. The extent of occurrence needs to be documented further in New Guinea. It is not known from any protected areas in New Guinea but occurs in several in Australia.	eng
41156	distribution		This species occurs in northern Australia from the Kimberley region in Western Australia, east through the Northern Territory and northern Queensland in Eurimbulah National Park. It also occurs in the southern lowlands of central New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), below 50m asl. In Australia, its range occurs within a region that is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.	eng
41156	habitat		This species inhabits tropical savannahs, and is usually found in swampy areas among long grass, and low-lying areas exposed to seasonal flooding. It breeds between October and March. Males call from concealed positions at the base of grass tussocks, in debris or in vacated burrows of freshwater crabs. The eggs are deposited in a floating foam nest in temporary pools and ditches. It survives well in disturbed areas and towns.	eng
41156	population		It is a very common species in New Guinea, and is considered common in Australia.	eng
41156	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41157	conservation		Its range includes a national park in the Western Australia and Northern Territory border region (Keep River).	eng
41157	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the east Kimberley region of Western Australia, through Victoria River region (Northern Territory) to Daly River Basin, Northern Territory. It was known originally from the Argyle Homestead, which is now submerged by Lake Argyle. The area of occurrence of the species is approximately 11,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-200m asl.	eng
41157	habitat		The species inhabits woodland/grassland on cracking clay soils. It is found near permanent water. Its breeding biology is unknown.	eng
41157	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the relatively small known range of the species. There have been no observed recent declines in the population, apart from one population lost because of dam construction.	eng
41157	threats		The flooding of Lake Argyle created by a dam appears to have caused local population extinction. Surveys have failed to relocate it in the area. Otherwise, there are no threats to the species' habitat at present.	eng
41158	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia	eng
41158	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest corner of Western Australia, from the lower Murchison River south and east almost to Wattle Camp, and inland to Galena, Kulin, Lake Cronin, Frank Hann National Park and Coragina Rock. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 350,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41158	habitat		The species is found in permanent dams, swamps and creeks in many areas. It is usually found hiding in thick vegetation by the bank, occasionally found foraging in the open. It inhabits a burrow during arid conditions. It also is found in agricultural lands. It breeds in winter. Males call from hidden sites, either under vegetation or overhanging banks. Spawn is in the form of a large foam nest on the surface of static or slowly flowing water.	eng
41158	population		It is a common species.	eng
41158	threats		Clearance for agriculture leading to salinity increases is occurring throughout most of its range.	eng
41159	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41159	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the southeast coast of Australia from southeast Queensland south along the coast of New South Wales, throughout Victoria and into the southwest corner of South Australia. It is also found along the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania, as well as an isolated population in the centre. It also occurs on many offshore islands. Five sub-species are recognized. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 700,000km2.	eng
41159	habitat		The species frequents all habitats except alpine areas, rainforest and extremely arid zones. It is found commonly in suburban gardens, dams and swamps. It burrows in loamy soils and forages on the surface after rain. It breeds in dams, small lakes, marshes and slow-flowing streams. From August to April males may travel up to 1km to breeding sites. Males call in concealed positions, usually in floating vegetation. Up to 4,000 eggs are laid in a floating foam nest. In warm weather they complete development in 4-5 months, in cold weather development may take 12-15 months.	eng
41159	population		It is a common and widespread species. There are at least 100,000 in Tasmania alone.	eng
41159	threats		Expanding development along the east coast of Australia might pose a threat in the future. Drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land is an ongoing threat. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Goomburra, Queensland.	eng
41160	conservation		The range of the species includes a number of protected areas.	eng
41160	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from southern Queensland through central New South Wales and into northwestern Victoria and South Australia.	eng
41160	habitat		The species inhabits woodlands and river floodplains. It is often associated with slow moving or still water found in inundated grassland, around ponds, dams and along creek lines. By day they hide under large rocks and logs and have been found in cracks in dried mud. In dry weather they often aggregate in groups. By night they are found alongside water. Breeding is varied; in wetter areas it breeds from October to March, in drier areas it breeds after heavy rains. Males call from floating vegetation. About 300 eggs are contained within a floating foam nest. Eggs hatch after one day and metamorphose after 1-2 months.	eng
41160	population		More information is needed on the population status of this species.	eng
41160	threats		The species might suffer from habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming. Increased salinity is also a threat.	eng
41161	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place for the species, but management plans for the Murray-Darling Basin aim to mitigate problems in this area and help to conserve some natural landscape. The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41161	distribution		This Australian endemic inhabits the dry and sandy region of central New South Wales and into northern Victoria where it is restricted to the floodplains of the Murray River.	eng
41161	habitat		Adults have been found in open and disturbed areas and in natural woodland. They spend daylight hours and drier months buried beneath the surface. They have been found aestivating in mounds of Mallee Fowl. Males call in spring and summer whilst floating on vegetation or concealed in burrows at the edges of dams. It breeds in swamps or dams and slow flowing creeks with marginal vegetation. Calling and oviposition take place in flooded burrows. Tadpoles are aquatic and are usually associated with slow or still waters.	eng
41161	population		It has a large and stable population.	eng
41161	threats		Agriculture and land-use practices associated with the Murray Darling Basin are a major threat.	eng
41162	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41162	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from the Kimberley zone in Western Australia, across northern Northern Territory, northern and southeastern Queensland and into the central coast of New South Wales.	eng
41162	habitat		The species is found in dry coastal and inland areas including areas of woodland, grassland and savannah. It is often found along dry, sandy watercourses some distance from permanent water. They burrow in the daytime and may spend the dry season in a dormant state well beneath the surface. It breeds after heavy rain in shallow ephemeral waters. Males call whilst floating in the water, which may be only a small puddle. Females lay about 1,000 eggs in a foam nest that collapses after a few hours to form a floating layer up to 7cm across. Females may breed more than once each season.	eng
41162	population		More information is needed.	eng
41162	threats		There are no major threats overall to this extremely widespread species, however there is some localized habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming. Tadpoles of the introduced Bufo marinus can out compete the tadpoles of this species.	eng
41163	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. It is listed as "Rare" on the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.	eng
41163	distribution		This Australian endemic is found along the east coast of Australia, from far-north Queensland along the coast through New South Wales and into Victoria and the southeast corner of South Australia. It is also known from King Island and from the northwest and a few populations in the far northeast of Tasmania.	eng
41163	habitat		The species can be found in many habitats including rainforests, wet and dry forests, woodlands, and shrublands, open and disturbed areas. They also frequent swamps, flooded grassland, suburban pools and ponds. Secretive by day, hiding under logs, stones or underneath flood debris and from crayfish burrows. It is a robust species that is able to persist and/or re-colonise heavily disturbed habitat. Breeding occurs from August to April and potentially any month of the year. Males call by day hidden in thick vegetation, forest debris or overhanging ledges. At night they call from the water floating in concealed sites. Females lay 700-1000 eggs in a foam nest tangled in vegetation (reeds and rushes) at the water’s edge.	eng
41163	population		The species is widespread and abundant and there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that the species might be increasing in numbers and extending its range in Queensland. It is often referred to as a weed species in Queensland and New South Wales. It is apparently rare in Tasmania, and it is estimated that there are less than 5,000 adults.	eng
41163	threats		There are no known major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. In Tasmania, drainage of habitat for agricultural purposes is a threat.	eng
41164	conservation		The species occurs in a small number of conservation parks/reserves.	eng
41164	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs from central Queensland into northeastern New South Wales and central New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 564,000km2.	eng
41164	habitat		The species is found in a variety of habitats including flooded grassland and swamps and is generally associated with clay soils. It usually hides under dense vegetation, logs, loose bark or stones. The species burrows in unfavourable weather. Roadside reserves provide significant habitat for this species in areas heavily impacted by agro-industry farming. Males call between September and April from matted vegetation on the edges of flood depressions. They construct large foamy nests containing 1,500-2,500 eggs.	eng
41164	threats		This species has suffered significant habitat loss/degradation associated with agro-industry farming. Expanding development might threaten these frogs in the future.	eng
41165	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
41165	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs throughout the arid central region of Western Australia and into southern Northern Territory and northern South Australia. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 1,240,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
41165	habitat		The species occupies areas where there are sandy soils within rocky terrain. It is common in sandy creek beds. In areas where the sand is moist they build burrows from which they emerge at night. Breeding takes place following heavy rain. Up to 1,130 eggs are laid in foam nests in temporary ponds.	eng
41165	population		It is a common species.	eng
41165	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41166	conservation		The species occurs within a number of conservation parks and reserves. It is sometimes bred in captivity in Australian zoos.	eng
41166	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs over most of eastern Australia in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, central Queensland and eastern Tasmania. It was also thought to be present in the Kununurra district in north eastern Western Australia, however this was a result of misidentification, and the specimens collected in this area have now been correctly identified as L. depressus (Schäuble <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
41166	habitat		The species is typically found in marshy country, particularly in the vicinity of grass-lined streams and ponds or flooded paddocks. By day it hides under logs, stones and debris near the water’s edge. Breeding can occur at anytime during the year but most commonly between August and March. Males call from the edge of shallow water, partly concealed by vegetation. The species lays floating foam nests of 90-1,350 eggs in water attached to emergent vegetation. Tadpoles take 3-5 months to develop. Some sites have been recorded as having non-foamy egg masses. It can reproduce in juvenile form at 80-100 days after metamorphosis. In Tasmania, spring flooding rains trigger enormous breeding activity.	eng
41166	population		It is a widely distributed and abundant species.	eng
41166	threats		There are no major threats to the species overall. In Tasmania, drought and the lowering of the water table is a threat to some populations. Competition from the tadpoles of Bufo marinus can effect the growth of the tadpoles. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Adelaide, Western Australia.	eng
41167	conservation		The range of the species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
41167	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs all along the coast of Queensland and into northeastern New South Wales then west of the Great Dividing Range into southern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 600,000km2.	eng
41167	habitat		The species occurs in a variety of habitats along the edges of permanent streams, dams, swamps and other areas of static water including roadside depressions. There must be cover in the form of grass and other dense vegetation. Breeding commences about October and continues until May. Males call from hidden sites in vegetation on banks and eggs are deposited in a large foam nest attached to emergent vegetation.	eng
41167	threats		There are no known threats to the species. Competition from the tadpoles of Bufo marinus can effect the growth of the tadpoles.	eng
41169	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41169	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the southwest region of Western Australia, from Dunsborough south and east to Albany, Two Peoples Bay. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 50,000km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.	eng
41169	habitat		The species is found amongst leaf-litter, under stones and logs in karri forests. Breeding occurs in late summer. It is reported to lay 25-30 eggs under cover, such as beneath a log. The eggs are laid on land, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
41169	population		It is a common species.	eng
41169	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41170	conservation		The species' habitat is protected within National Parks, State Forests and Wet Tropics World Heritage Area in north east Queensland.	eng
41170	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from three disjunct areas of northeastern Queensland: Big Tableland; Thornton Peak; and the Atherton Tableland between Lamb Range in the north and Charmillan Creek in the south (Mahony <em>et al</em>, 2006). It occurs from around 100m to about 1,500m asl.	eng
41170	habitat		The species is found around fast-flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter or buried up to 5cm under leaf-litter near streams and ponds. Egg deposition sites are unknown but larvae develop in water.	eng
41170	population		It is a common species, but it is sparsely distributed and uncommonly seen.	eng
41170	threats		In the past, habitat loss from logging and clearing for farmland was a major threat. Most habitat is in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and national parks or equivalent protected areas. High-use tourism and recreation occurs in a few areas and consists mainly of graded tracks and small picnic areas. However, this frog survives in these areas where suitable rainforest habitat occurs, thus indicating no significant impact.	eng
41171	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41171	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and arid (central) zones of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41171	habitat		The species inhabits open woodland and dense scrub in sand hills or where soil is leached grey sand. It is often found in association with termite nests as it feeds on termites. It is otherwise found in soft sandy soils buried under logs and rocks. They avoid hard substrates and drainage channels. It emerges after rain. It breeds after heavy rain that triggers emergence. Males call from the soil surface or with only their heads uncovered. Eggs are very large and up to 40 are laid about 1-1.2m underground. Development is terrestrial and occurs within the egg capsule.	eng
41171	population		It is a common species.	eng
41171	threats		There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in an area where there is very little human disturbance.	eng
41172	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41172	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southern arid (central) zone and eastern areas of southwest Western Australia, from Narembeen and the Stirling Range east to Cape Arid. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.	eng
41172	habitat		The species is known from temporarily flooded areas in the wheat belt of southwestern Australia. Breeding occurs in spring and summer and after heavy autumn rains. Males call from concealed positions, such as beneath bushes, and near deep (30-50cm) water. Egg deposition and tadpoles have not been observed.	eng
41172	population		It is a common species.	eng
41172	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41173	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41173	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Kimberley and central arid zone of Western Australia (Derby-Broome region). The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.	eng
41173	habitat		The species is found in sparsely vegetated country, like grasslands and open forests. It is active on the edge of water after rain. It breeds in shallow, flooded areas following summer rains. Females have been recorded laying over 1,400 eggs.	eng
41173	population		It is a common species.	eng
41173	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41174	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41174	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from throughout the arid central region of Western Australia, most of South Australia (with the exception of the coastline) and into the far western reaches of Queensland and New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 544,900km2	eng
41174	habitat		This species often inhabits sparse woodland and Triodia covered sand hills. It is associated with sand and clay soils. It is active just before, during and after rainfall. It breeds in flooded clay pans after summer and autumn rains. Details of spawn and tadpoles are not known. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41174	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
41174	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41175	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia	eng
41175	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from Western Australia, on the central western coast from North West Cape south to Wooramel River. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-150m asl.	eng
41175	habitat		The species has been recorded from dunes and open mulga woodland. It is usually on red or brown sandy loam. It breeds after summer and autumn rains in flooded clay pans. Details of spawn and tadpoles are unknown. In the "Habitat preferences" section "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41175	population		It is a common species.	eng
41175	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs an area with very little human disturbance.	eng
41176	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia	eng
41176	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southwest and central zones of Western Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41176	habitat		The species is found on impervious soils that are lightly vegetated. It is an opportunistic breeder emerging and spawning after heavy rainfall. Eggs are deposited in pools on clay soil where the water is milky and opaque. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41176	population		It is a common species.	eng
41176	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41177	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41177	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in southwestern Western Australia from Geraldton in the north to Esperance in the south. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41177	habitat		The species is generally associated with clay or loam soils. It breeds in autumn or early winter in temporarily flooded clay pans, or pools in granite outcrops. Tadpoles take up to 120 days to metamorphose. In the "habitat preferences" section "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41177	population		It is a common species.	eng
41177	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41178	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41178	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southeastern corner of South Australia into western Victoria. It occurs from 50-400m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 362,000km2	eng
41178	habitat		The species occurs in a variety of habitats encompassing those with moderate amounts of water to deserts, including open grassland, woodland. It appears only after heavy rains. It breeds in autumn or winter and males call whilst floating in static water. They lay approximately 1,000 eggs in a chain entwined with submerged vegetation.	eng
41178	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
41178	threats		Agriculture can be a threat to the species' habitat in some parts of its range.	eng
41179	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41179	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from south-central Queensland throughout central New South Wales and into central Victoria.	eng
41179	habitat		It is an inhabitant of dry regions. It is found in woodlands, shrublands, mallee and open grassland as well as disturbed areas. It becomes active after rains and is buried in loam or clay soils much of the time. It breeds after heavy rain and flooding. Males call whilst floating in open, shallow and still water. Eggs are clumped together and are wrapped around and adhered to submerged vegetation in ponds, dams, ditches and flooded clay pans. Tadpoles are aquatic and take 4-7 months to develop. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41179	threats		Habitat loss/degradation associated with the expansion of agro-industry farming is a threat in some parts of the species' range.	eng
41180	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia	eng
41180	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs throughout the arid central and southwestern zones of Western Australia (except along the southern coastline). It also extends into far northwestern South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-800m asl.	eng
41180	habitat		The species inhabits sparsely vegetated areas on clay or loam soils. It spends most of its time buried and only emerges after rains. It is a summer breeder. It breeds in clay pans following heavy rain. Males call whilst floating in water. Amplexus also occurs in water. Eggs are laid in static water and the larval stage is 40 days. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41180	population		It is a common species.	eng
41180	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41181	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41181	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the southern-central regions of Western Australia from Carnarvon in the north to Kalgoorlie in the southeast. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.	eng
41181	habitat		The species inhabits sparsely vegetated clay pans subject to flooding. It spends most of its time buried emerging after rain. It breeds after summer rains flood the clay pans. Eggs are laid in clay pans and tadpoles develop in 40 days. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41181	population		It is a common species.	eng
41181	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41182	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41182	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in central inland New South Wales and the interior of southern Queensland, west of the Great Dividing Range. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 615,000km2.	eng
41182	habitat		The species inhabits the black soil slopes and flood plains of the large river systems in its range. It is found in savannah, woodland and mallee areas. It spends most of its life underground and only emerges after heavy rains. It breeds in temporary pools after heavy rain. Males call whilst floating in pools. Eggs are deposited in water. Larvae are free swimming.	eng
41182	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
41182	threats		Habitat loss/degradation associated with intensive agro-industry farming is a threat to the species in parts of its range. Competition from the tadpoles of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span> can effect the growth of the tadpoles.	eng
41183	conservation		The range of the species overlaps several protected areas.	eng
41183	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the northwestern Kimberley region of Western Australia, northern Northern Territory and into Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. It is also known from the Townsville region in Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 772,000km2.	eng
41183	habitat		The species is found in sparsely timbered savannah, sclerophyll woodland and grassland on clay soils. It spends most of its life buried underground and emerges only after heavy rain when it can be found on low-lying swampy ground, which remains saturated after rain. It breeds after heavy rains in shallow flooded areas. Males call whilst floating in water and their bodies are inflated with air from their distended lungs. About 500-1400 eggs are laid in long chains tangled in submerged vegetation. Tadpoles hatch and complete development in 8 weeks.	eng
41183	population		It is a common species.	eng
41183	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41184	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41184	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the southern Kimberley region of Western Australia, extending south almost to Carnavon (80km north) in Western Australia, and through the southern section of Northern Territory into western Queensland and South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-1,100m asl.	eng
41184	habitat		The species occurs in open country with sparse vegetation on impervious or clay soils. It spends most of its time underground and only comes to the surface to feed and breed after heavy rains, but has been found under dry conditions also. It has been found buried up to 1m underground. It breeds after heavy rain in desert clay pans that become filled with water. Males call whilst floating in water. Spawn containing up to 1,000 eggs is laid in jelly chains enmeshed in submerged vegetation. Tadpoles are quick to develop taking just over 2 weeks to metamorphose. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41184	population		It is a common species.	eng
41184	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41185	conservation		The species range includes a number of protected areas.	eng
41185	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in coastal areas from the north coast of New South Wales through to eastern Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 96,500km2. It occurs from below 50m up to at least 700m asl.	eng
41185	habitat		The species inhabits wet sclerophyll forests and marginal vegetation of creeks, swamps and dams within coastal heath lands. It hides under stones in creekbeds. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call from grasses and sedges emerging from the water. Eggs are laid in permanent water.	eng
41185	population		It is an uncommon species, although it is a moderately widespread.	eng
41185	threats		Expanding development along the east coast and tourism are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
41186	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41186	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern Queensland and coastal areas of central and northern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 57,000km2. It occurs from 20-1,000m asl.	eng
41186	habitat		The species inhabits sclerophyll forest and low-lying marshes. It is often found hiding under logs, fallen bark, leaf-litter or deep in grass besides creeks or along the edges of swamplands. Breeding begins in February and continues through winter to August. About 80 eggs are laid in moist earth and hatch into pools after heavy rain. Development takes about 2 months. Calling in southern half of the range at least can be heard from September to April and even May.	eng
41186	population		It is a very common and widespread species.	eng
41186	threats		Development and tourism are threats to the species.	eng
41187	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
41187	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to southeastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria. It occurs from 100-1,200m asl. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 51,400km2.	eng
41187	habitat		The species is found in both wet and dry sclerophyll forest, inundated grassy areas and also in alpine mossy bogs and grassland. It usually hides under logs or rocks where the ground is damp. They may also be found in tunnels in the soil in the absence of rocks or logs. It breeds at the end of summer and into autumn. Males call from shallow nests or burrows in low-lying areas near water. About 70-170 eggs are spawned in a burrow or nest and they are loosely clumped and coated in mud or soil. The eggs hatch after heavy rain and tadpoles develop in pools over 3-7 months.	eng
41187	population		It is a common species.	eng
41187	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41188	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41188	distribution		This Australian endemic is widely distributed throughout the southwest zone of Western Australia, south from Kalbarri to Mount Ragged. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41188	habitat		The species inhabits wet and dry sclerophyll forest and inundated grassy areas. It is usually found in moist areas under rocks, logs, dead grass and debris. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It breeds in late summer, autumn and early winter. Eggs are deposited on damp soil in tunnels and an adult usually remains with the eggs. Tadpoles emerge at an advanced stage of development when the tunnels are flooded. Development is 3-7 months.	eng
41188	population		It is a common species.	eng
41188	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41189	conservation		The species occurs in a number of conservation parks/reserves.	eng
41189	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in southeastern Queensland, and into northeastern New South Wales. It also occurs on Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 126,000km2	eng
41189	habitat		The species inhabits wet and dry sclerophyll forest and grassland in or near seepages or dry creek beds. It often hides under logs, stones and leaf-litter or in tunnels. It breeds late summer, autumn and early winter. Eggs are deposited in depressions in damp leaf-litter under stones or logs. They hatch after heavy rain creates small pools of water. Tadpoles develop in 3-7 months.	eng
41189	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
41189	threats		Increasing human settlement at limits of distribution is a major threat, i.e. southeastern Queensland.	eng
41190	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41190	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in inland regions of southwestern Western Australia, and a separate population is known from a small area of northwestern South Australia. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-600m asl.	eng
41190	habitat		The species inhabits sclerophyll forest. It is often found beneath rocks, logs and dried vegetation near temporary or permanent waterholes and clay pans. It burrows in damp mud when the waterholes dry up. At some locations in Western Australia it is associated with granite outcrops. Breeding occurs during summer and autumn, but tends to be more opportunistic than other species in the genus due to the dry conditions in its habitat. Eggs are laid following rains on damp soil or in tunnels. Tadpoles emerge at an advanced stage. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41190	population		It is a common species.	eng
41190	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41191	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41191	distribution		This Australian endemic is confined to the high-elevation areas on the Atherton and Windsor Tablelands in far northern Queensland, and is generally on the western side of the coastal range. It is not known from lower altitudes on the eastern side.	eng
41191	habitat		This species is confined to high-altitude moist eucalypt woodland and open forest. It has been found in an area disturbed by mining activities. Breeding biology and larvae are unknown.	eng
41191	population		More information is needed on the population status of this species.	eng
41191	threats		Mining activities might be a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
41192	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41192	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from southwestern Queensland and northwestern New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 325,100km2	eng
41192	habitat		The species is found in a wide variety of dry woodland (mulga woodland) and plains habitats. It is often found in association with river overflows and at waterholes. It breeds in areas temporarily flooded by spring and summer rains. Breeding and larvae are unknown.	eng
41192	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41192	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41193	conservation		The species occurs in a number of conservation parks/reserves.	eng
41193	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and ranges of eastern Australia, from about the central coast of Queensland to the central coast of New South Wales. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 222,400km2.	eng
41193	habitat		This species is found mostly in open forest with a grassy understorey. It has also been found around coastal lakes amongst sedges and grasses. It breeds after spring and summer rains in grassy depressions that are temporarily flooded. It also breeds in artificial ponds/dams in open forest/woodland. Males call from bare ground. Larvae are free swimming.	eng
41193	threats		Habitat loss due to human infrastructure development around southeastern Queensland and to a lesser extent northeastern New South Wales is a major threat.	eng
41194	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41194	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the arid central coast of Western Australia near Pilbara. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 11,200km2. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.	eng
41194	habitat		The species is known from temporarily flooded areas, including grassland and marshes. It is often seen along the edges of creeks or at the edge of clay pans. It has also been found in the water in roadside ditches. It breeds in flooded depressions after summer and autumn rains. Males call from the bases of sedges and grasses near water. In "Habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41194	population		It is a common species.	eng
41194	threats		There are no known threats to the species and its range is in a remote area with little human influence.	eng
41195	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41195	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from northern Northern Territory and into northwestern Queensland. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 162,300km2.	eng
41195	habitat		The species is confined to grassland and open forest at the edge of floodplains where monsoon rains temporarily flood the ground. It shelters in burrows.<br/>Breeding occurs in January and February. Males call from shallow water at the base of grass tussocks, under leaves and logs and from grass stems in water. Clumps of about five or so eggs are laid in very shallow water and sink to the bottom. Larval development has been reported to take 7-8 weeks, but may be shorter under drying conditions.	eng
41195	population		It is a common species.	eng
41195	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
41196	conservation		The range of the species includes a few conservation parks/reserves.	eng
41196	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in eastern Australia, from southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales to eastern Victoria. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 442,200km2.	eng
41196	habitat		The species is found in seasonally dry areas; associated with grassland and woodland habitats. It breeds in shallow, ephemeral waters. Larvae are free-swimming. It is often found in partly disturbed habitat and occasionally artificial habitat including artificial ponds and roadside ditches/drainage ditches.	eng
41196	population		More information is needed.	eng
41196	threats		Habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming are major threats.	eng
41197	conservation		The extent of occurrence in southern New Guinea needs to be documented. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41197	distribution		This species occurs in northern Australia, from the northern section of the Kimberley region in Western Australia, across the northern region of Northern Territory and into northeastern Queensland. In New Guinea this species is known from the southern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. It has not yet been recorded from Papua (Indonesia). In Australia the estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-500m asl, and possibly even as high as 1,000m asl.	eng
41197	habitat		This species is found in woodland and grassy habitat, including areas that have been cleared, which is subject to flooding. It breeds during the wet season. Males call from the base of grass tussocks or exposed positions on coarse gravel soil near temporary water, rarely further than 10m away from water. It breeds in flooded grassland and temporary pools.	eng
41197	population		It is an uncommon species in New Guinea, but is a common species in Australia.	eng
41197	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41198	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
41198	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from east-central Queensland.	eng
41198	habitat		The species inhabits forests, woodland and savannah dominated by Iron Bark and Bloodwood. These areas have a grassy understorey and generally flood after rain. It breeds in the wet season in depressions temporarily flooded. Males call from the bases of Triodia tussocks. Breeding and larvae are unknown.	eng
41198	population		More information is needed.	eng
41198	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present.	eng
41199	conservation		The range of the species includes protected areas.	eng
41199	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in northeastern Queensland, including Cape York and the islands of the Torres Strait.	eng
41199	habitat		This species inhabits open eucalypt and Melaleuca woodland with grassy understorey and grassland. It breeds in temporary pools such as clay pans and drainage ditches that are flooded by monsoon rains. It is a summer breeder. Males call from beneath leaf-litter. Few eggs are laid in flooded depressions. Tadpole development is unknown.	eng
41199	threats		There are no known threats to this species and it occurs in a remote region with little human interference.	eng
41200	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
41200	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from coastal and inland areas of southeastern Queensland, northeastern and central New South Wales (west of the Great Dividing Range). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 963,500km2.	eng
41200	habitat		The species is found in dry sclerophyll forest and open woodland and grasslands. It shelters underground emerging after heavy spring and summer rains to breed in flooded grassland or in billabongs and slow-flowing streams. It can tolerate disturbances such as grazing and selective clearing. It breeds in spring and summer in temporary pools. Males call from the water’s edge whilst hidden beneath ground debris or in cavities at the base of grass tussocks. In disturbed areas it may call from depressions left in the mud by the hooves of livestock. Eggs and larvae are unknown.	eng
41200	population		More information is needed.	eng
41200	threats		Habitat loss/degradation associated with human settlement and agro-industry farming are major threats.	eng
41201	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia.	eng
41201	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in the central arid zone of Western Australia, near Gascoyne, Ashburton and Pilbara regions. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 0-900m asl.	eng
41201	habitat		The species is often in or near grassland. It is found around permanent pools in creeks and riverbeds and also around flooded clay pans and roadside drainage channels. After rain it can be found well away from water sources. It hides under rocks and logs often half-buried in damp gritty soil. It breeds in summer. Breeding biology and tadpoles are unknown. In "habitat preferences" "other" refers to "clay pans".	eng
41201	population		It is a common species.	eng
41201	threats		There are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance.	eng
41202	conservation		Its occurs in several protected areas throughout its range	eng
41202	distribution		This species is known in Australia from the Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, south to about Townsville/Rollingstone, and from a disjunctive population in northeastern Arnhem Land in Northern Territory. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations. It also occurs widely along the south coast of New Guinea and, along the north coast from Milne Bay to Huon Peninsula, and parts of the north coast of Papua Province (Indonesia). There are records from the islands of Yapen and New Britain. It occurs up to at least 900m asl in New Guinea.	eng
41202	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic frog found in rainforest, seasonally dry monsoon forests and tropical woodlands, usually associated with permanent slow streams, swamps, lakes, pools, puddles and lagoons. It hides amongst dense vegetation near water. It breeds in summer and spring. It lays several thousand eggs in a large mass. Tadpoles are free-swimming. In New Guinea this species inhabits slow streams, swamps and lakes in savannah and grassy habitats. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats, such as rural gardens and urban areas.	eng
41202	population		It is one of the most widespread and abundant species in New Guinea.	eng
41202	threats		There are no major threats to this species. It is used for food on a subsistence basis in New Guinea.	eng
41209	conservation	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Touk, D., Duckworth, J.W. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	<em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is found in Umat and Phong Nha nature reserves and Nakai-Nam Theun conservation areas. It is also found in Nam Chat/Nam Pan provincial protected area, and Xe Sap protected area in Lao (Abramov <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is also reported from unprotected forest north of Xe Sap (Abramov <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The range of <em>N. timminsi</em> straddles the Viet Nam/Lao PDR border and both governments do not actively support any conservation measures for the species (Duckworth 2006).<br/><br/>Development of management plans, legislation to protect this species, education regarding the species, and research regarding population status, ecology, and effects of threats are needed to assess and protect this species.	eng
41209	distribution	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Touk, D., Duckworth, J.W. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	<em>N. timminsi</em> occurs in the northern Annamites, almost certainly in the central Annamites where there have been reports of a striped rabbit, and possibly in the southern Annamites in Viet Nam and Lao PDR.  It was described in the 1990s from Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam, and is known only from the vicinity of the type locality (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). The known distribution is based on about 10 localities (Averianov <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Presence of <em>N. timminsi</em> in the central Annamites seems likely because of the ecological similarity with northern areas, and a forest dwelling rabbit has been reported to be present (Long 2006).  Presence further north and south of its known range cannot be ruled out on the basis of ecological factors.  Total extent of occurrence is thought to be no more that 10,000 sq. km in the northern Annamites (within five main forest areas).  A similar extent of occurrence is expected in the central Annamite region, although it is likely smaller in total area and broken into a series of generally smaller forests.  If the species should be confirmed as occurring in the southern Annamites and the northern highlands, the distribution would be much more restricted.  The elevational range is unknown, but all records of the species come from relatively low altitudes (below 1,000 m) and the species probably could utilize habitats down to sea level (although few such areas now exist).	eng
41209	habitat	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Touk, D., Duckworth, J.W. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	This species occurs in wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season and generally occur on the seaward facing slopes of the Annamite mountains.  A number of records come from heavily logged areas (not clear felled), suggesting that habitat degradation per se may not be a major threat.  <br/><br/><em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is morphologically very similar to <em>N. netscheri</em> (Surridge <em>et al.</em> 1999; Averianov <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Nothing is known about the litter size of the species and other reproductive information is lacking (Duckworth 2006).	eng
41209	population	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Touk, D., Duckworth, J.W. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	Unlike a number of mammal species in it's range, records suggest that it is still well distributed in suitable habitats.  However, in some portions of the range <em>N. timminsi</em> is presumed to be uncommon or rare, although in at least one town in the southern portion of its range hunters report that the species may in fact not be uncommon (Touk 2006).  This species could possibly occur at lower densities naturally than other rabbits in southeast Asia.	eng
41209	threats	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Touk, D., Duckworth, J.W. & Steinmetz, R., 2008	<em>Nesolagus timminsi</em> is primarily threatened by hunting either by snares, or probably to a lesser extent by dogs. Snaring operations range from very low key subsistence levels to well organized gangs focusing primarily on sub-national and international trade, to supply both bushmeat and medicinal markets (a very wide range of species are involved). There is no evidence that <em>N. timminsi</em> has a high value if only in feeding hunters while in the forest. Almost all mammals seem to have some medicinal use, but there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for <em>N. timminsi</em>. Hunters from Viet Nam using snares in the Lao portion of range affect the area heavily (Duckworth 2006). <em>N. timminsi</em> is trapped in the southern portion of Viet Nam range (Touk 2006). Hunters with dogs likely exploit the species, but the effects of this exploitation are not known (Duckworth 2006).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation increase accessibility to hunters. Shifting cultivation and establishment of permanent agriculture is probably the biggest threat, the latter generally at lower altitudes and the former throughout. Viet Nam's aggressive road building policy has increased accessibility to undisturbed habitat for farmers and timber harvesters (semi-commercial and commercial logging operations).  Dams, which so far has had minimal impact, but looks to increase in the future, results in lost habitat and increased accessibility to hunters and harvesters of other forest products. Mining for gold, gems, and other minerals seems to be on the increase, which results in habitat destruction and increased hunting levels.<br/><br/>There is lack of foresight in protected area designation and management. Most conservation strategies focus on remote, higher altitude areas; lowlands are generally marginalized and lost in conservation management.	eng
41210	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is found in at least three protected areas, the best of these is probably Bwindi Impenetrable Forest in Uganda. There is an urgent need to conserve areas of forest within the range of this species.	eng
41210	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from  the Albertine Rift Mountains in Burundi, Rwanda (range unclear) and Uganda (Van der Straeten and Kerbis Peterhans 1999). It is restricted to high forested elevations, and occurs at 1,900 to 2,600 m asl on the eastern side of the Albertine Rift. This is a distinctive species in the <em>P. jacksoni</em> complex, but occurs at much higher altitudes than other taxa within that complex.	eng
41210	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has only been recorded only from moist montane forest. It does not occur in modified habitat.	eng
41210	population	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is very abundant on the high mountain tops.	eng
41210	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture (grazing and crops) and collection of firewood and building materials. In Rwanda much of the suitable habitat has been cleared. There has also been extensive clearing on both sides of the Virunga Mountains.	eng
41211	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to develop protected areas to maintain the forest habitat of this species.	eng
41211	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Gotel Mountains in southeastern Nigeria. It ranges from 1,600 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
41211	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It occurs in montane forest. This species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
41211	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is known from two localities, there are not many specimens in collections, and it is not thought to be abundant.	eng
41211	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation, presumably largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
41212	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is thought that this taxon might be a complex of different species, however, more research is required to confirm this. In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in several protected areas.	eng
41212	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This taxon occurs from Senegal in the west to southern Sudan in the east, southwards through northeastern-most Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Uganda and western Kenya, to north central Tanzania. It is found from sea level to 1,220 m asl.	eng
41212	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in grassy woodlands and savannas (Guinean and Sudanian) south of the Sahara Desert, but there are also some records from within the Sahel (Carleton and Van der Straeten 1997). It has also been recorded from degraded areas, burnt grasslands and cultivated areas (cassava and oil palms).	eng
41212	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is locally common, but the northern records (from the Sahel), which are likely to be separate species, are much scarcer and poorly known.	eng
41212	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this taxon.	eng
41217	conservation	Sotomayor, M.M. & Arredondo, A.G., 2002	Listed on CITES App.I, but the laws governing imports in the countries of destination need to be enforced. This species is widely propagated. The relatively large number of individuals plus wide range makes conservation measures a low priority, however, close monitoring is required.	eng
41217	distribution	Sotomayor, M.M. & Arredondo, A.G., 2002	Widely distributed in Mexico, occurring from west of Saltillo, Coahulia southward into the state of Querétaro.  It is estimated that the population comprises about 100,000 mature individuals, distributed over about 60,000 km².	eng
41217	habitat	Sotomayor, M.M. & Arredondo, A.G., 2002	Occurs in and around the edges of the Chihuahuan Desert where it grows on calcareous or gypsum soils.  The species is mostly confined to silty flood plains.  Some of these areas become flooded periodically during the summer rainy season.  As the plants never rise above ground level, they are very difficult to see; in addition, silt often blows over them in the dry season completely hiding them (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The habitat is locally classified as matorral desértico micrófilo and Mezquital Extradesértico (Rzedowski 1978).	eng
41217	threats	Sotomayor, M.M. & Arredondo, A.G., 2002	Human settlement, waste dumps, illegal collecting, local medicine uses.  Some localities have been partly depleted by illegal collectors. Others were partly depleted by illegal collectors and for local medicinal uses and are also declining through human activities (Sotomayor <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41218	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES Appendix II.  The species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species. The medicinal value of the species has to be verified through scientific research.  Its possible utilization could lead to its conservation through management.	eng
41218	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Restricted to the summits of La Trinidad and El Azul mountain ranges, in San Luis Potosí, Mexico. Only nine localities are known.  The population size is <10,000 mature individuals	eng
41218	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Found in areas of disturbed grassland and chaparral of <em>Quercus striatula</em> and <em>Agave asperrima</em>.  The soils are relatively deep-dark clay, with limestone outcrops.	eng
41218	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Natural vegetation is almost totally modified, due to livestock raising.  The species is under some pressure due to its medicinal uses.	eng
41219	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  The species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species. The medicinal value of the species has to be verified through scientific research.  Its possible utilization could lead to its conservation through management.	eng
41219	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Restricted to some fragments of the summits of La Trinidad and Álvarez mountain ranges, in San Luis Potosí, Mexico.  The extent of occurrence is ca. 1,895 km², fragmented into two subpopulations with an area of occupancy of ca. 50 km².  Only four discrete locations have been recorded.  The population size is less than 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
41219	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Found in areas of disturbed grassland of <em>Bouteloua gracilis</em> or <em>Heteropogon contortus</em>, and chaparral of <em>Quercus striatula</em> or <em>Q. edwardii</em>.  The soils are relatively deep-dark clay, with limestone outcrops.	eng
41219	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Natural vegetation is almost totally modified, due to livestock raising.  The species is under some pressure due to its medicinal uses.	eng
41221	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  Part of distribution area of the species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would warrantee the survival of the species.	eng
41221	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Restricted to a small area (ca. 1,420 km²) in northern San Luis Potosí, and southern Nuevo León and Tamaulipas, where 15 localities are known.  The population estimate of less than 10,000 is highly speculative.	eng
41221	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Usually found in limestone slopes and canyons of <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.	eng
41221	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing and mining.	eng
41222	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  Establishment of protected areas, as the species grows together with other endangered or highly endangered species.	eng
41222	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Restricted to a small area (ca. 63 km²) in Zacatecas, and present in very low population densities. Only three (probably four) highly disjunct localities are known.  The population estimate of <1,000 individuals is highly speculative.	eng
41222	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Found in silty flood plains with scarce desert vegetation, mostly <em>Prosopis</em> and <em>Larrea</em>.	eng
41222	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Habitat destruction mostly by cattle over-pasturing.	eng
41223	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  One of the subpopulations of this species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would ensure the survival of the species.	eng
41223	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	The extent of occurrence for this species is 2,144 km², in northern San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.  The  range is divided into two separate subpopulations with an area of occupancy of ca. 580 and 32 km² respectively; five and four localities respectively have been recorded. The population estimate of less than 4,000 individuals is highly speculative.	eng
41223	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Usually found in limestone slopes with <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.	eng
41223	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing.	eng
41224	conservation	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Listed on CITES App. II.  One of the subpopulations of this species is within a recently decreed protected area (Area Natural Protegida del Real de Guadalcázar).  The effective conservation of this area would warrant the survival of the species.	eng
41224	distribution	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Restricted to a small area (ca. 250 km²) in northern San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas, where only seven localities (confirmed by herbarium specimens) are known.  The population estimate of less than 6,000 individuals is highly speculative.  Pilbeam (1999) reports this species as having a larger distribution range in San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Guanajuato, and Coahuila; however, no additional herbarium specimens exist to confirm this.	eng
41224	habitat	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Usually found in limestone slopes of <em>Agave lecheguilla</em>-<em>Hechtia glomerata</em> scrub.	eng
41224	threats	Hernández, H.M., Gómez-Hinostrosa, C. & Goettsch, B., 2002	Habitat destruction mostly by goat over-pasturing.	eng
41225	conservation		Its range does include a few protected areas, such as Mount Malindang, but the designation of remaining rainforests on the island of Mindanao as protected areas is a necessary conservation measure for this species.	eng
41225	distribution		This species is known from several localities on the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, and the Sulus, in the southern Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
41225	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in streams and quiet pools of water in undisturbed and disturbed lowland forests. Very little information is known about its ecology or habitat requirements.	eng
41225	population		It is a common species.	eng
41225	threats		Important threats to this species are the loss of lowland rainforests and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, especially due to agricultural effluents.	eng
41226	conservation		The effective protection of the remaining lower montane and lowland rainforest on Palawan is the most significant conservation measure required. Field surveys are needed to gather updated information on the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
41226	distribution		This species is currently known only from Mount Balabag, in the Mantalingajan mountain range, on the island of Palawan in the western Philippines. It might range more widely.	eng
41226	habitat		It has been found on the forest floor leaf-litter in lower montane forest, and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other members of its genus.	eng
41226	population		It is still known only from the type specimens, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
41226	threats		The most important threats to this species include deforestation and habitat conversion to agriculture. The Mantalingajan mountain range is generally well protected but some areas of the range are subjected to disturbance through shifting agriculture and selective logging.	eng
41228	conservation	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species can be found within protected areas and private conservation land. It has been listed in the South African Red Data Book (Branch 1988) as Restricted.	eng
41228	distribution	Turner, A.A., 2009	This restricted species is endemic to the Cape Fold Mountains, from Cederberg to Worcester, in the Republic of South Africa.	eng
41228	habitat	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species can be found on rocky mountain slopes, often seeking out moist areas.	eng
41228	population	Turner, A.A., 2009	Only one specimen of this species was collected between 1926 and 1973, making it one of South Africa's rarest lizards. It is now known to be locally common but shy (Branch 1998).	eng
41228	threats	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is not under any major threat. The habitat in which it can be found is rugged and not easily accessible, providing protection against human disturbance (A. Turner pers. comm.).	eng
41231	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Based on present information, conservation measures are still not needed for this species in the immediate future.	eng
41231	distribution		This species is widespread in the central and southern islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Camiguin, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Negros, Panay and Sibuyan in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
41231	habitat		It inhabits streams and rivers in low elevation forests, forest edges, and in some populations, swamps and other wetlands. Eggs are deposited on vegetation overhanging bodies of water.	eng
41231	population		It is common in appropriate habitats.	eng
41231	threats		It appears to thrive even in degraded and man-made environments; hence forest loss might not be a significant threat.	eng
41232	conservation		Although it is recorded from several protected areas, there is a need for improved protection of the remaining rainforest on the islands, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. There might be a need to work with local communities to ensure that human exploitation of this species is managed sustainably.	eng
41232	distribution		This species is known from Masbate, Cebu, Negros, Guimaras, Panay and Siquijor (the central islands) in the Philippines.	eng
41232	habitat		It inhabits cool streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It also thrives in forest edges, agricultural areas and artificial habitats near natural forests. Eggs are deposited outside the water, typically on vegetation or rocks just above the water.	eng
41232	population		It is a common species. It has been observed in good numbers even in disturbed habitats near forest, but might have declined in some areas due to over-harvesting.	eng
41232	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is threatened by severe deforestation and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural effluents and mine-tailings. It is also heavily exploited by humans for food, which is thought to have lead to localized declines.	eng
41233	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest habitats, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.	eng
41233	distribution		This species is found in several localities on Mindanao Island, in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
41233	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests; it is apparently absent from non-forested areas. Breeding takes place by larval development.	eng
41233	population		It is locally common where present.	eng
41233	threats		Threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural toxins and mine-tailings.	eng
41234	conservation		Its range includes many protected areas. Conservation measures are not needed for this adaptable species at present. Research to determine whether or not harvesting is a threat is needed.	eng
41234	distribution		This species is widespread on Luzon, Polillo, Palaui and Catanduanes Islands, in the northern Philippines.	eng
41234	habitat		It is found in lower montane and lowland forests, riverine habitats, and natural and artificial lakes and ponds. It also thrives in disturbed habitats.	eng
41234	population		It is common to abundant in many natural and anthropogenic habitats.	eng
41234	threats		A possible threat might be the pollution of riverine habitats. Harvesting for human subsistence is also a possible threat.	eng
41235	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Management and conservation of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
41235	distribution		This species is found in the rainforests of Rio de Janeiro State and Espirito Santo State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 200-1,400m asl.	eng
41235	habitat		This species occurs in the canopy of primary and old secondary forest. It carries its eggs on its back and is a direct developing species. It requires big trees in which to live and hence it does not tolerate a lot of habitat disturbance.	eng
41235	population		It was originally only known from two specimens, but it is now considered very common. It is hard to find as it occurs high up in the canopy.	eng
41235	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural encroachment are localized threats to this species.	eng
41236	conservation		Its one known locality is within Su Thep National Park. Assessment of the taxonomic status of this species, particularly its affinity to <em>Chaparana palavanensis</em>, <em>C. fansipani</em>, <em>C. tweediei</em> and <em>C. nitida</em>, and its generic assignment, would be desirable.	eng
41236	distribution		This species is known only from Doi [Nga] Chang, north of Chiang Mai city, in northern Thailand (Smith 1922; Taylor 1962). The type series was collected at 1,500m asl according to the original description, presumably at or near the top of the mountain, which is 1,462m high. It might occur more widely.	eng
41236	habitat		The habitat at the type locality is montane evergreen forest. This species presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
41236	population		This species was first recorded in 1920, and has been recorded only once since, in the 1980s.	eng
41236	threats		Possible threats to it might include shifting agriculture and water pollution from agricultural activity, although it is known that no logging occurs at this location.	eng
41237	conservation		The Thai population is wholly within several protected areas, as is the range in Cambodia. The species should probably be protected under the WARPA law of Thailand, and under Cambodian wildlife legislation. Studies of exploitation pressure are needed.	eng
41237	distribution		This species is known from the Cardamom region of south-eastern Thailand and south-western Cambodia (Inger 1970; Ohler, Swan and Daltry 2002). It has been recorded from 150-1,000m asl.	eng
41237	habitat		An inhabitant of swift-flowing mountain streams in evergreen forest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian and is usually found in, or very close to, streams on large boulders.	eng
41237	population		It was reported as being "reasonably abundant ... along forested mountain streams in SE Thailand" (Inger, in Humphrey and Bain 1990), though these authors also note the limited size of available suitable habitat and exploitation pressures.	eng
41237	threats		It is collected for consumption by local villagers using flashlights (Brockelman, in Humphrey and Bain 1990). It is also under threat from habitat loss through fires, agriculture, and logging.	eng
41238	conservation		Koh Chang is a National Park, and protected areas have been established in the Cardamom Mountains. Taxonomic revision of this species is needed. This is a protected species by law in Thailand.	eng
41238	distribution		This species is known from the islands of Koh Chang, Koh Kut and Koh Mehsi in southeast Thailand, the nearby Thai mainland at Ok Yam, and from the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Mountains of Cambodia (Smith, 1922; Bourret, 1942; Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Stuart and Emmett, 2006). The record from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) is in error. Records from southern Vietnam (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2002; Nguyen, 2005) refer to <em>Limnonectes poilani</em> (Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It has been recorded between 300 and 1,200m asl in the Cardomom Mountains (Stuart and Emmett, 2006).	eng
41238	habitat		It has been recorded from hill, evergreen forest, and breeds in slow moving sections of streams. It is also found in anthropogenic habitats. Individuals are found dispersed on the forest floor outside the breeding season.	eng
41238	population		It is a common species in the Cardamom Mountains (S. Swan pers. comm.)	eng
41238	threats		Threats are mostly unknown although wildfire and future logging might affect the species.	eng
41239	conservation		It has been designated a natural monument by the Okinawa Prefecture and is totally protected. However, there remains a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species in northern Okinawa.	eng
41239	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan and is found only on Okinawa-jima.	eng
41239	habitat		It inhabits upstream regions surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest, where it breeds in streams. It preys mainly on crustaceans and earthworms.	eng
41239	population		It used to be a common species, but it has declined considerably.	eng
41239	threats		Until the early 1970s this species ranged over nearly the entire northern half of the island. However, recent deforestation accompanied by road and dam construction in its original range has drastically reduced its habitat. It has also been impacted by invasive mongooses.	eng
41240	conservation		It occurs in Khlong Naka Wildlife Sanctuary, Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khaolak Lamru National Park. The species is fully protected from exploitation under Thailand's WARPA law.	eng
41240	distribution		This species is known from five locations in Thailand: Tasan (in Chumphon Province); Mamoh and Khlong Naka Wildlife Sanctuary (in Renong Province); Khlong Saeng National Park (in Surat Thani Province); and Khaolak Lamru National Park (in Phagnga Province), near the Isthmus of Kra. One recent record is from Tong Pha Phume in Kanchanaburi Province further north in western Thailand (Wichase Khonsue pers. comm.). Possible records from Phuket (P. van Dijk pers. comm.) remain to be verified. It probably occurs in southern Tenasserim (Myanmar), but this has not yet been confirmed. It has been recorded at around 1,000m asl.	eng
41240	habitat		It lives in primary rainforest near streams. It has also been observed on near-vertical bedrock in the spray zone of rainforest waterfalls. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus.	eng
41240	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
41240	threats		The major threat is loss of forest habitat due to subsistence wood collection, agriculture, and human settlement.	eng
41241	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2009	This species is present within a protected area in Greece, and is found in three protected areas in Turkey.  More research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
41241	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is present within a protected area in Greece, and is found in three protected areas in Turkey.  More research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
41241	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2009	This species ranges from Fethiye to Finike, in south-western Anatolia, Turkey, where it apparently has a fragmented distribution. An endemic subspecies (<em>Lyciasalamandra luschani basoglui</em>) is found on the nearby Greek island of Kastellorizo (= Megisti).  It may have a more continuous range than shown (Avci and Oz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41241	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species ranges from Fethiye to Finike, in south-western Anatolia, Turkey, where it apparently has a fragmented distribution. An endemic subspecies (<em>Lyciasalamandra luschani basoglui</em>) is found on the nearby Greek island of Kastellorizo (= Megisti).  It may have a more continuous range than shown (Avci and Oz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41241	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2009	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in marquis scrub or pine woodlands (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.	eng
41241	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in marquis scrub or pine woodlands (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.	eng
41241	population	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2009	It is common to fairly abundant.	eng
41241	population	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is common to fairly abundant.	eng
41241	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2009	Within its naturally restricted range, the species is potentially threatened by habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.	eng
41241	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	Within its naturally restricted range, the species is potentially threatened by habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.	eng
41246	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	Known from the lakes of the upper course of the river Tsipikan, Vitim basin, Baunt, Siberia (Kottelat 1997).	eng
41246	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	This taxon spawns in spring, as do other coregonid stocks in Finland, but from genetic data these are not closely related taxa (Kottelat 1997).	eng
41248	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
41248	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
41248	conservation	Twongo, T.K & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
41248	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Micropanchax loati</em> is Regionally Exctinct in northern Africa. It used to be found in freshwater regions of Lakes Mariut and Manzala in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the White Nile drainage in Sudan, the Nile and its delta in Egypt, lakes in north eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, drainages in Uganda and central Tanzania.	eng
41248	distribution	Twongo, T.K & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile River and Lake Victoria system in Uganda, Lake Victoria drainage in Kenya, Lake Victoria, Malagarasi River and Wembere River drainage in Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
41248	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2009	This species is known from the Nile River, and south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Nile River and Lake Victoria system, and the Malagarasi River and the Wembere River drainage in Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be found in freshwater regions of Lakes Mariut and Manzala in Egypt, but is now thought to be Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile drainage in Sudan	eng
41248	habitat	Twongo, T.K & Hanssens, M., 2003	Inhabits small bodies of water, shallow and vegetated parts of larger bodies of water, swamps,  irrigation ditches, brooks and small rivers (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
41248	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is found in small bodies of water and shallow weedy parts of larger water bodies, swamps, and irrigation ditches. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is oviparous and hangs its eggs in bunches to the twigs of plants by means of little threads. It keeps mostly to the surface of water. It does not exceed a length of 3.3 cm.	eng
41248	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2009	This species is found in small bodies of water and shallow weedy parts of larger water bodies, swamps, and irrigation ditch. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is oviparous and hangs its eggs in bunches to the twigs of plants by means of little threads. It keeps mostly to the surface of water.	eng
41248	population	Twongo, T.K & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available	eng
41248	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
41248	population	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
41248	threats	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
41248	threats	Twongo, T.K & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
41248	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
41250	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been placed on the North Carolina Watch List (Clamp 1999). It is considered by Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) to be currently stable. In addition NatureServe, have given this species a status of G4   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). The Greenbriar River has been proposed as a Wild and Scenic River, but is not currently protected   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Owing to the noted declines in some areas, monitoring of the extent of the range and population numbers is needed.	eng
41250	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is endemic to the New River drainage system, from the upper reaches of Greenbrier River, Pocahontas and Monroe counties, West Virginia, south through Virginia to Alleghany, Ashe and Watauga counties, North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to exceed 15,900 km².	eng
41250	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in permanent rocky streams. They are however limited to fast-flowing, often large, turbulent tributaries (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It does not frequent quiet pools, springs or mountain "feeder brooks" (James 1996).	eng
41250	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been described as abundant in the Greenbrier River, West Virginia (James 1966). Furthermore, it is described as common throughout most of its limited range, but may be rare in some areas (WV Nongame Wildlife and Natural Heritage News 2001). Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) recorded species from 33 localities. LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) cite rivers and large streams in the New River drainage, North Carolina.	eng
41250	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is extensive surface water abstraction occurring (6.2 million gallons per day) in the New River basin, North Carolina (Division of Water Resources 2001). As this species is vulnerable to habitat degradation, its population is currently declining as watersheds are developed   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). The Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway crosses the entrance to the New River and has been created after dredging occurred to create shipping lanes. This dredging is causing the South Island to disappear. Impoundment of these moving waters may eliminate the riffle habitat required by this species (Cooper and Cooper 1977). Furthermore, this species preference for large streams could prevent its establishment in smaller headwaters.	eng
41255	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41255	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Octotona alpina</em> occurs in the northern mountain ranges around the Gobi desert and in the regions east and south of Lake Baikal (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species also occurs in northwestern and northeastern China (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. alpina</em> occurs at elevation of 400-2,500 m in the Altai Mountains (Ognev 1966), in China, <em>O. alpina</em> occurs at elevations greater than 2,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41255	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona alpina</em> occupies rocky regions and talus piles (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Because this is a rock-dwelling species it occupies naturally fragmented habitat, as talus piles are generally separated by terrain that pikas rarely traverse.  It prefers talus sites where vegetation is present (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species is a generalized herbivore that collects foodstuffs to create haypiles (Smith and Xie 2008).  This pika is considered an important factor in the health of the ecosystem, as it is prey for sables in the region (Khlebnikova 1978).  It has been noted that pika haypiles have been utilized by several species during winter months (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Siberian wapiti (<em>Cervus elaphus sibiricus</em>) and reindeer (<em>Rangifer tarandus</em>) will eat from the haypiles during heavy snowfall (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It has been reported that vegetation diversity and composition are largely influenced by the presence of this species (Khlebnikova 1978).  It is primarily a diurnal species, but vocalizations can be heard at night (Ognev 1966).  Reported mortality rates differ according to habitat type; 41% in alpine zones and 53% in forested areas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Longevity of O. alpina can be as high as six years, but is usually only three years in the northern extents of its range (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  O. alpina produces two litters per year, with an average of three young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Gestation is approximately 30 days and newborns are 5.8-6.0 cm in length (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Total length is 15.2-23.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41255	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding the current status of <em>Ochotona alpina</em>.  A density decline occurred in the 1970's throughout the western region of the Sayan mountain range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This reduction was characterized as "catastrophic" and the causes are unclear (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  As of the late 1980's areas that once had high densities are now gone (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41255	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Predation was noted as a threat, for this species, when population numbers dropped in the 1970s (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). There are no known major threats at present.	eng
41256	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> occurs in Luoshan (CSIS 2008) and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005).  There is little information regarding the current status of the isolated population of <em>O. c. morosa</em>, and it is therefore recommended that research be conducted to determine population numbers.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41256	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution extends from northern Xizang and Sichuan, up through central and eastern Qinghai to the southern regions of Gansu (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <em>O. c. morosa</em> occurs in Shaanxi (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies elevations of 2,700-3,800 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41256	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is a burrowing species of pika and one of the simplest among pikas (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occupies shrubland with adjacent alpine meadows (Jiang and Wang 1991; Smith and Xie 2008).  This habitat consists of the deciduous shrubs <em>Potentilla fruticosa</em> and <em>Caragana jubata</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is excluded from open alpine meadows, where it is sympatric with <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Jiang and Wang 1991, Su 2001).  Home range size fluctuates with seasonal variation (Jiang and Wang 1991).  <em>O. cansus</em> is considered a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008) and is diurnal (Jiang and Wang 1991).  Litter size varies with one to six young per litter and up to three litters per year (Smith and Xie 2008).  The breeding season for this species is from early April through late August (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Gestation last for 20 days (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Total length is 11.6-16.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41256	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona cansus</em> is characterized as fairly abundant (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The subspecies <em>O. c. sorella</em> is only known from a few specimens and has not been recorded in the wild for over 70 years (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Additionally, the status of the isolated <em>O. c. morosa</em> population is unknown (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41256	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known major threats for <em>Ochotona cansus</em>.  It is speculated that application of chemical pesticides may have negatively affected the subspecies population of <em>O. c. sorella</em>, which has not been recorded in the wild for about 70 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41257	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  Recent changes to the hunting regulations in Alaska allow for the unlimited, year-round hunting and trapping of <em>Ochotona collaris</em> (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2006).  Monitoring for negative consequences should be implemented, as this species occurs naturally at low densities and has one of the lowest reproductive rates for small mammals.	eng
41257	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona collaris</em> has a wide geographic distribution that includes central and southern Alaska, almost the entirety of the Yukon Territory, northwestern British Columbia, and the western regions of the Northwest Territory (MacDonald and Jones 1987, Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species has been recorded occurring above the treeline in Alaska and the Yukon Territory, as well as elevations near sea level (MacDonald and Jones 1987).	eng
41257	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona collaris</em> is a typical rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Talus sites are often located in proximity to vegetation patches and meadows (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  Home ranges for this species are typically 30 m in diameter (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  <em>O. collaris</em> is a general herbivore that constructs haypiles (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990; Franken and Hik 2004).  However, individuals that occupy nunataks (rocky outcroppings) of the Yukon Territory in Canada will collect and forage upon the brain matter of dead birds to supplement their diet (Krajick 1998).  A recent study found that increased risk of predation did not alter vegetative selection, but did decrease the overall amount collected (Morrison 2007).  <em>O. collaris</em> is a diurnal pika, active in the morning and late afternoon (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The breeding season peaks from May to early June (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The season is timed to allow parturition to coincide with the start of vegetative growth.  Litter size for this species is two to six, with two litters produced per year (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  A recent study suggests that a reduced breeding season, resulting from high latitudinal orientation, may limit this species to a single litter per year (Franken and Hik 2004).  Young are weaned within three to four weeks and reach reproductive maturity by one year of age (Franken and Hik 2004).  Gestation time is approximately 30 days (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  Adult size is reached between 40-50 days (MacDonald and Jones 1987).  The total length of this species is 18.9 cm (Hall 1981).	eng
41257	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona collaris</em>.  Population densities have been estimated at 6.4-7.2 individuals/ha (Broadbooks 1965).  In other regions of the Yukon population density ranges from below 1.0 up to 4.0 pikas/ha (Morrison 2007).  A study conducted in the Ruby Range (Yukon, Canada) indicated that population abundance at the study site has experienced a decline since 1995 (Morrison 2007).  A population viability analysis on census data collected from 1995 to 2006 produced a greater than 90% probability of extinction within 10-15 years, for the study site at Ruby Range (Morrison 2007).	eng
41257	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona collaris</em>, although it may be vulnerable to global climate change.  It is unlikely that this species will be negatively influenced by human activities, as it occurs in remote regions of Alaska (USA) and northwestern Canada (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Recent changes to Alaskan hunting regulations permit the unlimited trapping of pika for food and pelt (Mowry 2006) during a year round open season along the eastern regions of the state (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2006).  This policy may lead to local depression of populations as a result of intrinsic low density and reproductive rate.	eng
41258	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is known to be present in Annapurna CP in western Nepal (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005), Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008), and is presumed to be present in the Qiangtang, Kekexili, Sanjiangyuan, and Aerjinshan Nature Reserves of China.  This species is regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient in India and as Vulnerable in Nepal under criteria B2ab(iii) based on IUCN Red Listing Guidelines ver. 3.1 and 3.0 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is recommended that research be conducted to determine the status of the Indian and Nepalese populations (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> is a keystone species of the Tibetan plateau, one whose decline as a result of poisoning negatively impacts species richness and abundance (Lai and Smith 2003). Therefore, current efforts to exterminate this species in China should be curtailed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41258	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> can be found throughout the Tibetan Plateau (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution extends through northern Nepal and Sikkim, India, north into Xizang, and the western regions of Sichuan, Qinghai and the southern regions of Xinjiang (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and Gansu (CSIS 2008).  It occurs at elevations of 3,000-5,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41258	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> is a burrow-dwelling species of pika (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species occurs in "high alpine desert, steppe and meadows" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  In India and Nepal in occupies tropical and subtropical montane forests (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Competition of habitat results in the exclusion of <em>O. cansus</em> in areas where it and <em>O. curzoniae</em> are sympatric (Su 2001).  Social behavior for <em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>O. dauurica</em> differs when they exist sympatrically, than when they do not (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Under sympatric circumstances, <em>O. curzoniae</em> exhibits "mowing" behavior, while <em>O. dauurica</em> exhibits "hoarding" behavior (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> is exclusively an herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species of pika is considered a highly social animal (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is predominantly a diurnal species (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  Average home range for <em>O. curzoniae</em> is 1,375 ± 206 square meters (Smith and Gao 1991).  Densities drop during winter to yearly lows in the spring, but increase during the summer to approximately 380/ha (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The breeding season for this species extends from April, possibly into late August (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. curzoniae</em> has three to five litters per year with two to eight young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Young become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith and Gao 1991).  Generation length is estimated to be 1.2 years for <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Wang and Dai 1989).  Total length is 14.0-19.2 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/><em>O. curzoniae</em> is a keystone species of the Tibetan plateau.  It is speculated that <em>O. curzoniae</em> contributes to the overall health of alpine meadows by aerating the soil via their burrowing activities (Smith and Foggin 1999).  A recent study demonstrated that greater plant species diversity is associated with small-burrowing mammals (<em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>Alticola stoliczkanus</em>) of the Trans-Himalayan plateau (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It is also an important component of the prey base for many carnivores within their geographic range (Lai and Smith 2003).  Burrows constructed by <em>O. curzoniae</em> serve as homes for lizards and small birds on the Tibetan plateau (Smith and Foggin 1999).	eng
41258	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the current status of <em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> populations.  It is inferred that declines have resulted during widespread poisoning of pikas throughout its range to control population sizes (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41258	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> is the target of mass control in an effort to eliminate competition for vegetation with livestock (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Habitat in India and Nepal has experienced a qualitative and quantitative decline estimated at a rate of less than 10% since 2000 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  This trend is expected to continue until 2010 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Small-scale logging and fuel wood collection has been identified as a reason for habitat loss (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41259	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is recommended that persecution as a pest species be mitigated and that awareness of its positive, ecological impact be implemented.  In Mongolia, approximately 8% of the range of this species occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and it has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  In China, it occurs in Xinglongshan, Baijitan, and Liupanshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  It has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (LC) in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41259	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution includes the majority of Mongolia, southern regions of the Russian Federation, and several provinces of China (Gansu, Hebei, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, and Shanxi) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and Henan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41259	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona dauurica</em> is a burrow-dwelling species that is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species constructs haypile food stores (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies low-lying desert grassland habitat where flooding can occur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1999, Smith and Xie 2008).  The ecology of <em>O. dauurica</em> seems to be quite similar to that of <em>O. curzoniae</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).  Social behavior for <em>O. curzoniae</em> and <em>O. dauurica</em> differs when they exist sympatrically, than when they do not (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Under sympatric circumstances, <em>O. curzoniae</em> exhibits "mowing" behavior, while <em>O. dauurica</em> exhibits "hoarding" behavior (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2001).  The total length of this species is 15.0-20.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. dauurica</em> is capable of producing several litters per year with litter size varying from one to 11 young (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Young born early in the season may become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Reproductive periodicity varies according to location.  In the Trans-Baikal region, reproductive periodicity of <em>O. dauurica</em> begins around April and extends through August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Periodicity extends from April to September across much of Mongolia (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Longevity of <em>O. dauurica</em> is approximately two years (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>This species is considered a keystone species for the geographic range in which it occurs (Smith and Xie 2008).  One treatment found that <em>O. dauurica</em> and livestock do not compete for forage as each prefers different vegetation (Nikolski <em>et al</em>. 1984).  The burrowing activities of this species also contributes to the overall health of the habitat it occupies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41259	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona dauurica</em> populations appear to undergo sizeable yearly fluctuations (Ognev 1966, Sokolov <em>et al.</em> 1994).  Several isolated populations around the northern and southern edges of the Gobi Desert are considered very vulnerable (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41259	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been the target of wide-scale pest control in China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41260	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao and Wolong Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  There are few or no data concerning the population status of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em>.  It is therefore recommended that research be conducted in this area.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41260	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em> encompasses the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Yunnan.  <em>O. erythrotis</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is generally located at elevations ranging between 2,000-4,000 m (Zheng 1989).	eng
41260	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona erythrotis</em> inhabits rock faces and crags (Smith and Xie 2008).  These typically lie adjacent to alpine shrubland or meadows (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika creates simple burrows of one to two meters in length (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. erythrotis</em> can have three to seven young per litter, with two liter per year (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive periodicity of this species is from May to August (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length for this species is 18.1-28.5 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41260	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona erythrotis</em>.	eng
41260	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.  Collateral poisoning due to control measures directed at <em>Ochotona curzoniae</em> may be a potential threat.	eng
41261	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is little information regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona gloveri</em>, research in this area is needed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41261	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> is endemic to China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic range includes southwestern Qinghai, northeastern Xizang, northwestern Yunnan, and western Sichuan provinces of China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. gloveri</em> is typically found at elevations ranging from 3,500-4,200 m, but may occur at an elevation of 1,700 m (Sichuan) (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41261	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> typically inhabits talus piles (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), but is also known to inhabit the walls of adobe buildings (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species does not occur in habitat utilized for agriculture or by livestock (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It is a haypile construction species (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. gloveri</em> is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of <em>O. gloveri</em> is 16.0-22.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41261	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The current population status of this species is unknown.  However, <em>Ochotona gloveri</em> occurs in remote regions of China and is therefore thought to be free of negative human influence (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41261	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona gloveri</em> is locally poisoned and trapped as a pest.	eng
41262	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are little data regarding the ecology, reproduction, and population status for <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Research in these areas is needed.  This species occurs in Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41262	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona himalayana</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> occurs along the northern length of the Himalayan Mountains in Xizang province (Smith and Xie 2008).  CAMP (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005) speculate that the form may cross the Himalayan crest and enter Nepal; there currently is no evidence to support this claim.  <em>O. himalayana</em> occurs at elevations of 2,400-4,200 m (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
41262	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona himalayana</em> occupies talus piles, walls, and precipices (Smith and Xie 2008).  These areas border coniferous forests of the Himalayan range in Xizang, China (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is active from 08.00 - 09.00 and again at dusk (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika is a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. himalayana</em> produces litters of three to four young (Feng <em>et al</em>. 1986).  The total length of this species is 14.0-18.6 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41262	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is currently no information regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona himalayana</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41262	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41263	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species throughout most of its range.  The Hokkaido subspecies is protected in national parks (Ichikawa 1999).  In China, this species occurs in Liangshui Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).  In Mongolia, approximately 40% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  At present, the newly recognized species of <em>Ochotona mantchurica</em> (formerly <em>O. hyperborea mantchurica</em>) is not treated individually for this reassessment of Ochotonids.  However, this is a species that requires research to determine its current status (Lissovsky pers. comm.).  This species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41263	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> has the largest geographic range of any pika.  It extends from the Ural Mountains across northeastern Eurasia to Sakhalin, and Hokkaido (where it is an endemic subspecies <em>Ochotona hyperborea yesoensis</em>) (Ichikawa 1999).  This species is also found on several islands in the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  On Japan, found from sea level to 2,000 m, but usually above 800 m.	eng
41263	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> primarily inhabits "the montane taiga of boreal Asia" (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species of pika is primarily a rock-dweller (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  However, it is known to utilize driftwood mounds that collect along riverbanks (Ognev 1966).  Population densities remain relatively constant over time, but total density will vary according to location (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  A study of seven pairs of <em>O. hyperborea</em> found an average territory size of approximately 900 square meters (Gliwicz <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <em>O. hyperborea</em> constructs large haypiles that are often fed on by other fauna within its range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  One study conducted in Siberia found evidence that <em>O. hyperborea</em> is selective in choosing plants for their haypiles, preferring those that had high secondary compound content (i.e. tannins and secondary metabolites) (Gliwicz <em>et al</em>. 2006).  This species was recorded as active day and night in the Ural Mountains (Ognev 1966).  One study has proposed that longevity for this species rarely exceeds three years (Gashev 1971).  The breeding season begins in the spring (Revin 1968).  There are generally one to two litters produced each year (Revin 1968), but there are numerous exceptions to these values (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Typical litter size ranges from one to nine young (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Gestation for this species lasts 28 days (Gashev 1971; Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Reproductive periodicity varies according to region, but will typically begin in April (sometimes May) and extend through August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Newborns are 5.0-6.0 cm in length (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  The total length of <em>O. hyperborea</em> is 15.0-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41263	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> is characterized as common throughout its geographic distribution (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The Hokkaido subspecies is fragmented on isolated mountains (Mount Ashibetsu, Mount Yubari, and Hidaka Mountains) and patches of talus (Kawamichi pers. comm.).	eng
41263	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona hyperborea</em> throughout the majority of its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species was targeted for its pelt, but this activity ceased in the 1950's (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. h. yesoensis</em> on Hokkaido Island was formerly considered a pest species and was the subject of control efforts (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The isolated population in the Yubari-Ashibetsu Mountains appears vulnerable due to increasing development (Ichikawa 1999).	eng
41264	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary in India (Mallon 1991).  There are little data on the natural history of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41264	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona ladacensis</em> has a geographic distribution that extends from southwestern Xinjiang, through western Qinghai and south to eastern Tibet (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Its range extends in to the northwestern regions of Pakistan and Kashmir, India (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Although it is sympatric with <em>O. curzoniae</em>, it is not as widely distributed across the Tibetan Plateau (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species occurs at elevations of 4,200-5,400 m (Smith and Xie 2008) .	eng
41264	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona ladacensis</em> normally occupies xeric alpine valleys at high elevation (Smith and Xie 2008).  These expanses are quite barren, in some areas only supporting widely distributed patches of cushion plants (<em>Primula</em>) (Büchner 1894) or <em>Carex moorcroftii</em> and <em>Arenaria musciformis</em> (Feng <em>et al.</em> 1986; Zheng 1989).  <em>O. ladacensis</em> is a burrow-dwelling pika (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This pika is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of this species is 18.0-22.9 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive periodicity for this species is late June to early July (Zheng 1989).	eng
41264	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding the population status of this species.  Locals described the species as widespread and fairly common during survey conducted in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir, India) from 1980-1986 and again in 1989-1991 (Mallon 1991).	eng
41264	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41265	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In India, this species occurs in Hemis National Park and Kanji Wildlife Sanctuary and may be present in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary (Mallon 1991).  In China, this species occurs in Tuomuerfeng and Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Research to determine the current population status is needed.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41265	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona macrotis</em> includes southeastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, northeastern Pakistan and Afghanistan, northern India, Nepal, and Bhutan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), and in the mountainous regions of several provinces of China (Xizang, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Yunnan, Qinghai, and Gansu) (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species occupies elevations ranging from 2,300 m (Gurung and Singh 1996) to 6,400 m (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. macrotis</em> will occupy higher elevations when sympatric with <em>O. roylei</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41265	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona macrotis</em> is a rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occurs in high alpine deserts and spruce forest expanses within its geographic distribution (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <em>O. macrotis</em> is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  It typically feeds on grasses, leaves, twigs, mosses, and lichens (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Not all populations of this species construct haypiles for the winter (Ognev 1966).  <em>O. macrotis</em> is primarily a diurnal species (Gurung and Singh 1996).  The total length of this species is 15.0-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Longevity of this species of pika is three years of age (Bernstein and Klevezal 1965).  Litter size and number of litters in a year is variable according to location, but <em>O. macrotis</em> usually has two litters per year, with two to three young per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  Yearlings of a population are able to breed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The reproductive periodicity of <em>O. macrotis</em> is April to mid-August (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Gestation is approximately 30 days (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
41265	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona macrotis</em>.  It is thought to be common (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Population sizes typically do not fluctuate over time, but total density can range from six to eighteen individuals at different localities (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41265	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known threats for <em>Ochotona macrotis</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41266	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Two of the subspecies (<em>O. p. sunidica</em> and <em>O. p. hamica</em>) are experiencing isolation from the main distribution (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Efforts should be made to determine the current status of their populations.  Approximately 17% of the Mongolian distribution of <em>Ochotona pallasi</em> occurs within protected areas (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41266	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona pallasi</em> inhabits a widespread, but discontinuous geographic range throughout the Gobi Desert region (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It occurs in Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  The historical range of <em>O. p. hamica</em> is in the Tsagaan Bogd Uul (Mountains) of Mongolia, where it has not been seen in recent history (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  It is currently believed to occupy isolated mountains within the Atas Bogd Uul of Mongolia (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). Likewise, <em>O. p. sunidica</em> is thought to be isolated from the main distribution (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The distributional range of <em>O. p. pallasi</em> has decreased (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  This species occupies elevations ranging from 1,000-3,200 m (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
41266	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat preference differs among the subspecies; <em>Ochotona pallasi pallasi</em> occurring in rocky settings, <em>O. p. pricei</em> within arid steppes, and <em>O. p. sunidica</em> among rock crevices (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species is characterized as a generalized herbivore (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is known to construct large haypiles, 80-100 cm in height (Smirnov 1974).  Total length of this species is 16.0-22.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  The longevity of <em>O. pallasi</em> is up to four years (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>O. pallasi</em> produces several litters per year, with litter sizes varying from one to 12 young (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season for this species may last from April to August (Ma <em>et al</em>. 1987).  Gestation time is 25 days (Smith and Xie 2008).  Young born early in the season may become reproductively active the summer of their birth (Smith and Xie 2008).  Wesche <em>et al</em>. (2007) examined the effects of <em>O. pallasi</em> burrowing on the vegetation (community composition, richness, and biomass production) and alteration of abiotic resources on the arid environment (<150 mm annual precipitation) of the southern Mongolian steppes.  Their study indicated that <em>O. pallasi</em> has a positive impact on the local landscape, where it burrows (Wesche <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
41266	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.  Densities are variable, but have been recorded as high as 100/ha (Smirnov 1974).  The status of <em>Ochotona pallasi hamica</em> is also uncertain, but a decline is inferred from its extirpation from its historical range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This subspecies is thought to occupy isolated mountains of the Gobi Desert (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  <em>O. p. pricei</em> has been experiencing declines, on the Choyr Mountains that have left it at very low numbers (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  In Mongolia, populations appear to be stable (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41266	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In the southern Gobi province of Mongolia, pesticides are used to control the species, which is thought to be a carrier of the marmot plague (Clark <em>et al.</em>  2006).	eng
41267	conservation	Beever, E.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Many populations occur in National Parks and other protected areas, and throughout the species range the hunting/shooting of pikas is not allowed.<br/><br/>The following are needed measures for <em>Ochotona princeps</em>:<br/><br/>1.1. Management plans: Needed at the local level, but not globally.<br/>1.2. Legislation: With respect to global-level climate-related stressors.<br/><br/>2.2. Awareness: Especially for natural-resource managers.<br/><br/>3.2. Population numbers and range.<br/>3.4. Habitat status.<br/>3.5. Threats.<br/>3.9. Trends/Monitoring.<br/><br/>4.4.1. Identification of new protected areas (see comments below).<br/>4.4.3. Management.<br/><br/>5.1. Re-introductions: If climate change has in fact rendered portions of habitat at sites (or entire sites) uninhabitable, re-introductions would be in vain (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
41267	distribution	Beever, E.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Ochotona princeps</em> has a widespread, but discontinuous geographic distribution throughout the western United States and southwestern Canada (British Columbia and Alberta) (Smith and Weston 1990).  There is paleontological evidence that supports a past distribution that once included now uninhabited, low-lying regions of the Great Basin (Grayson 1987).  Following Brown's (1971 and 1978) suggested mechanism of Holocene extinction after a period of colonization during the Pleistocene, Grayson (1987) concludes that <em>O. princeps</em> became extinct from the low-lying regions of the northern extent of the Great Basin between 7,000 and 5,000 B.P. The current discontinuous distribution; however, is not supported by a colonization-driven system (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Elevational distribution varies with latitudinal orientation, ranging from sea level to 3,000 m in the northern extent to rarely extending below 2,500 m in the southern-most portions of its range (Smith and Weston 1990).  There is a marginal record of <em>O. p. saxatilis</em> at 4,100 m in Colorado (Hall 1981).	eng
41267	habitat	Beever, E.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Ochotona princeps</em> is a typical rock-dwelling species of pika (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  It inhabits talus and talus-like formations in cool microclimates across western North America.  Talus piles are insular in nature as they are patchily distributed (Smith 1974a; Smith 1974b).  Habitable talus usually has rock diameter 0.2-1.0 m (Tyser 1980).  Occupied rock or talus piles are adjacent to vegetation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).  See Hafner (1993, 1994) for associations with vegetation types and permafrost zones across the range of the species.  This species of pika constructs haypiles (Smith and Weston 1990).  <br/><br/>Females have two litters per year and it is common for only one of the two litters to be weaned (Smith 1978; Smith and Weston 1990).  Litter size, throughout its distribution, ranges from 2.34-3.68 (Smith and Weston 1990).  Gestation time is 30 days (Severaid 1950).  Typically parturition beings in May, peaking in June (Smith and Weston 1990).  At lower elevations the breeding season can begin as early as March (Smith and Weston 1990).  Longevity of O. princeps is seven years maximum (Smith and Weston 1990).  The average mortality for this species ranges between 37-46% (Millar and Zwickel 1972; Smith 1974a).  Highest mortality occurs in birth to 1 year and five to seven year age groups (Millar and Zwickel 1972; Smith 1974a).  Total length of this species is 16.2-21.6 cm (Smith and Weston 1990).<br/><br/><em>O. princeps</em> is a species with specific habitat requirements (talus formations in cool montane climates), necessary to regulate their internal temperatures.  As such this species, "may be early sentinels of biological response to global climate change such as increased temperatures" (Beever 2002).  A newly recorded population in Nevada that occurs in a region with relatively high seasonal temperatures, indicates that temperature is "not a perfect predictor of persistence" and that extirpation is a complex event with a multi-factor process (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Other has been indicated on the habitat preference checklist and identified as artificially created taluses or talus-like habitats (e.g., mine tailings at Bodie).	eng
41267	population	Beever, E.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no data regarding the population status of <em>Ochotona princeps</em> at the global level.  However, a survey conducted from 1994-1999 in the Great Basin (hydrographic definition) found that seven of 20 historical sites of <em>O. princeps</em> appeared to have experienced recent extirpation (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Based on sightings, active haypiles, and calls, it is estimated that the total number of pikas (mature and immature individuals) in Nevada is between 1,000 and 5,000 (Beever pers. comm.).  A follow-up survey conducted from 2003-2007 indicated that local extirpations had occurred at additional sites (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2008).  However, Beever <em>et al</em>. (2008) discovered a previously unknown population in Hays Canyon Ranch, Nevada.  This population exists in a setting not typical for <em>O. princeps</em> in the southern region of its range in that, it experiences average temperatures of 0.29-12.27˚C and has a maximum elevation 2,412 m (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2008).  Furthermore, this area does not have abundant talus habitat and has been grazed for the past 50 years (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
41267	threats	Beever, E.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Free-ranging domestic and feral cattle pose a threat to <em>Ochotona princeps</em>.  Data suggest that population-size indices are smaller at sites with small amounts of habitat that are grazed compared to non-grazed (Beever pers. comm.).  In addition, all Great Basin sites at which extirpations have occurred were grazed in the vicinity of the historic record (Beever <em>et al.</em> 2003; Beever, unpublished data).  See Beever <em>et al</em>. (2003) for caveats of this relationship.<br/><br/>Not confirmed analytically, but extensive logging of montane forests adjacent to taluses (which occurred at some of the non-wilderness sites I sampled) may alter thermal microclimate on taluses.  May be a contributing factor; however, I would not expect it to cause extirpations on its own.<br/><br/>It is uncertain if this was a direct relationship or an artefact of low road densities in areas with large amounts of talus habitat, but distances to the nearest primary road (a surrogate of anthropogenic influence) was a good predictor of persistence of pikas in the interior Great Basin during the 20th century in both linear-regression and multi-model analyses (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Cover of non-native plants is increasing at some sites, partially due to wildfires.  It is unknown to what extent this change in available dietary items may affect <em>O. princeps</em>.<br/><br/>Recreational shooting; impact on populations not confirmed unequivocally.<br/><br/>Global warming/oceanic warming: Portions of otherwise suitable habitats may be becoming uninhabitable, due to changes in microclimate attendant to global climate change (<em>sensu</em> McDonald and Brown 1992).<br/><br/>Inbreeding: Low levels of heterogeneity, but not always detrimental.<br/><br/>Low densities: In many of the populations for these subspecies.<br/><br/>Demonstrated vulnerability to high temperatures.<br/><br/>11. Other: Rapid climate change (see 9.10).  Climatic influences on pikas is suggested by several lines of evidence, including hotter, drier macroclimates at extirpated vs. extant sites (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003); excellent ability of our climatic surrogate to predict persistence in univariate and AIC analyses (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003; Beever unpubl. Analyses); and loss of pikas from low-elevation sites in five ranges even though higher-elevation populations in the same range persisted (Beever <em>et al</em>. 2003; Beever unpubl. data).  However, it does not appear to be acting in isolation from other influences, and many questions remain unanswered.	eng
41268	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> occurs in Zhumulangmafeng Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41268	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> occurs in the Himalayan massif through Pakistan, Kashmir, northwestern India, Nepal, and Tibet (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  Records exist from western China, but these should probably be attributed to <em>O. macrotis</em> chinensis (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. roylei</em> occurs from 2,400-4,300 m in elevation (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41268	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> is a primarily crepuscular, talus-dwelling species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). They live in groups composed of parents and their offspring, with low densities (12.5 per ha) characteristic of talus-dwelling pikas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). Females of the species may produce one or two litters annually with an average of 3 offspring per litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is 15.5-20.4 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. roylei</em> exhibits a symbiotic relationship with <em>Pnoepyge albiventer</em>, the Scaly Breasted Wren Babbler in Nepal.  This species of bird will co-occupy the pika's haypile, forage for food in close proximity to the pika, and sun itself with the pika.  Potential reasons for the relationship are: 1.) lack of nesting sites for the babbler, 2.) similar life styles, 3.) the additional heat provided by the bird to the haypile is beneficial to the pika, 4.) utilization of different food sources, and 5.) additional protection against predation (Khana 2007).	eng
41268	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Though there are no current population assessments of <em>Ochotona roylei</em>, it is considered widespread without serious threats to jeopardize its status (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In the Ladakh region of India, it was characterized as uncommon, but without any known threats (Mallon 1991).	eng
41268	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona roylei</em> is affected by small-scale logging and livestock grazing, but these are not considered serious threats to the distribution or abundance of the species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41269	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>Ochotona rufescens</em>.	eng
41269	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is a widespread species that occurs in the mountains of southwestern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> is found between 1,900 and 3,500 m in elevation (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41269	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is most commonly found in rocky desert habitat, but may create burrow systems in fields where no stones exist.  <em>O. rufescens</em> also burrows in adobe houses and walls (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The species may be found in juniper forests and prefers habitats with vegetation cover between 30% and 60%, not higher (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> survives on a diet of native xeric plants, such as thistles, <em>Ephedra</em> and <em>Artemisia</em>, creating haypiles to store vegetation twice in each year (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rufescens</em> also consumes agricultural crops, making it a pest to humans in some areas (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>The reproductive rate of <em>O. rufescens</em> is high, with litter size averaging from 5.2 to 7.1, producing as many as five litters annually. The breeding season is long, from mid-March to late September, and young individuals begin breeding in their first summer (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41269	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	A population found on the Small Balkan Ridge may be endangered due to isolation, but it is unclear whether this population is the subspecies <em>shukurovi</em> or <em>regina</em> (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  The subspecies <em>O. r. shukurovi</em> is found in the Great Balkhan Mountains and is isolated but does not appear to be threatened (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Population density of <em>O. rufescens</em> may reach 70 individuals per hectare, but this is variable depending on weather conditions (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41269	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Because <em>Ochotona rufescens</em> is considered a pest in some areas where it damages agricultural crops, it has been subject to control (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). The spread of agriculture also constitutes a threat, as habitat is converted to farmland, after which the pikas feed on crops, particularly by debarking trees in orchards (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>A population of <em>O. rufescens</em> on the Small Balkan Ridge may be endangered due to isolation. It is also unclear to which subspecies this population belongs, as it is found between populations of <em>O. r. shukrovi</em> and <em>O. r. regina</em> (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rufescens</em> is the only pika that has been domesticated for laboratory research, where it was once used in France and Japan, though this is probably not a future threat to wild populations (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41270	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	No conservation measures are currently in practice for <em>Ochotona rutila</em>, as it is not considered a species under current threat.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41270	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona rutila</em> occurs in isolated ranges in the Pamirs of Tajikistan, and Tien Shan of south-east Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, southeast Kazakhstan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005), and eastern Xinjiang region of China (Smith and Xie 2008). The species may also occur in northern Afghanistan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. rutila</em> does not usually occur above 3,000 m in elevation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41270	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona rutila</em> prefers to find shelter in large stones within scree and talus habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> feeds on turf in an area within two meters of the talus habitat, rather than foraging in open meadows away from the talus (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> is a diurnal species that exhibits more activity at dusk and dawn (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Female of the species <em>O. rutila</em> typically bear two litters annually averaging 4.2 young, which is a relatively low fecundity rate (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 19.6 and 23.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41270	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Despite the discontinuous range of <em>Ochotona rutila</em>, and its rarity in museum collections, there are currently no known threats to abundance or distribution to this species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>O. rutila</em> is considered common in a few localities, including the Great Alma-Ata Lake region in Kazakhstan, and the Iskander-Kul Lake region of Tajikistan (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Population density of <em>O. rutila</em> is low, with 12-20 individuals per ha, in families composed of an adult pair and their offspring, with population levels remaining constant over time (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41270	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	No major threats to <em>Ochotona rutila</em> have been identified. However, the naturally low population density, low fecundity, and sporadic distribution of the species (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990) could make <em>O. rutila</em> susceptible to pressures in the future.	eng
41271	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> occurs in Wanglang, Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Changshanerhai, Nujiang, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species could benefit from research on the effects of habitat loss throughout its range, and regional action may be necessary to halt the ongoing habitat destruction that affects <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> in Sikkim, India.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41271	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> occurs in the mountains of the eastern Tibetan Plateau and along the Himalayan massif in China (southern Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Gansu, and southern Tibet), India (Sikkim), northern Myanmar (Burma), and Bhutan (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/><em>O. thibetana</em> usually occurs between 2,400 and 4,100 m in elevation (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990), but has been recorded as low as 1,800 m (Allen 1938).	eng
41271	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> is a social, burrowing pika that occurs in bamboo and rhododendron forest in the low elevations of its range and in subalpine forest in the high elevations (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990; Smith and Xie 2008). Between elevations of 2,400 m to 4,100 m, it can inhabit rocky areas under the forest canopy (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). <br/><br/><em>O. thibetana</em> is a generalized herbivore that creates haypiles to store vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  The reproductive season for <em>O. thibetana</em> extends from at least April to July, and generally has a litter size of 1-5 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990). The total length of this species is between 14.0 cm and 18.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41271	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Ochotona thibetana</em> is considered fairly common throughout most of its range (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990). However, the subspecies <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> in Sikkim, India may be endangered due to the destruction of the rhododendron vegetation that it prefers, resulting in less suitable habitat for this subspecies (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
41271	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Throughout southern China, <em>Ochotona thibetana</em> may be threatened by deforestation, but this has not been thoroughly researched (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1990).  This species is also targeted as a pest in southern Gansu (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1982; Giraudoux <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>O. t. sikimaria</em> of Sikkim, India has been reported to be threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, settlement, deforestation, and road construction, where the rhododendron vegetation has been almost completely eradicated (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41272	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The presence of <em>Lepus alleni alleni</em> has been verified within Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.  <em>L. alleni tiburonensis</em> is currently listed under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, because it is an insular and endemic species, granting it "special protection" (AMCELA pers. comm.).	eng
41272	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Lepus alleni</em> occurs from south-central Arizona (USA) to northern Sonora, Sinaloa, and the northern part of Nayarit (Mexico) and Tiburon Island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Best and Henry 1993).  It also occurs in the extreme south-west region of Chihuahua (Cuenca and Cervantes 2005). This species can be found at elevations ranging from sea level (Sonora) to 1,500 m (southern Arizona) (Best and Henry 1993).	eng
41272	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Lepus alleni</em> is associated with common dense scrub. This species is nocturnal and crepuscular (Best and Henry 1993).  In Arizona, <em>L. alleni</em> occurs in a variety of habitats, but is most common in areas with desert shrub and grasses (Best and Henry 1993).  In areas of southern Arizona where Lehmann lovegrass (<em>Eragrostis lehmanniana</em>) has become established population numbers of <em>L. alleni</em> have been declining (Best and Henry 1993).  In Mexico, <em>L. alleni</em> is sited along coastal foothills, low and open grasslands, and the arid upper-tropical subzone (Best and Henry 1993).  The average home range is 642.8 ha (Swihart 1986).  The breeding season extends from January to October and gestation is approximately 42 days (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  <em>L. alleni</em> is capable of having seven litters per year with an average litter size of 1.93 (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  It is estimated that <em>L. alleni</em> reaches sexual maturity between seven to 11 months, based on related species (<em>Lepus, californicus, L. callotis</em>, and <em>L. flavigularis</em>) (AMCELA pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Studies analyzing stomach content determined the diet of <em>L. alleni</em>.  Various grass species (45%), mesquite (<em>Prosopis juliflora</em>) (36%) and several cacti species (7.8%) constituted the bulk of their intake (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  Overall percentages varied according to seasonal precipitation (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  The total length is 55.3-67.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  Specimen measurements, from the National Mammalogy Collection at UNAM (CNMA), show that <em>L. a. tiburonensis</em> tends to be smaller with total length ranging from 50.0-60.5 cm (AMCELA pers. comm.).	eng
41272	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Lepus alleni</em> populations do not experience cyclic fluctuations in population density (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There are undocumented reports of population declines in southern Arizona.  The average population density is 0.3/ha (Swihart 1986). <em>L. a. tiburonensis</em> is considered endemic and rare.	eng
41272	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Habitat changes are occurring along the coasts of Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora as a result of expanding agriculture (Best and Henry 1993). The impact has been negligible, but it is anticipated that problems associated with habitat change will produce population declines (Chapman <em>et al.</em> 1983).  Hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation are considered threats for this species.  In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fire represent important threats for their populations.  Competition from <em>L. californicus</em> could become a future threat, as the black-tailed jackrabbit's range expands (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41273	conservation	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	In some southern states, hunting has been closed either temporarily or permanently to try to restore populations. The efficacy of such efforts usually has not been monitored carefully. In some cases hares have been stocked in an attempt to bolster the populations. This method also seems to have limited utility because captive-bred hares are highly vulnerable to predation and transplanted wild hares often succumb to death in captivity during transport.  Conservation and management efforts have been recommended for the New Mexico extent of <em>L. americanus</em>, stemming from the restricted distribution and low abundance (Frey and Malaney 2006).<br/><br/>Lepus americanus is known to occur in the following U.S. National Wildlife Refuges (NWR):<br/>Tetlin NWR (as of 2003)<br/>Sherburne NWR<br/>Seney NWR (as of 2004, reported as abundant)<br/>Innoko NWR<br/>Koyukuk NWR<br/>Red Rock Lakes NWR (found in forested areas)<br/>Kodiak NWR (as of 2006, reported as common)<br/>Alaskan Peninsula/Becharof NWR (as of 2003)<br/>Rachel Carson NWR (as of 2001, reported as common).	eng
41273	distribution	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus americanus</em> appears in boreal and mixed deciduous forests of North America. It occurs in all provinces of Canada, except Nunavut. In the USA it is present in Alaska, as well as the western mountain states of Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, North and South Dakota, and Colorado, and small pockets in high elevation areas in New Mexico, Utah, and California. Its distribution also includes the Great Lakes region and eastern states of Pennsylvania, New York, Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Historically in mountain portions of West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia, but those populations seem to have declined recently.	eng
41273	habitat	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus americanus</em> is associated with boreal and mixed deciduous forest of North America.  It requires fairly dense vegetation, which it uses as cover.  This species requires snow cover, because of its white winter pelage.  Two subspecies along the Pacific coast fail to turn white and may be more common in Pacific forests with little or no winter snow cover.  Requires mixed forest with dense understory.  Typically, stands aged 25-40 years are ideal. <em>L. americanus</em> also seems to favor edge habitat.  Diet consists mostly of grasses, forbs, sedges, and ferns (Murray 2003).<br/><br/>The total length of <em>L. americanus</em> is 36.0 - 52.0 cm (Banfield 1974; Hall 1981).  The breeding season of <em>L. americanus</em> is from March to September and is subject to photoperiod control (Murray 2003).  The average number of litters by <em>L. americanus</em> varies according to location with 1.9 litters per year in Alaska and 3.8 litters per year in Wisconsin (Murray 2003).  Litter size varies according to location and number of previous litters produced (Murray 2003).	eng
41273	population	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Population is more or less continuous in Canada and Alaska but patchily distributed in the contiguous USA. Populations in the boreal forest fluctuate according to a 10-year cycle, where their densities may vary 100-fold over the span of several years. Southern populations may be noncyclic or fluctuate with reduced amplitude. <br/><br/>The status of southeastern populations is unclear, but the range limit may be receding northward. This may be related to habitat loss, increase in predator (especially coyote) numbers, and perhaps climate change and loss of snow during winter.	eng
41273	threats	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Southern populations may be subject to excessive habitat loss and fragmentation, perhaps climate change plays a contributory role as well.	eng
41274	conservation	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Some jurisdictions have seasonal limits on Arctic hare harvest, but for the most part there are no restrictions due to the fact that most of the harvest probably is of Native origin.	eng
41274	distribution	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The geographic range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepus arcticus</span> consists of arctic tundra of Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, including Arctic islands, and western Newfoundland.  <em>L. arcticus</em> is also located along the coastal regions of Greenland where ice is not present (Parker 1977).  It also occurs in northern Quebec and a small portion of northern Manitoba, along Hudson Bay.  The southern range periphery borders with treeline.  Some Arctic hares may move into the treeline during winter.	eng
41274	habitat	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus arcticus</em> requires tundra habitat lacking tree cover.  Home range for this species is variable, ranging from 9-290 ha (Murray 2003).  <em>L. arcticus</em> is a ground-dwelling species, but will utilize natural shelters or create small dens in the snow to regulate body temperatures (Gray 1993).  This species is omnivorous, but it derives the bulk of its nutritional requirements from woody plants (Best and Henry 1994).  <em>L. arcticus</em> has an average of one to two litters per year, with an average litter size of five to six (Best and Henry 1994).  Gestation is approximately 53 days for this species (Parker 1977).  There is uncertainty regarding the breeding season for <em>L. arcticus</em> (Best and Henry 1994).  The season may extend from April to mid-September, as inferred from male gonad enlargement (Best and Henry 1994).  The total length is 48.0-67.8 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).	eng
41274	population	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Population is more or less continuous and is thought to be stable and healthy.  Populations may undergo cyclic fluctuations.  However, little/no monitoring of populations is ongoing.	eng
41274	threats	Murray, D. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Southern populations may be subject to habitat loss, perhaps climate change as well, although this is highly speculative.	eng
41275	conservation	Yamada, F. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Recent declines in density require the implementation of research actions to determine population trends, numbers and range.  It is also recommended habitat and site-based actions be undertaken with emphasis on maintenance and conservation. In areas where density declines have been recorded recovery management should be employed.	eng
41275	distribution	Yamada, F. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> is endemic to Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Island, Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishinoshima), Awaji Island, Shodo Island, Goto Islands (Fukue, Nakadori), Amakusa Islands (Shimojima), Shimokoshiki Island.	eng
41275	habitat	Yamada, F. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> occupies forests to grasslands from lowlands to subalpine zone, though more common from low montane and montane zones (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><em>L. brachyurus</em> has three to five times of parturition in a year and one to four offspring per litter.   Females reach sexual maturity at 10 months and their breeding season is from February to July (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. brachyurus</em> is a nocturnal species (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41275	population	Yamada, F. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Lepus brachyurus</em> is common on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu; rare on Sado Island (where it used to be common).<br/><br/>Total population size in Japan is unknown; however, recent density became very low compared with those in 1970-80s when most forests were logged.  Fecal pellet counts indicated that population densities are likely to be higher in younger stands, where open canopy allows for greater herbaceous content (Shimano <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Population size only in forests (505,000 ha in total size) in Niigata prefecture in 2002-2003 was estimated as 140,000 hares.  Density of <em>L. b. angustidens</em> was estimated to be 0.4/ha on Honshu (Hayashi 1978).	eng
41275	threats	Yamada, F. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no major threats, but the population on Sado Island is declining due to the predation of introduced Japanese marten.	eng
41276	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The following conservation measures are recommended for <em>L. californicus</em>, research in monitoring/trends and species-based action regarding harvest management.  Long-term research is recommended with regard to ecological relationships and population dynamics and genetics (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  There is also a need for more definitive classification of jackrabbit subspecies (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Furthermore, data are needed to determine gaps in distribution and relationship dynamics between <em>L. californicus</em> and other jackrabbits that occur sympatrically (Flinders and Chapman 2003).	eng
41276	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Lepus californicus</em> is widely distributed across Mexico and the USA (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Its range in Mexico includes the states of Hidalgo, Queretaro, northern Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, eastern Tamaulipas, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, eastern Durango, Chihuahua (excluding the southwest region), the extreme northeast region of Jalisco, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, northern Sonora, and the entire Baja peninsula (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  In the USA its range includes Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, eastern Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, most of Oklahoma including an isolated population in eastern section of the state, western Missouri, Utah (excluding the northeast), California (excluding part of the central region), most of Oregon (excluding western and central regions), southeast Washington, southern Idaho, and isolated population in Montana, and the extreme western region and southeast portion of Wyoming (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. californicus</em> was successfully introduced into Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia and southern Florida (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  It occurs in elevations ranging from - 84 m to 3,750 m (Flinders and Chapman 2003).	eng
41276	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>L. californicus</em> is capable of inhabiting many types of habitat (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  This species is positively associated, in terms of abundance and distribution, with overgrazing by domestic livestock (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Diet is also variable for this species, dependent upon vegetation availability and location (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  Generally, grasses and forbs are selected during the summer, while shrubs are chosen during winter months (Flinders and Chapman 2003). Variability in home range size is due to multiple factors like cover, predators, and competition (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. californicus</em> exhibits crepuscular feeding behavior (Flinders and Chapman 2003).<br/><br/>The total length of <em>L. californicus</em> is 46.5-63.0 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  The breeding season is variable, contingent on latitude and environmental factors (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  In Idaho the season is restricted to February to May (French <em>et al.</em> 1965).  Where distribution occurs at lower latitudes the breeding season extends; in the southwestern USA it may last from early January to September (Griffing and Davis 1976).  Gestation is variable but ranges from 40-47 days (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  The litter size varies from 3.8-4.4 in the north to three to six in the south, giving a total output per female per year of about 10-14 (Best 1996).  Total length at birth is variable dependent upon litter size, but a measurement in Arizona gave a length of 14.0 cm (Vorhies and Taylor 1933).  Adult mortality is approximately 57%, while juvenile mean mortality ranges from 59-63% (Flinders and Chapman 2003).	eng
41276	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	In the Reserva de la Biosfera de Mapimi: <br/>14-37 individuals/km² shrublands<br/>12-44 individuals/km² grassland.	eng
41276	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>L. californicus</em> is at risk from hunting for sport and local subsistence, human perturbation and exotic predation. In some places the animal competition (livestock), habitat fragmentation and human-induced fire represent important threats for their populations.	eng
41277	conservation	Giovanni Amori, 2006	It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Captive breeding has been carried out in order to maintain the numbers available for shooting. Recommended measures include better regulation of hunting, and measures to control and limit the number of bush fires.	eng
41277	conservation	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	National legislation does exist:<br/>Protected by law in Jordan, UAE, Oman, and Bahrain. Hunting is permitted in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Hares are present in all terrestrial protected areas.<br/><br/>In Arabia, hare specific surveys are required to confirm if populations are still extant.  According to colleagues who have visited Masirah Island, Oman for coastal surveys, there are no longer any hares there.  If it is true, this would be of concern as it is possible that <em>L. c. jefferyi</em> is in fact a separate species.  There were no representatives from Bahrain; however, from previous conversations with wildlife biologists from Bahrain it seems possible that <em>L. c. atallahi</em> may no longer exist there.  It was also recorded, provisionally, as occurring in Qatar.  There are still hares in Qatar but their taxonomy is uncertain.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy for <em>L. capensis</em> includes sections of established protected areas in Africa (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41277	conservation	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	National legislation does exist:<br/>Protected by law in Jordan, UAE, Oman, and Bahrain. Hunting is permitted in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Hares are present in all terrestrial protected areas.<br/><br/>In Arabia, hare specific surveys are required to confirm if populations are still extant.  According to colleagues who have visited Masirah Island, Oman for coastal surveys, there are no longer any hares there.  If it is true, this would be of concern as it is possible that <em>L. c. jefferyi</em> is in fact a separate species.  There were no representatives from Bahrain; however, from previous conversations with wildlife biologists from Bahrain it seems possible that <em>L. c. atallahi</em> may no longer exist there.  It was also recorded, provisionally, as occurring in Qatar.  There are still hares in Qatar but their taxonomy is uncertain.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy for <em>L. capensis</em> includes sections of established protected areas in Africa (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41277	distribution	Giovanni Amori, 2006	<em>Lepus capensis</em> has a large global range in Africa and the Near East, where it occurs in two separate non-forested areas; the first in the region bounded by southern Angola, Mozambique and South Africa, and the second extending across North Africa, the Sahara and the Sahel to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Syria and Iraq. In Europe, it is found only on the island of Sardinia (Italy), where it occurs as a distinct subspecies <em>L. capensis mediterraneus</em> and is found throughout the island. This population is considered to have been introduced by humans in prehistoric or early historic times (Gippoliti and Amori 2004, G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from sea level to 4,000 m in Africa (Angelici 1999).	eng
41277	distribution	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	The geographic range (in Arabia) includes isolated populations scattered across the entire peninsula and extends east into India.  It is also found on the islands of Sardinia and Cypress.  Geographic range in Africa is extensive and separated into two distinct regions of non-forested areas (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The southern extent of occurrence includes the following countries: South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern portions of Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The northern extent of occurrence includes: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Chad, Niger, Tunisia, Algeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Senegal.	eng
41277	distribution	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	The geographic range (in Arabia) includes isolated populations scattered across the entire peninsula and extends east into India.  It is also found on the islands of Sardinia and Cypress.  Geographic range in Africa is extensive and separated into two distinct regions of non-forested areas (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The southern extent of occurrence includes the following countries: South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern portions of Angola, Mozambique, and Zambia (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The northern extent of occurrence includes: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Chad, Niger, Tunisia, Algeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Senegal.	eng
41277	habitat	Giovanni Amori, 2006	Globally, it occupies a variety of open habitats including desert, semi-desert, grassland and steppe. On Sardinia, it is found in almost all habitats on the island, but prefers cultivated land and maquis (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002).	eng
41277	habitat	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	The following information applies to <em>L. capensis</em> on the Arabian Peninsula.  This species breeds all year round, with one or two offspring in each litter.  <em>L. capensis</em> prefers shrubs, rather than grasses, to shelter under in summer.  However, whether this is a limiting factor or not is not known.  <em>L. capensis</em> has experienced habitat loss since the 1950's resulting from urbanization, overgrazing, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure related to tourism (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It has been noted that pastureland that has been overgrazed by domestic livestock is favored (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In Africa, it is commonly associated with open habitats (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Reproduction varies according to location (Happold pers. comm.).  Equatorial expanses have a year-round breeding season, with up to eight litters per year and 1.3-2.0 young per litter (Flux 1981).  In Kenya, <em>L. capensis</em> produces six to eight litters per year with a mean litter size of 1.5 (Happold pers. comm.).  Hares at higher altitudes will have smaller litters than those at lower altitudes (Happold pers. comm.).  Home range for this species varies, depending on the type of habitat in which it is found (Flux and Angermann 1990 ).  There is little information available on the diet of <em>L. capensis</em>, but is presumed to vary according to habitat as well (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41277	habitat	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	The following information applies to <em>L. capensis</em> on the Arabian Peninsula.  This species breeds all year round, with one or two offspring in each litter.  <em>L. capensis</em> prefers shrubs, rather than grasses, to shelter under in summer.  However, whether this is a limiting factor or not is not known.  <em>L. capensis</em> has experienced habitat loss since the 1950's resulting from urbanization, overgrazing, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure related to tourism (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It has been noted that pastureland that has been overgrazed by domestic livestock is favored (Flux and Angermann 1990).<br/><br/>In Africa, it is commonly associated with open habitats (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Reproduction varies according to location (Happold pers. comm.).  Equatorial expanses have a year-round breeding season, with up to eight litters per year and 1.3-2.0 young per litter (Flux 1981).  In Kenya, <em>L. capensis</em> produces six to eight litters per year with a mean litter size of 1.5 (Happold pers. comm.).  Hares at higher altitudes will have smaller litters than those at lower altitudes (Happold pers. comm.).  Home range for this species varies, depending on the type of habitat in which it is found (Flux and Angermann 1990 ).  There is little information available on the diet of <em>L. capensis</em>, but is presumed to vary according to habitat as well (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41277	population	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	There are no figures available on population size of <em>L. capensis</em>.  Even in UAE, the population is highly variable and is dependent entirely on habitat availability - both for feeding and for sheltering from the summer sun.  Population trends for the Arabian distribution are characterized as declining at a rate of less than 20% (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There is concern regarding the current population status of <em>L. capensis</em> on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain.<br/><br/>In the southern region of its African range, there is a current and an anticipated "slow rate of population decline," with total population number for this species currently at greater than 10,000 individuals (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The predicted rate of decline is 10% until the year 2104 (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004).  No population information was available for the northern African region of this species.<br/><br/>Although characterized as locally common, the population on Sardinia has been experiencing a decline (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41277	population	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	There are no figures available on population size of <em>L. capensis</em>.  Even in UAE, the population is highly variable and is dependent entirely on habitat availability - both for feeding and for sheltering from the summer sun.  Population trends for the Arabian distribution are characterized as declining at a rate of less than 20% (Drew <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There is concern regarding the current population status of <em>L. capensis</em> on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain.<br/><br/>In the southern region of its African range, there is a current and an anticipated "slow rate of population decline," with total population number for this species currently at greater than 10,000 individuals (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).  The predicted rate of decline is 10% until the year 2104 (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004).  No population information was available for the northern African region of this species.<br/><br/>Although characterized as locally common, the population on Sardinia has been experiencing a decline (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41277	population	Giovanni Amori, 2006	The Sardinian population is suspected to be suffering ongoing decline, even though it is considered locally common in at least parts of its range (Angelici 1999).	eng
41277	threats	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	Because of oil wealth and a desire within Gulf States to increase the human population size (in order to become less dependent on foreign labour) there are numerous threats to the species throughout its range:<br/>Urban development: current and future threat<br/>Infrastructural development: current and future threat<br/>Road kills: current and future threat<br/>Livestock competition: current and future threat<br/>Recreational activities: current and future threat<br/>Harvest/hunting: current and future threat<br/>Pesticides: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Poisoning: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Climate: current and future threat<br/>Disease: possible future threat<br/>Loss of habitat: current and future threat<br/>Habitat fragmentation: current and future threat<br/>Predation: current and future threat<br/><br/>These threats are likely to lead to a population decline.  Current estimates are that the population has declined by less than 20% since the 1980's.  This figure is derived from another estimate that the available habitat has declined by approximately 20% since the 1950's.  Predictions are that available habitat will continue to decline until the year 2024.<br/><br/>In Africa, loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting (sport and subsistence) pose a threat to <em>L. capensis</em> (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41277	threats	Drew, C., O'Donovan, D., Simkins, G., Al Dosary, M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Mohammed, O.B., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Al Mutairi, M.S., Al Habhani, H.M., Sami Amr, Z., Qarqas, M. & Abu Baker, M.A., 2008	Because of oil wealth and a desire within Gulf States to increase the human population size (in order to become less dependent on foreign labour) there are numerous threats to the species throughout its range:<br/>Urban development: current and future threat<br/>Infrastructural development: current and future threat<br/>Road kills: current and future threat<br/>Livestock competition: current and future threat<br/>Recreational activities: current and future threat<br/>Harvest/hunting: current and future threat<br/>Pesticides: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Poisoning: likely to become a threat within the next 10 years<br/>Climate: current and future threat<br/>Disease: possible future threat<br/>Loss of habitat: current and future threat<br/>Habitat fragmentation: current and future threat<br/>Predation: current and future threat<br/><br/>These threats are likely to lead to a population decline.  Current estimates are that the population has declined by less than 20% since the 1980's.  This figure is derived from another estimate that the available habitat has declined by approximately 20% since the 1950's.  Predictions are that available habitat will continue to decline until the year 2024.<br/><br/>In Africa, loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting (sport and subsistence) pose a threat to <em>L. capensis</em> (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41277	threats	Giovanni Amori, 2006	In Italy the Sardinian hare is considered a game species, and hunting and poaching may have contributed to population declines. Predation by feral dogs is also a potential threat, and anthropogenic bush fires may cause local population declines (Spagnesi and de Marinis 2002). However, these are not thought to be serious threats to the survival of this species on Sardinia.	eng
41278	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Shilin (Yunnan), Changshanerhai, Daweishan, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), Nujiang, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), and Tongbiguan (CSIS 2008).  The Chinese regional Red Listing classifies <em>L. comus</em> as Near Threatened nearly meeting criteria A2cd+3cd for listing as Vulnerable (Wang and Xie 2004).  Research is needed to determine this species' habitat, ecology, and population status (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41278	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution for <em>L. comus</em> is Yunnan, western Guizhou, and southern Sichuan in China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is found on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau at elevations of 1,300-3,200 m (Wang <em>et al.</em> 1985, Smith and Xie 2008).  Its presence has also been recorded in northern Myanmar (Wu <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41278	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding the habitat and ecology of <em>L. comus</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990; Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).  It is assumed that Lepus comus inhabits high montane pastures within its range (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This habitat is thought to be similar to that of Lepus oiostolus in Tibet (Flux and Angermann 1990; Wu <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Hunters have reported that each adult hare has three burrows, with male burrows smaller, shallower, and straighter and female burrows that are bigger and oval (Luo 1988).  <em>L. comus</em> is diurnal, but ventures into cultivated fields at night to forage (Luo 1988).  <em>L. comus</em> produces a litter size of one to four young, two to three times per year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41278	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Reports from local inhabitants of the region state that <em>Lepus comus</em> is very common (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41278	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Populations that occur on mountains may become isolated as agriculture expands into surrounding valleys (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41279	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  It is not known is this species is present in any protected areas.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41279	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>L. coreanus</em> encompasses the entire Korean Peninsula, as well as southern Jilin, China (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41279	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>L. coreanus</em> occupies various habitats across its geographic distribution from plains to mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990, Smith and Xie 2008).  They have also posed a problem to barley growing near the mountains in Kyeonsnam Province and have girdled half the peach trees that were growing on a five hectare farm in Jeonnan Province (Flux and Angermann 1990).  A study conducted in Mt. Chirisan National Park, South Korea indicated that <em>L. coreanus</em> abundance was positively associated with the percent of shrub cover within a given landscape (Rhim and Lee 2007).	eng
41279	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is considered common in Korea (Flux and Angermann 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  The density of <em>L. coreanus</em> varies according to habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Values ranged from no presence on coastal and cultivated land, up to 4.1/sq. km on hills, and 5.1/sq. km on mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41279	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41280	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is recognized as an important game species throughout its distribution and as such conservation measures are required to halt declining populations (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The recent decline of this species has garnered it protection under the Bern Convention as an Appendix III listing (Vaughan <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, population declines have resulted in country-specific Red Listing as "near threatened" or "threatened" (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine population dynamics specific to habitat type and the effects habitat change has on life history parameters with regard to declines (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  There is a lack of understanding as to why hare numbers are low in pastoral landscapes and therefore, research should be conducted within this habitat type with particular emphasis paid to demography and behavioral ecology (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005). When population declines are the direct result of agricultural intensification, which results in increased application of fertilizer, landscape homogeneity and mechanization, population declines of <em>L. europaeus</em> can be countered by augmenting habitat to boost heterogeneity (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Spain, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the Cantabric population has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As an important hunting species, declining numbers have prompted the importation of non-Iberian hares (from France and elsewhere) to supplement hare densities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  In an effort to conserve this population's gene pool, a captive breeding program has been implemented (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As of 2003 this program has successfully bred leverets and in 2004 turned its focus to increasing genetic variability by introducing individuals from new localities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41280	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H.J., 2008	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is recognized as an important game species throughout its distribution and as such conservation measures are required to halt declining populations (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The recent decline of this species has garnered it protection under the Bern Convention as an Appendix III listing (Vaughan <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, population declines have resulted in country-specific Red Listing as "near threatened" or "threatened" (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine population dynamics specific to habitat type and the effects habitat change has on life history parameters with regard to declines (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  There is a lack of understanding as to why hare numbers are low in pastoral landscapes and therefore, research should be conducted within this habitat type with particular emphasis paid to demography and behavioral ecology (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005). When population declines are the direct result of agricultural intensification, which results in increased application of fertilizer, landscape homogeneity and mechanization, population declines of <em>L. europaeus</em> can be countered by augmenting habitat to boost heterogeneity (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Spain, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the Cantabric population has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As an important hunting species, declining numbers have prompted the importation of non-Iberian hares (from France and elsewhere) to supplement hare densities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  In an effort to conserve this population's gene pool, a captive breeding program has been implemented (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  As of 2003 this program has successfully bred leverets and in 2004 turned its focus to increasing genetic variability by introducing individuals from new localities (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41280	conservation	Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. In Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, population declines have resulted in country-specific Red Listing as "near threatened" or "threatened" (Reichlin <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the effect that habitat change has on life history parameters with regard to declines (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is a lack of understanding as to why hare numbers are low in pastoral landscapes, and therefore research should be conducted within this habitat type with particular emphasis paid to demography and behavioral ecology (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). When population declines are the direct result of agricultural intensification, which results in increased application of fertilizer, landscape homogeneity and mechanization, population declines of <em>L. europaeus</em> can be countered by management practices that increase heterogeneity (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Spain, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the Cantabric population has unique mtDNA in relation to other European populations (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). As an important hunting species, declining numbers have prompted the importation of non-Iberian hares (from France and elsewhere) to supplement hare densities (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). In an effort to conserve this population's gene pool, a captive breeding program has been implemented (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). As of 2003 this program has successfully bred leverets and in 2004 turned its focus to increasing genetic variability by introducing individuals from new localities (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41280	distribution	Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> has a large global range extending from western Europe to western Siberia (Russia) and south-western Asia (Iran). In Europe, the species is widely distributed throughout, with the exception of most of the Iberian peninsula, northern Fennoscandia and northern Russia. It occurs on a number of Mediterranean islands. The population in Ireland was introduced recently, and the population in the UK is a long-established naturalised population, that may originally have been introduced by the Romans (Battersby 2005). As a game species, the European hare has widely been introduced to countries across the globe (Flux and Angermann 1990). It is found from sea level to 2,300 m (Spitzenberger 2002).	eng
41280	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The current Eurasian distribution of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> extends from the northern provinces of Spain, to introduced populations in the United Kingdom and southern regions of Scandinavia, south to northern portions of the Middle East, and has naturally expanded east to sections of Siberia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species has been introduced as a game species extensively to countries across the globe.  These countries are: Argentina, Australia, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Falkland Islands, New Zealand (North and South Island), Rèunion, the United Kingdom and the United States (Flux and Angermann 1990). There is recent evidence of an introduced population in Ireland (Reid pers. comm.).  This species can be found at elevations ranging from sea level up to 2,300 m (Spitzenberger 2002)	eng
41280	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H.J., 2008	The current Eurasian distribution of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> extends from the northern provinces of Spain, to introduced populations in the United Kingdom and southern regions of Scandinavia, south to northern portions of the Middle East, and has naturally expanded east to sections of Siberia (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species has been introduced as a game species extensively to countries across the globe.  These countries are: Argentina, Australia, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Falkland Islands, New Zealand (North and South Island), Rèunion, the United Kingdom and the United States (Flux and Angermann 1990). There is recent evidence of an introduced population in Ireland (Reid pers. comm.).  This species can be found at elevations ranging from sea level up to 2,300 m (Spitzenberger 2002)	eng
41280	habitat	Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	A highly adaptable species, it occupies a wide variety of habitats, including grassland, steppes, open temperate woodland, arable farmland, and pastures (Flux and Angermann 1990, Homolka and Zima 1999). It tends to be particularly abundant in open, flat areas where cereal cultivation predominate. Dense old-growth forests are avoided (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). Woodland, scrub, hedges and shelterbelts are used as cover when the species is resting (Homolka and Zima 1999). It feeds mainly on grasses and herbaceous plants. When available, weeds and wild grasses are preferred, but where intensive agricultural practices have reduced the availability of these food sources crop species are selected (Reichlin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Unlike <em>Lepus timidus</em>, it does not feed on shrubs.	eng
41280	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is a highly adaptable species that can persist in any number of habitat types (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a positive association with hare abundance and habitat density and diversity (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  When available, weeds and wild grasses are selected by L. europaeus; however, intensified agro-practices have reduced this food source resulting in the selection of crop species (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>L. europaeus</em> averages three litters/yr, but can vary from one to four litters/yr (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Litter size can vary with respect to the season, smaller litters produced earlier in the season and larger litters later (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  The birth weight of <em>L. europaeus</em> is approximately 100 g (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Gestation is 41-42 days and reproduction occurs year round (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Average life expectancy for this hare is 1.04 years, with a maximum age span in the wild of 12.5 years recorded in Poland (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Females reach maturity around seven to eight months and male at six months (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The total length of L. europaeus is 48.0-70.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).	eng
41280	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H.J., 2008	<em>Lepus europaeus</em> is a highly adaptable species that can persist in any number of habitat types (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a positive association with hare abundance and habitat density and diversity (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  When available, weeds and wild grasses are selected by L. europaeus; however, intensified agro-practices have reduced this food source resulting in the selection of crop species (Reichlin <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>L. europaeus</em> averages three litters/yr, but can vary from one to four litters/yr (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Litter size can vary with respect to the season, smaller litters produced earlier in the season and larger litters later (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  The birth weight of <em>L. europaeus</em> is approximately 100 g (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Gestation is 41-42 days and reproduction occurs year round (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Average life expectancy for this hare is 1.04 years, with a maximum age span in the wild of 12.5 years recorded in Poland (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).  Females reach maturity around seven to eight months and male at six months (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The total length of L. europaeus is 48.0-70.0 cm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).	eng
41280	population	Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	It is considered locally common in at least parts of its range, with typical population densities ranging from 0.2 to 0.7 individuals per hectare (Homolka and Zima 1999). In western and central Europe, the species has undergone significant decline in the last 50 years (Flux and Angermann 1990, Homolka and Zima 1999, Battersby 2005, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005), although there are indications that the population trend has stabilised in recent years in at least some countries (Battersby 2005, Zima pers. comm. 2006). Hunting bags suggest that populations in Finland are currently stable (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006). There is no information on population trends in eastern and south-eastern Europe.	eng
41280	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H.J., 2008	Populations of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> have been experiencing declines in many areas across its geographic range in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Population densities range from 0.1/ha to 3.4/ha (Flux and Angermann 1990). <br/><br/>A study conducted in the Czech Republic found mean hare densities were highest in habitat with the following characteristics (Pikula <em>et al.</em> 2004): elevation: sea level to 200 m (231.47/10 sq. km); annual snow cover duration: 40-60 days (183.95/10 sq. km); mean annual precipitation: 450-700 mm (174.71/10 sq. km); annual sunshine duration: 1801-2000 (169.72/10 sq. km); mean annual air temperature: >10.0?C (245.00/10 sq. km); and Pikula <em>et al.</em> (2004) states the highest mean densities with respect to climatic areas was in: "A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of sunshine; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine; a warm and moderately dry district with mild winter" (227.91/10 sq. km) (Pikula <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41280	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Populations of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> have been experiencing declines in many areas across its geographic range in Europe (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Population densities range from 0.1/ha to 3.4/ha (Flux and Angermann 1990). <br/><br/>A study conducted in the Czech Republic found mean hare densities were highest in habitat with the following characteristics (Pikula <em>et al.</em> 2004): elevation: sea level to 200 m (231.47/10 sq. km); annual snow cover duration: 40-60 days (183.95/10 sq. km); mean annual precipitation: 450-700 mm (174.71/10 sq. km); annual sunshine duration: 1801-2000 (169.72/10 sq. km); mean annual air temperature: >10.0˚C (245.00/10 sq. km); and Pikula <em>et al.</em> (2004) states the highest mean densities with respect to climatic areas was in: "A warm and dry district with mild winter and longer duration of sunshine; a warm and dry district with mild winter and shorter duration of sunshine; a warm and moderately dry district with mild winter" (227.91/10 sq. km) (Pikula <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41280	threats	Giovanni Amori, Jan Zima, Heikki Henttonen, Andrew Smith, Charlotte Johnston, 2006	Agricultural intensification, in particular the increased use of pesticides, fertilizers and heavy machinery in arable farming, is generally considered to be the main cause of population declines in western and central Europe (Homolka and Zima 1999). A recent study that reviewed available literature on the relationship between hare abundance, demography, habitat, and land-use practices in 12 European countries confirmed that the primary cause of hare decline was intensification of agriculture (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is inferred that this threat may impact on the species throughout its global range, wherever farming is practiced. Agricultural intensification in eastern and south-eastern Europe is a potential cause for concern, especially in countries that have recently acceded to the EU, or that may join in the near future. In Greece, restocking with hares from other regions has been identified as a threat to local gene pools (Mamuris <em>et al.</em> 2001). This issue has also been identified as a concern for the Cantabric population in Spain (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is a popular game species throughout it range in Europe, but hunting is regulated and appears sustainable. Smith <em>et al</em>.'s (2005) review found no evidence of a link between hunting pressure and population density.	eng
41280	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	A study, reviewing available literature regarding population densities in connection with habitat that was identified as primarily farmland from 12 European countries, concluded that the primary cause of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> decline was intensification of agriculture (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is inferred that this threat is pertinent to the species across its geographic range where farming is practiced.  Smith <em>et al</em>. (2005) also identified negative associations with predation and precipitation in respect to abundance.  However, "Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on density throughout Europe" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  L. europaeus is susceptible to localized extinction when hare densities become too low (Soule 1987).  In Greece, the restocking of hares has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools (Mamuris <em>et al</em>. 2001).  This issue has also been identified as a concern for the Cantabric population in Spain (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Disease is an additional threat to L. europaeus and several have been identified as the principle sources of mortality (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996). These diseases are European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), Pasteurellosis, Yersiniosis (Pseudo-tuberculosis), Coccidiosis and tularaemia (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Genetic diversity of <em>L. europaeus</em> in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany indicates that hare populations still retain sufficient diversity (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).  However, it is cautioned that restricted gene flow could eventually lead to allelic fixation and inbreeding depression within populations that become isolated (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41280	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H. & Temple, H.J., 2008	A study, reviewing available literature regarding population densities in connection with habitat that was identified as primarily farmland from 12 European countries, concluded that the primary cause of <em>Lepus europaeus</em> decline was intensification of agriculture (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It is inferred that this threat is pertinent to the species across its geographic range where farming is practiced.  Smith <em>et al</em>. (2005) also identified negative associations with predation and precipitation in respect to abundance.  However, "Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on density throughout Europe" (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2005).  L. europaeus is susceptible to localized extinction when hare densities become too low (Soule 1987).  In Greece, the restocking of hares has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools (Mamuris <em>et al</em>. 2001).  This issue has also been identified as a concern for the Cantabric population in Spain (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Disease is an additional threat to L. europaeus and several have been identified as the principle sources of mortality (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996). These diseases are European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), Pasteurellosis, Yersiniosis (Pseudo-tuberculosis), Coccidiosis and tularaemia (Lamarque <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Genetic diversity of <em>L. europaeus</em> in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany indicates that hare populations still retain sufficient diversity (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).  However, it is cautioned that restricted gene flow could eventually lead to allelic fixation and inbreeding depression within populations that become isolated (Fickel <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41281	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Honghe, Liangshui, Xingkaihu, Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  Research should be undertaken to address the lack of data regarding population for <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em>.  Research is also needed to determine the status of habitat for this species (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in China (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41281	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> includes eastern China, the Ussuri region of Russia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005), and may extend into North Korea (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is possibly parapatric with L. coreanus in North Korea (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It inhabits elevations between 300-900 m (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41281	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> is a forest dwelling hare that prefers mixed forest to homogeneous conifer (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species avoids open habitat and human settlements (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is presumed that the ecology of <em>L. mandshuricus</em> is equivalent to that of <em>L. americanus</em>, its New World ecological equivalent (Angermann 1966).  Litter size is usually one to two but periodically can be as high as four to five (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The total length of <em>L. mandshuricus</em> is 41.0-54.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41281	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding population for this species.	eng
41281	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Forest clearing results in loss of habitat for <em>Lepus mandshuricus</em> that promotes replacement by <em>L. tolai</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41282	conservation	Maheswaran, G. & Jordan, M., 2008	This species is listed under the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.  No specific conservation action has been framed to protect the species in the wild in India.  However, a number of individuals are present within sanctuaries and national parks and are somewhat protected from human intervention.  Further taxonomic research is needed for this species, as well as increased public awareness (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41282	distribution	Maheswaran, G. & Jordan, M., 2008	The Indian hare is distributed throughout India, except the high reaches of the Himalayas and mangrove areas within the Sundarbans in the state of West Bengal.  The geographic distribution extends into eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh excluding the Sundarbans (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is thought to occur in Bhutan as well, but exact locations are not known (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This species can be found at elevations ranging from 50-4,500 m (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>This species has been introduced to many islands of the Indian Ocean; Mauritius, Gunnera Quoin, Anskya, Rèunion, and Cousin (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  Lepus nigricollis is considered native to Java by McNeely (1981), but its origin is considered uncertain by Hoffmann and Smith (2005).	eng
41282	habitat	Maheswaran, G. & Jordan, M., 2008	Lepus nigricollis can be seen in wide variety of habitats such as short grasslands, barren agricultural fields, crop fields, and forest roads.  The species can be seen in forests of many types other than the mangroves and tall grassland habitats.  However, one can see the species adjacent to forest areas in agricultural fields.  It breeds throughout the year, but the peak breeding season is during the monsoon season (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Litter size is one to four, but can be higher (Gurung and Singh 1996).  Forbs and grasses constitute the bulk of their diet (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. nigricollis</em> is characterized as a shy species (Gurung and Singh 1996).  It exhibits activity during crepuscular and nocturnal hours (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Total length is 33.0-53.0 cm (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
41282	population	Maheswaran, G. & Jordan, M., 2008	<em>Lepus nigricollis</em> is very common wherever they occur.  However, the population in India is subjected to severe fragmentation due to expanding agricultural fields and pressure on forest in terms of fuel wood collection and sometimes illegal hunting.	eng
41282	threats	Maheswaran, G. & Jordan, M., 2008	Major threats for <em>Lepus nigricollis</em> include habitat destruction and conversion of prime forest areas for agricultural purposes, as well as intensive hunting by locals for meat.  Individual hares, especially the young ones living in the forest areas, are subjected to predation by carnivorous mammals and birds.  <em>L. nigricollis</em> is also threatened by domestic predators, competition from livestock, and human set forest fires (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41283	conservation	Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in protected areas in Nepal (Annapurna, Makalu Barun, Sagarmatha, and Shey Phuskondo) (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In China, it occurs in Qinghaihuniaodao, Wolong, Zhumulangmafeng, Meihualutiebu (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The status of <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> in India has been assessed as Endangered B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii), due to restricted distribution, fragmentation and decline in habitat area and quality (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  However, <em>L. oiostolus</em> was regionally assessed as Least Concern in Nepal (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005) and China (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41283	distribution	Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> includes western and central China, northern regions of Nepal and India (Smith and Xie 2008).  Lepus oiostolus can be found at elevations between 3,000-5,300 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41283	habitat	Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus oiostolus</em> can be found occupying montane subtropical grasslands (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  It also inhabits, "upland grasslands of various types, montane meadows, shrub meadows, and alpine cold desert" (Smith and Xie 2008). Diet is predominantly grasses and herbaceous plants (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species only molts once a year (Flux and Angermann 1990; Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. oiostolus</em> is primarily nocturnal, but can be observed during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).  Breeding season for <em>L. oiostolus</em> begins in April (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species produces two litters annually with four to six young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length is 40.0-58.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41283	population	Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no available data regarding population for <em>Lepus oiostolus</em>.  Flux and Angermann (1990) speculated that numbers were "very low except in a few favored areas."	eng
41283	threats	Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There has been an overall decrease in quality and total area of habitat available to <em>Lepus oiostolus</em> resulting from destruction and fuelwood harvesting (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).  This decline is estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 and is expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015 (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and the inability to migrate (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Subsistence harvesting by locals also poses a threat (Chakraborty <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41284	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	<em>Lepus peguensis</em> is found within protected areas throughout its range.  Research is needed in the following areas: taxonomy, distribution, and behavior (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The evident lack of hares within the mid-altitude ranges of central Indochina, despite suitable habitat, requires further investigation to determine potential taxonomic distinction between low and high altitude hare populations (Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
41284	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	This species occurs in central and southern Myanmar from the Chindwin River valley east through Thailand, Cambodia, southern Lao PDR, southern Viet Nam, and south into the upper Malay Peninsula (Myanmar, Thailand) (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This distribution may include the northern and central regions of Lao PDR, as signs of its presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been identified, but only to the genus level (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1994; Duckworth 1996).  Distribution is enigmatic in the north and east, with few confirmed records.  Thai distribution would suggest that the species has spread with human-related forest loss in the northern highlands of Lao PDR, particularly one might surmise along the lowland valleys.  The mapped range in Myanmar is largely speculative, further work is likely to show that the species is more restricted within this country.  A collection expedition in Thailand (pre-1950's) recorded this species as occurring at 4,300 feet on Doi Ang Ka (modern name Doi Inthanon) (Allen and Coolidge 1940).  Further work is needed to determine the upper limit of this species.	eng
41284	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	This species occupies mostly in low altitude dipterocarp forest, and plain non-forest habitats with numbers especially high in the grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. It can be found in rain/flood-fed low intensity rice fields, but avoids irrigated multi-crop rice fields which cover much of Thailand (Duckworth pers. comm.).  Species appears to be absent from Nakai plateau, Lao PDR, despite what appears to be suitable habitat (possibly due to high altitude) (Evans <em>et al.</em> 2000). Also absent from Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand, again despite suitable habitat at a relatively high altitude (Steinmetz pers. comm.). For these reasons and the fact that there have been numerous field surveys for the species above 700 m without detecting the species (in Thailand and Lao PDR) the 1,200 m upper elevation limit may be too high, though a comprehensive examination of specimens is lacking (Duckworth, Steinmitz, Pattanavibool pers. comm.).  There are insufficient data regarding the home range and population density of <em>Lepus peguensis</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Total length of this species ranges from 36.0-50.0 cm (Corbet and Hill 1992).  <em>L. peguensis</em> may have several litters per year with litter size ranging from one to seven (three to four average) (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  Gestation lasts approximately 35-40 days (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  It is estimated that the longevity of this species is six years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).  This species is crepuscular and nocturnal (Duckworth pers. comm.)  L. peguensis actively feeds at night on grass, bark and twigs (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).	eng
41284	population	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
41284	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in localized areas (Duckworth pers. comm.). The species is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to constitute a major threat (Duckworth, Steinmitz, Pattanavibool pers. comm.).  Habitat in Lao PDR and Viet Nam is regularly burnt during the dry season (February-May), posing a threat to young that may be present (Duckworth pers. comm.)	eng
41285	conservation	Collins, K., Kryger, U., Matthee, C., Keith, M. & van Jaarsveld, A., 2008	<em>L. saxatilis</em> occurs widely throughout its distribution range, which includes many protected areas.  Research in the following areas has been recommended: survey studies, taxonomic, genetic research, and life history (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).  Other has been checked on the Conservation Measures list and is identified as "limiting factor research" (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).  Sustainable utilization has also been identified as a needed management measure (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).	eng
41285	distribution	Collins, K., Kryger, U., Matthee, C., Keith, M. & van Jaarsveld, A., 2008	The geographic range of <em>L. saxatilis</em> includes the southern regions of Namibia (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999), South Africa (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a), Swaziland (Swaziland National Trust Commission 2008) and Lesotho.	eng
41285	habitat	Collins, K., Kryger, U., Matthee, C., Keith, M. & van Jaarsveld, A., 2008	<em>L. saxatilis</em> starts foraging at dusk and continues throughout the night (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It, "prefers scrub or savanna woodland habitat with grass cover but easily takes to agriculturally developed areas" (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004b).  Home range is variable depending on habitat type and season (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004b).  Reproduction is suspected to be year round with a peak breeding season occurring from September to February (Happold pers. comm.)  HB length of this species ranges from 45.0-76.8 cm (Happold pers. comm.)	eng
41285	population	Collins, K., Kryger, U., Matthee, C., Keith, M. & van Jaarsveld, A., 2008	<em>L. saxatilis</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution.  Population trend for this species has been declining and is expected to continue to decline by at least 20% until the year 2104 (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).<br/><br/>Population size: >10,000	eng
41285	threats	Collins, K., Kryger, U., Matthee, C., Keith, M. & van Jaarsveld, A., 2008	Habitat fragmentation resulting from agriculture, commercial plantations, and development are threats to this species (Kryger <em>et al.</em> 2004a).  Hunting pressure has reduced population sizes, especially in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Kryger <em>et al</em>. 2004a).	eng
41286	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in the following nature reserves; Niumulin, Wuyishan, Nanling, Heishidingkuoyelin, Damingshan (Guangxi), Dayaoshanshuiyuanlin (Guangxi), Shiwandashan, Leigongshan, Maolan, Jiugongshan, Taoyuandong, Dongdongtinghu (Hunan), Bamianshan, Mangshan, Poyanghuhouniao, Yanquan, Taohongling, Jinggangshan, Nanjiliedao, Qingliangfeng, Tianmushan, Gutianshan, Wuyanling, and Dawuling (CSIS 2008).  Research should be conducted to determine the distribution and status of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> to investigate possible isolation due to increasing agricultural practices (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species was regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in China (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41286	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in southeastern China from the Yangtse River southward. It is also found on Taiwan, with minor range in northeast Viet Nam (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). There are a few records of hares west of the range of this species and it is not known if they belong to <em>Lepus sinensis</em> or <em>L. peguensis</em> (Duckworth pers. comm.).  <em>L. sinensis</em> can be found occupying bamboo at elevations up to 4,000-5,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41286	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Records of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> suggest a relatively low altitudinal distribution.  This species inhabits hilly expanses with open edge grassland and scrubby vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  The total length of <em>L. sinensis</em> is 35.0-45.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet consists of leafy plants, green shoots and twigs (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. sinensis</em> is nocturnal, but is occasionally active during daylight hours (Smith and Xie 2008).  The breeding season extends from April to August with an average litter size of three (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41286	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Populations of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> in Viet Nam are thought to be very small, with the last confirmed records from the 1990s. The species was surveyed recently in Viet Nam (by Phan Trong Anh) without detection (Do Touc pers. comm.).  There are no data regarding population for the remaining distribution for this species.	eng
41286	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In Viet Nam, the original range of <em>Lepus sinensis</em> was very small, in a heavily populated region.  Habitat for this species is in decline and it is inferred from heavy hunting pressure on other species, that hunting is likely a major threat for this species in Viet Nam (Do Touk pers. comm.).	eng
41287	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Research is needed for <em>Lepus starcki</em> in the areas of biology and habitat requirements (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species is recorded as "quite abundant and sufficiently represented in existing protected areas" (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  It is present in Bale Mountains protected area (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
41287	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus starcki</em> is restricted to the Ethiopian Highlands (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It occurs on the Bale Mountains (Flux and Angermann 1990).  <em>L. starcki</em> occurs at elevations of 2,140 m to 4,380 m (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41287	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding the ecology of this species (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  This species occupies grassland and Afro-alpine moorland habitats within its range (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 1999).  HB length of <em>Lepus starki</em> is 44.0-54.4 cm (Happold pers. comm.).	eng
41287	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The population status of <em>Lepus starcki</em> is reported as being "relatively numerous" (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41287	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41288	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Research should be conducted to ascertain the ecological role of this species within the sage steppe ecosystem (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Furthermore, efforts should be made to determine the "life-history, demography, and predator-prey relationship" (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  It is also recommended that this species be removed from the 'varmint' list produced by the State of Wyoming (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  More data are needed to understand the factors that operate when <em>L. californicus</em> and <em>L. townsendii</em> occur sympatrically (Flinders and Chapman 2003).	eng
41288	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus townsendii</em> has a wide geographic distribution.  Its current distribution extends across the southern regions of Canada, including south-central British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba and the extreme southwest of Ontario (Flux and Angermann 1990).  The distribution within the USA includes: Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Nebraska, Kansas, North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This distribution represents an expansion from its historical distribution, which resulted from the creation of suitable habitat (see reference for map) (Lim 1987).  There is some debate to whether this species was introduced to Wisconsin (Lim 1987).  Some treatments indicate that this species has been extirpated from Nebraska and Kansas, and recent distribution maps exclude Missouri (Flinders and Chapman 2003).  <em>L. townsendii</em> is excluded from some areas of its range resulting from the expansion of <em>L. californicus</em> (Lim 1987).  This species was recorded at an elevation of 4,319 m on Mt. Bross, Colorado (Lim 1987).  Its lower limit is recorded as 30 m on the Columbian plains (Lim 1987).	eng
41288	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The primary habitat of <em>Lepus townsendii</em> is open prairie and plains, but will vary with locality (Flux and Angermann 1990).  They are also found on montane pastures among scattered evergreens to 3,100 m altitude in Colorado (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Diet of this species is predominantly grasses and forbs, with shrubs during the winter (Lim 1987). The total length of <em>L. townsendii</em> is 56.5 - 65.5 cm (Hall and Kelson 1959).  The breeding season was recorded to extend from late February through mid-July in North Dakota (Flux and Angermann 1990).  A similar breeding season was recorded in Wyoming (Rogowitz 1992).  The season is shortened in the northern extent of its range to May through early July (Lim 1987).  The gestation period is variable; one account sets it as low as one month and another as high as 43 days (Lim 1987).  It is thought that elevation and latitude may influence total gestation time (Lim 1987).  Breeding conditions and environmental factors influence the total number of litters produced each year (Lim 1987).  Common litter size is recorded as four to five young, with total litters per year ranging from one to 11 (Bear and Hansen 1966).  Longevity is unknown but speculated to be up to five years (Forsyth 1999).	eng
41288	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Sightings of <em>L. townsendii</em> have declined in Grand Teton National Park since 1970, from sightings characterized as "numerous" and "common" to only three individuals since 1978 (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  This may represent a satellite population, resulting from the continuous distribution within the Gros Ventre River corridor that leads to the Upper Green River Basin (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  In Yellowstone National Park, where the species was once considered abundant, no sightings have been confirmed since the 1990's  (Berger 2008).  Cause(s) for extirpation from both parks is currently unknown (Berger 2006; Berger 2008).	eng
41288	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are numerous hypothesized factors contributing to the decline of <em>Lepus townsendii</em> in Wyoming (Berger <em>et al.</em> 2006).  These are listed as "inclement weather (e.g., severe winter), disease, predation, human persecution, habitat change, high ungulate biomass, and change" (Berger <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Habitat alteration has led to the exclusion of <em>L. townsendii</em> where the distribution expansion of <em>L. californicus</em> has occurred (Lim 1987).	eng
41289	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Awash National Park, Mago National Park, and possibly Yangudi-Rassa National Park (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).  It has been suggested that the range of <em>Lepus habessinicus</em> may be expanding into areas where overgrazing occurs (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Research to determine its true geographic distribution should be conducted.	eng
41289	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus habessinicus</em> includes Somalia (excluding the southern region, eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and minor distribution in Sudan and possible distribution in the extreme north of Kenya (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1986).  It is suspected that this species' distribution is expanding into areas where overgrazing occurs (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This species can be found at elevations that range from sea level up to 2,000 m (potentially as high as 2,500 m) (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
41289	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus habessinicus</em> occupies a variety of habitats from open grassland, steppe, and savanna, to desert regions, where some shrub is required for cover (Flux and Angermann 1990).  In these habitats, <em>L. habessinicus</em> replaces <em>L. capensis</em> (Flux and Angermann 1990).  Other <em>Lepus</em> species occupy areas where shrub cover is denser (Flux and Angermann 1990).  It is suspected that <em>L. habessinicus</em> is nocturnal, like the Cape hare (Flux and Angermann 1990).  HB length of this species is 40.0-55.0 cm (Happold pers. comm.).	eng
41289	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus habessinicus</em> is considered an abundant species (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41289	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41291	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Conservation for <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> was delayed for several decades after their decline became apparent.  Efforts began to take shape in the late 1980's due to previous political isolation of its native range and the lack of information on the species as a keystone to Iberian ecosystems. The issue of eradication of <em>O. cuniculus</em> from introduced areas (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have diminished the appearance of rabbit decline in its native range.  Increased interest in the specialist predators that depend upon the rabbits and the issue of the sustainability of hunting populations have brought <em>O. cuniculus</em> into the public eye, but fail to address some issues of rabbit conservation, such as its role as an ecosystem modeler and the effects of agriculture on populations (Gibb 1990, Ward 2005).<br/><br/><em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> occurs in some protected areas within its natural range, including Donana National Park in Spain (Ward 2005) and Serra da Malcata Nature reserve in Portugal (700 km²) where the Iberian lynx is protected.<br/><br/>Dan Ward's 2005 report outlines specific goals needed to achieve rabbit recovery:<br/>- Establish rabbit monitoring programs to accurately describe decline directly.<br/>- Create and implement a management plan for rabbit recovery that prioritizes critical ranges and populations. Some plans have begun for local regions, including Donana National park.  <br/>- Programs to limit the incidence and impact of new and existing diseases may be difficult in the wild, though some success has been observed in captive populations.  Current vaccines do not confer total immunity to RHD or myxomatosis, have side effects such as increasing vulnerability to predators, and have short-lived effectiveness.  A genetically modified live myxomatosis virus vaccine, LapinVac, is controversial because of the possibility of unpredictable evolution of the virus, and its potential spread to rabbit populations outside the natural <em>O. cuniculus</em> range where eradication, not conservation, is the objective. Increasing habitat quality may indirectly help rabbit disease resistance.  Controlling disease vectors for myxomatosis has not been found to be effective.  Preventing the spread of modified immunocontraceptive viruses engineered in Australia to control rabbit fertility may become an issue.<br/>- Reducing hunting impact is not guaranteed to reduce decline because disease effects often outweigh hunting as a threat, and because implementation of restrictions would likely not be realistic given the prevalence of hunting in Iberia.  Revisions to existing hunting seasons have been proposed and some tested, but even moving the season to summer when rabbits are most abundant has caused concern in trials because the overall catch increases and the season coincides with a peak in death from disease.  A growing recognition among hunters of the issue of rabbit decline has led to some self-restraint, and though often well intentioned, uninformed management strategies are leading to inappropriate actions.  Rather than focusing on hunting restraint, many hunters exert efforts to reduce rabbit predators, which are not directly responsible for decline.  As a very large demographic, hunters could represent a powerful force in maintaining sustainable hunting populations, if the awareness of the issue of decline increased within this group.<br/>- Rabbit populations affected by agriculture represent a sensitive issue, as rabbits are typically seen as a pest and an economic liability for farmers.  Despite pressures from environmental groups, many farmers continue to take measures to eradicate rabbits from their land, even in areas where rabbit populations have declined dramatically.  Awareness among farmers of rabbit conservation issues is low.  Government policy allows farmers to control rabbits with permits, and though crop loss due to rabbit damage is economically subsidized, no requirement of those compensated is made for conservation.  <br/>- Halting and reversing habitat loss and fragmentation was aided in the 1990s by the establishment of many national parks in Spain, but much optimal rabbit habitat is on private land.  A shift from high-intensity farming and monoculture forestry back to mixed agro-forestry and small scale farming would help sustain rabbit populations.  Natura 2000 promotion of sustainable development and EU subsidies supporting environmentally friendly agriculture are promising but underfunded and too new to demonstrate a significant impact. Eucalyptus plantation removal has demonstrated a positive effect on rabbit populations, but may compromise other environmental issues such as erosion and conditioned bird habitat, as well as economic impact.  <br/>- Reintroductions have been a key focus of conservation efforts, with up to 500,000 released annually in Spain and France.  The efforts so far have not increased rabbit populations, due to increased mortality from predation and inadvertent spread of disease, which may actually have a net negative impact.  The flaws in reintroduction practices do not completely negate the importance of the efforts, which have been shown to help sustain predators and hunting populations.  The success of reintroductions may be increased by fencing from predators and competitors and preventing dispersal.<br/>- Though rabbit predators have not directly caused rabbit decline, factors that have caused initial decline (e.g. disease, habitat loss) are exacerbated by some opportunistic predators (while not caused by specialist predators like the Iberian lynx and Imperial eagle).  Game keeping efforts to increase rabbit populations often focus on predator reduction, sometimes counter productively, causing decline of top predators that are already threatened.  Efforts could be more productively focused on habitat protection, reduction of rabbit mortality by humans (hunting and poisoning), and reducing disease impacts.<br/><br/>The importance of <em>O. cuniculus</em> within its natural range requires that it be considered for listing in spite of its global abundance. It is a keystone to the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and as a landscape modeler (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ward 2005).  It is an important game species in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005).	eng
41291	conservation	Andrew Smith and Anna Boyer, 2006	The issue of eradication of <em>O. cuniculus</em> from its introduced range (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and many islands) may have overshadowed the significance of rabbit decline in its native range. However, the importance of <em>O. cuniculus</em> within its natural range necessitates that it be considered for listing as threatened in spite of its global abundance. It is a keystone component of the Iberian ecosystem, as prey for specialist predators (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and as a landscape modeller (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ward 2005). It is an important game species in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005). <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> occurs in some protected areas within its natural range, including Donana National Park in Spain (Ward 2005) and Serra da Malcata Nature reserve in Portugal (700km<sup>2</sup>) where the Iberian lynx is protected.<br/><br/>Ward (2005) summarises key issues regarding the conservation of the European rabbit within its native range: <br/>"- Establish rabbit monitoring programs to accurately describe decline directly.<br/>- Create and implement a management plan for rabbit recovery that prioritizes critical ranges and populations. Some plans have begun for local regions, including Donana National park.  <br/>- Programs to limit the incidence and impact of new and existing diseases may be difficult in the wild, though some success has been observed in captive populations. Current vaccines do not confer total immunity to RHD or myxomatosis, have side effects such as increasing vulnerability to predators, and have short-lived effectiveness. A genetically modified live myxomatosis virus vaccine, LapinVac, is controversial because of the possibility of unpredictable evolution of the virus, and its potential spread to rabbit populations outside the natural <em>O. cuniculus</em> range where eradication, not conservation, is the objective. Increasing habitat quality may indirectly help rabbit disease resistance. Controlling disease vectors for myxomatosis has not been found to be effective. Preventing the spread of modified immunocontraceptive viruses engineered in Australia to control rabbit fertility may become an issue.<br/>- Reducing hunting impact is not guaranteed to reduce decline because disease effects often outweigh hunting as a threat, and because implementation of restrictions would likely not be realistic given the prevalence of hunting in Iberia. Revisions to existing hunting seasons have been proposed and some tested, but even moving the season to summer when rabbits are most abundant has caused concern in trials because the overall catch increases and the season coincides with a peak in death from disease. A growing recognition among hunters of the issue of rabbit decline has led to some self-restraint, and though often well intentioned, uninformed management strategies are leading to inappropriate actions. Rather than focusing on hunting restraint, many hunters exert efforts to reduce rabbit predators, which are not directly responsible for decline. As a very large demographic, hunters could represent a powerful force in maintaining sustainable hunting populations, if the awareness of the issue of decline increased within this group.<br/>- Rabbit populations affected by agriculture represent a sensitive issue, as rabbits are typically seen as a pest and an economic liability for farmers. Despite pressures from environmental groups, many farmers continue to take measures to eradicate rabbits from their land, even in areas where rabbit populations have declined dramatically. Awareness among farmers of rabbit conservation issues is low. Government policy allows farmers to control rabbits with permits, and though crop loss due to rabbit damage is economically subsidized, no requirement of those compensated is made for conservation.<br/>- Halting and reversing habitat loss and fragmentation was aided in the 1990s by the establishment of many national parks in Spain, but much optimal rabbit habitat is on private land. A shift from high-intensity farming and monoculture forestry back to mixed agro-forestry and small scale farming would help sustain rabbit populations. Natura 2000 promotion of sustainable development and EU subsidies supporting environmentally friendly agriculture are promising but underfunded and too new to demonstrate a significant impact. Eucalyptus plantation removal has demonstrated a positive effect on rabbit populations, but may compromise other environmental issues such as erosion and conditioned bird habitat, as well as economic impact.<br/>- Reintroductions have been a key focus of conservation efforts, with up to 500,000 released annually in Spain and France. The efforts so far have not increased rabbit populations, due to increased mortality from predation and inadvertent spread of disease, which may actually have a net negative impact. The flaws in reintroduction practices do not completely negate the importance of the efforts, which have been shown to help sustain predators and hunting populations. The success of introductions may be increased by fencing from predators and competitors and preventing dispersal.<br/>- Though rabbit predators have not directly caused rabbit decline, factors that have caused initial decline (e.g., disease, habitat loss) are exacerbated by some opportunistic predators (while not caused by specialist predators like the Iberian lynx and Imperial eagle). Game keeping efforts to increase rabbit populations often focus on predator reduction, sometimes counterproductively, causing decline of top predators that are already threatened. Efforts could be more productively focused on habitat protection, reduction of rabbit mortality by humans (hunting, poisoning), and reducing disease impacts."	eng
41291	distribution	Andrew Smith and Anna Boyer, 2006	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> is a widespread and abundant species, which has been introduced to all continents except Antartica. It was originally restricted to Spain, Portugal, western France, and northern Africa, but it has spread over the last two millenia to almost all parts of the European region, including the British Isles, many Mediterranean islands, the Azores, and Madeira. This range expansion occurred partly because of deliberate introductions, as the rabbit was widely exploited as a food source, and partly through natural spread. It remains absent from most of Fennoscandia, and occurs only sporadically on the Balkan peninsula. Outside Europe, it was introduced to Australia, in 1788 and again in 1859, where it is now widespread (Thompson and King 1994). It was introduced to South America unsuccessfully several times since the mid-nineteenth century, and successfully in about 1936; it now maintains a limited range in Argentina and Chile (Thompson and King 1994). Found in many islands in the Pacific, off the African coast, New Zealand, and the Caribbean (Thompson and King 1994).	eng
41291	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Original distribution after last ice age included Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) to western France and northern Africa, and the introduction throughout western Europe is thought to have occurred as early as the Roman period (Gibb 1990, Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Currently ranges through all Western European countries, Ireland and the UK (including islands), Austria, parts of Sweden, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, and Mediterranean islands Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, the Balearics (Thompson and King 1994), Croatia, and Slovakia (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Introduced to Australia, in 1788 and again in 1859, where it is now widespread (Thompson and King 1994). Introduced to South America unsuccessfully several times since the mid-nineteenth century, successfully in about 1936 where it maintains limited range in Argentina and Chile (Thompson and King 1994).  Found in many islands in the Pacific, off the African coast, New Zealand, and the Caribbean (Thompson and King 1994).<br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> is usually found below 1,500 m in elevation (Fa <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41291	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> prefers a mixed habitat of Mediterranean oak savanna or scrub-forest, or areas with around 40% cover for shelter from predators and open areas that support their diet of grasses and cereals (Thompson and  King 1994; Ward 2005).  <em>O. cuniculus</em> builds warrens in soft soil, but find shelter in scrub in rocky areas, though predation risk is higher in above ground dwellings.  The natural range of the Iberian peninsula and northern Africa is warm and dry (Angulo 2003), rarely occurring above 1,500 m (Fa <em>et al.</em> 1999).  The rabbits are territorial and tend to live and forage in colony groups of up to 20 adults (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), and are crepuscular (Ward 2005).  <br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> can breed throughout the year (uncommon in lagomorphs), though this is limited by climate and resource availability (Bell and Webb 1991).  They raise altricial young between three and six at a time, which leave the warren in under a month (Gibb 1990). Females reach sexual maturity on average in 3.5 months, males 4 months, and can live up to 9 years (Macdonald and Barrett 1993), though many succumb to predation and other perils much earlier.  Up to 75% of young rabbits are killed by predators before they establish a territory (Chapman and Flux 1990, Angulo 2004). Annual mortality was 30% in a studied island population (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). The head-body length of <em>O. cuniculus</em> is 34-50 mm (Macdonald and Barrett 1993).<br/><br/><em>O. cuniculus</em> is a keystone species, composing the diet of over forty species, several of which specialize in <em>O. cuniculus</em> (Delibes and Hiraldo 1981).  The diet of the Iberian lynx consists of 80-100% rabbits (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000), the Imperial eagle consumes 40-80% of its diet in rabbits, and the decline of <em>O. cuniculus</em> has been linked to the near extinction of these two predators (Zofio and Vega 2000).  <br/><br/>O. cuniculus is responsible for landscape modelling that supports vegetation growth typical to Spain and Portugal and creates habitat for invertebrate species (Virgos <em>et al</em>. 2005), increases species richness, and increase soil fertility (Willott <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41291	habitat	Andrew Smith and Anna Boyer, 2006	The rabbit occupies a variety of habitats, including grassland, meadows, pastures, arable field-margins, sand-dunes, grassy cliffs, heathland and open woodland. In summer, it feeds on the vegetative parts of a variety of grasses and herbaceous plants, and in winter it eats grasses, bulbs and bark (Macdonald and Barrett 1993). It can be an agricultural pest in areas where it is abundant, and it has caused severe damage to native ecosystems in some areas where it has been introduced (for example Australia) (Ward 2005). Rabbits are an essential keystone element of the Mediterranean ecosystem in Spain and Portugal, being preyed on by at least 39 predator species including the Critically Endangered Iberian lynx <em>Lynx pardinus</em> and the vulnerable and range-restricted Iberian imperial eagle <em>Aquila adalberti</em> (Ward 2005, BirdLife International 2006). Rabbit declines are considered to have had a negative impact on both of these threatened species (Ward 2005, BirdLife International 2006).	eng
41291	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> decline has escalated in recent years.  In Spain the rabbit has declined to 20% of the population size from 1975 (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005). As of 2005, rabbit populations in the Iberian peninsula have declined to as little as 5% of the number from 1950, based on the decrease in Donana National Park, a protected area (Delibes <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Density of rabbits has been recorded at a maximum of 40 per hectare in prime habitat, though the abundance has declined significantly since the arrival of new threats in the mid 20th century (Angulo 2004). <br/><br/>In Portugal, a population reduction of 24% was recorded between 1995 and 2002 (Alves and Ferreira 2002).<br/><br/>Decline has been uneven across the range, due to varying degrees of threat (Ward 2005).	eng
41291	population	Andrew Smith and Anna Boyer, 2006	It is a common species throughout much of its European range. Population densities of 0.5 to 10 individuals per hectare are typical, with densities of up to 100 individuals per hectare having been recorded (Homolka and Zima 1999). However, in at least some parts of Europe the species has undergone significant decline in recent years. In Portugal, a population reduction of 24% was recorded between 1995 and 2002 (Alves and Ferreira 2002), and in Spain and Portugal as a whole it is estimated that there are now as few as 5% of the number of rabbits that existed 50 years ago (Ward 2005). Large declines since 1990 have also been noted in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005) and Germany (Eylert 2004), and in the UK the species declined significantly between 1995 and 2002 (different survey methods give a 48% decline from 1995-2002 and a 23% decline from 1997-2002: Battersby 2005). Subspecies <em>O. c. huxleyi</em>, which occurs on certain Atlantic and Mediterranean islands, has a restricted range and may be threatened (Homolka and Zima 1999).	eng
41291	threats	Andrew Smith and Anna Boyer, 2006	Myxomatosis caused severe population declines in the 1950s, but numbers subsequently rallied as the myxoma virus become less virulent and the rabbit more immune (Macdonald and Barrett 1993, Macdonald and Tattersall 2001). Myxomatosis was deliberately introduced to Europe in 1952 in an effort to control rabbit numbers; it originates from South America (Ward 2005). Declines in recent years have been attributed to Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD; also known as DHV), myxomatosis, and over-hunting (Ward 2005, Spitzenberger 2005). RHD is believed to have originated in Europe, where it was first detected in 1987 (Ward 2005). Habitat loss (due to agriculture, forestry, development, forest fires and land abandonment) is considered to be a contributory factor to rabbit decline in Iberia (Ward 2005). It is a popular game species, and over-hunting may be a problem in some parts of its range. Pest control measures may cause local population declines. There have been attempts in Australia to develop a genetically modified immunocontraceptive virus for rabbits, and accidental or deliberate illegal spread of such a virus could be a threat to rabbits in the future (Henzell and Cooke 2003, Trout 2003, Ward 2005).	eng
41291	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	The greatest force behind the decline of <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> has been two diseases that appeared in the 20th century.  Myxomatosis is a South American virus, primarily spread by insect (mosquito and flea) vectors, that was intentionally introduced by a farmer in the mid 1950s in France to control the rabbit population (Angulo and Cooke 2002).   An estimated 90% of European rabbits have perished due to myxomatosis since the 1950s (Virgos <em>et al.</em> 2005). After symptom onset, death results in an average of 13 days (Ward 2005).  Rabbits with the virus are made more vulnerable to predators (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  Juveniles are more susceptible to myxomatosis than adults. Myxomatosis cases peak during early summer to fall (Angulo 2004). <br/><br/>Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) is a virus that appeared in Europe in the late 1980’s, initially causing the death of 55-75% of rabbits in the Iberian peninsula (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  RHD is primarily spread by direct contact.  Death typically results within 24 hours of symptom onset, with a short incubation time of under 48 hours (Villafuerte <em>et al</em>. 1995).  Adult rabbits are more susceptible to RHD than juveniles (unlike myxomatosis), and RHD is more prevalent in late winter and spring (Angulo 2004).  Global warming may increase disease incidence by creating a warmer, drier climate in Spain and Portugal (Ward 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and fragmentation are continuing causes of decline for <em>O. cuniculus</em>, which requires scrub-forest vegetation for food and shelter (Ward 2005).  Modern intensive agriculture negatively impacts rabbits more than small scale mixed farming, which may have initially increased suitable habitat within the rabbit’s natural range (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000).  High intensity livestock production contributes to habitat degradation and resource competition.  Fallow farm land often returns to closed forest rather than scrub, which is not a suitable habitat (Ward 2005).  Tree plantations planted in Spain and Portugal have replaced habitat for both rabbits and their predators and urbanization presents a threat as does increased fire danger in existing habitat, and climate change (Ward 2005). <br/><br/>Exploitation of <em>O. cuniculus</em> by humans has recently become a threat, especially as the populations are already declining due to other causes, so rabbits cannot sustain hunting and control measures as well as in the past.  Farmers control rabbit populations directly by poisoning, trapping, and destroying warrens.  They indirectly cause decline through habitat conversion and excessive pesticide and fertilizer use.  Hunting presents a threat to rabbit populations, compounded by their existing decline from disease, possibly eliminating many rabbits that have acquired resistance to the diseases (Delibes <em>et al</em>. 2000).  70% of Spain is designated as hunting area.  Hunter registration doubled between 1960 and 2005 (Angulo 2003), though the overall catch is declining, probably due to shrinking rabbit abundance (Ward 2005).<br/><br/>Future threats to the European rabbit may include a genetically modified version of the myxomatosis virus being developed in Australia to suppress rabbit fertility where the European rabbit has been introduced (ABC 2003).  Unlicensed release of the modified virus to the native range could devastate the remaining populations (Ward 2005).	eng
41292	conservation	Collins, K. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> is found in protected areas within its range, including the Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>It is possible that no form of additional protection may be required (Duthie and Robinson 1990), but more research regarding population size, ecology, and the effects of threats should be conducted.	eng
41292	distribution	Collins, K. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Specimen records included in a 1974 report (Kingdon 1974) indicate that <em>Poelagus marjorita</em> occurs in two separate areas of central Africa. This report and a later review (Duthie and Robinson 1990) concluded that the northern extent of the larger range stretches from southeastern Chad through southern Sudan to northwestern Kenya, through most of Uganda (excluding the extreme southeast), western Rwanda and Burundi, northern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, former Zaire), all of Central African Republic (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Kingdon 1974). The second area is predominantly in northwestern Angola and southwestern DRC (Kingdon 1974; Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>A new survey of specimen distribution (Happold and Wendelen 2006) proposes that the distribution of <em>P. marjorita</em> is actually smaller than previous accounts have reported. Based on specimen records, there is no indication that <em>P. marjorita</em> exists in Angola, southern DRC, northwestern Kenya, Rwanda, Chad, or Burundi. The accounts are restricted to Uganda, southern Sudan, northeastern DRC, and eastern (and possibly central) Central African Republic (Happold and Wendelen 2006).	eng
41292	habitat	Collins, K. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> exists primarily in moist savanna grassland, woodlands with rocky outcrops, and less prominently in forested areas (Duthie and Robinson 1990). They often dwell in rock crevices, and are associated in some areas with hyrax habitat (Kingdon 1974). It is a nocturnal feeder, foraging on flowers, newly sprouted grasses, and "much attracted to heavily grazed, newly mowed or burnt areas where the grass is short" (Duthie and Robinson 1990). The primary habitat of grassland is periodically burnt and grazed, which provides for a more frequent supply of sprouted plants (Kingdon 1974).  <br/><br/>Breeding probably occurs throughout the year (Duthie and Robinson 1990). Gestation is around 5 weeks (Kingdon 1974) with litters of one or two altricial young (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41292	population	Collins, K. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Poelagus marjorita</em> is widespread and common within some parts of its range, including northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan, though little is known about abundance in other areas (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41292	threats	Collins, K. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Little is known about the threats to <em>Poelagus marjorita</em>. Though the grassland habitat is annually or biannually burnt leaving the rabbit vulnerable to predators, this pattern actually promotes vegetation growth included in <em>P. marjorita</em>’s diet (Kingdon 1974). <br/><br/><em>P. marjorita</em> is hunted locally and some of its habitat is utilized for cultivation of peanuts and rice, but little is known of the effects of these threats (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41293	conservation	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> exists in abundance in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges within its range, and protected seasonally as a game species by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Sustainable utilization is recommended, as well as research in the areas of life history, genetics, and survey studies (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41293	distribution	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is found in south-eastern South Africa (provinces of Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Mpumalanga), Swaziland (Lumbobo and highveld regions), southern Mozambique (Maputo Province), and eastern Lesotho (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999; Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is found from sea level to 1,550 m in elevation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and area of occupancy greater than 2,001 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41293	habitat	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> occurs in rocky areas on hill and mountain slopes with grass or scrub vegetation (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  The habitat of P. crassicaudatus is naturally fragmented due to the distribution of suitable habitat (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. crassicaudatus</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990)	eng
41293	population	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution, though the population is experiencing a decline due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting/trapping pressure in rural areas where the rabbit occurs (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Greater than 10,000 mature individuals exist (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There is a predicted decline in total population of 20% or more until the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41293	threats	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</em> is found in a limited area in coastal and inland southern Africa.  Here, human populations largely of lower income who hunt local fauna for subsistence are increasing, thereby increasing the threat to this otherwise abundant species (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Agriculture and habitat encroachment are also causing a decline of <em>P. crassicaudatus</em> (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Since the 1900's, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss (until 2022) is expected to remain between 21-50% (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41294	conservation	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	In South Africa, <em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges, and is seasonally protected by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies as a game species (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41294	distribution	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in northeastern South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, and a separate population exists marginally in western Angola to central Namibia (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41294	habitat	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> occurs in rocky areas on hill or mountainsides with grass or scrub vegetation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). Tracts of unsuitable habitat cause natural fragmentation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. randensis</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  This species breeds year round and has 1-2 young per litter (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41294	population	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	<em>Pronolagus randensis</em> is fairly common throughout its distribution (Duthie and Robinson 1990). There is no evidence of gene flow between the two isolated populations (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Greater than 10,000 individuals exist in South Africa (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Future decline in total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41294	threats	Matthee, C., Collins, K. & Keith, M., 2008	Some decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine and eucalyptus within <em>Pronolagus randensis</em> habitat (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Since the 1900s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2102 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Hunting of <em>P. randensis</em> occurs for food and sport (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41295	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	In South Africa, <em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs in national and provincial parks and wildlife refuges, and is seasonally protected by Provincial Nature Conservation agencies as a game species (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Sustainable utilization is recommended, as well as research in the areas of status surveys and life history (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Few data exist for the east African distribution and research should be conducted in the areas of threats,  population and habitat status.  Taxonomic revision is also suggested for this species.	eng
41295	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs in South Africa (Free State, North-West, and Northern Cape provinces), and Lesotho, and in a separate population in south-western Kenya, central Tanzania, eastern Zambia, and Malawi (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999; Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).   It is no longer thought to occur in Namibia as indicated by other treatments (Bronner <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is greater than 20,000 km², and the area of occupancy is greater than 2,000 km² (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41295	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> occurs on rocky slopes and the tops of rocky outcrops of mountains and hills, where grass or scrub vegetation occurs (Duthie and Robinson 1990; Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004). Areas of unsuitable habitat cause some natural habitat fragmentation (Duthie and Robinson 1990). <br/><br/>The diet of <em>P. rupestris</em> consists of sprouting grasses (Duthie and Robinson 1990).  Litter size is 1-2 young (Duthie and Robinson 1990).	eng
41295	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	This species is characterized as abundant in the Springbok and Kuruman areas of its distribution (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It has a population size of greater than 10,000 in South Africa (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In South Africa, population decline of greater than 10% is predicted to occur by the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  There is no data regarding the status of the east African distribution.	eng
41295	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Hunting of <em>Pronolagus rupestris</em> poses a threat to the species (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Habitat loss due to building houses on rocky outcrops also occurs, but this is not currently considered a serious threat (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).  There has been a greater than 20% loss of habitat since the 1900's and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until the year 2022 (Matthee <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41296	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	Hunting of <em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is managed individually by state wildlife agencies (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Because <span style="font-style: italic;">S. aquaticus</span> occurs in many instances on small tracts of private land, management becomes problematic (Scheibe and Henson 2003). Increasing the area of continuous tracts of suitable habitat may be key to <em>S. aquaticus</em> conservation (Scheibe and Henson 2003).<br/><br/><em>S. aquaticus</em> is currently found in three managed areas in Missouri: Mingo National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Duck Creek Conservation Area, and Donaldson Point Conservation Area (Scheibe and Henson 2003). It also occurs in White River NWR in Arkansas, Panther Swamp NWR, Mathews Brake NWR, Hillside NWR, and Morgan Brake NWR in Mississippi, Atchafalaya NWR in Louisiana, Deep Fork NWR in Oklahoma, and Chickasaw NWR in Tennessee (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2006).	eng
41296	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> occurs in the southeastern United States in eastern Texas and Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, most of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, the western tip of the Florida panhandle, western Georgia, western Tennessee, far western Kentucky, the northwestern tip of South Carolina, far southern Illinois, and the south sections of Missouri (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/><em>S. a. littoralis</em> occurs only in the southern gulf coastal section of the range. <em>S. a. aquaticus</em> occurs in the northern section of the range, more common in dense forest (Chapman and Feldhamer 1981, Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41296	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> occurs in swampy, lowland, or river bottom areas, always near water (Chapman and Feldhamer 1981). Forested wetlands and lowland hardwood forests are also preferred (Scheibe and Henson 2003). The amphibious nature of <em>S. aquaticus</em> offers it some protection from predators and hunters (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. aquaticus</em> prefers a diet of sedges and also feeds on grasses and forbs (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/>Females have litter sizes from one to six, and produce two to five litters per year (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is 35-40 days (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998).	eng
41296	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is an important game species in much of its range and is known to be locally abundant in some areas and appears to be declining in others (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Barbour <em>et al.</em> 2001; Scheibe and Henson 2003). Few studies have been conducted to determine the abundance or decline of <em>S. aquaticus</em>.<br/><br/>In Missouri, the overall area of suitable habitat is decreasing, but there are still several viable populations within the known range, and there is some indication that new populations have recently been naturally established, possibly due to dispersal facilitated by flooding (Scheibe and Henson 2003). <br/><br/>In Illinois, a 1995-1997 study showed a stable distribution of <em>S. aquaticus</em> in this range over the previous ten years (Barbour <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In Louisiana, there are large tracts of suitable habitat and it is an important game species (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>In South Carolina, Rabbit Hunter Survey 2006-2007 shows that there is a decline in rabbits jumped/hour, 1.39 (2006) to 1.26 (2007) (South Carolina Rabbit Hunter Survey, 2006-2007).	eng
41296	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus aquaticus</em> is a favourite game species, though its speed, ability to swim, and nature of its habitat offers some protection from hunters and predators (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). Hunting is regulated by individual state wildlife agencies (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). While hunting is not a major threat to stable populations, <em>S. aquaticus</em> appears to have a sensitivity to harvest in the late season (winter) (Bond <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Habitat loss has been the greatest cause of decline of <em>S. aquaticus</em>. In Missouri in 1973, a decline of suitable habitat from 850,000 ha to 40,000 ha was recorded over the previous 103 years (Korte and Fredrickson 1977). The habitat was converted from forest to cropland. <br/><br/>Habitat fragmentation is an issue associated with human encroachment upon <em>S. aquaticus</em> habitat. Many <em>S. aquaticus</em> populations exist on small tracts of private property, impeding dispersal and creating difficulties for management (Scheibe and Henson 2003). <br/><br/>Flooding of wet forested areas has a negative impact on S. aquaticus populations, but floods in some areas induce dispersal (Scheibe and Henson 2003).	eng
41297	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>S. audubonii</em> is managed a game species in the USA by individual state wildlife agencies. None of the subspecies are known to be under threat and no new conservation measures are needed (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41297	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus audubonii</em> occurs in the western USA and north and central Mexico. In the USA the western  boundary  is the Pacific Ocean and in the east it barely extends into the Great Plains. The far northern extent of the range almost reaches Canada in eastern Montana and southwestern North Dakota, extending south through Wyoming, western South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, the panhandle of Oklahoma, and western Texas. Except for extreme mountainous areas, the range includes Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, south and central Utah, southern Nevada, and all but northern California (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). In Mexico, the range includes all of Baja California, Baja California Sur, most of Sonora and Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, western Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, eastern Durango, northern Sinaloa, north-eastern Jalisco, northern Guanajuato, northern Queretaro, central Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, north-central Puebla, and a small area in western Veracruz (Vargas Cuenca and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/><em>S. audubonii</em> occurs from below sea level in Death Valley, California, to 1,829 m or higher (Chapman and Willner 1978).	eng
41297	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>S. audubonii</em> inhabits arid and mountain regions from woodlands, grasslands to deserts at low elevations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  They appear to avoid midday heat and are active in the twilight hours of dawn and dusk as well as at night (Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>The breeding season begins in December or January for a length of seven to nine months. Mean litter sizes vary among populations, between 2.6-3.6 young per litter, which is small for the genus (Chapman and Willner 1978).  Total length for this species ranges from 37.2-40.0 cm (Vargas Cuenca and Cervantes 2005).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. audubonii</em> varies depending on habitat and cover. Field dwelling rabbits feed almost exclusively on grasses, but will eat diverse vegetation when available (Chapman and Willner 1978, Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>Early evidence indicated that <em>S. audubonii</em> is short-lived and one study found that no rabbit lived past the age of 19 months, while most rabbits lived less than one year (Chapman and Willner 1978).	eng
41297	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Little specific data regarding population density and abundance exists, but <em>S. audubonii</em> is known to be common throughout most of its range in Mexico and is not considered to be threatened by state game agencies in the USA (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). A report in 1947 showed that a population in the San Joaquin Experimental Range in California had a population density that fluctuated over three years (1939-41) of 4.7, 1.6, and 2.9 individuals per hectare (Chapman and Willner 1978). A study in northeastern Colorado showed a density of 16.3 individuals per hectare (Flinders and Hansen 1973).<br/><br/>In the Reserva de la Biosfera de Mapimi in Durango, Mexico, the <em>S. audubonii</em> population is declining (Portales 2004).	eng
41297	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>S. audubonii</em> is widespread and common in many parts of its range, including Mexico, but cattle grazing and habitat loss due to land clearing may affect some populations (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Predation by invasive alien species, including domestic dogs and cats, presents a threat in some areas populated by humansi (Chapman and Willner 1978). <br/><br/><em>S. audubonii</em> is hunted for sport and local subsistence and as an important game species it is managed by individual states in the USA, where it is not considered to be under threat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  <br/><br/>Human-induced fire may represent a threat for some populations. Competition with <em>Lepus californicus</em> may affect <em>S. audubonii</em> populations.	eng
41298	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> is in need of a systematic survey. Its distribution remains unclear with regard to the Amazon region and most of the ecological data is from studies of rabbits in the Paramos of Venezuela (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  The effect of deforestation on abundance requires more study (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41298	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> occurs from southern Tamaluipas, Mexico along the eastern coast of Mexico (excluding the states of Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and Campeche), through Guatemala, (possibly) El Salvador, Honduras, eastern Nicaragua, eastern Costa Rica, Panama, and through the northern half of South America (except at high altitudes), including Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, and most of Brazil.  Distribution in the Amazon region is unknown (Chapman and Ceballos 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 4,800 m (Ruedas and Salazar-Bravo 2007).	eng
41298	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> primarily inhabits tropical rain forests, deciduous forests, and second growth forests in Mexico and Central America (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). It is also found in pastures bordering forest habitat (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>As recorded in two localities, Chiapas, Mexico, and the Andean Paramos in South America, <em>S. brasiliensis</em> reproduces year-round (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Gestation time is variable according to location (28-44 days) (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  This species has a small mean litter size (1.2) compared to other members of the genus (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Total length ranges form 25.0-42.0 cm (Cervantes <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41298	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	No recent population assessments are available, but in Mexico, <em>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</em> populations are known to decline when its habitat is deforested, though it is able to survive well in second growth forest and pasture (Alvarez de Toro 1977).  According to Durant (1986), abundance of <em>S. b. meridensis</em> in high mountains of Venezuela was reduced to 0.04 animals/ha from previously recorded levels of 4.8 animals/ha due to habitat loss.	eng
41298	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Habitat loss by deforestation and human settlement poses a threat to this species.  As artificial savanna and scrubland replaces tropical forest, <em>S. floridanus</em> range expands and displaces S. brasiliensis (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  This species may be at risk to predators that follow <em>S. floridanus</em> as it spreads new habitat that borders its own (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  The effect of deforestation on the abundance of <em>S. brasiliensis</em> is not well known (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  In Mexico populations decline when habitat is deforested, but <em>S. brasiliensis</em> is known to do well in pasture and second growth forest (Alvarez de Toro 1977).	eng
41299	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is the most important regulated game animal in the USA. While <em>S. floridanus</em> does not appear to be declining, it has spread and has been introduced widely outside its original range, where it sometimes presents a threat to sympatric species, such as <em>S. transitionalis</em> in north-eastern USA (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Research is needed regarding taxonomy, distribution, population size, and to determine how <em>S. floridanus</em> affects other species.	eng
41299	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is widely distributed throughout the USA (eastern USA east of the Rocky Mountains, portions of southwest and northwest), Central America (central and eastern Mexico, southwestern Guatemala, southern Honduras, El Salvador, central Nicaragua, northwestern Costa Rica), and occurs in southern Canada (Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec) and the northern part of South America (Colombia and Venezuela) (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/><em>S. floridanus</em> can survive in diverse habitats, allowing the range to spread quickly (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41299	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	The historical habitat of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> was diverse, including deserts, swamps, glades, prairies, rain forests, boreal forests, hardwood forests, and woodlands (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980). In developed areas, S. floridanus survives well in farmland, pasture, and hedgerows (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. floridanus</em> is variable, depending on the type of habitat and the season, including woody plants in the dormant season and herbaceous plants in the growing season (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).  Breeding season varies depending on elevation and latitude, with breeding activity beginning later at higher elevations and northern latitudes (Chapman <em>et al</em>. 1980).  Average gestation time is 28 days and size at birth ranges from 3.06-5.06 cm (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).  Litter sizes are 3-5 with 3-4 litters per year (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).  Total length ranges from 33.5-48.5 cm (Lorenzo and Cervantes 2005).	eng
41299	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> is abundant and widespread, and is a highly effective colonizer. New populations of <em>S. floridanus</em> have been successfully introduced outside its range, and in some cases, <em>S. floridanus</em> has been known to displace native Leporids, including <em>S. transitionalis</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Peak densities have been recorded at eight to ten individuals per ha (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>In Virginia, the population has declined over the past fifty years or so. This decline may be due to the loss of early successional habitat that is being turned into farmland and is exacerbated by an increase in the cottontail's predators.  In most years, 80% or more of the adult cottontails are killed.  However, in areas where there is good habitat there are still abundant populations (Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries).	eng
41299	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J. & Rangel Cordero, H., 2008	Although abundant, subpopulations of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> are at risk from hunting pressure (sport and local subsistence) throughout its range, human perturbation, and predation from invasive alien species.  In some locations it is threatened by livestock competition and habitat fragmentation.	eng
41300	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> is a common game species managed by individual state wildlife agencies, which regulate bag limits and hunting seasons (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41300	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> occurs in the western USA in the intermountain area, from just north of the Canadian border in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan to northern New Mexico and Arizona, and from the eastern Rocky Mountains to the eastern Cascade-Sierra Nevada Range, extending north just into British Columbia (Chapman 1975).  The range of <em>S. nuttallii</em> has been largely taken over by <em>S. floridanus</em> in south-eastern North Dakota (Genoways and Jones 1972).<br/><br/>In California, <em>S. nuttallii</em> occurs from 1,372 m to at least 3,200 m in elevation (Chapman 1975).	eng
41300	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> occurs in a variety of habitats throughout its range. In the north it primarily occupies sagebrush habitat, while in the south it occurs more frequently in forested areas (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/><em>S. nuttallii</em> feeds on sagebrush and juniper all year where this vegetation occurs, but grasses are preferred when available in spring and summer (Chapman 1975).  The breeding season is variable throughout the range of <em>S. nuttallii</em> (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is 28-30 days (Chapman 1999).  A female may produce between two and five litters each year, with between four and six young in each litter (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  HB length is 33.8-37.1 cm (Chapman 1975).	eng
41300	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus nuttallii</em> is a common species throughout most of its range (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The species has a varying population density from 0.06 to 2.5 per hectare in central Oregon, where it inhabits juniper scrublands (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).	eng
41300	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A.F., 2008	The spread of <em>Sylvilagus floridanus</em> has led to displacement of <em>S. nuttallii</em> in southeastern North Dakota (Genoways and Jones 1972).	eng
41301	conservation	Barry, R. & Lazell, J., 2008	Conservation measures proposed to prevent the decline of <em>Sylvilagus  obscurus</em> include:<br/><br/>1. Conservation of critical habitat and establishment and management of “Important Mammal Areas” (as in Pennsylvania) containing known populations, with appropriate publicity and public education programs.<br/>2. Additional surveying and population monitoring.<br/>3. Research on nest sites, dispersal, habitat, use of corridors, response to climactic change and stochastic events, effects of sport hunting, competition with other lagomorphs (i.e. eastern cottontail and snowshoe hare), and response to invasive vegetative species.<br/>4. Development and implementation of state management plans.<br/>5. Public education and awareness programs, particularly to educate the sportsmen public about the habitats that <em>S. obscurus</em> favours, to distinguish from the habitat that the game species <em>S. floridanus</em> prefers, as the two species are easily confused (Chapman 1999).	eng
41301	distribution	Barry, R. & Lazell, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> occurs in discontinuous upland patches in the eastern United States including central Pennsylvania, western Maryland, western Virginia, eastern West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, western North Carolina, north-western South Carolina, northern Georgia, and northern Alabama (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/>The type locality for <em>S. obscurus</em> is Dolly Sods, West Virginia (Tucker and Grant counties) in Monongahela National Forest, which is an important source population.	eng
41301	habitat	Barry, R. & Lazell, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> is found at high elevations with conifers and ericaceous species; mixed oak forests and early successional (recent clearcut) habitats with dense, ericaceous vegetation (Bunch <em>et al.</em> 1997; Chapman 1999) or blackberry (Bunch <em>et al</em>. 1997). <em>S. obscurus</em> has also been recorded from old growth forest with dense understory (Bunch <em>et al.</em> 1997; Bunch and Dye 1999).  Dense understory that provides concealment and thermal cover is important (Laseter 1999).<br/><br/><em>S. obscurus</em> feeds on ferns, grasses, forbs, shrubs, and, unique among cottontails, conifer needles (Chapman 1999).  HB length is 38.6-43.0 cm (Chapman 1999).  Early March through early September is the breeding season for this species (Chapman 1999).  Gestation is 28 days and an average of 24 young/female are born annually (Chapman 1999).	eng
41301	population	Barry, R. & Lazell, J., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> populations are highly fragmented and in much of the range it is considered rare, except in portions of eastern Tennessee and the Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia (Laseter 1999).  Densities of <em>S. obscurus</em> at Dolly Sods, West Virginia, reached a high of 0.7 individuals/ha, and densities in eastern Tennessee reached 0.8 individuals/ha (Laseter 1999).  In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, on the Tennessee side, only three records exist and none have been recorded since 1960.	eng
41301	threats	Barry, R. & Lazell, J., 2008	Threats to <em>Sylvilagus obscurus</em> include:<br/><br/>1. Destruction, fragmentation, and maturation of habitat (Barbour and Litvaitis 1993). <br/>2. Urban and suburban development.<br/>3. Indirect encroachment on habitat by <em>S. floridanus</em>, which thrive better in developed areas and require less cover than <em>S. obscurus</em> (Barbour and Litvaitis 1993).<br/>4. Indiscriminate hunting may result from lack of knowledge by sportsmen or because <em>S. obscurus</em> is phenotypically similar to <em>S. floridanus</em> (Chapman 1999). <br/>5. Lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
41302	conservation	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for the species as a whole.<br/><br/>The San Joaquin Valley population of subspecies <em>Sylvilagus bachmani riparius</em> has been listed by the state of California as an endangered species (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000), and has been the subject of a recovery plan involving habitat management and captive breeding (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998, Hansen 2006).<br/><br/>The following timeline includes recent conservation measures implemented for <em>S. b. riparius</em>:<br/>1) Distribution and status review in 1986 (Williams and Basey 1986).<br/>2) Listing as a California Species of Special Concern (Williams and Basey 1986).<br/>3) Ecology and habitat management plan for Caswell Memorial State Park developed (Williams 1988).<br/>4) Populations estimate made for Caswell MSP in 1993, the only known population at the time (Williams 1993).<br/>5) Listed as an endangered species by the State of California in 1994 (State of California 1994).<br/>6) Featured species in the multi-species Recovery Plan for Upland Species of the San Joaquin Valley, California (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). <br/>7) Habitat management plan focused on wildfire and flooding developed (Close and Williams 1998).<br/>8) Listed as a USA endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2002 (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>9) Controlled Propagation and Reintroduction Plan for Riparian Brush Rabbits developed for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Williams and Hamilton 2002).<br/>10) Habitat acquisition and restoration begun by multi-agency CalFed Program with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as the land owner and manager, starting in 2000 and continuing to date (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>11) Controlled propagation facility constructed beginning in 2001 and completed in 2002 by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>12) Controlled propagation of riparian brush rabbits initiated in December 2001 with 3 males and 3 females (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/>13) Forty-nine young rabbits from controlled propagation facility released in the wild in unoccupied historical habitat between July and October 2002 (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>14) In December 2002, 18 adult rabbits introduced into 3 controlled propagation pens (3 of each sex, each pen), producing 284 young, of which 214 had been released in the wild as of March 2004 (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41302	distribution	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> is distributed along the Pacific coast of North America. It reaches the Columbia River in the north (Oregon-Washington border) and in the south it extends to the southern tip of Baja California. It extends east from the Pacific Ocean to the western Sierra Nevada mountain range (Chapman 1974). <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> occurs only in Caswell Memorial State Park (MSP) on the Stanislaus River, and the South Delta area of the San Joaquin River, including Paradise Cut and Tom Paine Slough.  The park size is 253 acres, and population on the South Delta occurs on privately owned land (Williams and Hamilton 2002).  Even though there is other ideal habitat for <em>S. b. riparius</em> in MSP they are unable to reach it because there is no connecting habitat above flood level in MSP (Sandoval, Williams, and Colliver 2006). It occupies an elevational range of 0-2,070 m (Chapman 1974).<br/><br/>In Caswell Memorial State Park, Stanislaus River, San Joaquin County, California, USA, <em>S. b. riparius</em> occurs in about 90% of the park's 102 ha when populations are high, but about 20-40% of the Park at other times (Williams 1988, Williams 1993).<br/><br/>The South Delta population of <em>S. b. riparius</em>, in the vicinity of Mossdale and Lathrop, San Joaquin County, CA, USA, exists on about 122 ha of private land within an area of about 2,927 ha. Populations are found along Paradise Cut, Tom Paine Slough, Grantline Canal, and the San Joaquin River. Rabbits also are found along the narrow right-of-ways of two railroads running through the area. Habitat for <em>S. b. riparius</em> is distributed in discontinuous, narrow strands of riparian vegetation along streams, sloughs, and railroad beds adjacent to intensely cultivated fields. Most land in this area is planned for urban and industrial development within the next 1-10 years. Existing habitat is periodically cut or burned for weed and flood control (Williams and Hamilton 2002). <br/><br/>The re-introduced population of <em>S. b. riparius</em> is located in the San Joaquin River National Wildlife Refuge in Stanislaus County, California. This refuge has about 285 ha of habitat for brush rabbits. An additional few hundred hectares are actively being restored from cropland to natural, riparian vegetation. Refugia from flooding are also being established on the refuge for rabbits and other terrestrial wildlife (Hansen 2006).	eng
41302	habitat	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> requires dense brush cover, occupying disjunct bramble clumps, with the size of the clumps affecting home range size and suitability for occupation (Chapman 1974). Home ranges are small (less than 2,000 sq. meters) and are dependent upon habitat uniformity (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). The bramble habitat contains runways and occasionally burrows formed by other species (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Their diet consists predominantly of grasses, but it will consume alternative vegetation when seasonally available (Chapman 1974).  <br/><br/>The breeding season for <em>S. bachmani</em> varies from north to south, but appears to be uniform in length (Chapman 1974). In California, <em>S. bachmani</em> breeds from December to May or June, and in Oregon between February and August (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Litter size varies regionally, with an annual mean of 2.87 in Oregon, 3.50 in north and central California, and 4.00 in west-central California (Chapman 1974). Fecundity of <em>S. bachmani</em> is lower than other <em>Sylvilagus</em> species, producing about 15 young annually (Chapman 1974).  Gestation time is approximately 27 days (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005). Total length is 30.0-37.5 cm (Cervantes <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> occupies both old-growth riparian forest, dominated by Valley Oak (<em>Quercus lobata</em>) and riparian communities dominated by thickets of willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), wild roses (<em>Rosa</em> spp.), blackberries (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), and other successional trees and shrubs and when available dense tall stands of herbaceous plants adjacent to patches of riparian shrubs in the northern San Joaquin Valley, California. <em>S. b. riparius</em> stays close to dense stands of vegetation into which it retreats for escape, resting and nesting. They do not normally burrow or use burrows (Williams and Basey 1986, Williams 1988, Williams and Hamilton 2002).  <em>S. b. riparius</em> eats a great variety of woody and herbaceous plants, preferring green foliage of shrubs, grasses and forbs. Much of its foraging is concentrated at the edge between thickets of woody plants and more open ground with herbaceous plants. A favored habitat is willow thickets along stream banks (Orr 1940, Chapman 1974).	eng
41302	population	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Except for the Riparian brush rabbit (subspecies <em>riparius</em>) which is state and federally listed as endangered (Williams <em>et al</em>. 2004), <em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em> is considered common where it is known to exist, throughout Oregon, California, and Baja California (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/>The <em>S. b. riparius</em> population at Caswell Memorial State Park in San Joaquin County, California, USA, was statistically estimated in 1993, when there were 241 rabbits (approximate 95% confidence interval = 170-608) (Williams 1993). Similar censuses were conducted in 1997-2004, resulting in capture of 0 (1997) to 16 (2002) rabbits. Capture rates in the best year (2002) were only 27% of that of 1993, and captures and recaptures were too few in any one year since 1993 to use capture-recapture population models to meaningfully estimate population size (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/> <br/>Population censuses for the <em>S. b. riparius</em> South Delta metapopulation have not been conducted because of restrictions on activities on private land. However, capture rates for short-term assessments of presence and to capture breeders for a controlled propagation program suggest that this metapopulation has remained at fairly high densities for the past 7 years (when it was discovered). Capture rates for the South Delta metapopulation varied from 127% to 626% of the capture rate of the Caswell MSP population in 1993. The South Delta population probably consists of about 300-600 rabbits at peaks in population cycles (Lloyd <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41302	threats	Mexican Association for Conservation and Study of Lagomorphs (AMCELA), Romero Malpica, F.J., Rangel Cordero, H. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Hunting for food and the establishment of human settlements pose a threat to <em>Sylvilagus bachmani</em>, but the extent and severity are not quantified. <br/><br/>Decline in numbers and threats of extinction of subspecies <em>S. b. riparius</em> stem principally from actions involved in developments of irrigated agriculture in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Foremost of these developments were stream impoundment, channelization of streams on the valley floor and the San Joaquin River delta, and clearing and cultivation of natural communities. Riparian communities in the San Joaquin Valley have been reduced to about 1% of their historical extent, are found almost entirely within the levees of channelized streams. Most existing patches have been extensively degraded by wood cutting, livestock, invasion of exotic species, greater levels of flooding within levees, and lack of natural riverine processes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000). <br/><br/>Principal existing threats to <em>S. b. riparius</em> can be summarized in order of importance as: 1) stochastic environmental processes, wildfire and flood; 2) additional habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization and conversion to agriculture; 3) increased predation from domestic and feral cats and dogs due to urban development adjacent to existing inhabited sites; and 4) genetic and demographic stochasticity in small populations. While all of these are proximate threats, wildfire and flood are probably the most severe threats to the population at Caswell MSP. A less imminent threat is natural successional processes that are reducing habitat quality. Because the park has multiuse objectives, and because up-stream impoundments have greatly modified the natural flooding regime, secondary successional patches, especially those caused by scouring floods, are disappearing from the Park. The changes are noticeable and may be associated with the decline in <em>S. b. riparius</em> within the park (Williams and Hamilton 2002).<br/><br/>For the South Delta metapopulation of <em>S. b. riparius</em>, wildfire is a serious threat to each subpopulation, but would unlikely affect all subpopulations simultaneously. Flooding poses a more immediate metapopulation threat, because the entire area is approximately at sea level or below, rivers are channelized, and there are few or no refugia above flood level. Over the past several decades there have been numerous breaks in levees and widespread flooding. The most recent was in 1997 when only the top of the railroad beds were not under water. Typically, the only areas not flooded are built-up areas for railroads, levee tops, multilane highways and other developed sites. Likely these areas will be inundated at some time in the future when flooding is greater than it has been in recent decades. Urbanization also is viewed as an imminent threat because most of the known populations are adjacent to areas undergoing development planning, with construction slated to begin within 1-10 years. However, this threat may be mitigated by appropriate design and management of conservation lands set aside for brush rabbits and other organisms (Williams and Hamilton 2002).	eng
41303	conservation	Faulhaber, C.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/>Policy-based Actions: <em>S. p. hefneri</em> was listed as an endangered species by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service in 1990. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1999) has developed and is in the process of implementing a recovery plan for the subspecies. Although feral and domestic cats are known threats to the subspecies, control measures have yet to be implemented, except on United States Navy land.<br/><br/>Research Actions: The distribution of the subspecies was recently updated (Faulhaber 2003) but the current population size has not been estimated. The ecology of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit is fairly well known (Forys and Humphrey 1996), though further research is needed concerning nighttime habitat use and nestling/juvenile mortality (Faulhaber 2003). Further research should also examine the movements, habitat use, and impact of feral and domestic cats throughout the rabbit's range. A population viability analysis model was developed for the subspecies (Forys and Humphrey 1999). Current distribution data need to be added to the model, and additional demography data would improve the model's predictive capability. <br/><br/>Habitat-based actions: Approximately two-thirds of local populations occur entirely on publicly-owned and military land (Faulhaber 2003). Faulhaber (2003) estimated that nearly 500 ha of privately-owned land could be purchased to ensure the protection of existing occupied and potential habitat patches and the area immediately surrounding these patches. Further land acquisition would help protect connectivity between local populations. Efforts to control invasive exotic vegetation are ongoing in rabbit habitat under public and military ownership. Future research and management should involve restoring rabbit habitat and enhancing cover in existing habitat (Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/>Species-based Actions: A pilot reintroduction program has recently been initiated for the subspecies (Faulhaber 2003). If current efforts prove successful, the reintroduction program could be expanded in the future, possibly in conjunction with <em>in situ</em> captive propagation (Faulhaber 2003).  Translocation of wild-caught marsh rabbits had a 100% and a 81% survival rate for the individuals released on Water Key and Little Pine Key, respectively.  This study showed that translocation of a small founder group can be successful, important when working with a species, like <em>S. palustris</em>, whose source group could be imperiled by the removal of too many individuals (Faulhaber <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41303	distribution	Faulhaber, C.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> occurs in the south-eastern coastal lowlands of the United States from the Dismal Swamp of southeastern Virginia, through eastern North Carolina, southeastern South Carolina, southern Georgia, southern Alabama, and most of Florida, excluding the extreme southeast, but including the Lower Keys of Florida (Chapman and Willner 1981; Chapman and Ceballos 1990). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> is restricted to the Upper and Lower Keys of Florida (Chapman and Ceballos 1990). Historically, the subspecies probably occupied all keys with suitable habitat in the Lower Keys. Currently, <em>S. p. hefneri</em> can be found on only 4 of the larger keys (Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, Sugarloaf, and Big Pine Keys) and on some of the surrounding smaller keys. More than 50% of the total occupied habitat was found on Big Pine and Boca Chica keys during a 2001-2005 survey (Faulhaber <em>et al.</em> 2007).  This survey also concluded a net loss of occupied patches compared to a conglomerate of surveys conducted between 1988-1995 (see discussion for possible cause) (Faulhaber <em>et al</em>. 2007).  The greatest loss of occupancy occurred on Saddlebunch Keys (Faulhaber <em>et al</em>. 2007).  There is a gap in the rabbit's current distribution between Big Pine Key and Sugarloaf Key, and the rabbit has been extirpated on Key West (Faulhaber 2003).  A recent phylogenetic analysis determined that populations on either side of the gap island complex (islands extending from Middle Torch Key to Cudjoe Key) represent distinct haplogroups with little gene flow between the two (Crouse 2005).  However, the author notes that an investigation of more individuals from a greater variety of locations east of the gap would elucidate the degree of geographic separation (Crouse 2005).  Fecal pellets of <em>S. p. hefneri</em> were discovered in a single patch on No Name Key in 2001 but have not been located on the island since (Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> exists as a metapopulation in small patches of brackish and freshwater wetland habitat. A distribution survey conducted by Faulhaber (2003) found 535 ha of occupied habitat and 266 ha of potential habitat. However, because the subspecies exists as a metapopulation, the area of occupancy varies through time. These estimates are conservative, as they only included areas of known use (e.g. areas with fecal pellets or sightings of individuals). It is possible that these estimates underestimate the area of occupancy, because the degree of use of adjacent, "unsuitable" vegetation types (e.g. upland hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and mangrove swamps) could not be determined. The greatest abundance of the subspecies occurs on Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, Sugarloaf, and Big Pine Keys. <br/><br/>The current extent of occurrence for the subspecies <em>S. p. hefneri</em> is 90 km² (Faulhaber 2003).	eng
41303	habitat	Faulhaber, C.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> occurs in marshy habitats, mostly with brackish waters, but is also known to occur along freshwater wetlands (Tomkins 1935; Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  It has also been documented in grassy fields; mangroves; hammocks; fallow tomato fields; and “rank vegetation” along canals, ditches, roadsides, and cultivated fields (Carr 1939; Schwartz 1952; Layne 1974). It is a nocturnal species that often walks as opposed to hopping and is a good swimmer (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).<br/><br/>Reproduction occurs all year for <em>S. palustris</em>, with around six litters annually per each adult female, with approximately three young per litter (Chapman and Ceballos 1990).  Gestation is approximately 39-40 days (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979).  The diet of <em>S. palustris</em> includes a variety of aquatic plants, herbaceous material from shrubs, trees, and woody plants, cultivated crops (Chapman and Willner 1981), as well as grasses, sedges, and flowers (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><br/>S. p. hefneri:<br/><br/>S. p hefneri is usually found in saltmarsh/buttonwood transition zones and freshwater marshes within the Lower Keys (Forys <em>et al.</em> 1996; Faulhaber 2003). The saltmarsh/buttonwood transition zone forms the transition between lowland mangrove areas and upland hardwood hammocks and pineland. This transition zone can be subdivided into: 1) an intertidal marsh, occurring at lower elevations and characterized by low halophytic vegetation; 2) a grassy saltmarsh, which occurs at slightly higher elevations and is dominated by grasses and Cyperaceae; and 3) buttonwood transitional vegetation, consisting of grasses and Cyperaceae with an open canopy of buttonwood transitional habitat for foraging and daytime resting sites (Forys 1995). Forys (1995) found that the grassy saltmarsh was commonly used for nests. Rabbits also forage in the intertidal marsh and mangroves, and they occasionally use mangroves for daytime form sites (Forys 1995; Faulhaber 2003). <br/><br/>Freshwater wetlands used by S. p. hefneri are usually dominated by sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) and often include patches of buttonwood trees or other hardwoods (Faulhaber 2003). Faulhaber (2003) noted that rabbits on Boca Chica Key inhabited disturbed mesic grasslands dominated by Schizachyrium gracile, with patches of invasive exotic lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala) used for cover. Historically, S. p. hefneri also was found on coastal beach berms (United States Fish and Wildlife Service 1999).<br/><br/>S. p. hefneri exists as a metapopulation in small patches of habitat spread throughout the Lower Keys (Forys and Humphrey 1996). Adult rabbits establish permanent home ranges within these patches, with same sex ranges rarely overlapping (Forys 1995). The average home range reported by Forys and Humphrey (1996) was 3.96 ha, while data collected by Faulhaber (2003) suggests a mean home range of 1.2 ha .  Females reproduce year-round, with a mean of 3.7 litters per year and 1-3 young per litter (Forys 1995). The reproductive rate of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit may be lower than that of other subspecies; Holler and Conaway (1979) noted a mean of 5.7 litters per year with 2-4 young per litter for S. p. paludicola. Young leave the nest after about 2 weeks and often disperse from their natal patch after 8-10 months (Forys 1995). Dispersal appears to be male-biased, and dispersing rabbits tend to use thick cover and native vegetation types rather than disturbed areas (Forys 1995).<br/><br/>Known predators of the S. p. hefneri include raptors, eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) (Howe 1988; Forys 1995).	eng
41303	population	Faulhaber, C.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	Other than the Lower Keys subspecies, little is known about the populations of <em>Sylvilagus palustris</em>, but it is known to be locally abundant in favorable habitat, with the largest populations occurring along the Ogeechee, Satilla, and St. Mary’s rivers in Georgia (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>: <br/><br/>Once common in the Lower Keys, <em>S. p. hefneri</em> is now rare and has become extirpated on several islands within its range. In 1999, the United State Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that only 100-300 adults remained (Faulhaber 2003). A widened search led to the discovery of additional occupied habitat patches from 2001-2003. However, the overall population size remains low. A recent study by Faulhaber (2003) at Texas A&M University estimated that the current population contains 200-700 mature individuals, with no key containing more than 250 mature individuals. A PVA model using data collected from 1991-1993 predicted that the species would have a 100% probability of extinction in 50 years (Forys 1995; Forys and Humphrey 1999).<br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em> occurs as a metapopulation in small habitat patches on 4 larger keys and several smaller surrounding islands. A distribution survey conducted between 2001-2003 mapped 220 patches of occupied (n=102) and potential (n=118) habitat ranging in size from 0.1-51 ha. The median patch size was 2.4 ha (interquartile range = 0.7-5.1 ha) (Faulhaber 2003). Some of these patches may be part of the same local population; Faulhaber (2003) hypothesized that the occupied patches are arranged into 56 occupied local populations. These local populations interact through dispersing individuals. Dispersal may be frequent enough that these local populations do not fit the IUCN's definition of "subpopulations." Lower Keys marsh rabbits have been known to disperse as far as 2 km (Forys and Humphrey 1996), so most patches within keys are likely part of the same "subpopulation."<br/><br/>However, although the species is thought to be an excellent swimmer (Tomkins 1935), the rate of genetic exchange between keys is unknown (researchers at Texas A&M University were examining this issue at the time of writing). Certainly, rabbits on Big Pine Key and its surrounding islands are isolated from rabbits on Boca Chica, Saddlebunch, and Sugarloaf keys. Moreover, rabbits have not naturally recolonized the keys between Big Pine Key and Sugarloaf Key, indicating that the interchange of dispersers among keys is probably low. The Lower Keys marsh rabbit may therefore be separated into three large subpopulations (Boca Chica Key, Saddlebunch/Sugarloaf complex, and Big Pine Key) and several small subpopulations on outer islands (Faulhaber 2003).	eng
41303	threats	Faulhaber, C.A. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus palustris</em> is considered an agricultural pest in some areas, especially in sugarcane fields of southern Florida (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). They are hunted in the southern United States (Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. p. hefneri</em>:<br/><br/>The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed S. p. hefneri as endangered in 1990. The primary reason cited for listing the species was the loss and fragmentation of its habitat due to human development. Over the last 25 years, greater than 50% of the Lower Keys marsh rabbit's habitat was lost to human development. Human development has also resulted in increased isolation for some patches, reducing the likelihood of recolonization. Although the rate of habitat loss has slowed since the rabbit received legal protection, habitat destruction and fragmentation remain significant threats to the species' persistence (Faulhaber 2003).  LaFever <em>et al.</em> (2007) modelled the potential impact resulting from oceanic rise, due to thermal expansion only, on <em>S. palustris</em> habitat.  They found that the three most important factors impacting potential change were: the rate at which sea-level rise impacts the ability of flora migration upslope, the magnitude in terms of the overall oceanic rise and whether it is great enough to reach <em>S. palustris</em> habitat, and whether or not humans abandon low-lying habitat, where abandonment would facilitate greater ease of upslope migration by vegetation.  They concluded that non-static strategies needed to be implemented regarding management of the local ecosystem (i.e. consideration of land-use planning, use of bioclimatic reserve systems in conjunction with corridors) (LaFever <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/><br/>Additional threats to the subspecies include mortality from cars and cats, both domestic and feral. Cars and cats accounted for more than half of the mortalities observed by E.A. Forys on Boca Chica in the early 1990s (Forys 1993). Faulhaber (2003) estimated that just over half of occupied local populations are reasonably likely to have current or future impacts due to cats. A recent population viability analysis supports this assertion, indicating that without predator control, habitat improvement efforts may result in a negligible increase in the chance for persistence (LaFever 2006). The subspecies is also threatened by habitat degradation from invasive exotic plants, trash dumping, mowing and off-road vehicle use (Forys 1993). If left unchecked, invasive exotic vegetation can render patches unsuitable for rabbits. Management efforts have reduced the threat of invasive exotic vegetation on some government-owned properties, but invasive exotic vegetation remains a problem on privately-owned land parcels and even on some government properties. Currently, trash dumping and off-road vehicle use appear to be less of a problem than in the past (Forys 1993; Faulhaber 2003).<br/><br/>It has been suggested that invasive exotic fire ants (<em>Solenopsis invicta</em>) and elevated raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) densities also pose a threat to the subspecies, but this has not been confirmed (Forys 1993). Historically, poaching may have contributed to the rabbit's decline, but poaching does not appear to be a major threat at the current time. Feral hogs degraded habitat and may have caused the extirpation of rabbits on Little Pine Key, but hogs were removed from the islands in the 1990s (Wilmers 2003).	eng
41304	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is a newly described species that requires comprehensive studying.  Taxonomic data are needed to determine if this is a melanistic form of <em>O. forresti</em>.  In China, this species has been regionally assessed as Endangered under criteria C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41304	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is endemic to China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is "known only from the vicinity of the type locality," Piyanma, Yunnan (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species can be found at 3,200 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41304	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is no information concerning the habitat and ecology of <em>Ochotona nigritia</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41304	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the current population status of <em>Ochotona nigritia</em>.	eng
41304	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is not known if <em>Ochotona nigritia</em> is exposed to any major threats.	eng
41305	conservation	Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V., 2008	The main conservation actions are:<br/>-improve data of the distribution and status of the species in Italian peninsula and in Corsica<br/>-conservation and improvement of natural populations<br/>-habitat improvement<br/>-minimizing risk factors<br/>-planning specific oriented management both in protected areas and in hunting territories at a local level<br/>-carrying out a number of enclosures for captive breeding and initiating behavioral study on <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanus</span><br/>-promote a public educational campaign to develop the awareness and understanding of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanus</span><br/>-prepare a training program on biology and conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corsicanu</span>s for field biologists, conservationists, game keepers, and protected areas staff<br/>-creation of a data bank on the species<br/>-improvement of scientific research <br/>-place the species on a suitable legal status for international legislation<br/><br/>Today <em>L. corsicanus</em> is legally protected in continental Italy because of its conservation status (primarily low population size).  However, the problematic discrimination in the field between <em>L. corsicanus</em> and <em>L. europaeus</em> (a game species) produces remarkable problems for effective protection.  Since <em>L. corsicanus</em> was recognized as a true species (1998), hare hunting has been banned in Sicily.  During the 2004-2005 hunting season, this ban was lifted allowing the hunting of hares in Sicily.  In Corsica it is considered a game species, in the French hunting act, since it cannot easily be distinguished from <em>L. europaeus</em>.<br/><br/><em>Lepus corsicanus</em> can be found in many protected areas in Italy.  The following is a partial list.<br/>Continental Italy:<br/>Parco Regionale della Maremma<br/>Parco Regionale Monti Lucretili<br/>Parco Regionale dell'Appennino "Monti Simbruini"<br/>Parco Regionale del Cilento<br/>Parco Nazionale della Sila<br/>Parco Nazionale del Pollino<br/>Parco Nazionale dell'Aspromonte<br/><br/>Sicily:<br/>Parco Regionale dell'Etna<br/>Parco Regionale dei Monti Nebrodi<br/>Parco Regionale delle Madonie	eng
41305	distribution	Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V., 2008	Until the 1930s, <em>L. corsicanus</em> was distributed in south-central Italy (the northern limit being marked by Elba Island on the Tyrrhenian coast and the province of Foggia on the Adriatic coast) and Sicily. It was also present in Corsica, where it was introduced by man in historical times (maybe between the 14th and 17th centuries). The current distribution of <em>L. corsicanus</em> is still poorly known. In Sicily, the distribution seems to be continuous, whereas in the Italian Peninsula, populations are known only in Tuscany (in Grosseto province), Latium, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia (Gargano), Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna. Recently the presence of <em>L. corsicanus</em> has been rediscovered in Corsica, too (Scalera and Angelici 2002). As of 1984, <em>L. corsicanus</em> was thought to be possibly extinct in Corsica; however, one dead specimen was found in 2000 and two dead specimens were examined in 2001 (Scalera and Angelici 2002).	eng
41305	habitat	Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V., 2008	Information about the ecology of this species is still limited. However, it seems well adapted to the Mediterranean environment, although it has been recorded from sea level to 2,400 m a.s.l. on Mount Etna (Sicily). The preferred habitats are the Mediterranean maquis and the mosaic of clearings (also cultivated), bushy areas, and broad-leaved woods. Furthermore <em>L. corsicanus</em> inhabits also coastal dune habitat. When <em>L. corsicanus</em> is in sympatry with <em>L. europaeus</em>, the latter species tends to be more a habitat generalist, while <em>L. corsicanus</em> seems to inhabit almost only pastures and grasslands. In Sicily, the species inhabits a variety of natural and artificial habitats: open grassland, bushy pastures, cultivated areas, etc.<br/><br/>In terms of elevation, L. europaeus and L. corsicanus do not differ significantly when they live allopatrically. According to Angelici and Luiselli (in press), when the two species coexist in sympatry, <em>L. corsicanus</em> occurs at elevations significantly higher than <em>L. europaeus</em>. <em>L. europaeus</em> inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives allopatrically than when it lives sympatrically, and L. corsicanus inhabits significantly higher elevations when it lives sympatrically than when it lives allopatrically. However, this ecological allocation is not shared by Trocchi and Riga who always directly observed, in sympatric condition, <em>L. europaeus</em> occupying the mountain grassland and <em>L. corsicanus</em> inhabiting the lower and warmer areas with thermophilous oak woods.<br/><br/>The diet of <em>L. corsicanus</em>, studied in Sicily, varies seasonally as the available vegetation changes.  Monocotyledones, Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, are ingested year round, while Gramineae and Labiatae are consumed during spring and summer, respectively (De Battisti <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Dicotyledones ingested year round by <em>L. corsicanus</em> are Leguminosae and Compositae (De Battisti <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41305	population	Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V., 2008	Populations of <em>L. corsicanus</em> in the Italian peninsula have a fragmented distribution and are sometimes in sympatry and syntopy with Lepus europaeus. Density estimates highlight low values in hunting areas (0.5 hares/km²) and higher in protected areas (11 hares/km²). In mainland Italy <em>L. corsicanus</em> is decreasing because of habitat degradation, hunting pressure, and probably, from competition with introduced <em>L. europaeus</em>.  However, in Sicily, where there are not populations of <em>L. europaeus, L. corsicanus</em> is continuously distributed and locally abundant (protected areas: 10 hares/km²; hunting areas: 2 hares/km²). No data are actually available on abundance and distribution of <em>L. corsicanus</em> in Corsica (where <em>L. europaeus</em> is present too).	eng
41305	threats	Angelici, F.M., Randi, E., Riga, F. & Trocchi, V., 2008	The main threats to <em>L. corsicanus</em> have been identified in the following aspects: fragmentation of the range, low or absent genetic flow between populations, low population density, habitat loss, introduction of <em>L. europaeus</em> in central and southern Italy (with interspecific competition and disease spread - <em>L. corsicanus</em> is fully susceptible to EBHS), competition with the European rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> (mainly in Sicily, where this species is widely distributed), over-hunting, poaching and predation by foxes and feral dogs (both abundant and largely distributed in southern Italy).  L. corsicanus is susceptible to accidental mortality due to difficulties distinguishing it from <em>L. europaeus</em> by hunters (Angelici and Luiselli 2001).  Potential hybridization between <em>L. europaeus</em> and <em>L. corsicanus</em> could constitute a future threat to the species (Pierpaoli <em>et al.</em> 2003).  On the major threat list "other" has been checked and identified as intraspecific genetic pollution.	eng
41306	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> is listed as an Appendix III species under the Bern Convention as part of <em>L. capensis sensu lato</em> (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41306	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic range of <em>Lepus granatensis</em> includes Portugal and nearly the entire extent of Spain (Alves <em>et al.</em> 2003).  It is excluded from northern regions of Spain where <em>L. castroviejoi</em> and <em>europaeus</em> exist (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In most of the northern provinces (Navarra, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragon, Catalunya, and Basque Country), <em>L. europaeus</em> and <em>L. granatensis</em> exist in parapatry, the Iberian hare inhabits the southern region and the brown hare can be found to the north (Fernandez <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <em>L. granatensis</em> is also located on the island of Mallorca of the Balearic chain (Schneider 2001).  It has gone extinct on the island of Ibiza (Balearic Islands) (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/><em>L. granatensis</em> has been introduced in southern France (Perpignan) (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
41306	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> can persist in a variety of habitats within Spain and Portugal (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999). It occupies arable lands of central Spain and mountainous forests of northwestern Spain (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Other has been checked on the Habitat Preferences list and has been identified as dunes along the Mediterranean coast (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Reproduction in <em>L. granatensis</em> is continuous year round, with peaks experienced between February and June (Alves <em>et al</em>. 2002; Farfan <em>et al</em>. 2004).  It has been estimated that the mean number of litters per productive female per year and the mean litter size are 3.48 and 2.08, respectively (Farfan <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41306	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus granatensis</em> is considered locally abundant and common in the southern and central portions of its range (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em> 1999; Farfan <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In the autonomous communities of Galicia and Asturias, it is thought to be extremely rare or extinct (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999). On the island of Mallorca it has become extinct in the western mountain range and is rare throughout the remainder of the island (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Population trends in Navarra and Donana National Park, monitored over several years, have been increasing (Carro <em>et al</em>. 2004).  A study of relative abundance and population trends in northeast Spain indicated that <em>L. granatensis</em> experienced, "a general positive trend during the study period" which occurred from 1992-2002 (Gortazar <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
41306	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	No major threats to <em>Lepus granatensis</em> have been cited.	eng
41307	conservation	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	No conservation measures are currently in place for <em>L. tibetanus</em>.  Research should be conducted to ascertain population status, as well as taxonomic studies (see Taxonomic Notes) to elucidate species status.  This species was regionally Red Listed in China as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41307	distribution	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>L. tibetanus</em> includes Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, extending east through northwestern China, southern Mongolia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It is allo- to parapatric with <em>L. tolai</em>, except in the Tien Shan range where is thought to be sympatric with <em>L. tolai</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>L. tibetanus</em> can be found up to elevations of 3,500-4,000 m (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41307	habitat	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>L. tibetanus</em> occurs in grassland or scrub areas of desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats (Smith and Xie 2008).  This species is primarily crepuscular, but can be observed during the day (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet varies including "herbaceous plants, seeds, berries, roots and twigs" (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 40.1-48.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  Litter sizes range from three to 10 young (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. tibetanus</em> undergoes parturition one to three times a year (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41307	population	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the population.	eng
41307	threats	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41308	conservation	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In Mongolia, approximately 12% of the species' distribution occurs in protected areas (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006) and has been recorded in Hustai National Park (Todgerel 2002).  This species is present in many nature reserves in China (CSIS 2008).  In China, it is regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  It has also been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41308	distribution	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Lepus tolai</em> extends from the northern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, south to Iran, east through Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, and southern Siberia, as well as the "Middle Asia republics to Mongolia; and W, C, NE China" (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species was observed at an elevation of 8,000 m on Yihe-Bogdo, Mongolia (Ognev 1966).  In China, it is usually located at elevations between 600-900 m (Smith and Xie 2008).  Evidence of a single specimen in South Asia, may extend the distribution as far south as Jammu and Kashmir, India (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41308	habitat	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In Mongolia, this species inhabits semi-desert, mountain-steppe, forest steppe, and rocky habitats (Tsevegmid and Tsendjav 2004).  The following information is in respect to the Chinese distribution.  This species occurs in grasslands and forest meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).  It is a nocturnal species (Smith and Xie 2008).  Diet consists of roots, grass and other herbaceous plants (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 40.0-59.0 cm (Smith and Xie 2008).  <em>L. tolai</em> will produce two to three litters per year, with two to six young per litter (Smith and Xie 2008).  No data was available for the rest of its distribution.	eng
41308	population	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In Mongolia, populations are characterized as large, with no apparent decline (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One study looked at Mongolian commercial harvest data obtain from Dornad Aimag between 1932-1993, which did not indicate any apparent change in <em>L. tolai</em> takes (Reading <em>et al.</em> 1998).  The authors specify that the data may or may not provide a valid indication of population trends (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1998).  In southern Uzbekistan, pelt takes decreased from 8,751 in 1959 to 595 in 1977 (Volozheninov 1980).  It is inferred that this species is sufficiently abundant in China, where is it categorized as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).  There are no data available to characterize populations for the remainder of its distribution.	eng
41308	threats	China Red List & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Hunting for meat, skins, and for traditional medicines has been identified as threats to <em>Lepus tolai</em> in Mongolia (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41309	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	As a recently split and relatively unstudied species, there are currently no conservation measures in place for <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em>. Research is needed to determine the population status, threats, and habitat requirements for this species before recommendations can be made.	eng
41309	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> occurs in the Manzano Mountains of New Mexico, USA (Hall 1981). It is known from the type locality within the vicinity of Rea Ranch, New Mexico, on the “northeast side of Bosque Peak, at 2,880 m” elevation (Frey <em>et al</em>. 1997). There are records of a specimen found in 1956 on the eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains, at 8,500 ft, and another was possibly sighted at 11,650 ft near Sandia Crest (Ivey 1957) but it is unclear whether the Sandia Mountains are included in its current distribution.	eng
41309	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> occurs in a high elevation area where conifer forest dominates. It is unknown what type of cover <em>S. cognatus</em> requires. It is assumed that habitat requirements and ecology are similar to <em>S. floridanus</em>.	eng
41309	population	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	There is no information available about the population status of <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em>.	eng
41309	threats	Smith, A.T. & Boyer, A. F., 2008	The threats to <em>Sylvilagus cognatus</em> are not known, but the New Mexico Drought Task Force indicates that the species may be affected by loss of habitat, drought, and wildfire (New Mexico Drought Task Force 2005). The degree of threat is not known.	eng
41310	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The Natural Heritage Program in Texas considers <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> to be rare or uncommon, but no state of federal listing currently exists, largely because of lack of data regarding population status and vulnerability (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/>Detailed studies are necessary to determine the best approaches to conservation, including studies on population genetics, life history, population status, and the effects of threats (Ruedas 1998), followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas.	eng
41310	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> has historically been known to occur in the Guadalupe Mountains (Texas and New Mexico), the Chisos Mountains (Texas), the Davis Mountains (Texas), and the Sierra de la Madera (Coahuila, Mexico). Currently, it is suspected that the Guadalupe and Chisos Mountains populations have been extirpated (Ruedas 1998). An unconfirmed <em>Sylvilagus</em> population may exist in the Sierra del Carmen, but it is unknown if it is <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998). <br/><br/><em>S. robustus</em> is not known to occur below 1,500 m in elevation, and becomes more common above 1,800 m (Ruedas 1998). The contiguous area in the Davis Mountains that contains suitable vegetation preferred by <em>S. robustus</em> is 1,815 km², but when considering the areas above 1,675 m only, potential habitat within the range is reduced to approximately 730 km² (Ruedas 1998).	eng
41310	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> occurs in the mountains in Madrean evergreen woodland (Ruedas 1998). <br/><br/>Little is known about the specific ecology of <em>S. robustus</em>, though it can be assumed that it is similar to <em>S. floridanus</em>, of which <em>S. robustus</em> was formerly a subspecies (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/>Total length ranges from 37.5-46.3 cm (Cervantes and Lopez-Hernandez 2005).	eng
41310	population	Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The population of <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> in the Guadalupe Mountains has decreased in size continually since it was initially reduced to approximately 50 individuals in the 1940’s (Ruedas 1998). No individuals have been verified from the Chisos or Guadalupe Mountains since the 1960’s (Ruedas 1998).  There have been two unconfirmed sightings in the Guadalupe Mountains from the 1970's, but it is probable that both populations have been extirpated (Ruedas 1998). In the Davis Mountains, the only recent specimen that exists is a roadkill from 1997, and that was the first record in 20 years from that area (Ruedas 1998). The population status of the Sierra de la Madera is not known, but it is reported that there may be a population of <em>Sylvilagus</em> in good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, in Coahuila, Mexico, though it is not confirmed to be <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998).<br/><br/><em>S. robustus</em> probably occurred historically in low densities and population numbers, resulting in greater sensitivity to threats and leading to local extinctions (Ruedas 1998).	eng
41310	threats	Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	The nature of <em>Sylvilagus robustus</em> to occur in small population numbers and densities increases the sensitivity of the species to threats. It is likely that <em>S. robustus</em> is sensitive to drought, as they are observed less frequently in dry years (Ruedas 1998). Habitat destruction, in the form of urbanization, development, cattle grazing, and brush clearing, are reducing the habitat available for <em>S. robustus</em> (Ruedas 1998).	eng
41311	conservation	Durant, P. & Guevara, M.A., 2008	More research is necessary to determine the population status and effects of threats on <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>, which has only been studied in detail regarding some aspects of reproductive physiology, morphology, and habitat relationship (Durant and Guevara 2000a; Durant and Guevara 2000b; Durant and Guevara 2001). It may be necessary to establish management plans and protected areas for the species.	eng
41311	distribution	Durant, P. & Guevara, M.A., 2008	<em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em> occurs in the lowlands of Venezuela in the states of Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico. It is only known from a few localities: “Fundo Millano” (18 km northeast of the town of Sabaneta), the type locality in Barinas, “Chorrosco Bajo” in Barinas (112 km east of type locality), “Hato Cantaclaro” (15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa), “Hacienda Las Mercedes” in Portuguesa (25 km west of the city of Guanare), “Finca Las Lajitas” in Guarico (5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco) (Durant and Guevara 2001).  It is suspected that the total distribution is more extensive than what is currently known.	eng
41311	habitat	Durant, P. & Guevara, M.A., 2008	A study conducted in 1989 found that 74% of all captures and 80% of all sightings of this species were in conjunction with "Escobillal" vegetation type (<em>Sida</em> spp. and <em>Malvastrum</em> spp.), which was characterized as "low shrubby-herbaceous savanna composition" (Durant and Guevara 2000a).  The study area was in close proximity to four tropical dry forests (Durant and Guevara 2000a).<br/><br/>Diet consists primarily of <em>Sida</em> spp. (Durant and Guevara 2000a).  HB length is 43.4-44.5 cm, with females larger than males (Durant and Guevara 2000b).  Litter size is 2.63 embryos per female, with gestation lasting 35 days (Durant and Guevara 2000b).  September through December had the greatest reproductive activity for sampled females, but activity was recorded for 270 days of the year (Durant and Guevara 2000b).	eng
41311	population	Durant, P. & Guevara, M.A., 2008	Very little information exists about abundance and population status of <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>.  In the study that resulted in the description of the species conducted in 1989-1990, the researchers were able to obtain 45 adult rabbits (Durant and Guevara 2001), and another study in 1989 resulted in the observation of 273 individuals, and a capture of 53.5% of that amount (Durant and Guevara 2000a).	eng
41311	threats	Durant, P. & Guevara, M.A., 2008	Little is known about the direct threats to <em>Sylvilagus varynaensis</em>, but some threats to other <em>Sylvilagus</em> species in the area are likely to apply to <em>S. varynaensis</em> as well. Anthropogenic factors, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, and hunting, present threats to rabbits in Venezuela, as well as predation by feral dogs and competition with domestic animals (Durant and Guevara 2000a).	eng
41312	conservation	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in two protected areas on New Guinea and presumably is present in many protected areas in Australia. There is a need to monitor numbers of animals killed along selected sections of main tourist roads. Most likely there are adequate protected areas in Australia already in place for this species, however, in Papua New Guinea (where less than 2% of the land is protected) none of the protected areas are large enough (other than Crater Mountain Wildlife Reserve) to contain a viable population of this species (L. Salas pers. comm.).	eng
41312	distribution	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is widespread in Australia, including Tasmania and a number of offshore islands, and also occurs in south-eastern New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and the Markham valley. The subspecies <em>Tachyglossus aculeatus multiaculeatus</em> is endemic to Kangaroo Island, South Australia (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,675 m asl (New Guinea) and up to the highest peak in Australia.	eng
41312	habitat	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is found in various open woodland types, savanna and semi-arid and arid areas, and rainforest (e.g., Queensland Wet Tropics). It is also found in agricultural areas. The female lays a single egg, which hatches after about ten days (Augee 2008).	eng
41312	population	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	It can be a locally common species.	eng
41312	threats	Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species over most of its range. It is threatened by overhunting for food in parts of New Guinea, and there may be some localized declines. Although not a threat, they are used for ceremonial purposes throughout their range.	eng
41313	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
41313	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Prior to its extinction this species occurred on Puerto Rico (including Vieques Island) and the U.S. Virgin Islands (on the islands of St Johns and St Thomas).	eng
41313	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	It was a nocturnal and Insectivorous mammal. It was the largest species of <em>Nesophontes</em> because it evolved on an island where there where no large <em>Solenodon</em> competitors.	eng
41313	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species most likely became extinct sometime around the 16th century, it is known to have survived across its range (based on radiocarbon dating) until the time of European arrival (post 1500) (Turvey <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>According to Wilson and Reeder (2005), this species may have died out much earlier than 1500 AD. McFarlane (1999) reported a date of 5410 +/- 80 yrs B.P.	eng
41313	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most likely reason for the species' extinction.	eng
41314	conservation	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from three protected areas: Ambohitantely, Analamazaotra and Mantadia. Further studies are needed into the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
41314	distribution	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in many localities in eastern and the central highlands of Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,650 m asl.	eng
41314	habitat	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	It occurs in wide range of habitats including the forest margin, heavily disturbed areas, agricultural zones, paddy fields, sedge marshes, and non-forested regions of the eastern humid forest.	eng
41314	population	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is relatively common in suitable habitat (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.). The ability of this species to live outside forests suggests it may not be declining as much as other species of <em>Microgale</em>.	eng
41314	threats	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species can adapt to non-natural habitats and so the main threat may be habitat degradation and mortality through fires.	eng
41315	conservation	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas including the Marojejy National Park, d'Andringitra National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park. No additional conservation measures are needed.	eng
41315	distribution	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in areas of relatively intact eastern humid forests of Madagascar. It ranges between 100 and 2,300 m asl.	eng
41315	habitat	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species appears to prefer relatively intact tropical humid forest habitats. It is not very adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
41315	population	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
41315	threats	Raherisehena, M., Randriamanantsoa, H.M. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
41316	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Adequately conserved in many protected areas; see Bronner (1995) for a list of these.	eng
41316	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species as presently known is found in South Africa and Swaziland. Coastally from the Eastern Cape, in the vicinity of Van Staden's River, northwards to St Lucia district in KwaZulu-Natal. Ranges inland to the foot of the Drakensberg escarpment, from Maclear/Ugie in the south to Van Reenen in the north, with an apparently isolated subspecies (<em>A. h. meesteri</em>) in the Barberton/Graskop region of Mpumalanga. Previously reported from Lesotho, based on a misidentified specimen (representing <em>Chlorotalpa sclateri</em>); a marginal occurrence in Lesotho in the northern Drakensberg (near Bethlehem) cannot, however, be discounted as species limits and distributions of this taxon and <em>A. septentrionalis</em> await clarification.	eng
41316	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Wide variety of woodland and grassland habitats in southern African savanna, also in Afromontane forests and marshes; also found on coastal dunes. Marginal intrusion into the Fynbos and Nama-Karoo biomes in the southern parts of its range. Particularly abundant in moist soils near rivers and dams, but also found far from water provided the substrate is friable and not too rocky. Common in gardens, agricultural lands and golf courses; less common in exotic plantations.	eng
41316	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Common throughout range. Densities of up to 15–20 individuals/ha recorded in prime habitat (inferred from Kuyper 1985).	eng
41316	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	No major threats. Inferred minor threats include persecution and poisoning by landowners, and predation by domestic dogs and cats.	eng
41317	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Granjon, L., 2008	<em>C. cinderella</em> is present in a protected area in Senegal. Further general research is needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.	eng
41317	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species occurs in Senegal, The Gambia, southern Mauritania near the border with Senegal, Mali and Niger. <em>C. cinderella</em> has not been recorded in Burkina Faso but it is likely that it occurs there also.	eng
41317	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in the Sudan savanna zone in acacia bush and grassland habitats. It is thought that sufficient habitat remains in this area to support this species.	eng
41317	population	Hutterer, R. & Granjon, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. Only single specimens have been recorded from various localities. The low number of specimens suggest that this species could be rare.	eng
41317	threats	Hutterer, R. & Granjon, L., 2008	While the species is poorly known, there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41318	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. goliath</em> has been reported from protected areas in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Central African Republic. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of animals from West Africa.	eng
41318	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura goliath</em> is widely distributed in Central Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Central African Republic, Gabon (five specimens collected from the Minkebe forest) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Animals from an isolated population at Mount Nimba (Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Liberia) in West Africa have been attributed to this species (<em>Crocidura goliath nimbasilvanus</em>), but these may represent a distinct species (Heim de Balsac and Meester 1977; R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2004; Hutterer 2005).	eng
41318	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has typically been recorded from areas of primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if it can persist in secondary habitats.	eng
41318	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is not rare, but is also not very abundant.	eng
41318	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
41319	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No specific measures in place.	eng
41319	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	Occurs from Iran through Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and China (NW Xinjiang) to Mongolia. May occur in Israel.	eng
41319	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Steppe and semi-desert (Stone 1996). Found in a range of arid habitats, including salt-grass plain with sand dunes; arid tamarisk shrubland, and ecotones between tamarisk and salt-grass; also known from thick riparian vegetation (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
41319	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	Population size and trends have not been quantified.	eng
41319	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
41320	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species is presumed to be extinct.	eng
41320	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species was known only from the type locality in Jujuy, Argentina. Type locality - Argentina, Jujuy, "Yuto" (Gardner, 2007, Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41320	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	The originlal type specimen was collected when theregion was less disturbed by agricultural development. Nothing is known about the natural history of this species (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41320	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species has not been seen since 1962. Even as was is being described as a new species, it is difficult to know if it still exists in the region (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002). After numerous searched to the regions where it was knonw to occur - no individuals have been located (Diaz, M. pers. comm), the forest habitat was destroyed and the species is presumed to be extinct.	eng
41320	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	The major threats to this species which are presumed to have driven it to extinction are human impact of agricultural and technological development, cattle ranching, and indiscriminate deforestation (Díaz <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41321	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	The species has been recorded from Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to affectively conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution, natural history and threats. There is a need to actively monitor known populations of this species, and to survey remaining forest fragemnts to locate any additional viable populations.	eng
41321	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This West African species has been recorded from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire (with an important population in Taï National Park), Ghana (type locality of the Krokosua Hills and Atiwiredu [Weber and Fahr 2007]), Nigeria (west of the Niger River, but may occur to the east [Happold 1987]) and is possibly present in Cameroon (a dubious record from Korup National Park). Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) suggest that the species might range as far west as Sierra Leone.	eng
41321	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is largely associated with primary lowland tropical moist forest. The type specimen was trapped in a natural grassy clearing in high forest at 1,800 m asl; paratypes were collected on a cocoa farm and in a hole in the ground in secondary bush (Hutterer 1983; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Ghana, the habitat of this species is now composed of small, scattered forest fragments.	eng
41321	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	In general, <em>C. grandiceps</em> appears to be relatively uncommon. Taï forest in Côte d'Ivoire probably contains one of the largest populations of this species. Surveys at the type locality in 2003 did not encounter any animals (Jan Decher pers. comm.).	eng
41321	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. grandiceps</em> is threatened by continuing general habitat destruction, fragmentation, and degradation, especially in parts of Nigeria and Ghana.	eng
41322	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas in Kenya, and is presumably present in additional protected areas over its wide range. There is a need for further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41322	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This Central African and East African species has been reported from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Central African Republic and eastern Cameroon. Additionally, there is one locality in southern Sudan and a single record from Ethiopia (Osgood, 1936). This species is not found south of the Congo River and a number of western populations, including records from Mount Cameroon and southern Nigeria, are <em>Crocidura virgata</em> (Hutterer 2005).	eng
41322	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>C. hildegardae</em> is principally a tropical moist forest species. While this species has been recorded from some degraded areas, it is believed to be only able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance.	eng
41322	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is not uncommon and is regularly found in samples. In Kenya it is the most common of all shrews sampled in forests.	eng
41322	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this wide ranging species as a whole.	eng
41323	conservation	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in a number of protected areas. Research is needed into the taxonomic status of animals from Kenya, Somalia and Namibia. There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
41323	distribution	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura hirta</em> is widespread in Central Africa, East Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. Earlier records from Kenya and Somalia probably refer to other <em>Crocidura</em> species, with additional research needed to confirm this. It occurs from several hundred meters asl up to between 1,200 and  1,400 m asl in South Africa.	eng
41323	habitat	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in grassland, savanna and bush savanna. The Nambian subspecies <em>Crocidura hirta deserti</em> occurs in arid areas.	eng
41323	population	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is well adapted to living in association with humans or in habitats modified by humans. It is the dominant species in Ngorogoro in Tanzania but is less common in southern parts of its range.	eng
41323	threats	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41324	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this poorly known species.	eng
41324	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia, where it has been recorded from Sri Lanka (widely distributed), India (Mysore and Ladakh) and Nepal (Hutterer 2005; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). It generally occurs from 100 to 2,500 m asl, although a record from Ladakh is at 4,000 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41324	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This is a nocturnal animal that lives in the montane wet zone, lowland wet zone and wet patana grasslands in Sri Lanka, and tropical moist forests in India and Nepal (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41324	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41324	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
41325	conservation	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. jacksoni</em> is present in several forest reserves in Kenya, and has been recorded from forest reserves in the Usambara mountains of Tanzania.	eng
41325	distribution	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. A single record from Ethiopia, near Lake Tana, is probably a misidentified <em>Crocidura denti</em> and is not included here. The elevational range is possibly from as low as 600 m asl at the base of the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania up to 1,500-2,200 m asl.	eng
41325	habitat	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. jacksoni</em> is found in subtropical and tropical lowland and montane forests and also occurs in areas of mixed forest-savanna. It appears to be relatively tolerant of disturbance; it has been recorded at foot of the Usambara mountains (Tanzania) in relatively disturbed habitat.	eng
41325	population	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is reasonably common and relatively widespread. It is the second most common species in some parts of its range (N. Oguge pers. comm.).	eng
41325	threats	Oguge, N., Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41326	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been found in forest in Korup National Park, Cameroon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
41326	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species ranges through West Africa to western Central Africa. It occurs in Sudan and Guinea savanna from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa, to western Cameroon in the east.	eng
41326	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs in Sudan and Guinea savanna. There is some evidence that it also inhabits forest-savanna mosaic habitats. Forest is not present over most of the species range.	eng
41326	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is not common but has a fairly widespread distribution.	eng
41326	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41327	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii) in Chinese Red List.	eng
41327	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in temperate zone in East Asia: from Amur River (Russia) in north, through Korea and NE China till Shanghai.	eng
41327	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occupies broad-leafed forest, forest glades, bogs, and dry meadows, shrubby thickets along the banks of rivers and lakes; also in agricultural fields and roadside verges overgrown with sagebrush. The nutrition of the Ussuri white-toothed shrew is based on animal foods.  Its diet is predominantly insects and other invertebrates, and small vertebrate animals.  Females may produces up to 3 litters with 6-8 youngs. Reproduction occurs from May to beginning of October. Young start reproduce in second half of summer. Longevity is 15-16 months.	eng
41327	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common species through the range.	eng
41327	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No major threats.	eng
41328	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41328	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is only known from northern and central Sulawesi (Hutterer 2005). It might occur more widely on the island. It has been found at elevations up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41328	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species inhabits tropical rainforest at altitudes up to 1,000 m. It shows preference towards primary forests, but can survive in secondary forest. The species is thought to be nocturnal. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
41328	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>Crocidura lea</em> has been found to be locally common when adequately sampled using pitfall taps.	eng
41328	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species. However, if it is dependent on reasonably undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.	eng
41329	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41329	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is endemic to central and southeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). It is found at lower to mid-elevations up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41329	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>C. levicula</em> is considered to be the smallest mammal of Sulawesi (Ruedi 1995). It is found from lower to mid-montane tropical rainforests at altitudes up to 1,000 m asl. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
41329	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>Crocidura levicula</em> has been found to be very abundant when adequately sampled using pitfall taps.	eng
41329	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
41330	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
41330	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura littoralis</em> is found in the rain forest zone of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya. The type locality for this species is the east shore of Lake Albert, close to the Ugandan border. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is known from Kisangani, Masako Forest and has recently been recorded in Kikwit (R. Hutterer pers. comm.). This species occurs at elevations up to 500-800 m asl.	eng
41330	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. littoralis</em> inhabits primary rainforest and is usually found in lowland areas.	eng
41330	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
41330	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41331	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas within its range.	eng
41331	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is widespread in East Africa, ranging into parts of Central Africa and southern Africa. It ranges from northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya (Nairobi to central highlands), through Rwanda and Tanzania (Mount Meru), to eastern Angola, southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia (Cotterill, 2002), Malawi, northern and western Mozambique, to eastern Zimbabwe (Manicaland). This species occurs at elevations over 1,000 m asl. In Malawi it is found at 2,000 to 2,300 m asl on the Nyika Plateau.	eng
41331	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. luna</em> inhabits the fringes of montane tropical moist forest. These areas are characterised by cool, generally moist with an annual rainfall of over 1,000 mm. A specimen was collected during the ploughing of an old cassava field at Hillwood Farm, Zambia (Cotterill 2002).	eng
41331	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is locally abundant in some areas.	eng
41331	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41332	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from Awash National Park in Ethiopia (Demeter 1982; Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996), and is presumably present in additional protected areas over its wide range.	eng
41332	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura lusitania</em> is found throughout the Sahelian zone of Africa, including Senegal, Mauritania, Mali (including a single record from the Sahara), Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia  and Eritrea. It is also present in southern Morocco and northern Western Sahara.	eng
41332	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. lusitania</em> occurs in Sahelian savanna, steppe, and semi-desert.	eng
41332	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is considered to be uncommon.	eng
41332	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41333	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is present in Meru National Park in Kenya were it is well protected. Further studies into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species are needed.	eng
41333	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>Crocidura macarthuri</em> occurs in the savanna of Kenya and Somalia. The species has recently been recorded from the Nguruman area of Kenya. This species occurs at an elevation of approximately 800 m asl.	eng
41333	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	<em>C. macarthuri</em> has been recorded from dry acacia savanna habitats.	eng
41333	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is very uncommon.	eng
41333	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss, generally resulting from increased irrigation for agriculture.	eng
41334	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.	eng
41334	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	This largely southern African species, ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south into Zambia, Angola, northeast Namibia, northwest Botswana (the Okavango Delta), Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, Swaziland and eastern South Africa.	eng
41334	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	This species has highly specific habitat requirements. It occurs in close proximity to open water, has a distinct preference for marshy ponds, and also needs riverine and semi-aquatic vegetation such as reed beds.	eng
41334	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
41334	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41335	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded in Kibira National Park in Burundi and may also occur in areas of Bwindi forest in Uganda which are protected. Additional surveys are needed to better understand the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41335	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura maurisca</em> has largely been recorded from the swamps and primary forest of the Albertine Rift in Central Africa and East Africa. It has been recorded from Uganda (type locality at Entebbe), Rwanda, Burundi (including Kibira National Park) and Kenya. There is a single very disjunct record of this species from Gabon (Goodman <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It occurs at elevations around 2,000 m asl, except for the type locality which is at 800 m asl.	eng
41335	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. maurisca</em> appears to be dependant on <em>Cyperus</em> swamps. Most of the records for this species are from Albertine rift montane areas. The Gabon record and type collection from Uganda, were recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
41335	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41335	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41336	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41336	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is largely endemic to Indonesia. It occurs on Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands, including Bali, Penida, Lombok, Pandjang, Sumbawa, Mojo, Liang, Nglali, Rak, Sangeang, Banta, Komodo, Jaco, Padar, Rintja, Sumba, Flores, Raidjua, Sawu, Dana, Roti, Semau, Usu, Wokam, Timor (including Timor-Leste), Solor, Adonara, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Pura, Marisa, Rusa, Atauro, Liran, Wetar, Kisar, Leti, Moa, and Lakor. It has also been reported from Ambon island, in the Maluku Islands (Indonesia) (Hutterer 2005), where it is probably introduced. The species is also introduced to Wokam in the Aru Islands, by Kitchener <em>et al</em>. (1994).	eng
41336	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is a poorly known species, occurring in lowland and montane forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
41336	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41336	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human-induced habitat degradation, as a result of agriculture, plantations, timber extraction and human settlement.	eng
41337	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution, especially focusing on whether or not the speciesw can survive in anthropogenic ha bitats, such as oil palm plantations. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41337	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known for certain from Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. It has been recorded from Java, Sumatra, Borneo (Brunei, Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak) Records from Peninsular Malaysia require confirmation (Hutterer 1993, 2005). Likewise, records from the following islands also require confirmation: Ambon; Sumbawa, Lombok, Sumba, Flores, Komodo, Obi and Timor, but all of these need confirmation (Jenkins 1982).  It has been recorded from sea-level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
41337	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species can be found in primary lowland and montane forests. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
41337	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41337	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.	eng
41338	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	Both the Kenyan and Ugandan parts of Mount Elgon are protected as part of a National Park. The Tanzanian and Ruwenzori populations are also protected in National Parks. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the separate populations of this species. There is a need to maintain habitat within the range of this species.	eng
41338	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura montis</em> is a montane species found in East and Central Africa. In Uganda it occurs on Mount Elgon and also on Mount Ruwenzori (the type locality). It has been collected from Kijabe in Kenya, Mount Meru in Tanzania and the Imatong Mountains in Sudan. It is also possibly found in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been found at a range of elevations. In Uganda, the Mount Elgon population occurs at an elevation of 2,900-4,200 m asl. At Mount Ruwenzori the species has been recorded between approximately 2,950-3,370 m asl. In the Democratic Republic of Congo it is found at approximately 2,130-2,740 m asl.	eng
41338	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	On Mount Elgon <em>C. montis</em> is found in montane forest, erica forest, montane grasslands.	eng
41338	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. montis</em> is the dominant species on Mount Elgon and is highly abundant on top of the mountain. Although other shrew species live lower down <em>C. montis</em> is the only shrew species found at such high altitudes. It is highly abundant in montane grasslands, above 3,000 m asl.	eng
41338	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. montis</em> is affected by human-caused fires which cause habitat destruction on Mount Elgon.	eng
41339	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. muricauda</em> has been recorded in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. There is a need to maintain suitable areas of lowland forest for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natrual history of this species.	eng
41339	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This West African species ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone, through Liberia (including the type locality of Mount Coffee) and Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana.	eng
41339	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This is a climbing shrew restricted to West African lowland primary forest.	eng
41339	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>C. muricauda</em> is not common and is thought to have a small population size.	eng
41339	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat degradation throughout its range, generally through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
41340	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, and general ecology of this species.	eng
41340	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura mutesae</em> has a seemingly disjuct distribution in Central Africa and East Africa. It is known from the type locality of Kampala in Uganda, and then from Central African records from Dzangha-Sanga and Batouri in the Central African Republic, and from Tandala in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (R. Hutterer pers. comm.).	eng
41340	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
41340	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41340	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41341	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.	eng
41341	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura nana</em> is known from two localities, the type locality, Dollo in Somalia and from Addis Ababa in Ethiopia (Hutterer 1981). The elevational range of this species is unknown.	eng
41341	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from dry grassland and is probably a lowland species.	eng
41341	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The is no information on the population size of this species. The area of Somalia where it may be present has not yet been surveyed.	eng
41341	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, however, there appears to be plenty of suitable habitat available for this species within its recorded range.	eng
41342	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species presumably wide range, it seems probable that it is present within some protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41342	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from both West Africa and East Africa, and presumably ranges more widely between the known records. In West Africa, it has been recorded from Mauritania, The Gambia (at Sapu), Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone (Mount Loma) (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998; Hutterer 2005). It has also possibly been recorded from Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (Pinkwae) and Nigeria, but the identity of these animals is unclear and they are not mapped here. In East Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda (the type locality is probably Entebbe), Kenya and Tanzania (including Ngorogoro) (Hutterer 2005).	eng
41342	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. nanilla</em> is found in a variety of dry and moist savanna habitats, and might be a savanna specialist.	eng
41342	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. nanilla</em> is thought to be a rare species but it has a widespread distribution. It is a very small shrew that is difficult to catch.	eng
41342	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41344	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41344	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em>Crocidura nigeriae</em> is found in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko). It may also be present in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, but its presence there is uncertain. On Bioko Island, it occurs at low elevations just above sea level.	eng
41344	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest, but also in farmlands and grasslands within the forest (Happold 1987).	eng
41344	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Happold (1987) reports that they are not as common as <em>Crocidura crossei</em> in Nigeria.	eng
41344	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	<em></em>The species may be affected by habitat loss in parts of its range.	eng
41345	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.	eng
41345	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura nigricans</em> is endemic to the central Angolan plateau. The type locality is Quindumbo.	eng
41345	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this montane species.	eng
41345	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance of this species are not known, but the population size is not thought to be declining.	eng
41345	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41346	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.	eng
41346	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura nigrofusca</em> is a widespread species which is found from southern Ethiopia and Sudan through East Africa to Zambia and Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has possibly been recorded from Cameroon, however, this needs confirmation and is not mapped here. It generally occurs in lowland areas but has been found above 2,000 m asl in some areas.	eng
41346	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. nigrofusca</em> is found in a wide variety of tropical moist forest habitats.	eng
41346	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41346	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41347	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. niobe</em> is present in well-managed parks in Uganda, and is present in Kibira National Park in Burundi and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Further details are needed on the natural history of this species, including its adaptability to habitat degradation.	eng
41347	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura niobe</em> occurs in montane forests in  the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Burundi and possibly Rwanda. Mount Ruwenzori (1,890 m asl) in Uganda is the type locality for this species. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo it is found in the Kivu range, west of Lake Kivu (Dieterlen). In Burundi, specimens have been collected from the southern Bururi Forest Reserve at 2,170 m asl and in the north-west of the country from Kibira National Park between 1,950-2,250 m asl. In Uganda in addition to Mount Rwenzori <em>C. niobe</em> has been recorded in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest National Park at 1,600 m asl and in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park between 2,600-2,980 m asl (J. Kerbis pers. comm.).	eng
41347	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species. <em>C. niobe</em> has been recorded from montane tropical moist forest.	eng
41347	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is very uncommon.	eng
41347	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Significant habitat loss is ongoing within the localities of Kibira National Park in Burundi and Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, largely resulting from continuing civil conflict and settlement by refugees in these two parks.	eng
41348	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been collected from several protected areas including Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park, Rwenzori National Park, Mgahinga National Park all in Uganda, and from Kibira National Park in Burundi. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species as a whole.	eng
41348	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura olivieri</em> is a very widespread African species, that ranges from Senegal and Ethiopia in the north of its range, throughout Subsaharan Africa to northeastern Namibia, northern Botswana, northern Zimbabwe and northern Mozambique. A disjunct population is present along the Nile Valley of Egypt. It has been recorded up to 2,680 m asl (Mgahinga National Park, Uganda).	eng
41348	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It has been recorded from both moist and dry forests, and moist and dry savanna. In the southern part of its range it tends to be more restricted to streams. This species is also found in human settlements and is often regarded as a pest species. In Egypt, it has been recorded from moist areas incliuding canal embankments, irrigated fields, cultivated areas and gardens (Hoath 2003).	eng
41348	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a relatively abundant species.	eng
41348	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41349	conservation	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
41349	distribution	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Crocidura parvipes</em> is found in the Guinea and Sudan savanna from Cameroon to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia and Angola.	eng
41349	habitat	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from dry savanna and areas of mixed forest and savanna. It sometimes also occurs in gallery forests in the southern Congo basin.	eng
41349	population	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is always uncommon. Only small numbers are ever recorded, even in large survey collections.	eng
41349	threats	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no known threats as a whole to this species.	eng
41350	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in the Awash National Park, Ethiopia (Demeter 1982). Additional studies are needed to better determine the full extent of the species range.	eng
41350	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Temple, H., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in the Awash National Park, Ethiopia (Demeter 1982). Additional studies are needed to better determine the full extent of the species range.	eng
41350	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura pasha</em> is found in Sudan, Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002), and Ethiopia (Demeter, 1982). Although only four localities are known, it is suspected that it is considerably more widespread than is currently known as this is a small species of shrew that is infrequently captured. Current locations have mainly been found by identifying remain of this species in owl pellets.	eng
41350	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Temple, H., 2008	<em>Crocidura pasha</em> is found in Sudan, Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002), and Ethiopia (Demeter, 1982). Although only four localities are known, it is suspected that it is considerably more widespread than is currently known as this is a small species of shrew that is infrequently captured. Current locations have mainly been found by identifying remain of this species in owl pellets.	eng
41350	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in Sudan and Sahelian savanna habitats. It is thought to be a very hardy species.	eng
41350	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Temple, H., 2008	This species is found in Sudan and Sahelian savanna habitats. It is thought to be a very hardy species.	eng
41350	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. pasha</em> might be a relatively uncommon shrew species. Even the number that have been identified from owl pellets is small. However, this shrew has been found to be common in the Adrar des Iforas Massif in northern Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002).	eng
41350	population	Hutterer, R. & Temple, H., 2008	<em>C. pasha</em> might be a relatively uncommon shrew species. Even the number that have been identified from owl pellets is small. However, this shrew has been found to be common in the Adrar des Iforas Massif in northern Mali (Dobigny <em>et al</em>., 2002).	eng
41350	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no known threats to <em>C. pasha</em>. Most of the areas it inhabits are largely uninhabited by people.	eng
41350	threats	Hutterer, R. & Temple, H., 2008	There are no known threats to <em>C. pasha</em>. Most of the areas it inhabits are largely uninhabited by people.	eng
41351	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from the Yankari Game Reserve in Nigeria (Happold 1987). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
41351	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The range of <em>Crocidura planiceps</em> is uncertain. The type locality is 'Rhino Camp, Lado Enclave, Uganda' (Hutterer 2005). It is reported to be present in at several localities in Nigeria (Happold 1987). It was previously recorded as present in "Egyptian Sudan" which is now part of Uganda, and is possibly present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan and Ethiopia (Bahar Dar and Jimma) (Hutterer 1981; Hutterer 2005). Happold (1987) suggests that it might be widespread in the Northern savanna zone of Africa.	eng
41351	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Happold (1987) reports that animals allocated to this species were caught in a <em>Cyperus </em>swamp near a stream in Yankari Game Reserve, Nigeria.	eng
41351	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41351	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41352	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.	eng
41352	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura poensis</em> is found in West Africa and Central Africa. It ranges from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia , through Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria to Cameroon. It is also present on Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea and Principe Island in Sao Tome and Principe. It may range further east than Cameroon, however, there is some unresolved confusion between the distribution of this species and <em>Crocidura batesi</em>. Its elevational range is from just above sea level up to several hundred metres in Cameroon highlands.	eng
41352	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. poensis</em> is usually found on primary forest, and can be found in relict forest patches on the Jos Plateau in Nigeria (Happold 1987). It has also been recorded from a few localities in derived Guinea and Sudan savanna zones (Happold 1987), and can be found in various types of grasslands, grass clearings and farm bush (Jones 1962; Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41352	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
41352	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss and degradation.	eng
41353	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41353	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This little known species has been reported from northern Kashmir in India and Pakistan and the Ladakh region of India (Jiang and Hoffmann 2001, Hutterer 2005).	eng
41353	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Very little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
41353	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41353	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41354	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41354	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	The species occurs in northern, central, and southwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Hutterer 2005).	eng
41354	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	<em>C. rhoditis</em> inhabits lowland and montane forests. It has been found in secondary forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest.	eng
41354	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The population of this species seems to be stable, at least in suitable habitat.	eng
41354	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
41355	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	<em>C. roosevelti</em> is found in Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda and Garamba National Park in northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
41355	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	<em>Crocidura roosevelti</em> occurs across the forest-savanna margin of the Central African forest block. There are records from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, and Tanzania (Hutterer, 1981). It is possibly present in Sudan. Its elevational upper limit is between 900 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
41355	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is found in moist savanna around the Congo Basin forest block. It inhabits lowlands, under 1,200 m asl.	eng
41355	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has a low local abundance.	eng
41355	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
41356	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Approximately 14% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas.	eng
41356	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Global distribution: Russian Federation, China, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. <br/><br/>Regional distribution: Known from five localities in semi-desert habitats between Mongol Altai and Hangai mountain ranges, and also recorded in Trans Altai Govi Desert (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). This species was previously confused with <em>C. suaveolens</em>, and localities were recorded under this species name.	eng
41356	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Inhabits a variety of habitats including steppe, semi-desert, open tundra, montane coniferous forest, and river valleys. <br/>Like other white-toothed shrews, it is primarily insectivorous.	eng
41356	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Population size and trends have not been quantified, but this species is believed to have a wide but patchy distribution at low densities (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
41356	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There are no major threats. <em>Crocidura sibirica</em> is regarded as a pest species and consequently persecuted.	eng
41357	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Kruger National Park, South Africa. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
41357	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	This southern African species is present in Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, South Africa and Swaziland, and might be present in parts of Lesotho, Botswana, southern Malawi, Zambia and Angola, although this requires confirmation.	eng
41357	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	This species occurs in montane forest, savanna, bush, grassland and coastal forest. It appears to tolerate a wide range of habitats.	eng
41357	population	Baxter, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41357	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41358	conservation	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Baxter, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional details are needed on the natural history of this species and its possible presence in Somalia.	eng
41358	distribution	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura smithii</em> occurs in arid regions of Senegal, Ethiopia and possibly Somalia (where suitable habitat exists). The two known populations are distinct subspecies that are extremely isolated from one another.	eng
41358	habitat	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Baxter, R., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known. <em>C. smithii</em> has been recorded from dry Sahelian savanna.	eng
41358	population	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Baxter, R., 2008	This species is very uncommon.	eng
41358	threats	Hutterer, R., Howell, K. & Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41359	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to determine if this species is present in Somalia.	eng
41359	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura somalica</em> is found in Sudan (Angolo, Kordofan Province), Ethiopia (several localities), and Mali (Adrar de Iforas) (Hutterer <em>et al</em>., 1991). It probably also occurs in Somalia but has not been recorded there yet.	eng
41359	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species occurs mainly in arid habitats, such as dry savanna and semi-desert areas.	eng
41359	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is relatively uncommon at known sites.	eng
41359	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41360	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is present in Bwindi Forest Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. There is a need to effectively conserve remaining areas of suitable upland forest habitat. Additional surveys are needed to locate additional viable populations of this forest shrew. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species and into the identity of animals recorded from Mbanga Forest, Uganda.	eng
41360	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has a very restricted range in the montane region of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda. It is currently known only from three localities. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it has been recorded from Chaya, Ruchuru (type locality). In Uganda, it has been recorded within the Bwindi Forest Impenetrable National Park (Kasangaki <em>et al</em>. 2003) and possibly occurs in the Mbanga Forest ~113 km (70 miles) northwest of Entebe. Surveys within the area suggest that it does not range to the west of the known localities. It occurs at elevations between 1,000-2,000 m asl.	eng
41360	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	Although little is known about the natural history of this species, it has been recorded from mid-elevation tropical moist forests close to highlands.	eng
41360	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is believed to be relatively uncommon.	eng
41360	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is threatened by forest fragmentation, presumably largely through logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use, which has resulted in small patches of forest surrounded by severely degraded areas.	eng
41361	conservation	Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the current conservation status of this species.	eng
41361	distribution	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This North African species has been recorded from Morocco (south of Agadir), Western Sahara and Mauritania. Much of the information available on the distribution of <em>Crocidura tarfayensis</em> is from old records; surveys undertaken since 1980 have failed to find a live specimen, but owl pellets and dead specimens have been collected. This species was recorded as <em>C. whitakeri</em> from the Western Sahara (Heim de Balsac 1968).	eng
41361	habitat	Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species is found in coastal, stony and sandy areas with scarce vegetation. It also occurs on stony plains with no vegetation. In these areas it rarely rains but is always humid, especially in the winter. The extreme conditions in which it lives means that populations of this shrew remain small.	eng
41361	population	Aulagnier, S., 2008	<em>C. tarfayensis </em>is a rare species. It is possible that the species is declining as remains of this shrew in fresh owl pellets are less common that they used to be. Ongoing conflict within the range of this species limits survey effort.	eng
41361	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	In some areas climate change is a plausible threat to this species, with some parts of its range now too dry for populations to persist. Additional threats include phosphate mining and possibly overgrazing by domestic livestock in coastal areas. Overgrazing in these areas removes much of the vegetation apart from euphorbs which are not eaten by cattle.	eng
41361	threats	Aulagnier, S., 2008	In some areas climate change is plausible threat to this species, with some parts of its range now too dry populations to persist. Additional threats include phosphate mining and possibly overgrazing by domestic livestock in coastal areas. Overgrazing in these areas removes much of the vegetation apart from euphorbs which are not eaten by cattle.	eng
41362	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species may be present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
41362	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This West African species is distributed in the Guinea savanna habitat of Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. It is possibly present in Liberia, however, this needs confirmation.	eng
41362	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. theresae</em> has been recorded from the moist Guinea savanna, and mixed forest and savanna areas.	eng
41362	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
41362	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41363	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in some protected areas. There is a need to better determine the geographic range of this species.	eng
41363	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is widespread in Central Africa, East Africa and parts of southern Africa. It ranges from Equatorial Guinea (Bioko) and Cameroon in the west, as far east as southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya in the east, and as far south as Angola, Zambia and northern Malawi. The full extent of its range not known, due to confusion with <em>Crocidura nigrofusca</em>). It occurs at elevations of up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41363	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. turba </em>is a tropical moist forest dwelling species. It is found mainly lowland to mid-elevation forest and the Shimba Hills in Cameroon.	eng
41363	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species can be locally common especially in the southern parts of its range.	eng
41363	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41364	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. Further surveys are needed to confirm the species presence in Tanzania.	eng
41364	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura viaria</em> ranges from Morocco (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2000), Western Sahara and Mauritania in the north of its range, through northern West Africa and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and possibly Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar) in the east.	eng
41364	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura viaria</em> ranges from Morocco (Vogel <em>et al</em>. 2000), Western Sahara and Mauritania in the north of its range, through northern West Africa and northern Central Africa, to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania (in the Udzungwa Mountains) in the east. Has been included in faunal inventories for Zanzibar, but this requires confirmation.	eng
41364	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has a broad savanna distribution and occurs in all Sudan savanna and in Sahelien savanna. It appears able to tolerates disturbance, but is more common in more natural savanna. In Kenya it has been found in the Shimba Hills in a disturbed forest mosaic habitat.	eng
41364	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This can be a very common species.	eng
41364	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41365	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional surveys are needed for this species in the west of its range.	eng
41365	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura voi</em> is a relatively widespread African species ranging from Sudan and Ethiopia to Kenya and Somalia (Hutterer 2005). There are single records of this species from Nigeria and Mali.	eng
41365	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in very dry savanna. It occurs in Sudan savanna in Mali in the western part of its distribution. It is also found in coastal areas in Kenya and Somalia.	eng
41365	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It appears to be a relatively uncommon species. Scattered specimens have been found across its range.	eng
41365	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41366	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	None in place.	eng
41366	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Crocidura whitakeri</em> is endemic to Atlantic and Mediterranean parts of North Africa; Western Sahara (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007), Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (see references in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It also occurs on Ceuta and Melilla (Spanish Northern African Territories) (L.J.P. Muñoz pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,800 m and is especially well distributed along the Atlantic front of Morocco. It seems to be absent from most of Algeria's coastal zone, where its distribution runs along southern border of the Saharan Atlas mountains. There is one record from coastal Egypt (Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>New localities have recently been found in southern Tunisia. Some data are also available from western Libya, where it was reported as <em>Crocidura russula</em> but may be <em>C. whitakeri</em> (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
41366	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>C. whitakeri</em> seems to be dependent on dry and stony habitats, with sparse vegetation (i.e., steppe or subdeserts). It is also found in sandy coastal dunes. The species shelters among rocks and in rodent burrows.	eng
41366	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown. It is a very difficult species to find and to track in the field.	eng
41366	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The main natural predator of this species is the Barn Owl. It can be affected by pesticides, which are used massively against locusts in the southern part of its range.	eng
41367	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas.	eng
41367	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This African species ranges from Cameroon (R. Hutterer pers. comm.) and Nigeria, to Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.	eng
41367	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. yankariensis</em> is found in the Sudan savanna zone, including dry savanna and arid savanna.	eng
41367	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41367	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41368	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known with certainty if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
41368	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	This little known species has only been recorded with certainty from Kaffa Province in southern Ethiopia, and Kaimosi in Kisumu District, Kenya. Some records for <em>C. zaphiri</em>, such as those from Gamo Gofo Province in Ethiopia, might be misidentifications of other <em>Crocidura</em> species.	eng
41368	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	In Ethiopia this species is found in Charada Forest. In Kenya, it occurs in Kaimosi which is near Kakamega Forest.	eng
41368	population	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41368	threats	Hutterer, R. & Oguge, N., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
41369	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It has been reported from Hingol National Park and Ziaret Juniper Forest Wildlife Sanctuary in Baluchistan, Pakistan (Roberts 1997). General field surveys, and research into the natural history ofthis species is needed (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41369	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in Afghanistan, Pakistan and southeastern Iran, ranging from 500 to 3,000 m asl (Habibi 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41369	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a nocturnal and solitary species that lives in semi-desert to hot desert environments. It generally inhabits mountains and steppes (Habibi 2003; Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41369	population	Molur, S., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41369	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species.	eng
41371	conservation	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas (national parks and reserves).	eng
41371	distribution	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Mexican highlands from 1,550 to 3,000 m asl in Guerrero, and from 2,250 to 3,200 m asl in Oaxaca (Hutterer, 2005; Woodman and Timm, 1999). There is an unconfirmed record from La Reserva de la Biosfera La Sepultura, in Chiapas (Espinoza Medinilla <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41371	habitat	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It usually is found in wet, highland, pine-oak or fir forest, and sometimes in dry, lowland forest (Reid, 1997). It burrows up to 10 cm in to the soft humus, most often need the edge of logs, and is often collected under rotting logs (Carraway 2007). In Oaxaca it is found along streams in damp leaf litter and humus (Carraway 2007).	eng
41371	population	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is fairly common (Reid, 1997).	eng
41371	threats	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	Deforestation and development are major threats to this species.	eng
41372	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in several protected areas, such as Montecristo and Celaqui National Parks, Reserva Ecológica El Triunfo, and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
41372	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in highlands above 1,200 m asl in southern Mexico (Chiapas) and southern Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and western Honduras (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 900 to 3,400 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
41372	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is thought to occur primarily in humid montane forests. Most specimens have been obtained in forests of pine or oak, frequently containing cypress, fir, or alder, and often interspersed with sacaton or mosses (Choate and Fleharty 1974). Its biology is poorly known.	eng
41372	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
41372	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species. In the highlands of Chiapas (in the eastern part of the Sierra Madre) there is significant habitat loss reaching almost 40% (Alfredo Cuaron and Paloma Carton de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
41373	conservation	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	The species is found in protected areas.	eng
41373	distribution	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Venezuela, where it is only known from the Cordillera de los Andes in Trujillo, Mérida, and eastern Táchira states (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004). There is a record of <em>Cryptotis</em> from the Coastal Cordillera west of Caracas, Venezuela that was reported under <em>meridensis</em>, but this likely does not represent this species (Ojasti and Mondolfi 1968; Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). The species likely occurs throughout the Cordillera, although there are no records from the northern part of the range. It is found from 1,640 to 3,950 m asl (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).	eng
41373	habitat	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is insectivorous and forages terrestrially in leaf litter. It occurs in cloud forest and páramo (Handley 1976; Aagaard 1982; Durant and Díaz 1995; Hutterer 2005). The species is also found in "Coloradito", high Andean stands of arborescent Polylepis and Espeletia in sheltered areas surrounded by páramo (Aagaard 1982; Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004). It tolerates various degrees of habitat disturbance, and is found in the following types of habitat; primary closed-canopy cloud forest, disturbed forest (including burned), secondary scrub along streams, disturbed cloud forest-páramo transition, and open páramo (Handley 1976; Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).	eng
41373	population	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is moderately abundant in the Venezuelan Andes (Aagaard 1982). It typically is abundant relative to other small mammals with which it occurs in páramo and cloud forest (Woodman and Díaz de Pascual 2004).	eng
41373	threats	Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, there is deforestation outside of the Cordillera's protected areas. This species is at least moderately tolerant to disturbance so this is not presumed to be a major threat.	eng
41374	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	It probably occurs in a few protected areas within its range.	eng
41374	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in Chiapas, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Veracruz, in Mexico. It is found from 520 to 2,600 m asl (Hutterer, 2005).	eng
41374	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in humid montane tropical forest (Hutterer, 2005) and in cold, wet, pine-oak forest and forest edge. It favours damp, grassy areas bordering streams or orchards (Reid, 1997) and prefers primary forest (Choate, 1973). It is terrestrial and probably breeds throughout the year. One litter of three has been reported (Choate, 1973; Reid, 1997).	eng
41374	population	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
41374	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Deforestation and possibly pesticides are a major threat to this species. In 2005, 58% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable for this species as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41375	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	It is found in several protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
41375	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the Andean zone of central and southern Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 2,300 to 4,000 m asl (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
41375	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	Barnett (1992) studied this species in southern Ecuador. Analysis of stomach contents demonstrated that it feeds on invertebrates including beetles, spiders, and caterpillars. It was found in habitats with closed, continuous vegetation at elevation. A litter size of 2, and 2 litters per year were inferred from the trapping data.	eng
41375	population	Woodman, N., 2008	It is an uncommon species (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
41375	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species apparently tolerates some degree of disturbance of its habitat.	eng
41376	conservation	Pino, J.L. & Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
41376	distribution	Pino, J.L. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands above 800 m asl in Costa Rica, and above 1,000 m in western Panama (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 800 to 2,900 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
41376	habitat	Pino, J.L. & Woodman, N., 2008	It can be found in cool, evergreen forest and forest edge, and in drier, open woodland on the Pacific Slope. It is also found in pastures and other open areas. The litter size is one to three (Reid, 1997).	eng
41376	population	Pino, J.L. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
41376	threats	Pino, J.L. & Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
41377	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in North America.	eng
41377	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found from the eastern United States and southeastern Ontario, Canada to eastern New Mexico and northeastern, central and southern Mexico (Nowak, 1999). In Mexico, its elevational range is from 0-2,750 m asl Carraway, 2007).	eng
41377	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species generally occurs in open country with dense herbaceous vegetation. It can be found in grassy, weedy and brushy fields in the northern part of its range and in marshes and a variety of wooded habitats in the southern part of its range (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It can sometimes be found in scrubby live oak, pine-oak, dense humid tropical forest, and cloud forest, and near water in Mexico. It has also been found in grain fields and pastures (Álvarez and Sánchez-Casas, 1997), and often in rocky areas, as well as on sandy river backs and in arid coastal plains in Mexico.<br/><br/>They primarily feed on insects and other invertebrates (e.g., earthworms, spiders), and some vegetable matter.	eng
41377	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is thought to be common, but is often hard to find (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Populations may occur in small colonies. The nest is the centre of activity. It is usually more abundant than snaptrap surveys show. Densities may be 10-15 per acre. They appear in owl pellets much more frequently than in traps of collectors.	eng
41377	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41378	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area, Munchique National Park in Colombia. More research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology, and major threats to this species.	eng
41378	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the southern portions of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia and Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It is found at 2,640 m asl (B. Rivas Pava pers. comm.).	eng
41378	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	The species has been found in primary and secondary forest. It has been found in an area of high grasses near pine plantations which had been previously deforested suggesting it may be adaptable to disturbance of its habitat.	eng
41378	population	Woodman, N., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens and population trends are unknown.	eng
41378	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Any major threats to this species are unknown. The region has experienced deforestation, although the extent to which this affects the species is unknown.	eng
41379	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including Chingaza Natural National Park.	eng
41379	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in Colombia, in the highlands above 2,700 m asl around Bogotá in the Eastern Cordillera (Hutterer 2005). It occurs from 2,700 to 3,500 m asl.	eng
41379	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is restricted to higher elevations (Woodman 2003; Hutterer 2005), in paramos and cloud forest. This is the only shrew that may be sympatric with <em>C. brachyonyx</em> (Woodman 2003).	eng
41379	population	Woodman, N., 2008	Population trends for this species are unknown, it is assumed to be moderately common (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
41379	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats identified for this species.	eng
41380	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in several National Parks where management is thought to be effective. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
41380	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex babaulti</em> is found in Uganda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may occur in Rwanda but it has not been recorded there so far. It occurs on the mountains to the west and east of Lake Kivu and also on Idjwi Island in Lake Kivu. It is also found on from the Ugandan side of the Virunga Mountains. <em>M. babaulti</em> co-occurs with <em>Myosorex blarina</em> in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda (Kasangaki <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It also occurs in Kibira National Park and Biriwi National Park in Burundi (J. Kerbis unpubl.). It has been recorded between 1,850 (Burundi) and 3,300 m asl (Kivu).	eng
41380	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>M. babaulti</em> inhabits primary mesic, tropical montane forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
41380	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is uncommon and has a low population density. It represents a low percentage of shrews recorded at sample sites.	eng
41380	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
41381	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>M. cafer</em> is present on some areas of private property, where they are well conserved. The larger forest patches where it occurs also have a reasonable degree of protection.	eng
41381	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex cafer</em> is found in South Africa from the eastern escarpment and north to the Transvaal. It is also present in western Mozambique, eastern Zimbabwe and Swaziland. In 1993, the subspecies <em>M. sclateri</em> was re-classified as a separate species and as a result the distribution of  <em>M. cafer</em> now recognized as being more disjunct. This species can occur at elevations up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
41381	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>M. cafer</em> occurs in primary afromontane and coastal forest. There is very little continuous forest habitat in its range and it is restricted to forest patches. In South Africa it occurs at higher elevations above 1,000 m asl in moist, evergreen forests.	eng
41381	population	Baxter, R., 2008	This species generally occurs at densities of around ten individuals per hectare. However, in some areas they may occur at densities of 30 individuals per hectare.	eng
41381	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	One of the main threats to this species is the degradation of the some of the forest patches it inhabits. In theory these forests are protected by South African law but they are still being degraded as a result of human encroachment for livestock grazing.	eng
41382	conservation	Baxter, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present in a number of protected areas.	eng
41382	distribution	Baxter, R., 2008	This southern African species has been recorded from southern South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
41382	habitat	Baxter, R., 2008	<em>M. varius</em> occurs in every biome in South Africa including coastal forests, thickets, Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo and Fynbos. It is present in both primary habitats and degraded areas.	eng
41382	population	Baxter, R., 2008	In some areas this species can be the dominant small mammal at higher elevations. It is found at lower numbers in coastal parts of its range.	eng
41382	threats	Baxter, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41383	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon, and is presumably present in several additional protected areas.	eng
41383	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This Central African species is largely limited to the Congo basin. It has been recorded from southern Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Central African Republic. Records south of the Congo River are isolated populations in gallery forest. It has not been recorded to the east of the Oubange River.	eng
41383	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known. It appears to have only been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
41383	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is locally abundant to the north of Congo.	eng
41383	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss and degradation.	eng
41384	conservation	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	Part of the species' range is in Glacier Bay National Park. This species is not protected. In Alaska, shrews are designated as "unclassified game" by the Department of Fish and Game (1992). There is no closed season or bag limit on this species.	eng
41384	distribution	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	This species' range is limited to flats around Gustavus and Bartlett Cove, Alaska. The type locality is Cooper's Notch muskeg behind Point Gustavus, Glacier Bay, Alaska.	eng
41384	habitat	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	This species is a water shrew, presumably the habitat includes wet areas, bogs, and streams typical of the American water shrew (<em>Sorex palustris</em>) elsewhere (Beneski and Stinson 1987).	eng
41384	population	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality and from just a couple of locations nearby, based on specimens collected in 1899 and 1970. Extensive population surveys of the Gustavus Peninsula area are needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
41384	threats	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	No current threats to the species' habitat are known, but the poorly known distribution prevents an adequate evaluation. Urban development in the Gustavus area could potentially result in reduction and loss of habitat.	eng
41385	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41385	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from Yukon and Northwest Territory to Quebec in Canada; southwards to North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin in the United States (Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Kirkland and Schmidt 1996). The disjunct populations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have now been elevated to species status (<em>S. maritimensis<em>).	eng
41385	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is most commonly found in grass-sedge marshes, wet meadows, and other moist openings in and adjacent to boreal forest. It is also present, in fewer numbers, in tamarack-spruce bogs and cedar swamps. Small globular nests are usually made above ground under logs or other material.  In the south, breeding occurs in late winter to mid-summer. Gestation lasts three weeks and litter size is five to nine, with an average of three litters per year. Young-of-the-year may breed in the first summer in some areas (Baird <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>The species' home range is around 1/4 acre (Buckner 1966). Populations fluctuate annually from less than one to four per acre (Buckner 1966). High population turnover, with approximately 80% of each generation dead prior to sexual maturity (Buckner 1966). The arctic shrew is dependent nearly exclusively on insects. Destructive sawfly larvae seasonally constitute a large part of their diet (Buckner 1964). It is active day and night and like many shrews, major activity peaks at night.	eng
41385	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
41385	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41386	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
41386	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in China (NW Xinjiang), Kazakhstan (Fumagalli <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Hoffmann, 1987), and south of Kyrgyzstan.	eng
41386	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly known.  The Tian Shan Shrew is probably an alpine specialist, as are cansulus and excelsus.  The species is known to inhabit spruce forests, moist alpine meadows and stands of shrubs and reeds, generally at elevations of 2,000-3,000 m.  It favors cluttered places with a thick layer of friable litter.  It is active throughout the year.  Most of its activity is during twilight and night, but it is occasionally encountered during the day.  Its diet is diverse, but is predominately comprised of insects.  Breeding begins at the end of March or early in April.  At this time the testes of males enlarge to 6 mm. They remain in this condition to the end of July, and then regress to their original dimensions, 1-2 mm.  Litter size:  1-8 (average 5.3).  Independent young are first noticed in early July.	eng
41386	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
41386	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41387	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41387	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from northwestern Oregon from the Pacific coast east to the Cascades, and from the Columbia River south to Benton and Lane counties, in the United States (Carraway, 1990).	eng
41387	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in moist coniferous forests with shrubby understorey, and forages near logs and rocks (Alexander, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is an invertivore.	eng
41387	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is endemic to a single state but it is apparently secure.	eng
41387	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41388	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and general ecology of this species.	eng
41388	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from northern South Asia, central and south China, and from northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it is known only from eastern Nepal where it has been recorded from Khumjung and Ringmo (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from montane forests of south Gansu and west Shensi to Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is known only from northern parts of Myanmar. In China it occurs between 2,135 and 4,270 m asl.	eng
41388	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In Nepal it has been recorded from montane forests and alpine areas (above 4,000 m asl) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008). In China it can be found at lower elevations (3,500 m asl) in the rhododendron-conifer zone (Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in the ground litter, and forages on insects.	eng
41388	population	Molur, S., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41388	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
41389	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) have listed this species as; Endangered (29Apr2006). It most likely occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41389	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs on the coastal lowlands of western North America, from southwestern British Columbia, Canada (Fraser Lowland Ecosection, usually below 600 m asl but up to 850 m asl) to northwestern California in the United States (Nagorsen, 1996, Galindo-Leal and Zuleta, 1997).	eng
41389	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	The marsh shrew is a riparian habitat specialist; associated with wet forests, marshes, and areas adjacent to water (usually streams/springs); generally in areas of coniferous or mixed forest with downed logs; often, but not always, in mature stands (Nagorsen, 1996).<br/><br/>Considering the entire range, the breeding season extends from late January to late August, with most young born in March (Nagorsen 1996). Gestation lasts about three weeks. Litter size is three to four (Nagorsen, 1996). Males do not breed in their first summer (Nagorsen, 1996). Apparently, adults breed in only one season (they do not survive overwinter).<br/><br/>They feed primarily on aquatic insects and other small invertebrates. Food may be captured on land or in water. May cache excess food. It is active throughout the year.	eng
41389	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is apparently rare throughout its range. There are no current population estimates.	eng
41389	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	In Canada, suitable habitat has disappeared at a rapid rate and most remaining habitat is highly modified, fragmented, and isolated, due to rapid and unplanned urbanization and agricultural development (Galindo-Leal and Zuleta, 1997).	eng
41390	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Further reseach is recommended.	eng
41390	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Pamir Mts: Petr Pervyi Ridge, Devon-Su, Sigazy, Sagran, Kyrgyz-Ob, Ob-Mazar Riveres valleys, Gissar and Mazar Ridges.	eng
41390	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Ihnabits mountain birch and poplar forests on slopes and piedmonts. Occur sporadically, but prefer moist places with rich vegetation and thick leyer of fallen leaves. Feed on insects, mostly beatles. Litter size is about 7 youngs (data by embryos).	eng
41390	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available	eng
41390	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown	eng
41391	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Further research on ecology, threats and population trend is recommended.	eng
41391	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Kamchatka peninsula, to headstream of Omolon River in the north and along Okhotsk Sea coast to Magadan and headstream of Kolyma River in Russia.	eng
41391	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabit shrubby river banks. Reproduce from end of April till September, some youngs start reproducing in same year. Overwintered females have up to 3 litters per year, with 5-11 young in each.	eng
41391	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Naturally rare species.	eng
41391	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41392	conservation	NatureServe, 2008	This species occurs protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41392	distribution	NatureServe, 2008	This species occurs from Alaska, in the United States, to Labrador/Newfoundland in Canada, south to Washington, Utah, New Mexico, the Northern Great Plains, southern Indiana and Ohio, through the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and western South Carolina, and on the east coast to New Jersey and northern Maryland in the United States (Whitaker, 2004).	eng
41392	habitat	NatureServe, 2008	It occupies most terrestrial habitats excluding areas with very little or no vegetation. Thick leaf litter in damp forests may represent favoured habitat, although it appears to be adaptable to major successional disturbances. In Nova Scotia, diet indicated that much foraging was done among wreck on beaches (Stewart <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Nest sites are typically in shallow burrows or above ground in logs and stumps. Breeding season may last from March through September (there is evidence of mid-winter births in at least some years in Nova Scotia) (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are usually two litters, may be three. Gestation lasts 18 days, and litter size is two to 10 (average around seven). Young are weaned in three weeks. They reach sexual maturity in 20-26 weeks, and some young may breed in the year of their birth.<br/><br/>There are large annual fluctuations in population size. Density estimates range from one to 12 shrews per acre, with a home range of about 0.10 acre. They are usually in scattered, locally abundant populations. It rarely lives past a second summer. <br/><br/>It is a generalist, opportunistic invertivore, and eats primarily insects and other invertebrates, carrion, small vertebrates, occasionally seeds. It consumes daily its own weight in food, and is active throughout the day (and the year) to secure enough food to maintain high metabolic rate. Cloudy, rainy nights increase nocturnal activity.	eng
41392	population	NatureServe, 2008	This species is widespread and abundant.	eng
41392	threats	NatureServe, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41393	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas across the range (approximately 7% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Further research is recommended. In China listed as Data Deficient, in Russia as Least Concern.	eng
41393	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Distributed in Russian Federation, Mongolia, and China, from Ural mountains to Pacific Ocean. In Mongolia occurs along the Orhon and Selenge river basins in north-eastern Hangai Mountain Range (Chotolchu and Stubbe, 1971; Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985), along the Herlen River which passes through eastern Hentii Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Mongolia (Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1984), Mongol Daguur Steppe and Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range. In China: Heilongjiang, Nei Mongol, Jilin (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
41393	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Inhabits moist and humid areas  in mixed forest (conifer and broad leafed types) over much of its range, and it may also occupy birch groves in the wooded steppe.  In the Altai region daphaenodon may be sympatric with S. minutus, caecutiens and araneus, as well as Crocidura sibirica.  Diet consists of earthworms, spiders, millipedes, and insects (lepidoptera, orthoptera, crickets, diptera and a variety of beetles).  Breeding occurs in the summer months, and pregnant females are encountered in June-August.  Females usually give 3-4 litters per year with 4-9 young (average 7).  Males with enlaged gonads have been recorded from June to the middle of September.  The Large-toothed Siberian Shrew is preyed on by nocturnal and diurnal birds of prey and mammalian carnivores (Sable, Siberian Weasel, Ermine). Longevity is 14-16 months.	eng
41393	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	No population estimates are available, but research at a station ran by the National University of Mongolia in Khonin Nuga has found by measuring the abundance and density of this species, that its abundance is lower than the Sorex caecutiens in Mongolia (R. Samiya pers. comm.). In Russia it is generally not abundant, but in some parts (Barabinsk forest-steppe, headstrea of Selenga River, Prikhankaiskaya Lowland) it is the most abundant species among shrews.	eng
41393	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Human disturbance resulting from logging activity and fires in some parts of its range, which could also lead to habitat loss.	eng
41394	conservation	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Many populations are in national forests, parks, or other public lands, and many are in areas protected by their remoteness. Protection of habitat from gross disturbance is the primary protection need. Habitats for these shrews should be protected from contamination by heavy metals and pesticides.	eng
41394	distribution	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species occurs in the Appalachian Mountains, from Nova Scotia (Scott, 1987) and southeastern New Brunswick, Canada southward along the mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee in the United States (Kirkland, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Recent data indicate that populations formerly recognized as <em>Sorex gaspensis</em> actually should be included in <em>S. dispar</em>, so the range of <em>S. dispar</em> extends northeastward to the Gaspe Peninsula in Quebec and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada (Rhymer <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
41394	habitat	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	It occurs in mountainous, forested areas (deciduous or evergreen) with loose talus. Rocky damp areas with deep crevices covered by leaf mold and roots are preferred. It may occur along small mountain streams. It will use artificial talus created by road construction and pit mines. Trapping results reported by Richmond and Grimm (1950) suggest that long-tailed shrews spend most of their time in the labyrinth of spaces between rocks about a foot beneath the surface. Nest sites are usually associated with natural subterranean tunnels among boulder crevices. Breeding occurs in spring and summer, possibly late April to August (Kirkland and Van Deuen, 1979). One or two litters may be produced from May through August, with two to five young per litter. Sexual maturity is reached in less than a year. Like other shrews, this species probably does not survive beyond about 18 months.<br/><br/>The shrew's partly subterranean existence among rocks makes observation, direct or indirect, very difficult. Virtually all data comes from trapping. Nothing is known of territoriality or home range size. The same predators that feed on other shrews probably take long-tailed shrews, e.g., weasels, snakes, hawks and owls, but there is no specific information. External parasites include fleas, ticks, mites and chiggers. While no internal parasites have been reported, nematodes and tapeworms are common in other shrew species. Examination of the digestive tracts of long-tailed shrews indicates a diet primarily of small invertebrates. Some better-known species of shrews are reported to consume approximately their own weight in food daily, and, with their high metabolic rates, may die within a few hours when deprived of food.	eng
41394	population	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	It is an Appalachian Mountains endemic with a habitat that is not often suited for human use and development. Due to the difficulty of trapping this species, there are probably more occurrences than are currently known. The long-tailed shrew is, therefore, apparently secure and likely stable over most of the range, but few population data are available.	eng
41394	threats	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Overall there are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Habitat destruction is a localised threat, but less so than for many rare species because the preferred habitat, talus, is often unsuitable for development, and provides a very uniform subterranean environment that is not highly vulnerable to disturbance. However, ski area expansion may be a threat to some populations, as in Vermont (Fichtel pers. comm., 1992). Highway construction may create more habitat than it destroys, as long-tailed shrews have been collected in the artificial talus slopes of road cuts (Conway and Pfitzer, 1952). Logging is unlikely to adversely impact this shrew; Kirkland (1979) showed that shrews persisted in recently clearcut red spruce stands in West Virginia. Shrews feed on invertebrates and may accumulate and concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues.	eng
41395	conservation	Matson, J., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It occurs in a small protected area in Aguascalientes. Is not included under any protective legislation (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).	eng
41395	distribution	Matson, J., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from Durango, Zacatecas, and Jalisco, in Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It ranges from 1,830 m up to 3,660 m asl.	eng
41395	habitat	Matson, J., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It occurs in temperate forests (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
41395	population	Matson, J., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is a fairly uncommon species (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
41395	threats	Matson, J., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
41396	conservation	Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41396	distribution	Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species ranges from the northeastern United States, from the middle of the Appalachians northwards to southeastern Canada. It ranges west to Ontario, Canada and northeastern Minnesota in the United States (Jannett and Oehlenschlager 1994). Apparently the range has been expanding westward, perhaps due to a logging-caused change in cover from coniferous forest to a forest with a greater deciduous component.	eng
41396	habitat	Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	The smoky shrew is most abundant in damp wooded areas, both in conifer and hardwood habitats. Nest sites are beneath stumps, rotted logs, or rocks (Whitaker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Breeding season begins March to August and gestation lasts three weeks. Litter size is two to eight, with an average of five. Up to three litters may be produced each year. Unlike many shrews, this one reaches sexual maturity after its first winter. Diet consists mainly of insects and earthworms; also other inverts. Some small vertebrates and vegetative material may be occasional items. It is active throughout the day and night.	eng
41396	population	Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This smoky shrew is common throughout its range. Local densities may reach 25-50 shrews per acre (van Zyll de Jong 1983). Local populations are most abundant in late summer. Surviving winter populations may be only 20-25% of the post-breeding season population (Hamilton 1940).	eng
41396	threats	Hammerson, G., Master, L. & Norris, S.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41398	conservation	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
41398	distribution	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species is found in the southern Far East region, from the southern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk (Russia) to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the provinces of Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang and Jilin in northeast China, Sakhalin Island and Kunashir Island (Russia), and Shikotan, Hokkaido, Rishiri and Rebun Islands in Japan (Hutterer, 2005; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
41398	habitat	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species inhabits grasslands and coniferous forests on lowland and low mountain regions. It can also occur in large bamboo stands. It avoids agricultural areas, although it reaches greater densities in secondary woodland than in deep, continuous taiga (Smith and Xie, in press). It mainly feeds on invertebrates found in the surface litter and soil. Reproduce from May to October, with a peack in summer. Gives up to 3 litters per season, with 3-8 (more often 5-6) youngs in each.	eng
41398	population	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	On the continent is common, but not abundant. On Sakhalin and Kuril Island dominate among shrews. On Hokkaido, Japan, it is common in the northern and eastern regions; but rare in central and southern parts.	eng
41398	threats	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41399	conservation	Duncan, J.R., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41399	distribution	Duncan, J.R., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in central North America from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, Canada southwards to the northern Great Plains in Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, and Iowa in the United States. It was recently recorded in north-central Kansas and northern Missouri; its presence there may represent recent dispersal rather than previously undetected occurrence (Frey and Moore 1990). New Mexican specimens tentatively identified as <em>S. cinereus</em> appear to have a close sister relationship to <em>S. haydeni</em> and may be the first records of <em>S. haydeni</em> from New Mexico; further study is needed (Demboski and Cook 2003).	eng
41399	habitat	Duncan, J.R., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Prairie shrews are found in grasslands; prairies, parklands, marshes, grassy bogs, edges of lakes and rivers and in wet meadows. Breeding probably extends from late April to September or October. Gestation is believed to be about 19-22 days. Females may produce one to three litters per year of four to ten young per litter (Bee <em>et al.</em> 1981). Young probably are reproductively active by the spring of the year of their birth.<br/><br/>A voracious hunter, the prairie shrew forages for insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes). It may also consume small vertebrates and some vegetable matter. It forages just beneath ground cover. It is active throughout the year. Although active at any time throughout the day or night, shrews generally are most active during the early morning and evening hours.	eng
41399	population	Duncan, J.R., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no recent population estimates but this species is apparently secure across its range. Based on studies of the closely related <em>S. cinereus</em>, the home range size is estimated to be approximately 1/10 acre; with a population density of 0 to nine per acre (Banfield 1974).	eng
41399	threats	Duncan, J.R., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41400	conservation	Dirrigl Jr., F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	At present, there are no major global level protection needs, though protection of the disjunct southern populations may be a priority at a national or subnational scale. They probably occur in several protected occurrences in federal and state/provincial parks/refuges.	eng
41400	distribution	Dirrigl Jr., F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is distributed throughout much of Canada and Alaska (United States), excluding northern tundra zones. Contiguous American populations are limited to the northern Rocky Mountains, Great Lakes region, and New England, with disjunct populations in the Southern Rockies (e.g., northern Colorado) and Appalachians (e.g., widespread and locally abundant in Virginia). In the 1970s and 1980s, it was recorded in southern Indiana, Kentucky, and western Tennessee (see Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1993), and South Carolina (Mengak <em>et al</em>. 1987).	eng
41400	habitat	Dirrigl Jr., F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in a variety of habitats, and appears to prefer grassy openings of boreal forest. Moist habitats are preferred over dry areas. In Kentucky-Tennessee, it was much less active above ground than was <em>S. longirostris</em> (Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1993). Nest sites are not well known. In Kentucky-Tennessee, the primary birth period was January to early March; individuals entered the trappable population about eight weeks later; births also occurred August to December but at a lower rate; few were born in June and July (Feldhamer <em>et al</em>. 1993). Gestation lasts probably two to three weeks, and litter size is five to six. They reach sexual maturity in their second summer.<br/><br/>The pygmy shrew is primarily dependent upon invertebrates. Their diet in New Brunswick included mainly insect larvae, beetles, and spiders (Whitaker and French 1984). The peak activity occurs at night.	eng
41400	population	Dirrigl Jr., F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The total population size of this species is unknown but most likely is greater than 10,000. On a global scale, there is little reason to believe that a significant decline has occurred. In Michigan, densities of 0.2 to two individuals per acre were estimated (Baker 1983).	eng
41400	threats	Dirrigl Jr., F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not significantly threatened at present.	eng
41401	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41401	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the southeastern United States, from southern Maryland to central Florida, west to northeastern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Louisiana (Taylor and Wilkinson 1988). Subspecies <em>eionis</em> occurs in the northern two-thirds of peninsular Florida, the subspecies <em>fisheri</em> occurs in the vicinity of the historical Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina and possibly also coastal South Carolina (further study is needed), and subspecies <em>longirostris</em> occurs across the remainder of the range. (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
41401	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various habitats ranging from bogs and damp woods to upland shrubby or wooded areas; apparently prefers moist to wet areas, usually bordering swamps, marshes, or rivers, and most often associated with heavy ground cover (French 1980). It generally resides underground or under ground cover. It might respond favourably to disturbances that allow dense ground cover to thrive (Pagels <em>et al.</em> 1982). <br/><br/>Subspecies <em>eionis</em> occurs in cypress swamps, bay swamps, hydric hammocks, slash pine and longleaf pine flatwoods, palmetto thickets, longleaf pine sandhills, xeric hammocks, sand pine scrub, clear-cuts. Subspecies <em>longirostris</em> occurs in various lowland habitats, fields and forest edges in mountains, areas with heavy ground vegetation; in Virginia, it is common throughout the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, but uncommon in western highlands. Subspecies <em>fisheri</em> is most abundant in mesic successional habitats (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>Young are born from April through October. The litter size is one to six (average around four), and there are one to three litters per year. Gestation probably lasts two to three weeks (if same as other shrews). Little is known about this species' life cycle. Southeastern shrews eats small invertebrates, particularly spiders, caterpillars, slugs and snails, crickets, beetles, and centipedes; also some vegetative material (see French 1980). The most commonly reported predators include barred and barn owls and domestic cats. Mostly nocturnal; however, also active throughout the day.	eng
41401	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is widespread in southeastern North America and present in a wide variety of habitats. Snap traps significantly underestimate the true abundance and density. Pitfalls have been found to better reflect population levels (Rose 1980). In Alabama, density was estimated at 30/ha and 44/ha on two plots; usually not more than ten have been captured in the same locality (French 1980).	eng
41401	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this very widespread species.	eng
41402	conservation	Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The species' habitat is protected in Yosemite National Park. No special protection efforts are needed at this time. Basic habitat protection needs include the adoption of good watershed management practices, the protection of wetlands, the prevention of flooding of canyons such as that which results from the construction of dams, and the protection of meadows and other vulnerable communities from excessive grazing or other degrading activities. <br/><br/>Surveys along the crest and east slope of the Sierra Nevada from Mono County north to the Warner Mountains, Modoc County, might yield previously undetected populations. All aspects of life history and population biology are in need of further study.	eng
41402	distribution	Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The known range of this species spans a small area of the east-central Sierra Nevada, California, including areas in and around Yosemite National Park, in Tuolumne, Mariposa, and Mono counties, at elevations of 6,900-10,350 feet (2,100-3,155 m asl) (Grinnell 1933; Williams 1984). This shrew may possibly occur in similar habitat from Mono County to Modoc County, but the area outside the known range has not been adequately surveyed.	eng
41402	habitat	Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	Specimens have been found primarily in wetland communities, near streams, in grassy areas, under willows, and in sagebrush steppe community (Grinnell 1933, Williams 1984, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology data). These shrews are active voracious hunters that feed primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes). They are active throughout the year. Though active at any time throughout the day or night, they are most active during the early morning and evening hours.	eng
41402	population	Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	The total adult population size of the Mount Lyell shrew is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. As of 2005, this species was represented by fewer than 10 known distinct occurrences (counting closely adjacent locations as one occurrence). However, the habitat is remote, collecting methods are specialized, and relatively little collecting effort has been made, so it is likely that there are additional undocumented occurrences. Surveys in and near Yosemite National Park in 2003-2005 yielded specimens from several locations (University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology data).	eng
41402	threats	Hammerson, G. & Williams, D.F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, largely due to the remoteness of its habitat and the lack of commercial value.	eng
41403	conservation	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	It presumably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41403	distribution	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species occurs in the western United States (Verts and Carraway 1998) and extreme southern British Columbia, Canada (D. Nagorsen pers. comm.). It occurs in the Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, northern Great Plains and southern Rocky Mountains. It ranges between elevations of 650 to 9,500 ft asl (Armstrong and Jones 1971). George (1990) provided information on range extensions in New Mexico. Benedict <em>et al.</em> (1999) discussed new collections in northwestern Nebraska.	eng
41403	habitat	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Habitats include various grasslands, including grasses in sagebrush scrub and pinyon-juniper woodland, as well as mountain mahogany shrublands and mixed woodlands (Clark and Stromberg 1987, Benedict <em>et al.</em> 1999). Merriam's shrew has been recorded also in spruce-aspen habitat in New Mexico (George 1990). It seems to prefer drier habitats than those used by other shrews. It may utilize the burrows and runways of other animals (Armstrong, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>In Washington, pregnant females have been captured from April to July, and nursing females in March, July and October. Three litters ranged from five to seven (Johnson and Clanton 1954, cited in Verts and Carraway 1998). In Washington and Wyoming, this species was frequently found in association with <em>Lagurus curtatus</em>. Owls are the only known predators. Merriam's shrew feeds primarily on lepidopteran caterpillars, beetles, cave crickets, ichneumon wasps, and spiders, as well as other arthropods (Johnson and Clanton 1954, cited in Verts and Carraway 1998; Clark and Stromberg 1987). It has the highest relative bite force of all western shrews studied, indicating that it is adapted to forage on relatively large, hard-bodied prey (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41403	population	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There is no information about population densities for this species. It is thought to be nowhere abundant; at known sites, several hundred trap-nights are needed to capture one animal (Verts and Carraway 1998). It is sparse and uncommon, but its range is large (much of southwestern North America) and conservation status is secure on a global basis.	eng
41403	threats	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species. Grassland and shrub steppe is being lost to agriculture and other development and the species' tolerance of grazing is unknown, but this is not a major threat at present (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41404	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Protected by law, occurs in some protected areas. In China listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,iii); D2. In Russia considered as Rare species, category III (=Near Threatened).	eng
41404	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Primorye (Russia), N Korea and NE China (Heilongjiang and Jilin).	eng
41404	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A poorly known and rarely encountered species. Apparently its preferred habitat consists of  primary broadleafed and coniferous-broadleafed forest. Inhabits valleys and the slopes of hills.  The Ussuri Shrew demonstrates a higher level of activity than in other Red-toothed shrews. Apparently this activity is related to the lesser nutritional value of  its primary foodstuffs - earthworms, other invertebrates, and flesh of rodents that this shrew consumes. It consumes 214.2% of its body weight daily. Breeding occurs once a year, with young beginning to appear in traps only at the end of August.  In favorable years two litters are possible. Young first become sexually maturity in the following warm season.	eng
41404	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Very rare species.	eng
41404	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41405	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In Mexico it is included in legislation protection under the NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001, under the name of <em>Sorex vagrans monticola</em>. In the State of California the species is listed as a "Species of Special Concern". It presumably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41405	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This widespread species occurs from Alaska and western Canada, south through the western United States (although patchily distributed) and the highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico (Baker and Greer, 1962). The highest altitudinal records in Mexico are around 2,600 m asl in Durango (Baker and Greer, 1962).	eng
41405	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in a variety of habitat types: montane boreal and coastal coniferous forest and alpine areas; damp meadows surrounded by coniferous forest, in grass among spruce-fir, mid-elevation fir-larch, along streams and rivers in high prairie, mossy banks of small streams, alpine tundra, sphagnum bogs.	eng
41405	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It can be a locally abundant species.	eng
41405	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although habitat loss may be occurring in some parts of its range.	eng
41406	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It probably occurs in several designated wilderness areas (Absoroka-Beartooth).	eng
41406	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the United States and is found across central Montana to northwestern Wyoming; southeastern Montana; western South Dakota; the Rocky Mountains from southeastern Wyoming, south across western Colorado and southeastern Utah to south-central New Mexico; in the Kaibab Plateau, San Francisco Peaks, and White Mountains in Arizona (Hoffmann and Owen 1980, MacCracken <em>et al.</em> 1985, Berna 1990, George 1990, Backlund 1995).	eng
41406	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various habitats including rocky areas in alpine tundra and partly into subalpine coniferous forest, other types of rocky slopes (e.g., with ponderosa pine, George 1990), sedge marsh, subalpine meadow, dry brushy slopes, arid shortgrass prairie, dry stubble fields, and pinyon-juniper woodland. In some areas the dwarf shrew is sympatric with <em>S. monticolus</em>. <br/><br/>At high elevation, breeding probably begins in late June-early July; and the first litters are produced in late July-early August; and the second litters are born in late August-early September; embryo counts averaged 6.5 for second litters; females breed in their second year. At lower elevations, breeding may begin earlier and litter size and frequency may be greater (Clark and Stromberg 1987). It is an active hunter, and feeds primarily on insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It may also consume vegetable matter as well as some small vertebrates (salamanders, etc.). It is active throughout the year.	eng
41406	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no population estimates available. It is rarely captured except in pitfall traps; and it is likely to occur in many more locations than currently known. Its population is apparently secure.	eng
41406	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41407	distribution	Kottelat, M., 1996	This remarkable hypogean fish was first collected in May 1985 in Susa Cave, Mae Hong Son province of Thailand. It may also occur in other submerged caves in the area. These caves are being further explored by the Cave Biology Research Group at New York University and members from this team are also researching the biology of this and other hypogean species found in these underground karst systems.	eng
41407	habitat	Kottelat, M., 1996	It is depigmented and has no visible eyes. This species coexists with another threatened hypogean loach, <em>Schistura oedipus</em>. This coexistence is unusual for cave fish species in the food limited and highly competitive cave environment. <em>Cryptotora thamicola</em>, is specialized for fast flowing water and is so different from other surface loaches in SE Asia that it was assigned its own genus. <em>S. oedipus</em> has become specialized for slower water within the same cave. DNA evidence gathered by the Cave Biology Research Group at New York University suggests that these are the most ancient cave fish lineages in Thailand, having separated from surface fishes 1.0 to 1.5 million years ago.	eng
41408	conservation	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is listed as subject to special protection under Mexican legislation NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001. It occurs in protected areas; San Pedro Martir National Park in Mexico, as well as in the United States.	eng
41408	distribution	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is restricted to the coastal region of California, United States southward discontinuously to the tip of Baja California, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999), San Pedro Martir, Sierra de la Laguna and El Socorro marsh (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 2,080 m asl (Carraway, 2007).	eng
41408	habitat	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its habitat is marshes, salt and fresh; low, dense vegetation adjacent to rivers, lakes, and streams; grassy hillsides and chaparral slopes; occasionally into adjacent woodlands (Hoffman, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It may use burrows of other animals.	eng
41408	population	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species was formerly common and widespread, but populations in coastal salt marshes, freshwater swamps and marshes and in the highly agricultural regions of central California have been greatly reduced or eliminated (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41408	threats	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Isolated populations in Baja California are vulnerable to human encroachment and environmental fluctuation (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). The subspecies <em>juncencis</em> is extinct (Maldonado, 2004).	eng
41409	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in at least several protected areas, including Crater Lake National Park and various state parks and natural areas.	eng
41409	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species' range is limited to western Oregon, including two disjunct areas, one in the Coast Range and the other in the Cascade Range in the United States (Carraway 1990, Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41409	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitats include moist wooded areas, including especially shady riparian thickets and areas with decaying logs (Bailey 1936; Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981; Morrison and Anthony 1989; Maldonado, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). These shrews tend to avoid grass habitats occupied by <em>S. vagrans</em> (Morrison and Anthony 1989). Typical litter size is four or five, but may vary from two to six (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Reproductively active males are found primarily from February to August; pregnant females recorded 18 April to 1 November (Carraway 1988, Carraway 1985). Apparently some females may produce more than one litter/year (Carraway 1988). It is an active hunter, and feeds primarily on insects but also consumes a large number of other small invertebrates, worms, molluscs, and centipedes. It may eat small amphibians and some vegetable matter. It is active throughout the year. Although some authors have indicated that this species is nocturnal, Verts and Carraway (1998) suspect that activity is "merely depressed in the daytime."	eng
41409	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Verts and Carraway 1998). The total adult population size is unknown, but it does not appear to be uncommon and presumably the population exceeds 10,000, based on the area occupied and typical <em>Sorex</em> densities. This shrew is readily obtained in field surveys; Verts and Carraway (1998) listed 589 museum specimens. Morrison and Anthony (1989) found that only 2% of 829 individuals of 10 species captured were <em>S. pacificus</em>, but the sampling was conducted in early successional clearcuts, which may not be the most favourable habitat for this species, and the methods used may not have been optimal for shrew capture.<br/><br/>The short-term population trend is not definitely known, but probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have not declined more than 10 percent over the past 10 years. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have not declined more than 25 percent over the long term.	eng
41409	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	No major threats have been identified for this species. It is restricted to part of western Oregon, but is known from at least 50 collection sites; there is little information on population status but evidently it is not threatened.	eng
41410	conservation	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G. & Norris, S.J., 2008	The water shrew is a boreal species, also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains. It requires high quality water, preferably mountain streams, and abundant cover such as rocks, logs, or overhanging stream bank. Suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions. There are many areas (e.g., state and national parks) in which habitat is adequately protected. The southern range of the water shrew may be shrinking through habitat fragmentation and local extirpation, but current information is inadequate to allow an evaluation of this hypothesis.	eng
41410	distribution	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species occurs in boreal and montane regions of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New England across Canada to east-central Alaska (Cook <em>et al.</em> 1997), south to the northern Great Lakes region and in the western mountains to mid-California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico in the United States. A small, disjunct population in Arizona's White Mountains has not been observed in recent years (Hoffmeister 1986); there is another apparently disjunct series of populations in the Appalachians ranges from southwestern Pennsylvania to North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia.<br/><br/>Pagels (1990, 1991) noted that in the southern Appalachians the water shrew is limited to prime habitat: "high elevation situations where moist, cool, shaded situations have prevailed throughout historic time…elevations ranging from about 760 m (2,500 ft.) in Pennsylvania to 1150 m (3,800 ft.) and above in North Carolina and Tennessee."	eng
41410	habitat	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species is most abundant along small cold streams with thick overhanging riparian growth. Also around lakes, ponds, marshes, bogs, and other lentic habitats. Though normally associated with water, water shrews "have been found more than 100 m (328 ft) from streams in mature northern hardwood stands in northern New Hampshire" (DeGraaf and Rudis 1986). This and other captures far from water probably represent dispersing individuals. <br/><br/>Nest sites are near water in underground burrows, rafted logs, beaver lodges, and other areas providing shelter. <br/>It breeds from February to August in Montana (Conaway 1952). Gestation lasts probably 3 weeks. Litter size is 3-10, average 6; with 2-3 litters/year (Montana). Optimum conditions in captivity, or abundant food supply in nature, may increase the number of litters (Churchfield 1992). They sexually mature in their second calendar year. Their maximum lifespan is about 18 months (Beneski and Stinson 1987).<br/><br/>Common predators include fishes such as trout, bass, and pickerel, minks, otters, weasels, snakes, and occasionally, hawks and owls (Merritt 1987). The water shrew is primarily dependent upon aquatic insects; but also eats various other invertebrates. It may take small vertebrates (fishes, amphibians) when available. It hunts under and on top of water, and may even be seen running across the water surface. Water shrews, with their high metabolic rates, need to consume approximately their weight in food every day (Conaway 1952, Sorenson 1962). In the wild they seem unable to store significant body fat and can die of starvation within a few hours. When a surplus of food is available, it is often horded, the shrew sometimes defecating on it to keep other shrews away.	eng
41410	population	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species has a large range in the boreal and montane regions of North America, and its population is secure, if not abundant, throughout the northern part of the range; in the south, its habitat has been fragmented since the retreat of the last glaciers, making isolated populations vulnerable to extirpation; some subspecies are rare enough to be of concern.<br/><br/>Information on population density is limited. Population densities in the Appalachians appear to be quite low, though numbers are not available (Pagels, <em>et al.</em> 1991). In Canada, Banfield (1974) reported that this shrew is usually uncommon but sizeable populations sometimes occur in favourable locations. Generally numbers are highest in summer when young are born and drop off sharply in autumn, with very little decrease through winter.	eng
41410	threats	Whittaker, J.C., Hammerson, G. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Churchfield (1992) stated that water shrews (both <em>S. palustris and <em>Neomys sp.</em>) "are particularly vulnerable to the destruction of their aquatic habitats through pollution and drainage." Activities such as logging, agriculture, road building, and surface mining contribute to the loss of habitat. Logging may not be a serious threat if water quality is protected and buffer strips are maintained at the site (Christian pers. comm., 1994). <br/><br/>Regarding the subspecies <em>S. p. punctulatus</em> in the east, Pagels <em>et al.</em> (1991) stated: "Perhaps the greatest continuing threats to the water shrew are the loss of additional habitat resulting from infestation of introduced insect species, such as the gypsy moth, or the use of insecticides to control such infestations. The effects of acid rain, particularly on the shrew's microhabitat and food supply could be particularly devastating." Shrews feeding on invertebrates accumulate and concentrate pesticides and heavy metals in their tissues. Northern short-tailed shrews (<em>Blarina brevicauda</em>) were found to contain DDT nine years after application of the pesticide to a forest habitat (Dimond and Sherburne 1969). "Contamination of habitats, and the resultant effects on the food chain, by mining and refining of metalliferous ores, by motor exhausts and even by the application of sewage sludge to land, is becoming more widespread. Shrews from contaminated grasslands have been found to accumulate some of the highest concentrations of metals recorded in wildlife" (Churchfield 1992). <br/><br/>Southern populations are limited to the mountains in both the east and west and consequently tend to be isolated. When an isolated population disappears for any reason, it is unlikely to be restored by natural dispersal. Hence these isolated populations may be especially vulnerable to extirpation from human activities or long-term climate change.</em>	eng
41411	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
41411	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is found in South Asia and China. In South Asia, it has been recorded from the area of Kashmir (administered by India and Pakistan) and North Western Frontier Province in Pakistan, occupying an altitudinal range from 2,280 to 3,970 m asl. In China, it has been recorded from far west Xinjiang and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41411	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The Kashmir Shrew lives in coniferous forest and alpine rocky habitats that may be covered with snow for up to eight months of the year (Smith and Xie 2008). Presumably they live on various species of arthropods, woodlice and beetles (Roberts 1997; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41411	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
41411	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	The major threats faced by Kashmir Shrew are not known.	eng
41412	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known.	eng
41412	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Chukotka peninsula (Russian Federation), from Palevaam River in west to Anadyr River valley in east.	eng
41412	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Poorly studied species, no data on ecology available.	eng
41412	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No data available.	eng
41412	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41413	conservation	Reichel, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from Sheldon National Antelope Refuge, Nevada (Hoffmann and Fisher 1978) and Timpie Spring Waterfowl Management Area, Utah (Tomasi and Hoffman 1984). There is a need for more pitfall trapping across western North America to determine the species' population status and range. Since its habitat needs are poorly known, this is critical to protecting the species.	eng
41413	distribution	Reichel, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from Western North America, from the Columbia Plateau to the northern Great Plains (Junge and Hoffman 1981, Cornely <em>et al.</em> 1992, Long and Hoffmann 1992). Recorded occurrences include northeastern California, northwestern and northeastern Nevada (Ports and George 1990), central and eastern Oregon, southeastern Washington, south-central British Columbia (D. Nagorsen pers. comm.), west central Idaho, Montana (east to the North Dakota border), northwestern and southwestern Wyoming, west central Colorado (Long and Hoffmann 1992), and the south shore of the Great Salt Lake; there are no records for Snake River Plain of southern Idaho or from the bulk of the Great Basin in Nevada or Utah south of the 40th meridian. It has been recorded from elevations of about 1,280-2,550 m asl.	eng
41413	habitat	Reichel, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Recorded habitats for this species include arid and semiarid shrub-grass associations, openings in montane coniferous forests dominated by sagebrush (Washington), willow-fringed creeks, marshes (Oregon), bunchgrass associations, sagebrush-aspen associations (California), sagebrush-grass associations (Nevada), alkaline shrubland (Utah) (Hoffman <em>et al.</em> 1969, Williams 1984, Cornely <em>et al</em>. 1992). Diet probably resembles other shrews, feeding primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It is active throughout the year, and may be active at any time throughout the day or night, but probably most active during morning and evening hours.	eng
41413	population	Reichel, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Neither population numbers nor area of occupied habitat is known. Verts and Carraway (1998) suggest that the apparent rarity of this shrew is primarily an artefact of little sampling effort.	eng
41413	threats	Reichel, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41414	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Occurs in protected areas (approximately 10% of the species’ range in Mongolia). In the Russia Red List is listed as Least Concern, and is Not Evaluated for the China Red List. Further research is recommended.	eng
41414	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Distributed in taiga and forest-tundra from Ural Mts to Pacific Ocean coast. In Mongolia occurs along the Onon River Basin in Hentii Mountain Range (Chotolchu and Stubbe, 1971), Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Dawaa <em>et al.</em>, 1973; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992) and along the Halh River Basin in Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range. In China occurs in Xinjiang (Altai mountains).	eng
41414	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Inhabits taiga and meadows in tundra habitats. In the northern parts of the range feed mostly on earthworms, in southern - on insects (especially beetles). Reproduce in summer, has up to 3 litters per year, with 7-8 young in each.	eng
41414	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	This species is quite rare in Mongolia, and marginal parts of the range. In central parts common.	eng
41414	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Human disturbance resulting from logging activity in some parts of its range, which could also lead to habitat loss. Wildfires and human-caused fires also constitute a threat. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
41415	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
41415	conservation	Yigit, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
41415	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Distributed in northern Turkey and the Caucasus.	eng
41415	distribution	Yigit, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Distributed in northern Turkey and the Caucasus.	eng
41415	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Where the species co-occurs with Sorex raddei, apparently competition pushes the species outside of forests into sub-Alpine habitats (i.e. in the Caucasus) . The species occurs in Alpine meadows with rocky outcrops but also in forests in the west. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,600 m. Feed mainly on beetles, but also consume other insects. Reproduce in spring and first half of summer. Has up to 3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.	eng
41415	habitat	Yigit, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	Where the species co-occurs with Sorex raddei, apparently competition pushes the species outside of forests into sub-Alpine habitats (i.e. in the Caucasus) . The species occurs in Alpine meadows with rocky outcrops but also in forests in the west. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,600 m. Feed mainly on beetles, but also consume other insects. Reproduce in spring and first half of summer. Has up to 3 litters per season, with 4-8 young in each.	eng
41415	population	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In the Caucasus is common, but never abundant.	eng
41415	population	Yigit, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	In the Caucasus is common, but never abundant.	eng
41415	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats to the species. Local overgrazing in the Caucasus is a concern.	eng
41415	threats	Yigit, N., Krystufek, B., Amori, G. & Hutterer, R., 2008	No major threats to the species. Local overgrazing in the Caucasus is a concern.	eng
41416	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It is included in Mexican legislation under special conservation (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001) at the sub-species level (<em>cristobalensis</em>, <em>veraecrucis</em> and <em>oaxacae</em>). Taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the range of this species.	eng
41416	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs in Mexico, from Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, México, Distrito Federal, Morelos and Puebla, from 2,100 to at least 3,650 m asl (Carraway, 2007). A disjunct population in Guatemala was provisionally included by Junge and Hoffmann (1981) but is most likely a separate species.	eng
41416	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It can be found in high elevation forest, as well as high elevation fields with corn or oats planted (Carraway, 2007). It is terrestrial and travels in shallow burrows in the leaf litter or near the soil surface (Reid, 1997).	eng
41416	population	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It is an uncommon to locally common species (Reid, 1997).	eng
41416	threats	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	Deforestation is occurring in parts of its range, although this is not considered a major threat since it is such a widespread species.	eng
41417	conservation	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is known to be present in several protected areas.	eng
41417	distribution	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found only on Honshu (Kii Peninsula and the mountains north of Kyoto Prefecture), Shikoku, and Sado Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,900 m asl.	eng
41417	habitat	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is found in leaf litter and humus layers in primary and secondary forests and shrublands at high elevations in central Honshu and Shikoku. In northern Honshu and on Sado Island, the species also occurs in lower mountain areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
41417	population	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is common in mountain regions of central and northern Honshu (where <em>Sorex hosonoi</em> is absent) and Sado Island. It is rare in Shikoku where it is confined to high altitude regions.	eng
41417	threats	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41418	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	it occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41418	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in central western Oregon, south through northwestern California to Marin County in the United States (Carraway 1990).	eng
41418	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	The fog shrew occurs in chaparral, coastal coniferous (redwood, spruce) forest and marshy areas (Maldonado, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is often found under and among decaying logs and stumps, or other surface cover. Pregnant females have been recorded from 20 March-24 September in California (Carraway 1988). Litter size is from two to six, and probably some females produce more than one litter/year (Carraway 1988). This species probably feeds primarily on insects but also consumes a large number of other small invertebrates. It is active throughout the year.	eng
41418	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	It has a relatively restricted range, but is found at more than 100 locations. No information on density is available (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41418	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41419	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	Some occurrences of this species are found in national parks (Lassen Volcanic, Great Basin) or on other public lands that may be reasonably protected from most kinds of development. No specific protection measures are needed at the present time.	eng
41419	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	Until recently, the known range of this species encompassed east-central California and west-central Nevada; but sampling during 2000-2004 found this species in Great Basin National Park in eastern Nevada (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004) and in Lassen Volcanic National Park in northern California (Shohfi <em>et al.</em> 2006). These new, widely disjunct locations suggest that additional sampling will result in further range extensions.	eng
41419	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitats include riparian zones and canyon bottoms; rocky mountain habitat in areas with logs, boulders, or sagebrush scrub (Ingles 1965); and red fir communities (Williams 1984). This species may be more tolerant of dry habitat than are other closely related shrews. In Great Basin National Park, this shrew was found at 3,000 m asl in habitat dominated by Engelmann spruce (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004). A voracious hunter, this species feeds primarily on insects and other small invertebrates (worms, molluscs, centipedes, etc.). It may feed on bodies of wind-borne insects deposited at higher elevations. It is active throughout the year.	eng
41419	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but presumably far exceeds 10,000, based on typical <em>Sorex</em> densities and the potential area of occupancy. This species is currently known from about a dozen different areas (Rickart <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shohfi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further sampling using pitfall traps undoubtedly will reveal additional localities in California and Nevada.	eng
41419	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	No major threats to this species have been identified.	eng
41420	conservation	Smith, A.T., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41420	distribution	Smith, A.T., 2008	This species appears to be endemic to China, where it is distributed in Qinghai (south of the Kunlin mountains), Sichuan, Gansu and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). There are ongoing taxonomic difficulties with this species, and the range map indicates just an approximation of the possible Chinese range of this taxon.	eng
41420	habitat	Smith, A.T., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in temperate montane areas, ranging to high elevations.	eng
41420	population	Smith, A.T., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41420	threats	Smith, A.T., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
41421	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41421	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in coastal southwestern British Columbia south of Burrard Inlet, south through western Washington and Oregon to northwestern California, south through coast ranges to Santa Barbara County, east to Warner Mountains (northeastern California), south through Sierra Nevada to Kern County, California in the United States (George 1989). It occurs from sea level up to 1,820 m asl.	eng
41421	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in mature forest (dry or moist) with abundant ground litter; forested canyons and ravines, and swampy woods; deep rank grass near salmonberry thickets (Destruction Island off Washington); riparian fringe areas (but not streamside); under chaparral (at southern edge of range); cut forest if sufficient ground cover present (George, in Wilson and Ruff 1999; George 1989). <br/><br/>Maximum life-span is estimated at about 18 months. Populations decline after forest wildfires. Fall population tends to be about double the spring population (George 1989). Pregnant females have been recorded from March-May in Washington; with three to four embryos. It breeds in February-early June in Sierra Nevada; with an average of five embryos; post-partum pregnancy is probably common. Average of 3.9 embryos in Oregon. The age of sexual maturity is less in areas with a warmer climate. This shrew is primarily insectivorous, and also feeds on spiders, worms, and centipedes. It feeds on more vegetable matter than other shrews in this genus (Banfield 1974). It is known to feed on the seeds of Douglas-fir, pine, and other plants, especially in winter. It is active throughout the year.	eng
41421	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed, it is often the most abundant (or at least the most commonly captured) shrew where it occurs (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41421	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no documented threats to this species. One study showed a decline following logging, but another showed an increase, indicating that dominant vegetation structure may not be responsible for regulating abundance (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41422	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	No special conservation measures known or required.	eng
41422	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J. & Buuveibaatar, V., 2008	No special conservation measures known or required. This species occurs within protected areas.	eng
41422	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in tundra and forest zones from west of the Urals (Russia) to Alaska (USA); Yukon, Northwest Territories (Canada); south to the Altai Mtns (Russia), Mongolia and NE China. Also occurs along water courses in steppe zones. In Europe found along the European slope of the Ural mountains and the valley of the Ural river and along the Pechora river.	eng
41422	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J. & Buuveibaatar, V., 2008	Distributed in tundra and forest zones from west of the Urals (Russia) to Alaska (USA); Yukon, Northwest Territories (Canada); south to the Altai Mtns (Russia), Mongolia and NE China. Also occurs along water courses in steppe zones. In Europe found along the European slope of the Ural mountains and the valley of the Ural river and along the Pechora river.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, it is found in the Mongol Altai Mountain Range (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1985), Great Lakes Depression, Hangai Mountain Range (Dmitriev <em>et al</em>. 1992), Hövsgöl Mountain Range (Litvinov, 1982; Litvinov and Bazardorj, 1992), along the Herlen and Onon rivers, which pass through eastern Hentii Mountain Range through Middle Halh Steppe and Eastern Mongolia, and along the Ulz River in Mongol Daguur Steppe (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1985).<br/><br/>In China it is found in the north-east (Altai mountains, Xinjiang).	eng
41422	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J. & Buuveibaatar, V., 2008	Prefers river meadows with osier, settles in fire-sites and overgrown glades. Along rivers penetrates to semi-deserts. Inhabits dense vegetation of grasses and shrubs. Solitary, the size of individual space is up to 1,500 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds mainly on beetles. Reproduction is usually in summer, produces 3-4 litters per year; litter size is about 7-10 young.	eng
41422	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Prefers river meadows with osier, settles in fire-sites and overgrown glades. Along rivers penetrates to semi-deserts. Solitary, the size of individual space is up to 1,500 m<sup>2</sup>. Feeds mainly on beetles. Reproduction is usually in summer, gives 3-4 litters per year; litter size is about 7-10 young.	eng
41422	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	A widespread and very abundant species. The most common species of small mammal found along Siberian rivers.	eng
41422	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J. & Buuveibaatar, V., 2008	A widespread and very abundant species. The most common species of small mammal found along Siberian rivers.	eng
41422	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41422	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Sheftel, B., Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J. & Buuveibaatar, V., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41423	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas across its range.	eng
41423	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in mainland tundra west of Hudson Bay (Canada) and northern Alaska in the United States (Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
41423	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	The primary habitat for this shrew is tundra; low sedge-grass meadows and thickets of dwarf willow and birch (van Zyll de Jong, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
41423	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common and widespread.	eng
41423	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41424	conservation	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
41424	distribution	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Russian Far East from Vladivostok to the Amur, south into northeastern China in the provinces of Heilongjiang and eastern Nei Mongol, and northeastern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, as well as on the islands of Sakhalin (Russia) and Hokkaido (Japan), and the Japanese islands of Rebun, Rishiri, Teuri, Moyuyuri, Yagishiri, and Daikoku (Corbet, 1978; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Hutterer, 2005).	eng
41424	habitat	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It occurs in most habitats from lowlands to montane regions, and inhabits leaf litter and humus layers. Grasslands and open fields are particularly suitable and they can reach high densities in these habitats (Smith and Xie, in press). It is a semifossorial species. Diet consists of earthworms, insects, centipedes and snails. In China it occurs in sympatry with S. caecutiens and S. isodon, to which it is often subordinate (Smith and Xie, in press). In the southern part of the range reproduction occurs from beginning of April till end of September, in Amur Region and Khabarovsky Krai only in summer. Has up to 3 litters per season, with 3-7 young in each.	eng
41424	population	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	It is common on Hokkaido in Japan. In China they can be very common in suitable habitat (Smith and Xie, in press). In Russia is common, in some places abundant.	eng
41424	threats	Abe, H., Ohdachi, S.D. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
41425	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	It is found in several protected areas and is common where it occurs (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
41425	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is found from southern British Columbia, Canada south to Monterrey, California, and east to Idaho, western Montana, and northern Utah in the United States. A disjunct subspecies <em>S. vagrans orizabae</em> found in the transverse volcanic belt of Mexico was recently elevated to species status (Carraway, 2007).	eng
41425	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	These shrews live in moist habitats and are often found along lakesides, streams, and in coastal salt marshes. They also occur in mesic forest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are known to nest in decayed logs. The nests are approximately 4" in diameter and are made of dry grass. It primarily feeds on forest insects (eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults), slugs, earthworms, and other invertebrates. Occasionally may feed on salamanders and other small vertebrates. It is active all year. Throughout the year it is most active at night. In spring, diurnal activity increases.	eng
41425	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is considered abundant (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41425	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this very widespread species.	eng
41426	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, such as Los Volcanes National Park.	eng
41426	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, and ranges from México eastwards through Distrito Federal, Puebla, Tlaxcala, southwards to Oaxaca in central and southern Mexico (Carraway, 2007).	eng
41426	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in montane coniferous forest (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005), and in meadows adjacent to the forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
41426	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In some localities it is apparently abundant (Castro-Arellano and Ceballos in Ceballos and Oliva, 2005).	eng
41426	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation is a threat, in particular in the north of its range and outside the protected areas. However, overall there are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
41427	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in several protected areas in Mexico and Guatemala (Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, eastern Guatemala; and several of the volcanoes in Guatemala). In Mexico the two sub species are listed under special protection (NOM 059 SEMARNAT 2001).	eng
41427	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from central Guerrero, south through the highlands of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Mexico, and Guatemala (Carraway, 2007). It is known from 1,800 to 3,100 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
41427	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in cold, wet, pine-oak and broadleaf forest (Reid, 1997). It is terrestrial and uses shallow burrows in the leaf litter, and may travel on fallen logs (Reid, 1997).	eng
41427	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is a locally common species (Reid, 1997). In Guatemala and Oaxaca (Mexico) the species' habitat is considered to be stable, but in Chiapas (Mexico) it is decreasing.	eng
41427	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation is a threat in many parts of the species range. In 2005, 24% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41428	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is found in a few protected areas of Nepal, such as Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park, Rara National Park, Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is presumably present in some Chinese protected areas as well.	eng
41428	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is widespread in northern South Asia, central and southern China and present in parts of northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is widely distributed in northern India (Sikkim, Uttarakhand and West Bengal; not Kashmir as reported by Hutterer [2005]) and Nepal (western, midwestern, central and eastern) at elevations of 1,800 to 3,600 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Xizang, Sichuan, Gansu and southwestern Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to northern Myanmar.	eng
41428	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is a nocturnal and terrestrial species found in montane temperate coniferous and alpine forests and meadows (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is widespread above 2,200 m asl, being found in dense oak-rhododendron forest and subalpine and alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008). It is common at the edge of rhododendron and coniferous forests, and is additionally found in riparian habitats with rich ground litter, or to rocky ground supporting grasses and mosses (Smith and Xie 2008). It is frequently found near human habitation and cultivated fields (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41428	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
41428	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It might be locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss and degradation.	eng
41429	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Yushan National Park (Yu 1994), but it is not known if it occurs in any additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41429	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs at elevations up to 2,438 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It is sympatric with <em>C. sodalis</em> at Tsuifeng (2,300 m asl) and Alishan (2,438 m asl) (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
41429	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species prefers dense ground cover in both broadleaf and coniferous forest, and subalpine shrublands in high mountains of central Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It exhibits nocturnal and diurnal activity (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from March to June, litter size ranges from 2-4 (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41429	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41429	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
41430	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Taibaishan, Wolong (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41430	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Xizang, Hebei (Smith and Xie 2008), Beijing, and Gansu (CSIS 2008). The distribution in Hebei represents an isolated population (Smith and Xie 2008). The bulk of the distribution (central China) occupies elevations ranging from 1,200-3,500 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). The Hebei population occurs at an elevation of 300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41430	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This core distribution of this species occupies a highly diverse range of habitats including forest and shrubland associated with the altitudinal variation occurring within the Hengduan Shan Mountains (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41430	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41430	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41431	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41431	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to central southern China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations around approximately 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). It most likely occurs at many other localites in between current known locations.	eng
41431	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is believed to occupy high montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41431	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41431	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
41432	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it has been recorded from protected areas in Nepal such as Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park and Rara National Park. It is presumably present within some protected areas in China. In South Asia, ecological and population studies are recommended (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41432	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is distributed in South Asia, southwestern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded widely from Nepal and India (Sikkim) at altitudes up to 2,900 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang at elevations of 3,000 to 3,500 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam.	eng
41432	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia it has been recorded from temperate and evergreen forests in Nepal and Sikkim (Molour <em>et al</em>. 2005). Smith and Xie (2008) indicate that within China, the species is associated with moist conifer, rhododendron and broadleaved deciduous forests. The species has been recorded from moist stands of dwarf bamboo, shrubs and grasses, and is known to inhabit villages and cultivated fields (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41432	population	Molur, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41432	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41433	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.	eng
41433	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from South Asia, central China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Darjeeling in West Bengal, India, and probably occurs in Nepal as well. In China, the species is present in Yunnan and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam. It is generally found in highland areas.	eng
41433	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, it is nocturnal and terrestrial species associated with temperate forest. It is found to occupy wet habitats with dwarf bamboo, scrub and grasses in temperate zone (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, this species is believed to have semi-arboreal habits. It is found from temperate broadleaved evergreen forests to lower rhododendron forests where it is adapted to a life on the ground in closed evergreen forests with little undergrowth (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41433	population	Molur, S., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41433	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. In South Asia, it is generally threatened by habitat loss and degradation (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41434	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	In South Asia, the species is known from the protected areas only in Nepal, where it is known from Annapurna Conservation Area, Makalu Barun National Park, Langtang National Park, Rara National Park, Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41434	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is known from northern South Asia and southwestern China. In South Asia, it is widely distributed in altitudes between 1,500 and 4,300 m asl of the Himalayas in Nepal, Bhutan and India (Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Xizang and Yunnan (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41434	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, conifer-rhododendron forest, and above timberline, the alpine zone (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia, it is additionally reported from open rocky areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41434	population	Molur, S., 2008	In China it is a common species (Smith and Xie 2008). The population status in South Asia is unknown.	eng
41434	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia, the major threats faced by this species are habitat loss due to agriculture expansion and human settlements (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41435	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
41435	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species ranges from southwestern China (Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan) to northern and eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand and northern Viet Nam (Hutterer 2005; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It presumably also occurs in Lao PDR, though there have not so far been any records. Its elevational range is 1,500 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
41435	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	Specimens collected from near the Chinese border in Viet Nam were from montane bamboo forests between 1,500-2,000 m asl, and in western Yunnan they have been recorded up to 3,000 m (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. The species can be mistaken for <em>C. smithii</em> due to similar external dimensions, but in <em>C. parca</em>, the skull, ears and feet are relatively smaller than those of <em>smithii</em> (Allen 1923). The species' colour has been characterised as "dark mouse gray" by Allen (1923), with feet distinctly brown with touches of white. This shrew measures approximately 70 mm, compared to 80 mm in the larger species, <em>C. smithii</em>.	eng
41435	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41435	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.	eng
41436	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Shennongjia Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008). Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history, and threats. Habitat based conservation measures in the form of maintenance/conservation and restoration are needed to prevent further declines in the population. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41436	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in Sichuan, Shaanxi, Chongqing (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hubei. Most specimens have been collected at 3,000 m asl or higher (Smith and Xie 2008). It is widely sympatric with <em>C. hypsibia</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41436	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a poorly known species. Most specimens have come from mountain forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41436	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species, but it is inferred that the population is declining as a result of habitat degradation and loss.	eng
41436	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging, agriculture and conversion to wasteland are threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
41437	conservation	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
41437	distribution	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This Subsaharan African species has a seemingly wide but disjunct range. It is found as distinct populations in South Africa and Kenya (Rumruti and Rongai), with additional isolated records from Central African Republic and Cameroon. It possibly occurs in Uganda, however, this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded from 1,700 to 2,100 m asl.	eng
41437	habitat	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	The area where has been recorded in Kenya (Rongai) is arable land (cereal and maize) at an altitude of 1,700-2,100 m asl. Within South Africa, it has been found in forest and grassland, including moist-subtropical, up to 2,000 m asl. The records are often associated with termitries. The record in the Central African Republic was from the forest edge.	eng
41437	population	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has an extremely small body size (2.5-3 grams), and is rarely captured during field surveys.	eng
41437	threats	Hutterer, R., Baxter, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41438	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas (eg. Kruger National Park, South Africa). Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
41438	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This widespread species ranges through East Africa, Central Africa and southern Africa. It has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi (including the type locality of the Nyika Plateau), Democratic Republic of Congo (a single specimen), Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola (a single specimen), Botswana, southwestern Mozambique, Swaziland (Malolotja Nature Reserve) and South Africa.	eng
41438	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has generally been recorded from dry savanna and dry woodland habitats. It has also been encountered in riverine forest, open dry scrub, open grassland, coastal lowland froest, Acaicia woodland and suburban gardens (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
41438	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It appears to be common in Kruger National Park, South Africa.	eng
41438	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41439	conservation	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is present in many protected areas (eg. Andohahela National Park). Further studies into the systematic relationship between this taxon and Suncus etruscus are needed. Further studies are needed into the biology, ecology and population abundance of this species.	eng
41439	distribution	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar and the Comoros, where it may be widely distributed. The full extent of its range is uncertain. It is found from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41439	habitat	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	There is little known about the behaviour and ecology of this largely forest-dwelling species. As with many other shrews of this genus, it is presumed to be insectivorous, and largely solitary and nocturnal in its habits (Goodman <em>et al</em>., 2003). The species has a maximum litter size of two young.	eng
41439	population	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	In Madagascar it appears to be more common in the drier western and southern parts of the island (Goodman <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
41439	threats	Vololomboahangy, R. & Goodman, S., 2008	The species is generally threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land and pasture, and extraction of timber.	eng
41440	conservation	Hutterer, R., Molur, S. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is present in many protected areas and no direct conservation measures are needed.	eng
41440	distribution	Hutterer, R., Molur, S. & Heaney, L., 2008	This very widespread species occurs virtually throughout the Indomalayan Region, and has been widely introduced by human agency in the Philippines, parts of Africa, coastal Arabia, islands in the Indian Ocean and many other regions (e.g. Guam) (Hutterer and Tranier 1990; Hutterer 2005).	eng
41440	habitat	Hutterer, R., Molur, S. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is found in a very wide variety of habitats, including natural forests, scrubland and grasslands and nearly all secondary amd degraded habitats, such as plantations, pasture, cultivated fields, suburbans and urban areas. It is a human commensal.	eng
41440	population	Hutterer, R., Molur, S. & Heaney, L., 2008	This is a fairly abundant and stable species. It lives in and around human settlements.	eng
41440	threats	Hutterer, R., Molur, S. & Heaney, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41441	conservation	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas, with populations present in Dandeli National Park (Karnataka, India), Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Maharashtra, India); Makalu Barun National Park (Eastern Nepal) and Rara National Park (Mid Western Nepal); Lal Suhanra National Park (Punjab, Pakistan) and Kirthar National Park (Sindh, Pakistan) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Additional studies into the distribution, natural history and abundance of this species are needed.	eng
41441	distribution	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to South Asia and has been recorded from India, Nepal, Pakistan and possibly Bangladesh (Hutterer 2005; Molur <em>et al. </em>2005). Although it has only been recorded from a relatively few locations, it is inferred to be very widely distributed occurring up to 500 m.	eng
41441	habitat	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is a nocturnal, crepuscular, terrestrial animal, that occupies grassy embankments, can be found near water courses, riverine areas, and in open areas interspersed with scrub in tropical forests. It is also reported from gardens and paddy fields (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41441	population	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41441	threats	Nameer, P.O. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In parts of its range, it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and increased use of pesticides (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41442	conservation	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species outside of southern Africa.	eng
41442	distribution	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species largely occurs in South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe, with widely scattered records from Mozambique, Zambia, Tanzania, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, and Nigeria (known only from skull fragments collected from an owl pellet, in the Guinea savanna zone close to the Jos Plateau).	eng
41442	habitat	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is generally associated with termite mounds, which provide refuges in the species grassland habitat. In Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, the species is found in a wide variet of habitats, from secondary forest margins and coastal forest, through open savanna, to suburban gardens (Taylor 1998).	eng
41442	population	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	The species is considered common enough to be used in capture-mark-recapture studies.	eng
41442	threats	Baxter, R. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41443	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present within several protecte areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the various populations.	eng
41443	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is generally distributed in the afromontane regions of Central Africa and East Africa, including the Albertine Rift and the Kenyan and Tanzanian Highlands. It has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (including the Ruwenzori Mountains found in these two countries), Rwanda, Kenya (including Mount Elgon) and Tanzania (including Mount Kilimanjaro). It is found up to 4,000 m asl.	eng
41443	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It is found in a variety on montane habitats including tropical moist forest, areas of bamboo, and alpine regions.	eng
41443	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species.	eng
41443	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is likely to be locally threatened at lower elevations through ongoing general deforestation.	eng
41444	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas and similar reserves. There is a need for further research into the distribution of this species in the Congo basin.	eng
41444	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has a seemingly disjunct distribution, being found in much of western Central African, and then in parts of eastern Central Africa and East Africa. In the west of its range it is found in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko and Rio Muni), Gabon, Congo and southwestern Central African Republic. In the east of its range it is present in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda (including Sango Bay Forest), northwestern Tanzania, and is possibly present in southwestern Kenya (Hutterer 1986; Dowsett and Granjon 1991; Quérouil <em>et al</em>. 2003; Hutterer 2005). It is unclear if the species ranges across the Congo basin between the two known populations. In the west of its range it has been recorded from 100 to 625 m asl; in the east it is found from 1,000 to 2,250 m asl.	eng
41444	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species is generally associated with primary tropical moist forest. In the west of its range it is found in lowland forest, while in the east it occurs in montane and mid-elevation forest.	eng
41444	population	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species can be locally common, and is often the most abundant shrew in many samples from the western part of its range.	eng
41444	threats	Hutterer, R. & Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by severe forest degradation (eg. Burundi).	eng
41445	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is presumably present within several protected areas (Virungas National Park). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41445	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Albertine Rift Mountains of Central Africa. It has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. The range includes Bururi in south Burundi; Achuri, Bwindi and Ngahinga in Uganda; the Virunga Mountains of Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda; and the mountains to the east and west of Lake Kivu, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is found at elevations of between 1,785 and 4,500 m asl.	eng
41445	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	It appears to be limited to primary montane tropical moist forest.	eng
41445	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
41445	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
41446	conservation	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In view of its wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas.	eng
41446	distribution	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	This widespread Subsaharan African species ranges from Guinea in the west, through West Africa, to Cameroon, and from here into southern Central African Republic, northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, into much of East Africa, ranging from Ethiopia in the north to Mozambique and Malawi in the south, also ranging into northern Zimbabwe, Zambia and parts of Angola.	eng
41446	habitat	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of forest and savanna habitats, including both lowland and montane tropical moist forest, forest edge habitats and moist savanna.	eng
41446	population	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	It appears to be an uncommon, but regularly recorded, species.	eng
41446	threats	Hutterer, R., Oguge, N. & Howell, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
41447	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	Given its relatively wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41447	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in northern and central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser 1987).	eng
41447	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	Field observations suggest that this species inhabits lowland and montane forest and is primarily nocturnal. It has been found in secondary forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats outside forest. Very little information on its ecology or behaviour is available at the present time.	eng
41447	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41447	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	It is considered that there are probably no very serious threats to this species, although general widespread threats in the lowlands include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture and human-induced fires. These factors might cause population declines if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
41448	conservation	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no special conservation measures applied. A common species in most parts of the range.	eng
41448	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no special conservation measures applied. A common species in most parts of the range.	eng
41448	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Distributed in sand deserts in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and marginally in Russia.	eng
41448	distribution	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Distributed in sand deserts in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Russia.	eng
41448	habitat	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	Inhabits semi-fixed and fixed sands covered by saxaul (<em>Haloxylon</em> sp.). Active at dusk and night. Usually uses rodent burrows. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, often eats ants, sometimes hunts small lizards. Breeding season is from March to October. Young animals start reproduction in the second half of summer. Litter size is 4-5.	eng
41448	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Inhabits semi-fixed and fixed sands covered by saxaul (<em>Haloxylon</em> sp.). Active at dusk and night. Usually uses rodent burrows. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, often eats ants, sometimes hunts small lizards. Breeding season is from March to October. Young animals start reproduction in the second half of summer. Litter size is 4-5.	eng
41448	population	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	In some places is common, but it is a naturally rare species. Quantitative data on population size is lacking.	eng
41448	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	In some places is common, but it is a naturally rare species. Quantitative data on population size is lacking.	eng
41448	threats	Katerina Tsytsulina, Nikolai Formozov, Boris Sheftel, 2007	There are no major threats to the species. In the areas of overlapping range <em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> and <em>Crocidura</em> spp. are food competitors.	eng
41448	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. In the areas of overlapping range <em>Hemiechinus auritus</em> and <em>Crocidura</em> spp. are food competitors.	eng
41449	conservation	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
41449	distribution	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This Central African species is found within the Congo Basin and adjacent mountain ranges. It does not occur to the west of the Oubangi River. There are records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. It ranges between 700 and 2,230 m asl.	eng
41449	habitat	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from both lowland and montane tropical moist forest. In montane areas, the species is often associated with stream edges. It appears to be a forest obligate species.	eng
41449	population	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	It does not appear to be a particularly rare species.	eng
41449	threats	Kerbis Peterhans, J., 2008	In view of its wide range, there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging and mining operations, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
41450	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	In India, it has been recorded from Murlen National Park, and is presumably present in several more protected areas throughout its range. General field surveys, research into the natural history and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41450	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in northeastern South Asia, central and southern China and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, the species is now known only from Mizoram in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been recorded from Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei to Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, it has been recorded from northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.	eng
41450	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a terrestrial and fossorial species, mainly associated with montane forests (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; Francis 2008; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41450	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
41450	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species as a whole.	eng
41451	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41451	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs throughout southern Canada, west to central Saskatchewan and east to south east Canada, and south to Arkansas and Georgia in the United States.	eng
41451	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	it is most abundant in hardwood forests with deep leaf-litter and abundant food, and avoids areas with little cover and extremes of temperature and moisture. It is semifossorial; and digs tunnels or uses existing ones. It constructs elaborate underground nest. Nests are placed under logs or stumps, or underground. It breeds mainly in early February or March through to September; and peaks may occur in spring and late summer or early fall. Gestation length is three weeks, and litter size is three to 10, average four to six. They have three or more litters per year, and are weaned by 25 days. They sexually mature in one to two months. (George <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Home ranges of this species can be more than twice the size of those of most shrews. Estimates of home range size average about 2.5 ha; and ranges generally overlap (George <em>et al</em>. 1986). The northern short-tailed shrew is a carnivore and invertivore. It eats earthworms, slugs, snails, insect larvae, millipedes, other invertebrates, and small vertebrates (especially mice in winter). It may hoard food (especially snails).	eng
41451	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and abundant. Population density estimates range from 1.6/ha to about 121/ha (George <em>et al.</em> 1986). In a 14 year study in Illinois, the northern short-tailed shrew displayed annual but not multiannual population fluctuations; annual peak occurred in July or in October in different habitats; average minimum density about 1-6/ha in winter, average peak density about 10-20/ha in summer or early fall; none survived more than 10 months following first capture (Getz 1989).	eng
41451	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41452	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41452	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species current known distribution is from Virginia to southern Illinois, southward to eastern Texas (Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992) and southern Florida in the United States (McCay 2001).	eng
41452	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in various upland and wetland habitats, including moist deciduous woods, brushy areas, pine woodland and forest, mixed oak-pine-juniper woods, grassy situations, and densely wooded floodplains. It may favour areas with abundant leaf litter and fallen logs (Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nest sites are probably under logs, stumps and other debris. Breeding season is from spring to late summer (as early as February in Texas). Gestation lasts probably between 21-30 days. Litter size is five to seven, with two to three or more litters per year. Few live as long as two years.<br/><br/>Average home range size is 0.96 hectares (n=7); maximum movement of 603 meters (Faust <em>et al.</em> 1971). Multiple individuals may use a common burrow system. The southern short-tailed shrew will eat small vertebrates as well as large numbers of invertebrates (which may be immobilized by toxic saliva), and some vegetable matter. May cache some food (e.g., snails) for later use.	eng
41452	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common, and is usually more abundant than other shrews in its range (McCay 2001).	eng
41452	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41453	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41453	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Colorado, southern Nebraska, southwestern Iowa, and Missouri south through Kansas and Oklahoma to central and coastal Texas (known from three counties; Davis and Schmidly, The Mammals of Texas, in press), Arkansas, and Louisiana in the United States (Hall 1981; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
41453	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	Recorded habitats for this species include mature parts of oak-elm floodplain forest, woody ravines, beneath decaying logs in wooded floodplain communities, grassy pastures adjacent to woody areas, savanna-like areas, and grassy areas strewn with rocks (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989, Baumgardner <em>et al.</em> 1992); also mottes of live oak trees on sandy soils, grassy vegetation with an overstorey of loblolly pine, and grassy vegetation several metres from some post oak trees (Davis and Schmidly 1994). It may burrow extensively under leaf litter, logs, and deeply into the soil, but ground cover is not required if soils afford easy burrowing (Davis and Schmidly 1994).<br/><br/>It breeds from February to October in Arkansas. Gestation is about three weeks. The litter size is five to eight; and there are multiple litters per year (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). Most will live no more than two years. They will eat various invertebrates as well as small vertebrates and some plant material (Caire <em>et al</em>. 1989). Larger prey is subdued by toxic saliva.	eng
41453	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
41453	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41454	conservation	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species is present in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is also found in a private reserve in Colima (Rancho el Jabali) (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).	eng
41454	distribution	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Nayarit to Guerrero, México (Carraway, 2007). The known altitudinal range is from 80-1,800 m asl (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).	eng
41454	habitat	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in temperate forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest, shrublands and coffee fields (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It has been recorded near streams in damp areas beneath the cover of logs and rocks, and in weedy vegetation away from heavy forest. A female captured in June was lactating (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).	eng
41454	population	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is considered rare (Armstrong and Jones, 1972).	eng
41454	threats	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. In 2005, 68% of the habitat within the species' range was no longer suitable as a result of agricultural or urban development (Sánchez-Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41455	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Nepal, and is probably present in protected areas within China as well. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
41455	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been reported from northern South Asia, central and southern China, and northern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from North Sikkim (India) and Eastern Nepal (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it is present in Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to parts of northern Myanmar. It is a largely montane species found from 900 to 2,270 m asl.	eng
41455	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It is a fully aquatic and diurnal species. Animals have been recorded foraging for aquatic invertebrates and small fish in rapidly flowing streams in mountainous regions (Smith and Xie 2008). Animals often work their way upstream at the water’s edge, exploring under rocks, sticks, and stream bank vegetation, and then to swim out into swift water, where they float downstream (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41455	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
41455	threats	Molur, S., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
41456	conservation	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is listed as a threatened species in Mexico (Norma Oficial Mexicana, 2002). It occurs in several protected areas in the United States.	eng
41456	distribution	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs throughout the southeastern United States and in Mexico in Baja California Peninsula, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora and Zacatecas (Carraway, 2007).  <br/><br/>It ranges up to 2,600 m asl in Arizona, and 2,317 in Zacatecas in Mexico.	eng
41456	habitat	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Typical habitat is desert shrub, including plant communities dominated by mesquite, agave, cholla, and oakbrush. However, the animals also have been captured in riparian woodlands, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine woodlands, and grassy or gravelly desert washes. Found in arid areas having adequate cover for resting and nesting; deserts, semiarid grassland with scattered cactus and yucca, chaparral slopes, alluvial fans, sagebrush, gullies, juniper woodland, riparian associations, village dumps.<br/><br/>The diet in the wild has not been studied in detail. Foods accepted by captives have includes mealworms, cutworms, cock-roaches, crickets, earwigs, sowbugs, months, beetles, centipedes, and carrion of mammals, birds, and lizards. Its reproductive cycle is unknown; some pregnant females have been recorded from April to November. The gestation period is unknown; a typical litter is 3 to 5 young (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).<br/><br/>In California and Baja California it can be found in chaparral (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
41456	population	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species status is difficult to study; specimens are from widespread localities and generally have been taken opportunistically; the few intensive local studies suggest that the animals are common in suitable habitat (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41456	threats	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
41457	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of animals reported from Nigeria.	eng
41457	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Crocidura obscurior</em> is a West African species that has been recorded from Liberia, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Animals recorded from Nigeria are suspected to be misidentified <em>Crocidura bottegi</em>. It occurs at elevations up to approximately 600 m asl.	eng
41457	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found within lowland tropical moist forest and at the forest edge.	eng
41457	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This is abundant in some localities, such as in the Taï National Park of Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
41457	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations are probably threatened by habitat loss or degradation resulting from logging operations or conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
41458	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
41458	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is primarily distributed in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, from Labrador, Quebec, and Nova Scotia westward to eastern North Dakota and southeastern Manitoba, and south to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Ohio, south in the Appalachians to the Great Smoky Mountains, and south along the Atlantic coast to southeastern Georgia and the northern edge of Florida. It ranges farther north than all other native mole species.	eng
41458	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	The star-nosed mole is seldom far from bodies of water. It prefers wet soils in flood plains, swamps, meadows, and other openings near water. It is a good swimmer and diver, and may be active in water under ice in winter. It is more dependent on water in winter when the ground is frozen. It occasionally occurs in leaf mold on the floor of dense forests. Tunnels may be shallow or deep and may open at the ground surface or under water. The nest usually is placed in a hummock, under a stump or log, in humus among rotten tree roots, or in other areas above high water, often near a stream. Gestation lasts about 45 days. Parturition occurs in spring or early summer (late March-early August in central New York). Litter size is three to seven, with an average of five to six, with one litter per year. They sexually mature in 10 months. They may maintain the pair bond throughout the breeding season.<br/><br/>In some areas this species eats mainly aquatic invertebrates; benthic prey may constitute entire winter diet. Earthworms are abundant in the diet in some areas (Peterson and Yates 1980). It is active all year, and active day or night, but may be more active at night.	eng
41458	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common over a large range in southeastern Canada and the eastern United States. Its home range probably is about 0.4 ha (Banfield 1974). A density of four to seven per ha has been recorded for swampland (Hamilton 1931). In New York, two to three per ha were found during winter.	eng
41458	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41459	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41459	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species is known from Sichuan and Yunnan, China, and may occur in Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008), but there are no records from there yet to confirm its presence. It has been reported as occurring in northern Viet Nam, but the specimens this was based on have now been identified as <em>E. longirostris</em> by Miller (1940). The current distribution is uncertain with regard to its southern extent. This species occurs at elevations ranging from 1,000-3,000 m asl (Lunde and Ruedas 2004).	eng
41459	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	It inhabits high mountain slopes usually associated with loose soil in the vicinity of streams (Lunde and Ruedas 2004), as well as the surrounding forest (Smith and Xie 2008). It can tolerate medium human disturbance (Lunde and Ruedas 2004).	eng
41459	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	This species has an uneven distribution across its range.	eng
41459	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Smith, A.T., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
41460	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41460	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found in southern China (southern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008)), extending to eastern Myanmar, the highlands of northern and western Thailand, and most of the mountainous regions of Lao PDR and Viet Nam. There is an isolated population in the mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
41460	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	This species inhabits forest habitat, and areas with loose sandy soil, especially near streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
41460	population	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is locally abundant throughout its range.	eng
41460	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
41461	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Wuyishan, Houhe, Taoyuandong, Shimenhupingshan, Badagongshan, Wanglang, Wolong, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Tongbiguan, Wawushan (CSIS 2008), and Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserves (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is likely to be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1acd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41461	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan, Fujian, Yunnan, Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008), Hunan, Guangxi, Shaanxi, Gansu (CSIS 2008), Hubei and Jiangxi. Its range also extends into north-west Viet Nam (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kawada <em>et al.</em> in press). It occupies elevations ranging from 1,800-2,900 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41461	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding this species. It is thought to occur in montane regions within its range, particularly mesic mossy habitat in alpine birch forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41461	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41461	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat degradation and loss resulting from logging and agriculture, and exploitation for use in traditional Chinese medicine are threats to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press) .	eng
41462	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It has been recorded from the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary (West Bengal), Murlen National Park (Mizoram) and Kaziranga National Park (Assam) in India (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41462	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Himalayas in South Asia in Nepal, Bhutan and northeastern India (Molur <em>et a</em>l. 2005) and has been recorded from western Yunnan in China (Smith and Xie 2008). A seemingly disjunct population of this species has additionally been identified from the Cameron Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been recorded from 100 to around 2,750 m asl.	eng
41462	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	The Himalayan Mole is a nocturnal animal that inhabits subtropical and tropical montane forests, where it lives in the leaf litter and rocky gravelly areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). In China, it has been reported to occupy forest habitats where it usually uses surface tunnels and does not construct large mounds or dig deeply into the ground (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41462	population	Molur, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41462	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In northeastern India, the species is locally threatened by habitat loss due to expansion of agricultural lands and hunting for trade for local consumption (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41463	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Nanling, Fodingshan, Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, Bawangling, Jiugongshan, Mangshan, Wuyishan, Jinggangshan, Tianmushan, and Gutianshan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance (especially Hainan and Taiwan, Province of China) of this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1abcd (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41463	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species was previously thought to be endemic to China, occurring on Hainan and Taiwan, Province of China, and the provinces of Guangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan, Anhui, Guizhou (Smith and Xie 2008), Jiangsu, Guangdong (CSIS 2008), and Jiangxi.  However, it has now very recently been recorded from Viet Nam, but is not yet mapped here (Kawada <em>et al.</em> 2007; Kawada <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
41463	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs, in the hill country of southern China, as well as in high mountains (Smith and Xie 2008) in forest habitats.	eng
41463	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been reported as common in the hill country of southern China, as well as in high mountains (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41463	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
41465	conservation	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is known to be present in protected areas.	eng
41465	distribution	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu and Shikoku. The main distribution in Honshu ranges from the central part (Shizuoka, Nagano and Ishikawa Prefectures) northwards, excluding central parts of Echigo Plain and including Awashima Island in Niigata Prefecture. Small isolated populations have been found in Kii Peninsula, Kyoto and Hiroshima Prefectures in Honshu and on Shikoku and Shodo Island (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41465	habitat	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It inhabits grasslands and cultivated fields on lowlands to forests on mountains, and is common in low alluvial plains with soft deep soils.	eng
41465	population	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is a very common and dominant species in the northern half of Honshu.	eng
41465	threats	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41466	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Listed as Least Concern in Russia. In the Chinese Red List it is considered Near Threatened; although it nearly met the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1c. Taxonomic revision is urgently needed.	eng
41466	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in NE China (<em>M. r. coreana</em> Thomas, 1907; Liaoning, Henan, Anhui; <em>M. r. robusta</em> Nehring, 1891; Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Jilin), Korea and south of Russian Far East (Abe 1995; Jones and Johnson 1960).	eng
41466	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Habitat is montane woodland, forest, grassland and farmland. Prefers primary forests. Rarely found on steep slopes with rocky soils. Feeding passages are at 8-10 cm below ground. Main passages are at 30 cm and lower, total length is up to 450 m. Those passages connect feeding and watering places. Nests are in empty roots, or in the center of complex passages up to 30 cm below ground. Feed on earthworms, caterpillars and insects. Mating starts at the end of March. Reproduces twice a season (in end of May and in July) with 2-8 young per litter. Longevity is up to about 4 years, but more often less than that.	eng
41466	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common species, in some areas abundant.	eng
41466	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No major threats. In the 1930s to 1960s this species was exploited for its fur, but it is not a species of commercial importance today.	eng
41467	conservation	Abe, H., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
41467	distribution	Abe, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found from the southern half of Honshu, Shikoku, Shodo Island and some small islands of the Seto Inland Sea, Kyushu, Oki Islands, Tsushima Island, Goto Islands, Tane Island, and Yaku Island (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to near 1,000 m asl.	eng
41467	habitat	Abe, H., 2008	It inhabits grasslands and cultivated fields in lowlands, to forests on mountains, and is common in low alluvial plains with soft deep soils.	eng
41467	population	Abe, H., 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
41467	threats	Abe, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41468	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41468	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern North America, from southwestern British Columbia (Fraser River region), Canada, south through western Washington (including Destruction Island), western Oregon, and western California to Fremont Peak, Monterey County in the United States. It ranges up to 2,440 m asl in Washington.	eng
41468	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	In Washington it is found in moist habitats with soft earth free of sod; lower elevation ravines with deep soils, much vegetative surface litter (logs, leaves), and big-leaf maple and other plants; less commonly in lakeshore willow thickets; rarely in drier habitats (Dalquest 1948). In Oregon it is most common in riparian alder and alder-salmonberry thickets; less commonly occurs in mature and immature conifer, riparian hardwood, sitka spruce-salal, skunkcabbage marsh, wet pasture, headland prairie, and headland scrub habitats (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981); also montane areas with low cover of lichen and few snags, and Douglas-fir forest (see Carraway and Verts 1991). In California it occurs in redwood, Douglas-fir, and yellow pine forests and forest edges, usually near streams (Ingles 1965). It constructs runways near the surface of duff layer and deeper but shallow burrows, usually near streams. This species is less fossorial than other moles.<br/><br/>It seems to be more social than other insectivores; and may travel in loose bands (Dalquest and Orcutt 1942, Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981). Most breeding occurs from early March to mid-May, but even then only a few percent of specimens are in breeding condition. The length of gestation not known. Litter size varies from one to four young, newborns altricial. It is reported to have an XO system of sex determination. The shrew-mole may consume more than its own body weight in food in one day. It feeds primarily on earthworms, gastropods, centipedes, sowbugs, insects, and other invertebrates. It also eats some plant seeds, fungi, and lichens. It is sightless and detects prey with its snout. It is active throughout the year.	eng
41468	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	The population density in favourable habitat has been estimated at 12-15/ha (but up to 247/ha after removal of all other small mammals) (Dalquest and Orcutt 1942).	eng
41468	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41469	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41469	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges primarily in the northeastern United States and southern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Its range extends south to the Great Smoky Mountains region.	eng
41469	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits deciduous woodlands with thick humus. It is adapted to second growth stands, old fields, hedgerows, and prefers well-drained, light, moist soil with well-mixed organic matter and minerals. It avoids soils that are hard, dry, or with a large clay content. Two tunnel systems are constructed. A deeper system (10-18" deep) gives resting, breeding space, and winter shelter. Males leave tunnel systems in search of females in breeding season. Breeding is from March-April, and gestation lasts for four weeks. Litter size is four to five. Young are born in April-May, and there is usually one litter annually. Sexual maturity is attained 11 months after birth. This species eats primarily soil invertebrates; earthworms, insect larvae, and pupae comprise approximately two-thirds of diet.	eng
41469	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	It is a common and widespread species. Its home range is about 0.2 acres, and expands in summer. Densities vary from 1.2 to 11 per acre (Eadie 1939).	eng
41469	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41470	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is known from the following protected areas within Bangladesh, Hagherkhil Wildlife sanctuary and Lawachara National Park. In India, it has been reported from Nongkhyllen Wildlife Sanctuary and Balphakram National Park (Meghalaya), Murlen National Park (Mizoram) Rowa Wildlife sanctuary (Tripura) (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys and population studies are recommended for this species in the South Asia region.	eng
41470	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is present in northeastern South Asia, southern China and northwestern Southeast Asia. In South Asia, it has been recorded from Bangladesh and northeastern India at an altitudinal range of 100 to 2,500 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005). In China, it is present in Yunnan and Sichuan to 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008). In Southeast Asia, it is limited to northern and western parts of Myanmar (Francis 2008).	eng
41470	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This is a subterrenean species that inhabits the tropical forest and subtropical montane forest and scrub-grassland, where it lives in leaf litter (Moulr <em>et al</em>. 2005; Smith and Xie 2008)	eng
41470	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
41470	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. In South Asia, the species is threatened by habitat loss due to clear cutting of forest, woodland clearing, human settlements, expansion of agricultural lands and the increased use of agrochemicals and pesticides (Molur <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
41471	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41471	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species has the widest range of any North American mole, and is found from the southern tip of Ontario Canada, southern South Dakota to eastern Massachusetts, in the United States, south to the tip of Florida and northern Tamaulipas, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Its distribution, however, is patchy (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Colonies in southwestern Texas and Coahuila and Tamaulipas, Mexico are isolated and small (Nowak, 1999).	eng
41471	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species inhabits well-drained soil in fields, meadows, pastures and open woodlands (Nowak, 1999). It prefers moist loamy or sandy soils and avoids soils that are too wet or clayey (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). In some marginal areas, human activities such as the building of roads and golf courses often provide beneficial habitat due to higher quality soils and adequate moisture (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41471	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is common in most of the United States. Populations in southern Texas and Mexico are considered extremely rare and possibly extinct (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41471	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41472	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Xinglongshan, Shennongjia, Houhe, Taibaishan, and Wanglang Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41472	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Qinghai (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hubei. It occurs at elevations ranging from 2,700-3,000 m asl (Stone 1995).	eng
41472	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies the mossy undergrowth of montane fir forest (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41472	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no current data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41472	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
41473	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. In Mexico it is listed as threatened under Mexican Legislation considering it has a very restricted range in that country.	eng
41473	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found from south-central Oregon, in the United States to northern Baja California, in Mexico (Nowak, 1999). It can be found from lowlands up to 3,000 m asl (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41473	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It prefers moist, fairly rich soils with little vegetation (Wilson and Ruff, 1999; and Carraway 2001).	eng
41473	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is common throughout much of its range, except it is rare in the San Pedro Martir Mountains of Baja California, Mexico (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41473	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a garden pest in suburban areas but this is not a major threat.	eng
41474	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern. However, an inventory of populations east of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon would clarify the status in that region (Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
41474	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south through western Washington and Oregon to coastal northwestern California in the United States; it is also in parts of eastern Washington and Oregon, and extreme west-central Idaho.	eng
41474	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits agricultural land, coastal dunes, grassy meadows, coniferous and deciduous forest and woodland, along streams. It is fossorial, and occasionally active on the surface (especially dispersing juveniles in summer). It quickly recolonizes formerly flooded areas. Breeding nests are located about 15 cm below the surface of the ground. The nest cavity is lined with coarse grass. It is about 20 cm across and has several entrances (van Zyll de Jong 1983). This species is solitary except when breeding. It breeds January to early March. Parturition occurs in late March or early April. The litter size is two to four, with one litter annually. Females are reproductively active at 9-10 months. The maximum longevity probably is about four to five years. The diet is dominated by earthworms; other common food items include adult and larval insects, and other invertebrates. It is active throughout the year. The average home range has been estimated at 0.12 ha.	eng
41474	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs commonly in a wide variety of habitats. Population density is highly variable, and ranges from 1/0.10 ha to 1/14 ha (van Zyll de Jong 1983).	eng
41474	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41475	conservation	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas within its range. It is considered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) to be Endangered (01 May 2003), but this is mostly because it has such a small range in this country.	eng
41475	distribution	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is found in the extreme southwestern British Columbia, Canada, southward through the Olympic Mountains (Washington) and Coast Range and interior valleys of Oregon (eastward to the foothills of the Cascades) to Ferndale, California, in the United States where it is restricted to the coast. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 1,677 m asl in the Cascade Mountains and 1,615 m asl in the Olympic Mountains (Verts and Carraway 1998; Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
41475	habitat	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	In general, this species inhabits more open habitats with heavier soils with higher water content than <em>S. orarius</em> (Verts and Carraway 1998). It is generally found in pastures, prairies, and shrub habitats in lowlands and flood plains, and occasionally in true fir (<em>Abies</em>) forests (Verts and Carraway 1998). This species is common even within human-modified lands such as lawns, golf courses, cemeteries and pastures. It is primarily fossorial, though juveniles often move on the surface in spring and summer. It digs shallow foraging tunnels as well as deeper permanent tunnels. It may vacate a flooded area and return to home area when waters recede. A spherical breeding nest cavity is excavated seven to 50 cm below ground level. It contains a grass breeding nest; three to 11 lateral tunnels may enter the cavity. Mating takes place in February. One litter averaging three young is born in late March or early April. Young are hairless at birth, grow rapidly, and disperse from maternal tunnels mainly in May and June (van Zyll de Jong 1983). They sexually mature in about 10 months.<br/><br/>This species is generally solitary and antagonistic toward other individuals. Young disperse up to several hundred metres from natal site (mean around 170-180 m) (see Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993). Diet mainly consists of earthworms and insect larvae and pupae; also consumes centipedes, slugs, mature insects, spiders, and some vegetable matter. They are active throughout the year. Little is known about daily activity patterns (van Zyll de Jong 1983). Home range is up to at least 110 m in diameter.	eng
41475	population	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is considered to be common. Population densities may be as high as 12/ha (van Zyll de Jong 1983).	eng
41475	threats	Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Economically, this species damages some crops by eating or pushing up roots and by covering above ground portions of plants with mounds of soil; it may reduce forage for dairy cattle by 10-50%; soil mounds may interfere with operation of farm machinery or reduce quality of silage; some garden damage attributed to moles may be caused by other small mammals that use mole tunnels (see Carraway <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/>Formerly, skins had a commercial value through use in clothing accessories, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.	eng
41476	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Jiyuanmihou, Laotudingzi, Luoshan, Liupanshan, Pangquangou, Taibaishan, Saihanwula, and Huanghesanjiaozhou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in additional protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable A1c (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41476	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is a widespread endemic of China, occurring in the provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Jiangsu (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41476	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies sandy grasslands and meadows, loess regions, and even the borders of deserts, such as the Ordos (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>As an adaptation to its habitat, its diet is predominantly larvae of beetles and other arthropods, which differs from other moles (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41476	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41476	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41477	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas, and it has recently been recorded from the Mount Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41477	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is found in central and southern China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to northern Myanmar and northern Viet Nam where it has recently been recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It can be expected from northern Lao PDR, but there are not so far any records. At least two subspecies are recognized in China: <em>S. f. affinis</em> Thomas, 1912 from Yunnan and Guizhou; <em>S. f. fusicaudus</em> Milne-Edwards, 1872 from Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Guizhou. Its range in China appears to avoid the Sichuan Basin, but it is present on the surrounding mountains.	eng
41477	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	Although small, like <em>Uropsilus</em>, this is a true mole, and is apparently fully fossorial. It appears to be restricted to high altitudes (2,000-4,100 m), in montane coniferous forests with damp, friable soils (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Here it digs shallow burrows, recognizable because of their small diameter compared to other larger Chinese moles. <em>Scaptonyx</em> is geographically sympatric with all four species of <em>Uropsilus</em>, but this is not surprising, since the former forages below the soil surface, while the latter species seek food on the surface in leaf litter (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to habitats outside forest.	eng
41477	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41477	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
41478	conservation	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas (approximately 16% of the species’ range in Mongolia). Listed as Rare in the 1997 Mongolian Red Book (MNE, 1997).  Further research is recommended.	eng
41478	distribution	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Distributed in western and central Siberia, to Irtysh River basin in west and Transbaikalia in east. In north up to forest-tundra, in south occurs in forests of Altai and N Mongolia, where recorded from two localities in Hövsgöl Mountain Range, and also occurs in northern parts of Great Lakes Depression. The southern boundary of its Mongolian range is along the mid-course of the Tes River in Hangai Mountain Range (Bannikov, 1954).	eng
41478	habitat	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	Inhabit different forests, excluding boggy ones. Prefers leafy forests with mixed grasses and mildly moist soils. In permafrost regions occurs in river valleys and forest clearings. This species feeds mostly on earthworms, rarely on insects, catepillars and millipedes. Mating occurs in summer, but reproduction is delayed till next spring. Gestation is with embryonic diapause, and often lasts for up to 9 months. Females give birth in end of April - end of May, with 3 - 6 per litter. Females start mating during their first year, males on the second. Longevity is about 5 years (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980).	eng
41478	population	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	No population information is available, but it is known to have a restricted range in Mongolia. In Russia it is abundant, and is locally utilized for its fur.	eng
41478	threats	Stubbe, M., Samiya, R., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Gankhuyag., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
41479	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Bertolino, S., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is not protected under international legislation. It occurs in protected areas across its range. In Italy it is not protected.	eng
41479	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Bertolino, S., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Talpa caeca </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found in the western Alps, the Apennines, and the Balkan peninsula. It is likely to occur in Albania. Records from the Carpathians (Romania) require confirmation. Small blind moles recently found in Turkish Thrace and southern Bulgaria have been ascribed to <em>T. levantis</em>, but the possibility that they are in fact <em>T. caeca </em>merits further investigation. The species occurs from sea level to 2,000 m, although it is found more often above 1,000 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41479	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Bertolino, S., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in deciduous woodland, meadows and pastures in hilly or mountainous areas. It requires deep soil that is not too dry, which explains it sporadic distribution in karstic areas. Its diet is probably similar to that of the common mole <em>T. europea</em>, which feeds on soil-dwelling invertebrates, especially earthworms. It tends to be competitively displaced into marginal habitats by the larger <em>T. europea</em> in areas such as the Balkans (Kryštufek 1999). In Italy it is similarly displaced by <em>Talpa romana</em> where the two species occur in sympatry (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41479	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Bertolino, S., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Its population status is unknown across the whole range, but it is common in the mountainous areas of Italy (G. Amori pers. comm.). It is possible that it is locally common across its whole range. Its distribution is sporadic in karst limestone areas (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41479	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Bertolino, S., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
41480	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Found in many protected areas.	eng
41480	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species occurs in the northwest Caucasus (Russia, Georgia, northeastern Turkey (Kefelioglu and Gencoglu, 1996)), through to the Talysh Mountains (Iran) (Krystufek and Benda, 2002).	eng
41480	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species requires humid substrate, particularly in deciduous forests and wet meadows. Elevation from sea level to 2500 m, exceptionally. Has two types of passages: main, connected to nest cell and feeding passages (superficial and deep). In moist soils superficial passages are about 5 cm below ground, in dense and dry soils at 8-20 cm. Nests are under shelters, tree roots, big stones, mounds. Molehills differ in size and depend on type of soil. Feed mainly on earthworms, however, also consume catepillars and millepedes. Mating starts in February, females give birth from end of March till end of April. Reproduce once a year, litter size is about 3 young.	eng
41480	population	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	The species is common and locally abundant.	eng
41480	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats.	eng
41481	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
41481	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
41481	conservation	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Nikolai Formozov, 2006	It occurs in protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are recommended.	eng
41481	distribution	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Nikolai Formozov, 2006	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kryštufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In Europe, it is generally widespread, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species); and northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41481	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kryštufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread on the European continent, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species). It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41481	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kry?tufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread on the European continent, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other <em>Talpa </em>species). It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
41481	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is present in most habitats where there is sufficiently deep soil to permit the construction of its extensive burrows. It prefers meadows, pastures, arable land, gardens and parks, and is rarely found in coniferous forests, or habitats with sandy, stony or permanently waterlogged soils (Kryštufek 1999). It feeds mainly on earthworms, as well as other soil invertebrates (Niethammer 1990).	eng
41481	habitat	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Nikolai Formozov, 2006	It is present in most habitats where there is sufficiently deep soil to permit the construction of its extensive burrows. It prefers meadows, pastures, arable land, gardens and parks, and is rarely found in coniferous forests, or habitats with sandy, stony or permanently waterlogged soils (Kryštufek 1999). It feeds mainly on earthworms, as well as other soil invertebrates (Niethammer 1990).	eng
41481	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is present in most habitats where there is sufficiently deep soil to permit the construction of its extensive burrows. It prefers meadows, pastures, arable land, gardens and parks, and is rarely found in coniferous forests, or habitats with sandy, stony or permanently waterlogged soils (Kry?tufek 1999). It feeds mainly on earthworms, as well as other soil invertebrates (Niethammer 1990).	eng
41481	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is generally common in appropriate habitats, with densities of up to 16 individuals per hectare recorded (Kryštufek 1999). It is sufficiently common to be considered a pest of farmland and lawns in many parts of its range.	eng
41481	population	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Nikolai Formozov, 2006	It is generally common in appropriate habitats, with densities of up to 16 individuals per hectare recorded (Kryštufek 1999). It is sufficiently common to be considered a pest of farmland and lawns in many parts of its range.	eng
41481	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is generally common in appropriate habitats, with densities of up to 16 individuals per hectare recorded (Kry?tufek 1999). It is sufficiently common to be considered a pest of farmland and lawns in many parts of its range.	eng
41481	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is widely persecuted as a pest, but although this may cause local population declines it is not a serious threat to the species. In the past, it was hunted in great numbers for its fur, but mostly in the northern parts of its range (outside of the Mediterranean) and this no longer occurs anyway.	eng
41481	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Mitsain, G., Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is widely persecuted as a pest, but although this may cause local population declines it is not a serious threat to the species. In the past, it was hunted in great numbers for its fur, but mostly in the northern parts of its range (outside of the Mediterranean) and this no longer occurs anyway.	eng
41481	threats	Vladimir Vohralík, Jan Zima, Boris Kryštufek, Boris Sheftel, Holger Meinig, Nikolai Formozov, 2006	It is widely persecuted as a pest, but although this may cause local population declines it is not a serious threat to the species. In the past, it was hunted in great numbers for its fur, but this no longer occurs.	eng
41482	conservation	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	In Turkey at least it occurs in well protected areas.	eng
41482	conservation	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It probably occurs in protected areas in the Caucasus.	eng
41482	distribution	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Talpa levantis</em> is found along the southern edge of the Black Sea, from southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey through the Caucasus region to the Caspian sea countries of Azerbaijan and Iran (Corbet 1978, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m in the Caucasus.	eng
41482	distribution	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Talpa levantis</em> is found along the southern edge of the Black Sea, from southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey to the Caucasus region (Corbet 1978, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is found from sea level to at least 2,000 m, possibly higher in the Caucasus (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41482	habitat	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on analyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (Kryštufek 2001).	eng
41482	habitat	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on analyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (Kry?tufek 2001).	eng
41482	habitat	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It inhabits various biotopes from the lowland to the mountains. In its European range it is found in meadows and deciduous forests. Only a few specimens have been collected in the European part of the range through trapping. The majority of records are based on anlyses of raptor and owl pellets. In the eastern parts of its range (the Caucasus) it also occurs in alpine meadows (B. Kryštufek and V. Vohralík pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41482	population	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	No information is available.	eng
41482	population	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No information is available.	eng
41482	threats	Vladimir Vohralík, Boris Kryštufek, 2006	No major threats.	eng
41482	threats	Yigit, N. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats. In Turkey, the species occurs in well protected forested areas.	eng
41483	conservation	Fernandes, M. & Herrero, J., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. No further actions are required.	eng
41483	distribution	Fernandes, M. & Herrero, J., 2008	The Iberian mole is endemic to Portugal and Spain (Foy 1999). It occurs from the coast to 2,300 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
41483	habitat	Fernandes, M. & Herrero, J., 2008	It is a burrowing species, and like its congener the European mole <em>T. europaea</em> it is found in a variety of habitats so long as there is deep soil that is not excessively stony, sandy, or waterlogged. It is often found in meadows and pastures. In southern parts of its range it is restricted to upland areas (Loy 1999, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It feeds on invertebrates, especially earthworms (Niethammer 1990).	eng
41483	population	Fernandes, M. & Herrero, J., 2008	It is common in suitable habitats throughout its range (Loy 1999). However, in the southern part of its range it is confined to mountainous areas (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). In Portugal it may be considered a single subpopulation or three separate subpopulations if the rivers are shown to be major barriers to dispersal (M. Fernandes pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41483	threats	Fernandes, M. & Herrero, J., 2008	It is a pest species causing damage to pastures, so it is persecuted by farmers. Loss of meadows to afforestation is probably the main threat to the species, but this is not thought to be a severe threat at present (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
41484	conservation	Amori, G., 2008	It is not protected under national or international law. No specific conservation measures are known. Occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
41484	distribution	Amori, G., 2008	The Roman mole is endemic to Italy. It is now confined to the mainland, having last been recorded on Sicily in 1885 (Loy 1999). Reports of an isolated subpopulation in the Var region of southern France (Saint Girons 1973 in Niethammer 1990) have not been confirmed (Niethammer 1990, Loy 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005).  It is found from sea level to about 2,000 m (Loy 1999).	eng
41484	habitat	Amori, G., 2008	Its ecology is similar to that of the European mole <em>T. europaea</em>. It is found in a variety of habitats including arable fields, pastures, and woods, and it feeds predominantly on earthworms (Niethammer 1990, Loy 1999).	eng
41484	population	Amori, G., 2008	It is widespread throughout its range (Loy 1999). No information is available on abundance although it is assumed to be stable (G. Amori pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41484	threats	Amori, G., 2008	Local population declines are suspected in areas where there is intensive arable farming (Loy 1999). The mole is widely persecuted as a pest. However, these are not thought to be major threats at present.	eng
41485	conservation	Vohralík, V. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It receives no protection under European legislation. It occurs in some protected areas in northern Greece (for example the Pelister mountains). No further actions are required at present.	eng
41485	distribution	Vohralík, V. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The Balkan mole is endemic to the Balkans, where it is found in southern Montenegro, western Macedonia, north-eastern Greece, and the island of Corfu. It is likely to occur in Albania. Its vertical range is from sea level to 2,300 m (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41485	habitat	Vohralík, V. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It occurs in a variety of open habitats including sandy beaches, pastures and arable land (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41485	population	Vohralík, V. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Its population status is not known, but it may be locally abundant (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
41485	threats	Vohralík, V. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No major threats.	eng
41486	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Wawushan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any additional protected areas. Mt. Emei was named a World Heritage Site in 1996 (UNESCO 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitat status, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered B2ab(i,ii,iii); C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
41486	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the province of Sichuan where it is only known from Emei Shan and "adjacent small area of China where it is in limited geographic sympatry with <em>U. gracilis</em> and <em>U. soricipes</em>" (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41486	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a poorly known species. It is suspected that it has similar requirements to other species in the genera (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41486	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
41486	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41487	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
41487	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species mainly occurs in southwestern China, extending to northern Myanmar (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
41487	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available on this species. It inhabits mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, usually above the rhododendron zone and up to timberline (between 3,000-4,000 m depending on topographic conditions). Unlike its congeners, it occupies alpine tundra habitats, at least in the Likiang range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenically disturbed habitats.	eng
41487	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
41487	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, at least at lower elevations, then threats are likely to include forest clearance for agriculture, plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
41488	conservation	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is known to be present in several protected areas.	eng
41488	distribution	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Honshu (including the Kii Peninsula), Shikoku and Kyushu (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005) in Japan, and is usually found at elevations above 1,000 m asl.	eng
41488	habitat	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It inhabits grasslands, bushes and forests at high elevations.	eng
41488	population	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
41488	threats	Abe, H. & Kawada, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41489	conservation	Abe, H. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
41489	distribution	Abe, H. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Awaji Island, Shodo Island, Oki Islands, Tsushima Island, Goto Islands, Mishima Island (Yamaguchi Prefecture) and Awashima Island (Niigata Prefecture) (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
41489	habitat	Abe, H. & Ishii, N., 2008	A semifossorial species that is common in grasslands, shrubland, and forests at low to medium elevations.	eng
41489	population	Abe, H. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a common and dominant species.	eng
41489	threats	Abe, H. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41490	conservation	Timmins, R.J., 2008	It is present in several national parks and protected areas. Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam, and in Lao PDR in Hin Namno National Biodiversity Consevation Area, Nam Ghong Provincial Protected Area, and Hin Namno NBCA. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41490	distribution	Timmins, R.J., 2008	Historical records include sightings in southern Viet Nam, south-east Thailand and probably Cambodia. Recent records show their range extending much further north in Viet Nam (at least to 17º20'N and probably to 21º27'N), into Lao PDR, where it is confined to the south-east, and confirm their presence in Cambodia, where currently localized to Mondulkiri Province (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
41490	habitat	Timmins, R.J., 2008	Most records of the species are from evergreen forest (at varying stages of degradation), but it has also been<br/>found in mixed deciduous forest, extensive secondary bamboo lacking any dicotyledonous canopy, and in streamside tangles amid rocky savanna. Records range from the plains up to 1,500 m asl (Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species mainly uses the under- and mid-storeys, but also enters the canopy; recent observations come primarily from under-storey tangles, especially of bamboo, almost exclusively between 30 and 300 cm above ground level (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Thailand, has been observed on the branches of fruit trees (Timmins <em>et al.</em> .2003).	eng
41490	population	Timmins, R.J., 2008	Locally quite common (Parr 2003). Timmins <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that while in some areas (e.g. Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam, and a part of Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia) the species is clearly common, elsewhere records are infrequent.	eng
41490	threats	Timmins, R.J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, but they may be undergoing localized declines in parts of their range due to habitat loss.	eng
41491	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas, including Danum Valley (Sabah, Malaysia), Bukit Lambir (Sarawak, Malaysia) and Pasoh Forest Reserve (Peninsular Malaysia), and some nearby offshore islands of Lumut-Sitiawan area, Perak (Peninsular Malaysia). A substantial colony has also been recently discovered (2006) in a forest remnant of an Acacia mangium plantation in the Bintulu Division, Sarawak (Han <em>et al.</em> in press; R. Stuebing pers. comm.).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41491	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in southern Thailand, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Sabah, Sarawak, Labuan), Brunei, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Riau, Batu, Siberut, Bangka, and Serasan Islands) (Helgen 2005). There are only a few records of this species from northern Sumatra. <br/><br/>This is a lowland species occuring up to 1,200 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41491	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The only nocturnal tree shrew, this species is found largely in primary forest, in areas with lots of vines and undergrowth, which it requires as it comes down to the ground to forage for insects (K. H. Han pers. comm.). However, on Borneo, it has been observed in secondary forests and in gardens (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998). It does appear to live in family groups, unlike diurnal tree shrews.	eng
41491	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The species is probably rare throughout most of its range.	eng
41491	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this arboreal species is loss of forest-canopy habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to non-tree crops. It survives in older (>5years) mosaics of natural forest and tree plantations (Han <em>et al.</em> in press; R. Stuebing pers. comm.).	eng
41492	conservation	Han, K.H, Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	It is found in numerous protected areas throughout its range, such as Kang Kachan National Park (Thailand) and Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, and Singhalila National Park (India). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41492	distribution	Han, K.H, Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	Found in South-east Asia, north of the isthmus of Kra, including: Thailand, Bangladesh, Burma, far north-eastern India and Nepal, southern China, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and associated coastal islands, including Hainan. It probably also occurs on Preparis Island north of the Andaman Islands (Helgen 2005). Listed as present in Bhutan by Molur <em>et al.</em> (2005). Recorded to 3,000 m in China (E. Smith pers. comm).	eng
41492	habitat	Han, K.H, Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This widespread species is found in deciduous and evergreen primary forest and secondary forest, commonly in karst and associated natural scrub vegetation, from sea level up to upper montane areas (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005; W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It is highly adaptable and may be found in oil palm plantations (K. H. Han pers. comm.), coconut plantations (Parr 2003), and regenerating scrub and ruderial mixes above abandoned dry rice fields (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). It has been seen very far from tall forest, and is probably able to live independently of tall forest (such as in far northern Lao PDR; W. Duckworth pers. comm).	eng
41492	population	Han, K.H, Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
41492	threats	Han, K.H, Duckworth, J.W. & Molur, S., 2008	There are no major known threats to this species.	eng
41493	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Han and Engkamat 2000) and Gunung Marut National Park. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41493	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo where it is found in Sabah, Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei, and Kalimantan (Indonesia) except in the south-east (Helgen 2005). This species has not been recorded in Sabah in the last 20 years (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It is generally a lowland species (though not recorded from coastal regions in northern part of range), recorded up to 1,200 m.	eng
41493	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	Recorded from primary and secondary forests (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1998), but otherwise little else is known of its habitat preferences.	eng
41493	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is rare, and is known from only about 20 to 30 specimens (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41493	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations (oil palm).	eng
41494	conservation	Han, K.H., 2008	This species is commonly found in protected areas, including Pasoh Forest Reserve on the Malay Peninsula and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41494	distribution	Han, K.H., 2008	Occurs in Southeast Asia, south of about 10° N latitude, from the vicinity of Hat-Yai, southern Thailand through mainland Malaysia (and adjacent coastal islands) to Singapore and Indonesia on the following islands: Siberut, Batu, Sumatra, Java, Bangka, Riau, Lingga and Anambas (Helgen, 2005). This species is also found in western Java (Boeadi pers. comm.). Recorded up to 1420 m (Corbet and Hill 1992).	eng
41494	habitat	Han, K.H., 2008	Usually found in primary dipterocarp forest; however, it is tolerant to some degree of habitat modification, and has also been recorded from secondary forest, plantations, fruit orchards and trees near housing areas (Parr 2003; K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41494	population	Han, K.H., 2008	This species is very rare on Java, with only a single specimen in the last 100 years (Boeadi pers. comm.). However, the species remains fairly common on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41494	threats	Han, K.H., 2008	The major threat to this species is severe deforestation due to conversion for agriculture and plantations, and commercial logging, although the species can adapt to a degree of habitat modification.	eng
41495	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Han and Engkamat 2000). The preservation of old and regenerating forested areas, and natural forest remnants within tree plantations, will benefit this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41495	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found on Borneo below 1,200 m, in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) except in the south-east; west to the islands of Karimata, Belitung, and Bangka, and north to Banggi Island (Helgen 2005). It is sympatric with <em>Tupaia minor</em>, <em>T. longipes</em>, and <em>T. tana</em> on Borneo (.	eng
41495	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in lowland old growth forests, secondary forest and in older (>5years) tree plantations (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).	eng
41495	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is somewhat rare (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It seems patchily distributed, being present at low densities in some sites, but apparently absent from other forested areas (R. Stuebing pers. comm.).	eng
41495	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to logging, agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations.	eng
41496	conservation	Han, K.H. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is found in Gunung Ciremai National Park, and Cibodas Botanical Garden and Pangandayan Nature Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41496	distribution	Han, K.H. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia on Bali, Java, Nias, and western Sumatra (Helgen 2005). It ranges up to 1,700 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41496	habitat	Han, K.H. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is invariably found in primary forest, and very rarely enters secondary habitats. It is largely arboreal, although it has been trapped on the ground occasionally.	eng
41496	population	Han, K.H. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	This species is rare throughout its range.	eng
41496	threats	Han, K.H. & Maharadatunkamsi, D., 2008	The major threats to this species are logging and habitat degradation due to shifting agriculture.	eng
41497	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas, including Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41497	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in southern peninsular Thailand, Malaysia (Malay Peninsula, Sabah, Sarawak, and Laut), and Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Lingga Islands, Banggi, and Balambangan) (Helgen 2005). It is sympatric in parts of its range with <em>T. glis</em>, <em>T. longipes</em> and <em>T. gracilis</em>. It is a lowland species, most commonly found up to about 1,000 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.), though recorded to 1,700 m by Corbet and Hill (1992).	eng
41497	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species occurs in both primary and secondary forest (K. H. Han pers. comm.). In Thailand, Parr (2003) recorded it to occur in monsoonal evergreen forest, and Malayan mixed dipterocarp forest, and from plantations in the southern parts of Thailand. It has been recorded from older tree plantations on Borneo (R. Stuebing pers. comm.), and Wells<br/>(2005) recorded this to be a common species in a logged site in Sabah (44 out of 320 captures).	eng
41497	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is relatively common on Borneo, but not abundant (Han <em>et al</em>. 2000); it is widespread in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo), but relatively rare on the Malay Peninsula and on Sumatra.	eng
41497	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture and conversion to plantations, particularly on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.	eng
41498	conservation	Han, K.H., Stuebing, R. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species occurs in Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (Simons 1987), Gunung Penrissen Nature Reserve (Medway 1977) - although it has not been found there recently in a survey by K.H. Han (pers. comm.) - Danau Sentarum National Park in western Kalimantan (Jeanes and Meijaard 2000), Crocker Range National Park and Kinabalu Park (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from Kayan Mentarang National Park (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41498	distribution	Han, K.H., Stuebing, R. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This is a Borneo species, with a disjunct range across several isolated montane outcrops of Sarawak and western Sabah (Malaysia); probably also found in northern Kalimantan (Indonesia). Although it has been trapped as low as 300 m (Medway 1977), such records are very rare, and the species is most common above 600 m.	eng
41498	habitat	Han, K.H., Stuebing, R. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is found only in submontane and montane forest, but can tolerate disturbed forest.	eng
41498	population	Han, K.H., Stuebing, R. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is very common in north-western Borneo (Han <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41498	threats	Han, K.H., Stuebing, R. & Maryanto, I., 2008	A general threat for species living in the montane Borneo is loss of habitat due to deforestation for agriculture, such as the conversion of upland forests to vegetable farms (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41499	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	It is found in a few protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41499	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo where it occurs in central and eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), Brunei, and throughout lowland northern Sarawak (Helgen 2005), inlcuding Pulong Tau National Park (E. Bennett pers. comm.).	eng
41499	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species survives in old growth and secondary forest, and forest remnants within a mosaic of natural forest and older (>5yrs) tree plantations (R. Stuebing pers. comm.). It is more likely to be found in the lowlands (up to 300 m), though it is found up to 1000 m (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41499	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is rare, though more commonly obtained than <em>Tupaia splendidula</em>, based on trap success. However, it has not been recorded in Sabah for the past 20 years (K. H. Han pers. comm.), although there are recent records from the Bintulu Division (a mixed-use tree plantation) in the Bintulu Division of Sarawak (Han <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
41499	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss.	eng
41500	conservation	Han, K.H. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41500	distribution	Han, K.H. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is found in Malaysia and Indonesia, including southern Borneo (subspecies <em>splendidula</em>) and Karimata Island (<em>carimatae</em>), Bunguran (<em>natunae</em>) and Laut (<em>lucida</em>) in the northern Natuna Islands, and Riabu (<em>riabus</em>) in the Anambas Islands (Helgen 2005).	eng
41500	habitat	Han, K.H. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species occurs in primary lowland forest; it presumably occurs in secondary forests, and lightly degraded forests.	eng
41500	population	Han, K.H. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is rare and usually only a few are taken for every few hundred trap nights of survey effort (K. H. Han pers. comm.). However, it is said to be locally common at Puruk Cahu in central Kalimantan (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
41500	threats	Han, K.H. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat degradation, due to logging and conversion to agriculture.	eng
41501	conservation	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is very common in the older forests of protected areas on Borneo (K. H. Han pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41501	distribution	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found in Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak, Banggi) and Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Batu Islands, Lingga Islands, Bangka, Tambelan, Serasan) (Helgen, 2005). It appears to be absent from the south coast of Borneo, with no records from Sebangau and Tanjung Putting. Probably occurs to 1,500 m, but more common up to 1,200 m (K.H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41501	habitat	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	This species is found mainly in lowland forest, but is also fairly common in fruit orchards and secondary forest. Wells (2005) found that in selectively logged forest with a dense understorey, this species increases significantly.	eng
41501	population	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	Common on Borneo (Han <em>et al.</em> 2000), but there is little information from Sumatra where they almost certainly have undergone declines (K. H. Han pers. comm).	eng
41501	threats	Han, K.H. & Stuebing, R., 2008	Although this species is found in fruit orchards, it is not present in unforested agricultural areas; thus deforestation remains a threat (K. H. Han pers. comm.).	eng
41502	conservation	Boeadi & Steinmetz, R., 2008	This species is protected by national legislation, and is found in many protected areas, including in Peninsular Malaysia (Han pers. comm.), and in a few protected areas on Java, such Halimun National Park (U. Sinaga pers. comm.) and Masigit-Kareumbi Hunting Park (Farida pers. comm.).	eng
41502	distribution	Boeadi & Steinmetz, R., 2008	The species occurs in Indochina (including Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia), south through Thailand, eastern Myanmar and Malaysia (Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak) to Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan and western Java). It is known from several localities in northern and central Lao PDR (Ruggeri and Etterson 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). The mapped population in the general vicinity of Kao Yai in central Thailand is unlikely present.	eng
41502	habitat	Boeadi & Steinmetz, R., 2008	This species is a forest-dependent species, but can be found in secondary habitats close to human populations (Boeadi pers. comm.). It is found in evergreen forest below 1,000 m asl (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.), mostly sleeping in coconut trees during the day, feeding on young fruits of surrounding trees (Boeadi pers. comm.). This species was reported from a mangrove forest in Bako National Park, Sarawak (Giman pers. comm.). It is found quite readily in plantations, perhaps even breeding there in Thailand and Viet Nam (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.).	eng
41502	population	Boeadi & Steinmetz, R., 2008	There have been population declines on Java, where it occurs only on the western part of the island (Boeadi pers. comm.). Since 2001, there has been an ongoing study of this species by M. Baba, Kitakyusyu Museum in Japan (Boeadi pers. comm.), and there was as a study done in Singapore by the Raffles Museum in 2003. This species is probably not common in Sarawak (Giman pers. comm.).	eng
41502	threats	Boeadi & Steinmetz, R., 2008	This species is threatened by hunting by local people on western Java for consumption, though there is not much meat, thus it is not hunted widely, only traditionally (Boeadi pers. comm.), with increased hunting pressure every four years, by the Baduy Tribe (Boeadi pers. comm.). Deforestation is a threat to this species, as it is dependent on lowland forest. In the northern part of the range, including Thailand and Viet Nam, habitat loss is the main threat to this species, not hunting (R. Steinmetz pers. comm.). Populations in plantations might be threatened by competition with the Plantain Squirrel <em>Callosciurus notatus</em>.	eng
41503	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  Research should be conducted to determine the current population status, as little data are available in this area.  Furthermore, more data are needed regarding the biology and ecology of <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em>.	eng
41503	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The geographic distribution of <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> extends from the southern expanse of the Yenesei River to Lake Baikal and the middle region of the Lena River in Russia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  <em>O. turuchanensis</em> is "widely sympatric with <em>O. hyperborea</em> over much of its range" (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
41503	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> is a rock-dwelling species of pika (Lissovsky pers. comm.).  This is an herbivore that demonstrates preference in which plants it consumes (Lissovsky 2004).  It is diurnal, avoiding nighttime activity due to low temperatures (Lissovsky 2004).  Reproductive periodicity extends from mid-June through late August (Lissovsky 2004).  Females have 3.4 ± 1.4 (n=8) embryos (Lissovsky 2004).  Juveniles begin to appear in mid-July (Lissovsky 2004).  Total length of the species is 15.8-19.0 cm (Lissovsky 2004).	eng
41503	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data on the current population status of this species.  On the Putorana plateau in Siberia, Russia, <em>Ochotona turuchanensis</em> is considered abundant (Lissovsky pers. comm.)	eng
41503	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41504	conservation	Lindsey, P., Cilliers, S., Griffin, M., Taylor, A., Lehmann, T. & Rathbun, G., 2008	There are no major conservation problems facing this taxon, and they are present in a number of large and well-managed protected areas across their range. Therefore, no targeted conservation measures are needed or recommended at present or in the foreseeable future.	eng
41504	distribution	Lindsey, P., Cilliers, S., Griffin, M., Taylor, A., Lehmann, T. & Rathbun, G., 2008	The Aardvark is widely distributed south of the Sahara from Senegal to Ethiopia to South Africa, being absent from the Sahara and Namib Deserts. It is also present in the Congo Basin, although its distribution in West African rainforests is poorly known (Taylor in press). The distribution of the Aardvark is largely determined by the distribution of suitable ant and termite species.	eng
41504	habitat	Lindsey, P., Cilliers, S., Griffin, M., Taylor, A., Lehmann, T. & Rathbun, G., 2008	Aardvark occur in a broad range of habitats, including the semi-arid Karoo areas of southern Africa, grasslands, all savanna types, rainforests (but not swamp forests; F. Maisels pers. comm.), woodlands and thickets (Shoshani <em>et al.</em> 1988; Taylor in press). They are absent from hyper-arid habitats and avoid very rocky terrain that is difficult to dig in; for example, they occur in the eastern Namib Desert. Aardvarks have been recorded at 3,200 m asl in the highlands of Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). They feed almost exclusively on ants and termites but sometimes eat other insects, such as pupae of scarabaeid beetles (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2002). They can obtain all their water requirements from their food. Aardvarks are anatomically adapted to dig, and they extract all their food from underground. They also dig burrows in which they rest during the day and which they use to escape predators (Taylor and Skinner 2003).  Because many animals, from invertebrates to other mammals, use these burrows the Aardvark is often considered a keystone species (Cilliers 2002). Aardvarks are generally nocturnal, although they may come out in the afternoon in cold weather. They are solitary, only coming together occasionally for very short periods. Very little is known about reproduction in the wild.	eng
41504	population	Lindsey, P., Cilliers, S., Griffin, M., Taylor, A., Lehmann, T. & Rathbun, G., 2008	Current population trends are not known. In southern Africa there is no reason to believe that they are decreasing or increasing significantly due to any factors other than natural variations due to the variable nature of the arid habitats they occupy. However, in eastern, central, and western Africa, numbers may be declining as a result of the expansion of human populations, the destruction of habitat, and hunting for meat. Densities vary according to habitat suitability, including the abundance of prey.	eng
41504	threats	Lindsey, P., Cilliers, S., Griffin, M., Taylor, A., Lehmann, T. & Rathbun, G., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. Localized threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and subsistence hunting. Hatt (1934) recorded indigenous hunters in the Congo killing Aardvarks trapped in burrows, and Mbuti pygmies in the Ituri Forest in DR Congo smoke them out of their burrows (Carpaneto and Germi 1989). The meat is prized, while other parts of the Aardvark, such as the skin, claws and teeth, are used to make bracelets, charms and curios, and for some medicinal purposes (Carpaneto and Germi 1989). In western Kenya (1960s), local hunters flooded burrows to kill animals for food (G. Rathbun pers. comm.)..	eng
41506	conservation	Patterson, B., Gomez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
41506	distribution	Patterson, B., Gomez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is found in the Andes of northern and western Colombia, Ecuador, and western Venezuela. In Colombia it is found from 2,000 to 3,800 m (Alberico <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Ecuador it is found from 1,600 to 4,000 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
41506	habitat	Patterson, B., Gomez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species is found in paramo and upper montane forest. In Ecuador, this species may be absent or rare at high altitudes due to natural competition with Cryptotis montivaga (Barnett, 1991).	eng
41506	population	Patterson, B., Gomez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	This is the most common and most widely distributed of the genus.	eng
41506	threats	Patterson, B., Gomez-Laverde, M. & Delgado, C., 2008	There are no major threats; however, the habitat is locally heavily used for cattle grazing.	eng
41507	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas. Much of its range falls within some type of protected areas.	eng
41507	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in the southern Peruvian Andes, from southeastern Peru through westernmost Bolivia (Anderson 1997; Gardner 2007). The species ranges from 1,800 to 3,500 m.	eng
41507	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This animal is terrestrial and nocturnal in its habits. It appears to be invertebrate feeder (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The species is found in upper montane forest including cloud and elfin forest. It is not found outside of forest. Its ecology appears to be similar to Caenolestes (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
41507	population	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The species is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
41507	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	No major threats.	eng
41508	conservation	Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	Present in protected areas, including in the Grampians National Park (where the form <em>A. s. insulanus</em> occurs). There is a need to reassess the taxonomy of this species, including the possible species-level validity of <em>A. s. insulanus</em> and other isolated populations of the species in Victoria and in the north.	eng
41508	distribution	Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	<em>Antechinus swainsonii</em> is endemic to eastern and south-eastern Australia. There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>A. s. insulanus</em> is restricted to the Grampians Range of western Victoria (Dickman 2008). <em>A. s. mimetes</em> is present in south-eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, southern Victoria, except Grampians Range (Dickman 2008). <em>A. s. swainsonii</em> ranges throughout much of Tasmania (Dickman 2008).	eng
41508	habitat	Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	The Dusky Antechinus is found in alpine heathland, usually in damp areas with a dense low understorey of ferns or shrubs (Dickman 2008). The species is not present in secondary or modified habitats. The females give birth to between six and ten young (Dickman 2008).	eng
41508	population	Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	The Dusky Antechinus is patchily distributed, but common in good habitat.	eng
41508	threats	Dickman, C., Menkhorst, P. & Burnett, S., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. Isolated populations may be threatened by inappropriate fire regimes and by wild fires (as may other non-isolated populations), and predation by introduced carnivores may also be having an impact on some populations (Dickman 2008).	eng
41509	conservation	McKenzie, N., 2008	The species is known from several large protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
41509	distribution	McKenzie, N., 2008	The White-tailed Dunnart is endemic to Australia, where it is found in south-western Western Australia.	eng
41509	habitat	McKenzie, N., 2008	This little-known species is generally found in areas of sand plain environments (raised in the surrounding landscape) shrubland – often with sparse mallee on sandy or gravely substrates, and on sandsheets on coastal limestone (McKenzie and Kitchener 2008).	eng
41509	population	McKenzie, N., 2008	It is a common species within its limited habitat (McKenzie and Kitchener 2008).	eng
41509	threats	McKenzie, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to White-tailed Dunnart. Much of its previous range has been cleared for agriculture. Increased fire frequency on sand plains in combination with habitat fragmentation will continue to be an issue for this species.	eng
41510	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Kemper, C., 2008	It is present in several protected areas in Western Australia. In South Australia, both known localities are within protected areas. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of populations on Boullanger Island; should that population warrant species status it would almost certainly qualify within a threatened a category (Crowther <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41510	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Kemper, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is distributed in south-western Western Australia. The species also occurs on Boullanger Island (see Taxonomic Notes), and there are records (in 2003) from two isolated areas in the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.	eng
41510	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Kemper, C., 2008	It is found in open Eucalyptus and Banksia woodland, dense heathland and seasonal swampland (Dickman 2008). Females generally give birth to a single litter of up to eight young annually (Dickman 2008).	eng
41510	population	McKenzie, N. & Kemper, C., 2008	The Grey-bellied Dunnart is common in its limited habitat (Dickman 2008).	eng
41510	threats	McKenzie, N. & Kemper, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Locally, the species is threatened by continued habitat clearance and fragmentation. Feral cats affect them, though the populations have been able to withstand this predation.	eng
41511	conservation	Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas. A national recovery plan is in preparation. The Long-nosed Potoroo is considered threatened by the Queensland government and by the Australian government. Fox control measures are being implemented in Tasmania and these should be fully supported.	eng
41511	distribution	Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	The Long-nosed Potoroo has a patchy distribution along the coast and the Great Dividing range of the south-east Australian mainland, from south-eastern Queensland in the north, through coastal New South Wales, Victoria, and marginally in south-eastern South Australia. It is also occurs on the Bass Strait islands and Tasmania (Johnston 2008).	eng
41511	habitat	Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	This largely solitary species is found in areas with coastal heath, and dry and wet sclerophyll forests. It generally requires dense ground cover and a light or sandy soil (Johnston 2008). It has the longest gestation period of any known marsupial at 38 days, and there are two breeding seasons in the wild, early spring and late summer (Courtenay and Friend 2004). Females give birth to a single young that have a pouch life of about four months. This species starts reproducing at about one year in age. A life span of seven years has been recorded in the wild (Johnston 2008).	eng
41511	population	Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	On the mainland, the Long-nosed Potoroo is rare, and populations are extremely fragmented; the species may undergo fluctuations in numbers. It is rare on the Bass Straits islands and is common in Tasmania (Johnston 2008). Subfossil remains suggest that the species was formerly more widespread. The reasons for decline are unclear, however, habitat loss through clearance of native vegetation is likely to have at least partly caused a decline in populations (Johnston 2008).	eng
41511	threats	Menkhorst, P. & Lunney, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. There has been a substantial historical loss of suitable habitat on the eastern Australian coast. Presumably, mainland populations of the species are currently threatened to some degree by predation from introduced cats, dogs, and foxes. Populations in Tasmania will now also face the threat of predation by recently introduced foxes to the island, which is potentially a major threat. Inappropriate fire regimes and logging may open up the understorey, reducing their suitable habitat – thereby making them vulnerable to predation.	eng
41512	conservation	Morris, K., Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas. Continued reintroduction programs and fox control programs are important to the conservation of this species. Also important to the species is maintaining an appropriate fire regime within its habitat.	eng
41512	distribution	Morris, K., Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is endemic to southern and south-western Australia. It was formerly much more widespread. It is currently known from a number of islands: three islands in the Houtman Abrolhos (West Wallabi, East Wallabi, and North, the last being introduced from one of the Wallabi islands and causing vegetation degradation and erosion), Garden Island (near Perth), Middle and North Twin Peak Islands (Archipelago of the Recherche), and Kangaroo Island. Natural subpopulations remain on the mainland at Tutanning, Boyagin, and Perup Nature Reserves, in Fitzgerald River National Park. It has been translocated to several sites, the majority being successful. These include Batalling, Julimar, and Warup Forests, Nambung National Park, and Avon Valley National Park and the adjacent Paruna Sanctuary. Populations have also been introduced to Greenly (c. 1905) and Boston (1971) Islands from Kangaroo Island. Feral populations of this species exist in New Zealand, including Kauwau Island.	eng
41512	habitat	Morris, K., Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species is found in coastal scrub, heath, dry sclerophyll forest, and mallee woodlands (Hinds 2008). It requires open grassy areas for feeding and low dense vegetation for daytime shelter (Hinds 2008).	eng
41512	population	Morris, K., Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & van Weenen, J., 2008	Historically it was locally very abundant, but it is now much rarer. It is considered common within its limited habitat by Hinds (2008). In south-western Australia ongoing fox control programs and reintroductions have helped the species increase in number recently. It is still abundant on Kangaroo Island (Hinds 2008).	eng
41512	threats	Morris, K., Friend, T., Burbidge, A. & van Weenen, J., 2008	This species declined due to a combination of land clearing, impacts of settlers' fires, predation by introduced predators (especially cats and foxes), and hunting by early settlers. <br/><br/>There are no current major threats to <em>Macropus eugenii</em>. Predation by foxes is a threat in parts of its range, and fox control is thought essential for survival on the mainland (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Inappropriate fire regimes may also be a threat in places. On Kangaroo Island, it is considered to be an agricultural pest.	eng
41513	conservation	Munny, P., Menkhorst, P. & Winter, J., 2008	The species is present in many protected areas and is protected by national legislation. Regulated harvesting takes place under the supervision of state and federal governments (the latter only manages harvesting when animals are exported).	eng
41513	distribution	Munny, P., Menkhorst, P. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern mainland Australia and the island of Tasmania (introduced to Maria Island). On the mainland it ranges extensively from north-eastern Queensland (Cape York Peninsula) to south-eastern South Australia (including Fraser Island). It ranges in elevation from sea level to subalpine areas. The subspecies <em>Macropus giganteus tasmaniensis</em> is restricted to Eastern Tasmania (Barker and Caughley 1990).	eng
41513	habitat	Munny, P., Menkhorst, P. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is found in sclerophyll forest, woodlands (including mallee scrub), shrubland and heathland (Coulson 2008); also occurs in agricultural lands, introduced grasslands and other modified landscapes. It is nocturnal, gregarious, and large mobs gather where food is abundant.	eng
41513	population	Munny, P., Menkhorst, P. & Winter, J., 2008	Mainland populations are abundant (Coulson 2008); these populations have expanded because of increased artificial water points for cattle. The abundance of <em>M. g. tasmaniensis</em> has been estimated between 10,000 and 20,000 animals (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41513	threats	Munny, P., Menkhorst, P. & Winter, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Animals may be shot under license (in some states a license is not required) where they damage crops, pasture or fences. <em>M. g. tasmaniensis</em> is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural clearing.	eng
41514	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species has been recorded from protected areas, including the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and the northern Carbine Tableland. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
41514	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, where it is restricted to the area between Mitchell River and near Mount Carbine, west to 'Pinnacles' and north to Bathurst Head (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
41514	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops and plateaus.	eng
41514	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common.	eng
41514	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, but there may be some competition from domestic and feral exotic herbivores (Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996). Feral cats may take a few young animals.	eng
41515	conservation	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is recorded from protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
41515	distribution	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from Nanango, northward to the south bank of the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton and westward to beyond Rubyvale and Clermont (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
41515	habitat	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops.	eng
41515	population	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is common.	eng
41515	threats	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
41516	conservation	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The species has been recorded from protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
41516	distribution	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Queensland, Australia. It is found in the central coastal ranges of Queensland from Home Hill southwards to the north bank of the Fitzroy River at Rockhampton, and is also present on some offshore islands of the Whitsunday group (Eldridge and Close 2008).	eng
41516	habitat	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	It is found in areas of rocky outcrops and plateaus.	eng
41516	population	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common.	eng
41516	threats	Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
41517	conservation	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	All of the known islands are protected areas. This species also occurs in Karajini National Park and other protected areas. There is an ongoing fox control program on Dolphin Island and the adjacent mainland. Monitoring of this species' populations is needed.	eng
41517	distribution	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Western Australia, Australia, where it is found in the Pilbara region and offshore islands in the Dampier Archipelago.	eng
41517	habitat	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is found in areas rugged rocky habitat.	eng
41517	population	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is locally common, although patchily distributed. Mainland populations have declined, particularly from some of its southern range. The Dolphin Island population was almost extirpated by fox predation before fox control was implemented, and has since recovered. Island populations have increased due to fox control and benign introductions. Populations were lost from two offshore islands (East and West Intercourse Islands) during the 1960s due to fox predation.	eng
41517	threats	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	Mainland populations have declined through predation by introduced foxes (Pearson and Eldridge 2008). Foxes do not occur in some of the higher elevation areas of its current range; most of the fox threat is concentrated within the coastal section of the range.	eng
41518	conservation	Rylands, A.B, Mittermeier, R.A., de Oliveira, M.M. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The following protected areas are within the species geographical range (* indicates possibly introduced and mixed populations of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>):<br/><br/>Sete Cidades National Park (6,221 ha) PI<br/>Serra da Capivara National Park (97,93 ha) PI<br/>Ubajara National Park (563 ha) CE<br/>Serra Negra Biological Reserve (1,100 ha) PE<br/>Saltinho Biological Reserve (548 ha) PE<br/>Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve (4,469 ha) AL<br/>Guariba Biological Reserve (4,321 ha) PB<br/>Mamanguape Ecological Station (9,992 ha) PB<br/>Seridó Ecological Station (1,116 ha) RN<br/>Itabaiana Ecological Station (1,100 ha)* SE<br/>Uruçuí-Una Ecological Station (135,000 ha) PI<br/>Aiuaba Ecological Station (11,525 ha) CE<br/>Foz do São Francisco Ecological Station (5,322 ha) AL<br/>Raso da Catarina Ecological Reserve (99,772 ha)* BA<br/>Ponta do Cabo Branco State Park (379 ha) PB<br/>Guaramiranga State Park (55 ha) CE<br/>Dunas Costeiras State Park (1,160 ha) RN<br/>Buraquinho State Biological Reserve (471 ha) PB<br/>Tapacurá State Ecological Station (392 ha) PE<br/>Níisia Floresta National Forest (170 ha) (RN) (Castro, 2003)<br/><br/>The Tijuca National Park (3,200 ha), and the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (5,065 ha), state of Rio de Janeiro, contain an introduced population of <em>C. jacchus</em>.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41518	distribution	Rylands, A.B, Mittermeier, R.A., de Oliveira, M.M. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The Common Marmoset occurs in the scrub forest (forest patches in dry caatinga thorn scrub) and Atlantic forest of north-eastern Brazil, in the states of Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, and Piauí, Maranhão, Bahia, and possibly north-eastern Tocantins, originally extending south as far as the Rio São Francisco and its west (left) bank tributary the Rio Grande (about 11º30’S). Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it also probably extends north-west into the state of Maranhão, to the left bank of the Rio Parnaíba and the Serra do Valentim (Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) extended the distribution no further west than the middle reaches of the Rio Grande (left bank) and the upper Rio Parnaíba (right bank), with a lacuna between these points and the Rio Tocantins. Silva Jr. (1999) reported on localities in Maranhão and Piauí marking the north-western limit to its range, and determined that, as Hershkovitz (1977) had indicated, it extends to the left bank of the Rio Parnaíba, but there is a lack of information concering its occurrence or otherwise west from there into the basin of the Rio Itapecuru (Sillva Jr. 1999; unpubl. data, 2008). The Black-handed Tamarin, <em>Saguinus niger</em>, occurs to the west, but the easternmost locallities are in the interfluvium of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru (J. S. Silva Jr., unpubl. data, 2008). Flesher (2001) recorded <em>C. jacchus</em> in the Serra das Mangabeiras at the headwaters of the Rio Parnaíba in Piauí, approximately 10ºS, 46ºW. South of the Serra da Mangabeiras, it is possible that the Serra Geral de Goiás marks the divide with <em>C. penicillata</em> to the west. It has spread into numerous other regions as a result of introductions outside of its original range, south of the Rio São Francisco, accompanying the destruction and degradation of the Atlantic coastal forest and its associated ecosystems (Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996). Introduced and recent populations include those in the state of Sergipe and the north and north-east of Bahia, including the ‘Recóncavo da Bahia’ (Alonso <em>et al</em>. 1987), the state of Rio de Janeiro in south-east Brazil (Coimbra-Filho, 1984; Ruiz-Miranda <em>et al</em>. 2000), the Ilha de Santa Catarina in southern Brazil (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2005) and they are also reported to have established themselves in Buenos Aires. Alonso <em>et al</em>. (1987) indicated that the Recóncavo da Bahia shows a relatively narrow zone of mixing between <em>Callithrix penicillata</em> and <em>C. jacchus</em>. However, Coimbra-Filho <em>et al.</em> (1991/1992; Coimbra-Filho and Câmara 1996) have shown that this region was originally forested, and argued that the destruction of the natural vegetation over vast areas since the European discovery of Brazil in 1500, along with frequent and repeated introductions, certainly of  <em>C. jacchus</em> but probably also of <em>C. penicillata</em>, has resulted in a confused picture of hybrids between these species and between <em>C. penicillata</em> and <em>C. kuhlii</em> (see Coimbra-Filho <em>et al</em>. 1993). They argued that pure <em>C. kuhlii</em> was the original form occurring there.	eng
41518	habitat	Rylands, A.B, Mittermeier, R.A., de Oliveira, M.M. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	An inhabitant of gallery forest, semideciduous and deciduous scrub forest (forest patches in dry caatinga thorn scrub) and humid Atlantic forest of north-eastern Brazil. It is very adaptable, being able to live in urban parks and gardens and rural villages where it is not persecuted and has sufficient food. It has been introduced into many areas outside of its natural range, where it is able to thrive and is believed to compete with and displace other (native) marmosets.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1994). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season.  <br/><br/><em>Callithrix jacchus</em> is a gum-feeding specialist, with gouging lower incisors to excavate holes in gum-producing trees to guarantee gum year-round. This allows it to live in very seasonal habitats, including deciduous forests and scrub in the north-east of Brazil. Associated with its specialization in gum-feeding, it defends home ranges that are much smaller than are typical of the genus: 0.72 to 5.2 ha. Castro (2003) recorded home ranges of 0.3 to 2.4 ha at Níisia Floresta National Forest, Rio Grande do Norte. Maier <em>et al</em>. (1982) and Alonso and Llangguth (1989) recorded home ranges of 2-5 ha in the urban district of João Pessoa, Paraíba, and Mendes Pontes and Monteiro da Cruz (1995) of 4 ha in an urban park in Recife, Pernambuco. Group sizes have been recorded to range from 2 to 15 at the Tapacurá State Ecological Station, Pernambuco (Hubrecht 1985; Scanlon <em>et al</em>. 1988). Usually one female breeds in each group. Twins are produced twice a year.	eng
41518	population	Rylands, A.B, Mittermeier, R.A., de Oliveira, M.M. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	<em>Callithrix jacchus</em> can occur in very high densites.	eng
41518	threats	Rylands, A.B, Mittermeier, R.A., de Oliveira, M.M. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	Although widespread and common in many localities, and even replacing other <em>Callithrix</em> species where it has been introduced, <em>C. jacchus</em> populations are declining through habitat destruction in many parts of their distribution (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1988; Coimbra-Filho 1984). There is some limited hunting for pets.	eng
41519	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	It has been introduced into part of the Rio Dôce State Park (35,973 ha), the Ibitipoca State Reserve (1,448 ha), both in the state of Minas Gerais (Mittermeier and Rylands pers. obs.), and the Ilha Grande State Park (56,000 ha), Rio de Janeiro (H.K.M. Corrêa pers. comm.). The following conservation units are within its geographical distribution (* indicates possibly introduced and/or mixed populations of <em>C. jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em>):<br/><br/>Brasília National Park (28,000 ha) DF<br/>Emas National Park (131,868 ha) GO<br/>Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park (60,000 ha) GO<br/>Serra da Canastra National Park (71,525 ha) MG<br/>Serra do Cipó National Park (33,800 ha) MG<br/>Araguaia National Park (?) (562,312 ha) TO<br/>Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (84,000 ha) MG<br/>Chapada da Diamantina National Park (152,000 ha) BA<br/>Pirapitinga Ecological Station (1,090 ha) MG<br/>Raso da Catarina Ecological Reserve (99,772 ha)* BA<br/>Ibitipoca State Park (1,489 ha) MG<br/>Acauã State Reserve (5,000 ha) MG<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41519	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	<em>C. penicillata</em> has a very wide distribution, occurring in the cerrado region of east central Brazil. According to Hershkovitz 1977), this species occurs in the states of Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás, the south-west tip of Piauí, Maranhão and the north of São Paulo, north of the Rios Tieté and Piracicaba. In the north, it would seem that it is restricted to the south of the Rio Grande and Rio São Francisco (<em>C. jacchus</em> occurring to the north of the Rio Grande), although Vivo (1991) identified two skins in the Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, from the north-east coast of Maranhão, at Miritiba (now called Humberto dos Campos), which he indicated extends its range right through eastern Maranhão, along the left bank of the Rio Parnaiba. The large gap between the next northernmost locality to the south (Canabrava, Rio Tocantins, Goiás, locality 275a of Hershkovitz 1977, p.490) and this northern Maranhão locality, indicates that they were probably introduced animals. They were not located by Hershkovitz (1977) and were presumed by him to be <em>C. jacchus</em>, following Ávila-Pires (1969). Silva Jr. (1999) carried out surveys in Maranhão and Piauí and did not report the occurrence of <em>C. penicillata</em>, only <em>C. jacchus</em>. The western limits of its range would seem to be marked by the Rio Araguaia, south from around 8ºS in the region of the Serra das Cordilheiras, extending into the north-east of the state of Mato Grosso Sul, east of the Serra de Maracaju to the level of the Rios Pardo or Taquaraçú, west (right) bank tributaries of the Rio Paraná.<br/><br/>Surveys in the north of the state of Minas Gerais have shown that <em>C. penicillata</em> extends its range through the region between the upper Rio São Francisco and the Rio Jequitinhonha, along the western slopes of the Serra do Espinhaço. <em>C. penicillata</em> occurs both sides of the Rio Jequitinhonha as far east as the Rio Araçuaí, a south (right) bank tributary of the upper Jequitinhonha, beyond which it is restricted to the north of the river, with <em>C. geoffroyi</em> occurring to the south (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988), the result of a recent introduction (ca. 1975) in the vicinity of Belmonte (Coimbra-Filho unpubl.). <em>C. penicillata</em> is typically of the cerrado region of Minas Gerais (in the central, south-west, west, and north of the state). Those parts originally covered by Atlantic coastal forest in the east and south-east (the Zona da Mata) are the domain of <em>C. geoffroyi</em>, <em>C. flaviceps</em>, and in part of the Rio Doce valley, <em>C. aurita</em>. However, with the destruction of the forest and also resulting from introductions (misguided release of confiscated animals), <em>C. penicillata</em> is taking a hold and probably replacing other species in numerous localities east and south of its original range (see, for example, Olmos and Martuscelli 1995). This is happening in the Rio Doce State Park, and is possibly also the case of <em>C. penicillata</em> reported by Vivo (1991; see also Coimbra-Filho 1984) from the Itatiaia National Park straddling the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. In both cases, <em>C. aurita</em> is the species naturally occurring in the area.	eng
41519	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	Gallery Forest, dry forest and forest patches in the Cerrado of Central Brazil. As is true of other marmosets, they show a preference for disturbed and secondary growth forest (Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Rylands 1984; Seabra <em>et al</em>. 1991; Rylands and Faria 1993).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho 1972; Rylands 1984; Rylands and Faria 1993). The most specialized of the <em>Callithrix</em> marmosets in this respect are <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> and <em>C. penicillata</em> (see Rylands 1984; Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Rylands 1984; Rylands and Faria 1993). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Associated with their tree-gouging and gum-feeding specialisation, groups generally have small home ranges: 1.25 ha to 4.5 ha (Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984) or 3.5 ha (Faria 1986, 1989). <br/><br/><em>Callithrix pencillata</em> has been the subject of a number of short studies (see, for example, Fonseca and Lacher Jr. 1984; Lacher Jr. <em>et al</em>. 1984; Faria 1984a,b, 1986, 1989; Miranda and Faria 2001; Vilela and Faria 2004; Vilela 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Male 344 g (n=8) (Smith and Jungers 1997).	eng
41519	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	There are no recorded population densities.	eng
41519	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mendes, S.L., 2008	This is an adaptable, widespread species, which has been introduced in a number of regions in Brazil (for example, Espírito Santo, Paraná, São Paulo and Santa Catarina), and is considered a competitor, displacing native species. However, as with <em>C. jacchus</em>, although widespread and hardy, and able to survive in extremely degraded habitats, populations of this species have disappeared or are declining in many parts of its range. Hunted for pets.	eng
41520	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This species is present in Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha) and Caxiuanã National Forest (200,000 ha). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as<em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix&#160;argentata</span>).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the limits of their geographical distribution, and the degree of forest loss within their known range. Soy bean cultivation, cattle ranching and logging have increased over the past decade and the impacts of these should be monitored.	eng
41520	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	<em>Mico argentatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, in relatively flat, lowland forest, between the mouth of the Rio Tocantins in the east and the Rios Tapajós and Cuparí (an eastern tributary) in the west (Ferrari and Lopes  Ferrari 1990; Ferrari and Lopes 1996; Vaz 2001; Pimenta and Silva Jr. 2005), extending south to the Rio Irirí as far as the lower Rio Curuá (Hershkovitz 1977). Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari (1990) (see also Ferrari 1993; Ferrari and Lopes 1996) argued that its restricted range (lowland floodplain) east of the Rio Tocantins is due to habitat differences and sympatry with the Black-handed Tamarin <em>Saguinus niger</em> (a wider ranging species extending between the Rio Xingu and east to the Rio Parnaíba).<br/><br/><em>Mico argentatus</em> does not occur south of Belo Monte on the Rio Xingu (Transamazon highway) and is restricted to the north of the Tucuruí dam reservoir on the Rio Tocantins (Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari 1990; Ferrari and Lopes 1996). This restricts the range of <em>M. argentatus</em> well to the north of the mouth of the Rio Irirí on the eastern bank of the Xingú, with the southern limits being somewhere between the Rios Cuparí and Irirí to the west of the Rio Xingu as indicated by Hershkovitz (1977; see also Martins <em>et al.</em> 1988).<br/><br/>Ferrari (2008) pointed out that there is probably a zone of contact between <em>M. argentatus</em> and <em>M. leucippe</em> in the south-west of the formers range, but there is a gap in our knowledge of the occurrence of this genus between the Rios Teles Pires and Irirí.	eng
41520	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The species was found to be common near the mouth of the Rio Tapajós (Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977) in <em>terra firma</em> primary forests and in extensive areas of secondary growth forest (Belterra and Fordlândia, east bank of the Rio Tapajós). Between the rios Xingu and Tocantins, it is largely restricted to the dense lowland forests of the flat Tertiary/Quaternary floodplain of the Amazon, and is limited in the south by the montane and submontane forests of the Brazilian Shield (Ferrari and Lopes Ferrari 1990). Between the rios Xingu and Tapajós it ranges further south, entering mixed open forest. It has been observed in forest patches in Amazonian white-sand savanna at Alter do Chão, south of Santarém, Rio Tapajós (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999). <br/><br/>Sympatric in part of their range with <em>Saguinus niger</em> (see Veracini 1997). Ferrari (1993) indicated that <em>S. niger</em> has the competitive edge in forests on the relatively nutrient poor soils of the Brazilian Shield, and that <em>M. argentatus</em> was a “newcomer” resulting from a Holocene range expansion of the genus. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species forms a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Mean group sizes recored by Gonçalves <em>et al.</em> (2003) in four localities in the west of its tnage were as follows: 1) 5.3 ±1.3; 2) 5.0 ± 0.9; 3) 5.6 ±2.1; and 3) 7.6 ±1.2. The group studied by Veracini (1997) and Tavares (Tavares and Ferrari 2002) on the Rio Curuá ranged from eight to 10 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. Tavares (1999) recorded a range size of 11.8 ha over 6 months. <br/><br/>Ecological and behavioural studies have been carried out by Veracini (1997), Tavares and Ferrari (2002) in dense lowand rain forest on the Rio Curuá at the Ferreira Pena Scientific Station at Caxiuanã, Pará., and by Albernaz and Magnusson (1999) and Corrêa (2006) in savanna forest patches at Alter do Chão, near Santarém.<br/><br/>Group sizes known to range from 4 to 11 individuals at Alter do Chão, near Santarém (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999; Corrêa <em>et al</em>. 2002; Corrêa 2006;).<br/><br/>Siize:<br/>Weight 273-435 g.	eng
41520	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Can reach high densities in secondary forests and forest fragments (Ferrari 2008).<br/><br/>Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded the following population densities at three sites in the west of the species' range, a short distance south of Santarém, along the Rio Tapajós:<br/><br/>Massafra: 9.3 individuals/km² or 1.9 groups/km²<br/>São Benedito: 12.6 individuals/km² or 2.3 groups/km²<br/>Tabocal: 101.1 individuals/km² or 13.3 groups/km²<br/><br/>These three sites were all forest fragments along the Santarém-Cuiabá highway. Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) also carried out a census in the Tapajós National Forest, but the densities there were too low to quantify.	eng
41520	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss. There has been much forest loss within its range along the Transamazon and Santarém-Cuiabá highways, and south of the lower Rio Amazonas due to roads, logging, agro-industry and cattle-ranching. The species is not hunted, although there may be some limited use as pets. <br/><br/>Although apparently able to thrive in disturbed forest and forest fragments, Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. (2003) found that isolated remnant populations are genetically quite distinct and appear to have suffered the effects of inbreeding or genetic drift, which may be prejudicial to the long-term survival of the small (50 or less) populations, even though this species occurs in naturally fragmented forests in savannas in some parts of its range (Albernaz and Magnusson 1999; Corrêa 2006).	eng
41521	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	It occurs in the Amazônia National Park (994 000 ha), Pará, where population surveys were carried out by Ayres and Milton (1981) and Branch (1983).<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix&#160;humeralifera</span>).	eng
41521	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Field research since the publications of Hershkovitz (1977) and Rylands <em>et al.</em> (1993) has diminished the supposed distribution of the Santarém marmoset. Hershkovitz’s (1977) range is now divided into four, being occupied by marmosets now considered distinct species: <em>M. mauesi</em>, <em>M. saterei</em> and <em>M. acariensis</em> besides <em>M. humeralifer</em>. According to our current understanding, <em>M. humeralifer</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, between the Rio Maués (and possibly its tributary the Rio Parauari) in the west, and the Rio Tapajós in the east. The southern limit is not known, but may be in the region of the Rio Paracari. The southernmost locality for the Santarém marmoset plotted by Hershkovitz (1977) was Vila Braga, 4º25'S, on the Transamazon highway, just north of the Amazonia National Park.	eng
41521	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Males 475 g (n=15) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>H&B 20.0-27.0 cm, TL 31.0-37.0 cm (n=10) (Ferrari 2008).	eng
41521	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information avaiable on the population status of this species.	eng
41521	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information on major threats to this species. However, it may be vulnerable because of its proximity to a number of expanding urban centres, as well as the mainstream of the Rio Amazonas, and the resulting forest destruction (Coimbra-Filho 1984). Its distribution is also cut by the Transamazônica highway (BR-230). It is probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.	eng
41522	conservation	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES.<br/>Present in numerous protected areas across its range:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Los Katios National Natural Park (72,000 ha)<br/><br/>Panama<br/>Altos da Campaña National Park (4,816 ha)<br/>Darien National Park (579,000 ha)<br/>Chagres National Park (129,000 ha)<br/>Cerro Hoya National Park (32,257 ha)<br/>Sarigua National Park (8,000 ha)<br/>Camiño de Cruces National Park (4,000 ha) (Skinner 1985b)<br/>Portobelo National Park (35,929 ha)<br/>Metropolitano National Park (265 ha)<br/>General Omar Torrijos National Park (25,275 ha) <br/>Soberanía National Park (22,140 ha) (Skinner 1985b)<br/>Interoceánico de las Américas National Park (40,000 ha)<br/>Nargana Marine National Park (147,540 ha)<br/>El Montuoso Forest Reserve (10,375 ha)<br/>La Tronosa Forest Reserve (20,579 ha)<br/>Chepigana Forest Reserve (257,219 ha)<br/>Canglon Forest Reserve (31,650 ha)<br/>Cenegon del Mangle Wildlife Refuge (1,000 ha)<br/>Peñón de la Onda Wildlife Refuge (3,900 ha)<br/>El Peñón del Cerro de los Pozos Wildlife Refuge (30 ha) <br/>Playa de la Barqueta Agrícola Wildlife Refuge (5,935 ha)<br/>Playa de Boca Vieja Wildlife Refuge (3,740 ha)<br/>Corregimiento del Nargana Wildlife Refuge Area (100,000 ha)<br/>Isla Canas Wildlife Refuge (25,433 ha)<br/>La Barqueta Agricola Wildlife Refuge (5,935 ha)<br/>Barro Colorado natural Monument (5,400 ha)<br/>Isla Majé Scientific Reserve (1,433 ha)<br/>Lago Gatun Recreation Area (348 ha) (introduced?)<br/>Filo del Tallo Hydrological Protection Zone (24,722 ha)<br/>Tapagra Hydrological Protection Zone (2,520 ha)<br/>Jurado Resguardo Indígena (16,700 ha)<br/>Comarca Kuna Yala (San Blas) (Indigenous area) (320,000 ha)<br/>Punta Patiño Private Reserve(13,805 ha)<br/>Golfo de Montijo Protected Area (89,452 ha)<br/>Cienega de las Macanas Protected Area (2,000 ha)<br/>Corregimiento del Nargana Protected Area (34,330 ha)<br/>Bagre Biological Corridor (31,275 ha)<br/><br/>Skinner (1985a) registered the need for increased measures to controil hunting for sale as pets, for educational awareness materials and for the monitoring of trends in population numbers and habitat loss.	eng
41522	distribution	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Central and eastern Panama extending into Colombia. The exact western limit is not clearly defined, but marked by Reid (1997) at just a little west of the Canal Zone. Their range it seems is restricted to the east of the Azuero peninsula.<br/><br/>In discussing habitat preference in Panama, Moynihan (1970) stated that “Rufous-naped tamarins are abundant in some parts of the Pacific coastal region, and also occur in some central areas approximately equidistant from both coasts. To my knowledge, however, they are completely absent from the whole of the Atlantic coast of the isthmus, except for one small, highly modified or “unnatural” area.” (p.2). The exception he mentioned is around the Canal Zone, the city of Colón, and Lake Gatún where the original forest has been almost entirely destroyed, and Moynihan (1970, 1976) argued that their occurrence there is the result of a recent range extension. The map of localities provided by Hershkovitz (1977, p.915) confirms Moynihan’s observation, with only two records on the Atlantic side of the isthmus except in the vicinity of the Canal Zone. The two outlying Atlantic coast records listed in the gazetteer (p.925) are: Locality 6c, San Blas, Mandinga, 9º27'N, 79º04'W, C. O. Handley, Jr., May 1957, a series of six specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, New York; and locality 6d, San Blas, Armila, Quebrada Venado, 8º40'N, 77º28'W, C. O. Handley, Jr. February-March 1963, a series of 12 specimens, also in the US National Museum. Moynihan (1970, 1976) suggested that their absence from the Atlantic coast was related to a preference for drier forests (“of moderate humidity”) typical of the Pacific coast. Skinner (1985) confirmed their occurrence in San Blas and reported the presence of <em>S. geoffroyi</em> in 21 sites all in moist tropical forest from the western Río Chagres basin to the Darién, from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts.<br/><br/>In Colombia it occurs along the Pacific coast, south as far as the Río San Juan. The Río Atrato was believed to be the eastern limit to its range (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977), but Vargas (1994, cited in Defler 2003) found the species occurring around the National Natural Park of Las Orquídeas in the vicinity of the village of Mandé, Antioquia, at elevations as high as 1,000 m, extending its range to the west of the upper Río Cauca. Barbosa <em>et al.</em> (1988, in Mast <em>et al</em>. 1993) also recorded the species at Quibdo, a town just east of the upper Río Atrato.	eng
41522	habitat	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Occurs in moist seasonal dry forests and secondary forests and scrub (Moynihan 1970; Dawson 1976; Skinner 1985; Garber 1993).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Average group size recorded for <em>Saguinus geoffroyi</em> by Dawson (1977) was 5-7 individuals (range 3-9). Generally, only one female per group breeds. Home ranges vary from 9.4 ha (Garber 1980a,b), to 26 ha or 32 ha (Dawson 1979), depending evidently on seasonal resource distribution and abundance.<br/><br/>There have been a number of ecological/behavioural studies of the species in Panama—first studied by Moynihan (1970) and Hladik and Hladik (1969) on the Island of Barro Colorado, then Dawson (1976, 1977, 1979; Dawson and Dukelow 1976) and subsequently Garber (1980a,b, 1984), both at the Rodman Naval Station, near Balboa, Lindsay (1980) at Punta Escoces, San Blas, and Skinner (1985, 1986) carried out a survey of 30 sites in Panama.<br/><br/>Infants are born throughout the year, <em>S. geoffroyi</em> shows a peak of births between April and June (Dawson and Dukelow 1976). Oestrous cycles average 15.5 days. Gestation unknown, but probably similar ot <em>S. oedipus</em> at about 145 days. Interbirth intervals range from 154 to 540 days (average 311 days) (Skinner 1986).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Mean adult male body weight 486 g (n = 53).	eng
41522	population	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Population densities of 3.6 individuals/km², 4.7 individuals/km², and 5.6 individuals/km² have been recorded for the island of Barro Colorado (Eisenberg 1979). Dawson (1977) estimated 20-30 individuals/km² in the Rodman Naval Station, Balboa. Skinner (1985) reported group densities in six areas in Panama ranging from 0.34 groups/km² to 5.35 groups/km².	eng
41522	threats	Marsh, L.K., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species has a relatively restricted range in a region that has undergone extensive deforestation over the last 50 years (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, it remains relatively common within this range, and is able to persist in slightly modified habitats. Nonetheless, there may be localized declines taking place due to ongoing habitat loss. In Panama, the species is frequently hunted and captured for the pet trade (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2002). Vargas (1994, in Defler 2004) reported trapping and trade in this species west of the Río Atrato.	eng
41523	conservation	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P. & Stevenson, P., 2008	In Brazil, occurs in Jáu National Park (2,272,000 ha) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2002; Iwanaga 2004) and the Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve (Souza <em>et al</em>. 2004) and in Colombia only in Nukak National Natural Reserve (855,000 ha). Indigenous lands make up 60-70% of its entire range in Colombia (Delfer 2004). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41523	distribution	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Saguinus inustus</em> occurs between the upper Rios Negro and Japurá, west from opposite the Rio Padauarí (64°), a northern tributary of the Rio Negro, into Colombia between the Ríos Apaporis and Guaviare (possibly also occurring in gallery forest of the Río Ariari to the north) to the base of the Serranía La Macarena (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Its distribution in Colombia is poorly known (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1989). Hershkovitz (1977) puts the western limit in the region of the upper Ríos Apaporis and Guaviare. Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) reported that it is also known from Cano Yaviya, Río Yarí, Caquetá, and although Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) supposed the Apaporis (left bank) to be the southern limit to its range in Colombia, Hernández-Camacho and Defler (1989) were able to report that it occurs as far south as the left bank of the Caquetá (see Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Hershkovitz (1977) places the eastern limit in Colombia along the Ríos Atabapo and Guainia and Trio Negro and certainly Handley (1976; see also Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) gives no hint that it may occur in Venezuela. It has been observed near the mouth of the Rio Japurá, on the left bank at the Lago Amanã (Souza <em>et al</em>. 2004), which extends its distribution further east between these rivers than was indicated by Hershkovitz (1977).	eng
41523	habitat	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P. & Stevenson, P., 2008	The Mottled-face Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). May be found in primary white-sand forest (<em>campina</em> and <em>campinarana</em>, and also occurs in successional forest, and even seems to prefer these habitats (Defler 2004). Often found in association with villages.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Palacios <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded group sizes from three to six (mean 4.4 ±1.14, n=5), but saw larger groups of nine and 11 as well. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus inustus</em> group was found to defend a home range of 35 ha (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Mottled-face Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adults H&B 20.8-25.9 cm, TL 33.0-41.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
41523	population	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species can be relatively common where it occurs. On the lower Río Caquetá in Colombia, it has been recorded at 19.6 individuals/km² (Castillo-Ayala and Palacios 2008).	eng
41523	threats	Palacios, E., Boubli, J.-P. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species is common around Indian villages along the lower ríos Caquetá and Apaporís (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, plots cultivated by Indians, slash-and-burn agriculture and small-scale logging have transformed many areas within its range. It is probably not hunted, though they are sometimes found as pets.	eng
41524	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Saguinus labiatus labiatus</em> probably occurs in the Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) and the Lago do Cuniã Extractivist Reserve (52,321 ha) in Brazil, but is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru or Bolivia. <br/><br/><em>Saguinus l. rufiventer</em> possibly occurs in part of the Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha), Amazonas, to the east of the Rio Purus.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus thomasi</em> has not been recorded from any protected areas in Brazil.<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41524	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Saguinus labiatus</em> occurs in the central and south-central Amazon. It occurs south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira and Purus. The southernmost part of its range extends along the left bank of the Rio Abunã, crossing the headwaters of the Abunã into the Pando region of northern Bolivia, along both sides of the Rio Acre, and south as far the Río Tahuamanu, a tributary of the Río Orthon, itself; a tributary of the Río Beni (Hershkovitz 1977; Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its range in Peru was reported for the first time by Encarnación and Castro (1990). There it occurs on the basin of the Río Acre, extending south as far as the Río Tahuamanu. It also occurs between the Rios Japurá and Solimões, in the region between the left bank of the Tonantins to beyond the Auatí-Paraná.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus labiatus</em> (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru)<br/>This subspecies occurs south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira (left bank) and Purus, on the right bank (Hershkovitz 1977), south from the Rio Ipixuna. It extends along the left bank of the Rio Madeira and Abunã, to Bolivia, crossing the headwaters of the Rio Abunã, as far south as both sides of the Rio Acre, limited to the north of the Río Tahuamanú, a tributary of the Río Orton (tributary of the Río Beni). Extends into far south-eastern Peru, north of the Rio Tahuamanú (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus thomasi</em> (Brazil)<br/>The range of <em>Saguinus l. thomasi</em> is well separated from the other two subspecies. It is known from very few specimens. According to Hershkovitz (1977), it occurs between the Rios Japurá and Solimões, throughout the region between the left bank of the Tonantins to beyond the Auatí-Paraná. It may extend west as far as the Rio Içá, but there is no record of it occurring in Colombia. In the east, it is probably restricted to <em>terra firma</em> forest, not inhabiting the extensive inundated forest (<em>várzea</em>) near the confluence of the Rios Japurá and Solimões (Silva Jr. 1988).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus labiatus rufiventer</em> Brazil<br/>Occurs in the central Amazon, south from the Rio Solimões between the Rios Madeira and Purus to the Rio Ipixuna, an east bank tributary of the Rio Purus. <em>Saguinus l. labiatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Ipixuna.	eng
41524	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	Red-bellied Tamarins occur in primary and secondary rainforest (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They generally avoid seasonally flooded forest, although they enter it when there is no flooding.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Puertas <em>et al</em>. (1995) found a mean group size of 6.1 individuals (range 2-10). Hardie (1998) also recorded a mean group size of 6.1 (n=15 groups), and Buchanan-Smith (1999) a mean group size of 6.8 (range 1-13, n=23 groups). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <em>Saguinus labiatus</em> groups defend home ranges of 33.5 ha (range 23-41 ha, n=4) (Yoneda 1981), the size depending on seasonality, availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Red-bellied Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the middle land upper layers of the forest above 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric Saddleback Tamarins <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (see Yoneda 1981, 1984a,b; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991b, 1999; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). In Bolivia, they also travel with <em>Callimico goeldii</em> (Pook and Pook 1982a; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991a; Porter 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male weight: 491 g (Yoneda 1981), <br/>Aduilt male weight 490 g (n=136) (Puertas <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Adult female weight 529 g (n=77) (Puertas <em>et al</em>. 1995)	eng
41524	population	Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This is a common species in Espiritu Santo to Rio Nareuda and the Rio Acre in Bolvia, where Heltne <em>et al.</em> (1975) recorded a density of 4.6 groups/km² which translates to about 27 individuals/km².  In the Pando, Pook and Pook (1982a) estimated 22 individuals/km² and Yoneda (1981) estimated densities of 7.2-12.2 individuals/km² or 1.7-2.9 groups/km². In Peru, Encarnación and Castro (1978) estimated 3.78 individuals/km² over eight separate locations. Puertas <em>et al.</em> (1995) estimated 18.6 individuals/km² or 2.7 groups/km².	eng
41524	threats	Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	There is no evidence for any major threats to this species, although it may be susceptible to forest destruction and fragmentation in the western Pando region of Bolivia and south-eastern Peru. The species is not hunted to any great extent, but there is some use as pets.	eng
41525	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen (1982) and Baal <em>et al.</em> (1988) discuss its conservation status and its occurrence in the protected areas of Suriname. The following conservation units are within its geographical distribution: <br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (619,000 ha) AP<br/>Monte Roraima National Park (116,000 ha) RR<br/>Mountains of Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (385,000 ha) PA (probable)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (357,000 ha) AP<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (560,000 ha) AM<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (350,012 ha) AM<br/>Maracá Ecological Station (101,312 ha) RR (possible)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (286,600 ha) RR (possible)<br/>Jarí Ecological Station (227,116 ha) PA<br/>Fragmentos Florestais - Amazonia Area of Relevant Ecological Interest (ARIE) (3,288 ha)<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve  (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003)<br/>Sipaliwini Savanna Nature Reserve (100 000 ha) (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Herten rits Nature Reserve (100 ha)<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Mouth Nature Reserve (10,000 ha) (unconfirmed: Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Wia-Wia Nature Reserve (36,000 ha)<br/>Galibi Nature Reserve (4,000 ha)<br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur National Park (11,655 ha)<br/>Wai Wai Community-owned Conservation Area (600,000 ha)<br/>Conservation International Conservation Concession (20,000 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Nouragues Research Station (Kessler 1995; Yioulatos 1995)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41525	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas and east of the Rios Negro and Branco in Brazil, extending north and east to the coast of Amapá and the Guianas (Napier 1976). It is also evidently absent from a large part of central Guyana. It does not occur around the city of Manaus, the domain of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em>, and shows only a narrow zone where it mixes with this species on the periphery of <em>S. bicolor</em>'s range (Ayres <em>et al</em>. 1980). The situation is probably the same with the two <em>Saguinus martinsi</em> subspecies. In the north of its range, <em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs in French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana (Husson 1957), but is largely restricted to the east of the Essequibo River (Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996). It would seem that it has crossed the Essequibo along the lower reaches of the river, judging by sightings at Hosororo Hill on the Venezuelan border and from Waraputa on the west bank of the Essequibo just south of Mabura Hill (Sussman and Phillips-Conroy 1995; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 1996). There had been no reports of callitrichids occurring in Venezuela (Handley 1976; Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987), until Linares (1998) indicated its occurrence in eastern Bolívar. Urbani (2006), on the other hand, was unable to find evidence of the presence of <em>S. midas</em> in Bolívar, and concluded that it is not present there or is extremely rare.	eng
41525	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Saguinus midas</em> occurs in lowland and hilly Guiana shield rainforest, savanna forest, white-sand forest, and also in secondary habitats in close proximity to villages and cities. They do particularly well in edge habitats. In Suriname, the species is common in the interior, the savanna belt and old coastal plain, but does not enter the young coastal plain (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981, 1982). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Thorington Jr. (1968) observed eight groups in Amapá that ranged in size from 2-6. Kessler (1995, 1998) observed 13 groups ranging in size from 3-7, mean 4.2 ±1.5.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male weight 515 g (Fleagle and Miittermeier 1980; Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Adult female weight 575 g (Fleagle and Miittermeier 1980; Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/>Mean adult weight 590 ±70.7 g (n=23) (Pack <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/>Adults H&B 23.0 cm, TL 35.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
41525	population	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Undoubtedly common throughout the majority of its range, it is considered the most widespread and abundant of all callitrichids and is currently expanding its range, at the expense of <em>Saguinus bicolor</em> (see Ayres <em>et al</em>. 1980; Subirá 1998b).<br/><br/>Recorded population densities include: <br/>Raleighvallen-Voltzberg: Suriname 23.5 individuals/km² or 4 groups/km² (Mittermeier 1977)<br/>Four localities in Guyana: 2.3-13.9 individuals/km² or 0.4-2.7 groups/km² (Muckenhirn <em>et al</em>. 1976)<br/>Porto Platon, Amapá: 16.4-33.5 individuals/km² (Thorington Jr. 1968)<br/>Fragmentos Florestais, north of Manaus: 3.9 individuals/km² or 0.6 groups/km² (Rylands and Keuroghlian 1988)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve: 22.9 individuals/km² or 5.4 groups/km² (Kessler 1998)	eng
41525	threats	Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. They are rarely hunted, but are a least preferred food species. Their tails are used for ornamentations, but otherwise it is the only species usually found in the immediate vicinity of villages where there is hunting.	eng
41526	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Present in the following protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax  mystax</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (605,000 ha)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284,285 ha)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em><br/><br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>State Environment Protection Area of Ayapuá (610,000 ha)?<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha)<br/><br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41526	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em><br/>Spix’s Moustached Tamarin occurs in Peru, south of the Río Amazonas, west to the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche, south to the junction of the Ríos Urubamba and Ucayali (Hershkovitz 1977; Soini and Soini 1990). Soini and Soini (1990) reported that its Peruvian distribution is more restricted than was indicated by Hershkovitz (1977), occurring only as far west as the east banks of the middle and lower Río Tapiche and lower Río Ucayali. Further south, it extends west again as far as the Río Ucayali, crossing the Río Tapiche at about 6º 40'S. This is based on a specimen from Cerro Azul, Contamana, collected by R. W. Hendee in 1927. Pekka Soini never recorded a moustached tamarin in the basins of the Ríos Pacaya and Samiria despite many years of research there (since 1979), and a specimen from the mouth of the Samiria west of the Río Ucayali (locality 96, Hershkovitz 1977, p.684) collected by H. Bluntschli in 1927 is as such enigmatic. According to Hershkovitz (1979) and the distribution map provided by Aquino and Encarnación (1994), the southernmost limit in Peru is marked by the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. This is based on the southernmost specimen known for this subspecies from Lagarto on the right bank of the Río Ucayali (Hershkovitz 1977, locality 110, 10º41'S, 73º48'W), collected by the Olalla Brothers in 1928. <em>S. imperator subgrisescens</em> replaces <em>S. m. mystax</em> south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya (Hershkovitz 1979). In their text (as opposed to their distribution map), Aquino and Encarnación (1994) give the Río Sheshea, an eastern tributary of the Río Ucayali to the north of the Río Urubamba, as the southern limit, although there is no evidence given for this.<br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>S. m. mystax</em> occurs south of the Rio Solimões, and is largely restricted to the west of the Rio Juruá (Hershkovitz 1977). However, Peres (1990, 1991) recorded <em>S. m. mystax</em> from Jaraqui on the right (east) bank of the lower Rio Juruá. Likewise, Johns (1985, 1986) found that <em>S. m. mystax</em> the Moustached Tamarin occurring on the west bank of the Rio Tefé (east of the lower Río Juruá), with <em>S. m. pileatus</em> replacing it on the east bank. Above the headwaters of the Rio Tefé, the Moustached Tamarin occurring on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá is <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, this based on a specimen collected by E. Garbe in 1902, at approximately 7ºS (Hershkovitz 1977).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1977), <em>S. m. pileatus</em> occurs south of the Rio Solimões, west of the Rio Purus, south at least as far as the Rio Pauiní or Rio Mamoria. Although Hershkovitz (1977) indicated that it occurs west to the lower Rio Juruá, Johns (1985, 1986) found that the Rio Tefé, its type locality, was its western limit. Judging from a specimen from ‘Juruá (Rio), Amazonas’ (locality 174b, Hershkovitz 1977, p.684), <em>S. m. pileatus</em> extends west to the Rio Juruá above the headwaters of the Rio Tefé. Despite Hershkovitz’s (1977) conviction that <em>S. m. pileatus</em> occurs east as far the Rio Purus on its lower reaches (that is east of the Rio Coarí), we argue that the limited evidence for the distributions of these tamarins suggests that it only reaches the Rio Purus above the Rio Tapauá, with <em>S. m. pluto</em> occurring from the Rio Tapauá, along the left bank of the Rio Purus downriver, and as far west as the Rio Coarí (see the description of the geographic range of <em>S. m. pluto</em>). <em>S. m. pileatus</em> is sympatric with <em>S. fuscicollis avilapiresi</em> throughout its known range.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em><br/>The distribution of <em>S. m. pluto</em> is rather problematic. Hershkovitz (1968, 1977) argued that it occurs south of the Rio Solimões, between the Rios Purus and Madeira, south to at least 7° or 8° latitude, but the southern limits are not known. The distribution as described by Hershkovitz is based on three localities: 1) The type locality, Lago Ayapuá is on the left (west) bank of the Rio Purus, but Hershkovitz (1977) argued that it must have come from the right bank. 2) Lago do Mapixí, a lake on the right bank of the Rio Purus. Although Hershkovitz states that specimens from Lago do Mapixí are labelled ‘eastern of Rio Purus’ (1977, p.700), this is contradicted in Hershkovitz’s gazeteer (p.933, locality 185, Lago do Mapixí), which states under <em>S. m. pluto</em> ‘C. Lako, June 1931 (left bank of Purus)’. A specimen of <em>S. labiatus</em>, of the same collector with the same date and locality, is ascribed to the right bank of the Purus. (3) Jaburú, on the left bank of the Rio Purus (locality 186, p.933). As in the Ayapuá locality, Hershkovitz (1977) insists that the specimens were in fact taken from the right bank of the Rio Purus and even places the locality on the right bank in the distribution map for <em>S. mystax</em> (p.684, 1977). The problem with accepting that <em>S. m. pluto</em> is known only from the left bank of the Rio Purus is that it would have to be sympatric with <em>S. m. pileatus</em>. Ávila-Pires (1974) placed <em>S. m. pluto</em> to the west of the Rio Purus, and regarded it as a different species for this reason. However, the only specimen of <em>S. m. pileatus</em> recorded for the Rio Purus is São Luis da Mamoria, Rio Purus (locality 188,p.933, Hershkovitz 1977), which is far to the south, near the Rio Pauiní. Although different species, it would be very difficult to accept that <em>S. mystax</em> is sympatric with <em>S. labiatus</em>, because, along with <em>S. imperator</em>, they are evidently ecologically very similar. We suggest that <em>S. m. pluto</em> is in fact restricted to the left bank of the Rio Purus, but is not sympatric with <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, and probably extends east as far as the Rio Coarí and south only to the rio Tapauá. The Mamoria locality for <em>S. m. pileatus</em> is downstream of the mouth of the Rio Pauini and upstream of the mouth of the Rio Tapauá. The Lago do Ipixuna, another locality (183, p.933, Hershkovitz 1977) for <em>S. m. pileatus</em>, is west of the Rio Coarí. There is no evidence of <em>S. m. pileatus </em>occurring east of the Rio Coarí, nor north of the Rio Tapauá.<br/><br/>Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported two isolated populations of <em>S. mystax</em> from the south of the Rio Acre, north of the Río Tahuamanú, in Bolivia: one between Cobija and Buenos Aires, right bank of the Rio Acre, and another from 10 km north-east of Porvenir, 11°12'S, on the Brazil/Bolivia frontier beyond the headwaters of the Rio Abunã.  Izawa and Bejarano (1981) presumed them to be <em>S. m. pluto</em> because Hershkovitz (1977) extended its range south as far as the Abunã headwaters. According to Izawa and Bejarano (1981), these two populations of <em>S. mystax</em> are sympatric with <em>S. labiatus</em>, but do not form mixed species groups as they do independently with <em>S. fuscicollis</em>. There is no ready explanation for these Bolivian populations, more than 3 degrees to the south of the southernmost locality for <em>S. m. pileatus</em>. We consider that they are unlikely to be <em>S. m. pluto</em>, but may be <em>S. m. pileatus</em> (if they cross the upper Rio Purus) or, more likely, a different undescribed subspecies.  Izawa and Bejarano (1981) also report a population of <em>S. imperator</em> within the distribution of <em>S. labiatus</em>, along with a new form of <em>S. labiatus</em> (undescribed). It would appear that the distributions of these species are mixed, forming fine-grained mosaics, in the southernmost parts of their ranges, traversing headwaters in a region lacking large rivers as barriers. <em>S. mystax</em> distributions are evidently more complex than portrayed by Hershkovitz (1977) and require further study. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al.</em> (2000) found no evidence for the occurrence of <em>Saguinus mystax</em> in northern Bolivia.	eng
41526	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Moustached Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Garber (1988a,b, 1993a,b) and Peres (1991, 1993c) have carried out a study of the diet and feeding behaviour of <em>Saguinus mystax</em>. Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Moya <em>et al.</em> (1990) recorded an average group size of 4.63 ±2.07 individuals (range 2-10) for <em>S. mystax mystax</em> in the Río Yarapa basin, Peru. Garber (1984; Moya <em>et al</em>. 1980) recorded a mean group size of 5.2 individuals for 18 groups (range 3-8) on Padre Isla, Peru. Ten years later this had increased to an average of 7 individuals per group in 13 groups (range 4-11) (Garber <em>et al</em>. 1993). The home range of a mixed-species group of <em>S. mystax</em> and <em>S. fuscicollis</em> studied by Garber (1988c) was 40 ha, overlappiing with seven other groups. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. <br/><br/>Moustached Tamarins travel and spend much of their time in the middle and upper layers of the forest above 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the smaller, sympatric Saddleback Tamarins <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em> (see Yoneda 1981, 1984a,b; Buchanan-Smith 1990, 1991b, 1999; Peres 1991; 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/><em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em><br/>Adult male 564.5 g ±48.0 g (range 502.6-681.0 g, n=16) (Garber and Teaford 1986)<br/>Adult male 491.0 ±23.0 g (n= 95) (Moya <em>et al.</em> 1990)<br/>Adult female 511.0 ±49.0 g (n=80) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990)<br/><br/>Adult female length. Total  62.0 ±29.0 cm (n=80) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990)<br/>Adult male length. Total 61.2 ±31.2 cm (n=95) (Moya <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41526	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>S. mystax mystax</em> <br/>Moya <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated a density of 43.2 individuals/km² or 9.5 groups/km²  in the basin of the Río Tarapa, Peru. Peres (1997) estimated densities at eight sites: 1) Sobral 87.8 individuals/km²; 2) Condor 54.5 individuals/km²; 3) Barro Vermelho 29.8 individuals/km²; 4) Fortuna 34.7 individuals/km²; 5) Igarape Jaraqui 49.2 individuals/km²; 6) Vira Volta 55.4 individuals/km²; 7) Vai Quem Quer 34.4 individuals/km²; 8) Riozinho 36.4 individuals/km².<br/><br/><em>S. mystax pileatus</em><br/>Peres (1997) estimated densities at a site called Altamira at 71.5 individuals/km².	eng
41526	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are currently no major threats to the species. <em>Saguinus mystax mystax</em> is considered to be common in Peru by Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989), tolerating mild habitat disturbance and even in some areas subsistence hunting (Soini and Soini 1990). The same is undoubtedly true for the Brazilian populations. Johns (1985, 1986) found it to be the most abundant of the primates at his study site on the west margin of the Rio Tefé, and likewise it was found to be common in three sites surveyed by Peres (1990).<br/><br/>Nothing is known of the conservation status of <em>Saguinus mystax pileatus</em> and <em>Saguinus mystax pluto</em>, but there is no reason to believe either form is currently threatened.	eng
41527	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Retention of primary forest. Presumably the species occurs in some protected areas. This is true for most New World emballonurid bats because they are usually widely distributed.	eng
41527	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found in Central and South America. It's widely distributed from central Nicaragua through Panama; west of the Andes to northwestern Ecuador; and east of the Andes from Venezuela and the Guianas to Amazonian Peru, Brazil and Northern Bolivia (Wilson and Reeder 1993; Reid 1997; Eisenberg 1989; Tirira 1999). Found from lowlands to 1,000 m (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Linares 1998). Distribution follows moist lowland forest areas. Note that this species may no longer occur in the southernmost part of the range due to forest loss. It is found from Nicaragua south to Peru and Central Brazil (Simmons 2005).	eng
41527	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	These bats are associated with streams and moist areas, preferably in lowland and multistratal tropical evergreen forests (Eisenberg 1989; Reid 1997). They live in the forest and forage in small open spaces, chiefly flying in long, slow, beats of about 20 m long between the forest canopy and subcanopy (Emmons and Feer 1997). Frequently recorded at forest edges. (Sampaio, pers comm.). Active soon after sunset, it feeds on small flying insects near forest edge or over water (Reid 1997). <em>Cormura brevirostris</em> has not been the subject of a detailed field study (Eisenberg 1989). It is an aerial insectivore of background cluttered space.	eng
41527	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Locally common in the Amazon but generally understudied (Bernard pers. comm.). This species may be undersampled due to methodological issues.	eng
41527	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation. In general, deforestation is a potential threat to most organisms but is probably not specific to any species of New World emballonurid bats because none of them have a restricted area of endemism other than perhaps <em>Balantioperyx infusca</em> and <em>Saccopteryx antioquensis</em>.	eng
41528	conservation	Helgen, K., 2008	Suitable conservation actions for Seri's Sheath-tailed Bat are the protection of known roosting caves, and identification and protection of additional important roosting sites. Identification of foraging habitat would also be of use.	eng
41528	distribution	Helgen, K., 2008	Seri's Sheath-tailed Bat is known from four caves on the islands of Los Negros Island and New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from Jatut Cave (Loniu), Medina Cave (Medina), Matapara Cave (Medina) and Riri Cave (Kalom) (Bonaccorso 1998). It may be present on New Britain and other islands in the Bismarck Archipelago, although recent expeditions have not recorded it (Bonaccorso 1998; Chiroptera Specialist Group 2000). It has also been recorded from Yapen Island (Indonesia) and it will likely be shown to have a wider range encompassing small islands off the northern mainland of New Guinea than is currently recognised (Helgen 2007; K. Helgen pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 300 m asl. (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
41528	habitat	Helgen, K., 2008	This little-known, nocturnal species has been recorded from limestone caves. It emerges before sunset to forage (Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
41528	population	Helgen, K., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
41528	threats	Helgen, K., 2008	There are probably no major threats to this species.	eng
41529	conservation	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. In South Asia, the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Ecology and population monitoring are the two main recommendations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas within China or Southeast Asia.	eng
41529	distribution	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species ranges from northern South Asia into northern Southeast Asia, and much of central, southern and southwestern China. In South Asia it has been recorded from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central and Eastern Nepal) (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Southeast Asia it has been reported from northern Myanmar and Viet Nam. In China, it is widely distributed, being reported from Yunnan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Guizhou, Xizang, Fujian and Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008). In South Asia it has been recorded from 500 to 2,769 m asl (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41529	habitat	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, this species is commonly found in montane forests with heavy rainfall. It roosts in colonies or singly in caves, old disused tunnels, temples, houses, wells and hollows of trees (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Nepal, it has been found in disturbed forest far from any known caves (G. Csorba pers. comm.). In central Viet Nam a specimen was found in a cave surrounded by degraded forest and farmland at 650 m asl. In northern Myanmmar the species has been recorded from thick tropical moist forest with some bamboo vegetation (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
41529	population	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia it is considered to be declining (Molur <em>et al. </em>2002). It is reasonably common in southern China (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41529	threats	Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In South Asia, the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural use (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is little information available on threats to this species from the rest of its range.	eng
41530	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.<br/>In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
41530	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	The species occurs from lowlands to 600 m asl in Central and South America; it is widely distributed from Chiapas, southern Mexico through Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela (and Trinidad) to Central Amazonia to Peru and northeastern Brazil (there are no recorded specimens south of the Amazon River) (Sampaio pers. comm. and Reid, 1997).	eng
41530	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It has been taken in both moist and dry deciduous sites.  It can be found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest fragments and pastures surrounding forest (Sampaio pers. comm.). In Venezuela, specimens have been observed roosting with other species in hollow trees (Handley, 1976). This bat eats insects (chiefly beetles, katydids, and Homoptera) arachnids, lizard, and some  fruits (Bonaccorso, 1979). It is attracted by calling cicadas and the distress calls of small bats (Reid, 1997). It is usually caught in mist nets set over streams or across forest trails and usually travels in the subcanopy as opposed to the understory level (Reid, 1997). Two females from Peru were found to contain two embryos each (Gardner, 1976).	eng
41530	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Uncommon (Reid, 1997).	eng
41530	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B., Peters, S., Miller, B.,  Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss in some parts of its range though this is not considered a major threat.	eng
41531	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Approximately 17% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. Also, appears in protected areas in Russia and Kazakhstan.	eng
41531	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Russian Federation (Tuva), E Kazakhstan (Tarbagatai, Zaisan), Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Iran (Elburz), China (Xinjiang and Xizang), Mongolia (Mongol Altai Mountain Range, Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Govi Altai Mountain Range, southern parts of Hangai Mountain Range, southern parts of Middle Halh Steppe, Northern Govi, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert, Trans Altai Govi Desert, and Alashani Govi Desert), Pakistan, N India (Gilgit), and Nepal (DeBlase, 1980; Bates and Harrison, 1997). Records from Tajikistan and W China including Tibet are uncertain (Horácek <em>et al.</em>, 2000). However, both subspecies have been recorded from Xinjiang (Smith and Xie in press).	eng
41531	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits desert, semi-desert and steppe habitats and dry areas. Usually roost in shaded areas, such as the cracks of rocks or buildings, but not in trees' cracks. Sometimes found in frontal parts of caves. Generally solitary or found in small groups. This species has not been thoroughly researched, and so there is a lack of information on the ecology of this species.  It is thought that some eat butterflies, and that they are the prey items of nocturnal raptors. These species has a low reproductive rate and a slow growth rate, giving birth to small numbers of young, often one at a time (M. Stubbe pers. comm.).	eng
41531	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Widespread and regularly distributed in Mongolia (M. Stubbe pers. comm.), Kazakhstan and Russia (Tuva). There is no data available on abundance at present, however, it is naturally not abundant in Russia and Turkmenia.	eng
41531	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M., Tsogbadrakh, M. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Drying of water sources and droughts threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity. A proposed hydro-electric dam in along the Chono Haraikh River in Great Lakes Depression will potentially create habitat loss along the river connecting the lakes. Accidental mortality constitutes a minor threat, as it roosts in livestock pens which are frequently moved.	eng
41532	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Avoid habitat destruction. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
41532	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs in south California, Arizona, and New Mexico south to Baja California, west and central Mexico (Simmons, 2005).	eng
41532	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occupies a range of habitats of extremely arid areas to dry areas. It inhabits savannas, secluded woodlands, regions dominated by pasture or croplands, and even tolerates residential areas. It is insectivorous. It often roosts in trees, where it generally hangs from the midrib of a leaf using its hind claws and possibly its thumbs. Mating probably occurs in autumn; the litter size in this species varies from one to four, with three being most common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Western yellow bats are thought to be noncolonial. Individuals usually roost in trees, hanging from the underside of a leaf. Usually two babies are born in June, but the presence of up to four embryos suggests that size of litter may vary from two to four.	eng
41532	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is common (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Some populations may be migratory, although some individuals appear to be present year-round, even in the northern most portion of the range. Western yellow bats probably do not hibernate; activity has been observed year round in both the southern and northern portions of the range. Capture sites are often associated with water features (e.g. stock tanks, ponds, streams, and rivers) in open grassy areas and scrub, as well as canyon and riparian situations.	eng
41532	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Probably one of the primary threats in the U.S., however, is the cosmetic trimming of palm fronds. The use of pesticides in date palm and other orchards may also constitute a threat to both roosting bats and the insects upon which they forage. Domestic cats, whether pets or feral, may be a significant source of predation, as they are for many lizards, songbirds, and rodents. Few threats for the survival for this bat can be reported.	eng
41533	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	None in place.	eng
41533	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	None in place.	eng
41533	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Distribution is split into two: one range in W Africa (including N Senegal, S Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria), and one covering much of E and S Africa (as far south as NE Swaziland).  The species is absent from much of the Horn of Africa, NE Ethiopia, E Tanzania, and NE Mozambique.  There is a smaller central African range in NE Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).  There are also records from Niger, Central African Republic (CAR), and the Nile delta in Egypt.	eng
41533	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Distribution is split into two: one range in W Africa (including N Senegal, S Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria), and one covering much of E and S Africa (as far south as NE Swaziland).  The species is absent from much of the Horn of Africa, NE Ethiopia, E Tanzania, and NE Mozambique.  There is a smaller central African range in NE Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).  There are also records from Niger, Central African Republic (CAR), and the Nile delta in Egypt.	eng
41533	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Inhabits dry and moist savanna, dry shrubland, desert, and semi-desert.<br/><br/>Roosts under the roofs of huts or in crevices in trees. Taken from under the bark of a dead <em>Acacia nigrescens</em> tree in mopane savanna in Zinave National Park (Smithers and Labao Tello, 1976).	eng
41533	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Inhabits dry and moist savanna, dry shrubland, desert, and semi-desert.<br/><br/>Roosts under the roofs of huts or in crevices in trees. Taken from under the bark of a dead <em>Acacia nigrescens</em> tree in mopane savanna in Zinave National Park (Smithers and Labao Tello, 1976).	eng
41533	population	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Rather common.	eng
41533	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	Rather common.	eng
41533	threats	Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Karatas, A. & Paunovic, M., 2008	None known.	eng
41533	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Monadjem, A., 2008	None known.	eng
41534	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In Southeast Asia the species is thought to occur in some protected areas. Taxonomic, ecological, population and habitat studies are recommended for this species.	eng
41534	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species appears to be patchily distributed in northern South Asia, southern China and widely in Southeast Asia. In South Asia, this species is presently known from India (Assam [A. Ali pers. comm.], Meghalaya, Mizoram and Sikkim [S. Mistry pers. comm.]) and Nepal (Eastern Nepal). In China it has only been recorded from Yunnan. In Southeast Asia, there are widespread records from Myanmar in the west, to Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia and the island of Java (Indonesia). In South Asia it has been recorded from 1,300 to 2,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
41534	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species in South Asia except that it is reported from montane forests and also found in secondary teak forest (Bates and Harrison 1997, Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Myanmar it has been collected at 1,940 m asl in temperate forest (P. Bates pers. comm.), while it has been recorded in wet evergreen and undisturbed forest between 1,300 and 1,700 m in Viet Nam. It has been recorded from undisturbed forest in Cambodia. Nothing is known of its natural history in China.	eng
41534	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are poorly known. It is usually found as individual animals.	eng
41534	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Csorba, G., Walston, J., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear, but might include habitat degradation in parts of its range.	eng
41535	conservation	de la Torre, S. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The following protected areas are within its known range:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi Health Nature Reserve (1,884,375 ha)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (605,000 ha) AC<br/>Abufarí Biological Reserve (288,000 ha) (left bank of Rio Purus) AM<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (72,000 ha) AC<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (745, 830 ha) AM<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Reserve (284, 285 ha) AM<br/>Mamirauá State Ecological Station (1,134,000 ha) AM<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (INDERENA 1989; Defler 1994, 2003, 2004)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park Within range (Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (INDERENA 1989; Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999) Within range (Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuni National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno (De Vries <em>et al</em>. 1993; De la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995b; De la Torre 1996; Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh <em>et al.</em> 1984: Gazzo, 1985)<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (1,478,800 ha)<br/>Tambopata Natural Wildlife Reserve (5,500 ha).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix pygmaea</span>).	eng
41535	distribution	de la Torre, S. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Following Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997), the Western Pygmy Marmoset <em>C. p. pygmaea</em> occurs in the upper Amazon basin, north of the Rio Solimões in Brazil west from the Rio Japurá, and south of the Río Caquetá in Colombia, Amazonian Ecuador and Peru, north of the Solimões-Amazonas-Marañon, and east (left bank) of the Rio Pastaza in Peru. The easternmost localities in Brazil include the Paraná do Aranapu and Paraná do Jarauá on the lower Rio Japurá. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) and Defler (2003, 2004) recorded that it is well known south of the Río Caquetá in Colombia, but that reports of its occurrence further north in the upper Río Guaviare region, remain to be confirmed. The only evidence to date is a captive specimen believed to have been obtained from Cano Morrocoy on the south bank of the Río Guaviare. Izawa (1975) reported that it is absent from the Río Peneya, north of the Río Caquetá, and during further surveys was unable to confirm its presence anywhere else north of the Río Caquetá, although in a later publication (Izawa 1979) he indicated that it may occur on the Río Orteguaza, a northern tributary of the uppermost reaches. It would evidently be the subspecies throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon (De la Torre 2000). In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) extend the range to the west of the Río Pastaza, to the region of the Cerro Campanquiz and basin of the Río Santiago, south to the Río Mayo in the Department of San Martín, a left bank tributary of the Río Huallaga, and to both sides of Río Marañon. The range south of the Río Marañon west of the Rio Huallaga could belong to either <em>pygmaea</em> or <em>niveiventris</em> according to the distribution proposed by Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997). <br/><br/>Following Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen’s (1997) hypothesis, the Eastern Pygmy Marmoset <em>C. p. niveiventris</em> would be the form south of the Rio Solimões-Amazonas-Marañon and east of the lower Río Huallaga and middle to upper Río Ucayali. Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) indicated a larger range in Peru, occupying the entire Amazonian lowlands and Andean foothills east of the Río Mayo and the Río Huallaga above the Río Mayo, and including the Río Pachitea and the Río Ucayali basins, south to the upper Río Purus and the basins of the Rió Madre de Dios, and Río de las Piedras and the Rio Tambopata. From there it extends east into northern Bolivia to the region of Cobija (Freese <em>et al</em>. 1982; Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Bolivia, Izawa (1979) and Izawa and Bejarano (1981) confined it to the north and west of the Ríos Orthon and Manuripi, northern tributaries of the Río Madre de Dios. However, Brown and Rumiz (1986) doubt that it occurs as far south as the Río Manuripi, limiting its distribution to the north of the Río Tahuamanu. Buchanan-Smith <em>et al</em>. (2000) confirmed their presence south of the Río Tahuamanu along the Rio Muyumanu. The easternmost record they obtained was at Santa Rosa on the Río Abunã. Its presence in northern Bolivia indicates that it should occur in parts of eastern Acre, including the Ríos Acre and uppermost Abunã, not indicated by Hershkovitz (1977). This was confirmed by Bicca-Marques and Calegaro-Marques (1995). Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (1997) observed Pygmy Marmosets between the lower Rios Purus and Madeira, and indicated a range extending south at least to the Rio Ipixuna (right bank tributary of the Rio Purus). The Río Abunã is a left bank tributary of the Rio Madeira so it is reasonable to believe that Pygmy Marmosets occur throughout the interfluvium of the Rios Purus and Madeira south to the Rio Abunã. The southernmost locality reported so far is the Manu National Park, approximately 12ºS (Soini 1988).	eng
41535	habitat	de la Torre, S. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is largely restricted to river-edge forest (Soini 1988) and its abundance in a given locality is dependent on the availability of suitable habitat. However, a number of authors have indicated its occurrence in secondary forest (Moynihan 1976; Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). It may be particularly abundant in areas moderately affected by agricultural activities and hunting (Soini 1982, 1988) and is capable of existing in isolated forest patches near human settlements (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985). It generally travels in the lower layers of the forest, keeping to dense vegetation in the understorey. In Ecuador, it is known to occur between altitudes 200 and 940 m, but usually below 400 m above sea level (Tirira 2007). As in Peru, it shows a marked preference for inundated forests, liana forest, and the edges of rivers and lakes, and can also be found in secondary forest (Tirira 2007). <br/><br/><em>Cebuella</em> is a gum-feeding specialist, with behavioural and dental adaptations to gnaw holes in the bark of certain species of trees and vines to stimulate gum production (Soini 1988; Yepez <em>et al</em>. 2005). Saddleback tamarin, <em>Saguinus fuscicollis</em>, groups tend to pirate these gum feeding holes wherever the two species are sympatric (Soini 1988, 1993). <br/><br/>Group sizes range from 5-9, with 1-2 adult males and 1-2 adult females. As in other callitrichids, the single breeding female in the group produces twins twice a year, and the adult males and other group members help her to carry them (Soini 1988). Home ranges are typically small from 0.1 to 0.4 ha, centred on one or two trees which supply the gum they need. The entire group will move to a new home range when the gum sources become inadequate (Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 110 g (n=36) (Soini 1988)<br/>Adult female weight 122 g (n=27) (Soini 1988).	eng
41535	population	de la Torre, S. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is generally considered common (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 1978; Coimbra-Filho 1984; Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985, 1989; Soini 1982; Soini <em>et al</em>. 1989). It can reach very high densities in riparian forest (Soini 1988). Density estimates from a river edge site in the Maniti basin in Peru over three years ranged from 210-227 individuals/km² (Soini 1988). In Ecuador, densities range from 1-6 individuals/km² of river (De la Torre <em>et al</em>, in press). Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>Cebuella pygmaea</em> at 5 sites: 1) Porongaba, Rio Juruá, 15.9 individuals/km²; 2) Altamira, Rio Juruá, 2.3 individuals/km²; 3) Barro Vermelho, Rio Juruá, 2.2 individuals/km²; 4) Fortuna, Rio Juruá, 4.7 individuals/km²; and 5) Riozinho, Rio Riozinho, 4.3 individuals/km².	eng
41535	threats	de la Torre, S. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	There is hunting in some parts of the range (e.g., in Ecuador), as well as some use as pets. The principal reason for its inclusion on the CITES Appendix I in 1977-1979 (now relegated to Appendix II; see Mack and Mittermeier 1984) was the international trade, particularly from the area of Iquitos, Colombia. There is also some localized habitat loss taking place.	eng
41536	conservation	Wallace, R.B., Cornejo, F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is found in many protected areas.<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis</em><br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Madidi National Park (1,571,500 ha) <br/>Manuripi National Reserve (1,884,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000)<br/>Beni Biosphere Reserve (135,000 ha) (Painter <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Amboro National Park<br/>Carrasco National Park<br/>Isibore-Secure National Park and Indigenous Territory<br/>Pilon Lajas Indigenous Teriitory and Biosphere Reserve<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (southern part, in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tambopata National Reserve (262,315 ha)<br/>Bahuaja-Sonene Community Reserve (1,091,416 ha)<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Terborgh 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994<br/>Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park (122,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em><br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Hershkovitz 1984; Aquino and Encarnación 1994)	eng
41536	distribution	Wallace, R.B., Cornejo, F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	According to Hershkovitz (1984) and R. Wallace (pers. comm. 2007), <em>S. b. boliviensis</em> occurs in the upper Amazon, south of the Rio Solimões-Amazonas, between the Rios Juruá and Madeira in the states of Amazonas and Acre, into Bolivia, west of the Rio Negro in northern Santa Cruz Department, in the departments of Pando, Cochabamba, Beni, and Santa Cruz. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) did not find squirrel monkeys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park, and indicated that there are no records of this subspecies east of Perseverancia where they surveyed, on the Río Negro, although there are reports of it occurring as far east as the upper Río San Martín. In Peru, Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated its occurrence south from the Río Abujao, Department of Ucayali, to Bolivia, and in parts of Huánaco, Pasco, Junín and Cusco. Altitudinal range according to Hershkovitz (1984) is 50 to 500 m above sea level. It is not known which of the two subspecies may occur on the upper Rio Juruá, between the west (left) bank of the Jurua and the Río Ipixuna in Brazil and north of the Río Sheshea to the Rio Abujao in Peru (Hershkovitz 1984; Aquino and Encarnación 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em> occurs south of the Ríos Amazon and Marañón, between the Rios Huallaga and Ucayali, from the west bank of the Río Tapiche (tributary of the Ucayali), south between the Ríos Pachitea and Tambo (Hershkovitz 1984). Hershkovitz (1984) indicated that the southern limits were unknown, but presumed to be at least as far as the Río Abujao (a west bank affluent of the Río Ucayali). Aquino and Encarnación (1994) indicated the region of the Río Perené, a tributary of the Rio Pachitea. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that is sympatric with <em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em> east of the Río Ucayali from about 04ºS southward to the Rio Abujao. In their map, <em>S. b. boliviensis</em> extends across the Rio Blanco to the Río Yavarí. Its occurrence in Brazil to the east of the Rio Javarí has not been documented.	eng
41536	habitat	Wallace, R.B., Cornejo, F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. boliviensis</em>, studied by Terborgh (1983) and Mitchell <em>et al.</em> (1991), groups range from 45 to 75 individuals. Females form stable, probably kin-based, coalitions and dominance hierarchy. Females are philopatric (remain in the groups they were born in), while males leave their groups at 4-5 years old, form all-male (bachelor) groups and then disperse into other groups with both sexes. Males are generally unfriendly to each other, and change groups every one or two years. Females commonly show social agression amongst themselves. Adult females are always dominant to males, harass them, and maintain on them on the periphery of the group. Unlike <em>S. oerstedi</em>, males do not show anti-predator vigilance. The fruits they typically exploit occur in large patches of moderate density, and feeding competition is higher than in <em>S. oerstedii</em>, but lower than in <em>S. sciureus</em>.<br/><br/>In <em>S. sciureus</em>, studied in Suriname by Boinski (1999a,b, 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), group sizes range from 15 to 50, and both sexes form a single, linear hiearchy in the group, with most males being dominant to females. Aggression between females is uncommon, but they  do not form coalitions. Males form coalitions and can aggressive to each other. Males show vigilance in defense agianst predators. The fruits they exploit typically occur in small but extremely dense patches, and there is considerable feeding competition between group members, much higher than in <em>S. boliviensis</em>. <br/><br/>In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, females do not form dominance hierarchies, and there is no evidence of coalition formation in social interactions. Females transfer between groups before first mating season, and males are philopatric. There is little competition or agonistic interactions between groups, and males show high levels of vigilance for predators.  Reproductively mature males collaborate in mobbing females during the mating season. Their fruits they typically exploit occur in small and very scarce patches, and feeding competition is very low. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em> sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only one or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced, and the female gives birth occur once a year (Rowe 1996). In <em>S. boliviensis</em>, the interbirth interval is 24 months (Mitchell 1994).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> and <em>S. sciureus</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance caused by the capuchin monkeys above them, which flushes out insects and small animal prey.<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Weight: Adult male 992 g, adult female more than 751 g.	eng
41536	population	Wallace, R.B., Cornejo, F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The species is common, occurring frequently in large groups of more than 50 animals. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that <em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> was a common species in Peruvian Amazonia. Abundance characteristics are not appreciably different between the two subspecies.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Wallace <em>et al</em>. (2000) recorded primate encounter rates along transects at eight sites in the Rios Blanco y Negro Wildlife Reserve, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. <em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> was seen at two of the sites with an encounter rate of 0.2 and 0.7 groups/10 km, or 4.9 and  9.8 individuals/10 km, respectively. In the Beni Reserve, Painter <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded an encounter rate of 0.6 groups or 20 individuals/10 km. In the Bosque Chimanes, Rumiz and Herrera (1994) recorded 1.7 groups or 36.4 individuals/10 km. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) did not find squirrel monkeys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park where they surveyed (east of the Río San Martín, Santa Cruz Department).<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>S. boliviensis boliviensis</em> at várzea (white-water flooded forest) in the Brazilian Amazon: Sacado do Condor 70.7 individuals/km²; Boa Esperança 149.2 individuals/km². They are less abundant in <em>terra firma</em> forest: Porongaba 11.3 individuals/km²; Kaxinawá Reserve: 36.4 individuals/km²; Penedo 19.1  individuals/km²; Altamira 28.7 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Terborgh (1983) estimated a density of 50 individuals/km² in Manu National Park, Peru.	eng
41536	threats	Wallace, R.B., Cornejo, F. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is hunted for subsistence use particularly in areas that have already suffered the loss of larger primate species. Habitat loss is also occurring, although not levels that warrant threatened status. Some capture for pets and medical research occurs, notably in Peru.	eng
41537	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Rylands, A.B., de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It occurs, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus</em><br/><br/>Brazil <br/>Tumucumaque National Park (3,882,376 ha)<br/>Cabo Orange National Park (630,017 ha)<br/>Gurupí Biological Reserve (272,379 ha)<br/>Lago Piratuba Biological Reserve (394,223 ha)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha)<br/>Jari Ecolopical Station (207,370 ha)<br/>Terra do Meio Ecological Station (3,373,111 ha)<br/>Niquia Ecological Station (282,803 ha)<br/><br/>French Guiana<br/>Parc amazonien de Guyane (3,300,000 ha)<br/>Nouragues Natural Reserve (100,000 ha) (Kessler 1998)<br/><br/>Guyana<br/>Kaieteur Narional Park<br/><br/>Suriname<br/>Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (6,000 ha) (probable: Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982) <br/>Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Coppename Monding Nature Reserve (12,000 ha) (unconfirmed (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Sipaliwini Nature Reserve (100,000 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/>Brownsberg Nature Park (8,400 ha) (Mittermeier and van Roosmalen 1982)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range)<br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (in range?)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (in range) (or cassiquiarensis?)<br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (in range)? (or cassiquiarensis?)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus cassiquiarensis</em><br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha)<br/>Jau National Park (2,378,410 ha) <br/>Juamí Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (in range)<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (in range)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha (in range, Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (Tirira 2007) <br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (Tirira (2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Protection Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encanrfación 1994)	eng
41537	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Rylands, A.B., de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	There are four recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus </em> is a wide-ranging subspecies in the north-eastern and eastern Amazon. Distribution, according to Hershkovitz (1984), extends through the Guianas, Amapá and the Brazilian Amazon east of the Rios Deminí and Negro north of the Rio Amazonas, and east of the Rio Xingú south of the Rio Amazonas, Guyana. Silva Jr. (unpublished) places it east of the rios Tapajós and Juruena to extending east to upper reaches of the Rio Teles Pires, a little north and then east, south of the Serra od Cahimobo, across the middle Xingu, the Araguaia and Tocantins to the Rio Parnaiba valley in Maranhão. Hershkovitz (1984) placed its eastern limit as the Rio Pindaré in Maranhão. It also occupies a small area south of the Rio Solimões between the Rio Madeira and the Tapajós on the Ilha Tupinambarama, east to Parintins. <em>Saimiri s. sciureus</em> has not been recorded above 100 m above sea level.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em> according to Hershkovitz (1984) is gallery forests of the Colombian llanos (Llanos Orientales) from the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in the Departments of Arauca, Casanare and Guaviare, and the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, and Meta to unknown limits eastward. It also occurs in the upper Río Magdalena, but how far it extends north in the Magdalena valley is not known (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003; 2004). Altitudinal range between 150 and 600 m or higher, possibly to 1,000 m.<br/><br/>The range of <em>Saimiri sciureus cassiquiarensis</em> according to Hershkovitz (1984) is the upper Amazon and Orinocean regions, in Brazil the state of Amazonas from north of the Rio Solimões and west of the Rios Demini and Negro into the Orinoco-Cassiquiare basin in Venezuela, form there west into eastern Colombia between the Ríos Apaporis and Inírida in the Departments of Vaupés, Guaviare and Guiania (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003; 2004). Occurrence in Venezuela was mapped by Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) and Linares (1998).<br/><br/><em>Saimiri sciureus macrodon</em>, according to Hershkovitz (1984), ranges in upper Amazon, in Brazil in the state of Amazonas between the Rios Juruá and Japurá, westward; in Colombia from the Rio Apaporis south into eastern Ecuador, throughout the Ecuadorian Amazon east pf the Andes to asltitidues of 1,200 m (Tirira 2007), and into Peru in the departments of San Martín and in Loreto, to the north bank of the Río Marañon-Amazonas. Hershkovitz (1984) indicated that the portion of the range between the Ríos Ucayali and Tapiche is occupied by both <em>S. s. macrodon</em> and <em>S. boliviensis peruviensis</em> (see also Aquino and Encarnación 1994). In Peru, it extends south as far as the ríos Amazonas and Marañón and west of the Huallaga to the Andes, south to a little beyond 8ºS. It extends south of the Rio Amazonas east of the Río Ucayali from the Rio Blanco, where it is sympatric with <em>Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis</em> (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). East of the Ucayali it ranges south to the west of the Serra do Divisor, but not known to reach the Río Tamaya.	eng
41537	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Rylands, A.B., de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Saimiri sciureus</em> typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. Can also be found in gallery forest, low forests of sclerophytic vegetation, forested slopes, and palm forests (particularly associations of <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>). They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000).<br/><br/>In <em>S. sciureus</em>, studied in Suriname by Boinski (1999a,b, 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b), group sizes range from 15 to 50, and both sexes form a single, linear hiearchy in the group, with most males being dominant to females. Aggression between females is uncommon, but they do not form coalitions. Males form coalitions and can aggressive to each other. Males show vigilance in defense agianst predators. The fruits they exploit typically occur in small but extremely dense patches, and there is considerable feeding competition between group members, much higher than in <em>S. boliviensis</em>. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season.  In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/><em>Saimiri boliviensis</em> and <em>S. sciureus</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Weight: Adult male 740 g, adult female more than 635 g (Jack 2007).	eng
41537	population	Boubli, J.-P., Rylands, A.B., de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Recorded population densities for <em>S. s. macrodon</em> include:<br/><br/>Klein and Klein (1975) recorded a density of 50-80 individuals/km² at La Macarena, Colombia;<br/>Peres (1997) estimated population densities at the following várzea (white-water flooded forest) sites: Nova Empresa 73.8 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 109.5 individuals/km²; Lago da Fortuna 189.8 individuals/km². They are more scarce in <em>terra firma</em> forests: Sobral 5.9 individuals/km²; Condor 36.1 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho I 16.7  individuals/km²; Fortuna 23.2 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 17.7 individuals/km²; Riozinho 36.4 individuals/km².	eng
41537	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Rylands, A.B., de la Torre, S. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Saimiri sciureus</em> is wide-ranging throughout the northern Amazon. The species occupies secondary forest and is often found close to human settlements. Although they are not commonly hunted because of their small size, in some parts of their range, such as Colombia and Ecuador, they are commonly trapped for the pet market (Defler 2003, 2004; S. de la Torre pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>Saimiri sciureus albigena</em> occurs in a region subject to high rates of deforestation.	eng
41538	conservation	de Oliveira, M.M. de & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Amazônia National Park (1,114,917 ha)<br/>Pacaás Novos National Park (764,801 ha)<br/>Juruena National Park <br/>Jarú Biological Reserve (353,386 ha)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41538	distribution	de Oliveira, M.M. de & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Saimiri ustus</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas in Brazil. It has more restricted range than was supposed by Hershkovitz (1984), who placed it east of the Rio Purus south as far as the region of the rios Sepatini and Guaporé, east to the Rios Xingu or Iriri. J. S. Silva Jr. (pers. comm.) believes it extends east of the Rio Purus to the riosTapajós and Juruena, with its range including a belt along the southern margin of the Rio Solimões along the lower reaches of the southern tributaries, including the rios Coarí and Tefé to the east (left bank) of the Rio Juruá. It extends south to the upper reaches of the Rio Guaporé and the headwaters of the Juruena. It is replaced by <em>Saimiri sciureus sciureus</em> just south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Tapajós, on the Ilha Tupinambarama, east to Parintins.	eng
41538	habitat	de Oliveira, M.M. de & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Typically prefers seasonally inundated forests, river edge forest, floodplain, and secondary forests. They use all levels of the forest, but forage and travel mainly in the lower canopy and understorey. Locomotion involves predominantly quadupredal walking and running.<br/><br/>Squirrel monkeys are small frugivore-insectivores. They spend 75-80% of their day foraging for insects and other small animal prey (Mittermeier and Van Roosmalen 1981; Terborgh 1983; Boinski 1988). During dry season shortages of appropriate fruiting trees they are able to depend entirely on animal prey (Janson and Boinski 1992). <br/><br/><em>Saimiri</em> groups are multi-male and can be large, up to 100 animals (larger groups are believed to be temporary mergers of two) but most frequently are of 20-75 individuals (Baldwin and Baldwin 1981; Terborgh 1983; Mitchell <em>et al.</em> 1991). As emphasized by Boinski (1999a,b; 2005; Boinski <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b) allthough all squirrel monkeys are morphologicallly very similar, their social systems are quite distinct (summarized in Sussman 2000). There have been no studies of this species, however, and its ecology is inferred from those of other species. <br/><br/>Mating and births in <em>Saimiri</em> are highly seasonal, seldom exceeding two months in duration. Single offspring. Mating usually occurs during the dry season. In <em>S. oerstedii</em>, sexual receptivity in females is synchronized, and lasts only or two days each season. In <em>S. sciureus</em>, birth synchrony is less pronounced and births occur only once every two years. <br/><br/>Amazonian <em>Saimiri</em> frequently form interspecific associations, travelling with <em>Cebus albifrons</em> or <em>Cebus apella</em> (Terborgh 1983; Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2000), benefitting from the disturbance casued by the capuchin monkeys above them which flushes out insects. <br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male 620-1,200 g (mean 910 g); adult female 710-880 g (mean 795 g) (Jack 2007).	eng
41538	population	de Oliveira, M.M. de & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	There are no published density estimates available.	eng
41538	threats	de Oliveira, M.M. de & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Although the species is wide ranging, much of its range in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para is undergoing massive deforestation along the so-called arc of deforestation (the advancing agricultural frontier of logging, cattle, and soy bean).<br/><br/>In the Rio Madeira region, there are several hydroelectric projects that are likely to inundate flooded forests, this species' preferred habitat. Also, in the past 15 years there has been intensive habitat loss in the southern third of this species range due to agriculture and logging activities.	eng
41539	conservation	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in many national parks, several of which are quite large.   It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.  <br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae azarae</em><br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Plicomayo National Park<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Kaa-Iya Gran Chaco National Park (3,441,115 ha)<br/>Estación Biológica Beni (135,000 ha) (Garcia and Tarifa 1988)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Tinfunque National Park<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985, 1989)<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em><br/><br/>Bolivia <br/>Isiboro Secure National Park (1,200,00 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,00) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998))<br/>Pilón Lajas National Park (400,000 ha) Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Carrasco Ichilo National Park (622,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Madidi National Park(1,571500 ha) (in range)<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em><br/>Araguaia National Park (557,726 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha) (in range)<br/>Gurupi Biological Reserve (272,379 ha) (in range)<br/>Tapirapé Biological Reserve (99,703 ha) (in range)<br/>Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha) (in range)	eng
41539	distribution	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	There are three recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>A. azarae azarae</em> occurs in the southern and western Chaco region of Paraguay (excluding the the extreme west, where no primates occur), west of the Rio Paraguai, and extending across the Río Pilcomayo to south of the Río Bermejo to the Rio Negro in the provinces of Formosa and Chaco in Argentina (Rathbun and Gache 1980; Hershkovitz 1983; Stallings 1985, 1989; Zunino <em>et al</em>. 1986; Stallings <em>et al</em>. 1989). In the west, its range extends to the Cordillera Oriental, but its range in the north is not clearly delimited. Following Hershkovitz (1983), it would seem to extend to the Bañado do Izozog in Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em> occurs south of the Río Madre de Dios, as far west as the Río Inambari in Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), extending along the Cordillera Oriental in Bolivia to southern Bolivia where it meets the range of <em>A. azarae azarae</em> in the region of the Bañado de Izozog. To east it occurs as far as the Rio Guaporé and the border with Brazil. It is not known if it occurs in Brazil in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul.<br/><br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em> occurs in at least a small section of the southern Amapá (Carmo de Macacoari, municipality of Itaubal) and on the Islands of Marajó and Caviana (Hill 1960; Fernandes 1993; Silva <em>et al.</em> 1995) possibly Gurupá and Mexiana. From there it occurs the south of the Rio Amazonas, west to the Rios Tapajós and Juruena, in the south along the right banks of the Guaporé, to the east of the Rio Corixá Grande, as far as the Rio Itiguira, a tributary of the Rio Paraguai. In the east its range is delimited by the left bank of the Rio Paranaiba to its headwaters and from there to the east of the Rio Manuel Alves Grande (a tributary of the Rio Tocantins) to the Rio Tocantins, and from there restricted to the west (left bank) of the river.	eng
41539	habitat	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, and submontane and montane (cloud forests) in Colombia and the Andes to 3,200 m above sea level (the specifically montane forms are <em>Aotus lemurinus</em> and <em>Aotus miconax</em>) (Hernández Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2004). In the Chaco, <em>Aotus a. azarae</em> occurs in dry, semideciduous forest patches and gallery forest, where annual rainfall can be as low as 500 m a year (Wright 1985; Stallings <em>et al</em>. 1989; Brooks 1996; Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>Aotus a. boliviensis</em> is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen lowland forests in Bolivia and up to at least 1,250 m in some parts of the Andes. <em>Aotus a. infulatus </em>extends through lowland evergeen forests in southern Pará and northern Mato Grosso, through forest patches and gallery in the Cerrado (bush savanna) into the Pantanal of Mato Grosso. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007). <em>Aotus azarae</em> has been observed to include a significant portion of leaves in its diet (Ganzhorn and Wright 1994; Wright 1985; Arditi and Placci 1990; Giménez and Fernandez-Duque 2003), as has <em>Aotus zonalis</em> on Barro Colorado Island in an early study by Hladik and Hladik (1969).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). García and Braza (1987) recorded a home range of 1.3 ha for <em>A. a. boliviensis</em> in Beni, Bolivia. Arditi (1992) estimated a home range 12 ha for <em>A. a. azarae </em>in Guaycolec, Formosa, Argentina. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>Size:<br/><em>Aotus azarae azarae</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.254±0.118 kg (n=40, range 0.99-1.58 kg), adult female weight average 1.246±0.114 kg (n=39, range 1.01-1.45 kg) (Fernandez-Duque 2004)<br/><em>Aotus azarae boliviensis</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.18 kg (n=4), adult female weight 1.23 (n=8) (Smith and Jungers 1997)<br/><em>Aotus azarae infulatus</em><br/>Adult male weight average 1.19 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.24 (n=1) (Fernandes 1993).	eng
41539	population	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Across its range, it is relatively common, but it is usually ignored in primate abundance surveys due to its nocturnal and crepuscular behaviour. Few reliable estimates of population density are available for any of the subspecies. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.<br/><br/><em>A. a. azarae</em>:<br/>In eastern Formosa (Guaycolec), densities can be as high as 60 individuals/km² in gallery forests (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al</em>. 2001). Relatively lower densities have been estimated elsewhere in Formosa: 12.8-29.0 individuals/km² (see Fernandez-Duque 2007).	eng
41539	threats	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> and <em>A. a. boliviensis</em>:<br/>Threats to these subspecies include habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in Brazilian cerrado, soy in the Bolivian Chiquitano, and small-scale farms and cattle ranching in Argentina. Minimal subsistence hunting occurs in Bolivia, for consumption and bait for fishing.<br/><br/><em>Aotus  a. infulatus</em>:<br/>Much forest destruction and fragmentation is occurring in its range in southern Pará and northern Mato Grosso.	eng
41540	conservation	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Pacaya-Samiria Natural Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b)<br/>Manu National park (1,532,806 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994b).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41540	distribution	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	<em>Aotus nancymaae </em>occurs south of the Rio Amazonas, west from the Rio Jutaí. Its southern limit is in the headwaters of the Rio Jutai, stretching west in a line to cross the Río Javari at the level of the headwaters of the Río Tapiche, across the Ucayali basin to the upper Río Marañón (Hershkovitz 1983; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a, 1988). The northern boundary in Peru is the right bank of the Amazonas to the Río Marañón, occurring to the north of the Marañón between the ríos Tigre and Pastaza (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a), invading the distribution of <em>A. vociferans</em> north of the Amazonas and Marañón.	eng
41540	habitat	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest (Aquino and Encarnación 1986a,b, 1988, 1994a,b; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.946±0.14 kg (n=4, range 0.750-1.08 kg), adult female weight 0.907±0.124 kg (n=6, range 0.706-1.05 kg) (S. Evans, unpubl., in Fernandez-Duque 2007).	eng
41540	population	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	Aquino and Encarnación (1986a, 1988) have estimated densities of 24.2 to 46.3 individuals/km² in north-eastern Peru. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
41540	threats	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	No major threats identified. Huiman settlement, deforestation, and hunting are undoubtedly affecting populations, but not to the extent of threatening their continued existence.<br/><br/>Large numbers are used in medical research, sometimes illegally, which should be monitored to understand the effect on populations.	eng
41541	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention where it is misidentified as <em>Gobius fluviatilis</em> (Not valid) and <em>Padogobius</em> (inferior synonym) <em>martensi</em>.	eng
41541	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to southern Switzerland, northern Italy, southern Slovenia and River Zrmanja in Croatia. It has been introduced to the Tiber and Mignone rivers and a number of other small rivers in central and southern Italy.	eng
41541	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in small rivers in the hill zone where there is fast running water and a stony substrate. Also found in large lakes south of the Alps. Where it has been introduced outside its natural range it is considered to be the principle threat to <em>Padogobius nigricans</em>.	eng
41541	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Generally stable but locally decreasing. It is considered a major pest species outside its natural range.	eng
41541	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution.	eng
41542	conservation	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	Confirmed, or may occur, in several protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripe National Reserve (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha)<br/>Juruena National Park<br/>Pacáas Novos National Park<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Wright 1978, 1985).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41542	distribution	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	<em>Aotus nigriceps</em> occurs throughout a large part of the central and upper Amazon, south of the mainstream and along the right bank of the Rio Jutaí in the west. In the east, it extends to the rios Tapajós and Juruena (<em>Aotus azarae infulatus </em>occurs to the east of the rios Tapajós and Juruena). It occurs throughout the state of Rondônia in Brazil, restricted to east of the Rio Guaporé. In Bolivia, it occurs north of the Río Madre de Dios in the Department of Pando (Hershkovitz 1983; Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997), extending to the south-eastern and central Peruvian Amazon, west through the Río Ucayali basin to the east (right bank) of the Rio Huallaga (<em>A. miconax</em> coccurs to the west) to about 7ºS (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a).	eng
41542	habitat	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest (Aquino and Encarnación 1986a, 1988, 1994a,b; Defler 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park, Peru, Wright (1989) recorded home range size for <em>A. nigriceps </em> of 7 to 14 ha. Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight 875 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.04 kg (n=2) (Peres 1993a).	eng
41542	population	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	Wright (1981, 1985) estimated a density of 36-40 indviduals/km² at Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
41542	threats	Cornejo, F. & Palacios, E., 2008	A wide ranging species of the upper Amazon, there are currently no major threats believed to be resulting in a significant population decline. However, populations have been depleted over large areas in the states of Acre and Rondônoia, and with infrastructure development along major development corridors ((Porto Velho - Cuiabá and Porto Velho- Manausm and the Rio Madeira itself), it is likely that large tracts of forest will be lost in the future.	eng
41543	conservation	Veiga, L.M. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	In Brazil, the species is confirmed, or may occur, in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Pico da Neblina National Park (2,298,154 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (409,578 ha) (in range)<br/>Uatumã Biological Reserve (942,786 ha) (in range)<br/>Anavilhanas Ecological Station (343,897 ha) (in range)<br/>Caracaraí Ecological Station (85,957 ha) (in range)<br/>Niquiá Ecological Station (282,830 ha) (in range).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41543	distribution	Veiga, L.M. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Based on a specimen collected at Maipures, near the mouth of the Río Tomo on the Río Orinoco, Defler and Bueno (2007) indicated that the night monkeys of eastern central Colombia north of the Río Guaviare are probably <em>A. brumbacki</em>.<br/><br/>Hershkovitz (1983) proposed that <strong>A. trivirgatus</strong> was the form in Colombia between the Rios Vaupés and Inirida, but Defler (2003, 2004) indicated that <em>A. vociferans</em> occurred in this region and that <em>A. trivirgatus</em> as such is restricted to the east of the Ríos Negro, lower Guainia, and Atabapo and, below the mouth the Río Atabapo, the Río Orinoco. To the north, in Venezuela, <em>A. trivirgatus</em> occurs south of the Río Orinoco and east as far the middle Rio Caroni. The extension east beyond the Río Caura is based on just one locality on the upper Caroni (Bodini and Pérez-Hernandez 1987; Linares 1998). <em>A. trivrigatus</em> is confined to north (left bank) of the Rio Negro to its mouth, extending east, north of the Rio Amazonas, as far as the Rio Trombetas. North it reaches the Serra da Pacaraima, but does not it seem extend into Guyana. In the state of Roraima, the Rio Mucajaí is indicated (by Hershkovitz (1983) as marking its northern limits.	eng
41543	habitat	Veiga, L.M. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, submontane forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em> a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 1.2 kg (n=1), adult female weight 1.0 kg (n=1) (Fernandes 1993).	eng
41543	population	Veiga, L.M. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	In Bolivar, Colombia, Green (1978) estimated a density of 0.5 groups/km² or 1.5 individuals/km². Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
41543	threats	Veiga, L.M. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This is a wide-ranging species, and there is no evidence of any particular threat other than habitat loss.	eng
41544	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A., Cornejo, F. & Stevenson, P., 2008	The species is confirmed, or may occur, in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Cahuinari Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004) <br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Polanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em> 1999)<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (in range, Defler 2003, 2004)<br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Yasuní National Park (982,000 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,000 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Limoncocha Biological Reserve (4,613 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunistic Reserve (603,380 ha) (in range) (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Jaú National Park (2,378,410 ha) (in range)<br/>Juamí-Japurá Ecological Station (832,078 ha) (in range)<br/>Mamirauá State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,124,000 ha)(in range)<br/>Amanã State Sustainable Development Reserve (2,350,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>None.<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41544	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A., Cornejo, F. & Stevenson, P., 2008	<em>Aotus vociferans</em> occurs north of the Rio Amazonas-Solomões, west from the Rio Negro. It occurs south of the Rio Solimões in a small incursion either side of the mouth and lowermost reaches of the Rio Purus. West it extends into Peru north of the Río Amazonas and Marañón, not extending it would seem right to the Rio Marañón, with a narrow belt along the north of the river being occupied by <em>A. nancymaae</em> (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). It extends north through the Ecuadorian Amazon into Colombia to the Río Guaviare, probably extending east as far the ríos Negro, Atabapo and Orinoco (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2003, 2004).	eng
41544	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A., Cornejo, F. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Night monkeys typically occur in primary and secondary forest (including disturbed forest and selectively logged forest), seasonally flooded and <em>terra firma</em>, lowland forest, submontane forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Defler 2003, 2004; Tirira 2007). In Ecuador, this species occurs in humid tropical forest between 200 and 900 m above sea level, and in the Cordillera del Condor, in subtropical forest up to 1,550 m (Tirira 2007). Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flowers, leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978, 1981; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight average 0.697±.024 kg (n=4, range 0.568-8.0 kg) (Hernández-Camacho and Defler 1985).	eng
41544	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A., Cornejo, F. & Stevenson, P., 2008	Aquino and Encarnación (1988) estimated a density of 33.0 individuals/km², and Heltne (1977) 7.9 individuals/km² in north-eastern Peru. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
41544	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L., Link, A., Cornejo, F. & Stevenson, P., 2008	There are no known major threats at present. The species was reported as common and widespread in Ecuador and Peru (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a; Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Large numbers are used in medical research, sometimes illegally, which should be monitored to understand the effect on populations.	eng
41545	conservation	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Alouatta caraya</em> occurs in numerous protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Iguazú National Park (55,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/>Pilcomayo National Park (60,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/>Chaco National Park (14,000 ha) (Brown and Zunino 1994)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Kaa-Iya Gran Chaco National Park (3,441,115 ha)<br/>Otuquis Pantanal National Park (903,350 ha)<br/>Otuquis Natural Area of Integrated Management (102,600 ha)<br/>San Matías Natural Area of Integrated Management (2,918,500 ha)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Araguaia National Park (557,726 ha) (in range)<br/>Brasília National Park (31,891 ha) (Santini 1986)<br/>Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park 965,034 ha) (in range)<br/>Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (241,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Chapada Diamantina National Park (152,105 ha) (in range)<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha)<br/>Taiamá Ecological Station (914,300 ha)<br/>Ibirapuitã State Biological Reserve (351 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ibirapuitã Environmental Protection Area (318,000 ha) (Marques 2003)<br/>Ilha Grande National Park (108,166 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al</em>. 2007)<br/>Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area (1,003,059 ha) (Aguiar <em>et al.</em> 2007)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Cerro Cora National Park (5,500 ha) (probably extinct, Stallings 1985)<br/>Ybicui National Park (5,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Tinfunque National Park (280,000 ha) (the most important protected area in Paraguay for this species; Stallings 1985)<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Caaguazu National Park (6,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Kuri y National Reserve (2,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Yakui Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Nacunday Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41545	distribution	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	A wide-ranging species occurring thoughout much of the bush savanna (cerrado) and dry forests of central Brazil, south from middle and upper reach of the Amazonian tributaries, the rios Juruena, Xingu and Araguaia. It extends east of the Midde and upper Rio São Francisco in the west of the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, occupying humid forest (known as <em>brejos</em>, resulting from orographic rainfall), semideciduous and deciduous (<em>floresta de caatinga</em>) and gallery forests. It extends into eastern Paraguay and in parts of the southern and central regions of the Paraguayan chaco, west of the Río Paraguai (Stallings 1985; Stallings <em>et al</em>,1989). Brown and Zunino (1994) descirbed its range in north-eastern Argentina, occurring in eastern Formosa and Chaco, the extreme north-eastern section of Santa Fe, northern Corrientes and the southern part of Misiones. <em>Alouatta guariba</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest remnants of northern Misiones. In Bolivia, this species is found exclusively east of the Rio Beni and is absent from true Amazonian forests of northern Beni and Pando. It is patchily distributed in the rest of lowland tropical Bolivia (R.B. Wallace pers. comm. 2007). Wallace <em>et al.</em> (2000) recorded it from Pajaral, east of the Rio Blanco, along with <em>A. sara</em>. <em>A. sara</em> they found in low densities (0.1 groups encountered per 10 km) in floodplain forest, whereas <em>A. caraya</em> was restricted to semideciduous forest patches. <br/><br/>Aguiar <em>et al</em>. (2007) recorded sympatry and probable hybridization with <em>A. guariba</em> in riparian forest along the left margin of the Rio Paraná (between Porto Figueira and Port Camargo) in the Ilhas e Várzeas do Rio Paraná Environmental Protection Area on the state of Paraná. This region is considered to be an ecotone between Cerrado (the typical domain of <em>A. caraya</em>) and the Atlantic forest (<em>A. guariba</em>). In São Paulo, it is restricted to the right (west) bank of the Rio Paraná above the mouth of the Rio Paranaiba.<br/><br/>Villalba <em>et al.</em> (1995) reported on its probable presence in the past, and possible existence still, in the extreme north-west of Uruguay.	eng
41545	habitat	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Alouatta caraya</em> is found in semi-deciduous forests. Today, it occupies forest patches throughout a large part of the Cerrado of central Brazil, and the Pantanal of Mato Grosso. It occupies deciduous forest (<em>caatinga alta</em>) in some areas in southern Piaui, western Bahia and north-western Minas Gerais. In Argentina, it specializes in semi-dry deciduous forests and gallery forests as well as the typical island forests of the Chaco (Arditi and Placci 1990; Brown and Zunino 1994). In Bolivia, its found in the Chaco and Chiquitano forests, and gallery forest and forest islands in the Beni. They can be found in secondary forest and can adapt to disturbed and degraded habitats. In Paraguay, Stallings (1995; Stallings <em>et al.</em> 1989) reported that <em>A. caraya</em> occurs throughout the eastern forests and gallery forests of the southern and western Chaco along the ríos Paraguai and Pilcomayo, and the numerous small rivers that drain the chacoan plain. It can also be found in sporadic xeric forests, continuous with gallery forests. In Rio Grande do Sul, <em>A. caraya</em> occurs in mixed evergreen forest (<em>Araucaria</em>), forest patches in savanna, and seasonal deciduous forest (Codenotti <em>et al</em>. 2002; Codenotti and Silva 2004).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates that regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Behavioural ecological field studies have been carried out by Zunino (1986) and collaborators (Zunino <em>et al.</em> 1996, 2001) in Argentina and Bicca-Marques (1994; 2003; Bicca-Marques and Calegaro-Marques 1994) in Brazil (see also review by Neville <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adult male weight mean 6.42 kg (n=58), adult female weight mean 4.33 kg (n=117) (Rumiz 1990)	eng
41545	population	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Although widespread, <em>Alouatta caraya</em> is patchily distributed, and densities vary widely. In Argentina, Brown and Zunino (1994) recorded high densities in a number of sites: Chaco forest, Formosa 111 individuals/km²; Chaco forest, Corrientes 90 individuals/km²; gallery forest, 63 individuals/km²; and inundated forest 283 individuals/km². Arditi and Placci (1990) carried out surveys in gallery forests of the Chaco in Argentina (Riacho Pilagá, Estancia Guaycolec) and found lower numbers than those reported by Brown and Zunino (1994) resulting from surveys in 1980s: 11.7 individuals/km². Dvoskin <em>et al.</em> (2004) repeated the surveys there in 2001 and found that numbers had increased to 26 individuals/km². The highest densities occur in flooded forests and there have been numerous surveys of <em>Alouatta caraya</em> in this forest type (Pope 1968; Thorington Jr <em>et al</em>. 1994; Rumiz 1990; Zunino <em>et al</em>. 1996, 2001). Codenotti <em>et al</em>. (2002; see also Codenotti and Silva 2004) conducted a state-wide survey of remnant <em>A. caraya</em> populations in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Populations were found to be small, isolated, mostly single groups, and densities were consistently low. Of 13 localities, only three had densities above 2 individuals/km² (Lageado do Celso 6.5 individuals/km²; a location in the municipality of Santiago 4.0 individuals/km²; and an urban park in the municipality of São Francisco de Assis 2.3 individuals/km²).	eng
41545	threats	Fernandez-Duque, E., Wallace, R.B. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in the Brazilian cerrado, soy in the Bolivian Chiquitano, and small-scale farms and cattle ranching in Argentina. Some subsistence hunting occurs across its range.	eng
41546	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within this species range:<br/><br/>Isiboro Sécure National Park (1,200,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/>Manuripi Heath National Reserve (1,884,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Pilon Lajas National Park (400,000 ha) (Brown and Rumiz 1986)<br/>Carrasco National Park (622,600 ha)<br/>Madidi National Park (1,571,500 ha).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41546	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Alouatta sara</em> is believed to occur only in Bolivia. Anderson (1997) gives a range extending from the Department of Pando south along the Andean Cordillera and east into central Bolivia including the entire basin of the Río Beni and east as far the Mamoré-Guapore. Its sympatry with <em>Alouatta caraya</em> over a large part of its range east of the Río Beni is poorly understood, but the indications are that there may be some subtle, but distinct difference in habitat preferences, with <em>A. sara</em> prevailing in humid forest areas and seasonally flooded forest along major rivers (for example, <em>igapó</em> along the Río Iteñez) and <em>A. caraya</em> being found in drier, semdeciduous forest and gallery forest in areas of savanna and chaco (see for example, Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998)	eng
41546	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species is found up to 1,000 m in tropical forest including riverine forest and seasonally flooded forests. During their primate surveys in the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park, Bolivia, Wallace <em>et al. </em>(1998) found <em>Alouatta sara</em> only (n=20) in <em>igapó</em> forest (seasonally inundated forest) along the Río Iteñez.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). The red howlers (<em>A. seniculus</em>, <em>A. macconnelli</em>, <em>A. juara</em>, <em>A. puruensis</em>, and <em>A. sara</em>) have the largest voice boxes and the deepest roars, while the Mexican, Central American and northern Colombian mantled howlers, <em>A. palliata</em> and <em>A. pigra</em>, have the smallest, and their howls are more high pitched as a result.<br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Wallace <em>et al</em>. (1998) recorded an average group size of 3.3±2.0 individuals (range 1-7, n=18) in the Noel Kempff Mercado Nation Park in eastern central Bolivia. In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/> <br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).	eng
41546	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in terra firme forest, but is most common in seasonally flooded forest and riverine forest.	eng
41546	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	The main threat to this species is hunting (mainly for subsistence use), which has led to local extirpations in some areas.	eng
41547	conservation	Wallace, R.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Cornejo, F. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species is confirmed, or may occur, in numerous protected areas.<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi Heath National Park (1,884,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Amboró National Park (180,000 ha) (in range)<br/>Carrasco National Park (622,600 ha) (in range)<br/>Noel Kempf Mercado National Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998)<br/>Isiboro-Secure National Park (1,200,000 ha (in range)<br/>Ríos Blanco y Negro National Reserve (1,423,900 ha) (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Beni Biosphere Reserve (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1995)<br/>Beni Biological Station (135 ha) (Garcia and Tarifa 1988)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Amazônia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra dio Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Cutia National Park (284,923 ha) (in range)<br/>Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha) (in range)<br/>Abufari Biological Reserve (224,819 ha) (in range)<br/>Jaru Biological Reserve (353,386 ha) (in range)<br/>Guaporé Biological Reserve (618,173 ha) (in range)<br/>Jutaí-Solimões Ecological Station (287,101 ha) (in range)<br/>Rio Acre Ecological Station (79,418 ha) (in range)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (217,184 ha) (in range)<br/>Cuniã Ecological Station (49,886 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Manu National Park (Soini <em>et al</em>. 1989; Terborgh 1983)<br/>Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (1,091,416 ha) (in range)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha)  (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a: Neville <em>et al</em>. (1976) reported one sighting of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the reserve: Soini <em>et al.</em> (1989) reported that it occurs in low numbers there).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
41547	distribution	Wallace, R.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Cornejo, F. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Found in northern and central lowland Bolivia, western Brazil and north-eastern Peru. It ranges south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões, west of the Rio Tapajós, to the Río Ucayali in Peru (replaced by <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> on the left bank of the lower Ucayali) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994a). It crosses the middle Ucayali south of the Río Cushabatay (a left bank tributary of the Ucayali), extending into the interfluvium of the ríos Ucayali and Huallaga. From there, it extends south along the eastern Cordillera into Bolivia, south of the Río Madre de Dios, south to about 17ºS, and from there extending north-east through the Noel Kempf Mercado National Park (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 1998), into the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, to the left bank of the Rio Teles Pires and Rio Tapajós. It occurs through a large part of the state of Rondônia in Brazil, where there is suitable forest (Iwanaga and Ferrari 2002)	eng
41547	habitat	Wallace, R.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Cornejo, F. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Occurs in primary lowland rain forest. In Bolivia, in the Noel Kempff Mercado National park, Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) recorded <em>A. chamek</em> most often in tall forest (4.42 encounters per 10 km of trail), followed by so-called <em>saternejal</em> forest (along the forest–savanna border, in the vicinity of small forest streams and suffering periodic flash floods) (2.49 encounters per 10 km). Garcia and Tarifa (1988) found <em>A. chamek</em> to be restricted to high forest in the Beni Biological Station.<br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understory. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus</em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) recorded men groups size of 3.34±2.60 (n = 219 sightings) in a number of localities in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia.  <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.<br/><br/>MacFarland Symington (1988a,b,c) studied the behaviour, ecology and demography of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in the Manu National Park, Peru (see also White [1985, 1986] who published censuses and preliminary observations on the Majnu population).   <br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.	eng
41547	population	Wallace, R.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Cornejo, F. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species may be one of the most common primates. In Bolivia, it is usually found at between 5 and 25 animals/km², up to 80 animals/km² at some non-hunted sites (R. Wallace pers. comm.). Where density is highest, it more or less correlates with local habitat heterogeneity. Wallace <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated a density of 32.1 individuals/km² in lowland forest in the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in eastern central Bolivia. The highest recorded density for Amazonian spider monkeys is for <em>A. chamek</em> in the Manu National Park in Peru, where Janson and Terborgh (1985) estimated 24 individuals/km², and White (1985, 1986) 31/km². Factors determining different <em>Ateles</em> population densities in various species and study sites are discussed by McFarland Symington (1988a), who concluded that these involve the abundance and productivity of certain key plant resources.<br/><br/>In Brazil, Peres (1997) estimated densities of <em>Ateles chamek</em> in a number of terra firma sites: Barro Vermelho I 3.1 individuals/km²; Vira Volta 6.0 individuals/km²; Vaoi Quem Quer 9.6 individuals/km²; Riozinho 3.9 individuals/km²; Porongaba 3.1 individuals/km²; Condor 6.0 individuals/km²; Altamira 3.2 individuals/km². Densities in <em>várzea</em> (white-water flooded forest) were similar: Boa Esperança 2.6 individuals/km²; Barro Vermelho II 3.6 individuals/km².<br/><br/>Iwanaga and Ferrari (2002) recorded sighting rates averaging 0.69 individuals/10 km (range 0.11-2.40) at 33 survey sites in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. They found that the sighting rate was slightly lower in areas where <em>A. chamek</em> and <em>Lagothrix cana</em> occurred together (0.58 individuals/10 km) than when <em>L .cana</em> was absent (0.73 individuals/10 km).	eng
41547	threats	Wallace, R.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Cornejo, F. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	The major threat is subsistence and market hunting for food (with guns). An additional threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion in the southern portion (soy) and parts of the Peruvian Amazon (mining), and habitat degradation from selective logging, which may affect key fruiting species and forest structure and also opens up new areas for hunting.	eng
41548	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Present in Beni Biosphere Reserve and Amboro National Park in Bolivia (Wallace and Mercado 2007; Martinez and Wallace in press). More information is required regarding the species' eastern distribution, and limits with <em>C. pallescens</em> in the south.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41548	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	This species has a wide distribution that stretches east from the Manique River in Beni, Bolivia, and north into Brazil where Ferrari <em>et al.</em> (2000) confirmed the presence of titis with a greyish pleage in southern Rondônia. It is possible that its range extends as far north as the Serra dos Pacaás Novos. It is found in Bolivia south to the forests around the city of Santa Cruz.	eng
41548	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Although <em>C. donacophilus</em> is found in tropical humid forests, it seems to be restricted to the slightly drier forests of southern Amazonia and is apparently absent from the more humid forests of northern Beni Department (Wallace and Mercado 2007). It also appears reasonably tolerant of habitat disturbance (R. Wallace pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of titi monkeys comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A study on the behavioural ecology and calling behaviour of <em>C. donacophilus</em> is underway at two sites in forest patches in and on the outskirts of Santa Cruz (K. Dingess pers. comm. to R. Wallace, 2007).	eng
41548	population	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Unpublished data from San Miguelito ranch in Santa Cruz provides relative abundance indices of between 0.04 and 0.18 groups (0.12-0.54 individuals) encountered per 10 km of line transect (Wallace and Mercado 2007; WCS, unpubl.).	eng
41548	threats	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Agricultural activities have resulted in considerable habitat loss around the city of Santa Cruz. Nevertheless, it is one of three primate species that survives within the confines of the city and has been observed on the outskirts of several rural communities (R. Wallace pers. comm. 2007.).	eng
41549	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Velilla, M., 2008	A large portion of the current hypothesized distribution of this species in Bolivia is found within the Kaa-Iya and San Matias and Otuquis National Parks. In Paraguay, this taxon is protected within three National Parks: Rio Negro, Chovoreca and Defensores del Chaco; it also occurs in the Fortin Patria Private Reserve and Paraguayan Pantanal Reserve, covering a total area of approximately 1,020,604 ha. However, it remains largely unprotected in the south of its range in the Humid Chaco, where there are virtually no Reserves.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41549	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Velilla, M., 2008	A relatively wide ranging species, found in the Chaco ecosystem of southern Bolivia, the Gran Chaco of Paraguay south from the border with Bolivia to approximately 23ºS and west from the Rio Paraguay to approximately 61º30'W, and in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil (Hershkovitz 1990). However, there are few confirmed localities; for example, in a recent effort to map all known localities for primates in Bolivia only three localities were available for <em>C. pallescens</em> compared with more than 15 points for all other <em>Callicebus</em> species (Wallace and Mercado 2007).	eng
41549	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Velilla, M., 2008	Within the Chaco, this taxon may be more abundant in more humid forest types, particularly riverine forests (G. Ayala in prep.). Current information suggests <em>C. pallescens</em> is restricted to the Chaco and Pantanal, although field surveys are required to establish whether this taxon stretches into the neighbouring southern portions of the Chiquitano dry forest in Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. Within Paraguay, in the north it is found in continuous xeric forest in the north, and swampland, gallery, and palm savanna with forest patches in the south (Stallings 1985). <br/><br/>Titis are small primates, weighing from 800 to 1,300 g (Norconk 2007). The diet comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A field study on the behaviour and ecology of this species is underway in Kaa-Iya National Park (D. Rumiz pers. comm.).	eng
41549	population	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Velilla, M., 2008	Ayala (in prep.) estimated relatively high densities for <em>C. pallescens</em> within different habitat types in the Kaa-Iya National Park in Bolivia (ca. 13.6-30 individuals/km²). Little is known about its population status in Paraguay and Brazil.	eng
41549	threats	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Velilla, M., 2008	There are no known major threats at present, although the species is occasionally hunted by Izoceno indigenous communities in Kaa-Iya (G. Ayala, in prep.).	eng
41550	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	A very small part of the range of this species is included within the Beni Biosphere Reserve area (R. Wallace pers. comm.). Conservation programmes in the region include: the Greater Madidi Landscape Conservation Program in northern La Paz and south-western Beni Departments of the Wildlife Conservation Society that has lead research efforts on both Bolivian endemics since 2002; and the Asociación Boliviana para la Conservación and Conservation International who have worked with the Santa Rosa Municipality in the development of a Municipal Reserve in south-western Beni Department.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41550	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	Endemic to Bolivia with very restricted range estimated at 1,800 km² (Martinez and Wallace 2007). It occurs in the upper Río Beni basin, a tributary of the upper Rio Madeira, Beni, Bolivia. van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) incorrectly indicated that the species is parapatric with <em>Callicebus dubius</em> along the north bank of the Río Madre de Dios, with <em>Callicebus donacophilus</em> along the east bank of the Río Beni and with <em>Callicebus olallae</em> along the west bank of the upper Río Beni (Hershkovitz 1990). However, Felton <em>et al</em>. (2006) and Martinez and Wallace (in press) demonstrate that the species only occurs to the east of the Río Beni, west to the Manique River in south-western Beni Department. Rowe and Martinez (2003) were unable to confirm its range as proposed by van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2002). The geographical range of <em>Callicebus olallae</em> overlaps with <em>Callicebus modestus</em>, although transitional zones between the two taxa have yet to be confirmed and each seems to specialize on different habitat types (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007).	eng
41550	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	This taxon occurs in relatively dry forest patches within a forest-savanna mosaic (Lonnberg 1939; Anderson 1997; Felton <em>et al.</em> 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007). Two relatively large groups with 5 to 7 members were found in Naranjal. Three groups, each with two members (possibly <em>C. olallae</em>), were encountered at Puerto Santa Cruz, to the north of the Rio Yacuma. Martinez and Wallace (2007) and Lopez-Strauss (2007) detail average group sizes of 3 and 2.64 individuals, respectively.	eng
41550	population	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	In 2002, Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) conducted titi monkey surveys and interviewed local residents at four locations: Puerto Santa Cruz on the Rio Yacuma; La Laguna; Petaca; and Naranjal. Titis were relatively abundant in Naranjal, not encountered at all in Petaca (although local residents claim they occur there), and are no longer present in La Laguna (probably exterminated through hunting). Examination of the holotypes indicates that the Rio Yacuma groups were <em>C. olallae</em>, while two of three groups found in Naranjal were <em>Callicebus modestus</em> (the third appeared to combine characters from both species).<br/><br/>Lopez-Strauss (2007) estimated density for both <em>C. olallae</em> and <em>C. modestus</em> using calling behaviour and an adapted point-count methodology. Conservative density estimates were recorded for C. modestus between 0.9 and 12.4 groups/km² (Lopez-Strauss 2007).	eng
41550	threats	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Martinez, J., 2008	The main threat to this species is forest loss and habitat fragmentation. Groups surveyed by Felton <em>et al.</em> (2006) occurred in fragments surrounded by cattle ranches. A farmer in Naranjal reported seeing groups crossing grassland gaps (300–400 m) between patches of forest (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is some limited hunting for pets. The proposed major improvement to a regional road will exacerbate deforestation and is likely to increase hunting pressure (Felton <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41551	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	The following Amerindian Reserves are within this species’ range: Rio Biá, Kulina do Médio Juruá, Kanamari do Rio Juruá, Deni and the Vale do Javari. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41551	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	<em>Callicebus cupreus</em> occurs south of the Río Marañon/Rio Solimões, as far as the east bank of the Río Ucayali, in Loreto and northern Ucayali, Peru. To the south it ranges into Acre as far as the headwaters of the Rios Juruá and Purús in Brazil, and north-east as far as the lower and middle Rio Juruá and extending into the Rios Juruá/Purús interfluve south and maybe also north of the RioTapauá, a left bank tributary of the Rio Purús. East it ranges as far as the left bank of the Rio Purús (Hershkovitz 1990; Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). van Roosmalen and colleagues (2002) suggest that <em>C. cupreus</em> and <em>C. moloch</em> groups are ecologically similar and therefore allopatric, but members of these groups are sympatric with species from the <em>torquatus</em> group.	eng
41551	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Callicebus cupreus</em>, in particular, prefers secondary or disturbance-dependent habitats (Peres 1993; Rylands 1987). Also recorded at low densities in terra firme tropical rainforest at Lago Uauaçú, but unlike sympatric <em>C. purinus</em>, was not registered in the flooded forests (Varzeá or Igapó) present in this region (Haugaasen and Peres 2005) at Lago Uauaçú.<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41551	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Recorded at densities of 0.3 individuals/km² in terra firme forests at Lago Uauaçú.	eng
41551	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in a remote isolated region, and is not considered to be under any immediate threat.	eng
41552	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	It may occur in Tamshiyacu Tahuayo communal reserve in Peru. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41552	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Central Amazonia, Amazonas state, Brazil, south of the Rio Solimões in the interfluve delineated by the lower Rios Purús, Solimões and Madeira, south as far as the Rio Ipixuna (or Paranapixuna). Hershkovitz (1990) considered the species sympatric with <em>Callicebus dubius</em>, <em>C. brunneus</em>, and <em>C. cupreus</em>, based on, in his view, mislabeled specimens collected by the Olalla brothers in Boca Río Inuya, Iquitos, Río Orosa, Río Tapiche and Sarayacu, Rio Ucayali, in the department of Loreto, Peru. Voss and Emmons (1996) note that Hershkovitz' report on the sympatry of two members of the <em>moloch</em>/<em>cupreus</em> Group (<em>C. cupreus</em> and <em>C. caligatus</em>) was an error caused by "inadvertently listing both original and revised identifications of the same series from Orosa among the specimens examined". The correct identification for the monkeys is <em>Callicebus</em> (<em>cupreus</em>) <em>cupreus</em>. Specimens collected by Peres (1993) along both banks of the Rio Juruá and deposited in the Muséu Goeldi, Belém, all were identified as <em>Callicebus</em> (<em>cupreus</em>) <em>cupreus</em> (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The geographic distribution for <em>C. caligatus</em> described above contradicts that given by Hershkovitz (1990), who fills in its actual distribution with <em>C. dubius</em>. Four specimens of <em>C. caligatus</em> were caught in July 2001 by locals along the north bank of Lago Jarí at the mouth of Igarapé Bacaba and released at the same place after being measured and photographed, and a complete skeleton with some hair found on the forest floor was collected (private collection no. MGMR55) on the north bank of Rio Ipixuna near its mouth, a few kilometers south of the town of Tapauá.	eng
41552	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41552	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41552	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in a remote part of the Amazon, and there are currently no known major threats.	eng
41553	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Occurs in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Ecuador (De la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41553	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in the upper Amazonian region, in Peru north of the Río Marañon between the Ríos Napo and Santiago; in Ecuador from the Andean foothills east to the Río Napo/Aguarico basin, and north to the Río Putumayo; and in Colombia to the right bank of the Río Guamués (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Hershkovitz 1990).	eng
41553	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). de la Torre <em>et al</em>. (1995) suggest that <em>Callicebus discolor</em> exhibits a preference for flooded forest (Várzea) in north-eastern Ecuador. <br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km). A field study on diet and activity budget was undertaken for <em>C. discolor</em> in Yasuni National Park (Carrillo-Bilbao <em>et al</em>. 2005). This group used 3.3 ha, and consumed 30 different plant species principally fruits, seeds and flowers.	eng
41553	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Where its found it is very abundant (but difficult to see). Estimates of over 70 individuals/km² have been recorded (A. Di Fiori pers. comm.)	eng
41553	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no major threats throughout most of its range in Ecuador and Peru. However, it has a restricted range in Colombia in a region subject to intensive agriculture, human colonization, petroleum exploration, drug activities and guerilla presence (T. Defler pers. comm.).	eng
41554	conservation	Groves, C.P., Brockelman, W. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status, limits of the distribution range, and habitat preferences of this poorly known species.	eng
41554	distribution	Groves, C.P., Brockelman, W. & Geissman, T., 2008	This species is known from five locations in southwest mainland Thailand and two areas in adjacent northeastern Myanmar, between about 14° and 15°30’N and from the Bay of Bengal as far east as 98°30’E in the northern end of the range and 99°E in the southern end (Geissman <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total distribution area is estimated to be between 10,000 and 12,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>T. phayrei</em> occurs to the north, <em>T. obscurus</em> to the south, <em>T. germaini</em> to the south-east (which is sympatric).	eng
41554	habitat	Groves, C.P., Brockelman, W. & Geissman, T., 2008	The habitat preferences of this species are unclear. Available habitat types within its range include mixed deciduous dipterocarp and moist evergreen forest.	eng
41554	population	Groves, C.P., Brockelman, W. & Geissman, T., 2008	There is no current information on the population status of this species. It is currently known only from museum specimens (Geismann <em>et al</em>. 2004), and from older observations in the wild during the early 1970s by Ardith Eudey.	eng
41554	threats	Groves, C.P., Brockelman, W. & Geissman, T., 2008	Hunting is likely to be a threat to this species, as is habitat loss for agriculture. However, no direct information is available.	eng
41555	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41555	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) posited that <em>C. stephennashi</em> should occur along the right bank of the Rio Purús between the distributions of <em>C. caligatus</em> and <em>C. dubius</em> in Brazil. As a possible distribution, they suggested the interfluvium of the Rios Purús/Ipixuna/Madeira/Mucuím.	eng
41555	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41555	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. It is known from only four specimens kept in captivity and has not been seen or studied in the wild.	eng
41555	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
41556	conservation	Veiga, L.M. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas, including the Tapirapé Biological Reserve (103,000 ha). However, a significant lacunae in the occurrence of <em>Callicebus moloch</em> in the Xingu-Tocantins interfluvium has been documented, including its absence from the Caxiuanã National Forest (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41556	distribution	Veiga, L.M. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	<em>Callicebus moloch</em> occurs in Brazilian Amazonia south of the Rio Amazonas in the States of Pará and Mato Grosso. In Pará, it occurs from the west bank of Rio Tocantins/Araguaia west as far as the east bank of Rio Tapajós, south as far as Ilha do Bananal, north of the confluence of Rio das Mortes with the Rio Araguaia; in Mato Grosso, it ranges as far west as Rio Juruena, including the headwaters of the Rio Xingú (M. G. M. van Roosmalen collected a specimen shot by a Waurá Indian hunter along Rio Von den Steinen). In the north-western part of its range, the species is parapatric with <em>C. hoffmannsi</em> along the lower Rio Tapajós, and in the south-western corner of its range it is parapatric with <em>C. cinerascens</em> along the upper Rio Juruena. May have a patchy distribution within its range (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
41556	habitat	Veiga, L.M. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). Indeed, Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded <em>C. moloch</em> in fragmented forests.<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41556	population	Veiga, L.M. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
41556	threats	Veiga, L.M. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Locally, this species is at risk from habitat loss and degradation. Some parts of the interfluvium suffer from deforestation, the establishment of dams (Tucuruí, and proposed Belo Monte) and mining. The Trans-Amazon Highway (BR-320) bisects part of its range from east to west, and the Santarém-Cuiabá highway (BR-163) means a large part of the Xingu-Tapajós interfluvium is accessible from the south. In recent years, this highway has become the main channel of colonization for soybean farmers migrating northwards from the state of Mato Grosso, although for the time being, this threat is limited to a relatively small proportion of the species’ range.	eng
41557	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Noronha, M.N., Spironello, W.R. & Ferreira, D.C., 2008	Its range includes the following protected reserves in the state of Amazonas: Floresta Nacional Jatuarana (837,100 ha), the Parque Nacional do Juruena (2,002,565 ha), the Floresta Estadual Sucundurí (492,905 ha), and the Parque Estadual do Sucundurí (808,312 ha). Also present in the Floresta Estadual de Apuí (185,946 ha), the Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Bararatí (113,606 ha), the Parque Estadual do Guariba (72,296 ha), the Reserva Extrativista do Guariba (150,465 ha), the Floresta Estadual do Aripuanã (336,040 ha) and the Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Aripuanã (224,291 ha). In Mato Grosso, it is expected to occur in the Reserva Extrativista Guariba Roosevelt (57,630 ha), the Floresta Estadual Rio Roosevelt (27,860 ha) and the Parque Estadual Igarapés do Juruena (227,800 ha) (Noronha <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41557	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Noronha, M.N., Spironello, W.R. & Ferreira, D.C., 2008	Endemic to Brazil. Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002) predicted that the species extends as far east as the left bank of the Rio Sucundurí. A recent survey (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007) extended the eastern limit of this species range to the left bank of the rivers Abacaxís, Tapajós and Juruena, in the states of Amazonas and Mato Grosso in Brazil. This species’ range should extend to the Rio Paraná do Urariá in the north, east to the left bank of the Rio Abacaxís, and the left bank of the upper Rio Tapajós, west as far as the right bank of the Rio Madeira, and south to the corridor formed between the Rios Aripuanã-Roosevelt and Tapajós-Juruena, in the states of Amazonas and Mato Grosso. The most southerly record is Otoho on the right bank of the Rio Roosevelt in Mato Grosso. In this study, no range overlap was found with other species of <em>Callicebus</em> (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been suggested that the ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em>, <em>Callicebus cinerascens</em> and <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em>, possibly intergrade in some way in the region of the headwaters of the Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt Rivers.	eng
41557	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Noronha, M.N., Spironello, W.R. & Ferreira, D.C., 2008	Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). In a recent survey, <em>C. cinerascens</em> was seen in <em>terra firme</em>, campinarana and secondary forests. Individuals were frequently observed in relatively open areas of young secondary growth, which may indicate a degree of flexibility in habitat use by this species (Noronha <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41557	population	Veiga, L.M., Noronha, M.N., Spironello, W.R. & Ferreira, D.C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41557	threats	Veiga, L.M., Noronha, M.N., Spironello, W.R. & Ferreira, D.C., 2008	This species occurs in a remote region still relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact, and there are currently no known major threats.	eng
41558	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	In Peru, this species occurs in Manu National Park, Megantoni National Sanctuary and Tambopata National Reserve, Los Amigos Conservation Area (private concession). In Bolivia, it is present in Manuripi National Reserve.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41558	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	Relatively wide ranging species found in the Pando Department in northern Bolivia (Anderson 1997), north of the Río Madre de dios in the Beni Department (Rowe and Martinez 2003; R. Wallace, pers. obs.), extending into south-eastern Peru and north into Brazil (Hershkovitz 1988, 1990) into the state of Rondônia (between the Mamoré, Madeira and Jiparaná rivers); possibly limited to the south in Brazil by the Serra dos Pacaás (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000). Further surveys are required in Bolivia to establish the number and identity of <em>Callicebus</em> species in this region (R. Wallace, pers. obs.).	eng
41558	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	This is the only species from the <em>C. moloch</em> group for which there is data available in the literature on general ecology, with the species having been recorded including a large proportion of leaves in the diet.<br/><br/>Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41558	population	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41558	threats	Veiga, L.M., Wallace, R.B. & Ferrari, S.F., 2008	In Bolivia, the main threat seems to be hunting (Rowe and Martinez 2003). The state of Rondônia has suffered intense human colonization and deforestation over the past thirty-five years; however, most immigrants come from southern Brazil and they do not normally hunt primates (S. Ferrari pers. comm.).	eng
41559	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in Parque Nacional da Amazônia, Floresta Nacional Itaituba, and Andira Marau Amerindian Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41559	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Occurs in Central Amazonia in Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas in the States of Amazonas and Pará. Ranges from the right bank of the Rio Abacaxís [where it is parapatric with <em>C. cinerascens</em>] (Noronha <em>et al.</em> in press), to the left bank of the rio Tapajós (where parapatric with <em>C. moloch</em>), south to the north bank of Rio Palmares (Noronha <em>et al</em>. in press), north along the south bank of the Paraná do Urariá and Paraná do Ramos, east along the left bank of the Rio Andirá and the right bank of the Rio Uíra-Curapá south of the town of Parintins (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).   The exact range of this genus in the interfluve between the Madeira and Tapajós rivers remains unknown (Silva Jr. and Noronha 2000). In a recent study (Noronha <em>et al</em>. in press), a grey titi monkey with light spots on its throat (possibly <em>C. hoffmannsi</em>) was recorded on the left bank of the Rio Tapajós (06 34'S, 58 28'W) near the Rio Palmares, in Maués Municipality, Amazonas State. The ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi, Callicebus cinerascens</em> and <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> may possibly intergrade in some way in the area of the headwaters of the Rios Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt.	eng
41559	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41559	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
41559	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in a remote region relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact.	eng
41560	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	A small part of the species' range is within the Andira Marau Amerindian Reserve.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41560	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	According to van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (2002), <em>Callicebus baptista</em> has a disjunct distribution, occurring in central Brazilian Amazonia, south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Madeira in the state of Amazonas streching almost as far as the state of Pará, and north of the Paraná do Canumã, Paraná do Urariá, and Paraná do Ramos (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002). It was first seen in the wild on the west (left) bank of the Rio Uíra-Curupá, and is believed to have crossed over the Paraná do Ramos west of the town of Parintins forming an enclave population in the lower Rio Uíra-Curupá-Andirá interfluve. Further surveys are rquired in this area to establish the exact range.<br/><br/>M.G.M. van Roosmalen (pers. comm.) has also observed populations of entirely pale yellowish to almost white colour morphs of <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi </em>along the Rio Mamurú, one river further to the east, and classic yellowish-white and gray <em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> on both banks of the middle and upper Rio Andirá.	eng
41560	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no data available on the ecology of this species. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41560	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41560	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Although this species has a small geographic range, it is relatively well protected by comparative isolation from areas of human colonization, and there are not currently believed to be any major threats.	eng
41561	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Thought to occur in Alta Floresta Reserve in Mato Grosso State in Brazil (Stepp 2003). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41561	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species is found between the Rios Tapajós and Madeira/Jiparaná. The ranges of <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em>, <em>Callicebus cinerascens</em> and </em>Callicebus hoffmannsi</em> may intergrade in some way in the region of the headwaters of the Rios Juruena, Aripuanã and Roosevelt. <em>Callicebus bernhardi</em> occurs in the interfluvium delineated by the Rios Madeira-Jiparaná and Rios Aripuanã-Roosevelt, in the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, Brazil (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is a possible sighting in a 50-ha reserve in Alta Floresta in Mato Grosso State, Brazil (Stepp 2003).	eng
41561	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no data available on the ecology of this species. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41561	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41561	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in a remote region still relatively isolated from anthropogenic impact, and there are currently no known major threats.	eng
41562	conservation	Veiga, L.M. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	This species occurs in Jaú National Park. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41562	distribution	Veiga, L.M. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	<em>Callicebus torquatus</em> has a relatively wide range, and is the only titi monkey to be found in the Solimões-Negro interfluvium. It occurs in the state of Amazonas, on the left (north) bank of Rio Solimões/Rio Japurá, west as far as Río Apaporis/upper Río Vaupés, north delineated by Rio Negro/Rio Uaupés, east at least as far as the town of Codajás, maybe even as far as the town of Manacapurú (Hershkovitz 1990; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). A recent study (Casado <em>et al</em>. 2007) suggests that <em>C. lugens</em> may also occur south of the Rio Negro, in the municipality of Barcelos in Brazil and that the two species may be sympatric, but further surveys are needed to confirm this.	eng
41562	habitat	Veiga, L.M. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41562	population	Veiga, L.M. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
41562	threats	Veiga, L.M. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Although the species is hunted locally by indigenous people, hunting is not currently considered severe enough to be a major threat at present.	eng
41563	conservation	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Occurs in various protected areas including, the following national parks in Colombia: El Tuparro, Chiribiquete, Puinavia and Nukak (Defler 2003, 2004). <br/><br/>In Brazil, the species occurs in Parque Nacional do Rio Branco, Parque Nacional Pico de Neblina, Reserva Florestal Parima, Reserva Biológica Mucajaí and the Estação Ecológica Caracará. <br/><br/>In Venezuela, it is present in the Reserva Florestal La Paragua and the Parque National Canaima.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41563	distribution	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	This species has the largest range of the <em>Callicebus torquatus</em> group, occurring between the Rios Branco and Negro rivers in Brazil stretching as far north as the Rio Orinoco in Venezuela and the upper Caquetá in Colombia. Occurs in eastern Colombia in the departments of Vichada, Meta east of the Río Ariari, Guainiá, Guaviare, Vaupés, and Caquetá east of the Río Caguán, between the Río Tomo in the north and Río Caguán-Caquetá in the south; in southern Venezuela, in the state of Amazonas south of the Río Ventuari, and state of Bolívar between the Ríos Caura, Caroni, and Orinoco; and bordering parts of north-western Brazil, in Amazonas state north of the Rios Uaupés-Negro, and the state of Roraima west of the Rio Branco, north as far as the foothills of Mount Roraima (personal observations by M.G.M. van Roosmalen) (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002). Casado <em>et al</em>. (2007) report that this species occurs south of the Rio Negro, in the municipality of Barcelos and therefore possibly sympatric with <em>C. torquatus</em>.	eng
41563	habitat	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	<em>Callicebus lugens</em> occurs in terra firme forests, evergreen and montane forests, and a complex of transitional forests between tropical rainforests and caatinga. <br/><br/>A study of <em>C. lugens</em> reported that diet consisted mainly of fruits, immature seeds, leaves, leaf buds, liana tips, and stems, flowers, and insects and spiders (Palacios <em>et al.</em> 1997). A mean group size of 3.5 individuals was recorded in Vichada in eastern Columbia (Defler 2003).	eng
41563	population	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41563	threats	Veiga. L. M. & Palacios, E., 2008	Occurs in a relatively remote region, and there are currently no known major threats to the species.	eng
41564	conservation	Veiga, L.M., de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Occurs in the Cuyabeno Reserve in Northeastern Ecuador (De la Torre <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41564	distribution	Veiga, L.M., de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Occurs in Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru. Present in the interfluve between the Rio Solimões and Río Napo in the south, and the Rio Japurá and Río Caquetá in the north; in Brazil between the Rios Solimões and Japurá; in Colombia between the Ríos Caquetá below mouth of Río Caguán, and Rios Putumayo and Amazonas in the departments of Caquetá, Putumayo and Amazonas; in Ecuador between the upper Ríos Aguarico and Putumayo, Napo province (van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2002); and in Peru in northern Loreto, north of the Río Amazonas between the Ríos Putumayo and Napo, but does not occur between the Riós Napo and Nanay as suggested by van Roosmalen and colleagues (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.). The titi monkey found south of the lower Río Nanay (Heymann <em>et al</em>. 2002), between the right bank of the riós Nanay and lef bank of the lower Ríos Tigre and Pucacuro, may represent a new taxon (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>Martinez and Rowe (2003) confirmed that it is <em>Callicebus lucifer</em> that occurs in Ecuador and not <em>C. medemi</em> as suggested by van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2002).	eng
41564	habitat	Veiga, L.M., de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Studies on habitat preferences and home range undertaken in Ecuador (Campos 1991; Campos <em>et al.</em> 1992; de la Torre <em>et al</em>. 1995) suggest that <em>C. lucifer</em> exhibits a preference for non-flooded terra firme forest in north-eastern Ecuador and it has been suggested that in Peru, this species may be restricted to "varillales", forests on white-sand or sandy-clay soils (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Group size in this species varies from 2-5 individuals (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.)	eng
41564	population	Veiga, L.M., de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	This species has been recorded at population densities estimated between 2.5 and 2.8 individuals/km² in Peru (E. W. Heymann pers. comm.)	eng
41564	threats	Veiga, L.M., de la Torre, S. & Cornejo, F., 2008	Occurs in a remote part of the Amazon, and there currently are no known major threats to this species.	eng
41565	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Present in the Maratu and Tatutu Amerindian Reserves. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41565	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in the state of Amazonas, Brazil, south of the Rio Solimões between the Rios Purús and Juruá, south as far as the Rio Tapauá or even the Rio Pauiní (if the species reported to occur in between the Rios Tapauá and Pauiní does not represent a new form).	eng
41565	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	An inhabitant of terra firme rainforest, but also seen in igapó (seasonally flooded forest) in Lago Uauaçú (Haugaasen and Peres 2005). Average group size at Lago Uauaçú was 3.3-3.5 individuals.	eng
41565	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	It has been recorded at population densities of 0.4 individuals/km² in terra firme forests and 1.8/km² in Igapó (Haugaasen and Peres 2005).	eng
41565	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species at present.	eng
41566	conservation	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Present in the following Amerindian Reserves: Rio Biá and do Vale do Javari. May also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Jutaí-Solimões.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41566	distribution	Veiga, L.M., 2008	Occurs in Brazil in the state of Amazonas, between the upper Rio Solimões, the lower Rio Javarí, and the left (west) bank of the Rio Juruá from mouth at the Rio Solimões to about 7ºS (Hershkovitz 1990). This species is sympatric with <em>C. cupreus</em> in the Juruá-Solimões interfluve.	eng
41566	habitat	Veiga, L.M., 2008	No data on the ecology of this species are available. Titi monkeys (<em>Callicebus</em> spp.) are known to occur in a wide range of habitats, although some species exhibit habitat preferences, for example <em>C. lucifer</em> is reported to prefer white-sand forests (E. Heymann pers. comm. 2008), and <em>C. donacophilus</em> drier forests (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2000; R. Wallace pers. comm.). Members of the <em>C. moloch</em> and <em>C. cupreus</em> groups are considered tolerant of habitat disturbance caused by human activity or seasonal flooding (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The diet of titis comprises mainly fruit pulp, leaves, insects and seeds. They form small, pair-bonded, territorial groups and are considered monogamous. They have small home (1.5-30 km) and day ranges (0.5-1.5 km).	eng
41566	population	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41566	threats	Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species at present.	eng
41567	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Mittermeier R.A. & Marsh, L., 2008	May possibly occur in the Abufari Biological Reserve, which is located at the eastern limit of this species' range.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41567	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Mittermeier R.A. & Marsh, L., 2008	<em>Pithecia albicans</em> has a restricted range in Brazil, occurring on the south bank of the Solimões, between the Rios Tefé and Purús.	eng
41567	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Mittermeier R.A. & Marsh, L., 2008	<em>Pithecia albicans</em> occurs in lowland terra firme tropical rainforest, but has also recorded in flooded forests (várzea and igapó) (Haugaasen and Peres 2005). <br/><br/>Average group sizes at Lago Uauaçú, ranged from 2.7-3.9 individuals (Haugassen and Peres 2005).<br/><br/>The diet includes seeds (46%), fruits (29% - pulp and aril), flowers (7%), leaves (10%) and some insects (<1%) (Peres 1993). Unlike other members of the genus, such as <em>Pithecia pithecia</em>, this species is reported to use the upper canopy level extensively (Johns 1986; Peres 1993) and have a much larger home range (200 ha) (Peres 1993).	eng
41567	population	Veiga, L.M., Mittermeier R.A. & Marsh, L., 2008	Recorded population densities range from 0.9 - 3 groups/10 km (Johns 1986). At Lago Uauaçú, recorded densities were 3.3 individuals/km² in terra firme forests, 0.8/km² in varzeá flooded forests, and 4.6/km² in igapó (Haugaasen and Peres 1995).	eng
41567	threats	Veiga, L.M., Mittermeier R.A. & Marsh, L., 2008	The major threats include hunting and habitat loss.	eng
41568	conservation	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	Present in Parque Nacional de Amazônia and the following Amerindian Reserves: Andira Marau, Coatá Laranjal, Ipixuna, 9 de Janeiro and Deni.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41568	distribution	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	<em>Pithecia irrorata</em> has a wide range, occurring south of the Solimöes, west of the Tapajós Madeira, and north of the Guaporé rivers in Brazil. It occurs narrowly in the north-west of Bolivia and in eastern Peru, north of the Madre de Dios. There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>P. irrorata irrorata</em> is wide ranging in the upper, south-western Amazon of Brazil. It occurs north of the Madre de Dios in the Manú National Park in Peru, and in north-west Bolivia.<br/><br/><em>P. irrorata vanzolinii</em> has a restricted range in Brazil between the upper Rio Juruá and its south bank tributary, the Rios Tarauacá-Embira in the states of Acre and Amazonas (Hershkovitz 1987).	eng
41568	habitat	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	Sakis occur in a wide variety of habitats from lowland tropical rainforests to montane forests (Mittermeier 1977; Norconk <em>et al.</em> 2003; Defler 2004). They have been recorded in drier forests, palm patches, pina swamp forest, and secondary and fragmented forests.<br/><br/>Sakis are medium-sized primates (1-3 kg). They are specialised morphologically for seed predation. The diet is made up of seeds, fruit pulp, young leaves, insects and flowers. Members of this genus form small, cohesive groups (2-9 individuals), generally comprising a single male-female breeding pair and several young. Day ranges (1.5-2 km) and home ranges are small (10-25 km), and sakis exhibit behaviours associated with territory defence (Norconk 2007).	eng
41568	population	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	The species has been recorded at a population density of 0.56 individuals/10 km (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41568	threats	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	There are no obvious major threats to the species at present, although they are subject to localized hunting and habitat loss. They are certainly hunted in Bolivia (Tarifa 1996), where they have a restricted range in the north-west of the country.	eng
41569	conservation	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41569	distribution	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	<em>Pithecia pithecia</em> is distributed throughout the northern Amazon basin (Hershkovitz 1987). In Venezuela, it is restricted to the north-eastern Bolívar State and the southern part of the Delta Amacuro State. This species is located east of the lower Caroní River, south of the lower Orinoco River, and along the Cuyuní river basin. <br/><br/>The exact range limits of the two subspecies remain unclear. According to Hershkovitz (1987), <em>Pithecia p. pithecia</em> occurs in the Guyanas and <em>Pithecia p. chrysocephala</em> in Brazil; however, the former has been confirmed in the state of Amapá and the north of Pará, which means the range of <em>Pithecia p. chrysocephala</em> is reduced to the area between the Rios Negro and Rio Nhamundá (Jose Silva Jr. pers. comm.).	eng
41569	habitat	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	<em>Pithecia pithecia</em> occurs in moist lowland and submontane rainforest, and swamp forests of the mid-delta.<br/><br/>Sakis are specialized morphologically for seed predation. The diet of a group of <em>Pithecia, p. pithecia</em> comprised seeds (61%), fleshy fruit (28%), young leaves (7%), insects (2%) and flowers (2%) (Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Norconk 1996).	eng
41569	population	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	Vié <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded a population density 0.64 individuals/km² for the nominate subspecies.	eng
41569	threats	Veiga, L.M. & Marsh, L., 2008	There are no obvious major threats to the species at present.	eng
41570	conservation	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is listed under CITES Appendix II, and as Class B under the African Convention. This species is found in many of protected areas across its range, and the recent record from Mbam Djerem by Maisels <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that it has probably been overlooked elsewhere.	eng
41570	distribution	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The Northern Talapoin occus in the equatorial coastal forest zone from just south of the Sanaga River in southern Cameroon to Cabinda (Angola), including Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. The principal river and centre of its distribution is the Ogooue River, but its range spills over into the upper reaches of some Congo River tributaries, e.g. the Sangha River, Alima River, and Lefini River. According to Gautier-Hion <em>et al.</em> (1999) it also occurs on the north bank of the Sanaga River, and indeed a recent survey by Maisels <em>et al</em>. (2006) in the Mbam Djerem National Park, Cameroon, recorded the presence of talapoin monkeys (<em>Miopithecus ogouensis</em>). Mbam Djerem National Park is in the transition zone between the Central African forest block and the Guinea-Congolia/Sudania savannas (Maisels <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41570	habitat	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species inhabits lowland equatorial rainforest, swamps and riverine forest. It is typically associated with rivers and uses freshwater as one of its main habitats. It is strictly dependent on dense evergreen cover due to its small size and vulnerability to predation, and prefers the very dense undergrowth typical of riverbanks. It seldom ascends to higher levels, except through foliage-covered liana tangles. It is never found more than 500 m from a watercourse, and can swim and diver under water if disturbed in overhanging vegetation. Terrestrial foraging is known to be common, and its diet is primarily composed of fruits (approximately 80% composition). Favoured species include the fruits of plums (<em>Uapaca</em>), figs, umbrella trees (<em>Musanga</em>), and mokenjo (<em>Pseudospondias</em>), as well as the flesh of oil palm nuts and the fruits of African ginger (<em>Aframomum</em>, which can only be gathered at ground-level). Beetles, caterpillars, and spiders are taken opportunistically. It is attracted out of the forest by riverside gardens containing bananas, paw-paw, maize, and cucurbits. Feeding is concentrated into one early morning bout, with another in late afternoon.	eng
41570	population	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Historically, this was a common species in riverine and swamp forests, although hunting has probably slightly reduced their population sizes today. Their troops were larger near villages because they were attracted to manioc and were difficult to hunt because of they inhabited riverine and swamp habitat. It lives in groups of 12-20 animals, which come together with other groups at specific night-roosts (situated in dense vegetation near water). In total, up to 125 animals may congregate. Home ranges cover 100-500 ha at densities of 40-90 animals per sq km.	eng
41570	threats	Oates, J.F. & Groves, C.P., 2008	This species is not threatened, despite its restricted range (perhaps largely due to the presence of a close relative, Allen’s Swamp Monkey, which has very similar habits) and susceptibility to predation. Indeed, densities of this species may double close to human settlements, with horticultural activity offering three main benefits: the deterrence of predators by human disturbance, the generation of secondary growth due to clearance and land rotation, and the availability of new food sources in gardens. It is not a major target of hunters.	eng
41571	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. At present, it is reported from two special reserves (Analamerana and Ankarana), but its presence is also probable in the connecting forests of Andrafiamena and Andavakoera to the south, and possible in the Montagne d’Ambre region to the north. No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Further field surveys and genetic studies of mouse lemur populations are needed within this broader region.	eng
41571	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is known only from the region of the Ankarana and Analamerana Special Reserves (Rasoloarison <em>et al.</em> 2000). The <em>Microcebus</em> in the Andrafiamena Mountains and the Andavakoera Classified Forest are currently assigned to this species, as is the form in Montagne d’Ambre National Park although this requires further investigation. The species could occur in additional fragments in the north, including for example, Montagne d'Frances. Ranges from 20-250 m.	eng
41571	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits dry deciduous and gallery forest habitats within the Ankarana Special Reserve, which also includes deep canyons sporting limestone pinnacles and cliffs referred to as tsingy. Possibly also present in tropical lowland/montane forest if records of the species in Montagne d'Ambre are this species. Basic aspects of this species’ ecology and behaviour remain to be studied.	eng
41571	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common.	eng
41571	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Habitat loss due to illegal mining for sapphires and illegal logging. Uncontrolled bushfires and cutting for charcoal are additional threats to existing habitat.	eng
41572	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is present in the Manongarivo Special Reserve. There are no specimens reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). The remaining forest on the Ampasindava Peninsula requires protection.	eng
41572	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is presently known only from Manongarivo Special Reserve in north-western Madagascar, from an isolated population on the Ampasindava Peninsula, and possibly from the forests of Mahilaka-Maromandia (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). 360-1,600 m.	eng
41572	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The Sambirano mouse lemur is named for the region where elements of Madagascar’s humid eastern and dry western forests meet. It can be found in disturbed habitats and in forests bordering agricultural sites. It has been observed in a garden close to secondary forest. No systematic studies of this species’ ecology or behavior have been conducted to date.	eng
41572	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41572	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, firewood collection, and charcoal production. The species does display some adaptability to disturbed habitats.	eng
41573	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. A 100,000-ha Central Menabe Conservation Site has been proposed, which will include a 30,000-ha strict conservation zone that includes the Kirindy Forest, the Analabe Private Reserve, and the currently unprotected Ambadira forests (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). There are no animals reported in captivity at present (ISIS, 2007).	eng
41573	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is restricted to the Menabe region in the south-west, south of Tsiribihina River, in an area probably no more than 900 km² (Schmid and Kappeler 1994; Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004). It is best known from the Kirindy/CFPF forests and Ambadira, but is believed to occur in the forests of Analabe just a few kilometers to the north-west. It formerly occurred in the Andranomena Special Reserve to the south (Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004), but it is not known whether it still occurs there. Sea-level to 150 m.	eng
41573	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species inhabits an area of dry deciduous forest; perhaps occasionally in secondary forest. A solitary forager characterized by extensively overlapping home ranges, the ranges of males being substantially larger than those of females and more prone to seasonal fluctuation. <em>Microcebus berthae</em> is the world's smallest primate.	eng
41573	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Although it appears to be adaptable and abundant where it occurs, its population is believed to be no more than 8,000 potentially breeding individuals (Schwab and Ganzhorn 2004). Densities of 100 individuals/km² have been recorded in patches where it occurs (suggesting high localized densities), but the overall generalized density is about one-third - probably in the order of 30/km².	eng
41573	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to illegal logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
41574	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It could be present in four national parks (Andohahela, Tsimanampetsotsa, Zombitse and Vohibasia) and the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, but this requires confirmation (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
41574	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. Groves (2000) reports examining specimens from three southern Madagascar sites: Tabiky, an un-named location 170 km east of Tuléar, and Tolagnaro. However, the presence of <em>C. adipicaudatus</em> in the region of Tolagnaro is not supported by Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), whose findings document instead the presence of three other <em>Cheirogaleus</em> species from that region (<em>crossleyi</em>, <em>medius</em>, and <em>majori</em>). Until more focused field surveys are undertaken, the range of this species is probably best described as south-western Madagascar.	eng
41574	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species apparently inhabits lowland dry forests and spiny desert from sea level to 800 m, but precise information regarding its ecology and behavior is complicated by taxonomic confusion with <em>C. medius</em>.	eng
41574	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, and complicated by taxonomic confusion with <em>C. medius</em>.	eng
41574	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss is a likely threat to the species.	eng
41576	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not reported from any protected areas. Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
41576	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	At present this species is known only from museum specimens representing three localities in Madagascar’s Central Domain. The type locality, Ankeramadinika, was not found on any map, but is recorded as a day’s journey east of Antananarivo (Groves 2000). Rasolofoson <em>et al.</em> (2007) reported it in the Makira forest; this seems a rather large range extension, and it may be that a closely related, so far undescribed, species is involved (C. Groves pers. comm.).	eng
41576	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.	eng
41576	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is known only from museum specimens.	eng
41576	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, though habitat loss may be a threat.	eng
41577	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not reported from any protected areas, but may possibly occur in the Betampona Nature Reserve and Mangerivola Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
41577	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	At present, this species is known only from museum specimens representing a handful of localities along a short stretch of Madagascar’s central-eastern coast near Toamasina (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Its range is situated within that of <em>C. major</em>. It is reported by Rasolofoson <em>et al</em>. (2007) in the Makira forest, in the Maroantsetra region, but this is a long way north of the previously documented localities, and it may be that a further new species is involved (C. Groves pers. comm.).	eng
41577	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.	eng
41577	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is known only from museum specimens.	eng
41577	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown.	eng
41579	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The only protected area in which this species is believed to occur is the Manongarivo Special Reserve, where it is known only from the western slopes. The only protected area in which A. unicolor  occurs is the Manongarivo Special Reserve, where it is known only from the western slopes. Consideration should be given to establishing a protected area on the Ampasindava Peninsula and extending the boundaries of the Manongarivo Special Reserve eastward (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Additional research on population numbers and range and biology and ecology are essential.	eng
41579	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This relatively newly described species is probably restricted to the Sambirano region in north-western Madagascar, including the Ampasindava Peninsula (Thalmann and Geissmann 2000). The northern extent of its distribution is possibly the Sambirano River and the southern limit either the Andranomalaza or Maevarano River. It also has been reported from the western slopes of the Manongarivo Special Reserve (identified by Raxworthy and Rakondroparany, 1988 as A. laniger; reclassified by Thalmann and Geismann 2000). Sea level to 700 m.	eng
41579	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown. Known only from a few specimens.	eng
41579	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Deforestation through slash-and-burn agriculture (even on steep slopes) and for charcoal production, which may be sold in Nosy Be, are likely the main threats. The degree to which the species is hunted is not known.	eng
41580	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not known to occur in any protected areas. Research is needed to better understand its geographic range, and to investigate aspects of its demography and life-history.<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix acariensis</span>).	eng
41580	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	At the time of its description, <em>Mico acariensis</em> had not been observed in the wild, but according to local settlers it occurred along the right bank of the lower Rio Acarí, and presumably as such through the interfluvium of the Rios Acarí (in the west) and Sucundurí (to the east), south perhaps to a contact zone with <em>M. melanurus</em> between the Rios Aripuanã and Juruena (Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2000). Noronha <em>et al</em>. (2007), reporting on an expedition to the region in 2004, recorded it at three localities along the west (left) bank of the Rio Sucunduri: Vila do Sucunduri (06º48'S, 59º04'W); Igarape’ Surubim (06º54'S, 59º03'W), and Igarapé do Liso (07º17'S, 58º50'W). These localities confirm the range supposed by Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000).	eng
41580	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Weight 420 g, H&B 24.0 cm, TL 35.0 (holotype) (Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41580	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species in the wild.	eng
41580	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This is a poorly known species. Although its range is small, it is rather remote and there is little disturbance by humans. They are probably not hunted, although there may be some use as pets.	eng
41582	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix manicorensis</span>).<br/>Further survey work is needed to better understand the limits of distribution of this recently described species, and to investigate aspects of its biology and ecology.	eng
41582	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The Manicoré Marmoset is known from the west bank of the lower Rio Aripuanã from the mouth, west as far as the Rio Manicoré, south towards its headwaters. Despite the map provided by Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (2000), it evidently does not reach the confluence with the Rio Roosevelt—the type locality of <em>M. marcai</em>. The southern limits are probably marked by the headwaters of the Rio Mataurá or Rio Arauá, about 7ºS.	eng
41582	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Described as dense primary <em>terra firma</em> rain forest and seocndary forest surrounding plantations and fields (Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2000). Very high densities were found in an abandoned <em>seringal</em> - an area where the densities of rubber trees and others of interest to humans (Brazil nut trees, cacao and other fruiting trees) were increased artificially. Today, this provides rich habitat for small primates, including marmosets, titis, and night monkeys (Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>There have been no studies of the behaviour and ecology of this species in the wild.	eng
41582	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Occurs in high densities close to human habitatations, but rare in undisturbed forest.	eng
41582	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This species appears to be adaptable in the face of anthropogenic disturbance. It is probably not hunted, but there may be some use as pets.	eng
41583	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Silva Jr, J.S. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix mauesi</span>).	eng
41583	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Silva Jr, J.S. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Central Amazon, south of the Rio Amazonas. In the original description, the Maués Marmoset was known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality, but local people informed that it occurred along the Rio Maués to the south of the type locality and to the west as far as the Paraná Urariá and Rio Abacaxis. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) reported a further locality: Santa Maria, on the right of the lower Rio Abacaxis, municipality of Nova Olinda do Norte, state of Amazonas (3º54'S, 58º46'W). They also obtained reports of <em>M. mauesi</em> occurring in the vicinity of the town of Abacaxis, right bank of the Rio Abacaxis (3º55'S, 58º45'W) a few kilometers downriver from Santa Maria. It was reported not to occur at São João on the left bank of the Rio Marimari, near its confluence with the Rio Abacaxis (3º57'S, 58º48'W), nor at two other localities on the west bank of the Rio Abacaxis. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) reported the occurrence of a bare-eared marmoset on the west bank of the Rio Abacaxis, which they later described (1998) as <em>Callithrix saterei</em>.<br/><br/>A recent survey has increased further still the range of <em>M. maues</em>i, at the expense of <em>M. humeralifer</em>.	eng
41583	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Silva Jr, J.S. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Inhabits dense tropical rain forest. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1995) observed <em>M. mauesi</em> in a secondary forest near a guaraná plantation. <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Adults weigh 315 to 405 g (n=4), H&B 19.8-22.6 cm, T 34.1-37.6 cm (n=7) (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1992; Ferrari 2008) .<br/><br/>No ecological-behavioural field studies have been carried out on this species.	eng
41583	population	Rylands, A.B., Silva Jr, J.S. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
41583	threats	Rylands, A.B., Silva Jr, J.S. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There is no evidence of any current major threats to this species. They are not hunted, but may possibly be seen as pets.	eng
41584	conservation	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of this species. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES ( as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix humilis</span>).	eng
41584	distribution	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	According to Van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> (1998) and Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003), the Black-crowned Dwarf Marmoset has a very restricted range along the west bank of the Rio Aripuanã, from its mouth, just south-west of the town of Novo Aripuanã, south at least to the village of Tucunaré, and west, along the right bank of the Rio Madeira to the mouth of the Rio Mataurá, and the right bank of the Rio Uruá. They speculated that the southern limit is probably marked by the headwaters of the Rios Mariepauá and Arauá. An isolated population was also found along the middle Rio Atininga, about 50 km south-west of the presumed southern limit of the main population, about 10 km east of the Rio Manicoré. The range of <em>Callibella humilis</em> is entirely within that hypothesized for <em>Mico manicorensis</em>.	eng
41584	habitat	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species occurs in <em>terra firma</em> rainforest in the central Amazon. It is an adaptable species, found in edge habitats near villages. Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003) indicated that the species shows an extreme commensalism with humans and is "almost totally dependent for survival on multi-species managed forests, fruit orchards and gardens growing on so-called <em>terras pretas</em> (anthropogenic soils, or 'black earth'). Sympatric with <em>Mico manicorensis</em>.<br/><br/>Its diet includes insects, fruits and gums. Tree-gouging and gum-feeding is as important in this species as it is in  the smaller, allopatric <em>Cebuella</em>, and especially important in the dry season when fruits are scarce (Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen 2003).<br/><br/>Average groups are made up of 6-8 individuals, but group aggregations have been observed with over 30 individuals (Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen 2003). Unlike the norm for callitrichids, observations in the wild indicate that more than one female is reproductively active in each group. Only one offspring has been seen in any one group in the wild, indicating that singleton births, not twins are the norm. Only the mother it seems carries the young (cooperative breeding not observed).<br/><br/>Body weight 150 g.<br/>Size: Female H&B 16.7 cm, TL 22.0 cm.<br/>Size: Male H&B 16.1 cm, TL 20.9 cm.	eng
41584	population	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Van Roosmalen and Van Roosmalen (2003) estimated a total population of about 10,000 individuals.	eng
41584	threats	Mittermeier, R.A. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	There is no evidence of any major threats at present. However, its habitat is potentially vulnerable to destruction for agriculture. They are probably not hunted, though there may be some use as pets.	eng
41585	conservation	Corbett, L.K., 2008	Protected areas for dingoes only occur in Australia. See Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al.</em> (2004) for a summary of dingo occurrence in Australia's protected areas.<br/><br/>Although protected in Federal National Parks, World Heritage areas, Aboriginal reserves, and the Australian Capital Territory, the dingo is a ‘declared’ pest throughout much of its remaining range, and landholders are obliged to manage populations; the dingo is ‘undeclared’, but not protected, in the Northern Territory (Fleming <em>et al</em>. 2001). The dingo is not protected in any other countries of its range.<br/><br/>No conservation measures have been taken other than that the dingo has been nominated as a threatened species in the State of NSW and the Australian Federal Government has recently published ‘best practice’ guidelines to manage and conserve dingoes (Fleming <em>et al</em>. 2001). The efforts of dingo ‘preservation’ societies in Australia are currently ineffective because most of their stock is untested or known to be hybrid (Corbett 2001). There are no conservation measures for wild dingoes in Asia. However, in New Guinea, the Department of Environment and Conservation has indicated that measures will be initiated to protect New Guinea singing dogs (I.L. Brisbin pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Occurrence in captivity</strong><br/>Dingoes and/or dingo-like hybrids occur in many zoos and private facilities worldwide. Tests using skull measurements of deceased animals or valid DNA tests are required to assess the purity of captive populations. <br/><br/><strong>Gaps in knowledge</strong><br/>1) Morphological and genetic assessment of the taxonomic status of dingo-like dogs in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, China, Myanmar, India, Philippines and, where present, their distribution, abundance, ecology and behaviour.<br/><br/>2) The ecological role of hybrids in Australia. If pure dingoes become extinct, will hybrids alter predation rates on native fauna and livestock? <br/><br/>3) Rabbits are a major prey in Australia but their populations have recently been decimated by rabbit calicivirus disease. What will be the effect on dingo ecology including predation on livestock?<br/><br/>4) What are the ecological effects of dingo control on feral cat and fox populations in Australia (mesopredator release)?	eng
41585	distribution	Corbett, L.K., 2008	Based on fossil (Olsen and Olsen 1977), molecular (Vilà <em>et al.</em> 1997, Corbett 2003) and anthropological evidence (Corbett 1995), the early primitive dingoes formerly had a cosmopolitan distribution (Corbett 1995). The primitive dingoes were associated with nomadic, human hunter-gatherer societies and later with sedentary agricultural population centres where the primitive dingoes were tamed and subsequently transported around the world. Austronesian-speaking people transported the dingo from mainland Asia to Australia and other islands in Southeast Asia and the Pacific between 1,000 and 5,000 years ago (Corbett 1985).<br/><br/>Pure dingoes have been demonstrated to occur only as remnant populations in central and northern Australia and throughout Thailand. However, based on external phenotypic characters, they may also occur in  Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Viet Nam.	eng
41585	habitat	Corbett, L.K., 2008	Dingoes occupy all habitats, including tropical alpine moorlands above 3,800 m asl. in Papua New Guinea (Troughton 1957, Newsome 1971), forested snow-clad peaks in temperate eastern Australia, arid hot deserts in central Australia, and tropical wetlands and forests of northern Australia (Corbett 1995). The absence of dingoes in many grassland habitats of Australia is due to persecution by humans (Fleming <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41585	population	Corbett, L.K., 2008	Estimating dingo abundance is difficult because the external phenotypic characters of many hybrids are indistinguishable from pure dingoes. For example, populations of ‘wild dogs’ in the south-eastern highlands of Australia have been fairly abundant over the past 50 years. However, the proportion of pure dingoes, as based on skull morphometrics, has declined from about 49% in the 1960s (Newsome and Corbett 1985) to about 17% in the 1980s (Jones 1990) and the pure form may now be locally extinct (Corbett 2001). Such quantitative data is not available for countries other than Australia, Thailand and Papua New Guinea so that the following qualitative estimates of abundance refer to pure dingo and/or hybrid populations as based on general body form, pelage colour and breeding pattern. <br/><br/>In Australia, pure dingoes are common in northern, northwestern and central regions, rare in southern and north-eastern regions, and probably extinct in the south-eastern and south-western regions. The density of wild dogs (dingoes and hybrids) varies between 0.03 and 0.3 per km² according to habitat and prey availability (Fleming <em>et al.</em> 2001). Dingoes are rare in New Guinea and possibly extinct as there have been no confirmed sightings for about 30 years (Newsome 1971, Brisbin <em>et al.</em> 1994, Bino 1996, Koler-Matznick <em>et al</em>. 2000). Dingoes are common in Sulawesi but their abundance elsewhere in Indonesia is unknown. They are common throughout the northern and central regions of Thailand, but less so in the southern regions; considered rare in the Philippines and probably extinct on many islands. Present in Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, China, Myanmar and India, but abundance unknown. Dingoes are probably extinct in the wild in Korea, Japan and Oceania, although several local dog breeds share dingo-like characteristics.<br/><br/>Dingoes were formerly widespread throughout the world (Corbett 1995) and although populations of wild dogs remain abundant in Australia and other countries, the proportion of pure dingoes is declining through hybridization with domestic dogs. Estimated populations of pure dingoes and/or hybrid populations can be found in Sillero-Zubiri <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
41585	threats	Corbett, L.K., 2008	Cross-breeding with domestic dogs represents a significant threat to the long-term persistence of dingoes. Hybrids exist in all populations worldwide (including Fraser Island, Australia; Woodall <em>et al.</em> 1996) and the proportion of hybrids is increasing. A related threat to dingoes in Australia concerns the actions and consequences of ‘so-called’ dingo preservation societies, dingo ‘farms’ and legislation allowing legal ownership of dingoes by members of the public because most are based on known hybrids or untested dingo stock and thus effectively increase the hybridization process (Corbett 2001). The increasing interest of private individuals and groups in keeping ‘dingoes’ as pets in Australia and other countries including Switzerland and USA, also poses a threat via human selection of form and behaviour.<br/><br/>Bounties for dingo skin and scalps exist in some regions of Australia. Dingoes are also sold in human food markets in several Asian countries. They are also bred by private individuals and companies in Australia and USA and sold as pets.	eng
41586	conservation	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Included on CITES - Appendix II (as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lycalopex fulvipes</span>). Protected by Chilean law since 1929 (Iriarte and Jaksic 1986), but enforcement is not always possible and some poaching occurs. <br/><br/>Nahuelbuta National Park (IX Administrative Region) protects the mainland population in ca. 68 km²; Chiloé National Park (X Admistrative Region) protects the island population in ca. 430 km².<br/><br/>The Temuco Zoo held a male and a female until their release in October 2000 on Chiloé. No known specimens are kept elsewhere.<br/><br/>Gaps in Knowledge<br/>A high priority would be to conduct intensive searches for other populations between Nahuelbuta and Chiloé. There are many remote pockets that are little explored where isolated populations could still be found.<br/><br/>The behavioural ecology of a forest-specialist or forest-dependent species is of utmost interest. Research topics to be explored include: social behaviour (e.g., tolerance to conspecifics), large home range overlaps, presence of helpers, and small litter sizes. In addition, little is known as concerns population dynamics, dispersal behaviour, and metapopulation structure.<br/><br/>Genetic aspects, including levels of inbreeding and inbreeding depression, and past population bottlenecks, are little known and important for future management.<br/><br/>Impacts of and resilience to human-related disturbances, the effects of free-ranging dogs, the foxes ecological naiveté to people, and forest disappearance and fragmentation are all of interest for fox survival. The impact of habitat loss (through forest conversion) on fox populations is also of interest. At least in Chiloé, habitat disturbance per se seems to play little, if any, role in population dynamics. On the mainland, however, fragmentation might increase risk of predation by other native predators.<br/><br/>Considering the potential disease threat posed by domestic dogs, an investigation into diseases and pathogens (and other allied mortality causes) is crucial.<br/><br/>If Darwin's Fox is so closely related to the Sechuran Fox of southern Peru as the circumstantial evidence suggests, then how did the two species diverge and became separated? These two ranges have been separated by the Atacama Desert for a long time. Exploring this question, in connection with other puzzling biogeographical patterns, could provide evidence to better understand canid speciation and species interactions.	eng
41586	distribution	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Darwin's Fox is endemic to Chile. It has a disjunct distribution with two populations: one found in the forests of Chiloé Island (42°S, 74°W), and another on the coastal mountains in Nahuelbuta National Park of mainland Chile (37°45'S, 73°00'W).<br/><br/>Vila <em>et al.</em> (2004) found evidence for what may be a third population at Punta Chanchan, north of Valdivia.	eng
41586	habitat	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Darwin's Fox is generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests (Jaksic <em>et al.</em> 1990; Medel <em>et al</em>. 1990). Recent research on Chiloé, based on trapping and telemetry data on a disturbance gradient, indicates that, in decreasing order, foxes use old-growth forest followed by secondary forest followed by pastures and openings (Jiménez 2000). Although variable among individuals, about 70% of their home ranges comprised old-growth forest. However, compared with the amount available, foxes preferred secondary forest and avoided old growth. Selection of openings varied among individuals. The forest is of Valdivian type, comprising a few native conifers and several species of broad-leaved evergreen species, and dominated by fruit-bearing trees of the Mirtaceae family. This forest is dense, with different strata and very moist all year round (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/>On the Pacific coast of Chiloé, Darwin's Fox lives in a fragmented environment of coastal sand dunes mixed with dense evergreen forest. On the northern part of the island, Darwin's Fox uses a relatively flat, but fragmented landscape of broad-leaf forest and dairy cow pastures. Research on the mainland population supports the notion of the species using primarily dense forest (Jaksic <em>et al</em>. 1990; Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 1990). Capture and telemetry data indicate that animals are found in dense Araucaria-Nothofagus forest, open <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and open pasture with decreasing frequency (McMahon <em>et al</em>. 1999). The forest comprises mainly monkey-puzzle trees (<em>Araucaria araucania</em>) and five species of southern beech (<em>Nothofagus</em> spp.), one of which is non-deciduous.	eng
41586	population	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	There are few records for the species. Charles Darwin collected the first specimen in 1834 from the south-eastern end of Chiloé Island. Osgood (1943) later captured it at the mouth of the Inio River, on the southern shore of the same island. On the Pacific shore of Chiloé, the species has been trapped on Playa Tricolor (in June 1999, J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.) and intensively monitored since November 2001 at Ahuenco; on the Cordillera del Piuché, the fox has been monitored since 1989 (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 1990). On the northern part of Chiloé Island, one fox was captured in November 1999 and at Tepuhueico, on the central part, two adults were observed in June 2002 (J.E. Jiménez, pers. obs.). On the north-western part of the same island, a local recently killed a female and her two cubs; and there have been additional sightings in the same area (C. Muñoz pers. comm.). Thus, Darwin's Fox occurs on most of Chiloé Island (about 200 km long x 62 km wide), especially where forest remains, with the exception of the most populated areas on the eastern and north-eastern parts.<br/><br/>On mainland Chile, Jaime Jiménez has observed a small population since 1975 in Nahuelbuta National Park; this population was first reported to science in the early 1990s (Medel <em>et al.</em> 1990). It appears that Darwin's Foxes are restricted to the park and the native forest surrounding the park (McMahon <em>et al</em>. 1999). This park, only 68.3 km² in size, is a small habitat island of highland forest surrounded by degraded farmlands and plantations of exotic trees (Greer 1966). This population is located about 600 km north of the island population and, to date, no other populations have been found in the remaining forest in between (W.E. Johnson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Darwin's Fox was reported to be scarce and restricted to the southern end of Chiloé Island (Osgood 1943). The comparison of such older accounts (reporting the scarcity of Darwin's fox), with recent repeated observations, conveys the impression that the Darwin's Fox has increased in abundance, although this might simply be a sampling bias.	eng
41586	threats	Jiménez, J.E., Lucherini, M. & Novaro, A.J., 2008	Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, substantial mortality sources exist when foxes move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter. Some foxes even breed in these areas. This is one of the reasons why it is recommended that this park be expanded to secure buffer areas for the foxes that use these unprotected ranges (McMahon <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>The presence of dogs in the park may be the greatest conservation threat in the form of potential vectors of disease or direct attack. There is a common practice to have unleashed dogs both on Chiloé and in Nahuelbuta; these have been caught within foxes' ranges in the forest. Although dogs are prohibited in the national park, visitors are often allowed in with their dogs that are then let loose in the park. There has been one documented account of a visitor's dog attacking a female fox while she was nursing her two pups (E. McMahon, pers. obs.). In addition, local dogs from the surrounding farms are often brought in by their owners in search of their cattle or while gathering Araucaria seeds in the autumn. Park rangers even maintain dogs within the park, and the park administrator's dog killed a guiña in the park. Being relatively naive towards people and their dogs is seen as non-adaptive behaviour in this species' interactions with humans.<br/><br/>The island population appears to be relatively safe by being protected in Chiloé National Park. This 430 km² protected area encompasses most of the still untouched rainforest of the island. Although the park appears to have a sizable fox population, foxes also live in the surrounding areas, where substantial forest cover remains. These latter areas are vulnerable and continuously subjected to logging, forest fragmentation, and poaching by locals. In addition, being naive towards people places the foxes at risk when in contact with humans. If current relaxed attitudes continue in Nahuelbuta National Park, Chiloé National Park may be the only long-term safe area for the Darwin's Fox.<br/><br/>No commercial use. However, captive animals have been kept illegally as pets on Chiloé Island (Jiménez, pers. obs).	eng
41587	conservation	IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group (North America Regional Section), 2008	CITES – not listed (considered a subspecies of <em>V. velox</em>). <br/><br/>The Kit Fox is considered Vulnerable in Mexico (SEDESOL 1994). In the United States, the San Joaquin Kit Fox (<em>V. m. mutica</em>) is federally classified as Endangered, and as Threatened by the state of California (USFWS 1998). In Oregon, Kit Foxes are classified as Endangered. Harvests are not permitted in Idaho, Oregon, or California, and the Kit Fox is a protected furbearer species (i.e., regulated harvests) in Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In Mexico, the vulnerable status of the Kit Fox grants conservation measures for the species, but these are not enforced. In the United States, state and federal protections for Kit Foxes are being enforced. <br/><br/>In Mexico, Kit Foxes are found in the Biosphere Reserves of El Vizcaino, Mapimi and El Pinacate, in the Area of Special Protection of Cuatro Ciénegas, and are probably found in another eight protected areas throughout their range. In the United States, they occur in numerous protected areas throughout their range. The Endangered subspecies <em>V. m. mutica</em> occurs in the Carrizo Plain National Monument and various other federal, state, and private conservation lands.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway to protect the prairie dog towns of both eastern (Pronatura Noreste) and western Mexico (Institute of Ecology from the National University of Mexico), which are known to be strongholds for the kit fox, but no specific actions focused on the kit fox are being undertaken in Mexico. In the United States, a recovery plan has been completed (USFWS 1998) and is being implemented for the San Joaquin Kit Fox. Recovery actions include protection of essential habitat, and demographic and ecological research in both natural and anthropogenically modified landscapes. <br/><br/>No captive breeding efforts are currently being conducted for kit foxes. Facilities such as the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum in Tucson, Arizona, California Living Museum in Bakersfield, California, and several zoos keep live kit foxes for display and educational purposes. Also, Humboldt State University in Arcata, California maintains a small number of kit foxes for research and education.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>In general, demographic and ecological data are needed throughout the range of the kit fox so that population trends and demographic patterns can be assessed. In Mexico, information available on the Kit Fox is scarce. The most important gaps in our knowledge of the species are the present distribution of the species and population estimates throughout its range. General biological information is needed from more localities in the Mexican range of the kit fox. In the United States, information is required on the San Joaquin Kit Fox including assessing the effects of roads and pesticides on Kit Foxes, investigating dispersal patterns and corridors, determining metapopulation dynamics and conducting viability analyses, developing conservation strategies in anthropogenically altered landscapes, assessing threats from non-native Red Foxes, and range-wide population monitoring.	eng
41587	distribution	IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group (North America Regional Section), 2008	The Kit Fox inhabits the deserts and arid lands of western North America. In the United States, it occurs from southern California to western Colorado and western Texas, north into southern Oregon and Idaho. In Mexico, it occurs across the Baja California Peninsula and across northern Sonora and Chihuahua to western Nuevo León, and south into northern Zacatecas (McGrew 1979; Hall 1981).	eng
41587	habitat	IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group (North America Regional Section), 2008	The Kit Fox inhabits arid and semi-arid regions encompassing desert scrub, chaparral, halophytic, and grassland communities (McGrew 1979; O'Farrell 1987). It is found in elevations ranging from 400–1,900 m a.s.l., although Kit Foxes generally avoid rugged terrain with slopes > 5% (Warrick and Cypher 1998). Loose textured soils may be preferred for denning. Kit Foxes will use agricultural lands, particularly orchards, on a limited basis, and also can inhabit urban environments (Morrell 1972).	eng
41587	population	IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group (North America Regional Section), 2008	The species is common to rare. Density fluctuates with annual environmental conditions, which are dependent upon precipitation (Cypher <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Utah, density ranged from 0.1–0.8/km² (Egoscue 1956, 1975). In California, density varied from 0.15–0.24/km² over a period of three years on one study site (White <em>et al.</em> 1996) and from 0.2–1.7/km² over 15 years on another study site (Cypher <em>et al</em>. 2000). Kit Fox densities in prairie dog town complexes in Mexico were 0.32–0.8/km² in Chihuahua (List 1997) and 0.1/km² in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon (Côtera 1996).<br/><br/>In Mexico, data on which to base a population estimate for Kit Foxes are only available from two localities with very specific characteristics (presence of prairie dog towns). Therefore, the estimation of a population size for the country or even population trends is not possible with current information. However, because natural habitats occupied by the Kit Fox are being transformed, it is safe to assume that, overall, populations of the Kit Fox in Mexico are declining. In the past 10 years, about 40% of prairie dog towns in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon were converted to agriculture (L. Scott and E. Estrada unpubl.).<br/><br/>In the United States, Kit Fox abundance is unknown. Population trends are assumed to be relatively stable in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada where harvests for fur continue. Populations in Idaho, Oregon, and the Mojave Desert in California also may be relatively stable due to a lack of significant threats. Populations are potentially increasing in Colorado where foot-hold trapping was recently banned. Populations of the Endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox in the San Joaquin Valley of California are likely still declining due to continuing habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation (USFWS 1998).	eng
41587	threats	IUCN SCC Canid Specialist Group (North America Regional Section), 2008	The main threat to the long-term survival of the Kit Fox is habitat conversion, mainly to agriculture but also to urban and industrial development. In both western and eastern Mexico, prairie dog towns, which support important populations of Kit Foxes are being converted to agricultural fields, and in eastern Mexico the road network is expanding, producing a concomitant increase in the risk of vehicle mortality. In the San Joaquin Valley of California, habitat conversion for agriculture is slowing, but habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation associated with industrial and urban development are still occurring at a rapid pace.<br/><br/>In Mexico, Kit Foxes are occasionally sold illegally in the pet market. Kit Foxes are harvested for fur in some states in the USA, but otherwise are not used commercially.	eng
41588	conservation	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	Listed in CITES ? Appendix II. Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Niger and Tunisia.<br/><br/>Legally protected in Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>Historically, the North American Regional Studbook (Bauman 2002) lists some 839 individuals that have been held in the North American region between 1900 and 2001. At the end of 2001, there were 131 individuals in 51 institutions. The Australian Regional Studbook lists 81 historically, with only 12 in the captive population at present. Although fennecs occur in European zoos, there is no studbook or management plan. Fennecs are also kept as pets and bred privately, but these records are not available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>While studies of captive animals have gone some way towards improving our knowledge of this little-known species (particularly as regards reproduction), much remains unknown of their basic ecology and behaviour in the wild. Work on captive populations is encouraged, but an in-depth study of the species, with particular emphasis on habitat use and population dynamics in the wild is overdue. Field studies underway in Tunisia are starting to redress this situation but undoubtedly more work is needed.	eng
41588	conservation	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	Listed in CITES – Appendix II. Occurs in protected areas in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Niger and Tunisia.<br/><br/>Legally protected in Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>Historically, the North American Regional Studbook (Bauman 2002) lists some 839 individuals that have been held in the North American region between 1900 and 2001. At the end of 2001, there were 131 individuals in 51 institutions. The Australian Regional Studbook lists 81 historically, with only 12 in the captive population at present. Although fennecs occur in European zoos, there is no studbook or management plan. Fennecs are also kept as pets and bred privately, but these records are not available.<br/><br/>Gaps in knowledge<br/>While studies of captive animals have gone some way towards improving our knowledge of this little-known species (particularly as regards reproduction), much remains unknown of their basic ecology and behaviour in the wild. Work on captive populations is encouraged, but an in-depth study of the species, with particular emphasis on habitat use and population dynamics in the wild is overdue. Field studies underway in Tunisia are starting to redress this situation but undoubtedly more work is needed.	eng
41588	distribution	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	Widespread in the sandy deserts and semi-deserts of northern Africa to northern Sinai (Saleh and Basuony 1998). References to Fennec sightings in the United Arab Emirates were based on an animal in the Al Ain zoo (Al-Robbae 1982), which was, in fact, a Rüppell's Fox (Gasperetti <em>et al.</em> 1985). Thesiger (1949) reported Fennec tracks in the region of Abu Dhabi, but there are no confirmed records of the species in the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
41588	habitat	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	Fennecs subsist in arid desert environments, preferring this substrate for burrowing. Stable sand dunes are believed to be ideal habitat (Dorst and Dandelot 1969; Coetzee 1977), although they also live in very sparsely vegetated sand dunes near the Atlantic coast (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Annual rainfall is less than 100 mm per year on the northern fringe of the fennec's distribution. On the southern fringe, it may be found up to the Sahelian areas that receive as much as 300 mm rainfall per year. In the Sahara, sparse vegetation is usually dominated by <em>Aristida</em> spp., and <em>Ephedra alata</em> in large sand dunes. In small sand dunes, it is dominated by <em>Panicum turgidum</em>, <em>Zygophyllum</em> spp., and sometimes by trees like <em>Acacia</em> spp. and <em>Capparis deciduas</em> (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).	eng
41588	population	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	They are common throughout the Sahara (Harrison and Bates 1991) and may occur to north Sahelian areas in the south to 14ºN (Dragesco-Joffé 1993; Granjon <em>et al.</em> 1995). The only documented regression concerns northern Moroccan Sahara, where the fennec disappeared during the 1960s from four localities, which were restricted sandy areas close to permanent human settlements (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Current statistics are not available, but the population is assumed to be adequate based on the observations that the fennec is still commonly trapped and sold commercially in northern Africa. In southern Morocco, fennecs were commonly seen in all sandy areas away from permanent human settlements (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).	eng
41588	threats	Asa, C.S., Valdespino, C., Cuzin, F., de Smet, K. & Jdeidi, T., 2008	The primary threat appears to be trapping for commercial use. In sandy areas commonly visited by tourists, the Fennec is well known, but because it is otherwise difficult to see, it is trapped for exhibition or sale to tourists (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Though restricted to marginal areas, new permanent human settlements such as those in southern Morocco have resulted in the disappearance of fennecs in these areas (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.).	eng
41589	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in many protected areas across the range.	eng
41589	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widely distributed from Gambia to south-west Sudan, southern Uganda and western Kenya, and from northern Angola, and north-western Zambia to DR Congo and western Tanzania. Then discontinuously distributed in eastern and southern Africa in montane and lowland forests of Tanzania, Malawi, parts of Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, south to about 20°5’S (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). Also present on Bioko (Eisentraut 1973) and Zanzibar (Perkin 2005). Up to 2,500 m (Van Rompaey and Ray in press).	eng
41589	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in deciduous forests, lowland rainforests and mountains, gallery and riverine forests, savanna woodlands, and logged and second-growth forests. Known to visit cultivated fields bordering forest edge (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). Predominantly frugivorous, although forages opportunistically for vertebrates and insects (Van Rompaey and Ray in press).	eng
41589	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widespread and locally abundant, and probably the most common African forest small carnivoran (Van Rompaey and Ray in press). In Gabon minimum average density was estimated at ca. 5/km² (Charles-Dominique 1978).	eng
41589	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats, although they may be undergoing some localized declines due to habitat loss. They are also commonly trapped or hunted for bushmeat and for traditional medicine. They were the most common carnivore recorded  in two markets in Equatorial Guinea (Juste <em>et al</em>. 1995) as well as in Guinea (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). In some regions, the fur is sought after to make ceremonial dresses (Malbrant and Maclatchy 1949) and to make wrist-bracelets, hats, and to cover the bow (Carpaneto and Germi 1989).	eng
41590	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Ray, J., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
41590	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Ray, J., 2008	Widely distributed from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone eastward to southern Sudan and Ethiopia and south to southern Africa, where absent from most of Namibia, Botswana and large parts of C South Africa, wherever adequate water and cover are unavailable (Baker and Ray in press). Present on Pemba Island, but absent from Zanzibar (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 3,950 m in Bale Mountains N.P., Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996). Wozencraft (2005) lists this species as occurring in Algeria, presumably an error as there are no confirmed records from this country.	eng
41590	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Ray, J., 2008	Mainly restricted to riparian habitats (rivers, streams, swamps, marshes and dams), wherever there is suitable vegetation cover and water in close proximity. They may also be found along estuaries and in coastal areas. Sometimes found away from watercourses, though only for limited periods (Baker and Ray in press). Diet comprises mostly aquatic prey with crustaceans usually dominating, which is unusual among herpestids (Baker and Ray in press).	eng
41590	population	Hoffmann, M. & Ray, J., 2008	Generally common in suitable habitat. It was the second most photographed species in a camera-trapping study in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania (De Luca and Mpunga 2005). In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, the density was recorded at 1.8 / km² (Maddock 1988).	eng
41590	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Ray, J., 2008	There are currently no major threats known to the species. However, since it is dependent on riverine vegetation for shelter, the loss of this habitat may result in some localized declines where habitat loss is taking place (Baker and Ray in press). The drainage of swamplands for conversion to arable land has been identified as a threat to Marsh Mongooses in eastern Africa (Andama 2000). The Marsh Mongoose is commonly found in bushmeat markets, and was the most common carnivore appearing in bushmeat markets in SE Nigeria (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999) and was also commonly recorded in bushmeat surveys in the Classified Forest of Diecke, Guinea (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41591	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Selous N.P., Arusha N.P. and Udzungwa Mtns N.P. (Tanzania).	eng
41591	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Ranges from eastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique northwards through Malawi, eastern Zambia, south-eastern DR Congo Tanzania, to the Lukenya foothills of Kenya. There are outlying records from Mweru Wantipa in the north of Zambia, and from the Zimbabwean side of the middle Zambezi R. near Lake Kariba (Taylor in press). Present on Zanzibar. Recorded to 1,850 m asl (De Luca and Mpunga 2005).<br/><br/>Reported from Yemen (Nader and Al-Safadi 1991), although Simmons (1995) states that this record requires confirmation.	eng
41591	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from a variety of habitats, including Acacia woodlands in Mozambique, Brachystegia woodland in Zimbabwe, montane and bamboo forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, and coral-rag thicket and groundwater forest in Zanzibar (Taylor in press). Omnivorous.	eng
41591	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Most accounts of this species report them as uncommon, but a recent photo-trapping exercise in the Udzungwa Mountains found this to be the most frequently recorded carnivore (De Luca and Mpunga 2005) and it was also the most common animal camera-trapped in other parts of the Eastern Arc Mountains, including the Ulugurus and Ngurus (F. Rovero pers. comm.).	eng
41591	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41592	conservation	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in several protected areas, including Dzangha-Sangha in Central African Republic and Okapi Faunal Reserve in DR Congo.	eng
41592	distribution	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found only in the Central African rainforests from the Cross R. westward to Cameroon and Central African Republic and southward to Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, and DR Congo, north of the Congo R. eastwards to the Rift Valley in eastern DR Congo (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The presence of this species in Angola was rejected by Crawford-Cabral (1989). Ranges to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41592	habitat	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Dense ground-scrub in deep, tall, deciduous forest. Not usually found in disturbed forest (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41592	population	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Considered rare or very rare by several authors, but more common in the east and south of its range (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In the Ituri Forest, DR Congo, this species made up one-quarter of all carnivores hunted by Bambuti pygmies with dogs (Hart and Timm 1978).	eng
41592	threats	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats, although numbers probably are declining as a result of forest fragmentation and forest loss from logging, mining, and slash-and-burn farming, and to a lesser degree from bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41593	conservation	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas, although the degree of protection varies.	eng
41593	distribution	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to central Africa, where confined to rainforest in DR Congo limited in the north by the Ubangi R. and in the south by the Kasai R.; also present in western Uganda. A disjunct population lives on the slopes (between 1,500 and 2,900 m asl) of Mt. Elgon, Uganda (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). May occur in south-western Central African Republic (Ray 2001).	eng
41593	habitat	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits lowland and montane rainforest. Commonly found near villages in the Ituri Forest (Ray, in Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41593	population	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although there is no direct information on abundance, they are common in bushmeat markets in north-eastern DR Congo (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987) suggesting that they are widespread and abundant in this region. In the Ituri Forest, Bambuti pygmies captured this species with greater frequency than other carnivores (Hart and Timm 1978).	eng
41593	threats	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats, but numbers are probably declining due to habitat loss and bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The Mt. Elgon population also may be threatened by hunting and habitat degradation (Kingdon 1997).	eng
41594	conservation	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from Salonga N.P. in DR Congo. There is a paucity of information available for this species, making it a priority for research, particularly to determine its current population status and the extent of its range. In particular, a survey for the disjunct population in Angola is urgently needed where it is known only from the holotype (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41594	distribution	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found only in Angola and DR Congo. In Angola, known only from a single specimen collected in 1908 north of the Cuanza R. (Crawford-Cabral 1989). In DR Congo, present in the rainforest south-east of the Congo/Lualaba Rivers (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41594	habitat	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of deciduous rainforest; not known to visit cultivated or inhabited land (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41594	population	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Up until 1984, known only from two specimens, the type and the specimen from Baringa. However, they have since been found to be quite common in some regions (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). During bushmeat surveys conducted in the eastern Congo basin, this species accounted for only 10% of carnivores compared with 42% for Alexander's Cusimanse (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
41594	threats	Van Rompaey, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Threats to this species are not clear, but they probably include habitat loss and bushmeat hunting.	eng
41595	conservation	Dunham, A., Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several protected areas across their range, including Mt. Sangbé, Maraouhé and Comoé National Parks in Côte d’Ivoire and Western Area Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone (Goldman and Dunham in press).	eng
41595	distribution	Dunham, A., Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Restricted to the rainforests of south-west and south-east Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana, and extending just east of R. Volta (Goldman and Dunham in press). Ranges to around 1,500 m asl on Mount Nimba in Guinea (Goldman and Dunham in press).	eng
41595	habitat	Dunham, A., Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found primarily in dense undergrowth of rainforest, but also in farm bush, logged forest, and plantations. In Côte d’Ivoire, also found in humid savanna zone, and in gallery forests of savanna, and in Ghana found on the Accra Plain (observed foraging in a dry open area of grassland and thicket) (Goldman and Dunham in press).	eng
41595	population	Dunham, A., Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common. Population density in riparian forest of Taï N.P. was estimated at 13.2 individuals/km² (Goldman and Dunham in press).	eng
41595	threats	Dunham, A., Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats, but they may be vulnerable to hunting in some regions (e.g., Guinea, where they were one of the most commonly trapped small carnivores; Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41596	conservation	Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in several protected areas, including Monte Alen N.P. in Equatorial Guinea and Dzanga-Sangha Reserve in Central African Republic (Goldman in press).	eng
41596	distribution	Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in rainforests of Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo Republic, and Central African Republic (Goldman in press). The specific locality of a specimen collected in Benin is uncertain and given as “Agouagou?”, which is well beyond the rainforest zone (Goldman in press). Not yet recorded from the rainforests of Gabon, but probably occurs. Ranges from sea level to ca. 1,600 m asl.	eng
41596	habitat	Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found in undergrowth of rainforest, often near water. In Nigeria, they have been recorded in areas of fragmented forest mixed with farmland (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999) and as widespread in the Niger Delta, including the largely deforested lowland zone east of Orashi R. (Powell 1997).	eng
41596	population	Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although relatively widely distributed, they are probably not common anywhere in their range.	eng
41596	threats	Goldman, C. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	No major threats, but, like other species of cusimanses, they are hunted for bushmeat (e.g., Juste <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
41597	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The Yellow Mongoose occurs in numerous protected areas across its range in southern Africa.	eng
41597	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Confined to southern Africa, with a marginal intrusion into extreme south-western Angola. Within this range, they occupy the drier western parts, being widespread in Namibia, Botswana and much of C and W South Africa, but absent from the Namib Desert and Caprivi Strip in Namibia, the Okavango in Botswana, Zimbabwe (except for an extreme western record), and the easterly regions of southern Africa (P.J. Taylor in press).	eng
41597	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Predominantly a species of open grassland, scrub and arid savannas in the drier, semi-arid, western parts of southern Africa. Due to their use of burrows, rocky and hard soils are avoided (P.J. Taylor in press). Predominantly insectivorous, but opportunistic and will hunt rodents, birds, other vertebrates, and arachnids (P.J. Taylor in press). The Yellow Mongoose is the primary host for the viverrid strain of rabies endemic to the interior plateau of South Africa, where Yellow Mongoose population densities are highest. The role of the Yellow Mongoose as a maintenance host is promoted by its diurnal and colonial, burrow-living habits (P.J. Taylor in press).	eng
41597	population	Taylor, P.J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Population densities vary, with the highest densities reported for grassland regions of South Africa. A population density of 6.0-7.1 individuals/100 ha was estimated in the West Coast N.P. of South Africa (Cavallini 1993, Cavallini and Nel 1995).	eng
41597	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41598	conservation	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The only protected area from which this species has been recorded is the Garamba N.P. in north-eastern DR Congo. Lack of knowledge of this species’ biology and habitat requirements make this a priority species for study (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41598	distribution	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The exact range of this mongoose is uncertain, but it occurs in north-eastern DR Congo, Central African Republic, extreme southern Sudan and Uganda (Stuart and Stuart in press). It may occur further west than current records indicate. Old specimens in the Paris Natural History Museum were collected at Sanghe, but it is not clear whether this is the district in the Congo Republic, or that in the Central African Republic (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
41598	habitat	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Apparently confined to a narrow belt of savanna-forest mosaic north of the Equator. It is known to occupy the thicketed shores of Lake Albert, as well as montane forest grasslands (Stuart and Stuart in press). Kingdon (1977) suggested that this is a mongoose living in the ecotone between high forest and lower rainfall wooded savanna. Insectivorous.	eng
41598	population	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is known from just 31 museum specimens and a handful of possible sightings; there have been no known positive records for more than two decades (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41598	threats	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The major threats to the species are unknown.	eng
41599	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Rathbun, G., 2008	This species is recorded from several protected areas, including the Skeleton Coast and Etosha National Parks (M. Griffin pers. comm.). This species definitely warrants further research, especially its taxonomic status relative to Angolan animals.	eng
41599	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Rathbun, G., 2008	This mongoose is confined to south-western Angola and north-western and north-central Namibia (Taylor in press).	eng
41599	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Rathbun, G., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of arid hills and kopjes away from water. In northern Namibia, the species is restricted to habitats dominated by large granitic boulders (petrophily), and the drainages and woodlands connecting these, which results in a highly fragmented distribution (Shortridge 1934; Rathbun and Cowley in press). There is no information available on the habitat preferences of the animals in Angola.	eng
41599	population	Hoffmann, M. & Rathbun, G., 2008	There is little information available on this species as few specimens are available in museums. However, it is assumed to be relatively common in arid regions (Taylor in press). It is sometimes confused with the Dwarf Mongoose <em>Helogale parvula</em>, which overlaps its range, and is also dark in colour in this part of its range.	eng
41599	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Rathbun, G., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
41600	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas in its range, including the West Coast and Mountain Zebra National Parks.	eng
41600	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to southern Africa, ranging throughout the Northern Cape (with one record from near the Botswana border), Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa, with a marginal intrusion into southern Namibia, west to Lesotho and extreme western KwaZulu-Natal (Cavallini in press). In 1990, an animal was trapped in Wakkerstroom, Mpumalanga, 200 km north of known records in KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho (Bronner 1990). Present from sea level around the Western Cape to 1,900 m in KwaZulu-Natal (Cavallini in press).	eng
41600	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has a wide habitat tolerance, and is found in forested areas as well as open country (Cavallini in press). They are often associated with refuge areas, such as dense bushes and rocky outcrops, and avoid open fields with short vegetation (Cavallini and Nel 1990). Often abundant close to human settlements. Catholic diet, though their primary food is generally small mammals or insects (Cavallini in press).	eng
41600	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common. Densities of up to 10 individuals/km² have been recorded in suitable habitat (Cavallini and Nel 1990).	eng
41600	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41603	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2003	Protected under Seychelles law. Not present in reserves but in conservation managed areas on Fregate and Silhouette.	eng
41603	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2003	<em>P. c. intergularis</em> is endemic to islands in the Seychelles. It is found on Mahé, Cerf, Praslin, La Digue, Fregate and Silhouette islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,500 km², but area of occupancy is approximately 0.1 km².	eng
41603	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2003	The taxon is present in lowland rivers and marshes, with a preference for rivers.  It feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, fruit and plant material.  Low levels of nematode infections have been recorded.  Competition between males is required for successful breeding.  Eggs laid December-January.	eng
41603	population	Gerlach, J., 2003	In 2002, the total population was estimated at less than 100 adults, distributed throughout six isolated populations. The subspecies lost 80% of its range through drainage in 1999. It is inferred that a similar level of population reduction has occurred as a result of this (Rhodin, pers. comm., Gerlach, pers. comm).	eng
41603	threats	Gerlach, J., 2003	Habitat loss and deterioration caused by drainage, pollution (rubbish dumping, sewage and/or pesticide run-off) and marsh invasion by water lettuce. Loss of habitat through drainage resulted in a loss of 80% of the taxon's range in 1999. Further declines are likely. Predation is a possible cause of decline on some islands.	eng
41604	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2003	Protected under Seychelles law. Not present in reserves but in conservation-managed areas on Fregate and Silhouette	eng
41604	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2003	A Seychelles endemic subspecies of a widely distributed African species. Present on Mahé, Cerf, Praslin, La Digue, Fregate and Silhouette islands. Extent of occurrence estimated at 3,500 km², but area of occupancy is approximately 0.05 km².	eng
41604	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2003	Preferred habitat is lowland marshes.  The taxon feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, fruit and plant material.     Eggs laid December-February, hatching after 48 days with genetic sex determination.	eng
41604	population	Gerlach, J., 2003	Population estimated to be les than 250 adults distributed throughout seven isolated populations. The subspecies lost 80% of its range through drainage in 1999. It is inferred that a similar level of population reduction has occurred as a result of this (Rhodin, pers. comm., Gerlach, pers. comm).	eng
41604	threats	Gerlach, J., 2003	Main threats to the species are loss of habitat through drainage (drainage resulted in 80% of range area being lost in 1999). Further declines are probable. Predation is a possible cause of population decline on some islands.	eng
41605	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. This is a very poorly known species, and is in need of further study.	eng
41605	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Confined to north-eastern Africa, in Somalia, adjacent parts of Ethiopia and marginally in north-eastern Kenya (Taylor in press). Occurs to around 600 m asl in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
41605	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Primarily an arid-adapted species, occurring in hilly areas in northern Somalia (Drake-Brockman 1910). There is a paucity of information on the behaviour and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar in many respects to the Slender Mongoose <em>H. sanguineus</em> (Taylor in press).	eng
41605	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is little information available on this species as few specimens are available in museums, and there have been scant observations in the wild. There are 14 specimens of the Somali Slender Mongoose in the British Museum and five in the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence (Taylor in press). It is assumed that it is relatively common in arid regions.	eng
41605	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although the species and its habitat requirements are poorly known, its range in the semi-arid regions of the Horn suggest that there are not likely to be any major threats to this mongoose.	eng
41606	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in numerous protected areas across their range.	eng
41606	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	One of the most widely distributed African mongooses, ranging from Senegal in the west to the Red Sea coast in Sudan in the east and south to the Northern Cape in South Africa (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Stuart (1981) mentions a museum record of this species from Mountain Zebra N.P., but this specimen is not mentioned in the studies of Watson and Dippenaar (1987) and Watson (1990), and their most southerly distribution limit is probably the far eastern part of the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Also occurs on Zanzibar (Stuart and Stuart 1998, Goldman and Winther-Hansen 2003). Ranges to 2,700 m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996)	eng
41606	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in a wide variety of habitats, but absent from true deserts and in sub-desertic parts of the Sahara such as Air, Niger. They occur on forest fringes, and may penetrate into forests along roads and are sometimes found around villages (Hoffmann and Taylor in press). Slender Mongooses are generalist carnivores, their diet primarily comprising small vertebrates and invertebrates (Hoffmann and Taylor in press).	eng
41606	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Slender Mongooses are among the most common mongooses in Africa. In the Serengeti, population densities between 1975 and 1990 ranged from three to six individuals/km² (Waser <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
41606	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. They have been recorded in bushmeat markets (e.g., Colyn <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Cunningham and Zondi (1991) listed this species among those used in traditional medicine in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
41608	conservation	Kingdon, J., Van Rompaey, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
41608	distribution	Kingdon, J., Van Rompaey, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Patchily distributed in the Horn of Africa region, being present in southern and south-eastern Ethiopia, southern Somalia and northern Kenya (Kingdon and Van Rompaey in press). Laurent and Laurent (2002) recorded this species from Djibouti (though this requires confirmation). A single, uncertain sighting in Mkomazi, Tanzania, might extend the species range into the north-eastern parts of Tanzania (J. Kingdon pers. obs.). They occur up to around 600 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1980, 1996).	eng
41608	habitat	Kingdon, J., Van Rompaey, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	In Ethiopia, this species is restricted to a zone of bush, thicket and shrubby deciduous woodlands dominated by species of the genera <em>Acacia, Commiphora, Grewia, Cordia, Euphorbia</em> and <em>Sterculia</em> (Kingdon and Van Rompaey in press). Like the Dwarf Mongoose, with which they are broadly sympatric, they use termitaria and stony outcrops as dens.	eng
41608	population	Kingdon, J., Van Rompaey, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although reliable estimates of their abundance are not available, Somali Dwarf Mongoose are abundant in some localities.	eng
41608	threats	Kingdon, J., Van Rompaey, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are not believed to be any major threats to the species.	eng
41609	conservation	Creel, S. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Dwarf Mongooses are present in several protected areas across their range, and, since they attain high densities and have small territories, even small protected areas can harbour large populations (Creel in press).	eng
41609	distribution	Creel, S. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widely distributed from southern Somalia and Ethiopia south to north-east KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa and westwards to northern Namibia and south-west and central Angola and south-estern DR Congo (Creel in press). Usually found to elevations of around 2,000 m asl.	eng
41609	habitat	Creel, S. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits open woodlands, thickets and wooded savannas, particularly where there are termitaria, rock outcroppings or crevices, or hollow logs for use as dens (Creel in press). Waser <em>et al</em>. (1995) noted that the most important determinant of Dwarf Mongoose habitat preference is the density of suitable dens. They are not found in highly arid areas. Almost entirely insectivorous, although they will prey on small vertebrates (Creel in press).	eng
41609	population	Creel, S. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Reported as the most abundant small carnivore in areas of open woodland or wooded savanna, with densities as high as 8 individuals/km² (though more typically around 5 individuals/km²; Waser <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
41609	threats	Creel, S. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41610	conservation	Widmann, P., Azlan J. & Hon, J., 2008	It is protected in all of Malaysia and Indonesia. Field surveys, ecological studies and assessments of any possible threats are urgently needed.	eng
41610	distribution	Widmann, P., Azlan J. & Hon, J., 2008	The species current found in Peninsular Malaysia (Wells, 1989; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006), Borneo (Nozaki <em>et al.</em> 1994; Hon, pers comm.), Brunei (Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007) and Palawan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998), Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippine Islands (Palawan, Busuanga and Calamian islands), (Medway, 1967; Corbet and Hill, 1992; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998; Van Rompaey 2000; Wozencraft, 2005). It is incorrectly listed as occurring in Viet Nam by Wozencraft (2005) (S. Roberton pers. comm.). A specimen in the AMNH from Trang, Thailand needs to be checked (Van Rompaey 2000). Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) lists this species as occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m. Northern limit on the Malay peninsula is 4 to 5 degrees north (Wells 1989). The subspecies <em>H. b. javanensis</em> was described from a zoo specimen on Java, but there are no records from the island (Van Rompaey 2000).	eng
41610	habitat	Widmann, P., Azlan J. & Hon, J., 2008	Little is known on ecology of this species. It is found near rivers, in lowland primary and secondary forest and in plantations (Payne <em>et al.</em>, 1985; Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) list this species as occurring from sea level up to 1,500 m. <br/><br/>It is likely to be found near rivers in the Philippines (Rabor, 1986; Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1998). On Borneo, it occurs in lowland primary and secondary forest, as well as plantations and in gardens (Payne <em>et al.</em>, 1985). In Sarawak, this species occurs in acacia plantations within mosaic or patchy forest or peat swamp forest. It is widespread in the hills and lowlands, but occuring up to 1,280 m elevation in the Kelabit uplands in Sarawak (Medway 1965, 1977). However, in Penisular Malaysia, all records have been from elevations of less than 100 m in primary or regenerating evergreen forest (Wells 1989). The species is currently being studied in Wildife Krau Reverve in Peninsular Malaysia in order to obtain more information on its ecology (Jennings <em>et al</em>, in prep.; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006).	eng
41610	population	Widmann, P., Azlan J. & Hon, J., 2008	The population status is poorly known. In the Philippines, this species is restricted to Palawan where it is quite rare (Widmann pers. comm). This species is widespread, and probably common, though its current status is poorly known (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Medway (1967) found that it was not common.	eng
41610	threats	Widmann, P., Azlan J. & Hon, J., 2008	Major threats are unknown, though it is eaten in some parts of Sarawak and is locally considered a pest in agricultural areas.	eng
41611	conservation	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Geraldine, V., 2008	The Indian Grey Mongoose is listed on CITES Appendix III in India (Wozencraft 2005). In India, there is no legal protection status in the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (Anon. 1994), and in fact listed in Schedule IV consisting of species of least conservation concern. Nevertheless, in central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003). This species is found in numerous protected areas. Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed.	eng
41611	distribution	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Geraldine, V., 2008	The Indian Grey Mongoose is found from Saudia Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Indonesia, and has been introduced on Japan (Corbet and Hill, 1980; Wells 1989; Wozencraft 2005). This species does not occur on the Ryukyu Islands or Mauritius; the possible records on these islands are only confusion with Herpestes javanicus perpetuated in the literature (S. Roy pers. comm.). The species' elevation range is from 0 to approximately 2500 m (Divya Mudappa pers. comm.).	eng
41611	habitat	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Geraldine, V., 2008	The habitat and ecology of the Indian Grey Mongoose is known from few studies, however, it has been recorded in disturbed areas, in dry secondary forests, and thorn forests (Shekhar 2003), but seems to be a commensal with humans as well. This species was often recorded near human settlements by Shekhar (2003) in a survey in central India during 2002-03, where it was seen near garbage bins, garbage dumps, scavenging on carrion, and on roads. The species seems to be most common in disturbed areas, in dry secondary forests and thorn forests. This species has been found up to 2,100 m (Corbet and Hill 1992) and feeds on insects and snakes (Santiapillai <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41611	population	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Geraldine, V., 2008	This species is thought to be common and abundant throughtout its range. One study in central India, where the species is common, found its abundance even decreased moving from human settlement towards undisturbed forests (Shekhar 2003).	eng
41611	threats	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Geraldine, V., 2008	This species has no major threats occurring across the whole of its range, however, it does experience some regional threats. Shekhar (2003) notes that the grey mongoose is often captured and sold as a pet. Gypsies from northern India use hook snares to capture individuals for skins, which are then sold in local markets in Nepal (Shekhar 2003). All mongoose species are in demand for the wildlife trade (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003): the meat is eaten by several tribes and the hair is used for making shaving brushes, paint brushes, and good luck charms (Hanfee and Ahmed 1999).	eng
41612	conservation	Muddapa, D., Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III.<br/>The Indian brown mongoose has been recorded in a few protected areas in the southern Western Ghats, India (Mudappa 2002). Urgent field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of any threats are needed.	eng
41612	distribution	Muddapa, D., Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The current distribution range for the Indian brown mongoose includes southern India (Yoganand and Kumar 1995; Mudappa 2002) and Sri Lanka. In South India it is found from 700 to 1,300 m from Virajpet in south Coorg and Ooty in the Nilgiri hills, Tiger Shola in the Palni hills, High Wavy Mountains in Madurai, Kalakad-Mundanthurai in Agasthyamalai hills, Valparai plateau in the Anamalai hills, and Peeramedu in Kerala (Pocock 1939, Prater 1971, Corbet and Hill 1992, Mudappa 1998, 2001).	eng
41612	habitat	Muddapa, D., Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C. & Yonzon, P., 2008	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of the Indian brown mongoose. It has been recorded within dense forest and adjacent man-modified areas (Mudappa 2002). This is most likely a crepuscular to nocturnal (Mudappa 1998, 2002). It was observed inside or adjacent to rainforests, as well as near garbage dumps in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India (Mudappa, 2002). The species occurs in coffee plantations and mid-elevation tropical forests and shola-grasslands in parts of Sri Lanka (Prater 1989), and within rainforest fragments and adjacent to them in tea and coffee plantations in Anamalai hills (Mudappa 2001, Muddapa D. unpublished data).	eng
41612	population	Muddapa, D., Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The population status of the Indian brown mongoose is poorly known, but it is apparently naturally rare to uncommon, as it was recorded only four times between 1996 and 1999 in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in India (Mudappa 2002). In the tea and coffee plantation dominated Valparai plateau (900-1,400 m) in the Anamalai hills, it is relatively more common than in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Mudappa, D. unpublished data).	eng
41612	threats	Muddapa, D., Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C. & Yonzon, P., 2008	Specific threats to the Indian brown mongoose are not well known, but habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation are likely to have major impacts on populations (Mudappa D. personal observation). Further research is necessary to understand the impacts of the various potential threats the species is exposed to.	eng
41613	conservation	Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Delibes 1999). This species is present in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41613	conservation	Herrero, J., Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Delibes 1999). This species is present in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41613	conservation	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, Francisco Palomares, 2006	This species is present in many protected areas across its range. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	distribution	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, Francisco Palomares, 2006	This species is found mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to East Africa, then southwards in Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. It is absent from much of southern Africa, but present in NE Namibia, N Botswana, N and E Zimbabwe and the extreme eastern parts of South Africa (Palomares in press). In North Africa, ranges in a narrow coastal strip from Western Sahara to Tunisia, and also from N and E Egypt southwards to Ethiopia (Palomares in press). It is also found from the Sinai Peninsula to the south of Turkey, and the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). More specifically, in Europe this species is found in southern and central Portugal (Borralho <em>et al.</em> 1995) and south-western Spain (Delibes 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, it was also present in the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). An individual was recently recorded near Leon (Castile and Leon, Spain) (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). It is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe, on a zoogeographical basis (Delibes 1999) and on the grounds that the species is absent from the European fossil record although late Pleistocene and Holocene fossils are known from North Africa (Dobson 1998). It has been speculated that the introduction occurred "perhaps a long time ago" (Delibes 1999). It has been reported to 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41613	distribution	Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	This species is found mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to East Africa, then southwards in Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. It is absent from much of southern Africa, but present in north-east Namibia, northern Botswana, northern and eastern Zimbabwe and all along the South African coastline (Palomares in press). In North Africa, ranges in a narrow coastal strip from Western Sahara to Tunisia, and also from northern and eastern Egypt southwards to Ethiopia (Palomares in press). It has been reported to 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently formerly introduced to Madagascar, but not recorded recently (Haltenorth and Diller 1980).<br/><br/>Extralimitally to the African mainland, this species is also found from the Sinai Peninsula to the south of Turkey (Delibes 1999), and on the Iberian Peninsula in southern and central Portugal (Borralho <em>et al</em>. 1995) and south-western Spain (Delibes 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, it was also present in the north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). An individual was recently recorded near Leon (Castile and Leon, Spain). It is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe, on a zoogeographical basis (Delibes 1999) and on the grounds that the species is absent from the European fossil record, although late Pleistocene and Holocene fossils are known from North Africa (Dobson 1998).	eng
41613	distribution	Herrero, J., Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	This species is found mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to East Africa, then southwards in Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. It is absent from much of southern Africa, but present in north-east Namibia, northern Botswana, northern and eastern Zimbabwe and all along the South African coastline (Palomares in press). In North Africa, ranges in a narrow coastal strip from Western Sahara to Tunisia, and also from northern and eastern Egypt southwards to Ethiopia (Palomares in press). It has been reported to 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently formerly introduced to Madagascar, but not recorded recently (Haltenorth and Diller 1980).<br/><br/>Extralimitally to the African mainland, this species is also found from the Sinai Peninsula to the south of Turkey (Delibes 1999), and on the Iberian Peninsula in southern and central Portugal (Borralho <em>et al</em>. 1995) and south-western Spain (Delibes 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, it was also present in the north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula (Delibes 1999). An individual was recently recorded near Leon (Castile and Leon, Spain). It is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe, on a zoogeographical basis (Delibes 1999) and on the grounds that the species is absent from the European fossil record, although late Pleistocene and Holocene fossils are known from North Africa (Dobson 1998).	eng
41613	habitat	Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	Mainly associated with habitats having under-storey vegetation in coastal, lacustrine and riparian (streams, rivers, marsh, swamps) habitats (Palomares in press). This species avoids humid forests and extreme deserts (Delibes 1999; Palomares in press). In tropical Africa, the Egyptian Mongoose occurs where there are termitaries, which Kingdon (1977) suggested could satisfy a need for secure shelter. In Europe, it is found in Mediterranean maquis, with a clear preference for humid and riparian habitats (Delibes 1999). Egyptian Mongooses have home ranges of about three square kilometres, and are diurnal and omnivorous (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	habitat	Herrero, J., Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	Mainly associated with habitats having under-storey vegetation in coastal, lacustrine and riparian (streams, rivers, marsh, swamps) habitats (Palomares in press). This species avoids humid forests and extreme deserts (Delibes 1999; Palomares in press). In tropical Africa, the Egyptian Mongoose occurs where there are termitaries, which Kingdon (1977) suggested could satisfy a need for secure shelter. In Europe, it is found in Mediterranean maquis, with a clear preference for humid and riparian habitats (Delibes 1999). Egyptian Mongooses have home ranges of about three square kilometres, and are diurnal and omnivorous (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	habitat	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, Francisco Palomares, 2006	Mainly associated with habitats with understorey vegetation in coastal, lacustrine and riparian (streams, rivers, marsh, swamps) habitats (Palomares in press). This species avoids humid forests and extreme deserts (Delibes 1999, Palomares in press). In tropical Africa, the Egyptian mongoose occurs where there are termitaries, which Kingdon (1977) suggested could satisfy a need for secure shelter. In Europe, “it is found in Mediterranean maquis, with a clear preference for humid and riparian habitats (Delibes 1999).”  Egyptian mongooses have home ranges of about 3 square kilometers, and are diurnal and omnivorous (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	population	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, Francisco Palomares, 2006	In the 19th century it regularly occurred in the north-west of the Iberian peninsula, but it subsequently became restricted to the south-west. In recent years, there have again been records from the north-west (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). “The status of its population in Europe is unknown, but numbers and probably range have increased in the last 20 years, in both Portugal and Spain (Delibes 1999).” Abundance increases from north to the south, reaching densities of 1.2 individual per square kilometer in southern Spain (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	population	Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	On the African mainland, this species is widespread and locally common (Taylor in press). Densities ranging from 0.1 (East Africa; Hendrichs 1972) to 1.2 individuals/km² (South Africa; Maddock 1988) have been recorded. The status of its population in Europe is unknown, but numbers and range have increased in the last 20 years, in both Portugal and Spain, mainly due to the reduction of its natural predators (Delibes 1999); abundance increases from north to the south, reaching densities of 1.2 individuals per square kilometre in southern Spain (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	population	Herrero, J., Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	On the African mainland, this species is widespread and locally common (Taylor in press). Densities ranging from 0.1 (East Africa; Hendrichs 1972) to 1.2 individuals/km² (South Africa; Maddock 1988) have been recorded. The status of its population in Europe is unknown, but numbers and range have increased in the last 20 years, in both Portugal and Spain, mainly due to the reduction of its natural predators (Delibes 1999); abundance increases from north to the south, reaching densities of 1.2 individuals per square kilometre in southern Spain (Delibes 1999).	eng
41613	threats	Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across its range, although in parts of its range it may be at risk from more localized threats. On the Iberian Peninsula, incidental and deliberate poisoning by rodenticides is a localized threat, and trapping with boxes is legal in Portugal (F. Palomares pers. comm.). It is considered a pest by hunters, because of its presumed impact on small game species (Delibes 1999). In North Africa, this species is often protected by local people because it is valued as a predator of snakes (F. Cuzin and K. de Smet pers. comm.).	eng
41613	threats	Herrero, J., Cavallini, P. & Palomares, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species across its range, although in parts of its range it may be at risk from more localized threats. On the Iberian Peninsula, incidental and deliberate poisoning by rodenticides is a localized threat, and trapping with boxes is legal in Portugal (F. Palomares pers. comm.). It is considered a pest by hunters, because of its presumed impact on small game species (Delibes 1999). In North Africa, this species is often protected by local people because it is valued as a predator of snakes (F. Cuzin and K. de Smet pers. comm.).	eng
41613	threats	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, Francisco Palomares, 2006	There are no major threats to this species. Incidental poisoning by rodenticides is a localized threat, and trapping with boxes is legal in Portugal (F. Palomares pers. comm. 2007). Deliberate illegal poisoning of carnivores sometimes occurs (European Mammal Assessment Workshop 2006). “It is considered a pest by hunters, because of its presumed impact on small game species" (Delibes 1999). The range of this species in south-western Europe has experienced reductions due to increased agricultural production, yet increases in range have also occurred due to the reduction of its natural predators (Delibes 1999).	eng
41614	conservation	Wozencraft, C., Duckworth, J.W., Choudury, A., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Jennings A. & Veron, G., 2008	The Small Asian Mongoose is listed under CITES Appendix III in India (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus</span>) (Wozencraft 2005). It is totally protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, and was listed as Vulnerable on the Chinese Red List (A1cd). In central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred, and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003).<br/><br/>It occurs inside and outside of several Protected Areas throughout its range (Su 2005).	eng
41614	distribution	Wozencraft, C., Duckworth, J.W., Choudury, A., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Jennings A. & Veron, G., 2008	The small Asian mongoose occurs across a wide range from Iran through northern India and into Indochina (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Asia, this species ranges from sea level to 2,100 m (Simberloff <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>Outside of its natural range, this species has many well established populations. Introduced mongoose has been implicated in the devastation of the native fauna, especially on islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952, Seaman and Randall 1962, Nellis and Everard 1983, Coblentz and Coblentz 1985). The IUCN lists the Small Asian Mongoose as one of the world’s 100 worst invasive alien species (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species was introduced to the West Indies, the Hawaiian Islands, Mauritius, the Fijian Islands, and Okinawa (Simberloff <em>et al</em>. 2000), as well as the Comores and Amami-Oshima Island, Japan (Abe 2005). The reasoning behind these introductions was primarily control of rat and snake populations (S. Abe pers. comm. 2006). The Small Asian Mongoose is also often taken aboard ships, indirectly introducing them to new areas (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). The species recently reached Hong Kong (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006), and has also been recorded from the island of Madura, Indonesia (Meiri 2005), but it is not known whether this was due to human introduction or natural dispersal. There are several individuals from northern Sumatra (see van Strien 2001), which were described by Sody (1949) as <em>H. javanicus tjerapa</em>i. Within its introduced range, the Small Asian Mongoose has been recorded from sea level to maximum elevations of 3,000 m on the Hawaiian Islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952).	eng
41614	habitat	Wozencraft, C., Duckworth, J.W., Choudury, A., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Jennings A. & Veron, G., 2008	The ecology of the Small Asian Mongoose has been studied in introduced parts of its range (Nellis 1989), but its ecology in its native range is known only to the level of coarse habitat correlations. The species is known to occur in a variety of habitats but appears to prefer well-watered naturally open deciduous forests, shrublands and grasslands (Shekar 2003; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). While it tends to avoid closed evergreen forests, it will utilize secondary forest, degraded sites and areas of former evergreen forest opened by logging or similar practices (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Where it has been introduced in the West Indies (Pimentel 1955, Nellis and Everard 1983) and the Hawaiian Islands (Baldwin <em>et al.</em> 1952) the species is found in grasslands, crops, and forest of various kinds, coastal areas, and even settled suburbs (Simberloff <em>et al.</em> 2000). It tends to prefer edge habitat in most areas.<br/><br/>This species is terrestrial, seldom climbing trees and feeds, during both the day and the night, on a wide diet, which includes rats, birds, reptiles, frogs, crabs, insects, and even scorpions (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It produces litters of two to four at short intervals, with a gestation period of about 7 weeks (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).	eng
41614	population	Wozencraft, C., Duckworth, J.W., Choudury, A., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Jennings A. & Veron, G., 2008	The Small Asian Mongoose has a relatively large population across its range, and tolerates a wide degree of habitat conversion perhaps preferring degraded habitats in some areas. In mainland Southeast Asia, this species reaches high densities in well-watered naturally open deciduous forests, shrublands and grassy areas as in southern Lao PDR, Viet Nam and much of Cambodia. Given adequate habitat the species is locally common (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997), and widespread (Robertson <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Snaring and other trapping pressures keep population numbers low in degraded habitats of large parts of Lao PDR - where the species might, if unmolested, be quite common (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.). In India, it occurs at low densities and is not as common as Hespestes edwardsii (Shekhar 2003). In Myanmar, where village harvest of small carnivores and other similar-sized mammals seems to be much lower than in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, the species is so common in places that it is trapped by conservation agencies as a pest (Su 2005).	eng
41614	threats	Wozencraft, C., Duckworth, J.W., Choudury, A., Muddapa, D., Yonzon, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Jennings A. & Veron, G., 2008	The Small Asian Mongoose faces heavy exploitation in localized parts of its range, such as the Mekong Delta, but on the whole appears to be quite common and adaptable. This species is often captured and sold as pets (Shekhar 2003) and there is some commercial trade in China, India and Nepal. (A. Choudury pers. comm.). In northern Viet Nam it is hunted and sold in wild meat markets in both Viet Nam and China (S. Robertson pers. comm.). None of these threats seem to be contributing to the decline of the species globally.	eng
41615	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Ray, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are known to be present in protected areas, such as Dzanga-Sangha in Central African Republic. Nonetheless, given their dependency upon forested habitats, and localized declines due to habitat loss and hunting, there is clearly a need for continued population monitoring of this species.	eng
41615	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Ray, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in western and central Africa, ranging from the Cross R. in south-eastern Nigeria east to Cameroon and Central African Republic and southward to Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo Republic and DR Congo (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In 1994, a relic population was discovered in the Niger Delta, Nigeria, approximately 200 km west of the Cross R. (Colyn and Van Rompaey 1994) and a specimen was recovered being sold as bushmeat in Ibeno, just west of the Cross R. (Angelici <em>et a</em>l. 1999). Collected to elevations of around 600-650 m asl (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41615	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Ray, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits forested areas near swampy places or near streams and stream-beds (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). In the Dzanga-Sangha, Central African Republic, they prefer dense and tangled understorey in forest, avoiding the very open understories of the stands of mono-dominant <em>Gilbertiodendron dewevrei</em> forest (Ray 1995, 1997). Omnivorous.	eng
41615	population	Van Rompaey, H., Ray, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Until recently, they were thought to be very rare, as reflected in the small number of museum specimens and general lack of study. In south-west Central African Republic, this is the most dominant small carnivore (Ray 1997; Ray and Sunquist 2001). However, in other areas, they are not as abundant as other forest carnivores (especially <em>Crossarchus</em> spp.), and they are rare in the Niger Delta (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41615	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Ray, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although there are no major threats known to the species, numbers probably are declining as a result of forest fragmentation and forest loss by logging, mining, and slash and burn farming. They are also hunted for bushmeat (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41616	conservation	Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Azlan, A., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The collared mongoose is protected in all of Malaysia. While previously listed by Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) as not definitely recorded from any protected area and never kept in a zoological garden, this species was recorded from a protected area, Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo, in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). Schreiber <em>et al</em>. (1989) recommends field surveys to define more accurately the current status of the Sumatran collared mongoose, and to assess its conservation requirements. Urgent field surveys, field research and assessments of any possible threats are needed.	eng
41616	distribution	Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Azlan, A., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The collared mongoose is found on the islands of Borneo (Malaysia: states of Sarawak and Sabah [Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005; Wong Siew Te pers. comm., J. Hon, pers. obs.]), Indonesia [van Strien 2001] and presumably Brunei, although no records have been traced) and on Sumatra (Indonesia Robinson and Kloss, 1919). The range on Borneo is much more extensive than depicted in Corbet and Hill (1992), with records from the Balikpapan area, Gunung Palung, and Kutai and museum records from Balikpapan, Kendawangan, Pontianak, and Sanggau (see van Strien 2001). In Sumatra, there are only two confirmed historical locality records; two individuals (including the holotype of <em>H. s. uniformis</em>) from Ayer Taman in Ophir District in W. Sumatra (300 m) adjacent to Gunung Paseman (Robinson and Kloss, 1919). The southern record from Jentink (1894) mentions one specimen from Soekadana, South Sumatra. No recent records have been traced from Sumatra.	eng
41616	habitat	Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Azlan, A., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The ecology of the collared mongoose remains to be studied. Payne <em>et al.</em> (1985) states that this species occurs in a number of different habitats, including primary forest, disturbed habitat, lowlands and hills, and in both disturbed and primary habitat. The species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005), and Robinson and Kloss (1919) record this species in Borneo as occurring at 4000 feet Mt. Dulit. Further studies into distribution, suitable habitat types, tolerance to habitat conversion and general life history are required.	eng
41616	population	Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Azlan, A., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The population status of the collared mongoose is not known. Wong Siew Te (pers. comm.) suggests that this species is not common. Robinson and Kloss (1919) state that this species was rare in historical collections. Wong Siew Te (in litt. to J. W. Duckworth) only has camera trapped it once in Sabah over the last few years and suggests that this species is not common. Only two confirmed camera trap photos in Upper Baram in Sarawak (Jason Hon pers. comm.), which represents 30% of all mongoose photos both identified and unidentified. However, camera traps may not be a good indicator to show whether this species is common or rare as the chances of it passing the sensor without being detected are high (Azlan pers. comm.).	eng
41616	threats	Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Azlan, A., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Forest conversion is taking place at very high rates in lowland Borneo and Sumatra (Shreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). The effects of this on the collared mongoose are unknown because (i) it’s adaptability to secondary habitat is unclear and (ii) its extension into upland zones where forest conversion is currently lower is unclear. A number of people studying mammals in some of the best Bornean and Sumatran forests have not come across the species, suggesting a localised occupancy even of primary habitat. The causes for this are totally unknown.	eng
41617	conservation	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III (Wozencraft 2005), and Schedule IV of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. In central India people consider the mongoose to be sacred, and thus it is not killed there (Shekhar 2003). The species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
41617	distribution	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The ruddy mongoose is found in Southern India: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Yoganand and Kumar 1995), central India (Shekhar 2003) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). There are recent records in northern India from Madhav National Park, Madhya Pradesh, Sariska TR, and Rajasthan.	eng
41617	habitat	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The ecology of the ruddy mongoose remains to be studied. Most records of this species are from forested areas including dry forests, dry thorn areas, and disturbed forests, although there are also fewer records from open areas and secluded rice paddy fields (Divya Mudappa pers comm. 2006). In India, this species was found exclusively in dry forests, and was never sighted near human settlements (Shekhar 2003). The elevation range is 50 to 2,200 m in South India (Divya Mudappa pers comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The ruddy mongoose is crepuscular, hunting by day as well as by night, and leads an at least partially arboreal existence, as it hunts, feeds, and rests in trees (Shekhar 2003). In India, it is frequently sighted scavenging road kill (Shekhar 2003).	eng
41617	population	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The population status of the ruddy mongoose is unknown, but the species is believed to be common in some forests of central India (Shekhar 2003).	eng
41617	threats	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	Little is known of direct threats to the ruddy mongoose but there appear to be no major threats to the global population. Local-scale major threats include hunting and snaring by local tribes.	eng
41618	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is protected in China (‘Near Threatened’), Thailand, Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia. It is listed in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, and in Appendix III.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas throughout its extent of occurrence. It is protected in China (near threatened), Thailand, Myanmar, and Peninsular Malaysia. It is listed in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972, and in Appendix III of CITES (India) (Van Rompaey, 2001). It is not protected in Viet Nam.	eng
41618	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species is found in Bangladesh (Ashan, 1989), SE China (Wang and Fuller, 2001, 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Lim, 2001, Wells and Francis, 1988, Laidlaw pers. comm.), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.), Lao PDR, Nepal, North eastern India, Taiwan, Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia (Wilson and Reeder, 2005, Van Rompaey, 2001). It is rarely found on high mountains (Van Rompaey, 2001), but it has been collected at 1650 m (Kurseong, Bengal, India; Pocock, 1941). From 16 records at 10 sites in Lao PDR, 14 are from over 450 m, suggesting that this species occurs, at least in south and central Lao PDR, mostly in hills and mountains (Van Rompaey, 2001). In Cambodia and Viet Nam, its range extends down to the plains (150 m) and to sea level in Hong Kong.	eng
41618	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species has been recorded mainly near water, in evergreen and deciduous forest, scrubby areas, in plantations and near human settlements (Pham Trong Anh, 1980; Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1997; Van Rompaey, 2001, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It has been recorded up to 1,650 m (Pocock, 1941; Duckworth, 1997; Van Rompaey, 2001). It is  diurnal in at least Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Myanmar, despite earlier statements it was nocturnal, which were based on very little real evidence (reviewed in Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. (in press) (Pham Trong Anh, 1992; Duckworth, 1997, Long and Minh Hoang 2006, Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep., Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press., J. Walstone pers. comm.). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in southeastern China and found that it ate mammals, reptiles, insects and crustaceans.<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species is found in evergreen forest (including degraded areas), mainly near water; the most recent records are from hill and mountainous areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999). In Thailand, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam this species is found also in deciduous forest. In India this species is found in lowland wet-evergreen forests, secondary forest and areas around industrial areas (ie oil refineries). There are records from rice fields and other agricultural areas, and even near human settlements (Pham Trong Anh, 1980). However, in Assam, India, it has not been observed near human habitations (Choudhury, 1997). Little is known about its breeding, though the gestation period is thought to be about nine weeks; probably meaning that this species reproduces more slowly than Herpestes javanicus (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It feeds on fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, insects and crayfish (Van Rompaey, 2001). <br/><br/>It is readily approached by humans due to its apparent nearsightedness (Van Rompaey, 2001), and fearlessness (Pocock, 1941). It has lived up to 13 years and 4 months in captivity (Jones, 1982). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate mammals, reptiles, insects, and crustaceans.	eng
41618	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	In watered edge habitats amid largely natural vegetation, this is a common specis in Viet Nam, Lao, Cambodia, Myanmar. However, outside of this preferred habitat and in some prtions of its range the species is uncommon or rare (Gyldenstolpe, 1916; Inglis <em>et al.</em>, 1919; Delacour, 1940; Khan, 1982; Duckworth, 1997; Choudhury, 1997a; 1997b; 1999).  However, it is uncommon in the Jalpaiguiri District, Bengal, India (Inglis <em>et al</em>. 1919), while it is common in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and north Bengal, India (Choudhury, 1997a; 1997b; 1999). It's rare in Bangladesh (Khan, 1982) and relatively common in Viet Nam (Delacour, 1940). Today in Lao it is common in forested areas in north and central (Duckworth 1997, Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). It is widespread in northern Viet Nam north of Thanh Hoa, but in small numbers (Pham Trong Anh, 1980, 1982). It is common in the forests between Thailand and Tenasserim (Peninsular Myanmar) (Gyldenstolpe, 1916). Very common in the Hukaung valley of north Myanmar, widespread and at least frequent in the northern two-thirds of the country (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.).	eng
41618	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The impact of habitat loss and degradation on this species is not fully understood, is can be found in secondary forest and selectively logged areas, however, there is no evidence that it can live in totally converted areas. Hunting and retaliatory killing for raiding poultry on farms may also be threats in areas near human settlement, but the impacts of this killing at population scales are unknown.<br/><br/>On the China Red List it is considered near threatened, nearly meeting vulnerable due to past population declines (A1c). There is no demand for its meat in restaurants in Viet Nam (Roberton, S. pers. comm.). Incidental capture in snares is also a threat. Retaliatory killing for raiding poultry on farms in India might be a threat, but this is not considered a major threat to the population. Hunting is probably the main threat in Lao PDR, but the species persists widely ( and, despite being a ground-dwelling animal, and thus potentially suffering from incidental trapping, there is equivocal evidence for only localized population reduction (Duckworth, W. pers. comm.).	eng
41619	conservation	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The stripe-necked mongoose is on Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
41619	distribution	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The stripe-necked mongoose is found in Southwest India (Mudappa 1998) and Sri Lanka (Santiapillai <em>et al</em>. 2000; Ratnayeke pers. comm.). In India, this species is found particularly in the Western Ghats and other hill tracts in the Nilgiris from Coorg (now Kodagu) to Travancore (Pocock 1939; Medway 1978; Prater 1971; Phillips 1984; Corbet and Hill 1992; Mudappa 1998), and Dharwar (Phillips 1929), as well as near Bombay (Blanford 1888-1891) to Cape Comorin (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar, 2003). In Sri Lanka it is found in the across a range of elevations from high hills to lowlands, being most common between 400 and 1,400 m (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003).	eng
41619	habitat	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	The stripe-necked mongoose has been recorded in deciduous and evergreen forest, swampy clearings, plantations, open scrub and along watercourses (Webb-Peploe 1947, Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). In deciduous forests it is usually found in swampy clearings, along watercourses, and in open scrub (Krishnan 1972) as well as in rice fields. Of 11 sightings in a protected area, seven were in dry deciduous forest, three in moist deciduous forest, and one in a teak plantation (R. Arumugam, in litt 2003). In Valprai in the Anamalai Hills, there were a dozen sightings between April and December of 2002, with animals seen foraging along streams in riverine forests and swamps, and also in tea plantations (Mudappa, D. pers. comm.). In Sri Lanka, its distribution may encompass lowland dry zone forest and it is rarely sighted in disturbed areas or close to human settlements (Ratnayeke pers. comm.), however, the species is adaptable and can tolerate relatively high disturbance.<br/><br/>The stripe-necked mongoose is more common in the hills than in the lowlands (Hill 1939), and has been found up to 2,200 m (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003; Mudappa pers. comm.). It is diurnal and feeds on small mammals, birds, birds' eggs, reptiles, fish, insects, grubs, and roots (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The typical litter size is two to three and an animal in captivity was recorded as living for nearly 13 years (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003).	eng
41619	population	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	Population assessments for the stripe-necked mongoose have been made but these are not recent (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003); nevertheless, the species appears to be relatively common in many areas of its range. In India, it is rare in the northern part of its range, and most abundant in Travancore (Jerdon 1874). It is also common on the Nilghiri and Palni plateaus (Anonymous 1935), in the High Wavy Mountains (Hutton 1949), and on the Valparai Plateau in the Anamalai Hills (D. Mudappa pers. comm.). It is not uncommon in Coorg, although less common than Herpestes edwardsii (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). In Sri Lanka, it used to be fairly common in the higher hills of the Central Provinces, but seems to be declining (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). It is relatively common in the Sri Lankan interior (Blyth 1851) and is "moderately plentiful" in the Horton Plains area and around Gamaduwa (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003). The species is not uncommon in the low-country Dry Zone along the banks of the Menik Ganga (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003), and is present, but not common, in the Wet Zone in the Kalutara District (Phillips 1984).	eng
41619	threats	Choudhury, A., Wozencraft, C., Muddapa, D. & Yonzon, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the global population of the stripe-necked mongoose, although major threats are present at the local scale in the form of hunting and trade. This species is hunted for meat that is eaten by several tribes and for its hair that is used for making shaving brushes, paint brushes, and good luck charms (Hanfee and Ahmed 1999). They are also regularly killed by hunting dogs (Adams 1931; Webb-Peploe 1947). All mongoose species are in demand for the wildlife trade (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar, 2003), however, this threat is regional in scale. The loss of habitat is a threat (Van Rompaey and Jayakumar 2003), however, there is likely no significant level of population decline at the species scale.	eng
41620	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41620	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widespread in sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal and Gambia to the Horn of Africa, and then southwards to south-east South Africa (Taylor in press). Extralimital to the African continent, present along much of the coast of Saudi Arabia to Oman and also recorded from Farasan Kabir Island in the Red Sea, where they may have been introduced (Taylor in press). Ranges to 3,500 m asl in Ethiopia (Admasu <em>et a</em>l. 2004).	eng
41620	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in grasslands, savanna, and woodland areas, and absent from moist forested areas, high altitudes, desert and semi-desert (Taylor in press). They are adaptable to human-modified habitats, with individuals often found around towns and villages where they feed opportunistically on garbage (Taylor in press). In Oman they have been found associated with gardens and plantations (Harrison and Bates 1991). Primarily insectivorous.	eng
41620	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common. Densities as high as 4.3 individuals/km² were reported from the Serengeti (Waser 1980).	eng
41620	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. They may be caught incidentally in predator control programmes principally aimed at Black-backed Jackal <em>Canis mesomelas</em> and Caracal <em>Caracal caracal</em> (Taylor in press).	eng
41621	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Banded Mongooses are present in numerous protected areas across their wide range on the African continent.	eng
41621	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Distributed widely in sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal and Gambia to Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia, and south to about 31° in South Africa. Although fairly widespread in southern Africa, the species appears to be rare in West Africa, and it has not been recorded from several countries including Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Niger (Cant and Gilchrist in press). They apparently were introduced to Zanzibar (Pakenham 1984), although neither Stuart and Stuart (1998) nor Goldman and Winther-Hansen (2003) recorded them during camera-trapping surveys, suggesting they are either rare or absent. Recorded to 1,600 m in Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41621	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in a wide range of habitats, but primarily found in savanna and woodland, usually close to water, and absent from desert, semi-desert and montane regions (Cant and Gilchrist in press). Often found in habitats containing termitaria, which are used as den sites. Diet includes a variety of invertebrate material (insects, snails), small reptiles, the eggs and young of ground-nesting birds, and wild fruits (Cant and Gilchrist in press).	eng
41621	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded densities vary widely between habitats and locations. On the Serengeti plains, Banded Mongooses live at a density of around 3 individuals/km² (Waser <em>et al.</em> 1995). By contrast, a population in Queen Elizabeth N.P., Uganda, lives at higher densities, averaging 18 individuals/km² (Cant 1998, Gilchrist and Otali 2002).	eng
41621	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41622	conservation	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is known to be present in several protected areas.	eng
41622	distribution	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Ranges from Angola in the west to Malawi in the east, with its most southward extension in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They are not yet recorded from Swaziland (Monadjem 1998), but may well occur.	eng
41622	habitat	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits savanna grassland and woodland, but absent from forest and arid areas (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41622	population	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Uncommon, although many parts of its known range are not well surveyed (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41622	threats	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41623	conservation	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas across its range.	eng
41623	distribution	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Ranges from central Tanzania south through Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, to Swaziland and north-eastern South Africa (Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces) (Stuart and Stuart in press). A possible record from Chobe N.P. in Botswana (Purchase <em>et al.</em> 2007), if substantiated, would be the first record for this country. Recorded to 1,850 m asl in Tanzania (De Luca and Mpunga 2005)	eng
41623	habitat	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	A savanna species, mainly associated with open woodland and grassland with termitaria (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41623	population	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Apparently uncommon to rare, but it may be easily overlooked or confused with other mongoose species.	eng
41623	threats	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. Its favoured habitat is extensive, and in some parts with very low human populations. However, in some parts of the range (e.g., Tanzania) there has been considerable expansion of the human population and their dogs, which could represent a significant localized threat (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41624	conservation	Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several large and well-managed protected areas, including the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.	eng
41624	distribution	Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widespread in the western parts of southern Africa, including western and southern Namibia, south-western Botswana, and north and west South Africa, with a very marginal intrusion into extreme south-western Angola (Macdonald in press).  They may occur in the lowlands of Lesotho (Lynch 1994).	eng
41624	habitat	Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of arid, open country, characterized by short grasses and sparse woody growth. They are absent from true desert and forested areas, and also from mountainous terrain (Macdonald in press). Carnivorous, feeding mostly on invertebrates.	eng
41624	population	Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Densities can fluctuate greatly across the range, and are influenced by rainfall and predation. In the Kalahari Gemsbok N.P., South Africa, densities declined from 1 animals/km² in April 1994 to 0.32 animals/km² in May 1995 following a reduction in rainfall (Clutton-Brock <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41624	threats	Macdonald, D. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
41625	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Long,  B., Duckworth, J.W., Wang Ying-Xiang & Than Zaw, 2008	Throughout its range, this species is found in a number of protected areas. In Thailand this species is protected by law, and in India this species is protected under the highest level of protection. It is not protected in Viet Nam or Cambodia and is the largest-bodied unprotected mammal, except for Euraisan Wild Hog Sus scrofa, in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). The China Red List has listed the hog badger as Vulnerable under C1 and A2c.	eng
41625	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Long,  B., Duckworth, J.W., Wang Ying-Xiang & Than Zaw, 2008	The hog badger occurs in Central to Southeast Asia. It is found in Mongolia, India (Sikkim, Terai, Assam, Arunacha Pradesh), throughout southern China, Indochina (Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia), Myanmar, in Indonesia (Sumatra), throughout Thailand and possibly in Perak, Malaysia (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Duckworth 1997; Pocock 1941; Holden 2006; Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.; Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). There is one isolated record in eastern Mongolia (Aimak Dornod) (Stubbe <em>et al</em>. 1998). According to Holden (2006) in Sumatra the hog badger appears to occur primarily above 2,000 m with one record at 700 m, and historical records also indicate a montane range (Miller 1942). Corbet and Hill's (1992) map suggest that on Sumatra the species is restricted to the southern part of the island, whereas, in fact, individuals have been found in many mountainous locations in the north as well (van Strien 2001). <br/><br/>In Lao PDR, most recent records are from the central part of the country, with some from the north, although historic records come also from the south (Duckworth 1997, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). There are recent indirect reports (unsubstantiated villager reports) from many survey areas in Lao PDR, but few documented records (R.J. Timmins and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006); in aggregate, these suggest that this species was present in the recent past, but has more or less been hunted out from quite wide areas (J.W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). Deuve (1972) considered that the species occurred in the southern region of Lao PDR, listing several lowland sites; however, Deuve’s Lao range information is often faulty (e.g. Timmins and Duckworth 1999), so this cannot be taken as complete confirmation the animal was formerly widespread in Lao lowlands. All seven records in 1992-1996 were from in and around the Nam Theun catchment at sites above 500 m (Duckworth 1997), while both historical sites listed by Delacour (1940) are in mountainous areas: Phongsali and the Bolaven Plateau. The post-1996 records are also from hills and mountains (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41625	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Long,  B., Duckworth, J.W., Wang Ying-Xiang & Than Zaw, 2008	The hog badger is active by day, terrestrial, and not very wary of humans (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species if <br/>often referred to as nocturnal, however, analysis of numerous camera-trap pictures from Myanmar show no peak at either day or night; it can be active at any time (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It is usually found in forested areas as high as 3,500 m, and it feeds on “tubers, roots, earthworms, insects, and other small living creatures” (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province), and found that this species ate more mammals and gastropods than other species studied. Little is known about its breeding habits, though litter size seems to be two to three young, and individuals have lived up to seven years in captivity (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, the hog badger is found in forested areas, and mainly now on hills and mountains (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), however, this altitudinal restriction may be a secondary effect of overhunting. In contrast to Lao PDR, this species in Cambodia occurs in level lowlands, in mosaics of deciduous and semi-evergreen forests, which is a further line of supposition that its current Lao distribution reflects anthropogenic restriction. <br/><br/>In India, this species is fairly common within grassland habitats of Terai, as well as in dense, tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and tall grassland -woodland mosaic. In Thailand it is also found in rubber plantations adjacent to forests (B. Kanchanaska pers. comm.). In Myanmar, the hog badger has been recorded in forest including bamboo stands under tree cover (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press), and it is also found in limestone forests in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It mainly occurs in upper montane forest in Sumatra (Holden 2006).	eng
41625	population	Timmins, R.J., Long,  B., Duckworth, J.W., Wang Ying-Xiang & Than Zaw, 2008	opulation trends for the hog badger may vary across its range. In Lao PDR, this species can be locally common, as indicated by its presence during most surveys in and around the Nam Theun catchment (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). The lack of sightings elsewhere indicates that this species is either naturally patchy in abundance or under widespread decline (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). Occurrence in Myanmar is also patchy without obvious natural explantion (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). In Thailand, it is fairly common and found in both the north and the south (B. Kanchanaska pers. comm.). It is also very common in the high montane zone of Sumatra (Holden 2006), and in southwestern and eastern Cambodia (J. L. Walston and R. J. Timmins pers. comm.). In India, this species is fairly common in Terai. The hog badger is historically widespread in Viet Nam, but sightings seem to be declining (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
41625	threats	Timmins, R.J., Long,  B., Duckworth, J.W., Wang Ying-Xiang & Than Zaw, 2008	Major threats to the hog badger are hunting by dogs as well as snaring, primarily for human consumption and as bycatch. In Lao, the palatability of hog badger varies among ethnic groups, with some groups disliking the taste, whereas groups in parts of the Nam Theun basin (and perhaps widely elsewhere) seek the species specifically for food (J. Baker pers. comm. and J. Chamberlain per. comm. in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is also eaten by some groups in India, and is hunted as well as farmed for food in China (M.W.N. Lao pers. comm.). Field surveys in China generated very few records of wild animals in Southeastern China (M.W.N. Lao pers. comm.), and the species is also hunted at the local level in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). In all of Indochina, this species is threatened by the use of hunting dogs (J. Baker pers. comm. 1999). <br/><br/>The snaring intensity in Cambodia is considerably lower than that in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and the relatively larger number of recent records from Cambodia than from Viet Nam and Lao PDR is strong indirect evidence that trapping levels are driving reductions in these latter countries. In Viet Nam and presumably elsewhere, gun-hunting poses another threat to the species (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><br/>While threats similar to those in Lao PDR and Viet Nam are known to exist in Thailand, it is generally thought that the hunting is operating at much lower intensities and are therefore not as serious. In Sumatra as well, the threats are minimal, because the zone of occurrence is above where the majority of hunting takes place (Holden 2006)	eng
41626	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., R., Roberton, S., Long, B., Lau, M.W.N. & Choudhury, A., 2008	This species is likely to occur  in many protected areas across its range, specifically the northern part of its range; it has not been found in many protected areas in the southern part of its range where it overlaps with <em>Melogale personata,</em> but given survey methodology to date, the lack of records cannot be use to infer absence of the species (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In India, it is protected in Schuedule 2, Part 1. This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004).	eng
41626	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., R., Roberton, S., Long, B., Lau, M.W.N. & Choudhury, A., 2008	This species is found in China (central and southeastern, Hainan), northeast India (Naga Hills near Manipur), northern Myanmar, northern Lao, Taiwan, and northern Viet Nam (Pocock 1941, Wilson and Reeder 2005). Southern China constitutes most of the known range (Neal 1986). There are no recent field records in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); though, it was previously assessed as very common around Xiangkhouang and Phongsali (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940) and it is possible that recent surveys have not used appropriate methodology to find the species. A study on the ecology of this species took place in Taohong Village, northern Jiangxi Province, about 15 km south of the Yangtze River (29º48'N, 116º40'E) (Wang and Fuller 2003). The southern extent of range into central Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and potentially Thailand (where mapped by Storz and Wozencraft 1999, apparently predictively) requires further investigation due to confusion with other species, but it appears to go several degrees of latitude further south than is mapped in standard sources, at least in Viet Nam. The species has been found from 700 to 1,524 m in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep). Records in Lao are from high elevations (Osgood 1932). In India it has been found from 50 to 2,000 m (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). In northern Myanmar it is found up to 5,000 ft (Pocock 1941). Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.  <br/><br/><em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>M. personata</em> are very similar in external morphologically, and - and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale</em> sp. throughout the parts its range where M. personata is known to occur or might plausibly occur, and only references to skull characteristics should be used for species- level identification. Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.	eng
41626	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., R., Roberton, S., Long, B., Lau, M.W.N. & Choudhury, A., 2008	The habitat use of this species in Lao PDR is unclear (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), as it is in the rest of South-east Asia.  <br/><br/>This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes (including rodent dens, firewood stacks, open fields, and rock piles around houses (Wang and Fuller, 2003), rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989). It is exclusively nocturnal (Wang and Fuller, 2003) and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms (most important part of its diet (Qian <em>et al,</em> 1976; Chuang and Lee, 1997), snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994). Resting home range size was found to be 10.6 ha (Wang and Fuller, 2003).<br/><br/>Almost all pregnant females were found between March and October during a study on the reproduction of this species on Taiwan (Pei and Wang, 1995). Litter size is two, and evidence suggests that they breed once a year (Pein and Wang, 1995). This species is often found near human habitations (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999), taking shelter during the day, and earthworms (the most important part of its diet) are most abundant in the fertile vegetable gardens and farmland soils were this species frequently forages (Wang and Fuller, 2003).  It is also sometimes invited into native huts to exterminate cockroaches and other insects (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999). Storz and Wozencraft (1999) report that it is found in tropical and subtropical forests and wooded hillsides, as well as grasslands and cultivated areas such as rice fields.	eng
41626	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., R., Roberton, S., Long, B., Lau, M.W.N. & Choudhury, A., 2008	This species in general seems to be relatively common, although this can only be confirmed in areas where it does not overlap with M. personata; where it does or might overlap, there are too few properly identified records to indicate relative abundance of the two species (J.W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). However, they are seldom caught in live traps due to their wariness (Storz and Wozencraft, 1999). There are no recent field records in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). It was previously very common around Xiangkhouang and Phongsali (Delacour 1940). There were 238 record of this species from Taiwan between 1991 to 1993 (Pei and Wang, 1995). This species is still common on Taiwan (unlike other carnivores on Taiwan, which have decreased due to widespread deterioration of natural habitat and possibly also intensive rodent control programs during the past few decades) (Wang 1986; Pei and Wang 1995). "It is a poorly understood species, despite the fact that it seems quite common (Wang and Fuller 2003)." During a survey on ecology in Taohong Village, southeastern China, 27 records of this species were reported during an 11 month period by Wang and Fuller (2003). Despite the annual average harvest of 40 individuals in an area of about 16 km², which included the study area of Wang and Fuller (2003), this species still seemed rather abundant (Wang and Fuller 2003).<br/><br/><em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>personata</em> are very similar in external morphologically - and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale sp</em>. throughout the parts its range where <em>M. personata</em> is known to occur or might plausibly do so, and only references to skull characteristics should be used for species level identification.	eng
41626	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., R., Roberton, S., Long, B., Lau, M.W.N. & Choudhury, A., 2008	In northeastern India the genus is hunted for food (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). In Lao PDR, parts of all badgers are used in traditional medicine (Baird 1995b), however, there is no evidence that there is a big enough demand to cause declines of ferret badgers (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In southern China this species has historically been one of the most important furbearers and is subjected to heavy harvest pressure (Shou, 1962; Sheng, 1993; Storz and Wozencraft 1999). Because this species does not prey on poultry or livestock, nor cause to damage to property or farm facilities, it is not threatened by humans, despite its close proximity to them (Wang and Fuller, 2003). In addition, the value of an individual pelt is not high, and the meat is eaten in some areas (Wang and Fuller, 2003).	eng
41627	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Yonzon, P., Roberton, S. & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	A skull of this species was found Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Robinson and Webber 1998a). This species may be found to occur in many protected areas across its range (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006); until there are surveys known to be using appropriate methodology, it is difficult to speculate on current presence in protected areas. In India, it is protected in Schuedule 2, Part 1. In Thailand it (the Genus) was found in Doi Chieng Doi Wildlife Sanctuary and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS) in Thailand (L. Grassman pers. comm.).	eng
41627	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Yonzon, P., Roberton, S. & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	This species is found in northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, and southern Yunnan (China) (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). There is an old record from western Guangdong (China). In India it is found from 30 to 1,950 m (Choudhury pers. comm.) and Datta (1999) confirmed current occurence at about 27°N in India. Records from Nepal are historic and may differ from what is today recognized as "Nepal" (Hodgson 1836- holotype for subspecies) - and there have been no subsequent records since (Pralad Yonzon, verbally; see also Hinton and Fry 1923). Records from northern Viet Nam need to be checked in Museums and further investigated (Roberton pers. comm.), although there is a record confirmed from Yanbai (Thomas 1922); other records may not have ruled out <em>M. moschata</em> from the identification. Distributions of species in Cambodia and Lao PDR are highly speculative and based on few verifiable specimens (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999 pers. comm.): A skull of this species was found Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Robinson and Webber 1998a), and "the species was previously common on the Bolaven Plateau (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940)." [from Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999]. The distribution in Myanamar north to 22˚N is well supported by validated individuals, but there seem to be no post-1950 records identified to species (Pocock 1941, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). This is the only species of the genus confirmed to occur in Thailand, and hence records of the genus are routinely assumed to relate to this species. In fact, <em>M. moschata</em> might also occur too (and was even mapped, apparently predictively, by Storz and Wozencraft 1999). <em>Melogale moschata</em> and <em>M. personata</em> are very similar in external morphology, and field records, including skin specimens lacking an associated skull, need to be considered as identifiable only as <em>Melogale</em> sp. throughout the parts its range where <em>M. moschata</em> is known to occur or might plausibly do so (effectively, this is all the known range). Only reference to skull characteristics should be used for species-level identification. Thus, in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and India there is continued difficulty of identifying recent records of ferret badgers to species, most of which lack skulls or did not have the skull characters checked and were not preserved. Hence it is impossible to say anything about this species’s current distribution, status or ecology in these regions.	eng
41627	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Yonzon, P., Roberton, S. & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	It is nocturnal and feeds primarily on small animals such as insects, earthworms, snails, frogs, and sometimes carcasses of small birds and mammals, eggs, and fruit (Chian and Sheng, 1976; Long and Killingley, 1983; Ewer, 1985; Neal, 1986; Chuang, 1994). This species sleeps during the day in its burrow, and comes out at night to feed on cockroaches, grasshoppers, and earthworms (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is found in forest, grassland, and even rice fields (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), but it is unclear in which habitats populations can persist; records from other habitats may involve sink populations or dispersing individuals. Not much is known about the breeding of this species, though it does have an average litter size of about three (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). This species is fossorial and lives in preexisting holes, rather than digging new ones (Taylor, 1989).In Lao PDR, little is known about the habitat use of this species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Thailand, records were found in hill evergreen forests, pine forests and grasslands (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).	eng
41627	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Yonzon, P., Roberton, S. & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	The species seems to be patchy in occurrence and generally uncommon but in some localised parts of South-east Asia, ferret badgers (species not known)  seem to be more common. The genus is uncommon in Thailand (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). The species was previously common on the Bolaven Plateau (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940), however, there are very few recent records from Lao PDR – it is unknown if this is due to elusiveness or rarity (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).	eng
41627	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Long, B., Yonzon, P., Roberton, S. & Tran Quang Phuong, 2008	In Lao PDR, parts of all badgers are used in traditional medicine (Baird 1995b), however, there is no evidence that there is a big enough demand to cause declines of ferret badgers (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). There are few records recently from Lao PDR of ferret badgrets, but this may well simply be due to inadequate search effort. In northeastern India the genus is hunted for food (A. Choudhury pers. comm.). Because this genus does not prey on poultry or livestock, nor cause to damage to property or farm facilities, it is not threatened by humans, despite its close proximity to them (Wang and Fuller, 2003). In addition, the value of an individual pelt is not high, and the meat is eaten in some areas (Wang and Fuller, 2003).	eng
41628	conservation	Long, B., Hon, J., Azlan M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is most likely found in many protected areas within its range, and has been reported in at least two protected areas, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park on Java and Danau Sentarum National Park on Borneo. It is not protected in Sarawak, but it is protected in Sabah (Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1998, 1997).	eng
41628	distribution	Long, B., Hon, J., Azlan M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is found on Java, Borneo, Sumatra and the Natuna Islands in Indonesia and on Borneo (Sabah, Sarawak) in Malaysia (Wilson and Reeder, 2005); it is inferred to be found in Brunei (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). Reported by van Balen (1914) from the Dieng Plateau, but present status there unknown; Bukit Suharto (Yasuma, 1994) and Sungai Wain (G. Frederiksson pers. comm.) in East Kalimantan, south of the Mahakam River. It is tentatively recorded from Tanjung Putting National Park in Borneo. It has been recorded at a wide range of elevations but may be more common at lower elevations (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). For example, this species has been found higher than 2,000 m, (Jentink 1895; Lawrence 1939; Neal 1986),  at 1,000 m on the Kelabit Plateau in Sarawak, Malaysia,  and as low as 250 m in western Java (Forbes 1879).	eng
41628	habitat	Long, B., Hon, J., Azlan M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is found in secondary forests and open grounds such as gardens adjacent to forests (Payne and Francis 1985) and for similar uses in Sumatra (Holden 2006). There is no real particular evidence that it needs primary forest. It feeds on bird eggs, carrion, insects, worms, and plants (Long and Killingley 1983; Neal and Cheeseman 1996; Payne and Francis 1985). Litter size is usually two to three (Wood 1865). It is nocturnal, sheltering in underground burrows during the day (Hwang and Larivière 2003).	eng
41628	population	Long, B., Hon, J., Azlan M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is very difficult to assess the current population status of this species, as people tend to find them incidentally, and so reports often do not reach the public domain (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). Its distribution seems to be patchy (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
41628	threats	Long, B., Hon, J., Azlan M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	On Java, the anal gland secretion is used to make perfume (Long and Killingley 1983), and some rural people eat the flesh of this species (Nowak 1999). It is also used in traditional medicine to cure fever or rheumatism (Nowak 1999).	eng
41629	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Honey Badger is found in many protected areas throughout its range, and is also legally protected in many countries, including the Middle Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan and the Mediterranean countries of Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Commercial hive damage from Honey Badgers can be simply and effectively reduced (26% to 1%) by securing bee hives a meter or more above the ground on a stand or trestle (Begg and Begg 2002), thereby minimizing conflicts between Honey Badgers and apiculturists.	eng
41629	conservation	Begg, K., Begg, C. & Abramov, A., 2008	The Honey Badger is found in many protected areas throughout its range, and is also legally protected in many countries, including the Middle Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan and the Mediterranean countries of Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Commercial hive damage from Honey Badgers can be simply and effectively reduced (26% to 1%) by securing bee hives a meter or more above the ground on a stand or trestle (Begg and Begg 2002), thereby minimizing conflicts between Honey Badgers and apiculturists.<br/>The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
41629	distribution	Begg, K., Begg, C. & Abramov, A., 2008	The Honey Badger has an extensive historical range which extends through most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and south-western Algeria, and outside of Africa through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian peninsula. Historically, it is thought to be absent from the driest centre of the Sahara Desert, the Mediterranean coast as far as the Nile Valley, and the central (Free State province) part of South Africa.<br/><br/>In Africa, they are known to range from sea level to as much as 2,600 m asl in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003) and 4,000 m asl in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996).	eng
41629	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Honey Badger has an extensive historical range which extends through most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and south-western Algeria, and outside of Africa through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian peninsula. Historically, it is thought to be absent from the driest centre of the Sahara Desert, the Mediterranean coast as far as the Nile Valley, and the central (Free State province) part of South Africa.<br/><br/>In Africa, they are known to range from sea level to as much as 2,600 m asl in the Moroccan High Atlas (Cuzin 2003) and 4,000 m asl in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia (Sillero-Zubiri 1996).	eng
41629	habitat	Begg, K., Begg, C. & Abramov, A., 2008	This species lives in a wide variety of habitat types from the dense rain forests of the Congo Basin to the arid deserts on the outskirts of the Sahara and Namib, Honey Badgers are opportunistic, generalized carnivores, and feed on a range of prey items varying in size from small insect larvae to the young of ungulates. Although they are primarily hunters of their own food, they may pirate food from other carnivores and will also scavenge from the kills of larger animals (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). They are primarily solitary, with a non-territorial polygynous or promiscuous mating system, and range over areas as much as 500 km² (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 266: 23-35). They have small litter sizes and a long birth interval (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 265: 17-22).	eng
41629	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species lives in a wide variety of habitat types from the dense rain forests of the Congo Basin to the arid deserts on the outskirts of the Sahara and Namib, Honey Badgers are opportunistic, generalized carnivores, and feed on a range of prey items varying in size from small insect larvae to the young of ungulates. Although they are primarily hunters of their own food, they may pirate food from other carnivores and will also scavenge from the kills of larger animals (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). They are primarily solitary, with a non-territorial polygynous or promiscuous mating system, and range over areas as much as 500 km² (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 266: 23-35). They have small litter sizes and a long birth interval (Begg <em>et al</em>. 2005; J. Zool., Lond. 265: 17-22).	eng
41629	population	Begg, K., Begg, C. & Abramov, A., 2008	Honey Badger are considered rare or to exist at low densities across most of their range (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). Densities based on night counts have been estimated at 0.1 individuals/km² in the Serengeti N.P., Tanzania (Waser 1980) and 0.03 adults/km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa (Begg 2001).	eng
41629	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Honey Badger are considered rare or to exist at low densities across most of their range (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press). Densities based on night counts have been estimated at 0.1 individuals/km² in the Serengeti N.P., Tanzania (Waser 1980) and 0.03 adults/km² in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa (Begg 2001).	eng
41629	threats	Begg, K., Begg, C. & Abramov, A., 2008	Ratels are directly persecuted (through the use of, for example, steel-jawed traps and poisons) by apiculturists and small livestock farmers throughout their range, and are also indirectly killed by non-selective control programmes targeting other species, such as jackals <em>Canis</em> spp. and Caracal <em>Caracal caracal</em> (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press).  There is evidence to suggest they have gone locally extinct in many areas due to poisoning (K. Begg and C. Begg pers. comm. 2006). Ratel body parts (particularly paws, skin and organs) are commonly used in traditional medicine because of their reputation for fearlessness and tenacity. In some areas (Zambia, Guinea), Ratels appear on the bushmeat trade due to the decline in other more favoured bushmeat species (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Begg <em>et al</em>. in press). Although there is little apiculture in areas of North Africa where the Ratel occurs (except near the Lower Draa area, in Morocco), they are persecuted (trapping, poisoning) (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
41629	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Ratels are directly persecuted (through the use of, for example, steel-jawed traps and poisons) by apiculturists and small livestock farmers throughout their range, and are also indirectly killed by non-selective control programmes targeting other species, such as jackals <em>Canis</em> spp. and Caracal <em>Caracal caracal</em> (Begg <em>et al.</em> in press).  There is evidence to suggest they have gone locally extinct in many areas due to poisoning (K. Begg and C. Begg pers. comm. 2006). Ratel body parts (particularly paws, skin and organs) are commonly used in traditional medicine because of their reputation for fearlessness and tenacity. In some areas (Zambia, Guinea), Ratels appear on the bushmeat trade due to the decline in other more favoured bushmeat species (Colyn <em>et al</em>. 2004; Begg <em>et al</em>. in press). Although there is little apiculture in areas of North Africa where the Ratel occurs (except near the Lower Draa area, in Morocco), they are persecuted (trapping, poisoning) (K. de Smet and F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
41630	conservation	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Suggested actions needed to revert the decline of native species living in the Patagonian steppe include: prevent new introductions; create protected areas in the Patagonian steppe where livestock are excluded and the ecological role of native large fauna is restored; study other consequences of the introduction of exotic species and the ecological extinction of native ones (Novaro <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is also considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).	eng
41630	distribution	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in mid to southern South America. It occurs from southern Peru through Bolivia south to Uruguay, western Paraguay, and central Chile into Argentina where it is found as far south as Neuquén province (Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). The species has been also observed in in different localities in South Brazil: São Paulo (De Vivo and Gregorin, 2001); at south São Paulo and Paraná (Cáceres, 2004); at eastern Paraná and eastern Santa Catarina (Cimardi, 1996).	eng
41630	habitat	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Little is known about <em>Conepatus chinga</em> ecology. It seems to forage solitarily during the night in open savannas and in arid and shrubby areas (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1996), capturing arthropods (mainly beetles and arachnids) and occasionally small mammals and preying on eggs and fledling birds (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1996). Hog-nosed skunks are morphologically (Howard and Marsh, 1982) and behaviorally (Donadio <em>et al</em>. 2001) adapted to feeding on ground and underground fauna, particularly invertebrates. During rest periods, it perfers the seclusion offered by shrub forests and rocky slope areas (Donadio <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41630	population	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is locally common. Density value reported for Chile is 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Cofré <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
41630	threats	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Skunks were heavily hunted for their fur in Argentina during the 1970s and early 1980s (Gruss and Waller 1988). Additionally extensive areas of skunk habitat, including the Patagonian steppe, have been severely degraded due to overgrazing and soil erosion by livestock (primarily sheep) and feral, exotic species (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em> 1995; Novaro <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41631	conservation	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Conepatus humboldtii </span>is listed on the CITES Appendix II (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
41631	distribution	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in southern Argentina and adjacent parts of Chile (Redford and Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
41631	habitat	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Habitat use for Patagonian hog-nose skunks ranges from grass and shrub land to rocky outcroppings. They may also be found around human dwellings (e.g. houses, sheds, etc.). <em>C. humboldtii</em> is found at elevations from 200 to 700 m above sea level (Fuller <em>et al.</em>, 1987). This species is solitary and active mainly at night. Home ranges of individual skunks may overlap and range from 9.7 ha to 16.4 ha. Patagonian hog-nosed skunks forage exclusively in green grassy areas (Chapman and Feldhamer, 1982; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1987). They primarily eat insects but may also feed on small mammals, shrubs, and fruit in addition to insects. (Fuller <em>et al</em>. 1987)	eng
41631	population	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Olrog and Lucero (1980) state that it is locally common in Argentina. Some indication that the numbers of<em>C. humboldtii</em> have decreased (Broad <em>et al.</em>, 1988), but the numbers killed each year in Patagonia are not known and unpublished data show that population levels have been stable from 1989 to 1993. Population density value estimated for Chile is 89 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Cofré <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41631	threats	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The pelts of <em>C. humboldtii</em> were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 although of lesser value than other <em>Conepatus</em> species. In 1983, <em>C. humboldtii</em> was protected against export in Argentina and Chile. These animals are apparently still used in the pet trade (Chapman and Feldhamer, 1982).	eng
41632	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).	eng
41632	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in from northern Nicaragua north through, central Guatemala and Honduras, Mexico, and in the southern United States (occuring in the southeastern part of Texas, southern Arizona and southern New Mexico). The species is notably absent from hot deserts and tropical moist evergreen forests - as well as the Baja Peninsula.	eng
41632	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Inhabits a wide variety of habitats within their range, including woodlands, grasslands, deserts, brushy areas, and rocky canyons in mountainous regions (Meaney <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Elevation range is variable and can reach up to higher elevations in mountainous areas. In Arizona, hog-nosed skunks are known up to 9,000 ft. In pine-fir forests in the Graham Mountains (Hoffmeister, 1986), and in Mexico they range up to 10,000 ft. (Cahalane, 1961). <br/>The species is nocturnal and feeds primarily on insects, usually digging in the ground to get larvae, or using their nose to take out beetles, they are also able to find and eat fruits and small vertebrates (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1999). Dens are in rock crevices, hollow logs, underground burrows, caves, mine shafts, woodrat houses, or under buildings. Feeds mainly on insects, especially larval forms. Also eats other invertebrates, reptiles, small mammals, and some vegetation (fruits, etc.). Digs with long claws, roots in soil with snout, overturns rocks and logs.	eng
41632	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is difficult to census, even through trapping. It appears to have declined drastically in Texas in the past few decades (Davis and Schmidly, 1994; Dragoo <em>et al.</em>, 2003; Meaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species has dissapeared from Colorado, northern New Mexico and Oklahoma. Solitary and secretive, difficult to census, even through trapping. Available evidence indicates extreme rarity. Few recent specimens have been obtained in Mexico. But the species could be more numerous than available evidence indicates.	eng
41632	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Primary threats to the continued persistence of American hog-nosed skunks throughout their range include degradation, fragmentation, and loss of habitat, interspecific interactions with feral hogs (<em>Sus scrofa</em>) and striped skunks, roadkill, control of predators and insect pests (pesticide use), and grazing (Honeycutt and Dragoo, 1995; Schmidly, 2002). The range of this species is shrinking, especially in the north. Natural brushland habitat has been lost to agricultural development. Pesticide use could be detrimental, either directly or indirectly through impacts on food resources.	eng
41633	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is considered necessary to include species of <em>Conepatus</em> in CITES Appndix II in order to obtain data on the trade in the different species, to estimate the exploitation level, and to enforce a better control of the exports, and to avoid that one of the species exported under the name of any of the other species (IUCN-SSC, 1992).	eng
41633	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Conepatus semistriatus</em> is a neotropical species and occurs within a disjunct distribution within Mesoamerica, the northern Andes and eastern Brazil. Its range begins in southern Mexico and continues south into northern Peru along the western Andes and east aacross northern Venezuela and into the llanos of Colombia, with an isolated populations in eastern Brazil (Nowak, 2005).	eng
41633	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	In Central America this species occurs along the edges and ion gaps of evergreen forests and seem to be adaptable to some level of human distrurbance (agroforestry, forest edge,grasslands, plantations, etc.). Habitat selection in the llanos by <em>C. semistriatus</em> depends on the season. During the dry season, the habitat selection is most diverse and includes grasslands, deciduous forests, shrub woodlands, and open areas, with a majority of the time spent in deciduous forests and shrub woodlands. During the wet season, habitat selection becomes more selective and tends to be restricted to areas of higher elevations, mainly in deciduous forests (Sunquist <em>et al.</em>, 1989). The diet is varied, but mainly concentrated on insects, lizards, and birds. Home range varies with the season  probably is a response to greater food availability, and therefore a reduced need to travel to get enough to eat (Medellin <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
41633	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is locally common in appropiate habitats.	eng
41633	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	A minor threat is represented by commercial hunting for hides and skin. Use of pesticides can be a threat in some areas.	eng
41634	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species does not have any specific protection status in Central America (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).	eng
41634	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>M. macroura</em> occurs from the southern United States (southwestern Texas, southwestern New Mexico, and southeastern Arizona), throughout Mexico, into Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northwest Costa Rica. (Hall, 1981; Janzen and Hallwachs, 1982; Reid, 1997; Rosatte, 1987).	eng
41634	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The hooded skunk is most common in the arid lowlands (Davis and Russell, 1954), but also occurs in deciduous or ponderosa forest, forest edges, pastures, rocky canyons, and riparian habitats (Baker, 1956; Findley <em>et al.</em>, 1975; Janzen and Hallwachs, 1982). In Mexico, hooded skunks occupy home ranges of 2.8–5.0 km<sup>2</sup> (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). Typically, <em>M. macroura</em> occurs from sea level to 2,440 m (Hubbard, 1972), but it was also found at higher elevations in Mexico (Davis and Russell, 1954) and in Arizona (Hoffmeister, 1986). In Guerrero, Mexico, hooded skunks are widespread but scattered below 1,830 m (Davis and Lukens, 1958). The hooded skunk mainly consumes insects, fruits, small vertebrates, and bird eggs (Patton, 1974; Reid, 1997). This species seems to benefit from human distrurbed areas and can be abundant around human populations.	eng
41634	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Little is known of the population dynamics of hooded skunks (Rosatte, 1987). The species is common in Costa Rica and not uncommon in Arizona (Reid pers. comm.). The species is very abundant in Mexico (Hwang and Lariviere 2001). The species seems to be more common in human disturbed areas.	eng
41634	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Hooded skunks are not threatened. In Mexico, they are very abundant and survive in human altered habitats such as cultivated fields, pastures, and suburban areas (Hwang and Larivière, 2001). However, its meat is desired in some areas (Davis, 1944) while other parts are used for some other uses in Guatemala and Mexico (Reid, 1997; Dalquest, 1953).	eng
41635	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Given the ecological and economic importance of this species, there is a need to better understand microhabitat factors that are associated with occurrence of the taxon (Baldwin <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
41635	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs throughout most of southern Canada from British Columbia, Hudson Bay, and Nova Scotia, throughout the United States and into northern Mexico (Walker, 1964; Godin, 1982; Honacki <em>et al.</em>, 1982).	eng
41635	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is no single well-defined land type that can be classed as skunk range. They live in a variety of habitats: woods, plains, and desert areas but prefer open or forest-edge zones (Walker, 1964). Striped skunks are most abundant on agricultural lands where there is an ample supply of food and cover (Hamilton and Whitaker, 1979). They also adapt to life in urban areas under houses and garages (Rue, 1981; Rosatte, 1986; Larivière <em>et al.</em>, 1999). They have been known to inhabit poorly drained marsh areas (Mutch, 1977). Although recorded from 4,200 m skunks usually are found from sea level to 1,800 m (Rue, 1981). Frequently found in suburban areas. Striped skunks are opportunistic omnivorous predatory feeders (Carr, 1974). Their diet varies depending on season and geographic location. In most areas, they feed extensively on insects (usually grasshoppers and beetles) associated with grassland areas (as opposed to forests). However, when insects are not available (early spring, late fall), their diet shifts to small mammals, birds, or vegetation (Verts, 1967).	eng
41635	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Density estimates for striped skunk populations ranged from 0.7 to 18.5/km<sup>2</sup> but most were 1.8 to 4.8/km<sup>2</sup> (Allen and Shapton, 1942; Bailey, 1971; Bennitt and Nagel, 1937; Burt, 1946; Jones, 1939; Stout and Sonenshine, 1974; Verts, 1967). Density levels reported fluctuated widely between years, possibly in response to outbreaks of diseases (Allen and Shapton, 1942; Brown and Yeager, 1943; Verts, 1967). Skunk populations seemingly have high recruitment and turnover rates because 50 to 71% of striped skunks do not attain an age of 1 year (Bailey, 1971; Casey and Webster, 1975; Verts, 1967). Due to removal of top predators (Crooks and Soulé, 1999; Rogers and Caro, 1998; Soulé <em>et al.</em>, 1988), altered land use (Dijak and Thompson, 2000; Donovan <em>et al</em>. 1997; Oehler and Litvaitis, 1996), reduced harvest of skunks (Hamilton and Vangilder, 1992), and perhaps other factors, populations of <em>M. mephitis</em>, have increased in abundance in many regions during recent years (Andren, 1995; Kuehl and Clark, 2002).	eng
41635	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Striped skunks (<em>Mephitis mephitis</em>) are vulnerable to a variety of mortality agents such as predation, disease, environmental conditions (e.g., severe winter or drought), chemicals, and anthropogenic activities (Gehrt, 2005; Hansen <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Rosatte and Larivière, 2003). Another limiting factor in skunk populations are diseases such as rabies and the resultant control programs (Sikes, 1970). Terrestrial rabies apparently was the case for skunks in Illinois, where population fluctuations are closely tied to rabies outbreaks (Verts, 1967). Striped skunk pelts were considered valuable commodities in the fur trade in the first half of the 20th century, but their value and the number of skunks harvested for fur declined dramatically in the 1950's and 1960's as fashions shifted away from long-haired furs (Verts, 1967). Striped skunks may be harvested in most areas of the United States and Canada. In some states, such as Florida, skunks may be taken only in season, but most states allow harvests year-round (Rosatte, 1987).	eng
41636	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The populations status of this species is in question throughout its range (Kaplan and Mead, 1991). It is listed as endangered in Missouri, and threatened in Iowa and Kansas. It has been listed as "special concern" in Minnesota (since 1984) and also similarly listed in Nebraska (Boppel and Long, 1994). It is corsidered "rare" in North Dakota and Oklahoma (Wires and Baker, 1994).<br/><br/>Reed and Kennedy (2000) in a study conducted in eastern Tennessee argued that it is still not clear that conservation measures are necessary to insure long-term perpetuation of the species, because there is no evidence of a decline in eastern spotted skunks over time in that region. Programs to monitor this species in eastern Tennessee would contribute significantly to the long-term perpetuation of the species in the southern Appalachians.	eng
41636	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The eastern spotted skunk (<em>Spilogale putorius</em>) from eastern Canada to northeast Mexico. It occurs throughout south-central Pennsylvania down the Appalachian Mountain chain to Florida, west to the Continental Divide and south to Tamaulipas, Mexico (Hall, 1981; Kinlaw, 1995).<br/><br/>Increases in geographic range of eastern spotted skunks in the Great Plains may be correlated with increases in the amount of land devoted to agriculture, because agricultural practices provide outbuildings as shelter and encourage commensal house-mice (<em>Mus musculus</em>) that serve as a prey base (Choate <em>et al.</em>, 1974). By the 1940s eastern spotted skunks were reported in North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, areas in which they had not previously occurred (Van Gelder, 1959).	eng
41636	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Prefer forested areas or habitats with significant cover (Dragoo and Honeycutt, 1999). Also open and brushy areas, rocky canyons and outcrops in woodlands and prairies. When inactive or bearing young, occupies den in burrow abandoned by other mammal, under brushpile, in hollow log or tree, in rock crevice, under building, or in similar protected site.<br/><br/>Eastern spotted skunks are primarily insectivivorous. When insects are unavailable, this species preys on small mammals, mainly rodents and young rabbits (Boppel and Long, 1994).	eng
41636	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species has been known in several areas of the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States since the early 1900s (Howell, 1906). However, the abundance of <em>Spilogale putorius</em> in the southern Appalachians is unclear and Reed and Kennedy (2000) showed that the species occurs in the Appalachian Mountains of Tennessee at low density. Lee <em>et al.</em> (1982) suggested that <em>Spilogale putorius</em> was abundant in North Carolina in the Appalachian Mountains and Howell (1921) reported the species as common in Alabama.<br/><br/>Few reports of population density for <em>Spilogale putorius</em> are available. Crabb (1948) pointed out that estimates in an agricultural area of Iowa could range between one eastern spotted skunk per 11.4 ha to one per 5.0 ha, depending on the method of calculation. Additionally, data collected in 1973–1974 (Ehrhart, 1974) at Canaveral National Seashore, Florida, revealed a density estimate of one <em>S. putorius</em> per 2.5 ha.	eng
41636	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The main cause of current mortality of this species is represented by automobile roadkills (Rosatte, 1987). The pelts of both eastern and western spotted skunks represent an insignificant fraction of the modern fur trade. In the 1983-1984 trapping season, 5,588 pelts described as spotted skunk were harvested in the United States (Novak <em>et al.</em>, 1987). The species is declining in the midwest and portions of the east, but common in southern Florida (Reid 2006). Pesticides present a threat to the species in areas with intensive agriculture.	eng
41637	conservation	Cuarón, A.D. & Helgen, H., 2008	The species is considered vulnerable (Ceballos and Navarro, 1991) and listed since 1994 as threatened by the federal governrnent of Mexico. Its presence in protected areas has been confirmed in the recently decreed, Cuixrnala Biosphere  reserve, which is continuous with the Chamela Reserve of the National University of Mexico, located on the coast of Jalisco (Medellín <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
41637	distribution	Cuarón, A.D. & Helgen, H., 2008	The Pygmy skunk is a small carnivore endemic to the tropical Pacific Coast of Mexico, from Sinaloa south to Oaxaca (Medellín <em>et al.</em>, 1998). The species is found from 0-1630 meters, but is most common below 350 m.	eng
41637	habitat	Cuarón, A.D. & Helgen, H., 2008	<em>Spilogale pygmaea</em> inhabits deciduous tropical forest, semi-evergreen forest, and desert scrub (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). One specimen was obtained in coastal sand dunes with only herbaceous vegetational cover (López-Forment and Urbano, 1979). Although most individuals have been found in undisturbed habitats, they are capable of penetrating into agricultural zones and pastures (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986). Altitudinal distribution is usually 0-100 m above sea level (Van Gelder, 1959). The mean home range was 20.4 ha with male home ranges larger than those of females (Cantú-Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 1999). <em>Spilogale pygmaea</em>  is a noctumal species that makes dens underground or in fallen logs, among rocks, or simply under dense vegetation cover. Food habits consist of insects, spiders, birds, eggs, small mammals, and some fruit and seeds (Ceballos and Miranda, 1986).	eng
41637	population	Cuarón, A.D. & Helgen, H., 2008	<em>Spilogale pygmaea</em> is a scarce species, but seems to be able to survive under human-disturbed conditions if enough habitat is preserved (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).	eng
41637	threats	Cuarón, A.D. & Helgen, H., 2008	The rapidly expanding tourist developments occurring in the small range of <em>S. pygmaea</em> along the Pacific Coast of Mexico, together with its discontinuous distribution along the coastline, are probably having a negative effect on this species (Ceballos and Navarro, 1991). Some individuals are stuffed and sold as souvenirs in stores at Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico (Medellín pers. comm.). The great pressure to develop the west coast of Mexico for resorts, roads, and tourist cities is currently destroying much of the habitat of this as well as other endemic species of Mexico (Dinerstein <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Ramamoorthy <em>et al</em>. 1993). Dogs and cats will prey on this species around human populations.	eng
41639	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The conservation status of <em>Galictis cuja</em> varies by country (Yensen and Tarifa, 2003).	eng
41639	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Galictis cuja</em> occurs in southeastern Peru, western and southern Bolivia, central Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and east to southeastern Brazil.	eng
41639	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Lesser grison frequently occurs near water (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989; Pine <em>et al</em>. 1979), may be also abundant in open habitats (Mares <em>et al</em>. 1989), in the extremes of the arid Chaco, in environments with extensive vegetation cover in conjuction with open water, deciduous and evergreen forests, savananas and mountainous regions up to 4,200 m (Yensen and Tarifa, 2003). The species could also be found in the agricultural areas of the pampas (Parera, 2002).<br/>The diet consists primarily on small and medium-sized vertebrates, including rodents, lagomorphs, birds, frogs, lizards snakes and eggs (Jimenez, 1996; Mann, 1945; Quintana <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41639	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Population numbers of this species are unknown.	eng
41639	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Blamed for eating poultry and persecuted for this (Brooks, 1991). Hunted for sport in Paraguay (Brooks, 1991) and high dead rates at highways in Brazil (Vieira, 1996). In some parts of their range they are also sold as pets (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).	eng
41640	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	In Costa Rica, it is considered endangered (Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989) and is listed on CITES Appendix III (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987). In Belize it is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act, and in Nicaragua it is protected from hunting (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
41640	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Galictis vittata</em> occurs at lower elevations from eastern Mexico south throughout Central America into South America as far south as Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Santa Catarina, Brazil. The geographic range of <em>G. vittata</em> was estimated at 13,083,600 km<sup>2</sup> (Arita <em>et al.</em>, 1990).	eng
41640	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in a wide range from tropical forests, from sea level to 1,200 meters (Nowak, 2005), to grasslands and even cultivated areas, although not in great numbers (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000). This is a very opportunistic species, eating whatever is available. The diet includes small mammals, birds and their eggs, lizards, amphibians and fruits (Nowak, 2005).	eng
41640	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Galictis vittata</em> has a low density throughout its range (Arita <em>et al.</em>, 1990). Some subspecies are considered uncommon or rare (Timm <em>et al</em>. 1989). The densities estimated for the species were 1- 2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Eisenberg <em>et al</em>. 1979).	eng
41640	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is tolerant to some disturbance, but hunting has shown negative effects (Bisbal, 1993). In some parts of their range the males are trapped for their body parts and they are also sold as pets (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000).	eng
41642	conservation	Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and in annex IB of the Decree No. 32/2006  ND-CP in Viet Nam. In China, all gibbons are protected as National First-Class Protected Animals. For the conservation of <em>N. nasutus</em> in Viet Nam, the Cao Bang Forest Protection Department established a Species and Habitat Conservation Area, with a joint forest protection system that involves communities, a ranger force, and border patrol. Fauna and Flora International is also partnering with the Cao Bang Rural Development Project to encourage sustainability and conservation education and research in the local communities (La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). Also, there are rural energy projects underway to reduce the use of charcoal, as well as community patrols. In China, a proposition has been made recently for the establishment of strict conservation areas for all remaining forests near known gibbon groups.	eng
41642	distribution	Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species is found in a small area of northeastern Viet Nam and southeastern China, northeast of the Red River, where it is restricted to the Phong Nam-Ngoc Khe Mountains, Trung Khanh District, northern Cao Bang province, and adjacent forest in Jingxi County, Guangxi (Geissmann <em>et a</em>l. 2002, 2003b; W. Bleisch pers. comm.). It is possibly still extant in neighbouring Hoa Binh province, Viet Nam, as well, and in 2002 it was additionally reported from Kim Hy forest in Bac Kan province (which has since been proposed as a nature reserve). The range seems to have formerly extended from Ha Long Bay south to the Red River delta; gibbons of some species formerly lived in adjacent areas of southeastern China (Guangdong and Guangxi provinces), but are thought to have almost completely disappeared from there during the 1950s (Geissman <em>et al. </em>2000; Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is possible that some individuals still remain in isolated pockets of inaccessible karst forest.	eng
41642	habitat	Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species historically inhabited lower montane and limestone forests, in a wet tropical monsoon climate, at an altitude range of 50?900 m (Dao Van Tien 1983). The known population is now entirely restricted to limestone forests on inaccessible karst outcrops ranging 640?800 m in elevation (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2002). Preliminary behavioral observations revealed that most of the feeding time was spent eating fruit (86.6%), whereas other food categories appeared to play a minor role: leaves (4.7%), animal matter (0.5%), undetermined food class (8.2%) (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41642	population	Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T., 2008	This species was thought to be possibly extinct (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2000, 2003a), but a surviving population was found in 2002 (Geissmann <em>et al. </em>2002, 2003b; La Quang Trung <em>et al.</em> 2002; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). The latter has since been extensively surveyed, revealing as of August 2002 some 26-28 individuals living in five separate groups in the Phong Nam-Ngoc Khe forests (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004). In 2005, a survey team estimated a population of 35-37 individuals (Vu Ngoc Thanh <em>et al</em>. 2006). An even more recent survey found at least two groups with an estimated 10 individuals total in China on the other side of the border from the known Viet Nam population (Tan Weifu pers. comm. 2006). There have been additional surveys in other forest patches in the surrounding area, but no other extent populations have been found (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000, 2003a; Geissmann and Vu Ngoc Thanh 2001; La Quang Trung<em>et al.</em> 2002; Fellowes <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
41642	threats	Bleisch, B. & Geissmann, T., 2008	The main threat to this species, given its restricted range, is habitat loss and disturbance. What little remains of the habitat is in danger of being cleared for cultivation, livestock grazing, and firewood collection by local Viet Namese and Chinese minority people, as well as by the charcoal-making of local Chinese people (T. Geissmann and W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). There is also a continued threat from hunting, and the species is endangered as well from problems intrinsic to small population size and single populations, such as inbreeding effects, poor mate-choice, and risks from man-made or natural disaster (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003b; La Quang Trung and Trinh Dinh Hoang 2004).	eng
41643	conservation	Geissmann, T. & Bleisch, W., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. As far as known it is entirely confined to Bawangling Nature Reserve in Hainan Island (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) and is the most critically endangered primate in the world (Geissmann 2005a). There is suitable gibbon habitat outside of the known Nature Reserve, and there is a need to survey for any surviving individuals or groups not yet accounted for, especially in Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve, Yinggelin Nature Reserve, and Jianfenglin Nature Reserve (B. Chan and T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>In terms of the Bawangling population, there should be intensive monitoring of the remaining two groups, and survey of the remaining subadults (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2008). There is a need for continued gun confiscation in the area, which has already been done once in the area (W. Bleisch pers. comm. 2006). The most important thing is to protect all of the remaining habitat and individuals. Captive breeding does not appear to be a wise strategy for this species because (1) there are no captive individuals, (2) earlier attempts to capture wild gibbons alive has not been very successful and may reduce the viability of the few remaining individuals, and (3) captive breeding of crested gibbons has not been highly successful.	eng
41643	distribution	Geissmann, T. & Bleisch, W., 2008	This species is endemic to Hainan Island, China (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is currently confined to the Bawangling Nature Reserve on the western side of the island of Hainan (Chan <em>et al. </em>2005). Before the 1960s it was widely distributed across the island.	eng
41643	habitat	Geissmann, T. & Bleisch, W., 2008	This species inhabits remnant forest. It is diurnal, arboreal, and mostly frugivorous (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). The most difficult time for the gibbons to find food in Bawangling Nature Reserve is between February and April, when only seven of 40 known food-plant species are available for the gibbons (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species occurs at altitudes ranging from 650 to 1,200 meters (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005; Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000) but in the past probably preferred lowland forest.<br/><br/>Group size has been reported to range from 4-8 individuals, with an average of 5.3-5.5 individuals, depending on the year of the study (Geissmann <em>et al</em>. 2000). Home range size ranges from 100 to 500 ha (Liu and Tan 1990; Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989; Zhou pers. comm. 2006), with an average of about 360 ha (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
41643	population	Geissmann, T. & Bleisch, W., 2008	In the late 1950s, the population was estimated to be over two thousand individuals (Liu <em>et al.</em> 1984). In 1993 there were three groups with less than 20 individuals (Geissmann <em>et al.</em> 2000). During a comprehensive survey in 2003, only 13 individuals were recorded, consisting of two groups, in addition to two solitary individuals (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005; Geissmann 2005b). Since 2003 an intensive monitoring work showed that the population of Hainan Gibbon has increased in the past five years. The two groups have produced newborn infants every two years, as previously noted (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1989), while a single individual departed from each group during the same period. These changes brought the composition of the two groups to nine and six individuals respectively. At present the there could be also up to five solitary individuals, reaching so a total of 20 individuals (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
41643	threats	Geissmann, T. & Bleisch, W., 2008	There is still pressure from hunting. In recent years the core remaining habitat has been protected, although the currently occupied habitat may be in suboptimal (Geissmann 2005a; T. Geissmann pers. comm.). This species is threatened from problems intrinsic to extremely small population size such as inbreeding effects, poor mate-choice, and human or natural disaster (Chan <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are some reports of a sex bias in births, but it is not possible to identify the sex of young crested gibbons in the field, because immature individuals do not differ in fur coloration or calls, and sexual organs of males and females resemble each other (T. Geissmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41644	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Tayras occur in numerous protected areas. Honduras lists this species under CITES Appendix III.	eng
41644	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs from southern Veracruz, Mexico, throughout Mesoamerica and south across South American to northern Argentina, occurring throughout except for the high Andes and Caatinga (eastern Brazil).	eng
41644	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Eira barbara</em> is a diurnal, sometimes crepuscular species (Reid, 1997), solitary that travels within a big home range (Sunquist <em>et al.</em>, 1989). It seems to be a forest species, using both floor and tree habitats. Emmons and Freer (1990) affirms that Tayra inhabits tropical and subtropical forests, secondary rain forests, gallery forests, gardens, plantations, cloud forests, and dry scrub forests. Hall and Dalquest (1963) affirms that it can live near human habitations, crops and other human disturbed habitats. Usually occupies below the 1,200 m, but there are reports up to 2,400 m (Emmons and Freer, 1990; Eisenberg, 1989) and is common at 2,000 m (Gonzalez-Maya pers. comm.).<br/>Diet of Tayras is omnivorouse, including fruits, carrion, small vertebrates, insects, and honey and small vertebrates as marsupials, rodents, iguanids among others (Cabrera and Yepes, 1960; Emmons and Freer, 1990; Galef <em>et al</em>. 1976; Hall and Dalquest, 1963). This species does well in agricultural areas and along the edge of human settlements.	eng
41644	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Eira barbara</em> is one of the most common medium-size predators throughout its range (Emmons and Freer, 1990). Common in Central America (Janzen, 1983; Alston, 1882; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, 1965; Emmons and Freer, 1990; Reid, 1997), Colombia, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana (Eisenberg, 1989), Venezuela (Handley, 1976), Bolivia (Anderson, 1997), Brazil (except in the caatingas and cerrado; Emmons and Freer, 1990), Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 1991; Mares <em>et al</em>. 1989; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). However, was not recorded in the Paraguayan Chaco during a year (1989-1990) of large mammal censuses (Brooks, 1998), despite a taxidermied specimen in the local museum (Brooks, 1991).	eng
41644	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is not evidence about trapping or hunting of the species (Emmons and Freer 1990). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) reported that the range of the tayra has been reduced in portions of Mexico because of the destruction of tropical forests and spread of agriculture.	eng
41645	conservation	Hoffmann, M., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Protected by law in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (K. de Smet pers. comm.). Presumably present in several protected areas across their range.	eng
41645	distribution	Hoffmann, M., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Present in northern Africa from Morocco and Senegal to Egypt and Eritrea. Their distribution is poorly known (Cuzin in press). Their range apparently overlaps with that of the Zorilla <em>Ictonyx striatus</em> in some regions, such as in northern Nigeria and in central and eastern Sudan (Niethammer 1987).	eng
41645	habitat	Hoffmann, M., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	Found only in desert fringes, mountains and oases, and sub-deserts. They favour sparse to very sparse vegetation cover, dominated by small bushes, except where they occur in cultivated areas (Cuzin in press).	eng
41645	population	Hoffmann, M., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	There is limited reliable information on the population status of this species. They are not uncommon, and are reportedly abundant in coastal dunes, but numbers are probably subject to periodic fluctuations (Cuzin in press).	eng
41645	threats	Hoffmann, M., Cuzin, F. & de Smet, K., 2008	There are no major threats, but they may be subject to competition with Least Weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> in the most productive habitats (e.g., in Morocco: F. Cuzin pers. comm. 2007). Although their meat is not eaten, they are exploited in Tunisia in the belief that they are capable of increasing human male fertility, and there is even some international trade (e.g. from Tunisia into Libya: K. de Smet pers. comm.).	eng
41646	conservation	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in numerous protected areas.	eng
41646	distribution	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has a wide distribution, ranging south of the Sahara from Mauritania and Senegal in the west to Sudan, Ethiopia and Djibouti in the east and south to South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They occur from sea level to more than 4,000 m on Mt Kenya (Young and Evans 1993).	eng
41646	habitat	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species exhibits a wide habitat tolerance, being found in open grassland, savanna woodland, thornbush, rocky areas, forest and even desert (provided there is some scrub cover), but absent from the forests of the Congo basin and West Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). They occur in agricultural areas, including, for example, exotic plantations in KwaZulu-Natal and pastoral areas of the Kenyan highlands (Stuart and Stuart in press). Carnivorous, with insects predominating in their diet.	eng
41646	population	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common, and easily overlooked as they are difficult to trap. Hendrichs (1972) estimated density at one individual per  5-10 km² in East Africa.	eng
41646	threats	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. They are sometimes killed for preying on poultry, and in some areas may be undergoing local declines due to increasing rural human populations and predation by domestic dogs (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41647	conservation	Kelt, D. & Pardinus, U., 2008	This species is not often seen in the wild or collected. It is possible – even likely – that this species occurs in several protected areas in western Argentina (Nahuel Huapi, Lanin, Lago Puelo, Los Alerces ) or in southern Patagonia (Perito Moreno, Los Glaciares), although most of these emphasize forested habitats rather than open terrain. Further survey efforts are necessary usign appropiate techniques for the species.	eng
41647	distribution	Kelt, D. & Pardinus, U., 2008	The species is found in temperate arid and semiarid portions of Argentina and southern Chile (Prevosti and Pardiñas, 2001). It is known to occur from Salta Province south along the western part of the country to Santa Cruz Province, and then into Chile along the southern Argentine border (Tell <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41647	habitat	Kelt, D. & Pardinus, U., 2008	<em>Lyncodon patagonicus</em> is found in herbaceous and shrub steppes and xerophytic woodlands (Osgood, 1943; Prevosti and Pardiñas, 2001). Its habits are little known; available data indicate that <em>L. patagonicus</em> is nocturnal-crepuscular and that it preys on fossorial rodents and birds (Cabrera and Yepes, 1940; Koslowsky, 1904; Redford and Eisenberg, 1992). May be assopciated with tuc-tuc (<em>Ctenomys spp</em>.) communities (Tell <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41647	population	Kelt, D. & Pardinus, U., 2008	This species is suspected to be rare and occur at low densities across its range, however, it is inferred to be locally common around appropriate resources. Miller <em>et al.</em> (1983) considered this species to be rare in Chile. New locality records were reported for northern Patagonia, Argentina (Teta <em>et al.</em>, 2007).	eng
41647	threats	Kelt, D. & Pardinus, U., 2008	There are likely few direct threats to this species, although habitat degradation (due to sheep grazing) and occasional killing by ranchers are local threats.	eng
41648	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	In most state and provincial jurisdictions in western North America where it occurs, the American marten is managed as a furbearer. Protective regulations allowed the species to make a comeback in some areas, but in the eastern United States the marten survives only in small parts of Minnesota, New york and Maine (Blanchard, 1974; Mech, 1961; Mech and Rogers, 1977; Yocom, 1974). In the Pacific states, conservation measures should include a reevaluation of timber harvest plans that affect habitat in coastal forests, interagency cooperation on a coastal marten conservation assessment, and the collection of new survey information, especially on private lands in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon (Zielinski <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
41648	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	American martens occur accross most of North America from Alaska through much of forested Canada, into the northeastern United States, and south along northern California, south in the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains.	eng
41648	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is typically associated with late-seral coniferous forests characterized by closed canopies, large trees, and<br/>abundant standing and down woody material (Buskirk and Powell, 1994; Thompson and Harestad, 1994). It dens in hollow trees or logs, in rocky crevices, or in burrows. The marten is primarly nocturnal and partly arboreal but spends considerable time on the ground. The diet consists mostly of rodents and other small mammals and also includes birds, insects, fruit and carrion (Nowak, 2005). Average home size throughout North America is 8.1 km<sup>2</sup> for males and 2.3 km<sup>2</sup> for females, and degree of overlap varies (Powell, 1994).	eng
41648	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Total population size is unknown but probably is at least several hundred thousand; for example, the harvest in North America in the 1983-1984 trapping season was nearly 190,000 (Novak <em>et al.</em> 1987). Newfoundland population was estimated at less than 500 in early the 1990s, down from 630-875 in the early 1980s (Snyder, 1986 COSEWIC report). <br/><br/>Although their continental range may have declined (Gibilisco, 1994), populations of martens have not suffered the magnitude of the decrease and the species is well distributed within its geographic ranges (Zielinski <em>et al.</em>, 2001). Adequate population data are unavailable for much of the range. Population density was found to vary from about 0.5/km<sup>2</sup> to 1.7/km<sup>2</sup> of good habitats (Banfield, 1974). Reintroduction projects have been carried out in northern Michigan and Wisconsin and it appears that a self-sustaining population has been restored in that region (Slough, 1994). Reintroduction also has been attempted in New Hampshire and in various other parts of the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada (Nowak, 2005).	eng
41648	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species still occurs throughout most of this range, but because of loss of habitat, it has been extirpated from many southeastern areas (Godin, 1977; Peterson, 1966). Marten distribution and demographic rates are affected by the loss of closed-canopy forest due to logging (Bissonette <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Chapin <em>et al</em>. 1998; Payer and Harrison, 2003; Thompson, 1991). Martens are still legally trapped for their fur in most of the western states (Zielinski <em>et al</em>. 2001). By the early twentieth century excessive trapping had severely depleted <em>M. americana</em> in Alaska, Canada and the western conterminous United States. The range of this species has declined (Reid 2006).	eng
41649	conservation	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than Zaw & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The yellow-throated marten is protected in many parts of its range. In Myanmar, this species is protected all year under the Wildlife Act of 1994 (Su Su 2005) and in Peninsular Malaysia it is protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972; Azlan, 2003). This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (India) and Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). This species is known from many protected areas across its range. Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) studied it in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in north central Thailand. It was recorded by Azlan (2003) in Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01.	eng
41649	distribution	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than Zaw & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The yellow-throated marten has an Asian and Sundaic distribution, and countries where this species is found include China, India, Indonesia (Islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo), DPR Korea, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Taiwan, Viet Nam (Wozencraft 2005; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997; Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997), Thailand (Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2005), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press), Malaysia (Azlan 2003), Cambodia (J. L. Walston pers. comm.), and possibly Singapore (Meiri 2005). The species elevational range extends from sea-level to 3,000 m (Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Duckworth 1995, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
41649	habitat	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than Zaw & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	In the Russian Far East the yellow-throated marten prefers mixed (spruce and broad-leaved) forests of the Manchurian type, while it occurs rarely in the dark coniferous taiga of the upper mountain zone and in the oak forests zone (Matyushkin, 1993). In Lao PDR, Myanmar and Thailand this species is found in forests and various other adjacent habitats across a wide altitudinal range (Duckworth et al.1999, Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), but it clearly favors forests. It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003) and there are many records from other areas of secondary forest, even areas well isolated from old-growth stands.<br/><br/>Although sometimes said to be largely or entirely nocturnal, the species is primarily diurnal, but also hunts at night increasing nocturnal activity during lunar nights (plus or minus 7 days from full moon) (Duckworth 1997, Grassman <em>et al</em>. 2005, Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press, Parr and Duckworth 2007, J. L. Walston pers. comm. (for Cambodia)). Common food items include squirrels, birds, snakes, and lizards, though insects, eggs, frogs, fruit, nectar, and berries are also taken, as well as honey and bees (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) and in fact it probably has a very wide diet (Parr and Duckworth 2007). In nature, groups of two to three or more rarely, five to seven individuals can be seen; in the Russian Far East the species hunts in groups for musk deer (Matyushkin 1993). It is also usually found in small groups, rather than as single individuals, at least in tropical parts of its range (Parr and Duckworth, 2007).<br/><br/>Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that this species has a mean annual range size of 7.2 km² with a mean overlap of 34% in a study on this species conducted in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand. The litter size is up to five, and the gestation period is 220-290 days, and it has life span of up to 14 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).	eng
41649	population	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than Zaw & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Few population assessments of the yellow-throated marten exist. Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 40 individuals in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand between 1998 and 2002. In Sikhote-Alinsky Nature Reserve (Russian Far East) the population density was estimated to be 1-5 per 100 square kilometers (Matyushkin 1993). The total amount in Russia is estimated as 2500-3500 specimens (Alexei Abramov pers. comm. 2006). It is evidently common across Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997) and Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press) and probably widely in at least South-east Asia (Parr and Duckworth 2007).	eng
41649	threats	Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than Zaw & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	As the yellow-throated marten is tied to forest areas, at least in the Southeast Asian parts of its range, forest conversion there over the last few decades will have resulted in some overall population reduction. Nevertheless, the species is surviving well within remaining forests (including secondary stands), perhaps because it is less preferred as food by most residents and its scansorial nature reduces its exposure to snares and other traps, as well as allows easy escape from dogs. Therefore, no significant threats at the population level are known to the species in Southeast Asia, although it is no doubt below carrying capacity in heavily hunted areas such as Lao PDR. It is occasionally hunted in Siberia (Russia) and DPR Korea for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006, J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006) but this does not constitute a global threat, rather it affects local populations at most. It can habituate to close approach of many people and take food from human waste (Parr and Duckworth 2007).	eng
41650	conservation	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Commercial forestry should consider reducing habitat loss for this species (Tatara, 1994). Conservation of deciduous forest is especially important (Nakamura <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is present in protected areas.	eng
41650	distribution	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is known from Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Awaji, and introduced on Sado Island and Hokkaido (Abe, 2005), as well as Tsushima Island (S. Roy pers. comm.). Distribution in southern Korean Peninsula is reported but not confirmed (Abe, 2005). It is found from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
41650	habitat	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is found in forests, and can occur in suburban areas with sufficient trees. It "plays a key role as a relatively long-distance seed disperser for major component species with large and flesh-rich fruits in the subalpine shrubland (Otani, 2002)." It forages on a wide variety of fruits (Otani, 2002).	eng
41650	population	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is common throughout its known range, and increasing on Tsushima Island.	eng
41650	threats	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Habitat of this species in Tushima was deteriorated by timber cutting (Tatara, 1994).	eng
41651	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are currently efforts underway to implement a conservation strategy to reintroduce the fisher into its former range along the Pacific Coast. Genetic data indicate that British Columbia would be the most appropriate source population for future translocations that may be necessary to recover populations in Washington and portions of Oregon and California (Drew <em>et al.</em>, 2003). The species is protect in large tracts of habitat in areas well distributed throughout the range. The primary conservation measure necessary is to prevent excessive harvest.	eng
41651	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Fishers range from Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, and New England west across boreal Canada to southeastern Alaska, south in the western mountains to Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and California, and formerly south to Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Large range in northern North America; extirpation from southern portion of range, due mainly to habitat loss, has been counteracted by recent natural and human-aided range expansions in the eastern U.S.; adequate population data are unavailable for much of the range, but the species currently is regarded as secure.	eng
41651	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Fishers inhabit upland and lowland forests, including coniferous, mixed, and deciduous forests. They occur primarily in dense coniferous or mixed forests, including early successional forest with dense overhead cover (Thomas, 1993). They generally avoid areas with little forest cover or significant human disturbance. The fisher is adapted for climbing but is primarily terrestrial. It is a generalized predator whose major prey are small to medium-sized mammals and birds, and carrion (Powell, 1981).	eng
41651	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Densities in preferred habitat are about one fisher per 2.6 to 7.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coulter, 1966; Kelly, 1977). Total population size is unknown but probably is at least in the low hundreds of thousands; for example, the harvest in North America during the 1983-1984 trapping season was about 20,000 (Novak <em>et al.</em> 1987), and the average in the 1960s and 1970s was about 13,000 (Strickland <em>et al.</em> 1982).	eng
41651	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	During the 19th and early 20th centuries the fisher declined over most of its range because of excessive fur trapping and habitat destruction through logging. Aubry and Lewis (2003) state that over trapping appears to have been the primary initial cause of fisher population losses in southwestern Oregon. The high value of the skins, the ease of trapping fishers (Powell, 1993), year-round accessibility in the low to mid-elevation coniferous forests, and the lack of trapping regulations resulted in heavy trapping pressure on fishers in the late 1800s and early 1900s (Aubry and Lewis, 2003). Timber harvest can fragment fisher habitat, reduce it in size, or change the forest structure to be unsuitable for fishers. Habitat loss and fragmentation appear to be significant threats to the fisher.	eng
41652	conservation	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	In China, the species was listed as endangered in Key List 1 as e A2acd. Studies are needed on the effects of hunting on this species, in order to develop methods to control its populations and use them commercially without decreasing annual population growth, and territorial regulation is one approach to its solution (Monakhov, 2001). Monakhov (2001) drew the following conclusion: "In the Ob region, hunting should be allowed in all lowland areas, whereas reserves should be created in the upper reaches of rivers and in interfluves, covering 30-40% of these areas. However, with a low sable population density (less than 0.5 ind. per 1000 ha), reserves should cover 40-50% of the habitats occupied by this species." In Japan, selective trapping of introduced Japanese marten is needed to protect native subspecies (T. Murakami pers. comm.).	eng
41652	conservation	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Studies are needed on the effects of hunting on this species, in order to develop methods to control its populations and use them commercially without decreasing annual population growth (Monakhov 2001).	eng
41652	distribution	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is found in "China (Xinjiang to then northeast), Japan (Hokkaido); Mongolia, DPR Korea, Russia (Ural Mountains to Siberia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Kunashiri, and Etorofu)" (Abe 2005, Wilson and Reeder 2005). This species is of marginal occurrence in Europe, where it is found only in the Ural mountains.	eng
41652	distribution	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is found in China (Xinjiang to then northeast), Japan (Hokkaido); Mongolia, DPR Korea, Russia (Ural Mountains to Siberia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Kunashiri, and Etorofu) (Wozencraft, 2005; Abe 2005); historically west to northern Scandanavia and western Poland.	eng
41652	habitat	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species is primarily found in dense coniferous forests, but can tolerate other types of forests. It feeds on small rodents, voles, squirrels, pikas, doves and berries. For this species in the Ob region of Russia, Monakhov (2001) found that young animals tended to live near floodplains (lowland forest), while adult animals lived on watersheds (upland forest).	eng
41652	habitat	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The species is primarily found in dense coniferous forests, but can tolerate other types of forests. It feeds on small rodents, voles, squirrels, pikas, doves and berries. On Hokkaido in Japan, the subspecies Martes zibellina brachyura chiefly inhabits cool-temperate mixed forest, preferring resting sites in "dense-tree forests with many tree species and debris probably in order to avoid predators, and strong wind and foraging in forests of climax succession which are usually rich in their prey such as voles and mice (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005)." Analysis of scat by Murakami (2003) revealed that this subspecies feeds on small mammals such as voles, with occasional ingestion of insects and fruit in summer and autumn (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). In northeastern China, Buskirk <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that this species preferred foraging habitats with larger values of coarse woody debris (CWD) and DBH, basal area of coniferous trees and canopy trees, as also found by Miyoshi and Higashi (2005), which, according to Hale (1999), are vegetational factors that characterize old-growth forest (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). This species is found in habitats with well-covered canopies, presumably to avoid attacks by raptors (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005). Similarily, "the debris-rich and dense-tree forests with a large number of tree species may be effective for the sables to avoid strong wind and predators (red foxes) which usually forage in open lands or sparse-tree forests (Miyoshi and Higashi, 2005)." The sable reaches sexual maturity at 1.5years. The gestation with delayed implantation, takes 245-298 days. Litter size can be 1-7 (usually 3) pups.<br/><br/>For this species in the Ob region of Russia, Monakhov (2001) found that young animals tended to live near floodplains (lowland forest), while adult animals lived on watersheds (upland forest). "The floodplain group of habitats was represented by haircap moss-sphagnum and dwarf shrub-sphagnum pine and birch-pine forests and dwarf shrub-sphagnum oligotrophic bogs; the watershed habitats included spruce-Siberian stone pine stands with fir, spruce-birch stands with fir and Siberian stone pine, and herbaceous-dwarf shrub-green moss pine forests specked with haircap moss-sphagnum high bogs (Monakhov, 2001)."	eng
41652	population	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is estimated that 6,000 individuals of this species remain in China. Globally the species' population was historically fragmented due to hunting, and it has since recovered and is now fairly abundant in Siberia and the Far East (Monakhov 2001).	eng
41652	population	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species' population was fragmented due to hunting and has since recovered and is now such that the species is now fairly abundant in Siberia and the Far East (Monakhov 2001). In 1990-1999 the numbers of sable in Russia were estimated as 800-1,100 (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41652	threats	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is still commercially hunted, and logging of primary dense coniferous habitat in Siberia and the Far East is a threat. The species is heavily farmed for fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, introduced Japanese marten <em>Martes melampus</em> can be a competitor of the endemic subspecies <em>Martes zibellina brachyura</em> (T. Murakami pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41652	threats	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is still commercially hunted, logging of primary dense coniferous habitat in Siberia and the Far East (Bakeev and Sinitsyn, 1998). The species is heavily farmed for fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). In Japan, introduced Japanese marten <span style="font-style: italic;">Martes melampus</span> can be a competitor of endemic <span style="font-style: italic;">Martes zibellina brachyuran</span> (T. Murakami pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41653	conservation	Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C. & Ying-xiang, W., 2008	The population in the Russian Far East is listed in the Russian Red Data Book (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). In China, the species is listed as Near Threatened (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Appendix III of CITES (India) (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/paleweasel.htm). It is protected by law in Sichuan, China (Yi-ming <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41653	distribution	Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C. & Ying-xiang, W., 2008	This species is found in China, Kashmir (found across the Himalayan range of Nepal, Bhutan and India, eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan ,Mongolia, DPR Korea,  Russia (southern and southeastern Siberia, Primorski Krai), and Sikkim (Wozencraft, 2005). The listing from DPR Korea is in need of confirmation (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). This species is found in the Himalayas up to 5000 m. In Bhutan, it is found from 1500-5,200 m (Thinley <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41653	habitat	Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C. & Ying-xiang, W., 2008	This species prefers alpine meadow and lives among rocky slopes. It is also found in sparse forest vegetation and predominately open landscape (Kruska 1990). The species is exclusively carnivorous, preying mainly upon voles, mice, pikas, hamsters, small birds, lizards and insects (Pocock 1941), and is particularly dependent upon pikas Ochotona across much of its range (Smith and Foggin 1999). The gestation period is 38-40 days, without delayed implantation. The litter size is 2-6, sometimes up to 13 pups (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41653	population	Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C. & Ying-xiang, W., 2008	The species is common but not abundant throughout its range. Population density fluctuates depending on prey abundance by 4 or 5 times.	eng
41653	threats	Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C. & Ying-xiang, W., 2008	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat conversion due to over-grazing by livestock through most of its range and these effects seem to be worsening with habitat change. Most seriously there are agriculturally-driven pika-control campaigns across much of the weasel?s range, which have eradicated the weasel?s main food from large areas (Hornskov and Foggin 2007). It is occasionally hunted and is also susceptible to "mountain meadow" degradation, of the habitats to which it is wholly adapted. This species does not tolerate a high degree of alteration and it avoids agricultural lands.	eng
41654	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41654	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Long-tailed weasels have the largest distribution of any mustelid in the Western Hemisphere. The range of the long-tail weasel includes most of North America, extending from just north of the United States-Canadian border and south to Central America to northern South America (Sheffield and Thomas, 1997). In South America it is known from Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Eisenberg, 1989; Emmons and Feer, 1990; King, 1989).	eng
41654	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Found in a wide variety of habitats, usually near water. Favored habitats include brushland and open woodlands, field edges, riparian grasslands, swamps, and marshes (Sheffield, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Dens are in abandoned burrow made by other mammal, rock crevice, brushpile, stump hollow, or space among tree roots; one individual may use multiple dens. Tolerant of close proximity to humans. <br/><br/><em>M. frenata</em> is usually most abundant in late seral stages or ecotones where prey diversity is greatest (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). Its diet consists mainly of rodents and other small mammals. It is primarily nocturnal but is frequently active by day. It can climb and swim, but apparently not as well as <em>M. erminea</em>. Waterways provide access to suitable habitat and are a natural avenue far dispersal, particularly in areas that otherwise are unsuitable (Fagerstone, 1987). Home ranges vary from 4 to 120 ha and may overlap. Basically solitary, though more social where prey is abundant and habitat optimal.	eng
41654	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Long-tailed weasels are widespread and fairly common throughout their range (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). <em>M. frenata</em> is difficult to census. Estimates of densities vary widely by habitat and prey availability (King, 1989). Population density was found to vary from about 1/2.6 ha to 1/260 ha (Nowak, 2005). Jackson (1961) found population density averages 1 per 7-40 acres, depending upon habitat and environmental conditions (Baker 1983). <em>M. frenata</em> populations are more stable than those of <em>M. erminea</em> or <em>M. nivalis</em>.  However, <em>M. frenata</em> populations generally fluctuate, and they frequently become locally extinct in response to changes in prey numbers (King, 1989).	eng
41654	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Movements of radio-tagged weasels in Indiana were consistent with the notion that long-tailed weasels may be sensitive to agriculturally induced fragmentation of habitat and the importance of maintaining landscape connectivity for species conservation (Gehring and Swihart, 2004). Additional threats include monoculture and drainage of wetlands. Perhaps affected directly and indirectly by pesticide use (effects on reproduction, habitat, and/or food supply).	eng
41655	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Choudhury, A. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	This species was sighted in Nam Xam National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1998 (Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Appendix III of CITES (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/yellowweasel.htm). More information is needed on this species in Lao PDR before a conservation status can be certainly determined (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). In Viet Nam, this species is protected in group 2b, because it is an enemy of rats (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is listed as Near Threatened on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004).	eng
41655	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Choudhury, A. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	This species is found in "Myanmar, southern and eastern China, the Indochinese peninsula, and Nepal" (Wozencraft, 2005) and in addition northern Thailand, India and Bhutan (Pocock 1941, Duckworth and Robichaud 2005, P. Yonzon pers. comm.). Corbet and Hill (1992) report a lower altitudinal limit of 1,000 m. In the Himalayas, this species is found between the altitude of 1,800 and 4,000 m (http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/envisdec99/yellowweasel.htm). In Bhutan to 3,800 m (Yonzon pers. comm.). In India found as low as 1,000 m (Choudhury pers. comm.). In Hong Kong, it is found from close to sea-level to over 200 m (Lau pers. comm. 2006). In Western Himalaya from 3,000-5,200 m in the cold deserts (Muddapa pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is little known in Lao PDR, where one recent sighting was in Fokienia forest at about 1,500 m in Nam Xam National Biodiversity Conservation Area (within 20°02' to 14' N and 104° 18' to 53' E) in January 1998 (Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998), though historical records came from Xiangkhouang town (19° 20' N and 103° 22' E) in 1926, Phongsaly town in 1929 (Osgood 1932, Delacour 1940), and the Bolaven Plateau (within 14° 42' to 15° 30' N and 106° 15' to 50' E) at about 1,200 to 1,400 m in 1932 (Tizard 2002, Legendre 1932). In 2004 and 2005 it was recorded in Phongsaly, the northernmost province in Lao, on Phou Fa (=Fa mountain, 21° 41' N and 102° 06' E, 1,550 m) and close to Ban Bakong (=Bakong village, 21° 37' N 102° 05' E, 1,200 m) (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). <br/><br/>Historically, most of the records of this species in Southeast Asia come from the northern highlands of Viet Nam, though there are two recent records to the south, in the Annamite mountains of central Viet Nam (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), one was recorded in primary evergreen forest at 1,000 m in A Vuong proposed Nature Reserve, Tay Giang district, Quang Nam Province (16° 00' N and 107° 30' E) in 2003 (Long <em>et al</em>, 2004) and another in the Ngoc Linh highlands at about 15 degree N latitude in the late 1990s (J. C. Eames in litt. 1999). It may yet be found to extend even farther south in Indochina (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). In Thailand, there are no historical records, though it apparently occurs in the northern highlands (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), as Vikorn (2001) reported a roadkill specimen of <em>Mustela nivalis</em> from Doi Pha Luang station, which Duckworth later determined was <em>Mustela katiah</em>. (and not <em>M. nivalis</em> as it was previously identified). There are multiple skins of this species from Myanmar, all collected in the north (Pocock, 1941: 359, Than Zaw <em>et al. </em>in press.).	eng
41655	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Choudhury, A. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	It is generally associated with large extents of high elevation (1,000 m+) terrain. It may occur well below 1,000 m in such areas, but unlikely that the species occurs at lower elevations in areas away from high altitude terrain (except in parts of China and Viet Nam).  In Lao PDR, this little known species was sighted in Fokienia forest at about 1,500 m (Showler <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Lao PDR, this species was recorded from "relict and degraded montane evergreen forest, linked through extensive scrub and grassland to various other small and degraded forest patches (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005)." It seems likely that this species is tolerant of quite severe habitat degradation, and it appears to persist in the face of heavy hunting (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005), supporting findings in heeavily disturbed areas of southern China (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm. 2006). It was recorded in primary evergreen forest in Viet Nam in 2003 (Long <em>et al</em>. 2004). It probably occurs at lower elevations in the northeast the country (Timmins pers. comm.) and there is one record from the Ke Go lowlands (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep). In India, it is found from 1,800 to 2,200 m in temperate forests and cold deserts (Choudhury pers com).	eng
41655	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Choudhury, A. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	It is possible that the low number of records from Lao PDR may reflect generally low encounter rates of tropical weasels (Duckworth and Robichaud, 2005). There is no reason to assume that this species is rare, and the low number of species in collection may be a relict of collection and trapping techniques (Duckworth per comm.). Recent camera trap records suggest that this species is fairly common in forested areas in southern China (Lau pers. comm. 2006), where few other small carnivores survive in meaningful numbers.	eng
41655	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Choudhury, A. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	As with most other weasels, there are no major threats known or suspected to this species. In particular, the effects of the current high levels of forest degradation within much of its range cannot be assumed to be strongly negative, given the number of records from degraded and fragmented areas.	eng
41656	conservation	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	Females of this species are protected from hunting by law (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It is ranked as a near threatened species in the Red List of nine prefectures in the western Japan (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41656	distribution	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Sado, Oki Islands, Izu-Oshima, Awaji, Shoudo, Iki, Goto Islands, Yaku and Tane, and introduced to Hokkaido in the 1880s (Inukai 1934). It was introduced for control of rats on about 50 islands, including Sakhlain, Rishiri, Rebun, Izu Islands (Miyake, Hachijo, Aogashima), Aoshima (Nagasaki Prefecture), Kuchino, Nakano, Suwanose, Hira, Akuseki, Kikai, Okinoerabu, Yoron (Kagoshima Prefecture), Zamami, Aka, Minami-Daito, Kita-Daito, Irabu, Iriomote, Hateruma (Okinawa Prefecture) (Shiraishi 1982). It is naturalized on some islands (Abe, 2005). It is found in most elevation zones, but mainly at lower elevations (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41656	habitat	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species occurs in grasslands, forests, villages, and suburbs, but not in big cities (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). Rodents, insects, amphibians and reptiles make up the main part of its diet (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It shows extreme sexual dimorphism (male:450 g, female:150 g ) (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). It is found in most habitats across Japan.	eng
41656	population	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	This species is common.	eng
41656	threats	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It does not tolerate urbanization (Sasaki pers. comm. 2006). In western Japan, the Japanese Weasel is being driven to marginal montane habitats by competition with the introduced Siberian Weasel (Mustela sibirica) (Abe, 2005).	eng
41657	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	This species is protected in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah, but not in Sarawak nor in Indonesia (based ARCBC database). This species has been reported from many protected areas within its range (Duckworth <em>et al. </em>(2006).	eng
41657	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	This species is found in southern Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo) and Brunei  (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006). Confusion about the existence of this species on Java is due to an error in the original description, which is occasionally still repeated today, e.g. by Wilson and Reeder (2005), where the holotype was said to come from Java (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). An individual from southern Thailand was collected at Khao Chong, Trang Province (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), also recently recorded records (about 5) extend the known range farther north (Specimen in Thailand Institute of Science and Technical Research), up to 10 degrees North Latitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species was recorded from Kerinci Seblat National Park in Sumatra in 1994, at altitudes of 400 m and 800 m (Franklin and Wells, 2005). Attitudinally wide-ranging, with records up to 1,700 m (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006),  with many records up to 1,400 m (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are wide-spread records of this species on Borneo, across the island both historically and recently, as well as on Sumatra (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41657	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar to other weasels in that it is ground-dwelling and so potentially exposed to generalised snaring and other forms of trapping. However, the distribution of recent records in deforested areas, even urban sites, indicate a high tolerance to human activities (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is probably similar to other weasels in that it is ground-dwelling and so potentially exposed to generalised snaring and other forms of trapping. However, the distribution of recent records in deforested areas, even urban sites, indicate a high tolerance to human activities (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41657	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	There are no studies on this species, however, it appears to be widespread but difficult to see, at low density, and/or patchily distributed. This species has not been camera trapped regularly, as there is currently only one known record of camera trapping within the range, and the aggregate camera-trapping at known sites suggests that as currently used camera-traps are not an efficient way to find the species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41657	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	Currently no major threats to this species have been traced. It is eaten in parts of Sarawak and there is some evidence of medicinal use, but no evidence that these activities are major threats (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 2006)..	eng
41658	conservation	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed on Schedule 6 of the WildLife Countryside Act (UK). It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Better monitoring of the species is needed, and measures should be taken to reduce hunting pressure where this is excessive. There is also a need to control release of ferrets into the wild.	eng
41658	conservation	Fernandes, M., Maran, T., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed on Schedule 6 of the WildLife Countryside Act (UK). It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Better monitoring of the species is needed to reduce hunting pressures. Also, there is a need to control release of ferrets into the wild.	eng
41658	distribution	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	<em>Mustela putorius</em> is widespread in the western Palaearctic up to the Ural Mountains in the Russian Federation (absent from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast). The species occurs only marginally in northern Greece. It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains from sea level to 2,400 m (Griffiths and Cuzin in press). Feral populations of the domesticated form <em>M. putorius</em> 'furo' (ferret) have become established in a number of areas including northern Britain, the Isle of Man (United Kingdom), Texel (Netherlands), some Mediterranean islands, the Azores, and New Zealand (Birks 1999, Clapperton 2001, W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2006).	eng
41658	distribution	Fernandes, M., Maran, T., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The species is widespread in the western Palaearctic up to the Ural Mountains in the Russian Federation (absent from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast). The species occurs only marginally in northern Greece. It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains from sea level to 2400 m (Griffiths and Cuzin, in press). The ferret is introduced in the British Isles, and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand (Clapperton, 2001).	eng
41658	habitat	Fernandes, M., Maran, T., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	A generalist, it is found in almost every type of lowland habitat. It is often found in lowland woods in riparian zones, and in areas close to farms and villages in the winter; but it also uses wooded steppe, sand dunes, marshes and river valleys, agricultural land, forest edge and mosaic habitats (Birks 1999, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mountainous areas are avoided. <br/><br/>It feeds on live rodents (voles, mice, hamsters) and other vertebrates, also sometimes on invertebrates and carrion. In wetland areas it often feeds on amphibians (Birks 1999).	eng
41658	habitat	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	A generalist, it is found in almost every type of lowland habitat. It is often found in lowland woods in riparian zones, and in areas close to farms and villages in the winter; but it also uses wooded steppe, sand dunes, marshes and river valleys, agricultural land, forest edge and mosaic habitats (Birks 1999, Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mountainous areas are avoided. It feeds on live rodents (voles, mice, hamsters) and other vertebrates, also sometimes on invertebrates and carrion. In wetland areas it often feeds on amphibians (Birks 1999).	eng
41658	population	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	The species is common in forested areas of European Russia. In western Europe, the species is scarce, typically occurring at densities of about 1 individual per 1000 hectares, and rarely exceeding 5-10 individuals per 1,000 hectares even in optimal habitat (Birks 1999). The population appears to be stable in the eastern parts of its range, but there are reports of recent declines from a number of countries in western Europe (e.g. Switzerland, Germany and Denmark: Birks 1999). In Portugal population numbers and trend have not been quantified, but a declining trend is possible related to the decrease in rabbit numbers (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Morocco, Griffiths and Cuzin (in press) suggests that populations may be decreasing. In central Europe, a main prey item (the common hamster <em>Cricetus cricetus</em>) has declined and thus polecat numbers may also be decreasing (EMA Workshop 2006). Populations in the United Kingdom and Estonia are now increasing (Battersby 2005, Tiit Maran pers. comm. 2006). This increase in the United Kingdom follows a major persecution driven decline from the 1800s to 1920s, which nearly led to the extinction of the species there (Birks 1999, Battersby 2005).	eng
41658	population	Fernandes, M., Maran, T., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The species is common in forested areas of European Russia. In Western Europe, the species is scarce, typically occurring at densities of about 1 individual per 1000 hectares, and rarely exceeding 5-10 individuals per 1,000 hectares even in optimal habitat. The population appears to be stable in the eastern parts of its range. In Morrocco, Cuzin (in press) suggests that populations may be decreasing. In central Europe the main prey item has decreased and hence the polecat numbers are also decreasing. In The United Kingdom and Estonia numbers are now increasing (Jim Conroy and Tiit Maran pers. comms. 2006), following a major persecution driven decline from the 1800s to 1920s in the United Kingdom (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). In Portugal population numbers and trend are unknown, but may be related to the declining trends in the rabbit population.	eng
41658	threats	Margarida Fernandes, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, Jim Conroy, Paulo Cavallini, Andreas Kranz, Juan Herrero, Michael Stubbe, Alexei Abramov, Chris Wozencraft, 2006	In western and central Europe, it was formerly widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest, although this threat has become less serious as the species is now protected in a number of range states and rates of hunting have greatly reduced (Birks 1999). Accidental mortality in car collisions and via secondary rodenticide poisoning is a problem (Birks 1999, Battersby 2005). Declines in prey species, e.g. hamsters (Nechay 2000) and rabbits in southern Iberia (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005) may contributing to declines in parts of the range. In European Russia, the species is commonly hunted (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). Hybridisation with the ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom (Battersby 2005). Possible competition with the American mink may also be a problem. In Morocco, the species may be captured in some areas for hunting.	eng
41658	threats	Fernandes, M., Maran, T., Tikhonov, A., Conroy, J., Cavallini, P., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Stubbe, M., Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	In Western Europe, it was formerly widely hunted for sport and fur and persecuted as a pest, however, this threat has become less serious as the species is now protected in a number of range states and rates of hunting have greatly reduced. Accidental mortality in car collisions and via secondary rodenticide poisoning is a problem. Declines in the prey species, e.g., hamsters and rabbits appear to be resulting in declines in parts of the range.In European Russia, the species is commonly hunted (Abramov pers. comm.). Hybridization with the ferret is a possible threat in the United Kingdom. Possible competition with the American mink may also be a problem. In Morocco, the species may be captured in some areas for hunting.	eng
41659	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Abramov, A., 2008	In Lao PDR, this species was observed in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 (Duckworth 1997a), and provisionally sighted in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1998 (Robinson and Webber, 1998a; M. F. Robinson, 1998). Gao and Sun (2005) conducted a study of the effects of this species on Liadong oak (Quercus wutaishanica) in Beijing Forest Ecosystem Research Station (BFERS, 40 00 N, 115 26 E), one of the research stations affiliated to the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (India) and is on the Tibet wildlife protection list (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is on the China Red List as Near Threatened, and it nearly met the criteria for Vulnerable A2cd. There is a conservation need to establish a sustainable harvest level through population monitoring.	eng
41659	conservation	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov and Will Duckworth, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is listed on CITES Appendix III (Tibet) (Yi-ming <em>et al.</em> 2000). There is a large, legal harvest of pelts of this species, which is apparently sustainable (W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41659	distribution	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov and Will Duckworth, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	This species is found in northern Myanmar, China, Japan (Tushima, introduced to western Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku), North Korea, South Korea, Pakistan, Russia (from Kirov Province, Tataria and western Ural Mountains throughout Siberia to Far East), Taiwan, and northern Thailand (Wilson and Reeder 2005). There is also a historical record from Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Japan, it has been introduced to Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands (Abe 2005). It is native on the islands of Sakhalin, Kamishima, and Quelpart (Abe 2005). The distribution in southeast Asia is poorly known (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).  The species was recorded in two locations in national parks in Thailand (Kanchanasaka, pers. comm.) and in one location in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 in Laos (Duckworth 1997). It occurs from sea level to over 3,000 m in Nepal and to 5,000 m in China (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). This species is of marginal occurrence in Europe, where it is found only in the Ural mountains.	eng
41659	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Abramov, A., 2008	This species is found in northern Myanmar, Lao PDR, China, Japan, DPR Korea, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Nepal, India (Himalayas), Bhutan, Russia (from Kirov Province, Tataria and western Ural Mountains throughout Siberia to Far East), Taiwan, and northern Thailand (Pocock 1941, Duckworth 1997, Wozencraft, 2005). In Japan, it has been introduced to Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands (Abe, 2005). It is native on the islands of Sakhalin, Kamishima, and Jeju (Abe, 2005). The distribution in southeast Asia is poorly known (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).  The species was recorded recently in two locations in national parks in Thailand (Kanchanasaka pers. comm) and in one location in Lao PDR, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area in 1996 (Duckworth, 1997; sight record only). Gao and Sun (2005) conducted a study of the effects of this species on Liadong oak (Quercus wutaishanica) in Beijing Forest Ecosystem Research Station (BFERS, 40 00 N, 115 26 E), one of the research stations affiliated to the Chinese Ecosystem Research Network (CERN) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). This species seems to prefer mountains from 1500 to 5000 m in the southern part of its range (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988) but there is one provisional sighting in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in valley semi-evergreen forest amid karst at about 500 m in 1998 (Robinson and Webber, 1998).	eng
41659	habitat	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov and Will Duckworth, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species occurs in primary and secondary deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, as well as open areas with small patches of forest enclaves and forest steppe. It is also found along river valleys. It feeds on small mammals, such as voles, squirrels, mice and pikas, amphibians, fish, and carrion, and occasionally on vegetative matter (e.g. pine nuts) (Global Mammal Assessment Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).	eng
41659	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Abramov, A., 2008	This species is found in "a wide variety of habitats, including dense forest, dry areas, and human villages and towns, where it dens in any convenient shelter, including burrows of other animals (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988)." It occurs in primary and secondary deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests, as well as open areas with small patches of forest enclaves and forest steppe. It is also found along river valleys. It is found from to over 3000 m in Nepal. In Bhutan, it is found as low as 1500 m and up to 4800 m (Thinley, 2004). In China, its altitude can reach up to 5000 m. It feeds on small mammals, such as voles, squirrels, mice and pikas, amphibians, fish, and carrion.  During the summer time, it feeds on pine nuts. In Lao PDR this little known species has been observed in primary evergreen forest at 1000 m (Duckworth 1997a), and possibly in valley semi-evergreen forest amid karst at about 500 m (Robinson and Webber 1998a; M. F. Robinson, 1998). It occurs commonly down to sea-level in the north of its range, e.g. Korea (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm.).	eng
41659	population	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov and Will Duckworth, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The species is widespread and abundant in Siberia and China (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006). It is also common in northern central Korea as well, where few other mammals other than rats and squirrels are easily seen (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).	eng
41659	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Abramov, A., 2008	The species is widespread and abundant in Siberia and China (Abramov pers. comm). It is also common in northern central Korea as well, where few other mammals other than rats and squirrels are currently easily seen (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).	eng
41659	threats	Global assessment by Alexei Abramov and Will Duckworth, regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are no major threats known to this species (Global Mammal Assessment Small Carnivore Workshop 2006).  It is legally hunted in Russia for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
41659	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Abramov, A., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.  It is legally hunted in Russia for its fur (A. Abramov pers. comm. 2006)."Unfortunately, the small forest carnivores are not well protected by either the local forest managers or the residents living in the forest areas in China, though most of them are listed as protected animals by the national or local governments. Weasels and badgers are largely hunted for their hides and meat. (Gao and Sun, 2005)". Unsustainable hunting for skins, for international trade. However, hunting levels are low at present, reflecting the low commercial value of skins. Competition for resources with sable (Martes zibellina) and natural wildfires also constitute minor threats.	eng
41660	conservation	McDonald, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is a human commensal, and no conservation measures apparently are currently needed.	eng
41660	distribution	McDonald, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Confined to the lower Nile Valley of Egypt, between Beni Suef in the south and Alexandria and the Delta in the north (Handwerk 1993, McDonald in press).	eng
41660	habitat	McDonald, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Commensal with humans, and often trapped in human habitations, including underground larders and even in cars (McDonald in press).	eng
41660	population	McDonald, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common to abundant; densities of 0.5–1.0/ha have been estimated from trapping (Handwerk 1993). Opportunistic feeders.	eng
41660	threats	McDonald, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
41661	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	American mink is currently the most important species in fur-fanning operations (Peterson, 1966; Thompson, 1968). The American mink is among the most valuable fur animals, most of the mink fur used in commerce is produced on farms (Nowak, 2005).	eng
41661	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in North America from Alaska and Canada through the United States except Arizona and the dry<br/>parts of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and western Texas. The American mink was deliberately introduced as a fur animal in Russia, and in other parts of Europe and, as a result of escapes and their intentional release in Russia and other countries, the species is now naturalised in many parts of Europe (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1999). The european range area increased rapidly and now it includes: Belarus, Belgium, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britian, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan (Hokkaido), Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden. Feral populations of American mink have been reported also in South America (Previtali, 1998).	eng
41661	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found along streams and lakes as well as in swamps and marshes. It prefers densely vegetated areas. It dens under stones or the roots of trees, in espropriated beaver or muskrat houses, or in self-excavated burrows (Nowak, 2005). The species can be found in xeric habitats if food is abundant (Arnold and Fritzell, 1990). <br/>Strictly carnivorous, and its diet reflects the local prey base (Ben-David <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Typical prey are fish, amphibians, crustaceans, muskrats, and small mammals (Birks and Dunstone, 1985; Bueno, 1994; Chanin and Linn, 1980; Cuthbert, 1979; Day and Linn, 1972). But other prey can be found occasionally (Larievière, 1999). Males have large home ranges that extend for a half mile or more along waterways and overlap with the smaller home ranges of several females (Wilson and Ruff, 1999).	eng
41661	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Generally abundant throughout its distribution (Larivière, 1999). Population density of about 1-8/km<sup>2</sup> have been  recorded (Nowak, 2005). In good habitat, density may be 9-22 per sq mile (Banfield 1974).	eng
41661	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Wild populations of American mink are still hunted for fur. Alteration of its habitat, namely densely vegetated river courses and other wetlands represents another threat for this species. The American mink is known to suffer from environmental pollution caused by chlorinated hydrocarbons (PCBs) which may even cause infertility (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989).	eng
41662	conservation	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
41662	distribution	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Ranges from south-western Uganda and Kenya to the Eastern Cape in South Africa (Stuart and Stuart in press). Because of its secretive nature it has probably been overlooked in many areas, especially in light of records from locations that were previously considered unsuitable (Stuart and Stuart in press). Recorded to 2,300 m asl in Malawi (Medland and Dudley 1995).	eng
41662	habitat	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Mainly found in savanna associations, although they probably have a wide habitat tolerance and have been recorded from lowland rainforest, semi-desert grassland, and fynbos (Stuart and Stuart in press). Road kills have been collected from areas of cultivated fields.	eng
41662	population	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Rare to uncommon, with highest densities reached in moist higher rainfall grasslands (Stuart and Stuart in press).	eng
41662	threats	Stuart, C., Stuart, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, Cunningham and Zondi (1991) regarded this species as one of the most-used animals in traditional medicine, and in parts of its range the skins are commonly used by traditional healers and sangomas as a good luck charm.	eng
41663	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	In Canada, the species was designated as “Not At Risk”, while the two subspecies <em>T. t. jeffersonii</em> (British Columbia) and <em>T. t. jacksoni</em> (Ontario) were designated as “Endangered”(COSEWIC, 2002) with as few as 600 and 200 animals remaining, respectively (Kyle <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
41663	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is distributed from southern Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and southern Ontario), over a majority of the northern, western and central United States, and south to Puebla and Baja California, Mexico (Wozencraft, in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Long, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
41663	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Prefers open areas and may also frequent brushlands with little groundcover. When inactive, occupies underground burrow. Badgers are known to inhabit regions ranging from below sea level to elevations 3,600 m (Kyle <em>et al.</em>, 2004). They are usually found in relative dry, grasslands and open forests (Rahme <em>et al</em>. 1995). <em>Taxidea</em> may be active at any hour but is mainly nocturnal. <br/><br/>Feeds primarily on small rodents usually captured by digging out burrow. Ground squirrels often major item in diet, as are pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, priairie dogs, and mice; also eats scorpions, insects, snakes, lizards, and birds, especially when ground squirrel population is low (Messick and Hornocker 1981). <br/><br/>Its movements are restricted, especially in winter, and it shows a strong attachment to a home area. Estimated home ranges vary from 2 to 725 ha changing seasonally (Sargeant and Warne, 1972). The badger is active all year, but it may sleep in its den for several days or weeks during severe winter weather (Nowak, 2005). Most food is obtained by excavating the burrows of fossorial rodents. Also eaten are other small mammals, birds, reptiles and arthropods.	eng
41663	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Large range in the western and central U.S., southern Canada, and northern and central Mexico; relatively common over much of range, but probably has declined substantially in areas converted from grassland to intensive agriculture and where colonial rodents such as prairie dogs and groundsquirrels have been reduced or eliminated. Also threatened by collisions with vehicles and by direct persecution.<br/><br/>U.S. population roughly estimated to be on the order of several hundred thousand; Canadian population less than 50,000 (Newhouse and Kinley 1999). No estimates for Mexican population. In areas of abundance, can reach densities of 3-5/square kilometer (Long, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Canada, both <em>T. t. jackson</em>i in Ontario and <em>T. t. jeffersonii</em> in British Columbia are recognized as endangered, with as few as 200 and 600 animals remaining, respectively (Kyle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Badgers have experienced negative demographic trends throughout their northern range as a result in declining habitat suitability (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Population sizes for the United States are not well known, but the total American population is probably several hundred thousand animals (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Badgers can occur at densities up to 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Messick and Hornocker, 1981). In Canada, the <em>T. taxus</em> population, according to a 1998 questionnaire, is estimated to be between 13,700 and 28,900 in Saskatchewan province and 3,000 and 5,000 in Manitoba province, providing an estimated Prairie population to between 17,700 and 43,900 animals (Scobie, 2002).<br/><br/>Density averages 1 per sq mile in prime open country (Long 1973). In southeastern Wyoming, density was 0.8-1.1 per sq km (Goodrich and Buskirk 1998).	eng
41663	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Changing land uses, resulting from agriculture, urban development, and forest ingrowth and loss of prey appears to be the major factors negatively affecting badgers. The loss of prey is considered to be one of the primary factors limiting badger populations in British Columbia (Newhouse and Kinley, 2000). Trapping for pelts has affected badger populations, mainly in response to rising fur prices, but has not had a significant influence on badger populations in recent years. Badgers are also trapped, shot and poisoned because their diggings are thought to cause broken legs in livestock, lead to water loss from irrigation canals, and cause damage to vehicles encountering their burrows (Scobie, 2002).<br/><br/>Although clearing of forests for agricultural land has probably resulted in some range expansion, cultivation of grassland has undoubtedly caused declines (Soper 1964, Stardom 1979, Lindzey 1982, Messick 1987, Smith 1992, Newhouse and Kinley 1999). Likewise, intensification of agriculture is likely to cause declines in the future. <br/><br/>In the west, infill of formerly open woodlands and encroachment of forests into grassland as a result of effective fire suppression has eliminated or degraded much badger habitat (Newhouse and Kinley 1999).<br/><br/>Most mortality is caused by vehicles or deliberate killing by humans (Stardom 1979, Messick <em>et al.</em> 1981, Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 1994, Newhouse and Kinley 2000, Apps <em>et al</em>. 2002). Badgers may actually be attracted to roads, both because ground squirrels often burrow alongside them (Ketcheson and Bauer 1995), and because they are good travel routes (Warner and Ver Steeg 1995). <br/><br/>Badgers are trapped, shot and poisoned because their diggings are thought to cause broken legs in livestock, lead to water loss from irrigation canals, and cause damage to vehicles encountering their burrows (Scobie 2002). Declines may also be related to the persecution of their primary prey, prairie dogs and ground squirrels (Apps <em>et al</em>. 2002). Finley <em>et al</em>. (1976) speculated that some Colorado populations may have declined because of the elimination of prairie dogs.	eng
41664	conservation	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	This species is protected throughout its range by the laws of Australia and New Zealand, respectively.  In New Zealand all marine mammals are protected by the Marine Mammals Protection Act of 1978.  Management is driven by Conservation Plans developed by the Department of Conservation. The current plan, written in 2004, is an action plan for conservation of all marine mammals from 2005-2010 (Suisted and Neale 2004).  In Australia, State Governments have jurisdiction over marine mammals within three miles of the coast and each state has its own conservation legislation.  The Australian Commonwealth Government has jurisdiction from three miles offshore throughout the rest of the countries’ 200 mile EEZ. An action plan for conservation of Australian seals was published in 1999 (Shaughnessy 1999).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
41664	distribution	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	In New Zealand, this species occurs around both the North and South Islands, with small breeding colonies on the north and larger colonies on the west and southern coast and islands around the South Island, as well as on all of New Zealand's sub-Antarctic islands. They are less common off the North Island, with no colonies, but they do occur as far north as the Three Kings Islands. Their range extends to Macquarie Island, where males mate with Antarctic and Subantarctic fur seals and produced hybrid pups. Vagrants have been recorded in New Caledonia and from a bone in a 14th century archaeological site in the Cook Islands.<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals also occur in the coastal waters and on the offshore islands of South and Western Australia, from just east of Kangaroo Island west to the southwest corner of the continent in Western Australia. Small populations are also establishing in Tasmania and Victorian coastal waters.	eng
41664	habitat	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	New Zealand Fur Seals are sexually dimorphic, with adult males reaching 1.3 times the length and more than 3 times the weight of adult females. There is some variation in the weights of adult males in the literature.  Some ranges are up to a maximum of 250 kg, others to 200 kg.  The largest male weighed at the Open Bay Islands of New Zealand was 154 kg. Adult males 8-12 years old had a maximum weight of 124 kg.  Adult males are up to 2 m long. Adult females are 1.5 m and 30-50 kg. Pups average 3.3-3.9 kg and 40-55 cm at birth and male pups average 14.1 kg and females 12.6 kg around weaning when they are approximately 290 days old. Pups moult into adult pelage at 2-3 months.  Females become mature at 4-6 years of age, males at 8-10 years (Dickie and Dawson 2003, McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2007).<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals are polygynous.  Males arrive at colonies in late October before females and acquire and defend territories with vocalizations, ritualized displays and fighting.  Male territories include an average of 5-8 females with the ratio of females to males varying between different colonies. The number of animals ashore at rookeries declines rapidly in January. Male vocalizations include a bark or whimper, a guttural threat, a low-intensity threat, a full threat, and a submissive call.  Females growl and have a pup-attraction call that is a high-pitched wail. <br/><br/>Pups are born from mid-November to January, with most pups are born in December.  Oestrous occurs 7-8 days after a female gives birth, and they usually spend another 1-2 days ashore with their pup before departing and beginning a cycle of foraging trips and periods of pup attendance ashore (Goldsworthy and Shaughnessy 1994, Goldsworthy 2006). Pups are weaned when they are about 10 months old. Adult female foraging trips are shorter when the pup is young and become longer as the pup gets older. In general, on-shore attendance bouts last under 2 days.<br/><br/>New Zealand Fur Seals are considered non-migratory. At sea they actively groom and raft in a variety of postures typical of southern fur seals including the “jug handle” position while sleeping at the surface. They often “porpoise” out of the water when travelling rapidly at sea. Rocky shoreline habitat with shelter, and locations more exposed to wind and weather are preferred for haul-outs and rookeries. When hauled out in New Zealand, New Zealand fur seals readily enter areas of coastal vegetation behind the shoreline.<br/> <br/>New Zealand Fur Seals prey on a large variety of cephalopods, fish, and birds (Goldsworthy <em>et al</em>. 2003). In South Australia, key cephalopods prey include, Southern Ocean arrow squid and Gould’s squid; key fish species include redbait, ocean jackets, swallowtail and myctophids; and the most frequently taken bird species are little penguins and short-tailed shearwaters. Satellite tracking studies in South Australia indicate marked spatial separation in foraging regions used by juvenile, adult female and males seals. Lactating females forage predominantly in mid- to outer-continental shelf waters during summer months and then switch to deeper oceanic waters over winter months. In contrast, adult males focus their foraging over the continental slope. Juvenile seals forage in oceanic waters where they target nocturnal surface-migrating myctophid fish (Baylis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Adult female and male seals both forage in the water column in relative shallow depths (0-20 m) and near or on the bottom in deeper water. In females, benthic dives on the continental shelf in South Australia are typically at 60-80 m, while those of males on the continental slope are between 100-200 m. The maximum dive durations and depths recorded for adult females are 9.3 min and 312 m, and 14.8 min and 380 m for males.<br/> <br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks, male New Zealand Sea Lions and possibly Leopard Seals at sub-Antarctic islands (Shaughnessy 2006).	eng
41664	population	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	The total population is estimated to be approximately 200,000 with about half of these in Australia. Populations are increasing in both Australia and New Zealand (e.g. Brothers and Pemberton 1990).	eng
41664	threats	Goldsworthy, S. & Gales, N., 2008	Humans have probably harvested New Zealand Fur Seals for subsistence since first contact in both Australia and New Zealand. There is evidence that Polynesian colonization of New Zealand and harvest of seals led to declines and loss of colonies on the coast of the North Island. European sealers nearly exterminated the species in the 19th century, but due to protection, the species has rebounded to occupy most of its former range.<br/> <br/>Trawl and other fisheries are a source of entanglement and drowning (Page <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Tourism and disturbance at colonies can lead to disruption of breeding behaviour and site abandonment, although most colonies are on offshore islands and are relatively inaccessible.<br/><br/>Like all fur seals, New Zealand Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills because of their dependence on their thick pelage for thermoregulation (Gales 1991).  New Zealand fur seals share most of their range with several other regularly occurring pinnipeds that show up irregularly as vagrants.  They also come in close contact with domestic and feral animals and in some areas wild carnivores.  Thus, they are at risk of transmission of infectious diseases like morbilliviruses.	eng
41665	conservation	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Sea Lions are protected and managed by laws in most of the countries where they occur. Sea lions have also been afforded protection by the establishment of numerous reserves and protected areas at rookeries and haul out sites, especially in Argentina. However, enforcement of protection regulations is weak in most of the distribution range, particularly in the most isolated areas and at sea. In Chile the species is subject to exploitation. Since 2004 and for five years there has been a moratorium that could be lifted if the interaction with fisheries is shown to be detrimental to the fisheries.	eng
41665	distribution	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Sea Lions are widely-distributed, occurring more or less continuously from northern Peru south to Cape Horn, and north up the east coast of the continent to southern Brazil. They also occur in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The northernmost breeding distribution on the Pacific side is Isla Lobos de Tierra (6º26’S; Peru). No breeding colonies occur in Brazil. The northernmost breeding rookery in the Atlantic is Isla de Lobos, on the Uruguayan coast.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are primarily a coastal species, found in waters over the continental shelf and slope; they occur only infrequently in deeper waters. This species ventures into fresh water and can be found around tidewater glaciers and up rivers. Vagrants have been found as far north as 13°S, near Bahia Brazil and in the Galápagos Archipelago (Ecuador).	eng
41665	habitat	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Sea Lions are stocky, heavy-bodied otariids that are strongly sexually dimorphic. Adult males reach 2.6 m in length and weights of 300 to 350 kg; females reach 2 m and 144 kg. At birth, pups are 11-15 kg and 75-85 cm long. Pups are born black above and paler below, often with grayish orange tones on the undersides. Pups undergo their first moult approximately 1-2 months after birth, becoming dark brown. This colour fades during the rest of the first year to a pale tan to light brown, with paler areas on the face.<br/><br/>The age of attainment of sexual maturity is 4 years for females and 5-6 years for males. Gestation lasts about one year. Longevity is considered to be about 20 years. Mortality rates for adults are unknown (Reijnders <em>et al</em> 1993). Pup mortality estimated for some Peruvian colonies ranged from 13% before El Niño to 100% during El Niño and was negatively correlated with prey availability (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The start of the breeding season varies somewhat by location and latitude, with pups being born slightly earlier at more southern rookeries. At most sites, both sexes arrive in mid-December with peak numbers of males ashore just after mid-January and peak numbers of females ashore from mid to late January. Females give birth 2-3 days after their arrival at the rookeries; pups are born from mid-December to early February with a peak in mid-January, coinciding with the timing of peak numbers of females ashore. Estrous occurs 6 days after parturition, and females make their first foraging trip 2-3 days after estrous. From this point on, a cycle of foraging and pup attendance starts and lasts until pups are weaned at 8-10 months old. As is the case for many sea lions, it is not unusual for females to continue to care for a yearling while they are nursing a new pup. Pups gather in large pods on the rookeries while waiting for their mothers to return from 1-4 day long foraging trips. Females usually stay ashore for 2 days between trips.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are a highly polygynous species with various strategies employed by males and females during the breeding season that are driven by substrate and terrain at the rookery and thermoregulatory requirements imposed by weather conditions at the site. Adult males tend to establish territories through vocalizing, posturing, and fighting, when rookeries provide shade, have tidal pools that can be used for cooling, or funnel interior areas through narrow beaches between rocks or ledges to the sea. At more homogeneous locations with long shorelines, the male strategy focuses on identifying, defending and controlling individual cows in estrous, wherever they are found. Bulls actively and aggressively work to keep estrous cows close to them by grabbing, dragging, and throwing them back inland, away from the shoreline.<br/><br/>At sea, South American Sea Lions frequently raft alone or in small to large groups. They have been reported in association with feeding cetaceans and seabirds. The mean depth of lactating female foraging dives is about 61 m and the mean duration is just over 3 minutes. The maximum depth recorded for a dive is 175 m and duration 7.7 minutes. Two tagged adult males foraged on the continental shelf prior to the onset of breeding, making 5-6 day trips that covered an average of 600 km before they returned to land to haul-out. Dive depth and length are unknown for males, but these two animals spent about 90% of their time in water depths of 50-100 m.<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are considered non-migratory, although some may wander long distances away from rookeries during the non-breeding season, and some southerly locations such as the Falkland/Malvinas Islands are largely abandoned during the winter. However, most rookeries are continuously occupied by at least some animals, and the species has been described as sedentary. Animals that reproduce at Península Valdés (northern Argentine Patagonia) move to Uruguay and vice versa (Szapkievich <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>South American Sea Lions are opportunistic feeders that take a wide variety of prey that varies by location. Their diet includes many species of benthic and pelagic fishes and invertebrates, some of them of commercial value. Forty-one prey species (including fishes, cephalopods, crustaceans, gastropods, polychetes, sponges, and tunicates) were identified in stomach contents of individuals found dead on beaches and from animals recovered in incidental catches of the fisheries of the Patagonian continental shelf (Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most important items were Argentine Hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>), Red Octopus (<em>Enteroctopus megalocyathus</em>), Argentine Shortfin Squid (<em>Illex argentinus</em>), "raneya" (<em>Raneya brasiliensis</em>), Patagonian Squid (<em>Loligo gahi</em>) and Argentine Anchovy (<em>Engraulis anchoita</em>). Differences in diet were found between sexes. Females fed mostly on benthic species, whereas males fed mostly on demersal-pelagic species.<br/><br/>Diet and maternal care patterns reflect inter-annual fluctuations in food availability. In the unpredictable Peruvian upwelling ecosystem, females appeared to adjust their diets and maternal attendance patterns in response to annual changes in the abundance and distribution of prey (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2006). Short times onshore nursing and long times at sea foraging are observed during El Niño in Peru, when prey is not abundant near the rookeries. A larger diversity of prey species (particularly of demersal fishes) are consumed during El Niño, when anchovy and lobster are less available. These observations suggest that South American Sea Lions may be good indicators of relative changes in the distribution and abundance of marine resources.<br/><br/>A small percentage of adult male South American Sea Lions regularly prey on South American Fur Seals, although many that pass by colonies investigate the nearby waters and may attempt to capture a fur seal. Adult male sea lions hunt alone and focus their attacks on fur seal pups and juveniles, which are consumed when caught. This has been observed in almost the entire distribution range. About 17% of attacks are successful, but success varies widely between individual males. Subadult males also attack fur seals, but tend to abduct fur seals to serve as female sea lion substitutes, herding them and attempting to mate with them, usually killing them in the process. Female and juvenile sea lions have not been recorded to hunt fur seals. Sea lions have been observed killing young Southern Elephant Seals in the Falkland Islands. They are also known to take several species of penguins, but the importance of penguins in the diet is unknown.<br/><br/>Predators include Killer Whales, sharks and Leopard Seals, and possibly the Puma. At one now-famous rookery (Punta Norte at Península Valdés), Killer Whales are known to surf in on waves, partially beaching themselves while grabbing predominantly young sea lions off the shoreline. Puma tracks have been observed on a rookery in Patagonia and remains of sea lions have been found in a cave used by a Puma in the area.	eng
41665	population	Campagna, C., 2008	The total global population is estimated to be over 250,000. In the Atlantic: about 12,000 in Uruguay (1,200 pups per year), no less than 100,000 in continental Argentina, 6,000 in the Falklands-Malvinas. In the Pacific: 90,000-100,000 in Chile, 60,000 in Peru.<br/><br/>Trends are increasing in northern Argentine Patagonia at 5.7% (Dans <em>et al</em>. 2004) and decreasing in Uruguay (4%; Paez 2005) and Chile (16%). Estimates for southern Patagonia (Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces) show a decrease to only 14.5% of the population size reported in the late 1940s. Sealing activities, performed mainly at northern Patagonia and at Tierra del Fuego, are likely responsible for the depletion (Schiavini <em>et al</em>. 2004). Present population in the Falklands-Malvinas represents about 10% of historical numbers at this locale.<br/><br/>The Peruvian population was decimated by the 97/98 El Niño, from ca. 144 000 animals in 1997 to 28 000 during 97/98 (Arias-Schreiber and Rivas 1998, Arias-Schreiber 1998). The population in 2004 was 60 000, a decrease of 25% from the 2003 numbers. Pup production in Peru declined 48% from 2003 to 2004. This population is apparently recovering. However, the stronger and more frequent El Niños that appear to be occurring along the Peruvian coast may put the vulnerable South American Sea Lion population in Peru at greater risk (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Genetic studies suggest one population of South American Sea Lions extends through Uruguay, continental Argentina and the Falklands/Malvinas Islands (Szapkievich <em>et al</em>.1999, Freilich 2004).	eng
41665	threats	Campagna, C., 2008	South American Sea Lions were hunted by native people of South America for thousands of years and have been taken by Europeans as early as the 16th century for food, oil and hides (Rodriguez and Bastida 1998). During the second half of the 19th century coastal zones were rapidly colonized by man and by the turn of the century, sea lion rookeries disappeared from part of their range. Dramatic declines were not only due to spatial competition with man, but also to the indirect effect of pinniped over-exploitation in other areas of the south-western Atlantic. Significant commercial harvests occurred in several countries and sea lion numbers were drastically reduced in the last several hundred years.<br/><br/>The species interacts regularly with fisheries that use a variety of fishing gear and target coastal and pelagic species (Corcuera <em>et al</em>. 1994, Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1994, Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2007). During the 1990s, mortality in the fisheries of the Patagonian shelf varied from 150-600 sea lions per year (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1997, Dans <em>et al</em>. 2003). There is competition with some fisheries (Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2000) and in the case of the Argentine Hake, <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>, and Argentine Squid, <em>Illex argentinus</em>, interactions may be detrimental at a high level of harvest of the target populations (Koen Alonso y Yodzis 2005).<br/><br/>A longstanding competition for fish has existed in Chile between the South American sea lion and small-scale fisheries. Sea lions, according to fishermen, prey on fish caught in their fishing gear, often causing damage. However, a study of the operational interactions suggests that sea lions do not produce a significant effect on variations in the CPUE obtained by artisanal fishermen (Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sea lions were taken in Chile decades ago for use as bait in crab fisheries. The species is poached in fishing farming operations. Interactions between sea lions and salmon farms in southern Chile are common. No relation was demonstrated between the intensity of attacks and the distance to the nearest colony. Anti-predator nets result in permanent reductions in sea lion attacks (Sepulveda and Oliva 2005).<br/><br/>Intensive trawl fishing for several species in the coastal waters of the southwestern South Atlantic has been implicated in a severe decline of sea lions in the Falkland-Malvinas Islands, where the population has fallen from 30,000 in the 1960s to approximately 15,000 in the 1980s, and possibly to as low as 3,000 in the 1990s.	eng
41666	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Protection that began in the mid-20th century in the United States was solidified with the passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 in the United States and similar laws in Mexico. These protective measures provided the impetus for recovery of the population. Tourism at coastal sites and most offshore islands is highly regulated and controlled.	eng
41666	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The California Sea Lion occurs in the eastern North Pacific from Islas Tres Marias north of Puerto Vallarta, north throughout the Gulf of California and around the end of the Baja California Peninsula north to the Gulf of Alaska. Sightings of vagrants have been reported from the southern Bering Sea in the north (Maniscalco <em>et al</em>., 2004) to Chiapas Mexico in the south. Females, which were only very rarely found north of Point Conception in the early 1980s, are now routinely found in northern California, where former breeding sites have been reoccupied.<br/><br/>Large numbers of adult and subadult males and juveniles undertake a post-breeding season migration north from the major rookeries in southern California and Baja California and winter from central California to Washington State. Smaller numbers of animals migrate to British Columbia and southeast Alaska, making it to the northern Gulf of Alaska, Alaska Peninsula, and eastern Aleutian Islands. Other animals appear to remain in the Gulf of California year round and do not undertake long migrations.	eng
41666	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The California Sea Lion is the well-known “performing seal” of zoos, circuses and marine theme parks. It is a sexually dimorphic species, with males reaching three to four times the weight of adult females and 1.2 times their length. Pups are born with a thick brownish-black lanugo that is generally moulted by the end of the first month. The succeeding light brown juvenile coat is shed 4-5 months later and is replaced by adult coloration. Male California Sea Lions reach lengths of 2.4 m, and weights of more than 390 kg. Females only reach 2 m, and weigh an average of 110 kg. Newborn pups are about 80 cm long and weigh 6-9 kg (Peterson and Bartholomew 1967).<br/><br/>Age of maturity for both sexes is about 4-5 years. Females produce one pup each year after a gestation of about 11 months. A long term mark-resighting study (1980-2006) recorded a maximum observed longevity of 19 years for males and 25 years for females (Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press). Age-specific birth rates vary among age classes; 5 yr-old females show 0.59, females between 6 and 15 year-old exhibit 0.79 (Melin 2002; Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press), and between 16-25 year-old show decreased birth rate between 0.35 and 0.11 (Hernandez-Camacho <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>Pupping and breeding take place from May through July. Pupping starts earlier in the Gulf of California (May 8) than in California (May 20) and the duration of the breeding season is longer in the Gulf (13 weeks) than in California (9.5 weeks) (Garcia-Aguilar and Aurioles-Gamboa 2003). Males are highly polygynous and hold territories both on land and in shallow water near shore for periods up to 45 days. Females stay ashore with their newborn pups for about seven days before they depart for the first of many foraging trips that usually last 2-3 days and are followed by attendance with the pup at the rookery for 1-2 days. Most pups are weaned at 12 months of age. However, some pups continue to receive maternal care as yearlings and 2-3year olds (Newsome <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The diving pattern of lactating adult females is consistent with that of a number of other otariid species. The deepest dive recorded was to approximately 274 m and the longest dive lasted just under ten minutes. Typical feeding dives are shallower than 80 m, and last less than three minutes (Feldkamp <em>et al</em>. 1989; Antonelis <em>et al</em>. 1990). Lactating adult females are active for most of the time they are at sea and feeding bouts occur during the day and at night, with peaks of activity at dawn and dusk. The fact that feeding dives occur in bouts suggests that California sea lions are frequently exploiting patches of prey (Weise and Costa 2007).<br/><br/>California Sea Lions are generally found in waters over continental shelf and slope zones; however, they occupy several islands far offshore in deep oceanic areas, such as Guadalupe Island. They frequent coastal areas including bays, harbours, and river mouths.<br/><br/>California Sea Lions feed on a wide variety of prey, but usually maintain a preference for 4-5 species at each location, often taking what is abundant locally or seasonally in the areas they occupy (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1990; Garcia-Rodriguez and Aurioles-Gamboa 2004). A lower diversity of prey is taken outside the breeding season, when many animals disperse over large areas, as opposed to during the breeding season, when preferred prey can be reduced by intense foraging activity in small areas within travelling range of the rookeries (Lowry 1991). Principle prey taken by California Sea Lions in the Pacific includes: Pacific whiting, market squid, red octopus, jack and Pacific mackerel, blacksmith, juveniles of various species of rockfish, herring, northern anchovy, and salmon (Antonelis <em>et al</em>. 1984; Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1990; Lowry 1991). Sea lions in the Gulf of California have northern anchovy, Pacific whiting, and rockfish as prey in common with animals in the Pacific and also take various species of midshipmen, myctophids and bass, as well as sardines, largehead hairtail and Eastern Pacific flagfin (Aurioles-Gamboa <em>et al</em>. 1984; Garcia-Rodriguez and Aurioles-Gamboa 2004). Because of their boldness and taste for commercially-important fish species, such as salmon and rockfish that are easily taken from fishing lines (DeMaster <em>et al</em>., 1985) California sea lions are considered a nuisance by many sport and commercial fishermen. They will also ascend rivers following spawning runs of anadromous fish and take advantage of man-made structures such as canal locks and fish ladders that concentrate prey.<br/><br/>Predators of California Sea Lions include Killer Whales, sharks, Coyotes and feral dogs, and until they were recently extirpated from the California Channel Islands, bald eagles were known to take young pups.	eng
41666	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The California Sea Lion is abundant and increasing in some parts of its distribution. The total global population (US and Mexico) is probably around 355,000 individuals. Some colonies in the Gulf of California have decreased in the last two decades.<br/><br/>Exploitation during the 19th and 20th centuries caused population reductions. The distribution range has changed little since exploitation era but population numbers have increased mainly in California, where the estimate is around 238,000 individuals (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population in Mexico occupies both side of the Baja California Peninsula: the west coast has an estimated population of 75,000 – 87,000 (Lowry and Maravilla 2005), whereas the Gulf of California populations is near 30,000 (Szteren <em>et al</em>. 2006). Total population of California sea lions is therefore around 355,000 individuals.<br/><br/>The California Sea Lion population is apparently reaching carrying capacity in the USA (Carretta <em>et al</em>. 2007) whereas in the Gulf of California the population has decreased by ~20% in the last 15 years (Szteren <em>et al</em>. 2006). The California Sea Lion has 13 rookeries from the Channel Islands to the south of Baja California and 13 rookeries inside the Gulf of California. The population in California and Baja California show declines during severe El Niño events that usually return to previous levels within 4-5 years. The Gulf of California does not show this sort of marked fluctuations but it is genetically isolated from the remaining geographic distribution (Maldonado <em>et al</em>. 1985; Schramm 2003, Bowen <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41666	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	California Sea Lions are abundant, widely distributed and experiencing population increase through most of their range. They were historically important to native people living in coastal areas and on islands used by sea lions for rookeries. Huge middens in southern California and on the Channel Islands, with large numbers of California Sea Lion and other pinniped bones, attest to the past importance of marine mammals in subsistence cultures prior to the changes that followed the arrival of Europeans on the west coast of North America (Porcasi and Fujita 2000). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, California Sea Lions were harvested intensively for a variety of products, and hunted for bounties to reduce their impact on fisheries (Cass 1985).<br/><br/>California Sea Lion mortality occurs in conflicts with fisheries, by poaching, and through entanglement in marine debris (Stewart and Yochem 1987; Aurioles-Gamboa <em>et al</em>. 2003). Prey availability is greatly reduced during El Niño events and large numbers of pups born during these periods die of starvation, as do weaker animals from all age classes (Francis and Heath 1991). The sea lion rookeries inside the Gulf of California do not appear to be greatly effected by El Niño events (Aurioles and Le Boeuf 1991; Wielgus <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>California Sea Lions accumulate pollutants through the food chain, and large amounts of DDT, and PCBs discharged in the past, continue to accumulate in coastal marine food chains that include this species. Additionally, large amounts of agricultural and urban runoff and waste continue to be discharged into coastal marine habitats annually from numerous sources; this may have effects on sea lion immune systems and overall health. California Sea Lions do sometimes die of paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by domoic acid, a biotoxin produced by diatom blooms that enter the food web through planktivorous fish such as herring and sardine (Silvagni <em>et al</em>. 2005). California Sea Lions experience mortality from a number of diseases, including some such as leptospirosis contracted from terrestrial animals. They are at risk of exposure to additional diseases from contact with feral and domestic dogs and other terrestrial animals.	eng
41667	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	This species is almost certainly extinct. However, a comprehensive survey throughout the range of the species has not been undertaken to determine the status of the species. Additional work to uncover all available information on specimens, distribution, observations and data, and photographs from countries where the species occurred should also be started while people who observed and interacted with this species are still alive.	eng
41667	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	This species was formerly known from the northwest Pacific where it probably occurred along the coasts of Japan, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Russia at Sakhalin Island.	eng
41667	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Very little information exists on the appearance of this animal. In an account from otter and seal hunters working in this area in the early 20th century, the “black sea lion” was said to have been present in addition to animals that were likely to be Steller Sea Lions. The common name “black sea lion” may usefully point-out that some animals, presumably adult males, were very dark brown or black, as is the case for many adult male California sea lions. A colour plate showed, and an accompanying account from the text of a mid-19th century work gave, a description of the animal as “straw coloured with a darker throat and chest in the female.”<br/><br/>A Japanese zoologist interviewed in the 1950s gave the lengths of adult males as 2.5 m and adult females as 1.4 m, and reported a four-month-old pup as being 65 cm long and 9 kg. A review in the late 1950s listed eight specimens as existing in museums, with none of these in Japan.<br/><br/>Very little information is available on these animals, although they are assumed to be similar to the California Sea Lion. Anecdotal information suggests that the species was known to occupy coastal areas, was rarely found more than 16 km out to sea, frequently hauled out throughout the year, bred mainly on flat, open, sandy beaches, and sometimes in rocky areas, and they were said to be good divers that fed on fish. However, no detailed information or results of studies are available to support these observations.	eng
41667	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Estimates are that 30,000 to 50,000 animals may have been present in the mid-19th century. The last available abundance estimate suggested the presence of 100 animals on Takeshima Island, and a total population of up to 300 in the late 1950s. There have been no documented reports of the species since the late 1950s, and most authors now consider this species to be extinct.	eng
41667	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The species probably became extinct shortly after the last reports of sightings in the late 1950s, although the very remote possibility of a remnant colony in Korean waters still exists. Japanese Sea Lions were taken for their skin and oil. Certain internal organs were also valuable in traditional medicinal practices and whiskers were reportedly used as pipe cleaners. However, the main reason for the extinction of the Japanese Sea Lion is thought to have been persecution by fishermen.	eng
41668	conservation	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The Galápagos Sea Lion population lives in the Galápagos Archipelago, which is an Ecuadorian National Park surrounded by a marine resources reserve. Tourism occurs on a large scale but is controlled to protect wildlife from disturbance.	eng
41668	distribution	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Galápagos Sea Lions are found throughout the Galápagos Archipelago on all the major islands and on many smaller islands and rocks. A colony was established in 1986 at Isla de la Plata, just offshore from mainland Ecuador, but this site is not regularly used. Vagrants can be seen from the Ecuadorian coast north to Isla Gorgona in Columbia. There is also a record from Isla del Coco approximately 500 km southwest of Costa Rica, presumably a vagrant.	eng
41668	habitat	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	Galápagos Sea Lions are similar in appearance to California Sea Lions, but differ in size, behavior, and skull morphology. Galápagos Sea Lions are sexually dimorphic, with males growing larger than females and having a suite of several secondary sexual characteristics. The degree of sexual dimorphism appears to be less than in California Sea Lions, although few weights and measurements are available for adults to confirm this suggestion.<br/><br/>There is little information on the lengths and weights attained by Galápagos Sea Lions, but they are said to be somewhat smaller than California Sea Lions. Adult males are estimated to weigh up to 250 kg, but this has not been confirmed through direct study. Adult females caring for pups weigh between 50 and 100 kg. Pups of both sexes are born at approximately six kilograms and weaned at approximately 25-40 kg. Pups are born with a brownish-black lanugo coat that fades to pale brown by three to five months. Pups go through their first moult at around five months of age and emerge with the pelage of adult females and juveniles.<br/><br/>Age of maturity for both sexes is estimated to be about 4-5 years. Females produce one pup each year after a gestation of about 11 months, but may abort (or not produce a pup) while still caring for an older offspring (Trillmich and Wolf 2008). Longevity is estimated to be around 15-24 years but the higher ages are not confirmed (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions are polygynous and males hold territories both on land and in shallow water near shore that they vociferously and aggressively defend. Male tenure on territories usually lasts from ten days to three months. Males may repeatedly be on territory during the drawn out reproductive period. Most copulations occur in the water.<br/><br/>Pupping and breeding take place across an extended period from May through January. Because of the protracted breeding season and extended care provided to the pups (up to 3 years) by females, there are dependent pups on the rookeries year-round. Females may wean pups in 11-12 months in productive years, but most continue to suckle yearlings for a second year. Some females care for a yearling along with a newborn pup. Pups are attended continuously for the first 4-7 days after birth, after which the female goes to sea to feed. With the departure, the female begins a cycle of foraging trips that last 0.5-3 days during the cold season but may last much longer in the warm season. Pups will enter the water and begin to develop swimming skills 1-2 weeks after birth. In some colonies, females return at night to nurse their pup, departing again the next morning (Trillmich 1986). Females and pups recognize each other and reunite based on calls and scent (Trillmich 1981). Galápagos Sea Lion females feed during day and night, in contrast to Galápagos Fur Seals, which primarily feed at night.<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions are non-migratory. They are unafraid of humans when ashore. Haul-out sites can be on rugged shoreline types, including steep rocky shorelines, ledges and offshore stacks, but colonies are mostly on gently sloping sandy and rocky beaches. Sea lions will use shade from vegetation, rocks, and cliffs, and wade into tidal and drainage pools or move into the ocean, as needed during the heat of the day to avoid overheating.<br/><br/>Diving has been studied in four females on Fernandina and about 20 in the centre of the archipelago. The maximum depth of dive recorded was 338 m and maximum duration was 9.8 minutes. Average depth of dives varied between 45 and 150 m and lasted for 3-5 minutes (Villegas-Amtmann <em>et al</em>. in press). At sea they will raft at the surface and rest on their sides with one or more flippers held vertically in the air.<br/><br/>Galápagos Sea Lions prey on sardines in the west and on sardines as well as myctophids and bathylagids together with small squid in the central parts of the archipelago. Galápagos Sea Lions have been seen smashing octopus on the surface of the water, presumably to stun or break them up to facilitate swallowing. During El Niño events even in the west prey includes green-eyes and myctophids, suggesting a change in foraging strategy.<br/><br/>Feral and uncontrolled dogs have been reported to kill sea lion pups. Shark predation is evident from animals seen with injuries and scars from attacks, and killer whales are presumed to be another predator on Galápagos Sea Lions. Interestingly, juvenile and adult Galápagos Sea Lions have been observed to mob Galápagos sharks that approach rookeries.	eng
41668	population	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The population fluctuates between 20,000 and 40,000 animals. A census in 1978 suggested a population size of about 40,000, but a recent survey in 2001 ? found a 50% decline from this earlier estimate (Alava and Salazar 2006). Methodological differences might exist between counts over this period, but the marked decline suggested is cause for serious concern.	eng
41668	threats	Aurioles, D. & Trillmich, F., 2008	The population fluctuates widely due to die-offs and cessation of reproduction during El Niño events, when marine productivity collapses. Irruptions of a sea lion epidemic of unknown causation have occurred during El Niño events, adding to the stress on individuals from starvation. Feral dogs which occasionally prey on sea lions could transmit various diseases to the population, but frequent direct contact between sea lions and domestic dogs in the settlements on San Cristobal, Santa Cruz and Isabela present the greatest danger of disease transmission. The population seems to have declined from a 1978 census until today by an estimated 50% or more (Alava and Salazar 2006) and the reasons for this may partly lie in repeated strong El Niño events but are not clearly understood.	eng
41669	conservation	Härkönen, T., 2008	Various prohibitions, quotas and protective measures have been taken to conserve the Caspian seal beginning in 1940 when seal nets were prohibited. The harvest of moulting seals in the spring was ended in 1946, and in 1952 the Apsheron Archipelago off Azerbaijan was closed to sealing. Female harvesting on the breeding grounds was stopped in 1966 and all take was prohibited on the “eastern islands of the northern Caspian in 1967.” These last two changes led to a complete change in the commercial harvest in 1966 resulting in a switch to newborn and moulted pups. Quotas on harvest of pups, supposedly based on biological data, began in 1970 (Krylov 1990), although clearly these quotas were unsustainable. The Russian Federation continues to consider the Caspian seal to be a ‘harvested’ species and unsustainable quotas are continuing to be set through the Caspian Bioresources Commission (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008), e.g. 18,000 pups in 2007.<br/><br/>A Seal Conservation Action and Management plan has been approved by the nations bordering the Caspian Sea, pursuant to the 2003 Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (see Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2005; Caspian Environment Programme 2007), but this has as yet no legally binding action points. The cessation of all types of hunting, measures to reduce by-catch in legal and illegal fisheries, and the strategic creation of protected areas of sea, ice and shore would appear to be the only way forward in the conservation of this species.	eng
41669	distribution	Härkönen, T., 2008	Caspian seals are confined to the Caspian Sea. They range throughout the sea with seasonal migration between the southern, middle and northern basins. Almost all breeding takes place on ice, which covers the shallow northern parts of the Caspian Sea in winter. Occasional observations of low numbers (tens) have been made at islets off Turkmenistan.	eng
41669	habitat	Härkönen, T., 2008	During late spring, summer, and early autumn, Caspian seals are distributed throughout the Caspian Sea. They feed throughout the sea, exploiting both the shallow basin in the north and the deep middle and southern basins. After the ice melts, the seals use sandy islands and reefs as haulout sites, preferring the tips of peninsulas and sand bars in many areas, although large concentrations of seals in reed-bed areas of islands also occur. In late autumn the breeding adults gather in the northeast, hauling out on sandy islands and reefs in increasing numbers until sea ice begins to form (Krylov 1990). When the surface freezes over, females form aggregations on the ice to give birth to their pups, tending to gather along cracks in the ice giving them ready access to the water, although they also construct and maintain holes in the ice for water access (Heptner 1996, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Pups are generally born from mid-January to late February on the ice and nursed for 4-5 weeks. Females do not usually construct lairs (Frost and Lowry 1981), possibly because sufficient amounts of snow overlying the ice is normally lacking. Pupping on the ice has allowed direct counts of pups to be made in the recent aerial surveys (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pups do not enter the water until the ice melts in mid to late March.<br/><br/>The first documented observations of small numbers of seals breeding in other parts of the Caspian were made in 1982, with females reported pupping on small sand islands in the southern part of the Caspian Sea, although it is likely this behaviour was not new (Krylov 1990).<br/><br/>Large numbers of mostly nonbreeding seals spend the winter in the middle and southern Caspian, with one estimate of 15,000 seals along the Turkmenistan coast (Krylov 1990). A post-breeding moult occurs from April to May, during which the seals first use the ice and then islands and reefs for hauling out (Krylov 1990).<br/><br/>Both sexes become sexually mature at around 6 years of age, with most breeding females (74% in a 1974 sample) aged between 8 and 17 years (Popov 1982). The pregnancy rate for females older than 9 is reported to be as low as 0.2-0.33 (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1999, Miyazaki 2002), and Krylov (1990) reports a similar low rate of 0.34 for females aged 10-14 years. Härkönen <em>et al</em>. (2005), acknowledge that the reproductive rate is low in females >20 years old, but suggest that the reproductive rate is >0.5 for females <20 years old taken together as a group. Since females <20 make up approximately two thirds of the population of adult females, they probably drive the overall reproductive rate for the population up to about 0.5. Both Watanabe <em>et al</em>. (1999) and Härkönen <em>et al</em>. (2005) attribute the lower reproductive rates of older females to the effect of long term exposure to organochlorine contaminants in the older animals.<br/><br/>Caspian seals feed on a variety of fish species. During the summer and autumn, seals move to and congregate where prey are abundant, particularly Caspian kilka (<em>Clupeonella sp</em>.), Caspian silverside (<em>Atherina mochon</em>), and Caspian gobies (<em>Gobidae</em>) (Krylov 1990), with <em>Clupeonella</em> species historically making up a major proportion of their total annual diet (Kosarev and Yablonskaya 1994). A report on fish found in the stomachs of seals in the northern Caspian in 1986-1987 (Piletskii and Krylov 1990) suggested that fish eaten in order of frequency were roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), zander (<em>Lucioperca lucioperca</em>), gobies (<em>Knipowitschia</em> sp., <em>Neogobius kessleri</em> and <em>Benthophilus</em> sp.), and bream <em>Blicca bjoerkna</em> and <em>Abramis brama</em>), followed by <em>Clupeonella deliculata</em> and other species. A preliminary study from faecal samples on the Apsheron Peninsula in June 2001 and March 2002 suggested that gobies, silverside and shrimp were important constituents of the diet of seals hauled out at that time (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). New studies of diet in Caspian seals are urgently required in order to get an accurate picture of current prey in different areas of the Caspian in light of potential changes to the abundance of fish species due to recent ecological changes occurring in the Caspian Sea.	eng
41669	population	Härkönen, T., 2008	Historically, the population of Caspian seals was estimated to have exceeded one million (Krylov 1990, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the most recent abundance estimate of the total population is in the region of 111,000 in 2005. This estimate was based on an estimate of pup production that year of about 21,000 pups (95% confidence intervals 19 329 to 22 797), derived from counts made during aerial transects across the winter ice conducted in late February 2005 (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/><br/>The population decline throughout the 20th century has been reconstructed by a demographic model using hunting statistics (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). By the 1950s–1960s, the population was estimated from this model to have been reduced to between 400,000-500,000 seals (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005), while an estimate based on a harvest of 86,000 pups in 1966, believed to be most pups born that year, also produced an estimate of 500,000 seals for that year (Badamsin 1969, cited by Krylov 1990). Aerial surveys conducted in 1976 and 1980 suggested an estimate of 450 000 animals (Krylov 1984, cited by Krylov 1990), although the hind-casting analysis suggests a population of only about 200,000 seals remaining at that time (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in 1987 and 1989 resulted in an estimate of approximately 360,000-400,000 (Krylov 1990), but again the hind-casting analysis suggests this might again have been an over-estimate, with perhaps only about 148,000 seals remaining by the late 1980s. The hind-casting analysis suggests an ongoing population reduction averaging about 3-4% per year since 1960 and an 83% reduction in the size of the breeding female population since 1955 (approximately 3 generations, with one generation being 16.5-20 years , Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41669	threats	Härkönen, T., 2008	Caspian seals have been commercially exploited on an intensive basis since the early 1800s. Harvests averaged 119,000-174,000 per year throughout the 19th century, with peaks of 300,000 having been recorded. In the 20th century, harvest levels peaked in the 1930s with an average annual harvest of 164,000 and a maximum single year take of 227,600. The numbers of seals taken fell during World War II to an average of 60,800 per year, and subsequently ranged between a low of 41,400 and a high of 108,300 for the period 1951-1975 (Krylov 1990). Commercial harvesting was temporarily halted in 1996 after a much-reduced estimated take of 14,000 seals. Commercial and scientific hunting in the region of 3,000-4,000 seals a year – mainly pups - has continued at least since 2004, and is currently ongoing. The hunting quota, set by the Caspian Bioresources Commission for 2007, was 18,000 seals which exceeded the estimated annual pup production for that year (Harkonen <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Significant population declines have been attributed to the high harvest levels (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Another contributory cause to high pup mortality is natural predation by wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) and sea eagles (<em>Haliaeetus</em> spp.). Krylov (1990) estimated that wolves killed 17-40% of Caspian seal pups on “some breeding grounds from 1974 to 1976”, while eagles took less than 1% of pups. The reverse was found during a systematic survey by Harkonen <em>et al</em>. (2008). Few wolves were observed during this survey, but about 2,000 eagles were seen on the ice preying on pups in 2005-2006; they likely took approximately 10% of the annual estimated births of 20 000 pups.<br/><br/>By-catch of seals in fisheries and killing of seals by fishermen are threats that have not been adequately investigated, but are thought to be a significant source of mortality, particularly for juvenile seals (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Iranian commercial fishery is of conservation concern; it is likely responsible for the deaths of an estimated 500 seals annually (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). But, by-catch in legal and illegal fishing activity in the northern Caspian is likely to exceed this number substantially. This by-catch may amount to several thousand animals per year, with local fishermen in the Mangistau region of Kazakhstan citing catches exceeding 200 seals per 5 km of nets set (Goodman, Wilson and Dmitrieva unpublished data based on interviews November 2007).<br/><br/>Mass mortality events in 1997 and 2000-01, killing several thousand seals each time, have been attributed to a morbillivirus, canine distemper virus (CDV). Presence of a hitherto unknown strain of this virus was confirmed in one dead seal in 1997 (Forsyth <em>et al</em>. 1998), and the same strain was confirmed as the primary cause of death in seals dying in 2000 in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan (Kennedy 2000, Kuiken 2006). The cause of a further mass mortality in 2001 was less clear (Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002). Examination of archive stranding records in Azerbaijan since 1971, show an increased mortality every few years, suggesting the possibility of previous outbreaks of CDV. A serology study of archived samples indicated that CDV was present in Caspian seals in 1993, 1997 and 1998 (Ohashi <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Degradation of the Caspian Sea ecosystem and overexploitation of primary food resources are also threats to Caspian seals (Reijnders 1993). An invasive of comb jellyfish, <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em>, arrived in the Caspian Sea via ship ballast water in the Volga-Don Canal in1999 (Ivanov <em>et al</em>. 1999). <em>Mnemiopsis</em> consumes zooplankton rapidly, leading indirectly to a reduction in fish stocks and a substantial impact on local fisheries. A 70% reduction in commercial landings of three species of Kilka (<em>Clupeonella</em> spp.) was recorded within 3 years of the comb jellyfish invasion (Kideys <em>et al</em>. 2005). Kilka are thought to be important prey for Caspian seals in the central and southern parts of the sea, and the invasion of <em>Mnemiopsis</em> is considered a threat to the seals (Ivanov 1999, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Caspian Sea has no outlet and receives most of its input from the Volga, Ural and other rivers. Contamination of the Volga with lead, copper, zinc, and cadmium has increased dramatically since the mid-1980s, but levels in seals appear not be elevated, with the exception of zinc in some diseased animals, which may have suffered homeostatic disturbance of trace metal levels (Anan <em>et al</em>. 2002). Organochlorine levels in Caspian seals dying in the 2000-01 epizootic were high when compared to other marine mammal species suffering from epizootic disease outbreaks. The most significant organochlorine contaminant in Caspian seals was found to be DDT (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1998, Kajiwara <em>et al</em>. 2002). Environmental contaminants, particularly organochlorines, may affect the overall Caspian seal population health by causing decreased reproductive rates, particularly in older females (Krylov 1990, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002, Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Decreased immune function has also been suggested as a contributory cause of the CDV epizootic in 2000 (Kajiwara <em>et al</em>. 2002), and the deaths in 2001, although scrutiny of organochlorine levels in seals dying in this outbreak did not provide supporting evidence for this (Kuiken <em>et al</em>. 2006, Eybatov <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Total juvenile mortality from continued hunting, natural predation and fisheries by-catch is believed to be unsustainable. Overall mortality in the first year of life from all sources is likely to be in the region of 50% (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). The high rate of juvenile mortality has been singled out as the primary reason for the continuing decline in the Caspian seal, with lowered fertility due to organochlorine contamination being a relatively minor factor (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>It seems likely that warmer winters occurring in the near future may contribute to the further decline of Caspian seals if there is reduced ice cover in the northern Caspian. In 2007 the ice cover was limited to a narrow strip along the coastline of the north-east Caspian, and breeding was therefore concentrated along this strip of ice. The number of pups alive at the end of February, estimated from the aerial survey, was fewer than 7,000, i.e. fewer by half compared to the number counted in the previous two years (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). It has also been suggested that poor ice conditions may play a role in the epidemiology of CDV outbreaks due to seal crowding on limited haulout space and poor condition of weaned pups (Kuiken <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, there is no evidence for this at present.<br/><br/>Further threats to the seals on shore and on ice now come from increasing disturbance due to offshore and shoreline developments. One of the largest oil fields in the world is currently being developed in the Caspian, with the construction of numerous offshore oil drilling islands, pipelines, shipping access to these, and onshore logistics facilities. A recent study found that breeding seals are using shipping channels as artificial leads into the ice and are giving birth close to the edge of these channels. A significant proportion of the breeding population and pups may therefore experience disturbance by shipping traffic depending on the ice conditions (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 2008). More research is required to quantify the likely impacts of this intensive oil development. The coasts of Azerbaijan and Iran have also seen increased development for domestic and leisure use in recent years, with many previously undisturbed stretches of coast now being developed.<br/><br/>Disturbance of island and reef haulout sites by illegal fishing activities and opportunistic seal hunting are another ongoing problem. Recent surveys have found that the Caspian seal has effectively disappeared from Azerbaijan, with the once important haulout sites of the Apsheron Peninsula and Archipelago abandoned. These sites were used by many thousands of seals until the 1930s, when they were heavily hunted (Krylov 1990). However, between 1997 and 2002 a few hundred seals were still counted regularly at these sites (e.g. Allchin <em>et al</em>.1997, S. Wilson, unpublished observations). Few live seals have been seen in this area since 2004 (T. Eybatov, S. Goodman, S. Wilson, unpublished observations). The overall Caspian seal population decline between 2002 and 2004 is unlikely to account for this total disappearance, which is most probably due in part to severe disturbance by illegal fishing and other coastal activities (T. Eybatov unpublished data). Similar declines in the regularity of seal occupancy have also been noted recently at other sites, such as South West Island near the Ural Delta and Osushnoy Island (Kazakhstan) and in Turkmenbashi Bay (Turkmenistan). The number of seals at Ogurchinsky Island (Turkmenistan) has also declined from several thousand in the 1980s to a few hundred (P. Erokhin, unpublished observations). The only previously recorded haulout site in Iran, at Ashoora Island, is no longer used by seals (H. Asadi, pers. com.). There is an urgent need to develop an inventory of all haulout sites throughout the Caspian together with archived and current records of seal occupancy.	eng
41670	conservation	Burkanov, V. & Lowry, L., 2008	Russia stopped large scale commercial harvesting of ribbon seals in 1994. Current shore-based harvests in the Russian Far East are at very low levels and not likely to be a threat to the population. No other specific conservation measures are in effect in Russia. In the United States, ribbon seals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. As of March 2008, a petition for listing ribbon seals under the Endangered Species Act is under consideration by the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Marine Fisheries Service.	eng
41670	distribution	Burkanov, V. & Lowry, L., 2008	Ribbon seals inhabit the Bering, Chukchi, and Okhotsk seas and high latitudes of the western and central North Pacific Ocean (Stewart 1983), from Hokkaido and the northern Sea of Japan (Mizuno <em>et al</em>. 2002) north and offshore to the East Siberian Sea in the Russian Federation to the western Beaufort Sea (Moore and Barrowclough 1984) and south to the Alaska Peninsula in the United States (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). A sub-adult was killed near Cordova Alaska (Burns 1981), a debilitated vagrant was found beached in Morro Bay California (Roest 1964) and an adult has been observed in the Tsushima Strait (Heptner 1996).	eng
41670	habitat	Burkanov, V. & Lowry, L., 2008	Ribbon seals occupy the pack ice that overlies deeper water near the continental shelf break out, from late winter until summer. They prefer areas of 60-80% ice coverage, rarely use shore fast ice, and do not haul-out on land unless moribund (Kelly 1988, Burns 1981). They typically lie away from the edge of floes and show little concern for the approach of people or vessels. Broken pack ice is preferred over solid ice sheets and highly concentrated pack ice, as ribbon seals can only open and maintain access holes in ice up to approximately 15 cm thick. Their whereabouts when pack ice breaks up or disappears from the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk is not well known and is the subject of conflicting opinions. Kelly (1988) suggests that animals from the Bering Sea population summer in the Chukchi Sea and those from the Sea of Okhotsk, which has no ribbon seals by mid-July, might move into the southern Bering Sea. Burns (1981) says that few ribbon seals are seen on ice or harvested by Alaska Natives in the Bering Strait and Chukchi Sea after mid-June. Many ribbon seals are probably pelagic during the fall, not hauling out on land or ice, until the next winter (Burns 1981).<br/><br/>Ribbon seals are solitary for much of their lives. Pups are born on ice floes from early April to early May. Clean, white, broken pack ice is preferred over solid ice sheets and ice with sediment or algae. Ribbon seals maintain access holes in ice up to approximately 15 cm thick, and can often be seen in the middle of large floes. Ribbon seals are able to move rapidly on ice, using slashing side-to-side motions. They also extend their necks to peer at sources of disturbance, but are fairly approachable by boat. They are rarely encountered, because of the remote and inhospitable nature of their habitat.<br/><br/>Diet varies by area and age of the seal. Ribbon seals in the Okhotsk and Bering seas are known to take 35 different species of fish and invertebrates (Frost and Lowry 1980, Bukhtiyarov 1986). Young ribbon seals feed on euphausiids after weaning and until about age one when they switch to feed predominantly on shrimp for a year. As two-year-olds they take up the adult diet, which includes a variety of fishes, squids, and octopuses. Bukhtiyarov (1986) has determined that diet biomass of ribbon seals in the Sea of Okhotsk contains 69% of pollock, while in the Bering Sea 67% was squid and octopuses.<br/><br/>Females are mature when they are 2-4 years old and males when they are 3-5 years (Burns 1981). The annual pregnancy rate of adult females is 85%. Gestation lasts 9 months after 2-2.5 months of delayed implantation. Ribbon seals may live up to 26-27 yrs. First year mortality is 44% and the annual mortality rate for older age classes averages 11%.	eng
41670	population	Burkanov, V. & Lowry, L., 2008	Three separate populations of ribbon seals have been proposed associated with aggregations of breeding animals - the Bering Sea, the southern Sea of Okhotsk and the northern Sea of Okhotsk (Fedoseev 2002). However, the species has a continuous distribution and no morphological differences are known. Burns (1981) reported a population estimate of 90,000-100,000 animals in the Bering Sea, and 140,000 animals in the Sea of Okhotsk. Fedoseev (2002) gives an estimate of 120,000 to 140,000 animals for the Bering Sea in 1987 and estimates between 200,000 (1968-1974) and 630,000 (1988-1990) for the Sea of Okhotsk. The Sea of Okhotsk population averaged 370,000 animals with 320,000 in the central northwestern population and 50,000 in the southern population, in the period between 1968 and 1990 (Fedoseev 2002). The most recent reliable aerial survey of ribbon seal was conducted in 1990 (Fedoseev 2005). The population appeared to be increasing at that time. The current abundance and trend are unknown.	eng
41670	threats	Burkanov, V. & Lowry, L., 2008	Russian commercial hunting began in the Sea of Okhotsk in the 1930s and expanded to an annual harvest of 20,000 in the 1950s (Heptner 1996). The annual harvest averaged 11,000 from the 1950s to 1969 (Fedoseev 2002). The average annual harvest in the Sea of Okhotsk from 1969-1992 was 5,000-6,000 (Fedoseev 2002). Commercial hunting began in the Bering Sea in 1961 with an average annual harvest of 9,000 up to 1969, declining to 3,000 to 4,000 per year from 1969 to 1992 (Heptner 1996). Commercial hunting from sealing vessels stopped in the Bering Sea in 1991 and in the Sea of Okhotsk in 1994.<br/><br/>The Bering Sea population appears to have declined shortly after the beginning of commercial hunting in 1961. The average age of harvested animals declined from 9.8 years in 1961, to 6.9 in 1962, and 4.9 in 1963. During the same period, the number of ribbon seals killed per day dropped regardless of hunting conditions (Heptner 1976). After the harvest was limited, abundance of the species quickly recovered.<br/><br/>Interactions between ribbon seals and fisheries are not well documented. There were no mortalities recorded in required logbooks or by voluntary reports from 1990 to 1995 in fisheries monitored by the United States. Estimated mortality from 1999 to 2003 was 1 ribbon seal in the Bering Sea pollock trawl fishery, and 1 observed and 3 estimated mortalities in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Pacific cod longline (Anglis and Outlaw, 2005). During seven years (1993-1999) of monitoring the offshore salmon gill net fishery in Russian Far East, accidental mortality of ribbon seal was estimated to be 1,079 individuals (154 per year), mostly juveniles (Burkanov and Nikulin 2001). Some mature animals die in a bottom gill net halibut fishery in the Sea of Okhotsk, but information is very limited.<br/><br/>Reduction in late winter and spring sea ice cover in the Sea of Okhotsk, or the central and southern Bering Sea could be problematic for ribbon seal reproduction as this species depends on the availability of offshore pack ice. Disruption or alteration of the patterns of Arctic primary productivity and abundance of key marine mammal prey species such as Arctic cod could also have detrimental effects on ice dependent seals (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Pollock are an important spring ribbon seal food in the central and south central Bering Sea (Frost and Lowry 1980) and in the Sea of Okhotsk (Bukhtiyarov 1986). The effect of pollock harvesting on ribbon seals in the Bering Sea has not been examined, but competition with fisheries has been suggested as a possible limiting factor on population growth, or a threat that could result in declines (Reijnders 1993).	eng
41671	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Canada has in place sealing regulations pursuant to the 1993 Marine Mammal Regulations that require annual quotas, referred to as “Total Allowable Catches,” hunting licenses, and official observers of the commercial hunt (Anon. 2005).  In the northeast Atlantic, quotas for sealing are based on recommendations made by the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO). Russia is responsible for managing seals in the southeast part of the Barents Sea, while Norway is responsible for managing stocks in the Greenland Sea by Jan Mayen (Anon. 2006b).	eng
41671	conservation	Kovacs, K., 2008	Canada has in place sealing regulations pursuant to the 1993 Marine Mammal Regulations that require annual quotas, referred to as “Total Allowable Catches,” hunting licenses, and official observers of the commercial hunt (DFO 2005). In the northeast Atlantic, quotas for sealing are based on recommendations made by the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO). Russia is responsible for managing seals in the southeast part of the Barents Sea, while Norway is responsible for managing stocks in the Greenland Sea by Jan Mayen (NMFCA 2006, N-RFC 2006).	eng
41671	distribution	Kovacs, K., 2008	Harp seals are widespread in the North Atlantic and the adjacent Arctic Ocean and shelf seas. Their range extends from northern Hudson Bay and the Foxe Basin, Baffin Island, and the Davis Strait, Gulf of St Lawrence and Newfoundland in the western North Atlantic, east to somewhat south of Greenland, continuing east to Iceland and from there to Northern Norway, the White Sea and the Barents and Kara Seas. The northern limit in the eastern North Atlantic is at least to Franz Joseph Land and Svalbard and may continue to between 82-85 degrees north depending on ice conditions (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Rice 1998, Lavigne 2002).<br/><br/>The southern limit of the distribution off North America shifts southeast in some years, such as occurred in the early 1990s (Lacoste and Stenson 2000), leading to increased occurrences of harp seals south of their usual limits, reaching the Gulf of Maine and Sable Island where large numbers have been record since the mid-1990s (Harris <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lucas and Daoust 2002). Harp seals often occur as vagrants outside this range, south to Virginia in the United States (Scheffer 1958, Rice 1998). Similarly in Europe, harp seals reach the United Kingdom (Ronald and Healy 1981), the Faroe Islands, Denmark, Germany, France, and even Spain (Bree 1997, Bloch <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Prehistorically, harps seals bred in the Baltic Sea. Genetic drift, interspecific completion and over-hunting by humans are all factors likely to have contributed to their extinction in this region (Stora and Ericson 2004).	eng
41671	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harp seals are widespread in the North Atlantic and the adjacent Arctic Ocean. Their range extends from northern Hudson Bay and the Foxe Basin, Baffin Island, and the Davis Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Newfoundland in the western north Atlantic, east to somewhat south of Greenland, continuing east to Iceland and from there to Northern Norway, the White Sea and all of the Barents and Kara Seas. The northern limit in the eastern North Atlantic is at least to Franz Joseph Land and Svalbard and may continue to between 82-85 degrees north depending on ice conditions (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988, Rice 1998, Lavigne 2002). Harp seals often wander south outside this range and vagrants have reached the United Kingdom (Ronald and Healy 1981), the Faroe Islands, Denmark, Germany, France, and Spain (Heptner 1976, Van Bree 1997, Bloch <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
41671	habitat	Kovacs, K., 2008	Harp seals are medium-sized, monomorphic phocids. Adult males and females are approximately 1.8 m long and weight about 130 kg. Age at sexual maturity has varied quite dramatically over the last century, in part as a consequence of population size which has been largely determined by harvest levels and food availability. Females reach sexual maturity between 4-8 years of age (Frie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Males probably do not participate in breeding before they are somewhat older, though they reach sexual maturity around the same time as females.<br/><br/>Birthing takes place in vast herds, which are quite highly synchronized. Birthing occurs from late February to April, with some variation across the range in the precise timing (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Pups are born on the open free-floating pack ice and nursed for 12 days, during which time they gain weight at about 2.2. kg per day (Kovacs and Lavigne 1985, Kovacs 1987, Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 1991, Lydersen and Kovacs 1996). To minimize energy expenditure, most pups are sedentary for the first month; some so immobile that they melt into the ice beneath them, forming ice “cradles” (Kovacs 1987). Pups are referred to as “whitecoats” because they are born with an insulating coat of white lanugo. Lactating females spend up to 85% of their time in the water, depending on the weather (Lydersen and Kovacs 1993). Towards the end of lactation, females come into estrus and mate (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Weaned pups remain on the ice for up to 6 weeks, losing up to 50% of their weight before entering the water to feed. During this post-weaning fast they complete moulting of the lanugo. After this coat is shed the black and silver-gray pelage is exposed and the juveniles are known as “beaters” until they are about a year old.<br/><br/>Gestation lasts about 11.5 months, including a 3-4 month period of delayed implantation (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1989). The maximum life span of a harp seal is approximately 30 years; most animals that reach sexual maturity live to over 20 years. Both males and females are sexually active until the ends of their lives, showing no reproductive senescence (Ronald and Healey 1981).<br/><br/>Harp seals (1+ years of age) undergo a moult in the post-breeding months, from early April to early May (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Harp seals are highly migratory and after breeding, Canadian seals follow the pack ice up the coast of Labrador, with small numbers going into Hudson Bay, around Baffin Island, and the rest travelling up both sides of the Davis Strait. The Jan Mayen and White Sea groups migrate northward and mix in the Barents Sea (ref). The Jan Mayen group reaches the High Arctic, up to 85ºN. The Canadian seals have a round-trip migration that is over 5,000 km long (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). The Northwest Atlantic group begins the return trip to their breeding grounds in late autumn.<br/><br/>Harp seals consume a wide range of prey that varies along the migration route. Throughout their range, the harp seal diet includes 67 species of fish and 70 species of invertebrates (Lavigne 2002). The pups and juveniles take a lot of invertebrate prey, especially euphausiids (<em>Thyanoessa</em> spp.) and amphipods (<em>Parathemisto</em> spp.) (Haug <em>et al</em>. 2000, Nilssen <em>et al</em>. 2001). Adults in Greenland eat pelagic crustaceans, and fish such as capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>), sandeel (<em>Ammodytes</em> sp.), polar cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) and Arctic cod (<em>Arctogadus glacialis</em>). Commercial species such as Atlantic cod (<em>Gaddus morhua</em>) appear to be of minor importance in the diet (Kapel 2000). In the Barents Sea, harp seals eat amphipods, prawns, and small fish including polar cod, sculpin (<em>Cottidae</em>), snail fish (<em>Liparidae</em>), capelin (Nilssen 1995); but show a clear preference for large polar cod (Wathne <em>et al</em>. 2000). The seals off Newfoundland eat capelin and Arctic cod, and off Labrador they eat Arctic cod and Atlantic herring (<em>Clupea herringus</em>). In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the seals have been known to consume capelin, herring, Atlantic cod, Arctic cod and redfish (<em>Sebastes</em>) (Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1995). Harp seals feed heavily in winter and summer and less in spring and autumn. They are a highly social species that travels and forages in groups, yet maintain a stratification of diet according to age class and depth of the feeding dives. <br/><br/>Harp seals are relatively shallow divers. Jan Mayen animals stay close to the edge of the pack ice during the spring moult, usually dive to less than 100 m, but by July, satellite-tagged seals in the Barents Sea dove to 400 m. Overall, the deepest dives occur during the day in winter (Folkow <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
41671	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harp seals are medium-sized phocids, with adult males averaging lengths of 1.83 m and weights of 135 kg.  Females are slightly smaller at 1.79 m, weighing 120 kg. Females in the northwest Atlantic mature at about 4-5 years, compared to males at 5-8 years. The Jan Mayen and White Sea breeding groups reach maturity about a year earlier (Ronald and Healey 1981). The maximum life span of a harp seal is approximately 30 years, and it is not unusual for them to reach over 20 years of age. Both males and females are sexually active until their 20s, and females may give birth every year until they are at least 16 years old (Ronald and Healey 1981).<br/><br/>Harp seals are migratory, and after breeding, Canadian seals follow the pack ice up the coast of Labrador, with small numbers into Hudson Bay, to Baffin Island, and both sides of the Davis Strait, to Greenland. The Jan Mayen and White Sea groups migrate and mix in the Barents Sea. The Jan Mayen group reaches the high Arctic, up to 85 degrees north.<br/><br/>Harp seals consume a wide range of prey that varies along the migration route. Their diet, according to Lavigne (2002), consists of 67 species of fish and 70 species of invertebrates. Pups and juveniles take euphausiids (<em>Thyanoessa</em> spp.) and amphipods (<em>Parathemisto</em> spp.) (Nilssen <em>et al.</em> 2001), whereas adults take pelagic crustaceans and a variety of fish (Kapel 2000).	eng
41671	population	Kovacs, K., 2008	The harp seal is the most abundant pinniped species in the Northern Hemisphere. Globally this species numbers close to 8 million animals. Pup production at all breeding sites combined is at least 1.4 million pups per year currently (Stenson <em>et al</em>. 2003, Potelov <em>et al</em>. 2003, Haug <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Northwest Atlantic stock of harp seal is estimated to number 5.9 million animals (DFO 2005). This latest estimate for Canadian waters is significantly higher than the previous estimate produced in 2000, when the Gulf and Front herds combined were estimated to number 5.5 million. This is a marked recovery from an estimated low of around 1.8 million in the early 1970s (Sergeant 1976). Catch levels have been increased repeatedly for this population during the last decade and likely now exceed potential biological removal levels by 1.5 – 5.9 times. Given this level of removal the population is likely to now be in decline (Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2000). The breeding group in the West Ice near Jan Mayen was estimated at 296,000 in 1994; this population increased to approximately 348 000 by 2003. The White Sea breeding group was estimated to be 1.8 million animals when last surveyed in 2000 (Potelov <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
41671	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The population level in 2000 for the animals breeding in Canadian waters of the western North Atlantic, on “the Front” off Newfoundland and Labrador and in Gulf of St. Lawrence, was estimated to be 5.2 million animals (95% CI  4.0-6.5 million). Canada’s Department of Fisheries and Oceans claims the population has recovered in the past from an estimated low of around 1.8 million in the early 1970s to more than 5 million today (Anon. 2005). The breeding group on the West Ice near Jan Mayen was estimated at 296,000 in 1994. The White Sea breeding group is made up of approximately 1.5-2.0 million animals as of 1999 (Lavigne 2002). Totaling the figures from Lavigne and each area estimate gives a world population of 5.8-8.8 million, making harp seals the most abundant pinniped in the Northern Hemisphere.	eng
41671	threats	Kovacs, K., 2008	Harp seals have been harvested for thousands of years by native peoples of the Atlantic Arctic, including coastal Northern Europeans (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Basque whalers began taking harp seals in the 1500s. By the mid-1600s, French settlers developed land-based netting techniques on the St. Lawrence River in the 1700s. French-Canadians exported 500 tons of oil per year by the mid-1700s, based on an estimated take of 6,000 seals per year. In Newfoundland, English settlers hunted harp seals on a larger scale that accounted for an estimated average take of 7,000-12,800 seals per year for most of the 1700s. By the 1800s, schooner-based sealing developed and the number of seals harvested rose dramatically; from 1803-1816 the average annual take was 117,000. The peak of sealing in the Northwest Atlantic occurred between 1818 and 1862, when 500,000 seals were harvested in many years, with maxima between 640 000-740 000 in individual years. During that time, it is estimated that 18.3 million harp seals, mostly whitecoats, were killed for oil. The records show somewhat lower figures for the Northeast Atlantic. At Jan Mayen, the catch began falling in the late 1850s; the drop in catch is likely attributable to over-harvesting. From 1860 to 1900, an estimated 12.8 million seals were harvested from the West Ice.<br/><br/>During the 20th century harp seals became more valued for their pelts than their oil. In 1917 143,000 seals were taken. The catch dropped for a time, then escalated in the 1950s, when it averaged 312,000 seals per year. In 1960, Canada became concerned about the large numbers of adults being killed, so it placed limits on the length of the hunting season. During the 1960s, an average of 284,000 seals were taken per year in the Northwest Atlantic stock. In the mid 1960s adult females became protected on the breeding grounds, and Norway was excluded from sealing in Canadian waters. In 1971 a quota management program was established; from 1970 to 1987 quotas varied from 127,000 per year to 245,000 per year, but the actual harvest was often much lower than the quota (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).<br/><br/>In 1983, the European Economic Community imposed an import ban on all whitecoat products and the average annual harvest in Canadian waters fell to 52,000 seals from 1983-1995. By 1987, Canada banned the killing of whitecoats and the focus of the hunt switched to beaters (post-weaning to 13 months of age) (DFO 2006a). From 1999-2003, the estimated annual mortality of harp seals in the Northwest Atlantic was 453,962, broken down into an average of 232,915 taken in the commercial harvest by Canada, 83,000 taken from 1999-2002 in Greenland and approximately 5,000 taken in the Canadian High Arctic, plus a by-catch of close to 20,000 in the Newfoundland lumpfish fishery, with an average annual struck and loss rate of 119,430 from all harvests (Waring <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The Canadian harvest has recently increased with the combined three-year 2003-2005 quota (“Total Allowable Catch”) set at 975,000 (DFO 2005a). Given the age structure of the current hunt, this quota is not sustainable (see Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2000). In addition to Canada’s commercial harvest, some harp seals are still taken in subsistence hunts in Labrador, Newfoundland, northern Quebec and in Nunavut. Aboriginal peoples and non-Aboriginal coastal residents who reside north of latitude 53 degrees can hunt seals for subsistence purposes without a permit (DFO 2006b).<br/><br/>In the Northeast Atlantic, Norway established a commercial hunt in 1846, which peaked in the 1870s-1880s when annual catches ranged between 50,000-120,000 animals. In the 20th century, annual harvests increased to an average above 100,000 per year, with the maximum in the 1920s and 1930s, when the catches were 200,000-300,000 seals per year. In 1989, Norway banned the killing of whitecoats (N-RFC 2006). For 2005, the harvest of the West Ice stock was approximately 20,000. In the White Sea, Russia hunters took 14,277 harp seals in 2005 (DFO 2005). The numbers of harp seals struck-and-lost in the both the current commercial hunts (which is focused largely on 1+ animals) and in subsistent hunting is high, and most harvest estimates do not account for this additional mortality (Lavigne 1999). The struck and loss rate for harp seals in Greenland could be as high as 50% (Sjare and Stenson 2002).<br/><br/>Another threat to harp seals is over-harvesting of their prey, including capelin and herring. Several harp seal “invasions” have taken place in recent decades along the north coast of Norway. By-catch mortality in nets during these events was estimated to be as high as 100,000 animals in 1987 and 21,474 in 1988 (Haug <em>et al</em>. 1991). These reasons for these emigrations out of their normal range within the Barents and Greenland Seas seems to have been a collapse of the herring and capelin stocks due to a combination of over-fishing and shifting oceanographic conditions (low temperatures and salinity, and extensive ice cover) (Haug <em>et al</em>. 1991, Woodley and Lavigne 1991).<br/><br/>A small tourist industry that visits the whelping patches in the Gulf of St Lawrence is not thought to pose any risk to the seals under its current rotational mode of operation (Kovacs and Innes 1990). <br/><br/>Global climate warming is currently already causing major reductions in the extent and seasonal duration of sea ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere, creating a threat to many species of ice-associated marine mammals (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Pinnipeds, such as the harp seal that are dependant on sea ice for pupping, moulting and resting are likely to be heavily impacted by such changes in the future (Johnston <em>et al</em>. 2005, Friedlaender <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Oil spills in the Northwest Atlantic off the east coast of Canada remain a threat to seals. There is a concern about the impacts of tanker traffic, particularly in places like Lancaster Sound in the eastern Canadian Arctic, which is an important harp seal summering area (Reijinders <em>et al</em>. 1993). The discharge from a ruptured tank on the shore of New Brunswick, Canada in March–April 1969 led to 10,000 to 15,000 seals being heavily coated with oil. The high number of dead seal pups washing ashore after this event was evidence of the lethal effects of the oil (St Aubin, 1990). Oil development in the Barents Sea is on-going and poses a future threat to harp seals in the White Sea and West Ice stocks.<br/><br/>Harp seals have been found to carry significant loads of contaminants including metals, DDT and PCBs (Ronald <em>et al</em>. 1984a,b). Organochlorines are still present in their blood, despite DDT levels (and PCBs to a lesser extent) declining from the early 1970s to the 1980s (Addison <em>et al</em>. 1984) and further in the 1990s.<br/><br/>Phocine distemper virus (PDV) was first found in harp seals from the West Ice off Jan Mayen in 1987 and 1989. It is widespread in harp seals, but only shows up in terms of antibodies; it is not known if there are significant health effects or mortality from PDV infection in this species (Daoust <em>et al</em>. 1993, Duignan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harp seals might have been the carriers responsible for the harbour seals PDV epidemic in Europe in 1988 (Markussen and Have 1992). PDV also appeared in the Gulf of St Lawrence in 1991, but not in epidemic proportions (Daoust <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>Natural predators of harp seals include polar bears, killer whales, and Greenland shark (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). In Svalbard, 13% of polar bears prey is comprised of harp seals (Derocher <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
41671	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Harp seals have been harvested for thousands of years by native peoples of the Atlantic Arctic, including coastal Northern Europeans (Stora and Ericson 2004).  Basque whalers began taking harp seals in the 1500s.  By the mid-1600s, French settlers began the hunt in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, developing land-based netting techniques on the St. Lawrence River in the 1700s.  The French Canadians exported 500 tons of oil per year by the mid-1700s, based on an estimated take of 6,000 seals per year. In Newfoundland, English settlers hunted harp seals on a larger scale that accounted for an estimated 7,000-12,800 seals per year for most of the 1700s, including 50,000 whitecoats (juvenile harp seals) killed in 1773.  By the 1800s, schooner-based sealing developed, and the number of seals harvested rose dramatically; from 1803-1816 the average annual was 117,000.  The peak of sealing in the northwest Atlantic occurred between 1818 and 1862, when 500,000 seals were harvested in many years, reaching a maximum of 640,000-740,000 in single years.  During that time, it is estimated that 18.3 million harp seals, mostly whitecoats, were killed for oil.  The records show somewhat lower figures for the northeast Atlantic. At Jan Mayen, the catch began falling in the late 1850s, attributed to overhavesting.  From 1860 to 1900, an estimated 12.8 million seals were harvested there (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).  <br/> <br/>The 20th century saw the advent of steel-hulled ships, and the hunt continued, though harp seals became more valued for their pelts than their oil.  143,000 seals were taken in 1917. This number fell during the war years, then rose again in the 1950s, when it averaged 312,000 seals per year. In 1960, Canada became concerned about the large numbers of adults being killed, so it placed limits on the length of the hunting season.  During the 1960s, an average of 284,000 seals were taken per year.  In 1964 observers sent by humane organizations described the clubbing of whitecoats, and the subsequent public outcry led to seal protection regulations controlling the methods of the kill, and the types of vessels used. Adult females were protected on the breeding grounds, and Norway was excluded from sealing in Canadian waters. In 1971 a quota management program was set up, and from 1970 to 1987 the quotas varied, from 127,000 per year to 245,000 per year, but the actual harvest was often much lower (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988).<br/><br/>In 1983, the European Economic Community imposed an import ban on all whitecoat (juvenile harp seal) products, and the average annual harvest in Canadian waters fell to 52,000 seals from 1983-1995. By 1987, Canada outlawed the killing of whitecoats, and the focus of the hunted switched to beaters (post-weaning to 13 months of age) (Anon. 2006a). From 1999-2003, the estimated annual mortality of harp seals in the northwest Atlantic was 453,962, broken down into an average of 232,915 taken in the commercial harvest by Canada, 83,010 taken from 1999-2002 in Greenland, and 4,881 taken in the Canadian high Arctic, plus a bycatch of 18,566 in the Newfoundland lumpfish fishery, with an average annual struck and loss rate of 119,430 from all harvests  (Waring <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Since the late 1970s large numbers of harp seals have been leaving the Barents Sea, and possibly the Greenland Sea, to forage along the coast of Norway, resulting in the deaths of thousands of seals in shore-based net fisheries.  Bycatch mortality from nets was estimated to be 56,647 (perhaps up to 100,000) in 1987, and 21,474 in 1988 (Haug <em>et al.</em> 1991, Woodley and Lavigne 1991). <br/><br/>Another threat to harp seals is the overharvesting of their prey, including herring and capelin. There have also been calls for an increased cull of harp seals to protect the  Atlantic cod fishery, for some years in a steep decline  (Lavigne 2002).<br/>  <br/>Oil spills in the northwest Atlantic off the east coast of Canada remain a threat to seals. There is a concern about the impacts of tanker traffic, particularly in places like Lancaster Sound in the eastern Canadian Arctic, which is an important harp seal summering area (Reijinders <em>et al.</em> 1993). Additionally, harp seals have been found to carry significant loads of contaminants including heavy metals, organochlorines and PCBs (Ronald <em>et al.</em> 1984a,b).  <br/><br/>Phocine distemper virus (PDV) was first found in harp seals from the West Ice off Jan Mayen in 1987 and 1989.  It is widespread in harp seals, but it is not known if there are significant health effects or mortality from the infection. The harp seals may have been carriers infecting harbor seals, which did experience a mass mortality in Europe in 1988 (Markussen and Have 1992).	eng
41672	conservation	Kovacs, K., Lowry, L. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Ringed seals are protected by a variety of laws and quotas in different parts of their range, but even within Europe the legal provisions are not always being fully implemented in domestic law (Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2001). The population in Lake Saimaa has been protected since 1955, and additional protection has been afforded via the establishment of two national parks within the lake, and regulation of shoreline development. Similarly, the hunting of seals in Lake Ladoga was prohibited in 1980 (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998). In the United States the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 allows ringed seals to be harvested only by Alaskan Native hunters for subsistence purposes, and that Act generally prohibits all other forms of taking except where specifically permitted (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). State Nature Reserves at Franz Josef Land and in the White and Kara seas protect large areas of ringed seal habitat in the western Russian Arctic (Belikov and Boltunov 1998). Quotas and licensing of hunting have been in place in various parts of the Russian Federation for decades (Belikov and Boltunov 1998), though this has done little to stop the decline of ringed seals in Lake Ladoga. Baltic ringed seals were protected from all killing by the Soviet Union in 1980, by Sweden in 1986, and by Finland in 1988 (Härkönen <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
41672	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Ringed seals are protected by numerous laws and quotas in different parts of their range. The population in Lake Saimaa has been protected since 1955, and additional protection has resulted from establishment of two national parks at the lake, and regulation of shoreline development. Similarly, the hunting of seals in Lake Ladoga was prohibited in 1980 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998). In the United States ringed seals can only be harvested for subsistence purposes by Alaskan Native Subsistence Hunters, and they have been protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, the implementation of which reduced annual mortality by eliminating all hunting by non-native people (Angliss and Outlaw 2005). Quotas and licensing of hunting have been in place in various parts of the Russian Federation/former Soviet Union for decades and have led to protection of Sea of Okhotsk, Barents and White seas, and Lake Ladoga ringed seals (Belikov and Boltunov 1998, Reeves 1998). Baltic ringed seals were protected from all killing by the Soviet Union in 1980, by Sweden in 1986, and by Finland in 1988 (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 1998). State Nature Reserves at Franz Josef Land and in the White and Kara seas protect large areas of ringed seal habitat in the western Russian Arctic (Belikov and Boltunov 1998).	eng
41672	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Ringed seals have a circumpolar distribution throughout the Arctic basin including near the North Pole (Rice 1998), and range widely into adjacent seas. They are found in the Bering Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay and Straits, Davis Strait, and Greenland, Barents, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian seas. Separate populations occur in the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga in the Russian Federation, Lake Saimaa in Finland, and the Sea of Okhotsk south to northern Japan (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Vagrants have been recorded south to Portugal and the Azores in Europe, southern California and New Jersey in the United States, and Zhejiang in China (Rice 1998). Ringed seals are distributed in waters of nearly any depth, and their distribution is strongly correlated with seasonally and permanently ice-covered waters, and food availability (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Shore-fast ice is considered to be the most important habitat for pupping, although the importance of pack ice is not well known (Reeves 1998).	eng
41672	distribution	Kovacs, K., Lowry, L. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Ringed seals have a circumpolar distribution throughout the Arctic Basin including records of individuals near the North Pole (Rice 1998); arctic ringed seals also range widely into adjacent seas being found in the Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Davis Strait, and Greenland, Barents, White, Kara, Laptev and East Siberian Seas, and they extend into some lake and river systems in Northern Canada (Heide-Jørgensen and Lydersen 1989). Separate populations occur in the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga in the Russian Federation, Lake Saimaa in Finland, and the Sea of Okhotsk south to northern Japan (Frost and Lowry 1981, Reeves 1998). Extralimital records for ringed seals extend far south on both sides of the Atlantic, to New Jersey in the west and Portugal in the east. In the Pacific vagrants have been recorded south to the Zhejiang in China and southern California (Rice 1998).	eng
41672	habitat	Kovacs, K., Lowry, L. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Arctic ringed seals are in many respects the “classic” ice-seal. The subspecies <em>P. h. hispida</em> and <em>P. h. ochotensis</em> use sea ice exclusively as their breeding, moulting and resting (haulout) habitat, rarely if ever coming onto land (Smith and Stirling 1975, Frost and Lowry 1981, Kelly 1988). Their ability to create and maintain breathing holes in sea ice using the well-developed claws on their fore-flippers allows them to thrive in areas where even other ice-associated seals cannot reside. Although ringed seals are quite small they deal with the thermal challenges posed by the arctic winter by having a very thick blubber layer, and by building lairs (small caves) in the snow on top of sea ice during the winter. The lairs are particularly important for neonatal survival (e.g., Lydersen and Smith 1989). Each seal builds several lairs so that they can escape if a predator attacks one of their structures; ringed seals have co-evolved with their principal predator, the polar bear (<em>Ursus maritimus</em>) over the last tens of thousands of years (Stirling and Øritsland 1995). Arctic foxes (<em>Alopex lagopus</em>) are also an important predator in some coastal areas (Smith 1976, Lydersen 1998). In addition to the constructed holes and lairs, ringed seals also use natural cracks along pressure ridges and leads in the sea ice for breathing. <br/><br/>Reported mean age at sexual maturity (MAM) for ringed seals females varies in the literature from 3.5 – 7.1 years (Holst and Stirling 2002, Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males likely do not participate in breeding before they are 8 and 10 years old. The average size of adults 10 years and older varies between locations and different age cohorts, but averages of 115-136 cm in length and 40-65 kg in weight have been reported, with males being slightly larger than females (Smith 1973, Frost and Lowry 1981, Smith 1987, Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Ringed seals are long lived, with ages close to 50 reported (e.g. Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Reproductive rates of adult female ringed seals vary between 0.45-0.86 (see Reeves 1998), with a maximum of 0.91 (Lydersen and Gjertz 1987). Regional production rates are variable; reproductive success depends on many factors including prey availability, the relative stability of the ice, sufficient snow accumulation prior to the commencement of breeding, etc. (e.g., Lukin 1980, Kelly 1988, Smith 1987, Lydersen 1995).<br/><br/>A single pup, weighing 4.0-4.5 kg, is born in the spring (March to May), with most pups being born in early April (Frost and Lowry 1981). In Lake Saimaa and in the southern part of Baltic Sea pups are born somewhat earlier, in late February or early March (Pälsi 1924, Sipilä 2003). Births occur in subnivean lairs excavated in snow that accumulates upwind and downwind of ice ridges (Smith and Stirling 1975, Furgal <em>et al</em>. 1996), or in cavities occurring between blocks of ice in pressure ridges (McLaren 1958, Kelly 1988). Lairs provide thermal protection against cold air temperatures and high wind chill and afford at least some protection from foxes and polar bears (Smith 1976, 1980, Smith and Stirling 1975, Gjertz and Lydersen 1986). A female will move a young pup between lairs within her complex of lairs (usually 4-6 per female) if one lair is attacked by a predator; older pups are able to shift between structures independently as they develop swimming skills in the first weeks of life (Lydersen and Hammill 1993a,b). Lactation lasts an average of 39 days and pups are weaned at approximately 20 kg (Lydersen and Kovacs 1999). Females mate towards the end of the lactation period, similar to other phocid seals. Shore-fast ice is considered to be the most important habitat for pupping, although the importance of pack ice is not well known; this habitat is used at least in the Davis Strait and in the Barents Sea (e.g. Wiig <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Ringed seals moult from around mid-May to mid-July when they spend quite a bit of time hauled out on ice at the edge of the permanent pack ice, or on remnant land-fast ice along coastlines (Reeves 1998). Feeding intensity is at a minimum at this time (Ryg <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>Outside the breeding and moulting seasons, arctic ringed seals are distributed in waters of nearly any depth; their distribution is strongly correlated with seasonally and permanently ice-covered waters and food availability (e.g. Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003, Freitas <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Many studies of the diet of arctic ringed seal diet have been conducted and although there is considerable variation in the diet regionally, several patterns emerge. Most ringed seal prey is small, and preferred prey tends to be schooling species that form dense aggregations. Fishes are usually in the 5-10 cm range and crustacean prey in the 2-6 cm range. Typically, a variety of 10-15 prey species are found with no more than 2-4 dominant prey species for any given area. Fishes are generally more commonly eaten than invertebrate prey, but diet is determined to some extent by availability of various types of prey during particular seasons as well as preference, which in part is guided by energy content of various available prey (Reeves 1998, Wathne <em>et al</em>. 2000). Polar cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) is often reported to be the most important prey species for ringed seals (see Labansen <em>et al</em>. 2007 for review). Young polar cod (≤2 yrs) are often found closely associated with sea ice, living under and even in spaces within sea ice (Falk-Petersen <em>et al</em>. 1986). Ringed seals also eat a variety of other members of the cod family, including arctic cod (<em>Arctogadus glacialis</em>; Holst <em>et al</em>. 2001), and saffron cod (<em>Eleginus gracilis</em>) with the latter being particularly important during the summer months in Alaskan waters (Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1980). Redfish (<em>Sebastes</em> spp.), capelin (<em>Mallotus villosus</em>) and herring (<em>Clupea harengu</em>) are also important in the diet of arctic ringed seals in some regions. Invertebrate prey seems to become more important to ringed seals in the open-water season and often dominates the diet of young animals (e.g. Lowry <em>et al</em>. 1980, Holst <em>et al</em>. 2001). Large amphipods (e.g. <em>Themisto libellula</em>), krill (e.g. <em>Thysanoessa inermis</em>) mysids (e.g. <em>Mysis oculata</em>), shrimps (e.g. <em>Pandalus</em> spp., <em>Eualus</em> spp., <em>Lebbeus polaris</em>, <em>Crangon septemspinosa</em>) and cephalopods (e.g. <em>Gonatus</em> spp.) are all eaten by ringed seals and can be very important in some regions at least seasonally. <br/><br/>Ringed seals in the Baltic sea as well as in Lakes Saimaa and Ladoga use ice for breeding and moulting, but are forced to haul out on islands and shorelines during the summer season when ice is not available. Their general season patterns are similar to those of arctic dwelling ringed seals. One notable difference in social structure is that Ladoga ringed seals form large herds during the open water period; this behaviour of mass haulouts is concentrated in the Valamm Nature Park (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Saimaa and Ladoga ringed seals are confined to freshwater lakes where they prey on a wide variety of fish and some invertebrates, especially smelt (<em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>), vendace (<em>Coregonus albula</em>), burbot (<em>Lota lota</em>), perch (<em>Perca fluviatalis</em>), roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), whitefish (<em>Coreogonus lavaretus</em>) and other fishes in small quantities (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
41672	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Ringed seals are usually found singly or in small groups, and when inhabiting sea ice, can be difficult to find.  They swim in leads among floes, and maintain breathing holes with their claws, excavate snow lairs, and utilize naturally occurring cracks and cavities within pressure ridges when seas freeze (Smith and Stirling 1975, Frost and Lowry 1981, Kelly 1988).<br/><br/>Sexual maturity is usually attained between 4-7 years for females and 5-7 years for males.  Physical maturity is reached between 8 and 10 years old. Maximum ages of 43 years (McLaren 1958), and 46 years (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993) have been reported.<br/><br/>A single pup, rarely twins, is born from March to May, with most pups born in early April (Frost and Lowry 1981). Most births occur in lairs excavated under snow that accumulates upwind and downwind of ice ridges (Smith and Stirling 1975), or in cavities occurring between blocks of ice in pressure ridges (Mclaren 1958, Kelly 1988). Lairs are believed to provide protection from a variety of predators and periods of very cold air temperatures and high wind chill (Smith and Stirling 1975, Kelly 1988).  <br/><br/>Ringed seals take a wide variety of fish and invertebrate prey and show variation in diet between seasons and in different geographic areas. The most important species and groups include Arctic cod (<em>Boreogadus saida</em>) and saffron cod (<em>Eleginus navaga</em>), and a variety of crustaceans including amphipods, euphausiids, mysids, and shrimps (Lowry <em>et al.</em> 1980, Kelly 1988). Saimaa and Ladoga ringed seals are confined to freshwater lakes where they prey on a wide variety of fish and some invertebrates, especially smelt (<em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>), vendace (<em>Coregonus albula</em>), burbot (<em>Lota lota</em>), perch (<em>Perca fluviatalis</em>), roach (<em>Rutilus rutilus</em>), and whitefish (<em>Coreogonus lavaretus</em>) (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).	eng
41672	population	Kovacs, K., Lowry, L. & Härkönen, T., 2008	<em>P. h. hispida</em><br/>The world-wide population size of arctic ringed seals is not accurately known. Citing many factors such as the vast geographic area occupied by the species, its highly variable distribution within areas that have been surveyed, the unknown relationship between the numbers of seals observed versus those not seen, and other factors, Frost and Lowry (1981) state that it is “unwise to attempt an estimate of the world population of this subspecies” (<em>P. h. hispida</em>). Despite numerous surveys at specific locales conducted since, Reeves (1998) believes that “this conclusion remains appropriate.” <br/><br/>Nevertheless, published world-wide population estimates exist including 6-7 million (Stirling and Calvert 1979) and 2.5 million (Miyazaki 2002). Some recent survey and pup production data are available from parts of the arctic ringed seal’s range (e.g. Frost and Lowry 2004, Bengtson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Moulton <em>et al</em>. 2005, Krafft <em>et al</em>. 2006), but these data are limited in spatial scope. Little information is available from large parts of the ringed seal’s arctic range, such as the eastern parts of the Russian Federation (but see Ognetov 1993). Decreased pup production and survival have recently been documented in some areas that have been attributed to climate change (e.g. Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stirling 2005).<br/><br/><em>P. h. botnica</em><br/>During the past century Baltic ringed seals declined precipitously from 190,000-220,000 to approximately 5,000 by the late 1970s (Harding and Härkönen 1999). The principle reason for the decline was over-harvesting, but low fertility caused by organochlorines and other contaminants may also have inhibited natural population growth during the decades following protection. The population of <em>P. h. botnica</em> was estimated to be between 5,000 and 8,000 individuals in the late 1990s; during 1998-2006 the number of ringed seals in Bothnia Bay, where about 75% of the population resides, has increased at a rate of 4.3 % per year (Karlsson <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, in the Gulf of Riga it is thought that the 1,400 seals counted in 1996 have been experiencing a steady decline since that time. The small subpopulation in the Gulf of Finland (~300 animals) has showed no increase since 1994. Current sea ice trends in the Baltic and future projections for the next 30 years pose a major threat to all southern populations in the Baltic; only the Bay of Bothnia is likely to retain fairly good winter sea-ice habitat for ringed seals (Meier <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>P. h. ladogensis</em><br/>The size of the <em>P. h. ladogensis</em> population was thought to be about 20,000 at the start of the 20th century, but bounties were paid to reduce the population and by the 1970s there were approximately 10,000 animals remaining (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007). In 2001, the aerial survey of the basking population counted 2,000 (+-70) individuals on the ice (Verevkin 2002), which suggests a total population size of  3,000 to 5,000 seals (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>By-catch in fishing gear is the major source of mortality in this population. Deaths due to this source alone account for 10-16% of the population annually (Verevkin <em>et al</em>. 2006), which is clearly unsustainable. The Ladoga ringed seal is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation.<br/><br/><em>P. h. saimensis</em><br/>The number of <em>P. h. saimensis</em> in Lake Saimaa fell below 200 individuals in the early 1980s (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998). Thereafter, for a short period the population was increasing (to 240 in 2000, Sipilä 2003, Auvinen <em>et al</em>. 2005), reaching a maximum estimate of 280 in 2005 individuals for a brief time (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008). A population viability analysis conducted by Ranta and Lundberg (2006, unpublished) suggested a potential for optimism regarding the survival of this population, as did projections in Sipilä (2006). But climate change impacts on Saimaa seal habitat were not incorporated into these predictions (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008), nor was much attention paid to the fact that the population within the lake system is geographically subdivided (Sipilä <em>at al</em>. 2005), and the subdivision could markedly increase the future rate of inbreeding (Palo <em>et al</em>. 2003). Currently, mortality induced by fisheries by-catch is significant (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Sipilä 2003). This mortality source, in addition to very high pup mortality during 2005-2007, is expected to cause this population to once again decline (Sipilä and Kokkonen 2008). <br/><br/><em>P. h. ochotensis</em><br/>In the Sea of Okhotsk estimates for ringed seal abundance in 1968 and 1969 were 818,000 and 865,000 respectively (Reeves 1998). The population of <em>P. h. ochotensis</em> was estimated to be 800,000-1,000,000 by Miyazaki (2002). However, in reality no recent data are available and current population trends are unknown.	eng
41672	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The world-wide population of ringed seals is not known. Citing many factors such as vast geographic area occupied by the species, highly variable densities found within areas that have been surveyed, the unknown relationship between the numbers of seals observed versus those not seen, and other factors, Frost and Lowry (1981) state that it is “unwise to attempt an estimate of the world population of this subspecies” (<em>P. h. hispida</em>). Despite numerous surveys conducted since, Reeves (1998) believes that “this conclusion remains appropriate.” <br/><br/>Nevertheless, published world-wide population estimates exist including 6-7 million (Stirling and Calvert 1979), and 2.5 million for the most widespread subspecies, <em>P. h. hispida</em> (Miyazaki 2002). The population of <em>P. h. botnica</em> is estimated at 5,000 to 8,000 (Reeves 1998), and in excess of 6,000 (Harkonen <em>et al.</em> 1998).  <em>P. h. ladogensis</em> and <em>P. h. saimensis</em> have been estimated to number 10,500-12,500 (Reeves 1998) and about 5,000 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) for the former, and <200 (Reeves 1998) or about 200 (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) for the latter.	eng
41672	threats	Kovacs, K., Lowry, L. & Härkönen, T., 2008	Humans have hunted ringed seals in the Arctic since the arrival of people to the region millennia ago (e.g. Murdoch 1893, Riewe and Amsden 1979). They are a fundamental subsistence food item for most coastally dwelling northern peoples. Reeves (1998) reported an annual quota for shore-based hunters in the Sea of Okhotsk of 7,500 and a combined estimate of 10,000 taken per year from the Bering, Chukchi, and Western Beaufort Sea by Russians and Native Alaskans. Further, Reeves (1998) estimates that the annual removal of ringed seals in the Canadian Arctic is in the “high tens of thousands” at present, and that in 1980s, including animals killed and lost, the harvest was between 60,000 and 80,000, and may have exceeded 100,000 in some years. Another substantial annual harvest occurs in Greenland with nearly 100,000 taken per year in the 1970s and approximately 70,000 taken annually in the early 1990s (Teilmann and Kapel 1998).<br/><br/>Commercial harvests of ringed seals in the early to mid-20th century at southern latitudes were sometimes large and probably had significant local impacts on the respective populations. Annual harvests of 72,000 from 1955 to 1965 in the Sea of Okhotsk, 20,000 in the Baltic Sea, as well as commercial harvests in Lakes Ladoga and Saimaa (Reeves 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998) all provide examples of the negative effect of localized over-harvesting on ringed seal populations. Kokko <em>et al</em>. (1997) have suggested that the sustainable harvest level for Baltic ringed seals at the end of the 1990s was close to zero (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1997). Harvest statistics reported for Western Russia by Belikov and Boltunov (1998) suggest that maximum catches earlier in this century exceeded the total allowable catches (TACs) significantly, with harvests of up to 8,900 in the White Sea (1912), 13,200 in the Russian Barents Sea (1962), and 13,200 in the Kara Sea (1933). These harvests are thought to have dropped considerably in recent decades, though there are no available data. Reporting of harvest statistics and enforcement of TACs is difficult to manage in outlying areas, and the harvest of ringed seals in eastern Russia is largely unknown.<br/><br/>Ringed seals carry loads of organochlorine and heavy metal contaminants from human industry and agriculture which have been implicated in uterine pathology in Baltic seals (Bergman and Olsson 1986), and high concentrations of mercury in Saimaa seals is thought to have reduced pup production in the 1960s and 1970s (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Kostamo <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, following restrictions on the use and release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment, levels are dropping rapidly in the Baltic (e.g. Kostamo <em>et al</em>. 2002). The same is true with regards to POPs in Arctic populations (e.g. Wolkers <em>et al</em>. 2008). Oil contamination poses poorly known risks to ringed seal populations. The greatest impacts would likely result if spills occurred during the pupping season or if food resources were negatively effected (Smith 1987, Reeves 1998).<br/><br/>Manipulation of water levels, recreational snow machine operation, net-fishing, boating, tourism and development of cottages on the shoreline at Lake Saimaa have been noted as threats to the ringed seals in Lake Saimaa, and industrial pollution, net fishing and poaching, as well as disturbance of on-shore summer haulout groups have been highlighted as threats for the Lake Ladoga ringed seals (Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007). Predation by red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>), wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>), feral and domestic dogs and even birds of prey are also risks for these lake seals (e.g. Kunnasranta <em>et al</em>. 2001). By-catch in fisheries and other negative impacts associated with fisheries conflicts seem at present to be the major threat to the two subspecies of ringed seals occupying Lakes Saimaa and Ladoga (Kokko <em>et al</em>. 1998, Sipilä and Hyvärinen 1998, Verevkin 2002, Sipilä 2003, Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Global warming may pose the greatest threat to ringed seals in all subspecies if it leads to large losses of the stable ice habitat required by ringed seals for pupping and rearing their young (Tynan and DeMaster 1997, Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kovacs and Lydersen 2008, also see Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2008). Early break-up of the ice results in poor condition of pups and higher mortality rates (e.g. Smith and Harwood 2001). Associated changes in precipitation and weather patterns could also negatively effect ringed seal populations if there is insufficient snow cover to protect pups in lairs in the spring (Stirling and Derocher 1993; Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005). Pups born outside lairs have a very low chance of survival; the pups are so small that even large gulls can be predators if they are exposed (e.g. Lydersen and Smith 1989). Declining trends in reproduction and survival of pups have already been noted in some regions that have been attributed to earlier break-up of the sea ice over recent decades and concomitant changes in the marine ecosystem (Ferguson <em>et al</em>. 2005, Stirling 2005).<br/><br/>Ice is also needed by ringed seals for moulting, resting, and in some populations foraging, but the type of ice and its stability is more flexible outside the breeding season, though northern ringed seals still exhibit a clear preference for areas with considerable ice coverage (Simpkins <em>et al</em>. 2003, Freitas <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reductions in arctic sea ice could have quite dramatic effects via prey availability if polar and arctic cod populations are negatively impacted. Climate change impacts could be particularly acute for ringed seals living in restricted habitats such as the Ladoga and Saimaa Lake populations (Learmonth <em>et al</em>., 2006), and possibly also for ringed seals in the Okhotsk and Baltic Seas (see Meier <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Lake Saimaa there was an abnormally high lair mortality of pups in 2006 and 2007 because of poor ice and snow conditions (Sipilä <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Reductions in sea ice cover will likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and resource extraction industries, with associated increased threat of marine accidents and pollution discharge (Pagnan 2000). An increase in human created noise in the arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including ringed seals, to abandon areas (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Disturbance seems to be disruptive to haulout groups in Lake Ladoga during summer and routine day-tourism seems to have caused the desertion of at least two previously used sites (Agafonova <em>et al</em>. 2007, Verevkin <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, it must be noted that Moulton <em>et al</em>. (2002, 2003, 2005) found no more than slight effects on ringed seals from construction, drilling and operation of the Northstar offshore island oil production facility in the Beaufort Sea, and other assessments of industrial activities in the Arctic suggest relatively minor impacts on ringed seals (Kelly <em>et al</em>. 1988, Davis <em>et al</em>. 1991, Blackwell <em>et al</em>. 2004), though over-flights by aircraft certainly cause disturbance to ringed seals if flights occur by helicopter at less than 1,500 m and by fixed-winged aircraft at closer than 500 m (Born <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
41672	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Ringed seals are very important to northern communities, and many thousands are taken annually in subsistence harvests. Reeves (1998) reports an annual quota for shore-based hunters in the Sea of Okhotsk of 7,500, and a combined estimate of 10,000 taken per year from the Bering, Chukchi, and Western Beaufort Sea by Russians and native Americans. Reeves <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimate that the annual removal of ringed seals in the Canadian Arctic is in the “high tens of  thousands” at present, and that in 1980s, including animals killed and lost, the harvest was between 60,000 and 80,000, and may have exceeded 100,000 in some years. Another substantial annual harvest occurs in Greenland with nearly 100,000 taken per year in the 1970s, and approximately 70,000 taken annually in the early 1990s (Teilmann and Kapel 1998). The species is not currently harvested in the marine region covered by the European Mammal Assessment.<br/><br/>Commercial harvests of ringed seals in the early to mid 20th century were sometimes large, and probably had significant local impacts on certain populations. Annual harvests of 72,000 from 1955 to 1965 in the Sea of Okhotsk, 20,000 in the Baltic Sea (Reeves 1998), and commercial and reduction harvests in Lakes Ladoga and Saimaa (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998) are examples of the negative effect of localized overharvesting on ringed seal populations.<br/><br/>Ringed seals carry loads of organochlorine and heavy metal contaminants from human industry and agriculture.  Chlorinated hydrocarbons have been implicated in uterine pathology in Baltic ringed seals (Bergman and Olsson 1986), and high concentrations of mercury in Saimaa ringed seals is thought to have reduced pup production in the 1960s and 1970s (Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).<br/><br/>Vessel traffic and noise, and the effect of noise from offshore oil and gas exploration or construction can affect ringed seals and cause mortality, abandonment of breathing holes and lairs, and a decrease in abundance near the activity (Smith 1987, Reeves 1998). Manipulation of water levels, recreational snow machine operation, net fishing, boating, tourism, and development of cottages on the shoreline at Lake Saimaa, and industrial pollution, net fishing and poaching on Lake Ladoga have been implicated in past or present mortalities, population impacts, or disturbance to their respective ringed seal populations (Reijnders <em>et al.</em> 1993, Sipila and Hyvarinen 1998).  <br/><br/>Global warming may pose the greatest threat to ringed seals if it leads to large losses of stable shore-fast ice habitat used for pupping and foraging (Tynan and DeMaster 1997).  Also, changes in precipitation and weather patterns could negatively effect ringed seal populations if there is insufficient snow cover to protect pups in lairs in the spring (Stirling and Derocher 1993, Ferguson <em>et al.</em> 2005).  Climate change could be particularly acute for ringed seals living in restricted habitats such as the Ladoga and Saimaa Lake populations (Learmonth <em>et al.</em> 2006), and possibly in the Okhotsk and Baltic seas.  An increase in human created noise in the Arctic environment could cause marine mammals, including ringed seals, to abandon areas of habitat (Tynan and DeMaster 1997). Reductions in sea ice cover would likely lead to increased human activity in the Arctic in the form of shipping and extractive industries, and an associated greater threat of marine accidents and pollution discharge (Pagnan 2000). However, Moulton <em>et al.</em> (2005) found no more than slight effect on ringed seals from construction, drilling, and operation of the Northstar offshore island oil production facility in the Beaufort Sea.	eng
41676	conservation	Burkanov, V., 2008	Numerous measures, such as establishing commercial harvest quotas, changing methods and equipment used for harvesting seals and changing the timing of the hunt and the age class of seal that can be taken, have all been used during the history of the commercial harvest to regulate the catch (Svatosh 1923, 1925, Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent recommendations for the protection and conservation of the Baikal seal include several measures to reduce the impact of poaching by local residents (including increased penalties for illegal hunting) and mandatory reporting of incidental catch in fishing gear (Pastukhov 1993).	eng
41676	distribution	Burkanov, V., 2008	Baikal Seals are basically confined to Lake Baikal (31,570 sq. km), though they do travel short distances into rivers that flow into and out of the lake. An exception is one animal that was found 400 km downstream in the Angara River, the only river that flows out of the lake (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Rice 1998). Lake Baikal is located in southern Siberia, Russia, near the Mongolian border. The lake is 636 km long and at its maximum 79.5 km wide (Kutyrev <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41676	habitat	Burkanov, V., 2008	This species arrived in Lake Baikal approximately 400,000 years ago and is probably more closely related to the ringed seal than the Caspian seal (Pastukhov 1969a, Koyama <em>et al</em>. 1997, Sasaki <em>et al</em>. 2003). Baikal Seals are among the smallest of the pinnipeds, with adults reaching 1.1-1.4 m and weights of 50-130 kg. Pups are born at 3-3.5 kg and approximately 70 cm (Pastukhov 1971, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982). Adult males are slightly larger than adult females of the same age at physical maturity, when growth stops. Final body size is reached at approximately 15 years of age(Amano <em>et al</em>. 2000). Males reach sexual maturity at 7-10 years of age (Pastukhov 1993). Female Baikal seals become sexually mature between 3-7 years of age and some have their first pup by age 4, most by 5-6 years, with some not pupping until they are 9 years old (Pastukhov 1969b, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982). Baikal Seals continue to produce pups until they are 43-45 years old and may have the greatest longevity of any pinniped species. Approximately 10% of the population is older than 20 years of age, with records of adult females reaching 56 years of age and adult males 52 years of age (Pastukhov 1993, 1990).<br/><br/>The annual cycle of the Baikal Seal is driven more by ice than food (Ivanov 1938). In mid-October, the seals begin to move towards bays, lagoons and river deltas, mostly along the eastern shore where ice forms and expands out into the lake. They spend January to May spread throughout the lake, usually singly, in deep water in the central basins. Adults stay primarily in the north while immature seals are more often found in the southern part of Lake Baikal. Pups are born from late February to early April, with peak numbers born in mid March (Pastukhov 1990). Pups are born on the ice in dens which females actively build and maintain. During the pupping season, females are widely spread out on the ice. Their surface home ranges, including the den and breathing holes, are a minimum of 0.26 km² and do not overlap with other females (Ivanov 1938, Elagin <em>et al</em>. 1990, Pastukhov 1993, Martinkova <em>et al</em>. 2001). Pups do not usually enter the water for their first 2 -3 weeks.<br/><br/>Most pups are weaned in 2-2.5 months, although some are believed to be nursed for 3-3.5 months (Pastukhov 1971). Females move pups and construct new dens if the dens become damaged; this may be necessary to protect small pups from predators. Mating is believed to take place in April, approximately one month after the female gives birth (Pastukhov 1993). Although births take place throughout the lake, more pups (51%) are born in the northern one third of the lake, as compared to the central third (31%) or the southern third (17%) (Pastukhov 1971, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982, Petrov 1997).<br/><br/>The ice breaks up in May and June, a time when Baikal Seals undergo their annual moult. More than half of the population moves to the remaining ice in the northern and northeastern parts of Lake Baikal, forming aggregations that can be as large as 1,000-3,000 animals. Moulting takes approximately during a month-long period, during which Baikal Seals feed very little (Pastukhov 1993). Many Baikal Seals congregate in the southeastern part of the lake in the ice-free season to haul-out on rocky islands and shorelines between feeding excursions (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993, Petrov 1997). The eastern side of the lake is preferred because it has less human disturbance and greater biological productivity (Pastukhov 1993). It is not known whether Baikal Seals have a regular annual migration pattern. Satellite-tagging of four juvenile seals revealed that they moved throughout the lake in the course of a year, traveling from 400 to 1,600 km between September through May. Although it may not be typical of adult seals, the pattern of frequent diving and movement demonstrates that juveniles move considerable distances and spend little time hauled-out during the fall and winter months. Two of the four seals tagged in autumn returned to their tagging sites the following spring after wandering widely throughout the lake (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1996). Diving patterns are not well documented; tagged juvenile Baikal Seals dove mostly to between 10-50 m, with some dives exceeding 300 m. the mean depth in Lake Baikal is 758 m (Kutyrev <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dive depths were shallower at night, consistent with the vertical movements of their preferred prey fish, the two species of golomyankas (<em>Comeophorus</em> spp.) which ascend from depths of 100 m or more during the day to forage at 10-25 m at night. Dive durations were generally 2-4 minutes, with 14-30% of dives lasting 6-10 minutes. The longest recorded dives exceeded 40 minutes and occurred during the winter in areas of heavy ice cover (Stewart <em>et al</em>. 1996). Baikal Seals feed on fish and 29 species have been recorded in their diet. Along with the two species of golomyankas mentioned above, they also consume two species of sculpin (<em>Cottocomephorus</em> spp.) as primary prey. Diversity of fish species consumed is highest in the summer with 17 species eaten, declining to eight species in fall, and only four principle species eaten in winter. Juveniles may also consume amphipods during winter (Ivanov 1938, Pastikhov 1967, Gurova and Pastukhov 1974, Thomas <em>et al</em>. 1982).	eng
41676	population	Burkanov, V., 2008	The population increased from the 1970s through to the early 1990s to over 100,000 individuals (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997, Petrov 2002, 2003). Subsequently, population abundance declined slightly, probably due to commercial harvesting and the occurrence of canine distemper virus. The current abundance is estimated to be between 80,000 and 100,000 individuals (Petrov 2002, 2003) but this estimate may be biased based on survey errors of about 30% (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997) and short term abundance trends based on count data may merely reflect survey error variations. Baikal Seals are considered to be at the carrying capacity level of the Baikal Lake ecosystem.	eng
41676	threats	Burkanov, V., 2008	Subsistence hunting of Baikal Seal extends back to at least the Neolithic period (Khlobystin 1963, Weber <em>et al</em>. 1993). Commercial hunting began in the second half of the 18th century (Ivanov 1938, Pastukhov 1993), becoming a regular industry in the early in the 20th century. Annual harvests fluctuated between 2,000 and 9,000 seals in the early 20th century, then from under 1,000 to nearly 6,500 in the 1930s (Ivanov 1938). Harvests from 1977 to 1983 were consistently high. The official harvest quotas and catch level was about 6,000 plus an estimated “unofficial hunting” level of up to 3,600 seals (1984, Pastukhov 1993). In the late 1980s and early 1990s the official statistics were not reliable and did not reflect the actual harvest level. Estimates vary between 4,000 and 8,000 animals (Petrov <em>et al</em>. 1997) killed annually. Harvesting continues today. During 2004-2006 about 2,000 seals were reported killed in annual official statistics with estimations of an additional “uncounted” harvest of between 1,500 and 4,000 animals annually (Petrov 2007). The “uncounted” harvest includes wounded or drowned animals, incidental catch in fishing gear and poaching. <br/><br/>Baikal Seals are considered to be heavily contaminated with pollutants. Heavy organochlorine loads may make them vulnerable to its toxic effects (Nakata <em>et al</em>. 1997), such as possible suppression of the immune system (Tsydenova <em>et al</em>. 2003). Recent work shows that levels of some key organochlorines in Baikal Seals fell from 1992-2002. However, Baikal seal pups continue to carry higher DDT and PCB contaminant burdens than pups of other European and Arctic phocid species (Tsydenova <em>et al</em>. 2004). Adult Baikal seals are also known to carry high burdens of toxic PCB congeners. Chronic high levels of toxic PCB congeners at concentrations similar to those found in Baikal Seals have been linked to immunosuppression in harbor seals and may have contributed to the outbreak of morbillivirus epidemic that led to the mass mortality event in Europe in 1988. Extensive use and disposal of PCBs in the Baikal watershed is thought to be responsible for the current high levels of PCBs in Baikal seals (Nakata <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent opening of Siberian oil fields and the completion of the Baikal-Amur railroad have spurred additional industrial development near Lake Baikal, posing unknown risks to the Baikal seal (Reijnders <em>et al</em>. 1993, Grachev 2002). An outbreak of a phocine distemper virus, a type of morbillivirus closely related to canine distemper virus (de Swart <em>et al</em>. 1995), killed approximately 6,500 Baikal Seals in 1987-1988 (Pronin and Kabanov 1992, Belykov <em>et al</em>. 1997). The virus in Baikal Seals differs from the strain of phocine distemper virus that killed Harbour Seals in European waters in 1988 and is believed to have been transmitted to seals from a terrestrial source, probably feral or domestic dogs (Barrett <em>et al</em>. 1992). Recent examination of Baikal Seals shows that the virus is still circulating in the population, although not as a highly infectious agent at this time (Mamaev <em>et al</em>. 1996). Natural predation does not appear to be a significant source of mortality for Baikal Seals, with only Brown Bears (<em>Ursus arctos</em>) mentioned as predators (Pastukhov 1993).	eng
41678	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is suspected to occur in a several protected areas.	eng
41678	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This speciesis distributed in Bolivia, Ecuador (east of the Andes), and Peru (to Cuzco Prov.).	eng
41678	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Members of this genus are nocturnal, arboreal and solitary - feeding on fruits and insects and are restricted to humid forests (Emmons 1990).	eng
41678	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species. Members of this genus are thought to be relatively rare. Confusion with kinkajous (<em>Potos flavus</em>) makes local anecdotes unreliable (Glatston, 1994).	eng
41678	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Members of this genus are arboreal and are suspected to be threatened by expanding settlements and habitat fragmentation. Deforestation is a threat to populations of this species. Although adult olingos are rarely hunted (Glatston, 1994).	eng
41679	conservation	Kays, R., Reid, F., Schipper, J. & Helgen, K., 2008	Kinkajous are found in numerous protected areas throughout their range and it is protected under CITES Appendix III in Honduras.	eng
41679	distribution	Kays, R., Reid, F., Schipper, J. & Helgen, K., 2008	The kinkajou is found throughout the neotropics, from Mexico to Bolivia. Its range extends from Mexico to the east and south of the Sierra Madres, along the central and southern Mexican coasts, southward through Beni, Bolivia (east of the Andes), and deep into Brazil (into the Mato Grosso).	eng
41679	habitat	Kays, R., Reid, F., Schipper, J. & Helgen, K., 2008	The kinkajou (<em>Potos flavus</em>) is a medium-sized procyonid common throughout most neotropical forests (Ford and Hoffmann, 1988). It has nocturnal and arboreal habits and requires closed-canopy forest such as that found in Central America and the Amazon basin. Kinkajous are found in rain forests in Surinam, Mexico, and Peru (Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 1985; Husson, 1978; Janson <em>et al.</em>, 1981), tropical evergreen forests in Mexico and Venezuela (Handley, 1976; Leopold, 1959), tropical dry forest in Guatemala (Walker and Cant, 1977), forests of the savanna region in Surinam (Husson, 1978), secondary forest in French Guiana (Charles-Dominique <em>et al</em>. 1981), and the Amazonian rain forest, Atlantic coastal forest, and evergreen gallery forests of the Cerrado in Brazil (Redford and Fonseca, 1986). Further to the south and east of its range the habitat becomes much drier and more open. Kinkajous are not found in these regions. <br/><br/>The species is found at altitudes from sea level to as high as 2500 m (Grzimek, 1975). Many studies (Bisbal, 1986; Charles-Dominique <em>et al</em>. 1981; Julien-Laferrière, 1999; Kays, 1999) on kinkajou's diet reveal that kinkajous eat primarily fruit, and supplement their diet with flowers and leaves. Charles-Dominique and colleagues (1981) state that kinkajous play an important role in dispersing the seeds of some plant species. Their social behavior has been little studied. Kinkajou social organization has been defined as 'solitary group-life' (Kays and Gittleman, 2001). Although kinkajous spent most of their active time alone, individuals regularly associated in groups of up to five individuals (Kays and Gittleman, 2001) while feeding fruit trees. Camera-trap avoidance behaviour has been documented for kinkajou in Costa Rica (Schipper, 2007).	eng
41679	population	Kays, R., Reid, F., Schipper, J. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population density for kinkajous has been estimated at 12.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in Veracruz, Mexico (Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 1985), and 20 to 30/km<sup>2</sup> in French Guiana (Charles-Dominique <em>et al.</em>, 1981).	eng
41679	threats	Kays, R., Reid, F., Schipper, J. & Helgen, K., 2008	As this is a highly arboreal species, even though we have no evidence that it is becoming threatened, it must be presumed that its numbers decrease with extensive human disturbance. Threats include extensive human disturbance, deforestation, pet trade and hunting for its meat and pelt (Glatston, 1994; Husson, 1978).	eng
41680	conservation	Timm, R., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
41680	distribution	Timm, R., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is widely distributed in Mexico and across southern North America In the United States it ranges from southern Oregon and California through the southwestern states to Texas (Hall, 1981; Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). In Mexico, its distribution is from the desert region of the Baja California peninsula to Oaxaca. Three islands in the Gulf of California are included in its distribution: Tiburón, Espíritu Santo, and San José (Lawlor, 1983). The species is usually distributed from sea level to 1400 m with records at 2000 and 2900 m (Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988).	eng
41680	habitat	Timm, R., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in a variety of habitats as semi-arid oak forests (<em>Quercus</em>), pinyon pine (<em>Pinus edulis</em>), or juniper (<em>Juniperus</em>) woodland, and also inhabit montane conifer forests, chaparral, desert, dry tropical habitats and rocky or cliff areas (Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). The species adapts well to disturbed areas and is frequently found in human habitation (Barja and List, 2006). Reports on home range include 5.0 to 13.8 ha for four individuals (Lacy, 1983), 43.4 ha (35 and 51.7 ha) for two males and 20.3 ha (15.7 to 27.7 ha) for three females (Toweill and Teer, 1980) and 136 ha (49 to 233) for nine individuals. Ringtails are nocturnal carnivores with some crepuscular activity and are solitary, except for the breeding season (Toweill and Toweill, 1978; Poglayen-Neuwall and Toweill, 1988). They breed at the end of February and give birth in May (Poglayen-Neuwall and Poglayen-Neuwall, 1980). They eat rodents, insects, birds and a good amount of fruit (Trapp, 1978; Aranda, 2000).	eng
41680	population	Timm, R., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Found always in low densities and considered not abundant. Densities reported for ringtails vary from 10.5 to 20.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Belluomini, 1983; Belluomini and Trapp, 1984), 7 to 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Lacy 1983) and 2.2 to 4.2/km<sup>2</sup> (Toweill and Teer, 1980) to  0.08 to 2.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Grinnell <em>et al.</em>, 1937) and 1.5 to 2.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Trapp, 1973; Trapp, 1978).	eng
41680	threats	Timm, R., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The ringtail is legally trapped for fur in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Texas, where it is also caught incidentally in traps set for valuable fur-bearers such as foxes and raccoons. In recent years about 4,000 have been taken annually in Arizona, and about 1,000 in New Mexico. In Texas 45,000~50,000 ringtails were trapped each year from 1979-1985. As in the case with raccoons, the number of ringtails trapped for fur has declined since a peak in 1979, when approximately 135,000 pelts were sold. Ringtail fur is of poor quality (thin, non-durable, and subject to fading), and pelts have usually sold for less than $5 each although they have brought as much as $12. The justification for trapping ringtails for fur is weak, especially since in none of the states where trapping is legal is there sufficient knowledge of population levels and trends on which to base valid harvest regulations (Glatston, 1994). Threats to the ringtail include also automobiles (Glatston, 1994).	eng
41683	conservation	Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarón, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	White-nosed coatis are classified as an endangered species in New Mexico and they are given total legal protection there. However, in Arizona, where most of the coatis in the United States live, they are subject to year round hunting. Coatis are listed in Appendix III of CITES by Honduras. Elsewhere in their range they do not appear to be afforded any official protection.	eng
41683	distribution	Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarón, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The range of the white-nosed coati extends from Arizona and parts of southern New Mexico in the United States through Mexico (except the Baja peninsula and central Sierra Madres) and Central America to Panama and marginally into South America in areas west of the Andes (Glatston, 1994).	eng
41683	habitat	Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarón, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	White-nosed coatis inhabit woodland and open forests. Coatis are rarely seen in open grassland or desert. Their distribution in Arizona and New Mexico corresponds to that of Encinal and Mexican pine-oak woodland. In the southwestern U.S.A., they are found in oak woodlands or hardwood riparian canyons from 1,400-2,300 m. They are also occasionally seen in chaparral conifers. Many sightings have occurred in small isolated mountain ranges such as the Sierra Madre in Mexico and the Chiricahuas and Huachucas in the United States. Coatis are more active by day than by night. They run in bands of up to 30 individuals, although 12 is more typical. Adult males are typically solitary. They are highly adaptable but are basically tropical woodland and forest animals. They frequently climb to obtain fruits, although they are more typically seen on the ground. Their diet is omnivorous, typically consists of fruit and invertebrates (Gompper, 1995; Kaufmann, 1962; Valenzuela, 1998). They search for food both on the ground and in the forest canopy.	eng
41683	population	Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarón, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The numbers of this species are unknown and population estimates range from rare to common. It is rare in the United States and can be anything from common to scarce in Central America where its status is less well known, but indications are that its numbers have been greatly reduced (Janson, 1981). The Mexican population has probably been severely reduced and it may even be extirpated in certain areas. Population density is greater in the tropics than in southwestern United States. Both regions show year-to-year fluctuations in population sizes as a result of disease or food availability.	eng
41683	threats	Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarón, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Coati are threatened by large scale habitat loss and in some areas hunting. In addition, the coati population in the United States is suspected to be gradually becoming genetically isolated from populations further south as a result of the situation in Mexico. This could lead to local extirpation of the coati in the United States. Coatis are hunted throughout their range either for their skin or for food. In the United States they are occasionally caught in traps set for other species, killed by hunters ostensibly looking for other species, or they fall victim to “predator” control campaigns. They apparently disappeared from the Burro Mountains in New Mexico at about the same time as a coyote poisoning campaign (Kaufmann <em>et al.</em>, 1976). In addition, coatis are susceptible to canine distemper and rabies (Kaufmann <em>et al</em>. 1976).	eng
41684	conservation	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is protected under CITES Appendix III as <em>N. n. solitaria</em> in Uruguay. The species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
41684	distribution	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Nasua nasua</em> is broadly distributed in South America, ranging from Colombia and Venezuela in the north to Uruguay and northern Argentina in the south (Gompper and Decker, 1998). The species is absent from the Llano grasslands of Venezuela (Eisenberg, 1989) and has also been introduced to Robinson Crusoe, one of the Juan Fernández Islands of Chile (Colwell, 1989; Miller and Rottmann, 1976; Pine <em>et al.</em>, 1979).	eng
41684	habitat	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is an occupant of forested habitat. It has been reported from multistratal deciduous and evergreen rainforest, riverine gallery forest, xeric chaco, cerrado and dry scrub forest (Brooks, 1993; Emmons, 1990; Handley, 1976; Mondolfi, 1976; Schaller, 1983). It is found over a wide altitudinal range, with Andean individuals found at elevations up to 2,500 m (Lönnberg, 1921). <em>Nasua nasua</em> is omnivorous, eating predominantly invertebrates and fruit (Gompper and Decker, 1998). The consumption of vertebrates has been noted, but is never common (Beisiegel, 2001; Bisbal, 1986; Gompper, 1996; Kaufmann, 1962; Russell, 1982; Schaller, 1983). It is essentially diurnal in its activities. Adult males are solitary, while females and immature males travel in groups up to 30 individuals (Crespo, 1982; Emmons, 1990; Schaller, 1983).	eng
41684	population	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Population density of <em>Nasua nasua</em> varies greatly from region to region. Densities reported ranges from 6.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in a region of low-lying deciduous forest, to 13 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in taller gallery forests (Gompper and Decker, 1998).	eng
41684	threats	Emmons, L. & Helgen, K., 2008	Habitat loss due to deforestation and hunting for their meat by natives are major threats for the species.	eng
41685	conservation	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	No protection is given to raccoons thorughout much of their range (De la Rosa and Nocke, 2000), however, their range does overlap with a number of protected areas.	eng
41685	distribution	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The crab-eating raccoon, <em>P. cancrivorus</em>, is distributed from southern Costa Rica to northern Argentina (east border of the Andes), on Trinidad, and possibly on a number of other Caribbean islands. Within Costa Rica and immediately east of the border (i.e. Panama), it is sympatric with the common raccoon, <em>P. lotor</em> (De La Rosa and Nocke, 2000; Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
41685	habitat	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial and solitary. Its diet consists of mollusks, fish, crabs, insects, and amphibians (Emmons, 1990). Very little is known about its ecology or behavior, although limited information is available from captive studies (Eisenberg, 1989). It is often believed to be limited to coastline and riverbank habitats, but it has also been recorded in non-aquatic habitats at certain times of the year. It is a species rarely seen deep in the rain forest, but it is found in llanos and evergreen forest. In the zone of geographic overlap with the common raccoon, the common raccoon is found in mangrove swamps while the crab-eating racoon is found on inland rivers (Emmons, 1990).	eng
41685	population	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The crab-eating raccoon is naturally rare in some areas of its range and it does not seem as adaptable to human activity as the common raccoon, although it is probably stable throughout South America where viable areas exist. In the Paraguayan chaco, its density in secondary growth cattle land is estimated not to exceed 6.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Glatston, 1994).	eng
41685	threats	Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Threats to this species have included overhunting for pelts, use for target practice, the pet trade, and, in some areas, habitat destruction (being a rain forest species). Coastal development projects and mangrove destruction also contribute regionally to population declines.	eng
41686	conservation	Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
41686	distribution	Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Originally a North and Central American species, occurring from the Canadian prairies southwards across the United States (except for parts of the Rocky Mountains and the deserts) to Panama. Introductions since the 1930s of animals into Germany the Russian Federation, and many subsequent escapes by farmed animals across Europe, have resulted in expanding European and Central Asian populations of this species (Mitchell-Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Individuals have also been recorded from Denmark, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia.	eng
41686	habitat	Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is very adaptable and is found almost anywhere water is available, along streams and shorelines. Dens under logs or rock, in tree hole, ground burrow, or in bank den (Armstrong, 1975). In some areas it has adapted to city life and is commensal with the human population. However, raccoons are most abundant in hardwood swamps, mangroves, flood forests, and marshes. Average home range is 90-150 acres (Baker, 1983). Population density was reported as one individual per 10-16 acres by Baker (1983). Typically solitary except female with young. The raccoon is a nocturnal omnivore which forages either singly or in groups. It is an opportunistic omnivore; eats fruits, nuts, insects, small mammals, bird eggs and nestlings, reptile eggs, frogs, fishes, aquatic invertebrates, worms, garbage. Obtains most food on or near ground near water.	eng
41686	population	Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The raccoon is generally quite common and very adaptable to the human environment and populations are likely increasing in size in suburban areas.	eng
41686	threats	Timm, R., Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Few major threats exist to the species as a whole. Region threats do exist, however, and include hunting, trapping and poisoning. Commonly hunted for sport and trapped for pelt (made into coats, collars, muffs, and trimmings). It is also one of the more common victims of road kill, especially about suburban areas and water bodies.	eng
41687	conservation	Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F., 2008	From the time of European settlement until well into the 20th century, American black bears were extensively and purposefully over-hunted with the goal of eliminating or severely reducing their numbers to limit damage to crops and livestock.  Many state and provincial governments paid a bounty for killing black bears.  Population recovery occurred only after those jurisdictions recognized a need to protect black bears as a big game species.  Protection and recovery occurred state-by-state and province-by-province during 1902–1983 (Miller 1990).  Afterwards, the number of bears killed was more closely regulated and, moreover, an infrastructure of agency personnel and hunters policed illegal take.  <br/><br/>In Mexico all hunting seasons for American black bears have been closed since 1985, and the species is considered nationally endangered.  Numerous conservation initiatives established by large private ranches and land cooperatives in northern Mexico have created large blocks of suitable habitat (e.g., oak-dominated forests) with protection from poaching (Doan-Crider 2003).  Changing public attitudes toward bears in Mexico have also contributed to the recuperation and expansion of the species into historic range, including recolonization of areas of Texas that have long been devoid of bears (SEMARNAP 1999, Onorato <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In the southeastern U.S., where black bears occupy only about 20% of their historic range, population recovery was aided by the establishment of national parks and other protected areas in the Appalachian Mountains and the Coastal Plain (Pelton and van Manen 1997).  These large areas protect the habitat (especially mast-producing trees) and restrict hunter access.  Beginning in the early 1970s, additional areas were established where bear hunting was prohibited, linking protected areas to other forested lands, including many private lands.  The resulting conglomerates serve as dedicated or defacto sanctuaries, especially for adult females, that are a source for bears expanding into other areas (Beringer <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>In a few areas, populations of American black bears have either been augmented or reintroduced after former extirpation by transplanting bears from elsewhere.  Reintroductions into Arkansas during the 1960s were highly successful: licensed hunters in this state now harvest several hundred bears annually, and Arkansas bears have expanded into neighbouring states. Augmentation of several populations in Louisiana during the 1960s likely contributed to population recovery there.  The success of recent reintroduction efforts in southeastern Kentucky–north-central Tennessee (mid-1990s) and southeastern Arkansas (2000-2007) may not be known for some time (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Louisiana black bear (<em>U. a. luteolus</em>), a subspecies of American black bear, was listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1992 because of severe loss and fragmentation of its habitat combined with unsustainable human-caused mortality (Bowker and Jacobson 1995).  Some evidence exists that this native subspecies may have interbred with black bears introduced from Minnesota, and the two subspecies can no longer be distinguished.  Therefore, all bears within the historic range of the Louisiana black bear, from east Texas to southern Mississippi, are protected due to their similarity of appearance to a threatened taxon.  Much of the bottomland hardwood forest that the Louisiana black bear historically inhabited was converted to agriculture.  Remnant bottomland hardwoods are now protected, some marginal farmland is being replanted with hardwood trees, and the bear range is being expanded by capturing individuals from within their present range and moving them to uninhabited areas of their former range.  These efforts are further enhanced through public information and education.  This management program is organized by a broad coalition of state and federal agencies, conservation groups, forestry and agricultural industries, and private landowners.  As a result, this subspecies has been noticeably increasing in numbers and distribution in all three range states.<br/><br/>Another subspecies of black bear (<em>U. a. floridanus</em>) is listed as threatened by the state of Florida.  A previous petition for listing this subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act was denied because it was deemed that extant populations were sufficiently large and state regulations adequate to protect it from extirpation in most areas.  Corridors, either existing or proposed, are important for linking some small, isolated populations with larger populations (Larkin <em>et al</em>. 2004, Dixon <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In British Columbia much conservation attention has been directed toward the Kermode subspecies (<em>U. a. kermodei</em>).  This animal is commonly referred to as the “spirit bear” because it possesses a gene that when homozygous is manifested as white pelage (Ritland <em>et al</em>. 2001).  White-phased animals have long been protected from hunting.  A large system of protected areas was established in 2006 (Great Bear Rainforest Agreement) to ban or severely restrict logging within >200,000 ha of coastal temperate rainforest inhabited by this subspecies of black bear, as well as by brown bears.  Additionally, the spirit bear was selected as the official provincial mammal of British Columbia.<br/><br/>Since 1992 all American black bears have been listed in Appendix II of CITES, under the similarity of appearance provision (Article II, para 2b).  This listing stipulates that documentation of legal harvest is necessary for the import and export of body parts in order to prevent these from being confused as parts from illegally obtained bears.  This listing was not designed to protect American black bears, but rather other species of threatened bears, particularly the Asiatic black bear (<em>U. thibetanus</em>), whose parts might otherwise be sold under the guise of being from American black bear.	eng
41687	distribution	Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F., 2008	American black bears are found through much of Canada, the United States, and the northern half of Mexico.  Although they were extirpated from large portions of their historic range because of habitat loss and (mainly intentional) overexploitation, their occupied range has been expanding in recent years (Pelton <em>et al</em>. 1999, Williamson 2002). The species has, nevertheless been extirpated from large parts of its former range, especially in the Midwest of the United States, and in Mexico. American black bears presently occupy all provinces and territories of Canada, except Prince Edward Island (where they were extirpated in 1937), 41 U.S. states (with occasional sightings in at least 3 others), and 8 states of northern Mexico.  The species never existed outside of these three countries.	eng
41687	habitat	Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F., 2008	American black bears are primarily a species of temperate and boreal forests, but they also range into subtropical areas of Florida and Mexico as well as into the subarctic.  They live at elevations ranging from sea level to 3,500 m, and inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests, and Labrador tundra (where they occupy the typical niche of the brown/grizzly bear [<em>U. arctos</em>]; Veitch and Harrington 1996).  Between these extremes they occupy assorted deciduous and coniferous forest types, each providing a different array of foods.  <br/><br/>The American black bear is a generalist, opportunist, omnivore.  Depending on location and season, they consume herbaceous vegetation, roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates from fish to mammals, including their own kills as well as carrion.  Moreover, they readily consume various human-related foods, from garbage and birdseed to a variety of agricultural products, including standing corn and oats just before harvest, apples, and honey and brood in apiaries.  The ability of black bears to vary their diet with the circumstances has enabled them to persist not only in a diversity of habitat types, but also in highly fragmented forested areas in proximity to humans (Pelton 2003).<br/><br/>A key habitat feature in many areas is a source of fall mast that enables black bears to increase their fat reserves in preparation for winter.  Historically, American chestnuts (<em>Castanea dentata</em>) likely were a key fall food in eastern North America, but since a blight eliminated this food source in the early and mid 1900s, oak (<em>Quercus</em> spp.) acorns and beechnuts (<em>Fagus grandifolia</em>) have become the principal fall foods for bears throughout this region (Vaughan 2002).  In areas where oaks and beech are absent or uncommon, hazelnuts (<em>Corylus</em> spp.), whitebark pine nuts (<em>Pinus albicaulis</em>), madrone (<em>Arbutus xalapensis</em>), mansanita (<em>Arctostaphylos</em> spp.), huckleberries (<em>Vaccinium</em> spp.), buffalo berries (<em>Shepherdia canadensis</em>) or other fruits, or sometimes meat, are the fall dietary mainstays.  In the southwestern U.S. and in Mexico, succulents such as yucca (<em>Yucca</em> spp.) and cacti also play important roles in providing food, especially during drought (Doan-Crider 2003).<br/><br/>American black bears hibernate for up to 7 months in the northern portions of their range, but considerably shorter in more southern areas.  In some southern areas, where food is available year-round, they may remain active during winter.  However, all parturient females den and give birth to cubs, typically in January–February.  Although mating occurs in May–July, implantation is delayed and active gestation is only 2 months.  Females give birth beginning at age 3–8 years, depending on food availability and hence their body weight, and can produce cubs every other year (in places with less food, this interval is often extended to 3 years).  Average litter size is approximately 2.5 cubs in eastern and 2.0 cubs in western North America (Alt 1989).	eng
41687	population	Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F., 2008	During the past two decades, most American black bear populations have grown both numerically and geographically (Williamson 2002).  Sixty percent of U.S. and Canadian states and provinces report increasing populations, and all other populations appear to be either stable or fluctuating with no clear trend (Garshelis and Hristienko 2006).  Based on sums of estimates for individual states, the total U.S. population, excluding Alaska, is estimated at somewhat greater than 300,000.  No reliable estimate exists for numbers of black bears in Alaska, although most authorities presume there to be 100,000–200,000 animals.  Similarly, large populations in some parts of Canada are not reliably known, but countrywide estimates centre around 450,000 (principally in British Columbia, Ontario, and Québec).    Thus, the total number of black bears in North America is likely within the range 850,000–950,000.  No population estimates exist for the country of Mexico, although some areas within Mexico have high and increasing black bear densities (SEMARNAP 1999, Doan-Crider 2003).	eng
41687	threats	Garshelis, D.L., Crider, D. & van Manen, F., 2008	Through most of its range, this species is not threatened.  Legal hunting is well controlled by state and provincial agencies.  American black bears are harvested as a game species in all 12 Canadian provinces and territories where they exist and in 28 or 29 (depending on whether New Jersey allows a season) U.S. states.  The sport harvest for this species in Canada and the U.S. totals 40,000–50,000 annually.  Currently, the black bear is not hunted in Mexico, but some conditional permits are allowed for depredation cases.<br/><br/>A few small, isolated populations of American black bears may be threatened with extirpation, simply due to small population size and the effects of fluctuating food (and in some cases water) resources.  In one unusual case, a black bear population on a large island in Québec was extirpated apparently from introduced deer excessively browsing berry-producing shrubs, and thus eliminating an essential food supply for the resident bears (Côté 2005).  However, most small, isolated populations are in southern U.S. and northern Mexico. In a recent dramatic case, bears from Big Bend National Park, an isolated population in southwestern Texas, made long-range movements to Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico, apparently in search of better fall mast.  Such movements, especially in fall, are not unusual for black bears, but in this case most of the bears never returned; they either stayed in Mexico, died naturally when crossing the desert, or were poached.  As a result, the entire population was reduced to 5–7 bears, including only 2 adult females (Hellgren <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Since then, the population has rebounded, possibly by bears immigrating back.  Other examples exist where small, seemingly isolated populations have persisted and even grown, from a combination of reproduction and occasional immigration events (Doan-Crider and Hellgren 1996, Onorato <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Conflicts with humans constitute another potential threat to bears in some areas. In years when natural food supplies are scarce, people may encounter, and frequently kill, large numbers of bears seeking substitute foods such as agricultural crops or garbage.  As more people encroach upon bear habitat, and as bear numbers grow, the frequency of interactions between humans and bears likely will increase.  Indeed, the number of black bear attacks on humans (including fatalities) seems to be increasing across North America (S. Herrero pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Increasing density of roads is another growing threat to American black bears.  Not only do roads lead directly to mortalities from vehicular collisions, but they also provide greater access to hunters and potential poachers and may be barriers to bear movements (Wooding and Maddrey 1994).  <br/><br/>A looming concern, but not a widespread problem in North America, is the poaching of bears for their paws and gall bladders, which can be sold commercially.  Those products, particularly bile from gall bladders, are highly valued by practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine.  Several U.S. states and Canadian provinces allow the sale of bear parts, taken legally by hunters either in that jurisdiction or transported into that jurisdiction from elsewhere (Williamson 2002).  An argument can be made that this creates opportunities for an illicit commercial trade for poachers.	eng
41688	conservation	Boitani, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2009	Conservation actions for brown bears vary greatly among nations and regions within nations.  Large populations of this species (in Russia, Japan, Canada, Alaska, and parts of eastern and northern Europe) are legally hunted, and thus managed as a game animal.  Hunting regulations designed to ensure a sustainable harvest of bears vary among areas but often involve a lottery for a limited number of permits, a quota system, and restricted season length.  <br/><br/>Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, with varying degrees of enforcement.  All international trade in brown bears is restricted by either CITES I (in parts of central Asia) or CITES II.  In parts of the U.S., small populations of grizzly bears have successfully rebounded under protection of the Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005). Reintroductions and population augmentations also have helped to restore numbers and geographic range in several locations in the U.S. and Western Europe (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).  <br/><br/>There are numerous protected areas around the world with brown bears, but few are large enough to support a viable population; therefore, brown bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses (Herrero 1994, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some countries have rules or management guidelines designed to reduce human impacts on brown bears and their habitat, whereas in other countries bear management protocols and regulations are limited or nonexistent (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zedrosser <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41688	conservation	McLellan, B.N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D., 2008	Conservation actions for brown bears vary greatly among nations and regions within nations.  Large populations of this species (in Russia, Japan, Canada, Alaska, and parts of eastern and northern Europe) are legally hunted, and thus managed as a game animal.  Hunting regulations designed to ensure a sustainable harvest of bears vary among areas but often involve a lottery for a limited number of permits, a quota system, and restricted season length.  <br/><br/>Most small populations are legally protected by national laws and international agreements, with varying degrees of enforcement.  All international trade in brown bears is restricted by either CITES I (in parts of central Asia) or CITES II.  In parts of the U.S., small populations of grizzly bears have successfully rebounded under protection of the Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005). Reintroductions and population augmentations also have helped to restore numbers and geographic range in several locations in the U.S. and Western Europe (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>  This species is considered a priority for survey work in Afghanistan with so little current data and information available on its status in the region. It has also been placed on Afghanistan’s Protected Species List, prohibiting all hunting and trade of this species within Afghanistan.&#160;<br/><br/>There are numerous protected areas around the world with brown bears, but few are large enough to support a viable population; therefore, brown bear conservation must be integrated with many other human land-uses (Herrero 1994, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Some countries have rules or management guidelines designed to reduce human impacts on brown bears and their habitat, whereas in other countries bear management protocols and regulations are limited or nonexistent (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zedrosser <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41688	conservation	Djuro Huber (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Bear Specialist Group), 2006	Since 1992, all brown bear populations have been listed on either Appendix I or Appendix II of CITES. In the EU, all populations are listed in Annex A of the European Union Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97, that implements CITES in the member states (Knapp 2006). The brown bear is included on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex II* (except Finnish and Swedish populations) and Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive. Most European range states have national brown bear management plans. <br/><br/>General conservation recommendations include the following: Key bear areas and corridors need to be sufficiently managed and protected. Farmers need to be encouraged to use traditional livestock guarding techniques to reduce conflict arising from livestock depredation. Public awareness and education is also needed to inform people in bear areas about bear behaviour and ecology. International and national legislation protecting bears from poaching should be enforced. More research into population dynamics, genetics and bear habitat is also required to carry out work in bear action plans.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The Cantabrian population is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur (snares set by poachers for wild boars). <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>It is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>The Italian and Austrian bear nuclei are under strict protection; in Slovenia a regulated harvest policy is in place. The removal of the bear in Germany caused a great public outcry and quite a controversy between different national and international GOs and NGOs. Fortunately the case also raised awareness for the need of a bear management on the population level. Initiatives to coordinate and harmonize bear management between Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Germany are underway.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>It is strictly protected but occasional losses due to poaching or other human related accidents do occur.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>In the largest part of this population's range (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Macedonia) the bear is a game species. In Slovenia the brown bear is hunted under protected status. In Albania and Greece it is strictly protected. Additionally in Greece it is considered as a priority species under the EU Habitat Directive 92/43.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>Whereas in Romania and Slovakia bears are a hunted species, in other countries they are harvested under various regimes, mostly related to the damage control system. Annually, in Romania up to 250 bears are hunted (about 4% of the estimated population). In 2005 a national bear management plan was approved by the authorities, its implementation being started by the Ministry of Environment and Water Management together with the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Rural Development. One of the first initiated actions was related to population surveys of larger areas (geographical criteria) and setting up hunting quotas based on the analysis at the national  level. Compensation for damages caused by bears is paid by the game administrators, and it is foreseen that in areas where bears are not hunted these compensations will be paid by the Ministry of Environment and Water Management (the authority for protected species).<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Bears in Bulgaria are under protected status that allows the removal of problem individuals. The Greek portion is strictly protected, as well as are the few specimens in Serbia.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>There is a quota hunting regime in Sweden. The harvest rate allows the further and steady population growth. In Norway only damage causing bears are removed, but such a reduction is technically sustainable only due to influx of individuals from Sweden.<br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Bears are game animals in most of this population range under various quota systems.	eng
41688	distribution	Djuro Huber (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Bear Specialist Group), 2006	The brown bear is the most widely distributed ursid. It once ranged across a large portion of North America, including Mexico, throughout Europe, Asia, and even into several countries in north Africa.  It presently ranges across parts of North America, Europe, and Asia, with the largest numbers in Russia, Alaska, and Canada.  Populations in Europe are highly fragmented, and some are extremely small and isolated. Details of the European populations are given below (following LCIE 2007):<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>Presently there are two bear nuclei in the Cantabrian Mountains in Spain. They are defined as the western and eastern portions.<br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>Western Pyrenees (9 bears): The Western Pyrenean brown bear subpopulation is found in a 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> area located on both sides of the national border between France and Spain in the western portion of the Pyrenees Mountain Range. However, only about one half of this area is used regularly.<br/>Central Pyrenees (8 bears): The Central Pyrenean brown bear subpopulation is on both sides of the national border between France and Spain in the central portion of the Pyrenees Mountain Range including Andorra.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Presently there are three bear nuclei in the Alps. In Central Austria there is a small nucleus originated from three bears released in 1989-1993, into an area with a naturally occurring male bear. Another nucleus is located in the Central Italian Alps, centered in the province of Trento. This nucleus (20-25 individuals, all originated from the animals translocated in the 1999-2003 period) occupies an area of about 1,500 km<sup>2</sup>, of which only 240 km<sup>2</sup> is used regularly. A third nucleus of bears is present in the Eastern Alps, and originated from individuals that arrived naturally from the Slovenian population. Vagrants from the Dinara-Pindos population are frequently present in the Alps of Slovenia along the border with Austria.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>The population is located in Abruzzo National Park and the surrounding area in the Apennine Mountains in Italy.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>This population consists of brown bears in the forested areas extending from the Dinara range in Slovenia in the north through Pindos Mountains in Greece in the south. The countries involved are Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, and Greece. The forested areas in these countries are less contiguous than in the Carpathian area, separating to some degree the functional habitat into more or less isolated sub areas, although there are corridors.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The Carpathian population includes the brown bears in Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Serbia and Romania. The Carpathian Mountains population is the second largest in Europe. The bears are widely distributed within the entire Romanian Carpathian Mountains range, starting from hilly areas and extending to sub-alpine habitats. Bears in Romania occur permanently or sporadically across a total area of 62,000 square kilometers, of which about 44,000 square kilometers  are forested.<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>The Rila-Rhodope area is located in south-western Bulgaria and north-eastern Greece. It includes the three connected <br/>populations in the Bulgarian Rila Mountains and Pirin Mountains and the population in the western Rhodope Mountains on both sides of the national border. Of the total population of about 520 bears, only 25-30 are found in Greece. The connection between the bears in Greece and Bulgaria is likely to consist of dispersing males from Bulgaria, as well as of family groups seasonally dispersing from Greece into Bulgaria. <br/><br/>The Stara Planina population is located from Kotlenska mountain in the east to Zlatitsa-Teteven in the west, along a 120 km stretch of the Stara Planina Mountains (Balkan Range). The western end extends into Serbia and a few bears are shared over the border. The Stara Planina population was believed to be isolated from the populations to the south and west but there is recent evidence of bears in the corridors to the south towards Rila-Rhodopean Mountains, including family groups.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The population is shared between Sweden and Norway, but much more than 95% of the individuals are in Sweden. In Norway the bears are found mostly along the Swedish border and most individuals are dispersing young males from Sweden. The delineation is along the Swedish-Finnish border, and further north through Norway. Bears in Norway east of this line are in Northeastern Europe population. The area between the Scandinavian and Northeastern Europe populations is very sparsely inhabited by bears.<br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>The North-eastern European population is the largest continuous brown bear population in Europe. Its range stretches from the Ural Mountains in the east (continuous with the bears on the east side of the mountains making it the largest brown bear population in the world) to the west coast of Finland and the Baltic. It ranges from 53° N in the south to 69° N in the north. This population includes bears in north-easternmost Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Belarus.	eng
41688	distribution	Boitani, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2009	The brown bear is the most widely distributed ursid.  It once ranged across a large portion of North America, including northern Mexico (plus, at one time, much of the eastern half of the continent), throughout Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and even across North Africa.  It presently occupies approximately 5,000,000 km² of the northwestern portion of North America, 800,000 km² of Europe (excluding Russia), and much of northern Asia.  The largest numbers exist in Russia, U.S. (Alaska), and Canada.  Many populations in Europe, and the more southerly portions of Asia and North America are small and isolated (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000).  A history of prolonged over-exploitation in Europe stretching back centuries resulted in the elimination of brown bears from many countries.  The date of their extirpation from North Africa is uncertain, but they may have existed as late as the 1500s in the Sinai of Egypt (Manlius 1998) and mid-1800s in Algeria and Morocco (Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 1998).  During the 20th Century, brown bears (called grizzly bears in interior North America) were extirpated in Mexico and a large portion of southwestern U.S. (Brown 1985, Mattson and Merrill 2002), while in Asia and the Middle East they have apparently been eliminated from Syria, and possibly Bhutan.  Very small numbers of brown bears still remain in Iraq and Nepal (Gurung 2004, Ridings 2006).  Andorra was reoccupied in 2003 from bears reintroduced into the French Pyrenees.  A few wandering individuals recently crossed into Switzerland from Italy and into Lithuania from Latvia and Belarus, but not enough as yet to be considered extant populations.<br/><br/>The brown bear currently occurs in Afghanistan, Albania, Andorra (recently reoccupied), Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan (possibly extinct), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Czech Republic (possibly only vagrants), Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, India, Iraq, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Mongolia, Montenegro, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United States, and Uzbekistan. The species has become Extinct during past 500 years in Algeria, Egypt, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, Palestinian Territory (Occupied), Portugal, San Marino, Switzerland, and Syrian Arab Republic. Extinctions due to human agency have taken place more than 500 years ago in Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Jordan, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Tunisia, United Kingdom, and the Vatican.	eng
41688	distribution	McLellan, B.N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D., 2008	The brown bear is the most widely distributed ursid.  It once ranged across a large portion of North America, including northern Mexico (plus, at one time, much of the eastern half of the continent), throughout Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and even across North Africa.  It presently occupies approximately 5,000,000 km² of the northwestern portion of North America, 800,000 km² of Europe (excluding Russia), and much of northern Asia.  The largest numbers exist in Russia, U.S. (Alaska), and Canada.  Many populations in Europe, and the more southerly portions of Asia and North America are small and isolated (Servheen <em>et al</em>. 1999, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000).  A history of prolonged over-exploitation in Europe stretching back centuries resulted in the elimination of brown bears from many countries.  The date of their extirpation from North Africa is uncertain, but they may have existed as late as the 1500s in the Sinai of Egypt (Manlius 1998) and mid-1800s in Algeria and Morocco (Hamdine <em>et al</em>. 1998).  During the 20th Century, brown bears (called grizzly bears in interior North America) were extirpated in Mexico and a large portion of southwestern U.S. (Brown 1985, Mattson and Merrill 2002), while in Asia and the Middle East they have apparently been eliminated from Syria, and possibly Bhutan.  Very small numbers of brown bears still remain in Iraq and Nepal (Gurung 2004, Ridings 2006).  Andorra was reoccupied in 2003 from bears reintroduced into the French Pyrenees.  A few wandering individuals recently crossed into Switzerland from Italy and into Lithuania from Latvia and Belarus, but not enough as yet to be considered extant populations.<br/><br/>The brown bear currently occurs in Afghanistan, Albania, Andorra (recently reoccupied), Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan (possibly extinct), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Czech Republic (possibly only vagrants), Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Greece, India, Iraq, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Mongolia, Montenegro, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United States, and Uzbekistan. The species has become Extinct during past 500 years in Algeria, Egypt, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, Palestinian Territory (Occupied), Portugal, San Marino, Switzerland, and Syrian Arab Republic. Extinctions due to human agency have taken place more than 500 years ago in Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Jordan, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Tunisia, United Kingdom, and the Vatican.	eng
41688	habitat	Boitani, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2009	Brown bears occupy a great variety of habitats from dry Asian steppes to Arctic shrublands to temperate rain forests.  Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic black bear (<em>U. americanus</em>, <em>U. thibetanus</em>), and also slightly that of the polar bear (<em>U. maritimus</em>).  Elevationally they range from sea level to 5,000 m asl (Sathyakumar 2006). They occupy a greater diversity of habitats than any other species of bear and also exploit a large variety of food items.  In terms of diet, they fall between the mainly plant-dependent ursids and the carnivorous polar bear (Mattson 1998, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004).  In North America, brown (grizzly) bears are more carnivorous where ungulates (especially in Arctic areas) or spawning salmon (coastal areas) are abundant (Mowat and Heard 2006).<br/><br/>The productivity and density of brown bears varies enormously, corresponding with the productivity of their habitats.  Coastal areas of North America and Eastern Russia, with concentrations of spawning salmon, have high densities (>10 bears per 100 km²) of brown bears (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Seryodkin 2006) with high reproductive rates (Hilderbrand <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Deciduous and mixed forests of the Dinaric and Carpathian mountain ranges of Eastern Europe also host high bear densities with high reproductive rates (Kusak and Huber 1998, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).  More moderate densities of bears occur across the interior mountain ranges of North America (McLellan 1994, Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003), Europe, and Asia where they forage on a great variety of grasses, herbs, roots, berries, nuts, as well as animal matter such as insects, mammals, and fish if available.  Moderate densities of bears are also found across portions of the boreal forests of North American, Asia and Scandinavia (Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Lower densities are found in dry, desert-like areas, alpine and sub-alpine areas, as well as areas where habitat availability and numbers of bears have been reduced by high human and domestic livestock densities (Nawaz 2007); however, in most such areas (e.g., northern India, western China, Mongolia) density estimates are not available.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs during May to July but implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until late autumn.  Cubs, usually in litters of 1 to 3 (rarely 4 or more), are born in January or early February when the mother is hibernating.  In North America, female bears generally have their first litters at 5 to 8 years of age and have litters every 3 or 4 years thereafter (Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In some areas of Europe, however, females generally have their first litter at least one year earlier, and produce litters every two years (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41688	habitat	McLellan, B.N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D., 2008	Brown bears occupy a great variety of habitats from dry Asian steppes to Arctic shrublands to temperate rain forests.  Their range overlaps that of both the American and Asiatic black bear (<em>U. americanus</em>, <em>U. thibetanus</em>), and also slightly that of the polar bear (<em>U. maritimus</em>).  Elevationally they range from sea level to 5,000 m asl (Sathyakumar 2006). They occupy a greater diversity of habitats than any other species of bear and also exploit a large variety of food items.  In terms of diet, they fall between the mainly plant-dependent ursids and the carnivorous polar bear (Mattson 1998, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004).  In North America, brown (grizzly) bears are more carnivorous where ungulates (especially in Arctic areas) or spawning salmon (coastal areas) are abundant (Mowat and Heard 2006).<br/><br/>The productivity and density of brown bears varies enormously, corresponding with the productivity of their habitats.  Coastal areas of North America and Eastern Russia, with concentrations of spawning salmon, have high densities (>10 bears per 100 km²) of brown bears (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Seryodkin 2006) with high reproductive rates (Hilderbrand <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Deciduous and mixed forests of the Dinaric and Carpathian mountain ranges of Eastern Europe also host high bear densities with high reproductive rates (Kusak and Huber 1998, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).  More moderate densities of bears occur across the interior mountain ranges of North America (McLellan 1994, Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003), Europe, and Asia where they forage on a great variety of grasses, herbs, roots, berries, nuts, as well as animal matter such as insects, mammals, and fish if available.  Moderate densities of bears are also found across portions of the boreal forests of North American, Asia and Scandinavia (Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005).  Lower densities are found in dry, desert-like areas, alpine and sub-alpine areas, as well as areas where habitat availability and numbers of bears have been reduced by high human and domestic livestock densities (Nawaz 2007); however, in most such areas (e.g., northern India, western China, Mongolia) density estimates are not available.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs during May to July but implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until late autumn.  Cubs, usually in litters of 1 to 3 (rarely 4 or more), are born in January or early February when the mother is hibernating.  In North America, female bears generally have their first litters at 5 to 8 years of age and have litters every 3 or 4 years thereafter (Schwartz <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In some areas of Europe, however, females generally have their first litter at least one year earlier, and produce litters every two years (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Frković <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41688	habitat	Djuro Huber (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Bear Specialist Group), 2006	The original distribution of the brown bear in Europe illustrates its adaptability to different environmental conditions. With little or no human interference, brown bears occupied not only forests, but also steppes and tundra. Today, most of the bear' s former range is no longer suitable habitat due to human habitat alteration and human presence. Components of habitat can be grouped into three main categories: food, escape cover, and den sites. Bear movements and habitat use are strongly affected by availability of food. Furthermore, population density is positively associated with food availability. Areas with a high availability of preferred foods, such as berries, fruits, hard mast, colonial Hymenoptera, and ungulates, are of special importance to brown bears.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The Cantabrian population inhabits the Cantabrian Mountains, which are partly covered with mixed deciduous forest.<br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>Mixed forests and pastures, depending on slope and elevation. <br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Habitat is predominately Alpine with steep slopes covered mostly by conifers. Human settlements and infrastructure in the valleys contribute to habitat fragmentation. <br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>Mountain habitat in the central Appenines; partly covered by deciduous forest (dominated by beech).  <br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>The landscape is mountainous, dominated by mixed beech and spruce forest.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The habitat is mainly the mixed forests in the Carpathian Mountain range. <br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Mostly mountains with deciduous secondary forests.<br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The habitat is dominated by intensively exploited boreal forest. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>The habitat is dominated by intensively exploited boreal forest.	eng
41688	population	Djuro Huber (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Bear Specialist Group), 2006	Brown bears originally occurred throughout Europe (except from the largest islands such as Ireland, Iceland, Gotland, Corsica and Sardinia), but later disappeared from most areas as the human population grew, suitable habitat was lost due to deforestation and agriculture, and the species was persecuted by humans. Today the total number of brown bears in Europe is about 55,000 bears (c. 15,000-20,000 outside Russia) which occur within an area of more than 2.5 million km² (800,000 km² outside Russia). These bears are found in two large (>5,000), three medium (500-2,500), one small (100-500), and six very small (<100) populations. <br/><br/>1. Cantabrian. <br/>The two Cantabrian populations apparently have been separated since the beginning of the century and now show genetic differences. Today, they are separated by 30-50 km of mountainous terrain and interchange between the populations is thought to be unlikely, mainly due to unsuitable habitat and a high speed railway and motorway. In the Western Cantabrian Mountains the population seems to be stable or increasing in the last decade and is distributed over an area of 2,600 km<sup>2</sup>. The most recent estimate using genetic methods (García-Garitagoitia <em>et al</em>. 2004) calculated 85-143 bears for the western nucleus, with an average number of 107. In the Eastern Cantabrian Mountains (20 bears) the population shows less potential for recovery, unless the corridor with the western portion is reestablished. The total population for both Cantabrian nuclei may be approximately 100-150 bears; not all of these are mature individuals. <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>The autochthonous western population was estimated to be 3 individuals. The last documented reproductions occurred in 1995 and 1998. In 2006 the reintroduction action provided 5 (4F, 1M) bears from Slovenia mostly to central area. The autochthonous central population was gone before the last decade of 20th century. In 1996-1997 three bears were reintroduced from Slovenia. There was subsequent reproduction, including one male dispersal to Western Pyrenees. Until recently the Western and Central Pyrenees were treated as separate units. With the dispersal of one male bear from the central to the west portion the connectivity is now reastablished. The local bears have been totally isolated for over one century and had low genetic diversity. The recent reintroductions have resulted in the influx of new genes.<br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>The Central Austrian subpopulation now consists of about <10 bears. After increases following reintroductions and local reproductions, in recent years numbers have declined again. No more than 4 autochthonous bears survived in north-eastern Italy until 10 were reintroduced from Slovenia in 1999-2003. With subsequent reproduction the population has exceeded 20 bears, and continues to grow; in 2006 a population of about 6-7 adults and 16-17 sub-adults and cubs was recorded.  <br/><br/>At least three individuals from the Trentino nuclei dispersed into Austria, Switzerland and  Germany. None of them became established, but this demonstrated the connectivity of the habitat within the Alps and the potential for recolonization. One bear was legally shot in Germany in July 2006 because of the potential threat it posed to human safety (the bear repeatedly entered villages and broke into barns), whereas the other two bears disappeared without leaving any tracks. Occasionally individuals dispersing from the Eastern Alpine nucleus have reached the Central Italian Alps, confirming a potential connectivity among all the alpine nuclei.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>An estimate yielded a figure of 70-80 bears in 1985. However, since then there has probably been a population decrease and 40-50 bears may be a more realistic estimate. Some expect this population to increase as poaching has been reduced in recent years, and areas surrounding Abruzzo National Park have been protected to secure suitable habitats. However, this population exists within a densely human populated area and there are potential conflicts between bear conservation and development and recreation activities.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>The population seems to be genetically very close to the remnant bears in the Alps. The population overall has been more or less stable in recent years. However, trends vary in different areas, with steady growth in Slovenia and Croatia, a marked drop in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s due to the war, and probably stable or slightly decreasing trends in the south of the Dinarids, whereas in Pindos range it is characterized as stable (150-200) with locally positive trends and recolonization of former range. The population size estimate of 2,800 is based on weak supporting evidence. Approximately half (1,400) of these individuals are mature. The population trend data is likewise based on little quantitative data and it is possible that the trend is declining rather than stable. In countries with bear hunting there might be a political tendency for overestimation to justify higher quotas. In Slovenia in the north this population is close to that of the Alps. There is not a continuous distribution of female bears in the Alps, but there is movement of male bears. In Greece in the south the nearest bears are those of the Rila-Rhodope portion of the Balkan population along the border of Greece and Bulgaria, but there is no evidence of connection.<br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The Carpathian Mountains population is estimated at about 8,100 bears and is the second largest in Europe. The Slovakian and Polish bear population was recently reconnected with that of Ukraine. This range expansion occurred rapidly, about 200 km in less than 20 years. Recent estimates of the Romanian population indicate that in Romania about 6,000 bears occur, the population trend being stable. The highest bear densities are found in the areas of Brasov, Harghita, Covasna, Mures, Bistrita, Arges, Vrancea and Sibiu counties (central part of the Romanian Carpathians). During the last 50 years, the Romanian bear population recovered from less than 1,000 individuals to about 6,000 individuals. This recovery process was influenced by both habitat conditions and wildlife management. However, recent developments (e.g. infrastructure developments) have had negative impacts on bears. Problems include behavioral changes (habituated bears), habitat fragmentation and reproductive isolation. Several areas (corridor between Apuseni Mountains and the main ridge of Carpathians, Prahova Valley, southern part of Carpathians - close to Danube) have started to be affected by isolation processes, but there is still connectivity within the entire Romanian Carpathian population. Some dispersers from this population have entered the Czech Republic and Hungary. The next closest population is in northern Bulgaria and north-eastern Serbia, but the migration of individual bears may be very restricted, as the Danube is a major physical barrier.<br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>It consists of two segments: Rila-Rhodope Mountains (520 bears) and Stara Planina Mountains (200 bears). Little is known about genetic structure. The connections between subpopulations were recently proven, and there may be signs of recolonisation. In the early eighties Carpathian bears were released in Rhodope and Stara Planina Mountains. The numbers are not known since there is restricted access to this data.  <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>After heavy persecution in both countries, the once numerous brown bear population in Scandinavia was reduced to about 130 individuals in four areas where they have survived since 1930. The population has increased to about 2,550 in Sweden, with approximately 50 bears in Norway. Male bears may disperse between neighbouring female core areas, but when considering demographic viability they should be considered separated. This population consists of three subpopulations. In Sweden, the distribution of bears now resembles that of 1800, with bears occurring in 67% or more of the country. The population is one of the most productive in the world and is increasing at a rate of about 5.5% annually.  This population is viable, both genetically and demographically, but low gene flow has been identified between the southernmost subpopulation and the other subpopulations. The population is connected with the North-eastern European population through dispersing males, but probably not by dispersing females. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Densities are generally low, with the highest densities in the south-eastern part of the range and the lowest densities in the north and southwest. The total population size occurring west of 35 degrees east is estimated at c. 38,000 individuals. This population is connected with the Scandinavian one.	eng
41688	population	Boitani, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2009	The total world population of brown bears is estimated to exceed 200,000.  Reliable population estimates (derived mainly from mark-recapture or resight, and modifications thereof) exist for several areas in North America and Europe (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mowat <em>et al</em>. 2005), but few areas in Asia.  Russia has the largest number of brown bears, believed to exceed 100,000, while estimates in the U.S. are around 33,000, Canada 25,000, and Europe (excluding Russia) 14,000.  <br/><br/>Whereas the species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, the southern portions of the range are highly fragmented, with many small populations.  In North America, the southern fringe has isolated populations ranging in size from over 500 in and around Yellowstone National Park (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005) to approximately 15 individuals in the Cabinet Mountains of Montana (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <br/><br/>In southern Europe there are several extremely small, isolated populations: two populations in the Pyrenees (France and Spain) each have <10 bears, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) contain 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) has 40-50 bears, and the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) has 35-40 bears (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000; http://www.largecarnivores.maverik.ch/bear-ois/index.htm).  <br/><br/>Small populations of brown bears are also scattered across many portions of Asia, but little is known of numbers or connectivity.  In Pakistan there are an estimated 150–200 bears in seven separate populations in the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush Ranges, only one of which has more than 20 individuals (Nawaz 2007).  In India, brown bears exist in 23 protected areas in the northern states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal, but they are regarded as fairly common in only two of these; country-wide there are likely <1,000 individuals, and possibly half that (Sathyakumar 2006).  In China, brown bears exist is sparse, poorly defined populations in the west and also in the northeast, with guesstimates of ~6,000 and ~1,000 in each of these regions, respectively (Gong and Harris 2006).  A more dense population on Hokkaido, Japan may have 2,000+ brown bears, although even there, where significant information has been collected through research and sport harvest returns, reliable population estimates are not available (Mano 2006).	eng
41688	population	McLellan, B.N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D., 2008	The total world population of brown bears is estimated to exceed 200,000.  Reliable population estimates (derived mainly from mark-recapture or resight, and modifications thereof) exist for several areas in North America and Europe (Miller <em>et al</em>. 1997, Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Bellemain <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mowat <em>et al</em>. 2005), but few areas in Asia.  Russia has the largest number of brown bears, believed to exceed 100,000, while estimates in the U.S. are around 33,000, Canada 25,000, and Europe (excluding Russia) 14,000.  <br/><br/>Whereas the species is relatively abundant in more northern parts of its distribution, the southern portions of the range are highly fragmented, with many small populations.  In North America, the southern fringe has isolated populations ranging in size from over 500 in and around Yellowstone National Park (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005) to approximately 15 individuals in the Cabinet Mountains of Montana (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <br/><br/>In southern Europe there are several extremely small, isolated populations: two populations in the Pyrenees (France and Spain) each have <10 bears, two populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain) contain 20-30 and 80-100 bears, a population in the Appenine Mountains (Italy) has 40-50 bears, and the Alps (Italy, Austria, and Slovenia) has 35-40 bears (Swenson <em>et al</em>. 2000; http://www.largecarnivores.maverik.ch/bear-ois/index.htm).  <br/><br/>Small populations of brown bears are also scattered across many portions of Asia, but little is known of numbers or connectivity.  In Pakistan there are an estimated 150–200 bears in seven separate populations in the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush Ranges, only one of which has more than 20 individuals (Nawaz 2007).  In India, brown bears exist in 23 protected areas in the northern states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal, but they are regarded as fairly common in only two of these; country-wide there are likely <1,000 individuals, and possibly half that (Sathyakumar 2006).  In China, brown bears exist is sparse, poorly defined populations in the west and also in the northeast, with guesstimates of ~6,000 and ~1,000 in each of these regions, respectively (Gong and Harris 2006).  A more dense population on Hokkaido, Japan may have 2,000+ brown bears, although even there, where significant information has been collected through research and sport harvest returns, reliable population estimates are not available (Mano 2006).	eng
41688	threats	Boitani, L., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2009	Although, as a whole, this species is secure, with relatively large numbers and an expansive range, several small, isolated populations are threatened due to their low numbers and frequent contact with humans.  These small populations tend to be found in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development.  As wide-ranging omnivores, brown bears are attracted to areas with available human-related foods; being large and somewhat aggressive, these bears may threaten life and property (often agricultural products) and may be killed as a consequence.  Areas of high human use that attract bears may serve as significant mortality sinks (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006).  Additionally, bears living near humans may be killed inadvertently (e.g., vehicle or train collisions) or poached for parts or products: even small numbers of bears removed from small populations can have adverse effects on population growth (Wakkinen and Kasworm 2004); conversely, preventing just a few deaths may avert a population decline (Wiegand <em>et al</em>. 1998, Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Even where brown bears exist in a large, contiguous population, they are sometimes hunted for sport or killed for control purposes at unsustainable rates.  Estimates of sustainable exploitation rates are hampered by the difficulty and expense of obtaining reliable estimates of population size.  Many countries do not have the resources to develop, implement, or enforce adequate monitoring programs and sustainable management plans for brown bears.  Moreover, even with such plans in place, illegal take may equal or exceed the legal take.  This is apparently occurring in the Russian Far East, where brown bears are poached for the commercial trade in gall bladders and paws (Seryodkin 2006).<br/><br/>In addition to direct removal of brown bears, many human activities such as agriculture, plantation forestry, highways, hydroelectric developments, and human settlements eliminate, fragment, or erode the value of bear habitat (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2005, Waller and Servheen 2005).  Habitat fragmentation is a serious threat that isolates population units with deleterious demographic and genetic impacts (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  With increasing human populations, the value of brown bear habitat is being degraded in many areas (e.g., Can and Togan 2004, Nawaz 2007).	eng
41688	threats	McLellan, B.N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D., 2008	Although, as a whole, this species is secure, with relatively large numbers and an expansive range, several small, isolated populations are threatened due to their low numbers and frequent contact with humans.  These small populations tend to be found in remnant wild areas surrounded by more extensive human development.  As wide-ranging omnivores, brown bears are attracted to areas with available human-related foods; being large and somewhat aggressive, these bears may threaten life and property (often agricultural products) and may be killed as a consequence.  Areas of high human use that attract bears may serve as significant mortality sinks (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2004, 2006).  Additionally, bears living near humans may be killed inadvertently (e.g., vehicle or train collisions) or poached for parts or products: even small numbers of bears removed from small populations can have adverse effects on population growth (Wakkinen and Kasworm 2004); conversely, preventing just a few deaths may avert a population decline (Wiegand <em>et al</em>. 1998, Garshelis <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Even where brown bears exist in a large, contiguous population, they are sometimes hunted for sport or killed for control purposes at unsustainable rates.  Estimates of sustainable exploitation rates are hampered by the difficulty and expense of obtaining reliable estimates of population size.  Many countries do not have the resources to develop, implement, or enforce adequate monitoring programs and sustainable management plans for brown bears.  Moreover, even with such plans in place, illegal take may equal or exceed the legal take.  This is apparently occurring in the Russian Far East, where brown bears are poached for the commercial trade in gall bladders and paws (Seryodkin 2006).<br/><br/>In addition to direct removal of brown bears, many human activities such as agriculture, plantation forestry, highways, hydroelectric developments, and human settlements eliminate, fragment, or erode the value of bear habitat (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2005, Waller and Servheen 2005).  Habitat fragmentation is a serious threat that isolates population units with deleterious demographic and genetic impacts (Proctor <em>et al</em>. 2004).  With increasing human populations, the value of brown bear habitat is being degraded in many areas (e.g., Can and Togan 2004, Nawaz 2007).	eng
41688	threats	Djuro Huber (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe / Bear Specialist Group), 2006	Bears have a low reproductive rate and are vulnerable to human-related mortality. They require large habitats that make them vulnerable to changes in land use. In Eastern Europe, land use once under centralised state administration has reverted to private ownership, often with no knowledge of wildlife management. Land use developments have tended to follow western examples with more intensive use of productive areas. The best bear habitat has already disappeared in Europe through logging and forest clearance. The planting of exotic conifers has seriously altered local ecosystems in some places. Habitat fragmentation, particularly as a result of road construction, presents serious problems for a species requiring such large areas. Mortality caused by high-speed road and rail networks through bear habitat is a major threat in some areas including Greece and Croatia. Poaching remains a threat to many, but not all populations, and takes place irrespective of population size. Females with cubs, as well as males, are liable to be killed. Poaching has probably worsened in countries such as Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav Federation, and FYR Macedonia as a result of declining economic and social conditions. Poaching in Russia, to supply the lucrative market for bear parts in Asian countries, is a particular problem. Five very small, isolated bear populations in southern and western Europe (located in France, Spain and Italy), are highly threatened by their small population size. They could easily become extinct as a result of random fluctuations.<br/><br/>1. Cantabrian<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to human induced mortality. <br/><br/>2. Pyrenees<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to killing by humans. <br/><br/>3. Alps<br/>Damages done by bears have the potential to reduce the public acceptance of this species, and of trouble-making individuals in particular. Intensive management of all bear related problems is under way. Despite the constant increase of the Central Italian nucleus, the limited numbers of individuals characterizing all the alpine nuclei show that all these are Critically Endangered. The loss of more than 15 bears from the central Austrian bear population and 2 dispersers from Italy suggest an unnatural high mortality rate of bears in the Alps. Unfortunately, illegal removals seems to be the most likely explanation.<br/><br/>4. Appenine Mountains<br/>The main pressure is the loss of adult individuals due to human induced mortality. The population is critically endangered. The bear population has been totally isolated for over a century, thus there may be genetic problems.<br/><br/>5. Dinara-Pindos<br/>Political instability and the lack of financial instruments represent a pressure in the central part of the range. <br/><br/>6. Carpathian<br/>The socio-economic developments in Romania have an influence on bear population on medium and long term and it is considered that the Romanian bear population is vulnerable. <br/><br/>7. Balkan<br/>Presently in Bulgaria there is liberal (poorly functioning) system of declaring the problem individuals assigned for removal, as well as poorly controlled poaching. <br/><br/>8. Scandinavia<br/>The major pressure in Norway is related to damages on unguarded free-ranging sheep. <br/><br/>9. Northeastern Europe<br/>Due to a large total size and large area the population is in favorable conservation status.	eng
41689	conservation	Hon, J., Azlan, M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The banded palm civet is listed on CITES Appendix II. The Mentawai subspecies was listed as ?Threatened? in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.), as well as in Thailand, Brunei, Indonesia and in Myanmar.<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Mount Kinabalu National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995), Similajau National Park in Sarawak (Duckworth 1997), and many other protected areas throughout its range (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).	eng
41689	distribution	Hon, J., Azlan, M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The banded palm civet occurs in the Sundaic region and is found in Peninsular Myanmar, Indonesia (Sipora Island, South Pagi Island, Kalimantan, Sumatra; Holden 2006), Borneo (Azlan 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005), Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), and peninsular Thailand (Wozencraft 2005, A.J. Lynam pers. comm). The distribution implies that Brunei may be included in this range but a specific record has not been traced.<br/><br/>The type locality of one race has been reported in Bankachon, Myanmar, but there are no known current records in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press.). According to Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) this species has been recorded in many localities in Borneo, and there are many subsequent records from the island including Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo, near Poring Hot Spring (600 m asl) by Wells <em>et al</em>. (2005) and Similajau National Park (Duckworth 1997). It is found at elevations up to 1,200 m (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). <br/><br/>In Sumatra, Holden (2006) had only a few records, all from lowland primary forest (sea level to a few hundred meters, with a maximum of 800 m) in the region of Kerinci Salbat. Other records may exist from the island and need to be collated. However, these data suggest the species may perhaps be confined to lowlands in Sumatra, and does not occur in hills or mountains.	eng
41689	habitat	Hon, J., Azlan, M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Little is known on the ecology of the banded palm civet and further studies are required. This species has been recorded from primary lowland rainforest, but also in disturbed habitat, peat swamp forest and acacia plantations (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995; Azlan, 2004; Wells <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Kanchanasaka pers. comm.; B. Giman pers. comm.). In Borneo, it was found at elevations up to 1,200 m (Payne <em>et al</em>., 1985).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Medway (1969) suggests that it is confined to the ground under tall forest. Davis (1962) found in Borneo that over 90% of its diet was insects, and no stomachs contained fruit or vegetables. All Bornean civets (except <em>Diplogale hosei</em>) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh 1996; Colon pers. comm. 2002).	eng
41689	population	Hon, J., Azlan, M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The population status of the banded palm civet is poorly known. Holden (in press) has speculated that this species may be rare where it is found. However, Payne <em>et a</em>l (1985) states that it was the second most common viverid in the forests of Sabah, and it occurs in tall and secondary forests. In the 25 years since the data were gathered to make the assessment of Payne <em>et al.</em> was made, habitat landscape in Sabah has changed greatly, and the banded palm civet?s current status in Sabah might therefore differ greatly from prior estimations. In peninsular Maylasia, this species has not been found in secondary forests, but was found in Taman Negara National Park (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), indicating populations may also be reduced across the species?s range in mainland South-east Asia, where forest conversion has been extensive.	eng
41689	threats	Hon, J., Azlan, M.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation have been assumed to be major threats to the banded palm civet (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Reduction in primary forest habitat has proceeded very fast throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years, particularly in the lower altitudes which evidently support the bulk of this species' population (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). This has surely lead to steep population declines. In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the banded palm civet) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh 1996). From observation in Thailand there is clear no evidence that the banded palm civet can survive in plantations or other areas outside of evergreen forests (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). Additionally the Mentawi populations are thought to be impacted by economic development as human settlements expand into civet habitat, resulting in conflicts since this species will prey on domestic livestock such as chickens (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). Hunting and trade are also threats for this species. Because Banded Civet spends a lot of time on the ground, it is more exposed to snares and other traps than are the partly and largely arboreal palm civets. It is hunted in Sarawak for food. In Thailand, this civet is hunted, and in the last five years, there have been less than five live individuals brought to a zoo (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).	eng
41690	conservation	Widmann, P., De Leon, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	India included the binturong in CITES Appendix III in 1989 (UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species 2006). In the Philippines, the Environmental Legal Assistance Center has been involved in controlling and enforcing wildlife laws (applicable for all Palawan species). The species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan 2003), and is listed as Critically Endangered on the China Red List (Wang and Xie 2004). The species would benefit from effective controls on the trade.<br/><br/>The binturong occurs in protected areas across its current range, however, the effectiveness of these reserves at protecting the species is variable. Stricter enforcement of legislation against hunting, poaching, encroachment, habitat degradation, and deforestation is required to achieve the necessary protective status for this species. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded from several studies in protected areas, such as the following examples. A study of the range, habitat use, and activity patterns of this species was conducted by Grassman <em>et al</em> (2005) in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand (16° 05? to 16° 35? N, 101° 20? to 101° 55 E). It has also been studied in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand by Nettelbeck (1997) and Austin (2002). This species has been recorded recently in Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999. This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (04° 55.5? N, 103° 05.7? E; Azlan 2003), and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Laidlaw 2001).	eng
41690	distribution	Widmann, P., De Leon, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The binturong is widespread in south and southeast Asia occurring in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, China (Yunnan), India (including Sikkim), Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java, Sumatra), Lao PDR, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines (Palawan), Thailand, and Viet Nam (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998; Wozencraft 2005). Records from outside this range include a 1928 record from Guangxi, China (Zhang 1997) and record from Calauit Island, Philippines (Corbet and Hill 1992) and several from Cambodia (Walston 2001).	eng
41690	habitat	Widmann, P., De Leon, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Binturongs are primarily arboreal, but do descend to the ground and some are captured (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999); in <br/>fact the number of pictures coming up on camera-traps across its mainland range reveals an unexpectedly high level of ground activity. This is no doubt because it is heavy and ponderous, and where other animals would leap between trees, it must descend to the ground to go from one tree to another, i.e. quite often when commuting (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>The ecology of this species is poorly clarified and may vary between areas, as publications about activity are conflicting. Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) noted the binturong to be crepuscular and nocturnal and Nowak (1991) reported them to be predominantly nocturnal, whereas Nettelbeck (1997) reports them to often be active during the day, and there are many other day-time field sightings made incidentally during forest research (e.g. Lambert 1990; Datta 1999). Activity patterns have also been described as cathemeral or arrhythmic (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>In Thailand, Grassman <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that this species has a mean annual range size of 6.2 km² with a mean overlap of 35% in a study on this species conducted in Phu Kieo Wildlife Sanctuary. Within this range, the binturong is confined to tall forest, where it feeds on fruits and small animals like insects, birds, and rodents, as well as fish (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Lao PDR, recent records are from extensive evergreen forest, while in other countries a variety of tall forests are used (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Philippines, the species is found in primary and secondary lowland forest, including grassland/forest mosaic from sea level to 400 m (Rabor 1986; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003).The litter size is about one to three, with a gestation of 92 days, reaching adult size in one year, and they may live as long as 18 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).	eng
41690	population	Widmann, P., De Leon, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Historically, the binturong was often thought to be abundant within its distribution range, but is now uncommon or rare over much of the range. Lekagul and McNeely (1977) reported this species as rare in Thailand. In Lao PDR, there were only three sightings in extensive wildlife surveys into some of the remotest parts of the country between 1992 and 1999, two from Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999), and one from Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area in early 1998 (Walston and Vinton 1999, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). While Deuve (1972) reported this species to be common in Lao PDR, it is thought that this might be due to its striking appearance, rather than natural abundance (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/><br/>Work in Thailand by Nettelbeck (1997) suggested that binturongs can be seen frequently when the threat of hunting is removed; however, as hunting is common in most areas, it is unclear whether the observed is only applicable to the site where this observation was noted (near Khao Yai National Park headquarters in Thailand). Grassman <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 31 individuals in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand between 1998 and 2002. In the Philippines, the populations are restricted and uncommon (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Populations are thought to be decreasing as a result of collection for the pet trade. In Assam, India, the binturong has been noted as not uncommon in forested areas, and is most common in regions with good tree cover (Choudhury 1997).	eng
41690	threats	Widmann, P., De Leon, J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are a major threat to the binturong (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Throughout this species' range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses.  Forest conversion has been extremely high in the lower altitude parts of its Sundaic range in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al.</em>, 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003). Choudhury (1997) notes that large-scale deforestation in Indian portions of the species range could be contributing to its increased rarity, since many records come from areas where forests are now being degraded. In China, rampant deforestation and opportunistic logging practices have fragmented suitable habitat or eliminated sites altogether (Pu <em>et al. </em>2007). In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the binturong) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996). <br/><br/>In the Philippines this species is harvested for the pet trade, and in the south of its range it is also taken for human consumption (GMA Philippines 2006). In Lao PDR, this species is one of most frequently displayed caged live carnivores and skins are traded frequently in at least Vientiane (R. Tizard pers. comm.). Since many of the animals being traded are young, there is the possibility that trees are deliberately felled to allow individuals to be caught (I. Johnson pers. comm.. 1996). Considered a delicacy in parts of Lao PDR, the binturong is taken for food and is also traded as a food item to Viet Nam (I. Johnson pers. comm. 1999).<br/><br/>Given recent camara ?trapping evidence in mainland Asia, it has become clear that the binturong descends to the ground more frequently than previously thought (Duckworth pers. comm. 2007); therefore the threat of snaring when this species descends to the ground may be more serious than previously considered (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999). Non-specific hunting of large mammals is very high across most of the species' mainland range. Duckworth (1997) speculated that hunting was unlikely to be the cause of the few recent sightings of binturong in Lao PDR, citing the many Black Giant Squirrels and gibbons in several areas lacking Binturong records. However, given the possibility of interspecific differences in population dynamics, these species may likewise have differing resilience to hunting pressure (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Given that the binturong is relatively unafraid of humans and is sometimes active during the day, the species is often conspicuous both to surveyors (suggesting that the few encounters reflect a low population) and to hunters (thus exposing it to elevated risk) (Duckworth <em>et al</em> 1999).	eng
41691	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B. & Azlan, A., 2008	This small-toothed palm civet is Totally Protected in Peninsular Malaysia, but only Protected in Sabah and Sarawak under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972). In Thailand this species is protected, while it is not in Viet Nam or Cambodia (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop 2006). The subspecies <em>A. t. trilineata</em> from Java has been classified as ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN (IUCN Red List, 1994) and as ‘Threatened’ in the IUCN Action Plan for the Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). <br/><br/>Given the patchiness of suitable surveys for this species, it is important to note that many large protected areas have been established in northern Southeast Asian evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and presumably support the species. Some protected areas where the species occurs are listed as follows. Extensive conservation measures with reasonably effective law enforcement in Cat Tien National Park in Viet Nam have ensured that there has been no logging for the past two decades and little or no hunting pressure (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004). The small-toothed palm civet has been confirmed in a total of six protected areas in Viet Nam (Roberton in prep), and many protected areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997b). This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005), from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995), and from Keo Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in Cambodia in 2003 (Walston and Duckworth, 2003).<br/><br/>Further studies would allow a better understanding of habitat requirements and ecology.	eng
41691	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B. & Azlan, A., 2008	The small-toothed palm civet range covers parts of the Sundaic region and northern Southeast Asia. It is currently known to occur in Cambodia (Walston and Duckworth 2003), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997b; Johnson pers. comm.), Borneo (Malaysia) (Duckworth 1997a, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2005, Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007), Thailand (Rabinowitz 1991, Conforti 1996, Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press), Viet Nam (Borissenko <em>et al</em>. 2004, Long and Minh Hoang 2006), Indonesia (Java: Suyanto 2003; Sumatra: Holden 2006; Kalimantan), and Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Kadan Kyun Island off the coast of Myanmar in the early part of the twentieth century (Meiri 2005), no surveys using methodology suitable for this species have been conducted in other areas in Myanmar, where it was historically recorded quite widely (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press); a record of a released animal in the outskirts of Yangon (Su 2005) suggests populations are still extant in the country. Given the extent of remaining suitable habitat, it is likely that Myanmar supports large populations.<br/><br/>It was first recorded in Cambodia from Keo Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (150 masl) in 2003, confirming previously inferred extension of the species range into this country. Duckworth (1997b) reports that this species is widespread in south and central Lao PDR; there has been no suitable survey carried out in the country north of approximately 19°N. In Thailand there are many records in protected areas (Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). The current status of this species in China is unclear, as no proper spotlighting surveys have been conducted and nothing can be inferred on its status (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006).<br/><br/>There is a record of a skin collected from Darjeeling, India by Dr. Steward in 1856, although there seem to have been no recent confirmed records from this region. Pocock (1939) gave several records for India. The type locality of A. t. millsi is Mokokchung in the Naga hills (26°20′N, 94°32′E). This species has been reported by Suyanto (2003) from Gunung Halimun, West Java, and there are records from the 1930s from Gunung Gede National Park and Ujung Kulon National Park in Java (see Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). However, it is unknown whether these populations are still extant (Meijaard pers. comm.). It is also presumed to occur still in Indonesian Borneo and Brunei. Current status in Bangladesh is unclear but suitable habitat remains in the northern and eastern hill tracts. Reliance on recent records to define its current distribution will produce an underestimate because the species is readily overlooked by conventional survey techniques (Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press).	eng
41691	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B. & Azlan, A., 2008	The small-toothed palm civet is nocturnal and strongly arboreal (Pocock 1939; van Bemmel 1952; Duckworth 1997a; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). Although consumption of a wide range of animals has been recorded, this species is primarily frugivorous (Harrison 1962; Payne 1995; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). It likely breeds throughout the year, and there may be two litters per year, with two to three young in each litter (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). The lifespan of this species is 10 to 12 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand, the small-toothed palm civet is found in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including degraded areas provided some contiguity of canopy remains; elevation range extends up to at least 1200 m (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> 1999; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). In the Sundaic part of its range, it inhabits evergreen rainforest and possibly others forest types (Payne <em>et al.</em> 1985; Duckworth 1995; Payne 1995; Wells <em>et al. </em>2005; Holden 2006; Belden <em>et al.</em> in 2007). It was recorded from lowland, mature semi-evergreen forest surrounded by disturbed secondary growth in Viet Nam in 2003 (Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh 1996).	eng
41691	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B. & Azlan, A., 2008	Very few surveys using appropriate methdology have been carried out through much of its range, thus the small-toothed palm civet population trend is unclear. Past authors have noted this as a rare species, however, as pointed out by several authors, the paucity of record reflects the arboreal, nocturnal habits of this species (Pocock 1939; van Bemmel 1952; Duckworth 1997a; Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press). Therefore, the species is not found by any conventional survey method other than spot-lighting, and the latter is rarely carried out in most places. In one exception with extensive spotlighting in Lao PDR, the species was found, often commonly, in most semi-evergreen and evergreen forests surveyed in the southern two–thirds of the country in the 1990s (Duckworth 1997b).<br/><br/>The great paucity of camera-trap photographs reflects the rarity of the species coming to ground, as has been shown by its Neotropical ecological analogue, the Kinkajou (Schipper 2007). Hence, several well camera-trapped areas have failed to record the species (Seima Biodviersity Conservation Area, Cambodia, Walston and Duckworth 2003; Cat Tien, Viet Nam, Borissenko <em>et al.</em> 2004; Khao Yai NP, Thailand, Duckworth and Nettelbeck in press; Sarawak Planted Forests Concession, Borneo, Belden <em>et al.</em> 2007); yet when even quite modest levels of spot-lighting have taken place in these areas, the species has been found, sometimes even exceptionally commonly (e.g. ten animals in the first three hours at Sarawak Planted Forests Concession; Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is a reasonable inference, therefore, that the species is not just locally common, but widely numerous.	eng
41691	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B. & Azlan, A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are a major threat to the small-toothed palm civet (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1989). Deforestation has led to the decline of this species in Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), and in Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the small-tooth palm civet) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh 1996). Nevertheless, forest loss in northern Southeast Asia is not enough to drive declines even at rates sufficient for NT status, and its wide altitudinal range in the Sundaic region (to 1500 m; Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985) means that while lowland populations have been and are continuing to decline, those occupying the higher altitudinal range are not declining as rapidly. This species is hunted (Walston and Duckworth 2003) and there has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Given that this species is arboreal and nocturnal in nature, it is one of the least affected by current high levels of hunting in Southeast Asia. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, government gun confiscation programs enacted during the 1990s were thought to result in a decrease in hunting by locals; however, the removal of guns has resulted in an upsurge in snaring and other trapping practices. As a result, there has been increased trapping of small carnivores overall, particularly nocturnal species and those that reside on the ground. As the small-toothed palm civet is arboreal, snares and other ground-level traps do not pose a major threat in this region (Walston and Duckworth 2003). Active night hunting appears to be the only effective means of hunting this civet and, as this is labour-intensive, is rarely undertaken for arboreal mammals in most of this species' range (Walston and Duckworth 2003). In Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Myanmar, spotlight hunting does occur, but again the impact on this species is minimal as hunters focus on taking higher market value ungulates and concentrate for these almost exclusively at ground level (Walston and Duckworth 2003).	eng
41692	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).  It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al</em>. (1995). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.). It is protected by law in Gansu, China (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000). In China, it is listed as Near Threatened (A2cd). It is protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. The population of India is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
41692	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	Recent records include China (Hubei province, Zhang pers. comm.), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Borneo (Simons, 1987; Blundell, 1996; Gonner, 1997; van Strien, 2001), Sumatra (Berghaeir, 1995), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Grassman, 1998) and Viet Nam (Long and Minh Hoang 2006, Veron, pers. obs.), Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), Cambodia (J. L. Walmart pers. comm.), India (Choudhury 1997). In India it extends west to Kashmir (Pocock 1939); recent records for the western portion of its range (including Nepal) have not been checked for. Brooks and Dutson (1994) saw the species in the Gede/Pangrango National Park in Java, however, the species had not otherwise been recorded for the island and the authors suggested that it was probably introduced.<br/><br/>Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) underestimated the range in southern Borneo. A specimen from Barito River (van Strien, 2001) suggest that this is part of the range. Also records from S. Wain and Belayan River (G. Frederiksson in litt to E. Meijaard), and Mahakam Lages (Gonner 1997); probably also in Danau Sentarum NP (Jeanes and Meijaard, 2000); and reported from G. Niut (Simons, 1987) and G. Palung (Blundell, 1996). <br/><br/>This species is found in China from Szechuan to Fukien and the southeast coast of Yunnan, west along the Himalayas to Kashmir, in Indochina, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Andaman Islands, it was also reported from Japan in the 1980s (Lekagul and McNeely, 1988). It has also been recorded from Koh yao (9 00 N, 98 00 E) off Thailand and Rutland (11 25 N, 92 40 E) of India (Meiri, 2005).	eng
41692	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	Masked palm civets have been recorded in both evergreen and deciduous forest, and in disturbed habitat (Rabinowitz, 1991, Ratnam <em>et al.</em> 1995; Heydon and Bullon, 1996; Grassman, 1998; Duckworth 1997; Azlan, 2003; Roberton pers. comm.). There seems to be some difference in habitat usage across its range. It has been found up to 2500 m (Thinley <em>et al</em>. 1994). There are two published radio-telemetry studies on this species (Rabinowitz, 1991; Grassman, 1998). In Thailand, the home-range was 5.9 km² for an adult male (Grassman, 1998) and 3.7 km² for an adult female (Rabinowitz, 1991). Both studies showed that masked palm civets are nocturnal with occasional diurnal activity; this finding based on only two individuals is probably generalisable to the species as a whole, based on field observations of many individuals (e.g. Duckworth 1997) and camera-trapping (e.g. Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>The species is often very common  in appropriate habitats. In Lao PDR, "recent records of this species come only from large blocks of evergreen forest above 500 m, and the three historical sites listed in Osgood (1932) are all also above this altitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999)" - however, the species can be found at lower elevations in Cambodia and Viet Nam (sea level) (Roberton S., pers comm.). This species is nocturnal, partly arboreal, and omnivorous (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It is often found near secondary growth, where it may hunt for rats, and chickens, as well as forage through ricefield dumps, and it eats figs, mangoes, bananas, and leaves (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Many records are known from evergreen forests and deciduous forest and it is common in degraded forest. In China it is a generalist. It is known from peat swamp forests in Malaysia, and a wide variety of natural and human modified habitats, including rural agricultural areas (e.g. Wang and Fuller 2003). In Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Thailand, all records are from evergreen forests.<br/><br/>Up to four young can be born per litter, with two breeding seasons per year (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Lifespan in captivity is up to 15 years (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995).  It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in and around a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate some mammals and insects, but mostly fruit.	eng
41692	population	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	The species seems to be common across its range, except in southern China where it has been hunted/trapped for the commercial food trade (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006). In Indochina it is associated with evergreen forests and in Lao it is common in hill evergreen forests (Duckworth 1997), and in India with deciduous forests and in open areas near towns (Muddapa pers. comm.). There are few records from Cambodia (Olsson pers. comm.). In Thailand, it is common in evergreen forests (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Populations are difficult to assess by camera-trapping, as shown in Myanmar where comparing results of this method at several sites where there were also serious searches for hunted remains in villages reveals that even high levels of camera-trapping may fail to detect the species. This presumably reflects its semi-arboreal lifestyle (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press.). The rather few camera-trapping records for Cambodia (J. L. Walstone pers. comm.) and Myanmar should not therefore be seen as evidence that the species lives at low population densities.	eng
41692	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C. & Kanchanasaka, B., 2008	The impact of habitat loss and degradation on masked palm civet populations is unknown. Heydon and Bulloh (1996) found that the overall density of civet species (including the masked palm civet) in logged forest was significantly lower than in primary forest. It is likely that the species cannot survive total deforestation, but that it persists in degraded and fragmented areas.<br/><br/>In a study on the dynamics of trade in live wildlife across the Guangxi border between China and Viet Nam during 1993 to 1996, Li and Li (1998) "noted that the volume of trade in Paguma lavata was small, but the percentage of [it] in the restaurants was very large. This suggested that the supply of [this] species in the restaurants was partly from the domestic wildlife trade in China." It is farmed in China and elsewhere, and used for food throughout its range. SARS is a major issue for this species, causing the trade and sale of it to be banned in order to control the disease, as well as many breeding farms being closed. It is hunted in Viet Nam for local consumption. It is also hunted in Lao PDR, for local consumption and in trade to Viet Nam (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006), but there is no evidence from either of these countries that these activities are threatening populations. Because it is quite arboreal, it spends that proportion of its time outside the range of snares and most traps, and so is less exposed to them than are the more ground-dwelling small carnivores.	eng
41693	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Widmann P., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	It is found within protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Lao PDR - Duckworth 1997, Viet Nam – Roberton et al. in prep.; Cambodia–J. L. Walmart pers. comm.; Myanmar – Than Zaw et al. in press). It was recorded from Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar between 2000 and 2003 (Su Su, 2005). This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells et al, 2005). This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).  It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam et al. (1995). It has been found in Bawangling, Wuzhishan and Yinggeling Nature Reserves in Hainan in the last few years (Lau pers. comm. 2006). This species is protected in Malaysia (Azlan pers. comm.). It is protected by law in Sichuan, China (Li et al, 2000), and it is listed as Vulnerable on the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed, especially in areas where it may be reduced due to human depredation (ie China).	eng
41693	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Widmann P., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The species has a widespread distribution in central, south and southeastern Asia occurring in Borneo (Wells et al. 2005), India (Krishnakumar and Balakrishnan 2003); Lao (Duckworth 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Myanmar (Su Su 2005), Siberut Island (Mentawai, Indonesia; Abegg 2003), Philippines (Heaney et al. 1991), Thailand (Austin and Tewes 1999), Bhutan, Cambodia (J.L. Walstone pers. comm.), southern China (including Hainan), Nepal,  Singapore (B.P.Y.H. Lee pers. comm.), Sri Lanka , Viet Nam (Roberton 2007); and with scattered records in Sulawesi, Moluccas, and the Aru Islands (New Guinea), probably resulting from introductions (Wozencraft 2005). <br/><br/>It was also introduced to Japan in the late 1800s, and still persists there today (S. Roy in litt. 2006). It has also been recorded from the islands of Bawean (Indonesia), Con Son (Viet Nam), Koh Samui (Thailand), Koh yao (Thailand), Samar (Philippines), and Telebon (Thailand) (Meiri, 2005), in addition to many others (Pocock 1939). Paradoxurus lignicolor (included in Paradoxurus hermaphroditus by Wilson and Reeder 2005) was recorded by Abegg (2003) on Siberut of the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia. <br/><br/>In addition it has been found on the Philippine islands of Biliran, Maripipi (Rickart et al. 1993) Mindoro, Catanduanes (Heaney et al. 1991), Cebu, Masbate, Polillo, Ilin, Samar, Dumaran and Panay (Timm and Birney 1980; Lastimosa pers. comm.).	eng
41693	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Widmann P., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	This species has been found in a wide range of habitats including evergreen and deciduous forest (primary and secondary), plantations and near humans, in habitats up to 2,400 m (Ratnam <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Duckworth 1997; Azlan, 2003; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004; Su Su, 2005; Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005; Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). Radio-tracking studies have revealed home-ranges of up to 17 km² for males and 1.6 km² for females (Dhungle and Edge, 1985; Rabinowitz, 1991; Joshi <em>et al</em>. 1995; Grassman, 1998). <br/><br/>In the Philippines the species has been recorded in agricultural (including coffee plantations) and forested areas from sea level up to at least 2,400 m asl (Balete and  Heaney in press, Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991 in press, Hoogstraal 1951, Rabor 1986, Thomas 1898) and in montane and mossy forest from 925-2150 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney  <em>et al</em>.<br/>2004).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species has been found in all habitats surveyed, from Mekong lowlands to montane areas, evergreen to deciduous forest to scrub (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is adapted for forest living, yet it tolerates living in areas near humans; sleeping in barns, drains, or roofs during the day, and coming out at night to catch rats or forage for mango, coffee, pineapples, melons, and bananas, it also eats insects and mollusks (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). In Myanmar, it was recorded in mixed deciduous forest and a wide range of evergreen forest-dominated sites (Su Su, 2005, than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). This species was recorded in primary lowland rainforest in Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). This species is largely arboreal (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), crepuscular (Azlan, 2005) and nocturnal (e.g. Duckworth 1997). There is interesting variation across its mainland range in habitat use. In Lao PDR it occurs commonly deep within old-growth evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Duckworth 1997) but it seems to avoid such habitat in the Western Ghats (Mudappa in press).	eng
41693	population	Duckworth, J.W., Widmann P., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The population status is poorly known. However, there is sufficient evidence to indicate that across its wide range this is generally one of the most common species of civets, except in southern China were it is extensively hunted/trapped (M. Lau pers. comm. 2006) . It is probably the most common mammalian carnivore on Palawan Island, the Phillipines (Esselstyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004) and Su Su (2005) found that it was the most common species of small carnivore recorded in Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar, a high degraded and heavily hunted small fragment of forest from which most wild carnivores have been eradicated. In mainland (non-Sundaic) Southeast Asia it occurs commonly at almost any site that is surveyed using suitable methodology, including the most degraded, isolated among human environments, and hunted small sites such as Houay Nhang in Lao PDR and Hlawga in Myanmar (Duckworth 2007, Su Su 2005, Than Zaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep., Roberton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep., R. J. Timmins pers. comm., J. L.Walston pers. comm.).	eng
41693	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Widmann P., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	In some parts of its range this species is hunted for bush meat and the pet trade. In South China it is extensively hunted and trapped (Lau pers. comm.). It is also persecuted as a pest (Gupta, 2004, Su Su 2005, GMA Philippines, 2006) though it seems able to tolerate very high levels of persecution (e.g., Duckworth 1997). Dead individuals of this species were found with local tribes during a visit to Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu and Agra, Uttar Pradesh in India between 1998 and 2003, where it is killed for its meat (Gupta, 2004). While these pressures are certainly having localized effects on populations in highly fragmented and ‘humanized’ areas, e.g. Houay Nhang (Lao PDR), there is no evidence in mainland Southeast Asia of them significantly reducing the population levels in large tracts of natural and semi-natural habitat, even in the heavily hunted countries of Lao PDR and Vietnam; while in India it is a common urban commensal (e.g., Gupta 2004).	eng
41694	conservation	Muddappa, D., Wozencraft, C., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	It is reported inside and outside of protected areas (Muddappa pers. comm.). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) lists the following recommended conservation actions: "Investigations in Wilpattu and Gal Oya National Parks and Sinharaja Forest to obtain an estimate of the population size there, as well as surveys in other established reserves in Sri Lanka, particularly in the new parks in the Mahaweli basin; Support for the current moves to consolidate the protection status of Sinharaja Forest Man and the Biosphere Reserve, the country’s last sizeable area of lowland rain forest; Research into the species’s ecological and conservation requirements to ascertain why it seems to be less successful in adapting to changes of its habitat than its congener <em>P. hermaphroditus</em>; Continued efforts to establish a breeding colony in captivity."	eng
41694	distribution	Muddappa, D., Wozencraft, C., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka (Wilson and Reeder 2005) and has been recorded in Uda Walawe National Park (Hoffman 1990), the Sinharaja Forest area, Wasgomuwa and Yala National Parks (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). It is currently confined to a small range defined by where natural habitats remain (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). The species occurs in three distributional isolates.	eng
41694	habitat	Muddappa, D., Wozencraft, C., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	This species is forest-dependent, yet tolerant of minor habitat modification where some continuous forest remains. It is arboreal, nocturnal, and solitary; its diet consists of fruits, berries, invertebrates, and a wide range of small vertebrates (Pocock 1939). Schreiber <em>et al.</em> (1989) report that "this species is much less a follower of man or an inhabitant of agricultural areas than the common palm civet (<em>P. hermaphroditus</em>), and that very little is known of the natural history of this species." It is found in lowland rain forest, evergreen mountain forests, and also dense monsoon forest (at Wilpattu) (Schreiber <em>et al</em>, 1989). No elevation range information is known, though the species occurs mainly in highlands.	eng
41694	population	Muddappa, D., Wozencraft, C., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	According to Phillips (1984) it is not uncommon but is distributed locally, both in the highlands and in the low country, particularly in the highlands around Kandy and in the Dimbulla and Dickoya districts of the Central Province. According to Wijesinghe (1987), it is still widely distributed on the island but is more common in the wetter zone than in the dry zone. It is thought to be quite common, especially in the Sinharaja Forest area. Additional records from this forest come from Karunaratne <em>et al.</em> (1981) and from Baker (1971) who caught a live specimen there which was held in captivity (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
41694	threats	Muddappa, D., Wozencraft, C., Yonzon, P., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	As the species is dependant on forest cover, deforestation is a significant threat to this species – and its tolerance to fragmentation is unknown. Lowland forest (that is found in the wet zone) has almost totally disappeared from Sri Lanka with the main exception being the Sinharaja Forest (Schreiber <em>et al</em>, 1989). It is trapped for its meat in some areas (Schreiber <em>et al</em>., 1989).	eng
41695	conservation	Ray, J., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in numerous protected areas across their range. The population of Botswana is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
41695	distribution	Ray, J., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widely distributed in Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and southern Somalia southwards in all countries to north-eastern Namibia, north and east Botswana, and north-eastern South Africa (Ray in press). Present on Zanzibar I. (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 5,000 m asl on Mt Kilimanjaro (Moreau 1944).Widely distributed in Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and southern Somalia southwards in all countries to north-eastern Namibia, north and east Botswana, and north-eastern South Africa (Ray in press). Present on Zanzibar I. (Pakenham 1984). Recorded to altitudes of 5,000 m asl on Mt Kilimanjaro (Moreau 1944).	eng
41695	habitat	Ray, J., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occupy a wide variety of habitats including secondary forest, woodland, and bush habitats, as well as aquatic environments. They are generally absent from arid regions, with the exception of riverine systems therein. They are apparently uncommon in mature interior forest habitats, but will infiltrate deep forest via logging roads, and in the forests of West and Central Africa, they thrive in degraded and deforested areas, and are regularly encountered near villages (Ray in press). Omnivorous and opportunistic foragers.	eng
41695	population	Ray, J., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Generally common. Based on track counts recorded along transects in a lowland forest in SW Gabon, density estimated at 1/km² (Prins and Reitsma 1989).	eng
41695	threats	Ray, J., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, they are commonly found for sale as bushmeat, and are one of the most abundant mammals found in bushmeat markets in SE Nigeria, where they are utilized for both food and skin (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999). They are frequently found trapped for meat in other countries, including Sierra Leone, DR Congo, Central African Republic, Congo Republic, and Cameroon (Ray in press). African Civets are economically important due to their perennial secretion, which was exploited for many centuries as a fixing agent for perfumes. Even though synthetic alternatives have been available for more than 60 years, civetone remains an important export commodity in several countries, such as Ethiopia, and to a lesser extant, Niger and Senegal (Ray 1995, in press, Ray <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
41696	conservation	Gaubert, P., Crawford-Cabral, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known to be present in several protected areas. There is a need for further study of this poorly known species.	eng
41696	distribution	Gaubert, P., Crawford-Cabral, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from Angola, DR Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia (Crawford-Cabral in press). The northernmost record is from “Turu” (Singida area, central Tanzania), which although regarded as questionable by Schlawe (1980), has since been confirmed by P. Gaubert (pers. comm.).	eng
41696	habitat	Gaubert, P., Crawford-Cabral, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits open miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em>) woodland interspersed with savannas, mainly from areas with ferralitic soils and relatively high, but seasonal rainfall (Crawford-Cabral in press).	eng
41696	population	Gaubert, P., Crawford-Cabral, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Although poorly known, the species is probably locally common through its range, as it was found to be on an open plain in the Luando Strict N.R. (central Angola), with rhizomatous <em>Cryptosepalum curtisiorum</em> and termitaria (Crawford-Cabral in press).	eng
41696	threats	Gaubert, P., Crawford-Cabral, J. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no known major threats. Its habitat has only seen minor change and there is little hunting (Crawford-Cabral in press).	eng
41697	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Brickle, N.W., 2008	The conservation status of this species is virtually unknown (Riffel, 1991). This species is known from the following protected areas G. Gede-Pangrango National Park where three individuals were collected in 1970, and there are several recent sight-records (Brickle 2007), Meru Betiri National Park (Seidensticker <em>et al</em>., 1980) where the Javan ferretbadger was reported to occur near Sukamade in the centre of the reserve, and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, where a survey conducted by the Biological Science Club revealed the species continuing occurrence in that area (Yossa <em>et al.</em>, 1991).	eng
41697	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Brickle, N.W., 2008	Riffel (1991) presents a distribution map for the species. The species certainly occurs in hills and mountains of Java and Bali, but there is insufficient evidence to say that it is not present on the adjacent plains (W. Duckworth pers. comm.). There are only two records for Bali, which was omitted from the range in most of the standard sources before 1991. An individual was found on a forest trail approximately 300 m south of Lake Buyan in Central Bali at an elevation of 1,180 m, and the other record is a 1979 specimen with no precise locality information, held in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (Riffel, 1991). There are two subspecies: M. o. orientalis in eastern Java, and M. o. sundaicus in western Java (Long 1992). The Small Carnivore conservation Action Plan 1989 has a record for a point without a name (perhaps Dieng Plateau) in Central Java. It was recorded, with no detail, in a survey in Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve in 1990-1991 (Yossa <em>et al.</em> 1991). There are several recent records for Gunung Gede, a known historical site (Brickle 2007). There are several other recent unpublished records but no-one has attempted to collate them and evaluate current distribution and status.	eng
41697	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Brickle, N.W., 2008	The ecology of this species is largely unknown, and there are few data on habitat requirements, as most museum material outside Indonesia is labelled "Java" only (Riffel, 1991). The specimen from Bali was found in habitat described as "secondary forest and rubber plantation", with nearby human settlements, 2 to 3 km east of the site where it was recorded, thus giving some indication that this species is not reliant on primary forest (Riffel, 1991). There are also records from deep within primary forest (Brickle, 2007), suggesting a wide tolerance of habitat.	eng
41697	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Brickle, N.W., 2008	Riffel (1991) traced a few recent records; it does not seem to be very rare, but may not be very common either.	eng
41697	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Brickle, N.W., 2008	Nothing is currently known about potential threats as little is known about habitat requirements, population status, or current exploitation activities. Much of the forest habitat of Java has been converted to other uses, particularly agriculture, but it is unclear to what level, if any, this species depends upon extensive, old-growth, or any sort of forest; some other Melogale spp. are very adaptable to forest fragmentation and degradation (see account for M. moschata), but the same cannot be assumed for this species. Although there are a few records to date from non-forest areas, they could simply have been dispersing individuals. There is no information on its susceptibility to whatever hunting levels occur in its range. It is not significantly traded, but it is no doubt caught in non-selective traps. In sum, several plausible threats operate but it is unclear if any are threats at the population level.	eng
41698	conservation	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, 2006	It is present in many protected areas across its range. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, as well as EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Delibes 1999). In Ibiza, it is recommended that semi-natural habitats are protected, and that development takes place in such a way that fragmentation of remaining habitat is minimized.	eng
41698	conservation	Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas across its range. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, as well as EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Delibes 1999). Protected by national law in some range states (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia).	eng
41698	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	It is present in many protected areas across its range. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, as well as EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V (Delibes 1999). Protected by national law in some range states (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia).	eng
41698	distribution	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, 2006	A widespread species, occurring on the northern Saharan fringe (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya), and then in open and dry savannah zones throughout Sub-Saharan Africa in three large blocks, corresponding roughly to West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). For Europe, Delibes (1999) lists this species as occurring in all of continental Portugal and Spain, and much of France (mainly south of Loire River and west of the Rhone River). It is also found on the Mediterranean islands of Majora, Ibiza, and Cabrera (Balearic Islands) (Delibes 1999). There are also scattered records from Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and northwest Italy (Delibes 1999). This species is generally considered to have been introduced to Europe; the date of introduction is unknown, but remains have been found dating from the Middle Ages (Dobson 1998, Delibes 1999). It has been recorded to at least 3,000m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41698	distribution	Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	Widespread species, occurring on the northern Saharan fringe (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Lybia), and then in open and dry savanna zones throughout sub-Saharan Africa in three large blocks, corresponding roughly to West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). Also occurs in coastal regions of Arabia, Yemen and Oman (Harrison and Bates 1991); records from Palestine are in error (Kock 1983).<br/><br/>For Europe, Delibes (1999) lists this species as occurring in all of continental Portugal and Spain, and most of France (mainly south of Loire River and west of the Rhone River). It is also found on the Mediterranean islands of Majora, Ibiza, and Cabrera (Balearic Islands) (Delibes 1999). There are also scattered records from Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and north-west Italy (Delibes 1999). This species is generally considered to have been  introduced to Europe and the Balearic islands (Delibes 1999). It has been recorded to 2,600 m in the High Atlas mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and at least 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Admasu <em>et a</em>l. 2004)	eng
41698	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	Widespread species, occurring on the northern Saharan fringe (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Lybia), and then in open and dry savanna zones throughout sub-Saharan Africa in three large blocks, corresponding roughly to West Africa, East Africa and southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). Also occurs in coastal regions of Arabia, Yemen and Oman (Harrison and Bates 1991); records from Palestine are in error (Kock 1983).<br/><br/>For Europe, Delibes (1999) lists this species as occurring in all of continental Portugal and Spain, and most of France (mainly south of Loire River and west of the Rhone River). It is also found on the Mediterranean islands of Majora, Ibiza, and Cabrera (Balearic Islands) (Delibes 1999). There are also scattered records from Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and north-west Italy (Delibes 1999). This species is generally considered to have been  introduced to Europe and the Balearic islands (Delibes 1999). It has been recorded to 2,600 m in the High Atlas mountains of Morocco (Cuzin 2003) and at least 3,000 m asl in the Ethiopian Highlands (Admasu <em>et a</em>l. 2004)	eng
41698	habitat	Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	The Common Genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savanna mosaics (e.g., miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The Common Genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g., Admasu <em>et al</em>. 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).	eng
41698	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	The Common Genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savanna mosaics (e.g., miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The Common Genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g., Admasu <em>et al</em>. 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).	eng
41698	habitat	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, 2006	The genet tends to prefer all types of wooded habitats (deciduous and evergreen), where it is often associated with rivers and brooks, but it is a generalist and can be found in other habitats where there is suitable prey. It avoids open habitats, but may occur even in small fragments of woodland in farmland or near villages, and usually is absent from rainforests, dense woodlands and woodland-moist savannah mosaics (e.g. miombo woodland in Angola) (Delibes and Gaubert in press). The common genet is not uncommonly found in proximity to people and human buildings (e.g. Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds mainly on small mammals, but will also take birds, other small vertebrates, insects, and fruit (Delibes and Gaubert in press).	eng
41698	population	Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	One of the most common small carnivores in its native range, though detailed data on density in Africa are scarce; in Serengeti, Waser (1980) estimated a density of 1.5 + 0.37 individuals per km². In Europe, this species is moderately abundant, with increasing populations in France, and densities of 0.3 to 0.7 individuals per square kilometer in Spain (Delibes 1999). The genet is common in suitable habitat throughout the Iberian peninsula (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), where populations are either stable or slowly increasing (J. Herrero pers. comm.). On Ibiza, habitat is declining and becoming more fragmented, thus this species is suspected to be declining.	eng
41698	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	One of the most common small carnivores in its native range, though detailed data on density in Africa are scarce; in Serengeti, Waser (1980) estimated a density of 1.5 + 0.37 individuals per km². In Europe, this species is moderately abundant, with increasing populations in France, and densities of 0.3 to 0.7 individuals per square kilometer in Spain (Delibes 1999). The genet is common in suitable habitat throughout the Iberian peninsula (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), where populations are either stable or slowly increasing (J. Herrero pers. comm.). On Ibiza, habitat is declining and becoming more fragmented, thus this species is suspected to be declining.	eng
41698	population	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, 2006	One of the most common small carnivores in its native range, though detailed data on density in Africa are scarce; in Serengeti, Waser (1980) estimated a density of 1.5 + 0.37 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. In Europe, this species is moderately abundant, with increasing populations in France, and densities of 0.3 to 0.7 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> in Spain (Delibes 1999). The genet is common in suitable habitat throughout the Iberian peninsula (Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Populations are either stable or slowly increasing (J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). On Ibiza, habitat is declining and becoming more fragmented, thus this species is suspected to be declining.	eng
41698	threats	Juan Herrero, Paolo Cavallini, 2006	There are no major threats. They are occasionally eaten by people in some localities, and body parts are used for medicinal purposes while skins may be used for the manufacture of karosses in southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press). In Europe, the genet used to be trapped for its fur (Delibes 1999). In Portugal genets are illegally killed in predator trapping for hunting management. On Ibiza, the genet is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by urbanization and infrastructure and tourism development. The ability of genets to live close to humans and their domestic animals could have implications for disease transmission (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41698	threats	Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	There are no major threats. They are occasionally eaten by people in some localities, and body parts are used for medicinal purposes while skins may be used for the manufacture of karosses in southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press); in North Africa too the species is hunted for its fur for decorative purposes (Cuzin 2003). In Europe, the genet used to be trapped for its fur (Delibes 1999). In Portugal genets are illegally killed in predator trapping for hunting management. On Ibiza, the genet is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by urbanization and infrastructure and tourism development. The ability of genets to live close to humans and their domestic animals could have implications for disease transmission (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41698	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., Herrero, J. & Cavallini, P., 2008	There are no major threats. They are occasionally eaten by people in some localities, and body parts are used for medicinal purposes while skins may be used for the manufacture of karosses in southern Africa (Delibes and Gaubert in press); in North Africa too the species is hunted for its fur for decorative purposes (Cuzin 2003). In Europe, the genet used to be trapped for its fur (Delibes 1999). In Portugal genets are illegally killed in predator trapping for hunting management. On Ibiza, the genet is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by urbanization and infrastructure and tourism development. The ability of genets to live close to humans and their domestic animals could have implications for disease transmission (Admasu <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
41699	conservation	Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several protected areas across the range.	eng
41699	distribution	Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from north and east of the Volta R. east to Eritrea and Somalia (their presence in Djibouti is uncertain) and  southwards to central Namibia and KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa (Angelici and Gaubert in press). Possibly present on Bioko I. Occurs to high elevations, up to 3,400 m in the Simien Mountains of Ethiopia (Yalden <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41699	habitat	Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in a variety of habitats, including rainforest, swampy areas, riverine vegetation, open and closed woodlands, moist forests, savanna-forest mosaics, thickets and even grassy savanna, but avoiding extremely dry savanna and truly arid regions (Angelici and Gaubert in press). Also occurs in cultivated areas, farmlands and suburban areas. A recent ecological study found that the presence of this species in Nigeria is positively correlated with ‘derived savanna’, ‘oil palm plantations’ and other altered habitats, but negatively correlated with various types of forests (Angelici and Luiselli 2005).	eng
41699	population	Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Relatively common, though its nocturnal and elusive habits mean that it may be infrequently recorded. In south-eastern Nigeria, sightings are not common, although it is rather common in bushmeat markets and frequently trapped by local hunters (Angelici <em>et al.</em> 1999a,b).	eng
41699	threats	Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, they are recorded in bushmeat markets, and since they do have a bad reputation as poultry thieves, farmers sometimes poison or trap them; they are also occasionally killed by domestic cats and dogs (Angelici and Gaubert in press).	eng
41700	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in several protected areas across the range. Lowe’s Servaline Genet was rediscovered in the Udzungwa Mtns N.P. in south-central Tanzania after a gap of nearly 70 years (Brink <em>et al.</em> 2002, De Luca and Mpunga 2002). Subsequent recent records from other mountain blocks in the Eastern Arc Mountains (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006), and ecological niche modelling for the species (Gaubert <em>et al.</em> 2006), suggest that further survey work will show they are more widely distributed in the Eastern Arc Mountains.	eng
41700	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Ranges from southern Cameroon, south of the Sanaga R., and Central African Republic and southwards in Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic to southern Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, and possibly also Burundi. There are discontinuous populations in Tanzania, including the Udzungwa Mtns, the Uluguru Mtns, and the South Nguru Mtns (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2006; Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Gaubert <em>et al</em>. (2006) also give museum records from north of the Sanaga R., from several additional localities in Tanzania, as well as from two localities in south-eastern DR Congo (these are not mapped). Present on Zanzibar (Van Rompaey and Colyn 1998, Goldman and Winther-Hansen 2003). Recorded to 3,500 m on Mt. Elgon, Kenya (Kingdon 1977) and perhaps to elevations above 4,400 m in eastern DR Congo (Verschuren 1972).	eng
41700	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in primary and secondary lowland, submontane and montane forests and gallery forests. Van Rompaey and Colyn (in press) give a summary of several of the habitats from which they have been recorded including wet forests in Kenya, high-altitude bamboo forest in the Udzungwa Mtns, and groundwater forest and coral rag thicket on Zanzibar.	eng
41700	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Common. Charles-Dominique (1978) estimated the average density at 1/km². Kingdon (1977) noted that the species appeared to be particularly common at an altitude between 2,100 and 3,000 m asl on Mt Elgon, and it is also common in moist forests of the Udzungwa Mountains at altitudes of 300-1,800 m asl (De Luca and Mpunga 2002; F. Rovero pers. comm.).	eng
41700	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., De Luca, D., Rovero, F. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats. However, they are common in bushmeat markets and the skins are used for wrist-bracelets and dancing hats, and for loin-cloths among both Mbuti and Ba’aka pygmies (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41701	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Present in several protected areas across its range.	eng
41701	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Endemic to Africa, sparsely distributed from Gambia and Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon; the easterly limit of distribution requires clarification (Gaubert and Dunham in press).	eng
41701	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Inhabits moist and dry savannas with open woodlands. However, specimens also have been collected and sighted in moist woodlands (Guinea-Bissau), rainforest (Sierra Leone, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire) and dry wooded steppes (Senegal)(Gaubert and Dunham in press).	eng
41701	population	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Rare, but possibly common in some areas (Gaubert and Dunham in press). Hoppe-Dominik (1990) stated that the species was widespread throughout its range, but provided no evidence.	eng
41701	threats	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	There are no known major threats. However, the species has been reported from bushmeat markets throughout its range. In the past, there has also been some international traffic for their skins or as pets, although there is no record of this species (or any other genet for that matter) in commercial trade reported to CITES for the period 1995-2005 (Gaubert and Dunham in press).	eng
41702	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They are present in several protected areas throughout its range, such as West Coast N.P. and Kammanassie Mountain State F.R. (Gaubert in press).	eng
41702	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to South Africa, in higher rainfall areas from the Western Cape to southern KwaZulu-Natal, south of 32ºS, and to the neighbouring Lesotho border (Gaubert in press).	eng
41702	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Mostly in well-watered zones in wooded or dense habitats such as fynbos and forests in the Western and Eastern Cape; sometimes found in exotic scrub as well as open grasslands during foraging activities (Stuart 1981).	eng
41702	population	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on their abundance, but they are not uncommon.	eng
41702	threats	Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats. They are sometimes killed by farmers in retaliation for predation on small domestic stock and poultry, which could have an affect on numbers in some areas (Stuart 1990).	eng
41703	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are records from the Ituri Forest and Okapi Faunal Reserve, and it probably occurs in several other protected areas in its range (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41703	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Nearly endemic to DR Congo, where confined to an area between the Congo, Lualaba and Oubangui Rivers (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The status of this species is Uganda is unclear: Bere (1962) mentions its presence from the Semliki Forest, and skins of genet kittens from the Bwamba Forest in the Toro District of Uganda, an eastern extension of the Semliki Forest, seemed to be this species (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Kingdon (1977) observed a specimen along a forest road in western Uganda. Gaubert <em>et al</em>. (2006) provide museum records that expand the range 500 km south, on the left bank of the Congo R. (but these are not mapped here). Recorded to 1,800 m asl.	eng
41703	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in lowland and medium-altitude rainforests (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). Two specimens identified as this species by Gaubert <em>et al.</em> (2006) from Kakanga and Mukulu, in southern DR Congo, apparently were collected in deciduous forest.	eng
41703	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Patchily distributed, being quite abundant in some areas but absent in other areas where suitable habitat exists; for example, they are rare in the area between the Uma and Enano Rivers, east of Kisangani, and fairly common between Kisangani and Buta, and between the Aruwimi and Lindi Rivers (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
41703	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats. They are hunted as bushmeat (Colyn <em>et al.</em> 1987) and skins are used to make hats and other ceremonial objects (Carpaneto and Germi 1989).	eng
41704	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	They presumably occur in several protected areas across their range.	eng
41704	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo Republic, and DR Congo east to the Rift Valley. Also present on Bioko Island (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41704	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in the canopy of lowland and montane forests (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41704	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species was reported as quite common in north-eastern DR Congo (Rahm and Christiaensen 1963). Charles-Dominique (1978) recorded a density of 1/km² in primary forest in Gabon.	eng
41704	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats, but they may be undergoing localized declines due to forest loss and bushmeat hunting (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
41705	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix II. In Thailand, the Wild Animals Preservation Protection Act (WAPPA, 1992) protects this species from hunting and regulates trade (Van Rompaey, 1993). In Peninsular Malaysia and in Sabah it receives full protection, but in Sarawak it is only partially protected (Aslan pers. comm.). It is a totally protected species in Myanmar (WPA 1994). This species has been recorded in some protected areas (Ratnam <em>et al.</em>, 1995; Azlan, 2003; Wells <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Azlan and Engkamat, 2006). Field surveys, ecological studies and monitoring of threats are needed. This species was recorded from Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). It was also recorded from Temengor Forest Reserve in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al.</em> (1995). This species has also been recorded in Lambir Hill National Park in Sarawak (Azlan and Engkaamat, 2006). It was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003).	eng
41705	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	The species is found in Peninsular Malaysia (Ratnam <em>et al</em>., 1995; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Laidlaw pers. comm.), southern Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>, in press), Borneo (Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005) and Sumatra (Holden, 2006), southern Thailand, peninsular Malayasia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, as well as on Bangka and Belitung Islands (Van Rompaey 1993). On Java, it has been suggested to be probably restricted to the mountains in the west (e.g. Mt. Halimun, see Suyanto, 2003), but there are two historical specimens from the Ijang plateau in East Java (held in Museum für Naturkunde, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin), and, given very low levels in recent decades of small carnivore survey in Java (see, e.g., Riffel 1991), the species could still occur on other mountains in Java. On Borneo and Sumatra, it is probably widespread, although it is unclear whether the species occurs in Central Kalimantan swamps (not reported from Sebangau or Tanjung Puting). It was found up to 1100 m on Java by Bartels (1941) . This species was recorded  up to 1800 m in Mount Kinabulu National Park in Borneo Payne <em>et al.</em> (1998). It was recorded by Azlan (2003) in Jerangau Forest Reserve (04 55.5 N, 103 05.7 E) in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01. In Sumatra, it has been found up to 2,400 m (Holden 2006) in Kerinci Seblat NP.<br/><br/>The most northerly record is at 15° 20'N (Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). The record at 17° 54'N (Humphrey and Bain 1990) in northern-central Thailand is probably erroneous (Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). On the basis of portrayal in picture-guides alone, this species can be readily confused with spotted linsang.	eng
41705	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It has been recorded in primary and secondary forest and occasionally in human inhabited areas (Van Rompaey, 1993; Ratnam <em>et al</em>., 1995; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Wells <em>et al</em>., 2005). It has been found up to 2,400 m (Bartels, 1941; Payne <em>et al</em>., 1998;. Holden, 2006).<br/><br/>It is nocturnal and generally arboreal, though it does come to the ground in search of food; its diet consists of birds, tree rats, snakes, and any other small animal it can catch (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Van Rompaey pers. comm.). An analysis of stomach contents by Lim (1973) indicates that this species hunts mostly in disturbed forests and forest edge habitats (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). According to Lim (1973) it may respond favorably to secondary growth and ecotonal habitats. It is found in primary and secondary forest, plus fringe and occasionally human inhabitated areas (Van Rompaey pers. comm.). It breeds in February and August, with litters of two young (Nowak, 1999). It has lived up to ten years and eight months in captivity (Jones, 1982). This species was recorded from primary lowland rainforest in Mount Kinabulu National Park by Wells <em>et al </em>(2005). It was recorded in disturbed habitat in Malaysia by Ratnam <em>et al </em>(1995).<br/><br/>In northeastern Peninsular Malaysia and in Sarawak, it is found in secondary forest, including forest adjacent to palm plantations (Azlan pers. comm.).	eng
41705	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	The population status is poorly known, but various authors have considered this species uncommon or rare (Chasen, 1940; Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1961; Davis, 1962; Lim, 1973; Lekagul and McNeely, 1977; Van Rompaey 1993).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, it is known from only two individuals recorded in 1878 by Blanford (Van Rompaey pers. comm.), also from 5 recent records in southern Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press); the records included presence at all surveyd sites within its historical range. It is considered rare and localized in Thailand (Chasen, 1940; Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1961; Davis, 1962; Lim, 1973; Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Steinmetz and Simcharoen 2006). In Peninsular Malaysia it is widespread at all elevations but is nowhere common (Medway, 1969), two years of camera trapping revealed only a single photo in Taman Negara National Park (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), partly because it is small and semi-arboreal, making it difficult to capture on camera. Morphs may be confused with other species (Azlan 2006). On Java, this species is considered rare (or difficult to observe) by Bartels (1941). On Borneo, it is also infrequently recorded  (Medway, 1965; Payne <em>et al</em>, 1985). In Sumatra (Holden 2006), it was photo trapped infrequently, but this is not indicative of rarity. In summary, throughout its range, it is widespread, but due to its small size and semi arboreal nature, it has been infrequently recorded, and thus its population status is difficult to assess.	eng
41705	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Azlan, M.J., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation were assessed as a threat to this species (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989), and deforestation has been said to be a threat to this species in Thailand (Van Rompaey 1993), however, little is known on its tolerance to disturbance. In Borneo, the overall density of civets (including the banded linsang) in logged forests was found to be significantly lower than in primary forests (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996). Various observers have found the species in edge and degraded habitats, both historically and recently, with Lim (1973) even speculating that it benefits from secondary growth and ecotonal areas. This makes it difficult to infer a population trend based around the recent and ongoing rapid forest degradation over much of its range. Old-growth forest has been cleared very rapidly throughout the lowland Sundaic region in the last 20 years (e.g. BirdLife International, 2001; Holmes, 2000; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2001; McMorrow and Talip, 2001; Lambert and Collar, 2002; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller, 2004; Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003) but this has primarily been in the lower altitudes; this species' wide altitudinal range means that significant proportion of the population is outside these areas of very rapid clearance. Also in Thailand, live animals have been traded in the past, as seven were reported by CITES in 1980 (from Thailand to USA) (Van Rompaey 1993), in the last decade, however, there has been no commercial trade reported through CITES.	eng
41706	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Wozencraft, C., Choudhury, A., Roberton, S. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I<em></em>. It has been sighted in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1994, Duckworth 1997a). In recent years, it has been recorded from Mouling National Park (Singh <em>et al</em>. 1996), Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary (Chakraborty and Sen 1991) and the border of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and Nameri National Park in 1999 (P. Saikia pers. comm.). It was also recorded from Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan Sanctuary (a local protected area not covered by the national government) by Choudhury (2002). It was recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand in 1995 (Tizard 2002). Tizard (2002) reports a record of this species from Xishuanbanna Biosphere Reserve and recently it has also been camera trapped from several nature reserves in Guangdong and Guangxi (Lau, pers  comm) in China. Many other recent records from South-east Asia are listed in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000). The species is totally protected in Myanmar, on the list of protected species in Nepal, and protected in Thailand, Viet Nam and India. In Thailand is protected by the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA) of 1980 (Van Rompaey, 1995). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>. 2000), is totally protected in Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam and India, and is on the list of protected species in Nepal (Van Rompaey, 1995). It is recorded from many protected areas across its range (Chakraborty and Sen, 1991; Evans <em>et al.</em>, 1994, Singh <em>et al.</em>, 1996, Duckworth, 1997; Walston 2001, Tizard, 2002, Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep., Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
41706	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Wozencraft, C., Choudhury, A., Roberton, S. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	This species is found throughout much of southeast Asia, including eastern Nepal, India (Sikkim, Assam, Bengal and other states of north-east India), Bhutan (although no records have been traced), northern and centralMyanmar, northern and central Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, northern, central and probably southern Viet Nam, and central to southern China (western Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Xizang, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guangxi) (Van Rompaey, 1995; Walston 2001, Zhang, 1997, Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep., Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Two stuffed individuals were recorded by Choudhury (2002), one in Dzulake (25°3'8 N, 93°55'E) and one in Chizami (25°36'N, 94°24'E). It was recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand in 1995 (Tizard, 2002). It was also sighted for sale on the side of a road between Mengla and Shangyong in Xishuanbanna Autonomous Region, Yunnan China in 1997 (Tizard, 2002). It was photographed by camera-traps in Nonggang, Jiuwanshan and Cenwanglaoshan Nature Reserves in Guangxi from 2002 to 2004, and also at Chebaling and North Guangdong Tiger Nature Reserve in Guangdong in 2003 (Lau <em>et al.</em>, in prep.). Another recent record from China was reported by Yangsheng (1998) for Jiangxi province. F. Debruyne and A. Schoofs (in litt. 2001 to Tizard 2002) report it from Oudomxay Market, in Lao PDR. Walston (2001) reports it from the hills of southwestern Cambodia. Van Rompaey (1995) gave an elevational range from 150 m to 2700 m, there are records from up to nearly 4000 m (Pocock 1939), although it is not confirmed that these animals were truly caught at such altitudes (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.). It has been sighted in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 1994, Duckworth 1997a). Dead animals have been seen in Xekong and Xaignabouli Provinces (Bergmans 1995).	eng
41706	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Wozencraft, C., Choudhury, A., Roberton, S. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	Little is known on the ecology of this species. It has been recorded in lowland, hill and mountain forest, bamboo forest, secondary growth, dense grassland and along rivers (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980; Sunquist, 1982; Van Rompaey, 1995; Tizard, 2002; Wozencraft, 2005). It is partly arboreal and preys mostly on small vertebrates (Lekagul and McNeely, 1977; Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980; Van Rompaey, 1995). <br/><br/>This species is most often recorded in both primary and secondary forests, mainly in mountain and hill areas, up to at least 2,700 m, probably to 4,000 m (Van Rompaey 1995, Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep). It is found in primary and secondary forests at elevations between 150 and at least 2,700 m (Van Rompaey, 1995). In Chitawan National Park in Nepal, it was observed in a mosaic of lowland riverine forest and tall, dense grassland, as well as in an area of sal (Shorea robusta) forest interspersed with dense grasses (Sunquist, 1982). In Viet Nam it is found in moist, mixed, and bamboo forest, and along mountain rivers (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980). It is quite arboreal, though it is equally at home in trees and on the ground (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It has been suggested that it mainly inhabits the lower shrub layer (Kuznetzov and Baranauskas, 1993). It preys mostly on small birds (Hodgson, 1847), remains of rodents, frogs, and snakes have also been found in the stomachs of some specimens (Pham-chong-Ahn, 1980). It has also been spotted feeding on the carcass of a tiger, indicating that it is an opportunistic scavenger (Sunquist, 1982).<br/><br/>Each litter consists of two young (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), twice a year, breeding in February and August (Hodgson, 1847). They are seldom maintained in captivity, and no lifespan has been recorded (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Two stuffed individuals were recorded by Choudhury (2002), one in Dzulake (25 38 N, 93 55 E, 1750 m) in excellent primary subtropical broadleaf forest and one in Chizami (25 36 N, 94 24 E, 1400 to 1700 m), with degraded secondary forest in the lower areas and some primary forest in the upper areas (all subtropical broadleaf). It was recorded in moist secondary growth along water courses through a mosaic of cultivation, scrub, and pine plantations at about 1400 m in Thailand (Tizard, 2002). It is found in limestone forests in China and preys on rats (Lau pers. comm.).	eng
41706	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Wozencraft, C., Choudhury, A., Roberton, S. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	This species is rather rarely recorded; which is likely an artifact of sampling techniques. For example, one of the most intensivedirect observation surveys of carnivores in its range, that of Duckworth (1998) did not record it during the main survey, although it was found incidentally during bat survey at the same site. This survey gave no evidence of high numbers/high encounter rates in pristine habitat far from human habitation in the heart of its range, implying that this is the natural state of affairs for this species; at this site, various key quarry species (e.g. diurnal primates) showed little fear of people and even heavily decreased species such as Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> and Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> were observed directly, making it inconceivable that the linsang populations had been artificially reduced there.With the advent of camera-trapping, records have increased in many areas. The relatively low numbers of records of the species in most of its range may be a result of its lurking and rather arboreal nature (Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep.). <br/><br/>It was formerly thought to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (Van Rompae, 1995), but even historically there were indications that the rarity of specimens belied the species’s real status. Hodgson (1841) states that it is “sufficiently common in the mountains of Nepal”, and in 1847 he found “the species very numerous in the eastern half of Nepal and Sikkim.” In the 1970s four observations were made in Chitwan National Park (Sunquist 1982). In the 1880s it was not considered rare in Sikkim (Blanford 1888-1891). The species is near its southern distributional limit in Thailand, and has been considered to be very rare and localized there (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) but there is no evidence it is not simply overlooked. Pham-chong-Ahn (1980) found the species to be uncommon in northern Viet Nam, but, judging from sale in markets, it seems to have been common in 1988 (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989), and a more comprehensive collation of small carnivore records from the country confirms this impression (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Bergmans (1995) speculated that it would be found to be common in Lao PDR and subsequent camera-trapping in the country, while rather limited, has found the species in most survey blocks of both main areas so far surveyed (Johson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Johnson and Johnson 2007).<br/><br/>This species is the relatively rarely recorded in northeastern India (Choudhury, 1999) but there has been little camera-trapping or spotlighting. There are very few records in Cambodia (Olsson pers. comm.). It is relatively common in Yunnan (China). In sum recent records show it is not as rare as was often previously thought, although it probably lives at low density (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
41706	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Wozencraft, C., Choudhury, A., Roberton, S. & Lau, M.W.N., 2008	The species was previously considered to be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, hunting and trade across much of its range (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Although the impacts of these threats on populations are unknown they may be causing declines (Choudhury, 2002; Tizard, 2002) and further research is needed. Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to agriculture. There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004), but this species does not seem to be a specifically sought one in the trade: extensive examination of trade seizures through Viet Nam (the main route to China hardly ever found the species (U. Streicher in Duckworth <em>et al.</em> in prep.), nor is it sought in trade within China (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm.). Nor is it preferentially sought at the local, subsistence level, although throughout its range when it is caught it is eaten. Generalised mammal hunting is extremely heavy in much of its range. As a semi-arboreal species which is almost exclusively nocturnal, it is less exposed to risks of incidental killing and bycatch in snares and traps.  The concern expressed in the IUCN Action Plan for Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989), was made at a time when most of its geographic range was out of access to western biologists, through political factors (Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, the relevant parts of China, most of north-east India, Bhutan), and capacity-building programmes for national conservation personnel were only just beginning in some areas. Hence, there was a very weak information base upon which to make this listing: indirect information from most range states and direct information from Nepal and Thailand, both at the margins of the species' range. In the intervening two decades, most of this area has opened up, and there have been many records of this species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. in prep.), indicating that this 1989 assessment was unduly pessimistic.	eng
41707	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Olsson, A., Roberton, S., Kanchanasaka, B., Than Zaw, Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The species is found in some protected areas in its range, including two in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>, In prep), as well as Phou Xang He and Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Areas in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al,</em> 1999). It was recorded by Lyman <em>et al</em> (2005) in Htuang Pru Reserve Forest and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, and Taphyra National Park in Thailand. In Viet Nam, the trade in the species is nominally regulated, and it is protected in Group 2b (Roberton <em>et al,</em> in prep). This species is protected in Myanmar under the Wildlife Act of 1994. The species is protected in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, but there is no protection in China. Though there have presumably been recent advances in reduction of gun usage by civilians for hunting, there have been increased snaring efforts (in compensation), and there is now a need to reduce, and preferably eradicate, this form of hunting (Lyman <em>et al</em>, 2005).	eng
41707	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Olsson, A., Roberton, S., Kanchanasaka, B., Than Zaw, Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	This species is found in southern China (last record in 1998; Ying-xiang pers. comm.), Cambodia (Walston 2001; Olson pers. obs.), Lao PDR (Duckworth 1997; Khounboline 2005), Peninsular Malaysia (last record in 1985; Asakawa <em>et al.</em> 1986), Myanmar (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005), Thailand (Lynam <em>et al</em> 2005) and Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Only one record from Cambodia was reported by Walston (2001), but the advent of camera-trapping led to many more recent records (CI, WCS, WWF, unpublished per J. Walston pers. comm., Olson pers. comm. 2006). There is some confusion as to whether this species has been found on Singapore, and some authors are explicit that it does not occur there (Harrison 1966), and the only specimen checked has not turned out to represent this species (Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are historical records from Peninsular Malaysia (including one from Penang Island) (Veron 2004). However, the only recent record from Peninsular Malaysia appears to be a road-kill from Sungai Petani in 1985 (Asakawa <em>et al</em>. 1986). There are also several records from southern China (southern Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi; Wang Ying-xiang 1987, 2003; Zhang Yong-zu 1997; Wang Sung 1998; Sheng Helin <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It was recorded by Lynam <em>et al.</em> (2005) in Htuang Pru Reserve Forest and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, and Taphyra National Park in Thailand. In Thailand, the species has been found in several protected areas, and there is a southern record from Bam Nang Nom (Ra Nong Province). This species is a lowland species, with almost all field records from below 300 m (Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). In fact, Lyman <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that they "are not aware of any site in non-Sundaic Southeast Asia lying predominantly under 300 m, supporting 500+ sq. km of (semi-) evergree forest, and having received heavy camera trapping or spotlighting effort, that has not recorded the species." A freshly-killed (by hunters) specimen was reported from Ban Thalang (Thalang village; formerly Ban Namtheun; 17º51'N, 105º03'E, ca. 520 m) on the Nakai Plateau of central Lao PDR PDR, significantly higher in altitude than other recent records of this species, and this level area also hold population of plains birds at anomalously high altitude (Khounboline 2005). The species is potentially more widespread in Myanmar, as there have been few surveys below 300 m using appropriate techniques (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). There are only five confirmed records from Viet Nam, with the furthest north being Phong Nha NP (Roberton <em>et al</em>. In prep). If the species was once present further north in Viet Nam, it is doubtful that any significant populations could still survive (Timmins and Roberton pers. comm.2006). The lack of records in Viet Nam seems to reflect a genuine scarcity in the species and not a lack of appropriate surveys. There are no recent records from China, with the last record from 1998 (Wang Ying-xiang pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>The species is potentially more widespread in Lao PDR, as there have been few surveys below 300 m using appropriate techniques (Duckworth pers comm. 2006). The records from Xe Pian National Protected area suggest that its reasonably common in level lowland forest (Austin 1999). It is probably rare on the Nakai Plateau of central Lao PDR PDR (Khounboline 2005).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, there are three records from camera traps in the southwest. The species has been commonly photo-trapped in several sites in northern and eastern Cambodia (CI, WCS, WWF, unpublished per J. Walstone pers. comm.). Albeit considered widely distributed geographically in Peninsular Malaysia, it was considered rare (Medway 1977). There are no recent records from the area. The species is likely to be very localized on Peninsular Malaysia, as there has been appropriate surveys at low altitudes without results (Azlan pers comm. 2006).	eng
41707	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Olsson, A., Roberton, S., Kanchanasaka, B., Than Zaw, Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	This species has been recorded in evergreen and deciduous forest, and dry dipterocarp forest, all below 300 m of altitude (Duckworth, 1994, Austin, 1999; Duckworth <em>et al</em>., 1999; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005; Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In China, the species is found below 800 m, although the exact habitat is unknown. In Myanmar, there are records from evergreen forest, including forest-grassland edges at 300 m, and there is no information on whether the species is found in some of the dry lowland forests in Myanmar which are the more prevelant habitat within the species' known elevational range (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). In Lao PDR, the species occurs in lowland evergreen/semi-evergreen forest (including degraded areas) with one in open dry dipterocarp forest, all below 300 m altitude (Duckworth <em>et al</em>, 1999), with one outlier at 520 m (Khounboline 2005). In Thailand, it is found in deciduous forest and dry evergreen forest (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.2006). Within northern and eastern Cambodia, the species is found in mosaic deciduous forest, along with semi-evergreen patches and riverine gallery forest (WCS, WWF, CI pers. comm.2006).<br/><br/>Lyman <em>et al</em> (2005) report three records of this species from evergreen forest, the predominant habitat of other recent records, though some have come from deciduous dipterocarp forest (Duckworth, 1994; Austin, 1999). The species is not dependent on primary forest, and can probably persist in degraded forest that has forest structure (Duckworth, 1994). New information from Cambodia and elsewhere suggests that it can live in fragmented areas, but that it might only persist in large forest blocks (Timmins and Duckworth pers. comm.), as was previously suggested by Lynam <em>et al</em> (2005).<br/><br/>This species can potentially be misidentified as either Viverra zibetha or Viverra tangalunga and it is important that wherever possible records are verified through photographs (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm.2006).	eng
41707	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Olsson, A., Roberton, S., Kanchanasaka, B., Than Zaw, Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The population status is poorly known. What is know are from relatively few recent records anywhere in its range (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Lao PDR, from 1997-1999 there were four singles camera trapped in Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (main block and Dong Kalo) in early 1997 (Astain 1999). Recent records of this species in Lao come only from Phou Xang He and Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and the Nakai Plateau in 2002 (Khounboline 2005). There are no Lao records from hill and montane forest, but the species has been found in forest below 300 m which suggests that it is genuinely patchy in occurrence (Lynam <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Thailand, it used to be found all over the country and was rather common (Lekagul and McNeely 1977).<br/><br/>Little over a decade later, a global review of all species of Viverridae found that there was very little known about this species, and traced no records from protected areas, and urged for surveys to assess its current status (Schreiber <em>et al</em> 1989). This disparity is probably due to heavy logging of lowland forest in the interim, and indicates an actual decline and fragmentation in population (Lynam <em>et al,</em> 2005). There are few recent records from Viet Nam (R. J. Timmins in litt, 2004). It has been found at several sites in Cambodia (J. L. Walston in litt, 2004).	eng
41707	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Olsson, A., Roberton, S., Kanchanasaka, B., Than Zaw, Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Throughout much of this species range, terrestrial small carnivores are exposed to heavy hunting, particularly with snares and dogs. This is occurring in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Thailand, with snaring found even in some protected areas such as Ta Pra Ya National Park. There has been an increased demand for food of civets in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em>, 2004; Lyman <em>et al</em>. 2005). From the 1970s and the 1990s, large areas of lowland forest were logged across parts the species' range, particularly in China, Thailand and Viet Nam, including conversion to non-forest land-uses (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005; Wang Ying-xiang pers. comm. 2006). This increased fragmentation of habitat increases the threat of hunting as well as the direct loss in area able to support the species (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Cambodia, at present there is a massive trend in deforestation of lowlands, particularly for local agriculture (Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Myanmar, there is a major trend in conversion of forest to plant oil agriculture, particularly in lowlands (Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). As a ground-dwelling species, and by analogy with <span style="font-style: italic;">V. zibetha</span>, this species should be readily snared. Despite the massive levels of civet hunting, and the often-taken opportunities to check large numbers of civets in trade, this species is not recorded in the widespread trade in China (Lau et al.,1997; Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden, 2004) and Viet Nam, which suggests that the populations are already reduced to overall extremely low levels (Scott Roberton and Wang Ying-xiang, Nguyen Xuan Dang, Michael Lau pers. comm.).	eng
41708	conservation	Azlan, M.J., Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Malay civets are found in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species is protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA, 1972). Field surveys, ecological studies, habitat protection and monitoring of threats are needed.<br/><br/>The species is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species was recorded from Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo in 2003-04 (Wells <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species was recorded from Jerangau Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia in 2000-01 (Azlan, 2003). This species is partially protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972), meaning that anyone found killing this species will be liable to a fine not exceeding three thousand ringgit (Approx. USD 790) or a term of imprisonment not exceeding three years, or both (Azlan, 2003). However, Section 55 of this Act allows farmer to shoot any wild animal that causes damage to their property, as long as reasonable efforts have  been made to frighten the animal away, and many civets are conisdered a pest in Peninsular Malaysia, as the prey on small livestock and raid fruit orchards (Azlan, 2003).	eng
41708	distribution	Azlan, M.J., Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The species is known to occur in Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004; Malaysia Carnivore Project, 2006; Laidlaw pers. comm.), Indonesia, Philippine islands (Heaney and Tabaranza 1991; Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1991) and Sulawesi (Buton island) (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Indonesia, it is found in Borneo (Colon 2002), Sumatra, Rhio-Lingga Archipelago, Bawal Island, Bangka Island, Karimata Island, Sulawesi, Telok Pai, Amboina and the Moluccas (Meiri, 2005; Wozencraft, 2005). Two specimens have been recorded from Java (Meiri, 2005) but there is no evidence of a native population. In the Philippines: Bohol, Busuanga, Culion, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Samar and Sibuyan. It is also reported from Camiguin (Heaney and Tabaranza. 1991), Catanduanes (Heaney <em>et al</em>., 1991), Panay (Timm and Birney, 1980, Lastimosa pers. comm.) and Siguijor (Timm and Birney, 1980). In Malaysia, it is found in Borneo, Banggi Island, Langkawi Island, Penang Island and in Peninsular Malaysia (Corbet and Hill, 1992; Nor, 1996; Meiri, 2005). It was introduced to several islands in Southeast Asia (Jennings <em>et al</em>., 2006). The historical range of the species includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines and Singapore (Corbet and Hill, 1992; Nowak, 1999; Wozencraft, 2005). Although it is also listed from Cambodia, China and Thailand in Wozencraft (1993), there is no evidence it occurs in these countries.	eng
41708	habitat	Azlan, M.J., Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	The Malay civet occurs in a variety of habitats including primary and secondary forests, cultivated land and the outskirts of villages (Nowak, 1999; Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). It is found from sea level to at least 1,200 m (Rabor, 1955; Payne <em>et al</em>., 1985; Rickart <em>et al</em>., 1993; Heaney <em>et al</em>., in press). Malay civets are solitary, omnivorous and primarily terrestrial (Kanchanasakha <em>et al</em>., 1998). A wide range of home-ranges for Malay civets has now been documented on Sulawesi (24 – 189 ha) and Borneo (27 – 283 ha) (MacDonald and Wise, 1979; Nozaki <em>et al</em>., 1994; Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Mean home-range size for adults of both sexes was 110 ha in Sabah and 70 ha on Sulawesi (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em>, 2006). Colon (2002) considered that the Malay civet was not territorial in Sabah but Jennings <em>et al</em>. (2006) found low intra-sexual overlap on Buton Island. Malay civets are mainly nocturnal (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>., 2006). Day rest sites are situated at ground level and associated with some form of cover (Colon, 2002; Jennings <em>et al., </em>2006).<br/><br/>Malay civets are solitary, omnivorous, and primarily terrestrial (Kanchanasakha <em>et al.</em> 1998). A wide range of home-ranges for Malay civets have now been documented on Buton Island, Sulawesi (24– 89 ha) and Borneo (27–283 ha) (MacDonald and Wise 1979; Nozaki <em>et al</em>. 1994; Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Mean home-range size for adults of both sexes was 110 ha in Sabah, East Malaysia and 70 ha on Buton Island, Sulawesi (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Colon (2002) considered that the Malay civet was not territorial in East Malaysia but Jennings <em>et al</em>.(2006) found low intra-sexual overlap on Buton Island. Malay civets are most active at night from 18h00 to 07h00, although Malay civets were more active during the day on Buton Island, Sulawesi than in Sabah, East Malaysia (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). Day rest sites are situated at ground level and associated with some form of cover such as logs, dense brush pile, or thick herbaceous vegetation (Colon 2002; Jennings <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>The species’ habitat is primary and secondary lowland, montane, and mossy forest from sea level to at least 1,200 m asl (Rabor 1955, Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993, Heaney <em>et al</em>. in press). It is also found also in agricultural areas and near human settlements in the proximity of forest (Wemmer and Watling, 1986; Nowak, 1999). In a study on home range behaviour of this species on Buton Island, Jennings <em>et al.</em> (2006) found a home range size of 70 ha, with smaller home ranges for females as compared to those found in logged forest on Borneo. It is an adaptable species that seems to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions, including disturbed areas (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species was recorded in primary lowland rainforest in Tawau Hills National Park in Borneo by Wells <em>et al.</em> (2005). All Bornean civets (except Diplogale hosei) have been recorded in disturbed forest areas, though abundance declines in this habitat (Heydon and Bulloh, 1996; Colon, 2002; pers. comm.). It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003). This species is ground-living (Medway, 1978) and predominantly crepuscular (Azlan and Gulan Azad, 2005).	eng
41708	population	Azlan, M.J., Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	Although the Malay civet is a widespread species, little is still known about its population levels in countries where it is native or has been introduced. Colon (2002) found lower population densities in logged forest than in unlogged forest, and suggested that this may be because of lower fruit availability in logged forest. The species is widespread in Asia and is moderately common in forest and rare in other habitats.	eng
41708	threats	Azlan, M.J., Hon, J., Duckworth, J.W., Jennings, A. & Veron, G., 2008	As a ground-living species it is exposed to snaring and other forms of ground-level trapping, and hunting with dogs, however, the limited survey in areas heavily used by people suggests it is rather well able to persist at general levels of threat. The species is occasionally hunted for food and treated as a pest as it raids poultry.	eng
41709	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C., Wang Yin-xiang, Kanchanasaka, B. & Long, B., 2008	This species is totally protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 (WPA 1972) (Azlan, 2003). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000). China listed it as ‘Endangered’ under criteria A2acd, and it is a class II protected State species (due to trapping for food and scent glands). It is protected in Thailand, Viet Nam and Myanmar (GMA Small Carnivore Workshop, 2006). It is found in several protected areas throughout its range (Duckworth, 1997; Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004). The population of India is listed on CITES Appendix III.	eng
41709	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C., Wang Yin-xiang, Kanchanasaka, B. & Long, B., 2008	This species is found in Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Azlan, 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist, 2004), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Austin and Tewes, 1999), Viet Nam (Boonratana , 2004; Long, and Minh Hoang 2006), Cambodia (J.L. Walston pers. comm.), China (Anhui, Shaanxi, Ganus, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Xisang, Guangxi, Gunagdong, Hainan, Fujian Zhejiang and Jiangsu), northeast India, Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), Nepal, Bhutan, Singapore, (Pocock 1939, Corbet and Hill, 1992; Wozencraft, 2005). Introduced to the Andaman Islands (Lever, 1985).	eng
41709	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C., Wang Yin-xiang, Kanchanasaka, B. & Long, B., 2008	This species has been recorded in primary forest (both evergreen and deciduous), secondary forest and plantations (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997; Azlan, 2003) and is often said to have even wider habitat use (e.g. Lekagul and McNeely 1977). It has been recorded up to 1,600 m (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). It is solitary, nocturnal although there are occasinal day-time records of active animals (e.g. Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press) and it is usually active on the ground (Lekagul and McNeely, 1977, Duckworth 1997). An adult male was radio-tracked in Thailand and had a home-range of 12 km² (Rabinowitz, 1991). Occupancy of suitable habitats varies within Indochina. <br/><br/>Its diet consists of a wide range of animals, including fish, birds, lizards, frogs, insects, scorpions (and other arthropods) and crabs, as well as poultry and garbage (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). <br/><br/>In Lao PDR, this species is found in tall forest, both evergreen and deciduous, and adjacent degraded areas, over at least 200 to 1000 m, with few recent records from below 400 m (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); however, there are many records from other countries, e.g. Myanmar, below this altitude (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. in press). They are believed to breed throughout the year, with two litters per year, and two to four young per litter (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Breeding and resting dens are usually holes in the ground which were originally dug by other species. It was recorded in secondary forest, that was logged in the 1970s, and which surrounds a palm estate, in Malaysia in 2000-01 by Azlan (2003).<br/><br/>Like Viverricula and Civettictis, but to a generally much lesser extent, this civet has been used as a source of civetone, an oil-like substance secreted by the perineal gland used by the animal for territorial marking.	eng
41709	population	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C., Wang Yin-xiang, Kanchanasaka, B. & Long, B., 2008	This species lives at a naturally fairly high density for a carnivorous animal and was almost universally considered common by historical collectors (Pocock 1939). It remains common in much of its range: it is possible to see several in a single night of spotlighting on foot even in heavily-hunted Lao PDR ( Duckworth 1997), it is among the most common mammals camera-trapped across Cambodia (J. L. Walmart pers. comm.) and Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press), and is one of the most commonly recorded civets in Viet Nam (Roberton <em>et al.</em> in prep.). However, in some areas (such as Southeastern China) it has become effectively extinct over large areas (M. W. N. Lau pers. comm.). Few other parts of the range are as severely impacted by habitat fragmentation and degradation coupled with hunting. It is likely that populations are widely reduced in the most heavily hunted parts of its range where habitat has been heavily fragmented, e.g. much of northern Viet Nam and lowland Lao PDR. Recent camera-trapping in the Nakai–Nam Theun national protected areas, Central Lao PDR, found rather few animals (Johnson and Johnston 2007), suggesting the possibility for very heavy ground-level trapping (as occurs in much of this area) to reduce populations greatly even in large tracts of little-encroached forest.	eng
41709	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Wozencraft, C., Wang Yin-xiang, Kanchanasaka, B. & Long, B., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are a threat to this species (Schreiber <em>et al.</em>, 1989). Across its range, there has been loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses. It is hunted for food, probably throughout its range, and certainly in Viet Nam, China, Lao PDR, Myanmar, NE India and Thailand, and for scent glands in Viet Nam and China. Ground-living small carnivores are exposed to high levels of non-specific hunting, particularly with snares, throughout most of South-east Asia. Dogs are widely likely to be a problem for this ground-dwelling species, even though it is largely within burrows by day. Snaring and other forms of ground-level trapping occur in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997), Viet Nam, and Thailand, with trapping found both inside and outside protected areas (Kanchanasaka,  pers. comm.). There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41710	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Muddapa, D., 2008	In Myanmar, this species is totally protected under the Wildlife Act of 1994 (Su, 2005). This species is listed on Category II of the China Wildlife Protection Law (1988) (Li <em>et al</em>, 2000) and as ‘Vulnerable’ in the China Red List (Wang and Xie, 2004). It is listed on CITES Appendix III (India). It has been recorded in many protected areas (Duckworth, 1997; Mudappa, 2002; Su Su, 2005).	eng
41710	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Muddapa, D., 2008	This species is currently known to occur in south and central China (Wang and Fuller, 2001, 2003), Hong Kong (Suen, 2002), most of India (Mudappa, 2002), Lao PDR (Duckworth, 1997), Myanmar (Su Su, 2005), Thailand (Rabinowitz, 1991; Austin and Tewes, 1999), Viet Nam (Roberton 2007), Cambodia (J. L. Walston pers. comm.) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke pers. comm.). No search has been made for recent records from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, Java or Bali (Indonesia), areas where it was historically recorded, mostly commonly. It was formerly known from Singapore but its current status there is unclear (B. P. Y.H. Lee pers. comm.). Corbet and Hill (1992) include all of Sumatra for the species' distribution range, but only four individuals are known, all from one locality in the far north. Sody (1931) described these as a distinct subspecies, Viverricula malaccensis atchinensis. Other records from Sumatra have not been seen, and it is suggested to restrict its range to the north (Meijaard pers. comm.), and the lack of recent records from Sumatra is puzzling (W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). It has been introduced to Madagascar (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Zhang 1997), Socotra (Yemen; Pocock 1939) and Zanzibar (Tanzania; W. Duckworth in litt. 2006). The current status of these introduced populations is poorly known.	eng
41710	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Muddapa, D., 2008	This species has been recorded in semi-evergreen and deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest, bamboo forest, scrubby areas, grasslands and riverine habitat (Duckworth 1997, Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Mudappa, 2002; Su Su, 2005). This species is nocturnal and mostly terrestrial (Mudappa, 2002). An adult male was radio-tracked in Thailand and had a home range of 3.1 km² (Rabinowitz, 1991). In Lao PDR, this species is found in Semi-evergreen (rarely) and deciduous forest, including adjacent degraded areas (Duckowrth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In other countries it is tolerant of habitat degradation and lives in proximity to human communities (Lekagul and McNeely 1988) and an active avoidance of closed evergreen forest was shown in Myanmar (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press; see ‘population’). In Thailand, it is mostly found in long grass or scrub, particularly in areas near villages, where it may live in drains, outhouses, and roofs, eating domestic poultry (Su Su, 2005) as well as rats, mice, birds, snakes, fruit, and roots, as well as carrion (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). It has litters of three to five, and the life span is eight to nine years (Lekagul and McNeely 1988). In Myanmar this species was recorded from both mixed deciduous forest and bamboo forest (Su Su, 2005). This species was rarely seen in the undisturbed rainforests of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in India, and was mostly seen near garbage dumps (Mudappa, 2002). In KMTR they were not camera-trapped frequently in rainforest, but were the most camera-trapped species in grasslands and in a riverine habitat (Mudappa, 2002). This species is nocturnal, and mostly terrestrial and insectivorous (Mudappa, 2002). Wang and Fuller (2001) conducted a study on the ecology of this species near Taohong Village in northern Jiangxi Province, southeastern China, from April 1993 to November 1994. Wang and Fuller (2003) conducted a study on the food habits of this species in a rural agricultural area of southeastern China (Taohong Village, Jiangxi Province) by analyzing its scats, the study was conducted between June 1992 and November 1994, and found that this species ate mostly mammals, with moderate insects and plants.	eng
41710	population	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Muddapa, D., 2008	The population status of this species is less well known that that of some other Southeast Asian small carnivores, because recent survey efforts have mostly not been appropriate for assessing the species. This is best shown by records from Myanmar. Su Su (2005) found that it was the second most common species of small carnivore recorded in Hlawga Wildlife Park in Myanmar, a secondary small isolate of semi-natural habitat in the outskirts of Yangon, a former capital city, subject to barely controlled snaring and other forms of encroachment, where only one other species of small carnivore persists in significant numbers. Recent camera-trapping showed that it is also abundant (by far the most frequently photographed nocturnal small carnivore) in Alungdaw Kathapa national park (Thaint Thaint Myo pers. comm. 2007), although intensive camera-trapping for Tigers a few years earlier at this site had recorded the species only twice. This reflected the focus of the Tiger survey on little-disturbed evergreen forest, a habitat little-used by the species in South-east Asia, rather than the edge, disturbed and secondary areas the focus of the latter survey (Than Zaw <em>et al.</em> in press). The habitat degradation and hunting patterns of these two sites in Myanmar where the species is common are representative of much of non-Sundaic Southeast Asia, and incidental records from various other sites (e.g. Duckworth and Robichaud 2005) imply large populations in total, although it is likely that in Viet Nam and Lao at least populations will have been somewhat depleted by snaring. This factor (the tendency for camera-trap surveys to go to the least encroached habitat blocks) has certainly much reduced the number of recent records of the species from South-east Asia. In Cambodia, where more camera-trapping has taken place in deciduous forest areas, it is commonly camera trapped (J. L. Walston pers. comm.). The same factor was suspected to be responsible for the relatively few recent records from Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and may also have generated earlier remarks such as in Thailand, this species is rather rare (Lekagul and McNeely 1977); in fact, it is common in the degraded parts of Khao Yai national park but difficult to fin within the forest itself (J. W. Duckworth and A. Nettelbeck pers. comm.). It is also abundant over large areas of India. It is common in deciduous forests of Dak Lak, Viet Nam (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al.</em> 1997) and more widely in the country (Roberton 2007). No information has been sought for the Sundaic populations except for Sumatra, where the species status has always been unclear; no recent records were traced.	eng
41710	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J. & Muddapa, D., 2008	The extent to which extensive habitat loss and degradation are a threat to this species remains unclear as in most or all of its range areas it is more common in altered landscapes than in closed-canopy old-growth evergreen forest. This species is hunted for its meat and scent (Gupta 2004) in some portions of its range which potentially might reduce populations. Ground-dwelling small carnivores are exposed to hunting, particularly with snares. This is occurring in much of its range, including Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1997) and Thailand, with snaring found even in some protected areas (Kanchanasaka pers. comm.). There has been an increased demand for civet meat in Chinese and Viet Namese markets (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2005). In India animals are caught for captivity for collection of ‘civet’, a fixative used internationally in the perfume industry and domestically for various purposes; even in areas of heavy collection, the animals remain common in the degraded forest, scrub and agricultural landscapes covering most of peninsular India. There is no evidence (at least from the non-Sundaic parts of its range) that it is not well able to survive high combined pressures of forest conversion and harvesting. The converse seems to be true: it remains more common than most other species of small carnivore in heavily encroached areas of southern China (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.), as it does in heavily encroached Myanmar (Su Su 2005).	eng
41711	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	North Pacific right whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling since 1935 by the IWC, but this has been fully respected in practice only since the 1970s.<br/><br/>The species is in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.	eng
41711	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	In the North Pacific, right whales occur during the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, the southeastern Bering Sea, the Aleutian Islands, and the northern Gulf of Alaska. During the winter, they occur (or at least occurred historically) southward to the Sea of Japan [=East Sea], Taiwan Strait and the Ogasawara Gunto (Bonin Islands, Japan) in the west and to Baja California Sur (Mexico) in the east. Populations on the Asian and American sides of the Pacific are regarded as discrete (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). Vagrants have been recorded in the Hawaiian islands (Rowntree <em>et al.</em> 1980, Herman <em>et al.</em> 1980). <br/><br/>Formerly abundant across much of the North Pacific in summer, mainly north of 40°N, the right whale is now regularly seen only in the Okhotsk Sea and the southeastern Bering Sea, with occasional sightings along the east coast of Japan, off the Bonin Islands, and in the Gulf of Alaska. In the 1970s there were two sightings off Hawaii (Salden and Mickelson 1999) in spring and three right whales were taken in the Yellow Sea in winter (Wang 1978, 1988). Sightings off California and Mexico are rare and there is no evidence that the western coasts of the United States and Mexico were ever highly frequented habitat for this species (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41711	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Little is known about habitat use by North Pacific right whales. The rarity of coastal records in winter in either historical or recent times suggest that their breeding grounds may have been offshore (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is in contrast to southern right whales which form inshore breeding concentrations. There is clearly some migration northward in summer and southward in winter (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004), but the location of the wintering grounds is unknown. The historical catches show that in summer the species mainly occurred in the Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Okhotsk and northern North Pacific.	eng
41711	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The right whale population in the North Pacific is only a small fraction of what it was prior to 19th century whaling. A preliminary estimate of 26,500-37,000 animals taken (including struck and lost) during the period 1839-1909 was given by Scarff (2001), of which 21,000-30,000 were taken during 1840-49 alone.<br/><br/>Since the start of modern whaling in the North Pacific (1911), 742 right whales are recorded taken (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001) of which about 500 were illegal catches by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s, that were concealed at the time (Doroshenko 2000).<br/><br/>Brownell <em>et al.</em> (2001) listed a total of 1,965 right whale sighting records in the 20th century. Today, the main remnant population summers in the Sea of Okhotsk between Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka (Russian Federation). Based on sightings of 28 right whales in 2,688 nautical miles of Japanese-Russian cetacean surveys in the Okhotsk Sea in August and September in 1989, 1990 and 1992, Miyashita and Kato (1998) derived a preliminary population estimate of 922 whales (95% CI 404-2,108) using line-transect analysis. Additional Japanese surveys were conducted in 1999, 2000 and 2003 (Miyashita <em>et al. </em>2000, 2001; Miyashita 2004). These yielded sightings of 23 right whales in 6,966 nautical miles of survey, but the data have not yet been analyzed to provide a population estimate. Given the low precision of the estimate from 1989-92, and the fact that the more recent surveys encountered relatively fewer right whales (3.3 whales per 1,000 miles in 1999-2003 compared with 10.4 whales per 1,000 miles in 1989-92), a new population estimate should be derived, using data from all the surveys to date. Sightings off Japan at other times of year may be whales migrating to or from the Okhotsk Sea.<br/><br/>In the eastern North Pacific, the few animals observed are usually alone and in scattered locations. The only exception is an area of the south-eastern Bering Sea where small groups of right whales have been seen in several successive years (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2001, Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006). No quantitative estimates of abundance outside the Okhotsk Sea are available, but the paucity of sightings suggests that right whales in the eastern North Pacific number only in the tens (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). No confirmed sightings of calves were made in this region in the 20th century, and there have been only three thus far in the 21st (Waite <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41711	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Hunting by the Japanese began as early as the late 1500s, and by Europeans and Americans in the 1830s; by 1900, the population had been reduced to a tiny fraction of its original abundance. Although legally protected by the IWC since 1946 (and by earlier agreements since 1935) illegal hunting continued into the 1960s, when Soviet whaling fleets killed 372 right whales in the eastern North Pacific, which may have been the bulk of the remaining population there (Doroshenko 2000, Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). The eastern North Pacific population is distinct and of extremely small size (fewer than 50 mature individuals); it is the subject of a separate assessment, as CR.<br/><br/>There is currently no direct hunting but there have been cases of known and suspected entanglements (Burdin <em>et al.</em> 2004) in the Okhotsk Sea and Kuril Islands, involving at least four whales including one dead. Effort is needed to ascertain the frequency of such occurrences, since the very low observer effort probably means that most deaths pass unrecorded.<br/><br/>As compared with the intensively studied North Atlantic right whale, the more offshore and remote distribution of the North Pacific right whale may be an advantage in terms of less intensive exposure to human impacts, but the disadvantage is that impacts that do occur are less likely to be detected and their consequences are harder to ascertain and evaluate.	eng
41712	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The right whale has been protected from hunting by the IWC and its predecessor since 1935, and is also protected in Canada, a non-member of the IWC.<br/><br/>Efforts are underway in both the US and Canada aimed at limiting deaths and injuries due to ship strikes and entanglements. In both countries, recovery plans have been developed involving collaboration among the various stakeholders.<br/><br/>Regulations are in place in the US requiring modifications to fishing gear and restrictions on certain types of gear in areas and times where right whales are common (Clapham 2005). A Mandatory Ship Reporting Scheme has been in place since 1999 in two areas in the right whale calving and summering grounds to enable vessels to be warned of right whales in the area. Regulations specify minimum approach distances for whale-watching and other vessels. <br/><br/>Shipping lanes in the Bay of Fundy have been moved, with the approval of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), to take them away from the major summer concentrations of right whales. A regulatory proposal to enforce maximum transit speeds on vessels passing through right whale habitats off the US east coast was still under review in 2007.<br/><br/>There is as yet no indication of a decrease in the rate of anthropogenic mortality, hence it is unclear whether the measures taken to date are sufficient.<br/><br/>The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.	eng
41712	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The right whale has been protected from hunting by the IWC and its predecessor since 1935, and is also protected in Canada, a non-member of the IWC. Efforts are underway in both the US and Canada aimed at limiting deaths and injuries due to ship strikes and entanglements.  In both countries, recovery plans have been developed involving collaboration between the various stakeholders. Regulations are in place in the US requiring modifications to fishing gear and restrictions on certain types of such gear in areas and times where right whales are common (Clapham 2005).  A Mandatory Ship Reporting Scheme has been in place since 1999 in two areas in the right whale calving and summering grounds to enable vessels to be warned of right whales in the area. Regulations specify minimum approach distances for whale-watching and other vessels. Shipping lanes in the Bay of Fundy have been moved, with the approval of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), to take them away from the major summer concentrations of right whales. A regulatory proposal to enforce maximum transit speeds on vessels passing through right whale habitats off the US east coast was still under review in 2007.<br/><br/>There is as yet no indication of a decrease in the rate of anthropogenic mortalities, hence it is unclear whether the measures taken to date are sufficient.	eng
41712	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The right whale in the past was common on both sides of the North Atlantic. It appears to be effectively extinct in the eastern North Atlantic, but in the past probably ranged from a calving ground in the Golfo de Cintra (23°N) off the western Sahara, through the Azores, Bay of Biscay, western British Isles, and the Norwegian Sea to the North Cape (hence the Dutch name Noordkaper). In the western North Atlantic the species migrates from a calving ground off Florida and Georgia along the eastern seaboard of North America, to summering grounds in the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, and Scotian Shelf, with some individuals reaching the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Davis and Denmark Straits and occasionally Iceland and Norway. It is unclear whether in the past the animals in the northern part of the range (off Iceland and Norway) belonged mainly to the western or eastern breeding stocks.	eng
41712	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The right whale was formerly common on both sides of the North Atlantic. It appears to be effectively extinct in the eastern North Atlantic but in the past probably ranged from a calving ground in the Golfo de Cintra (23°N) off Western Sahara, through the Azores, Bay of Biscay, western British Isles, and the Norwegian Sea to the North Cape (hence the Dutch name Noordkaper). In the western North Atlantic the species migrates from a calving ground off Florida and Georgia along the eastern seaboard of North America, to summering grounds in the Gulf of Maine, Bay of Fundy, and Scotian Shelf, with some individuals reaching the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Davis and Denmark Straits and occasionally Iceland and Norway. It is unclear whether in the past the animals in the northern part of the range (off Iceland and Norway) belonged mainly to the western or eastern breeding stocks.	eng
41712	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Right whales are often encountered as singles or pairs, with larger groups or aggregations observed socializing, mating or feeding. They can be aerially active and generally raise their flukes before a deep dive.  Right whales can be individually identified by the patterns of callosities on the head, as well as by scars (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 1986). <br/><br/>The mating system appears to involve sperm competition (males competing to inseminate females, not so much by physical aggression, as by delivering large loads of sperm, thereby displacing that of other males). Young are born in winter and spring in calving areas in low temperate or subtropical latitudes.<br/><br/>Right whales feed on calanoid copepods and other small invertebrates (smaller copepods, krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles), generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the surface. The most common prey species is the copepod <em>Calanus finmarchicus</em>.	eng
41712	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Right whales feed on calanoid copepods and other small invertebrates (smaller copepods, krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles), generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the surface. The most common prey species is the copepod <em>Calanus finmarchicus</em> (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41712	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<strong><em>Northwest Atlantic</em></strong><br/><br/><em>Historic</em><br/>It is not clear when Basque whaling began in the northwestern North Atlantic, but it had been established no later than 1530. It has long been thought that large numbers (tens of thousands) of right whales were taken off Labrador and Newfoundland by the Basques between 1530 and 1610 (Aguilar 1986, Reeves 2001) but recent genetic evidence suggest that many if not most of these were bowheads (Rastogi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shore-based whaling along the US east coast began in the mid 17th century and continued at least sporadically over the next two and a half centuries (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999, IWC 2001a). Reeves <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated as a lower bound that some 5,500 right whales (and “possibly twice that number”) were removed by whaling in the western North Atlantic between 1634-1951.<br/><br/><em>Current</em><br/>The current population is of about 300–350 individuals off the east coast of North America. IWC (2001a) obtained a minimum estimate of 263 in 1996 from identified animals known to be alive at that time, and indicated that the true population was probably not much higher. Kraus <em>et al.</em> (2001) provided a minimum estimate of 299 in 1998 based on animals presumed to be alive at that time (and not missing for more than 5 years). Preliminary analysis of more recent data have yielded estimates similar to those above. The whales are regularly surveyed in the winter calving ground off Florida and Georgia, and in spring/summer feeding grounds in Cape Cod Bay, the Great South Channel off Massachusetts, the Gulf of Maine, the Scotian Shelf, and the Bay of Fundy, but not all the whales using the wintering ground are seen in these major summering areas (IWC 2001b). There have been a few sightings in recent years in the Gulf of St Lawrence, two off Iceland in 2003, and one in the former whaling ground off Cape Farewell in 2004 (IWC 2005). A sighting off Norway in 1999 was identified as a well-known animal from the western North Atlantic population (Jacobsen <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Calf counts have been collected since 1980 but counts in the 1980s were probably underestimates, due to non-coverage of the winter calving grounds. Calf production has fluctuated, possibly linked to environmental conditions (Greene <em>et al.</em> 2003). It was low during 1998-2000 (av. 3 per year, with an associated calving interval of 5.7 years, Kraus <em>et al.</em> 2001) but high during 2001-2005 (av. 23 per year) (Clapham 2005). Nineteen calves were recorded in 2006, and the average interbirth interval of the mothers concerned was 3.2 years (Anon. 2006). <br/><br/>An analysis of survival and reproductive rates (Caswell <em>et al.</em> 1999) concluded that survival rates had declined and that, as of 1995, the population was in decline. However, the finding of population decline was based on the assumption that only 38% of mature females were reproductively active, whereas the true figure appears to be over 70% (IWC 2001b). A subsequent review of survival rates concluded that survival rates probably were lower in the 1990s than in the 1980s (Clapham 2003). No more recent data on survival rates have been published to date; while reproduction has noticeably increased in this population, mortality has remained high and is a source of serious concern (IWC 2006).<br/><br/>Increase, if any, in this population is at a much lower rate than in the southern right whale. Per capita calf production and calving intervals have been highly variable over the last decade. The occurrence of skin lesions, of a kind not seen in Southern Hemisphere right whales, was recorded during the period 1995 to 2002, and appeared to be correlated with the failure to reproduce of females that would normally be ready to calve (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001; Rolland <em>et al.</em> 2007). Over the same period, body condition as measured by blubber thickness was poorer in the North Atlantic than in Southern Hemisphere right whales (IWC 2001c). Mortality rates are higher than in Southern Hemisphere right whales, due largely to human-caused deaths (IWC 2001b) (see Threats below). <br/><br/><strong><em>Northeast Atlantic</em></strong><br/><br/><em>Historic</em><br/>The first records of Basque whaling in the Bay of Biscay are from the 11th century. At least dozens of whales were taken each year in the Bay of Biscay until a marked decline was evident by 1650, and whaling declined during the 18th century. Basque whalers arrived in Iceland as early as 1412, and participated in the right whale fishery around the British Isles and Norway from the 14th to the 18th century, but probably many more whales were taken by Dutch, Danish, British and Norwegian whalers. Quantitative estimates of catches are not available. Historic right whale catches as far north as Iceland and Norway appear to have been mainly <em>E. glacialis</em>, with <em>Balaena mysticetus</em> (bowhead) being the main species only in the far north (Greenland and Svalbard) (Aguilar 1986). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2006) documented extensive whaling for <em>E. glacialis</em> in the North Cape area (northern Norway) in the 17th century. Right whaling in the northeastern Atlantic seems to have declined from the mid-17th century and all but disappeared by the mid-18th century, but there was a brief period of right whale catches by modern whalers operating from shore stations in the British Isles and off Iceland, with at least 120 right whales were taken during 1881-1924 (Collett 1909, Brown 1986). The last recorded catch was a cow-calf pair off Madeira in 1967, accompanied by a third individual that escaped.<br/><br/><em>Current</em><br/>It is not clear whether there is a remnant Northeast Atlantic population or whether the animals seen there in modern times are strays from the west. There have been only eight confirmed sightings from 1960 to 1999, including the animal sighted in Norway in 1999, which was matched with the western north Atlantic population (IWC 2001b). A possible right whale was sighted in the Bay of Biscay in 1977 (Aguilar 1981) and a cow-calf pair was sighted off Cape Vincent, Portugal in 1995 (Martin and Walker 1997). A recent survey of the former Cintra Bay calving ground off Western Sahara failed to locate any right whales (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1998), although survey conditions were often poor.	eng
41712	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Historic<br/>It is not clear when Basque whaling began in the northwestern North Atlantic, but it had been established by no later than 1530. An estimated 25,000-40,000 right whales were taken off Labrador and Newfoundland between 1530 and 1610 (Aguilar 1986) although recent genetic data have suggested that many of these were bowheads (Reeves 2001, Rastogi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Shore-based whaling along the US east coast began in the mid 17th century, with an estimated 2,000-3,800 taken during 1696-1734.  Whaling continued sporadically over the next two centuries, with a few hundred taken in total until the last catch in 1935 (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Current<br/>The current population is of about 300–350 individuals off the east coast of North America. IWC (2001a) obtained a minimum estimate of 263 in 1996 from identified animals known to be alive at that time, and indicated that the true population is probably not much higher.  Kraus <em>et al.</em> (2001) provided a minimum estimate of 299 in 1998 based on animals presumed to be alive at that time (and not missing for more than 5 years).  Preliminary analysis of more recent data have yielded estimates similar to those above. The whales are regularly surveyed in the winter calving ground off Florida and Georgia, and in spring/summer feeding grounds in Cape Cod Bay, the Great South Channel off Massachusetts, the Gulf of Maine, the Scotian Shelf, and the Bay of Fundy, but not all the whales using the wintering ground are seen in these major summering areas (IWC 2001a).  There have been a few sightings in recent years in the Gulf of St Lawrence, two off Iceland in 2003, and one in the former whaling ground off Cape Farewell in 2004 (IWC 2005).   A sighting off Norway in 1999 was identified as a well-known animal from the western North Atlantic population (IWC 2001a). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic </strong><br/>Historic<br/>The first records of Basque whaling in the Bay of Biscay are from the 11th century. At least dozens of whales were taken each year in the Bay of Biscay until a marked decline was evident by 1650; whaling continued there until the 18th century. Basque whalers arrived in Iceland as early as 1412, and participated in the right whale fishery around the British Isles and Norway from the 14th to the 18th century, but probably many more whales were taken by Dutch, Danish, British and Norwegian whalers. Quantitative estimates of catches are not available. Historic right whale catches as far north as Iceland and Norway appear to have been mainly <em>E. glacialis</em>, with <em>Balaena mysticetus</em> (bowhead) being the main species only in the far north (Greenland and Svalbard) (Aguilar 1986). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2006) document extensive whaling for <em>E. glacialis</em> in the North Cape area (northern Norway) in the 17th century. Right whaling seems to have declined from the mid-17th century and disappeared by the mid-18th century, but there was a brief period of right whale catches by modern whalers operating from shore stations in the British Isles and off Iceland, where at least 120 right whales were taken during 1881-1924 (Collett 1909, Brown 1986). The last recorded catch was a cow-calf pair off Madeira in 1967, accompanied by a third individual which escaped.<br/><br/>Current<br/>It is not clear whether there is a remnant Northeast Atlantic population or whether the animals seen here in modern times are strays from the west.  There have been only eight confirmed sightings from 1960 to 1999, including the animal sighted in Norway in 1999 which was matched with the western north Atlantic population (IWC 2001a). A possible right whale was sighted in the Bay of Biscay in 1977 (Aguilar 1981) and a cow-calf pair was sighted off Cape Vincent, Portugal in 1995 (Martin and Walker 1997). A recent survey of the former Cintra Bay calving ground off the Western Sahara failed to locate any right whales (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al.</em> 1998), although survey conditions were often poor.	eng
41712	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Right whales in the North Atlantic are no longer hunted, and the most serious current threat is death or injury from entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships off the eastern coast of North America (Knowlton and Kraus 2001; Kraus and Rolland 2007). <br/><br/>During 1999-2003, the recorded human-caused mortality and serious injury averaged 2.6 animals per year, of which 1.6 per year were fishery entanglements and 1.0 vessel collisions. A further 11 deaths (8 ship strikes, 1 entanglement and two of unknown cause) were reported between 2004 and the end of 2006. Based on scarring from fishing gear it is estimated that at least 72% of the right whale population had been involved in an entanglement event at some point in their lives, and that 10-30% of the population is entangled each year (Clapham 2005). Because some anthropogenic deaths probably pass undetected, reported rates are considered minimal.<br/><br/>Hypotheses that have been advanced to explain the low reproductive rates observed for several years include: genetic factors, poor nutrition, chemical contaminants, biotoxins, disease. (IWC 2001c, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, reproduction has increased in recent years.	eng
41712	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Right whales in the North Atlantic are no longer hunted, and the most serious current threats are deaths and injuries from entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships off the eastern coast of North America (Knowlton and Kraus 2001).  <br/><br/>During 1999-2003, the recorded human-caused mortality and serious injury averaged 2.6 animals per year, of which 1.6 per year were fishery entanglements and 1.0 vessel collisions. A further 11 deaths (8 ship strikes, 1 entanglement and two of unknown cause) were reported between 2004 and the end of 2006. Based on scarring from fishing gear it is estimated that at least 72% of the right whale population had been involved in an entanglement event at some point in their lives, and that 10-30% of the population are entangled each year (Clapham 2005).  Because some anthropogenic mortalities probably pass undetected, reported rates are likely minima.<br/><br/>Hypotheses that have been advanced to explain the low reproductive rates observed for several years include: genetic factors, poor nutrition, chemical contaminants, biotoxins, disease (IWC 2001b, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, reproduction in recent years has increased; whether this rate will continue is unknown.	eng
41713	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Blue whales are protected worldwide, including the Antarctic, by the International Whaling Commission, and no hunting currently occurs.&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The species is on Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.</span>	eng
41713	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>The Antarctic blue whale occurs in summer between the Antarctic Polar Front and into the pack ice zone, being most abundant near the ice edge (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2007).&#160; Modern sightings are aggregated close to the edge of the pack ice, while past catches extended further north. Whether this is due to retreat of the pack ice since the time of catching (de la Mare 1997), or because the distribution of the species has contracted following exploitation, is unclear. Over 40,000 blue whales were caught in the waters around <st1:place w:st="on">South Georgia</st1:place>, but the species is rare there now (Moore <em>et al.</em> 1999).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The winter distribution is poorly known, except that Antarctic blue whales occur in winter around southern Africa (including <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Namibia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Angola</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>) where they were formerly caught in large numbers (IWC 2006; Best 1998). Elsewhere there are scattered records, but the sub-specific identity is often in doubt. The assumption has been that animals migrate to lower latitudes in winter, but a portion of the population may remain in Antarctic all the year round.</p>	eng
41713	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Antarctic blue whales are the largest living animal, with lengths up to 33.6m. They feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (krill), especially <em>Euphausia superba</em> (Mackintosh and Wheeler 1929). In summer they feed predominantly near the edge of the pack ice zone. </p>	eng
41713	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The Antarctic blue whale was extremely abundant in the past; about 341,830 blue whales were recorded caught in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic (IWC 2006) in the 20<sup>th</sup> century, of which 12,618 were identified as pygmy blue whales or are assumed to have been so from their location (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; About 40,000 of these were taken around <st1:place w:st="on">South Georgia</st1:place>. In addition, the majority of the over 17,000 blue whales caught off southern <st1:place w:st="on">Africa</st1:place> were probably Antarctic blue whales (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2007). Ignoring these and other catches north of 40°S, Branch <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated the pre-exploitation (1905) abundance to be 239,000 (202,000-311,000). The<span class="msoIns"> estimated population size in 1996, based primarily on data from the International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR) —later Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research</span> (SOWER) programme - whale sightings cruises, was 1,700 (860-2,900) with an estimated annual rate of increase of 7.3% (1.4-11.6%). The default value of 31 years for generation time given in Taylor <em>et al.</em> (2007) was considered appropriate, given an absence of any indications to the contrary from available biological information for the species. That implies that the time window for applying the A (reduction) criterion is 1914-2007. Branch <em>et al</em>.'s initial (1905) population estimate can be taken as a conservative (i.e., negatively biased) proxy for the 1914 population size, because few (< 1,000) catches were taken during 1904-11and those authors excluded the 17,000 catches off <st1:place w:st="on">Southern Africa</st1:place>. Their estimate for the ratio of the 1996 population size to the initial is 0.7% (0.3-1.3%). Even allowing for a doubling of the population size since 1996, the Antarctic blue whale population remains below 3% of the 1914 level.	eng
41713	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The main threat in the past was direct exploitation, which only became possible (on more than an occasional basis) in the modern era using deck-mounted harpoon cannons. Whaling on Antarctic blue whales began in 1904 based in <st1:place w:st="on">South  Georgia</st1:place>. With the advent of factory-ship whaling in the 1920s, catching spread around the Antarctic, reaching a peak in 1930-31 when more than 30,000 were taken.&#160; Southern Hemisphere blue whales have been protected under the International Whaling Convention since 1966. Continued illegal catches of blue whales by factory ships from the former <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USSR</st1:place></st1:country-region> until 1972 were primarily pygmy blue whales. The Antarctic blue whale population was reduced to a dangerously small size (low hundreds) by the end of whaling but is now increasing (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2004). Antarctic blue whales are not known to be subject to any current direct anthropogenic threats.	eng
41714	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>More research is needed to establish the range and clarify the taxonomy of the genus <em>Tursiops</em>. More information is also needed on population size and the extent and magnitude of direct and indirect takes so that their impact on this species can be assessed.	eng
41714	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin has a discontinuous distribution in the warm temperate to tropical Indo-Pacific, from South Africa in the west, along the rim of the Indian Ocean (including the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Indo-Malay Archipelago as far east as the Solomon Islands and possibly New Caledonia) to the southern half of Japan and southeast Australia in the east (Wells and Scott 2002; Möller and Beheregaray 2001). It is also found around oceanic islands distant from major land masses within this range.	eng
41714	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins generally occur over shallow coastal waters on the continental shelf or around oceanic islands. They sometimes occur in mixed groups with common bottlenose dolphins and other delphinid species. They feed on a wide variety of schooling, demersal and reef fishes, as well as cephalopods (Ross 1984; J.Y. Wang, unpubl. data).	eng
41714	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Few estimates of abundance have been made. There are estimated to be 520-530 bottlenose dolphins off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, most of which are probably <em>T. aduncus</em> (the rest <em>T. truncatus</em> – Cockcroft <em>et al</em>. 1992). Between 136 and 179 (95% Cis = 124-212) are known off Zanzibar, Tanzania (Stensland <em>et al</em>. 2006); at least 1,200 in the Persian Gulf (Preen 2004); at least 400 photo-identified along the rim of the Swatch-of-No-Ground, Bangladesh (Rubaiyat Mansur Mowgli and Brian D. Smith pers. comm.); about 218 off western Kyushu, Japan (Shirakihara <em>et al</em>. 2002); 169 off Mikura Island, Japan (Kogi <em>et al</em>. 2004); low tens at the southern tip of Taiwan and about 50 from the northeastern Philippines (J. Y. Wang pers. comm.); 1,099 off Queensland, eastern Australia (Chilvers and Corkeron 2003) and at least 2,000-3,000 in Shark Bay western Australia (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
41714	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species’ near-shore distribution makes it vulnerable to environmental degradation, direct exploitation, and fishery conflicts (Curry and Smith 1997, Wells and Scott 1999; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). Until hunting was outlawed in 1990, this species was hunted in a large-scale drive fishery in Taiwan’s Penghu Islands. Some Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins are taken in the small cetacean fisheries of Sri Lanka. <br/><br/>Incidental catches occur in a number of fisheries throughout the range, including gillnets and purse seines. A Taiwanese shark gillnet fishery operated in northern Australian waters during the early 1980s and took up to 2,000 per year (Harwood and Hembree 1987). Incidental catch in Taiwan continues to be a serious problem. For example, multiple individuals have been seen observed in single catches there and throughout most of the species’ range (J.Y. Wang pers. comm.). A large proportion of dolphins (~40%) off Bangladesh exhibit scars and mutilations consistent with rope and net entanglement in trawl and gill-net fisheries (Rubaiyat Mansur Mowgli and Brian D. Smith pers. comm.). In South Africa and Australia, Indo-Pacific Bottlenose dolphins also suffer considerable mortality in the large-mesh nets set to protect bathers from sharks (Peddemors 1999; Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Live-captures for oceanarium display have taken place in Taiwan, Indonesia and the Solomon Islands in recent years from unassessed populations; their preference as a captive display species makes them vulnerable to depletion from such catches (Wang <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kahn ).<br/><br/>Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in coastal areas are exposed to a wide variety of threats in addition to direct and indirect takes. Threats that are cause for concern include: 1) the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals; 2) reduced prey availability caused by environmental degradation and overfishing (Jackson <em>et al</em>. 2001); 3) direct and indirect disturbance and harassment (e.g. boat traffic and commercial dolphin watching and interactive programs); 4) marine construction and demolition and 5) other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (including anthropogenic noise). Although these and other threats are technically challenging to quantify by comparison with takes, their cumulative impact is likely to result in longitudinal population declines. Lack of historical data in many cases hampers understanding of long-term trends, possibly resulting in shifting baselines.	eng
41715	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.<br/><br/>Estimates of abundance are needed as well as information on direct and incidental takes.	eng
41715	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Previously known primarily from the southern coast of eastern South America, from Uruguay and southern Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, this species is now known from offshore in the southern Hemisphere (Brownell and Clapham 1999). There are records from the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Macquarie Island, and the Auckland Islands. Although rarely seen at sea (there are only a few dozen live sightings), this information suggests that the spectacled porpoise’s range may be circumpolar in the sub-Antarctic zone (with water temperatures of at least 1-10°C) (Goodall 2002). The southernmost sighting is from 64°34'S.	eng
41715	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Spectacled porpoises seem to occur only in cold temperate waters. Although they have been observed or incidentally caught in coastal waters and reported from rivers and channels, their habitat is thought to be primarily oceanic. Where recorded, water temperatures associated with sightings ranged from 5.5°C to 9.5°C (Brownell and Clapham, 1999).<br/><br/>Only four stomachs have been examined; the contents included anchovies and stomatopods (mantis shrimp).	eng
41715	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	There are no estimates of abundance.	eng
41715	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	Spectacled porpoises may be taken deliberately for crab bait off southern Chile. The effects of these catches on spectacled porpoise subpopulations are not known (Jefferson <em>et al</em>.1993).<br/><br/>Like all phocoenoids, spectacled porpoises are caught in gillnets. At least 34 animals were killed incidentally between 1975 and 1990 in coastal gill nets set in Tierra del Fuego, and there was a co-occurrence of strandings and fishing activity in southeastern Chile, suggesting additional undocumented mortality from this source. Some mortality of spectacled porpoises was also reported from bottom and mid-water trawls off the coast of Chubut, Argentina (Brownell and Clapham, 1999).	eng
41716	conservation	Project Seahorse, 2003	The entire genus <em>Hippocampus</em> was listed in Appendix II of <a href="http://www.cites.org">CITES</a> in November 2002.  Implementation of this listing will begin May 2004.  Further research on this species biology, ecology, habitat, abundance, and distribution is needed.	eng
41716	distribution	Project Seahorse, 2003	This species may be widespread in the western Pacific Ocean (Lourie and Randall 2003).	eng
41716	habitat	Project Seahorse, 2003	Very little is known about the ecology of this species.  It is one of the smallest seahorse species, measuring less than 2 cm in height (Lourie and Randall 2003).  It has a specific habitat, being found only on gorgonian corals <em>Annella reticulata, Muricella</em> and <em>Echinogorgia</em>, at depths ranging from 13–90 m (Lourie and Randall 2003).	eng
41716	threats	Project Seahorse, 2003	Major threats to the species are currently unknown, however their small size and attractive colouration makes it possible they could be collected for the aquaria trade.	eng
41717	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Compagno, L.J.V. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are no current conservation measures in place for <em>A. nichofii</em>. The species may be protected in small areas of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia, although commercial fishing is still permitted in the majority of the park.	eng
41717	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Compagno, L.J.V. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species, ranging from Japan to Australia and west to Pakistan. There are single records from the Maldives and from southern Mozambique, indicating that the species may have a wider distribution in the Indian Ocean than currently thought. In Australia, the species is recorded in tropical waters from Bonaparte Archipelago, Western Australia to Hervey Bay, Queensland, including waters of the Northern Territory (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999, Kyne <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
41717	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Compagno, L.J.V. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	A demersal species on the continental shelf inshore to at least 70 m. Born at about 17 cm disc width (DW) and reaches at least 64 cm DW. Viviparous with litters of up to four young (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). Nothing else is known of this species' biology.	eng
41717	population	Kyne, P.M., Compagno, L.J.V. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Currently there are no available data on populations.	eng
41717	threats	Kyne, P.M., Compagno, L.J.V. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	The species is a major commercial eagle ray that is marketed throughout the region, except in northern Australia. It is naturally rare and has declined due to heavy trawling in southeast Asia since the 1960s. The species is rarely seen in both Thai and Indonesian market catches, where the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesian waters are subject to increasing trawling. It was previously more common in Thai markets. In Australian waters the species is rare with few museum records and ranges over moderately trawled areas (east coast of Queensland, Gulf of Carpentaria). The species may also be associated with coral reefs, which are under increasing pressure throughout most of its tropical range.	eng
41718	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2003	No conservation measures in place.	eng
41718	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2003	<em>Apristurus albisoma</em> has a limited geographic range. It is endemic to the Western South Pacific, occurring on the island slopes of New Caledonia and adjacent sea mounts (Norfolk and Lord Howe ridges), at depths of 935 to 1,564 m.	eng
41718	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2003	A deepwater catshark (occurs in insular areas and seamount slopes 935 to 1,564 m) that matures at 40 to 50 cm length, reaches a maximum of 60 cm and is likely to be very susceptible to depletion to bycatch because of low intrinsic rates of population increase. The species eats penaeid shrimp and squid. It has a stocky, soft body and fragile skin, and is probably a poor swimmer with limited ability to recolonise depleted areas.	eng
41718	population	Fowler, S.L., 2003	There is no information on population size.	eng
41718	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Possibly a bycatch of deepwater fisheries, but of no value and would be discarded.	eng
41719	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	Currently no conservation measures in place.	eng
41719	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	<em>Apristurus exsanguis</em> is endemic to New Zealand. It has been recorded from off Three Kings Islands, North and South Islands, southern Lord Howe Rise, Challenger Plateau, Hikurangi Trough, Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau to about 54°S. Depth 573 to 1,200 m.	eng
41719	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	The biology of all <em>Apristurus</em> species within the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is very poorly known due to the uncertain taxonomy of the group. They appear to be most abundant below 1,000 m, and are the only sharks regularly taken in research trawls below 1,200 m on the Chatham Rise. <em>A. exsanguis</em> is a widespread mid to lower slope species. Probably bottom-living. Although its maximum recorded depth is 1,200 m there have been relatively few research trawls below this depth and it is possible that they occur deeper than this (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Males and females mature between 650–700 mm total length. Reproduction is oviparous. The dark brown egg case is about 68 mm long and 29 mm wide. There is a slight constriction in the anterior third of the case, and its surface is entirely covered by fine fibers and fine longitudinal grooves. The edges of the egg case are flanged and end in horn-like processes with long coiled tendrils. Fecundity is unknown. Diet is probably similar to other Apristurus species (i.e., small bony fishes and caridean shrimps).	eng
41719	population	Duffy, C., 2003	There is no information on population size.	eng
41719	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Deepwater bottom trawling. As relatively little fishing occurs below 1,200 m and the species may occur in deeper water than this, a part of its population may be beyond current fishing depth (Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998, Wetherbee 2000). There is also relatively little deepwater trawling effort in the northern part of the species distribution. This situation may change as deepwater fisheries expand.	eng
41720	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. The level of bycatch in fisheries needs to be assessed, as does the level of retention in the SETF.	eng
41720	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is endemic to the western Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters off eastern Australia, ranging from southeastern Queensland to Lakes Entrance, Victoria, including waters of New South Wales (Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep, Alastair Graham, pers. comm).	eng
41720	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and is reported in depths of 40 to 159 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep). It reaches at least 60 cm total length (TL) with the smallest mature male reported at 45.8 cm TL, and the smallest mature female 45.5 cm TL (Kyne <em>et al.</em> in prep). Little is known of the biology of the species. Observed stomach contents include fish, cephalopods and crustaceans (pers. obs). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary. Mature females with large ripe ovarian ova have been observed during the months of March, September and October (Kyne <em>et al</em>. in prep.), suggesting that the species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks. There is no available information on age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology.	eng
41720	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.	eng
41720	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus analis</em> is considered to be less common than other closely related <em>Asymbolus</em> species (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is not targeted commercially, however it is captured as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994). It is reported to be retained in the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF), which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia, although the quantity is unknown (Rose and SAG 2001). It is an uncommon component of the bycatch of the deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Kyne, unpublished data). It is also likely to occur as bycatch in the New South Wales Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery.	eng
41721	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41721	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus funebris</em> is restricted to a confined region in southern Australia near Recherche Archipelago off the coast of Western Australia.	eng
41721	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. funebris</em> is found in depths of approximately 195 m. This species grows to at least 44 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41721	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Nothing is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning this species. Current data are based on a single specimen.	eng
41721	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size.	eng
41722	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
41722	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus occiduus</em> is distributed along the southern and western coasts of Australia from Fowlers Bay (South Australia) to Perth (Western Australia).	eng
41722	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. occiduus</em> is found in depths from 98 to 250 m and is most abundant on the outer continental shelf. This species that reaches at least 60 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 58 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41722	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41722	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size and limited fisheries in the region.	eng
41723	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
41723	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus pallidus</em> is restricted to a confined region in northeastern Australia from Swain Reefs to Cairns off the coast of Queensland.	eng
41723	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. pallidus</em> is found in depths from 270 to 400 m.  This is a small tropical species that reaches at least 46 cm total length (TL) with young hatching at 19 cm and males mature at 32 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41723	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41723	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is unlikely to be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries.	eng
41724	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41724	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus parvus</em> is restricted to a confined region in northwestern Australia between Dampier and the Buccaneer Archipelago off the coast of Western Australia.	eng
41724	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. parvus</em> is found in depths ranging from 59 to 252 m. This species grows to approximately 33 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 28 cm TL. This is a tropical species that is most commonly found on the outer continental shelf. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41724	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41724	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species may be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries, e.g., the Pilbara Trawl Fishery, but is believed to have high survival rates and is thought to be discarded when caught.	eng
41725	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Due to its bathymetric distribution it is unlikely to occur inside any marine protected areas. Research needs to assess the level of bycatch in trawl fisheries and the life history of the species.	eng
41725	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is endemic to the western Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters off eastern Australia, ranging from Moreton Island, southeastern Queensland to Port Arthur, Tasmania, including waters of New South Wales and Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994, Last 1999).	eng
41725	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope and is reported in depths of 25 to 540 m (Last 1999), although it is uncommon in shallower waters. It reaches at least 549 mm total length (TL) with males maturing at about 344 mm TL (Last 1999). Little is known of the biology of this species. Observed stomach contents include fish, cephalopods and the egg cases of other scyliorhinid sharks (personal observation). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary in females. Ovulated females generally contain two egg cases, one in each oviduct. Ovulated females have been observed during the months of July, August and October (personal observation). The species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks and evidence suggests it may be a productive species. There is no available information on age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology.	eng
41725	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.	eng
41725	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Asymbolus rubiginosus</em> is presently of no commercial value (Last and Stevens 1994). It is recorded as discarded bycatch in the South East Trawl Fishery, which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia (Anonymous 2001). In bycatch surveys of the eastern king prawn sector, deepwater component of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, <em>A. rubiginosus</em> was the second most common elasmobranch caught, although numbers captured were still relatively low (Kyne, unpubl. data). It is probable that the species is also a component of the bycatch of other demersal trawl fisheries operating in its distribution.	eng
41726	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
41726	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus submaculatus</em> is restricted to a confined region in southwestern Australia from Recherche Archipelago to Cape Naturalist off the coast of southern Western Australia.	eng
41726	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. submaculatus</em> is found in depths of up to 150 m. It is reported to be nocturnal inhabiting caves and ledges. This species grows to at least 43 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41726	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41726	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries in this area due to its small size and habitat use.	eng
41727	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently no conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
41727	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Asymbolus vincenti</em> is distributed along the southern coast of Australia from Bass Straight (Victoria) to Cape Leeuwin (Western Australia) including Tasmania.	eng
41727	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>A. vincenti</em> has been reported from depths of 130 to 220 m in the Great Australian Bight. In the east, off western Tasmania and Bass Strait, it is found mostly at depths less than 100 m and is frequently found in seagrass beds near the coast in this area. This species reaches at least 56 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 38 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41727	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Appears to be most common in the Great Australian Bight.  No scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41727	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is caught in trawl fisheries in southern Australia.  There is no available detailed information on bycatch of this species, but it is likely to be caught only irregularly.	eng
41728	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Further investigation into the population structure, range and biology of this species is required to be able to more accurately assess the threats to this species. Species composition data from the fisheries operating within the known range of this species is necessary.	eng
41728	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> is a common offshore benthic species on the continental shelf of Western Australia between Exmouth (22°S 114°15'E) and off the southern end of Eighty Mile Beach (20°S 120°E), and known from a few specimens from the Arafura Sea (10°37'S  133°47'E), Northern Territory, and from the Gulf of Carpentaria (16°38'S 140°02'E) and Torres Strait (10°31'S 140°48'E) Queensland (Compagno and Stevens 1993). Further information on the extent of this species off the Northern Territory and Queensland are required to ascertain the full distribution of this species.	eng
41728	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> is reported from sand and shelly sand bottoms in depths between 27 and 122 m with the vast majority recorded in depths shallower than 60 m. Females and males of this species are reported to attain a maximum length of 45.1 and 40.2 cm, respectively, with the smallest mature individuals being 35.3 and 32.9 cm in length, respectively. The maximum weight recorded is 258 g for a 45.1 cm mature female (Compagno and Stevens 1993). This species is oviparous, with several mature specimens possessing bright yellow, thick-walled egg cases in each oviduct, approximately 6.7 cm in length (Compagno and Stevens 1993).	eng
41728	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Although very little is known about this species, it is of little or no commercial value and it is unlikely that populations of this species are under any direct threat. The only fishery in its distribution and depth range is a small scampi trawl fishery (only very few boats) and if it is caught as bycatch the amount is expected to be very small (if any).	eng
41729	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Further investigation into the population structure, range and biology of this species is required. Although it is unlikely that this species is caught in any fisheries within its range, species composition data from the fisheries operating near the range of this species is still favourable.	eng
41729	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> is confined to tropical Australia between Port Hedland in Western Australia to Melville Island in Northern Territory and possibly into Queensland (Whitley 1940, Springer 1979, Compagno 1988, Paxton <em>et al.</em> 1989, Last and Stevens 1994). Further investigation of the distribution of this species in Queensland is required.	eng
41729	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> is reported from shallow, inshore regions on both sandy and rocky bottoms 0.5 to 3.5 m in depth (Springer 1979, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species is reported to attain a maximum length of 60 cm, with males maturing at 48 cm and females at 51 cm and hatching at approximately 10 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species is oviparous, with one mature female recorded as containing one egg capsule about 66 by 21 mm (Springer 1979).	eng
41729	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Although very little is known about this species, it is of little or no commercial value and is unlikely to be caught in any fisheries due to its apparent habitat range.	eng
41730	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Protection of the natural habitat of this species and education should be considered in the future for such coral dwelling species in this region. The collection of species composition data from fisheries within the range of this species is necessary.	eng
41730	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Atelomycterus marmoratus</em> has a wide range in the tropical regions of the Indo-West Pacific  (Fowler 1941, Springer 1979, Compagno 1984, Yamakawa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Compagno and Niem 1998). <br/> <br/>Although McKay (1966) recorded three specimens of <em>A. marmoratus</em> from Western Australia, further examination revealed these as in fact being one <em>Atelomycterus macleayi</em> and two <em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em> (Compagno and Stevens 1993). Thus, this species is apparently absent from Australian waters but has been recorded from New Guinea (Springer 1979, Compagno 1988).	eng
41730	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	Little is known about this common inshore species. Found on coral reefs and thought to inhabit crevices and holes on reefs (Compagno 1984). <em>Atelomycterus marmoratus</em> is reported to attain a length of 70 cm, adult males between 47 and 62 cm; adult females 49 to 57 cm (Compagno 1984). There is no available information on the reproductive biology, age and growth or diets of this species.	eng
41730	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Although <em>A. marmoratus</em> is widespread through the Indo-West Pacific, habitat destruction within its range, and increasing fishing pressure are likely to represent significant threats. This species may be under threat from habitat destruction by dynamite fishing, especially in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Tanjung Luar in Lombok (W. White, personal observation), and also maybe by coral removal in some parts of the region for use as building materials, e.g., Candi Dasa in Bali. Fisheries catches appear to be only minor throughout this species distribution, for example, it represents a minor catch in artisanal fisheries in several eastern Indonesian localities (W. White pers. obs.), and although it is probably caught in fisheries in West Papua and other parts of its range,  information is very sparse. This species is close to the criteria of Vulnerable A2d+3d+4d due to the high level of exploitation within its range, but is assessed as Near Threatened due to the lack of detailed species composition data for fisheries and extent of habitat destruction in this region.	eng
41731	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & White, W.T., 2003	Species composition data from fisheries and from collectors for the aquarium trade in southwestern Australia are required.	eng
41731	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & White, W.T., 2003	<em>Aulohalaelurus labiosus</em> is an endemic to Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to the Houtman Abrolhos (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41731	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & White, W.T., 2003	<em>Aulohalaelurus labiosus</em> common endemic inshore catshark on the temperate Western Australian continental shelf, found in shallow coastal habitats and on offshore reefs at a depth of least 4 m (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>The biology of <em>A. labiosus</em> is virtually unknown. Oviparous, and attains at least 67 cm total length (TL), with adult males mature at approximately 54 cm and attaining at least 61 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White, unpubl. data). There is no published information on the age and growth or diets of this species.	eng
41731	population	Lisney, T.J. & White, W.T., 2003	There is no information on population size, but the species is apparently common.	eng
41731	threats	Lisney, T.J. & White, W.T., 2003	There is very little fishing pressure within the habitat range of this species in southwestern Australia and is also of little or no commercial value. There is evidence that this small, attractively spotted catshark enters the marine aquarium trade with several having been observed in aquarium retailers in Western Australia and it is possible that this may extend to elsewhere (Compagno, in prep., W. White, personal observation).	eng
41732	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	A number of Marine Protected Areas occur within the known range of <em>B. waddi</em>, however the zoning plans for these parks are complex and fishing activities are permitted in many of them, resulting in only a small area of fully protected sanctuaries. Marine Protected Areas in NSW waters where <em>B. waddi</em> is likely to occur and where commercial and recreational fishing activities are completely banned in at least some sections of the park are: Solitary Islands Marine Park (total area 71,000 hectares), Jervis Bay Marine Park (21,450 hectares), Cabbage Tree Bay Aquatic Reserve (Sydney, 17 hectares), Bushrangers Bay Aquatic Reserve (Shell Harbour, 3 hectares) and Shiprock Aquatic Reserve (Port Hacking, two hectares). There is currently also a proposal for a Marine Park in the Bryon Bay region of northern NSW. In Queensland, <em>B. waddi</em> occurs in Moreton Bay Marine Park (306,000 hectares). Only small areas of this park with habitat suitable for <em>B. waddi</em> (Flinders Reef, north of Cape Moreton and Peel Island) are protected from fishing activities. Additionally, the species is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (17,000 hectares), adjacent to NSW?s Solitary Islands Marine Park. <br/> <br/>Although currently not at risk of extinction, research into this species is needed to provide data on life history and ecology, to identify the level of interaction with fisheries as bycatch, and to provide more information on the status of the species.	eng
41732	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is endemic to the western South Pacific Ocean in warm temperate to subtropical waters along the east coast of Australia ranging from Mooloolaba in southern Queensland south to Jervis Bay in New South Wales (NSW) (Last and Stevens 1994, Johnson 1999). Last and Stevens (1994) state that "reports from Western Australia and the Northern Territory require confirmation". However, there are no confirmed reports of the species from either Western Australia (Barry Hutchins, personal communication) or from the Northern Territory (Helen Larson, personal communication) and it is probable that the grey carpetshark, <em>Chiloscyllium punctatum</em> (family Hemiscylliidae), may have been mistaken for <em>B. waddi</em> in these areas (Last and Stevens 1994, Barry Hutchins, personal communication).	eng
41732	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is a secretive nocturnal benthic shark inhabiting rocky shorelines and reefs, and also nearby seagrass beds. It remains in rocky caves and under ledges during the day moving out to feed at night. Juveniles often occupy ledges, crevices and seagrass beds in high-energy surge zones (Kuiter 1993, Michael 1993). The species is reported over the continental shelf from the intertidal zone to 140 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Detailed dietary assessments are unavailable, however, the species is reported to feed on a variety of reef invertebrates, including sea anemones, squid and crustaceans, as well as small fishes (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Last and Stevens (1994) report a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL), but note that individuals are normally much smaller than this maximum. A male of 60 cm TL and a female of 66 cm TL were both reported to be sexually mature (Last and Stevens 1994). This appears to be the only available information on sexual maturity in the species, and a smaller size at maturity is possible. <br/> <br/><em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> displays aplacental yolksac viviparity with litters of 7 to 8 young (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Parturition occurs around November, based on observations off Sydney, New South Wales (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994). Young are born at 17 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Reproductive periodicity is assumed to be annual. There are no estimates available on gestation periods. Similarly, information on age and growth, natural mortality and behavioural ecology is lacking.	eng
41732	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Brachaelurus waddi</em> is relatively common throughout its range. There is no available information on subpopulations.	eng
41732	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	This species is not targeted or marketed commercially (Last and Stevens 1994). The flesh is reported to be unpalatable (Grant 1978) and recreational fishing is thought to have little impact on the species. Rock fishers often encounter blind sharks (Last and Stevens 1994), and while recreational fishers in NSW  have been reported to retain very small amounts of the species (Rose and SAG 2001), it is thought that the shark is generally not retained and is probably mostly returned to the water (Dave Pollard, personal communication). Spearfishers are unlikely to encounter <em>B. waddi</em> because of its cryptic nocturnal nature. The species is likely to be taken as bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW (ocean prawn trawl fishery) and in Queensland (East Coast Trawl Fishery). The NSW Ocean Trap and Line Fishery is also likely to occasionally capture this species, however numbers taken as bycatch are not known as there are no statistics available (Nick Otway, personal communication). Blind sharks are reported to be able to remain out of water for extended periods of time (up to 18 hours) (Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). This apparent hardiness implies that the species could survive trawl capture more readily than other species if successfully returned to the water. <br/> <br/>Shark control programs (SCP) operate in NSW and Queensland waters within the range of <em>B. waddi</em>. Dudley and Gribble (1999) report the species from the Queensland SCP but no details were provided. The shark has never been recorded in the NSW Protective Beach Meshing Program (Dennis Reid, personal communication). The mesh size used in the NSW program is 50-60 cm and in the Queensland program 50 cm, therefore blind sharks are likely to readily pass through the nets if encountered. Its capture in the Queensland SCP is likely to be extremely rare. <br/> <br/>Blindsharks are exploited at low levels for the marine aquarium trade and are reported to be hardy and well suited to aquarium display (Michael 2001). The exact level of pressure placed on their populations by capture for this trade is unknown. The above interactions with the species are assumed to be having minimal impact on the viability of its populations. Furthermore, despite its cryptic nature, it appears to be relatively common, particularly in NSW waters (Jeff Johnson, personal communication).	eng
41733	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The broad distribution and common occurrence of <em>C. cautus</em> is offset by the susceptibility of the species to inshore gill-net fisheries. Future research should examine the level of bycatch in these fisheries, together with their attendant mortalities. An education program aimed at encouraging release of sharks would have a limited effect, as individual sharks caught in nets die quickly of hypoxia. Practical action in the form of net restrictions will be the only effective measure. Research into population sizes and movements of individuals, via tag-release-recapture studies, is required to better understand this species.	eng
41733	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Occurs on continental and insular shelves in shallow water in sub-tropical and tropical waters of northern Australia, Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.) and the Solomon Islands. It seems likely that this species may also be found in the intervening waters around east P.N.G. The southern extent of its range on the east coast of Australia has been recently extended following the capture of mature adults and young sharks in Moreton Bay, Queensland (Kyne <em>et al</em>., in prep.). It is the most common carcharhinid in Darwin Harbour (Northern Territory), which lies at the centre of this species? range. It is one of the six most common near-shore species on the eastern side of the Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland) and is also common in Shark Bay (Western Australia).	eng
41733	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species occurs in shallow warm, coastal waters including large embayments. They may be more common in areas that are fringed by mangroves, possibly preferring a sand/mud substrate, although they are also found in areas away from mangroves (Lyle 1987, White <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is often found in association with <em>C. melanopterus, C. dussumieri, C. amblyrhynchos, C. sorrah, C. tilsoni, C. fitzroyensis</em> and <em>Rhizoprionodon acutus</em>. Very similar to <em>C. melanopterus</em> (but lacks conspicuous black tips to the first dorsal and anal fins) and may have been confused in parts of its range. It is reported to reach 150 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994) although other data suggest males reach about 120 cm and females 140 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). Males are thought to mature at about 79 to 84 cm TL and females at about 91 cm TL from Darwin, Northern Territory (Lyle 1987), but at 91 cm TL and 101 cm TL respectively from Shark Bay, Western Australia (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). Testes mass peaks in January, with sperm present in seminal vesicles in February/March (Lyle 1987). White <em>et al.</em> (2002) report ovulation and conception occurring in December. It seems likely that copulation occurs over a period of two or three months in mid/late-summer (December to March). Gestation lasts 10 months with a litter size of 2 to 6, produced every other year. Young are born at 33?39 cm TL. Males mature at 4 to 5 years of age and reach maximum body size by about 12 years. Females mature at 6 to 7 years, reaching a maximum size at about 16 years. <em>Carcharhinus cautus</em> has a varied diet, primarily consisting of teleost fishes, followed in importance by crustaceans (prawns, crabs, mantid shrimps) and molluscs (Lyle 1987, Salini <em>et al.</em> 1992). There are records of this species taking terrestrial snakes, indicating an opportunistic feeding behaviour (Lyle and Timms 1987).	eng
41733	population	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	There are no data on the populations of this species.	eng
41733	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species is threatened primarily by inshore gill-net fisheries throughout its range. In Australia it is the barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>) fishery that poses the greatest threat. Smaller individuals may also be taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fisheries to the north of Australia. It will also be taken in shallow coastal gill net and line fisheries elsewhere in its range, where no data are available.	eng
41734	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The life history characteristics of this species, together with its small size, make local populations particularly sensitive to fishing-induced declines. It is caught by all commonly used fishing techniques (mainly as bycatch), making it difficult to conserve without recourse to ?no-fishing zones?. The size of closed areas that would be needed to conserve this species is not known. Data need be collected on movement patterns of individuals (e.g., seasonal, reproductive migrations, diurnal movements) to assess the viability of such an approach.	eng
41734	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Widespread in coastal waters down to about 170 m depth eastwards from the Arabian Gulf to Taiwan and Japan. Possibly occurs throughout much of Indonesia, but only documented from around Java, Bali, Borneo and eastern Sumatra at this time (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41734	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species is sometime confused with <em>Carcharhinus sealei</em>. It is a small species with a maximum reported length of 100 cm total length (TL), although specimens of up to about 90 cm TL are more common (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991).  Males mature at about 64 to 74 cm TL; females at about 67 to 71 cm TL (Garrick 1982, Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). There are no data on the age at maturity or longevity of this species. The usual litter size is two, rarely four, with young born at about 40 cm TL. There does not appear to be a distinct seasonal reproductive cycle, with pregnant females recorded at all times of year. As almost all mature females are reported to be pregnant or spent at any one time, there appears to be a continuous reproductive cycle. There are no data on the gestation period, and it seems likely that, on average, only two offspring will be produced annually. <em>Carcharhinus dussumieri</em> feeds primarily on teleost fishes, with crustaceans and cephalopods of slightly lesser importance (Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993, Salini <em>et al.</em>r 1994). Other minor prey groups include molluscs, annelids and brachyurans (Salini <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
41734	population	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Inshore populations in much of the species? range have declined dramatically, with localised extirpations (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm). There is a relatively large population in northern Australia at this time, based on its continued appearance in trawl fisheries and gill-net fisheries as a major component of the bycatch.	eng
41734	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The major threat to this species is from fisheries in relatively shallow shelf and inshore waters throughout the whole of its range.  As a small shark (40-90 cm TL) it is caught by gillnetting, hook-and-line fishing and trawling.  In northern Australia it commonly comprises about 2-3% of trawl catch by biomass (Russell and Houston 1989).  While the population in Northern Australia appears fairly robust, there is evidence of severe depletions, including local extirpations, of this species in coastal waters throughout parts of its range in Asia (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.).	eng
41735	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No conservation measures required at present.	eng
41735	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus fitzroyensis</em> occurs in tropical seas across the north of Australia and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. It ranges from the intertidal zone to a depth of at least 40 m (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41735	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species attains a maximum length of about 135 cm total length (TL) (Lyle 1987), with no sexual dimorphism apparent. There is no information about age at maturity for either sex, but males mature at about 83 to 88 cm TL and females at about 90 to 100 cm TL (Lyle 1987). There is an annual reproductive cycle. Litter size ranges from 1–7 with pups born at about 45 to 55 cm TL (Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Mating apparently takes place between May and July (Darwin Harbour, Northern Territory) with birth occurring the following year after a gestation period of 7 to 9 months (Lyle 1987). Simpfendorfer and Milward (1993) report juvenile sharks occupying a nursery area (Cleveland Bay, Queensland) primarily during February, which is consistent with the observations from further north. <em>Carcharhinus fitzroyensis</em> feeds almost exclusively on teleost fishes and crustaceans, with cephalopods representing a small component of the diet (Lyle 1987, Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993).	eng
41735	population	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	There are no data on the population sizes or important sites for this species.	eng
41735	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Small numbers of this species are caught in northern inshore gill-net fisheries. Juveniles that use embayments as nursery areas are at potential risk of gill-netting, which could depress populations locally. However, the species is relatively fecund and populations should prove resilient.	eng
41736	conservation	Bennett, M.B., Gordon, I. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The Data Deficient listing for Australia and Oceania waters reflects the lack of information about this species in this region where it is the species is known from only a very few sites, and the number of individuals, their movements on a daily and seasonal basis and the levels of immigration/emigration are unknown. At these sites, a program that would encourage anglers to tag and release Galapagos sharks should help safeguard the populations and expand on our limited knowledge base. Involvement of tourist diving companies would assist in conservation efforts by raising public awareness and providing useful data on shark behaviour, numbers and preferred habitats.  <br/> <br/>The population at the Kermadec Islands is protected by a 12 nm marine reserve which extends in places to cover depths of over 3,000 m. The species also occurs within other marine reserves such as the Galápagos Marine Resources Reserve, (unfortunately illegal fishing is known to occur here).	eng
41736	distribution	Bennett, M.B., Gordon, I. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Circumglobal distribution in warm and temperate waters.  Essentially limited to oceanic islands (e.g. Galapagos Is.; Clipperton Is.; Virgin Is.; St. Paul?s Rocks; Azores; St. Helena; Ascension Is.; Ogasawara Is.; Lord Howe Is., Norfolk Is.; Kermadec Is., Rapa Is., Hawaiian Is.).  Also from high seas and adjacent to continental shelves (e.g. California & N. Carolina, U.S.A.).  Regionally, known from Lord Howe Island (Aust), American Samoa, Western Samoa, Cook Is., French Polynesia, and the Kermadec Islands (NZ). Records suggest that it may also occur along the continental shelves of adjacent landmasses (Last and Stevens 1994, Schwartz 1998).	eng
41736	habitat	Bennett, M.B., Gordon, I. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus galapagensis</em> is most commonly found over rugged, rocky terrain in clear water. There is a suggestion that this species prefers areas with strong water currents. In Hawaii the majority of sharks were found near points of land characterised by having currents that converge and move offshore at those points (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). Isolated rocky islets serve as congregation sites (Edwards and Lubbock 1982, Brum and Azevedo 1995), suggesting that underwater pinnacles may also be suitable habitat, giving this species a more extensive range of sites than currently understood. Occurs from surface waters to depths of over 280 m, with some suggestion of segregation on the basis of size. Vertical distribution patterns appear to be site specific and vary considerably between geographical areas/habitat types. In some regions juveniles are found in shallow water (less than 1 m) whereas in others they prefer deeper water (around 40 m) (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). This species is reputed to reach a maximum body size of about 350 cm total length (TL), although specific records suggest that 300 cm TL appears more likely. Females mature at about 215 to 250 cm TL, males at about 205 to 250 cm TL (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1973, Last and Stevens 1994, Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). Estimated age at maturity is 6 to 8 years for males and 6.5 to 9 years for females (De Crosta <em>et al.</em> 1984). Litter size ranges from 4 to 16, with young born at 60 to 81 cm TL. Reproductive life histories are not well known. Females probably breed every two (or three) years with mating likely to occur in winter/spring. The species has a limited intrinsic rebound potential (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/> <br/><em>Carcharhinus galapagensis</em> feeds primarily on demersal prey with fishes and cephalopods important to all size classes. Ontogenetic dietary shifts occur, with sharks and rays taken by larger (>200 cm TL) individuals. Ascribed a relatively high trophic level of 4.2 (Cortés 1999). An aggressive shark considered potentially dangerous to humans.	eng
41736	population	Bennett, M.B., Gordon, I. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Reported as a very common inshore species at oceanic islands off Central and South America (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941), but may have undergone severe population reductions at many of these islands. Very common species at Saint Paul?s Rocks, a group of barren islets on the mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the shark population is reported to be "one of the densest shark populations of the Atlantic Ocean" (Edwards and Lubbock 1982). This species is reported to be one of the more common sharks in the main Hawaiian Islands and is very abundant at the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Wetherbee <em>et al.</em> 1996). This single study on the Hawaiian population suggests that the species is locally numerous and there is no immediate negative impact on the population by moderate fishing pressure (no measurable effect on CPUE over two seasons of long-lining). There are no data on the populations at other sites.	eng
41736	threats	Bennett, M.B., Gordon, I. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The life history parameters of this species make it susceptible to population declines from which it may not recover. The major threat comes from long-lining and other bait-fishing activities around islands and sub-sea mounts throughout its range. The aggressive nature of this common species together with the occupation of inshore habitats may result in pressures to extirpate local populations. Evidence of such reductions/extirpations exists for this species around Central America (Pacific and Atlantic Oceans) (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.). The interrupted geographical distribution and unknown level of immigration to these isolated populations could place subpopulations at significant risk from over fishing. It should also be noted that uncontrolled legal and illegal shark fin fishing takes place at sites in the Pacific, including the Galápagos Marine Resources Reserve where a significant population of this species is known to occur (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> in press)	eng
41737	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	No species-specific conservation measures are in place.	eng
41737	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	This species occurs in continental shelf waters of the Indo-West Pacific from Kenya through southern Asia to southern Japan and northern Australia.	eng
41737	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	A small species of carcharhinid sharks that is born at a relatively large size (45 cm), matures at 70 to 75 cm, and reaches a maximum of 110 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mature females probably have a two-year reproductive cycle, with only two pups produced per litter (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). Limited age and growth data are available, but a single tag return from an animal (that was mature when tagged) was made after 10 years, indicating that they may live at least 15 to 20 years. Based on these life history parameters it is likely to have a much lower level of productivity than other small species of carcharhinid sharks (e.g., <em>Rhizoprionodon</em> spp.) and so is more susceptible to fishing pressure. The diet consists mostly of teleost fishes.	eng
41737	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	There are no data on population numbers in any parts of its range	eng
41737	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	This species is caught in inshore subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range. Highest catches appear to have been taken in southern Asian countries (Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and southern China) (Compagon 1984). Catches in Indonesia during 2002 were rare (William White, Murdoch University, pers. comm.) and may indicate the population in this area has been over-fished.  Further data needs to be collected in this area to investigate this possibility. In northern Australia this species is an important component of the gillnet (13.6%) and longline (4.0%) fisheries, but this does not appear to be having a significant impact on the population.	eng
41738	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Detailed species composition data from fisheries throughout its range are required in order to assess the actual level of exploitation.	eng
41738	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> occurs off South Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, the Seychelles, Mauritius, southwest coast of India, Indonesia, Philippines, northern Australia and New Guinea (Compagno and Niem 1998).	eng
41738	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> is a coastal shark on the continental and insular shelves from the surf line to depths of 40 m, but usually in shallow water, not adjacent to river mouths (Compagno and Niem 1998).  <br/> <br/><em>C. sealei</em> attains at least 95 cm total length (TL) and maturing at 70 to 80 cm TL. Viviparous with one or two young, born at 33 to 45 cm after a gestation of around nine months (Compagno and Niem 1998). The species feeds on small fish, prawns and squid. Van der Elst (1981) recorded age and growth data for this species, with age at maturity at approximately one year and maximum age of around five years.	eng
41738	threats	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus sealei</em> is a common catch in artisanal fisheries and smallscale commercial fisheries, as well as by recreational anglers (Compagno and Niem 1998). This species occurs in shallow waters where fishing activities such as longlines and gill nets are often very intensive, e.g., in Indonesia, and therefore would be highly susceptible to overfishing. Although recorded in Indonesia previously, this species was not recorded in a recent survey of markets within this region (W. White, unpubl. data). The flesh is utilized for human consumption.	eng
41739	distribution	Pillans, R. & Stevens, J., 2003	Together with <em>C. sorrah</em>, this species is an important component of the Northern Australian commercial shark fishery. Data from Taiwanese gill netting between 1975 and 1978 showed highest catches in North Queensland, Torres Staight, Gulf of Papua, Gulf of Carpentaria and Inshore Arafura Sea. Average size of <em>C. tilstoni</em> captured in the Timor Sea were much smaller than the areas above, suggesting that <em>C. tilstoni</em> utilizes the inshore areas of the Timor sea as a nursery area. Often occurs in large aggregations. Size showed a sharp increase with increasing depth (Lyle 1987).	eng
41739	habitat	Pillans, R. & Stevens, J., 2003	A viviparous species with a gestation period of 10 months. <em>C. tilstoni</em> reproduces annually, producing an average litter size of three (1-6). Size at birth is 60 cm total length (TL). Age at maturity is 3 to 4 years: males reach maturity at 110 cm TL, females at 115 cm TL. Maximum size is 200 m TL. Growth rates, Juveniles: 17 cm.y-¹ for the first year, declining to 8 to 10 cm per year when the sharks are about five years old (Davenport and Stevens 1988, Last and Stevens 1994, Stevens and Wiley 1986).	eng
41739	population	Pillans, R. & Stevens, J., 2003	Genetic evidence suggested that this species forms one population in Australian waters (Lavery and Shacklee 1989. Tagging studies off Northern Australia have shown that 60% of sharks were recaptured within 50 km of the tagging site, however one shark was captured 1,113 km away (Stevens <em>et al.</em> 2000). These authors also showed that most animals moved along the coast line. Data from this study suggested that although there was sufficient movement to prevent stock differentiation, the degree of movement was not great enough to prevent a reduction in local population as a result of heavy fishing pressure. This conclusion contradicted those of Lavery and Shacklee (1989) who concluded that local populations would be well buffered by immigration of sharks from other areas and that under high fishing pressure, total population size rather than local population size was likely to be the limiting factor affecting production.	eng
41739	threats	Pillans, R. & Stevens, J., 2003	Historically, <em>C. tilstoni</em> contributed to the Taiwanese gill net fishery that operated in Australian waters between 1979 ? 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). This fisheries annual catch was about 7,000 tonnes processed weight of shark, tuna and mackerel. Sharks comprised about 80% of the total catch with <em>C. sorrah</em> and <em>C. tilstoni</em> accounting for about 60% (20% and 40% respectively). CPUE of sharks declined from 11 kg/km in 1979 to 3 kg/km in 1984 then increased to about 6 kg/km in 1986 (the year this fishery ceased), (Stevens and Davenport 1991) suggesting a roughly 50% population depletion. There was an apparent decrease in the number of mature male and female <em>C. tilstoni</em> from 1981 to 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). Data from this fishery between 1975-1978 showed the highest catches were in North Queensland, Torres Straight, Gulf of Papua, Gulf of Carpentaria and Inshore Arafura Sea. <br/> <br/>Together with <em>C. sorrah</em>, this species is an important component of the Northern Australian commercial shark fishery. <em>C. tilstoni</em> is captured as both a target species and as bycatch in Northern Australian shark, finfish and prawn trawl fisheries. Annual landings of sharks in Northern Australia (mainly <em>C. tilstoni</em> and <em>C. sorrah</em>) are estimated at between 100 and 900 tonnes live weight and these catch rates are highly unlikely to threaten the population.	eng
41740	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the catch of <em>C. harrissoni</em> to a maximum of 30 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus harrissoni</em> has also been nominated for listing as an Endangered species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Endangered, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a three year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
41740	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Sporadic in the Western Central and  Southwest Pacific: off eastern Australia from the Clarence River, New  South Wales, to South East Cape, Tasmania, and the Fraser Seamount,  Queensland. Also on seamounts and ridges to the north of New Zealand	eng
41740	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal on the upper to middle continental slope, mainly in depths of 220 to 790 m (Last and Stevens 1994), although catches have been made as deep as 1,050 m (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).The diet of this species consists of teleost fishes (particularly myctophids), cephalopods and crustaceans (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). The low fecundity (1 to 2 pups maximum every 1 to 2 years), high longevity (closely related species live for at least 46 years according to preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41740	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size (although suspected to be small) and number and size of subpopulations is unknown.	eng
41740	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) and droplining (New South Wales Fisheries) along the continental slope within its range. Documented declines of over 99% between 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales) and the Eden-Gabo Island Area (southern New South Wales/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the above mentioned areas in 220 to 605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 28.8 kg/h  in 1976 to 1977 to a mean of 0.1 kg/h (a total of only eight specimens) in 1996 to 1997. <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41741	conservation	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I., 2003	<strong>Australia:</strong> <br/>A prohibition on taking school and gummy sharks in shark nursery areas in Tasmania, and bans on gillnetting in some of these, may indirectly benefit some <em>C. brachyurus</em> but most of these areas are outside the main part of the species range (Williams and Schaap 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). Victorian coastal waters out to three nautical miles are almost completely closed to commercial shark fishing (Stevens 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>New Zealand:</strong> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> may not be target fished in Quota Management Areas 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9. Management measures that are likely to indirectly benefit this species include closure of most harbours and semi-enclosed bays in northern New Zealand to trawling and Danish seining, and a permanent ban on gill netting out to five nautical miles from shore off the northwest North Island (Fisheries statistical areas 41 and 42) to protect endangered North Island Hector?s dolphin.	eng
41741	distribution	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I., 2003	The range and biology of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other large <em>Carcharhinus</em> species, particularly <em>C. obscurus</em> which often replaces it in subtropical waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Although widely distributed in warm temperate and subtropical waters, populations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are disjoint and there is probably little interchange between them. Verified records from tropical regions are infrequent and very patchy but include Equatorial Guinea and possibly the Gulf of Thailand (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was also reported to be common in the Seychelles by Marshall (in Rose 1996), however, this requires confirmation given this species preference for temperate shelf habitats. No estimates of population size or biomass are available. Global population structure is unknown. Stock structure is not known for any fished population.  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is widespread in the Mediterranean but only sporadically reported possibly due to misidentification and lower abundance relative to other large sharks (Fergusson and Compagno 1995). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was the least abundant of the five pelagic sharks sampled in the northeast Atlantic and western Mediterranean by Muñoz-Chápuli (1984). The relationship between the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic populations is unknown but it seems likely that pregnant females migrate from the Atlantic to breeding grounds off Morocco (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984). Stock structure in the Mediterranean is unknown. Despite being listed as common in US Atlantic shark landings by Rose (1996, pg. 26) <em>C. brachyurus</em> is absent from the western North Atlantic (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Russell 1993, Castillo-Génez <em>et al.</em> 1998, J. Castro, pers. comm., L. Natanson, pers. comm., M. Grace, pers. comm.). In the southwest Atlantic <em>C. brachyurus</em> is relatively common off northern Argentina during summer, and is the most abundant species of <em>Carcharhinus</em> in Agentina (Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also common off Namibia and the west coast of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). In the Indian Ocean it is common off Eastern Cape, South Africa ranging north to Richard?s Bay, Natal although it is rare north of Durban (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Range and population size is poorly known in the eastern Pacific. Although Compagno (1984) speculated that it may occur in Chile there are no documented records or specimens of <em>C. brachyurus</em> in Museum collections there (I. Kong, pers. comm). Philippi (1887) described two species, <em>Hypoprion isodus</em> and <em>H. heterodus</em> from Chile on the basis of two dried jaws (Garrick 1982). Garrick (1982) considered both to be species dubia placing them in <em>Carcharhinus</em>. The upper teeth in both jaws are too broad and the tooth counts are too low for either to be <em>brachyurus</em> (Garrick 1982). Garrick (1982) considered <em>H. heterodus</em> was likely to be <em>C. obscurus</em> or <em>galapagensis</em>. Pequeño (1989) also considered it likely <em>H. heterodus</em> corresponds to <em>C. obscurus</em> (I. Kong, pers. comm). Despite the lack of records and specimens it seems likely that <em>C. brachyurus</em> at least occasionally reaches northern Chilean waters from Peru. Little is known of its occurrence in Peru other than the juvenile specimens reported by Garrick (1982).  <em>C. brachyurus</em> appears to be uncommon or rare in Mexico (Gulf of California and Baja California) but confusion with other <em>Carcharhinus</em> species could be a problem (O. Sosa, pers. com., L. Castillo, pers. comm.). Although very small juveniles have been collected from a number of locations in southern California suggesting it may breed there, <em>C. brachyurus</em> is considered to be a rare visitor to the west coast of the US (Garrick 1982, R. Lea, pers. comm., D. Ebert, pers. comm., G. Cailliet, pers. comm.). There are no records of <em>C. brachyurus</em> north of Point Conception (R. Lea, pers. comm), although based on what is known of its ecology in the Southern Hemisphere it could be expected to be common as far north as Monterey Bay (D. Ebert, pers. comm). This apparent rarity does not appear to be due to confusion with other species of <em>Carcharhinus</em> as the genus itself is rare in California (R. Lea, pers. comm). It is worth noting here that although Garrick (1982) synonymised C. lamiella with brachyurus the characters referred to in the description of lamiella were those diagnostic of <em>C. obscurus</em>. Consequently most records of lamiella from California are not referable to <em>C. brachyurus</em> (Garrick 1982). The populations in the northeast and southeast Pacific appear to be disjunct (Compagno 1984).   <br/> <br/>In Australian waters <em>C. brachyurus</em> is infrequently recorded north of Sydney or Perth, being most abundant between Albany (Western Australia) and Bass Strait (Last and Stevens 1994, R. McAuley, pers. comm., C. Simpfendorfer, pers. comm., J. Stevens, pers. comm.). It is the commonest <em>Carcharhinus</em> species in South Australia and Victoria (Cappo 1992).  <em>C. brachyurus</em> has not been recorded from Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).  In New Zealand waters <em>C. brachyurus</em> is common around the northern half of North Island, including Three Kings Islands, Middlesex Bank and Three Kings Rise, ranging south to Cook Strait in summer (Illingworth 1961, Garrick 1982, Francis 2001). Pregnant females and pups have been recorded as far south as Waimea Inlet, Nelson (about 41°S, C.D. unpublished data). <em>C. brachyurus</em> has not been recorded from the Kermadec Islands or the islands of the tropical southwest Pacific (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997).	eng
41741	habitat	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I., 2003	<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em> is an essentially warm temperate and subtropical species (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998). It is a widespread but patchily distributed coastal and shelf species, occasionally reported from oceanic areas close to the continental shelf (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000). It readily enters shallow water, and individuals and aggregations are often sighted in shallow bays, the surf zone and in harbour channels during summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). It also occurs in brackish or freshwater in the lower reaches of large rivers and estuarine bays (Last 2002). Maximum reported depth is 100 m but it is likely to range deeper (Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Diet includes a wide variety of bottom-living and pelagic cephalopods and fishes including squid (<em>Loligo</em> spp.), cuttlefish, octopus, spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> spp.), stingrays, electric rays, sawfish, gurnard, flatfish, hake, catfish, ling, jacks, kahawai/Australian salmon, mullet, sea bream, sardines and anchovy (Illingworth 1961, Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Francis 2001). Juveniles also feed on jellyfishes (<em>Scyphozoa</em>) and benthic crustacea (<em>Callianasa</em> spp. and Penaeid shrimps) (Smale 1991). Other elasmobranchs are taken with greatest frequency by sharks over 2 m total length (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Juvenile and adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> segregate by size and sex (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998). Juveniles occur in shallow water (less than 30 m depth) year round, whereas adults are most abundant inshore during spring and summer. Adults and sub-adults are found over the shelf and around offshore islands and banks throughout the year. The movement of adult females inshore in spring is related to breeding. Nursery areas tend to be large and ill defined but include shallow banks, large shallow bays, inlets and harbours as well as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). These areas also tend to be nurseries for other common coastal sharks such as Smoothhound (<em>Mustelus</em> spp.), School Shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>) and Smooth Hammerhead (<em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>). In New Zealand pregnant females and neonates have been reported as far south as Waimea Inlet (41°20'S) on the west coast and Hawke Bay (40°S) on the east coast (Garrick 1982, C.D. unpublished data). In Australia neonates and small juveniles (less than 1 m total length) have been reported from Albany (Western Australia), Port Lincoln, the upper Gulf St. Vincent and Robe (South Australia), and Port Phillip Bay (Victoria) (Cappo 1992, R. McAuley pers. comm., T. Walker pers. comm., I.G. pers. obs). In South Africa the waters of the Eastern Cape are considered to be the main nursery area for this species (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Elsewhere neonates and small juveniles have been recorded from: Rhodes, Nice and the banks off Al Hoceima (West Alboran Basin) in the Mediterranean (Garrick 1982, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Fergusson and Compagno 1995); Rio de Oro, Pulpito Bay, northwest Africa (Garrick 1982); Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Garrick 1982); Bahia Blanca and Bahia San Blas, Distrito Bonaerense, Argentina (Chiaramonte 1998b); Paita and Guanape Cove, Peru (Garrick 1982); Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino, Baja California (Garrick 1982); San Diego Bay and Oceanside, California (Garrick 1982); near Niigata, Sea of Japan (Garrick 1982).  <br/> <br/>Segregation also occurs along latitudinal gradients (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Adult males are present in subtropical regions throughout the year, whereas females and immature <em>C. brachyurus</em> migrate into these regions during winter. Most adult females return to temperate regions to breed in the spring. The males also appear to migrate to higher latitudes in late winter-spring presumably to mate (Cliff and Dudley 1992).  Mating probably occurs offshore as the females disperse from the nursery areas. Post-partum females bearing unhealed mating scars have been caught over the shelf (about 100 m depth) in early February off Hawke Bay, New Zealand (C.D. pers. obs). <em>C. brachyurus</em> inhabiting temperate areas also range into higher latitudes during the summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Chiaramonte 1998b). These latitudinal movements may be in response to changes in water temperature or prey migrations (Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). In South Africa female <em>C. brachyurus</em> appear to follow the sardine run from the Eastern Cape to Natal during winter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992). The mean distance travelled by tagged <em>C. brachyurus</em> in South Africa is 163 km during 162 days at liberty, the maximum distance travelled was 1,320 km (Cliff and Dudley 1992). In South Australia tagged adults have been resighted at their tagging location after a year at liberty suggesting this species, like other Carcharhinids, is philopatric (I.G. pers. obs). Movement between New Zealand and Australia, or other regional populations has not been documented. <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> occur singly and in loose schools sometimes numbering hundreds of individuals (Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, C.D. unpublished data). In New Zealand and Australia these aggregations are most conspicuous in shallow water near shore during spring and summer, and in South Africa during the winter sardine run. Divers and sport fishers also report aggregations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> around offshore islands and banks off northern New Zealand during winter. Aggregations of large sharks reported in the surf zone near the entrances to harbours in northern New Zealand during spring may be related to breeding however at other times schooling may be a response to a local abundance of prey (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity is probably biennial like most other large Carcharhinids (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Southern Hemisphere parturition probably occurs from June to January, with a peak in October and November (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta. Litters range from 7 to 24, with an average of 15 reported from South Africa (Garrick 1982, Smale 199, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Size at birth is about 60 cm total length (range 55-67 cm total length) (Garrick 1982, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Cliff and Dudley (1992) estimated gestation lasts about 12 months. However their data show two embryonic size classes are present in the January and June-July samples, and a better description of embryonic growth is obtained if a 15 to 21 month gestation period is assumed (r² = 0.798 cf. 0.628). Males mature between 206 and 235 cm total length, and females from 227 to 244 cm total length. Age at maturity in South Africa is estimated to be 13 to 19 years for males, and 19-20 years for females (Walter and Ebert 1991). Maximum size of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is at least 295 cm total length and it is reported to reach 350 cm total length (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum age is unknown. Productivity is estimated to be low to very low, with a minimum population doubling time of more than 14 yrs (K=0.04) (Froese and Pauly 2002, Fish Base).	eng
41741	threats	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I., 2003	The life-history of this large Carcharhinid makes it vulnerable to over fishing by directed fisheries and as bycatch in fisheries targeted at more productive species (Walker 1998, Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is mainly taken as bycatch in gill net and bottom longline fisheries for bony fishes and other sharks, particularly <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Bentley in Rose 1996, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also taken by bottom trawl and pelagic longline but only forms a minor component of the catch in these fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Parry-Jones 1996, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is fished commercially in New Zealand (Francis 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ministry of Fisheries catch effort data), Australia (Cappo 1992), South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em>1989), Brazil (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998), Uruguay (Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998), Argentina (Chiaramonte 1998a, b), Mexico (Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993) and China (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> was not reported in trade from any of its Mediterranean range states by Rose (1996) but it is taken in net fisheries here and is usually lumped with other Carcharhinids (e.g., <em>C. plumbeus</em>) when landed (Fergusson and Compagno 1995). Little data is available for these fisheries. In Western Australia the "bronze whaler fishery" actually targets juvenile dusky shark (<em>C. obscurus</em>) (Heald 1987, Simpfendorfer 2001). <em>C. brachyurus</em> only constitutes about 3% of total reported landings in this fishery (R. McAuley pers. comm.). <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are also taken as bycatch in the Southern Shark Fishery (Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia). Between 1996-2001 mean annual landed catch of <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. in this fishery was 71.5 tonnes (range 44-106 tonnes) (T. Walker pers. comm). The bulk of this (97-100%) was landed in South Australia, where  landings increased from less than 20 tonnes a year in the early 1980s to 60-70 tonnes a year between 1988 and 1990 (Stevens in Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the 1990s the landed catch has remained stable at around 70 tonnes a year, although a maximum of 105 tonnes was landed in 1999 (T. Walker pers. com.). The species composition of the bronze whaler catch in South Australia is unknown but is likely to be predominately <em>C. brachyurus</em> (Cappo 1992). In New Zealand reported commercial landings increased from 10 tonnes in 1989/90 to about 48 tonnes in 1995/96. Since then landings have declined steadily to about 20 tonnes in the 2001/02 fishing year (Ministry of Fisheries catch effort data). Most of the catch is taken by set net in the Hauraki Gulf and Firth of Thames. Reported landings from this area have been declining since 1992/93. No CPUE analysis of this fishery has been performed so it is uncertain if the decline in landings represents a decline in abundance or a change in fishing practice.   <br/> <br/>Although no fishery data is available for <em>C. brachyurus</em> in East Asia (i.e., Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea) directed shark fisheries have operated in the region since at least the 1950s, and sharks are a component of multi-species fisheries for more highly valued species such as tuna and swordfish (Parry-Jones and others in Phipps 1996). All directed fisheries for large coastal sharks in this region appear to have ceased during the 1970s due to declining catches and a shift in effort into offshore fisheries for tuna and salmon (Parry-Jones, and Kiyono in Phipps 1996). Parry-Jones (1996) observed that shark landings from coastal fisheries in China consisted mainly of small immature sharks (i.e., 90% <100 cm total length and 1 kg weight). The only <em>C. brachyurus</em> observed in markets during that survey was a juvenile weighing 5.5 kg in Fujian Province. Fishers from Fujian Province reported that large sharks were relatively common during the 1960s but are seldom caught now (Parry-Jones 1996). Fishing vessels from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Viet Nam all operate in the South China Sea, East China Sea and Yellow Sea (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is not reported to be an important component of Taiwan?s shark fishery, either within Taiwanese waters, its distant-water shark fishing areas in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Mozambique, or its tuna longline and trawler fleets. The latter fishes waters of the South China Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, India and northwest Africa (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina the main commercial fishery is located at Necochea. Reported annual landings range from 0 to 336 sharks (Chiaramonte 1998a). Chiaramonte (1998a) reported only two vessels targeted <em>C. brachyurus</em>, and observed that catches indicated this species was not sufficiently abundant to support a directed fishery should the school shark (<em>G. galeus</em>) stock collapse. In Chile directed shark fisheries are confined to the northern part of the country where artisanal fishers target shortfin mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) and blue shark (<em>Prionace glauca</em>) and may occasionally take <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. (I. Kong pers. com.). Little information is available on the elasmobranch fisheries in Peru other than landings are dominated by smoothhounds (<em>Mustelus</em> spp) and batoids (Bonfil 1994). In 1990/91 landings crashed from over 25,000 tonnes to about 5,000 tonnes p.a. The reason for this crash is unknown and may not reflect a collapse of the fishery (Bonfil 1994). Mexican shark fisheries are the largest in America and the Pacific coast contributes about 60% of total landings (Bonfil 1994). There is also a significant bycatch of elasmobranchs in large scale trawl fisheries in the Mexican Pacific (Bonfil 1994). The Gulf of California represents one of the major fishing grounds in the Pacific and supports directed fisheries for <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. (<em>C. altimus, C. brachyurus, C. falciformis, C. leucus, C. limbatus, C. obscurus, C. porosus</em>) (Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993, Bonfil 1994). Although information on stock size and species specific fishing mortality was limited or non-existent Bonfil (1994) considered it likely, given the level of exploitation that many shark stocks in the Gulf of California were close to their maximum sustainable yield or overfished. Neither Applegate <em>et al.</em> (1993) or Bonfil (1994) listed <em>C. brachyurus</em> as being heavily fished. However, as it is vulnerable to the same types of gear and may be naturally less abundant than those <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. that dominate the landings, the effects of fishing on <em>C. brachyurus</em> may be more serious than its representation in the catch suggests. <em>C. brachyurus</em> and other <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are rare in California and do not support any directed fisheries (Bonfil 1994, Hanson 1999, R. Lea pers. comm., D. Ebert pers. comm., G. Cailliet pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Sport fisheries taking <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. occur in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Argentina, Mexico and California (Stevens 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Pepperell 1992, Appelgate <em>et al.</em> 1993, Francis 1998, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). In New Zealand <em>C. brachyurus</em> is the most commonly landed <em>Carcharhinus</em> species. It is only infrequently taken by anglers targeting marlin and swordfish off the northeast North Island. Most of these fish are unwanted and are released. However there is a small summer boat and shore-based sport fishery for <em>C. brachyurus</em> centered on the large harbours in the northern North Island. Most of the sharks taken in this fishery are pregnant and post-partum females and are tagged and released. A small number are retained and landed during fishing competitions. <em>C. brachyurus</em> are also occasionally taken by bow-hunters in some North Island harbours, and there are incidental catches of juveniles and adults in recreational gill net fisheries for rig (<em>Mustelus lenticulatus</em>), mullet, snapper and flatfish. The size of this bycatch is unknown but is probably minor. <em>C. brachyurus</em> is a minor component of sport fishing catches in southern New South Wales between Port Stephens and Narooma but is likely to dominate "bronze whaler" catches in Victoria and South Australia (Stevens 1984, Cappo 1992).  No information on these fisheries was available at the time of writing. In South Africa this species is regularly taken by shore-based fishers in the Eastern Cape. These fishers take mainly neonates and juveniles less than 2 m total length (Smale 1991).  There is also a land-based tag and release fishery for adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> in Nambia (S. Fowler pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is commonly taken in protective shark control programs off Natal, South Africa and presumably Australia (New South Wales), although catches of <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp. are not identified to species in Australia (Cliff and Dudley 1992, Reid and Krogh 1992, Dudley 1997, Dudley <em>et al.</em> 1998). The mean annual catch in the Natal shark nets between 1978 and 1990 was 138 (range 9 to 421). Large annual fluctuations in catch meant no trend was evident over that period (Cliff and Dudley 1992). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is also killed as a pest species in and around fish farms, notably southern bluefin tuna pens in South Australia (I.G. pers. obs). The shallow coastal nursery areas of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are also potentially vulnerable to habitat loss and pollution arising from coastal development. The effects of this are likely to be greatest in parts of the Mediterranean Sea and East Asia. Expansion of marine aquaculture in New Zealand also potentially threatens nursery areas of <em>C. brachyurus</em>. <br/> <br/>Castro <em>et al.</em> (1999) listed this species as Category 3 (i.e., a species that is exploited by directed fisheries or bycatch, and has a limited reproductive potential, and/or life history characteristics that makes it especially vulnerable to over fishing). Vidthayanon (2002) listed it as vulnerable in Thailand.	eng
41742	distribution	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I, 2003	The range and biology of <em>C. brachyurus</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other large <em>Carcharhinus</em> species, particularly <em>C. obscurus</em> which often replaces it in subtropical waters (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Although widely distributed in warm temperate and subtropical waters populations of <em>C. brachyurus</em> are disjoint and there is probably little interchange between them.  The East Asia subpopulation has been recorded from coastal waters of Japan (Tokyo and Niigata south), China (Yellow Sea, East China Sea), North and South Korea, and southern Siberia (Sea of Japan).	eng
41742	habitat	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I, 2003	<em>Carcharhinus brachyurus</em> is an essentially warm temperate and subtropical species (Garrick 1982, Compagno 1984, Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). It is a widespread but patchily distributed coastal and shelf species, occasionally reported from oceanic areas close to the continental shelf (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000). It readily enters shallow water, and individuals and aggregations are often sighted in shallow bays, the surf zone and in harbour channels during summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994). It also occurs in brackish or freshwater in the lower reaches of large rivers and estuarine bays (Last 2002). Maximum reported depth is 100 m but it is likely to range deeper (Compagno 1984, Smale 1991, Last and Stevens 1994). Diet includes a wide variety of bottom-living and pelagic cephalopods and fishes including squid (<em>Loligo</em> spp.), cuttlefish, octopus, spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus</em> spp.), stingrays, electric rays, sawfish, gurnard, flatfish, hake, catfish, ling, jacks, kahawai/Australian salmon, mullet, sea bream, sardines and anchovy (Illingworth 1961, Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Francis 2001). Juveniles also feed on jellyfishes (Scyphozoa) and benthic crustacea (<em>Callianasa</em> spp. and Penaeid shrimps) (Smale 1991). Other elasmobranchs are taken with greatest frequency by sharks over 2 m total length (Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). <br/> <br/>Juvenile and adult <em>C. brachyurus</em> segregate by size and sex (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b). Juveniles occur in shallow water (<30 m depth) year round, whereas adults are most abundant inshore during spring and summer. Adults and sub-adults are found over the shelf and around offshore islands and banks throughout the year. The movement of adult females inshore in spring is related to breeding. Nursery areas tend to be large and ill defined but include shallow banks, large shallow bays, inlets and harbours as well as the open coast (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b, Fergusson and Compagno 1995). These areas also tend to be nurseries for other common coastal sharks such as smoothhound (<em>Mustelus</em> spp.), school shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>) and smooth hammerhead (<em>Sphyrna zygaena</em>). Neonates and small juveniles have been recorded from near Niigata, Sea of Japan (Garrick 1982).  <br/> <br/>Segregation also occurs along latitudinal gradients (Muñoz-Chápuli 1984, Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992). Adult males are present in subtropical regions throughout the year, whereas females and immature <em>C. brachyurus</em> migrate into these regions during winter. Most adult females return to temperate regions to breed in the spring. The males also appear to migrate to higher latitudes in late winter-spring presumably to mate (Cliff and Dudley 1992).  Mating probably occurs offshore as the females disperse from the nursery areas. <em>C. brachyurus</em> inhabiting temperate areas also range into higher latitudes during the summer (Ayling and Cox 1982, Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Last and Stevens 1994, Chiaramonte 1998b). These latitudinal movements may be in response to changes in water temperature or prey migrations (Compagno 1984, Comapgno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cliff and Dudley 1992, Chiaramonte 1998b).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> occur singly and in loose schools sometimes numbering hundreds of individuals (Smale 1991, Cappo 1992, Cliff and Dudley 1992, C.D. unpublished data).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity is probably biennial like most other large Carcharhinids (Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41742	population	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I, 2003	No estimates of population size or biomass are available. Global population structure is unknown. Stock structure is not known for any fished population.	eng
41742	threats	Duffy, C. & Gordon, I, 2003	The life-history of this large Carcharhinid makes it vulnerable to over fishing by directed fisheries and as bycatch in fisheries targeted at more productive species (Walker 1998, Castro <em>et al.</em> 1999, Vidthayanon 2002). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is mainly taken as bycatch in gill net and bottom longline fisheries for bony fishes and other sharks, particularly <em>Mustelus</em> spp. and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Cappo 1992, Bentley in Rose 1996, Chiaramonte 1998a, b). It is also taken by bottom trawl and pelagic longline but only forms a minor component of the catch in these fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Parry-Jones 1996, Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998, Marín <em>et al.</em> 1998, Bagley <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/><em>C. brachyurus</em> is fished commercially in China (Parry-Jones 1996). Although no fishery data is available for <em>C. brachyurus</em> in East Asia (i.e., Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea) directed shark fisheries have operated in the region since at least the 1950s, and sharks are a component of multi-species fisheries for more highly valued species such as tuna and swordfish (Parry-Jones and others in Phipps 1996). All directed fisheries for large coastal sharks in this region appear to have ceased during the 1970s due to declining catches and a shift in effort into offshore fisheries for tuna and salmon (Parry-Jones, and Kiyono in Phipps 1996). Parry-Jones (1996) observed that shark landings from coastal fisheries in China consisted mainly of small immature sharks (i.e.,90% <100 cm total length and 1 kg weight). The only <em>C. brachyurus</em> observed in markets during that survey was a juvenile weighing 5.5 kg in Fujian Province. Fishers from Fujian Province reported that large sharks were relatively common during the 1960s but are seldom caught now (Parry-Jones 1996). Fishing vessels from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Viet Nam all operate in the South China Sea, East China Sea and Yellow Sea (Parry-Jones 1996). <em>C. brachyurus</em> is not reported to be an important component of Taiwan’s shark fishery, either within Taiwanese waters, its distant-water shark fishing areas in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Mozambique, or its tuna longline and trawler fleets. The latter fishes waters of the South China Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, India and northwest Africa (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Castro <em>et al.</em> (1999) listed this species as Category 3 (i.e., a species that is exploited by directed fisheries or bycatch, and has a limited reproductive potential, and/or life history characteristics that makes it especially vulnerable to over fishing).	eng
41743	conservation	Reardon, M., Walker, T.I. & Francis, M.P., 2003	Australia and New Zealand both have TAC limits in place for the elephant fish. In New Zealand, there is a recreation bag limit of 20 fish per day. Part of its range incorporates areas closed to shark fishing and marine protected areas. A three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species in southern Australia.	eng
41743	distribution	Reardon, M., Walker, T.I. & Francis, M.P., 2003	The assessment assumes a single genetic stock in southern Australia and a separate single genetic stock in New Zealand.	eng
41743	habitat	Reardon, M., Walker, T.I. & Francis, M.P., 2003	<em>C. milii</em> is oviparous laying leathery egg cases in pairs in shallow water that may take up to 10 months to hatch (Last and Stevens 1994, Smith 2001). It is a seasonal breeder with females moving to shallower habitats to lay eggs (Francis 1997, Last and Stevens 1994, Reardon 2001, Smith 2000). Eggs are laid over several weeks each year. Juveniles remain in the shallow habitats for up to three years, which may make them vulnerable to trawl capture in New Zealand (Francis 1997). <em>C. milii</em> appears to be sexually segregated as males and females are often caught separately by commercial fishermen (T. I. Walker, unpublished data). <em>C. milii</em> has relatively high biological productivity. Maturity occurs relatively early at 70 cm fork length (FL) for females, and 50 cm FL for males.  Maximum age has been estimated as nine years from ageing using growth increments in dorsal fin spines (T. I. Walker, unpublished data) and 15 years from a tag return (Francis 1997, Annala <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41743	population	Reardon, M., Walker, T.I. & Francis, M.P., 2003	In southern Australia, <em>C. milii</em> is most abundant in Bass Strait and during the egg-laying period enters large estuaries and bays (e.g., American River Kangaroo Island and parts of the West Coast in South Australia, and Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Bay in Victoria) (Last and Stevens 1994). In New Zealand it is most abundant on the east coast of the South Island. No contraction of range or fragmentation of the population has occurred.	eng
41743	threats	Reardon, M., Walker, T.I. & Francis, M.P., 2003	<em>C. milii</em> is caught both commercially and recreationally in southern Australia and New Zealand. The sports fishery in New Zealand is currently recovering. The flesh is of good quality and is sold in seafood markets as whitefish fillets (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/><em>C. milii</em> is captured as byproduct from targeting <em>M. antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6?6½" mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. During 1970?2001 the catch of <em>C. milii</em> from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 4?118 tonnes (carcass weight), 2% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is some targeting of females inshore by recreational fishers during the egg-laying period. <br/> <br/>Small quantities are taken as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off New South Wales, eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The catch from this sector was 22 tonnes during 2002.  <br/> <br/>In southern Australia, commercial catch rates have been stable for the past 20 years, while fishing effort is reducing (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002). On-board monitoring over the past 25-year period indicates the number of animals caught per unit of fishing effort declined to 67%; the change is not statistically significant (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press).  <br/> <br/>In New Zealand, the species is most abundant off the east coast of the South Island. The fishery appears to be stable with populations likely to be above the biomass required to provide the maximum sustainable yield (Annala <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41744	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2003	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41744	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Wide, if sporadic, range in the Atlantic and Indo-West Pacific, on outer continental shelves and upper slopes.	eng
41744	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Occurs on or near the seabed on outer continental shelves and upper slopes at 98 to 1,000 m. Eats bony fishes, small dogfish sharks, skates, squid and crustaceans. Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous) with one to six (mostly four to six) pups per litter, born at 30 to 45 cm total length (TL). Matures at around 110 cm (males) to 140 cm (females) with maximum length approximately 170 cm. Although there is limited information on the biology of this species, gulper sharks are considered to have very low rates of population increase and to be very vulnerable to over-exploitation by fisheries. For example, Graham <em>et al.</em> (1997) report documented declines of 99.5% in abundance of <em>Centrophorus</em> species off southern New South Wales, Australia, where this species is known to occur in small numbers.	eng
41744	population	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Population and subpopulation size unknown; common in some areas, not in others.	eng
41744	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Targeted widely (Northeast Atlantic, southern Africa, the Maldives, Australia, China, Taiwan and probably elsewhere) by line and trawl fisheries for its liver oil, which is rich in squalene, and meat for human consumption. Also a bycatch of mixed species deepwater trawl fisheries. Identification problems compounded by an absence of routine data collection at species level in most of these fisheries means that there are no available data on trends in catch per unit effort in most of these fisheries, but where such data are available significant declines have been recorded.	eng
41745	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the combined catch of <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes to a maximum of 150 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens CSIRO, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus uyato</em> has also been nominated for listing as a Vulnerable species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Vulnerable, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a five year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm.).	eng
41745	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Ranges from Meditteranean and Black Sea, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and southwest Pacific. Australian populations may be taxonomically distinct from those elsewhere. Australian populations are documented as being from Esperance to Geraldton (Western Australia) and Fowlers Bay (South Austrlia) to Port Stephens (New South Wales), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994), but further study of this distribution is necessary given the taxonomic problems in this genus (J. Stevens CSIRO, pers. comm., Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41745	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal on the continental shelf and upper-middle continental slope in depths of 50 to 1,400 m. In Australia, main depth range is 400 to 650 m (Last and Stevens 1994), but has been recorded from 220 to 740 m (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). Ovoviviparous, usually producing one pup. The diet consists of bony fishes and cephalopods (Last and Stevens 1994), but also includes crustaceans (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Length at first maturity is 80 cm for males (Last and Stevens 1994) and 100 cm for females (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Size at birth is 35-45 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/> <br/>Preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) suggest that <em>C. uyato</em> lives to at least 46 years of age (n=8). The low fecundity, high longevity and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41745	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size (although suspected to be much reduced) and number and size of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
41745	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	1) Targeted fishing using deep set gillnets off South Australia and eastern Victoria in the Southern Shark Fishery. This targeting had all but ceased by 1995 because of declining catches (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/> <br/>2) Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) in New South Wales and eastern Victoria (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Declines of over 99% have been documented between the years 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern New South Wales/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the abovementioned areas in 220 to 605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 106.9 kg/h in 1976 to 1977 to a mean of 0.3 kg/h (a total of only 14 specimens) in 1996-97. <br/> <br/>3) Droplining (under New South Wales Fisheries jurisdiction) along the continental slope within its range (although catches are relatively minor). <br/> <br/>4) Previously targeted by gillnetting in Western Australia shark fishery (1996-1999). Fishery has since ceased: according to fishers, catch rates began to decline dramatically after 2 to 3 years (R. McAuley Western Australia Fisheries pers. comm. March 2003). <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41746	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2003	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
41746	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Fairly broadly distributed in deep water in western Pacific. Restricted to a depth range of 500 to 1,200 m with possibly only limited exchange between subpopulations.	eng
41746	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Habitat: on or near bottom on continental and insular slopes and seamounts, depth range 500 to 1,200 m. A little-known deepwater dogfish. Matures at 40 to 45 cm, maximum length 60 cm, litters of 3 to 22 pups, average 12. No seasonal reproductive cycle, no information on annual fecundity, gestation period, age at maturity or longevity. Like other deepwater dogfishes, this species likely has a very low resilience to depletion and a low intrinsic rate of population increase, hence highly vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater fisheries.	eng
41746	population	Fowler, S.L., 2003	No information on population or subpopulation size, but apparently not abundant (records are infrequent).	eng
41746	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Bycatch in deep trawl fisheries, but no data on catches and trends.	eng
41747	conservation	Stevens, J. & Correia, J.P.S., 2003	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibits the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.	eng
41747	distribution	Stevens, J. & Correia, J.P.S., 2003	A wide but patchy distribution in the Atlantic (Iceland to South Africa, and including the western Mediterranean; Grand Banks to Delaware Bay) and western Pacific (off Japan, New Zealand and Australia (from Cape Hawke, New South Wales to Beachport (South Australia), including Tasmania).	eng
41747	habitat	Stevens, J. & Correia, J.P.S., 2003	On or near the bottom of  the continental slope and abyssal plain in depths from 270 to 3,700 m. In Australia, catch rates are generally highest in depths greater than 1,000 m (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Surveys conducted in Portugal never found this species in depths shallower than 800 m. There appears to be sex and size segregation by depth. The diet consists mainly of fish (including sharks) and cephalopods along with benthic invertebrates and cetacean species. Off southern Australia, teleost prey included relatively large demersal species such as alepocephalids and orange roughy, as well as small lantern fishes. <br/> <br/>Population parameters in Australia are as follows (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002): <br/> <br/>Size at birth: 30 cm total length (TL) <br/>Max size: 120 cm TL <br/>Male maturity: 75 cm TL <br/>Female maturity: 95 cm  <br/>Age at maturity: ? <br/>Longevity: ? <br/>Litter size: 12 (8-19) <br/>Gestation:? (non-seasonal) <br/>Breeding cycle: non-continuous <br/> <br/>Maturity in Japan and in the north east Atlantic is reported at between 70 and 86 cm in males and at about 100 cm in females (Yano and Tanaka 1988, Girard and Du Buit 1999), with maximum size attained at 158 cm TL. There is evidence of size segregation by depth with smaller specimens at greater depths and pregnant females at shallower depths (Yano and Tanaka 1988, Girard and Du Buit 1999).	eng
41747	population	Stevens, J. & Correia, J.P.S., 2003	Relatively common in the eastern North Atlantic where it is targeted off Portugal. Also relatively common off Japan, south eastern Australia and New Zealand. No data are available on population sizes or on long term trends in abundance.	eng
41747	threats	Stevens, J. & Correia, J.P.S., 2003	This shark has been exploited commercially for a long time. In Japan exploitation peaked during World War II, (because the livers are rich in squalene: 22 to 49% by weight), but quickly declined due to decreasing numbers caught. Taken by trawl, hook and gillnet both as a target and bycatch species for its liver oil and flesh. Important fisheries for this species exist in Suruga Bay, Japan and Portugal where it is targeted by a deepwater longline fishery. Between 1986 and 1999 catches in Portugal varied between about 300-900 tonnes with an increasing trend. The price of landed wet weight in Portugal has also been increasing since 1986 (US$1.5/kg in 1986 to US$3.5/kg in 1999), which suggests that demand is driving the fishing industry to continue exploitation. However, CPUE data were lacking and it is not currently possible to assess changes in abundance and biomass from any areas.	eng
41749	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41749	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	Southern Japan, southern Australia, and New Zealand; reported from the northern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
41749	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 250 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Life history is not well known, but a typical deepwater shark, sometimes occurring in schools segregated by size and sex. Feed on fishes and squids. <br/> <br/>Born 25 to 30 cm. Mature 70 to 79 cm (males), 82 to 105 (females). Maximum 120 cm. Some incomplete information on reproduction is presented by Yano and Tanaka (1987, 1988) and Daley <em>et al.</em> (2002), but the gestation period and reproductive cycle are not well known.	eng
41749	population	Paul, L., 2003	There is no information on whether the population off southern Australia (including seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is improbable that there is any physical connection with the populations of <em>C. owstoni</em> off southern Japan, and in the northern Gulf of Mexico.No information is available on the size of any population.	eng
41749	threats	Paul, L., 2003	A moderate bycatch in some deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Its depth range coincides (in part) with that of some commercially important teleosts (especially orange roughy, oreos), although it extends somewhat deeper.	eng
41751	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
41751	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Western Pacific around Viet Nam, and China (Hainan Island), and northwestern Australia (Western Australia from off Geraldton to Broome).	eng
41751	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This tropical swellshark is found on muddy substrates on or near the bottom on the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope, at depths of 219 to 450 m. Oviparous; the hatchlings are about 12 cm total length (TL) and lack enlarged dorsal denticles that help other species of swellsharks to break their way out of the eggcases. Maximum size is at least 42 cm TL (adolescent or adult female); males mature at about 36 cm TL.	eng
41751	population	Lisney, T.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No available information on population sizes. Asian and Australian populations distinct. Differences exist between these populations and their relationship needs assessment.	eng
41751	threats	Lisney, T.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Of minor interest to fisheries where it is caught by commercial bottom trawlers as bycatch and possibly utilized for fishmeal in Asia. Actual level of exploitation in Asia unknown. <br/> <br/>Range off Western Australia only is subject to low fishing effort (Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fishery).	eng
41752	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	No conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41752	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Throughout mainland New Zealand, and the Stewart Is ? Snares Is Shelf; Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands. Depth ranges from the shore to 673 m, but most are shallower than 400 m.	eng
41752	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Trawled over open, soft substrates, and also found on rocky reefs. Nocturnally active; usually resting during the day. Feeds on fish, crustaceans, octopus and squid. Egg cases are laid in pairs and attached to objects by long spiral tendrils. Young hatch at about 16 cm total length (TL). Males mature at about 60 cm and females at 80 cm TL. Maximum length is reported to be larger than 150 cm, but individuals over 100 cm TL are rare. Females grow larger than males.	eng
41752	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Frequently caught as bycatch in trawl and rock lobster fisheries. However there is no indication that these fisheries are impacting the population, though abundance data are lacking.	eng
41753	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Continued catch data for this species is required for future assessments.	eng
41753	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> is an endemic to southern Australia, found from the Recherche Archipelago in Western Australia to Jervis Bay in New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41753	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 60 m in depth and is probably the most common catshark in this region (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/>This species reaches at least 100 cm total length (TL) (possibly 150 cm) with males maturing at about 82 cm and females laying egg cases approximately 13 cm by 5 cm which are attached to seaweed and bottom-dwelling invertebrates and the young hatching at about 14 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/><em>C. laticeps</em> feeds on small reef fish, crustaceans and squid (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41753	threats	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Cephaloscyllium laticeps</em> forms a significant component of the southeastern Australia shark gill net fishery (Walker <em>et al.</em>, in press) but there is little fishing pressure further to the west. This species is usually returned to the water and fishing mortality appears to be low due to its resilience: it can survive for a considerable length of time out of the water (T. Walker, pers. comm.). Although this species is of little commercial value, it has recently been marketed in some areas (J.D. Stevens, pers. comm.).	eng
41754	distribution	Cetacean Specialist Group, 1996	Found in the "lower and middle reaches of the Chang Jiang [=Yangtze River], where it ranges 1,600 km upstream as far as the gorges above Yichang (200 m above sea level), and including Poyang Hu and Dongting Hu and their tributaries the Gan Jiang and the Xiang Jiang" (Rice 1998).	eng
41754	threats	Cetacean Specialist Group, 1996	Porpoise habitat in the Yangtze has been degraded by water development, including the Gezhouba and Three Gorges dams and about 1300 smaller dams in tributaries (Liu <em>et al</em>. 2000, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41755	conservation	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Management plans need both development and implementation. The International Whaling Commission manages sperm whale populations under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and lists sperm whale seasons, sperm whale size limits and sperm whale catch limits (0 at present), as well as sanctuaries for all species in the Indian and Southern Oceans. However, no scheme for managing sperm whale populations is in place. Moreover, many range states are not members of the International Whaling Commission.	eng
41755	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is on Appendix I of CITES and Appendices I and II of CMS.<br/><br/>Management plans need both development and implementation. The International Whaling Commission manages sperm whale populations under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and Schedule of the Convention lists sperm whale seasons, sperm whale size limits and sperm whale catch limits (0 at present), as well as sanctuaries for all species in the Indian and Southern Oceans. However, no scheme for managing sperm whale populations is in place. Moreover, many range states are not members of the International Whaling Commission.<br/><br/>Regional subpopulations of sperm whales exist, and there has been an apparent lack of recovery in some areas or even continued decline (e.g., the Mediterranean (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). Therefore, further assessments of the status of sperm whales should be conducted at the subpopulation level.	eng
41755	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The sperm whale has a large geographic range (Rice 1989). It can be seen in nearly all marine regions, from the equator to high latitudes, but is generally found in continental slope or deeper water. The distribution extends to many enclosed or partially-enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, and Gulf of Mexico.	eng
41755	distribution	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The sperm whale has a large geographic range (Rice 1989). Sperm whales can be seen in nearly all marine regions, from the equator to high latitudes, but they are generally found in continental slopes or deeper water. The distribution extends through many enclosed or partially enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, Gulf of California, and Gulf of Mexico.	eng
41755	habitat	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The habitat of the sperm whale is the open sea.  More specifically, sperm whales can be found in almost all marine waters deeper than 1,000m that are not covered by ice, except in the Black Sea and possibly the Red Sea (Rice 1989, Whitehead 2003). In some areas, particularly in the western North Atlantic, sperm whales, and especially males, can occur in shallower waters (e.g. Scott and Sadove 1997). Sperm whales are generally more numerous in areas of relatively high primary productivity (Jaquet <em>et al.</em> 1996), although there are some exceptions, such as the Sargasso Sea.<br/><br/>The sperm whale is an animal of extremes, in size (up to 18m), sexual dimorphism (mature males have three times the mass of mature females), ecological imprint (sperm whales take roughly the same amount of biomass from the oceans as humans), and many other attributes (Whitehead 2003).  The commercial value of the animal (a function of its size and the quality of sperm whale oil) drove two massive worldwide hunts: the technologically primitive “open-boat” hunt from 1712-c.1920 (Starbuck 1878, Best 1983), and modern whaling using engine-driven whaling ships and harpoon guns from c.1910-1988 (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The complex social structure of sperm whales may have been affected by whaling, lowering potential population growth rates, which are very low anyway (Whitehead 2003).  On the positive side, sperm whales are very widely distributed (see above), and their primary food, deep-water squid, are not yet major targets of fisheries. <br/><br/>The generation time (mean age of mothers) for sperm whales can be calculated if one assumes a set of population parameters, specifically age at first birth, mortality rate of mature females, and reproductive rate of mature females.  There is uncertainty about these parameters, so two calculations were made using different assumptions:<br/>a) Applying the population parameters most recently used for sperm whales by the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (International Whaling Commission 1982: age at first birth = 10 years; female reproductive rate in unexploited population = 0.20/year; female adult mortality = 0.055/yr): generation time = 27.3 years.<br/>b) The estimates of mortality used by the International Whaling Commission are particularly problematic, and sperm whales likely have age-specific survival and reproductive rates.  Thus it may be more realistic (Whitehead 2002) to use the well-established mortality schedule of killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>; Olesiuk <em>et al.</em> 1990) and an age-specific pregnancy rate taken from the sperm whale data presented by Best <em>et al.</em> (1984; pregnancy rate for mature females = 0.257-0.0038xAge in years): generation time = 27.5<br/>These estimates are consistent and suggest a generation time of 27.4yr for sperm whales.	eng
41755	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The habitat of the sperm whale is the open sea. More specifically, sperm whales can be found in almost all marine waters deeper than 1,000 m that are not covered by ice, except in the Black Sea and possibly the Red Sea (Rice 1989; Whitehead 2003). In some areas, particularly in the western North Atlantic, sperm whales, especially males, can occur in shallower waters (e.g., Scott and Sadove 1997). Females and young are usually restricted to waters at latitudes lower than about 40-50º and to areas where sea surface temperatures are greater than about 15ºC (Rice 1989). Sperm whales are generally more numerous in areas of relatively high primary productivity (Jaquet <em>et al</em>. 1996), although there are some exceptions, such as the Sargasso Sea and the central North Pacific gyre (Barlow and Taylor 2005).<br/><br/>The sperm whale is an animal of extremes in size (up to 18 m), sexual dimorphism (mature males have three times the mass of mature females), ecological imprint (sperm whales take roughly the same amount of biomass from the oceans as humans), and many other attributes (Whitehead 2003). The commercial value of the animal (a function of its size and the quality of sperm whale oil) drove two massive worldwide hunts: the technologically primitive “open-boat” hunt from 1712-~1920 (Starbuck 1878; Best 1983), and modern whaling using engine-driven whaling ships and harpoon guns from ~1910-1988 (Tonnessen and Johnsen 1982). The complex social structure of sperm whales may have been affected by whaling, lowering potential population growth rates, which are very low anyway (Whitehead 2003). On the positive side, sperm whales are very widely distributed (see above), and their primary prey, deep-water squid, are not yet major targets of fisheries. <br/><br/>The generation time (mean age of mothers) for sperm whales can be calculated if one assumes a set of population parameters, specifically age at first birth, mortality rate of mature females, and reproductive rate of mature females. There is uncertainty about these parameters, so two calculations were made using different assumptions:<br/><br/>a) Applying the population parameters most recently used for sperm whales by the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee (International Whaling Commission 1982): age at first birth = 10 years; female reproductive rate in unexploited population = 0.20/year; female adult mortality = 0.055/yr): generation time = 27.3 years.<br/><br/>b) The estimates of mortality used by the International Whaling Commission are particularly problematic, and sperm whales likely have age-specific survival and reproductive rates. Thus it may be more realistic (Whitehead 2002) to use the well-established mortality schedule of killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>; Olesiuk <em>et al</em>. 1990) and an age-specific pregnancy rate taken from the sperm whale data presented by Best <em>et al</em>. (1984; pregnancy rate for mature females = 0.257-0.0038xAge in years): generation time = 27.5	eng
41755	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The only recent quantitative analysis of sperm whale population trends (Whitehead 2002; Fig. 1 in linked PDF document, which constitutes an integral part of this assessment) suggests that a pre-whaling global population of about 1,100,000 had been reduced by about 29% by 1880 through “open-boat” whaling, and then to approximately 360,000 (67% reduction from initial) by the 1990s through modern whaling, although much uncertainty is associated with all these estimates (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document). There is no direct evidence that any part of the population has increased since the end of large-scale whaling in about 1980, although for most areas there is also no direct evidence that they have not. In some areas there is concern that populations are continuing to decline (see below).<br/><br/>The species has a huge geographic range (Rice 1989) and a global population size in the 100,000's (Whitehead 2002; Fig 1). Although there is considerable uncertainty about sperm whale population parameters and levels of exploitation, Whitehead (2002) estimated historical trajectories of sperm whale abundance incorporating many, but not all, sources of uncertainty (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document). That model was modified slightly (to produce an endpoint in 2003) and run to estimate the decline in global sperm whale population size between 1921 and 2003 (i.e. over approximately 3 generations; 82yr; see below for estimation of generation time) (H. Whitehead pers. comm.). As sperm whale population size seems to have changed rather little between about 1910-1930 (Whitehead 2002; Fig. 1 in linked PDF document), the calculations are probably quite robust with reference to the estimated generation time. Using the “best” estimates of the model parameters (as in Whitehead 2002), the population in 2003 would have been 44% of that in 1921. Of 1,000 runs using model parameters randomly selected from within reasonable ranges (as in Whitehead 2002), 6% gave populations in 2003 of <30% of that in 1922, 54% gave a 2003 population between 30-50% of that in 1992, and 40% suggested depletion levels of less than 50% over this time. <br/><br/> Arguments can be made that the model results are overly optimistic or overly pessimistic. Factors that would contribute to making the results overly optimistic that are not accounted for in the model include not accounting for under-reporting of illegal Soviet catches in the North Pacific and Antarctica and under-reporting of Japanese catches in the North Pacific (Kasuya and Brownell 2001), other continuing threats (described below), and factors such as continuing effects of social disruption from whaling that might inhibit recovery (consistent with an apparent lack of recovery in many areas). Factors that would contribute to making the results overly pessimistic include the assumption of a relatively low rate of increase in the model and the extrapolation of a relatively high estimate of g(0) (the proportion of whales detected on the trackline) from a single study to the global population. The direction of the effect of other uncertainties in model inputs, including the effects of sex-biased catches, is not certain. Despite these uncertainties, the Whitehead model provides the best available scientific evidence upon which to base this assessment. To reduce these uncertainties, future analyses would need to address the concerns identified above. <br/><br/>Efforts to assess the conservation status of sperm whales and the impact of historical whaling on contemporary structure are compromised by the absence of a good model of sperm whale population structure; pooling data may obscure distinct geographic patterns. While sperm whales are known to show long distance movements (Ivashin and Rovnin 1967; Mitchell 1975) and low genetic differentiation among ocean basins, several lines of evidence suggest that sperm whales past and present, have significant geographic structure. Analyses based on historical and contemporary data from tagging records (Rice 1974; Kasuya and Miyashita 1988), blood types (Fujino 1963), catch distributions, sighting patterns, size composition, lack of recovery from exploitation (Japan), timing of pregnancy (Best <em>et al</em>.1984), photo-identification (Whitehead 2003), genetics (Drouot 2004; Mesnick <em>et al</em>. 1999), cultural markers (Rendell and Whitehead 2003) and combinations thereof (Bannister and Mitchell 1980; Kasuya and Miyashita 1988) suggest evidence for structure in many regions. Over the past decade, several authors have investigated population structure in female sperm whales using sequence variation within the mitochondrial control region DNA (mtDNA) and/or polymorphic nuclear loci (microsatellites). In general, results tend to find low genetic differentiation among ocean basins and little evidence of subdivision within ocean basins, with the exception of some isolated basins such as the Mediterranean and Gulf of Mexico (Lyrholm <em>et al</em>. 1999; Mesnick <em>et al</em>. 1999; Drouot <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, factors such as low sample sizes, low mtDNA haplotypic diversity and social structure alone and together reduce the power to detect population structure. In addition, it is clear that biologically discrete populations of odontocetes can occur independently of strong geographic or oceanographic features. Alternative, non-geographic based hypotheses of population structure, such as dialect and differences in diet such as are found in killer whales, have not been thoroughly examined. For example, Rendell and Whitehead (2003) suggest that female populations seem to be culturally structured within oceans by “coda” vocalizations and may be genetically distinct (Rendell and Whitehead 2005, Rendell <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41755	population	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The only recent quantitative analysis of sperm whale population trends (Whitehead 2002) suggests that a pre-whaling global population of about 1,100,000 had been reduced by about 29% by 1880 through “open-boat” whaling, and then to approximately 360,000 by the 1990s through modern whaling, although much uncertainty is associated with all these estimates. There is no direct evidence that any part of the population has increased since the end of large-scale whaling in about 1980 although, for most areas, there is also no direct evidence that they have not. In some areas there is concern that populations are continuing to decline (e.g. the Mediterranean).	eng
41755	threats	Species account by IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group; regional assessment by European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Sperm whales have had a long history of local whaling going back at least to the 1500s (Mesnick pers. comm.), and intense whaling, beginning around 1712, and continuing to 1988. The “modern” highly mechanised phase was particularly intense around 1950, and at its peak killed around 25,000 whales per year, dramatically depleting the global population. Currently, some tens of whales are taken each year from small boats in Indonesia, and 10 are taken annually by Japan under IWC Special Permit (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear, particularly gillnets, has been a particular problem in the Mediterranean Sea (see Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) but sperm whales die from entanglement in nets and lines in many other areas and in a variety of fisheries as well (e.g. Haase and Félix 1994, Barlow and Cameron 2003, Caretta <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Sperm whales sometimes take fish off fishing gear (most often demersal long-line gear), an activity known as depredation. Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g. South East Alaska, Chile, South Georgia and several other southern ocean island areas, North Atlantic). This interaction has resulted in a few reported entanglements and deaths (e.g. Salas 1987, Hucke-Gaete <em>et al.</em> 2004), and has incurred hostility from some fishermen (National Marine Fisheries Service 1998, Donoghue <em>et al.</em> 2003), including shooting of whales (González and Olivarría 2002).<br/><br/>Sperm whale tissues have high levels of some contaminants (O'Shea 1999, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 2000), though any population-level effects on health are unknown.  The effects of noise on sperm whales are also uncertain. Some evidence suggests that they are highly sensitive to noise (e.g. Watkins <em>et al.</em> 1985, Bowles <em>et al.</em> 1994) while other studies have found little or no effect (e.g. Madsen and Møhl 2000, Madsen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  To date, all published studies of sperm whales and noise focus on short-term behavioural effects. Avoidance of sonar (Dawson pers. comm.) and seismic surveys (Mate <em>et al.</em> 1994; but see Madsen <em>et al.</em> 2002) has been observed but no mortality has been documented.<br/><br/>Whaling on sperm whales has at various times focussed almost exclusively on one sex or the other. Removals of large numbers of males may have had lingering effects on pregnancy rates in some subpopulations (Best 1979, Clarke <em>et al.</em> 1980, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1997) and large males are noticeably uncommon on some breeding grounds (see Whitehead 2003). The removal of large numbers of females from social groups, and of older females in particular, may have lingering, socially disruptive effects. Further, recovery might be inhibited via temporary or permanent loss of social cohesion and of socio-ecological knowledge such as is known to occur in other large-brained, long-lived social mammals (e.g. elephants, Poole and Thomsen 1989).  <br/><br/>Maximum rates of increase for sperm whale populations are very low, possibly on the order of 1% per year (Whitehead 2002). Population recovery will be slow.<br/><br/>The extraordinarily wide distribution of sperm whales buffers the species to some extent from competition with fisheries. However, it should be noted that in some areas, stocks of squid and fish species known to be used by sperm whales are heavily exploited.<br/><br/>Sperm whales face other threats at a more regional level. These include collisions with ships (Laist <em>et al.</em> 2001), for instance off the Canary Islands (André and Potter 2000) and in the Mediterranean (Pesante <em>et al.</em> 2002), and ingestion of marine debris in the Mediterranean (e.g. Viale <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
41755	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The greatest threat to sperm whales, extensive commercial whaling, has ceased. However, a number of other threats of various dimensions remain.<br/><br/>Sperm whales have had a long history of local whaling going back at least to the 1500s and intense commercial whaling beginning around 1712 and continuing to 1988. The “modern” highly mechanised phase was particularly intense around 1950, and at its peak killed around 25,000 whales per year, dramatically depleting the global population. In recent decades, some tens of whales were taken each year from small boats in Indonesia (Reeves 2002), although none have been taken in the last two years (H. Whitehead pers. comm.), and 10 are taken annually by Japan under IWC Special Permit (Clapham <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Entanglement in fishing gear, particularly gillnets, has been a particular problem in the Mediterranean Sea (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara, 2006), but sperm whales die from entanglement in nets and lines in many other areas and in a variety of fisheries as well (e.g., Haase and Félix 1994; Barlow and Cameron 2003). Considering the widespread distribution of sperm whales, observations of occasional takes in relatively small scale gillnet fisheries (e.g. Barlow and Cameron 2003) suggest much larger takes in unobserved, unregulated high seas driftnet fisheries such as were common before the 1989 adoption of resolution 44/225 of the UN General Assembly. <br/><br/>Sperm whales sometimes take fish off fishing gear (most often demersal long-line gear), an activity known as “depredation.” Depredation of long-line catches appears to be a recent and increasing phenomenon, and now occurs in many regions (e.g., South East Alaska, Chile, South Georgia and several other southern ocean island areas, North Atlantic). This interaction has resulted in a few reported entanglements and deaths (e.g. Salas 1987; Hucke-Gaete <em>et al</em>. 2004), and has incurred hostility from some fishermen (National Marine Fisheries Service 1998; Donoghue <em>et al</em>. 2003), including shooting of whales (González and Olivarría 2002).<br/><br/>Sperm whale tissues have high levels of some contaminants (O'Shea 1999; Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2000); however, any population-level effects on health are unknown. The effects of noise on sperm whales are also uncertain. Some evidence suggests that they are highly sensitive to noise (e.g., Watkins <em>et al</em>. 1985; Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1994) while other studies have found little or no effect (e.g., Madsen and Møhl 2000; Madsen <em>et al</em>. 2002). To date, all published studies of sperm whales and noise focus on short-term behavioural effects. Avoidance of sonar (Dawson pers. comm.) and seismic surveys (Mate <em>et al</em>. 1994; but see Madsen <em>et al</em>. 2002) has been observed but no mortality has been documented.<br/><br/>Whaling on sperm whales has at various times focussed almost exclusively on one sex or the other. Removals of large numbers of males may have had lingering effects on pregnancy rates in some subpopulations (Best 1979; Clarke <em>et al</em>. 1980; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997) and large males are noticeably uncommon on some breeding grounds (Whitehead 2003). The removal of large numbers of females from social groups, and of older females in particular, may have lingering, socially disruptive effects. Furthermore, recovery might be inhibited via temporary or permanent loss of social cohesion and of socio-ecological knowledge such as is known to occur in other large-brained, long-lived social mammals (e.g., elephants, Poole and Thomsen 1989). <br/><br/>Maximum rates of increase for sperm whale populations are very low, possibly on the order of 1% per year (Whitehead 2002). Population growth/recovery can be expected to be low in the species.<br/><br/>Sperm whales face other threats at a more regional level. These include collisions with ships (Laist <em>et al</em>. 2001), for instance off the Canary Islands (André and Potter 2000) and in the Mediterranean (Pesante <em>et al</em>. 2002), and ingestion of marine debris in the Mediterranean (e.g., Viale <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/><br/>Causes for optimism: On the one hand, the sperm whale is not being heavily whaled at present and seems relatively secure from this threat in the short and medium term. When not being actively hunted, the sperm whale has rather little interaction with humans: most of its habitat is far from land, and few of its food sources (principally deep-water squid) are of currently harvested (Clarke 1977). Some populations, for instance the animals in the western North Atlantic that were little affected by modern whaling, seem healthy with reasonably high population densities and evidence of satisfactory reproduction (Gordon <em>et al</em>. 1998; National Marine Fisheries Service 2000).<br/><br/>Causes for concern: on the other hand, the sperm whale, with a maximum rate of increase of around 1% per year (Whitehead 2002), is not well adapted to recover from population depletion. Furthermore, the population model considers only one anthropogenic threat, whaling, and thus posits that the sperm whale population has recovered since about 1980 (Fig. 1 in linked PDF document), when large-scale commercial whaling was rapidly coming to an end. This recovery is purely theoretical, and may not be occurring as sperm whales carry high levels of some chemical contaminants (O'Shea 1999; Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 2000), ocean noise is increasing (Gordon and Moscrop 1996), interactions with fisheries continue to result in sperm whale deaths (International Whaling Commission 1994), and the lingering, socially disruptive effects of whaling may be inhibiting recovery of this highly social species (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997). Some regional populations of sperm whales are declining or are apparently not recovering from depletion. Even in the absence of whaling, the Mediterranean population appears to have declined over the past 20 years, with bycatch in driftnets a likely principal cause (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006). The southeastern Pacific sperm whale population, very heavily whaled during the period 1950-1980, has an extremely low recruitment rate (probably below replacement), perhaps because of the social disruption caused by intense whaling (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1997). The population of mature and maturing males in the Antarctic was also heavily whaled over the same period, but should have repopulated from less heavily exploited breeding populations at lower latitudes following the end of large-scale commercial whaling. However, systematic surveys of sperm whales in the Antarctic showed no substantial or statistically significant increase between 1978 and 1992 (Branch and Butterworth 2001).	eng
41756	conservation	Smith, B.D., Braulik, G. & Sinha, R.K., 2004	Ganges River dolphins are legally protected from hunting in all range states. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar, India, between Sultanganj and Kahalgaon in the mainstem of the Ganges River was designated as a protected area for dolphins in August 1991 but there is little government support to enforce protective measures. The legal protection in India has been described as "completely ineffective" (Sinha 2002), however a small measure of progress was the convening of the Regional Seminar on Environmental Laws in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, India in November 2003 (Anon 2002). Also, recent proceedings of the Patna High Court (C.J.W.C. No. 5628 of 2001) directed the state and federals governments to allocate funds for supporting efforts to conserve and monitor dolphins in the Ganges. In a few smaller tributaries, dolphins receive nominal protection by virtue of the fact that small portions of their habitat are within or adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries (e.g., Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India, and Royal Bardia National Park and Katerniya Ghat Gharial Sanctuary, respectively north and south of the Nepal-India border. Although field trials have shown that shark or fish oils would be efficient substitutes for dolphin oil as a fish attractant and some fishermen in the middle Ganges are now using oil made from fish scraps as an alternative, most apparently continue to use dolphin oil by preference or because suitable alternatives are not widely available in either the Ganges or Brahmaputra systems (Mohan and Kunhi 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, Bairagi 1999, Sinha 2002).	eng
41756	distribution	Smith, B.D., Braulik, G. & Sinha, R.K., 2004	Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna (GBM) and Karnaphuli-Sangu (KS) river systems, from the deltas upstream to where rocky barriers, shallow water, fast currents, dams, or barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) prevent upstream movement. The GBM and KS systems are disjunct and therefore so are their respective dolphin populations, although there may be occasional demographic interaction during the high water season if the freshwater plumes of the two river systems meet. There is likely further population separation within the two systems, some of it "natural" but much more of it secondary caused by the presence of physical barriers constructed within the last 100 years. (Follow link below to see a distribution map). <br/> <br/>The Ganges River Dolphin was considered by some researchers to be a distinct species for several decades (1970s–1990s) and was listed as such in the 1996 Red List. Its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies, the Indus River Dolphin, <em>Platanista gangetica minor</em>, and therefore the two have been assessed and listed, and should be managed, separately.	eng
41756	habitat	Smith, B.D., Braulik, G. & Sinha, R.K., 2004	Ganges River dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders (Kasuya and Haque 1972, Smith 1993, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and above and below mid-channel islands, bridge pilings, and other engineering structures that cause scouring (Smith, unpublished data). Their fidelity to counter-current pools is probably greatest in fast-flowing channels (Smith<em>et al</em>. 1998). Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes sometimes occurs (especially in the Brahmaputra basin), as does "escapement" from the river channels into artificial water bodies such as canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a major component of the total range, but Ganges River dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10ppt, although they have been recorded in waters as saline as 23ppt (Smith and Braulik, unpublished data).	eng
41756	population	Smith, B.D., Braulik, G. & Sinha, R.K., 2004	Although the aggregate range-wide abundance of Ganges River dolphins was estimated by Jones (1982) as 4,000–5,000 individuals and more recently by Mohan <em>et al</em>. (1997) as fewer than 2,000, these were only guesses. Population assessments have been based on counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available.  Available counts and estimates are summarized in Table 1 (follow link below). <br/> <br/>Highest "densities" of Ganges River dolphins (defined as animals per linear river kilometer) have been observed in the Ganges mainstem between Maniharighat and Buxar (1.5/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and within this segment particularly in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (2.8/km) (Smith, unpublished) and just downstream between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat (near Katihar) (3.4/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and the lower Sangu River, Bangladesh (1.4/km) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). A few Ganges River dolphins were still present during the mid 1990s as far downstream in the Hoogly River as Kakdwip (Sinha 1997). In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh a minimum of 134 Ganges River dolphins were counted resulting in a "density" estimate of 0.09 individuals/km, with Irrawaddy dolphins <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em> replacing <em>Platanista</em> in higher salinity waters of the southern and western portions (Smith, unpublished). No information is available on the status of Ganges River dolphins in the Indian Sundarbans, except for historical reports of occurrence (Anderson 1879, Jones 1982).   <br/> <br/>Roughly accounting for duplicate counts or estimates in Table 1 (follow link below), the total of about 1,200–1,800 animals provides a reasonable lower range for the total metapopulation abundance. However, considering that areas with potentially large numbers of animals have not been accounted for at all (e.g., Indian portion of the Sundarbans Delta) and that at least some of the counts and estimates are known to be negatively biased (e.g., see Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001), the true number could be several times as high. <br/> <br/><strong>Numerical Declines</strong>: Although no credible time series of abundance estimates are available for most of the subspecies' range, the numbers shown in Table 1 (follow link below) imply downward trends in a number of upstream tributaries (see also Range Declines below). <br/> <br/><strong>Range Declines</strong>: The range of the subspecies has declined progressively since the nineteenth century when it was mapped by Anderson (1879). No dolphins have been reported in recent years between the Madhya Ganga Barrage at Bijnor and the Bhimgoda Barrage near Haridwar, at the upstream limit of their historical range in the Ganges (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). This suggests a roughly 100 km decline in their range in the Ganges River since the late 1800s. In recent years, dolphins have not been reported in the Yamuna River above the Chambal River confluence during the dry season because upstream channels have become too shallow and polluted to support dolphins, but the segment may still be occupied during the monsoon (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Historically, they were found year-round in the Yamuna River approximately 400 km upstream to Delhi (Anderson 1879).  <br/> <br/>Elsewhere in the Ganges mainstem, four extant subpopulations are isolated by barrages, including Farakka Barrage located approximately at the center of the subspecies' overall range. In the northern Ganges tributaries, of the six subpopulations that were isolated above or between barrages, three have been extirpated (in the Gandak River above the Gandak Barrage and in the Sarda River above the upper and lower Sarda barrages) (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000) and one reduced to insignificant numbers (in the Kosi River above the Kosi Barrage) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ganges River dolphins have apparently been extirpated from the Son River (at least during the dry season) based on a survey covering ca. 300 km upstream of the Ganges confluence, above and below the Indrapuri Barrage (Sinha and Sharma 2003). <br/>  <br/>Occasional reports of dolphins in the reservoir behind Kaptai Dam (built in 1961) of the KS system occurred until the mid-1990s (Ahmed 2000), but recent surveys have found no evidence that the subspecies survives there (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, the dam's construction is likely to have caused a substantial reduction in the subspecies’ range in southeastern Bangladesh, but in the absence of any historical information on occurrence in the upper Karnaphuli no quantitative estimate of range reduction is possible. <br/> <br/>No surveys have been conducted in the Damodar River system but a single dolphin was rescued after becoming stranded in a deep pool after flow was diverted during the dry season by an upstream barrage. The downstream effects of at least ten dams and barrages constructed in its mainstem and tributaries has probably severely reduced and fragmented dolphin habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
41756	threats	Smith, B.D., Braulik, G. & Sinha, R.K., 2004	<strong>Water Development Projects</strong> <br/> <br/>Construction of at least 50 dams and dams within the known or suspected historical range of the subspecies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000) has dramatically affected its habitat, abundance, and population structure. The subspecies exists as a metapopulation, with numerous subpopulations isolated to varying degrees by mostly manmade but also natural barriers, as outlined in the preceding section. <br/> <br/>In addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, dams and barrages degrade downstream habitat and create reservoirs (known as head ponds (or pondage in India) in the case of barrages) with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. For example, luxuriant growth of macrophytes and excessive siltation have eliminated suitable habitat immediately above Farakka Barrage (Sinha 2000). Moreover, the insufficiency of water released downstream of this barrage has eliminated dry-season habitat for more than 300 km, or until the Ganges (Padma)-Brahmaputra confluence (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also allowed salt water to intrude an additional 160 km into the Sundarbans Delta (Rahman 1986), further decreasing the amount of suitable habitat for this obligate freshwater dolphin (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>A high dam has been planned for some time just upstream of the dolphins' current (or at least recent) range in the Karnali River, Nepal. If built, this structure would almost certainly eliminate the small amount of dolphin habitat in Nepal’s last river with a potentially viable dolphin population (Smith and Reeves 2000). Disturbance and environmental degradation associated with geotechnical feasibility studies and bridge and road construction for the dam already may have contributed to a decline in the number and range of dolphins above the Nepal-India border (Smith 1993, Smith<em>et al</em>. 1994). Another high dam has been proposed for the Surma River in Cachar, India, which would certainly affect dolphins downstream in the Kalni-Kushiyara distributary (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Since the 1980s, momentum has been growing within India to proceed with large-scale inter-basin water transfer projects, which will involve additional dam construction and diversion of water from rivers inhabited by dolphins. Although no final decision has been taken to proceed with construction, feasibility studies are to be completed in December 2005 and detailed project reports in 2006. It was anticipated in 2004 that, if built, the entire project would be finished by 2016. During the May 2004 national elections in India all political parties supported the construction of inter-basin water transfer projects and promised to accelerate the construction process. Several key categories of potential threat are: (a) further fragmentation of the dolphin metapopulation, (b) reduction or elimination of habitat simply in terms of dry-season flow, (c) "escapement" of dolphins into canals where they are unlikely to be able to get back into rivers and are therefore doomed, (d) cascading effects from interrupted migrations of prey organisms, degradation of prey spawning habitat etc., (e) contaminant flux leading to significant changes in chronic and/or acute exposure to toxins, (f) loss of complexity (channelization, sediment entrapment upstream of dams, etc.) making the rivers less habitable for dolphins, etc, and  (g) downstream effects on the ecology of the delta (e.g., saline encroachment, loss of sediment).  <br/> <br/>Embankments cause sediments to be deposited in the riverbed instead of on the floodplain, thereby eliminating or reducing the extent of the eddy-counter currents where dolphins are generally found. (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). They also restrict access to floodplain habitat critical to the reproduction and growth of riverine fish species (Boyce 1990). Approximately 3,500 km of embankments have been constructed in the Ganges mainstem and Gandak, Buri Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala, Yamuna, and Son tributaries (Mishra 1999). Dolphins were apparently extirpated from at least 35 km of the Punpun tributary of the Ganges after embankments were constructed in 1975 (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although plans for constructing an extensive system of embankments in the rivers of Bangladesh under the Flood Action Plan (FAP) coordinated by the World Bank (see World Bank 1990) have been drastically scaled-down, several projects are currently planned or being constructed that will have adverse effects on dolphin habitat. These include the Bank Protection and River Training Project (FAP 21/22), Brahmaputra River Bank Priority Works, and Jamalpur Priority Project (FAP 3.1) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Environmental assessments of these projects have not considered river dolphins, nor have they acknowledged the cumulative impacts of planned embankments, and others built before the FAP, on the fish and crustacean species eaten by river dolphins. <br/> <br/>Other sources of habitat degradation in the GBM system include dredging (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the removal of stones (Shrestha 1989), sand (Mohan<em>et al</em>. 1998), and woody debris (Smith 1993). These activities compromise the ecological integrity of the riverine environments, especially small tributaries where suitable habitat is limited and disproportionately vulnerable to local disturbance. Dolphin habitat is also threatened by water abstraction from surface pumps and tube wells, especially in the Ganges where the mean dry-season water depth has declined dramatically in recent years (Sinha, unpublished). Although the long-term implications of reduced dry-season flows in the Ganges are catastrophic, both for the survival of river dolphins and a major portion of the world’s human population that inhabits the Ganges basin, the cumulative effects of reduced water supplies have received little attention. Meanwhile, new projects to divert dry-season flow, such as Kanpur Barrage in the upper Ganges, continue to be constructed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/><strong>Toxic Contaminants</strong> <br/> <br/>Organochlorine and butyltin concentrations in samples from the tissues of Ganges dolphins were high enough to cause concern about effects (Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pollutant loads can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. River dolphins may be particularly vulnerable to industrial pollution because their habitat in counter-current pools downstream of confluences and sharp meanders often places them in close proximity to point sources in major urban areas (e.g., Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Calcutta, and Dhaka). Furthermore, the capacity of rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has been drastically reduced in many areas because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place.  <br/> <br/><strong>Hunting</strong> <br/> <br/>Deliberate killing of river dolphins is believed to have declined in most areas but still occurs at least occasionally in the middle Ganges near Patna, India (Smith and Reeves 2000, Sinha 2002), in the Kalni-Kushiyara River of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), and in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India (Mohan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Dolphins are killed by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mortality in Fishing Gear</strong> <br/> <br/>Mortality in fishing gear, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges River dolphins throughout most of their range (Mohan 1995, Smith and Reeves 2000). They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. In the middle Ganges, although harpooning is now "rare", mortality in fishing nets remains "widespread" (Sinha 2002). A specific problem is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins (described by Sinha 2002 as "assisted incidental capture"). <br/> <br/>Meaningful quantitative data on the magnitude of catches, either deliberate or incidental, are unavailable and unlikely to become available in the absence of a well-organized, adequately funded, and incorruptible fishery/wildlife management system.	eng
41757	conservation	Braulik, G.T., Smith, B.D. & Chaudhry, A.A., 2004	In 1972, dolphins were protected under the Wildlife Act of Sindh and in 1974 the government of Sindh declared the Indus River between the Sukkur and Guddu Barrages a dolphin reserve. The government of Punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the Punjab Wildlife Protection Act in 1974 and established the Taunsa Wildlife Sanctuary and Chashma Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983 and 1984, respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Chaudhry and Khalid 1989). Enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by Pilleri and Zbinden (1973–74) for these river segments.  A programme sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality (Braulik 2002, Bhaagat 2002).	eng
41757	distribution	Braulik, G.T., Smith, B.D. & Chaudhry, A.A., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to the rivers of the lower Indus basin in Pakistan.  Historically it occurred in the Indus mainstem and the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum tributaries. It ranged from the Indus delta upstream to the Himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement. Development of the vast Indus Basin Irrigation System has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat. Current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the Indus mainstem located between the Chashma and Taunsa, Taunsa and Guddu, and Guddu and Sukkur Barrages. A few individuals still remain above Chashma Barrage and below Sukkur Barrage (Braulik 2003, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Reeves 1998) (see Figure 1; follow link below).   <br/> <br/>The Indus River Dolphin was considered by some researchers as a distinct species for several decades (1970s–1990s) and was listed as such in the 1996 Red List. Its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies, Ganges River Dolphin, <em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em>, and therefore the two have been assessed and listed, and should be managed, separately.	eng
41757	habitat	Braulik, G.T., Smith, B.D. & Chaudhry, A.A., 2004	Indus River dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids (Bhatti and Pilleri 1982, Braulik 2003). Reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions, confluences, and deep, low-velocity water (Kasuya and Nishiwaki 1975, Khan and Niazi 1989, Braulik 2004).  During the low-water season (October to April), barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of Sukkur Barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated. As water levels drop in the winter, dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas, including the head ponds upstream of barrages.	eng
41757	population	Braulik, G.T., Smith, B.D. & Chaudhry, A.A., 2004	Direct-count surveys of the largest subpopulations have been conducted regularly by the Sindh and Punjab Wildlife Departments since the early 1980's, but described methods do not provide a basis for evaluating bias, estimating precision, or detecting trends in abundance (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). Dolphin counts between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages show an apparent increase from 139 dolphins recorded in 1974 (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74), to 290 in 1979 (Pilleri and Bhatti 1980), and 458 dolphins in 1996 (Mirza and Khurshid 1996). If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery of the subpopulation after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 (see Conservation Actions below) or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations (see Major Threats below). A comprehensive review of previous survey data is presented in Reeves and Chaudhry (1998) and Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991).  <br/> <br/>The most recent and comprehensive assessment of the Indus Dolphin population was a survey of their entire range conducted in March and April 2001 that resulted in a minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins (based on the sum of best estimates of group size of all sightings).  High and low estimates of group size were also recorded. The sum of high estimates was 1,171 and the sum of the low estimates 843. This survey also documented a pronounced increase in the abundance and encounter rate of dolphins as the survey vessel proceeded downstream. The largest subpopulation is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the range.  Best estimates of 602 total dolphins and 3.6 dolphins/linear km were recorded for this section, 259 dolphins and 0.74 dolphins/linear km for the section between Guddu and Taunsa, and 84 dolphins and 0.28 dolphins/linear km for the furthest upstream section between Taunsa and Chashma. Two dolphins were seen upstream of Chashma Barrage and 18 downstream of Sukkur Barrage.   <br/> <br/>The minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins for the subspecies is likely to be close to the actual population size due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency. Essentially all potential dolphin habitat was surveyed in the Indus mainstem, including secondary channels and braids off the main channel, from a non-motorized vessel (mean survey speed = 5 km/hr), which maximized detection opportunities. Double-concurrent counts were also conducted from a second vessel traveling behind the primary survey vessel. Sightings were considered unique if they were greater than 750 m distant from another group according to the GPS positions. Preliminary analyses indicate that the primary survey vessel missed less than 10% of dolphin groups, and no groups of more than 3 individuals (mean group size recorded was 2.0; SD = 1.6; range 1–11) (Braulik 2004).  The probability of double counting dolphins due to their movement from surveyed to unsurveyed areas overnight was considered to be balanced by the probability that an equal number of dolphins were missed altogether due to their movements in the opposite direction.    <br/> <br/>The linear extent of occurrence of the subspecies has declined from approximately 3,400 km of Indus mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870s (see Anderson 1879) to approximately 1,000 linear km of the mainstem today (Braulik 2004).  An estimated 99% of the dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, which corresponds to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy (Anderson 1879, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Braulik 2003, Braulik 2004).  During the 1970s and 1980s there were occasional reports of dolphin occurrence between barrages in the lower reaches of the Indus tributaries (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991). No recent surveys have been conducted in those areas. However, due to an increase in upstream water abstraction and a decline in dry season flows, it is unlikely that any dolphins remain in these reaches.	eng
41757	threats	Braulik, G.T., Smith, B.D. & Chaudhry, A.A., 2004	The most significant threat to dolphins in the Indus has been the construction of at least 25 dams and barrages that have severely fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat (Smith and Reeves 2000). Upstream subpopulations may lose individuals downstream if dolphins move through barrage gates when they are open in the wet season.  Individuals are unlikely to move upstream through a barrage because of strong downstream hydraulic forces at the gates. While there have been no direct observations of dolphins moving through a barrage, they often swim through regulator gates into irrigation canals, which, although smaller, present a similar obstacle (Braulik 2002). Evidence for permanent downstream emigration includes that each subsequent downstream subpopulation is larger than the one above (see Range and Population above), despite the reduced linear extent and availability of water in downstream segments. Encounter rates in the farthest downstream subpopulation (between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages) are very high (3.60 dolphins/linear km), approaching three times those recorded in similar surveys elsewhere for <em>Platanista</em> dolphins (Braulik 2003). The possible large increase in the dolphin subpopulation between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages (described above) may be due to reproduction and reduced mortality alone, or may be augmented by downstream emigration.  Even a low emigration rate could dramatically affect the persistence of upstream subpopulations (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Smith 1999). <br/> <br/>Since the mid 1990s, there have been increasing reports of dolphins trapped in irrigation canals near Sukkur Barrage. Dolphins have survived for several months in the canals until they are drained in January for annual de-silting and maintenance. Between January 2000 and December 2002, 34 dolphins were reported trapped in these canals. Twenty-four were successfully rescued and returned to the Indus River, while the remainder died (Bhaagat 1999, Braulik 2002, WWF-Pakistan unpublished data). <br/> <br/>One of the direst threats to the survival of the Indus River Dolphin is probably the escalating demand for water. Pakistan is a largely desert nation, with a rapidly growing human population and fast developing industrial and agricultural sectors that demand increasing amounts of water. Several years of extreme drought have depleted aquifers that would normally be expected to augment river flows in the dry season.   <br/> <br/>Pollution may be affecting the viability of the subspecies, especially considering the decline in flushing and dilution due to reduced flows.  The Indus River corridor is not highly developed and above the Panjnad River confluence, the habitat is likely to be relatively unpolluted. However, more than 75% of the dolphin population occurs downstream of the confluence with the Panjnad River, which receives a large pollution load from the industrialized cities of the Punjab. There are almost no facilities for treatment of municipal waste in Pakistan and few controls on industrial effluent. Massive fish kills have reportedly become common from industrial pollution in urban areas and from pesticides used on irrigated crops grown along the riverbanks (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). The pressures on river water supply and continued untreated discharge of pollutants imply that there will be a continuing decline in the amount and quality of dolphin habitat. <br/> <br/>Deliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74). Hunting is now banned although poaching occasionally occurs. Similar to all cetaceans, this subspecies is vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear and vessel collisions. However, the areas of the Indus River where dolphins are extant are not heavily fished or utilized by vessels and these factors may not be major threats at present.  Incidents of accidental killing and observations of dolphin carcasses and products are documented in Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991) and Reeves and Chaudhry (1998).	eng
41758	conservation	Smith, B.D. & Braulik, G.T., 2008	The species is legally protected in all range states and occurs in a number of national parks and other designated areas, including dolphin reserves or sanctuaries, where at least nominal enforcement takes place. In Pakistan, the enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested a rapid population decline in the Indus during the early 1970s. Also in Pakistan, a program exists to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus main channel. Field trials in India to determine the effectiveness of shark and scrap fish oils as catfish attractant have been judged successful, but it is unclear to what extent fishermen have converted to using them instead of dolphin oil.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em><br/>Ganges River dolphins are legally protected from hunting in all range states. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bihar, India, between Sultanganj and Kahalgaon in the mainstem of the Ganges River was designated as a protected area for dolphins in August 1991 but there is little government support to enforce protective measures. The legal protection in India has been described as "completely ineffective" (Sinha 2002), however, a small measure of progress was the convening of the Regional Seminar on Environmental Laws in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur, India in November 2003 (Anon 2002). Also, recent proceedings of the Patna High Court (C.J.W.C. No. 5628 of 2001) directed the state and federals governments to allocate funds for supporting efforts to conserve and monitor dolphins in the Ganges. In a few smaller tributaries, dolphins receive nominal protection by virtue of the fact that small portions of their habitat are within or adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries (e.g., Kaziranga National Park in Assam, India, National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India, and Royal Bardia National Park and Katerniya Ghat Gharial Sanctuary, respectively north and south of the Nepal-India border. Although field trials have shown that shark or fish oils would be efficient substitutes for dolphin oil as a fish attractant and some fishermen in the middle Ganges are now using oil made from fish scraps as an alternative, most apparently continue to use dolphin oil by preference or because suitable alternatives are not widely available in either the Ganges or Brahmaputra systems (Mohan and Kunhi 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, Bairagi 1999, Sinha 2002).<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica minor</em><br/>In 1972, dolphins were protected under the Wildlife Act of Sindh and in 1974 the government of Sindh declared the Indus River between the Sukkur and Guddu Barrages a dolphin reserve. The government of Punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the Punjab Wildlife Protection Act in 1974 and established the Taunsa Wildlife Sanctuary and Chashma Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983 and 1984, respectively (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Chaudhry and Khalid 1989). Enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by Pilleri and Zbinden (1973–74) for these river segments. A programme sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the Indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality (Braulik 2002, Bhaagat 2002).	eng
41758	distribution	Smith, B.D. & Braulik, G.T., 2008	This species occurs in the Indus, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Megna, and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of the South Asian subcontinent, from the deltas upstream to where they are blocked by rocky barriers, shallow water, fast currents, dams, or barrages (low, gated diversion dams). The three river systems are disjunct and therefore so are their respective dolphin subpopulations, although there may be occasional demographic interaction between the latter two during the high-water season if the freshwater plumes of the two systems meet. There is further subpopulation separation within all three systems, some of it natural but much of it caused by physical barriers constructed within the last 100 years.<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>P. g. minor</em> is endemic to the rivers of the lower Indus basin in Pakistan. Historically it occurred in the Indus mainstem and the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum tributaries. It ranged from the Indus delta upstream to the Himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement. Development of the vast Indus Basin Irrigation System has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages (low, gated, diversion dams) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat. Current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the Indus mainstem located between the Chashma and Taunsa, Taunsa and Guddu, and Guddu and Sukkur Barrages. A few individuals still remain above Chashma Barrage and below Sukkur Barrage (Braulik 2003, Reeves and Chaudhry 1998, Reeves 1998) (see Figure 1; follow link below).	eng
41758	habitat	Smith, B.D. & Braulik, G.T., 2008	South Asian river dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders and above and below mid-channel islands. Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes or deep river channels sometimes occurs, as does "escapement" from the rivers into canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a component of the total range, but Ganges dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em><br/>Ganges River dolphins are generally concentrated in counter-current pools below channel convergences and sharp meanders (Kasuya and Haque 1972, Smith 1993, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and above and below mid-channel islands, bridge pilings, and other engineering structures that cause scouring (Smith, unpublished data). Their fidelity to counter-current pools is probably greatest in fast-flowing channels (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Annual monsoon-driven floods cause great variability in the dolphins’ access to large parts of their range. Isolation in seasonal lakes sometimes occurs (especially in the Brahmaputra basin), as does "escapement" from the river channels into artificial water bodies such as canals and reservoirs. Deltaic (brackish) waters are a major component of the total range, but Ganges River dolphins are not generally known to occur in salinities greater than 10 ppt, although they have been recorded in waters as saline as 23 ppt (Smith and Braulik, unpublished data).<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica minor</em><br/>Indus River dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids (Bhatti and Pilleri 1982, Braulik 2003). Reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions, confluences, and deep, low-velocity water (Kasuya and Nishiwaki 1975, Khan and Niazi 1989, Braulik 2004). During the low-water season (October to April), barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of Sukkur Barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated. As water levels drop in the winter, dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas, including the head ponds upstream of barrages.	eng
41758	population	Smith, B.D. & Braulik, G.T., 2008	Published data on abundance consist primarily of counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available.<br/><br/>The entire current range of the Indus subspecies was surveyed in 2001 and resulted in an estimate of 843–1,171 individuals, with a best estimate of about 965. The largest subpopulation, containing more than 60% of the total, is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the subspecies’ range. The next largest, with about 27% of the total for the subspecies, is immediately upstream in the Guddu-Taunsa segment of the Indus. <br/><br/>Surveys of portions of the range of the Ganges subspecies have collectively accounted for 1,200–1,800 animals, but the true population is believed to be larger because some potentially important areas have yet to be surveyed (e.g., the Indian Sundarbans) and at least some of the counts and estimates were considered negatively biased. The greatest densities of Ganges dolphins have been observed in the Ganges mainstem in India between Maniharighat and Buxar (particularly the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary) and just downstream of there between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat, and in the lower Sangu River of Bangladesh.<br/><br/>Dolphin counts in the Guddu-Sukkur segment of the Indus showed an apparently increasing trend from 1974 to 1996. If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations. No credible time series of estimates is available for the Ganges subspecies, but downward trends are plainly evident for a number of upstream tributaries.<br/><br/>Marked declines have occurred in the extent of occurrence for both subspecies – in the case of Indus dolphins, from approximately 3,400 km of the main channel and its tributaries in the 1870s to approximately 1,000 linear km of the main channel today. An estimated 99% of the Indus dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, corresponding to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy for that subspecies. In the case of Ganges dolphins, the picture is less clearcut, but substantial portions of the range, particularly in upstream areas, have been lost. For example, in the northern Ganges tributaries, at least three of six subpopulations that were isolated by barrages have disappeared, and in a recent dry-season survey of the Son River, no dolphins were found. Kaptai Dam in southeastern Bangladesh (built in 1961) resulted in the elimination of extensive habitat in the upper Karnaphuli River.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em><br/>Although the aggregate range-wide abundance of Ganges River dolphins was estimated by Jones (1982) as 4,000–5,000 individuals and more recently by Mohan <em>et al</em>. (1997) as fewer than 2,000, these were only guesses. Population assessments have been based on counts conducted within discrete portions of the vast network of riverine and deltaic habitat occupied by these dolphins. Few rigorous estimates of absolute abundance, with estimates of precision, are available. Available counts and estimates are summarized in Table 1 (follow link below).<br/><br/>Highest "densities" of Ganges River dolphins (defined as animals per linear river kilometer) have been observed in the Ganges mainstem between Maniharighat and Buxar (1.5/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and within this segment particularly in the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (2.8/km) (Smith, unpublished) and just downstream between Kahalgaon and Manihari Ghat (near Katihar) (3.4/km) (Sinha, unpublished) - and the lower Sangu River, Bangladesh (1.4/km) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). A few Ganges River dolphins were still present during the mid 1990s as far downstream in the Hoogly River as Kakdwip (Sinha 1997). In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh a minimum of 134 Ganges River dolphins were counted resulting in a "density" estimate of 0.09 individuals/km, with Irrawaddy dolphins <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em> replacing <em>Platanista</em> in higher salinity waters of the southern and western portions (Smith, unpublished). No information is available on the status of Ganges River dolphins in the Indian Sundarbans, except for historical reports of occurrence (Anderson 1879, Jones 1982). <br/><br/>Roughly accounting for duplicate counts or estimates in Table 1 (follow link below), the total of about 1,200–1,800 animals provides a reasonable lower range for the total metapopulation abundance. However, considering that areas with potentially large numbers of animals have not been accounted for at all (e.g., Indian portion of the Sundarbans Delta) and that at least some of the counts and estimates are known to be negatively biased (e.g., see Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001), the true number could be several times as high.<br/><br/><strong>Numerical Declines</strong>: Although no credible time series of abundance estimates are available for most of the subspecies' range, the numbers shown in Table 1 (follow link below) imply downward trends in a number of upstream tributaries (see also Range Declines below).<br/><br/><strong>Range Declines</strong>: The range of the subspecies has declined progressively since the nineteenth century when it was mapped by Anderson (1879). No dolphins have been reported in recent years between the Madhya Ganga Barrage at Bijnor and the Bhimgoda Barrage near Haridwar, at the upstream limit of their historical range in the Ganges (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). This suggests a roughly 100 km decline in their range in the Ganges River since the late 1800s. In recent years, dolphins have not been reported in the Yamuna River above the Chambal River confluence during the dry season because upstream channels have become too shallow and polluted to support dolphins, but the segment may still be occupied during the monsoon (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Historically, they were found year-round in the Yamuna River approximately 400 km upstream to Delhi (Anderson 1879). <br/><br/>Elsewhere in the Ganges mainstem, four extant subpopulations are isolated by barrages, including Farakka Barrage located approximately at the center of the subspecies' overall range. In the northern Ganges tributaries, of the six subpopulations that were isolated above or between barrages, three have been extirpated (in the Gandak River above the Gandak Barrage and in the Sarda River above the upper and lower Sarda barrages) (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000) and one reduced to insignificant numbers (in the Kosi River above the Kosi Barrage) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994). Ganges River dolphins have apparently been extirpated from the Son River (at least during the dry season) based on a survey covering ca. 300 km upstream of the Ganges confluence, above and below the Indrapuri Barrage (Sinha and Sharma 2003).<br/> <br/>Occasional reports of dolphins in the reservoir behind Kaptai Dam (built in 1961) of the KS system occurred until the mid-1990s (Ahmed 2000), but recent surveys have found no evidence that the subspecies survives there (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001). Thus, the dam's construction is likely to have caused a substantial reduction in the subspecies’ range in southeastern Bangladesh, but in the absence of any historical information on occurrence in the upper Karnaphuli no quantitative estimate of range reduction is possible.<br/><br/>No surveys have been conducted in the Damodar River system but a single dolphin was rescued after becoming stranded in a deep pool after flow was diverted during the dry season by an upstream barrage. The downstream effects of at least ten dams and barrages constructed in its mainstem and tributaries has probably severely reduced and fragmented dolphin habitat (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/><em>Platanista gangetica minor</em><br/>Direct-count surveys of the largest subpopulations have been conducted regularly by the Sindh and Punjab Wildlife Departments since the early 1980's, but described methods do not provide a basis for evaluating bias, estimating precision, or detecting trends in abundance (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). Dolphin counts between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages show an apparent increase from 139 dolphins recorded in 1974 (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74), to 290 in 1979 (Pilleri and Bhatti 1980), and 458 dolphins in 1996 (Mirza and Khurshid 1996). If this increase was real and not an artifact of variable sighting biases, it could be explained by recovery of the subpopulation after implementation of a hunting ban in 1974 (see Conservation Actions below) or by permanent immigration from upstream subpopulations (see Major Threats below). A comprehensive review of previous survey data is presented in Reeves and Chaudhry (1998) and Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991). <br/><br/>The most recent and comprehensive assessment of the Indus Dolphin population was a survey of their entire range conducted in March and April 2001 that resulted in a minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins (based on the sum of best estimates of group size of all sightings). High and low estimates of group size were also recorded. The sum of high estimates was 1,171 and the sum of the low estimates 843. This survey also documented a pronounced increase in the abundance and encounter rate of dolphins as the survey vessel proceeded downstream. The largest subpopulation is located in the Sindh Dolphin Reserve between the Guddu and Sukkur Barrages, at the downstream end of the range. Best estimates of 602 total dolphins and 3.6 dolphins/linear km were recorded for this section, 259 dolphins and 0.74 dolphins/linear km for the section between Guddu and Taunsa, and 84 dolphins and 0.28 dolphins/linear km for the furthest upstream section between Taunsa and Chashma. Two dolphins were seen upstream of Chashma Barrage and 18 downstream of Sukkur Barrage. <br/><br/>The minimum abundance estimate of 965 dolphins for the subspecies is likely to be close to the actual population size due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency. Essentially all potential dolphin habitat was surveyed in the Indus mainstem, including secondary channels and braids off the main channel, from a non-motorized vessel (mean survey speed = 5 km/hr), which maximized detection opportunities. Double-concurrent counts were also conducted from a second vessel traveling behind the primary survey vessel. Sightings were considered unique if they were greater than 750 m distant from another group according to the GPS positions. Preliminary analyses indicate that the primary survey vessel missed less than 10% of dolphin groups, and no groups of more than 3 individuals (mean group size recorded was 2.0; SD = 1.6; range 1–11) (Braulik 2004). The probability of double counting dolphins due to their movement from surveyed to unsurveyed areas overnight was considered to be balanced by the probability that an equal number of dolphins were missed altogether due to their movements in the opposite direction. <br/><br/>The linear extent of occurrence of the subspecies has declined from approximately 3,400 km of Indus mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870s (see Anderson 1879) to approximately 1,000 linear km of the mainstem today (Braulik 2004). An estimated 99% of the dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km, which corresponds to an 80% reduction in the area of occupancy (Anderson 1879, Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Braulik 2003, Braulik 2004). During the 1970s and 1980s there were occasional reports of dolphin occurrence between barrages in the lower reaches of the Indus tributaries (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991). No recent surveys have been conducted in those areas. However, due to an increase in upstream water abstraction and a decline in dry season flows, it is unlikely that any dolphins remain in these reaches.	eng
41758	threats	Smith, B.D. & Braulik, G.T., 2008	<strong>Water development projects</strong> have dramatically affected the habitat, abundance, and population structure of this species throughout its range. In addition to fragmenting populations, dams and barrages have degraded downstream habitat and created impoundments with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. Canals branching from the river channels upstream of barrages represent population "sinks", as dolphins enter them with little or no prospect of safe return; this problem has been especially well documented in Pakistan. More dams and barrages are either under construction or in advanced planning stages. Water diversion and use in the South Asian subcontinent, including interbasin transfers, will continue to be driven principally by the escalating demands from agriculture, industry, and municipalities; by strategic considerations; and by the need to control flooding.<br/><br/><strong>Pollutant loads</strong> in South Asian rivers can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. The capacity of these rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has already been drastically reduced because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place. <br/><br/><strong>Deliberate killing</strong> of river dolphins has declined in many areas but still occurs at least occasionally. Dolphins are hunted by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant.<br/><br/><strong>Mortality in fishing gear</strong>, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges dolphins throughout most of their range. They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. A specific problem in parts of India and Bangladesh is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins.<br/><br/>More specific information on the subspecies is provided below:<br/><br/><strong><em>Platanista gangetica gangetica</em></strong><br/><br/><strong>Water Development Projects</strong><br/>Construction of at least 50 dams and dams within the known or suspected historical range of the subspecies (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000) has dramatically affected its habitat, abundance, and population structure. The subspecies exists as a metapopulation, with numerous subpopulations isolated to varying degrees by mostly manmade but also natural barriers, as outlined in the preceding section.<br/><br/>In addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, dams and barrages degrade downstream habitat and create reservoirs (known as head ponds (or pondage in India) in the case of barrages) with high sedimentation and altered assemblages of fish and invertebrate species. For example, luxuriant growth of macrophytes and excessive siltation have eliminated suitable habitat immediately above Farakka Barrage (Sinha 2000). Moreover, the insufficiency of water released downstream of this barrage has eliminated dry-season habitat for more than 300 km, or until the Ganges (Padma)-Brahmaputra confluence (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). It has also allowed salt water to intrude an additional 160 km into the Sundarbans Delta (Rahman 1986), further decreasing the amount of suitable habitat for this obligate freshwater dolphin (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>A high dam has been planned for some time just upstream of the dolphins' current (or at least recent) range in the Karnali River, Nepal. If built, this structure would almost certainly eliminate the small amount of dolphin habitat in Nepal’s last river with a potentially viable dolphin population (Smith and Reeves 2000). Disturbance and environmental degradation associated with geotechnical feasibility studies and bridge and road construction for the dam already may have contributed to a decline in the number and range of dolphins above the Nepal-India border (Smith 1993, Smith<em> et al</em>. 1994). Another high dam has been proposed for the Surma River in Cachar, India, which would certainly affect dolphins downstream in the Kalni-Kushiyara distributary (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Since the 1980s, momentum has been growing within India to proceed with large-scale inter-basin water transfer projects, which will involve additional dam construction and diversion of water from rivers inhabited by dolphins. Although no final decision has been taken to proceed with construction, feasibility studies are to be completed in December 2005 and detailed project reports in 2006. It was anticipated in 2004 that, if built, the entire project would be finished by 2016. During the May 2004 national elections in India all political parties supported the construction of inter-basin water transfer projects and promised to accelerate the construction process. Several key categories of potential threat are: (a) further fragmentation of the dolphin metapopulation, (b) reduction or elimination of habitat simply in terms of dry-season flow, (c) "escapement" of dolphins into canals where they are unlikely to be able to get back into rivers and are therefore doomed, (d) cascading effects from interrupted migrations of prey organisms, degradation of prey spawning habitat etc., (e) contaminant flux leading to significant changes in chronic and/or acute exposure to toxins, (f) loss of complexity (channelization, sediment entrapment upstream of dams, etc.) making the rivers less habitable for dolphins, etc, and (g) downstream effects on the ecology of the delta (e.g., saline encroachment, loss of sediment). <br/><br/>Embankments cause sediments to be deposited in the riverbed instead of on the floodplain, thereby eliminating or reducing the extent of the eddy-counter currents where dolphins are generally found. (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). They also restrict access to floodplain habitat critical to the reproduction and growth of riverine fish species (Boyce 1990). Approximately 3,500 km of embankments have been constructed in the Ganges mainstem and Gandak, Buri Gandak, Bagmati, Kamala, Yamuna, and Son tributaries (Mishra 1999). Dolphins were apparently extirpated from at least 35 km of the Punpun tributary of the Ganges after embankments were constructed in 1975 (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2000). Although plans for constructing an extensive system of embankments in the rivers of Bangladesh under the Flood Action Plan (FAP) coordinated by the World Bank (see World Bank 1990) have been drastically scaled-down, several projects are currently planned or being constructed that will have adverse effects on dolphin habitat. These include the Bank Protection and River Training Project (FAP 21/22), Brahmaputra River Bank Priority Works, and Jamalpur Priority Project (FAP 3.1) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). Environmental assessments of these projects have not considered river dolphins, nor have they acknowledged the cumulative impacts of planned embankments, and others built before the FAP, on the fish and crustacean species eaten by river dolphins.<br/><br/>Other sources of habitat degradation in the GBM system include dredging (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the removal of stones (Shrestha 1989), sand (Mohan<em>et al</em>. 1998), and woody debris (Smith 1993). These activities compromise the ecological integrity of the riverine environments, especially small tributaries where suitable habitat is limited and disproportionately vulnerable to local disturbance. Dolphin habitat is also threatened by water abstraction from surface pumps and tube wells, especially in the Ganges where the mean dry-season water depth has declined dramatically in recent years (Sinha, unpublished). Although the long-term implications of reduced dry-season flows in the Ganges are catastrophic, both for the survival of river dolphins and a major portion of the world’s human population that inhabits the Ganges basin, the cumulative effects of reduced water supplies have received little attention. Meanwhile, new projects to divert dry-season flow, such as Kanpur Barrage in the upper Ganges, continue to be constructed (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Toxic Contaminants</strong><br/>Organochlorine and butyltin concentrations in samples from the tissues of Ganges dolphins were high enough to cause concern about effects (Kannan <em>et al</em>. 1993, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar <em>et al</em>. 1999). Pollutant loads can be expected to increase with industrialization and the spread of intensive agricultural practices facilitated by water diversion. River dolphins may be particularly vulnerable to industrial pollution because their habitat in counter-current pools downstream of confluences and sharp meanders often places them in close proximity to point sources in major urban areas (e.g., Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Calcutta, and Dhaka). Furthermore, the capacity of rivers to dilute pollutants (e.g., arsenic, DDT) and salts has been drastically reduced in many areas because of upstream water abstraction, diversion, and impoundment. Again, this problem is bound to worsen as more development takes place. <br/><br/><strong>Hunting</strong><br/>Deliberate killing of river dolphins is believed to have declined in most areas but still occurs at least occasionally in the middle Ganges near Patna, India (Smith and Reeves 2000, Sinha 2002), in the Kalni-Kushiyara River of Bangladesh (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), and in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India (Mohan <em>et al</em>. 1997). Dolphins are killed by tribal people in the upper Brahmaputra for their meat and by fishermen in the middle reaches of the Ganges for their oil, which is used as a fish attractant. <br/><br/><strong>Mortality in Fishing Gear</strong><br/>Mortality in fishing gear, especially gillnets, is a severe problem for Ganges River dolphins throughout most of their range (Mohan 1995, Smith and Reeves 2000). They are particularly vulnerable because their preferred habitat is often in the same location as the fishing grounds. In the middle Ganges, although harpooning is now "rare", mortality in fishing nets remains "widespread" (Sinha 2002). A specific problem is that, because dolphin oil is highly valued as a fish attractant, fishermen have a strong incentive to kill any animals found alive in their nets and even to set their nets strategically in the hope of capturing dolphins (described by Sinha 2002 as "assisted incidental capture").<br/><br/>Meaningful quantitative data on the magnitude of catches, either deliberate or incidental, are unavailable and unlikely to become available in the absence of a well-organized, adequately funded, and incorruptible fishery/wildlife management system.<br/><br/><strong><em>Platanista gangetica minor</em><strong><br/><br/></strong></strong>The most significant threat to dolphins in the Indus has been the construction of at least 25 dams and barrages that have severely fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat (Smith and Reeves 2000). Upstream subpopulations may lose individuals downstream if dolphins move through barrage gates when they are open in the wet season. Individuals are unlikely to move upstream through a barrage because of strong downstream hydraulic forces at the gates. While there have been no direct observations of dolphins moving through a barrage, they often swim through regulator gates into irrigation canals, which, although smaller, present a similar obstacle (Braulik 2002). Evidence for permanent downstream emigration includes that each subsequent downstream subpopulation is larger than the one above (see Range and Population above), despite the reduced linear extent and availability of water in downstream segments. Encounter rates in the farthest downstream subpopulation (between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages) are very high (3.60 dolphins/linear km), approaching three times those recorded in similar surveys elsewhere for <em>Platanista</em> dolphins (Braulik 2003). The possible large increase in the dolphin subpopulation between Guddu and Sukkur Barrages (described above) may be due to reproduction and reduced mortality alone, or may be augmented by downstream emigration. Even a low emigration rate could dramatically affect the persistence of upstream subpopulations (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 1991, Reeves and Smith 1999).<strong><strong><br/><br/></strong></strong>Since the mid 1990s, there have been increasing reports of dolphins trapped in irrigation canals near Sukkur Barrage. Dolphins have survived for several months in the canals until they are drained in January for annual de-silting and maintenance. Between January 2000 and December 2002, 34 dolphins were reported trapped in these canals. Twenty-four were successfully rescued and returned to the Indus River, while the remainder died (Bhaagat 1999, Braulik 2002, WWF-Pakistan unpublished data).<br/><br/>One of the direst threats to the survival of the Indus River Dolphin is probably the escalating demand for water. Pakistan is a largely desert nation, with a rapidly growing human population and fast developing industrial and agricultural sectors that demand increasing amounts of water. Several years of extreme drought have depleted aquifers that would normally be expected to augment river flows in the dry season. <br/><br/>Pollution may be affecting the viability of the subspecies, especially considering the decline in flushing and dilution due to reduced flows. The Indus River corridor is not highly developed and above the Panjnad River confluence, the habitat is likely to be relatively unpolluted. However, more than 75% of the dolphin population occurs downstream of the confluence with the Panjnad River, which receives a large pollution load from the industrialized cities of the Punjab. There are almost no facilities for treatment of municipal waste in Pakistan and few controls on industrial effluent. Massive fish kills have reportedly become common from industrial pollution in urban areas and from pesticides used on irrigated crops grown along the riverbanks (Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). The pressures on river water supply and continued untreated discharge of pollutants imply that there will be a continuing decline in the amount and quality of dolphin habitat.<br/><br/>Deliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s (Pilleri and Zbinden 1973–74). Hunting is now banned although poaching occasionally occurs. Similar to all cetaceans, this subspecies is vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear and vessel collisions. However, the areas of the Indus River where dolphins are extant are not heavily fished or utilized by vessels and these factors may not be major threats at present. Incidents of accidental killing and observations of dolphin carcasses and products are documented in Reeves <em>et al</em>. (1991) and Reeves and Chaudhry (1998).	eng
41759	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
41759	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	All five specimens so far examined have been from southern and central California (between 32° and 37°N), and it is likely that this species is endemic to the North Pacific Ocean (possibly even the eastern North Pacific) (Dalebout <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
41759	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Like other members of the genus, these species presumably prefers oceanic habitats with waters greater than 1,000 m deep, and the sightings thought to be of this species have occurred in deep waters. <br/><br/>Based on a limited sample of stomach contents, Perrin's beaked whale probably feeds mainly on squids (including <em>Octopoteuthis</em> sp.). The remains of an unidentified invertebrate have been found in the stomach of an animal stranded in California.	eng
41759	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	No estimates of abundance exist, but the species does not appear to be common. There are only two possible sightings of live individuals.	eng
41759	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	All confirmed records have been of strandings (plus two possible sightings), so nothing is known of potential threats. Beaked whales of this genus have been taken occasionally by whalers but are not presently the main targets of any hunt. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets in deep water (e.g., for billfish and tuna), is probably the most significant threat. <br/> <br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a species with an apparently restricted distribution, Perrin’s beaked whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.	eng
41760	conservation	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Research is needed to determine the impacts of potential threatening processes on this species.	eng
41760	distribution	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	The three specimens so far examined have come from New Zealand (White Island and the Chatham Islands [Pitt Island]), and Chile (Robinson Crusoe Island in the Juan Fernandez Archipelago). Therefore, this is probably a southern Hemisphere (possibly circum-Antarctic) species. However, it may be much more widely-distributed, and until more records are available, this will remain unknown (van Helden <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
41760	habitat	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species. Nothing is known of the diet, but it is assumed that squid are the main prey.	eng
41760	population	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	There is no information on abundance of this species. However, it is probable that it is relatively rare, given the small number of records of its occurrence so far discovered.	eng
41760	threats	Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L., 2008	Direct hunting has never been associated with this species. Entanglement in fishing gear, especially gillnets is probably the most significant threat. <br/><br/>This species, like other beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>As a species potentially limited to temperate waters, the spade-toothed whale may be vulnerable to the effects of climate change as ocean warming may result in a shift or contraction of the species range as it tracks the occurrence of its preferred water temperatures (Learmonth <em>et al</em>. 2006). The effect of such changes in range size or position on this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Evidence from stranded individuals of several similar species indicates that they have swallowed discarded plastic items, which may eventually lead to death (e.g. Scott <em>et al</em>. 2001); this species may also be at risk.	eng
41761	conservation	Secchi, E.R. & Wang, J.Y., 2003	In Brazil, Federal Laws 5,197 (of 3 Jan. 1967) and 7,643 (of 18 Dec. 1987) afford protection to fauna and prohibit the capture and disturbance of cetaceans in its jurisdictional waters. The Franciscana also appears in the Official List of Brazilian Fauna Species Threatened with Extinction (IBAMA 1989). Regionally, the species was added recently to the list of species threatened with extinction in Rio de Janeiro State (Bergallo <em>et al</em>. 2000) and listed as "vulnerable" in the Red Data Book of threatened species in Rio Grande do Sul State (D. Danilewicz, pers. comm.). In Uruguay, Law No. 16.211 states that the National Fisheries Institute is responsible for the conservation and preservation of marine mammals under Uruguayan jurisdiction. Also, Decree No. 238/1998 adopts measures for the protection and conservation of marine mammals in Uruguayan waters. In Argentina, Law No. 22.421/1981 is the national wildlife conservation legislation and Resolution No. 351/1995 prohibits hunting, capture or appropriation and transit, in federal jurisdiction, of all cetaceans and pinnipeds, which appear in Appendix I of the Law. Regional legislation in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut also provides indirect protection to the Franciscana (see details on Federal and Regional Legislation in Arias <em>et al</em>. 2002). Because the legislation could negatively affect fishermen?s income and welfare (i.e., fishing offshore increases risk), cooperation may be minimal. Also, better knowledge of the spatial and temporal patterns of the Franciscana bycatch problem is still needed before regulations on fishing practices can be proposed. Other potential alternatives may be found in modifying fishing practices (e.g., Corcuera, 1994 suggested replacing gillnets with longlines as a means to reduce bycatch in Argentine waters). Because fish stocks are also depleted, a wider management strategy that includes other marine species is needed. However, cultural and social needs of the fishing communities must also be considered to avoid further burdening the already difficult socio-economic situation of Latin American countries. <br/> <br/>Acoustic pingers were demonstrated to have reduced the bycatch of franciscanas in nets set off Cabo San Antonio, Argentina, during a short-term study (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this modification to the fishing gear also resulted in an undesirable increased rate of depredation on the nets by Southern Sea Lions (<em>Otaria flavescens</em>). Although the use of such acoustic devices may seem inappropriate for this region, it may be a promising alternative to reduce bycatch until other mitigating actions can be developed and implemented, especially in areas where sea lions do not occur (e.g., many small fishing villages along FMA I and II).	eng
41761	distribution	Secchi, E.R. & Wang, J.Y., 2003	<strong>Overall Distribution:</strong> <br/>The Franciscana dolphin inhabits shallow coastal and estuarine waters of tropical and temperate regions of the western South Atlantic Ocean. Its distribution extends from Itaúnas (18°25?S), Espírito Santo State in southeastern Brazil (Siciliano, 1994), to Golfo Nuevo (42°35?S), Chubut Province, Argentina (Crespo <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the species is not distributed continuously throughout its range. Surveys (including beach surveys, visits to museum collections, interviews with local people) indicate that franciscanas are extremely rare or absent in two areas of the northern parts of their range between Macaé (southern Rio de Janeiro State) and Ubatuba (northern São Paulo State) and in southern Espírito Santo State (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2002, Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003). The reasons for these gaps are unclear, but because the species prefers shallow, turbid waters (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Brownell 1989), water transparency and depth may be among the factors responsible (Siciliano <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Distribution and Population Structure</strong> <br/>This listing hinges in large part on the evidence for a separate Franciscana subpopulation or stock centered in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) and Uruguay. Therefore, much of the discussion here focuses on that evidence. <br/> <br/>Morphological and molecular data strongly support the existence of two main subpopulations. Multivariate analyses of morphometric data revealed two geographical forms: a smaller form in the northern part of the species? range (north of 27°S) and a larger form in the coastal waters of southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina (south of 32°S) (Pinedo 1991). Analyses of a highly variable region (d-loop) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) also supported these two geographical forms (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Furthermore, Lázaro (2000, 2001) and Hamilton <em>et al</em>. (2000) compared the mtDNA of franciscanas from Uruguay and Argentina with those published by Secchi <em>et al</em>. (1998) and found support for the existence of a large southern subpopulation (composed of animals from Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay, and Argentina) that is clearly differentiated from animals in the waters of Rio de Janeiro (northern subpopulation). These studies revealed fixed genetic differences between the subpopulations that suggest essentially no effective genetic exchange (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1998, Hamilton <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lázaro 2001). Although the genetic evidence is not very strong for splitting the southern subpopulation further, a pairwise analysis of haplotype distances between different geographical locations showed increasing differentiation in haplotype frequencies with increasing geographical distance, following an isolation-by-distance pattern (Lázaro 2001). Moreover, a recent analysis showed that haplotype frequencies of samples from Claromecó (Argentina) were significantly different from frequencies for the rest of the southern subpopulation (Lázaro 2001). This finding, when considered together with other biological differences between animals from Argentina and Rio Grande do Sul/Uruguay (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003a), is consistent with the idea that the southern subpopulation should be divided into different stocks for management. <br/> <br/>Danilewicz <em>et al.</em> (2000) compared estimates of age at sexual maturity (ASM) of females incidentally caught in gillnets in Rio Grande do Sul with estimates from Uruguay (adapting data from Kasuya and Brownell 1979) and northern Argentina (Corcuera 1996). Using the method of DeMaster (1984), the resulting ASM was 3.7 years (95% CI = 3.0 4.4) in Rio Grande do Sul, 2.8 years (95% CI = 2.5 3.1) in Uruguay, and 4.5 years in Argentina. The ASM of females from Rio Grande do Sul was significantly higher than that of females from Uruguay (t = 2.3; P<0.01) but lower than that of females from Argentina. <br/> <br/>The distribution pattern of gastrointestinal helminths was similar for franciscanas sampled in Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay (Andrade <em>et al</em>. 1997). The animals were infected lightly by the acanthocephalan worm <em>Polymorphus cetaceum</em>, while all franciscanas sampled in Argentina exhibited high levels of infection. The dominant parasites were also different between animals from Rio Grande do Sul and Argentina. The trematode <em>Hadwenius pontoporiae</em> was present in 83% of the dolphins sampled in Rio Grande do Sul and <em>P. cetaceum</em> was found in 63% of the franciscanas from Argentina. Aznar <em>et al</em>. (1995) compared the helminthofauna of franciscanas in Uruguay and Argentina and suggested some differences in dominance and infection levels by <em>P. cetaceum</em>, <em>Anisakis simplex</em>, and <em>H. pontoporiae</em>. The studies of Aznar <em>et al</em>. (1994, 1995) and Andrade <em>et al</em>. (1997) showed that the parasite infection levels in franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay were similar to each other but considerably different from those sampled in Argentina. These findings suggest the existence of two ecologically distinct stocks: one in Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay and the other in Argentine waters. <br/> <br/>By applying the hierarchical classification scheme of Dizon <em>et al</em>. (1992) for determining the likelihood of stocks being evolutionarily significant units, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003a) proposed (based on the above data as well as other information on distribution, morphometrics, and life history parameters) that the southern and northern subpopulations of the Franciscana each be divided into two management stocks. The range limits for each stock were defined as provisional Franciscana Management Areas (FMAs), as follows: FMA I coastal waters of Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (note that with increased survey effort, confirmation of the hiatus in the Espírito Santo State will require further division of this FMA); FMA II São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina states, Brazil; FMA III coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil and Uruguay; and FMA IV coastal waters of Argentina, including the provinces of Buenos Aires, Rio Negro and Chubut.	eng
41761	habitat	Secchi, E.R. & Wang, J.Y., 2003	The species is endemic to coastal waters of eastern South America. Although it is found mainly in marine waters and only occasionally in estuaries, it is relatively common in the Uruguayan part of the La Plata River estuary (Praderi 1986). The Franciscana is generally found in turbid waters less than 30 m deep (Pinedo <em>et al</em>. 1989, Secchi and Ott 2000) where it feeds mainly on demersal fish species (e.g., Brownell 1989, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2001, Rodriguez <em>et al</em>. 2002, see Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002 for a comprehensive review). It does not appear to undergo large seasonal migrations and little is known about daily movements (Bordino <em>et al</em>. 1999, Bordino 2002).	eng
41761	population	Secchi, E.R. & Wang, J.Y., 2003	There is no current abundance estimate for the species as a whole, but there is an estimate for the management stock inhabiting FMA III (hereafter referred as the RS/URU population). Thirty-four franciscanas (in 29 groups) were recorded during aerial surveys of coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in 1996, giving a mean density of 0.657 individuals/sq. km (95% CI 0.516?0.836) for the 435 sq. km study area after correcting for the probability of missing submerged dolphins (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2001). Extrapolating this density to the entire stock?s range resulted in an estimate of 42,078 franciscanas (95% CI 33,047?53,542). This extrapolated result must be used very cautiously, however, because it is based on a density estimate for only a small fraction of the coastline, representing approximately 0.7% of the possible range of the population (ca. 64,045 sq. km), and there is limited information on the distribution pattern of franciscanas within their total range. <br/> <br/>During the Cetacean Specialist Group's technical review of this proposal, it was noted that the abundance estimate was likely negatively biased because, as the authors acknowledged, it was not corrected for perception bias. It was also noted during the review, however, that the survey was conducted in an area considered to have a relatively high density of franciscanas, and therefore extrapolation of the observed survey density to the entire range of the population likely would positively bias the estimate. Moreover, for financial and logistical reasons, it may be unrealistic to expect more precise or accurate abundance estimates for this population in the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>With those cautions and reservations, it is reasonable to consider the figure of 42,000 as a useful approximation of abundance.	eng
41761	threats	Secchi, E.R. & Wang, J.Y., 2003	<strong>Important Anthropogenic Threats:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Incidental mortality in gillnet fisheries</u> <br/>Mortality from incidental entanglement in gillnets is by far the greatest threat to the RS/URU subpopulation (there is no indication of direct exploitation of franciscanas). Incidental mortality ("bycatch") in the shark gillnet fisheries of Punta del Diablo, Uruguay, dates to the early 1940s (Van Erp 1969) and although gillnetting in southern Brazil also began around that time (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997), gillnet fisheries for bottom-dwelling fish were only documented as a major threat to franciscanas in the 1980s. Bycatch has since been reported from the main fishing villages along most of the population's distribution (e.g., Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1997, Praderi 1997, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ott <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002). In Uruguay, Praderi (1997) estimated that at least 3,683 dolphins were killed between 1974 and 1994. The highest and lowest annual estimates were 418 and 66 dolphins caught in 1974 and 1994, respectively. The bycatch was even higher prior to this period. In the late 1960s, the annual bycatch was estimated to be as high as 1,500-2,000 animals (Brownell and Ness 1970, Pilleri 1971). Large-mesh nets targeting sharks were responsible for about 70-90% of the kills (e.g., Praderi 1997, 2000). Depletion of the target shark species led to a drop in the fishing effort using these nets from almost 100% of the total gillnet effort in the 1960s and 1970s to 75% in the early 1980s and only 20% in the mid 1990s. These changes in the Uruguayan coastal fishery may have had a beneficial effect on the recovery of the Franciscana (Praderi 1997) although small-mesh gillnets, which are known to be responsible for a large bycatch of franciscanas in southern Brazil, are currently known to be used in Uruguay to catch sciaenids in nearshore waters where franciscanas occur. Recent and current data on bycatch from Uruguay are unreliable for a number of reasons (e.g., inadequate monitoring of the gillnet fisheries). According to Praderi (2000), the records of mortality are less reliable than they were in the past because Uruguayan fishermen now have a legal disincentive for bringing bycaught franciscanas to land. Specifically, he notes: ".. the number of bycatch is currently limited to information provided by fishermen, who tend to lower the number of franciscanas killed in their reports, fearing sanctions promoted by conservation groups." <br/> <br/>An uncontrolled increase in fishing effort using small-mesh nets to catch bony fishes, with an associated high rate of Franciscana bycatch, in adjacent areas of southern Brazil is likely to have offset or nullified any reduction in the bycatch in Uruguay consequent to the decline of the large-mesh shark fishery. Estimates of bycatch levels from monitoring gillnet fleets in Rio Grande do Sul State imply a catch of several hundred dolphins per year (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ott 1998). Estimates of the Franciscana bycatch by the artisanal gillnet fishery in southern Rio Grande do Sul in 1999 and 2000 were around 1,350 and 1,530, respectively, and these figures do not account for mortality in trawl nets in the northern part of the province, in gillnets deployed near shore by the industrial fleet, or in "active gillnetting" of Bluefish (<em>Pomatumus saltatrix</em>) (Secchi unpublished data, and see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997). Combining all information on bycatch from fleet monitoring programs and interviews results in an annual bycatch estimate of about 1,778 franciscanas for the RS/URU subpopulation (Secchi 1999, Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). This may be an underestimate for at least three reasons: (1) other fishing vessels in addition to coastal gillnetting vessels potentially catch franciscanas but were not monitored (see Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997); (2) fishermen tend to under-report bycatch (Lien <em>et al</em>. 1994); and (3) bycaught dolphins sometimes fall from the net before it has been hauled or while it is being hauled. <br/> <br/>Between 1976 and 1987, 1,085 dead franciscanas were found along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul (Pinedo 1994). Data from beach surveys should be considered cautiously when evaluating the impact of fishery bycatch because they substantially under-represent true bycatch rates (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/><u>Depletion of fish stocks and temporal changes in diet</u> <br/>Two important prey species of franciscanas (the sciaenids <em>Micropogonias furnieri</em> and <em>Macrodon ancylodon</em>) have been exploited heavily and are currently at very low levels in southern Brazil (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997, Haimovici 1998). This depletion coincided with a large reduction in the frequency of occurrence of these two species in the diet of franciscanas from this region. <em>M. ancylodon</em> and <em>M. furnieri</em> decreased drastically from 41% to 7% and 27.5% to 4%, respectively (Bassoi and Secchi 2000). In contrast, the frequency of occurrence of the Cutlassfish, <em>Trichiurus lepturus</em>, and another sciaenid, <em>Umbrina canosai</em>, in the diet of franciscanas increased from about 5% to 39% and from about 3% to 20%, respectively, between the late 1970s and the mid 1990s. <em>T. lepturus</em> and <em>Cynoscion guatucupa</em> represent 47% of the total estimated bony fish biomass in this region (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996), but these species have only experienced moderate fishing pressure (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1997, Haimovici 1998). The latter species has always been the most important prey for franciscanas, but T. lepturus was of only minor importance in the past. Now, T. lepturus is the second most important prey species for franciscanas in this region. Although the effects of this major dietary change are unknown, the energetic implications could be significant. <br/> <br/><strong>Potential Additional Threats:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Ingestion of debris </u> <br/>Stomach contents of franciscanas from Rio Grande do Sul have included many kinds of debris: discarded fishing gear (17% of 36 stomachs), cellophane, and plastic fragments (6%) (Bassoi 1997). This problem has also been reported in northern Argentina where cellophane, fishing debris, and plastic were found in 45%, 32% and 16% of the stomachs (Bastida <em>et al</em>. 2000, see also Danilewicz <em>et al</em>. 2002 for a review). The effects of such debris ingestion on health status of individual franciscanas have not been determined, and the subpopulation-level implications are uncertain. However, it is possible that debris is having a negative effect in at least some areas. <br/> <br/><u>Chemical pollution </u> <br/>Coastal oil spills have affected other marine species (e.g., penguins and pinnipeds) but their effects on franciscanas seem to be minimal. Trace metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Cd) and chlorinated hydrocarbons have been found in the tissues of franciscanas (O'Shea <em>et al</em>. 1980, Castello <em>et al</em>. 2000, Gerpe <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lailson-Brito, <em>et al</em>. 2002) but the levels of these contaminants are relatively low, possibly because the species' diet is composed largely of juvenile fish (UNEP/CMS 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Population Trends:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Potential rate of population increase versus bycatch rates </u> <br/>The effects of incidental mortality were simulated using available data on abundance and bycatch for the RS/URU Franciscana subpopulation and population rates of increase (ROI) of 2%, 3%, and 4%. These ROI values were selected based on that of the Killer Whale (<em>Orcinus orca</em>), the only odontocete species for which estimates of population growth rate from observed trends in abundance are available (3% according to Brault and Caswell 1993). The simple simulation was used to evaluate whether the Franciscana population's ROI could compensate for removals due to bycatch. To estimate the removal rate for the stock, the mean abundance estimate (i.e., 42,078 franciscanas) was combined with the annual bycatch estimate of 1,778. The removal rate used in the simulation was 4.2%. Population size was projected for 24 years, or three 8-year generations. Generation time was calculated using Caswell's equation that matches the IUCN definition of the average-aged adult of the current cohort (Caswell 1989). The projection predicted the stock to have declined by 58%, 55%, or 52% over the 24-year period, depending on the assumed ROI (2%, 3%, or 4%, respectively). <br/> <br/>This analysis was subject to considerable discussion within the Cetacean Specialist Group, primarily centered on the issue of whether it was appropriate to use 1,778 as the estimate of annual bycatch, and whether the abundance estimate could be negatively biased to an appreciable degree. It was acknowledged that all of the values used in the simulation had substantial associated uncertainty. An analysis that better incorporates this uncertainty would be preferred. Nevertheless, there was general agreement that the population trend has been negative and that the population is very near the decline threshold between EN and VU (see Justification above). <br/> <br/><u>Trends in CPUE of franciscanas in Uruguay</u> <br/>An alternative index of population decline was devised, based on the bycatch of franciscanas per unit of fishing effort (CPUE). Praderi's (1997) review of bycatch data from Uruguay between 1974 and 1994 showed high inter-annual fluctuations. However, when the data were corrected for fishing effort, the resulting CPUE of franciscanas generally decreased over the 20-year period. This trend becomes more evident if annual bycatch estimates from the late 1960s and early 1970s are used. In the absence of fishing effort data for the late 1960s and 1970s, information on effort from 1981 to 1984/85 (in Praderi 1997) was used to estimate a rate of effort decline of 25%. A constant rate of decline was assumed for back-calculating to the late 1960s. Bycatch data from Praderi (1997; for the early 1970s to mid 1980s) and Brownell and Ness (1970) and Pilleri (1971) (for the late 1960s) were then used to calculate the CPUE and the trend. This procedure resulted in an estimated decline in CPUE of 71% from the late 1960s to mid 1980s. Using the maximum estimated annual bycatch for the 1960s (2,000 animals) would have resulted in a decline of 75%. No data from later than the mid 1980s were used because the decline in the shark fishery began at that time and led to major changes in fishery dynamics. For instance, fishing effort using gillnets with large mesh sizes decreased markedly and moved inshore. Such changes would affect interpretation of CPUE data. The suggested 71% decline in Franciscana CPUE from the 1960s to mid 1980s might be explained by invoking either temporal changes in the fishing grounds or increased fishing effort (Secchi <em>et al</em>. 2003b). However, no major changes in fishing grounds are known to have occurred prior to the decline of the shark fishery beginning in the mid 1980s, and fishing effort actually decreased from the 1960s to mid 1980s (Praderi 1997). The slight increase in the estimated CPUE during the mid to late 1980s is likely due to the decline of the shark fishery, which forced fishermen to move closer to shore to catch bony fish (Praderi 1997). Such a spatial trend likely would have increased fishing effort in waters with relatively high densities of franciscanas. <br/> <br/><u>Trends in stranding rates in southern Brazil</u> <br/>Long-term trends in fishing effort in the coastal bottom-set gillnet fishery were compared to long-term stranding rates of franciscanas in southern Brazil (Pinedo and Polacheck 1999). Stranding rates prior to 1990 were, on average, more than three times higher and significantly different from those after 1990 (two-way ANOVA; p = 0.001). The results presented by Pinedo and Polacheck (1999) also suggested that stranding rates declined markedly from the late 1970s and early 1980s to the 1990s, after which they have remained low and relatively stable. A decline of nearly 70% in stranding rates was observed in about 20 years. Despite the difficulties of interpreting stranding data, including the fact that the chances of a discarded carcass being washed ashore are affected by many factors, stranding rates can be considered to provide one possible additional index of general trends. Thus, a decline in Franciscana abundance is one plausible explanation for the declining or stable stranding rates observed during a period of increased coastal gillnet fishing effort (Pinedo and Polacheck 1999).	eng
41762	conservation	Bearzi, G., 2003	A large Marine Sanctuary for cetaceans in the Corso-Ligurian Basin has been declared by the Governments of Italy, France and Monaco. Other smaller marine protected areas exist or have been proposed throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). In 1999, the Spanish Ministry for the Environment included the Common Dolphin in its National Endangered Species Act as "vulnerable". The following year, a program was initiated to identify important areas for the conservation of cetaceans in the Spanish Mediterranean with the aim of implementing the European Union?s "Habitats" Directive, the Barcelona Convention and the Bonn Convention (Convention on Migratory Species, or CMS) through the creation of marine protected areas. Based on the presence of a relict group of Common Dolphins, the eastern Ionian area around the island of Kalamos has been included by the Greek Ministry of the Environment in the Natura 2000 network ("Site of Community Importance") under the 9243 EEC "Habitats" Directive. While these types of designations may benefit Common Dolphins at least indirectly, measures to provide direct benefits, e.g., area-, season-, or fishery-specific reductions in fishing effort, curtailment of inputs of particular pollutants, etc., remain to be identified and implemented. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS 2002) considers the Mediterranean Common Dolphin as an endangered population. It is expected that efforts to increase understanding of ongoing threats, monitor status, and provide needed protective measures on behalf of the dolphins and their habitat will be organized and implemented through ACCOBAMS.	eng
41762	distribution	Bearzi, G., 2003	The Short-beaked Common Dolphin (hereafter the Common Dolphin) is a small cetacean species with a wide distribution. Like most other cetaceans, however, it is not panmictic and occurs as a series of geographically separate subpopulations (e.g., Jefferson and Van Waerebeek 2002). Once one of the commonest species in the Mediterranean Sea, the Common Dolphin has experienced a generalized and major decrease in this region during the last 30?40 years (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Coastal groups in western Greece seem to exhibit relatively high levels of site fidelity (Politi 1998), but little is known about the movements and ranging patterns of animals living offshore. <br/> <br/>The case for regarding Mediterranean Common Dolphins as a distinct subpopulation is not perfect, and admittedly rests upon a somewhat complicated chain of inference. Genetic studies indicate a significant level of divergence between Mediterranean and Atlantic populations (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Differences in contaminant levels between dolphins from the Alboràn Sea (northwestern Mediterranean) and Atlantic Ocean also suggest a certain degree of isolation. Organochlorine concentrations in Alboràn Sea dolphins were about double those typical of dolphins in neighboring North Atlantic waters and showed a completely different profile (proportions between PCB congeners, the DDE/tDDT ratio, etc.) (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Genetic exchange between Common Dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the extent that it occurs, appears to involve only animals from the Alboràn Sea (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press), possibly due to oceanographic features such as the Almería-Orán thermohaline front. <br/> <br/>At the eastern end of the Mediterranean, there is little indication of movement by Common Dolphins through the narrow Dardanelles Strait between the Aegean and the Marmara and Black Seas, where Common Dolphins are known to occur (Öztürk and Öztürk 1997, Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). A preliminary study of skull morphometrics (Amaha 1994) suggested differences between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. In contrast, a genetic comparison of relatively small samples (8 Black Sea, 20 central Mediterranean) revealed no significant differences (Natoli <em>et al</em>. in press). Clearly, further work based on larger samples is needed to assess and characterize the relationship between Black Sea and Mediterranean Common Dolphins. It is acknowledged that some genetic exchange might occur in portions of the Aegean Sea where favorable habitat still exists (e.g., in the Thracian Sea; Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). However, what remains between the Aegean and Alboràn sectors of the Mediterranean seems to be only isolated, remnant groups (possibly indicative of further population substructure). The once-large aggregate Mediterranean subpopulation is now a small fraction of what it was as recently as the middle of the twentieth century (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). One note of caution is that there has been relatively little survey coverage of waters along the North African coast.	eng
41762	habitat	Bearzi, G., 2003	In the Mediterranean, Common Dolphins are found in both pelagic and neritic environments, occasionally sharing the former with Striped Dolphins (<em>Stenella coeruleoalba</em>) and the latter with Common Bottlenose Dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncates</em>) (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mixed-species groups of Common, Striped and Risso?s Dolphins (<em>Grampus griseus</em>) have been consistently observed in the pelagic waters of the Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Mediterranean Common Dolphins are typically found in groups of 50?70 animals, with larger aggregations occasionally recorded. In the eastern Ionian Sea coastal waters, however, groups rarely include more than 15 individuals, and groups greater than 40 have not been observed (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
41762	population	Bearzi, G., 2003	Literature and osteological collections unambiguously confirm that Common Dolphins were widespread and abundant in much of the Mediterranean Sea until the late 1960s, and that their decline occurred relatively quickly (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003; and see references contained therein). Today, Common Dolphins remain relatively abundant in the westernmost portion of the basin, the Alboràn Sea. There are sparse records off the coast of Algeria where, however, survey coverage has been limited. Possibly isolated groups are present around Sardinia and Corsica, particularly off their western coasts (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Common Dolphins are seen in the early summer in the south-eastern Tyrrhenian Sea off the island of Ischia (Mussi <em>et al</em>. in press). The species is also present in the Sicily Channel, with larger groups being observed around Malta (Vella in press). Common Dolphins can be found in portions of the eastern Ionian Sea, particularly around the island of Kalamos (Politi and Bearzi in press), and in the Gulf of Corinth (Frantzis and Herzing 2002). Sighting and stranding data indicate a regular presence of Common Dolphins in the Aegean Sea, particularly in the Thracian Sea, Northern Sporades, the southern Evvoikos Gulf, the Saronic Gulf, and the Dodekanese (Frantzis <em>et al</em>. submitted). Otherwise, these dolphins are rare in, or completely absent from, Mediterranean areas where information is available (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean regions where Common Dolphins have apparently vanished include the Adriatic Sea, Balearic Sea, Provençal basin, and Ligurian Sea. <br/> <br/>There is no basin-wide estimate of abundance for Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean Sea. Line-transect ship surveys of the Alboràn Sea in 1991?1992 produced an estimate of 14,736 (CV=0.38; 95% CI=6,923?31,366), with a density of 0.16 dolphins per km², but no estimates were made for this species elsewhere in the western Mediterranean due to the low number of sightings (Forcada and Hammond 1998). Vella (in press) combined data from ship and aerial surveys conducted between 1997?2002, and obtained a density estimate of 0.135 dolphins per km² (CV=0.28; 95% CI=0.066?0.290) in the area around the Maltese islands. Around the island of Kalamos in the eastern Ionian Sea, the mean sighting frequency was 0.016 groups per km (or 0.11 dolphins per km) in the years 1993?2000, but in 2001?2002 there was a significant decrease to 0.007 groups per km (or 0.04 dolphins per km) (Student?s t=4.88, p<0.001). The number of individuals encountered in this area has decreased continually, and many individuals that used to be seen regularly until 1996 have disappeared (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
41762	threats	Bearzi, G., 2003	A number of factors may have contributed, singly or in synergy, to the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean (Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Mediterranean biodiversity is undergoing rapid alteration under the combined pressure of human impact and climate change (Bianchi and Morri 2000), and it is difficult to discriminate between the effects of environmental shifts due to climate change, whether "natural" or a result of the greenhouse effect, and other factors that may be affecting the availability of dolphin prey, such as overfishing and habitat degradation. In all Mediterranean areas where Common Dolphins have been studied consistently, namely the Alboràn Sea, southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea, and eastern Ionian Sea, competition with fisheries is a source of concern (Notarbartolo di Sciara <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003) although cause-effect relationships and ecosystem dynamics remain poorly characterized. The role of xenobiotic contamination is controversial but likely significant. High levels of PCBs in Mediterranean dolphins, compared to levels in dolphins from other areas (Fossi <em>et al</em>. 2000, Aguilar <em>et al</em>. 2002), represent a major concern because of the possibilities of immune suppression and reproductive impairment. The high PCB levels in Common Dolphins from the Alboràn Sea are close to the range at which adverse effects could be expected, based on extrapolation from other species (Borrell <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fossi <em>et al</em>. (2000, in press) found a significant correlation between mixed-function oxidase activity and organochlorine levels in Common Dolphin skin biopsies, suggestive of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and potential for transgenerational effects. The cumulative importance of these threats and other factors, including incidental mortality in fishing gear (below), is poorly understood.  <br/> <br/>Fishery bycatch is a major threat to many cetacean populations, and it could well have played a role in the decline of Common Dolphins in at least some Mediterranean areas (IWC 1994). In the Alboràn Sea, for example, drift gillnets are known to have caught a few hundred Common Dolphins per year (Silvani <em>et al</em>. 1999). This fishery has stopped, but it operated for many years and undoubtedly had some impact on the population. If drift nets were taking Common Dolphins in the Alboràn Sea, it is reasonable to assume that they were (and are) doing so in other parts of the Mediterranean where drift net fishing and Common Dolphin occurrence overlap. Bearzi <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggest that bycatch alone is unlikely to be the factor most responsible for the decline of Common Dolphins in the Mediterranean, but it may have played a significant role at certain times and in certain areas. <br/> <br/>The possibility that the Striped Dolphin has been increasing in the Mediterranean and has begun to occupy the ecological niche of the Common Dolphin has been discussed in the literature (Viale 1985, Aguilar 2000, Bearzi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Such a hypothesis is extremely difficult to prove or disprove, particularly if invoked as a causal factor in the Common Dolphin's decline. Even if it were true that Striped Dolphins have been extending their range to inshore waters traditionally inhabited by Common Dolphins, it would be unclear whether this process was being driven by competitive exclusion, or was instead a secondary outcome of the Common Dolphin's disappearance for some other reason. In any event, competition would not be an issue in areas such as the northern Adriatic Sea, where the Common Dolphin has disappeared while the Striped Dolphin rarely occurs.	eng
41763	conservation	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	Przewalski's Horse is legally protected in Mongolia. It is protected as Very Rare under part 7.1 of the Law of the Mongolian Animal Kingdom (2000). Hunting has been prohibited since 1930, and the species is listed as Very Rare under the 1995 Mongolian Hunting Law (MNE 1996). It is listed as Critically Endangered in both the 1987 and 1997 Mongolian Red Books (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987; MNE 1997), and in the Regional Red List for Mongolia (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). The taxon's entire re-introduced range in Mongolia is within protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Equus przewalskii</span>).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are in place:<br/>- An International Studbook was produced in 1959, followed in the 1970s by establishment of the North American Breeders Group, which developed into the Species Survival Plan for the Przewalski?s Horse. The European Endangered Species Programme for this species was accepted in 1986. Many countries now cooperate in these programmes to minimise inbreeding and retain genetic diversity in their horse populations.<br/>- There are three ongoing reintroduction sites in Mongolia.<br/>- There have been several workshops of stakeholders involved in the reintroduction of Przewalski's Horse to Mongolia.<br/>- The Status and Action Plan for the Przewalski's Horse (<em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>) was produced in 2002 (see Wakefield <em>et al</em>. 2002), and provides a more detailed account of the history and ongoing conservation efforts surrounding the species.<br/>- All three reintroduction sites are fully monitoring their populations and are integrating community livelihood support into their projects.<br/><br/>Conservation measures required:<br/>- The health of wild and domestic horses should be monitored for disease  (Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2005). Standardized techniques should be used to monitor health, fecundity, mortality, habitat utilisation and social organisation of all populations (Wakefield <em>et al</em>. 2002), and contact between Przewalski's Horses and domestic horses should be kept to a minimum.<br/>- A single population management approach should be developed.<br/>- Mongolia currently has the only wild population and an action plan is needed for the country. <br/>- The genealogy of all horses in Mongolia should be established based on individual micro-satellite data to monitor inbreeding levels, identify hybrids and plan for necessary movements of horses between reintroduction centres to maximise genetic diversity.<br/>- An authoritative government protocol for hybrids should be developed, to be established before hybridization occurs, and to be made available in each re-introduction centre and to local people (King and Gurnell 2005).<br/>- Further communication and cooperation between all re-introduction centres would be beneficial.<br/>- Further training and post-graduate education of staff and biologists involved with this conservation work.	eng
41763	distribution	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	Until the late 18th Century, this species ranged from Germany and Russian Steppes east to Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China. After this time, the species went into catastrophic decline. Wild animals survived in eastern Europe (Poland, Belarus, Lithuania and Germany) through the eighteenth century, with the last wild individuals possibly killed in 1814 (Novak 1999). The Plains Tarpan, lived on the steppes of southern Russia and the Ukraine. The last wild population of Przewalski?s Horses survived until recently in southwestern Mongolia and adjacent Gansu, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia (China). Wild Horses were last seen in 1969, north of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in Dzungarian Gobi Desert in Mongolia (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989).<br/><br/>Since the 1990s, reintroduction efforts have started in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and Ukraine; Mongolia is the only country where truly wild reintroduced populations exist within its historic range. Reintroductions in Mongolia began in Takhin Tal Nature Reserve in the Dzungarian Gobi Desert (9,000 km²) and Hustai National Park in Mongol Daguur Steppe (570 km²) in 1994 (King and Gurnell 2005). A third reintroduction site, Khomiin Tal, (2,500 km²), in the Great Lakes Depression, was established in 2004, as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur National Park in Valley of the Lakes (C. Feh pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All living Wild Horses belong to the subspecies <em>Equus ferus przewalskii</em>. The first visual account of Przewalski?s-type Wild Horses date from more than 20,000 years ago. Rock engravings, paintings, and decorated tools dating from the late Gravetian to the late Magdalenian (20,000?9,000 BC), were discovered in caves in Italy, southern France, and northern Spain; 610 of these were horse figures (Leroi-Gourhan 1971). Many cave drawings in France show horses that look like Przewalski?s horse (Mohr 1971). In prehistoric times, the species probably roamed widely over the steppes of central Asia, China, and Europe (Ryder 1990). The first written accounts originate from Tibet, recorded by the monk Bodowa, who lived around 900 AD. In the ?Secret History of the Mongols?, there is also a reference to Wild Horses that crossed the path of Chinggis Khaan during his campaign against Tangut in 1226, causing his horse to rear and throw him to the ground (Bokonyi 1974). That the Wild Horse was a prestigious gift, denoting its rarity or that it was difficult to catch, is shown by the presentation of a Przewalski?s Horse to the emperor of Manchuria by Chechen-Khansoloj-Chalkaskyden, an important Mongolian, circa 1630 (Zevegmid and Dawaa 1973). In a Manchurian dictionary of 1771, Przewalski?s Horse is mentioned as ?a wild horse from the steppe? (Dovchin 1961).<br/><br/>Przewalski?s Horse was not described in Linnaeus?s ?Systema Naturae? (1758) and remained largely unknown in the West until first mentioned by John Bell, a Scottish doctor who travelled in the service of Tsar Peter the Great in 1719?1722 (Mohr 1971). His account of the expedition, ?A Journey from St Petersburg to Peking?, was published in 1763. Bell and subsequent observers all located horses known at that time within the area of 85?97° E and 43?50° N (Chinese-Mongolian border). Wild Horses were reported again from what is now China by Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewalski, an eminent explorer, at the end of the nineteenth century. He made several expeditions by order of Tsar Alexander the Second of Russia to central Asia, aiming to reach Tibet. While returning from his second expedition in central Asia, he was presented with the skull and hide of a horse shot about 80 km north of Gutschen on the Chinese-Russian border. The remains were examined at the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Science in St Petersburg by I.S. Poliakov, who concluded that they were a wild horse, which he gave the official name <em>Equus przewalskii</em> (Poliakov 1881). Further reports came from the brothers Grigory and Michael Grum-Grzhimailo, who travelled through western China from 1889?1890. In 1889, they discovered a group in the Gashun area and shot four horses: three stallions, and a mare. The four hides and the skulls of the three stallions, together with an incomplete skeleton, were sent back to the Zoological Museum in St. Petersburg. They were able to observe the horses from a short distance and gave the following account: ?Wild horses keep in bands of no more than ten, each herd having a dominant stallion. There are other males, too, but they are young and, judging by the hide of the two-year old colt that we killed, the dominant male treats them very cruelly. In fact, the hide showed traces of numerous bites? (Grum-Grzhimailo 1982). Current scientific review of the taxonomy of wild equids (Groves 1986) places Przewalski?s Horse as a subspecies of <em>Equus ferus</em>.	eng
41763	habitat	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	Przewalski?s Horse formerly inhabited steppe and semi-desert habitats, as most of this range became degraded or was occupied by livestock, the species became restricted to semi-desert habitats with limited water resources (Van Dierendonck and de Vries, 1996). Lowland steppe vegetation was preferentially selected by horses at Hustai National Park and seasonal movements are affected by the availability of the most nutritious vegetation (King and Gurnell, 2005).<br/><br/>Because the historic range is not precisely known, there has been much debate about the areas in which Przewalski?s Horses were last seen: was it merely a last refuge or was it representative of the typical/preferred habitat? The Mongolia Takhi Strategy and Plan Work Group (MTSPWG 1993) concluded that the historic range may have been wider but that the Dzungarian Gobi, where they were last seen, was not a marginal site to which the species retreated. Although grass and water are more available in other parts of Mongolia, these areas often have much harsher winters. Of all the wild equid species, Przewalski?s Horse is the one with the most eastern distribution and was most likely well-adapted to the arid steppe of the Dzungarian Gobi (Zimmermann 1999).<br/><br/>An alternative viewpoint of the desert-steppe controversy is that the Eurasian steppe should be considered the Wild Horse's optimal habitat (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). This would suggest that Przewalski?s Horses were forced into sub-optimal ranges such as the arid Gobi, as the more favourable steppe region was colonised by nomadic pastoralist people over several millennia. Studies of feral horses have shown that they are able to live and reproduce in semi-desert habitats but their survival and reproductive success is clearly sub-optimal compared to feral horses on more mesic grassland (Berger 1986). Van Dierendonck and de Vries (1996) suggest that the Wild Horse is primarily a steppe herbivore that can survive under arid conditions when there is access to waterholes.	eng
41763	population	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	There are now approximately 325 free-ranging reintroduced and native-born Przewalski?s Horses in Mongolia (January 2008). All Przewalski?s Horses alive today are descended from only 13 or 14 individuals, which were the nucleus of a captive breeding programme (Bowling and Ryder 1987). Introgression of domestic horse blood happened not only in Halle (#229 dom.Mongol), but also in Askania Nova (#175 Domina; Bowling <em>et al</em>. 2003). Between 1992 and 2004, 90 captive-born horses were transported to the Takhin Tal/Gobi B reintroduction site in Mongolia (ITG International Takhi Group, Zimmermann 2008). A further three males were translocated from Hustai National Park to Takhin Tal in 2007 (Zimmermann 2008). There are currently 111 free-ranging horses in nine groups within this population (Zimmermann 2008, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007).  From 1992 to 2000, 84 horses were brought to Hustai National Park by the Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse and Mongolian Association for Conservation of Nature and the Environment (MACNE) from reserves in Europe (King and Gurnell 2005). As of 1 January 2008 this population totalled approximately 192 individuals in 24 harems with 33 bachelor males (Zimmerman 2008). A third reintroduction site was started in 2004 at Seriin Nuruu in the Khomiin Tal buffer zone of the Khar Us Nuur National Park in western Mongolia (Association pour le cheval de Przewalski: TAKH). Twenty-two individuals consisting of four pre-established families and one male bachelor group were brought from Le Villaret, France between 2004 and 2005 (C. Feh pers. comm., Zimmermann 2008). For the reintroduced population in Mongolia mature individuals are those that are five years of age, however, individuals born in captivity do not count as mature until they have reproduced in the wild and that offspring is at least five years old. As of 2006 there were 55 mature individuals in the wild (52 (M.F 26.26) in Hustai, 3 (1.2) in Takhin Tal). In 2007 Hustai had 68 (33.35) mature individuals that had been born in Mongolia and Takhin Tal had 11 (3.8). <br/><br/>In China, the Wild Horse Breeding Centre (WHBC) of the Department of Forestry at Kalameili Nature Reserve (KNR) in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region has established a large captive population of approximately 123 Przewalski?s Horses (January 2008, Pantel <em>et al</em> 2006, Zimmermann <em>et al</em>. 2007). Since 2007 one harem group is roaming free on the Chinese side of the Dzungarian Gobi (Xinjiang); another 60 horses are roaming free during summer time but all return to the acclimatization pen during the winter (Zimmermann <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>The history of population estimates and trends in Przewalski?s Horse has been described by Wakefield <em>et al</em>. (2002). Since the ?rediscovery? of the Przewalski?s Horse for western science, western zoos and wild animal parks became interested in this species for their collections. Several long expeditions were mounted to catch animals. Some expeditions came back empty-handed and some had only seen a glimpse of wild Przewalski?s Horse. It proved difficult to catch adult horses, because they were too shy and fast. Capture of foals, with possible killing of the adult harem members, was considered the only option (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Four expeditions that managed to catch live foals took place between 1897 and 1902. Fifty-three of these foals reached the west alive. Between the 1930s and the 1940s only a few Przewalski?s Horses were caught and most died. At least one mare was crossbred with domestic horses by the Mongolian War Ministry (Bouman and Bouman 1994).<br/><br/>Small groups of horses were reported through the 1940s and 1950s in an area between the Baitag-Bogdo ridge and the ridge of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu (which, translated from Mongolian, means ?the Yellow Mountain of the Wild Horse?), but numbers appeared to decline dramatically after World War II. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was made in 1969 by the Mongolian scientist N. Dovchin. He saw a stallion near a spring called Gun Tamga, north of the Takhin-Shaar Nuruu, in the Dzungarian Gobi (Paklina and Pozdnyakova 1989). Annual investigations by the Joint Mongolian-Soviet Expedition have since failed to find conclusive evidence for their survival in the wild (Ryder 1990). Chinese biologists conducted a survey in northeastern Xinjiang from 1980 to 1982 (covering the area of 88?90° E and 41°31'?47°10' N) without finding any horses (Gao and Gu 1989). The last native wild populations had disappeared.<br/><br/>The number of living animals in the International Studbook was 1,872 in early 2008. Of the 53 animals recorded in the Studbook as having been brought into zoological collections in the west, only 12 contributed any genes to the current living population. Of these, 11 were brought into captivity between 1899 and 1902 and the last of them died in 1939. The twelfth founder was captured as a foal in 1947. The thirteenth founder was born in 1906 in Halle (Germany) to a wild-caught stallion and a domestic Mongolian mare, and the fourteenth founder is a female born in Askania Nova (Ukraine) to a Przewalski?s Horse stallion and a domestic female of a Tarpan type. Nevertheless, the current population is genetically very close to the original wild horses (Bowling <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition to animals held in captivity and those already re-introduced, there have been a number of animals released into very large enclosures (reserves). The four largest are in Le Villaret (21.16; Massif Central, France), Buchara (19.17.1; Uzbekistan), the Hortobágy-National Park (45.44; Hungary), and the Chernobyl exclusion zone (32.35; Ukraine) (information as of January 2008, Zimmermann pers. comm.).	eng
41763	threats	Boyd, L., Zimmermann, W. & King, S.R.B., 2008	A number of causes have been cited for the final extinction of Przewalski?s Horses in Mongolia and China. Among these are significant cultural and political changes (Bouman and Bouman 1994), hunting (Zhao and Liang 1992, Bouman and Bouman 1994), military activities (Ryder 1993), climatic change (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1992), and competition with livestock and increasing land use pressure (Sokolov <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ryder 1993, Bouman and Bouman 1994). Capture expeditions probably diminished the remaining Przewalski?s Horse populations by killing and dispersing the adults (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996). The harsh winters of 1945, 1948, and 1956 probably had an additional impact on the small population (Bouman and Bouman 1994). Increased pressure on, and rarity of waterholes in their last refuge should also be considered as a significant factor contributing to their extinction (Van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996).<br/><br/>For the reintroduced populations, hybridization with domestic horses is the primary threat, accompanied by competition for resources with domestic horses and possibly other livestock. Wherever Przewalski's Horses come into contact with domestic horses, there is a strong risk of hybridization and transmission of diseases. In Hustai National Park, it has been noted that overgrazing of the buffer-zone and continued pressure on the reserve are possible consequences of the enhanced economic activity in this area (Bouman 1998); however, the second phase of the project (1998-2003) paid much more attention to sustainable development of the buffer-zone. In the western section of the Gobi National Park (Gobi B), habitat degradation by nomads and military personnel and their livestock continues; there is no core zone here that is free from human influence all year round. Infectious diseases transmitted from domestic horses, notably <em>Babesia equi</em>, <em>B. caballi</em> and strangles (infection by <em>Streptococcus equi</em>), are a major threat to small reintroduced populations originating from zoos (Roberts <em>et al</em>. 2005, King and Gurnell 2005). Predation on foals by wolves may account for a significant number of mortalities and constitutes a threat to the population growth and continued survival of this taxon (Wit and Bouman 2006, Kaczensky <em>et al</em>. 2004, Kaczensky and Walzer 2007).<br/><br/>There is concern over loss of genetic diversity after being reduced to a very small population and maintained in captivity for several generations. Sixty per cent of the unique genes of the studbook population have been lost (Ryder 1994). Loss of founder genes is irretrievable and further losses must be minimised through close genetic management. Furthermore, inbreeding depression could become a population-wide concern as the population inevitably becomes increasingly inbred (Ballou 1994). However, correct management of the population can slow these losses significantly, as has been achieved since the organization of the regional captive-breeding programmes.	eng
41764	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41764	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species used to occur in a restricted area on the Lebombo mountains in Swaziland at an elevation of 400 to 600 m asl.	eng
41764	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Grew in dry grassy savanna on hill slopes.	eng
41764	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Extinct in the wild.	eng
41764	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Extinct in the wild due to the impacts of poaching by collectors.	eng
41765	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. A large part of the population occurs within a private nature reserve. However the reserve is not secure against poachers and the owner believes that plants are still disappearing.	eng
41765	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The species is endemic to South Africa and occurs in the KwaZulu-Natal province.  It is known from one viable population in the Vryheid district. The plants grow on a hill at an altitude of 1,000 to 1,100 m. Two old male plants were found approximately 10 km away at an altitude of 600 m.	eng
41765	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The plants prefer south facing sandstone cliffs in short grassland.  Plants also occur below the cliffs in humus-rich scree where especially small plants were found in more shady conditions.  Mature coning plants are fully exposed.  The north and north-east slopes only had a few very old plants and conditions do not seem to favour seedling regeneration.  The climate is hot in summer and cold in winter with possible light frost.  Rainfall is 600-800 mm per annum with a summer maximum.	eng
41765	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	According to Scott-Shaw (1999), there were 150 plants surviving in the wild.  Donaldson and co-workers counted <100 (in part of the population) in 1997, but unverified reports put the total at about 250 individuals. Active seedling regeneration is taking place.	eng
41765	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species' occurrence at a single site means the plants are vulnerable to environmental perturbations. Collecting has been a problem in the past although the bulk of the plants now occur within a private nature reserve. Collecting, however, still remains an issue.	eng
41766	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41766	conservation	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas across its range.	eng
41766	distribution	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	The species is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and north-east Africa, being discontunously distributed from Senegal through southern Algeria (isolated population), Libya and Egypt (east of the Nile R.) to central and southern Africa (excluding the Congo Basin forests) (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They also extend to the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in the west, and to Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Harrison and Bates 1991; Shoshani 2005). Reports of the occurrence of this species in Turkey are in error, and there is no evidence for its current or historical occurrence in this country (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001). Its occurrence in Syria also has not been confirmed (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
41766	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and north-east Africa, being discontunously distributed from Senegal through southern Algeria (isolated population), Libya and Egypt (east of the Nile R.) to central and southern Africa (excluding the Congo Basin forests) (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They also extend to the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in the west, and to Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel (Olds and Shoshani 1982; Harrison and Bates 1991; Shoshani 2005). Reports of the occurrence of this species in Turkey are in error, and there is no evidence for its current or historical occurrence in this country (Kry?tufek and Vohralík 2001). Its occurrence in Syria also has not been confirmed (D. Kock pers. comm.).	eng
41766	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Rock Hyraxes occupy a wide range of habitats, from arid deserts to rainforest, occurring from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya; they are typically associated with rocky outcrops, cliffs or boulders (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They often occur in association with Bush Hyrax <em>Heterohyrax bruce</em>i (Hoeck 1975; Barry and Mundy 1988). The diet comprises a variety of grasses, forbs and shrubs, with a predilection for new shoots, buds, fruits and berries (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). A comprehensive review of biology and literature is found in Olds and Shoshani (1982) and Hoeck and Bloomer (in press).	eng
41766	habitat	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Rock Hyraxes occupy a wide range of habitats, from arid deserts to rainforest, occurring from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya; they are typically associated with rocky outcrops, cliffs or boulders (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). They often occur in association with Bush Hyrax <em>Heterohyrax bruce</em>i (Hoeck 1975; Barry and Mundy 1988). The diet comprises a variety of grasses, forbs and shrubs, with a predilection for new shoots, buds, fruits and berries (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). A comprehensive review of biology and literature is found in Olds and Shoshani (1982) and Hoeck and Bloomer (in press).	eng
41766	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Widespread and abundant in drier rocky areas of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. In some areas, such as in Matopos in Zimbabwe and the Serengeti of Tanzania (where they have been well studied) they are characterised by extreme local population fluctuations (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). On Mount Kenya, where they are considered among the most conspicuous of mammals, average density has been estimated at between 20 and 100 animals per km² (Young and Evans 1993).	eng
41766	population	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	Widespread and abundant in drier rocky areas of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. In some areas, such as in Matopos in Zimbabwe and the Serengeti of Tanzania (where they have been well studied) they are characterised by extreme local population fluctuations (Hoeck and Bloomer in press). On Mount Kenya, where they are considered among the most conspicuous of mammals, average density has been estimated at between 20 and 100 animals per km² (Young and Evans 1993).	eng
41766	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is hunted locally, and may have been extirpated in some smaller localities. In Israel, where the species is protected by law and has few natural enemies, their numbers have grown in cultivated areas resulting in damage to crops and necessitating effective control measures being put in <br/>place (e.g., electric fences) (Mendelssogn and Yom-Tov 1999).	eng
41766	threats	Barry, R., Bloomer, P., Hoeck, H. & Shoshani, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is hunted locally, and may have been extirpated in some smaller localities. In Israel, where the species is protected by law and has few natural enemies, their numbers have grown in cultivated areas resulting in damage to crops and necessitating effective control measures being put in <br/>place (e.g., electric fences) (Mendelssogn and Yom-Tov 1999).	eng
41767	conservation	d'Huart, J.P., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The Desert Warthog occurs in a number of protected areas, including Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks (Kenya), Samburu, Buffalo Springs, Shaba, and Dodori National Reserves (Kenya), and likely in the Babile and Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuaries and associated Controlled Hunting Areas in Ethiopia and Meru and Kora National Parks in Kenya (d'Huart and Grubb 2001; Grubb and d'Huart in press; T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This is a largely unstudied species for which further field surveys are needed to better determine geographic limits, area of occupancy, abundance and the impacts of various human/livestock-raising activities on distribution and abundance. Information on habitat preference and habitat limits are also needed, as is a good study of the basic ecology and behaviour of this species.	eng
41767	distribution	d'Huart, J.P., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Presently known only from south-eastern Ethiopia, western Somalia, and in central and eastern Kenya (d'Huart and Grubb 2001). More recently, the range has been found to extend southwards to Tsavo West National Park (west of Athi River and south of the Galana River; J. Culverwell, J. Feely, S.M. Bell-Cross, Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.). Formerly occurred in South Africa, in the south-eastern parts of the former Cape Province and apparently adjacent parts of KwaZulu-Natal, but long since extinct there (d'Huart and Grubb 2001; Grubb and d'Huart in press). Most records are from near sea level to ca 1,400 m asl (Central Kenya).	eng
41767	habitat	d'Huart, J.P., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The Desert Warthog inhabits open arid regions, in vegetation types ranging from xerophylous bush and open woodland to subdesert steppe. They prefer plains on predominantly sandy soils, and avoid hilly terrain. Desert Warthogs are dependent on occurrence of water and shade (Grubb and d'Huart in press; T. Butynski, Y. de Jong and J. Culverwell pers. comm.).	eng
41767	population	d'Huart, J.P., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The Desert Warthog is generally reported as being locally abundant (Grubb and d'Huart in press), mostly near small and remote villages or lodges where there is water (T. Butynski, Y. de Jong, J. Culverwell, and J. King pers. comm.). In Ethiopia, they are common in the whole Ogaden region and can be observed both in family sounders in bushy areas and in larger aggregations of up to 30 individuals around permanent wells and close to towns (Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Nevertheless, there are large areas within the geographic range from which the species is absent.	eng
41767	threats	d'Huart, J.P., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. However, they may be subject to localized incidences of hunting for bushmeat trade (e.g. Wilhelmi <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat degradation due to over-grazing by domestic livestock and competition for water with humans and domestic livestock may be affecting populations of Desert Warthog in some regions, but this needs investigation (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.)	eng
41768	conservation	Cumming, D.H.M., 2008	The Common Warthog is present in numerous protected areas across its extensive range.	eng
41768	distribution	Cumming, D.H.M., 2008	Widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in scattered populations in West Africa eastwards to Ethiopia and then southwards in protected areas and unsettled, or very lightly settled, areas in East and southern Africa. Historically, <em>P. africanus</em> did not occur in the arid Karoo of South Africa where it was replaced by the extinct Cape Warthog <em>P. aethiopicus aethiopicus</em> (Cumming in press). The continuous expansion of the Sahel-zone has resulted in a marked contraction in the species’ former range in the north since the early 1980s, and accounts for its probable extinction in Niger (J. Newby, in Vercammen and Mason 1993).	eng
41768	habitat	Cumming, D.H.M., 2008	Confined to moist and dry African savanna grasslands, open bushlands and woodlands, usually within range of perennial surface water (Cumming in press). Although usually absent from forests, thickets, cool montane grasslands, and deserts and succulent steppes, the population in the Goda Mtns in Djibouti mainly occupies forested areas (Künzel <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cumming in press). Recorded to elevations of 3,500 m in the Ethiopian Highlands (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
41768	population	Cumming, D.H.M., 2008	The overall number of warthog in southern Africa (Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and southwards) has been estimated at about 250,000 (Cumming 1999). Typical densities range between 1 and 10 per km² in protected areas (Cumming in press), but local densities of 77 per km² were found on short grass in Nakuru National Park (Radke 1991).	eng
41768	threats	Cumming, D.H.M., 2008	There are no current major threats. However, the species is very susceptible to drought and hunting, which may result in localized extinctions.	eng
41769	conservation	d'Huart, J.P. & Klingel, H., 2008	Forest Hogs occur in a number of protected areas, including: Sapo N.P. (Liberia); Taï N.P. (Côte d’Ivoire); Bia N.P. (Ghana); Minkebe N.P. (Gabon); Odzala N.P. (Congo Republic); the Sangha Tri-National complex (CAR, Congo, Cameroon); Maiko N.P., Virunga N.P. and Kahuzi-Biega N.P. (DR Congo); Ruwenzori N.P. and Queen Elizabeth N.P. (Uganda); Aberdares N.P. and Mt Kenya N.P. (Kenya); and Bale Mountains N.P. (Ethiopia).	eng
41769	distribution	d'Huart, J.P. & Klingel, H., 2008	The Forest Hog has a range similar in many respects to the Bongo <em>Tragelaphus eurycerus</em>, being distributed in scattered populations throughout undisturbed tracts of lowland rainforest in West Africa and on the right bank of the Congo River, and also present in highland mixed forests of the Albertine Rift, and in isolated montane forests in Kenya and Ethiopia (d'Huart and Kingdon in press). The species is believed to be extinct in Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and there have been no records of Forest Hog from Rwanda since the late 1980s (B. Dowsett pers. comm.), though they may possibly survive in Nyungwe Forest (d'Huart and Kingdon in press).	eng
41769	habitat	d'Huart, J.P. & Klingel, H., 2008	Throughout its range, the Forest Hog inhabits a wide variety of forest types, ranging from subalpine areas and bamboo groves through montane to lowland and swamp forests, galleries, wooded savannas and post-cultivation thickets. It shows a preference for a convenient and permanent water source, thick understorey cover in some parts of the home range, and a diversity of vegetation types (d'Huart and Kingdon in press).<br/><br/>Adult size and sexual maturity are reached by both males and females at 18 months; life tables suggest an average life expectancy of 3.5 years and an average life span of five years, with a maximum of 18 years (d’Huart 1978).	eng
41769	population	d'Huart, J.P. & Klingel, H., 2008	Generally occurs at low density over most of its range, but may be locally abundant and sometimes occurs at high densities. d'Huart (1978) recorded densities of 0.4/km² in Garamba National Park to 2.6 /km² in the central plain of Virunga National Park. On the Mweya Peninsula, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, density was reported as >10 km² in 1999. However, Klingel and Klingel (2004) subsequently recorded a 30% fall in the density mainly as a result of predation; this population had subsequently declined further and is now close to extinction (H. Klingel pers. comm. 2007).	eng
41769	threats	d'Huart, J.P. & Klingel, H., 2008	Forest Hogs are very vulnerable to deforestation and, to a lesser extent, to hunting for food. In some areas of the Congo Basin, Forest Hogs are avoided by shotgun hunters because their flesh is considered to have an unpleasant taste, but this is by no means a widespread aversion (d'Huart and Kingdon in press). Hogs are sometimes caught in snares and the meat is smoked to conceal its origin and sent to urban markets (R. Ruggiero, in d'Huart and Kingdon in press).	eng
41770	conservation	Seydack. A., 2008	Bushpig are present in several well-managed protected areas across their range.	eng
41770	distribution	Seydack. A., 2008	The Bushpig ranges from southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea southwards through East Africa and eastern and southern DR Congo to Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. There are isolated populations in Angola (and nearby from the lower Zaire R. in DR Congo). In southern Africa, they are absent from Namibia, though they may occur in the Caprivi Strip. In South Africa, they are found in the northern and eastern parts of the country (and neighbouring Swaziland) to southern KwaZulu-Natal. There is then a break in their distribution and they reappear as an isolated population in the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces (Seydack in press). Introduced on Madagascar and the Comoro Islands (Mayotte) off the east coast of Africa (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
41770	habitat	Seydack. A., 2008	Bushpig are associated with relatively dense vegetation types with available food, cover and water, in forests and riverine or xeric scrub forests and thicket formations. In East and North-east Africa, they are recorded from the Ethiopian Highlands (Harenna Forest), the highlands of the Albertine Rift (where Red River Hogs have never been recorded), and Mt Kilimanjaro (to 4,000 m). They also occur in areas given over to subsistence farming or to agricultural crops such as sugar cane, maize, peanuts and beans, and may become a serious problem in such areas (Seydack in press).	eng
41770	population	Seydack. A., 2008	Population density in the southern Cape forests, South Africa, range between 0.3 and 0.5/km² (Seydack in press).	eng
41770	threats	Seydack. A., 2008	There are no major known threats. They may be subject to localized declines and range contractions in some areas due to large-scale habitat destruction or as a result of hunting for crop protection and local consumption (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993). In southern Africa, they are sporadically subject to official population control measures when they feed on crops. However, their preferred habitat, nocturnal habits and relatively high reproductive potential are such that it has proved generally difficult to eliminate Bushpig from larger tracts of relatively densely vegetated habitat (Seydack in press).	eng
41771	conservation	Querouil, S. & Leus, K., 2008	Red River hogs are present in many protected areas across their range.	eng
41771	distribution	Querouil, S. & Leus, K., 2008	The Red River Hog is widely, but patchily, distributed through the West and Central African rainforest belt, from Senegal in the west, throughout the Guinea-Congo forest to at least west of the Albertine Rift. Further east and south-east, replaced by the Bushpig, although the precise borders between the ranges of the two species remain unclear. There are no confirmed records from Sudan or Chad, though they may occur in extreme south-western Sudan (Leus and Vercammen in press). There are also as yet no reliable records from The Gambia, which is just outside their natural range (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). There is no confirmation of their presence on Bioko Island.	eng
41771	habitat	Querouil, S. & Leus, K., 2008	Typically associated with rainforest and gallery forest, but also found in dry forest, savanna woodland and cultivated areas, although usually in close proximity to the rainforest (Leus and Vercammen in press). Like the Bushpig, Red River Hogs are highly adaptable and may even benefit from the opening up of former forested areas by the creation of secondary habitats, the provision of cultivated foods, and reductions in the numbers of their natural predators (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
41771	population	Querouil, S. & Leus, K., 2008	Recorded densities for Red River Hogs vary greatly but typically range between 1-6 individuals / km² (Leus and Vercammen in press), although a density of 18.4/km² was recorded from galleries and bosquets in the savanna ecotone of Lopé Reserve, Gabon (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1997). Periodic aggregations on ephemeral resources (such as masting fruit trees) might explain these higher estimates.	eng
41771	threats	Querouil, S. & Leus, K., 2008	The main threat to this species is hunting for subsistence purposes, as an agricultural pest, or because it is a vector of livestock diseases, and for the commercial bushmeat trade (Vercammen <em>et al.</em> 1993). Together with the duikers, it is one of the most hunted species in the Congo Basin (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999). A significant effect of hunting on Red River Hog densities was observed in southern Gabon (Laurance <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41772	conservation	Kawanishi, K., Gumal, M. & Oliver, W., 2008	In Peninsular Malaysia, the Taman Negara National Park , 4,343 km², may be the only protected area large enough to support a viable population, if the species is still present. Bearded pigs are found in Endau-Rompin National Park in southern Peninsular Malaysia. Although the park is only 891 km², there are plans for intensive field conservation in the protected area and surrounding logged-over  forests, thus increasing the potential of long-term prevalence of this species here. In Sumatra, Bearded pigs are known to occur in the large Kerinci-Seblat National Park (Linkie and Sadikin 2003), 13,300 km², and they are likely to survive in some other protected areas, though surveys are needed to confirm this. In Borneo, the species is widely distributed and it occurs in numerous protected areas in Kalimantan, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig is a protected game species under the Protection of Wildlife Act (1972) in Peninsular Malaysia and can be hunted with license with no bag limit for meat or as a measure of pest control. If, as it appears, the Bearded pig distribution is limited to southern Peninsular Malaysia, special management interventions are necessary to protect the species from extinction in Peninsular Malaysia. Regulating hunting of Bearded pigs alone will be difficult as hunters do not differentiate Bearded pigs from sympatric wild pigs. A study to determine the status and distribution of the species is necessary first to clearly identify what further actions may be required. Its marginal occurrence in the Philippines, where it is undoubtedly seriously threatened by virtue of its extremely limited distribution and active persecution, is unquestioned, but not yet reflected in local legislature.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig is protected under the Sarawak Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1998 (Part IV of the Ordinance ? Protection of Wildlife) specifically the Trade Ban (Section 33) that prohibits the hunting or selling of wildlife species or wild meat. However, hunting for subsistence in rural areas is still allowed (Chin 2001, Junau <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The only apparent captive population of Peninsular Malaysian Bearded pigs seems to be the herd of 7 males and 10 females at Singapore?s Night Safari. There are two captive herds of Bearded pig in Peninsular Malaysia, 8 individuals at Zoo Taiping and 14 at Zoo Negara in Kuala Lumpur (Lazarus and Ngah pers. comm.) but these two herds are all of Bornean origin. The Singapore animals stem from three wild importations totaling 2 males and 2 females in 1991 from Johor. Should further research indicate that a limited reintroduction of captive-bred animals was deemed appropriate as part of a broader conservation plan, the Singapore stock could provide animals for release (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41772	distribution	Kawanishi, K., Gumal, M. & Oliver, W., 2008	The Bearded Pig is found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Bangka (where its continued presence is uncertain), and Borneo (Brunei, Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan), extending to Siibuto and Tawitawi Islands in the Sulu Archipelago, in the extreme southwestern Philippines (Oliver, 1995, 2001). There are also records from Bintan (Riau) Islands (southeast of Singapore), where it might be extirpated, and from Karimata and Laut Islands off Kalimantan. The species has probably been extirpated from northern Peninsular Malaysia and northern Sumatra, but it is still present in parts of its historical range, such as the western Sumatran mountain areas (Linkie and Sadikin 2003, Sugardjito pers. comm.) and southern Peninsular Malaysia. The species is apparently most widespread on Borneo, which might hold the bulk of the population.<br/><br/>The Bearded pig was fairly abundant and widespread in the Malaysian Peninsula until relatively recently (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993). As late as 1990, herds of bearded pigs were reported in central Peninsular Malaysia at Taman Negara National Park (Khadijah 1990) and in a forest reserve south of Taman Negara (Johns 1983). But between 1999 and 2001 an intensive camera-trapping study of three sites covering 600 km² of the park did not record the presence of the species (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Elsewhere in 1996, a herd consisting of about 18 Bearded pigs, was seen in a forest reserve in Negri Sembilan in the southwestern peninsula (Kalan Ickes pers. comm., Ickes and Thomas 2003). In a peat swamp forest of southeastern Peninsular Malaysia, the species was reported present by local indigenous people (Sebastian 1998, Wetland International 2003) but a subsequent field survey (Traeholt and Lim 1999) and a camera-trapping study (Sharma and Ahmad Zafir 2005) did not to confirm the presence. At the turn of the 21st Century there were reports of bearded pigs still existing in southern Peninsular Malaysia (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006), including sightings in 2007 and 2008.  Photographs as well as video recordings also exist of the species in Endau Rompin National Park (Song Horng pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Sumatra, the Bearded Pig has been recorded in west Sumatra (Linkie and Sadikin 2003) in central Sumatra (Maddox 2007a) and in south Sumatra (Maddox <em>et al</em>. 2007b).	eng
41772	habitat	Kawanishi, K., Gumal, M. & Oliver, W., 2008	The natural vegetation in all areas where bearded pigs are found is dominated by tropical evergreen rainforest, but within this broad category the animals utilize a wide variety of habitat types, ranging from beaches to upper montane cloud forests (Caldecott <em>et al</em>., 1993). The carrying capacity for bearded pigs no doubt varies greatly from habitat to habitat within the rainforest, depending on soil, drainage, elevation and floristic and phytochemical composition of the vegetation. Population density is also radically variable over time, so it is hard to determine consistent differences between habitats in this respect (Caldecott <em>et al</em>., 1993).<br/><br/>Bearded pigs consume roots, fungi, invertebrates in soil and rotting wood, small vertebrates, turtle eggs, carrion, and items from at least 50 genera and 29 families of plants. Fruit supply is believed to have particular influence in determining growth rate, fat deposition and reproduction, with the oil-rich seeds of members of the tree families Fagaceae (oaks and chestnuts) and Dipterocarpaceae (dipterocarps) being especially important in this regard. Of these, the oaks are significant because of their relatively continuous or regular fruiting behaviour, and also because they can come to dominate submontane habitats. The dipterocarps are often dominant in lowland and hill forests, and strongly influence food availability for terrestrial seed-eaters by characteristically synchronized flowering and mast-fruiting behaviour (Caldecott, 1988; Pfeffer, 1959; Pfeffer and Caldecott, 1986; Davies and Payne, 1982; Janzen, 1974; Jessup <em>et al</em>., 1982; Leighton and Leighton, 1983).<br/><br/>Large-scale population movements by bearded pigs have often been reported in Malaysia (Allen, 1948; Kempe, 1948; Hislop, 1949, 1952, 1955) and Borneo (Shelford, 1916; Banks, 1931, 1949; Banks in Hislop, 1955; Pfeffer, 1959; Davies and Payne, 1982; Caldecott and Caldecott, 1985; Caldecott, 1988a, 1991). Pigs are described as moving consistently in one direction, in scattered or condensed herds, over a broad or narrow front, and over a period of several days, weeks or months. The animals are variously described as being in good, poor or very poor physical condition, sometimes accompanied by piglets and sometimes not, and regularly swimming across rivers, sometimes coastal bays and even out to sea. In some cases, the population is said to retrace its route later, or to follow a circular course to return whence it originally came. The distances traveled appear to vary greatly. Pfeffer (1959) described annual, apparently unidirectional, population movements in Kalimantan involving distances of 250-650 km, while Davies and Payne (1982) refer to annual reversible movements over tens of kilometers in Sabah. The approximate population tracks given by Caldecott (1988a) suggest rates of travel of 8-22 km/month sustained over at least 4-8 months as part of larger cyclical movements in interior Sarawak. Some reports indicate that such population migrations begin or end in particular locations where abundant food may be found. Thus, Davies and Payne (1982) linked movements to seasonally-fruiting <em>Dinochloa</em> bamboo groves, while Caldecott (unpubl.) reinterpreted historical accounts so as to link Malaysian bearded pig movements with predictable fruiting in camphor wood (<em>Dryobalanops aromatica</em>) forests. Caldecott (1988a) also described what appeared to be regular use of fruiting montane oak (<em>Lithocarpus</em>) forests in the upper Baram area of Sarawak.<br/><br/>In Sumatra bearded pigs also exhibit large scale population movements, but reports are anecdotal and often contradictory. Groups of up to 300 individuals are said to embark on long migrations, arriving at a given location at irregular intervals, sometimes as often as once a year but more frequently once every two to four years. In the highlands these movements do not seem to have any relation to the seasons, but in the lowlands the pigs tend to move out of the inundated forests to higher ground in the rainy season and back again in the dry season (Blouch, 1984). The relationship between these movements and the cycles of mast production has not been investigated. <br/><br/>Bearded pig populations exhibit a range of different states, which can be summarized as follows:<br/><br/>1. Dispersed, static populations exploiting small, dispersed, unpredictable and discontinuous 'background' food sources. Low breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only (e.g., typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes).<br/><br/>2. Small to medium populations exploiting concentrated, predictable and continuous 'target' food sources. High breeding and growth rates possible. Local movements only (e.g.. <em>Koompassia-Burseraceae</em> forest in Malaya).<br/><br/>3. Small to medium populations, with members aggregating to exploit large, dispersed, unpredictable food sources. Breeding and birth rates depend on success of matching movements to fruiting within a dynamic phenological mosaic. Short to medium-range movements (e.g., typical mixed dipterocarp forest in Borneo between generalized fruiting episodes.<br/><br/>4. Small to large populations moving regularly to exploit concentrated, predictable and discontinuous target food sources. Breeding and growth linked to activity of food sources. Short-range to long-range movements. Size of population varies from year to year depending on background food supply (e.g., <em>Dinochloa association</em> in Sabah, or <em>Dryobalanops aromatica</em> association in Peninsular Malaysia).<br/><br/>5. Large and expanding population exploiting an exceptional supply of background food available over a period sufficient for several litters to be raised to sexual maturity. High breeding and growth rates characteristic. Long range movements (e.g., interior of Sarawak in 1954, 1959, 1983 and 1987).<br/><br/>6. Very large and collapsing population having exceeded background food supply. Low breeding and high death rates. Increasingly desperate long-range movements (e.g., starving herds reported from Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo).<br/><br/>The basic social structure is that of the major social unit being the mother family, a female and her litter. These units often join up, and much larger aggregations are formed occasionally, with scores or even hundreds of pigs traveling together. Fully adult males seldom associate with the natal groups. Age at first pregnancy presumably varies in the wild from about 10-20 months. In any one area, the rut coincides with synchronized flowering in the forest, with the timing being centered on the transition between late flowering and early fruit formation. Falling petals therefore offer a potential visual cue. A certain nutritional status may have to have been attained by females before they become responsive to whatever stimulus acts to trigger mating. Pregnant females had a median fatness index (finger-widths of fat depth at the shoulder) of 1.5, while rutting males scored zero by this measure (n = 19, 32).<br/><br/>Gestation length is not known but is estimated at 90-120 days, based on the interval between rut and the ensuing birth-peak. Birth occurs within a nest, which is constructed of vegetation by the mother, and which is occupied by her and the new piglets for a week or so. Data from hunter interviews indicated that the median number of piglets accompanying an adult female (n = 53) was 7, which was the same as the median number of fetuses counted in dead females (n = 8). Abbot in Davies (1962) reported a slightly higher median of 9 fetuses per female (n = 5). Litter size is very variable in part because of the influence of female size: small mothers typically have 3-4 piglets in a litter, while large ones have 10-12. Elsewhere, the range in litter size has been given as 3-11 piglets (National Research Council, 1983).<br/><br/>Fat reserves in the mother are used up quickly during lactation, and females accompanied by small piglets are almost invariably thin or very thin. Those with large piglets are fatter, and have presumably gained weight after weaning. This fattening process seems to depend on what fruit is available, with dipterocarp seeds and acorns having most impact. If these are abundant, it seems likely that two litters can be raised by a female within a year.	eng
41772	population	Kawanishi, K., Gumal, M. & Oliver, W., 2008	This species has usually been considered to be locally common wthin its range, though it is heavily hunted and declining (Caldecott <em>et al</em>. 1993, Oliver 1992). However, of all the populations of Bearded Pig, only the Bornean one seems still to be relatively healthy (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006). The species has declined seriously in Peninsular Malaysia over the last fifteen years, having diappeared from many former sights, and it is certainly no longer common there. Declines are also evident in Sumatra, though the timing of these is less clear. Overall, the species is clearly decreasing.	eng
41772	threats	Kawanishi, K., Gumal, M. & Oliver, W., 2008	Bearded pigs are culturally and economically important wildlife to the rural communities in Borneo (Caldecott 1988). Its meat is preferred by the local people and therefore it is the most frequently hunted wildlife species (Caldecott 1988, Chin 2001). Improved access into the forests and destruction of their natural habitats by logging and agricultural activities have increased hunting pressure on the Bearded pigs. Moreover, habitat degradation through logging of dipterocarps is believed to reduce the availability of food and the loss of habitat for foraging and breeding, although little is known about the pig?s diet and habitat use in response to logging (Setyawati <em>et al</em>. 2005). Evidence is mounting that the bearded pig is dependent on the survival of extensive areas of tropical forest, but these are in serious decline, especially due to expanding plantations (notably oil palm), fires and logging.<br/><br/>The unsustainable logging of dipterocarps in Bornean forests is changing the underlying ecology of the island, probably in such a way as to prevent bearded pigs from exhibiting in future the mass population eruptions and movements of the kind observed during the 1950's and 1980's. These phenomena are no longer seen in areas where extensive logging has already occurred. The bearded pig may be said to be consummately adapted to life in almost limitless dipterocarp forests. It is possible that the demise and fragmentation of Borneo's forests will allow wholesale invasion of the island by <em>S. scrofa</em>, which could then displace <em>S. b. barbatus</em> from much of its former range. The same may be said for Peninsular Malaysia, where several thousands of square kilometres of camphor wood forest have now been virtually destroyed, and the integrity of forest cover throughout the Peninsula is so disrupted that long-distance movement by forest-dwelling mammals is no longer possible in many areas. ?Classic? bearded pig eruptions with maximum reproduction and population growth appear to be linked to consecutive and large mass fruit crops over an extended time period (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 2005). These consecutive mass fruit crops are thought to be compromised in the future not only by the loss of extensive and contiguous forest cover, but also by climate change  (Hancock <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Meanwhile, a more sedentary population of bearded pigs, apparently associated with continuously-fruiting, <em>Koompassia-Burseraceae</em> forests in western Malaya, is probably endangered by hunting and habitat destruction. The habitat changes experienced by the Peninsula since the Second World War have almost certainly favoured <em>S. scrofa</em> over <em>S. barbatus</em>, and the latter species is believed to be in serious jeopardy as a result. Although habitat loss and disruption have almost certainly contributed to the bearded pig's rarity in Peninsular Malaysia, competition with Eurasian wild pigs might also be a significant factor (Kawanishi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Available data indicate that wherever they are sympatric (not necessarily syntopic), the number of Eurasian wild pigs is greater than bearded pigs (Ickes 2001, Ickes and Thomas 2003, Maddox 2007). Both in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, the Eurasian wild pig has a much greater distribution range than the bearded pig.<br/><br/>In Sumatra, habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Malaya and where a comparison between the current distribution of bearded pigs and that of the remaining native forest supports the contention that the species cannot long survive the reduction and fragmentation of these habitats. The same situation probably applies to Bangka and the Riau Archipelago where habitat disturbance has been at least as extensive as in Sumatra, and where the continued survival of the species is not clear.<br/><br/>As bearded pig populations decline, the impact of hunting for meat, once probably sustainable in many areas, is becoming much more serious, and hunting is probably now a serious threat in many places.<br/><br/>Repeated complaints about crop depredations by Moslem communities in communities in Sibutu and Tawitawi Islands in southwestern Philippines have not only led to appeals to the relevant authorities to try to eradicate these animals, but also to the discovery of a new (if as yet unpublished) description of a wild pig species endemic to Tawitawi and offshore islands (Oliver 2001; Rose and Grubb, unpublished), though it remains unclear whether <em>S. barbatus</em> occurs sympatrically or is replaced by these animals on these islands.	eng
41773	conservation	Burton, J. & Macdonald, A.A., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas. Those where significant populations of warty pigs are found include Lore Lindu (2,310 km<sup>2</sup>), Bogani Nani-Wartabone (2,871 km<sup>2</sup>), Morowali (2,250 km<sup>2)</sup> and many other smaller sites. Within all of these areas the species is technically fully protected  by law. A Wildlife Crimes Unit Program was developed for wildlife trade monitoring and law enforcement in North Sulawesi. This has been active since 2001, however, overall trade in wild mammals has increased by 30% during this time, mainly from unprotected species (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). This Unit cannot control the levels of trade in the warty pig because hunting of this species is not prohibited outside of protected areas. The species has only very rarely been kept in captivity outside its country of origin; and, as far as is known, pure-bred animals have never been produced in captivity (Burton and Macdonald 2006).	eng
41773	distribution	Burton, J. & Macdonald, A.A., 2008	<em>S. celebensis</em> is a medium sized pig which is still found in abundance in central, east and south-east Sulawesi. It is now scarce in south and north-east Sulawesi and may be extinct on nearby Selayar Island. It also occurs as a native form on the adjacent islands of Buton, Muna, Kabeana, Peleng, Lembeh and on some of the Togian Islands (Burton and Macdonald 2006). As originally shown by Groves (1981), this species has also been truly domesticated and widely transported to other islands, where it has also often hybridized with <em>S. scrofa</em>, thus giving rise to a variety of introduced domestic and feral pig populations amongst the Indonesian the islands of Flores, Timor, Simeuleu, Seram, Buru and Nias Islands. Domesticated forms of <em>S. celebensis</em> can be seen on the islands of Roti and Sawu (Groves 1983, Bell 1987). Wild pigs from Halmahera, previously referred to as feral <em>S. celebensis</em>, have been shown to have greater genetic affinity to the New Guinea pigs (Larson <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41773	habitat	Burton, J. & Macdonald, A.A., 2008	Sulawesi Warty Pigs are reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from rainforest and swamp, to open grasslands and agricultural areas, and at all altitudes up to moss forest (>2,500 m) (MacKinnon 1981), though they are less common at altitudes above 1,500 m asl (Burton in press). They usually live in groups of from one to six animals, but the social composition of these groups is incompletely known (Macdonald 1991; Macdonald <em>et al</em>, 1996). In one population (Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve) the sex ratio of adults was found to be 1:1.25 (n=25) and group size varies between 2 and 9, with an average of 5 individuals (n=16) (Jamalundin in prep). Groups generally consisted of 1-3 young, 1-2 subadults and 1-3 adults. They forage during the day, this activity being concentrated in the early morning and evening. Although roots, fallen fruit, leaves and young shoots constitute the bulk of their diet, invertebrates, small vertebrates and carrion are also eaten.	eng
41773	population	Burton, J. & Macdonald, A.A., 2008	A recent island wide survey (Riley 2002) found no records of pigs in three areas in the north east peninsula of Sulawesi, and low densities in the central region of the island. Populations in both these regions appear to have been affected by demand for pig meat in Minahasa and Palu areas, respectively. While the south-east area had the highest population densities, the demand for pig meat locally was lowest. Densities ranged from 0.4-2.0 animals/km² (Panua Nature Reserve) in the north peninsula to 5.1-14.5 animals/km² (Tanjung Peropa Nature Reserve) in the south-east peninsula. A recent study in the latter site found densities in lowland forest to be 23.5 animals/km² (Jamaludin <em>et al</em>. in prep). This data highlights the increasing pressure from hunting on the pigs of Sulawesi, as reported elsewhere (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 1997, 2000; Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41773	threats	Burton, J. & Macdonald, A.A., 2008	<em>S. celebensis</em> does not have any important natural predators on Sulawesi and its offshore islands other than the reticulated python (<em>Python reticulates</em>). Changing land-use and hunting pressure have caused a reduction in its former range. This pig species is not considered threatened over much of its range at the present time (Burton and Macdonald 2006). However, wide scale deforestation for timber and conversion of land for agriculture, coupled with human population expansion and immigration have resulted in a marked contraction of its range in some places. In addition, resources are insufficient to enforce controls on hunting, and there are reports that subsistence and/or organized commercial hunting is continuing even within designated reserves and national parks (Smiet 1982, Blouch 1990). The high volume of trade in this species raises concerns about the sustainability of this current harvesting rate. Completion of the Trans-Sulawesi Highway (1980) probably increased importation of wildlife within and into North Sulawesi from the rest of the island. Data was recently collected from market surveys from northeast Sulawesi and road blocks on the Trans-Sulawesi Highway (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). In the study it was noted that "trade in the Sulawesi pig is alarmingly high for such a large-bodied animal". The expansion of human settlements also brings an increased threat of genetic contamination and/or disease to the wild pig populations. Future threats will include the loss of this species high genetic diversity through the decline into small isolated populations (Burton and Macdonald 2006).	eng
41775	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Generally, few, if any, practical measures have been taken in any country for the specific purpose of conserving wild populations of any subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em>, except in the sense of maintaining stock levels for hunting, particularly for sport hunting. Thus Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported a gradual increase of the wild boar population in Bulgaria in the late 1950s following legal measures to regulate hunting, and because of the reintroduction of animals from breeding farms in the north-east of the country, in the Balkan Range and Sredna Gora. Even in this instance, however, other factors may also be operating, since similar increases in the local wild pig populations in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and eastern Russia have been described by Sáez-Royuela and Tellería (1986), who simply attributed this trend to a progression to a more temperate climate and, hence, progressively milder winters of benefit to these animals. <br/><br/>Local wild pig populations are also reported to be increasing in numbers in several countries as a consequence of the spread of Islam. For example, the north-west African race, <em>S. s. algira</em>, although extinct in Libya, is thought to be expanding in neighboring Algeria where it is designated a game animal but, as the meat is now seldom eaten in this country, hunting pressure has been greatly reduced since colonial times (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalski, 1991). These authors also cite earlier reports of wild boars hybridizing with domestic pigs, but the latter are no longer kept in Algeria.<br/><br/><em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> has been included in the IUCN Red List since 1982, where its 'Vulnerable' status reflected a widespread concern about the environmentally destructive development of the Ryukyu Islands and the growing number of threats to the ecosystems and endemic species of Iriomote and other islands in this region. In 1978, these concerns led to the passing of a resolution at the 14th IUCN General Assembly in Ashkhabad, which called upon the Government of Japan to take immediate steps to ensure the conservation of Iriomote Island and its endemic taxa, and for the subsequent designation of the whole of the Nansei Shoto Region (often referred to as the 'Galápagos of the East' on account of the high percent endemicity of its fauna and flora) as a bio-geographical priority region in the World Conservation Strategy. In 1982, the 'Nansei Shoto Conservation Project' was launched by WWF-Japan, with initial emphasis being placed on the conduct of wildlife and socio-economic surveys on Iriomote and Amami Oshima (Obara, 1984a,b). In the interim, however, the desired increased protection of the Nansei Shoto Region was clearly at odds with the Japanese Government's regional policies, and the development of the islands continued - a circumstance which led to the passage of a another resolution, highlighting Japan's treatment of the region, at the 16th General Assembly of IUCN in Costa Rica in 1986. This also appears to have had little affect, as evinced by further major development plans, including the controversial Ishigaki Airport extension, and recent plans to construct a new dam and road on Iriomote Island. Although one third of Iriomote has been designated as a national park, the proposed road will cut through the park and will also increase access by poachers who have already reduced the wild pig to less than half of its numbers before the park was created (Brazil, 1988). <br/><br/>Of all wild pigs species, <em>S. scrofa</em> is by far the most widely maintained and bred in captivity, though general perceptions about the relative abundance of this species has resulted in diminished interest in its propagation. Many zoos, particularly in western Europe, have therefore disposed of their stocks of these animals, mostly to 'wild boar breeding farms', which have escalated in number to meet growing demands in the gourmet meat markets and for commercial diversification. In addition, increasingly restrictive quarantine and other veterinary regulations appertaining to the international movements of all live suids, has made it extremely difficult to establish new breeding programs.<br/><br/>Contrarily, since these animals are most easily acquired in their countries of origin, local stocks are most likely to be pure-bred and, hence, most valuable for research and conservation purposes. In this situation, priority should be given to the establishment of national or regional breeding programmes for each of the rarest subspecies, especially <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>.<br/><br/>As a general rule, <em>S. scrofa</em> is both highly adaptable and highly resistant to a variety of degradative processes, and may thrive under conditions of habitat modification and hunting pressure which have devastated other forms of wildlife. In addition, most subspecies are well represented in protected areas in their relatively extensive ranges. Nonetheless, there are reasons for concern about a number of distinct populations of <em>S. scrofa</em>, of which the Ryukyu pigs are undoubtedly the most seriously threatened. Indeed, <em>riukiuanus</em> is the only subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em> to be included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1990), where it has been accorded the status of 'Vulnerable' since 1982, but is already thought to be 'Endangered' on at least four of the six islands in the Ryukyu Chain which constitute its entire, and therefore extremely restricted, range. This particular form is also the most distinct, and (with an average adult male body weight of only about 45 kg; Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984) by far the smallest, subspecies. It is therefore of some interest as a potential genetic resource, as well as being one of the principal 'flagship' animals for increased conservation activity in the crucially important Nansei Shoto Region. For all of these reasons, the following recommendations (taken from Oliver <em>et al</em> 1993) are mostly confined to the immediate and longer-term management requirements of this taxon.<br/><br/><strong>Objectives<br/>1. To promote local interest in, and the enhanced future protection and management of, the Ryukyu Islands' dwarf wild pig, <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>, and any other threatened native subspecies may be identified in the future;<br/><br/>2. To promote further applied research on the taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and biology of the species, particularly the least known forms; <br/><br/>3. To discourage any future releases of any specimens of any subspecies of this species, or its domestic and feral derivatives, outside their known former ranges, and encourage the eradication or control of such introduced populations as may exist at present; and<br/><br/>4. To investigate the cultural and economic significance of these animals to local people, particularly in Southeast Asia, and their potential genetic importance in terms of: a) possibilities for their further domestication and/or b) an enhanced understanding of the origins and relationships of present day domestic and wild populations.<br/><br/><strong>Priority Projects:</strong><br/>1. Provide all appropriate support to any existing or proposed future conservation initiatives in the Nansei Shoto Region, relevant to the enhanced future management and protection of the Ryukyu Island's dwarf wild pig, <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>. <br/><br/>2. Conduct (preliminary or repeat) status surveys on all (six) islands in the Ryukyu Group known to support remnant populations of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> (i.e. Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima and Kakerome), and implement emergent recommendations. <br/><br/>3. Promote development of a coordinated breeding programmed for <em>S. s. riukiuanus,/i>, both nationally and internationally.<br/><br/>4. Collect, evaluate and disseminate data on the taxonomic relationships, distribution and conservation status of other, less-known forms, with a view to the resolution of certain outstanding taxonomic problems and the development of recommendations for their enhanced future protection, if so required. Additional data is needed on the distribution and status of some, poorly-known subspecies and populations, including a tentatively assigned form (subsp. nov.) from the central highlands of Sri Lanka and the insular <em>taivanus</em> (Taiwan). Efforts should also be made to resolve outstanding questions relating to the genetic distinctness and range limitations of many of the continental races, which are poorly understood at present.<br/><br/>5. Promote further research on the biology and ecology of all less-studied populations, particularly those in extreme habitats, or in areas of sympatry with other species of <em>Sus,/i>. Most of the information on this species has originated from studies conducted in Europe or on the feral populations in the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand. Priority should therefore be given to studies of other populations elsewhere, particularly those in semi-desert regions or other extreme habitats, and/or studies focused on the ecological and genetic relationships between this and other species of Sus in those areas where sympatry occurs (e.g. with <em>S. barbatus</em> in the Malaysian Peninsular and Sumatra, and with <em>S. verrucosus</em> on Java).</em></em></strong>	eng
41775	conservation	Oliver, W. & Leus, K., 2008	Generally, few, if any, practical measures have been taken in any country for the specific purpose of conserving wild populations of any subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em>, except in the sense of maintaining stock levels for hunting, particularly for sport hunting. Thus Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported a gradual increase of the wild boar population in Bulgaria in the late 1950s following legal measures to regulate hunting, and because of the reintroduction of animals from breeding farms in the north-east of the country, in the Balkan Range and Sredna Gora. Even in this instance, however, other factors may also be operating, since similar increases in the local wild pig populations in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and eastern Russia have been described by Sáez-Royuela and Tellería (1986), who simply attributed this trend to a progression to a more temperate climate and, hence, progressively milder winters of benefit to these animals. <br/><br/>Local wild pig populations are also reported to be increasing in numbers in several countries as a consequence of the spread of Islam. For example, the north-west African race, <em>S. s. algira</em>, although extinct in Libya, is thought to be expanding in neighboring Algeria where it is designated a game animal but, as the meat is now seldom eaten in this country, hunting pressure has been greatly reduced since colonial times (Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalski, 1991). These authors also cite earlier reports of wild boars hybridizing with domestic pigs, but the latter are no longer kept in Algeria.<br/><br/><em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> has been included in the IUCN Red List since 1982, where its 'Vulnerable' status reflected a widespread concern about the environmentally destructive development of the Ryukyu Islands and the growing number of threats to the ecosystems and endemic species of Iriomote and other islands in this region. In 1978, these concerns led to the passing of a resolution at the 14th IUCN General Assembly in Ashkhabad, which called upon the Government of Japan to take immediate steps to ensure the conservation of Iriomote Island and its endemic taxa, and for the subsequent designation of the whole of the Nansei Shoto Region (often referred to as the 'Galápagos of the East' on account of the high percent endemicity of its fauna and flora) as a bio-geographical priority region in the World Conservation Strategy. In 1982, the 'Nansei Shoto Conservation Project' was launched by WWF-Japan, with initial emphasis being placed on the conduct of wildlife and socio-economic surveys on Iriomote and Amami Oshima (Obara, 1984a,b). In the interim, however, the desired increased protection of the Nansei Shoto Region was clearly at odds with the Japanese Government's regional policies, and the development of the islands continued - a circumstance which led to the passage of a another resolution, highlighting Japan's treatment of the region, at the 16th General Assembly of IUCN in Costa Rica in 1986. This also appears to have had little affect, as evinced by further major development plans, including the controversial Ishigaki Airport extension, and recent plans to construct a new dam and road on Iriomote Island. Although one third of Iriomote has been designated as a national park, the proposed road will cut through the park and will also increase access by poachers who have already reduced the wild pig to less than half of its numbers before the park was created (Brazil, 1988). <br/><br/>Of all wild pigs species, <em>S. scrofa</em> is by far the most widely maintained and bred in captivity, though general perceptions about the relative abundance of this species has resulted in diminished interest in its propagation. Many zoos, particularly in western Europe, have therefore disposed of their stocks of these animals, mostly to 'wild boar breeding farms', which have escalated in number to meet growing demands in the gourmet meat markets and for commercial diversification. In addition, increasingly restrictive quarantine and other veterinary regulations appertaining to the international movements of all live suids, has made it extremely difficult to establish new breeding programs.<br/><br/>Contrarily, since these animals are most easily acquired in their countries of origin, local stocks are most likely to be pure-bred and, hence, most valuable for research and conservation purposes. In this situation, priority should be given to the establishment of national or regional breeding programmes for each of the rarest subspecies, especially <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>.<br/><br/>As a general rule, <em>S. scrofa</em> is both highly adaptable and highly resistant to a variety of degradative processes, and may thrive under conditions of habitat modification and hunting pressure which have devastated other forms of wildlife. In addition, most subspecies are well represented in protected areas in their relatively extensive ranges. Nonetheless, there are reasons for concern about a number of distinct populations of <em>S. scrofa</em>, of which the Ryukyu pigs are undoubtedly the most seriously threatened. Indeed, <em>riukiuanus</em> is the only subspecies of <em>S. scrofa</em> to be included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1990), where it has been accorded the status of 'Vulnerable' since 1982, but is already thought to be 'Endangered' on at least four of the six islands in the Ryukyu Chain which constitute its entire, and therefore extremely restricted, range. This particular form is also the most distinct, and (with an average adult male body weight of only about 45 kg; Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984) by far the smallest, subspecies. It is therefore of some interest as a potential genetic resource, as well as being one of the principal 'flagship' animals for increased conservation activity in the crucially important Nansei Shoto Region. For all of these reasons, the following recommendations (taken from Oliver <em>et al</em> 1993) are mostly confined to the immediate and longer-term management requirements of this taxon.<br/><br/><strong>Objectives<br/></strong>1. To promote local interest in, and the enhanced future protection and management of, the Ryukyu Islands' dwarf wild pig, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span>, and any other threatened native subspecies may be identified in the future;<br/><br/>2. To promote further applied research on the taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and biology of the species, particularly the least known forms; <br/><br/>3. To discourage any future releases of any specimens of any subspecies of this species, or its domestic and feral derivatives, outside their known former ranges, and encourage the eradication or control of such introduced populations as may exist at present; and<br/><br/>4. To investigate the cultural and economic significance of these animals to local people, particularly in southeast Asia, and their potential genetic importance in terms of: a) possibilities for their further domestication and/or b) an enhanced understanding of the origins and relationships of present day domestic and wild populations.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Priority Projects:</span><br/>1. Provide all appropriate support to any existing or proposed future conservation initiatives in the Nansei Shoto Region, relevant to the enhanced future management and protection of the Ryukyu Island's dwarf wild pig, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span>. <br/><br/>2. Conduct (preliminary or repeat) status surveys on all (six) islands in the Ryukyu Group known to support remnant populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span> (i.e. Iriomote, Ishigaki, Okinawa, Tokunoshima, Amamioshima and Kakerome), and implement emergent recommendations. <strong><br/><br/></strong>3. Promote development of a coordinated breeding programmed for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. riukiuanus</span><strong><em>,</em></strong> both nationally and internationally<strong><em>.<br/><br/></em></strong>4. Collect, evaluate and disseminate data on the taxonomic relationships, distribution and conservation status of other, less-known forms, with a view to the resolution of certain outstanding taxonomic problems and the development of recommendations for their enhanced future protection, if so required. Additional data is needed on the distribution and status of some, poorly-known subspecies and populations, including a tentatively assigned form (subsp. nov.) from the central highlands of Sri Lanka and the insular taivanus (Taiwan). Efforts should also be made to resolve outstanding questions relating to the genetic distinctness and range limitations of many of the continental races, which are poorly understood at present.<strong><em><br/><br/></em></strong>5. Promote further research on the biology and ecology of all less-studied populations, particularly those in extreme habitats, or in areas of sympatry with other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus</span>. Most of the information on this species has originated from studies conducted in Europe or on the feral populations in the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand. Priority should therefore be given to studies of other populations elsewhere, particularly those in semi-desert regions or other extreme habitats, and/or studies focused on the ecological and genetic relationships between this and other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sus</span> in those areas where sympatry occurs (e.g. with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. barbatus</span> in the Malaysian Peninsular and Sumatra, and with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. verrucosus</span> on Java).	eng
41775	conservation	Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Andreas Kranz, Jim Conroy, 2006	It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are recommended in Europe, except perhaps measures to control the population in certain places (EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
41775	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Eurasian wild pig has one of the widest geographic distributions of all terrestrial mammals, and this range has been greatly expanded by human agency. The species now occurs in pure wild or barely modified feral form on all continents excepting Antarctica, and on many oceanic islands. It is the ancestor of most (but not all) ancient and modern domestic pig breeds, and there is evidence to suggest that it was independently domesticated in several different parts of its range, including Southeast Asia, the Far East and Asia Minor. As a wild form, it has constituted a primary resource of subsistence hunters since the earliest times, and it is one of the most important targets for recreational hunting wherever it remains sufficiently abundant. Over-hunting and changes in land use have resulted in the fragmentation of its range and its extermination throughout the British Isles, Scandinavia, parts of North Africa, and relatively extensive parts of its range in the former Soviet Union. and northern Japan. Nevertheless, the species remains widely distributed and is often locally abundant. As a result of its depredations on crops it is regarded as a pest in many countries, where it remains unprotected outside designated wildlife reserves or is managed as a game animal.<br/><br/><em>S. scrofa</em> has by far the largest range of all pigs. It occurs throughout the steppe and broadleaved forest regions of the Palaearctic, from western Europe to the Russian Far East, extending southwards as far North Africa, the Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East, through India, Indo-China, Japan (including the Ryukyu Chain), Taiwan and the Greater Sunda Islands of South-east Asia. Populations east of Bali are probably all introduced. It has been extinct in the British Isles since sometime in the 17th century, despite attempted introductions of new stock from Europe (Harting, 1880) (though see below for more recent information). It is also extinct in southern Scandinavia (but see below), over extensive portions of its recent range in west-central and eastern parts of the former Soviet Union (Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961), and in northern Japan (Chiba, 1964, 1975). The species was last reported in Libya in the 1880s, and it became extinct in Egypt in about 1902 (Hufnagl, 1972). <br/><br/>Groves and Grubb (1993) distinguished four 'subspecies groupings', based on both geographic and morphological criteria, as follows:<br/><br/>1.  'Western races' of Europe (<em>scrofa</em> and <em>meridionalis</em>), North Africa (<em>algira</em>) and the Middle East (<em>lybicus</em>), extending at least as far east as Soviet Central Asia (<em>attila and nigripes</em>);  <br/><br/>2.  'Indian races' of the sub-Himalayan region from Iran in the west (<em>davidi</em>) to north India and adjacent countries as far east as Myanmar and west Thailand (<em>cristatus</em>), and south India and Sri Lanka (<em>affinis</em> and subsp. nov.); <br/><br/>3.  'Eastern races' of Mongolia and the Soviet Far East (<em>sibiricus</em> and <em>ussuricus</em>), Japan (<em>leucomystax</em> and <em>riukiuanus</em>), Taiwan (<em>taivanus</em>), to south-east China and Viet Nam (<em>moupinensis</em>); and <br/><br/>4.  'Indonesian race' (or banded pig) from the Malay Peninsular, Sumatra, Java, Bali and certain offshore islands (<em>vittatus</em>).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most continental areas, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. As mentioined above, it disappeared from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the 17th century, although it has now been reintroduced to Sweden and escaped animals have established themselves in the wild in Britain (Spitz 1999). Animals have escaped from captivity in the UK and have established themselves in the wild. There are at least three small wild populations in England, on the Kent/East Sussex border, in Dorset, and in Hereford (Battersby 2005). It is native to Corsica and Sardinia, but the population in Sicily was introduced (Spitz 1999).<br/><br/>Introduced populations are not included in the distribution map.	eng
41775	distribution	Oliver, W. & Leus, K., 2008	The Eurasian wild pig has one of the widest geographic distributions of all terrestrial mammals, and this range has been greatly expanded by human agency. The species now occurs in pure wild or barely modified feral form on all continents excepting Antarctica, and on many oceanic islands. It is the ancestor of most (but not all) ancient and modern domestic pig breeds, and there is evidence to suggest that it was independently domesticated in several different parts of its range, including Southeast Asia, the Far East and Asia Minor. As a wild form, it has constituted a primary resource of subsistence hunters since the earliest times, and it is one of the most important targets for recreational hunting wherever it remains sufficiently abundant. Over-hunting and changes in land use have resulted in the fragmentation of its range and its extermination throughout the British Isles, Scandinavia, parts of North Africa, and relatively extensive parts of its range in the former Soviet Union. and northern Japan. Nevertheless, the species remains widely distributed and is often locally abundant. As a result of its depredations on crops it is regarded as a pest in many countries, where it remains unprotected outside designated wildlife reserves or is managed as a game animal.<br/><br/><em>S. scrofa</em> has by far the largest range of all pigs. It occurs throughout the steppe and broadleaved forest regions of the Palaearctic, from western Europe to the Russian Far East, extending southwards as far North Africa, the Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East, through India, Indo-China, Japan (including the Ryukyu Chain), Taiwan and the Greater Sunda Islands of South-east Asia. Populations east of Bali are probably all introduced. It has been extinct in the British Isles since sometime in the 17th century, despite attempted introductions of new stock from Europe (Harting, 1880) (though see below for more recent information). It is also extinct in southern Scandinavia (but see below), over extensive portions of its recent range in west-central and eastern parts of the former Soviet Union (Heptner <em>et al</em>., 1961), and in northern Japan (Chiba, 1964, 1975). The species was last reported in Libya in the 1880s, and it became extinct in Egypt in about 1902 (Hufnagl, 1972). <br/><br/>Groves and Grubb (1993) distinguished four 'subspecies groupings', based on both geographic and morphological criteria, as follows:<br/><br/>1.  'Western races' of Europe (<em>scrofa</em> and <em>meridionalis</em>), North Africa (<em>algira</em>) and the Middle East (<em>lybicus</em>), extending at least as far east as Soviet Central Asia (<em>attila and nigripes</em>);  <br/><br/>2.  'Indian races' of the sub-Himalayan region from Iran in the west (<em>davidi</em>) to north India and adjacent countries as far east as Myanmar and west Thailand (<em>cristatus</em>), and south India and Sri Lanka (<em>affinis</em> and subsp. nov.); <br/><br/>3.  'Eastern races' of Mongolia and the Soviet Far East (<em>sibiricus</em> and <em>ussuricus</em>), Japan (<em>leucomystax</em> and <em>riukiuanus</em>), Taiwan (<em>taivanus</em>), to south-east China and Viet Nam (<em>moupinensis</em>); and <br/><br/>4.  'Indonesian race' (or banded pig) from the Malay Peninsular, Sumatra, Java, Bali and certain offshore islands (<em>vittatus</em>).<br/><br/>In Europe, it is widespread in most continental areas, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. As mentioined above, it disappeared from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the 17th century, although it has now been reintroduced to Sweden and escaped animals have established themselves in the wild in Britain (Spitz 1999). Animals have escaped from captivity in the UK and have established themselves in the wild. There are at least three small wild populations in England, on the Kent/East Sussex border, in Dorset, and in Hereford (Battersby 2005). It is native to Corsica and Sardinia, but the population in Sicily was introduced (Spitz 1999).<br/><br/>Introduced populations are not included in the distribution map.	eng
41775	distribution	Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Andreas Kranz, Jim Conroy, 2006	The wild boar has a large global distribution extending from western Europe and North Africa eastwards through the Middle East and central and south-east Asia, reaching its south-eastern limit at the Greater Sunda Islands. In Europe, it is widespread in most continental areas, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It disappeared from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the 17th century, although it has now been reintroduced to Sweden and escaped animals have established themselves in the wild in Britain (Spitz 1999). It is native to Corsica and Sardinia, but the population in Sicily was introduced (Spitz 1999). Animals have escaped from captivity in the UK and have established themselves in the wild. There are at least three small wild populations in England, on the Kent/East Sussex border, in Dorset, and in Hereford (Battersby 2005). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
41775	habitat	Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Andreas Kranz, Jim Conroy, 2006	It is found in a variety of temperate and tropical habitats. It prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). It has an omnivorous diet, consuming vegetable matter (e.g. beech mast, acorns, green plants, tubers), carrion, and live animal prey (earthworms, insect larvae, small vertebrates) (Herre 1986, Oliver 1993).	eng
41775	habitat	Oliver, W. & Leus, K., 2008	The Eurasian wild pig occupies a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats, from semi-desert to tropical rain forests, temperate woodlands, grasslands and reed jungles; often venturing onto agricultural land to forage. It is found in a variety of habitats. In Europe, it prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, Mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but it can be found at higher elevations in Asia.<br/><br/>The species is omnivorous, though stomach and fecal contents analyses indicate that vegetable matter, principally fruits, seeds, roots and tubers, constitutes about 90% of the diet (Spitz, 1986). A field study of the Indonesian wild pig, <em>S. s. vittatus, </em>in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, indicated that these animals are predominately frugivorous, feeding on about 50 species of fruits, especially those of strangling figs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> spp.), and that they are important seed dispersal agents (Pauwels, 1980). By comparison, analyses of the stomach contents of wild pigs (also <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. vittatus</span>) in agricultural areas of West Malaysia by Diong (1973), revealed that sugar cane, tapioca and rice were the commonest food items, but that usually more than one type of food had been eaten, even where a single cultivated crop was abundant. Other items commonly consumed by these pigs included soil, earthworms, roots and other vegetable matter and, in mangrove areas, molluscs, crabs and other arthropods and even fishes. The consumption of invertebrate and small vertebrate prey may be a necessary component of the diet, since a study of free-ranging domestic pigs in Papua New Guinea revealed that animals fed ad libitum lost weight when denied earthworms (Rose and Williams, 1983). In common with its feral derivatives (Oliver and Brisbin, 1993), <span style="font-style: italic;">S. scrofa</span> has also occasionally been reported to predate larger vertebrates, such as deer fawns and (tethered) goats (Hoogerwerf, 1970), though it is possible that such incidents involve only a few individuals in the population; an aspect also noted by Pauwels (1980) when referring to the predation of sea turtle nests by wild pigs in Ujung Kulon. Similarly, a large boar (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. cristatus</span>) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal, which was seen to displace an adult leopard from its kill, a domestic buffalo calf, which it then partly consumed (W. Oliver, pers. obs.), was reported by Park staff to regularly commandeer such kills, but that no other individual pigs had been seen to do this.<br/><br/>Wild pigs are normally most active in the early morning and late afternoon, though they become nocturnal in disturbed areas, where activity usually commences shortly before sunset and continues throughout the night. A total of 4 to 8 hours are spent foraging or traveling to feeding areas. Feeding is generally a social activity (even solitary males may join feeding groups) which also provides an opportunity for display and other agonistic behaviours (Beuerle, 1975). Radio telemetry studies in southern France indicate that they generally travel between 2 and 15 km per night, though this is often within an area of only 20 to 150 ha. However, the home range estimates for adult females and adult males over a 2-3 month period varied from 500-1,000 ha and 1,000-2,000 ha, respectively. During this same period, subadults covered an area of 500- 5,000 ha, and after 6 to 12 months they may have covered more than 10,000 ha; the larger home ranges of these animals being related to their expulsion from their natal groups and then undergoing a wandering phase. Movements over long distances (50 to 250 km) have also been recorded in Europe, but the extent and purpose of these movements has yet to be studied (Spitz, 1986). Experiments in which tagged animals are released and subsequently recovered provide evidence that they disperse freely over even larger areas (500 to 750 km²), which may also indicate the area occupied by large population units. The density of free-ranging <span style="font-style: italic;">S. s. scrofa</span> in Europe rarely exceeds 5 individuals/km² (Spitz, 1986), though much higher concentrations have been reported elsewhere, e.g. 27-32/km² on Peucang Island in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java (Pauwels, 1980) and 32.2-72.1/km² in sugarcane areas in the Punjab, Pakistan (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are gregarious, forming herds or 'sounders' of varying size depending on locality and season, but usually of between 6-20 individuals, though aggregations of over 100 have been reported (Prater, 1971; Legakul and McNeely, 1977; Briedermann, 1990)). The basic social unit is a nucleus of one or more females and their last litters. Animals peripheral to this comprise subadults from previous litters, and adult males during the mating season. However, the latter tend to stay in relatively close contact with 1 or 2 female groups at other times of the year, and subadult males or mixed sex groups of subadults may also form longer-term associations (Spitz and Janeau, 1990). The dynamics of the basic group include the isolation of the preparturient female, her re-entry with young, entry of nulliparous females, the arrival of adult males with the simultaneous departure of subadult animals (Spitz, 1986). In contrast to its domestic derivatives, reproductive activity in S. scrofa tends to be seasonal and positively correlated with the relative availability of principal foodstuffs or related climatic factors. In tropical countries, such as Sri Lanka, peak estrus activity has been recorded during the wettest months of November and December (Santiapillai and Chambers, 1980). However, social organization may also play a role in modulating the timing of reproductive events, since farrowing is often synchronized amongst females in the same social groups, which suggests a mechanism for synchronizing the onset of estrus (Spitz, 1986).<br/><br/>Wide fluctuations in the numbers of animals killed by hunters, particularly in the (former) U.S.S.R. and in France, suggest cyclic changes in the numbers of wild pigs available for hunting. Annual recruitment into the total population depends on reproductive rate (i.e. the number and prolificacy of females) and juvenile mortality, both of which factors may be influenced by the availability of foodstuffs and other external factors (Spitz, 1986). In western Europe, litter size is usually between 4 and 7 piglets (Briedermann, 199), though Harrison and Bates (1991) cite reports of 5 and 7-10 piglets per litter as being usual in Iraq and Armenia, respectively. Pauwels (1980) recorded an average litter size of 6-10 piglets at the beginning of the breeding season in Java, but this number dropped to only 2-4 piglets per litter towards the end of the breeding season. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, there is evidence that the wild pigs (S. s. riukiuanus) have two breeding seasons per year, though it remains uncertain whether individual sows normally produce litters twice a year (Yasuma, 1984). Juvenile mortality averages 15% in the first three months in western Europe, though between 50% and 75% mortality have been reported by the end of the first year of life (Jezierski, 1977; Briedermann, 1990). These mortality rates are thought to be highly dependant on such external factors as predation and climatic hazards, at least in wilderness areas (Spitz, 1986). Similarly, Pauwel (1982) suggested that the principal causes of juvenile mortality in wild pigs in Ujung Kulon were predation (particularly as a consequence of the accidental separation of infants from their mothers), along with differences in the relative rate of development of litter-mates and various parasite-related causes. These factors resulted in only about 15% of all progeny surviving to independence.	eng
41775	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Eurasian wild pig occupies a wide variety of temperate and tropical habitats, from semi-desert to tropical rain forests, temperate woodlands, grasslands and reed jungles; often venturing onto agricultural land to forage. It is found in a variety of habitats. In Europe, it prefers broadleaved forests and especially evergreen oak forests, but may also be found in more open habitats such as steppe, mediterranean shrubland, and farmland, so long as there is water and tree cover nearby (Spitz 1999). In Europe it is found from sea level to 2,400 in the Pyrenees (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), but it can be found at higher elevations in Asia.<br/><br/>The species is omnivorous, though stomach and fecal contents analyses indicate that vegetable matter, principally fruits, seeds, roots and tubers, constitutes about 90% of the diet (Spitz, 1986). A field study of the Indonesian wild pig, <em>S. s. vittatus,/i>, in Ujung Kulon National Park in Java, indicated that these animals are predominately frugivorous, feeding on about 50 species of fruits, especially those of strangling figs (<em>Ficus</em> spp.), and that they are important seed dispersal agents (Pauwels, 1980). By comparison, analyses of the stomach contents of wild pigs (also <em>S. s. vittatus</em>) in agricultural areas of West Malaysia by Diong (1973), revealed that sugar cane, tapioca and rice were the commonest food items, but that usually more than one type of food had been eaten, even where a single cultivated crop was abundant. Other items commonly consumed by these pigs included soil, earthworms, roots and other vegetable matter and, in mangrove areas, molluscs, crabs and other arthropods and even fishes. The consumption of invertebrate and small vertebrate prey may be a necessary component of the diet, since a study of free-ranging domestic pigs in Papua New Guinea revealed that animals fed <em>ad libitum</em> lost weight when denied earthworms (Rose and Williams, 1983). In common with its feral derivatives (Oliver and Brisbin, 1993), <em>S. scrofa</em> has also occasionally been reported to predate larger vertebrates, such as deer fawns and (tethered) goats (Hoogerwerf, 1970), though it is possible that such incidents involve only a few individuals in the population; an aspect also noted by Pauwels (1980) when referring to the predation of sea turtle nests by wild pigs in Ujung Kulon. Similarly, a large boar (<em>S. s. cristatus</em>) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal, which was seen to displace an adult leopard from its kill, a domestic buffalo calf, which it then partly consumed (W. Oliver, pers. obs.), was reported by Park staff to regularly commandeer such kills, but that no other individual pigs had been seen to do this.<br/><br/>Wild pigs are normally most active in the early morning and late afternoon, though they become nocturnal in disturbed areas, where activity usually commences shortly before sunset and continues throughout the night. A total of 4 to 8 hours are spent foraging or traveling to feeding areas. Feeding is generally a social activity (even solitary males may join feeding groups) which also provides an opportunity for display and other agonistic behaviours (Beuerle, 1975). Radio telemetry studies in southern France indicate that they generally travel between 2 and 15 km per night, though this is often within an area of only 20 to 150 ha. However, the home range estimates for adult females and adult males over a 2-3 month period varied from 500-1,000 ha and 1,000-2,000 ha, respectively. During this same period, subadults covered an area of 500- 5,000 ha, and after 6 to 12 months they may have covered more than 10,000 ha; the larger home ranges of these animals being related to their expulsion from their natal groups and then undergoing a wandering phase. Movements over long distances (50 to 250 km) have also been recorded in Europe, but the extent and purpose of these movements has yet to be studied (Spitz, 1986). Experiments in which tagged animals are released and subsequently recovered provide evidence that they disperse freely over even larger areas (500 to 750 km²), which may also indicate the area occupied by large population units. The density of free-ranging <em>S. s. scrofa</em> in Europe rarely exceeds 5 individuals/km² (Spitz, 1986), though much higher concentrations have been reported elsewhere, e.g. 27-32/km² on Peucang Island in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java (Pauwels, 1980) and 32.2-72.1/km² in sugarcane areas in the Punjab, Pakistan (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are gregarious, forming herds or 'sounders' of varying size depending on locality and season, but usually of between 6-20 individuals, though aggregations of over 100 have been reported (Prater, 1971; Legakul and McNeely, 1977; Briedermann, 1990)). The basic social unit is a nucleus of one or more females and their last litters. Animals peripheral to this comprise subadults from previous litters, and adult males during the mating season. However, the latter tend to stay in relatively close contact with 1 or 2 female groups at other times of the year, and subadult males or mixed sex groups of subadults may also form longer-term associations (Spitz and Janeau, 1990). The dynamics of the basic group include the isolation of the preparturient female, her re-entry with young, entry of nulliparous females, the arrival of adult males with the simultaneous departure of subadult animals (Spitz, 1986). In contrast to its domestic derivatives, reproductive activity in <em>S. scrofa</em> tends to be seasonal and positively correlated with the relative availability of principal foodstuffs or related climatic factors. In tropical countries, such as Sri Lanka, peak estrus activity has been recorded during the wettest months of November and December (Santiapillai and Chambers, 1980). However, social organization may also play a role in modulating the timing of reproductive events, since farrowing is often synchronized amongst females in the same social groups, which suggests a mechanism for synchronizing the onset of estrus (Spitz, 1986).<br/><br/>Wide fluctuations in the numbers of animals killed by hunters, particularly in the (former) U.S.S.R. and in France, suggest cyclic changes in the numbers of wild pigs available for hunting. Annual recruitment into the total population depends on reproductive rate (i.e. the number and prolificacy of females) and juvenile mortality, both of which factors may be influenced by the availability of foodstuffs and other external factors (Spitz, 1986). In western Europe, litter size is usually between 4 and 7 piglets (Briedermann, 199), though Harrison and Bates (1991) cite reports of 5 and 7-10 piglets per litter as being usual in Iraq and Armenia, respectively. Pauwels (1980) recorded an average litter size of 6-10 piglets at the beginning of the breeding season in Java, but this number dropped to only 2-4 piglets per litter towards the end of the breeding season. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, there is evidence that the wild pigs (<em>S. s. riukiuanus</em>) have two breeding seasons per year, though it remains uncertain whether individual sows normally produce litters twice a year (Yasuma, 1984). Juvenile mortality averages 15% in the first three months in western Europe, though between 50% and 75% mortality have been reported by the end of the first year of life (Jezierski, 1977; Briedermann, 1990). These mortality rates are thought to be highly dependant on such external factors as predation and climatic hazards, at least in wilderness areas (Spitz, 1986). Similarly, Pauwel (1982) suggested that the principal causes of juvenile mortality in wild pigs in Ujung Kulon were predation (particularly as a consequence of the accidental separation of infants from their mothers), along with differences in the relative rate of development of litter-mates and various parasite-related causes. These factors resulted in only about 15% of all progeny surviving to independence.</em>	eng
41775	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations can be depressed in places where hunting intensity is high (for example in eastern and southeastern Asia). Eurasian wild pig populations in Europe increased markedly during the latter part of the 20th century (Spitz 1999), but are now thought to be stable in most areas. Populations in England, southern Sweden and Finland may still be increasing (Battersby 2005). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. For example, in 1982 in Mongolia, there was a population density of 0.9 per 1,000 ha in the Khovsgol area. By 1989, it was estimated that 34,000 individuals were living in the Khentii and Khangai Mountain regions of Mongolia, with an average density of 1 - 2 per 1,000 ha.	eng
41775	population	Oliver, W. & Leus, K., 2008	This species is abundant in many parts of its range, though populations can be depressed in places where hunting intensity is high (for example in eastern and southeastern Asia). Eurasian wild pig populations in Europe increased markedly during the latter part of the 20th century (Spitz 1999), but are now thought to be stable in most areas. Populations in England, southern Sweden and Finland may still be increasing (Battersby 2005). Although there is no global population estimate, numbers can be high in many places. For example, in 1982 in Mongolia, there was a population density of 0.9 per 1,000 ha in the Khovsgol area. By 1989, it was estimated that 34,000 individuals were living in the Khentii and Khangai Mountain regions of Mongolia, with an average density of 1 - 2 per 1,000 ha.	eng
41775	population	Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Andreas Kranz, Jim Conroy, 2006	Wild boar populations in Europe increased markedly during the latter part of the 20th century (Spitz 1999), but are now thought to be stable in most areas (EMA Workshop 2006). Populations in England, southern Sweden and Finland may still be increasing (Battersby 2005, EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
41775	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport or in reprisal for crop damage, particularly in areas near human habitation. In Afghanistan, Hassinger (1973) cited reports of the decrease in the numbers of wild pigs in the Pul-i-Khumri District in the 1950s as a result of the draining of marshlands for agricultural purposes, and hunting by Europeans; but noted that they were still numerous in other districts where: "they invade the fields and cause serious damage during the harvest". In parts of Perak and Johore in West Malaysia, Diong (1973) reported that the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. vittatus</em>) had diminished drastically as a result of increased hunting pressure, particularly for commercial purposes, and that most hunting methods, whether with guns, dogs or snares, was entirely non-selective. Nonetheless, wild pigs are still included in Malaysia's 'Agricultural Pest Ordinance, 1977', on account of their damage to a variety of crops, including sugar cane, tapioca, rice and even coconuts. Lay (1967) also remarked upon the damage to crops by wild pigs in Iran which: "...brings great wrath upon them, usually ineffectual, from the local farmers". In Pakistan, the expansion of the sugar cane industry in the 1960s and early 1970s brought about local increases in the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. davidi</em>), whose depredations in the cane fields (estimated at an annual loss rate of Rs.5 million in 1978) led to the development of control measures, including the use of poison baits (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Although actually referring to wild pigs in India, it is clear that Prater's (1971) opinion that: "No animal is more destructive to crops and, in cultivated areas, it is impossible to make a plea for its protection", would find popular support in many other countries. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, the endemic <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> is actively regarded as an environmental pest, and bounties are paid to farmers for killing them by the Japanese Government, despite the fact that this taxon is recognized internationally as being seriously threatened throughout it extremely restricted range (see later text). In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, deliberate attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way, it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals which, according to Hoogerwerf (1970), have: "remained further removed from extinction than any other species of game in Java". This situation evidently obtains in a number of other countries, including Viet Nam (R. Ratajszsak pers. comm.) and Taiwan (K. Nowell pers. comm.), where wild pigs are reported to survive in a number of nominally protected areas where all or most of the other principal 'game' species have been eradicated by sustained hunting pressure. <br/><br/>In these and many other (non-Islamic) countries or local communities, wild pigs often constitute the single most important game animal to subsistence and/or recreational hunters. Sport hunting accounts for about 30 to 50% of animals heavier than 20 kg in southern France, though this figure may be as high as 50 to 75% in some heavily populated countries, where hunting remains largely or wholly uncontrolled (Spitz, 1986). For example, the wild pig population inhabiting the 25,000 ha of broadleaved woodlands around Monticiano in Italy, has apparently been able to sustain its numbers despite an annual hunter-kill rate of about 50% (c. 500 animals) of the population (Devitt, 1984). <br/><br/>According to figures produced by the Japanese Environment Agency a total of 1,279,453 (an average of 63,973 per annum) wild pigs were harvested in Japan between 1970 and 1989 (incl.), of which 1,083,858 (85%) were taken by hunters, and the remaining 195,596 were destroyed as crop pests during the closed season. The great majority of these animals are <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> from the main islands of Honshu, Shikoko and Kyushu, and this subspecies is evidently able to withstand high levels of harvesting to judge from contemporary reports of marginal expansions in the overall range of this subspecies (Hanai, 1982; Takahashi, 1980). Unfortunately, however, these totals do not differentiate between the numbers of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> and those of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from the three small islands of Amami Oshima, Tokuno Shima and Kakeroma Jima, which are also included in these figures. As previously indicated, the latter subspecies is declining rapidly in numbers on these islands, and on the neighbouring island of Okinawa, largely as a result of over-hunting (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; H. Obara pers. comm.). This conclusion is also borne out by official figures on the annual harvest of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from two other islands, Iriomote and Ishigaki, in the Ryukyu chain between 1965 and 1981, which indicate a downward trend in the numbers of these animals (Yasuma, 1984) and a marked increase in the amount of effort required by local hunters to obtain smaller catches (Hanai, 1982). Nonetheless, according to these figures an average of 530 and 190 wild pigs were still being taken annually on Iriomote and Ishigaki, respectively; of which slightly more than 50% were killed as 'agricultural pests', i.e. mostly out of season, often with a Government bounty being paid. Moreover, it is certain that these totals are a serious underestimate - perhaps by as much as 50-100% - of the actual numbers killed, since many hunters operate without licenses and do not declare their catches (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; Yasuma, 1984). Formerly, virtually all of these pigs were consumed locally but, following the restoration of electricity (and, hence, refrigeration) in 1972, commercial traders began operating on the islands, and the majority of carcasses are now exported to gourmet markets in Osaka, where they realize relatively high prices and ensure a continued demand for wild-caught meat (Yasuma, 1984). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases which can decimate their populations. Santiapillai <em>et al</em>. (1991) referred to a catastrophic crash in the wild pig population of Ruhuna National Park in Sri Lanka in 1989 owing to an outbreak of swine fever, but that population numbers had apparently recovered by June 1991. Many wild pigs are also reported to have died during an outbreak of disease in the Kanto Region on Honshu Island, Japan in 1877 (Yanagida, 1913). It is possible that this was hog cholera, contracted from domestic pigs which were imported to the region at that time (Chiba, 1975), and this may have been one of the factors contributing to the extirpation of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> throughout the north of their range on this island. An outbreak of severe skin disease (tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange) on Iriomote, which was first noted in 1976, had spread throughout the Island by 1980, and infected up to 83% of the <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> population according to data based on hunter-killed samples (Yasuma, 1984).<br/><br/>The Ryukyu pigs are also threatened by genetic contamination through contact with free-ranging domesticates. On Ishigaki Island, interbreeding with domestic pigs has been so prevalent that it is doubtful if the remaining wild stock can be considered genetically pure (Obara, 1982). Moreover, it is unlikely that this problem will be confined to Ishigaki, given that the meat from wild x domestic hybrids or 'ino-buta' is popular and local farmers will continue to produce it. Indeed, ino-buta have been farmed commercially on Iriomote for many years, often in poorly controlled conditions. As a result, feral ino-buta have become established on the adjacent, smaller islands of Sotobanare and Uchibanare, and it is claimed that a number of these animals have crossed onto Iriomote at low tide; thereby posing a further, serious threat to the remaining wild stock there (Yasuma, 1984; Takahashi and Tisdell, 1992). <br/><br/>Similarly, Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported that the traditional practice of rearing 'domestic' pigs in semi-wild conditions in Bulgaria has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild boar populations in the eastern and north-eastern parts of that country, and that genetically pure wild boars now occur only in the Rila-Pirin-Rhodopes Mountains in the south of this country, where domestic pigs are not reared in the wild. The principal threat to the survival of the Monticiano population in Italy, lies not so much with the high annual hunter-kill rate but with the fact that the genetic integrity of the native population has been seriously compromised by the introduction of Central European boars after World War II, which have interbred with these animals. Indeed, the introduction of non-native wild pigs, by hunting interest groups in the belief that these were more desirable because of their larger size and reputed greater fecundity, has been so widespread in Italy that the only surviving pure-bred native stock is thought to be in the presidential reserve in Castel Porziano, near Rome (Devitt, 1984).	eng
41775	threats	Oliver, W. & Leus, K., 2008	At a global level, there are no major threats to the species. However, there are many threats at a more local level, principally habitat destruction and hunting pressure, either for food, sport or in reprisal for crop damage, particularly in areas near human habitation. In Afghanistan, Hassinger (1973) cited reports of the decrease in the numbers of wild pigs in the Pul-i-Khumri District in the 1950s as a result of the draining of marshlands for agricultural purposes, and hunting by Europeans; but noted that they were still numerous in other districts where: "they invade the fields and cause serious damage during the harvest". In parts of Perak and Johore in West Malaysia, Diong (1973) reported that the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. vittatus</em>) had diminished drastically as a result of increased hunting pressure, particularly for commercial purposes, and that most hunting methods, whether with guns, dogs or snares, was entirely non-selective. Nonetheless, wild pigs are still included in Malaysia's 'Agricultural Pest Ordinance, 1977', on account of their damage to a variety of crops, including sugar cane, tapioca, rice and even coconuts. Lay (1967) also remarked upon the damage to crops by wild pigs in Iran which: "...brings great wrath upon them, usually ineffectual, from the local farmers". In Pakistan, the expansion of the sugar cane industry in the 1960s and early 1970s brought about local increases in the numbers of wild pigs (<em>S. s. davidi</em>), whose depredations in the cane fields (estimated at an annual loss rate of Rs.5 million in 1978) led to the development of control measures, including the use of poison baits (Shafi and Khokhar, 1985). <br/><br/>Although actually referring to wild pigs in India, it is clear that Prater's (1971) opinion that: "No animal is more destructive to crops and, in cultivated areas, it is impossible to make a plea for its protection", would find popular support in many other countries. In the Ryukyu Islands, S. Japan, the endemic <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> is actively regarded as an environmental pest, and bounties are paid to farmers for killing them by the Japanese Government, despite the fact that this taxon is recognized internationally as being seriously threatened throughout it extremely restricted range (see later text). In various places in Indonesia, most notably in Java, deliberate attempts have been made in the past to eradicate wild pigs altogether by means of organized shooting parties and poisoning campaigns. However, despite many thousands of wild pigs being destroyed in this way, it is clear that this has had little lasting effect on these animals which, according to Hoogerwerf (1970), have: "remained further removed from extinction than any other species of game in Java". This situation evidently obtains in a number of other countries, including Viet Nam (R. Ratajszsak pers. comm.) and Taiwan (K. Nowell pers. comm.), where wild pigs are reported to survive in a number of nominally protected areas where all or most of the other principal 'game' species have been eradicated by sustained hunting pressure. <br/><br/>In these and many other (non-Islamic) countries or local communities, wild pigs often constitute the single most important game animal to subsistence and/or recreational hunters. Sport hunting accounts for about 30 to 50% of animals heavier than 20 kg in southern France, though this figure may be as high as 50 to 75% in some heavily populated countries, where hunting remains largely or wholly uncontrolled (Spitz, 1986). For example, the wild pig population inhabiting the 25,000 ha of broadleaved woodlands around Monticiano in Italy, has apparently been able to sustain its numbers despite an annual hunter-kill rate of about 50% (c. 500 animals) of the population (Devitt, 1984). <br/><br/>According to figures produced by the Japanese Environment Agency a total of 1,279,453 (an average of 63,973 per annum) wild pigs were harvested in Japan between 1970 and 1989 (incl.), of which 1,083,858 (85%) were taken by hunters, and the remaining 195,596 were destroyed as crop pests during the closed season. The great majority of these animals are <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> from the main islands of Honshu, Shikoko and Kyushu, and this subspecies is evidently able to withstand high levels of harvesting to judge from contemporary reports of marginal expansions in the overall range of this subspecies (Hanai, 1982; Takahashi, 1980). Unfortunately, however, these totals do not differentiate between the numbers of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> and those of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from the three small islands of Amami Oshima, Tokuno Shima and Kakeroma Jima, which are also included in these figures. As previously indicated, the latter subspecies is declining rapidly in numbers on these islands, and on the neighbouring island of Okinawa, largely as a result of over-hunting (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; H. Obara pers. comm.). This conclusion is also borne out by official figures on the annual harvest of <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> from two other islands, Iriomote and Ishigaki, in the Ryukyu chain between 1965 and 1981, which indicate a downward trend in the numbers of these animals (Yasuma, 1984) and a marked increase in the amount of effort required by local hunters to obtain smaller catches (Hanai, 1982). Nonetheless, according to these figures an average of 530 and 190 wild pigs were still being taken annually on Iriomote and Ishigaki, respectively; of which slightly more than 50% were killed as 'agricultural pests', i.e. mostly out of season, often with a Government bounty being paid. Moreover, it is certain that these totals are a serious underestimate - perhaps by as much as 50-100% - of the actual numbers killed, since many hunters operate without licenses and do not declare their catches (Barber <em>et al</em>., 1984; Yasuma, 1984). Formerly, virtually all of these pigs were consumed locally but, following the restoration of electricity (and, hence, refrigeration) in 1972, commercial traders began operating on the islands, and the majority of carcasses are now exported to gourmet markets in Osaka, where they realize relatively high prices and ensure a continued demand for wild-caught meat (Yasuma, 1984). <br/><br/>Wild pigs are also susceptible to a variety of highly contagious diseases which can decimate their populations. Santiapillai <em>et al</em>. (1991) referred to a catastrophic crash in the wild pig population of Ruhuna National Park in Sri Lanka in 1989 owing to an outbreak of swine fever, but that population numbers had apparently recovered by June 1991. Many wild pigs are also reported to have died during an outbreak of disease in the Kanto Region on Honshu Island, Japan in 1877 (Yanagida, 1913). It is possible that this was hog cholera, contracted from domestic pigs which were imported to the region at that time (Chiba, 1975), and this may have been one of the factors contributing to the extirpation of <em>S. s. leucomystax</em> throughout the north of their range on this island. An outbreak of severe skin disease (tentatively identified as sarcoptic mange) on Iriomote, which was first noted in 1976, had spread throughout the Island by 1980, and infected up to 83% of the <em>S. s. riukiuanus</em> population according to data based on hunter-killed samples (Yasuma, 1984).<br/><br/>The Ryukyu pigs are also threatened by genetic contamination through contact with free-ranging domesticates. On Ishigaki Island, interbreeding with domestic pigs has been so prevalent that it is doubtful if the remaining wild stock can be considered genetically pure (Obara, 1982). Moreover, it is unlikely that this problem will be confined to Ishigaki, given that the meat from wild x domestic hybrids or 'ino-buta' is popular and local farmers will continue to produce it. Indeed, ino-buta have been farmed commercially on Iriomote for many years, often in poorly controlled conditions. As a result, feral ino-buta have become established on the adjacent, smaller islands of Sotobanare and Uchibanare, and it is claimed that a number of these animals have crossed onto Iriomote at low tide; thereby posing a further, serious threat to the remaining wild stock there (Yasuma, 1984; Takahashi and Tisdell, 1992). <br/><br/>Similarly, Genov <em>et al</em>. (1991) reported that the traditional practice of rearing 'domestic' pigs in semi-wild conditions in Bulgaria has resulted in their hybridizing with the wild boar populations in the eastern and north-eastern parts of that country, and that genetically pure wild boars now occur only in the Rila-Pirin-Rhodopes Mountains in the south of this country, where domestic pigs are not reared in the wild. The principal threat to the survival of the Monticiano population in Italy, lies not so much with the high annual hunter-kill rate but with the fact that the genetic integrity of the native population has been seriously compromised by the introduction of Central European boars after World War II, which have interbred with these animals. Indeed, the introduction of non-native wild pigs, by hunting interest groups in the belief that these were more desirable because of their larger size and reputed greater fecundity, has been so widespread in Italy that the only surviving pure-bred native stock is thought to be in the presidential reserve in Castel Porziano, near Rome (Devitt, 1984).	eng
41775	threats	Juan Herrero, Giorgos Giannatos, Andreas Kranz, Jim Conroy, 2006	There are no major threats to the species. It is considered a pest in parts of its range (Oliver 1993, Battersby 2005). Tuberculosis may be an issue in some areas, especially in managed populations. The disease does not kill the animals, but it is becoming increasingly prevalent (EMA Workshop 2006). Occasionally there are outbreaks of swine fever and African swine fever which cause local mortality, but populations recover rapidly (Oliver 1993). Habitat destruction, hunting (for food and sport), and persecution (often in reprisal for crop damage) may cause local declines in parts of the range (Oliver 1993).	eng
41777	conservation	Beck, H., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Keuroghlian, A. & Reyna, R., 2008	Collared peccaries occur in a large number of national parks and other reserves throughout their extensive range in the Americas. In many of these areas populations are relatively secure, although poaching and inefficient protection are common and may nullify the nominal protection afforded by the designation of protected sites (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). Conservation measures specific to collared peccaries include national wildlife protection legislatures, which vary from country to country, and the inclusion in 1986 of this and other peccary species on the Appendices of CITES. The collared peccary was originally placed on Appendix III of CITES and in 1986 it was elevated to Appendix II (except the populations of Mexico and the United States of America, which are not included in the Appendices). Specific management regulations appertaining to hunting and movement of peccary products exist for all countries within the geographical range of <em>P. tajacu</em>. In the USA, for example, the species is managed as a game animal outside national parks and reserves, and may be hunted with permits under a quota system operated by state authorities. In Brazil there is a total ban on all hunting of peccaries by non-indigenous people, though this is largely unenforced in many states. Subsistence hunting is permitted in Colombia and Venezuela, but these countries prohibit the movement of peccary products, whilst in other countries, such as Peru, subsistence hunters are allowed to trade peccary products under management laws. However, in these and many Central and South American countries, rural people are often unaware of wildlife management regulations or these are flouted, sometimes quite openly, owing to the common lack of resources and trained personnel for the enforcement of protective legislation.	eng
41777	distribution	Beck, H., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Keuroghlian, A. & Reyna, R., 2008	The collared peccary is widely distributed. It occurs in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the USA, a large part of Mexico and Central America, the entire Amazon basin, the Pacific coastal forest of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, the llanos and lowland forest of Venezuela, the Guianas and Suriname, all of Brazil where it is increasingly fragmented in the south and east, and the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, Bolivia and northern Argentina where it also occurs in the upper Parana and Paraguay river basins. In Argentina, the species is extinct in the provinces of Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Santa Fe, South of Córdoba, and South-east of Santiago del Estero. It remains in center-northern Misiones, Chaco, Formosa, Tucumán, Northern Santiago del Estero, Eastern  Jujuy and Salta, south-eastern Catamarca, southern La Rioja, eastern de San Juan, western and northern Córdoba and San Luis and northeastern Mendoza. The Argentine population/s of collared peccaries in Misiones is isolated from the rest of the country. Some of the larger islands near the mainland in the Caribbean, such as Trinidad and Tobago, also have populations of <em>P. tajacu</em>. However, islands further from the mainland do not currently have peccaries. Their range has recently expanded northward in the southwestern United States (Albert <em>et al</em>. 2004) including into Oklahoma adjacent to Texas (Stangl and Dalquest 1990).	eng
41777	habitat	Beck, H., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Keuroghlian, A. & Reyna, R., 2008	<em>P. tajacu</em> is a highly adaptable species. It inhabits a wide variety of habitats from tropical forests to deserts. At the northern fringe of its range, collared peccary maintain viable populations in areas where winter night-time temperatures fall below 0oC and light snow cover is occasionally present. The species' tolerance of low seasonal temperatures is exceptional for an animal also living in the tropics (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). The upper limit of its range along the Andean foothills is between 1,000-1,500 m (Grimwood 1969), though they have been found up to 2,000 m asl in Ecudaor (G. Zapata-Rios pers. comm.) and up to 3,000 m asl in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve in central-eastern Guatemala (J. Moreira pers. comm.). The species' diet varies in accordance with this range of habitats (Beck 2005. 2006). Foods of <em>P. tajacu</em> can includes roots, tubers, fruits, seeds, and edible parts of green growing plants, insects, and small animals (Beck 2005, 2005, Desbiez 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Throughout their Neotropical range <em>P. tajacu</em> consume fruits from over 128 plant species, and destroy seeds form 79 species (Beck 2006). In tropical forests, diets are dominated by palm fruits (over 25 species Beck 2005), supplemented with small vertebrates and invertebrates (Bodmer 1989, Beck 2005), whereas in deserts environments their diet is dominated by the cladophylls of prickly pear cactus (<em>Opuntia</em> spp.) (Corn and Warren 1985, Beck 2005). Like all peccaries, <em>P. tajacu</em> is a highly social animal, living in herds, which vary from fewer than six to over 30 individuals. Home ranges of groups average approximately 150 ha, but can range from 24 to 800 ha (Sowls 1984). Variation of home range size among different herds in various regions is not unusual. In the Neotropics mean home range estimates of radio-tracked collared peccary herds were 102 - 287 ha (95% MCP) in the semideciduous Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil (Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004); 64 – 109 ha (95% MCP) in Northwestern Costa Rica (McCoy <em>et al</em> 1990); 460 – 543 ha (95% MCP) on the Maraca Island of Brazil (Fragoso 1994); 685 ha (100% MCP) in the Chaco of Paraguay (Taber <em>et al</em> 1994); and 157 - 243 ha (95% KM) in the French Guyana (Judas and Henry 1999). In a heterogeneous environment, the distribution and abundance of resources would be expected to vary among the small, spatially-stable home ranges of collared peccary herds. Because each herd uses a unique subset of the available habitat types (McCoy <em>et al</em> 1990, Judas and Henry, 1999, Fragoso,1999; Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004, Neri 2004). For example, the level of frugivory will vary according to regional vegetation types or frugivore guild composition (Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Frugivory in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil for collared peccaries was 78% for both the dry and wet seasons. In the Peruvian Amazon 59 - 66% was composed of fruits (Kiltie 1981, Bodmer 1989); and in the Brazilian Pantanal, frugivory dramatically differed between seasons, 17% to 49%, dry and wet season, respectively (Desbiez 2007). Habitat and riparian zone use were herd specific for collared peccaries in the Atlantic Forest fragment of Brazil, and related to habitat quality and composition where stable home ranges had been established (Neri 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton, in press). Herds are kept together by vocalizations and a strong musk released from the dorsal gland. They deposit scent on tree trunks, rocks and other individuals (Byers 1980). The collared peccary has a diurnal/crepuscular activity pattern, typically feeding in early hours of the night but varying seasonally. They commonly rest in small groups of three to four individuals and often seek shelter in burrows, caves and under logs. Collared peccaries frequently wallow in mud or dust and rarely spend time auto-grooming (Sowls 1984). Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004 observed that subgrouping of herds occurred on a different spatial and temporal scale than the subherding of white-lipped peccaries. Usually, a herd would be united early in the morning and again in late afternoon, but would split into groups of 1 to 3 individuals during the day. These subgroups appeared to forage separately and were from 30 to 250 m apart. Sightings of lone collared peccaries or groups of 2 to 3 individuals have frequently been reported from sites in both the Neotropics and the southwestern United States (Kiltie and Terborgh, 1983; Robinson and Eisenberg, 1985; Sowls, 1997; Castellanos, 1983; Oldenburg <em>et al</em>. 1985; Bissonette, 1976; Green <em>et al</em>. 1984). Collared peccaries appeared to travel more in the early morning and late afternoon, when the full herd was together. During midday, subherds would usually remain in a relatively restricted area foraging. They also spent a good part of late morning and early afternoon resting in cavities excavated at the bases of large trees, next to fallen trunks, or in other cool locations (Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004). This period of inactivity was also observed in the Paraguayan Chaco (Taber <em>et al</em>. 1994). Births have been recorded year-round, though in the southern USA there is a birth peak during the summer rainy season. The gestation period is 142 to 145 days and the usual litter size is two. The young are highly precocial at birth, following their mothers within an hour of parturition and stopping to suckle at frequent intervals. In one case infants were observed to spend up to 24% of their time suckling (Sowls 1966). Weaning occurs at approximately 6 weeks (Sowls 1984).  In the semideciduous Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil, of the 9 collared peccaries captured, 5 were females and 4 were males. Mean collared peccary weight was 18.6 kg, and mean body length was 86.5 cm (Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004).	eng
41777	population	Beck, H., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Keuroghlian, A. & Reyna, R., 2008	Densities of collared peccary differ among habitats and rainfall patterns. In the south-eastern USA densities range from 10.9 individuals/km² in the Tucson mountains (Schweinsburg 1969), 7.3 individuals/km² at the King Ranch, Texas and 3.5 individuals/km² at the Welder Wildlife Refuge, Texas, to only 1.1 individuals/km² in a Texas desert with 279 mm of rainfall/year. In the llanos of Venezuela collared peccary density is 8 individuals/km², whereas, in gallery forests in Venezuela it is 2 individuals/km² (Eisenberg 1980), and in the Pantanal of Brazil it is less than 1 individuals/km² (Schaller 1983). Densities of <em>P. tajacu</em> in tropical forest range from 9 individuals/km² on Barro Colorado Island, Panama (Glanz 1982), to 5 individuals/km² in Manu National Park, Peru (Terborgh <em>et al</em>. 1986). Desbiez (2007) studying collared peccaries in the Pantanal, found densities ranging from 6.6 (forested) to 5.5 (cerrado) individuals/km². In the 2,178 ha forest fragment of Atlantic Forest of Brazil, the mean herd size was 8.8 individuals and an average density of 5.9 and 6.4 individuals/km² (Cullen 1997, Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004). Cullen (1997) reported similar estimates of 5.7 individuals/km² in a larger forest patch (30,000 ha) in the same region. In a recent study conducted in the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter and Boaglio (2004) found the collared peccary to be more common, widely distributed and present under a wider range of conditions than the other two species of peccaries. Previous studies have shown that collared peccaries are less vulnerable than white-lipped peccaries to habitat fragmentation and hunting pressure, and can maintain healthy populations even in highly degraded areas (Cullen <em>et al</em>. 2000; Peres 1996). The collared peccary's smaller herd size and range requirements facilitate its survival in smaller, more disturbed forest remnants (i.e. Atlantic Forest of Brazil), and they have frequently been observed using matrix habitat adjacent to larger forest fragments, e.g. satellite forests and secondary growth (Keuroghlian <em>et al</em> 2004).	eng
41777	threats	Beck, H., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Keuroghlian, A. & Reyna, R., 2008	The two major threats to the survival of collared peccary are over-hunting for their meat and hides and excessive destruction of its natural habitats. These factors have already resulted in the extensive fragmentation of peccary populations and its extirpation over large parts of its former range (Bodmer and Sowls 1993). The collared peccary (<em>Pecari tajacu</em>) and white-lipped peccary (<em>Tayassu pecari</em>) are important resources for subsistence hunters of the Peruvian Amazon (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004a). In Peru, subsistence hunting of peccaries is legally defined as the use of peccary meat for household consumption or the sale of peccary meat in settlements of fewer than 3,000 inhabitants. Rural inhabitants hunt peccaries mainly for their meat, which have an economic value of approximately $23 for a collared peccary and $30 for a white-lipped peccary either as subsistence food or through local sale (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004b). Peccary pelts are sold as a by-product and have an economic value to hunters of approximately $5 for a collared peccary pelt and $3 for a white-lipped peccary pelt (Bodmer and Pezo 2001, Fang 2003). Approximately 51,419 collared peccary pelts and 20,522 white-lipped peccary pelts are legally exported with CITES permits every year from Peru under a quota system imposed by the Peruvian government (INRENA 2004). The pelts are tanned in Peru and primarily sold to the European leather industry for the manufacture of high quality gloves and shoes. However, it is unclear if this trade increases the hunting pressure to meet the quotas. Furthermore, how many individuals have to be killed to obtain pelts that meet the quality standards of international trade (assuming that a given number of pelt are rejected because of scars, parasite marks i.e. bot flies, and bullet holes). In addition, considering that peccary glove can sell for as much as $285, a $5 reward for a collared peccary pelt does not qualify as a fare trade. On the other hand, increasing the dollar value would certainly further increase the hunting pressure.	eng
41778	conservation	Reyna-Hurtado, R., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Fragoso, J., Keuroghlian, A. & Beck, H., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its extensive range, though it is uncertain whether the existing network of reserves is adequate to ensure the survival of representative populations of sufficient size to maintain viable populations in all major habitat types in its distribution (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep). It is also doubtful if most reserves are large enough to allow the formation of large herds of this species, or that there is sufficient connectivity between reserves to permit recovery when epizootic events or population crashes for other reasons occur. This is of particular concern in Central America (March 1993).<br/><br/>Peccary pelts were exported from many central and South American countries during the first half of the 20th century prior to the implementation of CITES in 1973. During the 1960's and 70's many countries began to prohibit the export of peccary pelts and in 1986 Collared and White-lipped peccaries were placed on Appendix II of CITES. Peru is currently the only range state that permits legal export of peccary pelts, and hides can only be exported if they originate from subsistence hunters living in the Amazonian region. Other countries, including Bolivia and Argentina, are exploring prospects for developing a managed commercial harvest of peccary hides for export. Such an expanded ?legal? harvest will need to be carefully monitored since it risks inadvertently promoting illegal commercial use of the species through expanding the market and hence demands for skins and other peccary products.<br/><br/>White-lipped peccaries are widely maintained in captivity in their countries of origin, but very rarely elsewhere, mainly because of the stringent veterinary restrictions placed on the movement of live animals into countries with significant domestic pork industry. <br/><br/>Research on the management, conservation, ecology, and biology has expanded in recent years (e.g., see bibliography below). A range wide status assessment on this species has been completed, based on a workshop held in 2005, where historical and current status and distribution data were compared and main threats and population status was determined (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). However, research, management and monitoring capacity is lacking in many of the range countries. Capacity building of conservation biologists, local and national government technicians, and community para-technicians is a high priority for the species. There is also a need for a review of national and local government policy and regulations for this species across its range.	eng
41778	distribution	Reyna-Hurtado, R., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Fragoso, J., Keuroghlian, A. & Beck, H., 2008	White-lipped peccaries are confined to the Neotropical Region, from south-eastern Mexico in the north, through Central America and northern and central South America, as far south as Entre Rios in northern Argentina and Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil (Sowls 1997). <em>Tayassu pecari</em> was introduced to Cuba in 1930 (Mayer and Wetzel 1987), but is no longer found in the wild there. It is presumed to be extirpated from El Salvador and its range has been reduced significantly in Mexico and Central America in the last 20 years (Leopold 1959, Reyna-Hurtado 2007, Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
41778	habitat	Reyna-Hurtado, R., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Fragoso, J., Keuroghlian, A. & Beck, H., 2008	Some 60% of this species? distribution is in humid tropical forests. However, they are found in a wide diversity of habitats including wet and dry grasslands and woodlands, xerophitic areas like the Gran Chaco, tropical dry forests, and coastal mangroves (Wetzel and Lovett 1974, Mayer and Brandt 1982, Vaughan 1983, Sowls 1984, Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Taber <em>et al</em>. 2008). They range altitudinally from sea level to over 1,900 m on the eastern slopes of the Andes. White-lipped peccaries tend to frequent areas close to water and may even visit coastal beaches to forage. While being omnivores, they tend to be strongly frugivorous (Husson 1978, Kiltie 1981, Beck 2005, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). Their diet is comprised mostly of fruits, seeds and roots, but they also take invertebrates, small vertebrates, fungi and carrion. Beck (2006) determined that White-lipped peccaries fed on 144 plant species belonging to 36 families. This species plays an important role in the ecology of Neotropical forests as a major predator and disperser of seeds (Altrichter <em>et al</em> 1999, Beck 2005, Desbiez 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008). <br/><br/>A number of radio-telemetry based range size estimates are now available from a diversity of habitats across this species? distribution. In Costa Rica, herds in tropical moist forest were found to have a mean home range size of 2,145 ha (Sáenz and Carrillo, 1999), while another study reported annual ranges of 3,200?3,780 ha (100 % MCP) (Carrillo <em>et al</em>., 2002). Fragoso (2004) estimated home ranges of from 2,180 ha to 20,000 ha (100%MCP) for groups monitored over several years in moist forest in Maraca Island in Roraima state Brazil. Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. (2004) estimated average home ranges of 1879 ha (95 % MCP) in fragmented semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil. Reyna-Hurtado (2007) found annual herd home ranges from 4,360 ha to 12,100 ha (100 %) in tropical semi-dry forest in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Southern Mexico. All home range estimates are based on 100 % or 95% minimum convex polygons. In some studies ranges of adjoining groups overlapped minimally, while in other cases there were large range overlaps. Older studies, not based on radio-tracking, which suggested that their movements were migratory or even nomadic (Bodmer 1990; Mendez 1970; Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Barreto and Hernández 1988) are not backed by the recent work described above except for in areas undergoing rapid habitat fragmentation and destruction (e.g., Altrichter 2005). The consensus is that White-lipped peccaries are clearly wide-ranging and require large areas for survival (Altrichter and Almeida 2002, Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Their movements respond in part to changes in the availability of fruit patches and water sources (Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Mendez 1970; Sowls 1984, Bodmer 1990; Altrichter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Beck 2005, Reyna-Hurtado 2007, Keuroghlian and Eaton 2008, Keuroghlian and Eaton, in press). <br/><br/>White-lipped peccary herds often exceed 100 individuals, though groups of as few as 5 to more than 200 individuals have also been observed (Kiltie and Terborgh 1983; Donkin 1985; Mayer and Brandt 1987; Fragoso 2004; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). In certain seasons in some areas, large herds divide into smaller groups according to the distribution and abundance of food, although the more frequent reporting of smaller groups in some areas is probably correlated with increased hunting pressure. Group sizes in hunted areas adjacent to the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico were smaller (Median=16, SE=1.84, n=15) than these living inside the reserve where no hunting is allowed (Median=25, SE=1.84 n=9, Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. 2004 observed that a population of 150 White-lipped peccaries in fragmented area of Atlantic Forest periodically divided into 3?4 sub-herds with an average of 42 individuals each. They also observed a high frequency of switching of individuals among sub-herds and documented periodic sub-herd fusion. Switching of individuals has also been observed in a current long term radio telemetry study in the Pantanal of Brazil (A. Keuroghlian pers. comm.). However, Reyna-Hurtado (2007) observed high fidelity of individuals to their respective groups during an 18 months study in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Southern Mexico.	eng
41778	population	Reyna-Hurtado, R., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Fragoso, J., Keuroghlian, A. & Beck, H., 2008	White-lipped peccary densities vary across their distribution in different habitats. Keuroghlian <em>et al</em>. (2004) and Cullen (1997), both working in southern Brazil, found density estimates between 3.9 and 10.2 individuals/km² in tropical forest fragments. Fragoso (1998a, 1998b, 1999), studying a WLP population in the northern Brazilian Amazon, in Roraima State, reported densities declining from 139-542 individuals/km² in 1988 to 1.4-8.3 individuals/km² in 1992 after a population crash probably due to an epizootic (Fragoso 2004). Desbiez (2007) in the Brazilian Pantanal found peccary density estimates in forested and open cerrado habitats of 13.7 and 3.0 individuals/km², respectively. Lower densities have been found in dry forests. Altrichter (2005) found White-lipped peccary densities in the Argentine Gran Chaco dry forest to be 0.33 individuals/km² in hunted sites and 1.04 individuals/km² in non-hunted sites; while Reyna-Hurtado (2007) found similar densities of 0.43 individuals/km² in the semi-dry forest of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. White-lipped peccary densities decline rapidly under hunting pressure, and can be completely absent from heavily hunted areas (Peres 1996, Peres and Lake 2003).	eng
41778	threats	Reyna-Hurtado, R., Taber, A., Altrichter, M., Fragoso, J., Keuroghlian, A. & Beck, H., 2008	Widespread and increasing deforestation and intense hunting pressure are the main causes for the increasing diminution and extinction of many populations of this species. Owing to their habit of forming large herds, White-lipped peccaries require extensive and contiguous areas of habitat to obtain sufficient resources throughout the year. Hunting pressure by landless squatters and poachers has also contributed to local extinctions of the most conspicuous White-lipped peccary herds in many Neotropical forest fragments (Cullen, Bodmer and Valladares-Padua, 2001). The loss and fragmentation of their habitat also exposes them to increased hunting pressure by facilitating their location by human hunters, who can kill many individuals in a large herd during a single encounter (Peres 1996; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). In most range countries, the progressive destruction of habitat for agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as timber extraction, has already accounted for much of the species' former habitat (Altrichter and Boaglio 2004, Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). As of 2005, large populations of White-lipped peccaries persisted only in 21 % of its historic range (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep.). One example is the seasonal Planalto region of the Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil that historically covered the inland plateau west of the coastal mountains (Cullen, Bodmer, and Valladares-Padua, 2000; Ditt 2002). Today, only 2% (approximately 2,800 km²) of the Planalto forest remains in small forest fragments (mostly <10 km²) in an agriculturally dominated landscape (Ditt, 2002). <br/><br/>The Collared peccary (<em>Pecari tajacu</em>) and White-lipped peccary (<em>Tayassu pecari</em>) are important resources for subsistence hunters in the Peruvian Amazon, as elsewhere in the Amazon basin (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004a). In Peru, subsistence hunting of peccaries is permitted and is legally defined as the use of peccary meat for household consumption or the sale of peccary meat in settlements of fewer than 3,000 inhabitants. Rural inhabitants hunt peccaries mainly for their meat, which has an economic value of approximately $23 for a Collared peccary and $30 for a White-lipped peccary either for subsistence food or sale (Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 2004b). Peccary pelts are sold as a by-product and have an economic value to hunters of approximately $5 for a Collared peccary pelt and $3 for a White-lipped peccary pelt (Bodmer and Pezo 2001, Fang 2003). The only country with CITES permit to export White-lipped peccary pelts for the hide trade is Peru where from 1997 to 2008 a quota of between 35,500 and 44,300 skins and leather products has been granted annually (CITES, Database-2008; www.cites.org). The pelts are tanned in Peru and sold to the European leather industry for the manufacture of high quality shoes and gloves, with the latter retailing for as much as $200 a pair. However, this activity should be careful controlled because of potential risks to White-lipped peccaries given that population monitoring methods are problematic. Also, since some pelts are rejected because of scars, parasite marks (e.g., bot flies), or bullet holes, this raises the question as to how many individuals are killed in total to obtain pelts that meet the required quality standards for international trading? Other South American countries such as Argentina and Bolivia are exploring plans for the international commercialization of peccary pelts under CITES. Detailed surveys of the subsistence and commercial use of this species on national scales have not been undertaken in other South American range countries except Argentina (Altrichter, 2005).<br/><br/>At the southern and northern extremes of this species? distribution its status is of particular concern. In the Argentine Chaco, Altrichter (2005) found that hunting of White-lipped peccary was not sustainable because density of this species was three times lower in areas closer to villages than in protected areas, hunters did not discriminate between age and sex, and more than 40 % of the population?s production is being harvested. Here the population size was estimated to be at 60 % of the carrying capacity (Altrichter 2005). Threats to the species in Mesoamerica (tropical Mexico and Central America) include hunting and habitat reduction as well as un-managed legal sport hunting in a couple of Mexican States (Campeche and Quintana Roo; Reyna-Hurtado 2007). Overall in Mesoamerica this species? situation is alarming due to rapid population decline over the last 20 years. In Mexico this species has been extirpated from Veracruz, Tabasco, Yucatan and survive only in a few populations on the largest reserves and a few large communal forests where the species is under strong hunting pressure (Reyna-Hurtado 2007). A similar pattern has occurred for almost all the Central America countries where the species is now confined to the few large tropical forest reserves (Taber <em>et al</em>. in prep). Even in the Amazon, hunting can either deplete or completely remove this species from suitable, undisturbed habitat within the hunting range of even small human communities (Peres 1996). Peres and Lake (2003) estimate that only 57.2% of the Brazilian Amazon is both forested and more than 9 km from access points. It can therefore be assumed that hunting must have a significant impact on the numbers, though it is not be easy to determine what this is numerically.<br/><br/>Another issue of concern for the species is strong evidence of periodic population crashes in white-lipped peccaries which seem density dependent and are most likely due to an epizootic event (Fragoso 2004). This is a particular cause of concern due to this species increasingly fragmented distribution. One risk is that isolated populations that crash may have difficulties recovering since they would be cut off from dispersal from potential source population areas.<br/><br/>Across the range of the species as a whole, an estimate of habitat loss of roughly 1% per year seems reasonable. This is the approximate rate of forest loss in the Brazilian Amazon. It will be lower in some places (i.e., Guyanas, western Amazon) and higher in others (e.g., Pantanal, Chaco, Cerrado), so 1% per year is in the middle of the range. It is assumed that remaining populations in Mesoamerica and the Atlantic forest are now too small to have much impact on the global listing. To estimate the global rate of decline needed for its Red List assessment, the effects of hunting need to be factored in on top of the decline due to habitat loss. Using the Peres and Lake's (2003) estimate that only 57.2% of the Brazilian Amazon is both forested and more than 9 km from access points, it is assumed that hunting must have a significant impact on the numbers, though it is not easy to determine what this is numerically. In this assessment, an assumption is made, to be tested with future data over the coming years, that the aggregate rate of decline over three generations (18 years) is >18% (due to habitat loss alone) and <30% (which would put the species in Vulnerable and require some stronger evidence than is currently available).	eng
41779	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Many protected areas exist within the species’s range, some of which are very well secured. In the wider landscape, it is important to understand the effects of current habitat degradation trends and hunting levels upon the species.	eng
41779	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	<em>Moschiola meminna</em>, as used here, is endemic to the dry zone of Sri Lanka: localities listed in Groves and Meijaard (2005: 421) suggest that it may well occur throughout this zone. This covers most of the island, except for the southwestern quarter and the central mountain range (Pocock 1939). Previous to the taxonomic revision of Groves and Meijaard (2005), no effort was made to distinguish Sri Lankan chevrotains into different forms, and so past records other than the specimens Groves and Meijaard (2005) analysed cannot be retrospectively, objectively, assigned to this species in its current taxonomic sense. No published records additional to Groves and Meijaard (2005) and following their suggested taxonomy were traced. Objective identification (i.e. not solely on the basis of habitat and location) of further animals at various localities within the island is required to test the hypothesis of Groves and Meijaard (2005) of a strict segregation of habitat between this species and <em>M. kathygre</em>; these authors stressed their “admittedly small sample sizes”. Currently it would therefore be rash for species-level identification to be assigned to individuals under the Groves and Meijaard (2005) taxonomic hypothesis solely on the basis of habitat.	eng
41779	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations, little information has been traced specific to the species as here defined. Information for the genus is reviewed under <em>M. indica</em>. It is seldom far from water (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, and also in coconut plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41779	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This species appears to be widespread, based on localities of confirmed specimens in Groves and Meijaard (2005). White-spotted Chevrotain is “fairly common in forests throughout the dry zone both inside and outside protected areas” (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). It is commonly found not only in all forest types within the dry zone but also in coconut plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). K.A.I. Nekaris (pers. comm. 2008) saw many chevrotains in the dry zone during spot-light surveys in 2001. Sri Lanka chevrotain densities of around 0.58 animals/km² reported by Dubost (2001) are likely to concern the dry zone species, but the original source has not been traced and so, without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate, their reliability is unknown.	eng
41779	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	In past centuries, there has been a major loss of habitat available to this chevrotain and thus in its population, reflecting a rise in the human population of Sri Lanka from one million in the 19th century to twenty million now (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). A number of well secured protected areas within the dry zone support chevrotains. The effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens, coconut plantations, etc. (see Habitat and ecology). Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, with firearms, for their meat (Santiapillai and Wijeyamotan 2003), but it seems unlikely that this is at sufficient levels to restrain population levels within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the dry zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). Hunting techniques which could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest (set usually for pigs) as well as live electric wires, taken off the post, dragged through the forest and set in rice paddies (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41780	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Timmins, R.J. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Chevrotains on Java occur in some protected areas, e.g. Ujung Kulon (Hoogerwerf 1970; van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and were earlier said to “occur in all game sanctuaries in Java and in most of the nature reserves established on that island...." (Hoogerwerf 1970). The species has been officially protected since 1931, yet it is still hunted.<br/><br/>The taxonomic revision of Meijaard and Groves (2004) means that <em>T. javanicus</em> is endemic to Java, and, if it occurs, Bali. There are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and thus this newly-revealed endemic species should be swiftly removed from the anonymity in which it has lain for decades. An urgent first step is a collation of existing information, because it is possible that many more records exist than were traced during the preparation of this assessment. This should include trawling likely observers and examination of collections not covered by Meijaard and Groves (2004). If insufficient number of specimens are found to clarify the number of taxa on Java, more should be obtained. Some may come from markets but, because of the pre-eminence of locality in determining systematics among very similar taxa (e.g. Groves in press: discussion under Wapiti group), specimens of known locality origin must form the basis of analysis. Whatever the number of species on Java, the difference in sighting rate between Hoogerwerf (1970) and observers from the 1990s onwards is suggestive of a major decline, although other explanations are possible (see Population and Threats). Current status needs to be clarified through specific surveys for the genus (camera-trapping, but undertaken in a way more suitable for smaller species than is usual, spotlighting, and hunting surveys may all play a role). Surveys must take care to investigate secondary and edge areas which are often eschewed by general wildlife surveys in favour of the less encroached areas.	eng
41780	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Timmins, R.J. & Semiadi, G., 2008	<em>Tragulus javanicus</em> as here defined is endemic to the island of Java, Indonesia, according to Meijaard and Groves (2004). The latter authors did not mention the island of Bali, but a sighting was reported from Bali Barat National Park, Bali, in a bird watching trip report (Birdquest 2006). The genus was not listed for Bali in the exhaustive reviews of Chasen (1940; of the genus) or Meijaard (2003; mammals of Indonesian islands), nor by Grubb (2005). Given the live-animal trade in the genus on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific.<br/><br/>Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote that "in Java <em>T. javanicus</em> was encountered in all provinces, fairly intensively distributed from sea-level to high in the mountains". Present-day occurrence in East Java is questionable: S. Hedges, M. Tyson and E. Meijaard (pers. comm. 2008) know of no certain records (as distinct from listings in collation documents which do not cite information to primary source) from areas like Baluran or Alas Purwo national parks, despite high survey effort during 1991–2000.<br/><br/>Meijaard and Groves (2004) gave only one specific locality for the species: Cheribon (= Cirebon) on the north coast of West Java Province, which is the type locality of <em>T. j. pelandoc</em> Dobroruka, 1967. Dobroruka (1967) also mentioned the western part of Java, to the southern coast, for what he called <em>T. j. focalinus</em> (which is <em>T. javanicus s .s.</em>). Meijaard and Groves (2004) did not list the localities for the many specimens they examined. Dobroruka (1967) and Van Dort (1986) both discuss variation within Javan chevrotains; neither has yet been checked for specific localities. More recent localities, although not of specimen records, include: Gunung Halimun (reportedly camera-trapped some time before 2003 [Suyanto 2003], but the photograph is not reproduced in the appendix and a painting is used for the species instead); Ujung Kulon (1991–1993; van Schaik and Griffiths 1996; C.P. Groves pers. comm. 2008), and the Dieng Plateau (during 1999–2000; V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). There has been no collation of records from the various surveys over the last 20 years or so, and some observers no doubt are aware of other localities.	eng
41780	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Timmins, R.J. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote of chevrotains on Java occurring "from sea-level to high in the mountains". In the Dieng plateau area, V. Nijman (pers. comm. 2008) found them only a few times in the lowlands (400–700 m asl), where most survey took place, and had no records from above about 1,500 m asl. They have been found on Gunung Gede–Pangangro up to about 1,600 m asl (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). Hoogerwerf’s (1970) description of favoured habitats on Java suggests that chevrotains there might be an 'edge' species, certainly seeming to prefer areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other <em>Tragulus</em> accounts).	eng
41780	population	Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Timmins, R.J. & Semiadi, G., 2008	There appears to have been no field study specifically of chevrotains on Java but current wildlife surveyors agree that they are rarely seen compared with results from similar styles of observation in Kalimantan (S. van Balen, V. Nijman, E. Meijaard, M. Tyson and S. Hedges, all pers. comm. 2008). Even Hoogerwerf (1970), who clearly found the species with some regularity (explicitly not daily, but enough for him to learn its calls and thereby establish dates of a probable mating season), complained that “it is particularly difficult to obtain any insight into the situation of this species in Java”, but concluded that “it is improbable that the species is in danger of extinction”. The basis for an unattributed statement in Whitten <em>et al</em>. (1996), that “it is still numerous and can be seen easily in many areas such as the tourist park part of Pangarandaran Nature Reserve” is unclear. The genus was recorded at five of ten sites on the Dieng Plateau surveyed in 1999–2000, but mostly only through single observations (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). S. van Balen (pers. comm. 2008) points out that in Java the genus seems very shy (compared with animals in Malaysia and Kalimantan), so most records come as footprints. This contrasts with the assignment by Hoogerwerf (1970) that the genus was common and widespread. It is therefore quite plausible that a major decline has taken place, although other explanations remain to be explored which could have bolstered Hoogerwerf’s sighting rates, such as his having a dog with him which flushed the chevrotains, or his spending a lot of time in the species' favoured microhabitats. Specifically, neither M. Tyson nor S. Hedges (pers. comm. 2008) saw chevrotains during a rhinoceros survey in Ujung Kulon in 1992, whereas this was Hoogerwerf’s (1970) main site in assessing the species as relatively common and readily found. It was camera-trapped there five times during 1991–1993 (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996), a rate comparable with that of many other species in the study and certainly not suggesting out-and-out rarity. Very recently, numbers in trade in Java have dropped sharply in most cities, and it is plausible that this reflects increasing difficulty in procuring the animal (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41780	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Timmins, R.J. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. During the 1980s to the mid 1990s, guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. However, the strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring; this latter could well have included chevrotains. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java remained remarkably intact for much of this period. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (S. Hedges and M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ‘tragedy of the commons’, has indeed led to increased destruction and poaching in the past decade. There is some evidence that species readily uses edge and secondary vegetation, meaning that effects of forest encroachment will be less serious than for old-growth forest obligates. Moreover, chevrotains already seemed rare for surveyors operating in the early–mid 1990s, when habitats had been relatively stable since 1970s or early 1980s. For any decline which may have occurred in the 1980s and early–mid 1990s, therefore, habitat factors are an unlikely driver.<br/><br/>Chevrotains occur regularly in markets in towns such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Yogyakarta, and Malang, but often they are cramped in small cages, and can therefore be overlooked, and may even be more common than observations suggest; numbers in trade are surprisingly high given the small numbers to be seen in the field nowadays (V. Nijman pers. comm. 2008). They have been traded at high levels for many decades: Hoogerwerf (1970) wrote of “numerous reports of mouse deer being regularly trapped and offered for sale alive” in Java. They are hunted and traded both for pets and as wild meat (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Numbers passing through markets in Jakarta, Bogor, and Sukabumi have recently declined sharply, perhaps because of tightened control by the forest police in those markets; but there is the possibility that falling trade might indicate, at least in part, increasing difficulty to catch the animal and thus a decline in populations. In the Malang area, it is still “relatively easy” to procure one, although it is “getting time consuming” (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Hunting is probably largely with snares; dogs are also likely to be a serious threat (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). They are vulnerable to active hunting at night through a propensity to freeze when spotlit. However, the effects of these comparably high hunting levels on the genus in Java have not been studied empirically.<br/><br/>The continued presence of many animals in markets suggests that significant populations remain somewhere on Java (assuming that the animals are not now imports from elsewhere in Indonesia), and thus that a major decline may not have occurred, despite current indications. A comparable situation was found with inornate squirrel <em>Callosciurus inornatus</em> in Lao PDR, when extensive 1990s surveys found few animals in the field, in contrast with historic statements of abundance and ongoing substantial numbers being traded in fresh meat markets. This led to conservation concern for the species (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999); but later field survey of degraded and edge areas found out that the species was indeed common and evidently a species associated with degraded areas, and had hence been severely under-recorded by the 1990s surveys (Timmins and Duckworth in press).	eng
41781	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species’s range. Adequate legal basis exists in all range states to control both threats (through protected areas and regulations governing wildlife trade and hunting). The chief need is for effective translation of these laws into action. There are no obvious species-specific needs additional to general consolidation of protected areas and enforcement of hunting and wildlife trading laws.<br/><br/>The paucity of Sundaic studies determining chevrotains to species shows admirable caution but hinders assessments of this species’s status. Better data would be useful to confirm the opinion-based conclusion here that this is a resilient species, and to investigate further habitat use, in areas where it overlaps with <em>T. kanchil</em> and in those (probably, primarily at higher altitude) where it does not.	eng
41781	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	<em>T. napu</em>, as constituted here (that is, excluding <em>T. versicolor</em> of Indochina and <em>T. nigricans</em> of the Philippines) occurs in the Sundaic subregion, extending some way up the Thai–Malay peninsula, in the following countries: Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, and many small islands), Malaysia (West Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, and many small islands), Myanmar (far south only), and Thailand (south only) (Meijaard and Groves 2004). Grubb (2005) listed Singapore, following Chasen (1940), and although it was not explicitly recorded from this island either by Meijaard (2003; review of mammals on Southast Asian islands) or by Meijaard and Groves (2004; review of <em>Tragulus</em> distribution), the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, Singapore, holds specimens collected in the 1920s. There are no subsequent records and it is believed to be extinct (K. Lim pers. comm. 2008). Grubb (2005) also included Cambodia, Lao PDR, and ‘Indochina’ in the range of <em>T. napu</em>; but this was founded on the assumption that because <em>T. versicolor</em>, formerly considered a subspecies of <em>T. napu</em>, occurred in Viet Nam, <em>T. napu</em> must presumably occur in intervening Lao PDR and Cambodia. There is, for example, a map of such a conterminous range for <em>T. napu</em> in Corbet and Hill (1992). There is no evidence of such a distribution and, given the distribution patterns of other species, absolutely no reason to expect that it would have such a range, even if <em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. versicolor</em> are closely allied. Recent surveys in both countries have not suspected the species (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The northern limit on the Thai–Malay peninsula is not well clarified. Despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kuiburi National Park, Thailand (12°N and thus within the generally-assumed range for <em>T. napu</em>), Greater Chevrotain has not been photographed there. It must be scarce in this park if it occurs at all (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Caution is needed in interpreting modern records of <em>T. napu</em> from anywhere outside the specimen-validated range (as presented in Meijaard and Groves 2004); some camera-trap studies seem to have taken an essentially arbitrary attitude on naming their photographs of chevrotains, resulting in published listings of <em>T. napu</em> from, for example, northern Thailand. Because such listings never highlight the significance of such records, let alone discuss them, all are assumed to be in error, and are not discussed further, here.	eng
41781	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	The Greater Oriental Chevrotain is almost completely sympatric with <em>T. kanchil</em>, but the degree of syntopy is less clear. In the lowlands of Borneo both occur but <em>T. napu</em> apparently ranges to higher altitudes (up to at least 1,000 m asl) than does the latter (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). Relevant comparisons have not been traced for the other main occupied landmasses. Duckworth (1995) considered that the chevrotains demonstrably common at Similajau National Park were largely or entirely Greater, but on altitude use as given in Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) it would seem surprising if Lesser did not occur. However, Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) found at Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, that <em>T. kanchil</em> was almost absent from mature forest, all animals in such habitats being <em>T. napu</em>. Almost all observations from Similajau were from climax forest. Much more information of chevrotain habitat use in areas of sympatry is desirable before firm species-level conclusions can be drawn. <em>T. napu</em> was found typically to range 19 ha in old logged forest and 7 ha in primary forest, this difference again suggesting an association with primary forest (Heydon 1994). Heydon and Bulloh (1997) suggested the obligate frugivory of chevrotains limited their ability to compensate for logging-led loss of fruit trees by browsing the abundant regrowth of logging areas. The abundance of <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (<em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em> combined, with no information on the proportions or even confirmation that both species were present) was higher (strongly statistically significantly so) in areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra than in the interior of the park, suggesting higher numbers in somewhat encroached habitat. Also at this site, <em>Tragulus</em> was more then nine times as abundant in areas of the park with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting limited resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers, even in part, to <em>T. napu</em>. The genus (presumably including this species) was ubiquitous in a study of virgin jungle reserves (VJRs) of West Malaysia which paired each of seven VJRs with a nearby unprotected area with seriously encroached habitat (Laidlaw 2000). The ability of <em>T. napu</em> to use plantations is probably low, because all (the admittedly relatively few) sources agree that it does not persist well in secondary or logged forest. Moreover, Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008), in extensive observations at Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu, Sarawak, has never recorded <em>T. napu</em> in any of the blocks of monoculture plantations there, despite many records of <em>T. kanchil</em>. Given the pace of conversion of forests to plantations across the rane of <em>T. napu</em>, clarification of its degree of plantation use is urgent.<br/><br/>Competition with <em>T. kanchil</em> is not pronounced. In Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah, <em>T. napu</em> was largely confined to mature forest with <em>T. kanchil</em> only in immature forest (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). In unlogged forest at Danum Valley, Sabah, <em>T. napu</em> was significantly more common than <em>T. kanchil</em>, but following logging, the numerical dominance of <em>T. napu</em> declined, and in 2–5-year-old regrowth <em>T. kanchil</em> was the commoner species. By 12 years post-logging, <em>T. napu</em> had reasserted its numerical predominance (Heydon 1994).<br/><br/><em>Tragulus</em> spp. are generally thought to be nocturnal, and at two sites in Borneo, they comprised over half the contacts of spot-lighting surveys (Duckworth 1997), but Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) found substantial amount of both day- and night-time activity in this species. Duckworth (1997: 186–187) pointed out that most chevrotains spotlit in Similajau National Park, Sarawak, (identified as <em>T. napu</em>) were sitting around resting. The related <em>T. kanchil</em> was considered highly solitary by Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this may also be somewhat true for <em>T. napu</em>; Duckworth (1995: 177) observed chevrotains identified as <em>T. napu</em> 14 times, of which 12 records involved singles and two involved duos in apparent association.<br/><br/>Collation of information from general sources suggests the following, but the contribution of information from <em>T. nigricans</em> to these conclusions is unknown, so their reliability for <em>T. napu s.s.</em> should be considered preliminary. Females gestate for 152–155 days and give birth to one or, rarely, two young. Young wean at 2–3 months, and reach sexual maturity at 4.5 months. Animals live up to 14 years. The female can be pregnant throughout her adult life, often having just an 85–155 minute 'breather' between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and can stand within 30 minutes of birth. Mothers nurse their young standing on three legs. They are generally solitary.	eng
41781	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Greater Oriental Chevrotain populations are not well studied, in part reflecting a general lack of research interest in the genus and in part its almost complete sympatry with the Lesser Oriental Chevrotain, from which separation requires care under field conditions (Duckworth 1997; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). It seems to be relatively common on at least Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In Thailand, at the northern margin of its range, it is generally rare (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2008); for example, during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani province; about 9°00′N, 98°45′E; 20–130 m asl), only six Greater Chevrotains were ‘rescued’ compared with 172 Lesser Chevrotains (Nakasathien 1989). The genus is commonly camera-trapped and recorded by signs on Sumatra and in West Malaysia (Laidlaw 2000; O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006) and in far southern Myanmar (Lynam 2003; the identifications to species should be disregarded). At the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities were recorded as 32–72 animals per km² in primary habitat; they were more scarce in selectively logged areas, with densities of 6–16 animals per km², indicating a marked decrease in <em>T. napu</em> in selectively logged forest vs unlogged (Heydon and Bulloh 1997, Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Because population densities of Southern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus muntjak</em> and Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> rose in the logged areas in this same study, the decline in chevrotains presumably reflects habitat factors rather than the secondary complication of logging-induced hunting. Population densities for <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (presumably including this species) in Taman Negara, Malaysia, were taken to be 0.37–0.83 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Duckworth (1995) considered that the chevrotains demonstrably common at Similajau National Park in 1986 and 1995 were largely or entirely Greater (see Habitat and Ecology).	eng
41781	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R. & Pattanavibool, A., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout Greater Chevrotain’s range, but the species is said to be relatively resilient. However, few data to support this assessment have been traced, particularly because most key studies have not within the Sundaic region identified chevrotains to species. Thus, while clear that the genus remains widespread and common in the face of these threats, there seems to be little publicly available evidence that <em>T. napu</em> specifically does so, and reasonable evidence that it is not very adaptable to forest degradation (see Habitat and ecology). However, on the assumption that most chevrotains above 100 m asl on Borneo are this species rather than <em>T. kanchil</em>, Borneo at least retains large populations. Greater Oriental Chevrotain is extinct on Singapore (K. Lim pers. comm. 2008), although the relative contributions of hunting versus habitat perturbation are not known.<br/><br/>Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains, as assessed by diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Chevrotains were scarcer in areas of higher human use (and thus hunting) of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003; see Habitat and ecology). Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) profiled the effects of hunting in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas, upon chevrotains (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995. They constituted 8–9% of animals killed. No direct or index measure of chevrotain densities was possible at these sites to determine what effects, if any, such heavy hunting was having on chevrotains. Chevrotains are among the most favoured wild meat by inhabitants of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu, Sarawak, after Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> and wild pigs <em>Sus</em> (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41782	conservation	Heikki Henttonen, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range (Wemmer 1998, EMA Workshop 2006). The species is subject to intense management in some countries through hunting quotas (e.g. in Finland: Ruusila and Kojola in press). It is protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Germany).	eng
41782	conservation	Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A., 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range (Wemmer 1998, EMA Workshop 2006). The species is subject to intense management in some countries through hunting quotas (e.g. in Finland: Ruusila and Kojola in press). It is protected under national legislation in a number of countries (e.g. Germany).	eng
41782	distribution	Heikki Henttonen, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	<em>Alces alces</em> has a large range extending from Norway through northern and central Europe, northern Russia, Alaska, and Canada to Newfoundland (Canada) and Maine (USA) (Corbet 1978, Bauer and Nygrén 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Europe, it has a continuous distribution extending through Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Baltic states, Belarus, Poland and northern Ukraine. There was a small population in northern Austria which is now extinct (although there may still be occasional migrants). There are three isolated subpopulations in southern Czech Republic, and the species is occasionally recorded in Germany, Croatia, Hungary and Romania. It has been extending its range southwards along the rivers into the northern Caucasus lowlands. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,500 m in Europe (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,500m in the Altai mountains of Central Asia (Nygrén 1986).	eng
41782	distribution	Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A., 2008	The Eurasian elk has a range in north Eurasia from Scandinavia, Poland, N Austria, and S Czech Republic (vagrant in Croatia, Hungary, and Romania), east to the Yenisei River (Siberia) and south to Ukraine, N Kazakhstan, N China (N Sinkiang), and possibly adjacent parts of Mongolia (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It has been extinct in Caucasus region since 19th century (Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>In Europe, it has a continuous distribution extending through Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Baltic states, Belarus, Poland and northern Ukraine. There was a small population in northern Austria which is now extinct (although there may still be occasional migrants). There are three isolated subpopulations in southern Czech Republic, and the species is occasionally recorded in Germany, Croatia, Hungary and Romania. It has been extending its range southwards along the rivers into the northern Caucasus lowlands. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,500 m in Europe (H. Henttonen pers. comm. 2006), and up to 2,500 m in the Altai mountains of Central Asia (Nygrén 1986). The species occurs east to the Yenisei River (Siberia) and south to Ukraine, N Kazakhstan, N China (N Sinkiang and the Altai region of Xinjiang,and possibly adjacent parts of Mongolia; it is extinct in Caucasus region since 19th century.	eng
41782	habitat	Heikki Henttonen, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	<em>Alces alces</em> is found in a range of woodland habitats, both coniferous and broadleaved, from the tundra and taiga southwards through boreal to temperate zones. It tends to prefer damp, marshy habitats and areas in close proximity to water. It is also found in open country in the lowlands and mountains, including farmland, if there is forest nearby. It thrives in secondary growth, and its population expansion in Scandinavia has been linked to the replacement of natural taiga forest by secondary woodland after logging (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). It feeds on vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, and is a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ruusila and Kojola in press). The species has seasonal movements in parts of its range, particularly in northern Europe.	eng
41782	habitat	Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A., 2008	<em>Alces alces</em> is found in a range of woodland habitats, both coniferous and broadleaved, from the tundra and taiga southwards through boreal to temperate zones. It tends to prefer damp, marshy habitats and areas in close proximity to water. It is also found in open country in the lowlands and mountains, including farmland, if there is forest nearby. It thrives in secondary growth, and its population expansion in Scandinavia has been linked to the replacement of natural taiga forest by secondary woodland after logging (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). It feeds on vegetative parts of trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs, herbs, and aquatic plants, and is a pest of agriculture and forestry in at least parts of its range (Ruusila and Kojola in press). The species has seasonal movements in parts of its range, particularly in northern Europe.	eng
41782	population	Heikki Henttonen, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	It is a widespread and abundant species. Numbers have increased markedy in Scandinavia in recent decades, and the range is expanding in the Caucasus (EMA Workshop 2006). The global population is in the region of 1.5 million individuals, and the European population is in the order of 0.5 million. European populations show fluctuations over a multi-year cycle (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). Population estimates for European countries include the following: Czech Republic - maximum of 50 animals, Estonia - 10,000 individuals, Finland - at least 110,000 individuals (60-80,000 shot annually), Poland - 2,800 individuals, Sweden - 340,000 individuals (EMA workshop 2006, Ruusila and Kojola in press).	eng
41782	population	Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A., 2008	It is a widespread and abundant species. Numbers have increased markedy in Scandinavia in recent decades, and the range is expanding in the Caucasus. The global population is in the region of 1.5 million individuals, and the European population is in the order of 0.5 million. European populations show fluctuations over a multi-year cycle (Bauer and Nygrén 1999). Population estimates for European countries include the following: Czech Republic - maximum of 50 animals, Estonia - 10,000 individuals, Finland - at least 110,000 individuals (60-80,000 shot annually), Poland - 2,800 individuals, Sweden - 340,000 individuals (Pielowski and Jaworski 2005, Ruusila and Kojola in press).	eng
41782	threats	Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present. A wasting disease has been reported, and its causes remain poorly understood (Frank 2004), but it is not considered to be a serious problem for the species. Overexploitation caused significant population declines and range contractions in the 18th and 19th centuries, but since then populations have recovered (Ruusila and Kojola in press, Bauer and Nygrén 1999). In most European range states, elk populations are controlled to prevent damage to forestry and arable crops (Bauer and Nygrén 1999).	eng
41782	threats	Heikki Henttonen, Andreas Kranz, Michael Stubbe, Tiit Maran, Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	There are no major threats to this species at present. A wasting disease has been reported, and its causes remain poorly understood (Frank 2004), but it is not considered to be a serious problem for the species. Overexploitation caused significant population declines and range contractions in the 18th and 19th centuries, but since then populations have recovered (Ruusila and Kojola in press, Bauer and Nygrén 1999). In most European range states, populations are controlled to prevent damage to forestry and arable crops (Bauer and Nygrén 1999).	eng
41783	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Kumar, N.S., Anwarul Islam, Md., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Chital is protected under Schedule III of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) (Sankar and Acharya 2004) and under the Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 of Bangladesh (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008). It occurs in many protected areas. Legal protection as a species and a network of functioning protected areas are the two cornerstones of its current healthy conservation status. Populations exceeding 20,000 Chitals probably occur in and around a handful of conservation areas within India: the belt of about 3,000 km² between Koh river and Haldwani including the Corbett Tiger Reserve; the Gir Protected Area (about 1,400 km²); Kanha Tiger Reserve (about 2,000 km²); and the Nilgiris–Western Ghats sector including Nagarahole, Bandipur, and Mudumalai (about 5,000 km²) (Raman in press). Protected areas support more Chitals than do non-protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape of India, although there is not currently such a great difference in densities as with the grassland species (Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em> and Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em>) (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ongoing habitat conversion trends outside protected areas will continue to increase the relative proportion of the total Chital population that they hold, and the maintenance of an extensive network of functional protected areas will remain the foundation of this species’s healthy conservation status. Part of this responsibility is vigilance by staff and partners of illegal poaching, which takes place at varying levels in most of the species range. Some recent cases have involved high-profile public role models such as actors poaching Chital and these warrant heavy court penalties. There is a strong case for prevention of livestock grazing in protected areas which hold Chital, partly to reduce risks of disease transmission, but mostly to prevent artificially low densities of Chital being forced through competition (see Major Threats).<br/><br/>Chital populations have been studied in: Corbett (De and Spillit 1966), Kanha (Schaller 1967), Bandipur (Johnsingh 1983), Nagarahole (Karanth and Sunquist 1992), Sariska (Sankar 1994), Gir (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1996), Guindy (Raman 1996, Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996), Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002), Ranthambore (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2003) in India, Chitwan (Seidensticker 1976; Mishra 1982) and Karnali-Bardia (Dinerstein 1980; Moe and Wegge 1994, 1997) in Nepal, and Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972) in Sri Lanka.	eng
41783	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Kumar, N.S., Anwarul Islam, Md., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Chital occurs over 8–30ºN in India (including Sikkim), Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (Grubb 2005; Raman in press). The western distribution boundary is formed by eastern Rajasthan (e.g. Sariska, Ranthambore, and Keoladeo Ghana) and Gujarat (e.g. Sasan Gir). The northern boundary runs along the bhabar-terai belt of the foothills of the Himalaya from Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal through Nepal, northern West Bengal and Sikkim to western Assam and the forested valleys of Bhutan below 1,100 m asl. The eastern boundary runs through western Assam (Golapara and Kamrup district as far east as the Dhunsiri River in Darrang district) to the Sunderbans of West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh. Sri Lanka is the southern limit (Gee 1964; Schaller 1967; Raman in press). Chital occur throughout the rest of peninsular India sporadically in the forested areas (Sankar and Acharya 2004), but in Bangladesh, it now occurs only in the Sundarbans, having vanished from the central, north-east and south-east regions (Md Anwarul Islam in litt. 2008).<br/><br/>Chital have been introduced to the Andaman Islands (India, during 1925–1930; Banerji 1955), Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Brazil, Croatia (islands of Brijuni; Mitchell-Jones <em>et al</em>. 1999), Moldova, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Ukraine, Uruguay, and the USA (California, Florida, Hawaiian Islands, and Texas) (Grubb 2005; Raman in press). These introduced populations have not been mapped. Not all introductions have succeeded: for example, some were introduced to west-central Slovenia (from the Brijuni islands) in the late 1940s or in 1950, but this introduction failed and is now therefore frequently reported as having been of Fallow Deer <em>Dama dama</em>. One male, shot on 12 October 1950 and now in the Natural History Museum of Slovenia, proves the identification (Krystufek 1999). Managed herds occur in parks throughout the native and introduced range and in many other areas.	eng
41783	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Kumar, N.S., Anwarul Islam, Md., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Chital thrive in a variety of habitats, but avoids extremes such as dense moist forests and open semi-desert or desert. Moist and dry deciduous forest areas, especially adjoining dry thorn scrub or grasslands appear to be optimal, and highest densities of Chital are reported from these habitats. Short grasslands of the terai, swampy meadows and glades adjoining forest areas, coastal dry evergreen forests, mixed forests or plantations with Teak Tectona grandis and Sal Shorea robusta are also used, and indeed over much of northern and southern India, its distribution closely matches that of Sal and Teak, respectively (Raman in press). Chital is particularly frequent in grassland–forest interface, edge, and other ecotones (Krishnan 1972). Eisenberg and Seidensticker (1976) opined that dry deciduous habitats with scrub is the favoured habitat, while Karanth and Sunquist (1992) found mixed forests with teak plantations, moist deciduous patches and swampy grasslands to support high abundance of Chital. Short grasslands are important because they provide little cover for predators such as Tiger Panthera tigris (Moe and Wegge 1994). The introduced population in Andaman Islands inhabits evergreen forests (Sankar and Acharya 2004) but native populations are absent from the rainforest areas of the mainland. They tend to be only visitors to dense forests, to those adjoining more open habitats. Riverine forests within the Bardia National Park in lowland Nepal are highly used by the deer for shade and cover during the dry season. The forest also provides good foraging with regard to fallen fruit and leaves that are high in nutrients needed by the deer. Four factors were identified by Schaller (1967) as delineating Chital’s distribution: (1) the need for water; (2) the need for shade; (3) an avoidance of high, rugged terrain; and (4) a preference for grass as forage. Although several observers have noted that Chital occurs mostly in flat areas and avoids hills and slopes (Schaller 1967; Khan 1996), this may not hold in areas where preferred habitats or forage is also available on slopes (Raman in press; N.S. Kumar unpublished data). It occurs in both hilly and flatter terrain, mainly the latter, in the Terai Arc Landscape of India (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Siwalik hills, Bhat and Rawat (1995) found that Chital preferred slopes of 11–30°, while slopes exceeding 30° were used less. Also, use of south, south-east, and east aspects was higher than of north, north-east, north-west, and west aspects, reflecting the warmer environment of the former aspects. There was no difference in average Chital density in the hills and plains (Bhat and Rawat 1995). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Chital widely, including in coffee areas up to 14 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat use varies seasonally, reflecting food availability. Chital uses more wooded habitat during the cool-dry season and early summer (November to May), where fallen fruit, leaf litter, and browse are available. In open grassland and tropical dry thorn forest, Chital density increases with the onset of monsoon rains and flush of plant growth (Mishra 1982; Moe and Wegge 1994; Khan 1996; Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). In areas of their distribution with a mosaic of forest and grassland habitats, seasonal patterns in habitat use may be complex. In the Himalayan terai, Chital use of habitats with high grass availability increased substantially in the weeks following cutting and burning of grasses in January–February, attributed to fresh flush of grass growth after the burns and with the onset pre-monsoon and monsoon rains nearly two months later (Mishra 1982; Moe and Wegge 1994, 1997). Similar behaviour has been reported from the grasslands of Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh 1983).<br/><br/>Chital easily habituates to human presence, and herds often congregate in open areas near habitation or forest camps to spend the night, possibly due to greater safety from predators that shy away from these areas (Raman in press).<br/>Chital eats a wide variety of plants: about 160–190 have been recorded from across the species' range. It is predominantly a grazer but consumes more fallen leaves, flowers and fruits in winter/dry season (Sankar 1994; Sankar and Acharya 2004; Raman in press). In addition to plant soft matter, crabs (in the Sunderbans; Stanford 1951), mushrooms (in Nepal; Moe and Wegge 1994), and rarely, bark (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996) are eaten. Close to human habitation, rubbish and even human faeces are occasionally taken (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Antler and bone chewing is also common. In Wilpattu, Sri Lanka, all age and sex classes are osteophagous, but such feeding was more common in velvet-antlered males, doubtless reflecting mineral needs during antler growth and mineralisation (Barrette 1985). Chital usually drinks water once a day, more frequently in summer. This restricts them to forest tracts with assured presence of water, even if only widely scattered.<br/><br/>In lowland Nepal, an individual’s total range incorporates a core area of about 32 hectares surrounded by foraging and cover areas of about 140 ha for females and 195 ha for males (Moe and Wegge 1994). Variation in range size occurs with site, season, sex and age of the animal. The basic social unit is a matriarchal family group, normally consisting of an adult female, her offspring from the previous year, and a fawn (Ables 1974). The usual herd is composed of two or more such family units and is often accompanied by individual deer of mixed sex and age-classes. Chital exhibits a fission-fusion system, or fluid group formation and dissolution (Schaller 1967; Mishra 1982; Barette 1991). Group composition changes frequently during feeding periods, during the rut when males frequently join groups of females (Schaller 1967), and while fleeing from predators (Dinerstein 1980). These social groupings of Chital do not remain permanent (Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). Groups may number up to 150 or more individuals (De and Spillit 1966; Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Krishnan 1972; Fuchs 1977; Karanth and Sunquist 1992), sometimes even more: N.S. Kumar (pers. comm. 2008) counted 211 in one group during rainy season in Nagarahole and 203 in one group at Pench-Maharashtra near a water reservoir in summer. Measured sex ratios have all been biased towards females (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Pariwakam (2006) observed nearly 10,500 Chital in Bandipur and estimated the proportion of Chital in different age and sex classes as stags 27%, does 57% and fawns 16%. In neighbouring Nagarahole, age-sex categories of Chital were adult stags 26%, adult does 36%, yearling males 8%, yearling females 9% and young 21% (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). Breeding can occur at any time of year but there is some peaking at any given locality (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Heavy mortality of fawns in early weeks has been observed by several workers and fawn survival appears to be a key determinant of Chital population growth (Schaller 1967). Schaller (1967) estimated an annual fawn mortality of 48% in Kanha, Sharathchandra and Gadgil (1975) estimated a constant monthly mortality of 26% over first nine months in Bandipur, Raman (1996) estimated a mean monthly mortality of 9.7% in Guindy. Pariwakam (2006) for the first time used a rigorous photographic capture-recapture approach to estimate the fawn mortality rate, and found it to be 66% over a 6-week study period in Bandipur. Further information on sociality and breeding is synthesised by Sankar and Acharya (2004) and by Raman (in press).<br/><br/>Chital is a prolific breeder, as documented by several empirical studies of the speed of increase by newly introduced populations or in those where a factor restraining populations was removed (Raman in press and references therein). In Bhadra, following the departure from the park of human settlements and consequent removal of anthropogenic pressures on Chital and habitats, Chital populations bounced back by nearly seven times in fewer than four years (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Karanth <em>et al</em>. (1999) earlier documented their empirical observations of the recovery of Chital populations in Nagarahole. This and its diverse diet and habitats allow high density where threats are controlled. It is even considered to be a pest in the Andamans (Banerji 1955).<br/>The main causes of death are predation, diseases, and accidents. Occasionally, stags kill each other when fighting (Sankar and Acharya 2004 and references therein). Predation is by far the major cause of Chital mortality. Older Chital stags are more susceptible to it than are younger stags (Johnsingh 1983; Patel 1992; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). This may be due to their being less vigilant during rut, to their separation from the group after the rut, or to weakening from injuries from conflicts. In Kanha, Chital remains were found in about 52% of Tiger faeces and 59% of Leopard Panthera pardus faeces analysed (Schaller 1967). In Bandipur, Chital is the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Dhole (78%), Leopard (55%) and Tiger (19%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). Even in terms of the relative number of individuals taken, Chital is the predominant prey among the three large sympatric predators (Tigers about 33%, Leopards about 39% and Dholes about 73% in Bandipur; Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole remains were found in about 31% of Tiger faeces, 44% of Leopard faeces, and 50% of Dhole faeces (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Sariska, around 54% of the faeces of Tiger and 21% of Leopard faeces contained Chital remains (Sankar 1994). Chital remains were found in about 53% of Tiger faeces in Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002) and 61% of Tiger faeces in Ranthambore (Bagchi <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Each Chital spends a major portion of its life in foraging, resting, and wandering within its range, with the relative extent of these activities determined by season (Schaller 1967). In a day, peak feeding times are around dawn and dusk. There are usually two major resting periods, before dawn and mid-day (Sankar and Acharya 2004).<br/>Considerable further detail on ecology, drawn from the relative wealth of studies on the species, with each item precisely referenced to source, is provided by Raman (in press).	eng
41783	population	Duckworth, J.W., Kumar, N.S., Anwarul Islam, Md., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Chital declined drastically throughout its range up until the first two-thirds of the 20th century (see under Major Threats). It is now locally abundant in appropriate habitat throughout its range. In India it occurs in 123 Protected Areas and forest tracts (National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India in Sankar and Acharya 2004). There are some large populations in Nepal (e.g. Moe and Wegge 1994) where the population is probably currently stable and is anticipated to remain so in the immediate future (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Thousands survive in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh, and there are a few introduced populations on coastal islands in the south (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>The reported ecological densities of Chital mostly fall within 3–50 animals per km² in India: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 4.51 +/- 1.05 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Madhya Pradesh Pench National Park dry deciduous forest, 51.3 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 49.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 50.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 20.1 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 3.2 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Maharashtra Pench dry deciduous forest, 5.8 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Ranthambore semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 38.4 animals per km² (Kumar 2000); and Gir semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 50.8 animals per km² (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). Some parts of the well-protected areas in Nagarahole and Bandipur are known to harbour densities as high as 80–100 Chital per km² (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The highest population densities, of around 200 Chitals per km², are reported for the Bardia National Park, Nepal (Naess and Andersen 1993; Moe and Wegge 1994) and for the reintroduced population in Guindy National Park, southern India (Menon 1982; Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). These high densities reflect habitat and food availability in the former area (Moe and Wegge 1994), and supplementary feeding and low predation in the latter (Raman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Population densities in marginal habitats tend to be lower (Raman in press; K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). Chital is the most abundant ungulate in Nagarahole, and reaches higher densities in moist than in dry deciduous forests (Karanth and Sunquist 1992). The recorded Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching and livestock grazing (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the population density is steadily increasing following removal of these pressures in 2003 (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data). A study at Nagarahole National Park compared an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site. This found respective densities of 65 and 10 Chitals per km² (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002).<br/><br/>The only population in Europe is on the islands of Brijuni (off Istria, Croatia), but B. Krystufek (pers. comm. 2008) has traced no information on its current status. Information has not been sought for this account on introduced populations elsewhere, because they do not contribute to assessing the species’ Red List status.	eng
41783	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Kumar, N.S., Anwarul Islam, Md., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	There are presently no major global-level threats to Chital, although densities are widely below ecological carrying capacity, through hunting and competition with domestic livestock. There were substantial declines and local extinctions, driven by hunting for meat, extermination as an agricultural pest, and habitat conversion, particularly during British rule of India and adjacent countries, and immediately after independence (Raman in press). Fewer than 20 years after independence, Schaller (1967) wrote that "...the species has declined drastically throughout its range in India, and is now only locally abundant in some sanctuaries and forest tracts. The remaining populations are highly vulnerable to poaching, habitat destruction, and other forms of decimation". The habitat loss of the past few centuries means that populations are now rather fragmented. Now, in India, most populations appear secure within the modern protected area network (Raman in press), but those outside (now highly localised) are under rapid decline due to habitat conversion and extensive hunting (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). A relaxation of protection can lead to rapid decreases. For example, Chital used to be numerically the most abundant large herbivore in the Wilpattu National Park (Sri Lanka), but numbers declined significantly due to poaching which increased during management breakdown during the civil war, when its meat was even being sold next to the park. Poaching has also risen, for the same reason, in several other national parks in Sri Lanka (Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003). Where not prevented by effective conservation measures (active protection through patrolling and law enforcement, backed up by adequate awareness), people avidly hunt and poach Chital throughout their Indian range (Madhusudan and Karanth 2000, 2002; Sankar and Acharya 2004; Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007) and there are occasional cases in even the best secured protected areas such as Corbett Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Many protected areas are well enough secured that the species has thrived well and, is now locally abundant (Sankar and Acharya 2004) and in such areas poaching of Chital is a more serious conservation problem for the large predators (every deer poached reduces predators’ food base; Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2004) than it is for Chital itself. In many other protected areas (especially those with a lower public profile) and for areas outside the conservation system, populations are severely restrained by hunting. For example, densities in Bhadra Tiger Reserve are very low by comparison with what the habitat should support because of poaching with snares, dogs, and shotguns, and also grazing competition with domestic stock (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the density was 87 percent lower in a heavily hunted area of Nagarahole National Park than in a well secured area (Madhusudan and Karanth 2000, 2002). Even though all hunting is illegal in this protected area, protection efficacy is uneven across the area. The Chital is one of the two most commonly hunted mammal species in the national park, partly because various facets of its behaviour and ecology such as herding behaviour and attachment to open habitat allow its ready detection and killing, and quick entry and exit by poachers. It is therefore exposed to far higher hunting pressure than are the ungulates which are solitary and spend much time in dense cover (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). Poaching is probably operative to a greater or lesser extent in most populations, but at low enough levels that recent decades have not seen, with Chital, the frequent local extirpations from areas of prime habitat of earlier decades.<br/><br/>The most serious threat, in areas where poaching and habitat conversion are well controlled, is the reduction in carrying capacity through competition with livestock, especially during the pinch season as observed in Sariska (Sankar 1994); Chital and livestock are known to have dietary overlap (Raman in press). The problem has been documented almost throughout Chital’s range but awareness that it is a problem at all remains so low that it is not even recognised as a key conservation issue in many protected areas (e.g. Mathai 1999). In Gir Lion Sanctuary and National Park, Chital population density increased 14-fold from 3.57 animals per km² in 1970–1971 (Berwick 1974) to 50.8 animals per km² in 1989 (Khan 1996; Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). This was attributed to the rapid and complete removal of pastoral settlements, their livestock, and a total ban on several thousand migratory livestock. Dung densities of Chital and livestock were also negatively correlated in Gir, indicating avoidance and possible competitive interaction between the species. With removal of human impact and increase in forage availability, Chital population increased, as testified by higher Chital densities in the vicinity of abandoned settlements (nesses; Sharma and Johnsingh 1995). Similarly, in Bardia National Park (Nepal), protection from livestock grazing (and logging) in 1975 increased measured Chital populations from 30–34 per km² in 1977 (Dinerstein 1980) to over 200 per km² in the early 1990s (Naess and Andersen 1993; Moe and Wegge 1994). In Bandipur Tiger Reserve, mean densities of Chital were 11 times higher in livestock-free areas than in adjacent livestock-grazed areas. In shared grazing areas, these Chital densities declined sharply with increasing livestock densities. In the studied grazed area, halving the livestock density allowed an increase in Chital density by a factor of five (Madhusudan 2004). Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). All these pressures interact to have, overall, a major depression of Chital densities. In Bhadra, following the departure from the park of human settlements and consequent removal of anthropogenic pressures on Chital and habitats, Chital populations bounced back by nearly seven times in fewer than four years (Karanth and Kumar unpublished data). Karanth <em>et al</em>. (1999) earlier documented their empirical observations of the recovery of Chital populations in Nagarahole.<br/><br/>Chital are susceptible to livestock-borne diseases such as rinderpest (Schaller 1967) and foot-and-mouth disease (Sankar 1994) but the current population is too widespread for these to rank as potential global-level threats. Accidents, especially from speeding vehicles, are a cause of Chital mortality but occur rarely within protected areas and cannot be significant at the global level. Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em> (= <em>Eupatorium odoratum</em>), and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but their effects on Chital populations warrant further study. Wild-ranging domestic dogs are also likely to be a problem (Raman in press), but no study quantifying their effects has been traced. There are no predictable threats to the Sundarbans population of Bangladesh, but as a low-lying area extreme weather events might cause episodic major population removal, as happened with hurricane Sidr in November 2007 (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
41784	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md., Sagar Baral, H., Long, B. & Maxwell, A., 2008	The Hog Deer is fully protected in Bangladesh, India, and probably most or all other range states. One subspecies is listed on CITES Appendix I as<em> Axis porcinus annamiticus</em><em></em>.<br/><br/>Wetlands, especially floodplain grasslands, have traditionally been ignored by the protected area systems and other conservation initiatives of Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Most of the area supporting the single known population in Cambodia has been proposed for protected area status, but the situation is complicated by the inclusion of agricultural lands and traditional use areas of local people, and the high human population immediately nearby (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.). As soon as the population was found, a small conservation programme with external funding from WWF was started to support a small number of forestry rangers and local guardians to carry out patrolling and community outreach activities, in addition to basic research. To ensure protection and survival of animals however, consideration should be given as to whether it would be useful for part of the area to be strategically fenced to help deter poaching, agricultural encroachment and predation by dogs; but this would need to consider seasonal movements. There are few areas in Viet Nam where suitable habitat is thought to remain, but if reasonable extents of alluvial grassland survive in the following areas surveys for Hog Deer may be warranted: Cat Tien National Park, the Kon river in the Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve area, and the Sa Tay area of Kon Tum and Gia Lai Provinces.<br/><br/>It is not certain what conservation measures are in place (if any) for the rediscovered population in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>Hog Deer in Myanmar has not been surveyed recently, but probably exists mostly in unprotected plains grassland areas which, as in the Mekong countries, are conventionally seen as of low conservation value (Peacock 1933; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006). The Hukaung valley riverine grasslands had been considered, therefore, suitable as areas for agricultural conversion, but there are proposals for some of them to be included in a forthcoming expansion to the Hukaung Wildlife Sanctuary (J.W. Duckworth and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006). A clarification of the status of Hog Deer in Myanmar is urgent: there may yet remain areas supporting animals which have high conservation potential if they do not disappear before being known to conservation. This lack of conservation profile is the chief challenge to Hog Deer in Myanmar at the moment, as it was in Peacock’s (1933) day: “the butchery of these little deer and the failure to provide more than one small sanctuary for their preservation is certainly one of the weak spots in Myanmar game legislation...the existing legislation is singularly ineffective in preventing their wholesale destruction. Moreover, there are few forest reserves which are suitable for the Hog Deer, and the legislation concerned with such forests is little more than a gesture”. If not met head-on, there are no grounds to assume that Hog Deer national conservation status will not replicate that shown by all range states to the east (major population collapse), if indeed it has not already done so.<br/><br/>Most Hog Deer populations remaining in India, Nepal, and Bhutan are in protected areas where animals are at least somewhat, and in some cases well, protected from poaching (Biswas <em>et al</em>. 2002; Biswas 2004; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; Pralad Yonzon pers. comm. 2006; Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008; A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Wildlife protection laws in India have also helped in retaining the specialized habitat of Hog Deer, arresting habitat loss and habitat conversion in some protected areas. Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) found a strong correlation with Hog Deer populations and protected areas in the Terai Arc Landscape of India (similar to that for Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em>), in contrast to other deer which occur relatively widely outside protected areas. Some protected areas are not big enough to allow adequate ranging during heavy flood periods, and thus prevent heavy mortality during such periods, and all suffer from being too small to be allowed unfettered habitat succession, because new grasslands are not now being created by natural processes elsewhere (see Habitat and ecology). In India and Nepal, Hog Deer has benefited from conservation measures taken for Great Indian Rhinoceros and Barasingha in the same wet grassland habitats (Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995; Biswas 2004). However, grassland management for rhinoceros may in some cases be deleterious to Hog Deer (Biswas 2004). Investigation of Kaziranga National Park during 2008 will clarify the conservation status of Hog Deer there (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In South Asia there is an urgent need to update the status review of Biswas and Mathur (2000), even though some large Hog Deer populations inhabit some of the best-secured protected areas in the world. Even assuming that these protected areas continue to receive sufficient material and political support, such a review is necessary because all populations face uncertain futures from a multitude of factors, some of which originate outside protected areas and beyond the zone of influence of protected area managers. The review needs to determine roughly the numbers remaining and the locations of all sizeable or potentially sizeable populations, and especially for each make assessments of current and likely future conservation status and population trends, bearing in mind threats from poaching, agricultural encroachment, livestock grazing, natural habitat succession, perverse habitat management, invasive plant species, the risk of disease epidemics from domestic livestock, changes to water levels and flows (e.g. from upstream dams), further fragmentation of populations and habitats, episodic mortality through flooding and abiotic risks such as insurgency (which can collapse protected area management, although it does not always do so). Confinement of populations to small habitat patches isolated from other such patches raises the intrinsic threat of subpopulation loss significantly when considering the wide gamut of threats facing such populations (Biswas and Singh 2002; Biswas 2004), and in some sites challenges may be so pervasive that long-term retention of Hog Deer populations may be so difficult as to be an inefficient use of resources. An integrated South Asia-wide conservation plan may be the best route to direct resources to a representative set of areas where long-term persistence of large Hog Deer populations can be assured provided sufficient resources are mobilised and deployed in the appropriate way. <br/><br/>By contrast, in Southeast Asia, any population found east of central Thailand (i.e. within the historical range of <em>A. p. annamiticus</em>, the western limit of which is not clear) warrants immediate attention. It is plausible that the recently found small and fragile population in Cambodia is the last stock of this taxon. The isolated small populations in Bangladesh and China, although presumably (particularly in Bangladesh) of the nominate race, warrant priority protection in maintaining the ancestral geographic and habitat range of Hog Deer. Species-specific intervention in Myanmar should probably, given the great challenges in the country (and, specifically, the uneven success to date with Eld’s Deer <em>Rucervus eldii</em> conservation), be fitted within larger initiatives such as conservation of the Hukaung Valley, probably the largest floodplain in tropical Asia retaining largely natural ecological processes of stream geography and habitat dynamics.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, where the species is restricted to privately-owned gardens, its survival depends on the goodwill of the landowners. The conservation value of this introduced population needs re-evaluation, considering approximate population size, recent population trend, ecological integrity of the population and any genetic uniqueness, balanced against the likely cost of conservation interventions to secure the population’s future. Needs of other introduced populations are not considered here.<br/><br/>There is a large total of animals in zoos of tropical Asia. Although at least one Mekong animal appeared in a zoo recently (in Cambodia in the mid 1990s; C.M. Poole pers. comm. 1998), so far as is known, all captive herds are derived from populations from Myanmar and further west. Reintroduction of animals in the range of the nominate, should it be needed, thus has many options. There is no captive buffer for <em>A. p. annamiticus</em>.	eng
41784	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md., Sagar Baral, H., Long, B. & Maxwell, A., 2008	The Hog Deer historically occurred from Pakistan, throughout northern and northeastern India, including the Himalayan foothill zone, east across non-Sundaic Southeast Asia and, marginally, southern China (southern Yunnan province), but is now reduced to isolated populations within this range. It is almost extirpated from east of Myanmar. It is extinct in Thailand (where it has, however, been introduced) and almost certainly in Viet Nam and Lao PDR (Humphrey and Bain 1990; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Very small numbers have been found recently in Bangladesh, in one small region of Cambodia (Khan 2004; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007), and, reportedly, China (per B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008); although details of the latter have not yet been traced, it is believed to involve a population of at most a few dozen, at one site. Hog Deer still probably occur in at least several areas of Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008, from various sources), and localised populations survive in northern and northeastern India, Nepal, Bhutan (few recent data) and Pakistan (status uncertain) (Biswas and Mathur 2000; Biswas 2004). Hog Deer has been introduced into Sri Lanka, Australia (specifically the coastal regions of south and east Gippsland; Moore and Mayze 1990), and the United States (Texas, Florida, and Hawaii) (Grubb 2005) (but is not mapped in these last two).	eng
41784	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md., Sagar Baral, H., Long, B. & Maxwell, A., 2008	Hog Deer have usually been reported from habitat consisting of wet or moist tall grasslands, often associated with medium- to large-sized rivers (Bhowmik <em>et al</em>. 1999; Biswas and Mathur 2000; Biswas 2004), and appears to reach its highest densities in floodplain grasslands (Seidensticker 1976; Dhungel and O’Gara 1991; Karanth and Nichols 2000; Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). It avoids closed-canopy forest, but will use coastal grasslands (e.g. Peacock 1933). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) considered Hog Deer to be an obligate grassland species in the Terai Arc Landscape of India, and studies in India and Nepal have show a preference for grasslands dominated by <em>Imperata cylindrical</em> (Biswas 2004 and references therein). Similar alluvial floodplain grassland seems to be used in Thailand and Indochina (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007; Clark undated; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In Bardia National Park, measured densities were much higher in the floodplain association than in the riverine association, and no Hog Deer were found in adjacent Sal <em>Shorea robusta</em> forest at all (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). The remnant population in Bangladesh is located in grassy, lightly wooded, hill country (Khan 2004). Similar habitats are used by Hog Deer in India, where they are seem to be marginal habitats supporting only low-density populations (Anwaruddin Choudhury pers. comm. 2006): they may historically have been primarily ‘sink’ populations. The reintroduced semi-wild populations in Thailand occupy a variety of habitats for which there is no evidence of use by wild populations in Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam or Cambodia. One of the few detailed historical accounts of an abundant population in South-east Asia was from extensive tall floodplain grasslands in the Dong Nai catchment, Viet Nam (Clark undated). Hog Deer is a primarily a grazer of young grasses, particularly <em>Imperata cylindrica</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> spp.; it also takes herbs, flowers, fruits, and browse (young leaves and shoots of shrubs) (Bhowmik <em>et al</em>. 1999; Dhungel and O’Gara 1991; Bisawas 2004; Wegge <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is much more a grazer and less a browser than is the Sambar Rusa unicolor. Introduced animals occur in scrub and cinnamon gardens in Sri Lanka, where they cause considerable damage to home crops (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992).<br/><br/>Where undisturbed, Hog Deer tend to be crepuscular, with significant day-time activity and some at night, especially in the hot and wet seasons (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In some areas it seems to have become more nocturnal and solitary (e.g. Cambodia; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), presumably through hunting pressure. The main social group is a female and fawn. When more Hog Deer are together, they do not form a strong "unit", fleeing when flushed in different directions rather than as one. In Chitwan, aggregations of up to 20 animals have been observed feeding on new shoots following fire (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In Kaziranga, aggregations of 40–80 animals are frequently seen on grazing grounds created by Great Indian Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis and/or short grasslands near large water bodies (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008, based on observations in 1996). Home ranges vary widely in size, but average about 5–70 ha, depending on how the range is defined (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991; Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Chitwan, Hog Deer are essentially sedentary (Dhungel and O’Gara (1991), but in cultivated landscapes (Sri Lanka) movements are reported to be influenced by agricultural seasons (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992). They move into higher-lying grasslands in response to monsoon flooding in India, Myanmar and presumably throughout their range (Peacock 1933; Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995). The rut is during September–October in Nepal and India and (presumably based on captives) during September–February in China. 1–2 fawns are born during April–May in Nepal and during April–October in China. Gestation period is 220–230 days (Dhungel and O’Gara 1991; Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993). Fawns wean at six months, reaching sexual maturity at 8–12 months. The maximum recorded life span is 20 years.	eng
41784	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md., Sagar Baral, H., Long, B. & Maxwell, A., 2008	<em>Pakistan</em><br/>Hog Deer are confined to isolated riverine grasslands along the Indus valley and its upper tributaries, mostly in the Indus River forest reserves of Sind Province, with small populations around the Indus mouth and to the north of Sukkur (Roberts 1977). The species was listed for the protected areas of Chashma Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, Head Islam/Chak Kotora Game Reserve (greatly reduced in number), Lal Suhanra National Park (reintroduced), Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, and possibly Rasool Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary (WCMC 1992), but no information more recent than Whale (1996) has been traced.<br/><br/><em>India</em><br/>Hog Deer are found mainly in the terai grasslands along the Himalayan foothills and the flood-plains of the Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra, from Punjab in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east (Tandon 1989; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; Biswas 2004). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004), who made extensive surveys of the Terai Arc Landscape of India (for Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> and various prey species), considered that Dudhwa Tiger Reserve is excellent habitat for Hog Deer; that there was a reasonable population in Pilhibit Forest Division, particularly the Lagga Bagga forest block (now within a tiger reserve; B. Long pers. comm. 2008); that Kishanpur Wildife Sanctuary (203 km²), with one of the few remnants of terai habitat in India, supported considerable numbers, and that Katarniaghat Wildife Division also held Hog Deer. Assessments conducted specifically for Hog Deer by Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002) (see also Biswas 2004) for India surmised that populations remained in 29–34 areas, with significant numbers only in the following: Arunachal Pradesh: 100–200 in D’ering, and 20–50 in Namdapha; Assam: 20–50 in Dibrusaikhowa, over 1,000 in Kaziranga (but see below), over 1,000 in Manas, 20–50 in Nameiri, 200–500 in Orang, 20–50 in Kobuchapori, 20–50 in Burachapori, and 20–50 in Sunai Rupa; Bihar: 100–200 in Valmiki; Uttrakand (= Uttaranchal): 200–500 in Corbett Tiger Reserve (but see below); Uttar Pradesh: 1,000–2,000 in Dudhwa, 20–50 in Katarniaghat, 100–200 in Kishanpur, and 20–50 in North Kheri Forest Division; and West Bengal: 100–200 in Gorumara and a population at Jaldapara. Their estimate for Pilhibit Forest Division was zero, <em>contra</em> Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004). Biswas’s study also considered that Hog Deer had been lost from 35 historically known localities, and suggested it was ‘endangered’, with citations given for alarming decline even prior to the mid 1970s (Biswas 2004). The figures were not derived from rigorous sampling and some will surely need revision. Particularly, it is certain that there are over 10,000 Hog Deer in Kaziranga, with a best estimate of 14,000–16,000, at ecological densities of 38.6 (with SE 3.45) animals per km² (Karanth and Nicholls 2000; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008); and in Corbett Tiger Reserve, only about 100 were reported in 2008 by Bivash Pandav (pers. comm. 2008) and while the actual number is unclear, densities are now very low, even in prime habitat (K.M. Chinnappa and Praveen per N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), and a rapid decline is in place (Ajith Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Dudhwa Tiger Reserve also faces a suite of conservation problems meaning that population status of Hog Deer there is unlikely to be as healthy as in Kaziranga: poaching is rampant, and the creeper <em>Tiliacora acuminate</em> is proliferating across Hog Deer habitat (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). At Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, where Biswas (1999) studied ecology of Hog Deer in the 1990s, sightings, and presumably populations, have now drastically declined (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer are now primarily restricted to protected areas (Anwaruddin Choudhury pers. comm. 2006), but south of Rajaji National Park there are a few isolated groups along the river (perhaps totalling about 100 animals); these are outside protected areas (Bivash Pandav pers. comm. 2008). All such populations outside protected areas are in very rapid decline (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). The presence of this species in Manipur and southern Assam (close to Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura) is based on records in Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002); its current status there is unknown. All groups in these areas were estimated to be very small, and should not be assumed to persist.<br/><br/><em>Bangladesh</em><br/>The Hog Deer have disappeared from the Sundarbans (Salter 1984) and has not been reported from the Sylhet District, in the northeast, since the 1970s (Khan 2004). After a long period with no records, an animal was trapped by local people in 2002 (Khan 2004). Further surveys suggested that a few Hog Deer remained in the Chitagong Hill Tracts of the southeast (Khan 2004; Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008). There is a small captive population derived from native animals (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008). Within historic times, Hog Deer was never widespread in the country and pressure was on it from at least the 1970s (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Nepal</em><br/>Hog Deer are locally abundant in the terai, but is now restricted largely, if not entirely, to protected areas (Pralad Yonzon pers. comm. 2006; Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Although populations may currently be relatively stable, declines in the past 20–30 years are likely to have exceeded 30% (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Measured densities range from 0.1 per km² in riverine forest, to 16.5 per km² in savanna, and 35 per km² in grassland flood-plains (Seidensticker 1976; Dhungel and O’Gara 1991). In Bardia National Park, densities of 77.3 animals per km² in the floodplain association and 5.8 animals per km² in the riverine association (and 0 in Sal forest) were measured (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species occurs in the following protected areas: Parsa Wildlife Reserve (with a very small population), Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Bardia National Park, Chitwan National Park, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Each of Suklaphanta, Bardia, and Chitwan supports hundreds of Hog Deer.<br/><br/><em>Bhutan</em><br/>Hog Deer occur in the lowlands of southern Bhutan, but no information on current status has been traced. It occurs in at least two protected areas, Mochu Wildlife Reserve and Royal Manas National Park.<br/><br/><em>China</em><br/>Hog Deer historically were recorded in China from the lowest valleys of Xishuangbanna in southern Yunnan, and has recently been stated to be extinct in the country (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Smith and Xie Yan 2008). Reportedly, however, an animal was reportedly found at Yongde Daxueshan National Nature Reserve, Yunnan (west of the Mekong), in 2007 (per B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Myanmar</em><br/>Hog Deer have long been known in Myanmar (e.g. Evans 1902) and occurred throughout the country wherever there were grassy plains (Peacock 1933). Detailed information on Hog Deer’s current range or population status in Myanmar has not been traced. It was already in major decline by the time Peacock (1933) wrote. It was listed only for three protected areas by WCMC (1992): Pidaung, Kahilu, and Hlawga Wildlife Reserves. Of these, the Hlawga population of many dozen (in 2007) is a semi-captive, managed herd: the entire area, of several square kilometers, is fenced; however, it may be ‘native’ in that the founders were reputedly from animals captured locally during the 1980s (Saw Htoo Tha Po verbally 2007 to J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). The Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary was set aside in 1918 to protect an unusual mix of evergreen forest and savanna-like ecosystems (Milton <em>et al</em>. 1964), and Hog Deer used to be very numerous within it (Peacock 1933); at this time it was the only site in the country where Hog Deer received a measure of protection. Today, the presence of permanent human settlements, roads and railway lines, plantations of sugar cane, military camps, and permanent cultivation have completely altered large portions of the sanctuary, and an insignificant area of the original ecosystem remains (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002). These land-uses are concentrated in the plains parts of the sanctuary, where Hog Deer used to live, and have converted so absolutely these areas that it is not obvious to someone driving along the road when the protected area is entered or exited. People and dogs are ubiquitous and it seems implausible that any Hog Deer could survive here (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on visits in 2005–2006). There are, however, plausible hunters’ and conservation staff reports from Hukaung Valley in Kachin state, and several government staff indicated in 2005–2007 that the species is still locally common in lowland Myanmar. However, firm evidence for widespread continued presence, rather than reporting of a status of some decades previously could not be found (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Pidaung was seen as a flagship protected area (it was one of the country’s first), and its current status does not augur well for the few other protected areas which contain suitable Hog Deer habitat. Extensive camera-trapping for a Tiger survey found no evidence of the species (Lynam 2003), but this may simply have reflected the focus of the survey on closed evergreen forests (habitats unsuitable for Hog Deer), as various other species known to be common but not using closed evergreen forest were also camera-trapped rarely if at all (Than Zaw <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Thailand</em><br/>The species was formerly abundant in the Chao Phraya Basin during the early 20th century, but had become extinct there by the mid-1960s (Humphrey and Bain 1990). There was formerly a huge export trade, for example 20,000 skins went out of the Gulf of Siam (it is not stated whether this was from Thailand, Cambodia, or both) in 1930–1931 (Dumas 1944). There was a plea for conservation attention to the species in Thailand in Lekagul and McNeely (1977), but this seems to have come too late. Animals reportedly from Myanmar have been used to build up numerous managed herds in captive and semi-wild conditions across the country. Such animals were introduced into Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary and Propagation Station in northern Thailand in the early 1990s, at a higher elevation than is typical for the natural range of the species; this herd lives in open grassland around the edge of a reservoir (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006). There is also an apparently large introduced population on the island of Ko Chang in the Gulf of Siam.<br/><br/><em>Lao PDR</em><br/>Hog Deer are probably extinct in Lao PDR and its past status is difficult to assess: there are few, if any, specimens held in international collections from the country, and there were no records (except of old trophies) during extensive surveys across the country in the 1990s (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, Osgood (1932) specifically cautioned that it was much under-represented in zoological collections, despite it being locally common in Indochina. The extent to which this statement includes Lao PDR is unknown. All potentially suitable habitat patches are now small in size and are heavily used by local people, hunting pressure in Lao is high, and it is inconceivable in the great majority of areas that any Hog Deer could still persist (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/><em>Viet Nam</em><br/>Hog Deer are thought to be extinct in Viet Nam, having previously occurred in some large populations in suitable habitat (e.g. Clark undated) and apparently having been widespread in the south according to reports in Ratajszczak (1991). This reflects the rapidity with which suitable habitat has been lost and the heavy hunting pressure on large mammals throughout much of Viet Nam (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Timmins and Duckworth 2000). If the species still occurs in Viet Nam, it is most likely to be along the Kon river in Kon Cha Rang Nature Reserve, the western Srepok river lowlands of Dak Lak Province, the Sa Tay area of Kon Tum and Gia Lai Provinces, the Dong Nai river lowlands and Lam Dong Province (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, there is no recent evidence other than anecdotal reports, and a trophy which may be of Hog Deer from the Kon Cha Rang NR area. Other evidence, notably high hunting rates of ungulates in general, suggest that even very small numbers are unlikely to survive (Dang Huy Huynh 1986; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Cambodia</em><br/>Hog Deer used to be abundant on the vast marshy plains of Cambodia, such as around Sre Ambel, in the province of Kratie, around Kompong Som, and around Kampot; in the drier regions of much of the north it was not common (Dumas 1944). Increased wildlife surveys from 1994 onwards failed to find Hog Deer anywhere in Cambodia until it was re-found in Kratie in 2006, following concerns it might already be extinct (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007). A few animals, probably in the low dozens, remain scattered in small groups in remnant areas of floodplain grasslands and other vegetation in Kratie Province (Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007; Bezuijen <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Other such populations might remain, but this becomes progressively less likely as surveys cover more potential areas without finding the species, and as the country rapidly converts remaining semi-natural lowland river plains to agriculture (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Sri Lanka</em> (introduced)<br/>Hog Deer are restricted to largely cultivated landscapes within a 35 km² area, between Ambalangoda and Indurawa on the southwest coast, and inland as far as Elpitiya (McCarthy and Dissanayake 1992, 1994). It does not occur in any protected area. Hog Deer was probably introduced to Sri Lanka by the Dutch or the Portugese in the 16th century, or possibly by a Sinhalese ruler in the pre-colonial period or the British later on; suggestions that it is native lack credibility because of the absence of records across central and southern India (Biswas and Mathur 2000).	eng
41784	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md., Sagar Baral, H., Long, B. & Maxwell, A., 2008	Hog Deer is threatened by habitat factors and by hunting, and much prime Hog Deer habitat had probably been converted well before the twentieth century (e.g. Peacock 1933). The balance between these threats and their current severity varies somewhat between ‘South Asia’ (here comprising India, Nepal, presumably Bhutan, and perhaps Pakistan) and ‘South-east Asia’ (here comprising China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, and Bangladesh). There is insufficient information to judge for Myanmar into which group it would fit, reflecting current threats and resultant Hog Deer status. Sri Lanka is outside the native range so not considered in detail here.<br/><br/>In the Mekong countries of Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, and also probably China and Bangladesh, hunting has been and remains the primary direct threat to the species. In addition to local consumption of meat, the main factor presently driving such hunting is the thriving and probably increasing national, regional and East Asian markets trade in bushmeat, abetted by markets for traditional medicinal products derived from deer species and for trophy antlers (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also possible that hunting could be stimulated by demand for captive animals, especially from zoos and menageries in Thailand and Cambodia (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The species is apparently easy to hunt compared with other sympatric deer (e.g. Peacock 1933, Dumas 1944), and fawns are likely to be very vulnerable to dogs which almost always accompany human parties during excursions, however, brief, outside farm and residential land, even if these are not for hunting (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting itself has been greatly augmented by habitat loss: the vast majority of tall floodplain grasslands have been lost in the region due to the suitability of such habitat for human settlement and agriculture, and only very small patches remain. This huge extent of habitat loss probably occurred largely after Hog Deer had been hunted down to negligible numbers (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Given these threats, which are ongoing, Hog Deer is one of the most threatened large mammals in Indochina (Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The most significant challenge to conserving the species there is the uncertainty involved with long term protected area-based conservation management. The area in Cambodia from which deer are known has been proposed as a protected area, but it remains to be seen if deer could be protected within the area.<br/><br/>Even in South Asia, where many protected areas are effective in conserving populations of large ungulates, Hog Deer declined precipitously in the twentieth century through habitat loss and hunting. It is still in decline even within some protected areas (e.g. Bhowmik 2002; see below). In India, habitat loss to cultivation has greatly reduced the area available to Hog Deer, and has continued to do so outside protected areas even in recent decades (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) stated that high levels of malaria had previously discouraged settlement, agriculture, and thus habitat conversion in the Terai Arc Landscape, and that the conquering of malaria has made the Indian side of the Terai Arc Landscape "one of the most densely populated regions of [India, with a] population growing at a much higher rate than the rest of [India]. Most of the fertile terai plains have been taken over by agriculture". Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. (2004) stated that controlling disturbance to Lagga Bagga forest block in Pilibhit Forest Division (now within a tiger reserve; B. Long pers. comm. 2008) is a huge challenge: many people rely on it for firewood, thatch grass and fodder, and that intensive protection and participatory management with these people are required to restore the area. Such a threat profile is typical of areas supporting Hog Deer. Outside protected areas, some Hog Deer remain in woodland areas where densities are very low, and although animals do appear to breed in such situations, it is unclear in the absence of adjacent high-density river plains populations how viable such woodland populations will be in the long term (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006). Protected areas are encroached for cultivation and even more so for livestock grazing, which is surely increasing pressure on Hog Deer along with many other species. As a grazing species, Hog Deer numbers are likely to be severely depressed by competition with domestic livestock (by analogy with other wild ruminants, as detailed by Madhusudan 2004), although no data were traced on this. Domestic stock are ubiquitous in all areas outside the protected area network and even occur in many within it, specifically at least: Chitwan; Orang; Jaldapara; and Gorumara (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; R.H. Emslie pers. comm.; B.N. Talukdar pers. comm. S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Most populations in India are under severe threat from hunting (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), although the largest population of the species, in Kaziranga, has been secured from this threat for many years. Poaching occurs in protected areas throughout the Indian range, especially in north Bengal, and can be associated with other human uses of protected areas perceived to be more legitimate, such as grazing camps (Biswas 2004). Many old skulls of Hog Deer were found across Arunachal Pradesh and Assam during the survey of Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002). On average 2–3 skulls were recorded from most houses in villages randomly visited during the survey in Arunachal Pradesh. Regularly, shots were heard and machans (tree-houses made for poaching) were found during the surveys in Nameri National Park, Sonai-Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary and Namdapha Tiger Reserve. According to questionnaire, 52% of responses reported high incidence of Hog Deer hunting in neighbouring areas. Hunting was reported as the primary reason for the sudden decline of the Hog Deer population from north Bengal since 1877. Biswas <em>et al</em>. (2002) detailed evidence of Hog Deer hunting during the survey and past records from the district of Cooch Behar (West Bengal) back to the 18th century. Even today, even in high-profile areas such a Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park, there are still instances of deer poaching, and poaching has seriously depleted abundance of large mammals in most of the Terai Arc Landscape. Some poaching is driven by a desire to seek adventure, the thrill of shikar and wild meat, some by crushing poverty of daily wage labourers and others, some to take advantage of the business opportunity of supplying a lucrative trade. Poaching is done with dogs, snares, spears and guns (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). Outside protected areas in India, enforcement of anti-hunting regulations is patchy and, unless there is effective specific intervention, all Hog Deer populations in such areas will become extirpated in the near future from hunting (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer avidly eats rice and so in the past was “destroyed ruthlessly on such grounds” (Peacock 1933). It seems unlikely that killing Hog Deer solely for reduction of crop damage is nowadays a reason for population decline, although it may be a convenient excuse to kill deer. Most serious is that the predilection of Hog Deer to eat rice is likely to being them into closer contact with people and therefore increase easy opportunities for hunting. In Kratie, Cambodia, Hog Deer occur near, and seasonally forage in, rice fields, especially in the early rainy season; people set traps for wild pigs <em>Sus</em> sp(p). (which are more abundant than Hog Deer), and the traps sometimes kill Hog Deer. The local people now are reportedly refraining from using indiscriminate traps in the Hog Deer area, but such cooperation is unlikely to continue forever, because crop predation by pigs is really a problem (A. Maxwell pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In today’s highly fragmented populations which have limited dispersal possibility, flooding may take heavy tolls, especially in the Brahmaputra flood plain (Q. Qureshi pers. comm. 1995). In Kaziranga National Park, where the largest population of this species is found, flooding is likely to be a major threat: in 1998 the flood reduced the population to less than half its pre-flood number (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006). The situation is similar in Nepal where Hog Deer appears to be especially vulnerable because of the short-grass habitats it usually uses during flood season, and in protected area like Koshi Tappu, flooding probably causes wide fluctuations in population numbers (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Hog Deer populations appear to rebound quickly even from heavy losses, but the fragmentation and increasing isolation of populations into small areas, sometimes with no linkage to suitable higher ground, makes periodic losses from flooding a high risk for future site-level extinctions. Flooding is also a danger because, except in areas of effective anti-poaching activity, by marooning Hog Deer on little patches of high ground it makes them more easy to hunt (Peacock 1933).<br/><br/>A further threat also reflects the colossal habitat fragmentation in recent centuries. Prime Hog Deer habitats are naturally dynamic, and on a living floodplain new areas of grasslands are constantly created through natural processes to replace those changing through natural succession to woody vegetation; creation occurs through traumatic change of floodplain stream and land layout during spates (Dinerstein 1979; Lehmkuhl 1994; Peet <em>et al</em>. 1999). This is incompatible with farming and other human land-uses, which seek a predictable landscape. Hence, within Hog Deer range, there are very few active natural floodplains in which pre-exploitation processes shape the landscape in this way. Thus, the grasslands which are the prime habitat of Hog Deer generally require active management. In some protected areas grasslands are being lost by succession of wooded habitats, for example Chitwan (A. Choudhury pers. comm. 2006) and Bardia (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). By contrast, annual burning in Kaziranga, while maintaining a grass habitat, has rapidly changed the grassland structure and composition and how this change affects Hog Deer populations is not known (S. Deb Roy pers. comm. 1996). In Nepal there is also succession of different grassland types and in particular <em>Imperata cylindrica</em> grasslands, which Hog Deer appears to favour at certain times of the year (Biswas 2004), are being replaced by larger cane grasses (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Locally, conservation management of grasslands to benefit rhinoceroses, for instance in Jaldapara, might negatively affect Hog Deer (Biswas 2004 and references within).<br/><br/>The invasive creeper <em>Mikania</em> sp. threatens Hog Deer’s favoured grasslands both within and outside protected areas, and after flooding and poaching is possibly the next most serious threat to the species in Nepal (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). In combination with invasion by <em>Chromolaena odorata</em> (=<em>Eupatorium odoratum</em>), heavy livestock grazing pressure and invasion of some grasslands by <em>Acacia catechu</em> and <em>Dalbergia sissou</em>, the grassland area in Chitwan has been reduced from 20% to 4.7% of the national park (R.H. Emslie pers. comm.). <em>Mikania</em> sp. Is also carpeting large areas of non-forest habitats in the Hukaung Valley, Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> is also displacing native plants widely, and in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, the creeper <em>Tiliacora acuminata</em> is proliferating across Hog Deer habitat (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). In Assam an invasive <em>Mimosa</em> sp. threatens the habitat in sites like Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, whereas in Manas National Park an invasive <em>Lea</em> sp. has become a major threat to the grassland habitat of the hog deer (B. Talukdar pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Floodplain grasslands are strongly affected in their pace of natural succession by water flows and levels, and seasonal patterns in them. Hydropower development changes these parameters and thus threatens habitat, including a project under consideration across the Mekong which would affect the sole known population of <em>A. p. annamiticus</em> (that in Cambodia), and another across the Karnali river which would modify habitats in Bardia, Nepal (Odden <em>et al</em>. 2005). There have been proposals to dam the Brahmaputra River in Arunachal Pradesh, and should this happen, this could very negatively affect the habitat quality and Hog Deer carrying capacity of major parks like Kaziranga in future (by preventing or reducing the pulse of nutrients brought in by regular large floods, as well as changes in water levels and flows). In Jaldapara Sanctuary, the River Torsa no longer overflows as a result of massive flood-control structures. As a result the water table in the sanctuary is receding and the natural water-bodies and wallow-pools are slowly drying up (S.S. Bist pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Disease epidemics spreading from domestic livestock presumably pose a threat, especially given the close overlap of Hog Deer and domestic livestock in South Asia, the high densities especially of the latter, and the small and localised nature of Hog Deer populations.<br/><br/>In the introduced range, in Sri Lanka the continued survival of the introduced populations depends on controlling hunting and maintaining traditional agricultural land use practices. The land is too intensively cultivated for the establishment of protected areas within the range of the species. Threats in the rest of the introduced range are not reviewed here.	eng
41785	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extend by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation.	eng
41785	conservation	Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extend by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation.<br/><br/>This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus hanglu</span>), Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus bactrianus</span>) and Appendix III (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cervus elaphus barbarus</span> [Algeria and Tunisia]).	eng
41785	conservation	Sandro Lovari, Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies <em>C. e. corsicanus </em>is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).<br/><br/>Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extent by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation. In this respect the following populations are important and should be given a high priority for conservation and research:<br/><br/><strong>Swedish Red Deer (<em>C. e. elaphus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Red deer population of Skåne, Southern Sweden<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>C. e. elaphus</em> with original distribution in central Europe and southern Scandinavia has its only remaining free-living population that is free from hybridization in Skåne, Sweden (Ahlén 1965, I. Ahlén pers. comm. 2007). Genetic studies have confirmed that there is no mixing with eastern European or wapiti genes that has affected all other populations in central Europe, Denmark and other parts of Sweden. In the official Swedish Red List produced in 2005 this subspecies was classified as VU (D1) (Gärdenfors 2005). <br/><br/><strong>Norwegian Red Deer (<em>C. e. atlanticus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>All red deer occurring in Norway still represent pure <em>C.e. atlanticus</em>, with the only exception being the isolated population on the Island of Otteroy, which has experienced an inflow of genes from introduced red deer from Germany (Ahlén 1965, Trense CIC pers. comm. to W. Frey).<br/><br/><strong>Scottish Red Deer (<em>C. e. scoticus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Otago Mountains Red deer population, New Zealand<br/><br/>The red deer population of the Otago Mountains was established in 1871 with animals from Invermark Forest, Scotland, long before these could have been polluted through introductions from other sources. Unfortunately there are deer farms now all around the periphery of the Otago Mountains, from which animals escape from time to time. Red deer from the central sections of the range land however are still pure <em>C.e. scoticus</em>. This has been supported by the results of genetic investigations (Banwell pers. comm. to W. Frey). Banwell recommends that some of these animals pure bred animals should be removed before it is too late, and Frey suggested that an isolated population should be established in Great Britain with animals from this source, as according to Carne (2000) there is no red deer population left in Great Britain and Ireland that reliably represents pure <em>C.e. scoticus</em> (W. Frey pers. comm. 2006). <br/><br/><strong>Central European Red Deer (<em>C. e. hippelaphus</em>)</strong><br/><br/>Western populations<br/><br/>Vosges Red deer population<br/><br/>The population of the Vosges, presently numbering c.15,000 individuals, derives from an autochthonous relict population of some 200 head. Recent contacts to the neighbouring non-autochthonous population in Germany cannot be excluded. However if gene flow between both populations has already occurred, it is believed that this should have been in one direction only: from the Vosges population to the German population (Riffel pers. comm. to W. Frey). This assumption was strongly supported by extensive genetic investigations of the Vosges population (Hartl <em>et al.</em> 1991, Hartl pers. comm. to W. Frey). The genetic integrity of the Vosges population however is threatened in the longer term, if  a pure transplant population is not established.<br/><br/><br/>Eastern populations<br/><br/>Red deer populations of Greece, Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey<br/><br/>The red deer populations of Greece and Bulgaria have remained free from admixtures of foreign genes (Trense CIC pers. comm. to W. Frey), as has the population of the Belgrad Forest in Turkey (Can pers. comm. to W. Frey)  Whilst there are about 29,000 red deer in Bulgaria (Chassovnikarova <em>et al.</em> 2003) very little is known about the status of the species in Greece, with the exception that the total number of individuals cannot be high and is concentrated in a few isolated populations. Clutton-Brock and Gill (1989) mentioned with reference to Papageorgiou that the red deer occurring on the Sithonia peninsula is in need of better protection and may deserve examination for possible sub-specific status.<br/><br/><br/>Red deer of the Italian peninsula<br/><br/>Mesola Red Deer <br/><br/>The Gran Bosco della Mesola Natural Reserve harbours the only autochthonous unmixed population of red deer in the Italian peninsula. The population size dropped to the historically lowest level of 10 animals in 1945-1947. In spring 1998 there were 59 individuals. Considering zoogeographical factors, this indigenous red deer may represent a separate subspecies (Mattioli 1990, Hmwe <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><br/><strong>Sardinian Red Deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)</strong><br/><br/>It is possible that the red deer of Sardinia and Corsica is descended from deer from mainland Italy that reached the island naturally during the Pleistocene. It is also possible that it was introduced by man in Holocene times (Hmwe <em>et al.</em> 2006). Genetic studies suggest that populations on Sardinia and Corsica are closely related to the north African subspecies <em>C. e. barbarus</em> (Ludt <em>et al.</em> 2004, Pitra <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><br/><strong>Iberian Red Deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus)</strong><br/><br/>Iberian subspecies <em>C.e. hispanicus</em> might represent a relict of the red deer populations before the last Ice Age. The Coto Doñana red deer population represents pure <em>C.e. hispanicus</em> (Riffel pers. comm. to W. Frey), and there are probably more unmixed populations left of this subspecies (W. Frey pers. comm. 2006). Nevertheless, it is considered to be threatened by genetic introgression from introduced animals from other parts of Europe. There have been many introductions of allochthonous red deer by private landowners seeking to "improve" the antlers, only some of which have been documented. (Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
41785	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The red deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America (Corbet 1978, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). Formerly widespread in Canada and the United States, it is now mostly restricted to western North America, with small reintroduced populations elsewhere (Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia. It is extinct in Albania. There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin. There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred. Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map. <br/><br/>In Africa it is found in NE Algeria and Tunisia. It is in the near and Middle East in Turkey, N Iran, and Iraq, but extinct in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. In central Asia, it is found in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (extinct), Uzbekistan, N Afghanistan, N India (Kashmir Valley), N Pakistan (vagrant), east to Siberia, Mongolia, and W and N China.  It is found regionally in Mongolia in Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii, Ikh Hyangan, Mongol-Altai and Govi Altai mountain ranges; it was reintroduced into open hills in south-eastern parts of its range (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1982; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989). In China, specifically, it is found in Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Manchuria, Ninxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, and E Tibet including Qinghai.  It also inhabits Korea and the Ussuri region of Russia.	eng
41785	distribution	Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The red deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America (Corbet 1978, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). Formerly widespread in Canada and the United States, it is now mostly restricted to western North America, with small reintroduced populations elsewhere (Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia. It is extinct in Albania. There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin. There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred. Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map. <br/><br/>In Africa it is found in NE Algeria and Tunisia. It is in the near and Middle East in Turkey, N Iran, and Iraq, but extinct in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. In central Asia, it is found in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (extinct), Uzbekistan, N Afghanistan, N India (Kashmir Valley), N Pakistan (vagrant), east to Siberia, Mongolia, and W and N China.  It is found regionally in Mongolia in Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii, Ikh Hyangan, Mongol-Altai and Govi Altai mountain ranges; it was reintroduced into open hills in south-eastern parts of its range (Sokolov <em>et al.</em>, 1982; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989). In China, specifically, it is found in Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Manchuria, Ninxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, and E Tibet including Qinghai.  It also inhabits Korea and the Ussuri region of Russia.	eng
41785	distribution	Sandro Lovari, Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The red deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America (Corbet 1978, Koubek and Zima 1999, Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and most of European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia. It is extinct in Albania. There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin. There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border (A. Tikhonov pers. comm. 2006). In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred. Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map.	eng
41785	habitat	Sandro Lovari, Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows (Koubek and Zima 1999). In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.	eng
41785	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows (Koubek and Zima 1999). In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.<br/><br/>Generally found in mountainous regions, where it spends summers in alpine meadows and winters in valleys. On more level terrain, seeks wooded hillsides in summer, open grasslands in winter. In the USA, Pacific coast populations are more sedentary than are those elsewhere. Migrates from areas with deep snow. Some individuals in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, migrate up to 97 kilometers annually (Adams 1982).<br/><br/>Bushes and trees are critical for protection from predators such as wolves, and as an important source of food during the winter in the form of browse (Chen <em>et al.</em>, 1998). During the September-October rut, Mongolian populations of red deer congregate in large groups and are more often found in open lowland areas (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Found in China up to 5,000 m, animals come lower into valleys in winter.  They live in small herds of females and young, gathering into larger herds in winter.  Stags live singly or form all male herds in summer, but gather harems in rut season in late summer, without obvious territories.  Natural lifespan is about 15 years, but a captive animal lived up to almost 27 years.  Calving occurs in June-July following a gestation of 235 days.  Females drop single calves in late spring. Young are mature at 1.5-2.5 years.	eng
41785	habitat	Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows (Koubek and Zima 1999). In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.<br/><br/>Generally found in mountainous regions, where it spends summers in alpine meadows and winters in valleys. On more level terrain, seeks wooded hillsides in summer, open grasslands in winter. In the USA, Pacific coast populations are more sedentary than are those elsewhere. Migrates from areas with deep snow. Some individuals in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, migrate up to 97 kilometers annually (Adams 1982).<br/><br/>Bushes and trees are critical for protection from predators such as wolves, and as an important source of food during the winter in the form of browse (Chen <em>et al.</em>, 1998). During the September-October rut, Mongolian populations of red deer congregate in large groups and are more often found in open lowland areas (Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>. 1989).<br/><br/>Found in China up to 5,000 m, animals come lower into valleys in winter.  They live in small herds of females and young, gathering into larger herds in winter.  Stags live singly or form all male herds in summer, but gather harems in rut season in late summer, without obvious territories.  Natural lifespan is about 15 years, but a captive animal lived up to almost 27 years.  Calving occurs in June-July following a gestation of 235 days.  Females drop single calves in late spring. Young are mature at 1.5-2.5 years.	eng
41785	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is a widespread and abundant species across much of its current range, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in northern Africa, central Europe and in the western USA and Canada, and the species has been lost from some areas. In portions of North America where predators have been removed the species is common  and populations are managed by recreational hunting. Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). The species has been extirpated in historical times from Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan.<br/><br/>Populations in Northern Africa, however, have been increasingly declining. In Algeria, <em>C. e. barbarus</em> persists in the Annaba, Bouchegouf, and El-Kala regions, where it is restricted to the Beni-Salah, Ben Abed, and El-Kala forests (DSG 1988). The total number of animals in the mid-1970s was reported to be 400?600 (Halisse 1975), and by the late 1980s reached around 2,000 animals (Dolan 1988; de Smet 1989). However, the population has been in a sharp decline since (K. de Smet pers. comm.. 2007). In Tunisia, the population was reported to have expanded considerably during the 1970s, with populations known in El Feidja, Ain Draham, and Tabarka regions (DSG 1988). The total population of ten animals in 1961 had increased to around 2,000 by the late 1980s. Much of this increase is attributed to the success of the 1966 reintroduction protection program at El Feidja, which has resulted in colonization of an approx. 100 km length of coastal Tunisia (Dolan 1988). A survey in 2006 showed that population levels were significantly lower than estimated before. In Morocco it went extinct in the early 20th century (by 1932). There have more recently been reintroductions into two enclosures but wild populations have not yet become established (F. Cuzin pers. comm.. 2007).<br/><br/>A regional assessment has been completed for this species as part of the European Mammal Assessment (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ema/), which offers more details on European occuances, populations and threats.<br/><br/>In China, some eight subspecies of red deer are present in China, of which five have threatened status: <em>C. e. yarkandensis</em> had a declining population of about 4,000?5,000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakax rivers, central Xinjiang Province (Gu Jinghe 1991); <em>C. e. wallichi</em> was thought to be present in southeastern Tibet; <em>C. e. macneilli</em> occurs in western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet, where its status is unknown; <em>C. e. alashanicus</em> occurs in the Alashan Mountains of southeastern Inner Mongolia (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). A recent survey by Schaller <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggests that <em>C. e. affinis</em> is confined to just a few localities in southeastern Tibet along the headwaters of the Subansiri River and Yarlung Tsangpo, which holds the largest known population of at least 110?125 (near Zhengi Village).	eng
41785	population	Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is a widespread and abundant species across much of its current range, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in northern Africa, central Europe and in the western USA and Canada, and the species has been lost from some areas. In portions of North America where predators have been removed the species is common  and populations are managed by recreational hunting. Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). The species has been extirpated in historical times from Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan.<br/><br/>Populations in Northern Africa, however, have been increasingly declining. In Algeria, <em>C. e. barbarus</em> persists in the Annaba, Bouchegouf, and El-Kala regions, where it is restricted to the Beni-Salah, Ben Abed, and El-Kala forests (DSG 1988). The total number of animals in the mid-1970s was reported to be 400–600 (Halisse 1975), and by the late 1980s reached around 2,000 animals (Dolan 1988; de Smet 1989). However, the population has been in a sharp decline since (K. de Smet pers. comm.. 2007). In Tunisia, the population was reported to have expanded considerably during the 1970s, with populations known in El Feidja, Ain Draham, and Tabarka regions (DSG 1988). The total population of ten animals in 1961 had increased to around 2,000 by the late 1980s. Much of this increase is attributed to the success of the 1966 reintroduction protection program at El Feidja, which has resulted in colonization of an approx. 100 km length of coastal Tunisia (Dolan 1988). A survey in 2006 showed that population levels were significantly lower than estimated before. In Morocco it went extinct in the early 20th century (by 1932). There have more recently been reintroductions into two enclosures but wild populations have not yet become established (F. Cuzin pers. comm.. 2007).<br/><br/>A regional assessment has been completed for this species as part of the European Mammal Assessment (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ema/), which offers more details on European occuances, populations and threats.<br/><br/>In China, some eight subspecies of red deer are present in China, of which five have threatened status: <em>C. e. yarkandensis</em> had a declining population of about 4,000–5,000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakax rivers, central Xinjiang Province (Gu Jinghe 1991); <em>C. e. wallichi</em> was thought to be present in southeastern Tibet; <em>C. e. macneilli</em> occurs in western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet, where its status is unknown; <em>C. e. alashanicus</em> occurs in the Alashan Mountains of southeastern Inner Mongolia (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). A recent survey by Schaller <em>et al.</em> (1996) suggests that <em>C. e. affinis</em> is confined to just a few localities in southeastern Tibet along the headwaters of the Subansiri River and Yarlung Tsangpo, which holds the largest known population of at least 110–125 (near Zhengi Village).	eng
41785	population	Sandro Lovari, Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is a widespread and abundant species, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in central Europe, and the species has been lost from some areas (EMA Workshop 2006). Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (up to c.25 per km<sup>2</sup>, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations: S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations. In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany (M. Stubbe pers. comm. 2006). Subspecies <em>C. e corsicanus</em>, endemic to the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, is relatively rare but its numbers are increasing. It was reintroduced to Corsica in the 1970s and is found in three small subpopulations, estimated in 2005 to number no fewer than 5,000 individuals (S. Lovari <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
41785	threats	Sandro Lovari, Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia, as well as hybridisation with sika deer <em>Cervus nippon</em> (Koubek and Zima 1999, EMA Workshop 2006). The introduction of animals from North America has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms). Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures (Wemmer 1998), but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present (EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
41785	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia to Europe and vice versa, as well as hybridisation with sika deer <em>Cervus nippon</em> (Koubek and Zima 1999). The introduction of animals from North America to Europe has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms). In many areas hunting is strictly regulated on this species and harvests are used to control population growth as large predators have been removed or "controlled" over much of the range. Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures (Wemmer 1998) in some areas and for some subspecies, but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, this species is primarily targeted for its antler velvet, which is highly valued in traditional medicines, with a market value of $60-100 USD per kg of antlers. Other body parts, including male genital organs, foetuses and female tails, are also valued for traditional medicines and have similar market values (Zahler <em>et al.</em>, 2004). The resulting illegal and unsustainable hunting has caused a 92% population decline over the past 18 years (Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004). Habitat loss and fragmentation, and human disturbance resulting from mining activities and infrastructure development, also constitute threats to some extent.  Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses from which $1,170 USD is allocated to the government (MNE, 2005).<br/><br/>In China the species is subject to heavy poaching (Gu Jinghe pers. comm.).  Antlers, tendons, unborn fawns, male reproductive organs, and tails from C. e. yarkandensis fetch a high price on local markets for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Current market prices for these products are increasing rapidly. Young deer are sold as stud for deer farming projects. (Gu Jinghe 1991). In India, the species historically declined due to intensive hunting, until implementation of conservation measures in the late 1970s.  High densities of domestic stock (primarily sheep) and human disturbance have also been contributing factors (Kurt 1978). In Afghanistan and the former USSR, the species is heavily poached for food, and settlement, stock grazing, and reed burning have reduced available habitat (Petocz 1973).  In Russia, it has declined as a result of development of the Amu-Darya river valley (Bannikov 1978). In Algeria and Tunisia, the species has declined due to overhunting, particularly during the Algerian War,  and habitat degradation destruction and direct mortality from anthropogenic forest fires (DSG 1988). In Corsica and Sardinia, C. e. corsicanus declined as a result of hunting (Dolan 1988).C. e. wallichi has declined predominantly as a result of hunting, but also due to pressure from pastoralism (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41785	threats	Lovari, S., Herrero. J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M. Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia to Europe and vice versa, as well as hybridisation with sika deer <em>Cervus nippon</em> (Koubek and Zima 1999). The introduction of animals from North America to Europe has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms). In many areas hunting is strictly regulated on this species and harvests are used to control population growth as large predators have been removed or "controlled" over much of the range. Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures (Wemmer 1998) in some areas and for some subspecies, but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present.<br/><br/>In Mongolia, this species is primarily targeted for its antler velvet, which is highly valued in traditional medicines, with a market value of $60-100 USD per kg of antlers. Other body parts, including male genital organs, foetuses and female tails, are also valued for traditional medicines and have similar market values (Zahler <em>et al.</em>, 2004). The resulting illegal and unsustainable hunting has caused a 92% population decline over the past 18 years (Zahler <em>et al</em>. 2004). Habitat loss and fragmentation, and human disturbance resulting from mining activities and infrastructure development, also constitute threats to some extent.  Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses from which $1,170 USD is allocated to the government (MNE, 2005).<br/><br/>In China the species is subject to heavy poaching (Gu Jinghe pers. comm.).  Antlers, tendons, unborn fawns, male reproductive organs, and tails from C. e. yarkandensis fetch a high price on local markets for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Current market prices for these products are increasing rapidly. Young deer are sold as stud for deer farming projects. (Gu Jinghe 1991). In India, the species historically declined due to intensive hunting, until implementation of conservation measures in the late 1970s.  High densities of domestic stock (primarily sheep) and human disturbance have also been contributing factors (Kurt 1978). In Afghanistan and the former USSR, the species is heavily poached for food, and settlement, stock grazing, and reed burning have reduced available habitat (Petocz 1973).  In Russia, it has declined as a result of development of the Amu-Darya river valley (Bannikov 1978). In Algeria and Tunisia, the species has declined due to overhunting, particularly during the Algerian War,  and habitat degradation destruction and direct mortality from anthropogenic forest fires (DSG 1988). In Corsica and Sardinia, C. e. corsicanus declined as a result of hunting (Dolan 1988).C. e. wallichi has declined predominantly as a result of hunting, but also due to pressure from pastoralism (Schaller <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
41786	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This is found in Nouragues Nature Reserve, French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
41786	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent was known initially from only two specimens collected in the tropical forest of French Guiana on the right bank of the Sinnamary River. There is also a collection from Guyana (Lim, in press) which extends the known distribution considerably westward. It may also occur in Suriname and Brazil. There is one additional record in Nouragues Nature Reserve, French Guiana (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
41786	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is found in tropical rain forest (Terra Firme) (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
41786	population	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	Known only from five specimens, information is absent on the population status of this species.	eng
41786	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Patton, J., 2008	The type locality disappeared as the result of the flooding of the forest during the filling of the Petit Saut Dam. 350 km² of its potential range has been flooded; access to the dam (road and electricity lines) plus fragmentation of the habitat as a result of the flooding (many islands were created) has destroyed a few more hundred square kilometres of potential habitat (F. Catzeflis pers. comm.).	eng
41787	conservation	Pergams, O., Nyberg, D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	<em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> is listed as S2 (Imperiled) in Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ontario, and Wisconsin; and as S3 (Rare) in Iowa. Thus <em>S. franklinii</em> has listed status in 6 out of 14 states and provinces of its historical range. However, many of the S4 (Apparently Secure) and S5 (Secure) rankings seem to be based on insubstantial data. Some exceptions are Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, where populations still seem to be relatively common. <em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> is unranked in Minnesota and North Dakota. There are no individuals of <em>S. franklinii</em> in captivity listed in the International Species Information System database (ISIS 2003).<br/><br/>There have been at least two introductions of <em>S. franklinii</em>, both in Illinois and both were failures. The first attempt (van Petten and Schramm 1972) succeeded for a number of years and was reportedly doing well in the late 1980s (Hoffmeister 1989: 163-164), but when the site was surveyed in 2001 by Martin <em>et al</em>. (2002), no squirrels were caught. The second attempt (Panzer and Schipp 1986) may have failed because of lack of dispersal possibilities from a small, urban site (Martin <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Recent literature and conversations indicate populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> exist in the following protected areas. Alberta: Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Lakeland Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Long Lake Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Sir Winston Churchill Provincial Park (Alberta ERM); Illinois: Barnhart Grove Prairie Restoration (Champaign County Soil and Water Conservation District); Indiana: Clark and Pine Nature Preserve (Indiana DNR), Gibson Woods/Shell Oil Nature Preserve (Lake County Parks Dept.); Manitoba: Belair Provincial Forest (Manitoba ERM), Grand Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Riding Mountain National Park (Canadian Wildlife Service), St. Ambroise Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Spruce Woods Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM); Saskatchewan: Douglas Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Duck Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Good Spirit Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Moose Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), St. Denis National Wildlife Area (Canadian Wildlife Service); Wisconsin: Chiwaukee Prairie (Wisconsin DNR/The Nature Conservancy).<br/><br/><strong>Recommended Action:</strong><br/>1. Initiate metapopulation study to determine rates and distances of <em>S. franklinii</em> colonization events. Study factors that influence colonization and extinction rates.<br/>2. Initiate genetic studies to determine genetic diversity and structure of <em>S. franklinii</em> metapopulations.<br/>3. Initiate studies of stable populations to help understand basis for population size change.<br/>4. Acquire and preserve other lands inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>5. Improve census information in all 14 states and provinces.<br/>6. Improve knowledge of vegetation and soil required by this species.<br/>7. Initiate cooperative agreements with railroads for management of rights-of-way inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em> populations (e.g., stop frequent mowing and treating with herbicide).<br/>8. Acquire for preservation abandoned railroad rights-of-way inhabited by <em>S. franklinii</em> populations, especially those connecting larger preserves.<br/>9. Identify extent to which <em>S. franklinii</em> is controlled by farmers and ranchers. Design a program compatible with conservation of <em>S. franklinii</em> and economic needs of farmers and ranchers.<br/>10. Assess effect of "poison peanuts" on <em>S. franklinii</em>. If <em>S. franklinii</em> is impacted, modify control program to mitigate effect on <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>11. Assess effect of pesticides on <em>S. franklinii</em>. If <em>S. franklinii</em> is impacted, modify pesticide program to mitigate effect on <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>12. Initiate a public education program about <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/>13. Initiate captive breeding and translocation program reintroducing animals to suitable habitats.	eng
41787	distribution	Pergams, O., Nyberg, D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the United States and Canada: from Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois northward to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. This includes parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario; and all of Iowa. Eastern (Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ontario) and southern (Kansas, Missouri) parts of its range seem to be shrinking rapidly with few populations (often estimated to be less than 10 per state or province) known to remain extant. Populations in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan still seem to be relatively common.	eng
41787	habitat	Pergams, O., Nyberg, D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a strong affinity for tall grass and mid-grass prairies. It also uses riparian areas (marsh edges), forest-field edges, fields, hedgerows, and unmowed strips along railroad rights-of-way and roadsides. It generally avoids short grass habitats. Nests are in underground burrows. It is primarily diurnal, but less conspicuous than other ground squirrels. Less than 10% of its time is spent above ground (Sowls 1948). It begins hibernation by late September.<br/><br/>It is not colonial, but lives in loose colonies. Densities of 10-20/ha have been recorded (Banfield 1974). Populations appear cyclic and peak every 4-6 years. During peak years it may occur in densities of 30/acre (74/ha) (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). In central South Dakota, the annual home range was 25 ha for males, 9 ha for females (Choromanski-Norris <em>et al.</em> 1989). <br/><br/>The breeding period is immediately after hibernation in early spring. Gestation lasts 28 days, with young being born in May or June. Litter size is 5-11 (average 7); with one litter per year. Young are weaned in 40 days.<br/><br/>Although prairie habitats may be stable or increasing, other Franklin’s Ground Squirrel habitats may be declining. The availability of suitable cover and soil structure for burrows contribute to limiting their distribution. Burrows must be deep to be insulated from heat and cold, and must be well drained. This species seems to prefer to burrow in embankments (river and ditch banks; Kennicott 1855) or berms (highway and railroad rights-of-way; Ellis 1982). This may be because: <br/><br/>1) there is better drainage; <br/>2) embankments and berms often consist of less tightly packed soil, allowing easier digging; or <br/>3) tunnels need to be shorter. <br/><br/>Elevated railroad right-of-way beds seem to provide acceptable habitats, as well as dispersal corridors. In fact, in states for which data exist, populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> have become largely restricted to railroad rights-of-way, and to some lesser extent prairie fragments. Ellis (1982) points out that such rights-of-way usually have a diversity of dicotyledonous plants and a mixture of weedy and native species. Occasionally populations are also found in road rights-of-way, prairie cemeteries, forest/grassland edges, fencerows, and fallow fields and pastures. While prairies are no longer declining dramatically in acreage, railroad right-of-way habitats are being lost to changing management techniques and abandonment. Encroachment by woody vegetation on abandoned rights-of-way may provide less suitable conditions for <em>S. franklinii</em>. It requires adequate vegetative cover, and are not found in areas with short grasses resulting from frequent mowing (more than once a year) or herbicide treatments (Benjamin 1991, Lewis and Rongstad 1992, Hofmann 1999). It is possible that right-of-ways are more often mowed or treated with herbicide by railroad maintenance crews than in the past.	eng
41787	population	Pergams, O., Nyberg, D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is thought to be very rare in Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Ontario, Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri; scarce in Nebraska, Minnesota, South Dakota, and North Dakota; and relatively common in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. In most of the United States the <em>S. franklinii</em> population is highly fragmented into small, often linear habitats. In much of Canada, even though fire suppression has resulted in the succession of prairie to aspen parkland, large contiguous tracts have been preserved, and <em>S. franklinii</em> seems to be faring better.<br/><br/>However, in view of extensive loss of prairie habitats, together with available data that document declines in both area of occupancy and extent of occurrence, it is likely that <em>S. franklinii</em> has declined to the level of rarity in the USA. On the other hand, while there has been some additional loss of prairies in the last 10 years, it is probable that in recent years more acres of prairie have been restored than have been lost. In addition, <em>S. franklinii</em> is not exclusively associated with prairie vegetation. Under these circumstances, it is unclear why populations of <em>S. franklinii</em> are still declining.	eng
41787	threats	Pergams, O., Nyberg, D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Threats in decreasing order of severity are: 1). Loss and fragmentation of primary habitat: tall- and midgrass prairie; 2). Extermination by man as a supposed agricultural pest and acknowledged predator of duck eggs; 3). Frequent mowing and herbicide of railroad rights-of-way; and 4). Loss of railroad rights-of-way to other uses.<br/><br/>The historical distribution of <em>S. franklinii</em> is from Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois northward to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, coinciding with former mid- and tallgrass prairie habitats. Such habitats have been greatly reduced, with 82.6–99.9% declines in the extent of tallgrass prairies in 12 states and one Canadian province since European settlement (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1998). Prairie mammals, such as the Prairie Deer Mouse (<em>Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii</em>), Prairie Vole (<em>Microtus ochrogaster</em>), and Franklin’s Ground Squirrel have suffered as a result (Bowles <em>et al</em>. 1998, Pergams and Nyberg 2001).<br/><br/>In the eastern part of its range, <em>S. franklinii</em> is found primarily in small linear habitats. The continuing decline could be the result of the difficulty of dispersing individuals finding a suitable unoccupied habitat.  It is known that male juveniles disperse (Ellis 1982, Benjamin 1991), but it is unknown for what distance. Perhaps juvenile mortality has increased so much (automobiles and trains are obvious potential sources) that they rarely find suitable habitats during dispersal.<br/><br/>Population fragmentation and isolation may also have longer-term effects through declines in vigour due to loss of genetic variability. Occupation of small, isolated habitat patches, as is the case in the USA, may hamper successful dispersal and promote inbreeding. It seems to be faring appreciably better in Canada (perhaps suitable habitat patches are larger and less isolated), although Canadian populations are also apparently declining. Habitat changes in Canada may be less detrimental. For example, in Canada, fire suppression has resulted in the succession of prairie to aspen parkland, where <em>S. franklinii</em> continues to be found. Although the habitat has changed, large contiguous tracts have been preserved, whereas in the USA only smaller prairie fragments and rights-of-way continue to provide habitat for <em>S. franklinii</em>.<br/><br/>It opportunistically eats the seeds, fruits, and foliage of a great variety of plants, but vegetation probably does not comprise the majority of its diet. It has been thought to be an agricultural pest, and has at times been systematically exterminated. Millions of <em>S. franklinii</em> were killed for bounties ranging 1–10¢ per skin in the late 1800s (Bailey 1893). However, there is little evidence that they cause much crop damage. <em>Spermophilus franklinii</em> may be the least herbivorous of the ground squirrels, eating as much or more insect and other animal matter as vegetation (Bailey 1893, Ellis 1982, Hofmann 1999). There is, in fact, some evidence that they avoid row crops, and are only occasionally found in cover crops (Benjamin 1991). On the other hand, there is good evidence that <em>S. franklinii</em> opportunistically preys on waterfowl eggs, and there has been some extermination of the species for that reason (Sowls 1948, Balser <em>et al</em>.1968, Lynch 1972).<br/><br/>"Poison peanuts" (pelleted peanuts and zinc phosphide) are often ploughed into the ground by highway departments to control plains pocket gophers (<em>Geomys bursarius</em>); this probably affects <em>S. franklinii</em> in areas with both species. Pesticide use has played, and may still play, a role in the decline of this species. Scott <em>et al</em>. (1959) describe "virtually annihilative losses" of <em>S. franklinii</em> in areas treated with dieldrin, a pesticide banned in 1974. Deleterious effects from other pesticides still in use are possible.<br/><br/>Internal parasites known to infest <em>S. franklinii</em> are the protozoans <em>Eimeria franklinii</em> and <em>Trypanosoma hixsoni</em>, the cestode <em>Hymenolepsis diminuta</em>, and the nematodes <em>Capillaria chandleri</em>, <em>Citellinema bifurcatum</em>, <em>Physaloptera masino</em>, <em>Rictularia citelli</em>, and <em>Weinlandia citelli</em> (Jackson 1961, p. 142).	eng
41788	conservation	Harris, R.B., 2008	The species is heavily depleted in the wild in China, and two of the Chinese subspecies may be extinct (<em>mandarinus</em>, <em>grassianus</em>), and others are threatened. However, large herds exist in captivity in China to meet the demand for velvet antlers used in traditional Asian medicine.<br/><br/>The species occurs in a number of protected areas, including: <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in China's Tiebu Nature Reserve (Guo 2000; Guo and Zheng 2005), and Baihe Nature Reserve (Hu 1998); <em>C. n. kopschi</em> in China's Taohonglin Nature Reserve (Hu 1998); <em>C. n. hortulorum</em> in Russia's Dalnevostochny Morskoy, Kedrovaya Pad, Khankaisky, Lazovsky, and Sikhote-Alinsky Nature Reserves; and <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> in Taiwan's Kenting National Park, as a result of The Formosan Deer Restoration Project was initiated in 1984 to re-establish subspecies (Green 1989. Management activities for <em>C. n. keramae</em> have included filling of mine shafts, which posed threats to the deer, as well as the construction of drinking water facilities (IUCN 1972).<br/><br/><em>C. n. pseudaxis</em><br/>The Viet Namese Sika Breeding and Conservation Program was initiated in 1991 with a shipment of ten animals to Europe on breeding loan (Ratajszczak and Smielowski, undated). <br/>1. Improve protection of Cuc Phuong National Park, with particular emphasis on control of poaching and development of a conservation education program.<br/><br/><em>C. n. taiouanus</em><br/>1. Establish a peripheral hunting zone around Kenting National Park to benefit local people, and to minimize impact of deer encroaching into adjacent agricultural land.<br/>2. Expand the area available to the existing free ranging population.<br/>3. Plan, implement, and develop a fully integrated research program focused on the ecology of the free ranging population. Studies should include impact on vegetation and carrying capacity.<br/>4. Develop a long-term strategy for management of Kenting National Park.<br/>5. Plan the establishment of additional free-ranging populations elsewhere in Taiwan.<br/><br/><em>C. n. keramae</em><br/>1. Survey status of present populations and undertake studies of existing habitat to determine extent of habitat degradation. Remove feral goats as an urgent priority.<br/>2. Develop a management plan for habitat restoration.<br/>3. Develop a captive breeding program using animals from surviving populations. Assess possible genetic differences between island populations.<br/>4. Assess attitudes of local people toward conservation, initiate regional conservation education program, and increase law enforcement if necessary.<br/><br/><em>C. n. mandarinus and C. n. grassianus</em><br/>1. Carry out surveys to determine whether or not these two subspecies survive. If populations can be found, activities should include field reconnaissance, population censuses, demographic surveys, ecological studies, and investigations into human use of the deer.<br/><br/><em>C. n. kopschi</em><br/>1. Secure protected habitat, and encourage community development options to mitigate threats, especially poaching.<br/><br/><em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> implement management plans in Tiebu and Baihe Nature Reserves, with a particular focus on combatting poaching. In 1990, the management plan for Tiebu was being implemented and protection was adequate (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm.).	eng
41788	distribution	Harris, R.B., 2008	The sika was distributed across east Asia, from central China in the west to Japan and Korea in the east, and from the extreme eastern tip of Russia in the north to southern China and Viet Nam. Specifically, it was originally found in China (formerly from Manchuria south to Guangxi, and Sichuan to Anhui), North and South Korea (including Cheju Island) (but now probably extinct in both countries), Japan, Russia (a few places in Primorsky in the Far East), Taiwan (extinct in 1969, but subsequently re-introduced), and Viet Nam (probably now extinct). Wild populations are now very localized in China. In Japan, the species ranges widely from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, islands in the Seto Inland Sea (Awaji, Shodo, and others), Goto Islands, Ika, Yakushima, Mageshima, Kuchinoerabu-shima, Tsushima, and the Kerama Islands (introduced) (Okinawa Prefecture) (Abe, 2005).<br/><br/>In China, <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> probably ranged across much of northeastern China, but by the mid-1930s its range had contracted to northeastern Jilin (IUCN 1972, Guo 1992), and is now believed to be extinct (Hu 1998, Smith and Xie 2008). <em>C. n. grassianus</em> ranged throughout western Shanxi Province, China (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990, Guo 1992), and is now believed to be extinct (Hu 1998, Smith and Xie 2008).<em>C. n. kopschi</em> ranged from the Yangtze River Basin eastward to the coast, and south as far as northern Guangdong Province (IUCN 1972); it remains in small numbers in southern China. <em>C. e. taiouanus</em> was widely distributed throughout Taiwan (Green 1989). Free ranging populations were extirpated in 1969, but captive individuals were re-introduced in 1989 (Smith and Xie 2008). <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was recorded from Cao Bang, Quang Ninh, Thanh Hoa, Hanoi, and Nghe Tinh provinces in Viet Nam (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990), but is probably now extinct in the wild (captive animals remain). <br/><br/>The species has been widely introduced. In the Philippines it was anciently introduced to Solo Island, with questions remaining as to its continued existence there. It was introduced in 17th century to Kerama Islands (Ryukyu Islands, Japan); and introduced in 19th-20th centuries to British Isles, mainland Europe (Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), New Zealand, USA, and small islands off Japan (Whitehead 1993; Wemmer 1998; Grubb, 2005). It is also widely farmed in Asia, particularly in China (Green <em>et al</em>, 2007; Smith and Xie 2008). Ony the native, extant range is included in the distribution map.	eng
41788	habitat	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species prefers woodlands and forest with dense understory, but forages in open grassy areas (Smith and Xie 2008). The main diet includes grass, some browse, and even fruit. The species is crepuscular, but sometimes active by day and night, and forages singly or in small herds, with dominant males with harems. Herds migrate to lower valleys in winter. Adults can live up to 25 years. Typically, mating occurs in autumn and gestation is about 210-223 days with young being born in April and May.<br/><br/>In Tiebu Nature Reserve, Sichuan, sika were reported to forage preferentially in small patches of subalpine shrub and subalpine brush mixed with forest (Guo 2002). Sika fed on a wide variety of plant species in Teibu. In Viet Nam, diet of <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was reported to included browse and fruits (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In Taiwan, <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> inhabited open forests and grasslands of valley bottoms and foothills below 300 m (McCullough 1974; Horng-jye Su, undated). <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> and <em>C. n. grassianus</em> probably occurred in upland forests  (IUCN 1972). <em>C. n. keramae</em> favours lowland forests and plains (WWF 1984). In Viet Nam, <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> group size was 5?30 animals (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In China, <em>C. e. sichuanicus</em> forms large aggregations during May?August (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm.). In Viet Nam, <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> was thought to be primarily sedentary, although some seasonal movement took place depending on water availability (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). In China, rut occurs during September?November. Fawning occurs in May-July following a 210?213 day gestation. Single fawns are the rule, but twins are sometimes observed among prime-aged females (Guo and Zheng 2005). Sexual maturity is reached at 1.5 years (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993).	eng
41788	population	Harris, R.B., 2008	There are no global population estimates. However, in summary, there is a large and growing population in Japan, and a stable population of 8,500-9,000 in Russia, but the species is in serious trouble in the rest of its range. There are probably fewer than 1,000 left in China, scattered in a few populations across a once vast range. It is extinct in South Korea, and probably extinct in North Korea and Viet Nam. It also became extinct on Taiwan, but has been re-introduced there. More detailed information is provided below:<br/><br/><em>China</em>: Four subspecies of sika are present in mainland China of which three are threatened and one, <em>C. n. mandarinus</em>, is probably extinct. There are 400?500 <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in the extreme north of Sichuan and in southern Gansu Province (Hu 1998), as well in two other areas (Baxi and Beihe) of Sichuan (Guo 2000). <em>C. n. kopschi</em> occurs as five isolated small populations: in the Tianmu Mountains region of northern Zhejiang (less than 30 animals); in southern Anhui (70?100); near the border with Jiangsu, in Pengze, Jiangxi (150 animals); in southern Guangxi; and possibly in northern Guangdong. <em>C. n. grassianus</em> occurred in two separate and declining populations in western Shanxi but has not been reported for some years and may now be extinct (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm., 1990). The total number in China was estimated to be no more than 1,000 animals, with populations fragments (Hu 1998). Sika are believed to be declining in all of their remaining range within China (Hu 1998, Guo 2000), although  analyses of survival of <em>C. n. sichuanicus</em> in Tiebu Nature Reserve during the late 1980s suggest a possible reversal of that trend (Guo and Zheng 2005).<br/><br/><em>Korea</em>: Sika was reportedly common and widespread in north and central Korea but declined severely during the Japanese occupation of the country. After liberation it proved impossible to rebuild populations naturally from the surviving dispersed animals in Hamgyong North province, so the DPRK government initiated a captive breeding programme (Won Hong Koo 1968). The genetic purity of these animals is unclear as is their relationship to the sika held captive in DPRK nowadays. Sika is either very rare or extinct as a wild animal in DPR Korea (J.W. Duckworth <em>in litt</em>. 2008). If it survives in DPR Korea, it will be in the extreme northeastern part of the country (Won and Smith, 1999). It no longer survives in the wild in South Korea (Won and Smith, 1999), including on Cheju Island.<br/><br/><em>Japan</em>: The species surviives near heavily populated areas of Honshu, and their populations had been severely fragmented and reduced due to human activities (Yuasa <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the sika deer population has been conspicuously increasing throughout Japan in recent years as hunting has been brought under control. On Hokkaido, for example, sika have increased greatly during the last decades of the 20th century and the early 21st century (Agetsuma <em>et al</em>. 2007), and are now considered an agricultural and forest-plantation pest (Uno and Kaji 2006). Experimental hunting of males began in the 1950s, culling of females in the 1980s and hunting of females in the 1990s (Halley <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>C. n. keramae</em> was introduced to the Kerama Islands from the Japanese mainland during the 17th century, and is reported to have subsequently developed as an insular form (IUCN 1972).<br/><br/><em>Russia</em>: According to Kuzyakin (n.d.), there are 8,500-9,000 sika deer in Russia, and the population is stable.<br/><br/><em>Taiwan</em>: <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> is endemic to Taiwan. It was extirpated by 1969 and re-introduced to Kenting National Park in 1988 (Green 1989).  <br/><br/><em>Viet Nam</em>: The species may now be extinct in the wild in this country. In 1990, two to four animals were reported from the western Nghe Tinh Mountains (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990), but it is highly doubtful that they survive there. Captive populations are present in Cuc Phuong National Park and Cat Ba National Park (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41788	threats	Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and hunting, particularly in Viet Nam, China, and the Koreas. The species is increasing in Japan (where it is hunted and culled to reduce crop and forest depredation), and stable in Russia and probably Taiwan. The subspecies in Viet Nam (<em>C. n. pseudaxi</em>) and Taiwan (<em>C. n. taiouanus</em>) were hunted for meat and antler velvet for use in traditional medicine (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1990; McCullough 1974). In Viet Nam, velvet from <em>Cervus nippon</em> is traded in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc, and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.). All subspecies of sika have been hunted widely in China during the past 100 years (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990) and in Korea. In Japan, red deer farming used to be very popular, but now animals are being released into the wild raising the risk of hybridisation in the wild with <em>Cervus nippon</em>. Native and introduced populations are threatened by hybridization, with numerous populations are of uncertain provenance or have mixed ancestry (Grubb, 2005). In China, in addition to continued loss of habitat, loss of genetic diversity through anthropogenic population subdivision is also a conservation concern (Lu <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> in Viet Nam, and <em>C. n. mandarinus</em> and <em>C. n. taiouanus</em> in China, were probably extirpated in the wild as a result of hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture (Ratajszczak 1990; Dang Huy Huynh, Tran Van Duc and Hoang Minh Khien pers. comm.; IUCN 1972). The small captive population of <em>C. n. pseudaxis</em> in Cuc Phuong National Park is presently threatened by poaching. In China, <em>C. e. sichuanicus</em> is threatened by poaching outside Tiebu Nature Reserve (Sheng Helin and Zhang Endi pers. comm. 1990), and by encroachment on their habitats (including by deer farms; Hu, 1998). In Japan, <em>C. n. keramae</em> has been almost extirpated by hunting, and remains only on unoccupied islets where competition with feral goats and habitat change constitute serious threats (Anon 1990). Water pollution is a serious problem for the deer (WWF 1984).	eng
41789	conservation	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Semiadi, G. & Priyono, A., 2008	Javan Rusa occurs in several high-profile protected areas in Java. It is fully protected by Indonesian law. However, urgent measures are now required within its native range to end poaching and to secure the protected areas in which it occurs. This will require the development of cooperative programmes and new partnerships with the local human communities.	eng
41789	distribution	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Semiadi, G. & Priyono, A., 2008	The Javan Rusa is believed to be native only to Java and Bali in Indonesia (Corbet and Hill 1992; Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). It has been introduced to many other islands of the Indo-Pacific region (Corbet and Hill 1992; Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). Some introductions apparently took place in antiquity within present-day Indonesia, to the Lesser Sunda islands, Maluku (= Molucca) islands (including Buru and Seram), Sulawesi, and Timor. On Timor, the species inhabits both West Timor (part of Indonesia) and Timor Leste (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008, based on 1998 data). Those to Borneo (Kalimantan, Indonesia), New Guinea (where the species occurs in both West Papua, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea), New Britain, the Aru Islands, Mauritius and Réunion, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and small islands in Indonesia and off the coast of Australia occurred from the 17th century onwards (Heinsohn 2003; Grubb 2005). Indonesian islands with introduced populations include: Alor, Ambon, Banda, Batjan, Buru, Butung, Flores, Halmahera, Komodo, Lembeh, Lombok, Mangole, Muna, Papua, Sanana, Saparua, Seram, Sulawesi, Sumba, Sumbawa, Taliabu, Ternate, Timor, and Wetar (Wiradteti pers. comm.). Like many large deer, the Javan Rusa is an able swimmer (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990), hindering determination of its native range. The originally introduced population in Borneo is now probably extinct (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008), but in the 1990s soldiers returning from Timor brought some Javan Rusas to at least the Tanah Grgot and Penajam Paser Utara districts in East Kalimantan. Hybridization of Sambar <em>R. unicolor</em> (which occurs naturally in Borneo) with the introduced Javan Rusas has been confirmed from molecular and morphology in one captive herd (221 heads) belonging to the East Kalimantan Province?s Animal Husbandry Office at Penajam Paser Utara district (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Details of the introduced range and status are highly dispersed. R.J. Safford (pers. comm.) has provided the following for the Indian Ocean islands:<br/><br/>On Mauritius, Javan Rusa is abundant and is a major pest of native forest. Réunion received several introductions from Mauritius; the current population is derived mainly from five batches introduced in 1954. Also seven (individual) red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em> were introduced from France; the final outcome with the latter (including any hybridisation with Javan Rusa which may or may not have occurred) is unknown but nowadays ?deer? are not common on Réunion, although they are still present in a few areas, and are a pest where they occur. Rodrigues holds no Javan Rusa, although there was a failed attempt to introduce them (Cheke and Hume 2008).<br/><br/>An introduction was probably attempted onto Anjouan, in the Comoros, in the 19th century, but Javan Rusa is long extinct there (Louette 2004).<br/><br/>On Madagascar, Javan Rusa was introduced near Périnet (Andasibe) around 1930, survived until at least 1955 but is now extinct, probably having disappeared in the 1960s (Goodman and Benstead 2003: 1172?1173).<br/><br/>The distribution map shows only native populations on Java and Bali, not introduced populations. Introduced populations are not counted as part of this assessment.	eng
41789	habitat	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Semiadi, G. & Priyono, A., 2008	This is essentially a tropical and subtropical grassland species (Medway 1977; Oka 1998) but is highly flexible, with successful populations in forests, mountains, shrublands and marshes (Whitehead 1993; Oka 1998; Rouys and Theuerkauf 2003; Keith and Pellow 2005). It is found from sea-level to 900 m asl (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Some populations make seasonal movements; for example, on New Guinea numbers in the border area between West Papua and Papua New Guinea peak during the wet season, whereas in the dry season many move to the interior of Papua New Guinea (Semiadi 2006).<br/><br/>Where hunting or other disturbance is not a big problem, Javan Rusas are primarily diurnal, gathering in large groups in open areas at night. The rut tends to involve a lot of nocturnal activity, even in undisturbed/low hunting areas (Oka 1998; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008, based on observations in East Java). In diet it is adaptable and will eat herbs, the leaves and bark of shrubs, and even seaweed (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998; Keith and Pellow 2005), although it seems to prefer certain types of grass (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990, Oka 1998), including in its native range (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia and Australia, it is a threat to native trees (de Garine-Wichatitsky <em>et al</em>. 2005; Keith and Pellow 2005). In the Torres Strait Islands, mating occurs during spring (September?October) and calves are born in autumn (April?May). In other parts of Australia, Javan Rusa seems to breed at any time of the year, with a mating peak from late June to August, and a calving peak from March to April (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). In Indonesia it is said to breed all year around (Whitehead 1993), although a June?September increase in mating activity was found in Bali (Oka 1998), and in Java there is a peak of mating behaviour between July and September (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Javan Rusa is more social than its congeners (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990). Herds are segregated by sex, except during the mating season, and may comprise up to 25 individuals (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
41789	population	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Semiadi, G. & Priyono, A., 2008	The Javan Rusa is common in much of its current range (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Corbet and Hill 1992; Whitehead 1993; Heinsohn 2003; Moriarty 2004). Most populations are outside the native range (Corbet and Hill 1992; Whitehead 1993; Heinsohn 2003; Moriarty 2004), including some of the most buoyant: New Caledonia (de Garine-Wichatitsky <em>et al</em>. 2004), Mauritius (where numerous, and an ecological problem; R.J. Safford <em>in litt</em>. 2008), Sulawesi and the Maluku islands (Indonesia; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008), Pulau Moyo (= Moyo island, a small island in the eastern part of Nusa Tenggara Timur, where deer are protected by local people; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008) and West Papua, Indonesia (over 8,000 estimated in Wasur National Park alone, in 1992; Anon. 1994). Conversely, populations have decreased substantially in some areas on Java, where it is a native (Semiadi 2006), including Baluran National Park which (at least in the 1990s) held the largest Javan Rusa population within its natural range. In 1996, 2,500?3,000 Javan Rusas were counted during a census when multiple teams of observers deployed simultaneously throughout deer habitat (Anon. 1996; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Between 12 September 1998 and 18 January 1999, the population was thought to be greater than 1,000 head and it is very likely to have declined still further. Major declines have also occurred in Alas Purwo National Pak (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Even in the 1980s?mid 1990s, Bali had very few populations, probably only one of significance: in Bali Barat National Park (S. Hedges pers. comm.. 2008). Its current status is unknown. There are probably no more than ten populations in the native range (= Java and Bali) and given the size of the Baluran population, it is implausible that there could be more than 10,000 mature individuals within the native range (which would imply a census population of about 13,000?20,000) even in the mid-1990s (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). There are many more animals in the introduced range, but they are not counted for the purposes of categorising the species through population size and trend on the Red List.	eng
41789	threats	Hedges, S., Duckworth, J.W., Timmins, R.J., Semiadi, G. & Priyono, A., 2008	Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of national parks and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' national parks and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "nature reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other offtake, but the national parks of Java (several of which contain ideal habitat for Javan Rusa and, at least into the mid 1990s, very large populations) remained remarkably intact for much of the period. During the 1980s and early to mid 1990s guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. The strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some small game, through various forms of trapping, including snaring. Thus there was relatively little hunting of Javan Rusa and populations were stable or even increasing. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the peoples' resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ?tragedy of the commons?, has indeed led to increased habitat destruction and poaching in the past decade. The Javan Rusa, as a large deer, is particularly threatened by this rapid rise in illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) and also by expansion of agriculture on Java and other forms of encroachment (G. Semiadi pers. comm.; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008.). In Java, this deer is poached with snares and dogs, but mostly with guns in the late 1990s and 2000s (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). The Javan Rusa is now seen as a source of extra income and of animal protein by many local communities despite being legally protected (Semiadi 2006) and coupled with the decentralisation of conservation management decisions and actions, macro-economic fluctuations and reduced authority of The Law, this impedes control of illegal hunting (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Poaching has reportedly reduced numbers at Baluran National Park, formerly the largest population within the native range, and more widely across Java, but data are insufficient to determine rate of decline (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008). Similar trends are likely on Bali. In the rest of its Indonesian range, e.g. Sulawesi, where it is introduced and thus populations are not used in assessing the Red List category, it is also heavily hunted and there were major population declines in the late 1990s, although at least on Sulawesi the population is now in slow recovery (G. Semiadi 2006 pers. comm. 2008). Poaching of this species in its native range is for meat, medicinal products (some traded internationally), handicrafts products, and, locally, pets.<br/><br/>During the 1980s?1990s, when poaching and land conversion were relatively well under control in Javan national parks, the chief threat to the large population of Javan Rusa in Baluran National Park was loss of grazing area to invasion by the introduced tree <em>Acacia nilotica</em> (Leguminosae) that converts open grassland to dense thorny scrub-forest. This plant was introduced (without adequate risk assessment) as part of an attempt  to create a living fire-break around the park's grasslands, wild fire then being adjudged the major threat to the park?s monsoon forests. Since that introduction, repeated cutting of the acacia has led to coppicing into very dense thickets that conta<em>in litt</em>le or no grass or other herbs and are difficult for the deer to penetrate. Thus habitat loss and poaching are now serious limiting factors in Baluran National Park, and habitat loss/degradation remains a severe long-term threat to be addressed (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <em>Lantana camara</em> (Verbenaceae) is also a problem in Javan Rusa habitat in Baluran National Park and elsewhere on Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41790	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Sagar Baral, H., Samba Kumar, N., Duckworth, J.W., Anwarul Islam, Md., Giman, B., Hedges, S., Lynam, A.J., Fellowes, J., Chan, B.P.L. & Evans, T., 2008	The Sambar is found in many protected areas throughout its range, although in most of these areas this legal status has not stemmed declines and local extinctions from hunting. Similarly, although it is protected from hunting by legislation, even outside protected areas, in most or all range states, these laws are challenging to enforce, given the trade demand for meat and antlers (GMA Indonesia Workshop). Currently the law has a strong protective effect in Taiwan (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008) and in various protected areas of India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In South-east Asia, Sambar declines have lagged behind those of other sympatric deer (excepting muntjacs). There is no doubt that within a decade or two Sambar will be, like Hog Deer and Eld’s Deer are already, almost absent from South-east Asia unless effective protection from trade-driven hunting is instituted. In India the species’s status is less grim, and this is dependent upon continuation of the current protected areas system, and the expansion of effective threat reduction into a greater proportion of protected areas: in many Indian protected areas, poaching is rampant and in such vulnerable areas Sambar numbers are still declining. Given the major challenges combatting hunting of such a desired animal, long-term survival is most realistic in large protected areas (exceeding 1,000 km² where possible), lacking people living within them, with an adequate number of motivated and capable staff (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008; A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). The precise ways for protected areas to function effectively in the conservation of large mammals depend upon their own specific circumstances, but field presence of staff, dispersed across the area, is likely to be important in almost every area. For example, Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2006) found in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, that encounter rates of tracks and signs of Sambar (and other large mammals) decreased with distance from ranger substations. Deep inside the forest to the south and east, far away from ranger substations, Sambars were locally extinct. Similar patterns are shown by current Sambar distributions in other Thai protected areas such as Khao Sok, Phu Khieo and Kaeng Krachan (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008). In some protected areas (recent examples being Bhadra and Kudremukh in Karnataka), formerly forest-dwelling human communities have resettled closer to markets, clinics, school and other services (Karanth and Karanth 2007). This expands habitat available to Sambar (that which was formerly fields and houses) but more significant is the removal of a source of hunters and the cessation of grazing competition with domestic stock (see Karanth <em>et al</em>. 2006). Such conservation interventions have helped recovery of Sambar populations in this region. Increasing development aspirations mean that outmigration is likely from further areas, e.g. Mudumalai. Most of the remaining forest within its Chinese range are already established as nature reserves (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>As the majority of the Sambar population is in South Asia, conservation activities are important there. It is also important that populations are maintained at least in several areas in Southeast Asia, to maintain Sambar presence through its historical range, to preserve Sambar genetic diversity and through its importance to the ecosystems within which it lives. Given the regional pattern of threats and current successes to date, implementing effective conservation interventions is considerably more challenging, and therefore a higher priority in the Southeast Asian region.<br/><br/>The most important conservation measure for Sambar in Cambodia is the continued strengthening and support of conservation efforts in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Srepok Wilderness Area, and to a lesser extent support of protected area conservation management in the northern plains and central Cardamoms. Likewise in Viet Nam, the most important conservation measure is the continued support of protection efforts within Cat Tien National Park, and in Thailand it is to continue the consolidation of the ‘Western Forest Complex’. In Myanmar the Hukaung Valley is an exceptional area of lowland plains forest, grassland, and wetlands. Part lies within the Wildlife Sanctuary and some of the rest of the outstanding plains habitat is within an enormous proposed extension. Through its size and mostly little-encroached condition, this is the most outstanding remaining landscape-level floodplains habitat for very large mammals remaining in tropical Asia, and although wildlife populations are highly depleted, warrants the strongest effort to conserve it. It faces a number of daunting challenges (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, any of a large number of areas could become key Sambar conservation sites, but there is as yet no precedent in the country for effective conservation of high-trade-value large mammals. Xe Pian, Nam Et–Phou Louey, and Nakai–Nam Theun NPAs could all be highly significant areas for the species, but so could almost any other NPA; the reality is that the most success with Sambar conservation is likely to come through identifying areas with positive underlying situations to achieve conservation, rather than identifying the area with the most intrinsic importance for Sambar as the focus for efforts.<br/><br/>Captive breeding as it is being developed in East Kalimantan. A captive herd of  223 heads in 10 ha enclosure was established in 1998 in Penajam District, as a pilot project. Several private herds exist in the province, such as at Bearau and at Nunukan, both with more than 20 heads (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Captive Sambar herds are also widespread in mainland Asia.	eng
41790	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Sagar Baral, H., Samba Kumar, N., Duckworth, J.W., Anwarul Islam, Md., Giman, B., Hedges, S., Lynam, A.J., Fellowes, J., Chan, B.P.L. & Evans, T., 2008	The Sambar extends from India and Sri Lanka east along the southern Himalayas (including Nepal and Bhutan) through much of south China (including Hainan Island) to Taiwan (where it occurs in the central and eastern parts; Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). Further south it occurs in Bangladesh, throughout mainland South-east Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam, West Malaysia) and many of the main islands of the Greater Sundas (excepting Java): Sumatra, Siberut, Sipora, Pagi and Nias islands (all Indonesia), and Borneo (Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei) (Grubb 2005). The current distribution is now highly fragmented in much of this range (see Population). Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) also listed the Philippines, but the Sambar does not occur there. A record from Ujung Kulon, Java, in van Schaik and Griffiths (1996: 107) is presumably an error for Javan Rusa <em>R. timorensis</em>. The Sambar has been introduced widely outside its native range, e.g.: San Luis Obispo Country, California; the Gulf Prairies and Edwards Plateau regions of Texas (Ables and Ramsey 1974); the St. Vincent Islands, Franklin Country, Florida (Lewis <em>et al</em>. 1990); Australia (Slee 1984; Freeland 1990); New Zealand (Kelton and Skipworth 1987); and Western Cape Province, South Africa (Lever 1985). These introduced populations are not included in the distribution map.	eng
41790	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Sagar Baral, H., Samba Kumar, N., Duckworth, J.W., Anwarul Islam, Md., Giman, B., Hedges, S., Lynam, A.J., Fellowes, J., Chan, B.P.L. & Evans, T., 2008	No large Indian ungulate has adapted itself to a wider variety of forest types and environmental conditions than has Sambar (Schaller 1967). Within India, Sambar occurs in the thorn and arid forests of Gujarat and Rajasthan, in the moist and dry deciduous forests throughout peninsular India, in the pine and oak forests at the Himalayan foothills, and in the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of northeastern India and the Western Ghats (Sankar and Acharya 2004; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Outside India it extends into temperate-latitude and alpine-zone woodlands of Taiwan (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). This habitat flexibility is permitted by its broad diet: Sambar has been documented to eat 130–180 species of plants in India alone (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh and Sankar 1991; N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), with food requirements less specialised than those of other deer (Schaller 1967). Sambar grazes or browses depending upon the forage available at that time (Schaller 1967; Richardson 1972; Martin 1977; Bentley 1978; Dinerstein 1979; Kelton and Skipworth 1987; Ngampongsai 1987; Sankar 1994; Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 1995). Across the very wide altitudinal range occupied in Taiwan, the diet varies reflecting major changes in plant communities (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). Sambar was found to live in much higher densities in moist than in dry deciduous forests of Nagarahole National Park (Karanth and Sunquist 1992) and there are no doubt also patterns of habitat selection across the rest of its range. Although the highest densities of Sambar so far recorded were in the semi-arid forests of Ranthambore (Kumar 2000), across most of its Indian range Sambar seems to thrive best in well-watered, moist deciduous hilly terrain (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Sambar occurs up to at least 3,825 m asl on Siouguluan Mountain, the highest peak of the Central Mountains in Taiwan; elsewhere on the island it ranges down to 150 m asl, mostly living at 2,000–3,500 m (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008). It occurs up to 3,000 m asl on Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah, Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). In Myanmar, recent camera-trap photographs spanned the range of 0–2,150 m asl (Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is largely restricted to hilly terrain in the Terai Arc Landscape (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004), although how much this reflects real habitat selection and how much it is an artificial pattern produced by human effects (habitat conversion and hunting) is unclear. More widely in India, there does seem to be a marked preference for undulating terrain (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), Sambar usage was greater of the higher than the lower altitude area. However, it makes wide use of plains areas elsewhere, where these have not been destroyed, e.g. the Hukaung Valley in Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008).In Borneo, while Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) considered Sambar “most common in secondary forests of gently-sloping terrain” they also knew of occurrence in “tall dipterocarp forests on steep terrain and in swamp forests”. In Thung Yai, Thailand, Sambar signs were twice as abundant in lowland forest as in montane forest, although this difference was not statistically significant (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asian regions of dense evergreen closed-canopy forest, Sambar is highly tolerant of forest degradation: indeed, much higher numbers are found in encroached stands than in pristine forests, if hunting is under control (Rijksen 1978; Heydon 1994; Stuebing 1995; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). In Sabah, Sambar was camera-trapped in both mature and young forest stands (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). All the remaining Lao populations are centred around areas with extensive open, or at least broken, habitat amid forest (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), and the general paucity of records from the interiors of large blocks of closed-canopy evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, which generally support the least depleted large mammal populations, probably reflects natural patterns of habitat occupation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Similarly, in extensive tracts of deciduous dipterocarp forest the species occurs primarily around patches of denser habitats, and this seems to be a natural rather than hunting-led pattern (Timmins and Ou 2001). In this sense, in Indochina Northern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus vaginalis</em> is much more tolerant and versatile than is Sambar. In southern and central India where much of the forest is deciduous, Sambar is a true forest ungulate and conspicuously avoids disturbed and open forests, and is highly sensitive to any sort of forest resource extractive activities (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), Sambar was primarily in areas of high tree and herb density with low shrub density. O'Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003) found no statistically significant difference in Sambar abundance between areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, and those deep in the interior of the park. Caution is needed in inferring that there is truly no association of Sumatran Sambar with forest edges (which would be astonishing by comparison with its habitat use elsewhere) because the study does not specify whether this ‘non-significant’ result might simply reflect methodological factors rather than a genuine lack of biological effect (see, e.g., Johnson 1999). Despite the population rises that occur in post-logging forest, there is no evidence that Sambar can survive landscape-level conversion to exotic plantations or other non-forest land-uses, although many live in coconut plantations (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008) and it is relatively common in immature <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations within the matrix of plantation and natural forest of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Sambar only in those coffee areas within 1 km of the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007). In forest protected areas of Thailand such as Khao Yai National Park and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Sambar populations are often concentrated around anthropogenic grass and scrub (e.g. sites of former villages) rather than in the forest itself (Trisurat <em>et al</em>. 1996; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001) and this also seems to be true on remote parts of the Bolaven Plateau of south Lao PDR (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Annamite mountains of Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Sambar seems often to be associated with degraded valley bottom areas, largely the result of long human influence: although the effects of a permanent water source and differences in terrain in determining distribution are difficult to disentangle (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Sambar regularly visits salt licks (e.g. Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007), perhaps especially when growing new antlers. This predictability exposes it to high levels of hunting, where this is not effectively controlled. It seems that within an area, not all sort of licks are visited. At the Seima Biodivesity Conservation Area, Cambodia, Sambar photographs were initially very few at mineral lick camera-traps. But in 2007, cameras placed on trails and at some permanent water sources (especially in semi-evergreen forest) recorded Sambar much more often. Checking tracks at more than 40 licks indicated that some were used by Sambar and Red Muntjac, but not Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> or Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>, while the big ones with many cattle and elephant prints had few Sambar prints (E. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Sambar was considered to be mostly nocturnal by Kawanishi and Sunquist (2004), to show ‘no pattern’ (meaning unclear; perhaps intended to imply no significant variation through the 24-hour cycle, although this is itself a pattern) by O’Brien <em>et al</em>. (2003), and to be cathemeral by van Schaik and Griffiths (1996). In fact, its activity pattern may vary across sites, but in general it is mostly crepuscular, with significant nocturnal activity as well (Schaller 1967; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is essentially non-social, stable groups being at most family associations (Schaller 1967; Karanth and Sunquist 1992). However, it is often in groups, presumably temporary, of 12–30 in dry deciduous and semi-arid forests of India (e.g. Bandipur, Pench, Melghat and Ranthambore) (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), and the same is true around the secondary grasslands within Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). During peak summer, such associations of up to 80–100 near large waterbodies are not uncommon in Pench in central India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008). A detailed review of information on grouping in Sambar is in Sankar and Acharya (2004). Results from many areas show a strong bias in sex ratio to females, perhaps reflecting selective predation; alternatively, stags may be more vulnerable to stress (Sankar and Acharya 2004).<br/><br/>Breeding is rather seasonal in most areas where studied, for example Schaller (1967) reported that in Kanha the rut spreads over a period of at least seven months with a peak in November–December. Stags during the rut sometimes can cover large distances, up to 10–20 km in one night. Further information for India is reviewed in Sankar and Acharya (2004). The bucks of Formosan Sambar have a seasonal antler cycle, and the mating season is from June to January with a peak in September–October. Males wallow and mark with scent glands in this season. Fawns are born (usually singly) from March to August, with a peak in May and June (Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Predation appears to be the major cause of Sambar mortality. In Bandipur, Sambar is one of the most important prey in terms of the biomass taken by Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> (31%), Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> (8%) and Dhole <em>C. alpinus</em> (13%) (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In Bandipur Sambar remains were found in about 22.3% of Tiger faeces, 6.1% of Leopard faeces and 7.3% of Dhole faeces (Andheria <em>et al</em>. 2007). In adjoining Nagarahole, proportion of Sambar in Tiger’s diet was about 25–29%, derived from faeces and kill data respectively (Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In Tadoba-Andhari, Sambar together with Gaur contributed to nearly 70% of the prey biomass consumed by Tiger, whereas in Pench-Maharashtra it was 80% (Karanth and Kumar 2005). Sambar occurred in 50% of Tiger scats in Pench-Maharashtra (Karanth and Kumar 2005). In well protected forest reserves where different body-sized ungulates are abundantly available, Sambar together with Gaur are selectively predated by Tiger.	eng
41790	population	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Sagar Baral, H., Samba Kumar, N., Duckworth, J.W., Anwarul Islam, Md., Giman, B., Hedges, S., Lynam, A.J., Fellowes, J., Chan, B.P.L. & Evans, T., 2008	Almost everywhere outside Taiwan, the Sambar is in rapid decline leading to a widespread distribution of very low numbers and many local-level extinctions, with occasional healthy populations reflecting special circumstances. Few surveys specifically target Sambar, but a reasonable picture of its current status is emerging through surveys for Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> and through general wildlife surveys. Tiger-oriented camera-trapping predictably yields photographs of Sambar when they are present, and most Tiger surveys afford priority to elucidating Sambar status as a key prey, and therefore population determinant, of Tiger. Understanding Sambar status through surveys of Tigers or, sometimes, of Leopard <em>P. pardus</em> (e.g. Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007) needs care, because such surveys have generally selected the best remaining areas for very large mammals within the country or region in question, so as to maximize chances of picking up Tigers. They therefore cannot be seen as indicative of Sambar status in the wider landscape. Most importantly, in the several cases (identified below) where such surveys have found few Sambar, these indicate cause for alarm, because there is little reason to believe that there ought to be larger populations in many other areas in the country or region in question, even though large parts of it may remain unsurveyed. Occasional herds can survive in unexpected places through atypical site-specific circumstances in some countries (e.g. Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Populations outside the native range are not treated here, as they are irrelevant to assigning the Red List category and criteria.<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, numbers have probably declined substantially through poaching which increased during the civil war. Poaching occurred widely across the country, including within protected areas, particularly where there are concentrations of resettled refugees (Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003).<br/><br/>In India, although the Sambar occurs widely and in many habitat types, and large populations occur in well-secured protected areas, nowhere is it now regionally abundant (Sankar and Acharya 2004). It has been recorded in 208 protected areas (National Wildlife Database, Wildlife Institute of India, cited in Sankar and Acharya 2004); its distribution outside protected areas is now highly scattered. The reported ecological densities of Sambar in India mostly fall within 1–10 animals per km² within the protected area network, and depending on the varying levels of protection efficacy: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 0.89 +/- 0.23 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Madhya Pradesh Pench National Park dry deciduous forest, 9.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 1.5 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 5.5 animals per km² (Karanth and Sunquist 1992); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 5.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 3.3 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 2.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Maharashtra Pench dry deciduous forest, 5.9 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Ranthambore semi-arid dry deciduous forest, 10.7 animals per km² (Kumar  2000); and Gir semi-arid dry deciduous forest, two animals per km² (Khan <em>et al</em>. 1996). Similar surveys at Kaziranga found too few Sambar to estimate populations there (Karanth and Nichols 2000), this presumably representing habitat characters rather than defective protection, given the buoyant populations of other deer at that site (Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> and Barasingha <em>Rucervus duvaucelii</em>). Outside protected areas, Sambar is present mostly in very low numbers, although larger numbers can still be found where its habitat is almost inaccessible to people. The recorded Bhadra density is low, reflecting poaching and forest-resource extraction (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003), and the population density is steadily increasing following removal of these pressures in 2003 (K.U. Karanth and N.S. Kumar unpublished data).<br/><br/>Nepal supports an important population in Bardia National Park (Dinerstein 1979). This remains healthy and there are also good populations in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Chitwan National Park, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve. Across the country Sambar has declined so rapidly and so widely that it is now very rare outside protected areas, mostly recorded as isolated reports from forests adjoining these protected areas, and from south-east Nepal. Sambar has been victim of poachers, probably because of its large size (thus, more meat per animal and, for males, a more impressive trophy), perhaps compounded by nocturnal and relatively docile nature; recent declines are of the magnitude to meet IUCN criteria for Vulnerable on a national assessment (all information: Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). It is unclear whether the demand for antler in velvet in eastern Asia is stimulating poaching in Nepal.<br/><br/>No information concerning current status was traced from Bhutan but (simply on an area basis) numbers are unlikely to be large enough to influence the overall global population trend.<br/><br/>In Bangladesh, Sambar was common in north-east, south-east and hill-tract forests in the 1960s (Khan 1985) but now only a very few persist in the south-east: “habitat loss and hunting pressure made them critically endangered in the country. The pressure became severe in the 1970s. I see little hope for this species in the next 30 years” (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>In China there were major declines in Sambar over much of the twentieth century, and populations probably decreased by more than 50% in the 30 years from 1978; records from Guangxi suggest that, there at least, the 1970s–1980s was the era of fastest decline (J. Fellowes pers. comm. 2008; B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008). In some provinces populations seem now to have stabilized, and in some areas, particularly in Hainan (where several apparently stabilised populations are present, but all are small, reflecting habitat patch size: the largest may be of only a few hundred animals) and north Guangdong province (perhaps also the east of that province, where there is a nature reserve specifically for the species), populations may even have been increasing once again in the last few years. This is not so for Guizhou and the provinces between Guangdong and Yunnan (B.P.L. Chan and M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008). Further north, in the provinces of Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hunan and Hubei, a multi-method Tiger survey in 2001 found that Sambar is very rare overall and scattered in present-day distribution (Tilson <em>et al</em>. 2004). For elsewhere in China, Smith and Xie Yan (2008) mapped wide presence in Sichuan, plus isolated populations in the provinces of Qinghai, Tibet, Chongqing, and Fujian. The original sources are not clear, and R. Harris (pers. comm.) doubts that Sambar has lived anywhere in Qinghai in recent times. <br/><br/>In Taiwan, numbers and geographic distribution reduced rapidly through hunting before 1987, then expanded somewhat since the mid 1990s reflecting reductions in hunting. The average population density in the Yu-Li Wildlife Refuge was 10.6 animals per km² in 2005. In some areas at high altitude, densities exceed 40 animals per km², and the animals have a large impact on the coniferous saplings in this area. But at low to mid altitude, hunting pressure remains high enough to restrain their distribution and density. Based on the known geographical distribution, there are five populations: A-Yu Mountain, Nanhu, Shei-Pa, Jade Mountains–Central Mountains, and Tawu. The A-Yu population was re-introduced (about 70 animals) by local deer farmers in 1988–1991, when the velvet price was very low through the impact of deer TB in 1985. This population has not expanded reflecting continuous poaching; it may be genetically polluted. The other four populations are all natural, assumed to be isolated by cross-island roads, and may have very low gene flows with each other. Sambar are largely restricted to protected areas, only occurring outside them in a few nearby areas. The population sizes and distributions in these areas are smaller than in the protected areas. The poaching pressure is an important limitation to Sambar in these unprotected areas (all information: Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Myanmar, Sambar was detected at 12 of 15 camera-trapped Tiger sites during 1999–2002, indicating that it is still widespread (Lynam 2003). The Myanmar Forest Department and Wildlife Conservation Society have jointly now (as of May 2008) camera-trapped 21 survey areas (including the earlier 15) and found Sambar in 13 (Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). This lower ratio of proven presence indicates how the areas selected for Tiger survey were above average for prey and may indicate increasing local-level extinctions. For example, in a multi-method study of one area not expected to hold Tiger, hunted animals showed that Sambar still occurred in Naungmung and Machanbaw (south of Hkakaborazi National Park, Kachin state), but it was so scarce that it was not detected by substantial amounts of either camera trapping or sign surveys (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005). Even within these best areas, large declines are suspected and overall national population losses of about 50% over the last 25–30 years and in the following such period are likely (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand, several protected areas maintain big Sambar populations; these are mostly large with very few or no people living within them. Over much of the country Sambar is extinct or very nearly so, including in many protected areas, particularly in the north where most parks are small and heavily poached (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008). Sambar is rare in most areas of Thung Yai Naresuan, where commercial hunting has targeted large ungulates (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008). Sambar was recorded at over 40% of camera-trap locations during a Leopard survey in Kaeng Krachan National Park, and clearly remains widespread there. Abundance did not vary with proximity to villages, even though a variety of hunting methods occurs on site (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sambar is also locally abundant in Khao Yai National Park, Thap Lan National Park and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary current Sambar density is about 2–3 animals per km² and it seems to be increasing (Anak Patannavibool pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Lao PDR, Sambar was described as very common throughout the wooded parts by Delacour (1940). Some decades later, the species was reported during 86% of 1988–1993 village interviews (n = 328) and was then still widespread throughout, except in the most heavily settled areas (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: Annex 5). However, sightings on surveys during 1992–1998 were very rare, and while calls heard by night and signs indicate a wide distribution, numbers are heavily depressed (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Ou 2001). Only in Nam Et–Phou Louey NPA did Sambar seem at least locally abundant (Davidson 1998), and reasonable populations were confirmed still to persist in 2003–2004 (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2004); an exceptional area in an Indochinese context, that still even supports significant Tiger numbers. The Nakai Plateau and the mountainous interior of Nakai-Nam Theun NPA and a few other, localized, areas of Lao PDR, including the Dong Kalo tract of Xe Pian NPA, the Nam Hiang area of the Bolaven Plateau, and parts of Nam Kading NPA also seemed to support relatively high densities during the mid 1990s. The few sites resurveyed during 2004–2007 have in general shown major declines (e.g. Timmins and Robichaud 2005). There was not a single camera-trap photograph during fairly intensive camera-trapping in Nakai–Nam Theun NPA during 2006–2007, although the species has subsequently been found to persist in a few parts of the protected area (Johnson and Johnston 2007; W.G. Robichaud and Nam Theun Watershed Management Protection Authority pers. comm. 2008) and it is not clear whether quirks of camera-trap placement (e.g., hypothetically, a focus on slopes rather than valley bottoms) may have been a major contributor to the lack of photographs. The Nakai Plateau still supports noteworthy numbers in a Lao context, but even here there were signs of decline (Dersu 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Surprisingly, given the proximity to China and Viet Nam, a good population was found to persist in Phou Dendin NPA in the far north-east of Lao PDR in 2004–2005 (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam, in most of the northern highlands, in particular, and the northern and central Annamites to an increasing extent, Sambar is very rare or has been hunted out from many areas of otherwise suitable habitat (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Grieser Johns 2000; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; B. Long pers. comm. 2008). Camera-trapping studies in Pu Mat National Park, Thua Thien Hue province and Quang Nam province between 1998 and 2007 recorded only a handful of records and local communities in all these areas report a major decline in numbers (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). With so many higher-profile species long listed as threatened on the Red List, many of them with restricted ranges, the status of Sambar in Viet Nam has largely been ignored, and the paucity of evidence during many surveys has rarely been highlighted in reviews. As with many large mammals, populations are thought to be best in southern parts of the country. It remains common in Cat Tien National Park (Polet and Ling 2004), but this is very much the exception, and it was not considered at all common in surveys of several areas of prime habitat in Dak Lak Province in 1997 (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>In Cambodia, Sambars “appear to be at least relatively common in some areas, though entirely absent from others, a feature which appears to have a strong correlation to local hunting pressure...At the current rate of persecution, this species is likely to decline sharply over the next few years” (Walston 2001). Sambar is still widespread, although heavily targeted by hunters and most populations are now very depressed (Timmins and Men 1999; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2003; Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2005: 171; Timmins 2006). In the eastern plain of Cambodia, where populations of many other ungulates are magnitudes more numerous than in other areas of Indochina, Sambar numbers are clearly low, almost certainly as a result of targeted hunting: numbers in some areas seem depressed even well below those of wild cattle (Timmins and Ou 2001). Protection activities in a few localised areas appear to have stabilised declines, but this is an exception to a general scenario of rapid decline. These declines are evidently faster and recent than in either Lao PDR or Viet Nam, reflecting the rapid pace of change of economic and logistical factors in Cambodia since the mid 1990s.<br/><br/>In West Malaysia, Sambar was regularly camera-trapped in Taman Negara (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004); population densities were taken to be 0.01–0.20 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). It is unclear how close this estimate is to a pre-exploitation density, because although these authors adjudged large mammal poaching to be negligible in Taman Negara, high levels were confirmed there by Wan Shahruddin (1998); whether Sambar was being targeted is unclear. Moreover, camera-trapping (suitable in methodology and intensity to find Sambar if any significant numbers were present) did not record Sambar in a fourth sector of Taman Negara in 1999 (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). The great current rarity of Sambar in Peninsular Malaysia was evinced by a camera-trap survey for Tiger: it was photographed at only one of the nine areas surveyed during 1997–1999, Temenggor, where it was the most commonly photographed mammal (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sambar was found in only one of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas) in a study assessing the importance of virgin jungle reserves, making it the most localized mammal species detected. The occupied site was a logged area (Laidlaw 2000). None was found in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, from which it was suspected to have been eradicated by hunting (Azlan 2006). Sambar is still regularly camera-trapped in Johor (M. Gumal pers. comm. 2008) but seems to be generally rare throughout other areas.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, there are various recent records from Sumatra, e.g. Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003), Gunung Leuser (van Schaik and Griffiths (1996), and Way Kambas National Park (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008), but in these areas it was recorded rather rarely by comparison with other ungulates. Sambar was nearly six times as abundant in areas of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting low resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting, and reduced populations overall (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Way Kambas National Park the population is reportedly stable (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). Overall in Indonesia (Sumatra and Borneo), Sambar is not under major threat except where forest is being converted (i.e. most of the lowlands). Reflecting this, E. Pollard (pers. comm. 2008) considered the status of Sambar, in suitable habitat, to be much more healthy there than in Cambodia and Viet Nam, although there is a significant market for Sambar antlers in Sumatra (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On Borneo, Sambar has been extirpated or persists only at extremely low densities in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Azlan and Engkamat Lading 2006). An intensive survey of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, found Sambar only once; this was stated to be a genuine reflection of actual rarity, and to result from intensive hunting at salt-licks (Meredith 1995). Across Sarawak it is seriously reduced by hunting (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000, see Threats; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008). Some better populations survive in Sabah, Malaysia, e.g. Danum Valley (Heydon 1994), Tabin Wildlife Reserve (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005), and Deramakot Forest Reserve (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007) but populations are in general also much reduced there (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Indonesian part of Borneo populations seem to be less depleted, particularly in East Kalimantan, which is believed to hold the largest Sambar populations among all Kalimantan provinces; in the Penajam Paser Utara district of East Kalimantan, approximately 60 hunted animals are sold monthly in several traditional markets (Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 2004; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008).	eng
41790	threats	Timmins, R.J., Steinmetz, R., Sagar Baral, H., Samba Kumar, N., Duckworth, J.W., Anwarul Islam, Md., Giman, B., Hedges, S., Lynam, A.J., Fellowes, J., Chan, B.P.L. & Evans, T., 2008	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread in the Sundaic region and in much of the rest of Sambar’s range. Indeed, these two threats are often associated and all Borneo’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995; Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). This conclusion probably is applicable across the range of Sambar, within which it is heavily hunted (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Walston 2001; Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003; Tilson <em>et al</em>. 2004; Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2008). It is among the most sought-after wild meats in Indonesia (Semiadi 2005), Sarawak (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), and Viet Nam (B. Long pers. comm. 2008), and during 1988–1993 it was a common and preferred food in rural Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Table 1), and is probably near the top of chosen wild meats throughout most of its range (GMA Indonesia workshop); however, it is less favoured in Taiwan compared with Formosan Serow <em>Capricornis crispus</em> and Reeves’s Muntjac <em>Muntiacus reevesi</em> (Chang Shih-Wei pers. comm. 2008). However, it is now so rare in Nam Ha National Protected Area, Lao PDR, that a more recent hunting study found it to be eaten only rarely (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Viet Nam, muntjac meat is now often served in wildlife restaurants as Sambar, because real Sambar meat is now so difficult to procure (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). These declines in consumption are probably representative of all Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and of increasing proportions of the rest its range, reflecting population losses (see Populations).<br/><br/>There are major, ongoing, declines in at least Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Nepal, and probably Sri Lanka and Indonesia (see Populations) which can plausibly only be driven by hunting, because suitable habitat for Sambar is abundant in these countries but is almost or actually bereft of the species. Even in India, poaching has seriously depleted the abundance of large mammals in most areas; even in high-profile areas such a Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park there are still some instances of poaching (Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004). An intensive study of hunting on mammals in two Hmong villages of northern Thailand classified quarry species into tiers representing the sequence of loss through overhunting; Sambar fell in the second tier (aside, e.g., big cats <em>Panthera</em>) in the extinction sequence (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). This study found that Sambar persisted anomolously long in one place under an “exceptional village wildlife hunting regulation promulgated by the village headman until 1994”, but was generally extinct in the landscape. A study at Nagarahole National Park compared an area which was only moderately hunted with a heavily hunted site, but found no significant difference in Sambar densities between the two areas (Madhusudan and Karanth 2002). This was speculated to reflect the greater difficulty of hunting Sambar (highly dispersed and usually in rather thick vegetation), despite it being a prized species, than, particularly, Chital <em>Axis axis</em>, a herding species often out in the open, and the benefit to poachers of getting in, making a kill, and getting back out again as fast as possible to reduce detection chances; therefore, this pattern seems to have arisen through hunter choice. In the context of Indochina, even the heavily-hunted site would, however, rank as lightly hunted (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on visit and discussion). For these two reasons, their finding, of an apparent high resilience of Sambar to hunting, is not applicable to the rest of the species' range (particularly outside well-secured protected areas). However, somewhat reflecting this, Sambar’s status in non-Sundaic South-east Asia (still widespread but in ongoing steep decline) relative to other large deer ecologically more similar to Chital (herding; often outside dense forest), Eld’s Deer <em>Rucervus eldii</em> and Hog Deer <em>Axis porcinus</em> (extinct across most of their former range through former steep declines) does indeed suggest a broad applicability of a conclusion that Sambar is somewhat less rapidly reduced by hunting than are other sympatric deer, excepting muntjacs <em>Munitacus</em> spp.<br/><br/>Deer are hunted in India using snares, dogs, and guns (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kumara and Singh 2004) and these methods are general across their range. Some hunting is for village consumption of meat, but most (at least in South-east Asia) is probably sold commercially, to the affluent urban classes (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Walston 2001; Kumara and Singh 2004), and to itinerant labourers, such as logging crews in at least Sarawak (Bennett and Gunal 2001) and gold-diggers and rattan-cutters in Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Such commercially-driven hunting causes major declines (e.g. Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008) because the market is limitless. Adult males suffer additionally because antlers are widely displayed as trophies and are used in traditional medicine (e.g. Martin 1992, Baird 1995). At least in Lao PDR, their market value means that, compared with muntjacs, a high proportion is sent to towns and traded internationally, and many are sold openly in tourist centres such as Louangphabang (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Taiwan, in the past live males were sought for farming velvet; this was far more valuable than the meat. Presently, velvet can be bought legally and cheaply from farms and hunting for velvet is now insignificant, as is, here, hunting for internal organs (Chang Shih-Wei pers. comm. 2008). Hunting pressures and patterns vary across Sambar’s range: three areas (Indochina; Malaysian Borneo; Taiwan) are profiled below, and all are very different not just from each other, but from southern and central India, where (excepting Taiwan) the species has by far the healthiest conservation status. But even across India, hunting for Sambar meat is almost ubiquitous, even occurring within well-secured protected areas, and to greater extents in other protected areas and outside the protected area system (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Viet Nam, Lao PDR and to a lesser extent Cambodia and northern Thailand are apparently the areas of Sambar’s range where generalised mammal hunting is heaviest. Sambar is hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in this area and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and Aquilaria resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001; Smith and Xie Yan in press). Such hunting reaches all areas, although in large rugged mountain forest blocks trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is still limited by economics of accessibility. However, the ability of these areas to protect Sambar at the regional scale is questionable, because no areas of rugged evergreen forest are known with high Sambar densities: such habitat is rather marginal. The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any of the most resilient species (pigs, muntjacs, and civets) to be hunted. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 84 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels. Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing Sambar set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per km² per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004 ), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing. Rapid economic development and expanding wealth, particularly South-east Asia and China, are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (e.g. Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss: as they pointed out for Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>, the main driver of threats to wild ungulates in Indochina, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins 2006; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2007), and the intensity of hunting there for some species (Sambar included) is likely to exceed even that in Viet Nam. This reflects the logistical ease of hunting and trading with few controls and the relative abundance of high-value quarry species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam, directly accelerated by illegal trade in timber, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Markets along major roads such as route 13 through Lao PDR (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried deer meat daily. The effects of hunting in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant are discussed in the Red List account for Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>. The most significant constraint to Indochina’s Sambar populations is the long-term uncertainty of success in protected areas, even in those currently effective in conservation management. Even the most successful protected areas face an uncertain future with the possibility of degazettement of conservation status of parts of them, the lack of, or possible future loss of, adequate external funding necessary to maintain high standards of management, the lack of, or possible future loss of, political support necessary to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff.<br/><br/>On Borneo, Sambar are also widely and heavily hunted, largely for meat consumed in-country (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunters used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) and Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: Sambar (along with Bearded Hog <em>Sus barbatus</em> and muntjacs <em>Muntiacus</em>) is heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought by the restaurants; Sambar in particular is an important source of meat for logging company employees in Sarawak. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 1,500 Sambars were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and probably expanding. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon Sambar through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Sambar constituted only 6.7% of animals killed in Sabah, but 35% by weight of wild meat; negligible numbers were taken in Sarawak, reflecting the major declines that had already reduced the species to rarity. Index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. There were, then, no official controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species. The Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of Sambars are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo. Moreover, in the interim, much forest has been lost and Sambar populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be even more vulnerable to local extinctions.<br/><br/>Taiwan contrasts with the rest of Sambar range in that hunting has been so successfully reduced that populations are now increasing in large parts of the island. It was formerly a big problem, for venison and, for medicinal purposes, velvet and penis. The reduction during and since the 1990s reflects five factors. Hunting of Sambar was banned in 1989 through the Wildlife Conservation Act. Velvet prices fell steeply during 1985–1990 with deer TB in 1985, reducing returns from poaching absolutely an effect exacerbated by rapid economic development in 1980s leading to higher daily wages. Former logging road systems are deteriorating within protected areas, making removal of deer meat less attractive. The general awareness of ecological conservation has much enhanced. And eco-tourism through community forestry plans has given alternative employment to former hunters (all information: Lin, C.-Y. and Lee, L.-L. pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Other sympatric ungulates are hunted broadly as avidly as Sambar, but there is suggestive evidence from two areas of Thailand (Kuiburi National Park and a 20 km² sector of Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary) that when Sambar densities are very much reduced, recovery may be more difficult than with Gaur <em>Bos gaurus</em> and muntjacs. In both these areas the institution of effective protection fuelled a rise in sign density, and presumably animal populations, for Gaur and muntjacs, but not for Sambar (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007, in prep.; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). If this finding is widely applicable (and B. Long pers. comm. 2008 suspects a similar contrast between Sambar and other ungulates in a protected part of Cambodia), the implications for Sambar populations in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, northern Thailand, Sarawak and other areas where populations are mostly down to scattered tiny numbers, may be profound.<br/><br/>Over many centuries, the loss of wilderness to human settlement, cultivation and industry has resulted in massive loss of potential Sambar range, particularly in the densely-settled countries of India, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Throughout the range of Sambar, natural and semi-natural habitats (forest, shrubland and grassland) continue to be converted to anthropogenic habitats, degraded (e.g. stands are being changed in character through logging) and fragmented (broken into smaller blocks). The relative proportions of these activities vary across the range as does the percentage of former forest land so affected. The role of these habitat changes as a direct stimulant of the major declines in progress is unclear. Sambar is highly tolerant of forest degradation: indeed, much higher numbers are found in encroached stands than in pristine forests, if hunting is under control (Rijksen 1978; Heydon 1994; Stuebing 1995; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Degradation <em>per se</em> is unlikely to be a significant threat. Many Indian forest areas are severely encroached by exotics such as <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Parthenium</em> spp. and <em>Chromolaena odorata</em>, and these are suspected to effect major changes to forest structure (Hiremath and Sundaram 2005): but their effects on Sambar populations warrant further study. There is no evidence that Sambar can survive complete conversion of landscapes to non-forest uses such as rice paddies, and its ability to use tree plantations in the absence of natural forest is unclear. Probably, like most deer, provided strips of semi-natural vegetation survive (e.g. along streams and on steep slopes) are present, it can use them to some degree. In most of its range (parts of India excepted) it is unlikely that habitat extent is the determining factor of current Sambar numbers, because large tracts of apparently suitable habitat now support no or only tiny numbers of Sambar. By far the most serious effect of current habitat trends is that fragmentation opens up wilderness areas to people, making it easier to hunt throughout them and cheaper to remove bulk wildlife products such as Sambar meat. In both Malaysian Borneo and Lao PDR the ‘natural protection’ afforded to an area through difficulty of access has been considered to be the chief factor allowing populations of large, hunted, mammals to survive (Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000), and this is probably widely true for Sambar outside India, Nepal and the few other areas where active protective measures are effective. In sum, the proximate cause of the major ongoing Sambar declines in most of its range is hunting, for which habitat conversion and fragmentation exacerbate the effects; and these processes are resulting in an ever-smaller maximum possible population, were the hunting issues to be successfully addressed.<br/><br/>Threats other than hunting and, locally, habitat loss, seem to be insignificant at the species level. Hybridization with Javan Rusa <em>Rusa timorensis</em> has been documented (Van Mourik and Schurig 1985), and is apparently a localized threat, where the latter has been introduced into Sambar range, in Pewajam District, East Kalimantan (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). Hybridization has also been suspected in Sumatra, with the introduced Chital <em>Axis axis</em> (G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2006). However, Sambar and Chital co-occur extensively in India without hybridizing. Sambar is an occasional crop pest in mainland China, notably around the Ailoshan range (J. Fellowes pers. comm. 2008), India (N.S. Kumar pers. comm. 2008), Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999), Myanmar (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008), Sumatra (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008), and probably throughout its range. There is no evidence that Sambar is a serious crop pest away from the fields directly abutting forests. Nonetheless, crop damage is often stated by affected farmers to lead to a requirement for lethal control. However, the ready market for meat means that this is most probably an excuse for killing that would enthusiastically be undertaken anyway (N.S. Kumar and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008): it is therefore unlikely that control of crop-degrading animals is a significant cause of the species' decline anywhere in Sambar’s range. Grazing competition with domestic stock seems to be much less of a threat to Sambar than to sympatric Gaur and Chital: in fact the key study quantifying just how serious a threat such competition is in Indian protected areas (Madhusudan 2004) found that it had negligible effects on Sambar densities, presumably because Sambar is an efficient browser. Threats to southern India’s forest ungulates by competition with domestic stock grazing within protected areas are exacerbated where dung is collected for export to adjacent coffee areas. Fuel wood removal may also be at levels sufficient to disrupt nutrient cycles of the habitat (Madhusudan 2005). In the Indian Terai Arc Landscape, lopping of tree branches for cattle fodder is a threat to Sambar as it effectively removes most browsable vegetation from the landscape (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). These are probably more serious concerns for Sambar than is grazing by domestic stock.	eng
41791	conservation	Barratt, P., Cavanagh, R.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41791	distribution	Barratt, P., Cavanagh, R.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Country distribution range is uncertain.	eng
41791	habitat	Barratt, P., Cavanagh, R.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	A common but little-known inshore sluggish bottom shark. It may possibly occur in fresh water in the lower reaches of the Perak River in peninsular Malaysia. Maximum total length (TL) is about 65 cm, with males maturing between 39 and 42 cm TL, and females at 43 cm TL. <em>Chiloscyllium indicum</em> is oviparous, and is inferred to feed mainly on invertebrates. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of this species.	eng
41791	population	Barratt, P., Cavanagh, R.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations, though it is known to be common within parts of its range.	eng
41791	threats	Barratt, P., Cavanagh, R.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Chiloscyllium indicum</em> is of considerable interest to fisheries in some areas and is regularly taken in inshore fisheries in India, Sri Lanka and Thailand and utilized fresh for food. It is caught in demersal trawls, demersal gill nets and occasionally pelagic gill nets and is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range.	eng
41792	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41792	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	An Indo-West Pacific species. Occurs at depths of 5 to 80 m in inshore areas.	eng
41792	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	A common, sluggish inshore bottom dweller, found on sandy and muddy bottoms, on rocks and in coral lagoons at depths from 5 to 80 m. Oviparous, deposits eggs in small oval egg cases on the bottom. Feeds mainly on small fish, shrimps, worms, molluscs and crabs. Maximum total length at least 77 cm. Free-living individuals have been found at sizes of at least 12.2 cm, size at hatching uncertain; males maturing between 45 and 55 cm.	eng
41792	population	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There is no information on population size.	eng
41792	threats	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Regularly taken in inshore fisheries off Pakistan, India and Thailand, and utilized for human food, and is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range. This species is kept in public aquaria in the United States (Compagno 2001) but apparently rare in the aquarium trade (Michael 2001).	eng
41793	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41793	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	New Zealand endemic recorded from only three locations off northern New Zealand (Lord Howe Rise, Kermadec Ridge, Three Kings Ridge) (Didier 1998). This species may have a wider distribution than is presently known, particularly in waters deeper than 1,000 m (Didier 1998).	eng
41793	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	A large, very poorly known species. Males and females above 100 cm total length (TL) have been mature. Maximum size at least 129 cm TL. Depth of occurrence 327 to 1,020 m.	eng
41793	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Vulnerable to bottom longlining and possibly bottom trawling in the upper part of its depth range but there is little fishing effort throughout most of its known distribution.	eng
41794	conservation	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	None known for this species. A very few states are developing or have developed shark management plans within the context of the FAO IPOA-Sharks, but few if any of these include measures for the management of deepwater fisheries bycatch.	eng
41794	distribution	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	Generally rare, only a few localities where it is more common. Range almost worldwide.	eng
41794	habitat	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	Marine, demersal or benthopelagic, reported as occasionally pelagic on the upper and middle continental slope, 100 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,000 m. An active predator on deepwater squid and a variety of fish (including other sharks). Large mouth with sharp inwards-pointing teeth can take large prey, but this shark is not considered dangerous to man. Born 40 to 60 cm total length (TL). Mature 97 to 117 cm TL (males), 135 to 150 cm TL  (females). Maximum approximately 196 cm TL (females). Ovoviviparous with 6 to 12 pups per litter, possibly a long gestation period but life cycle basically unknown.	eng
41794	population	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	No information on population size anywhere.	eng
41794	threats	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	Not a targeted fisheries species, but taken as bycatch in bottom and midwater trawls, deep-set longlines, and in deep-set gill nets. No population baseline or trends available. Some concern that increased deepwater fisheries effort (geographically and in depth range) may increase levels of bycatch. The bycatch is sometimes utilized for fishmeal and for meat. Occasionally kept in aquaria (Japan).	eng
41795	conservation	White, W.T., 2007	Further investigation is required to make a more detailed assessment of this species. Monitoring of fishing activities within the known range and habitat of this species may need to be increased to gain more detailed information on its susceptibility and population trends.	eng
41795	distribution	White, W.T., 2007	The Mandarin Shark (<em>Cirrhigaleus barbifer</em>) is documented from the western Pacific around Japan (southeastern Honshu) and Taiwan (Compagno 1984, Compagno and Niem 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Possibly from Torres Islands in Vanuatu and Fiji Islands but needs to be compared to Cirrhigaleus australis from Australia and New Zealand. More recently this species has been recorded from landing sites in Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
41795	habitat	White, W.T., 2007	The species is reported demersally on the uppermost continental and insular slopes, and probably the outer continental-insular shelves at depths of 146?640 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). This stout-bodied species is reported to attain 126 cm total length (TL) (Compagno and Niem 1998). The Mandarin Shark is viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males mature at ~86 cm TL and females at ~92 cm TL (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Size at birth is probably >15 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The long barbels are thought to help in prey detection, and the diet probably consists of mostly bottom fishes and invertebrates (Compagno and Niem 1998). There is no available information on reproductive biology, age and growth or natural mortality of this species.	eng
41795	population	White, W.T., 2007	The Mandarin Shark appears to be locally rare which may be a natural characteristic of this species.	eng
41795	threats	White, W.T., 2007	The two long dorsal-fin spines make this species particular vulnerable to nets and trawls. The very stout body of this species also most likely reflects a slow moving lifestyle thus making net and trawl evasion more difficult. This would make this species particularly vulnerable in areas where such fishing activities are common, e.g., in eastern Indonesia. Although not utilised commercially at present, the liver is high in squalene oil and is often of high value particularly to artisanal fisherman.<br/><br/>The apparent low numbers of this species within its known range may be a result of the above factors, however, this species may have naturally low populations and more data is necessary.	eng
41796	conservation	Duffy, C. & Paul, L., 2003	In New Zealand prohibited as a commercial target species in quota management areas (QMA) 1, 4 and 9. QMAs 1 and 9 represent the core of the species distribution in New Zealand.	eng
41796	distribution	Duffy, C. & Paul, L., 2003	New Zealand (including Kermadec and Chatham Islands), southern Australia (southern Queensland to Shark Bay, Western Australia, including the waters of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia), and southern Africa (South Africa and Mozambique) (Zambezi River to Cape Town). In New Zealand rare at the Kermadec Islands and uncommon south of Cook Strait.	eng
41796	habitat	Duffy, C. & Paul, L., 2003	Poorly known despite its abundance due to confusion with other large <em>Dasyatis</em> spp. and lack of research. Occurs in a wide variety of habitats including shallow coastal bays, estuaries, large inlets, coastal rocky reefs, offshore islands, open sea floor and occasionally near the surface over the outer shelf. Common in 180 to 480 m off South Africa where the species is mainly reported from deep offshore banks. Not recorded below 156 m in New Zealand and Australia. During summer large mid water aggregations are found at several locations around the Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand. The purpose of these aggregations is unknown but they may be related to mating. Other ray species are known to aggregate to breed and at least one observation of mating has been made at Northern Arch.  <br/> <br/>Size and age at maturity is unknown. Reproduction is viviparous. Size at birth is about 36 cm disc width. Litter size and gestation period are unknown. Pupping and nursery areas are also unknown. Diet includes crabs, bivalve shellfish and bony fishes.  <br/> <br/>Stingrays form a regular, and possibly important part of the diet of killer whales in New Zealand waters. Other known predators include the white shark and smooth hammerhead. This is the largest stingray in the world, reaching at least 210 cm disc width, 430 cm total length and 350 kg. Individuals exceeding 150 cm disc width are common in New Zealand waters, and there are reliable but unconfirmed reports of individuals approaching 300 cm disc width.	eng
41796	threats	Duffy, C. & Paul, L., 2003	Taken as bycatch in inshore trawl, Danish seine, snapper longline and purse seine fisheries. Usually discarded. Commonly taken by recreational line fishers, either by surfcasting or line fishing from boats. Also taken on set lines, and in drag and set nets. Sometimes speared, or harpooned for sport. Usually released but sometimes retained for their flesh, or for angling competitions. Commercial and recreational fishers regularly amputate stingrays? tails before releasing them to reduce the risk of injury. The relatively large number of shorttail rays seen by divers without tails suggests they survive capture and release well. A small number of rays are caught for exhibition in public aquaria.	eng
41797	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Pollard, D.A. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is listed as Near Threatened, using the previous IUCN Red List system in the <em>Conservation Overview and Action Plan for Australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes</em> published by Environment Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). This report emphasises, however, that there is significant concern for this species and that it needs to be closely monitored to ensure that its conservation status is not raised into the Vulnerable category in the near future (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Here, however, the species meets the criteria for a Vulnerable listing. <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) recognise critical habitat for <em>D. fluviorum</em> as relatively shallow mangrove and estuarine areas and suggest that habitat protection is required as a recovery objective. While <em>D. fluviorum</em> is likely to occur in a number of Marine Protected Areas in NSW and Queensland waters, the zoning plans for these parks and reserves restrict fishing activities in only small areas and do not generally protect sufficient areas of the habitat of this species. <br/> <br/>The species is still relatively common in some southern Queensland estuaries and bays (Hervey Bay, parts of Moreton Bay), and these areas may be important for habitat protection (they are however, also heavily fished both commercially and recreationally and face development pressure).  <br/> <br/>Education of commercial fishers, aquaculturists and recreational fishers is a priority to halt the destruction of incidental catches of the species.	eng
41797	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Pollard, D.A. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> has a subtropical to tropical distribution in Australian waters from New South Wales (NSW) north to at least the central Queensland coast, and west from Cape York in Queensland to Darwin in the Northern Territory. Its occurrence north of Proserpine (around 20°30'S) to Cape York, Queensland, requires verification (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, Jeff Johnson, pers. comm.). It is also recorded from southern New Guinea, off both Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Irian Jaya. Its occurrence off the northern coast of New Guinea has not been verified (Last and Stevens 1994). This species is reported from FAO Fisheries Areas 71 (Western Central Pacific) and 81 (Southwest Pacific). As well as being reported from marine and estuarine waters, it is known to ascend rivers to beyond the tidal limit (Whitley 1940). Historically, the southern extent of its range in NSW was Botany Bay and Port Jackson (33°51'S), however it has not been reported there since the 1880s  (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its southern range extent is uncertain, but may now be Forster  (32°10'S) (Last and Stevens 1994). Although Gray <em>et al.</em> (1990) report the species from the Hawkesbury River (33º34'S), this report can not be verified (J. Pogonoski, pers. comm.).	eng
41797	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Pollard, D.A. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	This species is reported from mangrove-fringed rivers and estuaries, and offshore to at least 28 m depth, but more commonly in shallow inshore waters (Last and Stevens 1994, Pogonsoki <em>et al.</em> 2002). As well as being reported from marine and estuarine waters, it is known to ascend rivers to beyond the tidal limit (Whitley 1940). However, the species appears to be rather habitat specific, and appears to be common only at a number of suitable locations. <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is reported to reach a disc width (DW) of 120 cm. Young are born at 11 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is reported to be a major predator of shellfish, including farmed oysters (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994) however, detailed dietary assessments are unavailable. Individuals move over mudflats with the incoming tide to feed, and in Moreton Bay, southern Queensland, have been found to consume numerous soldier crabs (<em>Mictyris longicarpus</em>) (P. Kyne, pers. obs). <br/> <br/>While published estimates of size at sexual maturity are lacking, of 12 males examined from Moreton Bay, the smallest mature individual was 45 cm DW. All individuals of greater size than this were mature. The smallest mature female from seven individuals examined was 43 cm DW (unpublished data). Sexual maturity was determined by methods outlined in Bass <em>et al.</em> (1973). There is no available information on the reproductive biology (including fecundity or gestational period), age and growth, natural mortality or detailed behavioural ecology of this species.	eng
41797	threats	Kyne, P.M., Pollard, D.A. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Once common, there is considerable anecdotal evidence of a significant contraction and decline in abundance for this species in the waters of NSW and southern Queensland. A number of threatening processes can be identified as acting on the species, which have, and still are, probably combining to cause the current population trend. While <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em> is not utilized commercially (Last and Compagno 1999), it is taken as bycatch in inshore commercial fisheries, including demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW and Queensland (P. Kyne, pers. obs.). The species readily takes cut fish baits and is therefore prone to capture by inshore line fishing (recreational and commercial). Incidental capture by recreational fishers is also likely to be a significant threat to the species as fishers often destroy any stingray catches (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002, P. Kyne, pers. obs.). Decline in southern Queensland waters is also thought to be a result of the reclamation of large areas of shallow muddy tidal bays and mangroves for the development of urban areas, canal estates and marinas. For example, over 20% of the original mangrove habitat of Moreton Bay in southern Queensland has been lost to such development since European settlement (Greenwood 1993).  <br/> <br/>This stingray has been reported to feed voraciously on farmed oysters (Whitley 1940, Last and Stevens 1994), and subsequent persecution by commercial shellfish farmers in NSW and southern Queensland estuaries has probably been another factor contributing to the species? apparent decline. Furthermore, the practice of "spiking" incidentally caught stingrays (using a metal bar or stick with a sharpened point attached to pierce the animal?s chondrocranium and remove it from nets, sorting trays, etc.) continues in many commercial fishing situations and may be a potentially significant source of mortality.  <br/> <br/>No information is available on the species? current status in New Guinean waters, although in that locality it is likely to face pressure from subsistence fishing activities and the effects of pollution from mining and other land-based activities.	eng
41798	conservation	Stevens, J., 2003	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibit the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.	eng
41798	distribution	Stevens, J., 2003	A wide but patchy distribution in the eastern Atlantic (Iceland to Southern Africa, excluding the Mediterranean) and Pacific (Chile, Peru, Japan, southern Australia and New Zealand). In Australia, between Coffs Harbour (New South Wales) and Green Head (southern Westerna Australia), including Tasmania. Continental and insular slopes and outer shelves, usually in depths between 400 and 900 m but recorded from 70 to 1,450 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Long 1997).	eng
41798	habitat	Stevens, J., 2003	On or near the bottom of  the continental slope and abyssal plain in depths from 70 to 1,450 m. In Australia, catch rates are highest in the 600 to 1,100 m zone (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). There appears to be some size and sex segregation by depth. Pregnant females are rare in catches from most areas (0.8% of mature females in New South Wales (NSW) and Tasmania). The diet consists of fish, cephalopds and crustaceans; myctophids were common prey in Australia, South Africa, Namibia and in the north east Atlantic which suggests feeding at some height above the bottom (Mauchline and Gordon 1983, Yano 1991,  Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1992, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). This may reduce their vulnerability to trawl gear. <br/> <br/>Population parameters in Australia are as follows (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002): <br/> <br/>Size at birth: 30 cm total length (TL) <br/>Max size: 120 cm TL <br/>Male maturity: 80 cm TL <br/>Female maturity: 90 cm TL <br/>Litter size: 7 (1 to 17) <br/>Gestation: ? (non-seasonal) <br/>Breeding cycle: non-continuous <br/> <br/>Length at 50% maturity in the north east Atlantic was 85 cm for males and 106 cm for females (Clarke<em>et al.</em> 2002). Ageing work from the North Atlantic suggests maturity at 17 years for males and 25 years for females and a longevity of 35 years (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
41798	population	Stevens, J., 2003	Some biomass estimates are available from New Zealand (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2000) and these show no evidence of a declining trend. One of the more abundant mid slope species of deep water dogfish.	eng
41798	threats	Stevens, J., 2003	Taken by trawl, hook and gillnet both as a target and bycatch species for its liver oil and flesh.  The livers are high in squalene comprising about 70% by weight (Bakes <em>et al.</em> 1995). Catch rates of up to 500 kg/h have been reported from Australia. Catches in Australia have been increasing in the last few years with relaxation of mercury laws and fishers looking for non-quota species in the South East Trawl Fishery. Research surveys on the NSW slope over a 20 year period have shown a decline from 15.7 kg/h to 1.4 kg/h for the related longsnout dogfish <em>Deania quadrispinosa</em> (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
41799	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	A total competitive quota of 900 tonnes for all skates and rays was introduced in 1991-92 for the east coast of South Island, but landings have exceeded the quota every year since it was introduced. The Ministry of Fisheries proposes to introduce smooth skate into the Quota Management System in October 2003.	eng
41799	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Ranges throughout coastal waters of North and South islands, Stewart Is ? Snares Islands Shelf, and Chatham Rise, plus scattered records from the Campbell Plateau. Depth range from the shore to about 1,200 m but rare deeper than 800 m.	eng
41799	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Soft bottom habitats on the continental shelf and upper slope; most abundant on the mid-outer continental shelf. They feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish. Females lay pairs of eggs in leathery cases on the seabed. Embryos hatch at about 10-15 cm pelvic length (PL) (snout tip to posterior margin of pelvic fins). Males mature at 93 cm PL and 8 years of age, and females at 112 cm PL and 13 years. Females grow larger and probably older than males, and reach at least 158 cm PL and 24 years of age.	eng
41799	population	Francis, M.P., 2003	Trawl survey biomass indices in the main abundance area of east coast South Island show no trends, though there is evidence of inter-annual variation in catchability that may invalidate the time series.	eng
41799	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Commercial catch of around 1,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl and bottom longline fisheries (exact quantities are unknown because rough [<em>Dipturus nasutus</em>] and smooth skates are frequently lumped in landings statistics). Skates are not targeted, but are retained when caught.	eng
41800	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	A total competitive quota of 900 tonnes for all skates and rays was introduced in 1991-92 for the east coast of South Island, but landings have exceeded the quota every year since it was introduced. The Ministry of Fisheries proposes to introduce rough skate into the Quota Management System in October 2003.	eng
41800	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Ranges throughout coastal waters of North and South islands, and Stewart Is ? Snares Islands Shelf, plus scattered records from the Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau. Depth range from the shore to about 1,000 m but rare deeper than 600 m.	eng
41800	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Soft bottom habitats on the continental shelf; most abundant on the inner continental shelf. They feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish. Females lay pairs of eggs in leathery cases on the seabed. Embryos hatch at about 10 to 15 cm pelvic length (PL) (snout tip to posterior margin of pelvic fins). Males mature at 52 cm PL and four years of age, and females at 59 cm PL and six years. Females grow larger and probably older than males, and reach at least 79 cm PL and nine years of age.	eng
41800	population	Francis, M.P., 2003	Trawl survey biomass indices in the main abundance area of east coast South Island show no trends, though there is evidence of inter-annual variation in catchability that may invalidate the time series.	eng
41800	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Large commercial catch of around 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery (exact quantities are unknown because rough and smooth skates [<em>Dipturus innominatus</em>] are frequently lumped in landings statistics). Skates are not targeted, but are retained when caught.	eng
41801	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41801	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	Range almost worldwide.	eng
41801	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, living on or near the seafloor (as far as is known), on the upper and middle continental slope, mainly in 400 to 900 m (based on relatively few captures) but has also been taken in shallower water. Considered a sluggish shark, but may be capable of short rushes to capture prey (fishes, crustaceans). <br/> <br/>Born 30 to 90 cm. Mature ~160 cm M, ~200 cm F. (these sizes are poorly known.) Maximum size ~310 cm. Ovoviviparous with 15 to 25 pups per litter, gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown. <br/> <br/>Otherwise, almost nothing is known of the species? biology.	eng
41801	population	Paul, L., 2003	Rare. There is no information on the existence, or likely existence of local populations, or on population size in any locality.	eng
41801	threats	Paul, L., 2003	Although rarely encountered, almost certainly an unreported bycatch in several deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Reportedly only used for fishmeal, but the liver oil has been used medicinally in at least South Africa. No population baseline or trends available, apart from a reported reduction in numbers in the north-east Atlantic (Quero and Emmonnet 1993, Quero and Cendrero 1996, Quero 1998).	eng
41802	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41802	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	Tropical and temperate waters of the Pacific Ocean, in depths from 10 m to over 400 m (possibly to over 1,500 m). Apparently absent from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In Australia, known only from VIC (Last and Stevens 1994) together with a recent record off North Queensland (Mike Cappo, AIMS, pers. comm. May 2003).	eng
41802	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 10 to 400 m, possibly to 1,500 m. The shallow records are from submarine canyons, in particular Monterey Canyon (California), where there is a notable ? and possibly unique ? localised abundance. Considered a sluggish shark, but probably capable of swift rushes to capture prey (fishes, crustaceans). Born 40 to 45 cm. Mature 180 to 200 cm (males), 250 to 300 cm (females). Maximum ~400 cm. Ovoviviparous, up to 114 pups per litter have been recorded. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown. Life history generally very poorly known.	eng
41802	population	Paul, L., 2003	There is no information on subpopulations, or on the size of any population.	eng
41802	threats	Paul, L., 2003	A bycatch in some deepwater line and trawl fisheries, which will continue as these expand in geographic area and depth range.	eng
41803	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
41803	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	There is no information on whether the population off southeastern Australia (southern New South Wales (NSW), Victoria, Tasmania, and seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is unlikely that there is any physical connection with the population of <em>baxteri</em> recently recognised off southern Africa (Compagno, unpublished).	eng
41803	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 250 to 1,500 m, usually 700 to 1,400 m. One of the most common deepwater sharks in this depth range. An active predator on fishes, squids, and crustaceans. Born approximately 20 cm. Mature 55 to 60 cm (males), 64 to 69 cm (females). Maximum 88 cm. <br/> <br/>Ovoviparous with 6 to 16 pups per litter. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown, see Wetherbee (1996).	eng
41803	population	Paul, L., 2003	No information is available on the size of any population.	eng
41803	threats	Paul, L., 2003	A moderate bycatch in some deepwater fisheries. Its depth range coincides (in part) with that of some commercially important teleosts (especially orange roughy, oreos), although it extends deeper.	eng
41804	conservation	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41804	distribution	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	All three known specimens were collected off North-west Lifou, on the insular slopes of New Caledonia. Probably endemic.	eng
41804	habitat	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Known from three specimens, caught on longline at a depth of 638 to 793 m, North-west Lifou, on the insular slopes of New Caledonia. A male was mature at 31 cm. The largest was a 34 cm female. No information available on biology, but the capture of three at one location suggests that this may, like some other lantern sharks, be a social species and hunt in packs.	eng
41804	population	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	No information on population size.	eng
41804	threats	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon around New Caledonia. This species is not targeted, discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.	eng
41805	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41805	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the continental slope of the central Queensland Plateau (northeastern Australia) and from off New Caledonia.	eng
41805	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from near the bottom on the continental slope in depths of 708 to 880 m. Maximum size at least 41 cm total length (TL). Male of 338 mm TL was adolescent. Embryo of 95 mm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
41805	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations.	eng
41805	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Presently no major fishing activity in its area of occurrence. The species is not targeted in any commercial fisheries. It is unlikely to be captured frequently on longline gear due to its small size. If captured, it is likely discarded (survival rates are unknown but are likely to be moderate from longline capture and low from trawl capture). However given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future and this situation should be monitored closely.	eng
41806	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41806	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Currently known only from the central Coral Sea, off the Saumarez and Queensland Plateaus (northeastern Australia).	eng
41806	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Found on or near the bottom of the continental slope in depths of 590 to 700 m. Maximum size at least 45 cm total length (TL). Smallest observed mature male 33.5 cm TL; male adolescent at 33 cm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
41806	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations.	eng
41806	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Presently no major fishing activity in its area of occurrence. The species is not targeted in any commercial fisheries. It is unlikely to be captured frequently on any longline gear due to its small size. If captured, it is likely discarded survival rates are unknown (but are likely to be moderate from longline capture and low from trawl capture). However given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future and this situation should be monitored closely.	eng
41807	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41807	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from localised records off northwestern Western Australia and from the Arafura Sea, Indonesia.	eng
41807	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the continental slope in 430 to 550 m. Maximum size at least 30 cm total length (TL). A male of 26.2 cm TL was mature. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
41807	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations.	eng
41807	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Presently only minor fishing activity in area of occurrence off Western Australia (Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery). The Arafura Sea and Indonesian waters may be subject to some trawling effort by Indonesian vessels (although at present this is mostly in less than 200 m depth). Given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries pressure may be placed upon this species in the future, especially if Indonesian fleets expand into deeper water. Survival rates when discarded from trawl catches will be low.	eng
41808	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation actions in place for this species.	eng
41808	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the Eastern Indian Ocean off northern Western Australia, with the possibility of occurrence off Java, Indonesia.	eng
41808	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the continental slope in 430 to 550 m off Australia and possibly in 120 to 200 m off Indonesia (if it occurs off Java). Maximum size at least 30 cm total length (TL). Observed males of 25.1 to 25.8 cm TL are mature. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
41808	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations.	eng
41808	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Presently only minor fishing activity in area of occurrence off Western Australia (Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery). The species is not targeted off Western Australia, and if captured is likely discarded (although survival rates are unknown and likely to be low from trawl captures). If the species occurs off Java, Indonesia, that area is likely to be subject to heavy trawling effort by Indonesian vessels (generally operating in less than 200 m depth which overlaps with the suspected depth range of the species off Java of 120 to 200 m). Quantitative data on Indonesian fisheries is required to assess its status in these waters if it is confirmed to be present there. Furthermore, given the global expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries additional pressure may be placed upon small and medium-sized etmopterid species in the future.	eng
41809	conservation	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41809	distribution	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Currently known only from oceanic ridges near New Caledonia (Norfolk and Lord Howe Ridges), but could be wider-ranging and possibly semi-oceanic.	eng
41809	habitat	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Known from only a few specimens, caught on the bottom at 1,043 to 1,102 m on oceanic ridges. Morphology suggests that it may be wider ranging. Biology is unknown. All specimens taken were 40 to 45 cm in length, all males mature.	eng
41809	population	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Population size unknown.	eng
41809	threats	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon around New Caledonia. This species is not targeted, discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.	eng
41810	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
41810	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species occurs on and near continental shelf waters of the Indo-West Pacific from the Arabian Gulf though south Asian, Indonesia and northern Australia.	eng
41810	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	A unique species of hammerhead with an extremely large hammer. The young are born at approximately 45 cm, maturity occurs at around 110 cm, and they reach a maximum size of 186 cm (Stevens and Lyle 1989).  Mature females produce litters of 6-11 every year after a gestation period of 8 to 11 months (Compagno 1984).  There are no age and growth data available for this species. As a consequence it is difficult to predict the productivity of its life history. The diet is composed of teleost fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods.	eng
41810	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	There are no data available on population numbers for any part of the range.	eng
41810	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species is heavily exploited in some parts of its range, especially in the Gulf of Thailand, India and Indonesia (L. Compagno, pers. comm., William White, Murdoch University, pers. comm). Anecdotal reports indicate that in these areas the populations have been impacted by fishing and in the near future may require a listing as Vulnerable based on population decline.  Within Australian waters it is only lightly exploited by gillnet and longline fishing	eng
41811	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Due to its bathymetric distribution it is unlikely to occur inside any marine protected areas, with the exception of the Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Marine Park.	eng
41811	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Figaro boardmani</em> is endemic to the Indo-West Pacific in temperate to subtropical waters of southern Australia, ranging from Noosa, southeastern Queensland to Carnarvon, Western Australia, and including the waters of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). This species occurs primarily in the Eastern Indian and Southwest Pacific Oceans but also extends into the Western Central Pacific.	eng
41811	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Figaro</em><em> boardmani</em> is demersal on the outer continental shelf and upper slope and is reported in depths of 128 to 823 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998), however, it has been trawled from shallower waters (85 m) off southeastern Queensland (personal observation). It reaches 61 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 40 cm TL and females at about 40 to 43 cm TL and is reported to feed mainly on fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Last and Stevens 1994, personal observation). The species is oviparous with one functional ovary in females. Of four mature females dissected from southeastern Queensland from the month of July three contained a single egg case in the left oviduct while the fourth contained an egg case in each oviduct. All possessed numerous large ovarian ova. Egg cases measured 68 to 74 x 19 to 21 x 8 to 9 mm (length x width x depth) (personal observation). Little else is known about its biology, with no other available information on reproductive biology, age and growth, natural mortality or behavioural ecology, except that it appears to sometimes aggregate by sex (Last and Stevens 1994). The species may not have a well-defined reproductive season, similar to the situation with other scyliorhinid sharks.	eng
41811	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There is no available information on subpopulations, however, a number are likely to exist.	eng
41811	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Figaro</em><em> boardmani</em> appears to be widespread and common, is not targeted by commercial fisheries and is only of minor importance to fisheries at present through retention as bycatch (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998). The species is reported to be retained in the Western Australian Deep Water Trawl Fishery, although the quantity is unknown (Rose and SAG 2001). However, it is a frequent component of bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994). It is discarded in the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF), which operates in southern Australian waters from New South Wales to South Australia (Rose and SAG 2001). In the SETF catch rates from an observer program have been stable over the last 10 years (Terry Walker, personal communication). In bycatch surveys of the eastern king prawn sector, deepwater component of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, <em>F. boardmani</em> was the third most commonly caught elasmobranch, although numbers were low and survivorship from trawling was high (Kyne, unpublished data). Post-release survivorship is unknown. It is probable that the species is also a component of bycatch of other demersal trawl fisheries operating in its distribution.	eng
41812	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	None. The species is rare and research is required to obtain information on distribution, biology and fisheries interactions.	eng
41812	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Endemic to Australia. Known from isolated records across northern Australia which may represent different populations or may be part of a continuous range (Compagno and Stevens 1993, Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41812	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Demersal on the continental slope in depths of 290 to 470 m. Maximum size at least 34 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
41812	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Area of occurrence off northwestern Australia subject to minor trawl effort from the Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fishery. While it is appears to be a rare species, it is of no commercial value and therefore unlikely be to subjected to any directed fishing pressure. Bycatch levels are unknown.	eng
41813	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41813	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Unknown (only one specimen recorded). Probably an uncommon endemic; it is very distinctive in appearance and should have been recorded more frequently if common, but the area is not well-surveyed.	eng
41813	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Continental shelf, off a river mouth, probably on or close to bottom. Taken on a hand line. Probably feeds on bottom-dwelling species. The type specimen was a pregnant female (74 cm) with a 24 cm near-term foetus. This is an ovoviviparous species with normal litters numbering two pups, indicating low intrinsic rate of population increase.	eng
41813	population	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Only one specimen recorded.	eng
41813	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Bycatch in shallow continental shelf fisheries.	eng
41814	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41814	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	New Zealand and ridges to the north (Norfolk Ridge, Three Kings Ridge). Depth range 129 to 724 m, with greatest abundance in 300 to 600 m.	eng
41814	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Found on flat plateaux to steep slopes on the upper to mid continental slope. Trawled over open, soft seabed, but may also occur over rocky habitats. Food is varied including sharks, teleosts, gastropods, squid, crustaceans and brittle stars. Length at maturity of both sexes is 70 cm total length (TL), and maximum length of 110 cm TL. Litter size is usually two embryos, which are born at about 40 cm TL.	eng
41814	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Caught as bycatch by bottom trawlers and bottom longliners in New Zealand waters. Fishing effort on the ridges north of New Zealand is probably low, and catches therefore minimal.	eng
41816	conservation	White, W.T., 2007	None in place.	eng
41816	distribution	White, W.T., 2007	Indian Ocean, northwest and western central Pacific: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Taiwan and possibly the Red Sea.	eng
41816	habitat	White, W.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemigaleus microstoma </span>is known from the insular and continental shelves, in shallow waters to depths of at least 170 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Attains 114 cm TL. Males reach maturity at about 75 cm TL and females from 75?78 cm TL (White et al. 2007). Young are born at about 47 cm TL (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). Litter size is 2?4 (mean 3.3) with possibly two pregnancies per year thus a gestation of less than six months (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). A specialist feeder which feeds almost exclusively on cephalopods.	eng
41816	population	White, W.T., 2007	Not particularly common throughout its range. Appears to be naturally not abundant as with many other hemigaleids.	eng
41816	threats	White, W.T., 2007	Known to be caught in inshore and offshore artisanal fisheries throughout its range and retained. Caught in drifting and bottom gillnets and on longlines. Meat is utilized for human consumption and offal is processed into fishmeal (Compagno in prep). Fins are utilized but of lower value due to their small size (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
41817	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	None. Based on the restricted distribution of this species and high risk of habitat destruction this species requires scientific examination to assess its conservation status.	eng
41817	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>H. freycineti</em> is known to occur in the Western South Pacific from Indonesia (Irian Jaya, Waigeo) and Papua New Guinea (Trobriand Islands from Kuia Island, Milne Bay and east of Oro Bay).	eng
41817	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species occurs in shallow waters on coral reefs, sandy and grassy substrates. <em> H. freycineti</em> reach a maximum length of 72 cm total length (TL) with the smallest free-living individual recorded at 19 cm TL. Males mature between 37 to 62 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown	eng
41817	population	Kyne, P.M. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41817	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Heupel, M.R., 2003	It is unknown if this species is utilized by the aquarium industry. However, this is a very attractive and hardy species that may be sought after for public and private aquaria. This species is very susceptible to habitat destruction via high pollutant levels and dynamite fishing practices. In addition, regions of the Arafura Sea, where <em>H. freycineti</em> occurs, are subject to heavy trawling and high pollutant loads into the Gulf of Papua via the Fly River and others are causing large-scale habitat destruction.	eng
41818	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None needed at present. The species is protected in parts of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Queensland.	eng
41818	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species is commonly found in shallow coastal waters of Queensland, the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia. On the east Australian coast the southern extent of its range has been recorded as Sydney, New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41818	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	A small, slender shark of up to about 1 m total length (TL). At Heron Island Reef, Queensland, individuals did not exceed 76 cm TL and a mass of 900 g (n = 497). A species that is commonly encountered in shallow coral reef waters. It is well camouflaged and can been observed foraging over reef flats. Its activity pattern is affected by a combination of suitable tidal and light conditions: it is more active at low water and, although epaulette sharks can be found actively hunting during daylight hours, it is more active after dark and particularly around dawn or dusk. The diet comprises a variety of benthic organisms that it takes from the surface of the substrate or, by burying its head into the substrate, from a few centimetres below the surface (Heupel and Bennett 1998). Annelids and crabs account for the majority of the diet in this species, although there is a degree of ontogenetic shift in dietary preference, with shrimps becoming a more important part of the adult diet (Heupel and Bennett 1998). At rest sharks commonly hide in or beneath coral heads. If in the open, they orient themselves with their head into the oncoming water stream, presumably for station-holding and possibly for prey/threat detection (Peach 2002). <br/> <br/>An oviparous species with males and females maturing at 54 to 62 cm TL. Mating probably occur between July and November, with females carrying eggcases found between August and December, although in captivity they have been noted to breed continuously (West and Carter 1990). Two egg capsules are produced and deposited among coral at night. A pair of egg capsules may be produced every 14 days, resulting in up to about 20 potential offspring per female per annum. Eggs hatch after about 120 days with young at 14 to 16 cm TL. Subsequent growth is initially slow, but reaches about five cm year<sup>-1</sup> after about three months (West and Carter 1990). Epaulette sharks descend into deeper water between coral reefs and have been found at depths of at least 40 m. The species is hypoxia tolerant and is able to survive in anoxic waters. This trait is important as this shark is often found in shallow (<em>ca</em> 15 cm deep), warm (<em>ca</em> 30°C) waters that become severely hypoxic during the night. This trait may enable this species to survive in areas of poor water quality, such as mining run-off in New Guinea.	eng
41818	population	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Significant populations appear to only occur northwards of about latitude 23°S. The Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef has a large population of epaulette sharks, with a population on a small portion of Heron Island Reef estimated to number in the low thousands (Heupel and Bennett, unpublished obs). The degree of interchange of individuals between reefs is unknown and subpopulations may exist if emigration/immigration is minimal. The population sizes and details of the range of this species in Western Australia, the Northern Territory and New Guinea are unknown.	eng
41818	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Collection for aquarium trade and bycatch from fishing activities in Australian waters place only minimal pressure on this species. However, around New Guinea the species is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing and pollution. These processes are likely causing declines in all hemiscyllid species occurring around New Guinea, however quantitative data are not available. The wider distribution of <em>H. ocellatum</em> compared with other endemic <em>Hemiscyllium</em> spp. and the fact that the species is abundant in Australian waters means the species is not threatened with extinction on a global basis. However, given the pressures facing all hemiscyllid sharks around New Guinea, the status of the species requires close monitoring.	eng
41819	conservation	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None. Based on the restricted distribution of this species and high risk of habitat destruction this species requires scientific examination to assess its conservation status.	eng
41819	distribution	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Hemiscyllium strahani</em> is restricted to a small region off the northern and southern coasts along the eastern extent of New Guinea (extent of occurrence less than 20,000 km²).	eng
41819	habitat	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species resides in tropical waters on coral reefs typically observed in 3 to 18 m depth. <em>H. strahani</em> reaches a maximum size of 80 cm TL. This species is nocturnal and individuals are commonly found in crevices and under coral heads during the day. Known to prefer areas of abundant high coral. Males mature at approximately 60 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41819	population	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41819	threats	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	It is unknown if this species is utilized by the aquarium industry. However, this is a very attractive and hardy species that may be sought after for public and private aquaria. This small population is very susceptible to habitat destruction via high pollutant levels and dynamite fishing practices.	eng
41820	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	None. However, this species is protected in part of its range via closed fishing areas and protected reserves in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
41820	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Hemiscyllium trispeculare</em> is restricted to the northern coast of Australia from northern Queensland (Rockhampton) to northern Western Australia (Ningaloo).	eng
41820	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species resides in shallow tropical waters along the coast and on coral reefs. <em>H. trispeculare</em> reaches a maximum size of 79 cm total length (TL) and is oviparous. Individuals are commonly observed under coral structures. Adults and juveniles probably feed on benthic invertebrates and small fishes similar to <em>H. ocellatum</em>. Little else is known about the biology of this species.	eng
41820	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41820	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species may be taken as bycatch by commercial vessels and may be used in the aquarium trade.	eng
41821	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Further information on the biology and distribution of this species is necessary.	eng
41821	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Hemitriakis abdita</em> is known from the Coral Sea in Queensland and New Caledonia (Compagno and Niem 1998). Several specimens of a similar <em>Hemitriakis</em> species have been recorded from Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia but this is probably a distinct species (W. White, unpubl. data).	eng
41821	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Hemitriakis abdita</em> occurs on the upper continental slope at depths of 225 to 400 m. Attains at least 80 cm total length (TL) and matures at 65 cm TL, birth size is 20 to 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Very little is known about the biology of this species and only a limited number are in collections.	eng
41821	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Unlikely to be caught in fisheries off Queensland due lack of fisheries in the depths it is found.	eng
41822	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41822	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Endemic to Australian waters in a small area of the Eastern Indian Ocean off northwestern Western Australia from north-west of Dampier to north-west of Broome.	eng
41822	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the outer continental shelf at depths of 146 to 197 m. Maximum size at least 80 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994) (largest reported by Compagno and Stevens (1993) was 77.3 cm TL). Born at about 20 to 25 cm TL. Males 69.5 cm TL and larger are mature, however, no males have been observed from 38 to 69.5 cm TL and therefore maturity may occur at a smaller size. Nothing else is known of its biology.	eng
41822	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations. Species may be more widespread than presently known.	eng
41822	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	<em>Hemitriakis falcata</em> is recorded only from a small distributional and bathymetrical range off northwestern Australia. There is likely to be only minor fishing effort in its known area of occurrence. The Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF) is a small fishery operating >200 m depth while Western Australian state fisheries operating off northwestern Western Australia (north coast shark fishery, Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery) generally fish at depths of <100 m. Therefore, current fishing pressure on the species may be low. However, given the occurrence of the species only within a narrow range any future expansion of fishing in the area could impact upon the viability of the species (at present this looks unlikely as interest in the NWSTF is declining).	eng
41823	conservation	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	None in effect or proposed.	eng
41823	distribution	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	Wide-ranging in all tropical and temperate seas except Eastern North Pacific. Usually regarded as dispersed, reported as aggregated or common in a few areas. Usually captured in 300 to 600 m, but occasionally taken in shallow water, and at depths to 1,000 m.	eng
41823	habitat	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	Marine, demersal to semi-pelagic, probably ranging well into midwater, on the upper continental slope, most commonly taken in 300 to 600 m, sometimes deeper, recorded to 1,000 m. Possibly aggregated near seamounts. Occasionally reports from shallow water are possible misidentifications. Undoubtedly an agile, voracious predator on pelagic fishes, squids, and crustaceans. Maximum size approximately 140 cm. Matures 75 to 85 cm (males), 90 to 105 (Females). Ovoviviparous, number of young 6 to 20 in a litter, size at birth 25 cm. May breed year-round, but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown. Otherwise virtually no information on biology, intrinsic rate of increase etc.	eng
41823	population	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	No population/subpopulation information anywhere.	eng
41823	threats	Paul, L. & Fowler, S., 2003	A bycatch in some deepwater fisheries. Caught in small to moderate numbers as a bycatch of fisheries utilizing bottom or midwater trawls or as part of deepwater fisheries using bottom longlines to catch sharks or tilefish (Gulf of Mexico), but of minor commercial importance. Used for human consumption and presumably for fishmeal. Said to be good eating. Occasionally kept in captivity in Japan. Aggressive when captured, and even if not retained is likely to be killed. <br/> <br/>Population status uncertain, but it is suspected that declines may have occurred in places where deepwater demersal trawl fisheries for shrimp and bony fishes have been operational over the past few decades (such as southern Mozambique). This shark is wide-ranging but relatively uncommon in most places where it occurs, and is taken by a wide variety of demersal fisheries. There are no data available on current and past catches, and species-specific catch data are needed.	eng
41824	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is listed as a Declared Animal in Schedule 3 of the Queensland Marine Parks (Moreton Bay) Zoning Plan 1997. This schedule declares species that could be affected by over-exploitation. This declaration limits the collecting of <em>H. galeatus</em> in the Moreton Bay Marine Park, a Marine Protected Area (MPA) of approximately 306,000 hectares. However, records of the species inside Moreton Bay, and therefore in the majority of the area of the MPA, are rare (Johnson 1999), the species usually occurring in offshore regions. Under Schedule 3, collection of <em>H. galeatus</em> requires a permit. <br/> <br/>The species is also likely to occur in a number of MPAs in NSW waters, however recreational line and spear fishing are permitted in many of these. Marine Protected Areas in NSW waters where <em>H. galeatus</em> is likely to occur and where commercial and recreational fishing activities are completely banned in at least some sections of the park are: Solitary Islands Marine Park (71,000 hectares), Jervis Bay Marine Park (21,450 hectares), Cabbage Tree Bay Aquatic Reserve (Sydney, 17 hectares), Bushrangers Bay Aquatic Reserve (Shell Harbour, three hectares) and Shiprock Aquatic Reserve (Port Hacking, two hectares). Zoning plans for these parks are complex and ‘no-take’ zones only exist in small areas. There is also a proposal for a Marine Park in the Byron Bay region, northern NSW. Additionally, <em>H. galeatus</em> is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (17,000 hectares) adjacent to NSW’s Solitary Islands Marine Park.	eng
41824	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is endemic to the western Pacific Ocean in warm temperate waters along the east coast of Australia ranging from Cape Moreton in southern Queensland south to Batemans Bay in New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994, Johnson 1999). Whitley (1940) reports an egg case from Moa Island in the Torres Strait, but this northern Queensland record may be doubtful (J. Johnson pers. comm).	eng
41824	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> is considered to be less common than the sympatric Port Jackson shark, <em>Heterodontus portusjacksoni</em>, which is found throughout most of the range of <em>H. galeatus</em>. However, <em>H. galeatus</em> tends to replace <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> in northern New South Wales (NSW) and southern Queensland with the centre of its distribution in warmer waters than <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> (Whitley 1940, McLaughlin 1969). McLaughlin (1969) when assessing the heterodontid sharks of the central NSW coast wrote that <em>H. galeatus</em> is "difficult to find underwater and was rarely encountered by fishermen, indicting that its local density was probably much lower than that of <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>" (McLaughlin 1969, page 9). This species is recorded from the intertidal zone to 93 m on the continental shelf (Whitley 1940, Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Its bathymetric distribution is largely unknown but some speculate that it may be more common in deeper waters than close inshore (Kuiter 1993, Jeff Johnson, personal communication). The species is found around rocky reefs, among large macroalgae and on seagrass beds (Michael 1993). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> does not appear to form large aggregations as displayed by <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>. Individuals of both <em>H. galeatus</em> and <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> can be observed together occupying the same habitat (David Powter, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>This species is nocturnal and feeds on a variety of benthic and epibenthic prey including echinoids (largest component of diet), crustaceans, molluscs and small fish (Last and Stevens 1994). McLaughlin (1969) examined the gut contents of four mature animals of which the bulk of contents consisted of the echinoids, <em>Centrostephanus rodgersii</em> and <em>Heliocardis erythrogramma</em>. This diet appears similar to that of <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, however, McLaughlin (1969) suggests that <em>H. galeatus</em> may display greater specialisation on the two echinoid species. These sharks are known to extend their heads between rocks in search of prey items (Michael 1993). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> has been observed feeding on a <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> egg case (David Powter, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Various maximum sizes of <em>H. galeatus</em> have been reported. Stead (1963, page 19) states that "as a general rule it [<em>H. galeatus</em>] is found of a somewhat smaller size than the common Port Jackson shark [<em>H. portusjacksoni</em>] of similar age". <em>Heterodontus portusjacksoni</em> is reported to grow to a maximum of 165 cm total length (TL) but is "normally much smaller" (Last and Stevens 1994, page 113). Whitley (1940) reported a total length (TL) of 120 cm for <em>H. galeatus</em>. Last and Stevens (1994) report the species attaining 130 cm TL. The Fishbase database provides a larger maximum size of 152 cm TL (Froese and Pauly 2002), Michael (1993) reports 150 cm TL and observations on the NSW central coast suggest a maximum size of at least 150 cm TL (David Powter, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Last and Stevens (1994) report that females mature at 70 cm TL and males at 60 cm TL. However, there have been recent observations of two males from southern Queensland of 53.5 and 56 cm TL, which were sexually mature, based on the state of their secondary sexual organs following the assessment of maturity as outlined by Bass <em>et al.</em> (1974) (unpublished data). The reported size of maturity for females may be based on a single captive individual hatched and held at the Taronga Park Aquarium, Sydney, Australia (Whitley 1950). This individual is reported to have matured in its eleventh year of age, based on the first time it laid eggs in captivity (Whitley 1950). Females lay spiral-shaped egg cases (about 11 cm long) that have long tendrils at their apices (tendrils reported up to 2 m in length), providing attachment to seaweed or sponges (Waite 1896, Michael 1993, Last and Stevens 1994). Oviposition is reported to take place during July and August in depths of 20 to 30 m (McLaughlin 1969, Last and Stevens 1994). Michael (1993) reports egg-laying in depths of 15 m or more, also during late winter, but states that oviposition can occur all year around. There are also reports of egg cases attached to sponges in waters as shallow as 8.6 m (David Powter, pers. comm.). <em>Heterodontus galeatus</em> generally lays in deeper water than <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, which mostly lays in less than 5 m (McLaughlin and O’Gower 1971). Young are reported to hatch at about 22 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). The individual hatched in captivity at the Taronga Park Aquarium was reported at a smaller size of about 17 cm TL (Jacups 1943, Whitley 1950). <br/> <br/>There are minimal reports on the egg-laying rate and hence annual fecundity of the species. McLaughlin (1969) examined one mature female (77.5 cm TL) in June, and found it to be consistent with an estimated fecundity for <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> of 10-16 eggs per year. Reproductive periodicity has not been documented, however, given that concentrations of eggs are reported seasonally during late winter, it is suggested that the species breeds annually. Furthermore,<em> H. portusjacksoni</em> displays an annual reproductive cycle (McLaughlin and O’Gower 1971) implying that <em>H. galeatus</em> may be similar. Whitley (1940) suggested a gestation period of at least five months while others (Jacups 1943; Whitley 1950; Last and Stevens 1994) report a longer period of 8-9 months. This latter figure may be based on the one captive individual held at the Taronga Park Aquarium. There is no information available on age and growth in wild <em>H. galeatus</em>; however, limited information is available from captivity. Jacups (1943) and Whitley (1950) report a growth rate of 5 cm per year for the captive Taronga Park female. It is thought that the species is relatively long-lived given its apparent protracted immaturity (Whitley 1950).	eng
41824	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	No information available on populations.	eng
41824	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	This species is not targeted or marketed commercially (Last and Stevens 1994, Nick Otway, personal communication). Recreational fishing is thought to have little impact on the species because of its apparent rarity in inshore waters. Spearfishers are more likely to encounter <em>H. portusjacksoni</em> on inshore reefs, and they are known to take this species for sport. Line fishers may encounter <em>H. galeatus</em> on rare occasions. The species is caught as bycatch in various commercial fisheries operating in NSW and southern Queensland waters. The species is taken as bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries in NSW (Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery) and in Queensland (eastern king prawn sector of the East Coast Trawl Fishery). The NSW ocean trap and line fishery is also likely to capture this species, however numbers taken as bycatch are not known as there is no distinction in the recording of the two species of heterodontid in fisheries statistics (<em>H. galeatus</em> and <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>) (Nick Otway, pers. comm). <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. captured as bycatch in this fishery are normally released alive (Nick Otway, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Protective beach meshing programs operate in NSW and Queensland waters and are likely to capture <em>H. galeatus</em>. Numbers caught in Queensland are not available while catches in the NSW Protective Beach Meshing Program are not divisional between the two heterodontid species (Nick Otway, pers. comm). Between October 1972 and December 1990, 435 Port Jackson sharks were caught in this program, equating to a catch rate of 0.394 sharks/km of net/year (Krogh 1994) (these figures are considered as underestimates). Krogh (1994) notes that <em>H. portusjacksoni</em>, being the more common species, is more likely to constitute the larger portion of the catch. Reid and Krogh (1992) provide information on net mortality for <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. caught in the program. Of 60 individuals sampled, 96.7% were alive in the net, the highest survival rate of the 11 species or species groups sampled. Non-dangerous sharks are released by contractors servicing the protective nets whenever practical (Reid and Krogh 1992). Given this survivorship, and if animals are successfully released alive, then beach meshing may not be having a significant impact on <em>Heterodontus</em> spp. Similarly, if animals are successfully released alive from prawn trawlers, then these activities may also be having minimal impact. However, information on post-release mortality is unavailable and therefore catches need to be classified to species level and catch rates monitored.	eng
41825	conservation	Barratt, P. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41825	distribution	Barratt, P. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Western Pacific from Japan, Korea, China, Viet Nam and Indonesia. Also known from northern Western Australia.	eng
41825	habitat	Barratt, P. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	A common but little-known bottom shark of continental and insular shelves. It is mostly found in depths shallower than 50 m, although recorded recently from the continental shelf of northern Western Australia in 150 to 200 m. Maximum total length (TL) about 122 cm and males mature at 64 to 84 cm. Hatchlings at least 15 cm. <em>Heterodontus zebra</em> is oviparous but details of spawning are not known. It probably feeds on invertebrates and small fishes, as with other members of the family.	eng
41825	population	Barratt, P. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations though it is known to be common within its range.	eng
41825	threats	Barratt, P. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	<em>H. zebra</em> is of little interest to commercial fisheries, but is caught as bycatch by commercial trawlers and possibly other fisheries in its range. It may also be under threat from destructive fishing practices within its range in Indonesia such as cyanide and dynamite fishing, and habitat destruction. <br/> <br/>Utilization in aquarium trade is not recorded, but the species is an obvious candidate because of its attractive colour pattern.	eng
41826	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	Managed under ITQs since 1998.	eng
41826	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Widespread throughout New Zealand.	eng
41826	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Inhabits upper and mid continental slope over soft sediments. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Pale ghost sharks lay eggs in hard cases, depositing them in pairs on the seabed. Males mature at 60 cm caudal length (CL) (snout to posterior end of upper caudal fin) and females at 70 cm CL. Maximum length is about 90 cm CL.	eng
41826	population	Francis, M.P., 2003	Depth range 86 to 1,410 m; most abundant in 500 to 900 m. Trawl survey indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range show no change, but indices (1984 to 1994) from the Chatham Rise in 750 to 1,500 m show a decline.	eng
41826	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Large commercial catch of around 1,700 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery. Trawl survey indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range (the main habitat depth range of this species) show no change, but indices (1984 to 1994) from the Chatham Rise in 750 to 1,500 m show a decline.	eng
41827	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	Managed under ITQs since 1998.	eng
41827	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Widespread throughout New Zealand, though uncommon around North Island, Challenger Plateau and Campbell Plateau. Depth range 32 to approximately 800 m; most abundant in 150 to 500 m.	eng
41827	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Inhabits outer continental shelf and upper continental slope over soft sediments. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Dark ghost sharks lay eggs in hard cases, depositing them in pairs on the seabed. Males mature at 52 cm caudal length (CL) (snout to posterior end of upper caudal fin) and females at 62 cm CL. Maximum length is about 80 cm CL.	eng
41827	population	Francis, M.P., 2003	Trawl survey biomass indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range are variable, but possibly increasing	eng
41827	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Large commercial catch of around 2,000 tonnes per year in bottom trawl fishery. Trawl survey biomass indices (1992 to 2000) from Chatham Rise in 200 to 800 m depth range are variable, but possibly increasing.	eng
41828	conservation	Lisney, T.J., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41828	distribution	Lisney, T.J., 2003	Tropical and warm temperate Australia from St Vincents Gulf (South Australia) to Broome (Western Australia), and from Eden (New South Wales) to at least Caloundra (Queensland). A gap exists in the species? range from St Vincents Gulf (SA) to Eden (NSW). The species is not recorded from the waters of Victoria or Tasmania.	eng
41828	habitat	Lisney, T.J., 2003	Small, highly distinctive electric ray. This slow-moving species is commonly found inshore, buried on sandy and muddy bottoms, but also to depths of 240 m. The coffin ray uses its electric organs to stun its prey (crabs, worms and small fishes). Viviparous, with young born at about 8 to 11 cm. Reported to reach 60 cm, by rarely exceeds 40 cm. Males mature at 24 cm. A very hardy animal, it can survive out of water for hours.	eng
41828	threats	Lisney, T.J., 2003	Trawl fishery bycatch, although its hardiness means this species is usually returned alive.	eng
41829	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41829	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from the Eastern Indian in northwestern Australia from off Shark Bay (Western Australia) to off Darwin (Northern Territory) and the West Pacific from off tropical Queensland (between Townsville and Cairns) and Vanuatu.	eng
41829	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded in tropical waters on the continental slope at depths of 250 to 475 m. Maximum size at least 75 cm total length (TL). Born at about 25 cm TL and males mature at about 45 cm TL. The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta with litters of 4 to 5 young. Diet consists mainly of cephalopods. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
41829	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No information available on populations.	eng
41829	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	<em>Iago garricki</em> is of minor interest to fisheries (Compagno and Niem 1999). It is likely to be taken as bycatch in the Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery which operates at depths of >200 m off northwestern Western Australia. This fishery is small and no actual data on bycatch levels are available (Harris and Ward 1999).	eng
41830	conservation	Stevens, J., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41830	distribution	Stevens, J., 2003	Widespread oceanic in temperate and tropical regions. In Australia, from isolated localities off Queensland, New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, New Zealand and various localities throughout the South Pacific (including Fiji and the Cook Islands). Makes diurnal vertical migrations from below 1,000 m in the day to near the surface at night.	eng
41830	habitat	Stevens, J., 2003	Oceanic waters. This species makes diurnal vertical migrations from below 1,000 m in the day, to near the surface at night. The cookie-cutter’s trademark bites are relatively common on large pelagic fish and cetaceans. Little is known of its biology.	eng
41830	population	Stevens, J., 2003	Nothing is known about population size.	eng
41830	threats	Stevens, J., 2003	Because of its small size it is only occasionally taken by fisheries.	eng
41831	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41831	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	This species occurs almost continuously from eastern South Africa to southern Japan and northern Australia. Areas in South East Asia where it has not been recorded are probably the result of a lack of information rather than a break in the distribution. For example, global and regional guides (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994) do not record this species as occurring around Borneo, but recent surveys have recorded it in the Sabah fish markets (Manjaji 2002).	eng
41831	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	<em>Loxodon macrorhinus</em> is a small species of shark. The young are born at 40 to 45 cm, they mature around 60 cm, and grow to a maximum of 90 cm. They reproduce annually and usually have a litter size of two. There are no data available on age and growth, but like other closely related small tropical carcharhinid species, they presumably are fast growing and early maturing making them capable of sustaining reasonable levels of fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>They feed on teleost fish, crustaceans and occasionally cephalopods.	eng
41831	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	There are no data available on the population size of this species at any point through its range, however, it does appear to be common in inshore waters through most of its range.	eng
41831	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Stevens, J., 2003	This species is commonly caught in artisinal, subsistence and commercial fisheries throughout their range, but are rarely targeted. In particular they are heavily fished in southern India where their flesh is used for human consumption (Compagno 1984). Manjaji (2002) reported them in the fish markets of Sabah, Malaysia. In Australian waters this species is most commonly caught in fish trawls in northern areas, where it is one of the most common shark species caught (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Their small size and productive life history make them capable of sustaining reasonable levels of fishing pressure, and so throughout most of their range they are likely to be unaffected by fishing.	eng
41832	conservation	Pierce, S.J. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	None to date. Although the target fishery for <em>Manta birostris</em> was banned in the Philippines in 1998, fisheries continue for other species of mobulid, which are just as vulnerable to over-exploitation (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
41832	distribution	Pierce, S.J. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> is widely distributed through the coastal continental waters of the tropical Indo-West Pacific. This species has been reported from the Western Indian Ocean, Eastern Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific. It occurs in the Red Sea, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf to South Africa and the Philippines, north to Viet Nam, and south to southeast Queensland and northern Western Australia in Australia. It has not been recorded from oceanic islands.	eng
41832	habitat	Pierce, S.J. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> reaches a maximum size of approximately 100 cm disc width (DW). The neotype for this species, a male of 96.9 cm DW, was sexually mature (Notarbartolo-Di-Sciara 1987). These rays are ovoviviparous (uterine viviparity), usually producing one offspring per litter. This ray is not known to penetrate the epipelagic zone. Mating and birthing occur in shallow water, and juveniles remain in these areas. This species feeds on planktonic organisms and small fish (Michael 1993).	eng
41832	population	Pierce, S.J. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	The Northern Territory Government in Australia classed the conservation status of this species as Data Deficient within territorial waters in March 2002. No direct or indirect indices of abundance were available for this assessment. No subpopulations are known. <em>Mobula eregoodootenkee</em> is regarded as locally common over its range and fairly common within Queensland, Australia waters (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
41832	threats	Pierce, S.J. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	This species is caught as bycatch in several fisheries through entanglement in nets. Fishing pressure could potentially impact this species due to its presumed low reproductive rate. It is marketed in Thailand and probably elsewhere in southeast Asia.	eng
41833	conservation	White, W.T., Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Because of its large size, migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula japanica</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in most parts of the world generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. japanica</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
41833	distribution	White, W.T., Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Possibly circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters. Apart from confirmed occurrences (see Distribution) the species possibly occurs in the North Atlantic (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987) and given its documented occurrence from places such as Fiji and Tuvalu, it is most certainly present in the waters of many countries in the South Pacific. It was only recently confirmed from Australian waters (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The southern Gulf of California is believed to serve as an important spring and summer mating and feeding ground for adults (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Pupping appears to take place offshore, Ebert (2003) suggesting around offshore islands or seamounts.	eng
41833	habitat	White, W.T., Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Information on the biology of <em>Mobula japanica</em> is extremely limited. The species is found inshore, offshore and possibly in oceanic environments, but the movement patterns within its range are little known. Most observations and landings are coastal (Compagno and Last 1999).  Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) suggested that this species may be able to tolerate lower water temperatures than other mobulids. Although it is observed in small aggregations, it is not believed to be a schooling species. Size, but not sexual, segregation has been observed within the Gulf of California, México (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> attains at least 310 cm DW but is usually smaller than 250 cm DW. The reproductive mode within this family is aplacental viviparity and the species possesses only a single functional ovary. Embryos obtain nutrients initially by yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Size at birth ranges between 70 and 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Compagno and Last 1999). In Indonesia, males mature between 205 and 210 cm DW, and one pregnant female contained a single embryo 50 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). In the Gulf of California, males appeared to reach sexual maturity at ~210 cm DW and females by ~207 cm DW based on follicle size. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth of this species. <br/> <br/>The species is planktivorous with stomach contents containing 99.6% euphausiids (<em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em>) from April through July (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>In the area around Bahia de la Ventana (southern Gulf of California, México) individuals are found from April through late summer, with a peak of abundance in late summer (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Seasonally later occurrence than <em>M. thurstoni</em> in the Bahia la Ventana region suggests resource competition avoidance (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Movement patterns and migrations of mobulids are not well understood. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: Gulf of California: ~207 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988); Male: 205 to 210 cm DW (Indonesia) (W. White unpublished data), ~210 cm DW (Gulf of California) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  310 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  70 to 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
41833	population	White, W.T., Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No information available. Reported as locally common by Compagno and Last (1999), but probably rare in some parts of its range, for example Australia where it has been documented only from two records (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
41833	threats	White, W.T., Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Mobula japanica</em> is highly susceptible to gillnets and is taken, either as bycatch or as a target species in Indonesia, México and the Philippines. Juveniles could also be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. While information is available on these areas it is likely to be landed in other countries also, such as West Africa and particularly in Southeast Asia where pressure on the marine environment is considerable and where mobulid gill rakers are a high value product. It is reported to be taken as longline bycatch in the Gulf of Aden (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> is a common catch in the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries of Indonesia and is also taken by purse seine in that country. The high value of gill rakers in some areas, e.g., Pelabuhanratu in West Java (W. White unpublished data), is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia where some fishers are now targeting devil rays. When shark catches are lower (off-season, December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. obs.). The flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>The species is caught in artisanal drift and demersal gillnet fisheries and directly targeted using harpoons in the Gulf of California. <em>Mobula japanica</em> represented 30% of the catch of mobulids observed during a survey of artisanal landings in Bahia de la Ventana, southwestern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This was second to <em>M. thurstoni</em>, which represented 58% of the catch. Mean daily capture of M. japanica in Bahia de la Ventana from March to July 1983 was: March: 0.0, April: 0.4, May: 0.4, June: 1.7, July: 4.3 (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Seventeen individuals were noted among landings of 12 pangas at Punta Arena de la Ventana in June 2001 (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japonica</em> comprised 37% of the Philippine mobulid fishery during 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study), which may reflect its relative importance in other target fisheries in the Southeast Asia region. There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula japanica</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.	eng
41834	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	Prohibited as a commercial target species in quota management areas (QMA) 1, 4 and 9. QMAs 1 and 9 represent the core of the species distribution.	eng
41834	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	Kermadec Islands; Three Kings Islands; North and South Island to Foveaux Strait (including Fiordland); Chatham Rise (not recorded from Chatham Islands).	eng
41834	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	A common coastal species. Found mainly over soft bottoms, including tidal flats in estuaries and harbours, also commonly encountered on shallow rocky reefs. They are present in shallow water all year round but tend to concentrate in water less than about 10 m deep during summer and autumn, and move offshore into water deeper than 20 m during winter. Only adults and large juveniles are found in shallow water. Occur from low water to 422 m but is rare below about 50 m. Usually encountered on or near the bottom, eagle rays are occasionally seen swimming at the surface in open water. They are predators of hard-shelled benthic invertebrates. Those found on reefs feed mainly on gastropods, particularly Cook?s turban (<em>Cookia sulcata</em>) and hermit crabs. Those inhabiting soft bottoms feed on a variety of bivalves, small crustaceans (including crabs and shrimps) and polychaete worms. Eagle ray feeding pits are a common feature of tidal flats in many North Island harbours and they may play an important role in structuring intertidal sand flat communities. Reproduction is viviparous. Litter size and size at birth is poorly known. A captive female gave birth to a litter of 20 pups after six months in captivity. Disc length at birth was reported to be about eight centimeters. After 16 months two surviving juveniles were about 15 cm disc length (pers. obs). Size at maturity is unknown. Maximum total length is about 200 cm. Predators include killer whales and white shark (<em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>).	eng
41834	population	Duffy, C., 2003	Rare at the Kermadec Islands. Uncommon south of Cook Strait and the Marlborough Sounds. Rare on the Chatham Rise.	eng
41834	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Mainly taken as bycatch in inshore trawl fisheries around the upper North Island. Usually discarded.  Also taken in Danish seine. Commonly taken by recreational line fishers, either by surfcasting or line fishing from boats. Also taken on set lines, and in drag and set nets. Sometimes speared, or harpooned for sport. Usually released but sometimes retained for their flesh, or for angling competitions. They probably survive capture and release well. A small number of eagle rays are caught for exhibition in public aquaria.	eng
41835	conservation	Pillans, R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41835	distribution	Pillans, R., 2003	Found on continental and insular shelves of the Indo-Pacific, often in the intertidal zone and from the surf line down to a depth of 70 m but more commonly between 5 and 30 m.	eng
41835	habitat	Pillans, R., 2003	It occurs on or near the bottom in lagoons, in channels or along outer edges of coral and rocky reefs, in areas with seagrass and sand on reefs, sandy areas near reef and off sandy beaches. It prefers areas in crevices and caves. Young prefer crevices in shallow lagoons but adults are more wide ranging. <br/> <br/><strong>Life History:</strong> <br/>Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparity) with uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy. Pregnant females from Okinawa had one or two foetuses per uterus (297 to 595 mm) with the yolk sac reabsorbed and a greatly expanded stomach filled with yolky material in the larger fetuses and also had egg cases in the uterus (Teshima <em>et al.</em> 1995). It appears as though this species practices oophagy on relatively large, cased nutritive eggs (unlike lamnoids which have very small nutritive eggs) and is the first orectoloboid known to have uterine cannibalism. It is not known if the foetuses eat each other (adelphophagy) as with the grey nurse shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>).  <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth: 40 to 80 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: At least four per uterus suggested from egg cases, but the large size differences between foetuses in a litter suggests the litters are smaller, possible only one per female (Compagno 2001).  <br/>Size male maturity: 250 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 230 to 290 cm TL <br/>Max size: to at least 320 cm TL <br/>Growth rates: Unknown	eng
41835	threats	Pillans, R., 2003	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, there are no target fisheries, although it is taken in inshore fisheries throughout much of the rest of its range. <br/> <br/>In the Gulf of Thailand, it was historically more abundant and it may have been adversely affected by the use of explosives and poisons on reefs in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific, particularly Indonesia and the Philippines (Compagno 2001). <em>Nebrius ferrugineus</em> often form small aggregations during the day and have a limited home range, with individuals returning to the same area every day after foraging. This behaviour together with small litter size, large size at maturity and inshore habitat suggest that it is vulnerable to local population depletion in areas of heavy fishing pressure. Furthermore, its docility and habit of resting in caves and crevices during the day make it susceptible to capture and harassment by divers, and reef destruction.	eng
41836	conservation	Pillans, R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41836	distribution	Pillans, R., 2003	Wide ranging in the Indian Ocean and western Central Pacific, extending from South Africa to the Australian region and Oceania (Compagno and Niem 1998). Within Australia, from Moreton Bay (Queensland) to the Abrolhos Islands (Western Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41836	habitat	Pillans, R., 2003	Gestation period: 10 to 11 months <br/>Reproductive periodicity: two years <br/>Size at birth: 60 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: 9.3 (6 to 12) <br/>Size male maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Max size: 300 cm TL <br/>Growth rates, Juveniles: 12.5 to 15.5 cm/yr  <br/> <br/>Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 30 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Often found inside coral lagoons but also on reef flats and reef edges (Stevens 1984). It is also known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries (W. White pers.comm.).  <br/> <br/>Out of 143 animals tagged at 43 sites by Stevens (1984), 19 individuals were recaptured (14.5%) of which five were caught more than once. These data showed that 52% of recoveries were made at the tagging site, 83% within 1 km of tagging site and 91% within 2 km. The average distance moved by individuals was 1.3 km (excluding those animals that did not move from tagging site) and the maximum distance traveled was 5 km.	eng
41836	threats	Pillans, R., 2003	Within Australia, data from the Northern Territory (Lyle <em>et.al</em>. 1984) indicated that catch rates of <em>N. acutidens</em> in gill net and long line fishing trials were very low. <em>N. acutidens</em> is taken in small quantities (approximately 15 tonnes/yr) in the Western Australia northern shark fisheries. These fisheries comprise a very small number of boats (13 licenses, seven active and only three fishing for six months or more) operating over a very large length of coast. A smaller quantity of <em>N. acutidens</em> are also taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries in northern Western Australia waters. There are likely to be significant areas of unfished habitat outside the operational ranges of these  fisheries (R. McAuley, pers.comm). <br/> <br/>Threats from inshore fisheries are high outside Australian waters, particularly Southeast Asia, where these sharks are captured by gillnets and longlines. They are particularly susceptible to local depletion due their very small habitat range and limited movement patterns (Stevens 1984).  This species is also likely to be affected by habitat destruction, particularly in South East Asia. For example, extensive coral reef habitat destruction (pollution and dynamite fishing), in addition, this species is known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries, many of which have been deforested or are heavily populated by humans throughout its range (William White, pers.comm.).  <br/> <br/>Although they are still recorded, albeit very infrequently within Indonesia (W. White, pers. comm.), evidence suggests <em>N. acutidens</em> was historically more abundant, and have not been seen for several years in some areas. For example, in a preliminary survey of market catches around Bali, no <em>N. acutidens</em> were recorded, and jaws held in the fisheries centre in Jakarta that were several years old were the only evidence that this species was once caught in the region (W. White, pers. comm.). Furthermore, evidence of local extinctions in India and Thailand (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.) indicates that this species is extremely susceptible to local inshore fisheries.	eng
41837	conservation	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	As a result of the observed decline in NSW wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em> individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL and a maximum trip limit of either 6 or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. halei </em>and <em>O. ornatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks <em>Carcharias taurus</em> in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld<br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/>Jervis Bay Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Batemans Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>All Victorian marine parks<br/>All South Australian marine parks<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the following areas:<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA<br/>Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, WA<br/>Rowley Shoals Marine Park , WA<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks, as suggested by the previous Red List assessment, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong.<br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.	eng
41837	distribution	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	<em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> is most likely an Australian endemic wobbegong.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> has been recorded from tropical eastern Australia with confirmed reports from Gladstone (22°S), Queensland (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2005) southwards to Hobsons Bay (37°52'S), Victoria, westwards to St. Vincents Gulf (35°10'S, 137°55'E), South Australia, and north-westwards to Bessieres Island (21°23?S, 114°41?E), Western Australia (J. Chidlow unpub. data). Tasmanian records are probably invalid (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. maculatus</em> includes Japan and the South China Sea. However, wobbegongs from these areas could be different undescribed species of wobbegongs.	eng
41837	habitat	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	Compagno (2001) describes this species as ?an abundant, temperate to tropical, inshore to offshore bottom shark of the continental shelves of the western Pacific, commonly on coral and rocky reefs, in coastal bays, in estuaries, in seagrass beds, under piers, and on sandy bottoms.? Juveniles occur in estuaries and are occasionally found over seagrass beds. It can occur in water barely deep enough to cover it, and has been observed climbing ridges between tide pools with its back out of water (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 218 m depth (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is often found in murkier water than the closely related <em>O. Halei</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab 1991). Furthermore, a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. halei</em>) has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006, Huveneers unpub. Data), and another sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days suggesting site fidelity (Carraro and Gladstone 2006).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. maculatus</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found elasmobranchs, osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007a). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. maculatus</em> caught in the NSW. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (>100 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/>Although <em>O. maculatus</em> was reported to mature at about 60 cm (Compagno, 2001), this size-at-maturity is likely to be related to the dwarf morph from WA, whereas <em>O. maculatus</em> matures at about 120 cm (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Similar to <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>, <em>O. maculatus</em> has a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remain small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10?11 months with parturition occurring during September?October (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). <em>O. maculatus</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous with a litter size of about 21 with up to 37 young recorded (Grant 1978) and a size-at-birth of about 23 cm TL (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Maximum length is about 320cm, but with most individuals caught being smaller, up to 150?180 cm (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. maculatus</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Chidlow, 2003, Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Newborn captive <em>O. Maculatus </em>grew about 22 cm year<sup>-1</sup>, whereas small juveniles of about 45 cm TL grew about 18 cm year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).	eng
41837	population	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, a potential dwarf population of <em>O. maculatus</em> occurs in WA. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan pers. comm.).	eng
41837	threats	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong?s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In NSW, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus <em>Orectolobus</em>), combining all fishing methods and fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. Data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55?73 tonnes during 1998/1999?2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. data).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing by a variety of methods is potentially threatening wobbegong species in southern Australian waters. In southern Australia, wobbegongs are taken within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (AFMA logbook data, unpub. Data). Most of the above fisheries take these species as bycatch, and like many bycatch species they are often utilised. Retained wobbegong from the Commonwealth Fisheries ranged 2.3?5.1 tonnes between 1994 and 1999.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus maculatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> are a component of the bycatch of a commercial shark fishery utilising demersal gill-nets that target carcharhinid whalers and other sharks along the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia with an average total wobbegong catch between 1999 and 2006 of about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998, Penn 2001, McAuley and Lenanton 2003, McAuley and Gaughan 2004, Gaughan and Chidlow 2005, McAuley 2006, McAuley 2007). Smaller catches of orectolobids also occur in commercial and recreational rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (J. Chidlow, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Commercial catches of wobbegong are small in most parts of South Australia (about 0.5?2.5 tonnes) with the highest yearly catch being 3.1 tonnes in 1987/88.<br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>O. halei </em>has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne <em>et al.</em> 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000?April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from SA, and 1,978 from WA. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996?1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1,000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).	eng
41838	conservation	Huveneers, C., Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	As a result of the observed decline in NSW wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus </em>individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI, 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 180 cm TL (effectively protecting <em>O. ornatus </em>since its maximum size is about 120 cm TL) and a maximum trip limit of either six or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. halei</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks <em>Carcharias taurus</em> in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld <br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks as suggested by the previous Red List assessment, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong. <br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.	eng
41838	distribution	Huveneers, C., Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	<em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is an Australian endemic wobbegong.<br/><br/><em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> has been recorded from the Whitsunday Islands (20°20?S 148°54?E, Australian Museum specimen IA 3831) tropical eastern Australia southwards with confirmed reports from Port Stephens (32°43?S, 152°11?E, Australian Museum specimen I 43621-001?5 (Huveneers 2006) and likely reports in Sydney (Huveneers 2007).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. ornatus</em> includes Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Japan. However, wobbegongs from these areas are could be different undescribed species of wobbegongs.	eng
41838	habitat	Huveneers, C., Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	<em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is a common inshore bottom-dwelling shark of continental waters that is found in bays, on macroalgae-covered rocky reef areas, coral reefs (including lagoons and reef flats, reef faces, and reef channels), and around offshore islands (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 100 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001) and is also known from around offshore islands such as Heron Island (P. Hallam pers. comm.). It is often found in clearer water than the closely related <em>O. maculatus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab 1991). Furthermore, <em>O. ornatus</em> has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days (Carraro and Gladstone 2006), whereas a sympatric species of <em>Orectolobus</em> (<em>O. halei</em>), has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years suggesting site fidelity (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2006, Huveneers unpub. data).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. ornatus </em>and <em>O. halei</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007a). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. ornatus</em> caught in NSW. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (>70 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/>Although <em>O. ornatus</em> was previously believed to mature at about 175 cm TL, further studies revealed that <em>O. halei</em> actually matures at about 175 cm TL, whereas <em>O. ornatus</em> matures at about 80 cm TL (Huveneers 2007, Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Similar to <em>O. halei </em>and <em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> has a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remained small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10?11 months with parturition occurring during September?October (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). <em>Orectolobus ornatus</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous with a litter size ranging from 4?18 (mean nine) and a size-at-birth of about 20 cm TL (Huveneers <em>et al.</em> 2007b). Maximum length is about 120 cm TL (Huveneers 2006).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. ornatus</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Newborn captive <em>O. ornatus</em> grew about 20 cm TL year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).	eng
41838	population	Huveneers, C., Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, <em>O. ornatus</em> population was previously considered the juvenile of <em>O. halei</em>. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan, pers. comm.).	eng
41838	threats	Huveneers, C., Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong?s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In NSW, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. Data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus <em>Orectolobus</em>), combining all fishing methods and Fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. Data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55?73 tonnes during 1998/1999?2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries unpub. data).<br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>Orectolobus halei </em>has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle, 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from S.A., and 1,978 from W.A. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996?1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).	eng
41839	distribution	Pillans, R., 2003	A little known but possibly common tropical inshore demersal shark of the Northern Australian continental shelf. Occurs in shallow water, often found in turbid areas. Thought to be reef associated.	eng
41839	habitat	Pillans, R., 2003	Little is known about the biology of this species thought to be ovoviviparous. <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth:  Unknown  <br/>Average litter size:  Unknown <br/>Size male maturity:  a 45 cm total length (TL) animal was mature <br/>Size female maturity:  Unknown  <br/>Max size:  to at least 63 cm TL and possibly to 100 cm TL <br/>Growth rates:  Unknown  <br/> <br/>(Ref: Last and Stevens (1994))	eng
41839	threats	Pillans, R., 2003	Threats within its range are likely to be minimal. There are no target fisheries and it is not reported in bycatch.	eng
41840	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41840	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Australia (from Newcastle in New South Wales to the western Great Australian Bight) and New Zealand (throughout mainland New Zealand and Stewart Is?Snares Island Shelf; Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands; scattered records from Challenger Plateau and Campbell Plateau). Most New Zealand records from Chatham Rise. Depth range 45 to 650 m in Australia and 126 to 1,067 m in New Zealand. Most common at 300 to 600 m in New Zealand.	eng
41840	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Habitat poorly known, but occasionally caught by bottom trawlers. Possibly also occurs over foul ground. <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of prickly dogfish. They are ovoviviparous, and fecundity is low: one female contained seven embryos and 7 to 8 large ovarian eggs have been recorded in two New Zealand females. Young are born at about 24 cm. Males mature at about 55 to 60 cm and females at or before 67 cm. Maximum size is about 72 cm total length.	eng
41840	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries, but extent of mortality unknown.	eng
41841	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41841	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This population is restricted to the eastern coast of Australia.	eng
41841	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species resides on hard bottom areas in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths of 20 to 160 m. <em>P. collare</em> reaches a maximum size of 87 cm total length (TL) and is oviparous. Little else is known about the biology of this species.	eng
41841	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41841	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is not commercially targeted, is typically discarded and is believed to have high survival rates.  Further information should be collected on its bycatch in trawl fisheries.	eng
41842	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41842	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This population is restricted to the southern coast of Australia.	eng
41842	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species resides in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths of 5 to 150 m. <em>P. ferrugineum</em> reaches a maximum size of 80 cm and is oviparous. Diet includes benthic crustaceans and mollusks. Little else is known about the biology of this species.	eng
41842	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41842	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Due to the size and depth range of this species it is not commonly collected as bycatch in the trawl and gillnet fisheries.	eng
41843	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41843	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>P. sparsimaculatum</em> is only known to occur in the southeastern Indian Ocean off the coast of Western Australia (between Bunbury and Lancelin).	eng
41843	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is small (up to 79 cm total length (TL)), but its biology is unknown. It has been found on the upper continental slope (245 to 435 m) in only one location off the coast of Western Australia. Beyond the initial description, no scientific data are available for this species.	eng
41843	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This population is known only from three specimens and is found on the coastal shelf.	eng
41843	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently unlikely to be under threat due to the lack of fishing effort in the region.  Potential threat from deepwater trawl fishing on the upper continental shelf if fishing effort increases.	eng
41844	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41844	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This population is restricted to the southern coast of Australia.	eng
41844	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species resides in temperate waters along the continental shelf in depths to 180 m. <em>P. variolatum</em> reaches a maximum size of 90 cm and is oviparous. It has been collected in a variety of benthic habitats including sandy, rocky and grassy regions. <em>P. variolatum</em> is nocturnal and is commonly found under rocks during daylight hours. Little else is known about the biology of this species.	eng
41844	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41844	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Due to the size and depth range of this species it is not commonly collected as bycatch in the trawl and gillnet fisheries.	eng
41845	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41845	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	Known only from a few specimens from two isolated Indo-Pacific localities.	eng
41845	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, demersal, on the middle continental slope, 1,000 m and probably deeper. There is no available life history information.	eng
41845	threats	Paul, L., 2003	A potential bycatch in some deepwater trawl fisheries for teleosts such as orange roughy as these continue to expand their geographic range and depth.	eng
41846	conservation	Walker, T.I., 2003	In the Australian Southern Shark Fishery, <em>P. nudipinnis</em> has been harvested as byproduct or bycatch to the targeting of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> and <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em> in oceanic waters since the mid-1920s and possibly earlier in inshore areas. Baited hooks attached to bottom-set longlines was the principal fishing method until the early 1970s when the method was replaced by bottom-set gillnets. Management measures in this fishery include limited entry for the use of gillnets and longlines (since 1984) and, for all fishing sectors, Total Allowable Catches (TAC) (for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined) (since 2002). Input controls include limits on length of net (since 1988), various 4 to 6 week closed seasons to protect pregnant animals of <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> during October to December (1953 to 1967 and 1993 to 1994), and a legal minimum mesh-size of six inches for gillnets (since 1975) for most of the fished area. During 2002, the TAC for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> combined was 191 tonnes for the Southern Shark Fishery, 124 tonnes for the South East Trawl Fishery, and 31 tonnes for the Great Australia Bight Trawl Fishery.  The three-mile closure of all Victorian waters to shark fishing provides a large refuge for the species.	eng
41846	distribution	Walker, T.I., 2003	<em>P. nudipinnis</em> is endemic to the waters of southern Australia?s inner continental shelf off Victoria and Tasmania and across to the western region of the Great Australian Bight. The recorded depth distribution is up to 70 m (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41846	habitat	Walker, T.I., 2003	<em>P. nudipinnis</em> is a small, slightly dorso-ventrally compressed, shark with a rostrum (snout), narrow and narrowly tapering with numerous lateral rostral teeth. The second dorsal fin is nearly as large as the first. The upper body is uniformly slate grey without spots or markings (Last and Stevens 1994). Sawsharks can be distinguished from the morphologically similar sawfishes by lateral (as opposed to ventral) gill-slits and the presence of barbels originating from the rostrum. <br/> <br/>Maximum total length and maximum total body mass are higher for females (124 cm, 4.3 kg) than for males (110 cm, 2.2 kg). Ageing studies indicate that the species has a maximum life span of nine years. This suggests the species has relatively high biological productivity. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity and produces 7 to 14 offspring biennially, and the young are born at approximately 35 cm total length. The diet consists of mainly small teleosts (T.I. Walker, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Victoria, Australia, unpublished data).	eng
41846	threats	Walker, T.I., 2003	One threat to the population of <em>P. nudipinnis</em> is their capture as byproduct from targeting <em>M. antarcticus</em> with gillnets of 6 to 6½-inch mesh-size off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. Most of the catch is taken from Bass Strait (Walker 1999). During 1970 to 2001 the catch of <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>Pristiophorus nudipinnis</em> combined from the Southern Shark Fishery varied 43 to 301 tonnes (carcass weight), 7% of the total catch of all shark species (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>Another threat is their capture as byproduct in the South East Trawl Fishery, which targets a range of quota teleost species with demersal trawl nets off eastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania. The sawshark catch from this sector was 106 tonnes during 2002. <br/> <br/>Minor threats include fishing with long-lines, trawls, and other methods. <br/> <br/>In Bass Strait, observed catch rates from research vessels during 1973 to 1976 and from scientific observations on board commercial vessels during 1998?01 indicate that the number of animals per thousand km-hours in bottom-set gillnets of six-inch mesh-size declined from 151 to 68. This is a decline to 45% of former levels over a 25-year period, however, the change is not statistically significant (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press). Catch per unit effort reported by commercial fishers over this same period declined from 15.32 to 7.71 kg per km-lift for <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and <em>P. cirratus</em> combined; i.e., a decline to 50% of former levels.  The decline in the commercial catch rate for these species occurred during 1974 to 1982 and catch rates subsequently stabilised during 1983 to 2001. A steady decline in fishing effort since the mid 1980s and adoption of a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) during 2002 for <em>P. cirratus</em> and <em>P. nudipinnis</em> jointly are expected to help secure the stocks of these species. There is negligible targeting of <em>P. nudipinnis</em> and most of the catch of these species is taken as byproduct to targeting <em>Mustelus antarcticus</em>.	eng
41848	conservation	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	The introduction of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) in trawl nets of some Australian fisheries, has significantly reduced their capture of large elasmobranchs (Brewer <em>et al</em>. 1998), however TEDs are not mandatory in several trawl fisheries in northern Australian and are probably not widely used in other parts of this species? range.  The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and other at risk elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>Finning of Rhynchobatids is also prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2000, McAuley unpublished data).	eng
41848	distribution	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	Indo-west Pacific: East Africa (Red Sea to South Africa) to Papua New Guinea, north to Japan, across northern Australia from Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia to New South Wales.	eng
41848	habitat	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	Coastal distribution throughout the range, generally occurring close inshore and around coral reefs to about 90 m (Anonymous 2003). <em>R. ancylostoma</em> occurs on or close to the seabed, mainly over sandy or muddy substrates. Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 270 cm (Compagno and Last 1999), reproduce ovoviviparously and feed primarily on benthic crustaceans (Compagno and Last 1999). Further research on the biology and exploitation of this species is required.	eng
41848	population	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	The <em>R. ancylostoma</em> population is thought to have decreased in parts of Indonesia (Chen 1996) but its population status elsewhere is unclear.	eng
41848	threats	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	<em>Rhina anclyostoma</em> is one of the target species of South East Asian rhinid and rhynchobatid gillnet fisheries (W. White, pers. comm.), which are generally unregulated and catches are thought to be poorly recorded (Chen 1996). The target gillnet fishery fleet in Indonesia declined from 500 boats in 1987 to 100 boats in 1996, reportedly due to declining catch rates (Chen 1996). There are no target fisheries for this species in Australia. It is also taken as bycatch in numerous non-target fisheries due to its vulnerability to multiple gear types, including trawl-nets, gillnets and hooks (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep., McAuley unpublished data). Flesh is sold for human consumption in Asia and the fins from large animals fetch particularly high prices. Habitat degradation is also likely to be a threat to this species, particularly in Southern and South East Asia.  <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction and pollution are thought to pose a significant threat. Specifically, dynamite fishing, coral bleaching and siltation caused by deforestation may be reducing available habitat.	eng
41849	conservation	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of <em>Rhinobatos typu</em> is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, particularly in relation to finning, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary.	eng
41849	distribution	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Rhinobatos typus</em> is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). Another species, <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em>, co-occurs with this species at the western extremity of its range but has not been positively identified from the Australia and Oceania Region (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41849	habitat	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	Juveniles of <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> occur inshore, e.g., mangrove systems and estuaries, and around atolls, whilst adults are found in the deeper waters of the continental shelf to about 100 m (Last and Stevens 1994). This species has also been reported to be able to live and breed permanently in freshwater. <br/> <br/><em>Rhinobatos typus</em> is reported to attain at least 270 cm in length (Last and Stevens 1994). Although no published information is available on size at maturity and reproductive biology of this species, specimens examined from Shark Bay (Western Australia) showed that females and males appear to mature at between 155 and 175 cm total length (TL), and young are born at approximately 38 to 43 cm TL (W. White, unpublished data). There does not appear to be a distinct seasonal reproductive cycle with newborn young found in most months of the year (W. White, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>This species is a major predator of crustaceans, with an examination of the diets showing that more than 90% of food ingested belongs to juveniles of either the blue swimmer crab (<em>Portunus pelagicus</em>) or the western king prawn (<em>Melicertus latisulcatus</em>) (W. White, unpublished data). Juveniles also utilize shallow sand flats as nursery areas and move into mangrove areas and sand flats at high tide to feed. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age at maturity, longevity and natural mortality of this species.	eng
41849	threats	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	The fins from <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> are widely considered as being amongst the most valuable of elasmobranchs (i.e., white-fin) and there is a significant incentive for fishers to remove the fins from large individuals when they are taken as either target catch or bycatch. <em>R. typus</em> is commonly landed as bycatch in fisheries in Indonesia (Bentley 1996, Chen 1996, W. White personal observation). Fisheries targeting the rhynchobatids in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Aru Islands and Merauke (Papua), often catch this species but generally in low numbers.  <br/> <br/>Since juveniles of this species inhabit shallow sand flats and mangrove estuaries (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White unpubl. data), intensive fishing pressures, e.g., gill, trap and seine nets, in such inshore areas throughout Indonesia, e.g., Merauke (Papua), are most likely having a high level of impact on this species. <br/> <br/>Such threats to this species in the Australia and Oceania region appear to be more confined to eastern Indonesia (e.g., Papua). There are no target fisheries for <em>R. typus</em> in Australia but it is a known bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries in the region (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep.). In northern Australia, this species constitutes a minor component of the catch in the northern prawn trawl fishery and since the introduction of compulsory turtle excluder devices (TEDs) in this fishery in the year 2000, the number of large individuals of such elasmobranchs retained have been further reduced (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is also likely to be only limited fishing pressure on juvenile <em>R. typus</em> in inshore regions in northern Australia.	eng
41850	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	Australian fisheries are managed, but there is no assessment of population status and no species-specific regulations.	eng
41850	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This is the most widely distributed species of the genus <em>Rhizoprionodon</em>, occurring from western Africa to southern Japan and northern Australia.	eng
41850	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	A common continental shelf species. They are born at 35 to 40 cm in Australia and 25 cm in Africa, and mature at approximately 75 cm. Australian animals reach a maximum of around 100 cm, while African animals reach a larger size possibly as high as 178 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). They are viviparous, with litter sizes from one to eight (Compagno 1984). The gestation period is about 12 months, and mature females produce young every year. In Australian waters reproduction is asynchronous (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991), but in African and Asian waters reproduction is seasonal (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Devadoss 1988). <em>R. acutus</em> reaches maturity after two or three years and probably lives to a maximum of at least eight years (Compagno 1984). These life history parameters suggest a relatively high productivity that would sustain a reasonable level of fishing pressure, although not as high as that sustained by <em>R. oligolinx</em> or <em>R. taylori</em>.	eng
41850	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	The section of the population in western Africa is geographically isolated from the remainder of the population. There are no data on the population numbers in any part of the range.	eng
41850	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	<em>Rhizoprionodon acutus</em> is an abundant inshore shark that is commonly caught in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range. Catches in fisheries are best documented in Australia and India. In northern Australia it is one of the most commonly taken shark species in fish and prawn trawls (Last and Stevens 1994). It also represents 2% of the catch in gillnets and 6% of the catch on longlines (Stevens 1999).  Despite these catches the Australian population does not appear to have been adversely affected.   <br/> <br/>In Indian waters it is commonly taken gillnet and trawl fisheries (Devedoss <em>et al.</em> 1989).  There are a number of studies in Indian waters that have assessed the status of the population based on demographic approaches. Krishnamoorthi and Jagadis (1986) estimated that in Madras waters <em>R. acutus</em> was being under-exploited. Kasim (1991) estimated that along the Verval coast that the species was being fished below its maximum sustainable level, with males fished more heavily than females. The results of these assessments are questionable as they applied simplistic teleost based methods. As such the results are treated with caution.  Since these assessments were undertaken the Indian elasmobranch catch has increased dramatically (Anderson and Simpfendorfer, in press) and this species is likely to have become more heavily exploited.   <br/> <br/>Data from other areas is limited. It is known to be landed in other countries, but there is no other data available on the status of populations or fisheries.	eng
41851	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41851	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species occurs from the Arabian Gulf to the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia and possibly southern Japan in inshore continental shelf waters.	eng
41851	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	The biology of this species is poorly known. However, it is likely to have a life history very similar to the Australian sharpnose shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon taylori</em>) which grows to a similar size and has a similar appearance. It is a small shark born at 21 to 26 cm, mature at 35 to 40 cm, and grows to around 70 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Mature females produce litters of 3 to 5 young, presumably every year (Compagno 1984). Assuming that the life history is similar to that of <em>R. taylori</em> it is assumed to be productive and able to sustain relatively high levels of fishing pressure.	eng
41851	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	There are little or no data available on population size anywhere within its range, and there are no indices of trends in population abundance.  It is known only from a limited number of specimens from northern Australia, where it is probably rare, and may be a stray from Indonesian waters.	eng
41851	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species is probably exploited by inshore artisanal, subsistence and commercial fisheries through most of its range. Manjaji (2002) reported it from fish markets in Sabah. No data are available on the magnitude of catches or the impact of fishing on the populations.	eng
41852	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	The fisheries in which <em>R. taylori</em> is caught in northern Australia are regulated by either the relevant state government, or the federal government.  However, there are no specific regulations that apply to this species.	eng
41852	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This is an abundant inshore species that occurs across in northern Australia and in southern Papua New Guinea (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41852	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species is abundant in inshore waters, especially over soft-bottomed habitats. The diet includes mostly teleost fishes, but also crustaceans and cephalopods (Simpfendorfer 1998). The young are born at 25 cm, males and females mature at approximately 55 cm, and they reach a maximum size of 67 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). This species has one of the most r-selected life histories of any shark species. Simpfendorfer (1992) reported that mature females produce litters of 1 to 10 young every year after a gestation period of 11.5 months. Interestingly, this is the only species of shark in which a period of embryonic diapause occurs (7.5 months) during which embryonic development is arrested. <em>R. taylori</em> is a rapidly growing species, reaching maturity after only one year, and living to a maximum of seven years (Simpfendorfer 1993). Estimates of natural mortality rates using catch curve analysis are 0.56 per year for females and 0.70 per year for males (Simpfendorfer 1999). Estimates of the intrinsic rate of population increase are 0.27 which give a population doubling time of 2.55 years. This rate of population increase is amongst the highest for any species of elasmobranch, and means that they are able to sustain relatively high levels of fishing pressure. If all age classes are fished equally the population can withstand an instantaneous fishing mortality rate of 0.18, and if the immature animals are not fished then this increases to 0.67.	eng
41852	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	There are no data available on the population size, but the demographics of the population has been investigated by Simpfendorfer (1999).	eng
41852	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	This species of taken as bycatch in inshore gillnet fisheries for mackerel and barramundi along the Queensland coast. At times large catches are made, but these events are sporadic and the overall catch is relatively small. In the waters off the Northern Territory this species makes up about 0.5% of the catch in gillnet and longline fisheries (Stevens 1999), but its size is considered to be too small for retention (Last and Stevens 1994). Many of the animals discarded in these fisheries are already dead. <br/> <br/>Despite the level of fishing on this species its life history makes it relatively resilient to the moderate levels of fishing pressure to which it is subjected.	eng
41853	conservation	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and similar species. Finning of rhynchobatids is also prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2000, McAuley unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Further investigation into the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology of <em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is required. Recent catch data for this species in eastern Indonesia and northern Australia, as well as elsewhere in its range, are required to assess to what extent the population decline is occurring. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary.	eng
41853	distribution	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is a locally common species found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Gulf of Thailand in Thailand, Macassar, East Indies, Java, Bali, Lombok and Papau in Indonesia, Philippines and Queensland in Australia (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White, pers. obs.). However, records of <em>R. djiddensis</em> from this region cannot be identified to species and may actually be <em>R. australiae</em>, thus the range cannot be accurately determined.	eng
41853	habitat	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> inhabits inshore waters on the continental shelves (Compagno and Last 1999). This species has a maximum total length (TL) of 223 cm (female), and probably up to 300 cm TL (from Thailand), with males mature at 131 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White, unpubl. data). Very little is known about the biology and ecology of this species. Grant (1978) reports that in Queensland, this species feeds predominantly on crabs and other shellfish. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth and natural mortality of <em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em>.	eng
41853	threats	White, W.T. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Rhynchobatus australiae</em> is one of the most sought after elasmobranchs in southeast Asia (particularly Indonesia), with the dorsal fins and upper caudal fin considered to be of premium quality and fetch the highest prices (Chen 1996). A set of fins from a single individual have been reported to have fetched up to Rp 900 000 or US$396/kg (Chen 1996). The skins and flesh are also of good quality.         <br/> <br/>The Aru Islands rhinid and rhynchobatid gill net fishery first began in the mid 1970?s and rapidly expanded to reach its peak in 1987 with more than 500 boats involved. In future years the catches declined very rapidly with only 100 boats fishing in this area in 1996 (Chen 1996). The demersal gill net fishery for batoids in Merauke still land large quantities of rhynchobatids. A similar fishery also exists in Merauke (south Papua) with gillnet boats operating in the Arafura Sea, close to Australian waters, and the frozen catch sent by boat to processing areas in Jakarta. One observed catch weighed close to eight tonnes with <em>Rhynchobatus</em> spp. constituting more than 30% of the total mass (W. White, unpubl. data). Catches from these boats include a variety of large dasyatids, but the rhynchobatids constitute the largest proportion of the catch (W. White, unpubl. data). There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions occasionally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996; W. White, unpubl. data).        <br/> <br/><em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> (probably <em>R. australiae</em>) was found to be one of the four most commonly caught elasmobranchs in the bycatch of the trawl fisheries (prawn and fish) in northern Australia, with approximately 10% of these dying in the trawl net (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, Stephenson and Chidlow in prep). However, since the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDS) in some northern Australian trawl fisheries, catches of large elasmobranchs have been reduced (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 1998) and thus <em>R. australiae</em> are probably caught in lower numbers. Rhynchobatids are also a common target of recreational anglers in some parts of their range, including northern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). There is also evidence of such finning of large shovelnose rays and guitarfish in northern Australia (R. McAuley, unpubl. data).	eng
41854	conservation	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	The introduction of TEDs in trawl nets of some Australian fisheries, has significantly reduced the capture of large elasmobranchs (Brewer <em>et al.</em> 1998), however TEDs are not mandatory in several trawl fisheries in northern Australian and are probably not widely used in other parts of this species? range. The introduction of TEDs in other Australian trawl fisheries is highly recommended for mitigating bycatch of this and other at risk elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>Finning of Rhynchobatids is prohibited in some parts of Australia but there is thought be a continuing black market trade in their fins (Rose and McLoughlin 2001, McAuley unpublished data).	eng
41854	distribution	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	A wide-ranging species first described from India that was widely mistaken for the Western Indian Ocean and Red Sea <em>R. djiddensis</em> across its range from Zanzibar and the Arabian Sea to the Western Pacific. The species needs to be taxonomically assessed from adequate samples from various parts of its range.	eng
41854	habitat	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	<em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> has a coastal distribution throughout its range, generally occurring on or close to the seabed, inshore off river mouths and in shallow bays. Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 147 cm total length (TL) and possibly to 200 cm TL, reproduce ovoviviparously and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates (Compagno and Last 1999). Further research on the biology and exploitation of this species is urgently required.	eng
41854	population	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	Due to heavy inshore gillnet fishing, the <em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> population has probably decreased in parts of India and but it?s population status elsewhere is unclear.	eng
41854	threats	McAuley, R. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2003	<em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> is subject to capture in a variety of fisheries throughout its range (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White pers. comm.). <em>Rhynchobatus laevis</em> is fished heavily by gillnet fisheries, for example, in India. Due to its similarity in both habitat and habits with <em>R. australiae</em>, it is probably also vulnerable to other gear types, including trawlnets and hooks. Outside of Australia, elasmobranch fisheries throughout this species? range are generally unregulated (Chen 1996), catches are poorly recorded (Bonfil 1994) and finning is widespread. Flesh is sold for human consumption in Asia and the fins from large animals fetch exceptionally high prices. Given this species? use of semi-enclosed and near-shore habitats, habitat destruction and pollution are thought to pose a significant threat, particularly in Southern and South East Asia.	eng
41855	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41855	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	Apparently circumglobal in the Southern Ocean.	eng
41855	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	Depth range: 150 to 500 m. Upper slope (Pukaki Rise, New Zealand), possibly mesopelagic. Reaches at least 111 cm total length (TL). Size at maturity is unknown. The smallest mature female reported was 74 cm TL. This species appears to be highly fecund (litter size more than 59) however, the gestation period and pupping interval is unknown. Size at birth, age and growth, and diet are unknown.	eng
41855	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Infrequently taken in deepwater trawl and tuna longline fisheries.	eng
41856	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41856	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	New Zealand endemic. Recorded off the east coast of South Island, from Bank?s Peninsula to Pukaki Rise.	eng
41856	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	Reaches at least 80 cm total length (TL). Depth range: 400 to 500 m. An 80 cm TL male was mature.	eng
41856	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Infrequently taken in deepwater trawl fisheries.	eng
41857	conservation	Stevens, J., 2003	Specimens caught in the Australian toothfish fishery are released, however, survival rates are unknown.	eng
41857	distribution	Stevens, J., 2003	This species may be more widely distributed in the Southern Ocean than current records suggest.	eng
41857	habitat	Stevens, J., 2003	On or near the bottom with current records from 400 to 1,100 m. Stomach contents are mainly fish, cephalopods (particularly <em>Mesonychoteuthis</em>) and marine  mammal remains. In the Tasman Sea and around Macquarie Island, cephalopods occurred in 80% of stomachs, fish in 47%, marine mammals in 33%, birds in 7% and other items in 13% (Yano <em>et al.</em> in prep, van Wijk <em>et al.</em> 2001). The relatively frequent presence of fast active prey suggests that this sluggish species may employ some kind of ambush strategy. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous with size at birth around 40 cm; litter size, gestation, reproductive periodicity, age and growth are unknown.	eng
41857	population	Stevens, J., 2003	Nothing is known about population size.	eng
41857	threats	Stevens, J., 2003	The spread of deep water fisheries in cool temperate and sub-antarctic waters will increasingly impact on this species which is taken as bycatch in trawl and hook fisheries, such as those currently exploiting orange roughy and Patagonian toothfish. About 44 specimens were captured in the Macquarie Island toothfish fishery between 1996 and 2000 (van Wijk <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41858	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41858	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This population is restricted to separate regions in Australia, the Philippines and Japan.	eng
41858	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>S. aliae</em> is epi- or mesopelagic near land masses. It is thought to use a depth range from 200 to 2,000 m. Individuals are thought to make daily migrations from shallow depths (200 m) at night to deeper waters (2,000 m) during the day. This is possibly the smallest living shark attaining a size of approximately 22 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at 15 cm TL. Females are ovoviviparous but litter sizes are unknown. Diet includes cephalopods and bony fishes. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41858	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
41858	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	There are currently no fisheries threats identified for this species.	eng
41859	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41859	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (Alboran Sea and western Mediterranean), western Indian Ocean, western Pacific (Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea south to Gulf of Tonkin), southern Australia, New Caledonia and New Hebrides.	eng
41859	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	A common to abundant small dogfish of temperate and tropical seas, found on the inner and outer continental shelves and upper slopes generally on or near the bottom at depths from close inshore down to 732 m. Much of the biological information is from South African specimens. Off South Africa newborn young were found to be pelagic on pupping grounds on the outer continental shelves on the Agulhas Bank at about 157 to 158 m through sampling with an Engels pelagic trawl hauled by the RV Africana, and were abundantly collected along with a few adults (mostly males) from near the bottom to the surface. This is a social shark that often forms large, dense schools where it occurs. On the east coast of South Africa some sexual  segregation may occur, with breeding females  more southerly in distribution. Ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous), with number of young per litter 1-6 and generally two or three. There may be a lack of birth seasonality with no obvious peaks in fetal size during the year. The gestation period is uncertain although it has been estimated as two years.  Adult females are apparently continuously reproductive, without a gap between pregnancies. This  shark eats a variety of bony fishes, and more rarely elasmobranchs. Invertebrate prey includes a variety of crustaceans, mollusks, cephalopods, brittle stars and especially bristleworms  (Polychaeta).  which are common prey items. Maximum total length is about 77 cm, with most smaller than 65 cm. Term fetuses about 20 to 25 cm long, size at birth about 23 to 25 cm, freeliving young with yolk scars 23 to 28 cm; males maturing at  about 34 to 51 cm, females mature at 37 to 62 cm. Age at maturity has been estimated at 22 years for females and 15 years for males in the South Africa population (Watson and Smale 1999).	eng
41859	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This species is of considerable interest to fisheries and is taken in considerable quantities in demersal trawls but also on lines and nets. It is commonly caught as bycatch of the trawl fishery off southern Africa but is largely discarded.  <br/> <br/>In Australia <em>S. megalops</em> was shown to be a major component of the catch by a fishery independent trawl survey (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) between the years 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales (NSW)) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern NSW/northern Victoria). However, this species did not follow the general pattern of decline shown by other species of deepwater dogfish, and it appears that the present level of trawling is not adversely affecting <em>S. megalops</em>. This could be due to recruitment from the lightly fished outer shelf areas helping to maintain their overall biomass. Despite this, the situation needs to be monitored as there are indications that the relatively heavy fishing pressure off Ulladulla (NSW) is in fact beginning to affect local abundance of this species (although this is unlikely to markedly affect the entire population). Because of its relatively small size, <em>S. megalops</em> has historically not been targeted by trawlers off south-eastern Australia; but as catch rates of more traditional species decline, greater exploitation of this species is likely to occur. Along the south coast of Australia, trawl grounds are mainly away from the areas inhabited by this species, and selectivity data indicates that comparatively low numbers are captured in the commercial shark gillnets of 6-6.5-inch mesh-size.  There is no detectable change in catch rates with 6-inch mesh-size between 1973 to 1976 and 1998 to 2001 in Bass Strait (Walker <em>et al.</em> in press).  <br/> <br/><em>S. megalops</em> is a very minor component of the temperate Western Australia demersal gillnet fishery (probably less than one tonne/year) and possibly the Commonwealth managed trawl fisheries. The gillnet fishery only operates to the inshore limit of the species' range (i.e., to around 100 m depth) and there is a large area off the northern west coast that is closed to shark fishing. Catches are hard to ascertain as dogfish are generally not retained and not identified to species level in either fishery. There is no evidence to suggest a population decline (R. McAuley, WA Fisheries. pers.comm. April 2003). <br/> <br/>It is utilized for human consumption in Australia being sold as fresh fillets.  Significant quantities of ?greeneye? dogfish, comprising about 80% <em>S. megalops</em>, are sold annually through the Sydney Fish Market but sales have declined in recent years (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Sales of greeneye dogfish declined from about 150 tonnes in 1992 to about 50 tonnes in 1999. Quantities sold in other Australian markets are small.	eng
41860	conservation	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41860	distribution	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Common all around New Caledonia, also found off the Loyalty Islands, the Chesterfield archipelago, on the Norfolk Ridge and off Vanuatu.	eng
41860	habitat	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Occurs on upper insular slopes from 34 to 480 m, where it feeds on a variety of deepwater fishes, also on shrimps and molluscs. A small shark (maximum size approximately 80 cm) that bears live young (at least three pups per litter). Biology poorly known. It is probably, like better-known members of the genus, slow to reach maturity and having a low intrinsic rate of population increase and resilience to fisheries (this is particularly the case for deepwater species).	eng
41860	population	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	No information on population size.	eng
41860	threats	Fowler, S.L. & Séret, B., 2003	Not targeted by deepwater fisheries, but may be taken as bycatch, although deep-sea fisheries are very limited in New Caledonia.	eng
41861	conservation	Fowler, S.L., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41861	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Known only from the area of Éfate, Vanuatu at depths of 320 to 400 m; range apparently very limited.	eng
41861	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Insular slopes, 320 to 400 m depth. Young born at approximately 24 cm, three young/litter. Females mature at about 65 cm and reach a maximum recorded total length of 77 cm.	eng
41861	population	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Several specimens collected, but population size is unknown.	eng
41861	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2003	Currently of no interest to fisheries. May be taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.	eng
41862	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, there are large areas that are not trawled within its range.	eng
41862	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	This species has been recorded from central New South Wales (NSW) (around Newcastle) to southern Western Australia (Rottnest Island). It is common in Bass Strait and off surf beaches along the eastern seaboard (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41862	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Last and Stevens (1994) reported the habitat as continental shelf waters down to 130 m. This species is a demersal carnivore feeding on fish and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994). It inhabits sand and mud bottoms, often in seagrass beds or adjacent to rocky reefs (Michael 2001). Males attain approximately 105 cm total length (TL) and are mature by 90 cm TL; females attain at least 115 cm and are mature by 97 cm (Graham 2001). Maximum size is reported to be 152 cm (Compagno 1984) and approximately 15 kg (Graham 1999), but specimens over 115 cm were rare off NSW between 1976 to 1977 and 1996 to 1997 (Graham 1999). Ovoviviparous (Compagno 1984), with litters up to 20 young (Michael 2001), although there is little data on litter sizes. Gestation period unknown but a similar species (<em>S. californica</em>) overseas has a gestation period of 10 months (Michael 2002). Gives birth in the autumn months (Michael 2001). This shark spends its day buried, ingesting anything that moves too close, but it emerges from the sand or mud at night and actively searches for food (Michael 2001).	eng
41862	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size is estimated to be relatively large (thousands of mature individuals), but the number and size of subpopulations is unknown.	eng
41862	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Angel sharks are not very susceptible to line or mesh netting techniques, but are susceptible to trawling as they lay on the bottom (Terry Walker, pers. comm. March 2003). The main threat to this species is demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery (SETF)) in south-eastern Australia between 136 and 153° longitude. In the observer program of the SETF (between 1992 and 2001), most catches were in late autumn to winter months and catch per unit effort was highest between eastern Tasmania and central NSW (Terry Walker, pers. comm. March 2003). Gillnetting in the Southern Shark Fishery in waters less than 75 m depth total catches of 12 tonnes (carcass weight) in Victoria and Tasmania between 1994/95 and 2000/01 (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/>The flesh of angel sharks is excellent eating and is marketed as angel shark, boneless fillets and monkfish (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41863	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are currently no quotas in place for catches of the species in the GABTF. The species is likely to occur in the Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Marine Park Benthic Protection Area, a 20 nm strip extending out from the coast to 200 nm offshore where demersal trawling is prohibited.	eng
41863	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Endemic to southern Australia from off Geraldton, Western Australia to off Port Lincoln, South Australia.	eng
41863	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Squatina tergocellata</em> is demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope in 130 to 400 m, but most common in about 300 m (Last and Stevens 1994). The species may display spatial segregation of age classes, with older age classes more common in deeper waters (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size of females 140 cm total length (TL); of males 103 cm TL (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Male reach sexual maturity at 81 to 91 cm TL and females at 115 to 125 cm TL. Gravid females with near-term embryos were observed during January and February. Fecundity ranges from 2 to 9 (mean = 4.5). Minimum gestation period of 6 to 12 months with parturition probably occurring biennially. Diet is dominated by squid (<em>Notodarus gouldi</em>) and fish (monacanthids) (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Information on age and growth is not available.	eng
41863	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	No available information on subpopulations or population sizes.	eng
41863	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Squatina tergocellata</em> is commonly taken and marketed in the Australian Commonwealth managed Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery (GABTF). The species is taken in the shelf/upper slope component of the fishery which fishes mostly in 120 to 180 m and therefore, only a portion of the species bathymetric range is fished (furthermore, as the species is most common in about 300 m most of the population would not be impacted by fishing). Additionally, the fishery receives relatively low effort (the fishery is managed by limited entry with only 10 Statuary Fishing Rights) and a large portion of the species range, particularly in the west, receives minimal fishing effort (Caton 2002).  The fishery mostly takes immature individuals (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998). Reported landings from this fishery are as follows: 1988-1992 (five year period), 234 tonnes; 1995, 97 tonnes; 1996, 95 tonnes; 1997, 140 tonnes; 1999, 109 tonnes; 2000, 69 tonnes; 2001, 88 tonnes; and, 2002, 84 tonnes (McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1994, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1995, McLoughlin <em>et al.</em> 1997, Caton <em>et al.</em> 1997, Caton <em>et al.</em> 1999, Caton 2002, Phil Sahlqvist pers. comm.). The decline in catch in 2000 corresponds with a decrease in fishing effort. Overall, the stock appears stable in the Great Australian Bight. Furthermore, while catches were variable, no trend has been observed in catch rates of <em>S. tergocellata</em> in the South East Trawl Fishery Observer Program (sampling at the eastern extent of the species range) over the ten-year period, 1992 to 2002 (T. Walker, pers. comm).  <br/> <br/>Given the apparent ?slow? life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other species (Holts 1988, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) any future increase in fishing effort in the area of occurrence of <em>Squatina tergocellata</em> should be monitored to ensure the species is not adversely affected.	eng
41864	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	The gillnet fisheries in which it is caught are managed, but there are no conservation measures specifically aimed at this species.	eng
41864	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	Occurs from the Abrolhos Islands in Western Australia to Adelaide in South Australia.	eng
41864	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	Occurs in rocky reef and weedy areas on the continental shelf. Little is known of its ecology, but like other wobbegong sharks it is unlikely to move large distances, spending most of its time lying on the bottom. It is an ambush predator, and Chidlow (2003) reported that the stomach contents of 11 specimens all contained teleost prey. <br/> <br/>A small species growing to less than a meter in length (92 cm), with males maturing about 65 cm. Ovoviviparous development, with young born at about 22 cm. Chidlow (2003) reported only one pregnant female which contained 12 developing embryos with a sex ratio strongly biased towards males.	eng
41864	population	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	No information is available on subpopulations, but it appears to be most common in southwestern Western Australia.	eng
41864	threats	Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2003	Occasionally caught in demersal gillnets throughout its range in Western Australia. However, its small size makes it of limited commercial value and it is normally discarded alive. It is not been recorded in the catches from demersal gillnets or trawls in South Australia (T. Walker, MAFRI, pers. comm). Recreational anglers in south-western Western Australia occasionally catch this species when fishing for teleosts around rocky reefs.	eng
41865	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41865	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	<em>T. fairchildi</em> is a common inhabitant of the continental shelf and upper slope around New Zealand?s North, South and Stewart Islands and Chatham Rise. There are also isolated records from Challenger Plateau. It occurs from 5 to 1,135 m depth, but is most frequently recorded in research trawls between 100 to 300 m (Cox and Francis 1997, Paul and Heath 1997, Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
41865	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	<em>T. fairchildi</em> inhabits usually sandy or muddy bottoms on the outer continental shelf but is occasionally encountered inshore, including on shallow rocky reefs (pers. obs.). To 200 cm total length (TL), commonly to 100 to 150 cm TL (Paul and Heath 1997). Diet includes demersal fishes, such as red cod (<em>Pseudophycis bacchus</em>), crustaceans (crabs, shrimps, mantis shrimps) and shellfish. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. There are only two reports of pregnant females, both reported litter size as eight (four embryos in each uterus) (Hamilton 1883, Graham 1956). Nursery areas are not known. Size at birth and maturity is unknown. The smallest pregnant female reported was 91 cm TL.	eng
41865	population	Duffy, C., 2003	There are no population or biomass estimates available for New Zealand electric rays.	eng
41865	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	<em>T. fairchildi</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in commercial bottom-trawls and occasionally on bottom-set longlines. It has no commercial value and is usually discarded. Survival of discards is unknown but could be high in line fisheries. <em>T. fairchildi</em> is infrequently taken by recreational line fishers and is usually cut, or struck off the line (Paul and Heath 1997). <em>T. fairchildi</em> is not exhibited in public aquaria or collected for the aquarium trade. Old reports suggest that it was formerly common on inshore trawl grounds, whereas these days it appears to be most abundant below 100 m, suggesting possible declines in shallow waters.	eng
41866	conservation	Reardon, M., 2003	There are currently no management or conservation measures in place for this species although it does occur in some protected marine parks, reserves and sanctuaries in Victorian and South Australian waters.	eng
41866	distribution	Reardon, M., 2003	This species is found in shallow water in southern Australia from eastern Bass Strait to Lancelin in Western Australia, including the waters of Victoria, northern Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Hutchins and Swainston 1996).	eng
41866	habitat	Reardon, M., 2003	Little is known of the life history of the southern fiddler ray except that it is aplacental yolk sac viviparous (Reardon, M. pers. obs.) and produces 4 to 6 young per breeding cycle (Haacke 1885). Like all Australian shovelnose rays it inhabits shallow soft substrate habitats and seagrass meadows and preys primarily on shellfish and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41866	population	Reardon, M., 2003	No definitive population data exists on this species although it appears to be relatively common throughout its range (MAFRI unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Abundance data for 1992 to 2002 from the South East Trawl Fishery operating from New South Wales to South Australia including Tasmania shows no appreciable decline in catch rates (MAFRI unpublished data).   <br/> <br/>Southern fiddler rays in an abundance measure from a trawl survey in Western Australia comprised 0.1% (n=84.6/hectare) of the total catch number of 172 teleost and chondrichthyan species caught, and 1.7% of the total catch weight (Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 1999) indicating a relatively healthy population in this region.	eng
41866	threats	Reardon, M., 2003	The flesh is of good quality and is sold in small quantity in seafood outlets.  It is caught as a bycatch in commercial fisheries and also by recreational fishers (Last and Stevens 1994, MAFRI unpublished data, Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
41867	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41867	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	Uncertain due to confusion with <em>T. tarakea</em>. Blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast North Island south of East Cape, South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Rise (Mernoo Bank and Chatham Islands) and Snares Shelf to 49°S.	eng
41867	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	Largely unknown. Blind electric rays of both species (<em>T. aysoni</em> and <em>T. tarakea</em>) have been trawled from 46 to 800 m, but are most common between 300-400 m. The flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well- developed pelvic appendages. Diet includes polychaete worms. Reproduction is probably ovoviviparous. Litter size is up to 11. Size at birth is 9 to 10 cm. Maximum size 38 cm total length.	eng
41867	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Bottom trawling.	eng
41868	conservation	Duffy, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41868	distribution	Duffy, C., 2003	Uncertain due to confusion with <em>T. aysoni</em>. Blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast North Island south of East Cape, South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Rise (Mernoo Bank and Chatham Islands) and Snares Shelf to 49°S.	eng
41868	habitat	Duffy, C., 2003	Largely unknown. Blind electric rays of both species have been trawled from 46 to 800 m, but are most common between 300 to 400 m. The flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well developed pelvic appendages. Diet includes polychaete worms. Reproduction is probably ovoviviparous. Litter size is up to 11. Size at birth is 9 to 10 cm. Maximum size 35 cm total length.	eng
41868	threats	Duffy, C., 2003	Bottom trawling.	eng
41870	conservation	Fowler, S.L. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41870	distribution	Fowler, S.L. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The holotype (and only known specimen) was collected from the coral bottom in the pass of an islet on the external coral reef of a south-western New Caledonian lagoon. There are also underwater photographs of two specimens. The fish fauna of New Caledonia has been well surveyed, suggesting that this species is rare. It is, however, presumably present at similar depths and in similar habitat elsewhere around the island.  <br/> <br/>New Caledonia has approximately 8,000 km² of coral reef habitat surrounding a lagoon of 24,000 km². Much of this habitat is significantly shallower than the type locality, implying that the total extent of occurrence of this species around the island will be less than 20,000 km², even if the species is very widespread (which appears not to be the case).	eng
41870	habitat	Fowler, S.L. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Inshore on an external coral reef at a depth of 49 m. Catsharks are generally weak swimmers and do not migrate large distances. They mostly feed on invertebrates and small fishes.	eng
41870	threats	Fowler, S.L. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This small (79 cm), attractively patterned catshark is likely to be taken as bycatch in mixed-species, artisanal fisheries and to be susceptible to habitat deterioration and loss. New Caledonian coral reefs are in generally good condition, but large areas (particularly in the east) are affected by run-off arising from nickel mining operations and resultant deforestation, erosion and water pollution. The problem is exacerbated by destruction of mangroves. The incidence of coral reef bleaching is also rising in the region (<a href="http://www.reefbase.org">ReefBase</a>).	eng
41871	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Detailed quantitative information on catch per unit effort for Centrophorus squamosus throughout its range is required to assess whether CPUE is declining. The only information available on catch rates records tonnage landed annually on Rockall Trough and Porcupine Bank in the eastern Atlantic, but this cannot be related to effort and, thus, cannot be used to determine whether population sizes are decreasing. A stock analysis will be available shortly from the DELASS project in the North East Atlantic. It should also be noted that due to the apparently long lifespan of this species, the recovery of a heavily fished population would probably require a long period of time.	eng
41871	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Centrophorus squamosus</em> has a wide distribution: in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland and the Atlantic slope to the Canary Islands, Senegal, Faeroes, Madeira, Azores, Gabon to Dem. Rep. Congo, Namibia, and western Cape of Good Hope (South Africa); western Indian Ocean (Natal off South Africa and the Aldabra Islands); eastern Indian Ocean (Tasmania and Victoria in Australia); the northwest Pacific, i.e., Japan, the western central Pacific (Philippines and Indonesia) and the southwestern Pacific, i.e. New Zealand and Australia (New South Wales) (Brito 1991, Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Niem 1998, Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2002, W. White, pers. obs.). The distribution for this species is considered to be more widespread in Australia than the records suggest (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/> <br/>The level of fishing pressure needs to be examined in the various populations within its range to establish whether separate regional assessments are more suitable. For example, this species is caught in large numbers in the eastern Atlantic whereas they are not targeted or commonly caught as bycatch in Australian waters.	eng
41871	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	Centrophorus squamosus is found demersally on the continental slopes at depths between 230 and 2,400 m, also pelagically in the upper 1,250 m of oceanic water in depths to 4,000 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). <br/> <br/>This species attains a maximum length of 1.6 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Maturity is attained at approximately 100 cm total length (TL) in males and at approximately 125 cm in females (Girard and Du Buit 1999, Clarke et al. 2001). Centrophorus squamosus is ovoviviparous with 5 to 8 young born at a length between 35 and 43 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997). There is no apparent seasonal reproductive cycle in males (Girard et al. 2000). <br/> <br/>A study of the age and growth of this species off the Atlantic Slope (off Ireland) provided age estimates of 21 to 70 years (Clarke et al. 2002), however, the validation of whether the rings were formed annually was not undertaken. This species presumably attains maturity at a relatively late age. <br/> <br/>There is some preliminary data on the dietary compositions of this species (see Ebert et al. 1992).	eng
41871	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Centrophorus squamosus is an important component of deep-water fisheries in certain areas within its range. This shark has been exploited commercially for many years. In Japan exploitation peaked during World War II, because of the high percentage of squalene in its liver, but quickly declined due to decreasing numbers caught. Deep-water fisheries (longlining and trawling) which catch large quantities of this species are found in the eastern Atlantic, e.g., off Ireland, Spain, Portugal and France (Iglesias and Paz 1995, Clarke et al. 2001, Girard and De Buit 1999). For example, this species is targeted heavily by the Portuguese deep-water longline fishery for which exploitation peaked in 1986 (600 tonnes) and has been steadily declining since then (Correia and Smith, in prep). The catches of the mixed trawl fishery off Rockall Trough and Porcupine Bank in the eastern Atlantic, which consist predominantly of this species and Centroscymnus coelolepis, increased from 302 tonnes in 1991 to 3,284 tonnes in 1996, and then declined to 1,939 tonnes in 1999 (ICES 2000). Although this suggests that the population is declining, this data cannot be directly related to fishing effort and it is therefore possible that fishing effort declined between 1996 and 1999. The French bottom trawl fishery has shown rapidly increasing landings of these species, i.e., 322 tonnes in 1990 and 2,939 tonnes in 1996 (Girard and De Buit 1999). Quantitative catch per unit effort are available for autoline catches in ICES Area VI: 218 (1997) to 24 (2000); 219 (1998) to 42 (2000) = 80 to 90% decline in three years. Area VII: 221(96), 56 (97), 51 (99), 73 (00) = 67 to 77% decline in four years. Area XII: 100 (1999), 78 and 31 (2000) = 20 to 69% decline in one year (SGRST 2002). Although this data is for C. squamosus and Centroscymnus coelolepis combined, the acute vulnerability to exploitation of Centrophorus spp has been shown from the New South Wales (NSW) fishery independent surveys (Graham et al. 2001), and C. squamosus is the more vulnerable of these two species in terms of life history. <br/> <br/>Artisanal deep-water longline fisheries in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Java and Bali, also commonly land this species but often in low numbers (W. White, unpubl. data). The catches of this species in Australia and Oceania are relatively low and do not represent a significant component of the squaloid catch in both southeastern Australia and New Zealand, however more data is required. <br/> <br/>The flesh and liver are marketed from this species in many areas throughout its range.	eng
41872	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The species is protected in a significant proportion of its range on the east coast of Australia in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Moreton Bay Marine Park. While fishing is still allowed in most areas of the parks, the species is not targeted and is likely to survive capture as bycatch.	eng
41872	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Little is know about the populations of this species. Compagno (2001) reports that it was seen in large numbers at a fish market at Samut, near Bangkok, Thailand.  Blaber, Brewer and Harris (1994) report the occurrence of the species in a trawl survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia, but it was recorded as one of the least abundant species of fish caught. It is encountered reasonably often on the reef flats in the Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia, and in Moreton Bay, Queensland. It has been seen in groups of up to a dozen individuals at specific locations in Moreton Bay that provide protection/cover in otherwise open environments (M.B. Bennet, pers. obs.). It is not uncommon to catch this species when bottom bait-fishing in Moreton Bay, suggesting that it is present in reasonable numbers.	eng
41872	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Found on coral reefs, on sand and sand/mud substrates throughout its range. Probably occurs on soft substrates in deeper water, to at least 85 m. The species is extremely hardy and can tolerate severe environmental hypoxia, a trait that allows it to occupy and survive in environments that undergo cyclical hypoxic conditions (e.g., coral reef flats). Oviparous species. Hatches at 13 to 17 cm total length (TL) and attains a maximum adult size of about 118 cm TL (M. B. Bennet pers. obs.). Males mature at 68 to 76 cm TL, females at about 63 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Small individuals hide in crevices and among coral and are well camouflaged with their broad banding pattern. Feeds on benthic organisms and small fishes. In Moreton Bay the diet comprises crabs, polychaete worms, shrimps and small teleost fishes (M.B. Bennet pers. obs).	eng
41872	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Widespread collection for human consumption in artisanal and commercial fisheries and habitat damage over much of its range (not Australia) are the major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is a minor threat, especially as the species is hardy and will breed prolifically in captivity. Inshore seine-netting, trap fishing and bait fishing are probably the primary modes of collection. Damage and destruction of coral reef habitat from dynamite fishing, other destructive fishing practices and pollution are known to be widespread in large parts of its range.	eng
41873	conservation	Pillans, R., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41873	distribution	Pillans, R., 2003	Is found inshore and on coral reefs, where it is commonly seen on coral heads and in reef channels and faces (Compagno 2001). Commonly seen on the Great Barrier Reef. This primarily nocturnal shark is thought to have a small home range with several retreats within the area (Compagno 2001).	eng
41873	habitat	Pillans, R., 2003	Little is known about the biology of this species, thought to be ovoviviparous. <br/> <br/>Reproductive periodicity:  Unknown <br/>Size at birth: 20 cm total length (TL) <br/>Average litter size: Unknown <br/>Size male maturity: a 117 cm TL animal was mature <br/>Size female maturity: Unknown cm TL <br/>Max size: to at least 125 cm TL  <br/>Growth rates: Unknown cm.y<sup>-1</sup>  <br/> <br/>(Last and Stevens 1994)	eng
41873	population	Pillans, R., 2003	A little known but possibly common tropical inshore and offshore bottom dwelling shark.	eng
41873	threats	Pillans, R., 2003	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, no target fisheries and this species is not reported in bycatch. Outside of Australian waters it will be threatened by habitat destruction as well as overfishing. For example, the threats in Papua will include extensive dynamite fishing (especially in Biak) and heavy fishing pressures. There is also a possibility that coral removal for building material may impact on available habitat for this species (W. White, pers.comm.).	eng
41874	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Recent species composition and catch data for fisheries within its range are required to assess the population trends, especially in areas where there is a very high level of fishing pressure.	eng
41874	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> is found in the Indo-West Pacific: South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Aden, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Indonesia (Java), the Philippines and Australia (Bunbury in Western Australia to Lizard Island in Queensland) (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 1998, W. White unpubl. data).	eng
41874	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> is a rare to common tropical coastal species at depths down to 130 m (Compagno 1998). <br/> <br/>This species attains 240 cm total length (TL), with females and males maturing at approximately 120 and 110 cm TL, respectively. They are viviparous and have a seasonal reproductive cycle with 2 to 11 (mean = 6) young per litter and born at 45 to 52 cm TL (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994). Mating appears to take place around June, ovulation in September and birth in about April, with a gestation period of about 7 to 8 months. The pregnancy rate among mature females off Australia is about 30%, which suggests that individual females may breed on every other year (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991). <br/> <br/>Australian populations were found to feed on cephalopods and teleost fish (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991), whereas in India they are reported to feed on a variety of prey including  many teleost species, grey sharks and butterfly rays, as well as prawns (Compagno 1984, Setna and Sarangdhar 1949). <br/> <br/>A length-weight curve and fork length-total length conversion (sexes combined) for this species were provided by Stevens and McLoughlin (1991):  <br/> <br/>Weight (gm) = 1.62 x 10-3 TL 3.21 <br/>Fork length (cm) = 0.79TL + 1.43 <br/> <br/>There is no information on the age at maturity and growth of this species.	eng
41874	threats	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Hemipristis elongatus</em> forms a minor component of the northern Australian gillnet and trawl (prawn and fish) fisheries (Last and Stevens 1994, Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2002, R. McAuley pers. comm.) and is also landed in the gillnet and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (W. White unpubl. data) and presumably in other countries within its range.  <br/> <br/>The gill net and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (especially the Java Sea) are very extensive and as a result, many shark species are highly exploited. Catches of sharks in south-east Asia are very high but are declining and fishers are travelling much further from the ports in order to increase catches (Chen 1996). Trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further away, e.g., in Jakarta the gill net fishery at Muara Baru travels to waters around Kalimantan due to the decline in local shark populations (W. White unpubl. data). In the Gulf of Thailand this species was once considered common, however, surveys in recent years have observed very few specimens (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). The numbers observed in the market surveys in this region, e.g., Indonesia, are likely to provide a relatively good representation of the population of this species. <br/> <br/>In India, the fins and oil are utilized and the flesh is considered of extremely high quality (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
41875	conservation	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.  Based on the restricted distribution of this species and high risk of habitat destruction this species requires scientific examination to assess its conservation status.	eng
41875	distribution	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>H. hallstromi</em> is known to occur in the Western South Pacific, exclusively in Papua New Guinea (Gulf of Papua).	eng
41875	habitat	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This species resides in coastal tropical waters possibly on coral reefs. <em> H. hallstromi</em> reaches a maximum size of 77 cm total length (TL). Males mature between 48 to 64 cm TL. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
41875	population	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available.	eng
41875	threats	Heupel, M.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	It is unknown if this species is utilized by the aquarium industry.  However, this is a very attractive and hardy species that may be sought after for public and private aquaria.  This small population is very susceptible to habitat destruction via high pollutant levels and dynamite fishing practices.	eng
41876	conservation	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A., Fergusson, I.K., Dicken, M. & Graham, K., 2007	<strong>In place</strong><br/>Because the numbers of <em>C. taurus</em> along the NSW coast had been seriously depleted by indiscriminate spear fishing, and by some commercial harvesting, that species was protected in 1984 (Pollard <em>et al.</em> 1996). To avoid any misidentification or claims of confusion with <em>O. ferox</em>, both species were included on the NSW protected species list. <br/><br/>Despite this legal protection, compliance is difficult to enforce and carcasses of juvenile <em>O. ferox</em> are sometimes marketed simply as ?shark?. However, even if they or larger adults were returned to the sea intact, these sharks are unlikely to survive the trauma of trawl capture from deepwater. In a wider context, as exploitation of deepwater fishery resources increases worldwide, fishing mortality of such species such as <em>O. ferox</em> will increase and may put the survival of the species at risk.<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>The species is presently (2006) being considered for protection in New Zealand (C. Duffy, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the distribution and status of the population in subequatorial Africa is unknown, the apparent rarity and vulnerability of <em>O. ferox</em> means that should any aggregation sites be found, stringent protection would be wise.<br/><br/>At present this species has not been protected from commercial fishing in any subequatorial African country, due to the fact that it has been observed so rarely and no records have been recorded from any commercial vessel.<br/><br/>There are no specific protection measures in place for the Mediterranean, despite its status there. The protection of favoured coastal habitats and more detailed monitoring of catches within Mediterranean fisheries should be priorities. Conservation of frequented sites as a dive tourism attraction could provide an incentive for local protection, as for well-known <em>C. taurus</em> habitats in Australia and South Africa.<br/><br/>This species has been reported by divers at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) and also other areas such as the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand), the Mediterranean, and Malpelo Island off Columbia. Such community-based dive observations or monitoring may be of use in obtaining information on its biology and knowledge of important habitats in shallow waters.<br/><br/>Further study is needed to accurately determine the distributional range, abundance and biology (including possible migrations, sex ratios, fecundity, etc.) of this species. <br/><br/>Any dead specimens landed by commercial fishing (especially trawling) operations should be retained and delivered to the nearest relevant research organisation, so that more biological information can be obtained.<br/><br/>There is now more evidence that coastal locations are frequented by mature <em>O. ferox</em> on a repetitive seasonal basis, possibly for reproduction. Where identified, these sites deserve stringent protection. <br/><br/>Development of by-catch mitigation measures such as trawl exclusion devices should be undertaken in relevant fisheries.	eng
41876	distribution	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A., Fergusson, I.K., Dicken, M. & Graham, K., 2007	Records show a very disjunct distribution throughout most of the world's oceans. Overall, the latitudinal range of <em>O. ferox</em> is between 46oN in the Bay of Biscay (Debrosses 1930) to around 38-39oS in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Recorded in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean (including the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australian Territory)), and the Western Pacific, Central Pacific and Northeast Pacific Oceans.<br/><br/>The first record for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean was in 1989 (Bonfil 1995) and voucher specimens have also been recorded off North Carolina (USA) and Mexico (in the North West and West Central Atlantic). The species has also been reported from Brazil in the South West Atlantic; the first record was based on jaws collected by fishers off Natal, Rio Grande do Norte (Menni <em>et al.</em> 1995, Soto 2001) and there are subsequent records from the Archipelago of Fernando de Noronha (03°52?S, 32°25?W) off north-eastern Brazil (Garla and Garcia Jr. 2006). In the Northeast and East Central Atlantic, <em>O. ferox</em> has been recorded from the Bay of Biscay, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Morocco, Western Sahara and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. In the Indian Ocean, from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), northeast and southeast of Madagascar in open ocean, Tanzania, El Dabra in the Mozambique Channel, Madagascar, Maldives, open ocean southeast of Sri Lanka, southwest of Sumatra and Cocos-Keeling Islands (Compagno 2001). In the Western Pacific, from Japan, Australia (New South Wales, eastern Victoria), New Zealand (North Island) and the Kermadec Islands (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008), although it is probably more widespread in north-eastern Australian waters than voucher specimens would indicate (P. Last, pers. comm.). In 2004, a large female was caught by an orange roughy trawler in 880m on the Louisville Ridge over 600 nm east of New Zealand (M. Francis, pers. comm.). In the Central and Eastern Pacific, from the Hawaiian Islands, southern California (USA), Mexico and Colombia (Compagno 2001). Photographs taken by divers at Malpelo Island off Columbia have also confirmed the presence of <em>O. ferox</em> in the Gulf of Panama. Diver sightings have also been reported on isolated deep reefs in various other locations.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean there are published records from Spain and the Balearic Islands (Lozano Rey 1928), Algeria (Moreau 1881, Dieuzeide et al. 1953), northern Tunisia (Capapé et al. 1975), Italy (Giglioli 1880, Tortonese 1956, Vacchi and Serena 1997), Pelagic Islands (Zava and Montagna 1992), the Adriatic Sea (Soljan 1975, Morovic 1976, Soldo and Jardas 2002), Greece and the Aegean Sea (Economidis 1973, Papaconstantinou 1988), and Lebanon (George et al. 1964, Ben-Tuvia 1971, Mouneimne 1977). Mediterranean sites apparently favoured by <em>O. ferox</em> are typically located either along the coasts of islands lying contiguous to deepwater, near offshore seamounts or at mainland localities where continental shelves are narrow, e.g., within the Tyrrhenian Sea, around Sicily, off south-western Malta, off Lebanon, off the southern coast of Cyprus, and around the Dodecanese and Cyclades island groups of the Aegean Sea. Originally recorded off Lebanon by George <em>et al.</em> (1964), <em>O. ferox</em> is now repeatedly observed by divers near Beirut, where it had previously been misidentified as Carcharias taurus. The status of this shark in North African waters of the Mediterranean is patchily known. A small number of specimens are reported and confirmed by preserved dentition from Algerian fisheries (F. Hemida, USTHB/ISN, Algiers, pers. comm.), and literature and contemporary records for Tunisia are equally scant (Capapé <em>et al.</em> 1976). However, specimens are likely still landed at Tunisian ports, from fisheries operating throughout the Sicilian Channel. There is no contemporary data for this species in Libyan or Egyptian waters but it may occur in the slope waters of the southern Levantine Basin.<br/><br/>In South Africa this species is known from a few juvenile specimens recorded from trawls on the outer edges of the continental shelf, off the east coast (Natal) (Bass 1978). Small numbers were observed caught on longline gear at about ~300 m along the south KwaZulu Natal coast, South Africa, in the late 1980's, and further anecdotal information indicates relatively frequent capture of these sharks (of approx 2 m TL) during target fishing for deep-sea sharks and rays (D. Ebert, pers. comm. 2004). Forster et al. (1970) caught what appears to be a large female of <em>O. ferox</em> in deep water off the northeast of Madagascar. There have been unconfirmed, but reliable, reports of sightings of small aggregations of <em>O. ferox</em> around deepwater drop-offs off the Transkei coast in South Africa by divers.	eng
41876	habitat	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A., Fergusson, I.K., Dicken, M. & Graham, K., 2007	<em>Odontaspis ferox</em> is a rarely encountered species that is morphologically very similar to <em>Carcharias taurus</em>, but larger and bulkier and mostly found in deeper water. It is an active-swimming offshore shark, caught and seen as individuals and in small groups (Compagno 2001). <em>Odontaspis ferox</em> lives on or closely associated with the bottom in or adjacent to deep waters along continental and insular shelves and upper slopes to depths to about 850 m (Fergusson <em>et al. </em>2008). However, it is occasionally observed in very shallow water. For example, divers filmed underwater video of an individual in 20 m of water at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (B. Hutchins, pers. comm., cited in Fergusson <em>et al</em>. 2008). More recently, one capture and several diver observations and photographs of <em>O. ferox</em> in 12?30 m depth at Fernando de Noronha Archipeligo off eastern Brazil were reported by Garla and Garcia Jr. (2006). There are at least 15 records from pelagic zones in open waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, typically in areas proximal to deep-sea ridges and seamounts. Sightings have also recently been made in depths of about 30 m, on reefs adjacent to deep drop-offs in Lebanon and possibly off the Transkei coast in South Africa (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology of this shark. Its reproduction may be similar to that of the sand tiger shark (<em>C. taurus</em>). Compagno (2001) cites an observation which suggests the species practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy, resulting in the birth of single embryos from each uterus. The smallest recorded <em>O. ferox</em> is 107 cm total length (TL) which suggests a birth size between 100 and 110 cm TL (Fergusson <em>et al</em>. 2008), a size proportionally consistent with the size at birth for the smaller <em>C. taurus</em> (95-105 cm TL, Compagno 2001). <em>O. ferox</em> probably has a non-continuous breeding cycle similar to, or possibly more extended than, <em>C. taurus</em>. The gestation period for <em>C. taurus</em> is 9-12 months with a probable rest year between pregnancies (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>There are insufficient data to precisely define the size at maturity for <em>O. ferox</em>. Males were estimated to mature between 200 and 250 cm and females between 300 and 350 cm total length (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008) The maximum recorded size for females is 450 cm TL and 344 cm TL for males (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008). An analysis of 64 <em>O. ferox</em> captures worldwide suggests an inverse relationship between shark size and depth, with small juveniles almost exclusively occurring in deepwater (>200m), although the relationship is not strongly defined (R2 = 0.129; p < 0.05; Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008). Mature sized <em>O. ferox</em> were caught across their whole depth range (15-850 m) but all small juveniles (<150 cm TL) came from depths greater than 200 m suggesting that parturition occurs in relatively deep water.<br/><br/>The large oily liver probably has a hydrostatic function (Last and Stevens 1994), and may help the shark to maintain neutral buoyancy while swimming. Stomachs examined have contained small bony fish, cephalopods, crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975), and small squalid dogfish. A 188 cm female from near New Plymouth, New Zealand, had ?the tip of the spine of a small ghost shark (Chimaeridae) impaled in its lower jaw cartilage? (Stewart 1997). A very large <em>O. ferox</em> trawled on the Norfolk Ridge north of New Zealand in 1997 was found to contain a 200 cm seal shark in its stomach. The above information suggests that this species is an opportunistic carnivore (Stewart 1997, cited in Pogonoski <em>et al. </em>2002). Dentition suggests a more uniform diet of softer prey than in C. taurus (Compagno 2001). Stomachs were empty in specimens examined from the Gulf of Mexico (Bonfil 1995), Malta (A. Buttigieg, pers. comm.), the Azores (P.N. Duarte, pers. comm.), Canary Islands (A. Hernández, pers. comm.), and NSW (K. Graham data, N. Otway, pers. comm.). The only confirmed predator on adult <em>O. ferox</em> is the Cookie-cutter Shark (<em>Isistius brasiliensis</em>), based upon a relatively recent (March 2000) record of a female in the Canary Islands bearing a single fresh cookie-cutter bite to the gills (A. Hernández, pers. comm.).	eng
41876	population	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A., Fergusson, I.K., Dicken, M. & Graham, K., 2007	A fragmented population and relatively few occurrences suggest that this species may be naturally rare. Regional interrelationships between Mediterranean <em>O. ferox</em> and those from other parts of the open Atlantic Ocean (e.g. Azores, Canary Islands) are unknown. Given the cosmopolitan distribution of this species and its occurrence on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean population cannot be considered disjunct based solely on analysis of records of capture. Genetic work is urgently required to assess this further. There have been unconfirmed, but reliable, reports by divers of small aggregations of <em>O. ferox</em> off the Transkei coast in South Africa. These sightings have been in depths of 20-30 m in areas of deepwater drop-offs (similar to those encountered off Lebanon), suggesting that this species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed. Further investigation and monitoring of commercially caught small <em>O. ferox</em> in this region is required to assess if this is a nursery area. Large females observed off Beirut, apparently in the absence of any males, sometimes exhibit scars that might have been caused during courtship or mating.	eng
41876	threats	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A., Fergusson, I.K., Dicken, M. & Graham, K., 2007	Recent evidence of shallow water aggregations in a number of areas (Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Pacific Ocean) suggests that the species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed, and potentially susceptible to coastal habitat impacts as well as to over-exploitation because of its presumed very low reproductive capacity. Although this species is not specifically targeted by commercial fishing activities, it likely has very low fecundity making it susceptible to local extirpation, even at seemingly small capture rates (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Since the 1970s there has been a substantial increase in deepwater fishing effort worldwide. In particular, significant trawl fisheries have developed on the continental slopes and ocean ridges off Australia, New Zealand and southern Africa, and the now-known depths at which <em>O. ferox</em> commonly lives (300-700 m) are regularly trawled. Similarly, as shallow water fisheries become depleted, fishing gear such as mesh-nets, droplines and longlines are being deployed at increasingly greater depths.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>In the Mediterranean, dedicated efforts to detail captures and other indices of its abundance only began in the past ten years or so, and in particular since 1995. Regional literature and fisheries data concerning historical captures is essentially patchy and lacking in detail, so longer-term trends in its abundance are unknown. Moreover, fisheries records are sometimes confused by the widespread use of similar common names for different Mediterranean species; e.g., 'tiger' shark in Malta may refer to this species or indeed to the Shortfin Mako (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>) or the Sandtiger Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>). Occasionally <em>O. ferox</em> is caught by artisanal fisheries in the Tyrrhenian Sea off Calabria, Italy (M. Vacchi, pers. comm.). The species is uncommon in the Adriatic Sea but its current status there is difficult to assess, because of fishery misidentification with other sharks.  Until the mid 1990s, occurrences off Croatia included relatively small (<200 cm TL) specimens caught by trawls and deepwater bottom longlines, which were locally confused with, and marketed as, smoothhound Mustelus spp. (Soldo and Jardas 2002). Since then there have been no more records of the species in the Adriatic (A. Soldo, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Concern for the status of this shark in the Mediterranean is supported by records from New South Wales (NSW), Australia, where specimens of all sizes were caught by trawling on the upper slope. Survey and commercial catch data suggest that numbers of <em>O. ferox</em> on the NSW trawl grounds have markedly declined (by as much as 50%) since the advent of deepwater commercial trawling in the 1970s. In areas of steep un-trawlable terrain, characteristic of many locations in the Mediterranean Sea, gill-netting and longlining are likely to impact on local populations, with mature individuals being particularly vulnerable. Although <em>O. ferox</em> is not specifically targeted by commercial fishing activities in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, its likely very low fecundity make it susceptible to local extirpation, even at seemingly small capture rates.<br/><br/>Specimens are most often taken nocturnally by bottom gillnets, bottom longlines and vertical setlines operating over, or closely adjacent to, rocky or boulder-strewn seafloors. Trawler captures are likely in various areas (e.g., Sicilian Channel and Adriatic Sea). Anecdotal data from SCUBA divers in Beirut, who have encountered <em>O. ferox</em> at a nearshore reef over more than a decade, suggest an erratic decline in the number of sharks being encountered there despite regular diving at the same site each year.  It is unclear if wars in Lebanon, which have some limited local impact on the marine environment (ships wrecked, etc.) are a factor. There has been no evidence of sharks being deliberately harassed or killed locally, other than a small number of incidental captures to artisanal fishermen in neighbouring waters.<br/><br/>In recent years, the discovery of at least one apparent aggregation ground for these sharks in the Mediterranean, off Lebanon (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2008) clearly indicates the vulnerability of these large, apparently harmless and rather sluggish sharks to human interference or directed fisheries. A particular concern must be degradation of favoured inshore habitats which may be used for reproduction during the summer months, as suspected with the Lebanese site.<br/><br/>Coastal development for tourism, coupled to uncontrolled spearfishing, unregulated coastal fisheries, pollution and increased human aquatic leisure activities may all seriously impact these sharks whilst inhabiting areas outside their deepwater environment, much as they may account for the contemporary acute decline or even disappearance of the (routinely coastal) sandtiger <em>Carcharias taurus</em> from its previous Mediterranean range (Fergusson <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>Commercial fishing, whereby this species is taken incidentally, on the outer continental shelf and continental slope is a potential threat to its survival in south-eastern Australian waters.<br/><br/>From the available information, <em>O. ferox</em> was never abundant off New South Wales (NSW), but there is strong evidence that numbers seriously declined between 1972 and 1997. Of the 36 specimens caught by the NSW Fisheries Research Vessel Kapala, 33 were caught between 1975 and 1981 (from 500 slope trawl tows), but only three were taken from about 300 trawl tows made between 1982 and 1997 (Fergusson <em>et al. </em>2008).  <br/><br/>Comparable data are available for NSW upper slope trawl surveys in 1976-77 and 1996-97 where gear and sampling protocols were similar (see  Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). Twelve captures (14 sharks) were made during 246 tows in 1976-77, but only a single juvenile was caught during 165 tows made in 1996-97. Although considered in Pogonoski <em>et al. </em>(2002) as Near Threatened, based on available NSW catch data, reassessment to Vulnerable is warranted for Australia.<br/><br/><strong>New Zealand</strong><br/>There has been limited take for aquarium display (e.g. Kelly Tarlton?s Aquarium at Auckland NZ), but the maximum survival in captivity has been 11 months. <br/><br/><strong>South Africa</strong><br/>Small numbers were observed caught on longline gear at about ~300 m along the south KZN coast, South Africa, in the late 1980s, and further anecdotal information indicates relatively frequent capture of these sharks (of approx. 2 m TL) during target fishing for deep-sea sharks and rays  (D. Ebert, pers. comm. 2004). Recent evidence of possible sightings of shallow water aggregations off the Transkei coast, South Africa, at depths of 20-30 m suggests that this species may be more vulnerable to fishing pressure than previously assumed.	eng
41877	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D., Lisney, T.J. & White, W., 2007	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Taxonomic revision of <em>Squalus mitsukurii </em>is required and further research into threats and population trends of these sharks from around the world is needed to develop separate assessments for the different populations, which may prove to be taxonomically distinct from one another.	eng
41877	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D., Lisney, T.J. & White, W., 2007	Distribution of this species is only approximately known because of widespread nominal records of <em>Squalus fernandinus</em> and <em>S. blainville</em> that may be based on this species or a species complex, erroneous identifications of this species as <em>S. acanthias</em> in the Western North Pacific and <em>S. cubensis</em> in the Western North Atlantic, as well as sporadic sampling in deep-water localities where <em>S. mitsukurii</em>-like sharks are common (Compagno in prep.). Taxonomic revision of the genus in the Indo-Australian region has resulted in the resurrection and description of new species, previously considered con-specific with <em>S. mitsukurii </em>and further investigation from around the world will likely result in more taxa being recognized.	eng
41877	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D., Lisney, T.J. & White, W., 2007	Found in cold-temperate to tropical seas, near or on the bottom on the continental and insular shelves and upper slopes and on submarine ridges and seamounts at depths of 4 to 954 m, mostly between 100 and 700 m.  The wide ranges for the data on biological characteristics available for <em>S. mitsukurii </em>strongly suggests a mix of data from a number of species or at least isolated breeding populations. There are considerable differences in size at maturity and in size differences between adult males and females in populations of nominal <em>S. mitsukurii</em> in different localities, as well as considerable variation within presumed populations. Those off Choshi, Japan are large, with males maturing at 68?80 cm total length (TL) and females at 96?100 cm TL (Taniuchi and Tachikawa 1999, Compagno in prep). Across all populations, the gestation period may be up to two years. Maximum ages recorded from counting bands on dorsal fin spines (assuming annual bands) were 18 years (males) and 27 years (females) (Wilson and Seki 1984, Compagno in prep). It reaches a maximum TL of about 125 cm (females) and at least 96cm (males) and size at birth is about 21-30 cm TL (Compagno in prep).	eng
41877	population	Cavanagh, R.D., Lisney, T.J. & White, W., 2007	Population size is unknown. The species is common to abundant where it occurs, often in large aggregations or schools.	eng
41877	threats	Cavanagh, R.D., Lisney, T.J. & White, W., 2007	This species is apparently commonly caught in demersal fisheries throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>Catches of this dogfish on Hancock Seamount in the Western North Pacific declined dramatically between 1985 and 1988 to 20% of the initial catch during research sampling conducted by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, suggesting extreme vulnerability of small seamount populations of this dogfish to overfishing, compounding their biological vulnerability (Wilson and Seki 1994).<br/><br/>Further research into threats and population trends around the world is required.	eng
41878	conservation	Pillans, R. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
41878	distribution	Pillans, R. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	Inshore waters of the continental and insular shelves. Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 62 m (Compagno and Niem 1998).	eng
41878	habitat	Pillans, R. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	Oviparous species. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Size at birth: 20 to 36 cm total length (TL). Average litter size unknown. Size maturity: 147 to 183 cm TL (male), 169 to 171 cm TL (female). Maximum size at least 235 cm TL. Growth rates unknown.	eng
41878	population	Pillans, R. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	Often found in large aggregations (20 to 50) over sand near broken or continuous reef.	eng
41878	threats	Pillans, R. & Simpfendorfer, C., 2003	Threats within Australia are likely to be minimal, no target fisheries. Potentially susceptible to capture by prawn trawls, however very few are reported in the Northern Prawn Fishery (Mark Tonks, CSIRO Marine Research, pers. comm. 2003).  <br/> <br/>Although there is no direct evidence of population decline in the Indo-West Pacific, market surveys suggest this species is much less common than it used to be (L.J.V  Compagno and William White, pers. comms. 2003). In the Gulf of Thailand, it was historically more abundant and it may have been adversely affected by the use of explosives  and poisons on reefs in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific (Compagno 2001). Apart from baited hooks, <em>S. fasciatum</em> is susceptible to capture in a wide range of inshore fisheries. This, in combination with a narrow habitat range and limited dispersal makes this species vulnerable to population decline.	eng
41879	conservation	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	Available data on the ecology for <em>Lepus microtis</em> are included in many treatments, but are restricted to select areas of its distribution (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Research specific to this species' ecology should be conducted.  Research regarding the isolated population in western Algeria should be conducted (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41879	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Available data on the ecology for <em>Lepus microtis</em> are included in many treatments, but are restricted to select areas of its distribution (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Research specific to this species' ecology should be conducted.  Research regarding the isolated population in western Algeria should be conducted (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41879	distribution	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	<em>Lepus microtis</em> occupies a large geographic distribution within Africa including the sub-Saharan region, Atlantic coast (Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea), the Sahel to the western-most regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, and south to the northeast regions of South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  In western Algeria, a small isolated population has been identified (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species is sympatric with <em>L. capensis</em>, allo- to parapatric with <em>L. saxatilis</em> and <em>L. habessinicus</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
41879	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Lepus microtis</em> occupies a large geographic distribution within Africa including the sub-Saharan region, Atlantic coast (Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, and Guinea), the Sahel to the western-most regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, and south to the northeast regions of South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  In western Algeria, a small isolated population has been identified (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  This species is sympatric with <em>L. capensis</em>, allo- to parapatric with <em>L. saxatilis</em> and <em>L. habessinicus</em> (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
41879	habitat	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	There are few data regarding the ecology of <em>Lepus microtis</em> (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Where <em>L. microtis</em> and <em>L. capensis</em> are sympatric, <em>L. microtis</em> occupies scrubbier and more montane habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).   Diet for this species varies according to habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This is a nocturnal species (Happold pers. comm.).  Female hares were found to be breeding during all months of the year, with an average litter size of 1.6 (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41879	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding the ecology of <em>Lepus microtis</em> (Boitani <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Where <em>L. microtis</em> and <em>L. capensis</em> are sympatric, <em>L. microtis</em> occupies scrubbier and more montane habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).   Diet for this species varies according to habitat (Flux and Angermann 1990).  This is a nocturnal species (Happold pers. comm.).  Female hares were found to be breeding during all months of the year, with an average litter size of 1.6 (Flux and Angermann 1990).	eng
41879	population	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	There are no known data regarding the population status of Lepus microtis.  However, <em>L. microtis</em> is characterized as a "successful species over much of Africa" (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a small, isolated population in western Algeria (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
41879	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known data regarding the population status of Lepus microtis.  However, <em>L. microtis</em> is characterized as a "successful species over much of Africa" (Flux and Angermann 1990).  There is a small, isolated population in western Algeria (Flux and Angermann 1990; Hoffmann and Smith 2005).	eng
41879	threats	Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K., & Cuzin, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41879	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
41880	conservation	Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F., 2003	All abalone fisheries in California are managed by the California Department of Fish and Game. The restrictions employed can range from minimum legal size limits and bag limits  to harvest seasons and closures (Breen 1989, P. Haaker pers. comm.). The harvest of black abalone is currently illegal in California. <br/> <br/>In Mexico, green abalone, <em>H. fulgens</em> and pink abalone <em>H. corugata</em> are the main focus of commercial fishery. Black abalone do not form a large proportion of total abalone landings. Exclusive rights to abalone exploitation were granted to cooperative fishers' organizations. Although new legislation in 1992 allowed for the entry of the private sector into the fishery, all abalone harvesting is still done by cooperatives (Ramande-Villanueva <em>et al.</em> 1998). Total allowable catches per cooperative (TACCs) were introduced in 1973, but their criteria have changed appreciably over the years (Ramande-Villanueva <em>et al.</em> 1998). Since black abalone make up such a small proportion of the commercial catch in Mexico, it is difficult to assess the impact of these regulations on the species. <br/> <br/>In January 1999 the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) published its updated list of candidate species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Black abalone was one of 14 new species added to the list (NMFS 1999). The NMFS intends to conduct a review to determine whether black abalone deserves a national listing of endangered or threatened (P. Haaker, pers. comm.).  Listing as a candidate species does not, however, provide substantive or procedural protection for the species under the ESA (NMFS 1999). <br/> <br/>Stock restoration by transplantation from distant populations has been proposed to restore depleted populations (Tissot 1997). Smith <em>et al.</em> (2001) propose that both American and Mexican fishery authorities work together to develop a re-stocking program to help restore black abalone populations all along the coast, especially in key locations such as the Channel Islands. Since the greatest threat facing the black abalone is disease, special precaution must be taken to ensure that the transplantation of adult abalone does not create a new path for the spread of WS.  <br/> <br/>While not an especially charismatic species, many living in coastal California and Baja California recognize that the black abalone is important to local economies. A well designed public education campaign may result in a successful appeal for public funding (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/> <br/>There is a need to survey areas where the  status of black abalone populations are currently unknown, namely the coastline between Los Angeles and central Baja California, in addition to new surveys being carried out at sites previously examined. A study of withered black abalone at the northern fringe of WS's current range (Monterey and San Francisco) (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/> <br/>Perhaps most importantly, further investigation of WS itself is also needed (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001), including investigation into whether WS is caused by an introduced pathogen, identification of other species that may serve as reservoir hosts, and identification of resistant individuals for potential brood stock and development of husbandry.	eng
41880	distribution	Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F., 2003	The black abalone, <em>Haliotis cracherodii</em>, is found in intertidal waters off California, USA, and Baja California, Mexico.	eng
41880	habitat	Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F., 2003	<em>H. cracherodii</em> is a sessile marine gastropod. It clamps tightly to rocky substrates and feeds on algal matter scraped from the rock surface. Gametes are released into the water where fertilization occurs to produce free-swimming larvae. Successful fertilization requires aggregated adults and synchronized gonad development and release (McShane 1996). After approximately 15 days as non-feeding zooplankton, the larvae metamorphose into their adult form, develop a shell, and settle onto a hard substrate (Douros 1985). Juveniles mainly reside in rocky crevices and feed primarily on benthic diatoms, bacterial films and algae found on coralline algal substrate (NMFS 2000). As juveniles, abalone are vulnerable to predators which graze the surfaces of coralline algae and associated species (McShane 1989). As they increase in size they become less vulnerable to predation and are able to emerge from their sheltered habitat and search out more desirable food sources (NMFS 2000). Adult abalone depend primarily on drift algae (Tegner and Dayton 1987). Main predators of adult abalone are fishes, otters and humans. <br/> <br/>Most black abalone are found in the intertidal zone, ranging from the high tide line to a depth of up to five meters (Lindberg 1989). <br/> <br/>Generation time is not easy to determine. Individuals do not display the same growth rate and older individuals may cease to grow altogether (B. Tissot, Washington University, pers comm.). Reproductive maturity is reached between three and seven years (when They are re approximately 130-150 mm in length), but life expectancy ranges from 25 to 75 years. Taking an average of these provides only a very rough estimate for the average age of parents, especially since the relationship between age and fecundity is unknown. Nonetheless, generation time is estimated to be between 14 and 41 years, thus a minimum three generation period would be 42 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
41880	population	Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F., 2003	Large-scale commercial fishery of black abalone began in California in 1968 (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1995). Like most other abalone fisheries, black abalone landings underwent a rapid rise, peaking in 1973 at a maximum catch of over 800 metric tonnes, followed by a decline (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992). In 1992, commercial landings had diminished to 17.4 metric tonnes, as a wasting disease, Withering Syndrome (WS) spread throughout southern California (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992, Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
41880	threats	Smith, G., Stamm, C. & Petrovic, F., 2003	Withering Syndrome (WS) is the main threat to black abalone. It is manifested by epipodial discoloration, loss of appetite, severe weight loss and atrophy of the foot muscle. As a consequence, abalone lose their ability to adhere to the substratum and eventually die (Tissot 1991, Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992). The first reports of WS were in black abalone were made by fishers on the southern shore of Santa Cruz Island (Lafferty and Kuris 1993). The disease then spread throughout all the Californian Channel Islands from 1985 to 1992, except Santa Catalina Island, where no studies have been conducted (Haaker <em>et al.</em> 1992, Lafferty and Kuris 1993, Van Blaricom <em>et al.</em> 1993). At most surveyed locations black abalone were initially reduced to less than 20% of their initial densities (Tissot 1990, Davis <em>et al.</em> 1992, Richards and Davis 1993, Altstatt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Some have completely lost their black abalone populations (P. Hakker pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Black abalone are also affected by the large human population inhabiting southern California, the majority of which reside within 50 km of the coast (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992). Coastal development, such as residential areas, harbours and coastal access points and large ocean discharges of municipal and industrial wastes contribute to the degradation  and loss of near shore habitat (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992).  Commercial and recreational fishing have also placed black abalone populations under intense pressure. The large decline in fisheries landings may have been a consequence of over harvesting (Parker <em>et al.</em> 1992), however the mass mortality of populations in the Channel Islands that began in 1985 has been attributed to WS and continued fishing (Haaker <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Other possible threats to the species include storm, competition with other marine organisms and predation (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
41881	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The species is grown in a number of botanical gardens. The area it came from is now a protected area.	eng
41881	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The species is only known from male plants collected in Ngoye Forest, in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
41881	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Extinct in the wild.	eng
41881	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Extinct in the wild.	eng
41881	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The last remaining stems were all deliberately removed from the wild in 1916.	eng
41882	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices and plants are in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> cultivation.	eng
41882	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is extinct in the wild. They used to be restricted to an area adjacent to the northwestern boundary of the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve. The recorded extent of occurrence of 140 km² is for the area in which this species used to occur. It occurred at 1,300 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41882	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Plants used to occur in short grassland in very open <em>Protea</em> savanna. The soil is quartzite derived sandstone. Plants also used to occur on cliffs.	eng
41882	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is extinct in the wild.	eng
41882	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Removal of plants from the wild by collectors was the main threat.	eng
41883	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41883	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is restricted to the Buffelsrivier Valley of central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Recorded from 500 to 900 m asl.	eng
41883	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Plants grow mostly on east-facing sheer cliffs. Plants occur in rocky grassy areas with a few shrubs.  The locality is hot and dry.	eng
41883	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There have been varying reports of the number of plants remaining in the wild. The type population has apparently been completely extirpated (D. Goode pers. comm.) and relatively few plants remain among rocks in a second locality.	eng
41883	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has been severely affected due to over-collection of plants from the wild for ornamental purposes. As a result, reproductive failure has become the most serious threat that this species is facing.	eng
41884	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Most of the remaining plants are found within the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve.	eng
41884	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is confined to the Blyderivierspoort Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Recorded to occur from 700 up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41884	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. cupidus</em> grows in open grassy situations on steep to precipitous rocky slopes or cliffs. Plants are also sometimes found along seepage areas bordering gallery forest as well as in dry forest.	eng
41884	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The species has been extirpated in two localities and the remaining population size is estimated to number 300-500 mature individuals. The population is severely fragmented.	eng
41884	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has suffered greatly as a result of over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Due to the few number of plants in the wild, reproductive failure is quite possible in the future. Droughts and fires also cause high mortality amongst the seedlings.	eng
41885	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species possibly occurs in the Legalameetse Nature Reserve.	eng
41885	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs near Penge in the Drakensberg in southeastern Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded from 1,100 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41885	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on grassland on shallow soils over dolomite ridges.	eng
41885	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	158 plants were counted in helicopter surveys in 1993 and 151 plants in 2004. The latter included 17 newly discovered  plants and implies a decline from 158 to 134 plants for the remainder (9% decline over 10 years).	eng
41885	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Illegal collection from wild populations has had a drastic effect on the number of plants in the wild. This may prevent reproduction from taking place.	eng
41886	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The low granite hill falls within the Lillie Flora Reserve. This reserve in turn falls within the boundaries of the privately owned Selati Game Reserve.	eng
41886	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is known from a single granite mountain in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Occurs at an altitude of 700 m.	eng
41886	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The plants grow in open shrubland and grassland on slopes of a single low  granite hill. The surrounding area consists of  plains covered with mopane trees (<em>Colophospermum mopane</em>).	eng
41886	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size of <em>E. dyerianus</em> was originally estimated as approximately 600 mature individuals but 107 plants were illegally removed in January 2008.	eng
41886	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Reproductive failure may occur if more mature individuals are removed from the population.	eng
41887	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41887	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is known from one or two granite hills on the eastern shore of Thurston Bay, Lake Victoria, Uganda. Occurs at an elevation of about 1,000 m.	eng
41887	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. equatorialis</em> is found on two adjacent low exposed granite hilltops. Plants grow on the western aspect of the hills. Plants grow wedged in crevices in a severely degraded rainforest.	eng
41887	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Exact population figures are not available. Heibloem (1999) recorded  less than 100 plants, but Goode (2001) mentions that there are up to 300 plants. The population is dominated by male plants.	eng
41887	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	No young plants or seedlings were seen and this could indicate that the pollinator could be extinct or that fires occur too frequently. There is also evidence of collector activity.	eng
41888	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Somgimvelo Nature Reserve and in the Malolotja Nature Reserve.	eng
41888	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the northeastern mountainous areas of Swaziland and in the adjacent areas of the Mpumalanga province in South Africa. Recorded from 750 to 1,750 m asl.	eng
41888	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on very steep slopes in short grassland in deep valleys between indigenous forests. The vegetation type is Montane Grassland.	eng
41888	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	In Swaziland it is estimated that 20 plants remain in the wild. The estimates for plants in the wild in South African are about 400.	eng
41888	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and the few remaining plants could suffer from reproductive failure. Furthermore, habitat destruction as a result of the planting of pine plantations has also affected these plants because fire is prevented in this area and the plants are possibly adapted to a fire cycle.	eng
41889	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur (or occurred) in the Makuya National Park which forms part of the Kruger National Park.	eng
41889	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. hirsutus</em> is known from three separate localities in the Soutpansberg region of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Recorded from 800 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41889	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Plants grow exposed on south-east-facing quartzite cliffs, in moist semi-deciduous mixed scrub. The rainfall is between 350-650 mm per annum. The vegetation type is mainly Mountain Bushveld.	eng
41889	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	If still extant, the population is very small, see under rationale.	eng
41889	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
41890	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41890	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found along the Steelpoort and Olifant rivers and adjacent catchment areas in the Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Recorded between 600 to 800 m asl.	eng
41890	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs sparsely, mainly in thick bush on north-facing steep slopes or rocky outcrops. They grow in skeletal soil or no soil, on steep to precipitous slopes in gorges on dolomite. The rainfall ranges from a meagre 375 mm to 750 mm annually.  Some plants hang from inaccessible narrow ledges high up in gorges. The vegetation type is referred to as Dolomite Mountain Bushveld.	eng
41890	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There may be no plants left in the wild, see rationale.	eng
41890	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has suffered much from the activities of collectors and in addition, large troops of baboons damage immature cones and this could explain the absence of seedlings.	eng
41891	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Lekgalameetse Nature Reserve, the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, the Starvation Creek Nature Reserve in South Africa and in Malolotja Nature Reserve in Swaziland.	eng
41891	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The main subpopulations of <em>E. laevifolius</em> are found within the catchment of the Crocodile River, near the Kaapsehoop Range west of Nelspruit.  Isolated groups are present on the Amajuba high points above Sudwala Caves.   About 130 km further to the north, the Mariepskop mountains host a disjunct subpopulation of about four groups of the same species.  Isolated smaller colonies are found to the west of this locality in the Trichardtsdal area.  It is also present near Pigg's Peak in Swaziland. Further to the south it occurs/used to occur east of Helpmekaar and on the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape border in the Umtamvuna river valley. Recorded to occur from 950 up to 1,800 m asl.	eng
41891	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in grassland or low shrubs on steep rocky slopes. Most localities are high altitude sites (1,300 to 1,500 m), with frequent mists.  Like many other <em>Encephalartos</em> species, <em>E. laevifolius</em> appears to be adapted to a three to five year burning cycle. Plants grow in full sunlight in grassland or scrub.	eng
41891	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population has undergone significant declines, and despite its wide range is thought to only number between 700 and 820 mature individuals.	eng
41891	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Signs of stem harvesting for traditional medicine have been observed. Some evidence of plant pathogens have been reported. In addition, <em>E. laevifolius</em> is threatened due to habitat loss caused by alien invasive plants and timber plantations. This species has also been drastically affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
41892	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices and is listed in the national Threatened or Protected Species regulations, which prohibit trade in wild plants.  None of the plants occur naturally within any reserves but plants have been introduced to two small nature reserves within the original distribution range. At one site, mature plants were replanted in the reserve after they were illegally removed from the wild. In the second case, a trial planting of seedlings was also undertaken to establish a new population. <br/><br/>A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment was developed in July 2006 and this was followed by the development of a species management plan in 2009. The plan will be implemented in 2010.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation collections have also been established at several botanic gardens. One of the largest, is at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, which has 19 mature plants. Genetic studies showed that the Kirstenbosch collection has similar levels of genetic diversity to wild stocks and represents all wild genotype groups.	eng
41892	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>Encephalartos latifrons</em> occurs in South Africa in the biodiversity hotspot region known as the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot, which is an important centre of plant endemism. It is uncertain how widespread or abundant <em>E. latifrons</em> was prior to human settlement, but there are historic records of populations being scattered through the Albany and Bathurst districts of the Eastern Cape Province. This scattered distribution could be because these plants often grow on rocky outcrops, habitats that are naturally widely spaced within the landscape (Kemp 1986, Norstog and Nicholls 1997, Whitelock 2002) or it could be an artefact of habitat transformation, i.e. the cycads have persisted in areas least affected by land use. The altitude at which the plants are found varies between 200 and 600 m asl.	eng
41892	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The plants grow on rocky outcrops and hill slopes, usually amongst scrub bush vegetation, but also in open grassland. They also occur along dry river courses. The distribution area of <em>E. latifrons</em> occurs in the following vegetation units: Kowie Thicket, Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos and Suurberg Shale Fynbos<br/><br/>The soils in this region are mainly Glenrosa and Mispah forms. Other soils may occur. Lime soils are rare or absent. The underlying geology of this area is quartzitic sandstone, shale and micaceous siltstone.<br/><br/>The annual rainfall varies between 600-1,250mm and is fairly evenly distributed during the year, however, a summer peak usually occurs. Frost does not normally occur. The summers may be hot and fairly dry.	eng
41892	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The current wild population is estimated to number between 60 and 100 mature individuals. The actual number is uncertain because the last official count was done more than 10 years ago, when microchips were inserted into all remaining plants. Since then, not all plants have been monitored and, in a recent survey of plants to gather DNA material, there seemed to be less than 60 plants in the wild (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. MS). The plants are widely scattered, often >1 km apart.<br/><br/>A recent study of the conservation genetics of both <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> populations of <em>E. latifrons</em> (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. MS) showed that there is relatively little variation between subpopulations suggesting that all the remaining plants belong to what was once a single large population with relatively high levels of geneflow between subpopulations. The study also showed that there is a high level of genetic variation within the remaining population (high proportions of polymorphic loci, moderate to high Nei’s and Shannon’s diversity indices, as well as moderate levels of heterozygosity). This is greater than in many other cycad species where there tends to be low genetic variation within populations.<br/><br/>Six distinct genotypic groups were detected in the wild, with two confined to a single site. Several other genotypes were also represented at these sites, meaning that they represent the majority of the genetic variation remaining in the wild. Their importance to the survival of the species is indisputable and they should be considered areas of high conservation priority.	eng
41892	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. latifrons</em> now occurs in areas where the predominant land uses are cultivation (pineapples and chicory) as well as stock farming. The impact of land use on <em>E. latifrons</em> is difficult to assess, but the early reports of Pearson (unpublished letters) and Chamberlain (1919) imply that at least some habitat was lost as a result of agricultural activity. Repeat photography, using photographs first taken between 1906 and 1945, indicated that all the plants occurring at seven different sites had disappeared by 1996 (Donaldson and Bösenberg 1999). However, this cannot be attributed directly to land use as, in most cases, the areas in which the plants occurred were neither ploughed nor cleared.<br/><br/>Trade in cycads is currently the greatest threat and probably explains the decline observed in the repeat photography study. The removal of relatively large numbers of plants by collectors has been recorded with some plants recovered by law enforcement and conservation agencies. The demand for wild collected plants remains high because <em>E. latifrons</em> is regarded as scarce and it is one of the most highly valued species in the cycad trade.<br/><br/>Population modelling of other species of <em>Encephalartos </em>(Raimondo and Donaldson 2003) showed that species such as <em>E. latifrons</em> are extremely sensitive to the removal of adult plants because population persistence over long periods relies on adult survival and not seedling recruitment. As a result, the species is very vulnerable to trade in mature plants.<br/><br/>It also seems likely that the natural pollinators are extinct. No natural seed set has been recorded in recent years and the current cohort of adult plants indicates that the last recruitment event was more than 50 years ago.	eng
41893	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The taxon is listed as Specially Protected in the provincial conservation Ordinances and is included on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Within Gauteng, individuals of the taxon occur within private nature reserves. The distribution range of the taxon falls within the boundaries of NEGI (North Eastern Gauteng Initiative) - a conservancy initiative.  <br/><br/>Plants occur in the Loskopdam Nature Reserve, the Ezemvelo Nature Reserve (D. MacFadyen pers. comm.) and the Rhenosterpoort Private Nature Reserve.	eng
41893	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is confined to the Witbank and Middelburg districts in the upper catchment areas of the Olifants River, which include the Wilge and Klein Olifants Rivers, in the provinces of Gauteng and Mpumalanga of South Africa. Occurs at 1,100 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
41893	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in open grassland and sheltered valleys.	eng
41893	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population is small and thought to number only 120 mature individuals.	eng
41893	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The discovery of the taxon in the Middelburg district triggered off a serious collector threat during the 1960s.  The general accessibility of sites and the proximity of the distribution region to the Pretoria/Witwatersrand urban complex resulted in an extremely heavy exploitation during those years when cycad-collecting became a fashion (Fourie 1984).  Although legislation has curbed the activities of collectors, the exploitation by individuals of the taxon is still ongoing today.<br/><br/>The development of semi-intensive agricultural areas within and around the distribution range of the taxon must have had a tremendous effect on the stability of the taxon, especially with the increased burning of the habitat and grazing practices (Fourie 1984).  The taxon is extremely vulnerable to fire and not stimulated as is the case with <em>Encephalartos lanatus</em> (Fourie 1984).<br/><br/>Individual plants have become isolated and there is consequent reproductive failure (Fourie 1984).	eng
41894	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. It does not occur in any protected areas. There are numerous plants in cultivation so there is good  potential for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> propagation.	eng
41894	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in a small area in the Msinga district, in the drainage area of the Buffels River, which runs into the Tugela, east of Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Occurs at an elavation of 900 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
41894	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in short grassland on steep north-facing slopes, usually amongst boulders in scrub clumps. Plants are less commonly found on sandstone cliff faces, more or less in direct sunlight. Unconfirmed reports suggest that plants growing on different aspects had slight differences in leaf morphology.	eng
41894	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size of <em>E. msinganus</em> was estimated as 100-200 mature individuals. Recent reports (Hurter 2008) suggest that only scattered individuals survive in nature.	eng
41894	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. msinganus</em> is severely threatened due to poaching for ornamental purposes. Small cycad populations often experience reproductive failure and it is expected to occur in <em> E. msinganus</em>. Habitat destruction is also a general problem in the area.	eng
41895	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41895	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is known from the central western area of  Mozambique, where it is found on Mount Zembe, about 20 km to the southwest of Chimoio. Recorded to occur at 1,000 to 1,100 m asl.	eng
41895	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on a granite dome called Mount Zembe. The dome is covered with tall grass, evergreen bush and large forest trees. Plants occur higher up and are found near streams in bush or among rocks and boulders.	eng
41895	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Population size was reported as 17 mature individuals at the time of the last assessment in 2003, and later reported to be possibly extinct in the wild by Goode (pers. comm.). Several collectors in South Africa claim to have tried to find plants without success. However, Capela (2006) reported that there were 296 adult or near-adult plants on the southeastern aspect of the mountain. In addition, 1,000 to 1,300 seedlings have been re-introduced to the habitat.	eng
41895	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has been affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Reproductive failure may also be a problem as there are not many plants left in the wild.	eng
41896	conservation	Rogers, S. & Pillay, D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This original distribution area of this species fell within part of the Legalameetse Nature Reserve.	eng
41896	distribution	Rogers, S. & Pillay, D., 2009	This species used to occur in the Drakensberg in the Limpopo province, South Africa. Plants were found along the mountain range to the north and east  of Penge. Occurred at an altitude of 1,000 m.	eng
41896	habitat	Rogers, S. & Pillay, D., 2009	Plants used to occur in low open deciduous woodland on cliff faces and in direct sunlight.	eng
41896	population	Rogers, S. & Pillay, D., 2009	The population size of <em>E. nubimontanus</em> was originally estimated to be 50-100 mature individuals, but the known subpopulations were extirpated by collectors.	eng
41897	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41897	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is restricted to Mount Mruwere (Monte Urueri) in the Manica province of Mozambique. It has also been reported from the adjacent Mount Dengalenga (Montes Dengarenga) and possibly from other adjacent hills. Recorded to occur from 700 up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41897	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows on mountains with granite outcrops and plants are found in or near forested areas.	eng
41897	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Population size was originally estimated to be ten mature individuals based on information from collectors. Although several collectors in South Africa claim that the species is extinct in the wild, Capela (2006) states that there are at least 246 mature plants, 112 smaller plants and  300-400 seedlings that survived out of the initial 1,000 seedlings that were re-introduced. Another population on a nearby inselberg may also belong to <em>E. pterogonus</em>.	eng
41897	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has been severely affected by over-collecting for ornamental purposes. The small range and low numbers of this species means it could be affected by reproductive failure.	eng
41899	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This sub-species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The known populations occur in a forest reserve,  however, neighbouring communities use the forest as a source of fuelwood and construction materials and as a place for hunting.	eng
41899	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This subspecies occurs only on Kajegie (Kijegge) hill which is to the north east of Embu in the Eastern province of Kenya. Occurs at an altitude of about 1,600 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
41899	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The subspecies occurs in rocky sites in dense bushland/thicket. It is less common in dry forest.	eng
41899	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. tegulaneus</em> ssp. <em>powysii</em> occurs in a single area with a few hundred plants. A preliminary count done on one of the subpopulations showed a sex ratio of two males to every female. The whole population is estimated to be 500-600 mature individuals.	eng
41899	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This subspecies is threatened by over-collection for ornamental purposes and due to habitat destruction as the neighbouring communities use the forest as a source of fuelwood and construction materials.	eng
41900	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur within the boundaries of the Addo National Park (formerly the Woody Cape Nature Reserve).	eng
41900	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is distributed in a small area of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. Populations are found from Nanaga in the west to Canon Rocks in the east. The main subpopulations occur near the town of Alexandria. Recorded from 100 to 200 m asl.	eng
41900	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Plants occur in densely wooded coastal dune forest and scrub bush. Most of the plants occur on moderate to steep slopes in sandy soil on stabilized dunes.	eng
41900	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size of <em>E. arenarius</em> is estimated to be 850-1,500 mature individuals. Most plants occur in the dense dune vegetation that is difficult to survey. Scattered individuals occur in agricultural lands and cleared dunes.	eng
41900	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The major threat to this species is removal by collectors. This has been the main cause of decline over the past 50 years. Some have also been destroyed by habitat destruction (bush clearing to make way for pastures).	eng
41901	conservation	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41901	distribution	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	This subspecies occurs near the town of Tokkos on the Jos Plateau, which is in the Plateau State of central Nigeria. Occurs from 1,200 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
41901	habitat	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	Plants grow on rocky slopes, in woodland savanna vegetation consisting of scattered trees and a ground flora dominated by grass. These plants are on granite.	eng
41901	population	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	The population is though to number between 300 and 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
41901	threats	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	The main threat is loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture (crops and livestock farming). Removal from the wild by collectors is also threat.	eng
41902	conservation	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41902	distribution	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known only from the Chimanimani Mountains on the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The populations from which the species was first described appear to be extinct, but new populations have been discovered over the past few years in the mountainous terrain between Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Occurs at altitudes of about 1,000 m.	eng
41902	habitat	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. chimanimaniensis</em> grows in high rainfall (can be in excess of 1,800 mm annually) montane grassland on granite mountains. Plants are associated with schist and quartzite.	eng
41902	population	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	It was originally thought to be possibly be extinct in the wild due to the disappearance of populations in Zimbabwe, but additional populations were found along the Zimbabwe - Mozambique border. At the time of the 2003 assessment, these were estimated as between 500 and 1,000 plants. Capela (2006) estimates that there are 1,200 mature plants in a subpopulation at Makurupini and a further 300 at Morambo as well as several other small subpopulations.	eng
41902	threats	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
41903	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some of these plants were protected in a private conservation concession near West Nicolson but there has been substantial redistribution of land in Zimbabwe and the status of the reserve is unknown.	eng
41903	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found in three localities in southern Zimbabwe in the provinces of Matabeleland South, Midlands and Masvingo. They are referred to as the Gwanda, the  Mberengwa and the Runde subpopulations. Unconfirmed reports indicate that the Runde subpopulation no longer exists. Recorded to occur between 800 and 900 m asl.	eng
41903	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. concinnus</em> occurs on dry steep-sided rocky valleys with scattered trees. They are also found among granite boulders or on steep cliffs, where they grow among grass or under small trees. The habitat is subject to frequent night and morning mists. These plants do not tolerate frost.  <em>E. concinnus</em> occurs in Bushveld and Miombo woodlands.	eng
41903	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Surveys of the known populations indicate that there are ca. 50 mature plants in the location at Gwanda (West Nicolson) and at least 160 mature plants at Mberengwa (only plants in accessible areas were counted).	eng
41903	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has been adversely affected due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Recent reports indicate the the subpopulation at Mberengwa has been targeted by cycad collectors (Kimberly <em>et al</em>. 2008). In addition, the leaves of this species have been used by local people to make sleeping mats. This has caused the death of some old established plants.	eng
41904	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected within the boundaries of the Marakele National Park and the Entabeni Private Game Reserve and also in the Sterkrivier Training Area of the South African National Defence Force. The latter is a Natural Heritage Site.	eng
41904	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the Waterberg range in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Occurs from 1,400 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41904	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The cycads grow on sandstone hills and rocky ridges of the Waterberg range. They grow in open grassland and savanna.	eng
41904	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There are small scattered subpopulations. Poaching of plants has resulted in individuals being far from one another in certain cases. Nature conservation officials undertook helicopter surveys in 2004 and counted 982 plants in 12  localities. This is regarded as a slight underestimate due to poor visibility at the time of surveying.	eng
41904	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. eugene-maraisii</em> is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and this could lead to reproductive failure.	eng
41905	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Springs Local Authority Nature Reserve near Uitenhage and on several private game reserves.	eng
41905	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is distributed in xeric thicket vegetation between Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage and north of Uitenhage in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Occurs from 100 to 400 m asl.	eng
41905	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. horridus</em> usually occurs in xeric thicket vegetation, often on rocky quartzite outcrops. The now extinct subpopulations north and west of Port Elizabeth probably occurred in Sandstone Fynbos.	eng
41905	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The exact number of plants is unknown. Although several subpopulations have been visited regularly, there may be many unknown plants in the dense bush where <em>E. horridus</em> occurs.	eng
41905	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. horridus</em> is now extinct in several parts of its former range where it has been totally eliminated by urban development. Substantial numbers have also been removed by collectors in the past 50 years. It is difficult to estimate what proportion of plants have disappeared but it could be as high as 50%.	eng
41906	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D, 2009	Although Kasigau is theoretically protected as a Forest Reserve above 1,000 m, the species is not known to occur above this altitude on Kasigau. In Mkomazi Game Reserve, although it sometimes suffers from stock invasion, the hills should be secure but the subpopulation reported from there is small.<br/><br/>Is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
41906	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D, 2009	Recorded from southern Kenya on the slopes of Maungu (Marungu) Hills near Voi and from the Mulilonyi, Nyangala, Sagala, Rukinga and Kasigau hills (the type of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. voiensis</span> was from Mount Kasigau). Also recorded from northern Tanzania on Kisima Hill in the Mkomazi Game Reserve. Recorded from 800 to 1.800 m.	eng
41906	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D, 2009	This species occurs in closed to open evergreen cloud forest on steep mountain slopes. They occur as infrequent populations or individuals on steep, moist, well-wooded slopes of inselberg and hills surrounded by dry savana. Although most plants occur in moist forest situations, some are found hugging cliffs and drier rocky promontories in the open. Frequent mist occurs.	eng
41906	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D, 2009	Was locally common. The population is estimated to number about 5,000 mature individuals. Some reports indicate the number may now be much lower but this has yet to be confirmed.	eng
41906	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D, 2009	The habitat in two locations (Maungu and Rukinga) is under threat by forest clearance for charcoal production and the areas were being inhabited by squatters as they are close to road access. There is ongoing illegal targeting of plants and seeds by cycad collectors.Forest and bush is also being cleared for expanding agriculture. Kasigau and Mkomazi are reasonably secure at present.<br/><br/>Plants are reportedly used as a food source during famine (presumably the seeds and possibly the stems) and foliage is sometimes used as decorations by the local people.	eng
41907	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Mlawula Nature Reserve and the Itala Game Reserve.	eng
41907	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the upper reaches of the Pongola and Bivane rivers in northern KwaZulu-Natal province and in the Mananga area of eastern Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Plants are also found in the adjacent area of Mozambique and along the northern parts of the Lebombo mountains of Swaziland. There is some debate about the actual range of <em>E. lebomboensis</em>: the original description includes the plants in the Bivane area of KwaZulu-Natal, but P.J.H. Hurter argues that only the plants in northern Swaziland and the Mananga region of Mpumalanga are true <em>E. lebomboensis</em>. Recorded to occur at altitudes ranging from 500 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41907	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in savanna type vegetation. Plants are found on cliffs in rocky ravines, growing in scrub and grassland.	eng
41907	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There are approximately 2,000 plants in the KwaZulu-Natal. In total there are about 5,000 plants remaining in the wild.	eng
41907	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. lebomboensis</em> is threatened due to over-collecting as a result of poaching and as a result of expanding agricultural activities. Plants are also used in traditional medicine.	eng
41908	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The species is conserved in several protected areas, including the Waters Meeting, Kap River, and Dwesa nature reserves, and the Umtiza State Forest.	eng
41908	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This is a widespread species of the coastal regions of the Eastern Cape, extending to the border with KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Populations occur inland in the Amatola mountain range and in the foothills around King Williams Town. Subpopulations occur in at least 10 river valleys extending from the Bushmans river in the south, through the Kariega, Kowie, Riet, Fish, Kap, Biga, Buffalo, Mpetu, Kei, Keiskamma, and Mbashe rivers. Occurs from near sea level up to 600 m.	eng
41908	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in near-coastal sites ranging from open shrubland or grassland and steep rocky slopes to closed evergreen forests in valleys. Plants often occur along river banks and also occur inland at a few sites at higher altitude along the Amatola mountain range.	eng
41908	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The total population of <em>E. altensteinii</em> is estimated to be near 10,000 individuals. Subpopulations that have been surveyed for assessing the impacts of collecting, typically number about 500 plants.	eng
41908	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Habitat destruction has been a significant problem in coastal habitats where resort developments in the main estuaries have displaced cycad habitat. Removal by collectors has also been a significant problem, especially in rural areas near King Williams Town. Bark harvesting for traditional medicinal use is endemic in the region, but has increased in recent years so that it is not uncommon to find up to 10% mortality at any one time.	eng
41909	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41909	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in a small area of northeast Swaziland. Populations are found in the Groenpan area which is to the north of Siteki and also in an area to the south of Siteki. It has also been recorded from adjacent areas in Mozambique. Occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.	eng
41909	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. aplanatus</em> occurs in deciduous and fairly dry ravine forests.	eng
41909	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Initial estimates were of very small and rapidly declining populations in Swaziland, but J. Hurter (pers. comm.) reported larger subpopulations of at least 2,000 plants in Mozambique.	eng
41909	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. aplanatus</em> is threatened due to the over-collecting of wild specimens, especially in the type locality in Swaziland. Concerns have been expressed about the loss of pollinators from remaining populations but this has not been verified. <em>E. aplanatus</em> shares pollinator species with the nearby populations of <em>E. villosus</em>.	eng
41910	conservation	Hurter, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41910	distribution	Hurter, J., 2009	This subspecies occurs between Jebba and Ilorin in Nigeria, in the Borgou province and near Savalou in Benin and in the Volta river catchment area in Ghana.This cycad almost certainly occurs in Togo. C. Dalzell (pers. comm.) reported that populations in Ghana were large and healthy. Occurs at about 400 m asl.	eng
41910	habitat	Hurter, J., 2009	This subspecies grows on sandstone or granite outcrops on steep slopes in tropical woodland.	eng
41910	population	Hurter, J., 2009	Relatively little information is available on populations of <em>E. barteri</em> ssp. <em>barteri</em> across its full range, but it seems to number at least 10,000 plants.	eng
41910	threats	Hurter, J., 2009	This subspecies could be threatened by too frequent fires that could prevent seedlings from establishing. Plants are also removed from the wild by collectors.	eng
41911	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Specimens occur in the Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust, which is a Rural Community Development Project.	eng
41911	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is endemic to Kenya. Plants occur in the Eastern province near Embu and on the Matthews Range in the Rift Valley province. Occurs from 1,400 up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
41911	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in rocky sites and on steep mountain slopes in dense thicket and in thick dry forest.	eng
41911	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Considered to be abundant and conservatively estimated to number between 5,000 and 10,000 individuals.	eng
41911	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is secure in most of its range. One location is threatened by over-collection for ornamental purposes and traditionally hollowed-out stems have been used as cattle drinking troughs.	eng
41912	conservation	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41912	distribution	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs near the town of Tokkos on the Jos Plateau, which is in the Plateau State of central Nigeria and between Jebba and Ilorin in Nigeria, in the Borgou province and near Savalou in Benin and in the Volta river catchment area in Ghana. This cycad almost certainly occurs in Togo. Occurs between 400 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
41912	habitat	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	Plants grow on rocky slopes, in woodland savanna vegetation consisting of scattered trees and a ground flora dominated by grass. They are also found on sandstone or granite outcrops on steep slopes in tropical woodland.	eng
41912	population	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	Not much is known about the populations in Nigeria and Benin. C. Dalzell (pers. comm.) reported that populations in Ghana were large and healthy.	eng
41912	threats	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species may be affected by too frequent fires which could prevent seedling growth. Plants are also removed from the wild by collectors. Part of the population was lost due to flooding when the Volga dam was built.	eng
41913	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust, which is a Rural Community Development Project.	eng
41913	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This subspecies occurs on the Matthews Range in the Rift Valley Province in central Kenya.The main areas are on the Ndoto, Warges and Lololokwi hills and near Barsaloi. Recorded to occur from 1,400 up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
41913	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This subspecies grows on steep mountain slopes and on exposed rock outcrops in bushland (savanna) or in thick forest.	eng
41913	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	It is difficult to estimate the total population size of this subspecies due to the inaccessible terrain but it is considered that there are at least 5,000 to 10,000 mature individuals in the wild.	eng
41913	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	In some cases this subspecies has been used traditionally where stems have been hollowed out to serve as cattle drinking troughs.	eng
41914	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species possibly occurs in the Ugalla River Game Reserve.	eng
41914	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the Rukwa region of western Tanzania.  Populations are found in the vicinity of Mpanda, near Mount Kasima, Mount Sitebi and on the Lugala Hills. They are also found south of the Ugalla river. Recorded from 1,200 to 1,950 m asl.	eng
41914	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in open Miombo (savanna) woodlands and on grassland ridges and mountain slopes.	eng
41914	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. delucanus</em> seems to be very dispersed and difficult to find. Heibloem (1999) reports combing known localities for several days and only finding a few individuals. The population on Mount Sitebi consists of two groups of about 20 individuals in each and the total population is estimated as less than 500 plants.	eng
41914	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is affected by too frequent fires, which may affect regeneration. Changes in habitat management may also threaten the security of this species. Removal by collectors is also an issue.	eng
41915	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and in the Mpendle Nature Reserve.	eng
41915	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. They occur in mountainous regions and in grasslands on rocky ridges and slopes.   In the south, populations are found at Flagstaff and Tabankulu. Further north the distribution extends to the Izingolweni area (near Port Shepstone) in KwaZulu-Natal. Populations are also found west of Umzinto and still further north to the north of the Mkomazi river.  Plants are also found in the Mount Currie area and in the Drakensberg it is found from Giant's Castle in the south to Mont-aux-Sources in the north.  The largest stands are found in the  Mlambonja Valley. Has a wide elevational range being recorded from 700 up to 2,400 m asl.	eng
41915	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The habitat of <em>E. ghellinckii</em> varies from montane grassland and rocky outcrops to sandstone cliffs in the Drakensberg where plants are associated with montane fynbos vegetation.  As with many grassland species <em>E. ghellinkii</em> is also associated with a fire cycle.  This seems to stimulate new leaf flushes and is possibly necessary for coning.  The climate is mild to hot in summer.  Winters are very cold with snow at the higher altitudes.  Coastal areas have a mild winter climate.	eng
41915	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The subpopulations are isolated, small (some with only a few plants) and widely scattered. This is especially true of the lowland subpopulations (i.e. not in the Drakensberg).	eng
41915	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The major threat for this species is over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Too frequent fires may have an effect in certain subpopulations.	eng
41916	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41916	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species was discovered in the Mulanje district of southern Malawi in the region between the Tuchila (Puchila) and the Ruo rivers. Subsequently plants were also found in Mozambique in Zambesia province. Subpopulations are found in the vicinity of the Chiraba and Navene rivers and also on Mount Namuli, near Derre, Morrumbala and Namarroi. Recorded from 650 to 900 m asl.	eng
41916	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on steep to precipitous slopes in gorges near streams. Plants grow in savanna but not in densely wooded sites.  The plants seem to be adapted to a periodic burn cycle.	eng
41916	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The true size of the population is not known, but it is probable that it is reasonably common and exceeds 20,000 mature individuals.	eng
41916	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened due to habitat destruction to make place for tea plantations.	eng
41917	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Mondi Cycad Reserve, Makobulaan Nature Reserve, Wonderkloof Nature Reserve, Buffelskloof Private Nature Reserve, Mbesan Natural Heritage Site and the Coetzeestroom Conservation area.	eng
41917	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the Mpumalanga province of South Africa.  Subpopulations are found in the catchment area of the Crocodile River, in the vicinity of Nelspruit, Waterval Boven and Lydenburg.	eng
41917	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in subalpine grassland, on slopes on sandy soils over sandstones and are often wedged between sandstone rocks. Populations are mostly found on east and northeast facing slopes. Heavy rains and dense mists favour coning.	eng
41917	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The estimated population size of <em>E. humilis</em> is 4,500-10,000 mature individuals. The habitat of this species has been transformed through pine and eucalypt plantations that now occupy approximately 30% of its original habitat.	eng
41917	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened by the lack of natural fires in vast managed plantations and this possibly suppresses coning frequency. Many plants have also been removed for ornamental purposes.	eng
41918	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41918	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in northwestern Uganda in the Madi area. Populations are found near the town of Moyo. Occurs at 900 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
41918	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. macrostrobilus</em> occurs in degraded savanna on sandy lithosols with rock slopes along seasonal watercourses. Plants grow in partial shade.	eng
41918	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population is thought to be fairly small comprising only 200 to 300 mature individuals.	eng
41918	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The area where <em>E. macrostrobilus</em> occurs is heavily grazed and fuel wood and timber are collected from the habitat. Regular fires to produce new grazing may adversely affect recruitment. There is also the usual problem of poaching of plants from the wild by collectors.	eng
41919	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>E. manikensis</em> occur in the Nyanga National Park in Zimbabwe.	eng
41919	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, where most of the plants are found in the highlands of the Mapande Range. In the south from Mount Selinda in Zimbabwe northwards through the Chipinge area , near Mount Nyanyadzi, along the Odzi  and Garezi rivers and on to Mount Gorongo (incorrectly named Mount Gorongowe in the literature) and further north to Mount Darwin (Pfura/Fura). The type locality is the Numkwarara (Nyamkwarara) Valley near Mount Gorongo. In Mozambique plants are found near Garuso, Mount Bandula, Mount Chicamba, near Vanduzi and Mount Chinhazanza (Chinyayadze/Chinyazange) near the Pungwe (Pungoe/Pungue) river. Recorded from 600 to 1,400 m asl.<br/><br/>There is considerable variation between populations from different sites and this has raised questions about the taxonomy of these populations. Capela (2006) argues that there could be as many as five species but taxonomists have not been able to discern consistent characters to define these possible species.	eng
41919	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is usually found on grassy slopes on large granite inselbergs and also in river valleys in places associated with forests.	eng
41919	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size of <em>E. manikensis</em> is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. Some subpopulations are still quite large, especially in Mozambique. However, other subpopulations have declined substantially.	eng
41919	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. manikensis</em> is primarily threatened by the poaching of wild plants for ornamental purposes.	eng
41920	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the following reserves: Hlatikulu Forest Reserve, Ngoye Forest Reserve, Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, Pongolapoort Nature Reserve and the Lebombo Cliffs (Natural heritage Site).	eng
41920	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species has two distribution areas separated by a distance of about 125 km. It occurs mainly in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa and also in Swaziland and Mozambique. In the south it starts at the Ngoye Forest of central KwaZulu-Natal. Further north the distribution follows the Ubombo mountains from about Mkuze river and then northwards along the Lebombo mountains to where the Usutu river cuts through the mountain range. Occurs from 200 to 600 m asl.	eng
41920	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in open grassland and on forest margins, often among boulders. Plants are often exposed to veld fires.	eng
41920	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size is declining and though to number between 4.300 and 5,000 mature individuals.	eng
41920	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Overgrazing and veld fires have taken their toll on wild populations and in addition, over zealous collectors have removed thousands of plants.	eng
41921	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Songimvelo, Malolotja and Ida Doyer Nature Reserves. Nurseries that were closely linked to rural communities were established for <em>E. paucidentatus</em>.	eng
41921	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is present in a restricted area in the mountains near Barberton, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa and near Piggs Peak in the northwestern part of Swaziland. Recorded to occur from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41921	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs sparsely on steep, often rocky, slopes in low forest and mountain bush. Plants grow mainly between trees alongside streams in deep gorges.	eng
41921	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size of <em>E. paucidentatus</em> was originally estimated to be 8,000-12,000 mature individuals but recent estimates suggest that it is probably less (3,000-5,000).	eng
41921	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The wild populations of <em>E. paucidentatus</em> have suffered both from the activities of illegal collectors and due the afforestation programs in the area.	eng
41922	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41922	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. princeps</em> occurs in the catchment area of the Black Kei, the Great Kei and the Kubusi rivers in the Cathcart, Stutterheim and Komga areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Occurs from 200 to 800 m asl.	eng
41922	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. princeps</em> occurs mainly on dolerite cliffs and rocky outcrops along river valleys. Plants grow in arid areas in vegetation characterized by thick low succulent shrubland and grass.	eng
41922	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population is thought to number between 3,500 and 5,000 mature individuals and declining.	eng
41922	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened due to the illegal collecting of plants in the wild and as a result of habitat destruction due to expanding agricultural activities. In some populations, alien invasive plants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lantana camara</span>) are invading the habitat.	eng
41923	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41923	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found only near the village of Kolwezi in the Shaba province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Occurs at 1,450 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41923	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in Miombo woodlands, where they grow in grassy shrublands on ridges and mountain slopes.	eng
41923	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is reported to grow in small widely spread clumps. The population size is difficult to estimate but may be  1,000-5,000 mature individuals.	eng
41923	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Frequent fires may be a threat to these plants and there may be reproductive failure as the plants occur far apart.	eng
41924	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project and Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Occurs in the Shume Magamba Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
41924	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project and Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Known only from the type locality ("Gologolo") within Shume Magamba Forest Reserve in the western Usambara Mountains, Tanga district of northeastern Tanzania. Occurs at 1,800 to 2,100 m.	eng
41924	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project and Donaldson, J.S., 2009	&#160;Grows on steep, relatively dry, south facing rocky slopes in grassland and on rocky outcrops surrounded by montane forest. Occurs between rocks on sheer precipitous granite and gneiss promontories.	eng
41924	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project and Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population size was originally estimated as 5,000-6,000 mature individuals. Recent reports (e.g. S. Trollip pers. comm. 2008) indicate that populations are declining and plants are difficult to find. It is now estimated that the population is very small, probably less than 50 mature individuals. Although there are apparently five or six subpopulations&#160; occurring along a mountain ridge, the area is more or less contiguous and cannot be regarded as six locations, but is regarded as a single location because of the nature of the threats.	eng
41924	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project and Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The seeds are harvested for medicinal purposes by traditional healers and there is also collecting by cycad poachers. The area is in a prime forestry and agricultural area, so the habitat is already and is likely to continue being impacted. The area, because of its elevation has a mild climate and is considered an ideal place to live. So increases in human settlement and further changes in land use are likely. Natural and man made fires destroy seed and seedlings.	eng
41925	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Mkuzi Game Reserve and the Pongolapoort Nature Reserve.	eng
41925	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs from south of the Jozini dam in Northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa northwards along the Lebombo mountains to just north of Siteki in Swaziland. Plants are also found on the Mozambique side of the border. Recorded from 300 to 800 m asl.	eng
41925	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found on rocky slopes and forest ravines or on dry exposed cliffs in dry shrubby savanna along the Lebombo range.	eng
41925	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population is thought to number between 5,000 and 10,000 mature individuals and declining.	eng
41925	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is primarily threatened due to poaching of plants from the wild.	eng
41926	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Great Fish River Reserve Complex, the Kap River Nature Reserve and the Water's Meeting Nature Reserve.	eng
41926	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Subpopulations are found in the Great Fish, the Bushman's and the Kowie River valleys in the Albany, Bathurst, Fort Beaufort and Peddie districts. Occurs from 100 up to 600 m asl.	eng
41926	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. trispinosus</em>  grows in arid low succulent shrubland on rocky ridges and slopes. They are found in the shade or in full sun on rocky outcrops.	eng
41926	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	A very difficult species to assess as it is low growing and often occurs in dense thickets of spiny vegetation.	eng
41926	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. trispinosus</em> is threatened by illegal collection of wild specimens from their habitat.	eng
41927	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Mlawula Nature Reserve in Swaziland.	eng
41927	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in a number of localities in Mozambique and Swaziland. The population is restricted to the valley of the Umbeluzi River. Occurs from 50 to 120 m asl.	eng
41927	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is found in the shade of low scrub woodland or in relatively dry savanna and bushveld. To the west the plants are found in valleys and further eastwards towards Mozambique they occur on the floodplains of rivers.	eng
41927	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The population is thought to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals.	eng
41927	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Illegal removal of plants from the wild has been recorded, even within reserves.	eng
41928	conservation	Kalema, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Although the gorge falls within the Queen Elizabeth National Park, 90% of the population occurs outside the park.	eng
41928	distribution	Kalema, J., 2009	This species is found in the Kabarole district of the southwestern part of Uganda. Populations occur along the Mpanga river, above and below the Mpanga River Falls, just before it runs into Lake George. Recorded from an altitude of 1,000 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
41928	habitat	Kalema, J., 2009	This species grows on almost sheer granite faces and on rocky slopes, amongst tall grass in savanna. Also occurs in dense evergreen montane forests.	eng
41928	population	Kalema, J., 2009	The population size of <em>E. whitelockii</em> is estimated to be 8,000 mature individuals. Seedlings and small plants are absent from open habitats which may be as a result of too frequent fires, but under forest canopy, prolific regeneration occurs. The recorded sex ratio is 43% female to 57% male.	eng
41928	threats	Kalema, J., 2009	Threats to the species include:<br/>a) Construction of a small hydro electric power plant on the Mpanga River Falls:<br/>i-Construction of roads and camps in the cycad belt, causing soil erosion and deep gulleys, reducing habitat quality <br/>ii-reduction in population of mature and young individuals as they are knocked down by heavy machinery <br/>iii-reduction in area of occupancy owing to parts being occupied by weir (reservoir), water canal, and power house <br/><br/>b) Local community activities:<br/>i-reports of collection of seed and seedlings for commercial trade may impair the regeneration capacity of the cycad and thus lead to further reduction of its population <br/>ii-cultivation on the slopes of the gorge, clearing the cycads located on the gardens <br/>iii-harvesting of the cycad leaves for building materials <br/>iv-burning of some areas occupied by the cycad for stimulation of grazing pasture.	eng
41929	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. caffer</em> occurs in the Brooklands Cycad Reserve and in the Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve.	eng
41929	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found mainly in the Eastern Cape province and in an isolated subpopulation in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. In the Eastern Cape it has been recorded from Humansdorp in the south, then northwards to areas in the Albany district and continuing northwards to an area near Kentani, just across the Great Kei river. Still further to the north, it is found in the Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve in Kwa-Zulu Natal province. The species seems to consist of numerous isolated subpopulations in this area. Recorded from 300 to 700 m asl.	eng
41929	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species typically grows in grassland but can also occur in thicket when grasslands are not burnt frequently. It is often found growing among rocks.	eng
41929	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The habitat of <em>E. caffer</em> is somewhat threatened as a result of clearing for agricultural purposes. This species has also been affected due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
41930	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Longhill Nature Reserve and the Lawrence De Lange Nature Reserve near Queenstown.	eng
41930	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the Eastern Cape province and KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The main distribution area is in the Cathcart and Queenstown districts. Smaller subpopulations occur to the north of Umtata and in the vicinity of Kokstad on the border between the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Occurs from 700 up to 1,400 m.	eng
41930	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in montane grassland and open shrubland on rocky ridges.	eng
41930	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	A relatively abundant species.	eng
41930	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and as a result of traditional muthi (medicine) harvesting.	eng
41931	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<p><span style="background-color: white;">Recorded from a number of protected </span>areas including: Jozani Forest Reserve on Zanzibar, Saadani National Park, one locality within Gendagenda South Forest Reserve, and one locality within Amani Nature Forest Reserve (all Tanzania); and two localities within Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve (Kenya). <br/></p><p>The species is well represented in botanical gardens and private collections worldwide.</p><p>Is listed in CITES Appendix I.</p>	eng
41931	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Occurs in the coastal and near-coastal districts of Kenya and Tanzania including Zanzibar island (Tanzania). Reports of cycads from northern Mozambique may also turn out to be <span style="font-style: italic;">E. hildebrandtii</span>. Occurs from sea level up to 600 m.	eng
41931	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Mainly found in coastal evergreen bushland and dry lowland forest, in red loams and sandy soils among grass and coral rocks.<br/><br/>Appears to need shade for successful germination.	eng
41931	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Occurs in many locations, and is locally abundant in places. Population size is estimated to be about 20,000 mature individuals.	eng
41931	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project & Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Habitat destruction as a result of urban expansion, coastal resort development, and agricultural expansion is having a direct impact on the species. Former large subpopulations of the species have been lost as result.<br/><br/>In times of famine, the stems have reportedly been used for food in Zanzibar, although it is more likely the seeds that are used, as is the case in northern Kenya (the central pith of the stem and the endosperm from the seeds is used to prepare a starchy form of bread).	eng
41932	conservation	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. ituriensis</em> occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve.	eng
41932	distribution	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Ituri forest area of the Haut-Zaire province in the northern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to P. Heibloem (pers. comm.), it was found on  two large granite inselbergs near the town of Nduye. Occurs at 1,100 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
41932	habitat	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in grassland or among shrubs (savanna) on exposed slopes on granite domes which emerge from rainforests.	eng
41932	population	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	There is a small but localized population of about 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
41932	threats	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown, but if collectors were to target the species, it would be impacted fairly quickly.	eng
41933	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. In Gauteng province, this species is conserved in two private nature reserves and in a natural heritage site. Plants also occur in the Loskop Dam Nature Reserve and in the Botshabelo Nature Reserve.	eng
41933	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in the upper catchment area of the Olifants River in the Middelburg, Witbank and Bronkhorstspruit districts of the Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces in South Africa. It also occurs along the Little Olifants and Wilge rivers in this area. Occurs from 1,200 to 1,500 m.	eng
41933	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is usually found on the slopes of sheltered wooded kloofs and sandstone ridges where it occurs as an element of open to sometimes rather closed woodland communities.  Sites are usually gentle to steep sloping, associated with scattered sandstone boulders and well drained soils.  The species shows a definite preference for semi-exposed, steep sloping sites with a southern aspect.	eng
41933	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This is a locally abundant and stable species.	eng
41933	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The species occurs in rural areas.  The agricultural development of the distribution area of the taxon would have had a minimal effect on the species due to the types of farming practices employed (Fourie 1984). The species is also reportedly not popular with cycad collectors as they are sensitive to disturbance and any transplanting ends in the death of plants (Goode 1993). Two localities, however, are threatened: one by intensive destruction on a military training area, and another by building and road construction for a pleasure resort (Fourie 1993).	eng
41934	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Greater Addo Elephant National Park and the Kuzuko Game Reserve.	eng
41934	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This cycad species is  most closely associated with the drier regions, particularly the Karoo area, of South africa.  It occurs on cliffs and mountain sides in the Eastern Cape Province in the districts of Willowmore, Jansenville, Pearston, Somerset East, Kirkwood, Uitenhage and Steytlerville.  It grows on the Grootrivier Mountains, the Klein Winterhoek Mountains, the Groot Bruintjieshoogte Mountains and the foothills of the Groot Winterhoek Mountains in the drainage areas of the Groot and Sundays Rivers. Occurs at altitudes ranging from 400 up to 1,000 m.	eng
41934	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species usually grows on sandstone hills and mountainsides amongst arid Karoo scrub vegetation. The climate in its distribution area is dry, with very hot summers. The rain falls mainly in summer and the annual rainfall is seldom higher than 350 mm.	eng
41934	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	It is difficult to quantify, but <em>E. lehmannii</em> tends to occur in subpopulations of several hundred plants across its range.	eng
41934	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Drought has had an affect in the past. There have been fewer coning episodes and porcupines have damaged stems in search of food. Continuous defoliation by goats results in mortality of adult plants. To a lesser degree, plants have been lost due to over-collecting by poachers.	eng
41935	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Baviaanskloof Conservation Area, the Groendal Wilderness Area, the Longmore State Forest and in the Addo Elephant Park (Zuurberg area).	eng
41935	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Eastern Cape from West of Joubertina in the Kouga mountains, along the Suuranys mountains, in the Baviaans Kloof, the Elandsberge, the Zuurberge and then on to near Grahamstown. Large subpopulations occur in the Kouga Mountains, Baviaanskloof, Groot Winterhoek mountains, and the Zuurberg. Recorded from 200 up to 700 m asl.	eng
41935	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in a variety of habitats with large differences in soil and climate. In some areas west of Port Elizabeth plants grow in acid sands with fynbos vegetation whereas in the Zuurberg they occur in grasslands. Near Kirkwood and in the Paardepoort plants grow amongst succulent thicket. Thety are also found in dense scleromorphic shrubland on steep rocky slopes	eng
41935	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Occurs in large numbers in some areas.	eng
41935	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The only real threat to <em>E. longifolius</em> is over-collection due to poaching of plants from the wild.	eng
41936	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41936	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Populations occur in the Marungu Mountains and on the Muhila plateau in the southeast of the country. Plants are also known from Tanzania, where they occur approximately 100 km to the west of the Marungu locality. Recorded as occurring from 1,400 to 1,700 m.	eng
41936	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in savanna (Miombo woodland) and also in lightly wooded montane forests among granite outcrops.	eng
41936	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Although poorly known, the population is though to be fairly small with between a 1,000 and 1,200 mature plants.	eng
41936	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. marunguensis</em> may be threatened by too frequent fires. Poaching from the wild by collectors is also a threat.	eng
41937	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the following reserves: Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Krantzkloof Nature Reserve, Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park, iGwala-Gwala (Natural Heritage Site), Rendsburg Cycad Colony (Natural Heritage Site), Mgwahumbe (Natural Heritage Site) and Hope Valley (Natural Heritage Site).	eng
41937	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs from the Qumbu and Tabankulu areas of the northern part of the Eastern Cape, through most of KwaZulu-Natal up to the upper catchment areas of the Mkuze and Umfolozi rivers near Vryheid in South Africa. Has a wide altitudinal range being recorded from 200 up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
41937	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on cliffs and steep, hot and dry slopes in scarp forests. Plants grow on cool south-facing cliff faces, in forest or are exposed. <em>E. natalensis</em> occurs close to the coast in certain areas, but more commonly further inland.	eng
41937	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There are numerous subpopulations scattered throughout its range, with numbers of mature individuals though to be between 8,300 and 12,000.	eng
41937	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Some subpopulations have been impacted by collecting and bark harvesting for medicinal purposes. For example, the plants at  the type locality at Monteseel have been debarked resulting in mortality.	eng
41938	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the buffer area of the North Luangwa Reserve.	eng
41938	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. schmitzii</em> occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the extreme south of the Kundelungu plateau in the Shaba province and in Zambia along the Muchinga escarpment in the Luapula and Northern provinces. The distribution broadly follows the catchment of the Luapula River. Occurs at elevations from 1.000 to 1,400 m.<br/><br/>Plants described by Ian Turner, Jean-Pierre Sclavo and Francios Malaisse in 2006 as <em>E. flavistrobilus</em> are know considered a synonym of <em>E. schmitzii</em>. These plants occur at a single locality in the North Western province of Zambia, to the east of Solwezi. Approximate elevation is 1,300 m. The extent of occurrence of that subpopulation is about 30 km².	eng
41938	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in sandy quartzitic soils in Miombo woodlands. The plants form numerous basal suckers.	eng
41938	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	It was originally thought to be a very restricted species in Zambia, where there were several reports of only one plant, but since they have been found in larger numbers across quite a wide range.	eng
41938	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. schmitzii</em> is threatened due to over-collecting for ornamental purposes and as a result of habitat loss caused by bush clearing for agricultural purposes. Too frequent fires may have also driven this cycad's pollinator to extinction.	eng
41939	conservation	Williams, V.L., Raimondo, D., Crouch, N.R., Cunningham, A.B., Scott-Shaw, C.R., Lötter, M. & Ngwenya, M., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. This species occurs in at least five protected areas, including the Ubombo (Lebombo) Mountain Nature Reserve and the Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves.	eng
41939	distribution	Williams, V.L., Raimondo, D., Crouch, N.R., Cunningham, A.B., Scott-Shaw, C.R., Lötter, M. & Ngwenya, M., 2009	This species is widespread along the east coast of South Africa and southern Mozambique, usually occurring within a few kilometres of the ocean. They are found as scattered subpopulations from Bathurst in the Eastern Cape to Kosi Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal and just over the South Africa border into southern Mozambique. Recorded from 10 to 750 m asl.	eng
41939	habitat	Williams, V.L., Raimondo, D., Crouch, N.R., Cunningham, A.B., Scott-Shaw, C.R., Lötter, M. & Ngwenya, M., 2009	Grows in open, dry grassland, in light shade under trees in the coastal parkland, or in dense, damp lowland forest. Found in sandy soils (derived from sandstone) or sometimes in  granitic or heavy black clays, all of which are slightly acidic, usually within a few kilometers of the ocean. They are found in scarp and coastal forests, Ngongoni and Coastal Grassland (Scott-Shaw 1999).	eng
41939	population	Williams, V.L., Raimondo, D., Crouch, N.R., Cunningham, A.B., Scott-Shaw, C.R., Lötter, M. & Ngwenya, M., 2009	There are numerous subpopulations spread across its range. It is estimated that there are more than 100,000 plants in the wild.<br/><br/>Abundance at known localities:<br/><br/>a) Past and current:<br/>Since at least 1965, there have been reports of <em>S. eriopus</em> becoming scarce, rare and extirpated in many areas of its range. Vast numbers of plants were eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape coast as sugar cane fields and the pineapple industry respectively replaced the natural vegetation. <em>S. eriopus</em> was once a usual sight in coastal and scarp forests and coastal grassland from Bathurst to Kosi Bay, but today it is far less common. Furthermore, plants within the borders of designated nature reserves are not altogether safe. Regular visitors to Ngoye have also reported drastic reductions in population numbers, and a recent half-day survey in the Gwaliweni forest north of Jozini in KwaZulu-Natal failed to locate any specimens. Between Durban and Hluhluwe,&#160; <em>S. eriopus</em> was lost at many localities due to habitat transformation for sugar cane and gum plantations. Very little natural vegetation exists in these areas today, and <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to be found in isolated pockets.  <em>Stangeria</em> is therefore currently rare and of low abundance in this specific area.<br/><br/>b) Future<br/>The possible future construction of a coastal highway through the Eastern Cape would threaten many the subpopulations. Parts of the former Transkei are currently a refuge for <em>Stangeria</em>, but coastal urban development will threaten the habitat and the range as forest refugia become more accessible to collectors.<br/><br/>In summary: <br/><br/>There are 34 known Quarter Degree Squares (QDS) records from PRECIS (the Pretoria Herbarium Specimen Database), the literature and personal observations. The following threats were noted:<br/>a) In 14 known QDS (41%), habitat transformation and degradation has occurred from the Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal for plantations (pineapple, sugar cane and pine trees). <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to occupy vegetation pockets within these areas or has been permanently extirpated (past decline).<br/>b) 14 QDSs (41%) stand to be affected by the proposed new N2 highway through the Eastern Cape, hence destroying habitats and making previous <em>S. eriopus</em> refugia potentially accessible to collectors (future decline).<br/>c) In at least 9 QDSs (26%), <em>S. eriopus</em> has been observed to be scarce, declining and actively targeted by collectors (current decline)<br/><br/>Therefore, in total, in at least 27 QDS (79%) that we know of (through personal observations and the literature), the <em>S. eriopus</em> population has experienced past declines OR is currently declining OR is facing potential decline due to past, current and future threats from habitat transformation and traditional medicine harvesting.<br/><br/>The tuber is sometimes branched into several growing points and because of this, it is usually not possible to uproot all of the plant without damaging and leaving behind some of the caudex. It is sometimes possible for regeneration to occur from the damaged caudex. It is therefore also possible that a portion of the caudex may be left behind during incomplete excavations for the traditional medicine (muti) trade, and that some regeneration may occur in areas that have been targeted by harvesters. Growth from seed is slow.	eng
41939	threats	Williams, V.L., Raimondo, D., Crouch, N.R., Cunningham, A.B., Scott-Shaw, C.R., Lötter, M. & Ngwenya, M., 2009	This species has been affected by over collecting (for medicinal and ornamental use). Habitat destruction has also had an effect on the plants in the wild (pineapple and sugar cane farming). Vast numbers of plants were eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape coast as sugar cane fields and the pineapple industry respectively replaced the natural vegetation. Between Durban and Hluhluwe, <em>S. eriopus</em> was lost at many localities due to habitat transformation for sugar cane and gum plantations. Very little natural vegetation exists in these areas today, and <em>S. eriopus</em> tends to be found in isolated pockets.<br/><br/>The possible future construction of the highway through the Eastern Cape will threaten many of the subpopulations. Parts of the former Transkei are currently a refuge for <em>S. eriopus</em>, but coastal urban development will threaten the habitat and the range as forest refugia become more accessible to collectors.<br/><br/>At least 20% of the habitat has been lost over the last three generations (150 years) (generation length is about 50 years) and harvesting for the traditional medicine trade has caused at least a further 10-20% decline in population size. The habitat is further threatened with future transformation and increased harvesting as a result of the N2 highway being extended through the Eastern Cape.<br/><br/><em>S. eriopus</em> is a sought after medicinal plant which has been severely over-exploited over much of its distribution range. The habitat is rapidly being degraded because of woodcutting and the expansion of crop farming. The lignotuber is used for traditional medicine, hence harvesting is destructive and whole plants are usually killed. Estimates of an annual sale of 233 bags (50 kg-size) by 54 traders in the Durban markets have been made - possibly accounting for ¼ of the total sales in the province. In a survey conducted in July 1992, 28 out of 170 gatherers (16.5%) in two Durban muti markets sold the tubers. The mean mass of caudices on sale = 0.7 kg; mean mass sold/month/trader = 85 kg; mean number of plants sold/month/trader = 122; total mass sold/month = 2380 kg; total number of plants sold/month = 3410 individual caudices (or, 40,920 plants per year). The unknown quantity of tubers sold by the muti shops in the city would have added considerably to the annual volume sold in the region. The plants were said to have been harvested from areas in the Transkei, southern and northern KwaZulu-Natal, and concerns were raised that the rate of exploitation would lead to a rapid demise of <em>S. eriopus</em> in the wild, especially if the herbal medicine trade continued to expand (as it has).<br/><br/>The popularity of <em>S. eriopus</em> is such that it is traded outside of its range in Mpumalanga and Gauteng. Trade figures for Johannesburg showed that 58% of muti shops stocked the species in 1994, 18% of which said it was scarce. The annual volume estimated to have been sold was 243 bags (50 kg-size). In the Faraday market in 2001, 9% of traders sold it with a combined volume of 38 bags.<br/><br/>More recently, evidence has been found of <em>S. eriopus</em> tubers having been excavated in the Manguzi, presumably for the traditional medicine trade. Possibly more than 50 plants had been removed from the site, and that conservatively hundreds had been excavated in the last few months. On a recent visit to the Faraday market,  20 traders with <em>S. eriopus</em>, each with about 20 plants per trader were found.<br/><br/>In terms of habitat destruction, vast numbers of plants have been eradicated along the KwaZulu-Natal coast as sugar cane fields replaced the natural vegetation, and the expansion of the pineapple industry in the Eastern Cape had caused similar diminution in the distribution of <em>S. eriopus</em> in that area. <br/><br/>Cycad collectors have also threatened the <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria </span>population. A post-war anecdote has been cited in which a field botanist active along the Natal south coast was offered one pound per plant to send as many living <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria </span>plants as could be collected to a Chicago museum. The botanist refused, and the field full of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stangeria</span> that was mentioned in the anecdote was subsequently visited 30 years later to find that it had been over-grazed and not a single plant remained.	eng
41940	conservation	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants possibly occur in the Saadani National Park in Tanzania.	eng
41940	distribution	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	This species occurs on the eastern coast of Africa (Madagascar north to Kenya) and on the Comores, Mayotte and Seychelles. Subpopulations occur along the coast of Mozambique, from the Zambezi delta, northwards along the coast of Tanzania and Kenya, as far as the town of Lamu. Occurs from sea level up to 200 m.	eng
41940	habitat	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	Plants grow in open woodland or forest margins, usually near the coast. They occur sparsely as individuals or in small groups. Rainfall ranges between 1,000 to 3,000 mm per annum. It usually grows on sand or on coral formations.	eng
41940	population	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	A locally abundant species with the population estimated to number more than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41940	threats	Golding, J. & Hurter, J., 2009	There are no major threats to this species, although plants would have been impacted in places by collectors, coastal developments (tourist resorts, urban expansion) and agricultural expansion (small-holder crops).	eng
41941	conservation	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41941	distribution	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the northern Tanzanian province of Arusha. Populations are found to the West of Lake Natron and south of the town of Loliondo. Recorded from 1,300 to 2,150 m asl.	eng
41941	habitat	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	Populations occur in open bushland on quartzite ridges or montane forest with a few scattered trees. The Nguruman hills consist of a series of quartzite hills.	eng
41941	population	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	It is very difficult to estimate numbers of plants in the wild due to the inaccessible terrain, but it is estimated that there are in excess of 10,000 plants.	eng
41941	threats	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	The seeds of this species are eaten during times of famine.	eng
41942	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41942	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is restricted to the Winterberg mountains to the north of Bedford in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Recorded from 1,200 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
41942	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species grows in semi-dry grassland areas in shallow shale soils on the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. <em>E. cycadifolius</em> is adapted to fire.	eng
41942	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There are at least six subpopulations and all of these are healthy and viable. Donaldson and co-workers counted/estimated a population size of more than 20,000 plants based on sub-sampling.	eng
41942	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Baboons and porcupines can sometimes damage cones and newly emerged leaves of this species. Too frequent fires may have an effect on seedlings and juveniles.	eng
41943	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>E. ferox</em> are present in the Maputaland Coastal Forest Reserve, the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park and the Tembe Elephant Park.	eng
41943	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. ferox</em> is a widespread species occurring in northern Kwa-Zulu Natal province of South Africa and southern Mozambique, where it is found in the Maputo, Gaza, Inhambane and Sofala provinces. Occurs at low elevations between 20 and 100 m asl.	eng
41943	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The habitats of this species range from closed evergreen coastal forest to dense shrubland, on deep sands of old beach dune systems. They also occur in grassland areas.	eng
41943	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	A relatively abundant species where it occurs.	eng
41943	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The major threats affecting this species include over-collecting for ornamental purposes and habitat destruction due to current and future coastal developments and for agricultural purposes.	eng
41944	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41944	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Shaba province near to Kasidiji, Kanda-Kanda and Gonzo and also in the Kasa-Occidental province near to Luluaborg in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Across the border in Angola, it is found in the Lunda Sul province near to Sombo. Occurs from 500 to 1,00 m asl.	eng
41944	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in dry savanna with tall grass. The general vegetation types in this area is Central Zambezian Miombo woodland and Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic. Plants often grow as solitary individuals but may form extensive colonies.	eng
41944	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Reported as being abundant throughout its range by several authors (Heibloem 1999, Goode 2001).	eng
41944	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species may be utilized as a food source during times of famine.	eng
41945	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the following nature reserves: Lekgalameetse Nature Reserve, Mphaphuli Cycad Reserve, Modjadji Nature Reserve, The Wolkberg Wilderness Area, Happy Rest Nature Reserve and also in the following Natural Hertage Sites: Ottoshoek, Lesheba Wilderness, Buffelspoort and Buzzard Mountain Retreat. A Cycad nursery based on wild-collected seeds has been set up in collaboration with a rural community near to the Modjadji Nature Reserve.	eng
41945	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs intermittently over a large area in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. In the south the distribution starts in the northern parts of the Drakensberg mountain range. Further northwards a large isolated subpopulation is found in the Modjadji Nature Reserve. The distribution is then taken up in the Soutpansberg mountains. It extends over most of this mountain range and continues further east to the middle of the Thohoyandou area. Recorded from elevations ranging from 600 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
41945	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	All localities of <em>E. transvenosus</em> are on mountain mistbelt zones. Plants grow in tall grassveld and mixed bushveld, mainly on steep rocky slopes facing southeast.	eng
41945	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The population at Modjadji is estimated to be 15,000 individuals and there are some other very large subpopulations.	eng
41945	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	Plants are removed from the wild by collectors and there is loss of habitat in some places.	eng
41946	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41946	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs mainly in the Nampula province, but also in the Niassa province of Mozambique. Plants are found from Malema eastwards to the vicinity of Nampula and then southwards towards Angoche. Recorded from 600 up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
41946	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. turneri</em> occurs on low granite hills in full sun or semi-shade, usually among boulders. Summer rainfall of about 800-1,000 mm per annum. The vegetation type in this area is Eastern Miombo woodlands.	eng
41946	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Latest estimates state that about 30,000 individuals exist in the wild.	eng
41946	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
41947	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur and are protected in the following reserves and natural heritage sites: Umtiza Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Kranskloof Nature Reserve, Ngoye Forest Reserve, Hope Valley Natural Heritage Site and the Shongweni Dam Natural Heritage Site.	eng
41947	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs from near East London in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, continuing through KwaZulu-Natal province and then on into parts of Swaziland. Occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.	eng
41947	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species typically occurs as an understorey plant in sub-tropical coastal forest and in scrub, but populations also occur in more temperate areas.	eng
41947	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	<em>E. villosus</em> is a common and widespread species. There are several substantial subpopulations throughout its range with a total population probably in excess of 100,000 plants.	eng
41947	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There is some evidence of collecting for ornamental purposes but this is fast growing species that is easy to cultivate. There is also some degree of habitat loss as a result of land clearing for agricultural purposes.	eng
41948	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project, 2009	Occurs in the Kanga Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Although listed in CITES Appendix I, a concerted effort is needed to give this species strong protection.	eng
41948	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project, 2009	Known only from Mount Kanga, an isolated hill of the Nguru Mountains, in the Mvomero district, Morogoro province of Tanzania. Occurs on the southern ridge and south eastern slopes of Mt. Kanga above Kibwende settlement. Occurs at 1,000 to 1.300 m.	eng
41948	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project, 2009	This species grows on very steep granitic southern rock faces. The habitat is sub-montane dry evergreen and mesic evergreen forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerophyta - Erica</span> heath on steep slopes of Precambrian crystalline (mostly gneissic) bedrock with shallow soil. The vegetation type of this area is Eastern Arc Montane Forests.	eng
41948	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project, 2009	Occurs in a few very small and scattered subpopulations, with less than 50 mature individuals in total.	eng
41948	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project, 2009	Illegal collection of seedlings poses the main threat. Further fires could also impact the habitat and thus the population, although fire does not appear to affect the regeneration of the species. The mountain is considered to be sacred by the local people, and given the remoteness of the area, deforestation is not a problem at present.	eng
41949	conservation	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41949	distribution	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is found in an area along the border between Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Populations are restricted to the Kwango (Cuango) River valley in the vicinity of Kasongo-Lunda in the Bandundu province of the DRC and in the Uige province in Angola. Plants are also found between the Fufu and Kikasu tributaries of the Kwango. Occus between 450 and 550 m asl.	eng
41949	habitat	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. laurentianus</em> is found in closed, humid gallery forest along the river Kwango and on open red sandstone slopes above.  The vegetation type in this area is Congolian forest-savanna mosaic.	eng
41949	population	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	It has been reported that 'large numbers' occur in the Kasongo-Linda districts of eastern DRC.	eng
41949	threats	Bosenberg, J.D., 2009	The species is targeted by collectors.	eng
41950	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. <em>E. septentrionalis</em> occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
41950	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in southern Sudan, northern Uganda, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the interior of the Central African Republic. Recorded from elevations ranging from 500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
41950	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>E. septentrionalis</em> grows in rocky areas in sparse forests and in grassland and open bushland.	eng
41950	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Despite the fairly wide range, the population size is only estimated to be about 2,000 mature individuals.	eng
41950	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The threats to this species are not known, but agricultural activities, increased droughts and poaching by collectors are all potential threats.	eng
41951	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41951	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species ranges from near Mount Morgan south to near Goomeri in Queensland, Australia.  Occurring in locally more mesic microhabitats, becoming quite sporadic and occurring further inland in the south of the range. Recorded from 150 to 300 m asl.	eng
41951	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Scattered and localized on clay-loam soils over various substrates, usually on sloping country in wet eucalypt forests or rainforests.	eng
41951	population	Forster, P., 2009	The most recent survey indicates a presence of 46 subpopulations and an estimated 372,964 mature plants.	eng
41951	threats	Forster, P., 2009	There is considerable risk of habitat removal for forestry and pastoral activity.	eng
41952	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41952	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is known from the Petford district on the northwestern Atherton Tableland, and a disjunct population about 250 km to the south on Wandovale station, Queensland, Australia. Occurs at 400 to 750 m asl.	eng
41952	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species grows in open grassy ironbark-dominated woodland on shallow loamy soils on stony slopes over acid to intermediate volcanic substrates.	eng
41952	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	The population size is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41952	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	Over-collection of <em>C. platyphylla</em> from the wild may be a problem in the future.	eng
41953	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It occurs in various protected areas.	eng
41953	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs near the town of Warwick and in the Herries range in the Darling Downs district of Queensland, Australia. Occurs between 600 to 750 m asl.	eng
41953	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Plants are found sporadically, occurring in eucalypt woodland on shallow podsolic soils on drier rises.	eng
41953	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is found in six or seven subpopulations and the same number of locations.	eng
41953	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is vulnerable to poaching.	eng
41954	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Blue Mountains National Park.	eng
41954	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is restricted to a limited area around Mountain Lagoon in the Blue Mountains north and west of Richmond, New South Wales, Australia. Recorded to occur at elevations of 120 to 150 m asl.	eng
41954	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants grow in open areas and among dense shrubs on gentle to steep slopes in eucalypt woodland. The undulating countryside is dominated by sandstone boulders.	eng
41954	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41954	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are not specified.	eng
41955	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wallaroo and Karua Nature reserves and also in the Lake Macquarie State Conservation Area and in the Werakata National Park.	eng
41955	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occur in New South Wales, Australia. Subpopulations are found on the southern part of the North Coast and extreme northern Central Coast, from Buladelah to Lake Macquarie.	eng
41955	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in a range of habitats, including coastal cliffs, open sclerophyll forest and gullies, sometimes in quite shady situations. Soils are mainly shallow clay loams.	eng
41955	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population is estimated to number between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals and declining.	eng
41955	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is affected by over-collecting and land clearance, which may be a cause for concern in the future.	eng
41956	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Great Sandy National Park.	eng
41956	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is found in southern Queensland, Australia. Populations occur from the Wide Bay area, east of Gympie to south of Childers and on Fraser Island. Occurs at low elevations being recorded from 5 to 25 m asl.	eng
41956	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Plants are found scattered in open woodland, almost always on siliceous sand deposits from old beach dunes.	eng
41956	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The population is fairly small and estimated to number about 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
41956	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species has been affected by the destruction of habitat for pastures and other agriculture e.g. pineapples. Many plants have been removed from habitat for collectors and for general garden use.	eng
41957	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Werakata National Park and in the Windsor Downs Nature Reserve, Castlereagh Nature Reserve and the Agnes Banks Nature Reserve.	eng
41957	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs New South Wales, Australia. Plants are found from Dunedoo and the Goulburn River valley to the lower eastern Blue Mountains and Sydney-Waterfall districts.	eng
41957	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found scattered in sclerophyll forests on sandy or gravelly soils of low fertility.	eng
41957	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants are found in scattered colonies within its range, but never in great numbers.	eng
41958	conservation	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some stands are conserved within Kakadu National Park.	eng
41958	distribution	Ottley, H., 2009	This species occurs in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found from between Jim Jim Falls and Graveside Gorge in the Kakadu National Park, southwest through Goodparla and Mary River Station to Foelsche Headland, and north to Burrell Creek near Adelaide River. A large population of <em>C. conferta</em> has been reported near the headwaters of the Fergusson River, but as yet has not been confirmed.	eng
41958	habitat	Ottley, H., 2009	<em>C. conferta</em> occurs on sandy soils over granites or coarse sandstones. In association with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and grasses. Populations are found mainly on rocky outcrops and stunted woodland overlying Cullen granite and sandstone and quartz of the Brocks Creek Group. The soils are grey gravelly loams. <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em> is the dominant tree species in the woodland whereas the cycads are dominant on the outcrops.	eng
41958	population	Ottley, H., 2009	The distribution of this species is considered to be sporadic and local in occurrence, with plants forming isolated, usually small but dense, stands. The population estimates exceed 30,000 plants with a major concentration at Harriet Creek.	eng
41958	threats	Ottley, H., 2009	In the past, the large population at Harriet Creek has been extensively harvested for seed. Some of the smaller populations along the Kakadu Highway have been severely impacted by past removal of plants. However, because of the large numbers over a substantial area, the species is not presently at risk.	eng
41959	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41959	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known only from two subpopulations to the northwest of Charters Towers, Queensland, Australia. Recorded from 450 to 550 m asl.	eng
41959	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Populations occur in Eucalypt woodland on shallow skeletal soils or low rocky outcrops and is a relatively common plant in its habitat.	eng
41959	population	Forster, P., 2009	Relatively common, but only found in two subpopulations	eng
41959	threats	Forster, P., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
41960	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41960	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known only from sub-coastal forests near the northeastern tip of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia. Populations are found near Temple Bay and to the north and south of the Olive River estuary.	eng
41960	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Populations of <em>C. silvestris</em> occur on white siliceous sands from old beach-dunes, and this cycad appears to be endemic to that substrate. Grows in dry woodland.	eng
41960	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The species is locally common with between 2,500 and 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41960	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
41961	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41961	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in the southern part of Queensland, Australia. It is restricted to a small area near Texas in the Darling Downs strict. Recorded to occur between 400 and 600 m asl.	eng
41961	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	<em>M. cranei</em> grows on steep slopes and ridges in shallow skeletal soil on limestone in dry sclerophyll scrub or eucalypt woodlands.	eng
41961	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found in seven subpopulations with a projected minimum number of 2,139 adult plants.	eng
41961	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species is threatened by land clearing for agricultural development.	eng
41962	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41962	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in two small disjunct areas in the vicinity of Eidsvold and Mundubbera in Queensland, Australia. Found at 340 to 420 m asl.	eng
41962	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows among granite boulders on rugged slopes with open eucalypt forest which has a sparse under-storey.	eng
41962	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is locally common, with strong seedling recruitment. There are at least ten subpopulations.	eng
41962	threats	Forster, P., 2009	All plants are on private land and occur within two restricted areas. The reasons for the decline are not known.	eng
41963	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Goonoowigal State Conservation Area.	eng
41963	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This is a rare species with a restricted natural distribution, being only known from the vicinity of Inverell in northern New South Wales, Australia. Recorded to occur at an elevation of 600 m asl.	eng
41963	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows on low rises and gentle slopes near large granite boulders in stunted eucalypt woodland.	eng
41963	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known to occupy an area of occupancy of less than five square kilometres and that the population size is fairly small with about 1,000 to 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
41963	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs within a restricted range and thus would be vulnerable to any threats (none are known at present).	eng
41964	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Burrum Coast National Park.	eng
41964	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in the vicinity of Childers and Bundaberg, in central eastern Queensland, Australia.	eng
41964	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows among grass in grey, silty loam on flat sites under tall open forest.	eng
41964	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in a minimum area of occupancy of  approximately ten hectares, which includes 22 subpopulations consisting of about 28,000 adult plants.	eng
41964	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction due to expansion of agricultural activities. This has led to habitat decline that is estimated at 50-80% over the past 50 years. Over-collection of plants for horticultural purposes has also had an effect on the populations.	eng
41965	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the plants are protected in the Sundown National Park.	eng
41965	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia,  where it is known from only three subpopulations in Sundown National Park and nearby. Recorded from 800 up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
41965	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows in open eucalypt forest in sandy soil derived from acid-intermediate volcanics of greywacke and mudstone.	eng
41965	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from only two to three subpopulations, comprising in total between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
41965	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Poaching of plants has occurred.	eng
41966	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  Plants occur in the Mount Walsh National Park and in State Forests.	eng
41966	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in scattered stands near Biggenden and Seaview Range in the Wild Bay district of Queensland, Australia. Recorded from elevations between 60 and 220 m.	eng
41966	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	<em>M. parcifolia</em> is an uncommon species occurring in scattered stands on shallow clay-loams derived from basalt. They occur in the under-storey on ridges and in tall open forest dominated by eucalypts.	eng
41966	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from only two locations and has a small population of between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
41966	threats	Forster, P., 2009	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. parcifolia</span> are loss and damage through forestry operations; inappropriate fire regimes, which kill surface seed and young seedlings; failure of the insect pollination mutualism; and vulnerability to poaching (Hill and Osborne 2001). Regeneration of the species is limited as plants are slow-growing, seed is set intermittently, plants produce low amounts of seed, and seed have limited dispersal (Jones 2002).	eng
41967	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Nangar National Park.	eng
41967	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia where it is found on the central western slopes to the lower elevations of the Central Tablelands, stretching from Gilgandra to Grenfell and further east to the main divide from Mudgee and Capertee.	eng
41967	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants occur in low, open, dry sclerophyll woodlands on well drained sites, often on stoney rises.	eng
41967	population	Forster, P., 2009	The population size of <em>M. secunda</em> is in excess of 10,000 plants with subpopulations found at probably less than 10 locations.	eng
41968	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are known from only a few stands, some of which are conserved in Girraween National Park.	eng
41968	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from the Wyberba and Girraween area in the south of the Darling Downs district of Queensland, Australia.	eng
41968	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants grow on sandy soils over granite in moderately wet eucalypt woodlands.	eng
41968	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is restricted in its distribution and is known from only two populations at one locality. They are highly localized and probably rare.	eng
41969	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41969	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. arenicola</em> occurs on sandy soils on screes derived from siliceous sandstone in rugged and broken country of the upper reaches of the East Alligator and Liverpool Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
41969	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Grows in Eucalyptus woodlands on soils derived from siliceous sandstone, on screes in rugged country.	eng
41969	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in an exremely remote area and has rarely been collected, and is likely to be more widely distributed in that area.	eng
41970	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41970	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in extreme northern Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to Badu and Moa Islands in the Torres Strait.	eng
41970	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants occur in tropical grassland under <em>Eucalyptus</em> on sandy soils.	eng
41970	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The species is locally common. Although there are no accurate estimates of population size, it is estimated to consist of more than 10,000 plants. At present, populations appear to be stable with no evidence of decline	eng
41970	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Threats are unknown, but are likely to be human activities.	eng
41971	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some plants occur within the boundaries of the Lawn Hill National Park.	eng
41971	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. brunnea</em> occurs in Queensland and Northern Territory, Australia. Populations are found near the headwaters of Lawn Hill Creek, near Burketown and near Wollogorang.	eng
41971	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in exposed situations along open creek valleys or in wooded savanna. Plants are found in sandy soil derived from limestone or decomposed sandstone.	eng
41971	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Populations of <em>C. brunnea</em> are large and stable.	eng
41971	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Removal from the wild by collectors is the main threat.	eng
41972	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41972	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Newcastle Range to the northeast of Einasleigh in northeastern Queensland, Australia. Occurs at 450-500 m.	eng
41972	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. cairnsiana</em> grows in thin, gravelly soil on low hills among large granite boulders, with plants occurring in exposed situations among grass and sparse low shrubs.	eng
41972	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known from two subpopulations, which appears to be stable at present.	eng
41972	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species may be subject to over-collecting due to the demand for cycads with blue green foliage.	eng
41973	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41973	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known from several populations in the southern Gregory Range of Queensland. Populations occur to the north of Hughenden. Occurs as high as 700 m asl.	eng
41973	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in open grassy woodlands on red sandy loams derived from basalt or dolerite, on flat to steeply sloping country. In some areas <em>C. couttsiana</em> is the dominant plant.	eng
41973	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The population is estimated to number between 8,000 and 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41973	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Populations seem quite secure with little evidence of decline.	eng
41974	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41974	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found in the region between Marlborough and Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia. Substantial intergradation occurs with <em>C. media</em> and <em>C. megacarpa</em> respectively north and south of this region, and plants from throughout the range may show characters of these taxa. Occurs at 150 to 230 m asl.	eng
41974	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Grows on hills and slopes in sparse, grassy open forest. This species reaches its best development on red clays over serpentines.	eng
41974	population	Forster, P., 2009	There are 16 subpopulations of <em>C. ophiolitica</em> in the wild with an estimated 364,988 mature plants.	eng
41974	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Many smaller subpopulations are poorly conserved, including the northern ‘bluish'  forms which are under significant risk from illegal collecting. Many populations of <em>C. ophiolitica</em> have been cleared on cattle ranches.	eng
41975	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41975	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is restricted to the Bamaga district in far northern Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia.	eng
41975	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	The known habitat of <em>C. semota</em> is grassy understorey of eucalypt forest with <em>Corymbia novoguinensis</em>, <em>C. tessellaris</em> and <em>Erythrophleum chlorostachys</em>. This forest is relatively moist, and often forms a mosaic with mesophyllous forest, on shallow sandy soils over massive laterite.	eng
41975	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant but very localized. All known plants are from a single subpopulation.	eng
41975	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Collection could be a future threat.	eng
41976	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41976	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to a single locality near Coen on Cape York Peninsula.	eng
41976	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. tuckeri</em> grows among granite boulders on slopes covered with grassy eucalypt woodland in well-drained gravelly soils.	eng
41976	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population numbers 2,500 to 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
41976	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. tuckeri</em> is threatened as a result of habitat destruction due to fire.	eng
41977	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cape Melville National Park.	eng
41977	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is restricted to the northern parts of Cape York Peninsula, north of the Wenlock River. A small disjunct subpopulation of somewhat more robust plants occurs on quartzite hills near Cape Melville.	eng
41977	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. yorkiana</em> usually occurs as an understorey plant in open <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em> - <em>E. tetrodonta</em> forest on flat country, on sandy soils over laterite. The Cape Melville population is on stony quartzite hills.	eng
41977	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant species.	eng
41977	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. yorkiana</em> is threatened due to habitat destruction resulting from frequent fires.	eng
41978	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41978	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found in an area roughly between Inverell and Tenterfield.	eng
41978	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants are found scattered in dry sclerophyll woodland on sandy soils over granite.	eng
41978	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from five subpopulations.	eng
41979	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It also occurs in the protected areas of the Byfield State Forest and the Byfield National Park within it's distribution range.	eng
41979	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the central eastern part of the State of Queensland, Australia. It is found in the vicinity of Byfield, northeast of Rockhampton. Occurs from 30 to 150 m asl.	eng
41979	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Scattered and locally abundant in dry sclerophyll eucalypt forest. Also found in dense, wet, coastal sclerophyll forest only slightly above sea level.	eng
41979	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size of this species is considered to be more than 10,000 plants.	eng
41979	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There has been an estimated reduction in habitat of between 10% and 20% over the past 30 years.	eng
41980	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In Queensland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bowenia spectabilis</span> is protected under Nature Conservation legislation where it is listed as common. The species is generally well represented in national parks and the Wet Tropics World Heritage area.	eng
41980	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found scattered in open situations in and around rainforests in northeastern Queensland, Australia. It also occurs in the coastal and near-coastal areas, ranging from Cardwell to Cooktown, with an outlying occurrence in the McIlraith Range and near Starcke on the Cape York Peninsula. Recorded from sea level up to 750 m.	eng
41980	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species favours a wet/dry seasonal climate. The species does not occur above 800 m and appears to be limited by a mean minimum temperature rather than other climatic or environmental conditions. Plants grow in rainforest and in adjoining tall wet eucalypt forest ecotones.	eng
41980	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size is estimated to be in excess of 10,000 plants. At present the the population trend is considered to be stable.	eng
41980	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The habitat reduction for this species has been estimated at between 10% and 20%.	eng
41981	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41981	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known from the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia. It is a distinctive, localized species, known from the lower reaches of the Wearyan, Foelsche and Robinson Rivers near Borroloola, and from the Bountiful Island group further east in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Occurs from sea level to 30 m.	eng
41981	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Populations occur in open grassy woodland or grassland on flat country and on sandy alluvium and deep sands, usually near streams. The cycads are the dominant component of the vegetation in this area.	eng
41981	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species ocurs in large populations and the total population size is estimated to exceed 50,000 plants in the wild.	eng
41981	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
41986	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is currently listed as Vulnerable D2 under the regional assessment in China (Wang and Xie 2004).  Due to its highly restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, it is recommended that efforts be made to conserve remaining habitat for this species.  Additionally, research efforts should be made to remedy the lack of data regarding biology, ecology, current habitat and population statuses.	eng
41986	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>O. argentata</em> is endemic to Ningxia province in China (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies a highly restricted geographic range within the Helan Shan range of Ningxia, China (Hoffmann and Smith 2005).  It occurs along a mountain top ridge, with a total area three sq. km (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41986	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>O. argentata</em> is restricted to rocky outcrops in a small forest located on a ridge of the Helan Shan mountain range (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 2004).  It is a rock-dwelling species that will also occupy mine shaft entrances (up to 20&#160;m deep) (Smith and Xie 2008).  It constructs haypiles out of available vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).  Total length of this species is 20.8-23.5&#160;cm (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
41986	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known data on current population status of <em>O. argentata</em>; however, it is inferred that deforestation is likely to cause declines as a result of habitat loss.	eng
41986	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Deforestation within the range of <em>O. argentata</em> has resulted in loss of habitat (Formozov <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Logging is suspected to be ongoing with in the mountain range.  Ochotonids are sensitive to thermal changes within their habitat and rock-dwelling pikas can be likened to insular populations that are unable to disperse to more suitable habitat, because connecting terrain cannot be easily traversed due to intolerable ambient temperatures.  It is therefore inferred, that future climate change will negatively impact the survival of <em>O. argentata</em>.	eng
41987	conservation	Liddle, D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. armstrongii</em> is found in multiple land tenures including private, government and leasehold. It is found in the following parks and reserves: Berry Springs Nature Park, Black Jungle Conservation Area, Blackmore River Conservation Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Djukbinj National Park, Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, Holmes Jungle Nature Park, Howard Springs Hunting Reserve, Howard Springs Nature Park, Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Manton Dam Recreation Area.	eng
41987	distribution	Liddle, D., 2009	This species is endemic to the Northern Territory, Australia. It extends from the Adelaide River west to the Finniss River and south to the township of Adelaide River, with sporadic occurrences farther south almost to Hayes Creek and Emerald Springs, and in a limited area on Melville Island.	eng
41987	habitat	Liddle, D., 2009	<em>C. armstrongii</em> is an abundant species, in dense and extensive populations on sand over tertiary laterites in <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>/<em>E. tetrodonta</em> forests around Darwin. Plants are found under open tropical deciduous woodlands, rarely in rocky situations.	eng
41987	population	Liddle, D., 2009	This species occurs in large populations comprising more than 100,000 plants in total.	eng
41987	threats	Liddle, D., 2009	Land clearing and inappropriate fire regimes are the main threats. Increased fire intensity, particularly arising from increased fuel load due to invasion of exotic grasses, is expected to result in higher mortality. It is estimated that the rate of clearing and loss due to fires will result in a loss of at least 30% over three generations.	eng
41988	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices, it also occurs in protected areas.	eng
41988	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This is a widespread species in the northern Kimberley region of Western Australia, Australia. Populations occur from offshore islands west of Port Warrender to around Kalumburu at 230 to 260 m.	eng
41988	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. basaltica</em> grows in sparse woodland and among grass and boulders on low, rocky hills. All known occurrences are on skeletal red or grey clays on stony basalt slopes.	eng
41988	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The overall population size is unknown but known populations are extensive and there is adequate regeneration.	eng
41988	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The main threat appears to be collectors.	eng
41989	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Large numbers of <em>C. calcicola</em> are found in Litchfield National Park and a smaller population is at Kintore Caves Nature Park near Katherine.	eng
41989	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in northern part of the Northern Territory of Australia. Plants are abundant around the Daly River basin and north along the Finniss Range, from Katherine in the southeast to the north of Litchfield Park and near the Daly River Police station, with a somewhat disjunct population in the Spirit Hills on Bullo River station near the Western Australian border. Occurs at low elevations from 123 to 155 m asl.	eng
41989	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. calcicola</em> grows in sparse, stunted woodland either on or close to limestone. Although originally described from limestone and named accordingly, this species occurs on various often non-calcareous substrates such as sandstones, sandy alluvium and aluminous schists.	eng
41989	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The populations around Katherine are in poor condition due to fire and past uncontrolled collection. However, the larger populations in the Daly River and Litchfield areas appear to be in good condition, though fire effects need to be monitored. Population estimates are: >7,000 for the Daly River; >5,000 for Litchfield Park; >1,500 for Katherine; and >5,000 individuals for Bullo River and Spirit Hills (Parks and Wildlife Commission unpublished data 1994, 1995 and 1996).	eng
41989	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There has been some collecting of specimens from the wild and altered fire frequencies and intensity due to invasive grasses which may impact this species.	eng
41990	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Has been recorded from protected areas.	eng
41990	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. furfuracea</em> is a  sporadic species in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Subpopulations are known mainly from elevated parts of the King Leopold Range, with another occurrence on Kimbolton and on islands to the north of there, such as Heywood Island. Occurs at 250 to 300 m.	eng
41990	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. furfuracea</em> is usually found on skeletal sandy soils on hard siliceous metasandstone, on steep slopes. The occurrences at Kimbolton are unusual in being both on similar substrates to the above, and also on red clay on rocky basalt outcrops. Occurs in dry woodlands.	eng
41990	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population is relatively large and stable.	eng
41990	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no threats to this species.	eng
41991	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41991	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known from several scattered populations in the northwest of the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Plants are found northeast of Mount Hann and near the source of the Moran River. Further, they are also found on the Mitchells Plateau and on Mount Elizabeth Station. Recorded from 300 to 370 m asl.	eng
41991	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs mostly on sandy soils in savanna forest with <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>, <em>E. tetrodonta</em> or <em>Corymbia latifolia</em>. Intergradational populations with <em>Cycas basaltica</em> are known.	eng
41991	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population is relatively large and stable.	eng
41991	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
41992	conservation	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Almost all populations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. The inhibition of reproduction by too-frequent fire is one such issue.	eng
41992	distribution	Ottley, H., 2009	<em>C. orientis</em> is widespread in eastern Arnhem Land to Lake Evella,  Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
41992	habitat	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is locally abundant on deep white to yellow sands over laterites, mainly in <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta</em> - <em>E. miniata</em> dominated savanna forests, but occurring in most non-swampy habitats.	eng
41992	population	Ottley, H., 2009	A relatively abundant and stable species.	eng
41992	threats	Ottley, H., 2009	Increasing fire frequency may be a problem, but this is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
41993	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41993	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	A widespread but sporadic species in the eastern and southern Kimberley region of Western Australia. Found near Kununurra, Ord River, Bedford Downs and on the Napier Range. Also occurs in the Spirit Hills on Bullo River station in the Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
41993	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found in dry woodlands on mainly skeletal sandy soils on siliceous substrates, from meta-sandstones to granites.	eng
41993	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant species.	eng
41993	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no threats to this species.	eng
41994	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
41994	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. xipholepis</em> is a widespread species in central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia. Subpopulations are found from south of Coen to Batavia Downs and west to Merapah.	eng
41994	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs on flat sites on deep white to yellow sands over laterites or sometimes on low, stony laterite hills, mainly in savanna forests dominated by <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta.</em>	eng
41994	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. xipholepis</em> is a locally abundant species.	eng
41995	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in National Parks and are found in Australia's Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area.	eng
41995	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found northeastern Queensland, Australia. From Rockingham Bay in the south to the Bloomfield River in the north. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m.	eng
41995	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	The plants are found to be scattered in rugged country, often in or near rainforest and sometimes in wet eucalypt forest. Plants are found on level sites near streams and also on steep drier slopes. The climate is distinctly tropical.	eng
41995	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The estimated population size is more than 10,000 plants in the wild and the decline in the populations at present, is considered to be stable.	eng
41995	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats.	eng
41996	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Tamborine National Park.	eng
41996	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, Australia. The distribution ranges from Gympie to the north of Brisbane and in a southerly direction to the Manning River near Forster. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m.	eng
41996	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	The plants are found scattered in small colonies in wet sclerophyll forests or on rainforest margins, usually in steep country.	eng
41996	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size is estimated to be more than 20,000 plants in the wild and the present decline is rated as being low.	eng
41996	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There is some loss of habitat.	eng
41997	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  All known plants occur within the Mount Walsh National Park.	eng
41997	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is endemic to southeastern Queensland, Australia where they occur in the Mount Walsh National Park. Recorded between 500 and 640 m asl.	eng
41997	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants form extensive colonies on precipitous slopes in open forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus acmenoides</em> and <em>E. major</em>.	eng
41997	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from two subpopulations, forming one large metapopulation, with overall numbers less than 50,000.	eng
41997	threats	Forster, P., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
41998	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wingen Maid Nature Reserve and in the Towarri National Park. There are also occurrences in several State Forests.	eng
41998	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is widespread but sporadic, occurring through the New South Wales upper Hunter Valley and extending north to the hills around the Liverpool Plains of Australia. The type locality is in the valley below the Hanging Rock lookout, about 6km from Nundle. Other subpopulations are known from the Bushy Hill range, east of Scone; at Omaleah Cliffs in the Warunga Flora Reserve; on a farm south of Blackwell and on Mount Terrible near Currabubula. Recorded from 800 up to 1,100 m asl.	eng
41998	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species forms colonies on ridges, slopes and escarpments in short to tall forest with sparse to relatively dense under-storey. Plants are usually found on steeply sloping terrain in dry sclerophyll woodland on gravelly to stony loam substrates.	eng
41998	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The species is locally abundant.	eng
41998	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The sclerophyll forests are subject to occasional fires.	eng
41999	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Warrumbungle National Park, the Weetalibah Nature Reserve and the Binnaway Nature Reserve.	eng
41999	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are from the eastern Warrumbungle Mountains east to the Mooki River. Recorded at about 500 m asl.	eng
41999	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants grow in dry sclerophyll forest (dominated by eucalypts) on infertile siliceous soils.	eng
41999	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	An abundant species.	eng
41999	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no threats to this species.	eng
42000	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some subpopulations occur in National Parks, State Forests or on vacant Crown Land.	eng
42000	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in eastern New South Wales, Australia from just south of Taree on the north coast, continuing in a southerly direction to Bega on the south coast. Occurs from near sea level up to 300 m.	eng
42000	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants are locally abundant in wet to dry sclerophyll forests, mostly on old beach sands but also on shallow sandy or stony soils on ridges. Strictly near-coastal in the north of the range but extending to the foothills of coastal ranges in the south.	eng
42000	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in numerous subpopulations along the east coast of New South Wales. Several of these subpopulations comprise thousands of plants.	eng
42000	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Urban and rural land development has had an affect on certain subpopulations.	eng
42001	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Great Sandy National Park.	eng
42001	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found on Fraser Island and adjacent coastal districts near Cooloola, north of Noosa in eastern Queensland, Australia. Occurs at low elevations from near sea level up to 150 m.	eng
42001	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in tall open forests on old coastal dunes, along streams and on the fringes of rainforest.	eng
42001	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Although it has a restricted range, the species is abundant.	eng
42001	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42002	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cape Le Grand National Park.	eng
42002	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the southern part of Western Australia, where it is found from Munglinup River east to Israelite Bay.	eng
42002	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in sparse woodland, low scrub and in heathland. It occurs on soil ranging from infertile sandy clays to deep sands and laterites.	eng
42002	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Considered to be abundant throughout its range. The population size is conservatively estimated to number be between 10,000 and 20,000 mature individuals.	eng
42002	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Frequent annual fires may pose a threat.	eng
42003	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of this species occur in the Yuraygir National Park and in the Burnt Down Scrub Nature Reserve.	eng
42003	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs  in New South Wales, Australia. Subpopulations are found along the far North Coast and coastal ranges, from the Richmond River to Coffs Harbour, which includes subpopulations in the vicinity of Grafton and Casino district and the upper reaches of the Richmond river. Recorded at elevations ranging from 5 to 550 m asl.	eng
42003	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows on sheltered slopes and gullies in dry sclerophyll forest and in flat areas close to streams in wet sclerophyll forest.	eng
42003	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is recorded from at least nine localities (based on specimens in the BRI - Queensland Herbarium). Appears to be reasonably abundant.	eng
42003	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species has been affected by over-collecting of plants for cultivation and ornamental purposes.	eng
42004	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42004	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Expedition Range and other ranges north of Injune and Taroom in central-western Queensland, Australia. Recorded from 300 to 600 m asl.	eng
42004	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in tall open forest, either in gullies close to ephemeral  streams or on rocky slopes and escarpments.	eng
42004	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population is estimated to number between 10,000 and 20,000 mature individuals.	eng
42004	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Declining in places due to habitat destruction.	eng
42005	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42005	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Western Australia between Fremantle and Eneabba.	eng
42005	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants grow in sparse shrubby woodland and low scrub in sand.	eng
42005	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant but somewhat sporadic in its distribution.	eng
42005	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42006	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42006	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occur in the  northern areas of the Pilliga Scrub to the south of Narrabri, towards Gunnedah in northern New South Wales, Australia.	eng
42006	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows in stunted eucalypt and native pine forest which has a well-developed shrub layer. Plants are also found in dry sclerophyll woodlands on deep sandy soils.	eng
42006	population	Forster, P., 2009	Locally fairly common and stable.	eng
42006	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
42007	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42007	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in the drier areas of northern and northwestern New South Wales, Australia, particularly in and around  the Warrumbungle Ranges. Recorded to occur at about 200 m asl.	eng
42007	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows in a range of situations, including protected gullies close to ephemeral streams, among rocks on slopes in shallow gravelly soils and in flat areas of open forest dominated by eucalypts (dry sclerophyll forest).	eng
42007	population	Forster, P., 2009	Locally abundant and stable.	eng
42007	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species has been affected by over-collecting for the ornamental trade.	eng
42008	conservation	Bins, B.L. & Meek, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of  CITES. Up to 59% of the area where <em>M. johnsonii </em>occurs falls within state forest where timber harvest (the main threat) is not allowed.	eng
42008	distribution	Bins, B.L. & Meek, P., 2009	This species occurs in the vicinity of Dalmorton on the ranges inland from Grafton on the north coast of New South Wales, Australia. According to Binns and Meek (2008), the minimum convex polygon enclosing all records (extent of occurrence) covers 22,200 ha. On the basis of the number of plots occupied within this area, the area of occupancy is estimated to be 10,100 ha (Bins and Meek 2008).	eng
42008	habitat	Bins, B.L. & Meek, P., 2009	The area in which <em>M. johnsonii</em> occurs comprises an intergrading mosaic of grassy open eucalypt forest and shrubby wet sclerophyll forest, with patches of rainforest in the most sheltered sites (Binns and Meek 2008). Common canopy dominants include <em>Corymbia variegata, Eucalyptus microcorys, Eucalyptus biturbinata, Eucalyptus carnea, Eucalyptus siderophloia</em> and <em>Lophostemon confertus</em>.<br/><br/>Based on a GLM model, Binns and Meek (2008) concluded that the factors that most strongly influenced the occurrence of <em>M. johnsonii</em> were moisture index and slope. Plants are much more likely to be found on sites with high moisture index and steep slopes.	eng
42008	population	Bins, B.L. & Meek, P., 2009	Bins and Meek (2008) sampled plots throughout the range of <em>M. johnsonii.</em> Based on these data, the population was estimated to be ca. 3.5 million mature plants.	eng
42008	threats	Bins, B.L. & Meek, P., 2009	The only real threat at present appears to be timber harvesting. However, the timber harvesting only affects a small proportion of the area in which <em>M. johnsonii</em> occurs.	eng
42009	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Wrattens State Forest.	eng
42009	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in southeastern Queensland, Australia. Populations are restricted to the vicinity of Widgee, which lies to the west of Gympie. Recorded at elevations ranging from 200 to 700 m asl.	eng
42009	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows on slopes and ridges in tall moist eucalypt forest in shallow skeletal soils derived from serpentinite.	eng
42009	population	Forster, P., 2009	There are three known subpopulations with numbers probably not greater than 10,000 mature adult plants.	eng
42009	threats	Forster, P., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
42010	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Pottsville Nature Reserve.	eng
42010	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia, where it is found from around Brisbane north to Nambour. Old records from New South Wales are now known to represent juvenile plants of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. johnsonii,</span> although a single recent collection from the Border Ranges extends the range into far northern New South Wales. Recorded at elevations ranging from 30 up to 600 m asl.	eng
42010	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Populations are found growing in coastal and near-coastal mountain ranges, and in Queensland it extends to some mountain ranges well inland from the coast. Plants are found scattered and sporadic in coastal wet sclerophyll forest.	eng
42010	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found in more than 30 subpopulations and there are many plants.	eng
42010	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
42011	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Alice Springs Telegraph Station Historic Reserve, Arltunga Historic Reserve, Finke Gorge National Park, Ruby Gap Nature Park, Watarrka National Park and the West MacDonnell National Park.	eng
42011	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Northern Territory, Australia, where it is found on the MacDonnell Range and associated range systems (including the Krichauff, George Gill, and Harts ranges).	eng
42011	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is found widely scattered on thin soils on rocky slopes, in <em>Triodia</em> grassland or open woodland. They usually occur in shaded gullies or sheltered gorges and also grow on hills of both metamorphic and sedimentary rock.	eng
42011	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant and stable species.	eng
42011	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There is concern about an apparent decline in the Black-Footed Rock-wallaby, <em>Petrogale lateralis</em>, populations (see http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/16751/0). If Rock-wallabies undergo a decline this may have an adverse effect on seed dispersal. Plants are also poached by collectors.	eng
42012	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Subpopulations of this species occur in Byfield National Park.	eng
42012	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in southern Queensland, Australia. Subpopulations are found from Rockhampton to the surrounds of Brisbane. Recorded to occur from sea level up to 500 m.	eng
42012	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>M. miquelii</em> grows on ridges and slopes in open forest, along the margins of streams and in and around the fringes of rainforest.	eng
42012	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant species.	eng
42012	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42013	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42013	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in northeastern New South Wales, Australia where it is found in the Macleay and Manning catchment areas.	eng
42013	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants are found growing on ridges and slopes covered with tall, moist forest.	eng
42013	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant species.	eng
42013	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42014	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Springsure National Park and in the Carnarvon and Expedition National Parks.	eng
42014	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in central Queensland, Australia, where it is found in the Carnarvon Range and the Emerald, Taroom, Springsure and Rolleston districts. Occurs from 300 to 500 m asl.	eng
42014	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants grow on low hills in dry sclerophyll forests, woodland and also in the valleys and escarpments of rocky gorges in shallow skeletal soil.	eng
42014	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found in at least 18 subpopulations and there are many plants.	eng
42014	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Plants have been affected by loss of habitat which has led to many plants being destroyed. Some have been removed as part of salvage operations.	eng
42015	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42015	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in south central Queensland, Australia,  where it is distributed from the Mount Perry region west of Bundaberg and scattered colonies as far south as Biggenden and as far east as Aramara. Recorded to occur between 50 and 400 m asl.	eng
42015	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species grows on sheltered slopes, ridges and gullies under sparse, tall, dry sclerophyll forest.	eng
42015	population	Forster, P., 2009	<em>M. mountperriensis</em> is a very common plant across its range.	eng
42015	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Land clearance has resulted in the loss of habitat.	eng
42016	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is well conserved in the Blackdown Tableland National Park.	eng
42016	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in Central Queensland, Australia, where it grows in the Blackdown Tableland and Expedition Range (Planet Downs) area.	eng
42016	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species is scattered and locally abundant in dry sclerophyll forest on flat plateau country on sandstone.	eng
42016	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in at least 12 populations with a projected population size of 611,315 adult plants.	eng
42016	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat loss, with estimates for decline of 10-20% in the past 50 years. However, there appears to be no recruitment and pollination does not seem to be taking place. The future decline is therefore estimated to >30% over three generations.	eng
42017	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42017	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant around Coonabarabran and further towards Gunnedah,  and north to the southern Pilliga Scrub.	eng
42017	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in dry sclerophyll woodlands on sandy soils over sandstone.	eng
42018	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Werakata National Park.	eng
42018	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found from the western suburbs of Newcastle westwards almost to Mudgee and south to Glen Davis.	eng
42018	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants are locally abundant in dry sclerophyll woodlands on sandy soils over sandstone on ridges.	eng
42018	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is abundant in nature.	eng
42019	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the D'Entrecasteaux National Park.	eng
42019	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the southwestern part of Western Australia, Australia. Populations occur from Dwellingup to Albany and further west to the coast.	eng
42019	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs as an understorey plant in jarrah forests and woodlands and also occurs in low heathy scrub.	eng
42019	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
42020	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. A considerable portion of the population of this cycad occurs in the Mount Kaputar National Park.	eng
42020	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in New South Wales, Australia. Populations are found from the northwestern slopes and western northern tablelands, in and around the Nandewar and Moonbi Ranges. Plants are also found on Mount Kaputar and on the Warrumbungle Range.	eng
42020	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species is scattered in dry sclerophyll woodland on stony soils.	eng
42020	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is quite common in the wild.	eng
42020	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species has been affected by over-collection from the natural habitat by collectors.	eng
42023	conservation	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Small populations occur on Tjuwaliyn (Douglas) Hot Springs Park and Flora River Nature Park.	eng
42023	distribution	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Populations are found in near-coastal sites at Channel Point to the mouth of the Daly River and this is apparently disjunct from inland occurrences that extend from west of Dorisvale to around Douglas Daly reserve.	eng
42023	habitat	Ottley, H., 2009	<em>C. canalis</em> grows on a variety of well-drained soil types, usually on lateritic soil profiles in open forest or woodland with <em>Eucalyptus miniata</em>. Plants near the coast grow in <em>Eucalyptus </em>woodland.	eng
42023	population	Ottley, H., 2009	The overall population size is estimated to be at least 20,000 individuals and these appear to be stable.	eng
42023	threats	Ottley, H., 2009	Overall decline for <em>C. canalis</em> due to habitat destruction is estimated as being less than 10%, although large areas of the Channel Point population have been cleared for agriculture and there is a potential that additional areas will be cleared for agriculture and tourist development. Frequent fire appears to be a threat to reproduction in the Channel Point population. In the remaining subpopulations fire and land clearing are possible threats, with extensive clearing for agricultural proposed for the Daly Basin.	eng
42024	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. maconochiei</em> subsp. <em>maconochiei</em> is found in parks and reserves in the Northern Territory.	eng
42024	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Plants occur in the northwest of this state and are restricted to a small area between Fog Bay and Port Darwin, to the southwest of Darwin. Occurs from sea level up to 40 m.	eng
42024	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in sparse woodland usually dominated by<em> Eucalyptus miniata</em> and on a variety of well-drained soils. Also found in swampy areas and coastal dunes.	eng
42024	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The size of the population is not known, but it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
42024	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The invasion of alien grasses into areas of native vegetation and an increase in fire intensity due to increases in fuel load is likely to have a negative impact on this species. With the expansion of rural development and agriculture, especially in the Darwin and Katherine regions, cycads such as <em>C. maconochiei</em> subsp. <em>maconochiei</em>, <em>C. armstrongii</em> and <em>C. canalis</em> subsp. <em>canalis</em> are especially vulnerable to clearing.	eng
42025	conservation	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. All subpopulations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. The inhibition of reproduction by too-frequent fire is one such issue.	eng
42025	distribution	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is known only from around Fossil Head, Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
42025	habitat	Ottley, H., 2009	This taxon usually occurs on sandy soils or on old beach sands.	eng
42025	population	Ottley, H., 2009	Plants are scattered but locally abundant.	eng
42025	threats	Ottley, H., 2009	Too frequent fires may be a possible threat.	eng
42026	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Almost all subpopulations are on aboriginal land, and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed.	eng
42026	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies is known from the Northern Territory, Australia. Plants occur from the northern Wingate Mountains and adjacent plains country to the north and west, extending to the coast north of Peppimenarti, and west almost to Port Keats.	eng
42026	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is widespread and in parts extremely abundant, usually on sandy soils in savanna woodland.	eng
42026	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Initial estimates suggest that the total population of this subspecies would number into the tens of millions.	eng
42026	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this taxon.	eng
42027	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Many of the populations are on aboriginal land and conservation issues on such land are yet to be fully addressed. Populations are found in parks and reserves in the Northern Territory.	eng
42027	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is endemic to the far northwestern parts of the Northern Territory of Australia. Occurs from sea level to 40 m.	eng
42027	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is usually found on sandy soils in savanna woodland. Plants are also found in swampy areas and on coastal dunes.	eng
42027	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	Estimates for this species suggest that the total population would number in the tens of millions.	eng
42027	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	The invasion of alien grasses and an increase in fire intensity due to increases in fuel load is likely to have a negative impact on this species in the future.	eng
42028	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42028	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Northen Territory of Australia. Populations are found around the Goyder river in central to eastern Arnhem Land.	eng
42028	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is abundant on deep white to yellow sands over laterites, in <em>Eucalyptus tetrodonta</em> - <em>E. miniata</em> dominated savanna forests.	eng
42028	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant species with population size of at least 10,000 plants and there seems to be little or no decline.	eng
42028	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Annual grass fires kills seed and seedlings, but it is not yet seen as a threat.	eng
42029	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42029	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies is known only from Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
42029	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs mainly on old, stabilized beach dunes in near-coastal sites.	eng
42029	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Locally common.	eng
42029	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no threats to this taxon.	eng
42030	conservation	Liddle, D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42030	distribution	Liddle, D., 2009	This species is known from a small area in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found along the north coast of Arnhem Land, apparently only on the lower Blyth River on the mainland, extending to Elcho Island.	eng
42030	habitat	Liddle, D., 2009	Populations are found growing in tall forest with a grassy understorey. Along the coastal areas, they are found in deep sands.	eng
42030	population	Liddle, D., 2009	This species is relatively abundant within its narrow range. Populations seem to be stable at present.	eng
42030	threats	Liddle, D., 2009	This species may be affected by increased fire frequencies.	eng
42031	conservation	Ottley, H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42031	distribution	Ottley, H., 2009	This species occurs in the Northern Territory of Australia. Populations are found in central to eastern Arnhem land, along the north coast of Arnhem Land and on Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria.	eng
42031	habitat	Ottley, H., 2009	This species occurs on deep sands in savanna forests, in tall forest with a grassy understorey and on old stabilized beach dunes.	eng
42031	population	Ottley, H., 2009	This is a locally abundant species.	eng
42031	threats	Ottley, H., 2009	Increasing annual grass fires may be a threat.	eng
42032	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42032	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs from north of Cooktown to south of Cairns in Queensland, Australia.	eng
42032	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is abundant in near-coastal sites, usually in tall eucalypt forests or among shrubs on slopes and ridges. Soils vary from sands and gravels to stony loams and well structured clay loams.	eng
42032	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This is a reasonably abundant taxon.	eng
42032	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There has been some decline due to bush clearance on cattle stations.	eng
42033	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42033	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies is known from the coastal plain, north of Silver Plains homestead, apparently extending as far north as Lockhart River in Queensland, Australia.	eng
42033	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies occurs in tall eucalypt forest/rainforest ecotonal areas with <em>Livistona muelleri</em> on flat country and in deep alluvial sandy soil.	eng
42033	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant taxon.	eng
42033	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this taxon.	eng
42034	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42034	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies occurs from around Cardwell and then southwards to around St Lawrence in Queensland, Australia. Recorded from sea level up to 860 m.	eng
42034	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This subspecies is usually found in coastal eucalypt forests on sites that offer good soil drainage, often on sandy soils and on sloping sites.	eng
42034	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A locally abundant taxon.	eng
42034	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The habitat of this subspecies has been affected due to clearing for pastures for cattle.	eng
42035	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.&#160; The species is also recorded from protected areas in the region.	eng
42035	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species occurs along the coastal areas of northwestern Queensland, Australia. Occurs from sea level up to 860 m.	eng
42035	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species occurs in tall eucalypt forest or among shrubs. Soils vary from sands to gravels and loams.	eng
42035	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	An abundant and stable species.	eng
42035	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	In some areas, clearing to make way for cattle pastures, has had a negative impact on the habitat.	eng
42036	conservation	Rao, B.R.P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. <em>C. beddomei</em> occurs in the Sri Venkateswara National Park.	eng
42036	distribution	Rao, B.R.P., 2009	This species is known only from the Tirupati-Kadapa Hills in Andhra Pradesh State, northwest of Madras in eastern Peninsular India. The hills are also known as the Seshachalam hills. Occurs from 300 to 900 m.<br/><br/>The entire area of distribution should probably be considered as a single locality since the blocks where the species occurs are contiguous and a single event such as a large fire, disease or pest outbreak could impact the entire population.	eng
42036	habitat	Rao, B.R.P., 2009	This is characteristically a species of dry, open hill slopes. It grows in an area with annual rainfall of 570-1,230 mm. Plants grow on skeletal soils, mainly in dry deciduous mixed type forest with patches of moist deciduous forest.	eng
42036	population	Rao, B.R.P., 2009	The population was originally regarded as having less than 1,000 mature individuals. However, detailed population studies across the entire range (from 2006-2008) indicate that the population is much larger than originally thought, with an estimated number of 20,000 - 30,000 mature individuals (Rao <em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
42036	threats	Rao, B.R.P., 2009	This species is threatened by frequent grassfires that effectively block reproduction. The male cones are used in ayurvedic medicine, although the impact on populations is not known. The stems are also harvested for the extraction of the pith, which is used as treatment in the case of debility.  Land clearing may also have a negative effect on populations.	eng
42037	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur within the Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park.	eng
42037	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is only known from a single locality on granite outcrops of the Khao Chamao mountain, northeast of Klaeng in Rayong, Thailand.	eng
42037	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in full sun in crevices on bare rock (granite) slopes.	eng
42037	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size of <em>C. chamaoensis</em> is not well known but is estimated to be in the range of 2,500 to 10,000 individuals.	eng
42037	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Local inhabitants treasure the plant for gardening purposes and large numbers have been removed from the wild.	eng
42038	conservation	Tang, W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. There are plans to establish a Debao Cycad Reserve. A cottage industry to save <em>Cycas debaoensis</em> in China has been started.	eng
42038	distribution	Tang, W., 2009	<em>C. debaoensis</em> is found near Fuping Village in Deabao County, near Dingye in Napo county and near Banshui in Baise City county in the Guangxi Province of China. In neighbouring Yunnan province, plants are found near Gula in the Funing county. Recorded from 300 to 1,300 m.	eng
42038	habitat	Tang, W., 2009	This species grows in secondary subtropical evergreen broad-leafed forest. Plants are found scattered on open slopes of limestone hills sparsely covered by shrubs and small trees. Almost all cycads grow in cracks or in thin soil near the edges of limestone and the red soil is derived from sandstone and limestone with a pH 5.0-6.5.	eng
42038	population	Tang, W., 2009	From a study done in 2005, the total population surveyed comprised 1,125 plants in the wild.	eng
42038	threats	Tang, W., 2009	Human disturbance within the habitat of<em> C. debaoensis</em> is evident. The population near Fuping Village is seriously depleted due to commercial harvesting. From 1997 to 2002, about 1,000 plants, mostly female trees, were harvested. At the Gula population, about 200 mature cycads were found in the gardens of two villagers. These plants had trunks of  more than 15 cm in diameter and had been harvested from the neighbouring wild population. Near the Dingye subpopulation, some slopes have been planted with maize, which has a strong impact on the cycad population.	eng
42039	conservation	Osborne R., Hill K.D., Nguyen H.T. & Phan K.L., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is urgently in  need of both close study to evaluate its status, and  protective measures to save it from extinction.	eng
42039	distribution	Osborne R., Hill K.D., Nguyen H.T. & Phan K.L., 2009	This species is known only from Phu Tho province in the north of Viet Nam. Occurs at 200 m asl.	eng
42039	habitat	Osborne R., Hill K.D., Nguyen H.T. & Phan K.L., 2009	This species originally grew in closed evergreen forests on low hills of orange-brown alluvial loam. Almost all of this forest on this substrate has been cleared for tea, eucalypt, and <em>Acacia</em> plantations.	eng
42039	population	Osborne R., Hill K.D., Nguyen H.T. & Phan K.L., 2009	This species is apparently a very rare and restricted species and is known only from a severely threatened habitat. It is not known if any plants are still extant in the wild.	eng
42039	threats	Osborne R., Hill K.D., Nguyen H.T. & Phan K.L., 2009	Almost all of the forest habitat on this particular substrate has been cleared for tea, eucalypt and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>plantations. The species has also been impacted by urban expansion.	eng
42040	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some of the remianing plants are protected in the Honghe Nature Cycad Reserve.	eng
42040	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known from only a few populations in the Hong He river valley in Gejiu and Shiping  counties of the Yunnan  province, China. Occurs at 400-600 m.	eng
42040	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Plants are found in low open vine thickets, often with succulent <em>Euphorbia</em> species, and most often rooted in clefts and crevices, often with little or no soil at the roots. This species is apparently endemic to these seasonally dry limestone outcrops. In general it is dry and hot in sunny forests with sparse trees on sharp limestone slopes.	eng
42040	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The population is very small, possibly less than 100 plants and declining.	eng
42040	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Known populations have been very heavily cut for sale as ornamentals, killing many plants and blocking reproduction in survivors.	eng
42041	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations are found in the Ruiyunshan Nature Reserve in Fujian.	eng
42041	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known from eastern Guangdong and eastern Fujian provinces, China.	eng
42041	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species  grows in moist closed forest or woodlands.	eng
42041	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Detailed population data for this species is not available.	eng
42041	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The habitat is severely degraded in some areas and there is also exploitation for the ornamental trade	eng
42042	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42042	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is endemic to south central Thailand, occurring to the north east of Khong Khi Sua in Sariburi Province. Occurs at an elevation of 400 m.	eng
42042	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows on limestone outcrops growing in full sun or partial shade in crevices on bare rock. The limestone outcrops are covered with sparse, seasonally deciduous forest.	eng
42042	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Plants are locally abundant (2,500 to 10,000 mature individuals) but very restricted in their distribution.	eng
42042	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is apparently quite restricted in occurrence and under severe pressure from plant collectors and limestone mining operations.	eng
42043	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42043	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species known from a single site on the southern slopes of the mountain range at Hai Van pass, Phu Loc area, Thua Thien-Hue province, Viet Nam.	eng
42043	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in dense bamboo, shrub and grass regrowth after forest clearing.  It is locally frequent on loamy soils over granite on steep slopes, but the extent of the occurrence is unknown.	eng
42043	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The population is thought to number less than 2,500 mature individuals but the population trend is not known.	eng
42043	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Forests in the vicinity were severely affected by herbicide spraying during the north-south war in the early 1970s.	eng
42045	conservation	Chen, J-R, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Bawangling Nature Reserve.	eng
42045	distribution	Chen, J-R, 2009	This species is restricted to a small area near Bawanling, Changjiang County, Western Hainan Island, China. Occurs at 600 to 800 m.	eng
42045	habitat	Chen, J-R, 2009	This species grows on hills and rocky slopes and on deeper sandy soils among grass and low shrubs, or in open broad-leaved forests, with tropical climate of hot, wet summers and hot, dry winters.	eng
42045	population	Chen, J-R, 2009	It is estimated that approximately 2,000 plants exist in the wild in a few subpopulations. The natural habitat is not good agricultural land.	eng
42045	threats	Chen, J-R, 2009	Some subpopulations of <em>C. changjiangensis</em> are severely degraded and numbers have dwindled. Populations have been affected by habitat destruction that is due mainly to construction. Plants are also still being removed from the wild.	eng
42046	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in some forest reserves and in the Tongguling National Nature Reserve, Wenchang county.	eng
42046	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known only from the wetter eastern parts of Hainan Island. Occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m.	eng
42046	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in tropical jungles and thickets with sparse trees. Plants grow on limestone and volcanic substrate in rainforest. The island is struck by typhoons virtually every year.	eng
42046	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Wild populations are now very restricted, and this species survives mainly in cultivation.	eng
42046	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Several populations are threatened or have been destroyed by agricultural development and road construction. Logging could also be a threat.	eng
42047	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Cuc Phuong National Park in Ninh Binh province, the Chua Huong Tich Nature Reserve in Ha Tay province and the Thuong Tien Nature Reserve in Hoa Binh province.	eng
42047	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is found in the Hoa Binh, Ha Nam, Ha Tay and Ninh Binh provinces of northern Viet Nam, approximately 50-80 km south of the city of Hanoi. It occurs at 50 to 150 m asl.	eng
42047	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Plants are found in sheltered sites on steep limestone outcrops under closed evergreen forest canopies. Some specimens are found in clefts and crevices in bare rock with little or no soil.	eng
42047	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Plants are locally abundant.	eng
42047	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Over-collection of plants from the wild has placed this plant at risk. It is a small species that is very popular as a 'bonsai' plant and a large number of plants are being removed from the wild.	eng
42048	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>C. multipinnata</em> is protected in the Honghe Nature Cycad Reserve and in the Xilong Mountain Natural Reserve in Yunnan province, China. If conservation measures are not taken immediately, the species will most likely become Critically Endangered.	eng
42048	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is known from several quite widely disjunct locations. Subpopulations are found in a limited area in the Red River gorge in eastern Yunnan, with a disjunct occurrence in Yen Bai Province, northern Viet Nam and another in western Guangxi in China. Recorded from 200 to 1.300 m asl.	eng
42048	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species grows in closed evergreen forest (semi-shaded monsoon forests) on limestone on very steep slopes.	eng
42048	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The known subpopulations are small and the species is regarded as rare. Overall population size has been estimated as between 1,000 and 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
42048	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Much of the forest habitat of <em>C. multipinnata</em> has been cleared or severely degraded. Over-collection by commercial dealers has also had a negative impact on wild populations.	eng
42049	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42049	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is widespread but sporadic, in the northwestern region of Guangdong and eastern region of Guangxi provinces of China.  Subpopulations are also found in the southwestern region of the Hunan and southeastern region of the Yunnan provinces. Despite its name, this species is not known to occur in Taiwan. Has been recorded from 400 up to 1,100 m asl.	eng
42049	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Grows on steep slopes on shallow skeletal soils. Plants are found in sunny, grassy places or sparse, mixed forests, often disturbed places. The climate is warm to hot and humid all year.	eng
42049	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size is estimated to number between 1,00 and 5,000 mature individuals.	eng
42049	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species has been severely depleted by collection from the wild. Habitat destruction over the centuries has also had a major effect on the populations.	eng
42050	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants most likely to occur in the Con Dao National Park.	eng
42050	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Con Dao group of islands, east of the southern tip of Viet Nam.	eng
42050	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs mostly in drier sites on sand accumulations, either beach dunes or wind-blown beach sand deposits. Habitat ranges from low open shrubland to dense tall shrubland or woodland.	eng
42050	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Several subpopulations of <em>C. condaoensis</em> are known.	eng
42050	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The threats are unknown.	eng
42051	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42051	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. collina</em> occurs in mountainous regions mostly in Son La province (Mai Son area) in the north of Viet Nam. Across the border, populations are mainly found in the Sichuangbanna region of southern Yunnan province, China. This species would also be expected to occur in Lao PDR, although adjacent terrain in Lao PDR is generally of lower elevation. There is also a possibility that it may occur in Myanmar. Recorded from 400 to 900 m asl.	eng
42051	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Occurs in evergreen or partly deciduous forests or woodlands or bamboo thickets on steep slopes of mountain ridges. Some plants occur in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. The substrate varies from red clay soils on limestone to loamy soils on meta-sediments.	eng
42051	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Locally frequent, although not occurring in large or dense populations.	eng
42051	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Although its habitat is continually being reduced, many populations remain. Land clearing in its habitat for agricultural purposes has affected some populations. This species is not popular with collectors, but numbers are nevertheless still declining.	eng
42052	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42052	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	<em>C. diannanensis</em> is a widespread species through central and eastern Yunnan province of China. Plants are found along the Hong He valley between Hekou and Shuangbai. Recorded from 600 up to 1,800 m asl.	eng
42052	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species occurs on a range of substrates from limestone to shale and schist, usually on steep slopes high on ridges. The original vegetation was closed evergreen forest in the cloud zone, but today it is often severely degraded to grassland or scrubby secondary regrowth.	eng
42052	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	There is very little information on population numbers, but the population is thought to be less than 5,000 mature individuals and declining.	eng
42052	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is moderately abundant over a considerable area in central and eastern Yunnan province, but many populations are now depleted.	eng
42053	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Ben En National Park, Vietnam.	eng
42053	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is predominantly found in Viet Nam; its range extends from near the Chinese border in the north and northwest to Ben En National Park in Thanh Hoa Province in the south, it also extends north-westwards a very short way into eastern Yunnan Province, China.	eng
42053	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. dolichophylla</em> occurs in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. Plants occur on loamy soils over limestone, shale, schist or granite, in closed evergreen forests, although today these are often reduced to scrubby regrowth.	eng
42053	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally frequent across its distribution range. A subpopulation occurring west of the city of Moc Chau has narrow leaflets with slender bases, short to medium petioles and small seeds, and is interpreted as a zone of intergradation with <em>C. collina</em>, which is abundant in higher country to the west. Plants observed in cultivation around Vo Nhai and Yen Son districts, Thai Nguyen Province, were intermediate in form between <em>C. dolichophylla</em> and <em>C. ferruginea</em>, and have been interpreted as hybrid individuals. In this region, <em>C. ferruginea</em> is abundant on steep exposed limestone faces, and <em>C. dolichophylla</em> is abundant in adjacent closed forests on deep heavy soils. Plants observed in cultivation in villages west of Thai Nguyen and said to have been collected locally were morphologically intermediate between <em>C. dolichophylla</em> and <em>C. multifrondis</em>.	eng
42053	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	There is no immediate threat of extinction, although some subpopulations have been severely depleted over past decades. Mostly the consensus is that there are still large populations with little threat.	eng
42054	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42054	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Recorded from the coastal hills of southern Viet Nam, from Nha Trang north to Quang Ngai, Khanh Hoa, Phu Yen and Binh Dinh Provinces. Occurs at low elevations between 50 and 200 m.	eng
42054	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in forests to open shrublands on slopes, on dry gritty soil derived from coarse siliceous granite.	eng
42054	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally common forming colonies. The four main subpopulations are found at: northern Ninh Thuan Province, west of Cam Ranh in Khan Hoa Province, Song Cau district of Phu Yen Province and in the area of the Cu Mong Pass on the boundary between the Phu Yen and Binh Dinh Provinces.	eng
42054	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Most of the woodland habitat has been cut for fuel and cleared for agriculture. The coastal areas have been targetted for future development. The species is also extremely popular in both Viet Nam and China and large numbers of plants are being removed from the wild.	eng
42055	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Nam Cat Thien National Park.	eng
42055	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is widely distributed on the near-coastal ranges in central and southern Viet Nam, from near Da Nang, to Khanh Hoa province and south to Nam Cat Tien National Park.	eng
42055	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Locally common in closed evergreen or semideciduous forests on flat or elevated sites on granite, metamorphic or basaltic volcanic substrates. <em>C. inermis</em> often grows on steep slopes or local slight stony rises where the drainage would be greater.	eng
42055	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This is a locally common species.	eng
42055	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat destruction and also by removal from the wild because it is a popular landscaping plant .	eng
42056	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42056	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Binh Thuan, Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan provinces, Viet Nam. There is an old collection from 1911 from the Khan Hoa (Nha Trang vicinity) province. This has not been included in the distribution map, as no recent reports have been received from that locality. It occurs from sea level up to 30 m.	eng
42056	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in grassland and mixed dry open dipterocarp forest or woodland on flat sites at low elevations and near the coast. Soil is deep and sandy, a combination of outwash from siliceous granite hills and beach dune sands.	eng
42056	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The population size of <em>C. lindstromii</em> is estimated to be more than 10,000 plants in at least five localities in the wild.	eng
42056	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Local residents in this area have been extensively collecting wild plants of this species for sale as garden and landscape subjects. Furthermore, habitat destruction due to land clearance for agricultural purposes has had an impact on the plants.	eng
42057	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42057	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in southern Thailand, as well as in northern and central peninsular Malaysia. In Thailand plants occur near the Malaysian border, with disjunct occurrences in Prachuap Khiri Khan province in the northern peninsula. This species is more common in Malaysia.	eng
42057	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	These cycads originally occurred in primary low elevation closed forest (rainforest), on well-drained, often sloping, deep sandy clay-loam soils, and are said to still occur on the less disturbed ridges.	eng
42057	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	A widely scattered species, not forming dense stands.	eng
42057	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species has suffered extensive habitat destruction for agriculture and it is still ongoing.	eng
42058	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42058	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is known from the Annam Highlands region of central Viet Nam and eastern Lao PDR. It has been recorded from 130 to 600 m asl.	eng
42058	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species grows in low, scrubby but fairly dense woodland with substantial seasonal (monsoon) rainfall and additional year-round montane rainfall. The vegetation can also be decribed as semi-shaded thickets and broad-leaved monsoon forests.	eng
42058	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The species is relatively common.	eng
42058	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	A large portion of the habitat of <em>C. micholitzii</em> has been cleared in Viet Nam.	eng
42059	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations are protected in the Longgang Nature Reserve in Longzhou, Guangxi province, China.	eng
42059	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is found in southern Guangxi and eastern Yunnan provinces in China and Cao Bang, Lang Son and Tuyen Quang provinces in northern Viet Nam. Occurs at 100 to 300 m asl.	eng
42059	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in low, scrubby but fairly dense mixed evergreen and deciduous woodland or bamboo woodland, often on red terra rosa soils on and around steep karst limestone outcrops, but also on sandy or loamy soils over shales, granites and meta-sandstones.	eng
42059	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally abundant but many subpopulations are now seriously depleted.	eng
42059	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction due to forestry and agricultural activities. This species has also been severely reduced in numbers as a result of over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
42060	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42060	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known at present only from limestone outcrops near Tak Fa, Nakhon Sawan province, Thailand. Occurs at 50 to 100 m asl.	eng
42060	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in full sun in low scrub on steep limestone bluffs, often growing in crevices in bare limestone in seasonally dry forest. Generally subjected to fire in the dry season.	eng
42060	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is regarded as being locally abundant.	eng
42060	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species has come under pressure from plant collectors and increasing frequency of fires may pose a problem.	eng
42061	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42061	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is known only from a limited range of coastal hills in the Bin Thuan, Ninh Thuan and possibly Dong Nai provinces, southern Viet Nam.	eng
42061	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in dry open thorn shrublands on rocky slopes, on dry gritty soil derived from coarse siliceous granite. Original vegetation in much of this region was low monsoon woodland and thorn scrub, although much of the original woodland has been cut for fuel.	eng
42061	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally abundant with populations estimated to range from 2,500 - 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
42061	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Much of the original woodland habitat has been cut for fuel and there has been large scale removal of plants for horticultural purposes.	eng
42062	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42062	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. pectinata</em> is abundant in the hill forests of northeastern India, and has also been collected from Nepal,  Bhutan and Bangladesh. It extends into northern Burma (Myanmar) and Yunnan Province in southern China, and south and east into northern Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and northeastern Cambodia. Recorded from 600 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
42062	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in medium to tall closed forest on deep, often clay-rich and more fertile soils, usually as part of the general shrub understorey in moderate to deep shade. <em>C. pectinata</em> is a plant of medium to higher elevations and moist conditions. It is recorded from a variety of substrates, but most frequently occurs on clay soils over limestone. Climate is tropical with wet, humid summers and milder, drier winters. Although often found on limestone substrates, it is by no means restricted to these, and it also occurs on granites and meta-sediments.	eng
42062	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This is a common and widespread species.	eng
42062	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Hill tribes in Assam, India eat the seeds and emergent leaves are used as a vegetable. The fleshy stem is pounded and used as a hair wash. Although its habitat is continually being reduced, large populations remain, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.	eng
42063	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>C. pranburiensis</em> occur in the Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park.	eng
42063	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known only from limestone outcrops of Khao Sam Roi Yot near to the town of Pranburi, Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Restricted to the general area of the Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park between Pran Buri and Kui Buri. Occurs at low elevations from 5 to 30 m asl.	eng
42063	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in dense thickets in creviced jagged limestone outcrops with scant or no soil rising above mangrove estuaries. Plants grow on steep limestone slopes and cliffs where plants are surrounded by low scrub vegetation adapted to drought (<em>Ficus,  Euphorbia</em> and <em>Dracaena</em> spp.) Plants grow in full sun or in partial shade. The outcrops seem to consist of two different kinds of limestone with the plants avoiding the hills with a reddish coloured rock. This may suggest that the plants have specific substrate preferences.	eng
42063	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Seems to be locally common with population estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000 mature plants.	eng
42063	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This plant is threatened by local plant collectors.	eng
42064	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42064	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs on several of the Fijian Islands, on Vanuatu, the Tonga Island group and New Caledonia. Recorded from sea level up to 600 m asl.	eng
42064	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is common on stabilized coastal dunes developed on coral sand or coral limestone, less commonly on basaltic loams and other heavier soil types. Drier areas on rocky open slopes and ridges.	eng
42064	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	A great deal of its habitat has been replaced by agriculture, yet, many plants are still encountered in patches of undisturbed forest.	eng
42065	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42065	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. segmentifida</em> is an extremely widespread although severely depleted species occurring in China. Plants are found through western Guangxi, extending into southern Guizhou and eastern Yunnan, in both cases to a limited extent. Occurs from 600 to 900 m asl.	eng
42065	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs on a range of substrates from limestone to shale and schist, usually on steep slopes lower in valleys with some skeletal soil cover. Vegetation ranges from closed evergreen forest to mixed deciduous and evergreen woodland, although today it is mostly severely degraded to grassland or scrubby secondary regrowth.	eng
42065	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The population is estimated to number about 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
42065	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Deforestation is a trhreat to the existence of this species.	eng
42066	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of this species are protected in the Yok Don National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
42066	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in central Thailand, and in Viet Nam in the central plateau region from Buon Ma Thuot to Pleiku (Dac Lac and Kon Tum), with a disjunct occurrence in Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces in the north. Also recorded from Cambodia and Myanmar and probably also occurs in Lao PDR. Has been recorded up to 300 m asl.	eng
42066	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in seasonally dry monsoon forests with a warm, humid and rainy season, followed by a hot season of drought. This vegetation is fire prone. In Thailand plants grow on limestone derived soils and in crevices of limestone boulders. In Viet Nam plants grow on sandy, rocky soil in disturbed grassland or in the understorey of dry, rocky, open forest.	eng
42066	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is widespread and locally extremely abundant.	eng
42066	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. siamensis</em> is threatended due to forest clearing for agricultural purposes and this has drastically reduced available habitat. Furthermore, too frequent fires are also having an effect on the habitat. This species has also been over-collected to be sold as ornamentals. Although its habitat is continually being reduced, large populations remain, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.	eng
42067	conservation	Haynes, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Taitung Hongyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve.	eng
42067	distribution	Haynes, J., 2009	This species is known only from the mountainous southern parts of Taitung (Taidong) province of Taiwan. Populations are in the Lu-Yeh Valley near Yenping Hsiang and to the west of the Taitung Coastal Range in Tunghe Hsiang. Occurs from 400 to 900 m asl.	eng
42067	habitat	Haynes, J., 2009	This species occurs in mixed, sparse forests in exposed sites on rocky and steep slopes or in well-drained gravel. The habitat is subjected to periodic fires.	eng
42067	population	Haynes, J., 2009	<em>C. taitungensis</em> occurs at two locations. Genetic studies show low levels of differentiation between these subpopulations. At least 1,700 plants occur in the Taitung Hongyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve.	eng
42067	threats	Haynes, J., 2009	The invasive <em>Cycas Aulacaspis</em> scale is present in the Taitung Hungyeh Village Cycas Nature Reserve. Poaching of plants and seed from habitat plants also poses a threat to this species.	eng
42068	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42068	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Papua New Guinea, from the Huon Peninsula westwards to Indonesia, where it occurs in Papua, West Irian Jaya, Vogelkop and Halmahera Island.	eng
42068	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in a sporadic and scattered manner, in more or less closed mesophyll forest in wet lowland areas and sometimes in seasonally inundated sites but more often on low ridges.	eng
42068	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population trend is unknown, but the species is probably reasonably common with more than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
42068	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The areas where it occurs are being impacted by expanding agriculture.	eng
42069	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Muong Nhe Nature Reserve, Lai Chau Province, Vietnam.	eng
42069	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in the region to the northwest and northeast of Hanoi, Viet Nam. Populations are found in the Lang Son, Vinh Phuc, Thai Nguyen, and Quang Ninh provinces. The distribution extends into the Shiwan Dashan (mountains) in coastal southeastern Guangxi Province of China. Recorded from 100 to 800 m.	eng
42069	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Plants are found in more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall, closed evergreen dense rainforests in mountainous regions. The climate is subtropical to tropical with hot humid summers and milder drier winters. Plants grow in loamy soils over schists or granites.	eng
42069	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally frequent but not occuring in dense stands. It is estimated that there are in excess of 10,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42069	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Unknown.	eng
42070	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42070	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. bougainvilleana</em> is confined to near-coastal sites on Bougainville and New Britain islands of Papua New Guinea and also on other Solomon islands.<br/><br/>.	eng
42070	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is confined to coastal and near coastal sites. Plants occur in low elevation moist littoral forest on stabilized calcareous coral sand dunes and headlands.	eng
42070	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs sporadically, but is locally abundant.	eng
42070	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
42071	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is well represented within Ba Be National Park, Vietnam.	eng
42071	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known at present from a limited region in the Bac Can province of Viet Nam.	eng
42071	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. brachycantha</em> occurs on the crests of outcropping limestone ridges within closed subtropical evergreen forest canopies, growing in clefts and crevices in bare rock with no soil.	eng
42071	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally frequent although not in dense stands.	eng
42071	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42072	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42072	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs in the Central Province, particularly around Port Moresby, extending from Kairuku to Abau.	eng
42072	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant but sporadic and it occurs in savanna woodland country. Plants are often in more open and grassy areas prone to frequent fire. Occurs only at low altitudes on the coastal plain.	eng
42072	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size is not well known but is estimated to exceed 10,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42072	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species may be subject to over-collecting for ornamental purposes. Fire may also be a problem as in other <em>Cycas</em> species, frequent fires have led to decline.	eng
42073	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42073	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in a region inland from Vinh and Ha Tinh and south to Dong Ha, in mountain foothills in Nghe An, Ha Tinh and Dong Ha provinces in Viet Nam. It may also occur in Lao PDR.	eng
42073	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is locally abundant in tall closed evergreen forest on sandy loams over schists and granites. This species often grows in boulder beds along riverbanks, where it may form large, multi-headed clusters.	eng
42073	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	The population size of <em>C. chevalieri</em> is estimated to be more than 10,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42073	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is threatened due to over-collection for the ornamental plant trade.	eng
42074	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Perlis State Park in Malaysia.	eng
42074	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species occurs on limestone outcrops in Thailand, both on the mainland and on the islands. It is also found in the Perlis state of Malaysia and in Cambodia and Viet Nam. Occurs from sea level up to 60 m.	eng
42074	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species occurs on limestone outcrops. Plants are found on near-vertical cliffs in full sun.	eng
42074	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	This is an abundant and widespread species. The actual population numbers have not been estimated.	eng
42074	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	The species is collected for ornamental purposes.	eng
42075	conservation	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is evidently protected in a reserve.	eng
42075	distribution	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	<em>C. ferruginea</em> is a restricted species, known from a belt of limestone bluffs in Lang Son and Thai Nguyen Provinces in Thailand and in western Guangxi Province of China.	eng
42075	habitat	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species is known from a belt of limestone bluffs, growing on bare limestone faces with no visible soil at the roots. Plants grow in semi-shaded, rocky crevices in broad-leaved forests on limestone mountains.	eng
42075	population	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	There are still large subpopulations in remote areas.	eng
42075	threats	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42076	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42076	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is known from the Nanpan and Qingshui valleys in southwestern Guizhou province and also in eastern Yunnan and northwestern Guangxi provinces of China. It is recorded from 400 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
42076	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is typical of low, scrubby forests on steep slopes on limestone bluffs or screes and is also widespread on steep and almost inaccessable limestone mountains. Plants are also found in steep river valleys.	eng
42076	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	Recent studies indicate that this species is moderately abundant over a considerable area.	eng
42076	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	Habitat destruction within the distribution range of this species has been extensive. The species is also threatened by over-collection for food, medicine and use as an ornamental<sup> </sup>plant. During China's Cultural Revolution this cycad was eaten as a famine food by the local minorities.	eng
42078	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Two nature reserves have been designated for the protection of this species. One of these is known as the Panzhihua Cycad Nature Reserve.	eng
42078	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known from the southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan Provinces of China. Occurs from 1,100 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
42078	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Occurs typically in fairly dry, closed low woodland or shrubland thickets on moderately to steeply sloping sites. Soil is usually derived from limestone, although occurrences on shale and sandstone are known. As with all mainland Asian cycads, human population pressure has had considerable impact, and present distributions may represent a small fraction of the distribution of only a century ago.	eng
42078	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is very abundant.	eng
42078	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Much of the habitat is under threat of clear cutting, and plants are being collected for sale as food, medicine and ornamentals, even within the reserves. There is a large mining operation in the distribution area.	eng
42079	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42079	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is found in the western district, including the floodplains of the Fly river and near Daru to the west and still further to the Bensbach river.	eng
42079	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	It forms sparse colonies in open grassy woodland and savanna, frequently growing with Kunai grass.	eng
42079	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is sporadic but widespread and in places it is sometimes locally abundant.	eng
42079	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species may be threatened as a result of being subjected to almost annual fires.	eng
42080	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42080	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is widely distributed through the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan and also on the southern parts of Kyushu Island. There are reports of natural occurrences in the coastal Fujian Province of China. These have not been substantiated, although circumstantial support for these claims are strong. Recorded from sea level up to 300 m.	eng
42080	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	Today plants occur primarily on steep to precipitous stony sites, but previously they occurred on flatter land which has since been cleared. Usually grow in exposed locations on steep limestone cliffs and rocks overhanging the shoreline, sometimes in low dense forest in heavy shade.	eng
42080	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population is large and estimations of several hundred thousand plants have been made.	eng
42080	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	There has been massive seed collecting from natural habitats and leaves are exported in large numbers for decorative purposes. Habitat has also been cleared.	eng
42081	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42081	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. rumphii</em> has a distribution centred on the Moluccan island group (Maluku, or the Spice Islands) extending east into Indonesian Papua and a short way along the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and north to Sulawesi. In the west, it appears to extend to southern Borneo and northeastern Java. Occurs from 10 to 200 m.	eng
42081	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in coastal and near coastal communities in littoral forest and rainforest. Often on stabilized dunes composed of coral sands and coral limestone.	eng
42081	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The species is locally abundant.	eng
42081	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown although there has been loss of habitat across its range.	eng
42082	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42082	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it occurs on the northern side of the island along the foothills of the Bismarck range, predominantly in the valleys of the Markham and Ramu rivers extending south from Lae along the Bulolo river as far as Wau and Madang. Recorded from low to high elevations, up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
42082	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. schumanniana</em> occurs in savanna grasslands, less frequently in woodlands and forests with a dense grassy understorey.	eng
42082	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is considered to be locally abundant.	eng
42082	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	All habitats are generally burned annually.	eng
42083	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42083	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Papua New Guinea, where it is widespread in the east, extending from near coastal sites to the foothills (5 to 900 m asl). Plants occur in the Central, Gulf, Milne Bay, and Western provinces. Further west it occurs in Indonesia, where it occurs in the southeastern part of the West Papua province. <em>C. scratchleyana</em> also occurs in Australia, where it is found on Mer (Murray Island) in the Torres Strait. This falls within the Cook district of Queensland.	eng
42083	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in more or less closed mesophyll forest in wet lowland areas, on ridges. Often extending to higher elevations (to over 900 m), usually on slopes or ridges in more or less closed, moist forests, but also extending to similar forests on stabilized calcareous coral-sand dune country and nearby headlands, particularly in the east of the range.	eng
42083	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is common over a large range.	eng
42083	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
42084	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42084	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is widespread in southern and central Guangxi province of China, and in Cao Bang province in central northern Viet Nam in the border region with Guangxi, with a disjunct occurrence in Thanh Hoa province south of Hanoi.	eng
42084	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species grows in subtropical forests in crevices on bare outcrops in rugged karst limestone country, often on vertical faces with no visible soil.	eng
42084	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is locally abundant.	eng
42084	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	<em>C. sexseminifera</em> is threatened due to over-collection for ornamental and horticultural purposes.	eng
42085	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Lthough its habitat is continually being reduced, many populations remain across this range, with a number in conservation areas, and it is not under any immediate threat of extinction.	eng
42085	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is known from western Quang Tri Province in Viet Nam. Further, it is widely distributed in the mountains of northern Thailand. This species also occurs in northern Myanmar and Lao PDR. Is recorded from 600 to 1,300 m asl.	eng
42085	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species occurs in wetter and more sheltered sites in deep shade in tall closed evergreen forests. Individuals are usually scattered and sporadic in occurrence, and dense stands are uncommon. Often occuring near streams.	eng
42085	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Appears to be an abundant species with population size estimated to be larger than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
42085	threats	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Continued land clearing may become a problem across the vast distributional range of this plant.	eng
42086	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42086	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Luchun area of southeastern Yunnan Province, China. Populations have also been reported from across the border in the Lai Chau area in Viet Nam. Has been recorded up to 800 m asl.	eng
42086	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in the understorey of rainforests in remote and mountainous country in China. Plants also possibly occur in closed evergreen forest in Viet Nam.	eng
42086	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Good populations of this species still occur with estimates of more than 100,000 plants being made.	eng
42086	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Much of the forest has been cleared for agriculture in recent decades, and, in general, the only forest remaining is on precipitously steep sites that are unsuitable for any kind of cultivation.	eng
42087	conservation	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Cat Ba National Park within the Cat Ba Biosphere Reserve, an archipelago in northern Viet Nam, which is adjacent to the Ha Long Bay World Heritage site.	eng
42087	distribution	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. tropophylla</em> is a restricted species endemic to Viet Nam. Subpopulations are known from Cat Ba and other islands in Haiphong Harbour, and on similar limestone bluffs on the adjacent mainland. Cat Ba National Park is located in Cat Hai District, Hai Phong Province, Viet Nam. Cat Ba is an archipelago encompassing a mosaic of land cover types derived from human uses.	eng
42087	habitat	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	Plants are found growing on bare limestone faces on steep limestone bluffs, with no soil accumulation at the roots.	eng
42087	population	Nguyen, H.T., 2009	<em>C. tropophylla</em> is an abundant species found in inaccessible habitats.	eng
42089	conservation	Varghese, A., Krishnamurthy, V., Garnesan, R. & Manu, K., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations occur in the Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka and the Niligri Biosphere Reserve located in the Western Ghats. The Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) near Palode in Kerala was identified as an alternate centre for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation of cycads.	eng
42089	distribution	Varghese, A., Krishnamurthy, V., Garnesan, R. & Manu, K., 2009	<em>C. circinalis</em> is now known to be an Indian endemic, restricted to the Western Ghats, in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and may also occur south of Maharashtra.	eng
42089	habitat	Varghese, A., Krishnamurthy, V., Garnesan, R. & Manu, K., 2009	This species typically occurs in fairly dense, seasonally dry scrubby woodlands in hilly areas. Plants are also found in rocky areas (dried stream beds).  Many trees in this habitat lose their leaves in the dry season, and <em>C. circinalis</em> is also facultatively deciduous in extremely dry times. Populations may also occur in taller moist forests. It appears to be an adaptable species with colonies extending from rocky hill outcrops down to coastal habitats at sea level.	eng
42089	population	Varghese, A., Krishnamurthy, V., Garnesan, R. & Manu, K., 2009	This species occurs at at least 12 sites.<br/><br/>1. Coonoor, Kotagiri, NE slopes of Niligriis (1,000 m), Tamil Nadu - > 500 individuals (dry deciduous forest, savanna woodland)<br/><br/>2. Mettupalyam hills (500-300 m), Tamil Nadu. <500 individuals (Riparian zone)<br/><br/>3. Pillur Slopes (800-500 m), Tamil Nadu, <500 individuals (Semi evergreen, Savanna woodlands and dry deciduous forests)<br/><br/>4. Annamalais, South Tamil Nadu, >300 (Teak plantations, Moist Deciduous forests)<br/><br/>5. Kalakad Mundanthurai Wild life Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. >300 (Savanna woodlands, Teak plantations, Semi Evergreen forests)<br/><br/>6. Nilambur North, Malppuram district, Kerala (500-300 m). >1,000 (Semi evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Teak Plantations)<br/><br/>7. Silent Valley National PArk, Palghat, Kerala (500-300 m). >200 (Teak plantations, Moist Deciduous and Riparian)<br/><br/>8. Idukki district, Kerala.<br/><br/>9. Achenkovil forests, South Kerala (300 m), >500 (Teak plantations, Moist deciduous, Semi evergreen and Riparian)<br/><br/>10. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. >200 (Semi evergreen, moist deciduous and <em>Areca</em> plantations)<br/><br/>11. Melkote Wolf Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka. (500-300 m). <1,500 individuals (Scrub forests)<br/><br/>12 Chamundi hills, Karnataka. >100 individuals. (Scrub forests)<br/><br/><br/>The total population size is unknown.	eng
42089	threats	Varghese, A., Krishnamurthy, V., Garnesan, R. & Manu, K., 2009	Land clearing is thought to have destroyed more than 50% of the original habitat of <em>C. circinalis</em>. Harvesting of cycad leaves for the urban floricultural market may also have an impact on this species. There is evidently medicinal properties in the leaves and pith of stem. Large and old specimens are ruthlessly hacked down for the extraction of pith. Seeds are harvested and used for food as a regular part of the diet.	eng
42090	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42090	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	Occurs on the islands of Palawan and Mindoro, Philippines. On Palawan Island the plants are found on Mount Beaufort in the catchment of the Malinao river. On Mindoro Island the plants are found in the Mindoro Oriental province in the area of Bongabon and Mansalay. The subpopulation on Mindoro Island was erroneously reported as <em>Cycas wadei </em>, which are very similar based on the sclerotesta which is ribbed. <em>C. curranii</em> is however distinguished from <em>C. wadei</em> with its larger seeds and broader sterile part of the megasporophylls.	eng
42090	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	It grows in habitats ranging from deposits of sandy alluvium to precipitous cliffs of limestone karst and serpentinite bluffs. In rainforests at low elevations and in open grassland areas.	eng
42090	population	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	The species occurs as small subpopulations at two disjunct localities.	eng
42090	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	<em>C. curranii</em> is threatened due to the conversion of forest and grasslands into settlement areas and slash-and-burn agricultural practices, amongst others, to promote regrowth of grass. Logging has also had an effect on the habitat.	eng
42091	conservation	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42091	distribution	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species is widespread and locally common in much of southeast Asia. Subpopulations are found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.	eng
42091	habitat	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species occurs only along shorelines, in full sun to moderate shade often in dry littoral scrub on beach sand, stabilized coastal sand dunes or rocky headlands, often in very shallow soil and apparently over both granite and limestone substrates.	eng
42091	population	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	The population size is thought to&#160; number about 10,000 mature individuals and is declining.	eng
42091	threats	Osborne, R., Hill, K.D., Nguyen, H.T. & Phan, K.L., 2009	This species occurs in coastal sites that have experienced severe pressures from population increase and development. This habitat is also coming under increasing pressure for aquaculture sites. Although probably not immediately threatened, it is potentially vulnerable in the longer term.	eng
42092	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42092	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is restricted to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi and the nearby Kabaena Island.	eng
42092	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in habitats ranging from closed forest to open short tree savanna with grasses dominant, in full sun to heavy shade, over limestone or serpentinite substrates.	eng
42092	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. falcata</em> is known from two localities on the main island of Sulawesi and from Kabaena Island off the southeastern coast of Sulawesi. The species is poorly known and hence the population size and trend is unknown.	eng
42092	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42093	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42093	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is endemic to Indonesia. It is primarily a Javan species, but it also extends to southern Sumatra and possibly the western Sunda Islands.	eng
42093	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species grows in lowland areas in or close to rainforest. Plants also occur in closed forest on slopes and ridges from low to middle elevations, mostly on volcanic soils.	eng
42093	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	The overall population size is unknown.	eng
42093	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	Much of the primary forest habitat has been cleared or degraded in recent decades, and the habitat loss continues today.	eng
42094	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. The species is still locally frequent in Sri Lanka although it is never found in great numbers. It is known to be present in reserves, but political instability made assessment difficult and future status uncertain. However, the recent end of conflict in this region now provides now opportunities for surveys and conservation work.	eng
42094	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known from Sri Lanka and India. In Sri Lanka, it occurs in inland and upland forests in the north of the island, usually in somewhat drier sites. In the Tamil Nadu area in India it usually occurs in flatter areas, but also usually in somewhat drier sites. Recorded from 30 to 300 m asl.	eng
42094	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in inland and upland forests, usually in somewhat drier sites.	eng
42094	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Locally frequent, although not in great numbers.	eng
42094	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Like all cycads in Tamil Nadu of India, this species has suffered greatly from stem cutting for local medicine. Several populations have been depleted to only a very few scattered individuals. As the lowland is very attractive agricultural land, populations have been destroyed to make way for human populations. It is regarded as Endangered in India.	eng
42095	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. The largest population is found within the Mount Arayat National Park.  Recently, the various stakeholders developed a conservation and management plan for the species.  It is also found in another protected area, Sierra Madre Wilderness Area.  The other known localities are not protected.	eng
42095	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species grows on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Populations are found in the Pampanga province near Mount Arayat, in the Bataan province near Morong and Bagac, in the Batangas province near Lobo, in the Isabela province near Mount Dipalayag and in the Aurora province near Baler. Occurs at 615 to 800 m.	eng
42095	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is found in closed lowland evergreen forests at low to medium altitudes. Populations grow well inland from the coast on steep rocky ridges. The associated species belong to the families <em>Annonaceae, Sterculiaceae, Myrtaceae, Sapindanceae, Rubiaceae, Moraceae, and Euphorbiaceae</em>. The forest is dominated by <em>Cycas riuminiana, Heritiera sylvatica, Syzygium</em> sp.<em>, Ficus</em> sp., and <em>Pterospermum diversifolium</em>.  Plants are found on loam type soils.  The soil has a very high nitrogen content, but is low in phosphorus.  It has a sufficient amount of potassium.	eng
42095	population	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is found in five separate localities.  The largest subpopulation is found on Mount Arayat, with smaller subpopulations in the other known localities.  Based on molecular evidence, there is insignificant genetic diversity among the individuals in Pampanga, Bataan, and Batangas, thus suggesting that despite the geographical separation, these individuals belong to only one subpopulation. The population is estimated to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals.	eng
42095	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	The type locality of <em>C. riuminiana</em> is highly threatened by the development of an exclusive residential resort area. A telecommunications tower was also built at the peak of the mountain. Expansion of agricultural lands is also a threat. In the horticultural trade, the species is popular because of its slender trunk. There are also some bluish-grey leaf forms within the population. Most of the mature plants on Mount Arayat have been removed.	eng
42096	conservation	Varghese, A. & Krishnamurthy, V., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42096	distribution	Varghese, A. & Krishnamurthy, V., 2009	<em>C. sphaerica</em> is from the Eastern Ghats in eastern peninsular India.  It ranges from the northern part of Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh northwards into Orissa at least as far as Bhubaneshwar. Also occurs in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The elevation values of 300 to 1,00 m are a rough estimate.	eng
42096	habitat	Varghese, A. & Krishnamurthy, V., 2009	This species occurs in dry forests and woodlands on hills and ridges.	eng
42096	population	Varghese, A. & Krishnamurthy, V., 2009	The overall population size is not well known	eng
42096	threats	Varghese, A. & Krishnamurthy, V., 2009	Pieces of pith from the stem of <em>C. sphaerica</em> are used to make ‘sago'  flour.	eng
42097	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42097	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. wadei</em> is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on Culion island, part of the Calamanian group. Plants occur to the east of Halsey Harbour. Occurs at an estimated altitude of 20 to 50 m.	eng
42097	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows on low hills in lowland regions amid large open expanses of coarse grass dominated by<em> Imperata</em> species. Plants are found under low bushes or trees bordering large open grassy areas.	eng
42097	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The species is found as one subpopulation of about 5,000 mature individuals. Plants are fairly dispersed.	eng
42097	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is threatened due to the conversion of grasslands into settlement areas and burning of grasslands to promote growth of young grass for cattle. Based on satellite images, at least 30% of the general habitat has been cleared. The seeds and seedlings of the species are collected and sold as ornamentals in local fairs.	eng
42098	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In the Andaman and Nicobar islands, subpopulations occur within protected areas as well as in off-limit, military areas.	eng
42098	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known from Sri Lanka, where it is now apparently a rare species in the southwestern coastal regions.  In India it occurs on the Andaman and Nicobar island groups, where it is more abundant. Recorded from low elevations ranging from 5 to 50 m.	eng
42098	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in littoral forest near the sea in sandy soil. Plants are often found on stabilized dunes.	eng
42098	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<strong>Sri Lanka.</strong> Populations have been totally destroyed and a survey failed to find any viable regenerating populations. Only widely scattered, large, old specimens remained. No plants were found within any protected areas. The 2005 tsunami hit the coast of Sri Lanka and seriously damaged the only known narrow strip of land where the last scattered individuals existed. Although no recent post tsunami survey has been conducted it is very likely that most if not all remaining plants are now dead, either by direct hit of the wave and debris or bulldozed by the cleaning crew.<br/><br/><strong>India.</strong> The species is widespread and common on the Andaman and Nicobar islands. But although still growing in large populations at several locations, severe damage has been done by repeated strong cyclones. The recent development of seaside resorts on the islands has also had an impact on some populations and several previously large populations have been eradicated to make space for tourist accommodation. There are populations within protected areas as well as in off-limit, military areas.	eng
42098	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<strong>Sri Lanka:</strong><br/>Many of the populations have been totally decimated.&#160; There are no viable regenerating populations. There are no plants within reserves.<br/><br/><strong>India:</strong><br/>This species is widespread and common, however, severe damage has been done by cyclones. Some of the habitat has been destroyed to make way for tourist accommodation.	eng
42099	conservation	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. No subpopulations occur within protected areas. The species is poorly represented in ex situ collections and the only collection seems to be a small colony at the Jardin Botanico Clavijiero in Xalapa, Mexico.	eng
42099	distribution	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is found on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where it is sporadic and localised in Veracruz state and across the border in to Oaxaca state, Mexico.	eng
42099	habitat	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	Plants occur as an understorey shrub growing naturally in heavy shade in tropical wet evergreen forest. They occur at relatively low altitudes in Veracruz (120 m) but are usually found at slightly higher elevations on limestone pinnacles, ridges or hilltops (up to 500 m) in Oaxaca.	eng
42099	population	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	The type population of this species in Veracruz has been extirpated. In Oaxaca state, there is a population of 40 plants as well as another recently discovered population with an estimated 300 plants.	eng
42099	threats	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species has been severly impacted by habitat destruction, mainly the degradation of forest habitats through human resettlement in the Uxpanapa region (Osborne and Vasquaz-Torres 2009).	eng
42100	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2003	Listed on <a href="http://www.cites.org/">CITES</a> Appendix I.	eng
42101	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42101	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to the southern Tamaulipas state of Mexico, where it occurs along the Sierra Madre Oriental between Gomez Farias and Tula.	eng
42101	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants Occur in pine-oak dominated cloud forests on steep slopes in deep soil mixed with limestone rocks.	eng
42101	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The population at Ocampo in Tamaulipas consists of 300 plants. This population was growing on limestone boulders dislodged by road work along a cliff and thus it may be a newly recruited site. A 10% reduction is predicted in the next 30 years. One other population is known.	eng
42101	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species has been severly affected by habitat destruction as a result of land clearing for agriculture. Furthermore , the populations have been drastically reduced as a result of prolonged collecting.	eng
42102	conservation	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and /or the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42102	distribution	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is a narrow endemic in Chiapas and Oaxaca states in Mexico. Plants are found on the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.	eng
42102	habitat	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants occur in seasonally dry pine-oak forests in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas (Sierra de Soconusco)	eng
42102	population	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Current population data suggest that there are in excess of 2,000 plants at the one population. There are a further two populations.	eng
42102	threats	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The species was heavily impacted by collectors for the ornamental trade, but this has slowed in recent years.	eng
42103	conservation	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42103	distribution	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to San Luis Potosí state, Mexico. Plants are found SW of Rio Verde, in the Capulin district.	eng
42103	habitat	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants grow in the Sierra de la Equiteria, in dry pine-oak forests on volcanic outcrops and in rhyolitic soils.	eng
42103	population	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants are only known from the type locality, at which there are less than 50 plants.	eng
42103	threats	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants have been severely affected by over-collection, to the point of being almost eradicated in certain areas.	eng
42106	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities and all known specimens are found in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42106	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Puebla state, Mexico. It is found near Loma de la Grana, 6 km SW from San Luis Atolotitlan<br/>(formerly San Luis Tultitlanapa), district of Caltepec. The actual range of all populations has not been mapped (need locality data). The known populations therefore represent the area of occupancy rather than the extent of occurrence.	eng
42106	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The plants are found on steep slopes in stunted forest (thorn forest) and they grow in poor, shallow calcareous soil.	eng
42106	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from at five locations. Data for two subpopulations indicate decline of ca. 50% over the past two generations. There are a total of 310 plants in these two subpopulations.	eng
42106	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	These plants also have little horticultural (therefore collection) potential. The local people are protecting them and the land they are on has limited agricultural potential.	eng
42107	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Vinales Nationl Park and are also found in the "Mil Cumbres" protected area. The National Botanical Garden of Cuba has 156 live specimens in their collection.	eng
42107	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is endemic to Western Cuba. From the area of San Diego de los Banos through the Santa Catalina area to the vicinity of San Andreas.	eng
42107	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Populations are scattered in both lowland and montane sites, the latter being in very rough terrain. The plants grow in three types of soils, Jurassic alkaline limestone, more-or-less sandy acidic soils underlaid with slate, and siliceous clays with a pH between 5.4 and 6.9. The habitats vary from grasslands to, more commonly, pine or semi-deciduous forests and conditions range from full sun to deep shade.	eng
42107	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Del Risco </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(1984) <span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>tudied plants at five localities and they estimated that there were 10-25 plants per locality. In 1996/7, Pena <em>et al</em>, studied plants at 17 sites and their study included 540 plants. Julio Lazcano undertook a Masters research project at Vinales National Park and counted 1,200 individuals in his study. Lazcano estimated that there were 1,540 documented plants in Cuba and that the figure could be as high as 4,000. The population at Corcho is well known and has 13 plants and has shown a 90% decline in the last 50 years. A 90% reduction is also predicted for the next 30 years.	eng
42107	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The plants are affected by habitat destruction (moderate) and over collecting of plants from the wild. Reproductive failure (pollinator extinction) is a concern, although this still needs to be verified.	eng
42108	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42108	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in the Valle de Cauca province of Colombia and is known from only four collections over the past 125 years, all near the neotype locality. The distribution area falls within the catchment area of the Rio Calima.	eng
42108	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in the lowlands and mountains in the shady understorey of rainforests.	eng
42108	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from one locality in Colombia with an estimated 1,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42108	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing to make way for coffee plantations.	eng
42109	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42109	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known only from two collections, nl. the type locality and one other nearby population in Northern Colombia. This species is expected to be in the southern Darien of Panama, but this has not been confirmed.<em> Z. disodon</em> is also known from a disjunct single locality in Huanuco province, Peru (Near Pachitea and Puerto Inca). However. this may be a misidentified population (A. Lindstrom pers. comm.)	eng
42109	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is found in clay soils of secondary and primary rainforest at 400-800 meters altitude.	eng
42109	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The total population size of <em>Z. disodon</em> is estimated to be less than 400 plants in the wild.	eng
42109	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing to make way for banana plantations.	eng
42110	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Little is known about its biology and distribution but the paucity of collections indicates that it is rare.	eng
42110	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Colombia where it is found in the Amazonas province and also in Peru where the distribution range falls within the Loreto province where plants are found near Maynas, Pebas and Brilla Nueva.	eng
42110	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows as an understory plant in lowland primary rainforest.	eng
42110	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	In Colombia there is one locality which consists of three small subpopulations and in Peru there is one locality.	eng
42111	conservation	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. inermis</em> is known from only a single extant population that is severely threatened by fire, over collection, and apparently eradication of its pollinator as evidenced by its very low fertility in habitat as opposed to its high fertility in cultivation in botanical gardens.	eng
42111	distribution	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to central Veracruz, Mexico where it grows in the district of Actopan. Plants exist as two subpopulations in a small range of hills in the Rio Actopan drainage area, which is on the coastal side of Xalapa in central Veracruz.	eng
42111	habitat	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in deciduous tropical dry forest on steep slopes in low mountains at 200-300 m in thin dry volcanic soils with very little organic matter. Plants also occur on steep slopes.	eng
42111	population	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Estimations from 2003 put the total number of plants in both populations at 300 - 500.	eng
42111	threats	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species may be affected by habitat destruction for agricultural purposes, too frequent fires, possible pollinator extinction, crop spraying, soil erosion and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
42112	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.  The species appears to have populations of ants that live in special tunnel-like flaps at the leaflet bases, highlighting the need for <span style="font-style: italic;">in situ</span> conservation to protect such specific interactions.	eng
42112	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Peru. Plants are found in the vicinity of the towns of Pebas and Pucaurquillo in the Maynas province of the Loreto region. The localities are near the Rio Amiyacu and Rio Napo.	eng
42112	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Plants occur in the understorey of primary and secondary rain forest.	eng
42112	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This habitat of this species has been disturbed and the type locality was in the process of being converted from secondary forest to a communal garden.	eng
42113	conservation	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42113	distribution	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	<em>Zamia montana</em> is endemic to the submontane and montane areas of Antioquia, Colombia	eng
42113	habitat	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	<em>Z. montana</em> grows at the  highest elevation known for any neotropical cycad and is known only from collections at and near the neotype locality, in wet montane forest.	eng
42113	population	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is known from one confirmed locality in Colombia.	eng
42113	threats	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is extremely threatened by logging activities, maize farming, and lulo (<em>Solanum</em> sp.) cultivation. In fact, it may well be extinct in the wild because the only known population occurs in an area that was recently logged.	eng
42114	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42114	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. monticola</em> is endemic to rocky lowland slopes in primary and secondary rain forests of Guatemala. No data available to create distribution maps and to calculate at least extent of occurrence.	eng
42114	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs on rocky lowland slopes in primary and secondary rain forests.	eng
42114	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is threatened by severe deforestation.	eng
42116	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Columbia River Forest Reserve.	eng
42116	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to southern Belize.	eng
42116	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in wet cloud forest on steep slopes. Plants are sometimes found growing in limestone sinkholes.	eng
42116	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Little is known about population numbers but the reported numbers are very low, with a maximum estimate of 100 plants.	eng
42116	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Habitat loss in the area in which the species occurs is regarded as the main threat.	eng
42117	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. portoricensis</em> has become very rare in Puerto Rico in part due to development but also as a result over collection for nursery plants. Although found in protected parks and a National Forest, this has done little to protect the species from collecting and plants can be found in plant stores in New York City labeled as <em>Z. pumila</em> and <em>Z. floridana</em>. However, the species is easily raised from seed and young plants have begun to appear on the market and artificial propagation appears to be in place. Of more concern is the lack of seed set in one of the larger populations.	eng
42117	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	One of the Caribbean species of <em>Zamia</em> that is found only in Western Puerto Rico in the region of the Susua State Forest.	eng
42117	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Zamia portoricensis grows on very dry limestone soils that often contain an element of serpentine. The vegetaion is subtropical moist forest.	eng
42117	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Population size is estimated to be <500.	eng
42117	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	In visits to this population every year for the past seven years, neither seeds nor potential pollinating insect have been seen. Older pollen cones do not have the indicator weevil exit holes. Thus, it appears that the pollinator(s) may have been eradicated as a result of the aerial application of pesticides for local agriculture.	eng
42118	conservation	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42118	distribution	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	<em>Z. spartea</em> is known only from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec region of Chiapas and perhaps neighbouring Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
42118	habitat	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in generally well drained soils and under arid conditions. Dry oak forests at low elevations. Occasionally in hilly grasslands. Does seem to persist somewhat in highly disturbed areas.	eng
42118	population	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	The population at Matias Romero in Oaxaca consists of 2,000 plants.	eng
42118	threats	Chemnick, J & Gregory, T., 2009	Habitat destruction is fortunately not as severe as in areas with more fertile soils. Most of the habitat is used for grazing cattle and this causes little damage to the cycads.	eng
42119	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42119	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to Peru (Huanuco Province, District of Pachitea, Llullapichis/Yuyapichis). Only known fom the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
42119	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows on stoney hillsides with thin soils.	eng
42119	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	There is only one locality with an estimated 250 plants.	eng
42119	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42120	conservation	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Wild populations are somewhat protected from over-collection because the species is very common in cultivation, where it also produces copious quantities of cones and grows quite rapidly from seed.	eng
42120	distribution	Vovides, A., 2009	<em>Z. vazquezii</em> is known from Mexico, where it occurs in Veracruz state.	eng
42120	habitat	Vovides, A., 2009	This species grows in semi-evergreen forests to pine-oak forests.	eng
42120	population	Vovides, A., 2009	<em>Z. vazquezii</em> is known from two subpopulations, but there are no more than 50 plants in the wild and deforestation in northern Veracruz is still rampant.  The population is definitely severely fragmented? The last survey was more than a decade ago so the situation may have detiorated.	eng
42120	threats	Vovides, A., 2009	Deforestation poses the biggest threat to the survival of this species in the wild.	eng
42121	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. wallisi</em>i should be considered, along with <em>Z. montana</em>, as the most endangered species of<em> Zamia</em> in Columbia. Plants occur in the Las Orquideas National Park, Antioquia Providence, Colombia.	eng
42121	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to Colombia. The type locality is near the town of Frontino in the Antioguia province and there are also plants found near Urrao.	eng
42121	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. wallisii</em> grows in primary and secondary rain forest to cloud forest at 1,000-1,200 m as an understorey plant on poor clay soils. The plants occur on steep hillsides and hilltops.	eng
42121	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The only known population, comprising <50 plants, was last visited in 1997 and was in a zone that was being deforested.	eng
42121	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of clearing/deforestation for agriculture (bananas and pineapples). It has also been reported that seed production is infrequent.	eng
42122	conservation	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42122	distribution	Vovides, A., 2009	This species occurs in the Chiapas state of Mexico. Plants are found in a small area near Rizo de Oro in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.	eng
42122	habitat	Vovides, A., 2009	This species grows in moist pine-oak forest with a fern rich ground layer.	eng
42122	population	Vovides, A., 2009	Plants are known from only two subpopulations. One of the subpopulations comprises 300 plants.	eng
42122	threats	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is considered to be endangered because of habitat loss as the forests are being cleared for agriculture. Poaching of plants is also a threat.	eng
42123	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42123	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is native to the mountains of northern Chiapas and the southern Sierras of Tabasco (near Tapijulapa), Mexico.	eng
42123	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants grow on karstic rocks in evergreen tropical rainforest.	eng
42123	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	At present (2001 data), this species is known from 2 populations. One of the populations has only about 100 plants.	eng
42123	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Expanding agricultural activities and coffee plantations, as well as forest fires and poaching have had a significant effect on the populations in the wild.	eng
42124	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42124	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species has a  sporadic distribution in the bordering  ranges of Querétaro and San Luis Potosí states, Mexico where it is found in the region of the Huasteca Potosina near the Santa Maria river.	eng
42124	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species occurs at approximately 850-1,300 m altitude in the cloud zone in deciduous oak woodlands. Plants grow in heavy black clay and among limestone rocks.	eng
42124	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	The population at Aquismon in San Luis Potosi consists of 150 plants. Cavers have reported new population(s) above Aquismon.	eng
42124	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species has been severly affected by habitat destruction and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
42125	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and are also evidently protected by local communities.	eng
42125	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species occurs in Chiapas and Oaxaca states in southern Mexico and also extends a short way into western Guatemala.	eng
42125	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are sporadically distributed in evergreen cloud forest at about 1,000 m altitude.	eng
42125	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	The population at El Triunfo in Chiapas consists of 500 plants. There is another population known at Mt Ovando. Both of these sites occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42125	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are adversely affected due to habitat destruction as a result of land clearing for corn and coffee plantations. Lumbering has also had an effect on plants in the wild.	eng
42126	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42126	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is found as a narrow endemic in Veracruz state on the Sierra Madre Oriental, north of Jalapa, Mexico.	eng
42126	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Growing lithophytically on sheltered cliffs in mixed evergreen and deciduous cloud forests in the Sierra Madre. Plants grow on humus-rich, greyish yellow clays or on vertical rocky walls composed of loose, weathered basalt.	eng
42126	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants occur in a more or less inaccesible area. The one location visited in 2002 had a population of about 1,000 plants, mostly on vertical cliffs.	eng
42126	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42127	conservation	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42127	distribution	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in Hidalgo and Querétaro states, Mexico.	eng
42127	habitat	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants grow among shrubs in relatively dry mixed forest of pines and broad-leaved trees, particularly oaks. Plants are found on steep slopes in humus rich clay soils usually over limestone.	eng
42127	population	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from three subpopopulations at two localities. There is also another known population in Querétaro.	eng
42127	threats	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	<em>C. sabatoi</em> is only known from two localities. The status of the high elevation locality in Hidalgo appears to be critical. It was transformed years ago for agriculture and although new habitat loss appears to have slowed, surveys indicate an ongoing decline in the number of plants, possibly due to grazing.	eng
42128	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42128	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is a narrow endemic in Oaxaca state, Mexico. The distribution is restricted to the catchment of the Rio Valle Nacional in the vicinity of  Metates. Plants are also found in the Chiapan district.	eng
42128	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants occurs on steep slopes in evergreen cloud forests in the Rio Valle Nacional.	eng
42128	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are known from two localities. The one population has approximately 2,000 plants and the other has 200 plants.	eng
42128	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to slash and burn activities. The habitat is being replaced by coffee and banana plantations.	eng
42129	conservation	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities.	eng
42129	distribution	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is restricted to state of Oaxaca,  Mexico. Plants occurs to the south west of San Gabriel Mixtepec.	eng
42129	habitat	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species grows mainly in humid forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus </em>and <em>Quercus</em>. They are found on slopes with a north eastern exposure. Plants often grow in ravines in humus-rich soil.	eng
42129	population	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	Plants are known only from two (500 and 10,000 plants) colonies.	eng
42129	threats	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	These plants are affected by habitat destruction due to agriculture (corn, pastures) and also as a result of over-collecting.	eng
42130	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42130	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is found along the Sierra Madre Occidental in the Sonora and Sinaloa states of Mexico.	eng
42130	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in high desert to oak woodland, usually on steep canyon walls or hillsides in extremely dry conditions. Plants also occur in the transition zone between oak-pine forest and tropical deciduous thorn forest.	eng
42130	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	There are seven known subpopulations from five localities in the Sonora and Sinalao states. It is likely that more populations exist in southern Sonora and northern Sinalao states.	eng
42130	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants have been collected for the production of an alcoholic beverage. A subpopulation has also been wiped out due to poaching. Climate change also seems to be affecting these plants. Large specimens have been found with dead stems due to water stress, but they are budding again at the base.	eng
42131	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42131	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán and Nayarit states of Mexico. Plants are found along the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Sierra Madre Occidental. Recorded from 600 up to 1,850 m.	eng
42131	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are found in oak and pine-oak forests in steep-sided canyons and woodlands.	eng
42131	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Surveys done at the six locations where the plants are found, indicated a total of 6,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42131	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and over-collection for the ornamental trade.	eng
42132	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42132	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to a small area of the Tabasco state in Mexico. Plants occur between Teapa and Tapijulapa.	eng
42132	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. cremnophila</em> grows on the sides of steep to precipituous rocky cliffs in rainforest. The cliffs are of calcareous formation.	eng
42132	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Plants occur at several localities. The one near Tapijulapa has approximately 20 plants.	eng
42133	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42133	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Panama, where it is found in three isolated populations in the provinces of Colon and Comarca de San Blas.	eng
42133	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	This species occurs on well-drained soils in the understorey of primary rainforest.	eng
42133	population	Taylor, A., 2009	<em>Z. dressleri</em> occurs at low densities in the understorey of rainforest, so they can be difficult to survey properly. Population size is estimated to be <1,000. Attempts to locate plants in one of the three known populations were unsuccessful.	eng
42133	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	<em>Z. dressleri</em> has been affected by habitat destruction due to land clearing for housing and logging. A major road is planned to go through one of the sites.	eng
42134	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. fischer</em>i has been collected only a few times in the past 150 years. On this basis it is presumed to have a limited distribution and to be uncommon in the wild. In fact this species is not commonly found in cultivation. Given the level of habitat destruction it must be considered highly threatened in the wild. Plants are protected in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve and in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42134	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the state of San Luis Potosí (near Cuidad Valles) and also in neighboring Querétaro state, Mexico. Plants have also been found near Ocampo in Tamaulipas state.	eng
42134	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are found in well-drained rocky sites in evergreen pine-oak forest and cloud forest, in areas of deep shade.	eng
42134	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Habitat destruction has had a devastating effect on the populations in the wild.	eng
42135	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Apparently this species seems to be not threatened by local habitat destruction. However, if this destruction continues it will have a negative effect in the future. Plants occur in the Palenque National Park and in the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve.<br/><br/><br/>.	eng
42135	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to eastern Chiapas state of Mexico. Populations occur near or within the Lacandona Rainforest, close to Palenque and Agua Azul.	eng
42135	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in primary tropical evergreen forest and also in disturbed areas of slash and burn agriculture. It regenerates after clearing and burning along roadsides and garden margins.	eng
42135	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from two localities with an estimated population of less than 500 plants in the wild.	eng
42135	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result of slash and burn agriculture. However, plants seem to regenerate in abandoned cornfields, in areas cleared by logging operations and along roadsides.	eng
42136	conservation	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42136	distribution	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species ranges from north-central Colombia to Amazonian Colombia. Populations are found in the Amazonas, Cordoba, Meta and Santander provinces.	eng
42136	habitat	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species grows in wet to semidry lowland forest. Forest fragments have a transitional vegetation type, containing species typical from wet- and dry-tropical forests. Plants in the Atlantic Plains regions grow at an elevation of 50 m asl, a mean annual temperature of 27°C, and a mean annual rainfall of 2,300 mm, with two dry seasons (i.e., periods with rainfall lower than 100 mm/month) that run from December to February and from July to August.<em>Zamia melanorrhachis</em> populations inhabit both remnant forests (i.e., forest fragments never converted to pasture) with low levels of current human disturbance, and forest fragments resulting from forest regeneration characterized by secondary-forest vegetation. Secondary-forest fragments exhibit a higher level of disturbance than remnant-forest fragments (e.g., cattle trample, log extraction, soil perturbation—but not cultivation-prior to regeneration) (Lopez Gallego 2008).	eng
42136	population	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is present in four localities in Colombia. One population in the Cerromatoso Region near Montelibano had approximately 1,000 individuals. It has been reported that the subpopulation at locality in Antioquia province is extinct.<br/><br/><em>Zamia melanorrhachis</em> is a small cycad with a subterrannean stem (5–8 cm in diameter) that bears 1–5 leaves (0.1–1.5 m in length), with 4–12 (rarely to 24) leaflets/leaf. Little is known about the vegetative or reproductive phenology of this species but the time required to reach maturity is estimated to be in the order of 5–10 years (Lopez-Gallego 2008).  Male and female cones are relatively small compared to other <em>Zamia </em>species, and female cones produce ca. 50 seeds (1 cm in diam.), that are red in color. Seeds have no dormancy and are probably dispersed by small animals, although dispersal is usually very limited in forest cycads (Norstog and Nicholls 1997). Plants are distributed in groups of a few dozens in the understory of the forest, and very few isolated plants are observed in between groups of plants.	eng
42136	threats	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation. The population in the Cerromatoso locality, occurs only in forest fragments. No continuous forest is left at this locality.	eng
42137	conservation	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42137	distribution	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known only from a very few localities in Oaxaca and Veracruz (Uxpanapa district), Mexico.	eng
42137	habitat	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in mainly evergreen or nearly evergreen rainforest as an understorey plant, generally in limestone outcrops and on rainforest floor.	eng
42137	population	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The population at Once in Veracruz consists of 100 plants.	eng
42137	threats	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Habitat destruction as a result of clear cutting for crops and grazing has had an effect on the plants in the wild.	eng
42138	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42138	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	This species ioccurs in a relatively small area in coastal reaches of mainland Bocas del Toro Province in Panama.	eng
42138	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	It is primarily a lowland species and often grows on steep slopes in primary and secondary wet tropical forest.	eng
42138	population	Taylor, A., 2009	The population status of <em>Z. skinneri</em> is affected by some confusion regarding the circumscription of this taxon. Currently several populations from the region of the Panama canal to the Costa Rican border could be regarded as <em>Z. skinneri</em>. At present, populations with green emergent leaves from the Bocas del Toro province in NW Panama region appear to be true <em>Z. skinneri</em> and that plants with red emergent leaves in other parts of Panama are an undescribed species. The population size of <em>Z. skinneri,</em> given this circumsciption is estimated to be less than 500. The new species are <em>Z. hamannii, Z. mesophila, Z. imperialis</em>	eng
42138	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	Although this species is widespread, many of the subpopulations are impacted in various ways, with habitat destruction being the most prevalent.	eng
42139	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the Columbia River Forest Reserve and in the Sarstoon Temash National Park in Belize.	eng
42139	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The main distribution area for <em>Z. variegata</em> is in  Guatemala, where it is found in the catchment of the Rio Motagua. Plants are also found in Chiapas state (Lacandona area) of Mexico and the coastal areas of Belize and Honduras.	eng
42139	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in wet lowland forest to higher elevation pine-oak forest.	eng
42139	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Expeditions in 1996 recorded the species as being locally common. This would usually indicate that there were several thousand individuals	eng
42139	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Habitat destruction is thought to have reduced occurrence by ca. 50% in the past few decades.	eng
42140	conservation	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42140	distribution	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in Querataro, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí states (near Xilitla and Tamazunchale), Mexico.	eng
42140	habitat	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is restricted to oak forests in the cloud zone of the Sierra Madre Oriental, on steep limestone hillsides and canyons. It is often associated with limestone karst formations and densities may increase near cave entrances (possibly due to concentrations of seed dispersers)	eng
42140	threats	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearance for banana and coffee plantations. Many hundreds of specimens have been collected in the past for ornamental purposes.	eng
42141	conservation	Vazquez, M., Bojorquez, H., Torres, L., Sanchez-Moreno, S., Sanchez-Morales, L. & Torres-Hernandez, L., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants are conserved in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve in Queretaro state.	eng
42141	distribution	Vazquez, M., Bojorquez, H., Torres, L., Sanchez-Moreno, S., Sanchez-Morales, L. & Torres-Hernandez, L., 2009	This species occurs in the Hidalgo, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro and Veracruz states of Mexico and are found widely distributed from low to moderate elevations.	eng
42141	habitat	Vazquez, M., Bojorquez, H., Torres, L., Sanchez-Moreno, S., Sanchez-Morales, L. & Torres-Hernandez, L., 2009	Plants are widely distributed from low to moderate elevations and are found in areas ranging from evergreen tropical forests to cloud forests and mixed deciduous woodlands and a range of geological substrates. Typically found in rocky hills.	eng
42141	population	Vazquez, M., Bojorquez, H., Torres, L., Sanchez-Moreno, S., Sanchez-Morales, L. & Torres-Hernandez, L., 2009	This species is known from six localities. Demographic studies at one of the localities in Coacoazintla (Veracruz state) indicate that the local population may exceed 500,000 individuals.	eng
42141	threats	Vazquez, M., Bojorquez, H., Torres, L., Sanchez-Moreno, S., Sanchez-Morales, L. & Torres-Hernandez, L., 2009	The mountain cloud forest habitat is threatened by habitat destruction. Forest is cleared for agriculture and cattle farming and is also impacted by the removal of wood for charcoal production. Strip mining to remove basaltic rock (e.g. in CoaCoatzincla) is also a threat, resulting in the removal of forest.	eng
42142	conservation	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales, S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42142	distribution	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales, S., 2009	This species is found along two parallel highways separated by approximately 80 km within the state of San Luis Potosí (on Ejido las Abridas mountain which is part of the Sierra Madré Oriental) and the very southern portion of Tamaulipas. Because the hills in which this taxon occurs run nearly uninterrupted between these two highways, the range is estimated to be sufficiently large and consisting of many thousands of individuals. The minimum range is probably ca. 300 km² but it could be as high as 1,000 km².	eng
42142	habitat	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales, S., 2009	Plants occur at an altitude of about 850 m in a transitional woodland between mixed deciduous cloud forest and oak woods on limestone.	eng
42142	population	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales, S., 2009	This species is known from at least six localities. Plants are exceedingly abundant in at least three of these localities with several populations consisting of many thousands of individuals.	eng
42142	threats	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales, S., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to clearing for agricultural purposes..	eng
42143	conservation	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Some plants occur in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and the La Cangrejera population is within a PEMEX (Mexico's national petroleum company) reserve.	eng
42143	distribution	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Occurs in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico. It has also been reported from Tabasco state, but this locality has probably been extirpated.	eng
42143	habitat	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants are found in scattered populations ranging from an altitude near sea level to 600 m. They occur in mixed wet evergreen and deciduous forest. Overall, more than 95% of its original natural habitat has gone.	eng
42143	population	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from three localities of which one has been destroyed in Chiapas in the past year, and the other two (Coatzacoalcos, and Las Tuxtlas) are small islands of habitat surrounded by agriculture or oil refineries. There are probably other small populations still extant and maybe a larger population on one of the other volcanoes near Las Tuxtlas, but the genetics of each pocket are Critically Endangered.<br/><br/>The known populations have been reduced dramatically in recent years. Miguel Angel Perez Farrera reports that the population above Mal Paso lake is now completely extirpated due to habitat destruction. The populations near Santiago Tuxtla and Coatzacoalcos are very much reduced and similarly threatened though the remaining plants at Coatzacoalcos are afforded some protection because they are located in a tiny remnant patch of forest under protection by Pemex (the national petroleum company) but literally right across the street from a large oil refinery. Ceratozamia miqueliana must be considered one of the most critically endangered of all Mexican cycads.	eng
42143	threats	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species has been severely affected as a result of habitat destruction (over 95% of original habitat is gone). Over-collecting for ornamental purposes has also had a negative effect on the natural populations.	eng
42144	conservation	Gregory, T. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Sierra de Santa Martha Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42144	distribution	Gregory, T. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is widely distributed in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico (Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco states). However, local experts believe that there are at least six to seven  taxa currently identified as <em>Ceratozamia robusta</em>.	eng
42144	habitat	Gregory, T. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants occur as an understorey plant in evergreen wet, humid tropical forests. Usually in limestone areas on steep slopes and cliffs.	eng
42144	population	Gregory, T. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Widely distributed. However, the taxonomy of this taxon is uncertain and many subpopulations may in future be classified as separate species. In this case, some of the 'new' species would be highly threatened. Most of the populations are small with less than 30 plants.	eng
42144	threats	Gregory, T. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Habitat destruction  due to clearing and burning, with some evidence of  collecting. The populations of this taxon have declined at least 50% within the last 20 years. Though it is distributed (at least <span style="font-style: italic;">C. robusta</span> <em>sensu latu</em>) in various localities within the Mexican states of Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas as well as Guatemala and Belize, nearly all of the populations visited over the last 10 years have shown continued declines, almost entirely due to habitat destruction (clearing) and fires. Further segregation of this species complex would result in a Critically Endangered status for some of the Mexican populations of what are now all lumped into <em>C. robusta</em> (Chemnick 2007).	eng
42145	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42145	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Mexico (Oaxaca and Puebla states). They are found near Teotitlan del Camino and Huautla de Jimenez.	eng
42145	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The plants grow on steep shady slopes in tropical, deciduous forest. They are found in the transition zone between oak/pine forest and deciduous tropical thorn forest. The soil is generally rocky and poor.	eng
42145	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The species is known from two localities (2,500 and 500 plants), with both subpopulations experiencing ongoing decline.	eng
42145	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The plants are threatened by habitat destruction as a result of cattle grazing and road-building and also due to over-collecting.	eng
42146	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are known to be protected by local communities.	eng
42146	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Chiapas and Oaxaca provinces in Mexico. Plants are known from the districts of Cintaalpa and Villa Flores and also in the Sierra de Juarez.	eng
42146	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants occur in a forest dominated by <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> and also in tropical semi decidious forest with soils developed on sedimentary rocks and karst limestone. Specimens are found growing on steep sandstone cliffs, along thickly vegetated watercourses.	eng
42146	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants are known from a number of locations and the decline in these different locations varies between 10% and 70% over the past two generations. Possible future decline is estimated between 10% and 50%.	eng
42146	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Populations are affected by over collection. In some cases the top portion of plants are cut off and sold as a table decoration.	eng
42147	conservation	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42147	distribution	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is endemic to Oaxaca state in Mexico. Plants are found in the Tomellin Canyon near Santa Catarina and Tomellin. Occurs at 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
42147	habitat	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	Plants grow in tropical deciduous forest on the sides of steep canyons.	eng
42147	population	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	Visits to five localities during 2000-2006 indicated a total of 3,130 plants.	eng
42147	threats	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown	eng
42148	conservation	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42148	distribution	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico. Plants occur in the valley of the Rio Santa Domingo, near the villages of San Bartolome Ayautla and San Pedro Teutila. The type locality is on one side of the Rio Santo Domingo and there are reports of a population on the other side of the river.	eng
42148	habitat	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	It occurs in small groups with individual plants growing in the crevices of limestone cliffs where humus collects. In open tropical deciduous forest.	eng
42148	population	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants are known from one or maybe two subpopulations. Though many hundreds if not thousands of plants apparently comprise this taxon, the population occurs in an area of very restricted distribution along the river. Records from 2005 indicate that 3000 plants were recorded.	eng
42148	threats	Vovides, A., Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Habitat destruction (corn fields) in the area proceeds at an alarming rate and even the cliff habitat of <em>Dioon rzedowskii</em> does not appear to safe. Significant declines in the numbers of individuals at the type locality below San Bartolome Ayautla have been observed within the last five years.	eng
42149	conservation	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected by local communities.	eng
42149	distribution	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in the Oaxaca and Veracruz states of Mexico. They are found near the towns of Ciudad Aleman, Tuxtepec and Ojitlan, on the lowlands and hills at the foot of the Sierra de Oaxaca.	eng
42149	habitat	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is found growing in lowland tropical evergreen rainforest on limestone hills and cliffs.	eng
42149	population	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in at least three locations	eng
42149	threats	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is affected by severe habitat destruction as a result of farming, ranching and creation of reservoirs. There has been severe over-collection in the past.	eng
42151	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42151	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to Colombia, where it is present in the province of Santander. Plants are found near Rio Chicamocha and Rio Umpala.	eng
42151	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. encephalartoides</em> grows in open situations in scrubby forest on slopes of steep canyons and ridges.	eng
42151	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from 2  localities with only scattered plants in one locality. One of the largest subpopulations near Umpala comprises about 1,000 large plants. Overall population size is estimated to be about 5,000.	eng
42151	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The main threat appears to be encroaching farming. Some sites are severely eroded.	eng
42152	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are being cultivated in campesino cycad nurseries.	eng
42152	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to the southeastern part of Veracruz state, Mexico. Populations occur from south of Alvarado to just south of Playa de Montepio.	eng
42152	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in areas varying from generally arid thorn scrub to sandy soils and in limestone sea cliffs.	eng
42152	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from four widespread localities (<em>Z.furfuracea sensu latu</em>) and each consists of hundreds/thousands of individuals and some active recruitment. However, it is very much a range-restricted species whose coastal habitat is under threat.	eng
42152	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The huge declines in numbers of this species occurred over twenty years ago. Many plants were removed from the habitat for ornamental purposes.  It is now exceedingly common in cultivation and rarely collected in the field, though reports of wild seed collecting exist.	eng
42153	conservation	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is known from an area that is botanically very poorly known and is presumed to have a wider distribution. For now it is considered very rare pending further data.	eng
42153	distribution	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Ecuador, where it is found in the Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces. Populations occur in two localities, one near Alto Tambo and the other between Lita and San Lorenzo. <em>Z. gentri</em> is thought to occur in adjoining Colombia.	eng
42153	habitat	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is restricted to extremely wet, premontane rain (cloud) forest on compact clay soils. The plants grow on the soils with the roots spreading under a thin layer of leaf mould. Soils are almost pure kaolin. Some plants grow as epiphytes.	eng
42153	population	Vovides, A., 2009	The population size of <em>Z. gentryi</em> was originally estimated as 500 (2003 assessment), and Dodson reported a population density of about 24 plants per hectare. In 2006,  Fernando Orjeda visted the type locality and no more than 10 plants were found in about five sq. km.  This area known as the Alto Chocó is the least botanically explored and the most deforested in Ecuador.	eng
42153	threats	Vovides, A., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of agricultural activities.	eng
42154	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42154	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from El Salvador and more recently from Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and neighboring Chiapas state in Mexico.	eng
42154	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in primary and secondary forest from 200-800 m and does best as an understory plant in pine-oak forest and well drained sites in cloud forest and mesic situations.	eng
42154	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The population size of <em>Z. herrerae</em> has been estimated as at least 1,000, but this is probably underestimated as it has a widespread distribution in areas that have been poorly surveyed.	eng
42155	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42155	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is endemic to a small area in Panama. Plants are found near the town of Ipeti in Panama province. Some authories regard this species and <em>Z. cunaria</em> as one taxon. In this case the range is substantially larger.	eng
42155	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	This species grows in primary and secondary rain forest and grows in clay soils.	eng
42155	population	Taylor, A., 2009	<em>Z. ipetiensis</em> occurs across two locations with an estimated population size of 2,000 plants.	eng
42155	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing for agriculture.	eng
42156	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.<br/><br/>Nurseries for propagation of endemic plants, including cycads are proceeding successfully. Wild collecting is minimized as propagated material is entering the horticultural market.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Z. soconuscensis</span> occurs in the El Triunfo and La Sepultura Biosphere Reserves of Chiapas and the species is being sustainably managed in campesino cycad nurseries.	eng
42156	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is narrowly endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Chiapas state. Plants are found as scattered localised populations in the Soconusco mountain range.	eng
42156	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Plants are found in the understorey, growing on organic clay soils from evergreen forest to cloud forest.	eng
42156	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	The total population size of <em>Z. soconuscensis</em> is approximately 5,000 plants. They are relatively abundant at four localities.	eng
42156	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species appears to be threatened in habitat as a result of clearing for agricultural purposes. Corn and coffee production, as well as lumbering are the main threats.	eng
42157	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42157	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. standleyi</em> is found in the northern river valleys of Honduras (Colon, Atlantida, Yoro and Cortez provinces), from San Pedro Sula eastward toward the Caribbean coast, reported as far east as the Rio Platano. Further fieldwork is necessary to determine the full extent of the range of the species and whether it extends into contiguous areas in Guatemala.	eng
42157	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is found along the valleys of the northern rivers from moist hillsides, semixeric woodlands, disturbed secondary scrub (matorral), areas of regrowth and in cultivated fields.	eng
42157	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is estimated to comprise approximately 5,000 plants in the wild.	eng
42158	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It is also protected by local communities.	eng
42158	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is widely distributed in the Sierra Madre Oriental. Plants are centered in two areas nl. central Veracruz in an area near to Xalapa and then in an area spanning northern Hidalgo, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, and southern Tamaulipas states.	eng
42158	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in areas transitional between tropical deciduous forest and oak woodland, in rocky areas and on steep cliffs.	eng
42158	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from many localities, with many thousands of adult plants. Some populations have declined substantially, but overall decline is relatively low. A few of the populations were visited between 1998 and 2005 and a total of 141,500 plants were recorded.	eng
42158	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction and over-collecting for ornamental purposes.	eng
42159	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is considered to be rare in Panama and vulnerable in Costa Rica. Plants occur in the San Lorenzo Protected Area.	eng
42159	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, along the San Juan River and in Panama in Cocle province near El Valle de Anton. Further taxonomic work is needed as populations in Panama seem different to the plants described from northern Costa Rica.	eng
42159	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. acuminata</em> generally prefers understory situations in cloud forest. Plants are also found in low-elevation rain forest and seasonally dry tropical deciduous forest.	eng
42159	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. acuminata</em> populations in the wild consist of least 5,000 plants. The population at El Valle comprises approximately 1,000 plants concentrated in a fairly small area. The status of other subpopulations is not well known.	eng
42159	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction, which is a common problem within the distribution range. Habitat destruction has been estimated to be less than 30%	eng
42160	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42160	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Thius species occurs in the Amazonian areas of Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela and also in Ecuador.	eng
42160	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is widely distributed in lowland rainforest of the upper Amazon in Brazil. Plants are often found near black-water drainage and white sand "campina" forest  - areas with soils of very low fertility.	eng
42160	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. amazonum</em> is fairly common locally throughout its range. Plants are known from two locations in Peru, two in Ecuador, and three locations in Colombia. It is also expected to be found in the Amazonian area of Bolivia.	eng
42161	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42161	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from Beni (El Porvenir, Trinidad and Lake Rogoaguado), Cochabamba (Campero) and Santa Cruz (Huanchaca, San Matias, Porongo, Nuflo de Chavez, Velasco and San Ignacio) provinces in Bolivia and also in Mato Grosso in Brazil.	eng
42161	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. boliviana</em> grows in relatively dry habitats in open grassland and sandy well drained soils.	eng
42162	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42162	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Columbia where it is found in the Choco and Valle de Cauca provinces. A disjunct distribution is found in the Chiriqui province of Panama.	eng
42162	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	In Columbia, <em>Z. chigua</em> is found in lowland rainforest along river margins(10m -150 m altitude), whereas in Panama it grows at altitudes of 600-1,200 meters in rainforests.	eng
42162	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from four localities in Colombia and across its range it is relatively common.	eng
42163	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. There are several large reproducing populations some of which are now in protected forests. There are populations within the Corcovado National Park and in the  La Amistad National Park.	eng
42163	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs primarily in southeastern Costa Rica in the province of Puntarenas. Populations are found in the area of the Sierpe and Claro rivers and on the Burica peninsula. Plants have also been recorded from adjacent areas in Panama.	eng
42163	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The largest populations of <em>Z. fairchildiana</em> occur on slopes of varying soil types, ranging from rocky to clay soils and they grow in primary and secondary tropical rainforest. Most plants are found at elevations between 0-800m, but some plants occur up to 1,500 m altitude.	eng
42163	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. fairchildiana</em> is very common in local populations, with at least 10,000 plants estimated to be in the wild.	eng
42164	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. In Cuba, populations are present in National Park Guanahacabibes in the Pinar del Rio province and the Ecological Reserve Varahicacos in the Matanza province. In Puerto Rico, plants are found in the Punta Guaniquilla Natural Reserve near Cabo Rojo. In the Bahamas, plants are found in the Abaco National Park of Great Abaco Island. Plants also occurs in about 80 conservation areas in Florida, U.S.A., including the Everglades National Park.	eng
42164	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from the extreme southeastern Georgia state of the United States of America, southward through peninsular Florida (including the Florida Keys) and sporadically in the Bahamas where it occurs on Andros, Grand Bahama, Great Abaco, Long, and New Providence Islands. It has been collected in western Cuba, the Cayman Islands, and south-central Puerto Rico where one small population persists.	eng
42164	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Habitats of <em>Z. integrifolia</em> vary from open coastal areas and sand dunes to pinelands and closed canopy oak hammocks to tropical forest. This cycad is most commonly found in soil over limestone and in sand near sea level or in dry pinelands subjected to periodic wildfires.	eng
42164	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	It has been estimated that the population size of <em>Z. integrifolia</em> is in excess of 30,000 plants in the wild. The one population in western Cuba consists of 133 individuals.	eng
42164	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. integrifolia</em> has declined mainly due to habitat destruction for housing developments and agriculture. In the early 20th century, a large number were collected as part of a commercial starch industry.	eng
42165	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. <em>Z. lecointei</em> is most common in Bolivar, Venezuela where it is found in both pristine and disturbed habitats.	eng
42165	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in the Amazonas and Bolivar provinces of Venezuela. Plants are also found in Para province in Brazil, north of the Amazon River. In Peru plants are found in Loreto province and in Colombia populations occur in the Antioquia and Amazonas provinces.	eng
42165	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Plants are found generally growing in very sandy well drained soils. Plants often grow in the open in direct sun or as an understory in secondary vegetation. The habitat is considered to be moderate to open low-elevation, dry, seasonal forest to tropical lowland wet primary forest.	eng
42165	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from several locations across its range. In Colombia there are two localities where it is locally common.	eng
42166	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Some populations are protected in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
42166	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Mexico where it found on the Atlantic side of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Hidalgo, Chiapas and Tamaulipas states.	eng
42166	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs from sea level to 1000 m in low dry deciduous forest or semi-deciduous forests at mid elevations to cloud forest at higher elevations. Usually with oaks dominant. Plants also survive in disturbed sites. Plants generally prefers dry often sandy soils.	eng
42166	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from hundreds of localities.	eng
42166	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species has been affected as a result of habitat destruction due to agriculture and cattle ranching.	eng
42167	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42167	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs on the southeastern portion of Long Island in the Bahamas. Populations are found near Clarence Town and Turtle Cove.	eng
42167	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in sandy coastal thicket. Populations generally occur in areas of pure sand, in association with sea grape (<em>Coccoloba</em> sp.) Plants are found in limestone and sand about 91 metres from the sea. Two of the three populations are located in shallow depressions that are kept continually moist by seepage from the island's freshwater lens. There is usually no standing groundwater for at least half the year. One population is marginal around a deeper freshwater pond. This is a permanent pond.  All populations receive direct sunlight. Plants have not been seen growing in semi- or full-shade situations.	eng
42167	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species consists of an extensive colony with many old plants, as well as a thriving understorey of seedlings. However, although at least five subpopulations were recorded 10 years ago, two of those groups have now disappeared as a result of forest clearing. Some of the others have declined due to trash dumping.  There are probably other subpopulations in more remote locations.	eng
42167	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Two out of the three photographed subpopulations are roadside subpopulations with easy public access; they are in danger of being eliminated through road expansion, shifting cultivation, and indiscriminate garbage dumping. Forest clearing also poses a threat.	eng
42168	conservation	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42168	distribution	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species occurs in Colombia where it is found in the Choco and Antioquia provinces. In neighbouring Panama, plants occur in the Darien province.	eng
42168	habitat	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	<em>Z. manicata</em> occurs in primary rainforest and secondary forest.	eng
42168	population	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	Within its distribution range, four of the localities are found in Colombia and here the species is considered to be locally abundant.	eng
42168	threats	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	Land use is likely to be the main threat but this is not a major threat at present.	eng
42169	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42169	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in northeastern and coastal Colombia and further towards the central and coastal area of Venezuela.	eng
42169	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. muricata</em> grows as an understory plant mainly from sea level to 300 m in primary forest to well-established secondary forest on rocky to clay soils.	eng
42169	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	There are three known localities in Colombia. Not much is known about the population in Venezuela.	eng
42170	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42170	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	Little is known of the true extent of the geographic distribution of this species, but the populations that have been surveyed to date occur on steep hills of primary tropical deciduous forest along the Río Changuinola and its tributaries. This falls in the Bocas del Toro region of Panama.	eng
42170	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	This species grows as an understorey plant on steep hills in primary tropical deciduous forest along rivers. The understorey in the areas of the forest with the largest trees (in what could be referred to as protected primary forest) is dominated by plants with trunks well in excess of one metre and often measuring 1.5–2 m tall.	eng
42170	population	Taylor, A., 2009	Little is known about population numbers	eng
42170	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	A hydro-electric dam project that is being planned for the region may have significant negative impacts on several subpopulations.	eng
42171	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. One subpopulation is found in the Las Orquideas National Park in Colombia.	eng
42171	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs fron southern Panama in the Darien province in the vicinity of Yaviza to the southern Choco in Colombia in the vicinity of Cabo Corrientes and Bahia Solano.	eng
42171	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species prefers understorey situations in primary and secondary rainforest, in dense shade. It does not do well in heavily disturbed areas probably because of its growth habit.	eng
42171	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	In Colombia, there are numerous populations over a large area, while in Panama it is also common and found over a large area.	eng
42172	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42172	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is widely distributed in the west, along the Pacific coast and also on Maria Cleofas island. Plants occur in the following states, Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit and Oaxaca.	eng
42172	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species grows in forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em> in dry climates which have a strong seasonal rainfall. The general vegetation type is called low elevation coastal thornbush.	eng
42173	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42173	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known from the coastal plains and foothills of the Cordillera Occidental in Ecuador, Acre, Brazil and Southwestern Colombia. Also occurs in Peru (Loreto province) and in southwestern Colombia.	eng
42173	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in humus rich soils and they occur in shady, moist woods, often on fallen and decaying tree trunks.	eng
42174	conservation	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species is considered to be one of the best protected cycads in Mexico (Osborne and Tang 2009) in terms of demarcated reserves. Populations occur within the Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve, Río Celestún Biosphere Reserve, the Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, the Arrecife Alacranes National Park and the Río Lagartos Biosphere Reserve. As with all <span style="font-style: italic;">Zamia </span>spp., it is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
42174	distribution	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	<em>Zamia polymorpha</em> occurs along the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and along the eastern coast of Belize extending westward up to 500 m on the eastern slope of the Maya mountains and with a further range extension into the Peten province of Guatamala.	eng
42174	habitat	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	This species occurs in generally flat to slightly hilly areas, in full sun or shade. The vegetation throughout the range varies from sub-tropical moist forest to deciduous tropical forest, thorn forest and their successional stages (Osborne and Tang 2009). The soils is a sparse loam cover over limestone.	eng
42174	population	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	Populations are known to occur at numerous localities. Not much information is available on overall population size, but the population is estimated to exceed 10.000 plants.	eng
42174	threats	Vovides, A. & Chemnick, J., 2009	There is moderate habitat destruction within the range of <em>Z. polymorpha</em> but the soils are generally poor and not suitable for agriculture.	eng
42175	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42175	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Panama where it occurs in the provinces of Bocas del Toro, Coclé, Colon and Veraguas.	eng
42175	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	<em>Z. pseudoparasitica</em> occurs from 50 to 1,000 m in trees on steep slopes in rainforest and cloudforest. It appears to be limited to primary forest, perhaps because it cannot become established in secondary forest. It is the only truly epiphytic cycad and is not found as a terrestrially growing plant. It hangs from branches by the tap and lateral roots and generally is found from 7 to 20 meters above the ground on large trunks and in lower crotches of large canopy trees.	eng
42175	population	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is known from numerous locations in its distribution range.	eng
42175	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result or road building, building of habitations and as a result of logging.	eng
42176	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Fairly common in cultivation at botanical gardens as a result of introduction of plants in the early 1980s.	eng
42176	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to southwestern Costa Rica where it it occurs in the Puntarenas province. It also oocurs across the border in the Chiriqui province of Panama.	eng
42176	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in mixed evergreen forests of the highlands. It occurs on somewhat acidic soils in the understorey of cloud forests.	eng
42177	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the Turquino National Park  in the Santiago de Cuba province of Cuba.	eng
42177	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Historically the range of <em>Z. pumila</em> was Central Cuba, Southern Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola (Hispaniola and Dominican Republic). The species is now limited to Central Cuba and the Dominican Republic and appears to have been eradicated in parts of its range due to intensive land use in Southern Puerto Rico and Haiti.	eng
42177	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Plants do particularly well in very well drained soils. This includes limestone soils and even sandy beach strand soils. Generally speaking the plants that are in a situation under shrubs are more vigorous.	eng
42177	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Population numbers estimated to be several thousand, probably 5.000-10.000. The number of subpopulations is uncertain.	eng
42178	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42178	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs along coastal areas of the Choco, Narino and Valle del Cauca provinces and more inland in the Amazonas province of Colombia and contiguous coastal Ecuador at or near sea level.	eng
42178	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in equatorial forests and swampy mangrove  of the Pacific coastal lowlands. Plants are usually not far above sea level. Some plants may be flooded by high tides. The soils have been described as brackish mud.	eng
42178	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is locally abundant in Colombia where it occurs at four localities.	eng
42179	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42179	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is known only from Guatemala where it occurs in the Alta Verapaz province.	eng
42179	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows on wet forested slopes and ridges developed on limestone. Most commonly found as understorey plants on steep slopes or rocky well-drained areas.	eng
42179	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is regarded as fairly abundant throughout its range	eng
42179	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42180	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42180	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs north of the Amazon River in the Amazonas province of Brazil and disjunct to the bordering regions of western Brazil and eastern Colombia, Ecuador (Napo and Pastaza provinces) and Peru.	eng
42180	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows on protected slopes in rainforest and in open tropical forests in very sandy soil. Also occurs near the summits of low quartzite hills.	eng
42180	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	<em>Z. ulei</em> is fairly common in sporadic populations throughout its range.	eng
42180	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Continued logging will pose a problem in the future.	eng
42182	conservation	Calonje, M., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42182	distribution	Calonje, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Panama. Populations occur in the Cuna Yale area of the Comarca de San Blas province.	eng
42182	habitat	Calonje, M., 2009	<em>Z. cunaria</em> is usually found in clay soils on slopes and ridge tops in secondary vegetation within rainforest.	eng
42182	population	Calonje, M., 2009	This species is locally common around areas such as Llan Cartis road and Kuna Llala.  Population size is estimated to be at least 10,000 plants.	eng
42182	threats	Calonje, M., 2009	<em>Z. cunaria</em> is mainly affected by habitat loss due to logging and clearing of the rainforest. Habitat loss is occurring generally within its range, but decline is estimated to be <30% over the past 60 years.	eng
42183	conservation	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. Local prohibition of further deforestation to protect the watershed is a likely benefit for this species.	eng
42183	distribution	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is a narrow endemic in Oaxaca state, Mexico. The known localities are on the Sierra Norte de Oaxaca (Sierra Mixes).	eng
42183	habitat	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	Plants are found in mixed evergreen and deciduous cloud forests in the Sierra Mixes. Grows on heavily shaded east- and west-facing slopes.	eng
42183	population	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is found on two adjacent mountain peaks and surveys done in 1996-1997 indicate a population count in excess of 8,500 plants.	eng
42183	threats	Chemnick, J., Gregory, T. & Morales S., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction as a result of deforestation to make way for coffee plantations. The entire locality is rapidly being cleared and planted almost to the tops of the peaks.	eng
42184	conservation	Haynes, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species has important cultural value and is hence protected by local inhabitants.	eng
42184	distribution	Haynes, J., 2009	This species occurs in the states of Colon, Olancho and Yoro of Honduras.	eng
42184	habitat	Haynes, J., 2009	This species is typically an understorey component of semi-deciduous tropical rain forest and is found on steep slopes and in canyons, but also grows on flat terrain. Some populations thrive in sandy soil or sandy to clayey alluvial deposits, while others grow in loamy, limestone-derived soils; in soils weathered from metamorphics (schists, gneisses); etc.	eng
42184	population	Haynes, J., 2009	The populations of <em>Dioon mejiae</em> have been conservatively estimated to total more than 600,000 wild plants. This includes two “super-populations”, each containing more than 100,000 plants.	eng
42184	threats	Haynes, J., 2009	This species' biggest threat comes from habitat destruction as a result of the conversion of habitat to farmland and to a lesser extent the effects of logging and road-building on the habitat.	eng
42185	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
42185	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in the  Bahamas (on the islands of New Providence and Eleuthera) and in the eastern parts of Cuba.	eng
42185	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	<em>Z. angustifolia</em> grows on dry limestone soils. They occur only on the red soils and not on the white soils. It grows in open habitats such as grassland and also in pine forests.	eng
42185	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of clearing for pineapple plantations.	eng
42187	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants occur in the San Ubaldo-Sabanalamar Ecological Reserve in the Pinar del Rio province and in the Los Indios Ecological Reserve on the Isla de la Juventud.	eng
42187	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is endemic to western Cuba and the  Isla de la Juventud (previously Isla de Pinos.)	eng
42187	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Plants of <em>Z. pygmaea</em> generally grow in open dry habitats. These vary from serpentine to limestone outcrops to almost pure sand. <em>-Zamia pygmaea</em>, along with <em>Z. angustifolia</em>, is one of the most xerophytic species in the genus. Plants occur in dry brush covered hills, pine forests and areas of white sand.	eng
42187	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Population data from western Cuba: 2 subpopulations <em>Zamia pygmaea </em> (187 individuals) and 2 populations of <em>Zamia ottonis - </em>synonym of <em>Z. pygmaea</em> (78 individuals). Depending on the accepted taxonomy, the species comprises either 2 subpopulations with a total of 187 plants or 4 subpopulations with a total of 265 individuals. These are total populations counts, so the number of mature individuals is estimated to be <250.	eng
42188	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Subspecies <em>mesopotamica</em> is listed on CITES Appendix I (as <em>D. mesopotamica</em>). Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
42188	conservation	Masseti, M. & Mertzanidou, D., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a large number of protected areas. The main conservation priority for this species is to protect the surviving native population in the Düzlerçami Game Reserve in the Termessos National Park in southern Turkey. This will require strong anti-poaching measures, recovery management, captive breeding and re-introductions. <br/><br/>The population on Rhodes is also very important genetically and should also be the focus of conservation programmes. The free-ranging animals on Rhodes are protected by Greek law. Although poaching is still taking place, this is to a much lesser extent than was the case in the past. Thanks to more effective control of poaching, as well as the reduced number of large fires on the island, the fallow deer population seems to have recovered and regained much of its former range (up until 1960 it occurred in almost all of the rural and natural areas on the island). A fallow deer conservation plan for Greece is now needed, which should include: a) the establishment of a population and habitat monitoring program; b) the creation of a compensation system as well as a monitoring programme for agricultural damage caused by deer; c) the introduction of fallow deer of Rhodian origin to other places in Greece; and d) the implementation of public awareness and participatory programmes for the conservation of the species (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
42188	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	A western Palaearctic species. Its original range includes the Near and Middle East and possibly parts of south-eastern Europe. It was introduced to the western Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, and to central and northern Europe by the Romans and Normans. More recently, it has been introduced to many countries worldwide (e.g. New Zealand, where it is considered a pest) (Apollonio 1999). In Portugal most of the specimens occur within confined areas, such as parks and private hunting areas, and apart from a few scattered individuals there is no wild population (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
42188	distribution	Masseti, M. & Mertzanidou, D., 2008	This is a western Palaearctic species. Its original range is unclear, but current knowledge suggests that Turkey and southern Europe (southern Italy, Sicily and the southern Balkan peninsula) were the post-glacial refuges of the species (Heidemann, 1976 and 1986; Chapman and Chapman, 1980; Bökönyi, 1986; Masseti and Rustioni, 1988; Masseti, 1996, 1999 and 2002; Burgio <em>et al</em>., 1998), though the palaeontological and archaeozoological evidence of the species’ diffusion in all these areas is very fragmentary. Records from Iran and the Middle East refer to <em>Dama mesopotamica</em>. Only one undoubtedly natural wild population survives, in the Düzlerçami Game Reserve in the Termessos National Park in southern Turkey, though this is now largely fenced. Other populations in Turkey, at Ayvalik Adalar, Gokova, Adakoy and Stavros-tis-Psokas appear to have died out in recent years (M. Masseti pers. comm.). The population on the island of Rhodes (Greece) is said to have been introduced in Neolithic times (Masseti 2007; Masseti <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008). Certainly, fossils of fallow deer on Rhodes go back to Neolithic times, and there are no signs of prolonged periods of domestication, and so it could be considered a native population (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). The population on Cyprus was introduced in the 20th century (Masseti 1999). The animals on Rhodes are genetically very distinct from all others, as are those in Termessos National Park (Masseti 2007; Masseti <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2008).<br/><br/>The species was introduced to the western Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, and to central and northern Europe by the Romans and Normans. However, most of the currently existing populations in Europe result from much more recent introductions (with the exception of some older ones in, for example, the United Kingdom, and at Castel Porziano in Italy). The distribution in Europe is much more scattered and patchy than indicated on the map (which shows its general extent of occurrence). Furthermore, most European populations are fenced and closely managed, and there are rather few truly free-ranging populations (though some are in the United Kingdom). The population on Rhodes is, however, free-ranging. In most places the fallow deer is managed as a park animal, as almost the whole of its present geographic range is attributable to humans. In Portugal, for example, most of the specimens occur within confined areas, such as parks and private hunting areas, and apart from a few scattered individuals there is no wild population (Cabral <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also in other areas such as Sicily and Calabria (Italy) there are only fenced and managed populations (M. Masseti pers. comm.). Most European animals (with the excepton those in Termessos National Park and on Rhodes) are essentially descended from domestic stock, and there are colour varieties that are considered to be a result of domestication.  <br/><br/>More recently, the species has been introduced to many countries worldwide (not included in the distribution map), including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand (considered a pest there), the United States, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, as well as islands in Fijian group, the Lesser Antilles, and off the Pacific coast of Canada (Apollonio 1999). (Apollonio 1999).	eng
42188	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	A highly adaptable species that can survive in a wide range of habitats.	eng
42188	habitat	Masseti, M. & Mertzanidou, D., 2008	This is a a highly adaptable species that can survive in a wide range of habitats, including forest, shrubland, grassland, pastureland and plantations.	eng
42188	population	Masseti, M. & Mertzanidou, D., 2008	Most introduced populations in Europe are stable (Apollonio 1999). However, in its native range in Turkey, this species has suffered severe declines and has disappeared most of its former distribution (M. Masseti pers. comm.). There is only one surviving population of <em>D. dama</em> that is considered to be an original native population. This population is restricted to Telmessos National Park in Turkey and numbers fewer than 30 individuals (Masseti 2007), with apparently fewer than ten animals remaining outside the fended area. It has declined by over 50% in the last ten years and is genetically distinct from <em>D. dama</em> occurring elsewhere (Masseti 2002, 2007). The population of <em>D. dama</em> on Rhodes has not been subject to any systematic research on population size (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). The distribution range of fallow deer on Rhodes is about 550 km², and a subjective estimate of the population size ranges between 400 – 800 individuals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Masseti (2002, 2007) estimated that there were 400-500 animals on Rhodes. There are recent signs of population recovery on Rhodes (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).	eng
42188	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Most introduced populations in Europe are stable (Apollonio 1999). However, in its native range outside Europe, this species has suffered severe declines and has disappeared from a number of countries where it was formerly found (Wemmer 1998).	eng
42188	threats	Masseti, M. & Mertzanidou, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Europe. In the species' native range, hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture caused massive declines in the past (Wemmer 1998). The tiny remaining population in the native range in Turkey is at risk from inbreeding and hunting. The Rhodian population is also at risk form poaching and from the incidence of large fires (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). In the future there might be the threat of outbreeding depression, as there is a tendency people on Rhodes to keep fallow deer of European origin in fenced areas, which, if they escape, could breed with the wild animals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Furthermore, damage to summer crops on Rhodes, attributable to fallow deer, has been recorded, and as there is no compensation system for damage caused by deer damages, persecution of animals could take place (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.). Also, there is a reduction in water resources on the island due to climatic change, and this could affect the animals (D. Mertzanidou pers. comm.).	eng
42188	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	There are no major threats to this species in Europe. In the species' native range outside Europe, hunting and habitat conversion for agriculture caused massive declines in the past, and habitat degradation continues to be a serious threat (Wemmer 1998).	eng
42189	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Giman, B., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Yello Muntjac are known from many protected areas in Malaysia and Indonesia. Protected area coverage in the lowland plains is still relatively limited in Borneo, and many areas are, in terms of forest ungulate protection, sufficiently small (under 100 sq. km) that long-term persistence cannot be assumed; most places will require continuous hands-on activities against poaching. Even protected areas are not securing lowland forest on current trends, at least in some parts of Borneo: Curran <em>et al</em>. (2004) demonstrated substantial loss of lowland forest within protected areas of Indonesian Borneo. Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Heavy hunting with shotguns was found to be a severe problem for larger mammals and birds across Sarawak and the need for its control (of guns and of sale of ammunition, with firm legal underpinnings) was recognised in the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996). As everywhere, people devise ways for circumventing the controls (illegal trade in bullets and locally made shot-guns, called bekakok, which have no administrative or legal paper-trail) and strong enforcement is required for the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>The long-term persistence of large populations of Bornean Yellow Muntjac, as distinct from isolated populations in well-secured protected areas, will depend upon their ability to use plantation landscapes of oil palm, rubber, acacia and others. Clarification of this is needed to assess the species’s conservation priorities. Of particular concern is the finding from Sabah suggesting that <em>M. atherodes</em> may be more a species of old-growth forest and <em>M. muntjak</em> the predominant species of logged areas (Heydon 1994). It is urgent to determine whether this is a generally applicable pattern across Borneo.<br/><br/>Close liaison with plantation estates and other employers of large numbers of labourers is essential as this offers the best medium to control hunting by employees. As the proportion of plantation rises this will become ever more important. Similar arrangements are needed with logging concession-holders, even more importantly because of the high hunting levels by loggers. <br/><br/>In future studies, ways of enhancing information specific to muntjac species need to be sought and implemented. Many of the studies reviewed here would not, for example, have detected wild changes in the relative proportions of the two muntjac species within their results concerning muntjac spp. This is a major concern, given that <em>M. atherodes</em> is everywhere sympatric with <em>M. muntjak</em>. With cheap digital cameras now available, some form of photography, by the hunter, of each animal killed should be considered (and this would be beneficial for other Bornean genera with closely similar species, e.g. chevrotains <em>Tragulus</em>). Most of the grey literature was not available to the present review and much could be learnt from a more comprehensive trawl of it and of active surveyors.	eng
42189	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Giman, B., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	This species occurs only on Borneo, and lives throughout the island (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985); many specific localities are given in Groves and Grubb (1982). No information was traced concerning presence in Brunei but it presumably lives there. It is present in both Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The Bornean Yellow Muntjac is known from most of the forest protected areas in Sarawak, including Bako National Park, Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, Similajau National Park, Lambir Hills National Park, Samunsam National Park, Gunung Gading National Park (in the lowland part), Mulu and Niah National Park, and has also been recorded in logged forest in the Bintulu area and in oil palm adjacent to recently logged forest in north-east of Bintulu (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).	eng
42189	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Giman, B., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Payne <em>et al</em>. (1985) stated that “available data suggests that this species predominates over the Red Muntjac in low hill ranges and coastal regions”, but Meijaard and Sheil (2008) pointed out that still “no robust quantitative data exist to support this [pattern]”. A partial review of altitudes associated with museum specimens by R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) suggests no readily apparent difference between <em>M. atherodes</em> and <em>M. muntjak</em> in the altitudes of historically collected animals, in fact there appear to have been very few muntjac collected at altitudes over 900 m asl, presumably partly reflecting the relatively small area of Borneo above such altitudes. There is, however, an opinion by many field observers that Bornean Yellow Muntjac is genuinely absent from mountains. It is common in Sungai Wain forest, Kalimantan, which spans 30–150 m asl, and clearly outnumbers <em>M. muntjak</em> there (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008). It also seems to be the predominant species in Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, a mix of <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantation and natural forest, where it uses mature and immature plantation, freshly logged forest and relict tall forest; nearby it has also been found in oil palm (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In the Ulu Segama area of Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, mostly at about 300 m asl, <em>M. atherodes</em> is slightly more common than <em>M. muntjak</em> (Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Muntjacs were frequently seen, suspected to comprise roughly equal numbers of the two species, in the Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, which lies mostly at 100–760 m asl (Meredith 1995). <em>M. atherodes</em> occurs down to sea-level (in e.g. Similajau National Park, Sarawak; Duckworth 1997) and up to at least 3,000 feet (approximately 900 m asl), based on specimens in the Field Museum (Chicago, USA). Mohd Azlan J. (pers. comm. 2008) has recorded muntjacs provisionally recorded as this species in hill dipterocarp forest at both Lambir Hills National Park and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Field observation suggests that it occurs naturally only below 1,000 m asl, although semi-captive individuals live as high as 3,000 m asl (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2006). It uses both primary and secondary forest (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), although no specific information is available on its tolerance to severe degradation and fragmentation. It presumably cannot survive complete forest conversion, but this has not been demonstrated or even, it seems, investigated.<br/><br/>Its diet includes herbs, seeds, grass and fruits (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985).  It is mostly active during the daytime (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1995, Yasuma and Abdullah 1997) but at least sometimes at night (Duckworth 1997). It lives in small territories and moves either in pairs or alone (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1995). Breeding seasonality is unknown.	eng
42189	population	Timmins, R.J., Giman, B., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	This species appears to be widespread and common throughout its range, wherever appropriate habitat occurs (Yasuma and Abdullah 1997, Belden Giman pers. comm. 2006; see further discussion in Habitat and ecology). Numbers seem to be in some decline in the Indonesian part of Borneo (Semiadi 2005). They may also be in decline in Malaysian Borneo (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000), although this study did not distinguish the two species of muntjac. However, around the Bintulu lowlands the species remains common despite major habitat disruption and high levels of hunting (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008).	eng
42189	threats	Timmins, R.J., Giman, B., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread on Borneo. Indeed, they are often associated and all the island’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995, Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Hunting is for meat, medicine and hides.<br/><br/>The extent to which habitat encroachment and hunting constitute threats specifically to <em>M. atherodes</em> is unclear, reflecting a paucity of studies to determine its resilience. Logging has been reported to lead to slight decreases in densities of the species, and this seems to be due to habitat change per se rather than elevated hunting (which usually accompanies logging; Bennett and Gumal 2001) because <em>M. muntjak</em> in the same study was found to increase strongly after logging (Heydon 1994). In the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, Sarawak, muntjacs (probably mostly this species) are among the commonest species camera-trapped in young <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations (under four years old) and have been seen browsing on young acacia shoots. Footprints are common in the adjacent newly planted areas and forest fragments (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). However, this area contains a substantial proportion of natural, if somewhat degraded, forest, which in theory might be found to be necessary for populations in the highly altered habitats. Information on the species in landscape-scale plantations has not been traced. In terms of coping with fragmentation, <em>M. atherodes</em> has survived at least for several years in several forest isolates of 100 km² or less, Similajau National Park (Sarawak; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. based on observations in 2005), Sepilok Forest Reserve (only 42 km²; muntjacs not confirmed as this species; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008), and Sungai Wain (Kalimantan; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008); in the latter, where there is little hunting except around the margins, it is common. But the current carving up of the formerly extensive forest of lowland Borneo is so recent that determining long-term persistence in such fragments is impossible; doomed populations in slow but fixed decline may account for records in fragmented and degraded areas. There is no good evidence that any muntjac is tied to old-growth forest, however, even in areas where two or more species are sympatric (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Muntjacs are widely and heavily hunted on Borneo for meat, skins, and as a source of traditional remedies (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G. M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A. C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunting used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G. M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008). The combination of dogs and guns may be particularly efficient (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but at least in some areas seems not to catch many of this species: Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008) found during interviews with 75 longhouses inside the Sarawak Planted Forests (Bintulu) that the highest percentage (73% and 12%) of game species caught by snares were pigs and porcupines respectively; muntjacs (both species) totalled less than 2% of animals, even though in this area they are common. Shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Unaccompanied packs of stray or even perhaps feral dogs are also likely to be a threat, particularly in forest isolates close to urban areas (e.g. Similajau National Park; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely that hunters make any distinction between the two Bornean muntjac species directly, although it is plausible that <em>M. atherodes</em> is under higher hunting pressure than is <em>M. muntjak</em> reflecting its purported predominance in the lowlands, where most of the logging concessions currently lie. Plantation estates are also concentrated in the lowlands, but Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) found that hunting levels in them were low, not least because they supported so few animals would-be hunters had to journey to forest areas. Even when these were nearby, few labourers were hunting, because of the demands of their job, and, crucially, the disincentives by plantations companies for them to own shotguns. As non-locals with limited financial security, most followed employer rules preventing ownership of guns. Experience elsewhere shows that in such situations, local hunters may see such concentrations as potential markets, therefore leading to an increase in hunting even though it is not undertaken directly by the labourers. As plantations cover ever more Bornean lowlands, this may become a more significant stimulant of hunting. Also, although some ethnic groups, at least the Punan, have traditional beliefs against eating muntjac meat (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: muntjacs (along with Bearded Pig <em>Sus barbatus</em> and Sambar Rusa unicolor) are heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought be the restaurants. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 250 muntjacs were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and in the 1990s was probably expanding. There were, then, no controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species (including muntjacs). The implementation of the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of muntjacs are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo.<br/><br/>Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon muntjacs (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Muntjacs constituted only 4–11% of animals killed, but index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. Since that study, much forest has been converted and muntjac populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be more vulnerable to local extinctions.	eng
42190	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. & Boeadi, 2008	Southern Red Muntjac is found in many protected areas throughout its range (GMA Indonesia Workshop). It is a protected game species in West Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, meaning that it can be hunted only with a license and only outside protected areas (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004). Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac. Species protection laws relating to ungulates in many areas of Sumatra have not been widely publicized. A significant percentage of Sumatra’s forests are protected, but protected areas and the authorities responsible for conservation of catchment forests are often under-funded and almost all are grossly understaffed so that there is little ranger presence in the field. Where there are field ranger teams, these focus generally on flagship species such as Asian Elephant <em>Elephas maximus</em>, Sumatran Rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> or Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, although Tiger protection rangers do also conduct ungulate protection activities and in 2007 three hunters arrested in the national park with two muntjacs carcasses received custodial sentences at Kerinci district court (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Much of Java’s remaining forest is officially protected. Heavy hunting with shotguns was found to be a severe problem for larger mammals and birds across Sarawak and the need for its control (of guns and of sale of ammunition, with firm legal underpinnings) was recognised in the Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996). As everywhere, people devise ways for circumventing the controls (illegal trade in bullets and locally made shot-guns, called bekakok, which have no administrative or legal paper-trail) and strong enforcement is required for the foreseeable future.<br/><br/>There seem to be no species-specific conservation measures in need of implementation, above turning existing laws on protected areas and protected wildlife into reality, with a particular focus on eradicating wildlife trade.	eng
42190	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. & Boeadi, 2008	Southern Red Muntjac, as defined here, occupy part of the Thai–Malay peninsula and occurs on the main islands of the Greater Sundas (Borneo, Java, Bali and Sumatra) and on various small islands (Chasen 1940; Groves 2003; Meijaard 2003). On Sumatra, it is not geographically limited to southern and eastern parts of the island despite various statements that it is (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Taking the northern limit on the peninsula as the Isthmus of Kra (see Taxonomy), <em>M. muntjak</em> (as here defined) is assumed to inhabit southern Thailand and might be found to occur in southernmost Myanmar. It is now extinct in Singapore (Baker and Lim 2008).	eng
42190	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. & Boeadi, 2008	Southern Red Muntjac are associated with forest, but occur widely even in heavily degraded forest and, in areas adjacent to forest, in plantations of coffee, rubber, sugarcane, cassava, coconut, and teak (Oka 1998; Laidlaw 2000; Azlan 2006; G. Semiadi pers. comm. 2008). However, its ability to survive in landscape-level stands of teak is probably dependent upon the retention of fringes of secondary growth along streams, gullies and other such features (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008) and this may be so for the other plantation species, too. Peak densities are probably not in pristine forest: in east Java, secondary forest with gallery forest mosaic seems to hold higher densities, and this muntjac may also benefit even from agricultural conversion at forest edges (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). Muntjac (presumed to be largely or entirely <em>M. muntjak</em>) abundance was higher in areas within 1 km of the protected area boundary than in the interior of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra (although this pattern was only weakly statistically significant), suggesting an association with edge, broken and secondary habitats (O’Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In contrast, an avoidance of the edge of the Taman Negara protected area in Malaysia was suspected by Kawanishi and Sunquist (2004). In Danum Valley (Sabah, Borneo), an area with negligible hunting, <em>M. muntjak</em> strongly increased in densities after logging (Heydon 1994; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001); a weaker increase was found by Duff <em>et al</em>. (1984). In the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, Sarawak, muntjacs (partly this species) are among the commonest species camera-trapped in young acacia plantations (under four years old) and have been seen browsing on young acacia shoots. Footprints are common in the adjacent newly planted areas and forest fragments (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). However, this area contains a substantial proportion of natural, if somewhat degraded, forest, which in theory might be found to be necessary for populations in the highly altered habitats. Information on the species in landscape-scale plantations, remote from even secondary forest, has not been traced. Most of its range is dominated by evergreen vegetation, but it readily uses deciduous forests and mosaics of grassland, scrub, and forest (e.g. on Java; Tyson 2007); on Bali and Java, <em>M. muntjak</em> routinely uses woodland savanna as a feeding ground (Oka 1998; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>This muntjac has a wide altitudinal range. In Java, S. Hedges (pers. comm. 2008) has seen them over 0–800 m. In Sumatra, it occurs widely in the lowlands and the second species there, <em>M. montanus</em>, seems to be montane; whether <em>M. muntjak</em> ascends to the highest forests is yet unclear (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on examination of specimens). On Borneo, Red Muntjac lives up to at least 1,000 m asl on the Usun Apau plateau (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), who stated that “available data suggests that [<em>M. atherodes</em>] predominates over the Red Muntjac in low hill ranges and coastal regions”, but Meijaard and Sheil (2008) pointed out that still “no robust quantitative data exist to support this [pattern]”. Red Muntjac is scarcer than <em>M. atherodes</em> in Sungai Wain forest, Kalimantan, which spans 30–150 m asl (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008), in the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu Division, a mix of acacia plantation and natural forest (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), and (slightly so) in the Ulu Segama area of Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, which lies mostly at about 300 m asl (Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). In Borneo, muntjacs were frequently seen, suspected to comprise roughly equal numbers of Red and Yellow, in the Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, which lies mostly at 100–760 m asl (Meredith 1995).<br/><br/>The diet is mostly fruits, buds, tender leaves, flowers, herbs and young grass (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998). In Taman Negara, Malaysia, camera-trapping showed Red Muntjac to be mostly diurnal (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004) whereas in Gunung Leuser, Sumatra, it was classed as cathemeral (i.e., sporadic and random intervals of activity during the day or night) (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and this is true for East Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008); there may be some variation between localities in balance of day and night activity. It is a mostly solitary species that is capable of breeding through the year, and has been stated to be territorial (Kitchener <em>et al</em>. 1990; Oka 1998). However, Tyson (2007) found no evidence of territoriality in radio-collared female muntjacs of Baluran National Park, Java, although range overlap declined in the rainy season compared with the dry season. Nor was there evidence of males using exclusive ranges in any season, or any clear evidence of territorial defence. As in the case of <em>M. vaginalis</em>, occasional sightings of small groups probably refer to mating pairs, or to females with offspring (Oka 1998), or to loose aggregations at abundant food resources (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
42190	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. & Boeadi, 2008	Recent camera-trap studies on all main occupied landmasses show this to be a common species. The following is only a part collation of existing studies. In Sumatra, muntjacs (not identified to species but presumed, given the habitats and altitudes, to be largely or entirely <em>M. muntjak</em>) were camera-trapped very commonly in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and around Gunung Leuser (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996; O’Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Thailand, Red Muntjacs were recorded at over 40% of camera-trap locations in Kaeng Krachan National Park, a site that may contain either <em>M. vaginalis</em> or <em>M. muntjak</em> or both. Abundance did not vary with proximity to villages, even though a variety of hunting methods occurs on site (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007). In West Malaysia, Red Muntjacs were commonly camera-trapped, at a high proportion of camera-sites, in Taman Negara, where densities were estimated at 3.2–4.05 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004), were found to be ubiquitous and common at all nine potential Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em> areas surveyed by Lynam <em>et al</em>. (2007), and were common in the Jerangau Forest Reserve, an area of secondary forest some of which was being logged at the time of study and where hunting was heavy enough to have eradicated (or reduced to very low densities) species such as Sambar <em>Cervus unicolor</em> (Azlan 2006). During a study of the mammals of West Malaysia’s virgin jungle reserves, they were found in 13 of 14 sites (seven virgin jungle reserves and seven adjacent logged areas), a much greater spread of occurrence than for most other mammals (Laidlaw 2000). In Java muntjacs have “persisted in many areas where there is some forest cover” (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1996), were camera-trapped commonly in Ujung Kulon National Park (van Schaik and Griffiths 1996) and Gunung Halimun National Park (Suyanto 2003), and were studied in Baluran National Park (East Java) in the 1990s by Tyson (2007); the latter study found densities of 23–25 animals per km² in the park’s mosaic of open woodland, grassland, scrub at under 300 m asl during the dry season. These densities (considerably above those from Taman Negara) may be inflated by daily or seasonal movements of animals coming down to the coastal waterholes. The Baluran population may have benefited from a particular combination of seral processes including the growth of the exotic <em>Acacia nilotica</em>. Muntajcs remain locally very common on Bali (Oka 1998). Determining population status in Borneo is more difficult because of the difficulties of separation from <em>M. atherodes</em>, but it is clearly at least fairly common (Heydon 1994; for further discussion see Habitat and Ecology).	eng
42190	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. & Boeadi, 2008	Habitat encroachment and hunting are both widespread in the Sundaic region. Indeed, they are often associated and all Borneo’s ungulates suffer from the increased hunting that often accompanies logging (Bennett and Dahaban 1995, Bennett and Gumal 2001), such that hunting to local extinction is the chief detrimental effect of logging on ungulates in Sarawak (Bennett and Gumal 2001). This conclusion probably is applicable across the Sundaic region. Southern Red Muntjac are widely hunted across its range (e.g. Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008, based on unpubl. data, East Java, 1991–2002); it is the most sought-after wild meat in Peninsular Malaysia (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004) and is among the most preferred in Indonesia, although Sambar is the preferred species at least in East Kalimantan (Semiadi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Semiadi 2005).<br/><br/>However, there is no strong evidence that either hunting or habitat disruption are actually threats to the survival of populations except in the case of islands such as Singapore, where it is now extinct (Baker and Lim 2008). Peak densities are not in pristine forest (see Habitat and Ecology), and in Danum Valley (Sabah, Borneo), an area with negligible hunting, <em>M. muntjak</em> strongly increased in densities after logging (Heydon 1994; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001); a weaker increase was found by Duff <em>et al</em>. (1984). Hence, even quite severe habitat disruption can increase ecological carrying capacity for this muntjac, at least temporarily.<br/><br/>In an area with heavy hunting, recorded densities of muntjacs (presumed <em>M. muntjak</em>) were twice as high in areas with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, but this difference was not statistically significant (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003). Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjac as assessed by the diameter of the cable. Snaring is locally very high in the protected area, e.g. 51 snares (mostly of size suitable for muntjac) were found in 1 km² (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003), although it is much less intense than in areas of Indochina supporting the related <em>M. vaginalis</em> (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Data are too sparse to determine whether this hunting is driving declines. Habitat loss is also severe including within parts of the park (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003), and is an increasing phenomenon in Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Muntjacs are widely and heavily hunted on Borneo for meat, skins, and as a source of traditional remedies (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mohd Azlan J. pers. comm. 2008; Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008; G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; A.C. Sebastian pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Traditionally, hunting used traps, dogs and spears, and blowpipes. Hunters in remote parts of the interior still use these methods, but most animals now die by gunfire. Sarawak held 60,000 legally registered shotguns while Sabah held almost 13,000 in the mid 1990s (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Methods used in Indonesia include guns and spotlights along logging roads, snaring, and dogs (G.M. Fredriksson pers. comm. 2008; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008). The combination of dogs and guns may be particularly efficient (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Snaring is still very heavy outside well-secured areas, but shotguns remain the even bigger problem (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; J. Mohd Azlan pers. comm. 2008; Siew Te Wong pers. comm. 2008). Unaccompanied packs of stray or even perhaps feral dogs are also likely to be a threat, particularly in forest isolates close to urban areas (e.g. Similajau National Park; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). It is unlikely that hunters make any distinction between the two Bornean muntjac species directly, although it is plausible that <em>M. muntjak</em> is under lower hunting pressure than is <em>M. atherodes</em> reflecting its purported predominance in the hills and mountains (although there is little empirical evidence to support this), whereas most of the logging concessions currently lie in the lowlands. Some ethnic groups, at least the Punan, have traditional beliefs against eating muntjac meat (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008), but over most of (at least) Malaysian Borneo, “in general, everyone will hunt and eat anything” (Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000). Much hunting is for the market rather than local use, so there is a limitless demand. Bennett and Gumal (2001) profiled the hunting of ungulates in Sarawak in the mid 1990s thus: muntjacs (along with Bearded Hog <em>Sus barbatus</em> and Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em>) are heavily shot for wild meat trade across Sarawak, and these ungulates are the species most sought by the restaurants. Wild meat is widely sold in towns, villages, restaurants and logging camps throughout Sarawak; 250 sales outlets were estimated across the state in 1996, with an annual trade worth 3.75 million USD. Along the Rejang river alone, in the mid 1980s, 250 muntjacs were sold per year (Caldecott 1988). The market for meat is great and probably expanding. There were, then, no controls on commercial hunting of non-protected species (including muntjacs). The Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak (Wildlife Conservation Society and Sarawak Forest Department 1996) introduced a strict ban on all wildlife trade, shotgun ownership and cartridge sales in the late 1990s (Bennett and Gumal 2001). Substantial numbers of muntjacs are, nevertheless, still killed in the state, as they are elsewhere in Borneo.<br/><br/>Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the effects of this onslaught upon muntjacs (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995, in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas. Muntjacs constituted only 3–10% of animals killed, but index counts of signs show an inverse relationship between sign index and hunting pressure so strong that the latter over-rode the effects of habitat variables in determining their densities. Hunting was so ubiquitous, even in protected areas, that in the two states, only one site (part of Danum Valley, Sabah) could be found as a control, where there was primary forest but negligible hunting levels. They concluded that “the only single factor offering any effective protection for [quarry species of] wildlife is difficulty of access”; whether animals are protected or non-protected species, inside or outside protected areas, had no significant restraint on hunting levels. In the interim, much forest has been lost and muntjac populations in the smaller and more isolated areas that remain must now be more vulnerable to local extinctions.	eng
42191	conservation	Leasor, H., Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	The species seems to be relatively secure in appropriate habitat, but its range is in an area where there is a high human population density and very heavy exploitation of wildlife. There is a need to monitor this species' habitat and population levels. In China, the species is not protected by national laws, but is protected under provincial regulations in Anhui, Henan, and Gansu. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
42191	distribution	Leasor, H., Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	This species occurs widely in central and southern China and, and also on Taiwan. In China, this species ranges from coastal and south China to Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, Shaanxi and Gansu (Smith and Xie 2008). Additionally, it occurs in eastern and central Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Zheijiang, Jiangxi, Hunan and Hubei. The species has been introduced to England (where it is still present) and France (where it is no longer present) (Grubb, 2005).	eng
42191	habitat	Leasor, H., Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	The species occurs in temperate forests and in dense forests in the tropical and semi-tropical zone. In Taiwan, it occurs in mountains between 50-3,500 m asl in habitats ranging from tropical/subtropical lowlands to coniferous forests/alpine grassland at the highest altitudes. However, there is a decreasing trend in abundance with increasing altitude (Chiang 2007). In China, Reeve’s muntjacs occupy rocky places and open woodlands of pine and oak. They seek cover in steep ravines, and usually have well defined areas to which they retreat (Smith and Xie 2008). But in Taiwan, they were found mostly in forested areas (Pei and Chiang 2004), preferably in primary forest with dense canopy cover and tended to avoid steep terrain (Chiang 2007). They are basically solitary, although sometimes found in pairs or small family groups. Home ranges average about 100 ha, overlap considerably, and do not vary in size by gender. Females mature within first year. They appear to lack strong seasonality in reproduction (Hayssen <em>et al</em>. 1993, Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 209-220 days. In Taiwan, the species grow new antlers mostly in summer (peaking in June and July) (Pei and Liu 1994) (Pei and Chiang 2004) although velvet antlers were sporadically found throughout the year (Pei and Chiang 2004). In Taiwan, camera trapping data in remote areas with least human activities showed that Reeve’s muntjacs in Taiwan is crepuscular with significantly more diurnal than nocturnal activities (68% vs. 32%, Pei and Chiang 2004), which agreed with radio-telemetry results (McCullough <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is most active during the 2 hours after sunrise and before sunset and seasonal variations of activity levels were more pronounced in the afternoon (Pei and Chiang 2004).	eng
42191	population	Leasor, H., Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	In China, no population estimates or estimates of population trend are available. It is generally not considered to be highly threatened, although a recent China red listing categorizes the species as Vulnerable (Smith and Xie 2008). There is very little published information on the species in China. In Taiwan, where it is heavily exploited, the density was estimated at 9.3 animals/km² at elevations around, 2,000 m asl (McCullough <em>et al</em>. 2000); however, in areas without hunting and at lower elevations, the population density could be much higher (Chiang 2007).	eng
42191	threats	Leasor, H., Chiang, P.J. & Pei, K.J-C., 2008	The major threats to this species include habitat destruction and hunting. It is hunted for food and for hides which are used in the chamois market. Forest habitat is being lost in many parts of its range, in particular because of agriculture, logging and urbanisation. However, there is no information on the overall rate of decline of this very widespread species.	eng
42196	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	As this species occurs in close proximity to the coast, and on predominantly calcareous substrate, nickel mining does not present a threat. Trees may be thrown in high storms (typhoons) but regeneration is frequent. The trees also enjoy traditional protection from the Polynesian Kanaks and it is generally prohibited to fell them.	eng
42196	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to New Caledonia on the Grande Terre (Province Sud), Isle of Pines and the <st1:place w:st="on">Loyalty Islands. <br/></st1:place>	eng
42196	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This is the only New Caledonian species of Araucaria to occur on calcareous substrate although it is not restricted to these substrates. On the <st1:place w:st="on">Isle of Pines</st1:place> it is often on coral.&#160; It is frequently planted in other coastal areas of New Caledonia.	eng
42196	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Populations may be extensive, with good natural regeneration.	eng
42196	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	No threats have been identified for this species. Changes in sea level may be a problem in the future.	eng
42197	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Currently known from only two protected areas (Mt Panie and Mt Do).	eng
42197	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is found in scattered subpopulations throughout the main island of New Caledonia. An isolated subpopulation occurs on the Ile d'Art.&#160; The species occurs at elevations ranging from 500 to 1,400 m.	eng
42197	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	<p><em>A. <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">montana</st1:place></st1:state> is </em>widely distributed in dense and low humid forests and in tall maquis minier throughout most of Grand Terre. It usually occurs on plateaus situated below summit ridges in areas that favour the formation of deep ore bodies just above the bedrock.</p>	eng
42197	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Subpopulations may be locally extensive and cover several square kilometers.	eng
42197	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Open cast mining, its associated activities and an increase in fire frequencies are the main threats to this species except in locations in the north east where it is unlikely that mining will occur.	eng
42200	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs in eastern China: west to Sichuan and Yunnan and north to Henan.	eng
42212	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Protected subpopulations occur in Yuanyang Lake Reserve and Yushan National Park. Plantations have also been established.  Japan has apparently turned to importing <em>C. lawsoniana</em> from the USA because of the low levels of supply of the native variety.  A ban on logging is now in effect.	eng
42212	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in Taiwan and remnant subpopulations of var. <em>obtusa</em> are known to occur in South Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Islands, Japan.	eng
42212	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Occurs in association with, but in a more restricted range than, <em>C. formosensis</em>. Grows in moist evergreen submontane forest.	eng
42212	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The timber is very valuable, and rates of exploitation have in the past been very high.	eng
42217	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The typical variety is known from a few locations, whereas var. <em>jiangeensis </em> is known only froma single (monoecious) tree in Sichuan Province.	eng
42217	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The species dominates the mid-elevation coniferous forest on the flanks of gorges and arid valleys.	eng
42217	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Constant overcutting has eliminated the species in accessible sites and it is being replaced by thickets of other species.	eng
42219	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is protected in Point Lobos Reserve.	eng
42219	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species as a whole is known from less than 2,000 individuals scattered between about 15 subpopulations. It is unlikely that any of these subpopulations contains more than 250 individuals.  The typical variety occurs in S.F.B. Morse Botanical Reserve, Point Lobos Reserve and  along the coast in Mendocin and north-west Sonoma Counties; while var <em>abramsiana</em> is confined to the Santa Cruz Mountains. The coastal populations are sometimes known as var. <em>pygmaea</em>.	eng
42219	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There are some pressures from local residential and agricultural developments, altered fire regimes and possibly from non-native plants.	eng
42220	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The typical variety has a population of 200 individuals, and is thought to exist in two small stands. Whereas var. <em>forbesii </em> is known from fewer than five occurrences in California and probably two occurrences in Mexico.	eng
42220	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Regeneration of the typical variety is seriously hampered by goats. For var. <em>forbesii</em> one of the localities is relatively inaccessible but the others are susceptible to frequent wildfires and development.	eng
42228	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This variety is recorded from several protected areas in the US, including Walnut Canyon, Chiricahua, Big Bend National Park, Coconino, Red Rock-Secret Mountain, Cookes Range and Papago Reserves. No protected areas are known in Mexico.	eng
42228	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Consists of two varieties: <em>coahuilensis</em> (N and NE Mexico, SW Texas) and <em>arizonica</em> (U.S.A., Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, possibly into Mexico).	eng
42228	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In <em>Bouteloua</em> grassland and on adjacent rocky slopes. Capacity to coppice, considered ‘weedy’ in some areas by sheep and cattlemen. In Arizona it occurs with <em>Juniperus osteosperma</em> in some localities; other associated species are sometimes <em>Opuntia</em> spp. or <em>Yucca</em> spp. but commonly its only associates are grasses. Altitudinal range 980 to 1,600 (to 2200) m (from G.I.S. 396 to 2,616 m).	eng
42228	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This taxon is common in many localities with sizeable populations.	eng
42228	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There appear to be no threats to this species. Junipers in the region were formerly used for fence posts, but metal has replaced this use.	eng
42231	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs in the U.S.A. and Mexico.	eng
42231	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Common in some areas.	eng
42236	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The typical variety is known only from a locality near Constanza, Valle del Jaque; var. <em>ekmanii </em> is recorded from Morne la Selle and Morne la Visite, although the latter subpopulation is now thought to be extinct; and var. <em>urbaniana </em> appears to have been reduced to inaccessible areas although viable populations were recorded in 1984 in Pic la Selle.	eng
42236	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Increasing settlement has reduced subpopulations of this species to less accessible or attractive areas.	eng
42238	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs in some protected areas: Sagarmatha National Park and Quomolangma, Shey-Phoksundo, Annapurna, Sagarmatha and Jigme Dorji Reserves.	eng
42238	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Himalayas.	eng
42238	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Variety <em>caespitosa</em> is a decumbent high altitude shrub. It occurs in dry valleys on south-facing slopes in open scrubland, on screes, in pioneer forest on river terraces; sometimes also on northwest slopes. Elevation (from GIS): 2,805 to 4,703 m; (from herbarium specimens): 3,600 to 4,800 m. Variety <em>indica</em> is an erect shrub or small tree and tends to occur at lower altitudes.	eng
42238	population	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Locally common in at least parts of its range.	eng
42238	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	No threats are known.	eng
42285	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Programmes to improve its status are being run by CAMCORE. Felling is prohibited in some countries and the species is listed in CITES Appendix I.	eng
42285	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The Guatemalan Fir is the southernmost member of its genus. It was reported to be common until the 1940s and large populations may still remain in Honduras.  There is disputable evidence that the remaining stands in Guatemala extend no more than 3 ha.	eng
42285	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	There has been heavy timber exploitation throughout the range. Isolated stands continue to be exploited heavily by local inhabitants and the deep fertile soils, on which the tree grows, are attractive to agricultural development. Cone crops are irregular and germination is poor.	eng
42286	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Both varieties of this species are found in very low densities.	eng
42286	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species continues to suffer from extensive logging and habitat loss.	eng
42295	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	One subpopulation occurs in Grazelema National Park.	eng
42295	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Three healthy subpopulations of the typical variety are known in Spain. One in Grazelema National Park consists of a few thousand trees. The variety <em>marocana</em>is restricted to the Rif Mountains of Morocco, while var. <em>tazaotana</em> is locally common, perhaps numbering 2,500 individuals on Mt. Tazaot, Morocco.	eng
42295	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overgrazing by goats, droughts and the threat of fire are among the major threats.	eng
42329	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The two varieties (<em>maximowiczii</em> and <em>senanensis</em>) are in the same situation of being confined to small and scattered populations on Fuji-San and Yatsugatake Mountains.	eng
42329	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Degraded montane woodland.	eng
42329	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overexploitation of the tree and the habitat has occurred in the past. Much of the habitat remains degraded and regeneration is poor.	eng
42345	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Populations are being monitored and protected against fire hazards. Old trees are protected from being cut or damaged.	eng
42345	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A number of isolated populations occur within protected areas in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains.	eng
42345	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Subalpine altitudes.	eng
42345	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The trees are extremely slow-growing and recruitment may be insufficient. Fire and grazing by wildlife are also problems.	eng
42392	conservation	Smith, R. & Seddon, M.B., 2003	On January 26, 2000, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) designated Newcomb's snail as Threatened in the Entire Range. USFWS, under the Endangered Species Act, will bring together a team of biologists to develop a recovery plan that will identify steps to be taken to recover the species, including habitat restoration and control of alien species.	eng
42392	distribution	Smith, R. & Seddon, M.B., 2003	<em>E. newcombi</em> is found only in remote waterfalls, seeps, and springs of six stream systems on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. Each stream supports a single subpopulation of Newcomb's snail (USFWS listing). These subpopulations are located in the Hanalei River, Kalalau Stream, the Lumahai River, the North Fork of the Wailua River, Makaleha Stream and Waipahee Stream. Makaleha and Waipahee Streams both flow into Kapaa Stream.	eng
42392	habitat	Smith, R. & Seddon, M.B., 2003	The species occurs in fast flowing perennial streams with stable overhanging rocks, springs, rock seeps, and waterfalls (Michael Kido, University of Hawaii, in litt. 1994; Stephen Miller, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. obs. 1994). <br/> <br/>This small snail spends its entire life cycle in the same stream system, as do other Hawaiian lymnaeids but unlike other freshwater Hawaiian snails in the family Neritidae, which have marine larvae that colonize streams following a period of oceanic dispersal (Kinzie 1990). Historic dispersal probably relied on long-term erosion events that captured adjacent stream systems. Newcomb’s snails generally feed on algae and vegetation growing on submerged rocks.	eng
42392	population	Smith, R. & Seddon, M.B., 2003	The population falls into two groups: subpopulations first observed prior to 1925 and subpopulations observed since 1993. Five subpopulations were identified prior to 1925. Three of these (Wainiha, Hanakapiai, and Hanakoa) no longer exist. Of the two remaining pre-1925 subpopulations, one (Waipahee) is small and the other (Kalalau) is relatively large (see below). These data indicate that the number of Newcomb's snail subpopulations has been greatly reduced since 1925, perhaps by as much as 60 percent. <br/> <br/>Since 1990, surveys of at least 46 streams, tributaries and springs on Kauai have located four previously unknown subpopulations of Newcomb's snail. Three of these are small (see below), and the fourth subpopulation has been described as large. <br/> <br/>USFWS cite information estimating that the six known subpopulations of Newcomb’s snail include a total of approximately 6,000 to 7,000 individuals. Most of these, perhaps more than 90 percent, occur in two of the subpopulations, making the species vulnerable to random events such as hurricanes that could destroy entire subpopulations of the snail. The small sizes of four of the six subpopulations and limited distribution make them vulnerable to extinction from reduced reproductive vigour or from random environmental events.	eng
42392	threats	Smith, R. & Seddon, M.B., 2003	The direct impact of a variety of intentional and accidental introductions of non-native fish, snails, flies, and frogs threaten the survival of Newcomb’s snail. The most serious threat is predation from <em>Euglandina rosea</em> (the rosy wolf snail), introduced to Hawaii in 1955.  This species can apparently fully submerge itself underwater to eat aquatic snails such as the Newcomb’s snail and has had a serious impact on native snail species on many islands throughout the Pacific. <br/> <br/>Two species of marsh flies prey upon eggs and adults of Hawaiian freshwater snails. The marsh flies were introduced in 1958 and 1966 as biological control agents for a non-native snail that is an intermediate host of the cattle liver fluke. Other introduced predators include the green swordtail, a fish introduced to Hawaii in 1922 to control mosquitoes; the American bullfrog (first recorded in 1867); and the wrinkled frog (first seen in 1896). The two frog species were accidental introductions. <br/> <br/>Other threats include potential water development projects that could affect the fresh water springs providing the species’ habitat.	eng
42393	conservation	Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas across its distribution, some subspecies that live on islands are endangered.	eng
42393	distribution	Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S., 2008	<em>Odocoileus hemionus</em> occurs throughout western North America from Alaska and Western Canada through the Rocky Mountains and Western Plains States of the United States south to the Peninsula of Baja California, Cedro Island, Tiburon Island and Northwestern Mexico. The southernmost distribution reaches central Mexico, but the historical boundary is not very clear (Sanchez- Rojas and Gallina 2007)	eng
42393	habitat	Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S., 2008	Mule deer are well adapted to a variety of habitats including temperate forest, desert and semidesert, open range, grassland, field and scrub habitats as well as Mountainous areas.	eng
42393	population	Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S., 2008	Where they occur mule deer populations are typically managed by federal, state and provincial agencies that monitor abundance and trends in order to set species management objectives. As a result mule deer remain abundant throughout much of their native range and are not currently in urgent need of further conservation action, but some evidence in the United State and Canada has shown declines in some populations (Bellard <em>et al</em>. 2001). Additionally in Mexico some data show local extinction of some populations in the Chihuahuan desert region of Coahuila and Nuevo León Mexico (Martínez-Muñoz <em>et al</em>. 2002), and in some populations we found evidence of metapopulation dynamics for this specie (Sanchez- Rojas and Gallina 2000).	eng
42393	threats	Sanchez Rojas, G. & Gallina Tessaro, S., 2008	Today the most urgent threat to mule deer in the wild is the spread of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). Currently CWD is more prominent at the local or regional level. CWD has currently been diagnosed in mule deer in the Rocky Mountains region of the United States and other mid-western states. Other threats include: high predator populations (including feral dogs), competition with livestock grazing, human habitat alterations and other anthropogenic forces. Although most of the subspecies are not threatened, the Cedro Island subspecies (<em>O. h. cerrocensis</em>) maybe maintained as Vulnerable (IUCN 1988) because the low number and the high predation by feral dogs and poaching.	eng
42394	conservation	Gallina, S. & Lopez Arevalo, H., 2008	The main problem in USA and Canada is overabundance, and the consequences are the problems caused to humans, as pests, accidents, and one of the most serious are epidemiology and diseases like Lyme disease and others. So policies are needed to reduce populations. Meanwhile the southern populations have problems to survive and some are threatened by different causes. The species occurs in several protected areas across its range.<br/>The populations of Guatemala are listed on CITES Appendix III (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Odocoileus virginianus mayensis</span>).	eng
42394	distribution	Gallina, S. & Lopez Arevalo, H., 2008	This species occurs from southern Canada south through most of the U.S. and Mexico to South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, northern Brazil, Venezuela, and the Guianas). Southernmost populations in the neotropics may represent other species (Molina and Molinari 1999). Absent from much of southwestern U.S. The species has been introduced in Czechoslovakia, Finland, New Zealand.	eng
42394	habitat	Gallina, S. & Lopez Arevalo, H., 2008	White-tailed deer inhabit a wide range of habitats from north temperate to subtropical and semi-arid environments in North America, and include rainforests and other equatorial associations, as deciduous forests and savannas of Central America and Northern South America (Brokx 1984, Danields 1991, Smith 1991). It is abundant in mixed pine-oak forests of Mexico (Ffollott and Gallina 1981), and in second-growth forests and thickets and forest-savanna ecotones of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama (Mendez 1984). Ecological limitations in northern or montane habitats are related to depth, quality and duration of snow (Blouch 1984) and in more southern latitudes and lower elevations, the amount and temporal distribution of precipitation (Ffolliott and Gallina 1981, Mendez 1984, Villarreal 1999). O. virginianus favour more mesic climates and vegetation within arid regions. In the Andes countries, distribution of the white-tailed deer is not limited by elevation but rather by steep arid habitat and by rainforest on the mountain slopes (Brokx 1984). White-tailed deer is an extremely adaptable species (see compilation of 500 deer studies in Mexico by Mandujano 2004). The species thrives in close association with man and his agricultural and industrial pursuits. Its requirements are met in practically every ecological type including grasslands, prairies and plains, mountains, hardwoods, coniferous and tropical forests, deserts, and even in woodlots associated with farmland. In the United States, it reaches its largest densities in hardwood forests and bushlands (Teer 1991).<br/><br/>White-tailed deer occupy a well defined home range, but they are not territorial. Home range are influenced by age, sex, density, social interactions, latitude, season and habitat characteristics. Size of home ranges varies inversely with density and vegetative cover. Annual home range averages 59- 520 ha (Marchinton and Hirth 1984). In northeastern Mexico, O. v. texanus home range averages 193 ha for females, and 234 ha for males in a xerophyllous brushland (Bello et al.2004), and O. v. sinaloae in a tropical dry forest in the Pacific Coast of Mexico had a home range of 34 ha during the wet season (Sánchez Rojas et al.1994).<br/><br/>The white-tailed deer is a polytypic species that has become well adapted to different environments. This diversity is reflected in body weight, external dimensions, coat coloration, antler growth and, no doubt assorted physiological, biochemical and behavioural distinctions. In general, the colour is darker in the humid, forested areas, and paler in the drier, more open brushland, reddish in subtropical and tropical environments (Backer 1984). In the northern hemisphere undergo two complete molts per year and exhibit seasonal variation in pelage. The summer coat consists of short, thin, wiry hairs and varies from red-brown to bright tan; the winter coat varies from blue-gray to gray-brown and has longer, thicker and more brittle hairs (Smith 1991). High Andean populations may retain a greyish pelage year-round, while tropical whitetails may keep the tawny,<br/>eddish phase (Baker 1984). Adults have a white nose band, orbital region and throat patch. All underparts including lower tail, insides of legs, venter, and chin are white. Fawns have a reddish-brown with white dorsal spots that disappear at 3-4 months of age (Hesselton and Hesselton 1982).	eng
42394	population	Gallina, S. & Lopez Arevalo, H., 2008	Historically probably not as abundant as at the present time in northern populations. Range has expanded northward farther into Canada as a result of habitat changes caused by humans. White-tailed deer population estimated in the United States must be over 11,000,000 of which a third will be in the State of Texas. In Canada the estimation is a half of million deer (Whitehead 1993). Deer herds in Canada and mainly in the United states are overabundant, but in Mexico, Central America and South America most of the populations are declining, and most of the subspecies status are unknown.	eng
42394	threats	Gallina, S. & Lopez Arevalo, H., 2008	These threats are only considered for the subspecies of Central and South America: feral dogs may be a nuisance to deer in some areas (Causey and Cude 1980). Some populations in Venezuela are threatened by overhunting and habitat loss (Moscarella <em>et al.</em> 2003). Poaching is the other cause of local population extinction.	eng
42395	conservation	Lovari, S., Herrero, J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stübbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M, Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The species is listed on the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. In general, this species can quickly re-build its numbers and may tolerate a relatively high hunting pressure, if in a suitable habitat and under an appropriate hunting regime. Management operations, such as re-introductions, restocking and translocations, have been carried out widely across its range, and should always be carried out using the appropriate genotypes.<br/><br/>To protect remnant populations of the Italian roe deer <em>C. c. italicus</em>, Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> (2002) recommended the following measures: (1) Conduct research to determine the genetic struture of Italian roe deer, (2) Map extant populations of Italian roe deer, with indications of their genetic purity, (3) Prohibit translocations of roe deer from northern stocks to central and southern Italy, and <em>vice versa</em>, (4) Facilitate the expansion of remaining populations by reducing poaching and eliminating feral dogs, and (5) Establish a re-introduction plan for southern Italy.  Similar actions are recommended to protect genetically distinct peripheral populations in Portugal and Greece. In general, any translocations of roe deer should respect the genetic integrity of populations at the destination site.<br/><br/>Roe deer have been re-introduced into the wild in Israel in the Ramat Hanadiv park on Mount Carmel near Zichron Yaacov. The first release of six females and two males took place in February 1997, a second release of a male and a female took place in March 1998, and a third release of four animals was completed in 1999. Pending information on nthe success of this project, this re-introduction is not yet marked on the distribution map.	eng
42395	conservation	Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The species is listed on the Bern Convention (Appendix III), and occurs in a large number of protected areas across its range. To protect remnant populations of the Italian roe deer <em>C. c. italicus</em>, Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> (2002) recommend the following measures: (1) Conduct research to determine the genetic struture of Italian roe deer, (2) Map extant populations of Italian roe deer, with indications of their genetic purity, (3) Prohibit translocations of roe deer from northern stocks to central and southern Italy, and <em>vice versa</em>, (4) Facilitate the expansion of remaining populations by reducing poaching and eliminating feral dogs, and (5) Establish a reintroduction plan for southern Italy.  Similar actions are recommended to protect genetically distinct peripheral populations in Portugal and Greece. In general, any translocations of roe deer should respect the genetic integrity of populations at the destination site.	eng
42395	distribution	Lovari, S., Herrero, J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stübbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M, Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The roe deer has a large range in the Palaearctic. It is found through most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Cyprus, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and most of the smaller islands), including western Russia (Stubbe 1999). Outside Europe, it occurs in Turkey, northern Syria, northern Iraq, northern Iran, and the Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is extinct in Israel and Lebanon (Wilson and Reeder 2005) (though a re-introduction programme has started in Israel (M. Masseti pers. comm.)). It occurs from sea level up to 2,400 m asl in the Alps (von Lehmann and Sägesser 1986).<br/><br/>In southern Europe there are two subspecies with relatively restricted ranges. <em>C. c. italicus</em> occurs in central and southern Italy, between Southern Tuscany, Latium and Puglia, to Calabria (Lorenzini <em>et al</em>. 2002; Randi <em>et al</em>. 2004; Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). <em>C. c. garganta</em> occurs in southern Spain, in particular in Andalusia (Sierra de Càdiz) (Lorenzini <em>et al</em>. 2002; Lorenzini and Lovari 2006).	eng
42395	distribution	Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The roe deer has a large range in the Palaearctic. It is found throughout most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Cyprus, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and most of the smaller islands), including western Russia (Stubbe 1999). Outside Europe, it occurs in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is extinct in Israel and Lebanon (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,400 m in the Alps (von Lehmann and Sägesser 1986).	eng
42395	habitat	Lovari, S., Herrero, J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stübbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M, Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It occupies a wide variety of habitats, including deciduous, mixed or coniferous forests, moorland, pastures, arable land, and suburban areas with large gardens. It prefers landscapes with a mosaic of woodland and farmland (Stubbe 1999). Roe deer are well adapted to modern agricultural landscapes (Andersen <em>et al</em>. 1998, Danilkin 1996; Sempéré <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
42395	habitat	Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It occupies a wide variety of habitats, including deciduous, mixed or coniferous forests, moorland, pastures, arable land, and suburban areas with large gardens. It prefers landscapes with a mosaic of woodland and farmland (Stubbe 1999). Roe deer are well adapted to modern agricultural landscapes (Sempéré <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
42395	population	Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is widespread and common, and is expanding in many areas. Densities in the northern and southern parts of the range tend to be lower than in the central parts of the range. The central European population is estimated to number c.15 million individuals (EMA Workshop 2006). However, the endemic Italian subspecies <em>C. c. italicus</em>, which is largely restricted to southern Tuscany, probably numbers no more than 10,000 individuals and is at risk from hybridisation with introduced <em>C. c. capreolus</em> (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002)	eng
42395	population	Lovari, S., Herrero, J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stübbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M, Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	It is widespread and common, and is expanding in many areas. Having almost gone extinct in paerts of southern Europe because of habitat loss and over-harvesting in the first half of the last century, its numbers started increasing again 20-40 years ago because of countryside abandonment, improved hunting regimes and reintroductions.  Densities in the northern and southern parts of the range tend to be lower than in the central parts of the range. The central European population is estimated to number <em>c</em>.15 million individuals. However, the endemic Italian subspecies <em>C. c. italicus</em>, which is largely restricted to southern Tuscany, probably numbers no more than 10,000 individuals and is at risk from hybridisation with introduced <em>C. c. capreolus</em> (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002), which has a large population in the Italian peninsula.	eng
42395	threats	Juan Herrero, Jim Conroy, Tiit Maran, Giorgos Giannatos, Michael Stubbe, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The main threat in Europe is the increased mixing of various genetic stocks as a result of translocations. This may be a particular threat to genetically distinct peripheral populations, such as those in northern Portugal, the southern Italian Apennines, and Greece (Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). Molecular studies show that roe deer in central and southern Europe are mainly admixed (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002, Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004), indicating that human manipulation has greatly affected the natural genetic structure of populations. The small remaining population of <em>C. c. italicus</em> is also threatened by poaching and predation by feral dogs (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002)	eng
42395	threats	Lovari, S., Herrero, J., Conroy, J., Maran, T., Giannatos, G., Stübbe, M., Aulagnier, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M, Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The main threat in Europe is the increased mixing of various genetic stocks as a result of translocations. This may be a particular threat to genetically distinct peripheral populations, such as those in northern Portugal, the southern Italian Apennines, and Greece (Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Lorenzini and Lovari 2006). Molecular studies show that roe deer in central and southern Europe are mainly admixed (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002, Randi <em>et al.</em> 2004), indicating that human manipulation has greatly affected the natural genetic structure of populations. The small remaining population of <em>C. c. italicus</em> is also threatened by poaching and predation by feral dogs (Lorenzini <em>et al.</em> 2002). The small remnant population in Syria is under severe threat from habitat reduction and human persecution (Masseti 2000).	eng
42396	conservation	Gonzalez, T. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Russia has an extensive network of protected areas in the form of National Natural Parks, Special Purpose Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Nature Monuments and the Siberian roe deer is an abundant species in many of them (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000; Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Trophy and commercial hunting are allowed in some of these areas under a license system; the allocation of harvesting quotas is based on periodic estimates of the population size of each species (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Under this system 27,300 specimens were legally harvested within the whole Russian territory, during the 1996-7 hunting season (National CBD Reports 2005). However, the amount of illegal hunting beyond this is not known, but could be much larger. More effective management of hunting is needed. The majority of the majority of the isolated Cis-caucasian population inhabits protected areas.<br/><br/>A similar hunting management system exists in China; it has been reported that several thousand roe deer are commercially harvested in Heilongjiang Province every year (Ohtaishi and Gao 1990). Mongolia has a similar network of protected areas compared to Russia, covering 20.6 millions of hectareas, or more than 13% of the Mongolian territory. Roe deer is present in many of them (Ministry for Nature and Environment 1996). In Mongolia, hunting is permitted between September 1st and December 1st (MNE, 2005). Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses, from which $550 USD is allocated to the government (MNE, 2005). Enforcement of wildlife protection laws, inside and outside protected areas, is nonetheless deficient.    <br/><br/>In South Korea, this species is only abundant in strictly protected areas like Cheju Island (Won and Smith 1999). Roe deer is classed as a game species under the current hunting laws, and licensed hunters are allowed to bag a maximum of three individuals per hunting season. The long term effects that the Wildlife Protection Act (in effect from February 2005) will have on the conservation status of this species needs to be monitored.<br/><br/>In summary, the main conservation measures needed involve:<br/>(1)  Effective enforcement of hunting regulations. (2)  Maintanance of suitable habitats, especially in riparian areas.	eng
42396	conservation	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The main conservation measures are regulation of hunting and maintenance of suitable habitats on hunting grounds. The majority of the Cis-caucasian population inhabits protected areas.	eng
42396	distribution	Gonzalez, T. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The Siberian roe deer has a very wide distribution in the Palaearctic. It is widely distributed in continental Asia and parts of Eastern Europe (Danilkin 1995), from the Khoper and Don River bend to the Ural Mountains and across southern Siberia.  It is found through northern Mongolia (including Navchvandan Mountain in south-eastern parts of Eastern Mongolia, Hangai Mountain Range, Darkhad in Hövsgöl Mountain Range, Hentii Mountain Range, Ikh Hyangan Mountain Range and north-eastern Mongol Altai Mountain Range) west to the coastlines of the sea of Japan, and the Yellow Sea, including the Korean Peninsula (Danilkin 1995). Its geographic range branches out towards the south at the West Siberian Plain down to Lake Balkhash, and from there expanding back to the east well into Kazakhstan without reaching the Aral Sea. Also, it occurs from Manchuria into northern and central China, to the western half of the left margin of the Yang Tze river, into the eastern Tibetan Region (Bannikov, 1954; Sokolov <em>et al</em>., 1982; Dulamtseren <em>et al</em>., 1989). Records from further south as far as northeastern Myanmar require confirmation. It formerly extended as far west and eastern Ukraine, and there is still an isolated population on the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains. It also occurs on Cheju Island in South Korea. It has been recorded at altitudes from sea-level up to 3,300 m asl.	eng
42396	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	The Siberian roe deer has a wide distribution in the Palaearctic. It is found in southern parts of Siberia and the Urals (to the Volga River in the west), the Russian Far East, and in the mountains of Middle Asia, Mongolia, and Northern and Eastern China. It has been recorded at altitudes of up to 3,300 m.	eng
42396	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	Inhabits different types of deciduous and mixed forests and forest-steppes. In summer it is solitary whereas in winter it aggregates into groups of up to 20-30 individuals. During the seasonal nomadic period it forms herds of up to 500 individuals. Polygamous, but does not form harems. Heat usually occurs from mid-July to mid-September; during this period males are territorial. Young are born in May-June; females give birth to one or two calves (rarely up to four).	eng
42396	habitat	Gonzalez, T. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The species inhabits different types of deciduous and mixed forests and forest-steppes, where it tends to exploit areas with an abundance of grass cover on which it grazes (Danilkin 1995). In general terms it is most common in the forest-steppe belt of central Russia (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Korytin <em>et al</em>. 2002), where it reaches high population densities of up to 12 individuals per 100 ha in tallgrass meadows and floodplains (Danilkin 1995). It is shy, and most active at night, and often uses salt-licks. In mountains it is found up to 3,300 m asl.<br/><br/>It makes seasonal movements. It is solitary in summer (females stay with their young), but in winter forms mixed groups up to 20-30 individuals. During seasonal movements, group size increases up to 500 individuals. In the province of Amur (Russian Federation), the species migrates every year from winter to summer grounds, for up to 200 km, always following the same routes (Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>During heat males are territorial. It is polygamous, but does not form harems. Mating occurs from mid-July to mid-September. Young are born in May-June; the females give birth to one or two calves (rarely up to four). Gestation is six to ten months, usually with a lag phase. Maturity is reached by 13 months, and adults live 10-12 years (Danilkin 1995).	eng
42396	population	Gonzalez, T. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Although it is generally considered to be common, it is in delcine in many places because of over-hunting. Danilkin (1995) estimated the total world population to be "about 1 million" individuals, though this represents a considerable decline, as during the nineteenh century, 500,000 were killed annually in Russia. Nevertheless, in the 1990s, healthy populations appeared to be common in China and Russia (Danilkin 1995, Otaishi and Gao 1990). Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) estimated the total population living in China at the time in "about 500,000" individuals.<br/><br/>The species has almost certainly declined since then due to hunting (Danilkin 1995). For example, in the Amur region of Russia, the population was estimated to be 134,870 individuals in 1991, but it has been in continuous decline since then due to unauthorized hunting and fires (Toushkin, 2007). The situation could be more even more critical in the Korean Peninsula where trapping, overhunting and the opening of new land to logging operations may be having a negative effect on the species (Won and Smith 1999). In 1985, the population size throughout Mongolia was estimated as between 70,000 and 89,000, though in the same year density estimates of 4-5 individuals over 1,000 ha were made in Khovsgol, with a total population estimate for this region of 250,000 animals (Sukhbat and Shagdarjav, 1990). Over the last 10 years, however, the species has largely disappeared from the Bogd Uul mountain region, with only possible sightings in 2004. In the most recent population estimate conducted was in the Nomrog Special Protected Area, where 298 were found (K. Olson pers. comm.). No data seem to be currently available on the status of this species in Kazakhstan.<br/><br/>Population density in Russia depends on vegetation type. It is most abundant in light oak and cedar forests, and is not found in fir forests. In the Sikhote-Alin State Reserve, population density varies from 0.2 to 1.3 individuals per km² (Myslenkov 1990).	eng
42396	population	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	It is generally widespread and common across the whole distribution area. The population is stable; the species is a game animal.	eng
42396	threats	Gonzalez, T. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Illegal hunting for meat and antlers, largely for local use, has eradicated this species from many areas of Russia. In the past, the implementation of proactive law enforcement and successful re-introduction programmes corrected this (Danilkin 1995). Recent data suggest that poaching is again on the rise in Russia and Kazakhstan, though there is currently only limited information on it effects on the populations of <em>Capreolus pygargus</em>. It is of particular concern in relation to the isolated population in the CIS-Caucasus. Poaching is also known to be a serious problem in China. The status of the species on the Korean Peninsula is also problematic, as deforestation and poaching seem to be depleting numbers in many areas (Won and Smith 1999). Although not presently a threat through much of its Russian range, habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock and human disturbance, associated with resource extraction, could constitute a potential future threat. At a smaller scale, in the Amur Region several populations were lost by the formation of the Zeya and Burey reservoirs.<br/><br/>Severe winter weather and natural predation are liable to have at times a strong impact on the survival or presence of some populations in certain regions (Danilkin 1995, Danilkin <em>et al</em>. 2000), though this is not a major concern for the species overall.	eng
42396	threats	European Mammal Assessment team, 2007	There are no major threats to whole population. However, poaching might be a threat to the isolated population in the Cis-Caucasus.	eng
42397	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Alpine ibex is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex V of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and is protected under national legislation in most range states. It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Hohe Tauern and Kalkhochalpen National Parks, Austria; Vanoise, Ecrins, and Mercantour National Parks, France; Gran Paradiso and Stelvio National Parks and Maritime Alps Natural Park, Italy), and it has been the subject of intensive conservation management in the form of reintroductions and introductions (Shackleton 1997). Reintroductions began at the end of the 19th century in the Swiss Alps, while in Italy they have been significant only since the 1970s (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>According to Shackleton (1997) and Dupré <em>et al.</em> (2001), the main proposal for ibex conservation is to continue restocking populations in appropriate habitats. Reintroductions should also be carefully planned, e.g. by  (1) Using environmental evaluation models for selecting areas for reintroducing ibex, in conjunction with (2) a conservation strategy that aims to make the separate colonies part of a single metapopulation; (3) Giving priority to protected areas, or to other areas capable of guaranteeing efficient surveillance against poaching and disturbance (although this does not mean that controlled hunting areas should be <em>a priori</em> excluded); (4) Selecting founder individuals for new colonies according to specific criteria; (5) Limiting domestic sheep and goat grazing in reintroduction areas to decrease the possibility of parasite and disease transmission, resource competition, and hybridization; and (6) Screeing reintroduction sites for suitability in relation to health and disease transmission.<br/><br/>Other conservation recommendations include ensuring that any harvest is sustainable (through research, legislation, and international cooperation), reducing poaching (through legislation, enforcement, education and communication), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (e.g. by providing refugia in areas with intense tourism), and monitoring all populations.	eng
42397	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The Alpine ibex is endemic to Europe, where its native range is the Alps of France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and northern Italy (Shackleton 1997; Grubb, 2005). It has been introduced to Slovenia and Bulgaria (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). The ibex was driven very close to extinction in the early 19th century, and with the exception of the population in the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italy), all current populations originate from re-introductions or introductions. Although the range of the ibex has increased over the last century as a result of translocations and natural colonisation, its distribution is still rather patchy in the Alps. It occurs from 500 to 3,000 m (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999).<br/><br/>In Austria, all current populations originate from re-introductions, although not always into former or even suitable habitat. The first colony was re-established in 1924 in the Bluhnbach valley (Hagen mountains), and the second in 1936, farther east in Wildalpen, so that by 1988, <em>ca</em>. 740 ibex had been released (Bauer, 1991). By the 1990s, the species is now found in the Bhihnbach valley (Hagen mountains), in the Northern Limestone alps in Wildalpen, and in the Pitz and Kauner valleys of Tyrol, and in the Styria (Hochlantsch massif). In France, it is found mainly in the eastern part of the Alps. Four ibex populations had been re-established in Germany by the 1990s. The first introduction was made at Koenigsee (Berchtesgaden) in 1936 with 24 animals. The founding animals came from the Aosta valley (Italy), from Peter and Paul, and from the Berlin and Munich Zoological Gardens. The animals dispersed after a few years to the Austrian Bluebachtal. In 1951, the population was reduced considerably after an outbreak of sarcoptic mange, but since then numbers have increased slowly. The population straddles the German-Austrian border, wintering in Austria and summering in the Bavarian Alps in Germany. A second population was established at Jachenau, partly the result of immigration of one male from the Austrian colony at Baechental, supplemented by four animals from Swiss founder populations in 1967. After the addition of several more ibex, this population increased to about 100 animals by the 1990s; however, its range is very restricted and there is little potential for expansion. A small colony in Oberaudorf was the result of a re-introduction in 1963 which failed to disperse. It is now restricted to an area of about 100 ha, and foresters consider it a problem because of range over-use. Another small, restricted population became established through natural dispersal from Austria, but its size is unknown. Ibex were introduced into the Rila mountains of Bulgaria (Atlas of the Mammals of Bulgaria) in the mid-1980s. In Italy, re-introductions, combined with some spontaneous migration from adjoining countries (Peracino and Bassano, 1986; Tosi <em>et al.</em>, 1986a), have increased areas with ibex, but its distribution is still rather discontinuous in the Alps.	eng
42397	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Alpine ibex typically inhabit open, rocky habitats at high altitude, above the tree line. Steep, south-facing slops with rugged topography and grassy vegetation are preferred. Below the tree line, at subalpine levels, ibex are only found in open, sunny woodland interspersed with rocky outcrops (Nievergelt and Zingg 1986, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Ibex feed on alpine grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). This species is diurnal, but most active during the early morning and late afternoon. Living in montane pastures, they eat grasses and some woody plants.  They migrate seasonally to different altitudes, spending the harsher winter months at medium elevations. The animals occur in maternal herds of 10-20 members, while males roam solitarily or in bachelor groups.  Females gestate for about 170 days, and usually carry one kid per pregnancy.  Females are sexually mature by 18 months, and males are mature at 2 years. The species lifespan is typically 10-14 years.	eng
42397	population	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	After centuries of decline caused primarily by intensive hunting, at the beginning of the 19th century at most a few hundred Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d?Aosta region, Italy). Current ibex populations in the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of c.100 individuals and natural colonisation (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining countries, have increased the population and the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe and Nievergelt 1991, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). In the 1990s it was estimated that c.30,000 ibex lived in the Alps (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Populations grew steadily from the 1960s to the 1990s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). About 15,000 ibex were estimated in Switzerland, 9,700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).	eng
42397	population	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	After centuries of decline caused primarily by intensive hunting, at the beginning of the 19th century at most a few hundred Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d’Aosta region, Italy). Current ibex populations in the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of c.100 individuals and natural colonisation (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining countries, have increased the population and the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe and Nievergelt 1991, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). In the 1990s it was estimated that c.30,000 ibex lived in the Alps (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). Populations grew steadily from the 1960s to the 1990s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001). About 15,000 ibex were estimated in Switzerland, 9,700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).	eng
42397	threats	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Although the species is not considered threatened at present, there is concern regarding genetic diversity, the founder effect and minimum viable populations (Shackleton 1997, Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Genetic variability in ibex populations is among the lowest reported from microsatellites in mammal species, and the Alpi Marittime?Mercantour population in particular has suffered from a severe genetic bottleneck associated with its reintroduction (Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). The ibex's distribution remains fragmented and many colonies are small and thus vulnerable to epizootics and stochastic events as well as inbreeding depression. Colonies with >60 individuals are believed to be viable as long as diseases (most importantly mange) do not affect them (Shackleton 1997, EMA Workshop 2006). Hybridization can be a threat where populations are small and sympatric with high densities of domestic goats, as is the case in Italy (Randi <em>et al.</em> 1990, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). High densities of domestic goats and sheep may also have a negative impact on the ibex through parasite and disease transmission and resource competition (Shackleton 1997, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Appropriate habitat for the species may be decreasing, as the abandonment of traditional agriculture means that high-altitude alpine meadows are reverting to forest through natural succession (EMA Workshop 2006). Human disturbance as a result of increased tourism and recreation is suspected to be a general threat to mountain ungulates (Shackleton 1997). Alpine ibex are legally hunted in some areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia), although hunting is completely prohibited in several range states (Shackleton 1997). Legal hunting is not considered a threat if it is properly planned and regulated, but poaching is a potential threat (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
42397	threats	Aulagnier, S., Kranz, A., Lovari, S., Jdeidi, T., Masseti, M., Nader, I., de Smet, K. & Cuzin, F., 2008	Although the species is not considered threatened at present, there is concern regarding genetic diversity, the founder effect and minimum viable populations (Shackleton 1997, Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Genetic variability in ibex populations is among the lowest reported from microsatellites in mammal species, and the Alpi Marittime–Mercantour population in particular has suffered from a severe genetic bottleneck associated with its reintroduction (Maudet <em>et al.</em> 2002). The ibex's distribution remains fragmented and many colonies are small and thus vulnerable to epizootics and stochastic events as well as inbreeding depression. Colonies with >60 individuals are believed to be viable as long as diseases (most importantly mange) do not affect them (Shackleton 1997, EMA Workshop 2006). Hybridization can be a threat where populations are small and sympatric with high densities of domestic goats, as is the case in Italy (Randi <em>et al.</em> 1990, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). High densities of domestic goats and sheep may also have a negative impact on the ibex through parasite and disease transmission and resource competition (Shackleton 1997, J. Herrero pers. comm. 2006). Appropriate habitat for the species may be decreasing, as the abandonment of traditional agriculture means that high-altitude alpine meadows are reverting to forest through natural succession (EMA Workshop 2006). Human disturbance as a result of increased tourism and recreation is suspected to be a general threat to mountain ungulates (Shackleton 1997). Alpine ibex are legally hunted in some areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia), although hunting is completely prohibited in several range states (Shackleton 1997). Legal hunting is not considered a threat if it is properly planned and regulated, but poaching is a potential threat (Dupré <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
42398	conservation	Reading, R. & Shank, C., 2008	Within Afghanistan, ibex were nominally protected from human harvest by a nationwide presidential ban on hunting.   Ibex populations residing in the Ajar valley (in Bamyan Province) were listed by the Government’s National Environmental Protection Agency as legally protected in 2009, effectively banning all hunting and trading of animals from this population within Afghanistan. They are probably present in Band-e Amir National Park, in the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve (Shank <em>et al</em>. 1977), which is the only protected area in Afghanistan that is currently operational. A series of nature reserves are currently under consideration in the Pamirs of Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor. Conservation measures proposed include surveys to determine the current status and distribution of the species, particularly in the Ajar Valley Reserve. <br/><br/>In China, the taxon is listed as Class I in the Wildlife Protection Law. Asiatic ibex occur in at least eight nature reserves in Xinjiang (Du and Zhang 2006), including Khanasi and Source of the 2 Altai Rivers (Altai mountains), Tuomur Feng,  Bogda Feng, Tianchi, West Tian Shan, and Hami Shan (Tian Shan range) and Taxkorgan (Pamirs). Conservation measures proposed include determining the status of populations throughout their distribution in China, providing additional protection in some areas (e.g. in the Altai), considering others for development of managed, sustainable trophy hunting programs. These latter programs may be useful where ibex numbers are sufficiently abundant, and where removal or reduction of livestock is advised, local people should be provided with compensation. In northern Gansu, livestock need to be managed to reduce conflicts with <em>C. sibirica</em>. It has also been suggested that a cross-boundary reserve be developed that would join up with the Great Gobi Reserve in Mongolia, not only to protect ibex but also other species.<br/><br/>In India, Asiatic ibex is found in several protected areas in the western Himalayan region (Fox <em>et al</em>. 1986, 1991a, 1994; Gaston <em>et al</em>. 1981;  Bhatnagar 2003) including: Jammu and Kashmir - Kishtwar and Hemis National Parks and Kanji, Boodkharbu, Tongri, Rangdum, Karakoram, Lung Nag, Rizong Sabu, and Chukor Wildlife Sanctuaries; Himachal Pradesh - Pin Valley and Great Himalayan (possibly) National Parks and the Daranghati (possibly), Gamgul Siya-Behi, Kanawar, Kugti (locally threatened), Lippa Asrang, Manali (locally threatened), Rupi Bhaba, Sechu Tuan Nala, Tirthan and Tundah (locally threatened) Wildlife Sanctuaries. <br/><br/>Within ex-Soviet Central Asia, Shackleton (1997) reported that ibex were present in the following Nature Reserves (zapovedniks): Kazakhstan: Aksu-Dzhabagly, Alma-Ata and Markakol; Kyrgyzstarz: Besh-Aral, Issyk-Kul’, Naryn and Sary-Chelek; Russia: Sayano-Shushensky and Altai; Tajikistan: Ramit; Uzbekistan: Chatkal, Gissar and Zaamin. Chatkal Nature Reserve is joined as a “cluster reserve” with Sary-Chelek Nature Reserve located 50 km southeast of Tashkent, and occupies the southwest end of Chatkal range in the western Tian Shan (41°N, 69°59’E). Most of these protected areas harbour small populations of between 200 and 400 ibex, although Sayano-Shushensky Reserve has about 1,000, and Alma-Ata has up to 700 animals. The average number of ibex estimated in Chatkal NR between 1984 and 1993 was around 500 animals/year, although numbers fluctuated as much as 30%. A similar number of ibex was estimated for Gissar NR between 1983 and 1990 (Chernagaev <em>et al</em>., 1995). Trophy hunting programs for ibex exist in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Conservation measures proposed included creating an adequate protected areas system for ibex in central and eastern regions of Eastern Sayan, and stopping poaching, with special effort made in areas with currently heavy exploitation. In Mongolia, ibex is a legally protected as a Rare species under the Mongolian Law on Fauna and the Mongolian Hunting Law (Wingard and Odgerel 2002).  No general hunting is allowed, but a limited amount of licensed trophy hunting is permitted. The species is listed as Near Threatened in most recent Mongolian Red List (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006), which represents an upgrade in status from the last 2 Mongolian Red Books, in which the species was listed as Threatened (Shagdarsuren 1987, Shiirevdamba <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Approximately 14% of the species’ range is protected (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006) and it occurs in at least the following protected areas: Altai-Taivan Bogd, Bodgkhan Mountains, Eej Khairkhan Mountain, Great Gobi, Gobi Gurvan Saikhan, Ikh Nart, Khangai Nuruu, Khar-Uvs Lake, Khokh Serkh Mountain, Khovsgol Lake, Otgontenger Mountain, Sharga Natural Reserve, Silkhem Mountain, Tarvagatai Mountain, Tsambagarav, Uvs Lake, and Yoliin Valley. Khokh Serkh Nature Reserve in the Altai region was established specifically for the conservation of this species. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Undertake more rigorous population surveys of all populations; 2) Study the ecology, particularly habitat requirements and movement patterns, and the impacts of livestock  grazing on ibex; 3) Hire, train, and equip law enforcement agents, especially for protected areas; 4) Begin using the money generated from trophy hunting to pay for conservation and management of the species; 5) Establish new protected areas to conserve additional populations of ibex; and 6) Collaborate better with Russia and China to protect populations that live in border regions. Trophy hunters purchase hunting licenses from which US$800 for Altai ibex and UD$720 for Gobi ibex are allocated to the government for a quota of 260 animals per year (MNE, 2005).  Little to none of this money is used specifically for conservation or management of the species (Amgalanbaatar <em>et al</em>. 2002), although a small percentage of the money goes toward general conservation activities, such as the budgets of regional protected areas administrations. A long term research project on ibex in Ikh Nart has been established for several years now, and 100-150 are estimated to be living within this protected area (R. Reading pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>Within Pakistan, Shackleton (1997) reported numerous protected areas providing differing levels of protection to ibex. These include: NWFP - Chitral District: Agram-Basti WS, Goleen Gol GR (Anonymous, 1986); Swat District: Giddar Baik WS, Mahu Dand GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987). Northern Areas - Gilgit District: Khunjerab NP, Kargah WS, Naltar WS, Kilik-Mintaka GR, Danyore GR, Sherqillah GR, Pakura Nallah GR, Chassi-Bowshdar GR, Nazbar Nallah GR (Rasool, no date); Diamir District: Astor WS (Rasool n. d.); Baltistan District: Baltistan WS, Satpara WS, Nar Nallah GR, Askor Nallah GR (Rasool, no date). Azad Jammu and Kashmir – Muzaffarabad District: Ghamot GR, Machiara GR (Qayyum, 1986, 87; Zool. Survey Dept., 1986). Mahu Dand GR was created for ibex in 1992. WWF-Pakistan began a hunting program in 1990 at the Bar village near Gilgit (Johnson, 1997, Arshad 2002. In 1991, IUCN-Pakistan, with support from UNDP, in co-operation with local people and the Aga Khan Rural Support Program, initiated a planning process to survey protected areas and to prepare an overall sustainable-use wildlife management plan for ibex populations. The program is to involve hunting by both local and foreign hunters. Conservation measures proposed: 1) Provide complete legal protection for the species. 2) Establish a proper hunting system involving a management plan for locals, as well as for foreigners. Hunting could take place in areas with healthy populations but not in National Parks.	eng
42398	distribution	Reading, R. & Shank, C., 2008	This species inhabits the mountain ranges of central and northeastern Afghanistan, China (northwestern tip of Gansu, west Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, possibly Tibet on its border with Xinjiang, Schaller 1998), north India (Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh), eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia (Altai, Gobi-Altai, Khangai, and Sayan Mountains, as well as isolated mountains and rocky outcrops in the southeast), northeastern Uzbekistan (west Tian Shan), northern Pakistan, Russia (southern Siberia, southern Tuva, and the Altai Mountains), and Tajikistan (Shackleton 1997; Grubb, 2005). In Afghanistan, ibex were historically found in pockets of steep habitat throughout the Afghan Hindu Kush and its outlying ranges (e.g., Spinghar, Kohe Baba, Feroz Koh, Nuristan). It is currently found in suitable habitat throughout the Afghan Pamir and along the Panj River of north-eastern Badakhshan.<br/><br/>In China, Siberian ibex is found primarily in the mountains surrounding Xinjiang, but also in those of extreme northern Gansu, and Inner Mongolia. Populations are relatively widespread in western Xinjiang (Abudoukadi’er 2003) in the mountains around the Dzungarian basin including the mountains along the border with Kazakhstan from south of the Irtysh River, through the Kok Shaal Tau mountains along the border with Kyrgyzstan and into the Pamir along the border with Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and also throughout the Tian Shan ranges. Populations occur along the Sino-Mongolia border in the Baytik mountains (Xinjiang), in the Mazongshan area of northern Gansu, and as far east as the Daqinshan of central Inner Mongolia (Wang 1998). Slightly separated from these are populations in the Altai mountains in northern Xinjiang, along China’s borders with Mongolia, and Russia. <br/><br/>The Asiatic ibex has a widespread distribution in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and southern Siberia, where it occupies precipitous habitats in a range of environments from hot deserts, low mountains and foothills, to high mountain ridges. It is found throughout the Pamir, Tian Shan, Dzungarian Alatau, Altai, and Tuva Mountains, as well as the western and eastern Sayan. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, Siberian ibex are patchily distributed in rugged terrain throughout the western half of the country, and in central and south-central Mongolia to the trans-Siberian railway line (Ulaanbaatar to Choir, and to Sainshand) (Dulamtseren 1970, 1977, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  More specifically, ibex inhabit the Altai, Hangai, and Gobi Altai Mountain Ranges (Bannikov 1954, Dulamtseren 1970, Sokolov and Orlov 1980, Mallon 1985, Schaller 1994, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko and Blank 2001, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). They also occur in the Sayan Mountains near the Russian border west of Lake Hovsgol and in scattered populations in the small mountains in the Transaltai Gobi and in canyons, rocky outcrops, and other rugged terrain throughout the Gobi Desert (Bannikov 1954; Dash <em>et al</em>. 1977, Dulamtseren 1977, Reading <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1999a, 1999b, Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Fedosenko and Blank 2001, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A small introduced population survives in the Bogd Uul Mountains just outside of Ulaanbaatar (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  The largest number of ibex occurs in the Altai and western Hangai Mountains.  Populations continue to become increasing fragmented, especially in central and southeastern Mongolia (Schaller 1994, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006).  A long term research project on ibex ecology is being conducted in northern Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in northern Dornogobi Aimag (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2006a).<br/> <br/>In India, the Asiatic ibex occurs in the Karakoram, Trans-Himalayan and Himalayan regions of Jammu and Kashmir, and in the Tran Himalayan and Himalayan regions of Himachal Pradesh, as far east as the Sutlej river (Fox, 1987; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992; Gaston <em>et al</em>., 1981; Pandey, 1993). The species occurs in the western half of Ladakh, in the Shyok valley of northern Ladakh, along the Ladakh range to 45 km southeast of Leh, and along both sides of the main Himalayan range eastward to Shingo La pass (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a, 1992; Mallon, 1991). It is present along the southern side of the Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir from the Zoji La pass eastwards to Himachal Pradesh, where it occurs throughout much of Lahul and Spiti, in the upper Beas and Parbati catchments, and east to the Sutlej river (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992; Pandey, 1993;  Bhatnagar 2003). According to Shackleton (1997), the Asiatic ibex is probably the most abundant Caprinae in Pakistan (Schaller, 1977). It is restricted to the relatively dry mountains of the inner Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush, between about 3,200 to greater than 5,000 m. It inhabits most of the higher mountain ranges of the Gilgit, Diamir and Baltistan Districts, and the northern part of the Chitral District. In Dir, Swat, Kohistan and Mansehra Districts, as well as in the northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, it exists in the inner mountain range and inhabits the southern slopes of the main Himalayan chain (Roberts, 1977, Schaller, 1977, Qayyum, 1985). Outside this distribution area there is an unconfirmed report of a totally isolated population in the Safed Koh Mountains (Districts Kurram and Khyber of NWFP). If animals still exist there, it would represent the southernmost limit of the species’ global distribution (Roberts, 1977).	eng
42398	habitat	Reading, R. & Shank, C., 2008	The Siberian Ibex primarily occupies mountainous regions from 500-6,700 m asl in rocky terrain and open alpine meadows and crags, seeking out lower elevations during the winter (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  It occupies precipitous habitats in a range of environments from deserts, low mountains and foothills, to high mountain ridges. Siberian ibex can also be found in areas with canyon, rocky outcrops, and steep ‘escape’ terrain far from high mountains (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). The species does not enter forest zones, but on a hot day does prefer shaded areas, it tends to remain near steep, escape terrain (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Its diet consists of alpine grasses and herbs, and it feeds in early morning and evenings (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  Ibex live in small groups that vary considerably in size, sometimes forming herds of over 100 animals, but more typically averaging 6-30 animals, depending on the region (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1995, 1997, 1999b, Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Diurnal, they spend the day in alternating periods of activity and rest.  Females gestate for 170-180 days (Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1961) and usually give birth to one, sometimes two, kids in the spring.  The animals reach sexual maturity at 24 months for females and 18 months for males, although usually only older males mate (Fedosenko and Blank 2001).  Siberian ibex can live up to 16-17 years Geptner <em>et al</em>. 1961, Fedosenko and Blank 2001).	eng
42398	population	Reading, R. & Shank, C., 2008	There are no rigorously derived population estimates for ibex in any range state.<br/><br/>In Afghanistan, the Siberian ibex was considered abundant throughout its range prior to the late 1970s and a series of wars. Shank <em>et al</em>. (1977) estimated that around 5,000 animals used the Ajar Valley Reserve seasonally during the 1970s; this population is likely much smaller now (C. Shank pers. comm., 2007).  More than 4,000 were believed to inhabit the Pamir alone. Their present status in the Pamir is unknown, but they are known to persist in reasonably large numbers throughout the ranges of the Wakhan Corridor. <br/><br/>There is no overall population estimate in China. In recent years, the population in the Tian Shan has been guessed at 40,000-50,000 individuals (Wang 1998). Densities in other areas are relatively low. Rough guesses of ibex numbers in the Bei Mountains (northern Gansu) are between 3,000 and 4,000 individuals. The species has almost disappeared in the Daqin mountains range. <br/><br/>In India, population estimates include a minimum of 6,000 in Ladakh (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a) and perhaps another 4,000 on the south side of the main Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, and in the Pir Panjal range of Himachal Pradesh (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1992). Counts of ibex in protected areas include 330 in the Kanji-Boodkharbu, 225 in Lungnag, 250 in Rangdum, and 174 in Rizong Wildlife Sanctuaries (Jammu and Kashmir) (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1991a), and 174 in the Pin Valley National Park (Himachal Pradesh) where Pandey (1993) estimated a density of 2.3 ibex/km² in 1989. More recent counts in India are not available.<br/><br/>As reported by Shackleton (1997), the total number of ibex in the former Soviet Republics of Central Asia (as well as in adjacent Russia) was estimated at between 100,000 to 110,000 animals. Most of these occurred in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (ca. 70,000) and Kazakhstan (ca. 17,000) with far fewer (8,000 to 9,000) in southern Siberia (3,000 to 3,500 in the Altai, 2,500 in Tannu Ola mountains of Tuva, 1,500 in Western Sayan and 2,000 to 2,500 in Eastern Sayan) and Uzbekistan (2,400). Numbers for the Pamir are unknown, but the species was considered to be common, especially in the western part. Ibex number in the Tian Shan of Kazakhstan may have declined some areas (Green and Mahon, 1995).<br/><br/>The Mongolian Red Data Book 1987 (Shagdarsuren <em>et al</em>. 1987), stated that 1,000 individuals inhabited western Khövsgöl alone, and a total of 80,000 animals occurred in Mongolia in the mid-1980s (Fedosenko and Blank 2001). Mallon <em>et al</em>. (1997) stated that ibex numbers declined since that peak estimate of 80,000 due to exploitation, habitat degradation and competition for resources (Schaller 1994, 1995, 1998).  Despite Mallon <em>et al</em>.’s (1997) assertions, the Mongolian Academy of Sciences again estimated that 80,000 inhabited Mongolia in 2002.  However, the MAS 2002 estimate was likely biased, as researchers 1) surveyed very few areas; 2) selected survey locations with the highest reported ibex densities based on information from local people; and 3) extrapolated their data to regions for which they had little to no data for the existence of ibex (B. Lhagvasuren pers. comm. 2002).  Still, relatively large numbers of ibex likely persist in Mongolia. In the Khohk Serkh Reserve in the High Altai, the population was estimated at 1,000 in 1979 by Dzieciolowski <em>et al</em>. (1980) and at 1,200 by des Clers (1985).  Tulgat and Schaller (1992) estimated 600 ibex in the Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area. In 1989, in a 200 sq km study area west of Tsogt in the Altai, Schaller <em>et al</em>. (1994) counted 337 ibex, and estimated there may have been a total of up to 450 animals. Reading <em>et al</em>. (1997) recorded 1,218 ibex in 623 sq km of Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Conservation Park, and estimated that a total of 12,166 argali occurred in the park’s 2.17 million ha (5,207 sq km of mountainous areas) (Reading <em>et al</em>., 1999b).  Few other rigorously derived estimates of population numbers exist for other parts of Mongolia. <br/><br/>Asiatic ibex is widely distributed over northern Pakistan, but is only locally abundant in the northern part of its range. Hess (1986) found the highest density in northern Pakistan to be in the area along the Barpu Glacier (Gilgit District) with 1.2 to 1.6 animals/km² (n = 194-270 animals, area surveyed = 164 km²). Wegge (1988) estimated that >2,000 ibex lived in the Khunjerab NP, at a slightly lower density of ca. 1.0 ibex/km. In many areas the species has densities of >0.1 to >0.3/km² as in the Shinghai Valley, Gilgit District (n = 15-50 animals, area surveyed = 1 76 km², Hess, 1986). Within the Gilgit District, Asiatic ibex is clearly rarer in the southern than in the northern part. The reasons for this may be that compared to northern areas, elevations in the south are generally lower, there are higher densities of humans using alpine pastures, and there are smaller distances between villages. The census of the NWFP Forest Department (NWFP, 1992) gives 2,545 animals for the whole province; in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, a total of 375 were estimated (Qayyum, 1986, 87).	eng
42398	threats	Reading, R. & Shank, C., 2008	Throughout its range, ibex are hunted for subsistence use because they have traditionally been an important supplementary food for local people. Poaching also occurs in some areas by military personnel, road maintenance workers, and others, especially in areas accessible by vehicle (Schaller <em>et al</em>., 1987). Additional threats to ibex include competition with livestock for food and habitat, and in some areas by predators. As a result of these threats, some populations have declined significantly, especially in regions with dense human populations. <br/><br/>In 2007, producers of wool products in Nepal began marketing a product they termed “yangir”, which they claimed originated from wild, hunted <em>Capra sibirica</em>. (Some hair fibers from <em>C. sibirica</em> are quite fine, and may potentially be used for high-quality wool). At least one importer based in Germany was marketing these products as high-end, speciality scarves. As of this writing, the origin of these products (and whether they indeed came from <em>C. sibirica</em>) had not yet been determined. Trophy hunting programs in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan produce only a few animals/year, and are unlikely to be the source of a commercially-marketed wool product. If <em>Capra sibirica</em> were being poached specifically to feed this market, formerly stable populations could quickly become threatened.<br/> <br/>In Afghanistan, prior to the wars, Siberian ibex was abundant and hunted throughout its range by local tribesmen. The impact of hunting was believed to be limited. Hunting is also the major threat to the species, especially where new roads increase accessibility and modern weapons improve efficiency for hunters. <br/><br/>In China, poaching is a minor threat; guns have mostly been confiscated from pastoralists living near ibex habitat, although some poaching by police and/or military no doubt continues. Competition with livestock may occur.<br/><br/>In India, increased grazing and disturbance from livestock are apparent in some areas (Fox <em>et al</em>., 1986, 1994; Pandey, 1993), whereas in others these activities may be decreasing (Fox <em>et al</em>., unpubl. data). The rugged habitats used by ibex will probably insulate them from excessive competition by livestock (although see Bagchi <em>et al</em>.  2004 for an alternative perspective) so that hunting will remain the primary human influence on populations throughout their range. Possible hybridization of ibex with domestic goats as reported in the Spiti valley (Johnsingh, unpubl. data) needs to be verified and monitored. In Pakistan, competition for food with livestock is a growing threat to Asiatic ibex. <br/><br/>In Mongolia, the major threats to the species include grazing competition and disturbance from livestock, and poaching (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997, Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ibex is probably less affected than argali by poaching and competition with livestock, because of the more precipitous and hence less accessible terrain it occupies, yet both probably negatively impact the species (Mallon <em>et al</em>. 1997,  Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). Illegal and unsustainable hunting for meat, trophies and skins remains a threat (Wingard and Zahler 2006), although habitat degradation through grazing by increasing livestock numbers and competition for pasture and water may constitute threats in some areas (Reading <em>et al</em>. 2006b) and increasing resource extraction and mining activities may also result in habitat loss and degradation. Harsh winter weather conditions can also severely impact population sizes locally (Clark <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In Russia, although hunted legally under license, many are shot illegally and in large numbers.	eng
42399	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
42399	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occurs below 1,350 meters elevation in the southwestern United States (Arizona and New Mexico) and adjoining portion of Sonora, Mexico. In the US, it occurs primarily in southern and western Arizona, where its range does not extend beyond the Colorado River. Found in a small area of southwestern New Mexico, specifically in the Peloncillo Mountains and near Redrock.	eng
42399	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occupies a variety of desert habitats, including those with cacti and desert shrubs.	eng
42399	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	In the United States, this species is not abundant, and is found as scattered individuals. Its densities range from 0.08/ha to 0.36/ha, depending on the season. In Mexico, this species is relatively common in suitable habitat.	eng
42399	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Major threats to this species include accidental mortality by trapping and poisoning.	eng
42408	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The typical variety of Monterey Pine occurs along the coast of California in three disjunct populations in San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties, Monterey County, and San Luis Obispo County. <em>Pinus radiata</em> var. <em>binata</em> occurs on Guadalupe and Cedros islands, Mexico.  Although trees on these islands differ in morphology from those in the United States, they have been shown to be most closely related to <em>P. radiata</em>. <br/> <br/>Monterey Pine is cultivated for timber in Maui, Hawaii.  It is also widely planted for timber in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Chile, Spain, and the British Isles.	eng
42408	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Monterey Pine is part of the coastal closed-cone coniferous woodland. This habitat is strongly influenced by its proximity to the Pacific Ocean from which the cold waters of southward-flowing currents result in high humidity, low temperatures, and summer fogs. The pine is seldom found more than 11 km from the sea. <br/> <br/>Fire is a major influence affecting the extent and makeup of Monterey pine stands. Fire is frequent, sometimes of natural causes, often accidental, and sometimes deliberately set. Graziers at Cambria, for example, burned the woods to obtain more grass. At Año Nuevo, frequent fires have helped to maintain the pine forest. Without fire, the taller and longer-lived coast Douglas-fir (<em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> var. <em>menziesii</em>) would usurp land occupied by pines.	eng
42408	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The three remaining native stands of var. radiata are infected and under threat of extinction from pitch canker, a fungal disease native to the southeast United States and found (in 1986) to have been introduced to California. When trees begin to die of the disease, they attract bark beetles which provide a pathway for infection of other trees. In some stands, 80-90% of trees are infected.  <br/> <br/>All the mainland stands have been subject to change because undisturbed stands are scarce; nearly all have been grazed, burned, or logged. The stands on Guadalupe Island have been severely impacted by grazing from feral goats, while the stands on Cedros Island appear to be largely secure.	eng
42424	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The entire population of var. <em>insularis</em> is protected. While most of the population of var. <em>torreyana</em> is protected within Torrey Pines State Park.	eng
42424	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Two subpopulationsis are recognized, one as var. <em>torreyana</em> with fewer than 1,000 trees north of San Diego; and the second as var. <em>insularis</em> with fewer than 250 trees on Santa Rosa Island.	eng
42424	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Occurs in coastal chaparral.	eng
42424	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Trees on unprotected land are highly vulnerable to fire, recreation activities and urban development. There has been a recent serious infestation of five-spined ips bark beetle in the Torrey Pines State Park, but it is now apparently contained. Coastal abrasion is a threat to var. <em>insularis</em>.	eng
42430	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A substantial subpopulation is protected in Lin'an County, Zhejiang, China.	eng
42430	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The species is widespread, but scattered as isolated individuals or in small stands.	eng
42430	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The timber is extracted extensively throughout the species' range but most thoroughly in accessible areas. Trees are also being lost through habitat destruction for expanding agricultural activities.	eng
42437	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Three locations are in protected areas: Minziro Forest Reserve and Biharamulo Game Reserve in Tanzania and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda.	eng
42437	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Uganda, Tanzania (region around Lake Victoria). A notable population occurs in the Minziro Forest Reserve in Tanzania, where 13 of 19 herbarium collections used in the assessment were made. EOO 97,974 km² and AOO 18,215 km² based on mapped herbarium specimens. It is possibly found in adjacent Kenya and Congo, but no herbarium collections are known to the assessors.	eng
42437	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Dominant in seasonal swamp forest on alluvial plains. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 1,133 to 1,507 m, from herbarium specimens 1,120 to 1,200 m.	eng
42437	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Populations appear to be widely scattered in the region and are presumably rare. Last collected in 1962.	eng
42437	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Valuable timber tree being exploited, large trees are often removed.	eng
42446	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	The species has been recorded from various protected areas.	eng
42446	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed in New Caledonia from the Riviere Bleu in the south to Mt. Homedeboa in the north. It occurs from 10 to 950 m asl.	eng
42446	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Occurs in maquis vegetation.	eng
42446	population	Thomas, P., 2009	A relatively common and widespread species.	eng
42446	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	There are no threats to this species.	eng
42451	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
42451	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occupies the Chihuahuan Plateau in Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, and Zacatecas, Mexico, and western Texas and south-central New Mexico, United States.	eng
42451	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is restricted to rocky habitats on and around desert mountain ranges, and is found in desert, grassland, and woodland habitats. It is most commonly in places where there are boulders in proximity to juniper and large shrubs. In the Trans-Pecos (Texas), it is most common between 1,050 and 1,650 meters elevation.	eng
42451	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common but patchily distributed throughout its range in the United States. It is common in Mexico.	eng
42451	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	In the United States, major threats include accidental mortality by trapping and poisoning. In Mexico, there are no major threats known to this species.	eng
42452	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>The population on Espiritu Santo is considered Endangered by the Mexican government (NOM-059-ECOL-2001).	eng
42452	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Extends from south-eastern Oregon and south-western Idaho east to western Colorado and north-western New Mexico (United States), and south through Baja California and Baja California Sur (Mexico). It also occurs on the islands of San Marcos and Espiritu Santo (Gulf of California).	eng
42452	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Occupies desert habitats from valley floors to the juniper belt. Found in shrubby areas with sandy or rocky soil.	eng
42452	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Widespread and fairly common. However, in San Marcos island there are only three known locations for this species.<br/><br/>Recorded population densities range from 0.06 individuals/ha in late spring to 0.35 individuals/ha in autumn. There are multi-annual fluctuations in numbers.	eng
42452	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known to the species as a whole.<br/><br/>However, the populations of this species may be threatened on the two islands in the Gulf of California by predation from feral cats and by human activities.	eng
42453	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Mabee, T., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed. To conserve this species, it is necessary to protect existing colonies from poisoning, and to protect several acres per colony.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the impacts of disease, specifically sylvatic plague, and on population status and trends (USFWS 2006).	eng
42453	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Mabee, T., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from central Colorado to central Arizona, including southeastern Utah and much of the northwestern half of New Mexico in the United States. It occurs from 1,830-3,660 m asl	eng
42453	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Mabee, T., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found on high mountain valleys and plateaus; in open or slightly brushy country, scattered junipers and pines, mainly in areas with high abundance of native plants in northern Arizona. Burrows usually on slopes or in hummocks. <br/><br/>It reproduces slowly, relative to other rodents (Hoogland 2001). Only one litter is produced per year, and only 24% of males copulate as yearlings (Hoogland 2001). All females copulate as yearlings (Hoogland 2001). Seasonal timing of onset of reproduction varies somewhat with latitude, elevation, and year. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litter size averages about six, but for those females that are successful in weaning offspring, only 3.77 young per female emerge from nursery burrow (Hoogland 2001). The probability of weaning a litter each year is 82% (Hoogland 2001). Parturition occurs in April or early May in northern Arizona (Shalaway and Slobodchikoff 1988). Young stay underground for about one month.<br/><br/>Colonial groups are organized into territories that generally contain one adult male, one or more adult females, non-breeding yearlings, and young of the year; overlap between areas of high use is low between members of neighbouring territories (Travis and Slobodchikoff 1993). <br/><br/>Survivorship is low: only about 50% of females that emerged from burrows as juveniles are alive at the end of their first year, and less than 15% are alive at the end of their second year (Hoogland 2001). Major mortality factors are disease, predation, and disturbance by man. Colonies suffer drastic population declines and are often extirpated during outbreaks of flea-borne sylvatic plague (Rayner 1985). <br/><br/>Feeds on grasses, forbs, sedges, and shrubs. Insects are of minor importance to its diet. Not known to store food in its burrow. It has periods of inactivity during winter, which may last several months; may hibernate in some parts of range.	eng
42453	population	Linzey, A.V., Mabee, T., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The colonies often consist of fewer than 50 to 100 individuals. Relative to the large decline from historical levels, populations may have been more stable in some states in recent decades (USFWS 2006). Populations in all states within the range have declined significantly compared to historical levels (USFWS 2006). <br/><br/>It has been considerably reduced in range extent in parts of Colorado and New Mexico. Subspecies <em>C. g. gunnisoni</em> is extirpated over much of its former range (Fitzgerald <em>et al.</em> 1994). Ongoing studies in Arizona indicate it may be extirpated in about 70% of its former range (B. Van Pelt pers. comm.).	eng
42453	threats	Linzey, A.V., Mabee, T., Cannings, S. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Indiscriminate poisoning, habitat conversion, and plague have drastically reduced numbers and range (Miller and Cully 2001, Cully and Williams 2001). Plague is probably the greatest threat at this time. Hunters shot 91,000 animals in 2001 in Arizona alone (B. Van Pelt pers. comm.).<br/><br/>USFWS (2006) found that a petition to list this species as threatened or endangered did not present substantial scientific information indicating that a listing may be warranted under any pertinent threat factors. USFWS acknowledged that sylvatic plague has been and continues to be the primary mortality factor for Gunnison's prairie dog, especially at specific sites, but concluded that the impact that this disease has had on the overall status of the species is unclear. <br/><br/>This species reproduces slowly relative to other rodents, and survivorship is low (Hoogland 2001).	eng
42454	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42454	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from Bighorn Basin in extreme southern Montana, south across central and southwestern Wyoming into western Colorado and northeastern Utah in the United States.	eng
42454	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits xeric sites with mixed stands of shrubs and grasses. It lives at higher elevations and in meadows with more diverse grass and herb cover than do Black-tailed Prairie Dogs (Hoffman, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding occurs shortly after female emergence from hibernation; juveniles appear above ground in early June, 5-7 weeks postpartum; both sexes breed as one year olds. They form loose colonies. <br/><br/>Major predators like golden eagle and badger have been considered minor causes of mortality. It is susceptible to rapid population declines resulting from flea-borne sylvatic plague (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1971; see also papers by Barnes, Cully, and Fitzgerald in Oldemeyer <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>It feeds primarily on forbs and grasses. Like <em>C. ludovicianus</em>, it probably prefers forbs over grasses. Its feeding habits may therefore favour the increase of good forage grasses, except in poor rangeland (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1971). <br/><br/>Individuals emerge from hibernation in the spring (males in late February or early March, two to three weeks before females). During the summer most activity occurs in the morning and late afternoon. By late August all adults are inactive. It may arouse periodically during hibernation period.	eng
42454	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure in its range (NatureServe). Populations undergo year to year fluctuations, with one colony known to vary from 11 to 67 animals. Average density is 3.2/ha, with a range of 0.72-6.2/ha.	eng
42454	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Sylvatic plague, poisoning, and the conversion of lands to agriculture and urbanization are localised threats.	eng
42455	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its habitat is not currently under threat.	eng
42455	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is known from the Brooks Range of northern Alaska in the United States, from near the coast of Chukchi Sea to the Alaska-Yukon border; perhaps also northern Yukon in Canada (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42455	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	It occurs in arctic tundra, where there are extensive boulder fields, rock-slides, rock outcroppings, or talus. Requires secure den sites for protection against predation by grizzly bears. Young are born in underground burrows. A litter of 4-5 is born late spring to early summer. It eats grasses and other green plants, and hibernates in winter.	eng
42455	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is apparently secure in its range (NatureServe). It occurs in family groups, with widely scattered populations. Although generally low in density, no estimates are available.	eng
42455	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42456	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42456	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from Alaska in the United States, southward through British Columbia, Yukon Territory, Northwest Territory and Alberta in Canada, to Washington, Idaho, and Montana in the United States. Although mostly montane in distribution, it occurs down to sea level in northern Alaska.	eng
42456	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in treeless alpine meadows where there are rocky outcrops and talus. Young are born in underground burrows. Gives birth to 4-5 young in late spring or early summer after gestation period of about one month (Whitaker 1980). Diet consists almost entirely of grasses and other herbaceous plants (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Hibernates October-February in south, September-April in British Columbia (Whitaker 1980).	eng
42456	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe).	eng
42456	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42457	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42457	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in Western North America from south-central British Columbia and southern Alberta in Canada to the southern Sierra Nevada and White Mountains in southern California, Nevada, southern Utah, and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico in the United States. It is typically found above 2,000 m asl.	eng
42457	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in meadows, valleys, and foothills, often where forest and meadow form a mosaic; occupies open areas relatively free of trees and shrubs. Semi-fossorial; uses one or more burrows; may share hibernation burrow. Burrows open under rocks (or logs or bushes) in areas of well-drained talus, rock outcrops, or scattered boulders. Habitat sizes range from 0.01 to 70 hectare or more (Armitage 1991). Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>Mating typically occurs during two weeks following hibernation Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litters vary in size between 3-8 young per year. Young remain in burrow for 20-30 days (Frase and Hoffmann 1980), emerge from natal burrow late June to mid-July in the mountains of western Colorado. Local reproductive traits vary somewhat depending on the time of snow melt. At the highest elevations, females rarely produce litters in consecutive years (Armitage 1991). Males typically first breed at age three or older (Armitage 1991).<br/><br/>Lives alone, in pairs, or colonies. Colonies typically consist of one or more adult territorial males, 1-5 adult females and their young (usually including yearlings and younger offspring). Virtually all males and slightly less than half the females disperse from the natal colony, typically as yearlings and regardless of population density in males; dispersal distance usually is less than four km but up to 15.5 km for males and 6.4 km for females in western Colorado (Armitage 1991). <br/><br/>May harbour fleas that are vectors of sylvatic plague or tick that transmits Rocky Mountain spotted fever. These marmots are generalist herbivores, feeding on a wide variety of grasses and forbs. They do not store food for the winter.<br/><br/>At higher elevations it may hibernate early September-May; at lower elevations it may emerge late February to mid-March. In the mountains of western Colorado, spring emergence from hibernation begins in late April or early May, emergence for hibernation begins in late August and usually is completed by mid-September (Armitage 1991). In more boreal zones may be active all summer but may begin aestivation in June at lower elevations (Frase and Hoffmann 1980).	eng
42457	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). It lives in small colonies, with the density of colonies varying with the availability of foraging areas and den sites. Populations are often separated by areas of unsuitable habitat.	eng
42457	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42458	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42458	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species ranges from central Alaska in the United States, east through Canada south of the tree line to Labrador; in eastern North America south to Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas; in the west absent from the Great Plains, extending down the western mountains to northern Idaho in the United States (Kwiecinski 1998).	eng
42458	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	It inhabits low elevation woodland-field ecotones, especially along fields, roads, and streams. It commonly occurs in farmlands and in proximity to human structures. Prefers open areas, such as meadows, pastures, old fields, orchards. Also founds in hilly and rocky areas in open woodlands having fields or meadows adjacent (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). For hibernation prefers hedgerows, woods, steep inclines in stony ground, haystacks, or sites with good drainage and a southern exposure (Kwiecinski 1998). <br/><br/>Young are born in a den in an extensive burrow system. Breeding period extends from early March to mid-April. Gestation lasts 31-32 days. Young are born from April to mid-May. A single litter of 2-6 (average four) is produced each year. Sexually mature in one year. Primarily solitary, except during breeding, though limited social interaction may occur at other times. Abandoned burrows are widely used as den sites by other animals (Kwiecinski 1998).<br/><br/>Diet includes a wide variety of herbs, grasses, and the leaves of shrubs; also invertebrates.	eng
42458	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is common. Reported densities are highly variable, ranging from 0.1/hectare in Quebec to 3.3./hectare in Ohio (Kwiecinski 1998). However, populations are loosely structured because burrow systems are not spatially clustered and animals are asocial and territorial.	eng
42458	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Sometimes regarded as a pest when causing damage to crops, gardens, landscaping, or structures.	eng
42459	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Most of the habitat is protected in Olympic National Park. Research on populations trends and metapopulation dynamics is needed.	eng
42459	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range is limited to the upper slopes of the Olympic Mountains of western Washington (Edelman 2003); the species is almost completely restricted to Olympic National Park (Barash 1973). The extent of occurrence is approximately 1,800 square kilometers (Barash 1973). Most marmots occur at elevations of 1,500-1,750 m asl, with normal lower and upper extremes of 920 and 1,990 m asl (Barash 1973) and rare occurrences to near sea level (30-200 m asl) (Scheffer 1995).	eng
42459	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Typical habitat is near timberline on subalpine and alpine meadows and talus slopes; many colonies are located on south-facing slopes, where food availability is probably greater because of earlier snowmelt (Barash 1973). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding patterns are probably similar to <em>M. calogata</em> where mating occurs in spring soon after emergence from hibernation, bears young in late May or early June, produces one litter of four or five young per year. Young reach sexual maturity probably in 2-3 years (Banfield 1974).<br/><br/>It grazes on a wide variety of grasses and forbs. It does not store food for the winter; it accumulates body fat. Probably hibernates for about eight months each year, similar to <em>M. calogata</em>.	eng
42459	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Barash (1989) believed that the total population size was fewer than 2,000, but more recent estimates put the total at 2,000 to 4,000. This reflects better information rather than a population increase. This species is represented by a small number of occurrences or subpopulations, all within one mountain range. The specific number of occurrences depends on how each metapopulation is defined. Sharp declines and local extirpations have occurred at several colony sites since the late 1980s, although other colonies appear to be stable (Edelman 2003). The overall trend is not known.	eng
42459	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Predation by coyotes and tree encroachment into subalpine meadows may be responsible for recent local declines (S. C. Griffin pers. comm., cited by Edelman 2003). The latter factor suggests that fire suppression might be a potential threat. Olympic marmots acclimate quickly to human intrusion into colonies and allow observation of behaviour (Edelman 2003).	eng
42460	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
42460	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species occurs on Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo, and small adjacent islands.	eng
42460	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This is a diurnal and terrestrial species (Saiful and Nordin 2004), occurring in lowland primary rainforest, logged forests, and 40 year old regrowth.	eng
42460	population	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	This species has been rarely encountered.	eng
42460	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Meijaard, E., Lee, B. & Tizard, R.J., 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural conversion.	eng
42461	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas within its patchy range. Forest management plans that require logging in small blocks would help maintain viable populations.	eng
42461	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is found in the U.S. and Mexico. In the U.S. it is found in south-eastern Utah, south and west Colorado, extreme south-eastern Wyoming, west and central New Mexico, and Arizona (USA); in Mexico, it occurs in Chihuahua, Durango, and Sonora (Mexico). There are also introduced populations in many other locations in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah.	eng
42461	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is strongly dependent on ponderosa and yellow pine forest habitat, with some use of adjoining pinyon woodlands and mixed coniferous forests.	eng
42461	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species is sparse in much of its range, but is abundant at some times and/or in some localities. Recorded densities range from 2 - 114 individuals per square kilometre.	eng
42461	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	This species habitat is threatened by clear-cutting over large areas. Populations are relatively isolated due to the distribution of ponderosa pine habitat.	eng
42462	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
42462	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada; southern Quebec to Manitoba, south to eastern Texas and Florida. Its range has been extended through introductions into Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, California, Oregon, Washington, and Montana (Teaford 1986, Koprowski 1994). It is also introduced in the British Isles, Italy, South Africa, and Australia (extirpated by 1973), but these introduced ranges are not included in the map here (see Koprowski 1994).	eng
42462	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in large blocks of hardwood or mixed forests, as well as in urban and suburban areas. Prefers mature deciduous and mixed forests with abundant supplies of mast (e.g., acorns, hickory nuts). A diversity of nut trees is needed to support high densities. Also uses city parks and floodplains. Seldom far from permanent open water. In southern Alabama, narrow bands of hardwoods along ephemeral streams were an important component of the habitat in even-aged pine and mixed pine-hardwood stands. Rests in tree cavity or leaf nest; leaf nests apparently are made primarily by dispersing juveniles 18-19 weeks old. Nests in tree cavities or in leaf nests, usually 25 feet or more above the ground. Most winter-spring litters are born in tree cavities, most spring-summer litters in leaf nests (Teaford 1986). Cavities suitable for nesting are dry, 15-25 cm in diametre, 40-50 cm deep, with an entrance hole about eight cm in diameter (Teaford 1986). Females may move young from tree cavity nest to leaf nest, possibly to escape fleas. <br/><br/>In Illinois, most breeding occurs in December-February and May-June; slightly later in more northern latitudes (see Koprowski 1994). One or two litters per year. First litter is produced mostly in February-March, sometimes as early as January in some areas; second litter, July or August. Gestation lasts 44 days. Litter size most often is 2-3. Young are tended by female. Weaning is completed at about 10-12 weeks (in spring and/or late summer-early fall). Most breed as yearlings, sometimes sooner (as early as five months) or later. Reproductive output, including the percentage of adults that produce young and the number of litters per year, is positively correlated with mast abundance. Maximum reproductive longevity is about a decade.<br/><br/>Home range averages 0.5-10 ha, with older males tending to have the largest ranges (Teaford 1986); usually home range is less than five hectares (see Koprowski 1994). Not territorial, home range overlap is extensive; social system is characterized by a linear dominance hierarchy. Disperses up to a few kilometres from natal area upon approaching sexual maturity. Large-scale one-way emigrations have been observed, generally coinciding with high population density and mast crop failure. <br/><br/>Taken by many predators, but predation does not appear to limit populations (Teaford 1986). Mean annual mortality reported for adults is 42-57% (Koprowski 1994). Diet consists of seeds, fruits, nuts, fungi, occasional insects and small vertebrates (e.g., bird eggs). Scatterhoarder; buries nuts and acorn in fall for later consumption (winter-spring). Active during the day, particularly in the morning and late afternoon, though unimodal activity may occur in winter. May be inactive for a day or two during extremely cold, snowy weather.	eng
42462	population	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and abundant. Reported densities vary from <3/ha in continuous woodlands to >21/ha in urban parks. Population and range are increasing (J Koprowski pers. comm.).	eng
42462	threats	Linzey, A.V., Koprowski, J. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42463	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	A number of occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed.	eng
42463	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges in the intermountain West of the United States, from southwestern Montana to southern Utah, including eastern Idaho and western Wyoming.	eng
42463	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers large open areas, such as dry meadows, pastures, and cultivated fields in high valleys. In western Wyoming, it occurs in shrub-steppe communities of sagebrush and rabbitbrush. Digs underground burrows. Females produce one litter of 4-6 altricial young per year. Young are born usually in April (Burt and Grossenheider 1964). Lives in large colonies. Feeds primarily on a wide variety of green vegetation and seeds; some invertebrates (e.g. earthworms) (Eshelman and Sonnemann 2000), and some vertebrates; accumulates great reserves of body fat. Usually active from spring through late summer (approximately April-August). Dormant during the fall and winter.	eng
42463	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common.	eng
42463	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42464	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes some protected areas.	eng
42464	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the western United States; eastern Oregon south through northeastern California, southwestern Idaho, north-central Nevada, and extreme southeastern Utah.	eng
42464	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Generally a high elevation species. It inhabits alpine and subalpine meadows, sagebrush flats, mixed brush and grass habitats, pastures and croplands. It is usually found in fairly open habitat (Jenkins and Eshelman 1984). It is seldom far from water. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Breeding occurs shortly after hibernation. Gestation lasts 23-28 days. Females are reported to produce one litter of 4-12 young, or an average of eight young per litter (Hall 1946). Sexually mature in two years. Lives in colonies. Predators include coyotes, badgers, and weasels.<br/><br/>Feeds primarily on grass, leaves of meadow plants, and seeds. Remains active for longer periods during the spring and summer than are other species of <em>Spermophilus</em>, which live in more arid habitats at lower elevations (Larrison and Johnson 1981). Usually hibernates from late September-May or June (Hall 1946).	eng
42464	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common. Population density estimates in California range from 1.2/ha in an alpine meadow to well over 100/ha in an agricultural area.	eng
42464	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42465	conservation	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42465	distribution	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the western United States; in eastern Oregon (except northeastern and southeastern corners), northwestern Nevada, and west side of Snake River in west-central Idaho (Hoffman <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42465	habitat	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs mainly in high desert (sagebrush, shadscale, greasewood, western juniper), grasslands, pastures (Rickart, in Wilson and Ruff 1999); and also in river valley bottomland. Generally in well-drained soils, especially embankments. It is often around desert springs and irrigated fields. It makes extensive burrow systems. Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. <br/><br/>Main diet is herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out. May have separate period of activity in fall. Most active in the early morning.	eng
42465	population	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The current population trend of this species is unknown.	eng
42465	threats	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Main threats appear to be agricultural conversion and rangeland degradation although these are not major threats throughout the species' range. It causes agricultural damage in some areas and has been subject of control programs.	eng
42466	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42466	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the central Rocky Mountains in North America, from southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta, Canada, south through northern and eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, northern and central Idaho and western Montana in the United States. Its elevational range is mainly 700-8,000 ft.	eng
42466	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in open habitat: high grass plateaus, sagebrush plains, valley grasslands, openings (meadows, clearcuts) in coniferous forests, alpine meadows, and stream banks. It is not very tolerant of dry conditions. Typically burrows in friable or sandy soils in open ground or bank under boulder or log. Also inhabits south-facing mountain slopes, and agricultural and grazing systems.<br/><br/>Mating occurs soon after females emerge from hibernation. Gestation lasts 24 days. Litter of 2-7 (average 2-4) altricial young is born May-late June. Nursing period usually lasts about 30 days. Sexually mature in 1-2 years.<br/><br/>This species is colonial. In southwestern Alberta, intercolony dispersal was mainly by yearling males; usually dispersed less than four kilometres but up to 8.5 kilometres (Wiggett and Boag 1989). Average home range of adult male was about 0.4 hectare, of adult female about 0.1 hectare. Adult males defend (primarily during breeding season) core areas within their home range. Adult females defend their territory near the nest burrow; and exhibit strong site fidelity. They are a reservoir for Rocky Mountain spotted fever and bubonic plague. Prey for various carnivores and diurnal raptors.<br/><br/>Diet includes a wide variety of vegetation: roots, bulbs, stems, leaves, seeds, and berries. Also eats some animal food (e.g., insects, mice, dead fish). May climb into trees and shrubs to obtain buds and fruits. Spends about 70% of year in hibernation.	eng
42466	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Reported densities vary from 16.2/ha in natural habitats in southwestern Alberta to 61.7/ha in agricultural bottomlands in Washington. It is colonial and may attain pest status.	eng
42466	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42467	conservation	Yensen, E.Mabee, T. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed.	eng
42467	distribution	Yensen, E.Mabee, T. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in three disjunct population units, corresponding to subspecies <em>S. e. aureus</em> found in southwestern Montana and adjoining Idaho; <em>S. e. elegans</em> in northern Colorado, southern Wyoming, extreme western Nebraska, and extreme northeastern Utah; and <em>S. e. nevadensis</em> in north-central Nevada, southwestern Idaho, and possibly extreme southeastern Oregon. However, only one population of <em>S. e. nevadensis</em> still exists in Idaho, it appears to be extinct in Oregon, and it occurs in only a few places in Nevada.	eng
42467	habitat	Yensen, E.Mabee, T. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in well-drained upland slopes covered by dry grassland or shrub steppe, especially sagebrush; mainly on slopes with loose sandy soils, suitable for digging burrows; mountain meadows, talus slopes (H. D. Smith, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). <br/><br/>Young are born in an underground nest. Mating occurs soon after emergence from hibernation. Gestation probably lasts 22-23 days. Females produce one litter per year of 1-11 (usually 6-7) altricial young. In large colonies, home range may be as small as 25-50 yards in diametre. May host fleas that transmit bubonic plague. Predators include coyotes, badgers, hawks.<br/><br/>Feeds on seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots of grasses, forbs and shrubs. Will also feed on insects, especially in the late summer. Sometimes eats carrion. Emerges from hibernation in the early spring. Active during spring and summer but becomes dormant again sometime between late July and early September.	eng
42467	population	Yensen, E.Mabee, T. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species is fairly widespread in several interior western states and is sometimes very abundant. Densities of up to 48/ha have been reported in local areas.	eng
42467	threats	Yensen, E.Mabee, T. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is threatened by habitat degradation, especially agricultural conversion. Sylvatic plague may greatly reduce or exterminate a colony. Indiscriminate poisoning to control crop destruction is also a localised threat.	eng
42468	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42468	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in western North America, from eastern British Columbia and western Alberta, south through the western United States to California, Arizona, and New Mexico, at elevations of 1,220-3,965 m asl (Bartels and Thompson 1993). There are disjunct population segments in the southern portion of the range.	eng
42468	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits mountain slopes and foothills, alpine tundra, chaparral, open areas in pine, spruce, and fir forests, rocky outcroppings and slides, margins of mountain meadows, and rocky sagebrush country; campgrounds. Often in areas with abundant stumps, rocks, or fallen logs. When inactive or tending young, it occupies burrows under rocks, stumps, logs, trees, bushes, or cabins, in rock crevices, or in banks or along washes. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in the spring soon after females emerge from hibernation. Females are monoestrous. Gestation lasts 26-33 days. Litter size is 2-8, usually 4-6. Young emerge from burrow typically in July (to early August at highest elevations). Weaning occurs at a minimum age of four weeks. <br/><br/>Predators include snakes, foxes, weasels, and bears. This species may be an intermediate host for the Rocky Mountain spotted fever tick, <em>Dermacentor andersoni</em>. These squirrels are omnivorous. Diet includes seeds, fungus, leaves, flowers, fruits and roots. They also feed on arthropods and meat, including carrion. May store food in burrows in summer. Active mainly March-November at low elevations; season is shorter in high mountains and in areas with abundant snowfall.	eng
42468	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Populations usually are distributed evenly over good habitat. This species is locally abundant.	eng
42468	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42469	conservation	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42469	distribution	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in Washington, north of the Yakima River and west of the Columbia River and, disjunctly, in the southeastern corner of Oregon, southern Idaho (Snake River Valley), southward through Nevada (except extreme southern Nevada), extreme east-central California, and western Utah in the United States.	eng
42469	habitat	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found mainly in high desert (sagebrush, shadscale, greasewood). In southwestern Idaho, highest densities were in winterfat-Sandberg's bluegrass communities, with intermediate densities in big sagebrush-dominated communities and lowest densities in shadscale communities; scarce in communities dominated by exotic annuals (Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1992). It generally occurs in well-drained soils, especially embankments, often around desert springs and irrigated fields. Makes extensive burrow systems. <br/><br/>Young are born in a nest chamber in an underground burrow. This species breeds late January-early March, depending on locality. Drought may suppress breeding. Gestation lasts 24 days. Litter size typically is 5-10; one litter per year. Males mature as yearlings or as two year-olds; females breed as yearlings (Rickart 1987).<br/><br/>Mean home range was estimated at 1,357 m². May form colonies but families and individuals live separately. Compared to other ground squirrels, it has high fecundity and low adult survivorship and is short-lived (Rickart 1988). <br/>Diet includes herbaceous vegetation (grasses, forbs, and exotic annuals), and seeds; it may also eat some shrub parts and animal matter. Will often feed on crops. May climb bushes while foraging. Emerges from dormancy in late winter or early spring (males before females) but returns to dormancy during May-July, when grasses dry out.	eng
42469	population	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It forms colonies of >30 adults/ha. Although densities of 331/ha (adults and juveniles) have been reported, this figure is likely to be an overestimate. Studies showing 3-32 adults/ha (not including juveniles) are likely to be more representative.	eng
42469	threats	Yensen, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitat conversion to agriculture and rangeland degradation. A decline in the late 1980s in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area in southwestern Idaho was due to widespread conversion of desert shrublands to exotic annual-dominated communities by wildfires (Yensen <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
42470	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
42470	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic of the Caucasus. Distributed on northern slopes of central part of th Major Caucasus Ridge (Prielbrusje), in headstreams of rivers Kuban, Malka, Bakan and Chegem (Karachai-Circassia and Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia). The only species of ground squirrel in the region. Total range is about 300,000 ha. In this area found 234 separate colonies, covered in total 85,000 ha. Majority of colonies are 10-100 ha (126 colonies) and 100-1000 ha (57). Rarely found small (less than 10 ha; 39 colonies) and very big (more than 1000 ha; 12 colonies) (Dyatlov <em>et al.</em>, 1980).	eng
42470	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Prefer alpine meadows, pastures, and cereal and wormwood steppes. Also found in steep slopes with xerophytic vegetation, high-grass subalpine meadows, barley fields and water-meadows. Diurnal. Burrows don't have vertical passages. Most of the burrows have simple structure: short main passages, one nest cell on 30-40 cm under ground. Sometimes burrows have long passages with many bifurcations, additional exits and one or several nesting cells at 80-120 cm below the ground. Due to environmental differences in mountain zones, hibernation ends at different times and, correspondingly, times of mating, reproduction and juvenile dispersal differ. In mid-mountains (1,200-1,400 m) hibernation ends in end of March. In higher zones (2,500-3,000 m) hibernation ends in beginning of May. Beginning of hibernation also differs, but it doesn't depend on altitude, but the amount of accumulated fat. Old males and young females enter hibernation earlier than reproducing females. Juveniles enter hibernation the last. In lower altitudes old males enter hibernation at the end of August, but young are active until end of September. In higher altitudes young still active until October. Mating starts right after hibernation. Gestation is 22 days. Litter size is 2-4 young. Feeds on vegetative parts of different plants, rarely consumes animal food.	eng
42470	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Common within the range, but may be declining.	eng
42470	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Possible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
42477	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species has been recorded from several protected areas such as Montagne des Sources and Mt Panie.	eng
42477	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the montane areas of New Caledonia, occurring from 400 to 1,200 m.	eng
42477	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Usually a small tree  in the understory of mid to upper montane evergreen forests on both serpentine and non-serpentine soils.	eng
42477	population	Thomas, P., 2009	May be locally very common.	eng
42477	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	No specific threats have been identified for this species at the current time.	eng
42505	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known to occur in several protected areas, some of which are open to the possibility of mining.	eng
42505	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known from several montane areas in the southern massifs of New Caledonia. Has been recorded from 600 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
42505	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Commonly found along rocky ridges and summits growing with other low shrubs.	eng
42505	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population size for this species is unknown, but it is assumed to be stable.	eng
42505	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Fires pose a threat throughout the range of this species and the expanson of mining could be a threat in some areas. Predicted increases in average annual temperature and changes in precipitation patterns could decrease the area suitable for this species and its associated vegetation.	eng
42514	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Only one of the locations (Mont Mou) is a within a protected area. Mining is not prohibited in this area.	eng
42514	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is only known from five high peaks in four locations on Grande Terre (1000 to 1,400 m asl). The main localities are at Mont Mou, Me Maoya, Mt. Nakada and Mont Nékandi. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be about 1,900 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> with an area of occupancy of about 20 km<sup>2</sup>. Records from low altitude areas such as Koumac (Valle de la Rade) and the Ile de Pins represent atypical locations and need further investigation.	eng
42514	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Restricted to high altitude montane tropical rainforest, with <em>Araucaria</em> (on Mont Mou) and many other different angiosperms.	eng
42514	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Small subpopulations of probably less than 100 mature trees in each location.	eng
42514	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	The most direct threat comes from open cast mining and its associated activities. Fires are also a significant threat. Predicted increases in average annual temperature, changes in rainfall patterns and other manifestations of climate change could decrease the area of suitable habitat for this species.	eng
42515	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus lucienii</span> has been recorded from protected areas in the northeast (Mt Panie) and in the south at Montagne des Sources and the Parc Territorial de la Rivière Bleue.	eng
42515	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is found in many parts of the main island of New Caledonia. Localities extend from the higher parts of the Massif du Colnett and the Massif du Tchingou (1,200 m) in the northeast to near sea level (20 m) near Port Boise in the extreme south .	eng
42515	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is mainly found in montane rainforest on both ultramafic and acidic substrates.	eng
42515	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The population size is not known, but it is assumed to be relatively common and stable.	eng
42515	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	No specific threats have been identified for this species.	eng
42523	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is found within several protected areas in southern New Caledonia.	eng
42523	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Podocarpus novae-caledonie</span> is restricted to the southern massifs of New Caledonia occurring from 50 to 725 m.	eng
42523	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is usually found along watercourses running through maquis shrublands.	eng
42523	population	Thomas, P., 2009	A relatively common species.	eng
42523	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	There may be decline in the quality of the habitat due to increasing frequency of fires, but it is not known if this is a threat to this species or not.	eng
42534	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This species is known from several protected areas.	eng
42534	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Widespread and at a range of altitudes (sea level to 1,200 m) through the main island of New Caledonia with the exception of the northwest.	eng
42534	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Frequent in dense humid forests on both ultramafic and schist substrates.	eng
42534	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population is unknown; usually localized.	eng
42534	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	No specific threats have been identified for this species.	eng
42539	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Prumnopitys ferruginoides</span> occurs in a number of protected areas such as Mont Panie and Montagne des Sources.	eng
42539	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Widespread in New Caledonia although more common in the south. Recorded from 700 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
42539	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Occurs in moist montane rainforest, often with <span style="font-style: italic;">Retrophyllum comptonii</span>.	eng
42539	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Scattered in humid dense rainforest throughout the ultramfic areas.	eng
42539	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	No specific threats have been identified for this species. Changes associated with climate change could become a problem.	eng
42542	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	This sepcies is found in several protected areas such as Mont Panie Special Botanical Reserve and Montagne des Sources	eng
42542	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	Endemic to New Caledonia where it is distributed from Port Boise in the far south to Mt Ignambi on the north east coast. In a few areas it occurs at altitudes as low as 200 m asl but it is most commonly found above 700 m, and going as high as 1,450 m asl.	eng
42542	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	Mainly found in upper montane forests and maquis on both ultramafic and schist substrates.	eng
42542	population	Thomas, P., 2009	Widespread and relatively common.	eng
42542	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	There are no immediate threats to the species, but climate change may pose a problem in the future.	eng
42545	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The status of this widely occurring forest species is affected by slow growth rates, infrequent regeneration, poor seed dispersal and predation by rats. Forest clearing and habitat modification have also contributed to population declines.	eng
42553	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
42553	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	China: north-west Yunnan (imperfectly known from the type collection near Zhongdian only). The range of this species remains incompletely known.	eng
42553	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unknown, presumably found in mixed coniferous forest (altitude of collection 3,150 m) in the mountains surrounding the plain of Zhongdian. It was described as a small tree.	eng
42553	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.	eng
42554	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Only known thus far from a locality 4.5 km north of Metepec, Hidalgo, Mexico.	eng
42554	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Cloud forest with <em>Alnus firmifolia</em>, <em>Buddleia cordata</em>, <em>Cupressus lusitanica</em>, <em>Pinus patula</em>, <em>P. teocote</em>, <em>Sambucus mexicana</em>, etc.	eng
42554	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unknown.	eng
42554	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unknown.	eng
42555	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is reported to occur in the Khaling and Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuaries (Bhutan).	eng
42555	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Bhutan, India, China: Yunnan (Gaoligong Mts.), Xizang (Tibet) (from a single seedling). Its distribution is still imperfectly known.	eng
42555	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	From the data on herbarium labels this species appears to occur in a variety of forest types, including mixed pine forest, mixed oak-pine forest, mixed broadleaved forest, secondary forests of these types, including thinned (managed?) forest. The elevation (from GIS) is 729 to 2,613 m, from herbarium specimens 1,676 to 2,750 m (the latter probably more reliable in this case).	eng
42555	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Although timber harvesting affects this species, it appears to be adaptable judging from its habitat preferences and is at present not thought to be in decline.	eng
42557	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species does not occur within a protected area.	eng
42557	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Vogelkop Peninsula, Mt Nettoti. Known from only one mountain, EOO less than 100 km² and AOO less than 10 km² and probably considerably smaller still.	eng
42557	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Stated to occur in “dark mossy forest” so presumably a ground covering species under a canopy of trees. The altitude is given as 1,920 m above sea level.	eng
42557	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Nothing is known about population size.	eng
42557	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No specific threats are known to this species. The montane forests of the Vogelkop peninsula remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although some deforestation is occurring in the region (Sujatnika <em>et al.</em> 1995). No uses are recorded of this species and due to its size and location it is unlikely to be exploited unless it was known to have medicinal properties.	eng
42558	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is recorded from several protected areas throughout its range including Canaima National Park in Venezuela and the Brazilian Cerrado Protected Areas Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Park.	eng
42558	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Brazil (south of the Amazon Basin, Roraima); Venezuela. Its large range (EOO calculated on the basis of mapped herbarium collections = 4,277,040 km<sup>2</sup>) spans across the Amazon Basin, where no conifers are known to occur. It is possible that it will be found in other regions and countries, such as the Guyanas, when surveys of the floras of tropical South America approach a more complete covering than is the case at present. The presently known range is based on 22 collections giving 13 localities.	eng
42558	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Cerrado, gallery forest along streams, both “tall forest” and “dwarf forest”, often on sandstone. In Venezuela it is reported from montane forest, usually along streams. Elevation (from GIS) 266 to 1,828 m, from herbarium data: 825 to 1,600 m	eng
42558	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No data on population sizes are known to exist.	eng
42558	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation, conversion to grazing lands. No specific uses of this species are known.	eng
42559	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not known to occur within a protected area.	eng
42559	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Philippines, Palawan (Pagdanan Range). Not known from any other than the type location, which is called Ibangley Brookside Hill in the Pagdanan Range at only 40 m altitude.	eng
42559	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Closed tropical evergreen rain forest dominated by angiosperms. This species is possibly utilized for timber, but no specific details are known.	eng
42559	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Presumably only a small population exists.	eng
42559	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation, logging.	eng
42560	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not known from any protected area.	eng
42560	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Madagascar, Mangoro River, Tsinjoarivo. Very restricted in two localities, with an EOO of less than 50 km<sup>2</sup> and an AOO of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (probably less than 1 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
42560	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Eastern sub-humid forest, at elevations between 1,200 and 1,570 m (herbarium label data and GIS estimate).	eng
42560	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No data are available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
42560	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Deforestation. This species has probably been utilized for firewood.	eng
42561	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42561	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found on the northern Great Plains; southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba in Canada, and Montana, North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, western Minnesota, and northwestern Iowa in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42561	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits grasslands, rolling hills, fields and croplands. Prefers gravelly or sandy soils for digging burrows. Burrows consist of extensive networks of passages and entrances with several chambers. Young are born in underground nests. The nests are spherical and are lined with grasses in which straw or oat hulls may be found (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1983).<br/><br/>Females typically mate 3-5 days after emergence from hibernation, give birth 22-23 days later. Litter size is 3-11, usually 6-8. Young first leave natal burrow at 28-30 days, sexually mature in one year (Michener 1985). Females live up to six years.<br/><br/>It lives in loose colonies. Home range probably is not larger than 100 yards in diametre (Banfield 1974). May host fleas that transmit bubonic plague. Feeds on a wide variety of herbaceous vegetation in spring and early summer and on seeds and fruits in late summer and fall. Also feeds on insects and carrion, and often damages agricultural crops. Stores seeds in burrows. Hibernation period varies, but usually enters late August-October; emerges by late March or April.	eng
42561	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common. Average densities at large study sites range from 1.4/ha to 5.2/ha. Animals tend to be concentrated in small areas, so that densities in areas of high concentration (up to 27/ha) are not representative of larger areas. Densities increase dramatically (up to 53.3 juveniles/ha) with synchronous emergence of litters from natal burrow.	eng
42561	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42562	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) lists this species as "Not at Risk" (01Apr1992). In 1992 the species was down listed to the blue list vulnerable species in British Columbia, i.e. those which are not threatened with extinction but may be at risk to disturbance (Harcombe <em>et al.</em> 1994). Its range includes a few protected areas within its range.	eng
42562	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the Cascade Mountains from southern British Columbia in Canada (west to the Fraser River, north to the Nicola River, east to the Okkanagan River), south to Columbia River in Washington in the United States (Trombulak 1988).	eng
42562	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits talus slides and clearings; krummholz; closed coniferous forest, pine woodland, and adjacent open meadows and sagebrush steppe (Trombulak, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Remain in underground burrow when inactive (Trombulak 1988). <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Gestation lasts 28 days. Litter size is 1-5 (average four); one litter per year (Trombulak 1988). Females may breed as yearlings, males usually not until second year. Juveniles emerge from natal burrows in July-early August (Trombulak 1987).<br/><br/>Diet includes fungi (especially in fall), green vegetation, seeds, small fruits, carrion. Generally forages on ground, may climb into bushes and conifers. Emergence from hibernation varies among years from mid-April to mid-May; yearlings emerge 1-2 weeks later than adults. Adults and yearlings end activity mid-August to late September; juveniles are active into November and early December (Trombulak 1988).	eng
42562	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common. Reported population densities are typically low (3/ha in forest, 5-12/ha in adjacent meadow in Washington). Populations may be highest in parks where human refuse is available as food.	eng
42562	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42563	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
42563	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in the arid and semi-arid regions of southwestern United States and northern Mexico. In the United States, it occurs from southeastern Wyoming and southern South Dakota to western Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. In Mexico, it occurs from northern Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila south to northern Jalisco and northern Guanajuato, and also in Tamaulipas. This species occurs up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
42563	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in deep, sandy soils with sparse vegetation, including short-grass mesas, desert scrub, and heavily grazed habitats. It is also found also in grassy urban parks.	eng
42563	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Fairly common. Densities of 2 -7individuals/ha have been reported for this species.	eng
42563	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
42564	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42564	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has an extensive range in the central United States and adjoining Canada, from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba southward to extreme east central Arizona, the Texas Gulf Coast, and central Ohio. A disjunct population segment straddles the Arizona-New Mexico border.	eng
42564	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is restricted to dry and sandy (and "tighter") soils of open areas, such as grasslands, cultivated fields, meadows, roadsides, airfields, shrublands, and suburban lawns. Beaches and dry pine barrens are also used. It rests, gives birth, and hibernates in underground burrow. <br/><br/>Breeding period is April-June. Gestation lasts 27-28 days. Litter size averages eight, perhaps larger in older females than in younger ones; with one litter per year. Young are weaned in 26 days, and emerge from the burrow about five weeks after birth. They sexually mature by their first spring. Although not colonial, it does prefer to live in loosely constituted families. Home ranges range from less than an acre to 12 acres; the male range is larger than that of the female (Gunderson 1976). <br/><br/>Diet consists of plant and animal foods: seeds, fruits, grasses, forbs, as well as insects. It may sometimes eat small vertebrates. Enters hibernation by October (adults may hibernate beginning in July), emerges in March or early April.	eng
42564	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and common. Densities are estimated at 2.5 to 5/ha in spring and 24.5/ha following emergence of young.	eng
42564	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42565	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
42565	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality on Mindanao island (Phlippines): Madaum, Tagum Municipality, Davao province (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
42565	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland forest.	eng
42565	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
42565	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
42566	conservation	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	The species occurs in a protected area on Caluit island.	eng
42566	distribution	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the Palawan Faunal Region, on Busuanga and Calauit islands (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
42566	habitat	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species was formerly found in primary lowland evergreen forests, a habitat that is now absent on these islands. Today, it occurs in secondary forests, and occasionally in gardens where it is considered a pest species. It has not been trapped in grassland (L. Heaney pers. comm.; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.).	eng
42566	population	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is locally common (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm.). It is abundant on Calauit mainly due to a safari ranch that has giraffes, zebras, antilope.	eng
42566	threats	Ong, P., Tabaranza, B., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is hunted at times, because it can be an agricultural pest, but this is unlikely to be a major threat to the species. However, there is ongoing habitat destruction in some places due to conversion of forests to slash and burn areas that the squirrels can not tolerate (J. C. Gonzalez and P. Widmann pers. comm.).	eng
42567	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
42567	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is endemic to Philippines, where it has been recorded from Mindanao and adjacent small islands.	eng
42567	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, like <em>Sundasciurus philippinensis</em>, this species is locally common in forests (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), occurring in a very wide range of habitats: primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, including the lower edges of mossy forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found also in agricultural areas (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993; Sanborn 1952).	eng
42567	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>S. mindanensis</em> is locally common throughout its range.	eng
42567	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no known threats to this species are present. However, in the Philippines <em>S. philippinensis</em> is illegally traded as pet, and local hunting for food is another potential threat.	eng
42568	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42568	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is restricted to central high Sierra Nevada of California, Tuolumne County to Tulare County in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs at elevations of 2,300-3,900 m asl; but seldom below 2,500 m asl.	eng
42568	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs on talus slopes, cliffs, rocky borders of meadows and lakes, and the rocky floor of open subalpine forest and alpine fell-fields in Hudsonian and Alpine-Arctic life zones (Ingles 1965). It probably dens among rocks or in burrows under rocks. It is basically terrestrial, but sometimes climbs trees. <br/><br/>Gestation is believed to last about one month. Births occur in early summer. Litter size is apparently 4-5 (Sumner and Dixon 1953). Feeds primarily on seeds of various plants (mainly herbaceous plants); also fungi and probably animal matter on occasion. Typically forages in open, rocky situations; occasionally forages in trees. Hibernates from around mid-October to late spring (Sumner and Dixon 1953).	eng
42568	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its abundance varies among sites, but it can be common. It is apparently secure although it has a restricted range.	eng
42568	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42569	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42569	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in Western North America, from central British Columbia and southwestern Alberta in Canada, south to Yolla Bolly Range and Mammoth Pass in California, northern Nevada, and northwestern Utah, east to central Montana and western Wyoming; at elevations of 975-2,900 m asl in California (Sutton 1992; Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42569	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It generally occurs in brushy areas interspersed with herbaceous vegetation and open conifer stands; shrubs typically present include snowberry, chinquapin, mountain mahogany, antelope brush, currant, and buckbrush (Sutton 1992). It is found among logs, brush, and rocky outcrops. Also in brushy areas between subalpine forest and alpine tundra, and in alpine areas themselves. Digs burrows 7-21 inches deep. Constructs grass nest in burrow under stump, log, or rock; also nests above ground in woody vegetation. <br/><br/>Breeds in early spring. Average litter size is five (Washington) to six (California). Usually one litter per year is produced in Washington Cascades (Kenagy and Barnes 1988). Young are born from mid-May to early June (Banfield 1974) and weaned in about six weeks. May live up to five years.<br/><br/>Home range is a few acres, parts of which may be used seasonally (Sutton 1992). Easy prey for many kinds of predators. Competitive interactions with other chipmunk species may limit habitat use. Diet consists of seeds, fruits, green foliage, flowers, roots, buds, bulbs, tubers, fungi, and small animals. Caches food in burrow and in scattered pits dug in soil surface. Hibernates late fall-early spring. May become lethargic during cold summer weather. Stores little energy as body fat; awakens periodically in winter to feed on stored seeds (Banfield 1974, Sutton 1992).	eng
42569	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Population density is reported as 1.25 per ha, with little fluctuation over time. It can be locally abundant.	eng
42569	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42570	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42570	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the mountains of central and eastern Arizona and central and southwestern New Mexico in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993), at elevations of 1,950-3,440 m asl (most common at 2,100-3,300 m asl) (Hilton and Best 1993).	eng
42570	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs on high mountains in clearings and forest edges; pine, spruce, and fir forests. Most common where pine and Douglas-fir overlap (Hilton and Best 1993). Only in moist mesic higher forests in some areas (e.g., San Mateo and Magdalena mountains) (Findley <em>et al.</em> 1975). May be common in oak-juniper habitats in some areas. Perches on logs and stumps, commonly climbs trees. Nests are placed under logs, stumps, and roots, or in hollows of trees (Hoffmeister 1986), including woodpecker holes. <br/><br/>In Arizona: young are born in the first half of June; gestation lasts at least 30 days; individual adult females produce one litter of 4-6 young annually; nursing period lasts 41-45 days; young appear above ground by late July (Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, acorns, fruits, fungi, some green vegetation, and insects. Commonly forages in trees. Stores food. <br/>Reportedly active March-November in Arizona, though above-ground activity may occur during warmer periods in winter (Hoffmeister 1986, Hilton and Best 1993).	eng
42570	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered common. Population density in Arizona was estimated at 5/ha in May, 12.5/ha in August (Hoffmeister 1986).	eng
42570	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
42571	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
42571	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Southwestern United States and northcentral Mexico. In the United States, from Idaho south through the mountains of Arizona and western New Mexico. In Mexico, from Sonora and western Chihuahua to northeastern Sinaloa and northwestern Durango. There are three disjunct population segments (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
42571	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Vegetational characteristics of habitats differ across the species' range, but almost always found near large rocks, boulders, or cliffs. Otherwise, habitats include montane forests of Ponderosa pine and spruce, juniper-pinyon pine woodlands, oak woodlands, saxicolus brush and pygmy-conifer woodlands, riparian vegetation, and desert shrublands.<br/><br/>In its northern range, this species is associated with pygmy conifer woodland, ponderosa pine woodland, saxicoline brush, maple associations, sagebrush and saltbush. In Arizona-New Mexico, with aspen, low elevation shrublands, deserts, and lava fields; various oak associations. In Durango, with madrone, manzanita, and other typical lower Sonoran riparian vegetation.<br/><br/>Primarily terrestrial, but climbs rocks and sometimes woody plants. Dens and nests are in rock heaps, crevices, rocky bluffs and cliffs, underground burrows, and trees (Hart 1992).	eng
42571	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Locally abundant (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
42571	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
42572	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42572	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in North America, from western Quebec to the Yukon in Canada, and southward to New Mexico, Arizona, and California in the United States. It is, however, absent from the Great Plains.	eng
42572	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various habitats. It is common in coniferous forests but also uses clearcuts, deciduous woods, sagebrush, riparian zones, and in western regions may even occur in alpine tundra. Winter nest is up to one metre below ground surface. Summer dens typically are in hollow logs or stumps, in rock piles, or under debris, evacuated burrows. Also nests in tree cavities above ground. <br/><br/>Breeds in early spring. Gestation lasts 31 days. Litter size is 2-7 (average 5-6). Only one litter per year. Second litter may be produced if first fails. Sexually mature in first spring. Home range varies from less than an acre to four acres (Banfield 1974). Feeds mostly on seeds, nuts, fruits, and acorns. May be active throughout the day, but prefers the sunny midday hours. Begins semi hibernation in late October. Fully active by mid-March. May be active on warm winter days.	eng
42572	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and common. Highly favourable habitats may contain 30 or more per acre, though average densities typically range from 5 to 15 per acre (Jackson 1961).	eng
42572	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42573	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and there are a few protected areas within its range.	eng
42573	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range encompasses the northwest coast of California in the United States, from the south side of the Eel River, Humboldt County, to about three kilometres north of Bodega and Freestone, Sonoma County, and inland no more than 40 kilometres from the coast, at elevations from sea level to at least 1,280 m asl (Gannon <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
42573	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitat includes dense undergrowth at the edge of humid coastal redwood and mixed coniferous forests (Adams 1967); this is primarily an inhabitant of the Transition life zone (Grinnell 1933). Probably breeds in spring and produces one litter of 4-6 young between May and June. Predators include weasels, mink, and owls. Diet includes seeds, fruit, fungi, insects, etc., depending on availability. It is active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow only during severe winter storms.	eng
42573	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure in its range and is locally common (NatureServe). The total adult population size is unknown but presumably far exceeds 10,000. It is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable.	eng
42573	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No major threats to this species have been identified.	eng
42574	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42574	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the desert mountains of southeastern California and southwestern Nevada in the United States, at elevations of 1,230-3,180 m asl.	eng
42574	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits pinyon-juniper woodlands in Upper Sonoran life zone; and may occur in adjacent habitats at higher and lower elevations. It is primarily a rock dweller. It is found among bushes, boulders, and on cliffs (Ingles 1965, Hall 1946). Seeks cover under rock ledges and outcrops, though also may den in trees, at least in summer. Rarely far from shelter of rocks or logs. <br/><br/>Mating probably occurs in April and early May. Gestation lasts 36 days or more. Parturition occurs in late May and June. Litter size 3-6 (mean around four). Juveniles first appear above ground in late July and August. Young are weaned usually by August or September.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruits, spring forbs, and arthropods. Forages mainly on the ground but also in small trees. Activity is reduced during hottest part of day in summer and during cloudy or rainy periods in winter. Most active at midday in winter, in morning and late afternoon or early evening in summer.	eng
42574	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered common in suitable habitat.	eng
42574	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42575	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42575	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra Nevada of east-central California (Plumas to Mariposa and Madera counties); and central and adjacent west-central Nevada in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Clawson <em>et al.</em> 1994). It occurs at elevations of 960-2,250 m asl.	eng
42575	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits chaparral, brushfields, open areas in coniferous forests (e.g., ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, mixed coniferous); occurs among brush, rocks, and logs. Basically terrestrial but sometimes climbs trees. Nests have been found under buildings and in tree hollows. <br/><br/>Mating begins in late April and the first half of May. Gestation lasts about 31 days and young are born from May to July but mainly in the first half of June. Litter size is 2-6. Young are almost fully grown by early September (see Clawson <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Primary foods are various seeds and fruits (especially those of conifers) and hypogeous fungi; also eats some arthropods. Gleans seeds from tree squirrel "leftovers." This species stores food. Known to be active above ground from late March to mid-November.	eng
42575	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered common in suitable habitat. Reported densities in the Sierra Nevadas ranged from 0.2/ha in April to 1.0/ha in June.	eng
42575	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a restricted range but there are no major threats at present.	eng
42576	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes some protected areas.	eng
42576	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in western and central Colorado, eastern Utah, northern and central New Mexico, and northeastern Arizona in the United States, at elevations of 1,380-3,360 m asl (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
42576	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various habitats, mainly rocky areas with conifers or shrubs, Pinyon-juniper or rock associations in Arizona (Hoffmeister 1986) and Oklahoma. In New Mexico, it is mainly coincident with the ponderosa pine zone; also in pinyon-juniper and scrub oak-juniper habitats and in open stands or edges of spruce-fir forest; similar habitats in Colorado. Primarily terrestrial but also an adept climber. Commonly perches on rocks, stumps, or logs (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994). <br/><br/>Mating occurs in spring (e.g., late April-May in Colorado) throughout much of the range, bimodally in February and July in southern New Mexico. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Litter size is 2-6. Young are weaned at 6-7 weeks. Generally one litter per year, but the presence of pregnant and lactating females in late summer in some areas suggests a second litter or late breeding.<br/><br/>Home range averages a few hectares. Overwinter survival rate is less than 33%; local extirpation or near-extirpation is a common event (Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruits of various woody and herbaceous plants, and some insects. Feeds mainly on the ground but obtains some food by climbing into trees and shrubs. Stores food in underground caches. Generally not active above ground during coldest winter weather. Most active above ground in morning and late afternoon.	eng
42576	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is locally common in most portions of the range.	eng
42576	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42577	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42577	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Washington eastward through northern Idaho to western Montana in the United States, and adjacent southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta in Canada, at elevations of 720-2,400 m asl (Hoffmann <em>et al.,</em> in Wilson and Reeder 1993; Best 1993).	eng
42577	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various types of coniferous forest and woodland such as spruce-fir, cedar-hemlock, ponderosa pine, riparian communities, and pine/spruce/rhododendron/blueberry at margins of timberline meadows. Most abundant in forest openings or edges, where shrubby undergrowth is abundant. Where range overlaps with <em>T. amoenus</em>, it seems to prefer dense cover (Larrison and Johnson 1981). It is primarily terrestrial, but also climbs trees. Often around logs, brush piles, or boulders in Idaho. Nests are made in shrubs or trees (e.g., on limbs 6-18 metres above ground, or in cavities), in crevices among boulders, under old log piles, or underground.<br/><br/>Breeds late April-May, earlier at low elevations. Breeding may extend through August in the north. Most adult females become pregnant each year. Gestation lasts about one month. In Montana, births occur from late May to mid-June at lower elevations, early to late June at higher elevations. Litter size usually 4-6. Young appear above ground at about 39-45 days (in July). Some live as long as 6-8 years in the wild. See Best (1993).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds and fruit of various trees and shrubs, also leaves and flowers of various forbs; probably also fungi. <br/>Active mainly April-October; wakes periodically in winter to feed from food cache.	eng
42577	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is locally common in much of its range.	eng
42577	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42578	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42578	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in western Colorado, eastern Utah, and northeastern Arizona in the United States, at elevations of about 1,290-2,700 m asl.	eng
42578	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits various rocky habitats: woodlands of pinyon-juniper and associated shrubs, rubble slopes, slickrock; may use trees and shrubs for cover; burrows beneath boulders or shrubs (Armstrong 1982). May sometimes use sandy habitats (blackbrush-Indian ricegrass) adjacent to pinyon-juniper or rocky areas. Easily climbs on cliffs and in woody vegetation. Nest sites are associated with piles of broken rock or crevices in solid rock. <br/><br/>In southeastern Utah mating occurs February-March; gestation lasts 30-33 days; young are born during first half of April, above ground in May; average litter size is 5.2 (Wadsworth 1969). Weaning is completed in 6-7 weeks. Sexually mature in 10-11 months; females give birth to their first litter when about one year old (Burt and Best 1994).<br/><br/>Home range in southeastern Utah was estimated at 0.4-1.3 ha (Wadsworth 1972). Diet includes mainly seeds (of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants), also flowers and insects, and, seasonally, small or large amounts of green vegetation; opportunistic, takes advantage of handouts and human food refuse in campgrounds (Armstrong 1982, Wadsworth 1972, Burt and Best 1994). <br/><br/>Activity peaks in morning and late afternoon (Armstrong 1982), especially in summer when it avoids midday heat. Seldom seen above ground mid-November to mid-February (Armstrong 1982).	eng
42578	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is locally common in a naturally fragmented distribution.	eng
42578	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42579	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42579	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the northwestern United States from north-central Oregon through the northern mountains of California (between the Klamath and Eel rivers, east to the Warner Range at the California-Nevada border, south to Yosemite, crossing the Nevada border east of Lake Tahoe). It occurs above 1,500 m asl in the central Sierra Nevada (Gannon and Forbes 1995).	eng
42579	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	it is found in coniferous forests and chaparral slopes; transition and Canadian life zones. Does not readily climb trees. Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. townsendii</em> which breeds in the spring and produces one litter of 4-6 altricial young between May and July. <br/><br/>Predators include weasels, mink, and owls. Diet includes seeds, fruits, fungi, insects, etc. Active throughout much of the year. Probably remains dormant during severe winter weather.	eng
42579	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered to be quite common.	eng
42579	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42580	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42580	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the northwest United States, where its range includes the Siskiyou Mountains and coast of northern California (north of the Klamath River) northward to the Rogue River. A narrow portion of the range extends into central Oregon. It is found at elevations of 1,830-2,135 m asl (6,000-7,000 feet).	eng
42580	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in coniferous forests of Sitka spruce, incense cedar, and white and red fir. Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. townsendii</em> which breeds in the spring and produces one litter of 4-6 altricial young between May and July.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, fruit, fungi, insects, etc. Active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow during severe winter weather.	eng
42580	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered to be common.	eng
42580	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
42581	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42581	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern California in the United States, from the northern San Francisco Bay area north to Siskiyou County; in the Upper Sonoran and Transition life zones, from near sea level to 2,100 m asl (Best 1993).	eng
42581	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in dense chaparral, brushy clearings in forests, and streamside thickets; often associated with black oak, ponderosa pine, digger pine, Douglas-fir, white fir, redwood, sticky laurel, incense cedar, madrone, manzanita, and serviceberry; associated with tan oak on high ridges in Trinity and Humboldt counties, with whitethorn, chokecherry, serviceberry, and silk tassel in large warm tracts of brush in Trinity County (Best 1993). A tree nest was on a limb 15 metres up in a large Douglas-fir at the base of a forested slope (Best 1993). Often uses elevated perches such as stumps, rocks, or lower limbs of trees. <br/><br/>Breeds once a year in spring. Young are born during May-July; timing of reproduction varies with elevation. Litter size is 3-5 (usually four). Female raises litter alone; remains with young for at least three weeks after young emerge. Weaned young may stay together for some weeks after separation from mother.<br/><br/>Males disperse as juveniles; females tend to stay near natal site (Best 1993). Diet includes seeds, fruits, fungi, etc. Forages on ground and in bushes. Active throughout most of the year. Probably remains in its burrow only during severe winter storms.	eng
42581	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is locally abundant in a restricted range.	eng
42581	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
42582	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42582	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the United States in central Sierra Nevada in California, into Nevada in the vicinity of Lake Tahoe, south to the San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains and Mount Pinos. Reported occurrence in the northern Sierra Nevada has been questioned by D. A. Sutton; field investigations revealed only <em>T. amoenus</em> in localities from which <em>speciosus</em> has been reported (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994, Sutton 1995). It occurs at elevations of 1,500-3,000 m asl.	eng
42582	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in open mixed-conifer forests and forests mixed with chaparral; forests of lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine, and red fir; lodgepole pine/chinquapin/shrub associations in southern California; meadows in some areas. Found primarily in Canadian, but also Hudsonian and upper Transition life zones. Primarily terrestrial but frequently climbs trees. Nests for sleeping and rearing young are in burrows, stumps, logs, tree cavities (e.g., woodpecker holes), or among rocks. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in May and June, about one month after emergence from hibernation, young are born in spring and early summer. Litter size usually is 3-6 and young emerged in late July in the San Jacinto Mountains, generally one litter per year (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>Home range size averages about 1.3-2.6 ha; at Yosemite, the longest axis of a home range was 252 metres. See Best <em>et al.</em> (1994) for information on the distributional relationships among <em>T. speciosus</em> and other <em>Tamias</em> species.<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds of grasses, forbs, and woody plants; fruits; fungi; insects; carrion. Forages in shrubs and on the ground. Stores food in small pits in the ground, in tree crevices, under rocks or logs, among rocks, or underground. <br/>This species is inactive during the coldest part of the winter and/or during periods of prolonged deep snow cover, but may awaken during warm weather to feed; active in every month in southern California. Emerges from winter den in the early spring.	eng
42582	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered common. Populations fluctuate seasonally and annually; maximum reported density is about one per hectare (see Best <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
42582	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42583	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
42583	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout the eastern United States and adjoining Canada, from southeast Saskatchewan to Nova Scotia, south to western Oklahoma and eastern Louisiana (in the west) and to coastal Virginia (in the east). It is absent from peninsular Florida and the coastal plain between Florida and northern North Carolina. It is introduced to Newfoundland.	eng
42583	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers deciduous woodlands with ample cover, such as brush piles or logs, rocky forested slopes, ravines. Also found in brushlands and hedgerows. Commonly climbs trees and shrubs. Burrows often open at edge or rock, near base of tree, or under the edge of a building. Nest is generally constructed below ground in an extensive burrow system.<br/><br/>Breeding period is from mid-March to early April. A second breeding period occurs from mid-July to mid-August involving young of the previous year. Gestation lasts 31 days. Litter size is 4-15 (3-5 most often). One to two litters per year. Commonly lives 2-3 years, sometimes 5-6 years.<br/><br/>Home range is less than one hectare, typically 0.08-0.60 ha, largest in early summer and early fall; core area of home range is defended against conspecific neighbours; largest home ranges are those of breeding males; low water availability may result in increased home range size. Individuals may make long movements outside their usual range; non dispersing individuals have lifetime home range lengths of up to at least 0.5 km, and dispersal movements may extend to at least 0.9 km (Roberts 1976).<br/><br/>This species utilizes a wide variety of seeds, fruits, and nuts, some mushrooms and insects. Active during the day. In winter, becomes torpid, with frequent arousals.	eng
42583	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is abundant. Depending on the season, population densities may vary from less than one to 15 per acre (Yerger 1953), and sometimes up to 30 per acre.	eng
42583	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42584	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range does include a few protected areas.	eng
42584	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs on the Pacific coast of North America, from extreme southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south to southern Oregon in the United States (Rogue River), southward in the western Cascades to the headwaters of the Rogue River (Sutton 1993).	eng
42584	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Typical habitat consists of mesic closed-canopy forest and dense brush thickets. However, they reach high densities in clearcut areas, where there are decaying logs, evergreen herbs, shrubs, and trees, and a variety of fungi and lichens. Talus slopes with loose rocks are preferred as nest sites.<br/><br/>In Cascades of Washington mating occurs in spring, one litter per year, gestation lasts about four weeks, average litter size 3.8, first breeds at one or two years; young appear above ground in July (Kenagy and Barnes 1988). May live as long as seven years. <br/><br/>Weasels, mink, and bobcats are important predators. This species has a diverse diet. Will eat seeds, nuts, fruits, insects, roots, green vegetation, fungi. Forages mostly on the ground but sometimes also in trees. Caches food in burrow. <br/><br/>Usually remains active at least from March to late November; remains in nest only during severe winter weather (Banfield 1974). Duration of inactivity is longer at higher elevations, especially in areas covered by deep snow. Active all winter in warmer areas, especially along the coast.<br/><br/>It may be a significant agent in the dissemination of harmful fungus that attacks conifer seeds (see Sutton 1993). Sometimes considered detrimental to commercial forestry due to its diet of coniferous seeds.	eng
42584	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered common. Density estimates range from 0.6 - 1.1 per ha in virgin forest, but may be 2-4 times higher 3-10 years post-clearcutting.	eng
42584	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In coastal British Columbia, the population appeared to decline temporarily as a result of herbicide treatment of Douglas-fir plantation (Sullivan 1990). At present, however, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
42585	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is currently not of conservation concern and its range includes some protected areas.	eng
42585	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in eastern California and northern Arizona to northern Colorado, southeastern and northwestern Wyoming, and extreme southwestern Montana in the United States (Hoffmann <em>et al</em>., in Wilson and Reeder 1993). It occurs at elevations of about 1,980-3,350 m asl (6,500-11,000 feet).	eng
42585	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits coniferous forests. It is often found near logs and brush in open areas and at the edge of forests. It is found in Transition, Canadian and Hudsonian life zones. Excavates burrows beneath rocks and shrubs.<br/><br/>Reproduction is probably similar to other western chipmunks which mate in the spring and produce one litter of 4-5 altricial young following a gestation period of approximately one month. Young weaned and foraging on their own in mid-July or August<br/><br/>In summer it feeds on seeds and berries, supplemented with other plant material and insects. In autumn, stores seeds and berries in burrow. Occasionally eats birds eggs and carrion (Armstrong 1975). Dormant in winter in snow covered areas; may arouse and appear above ground in warm weather on warm slopes. Others may arouse and feed but not leave burrow (Armstrong 1975).	eng
42585	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is locally common in its fragmented range.	eng
42585	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, but the distribution is highly fragmented.	eng
42586	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42586	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs on the Pacific Coast and Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges of North American, from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, through the Cascade Range of western and central Washington and Oregon, southward along the coast of northern California to San Francisco, and southward through the Sierra Nevadas to south-central California in the United States.	eng
42586	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits coniferous forests, in upper pine belt and in fir, spruce, hemlock forests. It occurs from the Transition to the Hudsonian life zone. In Washington, populations generally were higher in old-growth than in younger forest (Buchanan <em>et al.</em> 1990). Makes nest of vegetation in trees in summer; roosts in tree holes in winter. <br/><br/>Most males are reproductively active from March-May. Females produce one, perhaps two litters per year. Litter of 2-8, usually 4-6, young is born in May-June. Young first venture to the ground in August. Families stay together much of first year.<br/><br/>Predators include bobcats, martens, coyotes, and large owls. In spring it feeds on new shoots of conifers, inner bark and developing needles; in summer, some green vegetation, fruits and berries. In autumn it eats seeds from conifer cones. May also eat tree sap, fungi, and nuts. Stores cones in a log or burrow. Active throughout the year but usually remains in nest during severe weather. Daily activity begins at dawn and ends at sunset.	eng
42586	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered to be common. Populations fluctuate with variations in food supply. Densities range from 0.2 - 0.5 per hectare.	eng
42586	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. It may be locally threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation.	eng
42587	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
42587	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges widely in northern North America. It occurs from Alaska in the United States, eastward across Canada and southward to Arizona and New Mexico (in the west) and to extreme northern Georgia (in the east) in the United States. It is introduced to Newfoundland in eastern Canada.	eng
42587	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers coniferous and mixed forests, but also occurs in deciduous woodlands, hedgerows, and second-growth areas. It prefers to nest in tree cavities; and also constructs leaf nests and uses ground burrows. <br/><br/>It breeds March-April and June-July in Quebec. Gestation lasts 31-35 days. Some females produce two litters per year; litter size averages 4-5. Some females breed when less than one year old (Lair 1986).<br/><br/>This species is more territorial than most other North American tree squirrels. Some populations in British Columbia are limited by food (acting through effect on reproduction) (Sullivan 1990); but factors such as territorial behaviour may limit populations at high density (Klenner and Krebs 1991). <br/><br/>Diet consists of seeds, conifer cones, nuts, fruits. It occasionally feeds on invertebrates and small vertebrates. Commonly caches, and later consumes, large amounts of food. Usually quite conspicuous throughout the day. Most active two hours after sunrise and before sunset.	eng
42587	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is widespread in North America, and abundant in many areas. Densities of up to 7-8 per hectare have been reported.	eng
42587	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42588	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes some protected areas.	eng
42588	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from the Great Plains of North America from southern Manitoba (Canada), eastern North Dakota, Minnesota, and western Wisconsin south to New Mexico and Texas in the United States. The eastern portion of the range extends to extreme western Indiana (Patton 2005).	eng
42588	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The plains pocket gopher prefers open lands such as prairies, pastures, cultivated areas with deep, friable, moist soils; e.g., sandy or moist alluvial soils in Oklahoma. Also oak-hickory savanna, oak savanna mixed with maple-basswood forest, mesquite prairie, prairie-deciduous forest mosaic (Williams, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). They often occur in human-created habitats such as lawns, cemeteries, golf courses and along roadsides. The species is fossorial, denning underground in extensive tunnel systems. Most mounds and tunnels are constructed in the spring and fall. Mating takes place in spring. Gestation lasts about 30 days. Females give birth to one litter of an average four to five young each year, between March and May. The female evicts young from the burrow when they are ready to be weaned. They are sexually mature in 12 months.<br/><br/>The plains pocket gopher is active day and night; peak digging periods are at night and during crepuscular hours. Diet includes, fleshy roots, succulent stems, and small fruits are preferred. They are solitary animals, living within loose "colonies." Tunnels between neighbours are not interconnected. Home ranges are small. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988).	eng
42588	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	They are common and considered a pest in some locations. Population density averages four to five individuals per acre (Banfield 1974).	eng
42588	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Because this species is often considered a pest, it is frequently the target of poisoning and trapping methods to control populations.	eng
42589	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Conservation measures are needed to protect three subspecies in Georgia, <em>colonus, fontanelus</em> and <em>cumberlandius</em>. Areas where these subspecies are known to occur should be converted to wildlife sanctuaries and further human development should be halted. Additional surveys should be done to establish the status and distribution of these remaining subspecies and assess areas of highest priority (Hafner <em>et al.,</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Sherman's pocket gopher (<em>G. p. fontanelus </em>) is considered to be Endangered and possibly extinct by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (Hafner<em>et al.,</em> 1998). Goff's pocket gopher (<em>G. p. goffi</em>) in Florida is presumed extinct.	eng
42589	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from southeastern United States, from southern Alabama, southern Georgia, and all but the southern third of Florida (Pembleton and Williams 1978).<br/><br/>The subspecies <em>goffi</em> occurred on the Pineda Ridge, along the Indian River, in the vicinity of Eau Gallie (now incorporated into Melbourne), Brevard County, Florida. Historically it was known from 3.2 km north and south of Eau Gallie and as far as 3.2 km inland from the Indian River (Layne 1978, Sherman 1944).	eng
42589	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species of pocket gopher is found in the deep, sandy soils associated with the open areas of long-leaf pine woods of the southeastern United States. Like other pocket gophers it is primarily fossorial, only leaving its burrow briefly to disperse or feed on above ground vegetation. It is absent from the silt loam soils of the Rio Grande Floodplain.<br/> <br/>Breeding occurs year-round, with peak mating activity from January to August. Litter size is an average of two young per female. Up to two litters per year. Except during breeding season, only one individual occupies a burrow system. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988). The diet is primarily roots, fleshy rhizomes, green succulents, and grasses. Peak activity probably occurs from dusk to dawn. They are active year-round.	eng
42589	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The southeastern pocket gopher can be common in suitable habitat, but density varies geographically. The last known colony of subspecies <em>goffi</em> was recorded in 1955 and since then no further sightings of the taxon have been documented.	eng
42589	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threat to this species overall. Habitat destruction by continued human development of limited habitat areas threatens three subspecies (<em>colonus, fontanelus</em> and <em>cumberlandius</em>) in Georgia (Hafner <em>et al.,</em> 1998). <br/><br/>Conversion of the only known site of occurrence of subspecies <em>goffi</em> to human use apparently led to its extinction.	eng
42590	conservation	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
42590	distribution	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species occurs from Honduras north to Jalisco, Mexico (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,700 m (Reid 1997).	eng
42590	habitat	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This rodent is poorly known. It occurs in forested and agricultural areas (Reid 1997).	eng
42590	population	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
42590	threats	Vázquez, E., Emmons, L. & McCarthy, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
42591	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species needs protection of its habitat and more research because little is known about its basic biology.	eng
42591	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: south-east side of Mt. Orizaba, Xuchil, Veracruz, Mexico (Patton 2005). This species was found at 1,300 m (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
42591	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species was collected from tropical montane evergreen forest (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
42591	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	No population information could be found.	eng
42591	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by forest loss for agriculture.	eng
42592	conservation	McCarthy, T. & Woodman, N., 2008	Found at the Mombacho Volcano protected area in southern Nicaragua.	eng
42592	distribution	McCarthy, T. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in Nicaragua and Honduras (Patton 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,000 m (Reid 1997). Species found at the Mombacho Volcano protected area in southern Nicaragua.	eng
42592	habitat	McCarthy, T. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is poorly known, but it is presumably similar to other gophers (Reid 1997).	eng
42592	population	McCarthy, T. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is apparently locally common (Reid 1997).	eng
42592	threats	McCarthy, T. & Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
42593	conservation	McCarthy, T. & Reid, F., 2008	Found in Carara, Manuel Antonio and Corcovado protected areas in Costa Rica, and in the Chorrogo national park in Panama.	eng
42593	distribution	McCarthy, T. & Reid, F., 2008	This species occurs in Central Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Patton, 2005) and on the Pacific coast of Panama. It occurs from lowlands to 1,450 m (Hafner and Hafner 1987).	eng
42593	habitat	McCarthy, T. & Reid, F., 2008	It is poorly known. It occurs in semideciduous forest, clearings, coastal, and agricultural areas (Reid 1997).	eng
42593	population	McCarthy, T. & Reid, F., 2008	This species is locally common (Reid 1997). Range is expanding,	eng
42593	threats	McCarthy, T. & Reid, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Members of this genus, however, are often considered agricultural pests and farmers' attempts to eradicate them include trapping and poisoning. Additionally, agricultural herbicides and pesticides may adversely affect the species.	eng
42594	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	At present this species is not of conservation concern, and its range probably includes a few protected areas.	eng
42594	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range is restricted to the Willamette Valley, in Oregon in the United States, and to drainages of tributaries (especially the Yamhill River) to the Willamette River system; its range corresponds almost exactly with the extent of the Bretz Flood, which occurred about 13,000 years ago (Verts and Carraway, 1998). Its elevational range rarely exceeds 120 m asl (Verts and Carraway, 1998).	eng
42594	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This pocket gopher is associated with early seral plant communities or cultivated areas that resemble such situations, including weedy lawns, land disturbed by clearing, fields of alfalfa, wheat, or oats, or filbert orchards, often in deep, heavy clay soils (Verts and Carraway, 1998). It avoids wetlands and poorly drained grassy fields (Verts and Carraway, 1998). It occurs in unwooded areas in hilly areas and lowlands and is common in agricultural and pastoral lands (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). As is true of other pocket gophers, habits are mainly fossorial, with some surface activity. Breeds March to July. Gestation lasts probably about 18 or 19 days. Females produce one litter of three to five young per year. Young are born in April to July, weaned by six weeks. Presumably attains sexual maturity by the breeding season after birth.<br/><br/>Diet includes roots and tubers of false dandelion, vetch, fruit and nut trees, root crops, plantains, and grasses. Forages mainly within underground burrow, eats some surface vegetation. Carries food in external cheek pouches to underground storage areas. This species is primarily solitary (males enter burrows of females during breeding season). Predators include owls, hawks, coyotes, and foxes. Individuals rarely live more than three years in the wild. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988).  This species is active throughout the year; it does not hibernate.	eng
42594	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000. Density at a few sample sites was crudely estimated at about 10 to about 32 per hectare (Verts and Carraway, 1998). Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped several dozen collection sites, most of which might be regarded as distinct occurrences (subpopulations). Presumably at least several occurrences have good viability. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, but the rate of decline is unknown. Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size presumably have been reduced to some degree as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.	eng
42594	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Habitat has been and continues to be altered via urbanization and conversion to intensive agriculture. Locally, in orchards and fields, this species is regarded as an agricultural pest and is subject to attempted eradication through poisoning and trapping. Based on the recovery of populations subject to trapping, Verts and Carraway (1998) concluded that this species can recover rapidly from periods of high mortality.	eng
42595	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Probably no occurrences of this species are protected, although the species does occur on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997). Very little information is available on the conservation status of this species; a status survey to determine current distribution, abundance, and trend is needed.	eng
42595	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range is confined to Carbon and Sweetwater counties in south-central Wyoming (Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Cerovski <em>et al.</em> 2004; Patton, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005). The range of this species lies almost entirely within that of <em>T. talpoides ocius</em>, but the two species occupy distinctly different habitats (Thaeler and Hinesley, 1979).	eng
42595	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This fossorial upland species occurs in gravelly, loose, well-drained soils on ridge tops and along the edges of deeply eroded stream-cut washes, including areas vegetated with greasewood (Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Patton, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Reproduction is probably similar to <em>T. talpoides</em>, which mates between March and mid-June, has a gestation period of about 19-20 days, and produces a litter of four to seven young. This species is primarily solitary. Diet includes roots, tubers and some surface vegetation. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988).	eng
42595	population	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In the late 1990s, 15 documented reports existed in the Wyoming Wildlife Observation System and the literature; at that time the species had not been extensively surveyed (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).  Adequate information is not available to determine abundance (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997), but total adult population size presumably exceeds 10,000. The species has been described as uncommon (see Garber, 1995), whereas Clark and Stromberg (1987) stated that this species "may be abundant within its range." Trend is unknown, information is not available to assess trends, but it is possibly stable (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997). It is not known if historical numbers differ from current numbers (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).	eng
42595	threats	Linzey, A.V., Clausen, M.K. & Hammerson, G., 2008	No major threats to this species are known, but the species may be vulnerable because of its limited distribution. This pocket gopher is not very threatened, although its habitat is being developed for natural gas and could be impacted by road construction (W. Fertig pers. comm., 1997).	eng
42596	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42596	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from the Central Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and western Nevada from Yosemite National Park to Mount Shasta in the United States. There is a disjunct population on South Yolla Bolly Mountain in northwestern California.	eng
42596	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Mountain pocket gophers are found on mountain meadows and rocky slopes in pine, fir, spruce, and hemlock forests (Patton, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999); in rich moist soil, as well as gravelly or rocky ground. They occur on the open forest floor and at the edge of meadows. This species is primarily fossorial. In winter nests may be above ground in snow. Gestation probably lasts about 18-19 days. Females produce one litter of three to four young per year. Young are born in July-August.<br/><br/>This species is solitary, except during the breeding season. Its underground burrow system may cover 200sqft for young animals to 2,000sqft for old females. They may live four years in the wild. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). <br/><br/>Diet includes roots, tubers, and some surface vegetation. Gophers will forage within underground burrows, they may also forage on the surface of ground. Food is collected in external cheek pouches and stored in underground chambers.	eng
42596	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common within its range and considered secure (NatureServe). Population densities may be 4-14/acre.	eng
42596	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42597	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42597	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed across central plains and western mountain regions in Canada and the United States, from southern British Columbia to central Alberta and southwestern Manitoba, south to South Dakota and northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, northern Nevada, and northeastern California (Patton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993).	eng
42597	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Northern pocket gophers prefer deep soils along streams and in meadows and cultivated fields, but they are also found in rocky soils and clay. They occupy a wide variety of habitats ranging from sagebrush steppe, mountain meadows and tundra, to agricultural fields, grasslands, and suburban gardens and lawns (MacMahon, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). They are primarily fossorial. Young are born in a grass or leaf-lined nests in a natal chamber within the underground burrow system. Females are monoestrous. Mating usually occurs from March to mid-June, depending on weather and latitude. Gestation lasts about 19-20 days. Litter size is four to seven. Young disperse from the natal burrow at about two months of age (Jones <em>et al.</em>, 1983).<br/><br/>They are primarily solitary. Home range may occupy 150-200sq yards. Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). They are active throughout the year. They do not hibernate but may be inactive in winter and midsummer for brief periods. Most burrowing activity occurs in spring and fall when soil is loose. Circadian but peaks of activity at dawn and dusk.	eng
42597	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and common (NatureServe). Estimated densities of up to 91.6/hectare have been recorded (Verts and Carraway, 1999).	eng
42597	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42598	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42598	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is distributed in disjunct patches in the western United States, in southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, northern Nevada, and northeastern California.	eng
42598	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species inhabits deep, moist, loamy, alkaline soils found in bottomlands of sagebrush habitats, as well as irrigated fields (Verts and Carraway, 2003). Also found in the deep soils of river valleys, or old lake beds; in areas with shadscale vegetation type (M. F. Smith, in Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is primarily fossorial. Young are born in underground burrows. Adults may produce two or more litters per year, ranging from three to ten young per litter (Ingles, 1965). Gestation lasts approximately 19 days. <br/><br/>Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye, 1988). Predators include owls, hawks, foxes, coyotes, etc. Diet includes roots, tubers, and some surface vegetation. Forages from underground burrow and may pull plants down through soil into burrow. Sometimes forages aboveground. Collects food in cheek pouches and carries it to underground storage areas.	eng
42598	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure (NatureServe) and can be common in its range.	eng
42598	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42599	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42599	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from Suisun Bay in northern California to the foothills of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains in Oregon. The isolated subspecies <em>eximus</em> occurring only at Marysville Buttes may be extinct.	eng
42599	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in the well-drained soils of valley grasslands, open chaparral, and open foothill woodland. Occupies underground burrows when inactive, and will burrow at the base of shrub, under rock or may use ground squirrel burrows. Uses paths of other animals, trails, dirt roads. Breeds mainly February-September, greatest activity February-April. Litter size is two to four. It may produce more than one litter annually (Kelt, 1988). Diet includes seeds, green vegetation and small fruits (e.g. manzanita).	eng
42599	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).	eng
42599	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42600	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The subspecies <em>morroensis</em> on the south side of Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, California, is listed by USFWS as Endangered.	eng
42600	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from west-central California, north to Suisun Bay and the American River, southward through the San Joaquin Valley below about 3,000 ft, and extending through the interior valleys and mountains to the coast at Morro Bay and from Point Sal to Point Conception in Santa Barbara County (Grinnell, 1922; Hall, 1981; Kelt, 1988; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993).	eng
42600	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Heermann's kangaroo rats primarily inhabit dry, gravelly valley grasslands and open chaparral. They may also occur in open foothill woodlands and the lower and upper Sonoran life zones. They prefer sparsely vegetated areas with loosely textured soil. When inactive, they occupy an underground burrow, within which young are born in a nest. Kangaroo rats may dig burrows from the shelter of ground squirrel burrows. Reproduction occurs mainly from February through October where breeding peaks in April and declines after July. Gestation lasts 30-32 days. Litter size is two to five young and adults may produce multiple litters annually. Young appear above ground at four to six weeks. Females breed during their first year.<br/><br/>Diet is mainly seeds, they also eats green vegetation, especially in winter and spring. They also feeds seasonally on small amounts of insect material. They obtain food from ground surface or cuts standing seed heads or green vegetation. This species generally emerges soon after dark. Rain and fog, and sometimes moonlight, may inhibit activity. In San Luis Obispo County, little or no activity occurred in January and February; activity increased in early summer, declined in mid-summer, with possible fall resurgence.	eng
42600	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density varies widely with habitat. In San Luis Obispo County, density estimates varied from 42/ha in best habitat to 5/ha in marginal habitat.	eng
42600	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42602	conservation	Hiep, N.T., 2004	None a present. The species is close to <em>A. poilanei</em> and differs mainly in the colour of the stomatal bands, which are brownish not whitish. The species was described in the <em>Flore du Cambodge, Laos et Viet Nam</em> 28: 126 (1996) and merits further investiagtion. It was (tentatively) accepted in the world checklist of conifers (Farjon 2001).	eng
42602	distribution	Hiep, N.T., 2004	Known only from two localities in Ha Giang and Ha Tuyên provinces of Viet Nam. Only two subpopulations are known	eng
42602	habitat	Hiep, N.T., 2004	Occurs in tropical/subtropical small-leaved angiosperm–conifer  woodland on ridge tops of karst limestone formations at 1,000–1,500 m. The woodland is extremely rich in epiphytes, e.g., orchids, and includes many endemics.	eng
42602	threats	Hiep, N.T., 2004	No direct threats observed; but there is general deforestation through cutting for firewood, timber, etc.	eng
42603	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Of the 13 subspecies, two are of conservation concern <em>alfredi</em> and <em>leucotis</em>, both are federal C2 candidate taxa. Subspecies <em>leucotis</em> is also a candidate taxon for listing in Arizona (Hafner, 1998).	eng
42603	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from nearly the entire Great Basin in the United States, from southwestern Idaho (Raft River Valley, Cassia County; Elmore Desert, Elmore County) and southeastern Oregon through eastern California, Nevada, and western Utah to southern California and northern Arizona; west to the Sierra Nevada, east to the Wasatch Mountains. It generally occurs at moderate elevations but has been recorded up to 3,200 m asl in Inyo County, California. There is a discontinuous relict distribution in San Bernardino County, California.	eng
42603	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in desert valleys dominated by saltbush/shadscale (<em>Atriplex confertifolia</em>) throughout most of its range. It is found also in the blackbush (<em>Coleogyne ramosissima</em>) zone along the southern edge of its range. In southern Nevada, this species is most abundant in <em>Coleogyne</em> and <em>Grayia/Lycium</em> communities; it also occurs in other types of shrubby communities. They occur on rocky slopes in some areas, however, they are rarely captured on sand dunes. <br/><br/>Nests are found in underground burrows that typically open near the base of shrubs. In Inyo County, California, mating usually occurs from February to mid-March, with births from March to mid-April or sometimes later. Pregnant females occur from April to June in Nevada. Gestation lasts 30-34 days. Females produce a single litter of one to four (most often two), though under exceptionally good conditions a few may produce two litters per year. Juveniles typically do not mature sexually in their season of birth in southeastern California (Kenagy and Bartholomew, 1985).<br/><br/>Chisel-toothed kangaroo rats are basically solitary. Reported average home range size varies from less than one hectare to about five hectare (see Hayssen, 1991). They are most abundant in spring and early summer. They are a major primary consumer and prey item for carnivores. Life span averages just over a year. Diet generally is dominated by leaves (especially of saltbush, from which hyper saline outer layers are removed) in the northern and central parts of the range, by seeds in the south. Will sometimes eat insects and fungi. Climbs saltbush plants to forage for leaves. Caches leaves and/or seeds in burrow. This species is active throughout the year and is not known to aestivate or hibernate. They are nocturnal with limited activity at dawn and dusk.	eng
42603	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Reported population density of up to about seven per hectare in Nevada, and up to 34 per hectare in Utah.	eng
42603	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42604	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42604	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the United States in east-central California and west-central Nevada, south to east of Sierra Nevada, and the Mojave Desert in southern California. There are disjunct populations in southeastern California and adjacent southern Nevada (Intress and Best, 1990).	eng
42604	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in desert flats among Joshua trees, creosote bush scrub and pinyon-juniper woodland (Ingles, 1965) It is also found among big sagebrush in west-central Nevada. Soil may be coarse sand, gravelly, alkaline, or crusty and impregnated with salts. It generally avoids the vicinity of cliffs and areas with desert pavement (Intres and Best, 1990). When inactive, it occupies burrow in mound at the base of shrub. <br/><br/>This kangaroo rat is solitary except when breeding. Home range size varies seasonally; average 0.4 hectare, peak 1.2 hectare (Intres and Best, 1990). Breeding season reportedly peaks in February or March, but pregnant females have been found also in late April and late May. Gestation lasts 29-30 days. Litter size is three to four. Weaning period begins at 27-29 days. Young leave burrow at 28 days. Sexual activity begins at about 24-56 days. This species possibly has an increased need for water (in the form of succulent vegetation) prior to reproduction.<br/><br/>Diet is probably similar to other closely related species of <em>Dipodomys</em> that feed primarily on seeds, but also eats some insects and green vegetation. In the San Gabriel Mountains, California, cheek pouches contained green grass shoots in winter and pouches also often contained juniper berries. This species is active throughout the year except when snow cover is greater than 40%. Activity peaks at two and six to nine hours after sunset, there is little or no activity around sunrise (Intres and Best, 1990).	eng
42604	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe).	eng
42604	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42605	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
42605	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' range includes coastal mountains of west-central California in the United States; the species is historically known from San Mateo County southward to San Luis Obispo County, and east to San Benito County; from near sea level to 1,770 m asl (Best, 1992; Best <em>et al.</em>, 1996).	eng
42605	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The narrow-faced kangaroo rat occurs on maritime slopes covered with chaparral or a mixture of chaparral and oaks. It burrows in sandy, well-drained, deep soils. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> and <em>sanctiluciae</em> inhabit chaparral and chaparral mixed with oaks or digger pine, including sandy, well-drained, and deep soils that have been disturbed by human activity, typically on steep slopes. Shelters and nests are in underground burrows and burrows have been found in open, abandoned agricultural land; one individual may have multiple burrows. Subspecies <em>elephantinus</em> occurs on slopes, flats, and ridgetops with friable soil in mixed and chamise chaparral in oak/pine woodland zone, typically under dense vegetation (sympatric <em>Dipodomys heermanni</em> occupies adjacent open habitat) (Best, 1986). Young are born in underground burrows. The narrow-faced kangaroo rat produces one to two litters of two to four young each year (see Best, 1992). Diet includes seeds of annuals and some green vegetation. Caches seeds underground or in surface pits.	eng
42605	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	For the species as a whole, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or are declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> is declining in range and abundance. Recent extirpations have occurred (Caitlin Bean pers. comm., 2004). Subspecies <em>elephantinus</em> is probably stable. Subspecies <em>sanctiluciae</em> is unknown but probably relatively stable.<br/><br/>The three subspecies are known from roughly 50 locations (Caitlin Bean, unpublished map, 2004) that represent probably no more than three dozen distinct occurrences, and not all of these are extant. Subspecies <em>venustus</em> is currently known from just one extant population (Caitlin Bean pers. comm., 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000.	eng
42605	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.  Threats to the subspecies <em>venustus</em> include habitat loss/degradation and fragmentation as a result of urbanization, residential development, and sand mining.	eng
42606	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The dark kangaroo mouse is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
42606	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the western United States; from southeastern Oregon, northeastern and central-eastern California, Nevada, the tip of southwestern Idaho, and west-central Utah.	eng
42606	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Dark kangaroo mice prefer loose sands and gravel. They are found in Shadscale Scrub, Sagebrush Scrub, and Alkali Sink plant communities in the Upper Sonoran life zone. They may occur in sand dunes near the margins of their range. They remain underground when inactive. They are possibly polyestrous (Hall ,1946). The majority of young are born in May and June. Litter size is two to seven (average 3.9). Predators include owls, foxes, badgers. In west-central Nevada the mean yearly circular home range for males was 6,613sqm and for females, 3,932sqm (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974). <br/><br/>Seeds are the primary food source. They also eats some insects. They do not appear to utilize free water. They are believed to store food in seed caches within burrow system (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974). Activity observed March-October. Peak nocturnal activity occurs in first two hours after sunset. Moonlight and ambient temperature influence activity (O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974).	eng
42606	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe).	eng
42606	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Some <em>Microdipodops</em> populations have declined as a result of the introduction of weedy grasses and extreme habitat alteration for cultivation (e.g., irrigation of dry sinks) (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In addition to these human-related habitat changes, apparently natural shifts in vegetative zones have resulted in the replacement of rodent communities including <em>Microdipodops</em> by those including <em>Dipodomys deserti</em>, and vice versa (J. C. Hafner, pers. obs.). Natural and human-related habitat modifications may have amplified effects on the already fragmented, patchy distribution of <em>Microdipodops</em> (Hafner <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
42607	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Morefield, J., 2008	This species is not known to occur in protected areas.	eng
42607	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Morefield, J., 2008	The range of the pale kangaroo mouse encompasses the Great Basin region of west-central and south-central Nevada, extreme eastern Mono county, California, and a disjunct area in Deep Spring Valley, Inyo County, California in the United States (Hall, 1946; O'Farrell and Blaustein, 1974; Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993). It occurs mostly on fine sandy valley bottoms at elevations of about 1,200-1,750 m asl (1,530-1,590 m asl in California). The distribution comprises several disjunct geographic units.	eng
42607	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Morefield, J., 2008	The species' habitat is nearly restricted to fine sands in alkali sink and desert scrub dominated by <em>Atriplex confertifolia</em> (shadscale) or <em>Artemisia tridentata</em> (big sagebrush). This mouse often burrows in areas of soft, windblown sand piled at the bases of shrubs. Pregnant individuals have been recorded from late March to mid-September. Litter size is reported to range from two to six with a mean of 3.9. This species stores and eats seeds during much of the year and takes a relatively high percentage of insects and green vegetation, especially during the breeding season. This mouse may become torpid; in spring and summer torpor is brief, employed only when starving; in winter multiday torpor may occur (French, 1989). It is nocturnal; and has a burst of activity just after sundown and is active throughout the night.	eng
42607	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Morefield, J., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. These mice sometimes are locally abundant. Hall (1946) mapped about 42 collection sites in Nevada; these likely represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined over the long term, but the degree of decline is unknown.	eng
42607	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Morefield, J., 2008	Some <em>Microdipodops</em> populations have declined as a result of the introduction of weedy grasses and extreme habitat alteration from cultivation (e.g., irrigation of dry sinks) (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). In addition to these human-related habitat changes, apparently natural shifts in vegetative zones have resulted in the replacement of rodent communities including <em>Microdipodops</em> by those including <em>Dipodomys deserti</em>, and vice versa (J. C. Hafner, pers. obs.). Natural and human-related habitat modifications may have amplified effects on the already fragmented, patchy distribution of <em>Microdipodops</em> (Hafner <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
42608	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42608	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the central Great Plains of North America, from southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada, south to northeastern Utah, southern Colorado, and eastern South Dakota in the United States.	eng
42608	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in various arid and semiarid upland habitats (usually with sparse vegetation) with loose sandy to clayey soil; dry grasslands, floodplains with scattered cottonwoods (southwestern North Dakota), sagebrush-shadscale (Utah). Sleeping and birthing occur in underground burrows. Gestation lasts about four weeks. Young are born from mid-May to July or August. Most studies indicate two litters per year. Litter size averages four to six, with a range of two to nine embryos. (Manning and Jones, 1988).<br/><br/>This pocket mouse primarily eats weed seeds. It may eat some insects during the early summer. Collects food in external cheek pouches and stores it in underground chambers. Known to feed on seeds of knotweed, Russian thistle, pigweed, foxtail grass, etc. May become torpid for short periods during the winter and summer. In Canada it appears to remain in burrow from mid-October to mid-April; dormant periods probably alternate with periods of activity during this time. Primarily solitary. Predators include owls, weasels, and badgers.	eng
42608	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread and is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density has been estimated at about 0.5 to four per hectare in various locations under different conditions (Manning and Jones, 1988).	eng
42608	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42609	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	All three subspecies are of conservation concern: <em>P. i. inornatus</em> and <em>P. i. psammophilus</em>. Also, <em>P. i. neglectus</em> was assessed as "Near Threatened" in a previous Red List evaluation (Hafner <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
42609	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in west-central California in the United States, in the Upper Sacramento Valley, Tehama County, southward through the San Joaquin and Salinas valleys and contiguous areas to the Mojave Desert in Los Angeles, Kern, and extreme western San Bernardino counties; also the Tehachapi Mountains and foothills of the western Sierra Nevada below about 600 m asl (Williams <em>et al.</em>, 1993; Best 1993).	eng
42609	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species inhabits dry, open, grassy or weedy ground, and arid annual grasslands, savanna, and desert-shrub associations with sandy washes or finely textured soil. It is found in low densities in grassland-blue oak savannas up to 1,500 ft on the east side of San Joaquin Valley. It occurs in alkali sink associations on the floor of the Tulare Basin and in <em>Atriplex</em> and <em>Ephedra</em> associations in the northwestern portion of the Tulare Basin. In Lake County, it occurs on rocky south-facing slope in chamise and buck brush chararral at elevation of 420 m asl (see Best, 1993). On the Carrizo Plain, it occurs in areas with <em>Erodium</em>, <em>Amsinckia</em>, <em>Astragalus</em>, and <em>Bromus</em>. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. Burrows often are at the bases of shrubs. Breeding occurs March-July. Females produces two or more litters of usually four to six per year (Best, 1993). Feeds on seeds of annual and perennial grasses, forbs, and shrubs (Best, 1993) This pocket mouse carries seeds in external cheek pouches to underground storage chambers. Also sometimes eats soft-bodied insects (Best, 1993). Often torpid in colder months.	eng
42609	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). In Madera County, density was 0.4/ha. In Fresno County, density was 7.3/ha and 5.0/ha on ungrazed sites; home range size is up to a few hundred square metres.<br/><br/>The three subspecies are known from roughly 50 locations (Caitlin Bean, unpublished map, 2004) that represent probably no more than three dozen distinct occurrences, and not all of these are extant.	eng
42609	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Agricultural development is a threat to the species in particular in the northern part of its range. More than 90% of the original habitat has been destroyed as a result of agricultural development (NatureServe).	eng
42610	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42610	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occupies the Great Basin, from south-central British Columbia in Canada, southward to southern California, northern Arizona, and southwestern Wyoming in the United States.	eng
42610	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in arid, sandy short-grass steppes; brushland covered with sagebrush, bitterbrush, and rabbit brush; pinyon-juniper woodland. It usually is found in habitats with light-textured, deep soils; also among rocks. Sleeps and rears young in underground burrows. Reproductively active spring-summer. Gestation probably lasts about 21-28 days. Females will produce up to three litters per year, this may vary with precipitation. The number of fetuses per female ranges from two to eight with an average of five. Young are weaned in about three weeks.<br/><br/>Primarily solitary. Home range has been estimated at up to 0.40 ha.  Primarily a seed eater, but also feeds on insects and some green vegetation in spring/summer. Seeds stored in underground storage chambers. It may forage in grain fields but no significant damage has been noted (Bureau of Land Management, no date). Little above-ground activity occurs in November-March; during this time, long periods of torpor are presumed to alternate with arousal and eating periods. Also may become torpid in summer. It is active within an hour after sunset.	eng
42610	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Population density may reach 80/ha or more in years with abundant precipitation.	eng
42610	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42612	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Additional research is needed to evaluate the current distribution and abundance of this species and to assess the potential effects of threats. Currently, the range of this species falls within several state and national parks, but no conservation measures are in place to address specific needs.	eng
42612	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from southern Labrador south through eastern Quebec, east through central and southern Ontario and Manitoba, Canada, extending south through adjacent portions of the northeastern United States, and the Appalachian highlands to Georgia (Holden and Musser 2005).	eng
42612	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found primarily in cool, moist wooded areas, especially in spruce-fir and hemlock forest associations. Also known to occur in riparian areas, bogs and swamps. The woodland jumping mouse is crepuscular and nocturnal, and hibernates from September/October through April/May. Shortening day length of late summer signals the additional deposition of fat reserves, preparing individuals for hibernation (Neumann and Cade 1964, cited in Whitaker and Wrigley 1972).  During hibernation no additional food is consumed, therefore individuals with insufficient fat reserves do not survive.<br/><br/>Diet varies with season and location, but is known to include fungi, seeds, caterpillars, beetle larvae, and berries. Nests may be built in underground burrows, brush or fallen logs. Breeds May-August. Gestation lasts 21-25 days. Litters size is 1-8 (typically five); 1-2 litters per year (one per year in Nova Scotia). Sexually mature as early as 38 days. In Nova Scotia, no female reproduced in the summer of her birth (Ovaska and Herman 1988).	eng
42612	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Density ranges from 5-60 individuals per ha (Townsend 1935, cited in Whitaker and Wrigley 1972). In Nova Scotia, density varied greatly among years, mainly as result of variation in overwintering survival of juveniles and breeding success of females (Ovaska and Herman 1988).	eng
42612	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present. Residential, agricultural and industrial development causing the elimination of vegetative cover reduces available habitat, especially suitable hibernation sites. Climate change may also pose a threat to the viability of this species in two ways. Firstly, cold winters that lack sufficient snowfall to provide an insulating layer may result in high rates of mortality during hibernation. Secondly, increased temperatures may lead to the decline of southern populations, which are already restricted to higher elevations.	eng
42613	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify the status of the subspecies. Conservation measures are needed for several threatened subspecies.<br/><br/>The conservation status of Preble's jumping mouse has been a contentious issue. This subspecies was listed as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act in 1998. However, investigations of mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA by Ramey <em>et al.</em> (2005) led to questions regarding the validity of subspecies classification and resulted in a movement to delist Preble's jumping mouse (Hall 2006). The delisting proceedings have been suspended to allow for a review of King <em>et al.</em> (2006) which argues against the methodology and findings of Ramey <em>et al.</em> (2005). Preble's jumping mouse is protected at the state level. The Wyoming Department of Game and Fish gives it Priority II status and it is designated a Colorado non-game species, providing legal protection.<br/><br/>The United States Air Force Academy and the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site support populations of subspecies <em>preblei</em> that are well protected. Additionally, Boulder City Open Space, Jefferson County Open Space, and other local programs have some level of protection. However, because many populations or known locations are influenced by off-site considerations, such as stream hydrology, each location should be monitored to determine the status of the population. The floodplain and wetland habitats often used by this species are protected to various extents by state and federal regulations. Protection of habitat should be attained through land acquisition, special designation, private landowner agreements, and natural resources management planning.<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>campestris</em> is classified as Critically Rare with habitat decreasing in South Dakota. The Wyoming Department of Game and Fish give it Priority II status on the grounds that further research is required to determine the level of management required to protect the species. No populations are known to occur in any protected areas or in captivity.<br/><br/>Currently subspecies <em>luteus</em> is listed as threatened by Arizona Game and Fish Commission and by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. Findings that the New Mexican jumping mouse is able to utilize irrigation ditches have suggested that populations may be less threatened than originally believed (Morrison 1990, cited in NMGF, 2004). These initial findings should be more closely studied before any changes in conservation status occur. This subspecies would benefit from protection of high quality riparian zones and restoration of degraded (e.g., over-grazed or eroded) riparian zones.	eng
42613	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges from southern Alaska in the United States to southern coastal Hudson Bay to Labrador in Canada, south to eastern North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, northeastern Oklahoma, southeastern Montana, Alberta, and British Columbia; isolated populations occur in southern Wyoming and north-central Colorado (subspecies <em>preblei</em>), and (subspecies <em>luteus</em>) in Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Its range has expanded southward in the Great Plains since the mid-1960s as the climate has become cooler and more mesic (Frey 1992). Subspecies <em>campestris</em> is found in the Black Hills of Montana, Wyoming and South Dakota. <br/><br/>The range of subspecies <em>preblei</em> has not been well defined, but most occurrences are along the Front Range of Colorado and the southeastern section of Wyoming. The current range in Wyoming probably is restricted to a few isolated patches of suitable habitat in primary drainages and adjacent lowland grasslands (Compton and Hugie 1993).<br/><br/>The range of subspecies <em>luteus</em> includes portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado. The New Mexico range includes the San Juan Mountains (El Rito area), Sangre de Cristo Mountains (North Williams Lake), Jemez Mountains (upper Guadalupe River drainage), Sacramento Mountains (Rio Penasco and Silver Springs Creek), Rio Grande Valley (Espanola to the Bosque del Apache NWR), and lower Rio Chama Valley (Morrison 1992). Arizona range includes the White Mountains, southern Apache County, and northern Greenlee County (Hoffmeister 1986). Jones (1999) reported this subspecies from western Las Animas County, southern Colorado.	eng
42613	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The meadow jumping mouse is found in grassy fields, thick riparian vegetation and wooded areas. The diet varies seasonally, with insects dominating in early spring, followed by seeds and fruit in the summer and fungi, especially Endogone spp, in later summer and fall. <br/><br/>Breeding occurs from April to early September, with a peak in June-August. Gestation lasts 17-20 days. Litter size is 2-9 (average 4-6); individual females may produce up to 2-3 litters per year. Young are born May-early October, weaned and independent in about four weeks. Most first breed in the summer following their birth. Maximum longevity 2-3 years.<br/><br/>Jumping mice are basically solitary. May shift activity area in response to seasonal drying of habitat. Home range generally is about one hectare in males, smaller in females.<br/><br/>The activity pattern of this mouse is primarily nocturnal, but it is also crepuscular. Preparations begin for hibernation around the beginning of September as individuals accumulate about six grams of additional body fat to last through the winter. Hibernation occurs from September/October to April/May.	eng
42613	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The meadow jumping mouse is common in suitable habitat, with population densities ranging between 7-48 individuals per hectare (NatureServe 2008).<br/><br/>Estimated populations of subspecies <em>preblei</em> at extant locations are generally less than 50, except at the Air Force Academy, Rocky Flats, and potentially East and West Plum Creeks in Douglas County. Available information suggests that this mouse never was abundant at any of the known historical locations (Armstrong 1972). It is documented in Colorado by approximately 18 historical records and seven extant occurrences in Boulder, Jefferson, Douglas, Elbert, Larimer, Weld, and El Paso counties. Long term monitoring and inventory will be needed to determine trends in distribution and population parameters. Because so little is known about the populations in Colorado, it is difficult to determine long-term trends. However, because the habitat is under intense pressure due to urbanization and improper land management, it is likely numbers are declining rangewide. There is some evidence that populations have a tendency to fluctuate in size from year to year (Ellingson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Inventory is needed throughout the historic range. Potential sites could be identified through aerial photographic analysis.<br/><br/>Through the mid-1980s, subspecies <em>luteus</em> had been reported from 14 sites in New Mexico and 11 sites in Arizona. Since then, it has been found in at least three localities in Colorado (Jones 1999) and additional sites in New Mexico (Morrison 1992) and Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department map, dated 1 January 2004, shows about 14 localities, some closely adjacent). Long-term trends are poorly known, but available evidence suggests stability. For example, in the late 1980s, Morrison (1992) determined that <em>luteus</em> still occurred in all resurveyed sites in New Mexico and found this subspecies in additional sites in the Jemez and Sacramento mountains, Rio Grande Valley, and the lower Rio Chama Valley. Further surveys are needed to determine the full distribution and area of occupancy.	eng
42613	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. There are threats impacting three of the recognized subspecies.<br/><br/>For subspecies <em>preblei</em> conversion of riparian systems because of urbanization, improper grazing, and agriculture methods, and improper gravel mining practices are likely threats (Bakeman <em>et al.</em> 1997, USFWS 1998). Invasive non-native plants (and consequent weed-control programs) may also threaten the habitat (USFWS 1998). It is important to keep in mind that little is known about the population dynamics of this subspecies. Thus, evaluations of viability should be made very carefully.<br/><br/>For subspecies <em>campestris</em> overgrazing of riparian areas by domestic stock has resulted in the loss of much of the suitable habitat. Such overgrazing is still considered to be the main threat to this subspecies.<br/><br/>Because of subspecies <em>luteus</em> reliance on limited mesic grassland and riparian areas, habitat destruction is of major concern. Agricultural development, including livestock grazing, has destroyed or severally altered riparian habitat in New Mexico and Arizona. Increased recreational use and development in the Sacramento Mountains may further reduce existing habitat patches.	eng
42614	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Populations probably occur in protected areas within the United States and Canada. Monitoring of the effects of fire climate change and loss of riparian habitat to development and agricultural expansion should occur in order to provide more accurate population assessments.	eng
42614	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges from southern Yukon, Canada, southwards in to the United States to eastern North Dakota and northeastern South Dakota, south to east-central California, central Nevada, Utah, and north-central New Mexico (Hart <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
42614	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in mesic, montane meadows, stands of alder, aspen or willow, and in riparian areas. The diet of these mice changes with seasonal availability. In early spring fungi and insects dominate, giving way to a primarily granivorous diet in summer. Increased seed consumption allows for fat reserves to build up, which sustain individuals through a hibernation period that may last up to 280 days (Cranford 1999, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005). <br/><br/>Reproduction occurs in early spring, with a female having one litter of 2-8 young. Young born late in the season typically are not able to accumulate sufficient fat supplies, leading to a 55% juvenile mortality rate for overwintering, compared to 16% for adults. Mice surviving the first winter may live up to four years and have three reproductive cycles.	eng
42614	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The Pacific jumping mouse is common within its range. Population densities vary greatly, from three individuals per hectare in dry grassy areas, to 40 per hectare in mesic meadows where forbs are more abundant than grasses (Cranford 1999, in Wilson and Reeder, 2005).	eng
42614	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Populations of Pacific jumping mice appear secure, however, potential threats to long term viability exist. As with similar species, populations of Pacific jumping mice are often greatly reduced by wildfires and prescribed burns, which are becoming increasingly common throughout its range. Because of its reliance on mesic, montane habitats, this species may also be threatened by climate change. But overall there are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
42615	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Scheuering, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Several occurrences of the red tree vole are in protected areas. The Survey and Manage program required the U.S. Forest Service to survey for certain logging-sensitive species (including the red tree vole) throughout areas subject to timber sale and to provide adequate no-logging buffers if such species are found. Some vole protection was eliminated in March 2004 when the Survey and Manage provisions of the Northwest Forest Plan were withdrawn. Subsequent litigation may affect the ultimate outcome of this situation.<br/><br/>The red tree vole may benefit from existing/proposed conservation measures for the spotted owl (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). In addition, little is known of the basic biology of this species (Verts and Carraway 1998), including food habits, population genetics, and dispersal.	eng
42615	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Scheuering, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This vole occurs in western Oregon, on the west slope of the Cascade Range as far south as the Douglas-Jackson county line, and in the Coast Range to the California border, and on some buttes and low mountains between the major ranges (Verts and Carraway 1998), at elevations of up to 1,600 meters (Manning and Maguire 1999). However, this species possibly occurs also in northern California (see Hayes 1996). Murray (1995) presented DNA information suggesting that specimens from south of the Smith River drainage in Del Norte County, California, were more similar to the Oregon tree voles than to other California populations.	eng
42615	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Scheuering, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Red tree voles inhabit mixed evergreen forests; optimum habitat consists of wet and mesic old- growth Douglas-fir forest and various other mesic habitats, including those dominated by grand fir, Sitka spruce, or western hemlock (Johnson and George 1991); <em>P. longicaudus</em> and <em>P. pomo</em> (sensu Johnson and George 1991) exhibit no habitat differences. The species is rare in sapling, pole and managed saw timber stands; young stands may serve as barriers to dispersal (A. B. Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). They are arboreal voles that exhibit some terrestrial activity.<br/><br/>Nests are 2-65 m above the ground, in trees of any size, often in Douglas-fir, generally in the largest available trees, commonly in the lower third of the live crown; several nests may be built in large; whorls of branches provide support for nests in young trees; large branches of old-growth trees can support large maternal nests or nurseries; nests are sometimes built in cavities and hollows in trees or under the moss covering large branches of old trees (Biswell <em>et al.</em>, no date; Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Gillesberg and Carey (1991) found 117 nests and nest fragments in 50 felled Douglas-fir trees; they classified nest trees predominantly as overstorey, vigorous, and with intact tops; of four cavities found in felled trees, two contained red tree vole nests. In northern California, nests of tree voles (probably <em>P. pomo</em>) were most abundant in old-growth forests; associated with large-diameter Douglas-fir, high percent canopy cover, high stump density, low snag density, shorter snags and logs, and lower elevation; all nests were in Douglas-fir, mostly adjacent to trunk on south side (Meiselman and Doyle 1996).<br/><br/>Red tree voles breed throughout the year, but most litters are born February-September. Females may breed within 24 hrs of giving birth. Gestation is 28 days but may be extended to 48 days in lactating females (Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). Litter size usually is two to three (range one to four). Newborns are altricial, and are able to leave the nest in one month.<br/><br/>This species is thought to have a very limited dispersal capability (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). Predators include spotted owls, raccoons, etc. Red tree voles feed on Douglas-fir needles. They also eat grand or lowland white fir, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock needles. It may eat tender bark of twigs as well as the pithy centre. They usually feed inside or on top of their nest. It is nocturnal.	eng
42615	population	Linzey, A.V., Scheuering, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. It is relatively difficult to capture, so existing records probably do not reflect the true abundance of the species.<br/><br/>Verts and Carraway (1998) mapped approximately 100 collection sites in Oregon; these represent certainly several dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations, but the number of extant occurrences is unknown. The species' habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented rangewide, so the vole's area of occupancy and abundance likely are declining as well, but the rate of decline is unknown (probably less than 30% over the past 10 years). Its distribution has been reduced and continues to decline (Corn and Bury 1988; Verts and Carraway 1998).	eng
42615	threats	Linzey, A.V., Scheuering, E. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Threats include loss of preferred old-growth forest habitat and forest fragmentation by clearcutting practices (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993; Verts and Carraway 1998). <br/><br/>The relatively low reproductive potential of this vole (C. Maser pers. comm.) may reflect the difficulty of converting conifer needles into energy for metabolism (Carey, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). This species appears to have limited dispersal capabilities. Early seral stage forests may be a barrier to dispersal. <br/><br/>This species has very narrow environmental specificity; its diet and microhabitat are specialized, and its old growth habitat is no longer common.	eng
42616	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern at present, and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42616	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in western Oregon and northwestern California, from the Columbia River south to about 100 km north of San Francisco Bay, and from the Pacific coast east to the summit of the Cascade Range.	eng
42616	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Western red-backed voles are found primarily in conifer forests, including lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, western red cedar, silver fir, grand fir, white fir, and ponderosa pine. They also occur in mixed forests, which include big-leaf maple and rhododendron. They apparently prefer dense forests with little ground cover, but with large-diameter rotten logs; generally in cool moist microhabitats in deep forest. <br/><br/>Decayed logs appear to be a critical component of suitable habitat, they use logs for cover (Tallmon and Mills 1994). Riparian areas are reported to be most favourable for reproduction, but uplands may have higher populations (see Alexander and Verts 1992). Sometimes found in manzanita brushlands in California. Logged and burned areas do not provide suitable habitat and may be temporarily inhabited (Alexander and Verts 1992). They nest underground in burrows (made by other animals), under logs, or under old leaves. In Oregon, home range size of four radio collared individuals was 606-3,418sqm (Tallmon and Mills 1994).<br/><br/>West of Cascade Range the voles breed throughout the year; populations in Cascade Range breed February-November (females pregnant or lactating mainly April-September). Gestation lasts 17-21 days. Litter size averages two to three (Maser <em>et al.</em> 1981, Alexander and Verts 1992). Individual females produce several litters per year. Western red-backed voles are active throughout the year. West of Cascade range, voles are active mostly at night; in the mountains, voles are active throughout the 24-hour cycle (Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).<br/><br/>Their diet is dominated by fungal sporocarps (especially of hypogeous fungi) and lichens. Will sometimes eats green vegetation, grass, seeds, and insect larvae. May store fungi for later use. Forages mainly under cover. Predators include marten, short-tailed weasel, spotted skunk, bobcat, coyote, domestic cat and owls.	eng
42616	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common. In virgin forest, densities varied from 1.2/ha to 7.9/ha. Densities up to 12.4/ha recorded on a clear cutting several months after cutting, but before slash was burned. After burning, densities dropped and animals had disappeared by the following spring.	eng
42616	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42617	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42617	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed in North America in forests of the Hudsonian and Canadian life zones. In the west,  from British Columbia, Canada, south to Columbia River and in the Rocky Mountains south to southwestern Arizona and New Mexico in the United States. It ranges across Canada and southward in the mid-west to the northern Great Plains and in the east through the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia.	eng
42617	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Southern red-backed voles inhabit mesic areas in coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests, with ground cover that includes stumps and logs. Mossy logs and tree roots in coniferous forests are optimal. Also found in muskegs, sedge marshes, mesic prairies, tundra and shrub habitats, and bogs within spruce and fir. Colonize clearcuttings in mesic habitats. Found on rock outcrops in some areas (e.g., Virginia). Often associated with abandoned stone walls (fences) in the northeastern United States. In Pennsylvania, abundance increased with forest fragmentation (Yahner 1992). Regarded as an ecological indicator of old-growth conditions in the Rocky Mountains. Also uses second-growth areas.  <br/><br/>They nest under logs, stumps and roots and will use the burrows of moles and other small mammals. Breeds mid-January to late November; peak activity February-October. Gestation lasts 17-19 days. Litters size is one to nine (average 5.6 in Alberta, 6.5 in Colorado). Litters per year: one to four for young females, one to six for older females in Alberta; two per year in Colorado (young of year breed).<br/><br/>Home range varies from 0.25 to 3.5 acres (Merritt and Merritt 1978). Experimentation by Gillis and Nams (1998) suggests that populations separated by an inter-patch distance of 60-70 m would likely be isolated from one another. Mature females are territorial. Populations are noncyclic.<br/><br/>Southern red-backed voles feed chiefly on vegetation, seeds, nuts, fungi, some insects. Summer diet in Colorado (and much of western U.S.) consists almost entirely of fungi. They are mainly nocturnal, active year-long.	eng
42617	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is common and widespread (NatureServe). Density estimates range from 0 to 65/ha, depending on season and location.	eng
42617	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42618	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species is not particularly impacted at present, so no conservation measures are needed at this time. There are many protected areas within the range of this species in North America.	eng
42618	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in northern Greenland and Queen Elizabeth Islands, islands in the District of Franklin, and Southampton Island; and northern North America above the tree line, from the northeastern District of Keewatin, Canada, to northern Alaska, United States (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
42618	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It inhabits Arctic tundra in high, dry, rocky areas in summer and lower meadows in winter. It occupies runways beneath the snow and tunnel systems down to permafrost level.	eng
42618	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Populations of this species undergo wide fluctuations, but it is generally considered common.	eng
42618	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42619	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes some protected areas.	eng
42619	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in northeastern Labrador, northern Quebec, and Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay, Canada (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is also found in the tundra zone of Quebec-Labrador (Ungava) Peninsula, and offshore islands in eastern Hudson Bay.	eng
42619	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the Arctic tundra from sea level to 1,000 m asl. It occupies tundra habitats, beach terraces, rocky hillsides, and alpine meadows above the timberline. Collared lemmings use runways through thickets of willow and birch, they also occupy underground tunnels, in which nests are located. Breeding season usually extends from early March to early September. Gestation lasts 22-26 days. Litter size ranges from one to seven with an average litter size of four to five. Females will have two to three litters annually. Females are sexually mature in one month, males in 1.5 months. Collared lemmings live in small colonies, their home range probably is less than an acre. Summer food consists of grasses and berries. In winter, buds and tree bark are utilized. They are active day/night throughout the year	eng
42619	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range. Collared lemmings probably undergo large population fluctuations every two to five years. Densities range from about one per acre to 140+ per acre.	eng
42619	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42620	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.	eng
42620	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs on the Seward Peninsula and south to Kuskokwin Bay, in south-central Alaska, United States.	eng
42620	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in Arctic tundra, but no further details of its ecology are known.	eng
42620	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure.	eng
42620	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42622	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are several protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
42622	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from the west coast of Hudson Bay to the vicinity of the Great Slave Lake, in the District of MacKenzie, Canada; the westward limit of its distribution is not known (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder, 1993, 2005).	eng
42622	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in tundra habitats, but most commonly in open, dry areas. It avoids marshy habitats and woodlands except during high densities.	eng
42622	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure (NatureServe). It undergoes population cycles, with reported densities varying from  less than one per hectare to 25 per hectare.	eng
42622	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42624	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
42624	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in Washington, central Idaho, southern Alberta, and southern Saskatchewan south to east-central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, northern Colorado, and the western Dakotas in the United States and Canada.	eng
42624	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Sagebrush voles occur in semi-arid prairies, rolling hills, brushy canyons, with loose, well-drained soil (may be rocky). Vegetation usually dominated by sagebrush and bunchgrasses, especially crested wheatgrass. They nest in underground burrows and appear to breed year round, but possibly not in winter in the north. There is a decline in breeding activity in summer. Females may have up to three litters in a season. Gestation averages 25 days. Average litter size is four to six. In Idaho, sagebrush voles apparently occur singly or in pairs during the warm season; they may nest communally in winter (Mullican and Keller 1987).<br/><br/>They eat almost any green plant material, including <em>Bromus</em> (but not the ripe seeds) and other grasses, leaves, flowers and stalks of <em>Eriogonum</em>, and some <em>Artemisia</em> leaves. <em>Castilleja</em> and <em>Lupinus</em> are the most common foods in June and August, respectively, in Idaho. They are active essentially throughout the day, year round, but the main activity period is two to three hours before sunset to two to three hours after full darkness, and a similar period around sunrise.	eng
42624	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). It usually occur in colonies. Numbers fluctuate with climatic variables that affect the availability of succulent vegetation. Population density fluctuates widely (less than 1-20 per hectare in different areas at different seasons in Idaho (Mullican and Keller 1986)).	eng
42624	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42625	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no conservation measures required at present for this adaptable species.	eng
42625	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in the lower elevations of Willamette Valley, Oregon, and at least two localities north of the Columbia River in adjacent Clark County, Washington in the United States. Specimens reported from east of the Cascade Mountains represent other species (Verts and Carraway 1987).	eng
42625	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Grey-tailed voles are associated almost exclusively with agricultural lands, especially grasses grown for seed, small grains, and permanent pastures of legumes and grasses. Also along grassy highway and railroad rights-of-way. They construct intricate runway and burrow systems. Nests are built underground or above ground under boards, bales, and debris scattered in fields (Verts and Carraway 1987). <br/><br/>Breeding probably takes place throughout the year. Gestation is 21-23 days. Litter size averages about five young. In the laboratory, females as young as 18 days of age are capable of mating and subsequently producing viable offspring (Verts and Carraway 1987). Owls, hawks, foxes, skunks, and domestic and feral cats are common predators. Grey-tailed voles feed on succulent stems and leaves of a wide variety of green plants, including forbs, sedges, and grasses. Clover, wild onion, and false dandelion are also common food items (Verts and Carraway 1987).	eng
42625	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). Population densities fluctuate markedly, but few quantitative data are available. Within enclosures, densities comparable to 600 per hectare have been attained.	eng
42625	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Much of the voles original range has been converted to agriculture, which the voles appear to thrive in.	eng
42626	conservation	Linzey, A.V.,Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	Most of the North Carolina population is within Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Many other populations are in national forests, parks, or other public lands affording some protection. Many populations are somewhat protected by being in remote areas not currently impacted by human activities. The primary need is to protect the habitat of the rock vole from gross disturbance.	eng
42626	distribution	Linzey, A.V.,Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	This species is known from Labrador, Canada, west to Ontario and northeastern Minnesota in the United States, southward at higher elevations through the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick, New England, New York, and northeastern Pennsylvania, and disjunctly in the southern Appalachians to Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee (Handley 1991). A 400 km disjunction separates populations in northeastern Pennsylvania from those in northern West Virginia (Kirtland and Jannett 1982; Kirtland pers. comm., 1994).	eng
42626	habitat	Linzey, A.V.,Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	It prefers cool, damp, coniferous and mixed forests at higher elevations in the Appalachians; mossy rocky areas throughout Canada. Optimal habitat is ferns/mossy debris near flowing water in coniferous forests. It also occupies deciduous forest/spruce clearcuts (mainly recent cuts), forest ecotones, grassy balds near forest, and sterile-looking rocky road fills. Occupies shallow burrows and runways. <br/><br/>Nests probably are placed under logs or in similar protected sites. They are made of moss with a lining of grass and have multiple entrance tunnels. Breeding season is from March to mid-October. Gestation lasts 19-21 days. Up to three litters of one to seven (typically three to four) young are reared each year. Birthing peaks in late spring-early summer. Spring progeny breed in their first summer. Males are sexually mature at 15 cm body length and 30 g. Females reach sexual maturity at about 13 cm body length and 30 g. See Kirkland (1977), and DeGraaf and Rudis (1986).<br/><br/>Small isolated colonies seem to be the rule (Banfield 1974). Home ranges probably are less than an acre. Martin (1971) thought that records from atypical habitat may represent expansion of populations under favourable conditions. These might also be dispersing individuals.<br/><br/>Frequent associates include the red-backed vole, deer mouse, and often with masked, smoky, and short-tailed shrews  (Martin 1971; Kirkland 1977). Martin (1971) found no evidence of rivalry between red-backed and rock voles, but thought that the latter may competitively exclude the meadow vole from prime rock vole habitat where the two occur together. Deer may be an important competitor in some areas. <br/><br/>Rock vole remains have been found in the stomachs of a bobcat in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Linzey and Linzey 1968) and three rattlesnakes and a copperhead from the same area. Other predators doubtless include other snakes, weasels, foxes, and short-tailed shrews. Merritt (1987) stated that "predation by avian predators is probably minimized because of inaccessibility of its foraging zone." <br/><br/>Common parasites include fleas, mites, ticks, botflies, tapeworms and roundworms. Six specimens collected in New York in 1947 "exhibited severe damage to the ears by an unidentified fungus" (Martin 1972). Fecal pellets are deposited in special latrine areas. Martin (1971) found a latrine, 50 cm in diameter and 24 cm deep, in a rock crevice.<br/><br/>Diet includes foliage, stems, and fruits of herbaceous plants (forbs more often than grasses and sedges), and fungi. Active day or night (Handley 1991). Also reported as primarily diurnal, with greatest feeding activity taking place in the morning (Martin 1971). This vole does not hibernate; it is active all year.	eng
42626	population	Linzey, A.V.,Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	It is considered common in the northern range, but much less abundant in the southern and eastern range. Too little is known to accurately assess current population trends. Historically, a long-term decline appears to have occurred, related to land use and/or climate change (Christian pers. comm., 1994). Rangewide surveys are needed to clarify the status and distribution, especially of subspecies <em>carolinensis</em>.	eng
42626	threats	Linzey, A.V.,Hammerson, G., Whittaker, J.C. & Norris, S.J., 2008	The pristine forests that support this species are a declining resource, especially in the southern portion of the range.<br/>The principal current threat probably is destruction of the species' habitat, but this may be less of a problem than for many other rare species; the preferred habitat, high elevation talus slopes (in the eastern portions of the range) and other rocky areas, is generally unsuitable for development. Abundant rocks also provide a very uniform subterranean environment that is not particularly vulnerable to disturbance. However, Fichtel (pers. comm., 1992), in discussing threats to the habitat of the long-tailed shrew (<em>Sorex dispar</em>) in Vermont, suggested that ski area development may destroy habitats of this sort. Logging does not appear to have any immediate adverse impact (Kirkland 1977). In fact, at three West Virginia sites, rock voles were more than twice as abundant on recent clearcuts as on adjacent uncut stands (Kirkland 1977). The rock vole is a habitat specialist and occurs in isolated colonies throughout its range (Banfield 1974, Kirkland and Jannett 1982, Majumdar <em>et al.</em> 1986, Kirkland and Krim 1990). Chemical and heavy metal pollution may have less effect on this primarily vegetarian species than on predators in the same habitat. Brooks and Healy (1988), working in West Virginia and Massachusetts hardwood forests, concluded that both intermediate thinning and clearcutting have minimal or ephemeral effects on small mammal communities, but that "long-term, high deer populations may permanently alter habitat structure to the extent that changes occur in small mammal community composition." Overall, considering this is a wide ranging species which appears to be somewhat adaptable, it is considered that there are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
42627	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and it occurs in several protected areas within its range.	eng
42627	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in western North America; from east-central Alaska (United States), south through western Canada and the western United States to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and east to Colorado. Populations at the eastern and southern edges of its range are generally restricted to high elevations in isolated mountains. The elevational range is from sea level up to at least 3,650 m asl.	eng
42627	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in various habitats ranging from dense coniferous forests to rocky alpine tundra, sagebrush semidesert, moist meadows, marshes, along rivers and streams and forest-edge habitat. It frequently occurs in disturbed areas, such as clear-cuts, surface mines, and those that have been fire-impacted. It usually does not make well-defined runways. <br/><br/>Breeds mid-May to mid-September in Alaska and Idaho, May-October in Nevada (mostly June-July). In Alberta females will have one to four litters per year (average two). In Alaska, females will have a maximum of two litters during a lifetime. Litter size is an average of four in Alberta, and five in Alaska (Smolen and Keller 1987). Young of year breed in Alberta, not in Alaska.<br/><br/>These voles seldom live more than one year. They may be displaced by the more aggressive <em>M. montanus</em> (Smolen and Keller 1987). Diet includes green vegetation, seeds, berries, and fungi. In winter they may feed on inner bark of shrubs and trees. They are active throughout the year. Most observed activity in Alaska was nocturnal (Smolen and Keller 1987).	eng
42627	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Populations fluctuate dramatically. Population densities are usually relatively low (typically 5-16 per hectare) but may build up to 40 or more per hectare (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
42627	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42628	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42628	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Alaska in the United States, and central Yukon, and southern Mackenzie south to central Alberta and the western coast of Hudson Bay in Canada.	eng
42628	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Taiga voles prefer early successional stage forests, especially black spruce in riparian habitats. They require rhizomes for winter food and good burrowing conditions such as occur where there is heavy moss cover. Because the preferred habitat may be limited in duration, populations are ephemeral and patchy in distribution. They make burrows with large dirt piles at the entrances. They also make runways through sphagnum. <br/><br/>Young are born in underground burrows. In Alaska, litter size averages 8.8 (range 6-13). Females will produce one or two litters per year. The young of year do not breed (Wolff and Lidicker 1980). Grasses, horsetails, and lichens are important in the diet of these voles, they also eats blueberries (Whitaker 1980).	eng
42628	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure (NatureServe). Populations undergo major fluctuations.	eng
42628	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42629	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42629	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from northern Alaska in the United States, northern Yukon, and westernmost Northwest Territories in Canada; with an allopatric population in southeastern Alaska and southwestern Yukon (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42629	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Singing voles are found on high, well-drained slopes, tundra benches, scattered dwarf willows (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Wet tundra and stream banks (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). Above the timberline; subarctic tundra, willow clumps along water, and often drier ground near water. <br/><br/>They dig their own burrows, or may occupy those of ground squirrels. Young are born in nests in underground burrows. Breeding occurs June to August; four to 12 embryos have been reported. In northern Alaska, singing voles appeared to have a promiscuous mating system (Batzli and Henttonen 1993). They are colonial. In northern Alaska, Batzli and Henttonen (1993) estimated mean summer home range size at 1,259 square metres for males, 450 square metres for females; males tended to be territorial early in the breeding season, females late in the breeding season; immatures were the only cohort to survive the winter. <br/><br/>Singing voles feed mainly on lupines, arctic locoweed, horsetails, sedges, and leaves and twigs of willows. Tubers are cached underground, green vegetation cut and stacked on surface under low willow and birch boughs. They may climb into vegetation while foraging. These voles are active day or night.	eng
42629	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is apparently secure within its range (NatureServe). It undergoes multi-annual cycles, with numbers at Toolik Lake, Alaska, varying from 5 to 30 per hectare.	eng
42629	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42630	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42630	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from montane and intermontane areas of western United States from the Rocky Mountains northward into south-central British Columbia, Canada, west to the eastern slopes of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, south into northern New Mexico, and east along the Colorado-New Mexico border. The southernmost population is isolated in the White and Blue mountains of Arizona and New Mexico. Other southern subspecies also occur as isolated populations.	eng
42630	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Montane voles are found in alpine meadows in the south and mountain valleys in the north. They are found in wet meadows, cropland, especially fields and pastures of grass and legumes along fence rows; grassy areas by streams and lakes. They occupy shallow burrows and surface runways.<br/><br/>Montane voles breed April-October. Females usually have two to three litters per year. Average litter size is about six; litter size peaked at three to four year intervals in northwestern Wyoming (Pinter 1986). Females of early cohorts begin breeding at four to five weeks in favourable years. Drought greatly reduced/delayed growth and attainment of sexual maturity in northwestern Wyoming (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/>Diet includes grasses and sedges; leaves, stems, and roots of a wide variety of forbs. Predators include hawks, owls, foxes, badgers and coyotes. Montane voles are active throughout the year.	eng
42630	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Peak population density was 375-560 per hectare in Utah (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1986). Populations may fluctuate dramatically. Populations peaked at three to four year intervals in northwestern Wyoming (Pinter 1986).	eng
42630	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42631	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42631	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges throughout the prairie states of the United States and northward into the south-central provinces of Canada. It occurs in east-central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south through northern Oklahoma and Arkansas, east to Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, central Tennessee, and westernmost Virginia; relictual populations occur in central Colorado, northern New Mexico, and (formerly) southwestern Louisiana and adjacent Texas (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993). The disjunct subspecies (<em>M. o. ludovicianus</em>), previously found in east Texas and western Louisiana, is apparently extinct.	eng
42631	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	These voles occur in a variety of prairie habitats, as well as upland agricultural habitats. They will inhabit herbaceous fields; grasslands, old agricultural lands and thickets; places where there is suitable cover for runways. Also reported from jackpine woods. Habitats include <em>Andropogon-poa pratensis</em> meadows in Kansas, <Artemisia</em>-grass in Wyoming, <em>Festuca-dactylis</em> grasslands in Indiana. Floodplains of rivers serve as dispersal routes in the Southwest. Railroad and highway right-of-ways may serve as corridors for dispersal throughout the range. <br/><br/>Nests are placed in burrows, under boards or logs, and above ground in grassy clumps. It may build winter nests in old anthills. Prairie voles breed year-round, especially spring/fall; peaks in reproduction depend on the availability of moisture. Gestation lasts 20-23 days. There are several litters per year; and one to seven (average three to four) young per litter; litter size varies with season and female size and age. Both parents (and sometimes older siblings) tend neonates. They sexually mature generally by about five to six weeks. <br/><br/>There are three types of social groups: male-female pair, single female, and communal groups of 2-21 individuals (due primarily to increased survival of philopatric juveniles in late fall). Annual home range is rarely more than 1,000 square metres; averages a few hundred square metres. Lifespan generally is one year or less. Most remain at the natal nest until death; those that do disperse leave home at about six to eight weeks and move short distances (e.g., 28 to 30 m; McGuire <em>et al.</em> 1993). Getz (1997) found strong natal philopatry in a low-food habitat in Illinois. <br/><br/>Diet consists almost entirely of vegetation (grasses, forbs) and some insects. Underground tunnel systems frequently are used for feeding on roots. Active both day and night, year-round. Peak activity probably occurs near dusk/dawn. Diurnal activity decreases in summer; nocturnal activity decreases in winter. Prairie voles are important prey species for many predators.	eng
42631	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Periodic high densities may occur every two to four years (perhaps every two years in Oklahoma, where heavy grazing by cattle reduces grass cover and dampens multiyear cycles, Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). However, some researchers believe that distinct multiannual cycles are not characteristic of this species (see Stalling 1990). Average of 25 per hectare; may surpass 250 per hectare in peak years (Krebs <em>et al.</em> 1969); peaks of greater than 600 per hectare and 1,060 per hectare have been reported (see Stalling 1990).	eng
42631	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species across its entire range. Destruction of grasslands for agricultural purposes has greatly reduced the extent of suitable habitat (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989). On the other hand, clearing of forests has allowed an increase in distribution and abundance along the eastern margin of its range. In Kansas, it has moved out of areas subjected to experimental prairie fire (Clark and Kaufman 1990).	eng
42632	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42632	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, south through western Washington and western Oregon to northwestern California in the United States.	eng
42632	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in the moist forests of the Pacific coast, brushy, grassy areas. It is most abundant in more xeric sites, especially those supporting stands of short grass, but may favour riparian areas in some localities. More abundant in clearcuts than in virgin forest. It occupies shallow burrows and low cover. <br/><br/>Young are born in nests, dry grasses are placed in cavities under logs or in similar protected sites. Breeding occurs mainly from March to September in Oregon and British Columbia. Gestation is approximately 23 days. Females are estimated to produce a maximum of four or five litters per year, with approximately three to four young per litter.<br/><br/>Diet consists primarily of green vegetation (presumably both forbs and grasses); they also eat fungi. Although active at any time, this species is most active at night.	eng
42632	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Densities vary with habitat and over time due to changes in habitat quality. They can be fewer than 15 per hectare in mature forests, and up to 138 per hectare in clear cuts and old fields.	eng
42632	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In coastal British Columbia, creeping voles were apparently unaffected by herbicide treatment of Douglas-fir plantation (Sullivan 1990).	eng
42633	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42633	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in extreme southern Ontario, Canada and throughout the eastern United States with the exception of peninsular Florida and the coastal plains of the southeastern states. A disjunct relict population occurs on the Edwards Plateau in Texas.	eng
42633	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, but in many areas prefers upland wooded areas with a thick layer of loose soil and humus. It spends most of its time underground in shallow burrow systems. Young are born in nests built beneath logs, below surface litter, or underground. Woodland voles breed mid-February to mid-November, probably year-round. In Oklahoma: apparently all year, with the peak October-May; 1-4 litters per year; litter size is 1-5 (average 2.6) (Caire <em>et al.</em> 1989).<br/><br/>Home range is estimated at about 0.1 hectares. These voles are not territorial, they appear to occur only in loose social groups. Diet includes roots, bulbs, seeds, fruits, and other vegetable matter. Active throughout the day, year-round. Sometimes regarded as a pest; can do serious damage to nurseries and orchards. May damage apple trees by removing bark from roots, especially in winter.	eng
42633	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Woodland voles tend to be sparsely distributed in natural habitats, densities usually are highest in orchards during fall. The average population density is up to 2.4 per hectare (Miller and Getz 1969). Recorded densities range up to 15 per hectare, although they likely reach higher numbers in orchards. There is a rapid turnover of individuals in a population.	eng
42633	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42634	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern.	eng
42634	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species range is in two distinct segments. The smaller portion extends from the Coast Mountains of western British Columbia in Canada to the Blue and Cascade mountains of Washington and Oregon in the United States. The larger portion extends from the Rocky Mountains of southeastern British Columbia and southwestern Alberta, Canada, southward to western Montana, western Wyoming, Idaho, and central Utah in the United States.	eng
42634	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is a habitat specialist, with a patchy distribution within its range. It prefers subalpine and alpine meadows close to water, especially swift, clear, spring-fed or glacial streams with gravel bottoms, and marshes, or pond edges. It uses underground nests throughout the year. It burrows into stream banks and makes runways in wet meadows. Forested blocks and mountain slopes constitute barriers to movement between suitable habitats.<br/><br/>In Alberta, mating activity was recorded late May or early June through to August or September; young first entered trappable population in early July; maximum of two litters per year; average litter size about 5-6 (range 2-9); about 26% of young bred before their first winter (Ludwig 1988). <br/><br/>Diet includes leaves and occasionally stems of forbs are the major foods. Also eats grasses, sedges and willows. May eat some seeds and insects. Feeds on subterranean parts of plants throughout the year.	eng
42634	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Populations may fluctuate dramatically yearly or seasonally. In Alberta, monthly density estimates (June-September) in several streamside sites ranged from 0.2 to 12.2 per hectare; seasonal recruitment increased population size 0.8- 6.2 times, with highest numbers in August or September (Ludwig 1988).	eng
42634	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42635	conservation	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species is listed on the Mexican Red List as subject to special protection, "sujeta a proteccion especial".	eng
42635	distribution	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cerro Zempoaltépec (1,800 to 3,000 m), north central Oaxaca, México (Musser and Carleton 2005). The distribution of this species is restricted to the area south-east of Rio Cajones, Mixe District, Oaxaca in the two municipalities of Totontepec and Santa Maria Jalapa. <br/><br/>The total area of occupancy is estimated to be 80 km<sup>2</sup> (Frey and Cervantes 1997).	eng
42635	habitat	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	The habitat of the species has been described as humid Upper Austral Zone, dense oak forest, montane pine-oak forest, evergreen cloud-forest, and evergreen broadleaf rainforest; the habitat where it occurs is humid, with dense oak forest and cleared pastures (Frey and Cervantes 1997). This species is associated with mesic, well-drained soil (Getz 1985 in Frey and Cervantes 1997) It lives in burrows and in long subterranean tunnels (Bailey 1990 in Frey and Cervantes 1997).	eng
42635	population	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	This is a relict species with a limited distribution (Frey and Cervantes 1997). No population information could be found.	eng
42635	threats	de Grammont, P.C. & Cuarón, A., 2008	The habitat of this species is undergoing fragmentation from deforestation across its range. It is estimated to have lost 16-20% of its population based upon habitat change over the past 10 years (Carton de Granmont and Cuaron pers. comm.).	eng
42636	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is protected in Wilderness Areas and National Parks and Provincial Parks of British Columbia, Alberta, Washington, Oregon, Montana, Utah, and elsewhere.	eng
42636	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from the western United States and Canada, but with a highly fragmented distribution (at least seven separate population units). One lies completely within British Columbia, a second extends from southwest British Columbia into central Oregon, a third lies completely in western Washington, a fourth extends from central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho, a fifth lies within central California, a sixth occurs along the Nevada-Utah border, and a seventh occurs in eastern Utah and western Colorado and extends slightly into Arizona and New Mexico. It generally occurs above 750 m asl in the western United States and to above 3,000 m asl in the Rockies and California.	eng
42636	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs from sea level to above the treeline; open coniferous forest with heath, shrub understorey; shrub areas on forest edge; mossy meadows in forests; alpine tundra with cover. It nests on the ground under snow (winter) or in burrows (summer). It is solitary in summer except during the breeding season. Family groups may occupy communal nests in winter.<br/><br/>Gestation lasts 19-24 days. Young are born mid-June to early September, though the season possibly is more restricted at high elevations. Litter size averages 3-4 for young-of-year, 4-6 for older females (which may produce two litters per year) (McAllister and Hoffman 1988).<br/><br/>In winter, these voles feed on bark and buds of shrubs and heaths. In summer, they feed primarily on green vegetation, berries, and seeds. Stores food winter and summer. They are active throughout the year.	eng
42636	population	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in western North America, there are at least hundreds of known locations where it occurs. Density estimates range from 0.5 to 10 per ha in different habitats in different areas. Irregular population fluctuations are typical.	eng
42636	threats	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are many protected occurrences of this species and no known large-scale threats.	eng
42637	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Many occurrences of this species are appropriately protected and managed.	eng
42637	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from Labrador west to southern Yukon Territory in Canada, south to southern Alberta (Wilson and Reeder 1993), south-central Saskatchewan, southeastern Manitoba, northeastern Minnesota (United States) (Jannett and Oehlenschlager 1997), southern Ontario, and southern Quebec (McAllister and Hoffmann 1988).	eng
42637	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in boreal habitats where there is abundant shrubby ground cover.	eng
42637	population	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in North America and occurs in at least hundreds of known locations.	eng
42637	threats	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are many protected occurrences of this species and no large-scale threats.	eng
42638	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In Montana two sites are in Glacier National Park and one is in a USFS Special Botanical Area. In Washington three sites are USFS Wilderness Areas.<br/><br/>The majority of lower 48 state occurrences have been found in the past 15 years and more are likely to be located. In eastern Canada more work is needed and the extent of occupied habitat even within the centre of its range in western Canada is currently unclear.<br/><br/>Little is known of the ecology of the species. Essentially all publications deal only with distribution or taxonomy. Much additional information is needed on population parameters, movements, and habitat requirements.	eng
42638	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in Labrador, Canada, west to central Alaska in the United States, and south to Washington, Montana, southeastern Manitoba and northern New England (see Clough and Albright 1987 for recent records from Baxter State Park, Maine, and from Mt. Moosilauke, Grafton County, New Hampshire). Its distribution is apparently spotty even in the centre of its range in central Canada.	eng
42638	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found in a variety of habitats where moisture levels are high and where sedges and grasses provide both food and cover. Such habitats occur within high-elevation sedge-grass meadows in pine or spring forests, spruce-fir forests, wet meadows, sphagnum bogs, tundra, riparian areas within spruce forests, and in early successional grasslands associated with recently burned forests. Atypically, one subspecies occurs on sagebrush slopes in southern British Columbia.<br/><br/>It occupies burrow systems up to one foot deep and surface runways. Young are born in nests that may be underground or on the surface in concealing vegetation. Breeds May-August. Gestation lasts probably three weeks. Litter size is 2-8 (average four). Several litters per year. At least some breed during the summer of their birth.<br/><br/>Maintains a home range of probably less than one acre. Very sociable; may be found in small colonies. Feeds on grasses, sedges, and other herbaceous vegetation. Active day/night throughout the year.	eng
42638	population	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its widespread distribution extends from Alaska to Labrador and south to portions of the northern United States, but populations are localized; population sizes are not known for any location, although nowhere does this mammal appear to be common. It is patchily distributed throughout the range. Population densities may range up to three dozen per acre.	eng
42638	threats	Linzey, A.V., Reichel, J.D. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42639	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42639	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species ranges from southern Quebec west to southern Manitoba in Canada, south to Kansas, northern Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland in the United States.	eng
42639	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including grasslands, mixed deciduous/coniferous forests, spruce-fir forests, and freshwater wetlands. Competes for living space with <em>Microtus</em>, which is a superior competitor and excludes <em>Synaptomys</em> from higher quality habitats.<br/><br/>Prefers boggy habitat but it is also common in marshes, meadows, and upland forests with thick humus layer (especially when conditions are not hot and dry); areas with intermixture of herbaceous/shrubby vegetation. Occupies burrow systems usually 6-12 inches deep and surface runways (e.g., beneath sphagnum and among roots of shrubs). <br/><br/>Young are born in nests placed on the surface in grassy vegetation or in underground burrows. In New Jersey, nests were just under the surface in tops of sphagnum hummocks (Conner 1959). Breeds year-round; peak April-September. Gestation lasts 21-23 days. Litter size is 1-8 (average 2-5); multiple litters annually in the south. Sexually mature in 60 days, or less for males. <br/><br/>Home range varies from 1/4 to one acre. Sometimes occurs in small colonies. Diet consists primarily of herbaceous plants; leaves, stems, seeds, and rootstocks, especially of grasses and sedges; also eats small fruits (Connor 1959). Active day and night throughout the year.	eng
42639	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It generally occurs in low densities in most parts of the range, with some locally higher densities recorded in prairie areas. It is said to be colonial, but probably is just locally distributed in suitable habitat patches. Published densities range from 1.6/ha in New Jersey to 106/ha in Illinois. However, temporary local concentrations cannot be used as estimates of area-wide densities.	eng
42639	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. <br/><br/>Human habitat changes (deforestation, elimination of native grasslands, roadways that provide dispersal routes to habitat patches, etc.) that encourage increases in numbers or local distribution of <em>Microtus</em> would be detrimental to <em>Synaptomys cooperi</em>.<br/><br/>In Kansas, this species moved out of or avoided areas subject to experimental prairie fire (Clark and Kaufman 1990). In southeastern Kentucky, it apparently is being displaced via competitive exclusion by expanding meadow vole populations (Krupa and Haskins 1996).	eng
42640	conservation	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Approximately 9% of the species’ range in Mongolia occurs within protected areas. In China and Russia listed as Least Concern.<br/>Conservation measures required and further research is recommended.	eng
42640	distribution	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Tuva (Russia), Mongolian steppes north of the Altai and in adjacent China in NW Xinjiang, N Gansu, N Ningxia, Anhui, and Nei Mongol; see Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997, mapped as <em>C. eversmanni</em>). <br/><br/>In Mongolia found in Great Lakes Depression, Valley of the Lakes, Northern Govi, Govi Altai Mountain Range, Middle Halh Steppe, Eastern Govi, Dzungarian Govi Desert and Trans Altai Govi Desert.	eng
42640	habitat	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	An obligate species of sand dune habitats in grasslands or semi-desert.  Inhabits sandy foothills associated with hargana, shrubs, poa, and wild keel vegetation. This species builds shallow burrows with several entrances. Eats seeds and sometimes insects.  Constructs very simple short burrows with only a few entrances; caches seeds in burrows to eat over winter.  Active in early evening and night.  Reproduction begins in April, and 2-3 litters of 4-9 young are produced each year.	eng
42640	population	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	No data are available at present.	eng
42640	threats	Batsaikhan, N., Avirmed, D. & Tinnin, D., 2008	Habitat degradation may be resulting through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock. Drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species, although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity.	eng
42641	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	The northern record is from Mount Data National Park, which aside from about 86 ha continguous mossy forest patch, and has been largely converted to farm land with high value vegetable crops. However, there is extensive suitable habitat in the area (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
42641	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	The species occurs in the Luzon Faunal Region and is apparently endemic to central and northern Luzon Island (Laguna and Mountain provinces) in the Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Musser 1982). It is known only two localities: a high elevation pine forest at 2,250 m on Mt. Data in the Cordillera mountain ranges and a rice field at 75 m in Laguna province (near the International Rice Research centre).	eng
42641	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	The species was taken in densely vegetated gullies in pine forest at about 2,250 m (Rabor 1955; Rabor 1986; Sanborn 1952) and in a rice field in the lowlands at about 75 m (Barbehenn <em>et al</em>. 1973; Musser 1982). Nothing else is known about the species biology or natural history, but the individual's occurrence in the rice fields may suggest that it is able to tolerate some level of disturbance. The species dentition indicates also it might be associated with bamboo (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
42641	population	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is only known from only two individuals, the one from the rice field in Laguna province, the other from Mt. Data, on the Cordillera mountain range (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Despite repeated trapping in the areas with different bait and trapping techniques, no additional individuals have been found.	eng
42641	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	No major threats are known, but it is likely that the species would be affected by conversion of forest into agricultural lands in the Cordillera mountain region, and into human settlements in Laguna (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
42642	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas.	eng
42642	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Kinkazan, Awashima (Niigata Prefecture), Sado, Oki Islands (Dogo, Nishino), Awaji, Shodo, Miyajima, Tsushima, Goto Islands (Fukue, Nakadori), Shimojima (Amakusa Islands), Yaku, and Tane (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to more than 2,500 m asl.	eng
42642	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	This semi-arboreal species is found from the lowlands to alpine areas (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species prefers mature forests, with a thick leaf layer.	eng
42642	population	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
42642	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Ishii, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
42643	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
42643	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	The species as currently recognized is from Luzon island (Philippines). It is described as endemic to the Central Cordillera of northern Luzon (Abra, Benguet, Ilocos Norte, and Mountain provinces) from approximately 1,000-2,000 m occasionally to 2,500 m (Musser 1982; Rabor 1955; Sanborn 1952). Due, however, to taxonomic uncertainty of the species, the true distribution range is not known (Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
42643	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	Nothing is known on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
42643	population	Heaney, L., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
42643	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	Nothing is known regarding the threats to this species.	eng
42646	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys to confirm the limited range of this species are needed. The ecological requirements, population status, and possible threats to the species should also be studied.	eng
42646	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected in 1972 by Guy Musser in a snap trap on Mount Somoro in the Torricelli Mountains, Papua New Guinea. It is believed to be restricted to this mountain. It was collected at about 1,350 m asl.	eng
42646	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It was collected in undisturbed mossy forest.	eng
42646	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from the holotype. The species is believed to be very difficult to catch.	eng
42646	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species has a restricted range, and would be severely affected by threatening stochastic events.	eng
42647	conservation	Moseby, K.E., Morris, K., Read, J., Kemper, C., van Weenen, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is present in many protected areas.	eng
42647	distribution	Moseby, K.E., Morris, K., Read, J., Kemper, C., van Weenen, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is found in southern Western Australia and South Australia, as well as extreme northern and south-west New South Wales (Moseby and Read 2008).	eng
42647	habitat	Moseby, K.E., Morris, K., Read, J., Kemper, C., van Weenen, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is a little-known, nocturnal species, that lives in arid areas of sparse mallee, shrublands, and acacia woodland, with scattered shrubland on loamy or clay soils (Moseby and Read 2008).	eng
42647	population	Moseby, K.E., Morris, K., Read, J., Kemper, C., van Weenen, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is common within its limited habitat (Moseby and Read 2008).	eng
42647	threats	Moseby, K.E., Morris, K., Read, J., Kemper, C., van Weenen, J., Ellis, M. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although overgrazing by cattle and hunting by feral cats are localized threats.	eng
42648	conservation	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It has been recorded from Karijini National Park, Rudall River National Park, Millstream-Chichester National Park, and Collier Range National Park (Lee 1995). The species was previously listed as threatened within the Western Australia until subsequent surveys found that it was more widespread.	eng
42648	distribution	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the non-coastal, central and eastern parts of the Pilbara, Western Australia, Australia (Lee 1995). It was formerly more widespread, being found in coastal areas, as well as further to the south (Lee 1995).	eng
42648	habitat	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	It is found in areas of rocky, hummock grassland with little or no soil and an overstorey of <em>Acacia</em> (Lee 1995; Ford and Johnson 2007). Animals live in small family groups in burrows below mounds of pebbles. Females can produce several litters of four young annually (Start 2008).	eng
42648	population	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	This species is sparsely distributed within abundant habitat (Start 2008).	eng
42648	threats	Morris, K. & Burbidge, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The reasons for its elimination from the southern portion of its range are unclear, but may have been related to predation by feral cats and foxes. Mining may be a very localized threat (Anstee <em>et al.</em> 1997), but this would not affect the overall population size.	eng
42649	conservation	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B., Gómez-Laverde, M., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
42649	distribution	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B., Gómez-Laverde, M., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	This species occurs in west and north-central Colombia, north Venezuela (Musser and Carleton 2005), and north-west Ecuador (Tirira 1999, 2004). It occurs between 400 and 1,750 m (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
42649	habitat	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B., Gómez-Laverde, M., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	It lives in mature montane and pre-montane rainforest, but can sometimes be found in secondary forests (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
42649	population	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B., Gómez-Laverde, M., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	It is rare in some regions, but common in others. In Venezuela it is relatively uncommon (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
42649	threats	Ochoa, J., Rivas, B., Gómez-Laverde, M., Woodman, N. & Timm, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42650	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Jordan, R.A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are probably many protected occurrences of this species.	eng
42650	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Jordan, R.A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is distributed over much of the south-central and southeastern United States, from Nebraska and eastern Colorado east to North Carolina, south to Texas, Gulf coast, and central Florida. Florida subspecies <em>smalli</em> of Key Largo is separated from populations in peninsular Florida by about 240 km. Schwartz and Odum (1957) suggested that <em>Neotoma</em> invaded the eastern United States from the Southwest, where the subfamily is well-represented, with one segment of the taxon moving north along the Appalachian Plateau and the other spreading out along the Coastal Plain.	eng
42650	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Jordan, R.A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Eastern woodrats occur in wooded areas, ravines, floodplain forest; swamps and osage orange and other hedges in some areas in southern United States. The coastal subspecies has been found in a wide variety of habitats, including lowland deciduous forests from Florida northward to southeastern North Carolina, generally inside or near edges of forests, primarily deciduous forest. Other habitats include low, wet areas, ranging from marshes to swamps and swamp hammocks. In Georgia and Florida, habitat is wet areas in hammocks and densely vegetated swamps, where nests are built in hollow trees or along stream banks in dense tangles of cabbage palmetto (Hamilton and Whittaker 1979). <br/><br/>David Webster (UNC-Wilmington) suggested that the species is habitat-specific and confined to particular soil types. Preferred habitat in North Carolina consists of low-lying deciduous forests with a dense cover of palmetto (<em>Sabal minor</em>). The Rocky Point, Pender County, population is restricted to an unusual woodland dominated by dense shrub layer of <em>Sabal major</em> established on a unique soil (Pender Series) with a very shallow, acidic A-horizon and a slightly alkaline B-horizon (Webster <em>et al.</em> 1985). The habitat there appears to be similar to the palmetto forests of Florida where woodrats are relatively abundant. <br/><br/>Young are born in a nest in a rocky crevice, in or under a tree, in a brush pile, in an abandoned building (Schwartz and Odum 1957), or in a similar site; rarely in the lower branches of a tree. In the Midwest nests generally are sheltered by a stick house (Hayes and Harrison 1992). Nest commonly is used in successive years, may become quite large. Harper (1927) described a nest of sticks and other debris that filled a hollow cypress stump and rose to a height of three feet. Working in Gulf Coast Florida, Pearson (1952) described nests in barns, hollow logs, and subterranean chambers under stumps, tree bases, and root masses. Nest sites were not excavated to any extent by the rats themselves. The majority of nests described by Pearson were found in dense tangles of low shrubs with only small midden heaps scattered around them. Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described typical woodrat nests as being large, 1.5 to 4 ft in diameter and >3 ft in height. The internal nest cavity was typically 5-8 inches in diameter and carefully lined with finely shredded bark, leaves or grass. The exterior was a jumbled mass of sticks, dried grass, leaves, and assorted rubbish (old bones, pieces of metal, small rocks, etc.) collected by the rat. Nests were left open at the top in sheltered areas, but were roofed over in exposed situations such as in low trees and shrubs. Nests were used all year and, in some cases, for an entire lifetime. Woodrats continually added to their nests and established nests might have several levels and nest cavities.<br/><br/>It breeds from March to October in Oklahoma, mainly February to October in Kansas, apparently all year in Florida and coastal Georgia, all year except reduced in winter in Oklahoma. Females are polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 days. Gestation probably lasts about 33-39 days (Hamilton 1953). Litter size is usually 2-4 (average three) (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979), with up to 2-3 litters per year. The young are altricial with eyes opening in 15-21 days (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Sexual maturity is reached in less than one year and some females, though not males, may breed in their first season (Wiley 1980). Adults appear to live at least three years in the wild (Merritt 1987). <em>Neotoma</em> may have a reproductive potential that is "considerably lower" than other cricetid rodents, based on life span (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981).<br/><br/>The nests of <em>N. magister</em> and presumably <em>N. floridana</em> provide shelter for a large array of other animals, including rabbits, white-footed mouse, snakes, toads, salamanders, as well as spiders and many other invertebrates (Merritt 1987). Woodrats use communal latrine sites and urination sites (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Merritt 1987).  Latrine areas appear to be used over extended periods of time and by more than one individual. <br/><br/>Pearson (1952) inferred from the distribution of nest sites that woodrats may be at least partly colonial. Other authors have described the woodrat as largely solitary and aggressive, sharing their houses only during the breeding season and when rearing young, and with most captured animals carrying scars apparently from fighting with conspecifics (Nowak and Paradiso 1983). Merritt (1987) described the closely related <em>N. magister</em> as territorial, engaging in aggressive displays of foot thumping and teeth chattering to challenge conspecifics at nest sites. <br/><br/>Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described home ranges in Missouri as 0.3 ha for males and 0.2 ha for females. Goertz (1970) calculated home ranges of 0.26 ha for males and 0.17 ha for females in Oklahoma. <br/><br/>Wiley (1980) suggested that the black rat snake and the long-tailed weasel are potential predators because their size allows them to enter woodrat houses. Eastern woodrats feed opportunistically on seeds, nuts, fruits, fungi, buds, stems, roots, and foliage. Fall and winter diet may be dominated by stored nuts and seeds (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Woodrats are active all year and do not hibernate, but may remain in their nests for extended periods during inclement weather (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). They are largely nocturnal (Wiley 1980); most active during first few hours of darkness.	eng
42650	population	Linzey, A.V., Jordan, R.A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is generally uncommon (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981), but total population size certainly is in excess of 10,000 individuals. The eastern woodrat appears never to have been abundant over much of the range, but few data are available on population trends. Characterized by low densities, with a Kansas study reporting 0.20/ha in one year and 0.82/ha in another. Density was estimated at 7.6/ha over 851 ha at Key Largo, Florida (Humphrey 1988). Population density in Pennsylvania was 1-4/ha. Densities of 5-8 adults per hectare are probably high for the species (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).	eng
42650	threats	Linzey, A.V., Jordan, R.A. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. The primary threat in the southeastern United States is probably habitat loss. Human modification of Coastal Plain habitats, including forestry practices that favour pine monocultures, fire suppression, and development (golf courses, residential, etc.), probably are putting increasing pressure on remaining populations. The requirement for mature lowland hardwoods in the rapidly developing Southeast puts the species at particular risk. Removal of abandoned buildings and barns might also be harmful by removing potential nesting places. <br/><br/>While the species is probably secure over most of its range, several subspecies of eastern woodrat have undergone declines in recent years. The main threat in North Carolina appears to be habitat loss. The population on Bald Head Island, Brunswick County, was extirpated in 1966, and the Scotts Hill population was destroyed by 1987 when the area was converted to a pine plantation. While the woodrat persists at Rocky Point, much of the lowland forest habitat there was destroyed by the construction of Interstate 40. Predation is a threat for all herbivore species. Feral cats can be a serious threat in developed areas. Woodrats have been shown to suffer from many ecto- and endoparasites and, while the effects of these parasites on <em>Neotoma</em> populations remains unknown, Alan (1987) suggested that at least one population in Florida may have been extirpated by an outbreak of ticks. Neal (1967; cited in Alan 1987) suggested that fluctuations in woodrat populations in the Mississippi River Basin may be linked to abundances in acorn crops, and other authors have linked fluctuations to extreme weather conditions (Nawrot and Klimstra 1976). Hall (1988) pointed out a correlation between gypsy moth spread and woodrat declines in Pennsylvania, suggesting that depressed acorn production may impact woodrat over-winter survival (see Norris 1992).	eng
42651	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
42651	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from western New Mexico from Grant County north, and from central Arizona north to southern Utah and as far west as Mohave County south of the Colorado River (Jones and Hildreth 1989).	eng
42651	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in rocky areas (usually not cliffs) in pinyon-juniper woodland. Sometimes among yellow pines or among cacti and agave. Dens are built of debris among rocks or around base of tree. Dens are sometimes above ground in juniper. <br/><br/>These woodrats breed winter-early fall; most juveniles appear in population in March-May. Litter size usually is 1-5 (average two) with perhaps up to two or more litters per year. Most females are sexually mature at 9-10 months. Few females survive to reproduce a second season (Vaughan and Czaplewski 1985, Hoffmeister 1986).<br/><br/>Much of the diet is composed of foliage and seeds of juniper. These woodrats may learn to select individual junipers with low levels of "defensive" chemicals (Vaughan and Czaplewski 1985). They are also known to feed on ephedra, which may be stored within house (Hoffmeister 1986). This species is chiefly nocturnal, they do not hibernate or aestivate.	eng
42651	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe).	eng
42651	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42652	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42652	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs on the Edwards Plateau and eastern Llano Estacado of central and northern Texas, southwestern and eastern Oklahoma, southeastern Kansas, southwestern Missouri, and northwestern Arkansas (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
42652	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Texas mice prefer rocky slopes or cliffs, wooded or with scrub vegetation. Primary habitat is rocky outcroppings in "cedar" (<em>Juniperus</em>) glades or mixed hardwood forest (Sugg <em>et al.</em> 1990). They are habitat generalists in west-central Texas, where they are at least semi arboreal and travel primarily in trees (Etheredge <em>et al.</em> 1989). Nests are under rocks or in rocky bluff crevices. <br/><br/>They probably breed throughout most of the year except summer, with peaks in spring and fall. Several litters of 3-6 young (average 3.4 in southwestern Missouri) are produced annually. Gestation lasts 23 days (non lactating) to 26-32 days (lactating) (Kirkland and Layne 1989).<br/><br/>Home range averaged 0.2 ha in Missouri, with male range twice that of the female (Brown 1964). Home ranges usually are horizontal (along ledges). Texas mice feed on berries, acorns, seeds, herbaceous plant material, and insects. They are probably mostly nocturnal.	eng
42652	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Population density was estimated at 0.7 to 5.4 per ha in different regions at different seasons.	eng
42652	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42653	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
42653	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Cotton mice are found in the southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia (Handley 1991) and Great Dismal and Chowan swamps, North Carolina (Boone and Laerm 1993), to Florida, west to Texas and Oklahoma, and north in the Mississippi Valley to Missouri, Illinois (Feldhamer <em>et al.</em> 1998), and Kentucky.	eng
42653	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	In most areas, cotton mice prefer bottomland hardwood forests, swamps, and mesic and hydric hammocks but they have also been found in margins of cleared fields, old fields, edges of salt savanna, palmetto thickets bordering beaches, dry hammocks, beach dunes, pine flatwoods, upland timber, mixed pine-hardwood forests, pine-turkey oak, sand pine scrub, along rocky bluffs or ledges, in caves, and in little-used buildings (see Wolfe and Linzey 1977). They are probably most common in areas that periodically are inundated. Cotton mice are terrestrial and arboreal. Large logs and stumps are an important habitat component (McCay 2000). In south-central Florida, daytime refuges were primarily in gopher tortoise burrows, also in ground holes and occasionally in hollow tree cavities (Frank and Layne 1992). Young are born in nests in logs, stumps, moss, under loose bark, under brush, or in old buildings; they prefer elevated nest sites, as much as six metres above ground (see Handley 1991). <br/><br/>Cotton mice breed throughout the year in Florida and Texas, with a decline in summer. They breed March-October in the north. Litter size is 1-7 (average 3-5). Gestation lasts 23 days (non lactating) or 30 days (lactating). Weaning usually occurs by the third or fourth week. Individuals produce up to several litters per year. They sexually mature in 1-2 months. They live usually less than one year, infrequently up to about two years.<br/><br/>Home range is 0.2-0.8 ha in different areas. At least in some areas, this species may exclude <em>Peromyscus leucopus</em>. Cotton mice are very opportunistic feeders, with as much as 3/4 of their diet made up of animal matter. They are nocturnal.	eng
42653	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). On Key Largo, Florida, the average density was estimated at about 16/ha near housing subdivisions and 27/ha distant from subdivisions (Humphrey 1988). Density has been estimated at about 2-10 per ha in various areas elsewhere in its range, although a density of 97/ha has been reported for Tennessee. In many areas, peak densities occur in fall and/or winter.	eng
42653	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42654	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of the species includes many protected areas.	eng
42654	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the southeastern United States, from northeastern Mississippi to western South Carolina, south through Alabama and Georgia and to western and most of peninsular Florida (Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).	eng
42654	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It favours dry sandy fields and beaches with grass/shrub cover; at Merritt Island, Florida, it is usually found among clumps of palmetto and sea grape with expanses of open sand or among dense palmetto-sea grape-wax myrtle. Occupies underground burrows when inactive; entrances in clumps of grass or beneath sheltering vegetation (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Young are born in underground burrows. <br/><br/>It may breed all year. Much breeding activity on the Gulf Coast occurs from November-January. Produces two or more litters per year. Gestation averages 23-24 days (non lactating) or 28-29 days (lactating). Litter size averages 3-4. Young are weaned in about 18 days. Minimum age at conception is five weeks. Apparently monogamous mating system (Kirkland and Layne 1989).<br/><br/>Feeds mainly on grass/weed seeds and insects; also eats blackberries and wild pea. Beach populations eat fruits and seeds of dune plants, especially sea oats and sea rocket; feeds on invertebrates when seeds are scarce (Matthews and Moseley 1990). It is primarily nocturnal.	eng
42654	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Population densities of up to six per acre have been recorded (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).	eng
42654	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall.<br/><br/>Of the 16 subspecies, eight coastal forms are of conservation concern. <em>P. p. decoloratus</em> is Extinct; <em>P. p. trissyllepsis</em> (Perdido Key beach mouse) is Critically Endangered; <em>P. p. allophrys</em> (Choctawatchee beach mouse), <em>P. p. ammobates</em> (Alabama beach mouse), <em>P. p. peninsularis</em> (St. Andrews beach mouse), and <em>P. p. phasma</em> (Anastasia Island beach mouse) are considered Endangered; and <em>P. p. leucocephalus</em> (Santa Rosa beach mouse) and <em>P. p. niveiventris</em> (Southeastern beach mouse) Near Threatened. All eight subspecies have restricted distributions and are threatened by habitat loss and associated pressures due to tourism and development.	eng
42655	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Not found in protected areas (except perhaps Podolskiy Tovtry National Park). Listed in Ukraine Red Data Book under category 3 (rare species with limited number of individuals and restricted range).	eng
42655	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The species occurs in Ukraine, where it is found from near the Polish border in the east to the Dnepr River in Central Ukraine and south to the Moldovan border. Populations are fragmented in Ukraine, so the area of occupancy could be much lower than the range indicated on the map..	eng
42655	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	The major habitat of this species is virgin steppes. It also occurs in side roads, forest belts, and agricultural fields, and was recently found in former military firing ranges (I. Zagorodnyuk pers. comm. 2006). Does not avoid sandy soils. An obligate underground species. Its feeding habits are poorly studied, but according to data from southern and south-eastern part of the range it feeds on underground parts of lucerne, chicory, bindweed, mallows and tree seedlings (oak, mulberry, acacia etc.). There are no data on breeding or ecology.	eng
42655	population	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	There are no data on population size of the species. The range is highly fragmented and consists of isolated populations. Therefore although the species has relatively large extent of occurrence, the area of occupancy is low. Since the end of the 19th century the Podolsk mole rat has been considered a rare species across its whole range (Ognev 1947). Range contraction in historical time is probably due to shrinking of steppe habitats. Subfossil remains of the species were found on the left bank of Dnepr River in Kiev and Zhitomir regions. Therefore, losses of range in the south, north-west and north-east have a long history. Currently population density in optimal biotopes is about 1-8 individuals per hectare.	eng
42655	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Formozov, N., Zagorodnyuk, I. & Sheftel, B., 2008	Habitat degradation and loss due to cultivation and development is a major threat.	eng
42656	conservation	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species occurs in four protected areas: Los Cipreses, Rio Blanco, Las Chinchillas and Bosque Fray Jorge.	eng
42656	distribution	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Chile from Copiapo to the area of Rio Biobio, from sea level up to 2,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
42656	habitat	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs on the western Andean slopes in Mediterranean scrub habitat (Braun and Mares, 2002).	eng
42656	population	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The population size of this species is not known.	eng
42656	threats	D'elia, G. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are possible threats from mining and tourism activities in the Andes area. Further threats are posed by agricultural activities on central valleys and cordillera de la Costa (G. D'elia pers. comm.).	eng
42657	conservation	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It occurs in at least ten protected areas in Bolivia, including Los Andes and Pozuelo. These protected areas encompass much of its highland range.	eng
42657	distribution	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is restricted to the high elevations of southeastern Peru, southwestern Bolivia, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina (Jujuy, Salta and Tucumán provinces) (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). It is found from 3,850 to 5,000 m asl.	eng
42657	habitat	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in hilly, arid, Altiplano habitat at over 3,800 m asl. It inhabits rocky terrain, building burrows in shale outcrops and at the bases of shrubs (Braun and Mares, 2002). It is found in both undisturbed and disturbed areas, and readily inhabits man made stone walls. It is a strict herbivore (Cortes <em>et al.</em>, 2002) and predominantly feeds on <em>Thola spp.</em> and <em>Yareta spp.</em> (N. Bernal pers. comm.).	eng
42657	population	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The population is stable and the species is locally common.	eng
42657	threats	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N., Vivar, E., Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. In the past there was some commercial collection of this species for fur.	eng
42658	conservation	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42658	distribution	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The most wide-spread species of sengi. The species is found from northern South Africa through northeast Namibia, east and central Botswana, Angola, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique north to Democratic Republic of Congo. In East Africa, found in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.	eng
42658	habitat	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	Steppe and savanna woodlands.	eng
42658	population	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	Widespread, but only locally common.	eng
42658	threats	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	No major threats.	eng
42659	conservation	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42659	distribution	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	The species occurs in Uganda, north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan. Although some generalized distribution maps indicate that <em>E. fuscipes</em> is found in extreme eastern Central African Republic, there are no records from the country (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
42659	habitat	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	An inhabitant of savanna habitats.	eng
42659	population	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
42659	threats	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
42660	conservation	Stuart, C., Perrin, M. & FitzGibbon, C., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42660	distribution	Stuart, C., Perrin, M. & FitzGibbon, C., 2008	Relatively restricted distribution in southern Zambia and Malawi, and south-western Mozambique (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Corbet 1971; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42660	habitat	Stuart, C., Perrin, M. & FitzGibbon, C., 2008	Savannah grassland with scattered trees and bushes (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42660	population	Stuart, C., Perrin, M. & FitzGibbon, C., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
42660	threats	Stuart, C., Perrin, M. & FitzGibbon, C., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
42661	conservation	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42661	distribution	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in south-western Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and northern South Africa (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42661	habitat	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	Said to inhabit more arid terrain than any other <em>Elephantulus</em> species, including dry savanna woodlands, steppe, and semi-deserts (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42661	population	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
42661	threats	Stuart, C., Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Griffin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
42662	conservation	Stuart, C., FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42662	distribution	Stuart, C., FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	Eastern areas of South Africa north into Zimbabwe and eastern Botswana and western Mozambique (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42662	habitat	Stuart, C., FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	Rocky outcrops or koppies that provide sufficient cracks and holes for shelter (Coret and Hanks 1968; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
42662	population	Stuart, C., FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	This species is locally common throughout its range.	eng
42662	threats	Stuart, C., FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
42663	conservation	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Hutterer, R. & Cuzin, F., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42663	distribution	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Hutterer, R. & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species is found only in north-western Africa, in Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia and western Libya (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
42663	habitat	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Hutterer, R. & Cuzin, F., 2008	This species occurs in Mediterranean and semi-desert areas, including high mountains (Corbet and Hanks 1968). It has been recorded to 2,750 m asl in the High Atlas (Cuzin and Séguignes 1990). Several aspects of the biology of this species were studied by Séguignes (1983, 1989).	eng
42663	population	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Hutterer, R. & Cuzin, F., 2008	In Morocco, the species is not uncommon, but no population data are available.	eng
42663	threats	Perrin, M., FitzGibbon, C., Stuart, C., Hutterer, R. & Cuzin, F., 2008	No major threats are known at present. Habitat destruction may be causing some localized declines; this is a major concern in Morocco and Algeria as human populations expand and large areas are degraded by livestock grazing.	eng
42664	conservation	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42664	distribution	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	Eastern Africa, where it is found from southern and eastern Ethiopia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, southern Sudan, north, central, and western Tanzania, through Somalia (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
42664	habitat	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	Dry woodlands and steppe areas (Corbet and Hanks 1968; Kingdon 1974).	eng
42664	population	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	Locally, numbers can be relatively large within the constraints of being monogamous (Rathbun 1979).	eng
42664	threats	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M. & Stuart, C., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
42666	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
42666	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Meriones shawi</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It is found throughout much of North Africa, ranging from the coast to as much as 500 km inland in northeastern Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt (it is present along the west side of the Nile).	eng
42666	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	This species is naturally associated with steppe habitat, although it ranges widely in cultivated fields. It increases rapidly in number during good periods of rain. It is a recognised reservoir for leishmaniasis.	eng
42666	population	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	This species can be very abundant locally. In some areas it is so common that it is considered to be a crop pest.	eng
42666	threats	Aulagnier, S., Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N. & Mitsain, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42668	conservation	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It occurs in Lorentz National Park.	eng
42668	distribution	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is restricted to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from Mount Wilhelmina in the west to Mount Kaindi in the east (Flannery 1995). It is found from 1,900 to 4,100 m asl.	eng
42668	habitat	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species has been recorded from moss forest, and alpine grassland and heaths above the tree-line (Flannery 1995). Animals live in burrow systems within the forest and heathland.	eng
42668	population	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is common at some localities.	eng
42668	threats	Aplin, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as much of its range is at too high an elevation to be impacted by human disturbance. In some areas there is localised burning of alpine scrub during general hunting expeditions. Populations of the species may be locally affected by this habitat disturbance.	eng
42670	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place and it is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. Further research is needed into population numbers, range and potential conservation measures.	eng
42670	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is widespread in Central Africa and East Africa with outlying populations in West Africa. It is a montane species occurring up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
42670	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is found in the southern part of the Guinean Savanna Zone, especially in the rainforest-savanna mosaic. The species is associated with moist, tall grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs. This species has also been recorded from clear-cut areas at the edge of rainforest.	eng
42670	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Although this species is usually considered to be a rare species, it has been found to be very abundant in some localities.	eng
42670	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It has been recorded from modified habitats, but further studies are needed on its persistence in these environments.	eng
42673	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42673	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Bushy-tailed woodrats occur from the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories (Canada) south to Arizona and New Mexico and from California east to the Black Hills, South Dakota and the Badlands of the upper Missouri River drainage area of South Dakota and Nebraska in the United States.	eng
42673	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is found from alpine to Sonoran life zones. Inhabits mountains, cliffs, talus slopes, caves, and rock outcrops, both in forests and open deserts; also found in abandoned buildings and mine shafts. Young are born in nests within den built of sticks among rocks or in old building/mine shafts. Breeding peaks in spring. Gestation lasts about five weeks. Up to 2-three litters per year. Litter size is about 3-4. Births occur April-August in California. Young males disperse by 2.5 months, many females breed in natal area. Commonly one adult male with 1-3 adult females (Escherich 1981).<br/><br/>Most individuals occupy separate dens. Male may exclude other males from small rock outcrop inhabited by multiple females (Escherich 1981). Home range size in Alberta averaged 6.1 ha for males, 3.6 ha for females, much larger than for other woodrat species.<br/><br/>These woodrats feed on a variety of vegetation; twigs, shoots, leaves, needles, fruit, and seeds. They may store food. They are active throughout the year. Primarily nocturnal but may be seen during the day.	eng
42673	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Density varies seasonally and annually, and seems to depend upon the density of suitable den sites. Average population density is about one per 20 acres (Banfield 1974).	eng
42673	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42674	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern, and its range includes many protected areas.	eng
42674	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in the southeastern United States, from southeastern Missouri to West Virginia and southern Virginia, south to eastern Texas, Gulf coast, and central Florida.	eng
42674	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Golden mice prefer moist thickets, forests and field borders. They generally use early and mid-successional habitats with thickets and vines, they may range short distances into adjacent fields with sparse red cedars and may cross dirt roads (Morzillo <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>Golden mice build nests and feeding platforms on the ground and above ground in the understorey. Young are born in nests that usually are a few inches to 15 ft above ground in bushes and vines. In south-central Florida, nearly all daytime refuges were on the ground under leaf litter; a few were aboveground in shrubs (Frank and Layne 1992). They breed April-October. Gestation lasts 25-30 days. Females produce several litters of 1-4 (average 2-3) young per year.<br/><br/>They are gregarious and live in loose communities. Average home range is less than an acre. In Illinois, home range size of radio-collared individuals was less than three per hectare (average about 1.3 ha or less, depending on the sex and calculation method) (Morzillo <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Diet includes seeds, nuts, and insects, they also forage in trees. Primarily nocturnal and crepuscular. Peak activity is 3-4 hours before dawn.	eng
42674	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure throughout most of its range (NatureServe). Density ranges from 0.5 - 74.1/ha, although peak densities of 5-9/ha are more typical.	eng
42674	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
42675	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. The subspecies in the Florida keys may be of conservation concern.	eng
42675	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from eastern Texas to southeastern Kansas, east to southern New Jersey/Delaware and Florida (Honacki <em>et al.</em> 1982). The previously recognized species <em>O. argentatus</em>, is now included in <em>O. palustris</em>, and is known to occur on nine islands in the lower Florida Keys and probably occurs on several others (Goodyear 1992).	eng
42675	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It prefers saltwater and freshwater marshes (semi-aquatic). It may also be found in swamps and moist meadows. Uplands bordering wetlands may be important as refuges during high tides (Kruchek 2004). Able to move between adjacent islands by swimming across salt water; in Virginia, ten movements between two islands separated by 50 m and one movement between two islands separated by 300 m were documented (Forys and Dueser 1993). Nests are placed in grassy vegetation under debris, or woven in aquatic emergents a foot or more above the high water line.<br/><br/>Breeding may occur throughout the year, particularly early spring. Gestation lasts 21-28 days. Litter size is 4-6 (range 1-7). Several litters per year, up to six are known. Young are weaned within two weeks.<br/><br/>The average home range is one acre (Negus <em>et al.</em> 1961). This species is an effective disperser over water and a good colonizer of barrier islands (Loxterman <em>et al</em>. 1998). Diet includes rice and seeds of herbaceous plants. When available (in season), arthropods make up 75% of the diet (Negus <em>et al</em>. 1961). It is primarily nocturnal.	eng
42675	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure in its range (NatureServe). Reported densities range from about 4/ha in a Texas coastal prairie to >50/ha in the Florida Everglades.	eng
42675	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42678	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
42678	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from southeastern United States, from Maryland and southern Ohio south through all but the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, and west to Oklahoma and eastern Texas. Hopper (1943, cited in Stalling, 1997) suggests that the geographic range of the Eastern Field Mouse has expanded in recent history due to the clearing of forests by humans and the expansion of agriculture, providing greater amounts of suitable habitat.	eng
42678	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Eastern harvest mice are found in open grassy areas, especially abandoned agricultural fields, prairie, brier patches, wet meadows, and marshlands. They require substantial ground cover and are seldom found in forested situations. They climb among herbaceous vegetation. Nests are placed in tangled vegetation under debris or above ground. They breed nearly year round, peaks in birth rates occur in spring and fall, with females producing an average of four young per litter (Schmidly 1999). Gestation lasts 21-22 days. They are sexually mature in two to four months. The home range is probably less than 0.4 ha. In Virginia, maximum observed density was 44/ha in winter. The diet includes seeds of weeds and grasses, and insects. They are primarily nocturnal. Mean lifespan is 9.5 weeks (Cawthorn and Rose 1989).	eng
42678	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The eastern harvest mouse is common throughout its range.	eng
42678	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
42679	conservation	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M., Stuart, C. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas.	eng
42679	distribution	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M., Stuart, C. & Smit, H., 2008	This species is present in DR Congo, Tanzania (including Mafia and Zanzibar), south-eastern Kenya, Rwanda, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, south-eastern Zimbabwe, north-eastern Angola, and north-eastern South Africa (Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal provinces). Although some generalized distribution maps for this species show the northern form, <em>P. t. tordayi</em>, crossing the Ubangi or Congo rivers into Congo, there is no indication that it actually occurs north of these rivers (Corbet and Neal 1965; Corbet and Hanks 1968). Although <em>P. t. tetradactylus</em> has been reported from the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, apparently there are no confirmed records.	eng
42679	habitat	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M., Stuart, C. & Smit, H., 2008	Forest, dense woodlands, and thickets (Jennings and Rathbun 2001), where animals probably form monogamous pairs (FitzGibbon 1995).	eng
42679	population	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M., Stuart, C. & Smit, H., 2008	Although widespread, the species is only locally common.	eng
42679	threats	FitzGibbon, C., Perrin, M., Stuart, C. & Smit, H., 2008	There are no major threats. In coastal Kenya, FitzGibbon <em>et al</em>. (1995) estimated that the subsistence take for food is sustainable.	eng
42680	conservation	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	In Canada, mountain goat habitat, along with more than 3,500 goats, are protected in eight National Parks (Banff, Glacier, Jasper, Kootenay, Nahanni, Revelstoke, Waterton and Yoho), Kluane National Park Reserve, and in Kluane Wildlife Sanctuary. Numerous provincial parks and wildlife reserves throughout western and northern Canada provide additional varying levels of protection. Limited hunting by aboriginal people is permitted in some northern national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and licensed hunting is permitted in many provincial parks. Outside protected areas, goats are legally hunted under strict controls issued by provincial or territorial government agencies. Harvests are set annually for each population. In British Columbia for example, harvest rates vary between populations and range from 0.4 to 9% (Hebert and Smith, 1986), with an average of 1,100 to 1,200 goats shot by resident and non-residents each year in the Province. In Yukon, by contrast, harvests are much lower, varying between three and 15 animals per year, with the aboriginal harvest estimated to be zero. Transplants have been used to re-introduce mountain goats into many areas of its former range. Habitat management continues to play a key role in its conservation, and developments are subject to environmental screening processes on public land. Conservation measures proposed for Canada: 1) Determine the species’ requirements for mature forests on steep slopes in coastal mountain ranges that are used as winter habitat in British Columbia (Hebert and Turnbull, 1977; Fox <em>et al</em>., 1989). Several coastal populations will be affected by current and future timber harvest operations. Ideally, much or most of this habitat should be preserved. 2) Obtain more accurate population inventories in all regions of Canada to allow more detailed management plans to be developed.<br/><br/>In the United States, primary conservation measures have included habitat protection, introductions and re-introductions, and harvest regulation. Eight state wildlife management departments have transplanted mountain goats from native ranges in Canada and the United States. Six of these states did not have indigenous populations. Many transplanted populations were established with only 10 to 15 founder animals. Goats are harvested in nine states under conservative regulations of the wildlife departments which monitor populations. The mountain goat occurs in nine federal protected areas: Alaska: Glacier Bay, Kenai Fjords, and Wrangell - St. Elias National Parks; and Kenai National Wildlife Refuge; Montana: Bison Range National Wildlife Refuge; Glacier National Park; South Dakota: Mount Rushmore National Monument; Washington: North Cascades, and Mount Rainier National Parks. However, most herds are in national forests including many wilderness areas). The International Order of Rocky Mountain Goats, a private organization, raises funds for research and management of the species. One state, Colorado, uses two hunting licenses in an auction and a raffle to raise funds for these activities.	eng
42680	distribution	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	This species is found in southeast Alaska (USA), south Yukon and southwest Northwest Territories (Canada) to north-central Oregon, central Idaho, and Montana (USA). It has been introduced to Kodiak, Chichagof, and Baranof Islands (Alaska), Olympic Peninsula (Washington), central Montana, Black Hills (South Dakota), and to Colorado, Utah and northeastern Nevada (USA) (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>In Canada, mountain goats inhabit all major mountain ranges from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, west to the Coastal Range of British Columbia, and north into the St. Elias, Coast, Cassiar, Logan and Selwyn Ranges of Yukon; and the Mackenzie Mountains of the Northwest Territories. In Alaska, the mountain goat is generally continuously distributed along the mountains extending up the west coast to Prince William Sound and the Kenai Peninsula. Its also occurs in the southern Wrangell and Talkeetna Mountains and the northern Chugach Mountains. Goat populations have been established through transplants on Baranof and Kodiak Islands. In the contiguous states, it is found in a relatively continuous distribution across several large mountain ranges in Washington, Idaho and Montana. Mountain goats are also discontinuously distributed to the east and south of this area, where many herds have been established by transplanting animals. In Alaska and Washington, separate herds are not always distinguished.	eng
42680	habitat	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	Most mountain goats occur in high altitude habitats, up to the limit of vegetation. Although they sometimes descend to sea level in coastal areas, they are primarily an alpine and sub-alpine species. Throughout the year, the animals usually stay above the timberline, but they will migrate seasonally to higher or lower elevations within that range. Summertime migrations to low-elevation mineral licks often take them several or more kilometers through forested areas. This species is most active during the early morning and late evening, and grazing sometimes continues throughout the night. Their diet includes grasses, herbs, sedges, ferns, moss, lichen, twigs, and leaves from the low-growing shrubs and conifers of their high-altitude habitat. Their main predators are cougars, wolves and brown bears. The species lives in groups that can vary from a few to a hundred, and during the winter months, groups generally coalesce to form large herds. The gestation length is approximately 180 days, with a single birth typically, although twins are common in introduced populations. The age of primiparity varies from 2 to 5 years among populations. Male mortality is much higher than female mortality and very few males live longer than 10 years. Very few females survive more than 16 years (Festa-Bianchet and Côté, 2008).	eng
42680	population	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	The total population in Canada is approximately 58,000 individuals, but could range from 44,000 to 72,000, distributed as follows: Alberta 2,750; British Columbia 39,000-67,000; Northwest Territories 1,000; and Yukon 1,400. Recent total estimates in the United States are 36,000 to 47,000 individuals, with more than 12,000 animals in the contiguous states, and 24,000 to over than 33,000 in Alaska.	eng
42680	threats	Festa-Bianchet, M., 2008	These animals are largely protected from threats due to the inaccessible nature of their habitat. The species is hunted, but there are regulations in both of its range states that have stabilized past declines. Mountain goats are more sensitive to human disturbance than most other ungulates, and are particularly sensitive to harassment from aircraft. Increasing aircraft use for industrial and recreational purposes on mountain goat habitat is a major concern for their conservation.	eng
42683	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forests and streams by state management.	eng
42683	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Endemic to the island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
42683	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Headwaters and midreaches of rocky upland streams.	eng
42683	population	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Current population size is unknown, but probably exceeds 1,000 individuals.	eng
42683	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Degredation of watershed by feral ungulates; introduced poeciliid fishes.	eng
42684	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
42684	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Restricted to Japan and Taiwan. In Japan occurs on the islands of Ishigaki-jima and Iriomote-jima island (Sakishima islands, Ryukyu archipelago, Okinawa Prefecture Japan). Recently reported from Taiwan.	eng
42684	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits mountain streams, usually situated in the virgin subtropical forest.	eng
42684	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
42684	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Potential danger by the development of the mountain zone, recent drought appears to have given damage to some stream species (perhaps by global warming).	eng
42685	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to five states in the United States. The species is known from 10 counties in these states.	eng
42685	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Small, second order streams, partly wooded (Tennessen <em>et al</em>. 1995), and spring-fed moderately flowing forest streams especially where they drain small ponds (Dunkle 2000).	eng
42685	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown, but with probably no more than 50 extant populations with less than 50 adults in each of these, the population size is likely to be fewer than 2,500. The population is likely to be declining due to habitat loss and degradation, but may possibly be stable: more data are required to be able to confirm.	eng
42685	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Part of one Tennessee stream is used as a fish hatchery; some streams are subject to agricultural pollution. Spring-fed habitats are subject to developmental usage and pollution.	eng
42686	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	No protection whatsoever in the three river stretches where it occurs.	eng
42686	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from five counties within the states of Oregon and Washington.	eng
42686	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Open rivers with mud and gravel among rocks (Dunkle 2002). Probably more stable in Oregon than in Washington.	eng
42686	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
42686	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Very limited known range. One of three known occurrences is a river in an arid agricultural area with many uses/impacts.	eng
42687	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Endemic to the United States. The species is known from 25 counties within the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.	eng
42687	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Medium-sized coastal streams and rivers with mud or sand bottoms.	eng
42687	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
42688	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	In Florida, large form probably occurs in The Nature Conservancy's Apalachicola Bluffs Sanctuary, smaller form has fair protection in Blackwater River State Forest and Pine Log State Forest.	eng
42688	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from 10 counties within the states of Alabama, Florida and Georgia.	eng
42688	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Clean, sand-bottomed streams.	eng
42688	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population is unknown.	eng
42688	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Development and forestry.	eng
42689	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Endemic to the United States. The species is known from 39 counties within the states of Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.	eng
42689	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Clean streams and rivers with sand or rock bottoms and silt deposits (Dunkle 2000).	eng
42691	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix emiliae</span>).<br/>This species is in need of further study to better understand the limits of its distribution range, its taxonomy relative to other <em>Mico</em>, and major threats.	eng
42691	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Cabrera (1957) described its distribution as the south of the state of Pará, possibly entering contiguous parts of the state of Mato Grosso. Ávila-Pires (1986) was more exact, indicating that it occurs south from the Rio Irirí (<em>C. a. argentata</em> occurring to the north—confirmed by Martins <em>et al</em>. 1988), at least as far south as the southern (left) margin of the Rio Peixoto de Azevedo, an eastern tributary of the Rio Teles Pires. Martins <em>et al.</em> (1988) recorded it on the left bank of the Rio Irirí, south from its mouth. The southern limits would evidently not be beyond the headwaters and upper Rio Paraguai, approximately 14º30'S, where <em>M. melanurus</em> has been registered for a number of localities (Hershkovitz 1977; Vivo 1985). Ávila-Pires (1986; see also Pimenta and Sillva Jr. 2005) suggested that the Rio Teles Pires marks the western limit of its range. Martins <em>et al.</em> (1988) indicated that <em>C. emiliae</em> is limited to the west (left) bank of the lower Rio Irirí, with an undescribed <em>C. argentata</em> subspecies occurring between the Rios Irirí and Xingú. These authors also reported their belief that no marmoset occurs east of the Rio Xingú above the mouth of the Rio Irirí. The distribution of <em>C. emiliae</em> has been confused somewhat by its alignment with a similar, if slightly darker, form in the state of Rondônia by Vivo (1985), referred to here as <em>Mico</em> cf. <em>emiliae</em> (also discussed in the text on <em>M. melanurus</em>).	eng
42691	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	An inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest. Also mixed open forest and forest patches in savanna/bush savanna (Cerrado). <br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Weight 335 g. H&B 21.6 cm, TL 34.1 cm (n = 5) (Ferrari 2008).	eng
42691	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
42691	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Major threats to this species are unclear. The advance of the southern agricultural frontier, with the arc of forest destruction progressing north through northern Mato Grosso and southern Pará, may be a threat to this species. It is generally not hunted, although they may be found being used as pets.	eng
42692	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	A large part of its restricted range is covered by the Coatá-Laranjal Indigenous Area. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix saterei</span>).	eng
42692	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	<em>M. saterei</em> occurs in the interfluvium of the Rios Abacaxis (in the east) and Canumã-Sucunduri (in the west), right bank tributaries of the Rio Madeira. <em>M. acariensis</em> occurs on the opposite (left) bank of the Canumã-Sucundurí, and <em>M. mauesi</em> on the opposite (right) bank of the Rio Abacaxis (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).	eng
42692	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	Primary, secondary, and disturbed terra firme forest and igapó (black-water inundated forest) (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Weight 400-470 g, H&B 19.5-23.0 cm, TL 34.0-36.0 cm (n = 3) (Siva Jr and Noronha 1998; Ferrari 2008).	eng
42692	population	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	There is no information on population size or densities.	eng
42692	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	At present, there are no known major threats to the species. Silva Jr. and Noronha (1998) reported that is apparently common in the most degraded area of its range, the lands immediately adjacent to the right bank of the lower Rio Canumã and Paraná Urariá and the left bank of the lower Rio Abacaxis, where the primary terra firme and igapó forests are almost all modified to <em>capoeiras</em> (second growth) at various stages of succession. It is not hunted, although there is some use as pets (Silva Jr. and Noronha 1998).	eng
42694	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Gurupí Biological Reserve (341,650 ha), Tapirapé Biological Reserve (103,000 ha), and Caxiuanã Nationla Forest (200,000 ha). It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
42694	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Black-handed Tamarin occurs in the state of Pará, Brazil, south of the Rio Amazonas, east of the Rio Xingú and Rio Fresco, to the lower Rio Araguaia, south as far as the region of Santana de Araguaia (Napier 1976; Hershkovitz 1977). Hershkovitz (1977) limited it to the left bank of the Rio Gurupí, but Johns (1986) censused <em>S. niger</em> in the Gurupí Forest Reserve on the right bank of the river. It in fact extends to the east of the Rio Mearim, occurring as such in the interfluvium of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru, in the state of Maranhão, but the exact eastern limit is not known (Ferrari and Lopes 1990, 1996; J. S. Silva Jr. pers. comm, 2008). <em>Callithrix jacchus</em> occurs along the west (left) bank of the Rio Parnaíba, east of the Rio Itapecuru. The southernmost locality registered by Hershkovitz (1977) is Gradaús, Rio Fresco. <em>S. niger</em> also occurs in the western, forested two-thirds of the Island of Marajó in the Rio Amazonas estuary (Ferrari and Lopes 1996).	eng
42694	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The Black-handed Tamarin occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, pre-montane forest on the Brazilian Sheild, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988; Lopes and Ferari 1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Veracini (2002) has studied the diet and feeding behavior of <em>Saguinus niger</em> at the Ferreira Pena Research Station at Caxiuanã, Pará. Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species is a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. One <em>Saguinus niger</em> group studied by Veracini (2002) was found defend a home ranges of 35 ha (Palacios <em>et al</em>. 2004). Mottled-face Tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult male H&B 23.5 cm, TL 37.6 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Adult female H&B 22.8 cm, TL 37.8 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
42694	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Ferrari and Lopes (1996) estimated population densities of <em>S. niger</em> at four localities:<br/><br/>Tailândia: 10.4 individiuals/km (heavily hunted)<br/>Rio Capim: 23.3 individuals/km²<br/>Irituia: 19.0 individuals/km²<br/>Gurupi Biological Reserve: 12.7 individuals/km².	eng
42694	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The range of this species overlaps one of the fastest developing regions in the Brazilian Amazon. The current destruction of the Gurupí Biological Reserve exemplifies the devastation occurring in the region.	eng
42695	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Subirá, R., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I and on the US Endangered Species List.<br/><br/><em>Saguinus m. martinsi</em> may occur in the Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve (385,000 ha). Oliveira <em>et al.</em> (2004) recorded it in the Saracá-Taquera National Forest (429,600 ha) on the right (west) bank of the Rio Trombetas.<br/><em>Saguinus m. ochraceus</em> probably occurs in the Nhamundá State Park (28,370 ha) and the Nhamundá State Environment Protection Area (195,900 ha), Amazonas.<br/><br/>There are no captive-breeding programmes for either subspecies.	eng
42695	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Subirá, R., 2008	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1966), <em>S. m. martinsi</em> occurs between the Rio Nhamundá (left bank), east to the Rio Erepecurú, north of the Rio Amazonas. It would appear that the mouth of the Rio Trombetas marks the northern limit, but Ávila-Pires (1974) extends the distribution north-east to the upper Rio Erepecurú. The northernmost record is Cachoeira Porteira on the Rio Trombetas (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/><em>Saguinus m. ochraceus </em>is believed to occur on the west bank of the Rio Nhamundá, possibly extending west to the Rio Uatumã, north of the Rio Amazonas (Hershkovitz 1966). The northern limit to its range mighty be the left  bank of the Rio Alalaú (Rylands <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
42695	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Subirá, R., 2008	This species occurs in lowland tropical primary and secondary forest with a dense understorey.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8.  <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult <em>S. m. ochraceus</em>: H&B 24.7 cm, TL 39.5 cm (Hershkovitz 1977)<br/>Adult <em>S. m. martinsi</em>: H&B 20.8 cm, TL 36.6 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
42695	population	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Subirá, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population density of this species.	eng
42695	threats	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Subirá, R., 2008	This species is probably not under any immediate threat. However, there is bauxite mining in the lower Trombetas region which is causing localized forest loss and degradation.	eng
42696	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A., Stevenson, P., Palacios, E. & de la Torre, S., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/><br/>Manuripi-Heath Wildlife Reserve (1,000,000 ha) (within range)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Serra do Divisor National Park (846,408 ha) (Calouro 1999)<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (within range but possibly scarce or even absent, Defler [2004])<br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500h) (INDERENA, 1989) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989)<br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (306,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989)<br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (INDERENA 1989) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Palanco-Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 1999; within range Defler 2004)<br/>Serranía de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Struhsaker and Leland 1977; within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Puinawai Natural National Reserve (1,092,500 ha) (within range, Defler [2004])<br/>Tinigua National Park (201,875 ha)<br/>Pure National Park (1,000,000 ha)<br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Yasuní National Park (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru<br/>Manu National Park (1,532,806 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Tingo Maria National Park (18,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (2,080,000 ha) (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/>Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Communal Reserve (Aquino and Encarnación 1994)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Manuripi-Heath Wildlife Reserve (1,000,000 ha) (in range)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
42696	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A., Stevenson, P., Palacios, E. & de la Torre, S., 2008	We are following here the taxonomy and proposed distributions of Silva Jr (2001). The taxonomic arrangement proposed by Groves (2001) was discussed by Rylands <em>et al.</em> (2005), especially in relation to the work of Torres de Assumpção (1983). It was not possible to delimit the ranges of the subspecies he recognized, but those of the species were mapped in Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. (2004).<br/><br/>The range of <em>Cebus macocephalus</em> described here includes those of the following taxa recognized by Groves (2001): <em>C. apella fatuellus</em> (Linnaeus, 1766) from Colombia, <em>C. a. peruanus</em> Thomas, 1901 from Peru; 1939, <em>C. libidinosus juruanus</em> Lönnberg, 1939 (in part) from the upper Rio Juruá. <em>Cebus apella maranonis</em> Von Pusch, 1941, recognized by Aquino and Encarnación (1994), is considered by Silva Jr. (2001) to be a junior synonym of <em>C. macrocephalus</em>, and by Groves (2001) to be a junior synonym of <em>C. a . peruanus</em>. <br/><br/>For Colombia, Defler (2004) described its range as follows: the entire Colombian Amazon, and all of the piedmont forest at least to 1,300 m above sea level, east of the Cordilleras, with the exception of some eastern areas such eastern Vichada and upper Cahuinari. It is also absent from much of the Colombian trapezium. <em>C. macrocephalus</em> (which he referred to as <em>C. apella</em>) is found also in upper valley of the Río Magdalena in Huila, up to 2,700 m above sea level (in the region of San Agustín) and the region of Tierradentro in Cacua to elevations of about 2,500 m (close to Inzá). Following Silva Jr. (2001), <em>C. macrocephalus</em> extends east to the Río Orinoco (<em>C. apella</em> is the form in the Venezuelan Amazon), occurring along the right bank of the Rio Negro to approximately São Gabriel Cachoeira where it is range is then delimited by a line approximately SSE across the Negro-Solimões interfluvium to the region of Coarí (on the Solimões) and then extending across the basin of the Rio Purus to the junction of the Ríos Madre Dios and Guaporé. From there its southern range is delimited by the Madre de Dios in Bolivia (<em>C. apella</em> occurs to the south of the Madre de Dios) west into Peru. Following Aquino and Encarnación (1994) its range then takes on all of the Peruvian Amazon north of the Rio Madre de Dios, but extending across the river to the south beyond the mouth of the Río Inambari (a southern tributary of the Madre de Dios). In Peru, <em>C. macrocephalus</em> (<em>sensu</em> Silva Jr, 2001) has been recorded at altitudes up to 1,800 m above sea level (Aquino and Encarnación 1994).	eng
42696	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A., Stevenson, P., Palacios, E. & de la Torre, S., 2008	An inhabitant of nearly all types of Amazonian lowland and submontane forest, especially palm-dominated forest (Fresse and Oppenheimer 1981; Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Defler (2004) observed that it occurs in a wide range of habitats in Colombia. From deciduous gallery forest of the Llanos Orientales to humid evergreen forest as well as secondary growth. Unlike <em>Cebus albifrons</em>, they are averse to flooded forest. Defler (1985) found that while <em>C. macrocephalus</em> chooses more mesic environments in semi-deciduous forests of the Llanos orientales, <em>C. albifrons</em> uses more the thorny <em>Bactris</em> palm forest on dry sandy stream beds. In some parts of Colombia they are serious agricultural pests, feeding on corn (hence the name <em>maicero</em>), sugar cane, cacao and other fruit trees. In Ecuador it is fond in humid lowland and submontane forests (Tirira 2007).<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Struhsaker and Leland 1977; Izawa 1979). Largely sympatric with the untufted capuchins, <em>C. albifrons</em>. The species differ most markedly in their diet through their use of palm fruits (Terborgh 1983; Spironello 1991, 2001). Mean group size for <em>Cebus apella</em> is 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). A poorly-defined birth season in Peru is from October to June (Aquino and Encarnación 1994). Groups spend much time associating with squirrel monkeys (<em>Saimiri</em>) groups. Janson (1984, 1985a,b, 1990a,b) carried out a field study of the feeding ecology and behaviour of this species in Manu National Park, Peru.<br/><br/>Size: Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).	eng
42696	population	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A., Stevenson, P., Palacios, E. & de la Torre, S., 2008	In Tinigua National Park, Stevenson <em>et al</em>. (1992) recorded a density of 16 individuals/km² and, later Stevenson (2007) estimated a density of 27 individuals/km² (Stevenson 2007).  <br/><br/>Freese (1975, 1977) estimated the population density in the Manu National Park to be 36 individuals/km², and similar densities (40 individuals/km²) were found by Terborgh (1983; Terborgh and Janson 1985; Janson 1985a,b).<br/><br/>Further population densities estimates have been published as follows:<br/>Gallery forest in El Tuparro National Park, Colombia - 15-17 individuals/km² (Defler and Pintor 1985)<br/>Pacaya-Samiria, Peru - 8-10 individuals/km² (Soini 1986)<br/>Estación Biológica de Caparú, Colombia - 8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004)<br/>Río Puré, Colombia - 5.8 individuals/km² (Defler 2004)<br/>Samiria basin, Peru - 24 individuals/km² (Freese 1975, 1977)	eng
42696	threats	Rylands, A.B., Boubli, J.-P., Mittermeier, R.A., Stevenson, P., Palacios, E. & de la Torre, S., 2008	They are hunted everywhere they occur, and in Peru Aquino and Encarnación (1994) reported that hunting has led to its extirpation in areas around human settlements.	eng
42697	conservation	Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Occurs in the following protected areas in Brazil:<br/><br/>Espírito Santo<br/>Linhares Forest Reserve (21,787 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999, 2003)<br/>Sooretama Biological Reserve (27,943 ha) (Mendes 1991; Chiarello 1999, 2003)<br/><br/>Minas Gerais<br/>State Biological Reserve Mata dos Ausentes (490 ha) (Martins 2005)<br/>State Ecological Station Acauã (5,196 ha) (Martins 2005)<br/><br/>An International Committee for the Conservation and Management for the Atlantic forest capuchin monkeys, <em>Cebus xanthosternos</em> and <em>C. robustus</em>, was created in 1992 by the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) to promote field studies and organize a captive population from the numerous individuals kept as pets. It languished, but was resuscitated in 2002 (Santos and Lernould 1993; Baker and Kierulff 2002), and took in a Working Group created in 2003 for Barbara Brown’s Titi Monkey (<em>Callicebus barbarabrownae</em>) and Coimbra-Filho’s Titi Monkey (<em>C. coimbrai</em>) (both also occurring in north-eastern Brazil).<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
42697	distribution	Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Cebus robustus</em> occurs from the Rio Jequitinhonha in southern Bahia and northern Minas Gerais, south through Espírito Santo to the Rio Doce (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 1988; Oliver and Santos 1991). The westernmost locality is in the state of Minas Gerais is given by Pinto (1941), who collected specimens from the headwaters of the Rio Pissarão, in a mountainous region north of the Rio Piracicaba, not far from the town of Presidente Vargas. It is possible that the Serra do Espinhaço of Minas Gerais, running north-south and defining the transition from the Atlantic forest to bush savanna (cerrado) in the west, marks the western limits of the distribution of this form. Martins (2005) sruveyed the entire range of <em>Cebus robustus</em> and identfied the following range limits: North-east – Rio Jequitinhonha river in Bahia and Minas Gerais; North-west and west – Rio Jequitinhonha in Minas Gerais; South-west – Rio Suaçuí Grande and the Serra do Espinhaço; South-east – Rio Doce in Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Martins (2005) identified an area of intergradation with <em>Cebus nigritus</em> the rios Santo Antônio and Suaçuí Grande.	eng
42697	habitat	Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Tropical lowland and submontane forest in the Atlantic coast of Brazil. Arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). Also dry, semideciduous forests in the western part of its range in Minas Gerais.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals in their diet, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top-ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004). No field studies have been carried out examining particularly the behaviour and ecology of this species.	eng
42697	population	Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Chiarello (1999) obtained encounter rates of 2.47-0.6 sighting/10 km in seven sites in northern Espírito Santo, Brazil.	eng
42697	threats	Kierulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Atlantic forest in the states of Bahia (southern), eastern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, south of the Rio Jequitinhonha and north of the Rio Doce. They are hunted, and the forests within their range have been destroyed for coffee, eucalyptus and pine plantations (cotton in the 19th century), other agricultural crops, and for cattle pasture.	eng
42700	conservation	McCormack C. & Iglésias, S., 2007	Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
42700	distribution	McCormack C. & Iglésias, S., 2007	Northeast Atlantic: off France, Ireland and the British Isles (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004). Northwest Atlantic: off northern United States of America (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
42700	habitat	McCormack C. & Iglésias, S., 2007	Occurs on the slope at 512–1,520m but generally deeper than 1,000 m (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2004). Maximum recorded size is 76.1 cm total length (TL) (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2004). Size at maturity appeared to be smaller in females than males (whereas it is generally the opposite for sharks), however the species is known from relatively few specimens and more investigation is required to confirm the size at maturity (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2004). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other <em>Apristurus</em> species, but very little is known of the biology.	eng
42700	population	McCormack C. & Iglésias, S., 2007	A recently described species, known from 53 specimens.	eng
42700	threats	McCormack C. & Iglésias, S., 2007	An uncommon bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers (S. Iglésias pers. comm. 2007). Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough, have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). This species appears to be more abundant on the Rockall Bank, where fewer boats operate, than on the continental slope where the Flathead Catshark (<em>Apristurus laurussonii</em>) is more abundant (S. Iglésias pers. comm. 2007).The species is generally recorded deeper than 1,000 m and the depth range may extend deeper than currently known, offering some refuge from fishing pressure. Despite this, it is still poorly known and may share the limiting life-history characteristics of other deepwater sharks making it vulnerable to depletion. Therefore any expansion in deepwater fishing effort could negatively impact this species. Further information is required on deepwater fishing activities (including catch and bycatch levels, effort and trend monitoring) in the North Atlantic and the threat status of this species should be reassessed when such information is available. However, there is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic .	eng
42701	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42701	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp.D. in Last and Stevens (1994). Further research is required to resolve species problems in this genus. It is found at depths of 840 to 1,380 m and appears to extend further down the continental slope than most other <em>Apristurus</em> species.	eng
42701	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This deep-water catshark is the largest member of the genus found in Australia. It reaches at least 86 cm, with males maturing at about 67 cm. Biology is virtually unknown.	eng
42701	population	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There is no information on population size.	eng
42701	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The known distribution of this species includes some heavily fished areas, particularly off southern Australia. This species has not been recorded from the SETF, but this may be due to the similarity of this genus, resulting in all specimens being identified as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. A. These catsharks are possibly rare (T.I.Walker, pers.comm.). Off New Zealand, it is also likely to be affected by trawl fisheries, although as relatively little fishing occurs below 1,200 m depth some of the population occurs beyond fishing depths.	eng
42703	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42703	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. F. in Last and Stevens (1994) and is known from only three specimens. Further research is required to resolve species problems in this genus.	eng
42703	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This deep-water catshark reaches at least 73 cm. Its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
42703	population	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	There is no information on range or population size: known from only three specimens taken in 1,030 to 1,050 m depth.	eng
42703	threats	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	At the present time the effects of the fisheries operating in its very limited distribution area and depth are unknown. Future expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries could pose a threat to this species which may be rare or uncommon.	eng
42704	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42704	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This undescribed species is known as <em>Apristurus</em> sp. G in Last and Stevens (1994) and is represented in Australia by several populations which are distinct from each other and may be separate species. Their relationship to the similar western North Pacific catshark <em>Apristurus herklotsi</em>, has yet to be determined. Further research is required to resolve these taxonomic problems. <br/> <br/>This widely distributed deep-water catshark is found along the Australian continental slope at depths of 590 to 1,000 m.	eng
42704	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This catshark reaches at least 61 cm with males maturing at about 51 cm. Biology is virtually unknown.	eng
42704	population	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There is no information on population size.	eng
42704	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The wide distribution of this species includes some heavily fished areas, particularly off southeastern Australia by the South East Trawl Fishery (SETF) and South Tasman Rise Fishery, possibly the Great Australian Bight Trawl Fishery, and to a lesser extent off Western Australia.  This species has not been recorded from the SETF, but this may be due to the similarity of this genus, resulting in all specimens being identified as <em>Apristurus</em> sp A. These catsharks are possibly quite rare (T.I.Walker, pers. comm.). Deepwater demersal trawl fisheries are expanding in the region. However, a significant proportion of its range receives only minor or no fishing pressure.	eng
42706	conservation	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None. The species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history and bycatch levels.	eng
42706	distribution	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. A in Last and Stevens (1994). Range is uncertain. Southeastern Australia from Port Stephens (New South Wales) to at least Port Lincoln (South Australia), including Tasmania. Possibly found to western Great Australian Bight.	eng
42706	habitat	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. nov. A is a large stocky benthic catshark found on the upper continental slope in 240 to 550 m. It grows to at least 94 cm total length (TL), and males mature by 70 cm TL. This species is oviparous. Like other members of the genus, it is capable of swelling enormously by swallowing water or air. Very little is known of its biology.	eng
42706	population	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations.	eng
42706	threats	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	This bottom dwelling shark is susceptible to capture by trawlers and is a common component of trawl bycatch off southern Australia. This area is subject to intensive fishing efforts and without adequate knowledge of the biology of <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. nov. A it is not possible to determine accurately how this pressure is affecting populations. In comparative surveys of the South East Fishery trawl grounds from 1976-77 and 1996-97 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) the 1996-97 catch rate of this species was 68% of the 1976-77 rate, indicating a reduction in population size greater than 30%. However, this observed decline is only over about one third of the species known range. There is also evidence of a slight downward trend in population size in the South East Trawl Fishery Observer Program off southern Australia (T. Walker, pers. comm.). Catches of the species needs to be closely monitored in the future, given the intensity of trawling effort in its area of occurrence.	eng
42707	conservation	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None. The species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history.	eng
42707	distribution	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994). Range is uncertain. Found on the continental slope off northeastern Australia between Townsville and the Saumarez Reef. Possibly also on the Britannia Seamount (off Brisbane).	eng
42707	habitat	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	<em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. nov. B is a medium-sized elongate catshark found on the continental slope in 380 to 590 m. It grows to at least 70 cm total length (TL), and males mature at about 55 cm TL. This species is oviparous. Like other members of the genus, it is capable of swelling enormously by swallowing water or air. Very little is known of the biology of this species and more specimens are required for research.	eng
42707	population	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations.	eng
42707	threats	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The distribution and range for <em>Cepahaloscyllium</em> sp. nov. B is uncertain but appears to be confined to a small area, in which it is likely to be quite rare. Trawl fishing effort in its known distribution is minimal. However, any increase in trawl effort off the east coast of Australia in the future could pose a threat to this endemic species, as it is susceptible to being caught as trawl bycatch.	eng
42708	conservation	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None. The species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history and bycatch levels.	eng
42708	distribution	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. C in Last and Stevens (1994). Range is limited: found in the Southwest Pacific from Noosa (Queensland) to Woolongong (New South Wales).	eng
42708	habitat	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. C, a medium-sized, slender catshark found in depths of 90 to 140 m. This species is oviparous, attains a size of at least 65 cm total length (TL), and like other members of the genus, it is capable of swelling enormously by swallowing water or air. There is virtually no biological information for this species.	eng
42708	population	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations. Only a few specimens have been collected, although juvenile specimens and two egg cases collected from New South Wales are likely to belong to this species.	eng
42708	threats	Barratt, P.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Limited range and a lack of specimens indicate that this catshark is relatively rare, as the area and depth at which the specimens were collected is subject to intensive trawling by the Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery (New South Wales) and the East Coast Trawl Fishery (Queensland).	eng
42709	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	None. The species needs to be formally described and its distribution determined.	eng
42709	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Cephaloscyllium</em> sp. D by Last and Stevens (1994). Occurs in the Western Central Pacific. Known only from a few specimens taken near Flinders Reef Queensland, Australia. May be more widely distributed along the continental slope off northeastern Australia.	eng
42709	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Recorded from only a few specimens trawled on the continental slope off Flinders Reef, Queensland in 440 m, but may be more widely distributed on the continental slope off northeastern Australia. Maximum size at least 43 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
42709	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Population size unknown but may be rare.	eng
42709	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Area where few known specimens were collected receives little fishing effort. Species may be naturally rare, but no threats are apparent at present.	eng
42710	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	None. The species needs to be formally described and its distribution determined.	eng
42710	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Occurs in the Western Central Pacific and Eastern Indian in Australian waters. Known only from a few specimens taken off the Rowley Shoals, Western Australia and near Lihou Reef off Innisfail, Queensland. May be more widely distributed along the continental slope off northern Australia.	eng
42710	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Presently recorded from only a few specimens trawled on the continental slope off northwestern Australia in 390 to 440 m and off northeastern Australia in 600 to 700 m. May be more widely distributed geographically and bathymetrically on the continental slope off northern Australia. Maximum size at least 68 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at about 64 cm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
42710	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Areas where few known specimens were collected receive little fishing effort. Species may be naturally rare, but no threats are apparent at present.	eng
42711	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	None. Species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history.	eng
42711	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This species was designated as <em>Galeus</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994). Relationship between this species and <em>Galeus boardmani</em> from southern Australia needs to be assessed. <br/> <br/>Endemic to Australia. Recorded from off northeastern Australia (Queensland) between Rockhampton and Townsville. Distribution little understood, may be more widely distributed off northeastern Australia.	eng
42711	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Demersal on the continental slope in depths of 310 to 420 m. Maximum size at least 41 cm total length (TL). Males reported to mature at 38 cm TL. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
42711	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No information on populations. Limited range may form a single population.	eng
42711	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Little fishing effort in area of occurrence. No threats currently apparent.	eng
42712	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	This species is listed as Endangered on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, 1999. A Recovery Plan is currently being drafted and will be completed by mid 2003 (S. Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003). It is also listed as an Endangered species under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000, but no management program was in place as of June 2002 (Stirrat and Larson 2002).	eng
42712	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	This species was thought to be confined to the turbid freshwater and brackish (6?26 ppt) reaches of rivers (Larson 2000), but a recent specimen provisionally identified as this species was taken from a salinity of 38 ppt in Western Autralia (W. White, Murdoch University, pers. comm. March 2003). Further research is required on its habitat preferences. The ecology (i.e., critical habitat, salinity tolerances) and life history parameters (age and size at maturity for males and females, litter sizes, longevity) of this species are little known and need further investigation. The small eyes and slender teeth of <em>Glyphis</em> species suggest that they are primarily fish eaters adapted to living in turbid waters with poor visibility (Compagno 1984, Fowler 1997).	eng
42712	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size is unknown, but is suspected to be small based on current knowledge and their apparent rarity. The number and size of subpopulations is also unknown. All populations need to be preserved to maintain the genetic diversity within this species. Kakadu National Park (NT) is probably an important site for this species as it may be afforded more protection here than in other areas.	eng
42712	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	As with other species of the genus, <em>Glyphis</em> sp. C may be largely restricted to freshwater and brackish reaches of rivers. Some of the most threatened chondrichthyan species are those restricted to such habitats, and with naturally very small populations. In addition to all the biological constraints of the marine chondrichthyans, freshwater/brackish species are more seriously limited by threats (such as fisheries and habitat degradation) affecting their restricted populations than are more widely ranging marine species (Compagno 2002). <em>Glyphis</em> sp. C is likely to be threatened by both commercial and recreational fishing and possible habitat degradation. Commercial fishing may be in the form of gillnetting (legal or illegal) or longlining. Recreational fishing may be in the form of illegal gillnetting or hook and line fishing (using bait and/or lures). The potential impacts of fishing operations on this species need further investigation.	eng
42713	conservation	White, W.T., 2007	Species composition data from the northwest scampi fishery is necessary.	eng
42713	distribution	White, W.T., 2007	Northwestern Australia from Shark Bay to Northern Territory (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
42713	habitat	White, W.T., 2007	This species is known only from the continental shelf off Western Australia in 110–250 m of depth and attains 42 cm in length with males mature at 34 cm (White <em>et al</em>. 2007). One pregnant female contains six egg cases (three in each uteri), which contained small embryos.	eng
42713	population	White, W.T., 2007	Population size not known.	eng
42713	threats	White, W.T., 2007	A small trawl fishery based off the northwest shelf of Australia is the only fishery likely to catch this species, however, since small scyliorhinids are of little or no commercial value they would presumably be discarded (R. McAuley, pers. comm.). No information is available on post-discard survival. There is no evidence to suggest that this species is under threat from overfishing or by any other means. This species is not utilised commercially and would most likely not be incidentally caught by recreational fishers.	eng
42716	conservation	McAuley, R., 2003	The only known source of exploitation of <em>Mustelus</em> sp. B. is the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery. This is a limited entry fishery, where fishing effort is regulated by the use of unitized time-gear access. Shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26°30’S) in 1993. This is thought to offer a significant refuge for this species.	eng
42716	distribution	McAuley, R., 2003	Australian Endemic. Western and NW Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, McAuley, unpublished data) and Queensland. It is uncertain whether Eastern and Western forms are the same species. Known to occur between 120 m and 400 m depth.	eng
42716	habitat	McAuley, R., 2003	Little is known about the life history characteristics, however, females apparently mature at about 60 cm total length (TL) and grow to at least 103 cm (TL) in Western Australia. The Queensland form grows to 117 cm and possibly mature at in excess of 70 cm. Limited data indicate that this is likely to be a fairly productive species, with litter sizes of between 4 and 17.	eng
42716	threats	McAuley, R., 2003	Was a negligible component of the bycatch in the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery (McAuley, unpublished data), but is likely to have reduced since shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26º 30'S) and may no longer be caught by this fishery. Not targeted in Western Australia. It has not been recorded from the Pilbara Fish Trawl (PFT) fishery despite extensive sampling (Stephenson, and Chidlow, draft report). An irregular bycatch species in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (P. Kyne, pers. comm.).	eng
42717	conservation	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State?s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. hutchinsi</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery?s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery?s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30? S latitude to 120° E longitude off the north coast, which may include the northern extent of the species? range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/><br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA	eng
42717	distribution	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia from Coral Bay (23°08?S, 113°46?E) to Groper Bluff (34°30?S, 118°54?E) (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
42717	habitat	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Found on the continental shelf at depths of 0.1?106 m (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). The species reaches at least 149 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Male specimens were mature at 112 cm TL and female specimens at 110 cm TL. Females probably breed every two or three years and produce 18?29 young per litter after a gestation of 9?11 months, with parturition occurring between July and September (Chidlow 2003). Offspring are born at a size of 22?26 cm TL with an embryonic sex ratio that does not significantly differ from 1:1 (Chidlow 2003). <em>Orectolobus hutchinsi</em> are considered opportunistically-selective feeders that prefer a diet of demersal teleosts and octopi (Chidlow 2003).  <br/><br/>Von Bertalanffy growth parameters estimated from vertebral cross-sections and an assumed annual banding pattern were L = 149.45 and K = 0.117 year<sup>-1</sup>. Although the periodicity of vertebral band formation in captive animals did not support synchronous annual vertebral band deposition, captive growth rates matched those predicted with an annual band-deposition frequency (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
42717	population	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Unknown, but more frequently observed in gillnet and trawl bycatches than other smaller orectolobids (i.e., <em>O. floridus</em> and <em>O. parvimaculatus</em>).	eng
42717	threats	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	<em>Orectolobus hutchinsi</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets, off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs are also caught within the rock lobster (pot) fishery and some small demersal trawl fisheries. Wobbegongs were targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery?s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. Hutchinsi</em> is believed to be a small component of those aggregated catches with only large specimens being kept.<br/><br/>Small orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs generally cannot be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson, 1999). Although the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is unknown, it is suspected that the majority may be comprised of <em>O. hutchinsi</em>.	eng
42718	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Cavanagh, R.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.	eng
42718	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Cavanagh, R.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central Pacific: recorded from near the Saumarez Plateau, 22°56’S, 154°21’E, northeastern Australia (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
42718	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Cavanagh, R.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Recorded from 590–606 m depth. The only specimen, an adult female, measured 71 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007). Reproduction is oviparous.	eng
42718	population	Kyne, P.M., Cavanagh, R.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Known only from a single specimen.	eng
42718	threats	Kyne, P.M., Cavanagh, R.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Species may be rare and localised. Little fishing activity in area where single specimen was captured.	eng
42719	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42719	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This undescribed species is restricted to a confined region in southeastern Australia between Victoria (Lakes Entrance) and New South Wales (Coffs Harbour).	eng
42719	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Pristiophorus</em> sp. nov. A is found in depths ranging from 100 to 630 m. Females grow to at least 107 cm total length (TL), no males have been examined to date. The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
42719	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
42719	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species may be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries.  Its toothed snout makes it particularly susceptible to netting and trawling activities.	eng
42720	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42720	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is restricted to a confined region in northeastern Australia between Rockhampton and Cairns off the coast of Queensland.	eng
42720	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2003	<em>Pristiophorus</em> sp. nov. B is found in depths ranging from 300 to 400 m. This species grows to approximately 84 cm TL, with males maturing at about 62 cm total length (TL). The biology of this species is almost entirely unknown.	eng
42720	population	Heupel, M.R., 2003	Little is known about the population size in this range and no scientific data are currently available concerning the population size of this species.	eng
42720	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2003	This species is unlikely to be collected as bycatch in commercial fisheries since its distribution is outside fished areas.	eng
42721	conservation	McAuley, R., 2003	Turtle Exclusion Devices are unlikely to prevent capture in trawl nets due to their small size.	eng
42721	distribution	McAuley, R., 2003	Two sympatric forms, which differ in their colour patterns but with identical vertebral counts and shape (Last and Stevens 1994). Their relationship requires further study. Australian Endemic. North West Shelf and Kimberley regions of Western Australia. Distribution possibly wider than reported due to the limited number of surveys of elasmobranch fauna in the area.	eng
42721	habitat	McAuley, R., 2003	Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 56 cm total length (TL) but males mature at about 55 cm TL, suggesting a larger maximum size. Presumably reproduce ovoviviparously and likely to feed on benthic invertebrates.	eng
42721	threats	McAuley, R., 2003	Is a known discarded bycatch in the Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery (Stephenson and Chidlow, draft report). Occurs outside the geographic range of the major prawn trawl fishery in the area but it?s range might overlap if it is distributed further north than currently reported. If so, it is also likely to be discarded as it is of little commercial value and usually discarded alive.	eng
42722	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42722	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This medium-sized dogfish is known only from a few specimens collected off Queensland, Australia (from a depth range of 220 to 450 m).	eng
42722	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	The largest specimen caught was a 62 cm male. Biology is virtually unknown. This species is either rare or uncommon.	eng
42722	threats	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Any future development of deepsea trawl fisheries off the northeast coast of Australia could pose a threat to this species, as it would be susceptible to being caught as bycatch.	eng
42723	conservation	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42723	distribution	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994). Found on the upper continental slope at depths from 240 to 450 m. Eastern Australia, from the upper continental slope between the Queensland Plateau off Cairns, to the Bermagui area, southern New South Wales.  Range is currently uncertain.	eng
42723	habitat	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This medium-sized dogfish is either rare or uncommon, and its biology is virtually unknown. It attains at least 65 cm, the smallest mature male examined was 62 cm.	eng
42723	population	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No data are available on population size or subpopulations.	eng
42723	threats	Lisney, T.J. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	This species is not thought to be abundant off central and southern New South Wales (NSW), and their occasional capture in the NSW trawl fishery is unlikely to have much impact on the main population which is presumably to the north (K. Graham pers. comm.). Future development of deepsea trawl fisheries in this area could pose a threat, as it is susceptible to being caught as bycatch.	eng
42725	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42725	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. D in Last and Stevens (1994). Occurs on the upper continental slope off northwestern Australia, from Port Hedland to North West Cape, at depths of 180 to 210 m.	eng
42725	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. The maximum total length is about 56 cm, with males maturing at around 44 cm.	eng
42725	population	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.	eng
42725	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This species is known from a limited depth range of 180 to 210 m and on this basis is unlikely to be a significant component of the bycatch of the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fisheries since they operate at depths below 200 m. However, although it is likely that the distribution and range of this species is wider than is currently known, and it may occur well within the depth range of these fisheries, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.	eng
42726	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42726	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. E in Last and Stevens (1994). Known to occur on the continental slope off Western Australia at depths of 300 to 510 m.	eng
42726	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 300 to 510 m, and unlike most spurdogs, which occur in schools, appears to be solitary. It reaches at least 56 cm, with males maturing at around 50 cm.	eng
42726	population	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.	eng
42726	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The area and depth range at which this species is known to occur falls within the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fishery areas. However, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.	eng
42727	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42727	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	This species was known as <em>Squalus</em> sp. F in Last and Stevens (1994). Known to occur on the slope off Queensland, northeastern Australia, and also captured in trawls on the outer shelf and upper slope along the New South Wales coast.	eng
42727	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 120 to 500 m. Maximum total length of males is about 64 cm, and females 73 cm. Size at birth possibly about 22 cm; males mature by about 52 cm, and females about 63 cm. Litter sizes are usually between 3 and 5 pups (K Graham, pers. comm).	eng
42727	population	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.	eng
42727	threats	Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2003	Almost all trawlable ground on the slope off central and southern New South Wales is regularly fished maintaining continual fishing pressure on all species including <em>Squalus grahami</em>. A documented decline of approximately 97% of ?greeneye dogsharks? (comprising <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em> and <em>Squalus grahami</em>) between 1976/77 and 1996/97 between the Sydney area (central New South Wales (NSW)) and the Eden-Gabo Island area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) was reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas in 220 to 605 m (i.e., much of the known depth range of the two species) declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97. In 1976/77 the two species were caught in approximately equal numbers off Sydney and Ulladulla, thus it is a fair assumption that the decline was roughly equal for both species in these areas. The 1976/77 Eden data suggested 75% or more of the greeneye dogshark catch in the southern area comprised <em>S. mitsukurii</em> and thus a relatively small proportion of <em>Squalus grahami</em>. However, in 1996 to 1997 no <em>Squalus grahami</em> were caught off Eden-Gabo Island suggesting that trawling to the north may be preventing recruitment of the species into southern NSW.  <br/> <br/>More than half of the known distribution of this species falls within the area of The Coral Sea Fishery (a Commonwealth managed fishery). This is a very small fishery, with only two operators in the trawl sector with extremely low effort, thus threats to this species from fishing activity in this area are thought to be minimal.	eng
42728	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	None. Species needs to be formally described and research conducted into life history.	eng
42728	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	One of two undescribed endemic Australian Squatina species. The western angel shark, referred to as <em>Squatina</em> sp. B in Last and Stevens (1994), is restricted to the west coast of Australia, while the eastern angel shark, <em>Squatina</em> sp. A in Last and Stevens (1994), is restricted to the east coast of Australia.	eng
42728	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	Demersal on the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 150 to 310 m. Maximum size at least 64 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology. This species presumably displays aplacental yolksac viviparity, as does other Squatina species. Litter size, gestation period, reproductive periodicity and age and growth parameters are unknown. However, other squatinid species have a long gestation period, for example 6 to 12 months in <em>S. tergocellata</em> (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998) and 10 months in <em>S. californica</em> (Natanson and Cailliet 1986). Parturition may be biennial as in <em>S. tergocellata</em> (Bridge <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
42728	population	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	No available information on populations.	eng
42728	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2003	<em>Squatina</em> sp. B is presently of no commercial value. Angel sharks are generally not susceptible to line or mesh fishing, but are highly susceptible to trawling (Terry Walker, personal communication). Western Australian state fisheries occurring off northwestern Western Australia (north coast shark fishery, Pilbara Fish Trawl Fishery) do not encounter this species as they generally fish at depths of <100 m (Rory McAuley, personal communication). The Australian Commonwealth managed North West Slope Trawl Fishery operates at depths of >200 m and is likely to encounter <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. B. However, this fishery is small (presently about four boats) and so is unlikely to impact upon the species.  Given the apparent ‘slow’ life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other species (Holts 1988, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001) any catches (including discards) of <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. B should be monitored in the future to ensure any increased fishing effort does not adversely affect the species.	eng
42729	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, there are large areas that are not trawled in the northern part of its range.	eng
42729	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	This species has been recorded from the Cairns region (Queensland) southwards to Lakes Entrance (Victoria).	eng
42729	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Last and Stevens (1994) reported the habitat as outer continental shelf and upper slope in 130 to 315 m depth, but occasionally this species enters waters as shallow as 60 m depth (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1995, Australian Museum Collection Records identified by J.J. Pogonoski Feb 2003). This species, like its southern relative is presumably a demersal carnivore feeding on fish and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Although Last and Stevens (1994) reported maximum size to be at least 63 cm, Graham <em>et al</em>. (1995) and Graham (1999) reported maximum female size as at least 130 cm and 20 kg. Males attain a maximum size of at least 110 cm total length (TL) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997) and 8 kg (Graham 1999). Females mature at approx. 107 cm TL and males are mature by 91 cm TL (K. Graham, NSW Fisheries, pers. comm. Feb 2003). <br/> <br/>The minimum size of specimens collected in research vessel trawls off New South Wales was 30 cm (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is inferred that size at birth is probably approx. 30 cm.  <br/> <br/>Like <em>Squatina australis</em>, this species is presumably ovoviviparous with litters up to 20 young (Michael 2001), although there is no known specific data on litter sizes in the literature. Gestation period unknown but a similar species (<em>S. californica</em>) overseas has a gestation period of 10 months (Michael 2001).	eng
42729	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	There are no estimates of population size and although the number and size of subpopulations is unknown, large declines have occurred in the past 2 to 3 decades.	eng
42729	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Angel sharks are not very susceptible to line or mesh netting techniques, but are susceptible to trawling as they lay on the bottom (T.I. Walker pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/>Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) in south-eastern Australia between northern Victoria and central NSW continues to threaten its populations in the southern part of its range where it is thought to be more abundant. Graham <em>et al</em>. (1997) documented a 96% decline (32.6 kg/h in 1976-77 to 1.3 kg/h in 1996-97) in catches across all areas in fishery-independent trawl surveys from the Sydney area (central NSW) to the Eden / Gabo Island Area (southern NSW/Victoria border). In addition, significant reductions in the mean sizes of large <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. A were observed (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). This area only represents about a quarter of the total range of this species. The species is not (or rarely) harvested in the northern half of its range. Graham <em>et al.</em> (2001) noted that the present levels of trawling in the SETF and NSW Prawn Trawl Fishery were sufficient to keep the numbers of <em>Squatina</em> sp. nov. A comparatively low. <br/> <br/>The flesh of angel sharks is excellent eating and is marketed as angel shark, boneless fillets and monkfish (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
42730	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	None. The species may occur inside some marine protected in NSW waters, including the Solitary Island Marine Park and the Jervis Bay Marine Park.	eng
42730	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Undescribed species referred to as <em>Urolophus</em> sp. A by Last and Stevens (1994). Endemic to the Western South Pacific on the east coast of Australia. Last and Stevens (1994) report the species from off Yamba to Jervis Bay, New South Wales. However, recently captured off southeastern Queensland, extending the northern range of the species (Kyne, unpublished data).	eng
42730	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Inshore demersal in depths of 18 to 85 m. Maximum size at least 45 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at about 28 cm TL. Viviparous most commonly with one embryo in each uterus (Kyne, unpublished data). Little else known of its biology.	eng
42730	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	No information on populations.	eng
42730	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	<em>Urolophus</em> sp. nov. A is a common component of the bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF) (eastern king prawn sector) where it is often caught in small aggregations. It is also taken in the New South Wales Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery. Off the Clarence River and Newcastle, it is more regularly captured in waters between 9?56 m than deeper waters where catch rates where considerably lower (Graham and Wood 1997).  The implementation of Turtle Exclusion Devices in the Queensland ECTF does not appear to be reducing catches (unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Little is known of its biology. Embryos are often aborted from gravid females once landed. <br/> <br/>Urolophids are often captured in large numbers as bycatch in Australian trawl fisheries (for example, see Graham and Liggins 1995). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) report an overall decline of 66%  in the catch of urolophids on the continental slope off NSW between 1976-7 and 1996-7 has been reported, with a decline of 90.5% on one survey ground (Eden). Catch rates were not divided by species but comprised <em>U. bucculentus</em> (common), <em>U. viridis</em> (common), <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> (both less common). These data suggest that this group may be vulnerable to trawling activities.	eng
42731	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas.	eng
42731	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador.   Known from three subpopulations, found within the provinces of  Carchi and Esmeraldas.	eng
42731	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Elevational range 500–1,500 m	eng
42731	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42732	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42732	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador.  Found in the province of Loja.	eng
42732	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest.  Elevation range 1,000–1,500 m	eng
42732	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42733	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded as uncommon in the Jauneche private reserve.	eng
42733	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations distributed across the country.  Found in the provinces of  Esmeraldas, Guayas, Napo, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios.	eng
42733	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest.  Elevation range 0–500 m	eng
42733	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.  Its bark is used for heart diseases.	eng
42734	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42734	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador, this species is known from one collection in 1945, in the Nudo de Portete, between Tarqui and Girón rivers, Azuay province.  This species is unrepresented in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
42734	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A Shrub of Humid Andean vegetation with an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42734	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42735	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42735	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic to Ecuador, this species is known from six subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar and Loja.	eng
42735	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or shrub of mainly cloud forest.  Elevation range 1,600–3,000 m.	eng
42735	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42736	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but the second locale may be inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
42736	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from two Andean populations: one discovered in 1943 in the Río Chanchan canyon, 5 km from Huigra, and the other collected two years later between the Río Gamolotal and the Río Huigra on the road to Molleturo.  No recent records exist and no botanical specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
42736	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Low Andean Forest with an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42736	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42737	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42737	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic of Ecuador, this species is known from a single 1961 collection made near the Río Blanco, in the Carchí province.	eng
42737	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A small shrub of low andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42737	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42738	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
42738	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic of Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection in 1944.  The collection was made on the Sevilla de Oro-to-Méndez road, in the Río Negro and Chupianza valley, Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
42738	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A small shrub found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42738	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42739	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
42739	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from at least six collections in forests near the city of Guayaquil. Common in secondary forests in the Cordillera de Chongón Colonche and present in the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco.	eng
42739	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42739	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42740	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42740	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador. Known from a single collection in 1980 in the Río Pastaza valley, near the Río Negro, in Tungurahua province.	eng
42740	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of low andean forest.  Found at an elevation of 1,200 m.	eng
42740	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42741	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic of Ecuador, where it is known from two collections: one on the Baños-Mera road, 35 km from Baños along the Río Cashauco, in Tungurahua province, and the other from an unknown locale near Mera, in Pastaza province.	eng
42741	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A small shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42741	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42742	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three collections. Two of the collections are from Loja province, one on the Celica-Zapotillo road, 4 km beyond Pozul, and the other in the Alamor-Celica road, 2–3 km from the Alamor River. A third population was discovered by X. Cornejo in Cerro Azul, where it was uncommon along a creek in secondary forest.	eng
42742	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of low andean forest, found at an elevation range of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
42742	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42743	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42743	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations, one located 1–8 km north of Sevilla de Oro and the other near Pampa de Los Cedros, south of Cerro Chivo-Turco and along the tributary creeks of Río Palma.	eng
42743	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,150–2,700 m.	eng
42743	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42744	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42744	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic to Ecuador, known from five subpopulations in the east of the country.   Found in the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Zamora-Chinchipe and possibly Guayas.	eng
42744	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb that is found at an elevational range of 250–1,000 m.	eng
42744	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42745	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but the collection locale is very close to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42745	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic to Ecuador. Known from one recent collection on the Valladolid-Yangana road, in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
42745	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42745	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42746	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	The Capeira locale is now a suburb of Guayaquil, with a small reserve where the species may persist.	eng
42746	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador.  Known from two collections: in Capeira, 22 km north of the city of Guayaquil on the road to Daule, and in an unknown locale in Manabí province.	eng
42746	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal forests, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42747	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three collections in Chimborazo province, with incomplete locale information.	eng
42747	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42747	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42748	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the Río Palenque private reserve. Gentry (1986) reported a population of one plant in the same locale and five years later Dodson and Gentry (1991) reported its death.	eng
42748	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb or small shrub, found at an elevational range of 150–220 m.	eng
42748	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42749	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42749	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in Loja province, with no exact locale information.	eng
42749	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
42749	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42750	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42750	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection from the bank of a river in Conocoto, Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
42750	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, known from an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42750	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42751	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas system but may occur in some coastal reserves.	eng
42751	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least seven collections, including one in the Río Palenque private reserve.  Found in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Rios, this species is common along roads and rivers in disturbed areas of the coast.	eng
42751	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb found at an elevation range of 0–500 m.	eng
42751	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42752	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42752	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabi, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios.  Currently known from at least six subpopulations, some of them inside cacao plantations and disturbed areas.	eng
42752	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 70–1,890 m.	eng
42752	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42753	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in a protected area on the eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
42753	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections, one in the Cantón El Chaco, Sitio Tres Cruces, towards the Mirador in Napo province, and the other 20-30 km from Limón (General Plaza) on the Limón-Gualaceo road, in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
42753	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
42753	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42754	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network	eng
42754	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection from 1943, recorded along the Patul River, between the Hacienda Yubay and the Hacienda San José de Caimotán, near Sanaguín, Azuay province.	eng
42754	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42754	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42755	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
42755	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, found within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Guayas, Napo, Orellana and Tungurahua.	eng
42755	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
42755	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42756	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Protected inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and in the Jatun Sacha private reserve.	eng
42756	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known there from six subpopulations distributed in the Oriente and Sierra regions of the Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Pichincha provinces.	eng
42756	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of amazonian forest and coastal piemontano, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42756	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42757	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42757	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from three old collections, found in the provinces of Guayas, Manabi and Chimborazo.	eng
42757	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–530 m.	eng
42757	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42758	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42758	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three old collections in Tungurahua province.	eng
42758	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,225–1,800 m.	eng
42758	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42759	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
42759	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, 10 km west of Pedro Cabo, along the river, in coastal Guayas province.	eng
42759	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry coastal forest.	eng
42759	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Critically threatened from habitat destruction.  No other specific threats are known.	eng
42760	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Probably protected by Ecuador’s protected areas system, but its presence is not confirmed as yet.	eng
42760	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed and known from 13 subpopulations in the Costa, Sierra and Oriente regions.	eng
42760	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of piemontano coastal and amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.	eng
42760	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42761	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Protected inside the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the southeastern lowlands of Volcán Sumaco, inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
42761	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Amazon region and the eastern section of Tungurahua province.	eng
42761	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of moist lowland and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2,000 m.	eng
42761	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42762	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42762	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection in 1974 in La Punta, 10 km north of Macas in the Arapicos road, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
42762	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
42762	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42763	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42763	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single 1939 collection in Pichincha province.	eng
42763	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42763	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42764	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42764	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province: inside the Río Guajalito and La Favorita private reserves and on a section of the Quito-Chiriboga road, between Chiriboga and San Juan.	eng
42764	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42764	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42765	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42765	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population, discovered in 1939 in the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Río Sangarinas and Río San José valley, Tungurahua province.	eng
42765	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A small shrub of high altitude grassland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
42765	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42766	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42766	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections, one in Colonia Regina, 5-6 km northwest of Río Verde, Tungurahua province, and another in Napo province at an unknown locale.	eng
42766	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42766	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42767	conservation	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42767	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations: one on the Santa Bárbara-La Bonita road, 25–28 km from Santa Bárbara, along the Río Chingual in Sucumbíos province, and in an unknown locale in the Napo province.	eng
42767	habitat	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42767	threats	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42768	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and potentially inside the Cotacachi-Cayapas, Los Ilinizas, Cayambe-Coca and Sumaco-Napo-Galeras protected areas.	eng
42768	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andes and known from 12 subpopulations.  Found in the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Los Rios and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42768	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,500 m.	eng
42768	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42769	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42769	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba extensa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
42769	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat described as superparamo (4,000–4,500 m).	eng
42769	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
42770	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42770	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a small area in the eastern Andes, near the border with Colombia. Two subpopulations have been recorded, the first in 1949 15-18 km off the El Carmelo (El Pun)-Aguarico road, and the second in 1979 40 km off the El Carmelo-La Bonita road.	eng
42770	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42770	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	New roads have intensified the threat of habitat destruction from logging, mining, and disorganized colonization.	eng
42771	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Several collections have been reported near the Podocarpus, Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
42771	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 15 subpopulations distributed on both sides of the Andean slopes. Several collections have been reported in western Pichincha province, on the old Quito-Santo Domingo road, and in Napo province, on the Baeza-Tena road.	eng
42771	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.	eng
42771	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42772	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42772	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the eastern Andes. First collected in 1974, 25 km off the Loja-Zamora road, near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and subsequently recorded in 1985, 16km off the Limón-Gualaceo road.	eng
42772	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42772	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42773	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several populations of this species are inside the Cayambe-Coca and Podocarpus protected areas.	eng
42773	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 28 subpopulations stretching from the coastal lowlands near Patricia Pilar to the Amazonian lowlands near Taisha, in Morona-Santiago.	eng
42773	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of coastal and amazonian forests, found at an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.	eng
42773	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42774	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations have been recorded within the Río Guajalito private reserve, Reserva Etnica Awá and within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.  May also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42774	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations on the northwestern Andean slopes and two subpopulations on the southeastern Andean slope, within the provinces of Carchi, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha.	eng
42774	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet or tree of moist forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.	eng
42774	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42775	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42775	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 10 subpopulations distributed across a wide geographical and altitudinal range.  It is present within the  provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha.	eng
42775	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of moist forest and high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.	eng
42775	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known threats affecting this species are deforestation due to conversion of forest to grasslands and the construction of the Guayaquil-Cuenca road, started 10 years ago.  The wood of this species is also used for "tumbados" (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz 3256).	eng
42776	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42776	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections, the first made in 1936 in the Parroquia de La Concepción, below Playa Rica in Esmeraldas province, and the second in the 1970s at an unknown locale in Pichincha province (possibly in the Montañas de Ila). Both sites have since been converted to grasslands.	eng
42776	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of humid coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42776	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Both sites where the collections were made have since been converted to grasslands.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42777	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species has been reported inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
42777	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 25 subpopulations and widely distributed in the country's central and northern Andes. A large number of records come from western Pichincha province, on the old Quito-Santo Domingo road.	eng
42777	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree, found at an elevational range of 500–3,500 m.	eng
42777	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42778	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several collections have been recorded in or near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
42778	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations in the Andean region.  Located within the provinces of Carchi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Tungurahua.	eng
42778	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
42778	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42779	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42779	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	This species is confined to a small area in the northeastern Andes and known from threesubpopulations: near Cartagena on the road to La Bonita, in Logma Playa 17km off the Cosanga road, and in Playón de San Francisco on the Santa Bárbara-La Bonita road.	eng
42779	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42779	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42780	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42780	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Last recorded 50 years ago. Known from just three subpopulations: in the Cordillera de Huacamayos, between Baños and Cashurcu, and in Río Allpayacu near Mera.	eng
42780	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
42780	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42781	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The locality of this species is now protected by the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
42781	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found only once, in 1944, between the Río Sordo and La Esperanza, on the road to Huamboya.  Additional exploration will probably reveal more subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
42781	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42781	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is habitat destruction through mining and colonization.	eng
42782	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42782	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two isolated collections. The first was reported in 1923, on the southwestern slopes of the Andes, between Portovelo and El Tambo, in El Oro province. A second subpopulation was reported in 1939, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, near the Río Mapoto on the old road to Canelos, in Tungurahua province.	eng
42782	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
42782	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42783	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Yasuní	eng
42783	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	An aquatic herb endemic to Ecuador, growing both submerged and above the water in black water habitats. Collected only twice in 1979, in the easternmost reaches of the Río Yasuní: in Jatuncocha and close to the community of Yasuní. The size of the local subpopulations is unknown, but considering that the species forms colonies it may be locally abundant.	eng
42783	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	An aquatic herb found at the borders of lakes and floating islands in amazonian black water rivers (250–300 m).	eng
42783	threats	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42784	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42784	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type specimen, collected by K. Hartweg in the first half of the nineteenth century.	eng
42784	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine.	eng
42784	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are habitat destruction due to grazing and disorganized colonization.	eng
42785	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The location of the collections is known to be within a protected area.	eng
42785	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections recorded by Padre L. Sodiro in the Pululahua crater more than 100 years ago. May be confined to the old crater, but could also occur on the western slopes of Mindo valley.	eng
42785	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42785	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42786	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42786	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered by K. Hartweg in the first half of the nineteenth century in Condorurcu, near Loja, and currently distributed from Carchi in the north to Zamora-Chinchipe in the south.	eng
42786	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
42786	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation, wildfires and mining.	eng
42787	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42787	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in the eastern cordillera, at the confluence of the Río Pastaza and Río Topo, and near Mera.	eng
42787	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42787	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42788	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collections have been made within the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
42788	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, the type collection recorded in 1880 by K. Lehman is the only record in Chimborazo province. The other subpopulation was recorded in Azuay, and is frequently collected in paramos near Cuenca, including ones inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
42788	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of grassland found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
42788	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is fire set by humans.	eng
42789	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42789	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least five subpopulations in Andean forest and paramo. The only collections in Pichincha province were recorded at the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century by L. Sodiro on the Corazón and Atacazo volcanoes. The collections from Loja were made along the Loja-Saraguro road, more than 20 years ago. Other collections are from Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces (Neuendorf in Jørgensen and León 1999).	eng
42789	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest and shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42789	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires and grazing in paramos, and mining and colonization in southern Ecuador.	eng
42790	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42790	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 10 subpopulations and distributed throughout the interandean valley from Azuay to Pichincha.	eng
42790	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb that is common in the wet paramos of Guamaní, Llanganates and Cajas, where it grows among <em>Polylepis</em> forests, on rocky slopes and especially near lakes. Also occurs in grassy paramos and upper Andean forest.	eng
42790	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42791	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, this species may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa, as they preserve montane forest remnants.	eng
42791	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three records in Pichincha province.	eng
42791	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	An endemic vine of montane forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42791	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation, invasive species and habitat fragmentation.	eng
42792	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42792	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations from the Imbabura and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
42792	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	An vine of high Andean forest and grassland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
42792	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats affecting this species are fires and grazing.	eng
42793	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to be within any protected areas.	eng
42793	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection from the Pichincha province.	eng
42793	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42793	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Conversion of native vegetation to grasslands and pine and eucalyptus plantations.	eng
42794	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to be within any protected areas.	eng
42794	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two records in the Pichincha province.	eng
42794	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
42794	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation, invasive species and habitat fragmentation.	eng
42795	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42795	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations: one in the western cordillera in Pichincha province, another on the border between Carchi and Napo provinces, and the third in an unknown locale of Imbabura province.	eng
42795	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
42795	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Fires and conversion of paramo to grasslands and pine and eucalyptus plantations.	eng
42796	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42796	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection.  The only available information indicates that the record is from upper Andean forest in the Zamora province.	eng
42796	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of upper Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42796	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42797	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
42797	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations within the Pichincha and Carchi province.	eng
42797	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of wet and swampy areas in lower and upper Andean forests, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
42797	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42798	conservation	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42798	distribution	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs along the Saraguro-Tena road and in the shrubby paramo in Loma de Oro, south of Saraguro. The most recent collection, from 1987, is from the road from General Plaza Gutierrez (Limón) to Cuenca, on the borders of Morona-Santiago province.	eng
42798	habitat	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine confined to the upper Andean forests, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
42798	threats	Mogollón, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42799	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42799	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	This species is an endemic of southern Ecuador. where seven subpopulations have been registered in the provinces of Guayas, Loja and Manabí.	eng
42799	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of the coast and dry valleys , found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42799	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation is the principal threat, especially the coastal populations.	eng
42800	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42800	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in widely separated locales in the Andes. The first was made on slopes with dry vegetation along the Pasaje-Santa Isabel-Girón road in the Río Jubones valley. Two later collections were reported in different habitats, in Pilaló and at the Hacienda Leito, near Patate.	eng
42800	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.	eng
42800	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42801	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42801	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently known from two populations in the provinces of Chimborazo and Loja. The first population is in the semi-deciduous forests at km 12-15 of the Alamor-Puyango road and the second in the paramos near the Alausí-Parque Guamote road.	eng
42801	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of semi-deciduous forests and paramos, found at an elevational range of 500–3500 m.	eng
42801	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42802	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42802	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in the provinces of Esmeradas, Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos.	eng
42802	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of coastal lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42802	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42803	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42803	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single population discovered in 1985, 3 km north of Julio Moreno (currently Simón Bolívar), on the Santa Elena peninsula, in Guayas province.	eng
42803	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–300 m.	eng
42803	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42804	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded in the ENDESA private reserve and may occur in the lower area of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
42804	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	This endemic species has a geographical distribution is approximately 400 km².	eng
42804	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.	eng
42804	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known	eng
42805	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42805	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations within the Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo and El Oro provinces.  Additional subpopulations may occur in coastal forest and in lower dry inter-Andean valleys, in rocky canyons and dry areas.	eng
42805	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb, found at an elevation of 0–1,500 m.	eng
42805	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42806	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42806	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations occur in Cotopaxi province at Tenefuerte, in Azuay province at Loma de la Plata, and in Pichincha at 70 km off the Chiriboga road.	eng
42806	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terestrial herb of low Andean forest, preferring wet environments and found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
42806	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42807	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42807	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations within the	eng
42807	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal and inter-Andean vegetation.	eng
42807	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats to this species are agriculture and mining.	eng
42808	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to be within any protected areas.	eng
42808	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection 43 km on the Loja-Zamora road, Zamora province.	eng
42808	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb of low Andean forest.	eng
42808	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42809	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42809	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, with at least 100 individuals in each, in the dry valley of the Río Mira between Imbabura and Carchi provinces.	eng
42809	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of subtropical/tropical dry Andean vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42809	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are agriculture and grazing.	eng
42810	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42810	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations located within the Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
42810	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of mainly dry and rocky roadsides of the Andes.	eng
42810	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42811	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N, 2003	Three populations occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, all in disturbed areas of the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
42811	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N, 2003	For more than a decade, the species was known from a single collection. An intensive search in 1998–1999 revealed six new subpopulations, within the provinces of Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago.  Each subpopulation has 500 clumped individuals in an area less than 100 m².	eng
42811	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N, 2003	A terrestrial herb of cropland and pastures, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42811	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N, 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42812	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42812	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua.	eng
42812	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb found at an elevational range of 2,000–4,000 m, mostly in disturbed areas and along roads in dry, inter-Andean valleys.	eng
42812	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	May be affected by agriculture and grazing.	eng
42813	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42813	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Despite intensive searches in 1998-1999, this species is still restricted to the Pastaza river valley in the province of Tungurahua. Subpopulations are found from the Bascún stream on the slopes of Tungurahua volcano to the Río Negro on the Baños-Puyo road, where it forms clumps of fewer than 100 individuals.	eng
42813	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb that inhabits disturbed areas like roadsides, pastures and cliffs.	eng
42813	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations have been affected by the widening of the Baños-Puyo road. Another potential threat is commercial exploitation as ornamental plants.	eng
42814	conservation	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations are known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42814	distribution	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least five subpopulations occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, with at least 100 individuals in each subpopulation.	eng
42814	habitat	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb with an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42814	threats	Oleas, N. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are agriculture, grazing and trade in the plant as an ornamental outside Ecuador, as well as human population increase inside the Pululahua reserve.	eng
42815	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42815	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, occupying the surroundings of the Parque Nacional Machalilla on the coast, to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in the Andes.	eng
42815	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	A deciduous tree or treelet that has an elevational range of 280–2,500 m.	eng
42815	threats	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Forest fragmentation, habitat loss and degradation.   In Manabí province, <em>M. membranifolia</em> has been heavily used and is considered high-quality firewood for the ovens that Pilas region uses for making ceramics (C. Bonifaz, pers. obs.).	eng
42816	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42816	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in the southwest of the Reserva Etnica Awá, in Carchi province: the first is located  20 km off the Lita-Alto Tambo road, the second between San Marcos de los Coaiqueres and Gualpi Medio, and the third in Camumbi.	eng
42816	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2,000 m.	eng
42816	threats	Romero-Saltos, H., Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are colonization and logging.	eng
42817	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42817	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree endemic to Ecuador’s wet coastal forests, known only from a 1995 collection by E. Asplund in Cerro Azul, Guayas province.	eng
42817	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of humid coastal forest, found at an elevational of 200 m.	eng
42817	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collection site is currently a working quarry.	eng
42818	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42818	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Perhaps the only South American liana in this family. Known only from the collection of C. Dodson and A. Gentry, made during the botanical inventory of the Jauneche private reserve (70 km off the Quevedo-Palenque road through Mocachi, cantón Vinces) in the 1980s.	eng
42818	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational of 100 m.	eng
42818	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42819	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42819	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the Parroquia Jama of Manabí province: at the Hacienda El Recreo, close to Canoa; at the Hacienda San Juan; and in an unknown locale.	eng
42819	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	This tree can be locally abundant in wet micro-habitats within dry coastal forest.  Found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42819	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42820	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Most of the five populations of this species are found within protected areas.	eng
42820	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, most of them within protected areas. Common in the higher regions of the Bosque Protector Loma Alta, in the Cordillera Chongón Colonche (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz, pers. comms.). Other subpopulations occur within the Cotacachi-Cayapas and Mache-Chindul protected areas.	eng
42820	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>A. oligocarpa</em> produces bird-dispersed fruit during June and July.	eng
42820	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the large-scale deforestation and conversion of coastal forest to croplands over the last 50 years. Another potential threat is the forest conversion to Panama hat plant plantations, a common soil use in the Cordillera Chongón Colonche.	eng
42821	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
42821	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cardamine lojanensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
42821	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m)	eng
42821	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
42822	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42822	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the central Amazon region, one in Zatzayacu, in Pastaza province, and two on a river bank between Tena and Archidona, in Napo province.	eng
42822	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of Amazonian mainland forest, found at an elevational range of 400–500 m.	eng
42822	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Possibly affected by the extensive colonization and alteration of the area between Archidona and Tena since the collection date.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42823	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42823	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection by the Spanish botanist J. Tafalla in Guayaquil between 1778 and 1788, and another by H. Eggers a century later.	eng
42823	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of wet coastal forests, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42823	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42824	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42824	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	endemic to Ecuador’s . Known only from R. Rose’s 1918 collection in Portovelo, El Oro province.	eng
42824	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree or shrub of wet coastal foothills, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42824	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42825	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42825	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the type locale (Pomona, 2 km northeast of Mera and surroundings) in 1940, 1956 and 1985.	eng
42825	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of amazonian forest, found at an elevation of 1,100 m.	eng
42825	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are human settlements, road construction near the park and mining.	eng
42826	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42826	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two old collections that were made in a locality named Pallatanga, but apparently the Sodiro collection is from Pallatanga in Chimborazo province and the Mejia collection from Pallatanga near Santa Rosa in the Cantón Pujilí of Cotopaxi province.	eng
42826	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42826	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42827	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42827	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in many collections from the provinces of Guayas, Manabí and Los Rios.	eng
42827	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of wet and dry coastal forests, preferring wet micro-habitats close to creeks.  Found at an elevational range of 0–600 m.	eng
42827	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Large-scale deforestation and colonization of Ecuador's coastal forest has been considered a threat to this species.	eng
42828	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some populations are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Machalilla.	eng
42828	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Four subpopulations are known, some in the San Sebastian region, near Agua Blanca in the Parque Nacional Machalilla, and some in the Cordillera de Chongón and Cordillera de Colonche (X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz, pers. comms.).	eng
42828	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of wet and deciduous forest, found at an elevational range of 0–850 m.	eng
42828	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats are deforestation and conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
42829	conservation	muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collections of this species have been made within the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
42829	distribution	muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Amazon region. Known from 32 collections within the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42829	habitat	muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of mainland and low Andean forest.  Found at an elevational range of 250–1,800 m.	eng
42829	threats	muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation, mining, human settlements, road construction and oil concessions.	eng
42830	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	An urgent search for this species is needed on the road that leads from Pallatanga to Hacienda Panza.	eng
42830	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tournefortia stenosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one collection in Cañar province.	eng
42830	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
42830	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
42831	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the combined catch of <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes to a maximum of 150kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus uyato</em> has also been nominated for listing as a Vulnerable species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Vulnerable, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a five-year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
42831	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Australian subpopulations are documented as being from Esperance to Geraldton (WA) and Fowlers Bay (SA) to Port Stephens (NSW), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994), but further study of this distribution is necessary given the taxonomic problems in this genus (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
42831	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal on the continental shelf and upper-middle continental slope in depths of 50 to 1,400 m. In Australia, main depth range is 400 to 650 m (Last and Stevens 1994), but has been recorded from 220 to 740 m (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). Ovoviviparous, usually producing one pup. The diet consists of bony fishes and cephalopods (Last and Stevens 1994), but also includes crustaceans (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Length at first maturity is 80 cm for males (Last and Stevens 1994) and 100 cm for females (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). Size at birth is 35 to 45 cm (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). Preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) suggest that <em>C. uyato</em> lives to at least 46 years of age (n = 8). The low fecundity, high longevity and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
42831	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size (although suspected to be much reduced) and number and size of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
42831	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	1) Targeted fishing using deep set gillnets off South Australia and eastern Victoria in the Southern Shark Fishery. This targeting had all but ceased by 1995 because of declining catches. (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>2) Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery, SETF) in NSW and eastern Vic. (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). Declines of over 99% have been documented between the years 1976-77 and 1996-97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern NSW / northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al</em>. 1997). Catches in the abovementioned areas in 220-605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 106.9 kg/h in 1976-77 to a mean of 0.3 kg/h (a total of only 14 specimens) in 1996-97. <br/> <br/>3) Droplining (under NSW Fisheries jurisdiction) along the continental slope within its range (although catches are relatively minor). <br/> <br/>4) Previously targeted by gillnetting in WA shark fishery (1996-1999). Fishery has since ceased: according to fishers, catch rates began to decline dramatically after 2-3 years (R. McAuley WA Fisheries pers. comm. March 2003).   <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
42833	conservation	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	None needed at present.	eng
42833	distribution	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Assessment limited to the New Guinea subppulation only.	eng
42833	habitat	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	A small, slender shark of up to about 1 m total length (TL). At Heron Island Reef, Queensland, individuals did not exceed 76 cm TL and a mass of 900 g (n = 497). A species that is commonly encountered in shallow coral reef waters. It is well camouflaged and can been observed foraging over reef flats. Its activity pattern is affected by a combination of suitable tidal and light conditions: It is more active at low water and, although epaulette sharks can be found actively hunting during daylight hours, it is more active after dark and particularly around dawn or dusk.  The diet comprises a variety of benthic organisms that it takes from the surface of the substrate or, by burying its head into the substrate, from a few centimetres below the surface (Heupel and Bennett 1998). Annelids and crabs account for the majority of the diet in this species, although there is a degree of ontogenetic shift in dietary preference, with shrimps becoming a more important part of the adult diet (Heupel and Bennett 1998). At rest sharks commonly hide in or beneath coral heads. If in the open, they orient themselves with their head into the oncoming water stream, presumably for station-holding and possibly for prey/threat detection (Peach 2002). <br/> <br/>An oviparous species with males and females maturing at 54 to 62 cm TL. Mating probably occur between July and November, with females carrying eggcases found between August and December, although in captivity they have been noted to breed continuously (West and Carter 1990). Two egg capsules are produced and deposited among coral at night. A pair of egg capsules may be produced every 14 days, resulting in up to about 20 potential offspring per female per annum. Eggs hatch after about 120 days with young at 14 to 16 cm TL. Subsequent growth is initially slow, but reaches about five cm year-1 after about three months  (West and Carter 1990). Epaulette sharks descend into deeper water between coral reefs and have been found at depths of at least 40 m. The species is hypoxia tolerant and is able to survive in anoxic waters. This trait is important as this shark is often found in shallow (<em>ca</em> 15 cm deep), warm (<em>ca</em> 30°C) waters that become severely hypoxic during the night. This trait may enable this species to survive in areas of poor water quality, such as mining run-off in New Guinea.	eng
42833	population	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	The population size and details of the range of this subpopulation are unknown.	eng
42833	threats	Bennett, M.B. & Kyne, P.M., 2003	Around New Guinea the species is likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs from dynamite fishing and pollution. These processes are likely causing declines in all hemiscyllid species occurring around New Guinea, however quantitative data are not available. The wider distribution of <em>H. ocellatum</em> compared with other endemic <em>Hemiscyllium</em> spp. and the fact that the species is abundant in Australian waters means the species is not threatened with extinction on a global basis. However, given the pressures facing all hemiscyllid sharks around New Guinea, the status of the species requires close monitoring.	eng
42834	conservation	Pillans, R., 2003	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
42834	distribution	Pillans, R., 2003	Assessment restricted to Southeast Asia subpopulation only.	eng
42834	habitat	Pillans, R., 2003	Occurs in tropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters near the bottom; often found on and around coral reefs and on sandy plateaus near coral, at depths down to at least 30 m (Compagno and Niem 1998). Often found inside coral lagoons but also on reef flats and reef edges (Stevens 1984). It is also known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries (W.White, pers.comm.). Out of 143 animals tagged at 43 sites by Stevens (1984), 19 individuals were recaptured (14.5%) of which 5 were caught more than once. These data showed that 52% of recoveries were made at the tagging site, 83% within 1 km of tagging site and 91% within 2 km. The average distance moved by individuals was 1.3 km (excluding those animals that did not move from tagging site) and the maximum distance traveled was 5 km. <br/> <br/>Gestation period: 10 to 11 months <br/>Reproductive periodicity: 2 years <br/>Size at birth: 60 cm TL <br/>Average litter size: 9.3 (6 to 12) <br/>Size male maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Size female maturity: 220 cm TL <br/>Max size: 300 cm TL <br/>Growth rates, Juveniles: 12.5 to 15.5 cm/yr	eng
42834	threats	Pillans, R., 2003	Threats from inshore fisheries are high outside Australian waters, particularly Southeast Asia, where these sharks are captured by gillnets and longlines. They are particularly susceptible to local depletion due their very small habitat range and limited movement patterns (Stevens 1984).  This species is also likely to be affected by habitat destruction, particularly in South East Asia. For example, extensive coral reef habitat destruction (pollution and dynamite fishing), in addition, this species is known to occur around and within mangrove estuaries, many of which have been deforested or are heavily populated by humans throughout its range (W. White, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Although they are still recorded, albeit very infrequently within Indonesia (W. White, pers. comm.), evidence suggests <em>N. acutidens</em> was historically more abundant, and have not been seen for several years in some areas. For example, in a preliminary survey of market catches around Bali, no <em>N. acutidens</em> were recorded, and jaws held in the fisheries centre in Jakarta that were several years old were the only evidence that this species was once caught in the region (William White, pers. comm.). Furthermore, evidence of local extinctions in India and Thailand (L. J. V. Compagno, pers. comm.) indicates that this species is extremely susceptible to local inshore fisheries.	eng
42835	conservation	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & Fergusson, I.K., 2003	Protected Species in NSW Waters (since 1984). <br/> <br/>In Australia, more study is needed to accurately determine the distributional range, abundance and biology (including possible migrations, sex ratios, fecundity, etc.) of this species.  <br/> <br/>Any dead specimens landed by commercial fishing (especially trawling) operations should be retained and delivered to the nearest relevant research organisation, so that more biological information can be obtained. <br/> <br/>Reported by divers in Cocos-Keeling Islands (Aust.) and also other areas such as the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) the Mediterranean and Malpelo Island off Columbia. Such community-based dive observations or monitoring may be of use in obtaining information on its biology and knowledge of important habitats in shallow waters. <br/> <br/>There is now more evidence that coastal locations are frequented by mature <em>O. ferox</em> on a repetitive seasonal basis, possibly for reproduction.  Where identified, these sites deserve stringent protection.  <br/> <br/>Development of bycatch mitigation measures such as trawl exclusion devices should be undertaken in relevant fisheries.	eng
42835	distribution	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & Fergusson, I.K., 2003	Important sites in Australia occur off New South Wales on the shelf and upper slope of the south coast	eng
42835	habitat	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & Fergusson, I.K., 2003	<em>Odontaspis ferox</em> lives on or closely associated with the bottom in deep waters along continental and insular shelves and upper slopes (Last and Stevens 1994) to depths to about 850 m (K. Graham, pers. comm). It is occasionally found in shallower water (Last and Stevens 1994). Hutchins filmed underwater video of an individual in 20 m of water at the Cocos-Keeling Islands (B. Hutchins, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). There are at least three records from pelagic zones in open waters of the Indian Ocean (Bonfil 1995.) An active-swimming offshore shark, caught and seen as individuals and in small groups (Compagno 2001).  <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of this shark. Its reproduction is presumably similar to that of the grey nurse shark (<em>C. taurus</em>). Compagno (2001) cites an observation which suggests the species practices uterine cannibalism in the form of oophagy. <br/> <br/>Size at birth is over 105 cm and males mature at about 275 cm (Compagno 1984). In Australian waters, this species is born at over 100 cm and attains at least 360 cm, but the size at maturity here is unknown (Last and Stevens 1994). A 2.7 m female specimen caught off the Sydney area was judged to be immature, as there was no sign of ovarian development (K. Graham, pers. comm., cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Compagno (2001) cites a maximum total length of at least 410 cm and possibly larger; males mature at 275 cm, females at 364 cm. The large oily liver probably has a hydrostatic function (Last and Stevens 1994), and may help the shark to maintain neutral buoyancy while swimming. Stomachs examined have contained small bony fish, cephalopods, crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994) and small squalid dogfish. A very large <em>O. ferox</em> trawled on the Norfolk Ridge north of New Zealand in 1997 was found to contain a 200 cm seal shark in its stomach. The above information suggests that this species is an opportunistic carnivore (Stewart 1997, cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Dentition suggests a more uniform diet of softer prey than in <em>C. taurus</em> (Compagno 2001).	eng
42835	threats	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & Fergusson, I.K., 2003	Commercial fishing, whereby this species is taken incidentally, on the outer continental shelf and continental slope is a potential threat to its survival in south-eastern Australian waters. <br/> <br/>From the available information, <em>O. ferox</em> was never abundant off NSW, but there is strong evidence that numbers seriously declined between 1972 and 1997. Of the 35 specimens caught by the NSW Fisheries Research Vessel Kapala, 33 were caught between 1975 and 1981 (from 500 slope trawl tows), but only two were taken from about 250 trawl tows made between 1982 and 1997 (K. Graham, pers. comm. cited in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).   <br/> <br/>The NSW upper slope trawl grounds were again surveyed in 1996-97 and the results compared to those from an initial survey made in 1976-77 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997). Twelve captures (14 sharks) were made during 246 tows in 1976-77, but only a single juvenile was caught during 165 tows made in 1996-97.  Although considered in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) as Near Threatened, based on available NSW catch data reassessment to Vulnerable is warranted in Australia. <br/> <br/>There has been limited take for aquarium display (Kelly Tarlton’s Aquarium at Auckland NZ) but  this species was not successfully kept in captivity.	eng
42838	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the combined catch of <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes to a maximum of 150 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus moluccensis</em> has also been nominated for listing as a Vulnerable species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Vulnerable, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a five-year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
42838	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The taxonomy of <em>Centrophorus</em> species in Australia needs further attention and this species may also warrant closer examination of its distribution and populations. It is still to be determined whether <em>C. moluccensis</em> may in fact be a different (related) species in South Africa, Taiwan, and elsewhere from that known from the Australasia region (D. Ebert, pers.comm., April 2003). In addition, records from the Great Australian Bight (SA) and Tasmania require further investigation.	eng
42838	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal on the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes in 125 to 820 m, but in Australian waters most common in 300 to 500 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Ovoviviparous, mostly with litters of two pups (Last and Stevens 1994). The diet of this species consists of bony fishes, cephalopods, elasmobranchs and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994). Resilience is very low, minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Fishbase). Males mature at 69 to 73 cm and reach 86 cm and females mature at about 88 cm and reach 98 cm (Compagno 1984, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). Born at about 31 to 37 cm (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). The low fecundity, high longevity (closely related species live for at least 46 years according to preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
42838	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size (although suspected to be small on the east coast) and number and size of subpopulations is unknown. Given the susceptibility of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to overfishing all remaining populations of this species need to be conserved.	eng
42838	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The species is fished throughout its entire depth range on the east coast of Australia.  <br/> <br/>1) Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery) in NSW, eastern Victoria and SA (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/>2) Droplining off NSW (NSW Fisheries jurisdiction) <br/>3) South-East Non-Trawl Fishery (SE Australia) <br/> <br/>Documented declines of over 95% between 1976-77 and 1996-97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. Area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the abovementioned areas in 220-605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 12.3 kg/h in 1976-77 to a mean of 0.2 kg/h in 1996-97. The populations of this species in WA waters have not been overfished like those along the east coast of Australia.  <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
42840	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Further searches are urgently required. Removal of alien invasive trees, particularly <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>, should continue. Translocation to a protected area should be considered as this species is highly threatened and currently does not occur in a protected area. Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
42840	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	The species is endemic to South Africa. It was formerly known from a few isolated localities in the Amatola-Winterberg region of the eastern Cape. Today it is only known from two sites on the Kubusi River in the vicinity of Stutterheim.	eng
42840	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Shallow, clear, rocky streams and rivers with wooded banks.	eng
42840	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	The current population size is estimated to be at less than 1,000 (per generation) and declining. At the two known sites, population levels are low, numbering no more than 30 or so individuals (Samways 2006 in press). However, it is suspected that other populations exist in the area but have to be discovered, hence it is estimate of less than 1,000.	eng
42840	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	There are multiple synergistic threats to this species, including loss of habitat principally through cattle farming, alien invasive trees shading the habitat (especially <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>), pollution of the Kubusi River due to domestic run-off and siltation of the stream. The introduced rainbow trout (<em>Onycorhynchus mykiss</em>) may also be a threat.	eng
42841	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
42841	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
42841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species has a disjunct distribution: south-east Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, south-east Kenya, east Tanzania.	eng
42841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has a disjunct distribution: south-east Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, south-east Kenya, east Tanzania. In Est Africa it has been recorded from Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).  <br/> <br/>In the Seychelles, it is known from the islands of Silhouette and Mahé at both low and high elevations (Blackman and Pinhey 1967, ). This species is very scarce.	eng
42841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from southeast Malawi, Seychelles, Madagascar, southeast Kenya, east Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Buda forest (south-east Kenya), Mkuwadzi Forest at Nkhata Bay (Malawi) and Rufiji Delta, Zanzibar and Pemba Island (Tanzania).	eng
42841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal).	eng
42841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal). Clear streams in forest. In 1997 the species was recorded in <em>Terminalia</em> forest at sea level (Samways pers. comm.).	eng
42841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in dense coastal swamp forests (often seasonal).	eng
42841	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
42841	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
42841	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
42841	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of coastal swamp forest, on the African mainland most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.	eng
42841	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Destruction of coastal swamp forest, on the African mainland most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.	eng
42841	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Habitat removal for agriculture is probably the biggest threat. Destruction of coastal swamp forest: on the African mainland most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.	eng
42843	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas. More searches are required to discover further subpopulations, especially in reserves. Fencing off portions of the riverbank is recommended. Translocation to a reserve is also a consideration. Removal of alien invasive trees has greatly benefited this species, as the 2001 Mpumalanga site was formerly invaded by <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>. Indeed, it is only known from this restored site.	eng
42843	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa. The type series is from Nqutu, KwaZulu-Natal (Pinhey 1962) but the species has not been rediscovered in the area. This area is now heavily grazed by livestock. Prior to 1962, there are isolated records from the Western Cape, eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, although the Cape records are doubtful taxonomically. After intensive searches over many years, the species was only rediscovered (at 1,300 m asl) in January 2001, in Mpumalanga by M.J. Samways.	eng
42843	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Fine grasses and reeds lining swift, clear, upland rivers (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
42843	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is estimated to be around 2,000 (per generation) and currently stable.	eng
42843	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	With more extensive and intensive livestock pressure, the grasses on the banks of rivers have become increasingly cropped and trampled. This may be synergistic with other impacts such as the growth of alien invasive riparian vegetation. The type locality is highly threatened as a result of the above factors. However, the population appears to be stabilized and it is also suspected that it is present at other localities, where it has not yet been discovered.	eng
42845	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Currently it occurs in the Limietberge National Reserve. Searches for <em>C. triceraticus</em> must continue, to establish whether it exists in more protected areas. Ongoing removal of alien trees is likely to be of great benefit to this species. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
42845	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This endemic South African species has a wide range throughout the Western Cape (Pinhey 1984b). It was discovered in 1962 (Balinsky 1963) and very few specimens are known. As it is a large and conspicuous insect, and is not easily overlooked, it must be extremely scarce. Despite many revisits to the type locality, near Franschhoek, the species has not been rediscovered there, although it has recently been discovered in the Cedarberg and Bainskloof, where invasive trees have been cleared. Its extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².	eng
42845	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Pools in streams, and occasionally in reservoirs. Rocky, shallow rivers, with deposition pools, and possibly farm dams (Samways 2006).	eng
42845	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Current population size is not known.	eng
42845	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species faces many threats, which are probably synergistic, including a severe alien invasive tree problem, and loss of habitat to the wine industry and, to a lesser extent, cattle farming and plantation forestry. Over-extraction of water from streams and possibly pollution from the wine industry are increasing threats. Alien invasive trout may also be a problem.	eng
42848	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
42848	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from only two subpopulations recorded in the Parque Nacional Yasuní (14–15km off Maxus and Añangu road), Orellana province.	eng
42848	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of mainland amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 250–450 m.	eng
42848	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are oil exploitation and colonization due to road construction.	eng
42849	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collections have been recorded within the Parque Nacional Yansuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno.	eng
42849	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations, widely distributed in the Amazon region.	eng
42849	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of  terra firme forest and wetlands.	eng
42849	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are oil exploitation, road building, deforestation and colonization.	eng
42850	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje.	eng
42850	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations on the northern coast and in Amazon lowlands of Esmeraldas, Los Ríos and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
42850	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 250–500 m.	eng
42850	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42851	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collections have been made with a protected area.	eng
42851	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Described from two recent collections in the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
42851	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of wet coastal and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 250–2000 m.	eng
42851	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The area is still well preserved but some areas are being severely deforested.	eng
42852	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The original publication does not clarify if the species is from Colombia or Ecuador.  Only known from type, this species is thought to have been collected from the province of Loja or Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42852	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana.	eng
42852	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Possibly habitat destruction.	eng
42853	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42853	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in the coastal foothills of the Andes. The southernmost subpopulation was recorded in the Ila mountains (near Patricia Pilar, between Los Ríos and Pichincha, now a very disturbed locale) and the northernmost one in Ventanas, Esmeraldas province. The other subpopulations occur in the watersheds of the Cayapas and San Miguel rivers. The Esmeraldas collections have been made in both primary and secondary forest.	eng
42853	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of the coastal foothills of the Andes, found at an elevational range of 0–600 m.	eng
42853	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the large-scale deforestation of Ecuador's northwestern forests over the last 50 years.	eng
42854	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42854	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two old collections, both of them in Azuay province and dated in 1918 and 1945 respectively.	eng
42854	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forests (2,300–2,635 m).	eng
42854	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Much of Azuay's forest is currently fragmented.	eng
42855	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42855	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected by W. Jameson within the province of Loja.	eng
42855	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine found at around 2,000 m.	eng
42855	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation for agriculture and cattle, leaving this vine without a support.	eng
42856	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	This species is known to be present within the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
42856	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections made over 200 years within the Guayas and Manabí provinces.	eng
42856	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of dry coastal semi-deciduous forest (0–500 m).	eng
42856	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat to this species is deforestation.	eng
42857	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42857	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two old collections made 300 km and thirty years apart. One was made in Balao, Guayas province; the other along a forest edge in Tandapi, Pichincha province.	eng
42857	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of dry coastal and Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.	eng
42857	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42858	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42858	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least six collections within the provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42858	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of coastal Andean foothills, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42858	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42859	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42859	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from type, collected in Balao, Guayas Province.	eng
42859	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of dry coastal vegetation, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42859	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42860	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42860	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Guallupe, Imbabura province.	eng
42860	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42860	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42861	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42861	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Playa Rica, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42861	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42861	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.	eng
42862	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The locale is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
42862	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered by L. Sodiro in 1900, between Cachabí river and Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas province, and still common in the area today.	eng
42862	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic herb, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42862	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42863	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42863	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection from the Guayas province.	eng
42863	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb found at an elevation of 200 m	eng
42863	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42864	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations are known to be within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42864	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations widely distributed in the coastal, Andes, and Amazon regions.	eng
42864	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of humid coastal and moist montane forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
42864	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42865	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42865	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes.	eng
42865	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian and Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 450–3500 m.	eng
42865	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42866	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42866	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected by L. Sodiro in 1901 in Cerro Atacazo, near Quito.	eng
42866	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1500–2000 m).	eng
42866	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42867	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42867	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations. The type was collected in the Río Cañar valley and more recent collections are from the Río San Juan and in an unknown locale in Esmeraldas province.	eng
42867	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
42867	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42868	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42868	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 14 subpopulations within the provinces of Cañar, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42868	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42868	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42869	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	This species was collected from an area that is now part of the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42869	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Pululahua-Yanahurco.	eng
42869	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic herb of  Andean forest and vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
42869	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is its proximity to Quito.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42870	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Type was collected within an area that is now part of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
42870	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Pangua area within the province of Cotopaxi.	eng
42870	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42870	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are grazing and fires.	eng
42871	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42871	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two populations: the type, collected near General Elizalde (Bucay), and another near the bridge over the Río San Francisco to the north of Pucuyacu.	eng
42871	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal and coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 510–690 m.	eng
42871	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The native vegetation in both locales is fragmented and reduced.	eng
42872	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42872	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four widely scattered subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42872	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42872	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42873	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42873	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Cordillera de Cutucú, along Aguano Yaupi, within the Morona-Santiago Province.	eng
42873	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42873	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42874	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42874	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected within the ENDESA private reserve, Pichincha province.	eng
42874	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42874	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42875	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The historical locale is inside the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and may occur inside the reserve.	eng
42875	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected between Cachabí and Alto Tambo, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42875	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42875	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42876	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42876	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations distributed on both sides of the cordillera. The type was collected along the road between Alausí and El Triunfo, 6.9 km from Huigra. Also collected on the banks of the Río Chanchán.	eng
42876	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian mainland forest to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
42876	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42877	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42877	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Río Masfa, Napo province.	eng
42877	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42877	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42878	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay or its buffer zone.	eng
42878	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Tungurahua volcano.	eng
42878	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42878	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are natural events related to this active volcano.	eng
42879	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42879	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population collected in western forests near Tandapi in the Río Pilatón, Pichincha province.	eng
42879	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42879	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42880	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42880	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, recorded in San Carlos de los Colorados, Pichincha province.	eng
42880	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 200–500 m.	eng
42880	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Forests in the locale have been almost completely destroyed.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42881	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42881	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single century-old record, near Gualea, of L. Sodiro, Pichincha province.	eng
42881	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42881	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are know	eng
42882	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42882	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in San Lucas, Loja province.	eng
42882	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
42882	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands, grazing and fires.	eng
42883	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42883	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale in Esmeraldas province.	eng
42883	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m <br/>.	eng
42883	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42884	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42884	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected at the confluence of the Ríos Toachi and Pilatón, Pichincha province.	eng
42884	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m	eng
42884	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42885	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42885	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least eight subpopulations within the Pichincha province.	eng
42885	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of cloud forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42885	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42886	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42886	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected within the Guayas province.	eng
42886	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest.	eng
42886	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42887	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42887	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, one in Puyo and the other in Pastaza.	eng
42887	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian foothills, at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42887	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42888	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The locale is inside the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42888	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Alto Tambo, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42888	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42888	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42889	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42889	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from only two subpopulations within the Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
42889	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
42889	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42890	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42890	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Atacazo volcano, south of Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
42890	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42890	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42891	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may grow in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas or the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
42891	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province: one on the Río Pilatón, and two others in unspecified locales.	eng
42891	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of humid coastal forest,  found at an elevational range of 500–1000 m.	eng
42891	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42892	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
42892	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations, two of them reported on the Tungurahua volcano. The third subpopulation occurs in an unspecified locale within the Pichincha province.	eng
42892	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest,  found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
42892	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are eruption events related to the active Tungurahua volcano. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42893	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42893	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from type, collected from his Hacienda El Recreo (near Canoa), within the province of Manabí.	eng
42893	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–200 m.	eng
42893	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Massive alteration of coastal forests.  Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42894	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42894	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least five subpopulations mostly from the Lita-San Lorenzo region, inside the Reserva Etnica Awá. The species has also been recorded in Santo Domingo and at 52-53 km  off the Quevedo-Latacunga road.	eng
42894	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothills, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42894	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42895	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42895	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type that was collected on the slopes of Pichincha volcano.	eng
42895	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42895	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42896	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42896	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, with at least 20 reported collections.  Cultivated in Brazil (Croat 62037).	eng
42896	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42896	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42897	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations occur inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42897	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 16 subpopulations widely distributed on both eastern and western slopes of the Andes. The largest number of collections come from Napo and Pastaza provinces.	eng
42897	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,000 m.	eng
42897	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42898	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42898	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations. The type was collected without information of locale, province or date. The other subpopulation was reported from the Pallatanga valley, near San Jorge.	eng
42898	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42898	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42899	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42899	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 22 subpopulations. Located within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago, Pinchincha and Los Ríos.  The Pichincha and Los Ríos province populations are confined to the area between Patricia Pilar, El Centinela and the Ila mountains.	eng
42899	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal to low Andean forest,  found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42899	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42900	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42900	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Lita river, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42900	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42900	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42901	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42901	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the banks of the Cachabí river, between Imbabura and Esmeraldas provinces.	eng
42901	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42901	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42902	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42902	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in an unspecified locale of Guayas.	eng
42902	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42902	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42903	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42903	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected between Paramba and Penanegra, Imbabura province.	eng
42903	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest.	eng
42903	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42904	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42904	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations. The type was collected in 1976 in the Cordillera de Cutucú. Two other subpopulations occur in Zamora-Chinchipe and one in Pastaza.  May occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42904	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500? m).	eng
42904	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42905	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42905	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces. All but two are in Pichincha, between Quito and Chiriboga, between Nono and Tandayapa, and close to Alluriquin. Can be observed growing on the rocky walls of the Aloag-Santo Domingo road, very close to San Antonio del Toachi.	eng
42905	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic herb of coastal forest to low and high Andean forest (500–3,500 m).	eng
42905	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42906	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42906	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two old collections, one in Angamarca, and the other in an unspecified locale.	eng
42906	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
42906	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42907	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42907	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations, none of them inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. The type was collected in the ENDESA private reserve, at 113 km off the Quito-Puerto Quito road. The second subpopulation was recorded in an unknown locale and the third in the Parroquia Tobar Donoso.	eng
42907	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal to coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
42907	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42908	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42908	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations within the Pichincha province. One was collected in "subtropical forests" of San Nicolás and the second was collected in the ENDESA private reserve.	eng
42908	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal to coastal foothill forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
42908	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42909	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42909	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations, most of them in Pichincha province.	eng
42909	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–2,500 m.	eng
42909	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42910	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42910	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations distributed within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pinchincha. The species is common in the ENDESA private reserve, where it forms colonies.	eng
42910	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest on the western slopes of the Andes, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.	eng
42910	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42911	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42911	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 11 subpopulations, distributed exclusively on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pinchincha.	eng
42911	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–3,500 m.	eng
42911	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42912	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42912	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected between the Río Cachabí and the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42912	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, collected from an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42912	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42913	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42913	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected more than 100 years ago between Nanegal and Gualea, Pichincha province.	eng
42913	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low Andean forest, collected from an elevational range of 1,000–1500 m.	eng
42913	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42914	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42914	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in the southern Andes. The Loja subpopulations are in the Cantón Celica, in Zapotillo heading towards Pozul, and in Celica heading towards Alamor. A 1991 collection from Morona-Santiago has no locale data.	eng
42914	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
42914	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42915	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42915	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations in Imbabura province, very common between Lita and Ibarra.	eng
42915	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of coastal foothill forest and Andean forest, it is very common on rocky dry cliffs between Lita and Ibarra (0–1,500 m).	eng
42915	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42916	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Some additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42916	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected between Río Cachabí and Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42916	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of wet coastal forest, collected from an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42916	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42917	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42917	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations other than the type, collected on the Tungurahua volcano. One subpopulation has been found in the Cordillera de Huacamayos (probably inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras or the Reserva Ecológica Antisana), another in Nangaritza, and the third in Gualaquiza.	eng
42917	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic herb of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
42917	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
42918	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42918	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three populations: recorded between El Recreo and Agua Amarga, also recently collected 6 km north of Bahía de Caráquez and in an unknown locale of Guayas province.	eng
42918	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42918	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42919	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42919	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42919	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid collected within wet coastal forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
42919	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42920	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42920	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, El Oro and Pichincha.	eng
42920	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.	eng
42920	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42921	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42921	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations, all in the ENDESA private reserve, near the Río Cabuyales.	eng
42921	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
42921	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42922	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42922	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in 1985 in coastal lowland forests at San Plácido, between Portoviejo and Pichincha, Manabí province.	eng
42922	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of dry coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42922	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42923	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42923	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected on the Río Masfa, Napo province.	eng
42923	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42923	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42924	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42924	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one old and one recent collection in Napo province. The type was collected in Papallacta-Cuyuja in 1901, and the new subpopulation in Quijos.	eng
42924	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42924	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42925	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42925	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Paramba, Imbabura province.	eng
42925	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, collected at an elevational range of 500–1,000 m.	eng
42925	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42926	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42926	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected between the Cachabí and Santiago rivers of Esmeraldas province.	eng
42926	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest.  Collected at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42926	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42927	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42927	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least two collections: one made in 1900 in Gualea, Pichincha province, and a recent one made near Selva Alegre in Esmeraldas.	eng
42927	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal to low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m	eng
42927	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42928	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42928	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in San Nicolás, Imbabura province.	eng
42928	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid coastal foothill forest, found at an elevation of 900 m.	eng
42928	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42929	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations are reported in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and two plants were found in the Bosque Protector La Perla.	eng
42929	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 33 subpopulations widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of  Cañar, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha, Los Ríos and Tungurahua.	eng
42929	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet forest in coastal and coastal foothill areas (0–1,500 m).	eng
42929	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42930	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42930	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Alto Tambo-Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42930	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42930	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42931	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42931	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected just once, more than 100 years ago in Gualea, Pichincha province.	eng
42931	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42931	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42932	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42932	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected a century ago in Pangoa, in the Cordillera de Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.	eng
42932	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
42932	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42933	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42933	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 37 subpopulations on the western Andean slopes, within the provinces of Pinchincha, Cotopaxi, Ensmeraldas and Imbabura.  Abundant in western Pichincha province including the Río Gujalito, La Favorita, ENDESA, Nanegal and Sarapullo private reserves.	eng
42933	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill forest to high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
42933	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42934	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Species was collected within an area that is now the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42934	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once from inside the Pululahua volcano, Pichincha province.	eng
42934	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
42934	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42935	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42935	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected in Papallacta-Cuyuja, Napo province.	eng
42935	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
42935	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42936	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42936	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 13 subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Imbabura province.  The current subpopulations are healthy and well-known, especially in Esmeraldas and Imbabura.	eng
42936	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest up to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
42936	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.  Considered Vulnerable due to the massive alteration of the western slopes over the last 50 years.	eng
42937	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42937	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 18 subpopulations widely distributed on both sides of the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42937	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
42937	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42938	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42938	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 18 subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes within the Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro and Pichincha provinces. The most recently discovered subpopulations are inside the La Favorita, Maquipucuna and ENDESA private reserves.	eng
42938	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
42938	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42939	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations are known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
42939	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 29 subpopulations widely scattered on the western slopes of the Andes,	eng
42939	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
42939	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42940	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42940	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population collected in an unknown locale.	eng
42940	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown habitat.	eng
42940	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42941	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42941	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the Carchi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Found in the Reserva Etnica Awá and common at altitudes of 400 to 900 m on the Lita-Alto Tambo road.	eng
42941	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).	eng
42941	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42942	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42942	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type, collected in Paramba-Río Lita.	eng
42942	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42942	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42943	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42943	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, one collected in Lloa, Pichincha province, and the other in an unknown locale.	eng
42943	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
42943	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42944	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42944	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collected from an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.	eng
42944	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42944	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42945	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42945	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collected from an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.	eng
42945	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42945	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42946	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42946	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population, recorded near Pauma, Pichincha province.	eng
42946	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest.	eng
42946	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42947	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42947	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected within Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.	eng
42947	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, collected from and elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
42947	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
42949	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42949	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Atacazo volcano, near Florencio, Pichincha province.	eng
42949	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
42949	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42950	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42950	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, one on each side of the Andes. The type was collected in 1904 in Cachabí-Alto Tambo, in coastal Esmeraldas province. Rediscovered in 1988 in Jatun Sacha private reserve, in Amazonian Napo province.	eng
42950	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of coastal and mainland Amazonian forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
42950	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42951	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42951	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Río Cachabí and Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42951	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42951	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42952	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42952	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations, found within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Manabí and Los Ríos.	eng
42952	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal Andean foothills (0–1,000 m).	eng
42952	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42953	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42953	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population, recorded in Paramba-Alto Tambo-Lita, within the provinces of Esmeraldas and Imbabura.	eng
42953	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
42953	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42954	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42954	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the population type, collected  in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.	eng
42954	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
42954	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42955	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42955	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded once, 100 years ago in Nanegal, Pichincha province.	eng
42955	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
42955	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42956	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42956	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single old collection between the Cachabí and Lita rivers, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42956	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest, collected at an elevational range of 0–500 m.	eng
42956	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42957	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42957	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected by L. Diels in the Pastaza river near Río Negro, Tungurahua province.	eng
42957	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42957	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42958	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42958	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 14 subpopulations distributed on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Loja, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42958	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic or hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest (500?–3,500 m).	eng
42958	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42959	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42959	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 14 subpopulations, most of them from small coastal forest remnants within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Pichincha.	eng
42959	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of coastal and coastal foothill forest, found up to an elevational range of 1,000 m.	eng
42959	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is ongoing deforestation and fragmentation of these forests.	eng
42960	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42960	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected once 100 years ago in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province, and not recorded since.	eng
42960	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.	eng
42960	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42961	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to be present within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
42961	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 13 subpopulations scattered across the eastern Andes, within the provinces of Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
42961	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
42961	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42962	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42962	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in Coaja Peñanegra, Imbabura province.	eng
42962	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42962	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42963	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42963	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in the coastal lowlands. Collected in Quillapa, in the Bosque Protector La Perla and in the Tsáchila Peripa community.	eng
42963	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid endemic of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42963	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42964	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42964	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid endemic to Ecuador. Collected along the Masfa river, Napo province.	eng
42964	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
42964	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42965	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Type was collected from and area that is now within the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
42965	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in 1905 on the Tungurahua volcano.	eng
42965	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42965	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42966	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, this species may occur within the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
42966	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations. The type was collected along the Masfa river, near Quijos. A second subpopulation was recorded in the Cordillera de Huacamayos.	eng
42966	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42966	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42967	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
42967	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 14 subpopulations scattered across the western and eastern slopes of the Andes, located within the provinces of Bolívar, Carchi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo and Pichincha.	eng
42967	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest, found within an elevational range of 1,000–3,500 m.	eng
42967	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42968	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42968	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection on the Río Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42968	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
42968	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42969	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42969	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the banks of the Río Silanche, inside the ENDESA private reserve.	eng
42969	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,000 m.	eng
42969	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42970	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, may occur within the protected areas of Cayapas-Mataje, Los Ilinizas and Mache-Chindul.	eng
42970	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 16 subpopulations distributed within the four provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos, on the western slopes of the Andes.	eng
42970	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found within an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
42970	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42971	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42971	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five widely distributed subpopulations within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Morona-Santiago and Los Rios.	eng
42971	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42971	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42972	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42972	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale within the Esmeraldas province.	eng
42972	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid collected from coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
42972	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42973	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42973	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Cachabí, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42973	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
42973	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42974	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42974	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.	eng
42974	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
42974	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42975	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
42975	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 15 subpopulations on the western Andean slopes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42975	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
42975	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42976	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42976	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in an unknown locale, within the province of Guayas.	eng
42976	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42976	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42977	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42977	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected near Santo Domingo, Pichincha province.	eng
42977	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (300–350 m).	eng
42977	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42978	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42978	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations in unspecified locales of Napo province, some along riversides. One was collected along a river in the Primavera community.	eng
42978	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of periodically flooded Amazonian forest (250–500 m).	eng
42978	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42979	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42979	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in Napo province: one along the road between Tena and Puyo, 58.1 km west of Puyo; one inside the Jatun Sacha private reserve; and the third in an unknown locale.	eng
42979	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of mainland Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m).	eng
42979	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42980	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42980	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the nineteenth century.	eng
42980	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low Andean forest (500–1,800 m).	eng
42980	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42981	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42981	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in Pichincha province. The type locale is the Pilatón river, between 800 and 1000 m elevation; other subpopulations are reported for Nanegal, Maquipucuna and the Tsáchila Peripa community.	eng
42981	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill to low Andean forest (150–2,000 m).	eng
42981	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42982	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42982	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected near the Cachabí and Lita rivers, Esmeraldas province.	eng
42982	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
42982	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42983	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type was collected from an area that is now probably within the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
42983	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made on the Tungurahua volcano (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
42983	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic or hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low and high Andean forest.	eng
42983	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42984	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42984	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Nanegal valley, Pichincha province.	eng
42984	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42984	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42985	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
42985	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 28 subpopulations within the provinces of Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
42985	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal to high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000-3,000 m.	eng
42985	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42986	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42986	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected near the Hojal and Lita rivers, in the Esmeraldas or Imbabura provinces.	eng
42986	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
42986	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42987	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Old records were collected from an area that is now covered by the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
42987	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two old records collected in Oyacachi, Napo province.	eng
42987	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
42987	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42988	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42988	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. One population is in an unknown locale of Carchi province, 800 m above sea level; another is on the Esmeraldas-Lita road, 650 m above sea level.	eng
42988	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid, collected from coastal Andean foothills (650–800 m).	eng
42988	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42989	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42989	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population recorded in 1978, in an unknown locale of Carchi province.	eng
42989	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of low Andean forest (900 m).	eng
42989	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42990	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42990	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
42990	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of Amazonian and low Andean forest.  The two known populations occur at 1,700 m and 600 m.	eng
42990	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42991	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42991	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in the coastal Andean foothills, only one with locale information (in the Ila mountains).	eng
42991	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid found in coastal Andean foothills (500–1,000 m).	eng
42991	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42992	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42992	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection in San Carlos de los Colorados, Pastaza province.	eng
42992	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of amazonian forest (250–500 m).	eng
42992	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42993	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42993	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 12 subpopulations, widely distributed on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42993	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of humid coastal and coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
42993	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42994	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42994	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Balao, Guayas province.	eng
42994	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected from humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
42994	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42995	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42995	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected once in the Río Chimbo valley, where the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar and Chimborazo come together.	eng
42995	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected within coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 500-1,500 m.	eng
42995	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42996	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42996	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four collections, all in the Río Palenque private reserve, Los Ríos province.	eng
42996	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid humid coastal forest (150–250 m).	eng
42996	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42997	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42997	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Gualea, Pichincha province.	eng
42997	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
42997	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42998	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
42998	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations, found within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
42998	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal, Amazonian and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.	eng
42998	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
42999	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
42999	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations within the Pichincha province.	eng
42999	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low and high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000-2,500 m.	eng
42999	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43000	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43000	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single collection in Nanegal, Pichincha province.	eng
43000	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid collected from low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43000	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43001	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43001	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected within the Pichincha province.  The type locale is not known.	eng
43001	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43001	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43002	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43002	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Río Palenque private reserve.	eng
43002	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (150–250 m).	eng
43002	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43003	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43003	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations. The type was collected in Angamarca; the species was collected again in San Nicolás and in Gualea. Another subpopulation was reported a century ago, in an unknown locale. A more recently discovered populations is in the Parroquia San Antonio, on the banks of the Río Putul.	eng
43003	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal foothill to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43003	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43004	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43004	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three or four subpopulations, within the Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43004	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest and Amazonian mainland forest (200–2,500 m).	eng
43004	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43005	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43005	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza.	eng
43005	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of Amazonian to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43005	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43006	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43006	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected between Gualea and Nanegal, Pichincha province.	eng
43006	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43006	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43007	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43007	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections, of which two have been made in the Río Palenque private reserve.  Valverde (1991) included the species in his botanical inventory of secondary forests of the Cordilleras de Chongón and Colonche, especially in Cerro Azul and Cerro Caña.	eng
43007	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,500 m.	eng
43007	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43008	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43008	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected in Gualea, Pinchincha province.	eng
43008	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43008	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43009	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43009	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population, discovered in an unknown locale of Esmeraldas province.	eng
43009	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43009	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43010	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43010	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. One is at the confluence of the Lita and Cachabí rivers in Esmeraldas province and the other in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province.	eng
43010	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m?).	eng
43010	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43011	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43011	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in the Nanegal and Gualea valley, Pichincha province.	eng
43011	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43011	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43012	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43012	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, discovered in 1976 in the Cordillera de Cutucú, Morona-Santiago.	eng
43012	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43012	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43013	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43013	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once, in an unknown area of Esmeraldas province.	eng
43013	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43013	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43014	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43014	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations on the western slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha.	eng
43014	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43014	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43015	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43015	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations, found within the Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Carchi provinces.	eng
43015	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43015	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43016	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43016	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected on the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province.	eng
43016	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43016	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43017	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43017	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in San Nicolás, Pichincha province.	eng
43017	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43017	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43018	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43018	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Esmeraldas province.	eng
43018	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	An epiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest.	eng
43018	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43019	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43019	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection, made in the Río Palenque private reserve, Pichincha province.	eng
43019	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of wet coastal forest (150–250 m).	eng
43019	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43020	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43020	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population, collected in Mera, Pastaza province.	eng
43020	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 1,100 m.	eng
43020	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43021	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43021	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in Río Guapará, 20 km north of El Corazón, Cotopaxi province.	eng
43021	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A hemiepiphytic aroid of low Andean forest (1,500 m).	eng
43021	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43022	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43022	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations, found within the provinces of Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and El Oro.	eng
43022	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43022	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43023	conservation	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43023	distribution	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations, three of them apparently near Puyo and Mera. The fourth was recorded in Zamora-Chinchipe province, without locale information.	eng
43023	habitat	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial aroid of Amazonian forest, found at an elevational range of 500–1,500 m.	eng
43023	threats	Benavides, G. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43024	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the protected areas of Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43024	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A characteristic shrub of the high central Andes. Known from 30 subpopulations distributed on the southeastern Andean slopes, found within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.  Could also occur in Peru.	eng
43024	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland, found at and elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43024	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43025	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One population has been recorded within Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43025	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 12 subpopulations, found within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Loja and Morona-Santiago.	eng
43025	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of dry central and wet southern Andean forests (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43025	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43026	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43026	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in three locales on the western Andean slopes. Several collections have been reported near Chiriboga, on the Guaranda-Caluma road, 18.5 km from Santa Fe, and in an unknown locale of Cotopaxi province.	eng
43026	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43026	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43027	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and areas near the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43027	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found within the Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43027	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree that is a frequent and common species in remnant Andean vegetation, in hedges and/or shrubby vegetation along rivers (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43027	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43028	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43028	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations, mainly distributed in western Pichincha province. Isolated subpopulations have been reported from the Baños old road, Cantón Penipe and southern Maldonado.	eng
43028	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43028	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43029	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; probably also in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43029	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations on the northeastern Andes slopes. Collections have been made on the northeastern slopes of the Hacienda Flor del Bosque on the Cuyuja-Quito road, on the Papallacta-Cuyuja road, at 28km off the Playón de San Francisco-La Bonita road, and in an unknown locale inside the same area.	eng
43029	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43029	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43030	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43030	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Restricted to a small area in the southeastern Andes, within the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. Two subpopulations have been reported 33km and 36km off the Gualaceo-Limón road, and a third northeast of Sígsig.	eng
43030	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,700–3,100 m).	eng
43030	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43031	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43031	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single collection, in an unknown locale east of Cuenca.	eng
43031	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A rare tree in high Andean forest and shrubland (2,800–3,300 m).	eng
43031	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43032	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43032	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations from a small area on the southeastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. Several subpopulations have been reported from the Gualaceo-Limón road and in areas near the Páramo del Castillo.	eng
43032	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet characteristic of highlands and very wet areas, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43032	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43033	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43033	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations south of Girón valley and one subpopulation north of the valley on the Cañar-Lluracrumi road.  Found within the provinces of Cañar Loja and El Oro.	eng
43033	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of dry and wet valleys (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43033	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43034	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43034	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 25 subpopulations in the southern Andes. Many collections have been reported from the eastern Andean slopes of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Could occur in northern Peru.	eng
43034	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
43034	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43035	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43035	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in deciduous forest 12 km off the Celica-El Empalme road, Loja province.	eng
43035	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of deciduous forest, collected at an elevation of 1,800 m.	eng
43035	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43036	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43036	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once, in cloudforest 1-2 km north of Nieves, Azuay province.	eng
43036	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or vine of cloudforest, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,100 m.	eng
43036	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43037	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43037	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only by the type, collected 1-8 km north of Sevilla de Oro, near the Parque Nacional Sangay, Azuay province.	eng
43037	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43037	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43038	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43038	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population was discovered in the Río Chanchán canyon, approximately 5 km north of the town of Huigra. Chimborazo province.	eng
43038	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of wet forest, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
43038	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43039	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43039	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in 1982 and still known from a single population. The type was collected on a road 4 km east of "Alao", Chimborazo province. This name has not been found on maps, but is probably near the Río Alao, between Cebadas and Pungalá.	eng
43039	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 3,350–3,500 m.	eng
43039	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Grazing and habitat destruction.	eng
43040	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43040	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in Azuay province.  The collection locale could not be confirmed.	eng
43040	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine.	eng
43040	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43041	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but the locale is near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43041	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection. Discovered on forest edges in the Finca de D. Espinosa, at 12 km off the Loja-Zamora road, Loja province.	eng
43041	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine discovered on forest edges, at an elevation of 2,400 m.	eng
43041	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43042	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43042	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two records within the Loja Province. The type was collected in disturbed forest 2 km south of El Cisne, on the road to Loja, and the paratype in disturbed forest in the Monumento Memorial Roldós,  8 km off the Celica-Guachanamá road.	eng
43042	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–2,700 m).	eng
43042	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43043	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43043	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected outside of Cuenca, at the Partidero Llantera-Chiquitad-Saucay, Azuay province.	eng
43043	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 3,130 m.	eng
43043	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43044	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Type was collected within the  Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43044	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, on the road between Valladolid and Yangana, Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43044	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 2,300 m.	eng
43044	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43045	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43045	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	The type was collected in 1888, but the locale mentioned on its label (Jiatillo) does not appear on modern or old maps. The species was rediscovered in 1984–85, both in the Lloa valley and in an uncertain locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43045	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,600–4,500 m).	eng
43045	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43046	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43046	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in 1985 on the Chillogallo-Chiriboga road, near San Juán, Pichincha province.	eng
43046	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at 3,100–3,260 m.	eng
43046	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43047	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but it could have been collected inside what is now the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43047	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection near Loja. No data are available for the exact locale.	eng
43047	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine, collected at an elevation of 2,170 m.	eng
43047	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43048	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43048	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from only one collection in a forest near Cerro Tipococha, north of Juncal, Chimborazo province.	eng
43048	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (3,220 m).	eng
43048	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43049	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43049	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia acerifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador, accurring in Azuay, Bolivar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja and El Oro provinces.  It is known from 13 subpopulations.	eng
43049	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in dry shrubland areas to high Andean forest (600–3,000 m).	eng
43049	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main known threat to the species is habitat destruction.	eng
43050	conservation	Quintata, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43050	distribution	Quintata, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Sucumbios.  Known from only four subpopulations.	eng
43050	habitat	Quintata, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,520–1,980 m).	eng
43050	threats	Quintata, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known threat to the species is habitat destruction.	eng
43051	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
43051	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia aeranthos</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43051	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,370–1,670 m).	eng
43051	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known threat to the species is habitat destruction.	eng
43052	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
43052	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia asympeltata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Los Rios province.	eng
43052	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (150 m).	eng
43052	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43053	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
43053	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia brandbygeana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one subpopulation in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43053	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (450–700 m).	eng
43053	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43054	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
43054	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia compacticaulis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces. Only known from four subpopulations.	eng
43054	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest and low Andean forest (610–1,200 m).	eng
43054	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43055	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two populations are known to occur inside protected areas.	eng
43055	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia consobrina</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Azuay, Carchi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.  It is known from 13 subpopulations.	eng
43055	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Roadsides and in secondary forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
43055	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43056	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur inside protected areas.	eng
43056	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia dodsonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three subpopulations occurring in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43056	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (600–2,200 m).	eng
43056	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are colonization and the subsequent conversion of native vegetation to croplands.	eng
43057	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
43057	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia exalata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43057	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean shrubland vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43057	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the conversion of native vegetation to croplands.	eng
43058	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43058	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia froebelii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations occurring in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Loja provinces.	eng
43058	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (including roadsides) and high Andean forest (600–3,000 m).	eng
43058	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are road construction and deforestation related to colonization.	eng
43059	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43059	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia geminiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Pichincha province.	eng
43059	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,133–3,535 m).	eng
43059	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the conversion of native forest to pastures.	eng
43060	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43060	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from six subpopulations occurring in Bolívar, Esmeraldas and Los Rios provinces.	eng
43060	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–750 m).	eng
43060	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are illegal deforestation and habitat destruction.	eng
43061	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43061	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia hitchcockii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected in Tungurahua province.	eng
43061	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43061	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the conversion of vegetation remnants to croplands and pastures.	eng
43062	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras).	eng
43062	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia holmnielseniana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from the type speciman, collected in Napo province in 1980.	eng
43062	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest up to high altitude shrubland areas (3,050–3,500 m).	eng
43062	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43063	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43063	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia ludwigii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only four subpopulations in Chimorazo province.	eng
43063	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal and low Andean forest (530–2,000 m).	eng
43063	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are deforestation and the conversion of remnants of primary vegetation to pasture and cropland.	eng
43064	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43064	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia lugonis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pastaza province.	eng
43064	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (1,000 m).	eng
43064	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are disorganized colonization and the conversion of natural forest to pastures.	eng
43065	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras).	eng
43065	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia napoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Napo province.	eng
43065	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland areas (2,500–2,840 m).	eng
43065	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently there are no known threats to the species.	eng
43066	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43066	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia neoharlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected in Loja province.	eng
43066	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Andean vegetation (2,000 m).	eng
43066	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are deforestation and colonization.	eng
43067	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type specimen was collected from a protected area (Parque Nacional Yasuní). The species is thought to occur in other protected areas in the region.	eng
43067	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia oellgaardii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from the type specimen, collected from Orellana province.	eng
43067	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest (260–350 m).	eng
43067	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are oil production, disorganized tourism, and road building allowing more colonization.	eng
43068	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43068	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia parcifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from ten subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43068	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal and Andean forest (600–2,600 m).	eng
43068	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43069	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43069	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered on the western slopes of Atacazo volcano, Pichincha province.	eng
43069	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of secondary paramo vegetation and forest patches dominated by <em>Polylepis sericea</em> (3,700–3,800 m).	eng
43069	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43070	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Collected within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43070	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection, collected near Cuicocha lake, inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Imbabura province.	eng
43070	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (3,100 m).	eng
43070	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are fires and colonization.	eng
43071	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Some populations are protected inside the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasachoa.	eng
43071	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least nine collections within the Chimborazo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Most of the records are from the vicinity of Quito and Ambato.	eng
43071	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of primary or disturbed forest (2,400–3,500 m).	eng
43071	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43072	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43072	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered on the Pichincha volcano directly above Quito. One century later, it was collected again in an unknown locale within the Pichincha province.	eng
43072	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
43072	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Both historical populations have probably been destroyed due to the city's growth.	eng
43073	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43073	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	This species has been collected in San José de Niebli, north of Calacalí, and at an uncertain locale, within the Pichincha province.	eng
43073	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of Andean forest (2,000–2,600 m).	eng
43073	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43074	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43074	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from a single R. Spruce collection in the nineteenth century. The collection locality is unknown, because the description only mentions "Andes".	eng
43074	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine.	eng
43074	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43075	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43075	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered near Pomasqui, just north of Quito, in 1894. Since then at least three additional subpopulations have been recorded, two in the 1980s in Pichincha province.	eng
43075	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43075	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43076	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43076	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from an 1858 collection by R. Spruce in Rio Pangor, near Juan de Velasco, Chimborazo province.	eng
43076	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine	eng
43076	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43077	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Found within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43077	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. The locale is on the road between Valladolid and Yangana, on the slopes of the Nudo de Sabanillas.	eng
43077	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,400 m).	eng
43077	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43078	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43078	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered on the banks of the Río Tarqui, 4–18 km south of Cuenca, Azuay province	eng
43078	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine.	eng
43078	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43079	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43079	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in Lugma Huyca, 12 km north of Saraguro, Loja province.	eng
43079	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine, found growing in recently disturbed soils (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43079	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.  The vine is used by the Saraguro native people as a medicinal plant.	eng
43080	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43080	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection discovered in the Río Chanchán canyon, 5 km north of Huigra, Chimborazo province.	eng
43080	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine in low Andean forest.  The locale description mentions a wet forest that is cloudy in the afternoons (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43080	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43081	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43081	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered near Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
43081	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine, collected at an elevational range of 2,700–3,000 m.	eng
43081	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43082	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43082	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two records collected within the Pichincha province.  The type collection was made 20 km west of Santo Domingo in 1961-62; a later collection was made in the Río Palenque private reserve.	eng
43082	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43082	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43083	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43083	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded once in the north and once in the south of Ecuador. The type collection was made near Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province. The second collection was made in the Maldonado valley, at 60 km off the Tulcán-Maldonado road, Carchi province.	eng
43083	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43083	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43084	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43084	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once near Coca, 2 km south of the Río Napo, Orellana.   Although the locale has been destroyed, additional subpopulations are very likely to occur in the very extensive forests that still remain in eastern Ecuador.	eng
43084	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine with large hairy stems and leaves.  Located within well-drained forest (250–500 m).	eng
43084	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43085	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43085	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population, collected on the Río Yasuní, 3–4 km above its junction with the Río Napo, Orellana.	eng
43085	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of Amazonian forest (250–500 m).	eng
43085	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43086	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43086	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	First recorded on a farm north of San Vicente. The only other record is from the Portoviejo-Pichincha road, 3 km east of San Plácido, Manabí.	eng
43086	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of coastal forest (0–200 m).	eng
43086	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43087	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43087	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from single record on the eastern slopes of the Andes. Collected on "the road to Shell-Mera", Pastaza province.	eng
43087	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine, collected on a rocky slope, from an elevation of 1,050 m.	eng
43087	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43088	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43088	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection on the Baños-Mera road, Tungurahua province.	eng
43088	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine collected within low Andean forest, along a stream (1,200 m).	eng
43088	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43089	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43089	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in the "Valle de Leito", northeast of Baños, near Leitillo, in Pichincha province.	eng
43089	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43089	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43090	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43090	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Found for the first time in the Estero Peñafiel, during the inventory of the Juaneche private reserve, Los Ríos province.	eng
43090	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of coastal forest, collected at an elevation of 70 km.	eng
43090	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43091	conservation	Pitman, N, 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43091	distribution	Pitman, N, 2003	First recorded in an area near the Parque Nacional Machalilla, Manabí province.  Another small subpopulation was recorded in the botanical inventory of the Juaneche private reserve, Los Ríos province.	eng
43091	habitat	Pitman, N, 2003	A vine of wet coastal forest (200 m).	eng
43091	threats	Pitman, N, 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43092	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43092	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two old collections. The type collection was made near Quito, Pichincha province.  This species was  later discovered in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43092	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,800–2,850 m.	eng
43092	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43093	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43093	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in 1920 near Cuenca, Azuay province.	eng
43093	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43093	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43094	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43094	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in four isolated locales in the Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua.	eng
43094	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest to dry high altitude shrubland (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43094	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43095	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43095	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections: the first collected near Quito, and the second recorded in an unknown locale in Pichincha province.	eng
43095	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43095	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43096	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43096	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in three Andean locales and one subpopulation on the Isla Puná, located within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo and Guayas. The Andean populations are in Alausi and Huigra, in the Río Chanchán canyon, and in Guaranda.	eng
43096	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forests, dry vegetation in inter-Andean valleys and the coast (0–2,500 m).	eng
43096	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation and habitat destruction.	eng
43097	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43097	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection near Baeza, Napo province.	eng
43097	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest (2,000 m).	eng
43097	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43098	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43098	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made on the Chillanes-Bucay road, at the Hacienda Tiquibuso, Bolívar province.	eng
43098	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43098	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by increasing deforestation on the western Andean slopes of Bolívar.	eng
43099	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43099	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba aretioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 14 subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43099	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat described superparamo (4,000–4,500 m).	eng
43100	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43100	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Endemic to the northern Andes of Ecuador, where it has been collected at least three times: on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, on the eastern slopes of Napo province and in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43100	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43100	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43101	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43101	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to the northern Andes. Known from three subpopulations: one in El Mirador, 15 km south of San Francisco; another on Loma El Corazón, in the Cantón Montúfar; and a third in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43101	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43101	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43102	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43102	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two records on the southeastern slopes of the Andes. One is from 11 km east of Loja, possibly inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and the other is from the road between Limón and Gualaceo.	eng
43102	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43102	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are deforestation and disorganized colonization.	eng
43103	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Three populations occur inside protected areas, two in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and one in the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43103	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven isolated subpopulations in several Andean sites, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Mornona-Santiago, Napo and Pichincha.	eng
43103	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43103	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43104	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species has been recorded in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.	eng
43104	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from several subpopulations in the Andes, especially on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha and around the Quito valley.	eng
43104	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (2,000–4,000 m).  Most of the collections have been reported in wet areas along roads or trails.	eng
43104	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43105	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43105	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two very old collections in unknown locales of Loja province.	eng
43105	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43105	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is widespread deforestation in the province.	eng
43106	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43106	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a collection in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43106	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of Subtropical/Tropical high altitudinal grassland (4,000–4,500 m).	eng
43106	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Large-scale deforestation	eng
43107	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Pasochoa, Cajas, Sangay, Los Ilinizas, Llanganates and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43107	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed and characteristic of Andean areas. Known from approximately 40 subpopulations within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pinchincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43107	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or vine of high Andean forest to shrubland at high altitudes (2,000–4,500 m).	eng
43107	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43108	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43108	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made at the beginning of the nineteenth century in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43108	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43108	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43109	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43109	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in its Andean region, where at least 12 subpopulations have been reported within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pinchincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43109	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub high Andean forest and shrubland at high altitudes (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43109	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43110	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43110	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Located within the Tungurahua province.  Discovered on the slopes of Monte Chimborazo, near Mocha and seen once more in a locale nearby.	eng
43110	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or vine of high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43110	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43111	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43111	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations confined to the north and central Andes, within the Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua province.	eng
43111	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest and high altitudinal grassland (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43111	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43112	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43112	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection on Volcán Pichincha above Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
43112	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub.	eng
43112	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43113	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43113	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported twice in a relatively small area between Chimborazo and Cañar provinces. First reported between Santa Rosa and Joyagashi, on the borders of what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay. No data available for the second collection.	eng
43113	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43113	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43114	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43114	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. The first was made in 1920 near Quito; the second was made in 1955 in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43114	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb, subshrub or vine of Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43114	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43115	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43115	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations in Azuay province, especially west of Cuenca, on the road to the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43115	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or shrub of Andean forest and high altitudinal shrubland (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43115	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43116	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43116	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the central Andes, known from 12 collections.	eng
43116	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub, mostly collected in disturbed areas, at an elevational range of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
43116	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43117	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43117	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations widely distributed in the Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Loja and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43117	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of high andean forest and high altitude grassland (2,000–4,000 m).	eng
43117	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43118	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation is known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43118	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andes.  Known from 15 subpopulations, within the Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43118	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest and upper Andean vegetation (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43118	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43119	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43119	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two isolated subpopulations: one on the Zamora-Loja road and another in an unspecified locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43119	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43119	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43120	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collection may be inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43120	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection on the northwestern slopes of Antisana, near the Mauca-Machay lake, Napo province.	eng
43120	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high altitude páramo, collected at an elevation of 4,350 m.	eng
43120	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires and grazing.	eng
43121	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43121	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection in the paramo of Laguna Negra, northeast of Alao in the eastern Andes, between Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
43121	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high altitude paramo (4,000–4,500 m).	eng
43121	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are grazing and fires set by humans.	eng
43122	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several subpopulations have been recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43122	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the northern Andean mountains, within the provinces of Azuay, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.	eng
43122	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean paramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43122	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are grazing and fires set by humans.	eng
43123	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potentially occurs in the El Angel, Llanganates, Cayambe-Coca, Sangay and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43123	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the northern and central Andes, within the provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pichincha. Known from 12 subpopulations in El Angel, El Altar, Volcán Cayambe, the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Guamaní and the Guagua Pichincha paramos.	eng
43123	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry high altitude grassland (,3500–4,500 m).	eng
43123	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43124	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.  More taxonomic research is needed on this species' family.	eng
43124	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba ecuadoriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only by the type specimen collected from Napo province.	eng
43124	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat described as superparamo (> 4,500 m).	eng
43124	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43125	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43125	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub endemic to Ecuador, where at least 15 subpopulations have been recorded throughout the Andes, some  Other subpopulations may occur inside similar habitats of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
43125	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub endemic high Andean forest and high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43125	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43126	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43126	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations on the slopes of Volcán Chimborazo, within the provinces of Bolívar and Chimborazo.	eng
43126	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43126	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43127	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confirmed to occur inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and in areas close to the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43127	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least 30 subpopulations have been recorded throughout the Andean region.	eng
43127	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation (2,000–4,000 m).	eng
43127	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation, due to agriculture.	eng
43128	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43128	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection. According to the poor label information, the type was collected near Quito.	eng
43128	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43128	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Extensive destruction of vegetation remnants in the Quito valley and surrounding areas.	eng
43129	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43129	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four isolated subpopulations to both sides of the Andes. Collected west of the Andes on the road to Cañar, 77 km southeast of Guayaquil, and 25 km east of Guayaquil; collected east of the Andes on the Río Bobonaza, between Huagracahi and Cachitama. Also collected in an unknown location in Napo province.	eng
43129	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of coastal and amazonian forest (300–900 m).	eng
43129	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43130	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43130	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection from 1992, made in the Cordillera de Huacamayos, south of Cosanga, Napo province.	eng
43130	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43130	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation due to road construction and colonization.	eng
43131	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Llanganates, Sangay, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43131	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Common in the northern and central Andes and known from more than 40 subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43131	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and dry high altitude páramo (2,000–4,500 m).	eng
43131	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by deforestation and fires set by humans.	eng
43132	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently, this population may be protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43132	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single old collection on the slopes of Volcán Antisana, Napo province.	eng
43132	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of Páramo.	eng
43132	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are grazing and fires	eng
43133	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Subpopulations may occur inside the Manglares-Churute and Machalilla protected areas.	eng
43133	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from two collections in the nineteenth century, one close to Balao, Guayas province, and another at the Hacienda El Recreo, north of San Vicente in Manabí province.	eng
43133	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43133	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
43134	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43134	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	known from three historical collections made 150 years ago. The collection labels only mention "In Andinus Quitensibus", this probably refers to the forest that used to surround Quito.	eng
43134	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest.	eng
43134	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43135	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43135	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four collections in the central Andes and Azuay province.	eng
43135	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest and high altitude vegetation (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43135	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43136	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43136	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two Azuay collections of dubious provenance.	eng
43136	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub in high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43136	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43137	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas	eng
43137	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations, recorded from the central Andes to Azuay province.	eng
43137	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43137	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43138	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confirmed to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43138	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andes but with only six reported subpopulations.	eng
43138	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and arbustivo páramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43138	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43139	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43139	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to a small region in the central Andes and only known from two subpopulations: one recorded on San Lucas-Oña road, in Loja province, and the other between Oña and the Río Yacuambi, in Azuay.	eng
43139	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or vine of Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43139	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43140	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43140	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations confined to the central Andes, four in areas near Loja and two on the Gualaceo-Limón road.	eng
43140	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high altitude shrubland and vegetation (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43140	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43141	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43141	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in 1947 on the Río Calera, near Zaruma, El Oro province.	eng
43141	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of coastal foothill forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43141	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collection area is under intense demographic pressure, which threatens the conservation status of native forests in the area.   Habitat destruction.	eng
43142	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43142	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population on the eastern Andean slopes. The type was collected in the Río Negro valley, above Río Pailas, on the way to Méndez, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43142	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43142	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43143	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43143	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported only once, near the Hacienda El Recreo, north of San Vicente, in Manabí province.	eng
43143	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43143	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by the large-scale deforestation.	eng
43144	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43144	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations confined to the central Andes.	eng
43144	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43144	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43145	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43145	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations in the southern Andes, distributed between Cuenca, Sígsig and San Lucas.	eng
43145	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).  Most of the collections have been from roadsides.	eng
43145	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43146	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43146	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one population discovered 12-15 km off the Vilcabamba-Yangana road, Loja province.	eng
43146	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43146	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43147	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43147	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in a small area of the Río Chanchán valley, near Huigra, Chimborazo province.	eng
43147	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
43147	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43148	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43148	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations distributed in the central Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43148	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43148	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43149	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43149	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population, collected between Biblián and Cañar. This is a well-studied area, but the species has not been rediscovered.	eng
43149	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high altitude páramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43149	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43150	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43150	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, one to the east and another to the west of the Andes. The eastern subpopulation was collected in 1974 in the headwaters of the Río Bobonaza, roughly 12 km east of Puyo. The western subpopulation was collected in 1978 in the surroundings of Maldonado.	eng
43150	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of mainland Amazonian and low Andean forest (700–2,000 m).	eng
43150	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43151	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43151	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations, two in Carchi province and the third in Pichincha. The northern subpopulations were recorded to the southeast of Maldonado and on Cerro Golondrinas. The Pichincha collection is from an uncertain locale.	eng
43151	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
43151	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43152	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two subpopulations have been reported in the Reserva Etnica Awá and one in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43152	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations confined to the northwestern Andean slopes, within the Esmeraldas, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43152	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of wet forest, found at an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.	eng
43152	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Expanding agriculture and habitat destruction.	eng
43153	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43153	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations confined to the northeastern Andean slopes, within the Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43153	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of Amazonian to high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
43153	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43154	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43154	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations, found within the Napo, Orellana and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43154	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub recorded along the rivers in the northern Amazonian lowlands, found at an elevational range of 250–600 m.	eng
43154	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43155	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43155	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations distributed east of the Andes. Reported on the Baeza-Lago Agrio road, before the Volcán El Reventador; near Río Negro, east of Baños; and in an unknown locale of Pastaza province.	eng
43155	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
43155	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43156	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43156	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections within the Pichincha province. The first was recorded between Nono and Mindo, and the second recorded in an unspecified locale.	eng
43156	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43156	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43157	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43157	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the central Andes and the border area of Azuay and Morona-Santiago. No locale data are available for the subpopulations.	eng
43157	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43157	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43158	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43158	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded only once by L. Sodiro.  Locality and habitat are currently unknown.	eng
43158	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub.	eng
43158	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Possibly habitat destruction.	eng
43159	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43159	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to a small area in the west of Pichincha province. Recorded east of Nanegalito and on Cerro Negro, roughly 3.5 km east of Nanegalito.	eng
43159	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43159	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43160	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43160	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a collection on the Chillanes-Bucay road, at the Hacienda Tiquibuso, Bolívar province,  Also known from a second collection, probably within the same province.	eng
43160	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43160	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43161	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43161	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in the Andean region of Pichincha province. First recorded in an unknown locale close to Quito. No information is available for the second collection, but it probably occurred within the same province.	eng
43161	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43161	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widespread destruction of native vegetation in the Quito valley.	eng
43162	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Río Palenque private reserve.	eng
43162	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed on both sides of the Andes, from the coast to the Amazon lowlands, but known only from six subpopulations.	eng
43162	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of Amazonian and coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
43162	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43163	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43163	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection in 1988 in a disturbed forest near the Latacunga-Pilaló-Quevedo road, 5–15 km east of Pilaló, Cotopaxi province.	eng
43163	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43163	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43164	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43164	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections west of Cuenca, Azuay province.  First collected in 1974 in the Sayausid (Sayausi) mountains and subsequently collected on the Cuenca-Soldados road, 19–20 km west of San Joaquín.	eng
43164	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet or tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43164	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43165	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43165	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, of the Río Jubones valley, on the Pasaje-Santa Isabel-Girón road, El Oro province.	eng
43165	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of xerophytic vegetation, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
43165	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43166	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43166	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection reported in a disturbed area along the Cuenca-San Joaquín-Angas road, southwest of Cuenca, between Bayán and the Hacienda Pucán, Azuay province.	eng
43166	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43166	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43167	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43167	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in a small area along the Cotacachi-Apuela road, near the paramos of Tablachupa, Imbabura province.	eng
43167	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43167	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43168	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43168	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Baños, in the Andean slopes, to Lorocachi in the Amazonian lowlands. One population has been reported in the southern Amazon, west of Limón, in Morona-Santiago.	eng
43168	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, treelet or tree of Amazonian to Andean forest (250–2,500 m).	eng
43168	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43169	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known from any protected areas, but it is thought that the species may occur within Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43169	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia pectennervia</em> is endemic to Ecuador. The species is known from four subpopulations in Napo province.	eng
43169	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,750–1,950 m).	eng
43169	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction (for example, road construction) is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43170	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43170	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia secunda</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations collected from Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43170	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,200 m).	eng
43170	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43171	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43171	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia serotina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 17 subpopulations occurring in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Manabí and El Oro provinces.	eng
43171	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (200–1,200 m).	eng
43171	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43172	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43172	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 15 subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43172	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland areas (700–3,450 m).	eng
43172	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are mining and the conversion of forest remnants to pasture and croplands.	eng
43173	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within a protected area (National Park).	eng
43173	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia sparreana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  The species is known only from one population occurring in Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.	eng
43173	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest (260–300 m).	eng
43173	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Road construction, colonization and oil production inside Parque Nacional Yasuní are undoubtedly affecting the populations.	eng
43174	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43174	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia tetrandra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three populations in Napo, Pastaza and Tunguarahua.	eng
43174	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43174	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43175	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43175	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia triramosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Chimborazo province.	eng
43175	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (600–1,200 m).	eng
43175	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43176	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43176	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia tropaeolifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two subpopulations in El Oro province.	eng
43176	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,430 m).	eng
43176	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are deforestation and conversion of vegetation remnants to croplands and pasture.	eng
43177	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43177	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia truncicola</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from three subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43177	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,100–2,240 m).	eng
43177	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the conversion of forest remnants to croplands.	eng
43178	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43178	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia valvata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only two collections in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43178	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Lowland Amazonian to high Andean forests (885–2,500 m).	eng
43178	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are deforestation and excessive colonization.	eng
43179	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43179	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia xerophyta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections, all from Loja province.	eng
43179	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43179	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are small-scale mining and deforestation.	eng
43180	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43180	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Begonia ynesiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only four subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43180	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos  (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43180	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are excessive tourism and paramos fires.	eng
43181	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43181	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis chillacochensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador, known only from two recent collections in Loja province and an old collection from El Oro province.	eng
43181	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43181	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	May be threatened by the Jimbura-Zumba road construction.	eng
43182	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43182	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis farinosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only by the type, collected in Pichincha province.	eng
43182	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43182	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43183	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43183	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis hirtellipes</em> is known only from one collection in 1825.  The location of the collection is unknown.	eng
43183	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43183	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43184	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43184	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis hyperythra</em> is known only from the type collection from Chimborazo province.	eng
43184	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43184	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43185	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur inside protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43185	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador where it Is known from at least five subpopulations in Azuay, Imbabura, Cañar, Loja and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43185	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43185	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43186	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43186	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis laidivo</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collection sites in Bolívar province.	eng
43186	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid grassland (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43186	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43187	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43187	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis lechleriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one collection in Azuay province.	eng
43187	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43187	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43188	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43188	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis minzaensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least four subpopulations in Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43188	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43188	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43189	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43189	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis papillosa</em> is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pichincha province.	eng
43189	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43189	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43190	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43190	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis pavoniana</em> is known only from the type specimen, collected from Pichancha province.	eng
43190	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43190	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43191	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic evaluation of this species is required before a conservation assessment can be made.	eng
43191	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis pectinata</em>is known only from two collections, one of which was from Chimorazo province.	eng
43191	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43191	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43192	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43192	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis pindilicensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja and Tungurahhua provinces.	eng
43192	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43192	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43193	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	A thorough taxonomic evaluation of this species is needed before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43193	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis reicheana</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from only two collections in Azuay and Cañar provinces.	eng
43193	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43193	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43194	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43194	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis saxorum</em> is known only from the type specimen collected from Pichancha province.	eng
43194	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat is uncertain, but may have been collected from high Andean forest.	eng
43194	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43195	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research on this species is needed before its conservation status can be evaluated.	eng
43195	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis schwerinii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from perhaps four collections from Azuay, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43195	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43195	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown	eng
43196	conservation	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Taxonomic research is required on this species before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43196	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Berberis simonsii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections.	eng
43196	habitat	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43196	threats	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43197	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
43197	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Matisia alata</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from seven subpopulations in Esmeraldas, Manabi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43197	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43197	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the widescale destruction of coastal forests.	eng
43198	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43198	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Matisia coloradorum</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Esmeraldas, Manabi, Pichincha, Los Rios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43198	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,100 m).	eng
43198	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are logging and mining.	eng
43199	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43199	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Matisia grandifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, Pichancha and Los Rios provinces.	eng
43199	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43199	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are colonization, the wood industry, and mining, all of which fragment habitat.	eng
43200	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43200	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Matisia palenquiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five locales in Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, El Oro, Pichancha and Los Rios.	eng
43200	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43200	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43201	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	The taxonomy of this species needs to be clarified before a conservation assessment can be carried out.	eng
43201	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pseudobombax guayasense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from Guayas province.	eng
43201	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43201	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this taxon.	eng
43202	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	A threat category cannot be assigned until its taxonomic relationship with <em>P. guayasense</em> and <em>P. septenatum</em> is resolved	eng
43202	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pseudobombax millei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro and Los Rios provinces.	eng
43202	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43202	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this tree.	eng
43203	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Amsinckia marginata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one collection from Pichancha province. It has not been collected sonce the beginning of the twentieth century and may now be extinct.	eng
43203	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest  (2,850 m).	eng
43203	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43204	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43204	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cordia rosei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from 3 subpopulations in Chimborazo and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43204	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43204	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43205	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Heliotropium argenteum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43205	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43205	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known current threat. Due to its beauty the species has potential as an ornamental.	eng
43206	conservation	Pitman, N., 2003	A search for this species required to confirm its continued existence.	eng
43206	distribution	Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tournefortia obtusiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from a single collection from Guayas province. This tree may already be extinct due to habitat loss.	eng
43206	habitat	Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43206	threats	Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.	eng
43207	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43207	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba hookeri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43207	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43207	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species. Potential threats in the lower areas are grazing and fires.	eng
43208	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43208	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba obovata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43208	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43208	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. Potential threats in the lower areas are grazing and fires.	eng
43209	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43209	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba splendens  </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43209	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43209	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43210	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43210	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba spruceana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43210	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and high altitude paramo (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43210	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43211	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in protected areas.	eng
43211	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba steyermarkii</em> is known from a single population in Azuay province.	eng
43211	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to humid paramo (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43211	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
43212	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43212	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba stylosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Bolívar and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
43212	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid, high altitude paramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43212	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
43213	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43213	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Draba violacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three colections from Azuay province.	eng
43213	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat described as super paramo (4,400–>4,500 m).	eng
43213	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43214	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43214	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Eudema nubigena</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43214	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat described as super paramos (4,000–>4,500 m).	eng
43214	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
43215	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43215	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lepidium ecuadoriense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least two subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43215	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43215	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43216	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.  Further study of this species and its family is required.	eng
43216	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lepidium quitense</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is n=known from at least two subpopulations in Pichincha and Tungurhua provinces.	eng
43216	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43216	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43217	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43217	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea abbreviata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is a widespread species found in Morana-Santiago, Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43217	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland and periodically flooded forest (250–500 m).	eng
43217	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is road construction that facilitates colonization and deforestation.	eng
43218	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43218	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea aculeatosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from Morana-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43218	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43218	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.	eng
43219	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43219	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea biflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Morana-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43219	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43219	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Highly threatened by intensive collections due to its ornamental and commercial value.	eng
43220	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43220	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea geminiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the typespecimen, collected from Tungurahua province.	eng
43220	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43220	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43221	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43221	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea kentii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morana-Santiago province.	eng
43221	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (400–1,800 m).	eng
43221	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43222	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43222	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea lugoi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pastaza province.	eng
43222	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43222	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation and loss of forest remnants.	eng
43223	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43223	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea manzanaresiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napos province.	eng
43223	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43223	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Due to its ornamental value, the species is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use. The principal threat in the Cordillera de los Huacamayos is deforestation, due to colonization.	eng
43224	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43224	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea napoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from napos and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43224	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (250–1,500 m).	eng
43224	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43225	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43225	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea patriciae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pastaza province.	eng
43225	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian and periodically flooded mainland forest (250–500 m).	eng
43225	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The locale is being deforested due to colonization.	eng
43226	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43226	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea roeseliae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napos and El Oro provinces.	eng
43226	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43226	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is deforestation due to colonization of areas near the road.	eng
43227	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43227	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea tayoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuadro.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Morana-Santiago province.	eng
43227	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest  (500–1,000 m).	eng
43227	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	No threats are known.	eng
43228	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43228	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Aechmea wuelfinghoffii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43228	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest (600–900 m).	eng
43228	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization, timber extraction, and mining.	eng
43229	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43229	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Greigia atrobrunnea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43229	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43229	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43230	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43230	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Greigia sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in high-altitude areas of Azuay, Loja and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43230	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,000–>4,500 m).	eng
43230	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43231	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43231	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Loja provinces.	eng
43231	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43231	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of Andean forest to croplands.	eng
43232	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43232	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania albescens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Esmeralda province.	eng
43232	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (700 m).	eng
43232	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization.	eng
43233	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43233	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania alborosea</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Bolívar, Carchi, Esmeralda, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.	eng
43233	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43233	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Highly threatened because is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use due to its ornamental value.	eng
43234	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43234	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania alcantareoides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43234	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,200–1,500 m).	eng
43234	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation caused by colonization and small-scale mining.	eng
43235	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43235	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania andreettae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napos provinces.	eng
43235	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43235	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Highly threatened because it is heavily collected in the wild for commercial use due to its ornamental value.	eng
43236	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43236	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely spread in Morona-Santiago, Napos, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43236	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest until low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43236	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43237	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43237	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania atrocastanea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43237	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43237	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.  At least two subpopulations are threatened by deforestation and agriculture.	eng
43238	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43238	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania barbiei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, colleted from Guayas province.	eng
43238	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43238	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43239	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43239	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania bergii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napos province.	eng
43239	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43239	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is forest conversion to pasture.	eng
43240	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43240	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania condorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43240	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43240	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation due to colonization, timber extraction and mining.	eng
43241	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43241	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania corniculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Esmeralda province.	eng
43241	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (600 m).	eng
43241	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.	eng
43242	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43242	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania dalstroemii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43242	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43242	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. The Cóndor population may be threatened by fires.	eng
43243	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43243	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania ecuadorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43243	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43243	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43244	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43244	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania foetida</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Morona-Santiago, Napos, Pastaza, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43244	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43244	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43245	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43245	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania fosteriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widespread in Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43245	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43245	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43246	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43246	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania fuerstenbergiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight collections from Bolívar, Esmeralda, Guayas, Imbabura, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43246	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m)	eng
43246	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The majority of Ecuador's coastal foothill forest has been converted to croplands.	eng
43247	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43247	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania fuquae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  Known from four subpopulations in Esmeralda province.	eng
43247	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43247	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threat to this species is deforestation which has led to higher water levels, increased pollution and sedimentation and the destruction of the habitat.	eng
43248	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43248	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania fusispica</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43248	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43248	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43249	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43249	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Esmeralda and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43249	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43249	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43250	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43250	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania henniae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known by only two records from Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43250	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (700–1,050 m).	eng
43250	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.	eng
43251	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43251	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Napo provinces.	eng
43251	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43251	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and the timber industry.	eng
43252	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43252	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania hollinensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six subpopulations in Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43252	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43252	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unprotected populations are threatened by deforestation produced by colonization and the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43253	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43253	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania inexpectata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one record in Esmeralda province.	eng
43253	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (600–700 m).	eng
43253	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization and timber extraction.	eng
43254	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43254	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania izkoi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Napo province.	eng
43254	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43254	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
43255	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43255	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania jaramilloi</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Bolír, Esmeralda, Guayas, Imbabura, Manabí, El Oro and Pichincha.	eng
43255	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43256	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43256	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania kentii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Imbabura province.	eng
43256	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–1,700 m).	eng
43256	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat for is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43257	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania lepidota</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pichincha province.  The species has not been collected in over 123 years and may already be extinct.	eng
43257	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (2,000 m).	eng
43257	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The area the type was collected from has been completely deforested for charcoal production and croplands.	eng
43258	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43258	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania madisonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43258	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43258	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation produced by colonization, timber extraction and mining. It is also highly collected in the wild for commercial use.	eng
43259	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43259	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania osyana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Bolívar and Loja provinces.	eng
43259	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest until low Andean forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
43259	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The habitat of the species has been largely deforested and populations occur only in forest remnants along creeks.	eng
43260	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43260	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania poortmanii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen.	eng
43260	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43260	population	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	No collections have been made since and the area has been deforested and mostly converted to croplands, raising the possibility that the species is extinct.	eng
43260	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43261	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43261	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania pseudospectabilis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43261	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43261	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is forest conversion to croplands.	eng
43262	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43262	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania puyoensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43262	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43262	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Both subpopulations are threatened by deforestation due to colonization.	eng
43263	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43263	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania remyi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, bolívar, Cañar, carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.	eng
43263	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43263	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not considered threatened due to its adaptation to forest remnants and trees left standing in pastures.	eng
43264	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43264	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania roseiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43264	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43264	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.	eng
43265	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43265	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania rubrolutea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Sucumbios province.	eng
43265	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43265	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43266	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43266	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania septata</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43266	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43266	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43267	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43267	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania sieffiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collection from Esmeralda province.	eng
43267	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43267	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization and grazing.	eng
43268	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43268	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania striata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type collection from Pastaza province.	eng
43268	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (900 m).	eng
43268	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The habitat of the species has been totally destroyed by forest conversion to croplands.	eng
43269	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43269	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania teuscheri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It occurs in Azuay, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Loja, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43269	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43269	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.	eng
43270	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43270	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania xanthobractea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It occurs in Cañar, Imbabura, Loja, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43270	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43270	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43271	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43271	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Guzmania zakii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pastaza, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43271	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest (250–500 m).	eng
43271	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat for the habitat is deforestation produced by oil extraction and colonization.	eng
43272	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43272	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Mezobromelia brownii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43272	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest until high altitude paramos (2,700 m).	eng
43272	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43273	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43273	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Mezobromelia fulgens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43273	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43273	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are conversion of forest to croplands, reforestation with <em>Pinus radiata</em> and fires set by humans.	eng
43274	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43274	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia alexanderi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43274	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43274	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and colonization.	eng
43275	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43275	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia carnososepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43275	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m)	eng
43275	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.	eng
43276	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43276	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia fulgens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43276	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43276	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation produced by colonization.	eng
43277	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43277	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia harlingii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations Morona-Santiago, Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43277	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43277	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation due to colonization and forest conversion to croplands.	eng
43278	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43278	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia hooveri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Esmeralda and Imbabura provinces.	eng
43278	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43279	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43279	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pepinia verrucosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Sucumbios province.	eng
43279	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m).	eng
43279	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of its habitat to croplands.	eng
43280	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43280	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulatins in Chimborazo province.	eng
43280	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43281	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43281	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia alata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43281	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (1,950–3,000 m).	eng
43281	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of Andean forest to croplands.	eng
43282	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43282	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia andreetae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43282	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43282	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species' habitat has largely been converted to pasture and both collections are from remnants.	eng
43283	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43283	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia bergii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in El Oro province.	eng
43283	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43283	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43284	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43284	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia caduciflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one location in Pastaza province.	eng
43284	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000 m).	eng
43284	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forests to croplands.	eng
43285	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43285	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia clarkii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected in Esmeralda province.	eng
43285	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (400–600 m).	eng
43285	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and colonization.	eng
43286	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43286	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia cosangaensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Napo provinces.	eng
43286	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43286	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43287	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43287	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia devansayana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43287	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (1,100–2,200 m).	eng
43287	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.	eng
43288	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43288	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia dodsonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43288	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43288	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43289	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43289	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia elliptica</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Cañar, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43289	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43289	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43290	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43290	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia ferrell-ingramiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations Esmeralda and Imbabura provinces.	eng
43290	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43290	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43291	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43291	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia fusca</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43291	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43291	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species' apparently adaptability to different habitats reduces its susceptibility to threats in the region.	eng
43292	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43292	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least six collections from Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43292	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43292	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43293	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43293	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia lutescens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43293	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43293	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of its habitat into croplands.	eng
43294	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43294	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia oblongifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43294	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to dry semi deciduous forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43294	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43295	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43295	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia pavonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten collections from Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43295	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest and dry Andean vegetation to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43295	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires started by people.	eng
43296	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43296	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia prolifera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43296	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal to dry semi deciduous forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43296	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of dry and semi deciduous forest to croplands.	eng
43297	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43297	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia reflexiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, El oro and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43297	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43297	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation is reducing the species' habitat loss and leading to a rapid decrease in the population.	eng
43298	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43298	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia simulans</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 19 subpopulations in Carchi, Esmeralda, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.	eng
43298	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m)	eng
43298	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43299	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43299	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador, occurring in Cotopaxi, Manabí and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43299	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43299	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43300	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43300	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia stevensonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 3 subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43300	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43300	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation caused by timber extraction and agriculture.	eng
43301	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43301	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia unilateralis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Guayas and Manabí provinces.	eng
43301	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43301	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Few threats are apparent because the plant apparently adapts well to artificial environments like road cuts.	eng
43302	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43302	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pitcairnia violascens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cañar, Chimborazo, Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43302	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest to dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43302	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43303	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43303	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Carchi, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43303	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest to dry Andean vegetation (500–4,000 m).	eng
43303	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only threat to the species are fires set by people.	eng
43304	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43304	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya angelensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from carchi province.	eng
43304	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43304	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is fire set by humans.	eng
43305	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43305	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya compacta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43305	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude, humid paramos (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43305	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat loss through fires set by humans, conversion of forest to croplands and reforestation with <em>Pinus radiata</em>.	eng
43306	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43306	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya eryngioides</em> is widely distributed in Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43306	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	high altitude, humid paramos (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43306	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires set by people and conversion of forest to pine plantations or croplands.	eng
43307	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43307	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya exigua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43307	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude, humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43307	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires set by humans and the conversion of forests to croplands.	eng
43308	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43308	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya glomerifera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43308	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation to dry and humid paramos (1,500–4,500 m).	eng
43308	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only threat to this species.	eng
43309	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43309	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya maculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43309	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid paramos (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43309	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only threat to this species.	eng
43310	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43310	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya nutans</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
43310	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid paramos (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43310	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fire and the conversion of forest to pine plantations or croplands.	eng
43311	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43311	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya obconica</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43311	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43311	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threats are fires set by people and the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43312	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43312	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya parviflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven collections from Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43312	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43312	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of natural forest to pine plantations.	eng
43313	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43313	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya pichinchae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two locations in Pichincha province.	eng
43313	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43313	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43314	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43314	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya pygmaea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven locations in Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.	eng
43314	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid paramos (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43314	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are slash and burn agriculture and pine plantations.	eng
43315	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43315	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya retrorsa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43315	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation to dry paramos (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43315	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43316	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43316	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya roseana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43316	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Elevational range: 2,000–3,500 m	eng
43317	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43317	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Puya sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43317	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43317	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species is threatened by habitat conversion to croplands and fires.	eng
43318	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43318	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea blassii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43318	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43318	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43319	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43319	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea euryelytra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43319	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43319	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by people.	eng
43320	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43320	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea hauggiae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.	eng
43320	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43320	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires and the conversion of native forest to croplands.	eng
43321	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43321	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea inconspicua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43321	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43321	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43322	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43322	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea pseudotetrantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43322	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43322	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by the conversion of native forest to croplands.	eng
43323	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43323	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea quadripinnata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pinchincha provinces.	eng
43323	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest high altitude paramos (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43323	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by people.	eng
43324	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43324	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea sinuosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 16 subpopulations in Cañar, Loja, Napo, El Oro and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43324	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43324	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43325	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43325	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea tandapiana</em> is endemic to Ecuador. It is known from seven subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43325	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43326	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43326	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Racinaea tripinnata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least ten collections in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja, Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.	eng
43326	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43326	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are the conversion of forest to croplands and fires set by humans.	eng
43327	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43327	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Ronnbergia campanulata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43327	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,950 m)	eng
43327	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation produced by colonization, timber extraction, and mining.	eng
43328	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43328	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia acosta-solisii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from ten subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces.	eng
43328	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (420–1,500 m).	eng
43328	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43329	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43329	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Imbabura and Loja provinces.	eng
43329	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43329	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43330	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43330	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia brenneri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Pastaza province.	eng
43330	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43330	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation, due to the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43331	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43331	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia cernua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.	eng
43331	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–4,000 m).	eng
43331	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of Andean forest to croplands.	eng
43332	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43332	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia cucullata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43332	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43332	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forests to croplands and pasture.	eng
43333	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43333	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia cyanea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Pichinca provinces.	eng
43333	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43333	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of wet coastal forest to croplands and pasture. The species is threatened by intensive collections due to its ornamental and commercial value.	eng
43334	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43334	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia demissa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43334	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43334	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threat to the species is accidental fire.	eng
43335	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43335	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia dyeriana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Esmeralda and Guayas provinces.	eng
43335	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Mangrove forest (0–500 m).	eng
43335	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Shrimp-farming has destroyed most Ecuadorian mangrove habitat over the last 50 years.	eng
43336	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43336	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia emergens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43336	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest  (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43336	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43337	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43337	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia hirtzii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo, Sucumbios and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43337	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43337	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the removal of trees left standing in pasture.	eng
43338	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43338	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia indigofera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least five collections from Carchi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43338	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43338	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by dry-season fires.	eng
43339	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43339	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia marnieri-lapostollei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43339	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal forest (500–1,900 m).	eng
43339	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43340	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43340	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia nervisepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43340	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43340	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is fire set by humans in paramos and Andean forest.	eng
43341	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43341	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia pachyaxon</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Cañar province.	eng
43341	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
43341	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43342	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43342	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia polyantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43342	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest to high altitude paramos (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43342	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threat to the species is conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43343	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43343	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia portillae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43343	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43343	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threats to the species are agriculture and fires set by people.	eng
43344	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	One population is protected in the Maquipucuna private reserve.	eng
43344	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia pretiosa</em> is endemic to ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43344	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest until sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43344	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Highly threatened by intensive collection due to its ornamental and commercial value.	eng
43345	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43345	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia raackii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from only one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43345	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,900 m).	eng
43345	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43346	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43346	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia rhodosticta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43346	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43346	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation due to colonization and the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43347	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43347	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia rubroviolacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43347	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43347	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation due to the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43348	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43348	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia sceptriformis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43348	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43348	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43349	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43349	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia sodiroi</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six collections from Chimborazo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43349	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43349	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43350	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43350	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia spathacea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five collections from Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43350	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43350	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43351	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43351	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia umbellata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43351	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43351	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.	eng
43352	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43352	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Tillandsia zarumensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43352	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude dry and humid paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43352	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by fires and the spread of pine plantations.	eng
43353	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43353	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea andreettae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.	eng
43353	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43353	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is destruction of its habitat by fire and the subsequent establishment of sugar cane plantations.	eng
43354	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43354	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea appendiculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43354	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43354	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pine plantations.	eng
43355	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
43355	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea arpocalyx</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43355	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation to low Andean forest (1500–3000 m).	eng
43355	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Fire is the main threat to this species.	eng
43356	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43356	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea boeghii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Carchi, Loja and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43356	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43356	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat to the populations in Carchi and Sucumbios is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43357	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43357	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea drewii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Imbabura province.	eng
43357	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43357	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands.	eng
43358	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43358	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea limonensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Zamoro-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43358	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43358	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest remnants to pasture.	eng
43359	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43359	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea lutheri</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is kown only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43359	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,690 m).	eng
43359	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats for the species are unknown.	eng
43360	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43360	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea penduliscapa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43360	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Piemontano amazonian forest until low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43360	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43361	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43361	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea petraea</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.	eng
43361	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude dry and humid paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43361	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is human-started fires.	eng
43362	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected area.	eng
43362	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea strobeliae</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Azuay province.	eng
43362	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43362	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population was severely impacted by the catastrophic Josefina landslide. Specific current threats are unknown.	eng
43363	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43363	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea tillii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected in Sucumbios province.	eng
43363	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,800 m).	eng
43363	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.	eng
43364	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43364	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Vriesea wuelfinghoffii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.	eng
43364	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43365	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43365	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Werauhia diantha</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43365	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43365	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and the conversion of forest remnants to pasture.	eng
43366	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43366	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Werauhia haltonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.	eng
43366	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43366	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43367	conservation	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43367	distribution	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Werauhia paupera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is widely distributed in Carchi, Esmeralda and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43367	habitat	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1000 m).	eng
43367	threats	Manzanares, J.M. & Pitman, N., 2003	The populations not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network are threatened by the conversion of forest to croplands and pasture.	eng
43368	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43368	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection made in 1931 close to the Caserio de Yamboya, east of Tandapi, Pichincha province.	eng
43368	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43368	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by deforestation	eng
43369	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43369	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three Andean collections. The Pichincha population was recorded on the lower slopes of Cerro Ilaló, in Tumbaco valley. Also found within the Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43369	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43369	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43370	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.   One subpopulation has been reported near the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43370	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Loja and Azuay provinces.	eng
43370	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43370	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43371	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some subpopulations have been recorded inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.	eng
43371	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 10 populations, within the Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Several collections have been recorded in the northern Andes.	eng
43371	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43371	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Quito’s urban development threatens some populations.	eng
43372	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43372	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations in the Andes.  Four additional collections have been reported, two of them in unknown locales of Pichincha and Imbabura provinces, one on the Loja-Zamora road and on near El Angel.	eng
43372	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43372	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43373	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Cajas, since it has been collected nearby.	eng
43373	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations, recorded within the Azuay, Cañar and Loja provinces.	eng
43373	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43373	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Considered Endangered due to deforestation, fires and conversion of forests to croplands over the last century.	eng
43374	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43374	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection, 15 km east of Gualaquiza, in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43374	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,090 m).  The collector described the species' habitat as an open area dominated by Bromeliaceae with few shrubs and trees.	eng
43374	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are colonization and deforestation.	eng
43375	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two subpopulations have been reported in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and other subpopulations occur nearby.	eng
43375	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations in the cordilleras that divide Loja and Zamora provinces, and has been collected several times in the southern Andes over the last 20 years.	eng
43375	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or vine of high Andean forest, with a small altitudinal range, around 2,800 m elevation.	eng
43375	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43376	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43376	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, recorded near the Río Pilatón (an affluent of the Río Toachi), east of Alluriquín, in Pichincha province.	eng
43376	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub, shrub or liana of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43376	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is conversion of forest to croplands and urban land.	eng
43377	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43377	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations in the southern Andes and an isolated subpopulation in Pichincha province.	eng
43377	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43377	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Probably threatened by deforestation.	eng
43378	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43378	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population recorded in Sinangüe, between Ulushapa and Oña, in Azuay or Loja province.	eng
43378	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub collected from high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
43378	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43379	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43379	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from three subpopulations: one near Alausi, and two in unknown locales of Cañar and Azuay provinces.	eng
43379	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43379	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43380	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43380	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two records from the northern Andes. Only one collection has precise locale data, near El Angel and potentially inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43380	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or herb of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland, recorded from an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43380	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43381	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43381	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three isolated subpopulations, one in the north near Balzapamba and two near Loja. The southern populations were recorded on Cerro Villonaco and the Loja-Zamora road, in the property of D. Espinosa.	eng
43381	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43381	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43382	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43382	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single collection. The only available data is that the species was collected in Chimborazo.	eng
43382	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43382	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43383	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may grow in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43383	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations on the Loja-Zamora road, within the provinces of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43383	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43383	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43384	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but is probably protected inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43384	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in 1943 on the road between Achupallas and the Nudo de Sabanilla, south of Loja. The exact collection locale is unknown.	eng
43384	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of páramo,  collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43384	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43385	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43385	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections 18 km off the Aloag-Santo Domingo road and two other subpopulations without locale information in Pichincha and Carchi provinces.	eng
43385	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43385	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43386	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43386	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten collections, nine of them in the southern Andes and one in the north. The southern subpopulations were reported between the Río León valley, near Oña, and Yangana in Loja. The northern subpopulation was reported from Calacalí and may be an error.	eng
43386	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43386	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43387	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43387	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in the southern Andes. The locale is not known for the first subpopulation, as the label reads "mountain, Prov. Cuenca".  Collected subsequently in Gañadel, between Molleturo and Toreador, and in Cerro Villonaco.	eng
43387	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43387	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43388	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas	eng
43388	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes. The northern subpopulation was reported in eastern Imbabura province and the southern subpopulation between Campanas and Arenillas, along the Río Tintas, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43388	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43388	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43389	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas	eng
43389	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least eight subpopulations in the southern Andes. Most of the collections have been reported from the south of Loja, in Cerro Villonaco, south of Yangana and Cerro Uritusinga.	eng
43389	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43389	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43390	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43390	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the southern Andes. The first collection was recorded between Paja, Blanca and El Chuncho, southwest of La Huaca. Subsquently collected 5 miles south of Tulcán and in an unknown locale of Imbabura.	eng
43390	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43390	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43391	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel and in areas close to the Cayambe-Coca, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43391	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from 12 subpopulations in the Andes region.	eng
43391	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or tree of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43391	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43392	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.	eng
43392	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed and sometimes abundant in the Andean region. At least 20 subpopulations are known.	eng
43392	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation, with an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
43392	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43393	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The Tungurahua population is protected inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43393	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from two isolated locales. The first subpopulation was discovered in the Cordillera de los Llanganates, Tungurahua province; and the second in Loja province.	eng
43393	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43393	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43394	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43394	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in four geographically isolated locales, within the provinces of Azuay and Napo.	eng
43394	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43394	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43395	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two records are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43395	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the southern Andes. Two records have been reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and a third between Oña and the Río Yacuambi.	eng
43395	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43395	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The subpopulation outside of the protected areas may be threatened by deforestation in the very near future.	eng
43396	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Cayambe-Coca, Cotopaxi and Cajas protected areas.	eng
43396	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed and locally abundant in the Andean region.  Located within the Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43396	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
43396	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43397	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43397	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations in the southern Andes and one in Pichincha province. The northern subpopulation was recorded in the eastern section of the Pedregal and Yanurcu haciendas in Chaparro de Sedritana.	eng
43397	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and arid shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
43397	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43398	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43398	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations east of Azuay, the first between Oña and the Río Yacuambi and the second near Gualaceo.	eng
43398	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43398	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43399	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported inside the Parque Nacional Cajas and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43399	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations covering a wide altitudinal and geographical range, within the Azuay, Carchi, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43399	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry, high altitude grassland, shrubland and forest, mostly found at an elevation of 3,200 m.  One subpopulation has been found at 2,500 m near Nabón, in a dry inter-Andean valley.	eng
43399	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43400	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43400	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found within the provinces of Azuay, Loja, Napo, El Oro, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe.  Seven of the ten known subpopulations are from the southern Andes.	eng
43400	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and high altitude vegetation, occurring within an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
43400	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43401	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43401	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single 1946 collection made in Horta-Naque, Loja province.	eng
43401	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
43401	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43402	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43402	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection recorded 167 years ago in an unknown locale on the central coast, Guayas province.	eng
43402	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43402	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation and habitat destruction.	eng
43403	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, the population is very close to the Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
43403	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population recorded in the Amazonian lowlands, close to Lorocachi on the Río Curaray, Pastaza province.  May also occur in the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
43403	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Amazonian forest, collected an elevation of 250 m.	eng
43403	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43404	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43404	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections confined to the higher areas of El Oro province. The first collection was recorded 5 km west of Piñas on the Saracay road. The second collection was recorded in an unknown locale probably within the same region.	eng
43404	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or liana of coastal foothill forest to Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43404	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43405	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43405	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two historical collections: one made at the Hacienda Almos (possibly Alamos) south of Guayaquil, and the other in Guayaquil.	eng
43405	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43405	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation and habitat destruction.	eng
43406	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43406	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations, most of them in the central Andes of Chimborazo province. The northernmost subpopulation was recorded on the Pilaló-Macuchi road and the southernmost subpopulation was recorded near Cuenca in Chagal.	eng
43406	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43406	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43407	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43407	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations distributed in the northern and central Andes, within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43407	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43407	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43408	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43408	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection on the slopes of Antisana, Napo province.	eng
43408	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high altitude grassland, at an elevational range of 4,000–4,500 m.	eng
43408	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43409	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43409	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single 1931 collection. The label description mentions "Equateur, Pâturages élevés du Pichincha", apparently referring to the upper slopes of Volcán Pichincha.	eng
43409	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb presumably in high Andean forest (2500–3000 m?).	eng
43409	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Primary threat is thought to be urban growth.	eng
43410	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43410	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four isolated subpopulations, within the provinces of Pinchincha, Chimborazo and Bolívar. The first subpopulation was discovered near Huigra and the second in Paramo Trujillo in Pichincha. The species has been recently collected in Chillanes.	eng
43410	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43410	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43411	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43411	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection on the slopes of Celica, approximately 3 km northeast of Guachanamá, Loja province.	eng
43411	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry Andean forests , found at an elevation of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
43411	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43412	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43412	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from five subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43412	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest and shrubland, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
43412	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43413	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43413	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 15 subpopulations, within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Los Ríos and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43413	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest to high Andean forest, found within an elevational range of 0–3,000 m.	eng
43413	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43414	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in protecetd areas.	eng
43414	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations.  Collected in Cerro Yuibug-Pailacajas, between Chimborazo and Morona-Santiago provinces; in Cerro El Altar, in Pico de Canoningo; and east of Cerro Sara-Urcu, between Pichincha and Napo.	eng
43414	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb, forming "pincushions" in the superparamo above 4200 m on sandy wet soils or rocks.  Typical species in this habitat are <em>Azorella, Werneria humilis, Valeriana</em> sp. and <em>Agrostis</em> sp.	eng
43414	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43415	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some of the subpopulations are protected in the Cotopaxi, Antisana, Chimborazo and Los Ilinizas protected areas.	eng
43415	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations in the central Andes, within the provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha.	eng
43415	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high altitude grassland, found within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
43415	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43416	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two subpopulations have been found on the border of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, at the San Marcos lake and in the Paramo Guamaní. One subpopulation has been reported near the Parque Nacional Sangay and another in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43416	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations on the northeastern slopes of the Andes, within the provinces of Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43416	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43416	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43417	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43417	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in the northern Andes. The first collection was in Quito, on the Panecillo. The second collection was recorded in a locale close to Cotacachi.	eng
43417	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43417	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43418	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43418	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection recorded in an unknown locale of Imbabura province; the label description mentions "crescit prope Loma de Canaballa", but Canaballa does not appear on modern maps.	eng
43418	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43418	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43419	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43419	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single record from Pichincha. The label description says only "Pichincha dans un ravin prés d'un torrent".	eng
43419	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43419	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation.	eng
43420	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43420	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four collections near Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
43420	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43420	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43421	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43421	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection from Tipococha, between the Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43421	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43421	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43422	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43422	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least four collections: in Charon Ventanas, north of Sevilla de Oro, near Quinoa on the Cuenca-Cajas road and in Chimborazo province.	eng
43422	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and high Altitude shrubland (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43422	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43423	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43423	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the southern Andes. First collected 11 km northeast of Girón, and subsequently collected in Loja province.	eng
43423	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43423	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43424	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43424	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in Cerro Pucará, northeast of Nambacola, Loja province.	eng
43424	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43424	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43425	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43425	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 15 subpopulations in the northern Andes, within the provinces of  Carchi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43425	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest to high altitude shrubland, found at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
43425	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43426	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported from the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43426	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations in the Andean region, found within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43426	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
43426	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires and deforestation.	eng
43427	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43427	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations.  One subpopulation has been recorded near El Tambo, Cañar province,  the second subpopulation has been recorded in an unknown locale in Azuay.	eng
43427	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry scrubland, and in paramos with occasional wet valleys (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43427	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43428	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43428	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. For the first collection the label description says "crescit in silvis densis prope Chagál in declivibus occidentalibus Andinum occidentalium in prov. Cuenca". The second collection was made in an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.	eng
43428	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43428	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43429	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43429	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in the Paramo Mirador, southwest of Playón de San Francisco and south of the Río Chingual, in Sucumbíos province.	eng
43429	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of frailejones páramo, found at an elevation of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
43429	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43430	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The historical locale is very close to what is now the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43430	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one nineteenth century collection from the slopes of Monte El Corazón, south of Quito, Pichincha province.	eng
43430	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43430	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43431	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several subpopulations have been reported in the Parque Nacional Cajas, and others are close to protected areas like Cotacachi-Cayapas, Cayambe-Coca, and Llanganates.	eng
43431	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 45 subpopulations, distributed everywhere in the Andes apart from the Bolívar and Loja provinces.	eng
43431	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43431	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43432	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43432	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations within the upper Andean forests of Pichincha province. The first subpopulation was recorded in San Ignacio; the second in an unknown locale.	eng
43432	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of upper Andean forest, at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
43432	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43433	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43433	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population in Loma de Ora, between San Lucas and Saraguro, in the southern Andes.	eng
43433	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43433	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The population was discovered in an area where Andean forest remnants are mixed with crops and pastures.	eng
43434	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection. The label information is scant and gives no information for locale nor province.	eng
43434	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43435	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43435	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations in the central and southern Andes. Four subpopulations have been reported in Azuay, two of them inside the Parque Nacional Cajas; two other subpopulations have been recorded in Alao. One subpopulation has been recorded in Loja.	eng
43435	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high altitude páramo at 3,500–4,500 m elevation.	eng
43435	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43436	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43436	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the upper Andean forests of Azuay. First recorded n the mountain range between El Pan and Guachapalá. The second collection is without locale information.	eng
43436	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43436	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43437	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43437	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections. The first was recorded near Quito, in "locis frigidis Andium Quitensium". A second subpopulation was reported in Bolívar province, northeast of Chillanes in a surprisingly low elevation (2000 m). A third subpopulation, from an unknown locale, in Tungurahua province.	eng
43437	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of páramo, found within an elevational range of 2,000–4,000 m.	eng
43437	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43438	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43438	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations in the central Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43438	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43438	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43439	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43439	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in Azuay province. The first was recorded in the Paramo del Castillo, northeast of Sevilla de Oro, and the second in an unspecified locale.	eng
43439	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high altitude páramo, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43439	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43440	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43440	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection within the Pichincha province.	eng
43440	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean forest.	eng
43440	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43441	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43441	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations widely distributed in the western Andes with a wide altitudinal range. One subpopulation has been reported in western Carchi province, and another between Puerto Quito and La Independencia. The collections from Guayas and Cotopaxi provinces are from unknown locales.	eng
43441	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of coastal and low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43441	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43442	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43442	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made near Hacienda El Recero, south of Canoa, in Manabí province.	eng
43442	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43442	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Large-scale forest destruction and conversion to croplands.	eng
43443	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made more than 120 years ago. The collection locale is unknown.	eng
43443	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb.	eng
43444	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43444	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. The exact locale is unknown.	eng
43444	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high altitude páramo, found at an elevational range of 3,500–4,000 m.	eng
43444	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43445	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43445	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported twice in the Andean region, within the provinces of Carchi and Pichincha.	eng
43445	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43445	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43446	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43446	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, within the Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.  The first subpopulation is in Pallatanga and the second southeast of Intag.	eng
43446	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43446	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43447	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Approximately four subpopulations have been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43447	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations, within the Azuay, Pichincha and Loja provinces.  Most subpopulations are found within the Loja province.	eng
43447	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest to high altitude paramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43447	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43448	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection. The locale is unknown.	eng
43448	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb.	eng
43449	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several subpopulations have been reported inside the Cayambe-Coca, Cotacachi-Cayapas, El Angel, Antisana and Cotopaxi protected areas, or in areas close to the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43449	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 60 subpopulations stretching from Maldonado, in Carchi province in the north, to Amaluza in Loja to the south. Most of the subpopulations have been reported in the central and northern Andes.	eng
43449	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest to high altitude páramo (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43449	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43450	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43450	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	First collected in an unknown locale on the slopes of Antisana volcano. No data are available for later collections in Cotopaxi province.	eng
43450	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43450	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43451	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, however, additional subpopulations almost certainly occur in the Parque Nacional Yasuní, which is less than 1 km away.	eng
43451	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in Lorocachi, Pastaza province.	eng
43451	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Amazonian forest (250–500 m).	eng
43451	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	There are no obvious threats for the species, due to the incredible remoteness of the only known population.	eng
43452	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43452	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations on the western Andean slopes of Pichincha province. The first collection was made on the Saloya River. The other two collections were reported from the old Chillogallo-San Juan road and 25.7 km west of Chillogallo on the road to San Juan and La Victoria.	eng
43452	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of dry páramo, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43452	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43453	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Llanganates National Park.	eng
43453	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from three collections in the Paramo Angel and in the Llanganates, within the provinces of Napo and Carchi.   The Llanganates subpopulations were reported in the southeast of Chosa Aucacocha, between Aucacocha and Pan de Azúcar, and in paramo Soguillas, near Torre Llanganati.	eng
43453	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of humid paramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43453	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43454	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43454	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection made on the Nudo de Cajanuma, approximately 6 km south of Loja.	eng
43454	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43454	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43455	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43455	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations in the southeast of Azuay province, between Tarqui, Girón and Nabón.	eng
43455	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest to paramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43455	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43456	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43456	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations in the central and western Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
43456	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, herb or liana of high and low Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43456	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43457	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43457	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in Cariamaga, on the way to Gonzamaná, Loja province.	eng
43457	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43457	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43458	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43458	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations distributed in the central and northern Andes, within the Bolívar, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43458	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43458	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43459	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in similar habitats within the Cayambe-Coca and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43459	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection made on the Quito-Baeza road, 13 km east of Papallacta, Napo province.	eng
43459	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest, collected at an elevational range of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
43459	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43460	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43460	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the central Andes. One subpopulation occurs in Cañar province and three in Azuay: near Nabón, at the Hacienda Yanasacha-Parroquia Baños and 4-6 km north of Sevilla de Oro.	eng
43460	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to dry grassland paramo (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43460	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43461	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been recorded inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43461	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations distributed in the northern Andes and on the eastern side of the inter-Andean callejon, within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43461	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest and scrubland paramo (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43461	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43462	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43462	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected five times in a small area in southern Azuay and northern Loja, between Cumbe and Saraguro.	eng
43462	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43462	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43463	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay or Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43463	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations recorded on the road between Baños and Puyo, within the Tungurahua province. The first collection was recorded east of Río Negro and the second 35 km off the Baños-Mera road.	eng
43463	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43463	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43464	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43464	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in a small area between Alausí and Chunchi,  within the Chimborazo province.	eng
43464	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).  Collected in disturbed areas, and along roads.	eng
43464	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43465	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43465	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Sucumbios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43465	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43465	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43466	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43466	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. The first was recorded in a locale that the label describes as "paramo de Assuaye; inter Cadludensem et pagum Pomallgactam". The second collection was recorded in Imbabura province.	eng
43466	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of Andean paramo, collected within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43466	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43467	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and potentially also inside the Antisana, Cotacachi-Cayapas and Los Ilinizas protected areas.	eng
43467	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Most of the collections have been recorded on the slopes of the Andean peaks of Antisana, Chiles, Atacazo, Cotacachi, and others.	eng
43467	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid high altitude grasslands (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43467	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43468	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43468	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Buddleja ibarrensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura province.	eng
43468	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,200 m).	eng
43468	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by deforestation and with a very limited distribution.	eng
43469	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43469	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Buddleja jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay and Cañar provinces.	eng
43469	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude, dry paramos (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43469	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43470	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43470	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Buddleja lanata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43470	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramos (1,600–3,500 m).	eng
43470	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threats to the species are its limited distribution and the high rates of deforestation in its habitat.	eng
43471	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43471	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Buddleja lojensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43471	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry Andean vegetation to high altitude, dry paramos (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43471	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43472	conservation	Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43472	distribution	Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Thismia melanomitra </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Orellana province.	eng
43472	habitat	Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Periodically flooded Amazonian forest (300 m).	eng
43472	threats	Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43473	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.  New studies are needed to evaluate the status of the three recorded subpopulations.	eng
43473	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Styloceras kunthianum </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Chimborazo, Imbabura and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43473	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43473	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species is only found in primary forest and is threatened by deforestation.	eng
43474	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43474	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera anderssonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo, Pichincha and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43474	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43474	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43475	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43475	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Bolívar province.	eng
43475	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43475	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat loss is the main threat to this species.	eng
43476	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43476	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera brachyandra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Cotopaxi and Esmeralda provinces.	eng
43476	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid to sub-montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43476	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats causing population declines are unknown.	eng
43477	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43477	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera crispiloba</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 12 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.	eng
43477	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43477	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43478	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within a protected area.	eng
43478	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera cuyujensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Napo province.	eng
43478	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43478	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats for the species are unknown.	eng
43479	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43479	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera cylindrocarpa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three collections from Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43479	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43479	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43480	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43480	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera domingensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Guayas and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43480	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and dry coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43480	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Large-scale deforestation of the surroundings of the Toachi-Quinindé road is the greatest threat to the species.	eng
43481	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43481	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera formosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from an unknown locality between 1859 and 1878. May already be extinct.	eng
43481	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43481	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction in Ecuador, the threats to this species are unknown.	eng
43482	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43482	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera holm-nielsenii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Carchi province.	eng
43482	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43482	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by annual clearing along roadsides.	eng
43483	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43483	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera huacamayensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Napo province.	eng
43483	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43483	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats are unknown for the species.	eng
43484	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43484	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera ignimontis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua province.	eng
43484	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,900–3,500 m).	eng
43484	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43485	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43485	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera loejtnantii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.  The species may also be present in Colombia.	eng
43485	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43485	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.	eng
43486	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43486	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera oblongifolia</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43486	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43486	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43487	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population occurs within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43487	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera oyacachensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.	eng
43487	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43487	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Although the only known population is inside a protected area, it remains threatened by the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43488	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43488	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera racemiflora</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Carchi province.  No information is available on population size.	eng
43488	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43488	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43489	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43489	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera refracta</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 20 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43489	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest and sub-montane to high Andean forest (250–2,500 m).	eng
43489	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43490	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43490	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera resupinata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43490	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
43490	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Other than habitat loss, specific threats to the subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43491	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43491	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera rubrosepala</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43491	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43491	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the primary threat to this species.	eng
43492	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43492	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera sodiroana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 27 subpopulations in Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43492	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid sub-montane coastal forest to high Andean forest (900–3,500 m).	eng
43492	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
43493	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43493	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Burmeistera truncata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43493	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low to high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43493	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43494	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any of Ecuador's protected areas.	eng
43494	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon aequatorialis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Pichincha province. Population size is unknown.	eng
43494	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43494	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to existing subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43495	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43495	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon albostellatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type specimen, collected from Chimborazo province.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43495	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43495	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43496	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43496	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon arcuatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Cañar, Carchi, Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43496	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43496	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43497	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43497	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon azuayensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay province.	eng
43497	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43497	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The Sevilla de Oro population is severely threatened by fires set in forests and shrubby vegetation to expand pastureland.	eng
43498	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43498	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon baezanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Imbabura and Napo provinces.	eng
43498	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43498	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43499	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43499	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon balslevii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from a single population in Carchi province.	eng
43499	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43499	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the annual vegetation clearing along the Tulcán-Maldonado road.	eng
43500	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43500	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon brachysiphoniatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Pichincha province.	eng
43500	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43500	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently the native vegetation of the Mojanda paramo is threatened, as forest remnants and shrubby vegetation are frequently burned by tourists.  Another threat is the introduction of exotic aggressive vegetation (especially <em>Pinus</em> spp.) in the surroundings of the Lagunas de Mojanda.	eng
43501	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within a protected area.	eng
43501	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon cazaletii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in napo province.	eng
43501	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43501	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Although the species occurs inside a protected area, it may be threatened by fires set by humans around the Laguna de San Marcos and deforestation around Oyacachi.	eng
43502	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43502	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon chiltasonensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi province.	eng
43502	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43502	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the annual clearing of vegetation along the Tulcán-Maldonado road.	eng
43503	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43503	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon chontalensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43503	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43503	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the conversion of natural vegetation to pasture, mainly close to Sevilla de Oro.	eng
43504	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43504	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon comosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe province.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43504	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43504	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43505	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43505	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon dissectus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43505	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43505	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The population along the Tulcán-Maldonado road is threatened by the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.	eng
43506	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43506	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon erythraeus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43506	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43506	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats for the species are unknown.	eng
43507	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43507	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon eurystomus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Pastaza province.	eng
43507	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest (250–500 m).	eng
43507	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
43508	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43508	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon fimbriatulus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago province. Population size is unknown.	eng
43508	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,200–3,500 m).	eng
43508	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43509	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43509	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon hartwegii </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43509	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43509	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43510	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Likely to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43510	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon heteropilis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43510	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43510	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43511	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be present in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43511	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon hirtiflorus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43511	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43511	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
43512	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43512	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon jeppesenii </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from one population in Sucumbios province.	eng
43512	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43512	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threats are unknown.	eng
43513	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43513	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon licayensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from eight subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and El Oro provinces.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43513	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43513	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
43514	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43514	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon llanganatensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43514	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43514	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
43515	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43515	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon medusa </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43515	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43515	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species is threatened by deforestation to increase pasture land.	eng
43516	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43516	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon occultus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43516	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43516	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43517	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43517	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon papillosus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43517	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Sub-montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43517	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	There have been high deforestation rates in the surroundings of Archidona.	eng
43518	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43518	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon parviflorus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43518	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43518	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43519	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43519	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon phoeniceus </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Napo and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43519	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43519	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43520	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43520	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon pilalensis </em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population of less than 50 individuals in Cotopaxi province.	eng
43520	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to high altitude, dry paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43520	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened throughout its range by habitat destruction. The stems are also used to heal wounds of cows, which represents an additional threat for the species.	eng
43521	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43521	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon quebradanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations, one of which may no longer exist, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43521	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43521	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43522	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43522	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon rimbachii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Bolívar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
43522	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43522	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.  The Quevedo-Latacunga road subpopulation is threatened by deforestation. Another population, recorded in Riobamba in 1932, is probably extinct due to the urban development during intervening years.	eng
43523	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43523	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon rubiginosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43523	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43523	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least one subpopulation is threatened by man-made fires and the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43524	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43524	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon rubrodentatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Carchi and Imbabura provinces.	eng
43524	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43524	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least one subpopulations is threatened by the annual clearing of roadside vegetation.	eng
43525	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43525	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon saltuum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43525	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43525	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least one subpopulation is threatened by the conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
43526	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43526	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon sodiroanus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 12 subpopulations in Carchi, Morona-Santiago, El Oro and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43526	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43526	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43527	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43527	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon solisii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Chimborazo province.	eng
43527	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43527	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43528	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43528	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon steinii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known oly from the type, collected from Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43528	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Sub-montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43528	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43529	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43529	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon steyermarkii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces. May also occur in Peru.	eng
43529	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43529	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats are unknown.	eng
43530	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43530	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon subandinus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 18 subpopulations in Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43530	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
43530	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43531	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43531	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon trachyanthus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Morona-Santiago and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43531	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43531	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.  At least subpopulation is threatened by the conversion of natural vegetation to pasture and croplands. The subpopulation recorded in Baños in 1931 may now have disappeared due to urban and touristic growth in the area.	eng
43532	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43532	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon trichodes</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces. Current population size is unknown.	eng
43532	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43532	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43533	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43533	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon uncinatus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections made over 100 years ago from Bolívar and possibly from Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43533	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The habitat is unknown	eng
43533	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	No threats known apart from habitat destruction.	eng
43534	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43534	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon ursinus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Loja, Morona-Santiago  and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43534	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43534	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43535	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43535	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Centropogon zamorensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43535	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43535	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43536	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43536	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lobelia collina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43536	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest to paramos (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43536	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43537	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43537	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lobelia subpubera</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
43537	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43537	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43538	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43538	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia acaulis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi and Napo provinces.  population size is unknown.	eng
43538	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to humid and grassy paramos (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43538	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43539	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43539	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia aretioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43539	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High altitude paramos (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43539	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43540	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43540	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia bilineata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two collections from Loja province.	eng
43540	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43540	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43541	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43541	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia caespitosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Loja province.	eng
43541	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43541	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43542	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	the only known population occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43542	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia crassomarginata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Loja province.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43542	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43542	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43543	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43543	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia cuspidata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay and Cañar provinces.	eng
43543	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43543	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43544	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43544	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia cylindrocarpa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Loja province.  Population size is not known.	eng
43544	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43544	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats are not known.	eng
43545	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43545	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia laricina</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43545	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43545	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats are not known.	eng
43546	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43546	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia lehmannii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43546	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to humid paramos (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43546	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species is a pioneer and apparently is resistant to fires, but continuous fires will threaten its survival.	eng
43547	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43547	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia oellgaardii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43547	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to paramos (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43547	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43548	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43548	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia rhizomata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43548	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid, grass and dry, high altitude paramos (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43548	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Specific threats to the species are not known.	eng
43549	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	At least one subpopulation occurs within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43549	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia sparrei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Loja provinces.  Population size is unknown.	eng
43549	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43549	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat are fires set by humans.	eng
43550	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43550	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia speciosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43550	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43550	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43551	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43551	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia tubulosa</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Cañar and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43551	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to paramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43551	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43552	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43552	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Lysipomia vitreola</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Azuay province.	eng
43552	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramos (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43552	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats to the species are not known.	eng
43553	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43553	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus affinis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Chimborazo, Napo, Sucumbios and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43553	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43553	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43554	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43554	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus asplundii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43554	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43554	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43555	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43555	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus ecuadoriensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from nine subpopulations in Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43555	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43555	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Ongoing conversion of native vegetation to pasture and deforestation are threats to the species.	eng
43556	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43556	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus fruticosus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Loja province.	eng
43556	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43556	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43557	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43557	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus furax</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Carchi province.	eng
43557	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43557	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is the main threat to the species.	eng
43558	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43558	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus humboldtianus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Loja and El Oro provinces.  Population size is not known.	eng
43558	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43558	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potential threats to the species are unknown.	eng
43559	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43559	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus loxensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from Loja province.	eng
43559	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43559	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the primary threat to the species.	eng
43560	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Likely to occur within protected areas.	eng
43560	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus lucidus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Napo province.	eng
43560	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest to paramo (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43560	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is ongoing deforestation in the region.	eng
43561	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43561	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus rostratus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Azuay province.	eng
43561	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43561	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is fire set by humans to create pasture.	eng
43562	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43562	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus rupestris</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43562	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (3,200–3,700 m).	eng
43562	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation may be threatened by landslides.  Threats to the other subpopulations are not known.	eng
43563	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43563	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus scandens</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 19 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43563	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–4,000 m).	eng
43563	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to this species.	eng
43564	conservation	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43564	distribution	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Siphocampylus uncipes</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in El Oro province.	eng
43564	habitat	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43564	threats	Moreno, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species' estimated geographic range is 50 km², most of which has been deforested during the last 40 years.	eng
43565	conservation	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43565	distribution	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Capparis heterophylla</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least 15 subpopulations in Guayas, Loja, Manabí and El Oro provinces.  However, the total number of individuals may be less than 500.	eng
43565	habitat	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry coastal vegetation to dry sub-montane forest (0–1,000 m).  Adapted to dry conditions and restricted to dry deciduous coastal forest.  The flowers are ephemeral and nocturnal.	eng
43565	threats	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are conversion of its habitat to croplands, urban areas and fires set by humans.	eng
43566	conservation	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43566	distribution	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Podandrogyne brevipedunculata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 11 subpopulations in Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Esmeralda, Imbabura, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.  Total populations size is estimated as at least 500 individuals.	eng
43566	habitat	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1500 m).  The smallest subpopulations grow in closed, dark cloud forest, mainly along creeks; there are also some isolated individuals in open spaces near these forests. Butterflies are attracted by its flowers (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).	eng
43566	threats	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Only one subpopulations occurs within a protected area.  The others are distributed in fragmented habitats.	eng
43567	conservation	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43567	distribution	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Podandrogyne jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Esmeralda, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces.  Population size is estimated at less than 200 individuals.	eng
43567	habitat	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).  Grows in closed, dark cloud forest.	eng
43567	threats	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation, conversion of forest to pasture and croplands, road construction and gold mining in El Oro province.	eng
43568	conservation	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43568	distribution	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Podandrogyne trichopus</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is knwn from three subpopulations in Guayas, Loja and Manabí provinces.  The global population may be fewer than 100 individuals.	eng
43568	habitat	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry and humid coastal forest (0–1,000 m and 2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43568	threats	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are forest conversion to croplands, road construction and potentially fire.	eng
43569	conservation	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43569	distribution	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Steriphoma urbani</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It was last recorded 20 years ago in Esmeralda and Manabí provinces. It may already be extinct.	eng
43569	habitat	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43569	threats	Cornejo, X., Espinoza, C. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation is the main threat to the species.	eng
43570	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43570	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Viburnum divaricatum</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from the type, collected from El Oro province.	eng
43570	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (2,000 m).	eng
43570	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species.	eng
43571	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43571	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Carica horovitziana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces.	eng
43571	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43571	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species.	eng
43572	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43572	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Carica omnilingua</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from a single population in El Oro province.	eng
43572	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43572	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation and the conversion of native forest to croplands are the biggest threat to the species.	eng
43573	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43573	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Carica palandensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43573	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,790–1,850 m).	eng
43573	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known population is threatened by severe deforestation and timber extraction.	eng
43574	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43574	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Carica pulchra</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Carchi, Bolívar and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43574	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43574	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Although fragmentation of these forest is not yet severe, the principal threats is conversion of forest to grasslands.	eng
43575	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43575	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Carica sprucei</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Napo and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43575	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43575	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are the conversion of forests to pasture, disorganized colonization, and road construction.	eng
43576	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Arenaria radians</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from one population in Chimborazo province.	eng
43576	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Paramo, near the snowline.	eng
43576	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43577	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43577	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Drymaria stellarioides</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from four subpopulations in Azuay, Chimborazo, Loja and Napo provinces.	eng
43577	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Andean vegetation (1,500–3,200 m).	eng
43577	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43578	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in nearly all of the protected areas that contain paramo.	eng
43578	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Stellaria recurvata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from 45 subpopulations in Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43578	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid and dry paramo (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43578	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not considered threatened.	eng
43579	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43579	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cecropia maxima</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from six subpopulations in Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43579	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43579	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is total deforestation.	eng
43580	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43580	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cecropia pastasana</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from five subpopulations in Napo, Morona-Santiago, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43580	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest and foothill Amazonian forest (900–1,500 m).	eng
43580	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation and subsequent conversion to pasture.	eng
43581	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43581	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cecropia velutinella</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Morona-Santiago and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43581	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High, and possibly low, Andean forest (1,000–1,700 m).	eng
43581	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The intensive deforestation of the Upano valley either decreased its population or created new areas of habitat, because it is a pioneer species.	eng
43582	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43582	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Coussapoa jatun-sachensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from seven subpopulations in Napo and Pastaza provinces.	eng
43582	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Mainland Amazonian forest (250–600 m).	eng
43582	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Most of its habitat is intact, except for the Napo locale. A potential threat in the future is road building by oil companies.	eng
43583	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43583	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Pourouma petiolulata</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from at least eight subpopulations in Napo, El Oro, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces.	eng
43583	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian mainland forest and periodically flooded forest (250–500 m).	eng
43583	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is habitat destruction due to road-building and colonization.	eng
43584	conservation	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43584	distribution	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	<em>Maytenus eggersii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from the type, collected from an unknown location in Azuay province.	eng
43584	habitat	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Specific habitat type and elevation are unknown.	eng
43585	conservation	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43585	distribution	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	<em>Maytenus jamesonii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from two subpopulations in Azuay and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43585	habitat	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43585	threats	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43586	conservation	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43586	distribution	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	<em>Maytenus manabiensis</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known only from two collections from Manabí province.  The species has not been collected in over 100 years and it may already be extinct.	eng
43586	habitat	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Coastal forest.	eng
43586	threats	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Massive destruction of forests in the province may have already led to the extinction of this species.	eng
43587	conservation	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
43587	distribution	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	<em>Zinowiewia madsenii</em> is endemic to Ecuador.  It is known from three subpopulations in Loja province.	eng
43587	habitat	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Humid Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43587	threats	Pitman, N. & Suin, L., 2003	Habitat destruction is the only known threat to the species.	eng
43588	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43588	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from one subpopulation at San Nicolás in Pichinca Province, Ecuador.	eng
43588	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean Forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43588	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality, San Nicolás, may be threatened by the Toachi-Pilatón hydroelectric project.	eng
43589	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43589	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	An Ecuadorian endemic known from three subpopulations in the provinces of Napo and Pichincha.	eng
43589	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in humid Andean vegetation (300–3,000 m).	eng
43589	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is intensive forest conversion, especially for agricultural use.	eng
43590	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
43590	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Manabi, Pichincha, Los Rios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43590	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest and low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43590	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43591	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43591	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the provinces of Bolívar, Guayas, Manabi and Los Rios.	eng
43591	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest and submontane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
43591	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43592	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43592	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in Napo and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43592	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43592	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43593	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43593	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two sites in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43593	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43593	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43594	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any formally protected area, although known to occur in a private reserve.	eng
43594	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Imbabura provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43594	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43594	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43595	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43595	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Bolívar province, Ecuador.	eng
43595	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43595	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43596	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43596	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43596	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Presumably high Andean forest (>2,000 m).	eng
43596	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43597	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43597	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three sites in Bolívar and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43597	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43597	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural crops is the main threat.	eng
43598	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur in the protected area system.	eng
43598	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four locales in Pichincha province and one locale in Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43598	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Dry high altitude shrubland (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43598	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires and grazing.	eng
43599	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
43599	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three locales in the Imbabura, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43599	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43599	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43600	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43600	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43600	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43600	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43601	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43601	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43601	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal forest to humid submontane low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43601	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43602	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Could potentially occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43602	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from seven subpopulations in Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43602	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43602	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some sites would be impacting by habitat loss for expanding agriculture, although other sites appear to be secure because of the steep nature of the terrain.  The trunks are utilized locally for building fences and houses.	eng
43603	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known from any protected area.	eng
43603	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations on the western slopes of the Atacazo and Corazón volcanos, south of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43603	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43603	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat, but presumably the steep terrain helps to safeguard the species. The trunks may, like <em>C. corallifera</em>,  be used for fencing and house building.	eng
43604	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur further south, in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43604	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations west of Quito in the province of Pichincha, Ecuador.	eng
43604	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low to high Andean forest (1,550–2,000 m).	eng
43604	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43605	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43605	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador.	eng
43605	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m)	eng
43605	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43606	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs on the northern border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43606	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43606	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in coastal and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43606	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43607	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43607	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known onlyu from a single subpopulation in Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43607	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43607	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43608	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but it could occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43608	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two subpopulations in Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43608	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal and submontane humid forests (500–1,000 m).	eng
43608	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43609	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43609	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three sites in the provinces of Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador.	eng
43609	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,300 m).	eng
43609	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43610	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43610	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations recorded near Cosanga and Baeza, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43610	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000 m).	eng
43610	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43611	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43611	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43611	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–2,200 m).	eng
43611	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43612	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43612	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single locality in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43612	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs on limestone outcrops in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43612	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are urbanization and deforestation.	eng
43613	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43613	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two localities in the Río Nangaritza valley, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43613	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43613	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43614	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43614	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection near Miazi, in forests of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43614	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (950–1,200 m).	eng
43614	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are mining and deforestation.	eng
43615	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43615	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four localities in the provinces of Napo and Sucumbios, Ecuador.	eng
43615	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Amazonian forest on the lowlands and foothills (250–1,000 m).	eng
43615	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43616	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43616	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The only known collection was made more than 120 years ago, near Pallatanga in Chimborazo province, Ecuador.	eng
43616	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43616	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43617	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Probably occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43617	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43617	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43617	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation for agricultural expansion is the main threat.	eng
43618	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Sangay and Llanganates protected areas.	eng
43618	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type specimen was collected in the Cordillera de Abitagua near Mera, and a second specimen was collected by R. Spruce, also probably in Pastaza province, Ecuador.	eng
43618	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43618	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43619	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and is almost certainly inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43619	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43619	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43619	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43620	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
43620	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha, Los Rios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43620	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest and submontane amazonian forest to high Andean forest (0–2,500 m).	eng
43620	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Apart from habitat destruction, there are no significant threats to this widespread species.	eng
43621	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43621	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once, more than 100 years ago, on the banks of the Río Peripa, near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43621	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43621	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The banks of the Río Peripa have been disturbed by the Daule-Peripa dam and the spread of banana and cacao plantations.	eng
43622	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but sure to occur inside the Los Ilinizas and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.	eng
43622	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Ecuadorian provinces of Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha.	eng
43622	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest, humid submontane forests and high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
43622	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43623	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43623	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Bolívar and Los Rios provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43623	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–700 m).	eng
43623	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43624	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recently found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and may also occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43624	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43624	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forests (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43624	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43625	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but likely to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43625	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Napo and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43625	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43625	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43626	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Antisana, Cayambe-Coca and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.	eng
43626	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo, Pichincha and Los Rios.	eng
43626	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest to high Andean forest (0–3,000 m).	eng
43626	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43627	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	One of the recent collections was made in a protected area.	eng
43627	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Napo and Pastaza provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43627	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in Amazonian mainland forest (250–500 m).	eng
43627	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43628	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43628	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43628	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43628	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43629	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Observed in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43629	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43629	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43629	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43630	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the ENDESA private reserve.	eng
43630	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43630	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–1,000 m).	eng
43630	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43631	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not yet recorded in Ecuador’s protected area network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43631	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Bolívar, Pichinchaand Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43631	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m)	eng
43631	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43632	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected area network, but its distribution range includes the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43632	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Rios provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43632	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–2,000 m).	eng
43632	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43633	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and may also be in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43633	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43633	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43633	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43634	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43634	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43634	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43634	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43635	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43635	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single collection from the nineteenth century in Angamarca, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador.	eng
43635	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43635	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43636	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found inside the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
43636	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Carchi and Napo provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43636	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude shrublands (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43636	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43637	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality is within the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43637	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador.	eng
43637	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43637	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43638	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and could also occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43638	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two localities in Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43638	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,100–3,400 m).	eng
43638	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43639	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
43639	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43639	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43639	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43640	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locale is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43640	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43640	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43640	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43641	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collecting locale may now be inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43641	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43641	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43641	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The area is currently being deforested to produce charcoal and there is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities.	eng
43642	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43642	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Volcán Antisana, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43642	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid high altitude grassland known locally as páramo (3,800 m).	eng
43642	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43643	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43643	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once in Nanegal, Pichincha province, at the beginning of the twentieth century.	eng
43643	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,200 m).	eng
43643	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction by agriculture and grazing.	eng
43644	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Currently there are some well-preserved forests in the area, and the species may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43644	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in forests on forests on Volcán El Corazón, south of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43644	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43644	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43645	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and likely also to be in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43645	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha.	eng
43645	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude shrubland (2,000–4,000 m)	eng
43645	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43646	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43646	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43646	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43646	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43647	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43647	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collected near Oyacachi, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43647	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43647	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43648	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in in what is now the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43648	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Napo and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43648	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43648	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43649	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43649	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made near Guamaní, to the east of Pifo, Napo or Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43649	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43649	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The area is heavily used for agriculture and grazing, and only a few sites remain with original vegetation.	eng
43650	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Might possibly occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43650	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in the surroundings of Quito, more than 150 years ago, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43650	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43650	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43651	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, although the most recent collection is from a private reserve.	eng
43651	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43651	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (500–1,200 m).	eng
43651	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43652	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43652	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43652	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
43652	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43653	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43653	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type location made somewhere on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43653	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (altitude unknown).	eng
43653	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43654	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Probably occurs inside the Cayambe-Coca, Antisana, Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Llanganates and Sangay protected areas.	eng
43654	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Napo and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43654	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43654	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43655	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Probably occurs inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras or the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43655	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections recorded in 1980 and 1992, in forest remnants 5 km south of Cosanga, Napo province.	eng
43655	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43655	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43656	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, in the Río Oyacachi valley.	eng
43656	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43656	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43656	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43657	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	It is possible that it persists in similar habitats inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43657	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made at the rocky base of Volcán Pichincha in the nineteenth century, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43657	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (4,000 m).	eng
43657	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43658	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Reserva Etnica Awá or the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, which are nearby.	eng
43658	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Santiago, in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43658	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest  (70 m).	eng
43658	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43659	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43659	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two old collections made in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43659	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
43659	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43660	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The valley is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43660	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the Río Oyacachi valley, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43660	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43660	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43661	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa and may also be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43661	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43661	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000 m).	eng
43661	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43662	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The known localities are all inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43662	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Restricted to the western foothills of the Andes, Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43662	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43662	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43663	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43663	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Loja province, Ecuador.	eng
43663	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43663	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43664	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43664	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made near El Corazón, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador.	eng
43664	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43664	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43665	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43665	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Cachabí, near San Antonio, in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43665	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).	eng
43665	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43666	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43666	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type locality in the Lloa valley, southeast of Quito, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43666	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43666	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat; the locality is now almost completely deforested.	eng
43667	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species may persist in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43667	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the area between Santo Domingo and Alluriquín in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43667	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Possibly occurs in coastal forest or humid submontane forest or low Andean forest  (500–1,500 m).	eng
43667	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43668	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality is inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43668	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made a century ago in the paramos of Volcán Antisana, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43668	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (4,200 m).	eng
43668	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43669	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May possibly occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43669	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made on the western slopes of Volcán Corazón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43669	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43669	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43670	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43670	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made on the upper slopes of Volcán Atacazo, south of Quito in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43670	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43670	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43671	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collection locale is in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
43671	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than 140 years ago at the base of Chimborazo, Bolívar province, Ecuador.	eng
43671	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3500 m).	eng
43671	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The area is heavily disturbed by livestock grazing.	eng
43672	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43672	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection from an unknown loaclity, but possibly from the the Río Oyacachi valley, Ecuador.	eng
43672	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Presumably occurs in high Andean forest (>1,000 m).	eng
43672	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43673	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43673	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection, made more than a century ago in an unknown locale in coastal forest, Ecuador.	eng
43673	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest.	eng
43673	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43674	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43674	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a nineteenth century collection by W. Jameson on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43674	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (>3,000 m).	eng
43674	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43675	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43675	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only by the type collection made at the beginning of the twentieth century on Volcán Tungurahua", apparently in Tungurahua province, Ecuador.	eng
43675	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43675	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43676	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43676	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single century-old collection in forests west of Volcán Corazón, between Garretas and El Pongo, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43676	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43676	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43677	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locale is inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43677	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single century-old collection in the upper Río Oyacachi valley, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43677	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in pastures and shrubby areas, although the true habitat is presumably high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43677	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43678	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43678	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single, century-old collection on the western side of Volcán Tungurahua, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.	eng
43678	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43678	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43679	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43679	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 10 collections in the central paramos in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43679	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43679	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43680	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43680	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found on the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes in the provinces of Pichincha and Los Rios, but may also be in Cotopaxi and Imbabura provinces.	eng
43680	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal forest and humid submontane forest (500–1,500 m).  Occurs in cloud forest in Los Rios.	eng
43680	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43681	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43681	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Carchi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43681	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43681	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43682	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the lower area of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43682	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador.	eng
43682	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43682	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43683	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality may be inside what is now the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
43683	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in forest at the foothills of Chimborazo, in Bolívar or Chimborazo province, Ecuador.	eng
43683	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was presumably found in low Andean forest.	eng
43683	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43684	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43684	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century on the banks of the Río Pilatón, in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43684	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was presumably found in coastal forest or humid submontane forest (800–900 m).	eng
43684	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat; the forests of the type locality have been highly disturbed over the past 40 years.	eng
43685	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43685	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago on the banks of the Río Peripa, close to Puerto Limón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43685	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).	eng
43685	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	At present the type locality area is intensively used for agriculture and grazing.	eng
43686	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43686	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made a century ago near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43686	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was growing in humid coastal forest  (0–500 m).	eng
43686	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	At present the type locality is totally deforested and used for agriculture and cattle ranching.	eng
43687	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43687	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two century-old collections in the western Andes of Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43687	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Presumably occurs in coastal forest or humid submontane forest or low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43687	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The collection locales are today very altered by agricultural activities, but significant forest remnants exist between them.	eng
43688	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Bosque Protector Mindo-Nambillo.	eng
43688	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from two susbpopulations occurring in Carchi and  Pichincha respectively, Ecuador.	eng
43688	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (900–1,500 m).	eng
43688	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43689	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43689	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, in the forests that once surrounded Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43689	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was reordered in humid coastal forest  (200–500 m).	eng
43689	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality has been massively deforested and fragmented by agricultural activities.	eng
43690	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43690	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, but is possibly still growing in forests inside the Maquipucuna private reserve, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43690	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43690	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43691	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43691	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichinchaa and Tungurahua.	eng
43691	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (4,000–4,500 m).	eng
43691	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43692	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43692	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made near San Nicolás, on the Quito-Manabí trail, perhaps in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43692	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in low Andean forest (1,200 m).	eng
43692	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43693	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43693	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a single collection made in 1935 long the Morán-Olivos road in Carchi province, Ecuador.	eng
43693	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,200 m).	eng
43693	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	This area is currently impacted by the conversion of forest to croplands and coal mining.	eng
43694	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in lower sections of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43694	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least two subpopulations collected a century ago, in Mindo valley and on the lower slopes of Volcán Corazón, both in Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43694	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43694	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43695	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43695	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than 100 years ago on the banks of the Río Pilatón, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43695	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000 m).	eng
43695	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43696	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The localities are probably inside what are now the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
43696	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, on the slopes of Corazón and Chimborazo volcanos, in Pichincha and Chimborazo provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43696	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43696	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43697	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43697	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in an unknown locale of Pichincha province in the nineteenth century, Ecuador.	eng
43697	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43697	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43698	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43698	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, probably between Nanegalito and Los Bancos, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43698	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was probably found in low Andean forest (1,550 m).	eng
43698	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43699	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known if it occurs inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43699	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than 150 years somewhere in the Ecuadorian Andes.	eng
43699	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43699	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is likely to be the main threat.	eng
43700	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs at the entrance to the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43700	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single subpopulation in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43700	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in coastal and humid submontane forests (500–1,000).	eng
43700	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43701	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May still exist in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
43701	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43701	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was recorded in humid coastal forest  ( 0–500 m).	eng
43701	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43702	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43702	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Loja.	eng
43702	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland (páramo) at the edge of Andean lakes i.e., alpine wetlands (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43702	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43703	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43703	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha. The distribution range may reach the southern paramos of Colombia.	eng
43703	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
43703	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are intensive grazing and fires set by people.	eng
43704	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43704	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43704	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43704	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are intensive grazing and fires set by people.	eng
43705	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43705	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five locales in the southern Andes in Azuay and Loja provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43705	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43705	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43706	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but possibly occurs in the Reserva de Mailas in Azuay or in the Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43706	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Well distributed in the southern Andean paramos in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Cañar, El Oro, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43706	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43706	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43707	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Abundant in the paramos of the Parque Nacional Llanganates and in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43707	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded throughout the central and northern Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43707	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43707	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	No major threats, although habitat loss is an ongoing problem in some places.	eng
43708	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43708	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in four locales in Loja province, Ecuador.	eng
43708	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43708	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43709	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43709	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur at two locales near Amaluza in Loja province, Ecuador.	eng
43709	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43709	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The paramos are threatened in the area by grazing and frequent fires.	eng
43710	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43710	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43710	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43710	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43711	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Has been collected in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43711	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the mountains surrounding Loja in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43711	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43711	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threat is frequent fires.	eng
43712	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confirmed to occur inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and likely to occur in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel and perhaps southern Colombia.	eng
43712	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least ten subpopulations, distributed from northern Carchi province to the paramo de Soldados in southern Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43712	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43712	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The paramos are threatened in the area by grazing and frequent fires.	eng
43713	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confirmed to occur inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43713	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Azuay and Cañar provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43713	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43713	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43714	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43714	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Until recently was known only from the type recorded on Volcán Cotacachi, but now recorded from the paramo of Atacazo and Pichincha volcanos (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces) and in the Paramo de Soldados in southern Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43714	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high altitude grassland or páramo (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43714	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43715	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43715	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in forests of Cerro Golondrinas, on the western slope of the Andes in Carchi province, Ecuador.	eng
43715	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43715	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43716	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43716	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Until recently it was known only from near Lurencucho in Azuay province, but the species has since been rediscovered in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, although still apparently confined to southern Ecuador.	eng
43716	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43716	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43717	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not know to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in protected areas found at high elevations.	eng
43717	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from two collections made more than a century apart. In the middle of the nineteenth century, it was collected at an unknown locale in Cañar province. In 1973, it was collected on Volcán Chiles, in Carchi province. Endemic to Ecuador.	eng
43717	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in both cases in high Andean forest (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43717	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43718	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43718	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made near Puyo, Pastaza province, Ecuador.	eng
43718	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43718	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality area has been colonized and much of it deforested over the last 50 years.	eng
43719	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43719	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made at Archidona, Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43719	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43719	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43720	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality may well be inside what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43720	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century on the slopes of Volcán Tungurahua, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.  May well be Extinct.	eng
43720	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was collected in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43720	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43721	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43721	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Azuay, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43721	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43721	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43722	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43722	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43722	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in Amazonian mainland forest to low Andean forest  (300–2,000 m).	eng
43722	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43723	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	May occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43723	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the middle of the nineteenth century in the forests of Cerro Abitagua, on the border between Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43723	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was collected in submontane Amazonian forest (1,000 m).	eng
43723	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43724	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43724	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century somewhere in Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43724	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Presumably was found in high Andean forest.	eng
43724	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43725	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43725	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a few very old bibliographic references and the type collection is missing. Sayausi, in Azuay province, is mentioned as a locale.	eng
43725	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Presumed to occur in humid Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43725	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43726	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside protected areas but may occur in the lower eastern area of the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43726	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the southeastern Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43726	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43726	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43727	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas, the Parque Nacional Sangay and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. May also occur in the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43727	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found commonly on both the eastern and western Andean slopes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua. <br/>.	eng
43727	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43727	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	No major threats, although habitat destruction is a problem in some areas.	eng
43728	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43728	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in an unknown locale in Ecuador.	eng
43728	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The habitat is unknown.	eng
43728	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43729	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43729	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century in Pillzhum, between Cañar and Azuay provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43729	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43729	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43730	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43730	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections made in the nineteenth century, two of them in Pichincha province and the third record in Napo province, Ecuador.	eng
43730	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest and amazonian forest (0–500 m).	eng
43730	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43731	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43731	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made more than a century ago near Quinoas, Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43731	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43731	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is the main threat.	eng
43732	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43732	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the nineteenth century, without locale information, somewhere in Ecuador.	eng
43732	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
43732	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43733	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43733	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.	eng
43733	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1500–3000 m)	eng
43733	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	No major threats, although habitat destruction has occurred.	eng
43734	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43734	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type, collected in 1918 near Chonta, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador. This poorly-known species, similar to others in the genus, appears to be locally rare but with a wide distribution.	eng
43734	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43734	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43735	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43735	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two localities in the paramo of Castillo, southeast of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43735	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest and high altitude grassland or páramo (3,000–4,000 m).	eng
43735	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threat are fires set by people.	eng
43736	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43736	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made a century ago on the banks of the Río Guayllabamba, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43736	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in rocky areas in dry shrubland (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43736	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and river pollution.	eng
43737	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43737	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from two poorly described localities in Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43737	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43737	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43738	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confirmed to grow in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43738	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	A widely distributed species found in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43738	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid Amazonian forest, coastal forest and high Andean forest (500–2,500 m).	eng
43738	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43739	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but probably occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43739	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three northern Andean localities in Ecuador. One locality is between Morán and Olivos in Carchi province; and the other two are from Pichincha province, one on  the old Santo Domingo-Quito road, between San Juan and Chiriboga, and the other along the El Paraíso-Saguangal road.	eng
43739	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43739	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43740	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, although may occur inside the Llanganates and Sangay protected areas.	eng
43740	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Appears to be restricted to the Río Pastaza valley, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43740	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43740	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43741	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality may be inside what is now the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43741	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection, made on the slopes of the Volcán Tungurahua in the nineteenth century, Tungurahua province, Ecuador.	eng
43741	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was presumably collected in high Andean forest (>1,500 m).	eng
43741	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43742	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43742	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two localities in the southwestern Andes, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43742	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,200–2,500 m).	eng
43742	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43743	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43743	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Bolívar, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43743	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43743	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43744	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but probably occurs in the Reserva Ecológica los Ilinizas and in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43744	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Bolívar, Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43744	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43744	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43745	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
43745	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made outside of Sayausi, near Cuenca, Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43745	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in high Andean forest (3,200 m).	eng
43745	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The type locality has largely been transformed by deforestation and agriculture.	eng
43746	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is very likely to be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43746	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two locales in the southeastern Andes, in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43746	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43746	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43747	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Protected inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and may also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43747	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least five collections in the Ecuadorian provinces of Chimborazo and Pichincha.	eng
43747	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43747	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43748	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43748	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the 1960s along the Panamericana highway, north of Loja, Loja province, Ecuador.	eng
43748	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected in dry shrubland (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43748	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43749	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43749	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from Imbabura, Morona-Santiago and Pichincha provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43749	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid Amazonian and coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43749	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43750	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43750	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from El Pan, Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43750	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43750	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are habitat destruction through agriculture, grazing and fires.	eng
43751	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but recorded near the borders of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43751	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least seven subpopulations in upper Andean forest, in the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo, Imbabura and Napo. <br/>.	eng
43751	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43751	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by grazing and seasonal fires.	eng
43752	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43752	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recprded from Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43752	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in high Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43752	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	No major threats, although habitat loss may be a problem in some areas.	eng
43753	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43753	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the 1970s northeast of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province, Ecuador.	eng
43753	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in high Andean forest (3,200–3,350 m).	eng
43753	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43754	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43754	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made in the San Marcos valley, inside the Reserva Etnica Awá, Carchi province, Ecuador.	eng
43754	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in coastal forest or humid submontane forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43754	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43755	conservation	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
43755	distribution	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from the type collection made a century ago in the Nanegal valley, Pichincha province, Ecuador.	eng
43755	habitat	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	Was found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43755	threats	Navarrete, H. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation; over the last few decades the area has been severely altered by agriculture, grazing and logging.	eng
43757	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	None of the known subpopulations are inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but the species should be searched for in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43757	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four isolated subpopulations located in the Ecuadorian provinces of Bolívar, El Oro, Loja and Pichincha.	eng
43757	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43757	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43758	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The locale is within the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43758	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection recorded near Toreador, between Molleturo and Quinoa, Azuay province.	eng
43758	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of wet paramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43758	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43759	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43759	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population discovered near Areviatas Pilares Lake (Laguna Arrebatadas), between Amaluza and Palanda, in Loja province.	eng
43759	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of pajonal desert (3,350–3,450 m).	eng
43759	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43760	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43760	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections: on the peak of the Cordillera de Píllaro, on the Sígsig-Gualaquiza-Cordillera de Matanga road and in an unknown locale of Azuay.	eng
43760	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, found within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43760	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43761	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43761	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four collections in the coastal lowlands, within the provinces of Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Manabí.  One collection has also been recored within the Loja province.	eng
43761	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of Coastal lowland forest, found at an elevational range of 0–1,000 m.	eng
43761	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Large-scale coastal deforestation.	eng
43762	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43762	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in an unknown Andean forest of Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43762	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of Andean forest (3,000 m).	eng
43762	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43763	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43763	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least five subpopulations collected in unknown Andean locales, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pichincha.	eng
43763	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43763	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43764	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43764	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two isolated subpopulations, one in Azuay and another in Pichincha.	eng
43764	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
43764	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43765	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and its surroundings. One isolated subpopulation has been reported on the slopes of Volcán Sumaco, inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43765	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations distributed mainly in the southern Andes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, Loja, Napo and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43765	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine or liana of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43765	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43766	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but three subpopulations have been reported in areas near the Parque Nacional El Angel and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43766	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six Andean subpopulations, within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Imbabura and Napo.	eng
43766	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest up to wet paramo (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43766	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43767	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43767	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection near Guayaquil, Guayas province.	eng
43767	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43767	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Coastal native forest destruction by urban and agricultural development in the region.	eng
43768	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43768	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, on the western slopes of Pichincha volcano, Pichincha province.	eng
43768	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43768	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Native forests in the area have been greatly reduced by the advance of agriculture.  The species is also threatened by eruptions of the active volcano.	eng
43769	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43769	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a Sinangüe collection from 1917 "in silvis subandinis ad Tambillo" (near Quito), Pichincha province.	eng
43769	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of paramo (3,200 m).	eng
43769	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reduction of native vegetation for agriculture.	eng
43770	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43770	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections made near Tambillo, south of Quito, and the other in the Lloa valley on the Pichincha volcano, Pichincha province.	eng
43770	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest (2,800 m).	eng
43770	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are the conversion of native vegetation to croplands and the close proximity to Quito.	eng
43771	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43771	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single old collection with no precise data for the collection locale, the label only mentions Loja.	eng
43771	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43771	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43772	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43772	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in Chuquiribamba, northeast of Loja.	eng
43772	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43772	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43773	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43773	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected only once, near the Río Daule close to Guayaquil, Guayas province.	eng
43773	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43773	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction by urban encroachment and agriculture.	eng
43774	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43774	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in the west and south of Loja province. In the west, it has been recorded on Cerro Villonaco and on the road between Catamayo and Loja. Another subpopulation was reported south of Yangana, close to the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43774	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43774	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43775	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43775	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single population in Tarqui valley, south of Cuenca, Azuay province.  own.	eng
43775	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43775	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43776	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43776	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations in the southern Andes, within the Azuay, Cañar and Loja provinces.	eng
43776	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43776	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43777	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43777	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in Colca, near the confluence of the Arenales and Catamayo rivers, Loja province.	eng
43777	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub, collected from dry Andean vegetation at an elevation of 2,000 m.	eng
43777	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43778	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43778	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least six collections, most of them reported from the Pallatanga valley and surrounding areas. One isolated subpopulation is in an unspecified locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43778	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of dry Andean vegetation (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43778	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43779	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43779	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections. The first collection was made near Mulaló, Cotopaxi province, the second collection was in an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.	eng
43779	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, found within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
43779	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43780	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
43780	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four collections in the Andes. First recorded between Urbina and Monte Chimborazo, probably inside the Reserva Producción Faunística Chimborazo. Later collections were recorded in Gualaceo and Aucacocha, inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates. No data exists for the Carchi collection.	eng
43780	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of arbustivo desert, within an elevational range of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
43780	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43781	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The two subpopulations are known to occur within the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43781	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from several collections of a large subpopulation on the slopes of Cotopaxi. A few additional collections are from a subpopulation reported in Ilinizas, Pichincha province.	eng
43781	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry paramo, found at and elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
43781	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43782	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43782	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andean region, especially in the eastern cordillera. Known from 15 subpopulations within the provinces of Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.	eng
43782	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43782	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43783	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Potentially occurs within the protected area of Antisana volcano.	eng
43783	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in the upper Andes, within the Imbabura, Pichincha and Napo provinces.	eng
43783	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of paramo, collected within an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43783	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43784	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43784	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten Andean subpopulations within the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua.  No data has been seen for the Imbabura, Loja, Cotopaxi and Napo collections.	eng
43784	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of low Andean forest up to paramo (1,500–4,500 m).	eng
43784	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43785	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation may possibly occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43785	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations from the Napo and Pichincha provinces.  One subpopulation is on the northwestern slopes of Monte Corazón (near the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas) and the other on the eastern slopes of Volcán Cayambe.	eng
43785	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or vine of low Andean forest and paramo, found at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43785	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43786	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation is known to occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43786	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five collections within the Loja, Pichincha and Morona-Santiago provinces, where it is confined to the southeastern Andean slopes.  Collected on the Gualaceo-Limón road, in the Río Negro valley, east of Sevilla de Oro and inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, east of the Nudo de Cajanuma.	eng
43786	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A liana of low Andean forest and paramo, found at an elevational range of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
43786	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43787	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43787	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made in an unknown locale on the northern slopes of the Río Cañar valley.	eng
43787	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43787	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43788	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43788	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from five collections in the central Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar and Chimborazo. .	eng
43788	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Andean forest up to paramo, collected from an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43788	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43789	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43789	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations from the northern and central Andes, found within the provinces of Bolívar, Chimborazo, Napo and Pichincha.  Distributed on both sides of the Cordillera.	eng
43789	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of Amazonian to Andean forest.  The species shows a wide altitudinal distribution, ranging from Borja, at 700 m elevation, to Tandapi, at 2,400 m elevation.	eng
43789	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43790	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43790	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected once on the road between Cañar and El Tambo, 4 km from Cañar.	eng
43790	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43790	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43791	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur in the Cayambe-Coca or Antisana protected areas.	eng
43791	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three old collections along the road between Papallacta and Baeza, Napo province.	eng
43791	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43791	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43792	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur around and inside the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43792	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to the western Andes of Azuay province. Approximately 20 subpopulations have been reported. Two isolated subpopulations have been reported in the south of Cumbe and between Cañar and Azogues.	eng
43792	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43792	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43793	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43793	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one subpopulation, collected several times between 1994 and 1997 on Cerro Uritusinga, towards the Hacienda La Palma, southwest of Loja.	eng
43793	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43793	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Found in vegetation remnants, which are seriously threatened by wood extraction for charcoal production.	eng
43794	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Three subpopulations are in or near the Cotacachi-Cayapas and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
43794	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations in the northern Andes, within the Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43794	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,500 m).	eng
43794	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43795	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43795	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected once in Tipococha, on the borders of Cañar and Chimborazo provinces.	eng
43795	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest to arbustivo desert, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43795	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43796	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One collection has been reported in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43796	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from approximately ten collections reported in the northern Andes, within the Imbabura and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43796	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert, collected within an elevational range of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
43796	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43797	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been reported inside the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, others at the entrance of the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43797	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected four times in relatively isolated areas, within the Chimborazo, Pichincha and Tungurahua province.	eng
43797	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of arbustivo desert, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
43797	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43798	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43798	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Reported as a new species in 1994 based on one collection, recorded in the Jatun Sacha private reserve, on the Napo river, 8 km east of Misahuallí, Napo province.	eng
43798	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or liana recorded within Amazonian forest (400 m).	eng
43798	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43799	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43799	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded twice, in a small area of western Pichincha province: 90 km off the road between Chiriboga and Santo Domingo, and at Las Palmeras, in the Río Saloya valley.	eng
43799	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
43799	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Threatened by colonization.	eng
43800	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43800	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, recorded on the Río Cusalagua and near San Jacinto de la Unión, Bolívar province.	eng
43800	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43800	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43801	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43801	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations on the western slopes of the central and southern Andes, within the Azuay and Bolívar provinces. Collected near Chagal and Molleturo, in Balsapamba, and west of the Chillanes.	eng
43801	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43801	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43802	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43802	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 17 subpopulations distributed in the central and northern Andes, within the provinces of Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios and Tungurahua.	eng
43802	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or liana of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43802	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43803	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in a protected area.	eng
43803	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections, within the province of Guayas.  Precise locale data has only been seen for one subpopulation, recorded in Puná Vieja on the island of the same name.	eng
43803	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43803	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43804	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Parque Nacional Llanganates.  The recorded subpopulation is protected, as it grows in an area with very difficult access.	eng
43804	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Grows on the southeastern slopes of Cerro Hermoso, Tungurahua province.	eng
43804	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A perennial rosette herb of super paramo, in permanently wet and rocky areas with abundant bryophytes (4,200–4,300 m).	eng
43805	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The two subpopulations are currently protected inside the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43805	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the eastern Andes, within the Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago and Napo provinces.  Recorded in the Paramo Soguillas, which is near the Llanganati towers, and on the Alao-Huamboya road.	eng
43805	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of humid paramo (3,500–4,000 m).	eng
43805	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43806	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43806	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection recorded in the Azuay province. Locale information is unknown.	eng
43806	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of paramo (3,050–3,415 m).	eng
43806	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43807	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43807	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections within Cañar and El Tambo valleys.  Two collections have been reported in disturbed areas in southern Cañar, and a third in Ingapirca.	eng
43807	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, confined to xerophytic slopes (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43807	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43808	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43808	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from ten subpopulations distributed in dry valleys of the tributaries of the Jubones River, like Paute and Chira, in the southern Andean region between Girón, Saraguro and Vilcabamba.	eng
43808	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean valleys, found at an elevational range of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
43808	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43809	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43809	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 15 subpopulations distributed especially in dry canyons of the Chanchán and Cañar rivers.  Found in dense populations near Huigra, in the Río Chanchán valley.  Most of the collections are confined to a small area between Alausi, Huigra and Chunchi, south of Chimborazo province. One isolated subpopulation has been recorded in Tungurahua province.	eng
43809	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation, in recently disturbed or open areas on roadsides (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43809	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43810	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43810	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the driest areas of the Río Mira valley. The subpopulations were reported along the Salinas-Lita road.  Additional subpopulations may occur in areas far from roads and urban centres.	eng
43810	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (500–1,500 m).	eng
43810	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43811	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43811	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least 15 subpopulations, mainly in the central Andes, within the Imbabura province. Two varieties have been identified: <em>lehmanni</em> and <em>grandiceps</em>.  Twelve subpopulations have been recorded for the first variety, which is confined to canyons of the Río Chanchán, Cañar and Chimbo, where it occurs abundantly along the Panamericana road, sometimes forming large subpopulations. The <em>grandiceps</em> variety is known only from a small area near Huigra, along the Panamericana road, south of Chunchi.	eng
43811	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of dry Andean vegetation (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43811	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43812	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43812	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to a small area of wet and dry forests along canyons of the Río Girón and León, in Azuay province. Also recorded in the headwaters of the Río Paquishapa, north of Loja province.	eng
43812	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of wet and dry forest, abundant along roads and disturbed areas (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43812	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43813	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43813	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the southern Andes. The first subpopulation was recorded 30 km south of Cumbe on the Saraguro road, Azuay province. The second subpopulation was reported in an unknown locale of Loja province.	eng
43813	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43813	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43814	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43814	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from nine subpopulations in the Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43814	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
43814	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43815	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43815	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections made in the northwestern Andes, within the Carchi province.	eng
43815	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of Andean and coastal foothill forest, found at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43815	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation, which has increased in the past years due to road construction.	eng
43816	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.  Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43816	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes, 25 km from El Carmelo on the road to La Bonita and Oyacachi, within the provinces of Napo and Sucumbios.	eng
43816	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
43816	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation due to disorganized colonization and mining, which have accelerated with recent road openings, especially in La Bonita.	eng
43817	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43817	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations, where it is confined to the Andean foothills of Pichincha province. Collected 20 km west of Santo Domingo and in areas near Chiriboga.	eng
43817	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of wet coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–500 m).	eng
43817	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43818	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One subpopulation has been collected inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43818	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three isolated subpopulations in the Andes, within the provinces of Cotopaxi, Loja and Pichincha.  The northern subpopulations have been reported in Chiriboga and Pilaló locales. A third subpopulation has been recorded by three collections near the Centro de Información, inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43818	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest to arbustivo desert, at an elevational range of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
43818	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43819	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43819	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in the southern Andes, within Azuay, Loja and Morona-Santiago provinces.   Locale information has been found for only one subpopulation: near Fierro Urco, southwest of Saraguro. .	eng
43819	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43819	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43820	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
43820	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations, five of them in western Pichincha province, and one from Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43820	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43820	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43821	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43821	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection recorded north of Sevilla de Oro, Azuay province.	eng
43821	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43821	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43822	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43822	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from two Andean collections, within the Tungurahua province.  The first collection is without locale information and the second in the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
43822	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43822	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43823	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The slopes of Volcán Sumaco and surrounding areas are protected inside the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43823	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections on the slopes of Volcán Sumaco, 3 km to the east and 5 km to the west of the Caserío de Huamaní, north of the Hollín-Loreto road, Napo province.	eng
43823	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43823	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation due to the construction of the Hollín-Loreto road.	eng
43824	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Two populations occur within the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43824	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations distributed in the south of the Andes, two of them in Loja and one in the Cordillera del Cutucú, Morono-Santiago province. The Loja subpopulations were located in Fierro Urco and in Cerro Toledo.	eng
43824	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest to arbustivo desert (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
43824	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are deforestation and fires set by humans.	eng
43825	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may occur within the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana and Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas.	eng
43825	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two Andean subpopulations, in the surroundings of Cosanga and southwest of Cotacachi, within the provinces of Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha.	eng
43825	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
43825	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43826	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One of the reported subpopulations is inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43826	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations, within the Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43826	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest and paramo, at an elevational range of 1,000–3,500 m.	eng
43826	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43827	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43827	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations distributed in the foothills of the southeastern Andes and the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43827	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of Amazonian forest, found within an elevational range of 200–1,000 m.	eng
43827	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43828	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Additional subpopulations may be found in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43828	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection, made 3 km east of the Caserío de Huamaní, north of the Hollín-Loreto road, Napo province.	eng
43828	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low Andean forest, collected within an elevational range of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
43828	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the deforestation that followed the construction of the Hollín-Loreto road.	eng
43829	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43829	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection from 1943, on the road between Mirador and Pailas, Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43829	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43830	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but be present in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43830	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection recorded in 1990 in the Cantón El Chaco, on the right side of the Quijos river, in the Finca "La Ave Brava", Napo province.	eng
43830	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or vine of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43830	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43831	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43831	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection made between Campanas and Arenillas, southeast of El Pan, Morona-Santiago province.	eng
43831	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or vine of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43831	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43832	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43832	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected four times in the southern Andes, within the Azuay and Morona-Santiago provinces. Of the four subpopulations, only two have exact locale information: one on the Alao-Huamboya road, near El Placer, and the other 4–6 km north of Sevilla de Oro.	eng
43832	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43832	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat for the two known locales is deforestation.	eng
43833	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43833	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections in the southern Andes, within the Azuay and Loja provinces.  One subpopulation was reported 1-8 km north of Sevilla de Oro.	eng
43833	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or vine of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43833	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43834	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43834	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Described as a new species in 1993, based on a record from 1986 in the Río Guajalito private reserve, 59 km off the old road between Quito and Santo Domingo, Pichincha province.  A later collection was reported near the original locale.	eng
43834	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43834	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43835	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43835	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection 12-14 km off the Loja-Zamora road, Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43835	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A vine of high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43835	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43836	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacionale Sangay and the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43836	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur in four locales within the Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi provinces.	eng
43836	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m).	eng
43836	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43837	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43837	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in five locales within the Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Napo and Pichincha provinces.	eng
43837	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of paramo, found within an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
43837	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are fires set by humans and grazing.	eng
43838	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43838	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections, within the Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  One collection was made at Chiriboga on the western Andean slopes.	eng
43838	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of high Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43838	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43839	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43839	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations distributed in the coastal lowlands and the southern Andes, within the Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Guayas, Loja and Los Ríos provinces. The coastal subpopulations were recorded near Balao, and near Babahoyo in Bodegas. Also recorded west of Catamayo on the road to Catacocha.	eng
43839	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or vine of wet and dry coastal forest to low Andean forest, within an elevational range of 0–2,000 m.	eng
43839	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43840	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43840	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from six subpopulations within the Cotopaxi, Pastaza, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.	eng
43840	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub, shrub, vine or liana of low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
43840	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43841	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but potentially exists inside the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43841	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in Mera, near Mangayacu, Pastaza province.	eng
43841	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest, collected at an elevation of 1,100 m.	eng
43841	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43842	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43842	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a few old collections in the Andes. The only subpopulation with detailed locale information was recorded at the Hacienda Isco, in the foothills of Volcán Antisana.	eng
43842	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb possibly found within high Andean forest.	eng
43842	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43843	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43843	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the central and northern Andes, within the Cañar, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces. One is from 21 km off the Cotacachi-Apuela road and another from Ingapirca.	eng
43843	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub of dry Andean vegetation, within an elevation of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43843	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43844	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43844	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Described as a new species in 1998, from two collections in the Río Nangaritza valley, near Miasi in the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43844	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of low Andean forest, growing on steep limestone cliffs and slate (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
43844	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43845	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43845	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered near Quito, Pichincha province.  Subsequent collections have been made in an unknown locale in Cañar and within an unknown locale of Chimborazo province.	eng
43845	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,700 m).	eng
43845	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43846	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43846	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three subpopulations in Loja and one in Chimborazo. The Loja subpopulations include one reported in Sozoranga, one in El Calvario and one in an unknown locale.	eng
43846	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high and low Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43846	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43847	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known to occur within the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43847	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two isolated subpopulations. The first was recorded near Guápulo, currently inside the Quito metropolitan area, Pichincha province. The second subpopulations were reported in the surroundings of Cuicocha lake, inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Imbabura province. Additional subpopulations may occur in intermediate areas.	eng
43847	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43847	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43848	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43848	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections. Two of the collections were reported in unspecified locales of Pichincha province; a third was reported in Monte Ilaló, near Quito.	eng
43848	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
43848	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The rapid growth of the city of Quito has drastically reduced native surrounding forests, potentially putting this species at high risk.	eng
43849	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but some subpopulations may be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43849	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Confined to eastern Tungurahua province, on the slopes of the Tungurahua volcano.	eng
43849	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43849	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43850	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43850	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections on the dry slopes of the Catamayo valley, near Loja. One collection is from Cerro Mataperro, southwest of San Pedro de la Bendita; another from the road between Loja and Catamayo; and the third on the road between San Pedro de la Bendita and El Cisne.	eng
43850	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43850	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43851	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43851	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections, confined to areas near Loja. Two collections are from Pucala near Loja and a third on the Río Gimanche, which does not appear on current maps.	eng
43851	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
43851	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43852	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43852	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five collections between Girón and Saraguro, Azuay and Loja provinces.	eng
43852	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A subshrub or shrub of dry Andean vegetation, collected in dry valleys (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43852	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43853	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be found in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43853	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Distributed in the central and western Andes, within the provinces of Azuay, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi.	eng
43853	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert, collected within an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43853	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43854	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas, but may be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43854	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations in the northern Andes. The first subpopulation was reported in Shanshipamba, east of Mariano Acosta, Imbabura province; the second in an unknown locale of Pichincha province.	eng
43854	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of arbustivo desert, at an elevational range of 3,500–4,000 m.	eng
43854	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43855	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43855	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded once on the road between Loja and Zaruma, between Las Chinchas and Zambi, Loja province.	eng
43855	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43855	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The historical location is potentially threatened by deforestation.	eng
43856	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43856	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections in the Azuay and Cañar provinces. One subpopulation was recorded southeast of Cumbe.  Detailed locales for the other two collections are unknown.	eng
43856	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb collected within dry valleys, at an elevational range of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
43856	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43857	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43857	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection. No data is available for locale, as the label description only mentions southern Ecuador.	eng
43857	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A treelet of Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43857	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43858	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43858	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from at least nine subpopulations, within the Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces.  One subpopulation was recorded in dry vegetation of the inter-Andean valley near Huigra.	eng
43858	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub or treelet of wet coastal forest and dry Andean vegetation (0–1,500 m).	eng
43858	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43859	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
43859	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Distributed widely, from Otavalo in the north to Yangana in Loja.  Known from ten subpopulations, eight in the Andean region and two on the coast.  The coastal subpopulations have been reported in Santa Rosa and in the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco near Guayaquil. The Andean subpopulations are mostly in Loja.	eng
43859	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub with a broad altitudinal range, from tropical forests to upper Andean vegetation (0–3,000 m).  Most of the collections were recorded in disturbed areas, which suggests some tolerance to disturbance.	eng
43860	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	One collection has been recorded in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and other two subpopulations may be inside the El Angel and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
43860	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five collections in the northern Andes, within the Carchi and Imbabura provinces.	eng
43860	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
43860	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43861	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
43861	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from three collections: at Cerro Villonaco, 15 km west of Loja; 10 km southwest of the same city towards La Violeta; and close to Loja.	eng
43861	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest up to arbustivo desert (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43861	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43862	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43862	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection recorded near Nono, Pichincha province.	eng
43862	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A shrub of high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
43862	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The destruction of natural vegetation in the area may be the biggest threat to the species.	eng
43863	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43863	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection near Nabón, Azuay province.	eng
43863	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
43863	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43864	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43864	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from four collections in the central Andes, within the Bolívar, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces.  Reported from the Alausí-Huigra road, in Pifo, and in El Batán, inside the city of Quito.   No information is available for the fourth collection, from Bolívar province.	eng
43864	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
43864	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43865	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43865	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from one collection on the road from Guayaquil to Durán, Guayas province.	eng
43865	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of wet coastal forest, recorded at an elevation of 0–500 m.	eng
43865	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	May be extinct due to the near-total destruction of natural vegetation near Guayaquil.	eng
43866	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not confirmed inside Ecuador's protected areas network, but recorded near the El Angel and Antisana protected areas.	eng
43866	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, within the Carchi, Chimborazo and Napo provinces. No locale information is available for recent subpopulations.	eng
43866	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb distributed in the paramos of northern Andean peaks (3,500–4,500 m).	eng
43866	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43867	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and Parque Nacional Cajas, several subpopulations also occur in areas close to the Los Ilinizas, Antisana, Cayambe, El Angel and Chimborazo protected areas.	eng
43867	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Widely distributed in the Andes.  Known from 50 subpopulations within the Azuay, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Most of the collections are from the Volcán Pichincha region.	eng
43867	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial rosette herb of arbustivo and humid paramo, growing singly or in clusters (2,800–4,500 m).	eng
43867	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43868	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43868	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from a single collection in the eastern cordillera, between Oña and the Río Yacuambi, Azuay province.	eng
43868	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A herb or subshrub of high Andean vegetation, collected at an elevational range of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
43868	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43869	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Some of these subpopulations may be protected inside the Chimborazo and Antisana protected areas	eng
43869	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations in the central and northern Andes, within the Chimborazo, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces.  Several subpopulations have been reported from the Antisana and Chimborazo volcanoes, and the species probably also occurs on Volcán Pichincha.	eng
43869	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry paramo, over an elevation of 4,000 m.	eng
43869	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43870	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collections have been reported within the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
43870	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two subpopulations within the central Andes.  Most of the collections come from inside the Parque Nacional Cajas, Azuay province; one collection has been reported from an unknown locale of Loja.	eng
43870	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb, found in wet areas of the superparamos, at an elevational range of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
43870	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43871	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected inside the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute and several private reserves in the coast, probably also occurs inside the Parque Nacional Machalilla.	eng
43871	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Abundant in some areas of the Cordillera Chongón Colonche, Guayas province.  Also found within the province of Manabí.	eng
43871	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of dry coastal forest.	eng
43871	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43872	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul, where it is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
43872	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Discovered in the Bilsa private reserve, Esmeraldas province, where it seems abundant.	eng
43872	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 350–500 m.	eng
43872	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43873	conservation	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	In the Flórula de Rio Palenque the species appears under the name Malmea depressa (Dodson and Gentry 1978). Protected in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.  Known to occur in the Río Palenque and Bilsa private reserves.	eng
43873	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recently described from three locales in Los Ríos and Anchayacu in Esmeraldas province.	eng
43873	habitat	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	A tree of wet coastal forest, found at an elevational range of 70–600 m.	eng
43873	threats	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43874	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and another in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
43874	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	<em>Cotopaxia asplundii</em> is known from six subpopulations confined to the central and northern Ecuadorian Andes, within the provinces of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha.	eng
43874	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of dry paramo.	eng
43874	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43875	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Species may be found inside the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas or in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, since it was collected relatively close to these areas.	eng
43875	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from five subpopulations, located within the Cotopaxi, Loja, Pichincha and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43875	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest.	eng
43875	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43876	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Several subpopulations have been recorded in protected areas: in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the borders of the Parque Nacional Sangay, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
43876	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from 13 subpopulations, located inside the Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua provinces, on the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador.	eng
43876	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of Amazonian and low Andean forest, found at an elevational range of 500–3,000 m.	eng
43876	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43877	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Collected in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Additional subpopulations may occur in other upper Andean protected areas.	eng
43877	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Most of the 13 known subpopulations are on the eastern slopes of the Andes, within the Azuay, Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Loja, Napo, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.	eng
43877	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest up to wet paramo, found at an elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
43877	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is deforestation.	eng
43878	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43878	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from eight subpopulations, located within the Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces.  No precise locale information for the subpopulations is available.	eng
43878	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of high Andean forest up to wet paramo, found at and elevational range of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
43878	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43879	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
43879	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two collections: the type collection was made in the pajonales del monte Titiacún or Titaicum (described in 1921 as <em>Apium sprucei</em>), and another collection in the "Andes de Quito".	eng
43879	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	A terrestrial herb of paramo, collected at an elevational range of 2500–3000 m.	eng
43879	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction.	eng
43880	conservation	Cheek, M., 2003	Recorded within the Mokoko Forest Reserve.	eng
43880	distribution	Cheek, M., 2003	Endemic to the foothill forests north and south of the main massif of Mt Cameroon.  Within its range it appears to be rare and easily overlooked.	eng
43880	habitat	Cheek, M., 2003	A much-branched shrub of lowland evergreen rainforest; 0-100 m altitude.	eng
43880	threats	Cheek, M., 2003	All known sites for this species are believed to be on land threatened by clearance for plantations.	eng
43881	conservation	Cheek, M., 2003	<em>C. metallica</em> is present at Bakossi Forest reserve and has also been found in Nguti, near the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary. Improved policing of existing protected areas would help to secure the survival of this species.	eng
43881	distribution	Cheek, M., 2003	Cameroon.  SW Province, Mt Cameroon.	eng
43881	habitat	Cheek, M., 2003	A branched shrub of lowland evergreen rainforest, at an elevational range of  50–700 m.	eng
43881	threats	Cheek, M., 2003	All of the known sites for this species are believed to be on land that is under threat from habitat loss/degradation from logging, forest clearance for plantations and small holder farming.	eng
43882	conservation	Cheek, M., 2003	Known to occur within the Korup National Park and at the edge of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
43882	distribution	Cheek, M., 2003	Occurs from the Korup National Park to the northwestern extremity of the foothills of Mt Cameroon.	eng
43882	habitat	Cheek, M., 2003	A shrub or small tree of lowland evergreen rainforest, usually on sandy soils; 60 – 400 m altitude.	eng
43882	threats	Cheek, M., 2003	The unprotected sites where <em>C. suboppositifolia</em> occurs are under threat of habitat loss/degradation from logging and forest clearance for large-scale plantations.	eng
43883	conservation	Cheek, M., 2003	Known to occur within the Kwamgumi Forest Reserve.  This species may also be present within the Segoma Forest Reserve.	eng
43883	distribution	Cheek, M., 2003	Only known from the eastern Usambara Mts at Kwamgumi Forest Reserve.	eng
43883	habitat	Cheek, M., 2003	A much branched tree of lowland forest, found at an elevation of around 350 m.	eng
43883	threats	Cheek, M., 2003	<em>C. lukei</em> is under threat due to illegal logging and coppicing of this species for poles.  The related species <em>C. usambarensis</em> is also used for making rope, tool/spoon handles and the bark and for treating at least five ailments, however, It is not clear which of these uses apply to <em>C. lukei.</em>	eng
43884	distribution	Zappi D.C., 2003	Distributed along the coast of Bahia, this species reaches Sergipe and may also be found in Alagoas.  The southernmost collection known is at Santa Cruz Cabrália, some 500 km south of the northernmost collection in Sergipe.	eng
43884	habitat	Zappi D.C., 2003	Grows in 'restinga' vegetation on the coastal sand dunes.  These dunes are characterized by white sand.  A threatened species of Cactaceae (<em>Melocactus violaceus</em> Pfeiff.) also occurs in this habitat.	eng
43884	threats	Zappi D.C., 2003	The narrow strip of land where this species occurs is threatened by housing developments.  Some of these new developments are for the tourism industry.  Habitat is also being lost to expanding agricultural plantations of coconuts and pineapples.	eng
43885	conservation	Dawson, S.E., 2003	This species is present in Mokoko Forest Reserve and Bimbia-Bonadikomba forest (previously known as Mabeta-Moliwe). Individual trees of this taxon merit special protection given their rarity. A survey to relocate plants at their known sites should assess what measures are most suitable at each site. At Kupe village for example, renting the forest area concerned together with a poster campaign might be the best means of supporting the survival of the subpopulation there.	eng
43885	distribution	Dawson, S.E., 2003	Recorded from south and southwest Cameroon: Mt Cameroon at Bimbia-Bonadikamba and at Mokoko, Kupe-Bakossi in western Bakossi and at Kupe Village, South Province at N’Kolandom (one collection from each). Seems very rare given the few collections known despite intensive collecting over recent years in several of the forests where it occurs.	eng
43885	habitat	Dawson, S.E., 2003	This blue-flowered cauliflorous treelet or shrub grows in the understorey of lowland evergreen, primary and secondary forest; 200–950 m altitude.	eng
43885	threats	Dawson, S.E., 2003	<em>S. arcuata</em> is under threat from habitat loss due to forest clearance for agriculture, especially plantations in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and in Bakossi, small-holder agriculture.	eng
43886	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Paton, A.J., 2003	The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) has proposed the creation of two government forest reserves. One of the forest reserves would encompass 54,000 hectares of the Bakossi Mountains and almost certainly include the Kodmin locality for <em>P. cataractarum</em>. An attempt should also be made to confirm if this species still exists on Mt Etinde or not.	eng
43886	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Paton, A.J., 2003	Subpopulations have been found on Mt Cameroon, the Bakossi Mts and Etinde in Cameroon.  Equatorial Guinea subpopulations have been located in Ureka and Moca.	eng
43886	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Paton, A.J., 2003	A rheophytic herb, located in the spray zone of waterfalls on wet rocks in or around fast flowing water, within lowland or submontane evergreen forest, rarely non-epilithic on edge of watercourses, 300–1,450 m altitude.	eng
43886	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Paton, A.J., 2003	<em>P. cataractarum</em> does not appear to be under immediate threat in the Bakossi Mts, but at the end of 2000 there were reports of government proposals to allow timber extractions in the area. Forest clearance for wood plantations up to the 1,000 m contour on Mt Cameroon is threatened. Consequently <em>P. cataractarum</em> is likely to become extinct at the Njonji site in the immediate future, if it is not already so. Changes in run-off regime following deforestation within the stream catchments may result in habitat changes which are unfavourable to this species, such as increased silting along watercourses.	eng
43887	conservation	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	Known to occur within the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
43887	distribution	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	Endemic to the foothills of Mt Cameroon.  The status of Critically Endangered has been allocated to <em>P. bimbiensis</em> on the basis of the threat to the foothills of Mount Cameroon.   (Cable and Cheek 1998: xxxvi).	eng
43887	habitat	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	large shrub or small tree of disturbed evergreen forest on old volcanic soils.   Found growing with <em>Lophira</em> (Ochnaceae), <em>Desbordesia</em> (Irvingiaceae) and <em>Strombosia</em> (Olacaceae); 80-100 m altitude.	eng
43887	threats	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	The Bonadikombe-Bimbia forest in which this species seems concentrated is particularly threatened.  Almost all of this forest stands on land reserved for plantation expansion, although a more immediate threat is forest clearance from small-holder farming from the nearby town of Limbe	eng
43888	distribution	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	Cameroon. SW Province, Mt Cameroon.	eng
43888	habitat	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	A shrub of evergreen forest on old volcanic soils.	eng
43888	threats	Cheek, M. & Bridson, D., 2003	The Bonadikombe-Bimbia forest is under threat from plantation expansion and forest clearance for small-holder farming.	eng
43889	conservation	Litt, A. & Cheek, M., 2003	Located within the Korup National Park.	eng
43889	distribution	Litt, A. & Cheek, M., 2003	The subpopulation is located within Korup National Park, South West Province, Cameroon.  The Korup project area, where <em>Korupodendron</em> was collected, encompasses 2510 km².  It is thought that as many as 200 individuals of <em>K. songweanum</em> may exist at the 500 m altitudinal band.	eng
43889	habitat	Litt, A. & Cheek, M., 2003	A tree that has been recorded on the rocky lower slopes of Mt. Juahan in lowland evergreen forest.  Some tree species associated with <em>Korupodendron songweanum</em> are <em>Napoleonaea egertonii</em> E.G.Baker, <em>Allanblackia monticola</em> Mildbr., <em>Pachypodanthium staudtii</em> Engl. & Diels, <em>Baikaiea insignis</em> Benth. and <em>Uvariopsis</em> sp.	eng
43889	threats	Litt, A. & Cheek, M., 2003	It is not known if the exploitation of <em>K. songweanum</em> for building purposes is sustainable, it is thought that this exploitation may cause a serious decline in the number of individuals of this species.	eng
43890	conservation	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	Known to occur within in Yangambi, Reserve Flore Isalowe.	eng
43890	distribution	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	<em>P. chalconeura</em> appears to be restricted to the lowland forests of the Congo basin, including parts of eastern Cameroon.	eng
43890	habitat	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	Semi-deciduous or evergreen forest at an altitude of 0-470 (-1000) m.	eng
43891	conservation	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Occurs in numerous protected areas, including the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (1,600,000 ha), the Sipaliwini Nature Reserve, and the Wai-wai Community Owned Conservation Area.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
43891	distribution	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Occurs north of the Amazon throughout the Guianas, southern and central Venezuela and northern Brazil. Limited to the south by the Amazon River, and to the west by the Rio Negro in Brazil and Orinoco in Venezuela. It extends north as far as the west bank of Lago Guri in Venezuela, north of the confluence of the Ríos Paragua and Caroni, its distribution here being limited by the increasing impact of drier vegetation (Hershkovitz 1985), and its eastern boundary in Venezuela appears to be the left bank of the Caroní. It is largely absent from western Guyana, occurring to the east of the Rio Essequibo. In Suriname, it is absent from the coastal plain, while in French Guiana it is only found in the extreme south (approximately 200 km inland). In eastern Brazil, it occurs throughout the State of Amapá and is possibly only absent from wetter regions along the coast.<br/><br/>Although <em>Cacajao</em> and <em>Chiropotes</em> are mutually exclusive, mixed groups of <em>Cacajao hosomi</em> and <em>Chiropotes chiropotes</em> in the region of the Pico da Neblina (Boubli 2002).	eng
43891	habitat	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	Inhabits terra firme forests (including high forest, savanna forest, and mora forests), and mixed semi-deciduous forest (Mittermeier 1977; Mittermeier and Coimbra-Filho 1977; van Roosmalen <em>et al.</em> 1981; Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Norconk <em>et al</em>. 1996, 2003; Peetz 2001). <br/><br/>Like other bearded saki species, this species forms large, multi-male, multi-female groups (44 members) (Norconk <em>et al</em>. 2003), members of which travel together but subdivide during foraging (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Frazão 1992). In Suriname, reproduction was seasonal, with most births occurring in the rainy season or beginning of the dry season (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Peetz 2001).<br/><br/>The species is highly frugivorous, the diet being comprised principally of fruit and seeds (Mittermeier 1977; van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 1981; Kinzey and Norconk 1990, 1993; Frazão 1992; Peetz 2001), supplemented with flowers and non-reproductive plant parts as well as arthropods (Ayres and Nessimian 1982; Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1983; Frazão 1991; Kinzey and Norconk 1993; Peetz 2001). Peetz (2001) recorded <em>C. chiropotes</em> eating over 100 species of plant. <br/><br/>Ayres (1981) registered day ranges of 1.3 km for a group in a small fragment (10 ha) near Manaus but a group in an area of continuous forest ranged over much larger areas, travelling as much as 6 km in one day (Frazão 1992). In Suriname, van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. (1988) estimated ranges of 2.5 km and home ranges up to 250 ha. Peetz (2001) recorded an average day range of 1.6 km.	eng
43891	population	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
43891	threats	Veiga, L.M., Silva Jr., J.S., Mittermeier, R.A. & Boubli, J.-P., 2008	There are currently no major threats, although localized hunting for food takes place around Indian and bush negro villages.	eng
43892	conservation	Veiga, L. M., Silva Jr. J. S., Ferrari, S. F. & Rylands, A. B., 2008	The following federal reserves occur within the Uta Hick’s Bearded Saki’s range in the state of Pará: REBIO de Tapirapé (103,000 ha), FLONA Carajás (411,949 ha), FLONA Caxiuanã (324,060 ha), FLONA Itacaiúna (141,400 ha), FLONA Tapirapé-Aquiri (190,000 ha), APA Igarapé Gelado (21,600 ha), RESEX Ipaú-Anilzinho (55,816 ha) and RDS Itapuã-Baquiá (64,735 ha). State reserves in Pará include: the Parque Estadual da Serra dos Martírios/Andorinhas (24,897 ha), APA Lago de Tucuruí – margem esquerda (568,667 ha), APA São Geraldo do Araguaia (29,655 ha), RDS Alcobaça (36,128 ha) and RDS Pucuruí-Ararão (29,049 ha) (Lopes <em>et al.</em> in press). Surveys are needed south of the rio Tapirapé in northern Mato Grosso to confirm range limits.<br/><br/>The Primate Protection Centre (Centro de Proteção de Primatas Brasileiros: ICM/CPB), of the Federal Environmental Protection Institute (Instituto Chico Mendes), supports and coordinates primate conservation programmes throughout the country. An international committee to discuss and define actions for the conservation of Amazonian primate taxa (Comitê Internacional para Conservação e Manejo dos Primatas Amazônicos), was established by the the CPB and Instituto Chico Mendes (ICM) and together with the members of the Pitheciine Action Group (PAG) are developing a Conservation Action Plan for the Uta Hick’s Bearded Saki.<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
43892	distribution	Veiga, L. M., Silva Jr. J. S., Ferrari, S. F. & Rylands, A. B., 2008	Endemic to Brazil, the species inhabits the Amazon lowlands, between the Rios Xingu, Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia (Hershkovitz 1985; Ferrari and Lopes 1996). The exact limits of its range are unknown. However, National Museum (Rio de Janeiro) archives include a record for the region of rio Tapirapé in north-east Mato Grosso, near the forest-savanna transition (J. Siiva Jr. pers. comm.). It is therefore possible that the species occurs in forested areas at the interface between the two biomes.	eng
43892	habitat	Veiga, L. M., Silva Jr. J. S., Ferrari, S. F. & Rylands, A. B., 2008	Uta Hick's Bearded Saki is endemic to the fluvial plain of Amazonia, where it occurs in tall terra firme humid forests at low altitudes. It has been recorded in disturbed forests. <br/><br/>This species is highly frugivorou, with the diet comprised of seeds (53%), fruit pulp (26%), flowers (18%) and small quantities of insects, leaves and other plant parts (Santos 2002; Vieira 2005). In a study of a group on an island (129 ha), over 150 plant species were consumed. Important species include <em>Alexa grandiflora</em> (Fabaceae), <em>Annona tenuipes</em> (Annonaceae), <em>Inga alba</em> (Mimosaceae), <em>Eschweilera</em> sp. (Lecythidaceae) and <em>Attalea speciosa</em> (Arecaceae). Home range sizes between 60 and 100 ha, and average daily walking distances of 2.5 km have been recorded (Vieira 2005). Recent studies have demonstrated that eastern Amazonian bearded sakis are more tolerant of anthropogenic habitat disturbance than previously assumed, with groups often able to survive in isolated fragments (<50 ha), some of which have been isolated for over 20 years (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 2002; Santos 2002; Vieira 2005).	eng
43892	population	Veiga, L. M., Silva Jr. J. S., Ferrari, S. F. & Rylands, A. B., 2008	Using standardized line transects, population densities and sighting rates have been calculated for a number of areas (see Table 1). This species may occur in greater densities in altered habitats and forest fragments than in areas of continuous forest (Bobadilla and Ferrari 1998; Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
43892	threats	Veiga, L. M., Silva Jr. J. S., Ferrari, S. F. & Rylands, A. B., 2008	The key threats to its future survival are habitat loss and fragmentation. The establishment of several large projects (such as the Transamazonian highway BR-230), which bisects the interfluvium from east to west, the Carajás Mineral Complex and the Tucuruí hydroelectric dam, have lead to considerable habitat loss. In the north of the range, the habitat is under pressure from both small-holder and large-scale farming activities and cattle ranching. This species is also hunted for its meat and fur, and hunting pressure is likely to increase due to habitat fragmentation.	eng
43893	distribution	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	Bamenda Highlands in Western Cameroon extending eastwards.  Mambilla Division in Nigeria.	eng
43893	habitat	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	A shrub or small tree that can be found in the understorey of lower montane evergreen forest at 1,700-2,060 m alt.  In its natural habitat <em>P. moseskemei</em> is easily confused, when sterile, with <em>Chassalia laikomensis</em>.  The two are similar in stature, leaf shape, size and can grow side by side.	eng
43893	threats	Cheek, M. & Csiba, L., 2003	Habitat loss/degradation due to the clearance of land for small-holder farming.	eng
43894	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	A small proportion of the preferred habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  One mature, reproducing individual in cultivation in the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, BVI.  22 seedlings in cultivation in the botanic garden nursery (collected in Anegada in 2000).  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration is being given to including named endemic/ threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.	eng
43894	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada, British Virgin Islands.   Extent of occurrence: 25 km², Area of occupancy: <10 km².  <em>Ex situ</em> population: One mature, reproducing individual in the display collection of the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, BVI.  22 seedlings are in cultivation at the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden Nursery. <br/> <br/>Population size is unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common on limestone and scarce on sand dunes. Treated as one location with no distinct subpopulations.	eng
43894	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Definite preference to limestone substrate – field data show a frequency >50% on limestone and <5% on sand dunes (based on 104 x 20 m² plots).  Field observations indicate poor recruitment – relatively few seedlings or saplings observed.	eng
43894	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing).  Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation. The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum</em>.  Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land.  Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level.  Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em>A. anegadensis</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.  Formally cut for timber and the resin used as a boat sealant. No current utilization known.	eng
43895	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	<em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> is listed as an endangered species on the US Federal Endangered Species Act and a recovery plan has been developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This is based on the PR and USVI subpopulations, with only a small reference to the existence of a subpopulation in BVI.  The BVI National Parks Trust is aware of the location of <em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> individuals within Gorda Peak National Park and is monitoring the subpopulations regularly. A management plan for the Park has been developed.  Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.  There is a loose livestock control programme in operation on Virgin Gorda which is addressing the deleterious effects of free-roaming cattle. The BVI National Parks Trust is developing a horticultural protocol in an attempt to establish <em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> in <em>ex situ</em> cultivation at the JR O’Neal Botanic Garden on Tortola, as part of their conservation programme.  Currently 4 seedlings have been established in cultivation.  The Monte Pirata subpopulation is located within a Navy conservation zone where it is a known species of concern.  The Bordeaux Mountain subpopulation is within the Virgin Islands National Park where management practices have been reported which will protect the species from uprooting and trampling by feral pigs and donkeys.	eng
43895	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Three locations are currently known.  (1): Monte Pirata on Vieques Island (total area 142 km²), Puerto Rico.  (2): Bordeaux Mountain on St John (US Virgin Islands). Area of St John is 31 km². (3): Virgin Gorda, British Virgin Islands. Area of Virgin Gorda is 21 km² and both subpopulations are located within Gorda Peak National Park which has a declared area of 236 acres (approx. 1 km²).  Extent of occurrence is therefore less than 294 km², based on total area of the three islands. Area of occupancy is unknown.  Formally known from St Thomas (USVI), but this site been developed and only cultivated individuals remain.   <br/> <br/>The following subpopulations have been reported; Monte Pirata on Vieques Island, Puerto Rico where approx. 10-12 mature individuals have been reported by US Fish and Wildlife.  Bordeaux Mountain on St John where approx 100 mature individuals have been reported by US Fish and Wildlife.  Work in the BVI has documented a single locality on Virgin Gorda that comprises of two subpopulations, one of 34 and one of 25 mature individuals, making a total population size for VG of 59 within Gorda Peak National Park.  No recent counts have been made of the PR or USVI subpopulations and it may be that the total global population size for this species has dropped below 250 which would move it into the Critically Endangered category.  An up-to-date census is needed.	eng
43895	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	<em>Calyptranthes thomasiana</em> is an evergreen shrub or small tree to 3-4 m occurring in moist forest at altitudes between 300-400 m. We have seen the Virgin Gorda subpopulation flowering and fruiting regularly and a good population of seedlings has been recorded in Gorda Peak National Park.  Bats have been observed to feed on the fruit, and may be an important dispersal agent.	eng
43895	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Both subpopulations on Virgin Gorda are located within Gorda Peak National Park, although one is quite close to a boundary where some development is taking place that may negatively affect its habitat and could result in loss of mature individuals.  The second subpopulation is well within the Park, but close to a walking trail.  Current numbers of people walking that particular trail are very small and are unlikely to pose a threat.  Loose cattle trampling through the Park may pose a threat to individuals.  The Monte Pirata subpopulation is located within a Navy conservation zone where it is a known species of concern.  The Bordeaux Mountain subpopulation is within the Virgin Islands National Park.	eng
43896	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	A small proportion of the preferred habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/ threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.	eng
43896	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada, British Virgin Islands. Extent of occurrence: 25 km², area of occupancy: <5 km².  Extirpated in Guánica, Puerto Rico.  Population size unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common on the western half of the island. Fieldwork has not located it in the eastern half of the island (east of the airport and the Settlement), despite the occurrence of apparently suitable habitat.	eng
43896	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Fieldwork indicates a preference for limestone substrates and it occurred in 69% of plots in open limestone pavement and 60% of plots in the limestone cays.  Fairly widespread also in sand dune habitats where it was found in 25% of plots (based on 104, 20x20 m plots assessed).  No study of breeding biology undertaken, but this species appears to flower and set fruit regularly and in abundance.	eng
43896	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing).  Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation. The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum.</em> Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land.  Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em>C. rupicola.</em>  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.	eng
43897	conservation	Clubbe, C. & Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., 2003	Three of the four St John subpopulations are located within the US Virgin Islands National Park and are considered effectively protected due to management practices adopted by the US National Parks Service. However, we know of no specific conservation actions directed towards this particular species.  BVI National Parks Trust are aware of the location of the Virgin Gorda subpopulation and are monitoring local development activities, although because the subpopulation is located outside the National Park it currently has no legal protection.  Wildlife legislation is being revised in BVI and consideration is being given for named species for protection to be incorporated into the revised legislation.	eng
43897	distribution	Clubbe, C. & Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., 2003	Two locations are currently known. (1): St John (US Virgin Islands), area of St John is 31 km². (2):  Virgin Gorda, British Virgin Islands, area of Virgin Gorda is 21 km².  Maximum extent of occurrence is therefore less than 52 km², based on total area of the two islands.  Actual area of occupancy unknown, but is significantly less than 52 km². <br/> <br/>There are four subpopulations on St John, none of which are estimated to be more than 20 individuals.  One subpopulation on Virgin Gorda now less than 30 individuals due to habitat loss.	eng
43897	habitat	Clubbe, C. & Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., 2003	<em>Machaonia woodburyana</em> is a small multi-stemmed, spiny evergreen shrub 1.5-3 m occurring in dry forest and coastal thickets.	eng
43897	threats	Clubbe, C. & Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., 2003	Habitat loss and fragmentation, especially for those populations outside protected areas (the Virgin Gorda subpopulation and one of the St John subpopulations).	eng
43898	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	A small proportion of its secondary habitat (limestone) lies within a Ramsar site (declared 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area.  Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule.	eng
43898	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada, British Virgin Islands (single island endemic). Extent of occurrence: 25 km².  Area of occupancy: <5 km². <br/> <br/>Population size is unknown, but field observations indicate it to be locally common in the western half of the island. It has been found in only one site in the eastern half of the island (east of the airport and the Settlement).  This may be a distinct subpopulation.	eng
43898	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Fieldwork indicates a preferential occurrence in the sand dunes.  It occurred in 75% of plots in sand dunes and 23% of plots on open limestone pavement. It was not found within the closed canopy habitat of the limestone cays. Distribution based on 104, 20x20 m plots assessed.  Surveys in the open limestone areas east of the Settlement (the main village on the island) has located only one site where there are a few individuals.  No study of breeding biology undertaken, but this species appears to flower prolifically and set fruit regularly and in abundance.  This vine climbs over a wide range of herbs and shrubs on the sand dune system and no preference has been observed for a preferred support species.	eng
43898	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  The coastal areas in the western half of the island are under particular threat for tourism development.  These areas are the primary habitat for<em> M. anegadense</em>.  Loose livestock (cattle, goats, donkeys) roam the island and impact at the habitat (trampling) and species level (grazing). Invasive species may be a problem with increasing habitat fragmentation.  The Settlement (Anegada’s only town) has lots of known invasives, three of which have been observed moving into natural habitats – <em>Casuarina equisetifolia</em> (also found along several western dunes), <em>Cryptostegia madagascariensis</em> and <em>Bryophyllum pinnatum</em>.  Fire may be a problem in the future – increasing use of fire to clear land. Highest point of Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the preferred habitat is <3 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce quality and area of habitat available to <em> M. anegadense</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes.	eng
43902	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43902	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island). Extent of occurrence c. 160 km², area of occupancy only slightly less.  The species is common and occurs almost continuously on all four islands.	eng
43902	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	The species is common in most plant associations: <em>Blechnum palmiforme</em> heath, <em>Blechnum penna-marina</em> heath, <em>Phylica arborea</em> woodland, also on bare soil and colonizing the lava of the 1961 eruption on the main island.	eng
43903	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.	eng
43903	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Gough Island).  Collections have been made on Tristan da Cunca and Gough Island.	eng
43903	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	The few collected specimens were found in <em>Empetrum</em> heath.	eng
43904	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.	eng
43904	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).	eng
43904	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	According to herbarium labels this species may be commonly found on wet peats.	eng
43905	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.	eng
43905	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence: <50 km².  Area of occupancy: unknown	eng
43905	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	According to the specimens collected by N.M. Wace: fern bush, wet heath, beside streams or in wet gullies, 200-600 m.	eng
43906	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43906	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island).  Extent of occurrence: <16 km².  Area of occupancy: <10 km².  Two subpopulations on Nightingale and Inaccessible. Common in suitable habitats on Nightingale Island, likely to be rare on Inaccessible.	eng
43906	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Occurs in disturbed and open habitats, e.g., around albatross nests, in penguin rookeries, on paths, also in <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> tussock, open patches in <em>Phylica</em> woodland, and sea cliffs.	eng
43906	threats	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Vulnerable due to the small area of occupancy with only two subpopulations.  Potential threats are fire and introduced species.  On Nightingale <em>C. moseleyi</em> shares its habitats with the introduced <em>C. australis,</em> but <em>C. moseleyi</em> is more common and no hybrids were observed.	eng
43907	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43907	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence: c. 160 km².  Area of occupancy: c. 100-140 km².  The species is common and occurs almost continuously on Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible Island, and Gough Island; on Nightingale Island it is scarce due to the lack of suitable habitats (literature, personal observations).	eng
43907	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Found in <em>Blechnum palmiforme</em> heath, <em>Phylica arborea</em> woodland, also in bogs and open habitats such as soilslips.	eng
43908	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island has been a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43908	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Common in suitable habitats on all four islands.	eng
43908	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	An aquatic herb of streams, small pools, and other wet places.	eng
43909	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Found on Tristan da Cunha: Inaccessible Island and Nightingale Island.  Extent of occurrence: c. 90 km².  Area of occupancy: unknown but likely to be less than 10 km² since it is only known from the sea shore.	eng
43909	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	According to Christophersen (1968) open rocky bluffs by the sea.	eng
43909	threats	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	A general threat is the small population size.  Since the species occurs on the sea shore, grazing and introduced species are possible threats on Tristan da Cunha. Nightingale Island fire is a potential threat.	eng
43910	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995, Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43910	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Tristan da Cunca, Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island, Gough Island).  Extent of occurrence c. 160 km².  Fairly common on Tristan, Inaccessible, and Gough, on Nightingale only found at a single location.	eng
43910	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	In exposed areas, steep slopes, also on bare sandy soil and rocks, on Tristan from c. 20-800 m., on Nightingale found only on a single rock.	eng
43911	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site since 1995.	eng
43911	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Gough Island).	eng
43911	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	The type specimen was collected on Glen Beach, stream banks beside a hut, 20 ft above sea level.	eng
43912	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The following protected areas are within the range of the species: Tapajós National Forest (600,000 ha); Itaituba I National Forest (220,034 ha); Itatiuba II National Forest (440,500 ha); and Altamira National Forest (689,012 ha).<br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
43912	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	The type locality for <em>Alouatta discolor</em> is given as Forte Curupá (= Gurupá), Pará, Brazil. Gregorin (2006) explained that this was on the southern margin of the Rio Amazonas, not on the Island of Gurupá (opposite), which is occupied by red howler (Fernandes 1994), presumably <em>Alouatta macconnelli</em>. It would seem that this would be the easternmost limit to the range of this species, whjch extends west in a narrow strip along the south bank of the Rio Amazonas and south through the interfluvium bounded by the rios Tapajós and Juruena in the west and the rios Xingu and Iriri in the east (Gregorin 2006). <em>Alouatta discolor</em> is the howler monkey of the Rio Curuá basin. <br/><br/>Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> (1989) indicated that <em>Alouatta discolor</em> occurs on the Islands of Marajó and Caviana, and Mexiana, but here we follow Fernandes (1994), Ferrari and Lopes (1996), and Gregorin (2006) who agree that <em>Alouatta belzebul</em> is the howler occurring there.<br/><br/>Between the lower Xingu in the west and the Tocantins the identity of this species is in doubt (A. Rylands, pers comm.).	eng
43912	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in lowland terra firma and seasonally inundated rain forest.<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Fourteen is a large group, and they can usually be seen numbering four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pinto (2002a,b; Pinto and Setz 2004) studied a group of 7-9 animals in northern Mato Grosso that used a home range of 63 ha. <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Size: As for <em>Alouatta belzebul</em><br/>Adult male weight 7.27 kg (n=27) (Peres 1994)<br/>Adult female weight 5.52 kg (n=26) (Peres 1994).	eng
43912	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are no published density estimates available.	eng
43912	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Both deforestation and hunting occur throughout the range. Extensive deforestation is being driven by logging, cattle ranching and industrial soy plantations - accompanying the Cuiabá-Santarém highway, which bisects its range (north to south) and the Transamazon highway which bisects its range west to east. The paving of these results in deforested swathes 50 to 100 km wide on either side of the road. There is also some limited subsistence hunting.	eng
43913	distribution	Roux, J.P., 2003	Recorded from Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands only.	eng
43914	conservation	Roux, J.P., 2003	Gough Island is a World Heritage Site.	eng
43914	distribution	Roux, J.P., 2003	Found only on Gough Island, this species is rare and known from a single population.	eng
43915	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Inaccessible Island is a Nature Reserve.	eng
43915	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha (Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island).	eng
43915	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	On rocky slopes, open patches in <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> tussock, around albatross nesting sites.	eng
43915	threats	Jakubowsky, G., 2003	The main threat lies in the low number of individuals and the small area of occupancy. It is unlikely that the current situation was caused by human activities, the species was possibly always scarce or a decline was caused by erosion of the volcanic islands and subsequent loss of suitable habitats.  A potential threat is the introduction of alien species and fire caused by visitors. <em>Spartina arundinacea</em> which covers most of Nightingale Island is easily lit and can burn for a long period.	eng
43916	conservation	Roux, J.P., 2003	Islands form part of a world heritage site.	eng
43916	distribution	Roux, J.P., 2003	This species appear to be confined to the lower reaches of the islands.	eng
43917	conservation	Roux, J.P., 2003	Islands fall within a world heritage site.	eng
43917	distribution	Roux, J.P., 2003	Endemic to Tristan da Cunha and Inaccessible Islands.	eng
43918	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	The population is under surveillance by Ascension Conservation.	eng
43918	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean.  Occupies an area less than 1 km², where it is common in areas of remaining suitable habitat.	eng
43918	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	Although localised to the Green Mountain area, it can be the dominant species where it occurs. <em>A. ascensionis</em> seems to be able to persist with some introduced vegetation in species poor communities.   However, <em>A. ascensionis</em> is no longer found as a component of the ground vegetation and few specimens attain the large size of Hookers collection (Cronk 1980), and has therefore suffered reduction in distribution to some extent.  <em>A. ascensionis</em> inhabits stone as well as cinder walls and is found in more sheltered locations that are rarely completely exposed to solar radiation.	eng
43918	threats	Gray, A., 2003	<em>A. ascensionis</em> appears to persist well where present, being the dominant species in some areas. Changes in the distribution of <em>A. ascensionis</em> are likely to be over long time-periods.  Expansion of the introduced <em>A. capillus-veneris</em> may represent a threat to <em>A. ascensionis</em>, although mutual co-existence may also be conceivable.  Long-term monitoring would allow the determination of <em>A. capillus-veneris</em> as a pervasive threat but observations in 2003 indicate that <em>A. capillus-veneris</em> has spread in at least one <em>A. ascensionis</em> area.  Volcanic eruptions may also be a possible threat to this species in the future.	eng
43919	conservation	Lambdon, P.W., Stroud, S., Gray, A., Nissalo, M., Renshaw, O. & Sarasan, V., 2010	Green Mountain was declared a National Park in 1996. Due to the low population density on Ascension, there is little human interference in the area and further legislation is not a priority. <br/><br/>Regular weeding is conducted by the Conservation Department to keep invasive species in check. However, larger scale clearance to create new open habitat areas, and restoration of functioning native communities is needed to boost the long-term future of the species. <br/><br/>Recently, attempts have been made to germinate <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma ascensionis</span> in cultivation. Staff from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. have successfully used <span style="font-style: italic;">in vitro</span> techniques to rear gametophytes from spores, achieving a high germination rate. Sporophytes have also been reared on Ascension Island from soil collected around known sites. A long term, sustained programme of cultivation is required to ensure that viable living material is secured.	eng
43919	distribution	Lambdon, P.W., Stroud, S., Gray, A., Nissalo, M., Renshaw, O. & Sarasan, V., 2010	Known only from the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island (to Saint Helena), South Atlantic Ocean.<br/><br/>Rare throughout the recorded botanical history of Ascension Island, although the population was perhaps reasonably healthy at the time of Hooker in 1843, who recorded it from wet banks and rocks on the south and east sides of Green Mountain at an altitude of 350-550 m. The altitude is clearly an error, as these elevations coincide with the drier ground below and at the foot of the mountain. The plants found by Duffey and by the current assessors all lie between 600 and 750 m, where the climate is indeed often moderately damp. The extant population is extremely thinly scattered along the southern slopes, from Summerhouse Ridge westwards. Several plants are dotted along a knife-edged ridge running down to Breakneck Valley, and a group of approximately 25 plants was found on a cinder cliff just beyond the western-most tunnel on Elliot’s Path. The extent of occurrence is approximately 7 ha, and the area of occupancy less than 10 m².	eng
43919	habitat	Lambdon, P.W., Stroud, S., Gray, A., Nissalo, M., Renshaw, O. & Sarasan, V., 2010	All extant individuals occur on sparsely vegetated, vertical cinder banks exposed to the prevailing wind, and thus receive moderately regular moisture from incoming mists. However, those sites at lower altitudes may be subject to arid conditions for long periods. Before the introduction of a large number of weed species to the island from the mid 1800s onward, it seems likely that there would have been much similar habitat across the rock faces of Green Mountain, although most suitable areas are now covered with dense growths of aggressive non-native species, particularly in the damper locations which may once have represented optimum habitat conditions. Known localities are often associated with the native thallose liverwort <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiochasma rupestre</span> (G. Forst.) Stephani.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. ascensionis</span> produces green spores which must germinate soon after dispersal. In other <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma </span>species, the gametophytes can persist for long periods, propagating vegetatively via gemmae which may have some dormancy capabilities. The sporophytes are short-lived, and only produced under suitable conditions. These features are probably also characteristic of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ascensionis</span>, which suggests that desiccation of the delicate gametophyte thallus may be a critical limiting factor in survival. Most recently observed plants are very small, reaching no more than 2-4cm high, although from older specimens it is known that heights of at least 10cm were once attained. The diminutive size and persistence of the minute gametophytes ensures that the competitive ability is very low. It is clearly an ephemeral, colonist species, exploiting relatively bare, harsh habitats before later successional communities develop. Potentially suitable habitat areas are now rare on Green Mountain and are likely to suffer further declines.	eng
43919	population	Lambdon, P.W., Stroud, S., Gray, A., Nissalo, M., Renshaw, O. & Sarasan, V., 2010	With the exception of one larger patch of approximately 25 plants (see Geographic Range), all subpopulations known are extremely small and number only a few individuals. The sporophytes are very small, short-lived and occur in inaccessible locations, and furthermore, the gametophytes are extremely difficult to locate in the wild as they are inconspicuous and are probably confined to deep crevices. This leads to the possibility that numbers may be higher than that currently estimated (40 mature individuals). However, as searches have been reasonably thorough, the current total is unlikely to be a substantial underestimate.	eng
43919	threats	Lambdon, P.W., Stroud, S., Gray, A., Nissalo, M., Renshaw, O. & Sarasan, V., 2010	Invasion by introduced weeds is a serious threat to the long term survival of the species. Relatively bare cinder banks are now rare due to gradual encroachment by a variety of species. Amongst the most important of these are the grasses <span style="font-style: italic;">Sporobolus africanus</span> (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum scrobiculatum</span> L., and broadleaved species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Clidemia hirta</span> (L.) D.Don and <span style="font-style: italic;">Begonia hirtella</span> Link. Probably the most serious threat is from the maidenhair ferns, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum capillus-veneris</span> L. and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. raddianum</span> C. Presl. These now occur over large areas of moist cinder bank on Green Mountain, the former species predominantly on the south side and the latter on the north side, and are likely to be direct competitors for the moist crevice habitats required by <span style="font-style: italic;">Anogramma </span>gametophytes.<br/><br/>Bank slippages represent another potential threat. As the population is so small, a single slippage could destroy a large proportion of the world total. Grazing by sheep and rabbits could also be harmful, although most plants currently known are too inaccessible to be reached by either species.<br/><br/>In the longer term, increases in exposure to drying conditions on the mountain, brought about by global warming, could further restrict the habitat available to the species.	eng
43920	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	Periodic surveys of suitable habitat.	eng
43920	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean.  Despite repeated searches in 1998 and 2003 no trace of this species has been found.	eng
43920	threats	Gray, A., 2003	Introduced plants have completely replaced the original vegetation communities.	eng
43921	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	Aspects of the ecology of <em>E. origanoides</em> are being investigated in 2003 as part of an environmental impact assessment by Alan Gray. The population is under cultivation and surveillance by Ascension Conservation.	eng
43921	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from Ascension Island at the South Gannet Hill, Mars Bay, Cross Hill Round Hill, Hummock Point to Spire Beach, Letterbox and Sisters Peak areas.  Only common in the South Gannet Hill, Mars Bay, Cross Hill Round Hill areas which contain approximately 93% of the population at present, approximately 2000 plants.	eng
43921	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	<em>E. origanoides</em> is found on the dry lava plains of the island from almost sea level to 310 m.  This species is characterised by inhabiting the most xeric areas of the island. The distribution of this species has undergone severe changes in recent times (1958-present).  Fluctuations in distribution seem to be characteristic of<em> E. origanoides</em>, for example, the colony found at Mars Bay by Duffey in 1958 was not recorded by Cronk (1980), although this colony was again recorded in 1998 and is still present.  Aspects of the ecology of<em> E. origanoides</em> is being investigated as part of an environmental impact assessment in 2003.	eng
43921	threats	Gray, A., 2003	The presence of the introduced Mexican Thorn <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> represents a serious threat to <em> E. origanoides.</em>  This species can spread very rapidly and is very efficient at commanding available ground water with a root depth of over 10 m.  The distribution of <em>P. juliflora</em> at present in the <em>E. origanoides</em> areas is limited.  The presence of introduced scale insects on a number of plants also presents a threat to some subpopulations. Future road upgrades (in planning at present) through the major subpopulation represents a threat although an impact assessment is being prepared.	eng
43922	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	Population is under surveillance by Ascension Conservation.	eng
43922	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from the weather side of the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. Occupies an area less than 0.5 km².  Sole population found on the weather side of Green Mountain where it is common amongst grassland, scrub and underneath bamboo.  Population appears stable and must number several hundred plants.	eng
43922	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	<em>M. purpurascens</em> is found on the weather side of Green Mountain growing in the open grassland and amongst the dense stand of bamboo at the summit, from an altitude of approximately 700 to 859 m.  <em>M. purpurascens</em> is physically the largest of all the endemic species on Ascension and appears to be able to compete favourably with other exotic species, possessing a degree of phenotypic plasticity that may contribute to its survival (Cronk 1980). This plasticity is evident when comparing individuals amongst the bamboo near the summit with those on the more open grassland.  The former tends to be smaller and darker, whereas the latter are lighter in colour and larger.	eng
43922	threats	Gray, A., 2003	There do not appear to be any immediate threats to the persistence of <em>M. purpurascens.</em> Longer-term threats are more difficult to detect and will only become apparent by implementing long term monitoring.  The survival of <em>M. purpurascens</em> is dependent on its ability to compete with introduced vegetation.  Certainly over the past twenty years no great changes in distribution are apparent, implying a degree of competitive ability.  Some plants do appear to be grazed by sheep but this is not a widespread or common occurrence and does not appear to be contributing to mortality.  Large-scale habitat destruction would be disastrous for the localised subpopulations, however, this seems unlikely at present.	eng
43923	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	The species needs to be searched for, a plant matching the description was found near Devil’s Riding School in 1985 but no specimen was collected and the plant had disappeared by 1986 (Cronk 2000).	eng
43923	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean.	eng
43923	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	Previously recorded in the lowland dry and upland moist habitats on Ascension Island.	eng
43923	threats	Gray, A., 2003	Introduced plants have completely replaced the original vegetation communities and livestock (sheep and donkeys now present) goats were likely to have been historically responsible for the decline.	eng
43925	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	Population is under surveillance by Ascension Conservation.	eng
43925	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from the weather side of the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean.  This species occupies an area less than 0.5 km².  Common on Green Mountain Mountain in suitable habitat.	eng
43925	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	<em>X. ascensionense</em> is found from around 700 m to the summit of Green Mountain and is also located in certain sites of the <em>S. caespitosus</em> community.  The most luxuriant specimens can be seen amongst bryophytes, on the nodes of bamboo at the summit of Green Mountain.  These epiphytic communities would seem to be dependent on the continuation of the stand of bamboo and the moisture that this attracts (Cronk 1980).  As such, this population would seem to be fairly stable as long as suitable conditions remain.	eng
43925	threats	Gray, A., 2003	<em>X. ascensionense</em> appears to benefit from the increased humidity on the summit of Green Mountain (Cronk 1980). Gradual long-term changes may be more important than immediate threats. Long-term threats may include encroachment of <em>Alpinia zerumbet</em>, which may have spread over recent years. This is of some concern since <em>Xiphopteris ascensionense</em> does not appear to grow on or amongst <em>A. zerumbet.</em> Long-term monitoring of <em>A. zerumbet</em> may establish if encroachment is occurring. The individuals found amongst bryophytes on bare scoria are also under a similar threat to that of <em>Sporoblus caespitusus</em> from invasive aliens particularly some of the grasses.	eng
43926	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	Population is under surveillance by Ascension Conservation.	eng
43926	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Known only from the weather side of the Green Mountain area of Ascension Island and occupies an area less than 0.5 km².  In 2002 <em>S. caespitosus</em> was found at several locations at the eastern end of Green Mountain around Elliott’s Path.  In this area, approximately 1,000 individual plants were found, with the majority of these in the area known as Windy Corner.  This represents a further increase on the subpopulations reported by both Cronk (1980) and Gray <em>et al.</em> (2000).	eng
43926	habitat	Gray, A., 2003	<em>S. caespitosus</em> is found between 730 and 760 m on the weather side of Green Mountain.  In 1998 an apparent population increase from 70 tufts (Cronk 1980) to over 300 tufts in seven small sites (Gray <em>et al</em>. 2000) is likely to be due to previous under recording rather than a true increase in population extent, as the majority of new recordings were in extremely inaccessible areas.  Further finds were recorded in 2002, these were thought to be not only due to new finds but also due to increases in areas already occupied. This increase is thought to be due to favourable climatic conditions subsequent to 1998.  However, it should also be noted that in some areas a decline in numbers was apparent in 2003. The former range of this species may have been greater than it is today and the introduction of exotic species are likely to have contributed to this reduction in distribution. <em>S. caespitosus</em> inhabits the vertical or near vertical cinder walls and sloping cinder banks of Green Mountain but always where very few other species are present, and seems to be adapted to the exposed conditions found at these sites (Cronk 1980).	eng
43926	threats	Gray, A., 2003	The species poor community of <em>S. caespitosus</em> appears to be under pressure from the surrounding introduced vegetation.  Of particular note are the grasses <em>Sporobolus africanus</em>, <em>Melinis minutiflora</em>, and <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> Berguis, which may be capable of encroaching on endemic sites, especially windy corner on Elliot’s Path.  Monitoring may be necessary to identify if encroachment is occurring at these subpopulations. Erosion of the loose volcanic substrate may also represent a threat contributing to local mortality, however, it is equally possible that disturbance may be a factor in the persistence of <em>S. caespitosus</em> by denying the stability required by introduced species.	eng
43927	conservation	Gray, A., 2003	This species was last seen in 1886 but should still be searched for in suitable habitats to determine whether it still survives in areas that are difficult to assess such as sheer cliff faces.	eng
43927	distribution	Gray, A., 2003	Previously known from the Weather Post Hill area of Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean.	eng
43927	threats	Gray, A., 2003	Introduced plants have completely replaced the original vegetation communities.	eng
43929	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas:<br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Amacayacu Natural National Park (293,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cahuinarí Natural National Park (575,500 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Serrania de Chiribiquete Natural National Park (1,280,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cordillera de los Picachos Natural National Park (286,600 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Cueva de los Guacharos Natural National Park (9,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>El Tuparro Natural National Park (548,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tayrona Natural National Park (15,000 ha [12,000 ha on land]) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Isla de Salamanca Natural National Park (21,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Paramillo Natural National Park (460,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>El Cocuy Natural National Park (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Natural National Park (383,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tamá Natural National Park (48,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Pisba Natural National Park (45,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Los Nevados Natural National Park (58,300 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Chingaza Natural National Park (50,374 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Sumapaz Natural National Park (154,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Las Hermosas Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Los Farallones Natural National Park (150,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Serrania de la Macarena Natural National Park (630,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Puracé Natural National Park (83,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>La Paya Natural National Park (442,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Tinigua Natural National Park (201,875 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Nukak Natural National Reserve (855,000 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/>Catatumbo-Bari Natural National Reserve (158,125 ha) (Defler 1994)  <br/><br/>Ecuador <br/>Yasuní National Park (982,300 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sangay National Park (517,765 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (205,249 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Podocarpus National Park (146,280 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (403,103 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve (55,451 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/>Peru <br/>Pacaya Samiria National Reserve (Soini 1992)<br/><br/>Venezuela<br/>Perija National Park (295,288 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982).<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES .	eng
43929	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There is no information available that allows for the separation of the ranges of the <em>A. juara</em> of Brazil and Peru from <em>A. seniculus</em> of the Colombian Andes and Venezuela (type locality: Cartagena, Bolivar, near the Río Magdalena, Colombia), so they have been mapped together. <br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>A. seniculus</em> is absent from the Pacific and the desert of the Guajira Peninsula, and has not been reported in from the Department of Nariño (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler 2004). Otherwise, it is present throughout the country, except in non-forested areas and mountainous regions above about 3,000 m above sea level (though it has been reported at 3,200 m in the Central Andes) (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In Venezuela, Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicate that the howler monkey north of the Rio Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta the is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form, but Linares (1998) labeled it as <em>A. arctoidea</em>, otherwise also occurring along the north coast of Venezuela. <em>Alouatta seniculus</em> occurs west of the Sierra de Merida and aorund Lake Maracaibo. <br/><br/>In summary, <em>Alouatta juara-seniculus</em> occurs west of the of the rios Juruá and Envira through the Peruvian Amazon north (say) of the Rio Inuya, north along the Andean Cordillera into Ecuador and in Colombia including the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental into Venezuela around Lake Maracaibo, west of the Serra de Merida. It is possible that either an undescribed red howler (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987) or <em>A. arctoidea</em> (Linares 1998) occurs north of the Rio Meta in Colombia.	eng
43929	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in primary lowland rainforest, dry deciduous forest, Andean cloud forest (including oak forest), gallery forest in the eastern plains of Colombia, mangrove swamps, as well as in <em>várzea</em> forest (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Gaulin and Gaulin 1982). This species can be found up to 3,200 m (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976). In Ecuador, it occupies tropical and subtropical evergreen rain forest from 200 m to 2,000 m, but it is more common below 700 m (Tirira 2007). Tirira (2007) recorded that it occurs in many different forest types, from tall primary evergreen <em>terra firma</em> forest to seasonally flooded forests and palm swamp forest. <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993). <br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). They can have as many as 14 or 15 individuals, but they usually number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals.  Group sizes recorded by Mendes Pontes (1999) on the Island of Maracá, Roraima, were generally small (from 1-5). Soini (192) observed group sizes ranging from 3-8 (mean 5.54±1.59, n=74) in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. Adult males will often be solitary. In red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). Gaulin and Gaulin (1982) recorded a home range of 22 ha for a group of nine howlers in cloud forest at 2,300 m. In the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982). Two groups studied by Soini (1992) used 6 and 9 ha each in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru.<br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.  <em>Alouatta seniculus</em> has also been seen to eat and lick clay at so-called “salado” sites in the Colombian Amazon (Izawa 1975). The reason for this and the consumption of soil from termitaria is still not clearly understood, but may involve the need for certain minerals, or may be due to the properties of clay which, by adsorption, can reduce the effects of toxins ingested with leaves.<br/><br/>Infant <em>Alouatta</em> are probably born throughout the year in Suriname, but data are not yet sufficient to determine if there is a birth peak. Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). The llanos forests are more seasonal, however, than in the Guianas, and it is possible that this is not the case elsewhere. Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic [1982], considered  here to be <em>A. arctoidea</em>).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Venezuela<br/>Adult male 6.31 kg (n=64), adult female 4.67 kg (n=46) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988)<br/>Adult male weight 5.4-9.0 kg (mean 7.2 kg, n=61), adult female weight 4.2-7.0 kg (mean 5.6 kg, n=61) (Ford and Davis 1992).	eng
43929	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Population density in rainforest areas is very variable in Ecuador, where 5 to 12 individuals/km² have been recorded <br/>Crude densities of 15 individuals/km² have been recorded in Colombia (Defler 2003). Soini (192) estimated an ecological density of 36 individuals/km² in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru. In Brazil, Mendes Pontes (1999) recorded densities of 1.2-2.1 individuals/km² on the Island of Maracá, Roraima, lower in fact those for <em>Ateles belzebuth</em> at 5.0-5.8 individuals/km².	eng
43929	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	No major threats are known to this species. It is hunted, but withstands hunting pressure better than do other atelids. Adapts to relatively disturbed forest, although in Colombia there has been extensive deforestation within its range.	eng
43962	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Saguinus imperator subgrisescens</em> Bolivia, Brazil, Peru<br/>Southwestern Amazon, in Brazil along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá east to the Rios Tarauacá and Juruparí, to the Brazil/Peruvian frontier. Into Peru, west from the Juruá headwaters, it occurs as far as the foothills of the Andes in the upper Río Ucayali, east of the mouth of the Río Apurimac and to the south of the Ríos Urubamba and Inuya. Its range extends east into Bolivia on both sides of the Río Madre de Dios (Izawa, 1979).  It is probably limited to the south of the Río Tahuamanú. Izawa and Bejarano (1981) reported it only from the Río Muyumanu basin, a south bank tributary of the Río Tahuamanú.  Castro <em>et al.</em> (1990) found that it was absent from the area between Iñapari (just south of the Río Acre) and Iberia (north bank of the Río Tahuamanú) in Peru where <em>S. l. labiatus</em> occurs. Aquino and Encarnación (1994) extended the range indicated by Hershkovitz (1979) east to the basin of the Río Tambopata to the Bolivian border, indicating that the Río Madidi, an eastern tributary of the Río Beni in Bolivia, may mark the southern limit to this species.	eng
43972	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 2003	The wreckfish is only known to receive any protection, in the form of fishing restrictions, in the USA and New Zealand <br/> <br/>In the USA, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council put fishing regulations into place in 1990 and 1991. These cover the area between 3-200 miles off the coasts of North and South Carolina, and East Florida (the area bounded by 30 and 33º N latitude). Commercial fishers must have a wreckfish permit and Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) shares to fish. There is no recreational fishery in the USA. The Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of wreckfish by ITQ holders is 2 million pounds (907 metric tonnes) per year. There is a spawning season closure from Jan 15 to April 15. In addition, longlines may not be used (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>There is a TAC limit for the commercial fishery in New Zealand of 2,181 metric tons for <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and <em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em> (hapuku) together. There are also some complex bag limits for the much smaller recreational fishery.	eng
43972	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 2003	The wreckfish has a widespread but discontinuous range, primarily in the Atlantic Ocean but also ranging into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. <br/> <br/>In the Eastern Atlantic it ranges from Norway to South Africa including the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira, Cape Verde, and Tristan da Cunha. In the Western Atlantic it is found in Newfoundland, Canada and the Gulf of Maine to North Carolina, USA. In the Southern hemisphere it is known from South America (Uruguay, Argentina and Brazil) to New Zealand, including the St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands in the western Indian Ocean (data from Fishbase 2000, Peres 2000). The species shows an anti-tropical distribution (Ball <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/>The extent of occurrence could probably be estimated by calculating the area of potential habitat using the information in Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999. The area of occupancy would probably be the spawning grounds as this species aggregated to spawn (Peres 2000). However, there seems to be no more information than this available by which to estimate the area of spawning grounds. <br/> <br/>Decline in extent or area of occupancy etc. is assumed to be none as wreckfish are pelagic or inhabit deep rocky reefs. Such rocky reefs are assumed not to fluctuate in size or quality, or be in decline. Indeed, suitable habitat is not believed to be in decline in Brazil (Peres, pers. comm. 2001).	eng
43972	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 2003	Juveniles are pelagic to a length of around 50-60 cm and associate with floating seaweeds and wreckage (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). In the Mediterranean, pelagic juveniles occur from June-August (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). In Brazil, wreckfish are found on irregular substrate, late juveniles are found from 60-250 m depth while adults are deeper at 150-500 m (Peres 2000). On the Charlestone Bump off South Carolina, most wreckfish are taken over areas of extensive high relief but some are also taken over flat hard bottom (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). The extremes of depth range reported for demersal fish are 42-1,000 m (see Sedbury <em>et al.</em> 1994). Wreckfish inhabit demersal habitats where temperature ranges from  6.0 to 16.3 ºC (data from four localities, Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>Pelagic juveniles feed on teleost fishes, particularly <em>Trachurus</em> species and as well as other items (Deudero and Morales-Nin 2000). Adults feed on squids and mesopelagic fishes (Weaver and Sedberry 2001). <br/> <br/>Generation time was calculated from age population structure data obtained from research cruises off Southern Brazil (Peres 2000) and other data about the fishery (Peres and Haimovici 1998, Peres 2000). This generation time is calculated from an exploited fishery, however, this is consistent with stocks in the USA which were monitored shortly after exploitation began and where most fish harvested have been between 8 and 12 years old (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). <br/> <br/>The maximum observed age of wreckfish (through otoliths) from a study in Brazil was 81 years for males and 64 years for females Peres (2000). However, the oldest fish of more than 500 sampled from the US fishing grounds (Blake Plateau off South Carolina) was just 39 years (Vaughan <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the US fishery, most fish >100 cm total length (TL) were female (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1994). Different fisheries may consistently land fishes of differing size ranges (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
43972	population	Sadovy, Y., 2003	It is not possible to estimate population size at present. A minimum figure could be reasonably derived by estimating numbers of fish from 1998 landings data for all countries for which is this data are available and using this figure but stating a sensible maximum figure is not possible as good data on wreckfish stocks is not available for many localities within the known range of the wreckfish. It also seems likely, as the species lives so deep, that there are also stocks yet to be discovered. It may be possible to make a crude approximation by working out the area of potential habitat based on bathymetry and the known range of the animal and multiplying this by population estimates from the better studied fishing grounds. However, calculating the area of potentially inhabitable areas will be extremely time consuming without the aid of a GIS or similar system. <br/> <br/>Data from the US fishery (1985-97), Brazilian fishery (1989 to 98 with some missing years), and Portuguese and Spanish fisheries (1984-1998) shows no fluctuations above or approaching order of magnitude that cannot be explained by known fishing effort (data from FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998, Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999, Peres 2000).  Large annual fluctuations would be unusual for an animal as long-lived and slow to reach sexual maturity as the wreckfish. <br/> <br/>Evidence from mtDNA indicates that the subpopulation in the north Atlantic is probably isolated from that in the southern hemisphere (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1996). There may also be a subpopulation within the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Subsequent genetic work using microsatellites has revealed that within the southern hemispheres, there are clear differences between the Brazilian and South Pacific subpopulations (Ball <em>et al</em>. 2000). Temperature profiles and current patterns are believed to prevent significant gene flow between these three subpopulations. <br/> <br/>It seems extremely likely, given the continued and recent increases in exploitation, that the population of wreckfish will continue to decline in the near future, and that freshly discovered stocks will decline rapidly, if fishing is not controlled.	eng
43972	threats	Sadovy, Y., 2003	The only known threats are from over-fishing. <br/> <br/>The US fishery for wreckfish only started commercially following the chance discovery of stocks large enough to support commercial fishing off South Carolina in 1987. The numbers of fishing boats involved rose rapidly and there was concern by both biologists and fishermen that the fishery might not be sustainable (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). In general, large fish species that are slow to grow and mature are often poorly equipped to withstand intensive fishing. Although there was no obvious decrease in the length-frequency distributions of wreckfish caught off the US from 1989 to 1997 that would indicate stock declines, this may partly be due to the life-history of the animal. Juveniles are pelagic up to a large size (60 cm) before they descend and become demersal so it may be a number of years before fishing pressure would be reflected in decreasing fish sizes and by then it might be too late to initiate a management plan (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). Current management in the USA assumes that the wreckfish stocks on the US fishing ground will not be affected by fishing elsewhere, but as the source of the pelagic juveniles is not known, this may not be true (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). European fish hooks are frequently found in fish caught from US waters. This would seem to indicate the migration of large wreckfish across great distances (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Finally, thousands of pelagic juveniles are being caught by pelagic tuna drift-net fisheries in the northern Atlantic (Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999) which may affect fisheries of adults in the future. <br/> <br/>The case of Bermuda, where catches dropped rapidly after only being sustained for two years seems to show that high levels of fishing pressure (through use of bottom longlines in the case of Bermuda) can cause commercial extinctions of wreckfish, at least in island habitats (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The following data on wreckfish fisheries exist in the literature. Declines in landings and CPUE are assumed to reflect declines in wreckfish stocks unless it is known that fishing effort has decreased or other factors are involved. <br/> <br/>1) The wreckfish fishery has existed in Brazil since 1973. The number of vessels involved increased from 10 in the 1970s to more than 35 in 1997 and there were technological advances in the gears used. The only estimated annual landings data available are 2,772 t (1989), 2,150 mt (1990), 1,674 t (1991), 2,291 t (1994) and 1,080 t (1995). CPUE declined 90% (0.72 to 0.073 kg/day/hook) off Southern Brazil from 1989/91 to 1997/98 (all data from Peres 2000). This fishery targets spawning aggregations thus increasing the susceptibility of the animal to overfishing. <br/> <br/>2) Following a maximum Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 2 million pounds annually, imposed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council in 1990/91, the estimated catch from the USA showed a relatively steady decline from 1,270,557 pounds (38,205 fish) in 1992 to 157,299 pounds (4,958 fish) in 2000 (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999, Vaughan 2001). This is a drop of 87%. This is believed to be due to a decrease in fishing effort (Sedberry pers. comm. 2001) as the number of boats targeting wreckfish has declined (from 46 in 1992 to 3 in 2000, a drop of 93%) while the catch per hour has not (Hardy 2001) and the mean lengths of caught fish have not declined (Vaughan 2001). Fishing for wreckfish off the USA requires considerable skill and only the most dedicated fishers have remained. Wreckfish stocks seem large enough to maintain the current fishery (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>3) A small wreckfish fishery off Bermuda developed rapidly from 1979 (25 fish) to 1981 (369 fish) and 1982 (311) fish. Catches declined sharply from 1982 (311 fish weighed roughly 4.7 mt) to 1983 (1.2 mt) and remained below 1.5 mt over the 13 years. In 1996 and 1997, just 6 and 9 fish were caught. The decline in landings from 1981 to 1996 (roughly 5.1 mt to 0.2 t) is a drop of 96% (all data from Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999). Rapid declines were associated with the introduction of longlines into what had been a vertical line fishery. <br/> <br/>4) Annual landings of wreckfish from the Azores (off Portugal) climbed slowly from around 50-100 mt in the 1970s and 1980s to a peak of 425 mt 1994. In 1995 the catch dropped rapidly to 246 mt and was down to 139 mt by 1998. As the wreckfish is an incidental catch for a mixed-species demersal fishery which has continued to produce increased landings, it seems the decline is a reflection of decreasing wreckfish stocks. The decline from 1994 to 1998 was 67% (data from Sedberry <em>et al.</em> 1999, ICES Marine Data Centre 2001). <br/> <br/>5) In Madeira (off Portugal) the wreckfish fishery developed slowly with landings rising from 5 metric tonnes in 1988 to a peak 55 mt in 1994. Landings then dropped 51% to around 27 mt in 1996. This was at least partly due to a drop in the number of fishing trips (by around 45%) but as the catch per trip also dropped (by around 15%) there may have been an actual drop in wreckfish stocks. For this location the reduction in wreckfish stocks is assumed to be 15%. <br/> <br/>6) Annual landings data are also available for Northeast Portuguese waters (FAO Area 27). As Area 27 includes the Azores, ICES landings data, which lists the Azores landings separately was subtracted from Area 27 landings data to give figures for Northeast Portuguese waters (except the Azores). Annual landings here rose from 58 mt in 1986 to 283 mt in 1989, peaked at 406 and 373 mt in 1994 and 1995, respectively, and declined steadily to 165 mt in 1998 (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998, ICES Marine Data Centre, 2001). The decline between 1994 and 1998 was 59%. <br/> <br/>7) In Europe, only Portugal and Spain have reported significant (i.e., >50 metric tons per year) catches of wreckfish in recent decades. Annual landings for Spain in FAO Area 27 remained below 50 mt from 1984 to 1995, rising to 115 mt in 1996 and 265 and 250 mt in 1997 and 1998 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable. <br/> <br/>8) Angola's annual landings of wreckfish stayed below 15 metric tons from 1984-1993. Landings rose sharply thereafter, from 66 mt in 1994 to 235 mt in 1995 and 1,002 and 1,326 mt in 1995 and 1997 respectively (FAO Fisheries Statistics, Capture Production 1998). No further information on this fishery could be located, including whether these levels of exploitation are sustainable. See note on systematics above regarding the taxonomic status of <em>Polyprion americanus</em> in southern Africa.  Landings in South Africa include <em>Polyprion oxegenios</em> (some from South Atlantic seamounts and islands) and a species referred to as <em>Polyprion americanus</em> (P. Heemstra pers. comm. to G. Sedberry). <br/> <br/>9) In New Zealand, catch data for <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and <em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em> (hapuku) are lumped together.  Wreckfish have been caught in relatively small quantities by the early Maori, and then by European settlers from the mid 19th century. The first decades of the commercial fishery for both species of <em>Polyprion</em> are undocumented, but it was well developed with a combined catch of over 1,500 mt by the 1930s  (Paul 2000). Management of both <em>Polyprion</em> species (together) is by Quota Management System, introduced in 1986, involving Total Allowable Catches (2,179-2,181 mt annually, 1996-2000). Landings of wreckfish alone for the 1990s are estimated to be in the region of 200-400 mt. (L. Paul, pers. comm., 2001). Only a few fishers specifically target the two species although many fishers have small quotas to cover wreckfish caught incidentally in many fisheries targeting other species (L. Paul, pers. comm., 2001). Stocks are probably overfished, but there has been very little fisheries research carried out to verify the nature of this (C. Roberts, pers. comm. 2000). <br/> <br/>10) Both wreckfish (known in Australia as Bass grouper) and Hapuku (<em>Polyprion oxygeneios</em>) are taken in the blue eye (<em>Hyperoglyphe antartica</em>) fishery off south east Australia. Records of commercial catches since the mid-1980s indicate that catches of Hapuku and Bass grouper in this fishery, which are recorded together, are low, between 10 and 40 t a year, Hapuku being by far the major species. There is no indication as to whether numbers of wreckfish are stable or in decline although some research has recently been initiated which should provide some answers in the future (Pascale Baelde, pers. comm. April 2001). <br/> <br/>In summary, fisheries specifically targeting wreckfish have only developed since the 1970s, apparently because of the technological advances in fishing needed to target a large animal living in deep waters. Where fisheries have suddenly targeted wreckfish specifically (Brazil, Bermuda, Portugal), the fishery has reached a peak and then gone into decline within a few years (< 5). In other cases (Spain, Angola), the sudden increase in landings in the mid-late 1990s indicate the fishing effort targeting wreckfish has greatly increased but it is too early to say whether these fisheries are sustainable. As the wreckfish has a large if discontinuous range and does live deep, it seems likely that wreckfish stocks in some regions remain lightly fished. At present, and in addition to the fisheries already discussed above, wreckfish are known to be caught off Albania, Channel Islands, France, Malta, Greece, Ireland and the United Kingdom. There is no commercial fishery for wreckfish in Canada  (P. Fanning, pers. comm., 2001). It also seems likely there are some stocks that have yet to be exploited or even discovered. A global assessment of the wreckfish is therefore problematic but it does seem reasonable to assume that global wreckfish stocks are in decline for two primary reasons. Firstly, the species is slow to reproduce making it vulnerable to overexploitation and secondly, it shows strong signs of being overexploited in some localities and has recently been subjected to large increases in exploitation in others. Even though stocks may be stable in some areas it is likely, therefore, that globally the stocks have decreased. However, the lack of knowledge of wreckfish stocks in many areas of its range mean that it is currently not possible to draw any conclusions on the extent of this decline other that it will fall between 0% decline and 96% decline (the greatest documented decline being that from the Bermuda fishery).	eng
43973	conservation	Cornish, A.S. & Peres, M.B., 2003	None currently in place.	eng
43973	distribution	Cornish, A.S. & Peres, M.B., 2003	Globally, the species has a large but discontinuous range in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, also the Mediterranean. In the Eastern Atlantic it ranges from Norway to South Africa including the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira, Cape Verde, and Tristan da Cunha. In the Western Atlantic it is found in  Newfoundland, Canada and Gulf of Maine to North Carolina, USA. In the Southern hemisphere it is known from Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina and New Zealand, also St. Paul and Amsterdam islands in the Western Indian Ocean (see <a href="http://www.fishbase.org/search.html">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>The current assessment is restrictd to the Brazilian subpopulation only. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are not known due to this fish living in deep waters.	eng
43973	habitat	Cornish, A.S. & Peres, M.B., 2003	Wreckfish are found mainly on irregular substrate, late juveniles are found from 60-250 m depth while adults are deeper at 150-250 m (Peres 2000). Wreckfish inhabit demersal habitats where temperature ranges from 6.0 to 16.3 ºC (Sedberry <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The fishery in Brazil targets spawning aggregations in the area north of Rio Grande (28 to 30ºS), in austral winter and spring (Peres 2000).	eng
43973	population	Cornish, A.S. & Peres, M.B., 2003	There is no information on population size, but the fisheries data indicates these fish are not very abundant.	eng
43973	threats	Cornish, A.S. & Peres, M.B., 2003	The only known threat is from overfishing. The fishery in Brazil targets spawning aggregations thus increasing the vulnerability of this animal to overfishing (Peres 2000). Local fishers in 2000 stated that mature fish had become rare in the previous year or so (Peres pers. comm.).	eng
43974	conservation	Cornish, A., 2003	There are no known fishing restrictions on this species as far as is known. There is a very small no-take marine reserve at Cape d'Aguilar in Hong Kong where Hong Kong grouper may slowly be increasing in number following protection (Andrew Cornish, pers. obs.) and there may be others in southern Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan and mainland China but details are not available. <br/> <br/>There is a serious lack of time-series data from annual landings, CPUE, underwater visual census from countries in the North-West Pacific where this species is distributed. Such data would greatly increase the accuracy of future assessments. <br/> <br/>Ideally, each country would conduct a full stock assessment on this species, which would calculate population size as well as rates of decline. It would also be useful to know from genetic studies whether there are subpopulations within the range of this fish. <br/> <br/>Knowledge of natural reproductive behaviour in the wild, particularly whether the species aggregates to spawn (and where and when), would be of use in managing stocks of this species in the wild.	eng
43974	distribution	Cornish, A., 2003	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus akaara</span> is a western Pacific species, where it occurs in southern Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan and southern China (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is also reported from the Gulf of Tonkin (Tseng and Ho 1988), making it likely that it also occurs in Viet Nam. The reported presence of the species in the Ogasawara Islands (Japan) is questionable (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997).	eng
43974	habitat	Cornish, A., 2003	In Hong Kong, the species inhabits shallow coral communities and rocky reefs to at least 17 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Tseng and Ho (1988) report that fishers from Hong Kong operating in the East and South China Seas take adult and spawning fish along the continental shelf at depths of 15-30 fathoms (27-55 m) while juveniles under 10 cm SL may occur shallower than 10 fathoms (18 m). Japan this fish is taken by handline over rocky reefs (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>Sexual maturation in the female occurs at about 23-24 cm SL, or about three years old (Tseng and Ho 1988). The oldest fish found by two studies was seven years (Tseng and Ho 1988, Hung 1994).  The generation time is therefore assumed to lie between 3-7 years. Hung also provides figures for the percentage of the annual catch off Fujian province that falls in each age class. The mean age of adults was four years but the extremes of three and seven are still used as this subpopulation would have been fairly heavily exploited. Four years was, however, used as the point estimate in the species assessment. The growth in mariculture operations for valuable grouper species has prompted an interest in obtaining broodstock for spawning and hatchery rearing. Males of <em>E. akaara</em> (males are larger than females) are very difficult to obtain, another indication of the severe depletions indicated for this species (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2002). <br/> <br/>There is no information in the (sparse) literature to suggest that Hong Kong grouper aggregate to spawn. However, a knowledgeable recreational diver who has dived in Hong Kong reported seeing up to 50 individuals close together on the reef on several occasions (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2001) during summer indicating spawning aggregations may have occurred in the past. None have been reported in the last few decades, however, and this species is no longer common in Hong Kong. Attains 35 cm SL (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984). The Japanese All-tackle record for Hong Kong grouper is 1.65 kg (Japanese Game Fishing Association 2001).	eng
43974	population	Cornish, A., 2003	Apparently many of the Hong Kong groupers landed in Hong Kong in the past were caught from islands off the mainland coast to the north of Hong Kong were they were once common but are evidently no longer common (Patrick Chan, pers. comm. 2001). <br/> <br/>Declines in landings are assumed to reflect declines in Hong Kong grouper stocks unless it is known that fishing effort has decreased or other factors are involved. The mean percentage decline of Hong Kong grouper (excluding Hong Kong and Taiwan which appear to have negligible populations of Hong Kong grouper) from China (90%), Japan (50%) and Republic of Korea (50%) is 63 %. <br/> <br/>Ideally, the percentage decline would be applied to estimates of the original Hong Kong grouper population within each country for which the decline applies. This would be done for all countries and the overall decline would be the percentage difference between the original global population size and the current one. Unfortunately, estimates of country stock size are non-existent for this species. The declines were therefore weighted by rocky reef area (rather than by population size) to give an overall decline figure. This method assumes that pristine densities of Hong Kong grouper were the same at all localities. This is probably not likely to have been the case but it enables a single figure to be derived which is likely more representative of the global situation than the alternative, which is just to say the decline lies between 50 and 90% (the lowest and highest decline rates). <br/> <br/>It is worth noting that simply taking the mean of all decline figures gave a very similar figure, 63% rather than 65%.	eng
43974	threats	Cornish, A., 2003	The Hong Kong grouper has a limited distribution that coincides with the heavily fished inshore areas of Japan, Taiwan, Republic of Korea and southern China. <br/> <br/>The Hong Kong grouper is the most expensive of all the <em>Epinephelus</em> groupers in Hong Kong. It is known from anecdotal accounts that the abundance of this fish has declined considerably from the 1960s to late 1990s in Hong Kong waters (see Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>Moreover, supply of Hong Kong grouper seed (i.e., the fry and fingerlings), which was the favoured species for mariculture in southern China, is known to have significantly decreased in abundance (the small fish are taken from the wild and then are grown up to market size in captivity). For example, the seed was abundant in Fujian (a province of mainland China) waters in the early 1980s but was very rare by 1994 (Sadovy 2000). In 1979, Hong Kong culturists purchased, for grow-out, at least 180,000 kg of this species (200,000-450,000 fish of 100-200 g) that had been wild-caught from southern China, today seed of this species from China is rare (Sadovy 2000). It was reported that Hong Kong grouper landings could not keep up with demand by the late 1970s and that prices had risen from HK$ 33-50/kg in 1978 to HK$ 50-70/kg in 1979 as a result (Tseng and Ho 1988).  Juveniles are no longer readily available from Hong Kong either (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
43975	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The species is common in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. It probably also occurs in the Limoncocha and Sumaco-Napo-Galeras protected areas.	eng
43975	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	A widely distributed species found in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana and Sucumbios.	eng
43975	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs mainly on poorly drained or seasonally flooded soils mainland Amazonian forest (250–1,000 m). The species is less common in Amazon terra firme forest.	eng
43975	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is a minor threat.	eng
43976	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in the northern section of the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43976	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known only from a small area in the eastern Andean foothills of Pastaza province, Ecuador.	eng
43976	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
43976	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threats are expanding human settlement and deforestation.	eng
43977	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the Parque Nacional Sangay and could also occur in the Parque Nacional Podocapus.	eng
43977	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from four subpopulations along the southeastern Andean slopes, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces, Ecuador.	eng
43977	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in submontane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
43977	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Deforestation is the main threat.	eng
43978	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but could be in the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Antisana, Cayambe-Coca and Podocarpus protected areas.	eng
43978	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Known from two isolated subpopulations on the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador. The northern subpopulation occurs in disturbed areas and pastures near Cosanga, in Napo province; the southern subpopulation was discovered in Zamora-Chinchipe province.	eng
43978	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43978	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The main threats are deforestation and the destructive harvest of its leaves for artistic use in Easter celebrations.	eng
43979	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in similar habitats within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
43979	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from near the Santo Domingo-Quevedo road in Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces, and near the Santiago and Cayapas rivers in Esmeraldas province, Ecuador.	eng
43979	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
43979	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Ecuador's coastal forests have been massively altered over the last 50 years through the impacts of deforestation, agricultural and urban expansion.	eng
43980	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but likely to occur in suitable habitat within the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and the Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Sangay and Podocarpus national parks.	eng
43980	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Said to have a wide distribution on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza.	eng
43980	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in the understorey of low Andean forest (1,000–2,100 m).	eng
43980	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43981	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Despite its relative abundance, the species has only been recorded once inside Ecuador's protected areas network, in the Parque Nacional Machalilla. Wild plants almost certainly also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
43981	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs throughout the wet coastal lowlands, where it is widely cultivated for the "vegetable ivory" of its seeds. Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Manabí, Pichincha and Los Ríos.	eng
43981	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Grows as an understorey plant in humid coastal forest to submontane coastal forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
43981	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	The principal threat is the overexploitation of the fruit; the infrutescence is harvested entire when ripe, leaving the tree sterile.	eng
43982	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but should be searched for in similar habitats of the nearby Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
43982	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Recorded from the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe.	eng
43982	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Occurs in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
43982	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2003	Habitat destruction is the main threat.	eng
43983	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus achatellinus</em> is endemic to San Cristóbal and Espanola Islands (558 km² and 60 km² respectively).	eng
43983	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Probably the humid zone of San Cristóbal and Espanola Islands.	eng
43983	population	Parent, C., 2003	Number of existing subpopulations and population size are unknown. The species has not been recorded for over 20 years and is possibly extinct.	eng
43983	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The reasons for range and population declines are unknown.  However, habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on San Cristóbal island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
43984	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance 7 of 1996.  Present within the Sandy Bay National Park, as described in the SLUP (revised 1998/9).	eng
43984	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Formerly a very abundant tree of the mid-altitudes, 300-600 m.  By the time the Island was first settled in 1659 the Gumwood and other native forests had already suffered one and a half centuries of browsing by goats and rooting by pigs.  Fewer and fewer seedlings survived and the aging forest was already unable to regenerate.  The only woodland now remaining is at Peak Dale where about 1,000 trees grow on steep slopes in an area of 3 ha. There are smaller, scattered subpopulations at Deep Valley (21 trees), Marias (<5 trees), Rock Rose (7 trees), Longwood (2 mature trees growing adjacent to farm land and were probably planted to mark a boundary), and Thompson’s Wood (1 tree). Most of these are found growing close to or out of cliffs.  It is possible that there is genetic exchange between the trees at Peak Dale and Marias but the other sites are geographically and reproductively isolated.  Large scale replanting has taken place at Peak Dale (500 trees in 2002) and Horse Point (2,400 between 1986 – 1992 although survival rates are less than  50% and 5,000 between 2000 – 2003), Ebony Plain (where it is planted with its congener, <em>C. rugosum</em> with which it is known to hybridize), Longwood and at Deep Valley.  Peak Dale has been the source of all material for plantings at Horse Point (now known as the Millennium Forest), Ebony Plain  and elsewhere. The Longwood and Deep Valley provenances have been maintained separate at only material from these sites has been used when planting at either Longwood or Deep Valley.	eng
43984	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Tree, formerly up to 10 m, but now typically half this. The trunk of this species is  usually knarled and crooked and the canopy is umbrella shaped due to the regular di- or trichotomous branching immediately under the terminal inflorescence.  <em>C. robustum</em> has inflorescences of one or few capitula, the capitulum of ray florets are female and disc florets are hermaphrodite.  Seeds germinate freely and natural regeneration is rapid as long as there is no interference by grazing animals or pests. The seedlings do not resemble the adults, being quick growing, slender and straight with much larger leaves. They develop the adult shape when they reach the canopy.	eng
43984	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Regeneration of <em>C. robustum</em> can be good, especially when grazing is restricted, however, a number of factors restrict recovery:  <br/>1.  Occasionally animals still stray into Peak Dale, although it is fully fenced, causing damage to planted seedlings. The subpopulation at Marias is on privately owned land which is rented for grazing cattle, thus preventing  regeneration. <br/>2.  Competition from introduced plants at all the sites where the Gumwood now grow.  Introduced plants are competitors for space and when not kept under regular control, can crowd out the Gumwoods. <br/>3. The introduced scale insect, <em>Orthezia insignis</em> Browne, which inflicted considerable damage to the population between 1991-3 and threatened to destroy the whole woodland by 1995.  This species was brought under control with a biological control programme using the agent <em>Hyperaspis pantherina</em> (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Fowler 2001).  <em>Orthezia insignis</em> continues to infect small numbers of trees and has been observed on young seedlings (Rebecca Cairns-Wicks, pers obs.). Whilst the infestations are brought under control by the <em>Hyperaspis</em>, and are not considered a threat to adult trees, it is possible that the impact on seedlings and thus regeneration is more significant. <br/> <br/><em>C. robustum</em> has been an important source of timber since the island was settled by humans in 1659 and was used for fuel and building.   Although not used today, this highly branched tree with dense hard and fine grained wood has the potential to be of local value in the future.  If it can be managed sustainably, this species could be used as a windbreak, as a source of pollen for honey production and for producing high value products for the tourism industry. One local carpenter has already established a small experimental plantation to provide wood for craftwork in the future.	eng
43985	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996). Although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park. Jellico propagates easily and is being translocated to new areas by cutting the stem and planting directly.  Planting policy should be established to keep it within its natural range – i.e., damp gullies, damp spots and flushes.  A patch of Large Jellico has also been planted at below High Peak, where it did not occur naturally.	eng
43985	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Notable subpopulations within Diana’s Peak National Park can be found at High Ridge, Warrens, Byrons, Mt Actaeon, Washhouse, Taylors, Jockies, Landslide, and Newfoundland.  <em>S. bracteatum</em> grows well in stands among the Cabbage trees and tree-ferns, favouring damp spots, flushes and gullies around 750 m.  <br/> <br/>Subpopulation sizes vary from 10s to 100s and are fragmented.	eng
43985	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Jellico propagates easily and is being translocated to new areas by cutting the stem and planting directly.  Planting policy should be established to keep it within its natural range – i.e., damp gullies, damp spots and flushes.	eng
43985	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Restricted in area of occupancy, fragmented subpopulations and competition from alien plants species, are all factors threatening <em>S. bracteatum</em>.    Hybridization – hybridization and introgression with the Dwarf Jellico is also a threat to this species as <em>S. bracteatum</em> and <em>S. burchelli</em> grow within close range of each other at several sites (the Landslide and Washhouse).   Extensive planting has also brought the two species close together at other sites (Byrons, Mt Actaeon).  It is suggested that an intermediate subpopulation is growing below the Landslide: Dwarf Jellico grows on the cliff ledge and Large Jellico in the gut below.  Hybridization is likely to pose a greater threat to the Dwarf Jellico because of its much smaller population size. <br/>  <br/>The stems of <em>S. bracteatum</em> were formerly collected and brought down to the market in Jamestown, and eaten raw by the Islanders much like celery.	eng
43986	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Also protected within the Diana’s Peak National Park which is has been managed under a management plan since 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996), although its still lacks specific legislation the 1998/1999 revision of the SLUP (1993) provides for the protection of the National Park.  A seed orchard was established at the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery in  Scotland in 1997, but this has subsequently been allowed to deteriorate.  It is recommended that this is re-established to bring together the genetic diversity represented in the subpopulations and allow seed collection for further reintroductions.	eng
43986	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A rare plant, local around High Peak c 750 m.  Restricted to small and fragmented subpopulations on steep cliffs just below the crest of the ridge, on the windward side of the central ridge only.  Known to grow on the cliff below path leading to Cuckhold’s Point (the Landslide in Peaks Management Plan), Washhouse Cliff (WASH003 in Peaks Management Plan), Purgatory, and at High Peak. Cronk also records it between Red Rock and the Depot and in small patches on the cliff of Sandy Bay Ridge facing Rose Cottage (no observations have been made at these sites in the last 10 years). Subpopulation sizes are small <50 individuals and severely fragmented.	eng
43986	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Rocky cliffs and ledges on the Peaks, amongst Cabbage trees, tree ferns or exposed ledges.  Flowering is usually December and January.	eng
43986	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Competition from introduced and naturalized plants posses a threat for this species, particularly at High Peak where there is no regular management programme.  All subpopulations have been found growing on rocky outcrops that are prone to landslides.   <br/> <br/><em>S. burchelli</em> is thought to be under threat from hybridization with <em>S. bracteatum</em>.  During November 1995, 800 Dwarf Jellico seedlings were planted across the tree fern thicket at several sites along the ridge between Cuckhold’s Point and Mt Actaeon within Diana’s Peak National Park.  A high rate of establishment was recorded (36 out of 50 at one site) in April 1996 (Smith and Williams 1996), however, some of the individuals were planted relatively close to stands of the Large Jellico and  it is suspected that the two species are able to hybridize, and the provenance of the Dwarf Jellico’s planted in 1995 is now uncertain.	eng
43987	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The largest extent of occurrence of <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> lies within Diana’s Peak National Park, which  is protected within the Revised Strategic Land Use Plan (1998/9) and managed under the Environmental Conservation Section of the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department. The Diana’s Peak National Park Management Plan for 1996-2001 requires revision. <em>Trimeris scaefolifolia</em> is also protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.	eng
43987	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	<em>Trimeris scaevolifolia</em> is found on central ridge above 700 m,with patchy distribution within Diana's Peak National Park (including Cuckhold's Point and Mt Actaeon).  <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> is also found at High Peak and Depot.  Alien plant control has taken place in the area of Diana’s Peak National Park since 1995, this management has provided an opportunity for the Lobelia to spread along pathsides and cleared areas.  In contrast it is inferred that <em>T. scaevolifolia</em> numbers have declined at High Peak and the Depot where invasives control has been less.  Wherever it occurs, numbers are small. The High Peak lobelia’s could be considered a subpopulation being significantly disjunct from the National Park subpopulation. Q.C.B. Cronk (Cronk 2000) estimates there to be less than 250 mature individuals.	eng
43987	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	<em>T. scaevolifolia</em> grows alongside cabbage trees, <em>Carex dianae</em>, ferns and tree ferns of the uplands vegetation. <br/> <br/>Lobelia regenerates best in disturbed open habits, along pathsides etc. It is relatively short-lived and disappears from overgrown places (Cronk 2000).	eng
43987	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The main threat to this species is competition from introduced invasive species. Alien plant control programme for Diana’s Peak National Park has reduced this threat and improved habitat quality by providing disturbed open areas for it to spread into. The restricted area of the Park, 81 hectares means that this species will always have a restricted area of occupancy.	eng
43988	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  subpopulations across part of its range are found at Man and Horse Cliffs and Mt Vesey, both  are within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park, that is  designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9. However, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species.	eng
43988	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Found on Old Joan Point Cliffs, Peak Dale and Deep Valley, growing on cliffs associated with the Gumwood, Mt Vesey. <br/>  <br/><em>W. angustifolia</em> has also been recorded at the Depot, Devil’s Hole Cap, Thompsons Wood, Fairyland, Rock Mount, Cason’s, Bevin’s, Grape Vine Gut, Sandy Bay Ridge, Cole’s Rock and Great Stone Top (Cronk 2000).  These sites are predominately unmanaged areas where alien plants are the dominant vegetation type. It is therefore likely that where the small bellflower still persists it is under intense competition from the alien plants. <br/> <br/><em>W. angustifolia</em> has an estimated population of some 1,000 plants.  Subpopulations are highly fragmented and small.	eng
43988	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	An endemic to St Helena.  Although  <em>W. angustifolia</em> is found close to High Peak, it is not in the same situation as the large Bellflower. However, it is suspected that where the two species grow in proximity to each other, hybridization can occur. Intermediate size has been observed in<em>W. linifolia</em> (Kerr 1953 referred to in Cronk (2000)) and also recently in the second subpopulation at High Peak and in the Environmental Conservation Section Nursery, Scotland (R. Cairns-Wicks, pers. obs.).  Kerr (1953) suggests that intermediates are either interspecific hybrids or there is great variation in growth and size of <em>W. linifolia</em>.  Leaf material of <em>W. angustifolia</em> and <em>W. linifolia</em> was sent to RBG Kew for DNA testing to investigate this further.	eng
43988	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Competition from introduced alien species as well as small and fragmented subpopulation sizes, are the major threats to <em>W. angustifolia</em>.  Hybridization is also a threat, however, this is probably posses a greater threat to <em>W. linifolia</em> as this is rarer.	eng
43989	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Protected under the Endangered Endemic and Indigenous Species Protection Ordinance No 7 of 1996.  Subpopulations across part of its range are found within the boundary of Sandy Bay National Park designated in the revised SLUP 1998/9, however, specific Protected Area legislation and management plans have not yet been developed or implemented. There is currently no specific conservation action for this species.	eng
43989	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Surveys carried out by staff of the Environmental Conservation Section between 1995 and 2001, monitored subpopulations at: Great Stone Top (facing Shore Island), Turks Cap, Gregory's Battery and Peak Gut Waterfall.  Larger subpopulations (100's), were found at Man and Horse Cliffs and the Cliffs near to Ebony site.  Other subpopulations have been located at Old Joan Point from 5-300 m., Barn, Turks Cap Ridge, Prosperous Bay, Sandy Bay Barn and on the Cliffs between Distant Cottage and the Asses Ears. <br/> <br/>Cronk (2000) reports abundant old stumps on Sandy Bay Barn and considers the site a centre for the tea plant. Old stumps are also numerous at Castle Rock Plain.	eng
43989	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Found in dry subtropical to tropical shrubland, rocky shores and other rocky areas.	eng
43989	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R, 2003	Subpopulations are largely recovering due to the removal of grazing pressure from goats and sheep on the Crown Wastes.  Recovering subpopulations sites are Man and Horse Cliffs and on Cliffs near to the Ebony site.  Man and Horse site is vulnerable to competition from alien plants.  Smaller subpopulations are also more susceptible to stochastic events and problem pests such as the Mealy and Australian Bugs. <br/> <br/>Small subpopulations at Gregory’s Battery and Great Stone Top are struggling, this may be due to low levels of recruitment.	eng
43990	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus adserseni</em> is endemic to Santa Cruz Island (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left on the island for this species is less than 100 km².	eng
43990	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone of Santa Cruz Island.	eng
43990	population	Parent, C., 2003	The species has not been seen alive recently in spite of extensive collecting on the island. It may already be extinct.	eng
43990	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes of population decline. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
43991	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus albermalensis</em> is endemic to Isabela Island (4,588 km²). Extent of occurrence is likely to be less than 5,000 km².	eng
43991	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Probably found in the humid zone.	eng
43991	population	Parent, C., 2003	Number and size of any subpopulations and their locations are unknown.	eng
43991	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Introduced predatory species, such as rats and ants, and habitat destruction and/or alteration by feral goats and donkeys. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
43992	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus chemitzioides</em> is endemic to San Cristóbal Island (558 km²). The area of the habitat where the species should exist is estimated to be less than 100 km².	eng
43992	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid and possibly transition zones.	eng
43992	population	Parent, C., 2003	Number, size and locations of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43992	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
43993	conservation	Millar, A.J.K., 2003	Listed as a  "Species Presumed Extinct"  in section 4 of Schedule 4 of the Fisheries Management Act 1994, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Listed as "Extinct" under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, by the Commonwealth of Australia.	eng
43993	distribution	Millar, A.J.K., 2003	First collected/discovered (1855) by crude dredging as a single individual plant from the east end of Spectacle Island, in the Parramatta River, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia.  Second and last collection (1886) by dredging of approximately 15 individual plants from between Shark Island and Point Piper, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia (8 kilometres east of Spectacle Island). Presently unknown.	eng
43993	habitat	Millar, A.J.K., 2003	Unknown at time of collection in 1855 and 1886.  The two sites, and much of Sydney Harbour, presently has soft sediment seabed with scattered rocky reef and rocky intertidal shores.  Scattered shells and solid waste products (cans, bottles etc.) also lie on the seabed.	eng
43993	threats	Millar, A.J.K., 2003	Sydney Harbour is in the middle of the city of Sydney, the largest metropolis in Australia with more than 4 million people. In the 200+ years since settlement, the harbour has been seriously degraded by the population explosion. Use of the harbour as recreational facility, port, source of food, and sewer has seriously impacted on the native flora and fauna. Even by 1880, the harbour was found to be overfished by a Royal Commission. The Major Threats that may have caused the extinction of this alga include large and small scale fisheries particularly trawling, infrastructure development including industry, human settlement, tourism/recreation, water transport [including dredging for ship passage], fisheries- related bycatch by netting, and water pollution from agriculture, domestic, commercial/ industrial, oil, sedimentation, and sewage. The water quality of the harbour has improved since the 1972 passage of the New South Wales Clean Waters Act and the more recent removal of sewage outfalls some kilometers offshore. More fish species have moved to the upper estuarine portions of the Parramatta River and whales have returned to the outer harbour. However, for sessile species of limited distribution like Bennetts seaweed, swimming out of the harbour was not an option and the damage was done, permanently. As we do not even know in which decade the extinction occurred, we will never know which of the major threats was causative; a combination of a number of those listed is likely. [Threats information provided by J.R. Paxton in litt.].	eng
43994	conservation	Yahr, R., 2003	<em>Cladonia perforata</em> is Federally Listed Endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, making all Federal landowners with <em>C. perforata</em> responsible for its protection and conservation under the Endangered Species Act. The state of Florida additionally has an active conservation and natural heritage program which tracks listed species (<em>C. perforata</em> is state-listed endangered and has a Heritage Ranking of G1N1) and works to conserve them through land acquisition and management. At least two Lake Wales Ridge sites were acquired under a state project for conservation and recreation lands. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions also include reintroduction efforts at Eglin Air Force Base, home to the largest subpopulation (East Pass) and the two extirpated sites at Pole 28 and A10. East Pass was used as a source population for these reintroductions and there is ongoing monitoring of hurricane impacts and reintroduced population success. Post-fire recovery is being monitored at several subpopulations on the Lake Wales Ridge. Fire management is a critical part of conservation of this and many other Florida scrub species and is ongoing throughout most protected sites along the Lake Wales Ridge and the Atlantic Coast Ridge.	eng
43994	distribution	Yahr, R., 2003	Three major regions of occurrence exist. 1) North Gulf Coast, including a single natural subpopuation (the largest known subpopulation "East Pass", 0.5-1 km²), and one remnant thallus after Hurricane Opal destroyed two subpopulations, "Pole 28" and "A2".  In addition, two reintroduced populations (at Pole 28 and A2) were established in 2000. 2) Lake Wales Ridge. This region contains the bulk (22 of 32) of the known subpopulations, scattered across single endemic-rich ridge system. Many subpopulations are severely fragmented and dispersal among them very unlikely. The total area of occupancy in this ca. 2,700 km² area is probably on the order less than 5 km² in disjunct patches. Two locations are important for the amount of protected habitat, active fire-management programs and presence of several occupied (with large areas occupied) and unoccupied habitat patches: Archbold Biological Station with 7 subpopulations, Ridge State Forest with 3, and Lake Apthorpe Preserve with 2. Several privately-held populations are of high habitat quality and large area of occupancy. 3) The Atlantic Coast Ridge has two important locations, but overall low extent of occurrence (ca. 720 km²) and area of occupancy. Jonathan Dickinson State Park protects several subpopulations (including one large one at County Line Rd.), and the Bureau of Land Management protects two subpopulations at Jupiter Lighthouse. Several other scattered sites are privately held, small in area occupied and unlikely to persist under dense tree canopies or without being extirpated for coastal development projects. <br/> <br/>Population size - in the traditional sense - for <em>Cladonia perforata</em> is difficult to estimate. It consists of strictly asexual, branching structures which reproduce via vegetative fragmentation. Genetic studies have so far supported an asexual life history (pers. obs.). Effective population sizes are typically one or two genetic individuals per subpopulation. Therefore density and area occupied are probably better measures of abundance for this species than count data. Most subpopulations probably contain less than 0.1 km² coverage of lichen, with a few containing only a few square meters. The degree of fragmentation is naturally high, since appropriate habitat (open Florida scrub) is naturally patchy and disjunct. Most locations are separated by many kilometers of intervening unsuitable habitats and even locations supporting several subpopulations in close proximity still have what are probably very effective barriers to dispersal among them.	eng
43994	habitat	Yahr, R., 2003	<em>Cladonia perforata</em> occurs primarily in open Florida rosemary scrub, with large gaps between shrubs and plenty of bare sand and other terrestrial lichens. These scrub habitats are fossil inland dunes or stable coastal dunes. It occupies the highest topographic positions throughout most of this range. In the North Gulf Coast region, it can occur downslope into seasonal depressional wetlands with dense herbaceous cover, but saltwater overwash will kill it. <em>C. perforata</em> grows slowly and branches once a year. Fragmentation (vegetative reproduction) can happen via trampling or natural breakage after decades of growth <em>in situ</em>.	eng
43994	threats	Yahr, R., 2003	The main threats to <em>C. perforata</em> are from habitat loss in the Lake Wales Ridge and Atlantic Coast Ridge, from hurricanes in the North Gulf Coast (overwash and windthrow into unsuitable sites), and from improper fire management throughout. A single hurricane or fire can reduce subpopulations by more than 70% or extirpate it entirely. Dispersal from disjunct sites is extremely unlikely.	eng
43995	conservation	Scheidegger, C., 2003	The status of the areas of some of the largest subpopulations in Newfoundland is still a matter of debate. The habitats of the former Norwegian populations were suggested as nature reserves. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) has designated the 'Atlantic population' (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) as Endangered and the 'Boreal population' (Newfoundland) as Special Concern.	eng
43995	distribution	Scheidegger, C., 2003	<em>Erioderma pedicellatum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species known from Europe (Norway and Sweden) and Canada (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland). Today, it is largely restricted to Newfoundland. Fourteen individuals are known from Nova Scotia and 5,060 individuals (thalli) have been documented from Newfoundland. The Newfoundland population comprises 84 localities. Even in the largest local subpopulations <em>E. pedicellatum</em> is a rather rare species and occurs on only a small percentage of suitable trees. In most cases only one thallus of this species is found on a tree.	eng
43995	habitat	Scheidegger, C., 2003	<em>Erioderma pedicellatum</em> is an epiphytic species with narrow habitat requirements (primarily old growth, highly oceanic coniferous forests). In Sweden and Norway the species grew on twigs of Norway Spruce (<em>Picea abies</em>) in a unique type of temperate rainforest. In Newfoundland this lichen grows predominantly on the trunks of <em>Abies balsamea</em> and rarely on trunks or twigs of <em>Picea mariana</em>.<br/><br/>The species has very low growth and reproductive rates.	eng
43995	population	Scheidegger, C., 2003	Grows in low densities.	eng
43995	threats	Scheidegger, C., 2003	Threatened by forest management and is highly sensitive to atmospheric air pollutants such as acid rain.	eng
43996	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further survey work is required to determine range and locations of existing subpopulations.	eng
43996	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus cinerarius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Floreana, Santiago and Isabela (173 km², 585 km², and 4,588 km² respectively). Exact range area is unknown, but area of suitable habitat is less than 5,000 km².	eng
43996	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
43996	population	Parent, C., 2003	The species has not been recorded during recent collecting on the islands, but it may have been overlooked. Number, size and locations of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43996	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The major threat to this species on Floreana and Isabela Islands is probably human activities (mostly due to farming) and introduced species. The major threat to land snails on Santiago Island are introduced species, particularly the little fire ant (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>) and feral goats and donkeys.	eng
43997	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further surveys are required to determine subpopulation sizes and range.	eng
43997	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus cucullinus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos islands of Espanola, Floreana and Santa Fe (60 km², 173 km², and 24 km² respectively). The total range of suitable habitat for this species is likely to be less than 100 km², but the three islands are treated as three locations.	eng
43997	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Possibly found in the arid zones of these islands.	eng
43997	population	Parent, C., 2003	The species was not found during recent collecting on the islands, but it's presence may have been overlooked. Number, size and exact locations of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
43997	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.	eng
43998	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further surveys are required to determine the size and range of subpopulations on the island.	eng
43998	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus curtus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristobal (558 km²). The range is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
43998	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
43998	population	Parent, C., 2003	The species has not been recorded during recent collecting in the Galápagos, but it may have been overlooked. Size and number of subpopulations is unknown.	eng
43998	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species are likely the major threats for land snails on this island.	eng
43999	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus deridderi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Less than 100 km² of suitable habitat is likely to remain.	eng
43999	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone of Santa Cruz.	eng
43999	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been colleted recently and may already be extinct.	eng
43999	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Reasons for decline in range and population are unknown, but habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes.	eng
44000	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus duncanus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos island of Pinzon (18 km²).	eng
44000	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone.	eng
44000	population	Parent, C., 2003	A live specimen has never been found and it may have become extinct before its description. Pinzon Island has been under surveyed because it is very difficult to reach.	eng
44000	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Reason for population decline is unknown, but habitat destruction and/or alteration by human activities and/or introduced species are possible causes. Any existing population would be susceptible to climatic fluctuations due to stochastic cycles of El Niño.	eng
44001	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus elaeodes</em> is endemic to the Galápagos island of Isabela (4,588 km²). Potential area of suitable habitat is large, but there is no information on where this species may be found.	eng
44001	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone.	eng
44001	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been found in recent years, but the island has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44001	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.	eng
44002	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further surveys of the island are needed to establish the size and range of the population.	eng
44002	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus galapaganus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Floreana (173 km²). The range of suitable habitat is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
44002	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Exact habitat type is unknown.	eng
44002	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded during recent collections in the Galápagos Islands, but Floreana Island was not surveyed extensively so the species may have been overlooked there.	eng
44002	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
44003	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further survey work is required to determine size and range of any existing subpopulations on the island.	eng
44003	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus habeli</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of San Cristobal (558 km²). The range of suitable habitat for this species is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
44003	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded during recent collecting in the Galápagos Islands, but San Cristobal Island has not been extensively surveyed, so its presence here may have been overlooked.	eng
44003	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There is an established population of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on the island (Silberglied 1972).	eng
44004	conservation	Parent, C., 2003	Further survey work is needed to determine the size and range of any existing subpopulations on the islands.	eng
44004	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus hemaerodes</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Isabela and Fernandina (4,588 km² and 642 km² respectively). The range of suitable habitat for this species is less than 5,000 km².	eng
44004	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone.	eng
44004	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands, but neither Isabela nor Fernandina have been surveyed extensively, therefore the species may have been overlooked.	eng
44004	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.	eng
44005	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2003	Forest areas are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles – Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project, but there is no legal protection.	eng
44005	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2003	Restricted to Silhouette island, with an extent of occurrence of 20 km² and area of occupancy of  0.06 km². Occurred historically on Mahé and Praslin islands (collected there in 1768) but probably extinct there since the 1800s due to forest clearance. Five mature trees are known from two subpopulations (one tree by itself and four in the other subpopulation), separated by a distance of approximately 1 km.	eng
44005	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2003	Occurs in mid-high altitude forest (over 250 m a.s.l.). The fruit is probably dispersed by endemic frugivorous birds and fruit bats but no direct observations made. Pollinators are unknown.	eng
44005	threats	Gerlach, J., 2003	Past threats include habitat loss through deforestation and agricultural activities, and the impacts of invasive species on both the habitat and the direct competition with the species. Currently, the main threats are the ongoing impacts of invasive species and intrinsic problems given the restricted range and population size.	eng
44006	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2003	Forest areas are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles – Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project, but no legal protection.	eng
44006	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2003	Restricted to Silhouette Island, Seycheles. Known only from the Anse Mondon River valley with an extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of 0.5 km².  The species is locally abundant but the number of individuals has not been determined.	eng
44006	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2003	Occurs in riverine forest (100-500 m a.s.l.) growing only within 500 m of the stream bed.	eng
44006	threats	Gerlach, J., 2003	No threats other than stochastic loss in the restricted range.	eng
44007	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	The Virgin Gorda subpopulation occurs within Gorda Peak National Park whose boundaries are well respected. Park wardens are aware of the location of all individuals and the Endangered status of the species. One of the trails within the Park has been rerouted because it was considered too close to the single seedling of this species.  A management plan for the Park has been developed. Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule. <br/> <br/><em>Z. thomasianum</em> is listed on the US Federal Endangered list which offers protection in PR and the US Virgin Islands, although its prescription does not apply to private land where the majority of the individuals are located.  Part of the St John subpopulation occurs within the boundaries of the Virgin Islands National Park that is well maintained and managed, affording protection for this subpopulation.	eng
44007	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Puerto Rican bank endemic. Known from small small scattered subpopulations in Puerto Rico (PR); St John, St Thomas (US Virgin Islands); and Virgin Gorda (British Virgin Islands). The largest subpopulation has been reported from St Thomas to cover an area of approximately 50 acres. Other subpopulations exist as scattered individuals at three sites on Puerto Rico, two on St John and a single site in Virgin Gorda. <br/> <br/>The total population was estimated to be between 300-350 in 1988 for the US Recovery Plan with the largest subpopulation estimated at 250 individuals on St Thomas, approximately 50 on St John with scattered individuals on Puerto Rico. The Virgin Gorda subpopulation was unknown at that time.  Since then habitat has been fragmented and lost and mature individuals have been lost from all sites. The St Thomas site has been subdivided and sold for residential development. The Virgin Gorda subpopulation has been documented, but there is a need for an up-to-date census of the PR and USVI sites.  However, the current global population is likely to be less than 300 mature individuals, and may be close to meeting the criteria for Critically Endangered.	eng
44007	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	A small evergreen tree/shrub up to 6 m, growing as a component of dry forest. Male and female flowers are borne on different plants and this may be an important detrimental factor for its survival given its low population size and the fragmented nature its distribution.  No seedlings have been reported from the PR or USVI populations and only a single seedling has been observed in Virgin Gorda.	eng
44007	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	The Virgin Gorda subpopulation is located within Gorda Peak National Park and so is not under threat. Part of the St John subpopulation is located within The Virgin Islands National Park and should be secure.  However, most of the St John subpopulation and the St Thomas subpopulations are on land that has been subdivided for development and must be considered under threat. Similarly some of the Puerto Rico individuals are on private land that is undergoing changing land use. Mining for limestone is also a threat in part of its range. <br/> <br/>The breeding biology may also become a major constraint as numbers get small and may become sufficiently low that reproduction becomes ineffective.	eng
44008	conservation	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	The Anegada subpopulation occurs on a limestone cay within the Western Salt Ponds Ramsar site (declared in 1999) and national legislation is currently being prepared to declare this a Protected Area (National Park).  BVI Protected Wildlife legislation is currently being revised and consideration is being given to including named endemic/threatened species of flora and fauna within this Schedule. <br/> <br/>There is no information on the legal status of the PR subpopulation. <br/> <br/><em>Leptocereus quadricostatus</em> is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
44008	distribution	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Found on Anegada, British Virgin Islands (BVI) where it is restricted to an area of less than 100 m x 100 m on one of the limestone cays of the Western Salt Ponds. Also found in Puerto Rico (PR) where it is reported from a small area in the dry southwest region of Guánica. <br/> <br/>The global population comprises two subpopulations. The Anegada subpopulation has been surveyed and found to comprise 20-25 individual clumps.  The dense clumping nature of this species makes a precise determination of number of mature individuals very difficult, but 20-25 is a reliable estimate.  Pedro Acevedo (pers. comm.) has told us that the Puerto Rico subpopulation is less than 10 giving a global population size of approximately 35 mature individuals.	eng
44008	habitat	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Found growing on open limestone with very little soil.  No study of the breeding biology has been undertaken, but we have seen the Anegada individuals in both flower and fruit.	eng
44008	threats	Clubbe, C., Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N., 2003	Anegada is under severe development pressure resulting in both loss of habitat to residential and tourism infrastructure, and further fragmentation is expected due to upgrading and construction of new roads.  However, the location of<em> L. quadricostatus</em> is in an area unlikely to be damaged from this type of development. <br/> <br/>The highest point on Anegada is approx. 10 m above sea level. Most of the habitat for <em>L. quadricostatus</em> is <2 m above sea level and so global climate change will reduce the quality and area of habitat available to <em>L. quadricostatus</em>.  Natural disasters are a current and on-going threat e.g., hurricanes, coastal inundation and earthquakes. <br/> <br/>The current status of the PR subpopulation is unknown, but much of this area has been zoned for residential development that may threaten the surviving plants. <br/> <br/>Other major threats are those intrinsic factors inherent in such small populations.	eng
44009	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus hoodensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Espanola (60 km²).	eng
44009	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been found during recent colleting on Galápagos Islands, but Espanola has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44010	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The Draft Recovery Action Plan for this species has set out five main objectives that will help conserve <em>W. linifolia</em>. These are: <br/>1. To protect all existing subpopulations <br/>2. To propagate individuals by cuttings from subpopulations  <br/>3. To collect seed.  <br/>4. To search for new populations <br/>5. To establish a cultivated population at Scotland Shade house no 4 as a seed orchard.	eng
44010	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	<em>Wahlenbergia linifolia</em> is endemic to St Helena.  Currently it is only known from two sites: High Peak and Washhouse cliffs. <br/> <br/>In 1997 the subpopulation at High Peak Site 1, was estimated to be 41 adults and 28 seedlings. This site was thought to be pure <em>W. linifolia</em>.  In June 2002 the subpopulation numbered less than five adults.  <br/> <br/>At High Peak Site 2,  the subpopulation number was estimated to be 21 adults and 24 seedlings. This was a suspected hybrid subpopulation. In June 2002 the subpopulation was estimated as 12. <br/> <br/>Washhouse 1997, the subpopulation was estimated as possibly 12 mature plants. In June 2002 the subpopulation was estimated as six.  In addition the site was more overgrown and fewer seedlings were noted.	eng
44010	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Small, shrubby, sparingly branched perennial up to 0.3 m.  The plants grow on cliff sites amongst tree fern vegetation and exotic weeds. Bellflowers are also known to grow on the trunks of tree ferns, Melliss (1875) described <em>W. linifolia</em> as 'sometimes parasitic on the tree ferns'.	eng
44010	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The rampant spread of Flax and Fuchsia which are able to colonise ledges and gaps in the tree ferns are considered to be the principal causes for the decline of the Large Bellflower. Flax, Fuchsia Blackberry, Solanum and Grass sp. continue to cause problems at the three remaining sites, reducing the area of suitable habitat and preventing regeneration. As well as the number of individuals, the number of seedlings observed at all sites was also considerably lower that in 1997.	eng
44011	conservation	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Four specific objectives for the recovery of <em>M. begonifolia</em> has been laid out in the Draft Recovery Action Plan.  These objectives are: <br/> <br/>1. To maintain and encourage the growth of Boxwoods at Lot’s Wife <br/>2. To establish three field gene banks, two at White’s Cottage and one at Distant Cottage <br/>3. To determine the life history characteristics and genetic diversity of the Boxwoods as an aid to recovery planning. <br/>4. To maintain <em>ex situ</em> stocks at RBG Kew and Eden Project and establish long-term seed storage at Wakehurst Place Seed Bank.	eng
44011	distribution	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	Endemic to St Helena, the St Helena Boxwood, <em>Mellissia begonifolia</em> was formerly abundant in the dry south and eastern parts of the Island (Long Range, Stone Tops and Boxwood Hill). Melliss (1875) stated that it was extremely rare, and it was presumed extinct towards the end of the 19th Century. However, in November 1998 a single specimen was found by Stedson Stroud growing between scree boulders on the southern, sea-facing slope of Lot’s Wife about 100 m. above sea level. This site is currently the only known area where Boxwoods grow.  The wild population currently numbers 11.	eng
44011	habitat	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	A much branched, pungently scented shrub or small tree 1-2 m.  All the individuals have been found growing amongst scree boulders below Lot’s Wife.	eng
44011	threats	Cairns-Wicks, R., 2003	The population at Lot’s Wife is extremely fragile. It is small in size, with only one mature flowering individual.  The plants are prone to heavy attacks of aphids and caterpillars (Penelope worm), although Ladybirds have kept the aphid infestations under control and manual removal of caterpillars reduced their impact.  <br/> <br/>Mice and rabbits are also present in the area. In the past rabbits have nipped off the tops of plants, which has led to the death of the plant. The prevalence of plant pests could well pose problems in the future. <br/> <br/>All the individuals are growing amongst scree boulders below Lot’s Wife. The rocks are loose and prone to movement when traversed. This puts the plants at risk from either all or parts being broken or crushed.  <br/> <br/>Growing in such a dry environment, the plants are prone to drought.	eng
44012	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus indefatigabilis</em> is known from one population on the Galápagos Island of Santiago (585 km²). Its current range is probably less than 3 km².	eng
44012	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone; found at base of trees, under lava rocks on Santiago Island.	eng
44012	population	Parent, C., 2003	Known from only one population.	eng
44012	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropuctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by feral goats.  Habitat and population size may also be affected by El Niño, but his is not well documented.	eng
44013	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus jervisensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Rabida (4.9 km²).	eng
44013	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44013	population	Parent, C., 2003	The current population size on this island is unknown.	eng
44014	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
44014	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Scalesia</em> forest.	eng
44014	population	Parent, C., 2003	This species was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island. It may already be extinct.	eng
44014	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
44015	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
44015	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Scalesia</em> forest.	eng
44015	population	Parent, C., 2003	It was not found during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands and may already be extinct.	eng
44015	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
44016	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²).	eng
44016	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid and transition zones.	eng
44016	population	Parent, C., 2003	It was not found alive over the past three years of collecting on Santa Cruz Island and may already be extinct.	eng
44016	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
44017	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus nucula</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km²  and 173 km² respectively).	eng
44017	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Possibly the arid zone.	eng
44017	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been found during recent collecting on Galapagos Islands. However, Floreana and San Cristóbal Islands have not been extensively surveyed therefore it may have been overlooked. Number and size of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
44017	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species. There are established populations of the invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, on these islands (Silberglied 1972).	eng
44018	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus olla</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santiago.	eng
44018	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone. Found under big piles of lava rocks on Santiago.	eng
44018	population	Parent, C., 2003	It is known from two subpopulations and has a total range of less than 5 km².  Each subpopulation has less than 200 individuals.	eng
44018	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Introduced ants (<em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>), destruction and/or alteration of habitat by introduced goats	eng
44019	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus pallidus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Isabela and Pinta (4,588 km², and 60 km² respectively).	eng
44019	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Possibly from the humid zone.	eng
44019	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither Isabela Island nor Pinta Island have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44019	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.	eng
44020	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus perrus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Fernandina (642 km²).	eng
44020	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone. Found under lava rocks at base of trees (<em>Scalesia</em>).	eng
44020	population	Parent, C., 2003	It is known from only one population at the summit of Fernandina Island (on the crater rim), where a very small range of habitat is suitable for land snails.	eng
44020	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Fernandina is a protected island, with no fire ants or goats currently on it. The biggest threats are future occupation by goats or invasion by alien plant species.	eng
44021	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus perspectivus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana (558 km² and 173 km² respectively).	eng
44021	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44021	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither San Cristóbal nor Floreana Islands have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44021	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction or alteration by human activities and introduced species.	eng
44022	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus planospira</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal and Floreana. Total range area is less than 5,000 km².	eng
44022	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44022	population	Parent, C., 2003	It was not found during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither San Cristóbal nor Floreana Islands have been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44022	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on San Cristóbal and Floreana Islands has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.	eng
44023	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus rabidensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Rabida (4.9 km²). However, the total range is certainly less than 10 km².	eng
44023	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44023	population	Parent, C., 2003	Number and size of subpopulations are unknown.	eng
44023	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The restricted range of the species makes the population suscceptible to stochastic events.	eng
44024	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus rugatinus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristobal and Isabela.	eng
44024	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone.	eng
44024	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, neither of these islands have been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44024	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by human activities (mostly farming) and introduced species.	eng
44025	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus rugulosus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands of San Cristóbal, Floreana and Pinta (558 km², 173 km², and 60 km² respectively). Range area is less than 5,000 km².	eng
44025	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44025	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, San Cristóbal, Floreana and Pinta Islands have not been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44025	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The range of suitable habitat for land snails on San Cristóbal and Floreana Islands has declined because of human activities (farming, road and house construction, etc.) and because of destruction or alteration by introduced species.	eng
44026	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus simrothi</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²).	eng
44026	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44026	population	Parent, C., 2003	It has not been recorded in recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, Isabela Island has not been surveyed extensively, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44026	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.	eng
44027	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus tortuganus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²). It is known only from one population at the top of Darwin Volcano.	eng
44027	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Transition to humid zones. Found under lava rocks.	eng
44027	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and/or alteration and/or fragmentation by feral goats.	eng
44028	conservation	Farjon, A., Phan Ke Loc, Nguyen Tien Hiep & Averyanov, L., 2004	No concerted conservation activities are yet underway.  Forest protection authorities have been notified (Farjon and collaborators, pers. comm. May 2002) and cuttings have been taken by a forestry nursery (Central Forest Seed Company) for propagation (Nguyen Duc to Luu and Thomas 2002).  The area is partly covered by a Provincial Forest Protected Area.	eng
44028	distribution	Farjon, A., Phan Ke Loc, Nguyen Tien Hiep & Averyanov, L., 2004	Current knowledge indicates that it has a very limited range of less than 50 km² in the Bat Dai Son mountains of northern Ha Giang Province on the Chinese border, Viet Nam.  Within this area it is restricted to the ridges and summits. It is scarce or rare in its habitat, scattered (not present on all ridges and summits visited so far).  It does not, as previously thought (see Farjon <em>et al</em>. 2002), occur on the lower slopes or in the valleys as these, where forest is still intact, do not support conifers.	eng
44028	habitat	Farjon, A., Phan Ke Loc, Nguyen Tien Hiep & Averyanov, L., 2004	This small to medium sized tree (10-15 m) grows on the ridges and summits of karst limestone formations (very steep mountains) in elfin forest (cloud forest).  Occurs together with other conifers (the dominant species is <em>Pseudotsuga sinensis</em>) and small-leaved angiosperms, numerous epilithic and epiphytic orchids, ferns, mosses, etc.	eng
44028	threats	Farjon, A., Phan Ke Loc, Nguyen Tien Hiep & Averyanov, L., 2004	Wood cutting is the main threat.  The wood of Cupressaceous conifers, as well as its foliage, is sought after in eastern Asian culture.  The lower slopes are being heavily deforested for the expansion of agriculture, but this is unlikely to reach the ridges.  But firewood cutting and cutting for other purposes (this species produces a fine, yellow-brown very hard, fragrant timber) evidently does occur in some areas.  Due to the lack of transport facilities and other factors, most of the timber has been traded locally.  Estimates of population decline, cannot be made at this stage given our current knowledge.	eng
44030	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	<em>Bulimulus trogonius</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Island of Isabela (4,588 km²). Total range area is less than 5,000 km².	eng
44030	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Specific habitat type is unknown.	eng
44030	population	Parent, C., 2003	It was not recorded during recent collecting on Galápagos Islands. However, Isabela has not been extensively surveyed, therefore it may have been overlooked.	eng
44030	threats	Parent, C., 2003	The most likely threat to the species is habitat alteration and/or destruction by introduced species.	eng
44031	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
44031	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Humid zone, near <em>Scalesia</em> forest.	eng
44031	population	Parent, C., 2003	This species has not been recorded during recent collections on Santa Cruz and it may already be extinct.	eng
44031	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
44032	distribution	Parent, C., 2003	Endemic to the Galápagos Island of Santa Cruz (986 km²). Total area of suitable habitat left is likely to be less than 100 km².	eng
44032	habitat	Parent, C., 2003	Arid zone.	eng
44032	population	Parent, C., 2003	This species has not been recorded during recent collections on Santa Cruz and it may already be extinct.	eng
44032	threats	Parent, C., 2003	Habitat destruction and alteration by human activities and introduced species. The invasive little fire ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em>, occurs on the island (Roque and Causton 1999).	eng
44033	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands, <em>S. vaginatus</em> is widespread and common.	eng
44033	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Inland rock; maritime cliff and slope; dwarf shrub heath; tussac.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.	eng
44033	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Subpopulations of <em>S. vaginatus</em> occur at lower densities wherever grazing is present.	eng
44034	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands, <em>S. littoralis</em> is widespread and common.	eng
44034	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Inland rock; maritime cliff and slope; dwarf shrub heath; tussac.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.	eng
44034	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Subpopulations of <em>S. littoralis</em> occur at lower densities wherever grazing is present.	eng
44035	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Frequent in rocky places in the uplands.  <em>N. serpens</em> occurs as a lowland plant at Big Arch Island, Little Chartres and Narrows Island.  It is possible that the stone runs in these areas represent, at least in part, a retreat habitat, allowing the species to persist in a landscape otherwise subject to high levels of grazing and trampling pressure.	eng
44035	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Inland rock; more rarely scrub (<em>Chiliotrichum</em>) and dwarf shrub heath.  Found at an elevational range of 5-700 m.	eng
44035	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Grazing and trampling pressures are the principal threats to <em>N. serpens</em>.	eng
44036	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  Widspread and common.	eng
44036	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Maritime rock, shingle, cliffs and slopes; inland rock; dwarf shrub heath.  Found at an elevational range of 0-300 m.	eng
44037	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.	eng
44037	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Maritime cliffs and slopes; inland rock; dwarf shrub heath.	eng
44037	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Grazing is the principal threat to <em>L. suaveolens</em>	eng
44038	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>C. lycopodioides</em> is widespread and common whereve suitable habitat exists.	eng
44038	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Dwarf shrub heath; greens and neutral grassland; acid grassland.  Found at an elevational range of 0-305 m.	eng
44039	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>H. argentea</em> is widespread but rare to scarce where it is found.	eng
44039	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Acid grassland; dwarf shrub heath; scrub; maritime cliffs and slopes.	eng
44040	conservation	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	No conservation measures are currently in place.  The action plan objectives for <em>P. moorei</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To try and locate new populations. <br/>3.  To ensure rapid <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
44040	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Moore’s Plantain is an extremely restricted endemic species known only from one site at Empire Beach on West Falkland. The total known world population is restricted to an area 100 x 50 m.	eng
44040	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 0-60 m.	eng
44040	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	No threats are currently known, however, given the restricted extent of the population it is potentially at risk from fire, grazing and habitat degradation.	eng
44041	conservation	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Rock-cress is listed in the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).  Current action plan objectives for <em>Phlebolobium maclovianum</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To promote policies that will allow an increase in range.	eng
44041	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Rock-cress is a widespread but extremely scarce endemic plant. It is currently known from twelve 10 km grid squares but most subpopulations are small and isolated.  Subpopulations occur on some small, ungrazed islands.	eng
44041	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	A plant of dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 4-30 m.	eng
44041	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Grazing seems to be the major cause of the decline in this species and is likely to continue to be a threat.  Most extant subpopulations are restricted to areas free of livestock.	eng
44042	conservation	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	False-plantain is listed in the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).	eng
44042	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	<em>N. falklandicus</em> is restricted to the southern coast of West Falkland. It is currently known from only five 10 km grid squares in two farms.	eng
44042	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	An endemic herb of maritime cliff and slope.	eng
44042	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	No current threats are known.	eng
44043	conservation	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Hairy Daisy is listed on the Conservation of Wildlife and Nature Ordinance (FIG 1999).  The current action plan objective for <em>Erigeron incertus</em> (Broughton 2002) is: To maintain the current distribution of Hairy Daisy and ensure the continued survival of viable populations.	eng
44043	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Endemic to the Falkland Islands.  <em>E. incertus</em> is relatively widespread, however, subpopulations are never large.  Subpopulations occur on some small, ungrazed islands including at least one Falklands Conservation owned island (Motley Island).	eng
44043	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	A herb of dwarf shrub heath.	eng
44043	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	<em>E. incertus</em> may be vulnerable to grazing pressure and habitat degradation.	eng
44044	conservation	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Antarctic Cudweed currently receives no legal protection in the Falkland Islands (FIG 1999).  The current action plan objectives for <em>Gamochaeta antarctica</em> (Broughton 2002) are: <br/>1.  To maintain the current distribution of Antarctic Cudweed and ensure the continued survival of viable populations. <br/>2.  To ensure rapid <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
44044	distribution	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Antarctic Cudweed is endemic to the Falkland Islands. The only confirmed material of this species is the type specimen collected near Berkeley Sound in 1842. More recently R. Brännström reported the species from three 10 km grid squares, one each from Saunders, Pebble and Berkeley Sound.	eng
44044	habitat	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Dwarf shrub heath, found at an elevational range of 0-60 m.	eng
44044	threats	Broughton, D.A. & McAdam, J.H., 2003	Grazing, habitat degradation and habitat modification are likely to be key factors in the species present scarcity.	eng
44045	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	One subpopulation is fenced and attempts are being made to replant the species but the rates of success are very low.	eng
44045	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	One or two small groves remain in dry woodland on steep scree slopes in Oued n'Fiss Valley south of Marrakech in the Atlas Mouintains. Estimates of the area of occupancy have declined from 5,500 ha in 1950 to 1,460 ha in 1986.	eng
44045	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that once flourished in a wetter climate.&#160; Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.	eng
44045	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	The decline is largely due to habitat degradation, overgrazing and to some extent exploitation. Observations during a visit to the site in 1997 indicated a complete absence of natural regeneration.	eng
44046	conservation	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The main concentration is in Tassili N'Ajjer National Park, which has been designated a World Heritage Site.  The species has been successfully established in cultivation.	eng
44046	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	A paper by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) has summarised and updated what is know about this variety in Algeria. Until the mid-1940s, it was thought that there were no more than ten living individuals of this cypress.  However, by 1949 the population was estimated to have 200 living trees.  The counting of the trees has gone on for a number of decades.  Between 1950 and 1965 various expeditions to the area undertook censuses of the living trees, but in most cases this was simply a record of the number of individuals in each wadi.  A methodological survey started in 1965, when 85 individuals were sufficiently described to be recognized again.  Betweem 1971 and 1972, a forester, Säid Grim, counted 230 living trees and numbered each one.  Those numbers are still evident today. An inventory between 1997 and 2001 conducted by Abdoun and Beddiaf (2002) discovered that 20 of the 230 trees counted by Grim had died, while there were 23 new ones added to the tally.  The current population size is therefore 233 living cypresses, in varying states of health.  About ten of the newly listed trees are very young, indicating that recruitment does continue in spite of the current drought. <br/> <br/>The 233 trees are distributed over a strip 12 km long by 6 km (on average) wide, along the southwestern border of the Tassili plateau.	eng
44046	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	The cypresses are presumably the remnants of a forest that flourished in a wetter climate.  Today they occur only in wadis and sheltered areas in the Sahara Desert.	eng
44046	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Regeneration in the wild is evident, but this is very limited. It is believed that the water table has sunk to an extent that regeneration is impeded.  There is evidence that cypresses were found further north in the mid-19th century, and the apparently rapid retreat of some 100 km in their northern limit has been ascribed to intense human exploitation (Abdoun and Beddiaf 2002). <br/> <br/>The total number of cypresses in the Tassili has fallen by almost 8% in 30 years.  The causes of this loss are not easy to identify.  On the majority of the dead trees, there are traces of branches having been chopped off (presumably by shepherds), and some have been burnt to death.  Two trees appear to have succumbed because of the drought.  At wadis frequented by shepherds and tourists, all dead cypress wood is rapidly removed.	eng
44049	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 2000	Usually found on mesic sites such as the margins of lakes, streams, and waterfalls, at elevations above 1,000 m.	eng
44052	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44052	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known only from four subpopulations on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  The total number of individuals has been estimated at 25-30.	eng
44052	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Shrub dominated wetlands.	eng
44052	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, possible rat predation of seeds, competition with alien plant species, possible invertebrate predation and habitat degradation.	eng
44053	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44053	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Originally this species has been recorded from a few scattered locations along the windward side of the Koolau Mountains, Oahu. <em>C. truncata</em> is now thought to be extinct in the wild.	eng
44053	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Subtropical/Tropical moist lowland forest.	eng
44053	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Past threats to <em>C. truncata</em> include pigs, possible rat predation, competition with alien plant species and habitat degradation.	eng
44054	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as a candidate for endangered status.	eng
44054	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyrtandra kaulantha</em> is endemic to the windward side of the Koolau Mountains on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  This species is known from one population of less than 5 individuals.	eng
44054	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include feral pigs, alien plant species and possible threats from fire, rats, drought, invertebrate predation, and human impact.	eng
44055	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as a candidate for endangered status.	eng
44055	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Recorded only from the southern Koolau Mountains, Oahu, Hawaii.  Known from a single population containing five individuals and an estimated area of less than 100 km².	eng
44055	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub 1-3 m tall, found in wet shrublands and forests. Ridgecrests and sides of ridges.  The flowers of <em>C. polyantha</em> are white, and in clusters of 7-12.	eng
44055	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include alien plant species and possible threats from invertebrate predation, pigs, and human impact.	eng
44056	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Known only from the Koolau Mountains on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.  This species was last documented in 1943.	eng
44056	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial A shrub 1-2 m tall, found in wet forests in gulches.  Leaves are covered with shaggy hairs. Flowers are white, and borne 1-2 per inflorescence.	eng
44056	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Feral pigs and invasive alien species.	eng
44057	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44057	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Presently found only on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu; historically found on the island of Maui.  Three subpopulations of <em>G. vitifolia</em> have been recorded with a total population of 43 individuals.	eng
44057	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub or vine of dry to dryish moist forest in gulches.	eng
44057	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Feral pigs and competition with alien plant species threaten <em>G. vitifolia</em>.  Goats and rats may also pose a threat to this species.	eng
44058	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.	eng
44058	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to the Waianae Mountains of Oahu.  Known from one population with a total of four individuals.	eng
44058	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A subshrub of moist forests on ridgecrests and gulch slopes.	eng
44058	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The moist forest habitat where <em>A. ovovatum</em> has been recorded is being invaded by a number of alien plant species. Additional threats include habitat degradation by feral pigs, and fire.	eng
44059	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>A. eremitopetalum</em> is federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44059	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Confined to a single site on the windward side of the island of Lanai.  Known from one subpopulation containing 100 mature individuals.  The extent of occurrence is less than 10 km².	eng
44059	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub of dry forests and shrublands in gulches.	eng
44059	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Introduced deer, moufflon sheep, and invasive alien plants constitute the main threats.  Overgrazing by cattle was also a problem in the past.  Dry habitats in Hawaii have reduced by 90% from their original distribution and continue to decline dramatically.	eng
44060	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44060	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>A. menziessi</em> is known from  10 subpopulations on the islands of Hawaii, Molokai, Lanai and Oahu, with a total population size of 450-500 individuals.	eng
44060	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub of dry shrublands, including ones that are now dominated by alien plant species. Gulches, plateau lands, and old lava flows.	eng
44060	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>A. menziessi</em> include grazing from goats, deer and cattle, competition with alien plant species, invertebrate predation, and possibly fire.  <em>A. menziesii</em> is also available in the landscape trade.	eng
44061	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44061	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Found in a  restricted range of dry slopes of Waianae Mts., Oahu, <em>A. sandwicense</em> is known from 12 subpopulations, totaling 200–300 individuals.	eng
44061	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub up to 6 m. tall, found on steep slopes in dry forest.	eng
44061	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include grazing from goats and cattle, habitat degradation by feral pigs, competition from aggressive alien plant species, invertebrate predation, and fire.  Population fluctuations are also a current threat to this species as well as the potential threat of landslides.	eng
44062	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Propagation was attempted at the National Tropical Botanical Garden but was unsuccessful (M. Chapin, pers. comm. 1998).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44062	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Historically, it was found on Kauai, but currently known to occur only on Oahu.	eng
44062	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A clumped clubmoss found growing on the ground or on tree trunks and limbs. Occurs in wet forests and shrublands on ridgecrests, gulch slopes, and gulch bottoms.  Found within an elevational range of 600–1,070 m.	eng
44062	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The most important threats to the species and its habitat are feral pigs and alien plants (NatureServe 2003). The habitat is also subject to human impacts and there is a possible threat from fire.	eng
44063	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The Army has adopted a fire management plan that includes realigning targets and establishing firebreaks.  These actions may aid in protecting this species from the threat of fire. The completion of a boundary fence on the south and southeast perimeter of Makua Valley, along with continued goat control efforts, should help to protect this species from goat damage.  This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden , the Waimea Arboretum, at DOFAW's mid-elevation Nike facility at Pahole (B. Garnett, G. Koob, D. Orr, and S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44063	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Phyllostegia kaalaensis</em> is endemic to Hawaii. Historically the species was found on Kauai. Currently, it is found only on the island of Oahu. There are less than 50 surviving individuals currently known.	eng
44063	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial herb with white flowers. Occurs in moist forests on gulch slopes and in gulch bottoms.	eng
44063	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, introduced alien plant species. There is also a possible threat from fire.	eng
44064	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Lyon Arboretum.  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44064	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Phyllostegia mollis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is found only on the island of Oahu. Current population size is less than 40.	eng
44064	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial herb with white flowers. Occurs in gulches and on steep slopes in diverse mesic to wet forest, found at an elevational range of 450–1,830 m.	eng
44064	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include habitat destruction and degradation by feral pigs, and competition from introduced alien plant species (Christmas berry).	eng
44065	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44065	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Schiedea adamantis</em> is endemic to Hawaii. The species is found only on found on the island of Oahu.	eng
44065	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub. Small flowers are borne in terminal clusters. Occurs on an old volcanic cone of consolidated ash which is now dominated by alien shrubs.	eng
44065	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to this species include competition with alien plants, fire and human disturbance.	eng
44067	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being successfully propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden,  the Lyon Arboretum, and the Waimea Arboretum (S. Smith, G. Koob and D. Orr, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44067	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Schiedea kaalae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs only on the island of Oahu.	eng
44067	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial with a woody base. Occurs in diverse mesic forest to perhaps wet forest on steep slopes in shaded sites, at an elevational range of 210 - 790 m.  Gulch slopes, gulch bottoms and cliffs.	eng
44067	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include fire, competition from alien plant species (Christmas berry, Maui pamakani, huehue haole, Koster's curse, mosasses grass, and firetree), habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats, and predation by introduced slugs and snails.	eng
44068	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The Lyon Arboretum's efforts at propagating this species have been unsuccessful (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).  Listed as endangered species by state and federal authorities.	eng
44068	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Labordia cyrtandrae</em> is endemic to hawaii. It occurs only on the island of Oahu.	eng
44068	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub growing to 0.7-1.5 m tall. Flowers are greenish yellow or pale yellow. Occurs in moist to wet forests on gulch slopes and gulch bottoms, at altitudes between 730 - 780 m.	eng
44068	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include habitat degradation by feral pigs, predation by rats and competition from alien plant species (Christmas berry, Koster's curse, prickly Florida blackberry, and strawberry guava). Fire, naturally-occurring events and human impacts are also possible threats to the species.	eng
44069	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Lobelia monostachya</em> is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum (G. Koob, pers. comm. 1997).  Federally and state-listed as an endangered species.	eng
44069	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Lobelia monostachya</em> is endemic to Hawaii. It is found only on island of Oahu.	eng
44069	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub. Occurs on dry to moist cliffs and steep slopes with native grasses and shrubs.	eng
44069	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include rats, introduced alien plant species and landslides, with a possible threat from invertebrates.	eng
44070	conservation	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	<strong>Protection Status in Australia</strong> <br/>- Protected Species in Commonwealth waters under the EPBC Act, 1999: East Coast Subpopulation - Critically Endangered (2002). <br/>- Listed as a Vulnerable Species in NSW waters under the Fisheries Management Act, 1994 (since 1999)· <br/>- Listed as a Vulnerable Species in Victorian waters under the Fisheries Act 1995· <br/>- Protected Species in NSW waters under the Fisheries Management Act, 1994 (since November 1984)· <br/>- Protected Species in Tasmanian waters under the Fisheries Regulations, 1996 (since 1998)· <br/>- Protected Species in Queensland waters under the Fisheries Act, 1994 (Fisheries Regulation 1995) (since 1997). <br/> <br/><strong>Recovery Plans</strong> <br/>- A National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia was adopted for implementation by the Minister for Environment and Heritage June 2002. <br/>- A draft Recovery Plan for Grey Nurse Shark has been developed for New South Wales. <br/> <br/><strong>Proposed Conservation Measures</strong> <br/>Conservation measures can been found in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/publications/grey-nurse-plan/pubs/greynurseshark.pdf">National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a> (Environment Australia 2002). The overall conservation objective is to increase Grey Nurse Shark numbers in Australian waters to a level that will see the species removed from the IUCN Red List. <br/> <br/><strong>Other conservation measures</strong> <br/>Management measures have been developed for the critical habitat site identified at Pimpernel Rock in northern NSW.  Details on management arrangements can be referred to in the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (Commonwealth Waters) Management Plan Environment Australia, 2001 and the zoning plan for the Solitary Islands Marine Park - Marine Parks Authority, NSW, adopted 1 August 2002 (see <a href="http://www.mpa.nsw.gov.au/simp.html">Marine Parks Authority, New South Wales</a>).	eng
44070	distribution	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Because <em>Carcharias taurus</em> is extremely rare in the Northern Territory and South Australia, there is likely to be almost no genetic exchange between sharks on the east and west coasts and, for the purposes of this assessment, the Australian subpopulation is considered to consist of two subpopulations: the New South Wales (east coast) subpopulation, and the Western Australia (west coast) subpopulation. Information for the New South Wales subpopulation follows: <br/> <br/>The grey nurse shark is a migratory species that is known to move north and south between particular sites along the east coast of Australia. When not migrating, these sharks aggregate in or near deep sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths between 15 and 40 metres (Otway and Parker 2000). Depending on the time of year, both mature and juvenile grey nurse sharks may be found at aggregation sites in southern Queensland and New South Wales. The results of diver surveys concluded that grey nurse sharks were no longer found at many of the sites that they were known to previously use.	eng
44070	habitat	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and sub-tropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). In NSW and southern Queensland, <em>C. taurus</em> is most frequently sighted in or near sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves, often around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths of between 15 and 25 m (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 1996, Otway and Parker 1999). <br/> <br/>Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year. As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Maximum size attained is 220 to 270 cm total length (TL) (males) and 300 to 320 cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 6 to 7 years (males) and 9 to 10 years (females). Female k = 0.11, Male k = 0.16 (Goldman 2002).	eng
44070	population	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	The east coast subpopulation has been estimated to possibly consist of as few as 500 individuals (Otway and Parker 2000) and there are concerns that this subpopulation has fallen to such critically low numbers that individual animals may be failing to find mates.	eng
44070	threats	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Currently the main threatening processes in Australian waters would appear to be commercial and recreational fishing (including shark control programs in NSW and QLD), in which this species is taken as a bycatch. It has also been suggested that excessive dive tourism activities (i.e., 'shark diving') may also have the potential to adversely impact upon populations of the grey nurse shark. Refer to the <a href="http://www.ea.gov.au/coasts/species/sharks/greynurse/plan/index.html">Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a>  (Environment Australia 2002) for a fuller description of threats facing grey nurse sharks in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>Grey nurse sharks are no longer found in significant numbers at several sites on the East Coast of NSW where they used to be dominant during the 1950s and 1960s. These sites include Brush Island, Jervis Bay and Long Reef, where in the past (1950/60s) aggregations of 40 plus could be observed. However, a recent NSW Fisheries study found that they no longer aggregate at such locations. Numbers of grey nurse sharks in NSW were found to be unexpectedly low, probably numbering less than 500 and possibly as low as 300. There is concern that the east coast subpopulation is suffering from depensation having fallen to such critically low numbers that individual animals may now be failing to find mates. <br/> <br/>During the early 1950s up to 36 grey nurse sharks per year were captured by shark control nets in NSW. However, by the 1980s this number had decreased to three or less per year, and over the last decade (up to 2000) only three grey nurse sharks were caught. The declining catch rate has continued despite increased meshing effort over this period as more beaches were included in the beach protection program. A similar trend was observed in data from the Queensland beach protection program, where grey nurse shark captures decreased from an average of nine sharks per year between 1962 and 1972, to slightly over two sharks per year (Reid and Krogh 1992). <br/> <br/>Although grey nurse sharks have been protected in NSW since 1984, they are still subject to incidental capture by commercial and recreational fishers, and in the ongoing protective beach meshing programs. In particular, vessels targeting wobbegong sharks (<em>Orectolobus</em> spp.) in the NSW Trap and Line Fishery have a significant bycatch of this species (Fletcher and McVea 2000). In the 1998-2001 NSW diver survey, between 5% and 7% of observed grey nurse sharks had wobbegong setline and other line fishing hooks embedded in their jaws (Otway and Parker 2000). There also appears to be little or no recruitment at sites where populations have become locally extinct (D. Pollard and I. Gordon, pers. comms 2003). <br/> <br/>Illegal finning, eco-tourism and trade for aquarium displays may pose additional threats to the recovery of grey nurse sharks in NSW and southern Queensland.	eng
44071	conservation	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	<strong>Protection Status in Australia</strong> <br/>- Protected Species in Commonwealth waters under the EPBC Act, 1999: West Coast Population - Vulnerable (since 1997). <br/>- Protected Species in Western Australian waters under the Wildlife Conservation Act, 1950 (since December 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Recovery Plans</strong>:  <br/>- A National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia was adopted for implementation by the Minister for Environment and Heritage June 2002. <br/> <br/><strong>Proposed Conservation Measures</strong> <br/>Conservation measures can been found in the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/publications/grey-nurse-plan/pubs/greynurseshark.pdf">National Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a> (Environment Australia 2002). The overall conservation objective is to increase Grey Nurse Shark numbers in Australian waters to a level that will see the species removed from the IUCN Red List.	eng
44071	distribution	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Because <em>Carcharias taurus</em> is extremely rare in the Northern Territory and South Australia, there is likely to be almost no genetic exchange between sharks on the east and west coasts and, for the purposes of this assessment, the Australian subpopulation is considered to consist of two subpopulations: the New South Wales (east coast) subpopulation, and the Western Australia (west coast) subpopulation. Information for the Western Australia subpopulation follows: <br/> <br/>Despite a relatively large and active recreational diving industry in Western Australia (WA), no aggregation sites have been confirmed on the west coast, however, one site has been reported to exist off Perth. WA Department of Fisheries research data suggest that grey nurse sharks are more dispersed throughout temperate continental shelf waters than they are in eastern Australian waters.	eng
44071	habitat	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and sub-tropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). In NSW and southern Queensland, <em>C. taurus</em> is most frequently sighted in or near sandy-bottomed gutters or in rocky caves, often around inshore rocky reefs and islands at depths of between 15 and 25 m (Pollard <em>et al</em>. 1996; Otway and Parker 1999). <br/> <br/>Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year. As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Maximum size attained is 220 to 270 cm total length (TL) (males) and 300 to 320 cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 6 to 7 years (males) and 9 to 10 years (females). Female k = 0.11, Male k = 0.16 (Goldman 2002).	eng
44071	population	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Whilst a population estimate is not available for the west coast subpopulation, mean annual catches of 77 sharks in the WA demersal gillnet fisheries, in conjunction with a stable CPUE trend indicate that the population is larger and more stable than the eastern subpopulation.	eng
44071	threats	Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Williams, S., Flaherty, A. & McAuley, R., 2003	Currently the main threatening processes in Australian waters would appear to be commercial and recreational fishing (including shark control programs in NSW and QLD), in which this species is taken as a bycatch. It has also been suggested that excessive dive tourism activities (i.e., 'shark diving') may also have the potential to adversely impact upon populations of the grey nurse shark. Refer to the <a href="http://www.ea.gov.au/coasts/species/sharks/greynurse/plan/index.html">Recovery Plan for the Grey Nurse Shark (<em>Carcharias taurus</em>) in Australia</a>  (Environment Australia, 2002) for a fuller description of threats facing grey nurse sharks in Australian waters. <br/> <br/>Unlike NSW and Queensland, grey nurse sharks have never been subjected to targeted fishing in WA. The only significant source of <em>C. taurus</em> mortality on the west coast has been from incidental capture by the demersal gillnet fishery that operates between Steep Point and the South Australia border. Relatively high quality grey nurse shark catch and catch rate data are available from this fishery. These data have been independently verified by estimating the fishery’s total catch from the CPUE recorded by scientific observers (McAuley and Simpfendorfer, draft report). However, these data are only available for the period July 1989 to December 1997, when the species was protected under the Endangered Species Protection Act and commercial reporting ceased. These data cover the eight year period immediately after the historical peak in demersal gillnet fishing effort and the period during which direct management adjustment reduced effort to 42% of its maximum level.  <br/> <br/>Catches of between 70-105 sharks per year (McAuley, unpublished data) indicate that grey nurse sharks were relatively abundant on the lower west coast of WA between 1989 and 1997 and CPUE of grey nurse sharks in the demersal gillnet fishery increased between 1989-1993 and then remained level until 1997, indicating that the population was stable.  <br/> <br/>WA Department of Fisheries (WA DOF) research records do not suggest that aggregation sites occur within the functional area of the WA demersal gillnet fishery. If such sites do occur within the fishery’s geographic boundaries, they are likely to be in areas of heavy reef, where gillnet vessels do not operate due to the risk of net entanglement. Additionally, there are several records of grey nurse shark occurrence in two significant regions outside of the fishery’s operational range, between Steep Point (26º 30’ S) and NW Cape (22º S), which has been closed to shark fishing since 1993 and, in deeper coastal waters (>100 m), where demersal gillnet vessels cannot operate due to their generally small size and the amount of expected damage to gear and catch caused by currents and predation. Both areas are likely to contain large amounts of suitable unfished habitat and are thought to offer significant refugia to this species in WA. However, there is also some concern regarding anecdotal reports that grey nurse sharks were more abundant in the 1960s and 1970s and that there may have been inshore aggregation sites that are no longer in existence. <br/> <br/>Due to the limited reproductive capacity of <em>C. taurus</em>, the precarious status of the eastern subpopulation and the loss of an established index of abundance (commercial catch records), it is recognised that the western subpopulation still has the potential to become Vulnerable in the future. Therefore, developing a means to monitor the abundance of grey nurse sharks in Western Australia and further research into their ecology are necessary. Archival tagging of grey nurse sharks to provide data on distribution and migratory behaviour in Western Australia is expected to be undertaken in the next 12 months. <br/> <br/>This species may well be reassessed over the coming year, as well as undergoing routine reassessments in the future.	eng
44073	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to the island of Kauai.  Four subpopulations are known with a total number of 50 to 100 plants.  It has been estimated that there are fewer than 50 mature individuals.	eng
44073	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub of wet forests on ridges and on plateau lands.	eng
44073	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to <em>Alsinidendron lychnoides</em> are competition from the aggressive alien plant species <em>Rubus argutus</em> (prickly Florida blackberry), habitat degradation by feral pigs, and trampling by humans.  This plant is also threatened by potential landslides or hurricanes.	eng
44074	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Previously recorded on the islands of Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Laysan.  The last known individual was seen in 1964.  Treated by Govaerts in the <em>World Checklist of Seed Plants</em> 1(1): 6 (1995) as a variety of <em>Achyranthes splendens</em>.	eng
44074	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial shrub of dry shrublands on calcareous sand, atolls, and on emerged atolls.	eng
44074	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The decline of the species has been attributed to military development, as well as the introduction of alien plants and animals.	eng
44075	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.  Conservation measures such as re-introductions, captive breeding/artificial propagation and the placement of seed into the genome resource bank are all currently taking place.  One of the remaining wild subpopulations is monitored and augmented by private landowners.	eng
44075	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Prior to its rediscovery in 1992, this species was known from only two collections from the 1700s and 1800s. One of the collections is from Kauai, and the other from the island of Hawaii. The population is now known only from the Kohala Mountains on the island of Hawaii and is comprised of three subpopulations, totalling 120 to 150 individuals.	eng
44075	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A many branched perennial shrub of dry forests in gulches.	eng
44075	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Major threats to this species include goats, cattle, competition from alien plant species, and fire.	eng
44076	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Recorded on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai.  Rare everywhere except Kauai, but number of subpopulations and mature individuals unknown.  The extent of occurrence is known to be less than 20'000 km².	eng
44076	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A native Hawaiian tree found in dry to mesic forests on all the main islands, except Niihau and Kahoolawe.	eng
44076	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, deer, competition with alien plant species, seed predation by rats, and potentially fire.	eng
44077	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.  Occurs within U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge.	eng
44077	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Only found on island of Nihoa, the population of <em>A. brownii</em> consists of 40 mature individuals.	eng
44077	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	An annual herb of dry shrublands on rocky outcrops.	eng
44077	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species may have experienced some decline due to disturbances resulting from Polynesian settlement of the island. Current threats include invasive alien weeds and landslides. The dry vegetation of Nihoa is also susceptible to accidentally set fires.	eng
44078	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Found only on island of Maui, East Maui, Haleakala Crater.  <em>A. virescens</em> was last collected in 1945.  No pure individuals of the species are known to exist and the last known individuals of hybrid origin, died in 1996.	eng
44078	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A single-stemmed or branched rosette shrub of moist to wet subalpine forests and shrublands.	eng
44078	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The decline of <em>A. virescens</em> can be attributed to the heavy impact of introduced goats, pigs and cattle on the native vegetation of Haleakala in the past.	eng
44079	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	All remaining individuals are within small fenced, weeded, and monitored areas.	eng
44079	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Found only within the Alakai Swamp area of Kauai.  Three subpopulations are known, with a total population of probably less than 10 mature individuals.  clones but all but one or two declining rapidly in vigor.	eng
44079	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A rhizomatous perennial herb of montane bogs set within wet forests in the cloud zone on the central plateau of the island.	eng
44079	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	In recent years most of the bogs have been heavily damaged by feral pigs. Alien weeds also pose a threat.	eng
44080	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Found only on island of Kauai and historically also on island of Niihau.  Two subpopulations have been recorded,  with a total of  seven mature individuals.	eng
44080	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A succulent unbranched shrub of sea cliffs and coastal bluffs.	eng
44080	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Major threats to surviving individuals include goats, introduced plants, landslides, fire, human impacts, invertebrates and  loss of pollinators.  Widely distributed in botanical gardens throughout the world.	eng
44081	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Brighamia rockii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on the Island of Molokai and historically on Maui and Lanai.	eng
44081	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A 1-5 m tall succulent with an unbranched, stout, fleshy stem thickened toward the base. Tubular flowers are white and fragrant. Usually found on ledges on exposed steep moist coastal cliffs, with native grasses, shrubs and trees.	eng
44081	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include deer, goats, introduced plants and, potentially, rats.	eng
44082	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Protected in the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act  of 1989. Also found in the Rustenberg Nature Reserve.	eng
44082	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This tiny stemless succulent, has a very large population size estimated to be between 200,000 and 400,000 mature individuals (best estimate of 288,000).  Although a very large population, it has a very restricted range in the Gauteng and North West provinces of South Africa, being confined to the Magaliesberg mountain range west of Hartebeestpoort Dam.  The extent of occurrence is <600 km², but the area of occupancy, because of the very specific habitat requirements, is <5 km². The population appears to be stable at present.	eng
44082	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Plants grow in patches of coarse quartzitic soils surrounded by typical grassland vegetation.	eng
44082	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Collected from the wild by collectors, however, this is assumed not to have had a major impact on the species.  Collection seems to have been limited to a small group of specialist collectors and the species is easy to cultivate.  International trade in the species appears to be limited and it is therefore not considered a priority species for conservation action (Newton and Chan 1998).	eng
44083	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	One subpopulation occurs within the Magaliesberg Protected Natural Environment, declared in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act 1989, Section 16.	eng
44083	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	This recently described species is apparently restricted to the Gauteng Province of South Africa, occurring only on the Magaliesberg and associated ridge systems near Pretoria.	eng
44083	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Grows among rocks of Magaliesberg quartzite in grassland in transition to Sour Grass Veld, on south facing slopes.	eng
44083	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Threatened by collectors, trampling, disease, habitat loss and fragmentation, urbanization and development of urban infrastructure, alien vegetation, frequent fires and erosion.	eng
44085	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Occurs in the Alice Glockner Nature Reserve, south of Heidelberg (a butterfly reserve of 160 ha).	eng
44085	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Only two subpopulations of this rare succulent are known, one near Vereeniging and another near Heidelberg, Gauteng, South Africa. These are two widely separated locations.  Has an extent of occurrence of <60 km² and an area of occupancy of <1 km².  The presence of the species at one of the locations is not confirmed and as a result the distribution range is not considered severely fragmented.	eng
44085	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	A perennial succulent that grows in loose gravel in open places near trees. Often in disturbed areas.	eng
44085	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Threatened mainly by habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization and agriculture.  A low cost housing development is proposed on the border of a nature reserve in which one of the subpopulations of <em>D. macellum</em> has been found; with this, the expected harvesting of trees for fuelwood (the low cost township will not be provided with electricity) will threaten the habitat of this species.  Also threatened by alien vegetation and potentially by collectors.	eng
44088	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	From the vague description of a herbarium specimen (5 miles on Brits road from Brits-Krugersdorp-Pretoria turnoff) the taxon may occur within the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site.  The taxon may also occur in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve ("Waterval Reserve").	eng
44088	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	A procumbent suffrutex apparently endemic to Gauteng, South Africa.	eng
44088	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Grows in open grassland.	eng
44088	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	The Waterval locality is threatened by urbanization (expansion of Krugersdorp) and the Hennops River subpopulation may be threatened by a proposed tourism development on a neighbouring site.	eng
44089	conservation	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Conserved in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve.  Also occurs in the North Eastern Gauteng Initiative (NEGI area) - a conservancy area (Dinokeng conservancy) containing a core nature reserve and surrounding land managed for conservation purposes by landowners.	eng
44089	distribution	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Most localities recorded for this species are in the Gauteng Province of South Africa.  Also recorded in Mpumalanga and Free State provinces.  Recorded from 15 subpopulations in seven locations. <br/> <br/>The sizes of two subpopulations have been recorded in the field.  One at Willow Glen was recorded as 80-100 individuals.  This locality is threatened and in an urbanized area.  So where other localities were characterized by a similar situation, a subpopulation size was estimated as the same as this.  Similarly, a subpopulation at Palmietfontein (semi-urban) was recorded at 500-1,000 individuals. <br/> <br/>Decline in the following subpopulations is expected:  Klipriviersberg, Modderfontein, Natal spruit, Esther Park and Palmietfontein.  With extinction in the following subpopulations expected:  Baviaanskloof, Birchleigh, Willow Glen and Marais Steyn Park.	eng
44089	habitat	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Occurs in black turf marshes.	eng
44089	threats	Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J., 2003	Threatened by habitat transformation and fragmentation through urbanization, agriculture and invasive plant species.	eng
44091	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44091	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This is the showiest of the three species of orchids endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.  The species is sometimes divided into two or three separate species.  Occurs on the islands of Hawai'i, Maui, Moloka'i, Lana'i,  O'ahu and Kaua'i.  There are reported to be healthy occurrences on West Maui.	eng
44091	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	May be removed from the wild by collectors, but the Orchid Specialist Group argue that this is not a major threat to this species (P. Cribb pers. comm.).  The main threats are the impacts of invasive species, and particularly herbivory by snails.	eng
44092	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44092	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea crispa</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs in the Koolau Mts. on Oahu.	eng
44092	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Habitats range from steep, open mesic forests to gentle slopes or moist gullies in closed wet forest.	eng
44092	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, rats, weeds, landslides and possibly invertebrates.  Reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of remaining individuals, their limited gene pool, and restricted distribution is also a threat to this species.	eng
44093	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea cylindrocalyx</em> historically occurred on the island of Hawaii.	eng
44094	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea dolichopoda</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Kauai.	eng
44094	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Shrub. The type specimen was growing on a cliff in a very high rainfall area.	eng
44095	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44095	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea dunbariae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs on the island of Molokai.	eng
44095	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A branched shrub. Moist and wet forests. Gulch slopes and gulch bottoms.	eng
44095	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include weeds, floods and invertebrates. Possibly also pigs, deer and rats.	eng
44096	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federal candidate for listing as endangered.	eng
44096	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea eleeleensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kauai.	eng
44096	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub occurring in wet forest.	eng
44096	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, weeds, landslides, invertebrates and possibly rats.	eng
44097	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federal candidate for listing as endangered.	eng
44097	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea gibsonii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on the island of Lanai.	eng
44097	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include deer, weeds, rats and invertebrates.	eng
44098	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44098	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea glabra</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on east and west Maui.	eng
44098	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Branched shrub, of unknown height. Occurs in wet forests on gulch slopes.	eng
44098	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, weeds, landslides, invertebrates and possibly rats.	eng
44100	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44100	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea asarifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs at Blue Hole on Kauai.	eng
44100	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Wet shrubland on steep slopes.	eng
44100	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include landslides, invertebrates, humans, possibly pigs, weeds and rats.	eng
44101	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea comata</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Maui.	eng
44101	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, 1.6-2.6 m tall. Specific habitat is unknown, but probably was moist forests.	eng
44102	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44102	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia peleana</em> ssp. <em>peleana</em> historically occurred on the island of Hawaii. The wild population is now extinct and there is only one known individual left in cultivation.	eng
44102	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Wet forest.	eng
44102	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Past threats to the subspecies include pigs, rats, trees falling down with epiphytic plants in them, humans and, potentially, invertebrates.	eng
44103	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44103	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia peleana</em> ssp. <em>singuliflora</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It was last recorded in 1900.	eng
44103	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Wet forest.	eng
44104	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being propagated at the Lyon Arboretum and seeds are in storage at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (G. Koob and S. Smith, pers. comms. 1997).  Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44104	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea acuminata</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu.	eng
44104	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub 0.3-2 m tall occurring in wet forests in gulch bottoms, on gulch slopes and on ridgecrests.	eng
44104	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species and its habitats are threatened by feral pigs and alien plant species. Predation from rats and slugs as well as impacts from human activities are also possible threats to this species.	eng
44105	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44105	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea asplenifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.	eng
44105	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, 1.3-2 m tall, occurring in moist to wet forests on gulch slopes.	eng
44105	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, goats, deer, cattle and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are other possible threats to the species.	eng
44106	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44106	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea calycina</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Oahu.	eng
44106	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub occurring in mesic to wet forest.	eng
44106	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, goats, human impacts and invasive plant species. Rats and invertebrates are also possible threats to the species.	eng
44107	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea fauriei</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44108	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea habenata</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is restricted to the island of Kauai.	eng
44108	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, 2.4 m tall. The type specimen was collected in wet forest along a stream.	eng
44109	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44109	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea pinnatifida</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Oahu.	eng
44109	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Occurred in diverse mesic forest. Steep, shady ravines and wet rocky slopes, with <em>Pipturus</em> and ferns.	eng
44109	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to the species included habitat degradation from feral pigs, impacts from human activities and invasive plant species. Rats, fire and invertebrates were other possible threats.	eng
44110	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44110	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Narrowly endemic to two adjacent peaks in the northern Waianae Mountains of Oahu.  <em>A. trinerve</em> has been recorded from three subpopulations, with a combined population size of 63 plants.  Less than fifty mature individuals exist within the current population.	eng
44110	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A subshrub found on slopes in wet forests or the wetter portions of diverse mesic forest, 900 to 1,230 meters.	eng
44110	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>A. trinerve</em> include, invasion of habitat by the Florida prickly blackberry, habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs.  Trampling and collecting of <em>A. trinerve</em> by humans may also contribute to the decline of the population.	eng
44111	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44111	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to the island of Kauai.  <em>A. viscosum</em> is known from four fragmented subpopulations with a total population of 100 plants.	eng
44111	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub of moist and wet forests on gulch slopes.	eng
44111	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>A. viscosum</em> include habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats, and alien invasive plants.	eng
44112	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Argyroxiphium caliginis</em> is endemic to West Maui.  Known from two subpopulations.  The total population has a restricted area of occupancy and less than 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
44112	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A woody subshrub of montane bogs at elevations ranging from 1,350 to 1,650 m.	eng
44112	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Invasive alien plants and human disturbance are the major threats to <em>Argyroxiphium caliginis</em>.	eng
44113	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  All known populations have been fenced to protect the plants from feral ungulates.	eng
44113	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to the southeastern and eastern flanks of Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.  It is known to survive only in three areas. The total population is estimated to be less than 500 individuals.	eng
44113	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, found primarily in bogs or openings in wet forests at elevations ranging from about 1,625 to 1,900 m.	eng
44113	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>A. kauense</em> include grazing from mouflon sheep, cattle and goats, and habitat degradation by feral pigs, invasive alien plants and fire.	eng
44114	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44114	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>B. amplectens</em> is known from a single population on the northern end of the Waianae Mountain, Oahu.  The population contains less than 1,000 mature individuals and has a very restricted area of occupancy.	eng
44114	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived perennial or sometimes facultatively annual of dry shrublands and forests on cliffs and steep rocky slopes.	eng
44114	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Aggressive alien plants and fire are the main threats to <em>B. amplectens</em>	eng
44115	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44115	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>B. conjuncta</em> is endemic to the island of Maui in the state of Hawaii. It has been found only on the island's western mountain mass, the West Maui Mountains.  Known from six subpopulations, with a total population of around 2,500 individual plants.	eng
44115	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial herb of wet forests and bogs. On ridges and in gulches.	eng
44115	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is threatened from habitat degradation by feral pigs and invasive alien plants.	eng
44116	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Recorded from the Mohihi Trail, Kauai.  <em>Bidens cosmoides</em> has had an estimated decline of 50% over the last three generations.	eng
44116	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to this species include lack of pollinator, invasive alien plants, grazing from goats, habitat degradation by feral pigs, and fire.	eng
44117	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>B.molokaiensis</em> is a relatively common plant on Molokai, known from many subpopulations with a total of several thousand individual plants.  However, <em>B.molokaiensis</em> has a restricted area of occupancy.	eng
44117	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial herb of dry to moist shrublands on exposed cliffs near the coast.	eng
44117	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>B. molokaiensis</em> is threatened by grazing goat and deer, invasive alien plants, and fire.	eng
44118	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bidens populifolia</em> is endemic to the Koolau mountains, Oahu.   Known from four to five subpopulations with a total population size of over five thousand individuals.  <em>B. populifolia</em> has a restricted area of occupancy.	eng
44118	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A subshrub or herb of moist shrublands and forests on exposed windswept ridges and cliffs.	eng
44118	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bidens populifolia</em> is threatened by invasive alien plants and feral pigs.	eng
44119	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44119	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bidens wiebkei</em> is endemic to Molokai.  Five subpopulations have been recorded with a total population of over 100 individuals.	eng
44119	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial herb of moist shrublands and forests in gulches and on ridges.	eng
44119	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to this species include habitat degradation and possible predation by deer and feral goats, competition with alien plants, and fire.	eng
44120	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44120	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to East Molokai.  <em>Canavalia molokaiensis</em> has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km² and known from four severely fragmented subpopulations.	eng
44120	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A twining perennial vine of moist shrublands and forests. On gulch slopes and in gulch bottoms.	eng
44120	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Extensive habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats pose an immediate threat to the sites where the species occurs. Competition with alien plants (molasses grass) and possible predation by pigs and goats pose additional threats.	eng
44121	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44121	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Canavalia napaliensis</em> is endemic to the northwestern portion of the island of Kauai in the state of Hawaii.  Known from three severely fragmented subpopulations, with a total population of several hundred individuals.	eng
44121	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A twining perennial vine of dry and moist shrublands and forests in gulches, on ridges, and on gently sloped valley bottoms.	eng
44121	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The primary threats to the species include grazing by goats and competition from various aggressive alien plant species.	eng
44122	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44122	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Canavalia pubescens</em> is endemic to the state of Hawaii on the islands of Niihau, Kauai, East Maui, and Lanai.   Over 10 severely fragmented subpopulations have been recorded across these islands, with a total population of less than 200 individuals.  No subpopulation contains more than fifty mature individuals.	eng
44122	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A twining vine of Dry grasslands, shrublands, and forests. Often at the coast or a short distance inland. Often on rocky lands. On East Maui: often on old lava flows.	eng
44122	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>Canavalia pubescens</em> include grazing from goats, deer, and aggressive alien plants.	eng
44123	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as a Candidate species with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.	eng
44123	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Capparis sandwichiana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.  There are many occurrences still surviving on the islands of Kaua`i, Kaho`olawe, O`ahu, Ni`ihau, Moloka`i, Maui, Lana`i, and Hawai`i.  Also found on the Northwestern Hawaiian islands of Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Laysan.  The total number of plants remaining is still in the thousands, however, a decline in the total population of at least 10% has been estimated over the last ten years.	eng
44123	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub of dry regions, most often in coastal areas, less frequently inland. Growing on cliffs, lava flows, emerged coral reefs and in rocky gulches.	eng
44123	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>C. sandwichiana</em> include poor regeneration, grazing by goats, invasive alien plants, fire, urban sprawl and coastal development.	eng
44124	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Endemic to Kohala Mountains, island of Hawaii.  <em>C. calophylla</em> is known from 10–12 subpopulations, with a total population of less than 1,000 individuals.  Each subpopulation contains less than two hundred and fifty mature individuals.	eng
44124	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, growing on the ground in wet forests.	eng
44124	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to <em>C. calophylla</em> include habitat degradation by feral pigs and possibly predation by rats and invertebrates.	eng
44125	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia waimeae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
44125	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species grows on the ground or on other trees in wet forests and bogs.	eng
44125	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include feral pigs and invasive plant species. Predation from rats and invertebrates are also possible threats.	eng
44126	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia multiflora</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Maui and O`ahu.	eng
44126	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub 2-4 m tall. It was probably found in wet forests.	eng
44127	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>hanaleiensis</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurred on Kaua`i.	eng
44128	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is one of four included in a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1998) recovery plan.  Plants are currently found on lands owned or managed by the Federal government, where Federal law protects all plants from damage or removal: Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park and U.S. Army installations.  The Army is aware of the ferns presence and location, and preliminary draft management plans have been developed.  The Army is also consulting with the U.S.F.W.S and negotiations are underway to control threats and promote recovery of endangered species.  Recovery actions recommended include the removal of feral animals, minimizing the impact of military training activities, monitoring known populations, controlling fires and alien weeds, building enclosures around some of the most intact portions of native forest in conjunction with hunting on Lana`i.  Surveys to locate and map additional subpopulations are also important to the recovery.	eng
44128	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The subpopulations of this fern that have been observed within the last 20 years are in the Waianae Mountains of O`ahu, Lana`i, East and West Maui, and Moloka`i.	eng
44128	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Ctenitis squamigera</em> is typically found in the understorey of lowland mesic forests (380–915 m).	eng
44128	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species and it's habitat is threatened by the following: habitat degradation by feral animals (goats, pigs and Axis Deer); competition for space, light, water, and nutrients from alien plants; and fire. In addition, this species is subject to an increased likelihood of extinction and reduced reproductive vigor from random naturally occurring (stochastic) events due to the small number of remaining individuals and it's very narrow distribution.	eng
44129	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44129	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bonamia menziesii</em> is endemic to Hawaii. It occurs on the six largest islands in the state.	eng
44129	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A twining liana covered with yellowish brown hairs. Occurs in dry to mesic forest, rarely in wet forest.	eng
44129	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, goats, deer, cattle, invasive plant species and fire.	eng
44130	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.  <em>Chamaesyce deppeana</em> is being propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997).	eng
44130	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce deppeana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on O'ahu.	eng
44130	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	An erect to sprawling subshrub occurring in moist shrublands on windswept steep slopes, cliffs and ledges.	eng
44130	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include invasive plant species such as common ironwood, Hilo grass and Christmas berry, fire and human disturbance. Feral pigs may also pose a threat to the population.	eng
44131	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44131	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce eleanoriae</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44131	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Shrubs 20-40 cm tall. Occurs in moist vegetation on narrow ridge crests and outcrops and, less commonly, on steep rocky slopes and cliffs.	eng
44131	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include goats, rats and invasive plant species.	eng
44132	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44132	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce halemanui</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44132	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A climbing shrub occurring in moist forests on gulch slopes.	eng
44132	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs, deer, fire, invasive plant species and impacts from human activities.	eng
44133	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This species is being propagated at the National Tropical Botanical Garden (S. Smith, pers. comm. 1997). <br/>Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44133	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce kuwaleana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on O'ahu.	eng
44133	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A shrub, 0.2-0.9 m tall, occurring on arid basaltic cliffs, exposed rocky dry ridges and on sparsely vegetated steep cliffs.	eng
44133	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>C. kuwaleana</em> include competition from alien plants species (<em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> and <em>Cenchrus ciliaris</em>), fire, and vulnerability due to the small number of subpopulations (USFWS 1995).	eng
44134	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce sparsiflora</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44134	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Subshrub occurring in open bogs in wet forest.	eng
44134	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species.	eng
44135	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Protective measures and planting were being carried out at Pahole as part of a Recovery Plan. The taxon is listed under the US Endangered Species Act. Plants are still extant in botanic gardens.	eng
44135	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea superba</em> was endemic to the island of O'ahu, Hawaii. It was known from the northern Waianae Mountains and the southern Koolau Mountains.  The subspecies <em>regina</em> was historically present in the southern Koolau Mountains, but has not been collected since 1932.  After its collection in 1870, there were no further documented sightings of <em>Cyanea superba</em> ssp. <em>superba</em> until its rediscovery in the Waianae Mountains in 1971.	eng
44135	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Grew in the understorey of lowland forest (535–700 m).	eng
44135	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to the species and its habitats included invasive alien plants, predation by feral pigs, and rats and slugs.  Other major threats included wildfires generated by activities in the nearby military firing range.  The restricted range of the species also made it very vulnerable to small local disturbances, and hence the last few individuals were easily destroyed.	eng
44136	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44136	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Centaurium sebaeoides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
44136	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	An annual herb, 6-20 cm tall, occurring in dry shrublands, primarily at coastal sites with coralline or basaltic substrates.	eng
44136	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Current threats include goats, deer, cattle, invasive plant species and impacts from human activities.	eng
44137	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44137	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Calamagrostis expansa</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Hawaii and Maui.	eng
44137	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Wet forests, open bogs and bog margins.	eng
44137	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include pigs and invasive plant species.	eng
44138	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44138	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Calamagrostis hillebrandii</em> is endemc to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.	eng
44138	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Open montane bogs in the cloud zone.	eng
44138	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The species is threatened by feral pigs and invasive alien plants.	eng
44139	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There is an active outplanting programme as part of the Recovery Plan. The subspecies <em>carlsonii</em> is classified as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
44139	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The typical subspecies occurs on the windward slopes of Haleakala on East Maui where it is was relatively common, but has declined very rapidly due to the impacts of invasive species.  The subspecies <em>carlsonii</em> has a very restricted distribution and is known only from three to four individuals on the western slopes of Hualalai on Hawaii.	eng
44139	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived palm-like tree which occurs in rainforest between 1,200 and 1,400 m altitude.	eng
44139	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Invasive plants and grazing are a persistent problem.	eng
44140	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	See subspecies accounts for further details.	eng
44141	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>Was included in a Recovery Plan, with the main goal being to relocate the taxon and to establish <em>ex situ</em> genetic stock.	eng
44141	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cyanea copelandii</em> ssp. <em>copelandii</em> was first collected at two sites on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa, near Glenwood, Hawaii.	eng
44141	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A small epiphytic shrub (0.3-2 m tall) which grows in wet montane forests dominated by <em>Cibotium</em> spp. (660–1,600 m).	eng
44141	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The area where this taxon occurred has undergone much agricultural and residential development.  Also threatened by grazing impact of feral ungulates.  Black rats may also have been a threat, eating fruits and seeds and thereby reducing reproductive output and regeneration.  The loss of the Hawaiian Honeycreepers, has also likely resulted in the loss of the bird pollinators for this plant.	eng
44142	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed under the Endangered Species Act.  Cuttings of this taxon have been collected and propagated by the Lyon <br/>Arboretum, although none were reported alive as of April 2001.  No additional species-specific conservation efforts have been undertaken, although a recovery plan has been developed with general recommendations.	eng
44142	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Historically (prior to 1970), <em>Cyanea copelandii</em> ssp. <em>haleakalaensi</em> was reported from the windward side of Haleakala and from Waikamoi to Kipahulu Valley on the island of Maui.  Currently (since 1970), this taxon is known from three subpopulations with a total of 235 individuals on Federal, State, and privately owned lands within the East Maui Watershed Partnership in Haiku Uka, the ridge above Kuhiwa Valley, and Kipahulu Valley within Haleakala National Park and Hanawi Natural Area Reserve.	eng
44142	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived vine-like shrub which grows on stream banks and wet scree slopes at the base of cliffs and in forest understorey in montane wet or mesic forest dominated by <em>Acacia koa</em> and/or <em>Metrosideros polymorphia</em> (615–1,410 m).	eng
44142	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to this taxon are habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs; competition from several invasive alien plant taxa such as <em>Rubus argutus</em> (Prickly Florida Blackberry), <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> (Strawberry Guava), <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster’s Curse), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo Grass), <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (Velvet Tree), <em>Ageratina adenophora</em> (Maui Pamakani), and <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (Glorybush); and landslides. In addition, this taxon is potentially threatened by predation by rats and slugs, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants, and by extinction due to random environmental and human events because of the small population sizes.	eng
44143	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The subspecies <em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>brevipes</em> and <em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>mauiensis</em> currently are classified as endangered by the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
44143	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Three subspecies are known, occurring on O'ahu (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>oblongifolia</em>), Moloka'i (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>brevipes</em>) and Maui (<em>Clermontia oblongifolia</em> ssp. <em>mauiensis</em>). On Moloka'i and Maui there are fewer than 30 individuals remaining and both of these subspecies are assessed as Critically Endangered (CR D). However, on O'ahu the species is relatively common.	eng
44143	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	A shrub or tree occurring in wet forest.	eng
44143	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Threats to the species include feral pigs, rodent and slug predation and loss of pollinators.	eng
44144	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The whole species is listed on the US Endangered Species Act.  Two subpopulations occur on Federal property, nine are on State land, three in areas leased to the Federal government as part of the Makua Military Reservation and five are in a State Conservation District.  A Recovery Plan for the species has been published (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1997).	eng
44144	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> is a tree consisting of two varieties, <em>macrococcus</em> and <em>auwahiensis</em>.  There may be a third undescribed variety, which will probably also be listed as Critically Endangered in due course, once the taxonomic status is confirmed.  <em>Alectryon macrococcus</em> var. <em>macrococcus</em> occurs on Kauai, O'ahu, Moloka'i and West Maui, while the var. <em>auwahiensis</em> occurs in the Auwahi and Kanaio districts.  See the varietal treatments for further details on population sizes, etc.	eng
44144	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This slow growing, relatively long-lived tree occurs in various lowland dry to mesic forest types (360–1,070 m).	eng
44144	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This taxon was once widespread on leeward sides off all the Hawaiian Islands, but is now almost completely eliminated. The main threats in the past included the impacts of feral cattle, goats and pigs; the impacts of invasive alien plant species; damage from the Black Twig Borer (<em>Xylosandrus compactus</em>); and seed predation by rodents. <br/> <br/>Current threats include ongoing competition with invasive alien plant species, <em>Schinus terebinthifolius</em> (Christmas Berry) in particular is now replacing all native vegetation on the southern Waianae Mountains and threatens to occupy the range of all the O'ahu subpopulations.  The Black Twig Borer is still a major problem, with most subpopulations sustaining some damage from this.  Seed predation by invasive alien rodents (<em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mus musculus</em>  is an ongoing problem inhibiting regeneration. Feral goats and pigs are impacting the habitat of most subpopulations through grazing, trampling and resultant soil erosion.  Grazing and trampling by cattle was a major problem in the past for var. <em>auwahiensis</em>, but now all individuals are protected from ungulates by small woven-wire excloures.  Accidental fires as a result of military activities are a potential problem for subpopulations in military training areas on O'ahu, Kaua'i and Maui. <br/> <br/>Given the limited numbers and restricted range, a single natural or human-caused disturbance could be catastrophic.  Also gene pool limitations may depress reproductive vigor and adaptability.	eng
44145	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The var. <em>rotundata</em> is on the US Endangered Species List.	eng
44145	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Achyranthes splendens</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian islands of O'ahu, Molokai, Maui, and Lana'i. It is probably extirpated on Molokai and Lana'i. It is most common on West Maui. The total number of subpopulations and the population size is not known. But there are estimates that the species total may be under 5,000 or 10,000 plants.  <em>A. splendens</em>, is believed to be comprised of two intergrading varieties, var. <em>splendens</em> and var. <em>rotundata</em>. Some authors also include <em>A. atollensis</em> as another variety under <em>A. splendens</em>.  This is an Extinct species which is treated separately from this.	eng
44145	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A small shrub which occurs in low elevation, open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). On west Maui, Molokai, and L'anai: on rocky gulch slopes. In southwestern O'ahu: plains consisting of emerged coral reef with calcareous substrates. On east Maui: old lava flows.	eng
44145	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	On O'ahu it is primarily threatened by urban development, alien plants, and fire. In the rest of its range the primary threats are introduced deer, fire, cattle ranching, and invasive alien plants.	eng
44146	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Considered to be of conservation concern.	eng
44146	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The var. <em>splendens</em> is still a fairly common plant on Maui, and has been collected on Lana'i  in the past but is no longer present on that island.  Current populationsize and number of subpopulations is unknown.	eng
44146	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Occurs in low elevation, open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). On west Maui and Lanai: on rocky gulch slopes. On east Maui: old lava flows.	eng
44146	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include goats, cattle, competition from alien invasive plants and fire.	eng
44147	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Included as <em>Achyranthes rotundata</em> on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
44147	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Recorded originally from the islands of O'ahu, Molokai, and Lana'i. It is currently known from only two small areas on the island of O'ahu (Barbers Point and Ka'ena Point). The population is currently estimated to number between 50 and 100 individuals (possibly only 30 to 50 mature individuals).  Previous estimates indicate that numbers were much higher in the past (but more than three generations ago).  The lower numbers might also be attributed to the dry conditions.	eng
44147	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This shrub occurs at low elevations in open, dry forest remnants and open thickets, on talus or rocky slopes, and on coralline plains (Wagner <em>et al</em>. 1999). The substrate in southwestern O'ahu consists of emerged coral reef with calcareous substrates.	eng
44147	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Most of the taxon's habitat on O'ahu has been destroyed by urban development and agriculture. Additional threats to the taxon include habitat degradation by invading alien plants and fire.  The 'Ewa Plains area is presently being developed. The existing industrial park is being expanded, and hotels, condominiums, golf courses, marina, and other urbanization projects are planned.  A city of 300,000 is proposed for the area.  Probably only the plants which are on Federal land, and those at Ka'ena Point, would not be directly impacted by land development.	eng
44148	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This taxon is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44148	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>kauaiensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44148	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include feral pigs, goats and invasive plant species.	eng
44149	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This taxon is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a candidate species.	eng
44149	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>remyi</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kaua'i.	eng
44149	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Typical habitat is wet forest dominated by <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>.	eng
44149	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include feral pigs and goats, predation by invertebrates (the two-spotted leafhopper <em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>) and competition with invasive plant species.	eng
44150	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Two of the three varieties of <em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> are listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as candidate species (<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>kauaiensis</em> and <em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>remyi</em>). The third variety (<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> var. <em>hanaleiensis</em>) is already extinct.	eng
44150	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Chamaesyce remyi</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Kauai. Population size is less than 1,500.	eng
44150	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Typical habitat is wet forest dominated by <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>.	eng
44150	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include feral goats and pigs, predation from invertebrates (two-spotted leafhopper <em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>) and competition with invasive plant species	eng
44151	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>laysanensis</em> was endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
44151	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Atoll dunes.	eng
44152	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Army Environmental staff have completed a report entitled "U.S. Army Garrison Hawaii, O'ahu Training Areas, Natural Resource Management Final Report". This includes very detailed management plans and descriptions of completed actions for each endangered plant species that occurs on Army land. The Army has also constructed a fence around two subpopulations of 18 plants and removed all pigs from within the exclosure. Weed control and quarterly phenological monitoring are in progress. <br/> <br/>A long-range management plan for the Honouliuli Preserve prescribes actions for alien plant management, ungulate control, fire control, rare species recovery and native habitat restoration. It is expected that these actions will benefit <em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> within the Preserve. <br/> <br/>Plants found at the Pahole Natural Area Reserve are found within a fenced exclosure. <br/> <br/><em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> has been successfully propagated at the Lyon Arboretum's micropropagation laboratory, at the Waimea Arboretum, at the Division of Forestry and Wildlife's Pahole Plant Nursery, and at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. Reintroduction has not been attempted.	eng
44152	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> var. <em>agrimonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is only known to exist on O'ahu.	eng
44152	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial tufted grass occurring in dry to moist forests on ridges and on gulch slopes, or on old lava flows.	eng
44152	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The taxon is threatened by pigs, goats, deer, cattle, alien plants and fire.	eng
44153	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Army Environmental staff have completed a report entitled "U.S. Army Garrison Hawaii, Oahu Training Areas, Natural Resource Management Final Report". This includes very detailed management plans and descriptions of completed actions for each endangered plant species that occurs on Army land. The Army has also constructed a fence around two subpopulations of 18 plants and removed all pigs from within the exclosure. Weed control and quarterly phenological monitoring are in progress. <br/> <br/>A long-range management plan for the Honouliuli Preserve prescribes actions for alien plant management, ungulate control, fire control, rare species recovery and native habitat restoration. It is expected that these actions will benefit <em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> within the Preserve. <br/> <br/>Plants found at the Pahole Natural Area Reserve are found within a fenced exclosure. <br/> <br/><em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> has been successfully propagated at the Lyon Arboretum's micropropagation laboratory, at the Waimea Arboretum, at the Division of Forestry and Wildlife's Pahole Plant Nursery, and at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. Reintroduction has not been attempted.	eng
44153	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Cenchrus agrimonioides</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Currently it is only known to exist on Oahu.	eng
44153	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A perennial tufted grass occurring in dry to moist forests on ridges and on gulch slopes, or on old lava flows.	eng
44153	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The taxon is threatened by pigs, goats, deer, cattle, alien plants and fire.	eng
44154	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44154	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.	eng
44154	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Cheirodendron trigynum</em> forest.	eng
44154	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The habitat of <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> was extensively damaged by pigs in the past, and pigs are still a major threat to populations on State-owned lands. Competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Holcus lanatus</em> (common velvet grass) and <em>Juncus planifolius</em> (rush) is a major threat to this subspecies. Rats (mainly the black rat, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and slugs (mainly <em>Milax gagetes</em>) are known to eat leaves, stems and fruits of other members of this genus and therefore are a potential threat to this subspecies. In addition, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants are potential threats to this taxon.	eng
44155	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Federally and state listed as endangered.	eng
44155	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.	eng
44155	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em> and <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris linearis</em> forest.	eng
44155	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> include habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs, and competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (glorybush), <em>Paspalum urvillei</em> (Vasey grass), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo grass), <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Hedychium coronarium</em> (white ginger) and <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em> (Kahili ginger). Two extremely invasive alien plant taxa, <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (velvet tree) and <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster's curse), are found in nearby areas and may invade this habitat if not controlled. <br/> <br/>The habitat of <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>samuelii</em> was extensively damaged by pigs in the past, and pigs are still a major threat to populations on State-owned lands. Competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Holcus lanatus</em> (common velvet grass) and <em>Juncus planifolius</em> (rush) is a major threat to this subspecies. Rats (mainly the black rat, <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and slugs (mainly <em>Milax gagetes</em>) are known to eat leaves, stems and fruits of other members of this genus and therefore are a potential threat to this subspecies. In addition, unrestricted collecting or excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants are potential threats to this taxon.	eng
44156	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The population within Haleakala National Park has been fenced and pigs have been eradicated. Due to large populations of pigs in adjacent areas, the park populations must constantly be monitored to prevent further ingress. In 2000, an unspecified number of plants were being grown at the National Tropical Botanical Garden. As of 2001, none remain in cultivation. General conservation efforts applicable to the Multi-Island Addendum plants can be found in the Recovery Plan for the Multi-Island Plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999).	eng
44156	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Clermontia samuelii</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It occurs on Maui.	eng
44156	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	A short-lived perennial shrub, 1.2 to 5 m tall. <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> is found in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em> and <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris linearis</em> forest, and in wet <em>Metrosideros polymorpha-Cheirodendron trigynum</em> forest.	eng
44156	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats to <em>Clermontia samuelii</em> ssp. <em>hanaensis</em> include habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs, and competition with alien plant taxa such as <em>Tibouchina herbacea</em> (glorybush), <em>Paspalum urvillei</em> (Vasey grass), <em>Paspalum conjugatum</em> (Hilo grass), <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Hedychium coronarium</em> (white ginger) and <em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em> (Kahili ginger). Two extremely invasive alien plant taxa, <em>Miconia calvescens</em> (velvet tree) and <em>Clidemia hirta</em> (Koster's curse), are found in nearby areas and may invade this habitat if not controlled.	eng
44157	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2 (=Imperiled). Both of the subspecies are included on the US Endangered Species Act.	eng
44157	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> is endemic to the islands of Maui and Hawaii. Subspecies <em>macrocephalum</em> occurs on Haleakala on Maui, and ssp. <em>sandwicense</em> on Mauna Kea on Hawaii. There are eight subpopulations. The Haleakala subspecies is estimated to number 65,000 plants. The Mauna Kea subspecies, however, is down to about 41 naturally occurring plants plus a few thousand outplanted ones.	eng
44157	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands and forests. Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches, and on cliffs.	eng
44157	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threats include introduced sheep, goats, mouflon sheep, pigs, predation of native pollinators by alien wasps and ants (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), overcollection, and in the case of the Mauna Kea subspecies, its small population size.	eng
44158	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act and the Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.	eng
44158	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> ssp.<em>macrocephalum</em> is endemic to the upper slopes of Mauna Kea on Hawaii.  It appears to have been formerly abundant. Today, however, there is only a single naturally occurring population which comprises about 41 naturally occurring plants. Plants have been outplanted at several sites on Mauna Kea. These outplanted individuals and their progeny number almost 4,000 individuals, but these do not yet qualify to be counted as mature individuals.	eng
44158	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands and forests. Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches, and on cliffs.	eng
44158	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Browsing by feral sheep (including mouflon sheep) has been implicated as a major factor contributing to the decline of this taxon. Feral goats and pigs have also harmed the taxon.  Other threats include predation of native pollinators by alien wasps and ants (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), overcollection, and in the case of this subspecies, its small population size.	eng
44159	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Listed as Threatened under the US Endangered Species Act and the Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T2.   All of the extant plants are within Haleakala National Park.	eng
44159	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Argyroxiphium sandwicense</em> ssp. <em>macrocephalum</em> is endemic to the island of Maui, where is restricted to the subalpine and alpine deserts of Haleakala on East Maui.  The taxon is restricted to a 1,000 ha site in the crater and on the outer slopes of Haleakala Volcano. <br/> <br/>The taxon declined markedly in the 1800s and early 1900s due to human vandalism (climbers dug up and brought back plants to show they had reached the summit) and to browsing by goats and cattle, and reached a low point in the 1920s.  A reasonable estimate of the population size made in 1935 was 4,000 individuals.  The taxon has rebounded since then due to protection measures, and deserves attention as one of the great conservation success stories in the Hawaiian Islands.  There are currently seven known subpopulations. The population is estimated to number about 65,000 individuals and is increasing.	eng
44159	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	These rosette shrubs are usually single-stemmed and rarely branched. A single-stemmed individual lives for a number of years (15–50), produces a terminal inflorescence, then dies (monocarpic). Plants with multiple rosettes produce one inflorescence for each rosette; flowering may occur over several years before all rosettes are exhausted. <br/> <br/>Occurs in dry alpine desert; occasionally also in dry to moist subalpine shrublands (2,100–3,000 m). Found on cinder cone slopes, cinder fields, lava flows, in rocky gulches and on cliffs.	eng
44159	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	The major threats to the taxon are overcollection and vandalism by humans, and trampling and predation by feral goats. The national park has been fenced to exclude goats, but the threat remains due to the possibility of ingress.  Could also be susceptible to invertebrate pests (the species is self-incompatible and relies on insect pollination), particularly the invasive Argentine Ant (<em>Iridomyrex humilis</em>) which is now known to occur in the area.	eng
44160	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There is more detailed documentation under the two most threatened subspecies, see <em>B. campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em> and <em>B. campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> for details.	eng
44161	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This is a relatively widespread subspecies that is found on the islands of Hawai'i, Lana'i, O'ahu and Kaua'i.  There Many subpopulations, with a total population size of >5,000 plants.	eng
44161	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Grows in wet forests.	eng
44161	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Threatened by invasive alien plants and invertebrates.	eng
44162	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Currently there is no Federal or State protection for <em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em>. It is currently  a Candidate taxon under consideration for inclusion on the U.S. Endangered Species List.  The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.	eng
44162	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>pentamera</em> is restricted  to the island of Maui, on Maui's eastern volcano (East Maui) as well as its western volcano (West Maui). The taxon was only known from East Maui until a single subpopulation was found on West Maui in 1988.  The subpopulation in Kipahulu Valley in East Maui consists of at least 300 plants. However, there is some debate over the subspecific identity of these plants. Both ssp.<em> pentamera</em> and ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> occur in this portion of East Maui. Aside from this subpopulation with an unresolved subspecific identity, fewer than 20 plants are known on East Maui (although the actual number of plants in existence on East Maui may be substantially higher than this number since much of the taxon's habitat is remote and seldom botanized). Only 20 plants were reported in the only recorded West Maui subpopulation when found in 1988 (the occurrence has not been revisited since then). In summary this subspecies is known from 10 populations with a total population of about 500 individuals.	eng
44162	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Occurs in wet forests.	eng
44162	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This subspecies is threatened by feral pigs and goats that adversely modify habitat. While rooting in the ground in search of the invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs disturb and destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and threaten forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb the soil and cause erosion, especially on slopes.  Alien plant seeds are dispersed on their hooves and coats as well as through their digestive tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces, helping these plants to establish.  Pigs are a major vector in the spread of many introduced plant species in Hawaii.  Several alien invasive plant species now threaten this subspecies by out-competing and displacing them.	eng
44163	conservation	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	There currently is no Federal or State protection for this plant.  It is currently a Candidate taxon under consideration for inclusion on the U.S. Endangered Species List.  The Global Heritage Status Rank is G2T1.	eng
44163	distribution	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	<em>Bidens campylotheca</em> ssp. <em>waihoiensis</em> has been recorded from only a few places on the eastern slope of Haleakala, on Maui. This subspecies is known from one subpopulation of 200 individuals.  There is a subpopulation on East Maui, which may in fact be this subspecies (about 300 plants).  This subpopulation is curently identified as belonging to ssp. <em> pentamera</em>.	eng
44163	habitat	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	Typical habitat is wet forest.	eng
44163	threats	Bruegmann, M.M. & Caraway, V., 2003	This subspecies is imminently and highly threatened by feral cattle (introduced in 1793) that adversely modify habitat. Cattle eat native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and spread seeds of alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The forest in areas grazed by cattle becomes degraded to grassland pasture, and plant cover is reduced for many years following removal of cattle from an area. Several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced for cattle forage have become noxious weeds, which are invasive, out-competing and replacing native plants. <br/> <br/>With only one remaining subpopulation of about 200 individuals, reduced reproductive vigor and extinction due to naturally occurring, random (stochastic) events such as hurricanes, landslides, or floods are major threats	eng
44164	distribution	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overcutting in the past and overgrazing today have led to the confinement of the species to an inaccessible rocky outcrop, where it occurs in a dwarfed form. It is thought that forms growing to 15 m were more frequent at one time.	eng
44164	habitat	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Grows on rocky outcrops.	eng
44164	threats	Conifer Specialist Group, 1998	Overgrazing and overcutting are the main threats.	eng
44165	conservation	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It may occur in the Sangbé N.P. in Côte d’Ivoire (Hoppe-Dominik 1990) and the type locality is not far away from the northern boundary of Liberia’s Sapo N.P. (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989). This is a priority species for further survey work, particularly to better determine its current range and population status, whether or not it is subject to hunting, and to investigate other aspects of its ecology.	eng
44165	distribution	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Endemic to West Africa, and confirmed only in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, where known from two records, and in eastern Liberia, where there are several records (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). The presence of this species in the Kounounkan Massif in south-western Guinea (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 1996) requires confirmation (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press). There is no confirmed record of the species from Sierra Leone.	eng
44165	habitat	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the rainforest canopy (Van Rompaey and Colyn in press).	eng
44165	population	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species, with the most recent confirmed records from Liberia in the late 1980s (Taylor 1992). Apparently rare and very localized (Rosevear 1974).	eng
44165	threats	Van Rompaey, H., Gaubert, P., Dunham, A. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Major threats to this species are not known, but like Johnston's Genet <em>Genetta johnstoni</em> and Liberian Mongoose <em>Liberiictis kuhni</em> the species is probably being affected by ongoing habitat loss in the upper Guinean forests, probably more so given that it is a canopy species. It is unclear to what degree this semi-arboreal species is impacted by bushmeat hunting, but this may well be a threat.	eng
44166	conservation	Hussain, S.A. & de Silva, P.K., 2008	Since 1977, the Asian small clawed otter is listed on Appendix II CITES which indicates that the species is not necessarily threatened with extinction, but the trade on its pelt must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. However, most range countries are not able to control the clandestine trade leading to extensive poaching. Nevertheless, it is a protected species in almost all the range countries which prohibits its killing. The Asian small-clawed otter is once common in the streams and wetlands of south and south east Asia is now restricted to a few Protected Areas. Creation of networks of Protected Areas, identification of sites as wetland of national and International importance under Ramsar Convention has to some extent halts the degradation of its habitat. <br/><br/>Over the years the Otter Specialist Group has developed a cadre of biologist across Asia to conduct field surveys and has popularize otter conservation by promoting otter as ambassador of the wetlands. However, concerted effort to conserve this species is needed. For the long term survival of the species, policy based action, research on factors affecting its survival, habitat based action on creation and where required expansion of protected areas and communication and awareness building actions are needed.	eng
44166	distribution	Hussain, S.A. & de Silva, P.K., 2008	The Asian small-clawed otter has a large distribution range, extending from India in South Asia east ward through entire Southeast Asia up to Palawan (Philippines) and Taiwan and southern China in the north (Mason and Macdonald 1986, Wozencraft 1993, Hussain 2000). In recent years, in England it has established itself in the wild after escaping from captivity (Jefferies 1990 and 1991). In India it occurs in the Himalayan foothills of Himachal Pradesh (Kulu), West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh as well as in southern Indian hill ranges of Coorg (Karnataka), Ashambu, Nilgiri and Palni hills (Tamil Nadu) and some places in Kerala (Pocock 1941, Prater 1971, Hussain 2000).	eng
44166	habitat	Hussain, S.A. & de Silva, P.K., 2008	The typical habitats of the Asian small-clawed otter in west Java are wetland systems having pools and stagnant water, including shallow stretches, with depth less than 1 m. These habitats are represented by freshwater swamps, meandering rivers, mangroves and tidal pools. Muller (1839) observed small-clawed otter from slow-flowing lowland streams to submontane streams dominated by rocks and boulders in forested areas. Irrigated rice fields with many crab species (Brachyura) are extensively used by small-clawed otter if proper shelter for them is available. These can act as suitable man made habitats (Melisch <em>et al.</em>, 1996). In Thailand, the rapid-flowing upper areas of the Huay Kha Khaeng are dominated by L. lutra, the slowly meandering river near the dam and the dam itself were used by L. perspicillata while the Asian small-clawed otter occurred mostly in the middle sections, but also at the upper reaches. When different otter species occurred in the same site there was evidence of difference in use of the habitats. Signs of the of small-clawed otter were found wandering further away from the river than the two other species, between patches of reeds and river debris where crabs were more likely to be found (Kruuk <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>In west Java, its presence is positively correlated with slow flowing and stagnant broad rivers and smaller streams, depicting a distinct decline in preference from slow to deep-water bodies. On the other hand, they also use shallow fast-flowing mountain creeks narrower than 5 m, particularly when the course of the streams includes natural pools. In rice fields, they chose slow-flowing irrigation channels narrower than 2 m and with a varied, moderate or low vegetation structure. Like smooth-coated otter the Asian small-clawed otter dislike bare and open areas that do not offer any shelter (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). It prefers pond areas and rice fields than the rivers, whereas it uses mangroves and lakes in proportion to their availability (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). In riverine systems it prefers moderate and low vegetation structure, though their presence was also observed from banks with poor vegetation cover. Neither in ponds nor in rice field areas did they show preference for any of the vegetation structure categories, though poor nor bare structural conditions were the least favoured both in riverine and pond areas and along the rice fields.<br/><br/>The small-clawed otter is adapted to feed on invertebrates as evident from the last two upper teeth (pm4 and m3) which are larger in size for crushing the exoskeleton of crabs and other hard shelled prey. The small clawed otter feeds mainly on crabs, snails and other molluscs, insects and small fish such as gouramis and catfish (Pocock 1941, Wayre 1978). They supplement their diet with rodents, snakes and amphibians too. <br/><br/>During a study in Malaysia, Foster-Turly (1992) examined 328 scats and found that around 80.8% of the scats consisted of crabs, 77.8% fish, 12.5% insects and 4.0% snails. This is the first study in which quantitative information on the diet of wild small-clawed otter was made. This study revealed that though the small-clawed otter is adapted for an invertebrate diet it substantiates its diet with large quantity of fish. Apart from crabs, the major prey item for small-clawed otter was the mudskipper (Gobioidei). This was recorded in the 48% of the scats. The other important prey was Trichogaster spp. and Anabantidae fish, which were represented in 27.4% scats. As evident from the scats the major fish prey were Trichogaster spp 20.7%, Anabis testudineus 5.2%, Clarius spp 2.4% and Channa striatus 1.5%. Apart from these the small-clawed otter in Malaysia also fed on snakes, frogs and insects. Foster-Turly (1992) also examined the diet composition at four different times of the year coinciding with different water levels in the rice fields and concluded that the diet of the small-clawed otter was significantly different at different times of the year. Only the relatively rare dietary components of rodents, snails and snakehead fish (Clarius spp.) showed no significant difference among seasons. Crabs were always the most prevalent food items, but the frequency of occurrence in scats varied from 70.4% to 93.2%. Similarly, though the mudskippers were the second most important food items, they were consumed in significantly different amounts in different seasons from a low of 27.3% to 63.6%. The amount of Trichogaster, Anabis and the Anbantidae also varied considerably. This difference in the use of these prey are most likely due to difference in the life cycle and availability of these prey at different times of the year.<br/><br/>Preliminary analysis of the small-clawed otter spraints from west Java showed their preference for crabs in both natural and man-made habitats (Melisch <em>et al.</em> 1996). In 87% of all collected spraints, crabs formed the dominant prey. Remaining part of the spraints consisted of fish bones and scales, ribs and vertebrae, unidentified mammalian hair, shrimps, insects and snake scales.In the Huay Kha Khaeng, Thailand almost 90% of the spraints of small-clawed otter contained remains of crabs Potamon smithianus, whereas 5% scats contained each of Fish and Amphibians. Apart from this, in few scats evidences of rodents and other arthropods were also found. Kruuk <em>et al</em>. (1994) estimated the preference for various size classes of crabs eaten by small-clawed otter. Of the 92 scats, 14 scats had crabs size 10-14 cm, 42 scats had 15-19 cm, 26 had 20-24 cm, 12 had 25-29 cm, 4 had 30-34 and 1 had 40-44 cm. The size distribution of crabs taken by small-clawed otter was similar to what was available, and there was not much evidence for selection of specific size. In west Java a preliminary estimate of preferred size confirmed an average of 3-4 cm carapace width (Melisch <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>The sexual behaviour of small clawed otter has been observed in as young as 18 months old. In captivity, successful breeding has been reported for 2.1 year females and 2.8 year males. The youngest animal to reproduce was a female of 13 months captive born at Bronx Zoo, and the oldest was a 15 years male at the National Zoo, USA (Foster-Turley and Engfer 1988). In the females oestrous cycle has duration of anywhere from 28 to 30 days, with breeding occurring the year round (Lancaster 1975). Some facilities report this cycle extending to ?every few months? with older animals. Oestrus lasts from one to thirteen days.  Behavioural signs of the onset of oestrus may include increased rubbing and marking. <br/><br/>In captivity mating usually takes place in the water, but has also been observed on land on a few occasions. In most cases the exact gestation period could not be ascertained but it is believed to be around 60-86 days (Lancaster 1975, Sobel 1996). The litter size ranges from 2-7. Life span in captivity is around 11 years (Crandall 1964).	eng
44166	population	Hussain, S.A. & de Silva, P.K., 2008	In most of their range the Asian small-clawed otter is sympatric with smooth-coated and Eurasian otters. In India, all the three species occur in Western Ghats and in the Northeast India where the species occur in small group of two to four individuals. In Western Ghats they are mostly found along the hill streams. They were once common in the mangroves of east Calcutta and Sunderbans (Sanyal 1991). The Asian small-clawed otters occur in freshwater and peat swamp forests, rice fields, lakes, streams, reservoirs, canals, mangrove and along the coast (Sivasothi and Nor 1994). In Malaysia and Indonesia they occur in coastal wetlands, and along the banks of paddy fields. Comparable data from Java, Myanmar, and India revealed that the Asian small-clawed otters have a high climatic and trophic adaptability in south and Southeast Asian tropics, occurring from coastal wetlands up to mountain streams (Melisch <em>et al.</em>, 1996). A reliable population estimate of the Asian small-clawed otter is lacking. As many as 15 individuals were seen in a group in Malaysia (Wayre 1978), four to eight in coastal Sabha (Mason and Macdonald 1986) and two to four in India.	eng
44166	threats	Hussain, S.A. & de Silva, P.K., 2008	The threat to Small-clawed otter is similar to that of smooth-coated and Eurasian otters. Throughout Asia the potential threat to its continued survival is destruction of its habitats due to changing land use pattern in the form of developmental activities. In many parts of Asia, the habitats have been reduced due to reclamation of peat swamp forests and mangroves, aquaculture activities along the intertidal wetlands and loss of hill streams. In India the primary threats are loss of habitats due to tea and coffee plantations along the hills, in the coastal areas loss of mangroves due to aquaculture and increased human settlements and siltation of smaller hill streams due to deforestation. Increased influx of pesticides into the streams from the plantations reduces the quality of the habitats. <br/><br/>The next important threats to Asian small-clawed otter are reduction in prey biomass due to over-exploitation, which make its remaining habitats unsustainable. Pollution is probably the single most factors causing decline in the population of many fish species (Dehadrai and Ponniah 1997). Reduction in prey biomass affects otter population, and organochloric and heavy metal contamination interferes with their normal physiology leading to the decline in population. The threats to small-clawed otter is prominent in its western range so much so that since last 60 years its range has been shrunk considerable moving west to east from Himachal Pradesh to Assam (Hussain 2007). Once common in the mangroves of east Calcutta and Sunderbans (Sanyal 1991) now it is believed to be locally extinct. It is likely that the present range boundary at the western limit is Assam and in the Western Ghats of Southern India.	eng
44170	conservation	Francis, M.P., 2003	None, apart from a restriction on the mesh size of trawl nets to 100 mm or greater at latitudes north of 50°S.	eng
44170	distribution	Francis, M.P., 2003	Limited to New Zealand between 38°S and 54°S, but most records are from south-eastern New Zealand (Chatham Rise and Campbell Plateau) at 43 to 54°S.	eng
44170	habitat	Francis, M.P., 2003	Occurs over a depth range of 50 to 790 m, but is most abundant in 300 to 700 m. All known records have been obtained by bottom trawlers over soft sediment, however, it is possible that the species also occurs over foul, untrawlable seabed. Feeds on crustaceans. <br/> <br/>Males mature at 35 to 36 cm total length (TL) and females at 37 to 38 cm TL (M.P. Francis, unpubl. data). Maximum known length 41.5 cm TL. Males and females grow to similar maximum lengths. Females produce thick-shelled egg cases, two at a time, that are presumably deposited on the seabed. Size at hatching is unknown but smallest observed free-living individual 11.3 cm TL.	eng
44170	threats	Francis, M.P., 2003	Probably caught occasionally as trawl bycatch, but their small size means that escapement from trawl nets would be high.	eng
44171	conservation	White, W.T., 2003	Further investigation into the range and taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
44171	distribution	White, W.T., 2003	<em>Halaeulurus</em> sp. nov. A is known from only one specimen caught off the continental slope off the Ashmore Reef, northwestern Australia in 900 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). The species has only been caught from FAO Fisheries Area 57 (Indian Ocean – eastern).	eng
44171	habitat	White, W.T., 2003	Data deficient, this species is solely known from the continental slope off northwestern Australia in 900 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994).        <br/> <br/>Appears to attain a larger size than known members of the genus <em>Halaelurus</em>, with the single recorded specimen a immature male at 44 cm total length (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
44171	threats	White, W.T., 2003	Data deficient. Probably minimal threats due to the depth they occur in.	eng
44172	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The only reasonably secure population of the Western Giant Eland occurs in Senegal’s Niokolo-Koba National Park and the Faleme Hunting Zone. Major surviving populations of Eastern Giant Eland occur in Faro, Benoue and Bouba Ndjidda N.P. and most of the 27 surrounding hunting concessions in northern Cameroon, and in Bamingui-Bangoran and Manovo-Gounda-St Floris N.P.s and most of the hunting blocks in CAR (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press).<br/><br/>Effective long-term management of national parks and hunting zones in regions such as Cameroon’s North Province and northern and eastern Central African Republic would ensure the survival of Eastern Giant Eland. Safari hunting is the most likely justification for the long-term preservation of the substantial areas of unmodified savanna woodland which this antelope requires, and sustainable trophy hunting is a key to the Giant Eland’s future. Mature bulls are one of the world’s most prized big game trophies (East 1999).<br/><br/>The survival of the Western Giant Eand depends on continued protection of the Niokolo-Koba population in Senegal. This subspecies’ prospects will remain precarious as long as there is only a single protected population but would be enhanced if additional populations can be protected (East 1999).<br/><br/>Individuals of both subspecies are held in captivity (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press). A captive breeding group of Western Giant Eland using founders from Niokolo-Koba was established in 2000 in Bandia Reserve, Senegal. There have been 30 births at Bandia between 2000 and 2006 (M. Antonínová and P. Hejcmanová, in Planton and Michaux in press), and a second enclosure has been built in Fathala Reserve, to which a male-only group (9) and a breeding nucleus (1, 3) were translocated in mid-2006 (Antonínová <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
44172	distribution	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	In the past, the Giant Eland probably occurred throughout the relatively narrow belt of savanna woodland which extends across West and Central Africa from Senegal to the Nile. The gap in its recent distribution between Mali and eastern Nigeria contains extensive areas of apparently suitable habitat (East 1999).<br/><br/>The Western Giant Eland has been formerly reported from Senegal to Togo, though its occurrence in Togo might have been a mistaken confusion with Bongo <em>Tragalephaus eurycerus</em> (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). The subspecies still occurs in southeastern Senegal, the far north of Guinea, probably south-western Mali and possibly eastern Guinea-Bissau (East 1999; Darroze 2004; Planton and Michaux in press). <br/><br/>Eastern Giant Elands occur in the central African region, and were formerly distributed from north-eastern Nigeria to north-west Uganda. They now survive mainly in north-east Central African Republic. A separate population lives in northern Cameroon, with herds crossing the Chad border to the east; occasional vagrants may enter Nigerian territory. They may still occur in south-western Sudan, from which they may visit north-eastern DR Congo and north-west Uganda (East 1999; Planton and Michaux in press).	eng
44172	habitat	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Giant Eland inhabit woodlands and forested Sudanian to Guinean savannas, never far from hilly/rocky landscapes nor from water (Planton and Michaux in press). Kingdon (1997) considered that it is quite strictly confined to <em>lsoberlinia doka</em> woodland, but recent studies indicate that its range includes areas of <em>Terminalia-Combretum-Afzelia</em> woodland where there is no <em>Isoberlinia</em>, e.g., in parts of Cameroon’s North Province such as Boumedje Hunting Concession (Bro-Jorgensen 1997). Giant Elands feed mostly on leaves, shoots, herbs and fruits (but occasionally on grasses), and will drink daily where water is available (Planton and Michaux in press).	eng
44172	population	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Total numbers of the Western Giant Eland probably do not exceed ca. 200 individuals, with most of the surviving animals in Senegal (Planton and Michaux in press). <br/><br/>East (1999) estimated that there are probably more than 15,000 Eastern Giant Eland remaining, with over 12,500 in the CAR. Numbers have increased in CAR, Cameroon and Chad since the 1990s. The numbers that survive in Sudan are unknown, but could be substantial. This suggests a total population of the Eastern Giant Eland in the order of at least 15,000~20,000. Its numbers are probably more or less stable over large areas of its range in Central African Republic and Cameroon where human population densities are very low. However, the Eastern Giant Eland’s overall, long-term population trend is probably gradually downwards (East 1999).	eng
44172	threats	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	The Western Giant Eland has been reduced to very low numbers by factors such as over-hunting for meat and habitat destruction caused by the expansion of human and livestock populations. <br/><br/>The Eastern Giant Eland occurs in much larger numbers and still has extensive areas of available habitat which are almost uninhabited and are not subjected to development pressures, particularly in northern and eastern Central African Republic and south-western Sudan. However, political instability and armed conflict are major barriers to the implementation of effective protection and management over large parts of the eastern subspecies’ remaining range. If these problems are not overcome, the eastern giant eland’s numbers will gradually decline until its survival is eventually threatened and it becomes restricted to a few protected areas.<br/><br/>In the past, Giant Eland have suffered heavy mortality from rinderpest, to which it is said to be more susceptible than any other antelope. Its demise in The Gambia has been attributed primarily to the devastating effects of this disease (Camara 1990). Populations in the Central African region crashed by 60-80% during and after the 1983-1984 rinderpest outbreak, but have almost recovered now (East 1999).	eng
44173	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic research, research into factors limiting the population size, habitat and limiting factor management and control of introduced feral predators.	eng
44173	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The marine iguana occurs on the Galápagos Islands. <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> is restricted to Crossman and Tortuga Islets off Isabela Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km². Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males.	eng
44173	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is the world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44173	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The total population of <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> is estimated at between 20,500–40,000 individuals. Recruitment appears to be zero in all subpopulations on the west and north side of Isabela (Los Cañones, Bahia Urbina, Muñeco and Punta Albermarle), probably because of introduced predators.	eng
44173	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in the <em>A. cristatus</em> population. The main threats to <em>A. c. albemarlensis</em> are declining habitat quality and predation by introduced species (cats, dogs, rats and pigs).	eng
44174	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the species include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic research, and monitoring of the population.	eng
44174	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. cristatus</em> occurs on Fernandina Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44174	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44174	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is estimated at between 80,000–150,000 individuals and is stable.	eng
44174	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  However, the <em>A. c. cristatus</em> population is apparently stable and the main threat is likely to be the subspecies’ restricted range area, which makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
44175	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, public education, control of introduced predators on the island, and monitoring of the population and habitat.	eng
44175	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. hassi</em> occurs on Santa Cruz Island, Caamaño Islet. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44175	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44175	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is estimated at between 6,000–10,000 individuals and is currently stable.	eng
44175	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  In 2000 extensive habitat contamination occurred after an oil spill. The long-term effects of this spill are not known. The <em>A. c. hassi</em> population is expected to decline in future as a result of ongoing predation by introduced species.	eng
44176	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, public education, control of introduced predators on the island, and monitoring of the population and habitat.	eng
44176	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. mertensi</em> occurs on San Cristobal and Santiago Islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44176	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44176	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total population is not known.	eng
44176	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes periodic dramatic (> 85%) mortality in <em>A. cristatus</em>.  In 2000 extensive habitat contamination occurred after an oil spill. The population declined as a result of this spill. <em>A. c. mertensi</em> is also inder threat from predation by introduced species.	eng
44177	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research. Population Viability Analysis is also recommended along with the setting up of a captive breeding programme (pending recommendations from a PVHA workshop).	eng
44177	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. nanus</em> occurs on Genovesa Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44177	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44177	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is five years for females and 12 years for males. The total current population is estimated at around 1,500 individuals. The population has declined by more than 80% over the last ten years.	eng
44177	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño has resulted in the population declines seen in this subspecies.	eng
44178	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, and monitoring of the population and its habitat.	eng
44178	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. sielmanni</em> occurs on Pinta Island. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44178	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44178	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.  The total current population is estimated at between 2,500–6,000 individuals.	eng
44178	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes extreme fluctuations in population size. The population may also be threatened by pollution.	eng
44179	conservation	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. cristatus</em> is included on CITES Appendix II. It is under "Special Law" in the Galápagos and occurs in three protected areas: Galápagos National Park and National Marine Reserve; Galápagos Islands Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO); and Galápagos Islands World Heritage Site. <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended for the subspecies include: further surveys for the subspecies, taxonomic and limiting factor research, and monitoring of the population and its habitat.	eng
44179	distribution	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	<em>A. c. venustissimus</em> occurs on Española and Gardner Islands. Extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 1,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 10 km².	eng
44179	habitat	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	The world's only marine lizard species. Adults and juveniles occur on rocky coast and intertidal zones. Adult females can be found nesting up to 2 km inland and adult males can be found in marine waters, up to depths of 20 m.	eng
44179	population	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	Average generation length is 5 years for females and 12 years for males.  The total current population is estimated at between 10,000–21,000 individuals occurring in two locations.	eng
44179	threats	Nelson, K., Snell, H. & Wikelski, M., 2004	El Niño causes extreme fluctuations in population size. The population may also be threatened by pollution.	eng
44180	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	The species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur in any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation measures recommended include further surveys for the species, life history studies, genetic research, monitoring and management of the wild population.	eng
44180	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	The Campeche spiny-tailed iguana is known only from the type locality in Campeche, Mexico.	eng
44180	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	This is an arboreal species found in tropical moist forest from 50–100 m asl. It uses hollow branches as retreats.	eng
44180	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total range area and population size are not known.	eng
44180	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Specific threats to the species are not known. However, it is believed that habitat loss and degradation will result in future population declines.	eng
44181	conservation	Zoerner, S. & Köhler, G., 2004	The species is protected by Honduran law: a ban on hunting has been in place since 1994. The species is known to occur within Turtle Harbor Wildlife Refuge. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.<br/> <br/>Conservation measures recommended include further surveys for the species, genetic and limiting factor research, epidemiology and life history studies. Also management of the wild population and its habitat, public education about the species, monitoring of the population and continued captive breeding of the species.	eng
44181	distribution	Zoerner, S. & Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura bakeri</em> is known only from the island of Utila, Bay Islands, Honduras. Its range is limited to 8 km² of mangrove forest on the island.	eng
44181	habitat	Zoerner, S. & Köhler, G., 2004	The species is found in mangrove forest. Adults occur in mangrove trees, while juveniles occur in smaller mangrove trees and shrubs and on the mangrove forest floor.	eng
44181	population	Zoerner, S. & Köhler, G., 2004	Total population is estimated at around 10,000 individuals, probably in 2–3 subpopulations.	eng
44181	threats	Zoerner, S. & Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat is being lost and fragmented because of infrastructure development for the tourist industry.  Mangrove forest habitat is being used as garbage dump sites and there is deforestation for house construction and marinas. Beach habitat is being lost as natural vegetation is removed ("cleaning") in preparation for selling properties in the area and for hotel and road construction. Exotic invasive plants are covering ground and thereby making habitat inappropriate for egg laying (females select ony open, mostly vegetation-free sites for nesting).The iguana is also locally hunted for meat.	eng
44182	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	This species is not known to occur within any protected areas, however all wildlife is currently protected under Mexican national law and permits are required to collect and export the species.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.	eng
44182	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura defensor</em> is restricted to northern Yucatán, Mexico.	eng
44182	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest formation (Holdridge 1967) from 0–100 m asl. The species is mostly terrestrial. Preferred habitat is rocky terrain. Hollows in rock formations are used as retreats.	eng
44182	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
44182	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat is fragmented and is decreasing in quality. The species is also harvested for the international pet trade.	eng
44183	conservation	Ellis, J. & Dulvy, N., 2005	None.	eng
44183	distribution	Ellis, J. & Dulvy, N., 2005	The Big Skate is a large rajid found along the western coasts of North America, from the Gulf of California to the Bering Sea and Alaska (Walford 1935, Roedel and Ripley 1950). Although it may be found to depths of 800 m (Martin and Zorzi 1993), it is most common at moderate depths of less than 200 m (Day and Pearcy 1968) and the visual pigments are suited to these comparatively shallow waters (Beatty 1969).	eng
44183	habitat	Ellis, J. & Dulvy, N., 2005	The Big Skate attains a maximum total length (TL) of 240 cm, although specimens over 180 cm TL (90 kg) are unusual (Martin and Zorzi 1993). Zeiner and Wolf (1993) examined 171 specimens and reported on the weight¬length relationship, maturity and growth parameters. Males were found to mature at 100?110 cm TL (10?11 years) and females at more than 130 cm TL (10?12 years). The fecundity has not been determined.<br/><br/>The reproductive biology of Big Skate is unusual in that it produces large egg cases that contain multiple (1?7) embryos (DeLacy and Chapman 1935, Hitz 1964). There is some evidence that spawning beds are used, and Hitz (1964) reported that large numbers of eggs may be caught by scallop dredge. He observed that egg cases were most abundant at a depth of 60?65 m, and in one instance 152 cases were taken in one 30 minute drag. Hitz (1964) recorded two spawning beds, each at 35 fathoms (64 m), one off Tillamook Head and the other between the Siuslaw and Siltcoos Rivers. Several embryological studies have been undertaken on <em>D. binoculata</em> (e.g., Manwell 1958, McConnachie and Ford 1966, Read 1968, Ford 1971, Evans and Ford 1976). These have utilised egg cases taken off Comox, at 16 fathoms (29 m) off Tsawassen in the Straits of Georgia, British Columbia and from the waters of the San Juan Islands. <br/><br/>Although little is known about the absolute abundance of Big Skate, there have been several published accounts of its comparative abundance. Ebert (1986) captured nine specimens by rod and line in San Francisco Bay and this species accounted for 2% (by number) of the elasmobranch assemblage in this area. The demersal fish assemblages of Oregon have been well studied (Day and Pearcy 1968, Pearcy <em>et al.</em> 1989, Stein <em>et al.</em> 1992). Day and Pearcy (1968) captured 7,689 fish from 67 species and of these, only four specimens of <em>D. binoculata</em> were recorded (0.05% of the catch) and these were taken in water of less than 200 m depth. Pearcy (1989) studied the ichthyofauna of the Heceta Bank, Oregon, using a submersible and, over 16 dives, observed four specimens of <em>D. binoculata</em>. By numbers, Big Skate accounted for approximately 0.1?0.8% of the fish assemblage (Pearcy <em>et al.</em> 1989). More recently, Stein <em>et al.</em> (1992) undertook a similar survey and recorded 10 specimens, most of which were found on mud or mud/boulder substrates.<br/><br/>The ichthyofauna of British Columbia has been well documented and in these waters <em>D. binoculata</em> is relatively abundant. Fargo and Tyler (1991) reported on the species compositions of four distinct fish assemblages (Reef Island, Butterworth, Bonilla and Moresby Gully) and <em>D. binoculata</em> was found to be an important member of the Reef Island assemblage (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1994), constituting 0.10?0.17% of the biomass (Fargo and Tyler 1991). In British Columbian waters, <em>D. binoculata</em> favours shallow (26?33 m) and warmer (7.6?9.4°C) waters (Perry <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
44183	threats	Ellis, J. & Dulvy, N., 2005	In Californian waters the species is, with the California skate <em>Dipturus inornata</em> and longnose skate <em>Raja rhina</em>, one of the three most important rajids in commercial and recreational fisheries (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993) and is a bycatch from trawlers, longline and trammel nets (Zeiner and Wolf 1993). Martin and Zorzi (1993) analysed trends in the commercial landings of skates from 1916?1990 and reported that annual landings of Rajidae spp. Ranged from 22.9?286.3 t. Since 1916, rajids have constituted 11.8% of the total weight of elasmobranchs landed (ranging from 1.9?89.5% annually). The skates that are landed in the Californian fishery have tended to be juvenile fish (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993), with larger individuals being discarded.	eng
44185	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	The Thai government started a project in the 1990s to breed this and other freshwater stingrays in captivity at Chai Nat above the dam on the Chao Phraya River to counter declines of freshwater rays in the river. A single specimen of this ray was seen in captivity there in 1993 (but this was moribund and died during our visit). We later (1996) learned that the project had been put on hold, at least temporarily.	eng
44185	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This species occurs in feshwater habitats. It is known from Grand Lac and Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Mekong River), and also from Thailand in the lower Mae Nam Nan and Chao Phraya river system (Compagno and Roberts 1982, Kottelat 1985, Cook and Compagno 1994, Compagno and Cook 1995a). Photographic evidence of a specimen landed from the Mahakam River, Kalimantan (Indonesia) (P. Last pers. comm.). It may be present but unrecorded in other rivers because of its rarity. Subpopulation details are unknown. If, as seems likely, this ray is unable to transit marine habitats, each riverine population will be completely isolated.	eng
44185	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rarely recorded freshwater species is known from only five specimens in museum collections. No information is available on any of its life history parameters.	eng
44185	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	Rare.	eng
44185	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2005	This rare ray is taken very infrequently as bycatch in freshwater teleost fisheries, which are intensive through much of its range. It is possibly also sought after for the aquarium trade, as the young of this ray are small and particularly attractive. Two of the five known museum specimens were from aquarium suppliers. Its habitat is seriously threatened by riverine pollution from agricultural chemicals, sewage and industrial waste in the river catchments, logging activities and river engineering projects (e.g. dam construction on the Chao Phraya River). Continued habitat loss and degradation are likely a major impact on the species.	eng
44186	distribution	McAuley, R., 2004	Endemic to Australia. Occurs between Bass Strait and the North West Shelf.	eng
44186	habitat	McAuley, R., 2004	In the south of the species range, juvenile <em>Aptychotrema vincentiana</em> are most common close inshore, whereas in the north of Western Australia they occur mainly along the mid-continental shelf (Last and Stevens 1994). Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species, however, they grow to at least 79 cm TL, reproduce ovoviviparously with litter sizes of 14–16 (Haacke 1885) and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates (W. White, pers. comm). Research into the biology of <em>A. vincentiana</em> has recently begun.	eng
44186	population	McAuley, R., 2004	Widespread and common around the South West corner of Western Australia, less common on the west and south coasts. There are apparently only limited records from South Australia and Victoria.	eng
44186	threats	McAuley, R., 2004	Due to its inshore occurrence, <em>Aptychotrema vincentiana</em>, is subject to capture in a variety of fisheries throughout its range (McAuley, unpublished data, W. White, pers. comm.). Some bycatch in demersal gillnet and small local temperate trawl fisheries in Western Australia, usually discarded alive. Probably significant habitat outside or in unfishable areas within these fisheries.	eng
44187	conservation	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The Malampaya Irrawaddy dolphin subpopulation is a component of the Malampaya Sound Ecological Studies Project currently being implemented by Kabang Kalikasan Ng Pilipinas (World Wildlife Fund ? Philippines). This project consists of research, monitoring and raising local awareness about the conservation significance of dolphins in the Sound.	eng
44187	distribution	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems ? the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in completely or partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. Irrawaddy dolphins were first documented as occurring in Malampaya Sound, Palawan, Philippines, during an investigation of dugongs (<em>Dugong dugon</em>) in 1986 (Kataoka <em>et al</em>. 1995). This is the only known subpopulation of the species in the Philippines and the nearest other known subpopulation is in northern Borneo, some 550 km to the south. The species occurs only in the inner portion of the sound, an area of about 134 km².	eng
44187	habitat	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or fresh- water lagoon or lake systems (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).  <br/> <br/>During 48 sightings of Irrawaddy dolphins in Malampaya Sound, Smith <em>et al</em>. (in press) found significant differences between environmental characteristics in the inner and outer Sound (DF=158) for depth (F=164.54, Prob.=0.0000), salinity (F=19.27, Prob.=0.0000) and turbidity (F=21.53, Prob.=0.0000), with depth and salinity greater in the outer Sound and turbidity greater in the inner Sound, indicating the restricted environmental preferences of the Malampaya Irrawaddy dolphin subpopulation.	eng
44187	population	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The first dedicated cetacean survey of Malampaya Sound, conducted in June?July 1999, recorded 17 sightings during 230 linear km of search effort with a mean encounter rate of 7.4 dolphins/100 km (S.E.=2.9) and a mean group size of 5.3 dolphins (S.E.=1.1; Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002). All sightings were made in shallow waters of the inner Sound, although survey effort also included waters of the outer Sound.  <br/> <br/>Line-transect surveys conducted in April ? November 2001 covered 884 km of trackline in the entire Sound (total area 230.7 km²), and resulted in a total population estimate of 77 individuals (CV=27.4%), confined to the inner portion (133.7 km²; Smith <em>et al</em>., in press). Seasonally stratified estimates were calculated as 67, CV=38.6%; 78, CV=78.1% and 81, CV=31.7% for pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. The absence of Irrawaddy dolphin sightings in the outer Sound (see Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002, Smith <em>et al</em>. in press, and unpublished reports of WWF-Philippines) and the close agreement among abundance estimates from surveys conducted during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons strongly suggest that the subpopulation is resident within the inner Sound. <br/> <br/>There are no direct data on population trends. However, for small cetaceans generally, it is recommended that yearly removals should not exceed 1?2% of the overall population size (Wade 1998). Using a minimum estimate of two dolphins killed per year (see above), this represents 2.6% of the population, according to the best estimate of abundance made during line-transect surveys (77 dolphins). Using the minimum abundance estimate (45 dolphins), the estimated minimum yearly mortality rate would be 4.4% of the population size. Even this latter figure may be an underestimate because it considers only the two confirmed kills recorded during a 7-month study (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). Considering that the small size of the Malampaya population already makes it vulnerable to extirpation from demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and catastrophic environmental and epizootic events, the current rate of incidental mortality in gillnets will almost certainly lead to extirpation.	eng
44187	threats	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	Between February and August 2001, two dolphins were accidentally killed in bottom-set nylon gillnets used to catch crabs - locally known as matang quatro nets. Unconfirmed reports from fishermen indicate that three additional dolphins may have been killed in gillnets during the same seven-month period (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). Although the dolphins are not believed to be hunted in Malampaya Sound, their value for human consumption means that those found alive in gillnets may be taken for food rather than released. <br/> <br/>Although gillnet entanglement is believed to be the dominant threat to the population (Smith <em>et al</em>. in press), other potential threats include incidental takes in fish corrals (baklads), liftnets (bukatot) and crab traps, prey depletion from increased fishing pressure and increased inputs of organic wastes leading to eutrophication (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44188	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.	eng
44188	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura flavidorsalis</em> is known from eastern Guatemala (Departmento de Jutiapa) through northern El Salvador (Departmento de Santa Ana, Cabañas, San Vicente, Morazán and La Unión) into southwestern Honduras (Departmento de Intibucá) and south-central Honduras (Departmento de La Paz). Total extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy at less than 500 km².	eng
44188	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest and subtropical dry forest formations (Holdridge 1967) from 35–1,010 m asl. The species is mostly terrestrial with rocky terrain being the preferred habitat. Crevices and holes are used as retreats.	eng
44188	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population has declined by at least 20%, and perhaps by more than 50%, over the last 50 years.	eng
44188	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat is fragmented and is decreasing in area and quality due to deforestation and regular burning of habitat. The species is also harvested locally for its meat.	eng
44189	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas. Captive populations are held by private reptile keepers. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.	eng
44189	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura melanosterna</em> is known only from the Rio Aguan Valley in northern Honduras and Cayos Cochinos off the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are less than 100 km².	eng
44189	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest and subtropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 150–250 m asl. The species semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.	eng
44189	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
44189	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat is decreasing in area and quality. The species is also harvested for the international pet trade.	eng
44190	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	All wildlife is protected under Mexican national law. this species is not known to occur within any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.	eng
44190	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura oaxacana</em> is restricted to the Pacific versant of the Isthmus of Tehauntepec in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².	eng
44190	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 0–250 m asl. The species semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.	eng
44190	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 6–10 isolated subpopulations.	eng
44190	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat is decreasing in area and quality as a result of deforestation and regular burning of habitat. The species is also harvested locally for its meat.	eng
44191	conservation	Pasachnik, S.A., Ariano-Sánchez, D., Burgess, J., Montgomery, C., McCranie, J.R. & Köhler, G., 2010	The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana is known to occur within Port Royal Wildlife Refuge, Saint Helene Wildlife Refuge, and Barbaret Marine Reserve. &#160;However, there is no form of conservation enforcement within this area, thus this iguana is afforded no protection. There is significant potential for some areas on Roatán and smaller cays to be protected through individual landowner grass-roots conservation actions. Several of these areas have been identified and researchers are working with many locals to keep hunting of this iguana off their property. Captive populations supporting conservation efforts exist in Rotterdam Zoo and in private collections in Germany and the Netherlands. Ongoing conservation actions conducted by S.A. Pasachnik and the Bay Islands Foundation include life history research, an outreach and education program developed in collaboration with local educators, and the creation of a management plan.<br/><br/>The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
44191	distribution	Pasachnik, S.A., Ariano-Sánchez, D., Burgess, J., Montgomery, C., McCranie, J.R. & Köhler, G., 2010	<em>   <p>  </p></em>     The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana is restricted to Isla Roatán and Isla Barbaretta, Honduras. This iguana has also been recorded from Big Pigeon Cay, an islet of Roatán (McCranie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but this was not confirmed on recent surveys (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2010).&#160; Similarly, reports of this iguana occurring on Morat, a small island between Roatán and Barbaretta, were not confirmed in 2006 (S. Pasachnik pers. obs.). There are small subpopulations of this iguana on multiple small cays around Roatán, however, the names of these cays are often inconsistent, further hindering systematic surveying (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2010). It is recorded as occurring from sea level up to 100 m.<em><br/>     </em>	eng
44191	habitat	Pasachnik, S.A., Ariano-Sánchez, D., Burgess, J., Montgomery, C., McCranie, J.R. & Köhler, G., 2010	The Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana occurs in a variety of habitat types including beach and rocky ocean front, mangrove, and tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967). It is semi-arboreal, and uses hollow branches and rocks as retreats. Little is known about the ecology of this iguana, however, research is currently under-way to obtain natural history data for this species.	eng
44191	population	Pasachnik, S.A., Ariano-Sánchez, D., Burgess, J., Montgomery, C., McCranie, J.R. & Köhler, G., 2010	<p>Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals, split into 5-10 subpopulations. The sustainability of each subpopulation is not known. Genetic data indicate that there are distinct haplotypes throughout the island, but more data are needed in order to understand the degree of divergence between subpopulations (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
44191	threats	Pasachnik, S.A., Ariano-Sánchez, D., Burgess, J., Montgomery, C., McCranie, J.R. & Köhler, G., 2010	Habitat loss and modification associated with residential and commercial development, as well as small-scale agriculture and ranching, is the main threat to the&#160;iguana. The population is expected to decline dramatically if the current rate of habitat conversion continues (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009). Small-scale eradication of individuals due to them being perceived as pests is also a threat. The wide-ranging congener, <em>Ctenosaura similis</em>, has recently been introduced to a small satellite island, less than 50 m from Roatán. This invasive species could easily disperse to Roatán and also threaten the Roatán Spiny-tailed Iguana through competition and hybridization. Current efforts are under-way to minimize this threat through removal (S. Pasachnik pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Although this iguana is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on  International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora  (CITES), exploitation for food and the pet trade are both contributing  to the decline of this species. Hunting for food, both whole animals and  eggs, is a significant threat to the persistence of this species.	eng
44192	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.  It is also recommended that a Population Viability Analysis be carried out for this species. <br/> <br/>Captive populations exist in Rotterdam Zoo (The Netherlands), Woodland Park Zoo (Seattle) and Sacramento Zoo (California). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
44192	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura palearis</em> is restricted to upper Rio Motagua valley in eastern Guatemala. Extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².	eng
44192	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 150–250 m asl. The species semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.	eng
44192	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 10–15 isolated subpopulations.	eng
44192	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat loss is the main threat to the species. Collection for the international pet trade continues, but this is not thought to be a serious threat at present.	eng
44193	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	This species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas.  <br/> <br/>Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.  It is also recommended that a Population Viability Analysis be carried out for this species.	eng
44193	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	<em>Ctenosaura quinquecarinata</em> is known from isolated subpopulations in Pacific versant Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica. Extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² and area of occupancy is less than 500 km².	eng
44193	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest (Holdridge 1967) from 0–250 m asl. The species is semi-arboreal, preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats.	eng
44193	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Total population size is not known, but perhaps is less than 2,500 mature individuals. The population is fragmented into 10–15 isolated subpopulations.	eng
44193	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	Habitat loss through deforestation and regular burning of habitat, and collection for the international pet trade.	eng
44194	conservation	Köhler, G., 2004	All wildlife is protected under Mexican national law. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species, research into genetics and life history, management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat.  It is also recommended that a Population Viability Analysis be carried out for this species.	eng
44194	distribution	Köhler, G., 2004	Restricted to the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Valley in the Mexican state of Michoacán. Area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².	eng
44194	habitat	Köhler, G., 2004	Tropical dry forest formation (Holdridge 1967) from 200–600 m asl. This is a semi-arboreal species. Preferred habitat is open savanna-like terrain with an abundance of tree cacti. Hollow branches of tree cacti are used as retreats.	eng
44194	population	Köhler, G., 2004	Population size is not known, but is estimated as several thousand individuals. Number of mature individuals is thought to be perhaps less than 2,500 distributed in 10–15 isolated subpopulations.	eng
44194	threats	Köhler, G., 2004	The main threat to the species is habitat loss. This iguana is also collected for the international pet trade. However it is not believed that significant numbers are collected so this is not a major threat to the population.	eng
44195	conservation	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is reported from Tanjung Puting National Park (Nash and Nash 1987). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.	eng
44195	distribution	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is found on Banggi island (Nor 1996), Belitung island, and a few scattered localities in Borneo. In  Borneo the species is reported from Tanjung Puting National Park (Nash and Nash 1987), Sungai Sarawak Kiri (Abdullah <em>et al.</em> 2000), and Brunei (Cranbrook and Edwards 1994).	eng
44195	habitat	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	This may be a coastal species that occurs in many locations along Borneo's coast from sea level up to 100 m asl (Francis and Hill 1986). It may be restricted to coastal mangroves.	eng
44195	population	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The species is known only from a few records.	eng
44195	threats	Francis, C., Hutson, A.M. & Kingston, T., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but if restricted to mangroves it may be losing habitat due to mangrove harvesting and coastal development.	eng
44196	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44196	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	<em>Platythelphusa armata</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, and has been recorded from the waters of all four countries bordering the lake (Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo).	eng
44196	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	This is the largest and most distinctive species in the genus and is mainly found in rocky areas, at depths between 5-30 m. The juveniles are found in the sublittoral shell zone from 1-10 m deep in places where the lake bed is rocky, or in the empty shells of <em>Neothauma</em> spp. where they co-occur together with the adults of small-bodied species such as <em>P. maculata</em>, <em>P. echinata</em> and <em>P. polita</em> (Coulter 1991, Cumberlidge <em>et al</em>. 1999). The juveniles of <em>P. armata</em> are often found inside the empty shells of the gastropod <em>Neothauma tanganyicense</em>.	eng
44196	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.), that this species is the subject of a local commercial fishery with large numbers captured regularly and that it is well represented in museum collections.	eng
44196	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known. Supports small local fisheries and there is some small-scale collecting of this species for the aquarium trade. Neither of these is intense enough at present to amount to a serious long-term threat.	eng
44197	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44197	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo, from  depths between 20-60 m.	eng
44197	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, Zambia and D. R. Congo, from depths between 20 and 60 m.	eng
44197	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material<br/>has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.) and that it is well represented in museum collections	eng
44197	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44198	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44198	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika: Burundi and Tanzania. This species is found in waters from 5–30 m deep, where the lake-bed is sandy or rocky, and it is sometimes found in sandy or muddy parts of the lake inside empty Neothauma sp. shells.	eng
44198	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is found in waters from 5.30 m deep, where the lake-bed is sandy or rocky, and it is sometimes found in sandy or muddy parts of the lake inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>sp. shells.	eng
44198	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of<br/>material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers comm.).	eng
44198	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44199	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44199	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, D. R. Congo. Collected in waters 100-50 m deep where the lake bed is muddy. The type locality is at Moba in Burundi, 20 m deep. This distinct long-legged large species is found in deeper parts of the sublittoral zone in the northern end of the lake where the lakebed is muddy. This species has also been found in<br/>the stomachs of lake fish such as <em>Chrysichthyes brachynema</em> (Capart 1952) and <em>C. stappersi</em> (Coulter 1991).	eng
44199	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Collected in waters 100-50 m deep where the lakebed is muddy. The type locality is at Moba in Burundi, 20 m deep. This distinct long-legged large species is found in deeper parts of the sublittoral zone in the northern end of the lake where the lakebed is muddy. This species has also been found in the stomaches of lake fish such as <em>Chrysichthyes brachynema</em> (Capart 1952) and <em>C. stappersi</em> (Coulter 1991).	eng
44199	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers comm.)	eng
44199	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44200	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
44200	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda: Ruwenzoris. DR Congo: Nepoko River.	eng
44200	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and wetland streams in western Uganda.	eng
44200	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes aloysiisabaudiae</em> has a relatively wide distribution and relatively high representation in museum collections, suggesting potentially large population size.	eng
44200	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not considered threatened at present and currently assessed as Least Concern.	eng
44201	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
44201	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lirranga, middle Congo, D. R. Congo, Central Africa; Tanzania, west coast of Lake Malawi (Nyasa), Malawi. The type locality is Lirranga, at the confluence of the Congo and the Oubangi Rivers, Democratic Republic of Congo. This species is found in the upper reaches of the Congo River, Democratic Republic of Congo; Lake Kivu, Rwanda; Malagarasi River near Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania; Lake Malawi, Malawi.	eng
44201	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In the DR Congo, this species is found in large rivers in the central African rainforest, under rocks. In Malawi this species is found in Lake Malawi.	eng
44201	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such the fact that it is a common and widespread species that has been collected recently from rocky areas in Lake Kivu and from small fast flowing rivers, as well as from large slow flowing rivers flowing into Lake Tanganyika. In addition, <em>P. lirrangensis</em> supports a local fishery in Lake Malawi, and this species is well represented in museum collections.	eng
44201	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44202	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it occurs in a protected area, the Kruger National Park, South Africa.	eng
44202	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Potamonautes obesus is found in Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania (principally in the coastal region, plus Zanzibar and Pemba islands), and Malawi. Tanzania: Zanzibar; Somalia: Matagoi Bool, between Brava and Lugh; Kenya; MALAWI, Zimbabwe. Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania (the coastal region, plus Zanzibar and Pemba islands) and Malawi (Reed and Cumberlidge 2004). This species is also found near Harare, Zimbabwe.	eng
44202	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The habitat of this species is seasonal marshy wet ground in savannah country. During the day it lives in burrows (which it digs), while at night it leaves its burrows to feed in water or on land. This species moves into open water when it is available during the rainy season. <em>Potamonautes obesus</em> is a semi-terrestrial crab that occurs in a wide variety of habitats ranging from the banks of rivers to rice fields, where it digs burrows down to reach ground water.<br/><br/>Williams <em>et al</em>. (1964) provided field notes on the habitat of <em>P. obesus</em> found in an arid area close to Mount Meru in northern Tanzania. Those authors collected specimens of <em>P. obesus</em> together with <em>Deckenia mitis</em> Hilgendorf, 1898 (Deckeniidae) from wetland areas where the standing surface water was relatively warm and stagnant. <em>P. obesus</em> and <em>D. mitis</em> were dug out from their burrows sited near the waters edge, and were rarely seen actually in the water. The burrows of these crabs often cause extensive damage to drainage ditches.	eng
44202	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be more than one million km². Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (Reed & Cumberlidge 2004) and that it is well represented in museum collections.	eng
44202	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The wetland habitat required by this species is seasonal, and long-term threats to this species could come from human encroachment onto wetlands as human populations rise.	eng
44203	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
44203	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a common and widespread species. Tanzania, Malawi, and Zambia, and the tributaries of rivers flowing into Lake Tanganyika. The type locality is Mrogoro inTanzania.	eng
44203	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in major rivers and streams.	eng
44203	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on direct and  indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (present study; S. Marijnissen pers. comm.) and that it is well represented in museum collections.	eng
44203	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44205	conservation	Yano, K., 2004	No conservation measures currently are in place for this species.	eng
44205	distribution	Yano, K., 2004	<em>Trigonognathus kabeyai</em> is known from the Pacific Ocean (FAO areas 61 and 77). Limited area in Japan and one specimen collected from Hawaii.	eng
44205	habitat	Yano, K., 2004	Upper continental slopes of southern Japan at depths of 330 to 360 m. Also on SE Hancock Seamount at bottom on uppermost slope (270 m). Thirty-nine specimens were collected from the the surface to a depth of 150 m, at night where the sea was more than 1,500 m deep, by purse seine in the Kumano-nada Sea. Seven specimens were found in stomach contents of <em>Taractichthys steindachneri</em> and <em>Thunnus obesus</em> from the Ogasawara Islands. Number of mature ova in both ovaries was 25 to 26. Myctophid fishes consisting of <em>Diaphus gigas, Diaphus</em> spp., <em>Benthosema fibulatum</em> and <em>Benthosema</em> sp. were the only identified prey in the stomachs. Most of the prey fishes were found almost intact and usually had puncture holes made by teeth. On the basis of stomach content and jaw morphology, this species is thought to be a ram feeder.	eng
44205	threats	Yano, K., 2004	This species is a very rare bycatch of purse seine and bottom trawl nets. Local fisheries operate year-round.	eng
44206	distribution	Yano, K., 2004	Limited area (Suruga Bay and Enshu-nada Sea) in Japan.	eng
44206	habitat	Yano, K., 2004	All specimens were collected in a depth range of 150 to 350 m by bottom trawl nets. Reaches at least 64.5 cm TL (female). Size at maturity 59 cm TL (females) and 54 cm TL (males). No other information on biology.	eng
44206	threats	Yano, K., 2004	Bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries in Suruga Bay and Enshu-nada Sea. Bycatch always discarded.	eng
44207	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44207	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The species is found in the eastern North Atlantic: Northern Bay of Biscay and Porcupine Seabight to Lousy Bank (49° 31.9’N to 60°49.7’N).	eng
44207	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Known from 30 type specimens taken on the eastern North Atlantic slope at 1,014 to 1,800 m depth. Occurs at bottom temperatures of 3.67 to 9.57°C, and salinities of 35.13 to 34.87 ppm. Males and females are adolescent at 40 to 46 cm TL, and fully mature at 47 to 50 cm TL. Maximum reported size is 54 cm TL. Reproduction is oviparous but egg cases are unknown (Nakaya and Stehmann 1998).  <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known, egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44207	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
44207	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44209	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species.	eng
44209	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>A. brunneus</em> is found in the eastern Pacific (British Columbia, Canada, to Northern Baja California, Mexico, probably south to Panama, Ecuador, and Peru).	eng
44209	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	A little-known deepwater shark from the outer continental shelf and upper slope from depths of 33 to 950 m.  Occurs on or near the bottom, and also well above it. Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg at a time per oviduct. Egg cases are about 5 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, with long tendrils that are probably used to attach them to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures. The incubation period is possibly a year. In Canadian waters females carry egg cases from February to August. Diet includes primarily penaeid shrimps but also euphausiids, squids and small fishes.	eng
44209	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	It is relatively common where it occurs (Compagno 1984).	eng
44209	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Commonly taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.	eng
44210	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44210	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. fedorovi</em> is known from northern Japan (FAO area 61).	eng
44210	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Known from about 29 specimens (16 males, 13 females) caught in northern Japanese waters around 1,200 m depth (Dolganov 1985, Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reaches at least 68.3 cm total length (TL) (Nakaya and Sato 1999). A 55.4 cm TL male was mature, female size at maturity is unknown. Maybe an endemic species with a restricted range, however, further research is required to determine its geographical and bathymetrical distribution. Nothing else is known of its biology. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44210	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Population size and trends are not known (rarely collected).	eng
44210	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44211	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44211	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. gibbosus</em> is only known from 10 specimens (seven males and three females) caught around 900 m depth. Possibly endemic to the East and South China Seas. The largest specimen examined by Nakaya and Sato (1999) was 54.2 cm TL.	eng
44211	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44211	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	An apparently rare species.	eng
44211	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Unknown. Probably taken in deepwater trawl fisheries and not identified. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44212	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44212	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. herklotsi</em> is found in the Jolo Sea (Philippine Islands) and South China Sea to Shikoku Island (Japan) and the Kyushu-Palau Ridge.	eng
44212	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. herklotsi</em> is a poorly known inhabitant of the upper continental slope and oceanic ridges at 520 to 900 m depth (Nakaya 1988, 1991). Females mature at about 44 cm TL. Egg cases are unknown. Male size at maturity is unknown (Nakaya 1988). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44212	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
44212	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44213	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44213	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	This species is known only from the holotype, a 41.9 cm TL female, and the paratype, a 40.3 cm TL male, both from the East China Sea.	eng
44213	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44213	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Known from only two specimens.	eng
44213	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.	eng
44214	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44214	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>A. investigatoris</em> is only known from the holotype, an immature 24.2cm TL female caught at 1,040 m depth in the Andaman Sea (11°46'N, 93°10'E).	eng
44214	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are thick, and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44214	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Unknown. Possibly taken in deepwater trawl fisheries but not identified. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44215	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44215	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. kampae</em> occurs from central California to the Gulf of California. Compagno (1984) noted uncertainty over the identification of <em>A. kampae</em> from the Galapagos Islands, however, Nakaya and Sato (1999) recognized the occurrence of this species there. An undescribed species closely resembling <em>A. kampae</em> may occur off California and juvenile <em>A. stenseni</em> may also be confused with <em>A. kampae</em> (Compagno 1984). <br/> <br/>A similar, undescribed species with large gill slits, a high rounded anal fin and a white margin to the terminal lobe of the caudal fin occurs in New Zealand and Australia (<em>Apristurus</em> sp., D Last and Stevens 1994; <em>Apristurus</em> sp., E Paulin <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
44215	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The biology and distribution of <em>A. kampae</em> is poorly known due to confusion with other <em>Apristurus</em> species, and its deepwater habitat. It occurs near the bottom over the upper continental slope down to 1,888 m depth. Maximum reported size is 58.4 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, with a single egg laid per oviduct. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid. Where reported the diet of <em>Apristurus</em> species usually includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes.	eng
44215	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Taken as in bycatch in deepwater trawls and sablefish traps off California. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44216	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research is required to better document the species' distribution, biology and bycatch levels.	eng
44216	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2007	<strong>Northwest and Western Central Atlantic</strong>: Massachusetts, Delaware and the northern Gulf of Mexico (USA, Mexico), Honduras and Venezuela.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Iceland, Ireland, Canary Islands and Madeira (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Nakaya and Sato 1998). Possibly further south to equatorial Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44216	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2007	<em>Apristurus laurussonii</em> is apparently common on the continental slope at 560 to 2,060 m depth (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>Apristurus laurussonii</em> together with <em>A. parvipinnis</em> are reported to be the commonest <em>Apristurus</em> species in the Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Maximum size recorded is ~72 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). The smallest mature female reported in the scientific literature is 59.2 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1998, 1999). Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are thick, and about 6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. The surface of the egg case is covered by short, fine fibers that form a pattern of numerous fine striations running the length of the case (Nakaya and Sato 1998). As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes (Compagno 1984, in prep. b).	eng
44216	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2007	Taken as bycatch in deepwater bottom trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico and Northeast Atlantic, but no details available on catch levels.	eng
44217	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44217	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The species occurs off southern Japan (Tosa Bay, Shikoku Island; Okinawa Trough, East China Sea); Seychelles, southwest Indian Ocean; Australia (North West Cape and Ashmore Reef, Western Australia; and off Townsville, North Queensland).	eng
44217	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. longicephalus</em> occurs over the continental slope at 500 to 1,140 m depth. Maturity information is only available for a single 39 cm TL female, which had a small undeveloped ovary (Nakaya 1988a). Males mature at 42 cm TL and reach at least 50.1 cm TL (Nakaya 1988). Male size at maturity is smaller than the other Japanese species (<em>A. herklotsi, A. macrorhynchus, A. platyrhynchus</em> and <em>A. japonicus</em>) suggesting <em>A. longicephalus</em> is a relatively small species (Nakaya 1988a). Diet is unknown. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44217	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44218	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44218	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	The species is known to occur from southern Japan to Taiwan Island.	eng
44218	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	A little-known deepwater shark of continental slopes. Maximum reported size is 67.4 cm TL (Nakaya and Sato 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, with one egg per oviduct (Compagno 1984).  <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures.	eng
44218	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44219	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44219	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus macrostomus</em> is known only from the holotype, caught in the South China Sea.	eng
44219	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Known only from the holotype, a 38 cm totale length (TL) mature male, caught at 913 m depth. The English translation of the original description by Meng, Chu and Li (1985) incorrectly listed the holotype as a female. However, the illustration, figure caption and the Chinese text of the original description shows it to be a mature male (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm., 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril.  As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44219	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Only known from the holotype.	eng
44219	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Unknown. Possibly taken in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44220	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44220	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The species is known only from the holotype collected from the South China Sea.	eng
44220	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The holotype is an adolescent male, 37.2 cm TL, caught at 913 m depth. Nakaya and Sato (2000) estimated male size at maturity to be about 40 cm TL, and maximum size to be about 57 cm TL. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom over upper to mid continental and insular slopes. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled, about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44220	population	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Only known from the holotype.	eng
44220	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44221	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44221	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	The species occurs in the Western Central Atlantic from Gulf of Mexico to French Guiana.	eng
44221	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>A. parvipinnis</em> and <em>A. laurussonii</em> are the commonest <em>Apristurus</em> species in the Gulf of Mexico. Despite this little is known of their biology. <em>A. parvipinnis</em> occurs over the continental slope at depths of 636 to 1,115 m. Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct laid at a time. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Egg cases are usually thick-walled, and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44221	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Reported to be a relatively common bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries.	eng
44222	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44222	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Known only from the holotype and eight other specimens collected from the East China Sea.	eng
44222	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>A. pinguis</em> is a poorly known species, apparently endemic to the continental slope of the East China Sea. The holotype, an adult male 55.6 cm TL, is the largest of the nine known specimens. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44222	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	The species is apparently rare.	eng
44222	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44223	conservation	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.	eng
44223	distribution	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	The species occurs in the Indo-West Pacific from Malaysia and Borneo north to Suruga Bay, Japan.	eng
44223	habitat	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em>A. platyrhynchus</em> is a poorly known, continental slope species. Maximum size was estimated by Nakaya and Sato (2000) to be about 85 cm TL. Both sexes mature around 60 cm TL. Reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct laid at a time. Egg cases are long, slender and cylindrical (9.4 cm long x 2.2 cm wide). The surface of the egg case is smooth, the anterior end lacks processes and is composed of weak fibrous tissue. The posterior end comes to a single point and lacks tendrils (Nakaya and Sato 2000). The construction of the egg cases and absence of tendrils suggests the eggs may be retained in the female and develop in-utero. This appears to be unique among the <em>Apristurus</em> species, however, the egg cases and development of many have yet to be described. <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes.	eng
44223	threats	Duffy, C. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl, set net and line fisheries throughout its range. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44224	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44224	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	This species is known with certainty only from the holotype, a 51 cm TL adolescent male caught on the continental slope off Delaware Bay, Northwest Atlantic, at 1,492 m depth. Nominal records at 1,300 to 1,600 m depth in the Eastern Atlantic (which are possibly <em>A. manis</em>). Adults probably relatively large compared to congeners given the size at adolescence.	eng
44224	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44224	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Known only from the holotype.	eng
44224	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44225	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44225	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	This species is known only from the holotype, a 41.7 cm TL immature male from 537 m depth in the South China Sea.	eng
44225	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	<em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44225	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Known only from the holotype.	eng
44225	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44226	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44226	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	The species is known from only two specimens in the tropical Pacific Ocean from Hawaiian Islands and the Banda Sea, southern Sulawesi.	eng
44226	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	A rare shark known only from two specimens taken on insular slopes, on or near the bottom at 572 to 1,482 m depth. The holotype is a 51.4 cm TL gravid female (Hawaiian specimen). The other known specimen is a 10.5 cm TL juvenile (Sulawesi specimen). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom on the upper continental slope. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Egg cases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44226	population	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Only two specimens known.	eng
44226	threats	Huveneers, C. & Duffy, C., 2004	Unknown. Other species of deepwater Chondrichthyans are known to be captured as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. As these fisheries expand globally, consideration needs to be given to the fact that this species too may be captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries.	eng
44227	conservation	White, W.T., 2004	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.	eng
44227	distribution	White, W.T., 2004	Western Indian: only known from a single specimen from the Arabian Sea, which is possibly lost (Compagno 1984).	eng
44227	habitat	White, W.T., 2004	Caught on or near the bottom in water 1,134 to 1,262 m deep (Compagno 1984). Biology unknown. Size unknown, only known specimen was small. Presumably <30 cm total length (TL).	eng
44227	threats	White, W.T., 2004	Unknown. Found in waters deeper than 1,000 m and would not be of any commercial interest, so probably not greatly threatened unless it does actually turn out to have a very restricted geographic and depth range.	eng
44228	conservation	White, W.T., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44228	distribution	White, W.T., 2004	Eastern Indian: Only known from off southeastern India and Andaman Islands (Compagno 1984).	eng
44228	habitat	White, W.T., 2004	A common deepwater bottom-dwelling catshark occurring on the upper continental slope at depths of 293 to 766 m (Compagno 1984). Biology poorly known. Mode of development unknown.	eng
44228	population	White, W.T., 2004	Apparently a common species where it occurs (Compagno 1984).	eng
44228	threats	White, W.T., 2004	Unknown. Of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little information.	eng
44229	conservation	White, W.T., 2004	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
44229	distribution	White, W.T., 2004	Northwest Pacific: Only known from the South China Sea about 380 to 400 km east of Hainan Island (Compagno 1984).	eng
44229	habitat	White, W.T., 2004	Benthic species found on the continental slope in depths of 534 to 1,020 m (Compagno 1984). Biology poorly known. Mode of development unknown.	eng
44229	population	White, W.T., 2004	No information on population size and trends.	eng
44229	threats	White, W.T., 2004	Unknown. Of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little information available.	eng
44230	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44230	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	It is recorded from its type locality in Lake Victoria near Kisumu, Kenya (Brown 1994). During an exploration of freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria in 2002/2003, C. Lange recorded the species in high abundance to the south on the open waters of the Lake and proposed that the species is likely widespread in Lake Victoria.	eng
44230	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	Brown (1994) documents that the species is associated with stony beaches of the Lake near Kisumu. Lange´s ongoing study tends to show that the species is almost equally abundant in all the lakes substratum.	eng
44230	population	Lange, C., 2004	In an ongoing study, C. Lange found over 1000 specimens from two study sites (Near Kisumu and Mbita point).	eng
44230	threats	Lange, C., 2004	There is currently no documented species threat but sedimentation and pollution are possible threats in the future.	eng
44231	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44231	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
44231	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	This is a freshwater species. It has been dredged from 310 feet, common in littoral zone down to 40 feet.	eng
44231	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44231	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44232	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44232	conservation	Graf, D.L. & Nicayenzi, F., 2009	More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44232	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
44232	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. &Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44232	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> is widespread in western Africa from Senegal to the Chad-Chari Basin, and south through the Oubangi into the Congo Basin from above Malebo Pool. It is also apparently reported from Lake Tanganyika (Leloup 1950, Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
44232	distribution	Graf, D.L. & Nicayenzi, F., 2009	Globally, <em>Chambardia wissmanni</em> is widespread in western Africa, known from Senegal to the Chad-Chari Basin, and south through the Oubangi into the Congo Basin above Malebo Pool. It is also apparently reported from Lake Tanganyika (Leloup 1950, Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
44232	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. &Lange, C.N., 2003	The species occurs in small streams flowing into Lake Tanganyika in Burundi. The Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP) shows the species to be common, may well be patchily distributed on all shores. It is also mentioned as occurring in several other localities in central Africa.	eng
44232	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in West African rivers from Senegal to Shaba.	eng
44232	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
44232	habitat	Graf, D.L. & Nicayenzi, F., 2009	It inhabits rivers. Mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. It has a commensal mayfly species (Gillies and Edouard 1989). No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
44232	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It is found in rivers. This has a commensal mayfly species (Gillies and Edouard 1989).	eng
44232	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. &Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in streams.	eng
44232	population	Graf, D.L. & Nicayenzi, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
44232	population	Nicayenzi, F. &Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44232	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
44232	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
44232	threats	Graf, D.L. & Nicayenzi, F., 2009	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be affected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
44232	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
44232	threats	Nicayenzi, F. &Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances. It is also mentioned that the species is used as food by people in the region and bait for fishing.	eng
44232	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
44233	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44233	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura horei</em> is reported as endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004), but specimens referable to this species are from both Lakes Mweru (AMNH, MNHN) and Rukwa (BMNH, ZMB).	eng
44233	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura horei</em> is reported as endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Lange <em>et al.</em> 2004), but specimens referable to this species are known from both Lakes Mweru (AMNH, MNHN) and Rukwa (BMNH, ZMB).	eng
44233	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. Reported to occur in muddy substrates from 0 to 33 m (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
44233	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. It is reported to occur in muddy substrates from 0 to 33 m (Lange <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
44233	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
44233	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
44233	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura horei</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
44233	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura horei</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
44234	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44234	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em> is reported only from Lake Tanganyika.	eng
44234	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em> is reported only from Lake Tanganyika. It may well be patchily distributed on all shores.	eng
44234	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
44234	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
44234	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
44234	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
44234	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the north end of the lake (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
44234	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pseudospatha tanganyicensis</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the north end of the lake (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
44235	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44235	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (West <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is present in Tanzania and Zambia. It could also occur in DRC and Burundi, though it has not been reported.	eng
44235	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is confined to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites in moderate to deep waters (5-100 m).	eng
44235	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44235	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation e.g. Malagarasi River delta.	eng
44236	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
44236	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
44236	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in eastern Africa, west to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
44236	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is found in the rift valley lakes in East Africa: including Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward, Kyoga, Kivu and Tanganyika.	eng
44236	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in rivers and major lakes.	eng
44236	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Major lakes and surrounding swampy areas. Tributaries and marshes.	eng
44236	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
44236	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
44236	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
44236	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
44237	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44237	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Kenyan and Tanzanian coast.	eng
44237	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44237	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44237	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Parts of the range of this species are very disturbed, with high settlement pressure impacting small pools and slow flowing streams, lakes and muddy areas. The main impacted areas are around Mombassa and Dar es Salaam.	eng
44238	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
44238	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
44238	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44238	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern Kenya and Zanzibar, southwards into northern KwaZulu-Natal. Its western limits are uncertain.<br/><br/><strong>EasternAfrica:</strong> It is present in eastern Kenya, and mainland Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from northern KwaZulu-Natal to Tanzania. It extends into the lower Zambesi for an unknown distance. In Zimbabwe it is found in streams in the highveld and southwards (Kristensen and Makura 1987).	eng
44238	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: From northern KwaZulu-Natal to Tanzania. It extends into the lower Zambesi for an unknown distance. In Zimbabwe it is found in streams in the highveld and southwards (Kristensen and Makura 1987).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern Kenya, Zanzibar, mainland Tanzania and southwards into northern KwaZulu-Natal. Its western limits are uncertain.	eng
44238	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from eastern Kenya, Zanzibar, and mainland Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>: I has been recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia to Kenya and Tanzania. South African presence needs to be confirmed.	eng
44238	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Recorded from muddy residual pools of seasonal streams and amongst rocks in permanent rivers near the Kenyan coast (Brown 1994). Also known from a wide variety of other natural and artificial habitats including floodplain pans, ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.	eng
44238	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species thrives in ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.	eng
44238	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrive in ponds, streams, swamps and ditches.	eng
44238	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	A widely distributed species which is locally common.	eng
44238	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
44238	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44238	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	None documented. Given that the species mainly appears to thrive in small wetlands which are likely to be severely affected by sedimentation, drought, anthropogenic disturbance and other forms of pollution, such impacts are the most likely potential threats to the species in the region.	eng
44238	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	None documented. Given that the species mainly appears to thrive in small wetlands which are likely to be severely affected by sedimentation, drought, anthropogenic disturbance and other forms of pollution, would suggest such impacts are the most potential threats to the species in the region.	eng
44238	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No specific threats known.	eng
44239	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	Monitoring of populations near Kigoma is part of ongoing research program in Nyanza Project (website ref. below) and in resultant publications (e.g. McIntrye <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press).	eng
44239	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from 36 locations in the southern half of the lake, it is known from Kigoma (Tanzania) to Zambia, with uncertain distribution in Congo.	eng
44239	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found on muddy, sandy and sometimes rocky substrate attached to shells in shell lag deposit of macrophytes. 1-20 m depth.	eng
44239	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	When it occurs it is in relatively large numbers.	eng
44239	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Possible threats to this species are water pollution, and sedimentation.	eng
44240	conservation	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
44240	distribution	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the coastlines of all four countries (Tanzania, DRC, Burundi and Zambia) (West <em>et al.</em>2003).	eng
44240	habitat	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	The species common underneath cobbles in shallow waters, 0-5 m.	eng
44240	population	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
44240	threats	Nicayennzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
44241	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44241	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, found on all coastlines.	eng
44241	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is common underneath (occasionally on) cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-3 m.	eng
44241	population	Lange, C., 2004	This species is commonly found underneath cobbles, thus populations are not small but may be patchy (E. Michel, pers. comm.).	eng
44241	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44242	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44242	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, found on all coastlines.	eng
44242	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is common underneath cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-3 m.	eng
44242	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is commonly found underneath cobbles, thus populations are not small but may be patchy (E. Michel, pers. comm.).	eng
44242	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44243	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44243	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found mainly on the east coast - particularly Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia (Michel <em>et al.</em> 2003 and LTBP 1998 database).	eng
44243	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is common underneath (occasionally on) cobbles and rocks in shallow depths, 0-5 m.	eng
44243	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44243	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Sedimentation could affect this species.	eng
44244	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44244	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is present on all shores (locality information is available in West <em>et al.</em> (2003) and on the LTBP database).	eng
44244	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is confined to rocky substrates at moderate depths 5-20 m.	eng
44244	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44244	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Sedimentation could affect this species.	eng
44245	conservation	Ngereza, C., Nicayenzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	No conservation measures are known to currently be in place. Recommended actions include further research to improve available data for future conservation assessments.	eng
44245	distribution	Ngereza, C., Nicayenzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Known only from Lake Tanganyika, but documented as being present on all shores.	eng
44245	habitat	Ngereza, C., Nicayenzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	Rocky substrates at moderate depth (5–20 m).	eng
44245	threats	Ngereza, C., Nicayenzi, F. & Lange, C.N., 2004	General threats in the lake are pollution and sedimentation.	eng
44246	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2004	No conservation measures are known to currently be in place for this species. Recommended actions include further research to provide better data for future conservation assessments.	eng
44246	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2004	Lake Tanganyika. There seems to be no data on this species, and it’s not listed in West <em>et al</em>. (2003).	eng
44246	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2004	No data.	eng
44246	threats	Lange, C.N., 2004	Threats are unknown, but sedimentation is a problem in the lake.	eng
44247	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44247	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is known from river Kingani near Bagamoyo, Tanzania and Athi river system in Kenya.	eng
44247	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It lives in rivers.	eng
44247	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44247	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Drought, sedimentation and human disturbance (due to increasing levels of water extraction) plus pollution are the main possible threats.	eng
44248	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44248	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and possibly inflowing waters. A detailed distribution is unknown. Mandhal-Barth lists the species in Winum Gulf, Kavando, Buvuma Channel.	eng
44248	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44248	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44248	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is possibly threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
44249	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44249	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
44249	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44249	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44249	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44250	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44250	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is known to occur in streams and swamps near Lake Victoria (Kenya and Tanzania) and Lake Tanganyika particularly near the mouth of the river Malagarasi.	eng
44250	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in streams and swamps.	eng
44250	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44250	threats	Lange, C., 2004	None documented but water pollution and sedimentation appear to be the main threats to the species.	eng
44251	conservation	Kaunda, E. & Mailosi, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
44251	distribution	Kaunda, E. & Mailosi, A., 2007	This species is endemic to a stream near Monkogo in the upper Zambezi, Belovale district, Zambia (Kristensen 2004). No survey work has been undertaken in the area since (Kristensen pers. comm.).	eng
44251	habitat	Kaunda, E. & Mailosi, A., 2007	This is a freshwater species.	eng
44251	population	Kaunda, E. & Mailosi, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
44251	threats	Kaunda, E. & Mailosi, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
44252	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44252	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi, dredged from 10-90 feet.	eng
44252	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This is a freshwater species.	eng
44252	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> give a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Also, Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.	eng
44252	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44253	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44253	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
44253	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.	eng
44253	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44253	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44254	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44254	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
44254	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi. It has been dredged from 10-90 feet.	eng
44254	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provide in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.	eng
44254	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44255	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
44255	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44255	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
44255	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
44255	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Sphaerium bequaerti</em> is recorded from Zaire (mainly from the Congo), and it is also known from Zambia, Tanzania and even Ghana (Daget 1998).	eng
44255	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is widely distributed, stretching from Zambia and Tanzania through DRC to Ghana (Daget 1998), although some areas in between yet unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sphaerium bequaerti</em> is recorded from DRC (mainly from the Congo) and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi coastlines) and marshes around Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> There is one dubious 19th Century record from Eritrea which needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed through DRC to Ghana.	eng
44255	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs in Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi coastlines) and Lake Malawi. It is also found in southern Africa countries.	eng
44255	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is only known from one dubious 19th Century record from Ethiopia, which needs confirmation. It is predominantly a southern African species.	eng
44255	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed, stretching from Zambia and Tanzania through DRC to Ghana, although some areas in between are yet unknown.	eng
44255	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in freshwater lakes.	eng
44255	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in lakes and rivers, living within mud.	eng
44255	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Freshwater lakes.	eng
44255	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in lakes and rivers, living within mud.	eng
44255	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species of Sphaeriidae is found in both flowing and standing water bodies (Appleton 1996). It lives in soft bottom sediment.	eng
44255	population	Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
44255	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
44255	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
44255	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No population data was traced.	eng
44255	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No population data was traced.	eng
44255	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
44255	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
44255	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
44255	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
44256	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44256	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
44256	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44256	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44256	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is possibly threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic influences.	eng
44257	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44257	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the western shore of Lake Turkana up to 5 m depth.	eng
44257	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is found on the littoral rocky bottom and soft muddy substrata to 5m.	eng
44257	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44257	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Possible threats to this species are sedimentation and pollution due to organic and inorganic material and shoreline commercial centres. If trawling is introduced, it could also cause a threat to the species given its small distribution range.	eng
44258	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No current conservation measures in place.	eng
44258	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from two disjunct populations (15 sites) in Kigoma, Tanzania. It is possible that further survey may locate more sites for this species. Dead shells have been found from numerous other sites.	eng
44258	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found on boulders and rocks in clear water 2-30 m deep.	eng
44258	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Population genetics study shows that the only two known living populations are genetically isolated from each other (Kuh and Michel 2004 and in prep).  Population densities are high (2-20 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>) when present, but extent of shoreline distribution very small (10s of meters) thus effective populations are small and threatened.	eng
44258	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to settlements and disturbance.	eng
44259	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44259	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known from the Burundi (five to eight sites) and DRC (+25 sites) coastlines.	eng
44259	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	The species is restricted to hard substrates, cobbles, boulders and stromatolites below wave base, 8-25 m.	eng
44259	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44259	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Water pollution, sediments, land agriculture and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
44260	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44260	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	It is documented as being endemic to lower Tana river region (Hola) in North-eastern Kenya.	eng
44260	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44260	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44260	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Unknown, but the species distributional area is known to experience frequent severe droughts and is not protected.	eng
44261	conservation	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44261	distribution	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found in the Malagarasi River and Luiche, near Kigoma. It is found at only six sites in Tanzania, one in Zambia and one in DRC. Occasional shells in the Lake proper and individuals in delta regions lead to erroneous range including Lake Tanganyika.	eng
44261	habitat	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is documented to thrive on the organic sediment deposited by the larger tributaries flowing into the lake i.e. River Malagarasi. Populations are all female, reproduction parthenogenetic by brooding.	eng
44261	population	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Found in very large numbers in soft sediment along some banks of tributaries to Lake Tanganyika in shallow water.	eng
44261	threats	Nicayenzi, F. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available on major threats.	eng
44262	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44262	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba Bay and Msumbi.	eng
44262	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.	eng
44262	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) states at 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water	eng
44262	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44263	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44263	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba and Monkey Bay.	eng
44263	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.	eng
44263	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.	eng
44263	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	The potential threats are sedimentation and pollution.	eng
44264	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44264	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Mbamba Bay, the lagoon at Monkey Bay, Msumbi (15 feet deep) and Cape Maclear.	eng
44264	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi. This species is found between 0 and 15 feet on rocky, well oxygenated shores.	eng
44264	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.	eng
44264	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	The region is very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.	eng
44265	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44265	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is recorded from Simin river near the south-eastern end of Lake Victoria and the Buvuma channel in the northern part of Lake Victoria where it has been dredged at 60 meters depth.	eng
44265	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44265	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44265	threats	Lange, C., 2004	The species is likely to be susceptible to the human-induced changes to the lake.	eng
44266	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44266	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Nkhotakota.	eng
44266	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This is a freshwater species.	eng
44266	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44266	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44267	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
44267	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is known from Lake Mutanda, Uganda. However it is not clear whether the species is endemic to the lake or also found else where.	eng
44267	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
44267	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
44267	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available, but there is general human induced habitat degradation.	eng
44268	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44268	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Kenyan central highlands (Aberdare and Mt. Kenya) and Mau escarpment, restricted to a total area of 15,800 km².	eng
44268	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in stony streams in least disturbed forest areas.	eng
44268	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44268	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is threatened by the destruction of the mountain forests in the river catchments by humans through shifting cultivation, and both legal and illegal logging. Wildfires during the dry seasons have also destroyed vast forest regions in the past.	eng
44269	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	A large proportion of the mountain forest on Mount Elgon is covered by a National Park. If the species habitat is within the park the species may enjoy some protection.	eng
44269	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is found in Lake Victoria, from Kisumu in Kenya to the Victoria Nile river in Uganda. It is also recorded from the Sipi River on Mount Elgon (Ugandan side). Data from Brown (1994) suggests that this species is common and abundant in Kisumu, but recent survey work near Kisumu has not located the species.	eng
44269	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	In Lake Victoria, Brown reports having recorded many species within the stony areas.	eng
44269	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44269	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Undocumented. There is a possible threat of drought and sedimentation to the Mount Elgon population. Pollution, human disturbance and sedimentation is a potential threat to the species around Kisumu.	eng
44270	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44270	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, occurring at Dagusi Island, Buvuma channel and Kavirondo Gulf mainly from shore to about 12 m depth (in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania waters).	eng
44270	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species occurs from the shoreline to about 12 meters deep in the lake. Mostly found within the least disturbed areas.	eng
44270	population	Lange, C., 2004	Lake Victoria (Winham Gulf) survey data shows it is the least abundant species in the region appearing at four sites of total 50 sites (Lange 2003 ). In an ongoing exploration of Kenyan Lake Victoria gastropods the species has been reported to be rare and associated with least disturbed areas (Field observation).	eng
44270	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Pollution, sedimentation and human disturbance all threaten this species.	eng
44271	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44271	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. This species is known from Kyella, may be localised at northern end of the Lake.	eng
44271	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.	eng
44271	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> state a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) state 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear in shallow water.	eng
44271	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This region is very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.	eng
44272	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44272	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire River. This species is known from Mbamba Bay, Zambo Bay and Lake Malombe.	eng
44272	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This is a freshwater species.	eng
44272	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
44272	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No specific threats are documented. However, habitat is believed to be declining through sedimentation and pollution.	eng
44273	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44273	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Mount Kenya. It is known from the type locality Hall Tarn.	eng
44273	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It exists at about 4,300 meters on the mountain.	eng
44273	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
44273	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Mt. Kenya forest has in the past experienced extensive destruction by fire outbreaks particularly in the dry periods. Several sections of the forest have also been extensively destroyed through illegal logging by local residents in search of timber, building materials and agricultural land.	eng
44274	conservation	Lange, C.;, 2004	There is an initiative to protect them through a community conservation programme. The Shimba Hills National park is a protected area in the region which covers part of their range.	eng
44274	distribution	Lange, C.;, 2004	This species is endemic to the southern coastal region of Kenya. It is found in the Kaya Forest region and its type locality at Fimboni, Shimba Hills.	eng
44274	habitat	Lange, C.;, 2004	This species is found in coastal regions.	eng
44274	population	Lange, C.;, 2004	No information available.	eng
44274	threats	Lange, C.;, 2004	It is not clear whether the species distribution is covered by protected areas (in the Shimba Hills NP) or the wetlands in the human settlement schemes which places some uncertainty over species conservation status.	eng
44275	conservation	Burton, F.J., 2004	The National Trust for the Cayman Islands owns and protects <em>ca</em>. 800 hectares of terrestrial protected areas, but within Grand Cayman suitable protected land for <em>Cyclura lewisi</em> is very scarce. The Blue Iguana Recovery Programme (under the auspices of the National Trust for the Cayman Islands) is successfully breeding <em>C. lewisi</em> in captivity, rearing them to two years old, and releasing them into the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park on Grand Cayman. This restored population began breeding in 2001. Currently nests laid in the Park are being collected, and the eggs incubated to allow head-starting of all hatchlings. Long term the programme seeks to expand this successful pilot project through establishment of a large protected area where a population of <em>ca</em>. 1,000 iguanas can be restored. Control of feral predators will be required in perpetuity. <br/> <br/>The species is fully protected under local legislation, and effectively kept out of international trade by CITES regulations and procedures.	eng
44275	distribution	Burton, F.J., 2004	Although fossil evidence indicates this species was formerly widespread in dry and coastal habitats throughout Grand Cayman, it is currently restricted to the East interior, in the High Rock-Battle Hill area, with extremely rare occurrences south of the Queen’s Highway. The area of occurrence was estimated at 7 km² in 1993, reduced to less than 4 km² by 2002 despite the new establishment of a managed wild population on the Queen Elizabeth II (QE II) Botanic Park, which began breeding in 2001 (Burton 2002).	eng
44275	habitat	Burton, F.J., 2004	Comparison with other <em>Cyclura</em> species in the region strongly suggests there was once a coastal population of <em>Cyclura lewisi</em>, which was gradually displaced or extirpated by human settlements and the construction of a perimeter highway. The sparse interior population is believed to have been attracted to agricultural clearance, where in 1993 the remnant wild population was focused in the intergrade between dry forest/shrubland, and traditional fruit farms. The farms provided thermoregulatory opportunities, herbaceous browse, fallen fruit, and nesting soil, but also brought the iguanas into contact with people. <br/> <br/>Like all <em>Cyclura</em>, <em>C. lewisi</em> is an annual breeder, laying 1 to 22 eggs depending on the female’s age and size. Hatchlings are vulnerable to native snakes (<em>Alsophis cantherigerus caymanus</em>) and naturally have a very high mortality rate. Head-starting young through the first two years increases survival greatly, and is proving an effective medium-term conservation strategy.	eng
44275	population	Burton, F.J., 2004	The unmanaged wild population is so sparse and dispersed (estimated at 10–25 individuals in 2002) that no meaningful assessment of subpopulation structure can be made. The managed population in the QE II Botanic Park is not fenced in and some individuals released at this site have been recovered in the village of East End, indicating that there is potential genetic exchange with the unmanaged remnant population. However, predation by feral cats, combined with threats detailed below, appears to be preventing recruitment of young in the unmanaged population to breeding age (Burton 2002).	eng
44275	threats	Burton, F.J., 2004	Feral and free-roaming dogs and cats kill adults and juveniles respectively and have been shown to be capable of causing local extinction of other <em>Cyclura</em> species in absence of other threats. Rats have also been observed to cause severe injury to <em>C. lewisi</em> hatchlings, and may cause mortality. Both cats and rats have been observed throughout all areas of remaining <em>C. lewisi</em> occurrence, and in 2002 dogs were seen in areas which had supported nesting <em>C. lewisi</em> as recently as 1993. Predation by feral exotics is regarded as one of the major threats to the species. <br/> <br/>Traditional fruit farms have been converted to grassland for cattle grazing on a large scale over the last decade. The loss of fruit trees and herbaceous browse, combined with soil compaction, means this conversion has drastically reduced the extent of suitable habitat for the iguanas. Increasingly land is being concerted for human residential purposes, witch brings an increase in rats, cats and dogs. Habitat conversion is the second major threat to the species. <br/> <br/>Vehicular roads to serve farms in inland residential subdivisions has brought fast-moving traffic into remnant iguana areas. Road killed iguanas have consequently been observed. Although the Blue Iguana is protected under local legislation, occasional illegal captures (not involving international trade) do occur. <br/> <br/>A large breeding population of <em>Iguana iguana</em> from Central America has become established on Grand Cayman. While no resulting direct threats to native iguanas have become evident, the presence of another iguana species confuses the public awareness messages for conservation of <em>Cyclura lewisi</em>. <br/> <br/>Occasional specimens of the closely related <em>Cyclura nubila caymanensis</em> from Little Cayman, have been found free in western Grand Cayman as a result of deliberate or accidental transport of hatchlings on boats and aircraft. No sightings have occurred in eastern Grand Cayman where <em>C. lewisi</em> persists, but there is clearly a potential risk of hybridization. <br/> <br/>Despite a former tradition of consuming tail meat of iguanas, modern day Caymanians do not generally eat iguanas. An increasing Central American immigrant population has, however, brought a tradition of consuming <em>Iguana iguana</em> to Cayman, and there is a danger than this practice could "cross over" to <em>C. lewisi</em>. <br/> <br/>The primary use of Blue Iguanas today is as a major ecotourism attraction: although the population was restored there for conservation reasons, it constitutes one of the main visitor attractions to the QE II Botanic Park. Under this controlled setting with exclusion of dogs and cats, this synergy is proving beneficial to both the Park and the iguanas.	eng
44276	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44276	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Nosy-Be Island, Madagascar (NW-SE axis), where it is widespread in Madagascan rainforests.  The habitat is highly fragmented.	eng
44276	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44276	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire and clearing.	eng
44277	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	CITES Appendix II.	eng
44277	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North-west of Imerina (Ampotaka), Madagascar. Not collected since the type specimen in around 1880, occurs in one of the most highly fragmented and disturbed areas in Madagascar.	eng
44277	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	High plateaux, supposedly on rocks and inland cliffs (like the other representatives of the group).	eng
44277	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation and fire.	eng
44278	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44278	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Known from a single locality. Apparently restricted to the Ambilobe area.	eng
44278	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On limestone in deciduous xerophytic forest, north of Ambilobe.	eng
44278	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44279	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  Some localities for the typical subspecies fall within reserves and protected forests. No subpopulations of subsp. <em>onoclada</em> occur within a protected area.	eng
44279	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	The typical subspecies is recorded from south-west Madagascar, extending towards the central high-plateau.  This subspecies is common throughout its range.  The habitat for the high-plateau populations is highly fragmented. <br/> <br/>The subspecies <em>E. a. oncoclada</em> can be found in the Tulear/Saint-Augustin region and on some high plateau inselbergs.  The Tulear subpopulation is thriving and is definitely Least Concern, but the high plateau subpopulations occur in an extremely fragmented habitat.  There are no longer any links between the different subpopulations of this subspecies.	eng
44279	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found in the south-western bush areas of Madagascar, as well as the inselbergs and rocks of the southern central high-plateau.  Plants growing in the south-west don’t seem to be restricted by the nature of the soil whereas individuals from the high-plateau require well drained rock outcrops to grow, greatly limiting potential localities.	eng
44279	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, mining for the high-plateau specimens.  When old enough this species is possibly used for charcoal.	eng
44282	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  <em>E. ambarivatoensis</em> grows within the limits of the Ankarana reserve.	eng
44282	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Restricted to the Falaise de l’Ankarana.  <em>E. ambarivatoensis</em> may possibly occur in Windsor Castle, Bobaomby, near Antsiranana.	eng
44282	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on Karst (Tsingy).	eng
44282	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44283	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44283	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	<em>E. ambovombensis</em> is restricted to the Ambovombe area of Madagascar, where it is locally common.	eng
44283	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Southern bush, in deep shade under shrubs.	eng
44283	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection of <em>E. ambovombensis</em> for horticulture.	eng
44284	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44284	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North-western coast of Madagascar. May also occur on Nosy-Be, the Comoros Islands and Mayotte.	eng
44284	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found in the coastal areas, on rocky outcrops at 50–100 m. elevation.	eng
44284	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing.	eng
44285	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44285	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar: Bobaomby (Windsor Castle), Montagne des Français, Ankarana.  Locally common throughout its range.	eng
44285	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs on rock outcrops, within the tsingy (limestone outcrop) areas.	eng
44285	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44286	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in the two reserves of Ankarana and Analamerana.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44286	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located in Ankarana and Analamerana.	eng
44286	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Tsingy (limestone outcrops).	eng
44286	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44287	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44287	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Ankazobe, Madagascar.	eng
44287	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forests remnants on the central high-plateau.	eng
44287	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44288	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44288	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Near Ste-Luce, Fort-Dauphin.	eng
44288	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal rainforest. This poorly understood species may be a natural hybrid.	eng
44288	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, mining, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44289	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44289	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry parts of west and south-west Madagascar. The main subpopulation is in the Tulear region, some satellite subpopulations occur further north and to the south. The species is common wherever it grows.	eng
44289	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-western dry bush of Madagascar, along with other <em>Euphorbia</em> ssp. which are the dominant species there.	eng
44289	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44290	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44290	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, Nosy-Be.  Present in the south, centre, west and north-western region. Absent in the east.  <em>E. aprica</em> is common throughout its range.	eng
44290	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forest dweller. This is probably a species complex in need of further taxonomic work.	eng
44290	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44291	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44291	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Fort-Dauphin and Tulear area, southern Madagascar. This species is locally common, however, the habitat of <em>E. arahaka</em> is fragmented.	eng
44291	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush.	eng
44291	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is used locally as charcoal.	eng
44292	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44292	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, restricted to the Montagne des Français near Antsiranana.	eng
44292	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on tsingy type rocks.	eng
44292	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44293	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.  The species occurs outside the south-west reserves.	eng
44293	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, known only from one locality between Ampanihy and Androka.	eng
44293	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry bush, on chalk.	eng
44293	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Possibly used for the horticultural trade.	eng
44294	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some of the population is located within the Tsimanampetsota nature reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44294	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Southern Madagascar, Fort-dauphin area: Amboasary, Behara, Ranomainty; Tulear area: Tsimanampetsotsa.  The population is highly fragmented.	eng
44294	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush, on sand.	eng
44294	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.	eng
44295	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44295	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area: Behara.	eng
44295	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush, on sand.	eng
44295	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.	eng
44296	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some of the population is located within the Tsimanampetsota nature reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44296	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Southern Madagascar, Fort-dauphin area: Behara, Tulear area: Tsimanampetsotsa.  The population is highly fragmented.	eng
44296	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush, on sand.	eng
44296	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for horticulture.	eng
44297	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44297	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  Fort-Dauphin area: Ranomainty, Amboasary.	eng
44297	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush.	eng
44297	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.  Collection for horticulture.	eng
44298	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44298	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.	eng
44298	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush.	eng
44298	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44299	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in the National reserve of Bemaraha.	eng
44299	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Only known to occur in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Reserve, Mahajunga Province, Madagascar.	eng
44299	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On Karst limestone (Tsingy of Bemaraha).	eng
44299	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Fires.	eng
44300	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Lower valley of the Fiherenana, south-west Madagascar.	eng
44300	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely to occur on sands.	eng
44300	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fires.	eng
44301	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44301	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar.  Beroroha, at the Mangoky river.	eng
44301	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rocky slopes.	eng
44301	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticulture.	eng
44302	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44302	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly (South of Tulear).	eng
44302	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Possibly occurs on dry calcareous bush.	eng
44302	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.  This species also has a potential horticultural appeal.	eng
44303	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44303	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	West Madagascar: Anjiafitatra, Boina (Ankarafantsika, Mont Tsitondroina).	eng
44303	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forests on sand.	eng
44303	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely threats to this species include fires and habitat destruction.	eng
44304	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in Masoala reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44304	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  Thought to be extinct on Sainte-Marie Island and rare on Masoala peninsula, where populations are highly fragmented.	eng
44304	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Exclusively found within rainforest habitat.	eng
44304	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Destruction of its native forest.  There is a potential interest in the horticultural trade now it has been rediscovered.	eng
44305	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44305	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Anadabolava.	eng
44305	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forests.	eng
44305	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection.	eng
44306	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44306	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to east and west Madagascar, where it is considered common.	eng
44306	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44306	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44307	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44307	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to east, west and south-west Madagascar, where it is considered common.  Eastern evergreen rainforest: Tamatave, Betampona, Maroantsetra, Masoala, Sainte-Marie Island, Nosy Mangabe.  West: Nosy-Be island.	eng
44307	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44307	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44308	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin: Col de Manangotry.	eng
44308	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forest.	eng
44308	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44309	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in the reserves of Manongarivo and Zakamena.	eng
44309	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  Centre: Ankaratra, Lac Alaotra, Pic d’Ivohibe, Zakamena.  West: Sambirano, Manongarivo.  East: coastal areas.  The population occurs on highly fragmented habitat.	eng
44309	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44309	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44310	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44310	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North-west Madagascar. Only known to occur in the Bongolava regions, south-east of Port-Bergé (Boriziny).	eng
44310	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forest on the Bongolava mountains	eng
44310	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticulture.	eng
44311	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44311	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, south-western domain, near  the city of Betroka.  Known from a single specimen, never collected again.  One locality known.	eng
44311	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forests, near streams.	eng
44311	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, floods.	eng
44312	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44312	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Beroroha/Mangoky (Menamaty) area.	eng
44312	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rocky slopes.	eng
44312	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44313	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44313	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar (Antsiranana district): Windsor-Castle (Bobaomby) and surroundings, where it is locally abundant on the rocky summits.	eng
44313	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found in rock cracks.	eng
44313	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44314	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44314	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Restricted to Cap-Manambato, north-east Madagascar.	eng
44314	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rocky cliffs by the sea.	eng
44314	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44315	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	The only known locality is within the boundaries of the reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44315	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Cap-Sainte-Marie, south-west Madagascar.  There are numerous mature individuals in Cap-Sainte-Marie reserve.	eng
44315	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, in rock cracks on the top of Cap-Sainte-Marie cliff.	eng
44315	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, wildfires, natural disaster, collection for horticulture.	eng
44316	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44316	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Mahafaly plateau.	eng
44316	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44317	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44317	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Probably north-west Madagascar. Mount Mahabenofo (Unknown location).	eng
44317	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Chalk rocks.	eng
44317	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Apart from restricted range, unknown.	eng
44318	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44318	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Known only from one collection on the side of the Antananarivo-Tulear road, Tulear (Toliara) area, south-west Madagascar. Only a few mature specimens occur within the only known locality.	eng
44318	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry south-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44318	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44319	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I. Reportedly present in Namoroka reserve (Rauh 1995).	eng
44319	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Mahajanga/Maevatanana area, and possibly from Bemarivo.	eng
44319	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Among grasses, in open forests.	eng
44319	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44320	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (e.g., Namoroka, Rauh (1995)).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44320	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Mahajanga/Maevatanana area. Reportedly present in Namoroka reserve (Rauh 1995).	eng
44320	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Among grasses, in open forests.	eng
44320	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44321	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44321	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar.  Known from the type collection, possibly collected from Bemarivo.	eng
44321	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Possibly Bemarivo shores.	eng
44321	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.  Possible future threat from horticultural trade.	eng
44322	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44322	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Ampilira to Ampasimpolaka.  The habitat in which <em>E. croizatii</em> occurs is highly fragmented.	eng
44322	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found in the south-west bush of Madagascar, on rocks.	eng
44322	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44323	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44323	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area.  This species is common in some areas.	eng
44323	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-western dry forests and bush.	eng
44323	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44324	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. (seen in Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44324	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area.  This subspecies is common in some locations.	eng
44324	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-western dry forests of Madagascar.	eng
44324	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44325	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44325	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.	eng
44325	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44325	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44326	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44326	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Recorded from separate localities in southern Madagascar: 30 km south of Ampanihy, Fort Dauphin area, the Tulear area and near Ampotaka.	eng
44326	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Recorded from a variety of habitats: dry calcareous bush, under shrubs, on sands and dunes, rocky areas near the coast and in <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.	eng
44326	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for agriculture and charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44327	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44327	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: known from a single collection 30 km south of Ampanihy.	eng
44327	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry calcareous bush, under shrubs.	eng
44327	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44328	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44328	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-east Madagascar, Fort Dauphin area.	eng
44328	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, on sands and dunes.	eng
44328	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44329	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44329	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  Restricted to the Tulear area.	eng
44329	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rocky areas near the coast.	eng
44329	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44330	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44330	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: <em>Alluaudia</em> forest near Ampotaka.  This species is common at its only known locality.	eng
44330	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.	eng
44330	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44331	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. (Andohahela).	eng
44331	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area, possibly extending towards Itampolo.  <em>E. decorsei</em> is common throughout its range.	eng
44331	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry <em>Alluaudia</em> forest.	eng
44331	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also eaten by <em>Zebus.</em>	eng
44332	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44332	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin (Vinanibe).	eng
44332	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On rocks.	eng
44332	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44333	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44333	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central Madagascar: Antongona (central plateau, Imerina). Rauh (1995) states that the type locality is unknown and assumed that the plant came from Ankarana, however, it is likely that the plant came from the Central Imerina, area as the other known specimen (Decary 13131) was collected in Antongona.	eng
44333	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Unknown. Supposedly on rocks.	eng
44333	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely threats to the species are; habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44334	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44334	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: all the reserves. <em>E. denisii</em> is common throughout its range.	eng
44334	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry bush and forests of Madagascar.	eng
44334	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44335	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44335	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Zazafotsy/Zomandao area.  This species is common within its range, where the ecological requirements are met.	eng
44335	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found exclusively on rock outcrops scattered in grassland, in the high plateau area.	eng
44335	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fires, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44336	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankaratra and Andringitra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44336	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Ankaratra mountains, where it is thought to be rare; and in the Fianarantsoa area and Andringitra reserve where it is locally common.	eng
44336	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rocks and inselbergs	eng
44336	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44337	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankaratra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44337	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Ankaratra mountains, where it is thought to be rare.	eng
44337	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs on rocky areas.	eng
44337	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44338	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andringitra). Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44338	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Fianarantsoa area, Andringitra reserve. This species is locally common on rocks.	eng
44338	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rocks and inselbergs.	eng
44338	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44339	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44339	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin area, Mandena forest, Andohahela reserve.	eng
44339	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forest dweller.  Found in shrubland and forests on sandy, coastal and humid areas.	eng
44339	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44340	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities occurs within the protected areas of Ankaratra, Andringitra and Andohahela.	eng
44340	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, central plateau: Ankaratra to Andringitra, East: secondary habitat on destroyed forests, South:Andohahela. Also found on Mayotte and Comoros. The population of <em>E. emirnensis</em> is fragmented.	eng
44340	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	A high altitude species of meadows and grassy slopes.	eng
44340	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44341	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, central plateau (Ambositra, Antsirabe, Vakinankaratra area).	eng
44341	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located on meadows and grassy slopes.	eng
44341	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44342	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44342	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin; central Madagascar: Ihosy area, Zazafotsy.  Both subspecies are relatively common where they occur, but the habitat in which they occur is highly fragmented.	eng
44342	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located in the south-west bush of Madagascar (dry forest), or on rocks and inselbergs of the central high plateau.	eng
44342	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44343	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44343	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central High-plateau of Madagascar: Ihosy area, Zazafotsy. It is common throughout its range, where growing requirements are met.	eng
44343	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found exclusively on rocks and inselbergs.	eng
44343	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44344	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44344	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin; central Madagascar: Ihosy area. <em>E. e. enterophora</em> is common throughout its range, however, the habitat in which it occurs is highly fragmented.	eng
44344	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located in the south-west bush of Madagascar (forest tree), or on rocks and inselbergs of the central high plateau.	eng
44344	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44345	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascart: Ambatondrazaka area, Ampasimpotsy.	eng
44345	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in forest habitat.	eng
44345	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, clear cutting for timber.	eng
44346	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44346	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy (Ambovombe, Amboasary, Andranomana) and the Itampolo area.  The population is slightly fragmented, but common throughout its range.	eng
44346	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush and forests.	eng
44346	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44347	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44347	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy (Ambovombe, Amboasary, Andranomana). The population is slightly fragmented, but common throughout its range.	eng
44347	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush and forests.	eng
44347	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44348	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44348	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo area.	eng
44348	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush.	eng
44348	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearance for charcoal.	eng
44349	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (maybe Andringitra).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44349	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar. Zazafotsy, Fianarantsoa area.	eng
44349	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On rocky outcrops and inselbergs.	eng
44349	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44350	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within some reserves and protected forests e.g., Tsimanampetsotsa and Cap-Sainte-Marie. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44350	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Tulear to Fort-Dauphin, where it is common throughout its range.	eng
44350	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44350	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire and habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. fiherenensis</em> is used to feed cattle.	eng
44351	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44351	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin, where it is common; and Andrahomana (near Ranopiso).	eng
44351	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush under shrubs, in sand.	eng
44351	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, highly prized by the  horticultural trade (the Fort Dauphin site is very accessible).	eng
44352	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44352	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Andrahomana (near Ranopiso).	eng
44352	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush, under shrubs.	eng
44352	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, highly prized for horticulture.	eng
44353	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44353	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fort-Dauphin, where it is common throughout its range.	eng
44353	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush under shrubs, in sand.	eng
44353	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes (the site is very accessible).	eng
44354	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44354	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar, found within the surrounding coastal forest of Iharanae.	eng
44354	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal forests on sand.	eng
44354	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44355	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44355	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Fiherenana valley, north-west of Sakaraha.	eng
44355	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On steep limestone slopes.	eng
44355	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44356	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	West and south-west Madagascar: Manongarivo and Fiherenana.	eng
44356	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Sand dunes.	eng
44356	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely threats are habitat degradation and fire.	eng
44357	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44357	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  Found in the Ananalalava district (Ambarijeby, Boriziny): Port-Bergé area.  The habitat of <em>E. guillauminiana</em> is likely to be highly fragmented.	eng
44357	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On rocks.	eng
44357	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44358	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44358	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to south-west Madagascar.  Found within the Ambovombe/Amboasary area, where it is common throughout its range.	eng
44358	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44358	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection of mature specimens for the horticultural trade.	eng
44359	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	The two known localities fall within reserves.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44359	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to north Madagascar.  Found in the Tsingy of Ankarana, and possibly occurs in the reserve speciale of Analamerana, where the specimen is described as "locally common".	eng
44359	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	In red soil with leaf litter over limestone, in low (c. 6 m), dense, deciduous forest.	eng
44359	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44360	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	None in place as far as is known.	eng
44360	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North-West Madagascar, enigmatic locality: Vavatobé.	eng
44360	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Unknown.	eng
44360	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Unknown.	eng
44361	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	West Madagascar: Betsiboka.	eng
44361	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Sands of the Betsiboka.	eng
44361	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, natural disaster (flooding).	eng
44362	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44362	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, near Tongobory.(may possibly be found in La Table, near Tulear).	eng
44362	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	This species is likely to occur on rocky area amongst the south-west dry bush.	eng
44362	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44363	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Isalo). Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44363	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar, located in the areas of Horombe,Ihosy and Isalo. <em>E. horombensis</em> is locally common throughout its range, when suitable rocks are available.	eng
44363	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rock outcrops.	eng
44363	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44364	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Mangoky area (between Manja and Beroroha).	eng
44364	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Bare sandstone rocks.	eng
44364	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44365	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44365	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, Near Cap-Manambato (Iharana district).	eng
44365	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	<em>E. iharanae</em> is a coastal cliff dweller.	eng
44365	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44366	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44366	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.  <em>E. imerina</em> is a rare species, found north of the central high-plateau.	eng
44366	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found growing on some of the rocky inselbergs.	eng
44366	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44367	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests, such as Andohahela and Beza-Mahafaly. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44367	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Driest parts of south-west Madagascar: Tulear, Itampolo, Fort-Dauphin. <em>E. intisy</em> is common throughout its range.	eng
44367	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry south-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44367	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44368	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44368	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, Itremo area.	eng
44368	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on quartzite sands.	eng
44368	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44369	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44369	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Tulear area, Ifaty.	eng
44369	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush and forest of Madagascar.	eng
44369	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, clear-cutting for charcoal.	eng
44370	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44370	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear area. The population of <em>E. kondoi</em> is locally common, however, the habitat is  highly fragmented and degraded.	eng
44370	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44370	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also collected for national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44371	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	The area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are within the Réserve Spéciale de l’Ankarana. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44371	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar.  Found on the Tsingy of Ankarana: Andrafiabe (Camp des Américains) and Andavenoko. The species is qualified as "very rare" by people who conducted fieldwork in the area.	eng
44371	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Humus on calcareous rocks.	eng
44371	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44372	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44372	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North Madagascar: Montagne des Francais. Possibly found in the Ankarana and Bemarivo areas (where two dubious specimens were reportedly collected).	eng
44372	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Tsingy (limestone) of the montagne des Francais.	eng
44372	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44373	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44373	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	East coast Madagascar, from Fort-Dauphin (where it is locally common) to Sainte-Marie island. The modern collections are all from the southern part of the distribution. The specimens from Sainte-Marie island were all collected in 1880 suggesting that the species is now extinct there.	eng
44373	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal forest.	eng
44373	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44374	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44374	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	East coast Madagascar, from Fort-Dauphin (where it is locally common) to Sainte-Marie island. The modern collections are all from the southern part of the distribution. The specimens from Sainte-Marie island were all collected in 1880 suggesting that the species is now extinct there.	eng
44374	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal forest.	eng
44374	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44375	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44375	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin: Sainte-Luce forest.	eng
44375	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal forest.	eng
44375	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for national and international horticultural trade.	eng
44376	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44376	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Mahaboboka area, Amanda.	eng
44376	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry forest of Madagascar	eng
44376	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also collected for horticultural trade.	eng
44377	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44377	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly, Tsihombe area, where it is locally common on rock outcrops; and Onilahy valley area, Sakamare.	eng
44377	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, occurring only on rock outcrops.	eng
44377	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44378	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44378	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Plateau Mahafaly, Tsihombe area, where it is locally common on rock outcrops.	eng
44378	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, occurring only on rock outcrops.	eng
44378	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44379	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44379	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Onilahy valley area, Sakamare.	eng
44379	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rocky areas.	eng
44379	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, potential horticultural appeal.	eng
44380	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44380	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear area.	eng
44380	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Unknown. Likely to be the south-west dry bush.	eng
44380	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely to be habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. mainiana</em> has potential horticultural appeal.	eng
44381	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44381	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear (extending east to Mahaboboka) to Fort-dauphin. This species is common throughout its range.	eng
44381	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44381	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. <em>E. mainty</em> is also eaten by cattle.	eng
44382	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	<em>E. mananarensis</em> may be present within the Andohahela reserve.	eng
44382	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort Dauphin area: Esomony, Antanimora, Vinanibe.	eng
44382	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forest.	eng
44382	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44383	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Most of the collections are from two reserves (Tsingy of Ankarana and Montagne d’Ambre).	eng
44383	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	North Madagascar: Antsiranana (Montagne d’Ambre, Tsingy of Ankarana).	eng
44383	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On chalky areas, with other shrubs and small trees.	eng
44383	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44384	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44384	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar, found between Andapa and Sambava.	eng
44384	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	In wet mosses and lichens.	eng
44384	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44385	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44385	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Mangoky region.	eng
44385	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On woody, rocky slopes.	eng
44385	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44386	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Perinet).	eng
44386	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Eastern Madagascar: Mangoro river area, Perinet (Moramanga).	eng
44386	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Eastern rainforest.	eng
44386	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44387	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	The type collection is from the Reserve Spéciale d’Ankarana.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44387	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Andohakarany, east of the Massif de l’Ankarana.  Known only from the type location.	eng
44387	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found within dry forest, on rocks	eng
44387	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44389	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	occurs in a number of protected areas and forest reserves. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44389	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Fort Dauphin area;  20 km south of Betroka; mountains near Ihosy, possibly between Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa; possibly north of Antananarivo, near Maevatanana; on the High Plateau near Imerina; Zombitse forest (Sakaraha) and at Le Table mountain near Tulear.	eng
44389	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Seems to occur in a variety of bush and forest habitats, but always on rocks (usually granite formations).	eng
44389	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44390	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	May occur in the Andohahela reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44390	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, known only from the Fort-Dauphin area.	eng
44390	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44390	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44391	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44391	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, possibly between Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa.	eng
44391	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On granite rocks.	eng
44391	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44392	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44392	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Southern central region of Madagascar, 20 km south of Betroka.	eng
44392	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On rocks.	eng
44392	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44393	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44393	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar.  The precise locality is unknown, but may occur north of Antananarivo, near Maevatanana (Denis 1921).	eng
44393	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely to occur on granite rocks.	eng
44393	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44394	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs within the protected Zombitse forest.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44394	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar: Zombitse forest (Sakaraha), where it is locally common.	eng
44394	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	In humus, in the shade under trees.	eng
44394	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44395	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44395	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, High Plateau: Imerina (precise locality is unknown).	eng
44395	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely to be found on granite rocks.	eng
44395	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44396	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44396	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar, found on the Mountains near Ihosy (Central-South).	eng
44396	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located on granite rocks.	eng
44396	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44397	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44397	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, La Table mountain near Tulear.	eng
44397	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	located on rocky areas.	eng
44397	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44398	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44398	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, central high plateau (Antsirabe, Ihosy).	eng
44398	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located on rocks.	eng
44398	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44399	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44399	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, only known from the area of coastal Lac Vert, south of Iharana.	eng
44399	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal forest.	eng
44399	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44400	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44400	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha and Maevatanana.	eng
44400	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On Tsingy (karst) and amongst grasses.	eng
44400	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44401	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	This variety occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44401	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.	eng
44401	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Tsingy (karst).	eng
44401	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44402	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	This variety occurs within the reserve of Bemaraha.  Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44402	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.	eng
44402	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Tsingy (karst).	eng
44402	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44403	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	This variety occurs in the reserve of Bemaraha.	eng
44403	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Tsingy of Bemaraha.	eng
44403	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Tsingy (karst).	eng
44403	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44404	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44404	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar, Maevatanana.	eng
44404	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Amongst grasses.	eng
44404	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44405	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	May occur within the limits of the protected forest of Zombitse. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44405	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo and Sakaraha areas.	eng
44405	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush and dry forest.	eng
44405	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44406	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44406	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Itampolo area.	eng
44406	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44406	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. Collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44407	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	May occur within the limits of the protected forest of Zombitse.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44407	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Sakaraha area.	eng
44407	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forest.	eng
44407	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire.  Possible collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44408	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within the boundraies of the Ankarana reserve. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44408	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar, Antsiranana province: Tsingy of Ankarana and the Montagne des Francais.	eng
44408	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located on tsingy limestone.	eng
44408	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44409	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44409	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Lac alaotra to Tulear and the Fort-Dauphin area.	eng
44409	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forest and bush in rocky areas.	eng
44409	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44410	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44410	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Lac alaotra to Tulear.	eng
44410	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry bush in rocky areas.	eng
44410	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44411	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44411	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area.	eng
44411	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44411	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44412	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	The two localities fall within the boundaries of the Tsingy of Ankarana reserve.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44412	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, Tsingy of Ankarana.	eng
44412	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On Tsingy limestones.	eng
44412	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44413	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44413	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Eastern Madagascar, Ambatondrazaka, Lac Alaotra, etc. <em>E. pachysantha</em> was not collected for 60 years, and only one recent collection from the Andringitra area is known. It is a rarely encountered species, threatened by habitat fragmentation.	eng
44413	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44413	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal and logging.	eng
44414	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44414	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, near Anjamala.	eng
44414	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Pockets of soil, on the face of the cavernous limestone cliffs on the south bank of Fiherenana river.	eng
44414	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44415	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Only known from the Tsingy of Bemaraha reserve. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44415	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Tsingy of Bemaraha.	eng
44415	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located on tsingy limestone.	eng
44415	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44416	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Ankarafantsika).  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44416	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: ankarafantsika, morondava area, etc. The habitat where <em>E. pedilanthoides</em> occurs is highly fragmented.	eng
44416	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Sandy dry forests of Madagascar.	eng
44416	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44417	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Antanimena, and between Port-Bergé and Antsohihy.	eng
44417	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Possibly located on dry grassland.	eng
44417	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, natural disasters.	eng
44418	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44418	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar: Sambirano region, Manongarivo massif; and Tsingy of Namoroka, Ankarafantsika.	eng
44418	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located in dry forests and woods on sandstone ("gres liasiques").	eng
44418	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44419	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44419	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern Madagascar, Sambirano region, Manongarivo massif.	eng
44419	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Located in woods on sandstone ("gres liasiques").	eng
44419	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44420	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44420	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Tsingy of Namoroka, Ankarafantsika.	eng
44420	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forests.	eng
44420	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44421	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44421	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	This species is found in south-west Madagascar (Tulear to Fort-Dauphin), and the central high-plateau (Ihosy area). The type specimen, collected in the 1800s,  supposedly originated from the Ambongo area, however, the habitat type in this area is not suitable for this species, and a collection has not been made in this area since. <br/> <br/>Common throughout its range. A forest dweller, very prone to be destroyed by fires. In areas destroyed by fires, the species is found sheltered in rock cracks. Its habitat is extremely fragmented.	eng
44421	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush, except in the driest parts. Originally a forest tree but can still be found in heavily destroyed habitat among rocks.	eng
44421	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44422	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44422	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Ambongo, Morondava, Mayotte.  This species is common throughout its range.	eng
44422	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forest dweller.	eng
44422	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44423	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Western Madagascar: Ambongo, Haut Bemarivo.  <em>E. pirahazo</em> is thought to be extremely rare and the habitat is highly fragmented.	eng
44423	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry forests.	eng
44423	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, past collection for rubber production.	eng
44424	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44424	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Fort-Dauphin area.  <em>E. plagiantha</em> is widespread and common throughout its range.	eng
44424	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush.	eng
44424	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also used at a subsistence level for timber and charcoal.	eng
44425	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44425	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: 50 km north-west of Tulear, on the way to the Fiherenana valley (Anjamala area) and near the road from Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy. Known only from the two localities.	eng
44425	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Deciduous forest.	eng
44425	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fires. Possible future threat from collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44426	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44426	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: 50 km north-west of Tulear, on the way to the Fiherenana valley (Anjamala area).  Known only from one specimen, never collected again.	eng
44426	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Deciduous forest.	eng
44426	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fires. Possible future threat from collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44427	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44427	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-western Madagascar, near the road from Fort-Dauphin to Ampanihy. Known only from one locality.	eng
44427	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Forests, near the road.	eng
44427	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fires.	eng
44428	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44428	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Isalo area and central high-plateau area.	eng
44428	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On Isalo sands, in valleys and also in red laterite grasslands.	eng
44428	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44429	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44429	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Isalo area. This variant is common throughout its range.	eng
44429	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On Isalo sands, in valleys.	eng
44429	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for horticulture.	eng
44430	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44430	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, central high-plateau area. This variant is common throughout its range, where the conditions for its growth are met (red laterite soil).	eng
44430	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	In red laterite grasslands.	eng
44430	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44431	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44431	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central High-Plateau of Madagascar, Itremo mountains, near Ambatofinandrahana.  Found growing in patches and are locally abundant when the habitat meets the requirements of the species (pure white quartzite sands with traces of soil).	eng
44431	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Restricted to the High-Plateau quartzite sands of the Itremo region (1,500 m.)	eng
44431	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, whole plant collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44432	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44432	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west.Madagascar, Tulear area.	eng
44432	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44432	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44433	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44433	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Morombe area. <em>E. randrianjohanyi</em> is common were the forest is undisturbed.	eng
44433	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	This newly described species occurs in the south-west bush of Madagascar. Only present in the coastal forests growing on the specific "sables roux" (red sands).	eng
44433	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44434	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44434	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Eastern Madagascar: Mananjary, Ifanadiana, Andrangolava.	eng
44434	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Evergreen forest.	eng
44434	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, logging.	eng
44435	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests (Andohahela).	eng
44435	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Fort-Dauphin area. This species is common throughout its range, where the forest is intact.	eng
44435	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar.	eng
44435	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44436	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44436	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, near Tongobory.	eng
44436	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dry South-western bush of Madagascar.	eng
44436	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44437	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44437	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central Madagascar.	eng
44437	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely to occur on rocks.	eng
44437	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Likely threats to this species will be habitat degradation, fire.	eng
44438	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44438	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Known only from the Angavo mountains, Antanimora area, South-west Madagascar.	eng
44438	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry bush of Madagascar.	eng
44438	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal	eng
44439	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44439	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Known only from the Analava forest, Iharana-Sambava area, north-east Madagascar.	eng
44439	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Riparian, on stream shores.	eng
44439	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural purposes.	eng
44440	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44440	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: In the Mangoky area, near Nosy-Ambositra (Befandriana-Sud).	eng
44440	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on rocks.	eng
44440	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, potentially collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44441	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44441	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Sakaraha Forest, Sakaraha/Mahaboboka area.	eng
44441	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry forests, under trees.	eng
44441	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44442	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44442	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Betroka, Beraketa, Ampandrandava and Manambolo areas.	eng
44442	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44443	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44443	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central Madagascar: Ambatofinandrahana, Tulear to Fort Dauphin, and the south-central High plateau (Ivohibe). This species is common throughout its range.	eng
44443	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Found on cipolin marble rock outcrops near Ambatofinandrahana. The high plateau populations are in south-west dry bush on rock outcrops.	eng
44443	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, and mining. Grows only on cipolin rocks, which are exploited as a valuable source of white marble. This species is also used to feed <em>Zebus</em>.	eng
44444	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44444	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Central Madagascar: Ambatofinandrahana. This subspecies is locally common where habitat requirements are met.	eng
44444	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Only found on cipolin marble rock outcrops near Ambatofinandrahana at an altitude of 1,300–1,400 m.	eng
44444	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, mining. The subspecies grows only on cipolin rocks, which is exploited as a valuable source of white marble.	eng
44445	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44445	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear to Fort Dauphin, to the south-central High plateau (Ivohibe). This subspecies is common throughout its range.	eng
44445	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry bush of Madagascar, or rock outcrops (high plateau populations).	eng
44445	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal. This species is also used to feed <em>Zebus</em>.	eng
44446	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar: Tulear, La Table area, where this species is locally common.	eng
44446	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west dry bush of Madagascar.	eng
44446	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44447	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44447	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	East coast of Madagascar: on rocky areas on the Nosivolo (Mangoro).	eng
44447	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Wet rocky areas of the east coast.	eng
44447	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for timber and collection for the horticultural trade.	eng
44448	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44448	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern, eastern and southern rainforests of Madagascar, where it is common throughout its range. This subspecies is present in most forest reserves of the eastern and northern coasts.	eng
44448	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44448	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation and logging.	eng
44449	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Eastern Madagascar: Mangoro area.	eng
44449	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44449	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation.	eng
44450	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests.	eng
44450	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Northern, eastern and southern rainforests of Madagascar, where it is common throughout its range. This subspecies is present in most forest reserves of the eastern and northern coasts.	eng
44450	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44450	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation. Logging.	eng
44451	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Some localities fall within reserves and protected forests. Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44451	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	East coast of Madagascar, from Mananjary to the Masoala Peninsula.	eng
44451	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Coastal rainforest.	eng
44451	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for timber.	eng
44452	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Occurs in a large number of protected areas.  Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44452	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	The species is present in all the tropical parts of the world and is common throughout its range. The modern distribution of this species appears to have become confused by introductions and subsequent naturalization (it has a long history of utilization be people), so it is hard to know which countries are part of the original range.	eng
44452	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Usually in dry and moist thicket and savanna-type vegetation. This species is used to feed cattle and is widely used as a hedge plant. The latex is used sometimes as a fish poison, and at one time was exploited, although not very successfully, in the production of rubber. The latex apparently has too high a resin content.	eng
44452	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal.	eng
44453	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Madagascar, central high-plateau: Antsirabe area.	eng
44453	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	On laterite, between grasses or rocky areas.	eng
44453	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation and fire.	eng
44454	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix I.	eng
44454	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, Tulear and Saint Augustin areas.  <em>E. tulearensis</em> is locally common throughout its range.	eng
44454	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, on rocky limestone cliffs.	eng
44454	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing for charcoal, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44455	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-western Madagascar, between Mahasoabe and Ihotry	eng
44455	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Dunes.	eng
44455	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation and fire.	eng
44456	conservation	Haevermans, T., 2004	Listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
44456	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west Madagascar, east of Esomony.	eng
44456	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	South-west bush of Madagascar, at the bottom of the mountains near Esomony. Located under shrubs, in stony red earth.	eng
44456	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation, fire, habitat clearing, collection for horticultural trade.	eng
44457	distribution	Haevermans, T., 2004	Known only from the Zakamena reserve, south-east of Lac Alaotra, central Madagascar.	eng
44457	habitat	Haevermans, T., 2004	Rainforest.	eng
44457	threats	Haevermans, T., 2004	Habitat degradation and fire.	eng
44458	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44458	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers at less than 100 m asl.	eng
44458	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The most likely threat to the species is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation practices in the area.	eng
44459	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44459	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers on the eastern slope of Madagascar (< 800 m asl).	eng
44459	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The most likely threats to the species are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation practices in the area; and predation from alien invasive species.	eng
44460	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44460	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers (< 800 m asl).	eng
44460	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Most likely threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
44461	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	This species was recently described (Ng and Sparks 2003a).	eng
44461	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known only from the Sofia River.	eng
44461	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat loss and degradation through deforestation and dam construction.	eng
44462	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Recently described species, endemic to Lake Andrapongy and River Ankofia.	eng
44462	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	A riverine and lake species.	eng
44462	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat degradation is the main threat.	eng
44463	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44463	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from rivers flowing into Antongil Bay.	eng
44463	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation of river catchment areas.	eng
44464	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species' range extends into Marojejy National Park.	eng
44464	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44464	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from the Lokoho river basin.	eng
44464	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas is the main threat to the species.	eng
44465	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species' range extends into Marojejy National Park.	eng
44465	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44465	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from the Lokoho river basin.	eng
44465	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas is the main threat to the species.	eng
44466	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44466	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44466	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Current threats affecting the population are unknown. Most likely threat is habitat degradation.	eng
44467	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44467	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44467	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation; and predation and competition from alien invasive species.	eng
44468	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species' range extends into an area of protected forest.	eng
44468	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44468	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from the Ivoloina river basin.	eng
44468	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation in unprotected areas.	eng
44469	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44469	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Found in the Laroka-Rianila basin.	eng
44469	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threat is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
44470	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44470	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from the Mahanara river basin.	eng
44470	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat degradation, and competition and predation by alien invasive species.	eng
44471	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Occurs in a national park.	eng
44471	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	This species is known only from the lower reaches of the Tokahandra River which runs through the National park of Manombo and Manombo Forest.	eng
44471	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	A riverine species.	eng
44471	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat loss and deforestation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.	eng
44472	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44472	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44472	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.	eng
44473	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The species' range extends into Ranomafana National Park.	eng
44473	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44473	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known from the Namorona River basin.	eng
44473	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	The main threat is habitat degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
44474	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44474	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Known only from a tributary of the lower Sambava River.	eng
44474	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main thrats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and predation by the invasive exotic predator, the spotted snakehead.	eng
44475	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44475	habitat	Loiselle, P., 2004	Rivers.	eng
44475	threats	Loiselle, P., 2004	The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
44476	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44476	habitat	Loiselle, P., 2004	Rivers.	eng
44476	threats	Loiselle, P., 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown.	eng
44477	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madgascar. Restricted to a small remaining forested region within the Mananara drainage basin.	eng
44477	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44477	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threats are habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation; and competition and predation from alien invasive species.	eng
44478	conservation	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	No conservation measures in place or recommended at present.	eng
44478	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44478	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Primarily riverine, but with a marine adult phase.	eng
44478	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	None known at present.	eng
44479	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44479	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Estuaries and lower reaches of rivers.	eng
44479	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Main threat is habitat loss and degradation through siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
44480	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44480	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44480	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown.	eng
44481	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44481	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Riverrs.	eng
44481	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown.	eng
44482	habitat	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Rivers.	eng
44482	threats	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	No threats currently known to be affecting the population.	eng
44483	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44484	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44485	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44486	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44487	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44488	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44489	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44490	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44491	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44492	conservation	Loiselle, P., 2008	Currently there are no <em>in situ</em> conservation measures in place. However, this species is the subject of a successful <em>ex situ</em> captive breeding program.	eng
44492	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2008	Endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceType"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="PlaceName"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region"></u1:smarttagtype><span times="" new="" roman=""="">Present in the flood plain lakes of the <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bemarivo</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u4:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, the major northwards-flowing tributary of the <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sofia</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placename u4:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">River</st1:placename></st1:placename> in northwestern <st1:country-region u4:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species is now known to occur in a single lake of that system: Lac Tseny.	eng
44492	habitat	Loiselle, P., 2008	A malacophagous biparentally custodial substratum-spawning cichlid with a protracted period of brood care and a highly seasonal reproductive pattern.	eng
44492	population	Loiselle, P., 2008	<p>No data are avialable on the wild population; previously it was thought to have disappeared from its native range, but more recent surveys rediscovered the species in   Lac Tseny. Captive breeding populations exist in Europe and <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>.</span></p>	eng
44492	threats	Loiselle, P., 2008	Historically, over-fishing. Presently, habitat loss due to environmental degradation, and competition from and/or predation by exotic species.	eng
44493	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44494	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44495	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44496	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Warm-temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes from the Western Cape of South Africa to southern Mozambique and southeastern Madagascar. Normally absent from the cold-temperate west coast of South Africa, north from Cape Town. Depth range 37 m to at least 500 m. Bimodal distribution off the southern Cape Coast of South Africa. Most records are from between 20 and 21° on the outer continental shelf of the Western Cape (Cape Agulhas and Cape Infanta, 60 to 160 m, mostly 70 to 140 m) and between 25 and 27° longitude on continental shelf and upper slope of Eastern Cape from Port Elizabeth to Port Alfred (70 to 290 m, mostly 80 to 120 m). Few intermediate records between these two areas, no records below 300 m on the Cape coast. Possible pupping grounds in Eastern Cape (near Algoa Bay) and off KwaZulu-Natal.  <br/> <br/>Off central KwaZulu-Natal, occurs at 73 to 430 m, mostly below 110 m. Has been taken at 360 m off Delagoa Bay, Mozambique and at 425 to 500 m off southeastern Madagascar (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
44496	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Offshore benthic and epibenthic species on the warm-temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes of southern Africa and Madagascar at 37 m to at least 500 m, with apparent tropical submersion northeastwards along its range and onto the uppermost slopes. Bimodal distribution in South African Cape waters may be linked to restricted habitat (possibly related to feeding). <br/> <br/>Biology, ecology and behaviour sketchily known. Ovoviviparous, with 5 to 7 pups/litter (but 7 to 17 developing eggs recorded). Populations partially segregated; young occur in shallower water than adults off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Possible pupping grounds in Eastern Cape (near Algoa Bay) and off KwaZulu-Natal. Feeds on small fish, crustaceans and squid. Predators poorly known but include tiger shark (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><strong>Known life history parameters</strong> <br/>Size at maturity: 110 cm total length (TL) (females); 83 cm TL (males). <br/>Maximum size: at least 112 cm TL (males) and 136 cm TL (females). <br/>Size at birth: 35 to 37 cm TL. <br/>Average annual fecundity or litter size: 5 to 7 young per litter in two females; others with 1 to 17 eggs.	eng
44496	population	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Apparently common or formerly common off the southern Cape coast of South Africa.	eng
44496	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Bycatch of demersal bottom trawlers off South Africa and southern Mozambique. Intensive offshore trawl fisheries occur in its known range, but trends in occurrence of this species as bycatch are unmonitored. It is apparently unutilized and discarded (Compagno in prep. a). Probably not sufficiently common in bycatch to be worth marketing.	eng
44497	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44498	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44499	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44500	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44501	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44502	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44503	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44504	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44505	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44506	distribution	Loiselle, P., 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44507	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44508	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44509	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44510	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44511	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44512	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Nosivolo River, Tamatave Province, Madagascar.	eng
44513	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44514	distribution	Acuña, E., 2004	Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands; Eastern Pacific: southern California (USA), Panama, Cocos Islands, Columbia, Ecuador, Chile (northern, central and southern) to Straits of Magellan, Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep. a). Specimens from southern Chile to the Strait of Magellan may represent a separate species and taxonomic resolution is required (D. Ebert, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Taken only sporadically in Californian waters (D. Ebert, pers. comm).	eng
44514	habitat	Acuña, E., 2004	Little is known of this deepwater dogfish, which has been recorded from the continental and insular slopes at depths of 400 to 1,143 m (Compagno, in prep. a), although recorded off Chile as shallow as 300 m and off California in depths of 250 to 1,250 m (D. Ebert, pers. comm.). Biology is poorly known. Maximum size 50 cm total length (TL). Size at birth 11 to 13 cm TL. Neonates have an internal yolk sac for nourishment (Ebert 2003). Males adult at 35 to 43 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a). Females become adult at 43 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Aplacental viviparous with a litter size of at least seven young.  <br/> <br/>Associated with benthic soft mud and sand habitats, but may also feed off the bottom (Compagno, in prep. a). The species feeds on deepwater shrimps, cephalopods, and small mesopelagic bony fishes (Ebert 2003). Based on the presence of mesopelagic prey items this species may migrate into the water column to feed (Ebert 2003).	eng
44514	threats	Acuña, E., 2004	Sporadic bycatch in the Chilean deep sea shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) fishery off Northern and Central Chile (from 25º07?41?? to 34º18?43??S and 259?500 m) in small numbers although more abundantly than <em>Centroscyllium granulatum</em> (González 2001, Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Incidentally captured in sablefish traps in California, but it is not utilized (Compagno in preparation a).	eng
44515	conservation	Leandro, L., 2004	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44515	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	At present known only from the Naska Submarine Ridge in the Eastern South Pacific, off Chile.	eng
44515	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	The holotype, and only specimen, was collected at 330 m. It was an adult female of 40 cm total length (TL). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44515	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	Unknown. The species is probably not utilized.	eng
44516	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44516	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia, East Africa. Found in the East African coastal region, from northeast Tanzania to Taru, Kenya, to Giohar and Eil, Somalia and inland in Kenya as far as Nairobi. Somalia: The northernmost point of <em>D. imitatrix</em>’s distribution appears to be the Eyl District in Puntland, Somalia (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005), an area with marshes, permanent freshwater, and a major well system (M. Thulin, pers. comm.). The other localities in Somalia where specimens of <em>D. imitatrix</em> were found are all associated with two large rivers, the Shebeele (Uebi Scebeli or Wabi Shabelle) and the Jubba (Giuba or Ganane). The Shebeele River runs from the Ethiopian highlands to the Somali coast where it flows parallel to the coastline forming swamps and dry reaches that end close to the Jubba River. The Jubba runs from Ethiopia to the south of Somalia and is the only river in the area with a reliable year-round flow. Kenya: <em>D. imitatrix</em> is found in waterholes and swampy areas in the coastal lowlands, near Kasigau Mountain, and inland along the Galana and Athi Rivers (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005, and references therein). Tanzania. Tanga. Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued that the type locality is Kadiaro, Kenya (and not Zanzibar), and that the report of <em>D. imitatrix</em> from Zanzibar is most probably the result of a mistake arising from the replacement of a lost label.	eng
44516	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species exhibits a preference for areas with marshes and low-lying swamps with stagnant surface water. The habitats where this species is found include wetlands, streams, and slow-flowing rivers. <em>Deckenia imitatrix</em> inhabits burrows dug into soft, silt-clay types of sediment and appear to avoid course-grained, sandy soils. It is likely that the area of occupancy of both species of <em>Deckenia</em> within their distributional range is limited by their restriction to areas with a high groundwater level.	eng
44516	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is evidence that the population size is decreasing due to habitat disturbance and loss associated with increasing human populations. Its population levels were estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that it has been collected recently from more localities and that it is well represented in museum collections. However, recent field surveys by S. Marijnissen (pers comm.) have revealed that this species may be potentially more vulnerable that previously thought. Although this species has a wide extent of occurrence that is much greater than 20,000 km² (which is above the threshold for vulnerable, VU), it may have an increasingly restricted area of occupancy due to habitat disturbance that would fall into the range for vulnerable (VU). While it is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, its population is estimated to possibly be in decline due to the fact that its habitat is restricted to marshes and wetlands, and these are fragmented and declining in this part of East Africa. The dependence of this species on wetland habitats that are vulnerable to human disturbance and that are associated with a growing human population in the region would argue for the upgrading of the conservation status of <em>D. imitatrix</em> from least concern to vulnerable in the light of the new data.	eng
44516	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat disturbance from increasing human population growth. Between 1970 and 1990 the human population in East Africa has more than doubled and it is still growing rapidly (UNEP, 2004). The major threats to freshwater biodiversity in the East African region include the effects of increasing human population growth on the loss of freshwater habitats through deforestation and agricultural encroachment (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species.	eng
44517	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44517	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania and Kenya. The type locality is Wembere Steppe near Tabora (5°02’S, 32°50’E) in Tanzania, and Ng <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported on material from Kilimantinde (5°52’S, 34°55’E), Dar es Salaam, and at a non-specific locality in southern Tanzania near Lake Malawi (as Nyassa Lake). The combination of all known localities for <em>D. mitis</em> (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005) indicates that this species is found in both inland and coastal localities in Tanzania (Dodoma, Tanga, Iringa, Mount Meru, Amani, South Pare Mountains, Kibno, Kilimantinde and Dar es Salaam) and in Kenya (Murangía, Taveta and<br/>Mombasa). <br/><br/>Kenya: <em>Deckenia mitis</em> is found in two inland localities in Kenya (Murang’a and Comarock on the Athi plains), as well as several localities on the coastal lowlands (Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Tanzania: <em>D. mitis</em> is found on the coastal lowlands and inland near Mount Meru, near Lake Victoria, and on the Wembere Steppe north of Tabora. There is also a literature report of <em>D. mitis</em> from a locality in southern Tanzania close to lake Malawi but this has not been confirmed (see Marijnissen <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in the Usambara-Tanga region suggest that <em>D. mitis</em> is restricted to the lower edges of the montane forest and to coastal plains, where it inhabits burrows near the edge of slow-moving streams or near stagnant water bodies such as ponds and wells (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1964). In Tanzania, 17 specimens of <em>D. mitis</em> were collected from their burrows in a wetland area (0,5 km²) near Segera (5°18’S, 38°39’E), and an additional 13 specimens were collected from burrows beside ponds near Mwang’ombe (5°04’S, 39°06’E).	eng
44517	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species exhibits a preference for areas with stagnant surface water in habitats that include wetlands, streams, and slow-flowing rivers. This  species inhabits burrows dug into soft, silt-clay types of sediment and appear to avoid course-grained, sandy soils. The burrows of <em>D. mitis</em> reach down to the water table. This is also observed in other African burrow-dwelling freshwater crab species including <em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> (Cumberlidge 1987), <em>P. obesus</em> (S.A.E. Marijnissen, pers. obs.), and <em>Afrithelphusa monodi</em> (Cumberlidge 2006a,b), where such burrows ensure crabs a constant water supply during dry periods. It is thus likely that the area of occupancy of <em>D. mitis</em> within its distributional range is limited by its restriction to areas with a high groundwater level. <em>Deckenia mitis</em> prefers marshes and low lying wetlands, and is an air-breathing amphibious species. Williams <em>et al</em>. (1964) provided some observations on the habitat of <em>D. mitis</em> caught in an arid area of northern Tanzania close to Mount Meru. Specimens of <em>D. mitis</em> were collected in warm stagnant surface waters, and never in the cooler streams flowing down mountain slopes. <em>Deckenia mitis</em> and <em>P. obesus</em> share the same habitat and burrow deeply into the soil at the waters edge, often causing extensive damage to drainage ditches.	eng
44517	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species. While It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, it is likely that its population is declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens from many parts of its range, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from loss of wetlands associated with growing human populations in the region (IUCN 2004).	eng
44517	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Between 1970 and 1990 the human population in East Africa has more than doubled and it is still growing rapidly (UNEP 2004). The effects of increasing human population growth on the loss of freshwater habitats through deforestation and agricultural encroachment are recognized as the major threats to freshwater biodiversity in the East African region (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005). Recent field studies in Tanzania indicate that the quantity and quality of freshwater habitats available to this species have decreased drastically over the past several decades and that habitat disturbance could be a major factor in driving declining population levels of this species. There are immediate threats from increasing habitat disturbance from loss of wetlands associated with growing human populations in the region (IUCN 2004). Marijinissen <em>et al</em>. (2005) argued for the upgrading of the conservation status of <em>D. mitis</em> to Vulnerable based on new field studies and new population estimates.	eng
44518	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44518	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Lake Tanganyika: Zambia and Tanzania. It occurs in waters from 1–60 m deep, on sand or rocks, sometimes inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>shells.	eng
44518	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality.	eng
44518	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44519	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
44519	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Lake Tanganyika: Burundi, Tanzania and D. R. Congo. Platythelphusa polita occurs in waters from 5–60 m deep, where the lake bottom is either sandy or rocky and there are shell beds. This species is sometimes found inside empty <span style="font-style: italic;">Neothauma </span>shells.	eng
44519	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that material has been collected recently from more than one locality (R. Bills, pers comm.).	eng
44519	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44520	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44520	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout the basin of the Nile River in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Tanzania.	eng
44520	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes berardi</em> is found in the streams and rivers that make up the Nile River drainage basin from Cairo in Egypt to Tanzania in East Africa. Otherwise there is no information on the specific habitat requirements of this species.	eng
44520	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes berardi</em> is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution, apparent high abundance (reflected in the relatively high representation in museum collections), which is interpreted here as reflecting potentially high population levels, and lack of long-term threats. However, present population levels are unassessed.	eng
44520	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and pollution.	eng
44521	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44521	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malawi.	eng
44521	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
44521	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Continuing decline in extent of occurrence is inferred from the lack of recent collections anywhere in its range in the past 30 years. <em>P. choloensis</em> has been known to scientists for more than 50 years and yet still has only a poor representation in museum collections.	eng
44521	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44522	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44522	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D. R. Congo: Mundung des Kibali (mouth of the Kibali River), Mission du Bourg de Bozas.	eng
44522	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44522	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The relatively low representation in museum collections of this species is interpreted here as reflecting potentially low population levels (although under-collecting could equally explain these low levels), and in fact its present population levels are unassessed.	eng
44522	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44523	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time..	eng
44523	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania: Gulf of Bukoba. Democratic Republic of Congo. Rwanda. Uganda (Ruwenzori Mountains between Lake Edward and Lake Albert, 1,800 m).	eng
44523	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes emini</em> is a widespread and abundant species that has been collected recently. It is found in streams where the water flow was slow, almost stagnant, with iron oxide flocculates on the streambed. This species was also collected from underneath rocks and cobbles in fast flowing streams near Lake Tanganyika.	eng
44523	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The population levels and trends of this species are estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected relatively recently from more than one locality and that this species is well represented in museum collections. Its population size is estimated at more than 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range.	eng
44523	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution	eng
44524	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44524	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania and Kenya: Mara and Arusha regions of Tanzania; Gerdalo, in the Nyanza Province of Kenya. The two specimens of <em>P. gerdalensis</em> from the Nyanza Province of Kenya represent the only new material known since the original description of this species in 1955. These records extend the range of this species northwest along the border between Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
44524	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44524	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Its population is estimated to be low based on indirect measures such as the lack of recent collections of specimens and its poor representation in museum collections.	eng
44524	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44525	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44525	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda: Tshiwia and Mukoba, SW Kahuzi, 2,200 m asl, Lake Kivu. Luika; Kiandjo, Lake Kivu, 1,850/1,950 m asl; Kasika N'Zokwe, 1,150 m asl; Muenga, Kamituga, lake Kivu, 1,050 m asl; Terr. Shabunda, Kigulube, lake Kivu, 900/1,000m asl; Tabutubu.	eng
44525	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a lake-living species.	eng
44525	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44525	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44526	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44526	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo. Endemic to Idjiwi Island in Lake Kivu. Its extent of occurrence is very restricted (less than 500 km²) because it is endemic to the streams and freshwater habitats on Idjiwi island in Lake Kivu, and all individuals are in just two localities.	eng
44526	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44526	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44526	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44528	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44528	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ethiopia: Gondar near Lake Tana.	eng
44528	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44528	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44528	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44529	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44529	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania: Buloa, Amani, Derema, East and West Usambara Mountains; Tanga, and Kiseruii.	eng
44529	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
44529	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining (despite the material presented here), based on indirect measures such a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing threats from habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44529	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are increasing threats from habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44530	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44530	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya (Kibwesi northeast of Kilimandjar, 4,000 m). Tanzania: Kilimandjaro, Nekona, Mrogoro near Dar-es-Salam, Usambara Mountains. Other records in Malawi and DR Congo in Cumberlidge (1998) are doubtful.	eng
44530	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44530	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect measures such as lack of recent collections of specimens, a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing threats habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44530	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The threats to this species are linked to the increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44531	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
44531	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda and Kenya, East Africa. Mount Elgon.	eng
44531	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44531	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
44531	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44532	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44532	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo. Potamonautes loveridgei is found in the rivers that flow into Lake Tanganyika including the Luiche River (Ujiji and Dabaga). It is also found in Uzungwe (Uzongwe), Rungwe Mountains, Tanzania.	eng
44532	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in the rivers that flow into Lake Tanganyika.	eng
44532	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality and that it is well represented in museum collections	eng
44532	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44533	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44533	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda. Endemic to Lake Mutanda.	eng
44533	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44533	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44533	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. There is also the danger of a potential population decline due to competition with exotic species (Lousiana red claw crayfish, <em>Procambarus clarki</em>) introduced  into Lake Mutanda. This crayfish is doing very well so is very likely to be having negative impacts on this crab, however there have been no surveys for the crab in the lake for the last 30 years.	eng
44534	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44534	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya, East Africa.	eng
44534	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44534	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44534	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44535	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
44535	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout the basin of the Nile River in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Lake Victoria, and Rwanda.	eng
44535	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes niloticus</em> is found in the streams and rivers that make up the Nile River drainage basin from Cairo in Egypt to Rwanda in East Africa, and it is the only species of freshwater crab found in Lake Victoria. Otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
44535	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. However, it would appear that its populations are abundant enough to support small scale local fisheries in Lake Victoria in Uganda and Kenya.	eng
44535	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major long-term threats to this species in the future include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. It could also suffer population declines from over-harvesting in Lake Victoria.	eng
44536	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44536	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found along the border between Kenya and Tanzania. The type locality is in rain forest near Marangu (= Maranga), Morogoro District, at the base of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.	eng
44536	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44536	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect measures such as lack of recent collections of specimens, a relatively poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44536	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are threats to this species from increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44537	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44537	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya and Tanzania: The type locality is Lake Chala spanning the border between Kenya and Tanzania. Potamonautes platycentron is endemic to Lake Chala (3°19’S, 37°41’E). The border between Kenya and Tanzania crosses the slopes of Kilimanjaro and passes through this crater lake. The locality information lists P. platycentron from Kenya but it is highly likely that this species is also found on the Tanzanian side of Lake Chala, so it is included in the list of species for Tanzania for completeness.	eng
44537	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake-living species.	eng
44537	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species, but its population is estimated to be declining, based on indirect measures such as the lack of recent collections of specimens, a poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44537	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44538	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marjinissen, S., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
44538	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marjinissen, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia (Capart 1954; Cumberlidge et al. 1999).	eng
44538	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marjinissen, S., 2008	<em>Potamonautes platynotus</em> occurs in rocky areas in Lake Tanganyika and is mainly found in the shallow littoral zone up to a maximum depth of approximately 10 m. This species is primarily aquatic, but it has been observed out of water feeding on top of rocks, and it can survive for several hours (up to half a day) without access to water (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.).	eng
44538	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marjinissen, S., 2008	Its population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such as the fact that a lot of material has been collected recently from more than one locality (S. Marijnissen, pers. comm.), that it is supplied to the international aquarium trade and that it is well represented in museum collections. The total number of specimens known is < 1,000, but the distributional range throughout this lake is wide and population size is estimated at > 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range of this large lake (34,000 km²). This species has been collected recently (in the past five years) and is available via the aquarium trade.  This species is present in a number of museum collections indicating that it was at least locally abundant up to about thirty years ago, but present population levels are unassessed. Recent SCUBA diving surveys by Saskia Marijnissen indicate that this species is locally common in the Kigoma region. A small fishery for the aquarium trade may impact the numbers of this species.	eng
44538	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marjinissen, S., 2008	There are potential future threats from over collection for the international aquarium trade.	eng
44539	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44539	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania, Kenya, East Africa,  The type locality is Zigi, 9 km from Amani, East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Also found in the Simba Hills, Kenya. Area of occupancy is likely to be less than 2,000 km² due the very specialised niche that this species occupies (tree holes) in forested areas which do not cover the whole extent of occurrence.	eng
44539	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamonautes raybouldi</em> occurs in water-filled tree holes in deciduous forests (Bayliss 2002; Cumberlidge and Vannini 2004). Bayliss (2002) provided a detailed ecological study of the habitat of this species. Also lives in streams (but not rivers).	eng
44539	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on its specialized habitat requirements (water-filled tree holes) and on the increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44539	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is an increasing threat from habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44540	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44540	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda: Endemic to Lake Rukwanzi.	eng
44540	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44540	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44540	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
44541	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44541	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania:The type locality is Bagilo, in the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania.	eng
44541	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to the forested slopes of the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania.	eng
44541	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44541	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
44551	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44551	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malawi, Southern Africa.	eng
44551	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
44551	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Population size is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals over the entire range.	eng
44551	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44552	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44552	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika, known only from Tanzanian waters.	eng
44552	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Lake Tanganyika.	eng
44552	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	It has a potentially low population level (based on low representation in museum collections and the scarcity of recent additional material).	eng
44552	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
44553	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44553	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	Tanzania: The species is known only from Lake Tanganyika, in the vicinity of Kigoma, Tanzania.<br/><br/>Platythelphusa immaculata is a recently described species. It is currently known from only three locations in Lake Tanganyika. The species is newly-discovered and is currently known from only a few (25) specimens, collected recently. there are no known long-term threats to its habitat.	eng
44553	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
44553	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	There are no known long-term threats to its habitat.	eng
44554	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
44554	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	The species is known only from the vicinity of Mbita Island, Zambia in Lake Tanganyika and was collected by fishermen in deep water (between 40 and 80 m).	eng
44554	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. <em>Platythelphusa praelongata</em> is known only from a single specimen and from a single locality.	eng
44554	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Marijnissen, S.A.E., 2008	None known.	eng
44555	conservation	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	Dolphins in the Mekong River receive some degree of protection from the traditional respect afforded by local fishermen (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994, Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Fishermen in Viet Nam worship whales and dolphins because they believe that the animals will aid them if they are in distress (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997).  Most Cambodians and Laotians say that they do not hunt dolphins and believe that bad luck will result from killing them (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). The Lao Community Fisheries and Dolphin Protection Project was working with local fishermen at Chiteal Pool to reduce incidental catches of dolphins in gillnets, stop explosive fishing and manage aquatic resources in a sustainable manner (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996). One practical measure was the establishment of a fund so that fishermen who found dolphins entangled in their nets and cut them free would be compensated for damages (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). However, this project has now stopped. Small-scale dolphin watching operations were established at Chiteal Pool (Laos/Cambodia border) in 1997, and this provided substantial income to a few local boat owners. However, due to the decline in dolphin numbers at this pool, the tour operations are now on the verge of collapse. Dolphin-watching also occurs at Kampi Pool and a project partially funded by the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, UK, is planned for 2004 to manage the operations so that they provide maximum benefits to the local community (and thereby increase the value of the dolphins as living resources) while not adversely affecting the animals. <br/> <br/>In Laos, dolphins are legally protected from hunting, capture and trade, with fines of US$ 65?650 and imprisonment for three months to one year. In Viet Nam, all cetaceans are protected by a decree of the national assembly but this is not generally enforced. During the last three years, the Viet Namese government has been drafting a new law that will give authorities greater power to enforce fishery regulations (Perrin <em>et al</em>., in press). Approval by the national assembly is expected in the near future. No legal protection for cetaceans currently exists in Cambodia. However, a fisheries law is being drafted that includes specific regulations pertaining to marine mammals and the Cambodian Department of Fisheries has proposed to formulate a Royal Decree for protecting the Mekong River dolphin population. <br/> <br/>The Mekong Dolphin Conservation Project (currently supported by the Mekong River Commission and Ocean Park Conservation Foundation) was initiated in January 2001. The aims of the project are to assess the Mekong Irrawaddy dolphin population, initiate conservation and management efforts, and build capacity among local government officials. The project works in cooperation with the Cambodian Department of Fisheries, the Wildlife Conservation Society ? Cambodia Program and Community Aid Abroad.	eng
44555	distribution	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of southern Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. The first published record of the species in the Mekong was from the diary of a 19th century explorer (Mouhout 1966).  <br/> <br/>The effective range of Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong River is a 190 km segment from Kratie (about 500 km upstream of the river mouth in Viet Nam) to slightly upstream of the Laos/Cambodia border at Khone Falls (or Lee Pee), which physically obstructs further upstream movement. During the high water season (June?October), anecdotal reports suggested that the dolphins ascended the Sekong River and its tributaries, the Houay Khaliang, Xepian (to Xepha Falls about 50 km above the Sekong confluence), Xenamnoi (to Tatkhek Falls about 8 km above the Sekong confluence), and Xekaman (to about 50 km above the Sekong confluence and including the Houay Twai tributary and possibly the Xepian). In the Sekong, the dolphins were reported to range as far upstream as Kalaum Town, Laos, about 280 km above the Mekong confluence near Stung Treng, Cambodia (Baird and Mounsouphom, 1997). Based on interviews conducted by Baird (1997) and Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003), dolphins probably now only rarely, if ever, ascend these rivers. During interview surveys downstream from Kratie to Phnom Penh, children were unaware of the existence of dolphins, whereas adults reported that before 1975, dolphins were observed every day during both low and high water seasons (Isabel Beasley, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Based on visual surveys conducted by Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003), dolphins are frequently found during the low-water season in nine deep areas in the Kratie to Khone Falls segment. Approximately 2 km below the falls, dolphins regularly occur in a small (ca. 600 m diameter), deep (> 50 m during the high-water season) pool, known locally in Laos as Boong Pa Gooang and in Cambodia as Anlong Chiteal. Dolphins were observed daily in the pool during the dry seasons of 1992-93, generally in groups of 2?10; 17 were seen at least once (Baird <em>et al</em>. 1994). Using visual and acoustic methods, Borsani (1999) estimated that there were 8?10 dolphins present in Boong Pa Gooang in late March/early April 1998. Other pools occupied by dolphins in the Kratie to Khone Falls segment are at Koh Suntuk, Kang Kohn Sat and Tbong Klar in the Stung Treng Province, and Sampan, Khasak Makak, Gopidau, Chroy Bantey and Kampi in the Kratie Province. Kampi pool, located 15 km north of Kratie, is currently considered the most important dolphin habitat in the Mekong, due to the 100% reliability of sightings, as recorded during 165 visits to the pool over three years, and the relatively large number of animals observed during each visit (mean group size = 7, range = 1?19) (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003, Beasley, unpublished). <br/> <br/>Dolphins previously inhabited Tonle Sap (Great Lake) (Lloze 1973) but apparently have been extirpated there. Fishing is extremely intensive within the lake and in the channel connecting it to the Mekong. Researchers conducting extensive water-bird surveys in the lake from 1999?2003 have not observed any dolphins (Federic Goes, pers. comm.). Moreover, researchers from the Water Utilization Program ? Finnish International Development Aid (WUP-FIN) Tonle Sap Modeling Project visited sampling stations throughout the lake every month from 2001?2003 and never observed dolphins (Juha Sarkkula, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>The only documentation of Irrawaddy dolphins in the Mekong of Viet Nam consists of a few records reported by Lloze (1973), skulls housed in whale temples near the delta and in the mouth of the nearby Dong River (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997, Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003) and a single carcass found in a fishing net in the Tien distributary near the Cambodian border in March 2002 (Chung and Ho 2002).  During a survey of almost the entire length (224 km) of the two main distributaries of the Mekong, Tien and Hau Giang, in April 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. (1997) were unable to find a single dolphin.  <br/> <br/>During March and May 1997, Baird (1997) observed 40 dolphins in the segment of the Mekong from Kratie to the Laos/Cambodia border. He estimated, on the basis of surveys and interviews, that the total population in the Mekong was roughly 100 individuals. Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2003) conducted 11 boat-based direct-count surveys, traveling upstream from Jum Neight (about 30 km downstream of Kratie) to the Laos/Cambodia border during January-May from 2001 to 2003. All navigable channels were surveyed (zigzagging when widths were greater than one km and transiting through the center when less than 1 km). Unsurveyed channels were either too shallow or unsafe to survey due to high-velocity currents, which also meant a low probability of dolphins occurring there; interview surveys of local people living along these channels supported this assumption. The largest number of dolphins observed during an upstream survey conducted at the height of the low-water season in April 2003 was 64. This number was based on the sum of best estimates of group size, with a range of 55?82, according to the sum of low and high estimates of group size, respectively. A slightly different method was used during 2002-2003, traveling downstream in the same river segment but stopping for 10?30 minutes in the nine deep pool areas where dolphins had been observed during previous surveys. The maximum number of animals recorded using the pool-count method was 69 individuals based on the sum of best estimates of group size, with a range of 57?84 individuals based on low and high estimates, during a survey in May 2003. Paired observation experiments, using land-based survey teams and concurrent boat-based observations, were conducted during each of the pool-count surveys in an attempt to assess the proportion of dolphins missed by the boat-based team. This resulted in a 100% match between the two methods in terms of the number of dolphin groups detected in each of the nine pools and very similar group size estimates when experienced observers were present on both teams (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
44555	habitat	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	Irrawaddy dolphins inhabit deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).	eng
44555	population	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	No quantitative estimates of population trends are available, but significant range declines in Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the Mekong mainstem below Kratie imply that the number of dolphins in the Mekong River has declined substantially over the past several decades. Also, for small cetaceans generally, it is recommended that yearly removals should not exceed 1?2% of the population size (Wade 1998) ? the lower bound being more applicable to very small populations that are already vulnerable because of demographic and genetic factors. Four deaths per year (the mean number of carcasses recovered and determined to have died from gillnet entanglement in 2001?2003; Beasley <em>et al</em>. [2002] and Beasley [unpublished]) would represent 5.8% of the population, assuming a best estimate of abundance of 69, based on pool count surveys. Considering that the small size of the Mekong population already makes it vulnerable from demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and catastrophic environmental and epizootic events, the current rate of incidental mortality in gillnets will almost certainly lead to extirpation.	eng
44555	threats	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	Anecdotal reports suggest high dolphin mortality from deliberate killing for oil (reportedly for use in the motors of fishing boats and lamps) during the rule of the Khmer Rouge in 1970-1975 and then from target practice and the effects of explosives used for blast fishing during the Viet Namese occupation in 1975-1980. Dedicated studies on the dolphin population in 1990-1996 (Baird and Mounsouphom 1997) and 2000-2003 (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Beasley, unpublished) also recorded high mortality with a large proportion of the deaths caused by gillnet entanglement. <br/> <br/>Smith <em>et al</em>. (1997) noted the presence of several dozen 200-400 m long stow nets in the Mekong River mouth, followed upstream by more than 10 rows of nylon gillnets stretched across the entire channel, with only small openings to permit vessel traffic. Those authors suggested that dolphin bycatch and displacement caused by the nets could explain the lack of cetacean sightings during their survey of the lower Mekong in Viet Nam during April 1996. <br/> <br/><strong>Potential additional threats</strong> <br/>Numerous dams have been proposed for the Mekong River system. If built, these would degrade essential habitat features and interrupt the movements of dolphins and their prey. Of greatest concern are the large run-of-the-river dams proposed for the Mekong mainstem at Stung Treng and Sambor (Perrin <em>et al</em>. 1996). In the Sekong River system, at least two dams have been proposed tens of kilometers below the reported upstream limit of the dolphins. Dolphins are also threatened in the Sekong system by the proposed Xakaman and Xepian/Xenamnoi dam projects. This last project would divert almost all of the flow from the Xepian River to a reservoir behind another dam in the Xenamnoi River (Baird and Mounsouphom 1997). <br/> <br/>Proposed navigation improvement schemes, which entail blasting the pool-riffle sequences that compose dolphin habitat, would probably lead to a dramatic decline, if not extinction, of the Mekong dolphin population due to the direct effects of the explosions and the indirect effects from eliminating or severely degrading their deep pool habitat. Prey declines from overfishing (particularly from the use of explosives and electricity) and unregulated dolphin-watching tourism may also be affecting the population.	eng
44556	conservation	Smith, B.D., 2004	The dolphins receive customary protection from directed killing or intentional disturbance by virtue of the positive role they play in a cooperative fishery with throw-net fishermen (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997). The Wildlife Conservation Society and Myanmar Fisheries Department have plans to establish a long-term conservation program for the dolphins in the upper reaches of the Ayeyarwady River. These entail one or more protected areas where gillnetting would be eliminated or dramatically reduced, enforcing laws that prohibit electric fishing, and monitoring the population and threats to its survival.	eng
44556	distribution	Smith, B.D., 2004	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of southern Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand.  <br/> <br/>The earliest reference to dolphins in the Ayeyarwady River is from the New T’ang History (Chinese text from ‘about 800 A.D.’ as cited in Luce 1966), which mentions trade in ‘river pigs’ among the Pyu people. During surveys of the Ayeyarwady River between Rangoon [Yangon] and Bhamo, Anderson (1879) observed Irrawaddy dolphins no farther downstream than Prome [Pyay] (about 360 km from the sea) during the low-water season and Yenanyoung (about 540 km from the sea) during the high-water season.  Upstream, the local Shan people reported to Anderson (1879) that dolphins were never found upriver of a point 30 m above Bhamo, where the course of the river was interrupted by rocks. They called the site Labine, or "Dolphin Point." Anderson (1879) also reported that the dolphins ascended larger tributaries, such as the Taping, Khyendwen [Chindwin] and Shuaylee [Shweli], when these were in flood. (See Figure 1 in the attached PDF for a map of the Ayeyarwady River and the locations used to describe the distribution of the dolphin).	eng
44556	habitat	Smith, B.D., 2004	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, protected inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002). During surveys in the Ayeyarwady River dolphin sightings were concentrated in geomorphologically complex reaches upstream and downstream of channel convergences (especially tributaries), islands, and defiles (where an alluvial channel becomes abruptly narrow and deep as it cuts through a mountain range, Smith and Hobbs 2002).	eng
44556	population	Smith, B.D., 2004	Between 1996 and 2003 several visual boat-based surveys for Irrawaddy dolphins were conducted in the Ayeyarwady River. The most recent of these indicated that the dry season range of the species has declined dramatically and that the number of remaining animals is precariously small. Two surveys (details below) resulted in the same best estimate of 59 animals remaining. <br/> <br/>During the November-December 2002 survey of the entire Ayeyarwady River sighting conditions were generally good. If the absence of sightings downstream of Mingun is interpreted to mean that this is the range limit for the species in the river system, this would indicate a range decline of 488 km in river length (or 56.7%) compared with the historical distribution reported by Anderson (1879) and that the distance from the nearest reported record of species in the delta is almost 1,000 km. <br/> <br/>During the December 2003 surveys of the Bhamo to Mandalay segment sighting conditions were also generally good. The increase in the number of dolphins observed during the 2003 upstream survey, compared to the 2002 downstream survey, can probably be attributed to the slower speed of the survey vessel and the increased visual coverage of downstream facing tributaries and braided channel confluences (where the dolphins were often found) while surveying in an upstream direction. This hypothesis is supported by similar differences in the number of dolphin groups observed during surveys in upstream and downstream directions between Mandalay and the Shweli River confluence in December 1996 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1997), five and two, respectively, and during the 2003 surveys themselves, 16 and 10, respectively (Smith 2003). <br/> <br/>The abundance estimate from the December 2003 survey is probably close to the actual size of the Ayeyarwady dolphin population due to measures taken in the field to increase sighting efficiency (team of trained and mostly experienced observers, three looking forward and one backwards on the main vessel and two looking forward on the smaller vessel, all alternating between searching with 7x50 binoculars and naked eye and given sufficient rest so that vigilance remained high) and the upstream direction of the survey. The relatively narrow cross section of the main channel (mean=650 m; SD=342 m; range=175–2,200 m; determined by laser range-finder readings, when the distances from the survey vessel to both banks were less than about 600 m and there were suitable reflective targets [e.g., steep sand slope, defile walls], or by visual estimation when these conditions were not met) and the limited deep water area within the cross-section where the dolphins were typically found (and where the vessel’s survey path was confined) also ensured a high level of sighting efficiency. <br/> <br/>Potential sighting biases were evaluated using distance estimates and dive time frequencies. According to distance estimation data recorded during the survey (n=16), the sighting frequency declined at around 400 m. Mean vessel speed was 7.8 km/hr or 2.2 m/sec, which means that on average it took 182 seconds to cover the 400 m distance where dolphins had a high probability of being detected (otherwise there would have been a decline in sighting frequency before this distance). Group dive times (n=416) were recorded during nine sightings (mean=20 sec, range=1–105, SD=20). A frequency distribution of these times indicates that 100% of dolphin groups within this distance increment would be at the surface, ‘available’ for detection, at least once and, on average, during about nine surfacings. The dolphins would also be available during the same number of surfacings in the 401–800 m and 801–1,200 m distance increments where the proportion of detections were half the number detected at 0–400 m. This analysis indicates that sighting efficiency during the survey was relatively high and therefore the abundance estimate reasonably unbiased. <br/> <br/>A quantitative estimate of population trend cannot be made from the available data, but there is clear evidence of a major reduction in this population’s extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. As summarized above, the linear extent of occurrence in the Ayeyarwady appears to have declined by nearly 60% since the 19th century. Moreover, the best estimate of the total number of dolphins observed was the same (59) for surveys in 1998 and 2003 even though in the latter, the survey boat was traveling at a much slower speed in an upstream direction (7.8 km/hr) in comparison to the faster speed of the earlier downstream survey (13 km/hr). Distances between dolphin sightings (172 km, 124 km, and 33 km for the longest three during the November-December 2002 survey, and 120 km, 89 km, and 23 km during the upstream December 2003 survey) suggest that the remaining population is fragmented to some extent and that opportunities for demographic interaction among dolphin groups are limited, thereby contributing to projected future population declines.	eng
44556	threats	Smith, B.D., 2004	Smith (2003) recorded a total of 5,701 fishing gears in the main channel of the Ayeyarwady during the November-December 2002 survey. Gill nets accounted for the majority of gear clusters (defined as a grouping of gears within 500 m of the first one observed; 57.4%) and, if sticks with multiple hooks are excluded, the majority of individual gears (53.5%). Gill nets were also the most widespread gears in terms of their distribution throughout the river and there was a significant positive relationship between gillnet encounter rates (i.e., number of gears observed each day) regressed against downstream progress on the survey (DF 19; fixed gillnets p=0.0176, F=6.8321, R2=0.2750; drifting gillnets p=0.0002, F=20.7149, R2=0.5351).  <br/> <br/>Wherever gillnets and cetaceans occur together there will be entanglements and mortality (see International Whaling Commission 1994). The fact that gillnets were present in higher frequencies in areas where dolphins were reported to occur historically but were not observed during the 2002 survey, implies that these fishing gears are at least partially responsible for the range decline of the species. For small cetaceans it is generally recommended that yearly removals not exceed 1–2% of the population size (Wade 1998) – the lower bound being more applicable to very small populations that are already vulnerable to extirpation due to demographic, genetic and other factors. If there are only about 60 animals in this subpopulation (‘best’ estimate of abundance from December 2003 survey), any more than a single death every one or two years may be unsustainable.  <br/> <br/>During the December 2003 survey electric fishing was occasionally observed during daylight hours and reported by local villagers to be practiced widely and surreptitiously at night. A local veterinarian reported that he had examined a stranded dolphin that was killed by electrocution (Smith, unpublished). Electric fishing has been cited as being responsible for the largest number of recent known deaths of the baiji (<em>Lipotes vexillifer</em>), a Critically Endangered dolphin in the Yangtze River of China, and has come to be regarded as the main anthropogenic threat to the survival of that species (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/><strong>Potential additional threats</strong> <br/>Smith (2003) also recorded a total of 890 gold mining operations during 15 days of the 2002 survey. These were concentrated primarily in areas of reduced current, above and below defiles and near channel convergences – the same areas that constitute the preferred habitat of Irrawaddy dolphins (see above). Large boat dredges (15.8% of the total operations) and hydraulic land blasters (13.4% of the total operations) introduce, break up, and redistribute large quantities of gravel and fine sediments. This causes major changes in the geomorphological and hydraulic features of river channels that make them suitable for dolphins. These operations are also very noisy, which may interfere with the ability of dolphins to navigate, detect and catch their prey and communicate.  <br/> <br/>Gold mining operations use mercury to amalgamate the gold. Relatively high levels of THg and MeHg have been found in the muscle of 104 fish belonging to 22 different species sampled from fishermen's catches and fish markets along the entire length of the river. In the most widely distributed genus (Ompok) mean muscle Hg from multiple similar individuals was found to increase significantly in the downstream reaches, as compared to upstream reaches (Slotton <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Irrawaddy dolphin is a predatory species and the biomagnification potential of mercury makes pollution by this element a source of concern to the dolphin population. The risk may be increased by the animals’ affinity for counter-currents, where entrained metals may settle in higher concentrations than elsewhere, and tributary mouths fed by lower-order streams, where gold mining may be even more intense and dilution limited by lower flows relative to the mainstem. Although we have no information on the effects of mercury on Irrawaddy dolphins, a casual link has been suggested between liver disease and high levels of the metal in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) (Bowles 1999).	eng
44557	conservation	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The Irrawaddy dolphin has been adopted as the mascot of the Phattalung Province and local people have expressed great enthusiasm for its conservation. The Nue Ham La Ow Bang Teng Forestry Station, which is responsible for protecting the lake?s wildlife, provides a government infrastructure for dolphin protection. A Royal proclamation by the Queen of Thailand on 3 October 2001 designated the Irrawaddy dolphins in Songkhla Lake as a Royal Protected Species. The proclamation makes harming the dolphins or possessing their body parts punishable by four years in jail and/or a fine of 40,000 Baht (<em>ca</em>. US$1,000). The Irrawaddy Dolphin Conservation Society was established by a local schoolteacher in Phattalung in 1996. The Society has conducted numerous awareness-raising activities and keeps detailed records of dolphin strandings; the compilations are reported directly to the Queen at regular intervals. In 2001, a collaborative research and conservation program with the Irrawaddy Dolphin Conservation Society was initiated by the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, UK.  This project was continued and expanded in 2003, with the involvement of the Thailand Departments of Forestry and Fisheries and support from the Wildlife Conservation Society, USA.	eng
44557	distribution	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The Irrawaddy dolphin is patchily distributed in shallow, near-shore tropical and subtropical marine waters of the Indo-Pacific, from northeastern Australia in the south, north to the Philippines (Dolar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and west to northeastern India (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997; Stacey and Arnold 1999). Its marine distribution is concentrated in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies (i.e., bays and sounds), generally adjacent to mangrove forests. Freshwater populations occur in three river systems - the Mahakam of Indonesia, the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) of Myanmar (formerly Burma) and the Mekong of Laos, Cambodia and Viet Nam. Irrawaddy dolphins also occur in partially isolated brackish or fresh-water bodies, including Chilka Lake in India and Songkhla Lake in Thailand. Irrawaddy dolphins were first recorded in Songkhla Lake by Pilleri and Gihr (1974) who examined three stranded specimens from Thala Luang, north of Papayurn Island.	eng
44557	habitat	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	The species inhabits deep pools of large rivers, sheltered inshore marine environments with substantial freshwater inputs, and partially isolated brackish or freshwater bodies. (Stacey and Leatherwood 1997, Stacey and Arnold 1999, Smith and Jefferson 2002).	eng
44557	population	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	During survey effort in May 2000 and February 2001 covering 545 km in the inner and middle portions of the lake (Thale Luang), north of Papayurn Island, Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) recorded only four sightings and calculated a sighting rate of 0.03 dolphins/linear km (mean group size = 4.3 dolphins, S.D. = 2.9, range = 1?8).  All sightings were made in the inner portion, which is the deepest part of the lake (2.1?2.5 m). Due to shallow water and the extremely high density of fixed fishing gear, Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) proposed that dolphins were probably absent from the outer portion of the lake (Thale Sap) and the southern part of Thale Luang. If their supposition is correct, it means that dolphins do not move out of the lake into the Gulf of Thailand, or vice-versa, making the Songkhla population permanently and completely isolated. The same researchers presented additional evidence of the population?s geographic isolation based on interviews with 86 local fishermen. All the fishermen who stated that they had seen dolphins in the lake (69%) fished in the inner portion of Thale Luang (where the sightings were made during the 2000 and 2001 surveys), whereas the remaining fishermen, who had not seen dolphins, fished either to the north or south. Geographic isolation of the population is also supported by observations made during the line-transect survey described below.  <br/> <br/>In September 2003 a line-transect survey, covering 234 km in 21 hours of search effort, was conducted in Songkhla Lake (B. Smith, unpublished). Sighting conditions were good but no dolphins were seen. The intention had been to search the entire lake, following parallel track lines spaced 3.5 km apart. However, shallow water, dense sea grass and an extremely high density of fixed fishing gear prevented the survey vessel from following the designed track lines in the southern portion of Thale Luang and Thale Sap. Search effort was therefore effectively limited to the same area covered by Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002). The 2003 survey was conducted using a similar vessel/observation platform and the same methods and number of observers as had been used for line-transect surveys for Irrawaddy dolphins in Malampaya Sound, Philippines (see Smith <em>et al</em>. in press). If the sighting rate in Songkhla Lake had been equivalent to that recorded in Malampaya Sound (0.0865 sightings/km; a subpopulation also proposed to be listed as Critically Endangered), 20 dolphin groups should have been detected. Even accounting for the difference in size between the area occupied by dolphins in Malampaya Sound (ca. 134 km²) and the area searched during the 2003 Songkhla Lake survey (ca. 755 km²), if the two water bodies supported approximately the same number of groups and individuals, 5?6 groups consisting of 27?32 individuals (based on the mean group size of 5.3 dolphins recorded in Malampaya Sound) should have been detected.  <br/> <br/>Currently, there is only a single connecting channel between the lake and the Gulf of Thailand. This channel is located at the southern tip of the lake and almost certainly inaccessible to dolphins due to the extremely high density of fixed fishing weirs (which remain set throughout the year) and gillnets (some of which are set throughout the year, others of which are removed when some fishermen practice other occupations during the monsoon season ? May through December, peaking from September through November). Previously a second smaller connecting channel existed at the northern tip of the lake. This has been blocked by a closure dam constructed to prevent saline inputs, which supplies irrigation water to intensive agriculture practiced in the fields surrounding the lake. The published records of Irrawaddy dolphins geographically closest to the southern connecting channel are of two specimens in 1901 at Pattani (ca. 100 km to the south; Bonhote 1903 ? not seen; cited in Pilleri and Gihr 1974) and one stranding in 1994 at Surat Thani (ca. 300 km to the north; Chantrapornsyl <em>et al</em>. 1996). The absence of records near the connecting channel (although this may also be explained by a lack of survey effort), the extremely high density of fixed fishing weirs that probably constitute a physical barrier to dolphin movement, and interview surveys indicating that dolphins do not occur in the southern portion of the lake imply that there is little, if any, demographic exchange between dolphins in Songkhla Lake and those in the Gulf of Thailand ? almost certainly fewer than one successful migrant per year (the criterion for defining a subpopulation according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 3.1). Although we have no information on the geomorphic history of the lake, the dynamic sedimentation and erosion processes typical of marine appended lakes would suggest that there were previous primary (i.e., non-anthropogenic) isolation events. These may have allowed population-level genetic differences to develop between the dolphins in Songkhla Lake and those in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand, although no data are available to investigate this possibility. A precautionary approach is to consider the dolphins in Songkhla Lake geographically isolated, pending future evidence to suggest otherwise. <br/> <br/>There are no quantitative data for estimating population trends. However, circumstantial evidence indicates declining numbers. Compared to the 2001?2002 surveys reported in Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002), the 2003 survey used three rather than two observers and search effort was conducted from a raised platform about two meters higher above the water level. This should have improved searching efficiency. Even with no change in efficiency, the 2003 survey should have produced at least one or two sightings. It is possible that the difference in results simply reflects random variation in sighting biases, but a precautionary interpretation would be that the very small population that existed in 2001 and 2002 has been reduced even further. This interpretation is reinforced by the high mortality experienced by the population (as evidenced by the large number of recorded deaths; see above) in relation to its extremely low (although precisely unknown) population size.	eng
44557	threats	Smith, B.D. & Beasley, I., 2004	Beasley <em>et al</em>. (2002) listed 28 records of dolphins that stranded in Songhkla Lake between January 1990 and April 2001. At least 13 of them were judged to have died from net entanglement, based upon the presence of net scars on the carcass or the reports of local fishermen (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm.). Of the total strandings, at least nine were calves (i.e., one meter in length or smaller). Since that report, 15 additional strandings have been recorded, including nine calves (four of these in February 2003 and two in December 2003) and a pregnant female (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm). Several of those 15 animals were believed to have been killed accidentally in gill nets and fish traps set for sea bass, the carcasses having been discarded and then drifting ashore. Some of the calves were probably stillborn based on the presence of fetal folds and a non-erect dorsal fin. The pregnant female?s flukes had been cut off, probably to extract her body from a gill net. <br/> <br/>The increase in the number of recorded strandings, from 2.5 per year between January 1990 and April 2001 to 5.5 per year between May 2001 and December 2003 (see above), probably reflects an increase in reporting (due to the greater awareness of local people about the dolphins and efforts to conserve them; see below), the developing capacity of local agencies to respond to stranding reports, and possibly a rise in mortality within the population itself. It is unlikely that any real increase in mortality could be explained by an increasing population size, given the lack of recent sightings despite extensive survey effort (see above). <br/> <br/>The proportion of stranded calves has also increased, which could mean that some adults are habituating to the presence of nets and fish traps, or that the calves are dying at an unusually high rate for altogether different reasons; the causes of death for these carcasses could not be determined (Somserm Choorak, pers. comm.). Although we have no supporting evidence, a possible explanation for the high proportion of stranded calves could be that they were stillborn or died shortly after birth due to high toxic loads from agrochemicals used intensively along the shores of the lake. <br/> <br/>Although incidental mortality in gillnets and fish traps is the principal known threat to the population, prey depletion is another potential threat. This could be the result of overfishing and/or the sedimentation and eutrophication caused by shoreline development and deforestation. A closure dam across a narrow channel that previously connected Thale Luang to the sea has undoubtedly contributed to the cumulative effects of human activities (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Smith, unpublished). Year-round availability of fresh water after the dam?s closure has allowed an increase in shoreline agriculture, which uses large quantities of pesticides and herbicides. The dam?s construction also may have eliminated a movement corridor for dolphins between Songkhla Lake and the Gulf of Thailand.	eng
44558	conservation	Runstrom, A. & St. Pierre, R., 2004	Commercial harvest of lake sturgeon is prohibited in all U.S. waters. Sport fishing for lake sturgeon is currently prohibited in the Mississippi River but is allowed in some tributaries in Wisconsin and Minnesota (e.g., Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers) during a short hook and line season in the fall.  Angling in Minnesota has several restrictions as to season, fish sizes and gear and the reported annual sport catch was 2,200–4,200 kg in 1998–2000. Harvest is not allowed in Iowa, Ohio, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois and South Dakota. <br/> <br/>Construction of spawning habitats using coarse stone rip-rapping has been undertaken in some states (particularly Wisconsin) and appears to be highly successful. To help restore populations several states are involved in culture and supplemental stocking programs. The largest of these is Missouri which has stocked over 210,000 lake sturgeon fingerlings in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers since 1986. Survival of stocked fish is considered excellent as tagged lake sturgeon have been recaptured in the Mississippi, Missouri, Gasconade and Osage rivers and commercial fishermen have reported incidental catches reaching nuisance proportions (Hesse and Carreiro 1997). <br/> <br/>Artificial culture and restocking of lake sturgeon is also under development in Minnesota using wild broodstock. Wisconsin DNR propagates some lake sturgeon for restocking purposes with most cultured fish being placed into the same river basins from which broodstock were taken. The Tennessee Valley Authority has stocked thousands of young lake sturgeon within the Ohio River Basin.	eng
44558	distribution	Runstrom, A. & St. Pierre, R., 2004	Lake sturgeon spend their entire life cycle in freshwater and are widely distributed in North America. They currently range throughout much of the drainages of the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, Hudson Bay-James Bay, and the Saskatchewan River (Pflieger 1975, Becker 1983, Ferguson and Duckworth 1997). In the Mississippi basin this species occurs from the headwaters in Minnesota to the northern portion of the state of Louisiana and up the Missouri River into southern South Dakota. There is no known natural exchange of stocks between the Great Lakes and western Canadian provinces and those of the Mississippi River basin, though some stockings in the Mississippi have included lake sturgeon of Great Lakes Basin origin.	eng
44558	habitat	Runstrom, A. & St. Pierre, R., 2004	Pectoral fin ray sections have been used to determine that lake sturgeon can live to be over 100 years old - though most are less than 35 years old.  Lake sturgeon typically grow to almost two metres in length and about 90 kg, with rare records from the Great Lakes of fish up to 141 kg (Priegel and Wirth 1971). Compared to sturgeon from Lake Winnebago (Wisconsin) and the Great Lakes, relatively little information is available regarding age, growth, maturity and spawning periodicity of lake sturgeon in the Mississippi River basin.  <br/> <br/>Based on information from northern populations, lake sturgeon spawning occurs when water temperatures rise and reach 9–15°C (Priegel and Wirth 1971, Kempinger 1988). Spawning sturgeon will select shallow areas with relatively strong current velocities (Kempinger 1988).   <br/> <br/>Usual lake sturgeon habitat is the highly productive shoal areas of larger lakes, reservoirs and rivers. Lake sturgeon in the Upper Mississippi River prefer habitat in or adjacent to flow, but with relatively low to moderate current velocity (B.C. Knights, USGS, unpublished data). They are rarely found in backwater habitats without flow. In the Mississippi basin habitat that is in or adjacent to current is generally depositional and has relatively compact silt or silt-sand substrates with presumed high densities of benthic invertebrates.  These areas occur at the lower end of navigation pools near the main channel, the mouths of tributaries and large secondary channels, and at some channel border areas. While migrating, presumably en-route to spawning habitats or high use (feeding/home) areas, lake sturgeon will use areas of the river with relatively high current velocities including tailwaters, the main channel in the upper and mid reaches of navigation pools, and tributaries. <br/> <br/>Lake sturgeon are known to move great distances to spawning and feeding habitats (Auer 1996).  In a recent study, nearly half of lake sturgeon radio-tagged in Pool 10 of the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin moved up the Wisconsin River about 140 km to the Prairie du Sac dam (Knights, B.C., USGS, unpublished data). Fish tagged in Pool 5A near Winona, Minnesota moved as far downstream as Pool 10 near Clayton, Iowa (about 170 km). Fifty-four occurrences of passage through navigation dams were observed and 46% of tagged sturgeon moved through at least one dam during the 18–month study. One lake sturgeon tagged in the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin, traveled 415 km and moved through seven dams between September 28, 1999 and March 28, 2001, when it was recaptured by an angler at Lock and Dam 3 of the Mississippi River (A. Runstrom, USFWS, unpublished data). Lake sturgeon stocked by the Missouri Department of Conservation into Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several locations on the Missouri River have been reported as far upstream as the Lock and Dam 19 tailwater, as far downstream as Chester, IL, and as far up the Missouri River as the Gavins Point Dam tailwater (K. Brummett, MODOC, unpublished data).	eng
44558	population	Runstrom, A. & St. Pierre, R., 2004	Lake sturgeon were generally considered to be rare to uncommon in most waters of the Mississippi River basin since the late 1800s. In 1989, this species was declared as threatened by the American Fisheries Society in all Mississippi River states except Louisiana where they are believed to be extirpated (Williams <em>et al</em>. 1989). The Department of Natural Resources in Iowa and Illinois and the Missouri Department of Conservation list the lake sturgeon as endangered in their respective states, and in Minnesota the lake sturgeon is listed as a species of special concern. The species appears to be extirpated from its former range in Alabama and Arkansas. <br/> <br/>The current status of lake sturgeon throughout the Mississippi basin is considered to be severely depressed from historical abundance levels. However, modern population assessment studies are lacking and rate of stock decline or growth is unknown. Native stocks were extremely depressed prior to the stocking program undertaken by the Missouri Department of Conservation. Following the first releases into Mark Twain Lake (Salt River, a Pool 24 tributary) in 1984, then at Louisiana on Pool 24 of the Mississippi River and at several Missouri River locations in 1988, increasing reports of incidental catch in commercial gear and by recreational anglers has been occurring.	eng
44558	threats	Runstrom, A. & St. Pierre, R., 2004	The life history characteristics of slow growth, late maturation, and irregular spawning periodicity make lake sturgeon populations particularly vulnerable to over-exploitation. Sturgeon populations are threatened by industrial and municipal pollution, blockage of access to habitats by dikes and dams, channelization and elimination of backwater areas, dewatering and water level fluctuations, physical destruction of spawning habitat, and inundation of habitat by reservoirs (Rochard <em>et al</em>. 1990, Auer 1996, Beamesderfer and Farr 1997, Noakes <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <br/> <br/>Although there are numerous recorded instances of tagged sturgeon passing through navigation locks, many fish are precluded or delayed from reaching spawning or preferred feeding waters. Dams without locks completely block sturgeon passage and serve as severe impediments to lake sturgeon recovery in the Mississippi basin. Spawning and nursery areas are further degraded from land use problems such as erosion and sedimentation, and direct mortality of lake sturgeon due to impacts with commercial and/or recreational navigation vessels has been documented. <br/> <br/>Although lake sturgeon harvest from the Mississippi River is prohibited, financial incentive to collect roe for caviar remains. Small population sizes may limit poachers from targeting this species but it is likely that incidental captures are utilized and end up in the black market. With the first stocking of lake sturgeon by Missouri DOC now at age 17, there is increasing concern that poachers will target them as the females reach maturity within the next few years.	eng
44559	distribution	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	At least two groups of white sturgeon occur in the lower Fraser between Mission and Hell's Gate and another in the middle Fraser between Hell’s Gate and the mouth of the Nechako River.   <br/> <br/>Fraser River subpopulations do not mix with the U.S. Regional population. Although it is known that some sub-adults spend time in the estuary (Veinott <em>et al</em>. 1999), Fraser River white sturgeon are not known to migrate further into the marine environment. There are no reports of white sturgeon in the Strait of Georgia off the Fraser River (Lane 1991).	eng
44559	habitat	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Although it is known that some sub-adults spend time in the estuary (Veinott <em>et al</em>. 1999), Fraser River white sturgeon are not known to migrate further into the marine environment. There are no reports of white sturgeon in the Strait of Georgia off the Fraser River (Lane 1991). <br/> <br/>In the river below Hell’s Gate some females may spawn as young as 18 and males at 14 years of age. Generation length in the regional subpopulation downstream of the Nechako appears to be in the range of 35–40 years of age.	eng
44559	population	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Good information documenting historic population or subpopulation size decline does not exist. Records prior to 1900 (Semakula and Larkin 1968, Echols 1995) indicate annual sturgeon catches in the commercial fishery on the lower Fraser peaked at about 454,000 kg in 1897. The fishery collapsed in 1900, revived slightly in 1907, and collapsed again in 1917. Since then the commercial harvest has rarely exceeded 22,000 kg and during the 1965–75 period was about 12,000 kg per annum. Much of the commercial sturgeon catch was incidental to the salmon fishery although there may have been a directed fishery at the turn of the 20th century. This makes it difficult to compare the historical catch to more recent catches due to the changes in fishing patterns that have occurred. <br/> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for the subpopulation (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000) show a population size of 22,000 (95% CI = 9,800–70,700). Length frequency and age distribution in the mainstem subpopulation  appears relatively normal with most fish younger than age 20 (R.L. & L. Environmental Services Ltd. 2000). Fish < 50 cm in length are under-represented in the length frequency distributions for the mainstem due to sampling gear bias. <br/> <br/>RL&L used a size of > 150 cm (called oversize) to separate adult individuals from sub-adults and juveniles.  On this basis, 45% of the fish sampled in the lower Fraser were estimated to be adult fish; 37% in the canyon section were adults; and 20% of the subpopulation between Hell’s Gate and the Nechako. Overall, total number of adult white sturgeon in the lower Fraser River is estimated to be 8,876 fish or about 40% of the subpopulation. <br/> <br/>RL&L found the sex ratio was skewed to males and varied from 4–4.5:1 below Hell’s Gate, to 7.6:1 in the middle Fraser. Fewer than 10% of the females and 12% of the males examined in the adult size class were in the late reproductive stages, indicating that the proportion of reproductively mature individuals in a given year is quite low. Limited data from an earlier study based on analysis of pectoral fin rays indicated intervals between spawning in the lower Fraser vary from 4–9 years (Semakula and Larkin 1968).	eng
44559	threats	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Area of occupancy has no doubt been reduced in the lower mainstem due to the alienation of side channels from dyking activity, the infolding of sloughs and wetlands, development and industrial activity. The loss of sloughs, side channels and other low velocity backwater areas has decreased available juvenile rearing habitat. Loss of side channels may reduce spawning habitat availability as well.	eng
44560	distribution	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	In the Fraser River drainage of Canada at least five distinct subpopulations of white sturgeon have been identified using two independent genetic techniques - mtDNA and microsatellite DNA (Nelson <em>et al</em>. 1999 and Pollard 2000). The Upper Fraser subpopulation is found in the Fraser River upstream of the Nechako River. Fraser River subpopulations do not mix with the U.S. Regional population.	eng
44560	habitat	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Restricted to freshwater in the upper Fraser River only.	eng
44560	population	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	A preliminary estimate from work being done by the Lheidli T’enneh First Nation (Yarmish and Toth 2001) for shows a subpopulation size of 255 (95% CI = 158–352). This preliminary population estimate may be skewed by the high recapture rate of individuals found in known areas of congregation. However, after extensive sampling, investigators do not believe the population can be larger than a few hundred individuals > 50 cm in length (Yarmish, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Only 19% of the fish captured in the Lheidli T’enneh study were in the > 150 cm size class (Yarmish and Toth 2001). Investigators believe the use of this size class in the latter study may underestimate the number of adult fish as maturity in this slower growing population may occur at a smaller size (Yarmish, pers. comm.).	eng
44561	distribution	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Restricted to the Nechako River and it?s tributary the Stuart River (these two have a combined stream length of about 400 km). However, sturgeon are not evenly dispersed throughout this length of river, but are clustered in suitable habitat.	eng
44561	habitat	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	Restricted to freshwater habitat in the Nechako River and its tributary the Stuart River.	eng
44561	population	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	The preliminary estimate for first spawning in females of the mid-river population is late 20's with males possibly reaching maturity before 20 years. In the Nechako River preliminary information indicates females may not reach maturity until their late 30?s, or older, and males may not spawn until their early 40?s (this estimate may be skewed by the lack of younger fish in the population). The oldest fish sampled was 88 years of age. Generation length in the Nechako subpopulation could be 50 to 55 years. <br/> <br/>Mark recapture estimates for the Nechako subpopulation (R.L. & L Environmental Services Ltd. 2000) estimate the subpopulation at 571 (95% CI = 421?890). Very few fish less than 30 years of age were sampled, indicating a near total recruitment failure. Only 4% of the individuals sampled were in the juvenile size class (less than 100 cm total length), in spite of a directed sampling effort on this life stage.  <br/> <br/>RL&L used a size of > 150 cm (called oversize) to separate adult individuals from sub-adults and juveniles. On this basis, 80% of the fish sampled in the Nechako subpopulation were in the adult size class. RL&L found the sex ratio was skewed 2:1 to males in this subpopulation. Fewer than 10% of the females and 12% of the males examined in the adult size class were in the late reproductive stages, indicating that the proportion of reproductively mature individuals in a given year is quite low.	eng
44561	threats	Down, T. & Ptolemy, J., 2004	In the Nechako, flow reduction has reduced depth and the amount of habitat available in side channels and backwaters.	eng
44562	distribution	Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	Upper Columbia River white sturgeon subpopulation inhabits the Columbia River mainstem upstream from Grand Coulee Dam. In this area, the largest documented group of the species resides in the area between Hugh Keenleyside Dam and the Canada–U.S. border. Other remnant subpopulations occur, or are suspected, throughout the remainder of the drainage. <br/> <br/>Radio telemetry has shown that white sturgeon occurring downstream from Keenleyside Dam in Canada are typically either sedentary or localized in their patterns of movement. However, some fish have moved downstream into Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, at least as far downstream as Kettle Falls (RL&L 1995). Similarly, fish tagged in Lake Roosevelt have been recaptured upstream during sampling operations in Canada (BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). This evidence of trans-boundary migration suggests that white sturgeon from Keenleyside Dam in Canada to Lake Roosevelt in the U.S. form the same subpopulation. <br/> <br/>Given the exchange of upper Columbia River white sturgeon across the Canada–U.S. border, evidence supporting the concept of a distinct white sturgeon subpopulation in the upper Columbia River can be derived from Anders <em>et al</em>. (2000, in prep). White sturgeon mtDNA haplotypes were compared among 13 localities, and six large river systems over the range of the species (Columbia, Snake, Kootenai, Fraser, Nechako, Sacramento rivers) using pairwise frequency-distribution comparisons (Monte-Carlo simulations using 10,000 iterations of exact, weighted, Pearson chi-square tests). Haplotype frequency distributions were significantly different, or nearly so (P=0.09, 0.06, 0.06 and < 0.01), in four cases where Lake Roosevelt white sturgeon were compared with other subpopulations in the Columbia River downstream. These data point to low levels of gene flow between the groups, suggesting the upper Columbia subpopulation could be managed separately.	eng
44562	habitat	Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	Restricted to freshwater habitat in the upper Columbia River.	eng
44562	population	Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	The abundance of white sturgeon from the Columbia River mainstem between Keenleyside Dam and the Canada-U.S. border was most recently assessed in 1995, when a population of 1,120 individuals (95% CI = 980 to 1,300) was estimated (RL&L 1996a). This figure does not include sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, and thus represents a minimum estimate of the total subpopulation. A smaller group of white sturgeon, considered part of the same subpopulation, has been identified at the upper end of Arrow Lakes Reservoir, located upstream from Keenleyside Dam. Estimates place the size of this group at 38 individuals (95% CI = 23 to 78) based on the results of 2000 studies (RL&L 2001). <br/> <br/>Extensive study has confirmed spawning by upper Columbia white sturgeon at two locations. The vast majority of spawning occurs at the Pend d'Oreille–Columbia confluence (Waneta tailrace) area near the Canada–U.S. border (e.g., RL&L 1995). Spawning at this site has occurred annually since 1993 — the first year spawning studies were initiated. In 1999, a second spawning area was documented in the upper Columbia River just upstream from Arrow Lakes Reservoir (RL&L 2000).  Spawning did not occur at this site in 2000. <br/> <br/>Despite the regularity of spawning events, age structure analyses show that recruitment began to decline in 1969, and has failed entirely since 1985 (RL&L 1995). Changes in length-frequency distribution follow a similar pattern, with a dramatic reduction in representation by smaller fish in ongoing sampling programs (RL&L 1996a, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file). Sampling in Lake Roosevelt in Washington State, although less intensive, shows a similar recruitment failure (DeVore <em>et al</em>. 1999, Spokane Tribe, data on file). Thus, recruitment of upper Columbia white sturgeon has failed completely, to the point where continued existence of the subpopulation is at risk. <br/> <br/>First maturity is reached as early as 27 years of age for females and 16 for males (RL&L 1995), although the mean age of maturation is likely higher.  Assuming a mean age of maturity of 30 years for the subpopulation, and limited or complete failure of recruitment for more than 20 years, at least 80% of the subpopulation is estimated to be of reproductive age. Thus, in combination, the groups of white sturgeon composing this subpopulation would represent about 930 mature individuals. Based on sampling currently underway (B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, data on file) the sex ratio is 1.35 males per female (n=94), indicating 396 females and an effective population size of 910 (Falconer 1981). The oldest documented individual in the subpopulation is 69 years of age. Assuming a typical mortality curve and using age 30 as the point at which maturity is reached, the average age of parents (generation time) in the population is likely 40–45 years.	eng
44562	threats	Hammond, J. & Spence, C., 2004	Upper Columbia white sturgeon were isolated from lower Columbia River stocks in the United States in 1941 following the construction of Grand Coulee Dam and related formation of Lake Roosevelt. Kettle Falls in Washington State is thought to have formed a seasonal barrier to white sturgeon migration prior to its inundation by Lake Roosevelt. Construction of Keenleyside, Mica, and Revelstoke dams on the mainstem Columbia River, Brilliant Dam on the lower Kootenay River, and Waneta Dam on the lower Pend d'Oreille River further fragmented the population and altered the natural river regime. In addition, the impoundments created by these dams flooded the riverine system, altering or eliminating critical sturgeon habitats, changing water quality and generally reducing system productivity. Dam construction effects were exacerbated by additional impacts such as pollution and waterfront developments.	eng
44563	conservation	Duffy, C., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44563	distribution	Duffy, C., 2004	Known from the Indian Ocean (Maldive Islands, possibly Sri Lanka), South China Sea and Western Central Pacific Ocean (Philippines).	eng
44563	habitat	Duffy, C., 2004	Inhabits upper continental and insular slopes, recorded depths: 760 to 770 m (Compagno in preparation a). <em>Centrophorus</em> spp. usually occur on or near the bottom over the continental slope from about 200 to 2,300 m depth. <br/> <br/>Reported size ranges from 35.2 to 93 cm total length (TL). Size and age at maturity is unknown. Smallest reported adult male is 75 cm TL; smallest reported adult female is 78 cm TL (Compagno in preparation a). All other aspects of biology unknown. <br/> <br/>Reproduction in <em>Centrophorus</em> is ovoviviparous, and fecundity is low. <em>C. uyato</em> and <em>C. moluccensis</em> (which superficially resemble <em>C. isodon</em>) only have 1 to 2 embryos per litter, compared to 5 to 7 per litter in <em>C. squamosus</em> and <em>C. lusitanicus</em> respectively.  <br/> <br/>Diet includes a wide range of teleosts, other dogfishes, cephalopods, shrimps and occasionally salps.	eng
44563	population	Duffy, C., 2004	Population unknown.	eng
44563	threats	Duffy, C., 2004	Probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and line fisheries. Other members of the genus exhibit little resilience to fishing pressure and have been rapidly depleted by directed commercial fisheries, and as bycatch (Cavanagh <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further research and monitoring of deepsea fisheries as they expand globally is necessary. <br/> <br/>Utilisation unknown. Probably utilized for liver oil and possibly fish meal.	eng
44564	conservation	Kazunari Yano, 2004	No conservation actions are in place for this species.	eng
44564	habitat	Kazunari Yano, 2004	Found at the upper slope of the Kyushu-Palau submarine ridge, at depths of 340 to 370 m. Males presumably are immature at 21 to 29 cm total length (TL), adult at about 40 to 43 cm TL; size of females is not known. No other information on biology.	eng
44564	population	Kazunari Yano, 2004	Known from a limited number of specimens.	eng
44564	threats	Kazunari Yano, 2004	Known specimens were collected by research surveys using commercial bottom trawl nets. Of no commercial value, but possibly taken as very rare bycatch in bottom trawl nets. Future expansion of deepwater fisheries could pose a threat to this poorly known species. However, at present there is very little, if any, fishing within the species’ range.	eng
44565	conservation	Duffy, C.A.J., Ebert, D.A. & Stenberg , C., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44565	distribution	Duffy, C.A.J., Ebert, D.A. & Stenberg , C., 2004	Most goblin shark records come from Japan. All Japanese records have been made between Tosa Bay and Boso Peninsula (including Sagami Bay, Suruga Bay, Izu Islands), despite similar fishing gear being used throughout the Japanese Archipelago (Yano 2003). In April 2003 an exceptionally large number of goblin sharks (reportedly 100 to 300) were captured off northwest Taiwan, an area they had been previously unknown from.  <br/> <br/>The species is likely to occur in more locations than presently known as surveys are undertaken in other regions or as deepwater fisheries expand globally.	eng
44565	habitat	Duffy, C.A.J., Ebert, D.A. & Stenberg , C., 2004	This is an apparently rare and consequently poorly known upper slope, possibly mesopelagic species. Maximum size is estimated to be 540 to  617 cm total (TL) using regression analysis based on photographs of a specimen taken in the Gulf of Mexico (Parsons <em>et al</em>. 2002). Males are mature at 264 cm TL; female size at maturity is unknown. Pregnant females are unknown but like other Lamniformes the embryos are probably oviphagous and litter size is likely to be small. The smallest known free-swimming individual was about 88 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Individuals less than 300 cm TL are occasionally reported inshore or near the surface over deepwater at depths ?30 m, and occur to at least 979 m depth. Individuals larger than 300 cm TL have not been collected shallower than about 270 m depth. Maximum reported depth is 1,300 m, however, it is unclear if the specimens referred to in this record were taken on the bottom or in the water column as the trawl was deployed and/or retrieved. The largest reported specimen was tangled in a crab pot at about 1,000 m depth. Most reported captures are of small juveniles taken on or near the bottom over the outer shelf and upper slope. In Tokyo Canyon peak catches of goblin sharks in bottom-set gillnets occur between 200 to 300 m depth.  A seasonal peak in catches occurs between December and April, with secondary peaks reported in July and September in some years (Yano 2003). Total catch is low with a maximum of about 30 individuals a year reported. The fishery takes mainly small juveniles less than 150 cm TL. The largest specimens taken in this fishery exceeded 200 cm TL and were also immature (Yano 2003). Goblin sharks collected at similar depths off New Zealand, South Africa and France (Bay of Biscay) have also been juveniles suggesting that the bulk of the adult population occurs outside the depth range, or is otherwise unavailable to most deepwater fisheries.  <br/> <br/>Their anatomy suggests goblin sharks are a non-vertical migrating mesopelagic species. Although poorly known their diet also suggests a mesopelagic habitat. A large goblin shark taken near the surface off California had been feeding on squid. Juveniles (?150 cm TL) taken off Kaikoura, New Zealand, and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, had been feeding on midwater crustacea (including <em>Macrocypridina castanea rotunda</em>), unidentified teleosts, and squid (including juvenile <em>Teuthowenia pellucida</em>).  <br/> <br/>Goblin sharks were unknown from Taiwan until 2003, when an exceptionally large number (> 100) were reportedly caught off the northwest coast over two weeks in April by a number of fishers. These captures were reportedly made around 600 m depth, following a strong earthquake centred in the area. One fisher reportedly stated that most of these sharks were male. No measurements or other data are known to have been recorded; however, an unconfirmed length estimate of 350 to 400 cm TL for some specimens was reportedly based upon the size of several jaws (M. and M. Kazmers posting on the <a href="http://raven.utc.edu/cgi-bin/WA.EXE?A0=SHARK-L">Archives of SHARK-L@RAVEN.UTC.EDU</a>, 12 July 2003).	eng
44565	population	Duffy, C.A.J., Ebert, D.A. & Stenberg , C., 2004	Reported landings from Tokyo Canyon show no trend in abundance (Yano 2003).	eng
44565	threats	Duffy, C.A.J., Ebert, D.A. & Stenberg , C., 2004	The goblin shark is a rare bycatch of deepwater fisheries with most captures around Japan. In an unusual occurrence, an exceptionally large number (> 100) were reportedly caught off the northwest coast of Taiwan over two weeks in April 2003 by a number of fishers. <br/> <br/>Taken in deep bottom-set gillnet, bottom longline and trawl fisheries; rarely surface drift nets. Also entangled in deepwater fishing gear. Most reported captures are juveniles suggesting that the bulk of the adult population occurs outside the depth range of, or is otherwise unavailable to most deepwater fisheries. <br/> <br/>The jaws are sought after by collectors. The jaws of most of those goblin sharks landed in Taiwan during April 2003 were reported exported to the USA. Prices vary with the size and quality of the jaw, and range from US$1,500?$4,000.	eng
44566	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Kazunari Yano & White, W.T., 2004	None in place. Deep-sea marine protected areas would be important in preserving habitat of this and other deepwater species.	eng
44566	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Kazunari Yano & White, W.T., 2004	Extent of occurrence uncertain as records are sporadic. Records from the Southern Hemisphere are scarce and the species most likely occurs at more locations than presently recorded. <br/> <br/>Northwest Atlantic (Canada (Gilhen and Coad 1999), New York to New Jersey (Compagno (in prep. b)); Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic (Atlantic Slope off Iceland, France, Portugal, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Senegal and Cape Verde Is.); Western Indian Ocean (Aldabra Island group) and locations in the Southwest Indian (Alastair Graham, pers. comm.); Northwest Pacific (Japan (southern Honshu and Okinawa) and Taiwan); Eastern Indian Ocean (Australia (Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia) (Allen and Cowan 1995)); Western Central Pacific (Coral Sea, off Mackay, Queensland (Johnson and Kyne in press)); Southwest Pacific (New Zealand (Three Kings Ridge and Hikurangi Trough, east of Mahia Peninsula) (Stewart and Clark 1988, Yano 1992, Yano and Musick 1992, Stewart 2000)); and Central Pacific (Hawaiian Islands).	eng
44566	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Kazunari Yano & White, W.T., 2004	A large deepwater benthic shark recorded from depths of 200 to 1,890 m on the continental and insular slopes, including around seamounts, troughs and deepwater reefs. This species is occasionally recorded on the continental shelves including in shallow water. This may be abnormal behaviour or where submarine canyons extend close to shore (Compagno in prep. b). The anatomy of this shark (large body cavity, soft fins, musculature and skin) suggests an inactive and sluggish lifestyle (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Maximum size 296 cm total length (TL) (female), 295 cm TL (male) (Yano 1992); mature individuals 200 to 269 cm TL (males), 212 to 295 cm TL (females) (Compagno in prep. b). Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. (1984) observed near-term embryos of 112 and 113 cm TL, and Yano (1992) at 116 to 120 cm TL. A 156 cm TL immature female had an umbilical scar (Yano 1992). Size at birth 120 to 150 cm TL (Yano, unpubl. data).  <br/> <br/>Forster <em>et al</em>. (1970) suggested that <em>P. microdon</em> was oophagous based on the large number of ova (estimated at 20,000) of 9 mm mean diameter observed in the ovary of a 280 cm TL female. Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported mid-term and near-term embryos with stomachs full of yolk. Yano (1992) confirmed the existence of oophagy in this species showing that embryos ingest and utilise yolk material from ovulated ova. Yolk material was observed in the uteri of gravid females and the stomachs of two embryos contained yolk material and egg capsules. Yano (1992) reported that the reproductive mode in this species is a modified form of oophagy in which embryos appear to transfer yolk from ingested egg fragments to their external yolk sac, replenishing external yolk sac reserves and using them in the last stages of gestation. Reported litter size of this species is two (Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1984, Yano 1992, Stewart 2000) but may be four according to Compagno (in prep. b). Gestation period is unknown, but is presumed to be > 1 year and possibly more than two or three years (Yano unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Yano and Musick (1992) found that this species feeds predominantly on teleost fishes (52.8% frequency of occurrence in North Pacific specimens, 80% in South Pacific specimens). Other prey items included etmopterid sharks, squid and octopi. Its very large mouth may allow prey items of considerable size to be ingested (Compagno in prep. b). False catsharks have been photographed in the Indian Ocean (feeding on teleosts used as bait on the camera) and from a submersible off the Hawaiian Islands (feeding on heterocarpid prawns at the entrance to a trap) (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44566	population	Kyne, P.M., Kazunari Yano & White, W.T., 2004	Seemingly uncommon or rare wherever it occurs in its deepwater habitat.	eng
44566	threats	Kyne, P.M., Kazunari Yano & White, W.T., 2004	Localised populations of this large shark could be rapidly depleted if it began to be captured more regularly, however, at present it is of little interest to fisheries and is only taken as sporadic bycatch. <br/> <br/>Most specimens of this species have been taken on deep-set longlines or in deepwater bottom trawls (Compagno in prep. b). Among the specimens reported in the literature as taken from commercial fishing operations, individuals have been captured as bycatch of trawls for Atlantic halibut <em>Hippoglossus hippoglossus</em> in the North Atlantic (Gilhen and Coad 1999) and orange roughy <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> in the southern Indian (Allen and Cowan 1995), and developmental fishing surveys for bottom longline fisheries in the North Pacific (Yano 1992). The Queensland, Australia specimen was taken by exploratory deepwater dropline fishing targeting deepwater reef fishes, particularly flame and ruby snapper (<em>Etelis</em> spp.) and bar cod (<em>Epinephelus</em> spp.) (J. Johnson, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Utilization not reported.	eng
44567	conservation	Acuña, E. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44567	distribution	Acuña, E. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	As presently known, this species appears to be restricted to Chile. The holotype, collected by the HMS Challenger at Station 311, was taken at 52°45.5'S, 73°46'W in the northwestern Strait of Magellan. The type locality was reported as Port Stanley, Falkland Islands (as the Challenger may have proceeded onto that port after surveying in the Pacific). Although Compagno (1984) reports the species from the Falkland Islands, it has not actually been recorded from that locality (J. Pompert, pers. comm.) and at present appears to be restricted to Chilean waters.	eng
44567	habitat	Acuña, E. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	A poorly known deepwater shark. Compagno (in prep. a) notes that the species has been recorded at 400 to 448 m depth on the upper continental slope. The holotype was taken at 448 m (Günther 1887). Recorded in the Chilean deep-sea shrimp fishery at depths of 300 to 500 m (Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Lamilla (2003) reports a maximum size of 61.5 cm total length (TL); size at birth 13 cm TL; minimum size of mature males 31 cm TL; and, a maximum fecundity of 16. Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
44567	threats	Acuña, E. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	Sporadic bycatch in the Chilean deep sea shrimp fishery, in small numbers (Acuña and Villaroel 2002), at depths of 300?500 m.	eng
44568	conservation	Leandro, L., 2004	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44568	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Recorded from the Gulf of Mexico and Venezuela.	eng
44568	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	A rare, small, deepwater benthic shark found on the upper continental slope at depths of 402 to 457 m. Virtually nothing known about its biology. Attains a maximum size of at least 49 cm total length (TL). Immature specimens of both males and females examined at 20 to 21 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a).	eng
44568	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	This species is not known to be of interest to fisheries at present (Compagno, in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Compagno (in prep. a) writes: "Oxynotids are of limited interest to fisheries, as these sharks are a relatively uncommon bycatch of bottom and pelagic trawl fisheries and to the writer's knowledge are not sufficiently abundant and concentrated to be targeted to any extent". <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Compagno (in prep. a) writes: "Where utilized (Eastern North Atlantic) [oxynotids] are mostly processed for fish meal and oil, but also are prepared smoked and dried-salted for human consumption".	eng
44569	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Known only from the holotype collected at an unrecorded depth from the Straits of Magellan, Chile.	eng
44569	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	Known only from the holotype collected from the Straits of Magellan (depth unrecorded). Holotype was 68 cm total length (TL) (species may attain a larger size). Nothing known of the biology of this deepwater dogfish (Compagno, in prep. a).	eng
44569	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	Of no interest to fisheries at present (Compagno, in prep. a)	eng
44570	conservation	Leandro, L., 2004	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
44570	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Known from a single specimen taken in the open ocean about 2,300 km WNW of Santiago, Chile.	eng
44570	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	Known only from a single specimen (the holotype) which is an immature male of 26 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. a). This species is apparently oceanic being caught near the surface at 0 to 200 m in water 2,000 to 4,000 m deep. Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44570	population	Leandro, L., 2004	Known only from one specimen.	eng
44570	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	No information currently available on threats and interactions with fisheries.	eng
44571	conservation	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Given declines in other <em>Squatina</em> species globally, careful monitoring of catches is required, as is life history studies. Taxonomic resolution and validation of the species is required.	eng
44571	habitat	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2004	Chirichigno and Cornejo (2001) reported that the species is benthic on sandy bottoms at depths of 30 to 75 m. Maximum size to 150 cm total length (TL) (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44571	threats	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2004	In Peru, this species is of little importance to fisheries, with an average catch of 267 metric tons (mt) per year taken off Peru between 1964 and 1999, and no long-term trend apparent. Landings were very unsteady during this period. The catch ranged from 55 mt per year (in 1992) to 1,615 mt per year (in 1986). There were two peaks, one in 1982 (1,126 mt) and the other in 1986. It is not clear why these peaks were followed by abrupt falls in 1982?83 and 1986?87, respectively, but this may be related to El Niño events. <br/> <br/>Information is not available from other countries.	eng
44572	conservation	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Further research is required to determine the species' exact distribution, biology and habitat.	eng
44572	distribution	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Western Central Atlantic where it is known from various localities in the Caribbean: Leeward Islands off Antigua and Anguilla, Netherlands Antilles, Straits of Florida, Colombia and Venezuela (Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44572	habitat	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Recorded from the insular slopes at depths of 521 to 915 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Virtually nothing known of its biology. Maximum size 45.5 cm total length (TL): males are adult at 42.8 cm TL, and females are adult at 39.5 to 45.5 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44572	population	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	There is no information on population size.	eng
44572	threats	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	This species is of no interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44573	conservation	Huveneers, C., Duffy, C. & Acuña, E., 2004	No conservation actions are in place for this species.	eng
44573	distribution	Huveneers, C., Duffy, C. & Acuña, E., 2004	Eastern Pacific. Possibly also occurs in the Northeast Pacific. Nominally from the Eastern Central Pacific off Morocco, but this is probably another species (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44573	habitat	Huveneers, C., Duffy, C. & Acuña, E., 2004	A little-known shark of the upper continental slope reported at depths of 400 to 925 m (Compagno in prep. b) and 250 to 500 m off Northern and Central Chile (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). Females never observed. Mature males reported at 51 to 59 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/><em>Apristurus</em> species are relatively small, sluggish sharks that live on or near the bottom. Diet includes crustaceans (penaeid shrimps, euphausiids), squids and small fishes. Where known reproduction is oviparous with one egg per oviduct. Eggcases are usually thick-walled and about 5 to 6.8 cm long and 2.5 to 2.9 cm wide. The anterior end of the case has a long weak fibrous thread on each corner. The posterior end usually has two small processes, each with a long coiled tendril. As in shallow water scyliorhinids the coiled tendrils are probably used to attach the egg cases to hard substrates and/or biogenic structures as they are laid.	eng
44573	threats	Huveneers, C., Duffy, C. & Acuña, E., 2004	Potentially threatened by expansion of deepwater trawl fisheries. Off Northern and Central Chile (from 27º46?37?? to 33º19?59??S) the species is taken as bycatch in the deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> fishery (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). <br/> <br/>Not known to be utilized at present.	eng
44574	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific where it is known only from Panama (Gulf of Panama and Panama Bay) (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44574	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	Known from the continental slope at depths of 915 to 975 m. Maximum size at least 23 cm total length (TL); adult males at or above 20.8 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). In the largest female examined the ovary could be discerned, but no distinct ovarian eggs were apparent (Springer 1979). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44574	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44575	conservation	Hozbor, N., Massa, A & Vooren, C.M., 2004	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the species is included in the annual catch quota of the fishery for coastal skates. Fishery landing statistics should be improved, by listing <em>A. castelnaui</em> specifically and not under "unidentified rays and skates". Management measures for this and other elasmobranch species should be reached bilaterally between Argentina and Uruguay in the first instance due to the common zone of fishing shared between them.	eng
44575	distribution	Hozbor, N., Massa, A & Vooren, C.M., 2004	The depth distribution of the species appears to be much wider in south Brazil, where the species occurs across most of the continental shelf (20 to 220 m), than in Argentina, where the species is reported from the inner shelf only (40 to 60 m).	eng
44575	habitat	Hozbor, N., Massa, A & Vooren, C.M., 2004	In south Brazil, the species occurs all year round across most of the continental shelf, at 20 to 220 m, and at bottom temperatures of 9.5 to 22°C without preference for temperatures within this wide range (Vooren 1997, Vooren, unpubl. data). In Argentina, the species occurs at depths of 40 to 60 m and at bottom temperatures of 9.6 to 13.5°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Perhaps in Argentina depths greater than 60 m have bottom temperatures below 9.5°C, which is the minimum limit of the species. This would explain the wider depth distribution of the species in south Brazil where a wider range of temperatures greater than 9.5°C is available.   <br/> <br/>In south Brazil, in trawl surveys of the entire shelf in the years 1980 to 1986 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data), disc width (DW) was as follows: <br/>-  Total range 20 cm to 103 cm (1 to 18 kg). <br/>-  Most abundant size classes 40 to 90 cm (1.5 to 12.5 kg).    <br/>-  Females maximum size 103 cm, maximum total weight 18 kg. <br/>-  Males maximum size 90 cm, total weight 13 kg. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, maximum total length (TL) is 140 cm and the species feeds on fish, squid and crustaceans (Cousseau and Perrotta 2000).  <br/> <br/>Oviparous, egg-laying occurs from January to October (assessors, pers. obs).	eng
44575	population	Hozbor, N., Massa, A & Vooren, C.M., 2004	Southern Brazil may be the stronghold of the species in terms of its abundance.	eng
44575	threats	Hozbor, N., Massa, A & Vooren, C.M., 2004	In south Brazil the species has been fished by bottom trawling from at least 1986 and was frequently observed in trawler landings in 2002 and 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). In Argentina, the species has been landed since 1994. Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense. In Argentina and Uruguay, biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 75% in the years from 1994 to 1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpubl. data) and it is highly probable that in Brazil the species is threatened by fishing at a similar level. <br/> <br/>Furthermore, the vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002).	eng
44576	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific Ocean, from Perú (07°49'S, 80°38'W) to Constitución in Chile (35°43'S, 73°17'W).	eng
44576	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	Little is known about this species, which inhabits the continental slope and has been reported from depths of 580 to 735 m: De Buen (1959) described one juvenile male (29.3 cm total length (TL)) from off Valparaíso, Chile. McEachran and Miyake (1984) reported three specimens (two juvenile males, 11.0 cm TL and 16.7 cm TL; one juvenile female, 15.6 cm TL) captured in Perú at 605 to 735 m depth. Lamilla (unpubl. data) found six specimens (three males, 22.0, 29.2 and 24.5 cm TL; three females, 18.3, 22.3 and 23.5 cm TL, all juveniles) at 580 to 720 m depth of Chile. These are the only records of this species. Adults have never been observed and probably occur in deeper water where fishing and surveys are limited. Nothing is known of its biology.	eng
44576	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	No fisheries currently occur at the depths in which this species has been reported.	eng
44577	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	No conservation measures are in effect. Since it seems to aggregate in certain areas to feed, closed areas may be effective to protect these aggregations. The use of bycatch reduction devices seems to be ineffective since the animal is sensitive to any injury due to its thin skin.	eng
44577	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	Extremely localised and restricted distribution off southern Brazil. Estimated extent of occurrence about 16,000 km², but probably less.	eng
44577	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	This is a deepwater electric ray with a known bathymetrical distribution of 400 to 600 m depth at bottom water temperatures from 8 to 9°C. It feeds mainly on polychaetes and isopod crustaceans, which it unearths from the sediment. Maximum size is around 26 cm total length (TL). Matures at 14 to 15 cm TL (males) and 20 to 21 cm TL (females). Ovoviviparous; number of young one or two per litter; size at birth 0.96 cm TL. May breed year-round since different gestation stages were found in a single capture, but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown.	eng
44577	population	Rincon, G., 2004	It seems to aggregate over polychaete-rich sediments to feed where large numbers are often captured in a single trawl.	eng
44577	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	Captured in large numbers as bycatch by the otter trawl fishery targeting squid <em>Illex argentinus</em> off Santa Catarina. Large catches and stomach contents (with large numbers of polychaetes) are evidence of aggregation over special worm rich sediments in order to feed, making it more vulnerable to the bottom trawl fishery.  <br/> <br/>Increasing bottom trawl effort for squids in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern, inferring future declines in the number of mature individuals as fishing effort increases.	eng
44578	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	No conservation measures currently are in effect or proposed. Bycatch mitigation is required. Closed areas may be required to protect this and other species in such areas of heavy, and increasing, fishing.	eng
44578	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	Recorded so far only off Santa Catarina and north of Rio Grande do Sul States, Brazil. Northern distribution not reported, but may occur at least to São Paulo State. If so, the range is still likely to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
44578	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	Upper continental slope off Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul States (southern Brazil) from 236 to 600 m depth in deep reef habitat. <br/> <br/>Three mature females (38.5, 38.5 and 42.5 cm total length (TL)) had one single developed ovary on the right hand side with yellow follicles with diameters of 12 to 18 mm. The largest female (42.5 cm TL) had both oviducts with large nidamental glands (width of 23 mm in the left and 21 mm in the right) and both uteri flabby and empty with a width of 8 mm and length of 68 mm in the left uterus and 9 mm and 55 mm in the right uterus. One female (36.5 cm TL) had its ovary with 19 white follicles of 3 mm, nidamental glands 11 mm wide and uterus 6 mm wide and 57 mm long. The analysis of this reproductive system did not allow determination of maturity. One other female of 34.5 cm TL was immature, based on its undeveloped sexual system, with its ovary full of 3 mm white follicles, small nidamental glands of 4 mm width and uterus 2 mm wide and 42 mm long. So, maturity in females occurs at 34.5 to 38.5 cm TL and males mature at 36.0 to 37.5 cm TL (Rincon, unpubl. data).	eng
44578	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	A bycatch in deepwater fisheries (bottom longline and trawl, and baited trap). While there are no specific data on bycatch trends, increasing bottom trawl effort for squids in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern, where the species is frequently taken as bycatch. The squid fishery operates in southern Brazil during winters when the Malvinas Current extends northwards to Santa Catarina State, producing optimal conditions for reproducing aggregations of squid. Heavy fishing occurred in the winters of 2001 and 2002, however, conditions were not suitable in 2003 and the squid fishery did not operate in southern Brazil in that year.	eng
44579	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Rivera, F. & Leandro, L., 2004	Protected in the Galapagos Marine Reserve where there are ?protected zones? in which fishing is not permitted.	eng
44579	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Rivera, F. & Leandro, L., 2004	The Galapagos bullhead shark is not common around the Galapagos Archipelago. In the west it is located at the east and the north side of Fernandina Island and the west side of Isabela Island. This area is known as the Canal Bolivar. In the south part of Galapagos it is located only in Floreana Island and only at the west side of the island (upwelling area). This shark is associated with cold waters and where upwelling is strong (Rivera, unpubl. data).	eng
44579	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Rivera, F. & Leandro, L., 2004	A small poorly known tropical and warm-temperate hornshark, demersal on the inshore continental and insular shelves. In the Galapagos it is associated with colder waters and where upwelling is strong. It occupies rocky and coral reefs, often seen at 3 to 30 m (Compagno 2001, Allen and Robertson 1994). It is primarily nocturnal feeding on crabs. Oviparous. Maximum size 105 cm total length (TL); adult male 48 cm TL; newly hatched male 17 cm TL (Compagno 2001, Rivera unpublished data).	eng
44579	population	Kyne, P.M., Rivera, F. & Leandro, L., 2004	The Galapagos Islands subpopulation is distinct from the Peruvian subpopulation(s), however, little information is available on population structure.	eng
44579	threats	Kyne, P.M., Rivera, F. & Leandro, L., 2004	Not fished in the Galapagos Islands but the apparent limited population size, and possible subpopulation, places the species in a vulnerable position if it began to be captured here. Apparently not a commercial species, though probably taken as bycatch elsewhere in its range and discarded (Compagno 2001). Presumably impacted by inshore fisheries, but no information available. <br/> <br/>Commonly observed by divers (Compagno 2001) and may have ecotourism value.	eng
44580	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Endemic to the Eastern Pacific where it is known from Central America and into northern South America.	eng
44580	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	A bottom-dwelling shark known from the continental shelves. Maximum size 64 cm total length (TL); size at birth 21 to 23 cm TL; both sexes maturing at around 43 cm TL. Placental viviparous with a litter size of four (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44580	population	Leandro, L., 2004	According to Compagno (in prep. b), it is possibly uncommon compared with other Eastern Pacific triakids in its range.	eng
44580	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	Probably of minor interest to fisheries where it is likely to be taken in multi-species fisheries throughout its range, however, data are lacking (Compagno in prep. b). The species is utilized, where taken.	eng
44581	conservation	Hozbor, N., Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	In Brazil, trawl fishing at distances less than three nautical miles from shore (which means at depths of less than about 10 m) is forbidden by law but enforcement of this law meets with practical difficulties, and trawling in the nursery area proceeds almost without restriction. Gillnetting in the nursery area proceeds without legal restrictions. Due to the multi-species nature of the fisheries, regulation measures aimed at a particular species are a difficult proposition. The best solution would be to establish two or three large coastal protected areas in which fishing would be banned, as recommended by Musick <em>et al</em>. (2000) for long-lived marine species threatened by capture as bycatch in fisheries targeting other species. Several other species of elasmobranchs have their nursery and pupping ground in the same shallow coastal waters and would also benefit from this. Public awareness of the problem is increasing. By Decree of the State Government of Rio Grande do Sul, <em>Mustelus fasciatus</em> was, in the year 2002, classified as a species threatened with extinction (Marques 2002).	eng
44581	distribution	Hozbor, N., Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	This endemic Southwest Atlantic species occurs at low densities over a restricted area (1,500 km of coastline). In Brazil the species occurs only in the extreme south, between latitudes of approximately 29°S and 34°S. The range extends southward to around 35°30?S in Argentina. Nursery area and birth of young occur only on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, at latitudes from approximately 29 to 34°S and into northern Uruguay (Soto 2001), which is a considerable portion of the species? distribution.	eng
44581	habitat	Hozbor, N., Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	In southern Brazil, the species occurs all year round over smooth bottom of the inner continental shelf at depths down to 250 m, being classified as a non-migratory permanent resident of the area, but the adult females carry out a seasonal inshore-offshore migration. The gravid females stay at depths greater than 20 m during most of the year but migrate to shallow inshore waters in spring. Neonates and small juveniles stay in these waters, which constitute the nursery area of the species (Vooren 1997, Vasconcellos and Vooren 1991, Soto 2001). Pupping occurs in October-December. The presence of large-yolked eggs in the ovary of females with near term pups indicates a yearly reproductive cycle with a gestation period of 11 to 12 months (Soto 2001). <br/> <br/>Population parameters are as follows: <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong>:  111.5 cm total length (TL) (females); 120 cm TL (males) (Soto 2001) <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong>:  Males 147 cm TL (males); 158 cm TL (females) <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm TL (Vasconcellos and Vooren 1991); 35 cm TL (Soto 2001) <br/> <br/>The species feeds mostly on shrimps and crabs (Vooren 1997, Soto 2001).	eng
44581	threats	Hozbor, N., Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	Intensive demersal fisheries exist over the entire area of distribution of this species, already naturally low in density (as evidenced from catches typically of the order of one to ten specimens per one-hour trawl haul in 1980 when the species was still relatively unexploited (Vooren, unpubl. data)). <br/> <br/>In southern Brazil fishing is intense in the habitat of this demersal shark (Miranda and Vooren 1999). The major threat to the species is intensive fishing by pair trawl, shrimp trawl, gillnet and beach seine in the coastal nursery area of the species at depths less than 10 m. The species is caught as bycatch in the shrimp fishery and in the multi-species fishery aimed mostly at an assembly of sciaenid fishes, flounders, mullets, angel sharks and guitarfish (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). The fishery in the nursery area catches gravid females during their inshore migration in spring and the small juveniles all year round. In gillnets set off the beach during summer, neonates used to be caught in large numbers (10?100 per set) in the 1980?s but were caught only sporadically and in much smaller numbers in 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). The coastal fishery is driving the species towards extinction through recruitment overfishing.  <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, where it is not targeted but taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries, species-specific catch data are not available. Together with <em>M. schmitti</em>, which is the main species taken, estimated capture for the period 2000?2002 was 900 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>In the coastal region of the Bonaerensean District of northern Argentina and Uruguay the biomass of the species, as measured by trawl surveys, decreased by 96% between 1994 and 1999 (Massa and Hozbor, unpubl. data).	eng
44582	conservation	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Since 1995, there are a Permitted Maximum Catch (PMC) for coastal skates and rays in Argentina with a peak of 12,000 tonnes in 1997, and a drop to 4,000 tonnes in 2001 and 2002 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, as this species was until very recently always discarded, the PMC is not an accurate tool for the conservation of this and other small skates.	eng
44582	distribution	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (23°S) to Patagonia, Argentina (41°S) (McEachran 1983).	eng
44582	habitat	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Off Puerto Quequén the species is found at 36 to 56 m depth and is present during all seasons with a peak in summer. Around 70% of <em>P. bergi</em> sampled in the area are adults. The species did not show sexual differences in size frequency distribution for the whole sample period but some differences were detected seasonally. <em>P. bergi</em> shows a pattern of sexual segregation by season.  <br/> <br/>San Martín (2003) found that the minimum total length (TL) of free swimming females and males were 29.5 cm and 28.1 cm, respectively, and that the size at 50% of maturity were 44.16 cm TL (580 g) and 45.76 cm TL (584 g) for females and males respectively, which represented 79.1% and 75.6% of the largest females and males measured (55.8 and 60.5 cm TL respectively). This author also concluded that the evidence suggested a continuous reproductive cycle during the year, with a maximum number of females carrying eggcases in spring to summer seasons. 31% of adult females sampled carried one eggcase per oviduct (single oviparity). The number of egg produced per year and the hatching time remains unknown.  <br/> <br/>This skate feeds mainly on Brachyuran crabs (91.64%, H = 0.11) (San Martín <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
44582	population	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	It is an abundant small skate in Uruguayan and Argentinean coastal waters. San Martín (2003) suggested that the fishing grounds off Puerto Quequén, Argentina are pupping areas for this species.	eng
44582	threats	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	This skate is commonly caught by the coastal bottom trawlers operating in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and has very recently become a target species in this multi-species trawl fishery where previously it was discarded (Tamini 2001). Tamini <em>et al</em>. (2006) found in the Puerto Quequén area that the CPUE of the total batoid catch didn?t change in the three years studied. However, species-specific trends are not available, and this fact, combined with the short time frame of the study cannot provide suitable catch trend information for <em>P. bergi</em>. It is also taken as bycatch and discarded in other fisheries off Argentina, including those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The increase in fishing pressure along the entire range and over the pupping areas of <em>P. bergi</em>, along with the loss of reproductive areas due to disturbance and destruction of the seabed by the coastal fleet of bottom trawlers could potentially push the species towards the Near Threatened category within the next 3?5 years. Careful monitoring as well as further information from Brazil is required.	eng
44583	conservation	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Since 1995, there has been a Permitted Maximum Catch (PMC) for coastal skates and rays in Argentina with a peak of 12,000 tonnes in 1997 and a drop to 4,000 tonnes in 2001 and 2002 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, as this species is always discarded, the PMC is not an accurate tool for the conservation of this and other small skates.	eng
44583	distribution	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic from Cabo Frío, Brazil (22°56?S) to Patagonia, Argentina (45°S) (Norman, 1937).	eng
44583	habitat	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	Off Puerto Quequén area (Argentina) this species occurs at 36 to 56 m depth, is present all year with a peak in summer, does not show sexual differences in size frequency distribution and also does not show any pattern of sexual segregation by depth. Only half of the sample (49.5%) was mature (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/> <br/>Braccini and Chiaramonte (2002) report a neonate of 6.0 cm total length (TL), and a size at 50% maturity of 24.9 cm TL (86 g) (females) and 26.2 cm TL (93 g) (males), which represented 80% and 84% of the largest females and males measured (31.3 cm TL), respectively. These authors also concluded that the evidence suggested a continuous reproductive cycle during the year, with a maximum number of females carrying eggcases in summer. The number of eggs produced per year and the hatching time remains unknown.  <br/> <br/>This skate feeds mainly on Penoidea and Gammaridea with a narrow niche width B = 0.0975 (San Martín <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
44583	population	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	It is an abundant small skate in Uruguayan and Argentinean coastal waters.	eng
44583	threats	Chiaramonte, G.E., 2004	This skate is commonly caught and discarded by the bottom trawlers operating in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) (Tamini 2001). While the conspecific <em>P. bergi</em> has recently become a target species in this fishery, the smaller <em>P. extenta</em> is still discarded. In a study of batoids discarded by the coastal fishery from Puerto Quequén (Argentina), Tamini <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that the discarded mass of <em>Psammobatis extenta</em> was inconsiderable in relation with other batoid species, but was the second most important batoid species discarded by number. These authors also found that the CPUE of the total batoid catches did not change over the three year study period. Thus, no clear changes of <em>P. extenta</em> abundance could be noted. This species is also taken as bycatch and discarded in other fisheries off Argentina, including those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The growth of fishing pressure along the entire range of <em>P. extenta</em> along with the environmental loss of reproductive areas due to the disturbance and destruction of the seabed made by the coastal fleets of bottom trawlers could be pushing the species towards the Near Threatened category in the next 5?10 years.	eng
44584	conservation	Lamilla , J., 2004	Likely to occur in the Galapagos Marine Reserve.	eng
44584	habitat	Lamilla , J., 2004	This species may be naturally rare and is only seldom caught. Occurs inshore in Chile. Fishbase gives the maximum size as 76.3 cm total length (TL), but notes that apparently it may reach 170 cm TL. Nothing reported of its biology.	eng
44584	threats	Lamilla , J., 2004	Known to be taken in inshore fisheries off beaches in the north of Chile (Iquique and Antofagasta). May be taken by other inshore fisheries throughout its range, but no information is available.	eng
44585	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44585	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific Ocean: Perú (Ancón and Isla Vieja, Independencia Bay (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001)); Chile (Arica to Chiloé, South Chile (Compagno 1984, Leible and Alveal 1982, Sielfeld and Vargas 1992)) to 39°42?S (Springer 1979).	eng
44585	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	Inshore benthic species, at depths of 8 to 15 m in summer and 15 to 100 m in winter. Fariña and Ojeda 1993 report it as demersal around rocky subtidal areas at 1 to 50 m depth. <br/> <br/>Maximum size 60 cm total length (TL); size at maturity 52 to 54 cm TL (females) and 42 to 46 cm TL (males); size at birth 14 cm TL. Oviparous, with a single egg per oviduct. Concerning reproductive biology, Miranda (1980) reported an aggregation of specimens of different sexes in during Autumn in San Antonio, central Chile and Fariña and Ojeda (1993) reported females with capsules in central Chile. Hernandez (2003) described embryonic development with material from Coquimbo, northern Chile.  <br/> <br/>Feeds on small crustacean species and other invertebrates.	eng
44585	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	A bycatch species in inshore demersal trawl and longline fisheries (Leible and Alveal 1982). Species-specific catch information is not available.  <br/> <br/>This species is a popular laboratory animal (Solar 1999, Balmaceda 2001, Basualto 2003, Valenzuela 2003, Ruiz 2004). Over-collecting for research purposes may impact small, localised populations (Natalia Solar, Carolina Balmaceda, Ariel Valenzuela and Pablo Ruiz, pers. comm., Julio Lamilla, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>Not economically important, but is used for ?harina de pescado? (Lorenzen <em>et al</em>. 1979, Leible and Alveal 1982).	eng
44586	conservation	Vooren, C.M. & Soto, J.M.R., 2004	Areas on the outer shelf and the upper slope with patches of coral should be preserved as breeding habitat for this species. Bottom fishing should be excluded from such areas. Further survey work is required to determine its range extent.	eng
44586	distribution	Vooren, C.M. & Soto, J.M.R., 2004	The area of distribution of this species, as presently known, is small, comprising only about 600 km of coastline. Within this area the species occurs at low density on the upper continental slope at depths of 250 to 500 m and sporadically on the outer edge of the continental shelf. The species uses patches of coral for egg-laying. The distribution of patches of corals determines the occurrence of this species.	eng
44586	habitat	Vooren, C.M. & Soto, J.M.R., 2004	Maximum size observed is 67 cm total length (TL) (females) and 61 cm TL (males). Females of 55 cm TL are sexually mature (Vooren, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is oviparous and uses patches of coral for egg-laying as evidenced by a catch of egg-laying females on a patch of the stony coral <em>Dophelia pertusa </em> in a trawl survey of its habitat in 2001 (Vooren, unpubl. data). The distribution of coral patches in the depth range of the species is unknown, but it is evident that such patches are naturally scarce and of small size, of the order of perhaps 100?1,000 m² only in the areas with smooth bottom, which has been studied by trawling. Coral patches may be more abundant on rough bottom, which has not been studied by trawling and which may be the preferred habitat of the species.	eng
44586	threats	Vooren, C.M. & Soto, J.M.R., 2004	Patches of coral and of colonial branching sessile invertebrates in general appear to be the habitat necessary for the reproduction of this egg-laying shark. In areas where bottom fishing occurs, such habitat will suffer destruction, especially by trawling, and as a consequence the species will likely disappear from such areas. Indeed, further trawl sampling of the same locality (mentioned in the habitat and ecology section) only a year later revealed the coral patch was no longer present and no <em>S. saurisqualus</em> were caught.	eng
44587	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	Research actions are required to better understand biological and ecological aspects of this species and propose appropriate conservation measures where necessary. Preliminary observations and data collection are underway, but better catch monitoring needs to be carried out. The development of management plans (e.g., establishment of landing quotas) may be required in the future. The establishment and enforcement of trawl free areas (protected areas) would also be an important conservation measure if catches continue increasing.	eng
44587	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	The slender catshark seems to be an endemic species of the coast of Brazil and Suriname but there is no further information available regarding the range and population size of this species. It is apparently absent from Southern Brazil (Compagno, in prep. b). There is an uncertain record for the Southwest Atlantic (Argentina, off Patagonia) at the BMNH but this needs further confirmation and is possibly a misidentification.	eng
44587	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	Little information is available about the life history of this species and very few specimens have been observed. This catshark is benthic and found at depths of 72 to 450 m (Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983, Compagno, in prep. b). Reaches a maximum size of at least 43 cm total length (TL) (Compagno, in prep. b). Compagno (in prep. b) reports that a male of 23 cm TL was immature and a male of 43 cm TL was mature, while a female of 37 cm TL was mature. <br/> <br/>This species is oviparous with up to two egg capsules (one per uterus) with long tendrils (filamentous extremities of the capsules) observed in pregnant females (Gomes and Carvalho 1995, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1996).  <br/> <br/>Preliminary data on the feeding habits of this species indicate that it feeds on small teleosts and invertebrates (e.g., crustaceans, gastropods, squids) (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1996). Compagno (in prep. b) reports that it also feeds on foraminifera, sponges and possibly other small sharks (denticles found in the stomach of an adult).	eng
44587	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	Little information is available regarding threats to this species. Preliminary observations indicate it is often caught in bottom trawl fisheries as bycatch and usually discarded due to its small size. It is occasionally landed when target species (mainly shrimp and some commercially valuable catfish) catches are low (Patricia Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.). However, recently the landings are increasing and preliminary indications are that interest in this species is growing (Patricia Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.) and may cause problems if this continues. <br/> <br/>Some known intrinsic factors also could be considered threats for this catshark. Indeed its restricted range possibly makes it more susceptible than other species to negative environmental impacts of various types.  <br/> <br/>This species is present in the mouth of the Amazon River and distributed in an area highly influenced by the Amazon River discharge. Due to this distribution, it is possibly susceptible to water pollution originating in or carried by the Amazon River. In the future, increasing agricultural and industrial water pollution (chemical wastes) may be identified as threats to this species.	eng
44588	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44588	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	Apparently homogeneously distributed on the upper continental slope.	eng
44588	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	A little known bottom shark found on the outer continental shelf of southern Brazil and Uruguay at 140 to 190 m depth (Compagno, in prep. b). Females with eggs in their uterus have been captured in September (Spring). Maximum size, 50 cm total length (TL) (possibly reaches a larger size); males mature at 35 to 40 cm TL; females are mature at larger sizes (about 43 cm TL) (unpubl. data).	eng
44588	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	There is no information from Uruguay at this time.  <br/> <br/>The species is taken as bycatch by otter trawlers for squid off Santa Catarina State, and by bottom longliners and deepwater trawlers off São Paulo State, Brazil.  <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In some areas, sharks of the genus <em>Scyliorhinus</em> (<em>S. haeckelii</em> and <em>S. besnardi</em>) are now of commercial importance and their value rose substantially during 2001 and 2002. There is no information on current catch sizes, and it is uncertain if all those captured are retained for sale, or if a proportion is still being discarded. This may result in underestimation of actual catches at landing sites.	eng
44589	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44589	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	The species is only occasionally captured throughout its range.	eng
44589	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	Compagno (in prep. b) reports <em>Scyliorhinus haeckelii</em> on or near the bottom, on the continental shelf and upper slope, at depths of 37 to 402 m. It is associated with deep-reef habitats, mostly deeper than 250 m. Off southeastern and southern Brazil it is found on the upper continental slope. Oviparous with two eggcases deposited at a time (Compagno, in prep. b). Maximum size around 50 cm total length (TL), males mature at 35 cm TL, females at 40 cm TL and size at hatching 10 to 13 cm TL (Compagno, in prep. b), however, these sizes may need verification due to possible confusion with other <em>Scyliorhinus</em> species.	eng
44589	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	Taken as bycatch by otter trawlers for squid off Santa Catarina State, and by bottom longliners and deepwater trawlers off São Paulo State (Brazil). The most numerously captured specimens are usually adult males, followed by immature males and females. Detailed catch data are not available due to lack of species-specific recording, the problem further compounded by misidentification. The species is captured in low numbers by bottom trawl nets off Uruguay (Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In some areas of southern Brazil, sharks of the genus <em>Scyliorhinus</em> (<em>S. haeckelii</em> and <em>S. besnardi</em>) are of increasing commercial interest (their value rose substantially during 2001 and 2002).	eng
44590	distribution	Leandro, L., 2004	Endemic to the Western Central Atlantic where it is known from Honduras, Panama and Colombia.	eng
44590	habitat	Leandro, L., 2004	Known from the upper continental slope, on or near the bottom, at depths of 274 to 457 m. Maximum size at least 47 cm total length (TL) (mature female) (Compagno in prep. b). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44590	population	Leandro, L., 2004	According to Compagno (in prep. b), the species is uncommon.	eng
44590	threats	Leandro, L., 2004	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno, in prep. b). Springer (1979) suggests that the absence of adults in trawl catches may indicate that adults occupy habitat unfavourable to trawling.	eng
44591	conservation	Mycock, S.G., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
44591	distribution	Mycock, S.G., 2004	Type specimen from Panama, Eastern Pacific.	eng
44591	habitat	Mycock, S.G., 2004	This is probably the smallest of the hammerhead species, residing on the continental shelf in inshore habitats. It is born at around 23 cm total (TL); males are mature at approximately 67 cm TL; and the species reaches a maximum size of approximately 92 cm TL. Uncommonly seen; biological information is lacking; and fecundity is low, with a noted litter size of two (Compagno 1984).	eng
44591	threats	Mycock, S.G., 2004	An inshore coastal shark unreported in commercial fishery data for the region and probably taken in inshore artisanal fisheries, to which all life stages are thought susceptible. With no population data available, a small maximum size of approximately 1 m TL and occupancy of inshore artisanally fished coastal habitats throughout its range, this species is likely to be under threat. Its narrow range and documented litter size of only two makes its population sensitive to even low fishing pressure.	eng
44592	conservation	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	Recommended conservation actions: monitoring of artisanal fisheries directed towards the species, protection of breeding and nursery grounds, and population studies.	eng
44592	distribution	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	Western Atlantic Ocean: southern Gulf of Mexico and West Indies to Paraná State, Brazil. In Brazil recorded from the States of Amapá, Pará (Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 2002), Maranhão (Lessa 1997), Ceará (Gadig <em>et al</em>.2000), Paraíba (Gadig and Rosa 1993), Pernambuco (Guedes <em>et al</em>.1989), Bahia (Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993), Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (Gonzalez 1995) and Paraná (Barletta and Correa 1989). In Venezuela recorded from the continental shelf in front of the Orinoco River delta and from the Gulf of Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999).	eng
44592	habitat	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	A demersal coastal marine species. Also in brackish water. Depth to 36 m. In Ceará State, Brazil there were records of juveniles of 15?17 cm disc width (DW) in tidal pools (Furtado-Neto and Pinto 2002). Maximum size 200 cm DW (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 1978, Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Size of birth approximately 15 cm DW (Bigelow and Schoreder 1953).  <br/> <br/>The diet of this species was studied in Ceará State (Silva <em>et al</em>. 2001). In all, 97 stomachs were analysed, 68.1% with food and 31.9% without. Most common food items were echinoderms (Holoturidae), sipunculids, polychaets (Eunicidae), bivalves, gastropods and crustaceans (<em>Penaeus, Callinectes</em>) and fishes (mainly <em>Pomadasys corvinaeformis</em>).	eng
44592	threats	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	Increasing fisheries pressure in some Brazilian States, such as Ceará (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000), Paraíba and Bahia. In Ceará, juveniles are taken as bycatch of shrimp trawling. In Paraíba State, this species is a target in sports surf fisheries. Currently no information from elsewhere in its range.	eng
44593	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida. M.P., 2004	Research is urgently needed and some first steps are beginning to be taken to obtain more baseline information. Habitat conservation measures are a priority for this and other freshwater endemic stingrays. Appropriate policy based actions (management and legislation) should be considered. Formal education and public awareness are certainly needed since freshwater stingrays in general invoke a negative reaction from the general public due to common sting accidents.	eng
44593	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida. M.P., 2004	South America Inland Waters: Argentina, Paraguay and possibly Brazil (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004). Known from the Paraná-Paraguay River basin, more specifically from the Colastiné River, a branch of Paraná River. Probably found in the upper Paraná and Paraguay River drainages (Castex 1964, Rosa 1985).	eng
44593	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida. M.P., 2004	No further information is available regarding habitat, biological and ecological aspects of this species.	eng
44593	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida. M.P., 2004	There are no further data on range and population available for this freshwater ray. Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species.	eng
44593	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida. M.P., 2004	The threats for this species are not well known. Habitat loss and degradation related to agriculture, infrastructure development and water pollution (from agriculture) seem to be the main potential threats. There are no catch records and apparently this species is not taken for the ornamental trade, or as a food source. Intrinsic factors associated with a relatively limited distribution range might be a problem if severe environmental impacts occur.	eng
44594	conservation	De Almeida, M.P. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	Several conservation measures need to be implemented for <em>P. scobina</em> and very few are in progress. <br/> <br/>Research is currently underway for this species: on taxonomy, biology, ecology, habitat status, cultural relevance and population trends/monitoring studies. While these studies are broad at the present, they are providing significant baseline information for the family Potamotrygonidae, a group for which there is limited information available. No other conservation measures are underway at the present time. <br/> <br/>Fishery management-plans, legislation, regional community management and implementation of sustainable use principles are required for <em>P. scobina</em>. The establishment of a quota system for the ornamental fish trade should also be considered. Habitat conservation and protection, especially of important breeding and nursery areas are needed. <br/> <br/>All these measures depend on education and public awareness in order to become locally understood, adopted and effectively implemented and managed.	eng
44594	distribution	De Almeida, M.P. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	Northern Brazil, in the mid and lower Amazon drainage, from Manaus to Belém (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003); also found in the lower Tocantins River drainage (type locality Cametá; Garman 1913); Pará and Trombetas River (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003) and possibly in the lower drainage of other Amazonas tributaries (author?s pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Reproduction and nursery areas have been observed for this species, more specifically inshore off some islands located in the Marajó Bay region (State of Pará, Brazil) (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs).	eng
44594	habitat	De Almeida, M.P. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	The distribution of this species in the Amazon estuary region is influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Sexual dimorphism has been recorded for <em>P. scobina</em> (Almeida 2003). Maximum size measured corresponded to a female specimen of 69.1 cm disc width (DW) and 132.5 cm total length (TL) (Almeida 2003). <br/> <br/>Preliminary reproductive data has been observed in the Amazon estuary indicating sexual maturity at 35 cm DW (males) and 40 cm DW (females); ovarian fecundity of 1 to 13; litter size 1 to 16 embryos (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al</em>. in press). Evidence of sexual and ontogenetic segregation has been noted (author?s unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Food items include mainly isopods (Sphaeromatidae) and shrimps (Paleomonidae) (Bragança 2002). <br/> <br/>Population trends and dynamics have never been estimated for this species. Further life history studies of this species are currently underway.	eng
44594	population	De Almeida, M.P. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	There are no further data on range and population available.	eng
44594	threats	De Almeida, M.P. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2004	This species is used as a human food source in some regions but is also subject to bycatch (hooking and netting) impacts from other fisheries. Juveniles are occasionally illegally caught and exported for the ornamental fish trade. <br/> <br/>Its habitat is threatened by mining activities and agricultural impacts, including water pollution by agricultural chemical wastes. The development of infrastructure, tourism and recreational activities may lead to habitat disturbances, persecution and impacts on reproductive and nursery grounds. Oil spills and the construction of dams are additional potential threats for this species.	eng
44595	conservation	Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	No conservation measures have been undertaken. Surveys of the northern and central parts of the species? range are required to obtain population estimates and information on critical habitat. Closed areas with effective enforcement are vital to the survival of this species.	eng
44595	distribution	Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	This endemic species occurs in a restricted area of the Southwest Atlantic: on the continental shelf of Brazil between Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul (23°S to 34°S, an area of about 1,800 km of coastline) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Menni and Stehmann 2000, Soto unpublished records off Rio Grande do Sul).  <br/> <br/>The species occurs sympatrically with <em>R. bonasus</em> from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina State (Gallo-da-Silva <em>et al</em>. 1997 in Menni and Stehmann 2000, Soto unpubl. data). A reported high abundance of <em>Rhinoptera</em> rays off Paraná State (Barletta and Correa 1989 in Menni and Stehmann 2000), in the centre of the distribution of <em>R. brasiliensis</em>, may refer to either or both species of <em>Rhinoptera</em>. All three specimens of <em>Rhinoptera</em> collected off Rio Grande do Sul on three different occasions during the 1980?s were <em>R. brasiliensis</em> (Soto unpubl. data). Evidence now suggests that the large summer catches of <em>Rhinoptera</em> off Rio Grande do Sul in the 1980?s (Vooren and Lamónaca unpubl. data) were of <em>R. brasiliensis</em>, where the species occurred as a summer migrant in coastal waters at depths of <20 m (Vooren 1997, Soto, unpublished), and this is the only area to have recorded a high abundance of this species.	eng
44595	habitat	Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	Sizes in beach seine catches in Rio Grande do Sul in the summer of 1982 to 1985 ranged from 78 to 91 cm disc width (DW) in males, and from 77 to 102 cm DW in females. A female of 102 cm DW was gravid. Three January embryos were 26 to 37 cm DW (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data). There are no records of catches of neonates off Rio Grande do Sul, therefore birth may take place further north. Size at birth is about 43 to 48 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), larger than that of <em>R. bonasus</em>, which is 40 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1986). Gravid females contained one embryo only, as also observed in <em>R. bonasus</em> by Smith and Merriner (1986). The breeding cycle of females may be biennial, although specific information is not available.  <br/> <br/>On the coast of Rio Grande do Sul the species occurs during summer only, in shallow coastal waters over smooth sandy bottom at depths of less than 10 m and sporadically between 10 to 20 m (Vooren 1997). Bottom temperature at those depths is about 22°C in January and decreases to about 13°C in August (Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996). The summer migration of the species may be related to this seasonal temperature cycle.  <br/> <br/>Stomach contents from specimens from Rio Grande do Sul consisted of mollusc flesh mixed with numerous shell fragments with size of the order of 0.5 mm.	eng
44595	threats	Vooren, C.M. & Lamónaca, A.F., 2004	The intensive fisheries by beach seine and pair trawl in the coastal habitat of the species is the major threat to the species. This ray used to be discarded by the beach seine fishery in the 1980?s and has not been seen in commercial trawl landings (probably also discarded). Due to its low fecundity of one embryo only per litter, this viviparous ray is susceptible to recruitment overfishing. <br/> <br/>In the southernmost 700 km of its distribution, off Rio Grande do Sul, the species occurred in the 1980?s as a summer migrant in shallow coastal waters at depths of less than 20 m (Vooren 1997, a reference to <em>R. bonasus</em> but now presumed to refer to <em>R. brasiliensis</em> from identification of specimens by Soto, unpublished). In that area, between 1982?1985 the species was caught and discarded in large numbers by the summer beach seine fishery, with catches of up to 330 individuals in a single seine haul and of a total of 1,711 individuals in a series of eight hauls along 130 km of coastline on a single day in January 1985 (Vooren, unpubl. data). Catches included gravid females with mid-term embryos. Fishing by bottom trawl has been intense in the southern area of the species? range from 1980 onwards, although in recent years the beach seine fishery, important in the 1980s, is now minor due to ever declining catches. In summer 2002/2003, during three months of survey of the shore-based fishery, the species was no longer caught, although other rays (<em>Myliobatis</em> spp., <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp.) were still taken (Vooren and Lamónaca, unpubl. data of Project SALVAR).  <br/> <br/>Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) state that numbers of <em>R. bonasus</em> varied greatly between years at certain localities, with incursions of large schools occurring irregularly. This does not seem to be the case with <em>R. brasiliensis</em> in the 1980s, off Rio Grande do Sul. The apparent disappearance of the species here occurred after two decades of intense fishing in its coastal habitat. It is suspected that in the southern part of its range the species has been extirpated by intensive fishing in the restricted area of its summer habitat and/or by fishing further north in the area from which come the southern summer migrants. During the 1980s, rays of the genus <em>Rhinoptera</em> made up 8% of catches of the coastal elasmobranch fishery of Paraná State, in the centre of the geographical range of <em>R. brasiliensis</em> (Barletta and Correa 1989 in Menni and Stehmann 2000). The present situation of the stocks of <em>R. brasiliensis</em> in the central and northern parts of its range is not known, however, fishing in these areas is also intense and declines are inferred.	eng
44596	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Eastern South Pacific: from Ecuador (3°S), through Peru to central Chile (37°S).	eng
44596	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	<em>Sympterygia brevicaudata</em> is a shallow water species (at least in the north of Chile). Vargas and Sielfeld (1997) report a mature female specimen of 26 cm TL captured in Chipana Beach (21°19?S) near Iquique, at a depth of 34 to 38 m. Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44596	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Probably captured as bycatch in inshore fisheries including bottom trawls targeting crustaceans as well as recreational fishing (particularly for fine flounder <em>Paralichthys adspersus</em>).	eng
44597	conservation	Massa, A. & Lamilla, J., 2004	In Argentina the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In the last two years the landings were higher than this value, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates". This applies to countries within the range of this species.	eng
44597	distribution	Massa, A. & Lamilla, J., 2004	On the Argentina shelf are two major areas of abundance of <em>S. bonapartei</em>, both clearly associated with estuarine zones. One is located in the La Plata River mouth with densities of up to 2·80 tonnes per km², and the other in front of Blanca and Anegada Bays (El Rincon area, densities up to 1·92 tonnes per km²) (Mabragaña <em>et al</em>. 2002)	eng
44597	habitat	Massa, A. & Lamilla, J., 2004	Recorded in coastal and shelf waters from the shoreline to 100 m depth. <br/> <br/>Biology and ecology poorly known. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, size-at-first-maturity is 63.6 cm total length (TL) (females) and 65.0 cm TL (males) and maximum length is 88.0 cm TL (females) and 74.6 cm TL (males) (Mabragana <em>et al</em>. 2002). There is no other demographic information available for the species in the Southwest Atlantic and there is no demographic information available for the species in Chile.	eng
44597	population	Massa, A. & Lamilla, J., 2004	The smallnose fanskate <em>Sympterygia bonapartei</em> is one of the most common elasmobranchs in coastal and shelf waters (from the shoreline down to 100 m depth) where it occurs.	eng
44597	threats	Massa, A. & Lamilla, J., 2004	From Chile, there are no data on this species. In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Dipturus chilensis, Sympterygia acuta</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery. Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999?2002 are estimated at 1,100 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.). In Argentina the species is part of the fishery for coastal skates. Species-specific catch data are not available. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>All skate species are becoming increasingly important in Southwest Atlantic fisheries (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 1999, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2000). In Argentina, skates were discarded until 1994, but are now one of the most important commercial species. The fins at the distal margins are removed and sold mainly to Asian markets at high prices.	eng
44598	conservation	Rosa, R.S., 2004	Conservation measures should include: habitat protection and pollution control in estuaries and adjacent coastal areas; regulation of beach seining and shrimp trawling fisheries; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals.	eng
44598	distribution	Rosa, R.S., 2004	It is common in the Orinoco River Delta of Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999), is abundant off Maranhão State, Brazil (R. Lessa, pers. comm., Menni and Stehmann 2000) and is commonly captured in beach seining along the coast of Paraíba State, Brazil (R. S. Rosa per. obs.).	eng
44598	habitat	Rosa, R.S., 2004	A coastal stingray found in tropical waters of the continental shelf. Reported in depths of 9 to 22 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a>) and 8 to 25 m (Lessa 1997). In Paraíba, Brazil it is usually captured in shallower water (less than 2 m) with beach seines. It occurs on sandy or muddy bottoms, usually close to river mouths. <br/> <br/>Maximum reported size is 23.4 cm TL (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999) or 11.8 cm disc width (DW) (FishBase). However, the largest measured female from Paraíba, Brazil was 13.3 cm DW and 25.4 cm TL; largest measured male was 11.5 cm DW and 22.5 cm TL (R.S. Rosa, pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is viviparous. Females with 13 cm DW have one or two fully developed embryos; a male with 9 cm DW has rigid claspers (R.S. Rosa, pers. obs).	eng
44598	threats	Rosa, R.S., 2004	Due to its small size, the species is not taken as food. It could be affected by incidental capture in coastal fisheries, particularly beach seining and shrimp trawling, and indirectly, by the impacts on the coastal zone, including urban development, pollution and dredging, particularly at the mouth of estuaries.	eng
44599	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2004	None in effect or proposed at this time.	eng
44599	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2004	This species is occasionally taken by research vessels surveying the North Atlantic continental slope region at depths of 1,000 to 2,000 m. In southern Africa it is known from only a few specimens caught in very deepwater off Cape Town, South Africa.	eng
44599	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2004	A little known benthic catshark of the Atlantic continental slopes recorded at depths of 658 to 1,740 m. Essentially nothing known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 85.2 cm total length (TL): size at maturity is 75.8 cm TL (females); 85.2 cm TL (males).	eng
44599	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Possibly caught as bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries and discarded although much of its known range is below that of current fishing activities. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may pose a threat in the future.	eng
44600	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Further surveys and research are required to accurately determine this species’ distribution, biology and ecology.	eng
44600	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Known from only a few specimens from off Mozambique and off South Africa from the shelf edge and upper slope.	eng
44600	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A poorly known skate of the shelf edge and upper slope, recorded in depths of 230 to 322 m. Nothing is known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 25 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989)	eng
44600	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Known from only a few specimens.	eng
44600	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Demersal trawling.	eng
44601	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Further specimens of this little known skate are required to more accurately document its distribution, biology and ecology.	eng
44601	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: presently recorded only from east of Bazaruto Island, Mozambique (Wallace 1967, Hulley 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, pers. comm. 2003) and off Madagascar (Seret 1986).	eng
44601	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A very poorly known rare skate of the deep slope. Recorded from 1,000 to 1,725 m off Mozambique. Virtually nothing is known of its biology. Maximum size is at least 21 cm total length (TL) and 10 cm disc width (DW) (Wallace 1967, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989)	eng
44601	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	No information on range or population: known from only a few specimens.	eng
44601	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Due to its depth range, no threats are apparent at present. Potential expansion of deepwater trawling in the future may be of concern.	eng
44602	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2004	None in effect and none proposed at this time.	eng
44602	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Southeast Atlantic Ocean: Namibia and South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape Provinces).	eng
44602	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2004	A catshark of the continental slopes of Namibia and South Africa recorded at depths of 344 to 1,009 m. Oviparous but virtually nothing known of its biology. Maximum size is 88.5 cm total length (TL) (males: mature at 74 cm TL); 77.3 cm TL (females: mature at 70 cm TL).	eng
44602	population	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Nothing is known about its population size.	eng
44602	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Probably taken as incidental bycatch and discarded in the deepwater hake (<em>Merluccius paradoxus</em>) bottom trawl fishery off South Africa.	eng
44603	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2008	More specimens are needed to better determine its distribution, biology and ecology.	eng
44603	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2008	Known only from two isolated locations, each represented by a single specimen, in the South Atlantic: west of Cape Town, South Africa in the southeast Atlantic (exact co-ordinates not given; Hulley and Penrith 1966), and at 35°00.0 to 0.6′S, 40°01′W in the Southwest Atlantic (Krefft 1980, Stehmann and Krefft 1988).<br/><br/>Note that the location of the Southwest Atlantic specimen has erroneously been reported as off Uruguay (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). This specimen was in fact collected in international waters, some 850 km off the edge of the Brazilian EEZ, east of Rio Grande do Sul (Soto 2001c).	eng
44603	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2008	A very poorly known oceanic (possibly epipelagic) species known only from two specimens. The Southeast Atlantic specimen was collected by benthic trawl operating at depths of 458–641 m. However, it is uncertain whether the animal was captured near the bottom, or in the water column as the net was being hauled (Hulley and Penrith 1966). The Southeast Atlantic specimen was collected by pelagic trawl operating at 195–205 m depth (Stehmann and Krefft 1988). Its depth of capture was erroneously reported as 0–25 m by Krefft (1980), and subsequently in the literature (i.e., Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The two known specimens are an immature female of 17.6 cm TL which was erroneously reported as a mature male in the original description by Hulley and Penrith (1966) (corrected in Stehmann and Krefft 1988), and a 41.35 cm TL mature male (Krefft 1980, Stehmann and Krefft 1988). The species possesses a luminous organ in a large abdominal pouch which covers the cloaca. This character is unique to the genus (Stehmann and Krefft 1988). There are a number of errors in the original description (Hulley and Penrith 1966) which led Stehmann and Krefft (1988) to provide a detailed and accurate redescription.<br/><br/>Reproduction is assumed to be ovoviviparous. Pectoral fin shape and orientation suggest hovering ability within the water column.	eng
44603	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2008	No apparent threats. Small size and oceanic (possibly epipelagic) occurrence probably generally precludes its capture.	eng
44604	distribution	Robinson, L., 2004	Known only from the holotype taken off Tulear, Southwestern Madagascar.	eng
44604	habitat	Robinson, L., 2004	The holotype and only known specimen (a 38.7 cm total length (TL) adult male) was collected at 425 to 500 m depth.	eng
44604	population	Robinson, L., 2004	Known only from the holotype.	eng
44604	threats	Robinson, L., 2004	None identified at present. May be taken as bycatch in expanding deepwater trawl fisheries in the future.	eng
44605	distribution	Robinson, L., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: Mozambique and Somalia.	eng
44605	habitat	Robinson, L., 2004	A deepwater tropical catshark of the continental slope occurring on or just above bottom on mud substrates at 338 to 766 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).  <br/> <br/>Apparently ovoviviparous. Matures at 31 to 34 cm TL (male) and 31 to 39 cm TL (female), size at birth 10 cm TL. Feeds on cephalopods, small bony fishes and crustaceans (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).	eng
44605	threats	Robinson, L., 2004	May be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries. No details available, but due to its depth range, it is likely to be caught on an irregular basis. The situation should be re-assessed as deepwater fisheries expand in the region.	eng
44606	conservation	Robinson, L. & Nel, R., 2004	None at present. Fisheries pressure needs to be assessed in southern Mozambique and also the impact of prawn trawl fisheries in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
44606	distribution	Robinson, L. & Nel, R., 2004	<em>C. sufflans</em> is most likely a south western Indian Ocean endemic, occurring offshore from South Africa and Mozambique. Records of this species outside of this region are likely to be due to taxonomic confusion (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, in prep. b).	eng
44606	habitat	Robinson, L. & Nel, R., 2004	Recorded from the continental shelf and uppermost slope in warm-temperate and subtropical waters at depths of 40 to 600 m. Occupies sand and mud bottoms (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, in prep. b).   <br/> <br/>Little is known of the biology of this species. It is oviparous, apparently laying one egg-case per oviduct. In trawl hauls off Kwazulu-Natal immature specimens are most frequently caught while in the depth range sampled (40 to 440 m) adults are not so frequently taken and eggcases have not been recorded. This suggests that adults may inhabit deeper water and lay eggs there, or may be geographically displaced, perhaps off northern Mozambique (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno, in prep. b).	eng
44606	population	Robinson, L. & Nel, R., 2004	Nothing is known of the population biology of this species. It is reported to be common (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44606	threats	Robinson, L. & Nel, R., 2004	Apparently of no interest to fisheries at present, although taken as bycatch and discarded by commercial bottom trawlers. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Limited ? the skin is possibly used.	eng
44607	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further studies are needed on biology, status and threats.	eng
44607	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	The limited range off two areas off Durban and Barra Falsa.	eng
44607	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A poorly known skate of the shelf and upper slope at depths of 137 to 403 m.	eng
44607	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	The limited range may suggest a small, possibly fragmented population.	eng
44607	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Trawling and longline fishing	eng
44608	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	None. Further surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, habitat, biology and ecology of this and other little known species in the region.	eng
44608	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Known from only three specimens to date from the continental shelf off the Limpopo River mouth, Mozambique. This is despite fairly extensive surveys off Mozambique recently (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno, pers. comm. 2003).	eng
44608	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A poorly known skate of the slope.	eng
44608	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Apparently very rare.	eng
44608	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Trawling and longline fishing.	eng
44609	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on biology is required as is monitoring the impact of longliners and other fisheries on this species.	eng
44609	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Although the range extends from Namibia to the eastern Agulhas Bank off South Africa, this species is most commonly caught at 100 to 300 m.	eng
44609	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	Found in deep waters from 15 to 457 m but most commonly taken from 100 to 300 m. All stages of the life history have been trawled in research trawls but the details of the biology and ecology have yet to be described.	eng
44609	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Not taken in large quantities in each trawl, it appears to be scattered along the deep shelf and upper slope.	eng
44609	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Deep water and hake-directed trawling and longline fishing: not caught in large quantities by hake trawlers, and extensive areas of its range are untrawlable. However, the initiation of a hake longline fishery that includes fishing in some untrawlable grounds means that monitoring of catches to determine the impacts of this fishery is essential.	eng
44610	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Surveys are required to accurately determine distribution, as well as provide specimens for life history studies.	eng
44610	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	An uncommonly sampled skate, known from a few specimens from off Mozambique and off South Africa.	eng
44610	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A poorly known skate of the shelf edge and slope at depths of 253 to 761 m. Maximum size is at least 90 cm total length (TL), 60 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
44610	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Trawling and longline fishing are possible threats.	eng
44611	conservation	Brash, J., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Release of live bycatch should be encouraged.	eng
44611	distribution	Brash, J., 2004	Endemic to the southwestern Indian Ocean, off South Africa, Mozambique and Tanzania on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
44611	habitat	Brash, J., 2004	A deepwater warm-temperate and tropical bottom shark of the upper continental slope and outer shelf of southeastern Africa at depths of 180 to 500 m. Apparently geographic or bathymetric segregation of populations by sex occurs, as most specimens taken off KwaZulu-Natal are male. Ovoviviparous, number of young in a litter two (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Size at birth is approximately 15 to 17 cm total length (TL) (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975). Males mature at 29 to 30 cm TL. Size at maturity for females is not known although they are immature at 22 cm TL and mature at 37 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44611	population	Brash, J., 2004	Likely to comprise a single population.	eng
44611	threats	Brash, J., 2004	Part of its restricted range is subject to intensive bottom trawl fisheries for deepwater crustaceans. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may be of concern in the future.	eng
44612	conservation	Cliff, G., 2004	At this stage the KZN prawn trawl fishery should be encouraged to release those animals found alive, which represents 80% of the catch.	eng
44612	distribution	Cliff, G., 2004	Primarily Western Indian Ocean: confined to South Africa (East London northwards: Heemstra and Smith 1991) and Mozambique (Beira southwards: Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).	eng
44612	habitat	Cliff, G., 2004	Found on the continental shelf and upper slope from the surfline to depths of at least 290 m. The type specimen was caught by a shore angler.   <br/> <br/>Males mature at 32 to 38 cm total length (TL), reaching at least 56 cm TL. Mature females range from 40 cm TL to at least 56 cm TL (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975). Possibly oviparous, with the females carrying up to eight capsules in each uterus simultaneously. Size at birth approximately 8 cm TL. Pregnant females are caught along the KZN coast in late winter (July to September) (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).   <br/> <br/>In the Tugela Banks prawn trawl fishery, the catch ranged from 30 to 60 cm TL, with a mean of 40 cm TL and a mode of 30 to 50 cm TL (Fennessey 1994). It would appear that mature animals represent a large percentage of the catch.  <br/> <br/>This species feeds mainly on crustaceans, teleosts and cephalopods.	eng
44612	threats	Cliff, G., 2004	The bycatch in the KZN prawn trawl fishery may constitute a threat, particularly as the catch includes large numbers of mature specimens, with many of the females possibly being pregnant.  The estimated annual catch for the period 1989?1992 was 1,071?2,021 at a mean catch rate of 0.16 individuals per hour. It was found in 18% of the trawls examined, with a 19% mortality rate (Fennessy 1994). Catch rates over a longer time period are needed to assess the status of this species. No details are available of catches in the Mozambique prawn trawl fishery where it may also be caught as bycatch.  <br/> <br/>Given its small size (< 0.6 kg), it is unlikely to be utilised.	eng
44613	conservation	Robinson, L., 2004	Release of live bycatch should be encouraged.	eng
44613	distribution	Robinson, L., 2004	Previous to Springer and D'Aubrey's (1972) review both <em>H. natalensis</em> and <em>H. lineatus</em> were placed under the name <em>H. natalensis</em>. Subsequently there are few reliable geographical and bathymetrical records for <em>H. natalensis</em> in the older literature. More recent survey work has clarified the range and depth distribution of the species, particularly in the northeasternmost part of the Eastern Cape Province and off KwaZulu-Natal where <em>H. natalensis</em> and <em>H. lineatus</em> are sympatric.	eng
44613	habitat	Robinson, L., 2004	Occurs on or near the bottom of the continental shelf from close inshore to 172 m. Offshore specimens are mostly adults. Most offshore records from off the Eastern and Western Cape are from 30 to 90 m with some to 114 m. <br/> <br/>Little known of its biology. It is oviparous with 6 to 11 (more usually 6 to 9) eggcases per oviduct at any one time. Eggs are retained until embryos are at a well-developed stage. <br/> <br/>Feeds primarily on small bony fishes and crustaceans, but also cephalopods and small elasmobranchs.	eng
44613	threats	Robinson, L., 2004	This species is not targeted, but taken as bycatch by inshore demersal trawlers and discarded. Also taken by sports anglers with rod and reel and infrequently by squid fishers.	eng
44614	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2004	None in effect, but further research is required.	eng
44614	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2004	A very poorly known species.	eng
44614	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Little is known of this rare benthic hornshark. Recorded from the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope in 40 to 275 m, with most records below 100 m (unusual for the family in being recorded from relatively deep water). At least one station that recorded this shark was on sand (Compagno 2001). Although eggcases have not been reported to date it is presumably oviparous. A hatchling and young individuals have been recorded from off southern Mozambique at 110 m (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet includes crabs (from the stomachs of two individuals) (Compagno 2001).	eng
44614	population	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Nothing is known of its population structure. Apparently rare or uncommon (Compagno 2001).	eng
44614	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Unknown, but presumably taken in trawl fisheries throughout its range, including crustacean trawlers off South Africa and Mozambique.	eng
44615	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Research is required to accurately determine its distribution, biology and ecology.	eng
44615	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Southeast Atlantic: Endemic to the west coast of South Africa from west of Cape Town to south of the Agulhas Bank. It has been found in limited areas of the deep slope southwest of Cape Point and southwest of Saldanha Bay in its known range. An additional record southwest of the Orange River extended its known range northwards (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989; 1991).	eng
44615	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A deepwater skate that may have specialised habitat requirements based on its apparent restricted distribution. It has been recorded in depths of 292 to 1,025 m, but more commonly >600 m. It has been caught in considerable numbers (usually adults) in limited areas below 600 m. Nothing is known of its biology.	eng
44615	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Information to date suggests that this South African endemic has a localised distribution, although further deepwater trawling may extend the current known range.	eng
44615	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	None known.	eng
44617	conservation	Nel, R., Yahya, S., Jiddawi, N. & Semesi, S., 2004	None in place at present.	eng
44617	distribution	Nel, R., Yahya, S., Jiddawi, N. & Semesi, S., 2004	The Madagascar subpopulation is likely to be distinct from the East Africa subpopulation. In addition, if this species is confirmed from Mauritius and the Seychelles, these are also likely to be distinct subpopulations. Thus further studies may reveal that the ?East African subpopulation? may in fact also meet the threatened ?B? criteria (due to restricted geographic range).	eng
44617	habitat	Nel, R., Yahya, S., Jiddawi, N. & Semesi, S., 2004	A little-known inshore (exact depth information is not available) benthic shark found on the continental and insular shelves. Occupies coral reefs. Possibly oviparous, but this requires confirmation (Compagno 2001). A female has been kept in captivity for over 33 years (Compagno 2001).	eng
44617	population	Nel, R., Yahya, S., Jiddawi, N. & Semesi, S., 2004	Abundant off East Africa a few decades ago (Bass, D'Aubrey and Kistnasamy, 1975a cited by Compangno 2001), but its current status is uncertain although is known to be still fairly common in catches in Tanzania.	eng
44617	threats	Nel, R., Yahya, S., Jiddawi, N. & Semesi, S., 2004	Fished locally in artisanal fisheries and landed as bycatch of other fisheries. Inshore fishing pressure is heavy throughout its known range. Although it is uncertain whether the species itself is targeted, its fins are known to fetch a moderate price in Tanzania. Destruction and overfishing of this species? habitat (coral reefs). This species is amenable to captivity but its status in the aquarium trade is unknown.  <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>The skin of this species is tough and is possibly used for leather.  Amenable to captivity given its size (but status in aquarium trade is unknown). Fins are exported to the Far East and are known to fetch a moderate price. The flesh is salted and dried for local use. Jaws sold locally to tourists.	eng
44618	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Further research is required on life history and bycatch levels.	eng
44618	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Research trawl surveys suggest it is most commonly found on the western Cape coast, and rarely encountered east of Cape Agulhas.	eng
44618	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	This species is recorded from the deep shelf and upper slope at depths of 310 to 520 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Nothing known of its biology. Attains a maximum size of about 58 cm total length (TL), 32 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).	eng
44618	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Size of population unknown.	eng
44618	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Hake-directed trawling. Data on bycatch levels is required.	eng
44619	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Research into life history and bycatch monitoring is required.	eng
44619	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Most records are from South African waters between the Orange River and southwest of Quion Point. Concentrations were recorded between Port Noloth and Doring Bay, and between Doring Bay and Cape Town.	eng
44619	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	Upper slope species with the majority of records from 300 to 500 m, with a few records from the deep slope at 650 to 1,000 m, which included large adult females. Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44619	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Commonly recorded from the upper slope but size of population unknown.	eng
44619	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Bycatch in the hake trawl fishery. The potential threat of expanding deepwater trawl fisheries in the region warrants close consideration.	eng
44620	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	No conservation measures in place for this species. Research into life history and the monitoring of bycatch in any expanding deep-water fisheries is required.	eng
44620	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A deep slope species, with most specimens taken deeper than 700 m. Nothing is known of the species? biology. Maximum size is >60 cm total length (TL), >36 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).	eng
44620	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Rarely recorded from the slope but size of population unknown, and rarity may be an artifact of limited deeper water sampling in the region to date.	eng
44620	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Expansion of deep demersal trawl fisheries in the region. The species is not utilised.	eng
44621	conservation	Pheeha, S., 2004	Monitoring, abundance estimates and collection of basic biological data is urgently needed, as is taxonomic resolution of the group in the Western Indian.	eng
44621	distribution	Pheeha, S., 2004	Currently recorded from South Africa, east of Cape Algulhas, and ranging eastwards and northwards into at least southern Mozambique. It is also reported from many Western Indian Ocean islands, however, these records are likely to be of undescribed similar species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno and Human 2003).	eng
44621	habitat	Pheeha, S., 2004	Inhabits estuaries and the intertidal zone down to 439 m, also found in sandy areas near deep rocky reefs. Grows to 64 cm total length (TL). Young are born in summer (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). There are anecdotal reports of this species penetrating inland up rivers and estuary systems that have recently increased in salinity in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. For example, this species has been positively identified in the Kariega estuary, about 2 km from the coast, with water salinity around 35 ppt (B. Human, pers.comm. 2004). The causes of the increased salinity are unknown.	eng
44621	population	Pheeha, S., 2004	Apparently common.	eng
44621	threats	Pheeha, S., 2004	Caught as bycatch by inshore trawlers and inshore anglers. Also found in estuarine and intertidal zone, so local populations might decrease due to coastal developments. Fishing pressure needs to be monitored. It is also likely that the range of this species may decrease significantly when the taxonomy of this genus is better known.	eng
44622	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Known only from five small limestone outcrops in a fibe by eight km area near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44622	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. The species does not occur in the intervening non-calcareous areas between the outcrops.	eng
44622	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The range and population are declining because of repeated cycles of logging on and around the outcrops which result in a drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44623	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Batu Punggul on a single limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44623	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. The species is absent from the surrounding non-calcareous area.	eng
44623	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Repeated cycles of logging on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44624	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from one small limestone ridge on the island of Mantanani Besar, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44624	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs on a few exposed limestone rocks on the northern cliffs of the island in tropical coastal forest.	eng
44624	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The area is extremely small and the habitat is being lost due to logging and planting of plantations (bananas and other fruit trees) by people from the local village. The habitat is already quite dry and further reduction of the forest cover will make the habitat dry out even further.	eng
44625	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Suan Lamba, a limestone outcrop in the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia. Also formerly occurred on other small surrounding hills.	eng
44625	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Currently known from only one large limestone outcrop; absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area. Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest.	eng
44625	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Two smaller limestone outcrops nearby Suan Lamba, which also supported subpopulations of this species, have probably disappeared due to quarrying since the 1960s. Repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the limestone outcrops cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44626	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded on three limestone outcrops along a 30 km stretch of the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44626	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone. currently present at only two limestone outcrops; absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area	eng
44626	population	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recent surveys failed to find the species on one of the hills, Suan Lamba (sampled at 50 separate localities in 2003), from which it has been recorded in the past (Vermeulen 1994).	eng
44626	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrops cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations. It may also be disappearing due to competition and hybridization with <em>O. concinnum</em>.	eng
44627	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Batu Baturong, a large limestone outcrop in eastern Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44627	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone; is absent in the surrounding non-calcareous area.	eng
44627	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	No threats at present, but given the small range would be susceptible to any future impacts on the habitat.	eng
44628	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from small limestone islets around the island of Labuan, off Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44628	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Found in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44628	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The limestone was quarried for the construction of the Labuan Airport several decades ago.	eng
44629	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44629	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone; absent from the surrounding non-calcareous area.	eng
44629	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44630	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from small limestone islets around the island of Labuan, off Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44630	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurred (or poissibly still occurs) in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44630	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The limestone was quarried from the islets during the construction of the Labuan Airport several decades ago. The species is possibly extinct as a result.	eng
44631	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Batu Tomanggong Besar, a small limestone outcrop along the Kinabatangan River in Sabah, Malaysia. Only found at the north end of the outcrop, where it hybridizes with <em>O. concinnum</em>.	eng
44631	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44631	population	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Very few "pure" specimens can be found.	eng
44631	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Repeated logging and plantations cause drying out of the vegetation, which results in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.  Quarrying has lead to the loss of two subpopulations, and hybridization may pose a serious threat to this species in the last remaining locality.	eng
44632	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from small limestone outcrops near Kudat and Banggi Island, Sabah, Malaysia (a 20 x 60 km area). Currently only known from a small limestone crest at the southern tip of Banggi.	eng
44632	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44632	population	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The morphologically distinct subpopulation near Kudat went extinct in the 1980s due to quarrying activities.	eng
44632	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying has removed one subpopulation. The remaining subpopulation is in an area that is prone to logging and plantations, which cause drying out of the vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.	eng
44633	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Suan Lamba and Materis, two limestone outcrops in a 4 x 6 km area along the Kinabatangan River, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44633	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44633	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The species occurs in an area that has suffered repeated logging, fire, and the planting of fruit plantations, which cause drying out of the forest vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.	eng
44634	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from Suan Lamba, a large limestone outcrop in the Kinabatangan Valley, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44634	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44634	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	The species occurs in an area that has suffered repeated logging, fire and growth in fruit plantations, which cause drying out of the forest vegetation, resulting in a decline in the Prosobranch populations.	eng
44635	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop near Sepulut, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44635	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44635	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44636	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from a single unnamed limestone outcrop along the Segama River, Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44636	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44636	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44637	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded from two coastal limestone outcrops near Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia in a 3 x 10 km area (the area of occupancy is 20 km²).	eng
44637	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44637	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44638	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded only on Gunung Madai, a large limestone outcrop in eastern  Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44638	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44638	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44639	conservation	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Further research is required on this poorly known species in order to better document its distribution, biology and bycatch levels.	eng
44639	distribution	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	<strong>Western Central Atlantic</strong>: Known from Dominican Republic, Cuba, the northern Gulf of Mexico (Florida to Mississippi, USA), Mexico, Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44639	habitat	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Known from the continental slope at depths of 732 to 1,461 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Maximum size 46 cm total length (TL); adult males 43 to 46 cm TL, adult females 40 to 41 cm TL. Little is known of its biology. Oviparous, with a single egg per oviduct laid at a time (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44639	population	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Reported as uncommon (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44639	threats	Leandro, L. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Of no interest to fisheries (Compagno, in prep. b).	eng
44640	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Known from 40°22?S to 51°10?S in Argentina and off Guafo Island, Chile (43°40?S). Probably more widely distributed in Chile than presently known.	eng
44640	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	<em>Psammobatis normani</em> is recorded from the continental shelf of Argentina (70 to 145 m) and the shelf and slope of Chile (70 to 358 m). McEachran (1983) described 36 specimens (25 males, 29.6 to 53.7 cm total length (TL); 11 females, 29.5 to 41.2 cm TL) from Argentina. In Chile, six specimens (all males) were captured by bottom trawl off Guafo Island at depths of 70 to 358 m (Lamilla 1993). These are the only records of this species in the literature.	eng
44640	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries for kingclip fish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a bottom trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P. normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (Lamilla, unpubl. data).	eng
44641	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	Recorded from the continental shelf and slope in Argentina and Chile. In Chile, one female between 122 to 124 m depth in 51°00?S to 75°44?W and six specimens (all males) captured in 219 to 352 m depth by bottom trawl near Guafo Island measured 23.1 to 35.2 cm totale length (TL) (Lamilla 1993). Maximum size at least 44 cm TL (FishBase). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44641	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries for kingclipfish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a bottom trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P.normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (Lamilla, unpubl. data).	eng
44642	conservation	Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2004	In Argentina the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In the last two years the landings were higher than this value, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates" in both Argentina and Uruguay. <br/> <br/>The implementation of marine protected areas is a priority for this and other vulnerable marine taxa in the region.	eng
44642	distribution	Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2004	Coastal Southwest Atlantic waters from southern Brazil, Uruguay to northern Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
44642	habitat	Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2004	The biology and ecology of this species are still poorly known. Off Brazil it occurs in shallow coastal waters (0 to 40 m depth). Maximum size: 47 cm total length (TL) (males), 50 cm TL (females) (Cousseau <em>et al</em>. 2000). Chiaramonte (unpubl. data) based on 16 specimens off Puerto Quequen (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) found that females >48.2 cm TL and males >46.6 cm TL were mature.  <br/> <br/><em>S. acuta</em> feeds on the shrimp <em>Artemesia longinaris</em> which comprises more than 50% of its diet. Other prey items include Polychaeta, Amphipoda, Cumacea, Isopoda, decapod crustaceans, Mollusca and teleost fish (Queiroz 1984, in Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
44642	population	Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2004	In Southern Brazil, <em>S. acuta</em> occurs in shallow coastal waters (0 to 40 m depth). It was one of the most abundant fish species of the shallow zone throughout the year (Lessa and Vooren 1982, in Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
44642	threats	Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2004	Off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°?41°S), <em>S. acuta</em> is taken by the multi-species fleet that exploits the coastal demersal fish assemblage (Massa <em>et al</em>. in press). There are no data on catches as all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as "unidentified rays and skates". In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Dipturus chilensis, Sympterygia bonapartei</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery. Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999?2002 are estimated at 1,100 tonnes per year (Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense and the fishery threatens this species. In the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°-41°S), biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 49% in the years 1994?1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpubl. data). However, recent data suggest that the biomass was maintained between 1999 and 2003. Further monitoring is essential for information on longer-term trends. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>In Argentina, skates were discarded until 1994, but are now one of the most important commercial species. The fins at the distal margins are removed and sold mainly to Asian markets at high prices.	eng
44643	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific: Endemic to Chile, from Arica (18°S) to Ancud (42°S).	eng
44643	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	<em>Sympterygia lima</em> is endemic to shallow waters of the Chilean coast, at depths of 30 to 60 m. Lamilla <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported a maximum size is 62 cm total length (TL) with size at maturity of 50.5 cm TL (females) and 45 cm TL (males). Size at birth 6.0 cm TL. Oviparous, with eggs in both oviducts in autumn. Feeds on crustaceans, principally <em>Austropandalus grayi</em> and <em>Pseudocorystes sycarius</em>.	eng
44643	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Captured as bycatch in the bottom trawl fisheries of Valdivia. Not known to be taken in any other fisheries.	eng
44644	conservation	Rincon, G. & Mazzoleni, R., 2004	None in effect or proposed.	eng
44644	distribution	Rincon, G. & Mazzoleni, R., 2004	There are only three records of juvenile specimens of this species by Krefft and Stehmann (1975) and Gomes and Costa (2003). These specimens were captured between São Paulo and Santa Catarina States (24° to 29°S and 43°-46°W), Brazil. However, recently captured juveniles and neonates have characteristics that suggest they may belong to this species (author, pers. obs).	eng
44644	habitat	Rincon, G. & Mazzoleni, R., 2004	Biology is unknown. However, recently captured neonates had yolky bellies and disc widths of 17.6 to 20.5 cm were taken by the deepwater squid fishery and provide evidence of a local nursery ground (400 to 550 m depth). <br/> <br/>Specimens identified as <em>D. leptocaudus</em> in the bycatch of the deepwater squid fishery had squids <em>Illex argentinus</em> in their stomachs. Only juveniles were saved for further studies, but fishermen reported some adults as also present in the catches, although at present the identification of these specimens cannot be verified.	eng
44644	threats	Rincon, G. & Mazzoleni, R., 2004	Bycatch in deepwater squid fishery which trawls for reproductive schools of squid <em>Illex argentinus</em> off Santa Catarina State, Brazil during the winter season (August and September). Studies are required to assess the impact of this fishery, and training is needed given that misidentification with <em>D. chilensis</em> may be confounding accurate recording of bycatch.	eng
44645	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southwest Atlantic Ocean: off Brazil. Southeast Pacific Ocean: off Chile, in Talcahuano (36°30?S) and Valdivia (39°49?S).	eng
44645	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	A little-known deepwater skate. Holotype was taken at 29°57?S at a depth of 1,200 m (Krefft and Stehmann 1974). Sizes observed off Chile (Talcahuano, 36°30?S and Corral, 39°49?S) 55 to 75 cm TL (females, n = 9) and 50 to 70.5 cm TL (males, n = 3). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44645	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Taken as bycatch of artisanal longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish <em>Disostichus eleginoides</em>. Specific catch data not available.	eng
44646	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2004	No information available on conservation measures.	eng
44646	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific: known only from the original description from Quinteros (Chile).	eng
44646	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	No information available on habitat or depth. The size in the original description (Philippi 1892) is 38.5 cm total length (TL).	eng
44646	population	Lamilla, J., 2004	Unknown.	eng
44646	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	No information available on threats.	eng
44647	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Eastern Pacific Ocean: known from the Gulf of California through Central America to Chile, including Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.	eng
44647	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	Fishbase reports a maximum size of 41.9 cm total length (TL). No other information available.	eng
44647	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	No information available, but presumably taken as bycatch in fisheries throughout its range.	eng
44648	distribution	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Recorded only on Batu Baturung, a large limestone outcrop in eastern Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
44648	habitat	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Occurs in lowland tropical Dipterocarp rainforest on limestone.	eng
44648	threats	Schilthuizen, M. & Vermeulen, J., 2004	Quarrying and repeated cycles of logging and fire on and around the outcrop cause drying out of the forest and decline of Prosobranch populations.	eng
44649	distribution	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic: Southern Morocco to Northern Cape province, South Africa. Records become sparser near the border of Namibia with South Africa. There are records based on voucher specimens collected off the Northern Cape province of South Africa (down to just north of the Western/Northern Cape border) (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm. 2004).	eng
44649	habitat	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope at 160 to 720 m. Quite common at about 300 to 400 m deep and in Namibian waters most common at 258 to 490 m.  <br/> <br/>A small deepwater bottom shark that occurs in both temperate and tropical waters. Aplacental viviparity, these catsharks bear live young. Feeds mainly on small teleosts.  <br/> <br/>Known life history parameters: <strong>Size at maturity</strong>: approx. 30 cm total length (TL) (both males and females). <strong>Maximum size</strong>: maximum recorded 43 cm TL. <strong>Size at birth</strong>: approx. 12 to 18 cm TL. <strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 6 to 12.	eng
44649	population	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Common to very abundant off central Namibia, but drops out north of the Orange River (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Abundance needs to be assessed quantitatively along its entire range.	eng
44649	threats	Fowler, S.L., 2004	Bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. The deepwater fisheries off the Namibian coast are well managed and recorded.	eng
44650	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Recommendations: data needs to be collected by onboard observers on the EU vessels fishing off the west coast of Africa.	eng
44650	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Widely distributed along the west coast of Africa, it occurs in concentrations in some areas such as between Port Noloth and Lambert?s Bay and off Doring Bay. Recorded from along the entire coast of Namibia in 102 to 809 m. It ranges southwards to east of Cape Point, but few detailed South Africa records, in 350 to 500 m, and a few recorded from much deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
44650	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A deep shelf to slope species, very little known about its biology. In Namibia recorded from 102 to 809 m, and in South Africa there are few detailed records in 350 to 500 m, and a few recorded from much deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
44650	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Potentially threatened by likely increasing deeper water trawling pressure in the future. Possible concern regarding European Union (EU) factory trawling off West Africa although no data is currently available.	eng
44651	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	Recommended conservation measures include studies on catch rates and life history characteristics.	eng
44651	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Southeast Atlantic: Southwest of Walvis Bay and off Lüderitz, Namibia and from the Orange River to southwest of Cape Point, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
44651	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	A poorly known species of the continental slope. Smaller specimens appear to be found in waters of 400 to 500 m while larger specimens were from deeper than 700 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size: attains about 64 cm total length (TL), 39 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988).	eng
44651	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	An uncommon to rare skate, at least at the depths sampled to date.	eng
44651	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	Expansion of commercial trawling into deeper waters.	eng
44652	conservation	Lamilla, J. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	Given the vulnerability of large skates to overfishing, bycatch levels need monitoring and research should focus on distribution and ecology.	eng
44652	distribution	Lamilla, J. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	There appears to be only limited records of this species in the Atlantic, but it may be more widespread there than presently known. If the specimens referred to above turn out to be <em>A. frerichsi</em> this would extend its range in the Atlantic. The holotype and paratype locality is from off the Rio de la Plata, Argentina/Uruguay (35°04΄ to 36°00΄S, 52°06΄ to 58°00΄W) at depths of 800 to 1,000 m (Krefft 1968). Further specimens were recorded off Argentina and Uruguay in the 1978 ‘Walther Herwig’ expedition at 36°18΄S, 53°19΄W (720 m) and 36°32.9΄S, 53°37.4΄W (1,040 m) (M. Stehmann, pers. comm.). A number of specimens were observed in 2002 and 2003 taken in bottom fish traps targeting <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> off the Rio de la Plata (35°02΄ to 37°23΄S) at depths of 1,464 to 2,609 m (P. Meneses, pers. comm).	eng
44652	habitat	Lamilla, J. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	<em>Amblyraja frerichsii</em> is bathydemersal in depths of 800 to 2,500 m off Chile. In the Atlantic, recorded off the Rio de la Plata (Uruguay/Argentina) at depths of 720 to 2,609 m (Krefft 1968, P. Meneses, pers. comm., M. Stehmann, pers. comm.). Mature males have been observed at 105 to 120 cm total length (TL) and mature females at 70.6 to 100 cm TL off Chile. A mature male has been observed off Rio de la Plata at 96 cm TL (P. Meneses, pers. comm.). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44652	threats	Lamilla, J. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	Is taken as bycatch of longline artisanal fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish (<em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em>) off Chile. Taken in bottom fish traps for toothfish off Uruguay/Argentina using <em>Merluccius</em> spp., <em>Illex</em> spp. and <em>Scomber japonicus</em> as bait (P. Meneses, pers. comm.). It is captured in low numbers by bottom trawl nets targeting Argentine Hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>) off Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm).	eng
44653	conservation	Acuña, E. & Romero, M., 2004	None in place. Monitoring of catches is a priority.	eng
44653	distribution	Acuña, E. & Romero, M., 2004	Southeastern Pacific Ocean: endemic to Chile (25°05?24??S to 34°15?47??S; 35°26?S, 73°01?W) and Perú (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002, Meléndez and Meneses, 1989).	eng
44653	habitat	Acuña, E. & Romero, M., 2004	Benthic and epibenthic on the continental shelf and upper slope on soft bottoms. Compagno (in prep. a) reports this species from depths of 110 to 735 m, but more commonly 200 to 500 m. Ovoviviparous, number of young average 10 (Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Feeding habits: crustaceans and small fishes, deep-sea shrimp <em>Euphausia mucronata, Heterocarpus reedi</em> and the myctophid <em>Diogenichthys laternatus</em> (Acuña <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Known life history paramenters: <strong>Size at maturity</strong>: 52 to 54 cm total length (TL) (female); 42 to 46 cm TL (male). <strong>Maximum size</strong>: 60 cm TL<strong>Size at birth </strong>: 14 cm TL. <strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: 10	eng
44653	population	Acuña, E. & Romero, M., 2004	Reported as relatively common within its limited range (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
44653	threats	Acuña, E. & Romero, M., 2004	In Chile, bycatch in the deep sea crustacean trawl fishery for the Red Squat Lobster (<em>Pleuroncodes monodon</em>), the Yellow Squat Lobster (<em>Cervimunida johni</em>) and especially the Deep-sea Shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) off Northern and Central Chile (from 25°05?24??S to 34°15?47??S and 259?498 m depth (González 2001, Acuña and Villarroel 2002). In this fishery it was the most important chondrichthyan species by weight, comprising about 5% of the bycatch (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).  <br/> <br/>This species may be of conservation concern due to its narrow geographical range and potential vulnerability to deepwater fishing methods given its bathymetric range and the global expansion of deepwater fishing (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
44654	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific Ocean: known only from the Galapagos Islands (01°33?S), Perú (07°49?S) and from north and central Chile (from off Valparaíso). May be more widespread in its deepwater habitat than presently known.	eng
44654	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	A deepwater skate species reported from 400 to 960 m by McEachran and Compagno (1979) and also recorded from 300 to 400 m off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Maximum size 56.8 cm total length (TL) off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Males mature at 50.9 to 52.0 cm TL and females mature at 55.2 to 56.8 cm TL (McEachran and Compagno 1979). Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44654	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Generally no fisheries in its deepwater habitat at present. No information available. May be taken as bycatch as deepwater trawl fisheries expand.	eng
44655	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2004	Southeast Pacific Ocean: known from Ecuador (03°15?S) to Mocha Island, Chile (37°45?S).	eng
44655	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2004	A deepwater skate species recorded on the continental slopes, at 800 m depth off Algarrobo, Chile (33°20?S) by de Buen (1960), at depths of 780 to 960 m by McEachran and Miyake (1984), and 590 to 1,000 m depth off Chile (Lamilla, unpubl. data). Individuals examined off Chile were 13.7 to 45.7 cm TL (males, n = 28) and 5.4 to 12.0 cm TL (juvenile females, n = 27). Adult females possibly occur in deeper water. Nothing known of its biology.	eng
44655	threats	Lamilla, J., 2004	Generally no fisheries in its deepwater habitat at present. No information available. May be taken as bycatch as deepwater trawl fisheries continue to expand.	eng
44656	conservation	Rincon, G., 2004	None in effect or proposed. Bycatch mitigation is required. Closed areas may be required to protect this and other species in such areas of heavy, and increasing, fishing.	eng
44656	distribution	Rincon, G., 2004	A Brazilian endemic locally known off Santa Catarina State north to Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. At present most records are centered on the southern part of its range (Santa Catarina State), although this may be due to less fishing effort off Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States were the continental slope is highly inclined.  <br/> <br/>Its extent of occurrence is estimated at 18,000 to 20,000 km².	eng
44656	habitat	Rincon, G., 2004	The holotype was taken at 800 m (McEachran and Compagno 1980). Maximum size at least 42.4 cm total length (TL). Matures at 40.0 to 42.4 cm TL (males) and 36.5 cm TL (females). Oviparous, laying 4.5 cm eggs in September-October (spring). This species is a deepwater piscivorous skate and feeds mainly on juveniles (2 to 3 cm TL) of abrótea <em>Urophycis brasiliensis</em> at 400 to 600 m depth, but copepods and mysidaceans also make up part of its diet. Although the present information about its feeding aspect is restricted to two samples, the results are evidence of a trophic dependency of <em>G. dorsalifera</em> upon <em>U. brasiliensis</em>, which may be a point of concern given the high economic importance and heavy fishing of this teleost in the south of Brazil. It may occur deeper than 800 m and this needs clarification. Indications are that it is not abundant at the deeper end of its known depth range (400 to 800 m).	eng
44656	threats	Rincon, G., 2004	A bycatch in deepwater fisheries. Increasing bottom trawl effort for squid in the only known area of its distribution is a matter of concern. This fishery operates down to about 600 m, so deeper water may provide a refuge for this species. Its main prey item, the teleost <em>Urophycis brasiliensis</em>, is heavily fished.	eng
44657	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2004	None in effect or proposed at this time.	eng
44657	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Northeast Atlantic: Between Scotland and Iceland. Southeast Atlantic: South Africa (Northern and Western Cape Provinces from the Orange River mouth south to Cape Agulhas and Eastern Cape Province). Possibly also the Northwest Atlantic (off Newfoundland, Canada) (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
44657	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2004	A benthic catshark of the continental slope, found on or near the bottom at depths of 700 to 2,000 m. South African specimens have been collected on soft bottom between 700 to 1,200 m. This species is also known to migrate off the bottom to feed on midwater prey items. Newborns, as known with other <em>Apristurus</em> species, may inhabit the midwater column until they start to mature whereupon they assume a more demersal lifestyle. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity: approx. 50 cm total length (TL) (both male and female). Maximum size: 61 cm TL (males); 54 cm TL (females).	eng
44657	population	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Nothing is known about its population size.	eng
44657	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2004	Possibly caught and discarded as bycatch by deepwater trawl fisheries, particularly in the North Atlantic. Expansion of deepwater fisheries may pose a threat to this species in the future, but at present most of its depth range is outside the reach of fisheries in its area of occupancy.	eng
44658	conservation	Ortiz, J.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and potential threats of this little-known species is required.	eng
44658	distribution	Ortiz, J.C., 2009	The distribution of this species is not well known; the location of the type locality is not known beyond the state of Tarapaca, Chile, and since then the species is thought to have only been recorded from an unknown location in the state of Antofagasta, Chile.	eng
44658	habitat	Ortiz, J.C., 2009	This species is found in xeric habitat.	eng
44658	population	Ortiz, J.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
44658	threats	Ortiz, J.C., 2009	As the distribution of this species is not known, it is not possible to assess threats to the species. Potential threats in the region include overgrazing and mining activities.	eng
44661	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44662	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44663	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44664	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44665	distribution	Loiselle, P. & participants of the CBSG/ANGAP CAMP "Faune de Madagascar" workshop, 2004	Endemic to Madagascar.	eng
44666	conservation	Rosa, R.S., Gadig, O.B.F., Santos Motta, F. & Namora, R.C., 2004	Protection of coastal habitats, including pollution control and establishment of marine reserves is required. Regulation and management of artisanal coastal fisheries is recommended, including delimitation of fishing areas and periods, limitation of gillnet extension and mesh sizes (minimum and maximum), and mandatory release of live neonate and juvenile specimens.	eng
44666	distribution	Rosa, R.S., Gadig, O.B.F., Santos Motta, F. & Namora, R.C., 2004	Information obtained from sampling off the coastal state of São Paulo, Brazil, from 1996 to 2002, such as the presence of gravid females, neonates and juveniles, indicates that <em>R. lalandii</em> use the area as a primary and secondary nursery ground, with subadults leaving the area as they approach maturity (Motta 2001). Among the 12,406 examined sharks in this period, 7,442 (60.01%) were <em>R. lalandii</em> (Motta, F.S, Gadig, O.B.F., Namora, R.C. unpubl. data). The differences in maturity sizes observed along the Brazilian coast suggest the existence of at least two different stocks of <em>R. lalandii</em> in the area (Motta, F.S, Gadig, O.B.F., Namora, R.C. unpubl. data).	eng
44666	habitat	Rosa, R.S., Gadig, O.B.F., Santos Motta, F. & Namora, R.C., 2004	The Brazilian Sharpnose Shark is a tropical inshore species of the continental shelf, occurring at depths of 3 to 70 m (Compagno 1984, Gadig 1994, Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, FishBase). It is abundant from Venezuela to northern Brazil and in southern Brazil, but in northeastern Brazil, from Ceará to Bahia States, it is less common, possibly replaced by the congeneric <em>R. porosus</em>. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity previously reported as 45 to 50 cm total length (TL) for males (Compagno 1984). However, size at maturity shows variation along the Brazilian coast, as follows: 52 cm TL (males) and 56 cm TL (females) on the northern coast (Lessa 1988), and 58 to 60 cm TL (males) and 63 to 65 cm TL (females) on the southeastern coast (Ferreira 1988, Motta 2001). <br/> <br/>Placental viviparous species with litters of 1 to 5 pups (Gadig 1994, Lessa 1998, Motta 2001). Size at birth is 33 to 34 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Maximum size recorded is 78.5 cm TL (males) and 80 cm TL (females) (Namora 2003). <br/> <br/>The diet includes mainly small teleost fishes (Sciaenidae, Clupeidae, Engraulidae), and is complemented by squid (Loliginidae) and shrimps (Penaeidae) (Compagno 1984, Silva 1997, Namora 2003). In southeastern Brazil, the diet showed sexual, seasonal and ontogenetic variation (Namora 2003).	eng
44666	threats	Rosa, R.S., Gadig, O.B.F., Santos Motta, F. & Namora, R.C., 2004	Major threats include overfishing in coastal artisanal fisheries, mainly with gillnets, throughout most of its range. The species used to be one of the most abundant elasmobranch species in gillnet catches in Maranhão State, Brazil, but today it is rarely caught (Lessa 1998, R.P.T. Lessa, pers. obs.). The species is commonly taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries in São Paulo State, Brazil, corresponding to nearly 60% of the total captured shark numbers at Itanhaém Municipality (Motta 2001, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2002). A large proportion of the captured individuals (nearly 70%) in this and other localities include neonates and juveniles (Motta 2001, F.S. Motta, O.B.F. Gadig and R.C. Namora, unpubl. data). In heavily populated areas, the species also suffers from effects of marine pollution. On the São Paulo coast, the species has been shown to be subject to damage from plastic debris with three specimens found with plastic collars around the head or gill region (Sazima <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Information is urgently required from other countries within its range. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>The flesh of this species is used for food, however the fins are generally not utilised due to their small size.	eng
44668	conservation	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	Changes to fishing regulations for tuskfish in 2003 for the west coast and Gascoyne coast regions of Western Australia (W.A.) limit the capture of <em>C. cauteroma</em> to fish ≥ 40 cm in length (total length) and to a maximum of four fish per person per day (for recreational fishers) (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). Since <em>C. cauteroma</em> rarely reaches more than 40 cm in length (Fairclough in prep.), these regulations essentially protect this species from capture in those two regions. However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published. Thus, the MLL for this species may be changed once the results of Fairclough (in prep.) become available. <br/> <br/>In the Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A., there is currently no MLL for retention of <em>C. cauteroma</em> and the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These regulations are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of W.A. where <em>C. cauteroma occurs</em>, to reflect more knowledge of the biology of this species, the catch limit is unlikely to be increased, since these limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, four sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., South Passage, Mary Anne Island, Sandy Point and the Gudrun wreck, encompass habitats occupied by <em>C. cauteroma</em> (Anonymous 1996, Hutchins 1990, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout this marine park (Anonymous (2004). <br/> <br/>Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia, including the Dampier Archipelago and Montebello Islands, where <em>C. cauteroma</em> is found (Hutchins 2001, Penn 2002). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply "no take" zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on bag limits or methods used for capture.	eng
44668	distribution	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> occurs on coastal and inshore reefs between the Houtman–Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca 70 km offshore at ca 28º45'S, 113º45'E), on the west coast of Australia and the Dampier Peninsula (16º23'S, 122º55'E), on the north-west coast (Hutchins 2001). The Houtman-Abrolhos Islands is in the vicinity of the path of the southward-flowing Leeuwin Current (Hatcher 1991). This current carries the eggs and larvae of tropical species southwards along the Western Australian continental shelf (Hutchins 1991). The Leeuwin current is likely to be the main reason for individuals of <em>C. cauteroma</em> being recorded in the Abrolhos Islands, since it is considered to be rare at this location and this species was not recorded by Hutchins (2001) during surveys of inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca 26ºS, 113.5ºE) (Hutchins 2001). <br/> <br/>One individual specimen was sighted in a fish market in Jakarta, Indonesia (W. White, Murdoch University, pers. comm.), however, this specimen may have been captured in waters closer to the Australian mainland.	eng
44668	habitat	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> is a demersal species and is common in shallow waters (< 15 m). However, it has been captured in waters up to 30 m deep (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is most abundant on rocky platform reefs, coral reefs and on sand or rubble areas associated with rocky or coral reefs (Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Allen 1999, Hutchins 2003, Fairclough in prep.). In Shark Bay, juveniles and adults are found on seagrass beds (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Small juveniles (< ca 150 mm) use weedy rock or seagrass habitats as nursery areas and generally move onto reefs after the first 1–2 years of life, where they mature (Fairclough in prep.). Some adults remain or may move between seagrass and reef areas (Fairclough in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>C. cauteroma</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between April and November in Shark Bay, although spawning fish are most abundant between September and November, i.e., spring (Fairclough in prep.). Relatively small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once. Spawning fish have been collected in the many individual reef habitats occupied by this species in Shark Bay and it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations, but more than likely spawns in small groups, as is typical of many labrids (Fairclough in prep.).	eng
44668	population	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> is abundant in Shark Bay (Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Hutchins 2001, Fairclough <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Visual surveys in South Passage, at the southern end of Dirk Hartog Island, Shark Bay, the eastern coastlines of Bernier and Dorre Islands, and sites in the eastern and western gulfs of Shark Bay suggest that <em>C. cauteroma</em> is abundant in these areas (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins 2001, Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough in prep.). Surveys by Hutchins (2001) demonstrated that <em>C. cauteroma</em> was occasionally or frequently observed at sites between Shark Bay and the Dampier Archipelago and that it was frequently observed at sites on the Dampier Peninsula, but was not recorded to the east of that peninsula. Furthermore, it was not recorded at any of the offshore atolls surveyed, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. Research sampling by Fisheries Western Australia using traps and trawl nets along the north-west (Pilbara/Kimberley) coast of Australia collected moderate numbers of <em>C. cauteroma</em>, suggesting a fairly continuous distribution along this coast (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catches declined rapidly only a short distance north of Broome, which is in agreement with the results of the surveys of Hutchins (2001). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon cauteroma</em> does not occur in catches of tuskfish species in the Northern Territory (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.).	eng
44668	threats	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	Changes in commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure are the main threats to this species. However, there is no information on the level of exploitation of this species in Western Australia. Historical data on commercial catches in reports of the Department of Fisheries Western Australia combine all tuskfish species as one group, i.e., tuskfish, other than <em>Choerodon rubescens</em>. Thus, the contribution by <em>C. cauteroma</em> to these catches is unknown. Catches of tuskfish between 1994/95 and 1998/99 ranged from 16 to 34 t per year (Research Services Division 2000).	eng
44669	conservation	Fairclough, D. & Nakazono, A, 2004	A minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm and a catch limit of four tuskfish per person per day in the west coast and Gascoyne regions of Western Australia limits the capture of <em>C. schoenlenii</em> in those two regions (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published on Western Australian stocks. In the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These catch limit regulations for the Pilbara/Kimberley region are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of WA where <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs, to reflect increased knowledge of the biology of this species (Fairclough in prep.), the catch limit is unlikely to change from four fish per person per day, unless it is reduced further. These limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). There is also a MLL of 30 cm in Queensland and a catch limit of six tuskfish per person per day. However, in the Northern Territory, while there is a catch limit for recreational fishers, there is no MLL. <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, Western Australia, several small sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, Gudrun Wreck and Sandy Point, are likely to encompass habitats occupied by C. schoenleinii (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout the marine park (Anonymous 2004). Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia (Penn 2002), including the Dampier Archipelago and the Montebello Islands, where <em>C. schoenleinii</em> was recorded frequently during surveys by Hutchins (2001). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply no-take zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on catch limits or methods used for capture. <br/> <br/>In Queensland, there is a minimum legal length for retention of 30 cm and a catch limit of six fish per person per day (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2003). Approximately 5.1 million hectares of Queensland marine waters are declared marine parks and, of this, 603,000 hectares are fish habitat areas, where fishing is allowed, but the habitat is protected from development (Anonymous 2000). These areas stretch along the entire Queensland coastline (Anonymous 2000). It is likely that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs in at least several of these protected areas. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, a proposed rezoning plan will result in ca 33% of the geographical area of the park being designated as no take zones (GBRMPA 2003). It is likely that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs in several of these protected areas. <br/> <br/>While many marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>C. schoenleinii</em>, e.g., Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be ‘paper parks’ and are poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in southeast Asia is included in marine protected areas and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these MPAs probably provide little protection to the species they house (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Local fishermen in Okinawa started a regulation not to catch this species smaller than 1 kg (<a href="http://www.okinawatimes.co.jp/eco/20030328_4.html">A. Nakazono, pers. comm.</a>).	eng
44669	distribution	Fairclough, D. & Nakazono, A, 2004	<em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> occurs as far south on the Western Australian coast as the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca. 70 km offshore at ca 28°45'S, 113°45'E), however, it is considered to be rare at this location (Hutchins 2001). <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> was not recorded on inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca. 26°S, 113.5°E) during the surveys of Hutchins (2001). Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) demonstrate that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurs along the northern Pilbara/Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as far north as Wyndham (15°29'S, 128°7'E), but not on the offshore atolls along this coast, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is a target for commercial fishers, fishing tour operators and recreational fishers in Darwin, Northern Territory, and is thus probably widespread in this region (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). It is taken by recreational and commercial fishers along the Queensland coastline, in particular the Great Barrier Reef, where this species is widely distributed (Grant 1993; J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). <em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is likely to occur throughout south-east Asia, such as the Philippines and the Ryukyu Islands, where it is a commercial target (Westneat 2004, Ebisawai<em>et al</em>. 1995). It is probably equally well distributed throughout the rest of its range, e.g., along the Viet Nam and Thailand coastlines, around Malaysia, Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea and south to Vanuatu, where it is also reported to occur (Eli 2002, Allen and Adrim 2003). Many of these areas provide suitable habitats for this species. A report of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> occurring in Mauritius must be treated with some caution, since there is no evidence of it occurring between Mauritius and south-east Asia (Eli 2002).	eng
44669	habitat	Fairclough, D. & Nakazono, A, 2004	<em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is a demersal species and is abundant in shallow water reefs in waters of north-western Australia and along the Queensland coast (< 20 m) (Allen 1999, Hutchins 2001, Grant 1993, Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997, Fairclough, in prep). It is, however, reported to occur in waters up to 60 m deep (Westneat 2004). It is found on sand and weed areas adjacent to coral reefs (Grant 1993, Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997, Allen 1999). In Shark Bay, Western Australia, it is found on rocky limestone reefs, weedy rock areas, rocky shorelines and seagrass areas (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough in prep.). In particular, limestone and coral patch reefs are important for adults of this species in Shark Bay (Fairclough, in prep.). Juveniles (< <em>ca</em>. 150 mm) are found in weedy rock or seagrass habitats, but fish above this size are more common on open reefs in Shark Bay, for example (Travers and Potter 2002, Fairclough, in prep.). Kanashiro (1998) demonstrated that seagrass beds were important for this species during the first few months of life with the presence of larvae and small juveniles in these habitats at Yagachi Island, Japan. <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> reaches lengths of up to 100 cm and <em>ca</em>. 16 kg in weight (Grant 1993). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). Fifty percent of females mature at <em>ca</em>. 25 cm and it spawns mainly in spring in both Shark Bay, Western Australia, and at Okinawa Island, Japan (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough, in prep.). Histology demonstrated that this species is monandric and that relatively small testes indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep). Males only occur in the upper size classes (> <em>ca</em>. 50 cm) and low numbers of males recorded in the population in Shark Bay and at Okinawa Island, Japan, also suggest that this species would be haremic (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough, in prep.). Since catch rates derived from line fishing or densities derived from visual surveys in Shark Bay demonstrated little variation during the different months of the year (Fairclough, in prep.), it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations.	eng
44669	population	Fairclough, D. & Nakazono, A, 2004	<strong>Australia</strong> <br/><em>Choerodon schoenleinii</em> is abundant in many areas of Shark Bay, Western Australia (Fairclough in prep.), and Hutchins (2001) demonstrated that densities ranged from occasional to abundant at locations northwards from Ningaloo reef to Wyndham (15º29'S, 128º7'E). This species is probably equally abundant along the coastlines of the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia, since this species is distributed across the whole of the northern half of Australia and commercial and recreational catches of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> in the Northern Territory and Queensland are low to moderate (Penn 2002; P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.; J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). Its distribution along the western and eastern coastlines of Australia is likely to be fairly continuous within its range, due to similar habitat being available throughout (Hutchins 2001, Grant, 1993). However, the degree of fragmentation of its distribution and levels of abundance in the Northern Territory of Australia are unclear. <br/> <br/><strong>SE Asia</strong> <br/>Throughout south-east Asia, the distribution of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is probably widespread, since coastal reef habitats are virtually ubiquitous in this region. For example, it was reported to occur from Papua to Sumatra in Indonesia by Allen and Adrim (2003). However, it is rarely reported as being common, e.g., <em>C. schoenleinii</em> was reported to be rare with only sub-adults seen during a rapid biodiversity assessment of the Calamianes Islands (Palawan Province, Philippines) (Werner and Allen 2000) and was not seen at all during similar surveys of the coral reefs of Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea (Werner and Allen 1998), the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua, Indonesia (McKenna <em>et. al</em>. 2002), or the Togean and Banggai Islands, Sulawesi, Indonesia (Allen and McKenna 2001). This may be due to fragmentation of the populations of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> caused by naturally low abundances and/or localised stock depletions due to fishing pressure and destruction of habitat. The latter may be fairly widespread. For example, in Sabah, Borneo, and Indonesia, fishing pressure is concentrated in the inshore region of the coastline and destructive collection methods have depleted most of the inshore fish stocks (TRACC  2004). Destruction of coral reef habitat is also likely to be a contributing factor (see Threats). <br/> <br/>In Okinawa, Japan, and Hong Kong <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is/was a very important commercial species and is suggested to be overexploited (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Cornish 2003).	eng
44669	threats	Fairclough, D. & Nakazono, A, 2004	A minimum legal size of 40 cm and a catch limit of four tuskfish per person per day in the west coast and Gascoyne regions of Western Australia limits the capture of <em>C. schoenlenii</em> in those two regions (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b). However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published on Western Australian stocks. In the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These catch limit regulations for the Pilbara/Kimberley region are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>In Shark Bay, Western Australia, for example, only a relatively few fish > 40 cm, the minimum legal length for retention, are captured by line fishing, thus reducing the impact of fishing on this species in that embayment (Fairclough in prep.). Records of catches of recreational fishers in Western Australia indicate that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is regularly one of the top ten species caught from areas of the northern Pilbara/Kimberley region of Western Australia, e.g., Dampier and Broome (Newman <em>et. al</em>. 2003). Thus, there may be the potential for localised depletions of this species in areas of Western Australia, where commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure is high. Catches of the combined tuskfish and parrotfish category in the Northern Territory and Queensland are low, hence it is unlikely to be under widespread threat in these regions (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm., J. Platten, DPIF Queensland, pers. comm.). However, it is specifically targeted by recreational fishers in Moreton Bay, Queensland, which may have a localised impact on this species’ abundance (Grant 1993). <br/> <br/>There is little specific information on the level of exploitation of this species throughout south-east Asia. However, Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. (1995) states that <em>C. schoenleinii</em> is an important commercial species in Okinawa, Japan, and that it is overexploited. The majority of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> caught in this region range in length from 20 to 35 cm and thus, based on studies of the reproductive biology of this species, many captured fish are likely to be sexually immature (Ebisawa <em>et. al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). <br/> <br/>Destructive fishing practices, e.g., explosives, spearfishing, poisoning and night-time fishing, used in many parts of south-east Asia to capture fish for local consumption, the live reef fish trade and the aquarium trade, are likely to cause, or may already have caused, declines in stocks of <em>C. schoenleinii</em> in these areas (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et. al</em>. 2002, Wabnitz <em>et. al</em>. 2003, TRACC 2004). However, there is little data to suggest how much <em>C. schoenleinii</em> contributes to these fisheries. Furthermore, any continued destruction of habitats will lead to further fragmentation of stocks and ultimately to their decline. Land clearing, and thus sedimentation from increased run-off, and poor sanitation in south-east Asian countries, such as Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, also have the potential to destroy important nearshore habitats (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et. al</em>. 2002). In south-east Asia, it has been estimated that 56 % of all coral reefs are at high risk, and 26% are of medium risk from human disturbance (Bryant <em>et. al</em>. 1998).	eng
44670	conservation	Fairclough, D., Russell, B. & Kulbicki, M., 2004	There are minimum legal lengths (MLL) for capture of <em>C. cyanodus</em> in Western Australia and Queensland of 40 and 30 cm, respectively, however, there are no such limits in the Northern Territory. Changes to fishing regulations for tuskfish in 2003 for the west coast and Gascoyne coast regions of Western Australia (W.A.) limit the capture of <em>C. cyanodus</em> to a mixed bag of four tuskfish per person per day (for recreational fishers) (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a). Since <em>C. cyanodus</em> rarely reaches more than 40 cm in length (Fairclough in prep.), these regulations essentially protect this species from capture in those two regions. However, the minimum legal length (MLL) of 40 cm has not been set based on any knowledge of the biology of this species, since there is currently no information published. In the Pilbara/Kimberley region of W.A. the catch limit for recreational fishers is 8 fish per person per day (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003c). These regulations are currently under review and thus may change in 2004 to fall in line with the west coast and Gascoyne regions of W.A. <br/> <br/>Although, in the future, the MLL may change in all regions of W.A. where <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs, to reflect more knowledge of the biology of this species (Fairclough in prep.), the catch limit is unlikely to be increased, since these limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalised as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Northern Territory and Queensland there are catch limits for recreational fishers of 30 and six fish per person per day, respectively. Since this species is not taken in the Northern Territory and catches are low in Queensland (P. de Lestang, DPIF Northern Territory, pers. comm., J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.), this species is well protected in these two states of Australia. <br/> <br/>In Western Australia, several small sanctuary (no take) zones, i.e., Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, Gudrun Wreck and Sandy Point, in Shark Bay, are likely to encompass habitats occupied by <em>C. cyanodus</em> (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). There are eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park. Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout that park (Anonymous 2004b). Proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks on the north-west coast of Western Australia, including the Dampier Archipelago and Montebello Islands, where it is likely that <em>C. cyanodus</em> is found (Penn 2002). Marine Parks in Western Australia do not necessarily imply no take zones, but may include no take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on bag limits or methods used for capture. <br/> <br/>In Queensland, approximately 5.1 m hectares are declared marine parks and of that 603,000 hectares are fish habitat areas, where fishing is allowed, but the habitat is protected from any development (Anonymous 2000). These areas stretch along the entire Queensland coastline (Anonymous 2000). In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, a proposed rezoning plan will result in ca 33% of the geographical area of the park being designated as no take zones (GBRMPA 2003). It is likely that <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs in several of these protected areas. <br/> <br/>While marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>C. cyanodus</em>, e.g., Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be ‘paper parks’ and are thus poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in southeast Asia is included in marine protected areas and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these marine parks probably provide little protection to the species they house (Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002, Licuanan and Gomez 2000).	eng
44670	distribution	Fairclough, D., Russell, B. & Kulbicki, M., 2004	In Western Australia, <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> occurs as far south as the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands (a group of islands and reefs ca. 70 km offshore at ca. 28º45'S, 113º45'E), however, it is considered to be rare at this location (Hutchins 2001). The Houtman-Abrolhos Islands is in the vicinity of the path of the southward-flowing Leeuwin Current (Hatcher 1991). This current carries the eggs and larvae of tropical species southwards along the Western Australian continental shelf (Hutchins 1991). The Leeuwin current is likely to be the main reason for individuals of <em>C. cyanodus</em> being recorded in the Abrolhos Islands, since it is considered to be rare at this location and this species was not recorded by Hutchins (2001) during surveys of inshore coastal reefs south of Shark Bay (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE) (Hutchins 2001). <br/> <br/>Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) demonstrate that <em>C. cyanodus</em> occurs along the northern Pilbara/Kimberley coastline of Western Australia as far north as Wyndham (15º29'S, 128º7'E), but not on the offshore atolls along this coast, i.e., Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef and Ashmore reef. While this species’ distribution is reported to extend along the coastline of northern Australia, data suggests that fishing tour operators in Darwin do not catch <em>C. cyanodus</em> (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). However, tuskfish in commercial catches are often combined and labeled ‘parrots’ in this region. <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> occurs along the Queensland coastline around the Gulf of Carpentaria, Cape York Peninsula and on the Great Barrier Reef, and has previously been studied at Heron Island (Choat, 1969). Choat (1969) suggests that this species occurs as far south as ca. 24ºS on the east coast of Australia. <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon</em> species reported to occur in Sri Lanka by the FAO do not include <em>C. cyanodus</em>, however, if it does occur in this area as suggested by Allen (1999), it seems likely to be present only in low numbers or in restricted areas and this would represent the westerly limit of its distribution (De Bruin <em>et al</em>. 1994). <em>Choerodon cyanodu</em> is also reported by divers to occur along the Thailand coastline (Anonymous 2004a) but does not appear in extensive lists of species from that country (Monkolprasit <em>et al</em>. 1997), or other areas outside Australia where it is reported to occur, notably Indonesia (Papua to Sumatra; Allen and Adrim 2003), Japan (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) and Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea (Werner and Allen 1998). It appears that either records of this species outside Australia, are largely in error, or abundance in these areas is very low. This global assessment is, therefore, based primarily on populations in Australia which are likely to comprise the majority of the global population.	eng
44670	habitat	Fairclough, D., Russell, B. & Kulbicki, M., 2004	<em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is a demersal species and is abundant in shallow waters in Shark Bay (< 10 m). It has been captured in waters up to 30 m deep along the Pilbara/Kimberley coast of Western Australia (Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is found on flat bottoms and coral reefs (Allen 1999). However, it is common on rocky limestone reefs, weedy-rock areas, rocky shorelines and seagrass areas in Shark Bay (Travers and Potte 2002, Fairclough, in prep.). Juveniles and adults (< <em>ca</em>. 200 mm) are found in weedy rock or seagrass habitats, but fish above this size are more common on reefs or rocky habitats (Fairclough in prep.). While records suggest that this species reaches 70 cm in length and recreational fishing records suggest a specimen weighing 4.5 kg was captured in Shark Bay (Australian Anglers Association, (WA Division) Inc. 2003), the majority of fish collected in Shark Bay during current research were below 30 cm and none were collected above 40 cm (Fairclough, in prep.). All fish collected by Choat (1969) from the Great Barrier Reef were < 405 mm in length. Mature fish of <em>ca</em>. 100–150 mm have been collected in seagrass and weedy rock habitats, implying that this species may not always migrate to reefs after maturity and it may live its full lifecycle in either seagrass or reef habitats (Fairclough, in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between December and February in Shark Bay, i.e., summer (Fairclough, in prep). Relatively small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once. Mature and spawning fish have been collected in the many individual reef and seagrass habitats occupied by this species in Shark Bay and it is unlikely that this species forms large spawning aggregations, but more than likely spawns in small groups (Fairclough, in prep.).	eng
44670	population	Fairclough, D., Russell, B. & Kulbicki, M., 2004	<em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is rare at the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands, which represent the lower limit of this species’ distribution in Western Australia (Hutchins 2001). Surveys by Hutchins (2001, 2003) and research sampling by Newman <em>et al</em>. (2003) found this species to be abundant at locations northwards from the north west cape of Western Australia, however, Fairclough (in prep.) found that this species was also abundant in many areas of Shark Bay to the south. <br/> <br/>It is probably equally abundant along the Queensland coastline as this area is well within its geographic range, and since it does not feature prominently in commercial or recreational catches (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). Distribution along the western and eastern coastlines of Australia is likely to be fairly continuous within its range, due to similar habitat being available throughout. The degree of fragmentation of its distribution and levels of abundance in the Northern Territory of Australia and throughout the remainder of its geographic range in south-east Asia are unclear.	eng
44670	threats	Fairclough, D., Russell, B. & Kulbicki, M., 2004	There is no direct information on the level of exploitation of this species throughout most of its range. A minimum legal length of 40 cm in Western Australia virtually prevents its capture, since fish caught during research in both Shark Bay and on the northwest coast of Western Australia were always under this size (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a,b,c, Fairclough in prep., Newman <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catches of the combined "tuskfish" category in Western Australia are moderate (16 to 34 t per year between 1994/95 and 1998/99; Research Services Division 2000), but, since <em>C. cyanodus</em> is rarely larger than its MLL, it is unlikely to be significant in these catches. Although <em>C. cyanodus</em> is a recognized target for recreational fishers in Queensland, it is only caught in small numbers (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.) and commercial catches of the combined category of ‘parrots’ (Labrids and Scarids) in that state are around 30 t per year, consisting mainly of <em>Choerodon venustus</em>, <em>C. cyanodus</em> is unlikely to be threatened on the east coast of Australia (J. Platten, EPA Queensland, pers. comm.). <em>Choerodon cyanodus</em> is not taken in the Northern Territory of Australia (P. de Lestang, Northern Territory Government, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Destructive fishing practices used to capture fish for local consumption, the live reef fish trade and the aquarium trade in many parts of south-east Asia, may represent the largest threat to <em>C. cyanodus</em> (Munday and Allen 2000, Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, there is no data to suggest whether <em>C. cyanodus</em> forms a part of any of these industries. Land clearing, and thus sedimentation from increased run-off, and poor sanitation in southeast Asian countries, such as Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, also have the potential to destroy important habitats (Munday and Allen 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44671	conservation	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	The minimum legal size limit for retention (commercial and recreational) of <em>C. rubescens</em> in Western Australia is 40 cm, which is above the length at sexual maturity of <em>ca</em>. 290 mm (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b; Fairclough, in prep.). Catch limits of four fish per person per day for recreational fishers came into effect on 1st July 2003, however there have been recommendations that this be further reduced to two and the minimum size limit be increased to 45 cm (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a, b; Harrison 2001). These limits are based on the type of life history that a particular species has. Thus, tuskfish are included in the category of "highest risk" (Harrison 2001). Species in this category are generalized as having the following characteristics: they are long-lived, slow-growing, they mature at four years plus, form semi-resident populations, are vulnerable to localised depletion due to their life history, or are of low abundance or highly targeted (Harrison 2001). <br/> <br/>Sanctuary zones at the Abrolhos Islands include four no take "Reef Observation Areas" (ROA), which were introduced in the mid-1990s (Nardi 1998). These ROAs have apparently had little impact on the size or abundance of C. rubescens (K. Nardi, Department of Fisheries, Western Australia, pers. comm.). Monitoring of future catches and the impact of protected areas on fish numbers has been highlighted as a priority for research (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). A closed fishing season for <em>C. rubescens</em> was introduced for the "Fish Habitat Protection Area", that surrounds the Abrolhos Islands, from 1 November to 31 January, which encompasses a substantial proportion of the spawning period of theis species (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003a). <br/> <br/>There is a no take sanctuary zone in South Passage (southern end of Dirk Hartog Island), Shark Bay, and eight no take sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park (Anonymous 1996, Anonymous 2004a). Spearfishing of tuskfish is prohibited throughout the Ningaloo marine park (Anonymous 2004a). A no take sanctuary zone was also introduced at Mary Anne Island in the western gulf of Shark Bay for <em>C. rubescens</em>, however this may be due to a misidentification of the <em>Choerodon</em> species, since <em>C. rubescens</em> does not occur within the more southern regions of the gulfs of Shark Bay (Anonymous 1996, Fairclough in prep.). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is found only occasionally at Rottnest Island, near Perth (Hutchins 1979, 2001). Spearfishing is prohibited within 200 metres from shore and netting is prohibited within 500 metres from shore around Rottnest Island (Anonymous 2004b). <br/> <br/>A marine park was declared at Jurien Bay in August 2003, which contains several no take sanctuary zones and areas which restrict commercial or recreational fishing activities, and in which <em>C. rubescens</em> is likely to occur (Anonymous 2003).	eng
44671	distribution	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is found on coastal and offshore reefs on the continental shelf of Western Australia and is suggested to be most abundant at the Abrolhos Islands (ca. 28.5ºS, 113.5ºE), which is approximately in the centre of this species’ distribution (Walker 1983, Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Allen 1999, Hutchins 2001). These islands are situated approximately 70 km offshore from Geraldton, on the west coast of Australia. It is likely to be similarly abundant at sites further north, e.g., along the Zuytdorp Cliffs and the western sides of large islands at the western border of Shark Bay, i.e., Dirk Hartog, Bernier and Dorre Islands (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE), although most of these areas are fairly inaccessible, except by boat (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). It is also found at Coral Bay at the southern end of Ningaloo Reef (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is captured by commercial and recreational fishers further south from Geraldton, e.g., Jurien Bay and Perth, where there are more coastal and offshore limestone reefs and islands (Hutchins 1979, Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sumner and Williamson 1999).	eng
44671	habitat	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is a demersal species found commonly on bare rocky (predominantly limestone) reefs, coral reefs, and rocky reefs with associated coral, algae or seagrass (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Allen 1999, Fairclough in prep.). It is common in shallow waters (< 20 m) and known to be collected in substantial numbers by commercial fishers in deeper waters (up to 100 m) around the Abrolhos Islands (Fairclough, in prep., S. McCaskie, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Small juveniles (< <em>ca</em>. 150 mm) are common in shallow weedy rock habitats and generally move onto more open habitats after the first 1–2 years of life, where they mature after 3 or more years (Fairclough, in prep.). <em>Choerodon rubescens</em> grows to approximately 70 cm in length and has been aged at up to 22 years (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). Fish at the minimum legal length for capture of 40 cm range from 4 to 14 years of age (Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). <br/> <br/><em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner. It spawns between August and January, however, spawning fish are most abundant between September and November, i.e., spring (Nardi 1999, Fairclough, in prep.). Small male gonads indicate that male fish would spawn with only one to a few females at once and Nardi (1999) observed males herding females during the spawning season, suggesting that they maintain harems at this time. Sex ratios of adult fish, i.e., above the size at which 50% of females reach sexual maturity (<em>ca</em>. 290 mm), are biased towards females, i.e., <em>ca</em>. 10 females :1 male (Fairclough, in prep.). Nardi (1999) suggests that <em>C. rubescens</em> aggregates to spawn in shallow waters at the Abrolhos Islands, due to increased counts of this species during visual surveys during its spawning season. <br/> <br/>Current research in Shark Bay and the Abrolhos Islands demonstrates that the size at sexual maturity of females is similar in both regions, but fish are older at this size in the Abrolhos Islands, related to slower growth in this region (Fairclough, in prep.). The sizes at which 50% of individuals change sex in Shark Bay and the Abrolhos Islands are substantially different and may be related to the differences in growth at different latitudes and/or fishing pressure influencing the social structure (Fairclough, in prep.). The ratio of females to males of <em>C. rubescens</em> in commercial catches from the Abrolhos Islands is approximately 1:1. The high fishing pressure and consistent capture of larger, often male, Venus Tuskfish <em>Choerodon venustus</em>, at some locations in Queensland resulted in a decrease in the size at sex change for this species at those sites (Platten <em>et al</em>l. 2002).	eng
44671	population	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	<em>Choerodon rubescens</em> is abundant in the centre of its distribution at the Abrolhos Islands (Walker 1983, Hutchins 2001). Average mean densities in waters close to the islands recorded during visual census work by Nardi (1999) ranged between 3 and 9 fish/250 m². The Abrolhos Islands support the largest commercial fishery for this species, however, commercial fishers tend to fish in deeper waters away from the actual islands (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). Wetline catches in this region average 31.5 tons per year and have been consistent for approximately 10 years, however, Penn <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that the population at the Abrolhos Islands may be showing signs of over-exploitation, due to increasing fishing effort by wetliners with little increase in total catch. <br/> <br/>Hutchins (2001) observed <em>C. rubescens</em> frequently at sites surveyed between Jurien Bay and the northern limit of this species distribution at Coral Bay. But this species was occasionally to rarely observed at sites surveyed to the south of Jurien Bay. Visual census surveys in South Passage, at the southern end of Dirk Hartog Island, Shark Bay (ca. 26ºS, 113.5ºE), and on the east and west coasts of Bernier and Dorre Islands, suggest that <em>C. rubescens</em> is abundant in these areas (Hutchins 1990, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995, Fairclough in prep.). Since much of the coastline within this species distribution consists of limestone reefs, on which <em>C. rubescens</em> is found, the distribution of this species is likely to be fairly continuous at least between Jurien and Coral Bay (Hutchins 2001, Hutchins <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
44671	threats	Fairclough, D. & Cornish, A., 2004	An increase in commercial and/or recreational fishing pressure is the main threat to this species, with the largest catches coming from around the Abrolhos Islands, and other areas of importance being Jurien Bay and Shark Bay (Sumner and Williamson 1999, Penn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Sumner <em>et al</em>. 2002). Although commercial wetline catches have remained consistent during the 1990s in the Abrolhos Islands, where 50% of the commercial wetline catch is derived from (Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1999), a 16% increase in effort in 2001/02 compared to the previous year, but with little increase in catches (2%), suggested that stocks in that region were showing signs of over-explotation (Penn <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The lower length at which 50% of females change sex in the Abrolhos Islands (479 mm) versus Shark Bay (545 mm), may indicate that fishing pressure is having an impact on social structure in the former region, as was demonstrated for <em>Choerodon venustus</em> in Queensland (Platten <em>et al</em>. 2002). High fishing pressure resulted in a decrease in the length at sex change for the latter species. <br/> <br/>In the Abrolhos Islands, ratios of females to males in catches of fish that were above the length at 50% sexual maturity and were caught by recreational rod and line fishing are approximately 10:1, whilst for fish collected by commercial fishers, the sex ratios are close to 1:1 (Fairclough in prep.). This implies that there are greater numbers of females in the adult population, as is common for protogynous hermaphrodites, but that commercial fishers are taking approximately equal numbers of females and males. If the minimum legal size limit is increased to 45 cm, the proportion of males in commercial catches may increase. This may have an undesirable impact on the size at sex change in the Abrolhos Islands, as occurred for <em>C. venustus</em> and may eventually have an impact on assemblages elsewhere on the west coast of Australia, if fishing pressure is high enough. <br/> <br/>The Abrolhos Islands represents a unique environment, being the southernmost coral reefs in the Indian Ocean and containing 211 species of hermatypic and ahermatypic corals (Hatcher 1991, Nardi 1998). Anthropogenic threats to habitats at the Abrolhos Islands, such as coral areas, that are occupied by <em>C. rubescens</em>, are well documented, and include activities such as diving and recreational boating. These impacts are considered to be minimal (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, they do require further quantification and the development of suitable management plans (Webster <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44672	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	Commercial fishing is limited to 15% of the total catch and within Oman's territorial waters; foreign vessels may not fish without a licence.	eng
44672	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermatolepis striolata</span> occurs in the western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Oman and south coast of Arabian Peninsula, Aldabra, Comoros, Madagascar, and the coast of East Africa from Kenya to South Africa (Durban).	eng
44672	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	Occurs on coral reefs on rocky bottom often lurking in or near caves (Randall 1995). <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 85 cm (Randall 1995). It is not known whether this species forms spawning aggregations although "Morgans (1982) reports shoaling behaviour in small groups eight or fewer individuals" (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
44672	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Overfishing is likely to be the main threat to this species. Although it appears to be too rare to be of commercial importance and it very rarely appears in Hong Kong markets, imported through the Live Reef Food Fish Trade (A. Cornish, pers. obs. 2004).	eng
44673	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	From the 1980s, the Pohnpei State Government began implementing measures to reduce fishing effort on groupers, including a partial sales ban during the spawning season (March to April), but subsistence fishing on aggregations continued during the closed season, with fish being frozen until the end of the ban. Also the ban may have little overall effect since aggregation sites in close proximity to population centers can be targeted outside the ban period. In 1995, the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary was established, but the northwest boundary fell short of covering Camouflage Grouper or Brown-marbled Grouper aggregations, so fishing continued. No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and entry restriction for divers at one site, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). Also monitored in Pohnpei Conservation and Monitoring of Reef Fish Spawning Aggregation Site programme, a total of 1,085 individuals were recorded during monitoring in three days of March 2001 full moon (Pet <em>et al</em>., pers. comm. 2001). <br/> <br/>In Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, the majority of individuals interviewed had a strong awareness of their ability to overfish fish stocks, with ensuring the future sustainability of resources being the predominant reasons for implementing management strategies. Dynamiting is prohibited under customary law and also at a national and provincial level, night time spearfishing at a known spawning aggregation site is prohibited under customary law. However, some young fishermen ignore the night time spearfishing ban. In Buka Island, the power of community leaders to enforce closures within their respective communities appears to have declined considerably in recent years (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>In Komodo Marine Park, Indonesia, spawning aggregation protected zones with seasonal closure recommended for traditional use zones (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). <br/> <br/>In Australia, a size limit of a minimum 35 cm and a specific group combined bag limit on this species, applying across all sectors of the coral reef fin fish fishery including commercial and recreational fishers and charter boat operators have been proposed in the Draft Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan in Queensland, minimum size limits are set at a point which allows at least half of the fish in a population to reach reproductive maturity and spawn before they are available for harvest. <br/> <br/>In the Solomon Islands, a management plan for the live reef fish trade was drafted in Honiara, seeking to totally protect the spawning aggregations of <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> by placing a ban on aggregation fishing for five days either side of the new moon during the three months of the year when aggregations are known to form (Donnelly 2001). The LRFFT interim licence conditions was revised in 2002 (Oreihaka, pers. comm., 2003), and a recent article in the SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin (Samoilys 2002) stated that the management plan drafted in 2001 was yet to be implemented. <br/> <br/>In Palau, the Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> from April 1 through July 31 each year, intended to protect spawning aggregation. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purpose in the closed period (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). A four-month ‘bul’ (taboo) was enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but was not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregation, which was said by fishermen to be much smaller than they were ten years ago (Johannes 1999). Exports are monitored, no foreign fishing vessels allowed and entry restriction for divers at one site, species may probably still be in fair condition, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (i.e., into August) (Reef fish spawning aggregations working group 2002). <br/> <br/>In Malaysia, marine parks were established under the Fisheries Act of 1985 for the protection, preservation, and management of natural breeding grounds and habitat of aquatic life. Although this is a general clause, most of the marine parks are situated on coral reefs which are the habitats of this and other serranids.	eng
44673	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</span> is an Indo-Pacific species, ocurring in the Red Sea, along the east coast of Africa to Mozambique, east to Samoa and the Phoenix Islands, north to Japan, and south to Australia. It is unknown from the Persian Gulf, Hawaii, and French Polynesia. It is also recorded from Hibernia Reef, Timor Sea, south of Timor-Leste (B. Russell, pers. comm).<br/><br/>(See <a href="http://www.marine.csiro.au/caab/caabsearch-frames.htm">modelled map for Australian distribution</a>).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations are known from Palau, Pohnpei (Micronesia), outside the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia), Komodo National Park (Indonesia), Dumbea (New Caledonia), and Fiji.	eng
44673	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	Occurs in lagoon pinnacles, channels, and outer reef slopes, in coral-rich areas and with clear waters. Juveniles occur in seagrass beds. Forms spawning aggregations. <br/> <br/>Males are easily available for natural spawning in Singapore (Chao <em>et al</em>. 1993). In Palau, sampled mature males ranged in size from 698–870 mm total length, mature females from 420 to 850 mm (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
44673	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Fishing and habitat destruction of seagrass beds and coral reefs (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2002, Hodgson and Liebeler 2002).	eng
44674	conservation	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	Totally protected in New South Wales waters (Public Consultation Document 2002). <br/> <br/>Tagged <em>E. coioides</em> are released on artificial reefs in Yan Chau Tong and Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park in 2001 as a part of restocking trial (these together with Red Snapper account for 15,000 fish released to-date) (Cheung 2001). <br/> <br/>Mariculture of this grouper is carried out in SE Asia (Sadovy 2000). This fish is being cultured for local consumption in Thailand and for export using mainly seed supply from the wild (Yashiro 1996). This fish is also cultured in Singapore and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Under current Queensland (Australia) fishery regulation, <em>E. coioides</em>, whose length is less than 35 cm or more that 120 cm is protected (Fishing Industry Organization and Marketing Amendment Regulation 1993).	eng
44674	distribution	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus coioides</span> occurs in the Red Sea south to at least Durban (South Africa), eastwards to Palau and Fiji, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to the Arafura Sea and Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It has also migrated through the Suez Canal to the eastern Mediterranean (Randall 1995). Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown. This species is also frequently misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. malabaricus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">E. tauvina</span> in aquaculture and fisheries literature (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/>A spawning aggregation of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. coioides</span> has been reported from Papua New Guinea where 1,000 to 5,000 fish congregate in the muddy/sandy bottom of a large shallow bay for three to four days in every month of the year. At night, the fish sleep partially buried in the mud and have been targeted by local fishers for generations. Fish are speared from a canoe with a hand held spear at night using light lamp to locate them. Fishers report that 30 to 40 years ago they could take between 200 and 500 fish in a night, whereas today (2003) they catch between 50 and 100 fish in a night, a decline of >50% (Hamilton 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. coioides</span> has also been reported to form mixed spawning aggregations with <span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus malabaricus</span> in a bay in New Caledonia (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm.).	eng
44674	habitat	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	Adults are reef-associated (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003) and are often found in brackish water (Randall <em>et. al</em>. 1997) over mud and rubble (Kailola <em>et. al</em>. 1993). Juveniles are common in estuaries over sand, mud and gravel and among mangroves (Kailola <em>et. al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>Maximum age recorded is 22 years (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Females are mature at 25–30 cm total length (2–3 years old), sexual transition occurs at a length of 55–75 cm, and the major spawning period in the Persian Gulf is from March to June (Heemstra and Randal 1993). In the southern Arabian Gulf it is March to May (Grandcourt <em>et. al</em>. 2003). In New Caledonia spawning aggregations form in late October to early December (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm. 2004).	eng
44674	population	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	<em>E. coioides</em> is so widely distributed that estimating overall population size, or changes in overall population size is near impossible. As a result little is known about the population. Minimum population doubling time is 1.4–4.4 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).	eng
44674	threats	Cornish, A. & Harmelin-Vivien, M., 2004	Overfishing and habitat destruction are the two most possible threats. Habitat destruction includes that of coral reefs (adult habitat) (Burke <em>et. al</em>. 2002, Hodgson and Liebeler 2002) and mangroves (juvenile habitat along with estuaries). <br/> <br/>Significant decreases in mangrove area are known to have occurred in SE Asia. In Malaysia, 12% was lost from 1980 to 1990, in the Philippines mangroves have decreased by 60% (4,000 km² originally to 1,600 km² in 1997), in Viet Nam mangroves decreased by 38% (4,000 km² to 2,525 km² in 1997), while in Thailand the loss has been 54% (5,500 km² in 1961 to 2,470 km² in 1997) (Spalding <em>et. al</em>. 1997). These figures represent a loss of some 7,445 km² of mangroves (about 9 % of the SE Asian total) while other countries like Indonesia, which has the largest total area of mangrove habitat in the world (42, 550 km²) are also known to have suffered losses (Spalding <em>et. al</em>. 1997). Such destruction of important habitat will have undoubtedly reduced populations of <em>E. coiodes</em>.	eng
44675	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Hawaii </span><br/>The Fishery Management Plan for Bottomfish and Seamount Groundfish Fisheries in the western Pacific Region (FMP) became effective on 27 August 1986. The FMP prohibits destructive fishing techniques, establishes a moratorium and implements a permit system for fishing for bottomfish in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the NWHI; it also establishes a limited access permit program for the Mau Zone, a management area in the NWHI with effect from 28 May 1999 (Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 2003).<br/> <br/>Hawaii Administrative Rule established June 1998 prohibits use or possession of nets, traps, trawls, or bottomfish longline in fishing for bottomfish including <em>H. quernus</em>; it establishes restricted fishing areas which prohibits fishing of this fish within such areas; and it also requires vessels to register with Department of Aquatic Resources (DLNR) to legally take and possess bottomfish species (DAR 2002).	eng
44675	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	Found in the Central Pacific and limited to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
44675	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>quernus</em> is a demersal fish occurring from 20–380 m. It occurs in coral reef and rocky areas. <br/> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>quernus</em> appear to be a protogynous hermaphrodite, changing sex from female to male at a large size. A study examining 133 individuals in 1978–1981 found 50% of females had reached sexual maturity by 57.5–62.5 cm while the smallest male was 75 cm and 100% of individuals above 95 cm were male (Everson 1992). The same survey found a skewed sex ratio as 120 of the samples were female and only 10 (8%) were male. <em>H. quernus</em> has a protracted spawning season that extends from January through June. Spawning reached a peak in April, and again in June (Everson 1992).	eng
44675	population	Cornish, A., 2004	A study of the population genetic structure in the Hawaiian archipelago indicates "populations of <em>H. quernus</em> may be in the order of at least ¾ of a million individuals" but inaccuracies in the model could result in large changes to this estimate and it should, therefore, be viewed with caution (Rivera <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Population doubling time is 1.4–4.5 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Population structure </span><br/>302 individuals of <em>H. quernus</em> were taken from ten sites throughout the Hawaiian archipelago in 1999–2001 at depths of 140–381 m. Examination of genetic diversity showed that that Gardner Island, situated about mid-way along the island chain had the greatest genetic diversity, and the second highest proportion on unique alleles. The northern-western (Mar/ N. Hampton through Pear and Hemes islands) and southern-eastern (Hawaii through Nihoa) extreme ends of the archipelago had genetic composition that was largely similar which may suggest the more diverse middle islands served as an ancestral source to the rest of the archipelago. As such, additional consideration should be given to preserving <em>H. quernus</em> stocks in the middle islands (Rivera <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
44675	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Overfishing is the most serious actual or potential threat.	eng
44676	distribution	Cornish, A. & Situ Yingyi, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus irroratus</span> is found only in the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) in the South Pacific. A single record from Minami Tori Shima Island off Japan appears to be an error (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
44676	habitat	Cornish, A. & Situ Yingyi, A., 2004	This fish is mainly caught between 20–50 m, but may go deeper to 100 m (C. Ponsonnet pers. comm. 2003). It reaches a size of 34 cm total length. <br/> <br/>No data appears to have been published on the biology of this species.	eng
44676	population	Cornish, A. & Situ Yingyi, A., 2004	From fisheries data, and discussions with local fishermen the Marquesan Grouper appears to be reasonably abundant between 20 and 50 m in all islands of the archipelago (C. Ponsonnet pers. comm. 2003).	eng
44676	threats	Cornish, A. & Situ Yingyi, A., 2004	The main threat is from overfishing but at this time the fishing pressure appears to be low enough to be sustainable, at least in the short-term, see justification above, and as long as exports do not begin. The species is unlikely to be threatened despite limited distribution because there is little pressure and it is generally beyond the reach of most current fishing activity.	eng
44677	conservation	Fennessy, S., 2004	Good protection in a 155 km long marine protected area (MPA) in South Africa. A minimum size limit of 400 mm TL applies, and a recreational bag limit of five fish per person per day (within that category of fish). Commercial fishing effort is restricted (number of permits is limited) and has recently been reduced. Fairly good compliance with regulations owing to an active conservation agency in KwaZulu-Natal. No bag or size limit restrictions in Mozambique.	eng
44677	distribution	Fennessy, S., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus albomarginatus</span> occurs along the east coast of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces to 33°S) and southern Mozambique (to 24°50'S). The species is relatively abundant only between 32°15'S and 24°50'S. The species has also been recorded from the southwest coast of India. See the assessment justification for details on extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.	eng
44677	habitat	Fennessy, S., 2004	Closely associated with reefs, mainly in water >30 m deep. There is very little evidence of spawning on exploited reefs in KwaZulu-Natal, possibly because of edge of range effects (Fennessy 2000), or unsuitable habitat. The species is a slow-growing, monandric protogynous hermaphrodite i.e., males are derived from functional females, and the sex ratio in KwaZulu-Natal is heavily female biased; it is not clear whether this is as a result of fishing pressure or because of edge of range effects on reproduction. In Mozambique, where fishing effort was light at time of sampling, the sex ratio was less biased (Fennessy 2000).	eng
44677	population	Fennessy, S., 2004	Not common in South African waters, probably more abundant in Mozambique. The South African population is assumed to be the same stock as in Mozambique.	eng
44677	threats	Fennessy, S., 2004	Over-fishing by small-scale commercial hook and line fishing in South Africa and Mozambique, and an industrial trap fishery in Mozambique poses a high threat.	eng
44678	conservation	Fennessy, S., 2004	Good protection in a 155 km long marine protected area (MPA) in South Africa, although <em>E. andersoni</em> is confined to the inshore (< <em>ca</em>. 200 m from the shore) non-coral reefs there, so suitable habitat in the MPA is restricted. A minimum size limit of 400 mm TL applies, soon to be increased to 500 mm. There is currently a recreational bag limit of five fish per person per day (within that category of fish), soon to become a bag limit of five for both recreational and commercial sectors. Commercial fishing effort is restricted (number of permits is limited) and has recently been reduced. Fairly good compliance with regulations owing to an active conservation agency in KwaZulu-Natal. No bag or size limit restrictions in Mozambique.	eng
44678	distribution	Fennessy, S., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus andersoni</span> occurs along the east coast of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces to 34°05'S), and southern Mozambique (to 24°50'S). Reports of this species occurring in Madagascar are dubious (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is relatively abundant only between 32°15'S and 24°50'S. See the assessment justification for details on extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.	eng
44678	habitat	Fennessy, S., 2004	Closely associated with shallow rocky reefs. Rarely recorded on coral reefs (Chater <em>et al</em>. 1993, Chater <em>et al</em>. 1995). Spawning does not occur south of 30o, and not all fish spawn every year (Fennessy 2000). There is some evidence that there are spawning-related increases in abundance (aggregations) during summer (January to March). The species is a relatively slow-growing, diandric protogynous hermaphrodite i.e., some males are derived from functional females, but some develop from the juvenile phase, so the sex ratio is not female biased as in monandric protogynous hermaphrodites (Fennessy 2000). Size/age at first maturity for females and males is similar. Tagging results indicate that there is a high degree of site fidelity (Bullen and Fennessy 2000).	eng
44678	population	Fennessy, S., 2004	Relatively common in South African waters, particularly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. The South African population is assumed to be the same stock as in Mozambique. The South African population is assumed to be larger because most of the Mozambican reefs are coral, and this is not a coral reef species.	eng
44678	threats	Fennessy, S., 2004	Over-fishing by commercial and recreational hook and line fishing are a moderate threat.	eng
44679	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	There is a recreational bag limit of four fish per day for <em>E. armatus</em> but no commercial or other restrictions (J. St John pers. comm. 2003).	eng
44679	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelides armatus</span> occurs in southeast Indian Ocean, where it is endemic to western Australia from Recherche Archipelago to Shark Bay (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, Prokop 2002).	eng
44679	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	"Inhabits coastal reefs of south-western Australia, where it is commonly encountered by both anglers and divers" (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). "Often found around bommies and shallow reefs" ( Prokop 2002). "An inquisitive species, it readily approaches divers, but is also sighted resting on the bottom" (Hutchins and Swainston 1986). Grows to a maximum length of 56 cm (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Females can spawn from 231 mm, at the age of 3, with 50% mature at 260 mm. Males can spawn from 272 mm, at the age of 4, with 50% mature at 360 mm (Eastman 2001). <br/> <br/>There is no evidence that this species forms spawning aggregations (J. St. John, pers. comm. 2003), as do some other large groupers, a trait that increases vulnerability to overexploitation.	eng
44679	population	Cornish, A., 2004	"A relatively common inshore species" (Prokop 2002). No other information is available.	eng
44679	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Overfishing is the only threat known at present.	eng
44680	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	All waters around the Galápagos Islands are part of the Galapágos Marine Reserve and industrial fishing is prohibited. The reserve is zoned and artisanal fishing is allowed in some areas. However, management is difficult and illegal fishing is common (F. Nicolaides, pers. comm., 2003).	eng
44680	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus cifuentesi</span> is an eastern Pacific species found only in the Galápagos Islands, Isla del Cocos (Costa Rica), and off the coast of Costa Rica (Heemstra and Randall 1993), as well as the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico (M. Craig pers. comm.), and a single record (148 mm SL and 78 g) from a market in Ecuador (Bearez and Jimenez Prado 2003). <br/><br/>This assessment is for the Galápagos Islands subpopulation only.	eng
44680	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	Depth range from 40–120 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). Size and/or age of sexual maturation is not known.	eng
44680	population	Cornish, A., 2004	As the Galápagos Islands lie roughly 1,000 km off the coast of Costa Rica, the only other confirmed location for this grouper, it is highly likely there are at least two subpopulations, with minimal gene flow between them. This means that the subpopulation in the Galápagos is unlikely to receive substantial larvae from elsewhere that could replenish Galapágos stocks, should the population there be greatly reduced.	eng
44680	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Overfishing is the main threat.	eng
44681	conservation	Garcia-Moliner & G., Eklund, A.-M., 2004	In July 1985, Florida enacted an 18-inch (total length) minimum size for groupers. The Florida Marine Fisheries Commission set a State recreational bag limit of five groupers per person per day, with an off-the-water possession limit of ten per person, for any combination of groupers (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). Red Grouper landings by commercial fishermen increased slightly in that year. Length frequencies of Red Grouper sampled from the commercial harvest provide little evidence that the minimum size had any significant conservation effect on the commercial harvest. Commercial landings have shown a gradual decline since a current day peak in 1992 (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). For recreational harvest, available data suggest an initial decline from Florida State territorial seas after the 18-inch minimum size went into effect; however, the total recreational harvest was little affected by this regulation (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>In 1990, the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council (GFMFC) established conservation measures for groupers, including a 20-inch minimum size and a 9.2  million pound (total weight) commercial quota for the shallow water groupers (which included Red Grouper) occurring in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico under GFMFC jurisdiction. The regulations accounted for, at least in part, a 70% decline in the recreational harvest by number and a 41% decline by weight from the average of the two preceding years. Commercial harvest declined by 21%t in 1990 from the two prior years. However, the decline could have been less than 15% if the fishery had not been closed before the quota had been reached (Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999). The quota was raised to 9.8 million pounds in 1992, after a Red Grouper stock assessment indicated that the Red Grouper Spawning Potential Ratio was substantially above the Council’s minimum target of 20%, and the Council concluded that the increased quota would not materially impinge on the long-term viability of the Red Grouper stock. <br/> <br/>A regulatory amendment implemented in 2000 prohibited commercial sale of Red Grouper each year from February 15 to March 15, but has shown little if any reduction in fishing mortality of groupers: on the contrary, increased fishing effort has occurred in the weeks before and after the closed season (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). <br/> <br/>Recently a ten year Red Grouper rebuilding plan to BMSY with a spawner-recruit steepness parameter of 0.7 has been proposed; the annual Acceptable Biological Catch (ABC) during the first three year interval (2003–2005) is 6.56 million pounds gutted weight, approximately a 9.5% reduction from the average commercial and recreational harvest during 1999–2001. The ABC for subsequent year intervals will be set following a future stock assessment by a regulatory amendment or plan amendment. The recreational bag limit has been proposed to change to two Red Grouper out of the five aggregate grouper bag limit per person, with a double bag limit allowed for persons on qualified ‘for-hire’ boats that are over 24 hours. This proposed change is expected to achieve a reduction in recreational harvest of 9%. Other proposed scenarios include a shallow-water grouper possession (trip) limit at 5,200 pounds gutted weight, reducing commercial shallow-water grouper quota to 8.8 million pounds gutted weight, and repealing the closed season from February 15 to March 15 (NMFS and GMFMC 2003). <br/> <br/>Red Grouper catch is managed in Yucatan, Mexico, where there is a minimum catch size of 30 cm TL; a quota of 1,200 mt per year for Cuban fleets since 1995 (Burgos and Defeo 2004); and a closed season from February 15 to March 15 during 2003 and from January 15 to February 15 during 2004 (DOF 2003, 2004). However, it is difficult to manage the fishery in Mexico because of different fleets there (Cuban and Mexican) (Arreguin-Sanchez<em>et al</em>. 1996, Moreno <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
44681	distribution	Garcia-Moliner & G., Eklund, A.-M., 2004	Western Atlantic: North Carolina, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Bermuda; strays north to Massachusetts (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). (Follow the link below to see a distribution map).	eng
44681	habitat	Garcia-Moliner & G., Eklund, A.-M., 2004	Juveniles of 3 to 20 cm standard length are occasionally found on shallow seagrass beds and inshore reefs. Larger juveniles (20 to 40 cm standard length) are commonly found in crevices and under ledges on rocky reef bottoms in depth of 5 to 25 m. At 40 to 50 cm standard length and to 4 to 6 years of age, females become mature and begin to migrate to deeper water (50 to 300 m) where they also occur over sandy or mud bottom (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Maximum reported total length was 125 cm. Maximum age 25 years. The first observation of 100% mature female was made at fish age four and total length of 450–499 mm (five fish). The next observation of 100% maturity was made of fish age five and total length of 400–449 mm (two fish). The majority of Red Grouper observed in the fishery range from approximately age five to eight years. Size and age of sexual transition are 301–676 mm SL and 3–13 years respectively. The generation time of this species is estimated to be between 8 and 11 years. The species is a protogynous hermaphrodite and, although not demonstrated to be an aggregation spawner, may be caught in greater numbers during the reproductive season (Moe 1969, Arreguin-Sanchez and Pitcher 1999, Schirripa <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
44681	population	Garcia-Moliner & G., Eklund, A.-M., 2004	The Red Grouper is a continental species only rarely caught in the West Indies. Major fisheries for this species are in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Moe 1969), Campeche Bank (Solis 1970), Isla Margarita (Cervigon 1966) and off Brazil (Stevenson 1981). It is the most abundant grouper (along with the Gag, <em>Mycteroperca microlepis</em>) in West Florida commercial catches (Bullock and Smith 1991); frequently caught in the Florida Middle Grounds, eastern Gulf of Mexico (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1975). Found, but not common, in Aruba. Not reported from Bonaire, Curacao, St. Martin, St. Eustatius, and Saba (Nagelkerken 1981). Rare in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Randall 1961) and Puerto Rico (G. Garcia-Moliner, pers. comm.).	eng
44681	threats	Garcia-Moliner & G., Eklund, A.-M., 2004	Overfishing is the main threat. All estimates, based on population dynamics models with implicit or explicit stock-recruitment relationships imposed, indicate that stocks are overfished in many areas.	eng
44682	conservation	Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	A tag-and-release project was initiated in 1996 to study spawning aggregation size and site fidelity (Matos and Posada 1998). <br/> <br/>A series of conservation strategies for spawning aggregations in the Caribbean region is proposed. They include incorporation of known spawning aggregation sites into planning programs for Marine Protected Areas, development and implementation of monitoring and management programmes (Luckhurst 2003).	eng
44682	distribution	Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	Western Atlantic: south Florida, Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Venezuela, and probably throughout the Caribbean to Brazil (FishBase 2003). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown.	eng
44682	habitat	Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	It occurs in coral reefs and rocky areas and is an ambush predator (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).  Spawning aggregations of several hundreds of fish take place approximately one week following each full moon during the months of January to April at the east of Vieques Island, Puerto Rico (Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Tiger Grouper becomes sexually mature female between 25?35 cm total length (Sadovy <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
44682	population	Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	The population is not likely to be fragmented and population size cannot be deduced from data available. Minimum population doubling time is 4.5?14 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).	eng
44682	threats	Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	Overfishing and habitat destruction are the two most possible threats.	eng
44683	conservation	Brule, T. & Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	<strong>The Caribbean region</strong> <br/>A series of conservation strategies is proposed to protect the spawning aggregations in the Caribbean region, this includes incorporating known spawning aggregation sites into planning programmes, developing and implementing monitoring programmes, imposing gear restrictions (Luckhurst 2003). The Gramanic Bank area south of St. Thomas has been proposed as a seasonal area closure to protect Yellowfin Grouper. <br/> <br/>No known restrictions on trade in this species are imposed in any Caribbean countries. <br/> <br/><strong>Mexico</strong> <br/>Regulations for all groupers caught on the Campeche Bank (including <em>M. venenosa</em>) include license and a minimum legal total length of 30 cm, a closed season from January 15 to February 15 and an annual catch quota of 1,200 mt for the Cuban fleet. (SEMARNAP 2000).	eng
44683	distribution	Brule, T. & Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mycteroperca venenosa</span> has a rather continuous distribution along the east coast of Central America within the Caribbean and along the east coast of South America, south to Sao Paulo (Brazil), with only an interruption near the exit of the Amazon River. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are unknown.	eng
44683	habitat	Brule, T. & Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	Juveniles occur in shallow turtle grass beds; adults are usually found on rocky and coral reefs in depths of 2 to 137 m (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003). <br/> <br/>Spawning takes place at Bermuda in July, in the Florida Keys during March (at least formerly but not confirmed recently), and on the Florida Middle Ground in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from March to August (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). In Cuba, Yellowfin Grouper spawns during winter and spring with peaks spawning in January and during April-May (García-Cagide and García 1996). Spawning takes place south of St. Thomas (Grammanic Bank) February through April with peaks during the full month in March.	eng
44683	population	Brule, T. & Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	Populations in the Caribbean area are suggested to be large historically (Heemstra and Randall 1993), although current population size may be considerably reduced as inferred from the landings of it in the U.S. and territories and the status of its spawning aggregations. Population doubling time: 4.5–14 years (<a href="www.fishbase.org">FishBase</a> 2003).	eng
44683	threats	Brule, T. & Garcia-Moliner, G., 2004	Most likely threats are overfishing and habitat destruction. Extremely vulnerable during spawning aggregations.	eng
44684	conservation	Cornish, A. & Kiwi, L.K., 2004	Conservation action is mainly taken in the Great Barrier Reef. The minimum legal size limit of 38 cm TL is implemented (QFMA 1999) to prevent recruitment overfishing. Three nine-day closures during October–December (timed to coincide with Coral Trout spawning) are in place for the protection of fish spawning aggregations in the Great Barrier Reef (Turnbull and Samoilys 1997, Russell 2003, fishery authority website given in citations). <br/> <br/>Around 20% of the reefs of the GBR are closed to fishing, and this is set to increase (GBRMPA web site). <br/> <br/>Although there are many marine parks in Japan, no protected areas exist to protect groupers (A. Nakazono, pers. comm., 2003).	eng
44684	distribution	Cornish, A. & Kiwi, L.K., 2004	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plectropomus leopardus</span> is found mainly in the western Pacific from southern Japan to Australia (Queensland and Western Australia), and eastward to the Caroline Islands and Fiji. <br/><br/>The species aggregates for spawning to form a group of around 60 to 130 in Australia (Samoilys 1997), 20 to 30 in eastern Malaysia (T. Daw pers. comm. 2003). Five spawning sites are known from Sabah, Malayasia (SCRFA 2003). Of these, four were still present in 2001/2002 while the fifth had disappeared reportedly due to destruction of the reef from cyanide fishing.<br/><br/>In Fiji, small groupings of the species are found regularly in certain seasons and the groupings tend to be somewhat dispersed particularly along the outer reef edge and well developed inner reefs. Fishers report that they tend to catch more of this fish when it has eggs (SCRFA 2003).	eng
44684	habitat	Cornish, A. & Kiwi, L.K., 2004	Larvae are pelagic (Kailola <em>et al</em>. 1993); juveniles live in demersal shallow water in reef habitats, especially around coral rubble (Doherty <em>et al</em>. 1994), whereas adults inhabit coral reefs (Kailola <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/> <br/>Reproductive Biology <br/>Estimates for average size at first reproduction of the fish ranges from 20–25 cm FL (Samoilys 2000) to 32–36 cm FL depending on differing histological criteria (Ferreira 1995). Aggregations occur around new moon (Samoilys 1997) or the full moon (J. Pet, pers. comm.: Komodo National Park, Indonesia) depending on location. In the Cairns area of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, aggregations are found from September to November (Samoilys 1997). An increase in fish density of up to 19 fold (maximum density: 75 fish/1,000 m²).can occur above the level recorded outside the aggregation period (average non-aggregation density: 6.5 fish/1,000 m²). <br/> <br/>Aggregations occur around new moon from September to November (Samoilys 1997). An increase in fish density of up to 19 fold (maximum density: 75 fish/1,000  m²) can occur above the level recorded outside the aggregation period (average non-aggregation density: 6.5 fish/1,000 m². It is suggested that <em>P. leopardus</em> depends on aggregations sites on their home reef for reproductive activities (Zelle 1998).	eng
44684	population	Cornish, A. & Kiwi, L.K., 2004	Population estimates by mark-capture data ranges from 1,890 to 2,134 fish for the reef area around Lizard Island (750,966 m²), equivalent to 2.6 fish 1,000 m², whereas it is about 3,988 (5.3 fish 1,000 m²) when estimated by Underwater Visual Census (Zeller and Russ 2000, Samoilys and Carlos 2001). On the Great Barrier Reef, <em>P. leopardus</em> is considered naturally common with densities ranging from 3.5 to 9.0 fish 1,000 m² (Ayling <em>et al</em>. 2000). In contrast the species is relatively uncommon in Solomon Islands, Fiji and Papua Guinea (maximum densities of two fish 1,000 m², but generally less than one fish 1,000 m² (Samoilys <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
44684	threats	Cornish, A. & Kiwi, L.K., 2004	Overfishing is probably the main threat to the species. <br/> <br/>One major spawning aggregation of <em>P. leopardus</em> disappeared on the Great Barrier Reef probably due to targeted fishing (Samoilys <em>et al</em>. 2001). Catch rates have declined in several areas in the last decade, most notably after introduction of the live reef food fish trade. <br/> <br/>In some areas in the Philippines, the species forms a single species fishery for the live reef fish export market. Catch and export figures reveal a fishery that was once large but has declined rapidly (43% over four years), average fish size has declined, catch rates appear low, and mortality estimates are high (Padilla <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition,  fisher surveys found that more fish were taken when they had eggs, and fish were noted by divers to be in clusters (SCRFA 2003); the fishery also targets immature fish when most mature size fish have gone and often grows out the immature fish to a larger, market, size in floating net pens – referred to as ‘mariculture’. <br/> <br/>Aggregation sites are sometimes particularly targeted by fishers and enable elevated catch rates when fish are aggregated during reproduction.	eng
44685	conservation	Cornish, A., 2004	There are not known to be any fishing restrictions, nor no-take marine reserves within the range of this species. However, at some places in the Japan Sea, the spawning adult fish are protected by local divers to attract tourist divers (A. Nakazono, pers. comm., 2003).	eng
44685	distribution	Cornish, A., 2004	Recorded from the main islands of Japan, the Korean Penninsula and South China Sea including China (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984) but not Taiwan (<a href="http://fishdb.sinica.edu.tw/">The Fish Database of Taiwan</a>). Extent of distribution along the coast of mainland China is not clear but it is known from islands close to Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>In Japan <em>S. reticulatus</em> inhabits cooler waters and is found in the Japan Sea and Seto Inland Sea (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). Reported occurrence in the Ogasawara Islands is in doubt (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1997). Given that this is a cold water species and is rare in subtropical Hong Kong, the latter probably represents the southern limit for the species along the coast of mainland China.	eng
44685	habitat	Cornish, A., 2004	Inhabits rocky reefs and feeds on shellfish and crustaceans (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). Spawning in large aquaria has been observed; the strongest male drove away all other males and then rose rapidly to the surface with a single female where spawning occurred (Nishiguchi and Okuno 1965).	eng
44685	population	Cornish, A., 2004	Almost nothing is known about the abundance of the Asian sheepshead wrasse. It is "commonly found" in the Japan Sea and Seto Inland Sea (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975) and is rare in the vicinity of Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
44685	threats	Cornish, A., 2004	Overfishing is likely to be the major threat to this species. The extent of this threat is not known, primarily as this species only appears to be targeted as part of a mixed reef fishery and, therefore, little research has been done on this species individually.	eng
44686	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> occurs in some protected areas in the Galápagos.<br/><br/>The geographical dispersal of <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is very limited and its biological information is virtually unknown. More information on its present abundance, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended before it disappears due to unsustainable exploitation.	eng
44686	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is an eastern Pacific species found only in the Galápagos Islands, Isla del Cocos (Costa Rica), and off the coast of Costa Rica (Heemstra and Randall 1993), as well as the Gulf of Tehuantepec (Mexico) (M. Craig pers. comm.) and a single record (148 mm SL and 78 g) from a market in Ecuador (Bearez and Jimenez Prado 2003).	eng
44686	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is found on rocky reefs usually in deeper waters (40 to 120 m). <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> reaches about 100 cm TL in Galápagos (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
44686	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is common but declining in the Galapagos and rare elsewhere in its range. It is more common in the northern Galapagos.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/><em>Galápagos</em><br/>Annual landings of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> decreased from the peak at 14.0 tonnes in 1998 to an average of 2.7 tonnes annually from 2000 to 2003 (Nicolaides <em>et al</em>. 2002, Murillo <em>et al</em>. 2002) (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><strong>Table 1</strong>: The volume (in tonnes of live weight) of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> in the Marine Reserve in Galápagos between 1997 and 2001.<br/><strong>Table 2</strong>: The number, amount (in kg) and percentage of <em>E. cifuentesi</em> landed in the three main ports in Galápagos in 2003.	eng
44686	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	The primary threat to <em>Epinephelus cifuentesi</em> is overfishing, particularly in the Galápagos Islands where it was the second most commonly-landed species. At present the fisheries have shifted effort to sea cucumbers, however, it may possibly shift back to this species in the future.	eng
44687	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. Further investigation is needed into the systematic status of the savanna form.	eng
44687	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is found throughout much of western Africa from Senegal east to Cameroon, with a number of additional records further east and south, from Gabon, Congo, western Angola, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo/Uganda border area, northwestern and eastern Tanzania, and southeastern Kenya. There are also records from Namibia and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo that need to be verified. It has been found on Bioko Island, but not so far in mainland Equatorial Guinea.	eng
44687	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species has been recorded from a range of habitats; it is generally found in lowland tropical forest (including secondary and riverine forest), but has been recorded from savanna in parts of its range (e.g.. Kenya). Colonies typically roost in caves, but in some instances may be found roosting in dense vegetation (Happold 1987).	eng
44687	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Numbers of animals in roosts ranges from the hundreds, to up to tens of thousands in the savanna form of coastal Kenya.	eng
44687	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This widespread species is locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss (significant deforestation), cave disturbance, and subsistence hunting for food.	eng
44689	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
44689	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
44689	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	This species is found in lowland tropical moist forest species (both primary and secondary), and can be observed in modified habitats such as plantations. It roosts in caves, lava tubes, water extraction tubes and similar structures.	eng
44689	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	It is not an uncommon species and can be found roosting in groups of 100 or fewer individuals.	eng
44689	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Juste, J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
44692	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species East African range, it seems likely that it is present within some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and potential threats to this species.	eng
44692	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This little known East African species is present in Kenya, southwestern Ethiopia, southeastern Sudan and is possibly present in adjacent Uganda, although this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
44692	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	This species seems to be found in dry savanna, where it is associated with dry stony areas close to water holes. Animals have a specialised flat head for getting into crevices. It is generally found roosting singly or in small colonies.	eng
44692	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
44692	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Fahr, J., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species.	eng
44693	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D., Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is present in several protected areas in Namibia and Angola. In South Africa it has been reported from the protected Algeria forestry station. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
44693	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D., Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is found in southern Africa, ranging along the west coast from the Angola and Namibia border area, south into southern South Africa, and from here into northeastern South Africa, Zimbabwe, and western Mozambique. It is found between 100 m and 2,000 m asl.	eng
44693	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D., Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	All specimens from the southern Africa subregion were taken in rock areas and, apart from a plentiful food supply, the availability of narrow rock fissures and crevices to roost in during the day appears to be among their essential habitat requirements (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). Absent from north-west Zimbabwe where habitat is thought to be suitable. Roosts in crevices, exfoliated rock, sandstones and granite.	eng
44693	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D., Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This is a locally common species. It is generally found in small numbers, with colonies thought to be tens of animals rather than hundreds.	eng
44693	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D., Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of its range it is believed to be threatened by considerable habitat change resulting from deforestation.	eng
44694	conservation	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	The species is listed on CITES Appendix II, and Schedule I, Part I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is known to occur in numerous protected areas, including: Aaralam Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Sanctuary, Chimmony Sanctuary, Chinnar Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Idukki Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakkad Sanctuary, Mudumalai Sanctuary, Mukurthi National Park, Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Peechi Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Periyar National Park, Periyar Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park, Thattekadu Sanctuary, Wayanad Sanctuary (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The following are recommended areas of research: taxonomy, life history, survey studies, and ecology. The following are recommended management actions: habitat management, monitoring, public education, poaching control measures, Population and Habitat Viability Assessment, and prevention of conversion of forest areas to private lands, prevention of conversion of natural private forests, coffee and cardamom plantations into tea plantations (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003; M. Singh pers. comm.)	eng
44694	distribution	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs only in the Western Ghats in southwestern India (Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu). It is found, rather unevenly, in the hill country of the Western Ghats from the Aramboli Pass (at 8°16’N near the southern tip of India) north to Srimangala (12°01’N, 75°58’E) (Groves 2001).	eng
44694	habitat	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous forests, montane evergreen forests and in riparian forests in lower altitudes in some places (e.g. Megamalai and Anamalai) (Kurup 1979; Singh <em>et al.</em> 1997). It ranges from 300 to 2,000 m in elevation (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is folivorous, but will also eat flowers, buds, seeds, bark, stems, insects, and earth (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977; Poirier 1969; Oates <em>et al</em>. 1979); it has been reported to be a facultative frugivore (Sushma and Singh 2006). It has also been reported to forage for cultivated cabbage, potatoes, and cauliflower and ornamental garden poppies (Poirier 1969). It is arboreal, diurnal, and typically occurs in uni-male groups (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), usually with nine or ten animals in a group.	eng
44694	population	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	Molur <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimate a total population of less than 20,000 (<10,000 mature) individuals, based on studies in a few areas (Karnataka, M. Singh pers. comm.; Kerala, S. Ram ongoing study; Tamil Nadu, M. Singh and A. Kumar pers. comm.) and extrapolated to the rest of its distribution. After the introduction of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act in 1972, the population has increased (Kurup 1979), and this trend was seen until the early 1990s. The population since then has been relatively stable (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).	eng
44694	threats	Singh, M., Kumar, A. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is hunted for its skin, which is used for making drums, as well as for other parts of the body, which are used for meat as well as in traditional “medicine” (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). Hunting has decreased in recent years due to better protection and NGO activities through community participation (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/>According to Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003), past and present threats include habitat loss due to crop plantations, mining, dams, fragmentation, human settlement, hunting, road kills, deliberate fires, storms/flooding, landslides, and local trade for pets. Although fragmentation and habitat loss are threats, this species is not affected as much as lion-tailed macaques (M. Singh pers. comm.). They are better dispersers and have better colonization ability (A. Kumar pers. comm.).	eng
44695	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
44695	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This little known African bat has been recorded from southern Somalia, south Ethiopia and from northern Cameroon, close the border with Nigeria. It is a low elevation species.	eng
44695	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Animals have been recorded in riverine and riparian woodland in the Duba valley of Somalia and Benue in Cameroon. The roosting sites of this species is not known.	eng
44695	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known, and only a few specimens have ever been collected. It was last recorded in the 1980s, presumably this is a consequence of limited survey effort within the species known range.	eng
44695	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44696	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The collection locality appears to be within Zinave National Park, Mozambique. Further studies are needed to better determine the geographic range, natural history and possible threats to this poorly known bat.	eng
44696	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This little known bat is known only from the type locality of "the south bank of the Save River, 212 km SSW Beira, Mozambique" (Dalquest, 1965).	eng
44696	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species was collected from a roost site in a large baobab tree, presumably in dry savanna woodland.	eng
44696	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It is known only from the type series of two animals.	eng
44696	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Jacobs, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44697	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed fro this widespread and adaptable species as a whole.	eng
44697	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This widespread southern African species is distributed from southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and southern Tanzania, to the eastern coastline of South Africa. It ranges from eastern Angola and northern Botswana to the southeastern African coastline. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,185 m asl, although it has mostly been collected between 500 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
44697	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is generally associated with dry savanna and riverine forest with fruit-bearing trees. Populations exhibit considerable movements in search of food, and may come into towns and feed on crops and fruit trees. Colonies often roost under the canopy of trees, in thick foliage.	eng
44697	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	It is a quite common species, sometimes forming loose colonies of hundreds of bats.	eng
44697	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some populations may be impacted by general persecution as crop pests.	eng
44698	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect the habitat of subspecies such as <em>Lissonycteris angolensis goliath</em> and <em>L. a. petraea</em>.	eng
44698	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species is widely distributed at elevations ranging from sea level to 4,000 m asl, in West Africa, Central Africa and East Africa, with some distinct populations present within southern Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in the west, through most of West Africa to Cameroon; from here it ranges southwards into Congo, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, and eastwards into Central African Republic, southern Sudan, eastern and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda and Burundi. In East Africa it is distributed from Ethiopia in the north through Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In southern Africa the species is present in northern Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The nominate subspecies <em>Lissonycteris angolensis angolensis</em> has been recorded from northwestern Angola, central and southern Cameroon, Central African Republic, central Congo, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko, Mbini), Gabon, eastern Nigeria, and northwestern and southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo; the subspecies <em>L. a. goliath</em> is known from four localities in south-east Africa (the border area of Mozambique and  Zambia) between sea level and 1,800 m asl; <em>L. a. petraea</em> is found only in Ethiopia, where it has been recorded from six localities between 1,190 and 2,600 m asl; <em>L. a. ruwenzorii</em> has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, southern Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, northeastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia and Zimbabwe; <em>L. a. smithi</em> is distributed in the lowlands of western Africa, where its distribution follows the savanna and forest zone, it is found up to 1,400 m asl on Mount Nimba.	eng
44698	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	Populations of this species have been recorded from a diverse range of habitats, including montane tropical forest, lowland tropical moist forest, Zambezian miombo woodland, Sudanian woodland, moist savanna and mosaics of these habitats with grassland. Groups of this species, generally consisting of six to eight animals, can be most often found roosting at cave entrances and amongst dense vegetation (including under palm leaves). Members of the subspecies <em>Lissonycteris angolensis goliath</em> have been recorded from mid-altitude and afromontane forest, and is probably associated with caves as roost sites; <em>L. a. petraea</em> is present in evergreen and semi-evergreen bush land, and afromontane vegetation, it too may be associated with caves; <em>L. a. ruwenzorii</em> has been recorded from forest clearings and orchards; <em>L. a. smithi</em> is found in savanna and lowland forest, and is considered fairly adaptable to habitat modification.	eng
44698	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	This species can be common in some localities. Some subspecies, such as <em>Lissonycteris angolensis petraea</em>, are known from few specimens.	eng
44698	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Bergmans, W., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. Some subspecies, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lissonycteris angolensis  goliath</span> may be threatened by loss of habitat resulting from logging operations, and disturbance of cave roosting sites. It is possible that some populations of this species are threatened by over harvesting for subsistence food.	eng
44703	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	This species is listed in CITES – Appendix I<em></em>.<br/><br/>The survival of the Large-antlered Muntjac depends on the viability of populations within protected areas, many of which (particularly in Lao PDR) are currently potentially highly suitable for their species due to their typically large size (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; see also Timmins and Duckworth 1999; Timmins and Duckworth in press). Although Large-antlered Muntjac populations within protected areas face unrestrained hunting, populations outside protected areas are likely to be faring even less well. The limited success to date for protected areas is a reflection of the time it takes to form an effectively functioning system (see threats), rather than a demonstration that the species would better be conserved outside them. Actions of primary importance include the stemming of further habitat loss at lower altitudes, and most importantly controls on hunting (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The single most important conservation measure for the Large-antlered Muntjac is to maintain conservation support for management of the Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, and to help strengthen protection activities there, especially through building technical capacity. Other important protected areas in which to develop management are potentially Nam Kading NPA, as it is already the site of an externally funded protected area management project. A protected area management project is in its infancy in Nakai-Nam Theun NPA, and although well funded for the long-term, the project faces significant challenges, primarily due to low technical capacity and government policy which favours tangible aspects of rural development (road building, plantation agriculture, etc.) over what is perceived as ‘wildlife conservation’ but which should better be seen as securing the protein base and ecologically functioning forests in the interests of the nation and, notably, of subsistence-level rural communities (see below). Few other protected areas within the Lao or Viet Namese range of the species currently have more than paper management. Conservation management needs much wider recognition of the value of lower-altitude forests in protected areas throughout the species’s range, even though (and in fact because) these are generally degraded and from a forestry perspective seem of low importance (see Threats).<br/><br/>Conservation area management in all protected areas within the species’s range must address the issues of how customary hunting by local people can be continued without serious long-term declines in wildlife. The latter is a precondition for the former: customary hunting will have to stop when wildlife stocks become ecologically extinct. The magnitude of difficulty of this balancing act is often underestimated, through an uncritical acceptance of the fact (in any case, disputable, when status of rhinoceroses in South-east Asia and a multitude of species in south-central China is considered) that before ‘international’ conservation principles and practice these species did not become extinct under the custodianship of customary hunting. This is a flawed comparison because in the intervening period human populations have exploded; much wildlife habitat has been lost to other land uses; modern weapons allow far more effective harvest of wildlife than did any customary techniques; and modern connectivity and urban affluence have generated a limitless market for wild meat. In sum, many more people depend on a far smaller area than before, and a new, infinite market can be met using hunting methods which previously did not exist. This means that there is <em>no</em> possibility that unfettered ‘customary’ hunting can conserve ungulates in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, even if ‘customary hunting’ could be defined in a modern context. Greater recognition is also urgent that the two groups that will chiefly bear the damage of current heavy hunting are, self-evidently, the wildlife and, perhaps paradoxically, the local communities: after the current short-term bonanza is over, local people who have not bought their way out of subsistence (and current trends suggest this will be a large proportion of them: most of the financial benefits of wildlife trade flow to already-urbanised traders and other adventives) will lose this income source and most of their non-fish protein. Instead of the currently sterile polarisation within conservation implementing agencies of ‘local people vs wildlife’, which would better be termed ‘short-term human interest vs long-term human interest’, universal recognition that wild mammals are fundamental to rural poverty alleviation is needed (Krahn and Johnson 2007). Inviolate non-hunting core areas may be the most important tool in meeting this challenge. Even though they can legally be established in protected areas in both countries, there has been minimal progress in this regard. Designation and outlining of core areas needs to flow from biologically sound analyses of population needs of species such as the Large-antlered Muntjac, to prevent core areas too small to sustain off-take in surrounding hunting zones or even survival within the core zones themselves. It is important that core areas are not selected starting from the assumption that they will be the areas traditionally not part of local community hunting areas: in many protected areas, these will be remote high-altitude terrain, and thus largely unsuitable for Large-antlered Muntjac. There is the danger that this occurs through the well-meaning intention, to minimise disruption to already marginalized communities. Instead, a longer-term viewpoint is necessary, that if core areas do not succeed in protecting populations of favoured quarry mammals, serious dietary and resource-flow disruption to these same communities is inevitable. It is already happening in some parts of Lao PDR (Krahn and Johnson 2007) and, presumably, Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Surveys for the Large-antlered Muntjac (a combination of searches for evidence in local villages followed by camera-trapping) in Viet Namese portions of the Southern Annamites, especially Lam Dong Province, are needed, and on the basis of results, site-based conservation interventions may be warranted. The same may be true for yet-to-be identified areas of the southern Central Annamites. The weak understanding of Large-antlered Muntjac’s habitat use means that any indirect means (e.g. through habitat cover) to propose key sites for conservation intervention may simply overlook not just the best, but even any plausibly sensible, areas to select.<br/><br/>The Cambodian population, if extant, may be covered partly by the one or more protected areas (Phnom Nam Lyr WS; Mondulkiri Protection Forest; Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area), other parts of it might, however, occur outside these areas. There are, however, no serious protection activities within its presumed national range. Camera-trapping surveys are warranted, and on the basis of results localised species-specific conservation interventions might be appropriate.	eng
44703	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The large-antlered muntjac is only known from the Annamite mountain chain and associated hill ranges of Lao PDR, Viet Nam and, marginally, eastern Cambodia. All current records from Cambodia, like most from Lao PDR and Viet Nam, are trophy antlers held by local hunters (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Large-antlered Muntjac do not inhabit the northern highlands of Lao PDR or Viet Nam, nor the Mekong plain. Its distribution and status in Lao PDR was reviewed by Timmins <em>et al</em>. (1998), but no comparable compilation is available for Viet Nam. There have been no significant extensions of known Lao range since this collation. <br/><br/>In neither Lao PDR nor Viet Nam is there any marked discontinuity in landforms between the Annamite range and the northern highlands. Large-antlered Muntjac seems not to extend into the latter region as defined in Baltzer <em>et al</em>. (2001). Its trophies have been reported furthest to the north-east from the Pu Huong Nature Reserve, Nghe An province (Cao Tien Trung and A. Grieser Johns pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2008). Searches further north in Viet Nam have not found the species (e.g. Le Trong Trai <em>et al</em>. 1999c; Le Trong Trai and Do Tuoc pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins in the 1990s). The most northerly evidence in the main Annamite spine is from Pu Mat Nature Reserve, Nghe An Province, on the Viet Namese side and from southern Bolikhamxai on the Lao side, with presence also to the west in southern Nam Kading National Protected Area (NPA) (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; SFNC 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In Lao PDR, the species might yet be found as far north as southern Xiangkhouang Province and Xaisomboun Special Administrative Zone, which remain largely unsurveyed, as does most of intervening northern Bolikhamxai Province.<br/><br/>South of southern Bolikhamxai Province and southern Nam Kading NPA in Lao PDR, the Large-antlered Muntjac occurs in the Annamites, particularly Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and the Nakai plateau, and outlying hill ranges including the foothills in and around Phou Xang He NPA, Xe Bang-Nouan NPA and Dong Phou Vieng NPA, the Lao–Viet Namese border area in the region of Hin Namno NPA, and the main body of the central Annamites in Xe Sap NPA, the Dakchung Plateau and Dong Ampham NPA (Schaller and Vrba 1996, Davidson <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Steinmetz 1998; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>In Viet Nam, south of Pu Mat Nature Reserve, the Large-antlered Muntjac has been recorded in several Annamite sites including Vu Quang Nature Reserve, Ha Tinh Province (Dawson and Do Tuoc 1997; Eve <em>et al</em>. 2001: 45 and 122). From Vu Quang NR southwards, there are, as in Lao PDR, sporadic records of trophies, but little other information save for anecdotal reports of the species’s scarcity (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Le Trong Trai and Richardson 1999; Le Trong Trai <em>et al</em>. 1999a, 1999b, 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; Le Manh Hung <em>et al</em>. 2002; Tua Tien Hue Province Forest Protection Department; Tua Tien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces: B. Long; Kon Plong area, Kontum Province: Do Tuoc; A Loui District, Quang Nam Province and Kon Cha Rang NR area, Gia Lai province: Le Trong Trai; all pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). In the mid 1990s the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute and the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources obtained two and three, respectively, freshly hunted animals from the Lam Ha District, Lam Dong Province in the Southern Annamites (a region often referred to as the Langbian or Dalat Plateau), which they mounted as specimens for the respective institutions (Do Tuoc and Pham Trong Anh pers. comm. to RJT). The Da Lat Biology Institute in Lam Dong in October 1995 held 19 <em>M. vuquangensis</em>, reportedly mostly from some or all of the districts of Lac Duong, Di Linh, Bao Loc and Lam Ha (Pham Trong Anh <em>et al</em>. 1996). This area is also one of the few with reasonable historical evidence for Large-antlered Muntjac (Millet 1930; Bauer 1997). No published recent survey has determined the conservation status of the Large-antlered Muntjac in this area, and its southern limit remains poorly known.<br/><br/>In Cambodia, the Large-antlered Muntjac is known only through trophy antlers seen in villages and markets of the <em>Mondulkiri</em> plateau (Desai and Lic 1996; Timmins and Ou 2001; Walston 2001). It is probably very localised: extensive camera-trapping at low elevations on the southern slope in Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area has not detected the species (J.L. Walston and T.D. Evans pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins based on WCS unpublished data), and at higher elevations closed canopy semi-evergreen forest forms a mosaic with deciduous forests, savanna and grassland; the latter are believed to be unsuitable for the species (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Slight doubt over provenance of trophies in Mondulkiri reflects the heavy trade with Viet Nam (albeit mostly to Viet Nam from Cambodia) and lack of influence on hunters’ movements of the international border. On ecological grounds there seems little question that this muntjac should occur in Cambodia, although it may already have been hunted out.	eng
44703	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The habitat preferences of the Large-antlered Muntjac remain unclear. Its global distribution is similar to better-understood species such as Crested Argus <em>Rheinardia ocellata</em> and Red-shanked Douc <em>Pygathrix nemaeus</em>, suggesting that it is tied to the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests characteristic of the Annamites, and cannot use the climatically drier hill semi-evergreen forests further north and west. But paradoxically, it is not now common in the ‘ever-wet’ eastern slopes of the Northern and Central Annamite ranges. Perhaps, as is strongly suspected with Red-shanked Douc, substantial population losses have resulted from very high hunting pressure in such regions. While such a proposition is consistent with the apparent decline at Vu Quang Nature Reserve during the 1990s as discussed in Eve <em>et al</em>. (2001: 45 and 122; see above, under Population), there is no real evidence for it, although information from villagers in Viet Nam does suggest such a pattern (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). An intrinsic sub-optimality of closed-canopy ever-wet forest cannot yet be ruled out. Both the areas for which there is reasonable evidence for relatively high abundance, the Nakai Plateau and adjacent areas of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, and the Lam Dong Province, are both a rather heterogeneous mosaic of habitats, with extensive areas not supporting closed-canopy forest (based on historical rather than recent disturbance). Although much of Annamite Lao PDR and Viet Nam could also be described as “a rather heterogeneous mosaic of habitats”, there are not many extensive such landscapes without high densities of human population and heavy fragmentation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Habitat in Vu Quang NR is more contiguous and primarily evergreen forest, climatically wetter than the above two areas; but at lower altitudes much of the forest is somewhat opened-up (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Village interview data and camera-trapping in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam that suggest a lack of syntopy between the Large-antlered Muntjac and the Roosevelts' group, even though there is a wide sympatry (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008; B. Long pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The Large-antlered Muntjac’s altitudinal range remains uncertain: hunting areas around most villages from which specimens come span a wide range. Interviews of villagers throughout Quang Nam, Hue and Quang Tri provinces, Viet Nam, all suggested that this muntjac does not live much above 900 m asl (B. Long pers. comm. 2008). The few real data available also suggest that it may live mostly below about 1,000 m asl (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.), but localised higher occurrence in undulating plateaux, for example in the Southern Annamites of Cambodia and Viet Nam, would not be surprising (Bauer 1997; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Altitudinal information needs evidence of its reliability: specifically, hunters’ statements of origins of skulls, no matter how certain-sounding, need to be taken carefully; often, hunters assertively associate skulls and lowerjaws as from one animal when tooth-wear patterns show that they must have come from different individuals (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The lack of precisely-located field records also hinders assessment of use of secondary habitats. As an ungulate dependent upon ground-level food (including fallen fruit, presumably, when available), densities would be expected to be higher in edge, broken and secondary areas than in closed-canopy tall evergreen forest.	eng
44703	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	Evidence for the Large-antlered Muntjac comes from much of the Annamite mountain range, mostly as trophy antlers in villages abutting or within forest (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Do Tuoc and Le Trong Trai pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 1990s; B. Long pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2006; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The very little field-based evidence of Large-antlered Muntjac contrasts with Northern Red Muntjac <em>Muntiacus vaginalis</em> being among the most frequently recorded large mammals during field surveys in Lao and Viet Nam (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In most known Lao sites holding Large-antlered Muntjac, few trophies were found compared with those of Northern Red Muntjac; the only exception is the Nakai Plateau and Nakai–Nam Theun NPA where, overall, numbers of trophies of the two species were roughly equal, and which constitute the only area of Lao PDR in which trophy evidence was found commonly over a wide area (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). Around the Nam Noy and Nam Phao, Large-antlered Muntjac trophies even outnumber those of Northern Red Muntjac (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008, based on survey in 2007–2008). Distribution in the Xe Sap NPA–Dakchung Plateau area, another region of the main Annamite spine visited several times appears, by contrast, to be patchy (Schaller and Vrba 1996; Showler <em>et al</em>. 1998; Steinmetz 1998; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). During 1998–1999, camera-trapping in Bolikhamxai Province recorded the species only twice (Robichaud and Stuart 1999). Otherwise there has been substantial camera-trapping effort within the species’s suspected Lao range only in the Nakai Plateau and Nakai–Nam Theun NPA. Camera-trapping in 2007–2008 recorded many Large-antlered Muntjacs in some sectors in a ‘trap’ encounter rate similar to that of Northern Red Muntjac there (Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). However, occupation of the NPA seems to be patchy: in one of its three sectors where camera-trapping was carried out, no Large-antlered Muntjacs were found, although Northern Red Muntjac and the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex were recorded frequently (Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The plateau and NPA’s Large-antlered Muntjac population stood out as exceptionally large both a decade ago (when it could be compared with many other sites surveyed using comparable methodology) and in a present-day context (despite a lack of similar studies in other sites). In an Indochinese context, the Nakai Plateau and Nakai-Nam Theun NPA were found in 1994–1996 to hold substantial populations of other wildlife which have declined steeply through over-harvest in Indochina. Recent (2006–2007) surveys of the plateau showed that some are now gone, such as Tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, but others, such as turtles, otters, Asian Elephants <em>Elephas maximus</em>, and, of most direct relevance to inferring the status of this muntjac, Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> remain in numbers outstandingly high compared with other areas surveyed about the same time (Dersu 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This situation defies ready explanation given the geographic location (the plateau is particularly accessible) and the presence of a major hydropower project which has boosted the local economy (and therefore fuelled extraction of tradable wildlife) for five years and stimulated heavy logging for over a decade (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; WCS 1995; Timmins and Ou 2001; Dersu 2007). <br/><br/>In general, surveys undertaken throughout Lao PDR suggest that typical quarry species of large mammal are well below carrying capacity even within large habitat blocks (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins and Duckworth in press), and the paucity of evidence for the Large-antlered Muntjac elsewhere in its Lao range indicates a conservation status similar to that of wild oxen or large hornbills, rather than to that of other ungulates of comparable size such as other muntjac species or pigs. Camera-trapping in the Nakai-Nam Theun NPA during 2006–2008 indicates substantial declines of ground-dwelling large mammal populations especially Sambar, cats and Large Indian Civet <em>Viverra zibetha</em>, by comparison with direct observation and sign surveys in 1994–1996; intensive snaring is now commonplace within the NPA and the area has particularly suffered from incursion from over the Viet Namese border (Duckworth 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; RJT pers. comm. 2008 based on WMPA unpublished data; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Although muntjacs of all species are still apparently numerous in this NPA, significant declines are likely to be in progress, as on the Nakai plateau (the semi-quantitative methods used have low power to detect changes even of quite large proportion, if the species is still ‘common’). Elsewhere in Lao PDR over the same period, anecdotal information and a small number of re-surveys suggest that declines in mammals of muntjac size and over (in magnitude obvious even by subjective survey means) are widespread (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, but based largely on areas outside the Large-antlered Muntjac’s range).<br/><br/>In Viet Nam the situation seems to be similar, with no evidence for anything other than very small numbers surviving, although one area which seems to have held large numbers at least into the 1990s has not been re-surveyed. In and around Pu Mat Nature Reserve, despite a number of trophies in local villages in the 1990s, fairly intensive camera-trapping in the late 1990s resulted in perhaps only one image of Large-antlered Muntjac compared with dozens portraying Northern Red Muntjac and several showing animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> group (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; SFNC 2000; RJT pers. obs. based on SFNC unpublished data). However, the spatial overlap between the areas providing the village trophies and where camera-trapping took place is not known. Slightly further south in Vu Quang Nature Reserve, Dawson and Do Tuoc (1997) considered Large-antlered Muntjac as common as Northern Red Muntjac, an assessment echoing that from the adjacent Lao area of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA and Nakai plateau (see above). However, Eve <em>et al</em>. (2001: 45 and 122) concluded a major decline at Vu Quang NR during the 1990s: Dawson (1994) recorded that 13 Large-antlered Muntjacs were caught in snares in the 1993/1994 season alone, and observed one of the species in the southern part of the reserve at this time, but in several years’ presence, including various biological surveys, in the late 1990s, no new evidence of the species was recorded. However, it is unclear to what extent hunted animals were being monitored, and the initiation and consolidation of an international conservation project at this site should have made it more difficult to learn about what animals were being hunted, thereby presumably exaggerating the apparent decline. <br/><br/>From Vu Quang NR southwards, there are, as in Lao PDR, sporadic records of trophies, but little information other than, in many instances, anecdotal reports of the species’s scarcity (see Distribution). Extensive camera-trapping in Thua Tien Hue and Quang Nam Provinces captured only a single possible Large-antlered Muntjac against numerous pictures of Northern Red Muntjac and several animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex. This evident current rarity seems to reflect a steep recent decline rather than naturally low densities based on interviews of villagers throughout Quang Nam, Hue and Quang Tri provinces (B. Long pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In the mid 1990s, two Hanoi institutes obtained five freshly hunted animals from the Lam Ha District, Lam Dong Province in the Southern Annamites (see Distribution) where the species was said to be relatively common (Do Tuoc and Pham Trong Anh pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). The Da Lat biology institute in Lam Dong Province began amassing specimens in 1990 and by October 1995 held only 271 mammal specimens. Remarkably, 19 (in translation: six stuffed mounts; four skinned heads (skulls?) and 9 skins (trophies?)) of these were of <em>M. vuquangensis</em>, against only 12 <em>M. vaginalis</em>. These were the two most numerous mammal species in the collection (Pham Trong Anh <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is not known if the institute deliberately sought Large-antlered Muntjac, or whether the numbers reflect the relative frequency with which animals were being hunted. There has been no published field survey of this area, so present conservation status of Large-antlered Muntjac there is unknown. Southern Viet Nam in recent decades often has proved to harbour less depleted large mammal populations than further north (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997, Polet and Ling 2004), but hunting still is ubiquitous and is probably increasing (see Threats). In Viet Nam, especially the north, large mammal densities are even more depressed than in Lao PDR (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; Timmins 2002; Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).	eng
44703	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	As of 2008, suitable habitat for the Large-antlered Muntjac is still extensive (under the reasonable assumption that it uses secondary forest), but, especially within Viet Nam, it seems absent from many accessible, but superficially, at least, suitable habitat blocks. This strongly indicates that overhunting is its primary threat. Heavy deployment of camera-traps in several interior forests of Viet Nam produced few photographs, showing that Large-antlered Muntjac can be rare even in the most remote areas. A decline in them would suggest great susceptibility to hunting, but it is possible that it was never common in the types of interior closed-canopy forest surveyed and is restricted to specific types (not yet camera-trapped) or may even be strongly associated with edges. If the latter, then a high proportion of the population would be facing very heavy hunting pressure, because of proximity to settlement of much of the suitable habitat. Whatever the explanation for the rarity of records in most camera-trapping areas, it suggests a much stronger level of threat than has hitherto been appreciated (e.g. by Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; the listing as only Provisionally At Risk in Lao PDR in the latter is now clearly inappropriately optimistic). While the socio-economic factors outlined in this section bear on the conservation status of all ungulates and primates, of most carnivores, and of many other mammals in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, Large-antlered Muntjac is probably one of two species (the other being Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>) which is most at global risk through them. This is because it is big enough to be a main wildlife meat source; it does not have populations secured in other countries such as India, Nepal and Thailand, with installed effective management in at least some protected areas; it does not have populations in the rugged mountain forest blocks where trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is limited by economics of accessibility; and it does not occur on the plains where (for a mix of essentially non-biological reasons) protected area management is being most successful in conserving ungulates (e.g. Cambodia, and Cat Tien National Park, Viet Nam).<br/><br/>Large-antlered Muntjacs are hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in all range states and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and Aquilaria resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). Hunters do not target Large-antlered Muntjacs, but are seeking any and all species with marketable meat and products for the medicinal markets. Such hunting reaches all this muntjac’s range, and with so many species and products, non-selective methods continue at high levels until the most resilient species is no longer common enough for hunting to be commercially viable. This non-specificity makes regional hunting practices a peculiarly strong driver of localised and, in aggregate, regional, extinctions (e.g. Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted; Large-antlered Muntjacs will be extinct long before these more resilient species become so rare that communities are driven to ‘fishing down’ for smaller species using methods that do not threaten Large-antlered Muntjacs. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 84 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000 and papers therein). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels.<br/><br/>Hunting in Large-antlered Muntjacs's range is therefore very high: in the Northern and Central Annamites of Viet Nam, in a range shared with Saola, an estimated eight million people, almost all with the propensity to eat wildlife and mostly with direct links to the urban wildlife trade, live within 100 km of forest inhabited by Saola, and probably nowhere in the range of Large-antlered Muntjac is further than 30 km from a village (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing Large-antlered Muntjac set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per km² per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically. Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing.<br/><br/>Closed tropical evergreen forests have inherently low ungulate biomass (Robinson and Bennett 2000), and beyond this populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in most of Large-antlered Muntjac’s range have been significantly reduced by human exploitation (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008); the paucity of records across its range shows that this includes Large-antlered Muntjac itself. Field survey encounter rates even with Northern Red Muntjacs and pigs in much of Large-antlered Muntjac's range are remarkably low compared with other areas in Asia (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), wild cattle, elephants, and Tigers are all nearing extinction in this muntjac’s range (e.g. Duckworth and Hedges 1998), and in some of the worst-hit protected areas even the generally robust Northern Red Muntjac and wild pig are ecologically extinct (e.g. the western lowlands of Xe Bang-Nouan NPA, Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, based on 2007 field visit). In the Nakai Plateau and Nakai-Nam Theun NPA, in some sectors the Large-antlered Muntjac and Northern Red Muntjac are similar in abundance. Comparison with other areas, where the former is much scarcer than the latter, implies that the Large-antlered is much more sensitive to hunting than is the Northern Red. It may be intentionally targeted more (although there is no evidence for this, and it seems unlikely), or some facet of population biology such as fecundity (possible given its slightly larger size) may make it less resilient, or it may be associated with habitats that (for other reasons) are targeted by hunters. This latter factor is certainly true at the landscape scale: Large-antlered Muntjac primarily uses lower altitudes, yet forest blocks remote enough for hunting levels to be restrained by the economics of access and removal of meat are primarily mountainous areas of high altitude forest. If Large-antlered Muntjac is an edge species, densities in large unencroached closed forest blocks would be low anyway. The lower-altitude disturbed forests may be the most suitable habitat for this muntjac, but because they are closer to high human population densities than are montane or little-encroached blocks, they support higher levels of generalised snaring and hunting. In comparison, Northern Red Muntjac has large populations in such high altitude remote forest blocks, which may act as a repopulation reservoir for lower altitude areas. It is difficult to think of any habitat that could be a source for Large-antlered Muntjac.<br/><br/>While wild meat is the major driver of muntjac trade, parts such as antlers may be used in for medicinal purposes. There is also the curio/status symbol appeal of trophy antlers: some are even on display in Bangkok (A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2000). <br/><br/>The effects of hunting in Lao PDR and Viet Nam have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant seem to be:<br/><br/>Economic development and expanding wealth in the region are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but as they pointed out for Saola, the main driver of threats for Saola, Large-antlered Muntjac and many other species, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, directly accelerated by illegal trade in rosewood, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Markets along major roads such as route 13 (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried muntjac meat daily (balance of muntjac species unknown).<br/><br/>Road development in Viet Nam, especially the recent construction through the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam of the Ho Chi Minh Highway, parallel to the Lao border, with its many feeder roads to Lao PDR and Cambodia that boost connectivity of rural areas to regional wildlife trade markets, is a severe and probably unmitigatable threat (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In the last decade there has also been a dramatic upgrading and expansion of national and regional road networks in Lao PDR, primarily it seems to make all inhabited areas of the country readily accessible (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). New road linkages in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia, are making the area’s natural resources more easily marketable (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Shifting cultivation of local communities is resulting in a net loss of forest and even of dense secondary habitats, and is fragmenting larger forest blocks because of the dispersion of settlements. Shifting cultivation per se could even be beneficial for this muntjac, but recent trends are decreasing the suitability of what might be called ‘the shifting cultivation estate’. These trends centre round a decline in cycle length in rotational systems (hindering regrowth during the fallow period), partly through the increasing number of people depending upon an annually decreasing area, as forest land is lost to infrastructure, tree plantation crops and other forms of continuous agriculture, and partly through well-intentioned government policy to eradicate shifting cultivation.<br/><br/>Recent moves towards landscape-scale habitat clearance for agro-industrial developments particularly in plateau areas of Cambodia and southern Viet Nam, and even in foothill areas of northern parts of the Lao and Viet Namese range of the species, would presumably remove available habitat, further fragment remaining forest areas, increase local affluence and result in new roads. However, this muntjac’s potential use of plantations is not assessed, and probably cannot be, because all such developments are increasing the area in which hunting is easy and at high levels (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).  <br/><br/>Hydropower development throughout the Annamites, particularly in the Nam Theun/Nam Kading basin in Lao PDR, flood habitat but more importantly fuel hunting levels through increasing affluence and market connectivity. The Nakai Plateau, part of the only area known still to support good numbers of Large-antlered Muntjac, is being flooded for a hydropower headpond during mid 2008. This will destroy only a part of the species' range on the plateau, but the project will continue to stimulate hunting. Currently, there are barely-navigable stretches of rocky channel (called kengs) on all streams flowing out from the NPA. All these kengs will be easily passable when the reservoir is full. Nam Kading NPA, further down the same catchment, is also threatened by a hydropower project which will result in a highly dendritic headpond allowing ready access to most of this NPA and so undoubtedly will increase hunting levels significantly. <br/><br/>Growing economic stability and developing infrastructure in all three range countries have initiated a flood of proposals for industrial scale mineral extraction, particularly in the mineral-rich Annamites (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The effects of this on proportionate loss of habitat remain to be seen; they will probably be overshadowed the presence of large numbers of non-local workers with good market connectivity and thus a propensity to hunt, or to pay local people to hunt.<br/><br/>Recent changes in immigration agreements between Lao PDR and Viet Nam and between Lao PDR and China make it much easier for Viet Namese and Chinese people to visit, settle in and conduct business in Lao PDR, and with a clear build up of Viet Namese nationals in pivotal wildlife trade centres such as Ban Lak-20 (= ‘Ban Lak Xao’) on the edge of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA, trade networks with Viet Nam are now better than ever and still improving (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Additional factors hindering the species' survival include:<br/><br/>The difficulties of distinction between this species and Northern Red Muntjac impede its potential legal protection, particularly in situations where a differential status between the Large-antlered and Northern Red applies.<br/><br/>Customary rights of local people to hunt ‘sustainably’ within most Lao and Viet Namese protected areas urgently need modification if most of the ungulate species are to survive in such areas (see Conservation Measures).<br/><br/>As pointed out by Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007), protected area management skills and commitment to the system are still evolving in the Annamites, and this progress lags behind expansion of market-led hunting. Currently, existing protected areas are not stanching declines in ungulates. Protected areas have so far proven impotent in the control of poaching or as a mechanism to safeguard areas from economic development such as hydropower projects, road construction, and mining (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). It will require a major consolidation of effort to install effective anti-hunting measures in any protected area within the range of Large-antlered Muntjac within the next five years (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and protected area strengthening projects should be thinking in terms of a few decades of collaboration, not a few years (e.g. Leisher 2001). Yet, there is even the danger of the few currently promising protected areas regressing through loss of external funding and talented professionals, ongoing political indifference towards them, and thereby forcing an unfettered short-termism in local residents’ behaviour through a lack of alternative options. There is no plausible method to conserve this species (and others of high value to the wildlife trade which show little resilience to hunting) alternative to protected areas; the problem is arising not through a flawed concept, but through naive optimism about the time-scales and resource inputs needed to effect situational change.<br/><br/>There is a lack of appreciation in the decision-making levels relevant to protected areas, including those with externally collaborative management support projects, of the biodiversity value of lower altitude yet degraded forests relative to high altitude forests which have been less encroached. This results in mis-prioritisation of zones within the protected area. The common situation is that all lower-altitude forests are degraded, and it is this very degradation that makes them of high priority: their conservation status is already so poor that there are no pristine areas left in most of the range of the Large-antlered Muntjac. This is a problem for a wide suite of species restricted to the lower altitudes, not just to this muntjac, but because of its globally small range, it may be the mammal at most global risk through this factor.	eng
44704	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	Taxonomic uncertainties within this species-complex forestall any analysis of conservation needs for the individual species. Populations of this species-complex occur in probably most protected areas of the Annamite range and northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). If <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were a localised species then conservation measures additional to support and consolidation of the existing protected area system may be warranted.<br/><br/>Whatever actual taxonomic pattern is found within the species-complex, management of hunting will need to recognise that hunters cannot be expected to recognise muntjacs to species in the field: some methods are non-selective (e.g. snares) while active projectile hunting (e.g. guns, bows, blow-pipes) would be severely reduced in their harvest efficiency if identification had to precede shooting. The only realistic site-based management tool for this species-complex is likely to be the declaration of suitably-sized ‘core areas’, site in ecologically appropriate areas, where all hunting using methods suitable for muntjacs, including under hitherto traditional rights, is prevented. Lao protected area legislation apparently provides for ‘core areas’ within each national protected area although few if any have yet been declared. Each protected area within the species-complex’s range should therefore have at least one large (several hundred km², in the absence of any empirical knowledge of muntjac spatial ecology) core zone declared and enforced. This measure implemented in conjunction with well considered hunting management in peripheral forest areas might also benefit the ongoing dietary needs of local people, who could harvest in a controlled manner animals outside core zones, and who, in parts of montane Lao PDR that have been effectively studied, are being forced into involuntary veganism because the lack of effective wildlife management and sensible hunting quotas, has meant wildlife stocks have fallen severely (Krahn and Johnson 2007).	eng
44704	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The distribution limits of this species are unknown, reflecting ambiguity over what the name refers to, and how to identify taxa within the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex. For a description of the range of this species-complex see <em>M. rooseveltorum</em>. The syntypes of <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were collected from four houses in three locations in Hien District, west Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. “The three locations are: Hien, the district capital, A Tin village, and A Plo village (15°56'59''N, 107°34'18''E)” (P.M. Giao <em>et al</em>. 1998). Two skulls which share the distinctive mtDNA sequences presented by P.M. Giao <em>et al</em>. (1998) for <em>M. truongsonensis</em> were collected in the adjacent area of Lao PDR, on the Dakchung Plateau (Amato <em>et al</em>. 1999b, 2000; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Published range descriptions for <em>M. truongsonensis</em> (e.g. Groves and Schaller 2000; Grubb 2005) are hypothetical. Specimens and camera-trap photographs of animals of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> complex, but morphologically dissimilar to the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> holotype (see taxonomic note) occur from the type locality of <em>M. truongsonensis</em> north to at least the northern highlands of Lao PDR and Viet Nam and probably into adjacent areas of China (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <em>M. truongsonensis</em> may be found to occur throughout the range of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex (dark-pelaged animals appear to be widespread), but equally it could be much more localised. <br/><br/>Circumstantial evidence from Myanmar presents a possibility of more than one taxon in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species complex in that region (see 2008 Red List account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>), with potentially similar pelage and skull character variation as shown in Indochina. Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999a, 1999b, 2000) placed <em>M. putaoensis</em> as the sister taxon to <em>M. truongsonensis</em> on the basis of mtDNA, and the holotype of the former species shares with specimens speculated to be <em>M. truongsonensis</em> long premaxillae that contact the nasals; in fact skulls of these two taxa may be (nearly) impossible to diagnose apart (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Some uncertainty exists over the pelage characteristics of <em>M. putaoensis</em>, although the assumption is that they are reddish animals (see 2008 Red List account for <em>M. putaoensis</em>). Contrary to the statements of Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) and others, which have not taken into account the patchiness of suitable surveying, the ‘small’ muntjacs comprising the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex are not particularly restricted in range, but are rather widespread in montane areas of northern southeast Asia. The lack of evidence of the complex from many areas, giving an apparent disjunct distribution, is much more likely to reflect the paucity of suitable surveys than the genuine distribution pattern. Survey work in south-west and south-east China, much of Myanmar, the Himalayan region and northern and western Thailand have certainly been insufficient to conclude anything about the range of this species-complex in those regions.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) suggested that various muntjac specimens recorded from China (in Sokolov 1957; Shou 1962) might be attributable to <em>M. truongsonensis</em>, without giving profound justification. It seems, on current knowledge, equally likely that they belong elsewhere in the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex, or, as suggested by the original authors, that they refer to animals from the <em>M. crinifrons</em> species-complex (i.e. that species, <em>M. feae</em> and <em>M. gongshanensis</em>).	eng
44704	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	In Lao PDR this species-complex is probably restricted to higher elevations (over 1,000 m asl) and forests at the evergreen end of the spectrum; it may be absent from forest even above 1,000 m asl in drier western areas. In Viet Nam it occurs also down to lower altitudes (perhaps to the foothills) especially on the eastern slope of the Annamites and probably also in northeastern areas (east of the Red River) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). Social ecology is likely to be similar to other species of muntjac, which are generally solitary and territorial.<br/><br/>The complex is widely sympatric with northern red muntjac <em>M. vaginalis</em>, although at high elevations over about 1,500 m asl that species appears to become scarce or naturally absent within Indochina, whereas the <em>rooseveltorum</em> complex ascends to over 2,000 m asl in at least northern Viet Nam (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on photographs and other unpublished data of S. Swann/FFI).	eng
44704	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	Over 50 specimens (not all now extant) and close to 100 camera-trap photographs of the species-complex are known to R.J. Timmins from Indochina (pers. comm. 2008), suggesting it is relatively common in both Lao PDR and especially Viet Nam. Results from camera-trapping in Lao PDR (Nan Et–Phou Louey NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data A. Johnson/ WCS; Nakai-Nam Theun NPA: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on Watershed Management Protection Agency unpublished data; Robichaud <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Viet Nam (Hoang Lien Son mountain range: R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on unpublished data S. Swann/FFI) show that the species-complex is at least locally common at these sites, and it could be so over much of its range. In other areas, mostly south of the previous list of areas, such as Pu Mat NR; Thua-Thien Hue province; and Quang Nam province (Viet Nam), and Bolikhamsai province (Lao PDR), the species-complex has been camera-trapped less frequently than <em>M. vaginalis</em> in each area, but this may reflect ecological factors of sampling areas, such as habitat and altitude range (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on various unpublished datasets; SFNC 2000; Robichaud and Stuart 1999).	eng
44704	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Long, B., 2008	The main threat to the species-complex is hunting. Especially within Lao PDR and Viet Nam, there is indiscriminate snaring throughout its known range, for local meat consumption and a thriving bushmeat trade (see Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the best protection from hunting at present is the ‘cushioning’ effect of large forest blocks, where the costs of extracting wildlife of low to medium commercial value from the centre are higher than the income from selling it, and where habitat is so extensive it is simply more difficult to hunt out cryptic, non-gregarious species, than it is in smaller forest blocks. Because most such blocks within the complex’s geographical range are centred on rugged terrain, with higher elevations forming the core of such areas, these muntjacs are likely to be significantly less threatened than are sympatric ground-dwelling mammals with altitudinal ranges limited to lower elevations. <br/><br/>In localized areas, especially of northern Indochina, the species-complex is likely to be affected by habitat loss. Here, most ethnic groups practice shifting cultivation and in recent decades there has been a clear net loss and fragmentation of forest: such shifting cultivation is not now in a balanced cycle (for rotational systems), or never was (frontier systems). The adaptability of the species-complex to degraded or fragmented habitats is not well known, although evidence from northern Lao PDR suggests that animals there persist in landscape-scale mosaics including extensive secondary, degraded forest fragments and cultivation (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2006). In general it appears that muntjacs (particularly <em>M. vaginalis</em> and <em>M. reevesi</em>) adapt well to secondary and degraded habitats and in fact may reach higher densities in such areas than they do in unencroached habitats. More serious than losses to shifting cultivation, in the most recent years and the immediate future, is likely to be the large-scale replacement of natural forests (albeit mostly heavily degraded) with rubber plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market. This is affecting large areas of the northern highlands of Lao PDR and elsewhere, and will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of habitat (it is unlikely that rubber plantations will support even mediocre densities of this species-complex, although this is not yet known), decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect.	eng
44705	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	One of the recorded localities (Silaka Nature Reserve) is a formally conserved area under the control of the provincial conservation agency (Eastern Cape Nature Conservation). However, it is a small low priority reserve suffering from livestock grazing and alien plant invasion.	eng
44705	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from a section of the Eastern Cape coast, between Port St Johns and Xora River mouth (<em>ca</em>. 80 km in length and probably not extending much more than 5 km inland). Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than the extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.	eng
44705	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.	eng
44705	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads.	eng
44706	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Both forests are managed by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and are thus afforded some degree of protection. However, the efficacy of this protection is something that needs to be assessed.	eng
44706	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from two localities: Ngele Forest near Kokstad (KZN); and Tabankulu Forest near Mt Ayliff (E. Cape). The two known localities are separated by about 60 km, and the total area of the two forests is 1,480 ha (Ngele Forest is 750 ha and Tabankulu Forest is 730 ha).	eng
44706	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> forest.	eng
44707	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from three localities in the vicinity of Port St Johns, on the southern bank of the Mzimvubu River. The localities border an area of <em>ca</em>. 17.5 km². Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.	eng
44707	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.	eng
44707	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat by alien plant invasion and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads.	eng
44708	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	The two mining companies operating in the area have been notified of the existence of this species and have expressed their willingness to play a part in its conservation. They have offered to support a survey of additional habitat fragments within the marble deposit to try to identify further colonies.	eng
44708	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known from only one location: believed to be endemic to a single site, a limestone outcrop. The KZN south coast is a relatively well collected area, but this species has not been found at other localities in the region. It appears to be restricted to this geological formation, which has only recently been surveyed for molluscs (Herbert 2002). All known specimens have been collected from an area of less than 1,000 m² (estimate based on field survey, Herbert 2001); total extent of geological formation to which it is probably restricted <em>ca</em>. 40 km².	eng
44708	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Limestone deposits (the Marble Delta) inland of Port Shepstone, in valley thicket and woodland on south facing slopes.	eng
44708	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Two companies have extensive quarrying operations in the area and it is heavily invaded by alien plants (Herbert 2002) .	eng
44709	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from a small stretch of coast from just north of Mbotyi to just south of Port St Johns (<em>ca</em>. 35 km in length and probably not extending much more than 5 km inland). Area of occupancy is not known, but is considerably less than extent of occurrence, since the species is only known from forests and woodland on the coastal scarp, a discontinuous habitat along the coastal strip.	eng
44709	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Coastal scarp forest and woodland.	eng
44709	population	Herbert, D.G., 2004	In early 2003 living specimens were found to be quite common at a number of localities within its small range area.	eng
44709	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Uncontrolled utilisation of habitat by local people; degradation of habitat and trampling by livestock; increased tourism development associated with spatial development initiatives and increased ease of access due to construction of new roads. <br/> <br/>Until recently this species was only known from the types. However, in 2003 it was rediscovered in the Mbotyi area and has subsequently been found again in the Port St Johns area. Although, evidently confined to this small area of the coast, it was in fact moderately common in the scarp forests during the summer of 2002/3. This may support a lower risk categorisation, but it may also simply reflect the fact that weather conditions leading up to this had been particularly favourable for the species. The current distribution of the species is almost certainly fragmented, but its forest habitat was most probably more extensive in the past, within the known distribution. As in many coastal areas, forests have been impacted by human activity, even in rural areas, and are now fragmented. It is likely that threats posed by increased population growth, uncontrolled subsistence utilisation and alien plant invasion will have an impact on most of the remaining forest patches. However, no data specific data are available regarding habitat deterioration. Political and economic imperatives mean that much of the Transkei coast is targeted for development and mining companies have identified significant mineral deposits (ilmenite) in some coastal areas, which they hope to exploit. Construction companies are pressing strongly for the construction of a new north-south trunk road that will facilitate access to the coast and thus stimulate population growth in these areas	eng
44710	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Although the forest is a formally conserved area, supported by an enthusiastic local community, its location within an urban environment is of concern. Furthermore, its small size means that it is thus likely to suffer more from the impact of stochastic climatic events.	eng
44710	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from Dlinza Forest in Eshowe. The forest covers an area of <em>ca</em>. 250 ha.	eng
44710	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Coastal scarp forest.	eng
44710	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	The Dlinza Forest is a formally conserved area under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such the habitat is afforded a degree of protection. However, since it is a small reserve, it may be negatively impacted by extreme stochastic weather conditions and climate change.	eng
44711	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Although both forests are formally protected areas, the degree of protection afforded by this status is limited, particularly in the case of Nkandla Forest, and a decline in the quality and extent of the habitat is probable.	eng
44711	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from Nkandla and Entumeni forests inland of Eshowe. The two forests are separated by only 35 km. The extent of the two forests is: Nkandla Forest 2,800 ha and Entumeni Forest 620 ha. Total area of occupancy is thus probably less than 3,500 ha.	eng
44711	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> and scarp forest.	eng
44711	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Both forests are formally conserved areas under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such they are afforded a degree of protection, but both are in remote, very rural areas and subject to utilisation by local people and their livestock, particularly Nkandla Forest.	eng
44712	conservation	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Although the forest is a formally conserved area, it is situated in a remote region and is an important resource for the local population. Shortage of conservation funds and lack of political will mean that its protected status is nominal, and thus a decline in the quality and extent of the habitat is probable.	eng
44712	distribution	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Known only from Nkandla Forest inland of Eshowe. The forest covers an area of <em>ca</em>. 2,800 ha.	eng
44712	habitat	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Primarily mist-belt <em>Podocarpus</em> forest, but merging with scarp forest at lower altitudes.	eng
44712	threats	Herbert, D.G., 2004	Nkandla Forest is a formally conserved area under the control of KZN Wildlife. As such the habitat is afforded a degree of protection, but it is in a remote, very rural area and subject to utilisation by local people and their livestock.	eng
44713	conservation	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	No specific conservation measures are known to target this species. However, some of the population is known to occur within national parks and forest reserves.	eng
44713	distribution	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Three subspecies are known: <em>I. m. septentrionalis</em> occurs in northern parts of Kenya (flora zone K1 — high grounds of Mts Kulal, Nyiru and Marsabit, 2,000–2,400 m asl) and in Sudan; <em>I. m. cruciata</em> is widespread in Kenya (flora zones K1–6) and Uganda (flora zones U1 and U3); and <em>I. m. meruensis</em> is known only from Tanzania (flora zone T2). Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
44713	habitat	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Damp montane forest, streamsides, spray zone of waterfalls and swampy areas (1,100–3,630 m altitude).	eng
44713	threats	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	No severe threats affecting the whole population have been identified. In the northern part of the species' range habitat is semi-arid and wetlands are the centre of activities for people and their livestock (<em>I. m. septentrionalis</em> is most likely to be threatened in this area).	eng
44714	conservation	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	The known range lies within protected areas.	eng
44714	distribution	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	This grass is endemic to East Africa. It is known from Kenya (Mt Kenya) and Tanzania (Mt Kilimanjaro). Total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
44714	habitat	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Found in upland moor along stream sides, on moist ground (4,250–4,850 m asl).	eng
44714	threats	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.	eng
44715	conservation	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	The majority of this species' range lies within National Park areas.	eng
44715	distribution	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	This species is endemic to Uganda and Kenya. In Uganda it is known only from Mt Elgon. In Kenya, it occurs within flora zones K3 (Cheranganis Mt Kenya), K4 (Aberdares), K5 (Maut Kenya), and K6 (see FTEA). Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
44715	habitat	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	<em>L. aberdarica</em> is a large, soft perennial shrub. In Kenya, it is common in swamps in the moorland zone (1,860–3,350 m altitude) (Agnew and Agnew 1994). In Uganda, it is found on Mt Elgon between 1,800 and 3,500 m asl.	eng
44715	threats	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	There are high human population densities adjacent to Mt Elgon National Park  and Cherengani hills and illegal encroachment into the protected area has been reported to increase in recent years (I. Malombe, pers. comm.). However, trampling of bog and marsh areas by tourist activities in the area and upsurge and collapse of river banks incases of encroachment may be more serious threats.	eng
44716	conservation	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	The species’ range lies within protected areas.	eng
44716	distribution	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	This grass is endemic to Uganda and Kenya (Ruwenzori Mtns, Mt Elgon – flora zones U2, U3? and K3). The total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
44716	habitat	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Occurs in marshy places near streams and lake/pool margins in upland moors.	eng
44716	threats	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.	eng
44717	conservation	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	The species’ range lies within protected areas.	eng
44717	distribution	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	This grass is endemic to Kenya (flora zones K3 and K4). Only two subpopulations are known: on Mt Kenya and Mt Elgon. The total range area of the species is not known. Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
44717	habitat	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Found in upland moor along stream sides (3,580–4,000 m asl).	eng
44717	threats	Magombo, Z.L.K., Mbeiza Mutekanga, N. & Ndiritu, G.G., 2004	Current threats to the population are unknown. However, this is a high altitude species and its habitat potentially is threatened by climate change.	eng
44722	conservation	Nekaris, A., Singh, M. & Kumar Chhangani, A., 2008	This species is listed in CITES – Appendix II, and classified under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Act (1972). In India, very few populations are found in protected areas, and the majority of the population occurs in private lands and commercial plantations (M. Singh pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Further studies of behavior and ecology are needed to better understand the habitat requirements of all the slender loris taxa (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) also suggests more detailed surveys in different forest blocks and habitat types in order to obtain quantitative data on densities and distribution. In Sri Lanka a conservation education programme has been launched in order to increase awareness about the taxa (Nekaris 2003).	eng
44722	distribution	Nekaris, A., Singh, M. & Kumar Chhangani, A., 2008	The species occurs in southern and eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka. <br/><br/><em>L. l. lydekkerianus</em><br/>This subspecies occurs in southern and eastern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), in the dry shrub jungles of the Eastern Ghats (Schulze and Meier 1995; Nekaris and Jayewardene, 2003; Singh <em>et al</em>. 2000). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) recorded this taxon most often in areas up to 1,000 m.<br/><br/><em>L. l. nordicus</em> <br/>This subspecies occurs in north-central Sri Lanka, in dry-zone areas (A. Nekaris pers. comm.). Recent reports include Mannar, Wilpattu, Anuradhapura, Sigiriya, Polonnaruwa, Mihintale, Ritigale, Minneriya-Giritale, Trincomalee, and Madura Oya. It is uncertain if the range extends to the southeast of the island as no undisputed sighting has yet been made of this subspecies there (Nekaris and de Silva in press).<br/><br/><em>L. l. grandis </em><br/>This subspecies is found in the Central Province of Sri Lanka, at an average altitude of 900 m (Schulze and Meier 1995a). Although it has thus far been found only in the East Matale Hills, it is probable that it also occurs throughout the lower foothills of the mountains of central Sri Lanka. The highest altitude from which it has been obtained is 1,036 m. Lorises which may conform to this subspecies have recently been seen at Udawatakele and in the Knuckles Range (Nekaris and de Silva in press).<br/><br/><em>L. l. malabaricus </em><br/>This subspecies occurs in India along the west coast and in the wet forests of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It has not been reported from rainforests south of Palghat gap (A. Kumar and M. Singh pers. comm.). It is found from the coast up to 1,200 m in Karnataka, and lower elevations in Kerala.	eng
44722	habitat	Nekaris, A., Singh, M. & Kumar Chhangani, A., 2008	Two long-term studies have been conducted on the ecology and behavior of this species in India, and one such study has been conducted in Sri Lanka (Nekaris and Bearder 2006; Radhakrishna and Singh 2004); <em>L. l. nordicus</em> is also very well studied in captivity (Schulze and Meier 1995). They are primarily insectivorous (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004). <em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em> is apparently able to survive well near human habitations (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003), as it was found more often associated with disturbed human habitation than with forest (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004); similar trends in India were found by Singh <em>et al.</em> (1999) and were associated with agricultural pest abundance. The highest densities of lorises on Sri Lanka occurred in the dry zone forests; also, the presence of species of this genus is positively associated with insect presence, and negatively associated with secondary forest with little undergrowth (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004; Kumara <em>et al.</em> 2006). <em>L. l. nordicus</em> and <em>L.l. lydekkarianus</em> seem to rely heavily on undergrowth, and are often found in secondary growth forest (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2004; Radhakrishna and Singh 2002). Singh <em>et al</em>. (1999) found that relatively open forest and adjoining croplands are the preferred habitat types of lorises in the Dindigul Forests of Tamil Nadu, India. <em>L. l. malabaricus</em> is found to occur more in cardamom plantations and in degraded and stunted rainforests than in primary rainforests (Kumara <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is characterized by a multiple-male/multiple-female social system of spatial overlap. They sleep in groups of up to 7 individuals and interact commonly throughout the night (Nekaris 2006; Radhakrishna 2001).	eng
44722	population	Nekaris, A., Singh, M. & Kumar Chhangani, A., 2008	<em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em>s is known to occur in at least seven distinct populations (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003). Nekaris and Jayewardene (2004b) carried out a survey of slender lorises in Sri Lanka. Population densities of animal were estimated using the animal encounter rate, or ‘sightings’ per km. <em>Loris lydekkerianus grandis</em> had a density of 0.11 to 3.3 animals/km, with an overall density of 0.42 animals/km, while <em>Loris lydekkerianus nordicus</em> were recorded at a density of 0.33 to 3.5 animals/km, with an overall density of 3.65 animals/km. In some localities of the Eastern Ghats, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the population densities of <em>Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianu</em>s are rather high, although not as high as in Dindigul region (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2000; M. Singh pers. comm.). The encounter rate for <em>L. l. malabaricus</em> is 0.21 animals/km.	eng
44722	threats	Nekaris, A., Singh, M. & Kumar Chhangani, A., 2008	Severe habitat loss in Sri Lanka and India has threatened this species there (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003; Nekaris and Schulze 2005; Nekaris and Bearder 2006). Other threats in Sri Lanka and India include road kills, electrocution on un-insulated power lines, capture for pet trade and use in traditional “medicine,” and killing due to superstitious beliefs (Nekaris and Jayewardene 2003).	eng
44724	conservation	Farjon, A. & Phan Ke Loc, 2004	The higher regions of the mountain are within a nature reserve but local people have unlimited access.	eng
44724	distribution	Farjon, A. & Phan Ke Loc, 2004	Found in Viet Nam, Lao Cai Province, on Fan Si Pang Mountain at  2,600–2,800 m. <br/> <br/>Population size is estimated to be well over 1,000 mature trees.	eng
44724	habitat	Farjon, A. & Phan Ke Loc, 2004	Occurs in high montane subtropical evergreen cloud forest, with <em>Tsuga dumosa</em>, <em>Rhododendron</em> spp., bamboos, etc.	eng
44724	threats	Farjon, A. & Phan Ke Loc, 2004	The timber is used.	eng
44725	conservation	Herbert, J., 2004	Five localities are currently protected (Strict Nature Reserve of Montagne des Sources, Special Fauna and Flora Reserve of Mt Kouakoué, Specila Botanical Reserve of Mt Humboldt and Special Fauna and Flora Reserve of Forêt de Saille).	eng
44725	distribution	Herbert, J., 2004	This monotypic genus is confined to the southern province of New Caledonia. The species occurs at eleven localities. The numbers of mature individuals are unknown.	eng
44725	habitat	Herbert, J., 2004	Limited to ultramafic (or serpentine) geology which covers an area of 5,500 km². Occurs in primary moist forest at high altitudes (mostly above 800 m) and wet scrub at lower altitudes (500–800 m). Probably wind pollinated, fruits may be animal dispersed, low seed fertility observed.	eng
44725	threats	Herbert, J., 2004	Mining - two localities known to be affected, all unprotected localities vulnerable due to the geology.  <br/>Bush fire - one locality known to be threatened, others are likely to be threatened by fire. <br/>Logging - possible threat in unprotected sites.	eng
44726	conservation	Eastwood, A., 2004	Some populations occur in Diana’s Peak National Park, which has had an extensive restoration and management programme for the past 10 years. However the majority of populations are outside this protected area.	eng
44726	distribution	Eastwood, A., 2004	Restricted to St. Helena (122 km²) at altitudes of above 650 m. Extent of occurrence < 15 km². <br/> <br/>Total population size is estimated to be 5,000 mature individuals, in 10–15 fragmented subpopulations. This is based on extensive fieldwork in 1999 and 2000.	eng
44726	habitat	Eastwood, A., 2004	A terrestrial fern found growing on shaded rocks, crevices and soil banks.	eng
44726	threats	Eastwood, A., 2004	Encroachment of habitat by exotic species, fragmentation and herbicides (sometimes sprayed along the road edges where some populations are found).	eng
44727	conservation	Eastwood, A., 2004	Majority of the population is in Diana’s Peak National Park which has been actively managed for the past 10 years. This has included extensive clearance of invasive exotics and planting of native species. The regeneration of tree fern thicket into cleared areas is notable.	eng
44727	distribution	Eastwood, A., 2004	Restricted to two main subpopulations in Diana’s Peak National Park, one at Mount Actaeon and one at Cuckold’s Point. Occasional plants have also been observed at High Peak and the Depot but these require verification. Extent of occurrence < 5 km², if individuals at High Peak and Depot included. The two subpopulations comprise 34 and 12 individuals respectively with occasional plants at High Peak and the Depot.	eng
44727	habitat	Eastwood, A., 2004	Terrestrial fern found growing on stone steps, rocks and shaded mossy banks in tree fern thicket. Found in close proximity to the other two endemic <em>Elaphoglossum</em> (<em>E. nervosum</em> and <em>E. bifurcatum</em>). Evidence from allozymes indicate that the species maybe of hybrid origin between <em>E. nervosum</em> and <em>E. birfurcatum</em>. This may explain its rarity.	eng
44727	threats	Eastwood, A., 2004	Population size is probably restricted by suitable habitat. The main threat to the species is encroachment of invasive exotics such as <em>Phormium tenax</em> (New Zealand Flax).	eng
44728	conservation	Eastwood, A., 2004	The world population is restricted to Diana’s Peak National Park. The park has been actively managed for the past 10 years. This has included extensive clearance of invasive exotics and planting of native species. The regeneration of tree fern thicket into cleared areas is notable.	eng
44728	distribution	Eastwood, A., 2004	Restricted to Diana’s Peak National Park at Cuckold’s Point, Diana’s Peak and Mount Actaeon. <br/> <br/>Total population does not exceed 100 plants, composed of five small subpopulations of 10–30 plants.	eng
44728	habitat	Eastwood, A., 2004	Tree fern thicket. Epiphytic on the endemic tree fern <em>Dicksonia arborescens</em> and the Black cabbage Tree <em>Melanodendron integrifolium</em>. Also found on mossy banks.	eng
44728	threats	Eastwood, A., 2004	Population size is restricted by suitable habitat (indigenous tree fern thicket). The main threat to the species is encroachment of invasive exotics such as <em>Phormium tenax</em> (New Zealand Flax).	eng
44729	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	The only endemic fern in the Soqotra Archipelago. Recorded by Forbes from Abd al Kuri at the end of the 19th Century, but not seen there recently.	eng
44729	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Occurs in shade within dense thickets in montane woodland and shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Also on Abd al Kuri. (300–)600–1,450 m (the lowest altitude is a record from Abd al Kuri).	eng
44730	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. It is reported that <em>A. oligophylla</em> is common in dry ravines and at the mouths of the south draining wadis, which feed into the Noged Plain. However, only two specimens are known – the original specimen collected from the mouth of Wadi Ireh by Balfour in 1880 and a second specimen collected in 1990 at apparently exactly the same spot.	eng
44730	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent and drought-deciduous woodland on rocky slopes along the wadis draining into the southern plains. Altitude of 30 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive many-stemmed shrub with attractive, orange-red flowers which hang in racemes at the ends of pendulous branches. The flowers curve upwards and backwards thus regaining their orginal upright position despite hanging upside down.	eng
44731	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44731	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains from 200 m (Wadi Di Negehen) to 900 m below the pinnacles; occasionally found in sheltered patches of <em>Buxanthus</em> and <em>Rhus</em> woodland in ravines and on cliffs on the seaward-facing limestone escarpments in the east of Soqotra where it can occur down to 50 m. <br/> <br/><em>Anisotes diversifolius</em> is typically a many-stemmed shrub with erect, rather straggling stems. It is very similar to species of <em>Trichocalyx</em> but lacks the numerous thread-like bracts which surround the flowers in that genus. Recorded from near Qallansiyah in the west of the island in the 19th Century but not seen there recently.	eng
44732	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44732	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Occasional in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–600 m.	eng
44733	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra	eng
44733	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread on the plains and foothills of the limestone escarpments; usually in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland; also occasionally in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland (i.e., Firmihin). Altitude of 30–50 m.	eng
44734	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44734	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland (commonly associated with <em>Gnidia socotrana</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>); dry inland plains, particularly along wadis and the foothills of the limestone plateaus of the west; also at Hamadero and Hoq in the east. Altitude of 20–600 m.	eng
44735	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44735	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	The distribution of this species is typical of those of plants found in areas which are catch mist and low cloud. It is readily distinguished by its sub-orbicular, spinose leaves. <br/> <br/>Uncommon and scattered on Soqotra, occurring in semi-deciduous woodland (commonly associated with <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>) on limestone in the east, in submontane woodland (associated with <em>Cephalocroton socotranus</em>) in the Haggeher mountains and also as an outlier in the relict woodland at Qatariyah in the Southwest of the island. Altitude of 400–850 m.	eng
44736	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44736	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Occasional on rocky slopes along the sides of the large wadis draining south into the Noged plain; in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>  and <em>Euclea divinorum</em> ). Altitude of 30–600 m. <br/> <br/>This undescribed new species of <em>Rhus</em> is found, typically on cliffs, along the sides of the larger wadis draining south into the Noged plain. The leaves, which are always trifoliate, are bright green, smaller and not as glossy as those of <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em>. It comes into new leaf at the onset of rain and drops its leaves in summer. The flowers appear in winter and are in little-branched panicles which are shorter than the leaves; in <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> the flowers are in open panicles which greatly exceed the leaves. Its fruits, which are similar to those of <em>R. thyrsiflora</em> are said to be sweeter and, unlike those of <em>R. thyrsiflora</em>, are not wrinkled when dry.	eng
44737	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44737	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to a small area of Southeast Soqotra where it is found mainly on the coastal escarpment cliffs and lip of the limestone plateau. Altitude of 50–300 m.	eng
44738	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44738	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal plains and foothills of Northeast Soqotra where it is often abundant in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of 50–100 m. <br/> <br/>A low intricately branched shrub apparently endemic to Northeast Soqotra. It is distinguished by its narrow, spine-tipped leaves which often bear one or two marginal spines. Vollesen (2000) comments that <em>B. spiculifera</em> is a most remarkable species which has a number of seemingly primitive traits. It is the sole member of subgenus <em>Ebracteata</em> Vollesen which is endemic to Soqotra. Vollesen suggests that <em>B. spiculifolia</em> could be a primitive forerunner to sect. <em>Blepharis</em>.	eng
44739	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44740	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44740	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Usually on sheltered cliffs in evergreen submontane thicket but also less commonly amongst shrubs in clearings in submontane woodland (Qischen). Altitude of 700–1,000 m.	eng
44741	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44741	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Mainly on the limestone plateaus, less commonly on the granite; in a variety of vegetation types including drought deciduous woodland and dwarf shrubland; often associated with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>, <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em>, <em>Croton socotranus</em>, <em>Jatropha unicostata</em> and <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>. Altitude of 300–600 m.	eng
44742	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44742	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and common in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of sea-level to 800 (–1,000) m. <br/> <br/><em>Hypoestes pubescens</em> has sometimes been considered to be a form of the widespread and variable <em>H. forskalei</em>. However, plants on Soqotra are consistently grey-green herbs with clear lilac flowers. For the time being <em>H. pubescens</em> is maintained as a distinct species.	eng
44743	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44743	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on coastal and inland plains where it is typically an undershrub in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland; co-dominant with <em>Croton socotranus</em> and <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em> in the dwarf shrubland of the western inner plains. Altitude of 0–250 m. <br/> <br/>Often heavily grazed and appearing as a dark, almost black, mound beneath <em>Croton socotranus</em>.	eng
44744	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44744	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A rare shrub of sheltered slopes on the highest granite pinnacles of the western Haggeher; associated with <em>Euryops arabicus</em>, <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em>, <em>Hypericum tortuosum</em> and <em>Thamnosma socotrana</em>. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to limestone cliffs at Reqadihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture mist and cloud during the winter and are an eastern outlier for a number species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em> and <em>Dirachma socotrana</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher mountains. This species is closely related to <em>Justicia sp. nov. B</em>.	eng
44745	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44745	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Seaward-facing limestone cliffs in shrubland dominated by <em>Rhus thyrsiflora</em> and <em>Ballochia amoena</em>. Altitude of 500 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to limestone cliffs at Reqadihon (above Hoq). These cliffs capture mist and cloud during the winter and are an eastern outlier for a number species (e.g., <em>Coelocarpum haggierensis</em> and <em>Dirachma socotrana</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher mountains. This species is closely related to <em>Justicia sp. nov. A</em>.	eng
44746	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44746	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland on the north eastern coastal and inland plains. Altitude of sea-level to 120 m.	eng
44747	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44747	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus; in a number of vegetation types including <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 20–600 m.	eng
44748	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44748	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus in succulent shubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 50–650 m.	eng
44749	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri).	eng
44749	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common on the rocky foothills of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri where it is found in dwarf shrubland and succulent shrubland (with <em>Euphorbia balsamifera</em> and <em>Euphorbia schimperi</em>). Altitude of 100–500 m.	eng
44750	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44751	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44751	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in succulent shrubland and deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–650 m. <br/> <br/>Plants from Wadi Ayheft and the Rewgid plateau seem to most consistently match Balfour’s description of this taxa. However, no plants with purple flowers (reported by Balfour for <em>T. obovatus</em>) have been seen amongst recent collections.	eng
44752	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44752	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Perhaps more drought tolerant than <em>Trichocalyx obovatus</em>.	eng
44753	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44753	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On cliffs and rock surfaces, often overlooking the sea; on Soqotra it is rarely found above 200 m (350 m above Ras Shu’ub), however, on Abd al Kuri and Samha it occurs at higher altitudes (up to 650 m). <br/> <br/>Dwarf plants with broader, relatively smaller leaves have been placed in var. <em>humilis</em> Vierh. (1907 p.25). However, this seems to be merely a grazed and stunted form.	eng
44754	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44754	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to granite slopes in the Haggeher mountains where it is locally common in clearings in semi-deciduous and evergreen submontane woodland. Altitude of (250–)500–950 m.	eng
44755	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44755	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Limestone cliffs in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 15–550 m. <br/> <br/>This rather rare, leafless shrub was first recorded by Georg Popov in 1953 from cliffs, just above sea-level, on the Noged plain; not recently seen there but since recorded from NE Soqotra.	eng
44756	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44756	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland on both granite and limestone. Altitude of 450–950 m.	eng
44757	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44757	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and, in places, abundant in shrubland and open semi-deciduous woodland, mainly on the limestone plateau, rarely on the granite. Altitude of 50–750 m. <br/> <br/>Usually a low, rounded shrub, distinguished by the small, succulent, rather glossy leaves, small white flowers and white latex.	eng
44758	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44758	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On Abd al Kuri common in succulent shrubland at 200–600 m; on Soqotra in shrubland and deciduous woodland on the western limestone plateau and in semi-deciduous thicket on the Haggeher mountains at 100–900 m. <br/> <br/><em>Cryptolepis</em> (<em>Curroria</em>) <em>macrophylla</em> was originally described on the basis of a number of specimens from Abd al Kuri and a single specimen, the type, from Soqotra. Recently more collections have become available from Soqotra and have shown that the plants from Abd al Kuri consistently differ from those on Soqotra in having paler, broadly elliptic to broadly obovate (not circular) leaves which are rounded or obtuse (not retuse) at the tip and acute (not obtuse or rounded) at the base. The assessor has not seen flowering material from Abd al Kuri and so is reluctant to formerly recognize them at present. On Soqotra <em>C. macrophylla</em> is not common and is found in two rather different habitats: in montane thicket on the Haggeher and in drought tolerant shrubland on the western limestone plateau. On Abd al Kuri it is relatively common in succulent shrubland on the middle and upper slopes of Jebel Saleh and is more or less the only tree on the island.	eng
44759	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44759	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widely scattered but never common on limestone cliffs in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 50–200 m. <br/> <br/>This attractive shrub typically hangs from vertical cliff faces and is readily distinguished by its sessile, orbicular leaves and twisted corolla lobes. There are unlikey 19th century records of this species from the Haggeher mountains.	eng
44760	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44760	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Very rare on exposed granite outcrops in the Haggeher. Altitude of 900 m.	eng
44761	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44761	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On soil beneath dense deciduous woodland on granite. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the deep maroon, cup-shaped flowers. The only species on the island to grow in the relatively wet conditions of the Haggeher mountains. Originally collected by Theodore Bent in the 19th century. Unfortunately, Bent died in Aden on his return from Soqotra and it was not known whether his collection was made on Soqotra or on the mainland. The mystery was only solved when the plant was rediscovered on the southern slopes of the Haggeher in 1998. It was found to be relatively common over a small area and flowering prolifically.	eng
44762	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44762	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, on shady cliffs in succulent shrubland on the inland slopes of the western limestone plateau. Altitude of 200 m. <br/> <br/>The smallest-flowered species on Soqotra. Only known from a single gathering.	eng
44763	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44763	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread but rare on limestone plateau, usually in thin soil in cracks and in the shade of boulders. Altitude of 200–350 m. <br/> <br/>Related to several other species with tubular corollas from East Africa and Southwest Arabia. There is some variation in the shape of the corolla and the length of the corolla lobes in the few specimens seen on Soqotra.	eng
44764	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44764	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, on the western limestone plateau; in thin soil on limestone pavement in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 550 m. <br/> <br/>Only collected once. Distinguished by the pink, almost flat flowers.	eng
44765	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44765	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread on the limestone plateau; in thin soil beneath bushes and in the shade of rocks in dwarf succulent shrubland. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the yellow flowers with red centre. Possibly the commonest and most widespread species of <em>Echidnopsis</em> on the island.	eng
44766	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44766	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread but never common, typically on cliffs in dry deciduous woodland. Altitude of 50–500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its petiolate, heart-shaped leaves and the axillary clusters of tiny, sweet-smelling white flowers.	eng
44767	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44767	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread but never common in succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland. Altitude of 200–650 m. <br/> <br/>Most plants seen on Soqotra were not in flower and so could not be identified with certainty. A specimen from the limestone plateau on Samha is rather atypical; the flowers are small, as is typical of <em>S. socotranum</em>, however, the corona is different. It has been included under <em>S. socotranum</em> for the time being.	eng
44768	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44768	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in succulent shrubland and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–700 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the narrow, obcuneate leaves.	eng
44769	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44769	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Climbing over rocks and shrubs in succulent shrubland and semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–800 m. <br/> <br/>Plants with silvery or white versus reddish hairs on the calyx and ovate versus oblong corolla lobes have been separated off as var. <em>glauca</em>. However, recent collections have shown that <em>S. socotrana</em> is much more variable in these characters than previously thought and var. <em>glauca</em> is not recognised here.	eng
44770	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44770	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare on limestone pavement, in dwarf succulent shrubland on the western plateau. Altitude of 650–800 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive succulent with decumbent stems and pretty yellow flowers with contrasting red stripes at their centre. The specific epithet refers to the long, erect pedicels which hold the flowers facing upwards.	eng
44771	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44771	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in dry woodland and shrubland. Altitude of 15–600 m. <br/> <br/>A leafless climber with dense, often tangled stems and minute reddish brown flowers.	eng
44772	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44772	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Samha: damp and shady cracks in north-facing limestone cliffs. Altitude of 600–700 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>Begonia socotrana</em>. However, unlike that species <em>B. samhaensis</em> flowers after rain and is not reliant on short day length.	eng
44773	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44773	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on damp and shady cracks in north-facing cliffs and occasionally on soil under dense vegetation; restricted to limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland (Reyged and Rewgid plateau) and on granite cliffs and pinnacles in montane woodland and shrubland across the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>First collected by Balfour in 1880. He brought plants back to Britain where it was crossed with southern African speices and rapidly became an important horticulturaly as the hybrid parent of a host of winter-flowering begonias.	eng
44774	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44774	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Grassland and clearings in dwarf shrubland, deciduous woodland and montane woodland, also once recorded as a weed of date gardens on the Hadiboh plain at 50 m. Altitude of 450–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by the azure blue flowers, marbled leaves and strigose leaves. A plant of grassland in high rainfall areas.	eng
44775	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44775	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on Samha and Southwest Soqotra; in dwarf shrubland on exposed and windswept desertic limestone plateaus and cliffs. Altitude of 450–700 m.  The flowers are almost actinomorphic and bright white. It is the only cushion-forming species in the genus.	eng
44776	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44776	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on coastal plains and rocky hill-slopes. Altitude of sea-level to 520 m. <br/> <br/><em>H. kuriense</em> is similar to <em>H. paulayanum</em> but has bigger and relatively narrower leaves, shorter petioles and clearly defined infloresence.	eng
44777	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri)	eng
44777	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sandy soil on coastal plains in dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Heliotropium</em> in the Archipelago by its roundish, long petiole, suborbicular, long-petiolate leaves, ill-defined inflorescence and white flowers.	eng
44778	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra (Abd al Kuri)	eng
44778	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sandy soil on coastal plains in dwarf shrubland. Sea-level to 100 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Heliotropium</em> in the Archipelago by its narrowly elliptic or lanceolate, long-petiolate leaves, poorly defined infloresence and thinner indumentum. There is considerable variation recorded in flower and fruit characters.	eng
44779	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44779	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal plains and limestone slopes; dwarf shrubland. Altitude to sea-level to 200 m. <br/> <br/><em>H. wagneri</em> is distinguished by its shortly petiolate, narrowly elliptic or lanceolate leaves and glabrous or hairy fruits breaking into two pairs of fused nutlets. A specimen from Samha (Miller 11447, E) resembles typical <em>H. wagneri</em> in its flowers and leaves but the fruits breaks into four nutlets. It is interesting that the flowers of this species are consistently white on Abd al Kuri whilst they are always yellow on Samha.	eng
44780	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra (recorded from Jebel Derafonte).	eng
44781	conservation	Fahr. J., 2009	Although it is present within the Nyungwe National Park, it seems additional measures are needed to conserve the habitat of this species. There is a need for bat awareness programmes for local people to prevent overharvesting of the species. Further field surveys are also needed to locate important roosts and to learn more about the natural history of this poorly known bat.	eng
44781	distribution	Fahr. J., 2009	This species is known only within the Nyunwe National Park, Rwanda. It has been identified from only two close localities (approximately 8 km apart). Field surveys in surrounding areas of potentially suitable habitat have not found additional populations. It has an elevational range of between 1,750 and 2,512 m asl (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44781	habitat	Fahr. J., 2009	The only records of this species were from the Albertine rift montane tropical moist forest (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002). The day roosting sites of the species are not known, but seems likely to be caves and similar habitats (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is not known if the species can persist in areas of degraded forest.	eng
44781	population	Fahr. J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species; colonies of this species have yet to be found but are likely to be small (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44781	threats	Fahr. J., 2009	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002) indicates that while there is little information available on this seemingly limited range species, it is probably threatened by habitat destruction (presumably by logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use) and direct exploitation (for subsistence food) in their day roosts.	eng
44782	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2009	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, but it has been recorded from the Sapoba Forest Reserve in Nigeria and the Bali Forest Reserve in Cameroon (Cotterill 2002). There is a need to identify and protect important areas for this species. Further research is needed into the species distribution, including the location of any additional colonies.	eng
44782	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2009	This species is largely endemic to West and Central Africa, with a single questionable record from northern Uganda. It has been recorded from a few small, and disjunct, colonies in Liberia (including Voinjama; Tokadeh; and the Wonegizi Mountains), Guinea, Nigeria (Sapoba Forest Reserve) and Cameroon (including Lake Manenguba and the Bali Forest Reserve).	eng
44782	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2009	Populations of this species have been recorded from caves in both montane and lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
44782	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2009	The species appears to have a small population, but further research is needed to confirm this.	eng
44782	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2009	Colonies are threatened by general deforestation, often resulting from logging and mining operations, and overharvesting for the bushmeat trade.	eng
44783	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	While the species is present in the Mazumbai Forest Reserve, further habitat protection is generally needed. Additional field surveys are needed to better determine the true extent of the species geographic range.	eng
44783	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This poorly known bat has only been recorded from two localities in Tanzania at elevations of up to 1,900 m asl,  the type locality of 'Amboni Cave Forest, Mkulumuzi River Gorge, 2.5 km W of Tanga, Tanga District' (Kock <em>et al.</em> 2000) and Mazumbai Forest Reserve in the Usambara Mountains. Additional surveys are needed to better determine the range of this recently described species.	eng
44783	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known. It roosts in caves and seems likely to be associated with forest habitats.	eng
44783	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The species is currently known only from two specimens, and there is no information on population sizes or trends.	eng
44783	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44784	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	The species has been recorded from some protected areas, such as the  Mount Ruwenzori National Park. There is a need to reduce levels of deforestation within the Albertine Rift region as a whole. There is a need to initiate and develop public awareness programmes in the region, and to reduce the disturbance of roosting localities. Further field surveys are needed to locate additional population of this species.	eng
44784	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is restricted to the mountains of the Albertine Rift, where it has been recorded from the countries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda, at elevations of 1,666 to 2,666 m asl. The distribution includes the Ruwenzori Mountains, Kivu Region and Kibali-Ituri-Forest, Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest and Mutura in northwestern Rwanda (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
44784	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	Fahr <em>et al.</em> (2002), report that the species is present in Albertine Rift Montane Forest, the Rwenzori-Virunga Montane Moorlands, and marginally into the Northeastern Congolian Lowland Forests and the Victoria Bain Forest-Savanna Mosaic. This species uses natural caves and similar man made environments, such as abandoned mine shafts, as roosting habitats (Faher <em>et al</em>. 2002). Colony size ranges from one to ten individuals (Fahr <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
44784	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is known only from 36 specimens collected from 13 localities, these total only eight distinct locations.	eng
44784	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is threatened by the deforestation of its montane habitat, generally through logging and mining activities, and the conversion of forest to farmland. It is dependant on cave habitats for roosting, and it is likely that disturbance of these sites could be an important threat to the species. It may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food, and while this needs to be fully confirmed populations are vulnerable to direct exploitation.	eng
44785	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to better determine the extent of the distribution of this species, to gather more information on the species natural history, and to review the threats to this species.	eng
44785	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	This recently described bat species is known only from the type locality of Kavunda, between the Sakeji and Zambezi rivers: c. 11 km north-north-east of the source of the Zambezi River in the Ikelenge Pedicle, Mwinilunga District of north-west Zambia (Cotterill 2002). It is likely that the species is also present within similar suitable habitat in Angola and the Congo basin (Cotterill 2002).	eng
44785	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	Cotterill (2002) collected the species hanging within evergreen foliage on the underside of a branch at the base of a large tree, within a stand of gallery forest within mesic miombo woodland. It is also reported to be found within roosting within hollow trees (Cotterill 2002).	eng
44785	population	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	It is currently known only from the type collection of three bats, taken from a cluster of six roosting bats.	eng
44785	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumably threatened by the loss of roosting sites resulting from logging and the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural use.	eng
44786	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to protect suitable areas of forest habitat for this species, and to initiate appropriate bat conservation awareness programmes among local people. In addition, further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
44786	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This West African bat is known from two localities in the Guinea Highlands (c. 600 m asl) of southeast Guinea (Ziama Forest) and north-west Liberia (Wonegizi Mountains) (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002). Surrounding areas have been surveyed but the species has not been found elsewhere.	eng
44786	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is associated with both montane and lowland tropical moist forest. The Guinea specimens were captured in a secondary forest close to primary forest, while the Liberian specimen was captured in upland "undisturbed High Forest" (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002). The day roosts of this species are not known, although it is suspected to roost as small colonies in caves, mine shafts and similar habitats (Fahr <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
44786	population	Fahr. J., 2008	It is known only from four specimens.	eng
44786	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat, largely through logging and mining operations, and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is also considered possible that the species could be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food in the future.	eng
44787	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is probably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this bat.	eng
44787	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is restricted to South Africa and Lesotho. Skinner and Chimimba (2005) provide the distribution of the species being "confined to the Northern Cape and the Western Cape, where they occur from the vicinity of Franschhoek north to Citrusdal and north-east to Beaufort West and Mazelsfontein in the Great Karoo" but may range a little more widely than this. The species has been recorded at four localities in the eastern Free State and from a number of localities in adjacent Lesotho (Lynch 1994; Watson 1998).	eng
44787	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	In the eastern part of its range this bat has been reported close to water in open montane grassveld, and from broken country with koppies and cliffs (Lynch 1994; Watson 1998; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). In the Western Cape it inhabits fynbos and possibly the succulent karoo. In the Free State and Lesotho, a number of animals have been collected from rock crevices, including a group of 40 individuals (Watson 1998).	eng
44787	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species is very rarely recorded.	eng
44787	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	It is locally threatened in parts of its range by conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44788	conservation	Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It is not known if there are any direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is unclear if it occurs within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this little known species.	eng
44788	distribution	Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This southern African species ranges from the type locality of Moçâmedes in southwestern Angola, southwards through western Namibia (the four localities of Berseba, Huab River mouth, Lüderitz district, and 70 km west of Maltahohe) to three localities in the Northern Cape of South Africa (Goegab, Goodhouse on the Orange River, and Steyerskraal) (Herselman 1980; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
44788	habitat	Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species. All of the localities from which they have been collected are arid with a mean annual rainfall of less than 100 mm (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Specimens have usually been caught close to open water, and have been observed gleaning insects from orange trees (Roberts 1951; Taylor 2000; Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
44788	population	Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	It appears to be a rarely recorded species.	eng
44788	threats	Griffin, M. & Jacobs, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened by mining operations in a small part of its range.	eng
44789	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the species distribution, natural history and threats.	eng
44789	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is distributed in Central Africa where it has been recorded from Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The range is poorly known and it may be distributed more widely.	eng
44789	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Little additional information is available on the natural history and adaptability of this species.	eng
44789	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is generally considered to be rare, however, there have been few recent surveys within the species range.	eng
44789	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known.	eng
44790	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little recorded species.	eng
44790	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is widespread in Central and East Africa. It ranges from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), into the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and possibly northern Malawi, with the southernmost record from northwestern Angola. The range is not well known and the species is expected to be distributed more widely than is currently known.	eng
44790	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Animals have been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest and moist savanna habitats. It has been recorded roosting in vegetation. There is little information currently available on the natural history of this species. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded, or secondary, forest habitats.	eng
44790	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This is a rarely recorded, poorly known species.	eng
44790	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The species is threatened in the western and eastern parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging activities, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44791	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this little known bat.	eng
44791	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is distributed in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Côte d'Ivoire in the west, through Ghana and Nigeria to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), with scattered records from Gabon, Central African Republic, Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
44791	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is generally associated with lowland tropical moist forest (Happold, 1987). There appears to be little information available on the roosting habits of this species, but presumably it can be found within hollow trees and dense vegetation. It is not known if the species can persist in areas of disturbed forest.	eng
44791	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This appears to be a rare, or at least a rarely recorded, species.	eng
44791	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is threatened by general habitat loss, often resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44792	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
44792	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This Central African species is known only from southern Cameroon and a single locality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Yalosemba North of the River).	eng
44792	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest and swamp forest. Little further is known of the species natural history.	eng
44792	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown. The area where this species has been recorded is often inaccessible and it is difficult to catch this species.	eng
44792	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44793	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It has been recorded from the Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001), and may be present in additional protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known bat.	eng
44793	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known African bat has currently only been recorded from three localities. The type locality is Bibundi in the Western Province of Cameroon (Thomas 1913); three individuals (as <em>G.</em> cf. <em>egeria</em>) were collected from Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve in the Central African Republic (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2001); the species indicated as being present in western Uganda by Koopman (1993), although further details are needed of the collection site in this country.	eng
44793	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appears to be little information available on the natural history of this species. Lunde <em>et al.</em> (2001) recorded three specimens (allocated to<em>G. egeria</em>) collected in dense secondary tropical lowland forest and along a forest road.	eng
44793	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is known from very few specimens.	eng
44793	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44794	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and potential threats to this species.	eng
44794	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This poorly known African bat has only been recorded from the type locality of 'near Lomie' in Cameroon, and from a single site in western Uganda.	eng
44794	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This poorly known bat is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. It is presumed to live in small colonies, as with other members of this genus.	eng
44794	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
44794	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by logging and the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural use.	eng
44795	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this poorly known forest species.	eng
44795	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This little known species has been recorded in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda. It has been reported from Kenya, but no specific locality information is available (Aggundey and Schlitter 1984).	eng
44795	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest. Presumably it roosts within hollow trees and dense vegetation, although this needs confirmation.	eng
44795	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
44795	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It may be threatened within parts of its range by deforestation resulting from logging and mining activities, and the conversion of forest to farmland.	eng
44796	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for additional field surveys to better understand the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
44796	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known African bat has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Galole Road, 8.5 km north of Garsen, Coast Province, Kenya'.	eng
44796	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appears to be little habitat or ecological information available for this species. It may be an inhabitant of coastal forest.	eng
44796	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is known only from the type collection.	eng
44796	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear. If it is associated with coastal forest habitats, it is likely to be threatened by extraction of wood and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44797	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	The species does not appear to be present in a protected area. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species, as is field research into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
44797	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This little known species has only been recorded from the type locality of 'Lac Calundo'. in eastern Angola.	eng
44797	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are few details on the natural history of this species, however, Koopman (1971) mentions that most members of this genus are more or less restricted to forested areas.	eng
44797	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
44797	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44798	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution of this species, and to gather additional information on the natural history of this little known bat.	eng
44798	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is largely distributed in West and Central Africa, with a possible record from northeastern Tanzania. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through much of West Africa to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (the island of Bioko) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa.	eng
44798	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with lowland tropical moist forest (Happold 1987). Colonies are formed of small groups of animals, up to eight individuals, that roost in holes in trees, on the fronds of coconut palms, and presumably in similar vegetation (Rosevear 1965; Jeffrey 1975; Happold 1987).	eng
44798	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	While the species is generally rare, it is considered to be one of the more common forest species of the genus <em>Glauconycteris</em>.	eng
44798	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging and similar activities.	eng
44799	conservation	Fahr, J., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It may be protected within the Ituri Forest, although this needs to be confirmed. There is a need for further directed field surveys to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
44799	distribution	Fahr, J., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This little known African bat has been recorded from Côte d'Ivoire (locality not given) (Peterson and Smith 1973); from Oda in Oda Province, Ghana (Hayman 1947; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998); and from the Ituri Forest in northeastern Congo. It has previously been reported to occur in Uganda, however, this is now considered to be in error. It may be present in Sierra Leone, however, it has yet to have been recorded in this country (Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
44799	habitat	Fahr, J., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with 'heavy' or closed lowland tropical moist forest (Rosevear 1965; Hayman and Hill 1971). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat degradation.	eng
44799	population	Fahr, J., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is currently known only from three specimens. It is very rare, or at least rarely collected (Hayman and Hill 1971; Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
44799	threats	Fahr, J., Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	As it has only been recorded from closed forest, it may be threatened by deforestation due to general logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44800	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. In view of the species wide distribution it is presumably present in some protected areas.	eng
44800	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is widely, but patchily, recorded throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal and The Gambia in West Africa, through West and Central Africa to Ethiopia and Somalia in the east, from here it ranges south through East Africa and southern Africa, being recorded as far south as northeastern South Africa.	eng
44800	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is associated with open savanna woodland, bushland and riverine woodland (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Animals are generally considered to be absent from areas of closed forest, although Rosevear (1965) suggests that the species is present in rainforest. Roosting colonies, containing a few pairs of animals, have been found in thatched roofs of abandoned huts and among dense vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 1917; Ansell and Dowsett 1988).Taylor, 1998	eng
44800	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Colonies of this species are small, and there are believed to be less than 10,000 individuals in total.	eng
44800	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	In view of the species wide range and availability of extensive suitable habitat, there are no major threats to this species. This species is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44801	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44801	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on northern and western coastal plains. Altitude of sea-level to 50 m.	eng
44802	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44802	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper also recorded it from Abd al Kuri but an examination of his material leads the assessor to consider it to be referable to <em>H. wagneri</em>.	eng
44803	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44803	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sandy and coral derived soils on coastal plains and thin soil overlying limestone; dwarf shrubland and <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 350 m. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper considered <em>H. socotraum</em> to have hairy fruits separating into four glabrous, rugose nutlets and yellow flowers. Recorded by Vierhapper from Bandar Shuub.	eng
44804	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44804	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and sometimes common in dwarf shrubland and drought deciduous woodland; Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>This shrubby species is distinguished by the yellowish green, bullate (wrinkled) leaves.	eng
44805	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44805	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Drought deciduous woodland and on wadi sides in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland; seems to prefer damp sand and is a frequent weed along the wadis running through date gardens on the Hadiboh plain. Altitude of 50–250 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by the basal rosettes of long-petiolate, dentate-undulate leaves (at least on young plants) and long prostrate stems.	eng
44806	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44806	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally abundant on the southern limestone plateau in <em>Dracaena</em> woodland (Firmihin) and semi-deciduous woodland (Qatariyah). Altitude of 400–600 m. <br/> <br/>A shrub < 1 m, almost prostrate in exposed places, all parts thinly covered with short, appressed, tuberculate-based hairs. Leaves: subopposite, dark green, glossy, broadly elliptic to subcircular, 0.5–1.2 x 0.5–1 cm, rounded, entire. Flowers: solitary or paired at ends of branches. Calyx: narrowly triangular, <em>ca</em>. 1 mm long. Corolla: white, 6–7 mm across; tube very short. Stigmas: triangular. Nutlets: 4. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive species distinguished by the subopposite, almost circular glossy leaves. Its affinities within the genus are not at all obvious.	eng
44807	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44807	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpments and in sheltered places on the limestone plateau, also in succulent shrubland and submontane woodland. Altitude of 15–1,220 m. <br/> <br/>Plants from Abd al Kuri are generally smaller in all parts and have been recognized as a separate species, <em>T. atrichum</em> Vierh. However, the differences are small and here they are considered an extreme form of this variable species.	eng
44808	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44808	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to higher parts of the Haggeher mountains in montane evergreen woodland and shrubland. Altitude of 900–1,500 m.	eng
44809	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44809	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A locally common understorey shrub in montane thicket in the central Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (650–)850–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive, understorey species, with large, soft leaves and big, creamy-white, funnel-shaped flowers which are arranged in pendent inflorescences that resemble the head of an upturned mop. Recorded from Northeast Soqotra (Homhil at 650 m) in the 19th Century but not seen since.	eng
44810	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44810	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare on the Southeast limestone plateau where it is found on an exposed and sparsely vegetated desert plain. Altitude of 700 m. <br/> <br/>A compact, cushion-forming shrublet distinguished by its silvery sericeous leaves and its congested, capsular fruits.	eng
44811	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44811	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On limestone cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland dominated by <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>, <em>Buxus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Croton socotranus</em>. Altitude of 700–800 m. <br/> <br/>This small tree is common on the limestone plateau of Firmihin. It is clearly related to <em>B. ameero</em>, which does not grow in the area, but differs in its cliff-rooting habit and pale pink petals. It grows side by side with <em>B. dioscorides</em> (the only place where two cliff-dwelling species have been observed growing together). It is readily distinguished from <em>B. dioscorides</em> by its green, not glaucous, leaves and in differences in the shape of the "holdfast" which attaches the trunk to the cliff face.	eng
44812	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44812	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 100–300 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive cliff-dwelling tree, characterized by its pinnate leaves and crinkly, deeply irregularly crenate-serrate leaflets. There is some variation; plants from the single population known in the east of the island (at Bit gobeher) differ from trees from the west (at Wadi Ayeq and the cliffs above Qaysoh) in having red (not greenish yellow) petals and leaves with fewer (9–13), more regularly and less deeply crenate-serrate leaflets.	eng
44813	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44813	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and sometimes abundant on limestone cliffs in dry, semi-deciduous woodland in the south and east of the island. Altitude of 200–750 m. <br/> <br/>An exclusively cliff-dwelling species distinguished by its glaucous leaves and strongly peeling bark.	eng
44814	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44814	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare on limestone cliffs and limestone pavement, in dry, semi-deciduous woodland in the Northeast of the island. Altitude of 300–550 m. <br/> <br/><em>B. nana</em> is recognized here as a complex of low, sometimes totally prostrate shrubs and small trees found on limestone cliffs and areas of flat limestone pavement in a relatively restricted area of Northeast Soqotra. Thulin and Al-Gifri (1998) regarded <em>B. nana</em> as a reduced form of <em>B. popoviana</em>.  However, it differs from that species in its smaller, more reduced panicles of red, not yellowish flowers and the glabrous not white-felted undersurface of its leaves. Certain plants from inland cliffs in Northeast Soqotra, included here under <em>B. nana</em>, show great variation in the degree of the division of their leaves and in their habit. The assessor strongly suspects that these plants are the result of hybridization with <em>B. socotrana</em>. The clearest evidence for this is a tree  found at the base of limestone cliffs at Hamadero which is somewhat intermediate in appearance between <em>B. socotrana</em> and "typical" <em>B. nana</em>. It bears both simple and pinnate leaves with the pinnate leaves having the winged rhachises which are otherwise diagnostic of <em>B. socotrana</em>. It seems also to be intermediate in its ecology: typical <em>B. nana</em> is restricted to cliffs, <em>B. socotrana</em> is ground-rooted whereas the intermediate plant was found growing amongst rocks at the base of cliffs. Populations of <em>B. nana</em> found on the seaward-facing escarpments of northeast Soqotra bear only simple leaves.	eng
44815	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44815	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Emergent from <em>Croton shrubland</em> on plains in Western Soqotra (wadi Eyek, 50 m); emergent in <em>Croton</em> shrubland at 350 on road to Dixsam. <br/> <br/>Sometimes has five leaflets (100 m); bark reddish, not peeling.	eng
44816	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44816	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Clearings in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–750 m. <br/> <br/>This delicate annual with its small, pretty, bell-shaped flowers appears soon after rain but rapidly dies back to nothing in the dry season.	eng
44817	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44817	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in open dwarf shrubland (Zahr) and degraded succulent shrubland (Killisan) in two widely separated locations. Altitude of 100–350 m. <br/> <br/>Gnarled tree with fleshy dark green leaves and fissured bark. Flowers and fruits at the end of the winter and beginning of summer.	eng
44818	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44818	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	The ecology of this species is not clear. It is found in two very different habitats: at low altitudes in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland by the coast and in montane shrubland amongst the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher. Altitude of sea-level to 1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Said to be on the increase in some areas (for instance at Halle in Northeast Soqotra).	eng
44819	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44819	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted the western Haggeher mountains where it is found in low shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of 450–900 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its large, entirely brown bracts and the petiolate, linear-oblanceolate, olive-green leaves. Previously <em>G. bracteatus</em> was used in a broad sense to include all plants found on Soqotra, Abd al Kuri and in Oman. However, here <em>G. bracteatus</em> is used strictly for plants from Soqotra. <em>G. bracteatus</em> is probably more closely related to species (<em>G. argenteus</em> and <em>G. dhofarensis</em>) from the Arabian mainland than to <em>G. kuriensis</em>.	eng
44820	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44820	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Abd al Kuri: Dwarf shrubland on low sand-dunes, gravel plains and broken rocky slopes. Altitude of 30–500 m.  <br/>Soqotra: exposed and windswept places on the limestone plateau in dwarf shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 500–700 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>G. rotundifolius</em> from the coastal desert of central Oman. Distinguished from <em>G. bracteatus</em> by its grey-green, obovoid to subglobose leaves.	eng
44821	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	A monotypic genus endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44821	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Ravines and hillsides, on limestone and granite, in drought-deciduous shrubland. Altitude of 200–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>A rather insignificant prostrate herb. The small flowers are almost completely hidden within the globose clusters of brownish scarious bracts. <em>Haya</em> is superficially similar to <em>Polycarpaea hayoides</em> but differs in its one-seeded capsules and sessile, not stalked, clusters of flowers.	eng
44822	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44822	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Gravelly plains, rocky slopes and wadi-sides in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of 15–600 m. <br/> <br/>A delicate annual herb with linear stem leaves.	eng
44823	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44823	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On large boulders, rocky wadi-sides and cliffs on limestone in dwarf shrubland, succulent shrubland and semi-decidous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/>A rather brittle perennial herb with the many stems bearing whorls of linear leaves and arising from a woody stock.	eng
44824	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44824	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Abd al Kuri: rocky slopes in desertic dwarf shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 150 m. <br/> <br/>Differs from other <em>Polycarpaea</em> species on Abd al Kuri by its narrowly spathulate, grey-green leaves (cf. <em>P. caespitosa</em> and <em>P. kuriensis</em>).	eng
44825	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44825	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky wadi-sides on limestone and in date gardens in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shubland. Altitude of  50–450 m. <br/> <br/>Superficially resembling <em>Haya obovata</em> but differing in its three-seeded capsule that opens from the apex and the stalked clusters of flowers.	eng
44826	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44826	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky slopes in dwarf shrubland (Soqotra and Samna) and low succulent shrubland (Abd al Kuri). Altitude of 250–600 m. <br/> <br/>Distingusihed from all the other species of <em>Polycarpaea</em> in the Archipelago by its peduncles which are characteristically swollen beneath the flowering heads. In exposed places or when it has been intensively grazed it often forms dense cushions, the short stems arising from a woody plate-like basal rootstock.	eng
44827	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44827	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf desertic shrubland, <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland and rarely in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m. <br/> <br/>All plants on Soqotra are referable to var. <em>capillaris</em> Balf.f. No material of <em>P. spicata</em> var <em>spicata</em> has been seen on Soqotra. Var. <em>capillaries</em> differs from var. <em>spicata</em> in several significant respects and should probably be raised to specific status.	eng
44828	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44828	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent shrubland (Soqotra) and low shrubland dominated by <em>Atriplex griffithii</em> (Samha). Altitude of 50–500 m. <br/> <br/>A delicately-stemmed prostrate annual with narrowly spathulate stem leaves.	eng
44829	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Socotra.	eng
44829	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in relict semi-deciduous woodland on limestone cliffs. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 580 m. <br/> <br/>The fasciculate flowers in the inflorescence are unusual in <em>Maytenus</em> in this area although the same structure is also found in <em>M. undata</em>, a species found in Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia and widespread in tropical and southern Africa. However, the small leaves with entire margins arranged on short spur shoots and the presence of spines distinguishes the taxon on Soqotra from <em>M. undata</em>. <em>M. artbutifolius</em> has rather similar size and shape leaves but they are usually serrate and the inflorescence is clearly branched. In addition, <em>M. arbutifolius</em> is a much more spinose plant.	eng
44830	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44830	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally abundant in open dwarf shrubland on the drier parts of the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>The only densely spiny clump-forming perennial on Soqotra. Both leaves and phyllaries (the bracts around the flowers are stiff and very sharp.	eng
44831	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44831	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	The species on Soqotra is unusual in <em>Distephanus</em> for its habit, leaf venation and one-rowed pappus.	eng
44832	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44832	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A common cushion-plant of rock-faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>Readily recognized by its rigid, sharp-tipped, linear leaves and the flowering heads held erect on long stalks. It is one of the characteristic, and most common, cushion plants of the Haggeher where it frequently grows with <em>Hypericum scopulorum</em> and <em>Helichrsyum rosulatum</em>, the only other cushion-forming species of <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra. There is a puzzling 19th Century record of this species from the Northeast of Soqotra (Homhil) in Forbes (1903). This refers to fruits collected by the expedition . However, no material can be traced and this is a highly unlikely area for this species to occur.	eng
44833	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44833	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Typically growing in shade in grassy clearings and at the foot of cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 200–750 m. <br/> <br/>The only annual species <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra clothed in long woolly hairs.	eng
44834	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44834	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	In grassy clearings and amongst rocks in semi-deciduous woodland on both granite and limestone. Altitude of 370–1,067 m. <br/> <br/>One of the group of <em>Helichrysum</em> species on Soqotra with zygomorphic outer florets. Distinguished from all other <em>Helichrysums</em> on Soqotra by its wiry flowering stalks which characteristically recurve with age.	eng
44835	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44835	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in the Haggeher mountains; in semi-deciduous submontane woodland; particularly abundant, on sheltered ridges and in the dense thicket around the base of the granite pinnacles, in the eastern Haggeher. Altitude of 900–110 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>H. suffruticosum</em> but larger shrub with smaller, elliptic (not spathulate) leaves with entire margins. Reported to be increaseing in the eastern Haggeher.	eng
44837	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44837	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A common cushion-plant of rock-faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 750–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>One of the characteristic cushion plants of the Haggeher, frequently growing with <em>Hypericum scopulorum</em> and <em>Helichrsyum aciculare</em>, the only other cushion-forming species of <em>Helichrysum</em> on Soqotra. <em>H. rosulatum</em> is readily recognized by its soft, narrowly elliptic leaves and the more or less sessile flowering heads. It is less common than <em>H. aciculare</em> and seems more ecologically demanding, being less widespread and not growing at such low altitudes as that species.	eng
44838	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44838	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Samha: Cliffs and in gorges on summit plateau; likes areas that get mists. Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Woody-based herb with fleshy leaves and white flowers.	eng
44839	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44839	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Hanging on limestone cliffs in shrubland. Altitude of 500–800 m. <br/> <br/>Aromatic shrub with greyish-green leaves and pink or lilac flowers. Similar to <em>H. suffruticosum</em> but differing in the narrower, more densely hairy leaves with nerves radiating from the base and entire margin.	eng
44840	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44840	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Hanging on limestone cliffs. Altitude of 50–150 m. <br/> <br/>Shrub with fleshy, whitish green leaves and pink flowers. Found only on vertical rock faces around springs and seepages. In the likelihood of these springs being developed they may even warrant Critically Endangered status. (cf <em>Helichrysum</em> sp. nov., <em>Exacum socotranum</em>, <em>Scaveola socotraensis</em>, <em>Erythroxylum socotranum</em>).	eng
44841	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44841	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to cliffs on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra. Altitude of 380–530 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>Helichrysum samhaensis</em> but distinguished by the yellow-green, non-fleshy leaves, broadly spathulate leaves. Only known from two collections, both lack mature flowers on the isolated ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) in the extreme east of the island. This ridge probably captures mists from the monsoon (cf. <em>Nesocrambe socotrana</em> and <em>Pulicaria dioscorides</em>).	eng
44842	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha?	eng
44842	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	North-facing cliffs and broken rocky slopes; seems to prefer areas that attract drizzle and low cloud. Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Mat-forming perennial. Leaves obovate, green above, silvery beneath. Phyllaries golden-brown in overlapping rows, obtuse, margins translucent. Flowers unknown. <br/> <br/>A locally common plant on Samha. Probably referable to <em>Helichrysum</em> but only very old capitula have been seen; more material is required before an assessment can be made.	eng
44843	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44843	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	In the Haggeher mountains locally common in semi deciduous montane woodland and shrubland; Altitude of 850–1,300 m.  <br/>In the western limestone plateau on rocky limestone slopes in low shrubland (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em> and <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>); Altitude of 650–800 m.	eng
44844	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44844	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in montane semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Last seen by Alan Radcliffe-Smith in 1967.	eng
44845	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44845	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Occasional in semi-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 750–800 m. <br/> <br/><em>Kleinia</em> is a genus of succulent shrubs related to the widespread genus <em>Senecio</em>. The rounded, pencil-like stems bear distinctive markings radiating downwards from the leaf scars. This is the only succulent <em>Compositae</em> on Soqotra.	eng
44846	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44846	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland and open woodland in semi-decidous woodland in mist-affected areas. Altitude of 400–800 m. <br/> <br/>Herb < 15 cm with small, woody taproot. Basal leaves in a dense rosette, spathulate, 1.5–4 x  0.1–0.2 cm, sinuate. Capitula in little-branched inflorescence; cylindrical, 0.5–1 cm long. <br/> <br/>Restricted to mist-effected regions on Soqotra including the Haggeher mountains, Jebal Ma’alih and the areas of relict woodland on the Southwest plateaus. It is also found in the refugium of relatively mesic conditions on the north-facing limestone cliffs on Samha (cf <em>Begonia samhaensis</em>).	eng
44847	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44847	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m.	eng
44848	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44848	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types on Soqotra and Samha. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>Following Kilian (1997, p.265) we have retained <em>L. socotrana</em> as distinct from <em>L. massauensis</em> but they are very difficult to separate using the key characters. Life-span (annual in <em>L. massauensis</em> and perennial in <em>L. socotrana</em>) is a difficult character to determine since both taxa have a thin taproot and no obviously well-developed storage organ. Outer achene colour is similarly not a clear defining character and specimens identified as <em>L. socotrana</em> have blackish outer achenes.	eng
44849	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44849	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, only collected once from a vertical rock face on granite pinnacles in the western Haggeher; growing with <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em>, <em>Nirurathamnos asarifolius</em> and <em>Hypericum tortuosum</em>. Altitude of ca.1,550 m. <br/> <br/>Kilian (1997) includes this specimen in <em>L. crepoides</em>. However, in facies it is very distinct differing in its generally larger size, habit, leaf shape and colour. It also has a different geographical distribution and ecological habitat. Further collections are needed before the correct status of this interesting collection can be assessed.	eng
44850	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44850	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	No habitat details available. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 800 m. <br/> <br/>It was a subshrub with erect stems and lilac flowers in dense terminal panicles. See notes under <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em>.	eng
44851	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Monadjem, A. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
44851	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Monadjem, A. & Griffin, M., 2008	This largely southern African species ranges from Angola in the west, through southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from here south into Zambia, Zimbabwe, and eastern South Africa. It could be more widespread in southern Africa than is currently understood (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The species has recently been recorded from Madagascar for the first time, where it was collected from four localities (Kirindy Forest [CFPF]; Sept Lacs; Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea; Parc National de Zombitse-Vohibasia) (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
44851	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Monadjem, A. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species is typically associated with dry and moist savanna. Specimens in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, were collected from well wooded associations such as Afromontane forest, coastal forest or bushveld (Taylor, 1998). On Madagascar, Bates <em>et al</em>. (2006) reports that specimens were netted over a water pool in relatively intact dry deciduous forest; obtained in open saltpan habitat at the foot of coastal dunes and next to artesian sources forming small freshwater pools; netted in gallery forest along the Onilahy River, near Sept Lacs, in a zone dominated by xerophytic spiny bush; and collected in a dry deciduous forest that also contains some floristic elements of humid forest.	eng
44851	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Monadjem, A. & Griffin, M., 2008	It is a locally common species in southern Africa. Very few specimens are currently known from Madagascar.	eng
44851	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J., Monadjem, A. & Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although further research is needed to confirm this.	eng
44852	conservation	Benda, P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	None in place. Further research on the taxonomy, population ecology and trends is required and the extent of the range requires further clarification.	eng
44852	distribution	Benda, P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Recorded from Israel, Jordan and Egypt (including the Sinai) within the Mediterranean (Dietz, 2005). Outside the area the range extends to Saudi Arabia, and Yemen (including Socotra, but that may be treated as a separate species). In Africa is recorded from northern Sudan (type locality, see Simmons in Wilson and Reeder 2005). <br/>Approximately five localities known in northeast Africa, including Egypt and Sudan.	eng
44852	habitat	Benda, P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Inhabits rocky areas, desert and semi-desert. Occurs in oases and forages near the ground and around trees. Roosts in cracks and crevices. In Jordan this species occurs around farms and irrigated areas (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).	eng
44852	population	Benda, P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	The population is apparently small but is probably stable (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).	eng
44852	threats	Benda, P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	Loss of natural habitat because of agricultural intensification. The species is affected by pesticides, although this is not considered a major threat (Z. Amr pers. comm. 2005).	eng
44853	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
44853	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This widespread African bat has been recorded from Guinea, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire in the west, from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern Angola, southern Sudan, Uganda and western Kenya (Kakamega Forest).	eng
44853	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	It has been recorded from both montane and lowland tropical moist forest, and from lowland tropical dry forest.	eng
44853	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has rarely been recorded.	eng
44853	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
44854	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	It is unclear if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, and threats to this species.	eng
44854	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species was initially described from Cameroon, where it has been recorded from localities including the Rumpi Highlands, Mount Kupe and Mount Cameroon. Although there are additional records of this species from Kenya, Somalia, Uganda and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is uncertain that these actually refer to <em>Pipistrellus eisentrauti</em>. Confirmation of the possible distribution outside of Cameroon is needed.	eng
44854	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This is typically a forest species, and has been recorded from montane and presumably lowland tropical moist forest, and possibly from tropical dry forest and mangrove forest.	eng
44854	population	Fahr. J., 2008	The population is little known, but it may be locally common in Cameroon.	eng
44854	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but in Cameroon are likely to include encroachment on montane forest by subsistence agriculture.	eng
44855	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
44855	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a few localities in Ghana, Sierra Leone, southern Cameroon, Gabon, the eastern tip of Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
44855	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Most records have been from lowland tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest and from Guinea savanna.	eng
44855	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known.	eng
44855	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44856	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive.	eng
44856	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in protected areas.	eng
44856	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in some range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in protected areas.	eng
44856	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic (and marginally in Indomalaya), extending from southern Europe and north Africa (France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, the Balkan countries, Morocco, Algeria, the Canary Islands and Cape Verde Islands) through the Middle East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, northern India and Burma (Horáček and Benda 2004, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs from sea level to 2,600 m.	eng
44856	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic (and marginally in Indomalaya), extending from southern Europe and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, the Canary Islands of La Palma, Tenerife, La Gomera, Gran Canaria, and El Hierro, and the Cape Verde Islands of Santiago and San Vicente) through the Middle East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and northern India (Horácek and Benda 2004, Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m.	eng
44856	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	This species has a wide range in the Palaearctic (and marginally in Indomalaya), extending from southern Europe and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, the Canary Islands of La Palma, Tenerife, La Gomera, Gran Canaria, and El Hierro, and the Cape Verde Islands of Santiago and San Vicente) through the Middle East and the Caucasus to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and northern India (Horácek and Benda 2004, Wilson and Reeder 2005).<br/><br/>It occurs from sea level to 3,000 m.	eng
44856	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	It forages over open woodland, pasture and wetlands, and often feeds at lights in rural areas, towns and cities.<br/>It roosts in rock crevices, occasionally in fissures in buildings or under bark, rarely in underground habitats. Found mainly in  uplands and mountains in North Africa, foraging over water and prairies, roosting in crevices of rocks, trees and buildings. Occurs around cliffs and in rocky areas and deep valleys in the Canaries.<br/><br/>Nothing is known about the migratory behaviour of this species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Migration is suspected in Europe but the longest movement recorded is 250 km.	eng
44856	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	It forages over open woodland, pasture and wetlands, and often feeds at lights in rural areas, towns and cities.<br/>It roosts in rock crevices, occasionally in fissures in buildings or under bark, rarely in underground habitats. Found mainly in  uplands and mountains in North Africa, foraging over water and prairies, roosting in crevices of rocks, trees and buildings. Occurs around cliffs and in rocky areas and deep valleys in the Canaries.<br/><br/>Nothing is known about the migratory behaviour of this species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Migration is suspected in Europe but the longest movement recorded is 250 km.	eng
44856	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It forages over open woodland, pasture and wetlands, and often feeds at lights in rural areas, towns and cities.<br/>It roosts in rock crevices, occasionally in fissures in buildings or under bark, rarely in underground habitats. Nothing is known about the migratory behaviour of this species (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44856	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	In the western part of its range it generally occurs at low densities and is restricted by its habitat requirements, but it is abundant in some European areas bordering the Mediterranean. Summer maternity colonies usually number 20-70 females. In the Canary Islands it is the commonest bat species. In the eastern part of its range population size and trends are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
44856	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	In the western part of its range it generally occurs at low densities and is restricted by its habitat requirements, but it is abundant in some European areas bordering the Mediterranean. Summer maternity colonies usually number 20-70 females. In the Canary Islands it is the commonest bat species. In the eastern part of its range population size and trends are not known (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
44856	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It generally occurs at low densities and is restricted by its habitat requirements, but it is abundant in some European areas bordering the Mediterranean. Summer maternity colonies usually number 20-70 females. Range expansion from northern Italy through Austria up to the Czech Republic and Slovakia has recently occurred.	eng
44856	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karatas, A., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
44856	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Juste, J., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Paunovic, M. & Karataş, A., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
44856	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	There are probably few threats in its mainland distribution, except when roosting in buildings.	eng
44857	conservation	Hutterer, R., Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas (e.g. Tai National Park, Côte d'Ivoire).	eng
44857	distribution	Hutterer, R., Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	This species is very widely distributed in West Africa and Central Africa. It has been recorded from Senegal in the west of its range, throughout much of West Africa to Cameroon, and from here eastwards into southern parts of Central African Republic and throughout much of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, ranging southwards into Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni and Bioko), Gabon, Congo and Angola (isolated records). The species has been recorded up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
44857	habitat	Hutterer, R., Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	Although the species is commonly found in high tropical moist forest and also dry forest formations, its preferred habitat appears to be swamp forest with abundant palms. It has been recorded from cultivated areas, notably oil palm plantations. It is a generally solitary and nocturnal species.	eng
44857	population	Hutterer, R., Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	It may be relatively common in suitable habitats, however, individuals are difficult to observe, and specimens have rarely been collected. The species is possibly declining locally, but it is generally still widespread.	eng
44857	threats	Hutterer, R., Grubb, P. & Ekué, M.R.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. It is used in traditional medicine in parts of the species range (M. Ekue pers. comm.).	eng
44858	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
44858	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the Zambezian region of Africa, where it has been recorded from east and north of the Kafue River in Zambia, in a 100 km radius around the city of Lusaka. It has been reported from the north-eastern suburbs of Lusaka (e.g. Ngwerere, Munguli).	eng
44858	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This is a species of savanna bushland (moist miombo woodland), where mean annual rainfall is approximately 820 mm. It has been recorded in modified habitats such as rural gardens and golf-courses. It is a social, subterranean species that generally lives in colonies of up to 12 animals. The species is a seasonal breeder with a litter of two young.	eng
44858	population	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	While this species is known to be abundant in the Lusaka and central provinces, there have been no systematic population surveys to date. Although relatively abundant within parts of its range, there is reason to be believe the population is declining because of overharvesting	eng
44858	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	As with all mole-rats in Zambia, heavy overharvesting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. The species is considered to be an agricultural and horticultural pest.	eng
44860	conservation	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Umfurudzi Safari Area, Zimbabwe.	eng
44860	distribution	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Zimbabwean pleateau and Miombo woodland regions of central Zimbabwe (the type locality is the headwaters of the Mazoe River about 40 km northeast of Harare) and central Mozambique. The exact limits of the species dsitribution are not known and it is possible that the species occurs in northern Mozambique, although this requires confirmation (there are questions regarding synonymy). It is considered to be unlikely that the species occurs in Malwai. The species is found from close to sea level to above 1,000 m asl.	eng
44860	habitat	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This subterranean species is generally associated with sandstone and granitic soils in areas of relatively high rainfall (>700 mm), within scrub and dry miombo woodland habitats. It is a social species that lives in colonies of nine to 10 individuals with a single breeding pair. The species has a litter size of between one and three young.	eng
44860	population	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It is a fairly common species.	eng
44860	threats	Maree, S., Faulkes, C. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There are currently no major threats to the species. The species is considered to be an agricultural pest, and much of its range is heavily cultivated. Unlike some other members of the genus, this species is not collected for food,	eng
44861	conservation	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	The species has been recorded in Kafue National Park, Zambia.	eng
44861	distribution	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This species has been reported only from Itezhi-Tezhi in the Kafue National Park in the southern Province of Zambia.	eng
44861	habitat	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This subterranean species has been recorded from grasslands, cultivated fields and agricultural land close to villages. Very little is known about this species biology; it is a social animal and is belived to have similar habits to <em>Cryptomys anselli</em>.	eng
44861	population	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is abundant where it occurs. It is especially common on the Kafue Flats. Although relatively abundant within its range, there is reason to be believe the population is declining because of overharvesting.	eng
44861	threats	Cotterill, F.P.D. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is under heavy pressure from human consumption and populations are believed to be declining. It is also apparently considered an agricultural pest.	eng
44862	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	There appear to be no conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to identify and protect important roost sites (especially maternity caves). In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. There is a need to better determine the range of this species when compared to that of <em>Miniopterus schreibersii.</em>	eng
44862	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This widely distributed species has largely been recorded from southern and East Africa, with some records from Central African and from the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa it ranges south from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, into Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia, and from here north into Tanzania, Kenya, possibly Uganda, possibly southern Sudan and possibly Ethiopia. On the Arabian Peninsula it has been reported from Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Harrison and Bates 1991). Because of frequent misidentification between this species and <em>Miniopterus schreibersii</em>, there is a need to carefully review the distribution of <em>Miniopterus natalensis</em>.	eng
44862	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species has been recorded from semi-desert, dry and moist savanna, and mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It is generally a cave roosting species also found in similar habitats such as disused mines.	eng
44862	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	This species can be found in colonies of more than 2,500 animals.	eng
44862	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D., Taylor, P.J. & Griffin, M., 2008	In view of its wide range, there appear to be no major threats to this species. In parts of the species distribution it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use, incidental poisoning with insecticides, and the disturbance of roosting and maternity caves by tourist activities.	eng
44863	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
44863	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This little known species is endemic to the island of Anjouan in the Comoros Islands.	eng
44863	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat.	eng
44863	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	There is currently little information on the abundance of this species. Specimens were collected by Goodman (2007) from Anjouan in 2007.	eng
44863	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44864	conservation	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in its European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. There is an ongoing project for the conservation of this species. Appropriate conservation measures include fencing cave entrances (but not gating) and obtaining legal protection for the species.<br/><br/>In North Africa further research into population trends, establishment and management of protected areas, education, and implementation of national-scale legislation are needed.	eng
44864	conservation	Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Tony Hutson, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in its European range states. There are also international legal obligations for its  protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention, in parts of its range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. There is an ongoing project for the conservation of this species. Appropriate conservation measures include fencing cave entrances and obtaining legal protection for the species.	eng
44864	distribution	Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Tony Hutson, 2006	<em>Myotis punicus</em> occurs in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya) and on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (to France), Sardinia (to Italy), and Malta.	eng
44864	distribution	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Myotis punicus</em> occurs in North-west Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and to western Libya) and on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (to France), Sardinia (to Italy), and Malta (including Gozo).	eng
44864	habitat	Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Tony Hutson, 2006	This species forages in woodland and shrubland and roosts in underground sites, possibly also in buildings. Bats ringed in Malta were retrapped in Gozo, but there were no indications of longer distance movements (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44864	habitat	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species forages in woodland, shrubland and semi-deserts. It roosts in underground sites, possibly also in buildings and bridges. Bats ringed in Malta were retrapped in Gozo, but there were no indications of longer distance movements (Hutterer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
44864	population	Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Tony Hutson, 2006	On Corsica there are around 3,000 individuals in four colonies. The total population size on Corsica, Sardinia and Malta is estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 individuals. Cave dwelling, therefore there are few colonies. On Malta, over 50% of the population was lost between the latter half of the 1980s and the early 1990s. Numbers appear to have stabilised at 400-450 individuals (Borg 2002, J.J. Borg unpubl. data). The population trend on Corsica is difficult to quantify as surveys before 2000 were very limited, but some colonies have been lost, indicating that there are some threats to the population (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007).	eng
44864	population	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Over 10,000 individuals, found in large colonies (300-500 individuals). On Corsica there are around 4,000 individuals in four colonies. The total population size on Corsica, Sardinia and Malta is estimated at between 7,000 and 9,000 individuals. Thgis is a cave dwelling species, therefore there are few colonies. On Malta, over 50% of the population was lost between the latter half of the 1980s and the early 1990s. Numbers appear to have stabilised at 400-450 individuals (Borg 2002, J.J. Borg unpubl. data).	eng
44864	threats	Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Human disturbance is a major threat, as colonies are located in tourist areas, in caves that are well known and popular. Changes in land management and agricultural pollution are also threats. In North Africa the species is collected for traditional medicinal use.	eng
44864	threats	Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Tony Hutson, 2006	Human disturbance is a major threat, as colonies are located in touristic areas, in caves that are well known and popular. Changes in land management and agricultural pollution are also threats.	eng
44865	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44865	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on cliffs in the higher parts of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>A distinctive purple-flowered composite often forming large mats hanging on cliffs and steep slopes.	eng
44866	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra	eng
44866	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On limestone in semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Gnidia socotrana</em>). Altitude of 500–550 m. <br/> <br/>Originally described by Balfour from rocks south-west of Galonsir. Both the two recent collections were made from the same or a near locality. Forbes (1903) observed the plant below the Adho Dimellus Pass in the Haggeher mountains. It has not been seen there recently and this record should be treated with caution. A distinctive low herb with pretty lilac flowers and succulent leaves. See notes under <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em>.	eng
44867	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	No habitat details available. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 700 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) noted that his new species was similar to <em>Psiadia arabica</em>, a widespread species on the Arabian mainland, but differed in the absence of sticky glandular hairs. No specimens have been traced and the identity and status of this species remains a mystery.	eng
44868	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44868	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On cliffs in sheltered limestone ravine in deciduous woodland. Altitude of 550 m. <br/> <br/>Aromatic subshrub with erect, woody branches. Leaves clustered towards branch tips, narrowly oblong to obovate, 3–7 x 1–2 cm, entire, densely glandular. Capitula terminal, solitary, 1–1.5 cm diameter; peduncles 1.5–7 cm; ray flowers absent. Pappus outer scales absent (much reduced appearing as a 'rim' to the achene). <br/> <br/>This is one of several plants (e.g., <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Pluchea glutinosa</em>, <em>Sida cordifolia</em>) collected in the 19th Century from near Kischen in the northern Haggeher mountains but not seen there since. However, <em>P. aromatica</em> was recently found on cliffs on an isolated ravine in southern Soqotra and perhaps some of these other plants should be searched for in some of the well-wooded valleys draining south from the Haggeher. It is not clear what the relationships of <em>Pulicaria aromatica</em> are. It is possibly related to <em>P. vieraeoides</em> on the basis of achene characters, habit and inflorescence.	eng
44869	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44869	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in a variety of vegetation types, particularly in rocky places, at low and middle altitudes on the limestone escarpments and plateaus of Soqotra; much rarer on granite rocks; also found on Samha. Altitude of 10–750 m. <br/> <br/>Probably the commonest yellow-flowered herbaceous compositae on Soqotra. Very variable in habit and leaf shape.	eng
44870	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44870	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in rocky places in semi-deciduous, montane shrubland and woodland. Altitude of 700–1,000 m.	eng
44871	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44871	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in shrubland around the highest granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 1,100–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by the woolly indumentum on the leaves and stems.	eng
44872	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44872	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to exposed rock-faces on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra. Altitude of 380–530 m. <br/> <br/>Known only from the ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub) in the extreme west of Soqotra. It is an attractive cushion-forming species clearly distinguished by the tightly clustered silver-grey leaves and bright yellow flowers. It is apparently related to <em>Pulicaria pulvinata</em> E.Gamal-Eldin, a mat-forming perennial, endemic to the coastal desert of central Oman. The Soqotran plant differs in its more robust habit and the presence of ray florets.	eng
44873	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44873	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	An abundant, often dominant, plant of dwarf shrubland over the plains and limestone plateaus of western Soqotra; much less common in eastern Soqotra; also found on Samha and Abd al Kuri. Altitude of ea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>This rather neat, rounded shrub is characteristic of large areas of western Soqotra. It is readily distinguished by the strong but pleasant aroma of the crushed leaves.	eng
44874	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44874	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rather local amongst rocks in low shrubland (associated with <em>Hyericum</em> spp., <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Cephalocroton socotranus</em>). Altitude of 700–1,550 m.	eng
44875	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44875	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common on Abd al Kuri in dwarf shrubland and open woody herb communities on the coastal plain, rocky slopes and in limestone ravines on the mountains (J. Saleh). Altitude of sea-level to 480 m. <br/> <br/>The only species of <em>Convolvulus</em> recorded from Abd al Kuri where it is a widespread and common endemic. It is distinguished by its spathulate leaves which have characteristically undulate margins.	eng
44876	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44876	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Found in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland, succulent shrubland, dwarf shrubland (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>) and drought-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em> and <em>Cryptolepis intircata</em>) on the coastal plains and limestone plateau. Altitude of 20–650 m. <br/> <br/>There is some variation within this species on Soqotra: plants from the Hadiboh plain of have hairy styles whereas plants from elsewhere on the island have glabrous styles. There is also a variable correlation between this character and filament type: glabrous-styled plants having terete filaments and hairy-styled plants having filaments that are flattened towards the base. No other characters can be found that separate the Hadiboh plants as a distinct taxon. A specimen closely resembling <em>C. hildebrandtii</em> has recently been seen from south Yemen. It has flattened filament bases and glabrous styles and ovary, thus differing from both the two forms found on Soqotra in the combination of these characters.	eng
44877	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44877	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types including dwarf shrubland, drought-deciduous woodland and submontane semi-deciduous thicket; on both granite and limestone, usually in clearings or in exposed places. Altitude of  50–1,050 m. <br/> <br/>Young and old plants look very different, due to the much longer stems and subglabrous, not densely sericeous, leaves of mature specimens.	eng
44878	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44878	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sandy and pebbly soil on the desertic coastal plains in dwarf shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 100 m.	eng
44879	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Probably endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44879	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	It is possibly synonymous with <em>S. hallieri</em> Engl. and Pilg. from Somalia.	eng
44880	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.	eng
44880	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open dwarf shrubland with <em>Atriplex griffithii</em>. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>A much greyer plant than either <em>S. fastigiata</em> (Soqotra) or <em>S. spinosa</em> (Abd al Kuri) and distinguished from them by the corolla tube hairy to the base, not merely on the part that is exserted from the calyx. The flowers open in the morning.	eng
44881	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.	eng
44881	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common on the coastal plains in open dwarf shrubland and woody herb communities. Altitude of sea-level to 70 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>S. semhahensis</em> but leaves and stems bright green not grey-green. The flowers open in the morning.	eng
44882	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44882	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Amongst rocks in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous shrubland. Altitude of 100–800 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all the species of <em>Kalanchoe</em> on Soqotra the white or whitish green stems and leaves of fresh material which become scaly and peeling when dry.	eng
44883	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44883	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky slopes and amongst limestone boulders in dwarf shrubland and low succulent shrubland. Altitude of 300–750 m. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive species readily distinguished from all other species in the region by its horizontally-held, slightly zygomorphic flowers in which the anthers are exserted from the corolla. Not as freely flowering as <em>K. farinacea</em>.	eng
44884	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha. Altitude of 100–750 m.	eng
44884	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common, often in damp, shady places in the mist-affected areas of the island; frequently in disturbed places near habitation; also found in the refugium of relatively mesic conditions on the north-facing limestone cliffs on Samha (cf <em>Begonia samhaensis</em>). <br/> <br/>Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) recognized var. <em>hirsuta</em>, based on a single specimen, with densely hirsute indumentum and strongly dissected, dentate-serrate leaves. This probably represents an extreme form of this variable species and has not been formerly recognised here.	eng
44885	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44885	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on the coastal plains of Soqotra and Samah. Altitude of sea-level to 50 m. <br/> <br/>Sometimes grows with <em>Lachnocapsa spathulata</em> from which it can sometimes be difficult to separate in flower, however, the flowers of <em>F. socotrana</em> are white or pale lilac and those of <em>Lachnocapsa</em> are pale yellow.	eng
44886	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44886	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in shallow soil in crevices on limestone pavement in sparse dwarf shrubland. Altitude of approx. 650 m. <br/> <br/>This distinctive endemic has no clear allies. It is similar to <em>F. socotrana</em> in fruit shape but differs in flower colour and leaf shape and texture. It is similar to <em>F. stylosa</em> in floral characters but differs in fruit shape, style length and the shape of the stigma. It is restricted patches of thin soil overlying the limestone pavement in exposed places on the rolling plains of the western plateau where it grows with <em>Distephanus qazmi</em>, <em>Melhania milleri</em> and <em>Lotus mollis</em>, endemics which are also associated with this particular habitat.	eng
44887	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44887	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, restricted to vertical rock faces on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 900–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>A rare plant of vertical rock faces on the granite pinnacles. Readily distinguished by its white flowers and small, pendant fruits.  <br/> <br/>Cliff-dwelling shrub < 1 m.  Leaves ovate, < 3 x 1.5 cm, obtuse, irregularly crenate-dentate, cuneate below. Petals <em>ca</em>. 7 mm. Siliqua < 18 x 4 mm, compressed, longitudinally-veined; the lower sterile segment much shorter than the upper segment.	eng
44888	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44888	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on desertic coastal plains and parts of the limestone plateau near the sea. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>This cushion-forming subshrub has attractive pale yellow flowers and densely white-hairy fruits which can be difficult to distinguish from the fleshy leaves. It has a rather scattered distribution on Soqotra but can be locally abundant (for instance at Faleng). It was recorded from near Qallansiyah by Balfour in the 19th Century but has not seen there recently (cf <em>Taverniera sericophylla</em> and <em>Farsetia socotrana</em>). It is relatively common on Samha, particularly on the summit plateau.	eng
44889	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. <em>Nesocrambe</em> is closely related to <em>Hemicrambe</em> a genus with a remarkably disjunct distribution; with one species, <em>H. fruticulosa</em> on Soqotra and a second <em>H. fruticosa</em>, in Morocco. <em>N. socotrana</em>, with its yellow flowers and dissected leaves, is perhaps most comparable to the Moroccan <em>H. fruticulosa</em>. However, the fruits of both <em>H. fruticosa</em> and <em>H. fruticulosa</em> are quite different from those of <em>N. socotrana</em>: the upper segment is flattened and contains 1–4 seeds whilst the lower segment is sterile, but has vestigeal dehiscent valves. Based on this difference, <em>N. socotrana</em> was described as a new monotypic genus <em>Nesocrambe</em> (Miller <em>et al</em>. 2002). There has been a proposal to transfer transfer this species to <em>Hemicrambe</em> (Al-Shehbaz 2004), but that is not accepted here. It is astonishing that this remarkable plant has apparently survived only in a small refugium at the extreme west end of Soqotra.	eng
44889	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare; on a windswept ridge at the western end of Soqotra; in shade in relatively humid cracks and gullies on limestone cliffs and pinnacles. Altitude of 400–550 m. <br/> <br/>The extreme west of Soqotra is generally dry (as witnessed by the sparse vegetation), however, <em>H. socotrana</em> occurs on limestone pinnacles and cliffs on the highest points of the ridge at Heger (between Riy di Isfer and Riy do Sherubrub). This ridge traps cloud and limited precipitation from the southwest (summer) and northeast (winter) monsoons and create a small area of relatively humid conditions in this otherwise desertic region.	eng
44890	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44890	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and locally common in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 250–600 m.	eng
44891	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. First member of the genus to be found in Southwest Asia.	eng
44891	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Very rare, on rocks and vertical cliff faces, near seepages on the limestone escarpment overlooking the Noged Plain. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 150 m. <br/> <br/>Probably most closely related to <em>E. platyclados</em> Boj. a species from Madagascar and the coasts of East Africa.	eng
44892	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44892	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Amongst rocks, both limestone and granite, in semi-deciduous woodland near the Muqadrihon Pass. Altitude of 450–500 m. <br/> <br/>Two varieties have been recognised on Soqotra; var. <em>schweinfurthii</em> and var. <em>papillosa</em> which is distinguished by its narrower, more densely papillose leaves. According to Radcliffe-Smith (1987), <em>A. schweinfurthii</em> includes the Somali endemic <em>Andrachne somalensis </em>Pax but Gilbert in Flora of Somalia (Thulin 1993) maintains it as a distinct species. <em>A. schweinfuthii</em> is therefore considered to be endemic to Soqotra, where it is restricted to granite slopes above the Muqadrihon Pass.	eng
44893	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44893	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common, sometimes dominant, in submontane semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland in the Haggeher mountains, typically around the base of granite pinnacles; often associated with <em>Rhus thyrsiflorus</em>, <em>Allophylus rhoidiophyllus</em> and <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>. Altitude of 500–1,050 m. <br/> <br/>Abundant in the Haggeher and said to be on the increase in some areas. Also doubtfully recorded from Hamadero in the 19th Century. Comes into leaf, then flowers and fruits in the winter and drops its leaves in the summer.	eng
44894	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44894	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in dwarf semi-deciduous shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 850–1,100 m.	eng
44895	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44895	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Only known from the exposed wind-swept summit ridge of the Hamaderoh escarpment, the highest point in the east of the island, where it is found growing in sheltered cracks between limestone blocks. Altitude of 570–680 m. <br/> <br/><em>E. hamaderohensis</em> resembles a stunted form of <em>E. socotrana</em> and, is close to that species in both vegetative and floral characters: vegetatively it has the same distinctive minute, gland-like stipules, deciduous cyathial bracts and similarly shaped leaves; likewise it is very close in floral characters with its sessile ovary, minutely crenulate cyathial glands and identical floral bracts. However, it differs from <em>E. socotrana</em> in several important respects: it is a shrublet (not a tree) with smaller leaves and smaller, solitary cyathia bearing five (not six) cyathial glands.	eng
44896	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44896	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widely distributed and sometimes abundant on Soqotra and Samha; mainly in dry areas; on flat or gentle slopes, primarily on limestone pavement but occasionally on sandy plains or granite mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 900 m. <br/> <br/>Delicate, sometimes apparently annual, plants with narrow stems found at high altitudes in the Haggeher mountains have been recognised as <em>A. forbesii</em>. However, there are many intermediates with typical <em>A. perryi</em> and so we have not found it possible to give them any formal status here. Flowers in summer and comes into new leaf after the least rain.	eng
44897	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44897	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dry areas, prefers flat to gentle slopes on limestone pavement. Altitude of 500–800 m.	eng
44898	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44898	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to cliffs on the limestone plateau at the western end of Soqotra; also rarely found away from cliffs in the protection of shrubs such as <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>. Altitude of 300–530 m.	eng
44899	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44899	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Frequent on shady cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland and woody herb communities, particularly on the limestone plateau. Altitude of 500–650 m. <br/> <br/>One of the most dramatic plants on Soqotra, with umbels of large white flowers that are strongly and pleasantly scented. It is the largest and most robust bulbous plant on Soqotra, often forming large colonies, particularly on shady cliff ledges where it is immediately recognised by the bright green leaves which can grow up to 1.5 m in length. The large bulb has a distinct stem-like "neck" formed from the leaf bases and surrounded by the remains of old leaves. For colour illustration see Glen <em>et al</em>. (1994).	eng
44900	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44900	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Buxanthus hildebrandtii</em>, <em>Allophylus rubifolius</em>, <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>  etc). Altitude of 600–700 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from all other narrow leaved monocots on the island by its leaves which are pale green with a distinct network of dark green broken stripes across their and with conspicuous hairs along their margin. Two distinct forms of <em>Chlorophytum graptophyllum</em> occur on Soqotra. The first, more widespread, form (e.g., Muqadrihon) has generally broader leaves (usually > 1 cm broad) with straight or slightly undulate margins. The second form is restricted to the central and eastern slopes of the Haggeher (e.g., Kischen in Wadi Di Negehen) and has narrower leaves (usually < 1 cm broad) and distinctly undulate-crisped margins. The description here is based largely on the first form.	eng
44901	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.	eng
44901	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Only known from the summit ridge of the limestone plateau of Samha. This ridge attracts low cloud and drizzle (principally from the Northeast monsoon?) and, with the cliffs below, provides a unique habitat on Samha. Altitude of 650 m. <br/> <br/>This distinctive new species has not been seen flowering on Soqotra. The description is based on a rhizome collected on Samha and cultivated at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. However, the description should be treated with caution: cultivated material can sometimes be rather anomalous. For instance, Nordal and Thulin (1993) note that plants of <em>C. petraeum</em> which flowered in the first year of cultivation had dimensions well within that found in nature, however, when the same plant flowered the following year it had much larger leaves, a taller inflorescence and somewhat larger flowers.	eng
44902	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44902	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dense <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em> woodland in the western Haggeher near Scant (the highest mountain on Soqotra). Altitude of 1,400 m. <br/> <br/>This weakly climbing shrub with its long herbaceous stems is only known from a single sterile gathering from the western Haggeher near Scant. <em>A. africanus</em>, the only other asparagus on the island, is not found in the Haggeher mountains, and is a low, spiny shrub.	eng
44903	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44903	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Occasional in succulent shrubland on the northern limestone escarpment, usually in shady places amongst boulders or in cracks in rocks. Altitude of 50–150 m. <br/> <br/>A rather inconspicuous plant with tufted grass-like leaves and hanging fruits.	eng
44904	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44904	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous woodland in mist-affected areas of Soqotra. Altitude of 250–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Leaves appear in winter but die back rapidly at the onset of summer. Readily distinguished by its large, heart-shaped leave, long trailing stems and three-angled fruits.	eng
44905	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44905	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in succulent shrubland and dwarf shrubland on limestone escarpments and plateaus; dominant in a small area of grassland on J. Ma’alih. Altitude of 15–600 m.	eng
44906	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44906	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rewgid plateau. Altitude of 300 m. <br/> <br/>Only known from type. Characterised by its reflexed central awn.	eng
44907	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44907	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sandy coastal plains. Altitude of sea-level to 20 m.	eng
44908	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	No details of habitat or location available. <br/> <br/>Only collected once; the specimen is not adequate for a full description.	eng
44909	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44909	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Succulent shrubland, drought-deciduous woodland and along wadis. Altitude of 100–600 m.	eng
44910	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44910	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal dwarf shrubland on Soqotra; desertic foothills on Samha. Altitude of 10–200 m.	eng
44911	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44911	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland and woody-herb communities on desertic plains and rocky slopes. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m.	eng
44912	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44912	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Wet flushes. Altitude of 90 m.	eng
44913	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44913	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal plains in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and in clearings in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 10–550 m. <br/> <br/>Sometimes abundant in the flush of ephemerals that come up after rain on the northern coastal plain.	eng
44914	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.	eng
44914	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	In crevices on exposed limestone ridge and rocky slopes. Altitude of 450–550 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently close to <em>Dipcadi balfourii</em> but only found on the summit ridge and upper slopes of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri. It is white, not yellowish-green, -flowered and lacks the reddish tinge typical of <em>D. balfourii</em>.	eng
44915	conservation	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	None of the localities from which this species has been recorded are within protected areas. Additional studies are needed to determine the taxonomic relationship between this species in and <em>Graphiurus rupicola</em>. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
44915	distribution	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from seven localities in the escarpment zone of central and northern Angola and from western Zambia. It has been found from 1,000 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
44915	habitat	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	This species is generally associated with dry woodland habitats. Little additional information is available on the species natural history.	eng
44915	population	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	The abundance is not well known, but it is probably not common.	eng
44915	threats	Coetzee, N., Griffin, M. & Grubb, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It is possible that there are no major threats to this species within its known range.	eng
44916	conservation	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is probably present in several protected areas, including the Mount Nimba Reserve.	eng
44916	distribution	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and western Central Africa. It ranges from eastern Sierra Leone and Guinea to southern Nigeria and Cameroon, with a record from the border of Central African Republic and Congo. It ranges as far south as (possibly) Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and northern Gabon.	eng
44916	habitat	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of tropical moist forest and old farm bush habitat, where it lives in small groups occupying hollow trees (or holes in trees) (Grubb <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It is nocturnal and seldom seen.	eng
44916	population	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is infrequently recorded.	eng
44916	threats	Grubb, P. & Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. However, as it is present in farmbush, it appears to be able to tolerate some habitat disturbance and is presumed to have no major threats. It is used as a subsistence food, although the impact of this collection on populations is not known.	eng
44917	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to establish and manage suitable protected areas for this species.	eng
44917	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is known from a few widespread localities in West and Central Africa. It ranges from Sierra Leone in the west, to Congo in the east. The distribution is believed to be patchy, as surveys have generally been unable to locate this species outside of its known range.	eng
44917	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is associated with moist tropical lowland rainforest and possibly from tropical dry forest. Roosts are unknown, although Sanderson (1940) suggested that they roost in the roofs of disused houses and under the earthy banks of streams.	eng
44917	population	Fahr. J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
44917	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.	eng
44918	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	In view of the species wide range and adaptability it is expected to occur in many protected areas (such as the Udzungwa Mountains National Park [Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005]). There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
44918	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is widespread over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It has been recorded from Guinea Bissau in the west, to Somalia, southern Sudan and Eritrea in the east, ranging south to most of South Africa.	eng
44918	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This is a lowland species that typically inhabits lowland tropical moist forest, tropical dry forest, and dry and moist savanna. It has also been recorded from more arid areas, grassland, bushveld and Acacia woodland. Animals roost under the bark of trees and similar vegetation, between cracks in walls and under the roofs of houses both thatched and corrugated iron or tiled.	eng
44918	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	In general, this is a locally common species.	eng
44918	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44919	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It has been recorded from the Kambai Forest Reserve in Tanzania by Cunneyworth (1996). There is a need to clarify the taxonomic status of animals currently allocated to this species, and thereby better understand the distribution, natural history and potential threats to <em>Pipistrellus flavescens</em>.	eng
44919	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This poorly known species appears to have been recorded from Angola (type locality at Galanga), Burundi, Cameroon, Malawi (including the Shire Highlands [Happold and Happold 1997]), Mozambique, Uganda (Kampala) and Somalia (Shonto Forest). The distribution is uncertain and further studies are needed to clarify the species range.	eng
44919	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Animals allocated to this species have been recorded from both dry and moist savanna, lowland and montane tropical moist forest, and tropical dry forest. Happold and Happold (1997) recorded the species from 'streams surrounded by over-hanging riverine forest'.	eng
44919	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are few details available on the population status of this species.	eng
44919	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44920	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
44920	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is widely distributed in West and Central Africa, ranging into East Africa. Western distribution ranges from Senegal and Gambia to Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Benin. Recorded as far east as the border between Ethiopia and Somalia. The southern-most records are from Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo, close to the border areas with Angola.	eng
44920	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species prefers moist savanna and moist shrubland, but is also found in dry savanna and dry shrubland.	eng
44920	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is relatively common.	eng
44920	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44921	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need for studies into the distribution, abundance, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
44921	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This East African species has been recorded from Djibouti, southern Somalia, southern Sudan, northeastern Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania. It may be more widely distributed (Peterson 1987; Simmons 2005).	eng
44921	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There is little information about the natural history of this bat, in part because it has often been confused with <em>Pipistrellus nanus</em>.	eng
44921	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species.	eng
44921	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44922	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas in southern Africa. On Madagascar, it has been recorded from the Parc National de Mantadia (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further studies are needed to resolve the taxonomic status of <em>Pipistrellus melckorum</em>, and to better determine the species distribution, habitat requirements and any potential threats.	eng
44922	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	The distribution of <em>Pipistrellus melckorum</em> is unclear because of taxonomic confusion with <em>P. capensis</em>. Simmons (2005) records the range as 'Southwestern South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania'. It may also be present in Malawi. The species has recently been recorded for the first time from the island of Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006), where it was found at Parc National de Mantadia in Province de Toamasina, and Antsahabe, Anjozorobe, in Province d’Antananarivo.	eng
44922	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from both dry and moist savanna habitats. It roosts mostly under the roofs of buildings but a single animals has been recorded under the bark of a poplar tree (Herselman and Norton, 1985). In Madagascar it was collected from degraded natural forest (Anjozorobe region) and in an agricultural area with some planted banana trees (Mantadia) (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006; Randrianandrianina <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
44922	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	Population size and trends are uncertain due to taxonomic difficulties.	eng
44922	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. In Madagascar it has been recorded from degraded or modified habitats.	eng
44923	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Goodman, S. & Jacobs, D., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is likely that it is present in many protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
44923	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Goodman, S. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This bat is widely distributed throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West and Central Africa, to Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia in the east; from here it is found southwards to southeastern South Africa. The species has been recorded from Madagascar, where it has only been reported from the Kirindy CFPF forest in western Madagascar, and from Zombitse (Rasolozaka 1994). Bates <em>et al.</em> (2006), recommend that the identity of the specimens from Madagascar need to be reviewed. It appears to be absent, or largely absent, from northern Kenya, Namibia, southern Botswana, western Zimbabwe, northern Mozambique, Lesotho and much of South Africa. It is possible that the species ranges more widely in these areas than is currently known, and further field studies are needed to investigate the distribution of the species.	eng
44923	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Goodman, S. & Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats. It has been reported from both lowland and montane tropical moist forest, dry and moist savanna, and similar wooded areas. They appear to be particularly common in localities with some banana plants (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). The rolled up, terminal, leaves of these plants are frequently used as roosting sites, although the species has also been recorded in roofs and in thatch of rural huts (Skinner and Smithers 1990; Taylor 2000). Animals usually roost singly or as small colonies of two to six individuals (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
44923	population	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Goodman, S. & Jacobs, D., 2008	Probably not uncommon in suitable habitats (Happold 1987).	eng
44923	threats	Hutson, A.M., Racey, P.A., Goodman, S. & Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and seemingly adaptable species.	eng
44924	conservation	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this patchily recorded species.	eng
44924	distribution	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been widely, but patchily, recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West and Central Africa to Somalia in the east, and as far south as eastern South Africa.	eng
44924	habitat	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species has been recorded from moist and dry savanna, moist and dry tropical shrubland, and deforested areas of formerly tropical moist lowland forest. Roosting sites include tree holes, dense foliage, thatched huts, brick walls and rafters.	eng
44924	population	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	This appears to be a locally rare species, usually occurring as moderately small colonies of several individuals up to a few dozen animals.	eng
44924	threats	Jacobs, D., Cotterill, F.P.D. & Taylor, P.J., 2008	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species. In some parts of its range, this species is threatened by the conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.	eng
44925	conservation	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although it seems likely to occur in some East African parks. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
44925	distribution	Jacobs, D., 2008	This species has been recorded over much of West, Central and East Africa. It ranges from Guinea Bissau in the west, to Sudan, Eritrea and Somalis in the east, being found as far south as Tanzania and southern Democratic Republic of the Congo adjacent to the border with northern Angola.	eng
44925	habitat	Jacobs, D., 2008	The natural history of this species is little known, however, it is generally considered to be associated with dry woodland, moist savanna habitats and gallery forest (McLellan 1986; Happold 1987; Koopman 1995; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998). It may roost within houses, however, this needs confirmation (Rosevear 1965; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
44925	population	Jacobs, D., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It may be locally rare, or at least rarely recorded.	eng
44925	threats	Jacobs, D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44926	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
44926	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This sub-Saharan species is widely distributed through West, Central and parts of East Africa. It ranges from Senegal in the west, through West Africa, to Cameroon and Central Africa including much of the Congo basin, into Uganda and East Africa including Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded as far south as southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola. It occurs at elevations of up to 3,200 m asl.	eng
44926	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from lowland and montane tropical moist forest, to moist savanna, tropical dry forest and mangroves. Recorded roosting sites include roofs, eaves of houses and small crevices in houses (Happold 1987; Grubb <em>et al.</em> 1998), with natural sites presumably including hollow trees or under bark.	eng
44926	population	Fahr. J., 2008	This species is rather common in suitable habitat. It is most often found in small groups of fewer than 20 animals.	eng
44926	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44927	conservation	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It seems probable that this adaptable species is present within a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from Kruger National Park, South Africa. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
44927	distribution	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is widespread in East and southern Africa. The eastern distribution ranges from Ethiopia and south Sudan to Uganda and Kenya. The southern range extends from Zambia and southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to southern South Africa, and from eastern Angola to central Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
44927	habitat	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	Populations of this bat have been recorded from dry and moist savanna, savanna woodland, lowveld and into more arid areas where surface water is available.	eng
44927	population	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In general, this is a locally uncommon species.	eng
44927	threats	Jacobs, D. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44928	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is possible that the species is present in some protected areas. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
44928	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species appears to be limited to southern Malawi (Ansell and Dowsett 1988; Holden 2005). The range limits are not well known.	eng
44928	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is generally associated with savanna woodland (Ansell and Dowsett 1988).	eng
44928	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
44928	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
44929	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	No specific measures are known, but may occur in some protected areas across its range.	eng
44929	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Found in southeast Morocco, Saharan Algeria and Libya, and the upper Nile valley in Egypt and Sudan. There are other records of this species from scattered areas outside of this region across west, north and northeast Africa. The species occurs in the central belt of the Sahara, down to 15°N. sub-Saharan records need revision.	eng
44929	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Occurs in desert and semi-desert, but mainly associated with oases with palm trees. Roosts in palm trees and in buildings including rocky areas.	eng
44929	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	The most common species in Sahara oases.	eng
44929	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	None known.	eng
44930	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	This species has been recorded within the Bale Mountains National Park. Additional management of the area is needed to prevent further deforestation of the Harenna Forest. There is a need for further field surveys to better determine  the range of this species.	eng
44930	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	This recently described species is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands were it is currently known only with certainty from the upper belts of the Harenna Forest in the Bale Mountains National Park and from Abune Yosef (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000; Juste <em>et al.</em> 2004; Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is an early record from "Shoa" (= Shewa), which probably came from the uplands north or northwest of Addis Ababa (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). It is possible that the species occurs in similar areas of montane forest, but it has not been recorded during surveys in either the Beletta Forest or the Sheko Forest (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). There are a number of poorly documented museum specimens that may have come from additional sites within Ethiopia, or possibly from adjacent Eritrea (although this may refer to a specimen of <em>Plecotus christii</em>) (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). The species is found at elevations of 2,500 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
44930	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	This species is known only from humid evergreen afromontane forest. The type specimen was collected from the <em>Schefflera-Hagenia</em> forest belt (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000). Animals forage in open parts of the forest or edges of clearings.	eng
44930	population	Lavrenchenko, L., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	Kruskop and Lavrenchenko (2000) mention that this bat appears to be relatively common within its limited distribution.	eng
44930	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., Juste, J. & Benda, P., 2008	This species is threatened by the rapid destruction of montane forest, presumably through extraction of timber and firewood, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
44931	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Benda, P., 2008	None in place.  Further research on population is needed in order to make an assessment.	eng
44931	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Benda, P., 2008	Known only from a few localities in NE Africa, including eastern Libya (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007), Egypt including Sinai and Sudan. A specimen from Eritrea may belong to this species or to <em>P. balensis</em> (Kruskop and Lavrenchenko 2000).	eng
44931	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Benda, P., 2008	Roosts in remote buildings outside urban areas and crevices in rocks, caves and mines. Found in mesic habitats along the Nile River and in open arid habitats around oases in the desert (is not found in cultivated habitats).	eng
44931	population	Aulagnier, S. & Benda, P., 2008	Probably very small population, only scattered and isolated records.	eng
44931	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Benda, P., 2008	Affected by human disturbance.	eng
44934	conservation	Fahr. J., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed.	eng
44934	distribution	Fahr. J., 2008	This African bat has only been recorded from southeastern Côte d'Ivoire, southern Ghana, and western Uganda close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Kambai Forest Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania (Cunneyworth 1996).	eng
44934	habitat	Fahr. J., 2008	There is little information available on the natural history of this poorly known bat. Grubb <em>et al.</em> (1998) notes that the species seems to be an inhabitant of the high forest. Cunneyworth (1996) reports that an individual was captured in riverine forest on the forest edge.	eng
44934	population	Fahr. J., 2008	Little information is available on the population abundance or size of this species. It is suspected to be declining as it appears that the species has not been collected since 1984.	eng
44934	threats	Fahr. J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
44935	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	Found within two protected areas including the Parc National d'Odzala (Congo). Further studies into the distribution and natural history of this species are needed.	eng
44935	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This recently described species is known from the west bank of the Congo River, where it has only been recorded from western Congo and the Central African Republic. Surveys have not found <em>Congosorex verheyni</em> south of the Congo River, and it does not seem to occur east of Ubangi (Oubango) River. There are presently three recorded localities, two of which are in protected areas. This species has not been recorded from Cameroon, though it is likely that is occurs there. It may also be found to occur in Gabon, though there is no evidence of its existence there at present.	eng
44935	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>C. verheyeni</em> is principally present in primary forest. However, it also occurs in quite dense secondary forest, and in areas of degraded forest. Very little information is available on the biology of <em>C. verheyen</em>. This species may be found in burrows under leaf litter but it is not thought to be a fossorial species. It feeds on invertebrates.	eng
44935	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is not uncommon in suitable habitat. It is found at lower abundances in disturbed habitat.	eng
44935	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
44936	conservation	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in several protected areas, but these are not critical for the survival of the species.	eng
44936	distribution	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species occurs north of the Niger River in southern Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and possibly in Chad, Western Sahara and southernmost parts of Algeria. It has an altitudinal range of not higher than 1,000 m asl.	eng
44936	habitat	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is found mostly in rocky habitats, but also regularly in gardens and other human-related habitats, including homes (huts). One individual was found in a completely sandy habitat on the inner delta of the Niger River. All members of the genus are insectivorous unlike other rodents which are generally granivorous.	eng
44936	population	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	It is very common especially in favorable habitats, as suggested by high trapping rates in rocky habitats.	eng
44936	threats	Granjon, L. & Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
44938	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is probably within The W National Park in Niger, and several additional protected areas of the region.	eng
44938	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from West Africa to Central Africa. Its range includes Burkina Faso, Chad, southern Niger, Nigeria, northern Benin, northern Cameroon, Togo, Ghana and possibly southern Sudan; but the limits of the distribution are unresolved. It does not occur on to the Jos Plateau (Nigeria), so the elevation range is thought to be between 200 and 1,000 m asl.	eng
44938	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is found in both the rocky areas of the Sahel and in grasslands. This is an insectivorous species. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
44938	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is common in suitable habitats.	eng
44938	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
44939	conservation	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Tassili N'Ajjer National Park.	eng
44939	distribution	Schlitter, D., 2008	This species is known only from southern Algeria. It occurs at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
44939	habitat	Schlitter, D., 2008	An insectivorous species, found in rocky habitats at the base of jebels.	eng
44939	population	Schlitter, D., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
44939	threats	Schlitter, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. There is no mining activities in the area, and the habitat is only used by pastoralists.	eng
44940	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44940	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	In montane thicket and semi-deciduous woodland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>The flowering spikes come out before or with the leaves.	eng
44941	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44941	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on both limestone and granite in the centre and Northeast of Soqotra; growing in shady places in relatively high rainfall areas; particularly common in the dense drought-deciduous woodlands in the valleys draining to the north and Northwest of the Haggeher mountains and in the east of the island on the northern, seaward-facing cliffs and broken limestone ridges (characteristically in solution hollows and pockets of soil on the limestone pavement). Altitude of 50–700 m. <br/> <br/>Originally described as <em>Haemanthus grandifolius</em> (Amaryllidaceae) by Balfour in the 19th Century on the basis of the large paired leaves which are a familiar sight in the NE of the island. However, it was not until 1993 that it was first found in flower and its true affinities with the <em>Hyacinthaceae</em> recognised. <em>Ledebouria grandifolia</em> flowers at the beginning of the winter rains (October–November), and if conditions remain humid, the leaves persist, increasing in size, until well into the following year (January–February) (Miller and Alexander 1996).	eng
44942	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.	eng
44942	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in tall herb communities on shady ledges of North-facing cliffs on Samha. Altitude of 700 m.	eng
44943	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44943	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally abundant in low shrubland and grassland on the limestone plateaus, in accumulations of soil in solution hollows and rock crevices on the limestone pavement. Altitude of 500–900 m.	eng
44944	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44944	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, in dense shade beneath thickets in semi-deciduous montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 800–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Erect herb < 20 cm. Leaves: two, flat on ground, broadly broadly-ovate, < 6x4 cm diameter, pilose. Spikes: 10 to 20-flowered, pilose. Flowers: green, <em>ca</em>. 6 mm diameter, with five subequal lobes from a cup-shaped base; spur <em>ca</em>. 2 mm.	eng
44945	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44945	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Found in a variety of habitats from dwarf shrubland on desertic coastal plains to montane semi-deciduous woodland in high rainfall areas in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 1,100 m. <br/> <br/><em>Euphorbia kischenensis</em> is most readily distinguished from other small-leaved, prostrate Euphorbias by its strongly-toothed cyathial lobes, which, although small, are usually very obvious. However, within <em>E. kishenensis</em> there is a great deal of variation in degree of hairiness, hair type and in habit. Typically it is a perennial plant of the mountains with kidney-shaped discolorous leaves (approaching <em>E. leptoclada</em> and <em>E. hajhirensis</em>) whilst some specimens are apparently annual; these have smaller, concolorous leaves, and come from dry areas. Some plants from the mountains approach <em>E. leptoclada</em> but their leaves are discolorous, their stems puberulent and their cyathial appendages sharply and distinctly acutely toothed. However, because of the number of intermediates it has been impossible to formally recognise even the most extreme forms. The treatment of this species is very provisional and further investigation should clarify its relationship with <em>E. leptoclada</em> and possibly lead to the formal recognition of further taxa.	eng
44946	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.	eng
44946	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf succulent shrubland on Abd al Kuri. Altitude of 200–450 m.	eng
44947	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44947	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous shrubland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 560 m. <br/> <br/>There is some doubt as to the status of this species. It is allied to <em>E. hajhirensis</em> and somewhat intermediate between this species and extreme (montane) forms of <em>E. kischenensis</em>. Balfour (Balyley Balfour 1888) notes that his description of <em>E. leptoclada</em> is based on an imperfect specimen of a <em>Euphorbia</em>, the assessor found in Schweinfurth’s collection mixed with specimens of <em>Phyllanthus filipes</em>. It has not been found since it was originally collected in the 19th Century.	eng
44948	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44948	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on desertic foothills and coastal plains on Abd al Kuri and Southwest Soqotra. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>A broad view of <em>E. schweinfurthii</em> has been taken here. It is distinguished by the combination of shrubby habit, glaucous leaves and more or less entire cyathial appendages. However, it is extremely variable and a number of very distinct forms are found but with numerous intermediates. Provisional and further investigation may lead to the formal recognition of more taxa within this complex.	eng
44949	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44949	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in succulent over most of Soqtora; also in the sparse and windswept vegetation on exposed parts of the limestone plateau. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>This cactus-like plant is the only spiny succulent on Soqotra. It is a fairly common plant of dry open areas over much of Soqotra. The specific epithet spiralis coined by Balfour refers to the spiralling of the stem in specimens he observed, however, stems can be either straight or spiraling and, in fact, spiralling of the stem seems rather rare. A second species, <em>E. septumsulcata</em>, was separated by the greater number of stem angles. However, this seems to fall within the variation found in <em>E. spiralis</em> and so is not recognized here. <em>E. spiralis</em> is said to be on the increase in certain areas: for instance at Kilissan, an area badly effected by a series of severe droughts.	eng
44950	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44950	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare in succulent shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone of northern Soqotra. Altitude of 50–700 m. <br/> <br/>Low subshrub, stems often prostrate, < 30 cm. Leaves ovate to elliptic, 5–13 x 3–8 mm, acute or obtuse; stipules triangular, < 1.3 mm long, scarious with irregularly dentate margin, brownish red. Male flowers <em>ca</em>. 1.5 mm diameter, sepals obovate or suborbicular, pedicels < 4 mm; female flowers <em>ca</em>. 2 mm diameter, sepals ovate, pedicels < 20 mm. Capsule six-lobed, subglobose, 3–4 mm diameter.	eng
44951	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44951	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in drought-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 100–650 m. <br/> <br/>The only plant with a serious sting on Soqotra.	eng
44952	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44952	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widely distributed, typically in turf by water or in rock crevices and hollows that capture water; on both granite and limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 1,050 m. <br/> <br/>This is a rather variable species and in this treatment includes <em>E. gracilipes</em> an endemic described by Balfour. The type of <em>E. gracilipes</em> is a much more delicate plant than typical plants of <em>E. affine</em>. However, the difference in habit of these two specimens is comparable to that found within most populations of <em>E. affine</em> studied during recent visits to Soqotra and it is difficult to find other characters to justify maintaining the two species. <em>E. socotranum</em> is also rather similar to <em>E. affine</em> but the characters defining it are consistent within populations. Plants from Dhofar, the southern region of Oman, recorded as <em>E. affine</em> and <em>E. gracilipes</em>, have recently been shown to represent two separate, species endemic to Oman. <em>Exacum affine</em> is now considered to be endemic to Soqotra and Samha. <em>Exacum affine</em> is widely cultivated as a house plant in Europe under various names including the Arabian, Persian or Socotran Violet. All seed in the horticultural trade originated from collections made by Schweinfurth during his expedition to Soqotra in 1881.	eng
44953	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44953	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dense shrubland in the higher parts of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 900–1,250 m. <br/> <br/>Less common than <em>E. affine</em>. The attractive foliage and strongly scented flowers give this plant great horticultural potential. Recorded in the 19th Century from above Homhil in the Northeast of Soqotra. It has not been seen there since and seems an unlikely record.	eng
44954	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44954	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Hanging near seepages on vertical cliffs on southern limestone escarpment. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 130 m. <br/> <br/><em>E. socotranum</em> is rather similar to <em>E. affine</em> but the characters defining it are consistent within populations.	eng
44955	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.	eng
44955	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Located on north-facing limestone cliffs. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 650 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>P. alchemilloides</em> (a plant of Southwest Arabia and tropical Northeast Africa) from which it differs in its pink (not white) flowers and the development of a pronounced woody stock.	eng
44956	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44956	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Very rare, on rocks and vertical cliff faces, near seepages on the limestone escarpment overlooking the Noged Plain. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 150 m.	eng
44957	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44957	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Low, <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland with emergent <em>Dracaena cinnabari</em>. Altitude of 1,350–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The rarest of the shrubby <em>Hypericum</em> species on Soqotra; only known from two locations. Most likely to be confused with <em>H. scopulorum</em> or <em>H. tortuosum</em> but readly distinguished by the pubescent stems and leaves.	eng
44958	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44958	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common, sometimes dominant, on granite in dwarf <em>Hypericum</em>-<em>Cephalocroton</em> shrubland on the higher slopes of the Haggeher mountains; co-dominant with <em>Helichrysum rosulatum</em> on pinnacles in the eastern Haggeher; less commonly on limestone cliffs. Altitude of (550–)800–1,350 m. <br/> <br/>Reported to be on the increase in the eastern Haggeher.	eng
44959	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44959	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Shrubland and semi-deciduus woodland on both granite and limestone, often on cliffs. Altitude of (30–)600–1,000 m.	eng
44960	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44960	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common and widespread on limestone in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 50–800 m.	eng
44961	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44961	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland and open woody herb communities on desertic coastal plains and slopes, mainly on limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m. <br/> <br/>Restricted to coastal plains and desertic foothills on the Southwest of Soqotra and on Samha.	eng
44962	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44962	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dense submontane semi-deciduous thicket around granite pinnacles. Altitude of 1,050–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The largest <em>Leucas</em> on Soqotra. Rather rare in dense thicket amongst the highest slopes of the central and western Haggeher.	eng
44963	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44963	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open semi-deciduous shrubland on granite. Altitude of 650–1,000 m.	eng
44964	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44964	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Deciduous shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of <em>ca</em>. 550 m. <br/> <br/>Only collected once above the Muqadrihon Pass. Readily distinguished by its pendulus flowers.	eng
44965	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Samha, Soqotra.	eng
44965	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally abundant in low shrubland at the base of the north-facing limestone escarpment on Samha. Altitude of 400–500 m.	eng
44966	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44966	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On cliffs and large boulders along wadis and on the escarpments. Altitude of sea-level to 350 m. <br/> <br/>More or less restricted to inaccessible cliffs only.	eng
44967	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44967	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and abundant in open shrubland and drought-deciduous woodland over much of the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 100–700 m. <br/> <br/>One of the commonest shrubs on the island.	eng
44968	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44968	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open rocky slopes in montane woodland on granite also in high areas on limestone in east and west of island; on Samha on north-facing limestone escarpment. Altitude of 400–1,550 m.	eng
44969	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44969	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Deciduous shrubland on rocky granite slopes. Altitude of 550–850 m. <br/> <br/>This rather insignificant shrub is locally common around the Muqadrihon Pass but scarce elsewhere.	eng
44970	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44970	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open rocky slopes and cliffs in semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 450–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The only succulent-leaved labiate on Soqotra. The leaves when crushed are strongly aromatic.	eng
44971	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44971	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and locally common on open rocky slopes in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 100–800 m. <br/> <br/>This strongly aromatic plant often forms extensive and dense mats over rocks.	eng
44972	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44972	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on open rocky slopes in the Haggeher; also scattered on limestone in the Northeast of Soqotra. Altitude of 330–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Some collections from the limestone in the northeast of Soqotra approach <em>H. balfourii</em>: they have similar whitish stems and the smaller flowers and leaves of <em>T. balfourii</em>. The status of these plants deserves further investigation. It was recorded from the western limestone plateau in the 19th Century but has not been seen there recently.	eng
44973	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44973	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Disturbed ground by tracks and wadi beds. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m.	eng
44974	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44974	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A small tree or shrub which is widespread and common in semi-deciduous woodland on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 200–800 m. <br/> <br/>The most variable species (particularly as regards leaf-shape) of <em>Chapmannia</em> on the island. Readily distinguished from all other species by its one- to two-flowered inflorescenses.	eng
44975	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44975	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in semi-deciduous woodland in the Muqadrihon Pass and Reyged plateau. Altitude of 450–550 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from all other species of <em>Chapmannia</em> on Soqotra by its narrow leaflets. It could, perhaps, be confused with narrow-leaved forms <em>C. gracile</em> (with which it sometimes grows) but can be separated from that species by its many-flowered inflorescence and the general absence of indumentum on its stem, leaves and calyx.	eng
44976	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44976	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widepread and locally common on rocky limestone slopes and along wadis in the west of Soqotra. Altitude of 5–700 m. <br/> <br/>There is considerable variation in the number of leaflets, sometimes even on the same branch and there is also regional variation in the conspicuous silky indumentum. Plants from Northwest Soqotra have tubercle-based hairs on the axis of the inflorescence whilst these are absent on plants from Southwest Soqotra.	eng
44977	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44977	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, only known from a few trees, in semi-deciduous woodland (with <em>Punica protopunica</em> and <em>Croton</em> spp.) on granite slopes in the western Haggeher. Altitude of 1,100 m. <br/> <br/>Easily recognized by its 3–5 elliptic leaflets which are glabrous above and by the <em>ca</em>. ten-flowered inflorescences and viscid hairs on the bracts and calyces.	eng
44978	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. Scattered, occasionally common.	eng
44978	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	A small tree or shrub in moist submontane, semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 550–650 m. <br/> <br/>The only tree species within the genus on Soqotra.	eng
44978	threats	Miller, A., 2004	There are no immediate threats.	eng
44979	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44979	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in a variety of vegetation types. Altitude of 10–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>As recognised here, this a very variable species found in diverse habitats. Vierhapper described two further species <em>C. schweinfurthii</em> and <em>C. kuriensis</em> based mainly on leaf characteristics but they are not maintained here because of numerous intermediates. Plants with broader leaves tend to be found in the mountains (<em>C. schweinfuthii</em>) and on the outer islands (<em>C. kuriensis</em>) whilst plants with more or less linear leaves are found on coastal plains.	eng
44980	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44980	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in open shrubland and woodland clearings on granite on northern slopes of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 400–600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily identified by the marbled pattern formed by the hairs on the upper leaf surface and its characteristic trigonous and beaked fruits.	eng
44981	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44981	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Clearings in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 200–850 m. <br/> <br/>Closely related to <em>I. Nephrocarpa</em> from which it can be distinguished by the: appressed (not crisped) indumentum on the stems and leaflets; narrower leaflets; longer peduncles; and discoid, flattened (not subglobose) fruits. However, there is a considerable degree of overlap in these characters with some rather intermediate specimens. Further study might result in these two species being better treated as varieties. Generally found at higher altitudes than <em>I. Nephrocarpa</em> and (unlike that species) apparently never on the coastal plains.	eng
44982	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
44982	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	In thin soil/gravel overlying limestone pavement on exposed limestone plateaus and cliffs. Altitude of 400–750 m.	eng
44983	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44983	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Clearings in semi-deciduous woodland on limestone in Northeast Soqotra and grassland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 500–1,500 m. <br/> <br/>Very variable in leaf shape and size.	eng
44984	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44984	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in dwarf shrubland on the coastal plain and foothills of western Soqotra (with <em>Pulicaria stephanocarpa</em>, <em>Limonium</em> spp. and <em>Farsetia socotrana</em>). Altitude of sea-level to 300 m.	eng
44985	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44985	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in grassland on the limestone plateaus. Altitude of 300–700 m. <br/> <br/>A most distinctive species with its relatively large purple flowers.	eng
44986	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44986	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On cliffs on coastal limestone escarpment. Altitude of 300 m. <br/> <br/>Only seen on the limestone cliffs at Ras Hebaq.	eng
44987	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44987	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous woodland on limestone escarpment. Altitude of 650 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently a rather rare endemic; possibly overlooked.	eng
44988	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44988	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland, mainly on the limestone plateaus but also occurs on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of (50–)200–800 m. <br/> <br/>Recognized by the violet-blue flowers. Usually a slender tree or shrub but can be prostrate in windswept places on the limestone plateau. However, it is easily recognized, even when not in flower, by the distinctive purplish black line along the midrib on the undersurface of the leaflets.	eng
44989	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44989	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On granite cliffs amongst granite boulders, in shrubland. Altitude of 950 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by the combination of five-lobed, cup-shaped calyx and filiform epicalyx lobes. It is perhaps closest to <em>H. noli-tangere</em> but differs in the indumentum of the calyx and epicalyx, the linear not filiform epicalyx lobes and the broadly triangular calyx lobes. Only known from the type gathering on Jebal Jaaf in the eastern Haggeher. This is the only local endemic recorded from the eastern Haggeher although there is evidence of floristic differences between the eastern, central and western Haggeher.	eng
44990	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is present in many protected areas..	eng
44990	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found in eastern South Africa and Swaziland, possibly ranging into southern Botswana and southern Mozambique.	eng
44990	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Coetzee, N., 2008	The distribution of this species coincides with the availability of bushveld, woodland or forest habitats, indicating a preference for some tree cover. In coastal habitats the species is typically collected in ecotones between coastal forest and grassland. This species is solitary and nocturnal, burrows are excavated under the cover of bushes. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
44990	population	Taylor, P.J. & Coetzee, N., 2008	It is widespread and common.	eng
44990	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
44991	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
44991	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This West African species ranges from Senegal to Niger and Burkina Faso. It is possibly present in Nigeria. The southern range boundaries are unknown.	eng
44991	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This species inhabits grasslands and shrublands in Sudan and Sahel savanna. In parts of its range it is considered to be an agricultural pest.	eng
44991	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
44991	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
44992	conservation	Granjon, L. & Assogbadjo, A., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
44992	distribution	Granjon, L. & Assogbadjo, A., 2008	This species appears to have been reported from over much of West Africa, although the only confirmed records of this species are from the type locality of Elmina in Ghana and from Benin (it has been confirmed through chromosome studies).	eng
44992	habitat	Granjon, L. & Assogbadjo, A., 2008	It is naturally found in areas of moist savanna. The species is a human commensal occurring in agricultural areas.	eng
44992	population	Granjon, L. & Assogbadjo, A., 2008	It is common in Benin.	eng
44992	threats	Granjon, L. & Assogbadjo, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
44993	conservation	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Lamilla, J., 2004	No conservation measure are in place for this species.	eng
44993	distribution	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Lamilla, J., 2004	Vooren and Betito (pers. com.) obtained <em>D. tschudii</em> off Brazil between 33°45?and 33°56?S at 27 to 35 m depth, with temperature ranging from 11.6 to 13.5°C and salinities from 32.3 to 33.0?. This is a cold water species entering south Brazilian waters from the south in small numbers during winter, but not spreading farther north than 33°S (Menni and Stehmann 2000). In Uruguay, captures of this species are low (A. Domingo, pers. comm).	eng
44993	habitat	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Lamilla, J., 2004	Reported from 22 to 181 m depth (Menni <em>et al</em>. 1981). Many aspects of the life history of <em>D. tschudii</em> are still unknown. <em>D. tschudii</em> feeds mainly on polychaete worms and gammarid amphipods (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It is an aplacental viviparous species (ovoviviparous) (Garcia 1984). <br/> <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - matures at 27.5 cm total length (TL) (females) and at 35 to 46 cm TL (males) (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong>: Chile - females between 17.8 and 44.2 cm total length (TL), males between 21.9 and 53.8 cm TL (Pequeño <em>et al</em>. 1988); Argentina - females 39 cm TL, Males 54 cm TL (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - 8.5 to 9.2 cm TL (Garcia 1984). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>: Chile - unknown; Argentina - 1 to 12 (mostly 4 to 5).	eng
44993	population	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Lamilla, J., 2004	Given that the range does not extend further south beyond northern Argentina in the Atlantic we assume this species occurs as two separate subpopulations (Atlantic and Pacific coasts).	eng
44993	threats	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Lamilla, J., 2004	Caught as a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries; though of low commercial value and is discarded or utilised for fish meal. Trawl fishing from southern Brazil to northern Argentina expanded rapidly over the last 10 years and continues unmanaged. Off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay, biomass measured by research trawling decreased by 88% in the years 1994?1999 (Hozbor and Massa, unpublished data). However because there was an apparent change in the distribution pattern of the species it is impossible to tell whether this decline was caused by a reduction in population size or geographic availability of Discopyge mitigated by different hydrographic conditions between these years. Trawl fishing in the habitat of the species is intense but there are no data available on catches. In Uruguay, captures of this species are generally low (A. Domingo, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>There is no specific information available on threats in the Southeast Pacific, but it is most definitely taken as bycatch in demersal fisheries in this region.	eng
44996	conservation	Cliff, G., 2004	None. The ongoing release of these animals from the trawl fishery and from the KZN shark nets should be encouraged.	eng
44996	distribution	Cliff, G., 2004	The species's current distribution is widespread in the Western Indian Ocean, however, it should not be assumed that this is a single species. <br/> <br/>Western Indian Ocean: Tanzania, Mozambique to South Africa (Compagno 1984), Mauritius (Fricke 1999) and Madagascar (specimens from Toliara, SW coast: 23.21°S, 43.40°E and Fort Dauphin (now Tolanaro) on the SE coast, 25.02°S, 47.00°E.) (B. Seret, pers. comm. 2004). Within South Africa it is confined to the east coast, with KwaZulu-Natal the centre of its distribution, extending into the Eastern Cape (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975).	eng
44996	habitat	Cliff, G., 2004	Found on the continental shelf and uppermost slope, from the surfline to about 500 m depth (Compagno 1984). The occasional catch of this species in the KZN shark nets comprised mainly mature individuals of both sexes and 38% of the mature females examined were pregnant.  Stomach contents comprised mainly teleosts (48% of stomachs with food) and cephalopods (42%) (Shelmadine and Cliff in prep.). <br/> <br/>In the Tugela Banks prawn trawl fishery the majority of the catch of this species were juveniles; mean size 30 cm total length (TL), range 30 to 50 cm, indicating that this fishing takes place in at least part of the nursery area for this species (Fennessey 1994). <br/> <br/>There is no information on age and growth.	eng
44996	population	Cliff, G., 2004	There is no evidence to suggest that any subpopulations occur.	eng
44996	threats	Cliff, G., 2004	In South Africa the species does not have any commercial value and is apparently little utilised. Here the biggest potential threat is demersal trawling for prawns off the Tugela Banks, KZN (which overlaps with the nursery ground of this species). This is both in terms of catches and habitat degradation by trawling. This species was found in 6% of trawls examined, at a catch rate of 0.014 individuals per hour. The estimated annual catch for the period 1989?1992 was 91-172 (Fennessy 1994), with a seemingly high mortality rate of 60%, but this was based on a sub-sample of only 10 animals. Also occasionally taken by surf anglers (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975) and in the shark nets that protect the swimming beaches of KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1992), on the east coast of South Africa where annual catches averaged 30 animals (range 11?69; sex ratio: 3: 1 females to males, 1980?2001). Catch rates averaged 0.7 sharks km/net/yr, with no trend.  About 43% of the catch was released alive (Shelmerdine and Cliff in prep.). <br/> <br/>It is taken in trawls and in artisanal deep set gillnets in Tanzania (Narriman Jiddawi, Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar, pers. comm. 2003). The extent of catches in the Mozambique trawl fishery and in other parts of its range is not known. Given the apparent ?slow? life history of angel sharks together with documented declines of other similar species, catches should be monitored, particularly elsewhere in the species range.  <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong> <br/>Little utilised, no value in South Africa, unknown elsewhere in its range.	eng
44997	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44997	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Distributed on the southern limestone plateaus from Diksam to Wadi Irih and extending onto the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 20–1,300 m. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>H. quattanensis</em> but differs in the densely stellate-hairy not glabrescent pedicels, epicalyx and calyx, also the leaves are narrower with a distinctly cordate base and crenate margins, and have a tendency to become lobed.	eng
44998	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44998	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	No habitat details available. <br/> <br/>Vierhapper and Wagner (Vierhapper 1907) based their description of this species on two collections from Bandar Shu'ub and from Wadi Meige on the northern slopes of Djebal Rahmen. These specimens have not been seen by the authors and a photograph (Vierhapper 1907 tab.7, 2 ) is not particularly helpful. According to the description this species is characterised by the calyx slitting into two segments, linear epicalyx lobes and long pedicels. Several specimens match this description in leaf and epicalyx shape and indumentum but lack the very long pedicels described by Vierhapper and Wagner (and shown in the photograph). Lengthening of the pedicel in fruit is recorded in <em>H. quattanensis</em>, <em>H. scottii</em> and <em>H. dioscorides</em>. The identify of this plant remains a mystery. The geographical distribution of the cited specimens also casts doubt on the integrity of this species.	eng
44999	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
44999	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Drought-deciduous woodland and succulent shrubland on limestone. Altitude of 100–600 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its dense indumentum small of stellate hairs and the complete absence of the large three- to five-armed irritant hairs which are an unpleasant characteristic of the other shrubby or arborescent species of <em>Hibiscus</em> on Soqotra. It seems on the basis of recent collections that <em>H. malacophyllus</em> is a plant with a rather narrow distribution in the north of the island from the Muqadrihon Pass to Ras Heybak.	eng
45000	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45000	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Drought-deciduous woodland on coastal limestone escarpment. Altitude of 100–200 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by its combination of five-toothed calyx, filiform epicalyx segments and the distinctive indumentum on its epicalyx and calyx: the surface of these are clothed with stellate hairs but along their margins the indumentum is apparently composed of simple hairs; these are, on closer examination, a mixture of simple and few-armed stellate hairs with long (<em>ca</em>. 1 mm) arms. Only known from Hoq woodlands on the coastal limestone escarpment below Homhil in the Northeast of Soqotra. These woodlands are floristically rich and perhaps the best example on Soqotra of the woodland found on the seaward-facing slopes on the limestone escarpments.	eng
45001	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra	eng
45001	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread on the coastal plains and dry limestone foothills and plateaus of Southwest Soqotra; mainly in <em>Croton socotranus</em> shrubland and succulent shrubland. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other woody <em>Hibiscus</em> species on Soqotra by its glabrescent pedicels, epicalyx and calyx. It is closest to <em>H. diriffan</em> with its oblanceolate, reflexed epicalyx lobes. <br/> <br/>Shrub or small tree < 3 m. Leaves broadly ovate or suborbicular, 1–4.5 x 1–4 cm, base broadly cuneate to truncate, margin entire, tip rounded to obscurely crenate, glabrescent above with sparse, large (2–4 mm) three-armed hairs beneath. Epicalyx lobes nine or ten, linear-oblanceolate, 5–9 x 1–4 mm, with a distinct mid-vein and lamina-like margin, becoming strongly reflexed. Calyx cup-shaped, 10–15 mm long, splitting to below the middle into two, broadly ovate, entire lobes.	eng
45002	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45002	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to dense semi-deciduous woodland on the granitic slopes of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 550–800 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its orange-yellow corollas which are clothered with rust-coloured, three-armed hairs on their outer surface. It is also characterised by the calyx which splits into two, toothed segments and the ovate or rhombate leaves. The plants included here match the plant illustrated in Balfour’s Botany of Socotra (Bayley Balfour 1888 t. 5a). Balfour in his treatment apparently included all plants with funnel-shaped corollas and three-armed hairs, a somewhat broader definition than the one used here.	eng
45003	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45003	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open deciduous succulent shrubland. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its low habit and its fused epicalyx. The relationship between <em>H. socotranus</em> and the other Soqotran endemic <em>Hibiscus</em> spp. is not clear. The degree of fusion of the epicalyx (to about one third) is unusual within <em>Hibiscus</em> and unique amongst the species on Soqotra; the only other species with a similarly fused epicalyx is <em>H. erlangeri</em> from Somalia which, on account of its epicalyx, has sometimes been separated into the monotypic genus <em>Symphochlamys</em>. <em>Hibiscus erlangeri</em> differs from <em>H. socotranus</em> in its calyx which splits into two, more or less entire lobes and in this resembles some of the other endemic Soqotran species (e.g., <em>H. scottii</em>, <em>H. malacophyllus</em>, <em>H. macropodus</em>, <em>H. diriffan</em> and <em>H. quattanensis</em>). Collected by John Lavranos and Alan Radcliffe-Smith, in 1967 on the north-facing limestone escarpment above Qaysoh near Qalansiyah at the western end of Soqotra. There are several other local endemics and plants of note on this escarpment. These include <em>Boswellia bullata</em>, <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>, <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Aloe squarrosa</em>, <em>Gaillonia thymoides</em> and <em>Hypericum socotranum</em> subsp. <em>socotranum</em>.	eng
45004	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45004	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common, and sometimes abundant, in the Northeast of Soqotra in rocky areas on the limestone plateau. Altitude of 330–600 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its tubular corolla, without a red base but with red stigmas, its cylindrical calyx and anthers restricted to the top quarter of the staminal column. Its short filiform epicalyx lobes are also distinctive. On Soqotra similar epicalyx lobes are only found in <em>H. noli-tangere</em>, the geographically closest species. Usually a low shrub, <em>H. stenanthus</em>, never grows very tall and, on more windswept sites (for instance above Ras Momi), it is virtually prostrate.	eng
45005	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Restricted to seaward-facing escarpments in Northeast Soqotra where it grows on shady limestone cliffs and boulders in drought-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 20–300 m. <br/> <br/>Common in a fairly narrow altitudinal band on seaward-facing limestone escarpment cliffs in Northeast Soqotra. Its total area of occupancy is probably under 10 km². It is under no immediate or perceived threat but its restriction to a small, specialised niche makes it vulnerable to environmental change. It is also of potential interest to succulent enthusiasts and could be threatened by over-collection. <br/> <br/>In habit very different from <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>. However, in flower its affinities with that species are more obvious.	eng
45006	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45006	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky areas on limestone. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m.	eng
45007	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45007	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky slopes in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone and granite. Altitude of 100–800 m.	eng
45008	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45008	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal dwarf shrubland and inland cliff. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m.	eng
45009	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45009	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal dwarf shrubland and inland cliff. Altitude of sea-level to 550 m.	eng
45010	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.	eng
45010	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Sparse dwarf shrubland on dry rocky slopes. Altitude of 30–50 m. <br/> <br/>An inconspicuous plant, growing between rocks and easily over-looked. It is readily distinguished by its rather flattened, prostrate stems.	eng
45011	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45011	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on rocky slopes. Altitude of 50–500 m.	eng
45012	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Open woody-herb community and dwarf shrubland on rolling limestone plateau. Altitude of 650–700 m. <br/> <br/>Clearly closely related to <em>P. quadrifida</em> and <em>P. kuriensis</em> but differing in the smaller stature and the ground-hugging stems which trail across the ground giving a necklace-like appearance.	eng
45013	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Only known from the ridge above Jebel Shu'ub where it occurs in small depressions on limestone slabs on an exposed ridge. Flower measurements based on buds; no fully open flowers have been seen.	eng
45014	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45014	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dry rocky slopes. Altitude of 10–700 m. <br/> <br/>Most closely related to <em>Ochradenus arabicus</em> Chaudhary, Hillc. and A.G.Mill. and <em>O. baccatus</em> Del. from the mainland of Yemen. It is similar to <em>O. arabicus</em> in being clearly dioecious but differs in having a fleshy fruit and dull, rather than glossy seeds. The dull, smooth seeds also distinguish it from <em>O. baccatus</em> which has rugose seeds and also has apparently hermaphrodite flowers.	eng
45015	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45015	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dry rocky slopes and cliffs. Altitude of sea-level to 700 m.	eng
45016	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45016	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in woodland on the mountains and along wadis. Altitude of 100–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>A common and widespread shrub with small pink or lilac flowers. It is readily distinguished by the asymmetric wing-like calyx which gradually expands and hides the developing fruit. Balfour (Bayley Balfour 1888) originally described three species (under <em>Dirichletia</em>) from the island. These were later reduced to a single species, <em>Carphalea obovata</em>, by Verdcourt (1973).	eng
45017	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45017	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common in rocky places on the limestone escarpments. Altitude of 30–650 m.	eng
45018	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45018	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Local in low evergreen shrubland on granite in the central and eastern Haggeher. Altitude of 900–1,550 m. <br/> <br/>A very bad smelling plant.	eng
45019	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45019	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Apparently restricted to semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpment and plateau above Qallansiyah. Altitude of 350–700 m.	eng
45020	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45020	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rocky places in semi-deciduous woodland on both limestone and granite. Altitude of 400–1,000 m.	eng
45021	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45021	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and recorded from a variety of habitats including exposed and windswept places on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus, deciduous woodland along wadis and semi-deciduous woodland on the limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 600 m.	eng
45022	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45022	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare on cliffs along wadis draining south into the Noged plain; in succulent shrubland. Altitude of 30–100 m. <br/> <br/><em>Kraussia socotrana</em> is quite distinct form the African species of <em>Kraussia</em> in its non-winged pollen receptacle and pubescent corolla throat and narrower corolla tube. In overall facies <em>K. socotrana</em> shows greatest resemblance to the most geographically remote species, <em>K. floribunda</em> Harv. from southern Africa (Bridson 1995).	eng
45023	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45023	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Wadi Faleng and near Galonsir [Qallansiyah]. <br/> <br/>Similar to <em>O. pulvinata</em> from which it differs in its smaller leaves and calyx. It possibly represents an extreme form of that species. Not seen since it was first collected in the 19th Century at opposite ends of the island near Qallansiyah and near Wadi Faleng.	eng
45024	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45024	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 350–1,370 m. <br/> <br/>This species occupies and isolated position within the genus and has no close allies. It was placed in the monotypic subgenus <em>Alsinastrum</em> Bremek.	eng
45025	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45025	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Amongst rocks on limestone plateaus. Altitude of 450–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its rosette-forming annual habit and fruit with a pair of triangular terminal teeth.	eng
45026	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Abd al Kuri, Soqotra.	eng
45026	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Shady rocky slopes and ledges, particularly common in cracks on the limestone pavement on Jebal Saleh. Altitude of 30–500 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished from the other cushion-forming species by the curious clear eye at the tip of the succulent leaves and calyces. This window of clear tissue possibly acts as a lense to focus the rays of the sun on photosynthetic cells around the sides of the semi-globose leaf tips. This is comparable to the leaves of the living stones, from the genus <em>Lithops</em> (Aizoaceae) from southern Africa.	eng
45027	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45027	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	On soil and rocks on the plains and limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>The commonest cushion-forming plant on the islands. Very variable.	eng
45028	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45028	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Submontane semi-deciduous woodland. Altitude of 850–1,000 m. <br/> <br/>Rare, in Haggeher mountains.	eng
45029	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45029	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Fairly common in the north central and north eastern part of the island; rocky places on both limestone and granite, often growing in rock crevices. Altitude of 100–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The emarginate corolla lobes and sweet-smelling jasmine-like flowers are characteristic of this small shrub. It comes into new leaf after rain; drops leaves in summer and flowers in winter. The species was first described in <em>Mussaenda</em> and later transferred to <em>Pseudomussaenda</em> but it is now placed in a monotypic genus. The name <em>Tamridaea</em> is derived from Tamrida, an old name for the capital of Soqotra (now Hadiboh).	eng
45030	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45030	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in low shrubland on granite in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,400 m. <br/> <br/>Distinguished by its strongly aromatic, evergreen leaves which have strongly inrolled margins.	eng
45031	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45031	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Uncommon, in dense montane woodland in the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 600–1,000 m.	eng
45032	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45032	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rather uncommon in shrubland on rocky slopes and ridges in the high Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 700–1,300 m.	eng
45033	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45033	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Usually an annual, but under favourable conditions can live for several years. <em>L. sokotrana</em> is closely related to the widespread species <em>L. indica</em>.	eng
45034	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45034	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common dry rocky slopes and sandy plains. Altitude of sea-level to 500 m. <br/> <br/>Common on the foothills of Jebal Saleh on Abd al Kuri. One specimen collected was quite different from the above description in habit, being tufted and much smaller than the other collections. There do not appear to be any other significant differences. This collection was growing on an exposed sandy plain whereas typically this species is found growing in the shade of boulders. Also found near the village on Samha.	eng
45035	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45035	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on limestone plateaus. Altitude of 200–600 m.	eng
45036	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45036	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Coastal plains and desertic foothills, less commonly on limestone plateaus (Ras Geridihon). Altitude of sea-level to 600 m. <br/> <br/>Apparently generally found at lower altitudes than <em>X. aculeolatus</em>.	eng
45037	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45037	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread and often abundant on coastal plains and limestone plateaus. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>On Abd al Kuri <em>L. sokotranum</em> is abundant on the central plains. The plants here are much more robust and with longer spines than those on Soqotra. It is an important nursery plant and protect seedlings, such as <em>Dendrosicyos socotranus</em>, from livestock. It is similar to <em>L. depressum</em> and <em>L. arabicum</em> from the Arabian mainland. <br/> <br/>Much-branched shrub < 2 m. Branches with short spines, < 1 cm long. Leaves obovate, 0.5–2 x 0.1–0.4 cm. Calyx 0.2–0.3 cm long. Corolla yellow, <em>ca</em>.  1 cm long. Fruit red, 0.5–1 cm diameter.	eng
45038	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45038	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in succulent shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 650 m. <br/> <br/>Close to, and dubiously distinct from, <em>Withania riebeckii</em>.	eng
45039	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45039	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Widespread in succulent shrubland and drought deciduous woodland. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m.	eng
45040	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45040	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	<em>Jatropha</em>-<em>Croton</em> shrubland and semi-decidous shrubland. Altitude of 100–600 m.	eng
45041	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45041	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Abundant in semi-deciduous woodland and shrubland on the western plateau and on the Haggeher and adjacent limestone plateus; dominant in woodland in the northern wadis of the Haggeher mountains; also found on the summit of the coastal escarpment in the east of the island. Altitude of 300–800 m.	eng
45042	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45042	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Common and widepread on the coastal plains and limestone plateaus; absent from the granite of the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of sea-level to 800 m. <br/> <br/>Prostrate herb < 15 cm. Leaves in rosettes, oblong-ovate, 4–9 x 0.6–2 cm, simple to pinnate or bi-pinnate, serrate to biserrate. Flowers: solitary, <em>ca</em>. 1 cm across. Sepals and petals: four. Stamens: many. Fruits: oblong-ovoid, 5–8 x 1–2 mm, rounded at apex, two-locular.	eng
45043	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra. Subpopulations appear to be very scattered and scarce, but under no current threat.	eng
45043	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Flower colour not known.	eng
45044	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45044	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Dry ravines and wadi sides. Altitude of 10–150 m.	eng
45045	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in the Haggeher mountains; in fissures of vertical cliff faces on granite pinnacles. Altitude of 1,000–1,550 m. <br/> <br/>Readily distinguished by its glossy simple leaves with their distinctive parallel venation. <br/> <br/>Cliff-dwelling shrublet, to 50 cm; stems contorted, densely covered with leaf scars. Leaves: leathery, bright green, glossy, subcircular, 1–3.5 cm long. Bracts and bracteoles 2–8 mm long. Flowers <em>ca</em>. 1 mm across. Fruit ovoid-elliptic,1.5–2.5 x 4–6 mm; mericarps five-ribbed, prominent, tuberculate; styles 0.5–1 mm long.	eng
45046	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Rare, on cliffs on both the limestone and granite. Altitude of 500–1,100 m. <br/> <br/>The only umbel on Soqotra with a distinct stem. It is relatively common in the zone on the limestone escarpment on Samha which captures low cloud and drizzle at certain times of year. On Soqotra it is restricted to cliffs on the limestone escarpment near Qallansiyah and is rare on the granite pinnacles of the Haggeher.	eng
45047	conservation	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is present in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve. There is a need to conserve remaining patches of primary forest habitat throughout the range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this species, particulary its ability to persist in modified or degraded forest habitats. There is a need to review the identity of <em>Myosorex</em> the Rungwe Mountains.	eng
45047	distribution	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	<em>Myosorex kilhaulei</em> is found in the Udzungwe Mountains of Tanzania (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000). Populations of <em>Myosorex</em> from the Rungwe Mountains of Tanzania, might also be assigned to <em>Myosorex kihaule</em> but could represent a different taxon and further studies are needed (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000). Other seemingly suitable locations have been extensively sampled without finding <em>Myosorex kihaule</em>. This species occurs at elevations up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
45047	habitat	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is found in primary montane forest. One specimen was recorded from a tea plantation. The Udzungwe Mountains are the only area in this region where there is suitable forest which occurs from 1,500-2,000 m asl.	eng
45047	population	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is relatively common where it occurs.	eng
45047	threats	Howell, K. & Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by general deforestation, through logging and conversion of land to agricultural purposes. Although it is thought unlikely that the forest will be totally cleared, the quality of the habitat will continue to be degraded.	eng
45048	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is present in the well protected Mount Kilimanjaro National Park.	eng
45048	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	<em>Myosorex zinki</em> is endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (Grimshaw <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is thought to occur at elevations between 2,470 - 4,000 m asl.	eng
45048	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This species is found in a number of habitats including forest, heathland, moorland and up to edge of alpine desert.<br/>It is a large and distinct species that resembles <em>M. eisentrauti</em> from Bioko (Stanley and Hutterer, 2000).	eng
45048	population	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	This is a locally common species.	eng
45048	threats	Hutterer, R. & Howell, K., 2008	There appear to be no current major threats to this species, however, climate change is a plausible future threat to its montane habitat.	eng
45049	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
45049	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known Central African species has only been recorded from two places, the type locality of Ikenge Research Station in Korup National Park, Cameroon (Hutterer and Schlitter 1996), and in Kongana, Central African Republic (Ray and Hutterer 1995). It presumably ranges more widely than is currently known.	eng
45049	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has been collected from lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
45049	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
45049	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
45050	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded from the Dzanga-Sangha Forest Reserve in southwestern Central African Republic (Ray and Hutterer 1996). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
45050	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little known species has been recorded from the Central African Republic and Congo (Hutterer 2005).	eng
45050	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	Little is known about the natural history of this species, however, it appears to be limited to patches of mixed and unlogged lowland tropical moist forest (Ray and Hutterer 1996).	eng
45050	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is a localised species.	eng
45050	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
45051	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	It has been recorded from the Mount Oku Faunal Reserve. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
45051	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is limited to the Cameroon mountains (including the areas of Mount Oku and Lake Manenguba) and to the Gotel Mountains in southeastern Nigeria. It has been recorded at around 2,000 in Cameroon and at 2,300 m asl in Nigeria.	eng
45051	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This little-known species is associated with montane tropical moist forest.	eng
45051	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
45051	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging, conversion of land to agricultural use, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and general fragmentation of suitable forest patches.	eng
45052	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. There is a need to protect the forest habitat of this species.	eng
45052	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species has a very restricted range in southwestern Ethiopia. It is currently known only from Sheko Forest and Gore, at elevations of 1,800 m to 1,930 m asl.	eng
45052	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is found in humid afro-montane forest with a notable abundance of parasitic <em>Ficus</em> and undergrowth dominated by <em>Coffea arabica</em>. The well circumscribed elevational limits of the species may be related to factors associated with vegetational communities. The habitat requirements of the species remain unclear.	eng
45052	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is a rare species known only from three specimens.	eng
45052	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The rapid destruction of montane forests might threaten the species in the near future	eng
45053	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
45053	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is known from rocky habitats, on the right bank of the Niger river, in Mali.	eng
45053	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It has been recorded in rocky areas and cliffs surrounded by dry savanna habitat.	eng
45053	population	Granjon, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
45053	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45054	conservation	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	The area is not currently under protection and harbours a large number of endemics. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of montane forest in Cameroon. Surveys are required on the mountains further to the east to see if this species occurs there.	eng
45054	distribution	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has only been recorded from the upper slopes of Mount Oku, Cameroon. It may occur on other mountains to the east of Mount Oku but this needs to be confirmed. It has been collected at 2,100 m asl.	eng
45054	habitat	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species occurs in montane tropical moist forest. Only approximately 100 km² of forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
45054	population	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is known only from four collections, so there is no information on population size.	eng
45054	threats	Schlitter, D. &  van der Straeten, E., 2008	There is deforestation on the lower slopes of Mount Oku for agricultural land, firewood and building materials.	eng
45055	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
45055	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is endemic to Mount Cameroon, Cameroon. Specimens have been collected between 1,000 and 3,100 m asl.	eng
45055	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Inhabits montane forest, grasslands, forest fringes, small patches of woodland, and gardens and plantations.	eng
45055	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
45055	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	Although it has a restricted range, there do not appear to be any current or near future major threats to this species.	eng
45056	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The area of Mount Oku does not appear to be protected and there is an urgent need to conserve remaining suitable forest in this area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
45056	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species is known only from the edge of a crater lake on Mount Oku, Bamenda-Banso highlands, Cameroon. Recorded by five specimens collected in 1967 from the type locality, an isolated patch of forest on Mount Oku (Verheyen <em>et al</em>. 1997). It was collected at 2,100 m asl.	eng
45056	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species inhabits montane rainforest. Only about 100 km² of suitable forest habitat remains on Mount Oku (Oates <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
45056	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The population size of this species is not known, but it is probably very rare.	eng
45056	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The restricted range of this species is threatened by continuing habitat loss, through clearance of land for agricultural use (including grazing) and presumably through some logging activities.	eng
45057	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is protected by the Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
45057	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species occurs in Ethiopia in montane evergreen tropical rain forests of the eastern and western plateaus (separated by the Ethiopian Rift Valley). The species probably occurs in most forests of the southwestern mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is present from 1,200 to 2,760 m asl.	eng
45057	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It inhabits montane tropical evergreen rainforest on both the western and eastern plateau of the Bale Mountains. This species sympatric with the heathland <em>L. brevicauda</em> from 2,400 to 2,760 m asl in the Bale Mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998; Lavrenchenko 2000).	eng
45057	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is abundant where it is found.	eng
45057	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	A predicted continuing loss of montane forests will reduce the geographical range and population numbers.	eng
45058	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is protected by the Bale Mountains National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance is needed, as is the establishment and management of additional protected areas.	eng
45058	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is known only from south central Ethiopian highlands, on the east side of the Rift Valley in the Chilalo and Gedeb Mountains (Osgood 1936) and from the Bale Mountains (Lavrenchenko <em>et al</em>. 1998), as well as on the west side of the Rift Valley at Bonke.	eng
45058	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species inhabits <em>Erica</em>-<em>Hypericum</em> heath zone (both upland grasslands and <em>Erica</em> shrubland) on both the western (Bonke) and eastern (Chilalo, Gedeb and Bale Mountains) high Ethiopian plateau.	eng
45058	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is abundant where it is found.	eng
45058	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is an upland grassland species, which occurs in the same habitat as the majority of Ethiopians and their livestock. It is threatened by continuing habitat destruction, but remains sufficiently common and widespread to pose no immediate conservation concerns.	eng
45059	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
45059	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This poorly known species was described in 1996. The known range covers a small area south of the Congo River in northern Democratic Republic of Congo, on the left bank of the Congo River between the Lualaba and Lomami Rivers, and to the west of the Lomami River to Ndele. Found between 300 to 450 m asl.	eng
45059	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It inhabits lowland tropical rain forest. It is not known if this species can exist in modified areas.	eng
45059	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This is a rare and little known species.	eng
45059	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
45060	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Awash National Park. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat for this species.	eng
45060	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species appears to be endemic to the Ethiopian Rift Valley where it is confined to a small part of the Upper Awash Valley (Lavrenchenko <em>et al.</em>, 1998). All known examples were captured on the eastern bank of Koka Lake and Awash National Park. More recently recorded on Lake Zeway shores (unpublished data). It has been collected at 1,500 m asl.	eng
45060	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	This species inhabits the Awash riverbank which is vegetated by <em>Acacia</em>-<em>Commiphora</em> thornbush with high grass, and adjacent agricultural habitats. It is not a truly commensal species as it is not associated with human habitation.	eng
45060	population	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	It appears to be uncommon, but trap rate data is too minimal to infer this. It is possibly declining due to habitat loss.	eng
45060	threats	Lavrenchenko, L. & Corti, M., 2008	Agricultural development might threaten this species in the near future.	eng
45061	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g., Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
45061	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from southern coastal Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Burkina-Faso and seemingly disjunctly in Nigeria (the type locality); the distribution limits are not well known. It is a lowland species.	eng
45061	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	It is found on floodplains around ponds and along rivers (humid all year round), also in cultivated areas, irrigated fields and gardens. This species has additionally been found on the sandy Saloum Islands off the coast of Senegal. It has severe population fluctuations, with population explosions recorded from both Senegal and Mali (L. Granjon pers. comm.).	eng
45061	population	Granjon, L., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
45061	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45065	conservation	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is not thought to occur in any protected areas.	eng
45065	distribution	Taylor, P.J., 2008	This species is endemic to west-central Angola, the type locality is Chitau. It occurs from 1,000 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
45065	habitat	Taylor, P.J., 2008	An inhabitant of montane grassland and swamps. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
45065	population	Taylor, P.J., 2008	It is most likely a common species.	eng
45065	threats	Taylor, P.J., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
45067	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
45067	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is known from isolated populations from extreme northern Malawi, south-central Tanzania (Poroto and Ukinga Mountains) and south-western Kenya, with a single record from Abercorn (=Mbala) Lucheche River in northern Zambia. It ranges from 1,400 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
45067	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It occurs in montane grassland and swamp. Its is not known if the species is found in farmland.	eng
45067	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is probably a common species. Populations fluctuate with fires and drought.	eng
45067	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Fires caused by both farmers and by poachers hunting large mammals are a potential threat. The species is also threatened by overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock.	eng
45069	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Mount Elgon is conserved within Mount Elgon National Park, but better management of the park to conserve this species is needed.	eng
45069	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	This species is geographically restricted to the Ugandan and Kenyan upper slopes of Mount Elgon, from 3,300 to 4,200 m asl.	eng
45069	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is a habitat specialist restricted to alpine heaths on upper slopes (>3,300 m asl) of Mount Elgon where it co-exists with <em>O. typus jacksoni</em> (Clausnitzer and Kityo 2001).	eng
45069	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It is reasonably common in good habitat.	eng
45069	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Habitat degradation and poor management of the species' habitat has resulted in extensive fires (often linked to poaching activities) that have damaged the habitat. Tourism, in particular disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a potential threat.	eng
45071	conservation	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The range is within Mount Cameroon National Park.	eng
45071	distribution	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	The species is known only from the region of the type locality of Mount Cameroon, in Cameroon. It occurs from 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
45071	habitat	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	It occurs in montane grassland in the Cameroon highlands. The grassland is often within natural clearings in the forest, but the species is not found in the forest itself. Its is not known if it can persist in cleared areas or farmland.	eng
45071	population	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	Only very few specimens have been collected suggesting that it is an uncommon species.	eng
45071	threats	Taylor, P.J. & Maree, S., 2008	There are threats from agriculture at lower elevations on Mount Cameroon, but this species mainly occurs at elevations within the protected area so much of its habitat is currently less threatened.	eng
45072	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It may possibly occur in protected areas in Cameroon.	eng
45072	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	this species has been recorded from southern Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, and southern Congo. There are no records from Gabon, and there is an apparently large gap between the Congo records and those in Cameroon and Central African Republic. This is most likely due to lack of collections. This lowland species ranges up to 500 m asl.	eng
45072	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It occurs in tropical lowland rainforest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
45072	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is not very abundant.	eng
45072	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45076	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	Although there are no conservation measures in place;, the species is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
45076	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is known from the Sahel and Sudan savannas of Senegal, Mali and Niger. The distribution may be disjunct, separated by the inner delta of the Niger River (this is unsuitable habitat). It is also present on some coastal islands of Senegal.	eng
45076	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is found in woodlands on sandy and clay soils, and also in fallow lands and cultivated fields. It has also been recorded on sandy and mangrove islands of the Saloun Delta, Senegal.	eng
45076	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This is a common species, that is locally abundant and is occasionaly considered to be an agricultural pest.	eng
45076	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45077	conservation	Granjon, L., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
45077	distribution	Granjon, L., 2008	This little-known species has only been recorded from southeastern Mauritania and western Mali.	eng
45077	habitat	Granjon, L., 2008	Animals have been collected from Sahel savanna and fallow agricultural land.	eng
45077	population	Granjon, L., 2008	This species is only known from four specimens.	eng
45077	threats	Granjon, L., 2008	There are presumed to be no major threats to this species.	eng
45078	conservation	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this little known species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable primary forest within the range of the species.	eng
45078	distribution	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species has only been recorded from The Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it has been found at Medje (800 m asl in the Ituri Forest) and at Irangi (at 800 to 1,450 m asl).	eng
45078	habitat	Dieterlen. F., 2008	This species has been recorded from primary rainforest, secondary forest and submontane forest (at Irangi).	eng
45078	population	Dieterlen. F., 2008	It is extremely rare, and is known only from a few specimens. Very little is known about this species but it is assumed that its biology is similar to that of other species in the genus.	eng
45078	threats	Dieterlen. F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, however, primary forests within the range of the species are under threat from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
45079	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common in shade in moist woodland. Altitude of 500–1,200 m. <br/> <br/>Balfour placed this species under the genus <em>Peucedanum</em> but commented that within the genus it was unusual on account of its peculiarly dissected leaves and cordate-based fruit. Recently molecular studies have shown it to be unrelated to any other species in <em>Peudedanum</em> but most closely related to the newly described <em>R. milleri</em>.	eng
45080	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Locally common on the Rewgid plateau; on vertical rock faces on limestone cliffs. Altitude of 600–750 m. <br/> <br/>A very distinctive cliff-dwelling shrub which is restricted to steep, inacessible cliffs on the Rewgid plateau where it is abundant in places.	eng
45081	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45081	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Annual on dry hill slopes near Galonsir [Qallansiyah] Balfour 1888. <br/> <br/>Only one other species of this predominantly Meditearranean and North African genus is recorded from the region, <em>V. microcarpa</em> Lois from Kenya and Ethiopia. However, <em>V. microcarpa</em> is widespread in the Mediterranean region and it is not clear whether it is native to or introduced into tropical Northeast Africa. The status of the Soqotran <em>V. affinis</em>, a rare Mediterranean outlier, which is only known from a single dried specimen, needs further investigation. For the time being it remains an example of a rare Mediterranean–Soqotran geographical disjunction and has interesting biogeographical implications.	eng
45082	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45082	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Thickets in semi-deciduous submontane woodland; more rarely as a low shrub on granite slopes (above Firmihin) or on limestone cliffs (Rewgid); also found on seaward-facing limestone cliffs in the Northeast of Soqotra. Altitude of 700–1,520 m. <br/> <br/>Local in dense thicket in the Haggeher mountains, however, it is also less common in other areas, for instance on the higher seaward-facing cliffs at Reqadrihon (above Hoq). These cliffs attract low cloud and rain during the winter and are a refugium for some species (e.g., <em>Dirachma</em>) which are otherwise found only in areas of high rainfall in the Haggeher and adjacent limestone plateaus.	eng
45083	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Dwarf shrubland on the eastern and western limestone plateaus. Altitude of 200–650 m.	eng
45084	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45084	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Widespread and common on the limestone escarpments and plateaus. Altitude of 50–950 m.	eng
45085	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45085	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Common and widespread on the limestone plateaus and above 300 m on the limestone espcarpments; in dwarf shrubland and open woodland. Altitude of 300–800 m. <br/> <br/>Replaces <em>C. subaphylla</em> above 300 m over most of the island; absent from the granite of the Haggeher.	eng
45086	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra.	eng
45086	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	A common vine in drought deciduous woodland in the wadis draining the Haggeher mountains. Altitude of 200–650 m.	eng
45087	distribution	MIller, A., 2004	Endemic to Soqotra and Samha.	eng
45087	habitat	MIller, A., 2004	Widespread and often abundant on the plains and in succulent shrubland on the limestone escarpments; generally occurs below <em>ca</em>. 300 m (replaced by <em>C. hamaderohensis</em> in higher altitudes) but reaches up to 750 m on dry dipslopes of the western limestone plateau; co-dominant at 100 m on Samha in open shrubland. Altitudes of sea-level to 750 m. <br/> <br/><em>C. subaphylla</em> is common in dry, low-lying areas, only rarely occurring above 300 m; at higher levels it is replaced by <em>C. hamaderohensis</em>. It is reported to be on the increase in upland areas. The importance of <em>Cissus subaphylla</em> as a nursery plant for a variety of palatable species is well known throughout the islands. Thus its absence can effect the recovery of populations of trees such as <em>Dendrosicyos</em>, <em>Maerua</em>, <em>Commiphora</em> etc.	eng
45088	conservation	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	No specific measures are known. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
45088	distribution	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This species ranges throughout North Africa and the Sahara Desert. In North Africa, it ranges eastwards from Morocco through Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.	eng
45088	habitat	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	It is present in arid habitats in rocky areas, often on gravel and hardened soils. Also found on arable land.	eng
45088	population	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	This is an abundant species that is considered to be an agricultural pest in some countries (e.g. Morocco).	eng
45088	threats	Granjon, L., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G., Muñoz, L.J.P. & Aulagnier, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45089	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
45089	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been captured in three localities in the Congo basin. It is possible that its distribution may include the whole basin.	eng
45089	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species inhabits primary lowland tropical moist forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
45089	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
45089	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is associated with primary forest, destruction of this habitat will have adverse effect on the range of species.	eng
45090	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
45090	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species is known from only four disjunct localities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is possible that the species is more widely distributed than is currently known. It is found at elevations of up to 1,800 m asl.	eng
45090	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is found in tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified or secondary forest.	eng
45090	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	Although this species is not common, it can be locally abundant	eng
45090	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	It is associated with primary forest, destruction of this habitat will have adverse effect on the range of species.	eng
45091	conservation	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
45091	distribution	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species is found only in western Angola, primarily on the Angolan Plateau (Crawford-Cabral 1998).	eng
45091	habitat	Coetzee, N., 2008	This species occurs in Mopane, Combretum and Miombo woodlands (savanna). It is probably commensal with people.	eng
45091	population	Coetzee, N., 2008	It appears to be locally common.	eng
45091	threats	Coetzee, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45092	conservation	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It occurs in Zakouma National Park (Chad), where it is syntopic with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. erythroleucus</span>. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
45092	distribution	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is reliably recorded from northern Niger (Air Massif), north-eastern Nigeria, northern Cameroon, southeastern Chad, and southern and eastern Sudan (see Dobigny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008 for a review).	eng
45092	habitat	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	According to Dobigny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008), this species is ubiquitous in its habitat preferences, having been caught in various ecological situations including sandy millet fields, shrubby areas surrounding cultivated gardens, dried waterholes, remote and non-cultivated fine-gravelled plain or periodically flooded shrub to tree savanna. It has been trapped twice very close to shrinkage cracks where it seems to nest.	eng
45092	population	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
45092	threats	Granjon, L., van der Straeten, E. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45093	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas in Ethiopia	eng
45093	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is restricted to the Ethiopian highlands, where it is found on both sides of the Rift Valley from 800 to 3,300 m asl. A disjunct subpopulation exists on the border with Eritrea	eng
45093	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The species inhabits montane forests, scrubland, and adjacent agricultural lands on the Ethiopian Plateau.	eng
45093	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is a common, widespread commensal species.	eng
45093	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45094	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
45094	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from Gambia and Senegal through Guinea, Sierra Leone, northern Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, southern Chad and Central African Republic, to southwestern Sudan; the eastern limits of the range are unresolved.	eng
45094	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is found in tall grass in open savanna woodland, often on rocky hillsides with ironstone soils ('Sudanian and Sahelian Zones'). It is a commensal species that may be found inside buildings.	eng
45094	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is not regularly caught.	eng
45094	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45095	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within the species range in which it is presumed to occur (e.g., Digya National Park in Ghana)	eng
45095	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This species is known only from eastern and southern Ghana, much of Togo, Benin and western Nigeria. There is also a recent outlying record from Guinea (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2002) which may be the result of a translocation. It occurs from sea level to 500 m asl.	eng
45095	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	It is a savanna species that is often found living in and around human dwellings.	eng
45095	population	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
45095	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Decher, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45096	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., van der Straten, E. & Corti, M., 2008	There are no protected areas within the known range of this species. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
45096	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., van der Straten, E. & Corti, M., 2008	This species is known only from Bonke and Bulta in the Gamo Gofa region, in the Gughe Mountains of southwestern Ethiopia. The species has an altitudinal range of 2,700 to 3,200 m asl.	eng
45096	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., van der Straten, E. & Corti, M., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded in upland forest and scrub. Nothing further is known about the biology of this species.	eng
45096	population	Lavrenchenko, L., van der Straten, E. & Corti, M., 2008	This species was described on the basis of nine specimens only.	eng
45096	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., van der Straten, E. & Corti, M., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but possibly include habitat loss through fire and overgrazing of the species habitat by domestic livestock.	eng
45097	conservation	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This species has been recorded from a large number of protected areas.	eng
45097	distribution	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a distinctive South African endemic species confined largely to the Fynbos biome (Eastern and Western Cape Provinces). It occurs from Olifants River in the west to Nature's Valley, Plettenberg Bay in the east.	eng
45097	habitat	van der Straeten, E., 2008	In is found in Fynbos vegetation, both lowland and montane. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
45097	population	van der Straeten, E., 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
45097	threats	van der Straeten, E., 2008	The lowland parts of the species range have been impacted by habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and urbanization; populations in montane areas appear to be secure.	eng
45098	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45099	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45100	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 650–1,700 m.	eng
45101	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45102	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,800 m.	eng
45103	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45104	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 m.	eng
45105	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45106	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45107	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45108	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 m.	eng
45109	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45110	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,400 m.	eng
45111	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45112	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45113	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.	eng
45114	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000 m.	eng
45115	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,360 m.	eng
45116	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,050 m.	eng
45117	distribution	Nicolalde, F. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–500 m.	eng
45118	distribution	Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45119	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45120	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45121	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45122	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45123	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45124	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,600–3,200 m.	eng
45125	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45126	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45127	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.	eng
45128	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 450 m.	eng
45129	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45130	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45131	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45132	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 350–1,600 m.	eng
45133	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45134	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45135	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45136	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45137	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45138	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45139	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45140	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45141	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45142	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45143	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300–1,000 m.	eng
45144	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45145	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45146	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45147	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,785–3,900 m.	eng
45148	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45149	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45150	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45151	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,785–3,900 m.	eng
45152	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45153	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.	eng
45154	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.	eng
45155	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,800 m.	eng
45156	distribution	Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,030 m.	eng
45157	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45158	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45159	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45160	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–2,500 m.	eng
45161	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45162	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,500 m.	eng
45163	distribution	Rojas, W., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 350–2,500 m.	eng
45164	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 230 to 350 m.	eng
45165	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400 to 600 m.	eng
45166	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,300 m.	eng
45167	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45168	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,100 m.	eng
45169	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45170	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45171	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45172	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45173	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45174	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45175	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45176	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45177	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45178	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45179	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45180	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45181	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,200 m.	eng
45182	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45183	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45184	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45185	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45186	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45187	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45188	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45189	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45190	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45191	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45192	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45193	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45194	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45195	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45196	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45197	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45198	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45199	conservation	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed to determine the validity and distribution of this taxon.	eng
45199	distribution	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This poorly known species has only been collected from the type locality of Kaffa in central Ethiopia.	eng
45199	habitat	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	There is nothing known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
45199	population	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	This species is known only from a single skin.	eng
45199	threats	Lavrenchenko, L., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
45200	conservation	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	The range includes a number of protected areas.	eng
45200	distribution	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species has been recorded from east central Tanzania, northwards through Kenya and northern Uganda, into Somalia, southeastern Ethiopia and southern Sudan. There is a record from Central African Republic and it probably also occurs into the northeastern part of Democratic Republic of the Congo. The western and southern limits of the range are unknown. The species has been recorded at elevations of up to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
45200	habitat	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	It occurs primarily in tree savannas in rocky areas.	eng
45200	population	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	This species is locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
45200	threats	van der Straeten, E. & Dieterlen, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
45201	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45202	distribution	Santiana, J., Cerón, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45203	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–600 m.	eng
45204	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300–600 m.	eng
45205	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.	eng
45206	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 300 m.	eng
45207	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,200–1,800 m.	eng
45208	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–700 m.	eng
45209	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 600 m.	eng
45210	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300–400 m.	eng
45211	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–500 m.	eng
45212	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–400 m.	eng
45213	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45214	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
45215	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45216	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 200 m.	eng
45217	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 350 m.	eng
45218	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,200–3,500 m.	eng
45219	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,600–2,200 m.	eng
45220	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2300 m.	eng
45221	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,800–2,800 m.	eng
45222	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45223	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–500 m.	eng
45224	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.	eng
45225	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,700–2,400 m.	eng
45226	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45228	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
45229	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
45230	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45231	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000 to >4,500 m.	eng
45232	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500 to >4,500 m.	eng
45233	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.	eng
45234	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,300 m.	eng
45235	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45236	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,800 m.	eng
45237	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,200–1,300 m.	eng
45238	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 800–1,000 m.	eng
45239	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–300 m.	eng
45240	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–500 m.	eng
45241	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 300 m.	eng
45242	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45243	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 50 to 700 m.	eng
45244	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–1,000 m.	eng
45245	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,200 m.	eng
45246	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200 to 500 m.	eng
45247	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400–1,800 m.	eng
45248	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,600–2,400 m.	eng
45249	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 100 m.	eng
45250	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,900–2,100 m.	eng
45251	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,700–2,200 m.	eng
45252	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.	eng
45253	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,00 m.	eng
45254	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,600–2,800 m.	eng
45256	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45257	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
45258	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45259	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45260	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45261	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45262	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000 to >4,500 m.	eng
45263	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45264	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45265	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45266	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45267	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
45268	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45269	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
45270	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
45271	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
45272	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45273	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45274	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45275	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,270 m.	eng
45276	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45277	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
45278	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,300–4,500 m.	eng
45279	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.	eng
45280	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.	eng
45281	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
45282	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45283	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45284	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,500 m.	eng
45285	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45286	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.	eng
45287	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
45288	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000 to snow level	eng
45289	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45290	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,900–4,100 m.	eng
45291	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 4,000–4,500 m.	eng
45292	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45293	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,400 m.	eng
45294	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 120 m.	eng
45295	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,200–2,500 m.	eng
45296	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,300–2,300 m.	eng
45297	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–2,700 m.	eng
45298	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–350 m.	eng
45299	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45300	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,800 m.	eng
45301	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45302	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45303	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400–700 m.	eng
45304	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45305	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 700–1,500 m.	eng
45306	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,300 m.	eng
45307	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45308	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,600 m.	eng
45309	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45310	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45311	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45312	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45313	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45314	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45315	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45316	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45317	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45318	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
45319	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45320	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45321	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,500 m.	eng
45322	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45323	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,450 m.	eng
45324	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45326	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 900–1,500 m.	eng
45327	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45328	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
45329	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
45330	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–1,000 m.	eng
45331	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45332	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 600 m.	eng
45333	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45334	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300–1,000 m.	eng
45335	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300–700 m.	eng
45336	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400–900 m.	eng
45337	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–700 m.	eng
45338	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 600 m.	eng
45339	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,700–2,000 m.	eng
45340	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45341	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 600–1,000 m.	eng
45342	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,800–2,200 m.	eng
45343	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 600 m.	eng
45344	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,800 m.	eng
45345	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45346	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–800 m.	eng
45347	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,700–2,100 m.	eng
45348	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 80 to 500 m.	eng
45349	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45350	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–1,000 m.	eng
45352	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45353	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
45354	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
45355	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45356	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
45357	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
45358	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
45359	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45360	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45361	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,800 m.	eng
45362	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
45363	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45364	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45365	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1740 m.	eng
45366	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45367	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45368	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
45369	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45370	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–600 m.	eng
45371	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45372	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45373	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45374	distribution	Clark, J.L., Skog, L.E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–300 m.	eng
45375	distribution	Freire-Fierro, A. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,480 m.	eng
45376	distribution	Freire-Fierro, A. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,600–4,000 m.	eng
45377	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45378	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,550–1,570 m.	eng
45379	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45380	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 m.	eng
45381	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
45382	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45383	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,150 m.	eng
45384	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45385	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45386	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,380 m.	eng
45387	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45388	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45389	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,050 m.	eng
45390	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 550 m.	eng
45391	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,320 m.	eng
45392	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45393	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 2,000 m.	eng
45394	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45395	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 960 m.	eng
45396	distribution	Delgado, T. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100 to 600 m.	eng
45397	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
45398	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45399	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45402	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The current population sizes in terms of both number of individuals and area of occupancy should be assessed as this is not clear from the specimen data. A better understanding of the flowering cycle of this community should be gained, including population fluctuations between cycles. Bamenda Highlands populations outside protected areas may provide valuable information on how immature populations respond to increased anthropogenic pressures.	eng
45402	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria: Cross River State (1 coll.), Equatorial Guinea:  Bioko (5 coll.), Western Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (9 coll.), Mt Cameroon (9 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (Mt Oku: 1, elsewhere: 3 coll.).	eng
45402	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in closed canopy submontane and montane forest understorey, occasionally in disturbed forest, (700–)1,000–2,300 m alt.	eng
45402	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Much of the montane forest in S.W. Province remains relatively undisturbed, but clearance for agriculture is widespread in the Bamenda Highlands, threatening these populations. Furthermore, the cyclical mass-flowering habit of this species results in large fluctuations in mature populations, making it susceptible to short-term stochastic change, for example local fire events or landslides which could decimate seedling populations.	eng
45403	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Monitoring of the populations above Nyasoso should provide further information on the habitat requirements of this species, particularly the extent to which it tolerates anthropogenic disturbance. Active protection of threatened sites may be required.	eng
45403	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: S.W. Province: Kupe-Bakossi (6 coll.), E. Province: Bertoua and Betare Oya (2 coll.), W. Province: Bafoussam-Foumbot (1 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).	eng
45403	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in mid-elevation to submontane forest, preferring forest margins and clearances and lingering in farmbush, 800–1,550 m alt.	eng
45403	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Intensification of land use at lower elevations, particularly the conversion of lower forest margins to arable agriculture; this is a significant threat around larger habitations such as Nyasoso in Bakossi, where this taxon has been collected 4 times, and around Bafoussam, a very large town in W. Province around which almost all natural habitat has long been lost.	eng
45404	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Current population sizes in terms of both number of individuals and area of occupancy should be assessed as this is not clear from the specimen data. A better understanding of the flowering cycle of this community should be gained, including population fluctuations between cycles. Bamenda Highlands populations outside protected areas may provide valuable information on how immature populations respond to increased anthropogenic pressures. In addition, a survey of this taxon should be carried out during the next mass-flowering year on Mt Kupe and Manengouba.	eng
45404	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.), W. Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (2 coll.), Rumpi Hills (1 coll.), Mt Cameroon (13 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (Mt Oku: 3 coll., Bafut Ngemba: 1 coll.). <br/> <br/>Previously named <em>Oreacanthus mannii</em> Benth., this taxon has been reassigned to <em>Brachystephanus</em> by D. Champluvier during her monograph of this genus, currently in preparation.	eng
45404	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in closed canopy montane forest, (1,300–)2,000–2,600 m alt.	eng
45404	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Much of the montane forest in the S.W. Province remains relatively undisturbed, but clearance for agriculture is widespread in the Bamenda Highlands, threatening these populations. Furthermore, the cyclical mass-flowering habit of this species results in large fluctuations in mature populations, making it susceptible to short-term stochastic change, for example local fire events or landslides which could decimate seedling populations.	eng
45405	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	It is imperative that the collection sites are revisited to assess current population levels; care should be taken to separate this taxon from similar <em>Brachystephanus</em> spp. A better understanding of its habitat requirements should be gained, in particular the extent to which it tolerates disturbance. Notifying the Nyasoso population of its existence and rarity, perhaps through issuing a conservation poster on this species to local schools and community halls, may help in the protection of these sites. Other potential sites on the mountain should be surveyed for new populations.	eng
45405	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found on Mt Kupe, above Nyasoso, Cameroon (two collections).	eng
45405	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest and secondary regrowth forest, 900–1,100 m alt.	eng
45405	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The continued expansion of Nyasoso town has resulted in increased agricultural activity on Mt Kupe up to approx. 1,000 m alt., with further encroachment inevitable in the near future.	eng
45406	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	So long as forest remains largely undisturbed above 1,000 m, no intervention is required in Bioko or Cameroon; confirmation of its continued existence in Nigeria is required.	eng
45406	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Recorded from Nigeria, Ogoja (1 coll.); Bioko, Equatorial Guinea (3 coll.); and W. Cameroon, Mt Kupe (3 coll.), Mt Cameroon (2 coll.).	eng
45406	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in submontane and montane forest undergrowth, (1,000–)1,300–1,550 m alt.	eng
45406	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Forest clearance threatens the Nigerian population.	eng
45407	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Survey of other likely sites in W. Africa, e.g., Mt Nlonako in W. Cameroon. Survey of current known populations may provide a greater understanding of its specific habitat requirements and so where it is most likely to be found in future.	eng
45407	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Recorded from Nimba Mts, Guinea (Conakry); Liberia (4 coll.); Mt Tonkoui, Ivory Coast (1 coll.); Ghana (3 coll. at 2 locations); and Mt Kupe, Cameroon (3 coll.).	eng
45407	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in mid-elevation forest, often in wet rocky areas, 900–1,100 m alt.	eng
45407	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture at elevations less than 1,000 m represents a significant threat to the Cameroon population. The montane forests of Ghana and Ivory Coast are similarly threatened. Extensive forest remains on the Nimba Mountains.	eng
45408	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved   communication to raise  awareness are needed.	eng
45408	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is restricted to south Nigeria (Oban district) and Gabon (<span class="dist-lvls-r"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Sierra del Crystal).	eng
45408	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Herb growing on waterfall rocks.	eng
45408	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Narrow distribution, small size population. The species seems to have been recorded in Cameroon although this needs confirmation.	eng
45408	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution and dam construction.	eng
45409	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Survey work in potential sites in central and eastern Cameroon may reveal further populations of this easily overlooked species; care should be taken to separate it from other similar <em>Dicliptera</em> species, such as <em>D. umbellata</em> and <em>D. laxata</em>. The habitat requirements of this species require greater understanding; at Mt Kupe it appears tolerant of some disturbance.	eng
45409	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Central African Republic: St. Floris N.P., Yalinga, Boukoko (1collection each), Cameroon: S.W. Province: Nguila near Nguti (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), E. Province: Dengdeng to Gojoum (1 coll.).	eng
45409	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in open low altitude forest, 0–750 m.	eng
45409	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	As a low altitude species, it is vulnerable to habitat loss through conversion to plantations or through logging activity.	eng
45410	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Protection of existing mid-elevation forest is required where possible.	eng
45410	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria, Gembu Dist. (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (8 coll.), Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Kumba (1 coll.), N.W. Province: Bafut-Wum (1 coll.), Central Province: nr. Yaoundé (2 coll.), S. Province: Obang (1 coll.), E. Province (2 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).	eng
45410	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in the understorey of closed canopy mid-elevation forest, (600–)900–1,200 m alt.	eng
45410	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Throughout its range, it is threatened by extensive forest clearance. The Northwest Province subpopulation is highly threatened as closed-canopy forest is scarce here today; it was noted in the collection of 1975 that the forest patch in which it was found was "now in exploitation by local people with handsaws"; this site is therefore likely to be lost. At Mt Kupe, it was recorded most often above Nyasoso, at around 1,000 m alt., where agricultural encroachment is causing significant losses of forest. Sites around Yaoundé are also likely to have been lost.	eng
45411	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	As a striking and easily recognisable species, <em>J. leucoxiphos</em> could contribute to the promotion of community-based forest protection. Conservation posters on the rarity and uniqueness of this species could be distributed to schools and community centres, encouraging local communities to protect areas where it is found. Further inventory work in the Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills is likely to uncover new locations.	eng
45411	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Endemic to the Cameroon, being recorded from Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills (ten collections).	eng
45411	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in closed canopy forest understorey, rarely secondary forest, 900–1,500 m alt.	eng
45411	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	There is an an inferred decline in habitat quality due to illegal logging activity which begun within its area of distribution in 2002, but which has recently reduced following efforts from local conservation groups and communities.	eng
45412	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	As the species is readily identifiable, population census data should be possible in protected areas, and an assessment of its habitat requirements made. Further inventory work in suitable lowland sites, such as the Loum Forest Reserve, may provide additional sites.	eng
45412	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria, Cross River State (3 coll.), Bioko (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (3 coll.), Kumba (1 coll.), Central Province: nr. Yaoundé (2 coll.), S. Province: Ebolowa-Amban (1 coll.), unlocated (1 coll.).	eng
45412	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Lowland forest, often along streams, 0–700 m alt.	eng
45412	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Throughout its range, deforestation has been extensive in the lowlands, and this continues outside protected areas.	eng
45413	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Atempts to rediscover this species on Mt Cameroon should be made. The collection from Bangem should be verified as the specimen was not available at Kew.	eng
45413	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria, Cross River State (3 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Babenga nr. Limbe (1 coll.), S. Province: Bipinde (1 coll.).	eng
45413	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in the undergrowth of mid- to low-elevation forest, 0–1,000 m alt.	eng
45413	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	A continued decline in habitat is inferred by clearance of extensive areas of lowland and mid-elevation forest throughout its range for plantation agriculture and timber.	eng
45414	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Protection of the remnant mid-elevation forest in Bakossi appears imperative for the survival of this species. Attempts should also be made to rediscover the disjunct populations in S. Province.	eng
45414	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, S.W. Province: Kupe-Bakossi (11 coll.), Mbu-Bakundu (1 coll.), S. Province: 15 km north of Kribi (1 coll.), Bipinde-Ebolowa (1 coll.).	eng
45414	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	An understorey herb of mid-elevation to submontane forest, often near water, 700–1,400 m	eng
45414	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	As this species extends to forest below 1,000 m, it is threatened by widespread deforestation.	eng
45415	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further data is needed on the range and habitat requirements of this species, particularly the extent to which it can tolerate disturbance. The continued existence at Bipinde should be confirmed during future botanical inventory work at this site.	eng
45415	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Matoh (1 coll.), Kumbah (1 coll.), Barombi (1 coll.), S. Province: Bipinde (3 coll.).	eng
45415	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	An understorey shrub of lowland forest, rarely secondary scrub, 0–350 m alt.	eng
45415	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Forest clearance throughout its range. However, at Kumba this species was collected from a road verge, suggesting that it can tolerate some disturbance.	eng
45416	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	A survey of the current known populations should be undertaken, including its rediscovery on Bioko. This species should be sought during any future botanical inventory work in additional montane sites such as the highest parts of the Rumpi Hills.	eng
45416	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll.), Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).	eng
45416	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in understorey of closed canopy submontane and montane forest, 1,330–2,100 m alt.	eng
45416	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The forests of Bioko and west Cameroon over 1,000 m alt. are currently under only minimal anthropogenic pressure. However, the low number of locations, and their apparent isolation, render this species vulnerable to stochastic events such as localised landslide or overgrazing by native mammals. It is possible that following the exhaustion of lowland forest resources, there will be increased human encroachment into the montane forests in future unless protected by law.	eng
45417	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	<em>Cleistropholis patens</em> is probably most secure at Korup National Park but its protection in other parts of its range is advisable in order to conserve a good tranche of its genetic diversity. The tree or trees at Kupe Village in Bakossi should be examined to see if protection there is supportable.	eng
45417	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Western Nigeria; Central African Republic; Gabon (all 1 coll.); Cameroon: Korup (1 coll.), Kumba (2 coll.), Douala-Edea, Kribi (all 1 coll.), Bipinde (several coll.), Bakossi (3 coll.).	eng
45417	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest, 500–950 m alt.	eng
45417	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for timber, followed by agriculture.	eng
45418	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to revisit the known sites, rediscover the species and assess the likelihood of protecting those subpopulations that do survive is required. Kupe-Bakossi may offer the best hope for the survival of this treelet, assuming that recent conservation proposals are enacted; it has the highest density and most recently discovered sites that are included in a probable protected area for forest.	eng
45418	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites), Bipinde (several collections), Kribi (1 coll.); Gabon (2 sites).	eng
45418	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen forest; 0–1,200 m alt.	eng
45418	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance for timber, agriculture and (e.g., Libreville), urban expansion.	eng
45419	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Education, perhaps through a conservation poster, might facilitate protection of this charming tree here. None of the Ebolowa sites seem under immediate threat, although this cannot be said of those elsewhere.	eng
45419	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi (3 coll.), Edea, Ebolowa,  Sangmelima (1 coll. each); Gabon (2 coll.). The three known sites in Bakossi constitute over a third of the global total.	eng
45419	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in pristine submontane evergreen forest, 900–1,320 m alt.	eng
45419	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for logging and agriculture.	eng
45420	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	While both sites in Bakossi (Mungo R. F.R. and Mt Kupe above Nyasoso) are officially protected, resurvey of tree(s) at both sites would facilitate future monitoring. Public education might reduce pressure on this species for, e.g., firewood.	eng
45420	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon, Yaoundé (1 coll. each), Bakossi (2 coll.); Gabon (3 coll. from 2 sites).	eng
45420	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Lowland and submontane evergreen forest, 200–1,600 m alt.	eng
45420	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance.	eng
45421	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Public education of the importance of this tree is advisable to assure its continued existence at its stronghold at Mt Kupe. A poster explaining this should be produced for local use.	eng
45421	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (12 coll.), Yabassi-Yingui (1 coll. <em>fide</em> Kenfack).	eng
45421	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest, 840–1,200 m alt. In January, the gnarled trunks of this medium-sized canopy tree are largely covered in big pink, fleshy, velvety-hairy flowers.	eng
45421	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for agriculture, especially at the lower parts (below 1,000 m) of its altitudinal range.	eng
45422	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	At Mt Kupe, continued monitoring and rental payments (for the conservation site) are needed to ensure the continued survival of this species. The Takamanda site is partly protected as a wildlife reserve but the tree(s) of <em>U. vanderstyii</em> should be refound and monitored. Consideration should be given to educating the inhabitants of the area as to the importance of this plant. At the other locations, trees should be refound (if still existing), censused and considered for protection by the appropriate authorities.	eng
45422	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Congo (Kinshasa); Gabon; Cameroon: Takamanda (1 coll. each); Mt Kupe (two coll.).	eng
45422	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland and submontane evergreen forest. Flowers in this small tree are only produced at ground level and radiate from the trunk on pedicels 4–5 cm long.	eng
45422	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
45423	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	If proposals to protect forest above 1,000 m alt. in much of Bakossi are enacted and respected, this subpopulation seems secure.	eng
45423	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	S. Tome; S.E. Nigeria: Obudu (1 coll. each); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (4 coll.); Bakossi (10 coll.); Bali-Ngemba (numerous coll.).	eng
45423	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane and lower montane forest, 800–2,000 m alt.	eng
45423	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for timber and agricultural land.	eng
45424	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The best hope for the survival of this species may be the Bakossi Mts at the Kodmin and Nzee Mbeng sites since pressure here is relatively low and since the species was seen here most recently (1998). Continued surveys of the unexplored parts of the Bakossi Mts might well reveal new sites. Further surveys at its other sites, if focussed on this species, might yet reveal that it survives so long as significant areas of forest exist.	eng
45424	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Bioko; Cameroon: Belo to Lake Oku; Rumpi Hills (1 coll. each); Mt Cameroon and the Bakossi Mts (2 coll. each).	eng
45424	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	A strangling epiphytic shrub of cloud forest recently resurrected by David Frodin from synonymy in the much commoner <em>S. barteri</em>. Found at 900–2,100 m alt.	eng
45424	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood. It has not recently been seen at the Belo to Lake Oku site despite intensive surveys in the late 1990s (Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) and since forest has almost disappeared between these two locations, it is probably extinct there. Habitat degradation has been steady on some parts of Mt Cameroon at these altitudes and the species was not refound there in intensive surveys of the early 1990s.	eng
45425	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The status of <em>S. mannii</em> on the Gulf of Guinea islands requires elucidation, perhaps by survey. At Mts Kupe, Cameroon and Mt Oku (Kilum-Ijim) the species seems secure currently.	eng
45425	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Sao Tomé (one coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Annobon (one coll.), Bioko (10 coll. at 4 sites); S.E. Nigeria (Obudu, one coll.); Mt Cameroon (seven coll.); Mt Oku (seven coll.); Kupe and Manenguba Mts (six coll. at four sites); Bamboutos, Bafut-Ngemba (both one coll.).	eng
45425	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	One of the very few montane (above 2,000 m alt.) trees that are endemic to the Cameroon uplands (another is <em>Morella arborea</em>), this evergreen canopy tree begins life as an epiphytic shrub. Found in montane forest; (1,400–)2,000–2,400 m.	eng
45425	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood are the main threats.	eng
45426	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Part of the subpopulation in Bakossi that occurs above the 1,000 m contour has a fairly good chance of long term survival.	eng
45426	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon (6 pre-1978 coll.), Mt Kupe (19 coll., 3 sites); Gabon (3 pre 1978 coll.).	eng
45426	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in semi-deciduous and submontane forest, 600–1,200 m alt. This canopy climber is easily spotted when fertile since the orange, bijoux flowers are produced in clusters at eye-level from the figure-of-eight shaped stems.	eng
45426	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for timber and agriculture.	eng
45427	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A plant of this species in semi-natural forest at Limbe Botanic Garden in Cameroon offers excellent possibilities for research into the environmental and propagation requirements of <em>P. goldieana</em>. The subpopulation at Mahole (Bakossi F.R.) offers a good chance of conserving this magnificent species in the wild, possibly by a poster education scheme. Flowering plants offer the potential to attract tourists.	eng
45427	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Sierra Leone (2 coll.), Nigeria (6 coll.), Bioko (1 coll.); Cameroon (2 collections pre-1978, 3 coll. post-1978).	eng
45427	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest, often seen in disturbed areas. This climber almost certainly has the largest flowers (c. 30 × 30 × 30 cm) of any African species of flowering plant. It is the African equivalent of the S.E. Asian <em>Rafflesia</em>, matching it in habitat, colour, size and scent of the flowers. The life cycle of this species is unknown, but it appears to be a perennial, producing annual shoots. It is estimated that a generation might last for 10 years.	eng
45427	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for timber and agriculture.	eng
45428	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A census of the species should be conducted at Lake Edip, the only known extant subpopulation in continental West Africa.	eng
45428	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is known from Equatorial Guinea, Bioko; Cameroon: Mt. Cameroon (where it is now possibly extinct), the Bakossi Mountains (one site); Congo (Kinshasa); Rwanda; Burundi; and Uganda. This species has not been rediscovered on Mt. Cameroon since the type collection. The lowest altitudinal record is from the edge of Lake Edip (in the Bakossi Mountains) where a single plant was seen twining on a shrub 2 m tall, and flowering abundantly in Feb 1998.	eng
45428	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	The species occurs in montane forest at 1,200–2,400 m altitude.	eng
45428	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is forest clearance for agricultural purposes, e.g., on Mt Cameroon.	eng
45429	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A detailed study of this species at Kodmin-Edip would provide more precise data on population density and demography, as well as assisting in the placement of future development schemes. Botanical surveys in other parts of the Bakossi Mts, or Rumpi Hills, might yet discover more sites which would reduce the threat assessment of this taxon. <br/> <br/>There are two conservation programmes – the Mt Kupe Forest project and the Mt Cameroon Project that have responsibility for protecting the Bakossi Mts and Mt Etinde respectively.	eng
45429	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon: Bakossi Mts, Kodmin area (4 collections) and Mt Etinde (4 collections). At both sites the species is locally common within its altitudinal range, although inconspicuous unless observed when flowering in the wet season. This species is conspecific in part with material named as <em>Imaptiens</em> sp. nov. 1 in Cable and Cheek (1998).	eng
45429	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	First described in 2002 (Cheek and Csiba 2002), the slender, hairpin-shaped flowers of this epiphytic species are flame-red. They are produced in the wet season from stems often only 15 cm long which scramble along mossy branches of low trees and shrubs. Occurs in mossy submontane (Elfin) forest; (800–)1,100–1,700 m alt.	eng
45429	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	There is a plan to expand existing plantations up the southern slopes of Mt Cameroon, including the Mt Etinde area, to the 1,000 m contour, immediately below the altitudinal range of this species. A reservoir scheme is also planned in the Bakossi Mts where the species has been found. Both schemes, even if they do not directly destroy the habitat in which the species occurs, could do so indirectly, through allowing increased human access to the area, and so encouraging tree felling and small-scale farming.	eng
45430	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A detailed study of this species at Kodmin-Edip would provide more precise data on population density and demography, as well as assisting in the placement of future development schemes. Botanical surveys in other parts of the Bakossi Mts, or Rumpi Hills, might yet discover more sites which would reduce the threat assessment of this taxon.	eng
45430	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (5 coll. from 4 sites).	eng
45430	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	This robust, epiphytic herb has the largest flowers of all Cameroonian, and perhaps African, <em>Impatiens</em>. Occurs as an epiphyte in crowns of trees 4–6 cm from ground, in shrubs over streams or it can be terrestrial, on lakeside <em>Sphagnum</em> blanket, 1,200–1,350 m alt.	eng
45430	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The planned reservoir scheme near Kodmin may threaten part of the population of this species.	eng
45431	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Enforcement of protected area boundaries is required. Demographic studies are also needed to elucidate generation time and the ecological requirements of this taxon.	eng
45431	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (6 coll.), Muanenguba (2 coll.), Bamenda Highlands (1 coll.) to Mt Oku (12 coll.).	eng
45431	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	This often robust, locally common terrestrial herb has the highest altitudinal range of all Cameroonian <em>Impatiens</em>, occurring in the understorey of montane forest at 2,000 m alt.	eng
45431	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest on Muanenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands has been under pressure from grassland fires set by graziers and for clearance for agriculture.	eng
45432	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The future for <em>Begonia adpressa</em> seems bleak outside of the Rumpi Hills and Bakossi Mts However, at these last sites it seems secure if proposed conservation measures are respected.	eng
45432	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi, Rumpi Hills, Mt Nlonako, S. Bamboutos (8 pre-1995 coll.).	eng
45432	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs as a terrestrial herb and on rocks in forest, 1,000–1,750 m alt.	eng
45432	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for timber, followed by agriculture.	eng
45433	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Assuming that proposed conservation plans in the Bakossi area are enacted, this locally common species seems fairly secure there above the 1,000 m contour and no other conservation action seems necessary.	eng
45433	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Rumpi Hills, Ebolowa (1 coll. each), Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (17 coll.).	eng
45433	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is unique in sect. <em>Squamibegonia</em> Warb. (characterised by peltate scales, indehiscent globose berries, inflorescences enclosed in sheathing bracts) in having long (c. 1 m) slender (1.5 mm diam.) pendulous or rooting stems. It is a hemipiphytes and found in forest; 660–1,300 m alt.	eng
45433	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for timber and agriculture at lower altitudes (below 1,000 m) seems unfortunately inevitable in the Bakossi area.	eng
45434	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The five sites of this species merit revisiting and regular monitoring for numbers of individuals and threats.	eng
45434	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi and Rumpi Hills.	eng
45434	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	<em>B. duncan-thomasii</em> appears to be restricted to shady, damp, vertical rock-faces, in forest, sometimes with the rare <em>Nodonema lineatum</em>, 1,550–2,000 m alt.	eng
45434	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	While cliff faces generally are unlikely to be disturbed, clearance of adjoining forest for fuel and agriculture could endanger this species by removing the shade necessary for its survival.	eng
45435	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Yearly monitoring of plants to assess population trends seems advisable. An attempt should be made to rediscover and assess the status of the Bioko subpopulation.	eng
45435	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (4 coll., 2 sites); Cameroon: Bamenda, Kondo (1 coll.), Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (8 coll.).	eng
45435	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen forest, 1,000–1,300 m alt.	eng
45435	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	In the past mainly threatened by agricultural expansion. Assuming that proposed conservation plans in Bakossi are enacted this species seems secure there, its stronghold. Some habitat destruction occurs at its known sites, but levels are low.	eng
45436	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	An effort should be made to rediscover this taxon and to assess the size of the subpopulation and its demography in detail. In view of its rarity this species might be suitable for propagation and reintroduction in suitable localities.	eng
45436	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.); Cameroon: Bakossi Mts and Mt Nlonako (1 coll. each).	eng
45436	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in forest, 1,000–1,500 m alt.	eng
45436	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for wood and agriculture, e.g., ongoing at Mt Nlonako, the type locality.	eng
45437	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	There is a need to revisit the Ngomboku site to assess the population size and potential threats; active protection should be sought at this location.	eng
45437	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: S. Bamboutos Mts (6 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll.), Mt Nlonako (3 coll.). The nine collections recorded by Sosef are immediately to the northeast (Nkongsamba-Mt Nlonako) or north (S and W Bamboutos Mts) of Kupe-Bakossi. Subsequent work at Ngomboku in 1999, recorded three sites for the species in a fairly small area east of the village, <em>B. pseudoviola</em> was previously unknown from Kupe-Bakossi.	eng
45437	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	This beautiful species is easily recognized in its diminutive size and its purple-black leaf-blades which bear long, white, patent-curved hairs on their upper surfaces. Occurs in wet mid-elevation forest, 600–850 m alt.	eng
45437	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for wood and agriculture.	eng
45438	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Bakossi is the most important area for this genus according to available data, indeed it is only here that plants are known to survive. Research in population density, demography and recruitment would best be conducted at Nyasoso since the plant exists on the very edge of the town in the ‘Nature Walk’ above the school. In the long term, the Nyale site offers best scope for protection.	eng
45438	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	S.E. Nigeria (1 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); Cameroon, S. W. Province (1 coll. pre-1963 at Barombi Mbo, 3 coll. Kupe-Bakossi in 1990s).	eng
45438	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, 650–1,000 m alt. This sprawling monotypic herb resembles a <em>Lobelia</em>, to which it is closely related, in flower. It differs in the peculiar, longitudinally-dehiscent fruit and shade-demanding ecology.	eng
45438	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture: suitable habitat at Bioko was destroyed for cocoa plantations, habitat at Lake Borombi Mbo was reported destroyed in 2002 (Davies. pers. comm.).	eng
45439	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The demography of this taxon is not documented and requires study. Nyasoso at Mt Kupe would be a good base for such research, and as a centre for conservation of the species since a sizeable population exists on the main trail to the summit at 1,100 m. Good populations also exist at Nkom-Wum and in the Bakossi Mts, near Kodmin. Extensive traditions attached to these trees are likely to help protect them in Bakossi.	eng
45439	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (Buea-Bulifambo 2 coll.), Kumba (Barombi, 3 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (5 sites), Wum (2 coll.), Yaoundé (1 obs., M.Cheek), 80 km SSW Yokodouma (1 coll.).	eng
45439	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest, (500–)1,000–1,400 m.	eng
45439	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood.	eng
45440	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Protection of existing lowland forest sites is required. Care should be taken to separate this taxon from other lowland <em>Salacia</em> species in future botanical inventory work in Lower Guinea.	eng
45440	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, S.W. Province: Mt Kupe (3 coll.), Littoral Province: Bakaka (1 coll.), Nkongsamba-Loum (2 coll.), Central Province: Otélé, nr. Yaoundé (1 coll.), S. Province: 10 km SW. of Amban (1 coll.); Gabon: nr. Makokou (3 coll.); Congo (Brazzaville): Mayombe (1 coll.), Komono to Mbila (1 coll.).	eng
45440	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in dense riverine, lowland and mid-elevation forest, 500–950 m alt.	eng
45440	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	There is continued loss of lowland forest in Cameroon and Congo (Brazzaville); the Gabonese sites are likely to have remained relatively undisturbed.	eng
45441	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Efforts should be made to rediscover this taxon in the N.W.Province and to protect it. Individuals may yet survive in royal, sacred or village forests and might be protected there. It appears to be unknown at Bali-Ngemba F.R. the only extant protected area covering the altitudinal range of this species in the Bamenda Highlands. At Mt Kupe the one individual known should be rediscovered and an effort made to find others. Education of the local population is suggested regarding the importance of this species for conservation.	eng
45441	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Cameroon: Bamenda Highlands (5 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
45441	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in forested valley slopes, 950–1,600 m alt.	eng
45441	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Felling for timber and clearance for agricultural land: these problems are exacerbated in the N.W. Province by a shortage of both commodities for a dense human population. Forest at this altitude is particularly under threat and may well no longer survive at the localities where this taxon was previously collected. A 25% reduction in forest area over eight years was recorded by Moat (in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) near Mt Oku using GIS techniques. Forest at Mt Kupe is less threatened, at least above 1,000 m. However, the Kupe material is recorded at 950 m and is thus vulnerable.	eng
45442	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Letouzey and White (1978 loc. cit.) mention this plant occurring in hedges in Bamboutos. Encouragement of this practice, and also evaluating sacred forests there for the existence of this species, might be the means to survival in the northern part of the range. In the southern part of its range <em>M. conrauana</em> seems likely to survive if existing conservation plans go ahead.	eng
45442	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded in Cameroon: Bamboutos Mts (5 coll.), Muanenguba (1 coll.) Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites). <br/>Letouzey and White (<em>Flore du Cameroun</em> 20, 1978) recorded the collections from Bamboutos and Muanenguba. During the late 1990s "we found the taxon also to occur, rarely although fairly widespread, at Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts (four sites)" (M. Cheek, pers. comm.).	eng
45442	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest, 1,000–1,500 m alt.	eng
45442	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The Bamboutos Mts are densely populated and intensively cultivated, for such crops as <em>Coffea arabica</em>. What few The fragments of forest that remain are under great pressure to supply wood and for further agricultural land. The rate of forest area loss of 25% in eight years for the Oku area is probably matched in the Bamboutos area.	eng
45443	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The effect of forest loss on this, and other rare, sun-loving Compositae, many of which share the same range of habitats, is poorly understood. Research is needed to redress this. Limited 'habitat destruction' at intervals of years, in the form of fires or limited long-fallow small-holder agriculture or small scale tree felling may be helpful to the survival of such taxa by keeping their habitat open and allowing establishment of probably short-lived perennials such as these.	eng
45443	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (10 coll.), Mwanenguba, Kupe Rock, Bamboutos, Lake Aweng, Santa Mt (1 coll. each), Mt Oku (2 coll.).	eng
45443	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in grassland, near forest, often at well-drained sites; (1,000–)2,000 m alt.	eng
45443	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threats are poorly known, but grazing and the associated annual firing of grassland are considered likely to be detrimental to this species. In addition, cultivation of habitat for crops e.g., at Lake Aweng, Santa and Bamboutos, is a threat.	eng
45444	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Management suggestions: the effect of forest loss on this, and other rare, sun-loving Compositae, many of which share the same range of habitats, is poorly understood. Research is needed to redress this. Limited 'habitat destruction' at intervals of years, in the form of fires or limited long-fallow small-holder agriculture or small scale tree felling may be helpful to the survival of such taxa by keeping their habitat open and allowing establishment of probably short-lived perennials such as these.	eng
45444	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria: Bauchi Plateau, Jos Plateau, Pawpaw Mt, Amedzefe (1 coll. each); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll.); Cameroon: Bakossi (3 coll. at 2 sites), Mt Cameroon (11 coll.), Mt Oku (6 coll.).	eng
45444	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in open woodland, savanna, forest edge; 900–2,000 m alt.	eng
45444	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of trees for agriculture and wood.	eng
45445	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Management suggestions: more material is needed of this taxon from Nyasoso to confirm that it is indeed <em>M. vitalba</em>. Although in <em>Mikaniopsis</em> it is best placed here, it differs from the specimens at other sites in having leaves rounded (not cordate) at the base and more than twice as long as broad, and elongated, not congested, racemes, and in growing at 1,600 m, not 700–750 m alt. Site surveys are required to investigate subpopulations and to gather data on demography and recruitment. This taxon should be looked for in ongoing surveys at the proposed National Park at Mefou, which might form a secure base for the taxon. The Nyasoso site is probably secure.	eng
45445	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Nyasoso, Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Djang, 40 km W of Bertoua (1 coll.), Yaoundé (2 sites); Uganda (2 sites); Gabon; Angola; Congo (Kinshasa) (1 coll. each).	eng
45445	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland gallery, swamp, submontane forest or savanna; 700–1,600 m alt.	eng
45445	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood, and (e.g., Yaoundé area) urban expansion.	eng
45446	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further investigation of the Etuge collection at Nyandong, Bakossi may reveal a new site for this taxon. If the low levels of forest clearance continue in Gabon and Congo (Kinshasa) continue, this taxon should remain extant there, though its rediscovery in these two countries is advisable in light of the age of the known collections.	eng
45446	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll., 2 sites), Central Province: 20 km NW of Eséka (1 coll.), S Province: Bipinde (1 coll.); Gabon (1 coll.); Congo (Kinshasa), Forestier Central: Yangambi (3 coll.), Watsi, Boende (1 coll.), Yabwesa, Isangi (1 coll.).	eng
45446	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in primary forest, including riverine and swamp forest; occasionally in secondary forest growth; 450–1,070 m alt.	eng
45446	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	On Mt Kupe, this species is recorded in forest down to 900 m, which is below the lower limit of effective protection on this mountain, thus this population is threatened by forest clearance.	eng
45447	conservation	Cheek, M. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further botanical inventory work will likely reveal further locations for this taxon in the Bakossi Mountains. Active conservation of the larger populations on Mt Kupe may be required; informing the community at Kupe Village and neighbouring settlements of the rarity and uniqueness of this species has begun with a conservation poster specific to <em>D. kupensis</em>, with the intention that this will promote community-led protection.	eng
45447	distribution	Cheek, M. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (8 coll.), Nyale, central Bakossi (2 coll.), Nyandong, west Bakossi (1 coll.), Enyandong, north Bakossi (1 coll.).	eng
45447	habitat	Cheek, M. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found growing in the understorey of undisturbed mid-elevation to submontane forest on well-drained slopes; 460–1,300 m alt.	eng
45447	threats	Cheek, M. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Several subpopulations have been recorded on Mt Kupe below 1,000 m alt., which is below the limit of effective protection through restricted land use at this site; these subpopulations are therefore threatened by agricultural encroachment. The Nyandong site is threatened by disturbance along the well-used track to Maseka.	eng
45448	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Rediscovering this rare species, not seen in 20 years, is desirable. It is advised that the starting point be the sites of the D.W.Thomas collections. <em>In situ</em> protection would be ideal, but if unrealistic, cultivation in a botanic garden, such as Limbe, may be warranted, with a view to reintroductions to secure sites in future.	eng
45448	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi-Kumba (3 sites), Mt Kala (1 site).	eng
45448	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in the understorey of semi-deciduous and evergreen forest; to 400 m alt	eng
45448	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Most of the understorey of Loum F.R. has already been lost to agriculture; much of the forest that survived at Kumba itself, e.g., Barombi Mbo, has been lost in recent decades. Recent reports are that the forest at Mt Kala has been extensively cut-over. Konye lies on the Kumba-Mamfe road that is in the process of being upgraded so increased deforestation along this route is predictable.	eng
45449	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Subpopulations of this shrub in Korup N.P. are probably secure, and the site at Etam, Mungo River F.R. is due to have its protection status upgraded soon. Surveying the numbers, regeneration and demography of the subpopulation at Etam is suggested.	eng
45449	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Calabar-Oban (3 coll.); SW Cameroon: Mamfe to Mundemba (5 coll.).	eng
45449	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 100 m alt.	eng
45449	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Logging of forest followed by agriculture, amplified by ongoing, massive upgrading of the Kumba-Mamfe road through the heart of its range.	eng
45450	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The western Bakossi location for this taxon should be resurveyed in order to rediscover this plant and evaluate the size and demography of its subpopuluation, if extant. Surveys of the same nature are advised at other sites. This data could form the basis of a plan to protect the species.	eng
45450	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Coastal Cameroon: W Bakossi, Kribi, Batanga, Nyong at Makak, Bipinde (1 coll. each); Gabon: Libreville (1 coll.).	eng
45450	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in wet lowland evergreen forest; to 200 m alt.	eng
45450	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance followed by agriculture in the Kumba-Mamfe area, forest clearance for touristic development (Kribi-Batanga area, M. Cheek, pers. obs. 2000) and for urban expansion in the Libreville area, Gabon (M. Cheek, pers. obs. 2002).	eng
45451	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Although distinctive, <em>D. magnistipula</em> is a poorly known species. Since neither the <em>Fl. Cameroun</em> Euphorbiaceae account, nor that for <em>Fl. Gabon</em>, are available, no recent literature is available on the taxon. It is entirely possible that more collections, representing further sites, exist in herbaria other than that of Kew, such as BR, MO, P and WAG. These should be checked. Demographic and other populational data desirable in assessing the conservation requirements of this species could be obtained if the sites where collections were made are found intact.	eng
45451	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (2 sites), Bipinde (2 coll.); Gabon: Crystal Mts (1 coll.).	eng
45451	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest; 800–1,000 m alt.	eng
45451	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for timber and agriculture is ongoing in both host countries but, so far as is known, is not intense at any of the four sites known for the species.	eng
45452	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Enforcement of existing protected areas would ensure the survival at several sites, although it is uncertain whether any forest survives at the Nigerian localities. Demographic and other populational data for the taxon could be obtained by research at Mahole near the Bakossi Forest Reserve.	eng
45452	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Omo, Okomu, Oban; Cameroon: Kumba, Maguka, S Bakundu, Etinde, Bakossi (3 sites), Nkolbisson, Sangmelima.	eng
45452	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest; to 1,200 m alt.	eng
45452	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for wood, agriculture and urban expansion (Kumba and Nkolbisson) is recorded at 8 of the 11 known sites and it has been extensive at many of these.	eng
45453	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Investigation of unpublished forest plot data from, e.g., Mokoko might give data useful for developing a plan for the management of this species. In the absence of this the Nyandong or Mokoko River sites in Bakossi could be surveyed for this data. The latter looks to be a secure site for the taxon if correct conservation plans are enacted.	eng
45453	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Omo, Ikom, Calabar; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 sites), Wum (1 coll.), Bakossi (2 sites), Lolodorf.	eng
45453	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in wet lowland evergreen forest, tending to sand substrates; 400 m alt.	eng
45453	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for timber and expansion of agriculture, both large scale commercial and small-holder.	eng
45454	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Reducing incursions into government forest reserves would protect this species in SW Province. This might be assisted by a public education programme. The sites in Littoral and S Province should be assessed for the existence of <em>Hamilcoa</em>, and of threats, in particular conversion of forest to other uses.	eng
45454	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bipindi (5 coll.), Longii (2 coll.), Eseka, Barombi-Kang (2 coll.), S Bakundu F.R. (3 coll.), Loum F.R. (2 coll.).	eng
45454	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen and semi-deciduous forest; to 400 m alt.	eng
45454	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Much of the understorey of the Loum F.R. has been replaced by small-holder plots of, e.g., coco-yam (Colocasia) and cacao (Theobroma). A large part of S Bakundu F.R. is converted to yam cultivation and the specimens from Longii and Barombi-kang both record its presence in logged or degraded forest suggesting that it can tolerate some disturbance, including logging.	eng
45455	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Continued surveys are advised in the altitudinal range indicated in the hope of discovering further sites for the taxon. Production of a conservation poster for use in Bakossi might help locate more sites and educate people as to the rarity of this species.	eng
45455	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Known only from Western Cameron: Kupe-Muanenguba division, Bakossi Mts.	eng
45455	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in undisturbed submontane forest at 1,000–1,275 m.	eng
45455	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Expanding agriculture and logging are the main threats.	eng
45456	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Continued surveys are advised in the altitudinal range indicated in the hope of discovering further sites for the taxon. Production of a conservation poster for use in Bakossi might help locate more sites and educate people as to the rarity of this species.	eng
45456	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Known only from the Nyale Rock, a dramatic inselberg  that dominates the Nyangdong valley in Western Bakossi, SW Cameroon.	eng
45456	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane forest at 1,000 m.	eng
45456	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture is the main threat.	eng
45457	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The type, and modern material of <em>T. annobonae</em> from Annobon, need to be examined in more detail to establish whether it is the same entity as the Cameroonian material (see <em>FWTA</em> 1: 372 1963). A survey in Annobon is needed to confirm survival of the species there. Although it has not been found in surveys at Bakossi in the late 1900s, lowland forest was not comprehensively investigated and it may well survive there. Once rediscovered, a plan for the management of <em>T. annobonae</em> can be made.	eng
45457	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Annobon; Cameroon, SW Province: Korup, Mungo River F.R., Ngusi, Kumba-S Bakundu and Kumba-Mamfe.	eng
45457	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest; to 400 m alt.	eng
45457	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for wood, agriculture and urban expansion; large parts of S Bakundu have been cleared for yam plantations (Cable and Cheek 1998) and the Kumba-Mamfe road is being massively upgraded with concomitant expansion of agriculture likely.	eng
45458	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Mt Kupe offers the most likely opportunity of refinding this species. It is advised that an effort be made to do this, and if successful, that further individuals be sought and censured in the area, together with levels of regeneration. If refound, conservation education, perhaps in the form of a poster, is suggested to benefit the local population. Surveys at the other two sites should be conducted if possible.	eng
45458	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Rio Muni; Cameroon: Yaoundé-Deng Deng and Mt Kupe (1 coll. each).	eng
45458	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland and submontane evergreen forest, to 1,100 m alt	eng
45458	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and timber at Mt Kupe and probably (site visits needed to confirm) at the other two sites.	eng
45459	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Data on the population size and demography of this species would inform better conservation management of this taxon. Such studies would best be carried out from Kupe village or Nyasoso both of which have subpopulations nearby.	eng
45459	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria: Ogoja, Obudu Cattle Range and Boshi Extension F.R. (5 coll.); Cameroon: Nta Ali (1 coll., 1 obs.), Kupe-Bakossi Mts (5 sites).	eng
45459	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in perennially wet, mossy, vertical granite in forest shade; 800–1,800 m alt.	eng
45459	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Removal of shade due to forest clearance is the most likely threat. The rock face habitat itself is not likely to be mined but plants are vulnerable to rock falls. Much forest clearance in Ogoja has occurred in recent decades.	eng
45460	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This species is fairly secure in the upper part of its altitudinal range in Kupe-Bakossi, but enforcement of the forest reserve boundary is needed if it is to survive at Bali-Ngemba. Surveys should be conducted on the forested hills from which it has been collected elsewhere in Cameroon and also in the Crystal Mts, to determine whether it survives there and whether it can be protected at any of these sites.	eng
45460	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (11 coll. at 5 sites), Bali-Ngemba, Bamenda Highlands (several coll.), Mt Bana, Batcham, Yaoundé, Ebolowa, Sangmelima (1 coll. each); Gabon: Moubighou, Moucongo and Tcyengue (1 coll. each).	eng
45460	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane forest; 700–1,500 m alt.	eng
45460	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood particularly in the Bamenda Highlands and Yaoundé area.	eng
45466	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside any protected areas.	eng
45466	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub endemic to Ecuador's southeastern Andes, where it is known only from the original 1943 collection near Valladolid, Zamora-Chinchipe province. It is not confirmed whether the type locale is inside what is now the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but populations are expected to be found there. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45466	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	High Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45466	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45467	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur within protected areas.	eng
45467	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree endemic to Ecuador's Amazonian lowlands, where it is known from seven subpopulations in the Parque Nacional Yasuní. The type collection was made at kilometer 71 of the Maxus oil road, south of the Río Tivacuno; others are from Añangu and the Río Tiputini. An intensive inventory of 200,000 trees in the Parque Nacional Yasuní recorded just three individuals (N. Pitman <em>et al</em>., H. Romero-Saltos <em>et al</em>., R. Valencia <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Additional subpopulations may occur in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, or in the Peruvian and Colombian Amazon.	eng
45467	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).	eng
45467	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45468	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	In northern Ecuador, at least one subpopulation is protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45468	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where seven collections are known. Collected far south in Azuay province and far north in Esmeraldas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45468	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub, treelet or tree found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,000 m)	eng
45468	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45469	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur within the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. It may also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45469	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from two collections (in Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces). Discovered in 1949 near Lita and rediscovered in 1994 in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. It may also occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45469	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to foothill coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
45469	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45470	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Recorded in the Río Palenque private reserve, near Alluriquín, near Lita, and in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45470	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where four subpopulations are known (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45470	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
45470	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45471	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Etnica Awá, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45471	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the northwestern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from nine collections (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas and Pichincha provinces).	eng
45471	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub  found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
45471	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45472	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Currently not known to occur within protected areas.	eng
45472	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from four collections in El Oro province. The earliest collections are from 1943 and 1947, from Pampa de los Cedros and Cerro Gordo (Zaruma). Two later collections were recorded in 1974 on the Piñas-El Placer (Santa Rosa) and Huertas-Palto roads. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45472	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
45472	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45473	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45473	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern Andes of southern Ecuador, where five subpopulations are known (in Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Two specimens are reported as being collected in Peru, but the determination is uncertain for one and the elevation too low (180 m) for the other.	eng
45473	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub found in low and high Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
45473	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45474	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	All the collections from Loja province were made inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus at Cerro Toledo, on the Yangana-Valladolid road.	eng
45474	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from seven collections (in Loja and El Oro provinces).	eng
45474	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or vine found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m).	eng
45474	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45475	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
45475	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (in Napo and Pastaza provinces). Most of the 12 known collections are from Napo province: one from Tena, on the lower slopes of the Cordillera de Galeras, and the rest from the Jatun Sacha private reserve, 8 km of Misahuallí.	eng
45475	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic shrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (400–500 m).	eng
45475	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45476	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found in the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
45476	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections. Discovered in 1934 at Santa Rosa, in Cotopaxi province, and rediscovered in 1977, in Azuay province, on the Jesús María-Molleturo road. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45476	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or liana  in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
45476	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45477	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45477	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections (in Morona-Santiago province). Both are from the Cordillera de Cutucú: one dated 1944 and the other 1976. May be endemic to the geologically unique Cutucú region.	eng
45477	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or liana found in lower montane Amazonian forest to high Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
45477	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45478	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45478	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Esmeraldas province). Known only from the 1966 type collection, recorded near Tobar Donoso, at the confluence of the San Juan and Camumbi rivers, near the border with Colombia. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45478	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45478	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45479	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45479	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the original collection on the Río Tigre, near Mera (Pastaza provionce), apparently around the end of the nineteenth century. The species' taxonomy is uncertain, in part because the type was destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. A record from Zamora-Chinchipe may be based on an incorrect identification.	eng
45479	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (250–1,000 m).	eng
45479	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45480	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45480	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1972 collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered in the headwaters of the Río Piuntza, in the northwestern Cordillera del Cóndor, and likely to be endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45480	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45480	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	The principal threats are colonization and deforestation.	eng
45481	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45481	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador (Guayas province). Known only from the 1959 type collection, made "86 km east of Guayaquil". No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45481	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45481	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45482	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45482	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1963 type collection, recorded along the Río Toachi, near Santo Domingo (in Pichincha province). Two reports from Carchi province require confirmation.	eng
45482	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45482	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45483	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network	eng
45483	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1976 type collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Cutucú, on the Logroño-Yaupi road, and likely endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45483	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
45483	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45484	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45484	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from five collections made between 1953 and 1994 (in Pastaza province). All are from forests near Puyo and Shell-Mera. Collected infrequently, even in an intensively collected region.	eng
45484	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45484	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45485	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network	eng
45485	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1944 type collection (in Morona-Santiago province). Discovered on the Río Itzintza, in the Cordillera de Cutucú, and likely to be endemic to this geologically unique region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45485	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
45485	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45486	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Collected several times in the ENDESA and Bilsa private reserves, and near Santo Domingo de los Colorados, and protected inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45486	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas and Pichincha provinces). A specimen in the TROPICOS database mentioning Napo province (Øllgaard 98786) is actually from Esmeraldas.	eng
45486	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45486	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45487	conservation	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45487	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is frequently collected below 1,000 m to both sides of the Andes (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Morona-Santiago, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos province). Collected on the coast in the Río Palenque private reserve, at the Hacienda Clementina, near Santo Domingo, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. Less common in the Amazon region, where it has been collected near Puyo and in the foothills of the Cordillera de Cutucú.	eng
45487	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	A herb or subshrub found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest, and Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
45487	threats	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	No specific threats are known.	eng
45488	conservation	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Protected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the ENDESA private reserve and the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
45488	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known from seven provinces (Carchi, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos). One subpopulation was found near the famous Cerro El Centinela, 10 km east of Patricia Pilar, and is likely to be locally extinct there now.	eng
45488	habitat	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–1,000 m).	eng
45488	threats	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species is attractive to loggers and so is directly threatened by timber extraction.	eng
45489	conservation	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras and probably also occurs inside the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserve Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
45489	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (in Napo province). Known from two subpopulations: one on the right bank of the Río Quijos in the Finca Ave Brava, Cantón el Chaco; and the other in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, on the trail between El Pacto and Cerro Huahua Sumaco.	eng
45489	habitat	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45489	threats	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45490	conservation	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45490	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador (Carchi and Esmeraldas provinces). Known from four subpopulations: three of them in the Reserva Etnica Awá and the fourth near Lita.	eng
45490	habitat	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (0–1,150 m). In Awá the species grows in hilly terrain and in flooded areas, on black soils and clay.	eng
45490	threats	Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45491	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45491	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Imbabura and Los Ríos provinces). First collected by M. Acosta-Solís in 1949 near Lita and rediscovered 25 years later by A. Gentry during the botanical inventory of the Río Palenque private reserve. Today both forests are reduced and fragmented and none of them protected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. <em>D. inversa</em> is listed in the Flora of Panama, citing a Barneby publication (1970). This seems to be an error, because nothing in the publication indicates that the species occurs in Panama. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45491	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in humid coastal forest (200–500 m).	eng
45491	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45492	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	The known population is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is very close to the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
45492	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo province). Discovered by W. Palacios in 1987, at kilometer 40 on the Hollín-Loreto road, between Guamaní and Pucuno rivers, in the eastern foothills of the Andes. The type locale is the only known population: no other subpopulations have been found, despite intensive liana research in Amazonian Ecuador in recent years. The population size is unknown.	eng
45492	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in low Andean forest (1,200 m).	eng
45492	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Specific threats are unknown, but currently habitat is being deforested and fragmented. Poor management of this buffer area could threaten the species.	eng
45493	conservation	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Additional subpopulations could occur in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45493	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (in Guayas and Los Ríos provinces), where it has been collected four times in the Río Palenque private reserve, once in the Ila mountains and at least once in an unknown locale of the Guayas province. Most of the collections were recorded in the 1970s, in forests outside Ecuador’s protected areas network and now fragmented or destroyed.	eng
45493	habitat	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	An understorey vine found in humid coastal forest (0–600 m).	eng
45493	threats	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45494	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45494	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from three old collections of the same population, 5 km north of Huigra, Chimborazo province. Apparently the species is endemic to a small area of the Río Chanchán valley and was last recorded in 1945. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45494	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet or tree found in humid Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45494	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Habitat has been severely altered by deforestation since the species was last recorded. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45495	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in similar habitats inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45495	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the southeastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (Azuay, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Potentially also in Peru.	eng
45495	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (500–2,000 m).	eng
45495	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45496	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species is not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but is expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45496	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from 12 subpopulations (in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Cotopaxi and El Oro provinces).	eng
45496	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in lower montane coastal forest to low Andean forest (500–1,500 m).	eng
45496	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45497	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45497	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the northwestern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from four subpopulations (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). Recorded near Cerro Golondrinas, in Carchi province; on the Río Saloya; 5 km north of Mindo; and in the Río Guajalito private reserve, where the species seems abundant.	eng
45497	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
45497	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45498	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, the Reserva Etnica Awá and the Río Palenque private reserve. Expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45498	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to primary forests of northwestern Ecuador, where nine subpopulations are known (in Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45498	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
45498	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45499	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network (although known to occur in the Río Palenque private reserve), but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45499	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to northwestern Ecuador, where 11 subpopulations are known (in Cotopaxi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). Described by collectors as locally rare, sometimes in disturbed areas along cliffs.	eng
45499	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet found in humid coastal forest to low Andean forest (0–1,500 m).	eng
45499	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Massive alteration of habitat has occurred during the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45500	conservation	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species has been collected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. It may also occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45500	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from 18 subpopulations (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Sucumbios provinces). Most of the collections are in areas near the Río Guajalito private reserve, San Luis de la Delicia and the Lloa valley. The species has been collected on the western slopes of the Cerro Cotacachi and in the Volcán Pululahua, both inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45500	habitat	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or treelet found in low and high Andean forest (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
45500	threats	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45501	conservation	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network (although known to occur within the Río Guajalito private reserve).	eng
45501	distribution	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it has been collected in three locales on the western slopes of the Andes (in Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One record is from the Bosque Getzemaní, a remnant of primary forest above Apuela on the Cotacachi-Apuela road; another is from the trail to El Chical on the border with Colombia; and several others are from the Río Guajalito private reserve. May occur in similar habitats in Colombia.	eng
45501	habitat	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
45501	threats	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45502	conservation	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Recorded in the ENDESA and Río Palenque private reserves and expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45502	distribution	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from six collections in wet coastal forests (in Carchi, Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45502	habitat	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coast (0–500 m).	eng
45502	threats	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45503	conservation	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45503	distribution	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Manabí province). Discovered in 1995 by X. Cornejo and C. Bonifaz on the peak of Cerro Montecristi and still known only from that locale, which is not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. Given the unique weather conditions at the site, the species may be restricted to this one peak. In the type locale only two trees are known, measuring 8 and 10 m high.	eng
45503	habitat	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid lower montane coastal forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45503	threats	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	The site is threatened by deforestation, grazing and tourism.	eng
45504	conservation	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Although it is not confirmed to grow inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, collections have been made close to the western border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is also expected to be found in the San Sebastián area of the Parque Nacional Machalilla.	eng
45504	distribution	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it has been collected at least 20 times, generally in forest remnants below 600 m elevation (Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Imbabura, Manabí, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). The species persists in small fragments (X. Cornejo, pers. obs.).	eng
45504	habitat	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid and lower montane coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45504	threats	Cornejo, X., Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	There has been extensive deforestation that has swept coastal forests over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45505	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45505	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the northwestern Andes of Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1978 type collection, recorded on the banks of the Río San Juan, near Peñas Blancas, Carchi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45505	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in humid lower montane coastal forest (900–1,000 m).	eng
45505	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45506	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuadorean protected areas, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45506	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to northwestern Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1990 type collection, from east of Lita (Esmeraldas province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45506	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in humid coastal forest to lower montane coastal forest (800 m).	eng
45506	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45507	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45507	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations in fragmented areas of both low and high elevation Andean forest. Recorded once in Cotopaxi province, 8 km east of Pilaló, on the Latacunga-Quevedo road. Another subpopulation was reported in Pichincha province, near Nanegal. Also found in Los Ríos province, near Cerro El Centinela, whose forests were converted to croplands in 1988 (Dodson and Gentry 1991). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45507	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low and high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45507	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45508	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	There is an unconfirmed report from the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
45508	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known only from the 1978 type collection (in Pichincha province). Discovered by C. Dodson in the Ila mountain range, at Cerro El Centinela. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45508	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet or tree found in low Andean forest (600 m).	eng
45508	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	After its discovery in the Ila mountain range, the forests were converted to pasture, cacao and coffee plantations (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45509	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network. Searches are recommended in forest remnants like the Cordillera Chongón Colonche.	eng
45509	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from the type collection, made in 1892 near Balao, in Guayas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45509	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub, treelet or tree found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45509	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The dry coastal forest present at the time of the collection has since been converted to pastureland for livestock. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45510	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	May occur in the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
45510	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Napo povince). Known from a single population at the Jatun Sacha private reserve, where it is common in the subcanopy of upland forest.	eng
45510	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (400–500 m).	eng
45510	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45511	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species has not been confirmed inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45511	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection recorded by A. Humboldt and A. Bonpland in Loja province more than 200 years ago. The precise collection locale is unknown. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45511	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45511	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Since it has not been collected for many years and its possible collection locale has been severely altered by agriculture over the past two centuries. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45512	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, though the lack of precise information on the original collection locale, altitude and habitat makes searches difficult.	eng
45512	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known only from the type specimen, collected some time before 1823 somewhere near Guayaquil, Ecuador (Guayas province). According to the MIssouri Botanical Garden's TROPICOS database, a variety of this species, Eugenia quayaquilensis var. glabrior, has been collected in Guyana. It is unclear if this report from Guyana represents an error or a valid record. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45512	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Specific habitat for this tree is unknown.	eng
45512	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45513	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Protected in the Jauneche private reserve, where it is rare, and in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul; may also be foudn in the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
45513	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's wet coastal forests (Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45513	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree found in wet coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45513	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Severe habitat fragmentation has shredded the species' habitat over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45514	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	One subpopulation has been reported in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, two are very close to the Reserva Ecológica El Angel, one is near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and one near the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45514	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where at least eight subpopulations are known (in Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja and Pichincha provinces).	eng
45514	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or tree found in low Andean forest and humid Andean vegetation (1,000–3,500 m).	eng
45514	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Most subpopulations are threatened by fires, crops and the degradation of native vegetation.	eng
45515	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45515	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from two 1940s collections in undetermined locales of Azuay province. The species has not been collected since then. No specimens are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45515	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid Andean vegetation (2,000–2,800 m).	eng
45515	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Alteration of the region's natural forests during the twentieth century has been massive. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45516	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur with Ecuador's protected areas network, but may possibly occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45516	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population recorded in 1944 in an undetermined locale of Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45516	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in humid Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45516	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45517	conservation	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in protected areas.	eng
45517	distribution	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from a single population recorded by J. Steyermark in 1943 in Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45517	habitat	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in low Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45517	threats	Bazante, G. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45518	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in protected areas, but its potential area of distribution includes the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
45518	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Chimborazo and Pichincha provinces). Known from eight subpopulations growing in secondary forest in the western cordillera, from northern Carchi to central Azuay, but not frequently collected. First recorded in 1935 in Pichincha province. W. Camp reported another collection in Cañar in 1945. The most recent records are from Chimborazo in 1979 and Bolívar in 1985, where the type specimen was collected in the Río Tililag valley.	eng
45518	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub or vine found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
45518	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45519	conservation	Suin, L., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45519	distribution	Suin, L., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it was discovered in 1975 in Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45519	habitat	Suin, L., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub or shrub (500–1,000 m). Specific habitat unknown.	eng
45519	threats	Suin, L., Valenzuela, J.C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45520	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45520	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from five subpopulations (in Bolívar, Carchi, Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One was recorded along the old Quito-Santo Domingo road; the others are from the Intag valley, El Chical, Lita and the Cerro Golondrinas. A sixth subpopulation is protected by the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45520	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet or tree found in submontane coastal forest to high Andean forest (550–2,400 m).	eng
45520	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45521	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The subpopulation at Bilsa is inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45521	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Esmeraldas province). Considered a synonym of <em>H. acuminata</em> by Sleumer (1984), but additional material now suggests the species is a valid entity. Known from three subpopulations: at Bilsa, Muisne and Quinindé.	eng
45521	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A tree found in wet coastal forest (50–100 m).	eng
45521	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species grows in areas that have been severely disturbed by agriculture over the last 50 years. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45522	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confirmed inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
45522	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations (in Azuay and Loja provinces).	eng
45522	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found growing in forests; along streams and roads; and between grasslands in wet slopes of mountains (Berry 1995) (2,300–3,500 m).	eng
45522	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45523	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	One subpopulation occurs in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45523	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is widely distributed in and around Loja province. Known from eight subpopulations (in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).	eng
45523	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest to humid paramo (2,500–3,500 m). Occurs inside forest but also in shrubby areas, between grasslands and in bamboo, along streams and roads.	eng
45523	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45524	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45524	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population between Loja and Saraguro, near San Lucas, approximately 30 km north of Loja. A. Hitchcock collected the type there in 1923 and it was last collected there in 1994.	eng
45524	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m). Found in secondary forest with bamboo.	eng
45524	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45525	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confirmed to occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus and the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45525	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Andes of southern Ecuador, where it is relatively widespread (in Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).	eng
45525	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low and high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m). Frequently found in disturbed forests, along streams and roads.	eng
45525	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45526	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur in the Cotopaxi, Llanganates, Sangay, Cajas and Podocarpus protected areas and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Pasochoa.	eng
45526	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from several subpopulations scattered along the Andes (in Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).	eng
45526	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramos (2,000–4,000 m). Occurs in forest remnants and disturbed areas, near roads and streams, in grasslands and shrubby paramos.	eng
45526	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Used as medicine by indigenous groups and has great potential as an ornamental shrub. However, apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45527	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Recorded in the Parque Nacional Sangay, the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, the Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
45527	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is widely distributed in the eastern Andes, from Sucumbíos in the north to Loja in the south (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pichincha, Sucumbios, Tungurahua and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces).	eng
45527	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low to high Andean forest (1,000–3,000 m). Grows at higher elevations in the south, generally over 2,000 m, both in primary and secondary forests and along streams and roads.	eng
45527	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45528	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45528	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes (in Cotopaxi province). Known from a single population near Pilaló, along the Quevedo-Latacunga road, where it is locally rare (P. Moreno, pers. comm.).	eng
45528	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,500 m). Occasionally scandet and even epiphytic (Berry 1982).	eng
45528	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45529	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Has been recorded inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45529	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador (in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Mostly recorded along forest edges in the Cordillera de Sabanilla, between Yangana and Valladolid, and sometimes inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Two specimens in the QCA herbarium tentatively identified as this species were collected farther north, in Fierro-Urco. Most of these collections date from the 1980s.	eng
45529	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45529	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45530	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Confirmed inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45530	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador, where it has been collected exclusively between Yangana and Valladolid, at the Nudo de Sabanilla (Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Most of the collections were made in the 1980s.	eng
45530	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (1,500–3,000 m).	eng
45530	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45531	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Occurs inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45531	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the southern Andes of Ecuador (in Loja province). Known only from the slopes of Cerro Toledo, inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45531	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found growing in grasslands and shrubby paramo vegetation (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
45531	threats	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45532	conservation	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45532	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from ten subpopulations in the northern and central Andes (in Carchi, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Munz (1974) considered <em>F. nigricans</em>, from Colombia and Venezuela, as a synonym, but Berry (1982) considers them different.	eng
45532	habitat	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramo (2,000–3,500 m). Grows in wet forests and close to roads and creeks.	eng
45533	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45533	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces), where it has been collected at least three times. One collection is from Macas and Arapico, on the Río Shilniasa, while the other two are from undetermined locales. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45533	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45533	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45534	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45534	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations in Pastaza province. One specimen was collected in Colonia Játiva, 7 km north of Mera; the other is from an undetermined locale. The only type was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45534	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
45534	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45535	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
45535	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from the type collection, recorded before 1927 on the banks of the Río Machángara, in Guápulo (Pichincha province). This locale is currently inside the metropolitan area of Quito. The holotype was apparently destroyed in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, but the isotype is in the US herbarium in Washington, D.C. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45535	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45535	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45536	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45536	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to shrubby paramo in Ecuador. Apparently collected three times in undetermined locales of Tungurahua province: twice by W. Penland in 1939 and once by M. Acosta-Solís in 1944. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45536	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,700 m).	eng
45536	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45537	conservation	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	At least one subpopulation is inside Ecuador's parks system.	eng
45537	distribution	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo, Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Some 12 subpopulations are known. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45537	habitat	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest to shrubby paramo (2,200–4,200 m).	eng
45537	threats	Quintana, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45538	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45538	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Azuay, Cañar and Chimborazo provinces). None of the three known subpopulations, near Chunchi, Cuenca and Cumbe, are inside protected areas, but the species does not seem severely threatened.	eng
45538	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in wet Andean vegetation to high Andean forest (2,600–3,330 m).	eng
45538	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Most of the collection locales have been converted to croplands, but the species persists in small forest remnants and shrubby vegetation along roads. Frequently cultivated; the fruits are sold in local markets in April and May. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45539	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45539	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known to occur in only two places: along the old Quito-Santo Domingo road and the Lloa-Mindo road (Pichincha province). The collection sites are wet forest and not inside protected areas.	eng
45539	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,560 m).	eng
45539	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The northern subpopulation could be threatened by the eruption of the Volcán Guagua Pichincha, and the southern population is threatened by the spread of pastureland.	eng
45540	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje.	eng
45540	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal forest, where it grows in the narrow strip of wet forest that runs parallel to the Andes, from Guayas province in the south to Esmeraldas province in the north. Known from five subpopulations: at Naranjal, the Hacienda Clementina, and in the Río Palenque, Jauneche and Mataje private reserves. None of these are part of Ecuador’s protected areas network. Expected also to be found in Colombia. In Mataje, the species grows on the borders of the ethnic reserve. Dodson and Gentry (1978) and Dodson <em>et al</em>. (1985) wrongly used the name <em>Passiflora</em> aff. <em>biflora</em> for this species.	eng
45540	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine restricted to closed wet coastal forest  (0–250 m).	eng
45540	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Threatened in the southern part of its distribution due to the rapid ongoing deforestation of Ecuador’s coast.	eng
45541	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45541	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known only from the 1979 type collection, made at Cerro Villonaco, west of Loja. The shrubby vegetation in the area is regularly burned and well explored by botanists, so the species may be extinct. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45541	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in high Andean forest (2,500 m).	eng
45541	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45542	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but probably occurs in one or more of the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras.	eng
45542	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes (Napo province). Known only from the 1980 type collection near Cosanga, between the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras. Probably occurs in one or more of these, unless it is narrowly endemic to a small area in the Baeza-Cosanga valley.	eng
45542	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,800–1,900 m).	eng
45542	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45543	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Has been collected in the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45543	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador (Esmeraldas, El Oro, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).  <em>P. discophora</em> has been collected in the Bilsa private reserve, inside the Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul.	eng
45543	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana restricted to closed wet coastal forest (200–1,100 m).	eng
45543	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Rapid ongoing deforestation of Ecuador’s coast. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45544	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The northern subpopulation is inside the Reserva Etnica Awá, where it is well protected.	eng
45544	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador (Carchi, Guayas and El Oro provinces). Two subpopulations are known: one around Naranjal in the south and the other at Tobar Donoso in the north. The southern collections were made at the end of the nineteenth century, and possibly at a higher elevation than that suggested by the label information. The areas close to Naranjal have been converted to croplands. Additional subpopulations may occur higher in the Andes, above Naranjal, at 1,500–2,000 m, but not very close to the Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
45544	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in coastal forest to low Andean forest (50–1,800 m).	eng
45544	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45545	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45545	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two areas (Cotopaxi and Pichincha provinces). One is along the Latacunga to Pilaló and El Corazón roads. The other is on the western slopes of the Volcán Corazón, where a single collection was made in 1876 by A. André. It is possible that the Volcán Corazón and the town of El Corazón were confused, and that the species only occurs in the gap between the two parts of the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45545	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,400–3,350 m).	eng
45545	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45546	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network. However, both locations are near the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, where the species is expected to be found.	eng
45546	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations (in Napo province). One is on the Cosanga-Archidona road and the other on the Hollín-Loreto road.	eng
45546	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,200–2,000 m).	eng
45546	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45547	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45547	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from most of the peaks in Loja and El Oro provinces. Possibly also occurs in northern Peru.	eng
45547	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in low and high Andean forest (1,200–3,020 m). The species thrives in small forest remnants and hedges.	eng
45547	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	None known	eng
45548	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Only the Llanganates subpopulation is inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45548	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes, where it is known from five subpopulations on both sides of the range (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Recorded at Mojanda, on the northern slopes of Volcán Pichincha, on the western slopes of Volcán Atacazo, in the Llanganates and probably between Chambo and El Altar. The species' distribution is relatively wide in both cordilleras, where it grows in <em>Polylepis</em> forests and upper Andean forests.	eng
45548	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest and shrubby paramo (2,500–3,750 m).	eng
45548	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species seems to prefer untouched areas, so fires are a severe threat.	eng
45549	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in an Ecuadorean protected areas network.	eng
45549	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's lowland Amazon forest (Napo province). Known from a single population at the Jatun Sacha private reserve, where it seems to be rare.	eng
45549	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (350 m).	eng
45549	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45550	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45550	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known only from two collections on the Vilcabamba and Valladolid road (Zamora-Chinchipe province), in 1989 and 1992.	eng
45550	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,400–2,700 m).	eng
45550	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The area has been largely converted to pasture and it is not known if the species can persist in open areas, as many Passifloras do. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45551	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45551	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where two subpopulations are known (in Loja province). One is inside the Parque Nacional Podocarpus, above Yangana. The other is in the hills above Amaluza, near the border with Peru.	eng
45551	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,750–3,400 m).	eng
45551	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45552	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45552	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population on the western slopes of the Villonaco and Uritusinga mountains, in Loja province.	eng
45552	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,450–2,550 m). The species seems to persist in scrublands along roads	eng
45552	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The area's vegetation is disturbed. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45553	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Only the Llanganates subpopulation is included in Ecuador’s protected areas network. Not known to occur inside the Parque Nacional Sangay, but collected on the Gualaceo-Sígsig road and expected to found there.	eng
45553	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the Ecuadorean Andes (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Tungurahua provinces). Known from three areas in the eastern Cordillera, from Llanganates in the north to Saraguro in the south.	eng
45553	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,100–3,015 m). Thrives in hedges along roads.	eng
45553	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45554	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur inside the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
45554	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where two subpopulations are known (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). One is in the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, but was last recorded there in 1890. Another was recorded along the road between Tulcán and Maldonado and was last collected in 1973.	eng
45554	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,470–2,600 m).	eng
45554	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45555	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur within Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45555	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's dry coastal forest. Known from several locales in the Río Guayas valley, Babahoyo and Daule, but also in the Chongón and Colonche hills, from Montecristi, and from the Andean foothills between Babahoyo and Balsapamba (Bolívar, Guayas, Manabí and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45555	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in dry coastal forest (50–300 m).	eng
45555	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	No specific threats are known.	eng
45556	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not inside any Ecuadorean protected area.	eng
45556	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, where it is known from a single population (in Loja province). Located south of Saraguro, the population was recently visited and seems healthy.	eng
45556	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,800–3,100 m)	eng
45556	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species is threatened by spreading croplands and firewood collection.	eng
45557	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Known to occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
45557	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from only two subpopulations (in Carchi, Napo and Sucumbios provinces). One is on the Tulcán-Santa Bárbara road and another is near Oyacachi in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
45557	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in high Andean forest (2,200–3,200 m).	eng
45557	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45558	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not yet found in Ecuador's protected areas network, but expected to be found in the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
45558	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador (Napo, Orellana, Pastaza and Sucumbios provinces), where it is known from several locales between the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo-Galeras in the west and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and the Parque Nacional Yasuní in the east. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45558	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in Amazonian forest to low Andean forest (450–1,400 m).	eng
45558	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45559	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Only the Pilaló subpopulation could be partially protected inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45559	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Cotopaxi, Imbabura, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Known from four locales: Guaranda, Pilaló, the western slopes of Pichincha and between Cotacachi and Apuela. Until recently the species was nearly unknown, except for a few L. Sodiro collections between 1870 and 1890, because its small green flowers make finding it difficult for the untrained eye.	eng
45559	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,100–3,260 m). The species thrives along roads and in areas with disturbed vegetation inside primary forest.	eng
45560	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not inside any Ecuadorean protected area.	eng
45560	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to western Ecuador, where it is known from 20 subpopulations on the coast (Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Loja, Manabí, El Oro and Los Ríos provinces). Distributed from Atacames in the north to El Carmen and Yanagana in the south and expected to be found in northern Peru.	eng
45560	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in dry coastal forest to low Andean forest (30–2,600 m).	eng
45560	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45561	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Neither locale is inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45561	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations (in Bolívar and Chimborazo provinces). Collected once above Balsapampa and once above Huigra.	eng
45561	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,660–2,000 m)	eng
45561	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
45562	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45563	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45564	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45565	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45566	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
45567	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45569	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45570	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45571	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45572	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.	eng
45573	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45575	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45576	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45577	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,500 m.	eng
45578	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45579	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,000 m.	eng
45580	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45581	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,500 m.	eng
45582	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45583	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45584	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45585	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500 to 800 m.	eng
45586	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,200 m.	eng
45587	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45588	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,800–3,000 m.	eng
45589	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,700–2,500 m.	eng
45590	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45591	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45592	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 600 m.	eng
45593	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45594	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 to 600 m.	eng
45595	distribution	Cedeño, A. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45596	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
45597	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,800 m.	eng
45598	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–2,900 m.	eng
45599	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45600	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45601	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,000 m.	eng
45602	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,550 m.	eng
45603	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,350–2,500 m.	eng
45604	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45605	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,600–3,000 m.	eng
45606	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
45607	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,800–3,200 m.	eng
45608	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45610	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,300–3,150 m.	eng
45611	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45612	distribution	Cornejo, X., Suin, L. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45613	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 300 m.	eng
45614	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,100–2,650 m.	eng
45615	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 75 m.	eng
45616	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 to 500 m.	eng
45617	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45618	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400 m.	eng
45619	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 10 m.	eng
45620	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–390 m.	eng
45621	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45622	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 470 m.	eng
45623	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45624	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45625	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
45626	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,800 m.	eng
45627	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45628	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 2,000 m.	eng
45629	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45630	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 900–1,650 m.	eng
45631	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 to 600 m.	eng
45632	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 800–1,200 m.	eng
45633	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 300 m.	eng
45634	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 400 m.	eng
45635	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 300 to 750 m.	eng
45636	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 760 m.	eng
45637	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,400–1,500 m.	eng
45638	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,300–2,000 m.	eng
45639	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400 to 900 m.	eng
45640	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45641	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 m.	eng
45642	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,800 m.	eng
45643	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45644	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45645	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45646	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,100 m.	eng
45647	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,650 m.	eng
45648	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45649	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,900 m.	eng
45650	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 400–1,200 m.	eng
45651	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,100–1,200 m.	eng
45652	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45653	distribution	Muriel, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45654	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000 m.	eng
45655	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150 m.	eng
45656	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200 m.	eng
45657	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,350–1,600 m.	eng
45658	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.	eng
45659	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45660	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45661	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45662	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45663	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
45664	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45665	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45666	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45667	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45668	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45669	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.	eng
45670	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45671	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.	eng
45672	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45673	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45674	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 700 m.	eng
45675	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45676	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45677	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45678	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45679	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45680	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,500 m.	eng
45681	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45682	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45683	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45684	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,400–4,000 m.	eng
45685	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45686	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45687	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45688	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45689	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45690	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45691	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45692	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45693	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
45694	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45695	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45696	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45697	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45698	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45699	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45700	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
45701	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45702	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,500 m.	eng
45703	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45704	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45705	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45706	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
45707	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45708	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,500 m.	eng
45709	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45710	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45711	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45712	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45713	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2502–1,500 m.	eng
45714	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45715	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45716	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45717	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45718	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000 to 2,500 m.	eng
45719	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
45720	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45721	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
45722	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45723	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45724	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45725	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45726	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45727	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
45728	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45729	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
45731	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45732	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45733	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
45734	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45735	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–3,000 m.	eng
45736	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.	eng
45737	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45738	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45739	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45740	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45741	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
45742	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	This endemic tree of Ecuador inhabits the High Andean areas of Azuay province. Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45742	habitat	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Montane and upper montane cloud forest.	eng
45743	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45744	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
45745	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
45746	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45747	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 1,000 m.	eng
45748	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45749	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
45750	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
45751	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45752	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45753	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
45754	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
45755	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250 to 500 m.	eng
45756	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
45757	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
45758	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
45759	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
45760	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45761	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
45762	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45762	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe province). The two collections mentioned by Jørgensen (in Jørgensen and León-Yánez 1999) refer to the type and a plant cultivated from the type. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45762	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in low Andean forest (1,700 m).	eng
45762	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45763	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Possibly occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45763	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Pichincha province). Known from a single population in the ENDESA private reserve, where it was collected twice before 1985.	eng
45763	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in humid coastal forest (650–800 m).	eng
45763	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45764	conservation	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Additional subpopulations are expected to be found in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45764	distribution	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from two collections in Andean forest at Achupallas, between Yangana and Valladolid (Zamora-Chinchipe province). In 1997 the species was assessed as "Rare" (Walter and Gillett 1998).	eng
45764	habitat	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine or liana found in high Andean forest (2,500 m).	eng
45764	threats	Jørgensen, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45765	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network but may be found in the Parque Nacional Yasuní and the Reserva de Producción Faunistica de Cuyabeno.	eng
45765	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is widely distributed on both sides of the Andes (in Guayas, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces).	eng
45765	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in wet coastal forest, Amazonian forest and lower montane forest (0–1,000 m). Grows in cracks on rocks or as an epiphyte, frequently in exposed or disturbed areas.	eng
45765	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45766	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but the Bosque Protector of the Río Toachi and Río Pilatón watersheds is located in the historical collection site.	eng
45766	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from a K. Lehman record in the nineteenth century on the banks of the Río Pilatón, near San Florencio, Pichincha province.	eng
45766	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45766	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45767	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and similar vegetation remnants.	eng
45767	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known only from the type specimen, collected by L. Sodiro between 1898 and 1901 near Santo Domingo (Pichincha province). The description is suggestive of juvenile samples of <em>P. pernambucensis</em>, which casts doubt on the taxonomic status of the species. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45767	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in lower montane coastal forest (300 m).	eng
45767	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45768	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45768	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type, collected by J. Steyermark in Arenillas, along the Río Tintas (Zamora-Chinchipe province), in 1943. Today the area is fragmented, but vegetation remnants still occur in the species' potential distribution area. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45768	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,195 m).	eng
45768	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45769	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45769	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is still known only from the type collection recorded more than a century ago by L. Sodiro on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha. The type specimen is missing (it is not in the Berlin herbarium as indicated by Trelease and Yuncker 1950), and the description of the fruit and the leaf phylotaxy is ambiguous. Until its taxonomy is clearer, the taxon cannot be assessed beyond Data Deficient. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45769	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
45769	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45770	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Neither of the localities are inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45770	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (El Oro province). Discovered in 1923 around Zaruma, between La Chorita and Portovelo, whose forests have been replaced by agricultural land. A second collection was recorded on a cacao tree at the Hacienda Daucay by X. Cornejo in 1993.  It is possible that the species occurs in additional vegetation remnants, especially along creeks and in inaccessible areas.	eng
45770	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (600–2,000 m).	eng
45770	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	No specific threats are known.	eng
45771	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45771	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations on rocky streamsides (Morona-Santiago province). One is located 2-3 km west of Méndez and the other on the road to Sevilla de Oro. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45771	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45771	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45772	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45772	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one nineteenth century collection of W. Jameson, growing in forest along streams, close to Perucho, Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45772	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45772	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45773	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. A report of this species in Colombia's Cordillera Central is actually <em>P. cordata</em>.	eng
45773	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from three subpopulations (Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). One is around Maldonado, another near Cotacachi and the third in an unknown locale of Pichincha province. Last recorded in 1992. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45773	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (1,500–3,500 m).	eng
45773	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45774	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45774	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it has been collected only once by E. André, along the Río Daule close to Guayaquil (Guayas province) in the nineteenth century. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45774	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45774	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Total destruction of the species' habitat in the last century.	eng
45775	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45775	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province). Discovered in 1,900 by Padre L. Sodiro, on the slopes of Volcán Pichincha, near Gualea. The lack of new records may be due to taxonomic problems related to the type's destruction in the Berlin herbarium during World War Two. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45775	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45775	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45776	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not protected by Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45776	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection, recorded by W. Camp in 1945 in the Río Negro valley, on the trail to Méndez (Morona-Santiago province). According to the collector, the species was locally abundant and carpeted the forest along the trail. May potentially occur in the Cordillera de Cutucú. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45776	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (1,500–2,500 m).	eng
45776	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45777	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45777	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where a single population was found in 1949 along shady creeks on Cerro Villonaco (Loja province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45777	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45777	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45778	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Today the collection site is inside the Bosque Protector del Cerro Samama, Guineales and Mumbes.	eng
45778	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to coastal Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection made before 1953 around La Clementina, in Los Ríos province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45778	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45778	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The principal threat is forest clearing for banana, cacao and citrus plantations.	eng
45779	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45779	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, known from a single collection near Loja more than 100 years ago. Judging by its habitat and phenotype, the species seems closely related to <em>P. boekeii</em> from Peru, which grows in dry exposed areas in inter-Andean valleys. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45779	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45779	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45780	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45780	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it is known from two subpopulations in Andean vegetation (Azuay, Loja and El Oro provinces). The type specimen was collected around the Río Oña in 1973 and another was collected in an unknown locale of Loja province. The species has been introduced as an ornamental plant in Germany. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45780	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45780	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45781	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
45781	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type locale (which lacks precise locality information) around Guayaquil (Guayas province), collected more than 150 years ago by W. Jameson. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45781	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45781	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Native forests of the type locale area have been replaced by Ecuador's biggest metropolis, but some vegetation remnants still persist in bosques protectores.	eng
45782	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45782	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from three isolated subpopulations (Azuay, Loja, Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza provinces). Locally abundant and frequent on riverbanks of shady creeks. The population in Napo province has been collected more than 20 times. Another population was recorded in 1945 in Azuay and a third in 1961 in Loja, on the Gonzamaná-Catamayo road. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45782	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb lower montane Amazonian forest and Andean vegetation (250–3,000 m).	eng
45782	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45783	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45783	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from two subpopulations in undisturbed wet forest (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). One is in Carchi, close to the Río Verde; another is in an unknown locale of Pichincha. Last collected in 1987.	eng
45783	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
45783	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45784	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45784	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's western Andean slopes, where it is known from a single ninetenth-century collection between the Pichincha and Atacazo volcanos (Pichincha province). The description suggests a close affinity with <em>P. paradoxa</em>; they may even be conspecific. The type of <em>P. involucrata</em> is not in the Berlin herbarium, as suggested by Trelease and Yuncker (1950), and until it is located the species' taxonomy will remain dubious. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45784	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
45784	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45785	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45785	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, apparently confined to the surroundings of Ambato (Tungurahua province). Last recorded in 1988. Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45785	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
45785	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The species may be seriously threatened by deforestation around Ambato.	eng
45786	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but additional populations may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi Cayapas or in the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
45786	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western Andean slopes of Ecuador (Esmeraldas province). The only record is a 1910 collection of L. Sodiro from Lita Paramba. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45786	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (300–600 m).	eng
45786	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45787	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could persist in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45787	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection. The label shows it was recorded 100 year ago by L. Sodiro, in lower Andean forests on the western slopes of Pichincha province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45787	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
45787	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45788	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45788	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from one record from the Río Lita, Esmeraldas province, made by L. Sodiro in 1901. Closely related to <em>P. vallensis</em>, a taxon in the south of Colombia, which grows in very wet Andean forests. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45788	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (200–500 m).	eng
45788	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45789	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially grow in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45789	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one collection made on Cerro Atacazo (Pichincha province) more than 100 years ago. No precise data exist for the locale nor the elevation of the collection, but the species' similarities with <em>P. parasitica</em> suggest a high-elevation Andean forest habitat above 2,500 m. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45789	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,000 m).	eng
45789	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45790	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but may occur inside the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.	eng
45790	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to high-elevation Andean forest in Ecuador, where it has been collected at least five times (Cotopaxi, Imbabura and Pichincha provinces). In Pichincha province, the species is known from Monte de Mojanda and the surroundings of Pifo. In Cotopaxi and Imbabura provinces, precise locality data is not available. Last recorded in 1979. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45790	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,500–3,500 m).	eng
45790	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45791	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, however the collection site is now inside Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
45791	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo province). Recorded once more than 100 years ago, in the cordillera oriental, near Oyacachi and inside what is now the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. No recent records exist. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45791	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,100 m).	eng
45791	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45792	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Bosque Protector de Maquipucuna and the Nanegal valley.	eng
45792	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province), where it is known only from two nineteenth-century collections. One is from Quito and the other from between Nanegal and Gualea. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45792	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45792	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45793	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45793	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador, where it is known only from a 1933 collection in the Río Pastaza valley, close to the Río Negro (Tungurahua province). The loss of the type in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War, like those of many other species described by Diels in the 1,930s, may explain the lack of recent records. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45793	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
45793	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45794	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network but may be found in the nearby Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas or the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
45794	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection recorded by L. Sodiro along the Río Santiago, Esmeraldas province, at the beginning of the twentieth century. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45794	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45794	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The principal threats are deforestation and mining.	eng
45795	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	May persist in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi and its surroundings.	eng
45795	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). Recorded at the beginning of the nineteenth century by A. Humboldt and A. Bonpland, on the slopes of Volcán Cotopaxi, near Mulaló. No other collections exist. The lack of new collections may be due to the fact that the type specimen was deposited in the Berlin herbarium, where many types were destroyed during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45795	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and shrubby paramo (3,000–4,500 m).	eng
45795	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The Parque Nacional Cotopaxi area is currently threatened by grazing.	eng
45796	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45796	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Loja province), known exclusively from the 1947 type collection in the Cordillera Oriental, 12 km east of Loja. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45796	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45796	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45797	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	No populations are protected in Ecuador's protected areas network.	eng
45797	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador, where it grows in disturbed and exposed areas (in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces). Three records are from Horta-Naque and a fourth is from an unknown locale of Zamora. Last recorded in 1988. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45797	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and humid paramo (2,500–4,000 m).	eng
45797	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45798	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45798	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single collection, recorded in the nineteenth century along the Río Huambi close to Puembo, in Pichincha province. Since then, the historical locale has lost all of its original vegetation; additional subpopulations may occur in inaccessible vegetation remnants close to original collection site. Given its phylogenetic similarities with <em>P. rotundifolia</em>, it should thrive in inter-Andean vegetation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45798	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (500–1,000 m).	eng
45798	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45799	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but additional populations may be discovered in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45799	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). Known from a single infertile collection made by W. Jameson more than 100 years ago along creeks of Volcán Pichincha, above Quito. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45799	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean forest high and paramo (> 3,000 m).	eng
45799	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45800	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	May also occur in the eastern side of the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, but not confirmed in either.	eng
45800	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Napo and Tungurahua provinces). Known from one old record in the Pastaza valley, close to the Río Topo, and from a recent record in the Jatun Sacha private reserve. Taxonomically similar to <em>P. hernandiifolia</em>, which is widely distributed in northwestern South American and Central America, but has never been collected in Ecuador.	eng
45800	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (400–1,500 m).	eng
45800	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45801	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection recorded 135 years ago on the slopes of Volcán Pululahua (Pichincha province). The historical locale may be inside what is now the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45801	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in high Andean forest (2,000 m).	eng
45801	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45802	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45802	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from two collections. Discovered in the nineteenth century by L. Sodiro in Cerro Corazón, Pichincha province, and subsequently collected by F. Fagerlind in 1952–1953 in an unknown locale. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45802	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45802	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45803	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but potentially present in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45803	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes, where it is known from at least three subpopulations (in Carchi and Pichincha provinces). Collected on the Pichincha and Atacazo volcanos and in an unknown locale of Carchi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45803	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high and low Andean forest (1,000–2,500 m).	eng
45803	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45804	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could potentially occur in the Parque Nacional Machalilla or other dry vegetation remnants on the coast.	eng
45804	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal lowlands (Manabí province). Known only from the type specimen, collected in 1942 north of Salango in Manabí province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45804	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in dry coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45804	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45805	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not in Ecuador's protected areas, but may occur inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45805	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's northern Andes (Carchi, Napo and Pichincha provinces). Known from three subpopulations, in what are now mostly fragmented forests: one between Nanegal and Gualea, another on the Río Verde, very close to El Chical, and the other near Cosanga. Last collected in 1991.	eng
45805	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45805	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45806	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in Ecuador's protected areas network, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45806	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from a single population on the western slopes of Volcán Pichincha, recorded more than 100 years ago. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45806	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45806	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45807	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not in Ecuador's protected areas, but could occur in the Bosque Protector de Maquipucuna.	eng
45807	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha and Tungurahua provinces). Discovered in the nineteenth century by L. Sodiro in the Nanegal valley. Subsequently collected by L. Diels in the Río Pastaza valley in 1933, close to the town of Río Negro.	eng
45807	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
45807	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45808	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed to occur in Ecuador's protected areas network, but could potentially persist on Cerro Atacazo and its surroundings, including the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas.	eng
45808	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador (Pichincha province). The only record is from Tablahuasi, on the Volcán Pichincha, collected by W. Jameson more than 100 years ago. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45808	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest and humid paramo (3,400 m).	eng
45808	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45809	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any protected area, but potentially present in the Bosque Protector Maquipucuna and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
45809	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador (Pichincha province). Only collected once, on the Quito-Nanegal road, in 1961. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45809	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45809	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45810	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area, but potentially present in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45810	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador and known from a single collection recorded by W. Camp in 1945 in Cañar province. The type locale is near Tambo, 69 km south of Sibambe. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45810	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in dry Andean vegetation (2,500–3,000 m). Similar species of <em>Peperomia</em>, delicate and with fleshy rhizomes, form small populations along the Andes and coastal foothills, often restricted to certain substrates like rock cracks and vulnerable to disturbances.	eng
45810	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45811	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not yet found in any Ecuadorean protected area.	eng
45811	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's eastern Andean slopes, where it is known from a single 1935 collection (in Pastaza province). The type locality is between Puyo and Canelos, in dense, shaded forest. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45811	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	An epiphytic herb found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).	eng
45811	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45812	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area.	eng
45812	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador (Zamora-Chinchipe province). In the only known population, the plant is locally abundant in forests along the Río Valladolid. It has not been recollected in more than 50 years from this well explored place. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45812	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m). The species appears to be restricted to rocky soils of wet areas.	eng
45812	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45813	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could be present in the Reserva Etnica Awá or the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
45813	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's coastal forest. Collected just once, in 1953, near El Timbre, in Esmeraldas province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45813	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A terrestrial herb found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m).	eng
45813	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45814	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any Ecuadorean protected area.	eng
45814	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to shrubby paramo in southern Ecuador. Collected just once, in 1943, along the Achupallas creek, in Zamora-Chinchipe province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45814	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
45814	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45815	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but additional populations could potentially be discovered in the Parque Nacional Cotopaxi.	eng
45815	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known from one record, collected more than 80 years ago near Angamarca, Cotopaxi province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45815	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in shrubby paramo (3,000–3,500 m).	eng
45815	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45816	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any protected area, but additional populations could be discovered in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45816	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes, and known from a single 1945 collection. The type locale is 1–8 km north of Sevilla de Oro, in Azuay province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45816	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45816	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45817	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Potentially may occur in the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
45817	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, discovered more than 100 years ago in the surroundings of Baeza (Napo and Pastaza provinces), and not seen since. No precise data exist for the collection locale. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45817	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A treelet found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45817	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45818	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Could potentially occur in the Antisana and Cayambe-Coca protected areas.	eng
45818	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador. Discovered more than 60 years ago by J. Isern, close to Baeza, in Napo province, and not seen since. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45818	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,000–2,000 m).	eng
45818	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45819	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but should be looked for in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45819	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known only from a single 1945 collection by W. Camp in the Río Chanchán canyon, 5 km north of Huigra (Chimborazo province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45819	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45819	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45820	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45820	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1944 collection on a track ascending the Cordillera de Cutucú (Morona-Santiago province). The locale is difficult to access and scarcely collected. Until new populations are recorded, the species is assumed to be endemic to this geologically unique formation and considered Endangered due to a small geographical range. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45820	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (900 m).	eng
45820	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45821	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45821	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to eastern Ecuador, where it is known only from the type specimen, collected in 1941 in Cantón Archidona (Napo province). No precise data exists for the location nor altitude of the collection. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45821	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana. Habitat unknown.	eng
45821	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45822	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could potentially persist inside the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
45822	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection, recorded more than 100 years ago between San Pablo and Chillanes, Chimborazo province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45822	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45822	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45823	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45823	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, where it is known from a single 1944 collection near Méndez, in forests along the Río Upano, in Morona-Santiago province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45823	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub or vine found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45823	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45824	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The historical locale is probably not inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but it is close to the Parque Nacional Llanganates and the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45824	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only from the type collection recorded by L. Sodiro in the Río Pastaza valley (Tungurahua province) in the nineteenth century. The lack of new records may be related to the fact that the types are missing. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45824	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in Amazonian tierra firme forest (250–500 m).	eng
45824	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45825	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but should be searched for in the Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
45825	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes, known exclusively from the 1945 type collection in cloud forest of the Río Chanchán valley, 5 km north of Huigra (Chimborazo province). No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45825	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A liana found in Andean vegetation (1,500–2,000 m).	eng
45825	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45826	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45826	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it is known only on Volcán Pichincha, from two collections of Padre L. Sodiro more than 100 years ago. A collection from Napo province is mentioned in the Missouri Botanical Garden TROPICOS database, but this requires confirmation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45826	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45826	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45827	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45827	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorean Andes. The only collection was made in the Río Pastaza valley, near the Río Negro (Tungurahua province), from 1933. The lack of recent collections may be due to taxonomic problems related to the destruction of the type in the Berlin herbarium during the Second World War. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45827	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (1,000–1,500 m).	eng
45827	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45828	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45828	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador, known only from the 1944 type collection in a disturbed understorey of the Cordillera de Cutucú (Morona-Santiago province). Until new collections confirm otherwise, the species is assumed to be endemic to this geologically unique formation. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45828	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in low Andean forest (1,260 m).	eng
45828	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45829	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45829	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador's southern Andes. The only known population was discovered some time before 1955 in the understorey of the high-elevation cloud forests between Oña and Río Yacuambi (Azuay province), where it was locally abundant. Closely related to the <em>Piper</em> species group confined to the Amazon, like <em>P. augustum</em> and <em>P. leticianum</em>. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45829	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–3,000 m).	eng
45829	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45830	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network.	eng
45830	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southeastern Ecuador. Collected only once, in 1944, by W. Camp around the Río Upano, close to Méndez (Morona-Santiago province). Until new collections suggest otherwise the species is assumed to be endemic to the geologically distinctive formations in this region. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45830	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A hemiepiphytic subshrub found in lower montane Amazonian forest (500–1,000 m).	eng
45830	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45831	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	The type locale is near the Reserva Ecológica Los Ilinizas, but the species is not yet confirmed in any protected area.	eng
45831	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador. Discovered in 1920 at Cerro El Corazón, Pichincha province, and not seen since. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45831	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (2,000–2,500 m).	eng
45831	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45832	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not confirmed in any protected area, but could potentially occur in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
45832	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to southern Ecuador. Collected once, in 1961, at km 12 or 14 on the road to Zamora, in Loja province. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45832	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in Andean vegetation (2,800 m).	eng
45832	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45833	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur in Ecuador’s protected areas network, but could occur in remnants of coastal wet vegetation inside the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Etnica Awá.	eng
45833	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, where it occurs in wet coastal forest (in Guayas and Los Ríos provinces). First collected in 1942, in the surroundings of Entrada, in Guayas. Other collections have been made in the Río Palenque private reserve.	eng
45833	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in humid coastal forest (0–500 m). Grows in shady microhabitats along forest edges.	eng
45833	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45834	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network, but might be found in the Maquipucuna private reserve.	eng
45834	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Andean Ecuador, where it is known from six mostly historical records in the Nanegal valley, Pichincha province.	eng
45834	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A shrub found in high Andean forest (2,000–2,500 m). Reportedly locally abundant in shady secondary forests.	eng
45834	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45835	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Not known to occur inside Ecuador’s protected areas network and the Río Palenque reserve could be too small (<em>ca</em>. 100 ha) to support a stable population.	eng
45835	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to Ecuador, known from four records from the Río Palenque private reserve (Pichincha and Los Ríos provinces). The species seems confined to a small area in the surroundings of Santo Domingo, where most forest has been destroyed. No specimens of this species are housed in Ecuadorean museums.	eng
45835	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A subshrub or vine found in humid coastal forest (150–500 m).	eng
45835	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45836	conservation	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Potentially occurs in the Río Palenque private reserve and other remnants with this kind of vegetation.	eng
45836	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Endemic to the western foothills of the Ecuadorean Andes (Pichincha province). The only known population has been reported from the Ila mountains, where the species was reportedly locally abundant. The only vine species of the genus with a purple leaf underside and with potential as an ornamental plant.	eng
45836	habitat	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	A vine found in lower montane coastal forest (600 m).	eng
45836	threats	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Apart from habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
45873	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	More data are required on the distribution of this species in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, including previous collecting locations. The forest around Ngombombeng and adjacent forest areas should be surveyed to try to rediscover this taxon here. Formal description of the fruits of this taxon, should be made to aid field botanists in identification of this taxon in future.	eng
45873	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Côte d'Ivoire: 60 km N of Sassandra, Davo River Gorge (1 coll.); Ghana: Draw River Forest Reserve (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Ngombombeng near Nyasoso (1 coll.); Equatorial Guinea: location unknown.	eng
45873	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	An understorey climber in dense humid forest or secondary forest; <em>ca</em>. 750 m alt.	eng
45873	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Widespread and continued loss of lowland and mid-elevation forest in Côte d'Ivoire is likely to threaten any extant populations of this species here. The site at Ngombombeng in Cameroon lies along the route from Nyasoso to Ngomboaku, a somewhat populous area with resultant widespread loss of forest below 1,000 m alt., the limit of effective forest protection on the adjacent Mt Kupe.	eng
45874	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Attempt s are required to relocate this species, and to introduce it into cultivation.	eng
45874	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (1 coll.), Ngambé (1 coll.); Gabon (3 coll. at 3 sites).	eng
45874	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Found in degraded lowland to submontane forest formations, overgrown edges to forest paths; <em>ca</em>. 300–1,000 m alt.	eng
45874	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Degradation of forest may actually favour this species, but wholescale clearance for urbanization or plantation establishment is a serious threat.	eng
45875	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	the two Bakossi sites should be revisited and seed collected, if available, to help introduce this species into cultivation. Searches around Buea could also be instigated, for the same purpose.	eng
45875	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Buea (4 coll.), Mt Etinde (1 coll.), Barike-Manya, Kumba (1 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites), Bamenda Highlands (1 coll.).	eng
45875	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Found in mid-elevation evergreen forest; 150–1,330 m alt.	eng
45875	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Only the two collections from Mwambong and Ngomboaku, in Bakossiland, are likely to have been unaffected by logging activities, and clearance of forest for agriculture. At all the other known locations, much clearance has occurred in the distant and recent past, and is likely to continue in the future.	eng
45876	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Visits to the two known locations should be instigated to assess the chances of survival of this species. Inventory work should be continued in other uncollected areas of suitable habitat, between and around the two locations. If found, seed of this species should be distributed for germination at suitable sites, both <em><em>in situ</em></em> and <em>ex situ</em>.	eng
45876	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Mungo River Forest Reserve (1 coll.) and Yaoundé (1 coll.).	eng
45876	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Found in low- to mid-elevation evergreen forest; 150–800 m alt.	eng
45877	conservation	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of the number of trees of this species at Korup and Takamanda should be carried out to determine its abundance at these sites, as they are the best protected, thus offering the best opportunity for conservation of this species. Informing local communities, most notably at Nyandong where this species appears most common and in closest proximity to human settlement, of the scarcity of this species may help to promote community-led conservation, particularly as it is such a striking and easily recognizable taxon.	eng
45877	distribution	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria: Cross River State, Oban (3 coll., 2 sites), Atolo to Mamfe (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll., 3 sites), Takamanda Forest Reserve (1 coll.), Korup N.P. (1 coll.); Gabon: Mahounda (1 coll.), Ikembélé (1 coll.).	eng
45877	habitat	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Found in low- to mid-elevation evergreen forest, often occurring on rocky slopes; 250–1,000 m alt.	eng
45878	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Both the Baduma and Ejagham collections record the species as locally abundant and at the second site profuse regeneration was recorded. This may be a gregarious, grove forming species, which reduces the likelihood of extinction at any one site due to loss of a single individual. Surveys are advised at all known sites to assess the state and size of subpopulations and to investigate how well these sites are protected. This information could form the basis of a species management plan.	eng
45878	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Baduma, S Bakundu, Lake Ejagham, Campo (each 1 coll.), Bipinde (3 coll.).	eng
45878	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–400 m alt.	eng
45879	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to refind and establish subpopulation sizes and demography would inform a management plan for the species.	eng
45879	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Nolbewoa, Kong, W. Ngoulemakong, N Kumba, Yaoundé-Edea, Yaoundé-Mbalamayo (each 1 coll.); Angola, Rio Muni: Sendye, Okuamkos (each 1 coll.); Gabon: Goualé (1 coll.), Oveng (3 coll.).	eng
45879	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 0–500 m alt.	eng
45879	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance due to agriculture and logging.	eng
45881	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A revision of <em>Angylocalyx</em> taxa would clarify the distinctiveness and characteristics of this tree. As matters stand it is threatened with extinction at all its known sites, except at Korup N.P. Enforcement of existing reserve boundaries would secure the protection of <em>A. talbotii</em>.	eng
45881	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Oban, (3 coll.); SW Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 coll. at 2 sites), Korup (several coll.), Bambuko F.R. (1 coll.), Bakossi, Mungo River F.R. (1 site).	eng
45881	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest; 100–200 m alt.	eng
45881	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for logging and agriculture. Small-holder agriculture was found to be eating into the part of the Mungo River F.R. where the species was seen most recently. Market gardening at the Bambuko F.R. has destroyed much habitat there and forest around Mt Cameroon is also under threat (Cable and Cheek 1998).	eng
45882	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Unless Bali-Ngemba F.R. is protected from incursion more vigorously, the only hope for the survival of this species is the summit area of Mt Kupe and the upper tree line of Mt Cameroon both of which are reasonably secure from threat.	eng
45882	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (4 coll.), Bafut-Ngemba (1 coll.), Bali-Ngemba (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (6 coll.) and Mwanenguba (1 coll.).	eng
45882	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found insubmontane and montane forest edge; (900–)1,500–2,000 m alt.	eng
45883	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of known sites is needed to find where the taxon is extant, and to assess the best means to conserve it.	eng
45883	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	S Nigeria (4 coll. at 3 sites); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (2 coll. at 1 site), W Bakossi (1 site); Gabon (4 coll. at 4 sites).	eng
45883	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 650 m alt.	eng
45883	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for agriculture (Mt Cameroon, W Bakossi), wood (e.g., Nigeria), urban expansion (Sibange Farm, Gabon) or a combination of these.	eng
45884	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of known sites is needed to find where the taxon is extant, and to assess the best means to conserve it.	eng
45884	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: W Bakossi, Kribi-Lolodorf, Nsambi (1 coll. each); Gabon (11 coll. at 5 sites).	eng
45884	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 500 m alt.	eng
45884	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Urban expansion in the Libreville area has probably exterminated what was the stronghold for this species. (6 collections); elsewhere forest clearance for agriculture and wood has been and continues to be a threat to this taxon.	eng
45885	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	More data are needed on the survival of this species at its various sites and the extent to which it is already protected. São Tomé should be the priority for a survey.	eng
45885	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Ghana (Atewa Hills, 1 coll.); SE Nigeria (2 coll.); Bioko (2 coll.); Principe (1 coll.); São Tomé (7 coll. at 4 sites); Cameroon: Kupe-Bakossi (6 coll. at 2 sites).	eng
45885	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in disturbed submontane forest, 800–1,200 m alt	eng
45885	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood; it may already have been lost from both Nigerian sites (Oban and Obudu) since significant forest loss has occurred there in recent decades. Although it is fairly common at Kupe village, it occurs there at such low altitudes (<em>ca</em>. 800 m) that it is vulnerable to agricultural expansion.	eng
45886	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest losses in recent decades suggest that <em>A. scandens</em> may no longer survive at Bafut-Ngemba, Gepka or Obudu. Conservation efforts are probably best focussed where sites are most concentrated, namely São Tomé (5 sites, but protection levels unknown) and Mt Kupe (3 sites, protection levels currently high). At Mt Oku this taxon occurs at the lower altitudinal boundary of protection and is likely to become extinct; one of the two sites there occurs outside this boundary. The population at Mt Etinde occurs at the peak and is inaccessible to all but trekkers. Unless the summit area is cleared for touristic purposes, <em>A. scandens</em> seems secure here.	eng
45886	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko, Clarence Peak, Moca; SE Nigeria: Obudu (1 site); São Tomé and Prinicipe (5 sites); Cameroon: Bafut-Ngemba (2 coll.), Gepka, Nkambe (1 coll.), Mt Etinde (3 coll.), Mt Kupe (9 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Oku (2 sites).	eng
45886	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane to montane forest; 1,200–2,000 m alt.	eng
45886	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Bamenda Highlands, where forest loss has been running at 25% over eight years at one sample area (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
45887	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A is usual with lianas, this taxon is probably often overlooked. More intensive surveys in the Mungo River and Bakossi Forest Reserves might locate subpopulations which, if those boundaries are respected, are reasonably secure. This aside, no known site for the species appears to be within an officially protected area.	eng
45887	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Edea-Kribi 58–65 km, Kumba-Mamfe mile 15, Loum-Kumba at Mungo Bridge, Likumba-Tiko, Mt Cameroon (Mabeta-Moliwe and Onge).	eng
45887	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 50–200 m alt.	eng
45887	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture, both Small-holder (Kumba-Mamfe) and large-scale plantation (Likomba-Tiko, where forest is now absent, and both Onge and Mabeta-Moliwe, scheduled for CDC plantation expansion); also building sand extraction at Mungo Bridge.	eng
45888	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	<em>Strychnos staudtii</em> is fairly secure at Mt Kupe on the lower slopes; such is the density of individuals there that currently no action is needed to ensure its survival.	eng
45888	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Mt Cameroon (7 coll. at 3 sites), Kumba area (3 coll.), Kupe-Bakossi (21 coll. at 8 sites); Gabon (2 coll. at 2 sites).	eng
45888	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in evergreen forest; 200–1,200 m alt.	eng
45888	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of lowland forest for commercial plantation expansion (Mt Cameroon area) and small-holder agriculture (elsewhere). Threats in Gabon are not known.	eng
45889	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Efforts should be made to rediscover the species at its known sites and to obtain protection, perhaps by public education, e.g., through a poster campaign. All Loranthaceae are perceived of as nuisance plants in Cameroon since some taxa spread to crop trees.	eng
45889	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria (1 site); coastal Cameroon (7 sites); Gabon (2 sites); Angola: Cabinda (1 site).	eng
45889	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.	eng
45889	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood.	eng
45890	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	tTe known sites should be revisited and surveyed for the species to assess whether they are included in protected areas or not. Public education might help to reduce pressure on the surviving plants.	eng
45890	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: northern Rumpi Hills to Nta Ali, western Bakossi Mts.	eng
45890	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Lowland to submontane forest, sometimes on rocks near streams; 850 m alt.	eng
45890	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood: only one site (Nta Ali) is protected by a reserve, as far as is known.	eng
45891	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Although the species is reasonably secure at Mt Kupe, this population seems to be an outlier. The Bali-Ngemba F.R. in NW Province has the densest subpopulation of M. dasyanthum known, and should be the priority for protection of the species. Enforcement of existing boundaries would probably be adequate to secure the future of the species there. More data are needed on the survival of forest habitat in the Bamoun area and the continued existence of this species there.	eng
45891	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll. at 1 site) to Bamenda Highlands and Bamoun (numerous coll. at several sites).	eng
45891	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in upper submontane forest; 1,550–1,900 m alt.	eng
45891	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood, especially in the Bamenda Highlands where between 1987–1995 25% of forest cover was lost in one sample area (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000). The forest of the Bamoun highlands are also afflicted by forest loss, particularly due to dry season fires (N. Ndam, pers. comm.).	eng
45892	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	The location of the subpopulation on Mt Kupe should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals and regeneration made.	eng
45892	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (2 coll.), Douala-Edea Reserve (1 coll.), Bipindi (1 coll.), Yangamok II (1 coll.).	eng
45892	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,000 m alt.	eng
45892	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance, especially at lower altitudes, for agriculture. Even if the trees are left standing, but the undergrowth is cleared, vines can all be cut at ground level, as in the Loum F.R. understorey.	eng
45893	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	the subpopulation near Edib village should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals and regeneration made.	eng
45893	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.), M’balmayo (1 coll.); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) (3 coll.).	eng
45893	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,500 m alt.	eng
45893	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance, especially at lower altitudes, for agriculture. Even if the trees are left standing, but the undergrowth is cleared, vines can all be cut at ground level, as in the Loum F.R. understorey.	eng
45894	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	The subpopulations near Kupe Village and Kodmin should be revisited, and an assessment of the number of individuals made.	eng
45894	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Sierra Leone (1 coll.); Bequatorial Guinea: ioko (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).	eng
45894	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 0–1,500 m alt.	eng
45894	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Threatened by continued clearance of low altitude forest for plantations, agriculture and urban expansion. Troupin (1962: 93) describes its habitat as "fôrets denses humides sempervirentes de basse altitude", which would suggest below 1000 m. It is likely that all of these collections were from at or below 1000 m, and on Mt Kupe the level of protection is above this altitude. The proposed Bakossi Mts National Park should provide a level of protection for the Kodmin subpopulation, but it is quite probable that the other subpopulations have already disappeared.	eng
45895	conservation	Pollard, B.J., Cheek, M. & Bygrave, P., 2004	Conservation education as to the significance of this species may help the survival of this species at Nyasoso, Nyale and at Bu.	eng
45895	distribution	Pollard, B.J., Cheek, M. & Bygrave, P., 2004	Recorded from Mt Tonkoui in Côte d'Ivoire; and on the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe in SW province of Cameroon and the Nkom-Wum Forest Reserve in the NW Province.	eng
45895	habitat	Pollard, B.J., Cheek, M. & Bygrave, P., 2004	Grows as a hemi-epiphyte, usually growing in evergreen submontane forest on tree trunks or branches; 600–1,000 m alt.	eng
45895	threats	Pollard, B.J., Cheek, M. & Bygrave, P., 2004	Clearance of forest for expanding agriculture and wood are the main threats.	eng
45896	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Surveys of subpopulations at each known site to detect whether the taxon survives at these, and if so, to gather quantitative data on individuals, regeneration and threats. This data could inform a plan to guide management of the survival of this species.	eng
45896	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Okumu F.R., Oban; Bioko; Cameroon: Buea, Mt Kupe (Kupe village, Nyasoso: 1 coll. each).	eng
45896	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 400–1,550 m alt.	eng
45896	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threats include forest loss due to agricultural expansion and wood excavation, particularly at Bambuko (Cable and Cheek 1998), and at due to urban expansion at Kumba.	eng
45897	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Research is needed on the ecology and demography of this species. <em>Morella arborea</em> appears to have some fire-resistant qualities (M. Cheek, pers. obs.) but more exact data are required. Limited grassland fires may equally favour the species as threaten it.	eng
45897	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (Moka area, 4 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (two sites, 6 coll.), Mwanenguba (6 coll.), Bamboutos-Djuttitsa, Bamenda Highlands, Djottin, massif Mbam, Ijim Ridge (1 coll.).	eng
45897	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane and montane forest edge, or isolated in grassland; 1,300–2,400 m alt.	eng
45898	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further inventory work at other submontane locations on Mt Kupe and Nlonako will likely reveal further sites for this taxon; it may then be downgraded to Vulnerable under the IUCN criteria. Continued protection of submontane forest above 1,000 m on Mt Kupe should ensure its future survival.	eng
45898	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (19 coll. from 3 sites), Mt Nlonako (1 coll.).	eng
45898	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs at mid-altitude to submontane closed canopy forest understorey, occasionally secondary forest; 650–1,250 m alt.	eng
45899	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A revision of African <em>Eugenia</em> is desirable. The identity of the Bangem specimen should be checked. Site visits to establish whether the species survives at each of its known locations is suggested. These could be combined with a demographic study.	eng
45899	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.) and Corisco Is. (1 coll.); Central African Republic (C.A.R.); Cameroon: Kribi, Longii Beach, Bangem (1 coll. each).	eng
45899	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Ocurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–800 m alt.	eng
45899	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	The threats at the sites in Corisco Isl. and C.A.R. are unknown.	eng
45900	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further botanical surveys of lowland forest, for example in S Bakossi and Kumba District may reveal further sites for this species; care should be taken to separate it from other large-leaved <em>Campylospermum</em> spp. More data on its ecology are required; if it does require early secondary regrowth, areas of such vegetation should be maintained through active management in lowland protected areas, such as the Mungo-Bakossi Forest Reserves.	eng
45900	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: W Bakossi (2 coll.), Mt Cameroon (4 coll.), Littoral Province: nr. Melong (2 coll.), W Province: Bangati (1 coll.).	eng
45900	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest especially in secondary regrowth, appearing to favour only light shade; 0–300 m alt.	eng
45901	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The Rumpi Hills site should be rediscovered and assessed. Efforts should be made to monitor all subpopulations for numbers of individuals annually. Podostemaceae are vulnerable to increased turbidity of water which reduces the ability of seedlings to establish.	eng
45901	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Rumpi Hills (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (2 sites).	eng
45901	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs on vertical rock faces in waterfalls in submontane forest; 750–1,350 m alt.	eng
45902	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed.	eng
45902	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to West Cameroon it has not been collected elsewhere.	eng
45902	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged growing on rocks in river beds or on rocks at the uphill of waterfalls.	eng
45902	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Low population, as this plant has been found in two narrow and close localities only (in Mwambong and Mami Wata).	eng
45902	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Potentially threatened by dam construction, tourism and recreation.	eng
45903	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population, range, and habitat status.	eng
45903	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon.	eng
45903	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small aquatic herb, annual, growing on rocks in waterfalls. The rivers in which it  grows are generally not tributary to each other and their fertilization process seems  discrete and complicated.	eng
45903	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	As endemic plant, specialized restricted habitat, only four localities, we can say that the population is fatally low.	eng
45903	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat loss through human activities (dam construction, tourism and recreation).	eng
45904	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.	eng
45904	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon. In Cameroon, the plant is endemic to rivers in the coastal area and the South West provinces.	eng
45904	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Flat aquatic herb, submerged, annual, oblate on rocks in flooded rivers.	eng
45904	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This plant has a very restricted area of occupancy and a very specialized ecology. Therefore the population is low.	eng
45904	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The main threats to this species are water pollution, temperatures extreme and sudden drought.	eng
45905	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Rediscovery of the subpopulations at all the listed locations is important, as the majority refer to old collections. Future surveys of <em>Cassipourea</em> taxa in the Lower Guinea and Congolian forests may reveal further populations of this species; care should be taken to separate it from similar species such as <em>C. malosana</em>.	eng
45905	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Menyum (1 coll.); Gabon: Miledi (1 coll.); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa): environs of Mobanga, Bas-Katanga, (1 coll.), Yangambi (5 coll.).	eng
45905	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Found in lowland to mid-altitude rainforest, particularly along watercourses, including periodically flooded forest; 450–1,000 m alt.	eng
45905	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Low level anthropogenic disturbance at the Cameroon site may threaten this taxon here; stochastic events such as severe river flooding at the DRC sites may result in loss of local populations.	eng
45906	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Monitoring of the population of <em>Calochone acuminata</em> is recommended. The survival of this species might be enhanced by targeted conservation education in Bakossi.	eng
45906	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SW Cameroon (7 pre 1995 coll.); Gabon: Crystal Mts (7 coll.); Cabinda (1 coll.).	eng
45906	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest, (250–)800–1,000(–1,250) m alt.	eng
45906	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
45907	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Efforts should be made to rediscover the trees at the known sites and assess their subpopulations, regeneration (if any) and possibilities for protection. Conservation education regarding the species at the village level may assist survival.	eng
45907	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Ghana; Equatorial Guinea: Bioko; Gabon (1 coll. each); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) (2 sites: Kama-Lemuna and Bankaie); Cameroon: Lolodorf, Mapanja and Edib (1 coll. each).	eng
45907	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland, or more usually, submontane forest; to 1,200 m alt.	eng
45908	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	More data is needed on the survival of this species at its known sites, and on the extent of the subpopulations. At Mt Kupe the survival of this species might be enhanced by targeted conservation education.	eng
45908	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Bioko (1 site); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (2 sites); Gabon: Crystal Mts (2 sites); Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa): Kivu (2 sites).	eng
45908	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane forest; 750–1,200 m alt.	eng
45908	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatrened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood at Mt Kupe, especially at the lowest altitudes.	eng
45909	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Efforts should be made to protect a portion of this species’ habitat so that it does not become extinct as a result of the apparently unrelenting expansion of agriculture in the lowlands of SW Cameroon.	eng
45909	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: lower slopes of Mt Cameroon and Mt Kupe.	eng
45909	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen rainforest; rainfall exceeding 3 m p.a.	eng
45909	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for expansion of agriculture.	eng
45910	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Large parts of the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe have been accorded protected status, but this is likely to only apply to areas above 1,000 m. A targeted conservation education campaign, with a conservation poster, might well help the survival of this species in those parts of its range outside of the proposed protected areas in Bakossi.	eng
45910	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Confined to a small area (Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mts) in the SW Province of Cameroon.	eng
45910	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen lowland to submontane forest at 700–900 m.	eng
45910	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by logging activities in the past and by expanding agriculture.	eng
45911	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A taxonomic reassessment of this species with <em>C. leiochlamys</em> is needed. Mt Kupe, with two-thirds of the known sites for <em>C. talbotii</em>, is the key area for the conservation of this species. So long as the boundary of the proposed Mt Kupe protected area is respected, this species seems secure, although some pressure can be expected in the lower part of the altitudinal range.	eng
45911	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Oban (2 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Korup (1 coll.) and Mt Kupe (13 coll. at 4 sites).	eng
45911	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane evergreen forest; 840–1,300 m alt.	eng
45912	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Since Kupe-Bakossi has the densest number of sites and collections for the species, it seems to offer the best possibility of survival for the species. It seems likely that several areas in which the species occurs will be protected in future, though not those at lower altitudes.	eng
45912	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Described in 1977, this species was first collected at Limbe. The two other localities recorded by its author, Robbrecht, were 8 km west of Masok and Mambe Forest near Boga. A further collection was made near Limbe in 1993. Numerous extra collections were made at three new sites in Kupe-Bakossi in 1995–present.	eng
45912	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in lowland evergreen and submontane forest; 750–1,400 m alt.	eng
45912	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agricultural expansion and wood, particularly in the lower part of its range in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and also below 1,000 m in Kupe-Bakossi.	eng
45913	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Implementation and policing of protected area boundaries would ensure the survival of this species in most of its range.	eng
45913	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria: Chappal Waddi and Chappal Hendu; Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (numerous coll.), Mt Kupe, Mwanenguba, Bamenda Highlands (numerous collections from many sites).	eng
45913	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in montane forest.	eng
45913	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, especially in the Bamenda Highlands, once probably the main area for this species. In one study area of these highlands, 25% of forest was lost between 1987–1995 (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
45914	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	If reservoir construction goes ahead, a survey to refind the plants is advised. If any are in danger of destruction, their relocation to another site should be investigated.	eng
45914	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts, Kodmin area (3 coll.).	eng
45914	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in submontane evergreen forest; 1,400–1,500 m alt.	eng
45915	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	It is proposed that the sites identified above are surveyed to assess the size of their subpopulations of this species, and that measures be taken to protect at least the most significant sites.	eng
45915	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll.); SW Cameroon (9 coll.).	eng
45915	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in undisturbed lowland evergreen forest; 0–450 m alt.	eng
45915	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance for agricultural expansion, particularly plantations.	eng
45916	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey is advised to rediscover the species at its known sites, to quantify the subpopulations and assess regeneration. The forested eastern slope of Mt Cameroon should be given priority.	eng
45916	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (2 coll. at 2 sites); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (6 coll. at 3 or more sites), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).	eng
45916	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane evergreen forest; 1,400–1,600 m alt.	eng
45916	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture, particularly at Mt Cameroon	eng
45917	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The status of <em>P. divaricata</em> in the Kumba-S Bakundu area needs reassessment in the wake of the depredations of recent decades. A survey in S Province to rediscover its subpopulations and assess the possibilities of their protection is also advisable.	eng
45917	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Kumba-S Bakundu area (6 coll. at 4 sites: Barombi Mbo, Banga, Bombe, Etam), S Province: Bipinde, Mbanga, Nyong and Lolodorf.	eng
45917	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 150 m alt.	eng
45917	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture; Barombi Mbo forest has been largely cleared (A. Davis, pers. comm. 2003) and a large area of S. Bakundu has been cleared for yam farming (Cable and Cheek 1998).	eng
45918	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Due to the proposed enhanced protection of forest at Mt Kupe, Mungo River F.R. and the Bakossi F.R., this taxon has a reasonable chance of survival at these sites. At Kupe village and at Ngomboaku, education for the public in the protection of this species may assist its conservation.	eng
45918	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, S Province: Bolobo (1 coll.), SW Province: Mt Cameroon (11 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Kupe-Mungo River F.R. (8 coll. at 4 sites); Gabon: Crystal Mts (1 coll.).	eng
45918	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–950 m alt.	eng
45919	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Populations outside of protected areas could be assisted in their survival by a poster campaign.	eng
45919	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (9 coll. from 2 sites) and Kupe-Bakossi (3 coll. from 2 sites).	eng
45919	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 300–1,500 m alt.	eng
45920	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The geographically and altitudinally anomalous collection should be studied to confirm or reject its placement in this taxon; the latter is most likely. A study to quantify the demography of the population at Mt Kupe would help develop a plan to manage the species.	eng
45920	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (6 coll.) and western Bakossi (1 coll.).	eng
45920	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in montane forest; <em>ca</em>. 2000 m alt. (But one collection was made at <em>ca</em>. 400 m alt.).	eng
45921	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Kodmin, in the heart of the Bakossi Mts, with three collections, has the densest subpopulation of <em>Pavetta muiriana</em> and is the logical site from which to conduct a demographic survey that will also quantify individuals of this taxon, to provide data for a management plan.	eng
45921	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (4 coll. at 2 sites) and Barombi Mbo (1 coll. at 1 site).	eng
45921	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane forest; 400–1,780 m alt.	eng
45921	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	A. Davis (pers. comm. 2003) reports that much, perhaps most, of the crater forest of Barombi Mbo has been cleared.	eng
45922	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey should be made to refind this distinctive species (leaves maroon when live), quantify the subpopulation and develop a plan to protect it.	eng
45922	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll. at 1 site).	eng
45922	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest; 800–1,600 m alt.	eng
45922	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood.	eng
45923	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Research to resolve these uncertainties would aid in management planning for the conservation of this and other species in this habitat in the Cameroon uplands. For the moment, only the summit area of Mt Kupe lacks the two threats outlined above, and so is alone in offering a secure base for <em>Pentas ledermannii</em>.	eng
45923	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Obudu (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Oku area (3 coll.), Bamboutos (1 coll.), Mt Kupe-Mwanenguba (2 sites), Santa, Lake Aweng (1 coll. each).	eng
45923	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Ocurs on montane forest-grassland edge; 1,000–2,060 m alt.	eng
45924	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This bizarre member of the Rubiaceae (appearing to have alternate leaves) is, by the number of collections, particularly common at Mokoko F.R. in the western foothills of Mt Cameroon. This would therefore be the logical site to concentrate on the protection of this species, were it not for the threat of its deforestation for plantation expansion (Cable and Cheek 1998). Ideally, a survey of all the known sites to quantify subpopulations, regeneration and vulnerability, is suggested.	eng
45924	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mokoko (7. coll.), Nyandong, Menyum, Bipinde; Gabon: Abanga, Moumba, Libreville, Kinguele, Mfoa (1 coll. each).	eng
45924	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in lowland evergreen forest; up to 1,000 m alt.	eng
45924	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood (Mokoko F.R.) or due to urbanization (Libreville).	eng
45925	conservation	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	The species is found in several marine protected areas in Brazil, including Parque Estadual do Parcel Manuel Luiz off Maranhão and Parque Nacional Marinho dos Abrolhos off Bahia. Effective management of these sites is necessary.	eng
45925	distribution	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	The species is found in several protected marine areas in Brazil, including Parque Estadual do Parcel Manuel Luiz off Maranhão and Parque Nacional Marinho dos Abrolhos off Bahia.	eng
45925	habitat	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	Adults are apparently associated with coral or sandstone reefs of the northeastern Brazilian continental shelf and, in fact, the geographic distribution of known specimens is entirely coincident with that of major reef formations along the Brazilian coast. Juveniles also occur off sandy beaches and in estuaries (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Maximum size in the original description (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000) was 31 cm disc width (DW), but single adult individuals, estimated to be 40 cm DW, were observed and photographed swimming at 10 to 15 m around reefs and shipwrecks, on the shelf of Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte states (B.M. Feitoza and L.A. Rocha, pers. comm.). Single adults were also observed around reef formations about 8 m in Abrolhos Archipelago, Bahia State, where they behaved docilely toward divers (R.L. Moura, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>A gravid female (MZUSP 55476), collected in the reefs of Parcel Manoel Luís, off the coast of Maranhão, aborted one fully formed embryo (L.A. Rocha, pers. comm.). Two other female specimens from the same locality were obtained from the stomach of an adult cobia (<em>Rachycentron canadum</em>) (Gomes <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
45925	threats	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2004	Indirect threats from impacts on reef areas. It has been reported in the ornamental fish trade in Bahia State and is also taken in small numbers in artisanal fisheries.	eng
46031	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46032	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–4,000 m.	eng
46033	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
46034	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Possible altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46035	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46036	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
46037	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
46038	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
46039	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46040	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,500 m.	eng
46041	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46042	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46043	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,500 m.	eng
46044	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
46045	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
46046	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
46047	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,000 m.	eng
46048	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
46049	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46050	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
46051	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46052	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
46053	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46054	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46055	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
46056	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3000 m.	eng
46057	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
46058	distribution	Cotton, E. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
46159	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	This creeper seems most common (6 coll.) in Littoral/South Province (Douala-Edea-Ebolowa-Lolodorf-Bipindi) and conservation efforts are presumably best focussed here.	eng
46159	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mokoko (3 coll.), Mamfe (2 coll.), Baduma, Dja, Kribi-Lolodorf, Douala, Bipinde, Ebolowa-Lolodorf, Ebolowa-Nkondo, Lake Tissongo (2 coll.).	eng
46159	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 0–200 m alt.	eng
46159	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture or wood (e.g., Mokoko; Cable and Cheek 1998).	eng
46160	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The status of this plant in Nigeria needs surveying, in particular since historic collections are concentrated there. Quantitative evaluation of the size of subpopulations, regeneration and threats would help in the formulation of a management plan.	eng
46160	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Afi River, Orem, Okwangwo, Boshi, Oban; Cameroon, SW Province: Korup-Fabe Rd, Kumba-Mamfe Rd (1 coll. each).	eng
46160	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 400 m alt.	eng
46161	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	An attempt should be made to rediscover this species in the wild in the Bakossi area since it has not been seen since 1986 despite intensive collection there since 1995. It should also be looked for in the Bipinde area, and threats there assessed, since currently these are unknown.	eng
46161	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Kumba, Yaoundé and Bipinde areas.	eng
46161	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen forest understorey; 150–1,700 m alt.	eng
46161	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of forest for urban expansion (Yaoundé area) and cultivation of crops (Tombel and Yaoundé).	eng
46162	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	It is recommended that attempts be made to rediscover this rare species at Bakossi and to educate local villages as to the importance of its conservation. See also the comments made for <em>P. minimicalyx</em>. It is assumed that neither of the Bakossi sites can be formally protected due to their low altitude.	eng
46162	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bipinde and Bakossi.	eng
46162	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; up to 1,000 m alt.	eng
46162	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance for agriculture.	eng
46163	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The collection sites should be resurveyed in order to (a) determine whether the taxon is still extant, (b) decide whether it is indeed rheophytic (restricted to water courses), and (c) determine whether it is threatened by human or other factors.	eng
46163	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Bipinde-Kribi and Bakossi.	eng
46163	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs along stream-sides, usually in lowland evergreen forest; 0–1,600 m alt.	eng
46163	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Possibly threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture is suspected, but needs confirmation.	eng
46164	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The lowland forest habitat of <em>P. minimicalyx</em> does not lend itself to formal protection in a gazetted area because it grows in fertile soils close to centres of population and lines of communication. Assuming that a new site cannot be found in one of the areas already mooted for protection, it is recommended that an attempt be made to rediscover plants at one of the known sites and to educate the population as to the desirability of protecting it, possibly by using posters or rental agreements.	eng
46164	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Kumba and Kumba-Mamfe areas.	eng
46164	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 300 m alt.	eng
46164	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance of its habitat for agriculture, such as cacao plantations or food crops, is likely along the Mungo valley owing to the prevalence of fertile soils.	eng
46165	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of the subpopulations present at each of the sites is desirable. At the Njonji site, hundreds of individuals were recorded in a small area, but this has not been noted at other sites. Although distinctive in fruit, in flower it may be confused with the very common <em>P. latistipula</em> but can be separated by the pubescent stem and inflorescence.	eng
46165	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province (7 coll.).	eng
46165	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; 300–800 m alt.	eng
46165	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance for agriculture especially in the Mt Cameroon area, where the planned expansion of plantations is likely to destroy the subpopulations listed above.	eng
46166	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to rediscover the species should be conducted urgently. The Bakossi public should be informed of the uniqueness of these rare trees, and to help ensure their survival. New protected areas in Bakossi are likely to help secure the future of this tree species.	eng
46166	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Jide valley.	eng
46166	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland to submontane evergreen forest; 800–1,100 m alt.	eng
46166	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Clearance for agriculture and wood. Both sites, near Kupe village and Nyasoso, are on the edge of cultivated land. Further clearance for agriculture could result in extinction of this species.	eng
46167	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Plant material has already been used by the management team of Banyang Mbo to promote public awareness and pride in this very local and spectacular species. This could be emulated in the Kodmin area. Survey teams in explored parts of Bakossi should look out for new sites for this plant.	eng
46167	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: known only from the Bakossi Mts including the montane part of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
46167	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in submontane forest; 1,100–1,500 m alt.	eng
46167	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Forest clearance even on a local scale, of a fraction of a hectare, if coinciding with one of the sites of this species, could reduce or destroy a subpopulation. Placement of a proposed new reservoir near Kodmin should be done with caution!	eng
46168	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Surveys should be made to attempt to rediscover this species at its known sites, and to evaluate the size of subpopulations, regeneration, local threats and possibilities for conservation. When this data is available it may well be possible and necessary to re-evaluate this taxon under criterion A, at a higher level of threat.	eng
46168	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Benin; Nigeria: Lagos, Egbada, Benin-Iyek, Akpaka, Ijebu, Idranre; Cameroon, SW Province: Nyasoso, Baduma, Kumba.	eng
46168	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest; 250–800 m alt.	eng
46168	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood; it is very likely that its habitat has been lost at Lagos and Kumba where there has been extensive forest clearance in recent decades’ as there has been in much of Nigeria.	eng
46169	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to rediscover plants of this taxon at the known sites and gather the usual data on each of the subpopulations is recommended. The site at Kodmin, assuming that it is not affected by a proposed reservoir scheme, is particularly secure, being remote from human habitation.	eng
46169	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Oban; SW Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (Etinde and Mokoko), Bakossi Mts (Kodmin).	eng
46169	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 0–1,400 m alt.	eng
46169	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and wood, particularly at Oban and at Mokoko F.R.	eng
46170	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to refind this species at each of its sites, gather quantitative data on subpopulation size, recruitment and protection levels would inform development of a management plan for the species. In the absence of this, conservation efforts should be concentrated at Kupe village, which adjoins the Loum area. At the former, 15 collections were made in recent years (compared with one at Etinde, despite similar sampling effort) suggesting Kupe village to have a very high density of the species. The new Mt Kupe protected area should help secure the future of the species.	eng
46170	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Kupe village, Loum, Ngoase, Etinde, Mt Kala, Mt Fébé, Nteigne; Gabon: Belinga, Mt Babiel.	eng
46170	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest often near the boundary with semi-deciduous forest (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); 200–1,250 m alt.	eng
46170	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance or part-clearance of forest for agriculture; much of the understorey of the Loum F.R. has been cleared and replaced by crops; other parts have been cleared of natural forest and replaced by cocoa (M. Cheek, pers. obs.); Mt Kala has had its forest damaged in recent years and Mt Fébé has had prestige buildings erected upon it; the lower slopes of Mt Etinde (where one plant was recorded at 400–600 m alt.) is earmarked for plantation expansion.	eng
46171	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A survey to rediscover this taxon, quantify subpopulations, demography, regeneration and threats, is advisable. Given far-reaching forest loss in Nigeria and anticipated increased forest loss along the upgraded Kumba-Mamfe Road, the prospects for this species do not seem good. Reassessment under criterion A (requiring better threat data than now available) is likely to result in EN or CR ratings.	eng
46171	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria: Oban, Awi-Akampka, Boli-Bateriko, Iyamoyong F.R.; SW Cameroon: Inokum-Mbenyan, Ebone-Yabassi, Ndikinimeki, Minso and western Bakossi (Kumba-Mamfe: 2 sites).	eng
46171	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest; <em>ca</em>. 250–350 m alt.	eng
46171	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood.	eng
46172	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The Nyale-Kodmin area has least pressure of all known sites and offers the best hope for the survival of this herb. Surveys to determine whether the species survives at the other sites are suggested. If so, an assessment of the best means of protecting them, if feasible, should be made.	eng
46172	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria (2 coll.); Cameroon: Korup N.P., Lake Barombi Mbo (1 coll. each), Bakossi Mts (2 coll. at 2 sites).	eng
46172	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in the understorey of lowland evergreen forest; 400–1,000 m alt.	eng
46173	conservation	Sonké, B., Cheek, M., Nambou, M. & Robbrecht, E., 2004	Surveys are required to locate more plants and sites for <em>T. lejolyana</em>, otherwise it might have to be reassessed as Critically Endangered.	eng
46173	distribution	Sonké, B., Cheek, M., Nambou, M. & Robbrecht, E., 2004	Recorded from east of Nguti in the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, SW province of Cameroon.	eng
46173	habitat	Sonké, B., Cheek, M., Nambou, M. & Robbrecht, E., 2004	Occurs in evergreen lowland rain forest, 200–300 m alt.	eng
46173	threats	Sonké, B., Cheek, M., Nambou, M. & Robbrecht, E., 2004	Areas to the north and east of Banyang Mbo are being deforested for agriculture and the area where the species occurs is vulnerable to logging. Once that occurs the area would be opened up to agricultural expansion.	eng
46174	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	More effective policing of protected areas is advised, together with annual monitoring of individuals at known sites.	eng
46174	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
46174	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Found in evergreen forest; to 1,000 m alt.	eng
46174	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of lowland forest for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Mt Cameroon area (Cable and Cheek 1998) and in Nigeria.	eng
46176	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Improved policing of the existing protected areas would secure the future of this species.	eng
46176	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	SE Nigeria; Cameroon; São Tomé and Principe (Cameroon line mountains).	eng
46176	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in upper submontane and montane forest; 1,600–2,400 m alt.	eng
46176	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by clearance of forest for agriculture and wood, particularly in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, once probably the main area for A. bullatus. Study of one area here (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000) showed that 25% of forest was lost between 1987–1995.	eng
46177	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Surveys should be made to rediscover this species at its known sites. It seems possible that it may only survive at Mt Kupe (where the most recent collections are recorded). It is therefore advised that efforts to protect the tree might be centred here. Individuals need to be rediscovered, demographic data obtained and protection secured with the help of local communities.	eng
46177	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria (Sapoba F.R., 4 coll.); Bioko (2 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Bambuko F.R. (2 coll.) and Mt Kupe (2 coll., two sites).	eng
46177	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest; 400 m alt.	eng
46177	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Extremely vulnerable due to clearance of lowland forest for agriculture. It may well be extinct on Bioko due to extensive forest clearance there for cacao plantations in the late 19th and 20th centuries. It may also be extinct in Nigeria due to extensive forest loss there in the late 20th century. Forest loss at Bambuko is documented in Cable and Cheek (1998). It is notable that the species was not found elsewhere around Mt Cameroon during the intensive surveys of the early 1990s. At Mt Kupe it is vulnerable due to its low altitude, placing it outside of the proposed new protected area.	eng
46178	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	The best hope for the survival of this species is probably in Gabon, where numerous collections have been made and pressure on forest is relatively low. However, attempts should be made to rediscover the species at all its known sites and to gather demographic data for a management plan.	eng
46178	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Sierra Leone (type coll.); S Nigeria (1 coll.); Cameroon: Mt Cameroon (7 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bipinde (1 site); Gabon (numerous coll. at 3 sites, including Libreville).	eng
46178	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland to submontane forest; <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.	eng
46178	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for timber and agriculture, particularly in Nigeria, Mt Cameroon and the Libreville area. Threats in Sierra Leone are unknown.	eng
46179	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A revision of the species of <em>Placodiscus</em>, many of which are poorly known, would result in a better understanding of their geographic ranges and identification. From the available evidence Gabon, with two known sites, most warrants concentration of resources in conserving this poorly known species. A survey is advised to rediscover the plant there, and gather demographic data to aid formulate a management plan. Currently, the species is only known to be protected at its Korup site.	eng
46179	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Korup (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (confirmation of identity needed); Central African Republic (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll., 1 at Libreville).	eng
46179	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; <em>ca</em>. 300 m alt.	eng
46179	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for logging, followed by agriculture and urbanization (Libreville site).	eng
46180	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	A revision of the species of <em>Placodiscus</em>, many of which are poorly known, would result in a better understanding of their geographic ranges and identification. From the available evidence Gabon, with three known sites, most warrants concentration of resources in conserving this poorly known species. A survey is advised to rediscover the plant there, and gather demographic data to aid formulate a management plan.	eng
46180	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (2 sites); Central African Republic: Boukoko; Rio Muni (1 coll.); Gabon (3 sites).	eng
46180	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland and submontane evergreen forest; 200–1,000 m alt.	eng
46180	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for logging, followed by agriculture and urbanization	eng
46181	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Conservation efforts should be concentrated in the Bamenda Highlands where the species seems to be most abundant (six collection sites). The ecological relationship of <em>R. ledermannii</em> with forest edge needs further confirmation. Research is also needed on its demography, (for example is it a biennial?) and requirements for establishment in the wild.	eng
46181	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Nigeria: Chappal Wadi; western Cameroon: Bamenda Highlands (Ndu, Bambili Lakes, Bamenda-Mba Kokeka, Bambui and Laikom) and Mwanenguba.	eng
46181	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in grassland near edge of forest; <em>ca</em>. 2,000 m alt.	eng
46181	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Loss of montane forest due to agriculture is thought to be the main concern for this species. 25% of forest cover was lost in a sample area of the Bamenda Highlands between 1987–1995 (Moat in Cheek <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
46182	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Although forest loss in the W. and N.W. Provinces of Cameroon has seriously reduced the population of <em>Q. sanguinea</em> in those areas, it seems relatively secure at Mt Cameroon and Mt Kupe-Bakossi Mts in S.W. Province. So long as these areas remain protected, no further action is needed to ensure the survival of the species. However, data on generation length and other aspects of demography, together with data on densities are desirable	eng
46182	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Recorded from Nigeria: Cross River State (Mt. Koloishe, Obudu Plateau), Cameroon: S.W. and N.W. Provinces.  Restricted to the Cameroon Highlands, from Mt Cameroon in the S to the Bamenda Highlands in the N, with an extension into Nigeria at Obudu, this small tree is distinctive with its red leaf axes.	eng
46182	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest; 800–1,750 m alt.	eng
46182	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance for wood, followed by agriculture, particularly in the northern part of its range, Bamboutos Mts and the Bamenda Highlands.	eng
46183	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Revisiting all known sites for the species is advised in order to attempt to rediscover it and to assess levels and nature of threats, if ongoing. Data on numbers of individuals per population and demography are also required to inform a management plan for the species.	eng
46183	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon: Mundame-Etam, Bakossi F.R., Nyasoso, Bambuko F.R., Essam (Nanga-Eboko), Bipinde.	eng
46183	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest; to <em>ca</em>. 900 m alt.	eng
46183	threats	Cheek, M., 2004	Threatened by forest clearance due to logging, followed by agriculture. Although the species is centred in the SW Province, all the known sites here have been affected by habitat destruction to some extent or another. Threats to the  two sites outside of SW Province are unknown.	eng
46184	conservation	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Rediscover and investigate more fully the populations of this taxon in the grassy areas on the summit of Mt Kupe, possibly using ropes and harnesses. Surveys of other grassy areas on the mountain, such as Kupe Rock, might reveal further subpopulations. Ideally, surveys should be carried out annually over several years so that fluctuations can be recorded and their significance assessed. Surveys are best conducted between October and March, the dry season, when the plant is flowering and fruiting and so conspicuous and easily identifiable.	eng
46184	distribution	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (2 coll.).	eng
46184	habitat	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in montane grassland; 1,900–2,000 m alt.	eng
46184	threats	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Possibly threatened by stochastic change such as lightning-induced fires or landslides. The species is not threatened by man at present, being found far above the highest limits (<em>ca</em>. 1,100 m alt.) of agriculture on the mountain.	eng
46185	conservation	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Formal protection of the Bakossi Mts Forests may help preserve this species; further populations should be sought for in the currently protected Banyang Mbo area.	eng
46185	distribution	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 coll.), Rumpi Hills (2 coll.), Bakossi (3 coll. at 3 sites, 1 further unlocated specimen). Despite being a submontane species, it is not known from Mt Kupe; it seems that the Jide valley forms a barrier to its expansion eastwards from the Bakossi Mts It is also not known from Mt Cameroon; here a band of semi-deciduous lowland forest likely forms a barrier to expansion southwards.	eng
46185	habitat	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	occurs in dense submontane evergreen forest; 1,100–1,500 m alt.	eng
46185	threats	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	In Bakossi, its habitat is threatened by continued sporadic illegal logging operations.	eng
46186	conservation	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	A census of the populations at the most protected areas mentioned above should provide better data on which to formulate a conservation strategy.	eng
46186	distribution	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Cameroon (8 coll. at 3 sites), Korup National Park (6 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.).	eng
46186	habitat	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland evergreen forest, generally near rivers; 0–800 m alt.	eng
46186	threats	Darbyshire, I. & Cheek, M., 2004	Of the 3 areas in which the taxon is known to occur, it seems secure at only the Korup National Park, where it is afforded a high level of protection. The surviving forest in the Jide valley of the Bakossi Mts has mostly already been extirpated by agriculture owing to the high fertility of the soil; this is likely to continue and the species is already rare here, as evidenced by the single collection, made from the bottom of a steep-sided gorge. Its habitat at Mt Cameroon is vulnerable to clearance for timber extraction and plantation agriculture; already much of the lower altitude forest has been converted to rubber, banana and oil palm plantations.	eng
46187	conservation	Cheek. M., Gosline, G. & Csiba, L., 2004	Bth the Bakossi Mts and Mt Kupe have recently been given protected status by the Government of Cameroon, and most of the area in which <em>Rhaptopetalum geophylax</em> occurs falls under the Mt Kupe Forest Project based at Nyasoso.	eng
46187	distribution	Cheek. M., Gosline, G. & Csiba, L., 2004	<em>Rhaptopetalum geophylax</em> appears to be restricetd to Mt Kupe, the Bakossi Mts and the Rumpi Hills of western cameroon where it is relatively common within its altitudinal range. In the Bakossi Mts, a tree is encountered every 1–2 km on average, along a forest trail (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Usually trees are isolated individuals, but sometimes 3–4  trees occur in close proximity (M. Cheek, pers. obs.). Intensive collecting in the submontane forest of Mt cameroon, only 60 km to the south, has not revealed the presence of this species (Cable and Cheek 1998).	eng
46187	habitat	Cheek. M., Gosline, G. & Csiba, L., 2004	Occurs in evergreen submontane forest, sometimes near streams; 700–1,300(1,500) m alt. Trees are conspicuous by their fallen flowers in January and February. <br/> <br/>Women of the Bakossi tribe use the leaves of this species to cover baskets of freshly caught tadpoles (an important food source) to stop them from rotting.	eng
46187	threats	Cheek. M., Gosline, G. & Csiba, L., 2004	There have been logging activities in the Bakossi Mts.	eng
46188	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The rediscovery of the two populations, and an assessment of their size and any local threats, is imperative. Further taxonomic work on the <em>Rhaphidophora</em> complex in west Africa may reveal further populations until now treated as <em>R. africana</em>.	eng
46188	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	This taxon was, until recently, considered synonymous with <em>R. africana</em> N.E.Br., but has been resurrected by P. Boyce (pers. comm.). It is readily separated from the latter taxon, being a slender, not robust, climber and having solitary, not clustered, and erect, not pendant, inflorescences. <br/> <br/>Occurs in submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 1,500 m alt.	eng
46188	threats	Darbyshire, I., 2004	The locations of the two known collections remain largely unthreatened, although the site near Kodmin was adjacent to the well-used track from Kodmin to Muahunzum (and eventually to Nyandong), thus it may be threatened by future increased use, and thus expansion, of this route.	eng
46189	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	Better policing and higher protection of existing forest reserves would help secure the future of this species. Further intensive survey work is likely to yield additional sites.	eng
46189	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	Known from three collections in Nigeria, three in Congo (Kinshasa) and two in Cameroon. <br/> <br/>Occurs in lowland forest; 300–880 m alt.	eng
46190	conservation	Cheek, M., 2004	It i-s not clear that any of the sites for this species are currently gazetted as protected: this should be rectified if possible, and if governmental protection cannot be secured, efforts should be made to invoke protection from local communities. Ngomboaku, where the species was seen recently at a site that is easily revisited, might be a suitable focus for conservation efforts of <em>F. mannii</em>.	eng
46190	distribution	Cheek, M., 2004	This taxon was previously known from one collection in Nigeria, one in Gabon, and one in Cameroon (3 km NE Lomié in 1965).	eng
46190	habitat	Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in lowland swamp forest; <em>ca.</em> 700 m alt.	eng
46191	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	A survey of the previous collection site and other suitable locations on the lower slopes of Mt Kupe is imperative in order to rediscover and assess the population size of this taxon. The extent to which it can tolerate disturbance should be studied further, as in its one known location, it was found in an area of relatively high disturbance.	eng
46191	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
46191	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	This species most closely resembles the sympatric <em>C. densicaespitosus</em> Mattf. and Kük., differing in the more perennial habit, and the smaller spikelets and glumes which are more prominently winged. <br/> <br/>Occurs on roadsides in an agricultural area, at 500 m alt.	eng
46191	threats	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	The only known site is by a road, thus it is vulnerable to disturbance, as dirt roads are often annually "improved" following rain damage.	eng
46192	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	This species should be sought for in all future botanical work along rivers within its range. Monitoring of populations in catchments affected by land-use change, such as the Mungo River, should be carried out to assess this taxon’s sensitivity to increased run-off or silting.	eng
46192	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mungo River W of Mbu (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (4 sites, 4 coll.).	eng
46192	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs on rocks and stones in or beside streams and rivers, usually submerged during rains; 500–1,350 m alt.	eng
46192	threats	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Illegal logging activity in catchment areas in the Bakossi Mts is likely to result in increased run-off and thus higher river levels with large sediment loads which may wash away existing populations of this taxon or destroy its habitat through excessive silting.	eng
46193	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Further investigation of sedge taxa in the montane forest of the Bakossi Mts may reveal further populations which are less threatened by agricultural encroachment. Care should be taken to separate this species from the superficially similar <em>H. subcompositus</em>.	eng
46193	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (2 coll.).  This taxon is known from only 2 collections made in 1998, one 0.5 km from Kodmin towards Ndip and the second on the path from Kodmin to Muawhojom. It has not been recorded from similar habitat on the adjacent Mt Kupe or elsewhere in the Cameroonian highlands.	eng
46193	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 1,470–1,500 m alt.	eng
46193	threats	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Localised encroachment of small-scale agriculture along the paths from which the 2 collections were made threaten these populations, though this is limited at present.	eng
46194	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Rediscovery, and a subsequent census, of the known population is a priority; subsequent surveys of sedge taxa in the Bakossi Mts may reveal further sites.	eng
46194	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Kodmin, Bakossi (1 coll.).	eng
46194	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 1,500 m alt.	eng
46195	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Enforced protection of the montane forest habitat on Mt Kupe. A survey of the São Tomé populations, this species’ stronghold, should be carried out and important areas protected where necessary.	eng
46195	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	São Tomé and Principé, São Tomé: Contador (1 coll.), Macambrá, Vanhulst (1 coll.), Casa del Pico (2 coll.), Callario (1 coll.), unlocated (1 coll.); Principé: W of Pico (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (2 coll.).	eng
46195	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in montane forest undergrowth; 700–2,000 m alt. <br/> <br/>Care should be taken to separate this taxon from the similar <em>M. soyauxii</em> which is recorded at lower altitudes in Cameroon; notes on the separation of these taxa can be found in Simpson (1992).	eng
46196	conservation	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Studies of the subpopulations in the Northwest Highlands could be made to better understand the ecology of this taxon, including its tolerance of fire and human disturbance. This species should also be searched for in suitable habitat elsewhere in western Cameroon; discovery of further subpopulations would lead to a downgrading of its conservation status.	eng
46196	distribution	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.); NW Province: Boyo (1 coll.), Bali-Ngemba F.R. (2 coll.). <br/> <br/>It was first collected in 1999 in two disjunct locations 170 km apart in western Cameroon: between Laikom and Fundong in Boyo Division, NW Province, and near Kodmin in the Bakossi Mts, SW Province. It was recorded as locally common at the latter site. Further subpopulations are likely to exist in locations that have not yet been included in botanical inventories, given the large areas of grassland at altutudes of around 1,500 m in the Bamenda Highlands, Bamboutos and, to a lesser extent, in SW Province (Pollard, pers. obs.).	eng
46196	habitat	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Occurs in montane grassland and grassland patches in submontane forest; 1,450–1,550 m alt.	eng
46196	threats	Darbyshire, I., Pollard, B.J. & Cheek, M., 2004	Deliberate burning of the montane grasslands in NW Province may result in subpopulations losses or may lead to long-term habitat changes which do not favour this taxon. The site near Kodmin appears relatively unthreatened though may be lost to forest encroachment if human disturbance remains low.	eng
46197	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Continued protection of the submontane and montane forest on Mt Kupe; a survey of the population of this taxon here will help determine how important a site this is for conservation of this taxon.	eng
46197	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria, Cross River State: Oban (1 coll.), Obudu Plateau (1 coll.); Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Kupe (2 sites, 2 coll.), Douala to Likomba (1 coll.); S Province: Bipinde (1 coll.), Rio Muni (1 coll).	eng
46197	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in closed-canopy lowland to submontane and montane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–2,000 m alt. <br/> <br/><em>D. viridiflora</em> is very close to <em>D. mildbraedii</em>, an uncommon taxon of Rio Muni with which <em>D. viridiflora</em> was treated as synonymous before a taxonomic revision in 1984. However, it is still possible that <em>D. viridiflora</em> is under-recorded due to confusion with this sympatric species.	eng
46198	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	A search of the Cameroonian locality should be made to assess the status of this taxon, and its habitat preferences.  This taxon has been found growing in young secondary forest, which may indicate a preference for disturbance, and so allows the focus of future searches on this habitat type.	eng
46198	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Mungo River F.R. (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll.).	eng
46198	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Occurs in lowland forest; 200–600 m alt.	eng
46198	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	There has been illegal tree-felling in and around the Mungo River F.R., and it is certain that the habitat quality there is in decline.	eng
46199	conservation	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Monitor populations within the Bakossi Mts.	eng
46199	distribution	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (5 coll. at 3 sites), Mt Nlonako (1 coll.); Gabon (2 coll.).	eng
46199	habitat	Pollard, B.J., 2004	Occurs in submontane forest; 1,000–1,500 m alt.	eng
46199	threats	Pollard, B.J., 2004	The Bakossi subpopulations should be well protected now, at altitudes of above 1,000 m, but the Nlonako site is not afforded the same level of protection and there is an increasing level of small-scale agriculture on the mountain.	eng
46200	conservation	Darbyshire, I., 2004	A full survey of the populations of this taxon should be carried out throughout its range; this should not prove difficult as the species is so distinctive. This will likely lead to the discovery of more sites, thus the conservation assessment may be downgraded in the future. Local populations should be encouraged to use the commoner <em>R. hookeri</em> in preference to <em>R. regalis</em> in building and palm wine production.	eng
46200	distribution	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria, Cross River State: Oban (1 coll.), Equi Issu Hills (1 coll.); Cameroon, S.W. Province: Bakossi (1 coll., 1 additional site record), E. Province: Djouo, nr. Somalono (1 coll.); Gabon: Nyanga (1 coll.); Congo (Brazzaville): ‘Nschaggebod’ (1 coll.); Angola (Cabinda): Nkanda Mbaku (1 coll.).	eng
46200	habitat	Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in mid-elevation wet forest, often on ridges, where it may be gregarious; 500–850 m alt.	eng
46201	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46202	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
46203	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–2,000 m.	eng
46204	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46205	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,000 m.	eng
46206	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46207	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46208	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 200–2,800 m.	eng
46209	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,600 m.	eng
46210	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46211	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,200–2,400 m.	eng
46212	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,300 m.	eng
46213	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,700 m.	eng
46214	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46215	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,400–1,700 m.	eng
46216	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,800–2,200 m.	eng
46217	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,900 m.	eng
46218	distribution	Barriga, P. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,800–2,900 m.	eng
46219	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46220	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46221	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46222	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46223	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
46224	distribution	Romero-Saltos, H. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
46225	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 240–1,200 m.	eng
46226	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,700 m.	eng
46227	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–250 m.	eng
46228	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–1,500 m.	eng
46229	distribution	Neill, D. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 220–250 m.	eng
46230	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46231	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000 m.	eng
46232	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,200 m.	eng
46233	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,500 m.	eng
46234	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
46235	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
46236	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46237	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
46238	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,135 m.	eng
46239	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46240	distribution	León-Yánez, S. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,500 m.	eng
46241	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,500 m.	eng
46242	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
46243	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–3,500 m.	eng
46244	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–600 m.	eng
46245	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–1,900 m.	eng
46246	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 150–250 m.	eng
46247	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46248	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,240–1,250 m.	eng
46249	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–3,500 m.	eng
46250	distribution	Valenzuela, J.C., Rojas, W. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,500–2,000 m.	eng
46251	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,500 m.	eng
46252	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
46253	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46254	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–4,000 m.	eng
46255	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
46256	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46257	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,500–4,500 m.	eng
46258	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46259	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
46260	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0–1,000 m.	eng
46261	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 20–200 m.	eng
46262	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46263	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 450–500 m.	eng
46264	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
46265	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46266	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 5 m.	eng
46267	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 250–500 m.	eng
46268	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
46269	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 30 m.	eng
46270	distribution	Santiana, J. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46271	distribution	Cedeño, A., Cornejo, X. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–4,000 m.	eng
46272	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 3,000–3,500 m.	eng
46273	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46274	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–3,000 m.	eng
46275	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
46276	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 800–3,000 m.	eng
46277	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46278	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46279	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,000 m.	eng
46280	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46281	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,500–3,500 m.	eng
46282	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 0 to 500 m.	eng
46283	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
46284	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,000 m.	eng
46285	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 2,000–2,500 m.	eng
46286	distribution	Montúfar, R. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–1,000 m.	eng
46288	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,800–2,500 m.	eng
46289	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 500–2,000 m.	eng
46290	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 100–3,000 m.	eng
46291	distribution	Ulloa Ulloa, C. & Pitman, N., 2004	Altitude of 1,000–2,300 m.	eng
46292	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	There are two subpopulations: the Mindanao (Cotabato and Davao) and the Leyte islands subpopulations.	eng
46292	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The flower is white with purple with purple tips to each segment, and spur is green. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests, to 500 m.	eng
46292	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46293	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Two populations on Luzon in severly fragmented habitats (Bataan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Cavite, Quezon, Rizal) and Samar Islands.	eng
46293	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The flower is purple. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests.	eng
46293	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46294	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	This species is found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes on Luzon (Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya).	eng
46294	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	<em>Amesiella</em> is an endemic genus. Cootes (2001) noted that the species can be distinguished from <em>Amesiella philippinensis</em> based on the following: The spur of <em>A. monticola</em> is always longer. The flowers of <em>A. monticola</em> are rather and always pure white. The lateral lobes of the labellum <em>A. monticola</em> are straight while that of <em>A. philippinensis</em> are round. The plants of <em>A. monticola</em> are larger and more robust. The leaves are also wider, longer, and thicker.	eng
46294	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Habitat loss and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46295	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The species occurs as three populations on Luzon Island (Cordilleras, Central Luzon Mountains, and Southern Luzon - Mt. Mayon) and on Mindoro (Mt. Halcon). Found in primary and secondary forests at low to high altitudes.	eng
46295	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	<em>Amesiella</em> is an endemic genus.  The species is a small plant with large white flowers with yellow marks in the labellum.	eng
46295	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Habitat loss and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46296	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	In the Philippines, found in one population in the mountains of Dinagat Island, a small island in Southern Philippines.  A rare plant found in coastal forests.	eng
46296	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	This species is similar to <em>Renanthera</em> and is distinguished from <em>Ascocentrum</em> with the branched inflorescence and four pollinia (Fessel and Balzer 2000).	eng
46296	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46297	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Found only in the mountains of Nueva Ecija (Luzon Island). Rare plant considered as one population restricted to a locality near the Dalton Pass, in the mountains of the Nueva Ecija (Luzon Island).	eng
46297	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	A monotypic genus.  The species is closely related to <em>Hymenorchis javanica</em> from Java with white flowers and serrate margins of leaves, sepals, and petals (Fessel and Balzer 2000).  Flowers very bright red or orange. Found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes.	eng
46297	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46298	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Found on Calayan, Luzon, Palawan, Mindanao Islands in primary and secondary lowland forests, at low to high elevations.	eng
46298	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Inflorescence short; flowers white, labellum with purple markings	eng
46298	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46299	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Rare plant found only as one population in Northeastern Mindanao.	eng
46299	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Inflorescence short; flowers white, labellum with green marking.  This species is closely similar to <em>Dendrobium sanderae</em>. Found in primary and secondary forests at low altitudes.	eng
46299	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46300	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Found over the entire Luzon Island, Philippines.	eng
46300	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Its distinct white color distinguishes it from the other <em>Vanda</em> species. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests.	eng
46300	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46344	distribution	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	<em>Bothrops alcatraz</em> is known only from Alcatrazes Island (1.35 km²), the largest of four small islands of Alcatrazes Archipelago, approximately 35 km from the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil.	eng
46344	habitat	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	The species is active both on the ground and on low vegetation within the Atlantic forest covering Alcatrazes Island.	eng
46344	population	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	Current population size is unknown, although the species is relatively common on the island.	eng
46344	threats	Marques, O.A.V., Martins, M. & Sazima, I., 2004	Alcatrazes Island is currently used as a Naval target practice area.  Such activities are threatening the habitat of the island, which in turn poses a threat to the species present on the island.  Since this snake is known only from this area, habitat disturbance is a particular threat to the population.	eng
46345	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Found in Philippines, Himalayas, Indochina, Malaysia and Taiwan. Population is localized in the Philippines on Luzon Island. Found at high altitudes.	eng
46345	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	This is the only representative of the genus in the Philippines. Flowers are fleshy and long-lasting.	eng
46345	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46346	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island. Found in high elevations.	eng
46346	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Sepals and petals long and narrow. Staminode rectangular with hairs on the sides.	eng
46346	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46347	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, localized in four islands (Luzon Island: Bontoc, Mt. Province; Mindanao: Agusan, Surigao; Camiguin Island; Dinagat Island). Found in low to medium elevations.	eng
46347	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Petals heavily spotted with black in the upper two thirds. Lip deep purple.	eng
46347	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46348	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The entire island of Palawan is declared a protected area.	eng
46348	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island (Palawan). Found in low elevations.	eng
46348	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Lip brownish purple to greenish.  Species is similar to <em>P. acmodontum</em>, <em>P. urbanianum</em> and <em>P. argus</em> but the leaves are grey-green and has smaller flowers.	eng
46348	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46349	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Mt. Halcon is a declared protected area.	eng
46349	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, localized on one island (Mindoro). Found in low elevations.	eng
46349	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Lip dull purple to reddish. Species is similar to <em>P. acmodontum</em>, <em>P. fowliei</em> and <em>P. argus</em> but the shape of the staminode is different.	eng
46349	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradadtion of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46350	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Further orchid surveys are to be encouraged around Nyasoso to attempt to relocate this species and, if successful, introduce it to the CRES orchid garden there.	eng
46350	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Ivory Coast (3 coll.); Nigeria (3 coll.); Cameroon (1 coll.).	eng
46350	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,450 m alt.	eng
46350	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Clearance of forest for conversion to agricultural small-holdings or plantations, particularly threatening the Nigerian and Ivory Coast sites where clearance has been widespread in recent decades although the Tai Forest is thought to remain intact.	eng
46351	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Efforts to rediscover the population on the eastern slopes of Mt Cameroon should be made. A survey of its population on Mt Kupe, particularly at lower elevations, would allow a better assessment of its status on the mountain, seemingly the stronghold of this species.	eng
46351	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mt Cameroon (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (3 sites).	eng
46351	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte occuring in submontane and montane forest; 800–2,000 m alt.	eng
46351	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	On Mt Kupe, much of the forest above 1,000 m is protected, thus disturbance is limited, though the site at 1,100 m above Nyasoso is threatened by encroachment of agriculture following the continued expansion of this town.	eng
46352	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Conservation of this taxon should focus upon the Kodmin area of the Bakossi Mts where it appears to be most gregarious and where threats to its habitat are currently limited. A survey of its abundance should be carried out in November, its known flowering period there.	eng
46352	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: Bakossi Mts (3 coll. at 1 site), Mt Kupe (2 coll. at 2 sites), Mt Cameroon (3 coll. at 3 sites), Douala to Bimbia (1 coll.), Mfongu near Bagangu (1 coll.), Bana-Bateha near Fibé (1 coll.), Nkokom Massif near Ndom (1 coll.).	eng
46352	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte in submontane and montane forest; 800–1,800 m alt.	eng
46352	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The lower altitude sites for this taxon, particularly that on the Douala to Bimbia road and at Nyasoso on Mt Kupe, where it was recorded at <em>ca.</em> 800 m, are threatened by forest clearance for plantation agriculture at the former and for small-holder farming at the latter; these sites are likely to be already lost. The higher altitude sites on Mt Cameroon, Mt Kupe and at Kodmin are, however, less threatened at present.	eng
46353	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The summit of Mt Kupe should be visited in November (recorded flowering time) to assess the only known location for this taxon.  Information on numbers of indivduals, and estimates of population size may then allow us to use Criteria A, C and D1 in future, and prepare a mangement plan, to include both <em>in situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em> conservation measures.	eng
46353	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
46353	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte of montane forest and scrub at 1,800 m alt. <br/> <br/>This species was discovered in November 1985 at the summit of Mt Kupe by D.W. Thomas and H.L. MacLeod, where it was recorded as a "common branch epiphyte" in forest and scrub. However, intensive botanical surveys on this mountain during the 1990s, including the summit forests and scrub, have revealed no further collections, indicating that this species is extremely limited in its distribution. It is perhaps restricted to the east facing slopes near the summit, which were less well-collected during the 1990s.	eng
46354	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	A certain measure of protection has been afforded this species, as this garden area has been fenced off to demarcate the garden’s boundary (Pollard, pers. obs., 2002). A portion of the individual plant was removed from the garden and is now growing as part of the living orchid collection at the CRES headquarters in Nyasoso. A propagation plan is currently being developed by the authors, in collaboration with Martin Etuge, manager of the CRES project garden.	eng
46354	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
46354	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Phorophyte: <em>Mangifera indica</em> (cultivated) at 830 m alt.	eng
46354	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Loss of the only known location due, for example, to the cutting down of the host tree or due to disturbance during harvesting of the mangos is possible.  If this taxon also occurs in the surrounding forest above Nyasoso, it is threatened by the continuing decline in habitat area and quality due to clearance of trees for firewood and small-scale agriculture.	eng
46355	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	As this species is found within the village of Enyandong, on a tree in front of the house of the Chief of the village, this is an ideal location for promoting community-based conservation. Local residents here could be encouraged to search for this species in the surrounding forest, perhaps using a species conservation poster as an aid to identification, and to promote protection of any locations where it is found.	eng
46355	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria: (5 coll. at 5 sites); Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.), Bakossi Mts (1 coll.), unlocated (2 coll.).	eng
46355	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epilith or epiphyte in submontane and montane forest; <em>ca.</em> 800–2,050 m alt.	eng
46356	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempts should be made to rediscover this species in its previous collection localities, and to bring this species into cultivation for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.  Status of habitat at the Gabon locations needs to be researched.	eng
46356	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.); Gabon: Ngounyé (2 coll. at 2 sites).	eng
46356	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in lowland or submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–950 m alt.	eng
46356	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The location above Nyasoso on Mt Kupe is below the lower altitudinal limit of effective protection on the mountain and thus vulnerable to habitat loss through encroachment of farms; threats to the Gabon sites are unknown.	eng
46357	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	As Kupe-Bakossi now appears the stronghold of this taxon, a survey of the epiphytic orchids of the submontane and montane zone should be carried out to better assess the abundance of this, and other rare taxa. Maintenance of the protection of the montane forests in this area should ensure the survival of <em>D. polydactyla</em>.	eng
46357	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Kupe Bakossi (7 coll. from 6 sites); NW Province: Tatum (1 coll.), Bafut-Ngemba F.R. (1 coll), Baba II (1 coll.).	eng
46357	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte of submontane to montane forest and woodland; <em>ca.</em> 1,400–2,000 m alt.	eng
46358	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempt to relocate this species and introduce it into cultivation.	eng
46358	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria (2 coll. at 2 sites); Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); W Cameroon (3 coll., at 3 sites).	eng
46358	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,100–1,800 m.	eng
46359	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempt to relocate this species in its Biokan and Cameroonian locations, and introduce it into cultivation.  Further investigation of material from the Congo is needed in order to confirm its identity; the conservation status would be reassessed as VU under criterion B, if it is shown to belong to this species.	eng
46359	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (3 coll. at 3 sites); Cameroon (3 coll. at 2 sites).	eng
46359	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in forested areas at <em>ca.</em> 1,330–1,800 m alt.	eng
46360	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempts to rediscover the species at its two collection locations should be made (preferably in October, its recorded flowering time). This species may be suitable for a species conservation poster to raise awareness within the local communities as to the unique flora of their forests.	eng
46360	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Bakossi Mts (1 coll.); S Province: Efulen (1 coll.).	eng
46360	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	A terrestrial herb of dense lowland and submontane forest; <em>ca.</em> 200–900 m alt.	eng
46361	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	A survey of this taxon should be made at the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve and protective measures should be put in place here if it remains extant.	eng
46361	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria: Obudu Plateau (1 coll.); Cameroon: Bafut-Ngemba F.R. (4 coll., 1 site), Mt Neshele, 10 km ESE Bamenda (1 coll.), Banyo, Mayo Tankou (1 coll.), Mwanenguba (1 coll.).	eng
46361	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in montane grassland; <em>ca.</em> 1,700–2,300 m alt.	eng
46362	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Management should focus upon its two strongholds of São Tomé and Mt Kupe. A survey should be carried out at the former in order to assess its current status, as 3 of the 4 known collections were made in the nineteenth century. At the latter, material from the more threatened lower altitude sites should be considered for cultivation and propagation at the CRES headquarters living orchid collection.	eng
46362	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea: Bioko (1 coll.); São Tomé and Principé: São Tomé (4 coll. at 4 sites); Cameroon (9 coll. at 4 sites).	eng
46362	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	A terrestrial herb of lowland to submontane forest, rarely in secondary forest; 50–1,330 m alt.	eng
46362	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Clearance of forest throughout its range, especially below 1,000 m.	eng
46363	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempts should be made to discover this species within its preferred habitat in other parts of the western Cameroon uplands; its recorded flowering period is October to December.	eng
46363	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Equatorial Guinea, Bioko (1 collection); Cameroon, SW Province: Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary (1 collection), Mt Cameroon-Mt Etinde (1 collection), Bakossi Mts (2 collections from 2 sites).	eng
46363	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	A terrestrial herb along streams in primary submontane forest; 950–1,350 m alt.	eng
46363	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The proposal to expand plantations to the 1,000 m contour around Mt Etinde-Mt Cameroon may well adversely affect the subpopulation here; placement of the reservoir at Kodmin may threaten the subpopulation there.	eng
46364	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Urgent action is required to address the issues of timber extraction from the Mungo River area, and to protect the existing forest reserves from illegal encroachment of agricultural activity. Intensive orchid surveying should be carried out for the CRES Orchid Programme at Mungo and other nearby lowland areas, such as the adjacent Loum Forest Reserve.	eng
46364	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Known only from the type collection, 13 km from Kumba on the road to Loum, Mungo River Forest Reserve, W Cameroon.	eng
46364	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte in lowland evergreen rainforest; 200 m alt.	eng
46365	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	As Mt Kupe appears to offer the best chance for survival of this taxon, attempts to rediscover and census the population here should be made. Continued protection of the forest above 1,000 m alt. here should ensure this species’ survival, though it is clearly rare, being collected only once during the extensive surveys on this mountain.	eng
46365	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Nigeria: Mambilla Plateau (1 coll.), Obudu Plateau (2 coll. at 2 sites); Cameroon: Mwanenguba (1 coll.), Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
46365	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Occurs in submontane and montane forest and woodland; 1,400–1,700 m alt.	eng
46365	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Extensive and continued forest clearance at high latitudes in E Nigeria and at Mwanenguba threaten any remaining populations at these sites. The submontane location on Mt Kupe, however, has experienced little disturbance to date.	eng
46366	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	More data on the São Tomé population are required. Attempts to rediscovery of this species at both Mwanenguba and Mt Cameroon should be encouraged.	eng
46366	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	São Tomé and Principé: São Tomé; Cameroon: Mwanenguba and Mt Cameroon.	eng
46366	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte of dense montane forest; 1,450–1,650 m alt.	eng
46367	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Attempt to relocate the area in which the collections were made near Mamfe; efforts should then be made to relocate this species here as it is a more likely location for its future survival than the heavily disturbed Mwanenguba Massif.	eng
46367	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon, SW Province: Mamfe (2 coll.), Banyang-Mamfe (1 coll.); Littoral Province: Mwanenguba (1 coll.).	eng
46367	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epilith on seasonally wet rocks, or terrestrial in marshy grassland; 200–1,850 m alt.	eng
46368	conservation	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Revisiting the type location and rediscovering this species are a priority. Once this has been achieved, further assessment of its ecological requirements, including its potential for survival in plantation agriculture, can be assessed. Ultimately, enforced forest protection or cultivation followed by propagation may be the only means of conserving this taxon.	eng
46368	distribution	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	Cameroon: Mt Kupe (1 coll.).	eng
46368	habitat	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	An epiphyte in submontane forest, growing on <em>Coffea</em> sp.; 1,050 m alt.	eng
46368	threats	Pollard, B.J. & Darbyshire, I., 2004	The only known locality for this species is in an area of forest being encroached upon by plots of <em>Coffea canephora</em>, and may thus be lost in the near future. However, the type specimen was collected from a <em>Coffea</em> tree (possibly a wild species) so this taxon may be able to withstand such a change in habitat in the short term. However, well-tended farms are ‘cleaned’ of epiphytes, thus <em>P. kupensis</em> is unlikely to survive in the long term in coffee plantations.	eng
46369	conservation	Cheek, M., Williams, S.A. & Etuge, M., 2004	Continued monitoring of the two known locations at Mt Kupe is advised. Verification of a possible new location at Onge Forest is required.	eng
46369	distribution	Cheek, M., Williams, S.A. & Etuge, M., 2004	Known only from the Southwest Province of Cameroon where it has been recorded from the SW slopes of Mt Kupe above Kupe village.	eng
46369	habitat	Cheek, M., Williams, S.A. & Etuge, M., 2004	This herb occurs in lowland to submontane evergreen forest; 720 m.	eng
46369	threats	Cheek, M., Williams, S.A. & Etuge, M., 2004	The forest in the Bakossi area is heavily threatened by logging activity, followed by agriculture.	eng
46370	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
46370	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Found in Pakistan, India (Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus River drainages), Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
46371	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, in one island (Luzon). Population on Luzon considered as one population, but fragmented. Found in low to medium elevations.	eng
46371	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Flowers white with pale pink profusion. Distinct from <em>P. equestris</em> by its mottled leaves.	eng
46371	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46372	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Endemic to the Philippines, in two islands (Luzon Island: Camarines Sur; Mindanao: Zamboanga). Population in the two islands very localized and rare. Found in low elevations.	eng
46372	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Flowers are greenish yellow.	eng
46372	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46373	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	There are no declared protected areas within the known area of occurrence.	eng
46373	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Found only in Calayan Island and Cagayan Province (Luzon Island). Occurs as a small island population. Found in primary and secondary lowland forests of Calayan Island.	eng
46373	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Agoo <em>et al</em>. (2003) considers this as a synonym of <em>V. lamellata</em> Lindl. which has widespread distribution within the Philippines and found as well in Borneo, Taiwan, and Ryukyu Island.	eng
46373	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46374	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The entire island of Palawan is declared as a protected area by a national legislation.	eng
46374	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Philippines: Palawan Island, Mindanao Island; and Borneo. Two populations found on two Philippine islands: Palawan and Mindanao island. Found in primary and disturbed lowland forests.	eng
46374	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	The species has yellow flowers with fine brown markings. It is easily distinguished by the two small arms on the midlobe.	eng
46374	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Cootes, J., Golamco, A., Jr., de Vogel, E.F. & Tiu, D., 2004	Loss and degradation of habitat and over-collection for trade. Utilized as an ornamental plant.	eng
46477	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in Ankarana Special Reserve, Baie de Baly National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Andohahela National Parc, Ankarafantsika Special Reserve and Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46477	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antananarivo: Ankazobe, Andranofeno- sud; Antsiranana: Antsatrana, Ankarana Special Reserve, Andilamboay, Ambanilalana, Vavatobe, Antafiambotry, Mananara, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Tsihomanaomby massif; Fianarantsoa: Ambatomenaloha, Iremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve; Mahajanga: Antsoa, Ankarafantsika Integral Natural Reserve, Bokorafa, Marokitrana, Analabe, Toamasina: Mahatsara; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Apiky, Vohipolaka. <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence: 370,044 km² and area of occupancy: 74,408 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 36 individuals per ha; Abundance < 50 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 24; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 6	eng
46477	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest. Dry deciduous forest.	eng
46477	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of poor regeneration, grassland fire. Possible decline because of exploitation for timber, not tolerant to disturbance. Future decline: 50–80%.	eng
46478	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46478	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antananarivo : Mont Ibity, Vozontanin’i Tapia, Marovato, Fiadanana; Antsiranana: Tsaratanana; Fianarantsoa: Ambohimanjaka, Itremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Faliarivo, Ambatofinandrahana, Ambatomainty, Col des Tapia, Fiadanana, Ampandrianombilapa, Ambatomenaloha. Extent of occurrence is 16,850 km² and area of occupancy is 102 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 425 individuals per ha; Abundance > 10,000 mature individuals, number of subpopulations: 17, number of subpopulations in protected areas: 1.	eng
46478	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Found in Sclerophyllous woodland and thicket.	eng
46478	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because due to selective logging for construction. Decline possible because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds). Predicted future decline: 1–30%.	eng
46479	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Occurs in Isalo National Parc and Andringitra National Parc.	eng
46479	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Ambatofinandrahana, Ingaro, Isalo National Parc, Col des Tapia, Itremo, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve; Toliara: Benenitra, Sakamarekely. Extent of occurrence: 36,175 km² and area of occupancy: 1,054 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 10 individuals per ha; Abundance: 2,500–10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 15, number of subpopulations in protected area: 5	eng
46479	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Found in <em>Sclerophyllous</em> woodland.	eng
46479	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss due to exploitation of trees for timber and firewood, grassland fire. Utilized as timber (quite heavily exploited close to villages but trunks re-grow after felling), firewood, and medicine.	eng
46480	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in protected areas: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Masoala National Parc.	eng
46480	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antsiranana: Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Ambodisatirana, Ifonty, Toamasina: Mahatsra, Tampolo, Ambila- Lemaintso Forest Station, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Mahatsara Forest Station, Brickaville. Extent of occurrence: 28,538 km² and area of occupancy: 15,998 km². <br/> <br/>Density: one mature individual per ha; Abundance: 250–1,000 mature individuals; Number of subpopulations: eight, of which three are in protected areas.	eng
46480	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46480	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss to shifting cultivation, poor regeneration and timber for construction.	eng
46481	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in Protected areas: Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46481	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Toamasina: Ampasimpotsy-Gara Forest Station, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Ambatovy, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Antaniditra, Analamay, Ampitambe, Lakato, Sahamaloto. Extent of occurrence: 3,430 km² and area of occupancy: 2,742 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Density: 46 individuals per ha; Abundance: 1,000–2,500 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: eight, of which two are in protected areas.	eng
46481	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Mid-elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46481	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and mining. Decline possible due to selective exploitation for timber or poor regeneration. Not tolerant to disturbance. Timber used for construction and medicinal purposes.	eng
46482	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Vangaindrano, Mahabo; Toamasina: Tampolo Forest Station, Antanambao; Toliara: Mandena Forest Station, Sainte Luce, Ambinanibe, Mandromodromotra, Fort- dauphin, Manafiafy. Extent of occurrence: 29,709 km² and area of occupancy: 183 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Density: 70 individuals per ha, abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: nine, none are in protected areas.	eng
46482	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Littoral forest.	eng
46482	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss due to shifting cultivation, and exploitation of forest for charcoal, fire and mining. Decline possible because of selective exploitation for timber (for construction).	eng
46483	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in Lokobe Integral Natural Reserve, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Parc, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46483	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antsiranana: Ambohitralanana, Nosy-Komba Forest Station, Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Analamay, Ambohitralalana; Fianarantsoa: Ampasimenaloka, Ampangalana-atsimo, Mananjary, Canal de Pangalanes, Mangatsiotra, Zohakandra-Nord (Tohakandra), Vohitrindry, Misevo, Manampano, Manombo Special Reserve, Mahabo; Mahajanga: Marotandrano, Sahamalaza, Analalava; Toamasina: Ambila-Lemaintso, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Andilamena, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Antetezana Forest Station, Anosinkoraka, Analamena, Tampolo Forest Station Forest Station, Mahatsara, Foulpointe,  Rombevavy, Tampina, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Tampolo Forest Station Forest Station, Androrangambo, Beanana, Andranokoditra, Bemainty,  Mahatsara Forest Station, Andavakimenarana, Vohibola, Zahamena National Parc; Toliara:  Sainte Luce, Mandena Forest Station, Fort-Dauphin, Soanierana, Petriky, Atsotso, Manafiafy. <br/>Extent of occurrence: 212,474 km² and area of occupancy: 55,595 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 166 mature individuals per ha in Ambila-lemaintso, 244 mature individuals per ha in Mandena; Abundance < 1,000–25,000 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 47;  number of subpopulations in protected areas: 8.	eng
46483	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid and littoral forest.	eng
46483	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss due to exploitation of forest for charcoal, fire, timber for construction and shifting cultivation.	eng
46484	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in protected areas: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Parc, Masoala National Parc, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46484	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antananarivo: Anjozorobe; Antsiranana: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Betsomanga, Masiaposa, Anjenabe; Toamasina: Beforona, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Analamay, Ampitsofanafo, Anosibe An’Ala, Zahamena National Parc, Sahamaloto; Toliara: Fort-Dauphin. Extent of occurrence: 87,426 km² and area of occupancy: 33,959 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 1,215 individuals per ha; Abundance > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 14; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 5.	eng
46484	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46484	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation. Possible decline because of selective exploitation for timber. Not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46485	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in protected areas: Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Parc, Ranomafana National Parc.	eng
46485	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antananarivo: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manankazo-Ankazobe Forest station; Antsiranana: Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Ampokafo; Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc; Toamasina: Ambanizana, Sandrangato, Beanjada, Moramanga, Bekorakaka. <br/>Extent of occurrence: 123,128 km², area of occupancy: 21,693 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 35 individuals per ha in site of Bekorakaka; 23.5 individuals per ha in Ambohitantely. Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations in sites: 16; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 12.	eng
46485	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Mid- elevation humid and sub humid forest.	eng
46485	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation. Poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers.	eng
46486	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in protected area: Manombo Special Reserve.	eng
46486	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Manombo. Extent of occurrence: 1 km²; area of occupancy: 1 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 0.05 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: < 50. Number of subpopulations: 1; number of subpopulations in protected area: 1.	eng
46486	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46486	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of exploitation or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of seed dispersers.	eng
46487	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Included in protected areas: Andringitra National Parc, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve Special Reserve, Mantadia National Parc National Parc, Masoala National Parc, Marojejy National Parc, Zahamena National Parc.	eng
46487	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antananarivo: Mandraka Forest Station; Antsiranana: Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Anjanaharibe- Sud Special reserve ; Fianarantsoa: Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Iabomary; Toamasina: Analamazaotra- Perinet Special reserve, Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Mantadia National Parc, Marozevo, Zahamena National Parc, Amboditavolo, Didy, Ambatovola, Antsianaka. Extent of occurrence: 93,912 km² and area of occupancy: 35,433 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 2.6 mature individuals per ha in Betampona, 18 mature individuals in Mantadia National Parc. Abundance: 2,500–10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 19; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 12.	eng
46487	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46487	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation or poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of dispersers (lemurs) and  not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46488	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Include in protected areas: Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Mantadia National Parc, Andohahela National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve Natural, Ranomafana National Parc, Pic d’Ivohobe Special Reserve.	eng
46488	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Ampahamerana Forest Station, Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve, Andrambovato Forest Station; Toamasina: Beforona, Mantady National Parc, Antanandava, Ambatovola, Sandrangato, Zahamena National Parc, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve Amboditafonana, Ambodigavo; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Marosohihy. Extent of occurrence: 47,356 km² and area of occupancy: 16,724 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 5 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: < 50 mature individuals in study area. Number of subpopulations in sites: 21; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 9.	eng
46488	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid, sub humid forest.	eng
46488	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of exploitation (shifting cultivation, selective cutting of timber for construction or poor regeneration). Possible decline because of  increasing rarity of  vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant of disturbance.	eng
46489	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Include in protected areas: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46489	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Toamasina: Betampona Integral Natural Reserve, Antsianaka. Extent of occurrence: 22 km² and area of occupancy: 22 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 8.3 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one; number of subpopulations in protected areas: one.	eng
46489	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46489	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of rarity of seed dispersers. Poor regeneration.	eng
46490	conservation	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Include in protected areas: Masoala National Parc.	eng
46490	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc, Ambanizana. Extent of occurrence: 11 km² and area of occupancy: 11 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 25 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: two; Number of subpopulatiosn in protected areas: one.	eng
46490	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low and mid- elevation evergreen humid, sub humid forest.	eng
46490	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation and cultivation of clove trees. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46491	distribution	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Andranobetokana; Toamasina: Mananara- Avaratra, Ambalafary. Extent of occurrence: 8,743 km² and area of occupancy: 2,122 km². <br/> <br/>Density: 44 mature individuals per ha; Abundance: > 10,000 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: three.	eng
46491	habitat	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Low elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46491	threats	Randriantafika, F.M., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting cultivation and exploitation. Poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46492	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in protected areas: Ankarana Special Reserve, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46492	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Antsiranana: Antsatsaka, Beramanja, Andilamboay, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Anjakely, Ambilobe, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Ambohipiraka, Ambanja, Maromandia, Ankarana Special Reserve, Analavory Ambato (Sambirano). Mahajanga: between Ambandamanga- Manambaliha and Ambodigavo. Extent of occurrence: 12,319 km², area of occupancy: 2,571 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 108,160 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 21; subpopulations in protected areas: three.	eng
46492	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest and dry deciduous forest.	eng
46492	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting slash and burn agriculture, selective cutting or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). The timber is utilized for construction, while the bark and leaves are used for medicine.	eng
46493	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Toliara: Sainte Luce, Mandromodromotra, Ambinanibe, Mandena Forest Station ( Fort-Dauphin). Extent of occurrence : 221 km², area of occupancy: 14 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 22,469 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: five.	eng
46493	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Littoral forest.	eng
46493	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture, mining, and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (Lemuridae) and selective exploitation. Timber is utilized for construction and bark is used for making an alcoholic beverage.	eng
46494	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in protected areas: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy Integral Natural Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Mantady National Parc.	eng
46494	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Antsiranana: Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy Integral natural Reserve, Tsaratanana Integral Natural Reserve; Toamasina: Mantady National Parc, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Ambatovy; Toliara: Vohimavo. Extent of occurrence: 94,706 km² and area of occupancy: 18,908 km². <br/> <br/>Population size: 61,200 individuals. Number of subpopulations: 11; Number of subpopulations in protected areas: 6.	eng
46494	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Mid- elevation evergreen humid and sub-humid forest.	eng
46494	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture, mining, selective cutting of timber for construction (due to the woods highly resistant qualities) and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds, lemurs). Not tolerant of disturbance.	eng
46495	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in protected areas: Analamazotra Special Reserve, Zahamena National Parc, Ranomafana National Parc.	eng
46495	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Ranomafana National Parc, Ampasinambo; Toamasina: Ampasimpotsy, Analamazaotra-Périnet Special Reserve, Farizana, Sandrangato, Antsahapandrano, Nangarana, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Bemainty, Nonokambo, Sahamaloto and Ambatovy (Moramanga). Extent of occurrence: 10,080 km²; area of occupancy: 3,329 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 2,632 mature individuals; Number of subpopulation: 14, number of subpopulations in protected area: three.	eng
46495	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Mid-elevation evergreen humid, sub-humid forest.	eng
46495	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting slash and burn agriculture and poor regeneration. Also declining due to selective exploitation for timber and reduction in populations of seed dispersers (birds and lemurs); not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>Utilized for medicinal properties, with bark used for making an alcoholic beverage. Timber is used for posts and house frames.	eng
46496	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in protected area of the: Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Masoala National Parc, Ankarana Special Reserve.	eng
46496	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc, Beankoraka, Masoala Integral Natural Reserve, Sahamalaza (Masoala), Nosy-Be, Andohan’Ifosa, Ankarana;  Fianarantsoa: Manombo Special Reserve, Manombo Forest Station, Amporofo, Ampangalana Atsimo, Ifanirea; Toamasina: Soanierana-Ivongo, Tampolo Forest station, Mahanoro, Rantabe, Tampina, Foulpointe, Antetezana Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Lakato, Mananara Biosphere Reserve, Vohibola, Mahatsara Forest Station. Extent of occurrence: 180,310 km², area of occupancy: 29,691 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance : 50–250 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 42; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 4.	eng
46496	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Low- elevation evergreen forest, and littoral forest.	eng
46496	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation of timber for construction. The bark is also used for medicinal purposes. Also threatened by fire, cyclone, invasive alien species and poor regeneration. The decline may also be because of the increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). The species is not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46497	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in protected area of: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Manombo Special Reserve, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve.	eng
46497	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Antananarivo: Anjozorobe, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Manankazo-Ankazobe Forest Station, Ankafobe, Andranofeno-sud, Sahatsio, Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe, Col de tapia, Antsirabe, Tsitondroina, Ibity; Fianarantsoa: Ivato, Ambohimanjaky, Ambohimanjaka, Mont Ibity, Ampandrambato, between Ivato and Itremo, Marohita, Vohipaho, Ambohimanana; Fianarantsoa: Mananjary, Misevo, Ampangalana Atsimo, Ambatofinandrahana, Andringitra Integral Natural Reserve, between Ivato and Ambatofinandrahana, Faliarivo, Mangatsiatra, Fiadanana, Anjoma, Anosivelo, Analalava, Ankazondratana, Ankijana, Antanambao, Nosy-varika, Androrangalava, Vatovavy, Ambila, Matatana, Ambositra, Mahabo; Mahajanga: Manandona, Antsiasiaka, Sahavoay, Beveromay, Ilaka-est; Toamasina: Ambila-lemaintso, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Fierenana, Manohilahy, Zahamena Integral Natural Reserve, Mahanoro, Andranomandry, Marosiky, Ambila-Lemaintso Forest Station, Brickaville, Antanambao, Zahamena National Parc; Toliara: Andohahela Integral Natural Reserve, Manantantely, Analalava, Sainte Luce, Mandena Forest Station, Vatovary, Mandromodromotra, Ampasimena, Pic Saint Louis, Manantenina, Enivaha, Fort-Dauphin, Ambaravano, Lakandava. Extent of occurrence 199,029 km², area of occupancy: 35,374 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 50–250 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 84, of which 8 are in protected areas.	eng
46497	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Littoral forest, and low- and mid- elevation evergreen forest.	eng
46497	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (bird and lemurs). <br/> <br/>Roots used for beauty mask, bark used for making alcoholic beverage, fruits eaten and also used as fire wood.	eng
46498	conservation	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Included in Masoala National Parc.	eng
46498	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Antsiranana: Ambato-Masoala National Parc. Extent of occurrence: 0.00126 km², area of occupancy: 0.00126 km². <br/> <br/>Population very rare. Abundance: < 50 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one.	eng
46498	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Low- elevation evergreen forest, thicket.	eng
46498	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of exploitation and poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of vertebrate seed dispersers and not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46499	distribution	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Toamasina: Mahatsara Forest Station. Extent of occurrence: 0.17 km², area of occupancy: 0.17 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 84 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (not in a protected area).	eng
46499	habitat	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Littoral forest.	eng
46499	threats	Hong-Wa, C., 2004	Habitat loss because of selective exploitation, fire, cyclone, invasive alien species and  poor regeneration. Possible decline due to increasing rarity of large vertebrate dispersers (birds and lemurs). Not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>The leaves are utilized for medicinal purposes and the wood for construction.	eng
46500	conservation	Ludovic, R., 2004	Included in Ankarana RS, Manongarivo RS.	eng
46500	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Antsiranana: Marokasaka, Ankarana, Manongarivo. Extent of occurrence: 5,782 km², area of occupancy: 1,989 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 14,850 matures individuals. Number of subpopulations: 15, number of subpopulations in protected areas: two.	eng
46500	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46500	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss from selective exploitation and poor regeneration, shifting agriculture, and fire. Utilized as charcoal and wood fuel. Timber also used for construction.	eng
46501	conservation	Ludovic, R., 2004	Included in protected areas: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Zahamena Special Reserve.	eng
46501	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Toliary: Mandena; Antananarivo: Ambohitantely; Toamasina: Analamazaotra, Zahamena. Extent of occurrence: 80,177 km², area of occupancy: 6,585 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 17,058 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 10; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 3.	eng
46501	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Littoral and mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46501	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss of shifting agriculture and uncontrolled annual fires. Utilized as fuelwood.	eng
46502	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Toliary: Lakandava (Fort-Dauphin).  Extent of occurence: 239 km², area of occupancy: 38 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Number of subpopulations: two (both outside protected areas).	eng
46502	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Low- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46502	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss because of overexploitation, shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Not tolerant of disturbance. Utilized as fuel wood and for medicinal purposes.	eng
46503	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Toamasina: Tampolo Forest Station, Mahatsara Forest Station, Antetezana Forest Station. Extent of occurence: 4,959 km², area of occupancy: 68 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 84 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: three (all outside protected areas).	eng
46503	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Littoral forest.	eng
46503	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss due to overexploitation, shifting agriculture or poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of insect dispersers. Not tolerant to disturbance. <br/> <br/>Utilized as fuel wood and timber for construction.	eng
46504	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Antananarivo: Vohimavo, Manantenina. Extent of occurence: 0,0016 km², area of occupancy: 0,0016 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 31 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (outside protected areas).	eng
46504	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Mid- elevation evergreen humid forest.	eng
46504	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrate dispersers (birds).	eng
46505	conservation	Ludovic, R., 2004	Included in protected area: Isalo National Parc.	eng
46505	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Fianarantsoa: Isalo National Parc. Extent of occurence: 815.4 km², area of occupancy: 815.4 km². <br/> <br/>Populations are rare. Abundance: 17 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: one (only in Isalo National Parc).	eng
46505	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Mid- elevation sclerophyluous forest.	eng
46505	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss due to uncontrolled fires and poor regeneration. Possible decline because of increasing rarity of vertebrates (bird and lemur) dispersers. Not tolerant to disturbance.	eng
46506	conservation	Ludovic, R., 2004	Included in Mananara North Biosphere Reserve, Masoala National Parc.	eng
46506	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Toamasina: Mananara North Biosphere Reserve; Antsiranana: Masoala National Parc. Extent of occurrence: 81,289 km² and area of occupancy: 25,182 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 27,217 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 24; number of subpopulations in protected areas: 2.	eng
46506	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Littoral and sub littoral forest.	eng
46506	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and uncontrolled fire. Poor regeneration and overexploitation of mature individuals. Utilized as timber for construction, fuel wood and charcoal.	eng
46507	conservation	Ludovic, R., 2004	Included in protected areas: Ambohitantely Special Reserve, Andasibe National Parc, Zahamena Special Reserve.	eng
46507	distribution	Ludovic, R., 2004	Antananarivo: Ibity, Ampahatra, Ambohitantely; Fianarantsoa: Andringitra; Toamasina: Andasibe, Zahamena. Extent of occurrence: 88,684 km², area of occupancy: 6,334 km². <br/> <br/>Abundance: 192,035 mature individuals. Number of subpopulations: 23, number of subpopulations in protected areas: 4.	eng
46507	habitat	Ludovic, R., 2004	Mid- elevation evergreen humid and sclerophyluous forest.	eng
46507	threats	Ludovic, R., 2004	Habitat loss because of selective logging, shifting agriculture and uncontrolled annual fires. Utilized as fuel wood and charcoal, also the fruit is consumed.	eng
46508	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from southeastern and southern Brazil; eastern Paraguay and Argentina, Mexico, Central America, Caribbean and northern South America (once recorded from Peru). The list of countries is not complete. From sea level to > 1,000 m	eng
46508	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Humid/subhumid evergreen forest element: scrambling over vegetation and inselbergs of gneiss/granite etc.	eng
46509	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded in Brazil from southernmost Ceará, Pernambuco (native and cultivated), central-eastern and south-eastern Bahia to southern Espírito Santo and south-western Minas Gerais, but widely cultivated; perhaps also native in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo; commonly introduced in the Neotropics.	eng
46509	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Humid/subhumid evergreen forest element.	eng
46510	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recoredde from Brazil: central-southern (Bahian) caatinga element: caatinga surrounding the Chapada Diamantina, planalto de Maracás, northern Serra do Espinhaço and Serra Geral (Bahia), 300–900 m, east and south of the Rio São Francisco.	eng
46511	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: caatinga, 450–750 m, valley of the Rio São Francisco, western and central-southern Bahia and central-northern Minas Gerais.	eng
46512	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from southern Rio São Francisco caatinga element: on ± naked or thinly wooded limestone (Bambuí) outcrops or gneiss/granite inselbergs amidst high caatinga forest, 450–750 m, both sides of the Rio São Francisco valley, west-cent./southern Bahia and cent.-northern Minas Gerais.	eng
46513	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from central-southern caatinga element: in caatinga, 380–950 m, south-western Pernambuco (also vaguely reported from adjacent Piauí) and western and northern to southern Bahia.	eng
46514	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from Rio Grande do Norte to southern Bahia (from the Chapada Diamantina / northern Serra do Espinhaço eastwards).	eng
46514	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	An eastern caatinga element: in caatinga, agreste and carrasco, frequent on deep sandy substrates but not restricted to these, <em>ca</em>. 200–1,020 m,	eng
46515	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from Southern Rio São Francisco, western and southern Bahia (east and west of the Rio São Francisco) to north-western, northern and central Minas Gerais.	eng
46515	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	A caatinga element: on ± forest-covered limestone (Bambuí) outcrops surrounded by caatinga, mata seca semidecídua and cerradão, <em>ca</em>. 450–700 m	eng
46516	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread Eastern Brazil element: from the middle drainage of the Rio Jequitinhonha (MG) northwards to northernmost Piauí, and westwards on sandstone outcrops in the cerrado of western Bahia. Endemic to Eastern Brazil. Amongst the commonest of cacti from the region.	eng
46516	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Usually found on rocks (including inselbergs) or very stony ground, open caatinga and campo rupestre, <em>ca</em>. 100–1,550 m.	eng
46517	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread southern neotropical element: western Paraíba, eastern and central-southern Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, north-western, northern and eastern Bahia, north-eastern and central-southern Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo; semi-humid forests of extra-Amazonian Brazil; Atlantic drainage of Andes eastwards (Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, Paraguay). Has become naturalized in some areas where it has been introduced e.g., Florida (US).	eng
46517	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Occurs in restinga, drier phases of Mata atlântica, agreste, caatinga (especially along temporary water courses), mata de brejo, mata seca (on limestone), mata de galeria and mata do planalto, especially on deep sandy substrates and as a lithophyte, near sea level to ca.1,000 m.	eng
46518	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from South-eastern and Southern Brazil: central-eastern Minas Gerais, southern Espírito Santo (and presumably northern Rio de Janeiro); Paraguay, Uruguay and northern and eastern Argentina; frequently naturalized or planted elsewhere (including North-eastern Brazil).	eng
46518	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	A southern humid/subhumid forest element: sand-dunes in open carrasco, and open restinga near sea level, sea level up to <em>ca</em>. 1,000 m,	eng
46519	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread in Eastern Brazil from northern Piauí southwards; Northern, Central-western and Southern Brazil (southern Pará southwards to Mato Grosso do Sul and Paraná); Central (?) and South America (southwards to E Bolivia, N Argentina and Paraguay).	eng
46519	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	An epiphyte, climber or lithophyte (on limestone or on gneiss/granite inselbergs) in caatinga-agreste, cerradão, Mata atlântica, mata de brejo, mata de encosta, mata de planalto and restinga, near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 900 m,	eng
46520	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread neotropical element:  ± common throughout the more humid parts of Eastern Brazil; Neotropics from Central America southwards. It is the most widespread cactus species in Eastern Brazil	eng
46520	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	An epiphyte in Mata atlântica, caatinga-agreste, mata do planalto, mata ciliar and cerrado, near sea level to at least 1.300 m.	eng
46521	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from central and south-eastern Minas Gerais; common in South-eastern and Southern Brazil; North-eastern Argentina (Misiones).	eng
46521	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte in Mata atlântica, including mata de neblina, 500–1,900 m.	eng
46522	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from central-southern Minas Gerais and southern Espírito Santo (Domingos Martins); common in South-eastern and southern Brazil; eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina (Misiones).	eng
46522	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte, Mata Atlântica, <em>ca</em>. 1,100 m.	eng
46523	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from eastern Pernambuco to south-eastern Minas Gerais; common in South-eastern and Southern Brazil; south-eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina.	eng
46523	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Disjunct humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte, Mata atlântica, including mata de brejo (NE Brazil) and restinga, sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
46524	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from central, south-eastern and southern Minas Gerais; common elsewhere in South-eastern and Southern Brazil.	eng
46524	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Southern humid forest element: epiphyte or lithophyte in Mata atlântica, including mata de neblina, near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 1,500 m.	eng
46525	distribution	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Recorded from eastern Pernambuco to Espírito Santo; extending south-westwards into the interior of South-eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and São Paulo), where frequent; replaced by subsp. <em>oreophila</em> in the East Brazilian Highlands, by subsp. <em>pulvinigera</em> in mountains and coastal zones of South-eastern and Southern Brazil, by subsp. <em>hohenauensis</em> in eastern Paraguay and north-eastern Argentina, by subsp. <em>tucumanensis</em> in the eastern Andes of Argentina, Bolivia and Peru (Junín) and by subsp. <em>pittieri</em> in northern Venezuela.	eng
46525	habitat	Taylor, N.P., 2002	Widespread humid forest element: epiphytic or epilithic in Mata atlântica, including mata de brejo and eastern foot of the Chapada Diamantina (Bahia) near sea level to <em>ca</em>. 1,200 m	eng
46576	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	This species requires specific habitat protection and legal protection.	eng
46576	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	This species is only known from one locality in Ovamboland, northern Namibia (16 km W of the fork to Ohopoho of the Ruacana-path) (Cook 2004). Known from type only, collected in 1973 (very good rain year).	eng
46576	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	This plant has been found at the edge of a vlei (shallow seasonal or intermittent lake).	eng
46576	population	Sieben, E., 2006	It has been recorded from only one site in Namibia	eng
46576	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	Tubers of similar taxa are eaten. Grazing and browsing may be threatening the species.	eng
46577	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46578	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Recorded from southern Myanma, Mergui Islands, Thailand (including Phuket), western Malaysia (including Pulau Tioman), Indonesia (Java, Sumatera, Borneo, Singkep, Natuna Besar), Singapore, and the Philippine Islands.	eng
46579	conservation	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46579	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Recorded from Pakistan, India (Sikkim), Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh (Indus and Ganges River drainages) and Myanmar (Irrawaddy and Salween rivers).	eng
46580	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Recorded from Australia (northeast Queensland: Cape York Peninsula from the northern tip to the vicinity of Bowen; western Queensland: rivers of the Gulf country; Northern Territory), southeast New Guinea, and Indonesia: island of Rotti near Timor.	eng
46582	distribution	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Recorded from southern Papua New Guinea and Australia (Jardine River at the northern tip of the Cape York Penisula, Queensland).	eng
46583	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46584	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I (<span style="font-style: italic;">Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis</span>) and Appendix II.	eng
46585	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (except the population of Argentina, which is included in Appendix II).	eng
46586	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46587	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46588	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46589	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46590	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix I [except the populations of Botswana, Egypt (subject to a zero quota for wild specimens traded for commercial purposes), Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania (subject to an annual export quota of no more than 1,600 wild specimens including hunting trophies, in addition to ranched specimens), Zambia and Zimbabwe, which are included in Appendix II].	eng
46591	conservation	Crocodile Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46606	distribution	China Plant Specialist Group, 2004	Known only from Tuanniuping, Erlangshan, Sichuan Province.	eng
46606	habitat	China Plant Specialist Group, 2004	Recorded from montane forest at 2,450 m.	eng
46640	habitat	China Plant Specialist Group, 2004	Damp places in dense forests on slopes; 1,300–1,700 m.	eng
46714	habitat	China Plant Specialist Group, 2004	Occurs in forests, often by streamsides; below 1,200 m.	eng
46715	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Known only from the Auas mountains in the central highlands of Namibia.	eng
46715	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Grows on steep, south-facing micaceous schist legdes (Snijman 1984).	eng
46715	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	In the dry season there are frequent fires in these mountains but the effect on this species is not certain.	eng
46716	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46716	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	On exposed limesone screes namely "schwarzkalk", which is typically blackish, interlaced with some green shale (Snijman 1994).	eng
46716	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is the only potential threat.	eng
46717	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46717	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	In sand along seasonal water courses or in crevices amongst schists and black limestone along the mountain ranges between Witputz and Rosh Pinah.	eng
46717	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46718	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46718	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	On south facing slope of sandstone or outcrop; in sandy pockets (WIND 2000). Also on wide ledges of steep south-facing slopes, in association with low, winter-growing succulent shrubland (Snijman 1994).	eng
46718	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46719	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe argenticauda</em> is endemic to Namibia. The species is only recorded from seven areas, but it may be more widespread than currently known.	eng
46719	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	The species appears to be restricted to dolomite outcrops. It is recorded to be common on black limestone hillock.	eng
46720	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe corallina</em> is listed in CITES Appendix II.	eng
46720	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe corallina</em> is endemic to Namibia. Although it has a relatively restricted range (extent of occurrence estimated at less than 3,750 km²), the population is believed to be stable at present.	eng
46720	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Plants grow on sheer cliffs. They are found on dolomite cliffs of the Kunene river.	eng
46720	threats	Loots, S., 2004	The plant is highly sought after. However, future development of a hydro-electric scheme along river may be a more serious threat.	eng
46721	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe dewinteri</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46721	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe dewinteri</em> is endemic to Namibia, where approximately eight subpopulations are known.	eng
46721	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	The species grows in rock crevices of steep dolomite precipices and perpendicular cliffs.	eng
46721	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Succulent collectors would collect this species, but since it grows in fairly inaccessible areas, this does not seem to be a problem at present.	eng
46722	conservation	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	<em>Aloe dinteri</em> is included ion CITES Appendix II.	eng
46722	distribution	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	<em>Aloe dinteri</em> is endemic to Namibia where it has a relatively wide range. Current population size is unknown but is thought to be less than 10,000.	eng
46722	habitat	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	The species grows on plains, in shade, and in dolomite crevices.	eng
46722	threats	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	There are no actual or potential threats.	eng
46723	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe erinacea</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46723	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe erinacea</em> is endemic to Namibia. It has a relatively wide extent of occurrence, but the population is highly fragmented. According to Jankowitz, the biggest population is on Namuskluft. The largest subpopulation is probably around 350–400 plants.	eng
46723	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a real threat in this case. Low recruitment is also a problem.	eng
46724	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe namibensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46724	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe namibensis</em> is endemic to Namibia. The species has been described as rare, however, actual data one population size are lacking.	eng
46724	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Occurs on rocky outcrops, on north-facing, uppermost mountain slope, marble rift and low granite ridges.	eng
46725	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe sladeniana</em>	eng
46725	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe sladeniana</em> is endemic to Namibia. Extent of occurrence is thought to be less than 10,000 km². Population size is unknown, but there are believed to be less than 10,000.	eng
46725	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Dwarf shrub savanna.	eng
46725	threats	Loots, S., 2004	It is not certain how severe collecting is for this species.	eng
46726	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe viridiflora</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46726	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	<em>Aloe viridiflora</em> is endemic to Namibia where it has a relatively wide range (extent of occurrence 20,000–30,000 km²). The species is known from at least six subpopulations.	eng
46726	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Occurs on granite hills, between rocks on rocky outcrops, and in the central western desert.	eng
46726	threats	Loots, S., 2004	It is not known if this species is collected. At one location (Namibgrens Farm ), baboons have been observed to pull out all the developing inflorescences from the plants, resulting in no recruitment in the population.	eng
46736	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46736	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	The plants were recorded on a plateau, dolomite ridges, red dunes and pockets on black limestone terraces.	eng
46737	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46737	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	In blown sand between rocks.	eng
46737	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Current threats, if any, are unknown.	eng
46738	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46738	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Recorded as common in sandy soil at the base of a mountain and on a schist pavement (WIND 2002).	eng
46738	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	none known at present.	eng
46739	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46739	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Noted as desert, but specific habitat unknown.	eng
46739	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46740	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46740	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found in sheltered rock cracks (Duncan 1999). Also recorded as occasional on a dolomite reef projecting from a plain at the base of dolomite hills (WIND 2002).	eng
46740	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Nonknown at present.	eng
46741	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46741	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found on sandy gravel flats in full sun (Duncan 1998) or on sandy plain in red sand.	eng
46741	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46742	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46742	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Kloof in mountain valley, rocky slope, mountain slope.	eng
46742	threats	Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46744	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia, above the Orange river near Gamkab river mouth.	eng
46744	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	The species only grows in rock crevices in granite.	eng
46744	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Potential threats include habitat destruction and collecting as a result of the increasing human population along the river due to vineyards, goat farming and mines. It is not certain how far the population is from the river, where most of the agriculture is taking place.	eng
46745	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46745	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Occurs in sandy soil around granite domes. The species completes its life cycle on winter rain.	eng
46746	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia. The species is known from several sites on single farm, but may be more wide spread on the Huib plateau, which extends over several farms.	eng
46746	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Grows in silt in black limestone.	eng
46746	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat.	eng
46748	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Known from Aurus and slopes next to Orange river, Namibia.	eng
46748	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Grows on moderate south- and west-facing gravel slopes in rock crevices and under bushes (WIND 2002).	eng
46748	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Mining is a potential threat to one subpopulation, as well as population growth along river due to vineyards.	eng
46750	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46750	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on quartzite gravel, in rocks on sand blown plain and rock faces, in sandy areas or rocky outcrops.	eng
46750	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46751	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46751	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	The species has been recorded on granitic gravel, gravel plains, mountain slopes, dolomite outcrops intermixed with flint, in weathered sand on rocky flats, and sandy soil (WIND 2002).	eng
46751	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Mining may be a potential threat to one or two subpopulations but even this is not certain.	eng
46752	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to north central Namibia.	eng
46752	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	A rare plant, growing on a flat area in full sun (WIND 2002).	eng
46752	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Increased human population pressure and associated overstocking the land with livestock is a potential threat that could cause a decline in the quality of the habitat.	eng
46753	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known from one location in Brandberg, Namibia.	eng
46753	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46754	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia. Known from type only, collected in 1964.	eng
46754	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Dry watercourse (altitude 2,000 m).	eng
46754	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46755	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46755	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on coarse granite sand formation.	eng
46755	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Expansion of Luderitz and associated habitat destruction is a potential threat, but this must be confirmed.	eng
46756	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46756	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Grows hanging from rocks, on vertical mountain walls, and on slopes and plateaux.	eng
46756	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46759	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known from type specimens only, collected from Brandberg Königstein, Namibia.	eng
46759	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Sheltered stony places east of the summit.	eng
46759	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46762	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known only from the Gamsberg plateau, Namibia.	eng
46762	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on the Gamsberg summit plateau, which has a flat aspect and clayey soil (WIND 2002, Irish, pers. comm., 2003).	eng
46762	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Fire and trampling are potential threats (Irish, pers. comm. 2003).	eng
46763	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46763	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs on dolomite outcrops and sandy soil, in rock crevices (Marloth 1910–1912), on rocky outcrops on cliff, in gravelly soil, on limestone plateau, dolomite outcrop, and in sandy soil in sand pocket (WIND 2002).	eng
46763	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present, although collecting is a potential threat and mining could affect a few of the subpopulations if they grow close to the coast.	eng
46766	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46766	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs on stony mountain tops (800–2,000 m altitude). In crevices or among rocks and boulders (Thulin 1974).	eng
46766	threats	Craven, P., 2004	No threats known at present, although agriculture may be a potential threat.	eng
46767	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46767	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found growing in mossy areas. Possibly in pools in the highlands.	eng
46767	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Overuse of waterbodies is the main threat to this species.	eng
46780	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	<em>Conophytum halenbergense</em> is endemic to Namibia, where it is known from a few subpopulations in Halenberg and Tschaukaib. Each subpopulation has several hundred plants	eng
46780	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	The species grows on granite slopes and sometimes in detritus pans but seems to prefer vertical faces and crevices. It is frequently associated with <em>Lithops francisci</em>, gneiss and quartzite cliffs.	eng
46780	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Overharvesting by plant collectors is the main threat to the species.	eng
46783	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46783	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Sandblown plains between rocky outcrops, gentle slopes. Sand, rock and gravel plains, gravel terraces, ridges, on south-facing slopes of hills and outcrops. In dolomite, dolerite, gneiss, mica schist, limestone, sandstone, calcrete and quartzite and conglomerates. It has been recorded at altitudes of 70 m and 450 m. The plants are associated with low succulent dwarf shrubby vegetation in association with <em>Psilocaulin dinteri, Brownanthus</em> sp., <em>Salsola, Fenestraria, Dracophilus dealbatus</em> and <em>Cephalophyllum ebracteatum</em>.	eng
46783	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46785	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46785	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Rocky or sandy plains. Footslopes of mountain, sand at Halenberg station plain <br/>lower to mid south-facing mountain slopes in sandy soil, on granite, dolomite, gneiss, mica, quartzite and rocky or sandy plains and pockets. It was recorded to be associated with <em>Sarcocaulon, Pelargonium</em> and <em>Eberlanzia</em> (Hartmann 2001, WIND 2002).	eng
46785	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Collecting is a threat at Haalenberg. Some collectors return every year, but the extent of collecting is unknown. Habitat destruction by vehicles (4x4 vehicle drivers at Halenberg).	eng
46786	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46786	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Occurs on open sandy-pebble plains.	eng
46786	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	There is no information available to indicate that collecting or habitat destruction are serious threats (real or potential).	eng
46787	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46787	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Found on light to dark brown or reddish-brown, white or grey-white quartzite, gneiss, schist and calcrete (Cole in Hartmann 2001). The species grows on a gentle limestone slope in grey-white calcrete (Cole 1988).	eng
46787	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a real threat at least to some subpopulations: highly sought after, live plants, seed, trade.	eng
46791	conservation	Loots, S., 2004	Most subpopulations seem to be in the Skeleton Coast Park and the plants are therefore passively conserved. However, if the park is poorly managed, the populations there would not be safe.	eng
46791	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46791	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Found on different forms, combinations and colours of quartz, pegmatite, calcrete, chert, calcite and tourmaline (Cole 1988). Also on gneiss and quartzite stone. In shallow soil, sand, gravel and pebbles in a rock desert, arid low open vegetation, on level to gentle slopes, and also found growing on a low ridge.	eng
46791	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a real threat. The species is highly sought after (live plants, seed, trade, <em>Lithops</em> specialist collecting). One subpopulation was reported to have disappeared completely due to collecting of live plants but this could not be verified during field work that followed. <br/> <br/>Habitat destruction is also a potential threat. One subpopulation has disappeared at the Rossing uranium mine. The location where the largest number of plants were counted is right next to the tailings dam of the mine. This dam is to be expanded by 2006 or 2007 and this is likely to destroy about 700 or more plants.	eng
46792	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46792	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a real threat to this species. It is highly sought after (live plants, seed, research, trade, <em>Lithops</em> specialist collecting). Habitat destruction through intensive farming may also be a threat.	eng
46795	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46795	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Dune sand and quartz on wind-blown plains.	eng
46795	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. The subpopulation at Kovisberg could well be threatened by collecting, but the other subpopulations inside the Sperrgebiet seem to be safe for the moment.	eng
46796	distribution	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	Endemic to Namibia. Only one subpopulation has been observed (in a small kloof very near the Orange river, across the Sendelingsdrift mine), but there could be more deeper into the mountains.	eng
46796	habitat	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	In full sun on rocky slopes and plains in areas that receive sparse winter rainfall. With <em>Tylecodon hallii, Brownanthus</em> and <em>Astridia</em>.	eng
46796	threats	Loots, S. & Mannheimer, C., 2004	There are no perceivable threats at the moment, however mining is a potential future threat.	eng
46798	distribution	Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46798	habitat	Loots, S., 2004	Recorded in a steep gorge with sandstone, granite and soft black rock.	eng
46798	threats	Loots, S., 2004	Current threats to the species, if any, are unknown.	eng
46800	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46800	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	In soft, whitish, salty soil of the dry flat pan surface which is otherwise devoid of vascular plants.	eng
46800	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	No serious threats are known at present. However, the species has a very limited distribution and habitat preference which may well be over utilised by game around Etosha.	eng
46801	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46801	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	In narrow cracks of granite boulders.	eng
46801	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Apart from its restricted range, no threats are known at present.	eng
46805	conservation	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	<em>Euphorbia lavrani</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46805	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Known from only one subpopulation in Namuskluft, Namibia.	eng
46805	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Grows on limestone outcrops (Leach 1981), with <em>Ruschianthus falcatus</em> (pers. obs)	eng
46805	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Collecting may be a potential threat as Namuskluft is well known for it succulent diversity and endemism and is frequently visited by succulent collectors from all over the world. However, the only limestone outcrops observed here are rather inaccessible and collecting is not likely to cause a continuing decline.	eng
46806	conservation	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	<em>Euphorbia leistneri</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46806	distribution	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Known from one location only, in the vicinity of Epupa falls, Namibia.	eng
46806	habitat	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Recorded in white calcareous soil (WIND 2002). It grows in shallow soil with very coarse to fine rock particles with little clay or organic material.	eng
46806	threats	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. Habitat destruction due to tourism. The development of hydro-electric scheme along Kunene river in the near future is a potential threat in the form of habitat destruction.	eng
46807	conservation	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	<em>Euphorbia namuskluftensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46807	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Known only from one small population in the Namus mountains, Namibia.	eng
46807	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found only on white limestone outcrop. The species occurs in the rock fissures in the outcrop, with <em>Ruschianthus falcatus</em> and <em>Euphorbia lavrani</em>.	eng
46807	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat, although the site is relatively inaccessible.	eng
46808	conservation	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	<em>Euphorbia namibensis</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46808	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46808	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found in sparse cover desert, calcrete, gentle slope in full sun, and in sand. Also observed on flat areas in other parts of the Sperrgebiet.	eng
46808	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat although it probably isn't so bad that it would cause a continuing decline.	eng
46809	conservation	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	<em>Euphorbia otjipembana</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46809	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Only known from two subpopulations in two locations in Namibia. Plants are uncommon, scattered and recorded as rare and infrequent.	eng
46809	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Occurs on stony east-facing slopes in dwarf mopane woodland in association with a <em>Cyphostemma</em> ("succulent Cissus") species (Leach 1976). Recorded as rare and infrequent at 4,000 ft.	eng
46809	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Current threats are unknown.	eng
46810	conservation	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	<em>Euphorbia verruculosa</em> is included on CITES Appendix II.	eng
46810	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46810	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found on gravel hills, plains and rocky outcrops, schist, quartzite, sand and dolomite.	eng
46810	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46812	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46812	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on granite hills.	eng
46812	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46813	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46813	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Recorded on an open flood plain and a gentle slope (WIND 2002).	eng
46813	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Habitat destruction in the form of vehicle tracks may affect the Halenberg subpopulation, but this has to be verified.	eng
46814	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	This shrub is endemic to Namibia.	eng
46814	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Recorded in gravelly sandy soil and red sand dunes (WIND 2002).	eng
46814	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46820	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Only known from around the base of and within the Little and Great Karas mountains, Namibia. In the Great Karas mountains it occurs both around the foot of the mountains and also on some of the high, flat topped summits.	eng
46820	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.	eng
46821	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known only from the Tiras Mountains on eastern flank, Namibia (Bruyns 1993).	eng
46821	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Grows on steep granite slopes among rocks and small bushes (Bruyns 1993).	eng
46821	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.	eng
46822	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs along the Swakop river from west of Okahandja to near Otjimbingwe and Karibib, namibia.	eng
46822	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Possibly occurs on dry river bed. Found on low rocky ridges (WIND 2002).	eng
46822	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. The Hoodia Working Group reports that there is no real threat at present, but increased awareness and market value of <em>H. gordonii</em> (currently targetted for its appetite suppressant qualities) could possibly threaten other species in the future.	eng
46823	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known from only two localities,  40 km apart, in Khowarib gorge, Namibia.	eng
46823	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs on vertical dolomite cliffs only so there may be more localities than currently known. Found with large quantities of <em>Aloe dewinteri</em> and very little other vegetation, quite inaccessible, form large clumps in narrow crevices and small ledges on rock faces. roots are quite shallow in small pockets of soil and the species is able to spread along small veins of ground that enables them to become quite large, the only <em>Lavrania</em> found on such dangerously steep habitats (Bruyns 1993).	eng
46823	threats	Craven, P., 2004	this species has different features to others in the genus and its unusual habit makes it more special to collectors (P. Craven, pers. obs.), but it is described as inaccessible so collecting probably not a real threat.	eng
46824	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46824	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Altitude 1,500–1,700 m, among small grass tufts and rocks on granite slope.	eng
46824	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting may be a real threat as these subpopulations are more accessible than other taxa. However, this species seems to be more widespread than some of the others. It is assumed for now that it is still stable.	eng
46827	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46827	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Among stones and granitic gravel, shale slopes in upper part of mountain, 2,000 m altitude (WIND 2002).	eng
46827	threats	Craven, P., 2004	It is not known is collecting is a real threat, therefore the population is assumed to be stable for the time being.	eng
46828	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46828	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	The plants are often almost buried in the sand where they grow, with only the tops of the stems visible and can sometimes become completely buried. They sometimes occur among rock outcrops (Leach 1980). They were recorded to grow in drifting sand and on flats (WIND 2002).	eng
46828	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat.	eng
46829	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46829	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Inside <em>Pentzia</em> bushes on flat-topped mountains in stony areas.	eng
46829	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat. The extent of the effect of collecting at present is not known.	eng
46830	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46830	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found in crevices between rocks and on granite hills, usually under bushes (mainly <em>Ruschia divaricata</em>) or in crevices between rocks forming dense mats. Plants scattered in crevices, occasionally amongst stones under bushes. Altitude 1,800–1,950 m (WIND 2002).	eng
46830	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is at least a potential threat.	eng
46831	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46831	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found at 1,400 m altitude in gravel (Schreiber 1967) and on coarse sandy plain at the foot of a mountain (WIND 2002).	eng
46831	threats	Craven, P., 2004	No threats are known at present. The entire road between Aus and Rosh Pinah is to be tarred in 2004 and as a result everything in the road reserve up to the fence will be destroyed. This will affect two or three subpopulations partially., depending on how much of a population grows on the other side of the fence.	eng
46833	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46833	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46834	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Codd (1975) states that it grows in dry mopane woodland, on high rocky situations up to 2,300 m altitude, in limestone and dolomite.	eng
46836	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46836	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Occurs at high altitudes (2,550 m) (Craven 2000). A scrambler growing over rocks on all areas of the Brandberg above 2,000 m.	eng
46836	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	No serious threats known at present, although tourism is a potential threat.	eng
46839	distribution	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Known only from the summit of Heioab mountain in the Sperrgebiet (Diamond Area 1) in Namibia.	eng
46839	habitat	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Found at 1,000 m altitude, facing extreme sandblasting winds. The summit receives considerable condensation from fog. The mountain is completely isolated (Williamson 1995). Probably occurs in quartzite as the mountain seems to be made of this, although this species was not spotted on a recent field trip.	eng
46839	threats	Craven, P. & Loots, S., 2004	Collecting is a potential threat, even though the species grows in the Sperrgebiet, as collectors often enter the Sperrgebiet as succulent societies/tour groups. The plant is also battered by sandblasting. The mountain seems to be undisturbed at the moment (observation during fieldwork, September 2003).	eng
46840	distribution	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Known only from Aurus mountain, Namibia.	eng
46840	habitat	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Occurs on a vertical cliff, in well protected cracks and other protected spots on mountain slopes (summit of the mountain at 1,082 m). Associated with <em>Holothrix filicornis, Aloe erinaceae, Conophytum ernianum</em> and several <em>Crassula</em> species and other succulent vegetation. This area receives considerable fog precipitation and the species was observed to occur in the wettest places.	eng
46840	threats	Loots, S. & Craven, P., 2004	Collecting is at least a potential threat as succulent collectors enter the Sperrgebiet from time to time as succulent societies and reports were received of them collecting plants in the Sperrgebiet without permits.	eng
46845	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46845	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on bare loamy flats with <em>Mesembryanthemum longipapillosum</em>, coarse sand-limestone flats, valley floor of alluvium, limestone mixture at base of low dolomite ridge, limestone flats with gravel surface, coarse sand on calcrete plains, lime sand plain with black lime plates and rocks, and flattish alluvium valley.	eng
46845	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Small stock farming (grazing damage) is a possible potential threat.	eng
46846	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46846	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Flood plain.	eng
46846	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46847	conservation	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs in Etosha National Park and tKhaudom Game Reserve.	eng
46847	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Occurs in northern Namibia and possibly also in Angola.	eng
46847	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found on the margins of calcrete pans, omurambas, ephemeral river beds, turf pans and on red sand plains.	eng
46847	population	Craven, P., 2004	Six subpopulations, appears to be reasonably common.	eng
46847	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Pans drying up and over-use of water resouirces may be a threat; increased livestock farming possibly causes decline in habitat quality; threats unconfirmed.	eng
46849	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Known only from the tyhpe locality between Etengua and Otjitanda, Namibia.	eng
46849	threats	Craven, P., 2004	Agriculture is a possible threat, but more evidence is needed before this can be confirmed.	eng
46850	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia. Known only from the type locality in central Karasberg (Bolus <em>et al</em>. 1915).	eng
46850	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found at the summit of Scharfenstein (approx. 2,300 m).	eng
46850	threats	Craven, P., 2004	The species has a restricted range, but the locality seems to be fairly inacessible.	eng
46851	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46851	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Found growing on river bank between rocks, on mountain slopes, underneath rocks in shady wet places, in sand below rocks, in semi-shade, in a deep rocky gorge, sandy gulley, and on granite.	eng
46851	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46853	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
46853	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	A poorly known plant, known from a single collection from the Waterberg plateau in Namibia.<br/>Known from type only, not collected since 1920s. Monospecific Namibian endemic genus (Golding 2002).	eng
46853	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Thornbush shrubland/Northern Kalahari vegetation. It grows totally submerged and develops cleistogamous flowers.	eng
46853	population	Sieben, E., 2006	Estimated total population size: <1000;  <br/>Estimated number of locations: one	eng
46853	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	This species has a very restricted range. It has been considered as threatened with extinction (Cook 2004).	eng
46854	conservation	Sieben, E. & Smithies, S., 2006	No information available.  Loots (2005) gives the status of the species as LC (Least Concern).	eng
46854	distribution	Sieben, E. & Smithies, S., 2006	Endemic to Namibia (Cook 2004).	eng
46854	habitat	Sieben, E. & Smithies, S., 2006	This plant grows in temporary rock pools.	eng
46854	population	Sieben, E. & Smithies, S., 2006	No information available.	eng
46854	threats	Sieben, E. & Smithies, S., 2006	None known.	eng
46856	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46856	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Favours sites among boulders (Hilliard 1999) at 2,000 m. It also grows on stony loam in a pan, on dolomite and in savannah transition (WIND 2002).	eng
46856	threats	Craven, P., 2004	No serious threats are known at present, however small stock farming occurs in the area and, if palatable, then the species could be over-grazed or trampled.	eng
46857	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46857	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	On floodplain, sandy plain, detritus fans and other sandy places. Probably occurs at altitudes > 1,300 m (Hilliard 1999).	eng
46857	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46858	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46858	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Mixed woodland with predominantly <em>Colophospermum mopane</em> and mixed woodland with <em>Euphorbia mauritanica</em>. Mostly on hill slopes, but also on rocky outcrops and dry rivers.	eng
46858	threats	Craven, P., 2004	No serious threats known at present.	eng
46859	distribution	Craven, P., 2004	Endemic to Namibia.	eng
46859	habitat	Craven, P., 2004	Recorded on a steep slope on the escarpment in semi-shade (1,900–2,332 m altitude).	eng
46859	threats	Craven, P., 2004	None known at present.	eng
46862	conservation	Velez-Espino, L.A., 2004	The persistence of this unique Andean fish depends strongly on our understanding of its essential habitat and the capacity to measure habitat-quality trends whether they are the result of management or the consequence of the environmental impact produced by human activities. <br/> <br/>More research is needed to understand the importance of subterranean water in the life cycle and resilience of <em>A. ubidiai</em> to habitat perturbations.	eng
46862	distribution	Velez-Espino, L.A., 2004	<em>Astroblepus ubidiai</em> is the only historically documented native fish of the Imbakucha watershed, Imbabura, Ecuador. Preñadilla is the local name for all <em>Astroblepus</em> species of the Ecuadorian Andes regardless of taxonomic differences. In other areas of the Ecuadorian Andes the "preñadilla" has been declared as extinct (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores 1992).	eng
46862	habitat	Velez-Espino, L.A., 2004	The fact that the habitats of all subpopulations are springs is probably not only because those are the keystone habitats, but also because these are the habitats least favorable to the causes of decline. Caughley (1994) suggested the latter assumption as a safer preliminary hypothesis compared with assuming that the remnants of the species are in the most favorable habitat. Remnant subpopulations are located in refuges that provide certain resilience to habitat destruction and deterioration. <br/> <br/>Preñadilla’s use of underground refugia was first mentioned by Humboldt and Bonpland (1805). Velez-Espino observed the preñadilla to enter interstitial spaces and penetrate into the outlet of springs. The importance of underground water in the life cycle of the species is not known but the genus <em>Astroblepus</em> is known to have troglobitic (exclusively subterranean) and troglophilic (facultative subterranean) species.	eng
46862	population	Velez-Espino, L.A., 2004	Six <em>A. ubidiai</em> subpopulations were located in the region from information provided by indigenous residents, followed by extensive field surveys. These subpopulations are distributed in four different drainage basins and their probabilities of escape to other refugia when the environment deteriorates are very limited due to natural and anthropogenic barriers between drainages. Pasture grounds, fields, human settlements, and the presence of the piscivorous largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) in Imbakucha Lake appear to have resulted in the segregation of those populations within this watershed. Extensive sampling showed that the preñadilla is not presently found in Imbakucha Lake and that individuals are concentrated in small lotic-habitat fragments characterized by the presence of springs (Vélez-Espino, in press). Individuals of <em>Astroblepus ubidiai</em> are concentrated in small areas (range 40–650 m²) and restricted to island-like habitats, which can be properly defined as refuges. Each subpopulation appears demographically independent.	eng
46862	threats	Velez-Espino, L.A., 2004	Standard anthropogenic perturbations to preñadilla habitat are the deviation of water currents towards pasture grounds, the periodic vegetation clearing from creeks by communities in order to improve the water supply, the use of preñadilla as bait for largemouth bass fishing, the traditional custom of cloth washing in the water in springs, creeks and streams, and the traditional custom also of using aquatic bodies as corridors to move the cattle within the watershed. The use of the local agave called "cabuya" (Cactaceae) for the washing of clothes in the creeks and streams is known to have active chemical substances that kill aquatic fauna, including fish (L. Vélez-Espino, personal observation). <br/> <br/>Overfishing may not have been a problem before the population was fragmented by habitat loss. The current fragmentation between subpopulations within the Imbakucha watershed has been enhanced by the introduction of exotics (Vélez-Espino 2003). Now the concentration of <em>A. ubidiai</em> in a few small localities increases its vulnerability and jeopardizes its persistence. The low probability that dispersers successfully reach other refuges hinders a positive effect of migration on the regional population size (see Fahrig and Paloheimo 1988). During the recovery of the traditional ecological knowledge it was evident that five of former preñadilla habitats were converted in reservoirs for human supply and floriculture, four were transformed in community-washing place, two were dried as a consequence of inappropriate agricultural activities, and one was converted into a religious sanctuary (the cave called "El Socavón" which traditional knowledge recognized as a former source of preñadilla). Another former refuge, the Araque spring, was observed in February 2000 to contain preñadillas, but by July of the same year it no longer contained preñadilla. <br/> <br/>In the Imbakucha watershed (Proaño, Gallopogyo and Quinde), all six anthropogenic perturbations occur in all of the sites. Approximately 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 38 communities within an area of 150 km² have impacted on preñadilla habitat and could be a cause of the poor habitat quality.	eng
46863	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Recorded from Indonesia and the Philippines, but may also extend to the Andaman Islands (India).	eng
46863	habitat	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1996	Appear to live in shallow waters in cays or close to shore. Nothing is known about its biology.	eng
46864	conservation	Stevens, J., 2003	2002 regulations in the South East Trawl fishery in Australia prohibits the landings of livers unless the accompanying carcass is also landed.	eng
46864	distribution	Stevens, J., 2003	A fairly common but poorly studied species with a wide but patchy distribution. Occurs in the eastern Atlantic (Iceland to southern Africa), Indian Ocean (Aldabra Islands and India), eastern Pacific (northern Chile) and the western Pacific, from New Zealand and southern Australia, on or near the bottom of continental and insular shelves in depths of 270-1,300 m. Locally from Sydney (New South Wales) to Perth (Western Australia), including Tasmania and the southern seamounts.	eng
46864	habitat	Stevens, J., 2003	Demersal on the slope in depths of 270 to 1,300 m; off Australia most common in 780 to 1,100 m. Feeds mainly on fish and cephalopods. In the Rockall Trough in the northeastern Atlantic, the diet was dominated by squid and micronektonic fish including myctophids. This  species would appear to feed clear of the seabed on benthopelagic organisms (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). The lack of a seasonal pattern to reproduction, with females breeding throughout the year, means that the gestation period is currently unknown. Litter sizes average six with a range from 3 to 9. Annual fecundity is unknown. The productivity of this species appears to be low, with age at maturity in Australia of 15 years at 64 cm (males) and 22 years at 82 cm (females), and longevity of around 60 years (S. Irvine, pers.comm.). The maximum size of specimens in Australia is 105 cm (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
46864	population	Stevens, J., 2003	Locally common around New Zealand and southern Australia where it is taken in deep water trawl and hook and line fisheries. Catches off Tasmania have been increasing in recent years; biomass surveys off New Zealand show an increase over the last 10 years but these data should be treated with caution due to problems with standardization of fishing effort (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2000). The average catch rate on the Chatham Rise off New Zealand in 1990 and 1993 was 126 kg/km² (Wetherbee 2000).	eng
46864	threats	Stevens, J., 2003	The species is coming under increased fishing pressure with the extension of deep water trawl grounds and restricted access to more desirable deep water teleosts such as orange roughy. Mainly a bycatch species but some targeting both for its oil and flesh. The livers are rich in squalene containing 61-73% by weight (Bakes and Nichols 1995). Fillets can retail for up to Aus$12/kg in Australia.	eng
46865	conservation	Paul, L., 2003	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
46865	distribution	Paul, L., 2003	Southern Indo-Pacific. South-eastern Australia and New Zealand, but with a relatively wide depth range from 200 m to over 1,500 m, most often taken in depths of 500 to 1,000 m. Recently found off SE South Africa/Mozambique (Compagno, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>There is no information on whether the population off southern Australia (including seamounts to the south) is linked to the New Zealand population via seamounts and submarine ridges in the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea. It is unlikely that there is any physical connection with the population of "plunketi" recently located off southern Africa (Compagno, unpublished).	eng
46865	habitat	Paul, L., 2003	Marine, demersal, on the upper and middle continental slope, 200 to 1,500 m, usually 500 to 1,000 m. Occurs mainly around central and southern New Zealand. There is a trend for fish size to increase with depth, with the largest females in deepest water. It is probable that the species extends to greater depths than those sampled. Some early literature suggested that this was among the more abundant deepwater sharks off New Zealand; this may be true at some localities, but more extensive trawling in recent years shows this not to be generally true. It is not considered likely that this reflects a decline in abundance in recent decades. Trawl surveys off southeastern Australia yielded infrequent but large catches of <em>C. plunketi</em>, suggesting aggregations. <br/> <br/>Born ~35 cm. Mature 100 to 120 cm (male), 130 to 145 cm (female). Maximum 170 cm. Ovoviparous with up to 36 pups per litter. Gestation period and reproductive cycle unknown.	eng
46865	population	Paul, L., 2003	No information is available on the size of any population.	eng
46865	threats	Paul, L., 2003	A small bycatch in some deepwater line and trawl fisheries. Its aggregating behaviour makes it susceptible to localised depletion. There is some danger that because its geographic and depth range coincides with that for some important teleost fisheries its relatively low (apparent) population will continue to decline with continuing and/or expanding fisheries.	eng
46867	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
46867	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	Endemic to the Western South Pacific in Australian waters from off Townsville, Queensland to Byron Bay, New South Wales.	eng
46867	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	An apparently common skate on the outer continental shelf and upper slope recorded from depths of 140 to 310 m. Maximum size about 36 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at 26 to 30 cm TL. Born at about 17 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Oviparous. Observed stomach contents include crustaceans, cephalopods and small fish (personal observation). Little else known of its biology.	eng
46867	population	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	No information on populations.	eng
46867	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Bennett, M.B., 2003	In surveys of the eastern king prawn sector (deepwater component) of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, <em>Raja polyommata</em> was the most common elasmobranch bycatch species comprising 36% of the elasmobranch catch by number. Mortality was high, particularly of juveniles (unpublished data). This fishery operates only in the upper depths of the species distribution (> 200 m). The species may also be caught in New South Wales trawl fisheries.	eng
54345	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The last known population occurs entirely within the Guanica National Forest. Captive breeding has been successful, and after many years a re-introduction program in Puerto Rico seems to be showing some success, with re-introduced captive-bred animals now returning to the constructed ponds where they were first released (Zippel 2005).	eng
54345	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species has a very restricted range, and is known from only a handful of localities along the north and south coasts of Puerto Rico. In recent years it has been recorded from only one location on the south coast of Puerto Rico. The species is considered to be extinct at Virgin Gorda Island (Perry and Gerber 2006). It apparently occurred in St. John (U.S. Virgin Islands), but it is currently believed to be extirpated there (Platenberg and Boulon 2006). It has been recorded from sea level up to 50 m asl.	eng
54345	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It is a terrestrial species found in semi-arid, rocky areas of seasonal evergreen forest. Eggs are laid in permanent or temporary pools of water, streams, or small dams for livestock.	eng
54345	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The north coast population has not been recorded since 1992, and it is most likely extirpated in this area. It was last recorded on Virgin Gorda Island in 1964, and other surveys since then have not located any individuals. Since 1992, there has only been one known population remaining. In 1984, there were 900 mature individuals recorded in this population; subsequently, in 1998, there were only 215 mature individuals recorded (of which 34 were females), in 2002 only 100 mature individuals, and in 2003 only 80 mature individuals were recorded (R. Joglar pers. comm.). It was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
54345	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, particularly on the north coast. In the south of its range a temporary breeding pool was deliberately drained to clear parking space for visitors to the beach.	eng
54346	conservation		The species occurs in several protected areas. Given the apparent risk of infection with chytrid, some individuals should probably form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding colony.	eng
54346	distribution		This species is widely, but very patchily, distributed on Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) at an altitudinal range from sea level to 1,697m asl. It was also recently found (2001-2002) just outside Santo Domingo.	eng
54346	habitat		It is found in mesic broadleaf forests, often along creeks and streams. Males call from trees overhanging running water, in which eggs are deposited.	eng
54346	population		This species is more common than <em>Osteopilus pulchrilineata</em> in the Cordillera Central. However, other than the Cordillera Central and Santo Domingo localities, there have been very few records in the last two decades.	eng
54346	threats		The montane stream-dwelling habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation due to agriculture and logging. M. Hernandez (pers. comm.) has found dead animals and animals with deformities (one animal with an eye on its back), and declines in suitable habitat are suggestive of chytridiomycosis; indeed, chytrid was confirmed in this species in La Vega, Arroyazo, in the Dominican Republic.	eng
54347	conservation		It occurs in Kakadu National Park.	eng
54347	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the top end of the Northern Territory. It also extends to islands off the coast such as Melville Island. This region is very flat so the species is known only from low elevations.	eng
54347	habitat		This species inhabits areas where there is a prolonged and intense dry season followed by torrential monsoon rains. On the Northern Territory mainland it is restricted to paper bark swamp, coastal and escarpment savannah woodland and sandstone outcrops, where it lives under leaf-litter. It is often found in association with streams and soaks. On the islands off the coast, however, it can be found in gardens, on roadsides and on the periphery of pine plantations.<br/>Males call from exposed positions on the ground, upon vegetation up to 0.5m above ground, or beneath leaf-litter. Its breeding and larvae are unknown.	eng
54347	population		It is a common species.	eng
54347	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
54348	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks and World Heritage Area in northern Queensland.	eng
54348	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent regions of northern Queensland, from the Atherton Tableland to Cooktown. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,300m asl (McDonald, 1992 and Hoskin, 2004), although recent surveys only found it above 600m asl (Shoo and Williams, 2004). The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 6,400km2.	eng
54348	habitat		This is a rainforest species. It is often found on the forest floor under fallen timber or leaf-litter. The breeding season is unknown. Males call from under debris on the forest floor. A clutch of about 12 eggs has been found under debris on damp soil. An adult attended the clutch. The young develop directly in to fully formed froglets.	eng
54348	population		It appears to be patchily distributed but can sometimes be an abundant species, although it can be difficult to find.	eng
54348	threats		Logging was a threat in the past, now tourism in northern Queensland and resulting habitat degradation might be having an impact. However, this species is not significantly threatened at present.	eng
54349	conservation		Its range includes the Bensbach Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. In Queensland its rainforest habitat is protected within a World Heritage Area.	eng
54349	distribution		This species is known from the trans-Fly region of southern Papua New Guinea, and from the Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, Australia, from Cooktown in the east to the Archer River in the west. It probably also occurs in southeastern Papua, Indonesia but there are no records from there yet. It occurs up to 50m asl in Papua New Guinea.	eng
54349	habitat		In Papua New Guinea it occurs in grassy woodland and gallery forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development. In Australia it has been recorded from a variety of moist habitats: rainforest, gallery forest (forest along creeks), grassy woodland, monsoon forests and swamps. It may also be found in moist pockets within a dry forest. It associated with both perennial and non-perennial streams. Males call from vegetation up to 0.5m above ground. Its breeding and larvae habits are unknown.	eng
54349	population		It appears to be common where it occurs in Papua New Guinea.	eng
54349	threats		Logging in rainforest habitat was a threat in the past in Queensland, now tourism and associated habitat degradation is more of a threat, however overall there are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
54350	conservation		The species' habitat is currently protected within a World Heritage Area.	eng
54350	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the coast and ranges of northeastern Queensland, from Ingham north to Cooktown. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 15,200km2. It has been found up to 1,300m asl (McDonald, 1993, Hoskin 2004) but recent surveys only found it up to 900m asl (Shoo and Williams, 2004).	eng
54350	habitat		It is a rainforest species found in forests at low and high altitudes. It is usually found under fallen timber or leaf-litter. Males call from beneath leaves on the forest floor. Eggs are laid terrestrially and develop directly in to fully formed froglets.	eng
54350	population		This species was previously considered to be patchily distributed however with time more localities have been found suggesting that rather than being patchily distributed, it is difficult to find. The low encounter rate of the species during surveys supports this. It is usually infrequently encountered.	eng
54350	threats		Habitat loss from logging in the past was a threat. Now habitat degradation associated with tourism might be having a localized impact, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened at present.	eng
54351	conservation		The species' habitat is protected within a World Heritage Area.	eng
54351	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in northeastern Queensland, from the middle of the Atherton Tableland south to the Cardwell Range and the Paluma Range. It occurs at altitudes above 360m asl.	eng
54351	habitat		This species inhabits montane rainforests and vine forests. It is found principally beneath logs and rocks or under leaf-litter on the forest floor. Males call from beneath cover on the forest floor. Eggs are laid terrestrially and they develop directly in to fully formed froglets.	eng
54351	population		It is a relatively common species that is quite easy to find.	eng
54351	threats		Habitat loss from logging in the past was a threat to this species. Now habitat degradation associated with tourism might be having a localized impact, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
54352	conservation		The habitat of the species is mostly within protected areas.	eng
54352	distribution		This Australian endemic is found in the southern mountain ranges of Tasmania and is known from approximately 15 locations. The extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 4,200km2, and is bounded by Hartz Mountains in the northeast, Mount Sprent in the northwest, Mount La Perouse in the southeast and Bathurst Harbour in the southwest. It occurs down to sea level in southwest Tasmania.	eng
54352	habitat		The species inhabits moist, cool, alpine habitat; poorly drained sites in moor land (shrubland and heath) and rainforest. In spring and early summer, males call from the ground and low dense vegetation and breeding chambers with sphagnum and lichen. Females spend breeding season in a chamber with a male. About 6-15 eggs are laid in nests in moss or lichen. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
54352	population		There are at least 10,000 individuals.	eng
54352	threats		None known, but it has been noted that nests are vulnerable to trampling by animals and people (researchers or tourists).	eng
54353	conservation		It is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales, and is therefore protected by state legislation. Its remaining habitat is largely protected in national parks.	eng
54353	distribution		This species is confined to the mountainous areas between Mistake Mountains and Teviot Falls in south-east Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.	eng
54353	habitat		It is a montane rainforest species, and is usually found among saturated or moist leaf-litter and vegetation near small creeks. It is also commonly found in seepage areas. Calling occurs between August and February. Large yolky eggs are deposited in water-filled burrows hidden from the light. Larvae remain within the nest throughout development and live off the yolk.	eng
54353	population		There are no documented declines in this species.	eng
54353	threats		In the past, a considerable area of this species' habitat was cleared or logged, but a majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. Nonetheless, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.	eng
54354	conservation		it is listed as rare in Queensland and vulnerable in New South Wales, and is therefore protected by state legislation. Most of its habitat is within national parks (Border Ranges, Lamington, Mount Warning and Nightcap National Parks).	eng
54354	distribution		This Australian endemic has a restricted distribution in south-east Queensland on the Queensland/New South Wales border above 500m asl. Specimens attributed to this species from regions south of the currently defined distribution are currently not assigned to any species (Knowles <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
54354	habitat		It inhabits rainforests, and is commonly found in areas of soft, moist soil (e.g. along drainage lines, and in seepage areas). Higher temperatures stimulate breeding in November and December. Males call from underground, often in flask-shaped burrows. About 20-30 eggs are deposited in a frothy nest in the burrow. Larvae emerge from the eggs after several days and then move to the top of the jelly mass and live entirely on the yolk from the eggs. They emerge from the nest as tiny frogs.	eng
54354	population		There are no documented declines in this species.	eng
54354	threats		In the past, a considerable area of the species' habitat was cleared or logged, but the majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. However, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.	eng
54355	conservation		It is listed as vulnerable in New South Wales and is therefore protected by legislation in that state. Most of its habitat occurs within national parks and state forests, including Mount Boss State Forest.	eng
54355	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs in north-eastern New South Wales from Mount Hyland in the north to Gloucester Tops in the south, in the northern and central northern mountains of New South Wales.	eng
54355	habitat		It is found in montane subtropical rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest where the rainfall is high (1,500mm annually). It lives in extensive beds of sphagnum moss and seepages on steep slopes. It is a spring-summer breeder, with diurnal calling. About 40-60 large eggs are laid in moist spots such as in rock crevices, under logs or in burrows made in sphagnum moss. In aquatic situations the larvae may be found in the silt of small pools. Larvae remain in the nest and feed off the yolk. They generally emerge after one month. Males tend to the nests whilst the females move on after about five days.	eng
54355	population		There are no documented declines in this species.	eng
54355	threats		In the past a considerable area of the species' habitat was cleared or logged, but the majority of the habitat is now in reserves and protected from clearing or timber harvesting. However, disturbances upstream that affect hydrological processes and/or water quality may threaten the species. Stock (cattle) has been observed at a number of breeding sites.	eng
54356	conservation		Its range includes multiple protected areas in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.	eng
54356	distribution		This endemic of northern Australia is known from the eastern Kimberley’s of Western Australia and into the western escarpment of Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. The estimated altitudinal range of the species is from 150-600m asl.	eng
54356	habitat		The species is associated with rocky habitats-sandstone hills and gorges, rocky screen and ledges, boulder fields, caves and open escarpments, usually near perennial and non-perennial streams. It shelters deep in caves. It breeds in spring and summer. Males call from beneath boulders in or near the streambed. About 350-400 eggs are laid in a foam nest in rock pools or beneath rocks at the edge of water-draining scree slopes. Tadpoles develop in ponds in about 9 weeks.	eng
54356	population		It is estimated to have a population size less than 50,000, but greater than 10,000. The low estimate is based on the small known range of the species.	eng
54356	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
54357	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Largen, M., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54357	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Largen, M., 2004	This species ranges from western Eritrea, western Ethiopia and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, west in the savannah zone to southern Mali and Sierra Leone. There do not appear to be records from Guinea, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
54357	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Largen, M., 2004	It is a species that lives in a wide variety of habitats including humid and dry savannas, gallery forest, agricultural land, and villages. It can be found in and around rivers and temporary pools, and breeds in stagnant, temporary waters.	eng
54357	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Largen, M., 2004	It is a very common species.	eng
54357	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Largen, M., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
54358	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species has been identified as potentially being vulnerable to chytrid fungus (high&#160;altitude&#160;stream breeder) and as such should undergo monitoring once basic life history, threats and population trends have been assessed. There are still taxonomic issues within this group which require more work. It presumably occurs in one or two protected areas, such as Sehlabathebe National Park.	eng
54358	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the highlands of southern and eastern Lesotho above 2,000 m asl. It presumably occurs in nearby South Africa, but so far there have not been any records. The Extent of&#160; Occurrence has not been formally approximated.	eng
54358	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of montane grassland (including pastureland), living in the vicinity of permanent streams. It breeds in shallow streams, and on the edges of rivers with well-vegetated banks.	eng
54358	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species appears to be common and adaptable.	eng
54358	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Apart from the local effects of dams, this species does not appear to be seriously threatened, despite its relatively small range. However it has the ecological characteristics of a species that is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis, and so its populations should be regularly monitored.	eng
54359	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species would benefit from monitoring of subpopulations with particular reference to the spread and effect of chytrid. Base line data on life-history, ecology, population trends and threats are all required before monitoring can begin. It occurs in the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">uKhahlamba-Drakensberg</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park.</st1:placetype></st1:place>	eng
54359	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species is endemic to the cold and wet north-eastern Drakensberg, restricted mainly to the South African side (Kwa-Zulu Natal and the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Free State</st1:place></st1:state>), at altitudes between 1,800 and 3,200 m. It is commonly found in streams and rivers flowing eastward into <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> rather than those flowing west into <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lesotho</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160;Although some subpopulations are noted to have declined, no reduction in Extent of Occurrence of 4,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;has yet been noted.</p>	eng
54359	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a water-dependent species in montane grassland. It is found only in pristine habitats, and it is not present in agricultural areas. It is not known to move over land. It breeds in cold clear streams with associated pools with rocky substrates.	eng
54359	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Concerns have been raised over recorded pathogen-related mortalities&#160;(Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007), although the effect on populations is as yet unknown.&#160;It is locally abundant in its restricted range.	eng
54359	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is not significantly threatened because of the remoteness of its habitat.&#160;Local populations may be affected by overgrazing by livestock (causing erosion and subsequent siltation) and dams on rivers. An additional observed risk is the threat of predation and competition posed by the introduction of trout and other alien fish for recreational fishing into the main rivers of Lesotho (Swartz 2005). There&#160;are several undocumented&#160;chytrid related die-off events recorded for this species at several sites (du Preez & Weldon pers. comm.&#160;December 2009), and chytrid infection rate is&#160;up to 38.6%&#160;in tadpoles&#160;(Smith <em>et al</em>. 2007), although these subpopulations at these same sites still appear healthy&#160;(du Preez & Weldon pers. comm. December 2009).	eng
54360	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat is urgently required. Surveys are needed to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
54360	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimen from near La Unión, Zacapa, Guatemala, at 1,570m asl. It may range a little more widely in nearby areas of cloud forest, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
54360	habitat		It inhabits lower montane moist forest. The type specimen was found in a bromeliad in primary forest three metres above the forest floor. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54360	population		No information is available on population status, but it is presumed to be rare.	eng
54360	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss around La Unión as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment. At the known locality, one specimen of <em>Bolitoglossa conanti </em>has been recorded with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54361	conservation		There are no protected areas in the area from which this species is known, and there is an urgent need to protect suitable remaining habitat. Continuing surveys needed to locate and monitor populations of this restricted range species.	eng
54361	distribution		This species is known only from the west slope of Cerro Pozo de Agua, in the Sierra de Caral, Izabal, Guatemala, at 1,150m asl. This location is geographically separated from other high-elevation areas, and it is considered very plausible that <em>Cryptotriton wakei</em> is a restricted range endemic within this area (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54361	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest areas commonly classified as subtropical wet forest. The one known individual was collected in old-growth forest in low vegetation. This is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
54361	population		There is no information concerning the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.	eng
54361	threats		The main threat to it is habitat loss, which is proceeding very rapidly in the Sierra de Caral as a result of extensive logging and agricultural encroachment (cattle ranching) (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54364	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54364	distribution		This species occurs in the montane regions of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (in the Virunga Volcanoes area), Rwanda, Burundi, southwestern Uganda, southeastern Kenya (in the Taita Hills), and Tanzania (Usambara, and Uluguru Mountains and the Southern Highlands). Its altitudinal range is still unclear, though it seems to be montane, occurring as low as 900m asl in northeastern Tanzania. The animals in Kenya and Tanzania should probably be separated from A adolfifriederici under the name A. leleupi. A record from Tanga near sea level in northeastern Tanzania requires confirmation.	eng
54364	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of montane forest. It is not known whether or not it survives in degraded habitats, but it is likely to require good vegetation cover. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.	eng
54364	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
54364	threats		It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood and human settlement.	eng
54365	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
54365	distribution		This species is known from the following mountain ranges in northeastern, eastern and southern Tanzania: North Pare, South Pare, West Usambara, East Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, Rubeho, Udzungwa (south at least to the Kihansi Gorge), and Mount Rungwe. It possibly occurs in some of the coastal forests of Tanzania, but this requires confirmation. It is a montane species, and has been recorded at 850-2,050m asl, possibly wider.	eng
54365	habitat		It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, stony ground, bare ground and paths in submontane and montane forests, cultivated land, marshland, plantations, introduced bamboo, and grassland. It is very adaptable to many different habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54365	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54365	threats		In view of its adaptability, it is probably not facing any significant threats.	eng
54366	conservation		No information is available.	eng
54366	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimen, from Tumbo Island, off the cost of Guinea.	eng
54366	habitat		There is no direct information on its habitat or ecology, although it is likely to be a terrestrial species in lowland forest. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54366	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no records in almost 120 years, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify species in many parts of Africa.	eng
54366	threats		No information is available.	eng
54367	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54367	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimen, from Bismarcksburg, Togo. Animals found in the Togo-Volta Highlands of eastern Ghana might possibly be referred to by this name.	eng
54367	habitat		Assuming that the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands do belong to this species, then it is abundant in secondary habitats, as well as in lowland forests. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54367	population		There is no direct information on its population status, and there have been no records in many years, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify the species in many parts of Africa. However, if the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands belong to this species, then it is abundant.	eng
54367	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, although if the animals in the Togo-Volta Highlands belong to this species, then it is probably not seriously threatened.	eng
54368	conservation		No information is available.	eng
54368	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality, Cambondo, in Angola.	eng
54368	habitat		There is no direct information on its habitat and ecology, although it is likely to be a terrestrial species in lowland forest, and possibly other habitats. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54368	population		Its population status is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, but this is probably largely due to the severe taxonomic problems associated with <em>Arthroleptis</em> species which makes it extremely hard to identify them in many parts of Africa.	eng
54368	threats		No information is available.	eng
54369	conservation		The species occurs in the Mont Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1981 (the adjacent part in Cote D'Ivoire was added in 1982). However, strengthened and improved management of this site is needed, and further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
54369	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Nimba in Guinea; it presumably also occurs in the Liberian and Ivorian parts of Mount Nimba, but this has not yet been confirmed. It has been recorded from 500-1,650m asl.	eng
54369	habitat		It lives in high-altitude grassland, gallery forest, and on the edges of marshes. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54369	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species, but it was formerly recorded as being very common.	eng
54369	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, since Mount Nimba is subject to slash-and-burn agricultural activities and extensive iron-ore mining operations.	eng
54370	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54370	distribution		This species is only known from Lutunguru, at 1,500-1,650m asl, near Lubero, in northern Nord-Kivu, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54370	habitat		No information is available on its habitat and ecology. If it is similar to <em>Schoutedenella schubotzi</em>, it is adaptable, living in forest, forest edges, and agricultural areas outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54370	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
54370	threats		No information is available.	eng
54371	conservation		It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, and continued protection and management of this area is essential. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54371	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi and possibly from the nearby Zomba Mountains. It is found as low as 700m asl in the Ruo Basin, but also occurs higher up on the mountain, including on the plateau, probably up to at least 2,500m asl.	eng
54371	habitat		This species inhabits both lowland and montane forest, including high-altitude cedar forest. It is also found, but is probably much less common, in montane grassland and pine plantations. There is little information on its adaptability to secondary habitats, but it is believed to favour undisturbed habitats. It lives in leaf-litter in areas of very high rainfall. They sometimes climb trees up to at least 2m from the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
54371	population		It is apparently common within its restricted range, but there have been no records over the last 30 years, probably due to a lack of fieldwork.	eng
54371	threats		Although somewhat protected, the forest on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of small-scale farming and extraction of wood.	eng
54372	conservation		It is not known to be from any protected areas.	eng
54372	distribution		This species is from the Itombwe and Kabobo Highlands in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,350-2,400m asl.	eng
54372	habitat		It is believed to live in montane forest, and to breed by direct development.	eng
54372	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There are no recent records of this species due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54372	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54373	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and presumably in other protected areas.	eng
54373	distribution		This species ranges from northern and central Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Burundi. Its range is very poorly understood, and the distribution map should be considered as approximate only, since it occurs in an area where there has been very little herpetological work.	eng
54373	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter, presumably in savannah woodlands and forests. It breeds by direct development. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.	eng
54373	population		It is apparently extremely common, at least in parts of its range.	eng
54373	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54374	conservation		It is not known to be from any protected areas.	eng
54374	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Arebi (Uelé), Ituri, in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54374	habitat		No information is available on its habitat and ecology, although it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
54374	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54374	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
54375	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no information on conservation measures.	eng
54375	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, 12 km north of Bamako, in Mali.	eng
54375	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no information on its habitat or ecology, although it presumably breeds by direct development, and is therefore not dependent upon water for breeding.	eng
54375	population	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54375	threats	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54376	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54376	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Murugaragara, near Mosso, Rutana, in south-eastern Burundi, at 1,200m asl	eng
54376	habitat		There is no information available regarding its habitat or ecology, although it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54376	population		Its population status is unknown. There are no recent records of this species.	eng
54376	threats		No information is available.	eng
54377	conservation		It occurs in the Mafwemiro Catchment Forest Reserve, which affords some level of protection, but which is not managed for biodiversity conservation. Further survey work would be useful in determining the species' current population status.	eng
54377	distribution		This species is known only from the Mafwemiro Catchment Forest Reserve in the Rubeho Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at 1,900m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, at least within the northern part of the Rubeho Mountains.	eng
54377	habitat		Both specimens were found on the floor of montane forest in a small valley, and one of them was collected close to a stream. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54377	population		It is a recently discovered species known only from two specimens collected in 2001.	eng
54377	threats		It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, collection of wood and human settlement.	eng
54378	conservation		There is no information on conservation measures for this species; it is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54378	distribution		This species has been recorded only from Mount Nimba, in Guinea, at 650-1,250m asl. Its taxonomic validity is unclear.	eng
54378	habitat		It has been recorded to be from forest and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54378	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54378	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species although most habitats on Mount Nimba are at risk of degradation from mining activities.	eng
54379	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54379	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Lomami, near Lomela, Sankuru, in central Democratic Republic of Congo. Its taxonomic validity is unclear.	eng
54379	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds by direct development, and is likely to live in lowland rainforest.	eng
54379	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records.	eng
54379	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54380	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It occurs in Kyabobo National Park in the Togo Hills of eastern Ghana (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006), and presumably occurs in nearby Fazao-Malfakassa National Park in Togo, as well as several other protected areas across its range.	eng
54380	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	Animals credibly referred to this species range from Guinea-Bissau to southern Congo and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Uganda (Bwamba). It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Sierra Leone or Central African Republic, but it is likely to occur in these countries. Records from Sudan might refer to this species. The population from Togo Hills in Ghana (currently included in this species' range) may be conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. poecilonotus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">A. zimmeri</span> (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In southern Cameroon it is widespread at low and medium altitudes up to 1,200 m asl. This is almost certainly a complex of species in urgent need of revision, and so the distribution map should be seen as very preliminary.	eng
54380	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It lives in secondary herbaceous growth in the forest zone. It can be found in clearings and along forest tracks, as well as in towns and villages. It has been reported from forest and farmbush habitats in the Togo Hills (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It lays its eggs on the ground, and breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54380	population	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It is abundant in suitable habitats, and is the commonest amphibian in the city of Yaoundé.	eng
54380	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	In view of its adaptability, it does not appear to be threatened.	eng
54381	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54381	distribution		This species occurs in the Itombwe and Kabobo Highlands in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 1,900-2,000m asl.	eng
54381	habitat		It is a species of montane grasslands that presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54381	population		It is said to be common.	eng
54381	threats		There is no direct information on threats to the species, but it is not likely to be seriously threatened.	eng
54382	conservation		It presumably occurs in Udzungwa National Park, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
54382	distribution		This species occurs in eastern and southern Tanzania (the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains), and the southern highlands (Poroto Mountains and Mount Rungwe) and extreme northern Malawi (Misuku Hills). It is a montane species, occurring from 1,500 to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
54382	habitat		It inhabits montane forest, perhaps ranging into montane grassland near forest. No information is available on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor, in low shrubs, in grassy areas, and in wild bananas, and like other members of the genus presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54382	population		There is very little information on its population status.	eng
54382	threats		Forest loss as a result of agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and human settlement are likely to be the key threats.	eng
54383	conservation		It is present in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda) and Bwindi National Park (Uganda).	eng
54383	distribution		Specimens have been assigned to this species from Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, northwestern Burundi, southwestern Uganda (Bwindi and Kibale Forests), and southwestern Tanzania (Mbisi Forest and Mount Rungwe). Its altitudinal range is unclear, but it at least occurs between 1,460 and 2,800m asl. Its distributional limits are still unclear, so the map should be considered approximate.	eng
54383	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species that lives in closed tropical forest, savannah and forest remnants (farm-bush). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.	eng
54383	population		It is common in the appropriate habitat.	eng
54383	threats		There is little information, but it presumably cannot withstand the complete open access to its habitat.	eng
54384	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54384	distribution		This species is known only from the St. Louis Plain on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Given this lack of specificity, attempts to map its distribution can only be approximate at this stage.	eng
54384	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although like other members of the genus it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54384	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54384	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54385	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54385	distribution		This species ranges from coastal Kenya and eastern and southern Tanzania (including the island of Zanzibar), through Mozambique, Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Angola, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe and northeastern South Africa. There is an apparently isolated population in the Nyumbeni Hills in central Kenya. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,500m asl. Specimens from the Bwindi and Budongo Forests of western Uganda have been assigned to this species, but they are significantly outside the main range of the species. They are excluded from the distribution map, pending confirmation of their status.	eng
54385	habitat		It is found in a very wide variety of habitats, including forest, savannah woodland, thickets, wasteland, and suburban areas. It is terrestrial, and is typically found in leaf-litter. It lays its eggs in hollows or burrows in damp earth, often under bushes or around the roots of trees. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
54385	population		It is an extremely abundant species in Tanzania and Malawi; however, it is uncommon on the edge of its range in South Africa.	eng
54385	threats		In view of its adaptability, it does not appear to be threatened.	eng
54386	conservation		It is found in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Korup National Park (Cameroon) and presumably occurs in many other protected areas.	eng
54386	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in eastern and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, southwestern Central African Republic, southern Cameroon Gabon, and southern Congo. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, and might occur in southeastern Nigeria. It occurs up to at least 1,300m asl. The map is very approximate, and connects known localities north of the Congo River. However, it is not clear that all records in fact refer to the same species.	eng
54386	habitat		It lives in pristine and slightly disturbed lowland and submontane rainforest, but it is likely to be able to sustain populations in secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54386	population		It is a very common species, at least in Gabon.	eng
54386	threats		It is presumably impacted locally by clear felling of rainforest.	eng
54387	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54387	distribution		This species is known widely to be from southern Cameroon, southwestern Central African Republic, and mainland Equatorial Guinea, south at least to Gambia on the coast of southern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.), and extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo, but there are not yet any records.	eng
54387	habitat		It lives in shallow marshes in forest, and does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development, and there is no free-swimming tadpole.	eng
54387	population		It is generally very common in Cameroon, but less so towards the west of its range. It appears not to be very common in Gabon.	eng
54387	threats		It is presumably declining because of forest loss.	eng
54388	conservation		It occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam reserve at Mazumbai in the West Usambara Mountains.	eng
54388	distribution		This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains, the Nguru Mountains, and the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern and north-eastern Tanzania. It is a montane species, though its altitudinal range is not yet fully known; the type specimen was collected at 1,530m asl.	eng
54388	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of montane forests, and is generally found in moister situations (sometimes even aggregating alongside water). It probably cannot cope well with habitat loss. Like other members of the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54388	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
54388	threats		This species is probably adversely affected by forest loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
54389	conservation		The area from which it has been recorded is protected, primarily in the Chimanimani National Park. Surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status, distribution, population status, natural history and threats.	eng
54389	distribution		This species is known only from the western Chimanimani Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe, where it occurs above 1,500m asl. It is likely to occur in the eastern Chimanimani Mountains across the border in Mozambique.	eng
54389	habitat		Most of the specimens were collected in sinkholes or caves, and a few were found in open montane grassland. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54389	population		It is probably a rare species. There have been no records since this species was discovered in 1962 (when 16 specimens were collected), despite survey efforts.	eng
54389	threats		There is very little direct information available for this poorly known species, and threats to the species are not well understood. As an isolated, montane species, it could be at risk from the effects of climate change.	eng
54390	conservation		This species is said to occur in Virunga National Park and probably also in other protected areas.	eng
54390	distribution		This species is known from isolated records from southern Cameroon, southern Congo, and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is an unspecified locality in Cameroon; there are more recent Cameroonian records attributed to this species from Mount Manenguba and from Mount Nkolodon near Yaounde. In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, there are records from Virunga National Park (Laurent 1972) and from the town of Beni. Its occurrence in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Central African Republic is not confirmed; attempts to map its distribution for this assessment however assume that it is found in the intervening areas between the known localities, in the forest zone north of the Congo River. However, Amiet (pers. comm.) points out that <em>Arthroleptis tuberosus</em>, when better understood, might prove to be a montane species, in which case the attempts made at mapping its range so far are clearly wrong. In any case, the specimens from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo were never found in the field, and so their assignation to <em>A. tuberosus</em> is doubtful. It is also possible that animals from Cameroon currently referred to as <em>A. adelphus</em> are in fact <em>A. tuberosus</em>. The confusion surrounding this species will only be resolved by more fieldwork in the central African rainforests, with a particular focus on its calls.	eng
54390	habitat		This is presumably a forest species, living on the forest floor in montane and perhaps lowland forests, which presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54390	population		There is no information on its population status, pending clarification of its taxonomic status.	eng
54390	threats		It is expected to be declining because of forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.	eng
54391	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
54391	distribution		This species ranges from Guinea to northern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. In Cameroon it occurs in the south, not extending as far north as the Adamawa Plateau. It occurs on the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. It occurs up to 1,200m asl in Cameroon.	eng
54391	habitat		It lives among leaf-litter in lowland and montane rainforest. Although it can live in secondary vegetation, it is found principally in primary rainforest, especially at the foot of mountains in Cameroon. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
54391	population		This is the most common Arthroleptis species around Yaounde. Twenty can be seen on the forest floor in a single morning. It apparently attains its greatest abundance at 400-1,200m asl.	eng
54391	threats		It is presumably declining because of forest loss.	eng
54392	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54392	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mwana, at 1,650m asl, near Mwenga, in southern Kivu (Sud-Kivu Province), eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54392	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
54392	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54392	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54393	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54393	distribution		This species occurs along the eastern coastal areas of South Africa, from just south of Port St Johns north to the Mozambique border. It ranges inland up to 1,000m asl. It has not been recorded from Mozambique, but it might occur there	eng
54393	habitat		It lives and breeds in leaf-litter in coastal forest and thicket, and adjacent grasslands. Its calling is stimulated by rain and it is commonly heard during daylight hours in wet weather. It is very adaptable, and lives in gardens, parks, and alien tree plantations. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
54393	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
54393	threats		It is adversely affected by coastal development, in particular expansion of sugar cane cultivation and urban expansion.	eng
54394	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54394	distribution		This species ranges from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, north through Mozambique, Malawi, and eastern Zambia to southeastern and northeastern Tanzania. It is likely to occur in the extreme southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 2,100m asl.	eng
54394	habitat		It lives in lowland and montane forests, dense woodland, grasslands and swamps. It appears to be more tolerant of non-forest habitats at higher altitudes. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.	eng
54394	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54394	threats		Some populations, especially those in the lowlands, might be locally impacted be woodland and forest loss, especially for agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
54395	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, but has not yet been recorded from Udzungwa National Park (although it is likely to occur there).	eng
54395	distribution		This species is endemic to Tanzania, and occurs on the island of Pemba, and on the mainland in the East Usambara, Uluguru, and Udzungwa Mountains (Kihansi), and Mount Rungwe. It probably occurs more widely in the Eastern Arc Mountains than current records suggest. It ranges from near sea level up to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
54395	habitat		It occurs in both lowland and montane forest, living in leaf-litter, under logs, and in the axils of banana leaves. It is not known to what degree it can tolerate alteration of its natural habitat. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.	eng
54395	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
54395	threats		It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
54396	conservation		There is no information on conservation measures for this species.	eng
54396	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the type locality, Accra, in Ghana. Animals found in the Togo-Volta Highlands of Ghana could possibly belong to this species, or to <em>Arthroleptis brevipes</em>. Alternatively, <em>A. zimmeri</em> could prove to be the correct name for a widespread savannah species of <em>Arthroleptis</em>.	eng
54396	habitat		There is no information on its habitat or ecology.	eng
54396	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54396	threats		Nothing is known of threats to it.	eng
54397	conservation		It is likely to be present in the Western Area Peninsula Forest Reserve, although much more effective protection and management of this site is required. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54397	distribution		This species is known only from the hilly parts of the Freetown Peninsula in Sierra Leone, although it possibly occurs a little more widely.	eng
54397	habitat		It has been found in forest, and in rural gardens near forest, living on rocks. It has been noted as calling away from water, and so it is possible that, unlike other members of the genus, it does not require water for breeding, although this has not been confirmed.	eng
54397	population		There has been no information on this species since it was last collected in 1963, but this is probably due to lack of field surveys in this area. It was described as "not rare" on the Freetown Peninsula at the time of its discovery.	eng
54397	threats		There is likely to be extensive pressure on its forest habitat on the Freetown Peninsula primarily for firewood collection.	eng
54398	conservation		It is likely to occur in several protected areas, such as Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda, but information on which specific protected areas it occurs in is lacking.	eng
54398	distribution		This poorly understood species is known only from Rwanda, Burundi and the Kivu Highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is believed to be a montane species, and the type locality is at 1,800m asl.	eng
54398	habitat		It is presumably a species of montane forest, and, if it is similar to other members of the genus, it breeds in streams.	eng
54398	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no records for many years due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54398	threats		No information is available on threats to it.	eng
54399	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54399	distribution		This species' distribution is not known. The type locality of "Yoruba (Lagos)" (Peters 1875), Nigeria, is believed to be an error, and it is not possible to map the distribution of this taxon.	eng
54399	habitat		Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
54399	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54399	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54400	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54400	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon, through mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) south to Mont Crystal and Mont Iboundji in west-central Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It lives below 1,000m asl.	eng
54400	habitat		It lives in moist lowland forest and degraded forest. The frogs breed in small streams, often full of dead leaves. Adults come together in large numbers at breeding sites. The males call from rocky areas near streams, or from under bridges.	eng
54400	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
54400	threats		It is presumably affected to some extent by habitat loss.	eng
54401	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
54401	distribution		This species occurs in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River and Equatorial Guinea east through southern Central African Republic to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in northern Gabon and northern Congo, but so far there have not been any records. Most of the records are from southern Cameroon; the map presumes that it is distributed through the Congo Basin north of the Congo River, though there are very few records from this poorly sampled area.	eng
54401	habitat		It lives in lowland tropical moist forest, and also in heavily degraded forest provided that it is close to more mature forest. They spend most of their time on the ground. The animals breed in small forest streams with sandy banks.	eng
54401	population		This is a very common species in Cameroon.	eng
54401	threats		It is presumably affected by forest loss.	eng
54402	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Korup National Park.	eng
54402	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria through central and southern Cameroon to Equatorial Guinea, central Gabon and southwestern Central African Republic to the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs below 1,200m asl. Its eastern distributional limits in the Democratic Republic of Congo are particularly unclear.	eng
54402	habitat		It lives in moist lowland and lower montane forest, and cannot survive in degraded habitats. It is found in mature secondary forest. The animals are usually found on the ground, or in plants up to 20cm above ground. They breed in forest streams and the males call from slopes and marshy depressions close to streams.	eng
54402	population		This is the most common species of Cardioglossa in Cameroon.	eng
54402	threats		It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.	eng
54403	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54403	distribution		This species is known to be from only central and southern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, south to southern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It presumably occurs at least in Central African Republic and Congo. The subspecies C.g. paternageli has been described from Minim in the Adamawa Plateau of Cameroon, indicating that the animals from the uplands in the northern part of the range of this species perhaps belong to a different subspecies. It presumably occurs up to at least 1,200m asl, perhaps higher.	eng
54403	habitat		It lives in lowland secondary forest and heavily degraded former forest. It is typically found around small, clear streams that do not flow too fast, but can also be found in raphia swamps and marshy secondary bush criss-crossed with tiny water courses. In one study, it moved rapidly into a new forest clearing, but had disappeared within three years as the forest regenerated. It breeds in streams and males call from secluded positions among dead leaves and root systems.	eng
54403	population		It is widespread but not common around Yaounde.	eng
54403	threats		It is presumably affected by forest loss.	eng
54404	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Korup National Park (Cameroon), and presumably in a number of other protected areas.	eng
54404	distribution		This species occurs in Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, and from western Nigeria east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south to southwestern Congo. There are records from central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and southwestern Central African Republic. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.	eng
54404	habitat		In Central Africa it lives in most lowland and lower montane forest, including secondary forest and heavily degraded habitats. In West Africa they are found only in primary forest. It is usually associated with the edges of steams with margins of small stones and sand. They breed in streams and the males call in groups from among rocks in dense vegetation near streams.	eng
54404	population		It is a very common species, especially in central Gabon.	eng
54404	threats		It is presumably affected to some extent by ongoing habitat loss.	eng
54405	conservation		It does occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but additional habitat protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, and in Nigeria, is needed.	eng
54405	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 1,200-2,000m asl. In Nigeria, it has been recorded from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it is known from Mount Manenguba, the southern fringe of the Bamileke Plateau (at Foto and Mount Bana), Mount Nlonako, and the Bamenda Highlands (in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve). At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>Cardioglossa pulchra</em> and <em>C. venusta</em>.	eng
54405	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane areas in forest and in dense secondary growth. Males call from shady situations along streams. It is a stream-breeding species.	eng
54405	population		It is common on Mount Manenguba at about 1,600-1,700m asl.	eng
54405	threats		It is at risk because of forest loss as a result of expanding human settlements, agricultural encroachment, and removal of wood.	eng
54406	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park.	eng
54406	distribution		This species is known only from extreme southern Nigeria and south-western Cameroon at low altitudes.	eng
54406	habitat		It lives in lowland moist forest and in degraded habitats near more mature forest and can be found in small groups along forest watercourses, often in undergrowth among dead leaves and in holes. It breeds in streams.	eng
54406	population		It is fairly common, though it is often absent from apparently suitable habitat.	eng
54406	threats		This species is presumably affected by forest loss.	eng
54407	conservation		The species occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages; this project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.	eng
54407	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountains of western Cameroon at 1,900-2,650m asl, occurring on Mount Manenguba, and on the Bamenda Highlands at the Bamboutos Mountains, the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, and Mount Oku.	eng
54407	habitat		It lives in montane forest, often in bamboo forest, and in degraded habitats with trees. They are associated with areas around fast-flowing streams, where they sit on leaves, or hide in holes or under stones and breed in streams.	eng
54407	population		It is common within its small range.	eng
54407	threats		This species is seriously threatened by forest loss due to agricultural expansion and extraction of wood, as well as by overgrazing and expansion of human settlements.	eng
54408	conservation		It is found in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve in Cameroon and the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. Continued protection of these areas, and further habitat protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, and in Nigeria, is needed.	eng
54408	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 900-1,800m asl. In Nigeria, it has been recorded from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it is known from Mount Manenguba, Mount Ngokham, the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, Batie, and Fongo-Tongo. At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>C. melanogaster</em> and <em>C. venusta</em>.	eng
54408	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane forest along fast-flowing streams and also at high elevations along forest edges. It can survive with some deforestation and it breeds in streams.	eng
54408	population		It is known to be common in the breeding season.	eng
54408	threats		It is probably threatened by ongoing forest loss caused by agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54409	conservation		It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but further measures are urgently needed to protect the remaining patches of habitat in its very small range. Additional survey work would be useful to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54409	distribution		This species is endemic to the Oshie-Obudu Ridge in Cameroon and Nigeria. It is found from Acha Tugi on Mount Oshie in Cameroon and from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria. Its altitudinal range is 1,640-1,800m asl.	eng
54409	habitat		It lives in and around relict patches of montane forest, which are now fragmented, and also in secondary vegetation in which no trees remain. It has been found on steep slopes of scree, boulders and clay, overgrown with a dense cover of high grass and trees. It has also been found around streams, where it presumably breeds.	eng
54409	population		There is no information available on its population status, and the species is generally poorly known.	eng
54409	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities and human settlements, and overgrazing.	eng
54410	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, and the remaining habitat in the area needs to be protected as a matter of urgency. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54410	distribution		This species is known only from the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba at 1,750-1,800m asl in western Cameroon.	eng
54410	habitat		It has been found in and around a small stream running through dense secondary bush and montane forest; it has not been recorded from primary forest, although it might well occur there. The animals hide under large rocks and small stones, and presumably breed in streams.	eng
54410	population		There is no information available on its current population status.	eng
54410	threats		Although the habitat of this species is not especially threatened, it is at severe risk given its small range and vulnerability to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54411	conservation		It may occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve, but this reserve is not well managed for biodiversity conservation; improved and expanded habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the survival of this species.	eng
54411	distribution		This species is known only from a small area of the mountains of western Cameroon at 950-1,350m asl at Mount Manenguba, the Bamileke Plateau (at Fotabong, Fontem, and the Mbos Cliffs), Mount Nlonako, and the Rumpi Hills. At Mwakoumel on Mount Manenguba, it co-exists with <em>Cardioglossa pulchra</em> and <em>C. melanogaster</em>.	eng
54411	habitat		It lives in submontane forests near fast-flowing streams in hilly country with high rainfall. It can survive in degraded, secondary habitat close to more mature forest and it breeds in streams.	eng
54411	population		The species is largely unknown, and there is no information on its current population status.	eng
54411	threats		It is at risk due to forest loss caused by agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54412	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
54412	distribution		This species ranges from northern, central and eastern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo and the northern half of Zambia to northern Malawi and southern Tanzania (Njombe and Mount Rungwe). Records from Lukwangule in Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania remain to be confirmed. It generally occurs upland areas, probably over 1,000m asl, and ranging up to 2,500m asl in Malawi.	eng
54412	habitat		It lives near streams in open grassland, and in forest patches. It presumably breeds by direct development. It is also found on the edge of plantations and in rural gardens.	eng
54412	population		It is very common in suitable habitats	eng
54412	threats		It is reasonably adaptable, and is probably not facing any significant threats.	eng
54413	conservation		Occurs in Glacier National Park and several Wilderness Areas. There are many occurrences on National Forest or Bureau of Land Management lands, but these might not receive special management consideration, so protection is minimal. Maintenance of cool, forested, unsilted streams and stream corridors is a basic conservation need.	eng
54413	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southeastern British Columbia south through western Montana to extreme southeastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and south-central Idaho (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993, Nielson <em>et al.</em> 2001, Stebbins 2003). There are many extant occurrences in Montana and Idaho and two small population groups in British Columbia (L. Dupuis pers. comm., 2001).	eng
54413	habitat		It lives in clear, cold swift-moving mountain streams with coarse substrate. It may occur primarily in older forest sites, but better information is needed; required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions are more common in older forests. It may be found on land during wet weather near water in humid forests or in more open habitat. During dry weather it stays on moist stream-banks. It lays eggs in long strings under stones in water.	eng
54413	population		Total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand and might exceed 10,000. The species is still relatively common in Idaho and Montana. Long-term trend: Likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Short-term trend: Possibly declining based on habitat trends, but few population data are available.	eng
54413	threats		Tailed frogs are sensitive to logging and road building (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Logging practices that increase water temperatures and siltation might have an adverse effect on tailed frog populations (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). See also Bury and Corn (1988) and Corn and Bury (1989) for information on negative effects of timber harvest. Despite negative effects of logging, tailed frogs frequently occur in many young forests that have been harvested one or more times in the past. Sensitivity to timber harvest might depend on surface geology and harvest practices (Adams and Bury 2002, Welsh and Lind 2002). Diller and Wallace (1999) emphasized that current timber harvest practices are not as detrimental as those used in the past. Information on the responses of tailed frogs to timber harvest is based primarily on the coastal tailed frog, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. truei</span>. Further information is needed on the responses of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. montanus</span>. Apparently, low dispersal abilities might limit rate of recovery of depleted populations.	eng
54414	conservation		Range includes many national parks and wilderness areas. Maintenance of cool, forested, unsilted streams and stream corridors is a basic conservation need.	eng
54414	distribution		This species ranges from the Cascades and the Pacific Coast from southern British Columbia, Canada south to north-western California, USA (Stebbins 1985, Nielson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
54414	habitat		Can be found in clear, cold swift-moving mountain streams with coarse substrates. Primarily in older forest sites, required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions are more common in older forests (Welsh 1990). Diller and Wallace (1999) reported that canopy cover, temperature, and forest age in managed forests were not significantly different between occupied and unoccupied stream reaches in northern California; however, this probably reflects past timber harvest patterns. Animals may be found on land during wet weather near water in humid forests or in more open habitat. During dry weather it stays on moist stream-banks and lays eggs in long strings under stones in water.	eng
54414	population		This species has many extant occurrences distributed throughout the range. Total population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is common in suitable habitat. Its long-term trend is likely relatively stable in terms of extent of occurrence. There has been an unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occupancy, and number/condition of locations. Its short-term population trend is probably declining based on habitat trends, but few population data are available.	eng
54414	threats		It is sensitive to logging and road building (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Logging and construction practices that increase water temperatures and siltation might have an adverse effect on tailed frog populations (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Welsh and Ollivier 1998). See also Bury and Corn (1988) and Corn and Bury (1989) for information on negative effects of timber harvest. Diller and Wallace (1999) emphasized that current timber harvest practices are not as detrimental as those used in the past. Despite negative effects of logging, this species frequently occurs in many young forests that have been harvested one or more times in the past. Sensitivity to timber harvest might depend on surface geology and harvest practices (Adams and Bury 2002, Welsh and Lind 2002).	eng
54415	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54415	distribution		This species occurs in Cameroon south of Sanaga River, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, southwestern Central African Republic, Congo, and the Mayombe Hills of extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is found from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
54415	habitat		It is found in and around streams and small rivers in lowland forest (including gallery forest). It can live in dense secondary vegetation if there is forest nearby. It breeds in flowing water; the tadpoles live in fast-flowing water and hide in cracks under stones.	eng
54415	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54415	threats		It is presumably declining because of habitat loss as a result of logging and agricultural expansion.	eng
54416	conservation		It occurs in the Korup National Park.	eng
54416	distribution		This species is known only from western and south-western Cameroon, and possibly extreme eastern Nigeria, in hilly country and mountains, at 250-1,100m asl. There are records from Mount Cameroon, and other mountains in Cameroon south of the higher parts of the Bamenda Highlands. Records of <em>Astylosternus schioetzi</em> from the northern part of Korup National Park, east to Nguti, and north to Mount Nta Ali (Lawson 1993) are based on misidentifications and refer to this species (J.-L. Amiet pers. comm.).	eng
54416	habitat		It lives in or near flowing water in lowland and submontane forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds in streams and in small marshes criss-crossed with tiny watercourses. The tadpoles live in clear, flowing water.	eng
54416	population		It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
54416	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and logging.	eng
54417	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park, but further protection of the remaining forest habitat is required.	eng
54417	distribution		This species is known only from three small areas of western and south-western Cameroon: between Yabassi and Nkongsamba, at low elevations (apparently, it is absent to the west of Nkongsamba); Mount Yuhan in Korup National Park; and Mount Nta Ali in the Mamfe basin. It occurs mainly below 1,000m asl.	eng
54417	habitat		It lives and breeds in and near rivers and slow-flowing streams in lowland and hilly closed-canopy forest. Males call from among dead leaves on the banks close to water.	eng
54417	population		It is a common species, certainly more so than <em>Astylosternus laurenti</em>.	eng
54417	threats		It is severely threatened by loss of habitat within its very small range, primarily due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment.	eng
54418	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park, but further protection of other unprotected forest habitat, such as Mount Manenguba, is required.	eng
54418	distribution		This species is known only from a small part of south-western Cameroon at 400-850m asl, from the Ikenge Research Station in Korup National Park, to the south of the Rumpi Hills, Mount Manenguba and the Bamileke Plateau. There are records from Ikenge, Fopouanga, Ekomtolo and Mahole. It is probably a little more widespread than current records indicate.	eng
54418	habitat		It lives and breeds in and near slow-flowing rivers and streams in lowland and hilly forest in regions of high rainfall. It can live in dense secondary forest provided that there is a closed canopy. Males call from rocks in and around the water.	eng
54418	population		It is a common species.	eng
54418	threats		This species is severely threatened by habitat loss and degradation, primarily due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment.	eng
54419	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54419	distribution		This species has been recorded from several localities in the western Cameroon mountains from the Bamenda Highlands north-east to the Adamawa Plateau, with some outlying populations at lower altitudes to the south of this range on Mount Ngorro and the Yoko (Djan) Mountains. It has also been recorded from the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. It occurs in the submontane zone from 900-1,700m asl. The distribution is discontinuous, perhaps due to forest clearance in the 17th century.	eng
54419	habitat		It lives in or near flowing water in lower montane and submontane forest or herbaceous vegetation and gallery forests. At night it can be found in relatively dry areas along forest tracks and in agricultural areas. It can survive in deforested areas in temporary, eutrophic, silted streams that are low in oxygen. Breeding takes place in flowing water, with the males calling from rock cavities or from in the water.	eng
54419	population		It is reported to be common within its range.	eng
54419	threats		Although this species is probably suffering from habitat loss, it appears able to adapt to some non-forest habitats.	eng
54420	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas and protection of the remaining habitat in the range of the species is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to establish its distribution, current population status and threats.	eng
54420	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Nganha on the Adamawa Plateau, at 1,400-1,700m asl, in Cameroon, to which it is probably endemic.	eng
54420	habitat		This species is found along watercourses in a few narrow gallery forests, and in seepage areas in nearby grassland. Tadpoles, almost certainly of this species, have been found in rock pools in streams.	eng
54420	population		It is known only from five specimens.	eng
54420	threats		This poorly known species is probably at severe risk from habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction.	eng
54421	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is known to occur in a number of protected areas in Cote D'Ivoire, including Tai, Mont Sangbé, Marahoué and Mont Péko National Parks. In Liberia, it is found in Gola National Forest (Hillers and Rödel 2007).	eng
54421	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species is known to occur in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia and the west of Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
54421	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It lives mainly in secondary forest, and to a lesser extent in primary forest, but it is not found in heavily degraded areas, such as farm-bush. This species breeds in shallow streams.	eng
54421	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is not often found, but since it is a secretive species, it is probably more common than has been supposed.	eng
54421	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	The main threat is ongoing deforestation for wood, agriculture and human settlement.	eng
54422	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection of the remaining montane forests in western Cameroon is urgently needed.	eng
54422	distribution		This species is known only from western Cameroon on the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba and from Mount Bana and Mount Nlonako on the Bamileke Plateau at an altitude of 1,200-1,400m asl. It presumably occurs more widely in the Bamileke Plateau, and there is an unconfirmed record from the Rumpi Hills.	eng
54422	habitat		It lives in or near flowing water in lower montane and submontane forest, often in very steep, precipitous areas close to torrents. It probably hides in holes during the day, and breeds in mountain streams.	eng
54422	population		It is common on Mount Manenguba.	eng
54422	threats		This species is experiencing severe habitat loss within its very small range. However, it is capable of adapting to a measure of forest degradation.	eng
54423	conservation		It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, which involves community management of the area involving the local villages, but which needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the species' current population status.	eng
54423	distribution		This species is known only from high altitudes (2,000-2,600m asl) in western Cameroon; there are records from the Bamboutos Mountains, Lake Oku, and Mount Neshele in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
54423	habitat		It lives in grassy marshes, around lakes, and along streams and watercourses in montane forest, montane shrubland, and montane grassland. Its breeding habitat is not fully known, but it appears to be less tied to flowing water than other members of its genus.	eng
54423	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54423	threats		Overgrazing, forest clearance, and changes in water quality are probably the major threats to this species.	eng
54424	conservation		It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
54424	distribution		This species is endemic to western Cameroon at altitudes of 1,300-2,450m asl. The nominate subspecies is recorded from Mount Manenguba, Mount Mbam, Santa, Mount Bana, Mount Ngokham, the Bamboutos Mountains, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, and is likely also to occur on Mount Oku. The subspecies <em>A. r. tchabelensis</em> is known only from the southern slopes of Tchabal Mbaba, at 1,700-1,900m asl, in Cameroon, and might occur on the Mambila Plateau in eastern Nigeria.	eng
54424	habitat		It lives in both the submontane and montane zones, and is typically associated with small streams in forest where it breeds. However, at higher altitudes above 2,000m asl it can also be found along streams in montane grassland, sometimes bordered with trees. It seems able to tolerate minor disturbance of its habitat. The subspecies <em>A. r. tchabelensis</em> lives in relict gallery forests in a generally deforested area.	eng
54424	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54424	threats		Although it is likely that it can tolerate a degree of habitat alteration, this species is probably declining as a result of widespread habitat loss and degradation within its restricted range, mainly due to smallholder agricultural activities, subsistence wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54425	conservation		It might occur in the Douala-Edea Forest Reserve and Lac Ossa Wildlife Reserve. The remaining forest habitat in south-western Cameroon is urgently in need of improved protection.	eng
54425	distribution		This species is known only from two general areas in south-western Cameroon: Apouh and Koupongo, near Edéa, in southern Cameroon (these two localities are 50km apart, and are separated by the Sanaga River). Records from the northern part of Korup National Park, east to Nguti, and north to Mount Nta Ali (Lawson 1993) are based on misidentifications and refer to <em>Astylosternus diadematus</em> (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).	eng
54425	habitat		It lives in and near flowing water in lowland forest, and can survive in tall, secondary forest. It breeds in small streams and in marshy depressions with very small, superficial streams.	eng
54425	population		It appears to be a rare species occurring at low densities in the southern parts of its range.	eng
54425	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation.	eng
54426	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it might occur in Campo-Ma'an National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at where the species is known to occur.	eng
54426	distribution		This species is known only from the western edge of the southern Cameroon plateau, though it might occur more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is 300-1,000m asl.	eng
54426	habitat		This is a species of lowland rainforest in hilly country. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to forest disturbance. It breeds in streams, and the males call from rocky areas (under rocks or in cracks) close to small streams.	eng
54426	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54426	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss from smallholder farming activities and logging.	eng
54427	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed in the Bamboutos Mountains. In view of its tiny range and possible impacts of climate change, a captive-breeding programme should probably be established.	eng
54427	distribution		This species is known from the Bamboutos Mountains in the Bamenda Highlands of western Cameroon, at altitudes of 2,300-2,700m asl. It probably also occurs on Mount Oku in the Bamenda Highlands.	eng
54427	habitat		It lives in bamboo forest and, in the rainy season, grazed montane grasslands where it hides under rocks in seepage areas. It lives in drier areas than other members of its genus. It has never been found at its breeding sites, but it is likely to breed in small streams in rocky areas.	eng
54427	population		It is most common above 2,400-2,450m asl.	eng
54427	threats		It is probably under severe threat from habitat loss and overgrazing. Like other high-altitude species, it also could be at risk from climate change.	eng
54428	conservation		It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. Further research is needed into the harvest level of tadpoles of this species from the wild.	eng
54428	distribution		This species occurs on the southern and western edge of the Cameroon mountain range (excluding Mount Cameroon), extending to the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. In Cameroon, it is known from Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, the Mbos Cliffs, Fotabong, Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Acha Tugi near Oshie, Bafut near Bamenda, and the Rumpi Hills. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,750m asl.	eng
54428	habitat		An inhabitant of forest in the submontane zone, usually near rocky streams and springs, or on mossy talus slopes with fissures and caves. It avoids dry areas, living in places where there tends to be orographic mists during the dry season. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams in rocky areas.	eng
54428	population		It is generally common in suitable habitat.	eng
54428	threats		The major threat to this species is forest loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction. The tadpoles are eaten locally by villagers in the Rumpi Hills.	eng
54429	conservation		Its conservation will be facilitated by the fact that it occurs in at least one protected area, the Reserve de Faune de la Lope.	eng
54429	distribution		This newly discovered species is known only from the Reserve de Faune de la Lope in Gabon. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54429	habitat		Assuming that it is similar to other members of the genus, it is associated with rocky places near streams in lowland rainforest, and breeds in streams.	eng
54429	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
54429	threats		If it occurs more widely than is currently known, it is probably being affected by forest loss in other parts of its range.	eng
54430	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
54430	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of western Cameroon. There are records from Banyo (near Batie), Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Foto, Mbakang, Mount Nlonako and Bafut, with an isolated population to the east on Mount Ngorro. It probably also occurs in the western section of the Adamawa Plateau, and perhaps also in Nigeria. It ranges from 800-1,450m asl.	eng
54430	habitat		It lives in degraded forest, dense bush and raffia palm verges along swamps bordering rocky streams. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
54430	population		It is a common species.	eng
54430	threats		Although it can tolerate some habitat disturbance, it is probably threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction throughout its range.	eng
54431	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.	eng
54431	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon, and from Bimbia Hill east of Limbe, in western Cameroon. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,000m asl.	eng
54431	habitat		It lives in and around streams and springs in forest, usually sheltering in rocky areas. Most of the known localities are in degraded forest, but it requires dense vegetation in order to survive. Its absence above 1,000m asl is probably related to the lack of streams, which it needs to breed, at high altitudes on Mount Cameroon.	eng
54431	population		It is abundant at many localities on the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon.	eng
54431	threats		Despite its tolerance of secondary vegetation, populations are likely to be threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, subsistence wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54432	conservation		It is not currently recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for improved protection of remaining forest habitats on Mount Manenguba.	eng
54432	distribution		This species is known only from the south-eastern slopes of Mount Manenguba at 1,550-1,800m asl in western Cameroon.	eng
54432	habitat		It is found in submontane and lower montane forest, around springs and streams, living in holes, humus, gravel, root masses and dense undergrowth. It can survive in open, disturbed forest. It presumably breeds in streams, and co-exists with <em>Leptodactylodon mertensi</em> around 1,700m asl.	eng
54432	population		It is reported to be abundant within its tiny range, and is most common at altitudes of 1,700-1,800m asl.	eng
54432	threats		Habitat loss is taking place on Mount Manenguba due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction, and while this species is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance, it is nonetheless at severe risk in view of its tiny range.	eng
54433	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forest habitat at the sites where it occurs, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.	eng
54433	distribution		This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau (at Mount Bana and Petit Diboum), Mount Nlonako and Mount Manenguba, western Cameroon. It occurs between 1,000 and 1,850m asl, though only up to 1,700m asl on Mount Manenguba, above which it is replaced by <em>Leptodactylodon erythrogaster</em>.	eng
54433	habitat		It lives in dense undergrowth in submontane and lower montane forest, and in the dense herbage of raffia palm beds along streams. It can also survive in dense secondary forest habitats. The males call near pools and riffles in small streams, or in waterlogged humus near springs. It avoids rocky areas and breeds in small streams.	eng
54433	population		It is reported to be abundant on the southern and south-eastern slopes of Mount Manenguba.	eng
54433	threats		Although this species can tolerate a degree of habitat modification, it is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.	eng
54434	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forest habitat at the sites where it occurs, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.	eng
54434	distribution		This species comprises two subspecies, both endemic to western Cameroon: the nominate subspecies occurs on Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, Mount Kupe, the Bonandam Hills and the Ebonji Hills at 200-1,450m asl; <em>Leptodactylodon ornatus permaculatus</em> occurs on the southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Fotabong, Foto, and the Mbos Cliffs, at 1,000-1,400m asl.	eng
54434	habitat		This is not a true montane species, but occurs at low and medium altitudes in hilly areas, usually near mountains, in areas of high rainfall. It lives in wet lowland and submontane forest and also in partially degraded forest. It frequents rocky areas that are found less frequently at lower altitudes. It breeds in fast-flowing streams; the males call from fissures in rocks, or from under stones.	eng
54434	population		Generally, this species is somewhat uncommon, although <em>L. o. permaculatus</em> is not uncommon within its small range.	eng
54434	threats		Despite its tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, this species is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.	eng
54435	conservation		It is thought to occur in Korup National Park, though this has not been confirmed.	eng
54435	distribution		This species occurs in extreme eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon, below 800m asl. Two subspecies are known: the nominate form occurs in the westernmost part of the range (including Nigeria); <em>L. o. orientalis</em> occurs in the east. The ranges of the two subspecies are probably separated around Mount Kupe.	eng
54435	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, requiring forest with a continuous canopy, and is not found in degraded forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams and tiny watercourses in the forest. The males call from holes and cracks in rocks.	eng
54435	population		This is a common species.	eng
54435	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of its lowland forest habitat.	eng
54436	conservation		It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but remains largely unprotected elsewhere in its range. BirdLife International has conducted a conservation project on Mount Oku for several years; this project involves community management of the area involving the local villages, but it also needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.	eng
54436	distribution		This species is known only from the higher peaks of western Cameroon in the Bamenda Highlands, and further north-east at Tchabal Mbaba. In the Bamenda Highlands it is known from the Bamboutos Mountains, Mount Mbam, Mount Ngokham, Mount Lefo, Mount Oku, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,650m asl.	eng
54436	habitat		This is mainly a species of the montane zone, but it also occurs in smaller numbers in the submontane zone down to 1,200m asl. It is strictly confined to forest, and the males call from secluded sites and holes in humus close to streams. At higher altitudes, it breeds in shallow marshes in forest traversed by small, superficial streams. At lower altitudes it breeds in streams in rocky areas.	eng
54436	population		It is reported to be common within its restricted range.	eng
54436	threats		It is seriously threatened by extensive forest loss, mainly from smallholder farming, throughout its range.	eng
54437	conservation		It occurs in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
54437	distribution		This species occurs in the western Cameroonian highlands, excluding Mount Cameroon, Mount Kupe, Mount Nlonako, Mount Manenguba and the Rumpi Hills. It also occurs on the Obdudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria. There are two subspecies: <em>L. p. polyacanthus</em> occurs in the northern parts of the species' range at 1,640-1,900m asl in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, Acha Tugi on Mount Oshie, and the Obudu Plateau; and <em>L. p. punctiventris</em> occurs in the southern part of the range at 1,000-1,400m asl on the wet southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Foto, Fotabong, Fongo-Tongo, the Mbos Cliffs, Petit Diboum and Mount Bana.	eng
54437	habitat		It lives in montane and submontane forest and degraded forest. During the breeding season males can be found on wet clay, in rock crevices, and small streams; the females hide under stones. Breeding takes place in streams and springs.	eng
54437	population		It is a common species.	eng
54437	threats		Although it can tolerate degraded forest, it is likely to be threatened by ongoing forest loss due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood extraction.	eng
54438	conservation		It occurs in the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and in the recently gazetted (2002) Monts de Cristal National Park in Gabon.	eng
54438	distribution		This species was discovered in the Monts de Cristal in north-western Gabon at 460-550m asl. Specimens assigned to this species have also been found at Monte Alen in Equatorial Guinea, where it might occur up to 1,000m asl.	eng
54438	habitat		It has been found only in primary forest under rocks along streams in deep, narrow valleys. It breeds in fast-flowing, rocky streams.	eng
54438	population		It has only recently been described, and only two specimens are known from Gabon. Its population status in Equatorial Guinea is difficult to assess, since it is hard to locate.	eng
54438	threats		It is at risk from habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and logging.	eng
54439	conservation		It might occur in a few protected areas, though this is not confirmed. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.	eng
54439	distribution		This species occurs in the lowlands of south-western Cameroon, south of the Sanaga River, at 50-1,150m asl.	eng
54439	habitat		It is strictly a forest species, not occurring in secondary habitats. Outside the breeding season it can be found among dead leaves on the forest floor. During the breeding season, males call from rocky areas by streams and springs in forest, especially in valley heads where there are boulders under which tiny currents of water flow. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
54439	population		It is not uncommon in its favoured habitat, though it is less common on the coastal plain.	eng
54439	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of forest loss and fragmentation due to logging.	eng
54440	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and its remaining habitat in the Bakossi Mountains requires urgent protection.	eng
54440	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the villages of Kodmin and Edib in the Bakossi Mountains, 1,000-1,350m asl, in western Cameroon, although it might be a bit more widespread.	eng
54440	habitat		It lives in montane forest, often close to small streams; there is no information on its ability to tolerate changes to its habitat. Breeding takes place in springs and rivulets.	eng
54440	population		It is generally an uncommon species.	eng
54440	threats		It is probably threatened by forest clearance for smallholder farming.	eng
54441	conservation		It occurs in Cross River National Park (Nigeria), Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and probably in some other protected areas.	eng
54441	distribution		This species occurs in extreme southeastern Nigeria (from where it has recently been recorded in the Oban Hills (M. Gartshore pers. comm.), southern and southwestern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea, generally at low elevations up to 900m asl.	eng
54441	habitat		This is a lowland forest species occurring in hilly areas up to 900m asl. It favours forests that have humid, but not marshy, floors, and requires tall forest with a closed canopy. It breeds in fast, rocky streams with clean water. The males call from the ground not far from water.	eng
54441	population		It is a common species, especially at 300-900m asl.	eng
54441	threats		It is presumably declining as a result of habitat loss.	eng
54442	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and is certainly in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and the Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
54442	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe Hills in the extreme west of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There are records from western and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon, and southern Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.	eng
54442	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest, including secondary forest. It breeds in flowing water, from torrents to slow streams, with a preference for wide, shallow streams with sandy banks.	eng
54442	population		It is a common species at low altitudes.	eng
54442	threats		It is presumably declining because of forest loss within its range.	eng
54443	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54443	distribution		This species occurs in lowlands from the Osamba Hills in eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe Hills in extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.	eng
54443	habitat		It lives in fast-flowing rivers in lowland rainforest, and in secondary and agricultural habitats, including tea plantations. The tadpoles live in fast, even torrential, water, and at the foot of small waterfalls.	eng
54443	population		It is rare around Yaounde, but much more common in the west of its range in Cameroon.	eng
54443	threats		It is presumably decreasing because of declining water quality, but it appears to be relatively tolerant of changes in the terrestrial habitats around its streams. It is subject to intense hunting pressure for food, and is often rare in the areas around villages. In the Rumpi Hills in Cameroon, local people eat the tadpoles.	eng
54444	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and effective conservation of large areas of remaining forest habitat is urgently required to help prevent the siltation of rivers.	eng
54444	distribution		This species is known only from West Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo, where it is presently known only from two localities in the middle of the Kapuas River basin: Nanga Sayan (0° 44'S; 111° 40'E), 33km south of Nanga Pinoh; and Sungai Kelawit (0° 37'S; 111° 47'E), in the Melawi River basin, about 1km upstream from Nanga Pintas. It presumably ranges at least a little more widely, but it probably has a restricted distribution.	eng
54444	habitat		Both known specimens were collected in clear rocky rivers, about 20-50m wide, under large rocks in midstream within tropical moist forest. The morphology of these frogs and the sites of collection indicate that this species is fully aquatic, and is probably dependent upon clear water with a high oxygen content. Breeding ecology is not known, but it possibly breeds by direct development. It has not been found in open areas outside forest.	eng
54444	population		It is known only from two specimens collected 20 years apart. Directed surveys, in suitable habitat, close to the type locality have not recovered any further populations. This suggests that either the species has a very limited distribution or that it exists in very small numbers (R.F. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
54444	threats		The area where this species occurs is now very highly disturbed due to illegal gold mining, and the rivers have become severely degraded as a result of siltation and also pollution with mercury waste (following its use for gold extraction). It is probably also affected by siltation of its aquatic habitat following deforestation of the surrounding land.	eng
54446	conservation		The population of this species in Hubei Province is probably within Lichuanxiaoheshuisha Nature Reserve.	eng
54446	distribution		This species is known only from Beiyang, Lichuan in Hubei Province and Mabian County in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,830m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.	eng
54446	habitat		This species inhabits marshes in forested, mountainous areas. It breeds in pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
54446	population		It is very rare.	eng
54446	threats		The major threat to this species is forest loss due to small-scale agriculture and human settlement.	eng
54449	conservation		This species is present within a number of protected areas in China and the Korean Peninsula and six nature reserves in Russia. It is listed on the Red Data Book of Khabarovskii Region, Russia. There is a need to monitor the relatively small Russian population.	eng
54449	distribution		This species is found in northeastern China, throughout the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea and in the Khabarovsk and Primorye regions in Russia. Records of this species from southern Japan (Tsushima and Kiushiu islands) are now believed to be in error (M. Matsui pers. comm.). There is a small-introduced population of this species close to Beijing. It is a lowland species present to 500m asl (Russia).	eng
54449	habitat		It inhabits mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests, open meadows, river valleys and swampy bush lands. It breeds in streams, pools, paddy fields, ditches and other waterbodies. This species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54449	population		It is regarded as common in both China and Russia.	eng
54449	threats		This species is generally threatened by habitat loss and degradation. In Russia, the collection of animals for traditional Chinese medicine might be a potential threat. Moderate numbers are exported, mainly to western Europe and North America in the international pet trade.	eng
54450	conservation	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Filippo Giachi, Stefano Vanni, Giovanni Delfino, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, in both cases under <em>Bombina variegata</em>. It is known to occur in many protected areas including several National Parks. The cause of recent severe declines in this species requires urgent investigation and action.	eng
54450	distribution	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Filippo Giachi, Stefano Vanni, Giovanni Delfino, 2008	This species is endemic to Italy, where it occurs south of the Po Valley, through the Appenine region, south to the southern tip of the Italian mainland. It ranges from 20m up to almost 1,700m asl (in Latium).	eng
54450	habitat	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Filippo Giachi, Stefano Vanni, Giovanni Delfino, 2008	The species occurs in shallow, unshaded pools in forests and open areas. Spawning and larval development takes place in these pools. It also occurs in modified habitats, such as low-intensity farmland, pastureland, ditches, irrigations areas, drinking troughs, and ponds.	eng
54450	population	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Filippo Giachi, Stefano Vanni, Giovanni Delfino, 2008	It was formerly common in suitable habitat. However, the species has declined in almost all of its range (with the exception of Calabria, where populations remain stable) over the last 10 years. A survey of representative sites across the species' range showed that the species disappeared from >50% of surveyed sites between 1996 and 2004 (55 occupied sites in 1996 versus 23 occupied sites in 2004: Barbieri <em>et al</em>. 2004). Significant recent declines in the populations of this species have been recorded from the Province of Siena (Piazzini <em>et al</em>. 2005); Abruzzo (Ferri <strong>et al</strong>. 2007); Ancona (Fiacchini 2003); Lazio (Bologna <em>et al</em>. 2000; Bologna <em>et al</em>. 2007) and Emilia-Romagna (Stagni <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
54450	threats	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Filippo Giachi, Stefano Vanni, Giovanni Delfino, 2008	Threats to this species are presumed to largely include loss and fragmentation of wetland habitat to drainage for intensive agricultural purposes. However many populations appear to have declined in areas of presumably intact habitat. In some places it may have very small populations (10-12 individuals [Mattoccia <em>et al</em>. 2005]); these small populations are highly subject to stochastic extinctions. This species might also be threatened with chytridiomycosis, which has been associated with the deaths of several captive animals (Stagni <em>et al.</em>, 2002; Stagni <em>et al.</em> 2005), and further research into the possible impacts of this disease on populations of this species is needed. The cause of recent serious population declines remains incompletely known, but it has been speculated that chytridiomycosis is responsible.	eng
54451	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Milan Vogrin, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annexes II and IV of Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation over much of its range and is present in many protected areas. Appropriate habitat management is needed to maintain wetlands and prevent succession to scrub and woodland. Re-introductions of the species might be needed in parts of the range. There is a need to monitor population changes in this species, especially in the hybrid zone between B. variegata and B. bombina.	eng
54451	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Milan Vogrin, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is distributed over much of central and southern Europe. It is generally present from central France through central Germany and northern and western Switzerland, north-eastern Italy, the Balkan region and the Carpathian Mountains. Isolated populations are present in Hungary and northern Germany, and its range in northwestern France is now severely fragmented. It is probably extinct in Belgium and some populations have been lost in the south of France. There is only one population remaining in Luxembourg, and the same is true in the Netherlands. The presence of isolated populations in southwestern France (Medoc and Landes) requires confirmation. It has been introduced to the United Kingdom, but it is not known if the species is still present and is not mapped here. The species has an altitudinal range of 100-2,100m asl. Its distribution in western and north-western parts of its range is more fragmented than is shown on the distribution map.	eng
54451	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Milan Vogrin, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	It can be found in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests, bushlands and meadows, floodplains and grasslands. At low elevations this species lives in deciduous forests, at higher altitudes it is more often found in coniferous forests and highland glades. The species uses many types of wetland, including lakes, ponds, swamps, rivers, stream pools, springs (including mineral and thermal springs), puddles, reservoirs, gravel and clay pits, ditches and even water filled wheel ruts. The breeding habitats are typically unshaded temporary pools within, or close to, woodland. The species can tolerate slight water pollution, and has been recorded at very high densities in areas of cleared woodland in the Carpathian Mountains. This species regularly hybridizes with <em>B. bombina</em> in many contact areas.	eng
54451	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Milan Vogrin, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	The species has experienced local extinctions and population declines in western and north-western parts of its range (e.g., southern Switzerland, northwestern and southern France, Germany). However, over parts of its range such as the Carpathian Mountains, Poland and Slovenia, it is still common in suitable habitat.	eng
54451	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Mathieu Denoël, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Milan Vogrin, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	At a global scale, the species appears not to be significantly threatened. Populations of this species might be locally threatened by the loss of suitable habitat to urbanization, road construction, industry (including oil extraction and transportation) and discharge of pollutants into wetlands. Additionally, it is reported that it is collected as bait by fishermen in certain regions and that it is occasionally collected in large numbers for both the pet trade and scientific use. The impact of collection on this species needs further research. Some artificial habitats where the species occurs (e.g. gravel and clay pits) are threatened by succession. Hybridization with <em>B. bombina</em> might also be considered a threat, at least in some areas. Mosaic hybridization in Transylvania has resulted in the loss of pure populations (Vines 2004).	eng
54452	conservation		More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is also required. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
54452	distribution		This species is known from forests in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.	eng
54452	habitat		It occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest, where it also lays its eggs. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats, and has only been observed in good quality secondary forest.	eng
54452	population		It is a difficult species to find because it is so small but it is thought to be relatively common.	eng
54452	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development.	eng
54453	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. It has been recommended that the population trends of this species should be monitored over a long period of time, as it is likely to be a good indicator of the condition of the Atlantic Forest ecosystem.	eng
54453	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil (in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo) from Ilheus (Bahia) in the north, south to Campinas (São Paulo). It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl. Records from Paraná require confirmation.	eng
54453	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development, not requiring water, and the egg clutch is deposited on forest floor and each egg is covered by soil particles.	eng
54453	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
54453	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	The main threats relate to extensive habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, clear-cutting, human settlement, and tourism.	eng
54454	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed as a conservation measure, in particular to confirm the existence of this species at other localities. Further maintenance and conservation of its habitat is also recommended. This species' range includes Parque Estadual da Serra da Cantareira.	eng
54454	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Cantareira, in São Paulo State, Brazil. There might be other localities identified soon, but resolution of its taxonomic status is still required. It is known from around 1,000m asl.	eng
54454	habitat		All specimens were collected on the forest floor of primary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus, but this has not been observed.	eng
54454	population		This species can sometimes be locally common.	eng
54454	threats		Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species, and the Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
54455	conservation		Its entire known range has been declared a protected area, but there is no infrastructure in place yet. Additional research actions are also needed to conserve this species (for example, to determine the limits of its range), which is listed as threatened on the Paraná state list of threatened species.	eng
54455	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Morro Anhangava, in the Serra da Baitaca, and from Morretes, both in Paraná State, Brazil, in Atlantic forest at an altitude of 450m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
54455	habitat		Males and females have been found on the forest floor or amidst leaf-litter in montane humid forest. Its reproduction is via direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground.	eng
54455	population		It is relatively common within its small, known range.	eng
54455	threats		Habitat destruction is the main threat to this species. The Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. At certain localities, excessive tourism might also be affecting the populations as visitors trample the habitat.	eng
54456	conservation		This species' range overlaps with three protected areas.	eng
54456	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (in the Serra da Bocaina) and from the municipality of Cunha, both in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 800m asl.	eng
54456	habitat		All specimens were collected on the forest floor of primary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
54456	population		t is known only from the original collection, and it has not been found again since it was first collected in 1998, even though the area has been resurveyed.	eng
54456	threats		Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species, and the Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil has suffered extensive destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging.	eng
54457	conservation		The species is present in the 224-km² Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. Additional survey work is needed to determine the population status of the species.	eng
54457	distribution		This species is restricted to a single locality "Moray Estate, Rajamally, near Mousakelle, alt. 1,370m asl" in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary of the Adam's Peak area in Sri Lanka. It had previously been collected in the late 1890s at the town Nuwara Eliya (1,710m asl), but is now considered to be extinct at this location (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.).	eng
54457	habitat		It is associated with hill streams in tropical moist forest. Adults can be found on mossy wet rocks within streams, and in riparian leaf-litter. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54457	population		This is a rare species, now known only from the Moray Estate. There is no information on its current population status.	eng
54457	threats		The extremely restricted distribution of this species makes it very susceptible to water pollution from adjacent tea plantations and the possible negative impacts of tourism within the area.	eng
54458	conservation		It was not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54458	distribution		This species was endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). The scientific name suggests that it might have been collected in the vicinity of the city of Kandy, central Sri Lanka. As the site of collection is unclear, the species has not been mapped.	eng
54458	habitat		While there is nothing known with certainty about the habitat and ecology of this species, it presumably bred by larval development in water as do other members of <em>Adenomus</em>.	eng
54458	population		It is known only from the type specimen. There have been no sightings since the original description and the species is now believed to be extinct (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 1998). The general area of Kandy, where this frog is presumed to have occurred, has been well surveyed.	eng
54458	threats		Although the causes of the species extinction not known, if the original collection locality was truly in the vicinity of Kandy, then it is quite likely that extensive urban development has destroyed any suitable habitat (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 1998).	eng
54459	conservation		The species has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Kanneliya Reserve Forest, Haycock Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and Kitulgala Forest Reserve. Continued and improved management of these reserves is recommended.	eng
54459	distribution		This species is a Sri Lankan endemic, and is found over much of the south-west of the island. It has been recorded at elevations between 30 and 1,230m asl.	eng
54459	habitat		It is normally terrestrial, but also sometimes semi-arboreal, and is associated with hill streams in tropical wet forest. Adults have been observed in rock crevices, leaf-litter and decaying logs, and within tree holes. Larvae are found in permanent pools.	eng
54459	population		It is fairly common where it occurs.	eng
54459	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to the clearance (clear cutting) of forested areas, agrochemical pollution, and expansion of cardamom plantations.	eng
54460	conservation		At least one of the sites where this toad remains common lies within the Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area is not formally gazetted. Nonetheless, there is a long-running conservation programme in the Bale Mountains National Park (led by the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme). The priority action for the species is the protection of remaining montane forest habitats from commercial and subsistence exploitation. It is listed in Appendix I of CITES, though it is not present in international trade.	eng
54460	distribution		This species is endemic to the Bale Mountains at 3,200-4,000m asl, in Bale Province, Ethiopia.	eng
54460	habitat		This species spans the transition from <em>Schefflera-Hagenia-Hypericum</em> forest to Afro-alpine moorland. Egg strings are deposited amongst moist herbaceous vegetation where development proceeds to metamorphosis through a terrestrial larval stage.	eng
54460	population		During the period 1971-1986, it was found to be common at several sites within its very limited geographical range. The lack of recent records is due to the absence of survey work.	eng
54460	threats		The main threat is probably timber extraction from high-altitude forest, and there is some evidence that this may already have occurred at the type locality.	eng
54461	conservation		Parque Nacional Natural Munchique is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
54461	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl.	eng
54461	habitat		Both known specimens were found on leaves in primary forest. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although it is suspected to breed by direct development.	eng
54461	population		It is known only from two specimens collected in 1980, and there has been no recent sampling for the species, so its population status is unknown.	eng
54461	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown. However, illegal crops are grown in the park, which might threaten its habitat.	eng
54462	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
54462	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality ("Cabacera del Rio Baboso, cerca a Lita’, Carchi Province, Ecuador"), and one other locality close by in the province of Carchi, in the north-western Andes of Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,180-1,400m asl.	eng
54462	habitat		The holotype was collected on a branch some 50cm above the ground in the forest of a small creek at night (Hoogmoed 1985). A male was collected at night sitting on a tree trunk in a creek, while a female was collected in the afternoon on the forest floor near a creek (Hoogmoed 1989).	eng
54462	population		It is a very rare species, and there have been no records since September 1984. Subsequent visits to the type locality have failed to find any individuals.	eng
54462	threats		The type locality has been severely impacted by habitat destruction as a result of agriculture and logging. In addition, spraying of herbicides in Colombia to control crops is polluting the species' habitat.	eng
54463	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Paul Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	It occurs in Reserva Natural Río Ñambi in Colombia. More research is needed to determine its range, life history and population status.	eng
54463	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Paul Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	This species is currently known from the type locality, Tandayapa, in the province of Pichincha, in northwestern Ecuador, and from Reserva Natural Río Ñambi, vereda El Barro, Corregimiento Ortiz y Zamora, municipality of Barbacoas, Nariño, southwestern Colombia. The species can be found around 1,500 m asl.	eng
54463	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Paul Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest. Its breeding habits are not known.	eng
54463	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Paul Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	Its population status is unknown. There have been no records at the type locality since the 1970s. Although the type locality is often visited by herpetologists, subsequent visits have failed to find any individuals, despite over 150 person-hours of searching (Delia and Cisneros pers. comm.). In Nariño it is known from three specimens collected in 2001 and 2002 (Murillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
54463	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Paul Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	Agriculture and logging are threats to this species' habitat at the type locality.	eng
54464	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, and the continued protection of large areas of hilly rainforests is essential.	eng
54464	distribution		This species is endemic to Borneo where it is known from several widely scattered localities across the northern part of the island, in relatively steep terrain, at altitudes of 150-350m asl.	eng
54464	habitat		The adults of this species are mostly terrestrial and disperse widely over the rainforest floor. Breeding takes place in small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams. The larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. This species appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54464	population		It appears to be abundant in a few places, although in general the population is decreasing in direct proportion to rates of deforestation.	eng
54464	threats		The major threat is forest loss and fragmentation, due to the conversion of forests to rubber and oil palm plantations, as well as the resulting eutrophication of streams by chemical fertilisers and stream siltation (thereby depriving larvae of feeding sites).	eng
54466	conservation		It occurs in Kinabalu National Park, which is well protected. Surveys of potentially suitable areas of habitat in adjacent parts of Borneo are needed to determine whether or not this species might occur elsewhere, and also to help better understand its current population status.	eng
54466	distribution		This Bornean endemic is known only from the montane forests of Kinabalu, Malaysia. Attempts to locate the species on Gunung Mulu in Sarawak have not been successful. The altitudinal range is 1,500-3,050m asl.	eng
54466	habitat		Most records are from moist montane and sub-alpine forest above 2,500m asl. Adults are terrestrial, and breeding is presumed to take place in forest streams.	eng
54466	population		The current population status of this species is unknown. It is rarely encountered.	eng
54466	threats		The major threat to this species in the future is likely to be selective logging.	eng
54467	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54467	distribution		This species is known only from the holotype collected at Napal Licin, Musi Rawas District, south Sumatra, Indonesia. There are further records of <em>Ansonia</em> species in Sumatra that might refer to this species, or to undescribed species. Voucher specimens are needed before the identity of these records can be confirmed.	eng
54467	habitat		It was collected in lowland tropical rainforest that is influenced by regular flooding during the rainy season. The single known specimen was found close to a small stream during the rainy season, and this species is presumed to breed in these streams, adopting a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
54467	population		This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
54467	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54468	conservation		The species occurs in Kinabalu National Park, which is well protected. However, the area where this species is particularly abundant is increasingly subject to the impact of tourist activities. There is a particular need to expand the existing protected area network (especially above 1,200m asl) south of Kinabalu National Park.	eng
54468	distribution		This species is endemic to a portion of montane north-western Sabah (northern Borneo). A large subpopulation exists at one corner of Kinabalu National Park between 1,600 and 2,000m asl. A small population has also been found on Mount Trus Madi at 1,300m asl. Attempts to locate the species on Gunung Mulu in Sarawak have not been successful. It has not been found at other montane sites south of Trus Madi.	eng
54468	habitat		Adults disperse widely over the floor of montane and submontane forests. It breeds in small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams and larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54468	population		It is sometimes locally very abundant, especially along streams.	eng
54468	threats		As Trus Madi is being actively logged, it is likely that the population there will be diminished, if not driven to extinction. Destruction of the forest at Trus Madi will probably lead to the siltation of streams in which the larvae develop. If the species occurs at other montane sites, these are likely to remain as insular isolates because of the extensive deforestation taking place at lower elevations.	eng
54469	conservation	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	This species is known to be present in Kinabalu, Gunung Mulu and Kayan Mentarang National Parks.	eng
54469	distribution	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	This Bornean endemic occurs at a number of sites within Kinabalu National Park, and the Crocker Range south of Kinabalu in Sabah, in Gunung Mulu Park in Sarawak, and also in the montane forests of Kalimantan, including Kayan Mentarang National Park in East Kalimantan. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is from 750-1,600 m asl.	eng
54469	habitat	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	Adults are found on the floor of submontane and montane forests. Breeding takes place in clear, rocky mountain streams. The larvae cling to rocks in the torrents of these streams. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54469	population	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	It is abundant at most locations where it has been recorded.	eng
54469	threats	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	The main threat to the species is siltation of streams needed for larval development, as a result of logging in the submontane and montane forests, and the clearance of forests for cultivation.	eng
54470	conservation		Regarding this species' conservation, the type locality is within Doi Inthanon National Park, while the second known locality is from an area that is being proposed as a national park, but improved protection and management are recommended. Studies of its population status, distribution and natural history are needed, and ecological studies are ongoing.	eng
54470	distribution		This species is known from two localities in Thailand: the type locality in Doi Inthanon, and Thongphaphum, in Kanchanaburi Province. It has only recently been discovered, and is cryptic and easily overlooked and might be found to be more wide-ranging. It has been recorded between 930 and 1,650m asl.	eng
54470	habitat		This species inhabits forest on sloping land, generally in the vicinity of small streams. It breeds in waterfalls, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
54470	population		It is apparently not rare in suitable habitat (Matsui <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
54470	threats		The type locality is a national park, but this area is under some threat from habitat degradation through agricultural encroachment. This species is used in medical research, but it is not collected at a level that constitutes a threat.The American bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) has also been deliberately introduced to this region and does pose a potential threat.	eng
54471	conservation		Effective preservation of hilly rainforest in the regions of the two known localities is essential. In addition, further survey work in the hilly border area of Sarawak and Kalimantan is necessary to help provide a better indication of the species' current population status.	eng
54471	distribution		This species is known only from two locations in the western corner of Borneo: Mount Damus, near Sambas, in Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Mount Penrissen, in western Sarawak (Malaysia). It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.	eng
54471	habitat		The known localities were primary, hilly rainforest at the time the frogs were collected. The adults are primarily terrestrial, and the larvae are found in forest streams. If it is similar to other members of its genus, it is unlikely to be able to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54471	population		There are no estimates of population size. Only two specimens are known and it was last collected over 50 years ago. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54471	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation primarily as a result of logging. The remaining suitable habitat within its range has been almost entirely converted for recreational use (one of the two known sites, Mount Penrissen, has recently been converted into a golf course), or converted to cultivated land. An additional threat is the resultant sedimentation of streams (following logging) which results in the deterioration of breeding habitat.	eng
54473	conservation		This species is known to occur in several protected areas, including in Sabah and Sarawak. However, in Kalimantan, the existing forest preserves and parks are not well protected.	eng
54473	distribution		This widespread Bornean endemic is present in relatively steep terrain from 150-1,500m asl.	eng
54473	habitat		Adults can be found on the floor and herb stratum of rainforests. It requires small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams to breed in, an environment that persists only where forest cover is intact. Larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. This species is unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54473	population		It is known to be abundant at several localities.	eng
54473	threats		The main threat is rampant habitat loss due to the rapid clearing of forest in Borneo, and the subsequent siltation of streams.	eng
54474	conservation		The species occurs in a number of protected areas and reserved forests. It is protected by national legislation in Thailand.	eng
54474	distribution		This species is reported from much of Peninsular Malaysia, and Yala province to Chumphon, Thailand. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is also present on Phuket Island, Thailand. It is found at altitudes between 300 and 1,300m asl.	eng
54474	habitat		It is associated with lowland and montane tropical moist forests. Adults are often encountered in boulder crevices and leaf-litter in streams. Breeding takes place in these streams where the larvae also develop. It has been recorded in selectively logged forest after three years of regrowth.	eng
54474	population		It appears to be locally common in Peninsular Malaysia, but is uncommon in Peninsular Thailand.	eng
54474	threats		It is only threatened by possible future clear cutting of forest habitat. Siltation of forest streams might threaten larval habitat.	eng
54475	conservation		It is recorded from several protected areas on Mindanao, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo and Mount Kitanlad Range Natural Parks. Conservation measures should include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests, on Mindanao.	eng
54475	distribution		This species is found in the mountains of central and western Mindanao Island in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54475	habitat		It inhabits cool mountain streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds in streams, which is where the larvae also develop.	eng
54475	population		It is fairly common.	eng
54475	threats		The major threats include habitat loss and deforestation, due to agriculture and logging, and water pollution.	eng
54476	conservation		This species is known from the Kayan Mentarang protected area and continued protection of large areas of hilly rainforest is needed.	eng
54476	distribution		This Bornean endemic is known only from a few localities in western and central Sarawak (Malaysia) and scattered areas of Kalimantan (Indonesia), although it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. All known localities lie between 200 and 1,000m asl.	eng
54476	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of lowland moist tropical forest, which breeds in small, clear, rocky streams where the larvae also develop. It has not been found in modified habitats.	eng
54476	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54476	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation largely due to the effects of extensive logging on lowland Borneo.	eng
54477	conservation		It is known from several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially high-elevation riverine habitats and gallery forests, on Mindanao. The taxonomic status of this species requires further study.	eng
54477	distribution		This species is found in the mountains of Mindanao and Dinagat Islands, in the Philippines.	eng
54477	habitat		It inhabits cool mountain streams and rivers in montane rainforest where it also breeds and the larvae develop.	eng
54477	population		It is fairly common where it occurs, but it has a patchy distribution.	eng
54477	threats		This species inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion, agriculture, and human encroachment, and the pollution of streams and rivers. Regardless, some populations of this species are subject to these threats.	eng
54478	conservation		This species is currently not known with certainty from any protected areas, and strengthened and expanded protection of the remaining forest habitat in this region of the Western Ghats is necessary. It is included as part of ongoing field studies begun in 1998 (S.D. Biju pers. comm.) .	eng
54478	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the type locality of "Brumagherries (Brahmagiri Hills)" and adjoining areas of Coorg, Karnataka, in the southern Western Ghats. There are also unpublished reports of this species from Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka), Silent Valley National Park and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala) (Amphibian CAMP 2002). However, further survey work is needed to confirm that the species does occur at these sites (S.D. Biju pers comm.) and these additional areas are currently not included in the map for this species. It has been recorded at an altitude of around 1,000m asl.	eng
54478	habitat		It is presumably restricted to tropical evergreen forest. Its breeding is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
54478	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54478	threats		The main threat to this species is continuing deforestation (mainly for the cultivation of coffee) in the Coorg area and surroundings.	eng
54480	conservation		The species is known to be present in the Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National parks, both of which are reasonably well managed; however, further protection of the remaining forest habitats, and continued management of the existing protected areas, are needed. Additional surveys of potentially suitable sites in Kalimantan are required to establish whether this species occurs there.	eng
54480	distribution		This Bornean endemic occurs at a number of sites within Kinabalu National Park and at other sites in the Crocker Range south of Kinabalu in Sabah (Malaysia); it is also known from Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak. The altitudinal range in Kinabalu is 600-950m asl (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), and its overall altitudinal range is 750-1,600m asl.	eng
54480	habitat		Adults are found on the floor of montane forests and move to clear, rocky mountain creeks to breed. The larvae cling to rocks in torrents in these streams and presumably feed on lithophytes. It appears not to be able to survive in modified habitats.	eng
54480	population		This species is abundant at most locations where it has been reported (such as the Crocker Range).	eng
54480	threats		Logging in the submontane and montane forests could potentially lead to siltation of the streams needed for larval development and result in loss of the lithophytes.	eng
54481	conservation		It is currently considered to be adequately protected within the Silent Valley National Park. Nonetheless, the population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from two locations.	eng
54481	distribution		This species is present only in the Silent Valley and Wayanad areas of Kerala State in the southern Western Ghats of India (Biju 2001) where it has been recorded at elevations between 1,000 and 1,200m asl.	eng
54481	habitat		It is restricted to tropical evergreen forest, and is associated with torrential streams and the forest floor. Breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
54481	population		It is a rare species, though populations are generally believed to be stable within the Silent Valley National Park.	eng
54481	threats		There are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
54482	conservation		The known range is entirely within the Khao Chong Mountains protected area. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from a single location.	eng
54482	distribution		This species is known from a single locality in the Khao Chong Mountains of Peninsular Thailand. It presumably occurs more widely within these mountains, as has been mapped. The type locality is at an elevation of 300m asl. Some populations in Peninsular Thailand currently assigned to <em>Ansonia malayana</em> might in fact belong to this species (L. Grismer pers. comm.).	eng
54482	habitat		It is restricted to lowland primary tropical moist forest. It is a stream-breeding species.	eng
54482	population		It is apparently uncommon. A pair was collected in 1979, and a further five individuals have been collected since (Kiew 1984b, Matsui, Nabhitabhata and Panha 1998).	eng
54482	threats		The habitat of this species appears to be reasonably well protected at present, and there are currently no major threats. However, given its restricted range, it is potentially at risk from stochastic events and pollution from adjacent tourist sites.	eng
54483	conservation		The species is known from several protected areas, including Kinabalu National Park, which is in Sabah, where good, large areas of forest are now protected, as are some sites in Sarawak. The species might well occur in Kalimantan but existing forest preserves and parks are not well protected. Further protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.	eng
54483	distribution		This Bornean endemic is widely distributed in relatively steep terrain in Malaysia and Indonesia, from 150-750m asl.	eng
54483	habitat		Adults disperse widely over the floor and herb stratum of rainforest. It requires small, clear, rocky-bottomed streams to breed in, and larvae live in torrents, clinging to rocks and feeding on lithophytes. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54483	population		It appears to be abundant at scattered lowland localities.	eng
54483	threats		The main threat to the species is deforestation of large portions of the habitat, with the resultant loss of adult and juvenile (through the siltation of streams) feeding microhabitats. Conversion of forest to oil palm plantations is also a threat and it is possible that a broad portion of its range might soon be converted to <em>Acacia</em> plantations.	eng
54484	conservation		Tioman Island has been designated as a protected area; continued enforcement of this protected status is required. Safeguarding caves and other high-altitude habitats on Tioman Island is needed. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring, given that it is known only from a single location.	eng
54484	distribution		This species is known only from two localities on Tioman Island, Malaysia, at an altitude of 300-1,000m asl.	eng
54484	habitat		It is associated with boulders and waterfalls in caves. Breeding is presumed to take place in streams.	eng
54484	population		The population status of this species is unknown, but it is presumed to be stable at present.	eng
54484	threats		The species' habitat is not currently under immediate threat, but the potential clearance of habitat for tourism infrastructure is of concern for the future.	eng
54485	conservation		The species has been recorded from Gunung Mulu National Park. Further survey work is needed to ascertain whether or not this species is indeed confined to Gunung Mulu. In any event, the population status of this species requires careful monitoring given that it is currently known from only a single location.	eng
54485	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Mulu in northern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at 1,800m asl, though it is possible that it might occur in other montane forest blocks.	eng
54485	habitat		Specimens were observed calling beside a small, clear, mountain stream with a steep gradient. Breeding is presumed to take place in these forest streams.	eng
54485	population		It is believed to be reasonably abundant.	eng
54485	threats		There are no current major threats to this species, but if Gunung Mulu is indeed the only locality at which this species occurs, then it might well be susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
54486	conservation		The upper elevations in the central Cordillera Nombre de Dios have been protected in Pico Bonito National Park since 1988 and also in Refugio de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. Research is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species has been affected by chytridiomycosis. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.	eng
54486	distribution		This species occurs in the middle of the Cordillera Nombre de Dios along the Atlantic versant of north-central Honduras at 750-1,760m asl. It has been collected at only two sites, 60km apart.	eng
54486	habitat		It lives in premontane and lower montane wet forest, and is found breeding in clear water mountain streams.	eng
54486	population		It is uncommon, and the population has been decreasing over the last 15 years.	eng
54486	threats		Major threats to this species include landslides in the upper reaches of streams (due to strong storms and human activities) and slash-and-burn agriculture. As a montane, stream-breeding species, declines could also be linked to chytridiomycosis.	eng
54487	conservation		This species is present in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Given the susceptibility of this species to chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures are likely to require some form of disease management programme and the maintenance of captive populations.	eng
54487	distribution		This species is restricted to the upper Río Biabo Valley (northern versant of the Cordillera Azul) (Departamento de San Martín), the Río Pisqui, (Departamento Loreto), and Río Cachiyacu (on the border of Departamentos San Martín and Loreto), Peru. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
54487	habitat		It is a terrestrial species restricted to submontane tropical forest. Breeding is thought to take place in streams. This species is presumed to be susceptible to habitat change and is therefore not expected to occur in any modified or degraded habitats	eng
54487	population		There is no information on its current population status, but it has been seen as recently as 2004 near Iquitos.	eng
54487	threats		There are no reports of chytridiomycosis impacting this <em>Atelopus</em> species, but it is presumed to be susceptible to this pathogen, which is now causing amphibian declines in northern Peru. It is possible that populations of this species at lower altitudes might be able to survive an outbreak of the disease.	eng
54488	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé, which might benefit in future from improved management. However, given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required. Research into this species' population status and ecological requirements is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
54488	distribution		This species is known only from near Valencia, San Sebastián Municipality, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,900-3,000m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54488	habitat		This species is found on vegetation along side streams in montane Andean forests and sub-páramo bush land. There is no information known about breeding habitats, or its ability to tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
54488	population		There is very little information available, but it was collected as recently as 2000.	eng
54488	threats		There have been serious declines of other high-elevation <em>Atelopus</em> species in the region suggesting that this species might also be at risk. The cause of the declines is still not fully understood, though chytridiomycosis is almost certainly involved, possibly in combination with the effects of climate change.	eng
54489	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species, especially in light of the recent drastic declines observed in other montane <em>Atelopus</em> species. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.	eng
54489	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the department of Cesar, Colombia. It has been recorded between 2000 and 3500 m asl. It might occur a little more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
54489	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, sub-páramo and páramo. Egg chains are placed in fast-flowing water, and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
54489	population		Only six specimens of this species are known, and there have been no records since 1991. It is not yet clear whether or not this reflects lack of survey effort, or a genuine rarity or decline.	eng
54489	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion and logging is also a major threat, as is pollution resulting from the fumigation of crops.	eng
54490	conservation		The range of the species does not encompass any protected areas. However, it was protected in Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras (in Bolívar Province), where it disappeared. The species might be extinct, and it might be too late for measures such as captive breeding; additional survey work is required to confirm the continued persistence of this species in the wild.	eng
54490	distribution		This species is known from three localities on the Pacific versant of the Andes of Ecuador at an altitude of 2,200-3,000m asl. The type locality is 15km north of Pallatanga, in Chimborazo Province. The second and third localities are at Cashca Totoras and Las Guardias, respectively, in Bolivar Province.	eng
54490	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest and sub-páramo. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.	eng
54490	population		This is an extremely rare species and it has not been recorded since 1988, despite searches, particularly at Cashca Totoras (Bustamante 2002). This suggests that a serious decline has taken place.	eng
54490	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The disease has been confirmed in <em>Gastrotheca pseustes</em> in the same area. Other major threats include habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, and agricultural pollution.	eng
54491	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. As the species might be extinct, it might be too late for conservation measures such as captive breeding; additional survey work is required to confirm the continued persistence of this species in the wild.	eng
54491	distribution		This species is known from only four localities in Azuay, Cañar, and Guayas Provinces in the Pacific lowlands of south-western Ecuador, from 200-460m asl.	eng
54491	habitat		It is an inhabitant of lowland rainforest, and has been found on riverbanks. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.	eng
54491	population		This is now considered a very rare species. There have been no records since April 1995 despite repeated searches. It is no longer found at Río Patul (in Azuay province), where it used to be abundant (L. Coloma pers. comm.).	eng
54491	threats		This species seems to have disappeared, as with many other <em>Atelopus</em> species, likely due to chytridiomycosis, although the altitude at which it occurs is low (the disease normally occurs at higher altitudes in the tropics). Habitat degradation and loss, due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and logging, and pollution, continue to be very serious threats.	eng
54492	conservation		The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Sangay, which is a World Heritage Site. The population status of this species urgently needs to be assessed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54492	distribution		This species is found in the Cordillera Oriental in southern Ecuador, Azuay and Cañar Provinces, between 2,500 and 2,800m asl, where it has been recorded from at least 15 localities. There was one record from Parque Nacional Sangay. The specimens from the Departamento Piura, Peru, which referred to this species, are in fact specimens of an undescribed species (Coloma, Lötters and Salas 2000).	eng
54492	habitat		It lives in humid montane forest, sub-páramo, and páramo (Lötters 1996). Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
54492	population		One individual was seen in 2002 in the Parque Nacional Sangay (D. Almeida pers. comm.), but otherwise this formerly abundant species has disappeared from its range.	eng
54492	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Dead and dying animals infected with the chytrid fungal pathogen have been collected in Ecuador (Ron <em>et al.</em> 2003), and it was the first species (in 1980) in Central or South America confirmed to have chytridiomycosis. It tolerates some habitat destruction, and can be found near streams in artificial grasslands. Introduced predators such as trout might threaten the species.	eng
54493	conservation		The distribution range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Sangay, which is a World Heritage Site. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists within its natural range. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54493	distribution		This species is known from six localities in the provinces of Morona-Santiago and Loja, in the south-eastern versant of the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera de Cutucú, and the Cordillera del Cóndor, in eastern Ecuador. It has been recorded from 800-2,000m asl.	eng
54493	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about breeding habits, though it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding taking place in streams.	eng
54493	population		It is a rare species, and there have been no records since 1984, although some localities at which the species is known to occur have not been well surveyed. It is not known precisely whether or not populations have declined as observed in other <em>Atelopus</em> in the Ecuadorian Andes, though this seems likely.	eng
54493	threats		Agriculture, as well as mining and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species habitat, and much of the natural vegetation within its known distribution area has been cleared. Pollution of streams is also a threat. It is almost certainly at severe risk from chytridiomycosis.	eng
54494	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas. More research into the species' distribution range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the two known localities; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54494	distribution		This species is known from two localities: the type locality of Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, and from Murri in La Blanquita, both in Antioquia Department, in north-western Colombia, between 1,300 and 2,000m asl.	eng
54494	habitat		It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean forests. It has not been recorded outside forest. Its breeding habits are not known, though breeding is likely to take place in streams.	eng
54494	population		It is uncommon. There do not appear to be any confirmed records since 1973, but it is not known if this is indicative of a decline, or simply a lack of survey effort.	eng
54494	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Forest destruction for the creation of fruit plantations is occurring within the species' range.	eng
54495	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and a few unprotected areas nearby (La Marca and Lötters 1997). Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to be maintained in captivity.	eng
54495	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species is known from a single locality estimated to be less than 10km² in size (La Marca 1992) in the state of Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes. In the past, it was most common at the Bosque de San Eusebio (La Carbonera). It has been recorded from 2,000-2,800m asl.	eng
54495	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest and it is found along streams. Surviving populations, if it is still extant, are restricted to an isolated patch of forest surrounded by pasturelands. It lays eggs chains in streams, and the larvae develop in these streams.	eng
54495	population	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	Populations of this frog seem to be restricted to the type locality, where it was formerly abundant, but is now extremely rare, and possibly even extinct. It was last recorded in 1998, despite intensive searches for the species. Observations of population declines were made by La Marca (1995b).	eng
54495	threats	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	The first alert about the conservation status of the species was advanced by La Marca and Reinthaler (1991).&#160; Infection with <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in this species was reported by Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006a). Local climate data indicate that one of the most severe dry seasons recorded in the region since 1970 coincided with epidemic events. Logging and agricultural expansion, both for crops and livestock, are also major threats to the species' habitat. The recent introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em> in places near the type locality poses the problem of a new predator. It has been recorded occasionally in the international pet trade although not at levels thought to pose a major threat to the species.	eng
54496	conservation	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Surveys to determine the current population status of this species are currently underway (L.A. Rueda Solano pers. comm. 2008). A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.	eng
54496	distribution	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This species is known from the páramos of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. It has been recorded between 2,350 and 4,800m asl.	eng
54496	habitat	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, and páramo, and also the lower portion of snowy areas. It can adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54496	population	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Although common in the past, the species had not been seen since 1994, due to a lack of surveys in the area. It was recently rediscovered (many tadpoles and six adult males) in early February 2008, in La Serrania de Cebolleta. Two of the six adults were reported ill (Rueda Solano 2008).	eng
54496	threats	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	The most serious threat to this species is the risk of chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Climate change, habitat loss caused by agriculture, and crop fumigation, are all also major threats.	eng
54497	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién. Further survey work is needed to establish the limits of the species' range, and additional research is needed to establish whether chytridiomycosis might be a threat.	eng
54497	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Cerro Sapo in south-western Darién Province, Panama. It is suspected that the species is more widely distributed, and may range through much of Parque Nacional Darién. It has been found at altitudes of 50-1,150m asl.	eng
54497	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of tropical montane and submontane forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in forest streams.	eng
54497	population		This species is locally common within its small range, and has been recorded as recently as 2003.	eng
54497	threats		The main threats to the species are deforestation of habitat for agricultural use and general water pollution. Congeners are known to have virtually disappeared throughout much of Mesoamerica, probably due to chytridiomycosis, and this species might also be at risk from the disease, although it occurs at lower altitudes (the disease normally occurs at higher elevations in the tropics).	eng
54498	conservation	Karen Lips, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, A. Castillo, 2008	The range of the species is within the protected areas of Parque Nacional Chirripó and Parque Internacional La Amistad. The threat of chytridiomycosis means that successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54498	distribution	Karen Lips, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, A. Castillo, 2008	This species is found in the lower montane zone of the Cordillera de Talamanca-Chiriqui axis of Costa Rica (1,800-2,500 m asl) and western Panama (1,400-2,100 m asl) (Savage 2002). It has not been seen in Costa Rica since 1996 and the species is now considered to be extinct in that country; it might also have disappeared in Panama.	eng
54498	habitat	Karen Lips, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, A. Castillo, 2008	It is a diurnal, terrestrial species of stream margins in lower montane wet forest and rainforest. Males are territorial and use an advertisement call to maintain a breeding site. Breeding and larval development for this species takes place in forest streams (Savage 2002).	eng
54498	population	Karen Lips, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, A. Castillo, 2008	This species was once considered locally abundant along streams. In Costa Rica this species has disappeared from its entire range, and there have been no sightings since 1996 despite many searches in appropriate montane habitats (there have been no new sightings as of August, 2007). The population status in Panama shows evidence of a decline, with no records since the late 1990s.	eng
54498	threats	Karen Lips, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, A. Castillo, 2008	Marked declines have been noticed in its extent of occurrence. In Costa Rica the decline and probable extinction of this species has been linked to chytridiomycosis (Lips 1998), which was confirmed in this species in 1993 and 1994 (see Lips<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). Introduction of predatory trout, and general habitat loss both outside, and within protected areas, are also threats to remaining populations. Climate change is considered to be a possible threat.	eng
54499	conservation		The range of the species includes the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. More research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed. The threat of chytridiomycosis means that successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54499	distribution		This species is known from the type locality: Cerro del Ingles near San Jose del Palmor, close to Serrania de los Paraguas, in Choco department, between 1,900 and 2,200m asl. It is also known from Boqueron in the Municipality of El Cairo, Valle del Cauca department, in Colombia. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
54499	habitat		A terrestrial species, it occurs in montane forest on the forest floor and near the forest edge. It has not been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. Its breeding habits are not known, although breeding is likely to take place in streams.	eng
54499	population		The current population status is unknown, and it is known from less than 10 specimens. The species was last collected in 1998, and the area has most likely not been surveyed since then.	eng
54499	threats		Like other <em>Atelopus</em> species, it is presumably at serious risk from chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection and clear-cutting, and forest clearance for the planting of illegal crops and cattle ranching, is also a major threat.	eng
54500	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, and surveys are urgently needed to confirm the continued existence of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54500	distribution		This species is restricted to the type locality, near the village of Tostós in Trujillo State, in the Venezuelan Andes. Its known range is less than 100km². It has been recorded from 2,000-2,700m asl.	eng
54500	habitat		It is a diurnal, photophilic species found on the floor of cloud forest. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54500	population		It is a rare species, and there have been no records since it was discovered in 1988. A subsequent survey failed to record this species again, suggesting a possible decline, as is the case with many other Venezuelan <em>Atelopus</em> species.	eng
54500	threats		The most critical threat to this species is probably chytridiomycosis. However, the type locality lies within an unprotected forested area that has been altered at a fast rate, mainly due to subsistence wood collection, and conversion to crop lands and pasture lands. With higher insolation as a result of climate change, this species could be at increased risk due to its habit of basking in the sun. La Marca and Lötters (1997) indicated that severe floods might have affected populations of this species.	eng
54501	conservation		The range of this species includes the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54501	distribution		This species is known from the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, and Carchi on the Pacific versant of the Andes in north-western Ecuador. It has been recorded from 600-1,380m asl.	eng
54501	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid north-western Andean montane forest. It appears to be able to adapt to secondary forest. It lays its eggs in swift-flowing streams and rivers. It has typical <em>Atelopus</em> tadpoles, attached to rocks.	eng
54501	population		It is a rare species and has not been recorded since September 1984. It has probably undergone a serious population decrease.	eng
54501	threats		The most critical threat to this species is probably chytridiomycosis. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
54502	conservation		Many of the known localities are within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Parque Nacional Rancho Grande, and Parque Nacional San Esteban. Monitoring of the populations, establishment of a captive-breeding population, and disease management are all urgently required.	eng
54502	distribution		This species is restricted to several localities in the northern and southern versants of the Cordillera de la Costa of Venezuela (Estados Aragua, Carabobo, Miranda, Vargas, Yaracuy and the Distrito Federal) and recently from Cerro Azul (Estado Cojedes) (Rivas Fuenmayor 1998), which suggests that the species might be present throughout the entire mountainous area of the central coastal range (Lötters, La Marca and Vences 2004). It has been recorded from 30-2,200m asl.	eng
54502	habitat		It is a diurnal species usually found on rocks of rivulets or the surroundings, where they can climb on to plants up to 1.5m above ground. The general habitat is humid forest in montane and lowland environments. It breeds along swift-flowing streams. The recently rediscovered population was found by a cascading mountain stream in cloud forest.	eng
54502	population		Although this species was once abundant, it has undergone an extreme decline, to the point that despite extensive surveys no specimens have been seen since 1986 and there are no museum records after 1988 (La Marca 1995; La Marca and Lötters 1997; Manzanilla and La Marca 1999; Lötters, La Marca and Vences 2004). Recently (2004), a single small population of <em>A. cruciger</em> has been found just south of the town of Cata within the limits of the 107,000-ha Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, in cloud forest at 600m asl.	eng
54502	threats		The major cause of the observed population decline of this species is chytridiomycosis, which was confirmed in 1986 (Bonaccorso <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pollution by acid rain could be another possible threat, given the vicinity of the species to the large concentration of industries generating polluting gases in the nearby area of Valencia-Maracay. Droughts and flash floods could be a further potential threat, as well as over collecting for scientific or pet trade purposes.	eng
54503	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. In view of the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to locate this species and determine its current population status; a captive-breeding programme may also need to be established.	eng
54503	distribution		This species is known only from the western versant of the Cordillera Azul, Huánuco Department, Peru, where it has been observed between 1,650 and 1,800m asl.	eng
54503	habitat		The general habitat in the area of collection is humid mountain forest. It is presumed to be a stream-breeding species.	eng
54503	population		It is currently known only from museum specimens, and was last recorded in 1980.	eng
54503	threats		The threats to the species within its range on the Cordillera Azul have not been recorded. However, like other members of its genus, it is assumed to be at severe risk from chytridiomycosis.	eng
54504	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Survey work has recently confirmed the persistence of the northern population, but additional surveys are needed to ascertain the population status of the southern population. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity. Research is also needed to confirm the taxonomic status of the northern populations of the species.	eng
54504	distribution		This species occurs in the southern part of the Colombian Andes in Cauca and Huila Departments, with a separate northern population (<em>Atelopus ebenoides marinkellei</em>) at the Páramo de las Papas, in the Department of Boyacá, in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-4,700m asl.	eng
54504	habitat		It occurs on vegetation, mosses and in leaf-litter along streams in Andean forests and páramos. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitat. The tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
54504	population		The northern population had not been recorded since 1995, until its remarkable rediscovery in early May of 2006 in the highlands of Boyacá . The southern populations were last recorded in 1992, though there have not been any recent surveys.	eng
54504	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops), as well as pollution from the fumigation of crops, and water source loss are all threats.	eng
54505	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Stefan Lötters, 2008	In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia it occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Isla Gorgona. It is an urgent priority to locate the Ecuadorian population and to implement emergency <em>ex-situ</em> conservation measures. Close monitoring of the population on Gorgona Island is needed, since, as far as is known, chytrid has not yet been recorded from this population.	eng
54505	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Stefan Lötters, 2008	This species occurs in north-western Ecuador in Esmeraldas, Imbabura, and Pichincha Provinces, at 300-1,140m asl, and on Gorgona Island, a small island 30km off the Colombian coast on the Pacific side, where it occurs close to sea level.	eng
54505	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Stefan Lötters, 2008	It lives in lowland and submontane humid rainforest, and has not been found in degraded habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
54505	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Stefan Lötters, 2008	In Ecuador, it has declined very seriously and has disappeared in the last ten years, with no records since November 1994, apart from one record in November 2002 from Bogotá River in Esmeralda Province. For example, in a recent survey, it was not found 5km north-west of Alluriquín (in Pichincha Province), where it used to be abundant (L. Coloma pers. comm.). On Gorgona Island, the species is still very common.	eng
54505	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Stefan Lötters, 2008	The decline in Ecuador is unexplained, and is possibly due to chytridiomycosis, although its elevational range is rather low for this disease. It is also impacted by habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
54506	conservation		This species is not present in any protected areas. If chytridiomycosis is indeed shown to be a threat to this species, then the maintenance of populations in captivity will be a needed conservation measure.	eng
54506	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Cordillera Carabaya on the Amazonian versant of Departamento Puno, Peru. Records of this species from Departamento Huánuco and Departamento Ucayali (Rodriguez, Cordova and Icochea 1993) require further investigation. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800-2,500m asl.	eng
54506	habitat		This species' habitat is cloud forest on the Amazonian versant of the Peruvian Andes. The species is not expected to be tolerant of habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to take place in streams.	eng
54506	population		Its population is unknown, but it might be declining. It has been recorded as recently as 2003.	eng
54506	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. This disease has not yet been recorded in this species, but incidence of the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru.	eng
54507	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. More research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, and in particular surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species is currently in decline as has been evidenced in other high-elevation stream-dwelling <em>Atelopus</em> species in the region. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species.	eng
54507	distribution		This species is known from a few locations all within close proximity in the Cauca Department, on the western slope of the central Andes, Totoro-Malvasa, in Colombia, between 2,820 and 3,250m asl.	eng
54507	habitat		It occurs along streams on vegetation in páramo, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitat. Breeding and larval development takes place in streams.	eng
54507	population		One recent survey found no individuals, although another survey in 2004 did record several individuals. It is not known to what extent the species is in overall decline.	eng
54507	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other, localized threats include habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops), water extraction, and fumigation of illegal crops. Climate change might also be impacting the species.	eng
54508	conservation	Eduardo Toral, Manuel Morales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Martín R. Bustamante, 2008	The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Mazán. The population status of this species urgently needs to be assessed. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ </span>conservation measures are already in place for this species, as the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Ecuador is seeking to establish a captive breeding colony at its climate-controlled captive facility (Moore 2007). It is also necessary to control trout populations within the protected areas.	eng
54508	distribution	Eduardo Toral, Manuel Morales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Martín R. Bustamante, 2008	This species is known from the type locality, Laguna Llaviuco, in Azuay province, and from the nearby vicinity in the Cordillera Occidental of southern Ecuador. It is known from eight localities, and has been recorded from 3,150-3,850m asl.	eng
54508	habitat	Eduardo Toral, Manuel Morales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Martín R. Bustamante, 2008	It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo, but is also known to occur in pastureland around the Laguna Llaviuco. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54508	population	Eduardo Toral, Manuel Morales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Martín R. Bustamante, 2008	This historically abundant species was recorded in May 1995, at a time when no decline was recorded (Coloma, Lötters and Salas 2000). Since then, there had been little survey work, but it is expected that the species has undergone a population decline across its range, although it is still known to survive in the wild (La Marca <em>et al.</em> 2005). More recently, Moore (2007) reported two individuals found in southern Ecuador.	eng
54508	threats	Eduardo Toral, Manuel Morales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Martín R. Bustamante, 2008	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as climate change and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat. Invasive trout species might prey on tadpoles of this species.	eng
54509	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, John Lynch, Stefan Lötters, 2009	The two localities are on the border of Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, where it has been recorded from the private protected area of the El Tambito Proselva Foundation. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to be maintained in captivity.	eng
54509	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, John Lynch, Stefan Lötters, 2009	This species is known from two localities: the type locality (La Costa), and El Tambito, both localities on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, between 1,300 and 1,580m asl.	eng
54509	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, John Lynch, Stefan Lötters, 2009	It is a terrestrial species found in montane forest, and which has not been recorded outside forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but presumably it breeds in streams like other species of the genus.	eng
54509	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, John Lynch, Stefan Lötters, 2009	It is known from only a few specimens, and, despite survey work, has not been recorded since 1993.	eng
54509	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, John Lynch, Stefan Lötters, 2009	The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. There is also a threat of pollution resulting from fumigation of the illegal crops grown in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.	eng
54510	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection at its only known locality. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species. Given the probable threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.	eng
54510	distribution		This species is known from only one site: Granjas del Padre Luna, Municipio de Alban, western slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,090m asl.	eng
54510	habitat		It occurs in streams in cloud forest. It also reproduces in rapid streams.	eng
54510	population		This species was known to be abundant up until around 1995. Six subsequent visits and some 80 hours of searching during the course of 2002-2003 turned up only one tadpole, perhaps indicative of a serious decline.	eng
54510	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species, mainly caused by agricultural expansion and human settlement.	eng
54511	conservation		The range of this species includes Matoury Nature Reserve and Kaw Nature Reserve. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54511	distribution		This species is known from north-eastern coastal and central French Guiana. It occurs from sea level up to 300m asl.	eng
54511	habitat		This species is known from the proximity of fast-flowing small streams in lowland primary forest. It has not been recorded outside primary forest. Embryonic and larval development occurs in water.	eng
54511	population		This is a common species, although it is not common in Mont Grand Matoury and Matoury region. It has been recorded as recently as 2000.	eng
54511	threats		There are no present threats to this species, but future threats will most likely include shifting agriculture and clear-cutting of the forests. Although illegal, there is still some collection for the pet trade, but at present this is not a major threat to the species. This species probably occurs at elevations below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis seems prevalent, though this nonetheless remains a potential future threat.	eng
54512	conservation		The range of the species includes several nature reserves. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54512	distribution		This species is known from central coastal French Guiana. It has been recorded from 5-200m asl.	eng
54512	habitat		This species is found near fast-flowing small streams and creeks in lowland rainforest; it is not known from any disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid in the water and the tadpoles adhere to rocks.	eng
54512	population		It is a locally common species (Lescure and Marty 2001), and was recorded as recently as 2000.	eng
54512	threats		There are no current major threats. However, it is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis, although it occurs at low altitudes (which might afford it a degree of protection from this disease). An illegal international pet trade exists for this species, but it is not a threat to the species as a whole.	eng
54513	conservation		Both known localities of the species are within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Further research into the species' range, ecological requirements, and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside its current known range. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required.	eng
54513	distribution		This species is known from two localities within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo, in Antioquia Department, on the northern slope of the western Andes, in Colombia, at 1,500m asl.	eng
54513	habitat		Both of the known localities are within primary forest, but no other information is available on the species' habitat requirements or breeding habits.	eng
54513	population		This species is known only from ten specimens; however, there has been no recent survey work within its range.	eng
54513	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.	eng
54514	conservation		The species has been recorded from two protected areas: Parque Nacional Darién (a World Heritage Site) in Panama and Parque Nacional Natural los Katíos in Colombia. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
54514	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Panama, in the Serranía de Pirre, and also the Chocó of Colombia, at 884-1,500m asl.	eng
54514	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of tropical montane forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in forest streams. There is no information on whether or not this species can survive in degraded habitats.	eng
54514	population		It is considered to be generally common within its known range. It was still common in September 2002 in the Serranía de Pirre, above Cana, in eastern Panama (R. Ibáñez pers. obs.).	eng
54514	threats		The major threat is likely to be a future catastrophic decline, due to chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Additional threats include habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54515	conservation		The known range of the species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still persists in the wild. In view of the severe threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving populations should be maintained in captivity.	eng
54515	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and its immediate vicinity (Guaranda, Gallo Rumi) in the Chimbo Basin of the Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador, in the province of Bolívar. These localities are between 2,600 and 2,923m asl in the upper Río Chimbo Valley (Coloma 2002).	eng
54515	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid cloud forest. Frogs have also been collected in disturbed montane cloud forest areas (Coloma 2002). There is no specific information on breeding habits, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54515	population		It is a rare species, and the most recent record dates from April 1988 (Coloma 2002). Since then, survey efforts have been unsuccessful in finding any individuals, suggesting a serious population decline and possible extinction.	eng
54515	threats		The most likely cause of the species' population decline is chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss is also a major threat, due to agriculture (crops, livestock, and wood plantations), logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Invasive species such as dogs, cats, and chickens also prey on this species.	eng
54516	conservation		This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz. Further work is required to determine the population status of this species; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might need to be established for this species.	eng
54516	distribution		This species is only known to occur in the Laguna de Guitara, Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz, Meta Department, Colombia, at 3,400m asl.	eng
54516	habitat		It lives and reproduces in streams in páramo habitats.	eng
54516	population		It is rare, being recorded only from two expeditions conducted in 1975 and 1990. There has been no subsequent survey work for this species.	eng
54516	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Its habitat is threatened by fires caused by cattle ranchers.	eng
54517	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys to confirm the continued existence of this species are needed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals should be maintained in captivity.	eng
54517	distribution		This species is known only from the Cordillera Cutucú, in Morona-Santiago Province, in southern Ecuador, around 1,975m asl.	eng
54517	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information on their breeding habits, but these are likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54517	population		Although sampling effort through the species' range is insufficient, it is likely that this species has undergone a population decline (as seen in other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>). It was last recorded in 1984, and is perhaps no longer present at the type locality.	eng
54517	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
54518	conservation		The known range of this species overlapped with several protected areas, including: Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; Reserva Ecológica Antisana; Parque Nacional Cotopaxi; Area Nacional de Recreación el Boliche; Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas; Parque Nacional Llanganates; and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo in Ecuador.	eng
54518	distribution		This species ranged from Imbabura to Chimborazo and Bolívar Provinces, in the Inter-Andean valleys and higher parts of the major Andean Cordilleras of Ecuador, at elevations of 2,800-4,200m asl.	eng
54518	habitat		An inhabitant of humid montane forest, humid sub-páramo (high-altitude bushland), and páramo (high-altitude grassland). This was a stream breeding species. Animals were recorded from disturbed habitats, including modified grasslands, in the Inter-Andean valleys and residential areas close to Quito.	eng
54518	population		There have been no records of this species in Ecuador since 1988, despite extensive searches. It was formerly abundant along streams, but now appears to be extinct.	eng
54518	threats		It probably disappeared due to the synergistic effects of the disease chytridiomycosis-confirmed in this species-and climatic change (local warming and droughts). Habitat loss and the introduction of predatory non-native trout might also have contributed to some population declines, however these threats are unlikely to have caused the substantial decline of the species throughout its range.	eng
54519	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve established in March 2006 to secure one of the last forested valleys for this and other threatened amphibian and bird species. Further surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required, particularly if it is found that the species has suffered extensive declines due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
54519	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of south-east Cuchilla San Lorenzo, in the north-west sector of Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (in the department of Magdalena), and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,880m asl.	eng
54519	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of sub-Andean forests. It can also adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54519	population		This was a common species when last recorded in 1992. A population was rediscovered on 22 May 2006 when staff of the El Dorado Nature Reserve located two individuals in a small forested stream.	eng
54519	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Climate change, habitat loss due to agriculture, and pollution from the fumigation of illegal crops are also major threats.	eng
54520	conservation		The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Chagres, but expanded habitat protection is recommended. Further survey work is needed to establish the limits of the species' range, and close monitoring of existing populations is necessary.	eng
54520	distribution		This species is endemic to the eastern Atlantic versant of central Panama, although it is believed to occur much more widely. It is a low-altitude species, occurring at 10-730m asl.	eng
54520	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of tropical lowland forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in forest streams.	eng
54520	population		This species is reasonably common at a number of localities, and there is little evidence of a decline. However, at Filo de Santa Rita, Provincia de Colón, while relatively abundant in October 2000, only one individual was seen in December 2002 (R. Ibáñez pers. obs.).	eng
54520	threats		The deforestation of habitat for agricultural use and general infrastructure development, as well as water pollution and stream sedimentation, are the main threats to this species. A number of congeners have recently disappeared over much of their range due to the effects of chytrid, although this species probably occurs below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis is prevalent.	eng
54521	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a high priority to conduct surveys to determine the current population status of this species, as well as to initiate a captive-breeding programme	eng
54521	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality: El Tambo, near Guisito, at 800m asl, Cauca Department, Colombia. Lötters (1996) suggested that the elevation given for the type locality (300m asl) was a typographic error in the original publication.	eng
54521	habitat		It lives on the ground in tropical humid forests, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
54521	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
54521	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em> (although its occurrence at lower altitudes might afford it some level of protection from the disease). Additional threats include deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54522	conservation		The range of this species overlapped with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and possibly reached the northern limit of the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
54522	distribution		This species was recorded from the Provinces of Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Cotopaxi, and Pichincha, on the north-western versant of the Ecuadorian Andes, at elevations of 200-2,500m asl. Records from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia, refer to an unidentified, probably un-named species.	eng
54522	habitat		This was a terrestrial species of lowland and montane tropical rainforests. It was a stream breeding species.	eng
54522	population		The species appears to be extinct, with no records in Ecuador since 1989, despite extensive surveys in suitable habitat.	eng
54522	threats		The decline in Ecuador is unexplained, and is possibly due to the disease chytridiomycosis, although this seems unusual given that the species was also found at lower elevations where chytridiomycosis is often not considered to be a threat. Other possible factors contributing to the extinction of this species include general climate change, pollution and habitat loss.	eng
54523	conservation		Occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity. There is also a need to control populations of trout within the National Park.	eng
54523	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Páramo de Palacio, Cundinamarca, Colombia, at an altitude of 3,000-3,300m asl.	eng
54523	habitat		It lives in páramo and does not tolerate habitat destruction. Breeding and larval development take place in fast-flowing streams.	eng
54523	population		This species was once abundant, but it has not been seen since 1993, despite repeated visits to the site.	eng
54523	threats		Although not proven, the most likely cause of the decline of this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. It is also likely to be threatened by fires set by cattle ranchers. In addition, introduced trout prey upon tadpoles in streams.	eng
54524	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas. Survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not this species still persists, and, in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving populations should immediately form part of an <em>ex-situ</em> management programme.	eng
54524	distribution		This species is endemic to the Pacific slopes of northern Ecuador (Maldonado in the Province of Carchi), between 800 and 1,410m asl. Records of this species from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia refer to an unidentified, probably un-named species.	eng
54524	habitat		It lives on the border between lowland tropical rainforests and montane forests. It is terrestrial, presumably breeding in streams.	eng
54524	population		This species has disappeared from Ecuador, and there have been no records from this country since 1984.	eng
54524	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has caused major declines in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Additional threats include deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops.	eng
54525	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Carpanta, which borders Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54525	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Reserva Biológica Carpanta, Cundinamarca, Colombia, at an altitude of 2,900-3,350m asl.	eng
54525	habitat		It lives in páramo and cloud forest, and does not tolerate habitat destruction. It reproduces in fast-flowing streams.	eng
54525	population		This species was uncommon until 1990. A single pair was recorded in 1992; however, due to guerrilla activity, no one has subsequently returned to the original locality to look for it.	eng
54525	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.	eng
54526	conservation		The range of this species overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and just reaches the northern limit of Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54526	distribution		This species is known from Pichinca and Esmeraldas provinces, in the north-western versant of the Andes of Ecuador, between 700 and 2,200m asl. It is known from more than ten localities.	eng
54526	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of lowland rainforest and humid montane forest. Eggs are laid in strings in streams, and tadpoles attach themselves to rocks.	eng
54526	population		There is no current information on the population status of this species; it was last recorded in 1989, despite survey efforts, suggesting a serious population decrease.	eng
54526	threats		The major threat is likely to be a catastrophic decline, due to chytridiomycosis, as has occurred in many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are also major threats to the species’ habitat, and very little suitable habitat remains.	eng
54527	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the population status of the species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54527	distribution		This species lives on the eastern slope of the eastern Andes, Meta Department, Villavicencio, Acacias, Vereda Portachuelo, via Manzanares, Colombia, at 1,370-1,560m asl.	eng
54527	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams. It tolerates natural disturbances such as landslides, but not significant opening up of its habitat.	eng
54527	population		This species was abundant in the early 1980s, but was last seen in 1985 (despite subsequent surveys in 1987). No one has returned to look for this species since.	eng
54527	threats		It occurs in a very restricted area that is severely threatened by habitat destruction, particularly due to cattle ranching. However, the most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species.	eng
54528	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, successful conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54528	distribution		This species is found in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales, Santander Department, Colombia, at 1,700-2,000m asl.	eng
54528	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams. It tolerates disturbed forest.	eng
54528	population		During the course of multiple visits undertaken in 1979-1982, this species was found to be common. There have been no subsequent surveys for the species, with the exception of one survey in 1992 when this species was not recorded, suggesting a serious decrease.	eng
54528	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.	eng
54529	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Suleima Santiago, Stefan Lötters, Juan Elías García-Pérez, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2006	Most of the range of this species is within the Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. A new monitoring project for this species was recently begun (www.andigena.org). In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, an <em>ex-situ</em> population might need to be established.	eng
54529	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Suleima Santiago, Stefan Lötters, Juan Elías García-Pérez, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2006	This species has a very restricted distribution of only a few square kilometres at the type locality, in the Páramo de Mucubají, in the Sierra de Santo Domingo, Venezuelan Andes. It has an altitudinal range of 2,300-3,500m asl.	eng
54529	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Suleima Santiago, Stefan Lötters, Juan Elías García-Pérez, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2006	This species is an inhabitant of páramo and cloud forest, the highest environments in the Venezuelan Andes, resembling alpine tundra, but with daily temperature extremes. It is usually found within grasses and frailejones (<em>Espeletia</em> spp.), and along streams. It probably lives in the shrubs of the sub-páramo environment. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54529	population	Enrique La Marca, Suleima Santiago, Stefan Lötters, Juan Elías García-Pérez, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2006	It is a very rare species. This is the only Venezuelan Andean amphibian for which an ongoing population monitoring programme exists. The population seems to have experienced a drastic decline in the last 15 years or so, to the point that no individuals of this species were recorded since 1993 (adults) or 1994 (larvae), until recent surveys confirmed that a few individuals (a total of 23 encountered) continue to survive in the wild (Barrio-Amorós 2004).	eng
54529	threats	Enrique La Marca, Suleima Santiago, Stefan Lötters, Juan Elías García-Pérez, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2006	<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection was confirmed for this species in two different studies (Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006a, 2006b). Introduced trout, introduced conifers, fires caused by humans, over collection, and agriculture and infrastructure development for human settlement are all major threats. Severe dry periods have been associated to the declines experienced in populations of <em>Atelopus mucubajiensis</em>. (Lampo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006; Santiago-Paredes and La Marca 2006). The extreme dry events are thought to have favoured the infection and propagation of chytridiomycosis, which, in synergy with other factors, could be held responsible for the observed population declines.	eng
54530	conservation		This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still persists in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54530	distribution		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza, Colombia, between 2,900 and 3,350m asl.	eng
54530	habitat		It occurs in Andean cloud forests and páramos. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54530	population		This species was common up until 1996, but four expeditions in 1998 and 2003 failed to turn up a single individual at any of the previous known localities.	eng
54530	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has resulted in catastrophic declines of many other species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Cattle grazing is also a threat to the habitat of this species, and introduced trout have a negative impact on reproductive success.	eng
54531	conservation		The range of this species encompasses the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve was established in March 2006 to secure one of the last forested valleys for this and other threatened amphibian and bird species. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species and, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might be required.	eng
54531	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of south-east Cuchilla San Lorenzo, in the north-west sector of Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent El Dorado Nature Reserve, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,900 and 2,800m asl.	eng
54531	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of sub-Andean forests, and can also tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54531	population		This was a common species when it was last recorded in 1992. It was rediscovered in 2006, following survey work in the recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.	eng
54531	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other major threats include climate change, habitat loss caused by agriculture (illegal crops) and logging, and pollution caused by the fumigation of illegal crops.	eng
54532	conservation		The type locality of the species is within Parque Nacional Cajas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54532	distribution		This species is known only from páramo habitats near Laguna Toreadora, in the Cordillera Occidental, in Azuay Province, Ecuador (Coloma 2002) at around 4,000m asl.	eng
54532	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of herbaceous páramo. Some specimens have been found active close to streams and springs in an area of many interconnected pools, while others have been found on land under rocks (Coloma 2002). There is no specific information available on their breeding habits, but they are likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54532	population		The current population status of this species is not known. It has not been recorded since July 1989, despite surveys within the range, suggesting a serious population decrease.	eng
54532	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species' habitat. Invasive alien species are also a problem.	eng
54533	conservation		The range of this species slightly overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus, although it has, to date, not been recorded from inside the park. Further survey work is required to determine the abundance of this species. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54533	distribution		This species is known from six localities, on the eastern flanks of the Andes in Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,000-3,450m asl.	eng
54533	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo. There is no specific information available on breeding, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54533	population		The population status of this species is not known, but sampling effort through its range is insufficient. It was last recorded in September 1985.	eng
54533	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Habitat loss and degradation as a result of mining and logging is a major threat.	eng
54534	conservation		The known range of the species is close to Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to establish whether or not it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54534	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Alto de Caicedo, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 1,800 and 2,670m asl.	eng
54534	habitat		It occurs along forested streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests. It is restricted to forest habitats requiring canopy cover over the stream to maintain suitable conditions. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54534	population		The current population status of this species is unknown, but it was not uncommon when last collected. There has not been any recent survey work for this species.	eng
54534	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Forests within the range of the species are being cleared for the planting of fruit trees, as well as illegal crops.	eng
54535	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Irwin García, Rubén Albornoz, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	Some subpopulations occur within the Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada and Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still persists in its natural range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54535	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Irwin García, Rubén Albornoz, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species has a very restricted distribution, in cloud forests in the vicinities of the city of Mérida, in Mérida State, in the Cordillera de Mérida in the Venezuelan Andes. Its elevation ranges from 2,100-3,500 m asl.	eng
54535	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Irwin García, Rubén Albornoz, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forests. It is photophillic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54535	population	Enrique La Marca, Irwin García, Rubén Albornoz, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	It is now an extremely rare species, and although found in good numbers in 1978 and 1985, it was last recorded in 1994. Subsequent survey attempts to locate this species have failed to find any individuals, suggesting a serious population decrease.	eng
54535	threats	Enrique La Marca, Irwin García, Rubén Albornoz, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss and degradation is also a major threat, due to agriculture (crops, livestock, and plantations), logging (in the past), and mining. Climate data from 1975-1990 revealed years with dry spells, which appear to correlate with years where drastic population declines occurred in this species (García<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
54536	conservation		The species was known to occur in Cutervo National Park (Peru) and Tapichalaca Reserve (Ecuador).	eng
54536	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> is known from the Cordilleras de Tarros (at Cordillera Occidental) and Central of the Andes of northern Peru, departments of  Cajamarca and Amazonas, and from Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in southern Ecuador, Province of Zamora Chinchipe, at about 2,600 m asl (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
54536	habitat		<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> occurs in areas that include humid montane forest and cloud forest (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It occurs near streams in páramo and sub-páramo, and breeding takes place in streams. The species requires a permanent source of water (L. Coloma pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54536	population		The current population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pachydermus</span> in Peru is unknown. Fieldwork by the University of Kansas in February 1989 in the vicinity of Cutervo, Department of Cajamarca, revealed no <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span>. Nonetheless, the most recent record is from 1994 or 1995, close to San Andrés caves in Cutervo National Park. The only record from Ecuador is from September 1985. Searches at the Ecuadorian locality were carried out on February and September 2001 and on April 2004; they revealed no <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span> (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
54536	threats		The San Andrés caves, the general area where the species was found in Peru, are located in Parque Nacional Cutervo, which has 8,214 hectares of land protected by the Peruvian Government. In spite of its protected status, potato and artichoke field crops are located in the area of the Cutervo caves and there is extensive cattle ranching inside the park. Much of the humid forest on the Peruvian side of the species' distribution has been cleared and cultivated, and at higher elevation <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span> has been planted. In Ecuador, in the proximities of the species' distribution, 2,000 hectares of forest and paramo habitats are protected within the Tapichalaca Reserve, which is located south of Podocarpus National Park (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Atelopus pachydermus</span> occurs in an area close to the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus peruensis</span>, which disappeared in 1999/2000. Climate change and chytridiomycosis could be implicated in the species' disappearance (see Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
54537	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54537	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Río Pastaza, in Pastaza Province, Ecuador, at 1,000m asl.	eng
54537	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about its breeding biology, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, and to be a larval developer.	eng
54537	population		Its population status is not known, and it is not known to have been recorded since 1937.	eng
54537	threats		The major threat to this species is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining (in the future), and wood plantations are major threats to this species’ habitat.	eng
54538	conservation		The species has not been recorded from any protected area, although it might occur in the Reserva Forestal Protectora El Predio Río Sucio, in the Municipio de Gachalá. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to be taken into captivity.	eng
54538	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: San Isidro, Municipio de Ubala, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,600-3,100m asl.	eng
54538	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54538	population		There have been no reports of this species since its original description in 1963, but there appear to have been no attempts to relocate it.	eng
54538	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat destruction due to potato farming is also a threat to this species.	eng
54539	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Huascarán, and might be present in Reserva Nacional Callipuy, and Santuario Nacional Callipuy. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes appear necessary given the threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54539	distribution		This species is known only from the northern Peruvian Andes near the surroundings of Celendin, Abra Comulica, San Miguel de Pallaques and Province of Hualgayoc, all in the Departamento Cajamarca; it is (or was) present at Charco (3,700m asl), Huari, Departamento Ancash, and also in the Departamento Piura. Its altitudinal range is from 2,800-4,200m asl.	eng
54539	habitat		It inhabits puna and "sub-puna" (high altitude) habitats, with scattered tussock grass and <em>Baccharis</em> sp. They are sensitive to habitat degradation. Breeding takes place in streams, with larvae adhering to the undersides of large (30-50cm) rocks in swiftly flowing streams at a depth of approximately 30cm.	eng
54539	population		This species was very abundant until 1992, but there appears to have been a decline since then, and several populations, one of them at Cajamarca-Celendín, are believed to have disappeared (R. Schulte pers. comm.).	eng
54539	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The chytrid pathogen has yet to be found in this species, but the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru, and the declines already reported are likely to be related to this disease. It has previously been reported in the pet trade, although this appears to have stopped. A population in Cajamarca was lost due to water contamination from activities at a nearby gold mine.	eng
54540	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Picachos. Survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54540	distribution		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Picachos, Veredas la Esperanza and Andalucia, Caquetá Department, Colombia, between 1,750 and 2,500m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
54540	habitat		It occurs and breeds in streams in premontane moist forest.	eng
54540	population		It is only known from four specimens collected between 1994 and 1998; there has been no subsequent survey work for the species.	eng
54540	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to the planting of illegal crops is a threat to this species.	eng
54541	conservation		The type locality is within the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and current population status of this species. Considering that chytridiomycosis is the likely overwhelming threat, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54541	distribution		This species is known from Alto Pance (Corea), Municipality of Cali, in the Valle del Cauca Department on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, at 2,600m asl.	eng
54541	habitat		It is a terrestrial and diurnal species, with all specimens having been found in artificially cleared forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds in streams like other species in the genus.	eng
54541	population		This species is known from only a few specimens, and was last recorded in 1996.	eng
54541	threats		The most serious threat to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.	eng
54542	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are required to establish whether or not this species still survives. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54542	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality, "Piñango", at 2,920m asl, and from a second population a few kilometres away, in cloud forest near the village of Pinango, Mérida State, in the Andes of Venezuela. It has been recorded from 2,300-2,920m asl.	eng
54542	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forest. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54542	population		This is a rare species. The last recorded observation was in 1997, despite repeated searches, thus suggesting a serious population decrease.	eng
54542	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has also caused major declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to logging and agriculture (cattle ranching, crops) -- the type locality was completely destroyed by the mid-1980s -- and introduced trout, are also major threats to the species. With increased insolation as a result of climate change this species could be at enhanced risk due to its sun-basking habits.	eng
54543	conservation		Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and possibly Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54543	distribution		This species is known from five localities in the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, from Volcán Reventador to the south, to Cordillera de Cutucú. It has been recorded from 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
54543	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of humid montane forest. There is no specific information known about breeding, but it is likely to be similar to other <em>Atelopus</em> species, with breeding and larval development taking place in streams.	eng
54543	population		The population of this species has declined dramatically. The last record was in July 1985 (an amplectant pair) despite repeated visits to known (El Reventador) or inferred localities (within its extent of occurrence) (Bustamante 2002).	eng
54543	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, and which has also led to catastrophic population declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, mining, and infrastructure development for human settlement, as well as agricultural pollution, are also major threats.	eng
54544	conservation		The species occurs in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. A captive-breeding program for this species has been established, and there is ongoing research investigating the biology of a population of this species that apparently has chytridiomycosis.	eng
54544	distribution		This species is distributed along the lower Andean versant in the upper Río Huallaga drainage, Departamentos San Martín and Loreto, Peru. It is present at approximately 600-900m asl. There are populations resembling this species from the north-eastern versant of Peru and adjacent Ecuador, but these are not included in this account until their taxonomic status can be more conclusively verified.	eng
54544	habitat		This is a diurnal and terrestrial species of lowland and premontane tropical forest. Breeding takes place in streams. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat modification.	eng
54544	population		The current population status of this species is not known, although it was recorded as recently as July 2004. It is now considered to be relatively rare, and has disappeared from many known localities.	eng
54544	threats		The threats to this species include the potentially devastating impacts of chytridiomycosis (the disease is already present in northern Peru) which was confirmed in this species in 2003. Other threats include localized habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land.	eng
54545	conservation		It might occur within a protected area (Parque Regional Natural Ucumarí, in Risaralda Department). Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the maintenance of any surviving individuals in captivity.	eng
54545	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the border of Risaralda and Quindio Departments, Colombia, between 2,200 and 2,900m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54545	habitat		It is found on vegetation along streams and away from streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54545	population		This is a rare species, and was last recorded in 1992.	eng
54545	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude species of <em>Atelopus</em>.	eng
54546	conservation		The presence of this species in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul is possible, but is not confirmed. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures will probably need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
54546	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern versant of the Cordillera Azul (Departamento Ucayali), ca. 3km by road after Divisoria on the Tingo Mariá-Pucallpa road, Peru. It was collected at an elevation of 1,600m asl.	eng
54546	habitat		It is recorded from primary montane tropical forest; it is not known whether or not it occurs in modified habitats. Breeding is believed to take place in streams, like other species in the genus.	eng
54546	population		There is no information on the population of this species. It appears that the last record was in 1992, but the lack of subsequent observations might be due to lack of survey work.	eng
54546	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The chytrid pathogen has yet to be found in this species, but the disease is known to be spreading in northern Peru. Its habitat might also be threatened by small-scale agriculture (e.g., cocoa and tea), but this requires further confirmation.	eng
54547	conservation		Even though it is a lowland species its potential susceptibility to chytridiomycosis should be investigated as part of its conservation measures, especially in view of the lack of recent records.	eng
54547	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northern spurs of north-western Medellin, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 450m asl. It is most likely a more widespread species, but further survey work is needed.	eng
54547	habitat		This species has been found in vegetation along streams, but it has not been recorded outside forest habitats. Its breeding habitats are unknown but the larvae are most likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.	eng
54547	population		It is considered to be quite rare, and it has not been recorded since 1988.	eng
54547	threats		This species' habitat is threatened by habitat fragmentation, water pollution from mining, and infrastructure development for mining. It appears to be a lowland species, and might therefore be less at risk from chytridiomycosis than some other <em>Atelopus</em> species.	eng
54548	conservation		This species is present in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, disease management and captive-breeding programmes might be required, as is further survey work to establish the population status of this species.	eng
54548	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and the immediate vicinity, from between Balsa Puerto and Moyobamba (San Martin), Peru. It occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
54548	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of montane primary forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It is a stream-breeding species and not believed to be present in modified habitats.	eng
54548	population		There is no information on population status or abundance, although it was recorded as recently as 2004.	eng
54548	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>; however, the chytrid pathogen has not yet been positively confirmed in this species.	eng
54549	conservation		The range of this species is protected by both Parque Nacional Tapantí and Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo (although it is now believed extinct in the latter area). Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still persists. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
54549	distribution		This species occurs in humid montane forest in central Costa Rica in the Cordilleras Central and Talamanca in Costa Rica from 1,100-2,200m asl.	eng
54549	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in stream margins in premontane rainforest and lower montane rainforest. It is a diurnal, stream-breeding species, and used to be found in great concentrations during the reproductive period from July to August (Savage 2002).	eng
54549	population		This species was formerly abundant but (as of August 2007) it has not been seen since 1986 despite repeated searches; although further searches are needed to finally confirm the exinction of this species. It was formerly abundant on the slopes of Volcán Barva, but is now believed extinct there (Savage 2002).	eng
54549	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other threats to this species might include climate change, collecting for the pet trade, and possibly pollution.	eng
54550	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
54550	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Serrania Las Baldias, and from one other locality, Belnira, Paramo Morron, both of which are in Antioquia Department, in Colombia, between 2,800 and 3,100m asl.	eng
54550	habitat		It occurs on vegetation along streams in natural forest edge in the high Andes, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54550	population		It is not a common species, and recent surveys have not found any specimens at the type locality; a decline has also been observed at the other known locality. The most recent record of the species was apparently in 2000.	eng
54550	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Other major threats include habitat loss, due to agricultural expansion (illegal crops), water pollution from agriculture, and possibly climate change.	eng
54551	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species still survives. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
54551	distribution		This species is known from the central Andes of Colombia, from Cauca and Tolima Departments, between 2,500 and 3,000m asl.	eng
54551	habitat		It occurs on the ground near streams and also in open areas; it has not been recorded from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. The tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
54551	population		Before 1999 this was a common species, but it has only been recorded once since then (2001) at a single locality despite numerous searches. A serious decline appears to have taken place.	eng
54551	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (including the planting of illegal crops), as well as water pollution from agriculture, are major threats to the species. Climate change might also be a threat, but this needs to be investigated further.	eng
54552	conservation		It is found within the Reserva Comunal El Sira.	eng
54552	distribution		This species is known only from the Serrania de Sira, in the upper Amazon basin of eastern central Peru, at 2,400m asl.	eng
54552	habitat		It is restricted to an isolated, and mostly inaccessible, mountain ridge in the upper Amazon basin, where the habitat is generally montane and premontane tropical forest. This is a terrestrial species that is presumed to breed in streams, and which is probably intolerant of habitat modification.	eng
54552	population		There is very little information available on its population status, and only a few specimens have ever been seen. It appears to have last been recorded in 1988, and it is not known whether or not a population decline could have occurred since then. Due to the remoteness of the locality there have been no recent surveys for this species.	eng
54552	threats		There is little human disturbance of this very isolated area, although both the pet trade and infection with chytridiomycosis are potential threats to this species in the future, and could lead to a rapid population decline. However, its distribution is so isolated that it might be safe from these threats.	eng
54553	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. Research into the species' population status is currently underway (Fundación ProAves 2008). In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54553	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Mesopotamia, near Páramo de Sonsón, in the municipality of Sonsón, Vereda Caunzal, on the eastern side of the Cordillera Central, about 15km to the east of the municipality of Argelia, in Colombia. It was recorded at 1,500m asl, and might occur more widely.	eng
54553	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Fernando Castro, 2008	It occurs on the ground in the under-storey of forest along streams; it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54553	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Fernando Castro, 2008	The population status is unknown. This is a relatively newly described species which had not been recorded since its discovery in 1996, until its recent (2008) rediscovery (Fundación ProAves 2008).	eng
54553	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Fernando Castro, 2008	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, a factor implicated in catastrophic population declines in many montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and the planting of illegal crops, and water pollution from agriculture, are major threats to the species.	eng
54554	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	The small range of this species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to establish whether or not this species still survives, and a project aimed at evaluating their population status and at assessing environmental and climate conditions of the cloud forests of Mérida State in the Venezuelan Andes (where populations of this toad might occur in remote ridges and valleys) has been initiated. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation action might also be required.	eng
54554	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	This species is known from a single stream in an isolated cloud forest, the Paramito de San Francisco, near the town of Guaraque, in Mérida State, Cordillera de Mérida, in Venezuela. It has the most restricted geographic range of any Venezuelan <em>Atelopus</em> species, and lives at an altitude of 2,400-2,718m asl.	eng
54554	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	It is an inhabitant of montane cloud forests. It is photophilic and lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54554	population	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	At the time of its discovery, this species was particularly abundant at the type locality. However, it is now extremely rare, or perhaps even extinct; the last record of the species was in 1990.	eng
54554	threats	Enrique La Marca, Argelia Rodríguez, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2004	Infection with <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in this species was reported by Lampo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006). Local climate data indicate that one of the most severe dry seasons recorded in the region since 1970 coincided with epidemic events. In addition, clear cutting has greatly reduced the amount of available habitat for this species.	eng
54555	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Martín R. Bustamante, Antonio Salas, Rainer Schulte, Stefan Lötters, Ariadne Angulo, Fernando Castro, Jean Lescure, Christian Marty, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas across its range. Further research is necessary to determine the degree of threat posed by chytridiomycosis. A captive-breeding program for this species has been initiated.	eng
54555	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Martín R. Bustamante, Antonio Salas, Rainer Schulte, Stefan Lötters, Ariadne Angulo, Fernando Castro, Jean Lescure, Christian Marty, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This species occurs in the Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador and eastern Peru, to Amazonas, Pará, Amapá (Brazil), and the Guianas (Frost 1985; but see taxonomic notes). It ranges from sea level to 600m asl.	eng
54555	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Martín R. Bustamante, Antonio Salas, Rainer Schulte, Stefan Lötters, Ariadne Angulo, Fernando Castro, Jean Lescure, Christian Marty, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It lives on the floor of terra firme tropical rainforest and in the leaf-litter near running streams. It appears to be restricted to undisturbed habitats. Breeding takes place in fast-flowing streams.	eng
54555	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Martín R. Bustamante, Antonio Salas, Rainer Schulte, Stefan Lötters, Ariadne Angulo, Fernando Castro, Jean Lescure, Christian Marty, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It is locally abundant. It is unlikely to be declining in most of its range, but in Ecuador it is thought to have declined significantly and there are no records since November 1994. It was formerly abundant at Madre de Dios in Peru (A. Salas, in litt. To E. La Marca), but there is no recent information. It appears to be stable at the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).	eng
54555	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Martín R. Bustamante, Antonio Salas, Rainer Schulte, Stefan Lötters, Ariadne Angulo, Fernando Castro, Jean Lescure, Christian Marty, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	Threats to this species include forest loss due to agriculture, and logging and clear cutting, especially in eastern Amazônia. It occurs below the altitude at which chytridiomycosis is normally a problem, but declines have nevertheless taken place in Ecuador and perhaps also Peru, and it is possible that animals from Iquitos in Peru succumbed to this disease (R. Schulte pers. comm. to E. La Marca).	eng
54556	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54556	distribution		This species occurs in the Colombian Pacific lowlands, in Valle de Cauca, Risaralda, and Choco Departments, between 50 and 500m asl.	eng
54556	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter in humid forests close to water sources, and is presumed to breed in streams. It has been found in primary and secondary forest, but not in heavily degraded areas.	eng
54556	population		It is a locally abundant species, and has apparently not shown any dramatic population declines. It has been recorded as recently as 2001.	eng
54556	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Since it occurs at very low altitudes, it might not be as prone to chytridiomycosis as other members of its genus.	eng
54557	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected area. Survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
54557	distribution		This species is known from two localities, some 20km apart, in the Colombian Andes: Alto San Miguel and Aguadita, Municipios de Sibaté, and Fusagasuga, Cundinamarca Department, between 2,000 and 2,800m asl.	eng
54557	habitat		It occurs in pristine and disturbed cloud forests. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
54557	population		This species was common until the time of the last record in 1999, although there have been no subsequent surveys for the species.	eng
54557	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, and water pollution caused by run-off from pig farms, are also serious threats faced by this species.	eng
54558	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional El Tamá in Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Natural Tamá in neighbouring Colombia. In view of the risk of infections with the chytrid fungus, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status, as well as to initiate a captive-breeding programme.	eng
54558	distribution		This species is known from the Páramo de Tamá, on the Venezuelan-Colombian border, in Apure State, Venezuela. It has been heard in Colombia from Venezuela, along the stream that marks the border between the two countries. Its known altitudinal range is 2,950-3,200m asl.	eng
54558	habitat		It lives in high-elevation sphagnum bogs in páramo habitat. The tadpoles have been found in streams.	eng
54558	population		This species has not been seen since 1987, but there have not been any surveys within its range since this time.	eng
54558	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. The only likely threat to its habitat is fire.	eng
54559	conservation		In Bolivia, it is present in the Parque Nacional Carrasco, Parque Nacional Madidi and Pilon Lajas. In Peru, it is present in Manu Biosphere Reserve. Continued population monitoring is required, especially in light of the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54559	distribution		This species is found in the eastern Andes in Peru and Bolivia, at elevations of 600-2,500m asl. The type locality is the Marcapata Valley in Peru, in the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes (south-eastern Cusco Department). Other Peruvian records are from areas close to Puno Department, at 1,700-2,100m asl (Duellman 1979, Köhler 2000a). In Bolivia there are records from La Paz Department, in the Yungas region, and south in the Chapare region,  Cochabamba Department, eastern slopes of the Andes (Fugler 1984, De la Riva 1990, Reynolds and Foster 1992, Köhler 2000a). The larval description of <em>A. tricolor</em> comes from 12 samples from Paucartambo-Atalaya, 68km (by road) north-east of Union Bridge, at Tachila River, 1,700m asl, Cusco Department, Peru; and five specimens from 40km north Caranavi, Buena Vista Hills, Nor Yungas Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia (Lavilla <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
54559	habitat		This species inhabits wet primary montane forest, corresponding to the Yungas Forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000a). Breeding takes place in streams. Köhler (2000a) observed this species perching, at night, at 0.3-1.2m elevation, in vegetation in disturbed primary forest, and secondary growth along roadsides. Males call in small groups of 4-10 individuals.	eng
54559	population		It is still common within its range, and the declines associated with other species of <em>Atelopus</em> have not yet been noted in this species. It has been recorded as recently as 2003.	eng
54559	threats		The major threats are habitat loss, due to small-holder farming activities (coffee, coca, chili peppers), and pollution, as a result of increased stream sedimentation. Chytridiomycosis has yet to be found in this species, but is a potential major threat in the future. Introduced predatory trout might be a threat in some areas.	eng
54560	conservation	Alan Pounds, Robert Puschendorf, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Martha Crump, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Karen Lips, 2008	The species is present in three protected areas in Panama, and was previously found in a number of Costa Rican protected areas. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation measures are now needed to ensure the future survival of this species, and a captive-breeding program has been initiated.	eng
54560	distribution	Alan Pounds, Robert Puschendorf, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Martha Crump, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Karen Lips, 2008	This species is known from both Atlantic and Pacific versants of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, up to 2,000m asl. It is also present on outlying ridges and hills down to 16m asl at a few lowland sites. The species is absent from the lowlands of the Pacific north-west (Savage 2002). Records from Colombia are in error. Recent declines have reduced the Costa Rican range to only one known locality, Fila Chonta, 10km north-west of the city of Quepos.	eng
54560	habitat	Alan Pounds, Robert Puschendorf, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Martha Crump, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Karen Lips, 2008	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest; specimens recorded at lowland rainforest localities were all found along high-gradient, rocky streams, in hilly areas (Savage 2002). It is associated with small fast-flowing streams and is often found along the banks and sitting out on rocks in streams; at night they sleep in crevices or low vegetation. They forrmely occurred in large concentrations during the dry season, from December to May (Savage 2002). Eggs are laid in water and are probably attached to rocks.	eng
54560	population	Alan Pounds, Robert Puschendorf, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Martha Crump, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Karen Lips, 2008	Over 100 populations of this species were known from Costa Rica where it was often quite common. Drastic declines began in Monteverde in 1988 and the species was thought to have been extirpated in Costa Rica by 1996. However, after nearly eight years during which the species was thought to be extinct, a remnant population was discovered near Quepos, on the Pacific coastal range, in 2003, and was surveyed again in 2005 when more individuals were found. In Panama, some populations have declined, but others persist. For example, Lips (1999) reported a mass mortality in Fortuna, Provincia de Chiriquí, which affected this species in December 1996-January 1997. This site was visited again in February 1998, but the species was not found (Ibáñez 1999). It has been recorded in Panama as recently as November 2002, but it is believed to still be in serious decline.	eng
54560	threats	Alan Pounds, Robert Puschendorf, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Martha Crump, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Karen Lips, 2008	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has led to catastrophic population declines in many other montane species of <em>Atelopus</em>. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi. One specimen collected in 2003 from the only known site at which the species survives in Costa Rica tested positive for chytrid infection, and the disease was also confirmed in individuals in 1986, 1990, 1992 and 1997. Other threats to the species include habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests, and predation by introduced trout. The only known site in Costa Rica is under serious threat of a landslide that could potentially destroy the entire stream section where they are presently found. It was collected by the thousands in the 1970s and shipped to Germany as part of the international pet trade.	eng
54561	conservation		This species has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54561	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Schluch Las Peñas (600m), unweit von Maracay". This area is now believed to be Pozo del Diablo en las cabeceras del Río Güey, on the southern versant of the Cordillera de la Costa, State of Aragua, Venezuela at 700m asl.	eng
54561	habitat		The original habitat at the type locality, semi-deciduous humid forest, has been drastically modified by repeated clearing and burning, and only a savannah-like environment remains. Details from the collection series suggest that the species congregated for breeding in small streams.	eng
54561	population		This species is known only from the type series collected by C. Vogel in 1933. Extensive searches in recent years have failed to find any animals, and the species is now believed to be extinct.	eng
54561	threats		The species is believed to have become extinct following the extensive conversion of its habitat to agricultural use.	eng
54562	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of this species. Disease management and captive-breeding programmes are recommended.	eng
54562	distribution		This species is known from the northern slope of the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the Department of Magdalena, and from the Guatapuri river basin in the department of Cesar, in northern Colombia, between 1,500 and 2,900m asl.	eng
54562	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests. It can also adapt to some modification of its habitat. It lays egg chains in streams, where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54562	population		This species was considered to be common when it was last recorded in 1992. There have been no further surveys within its range since then.	eng
54562	threats		The most serious risk to this species is chytridiomycosis, which has had a devastating impact on other high-altitude <em>Atelopus</em> species. Habitat fragmentation, primarily due to agriculture, and pollution, resulting from agricultural practices and the fumigation of crops, are also major threats.	eng
54563	conservation	Karen Lips, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	This species is protected in Panama by national legislation (as <em>Atelopus varius zetek</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>) decree No. 23 of January 30, 1967. It has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Nacional Altos de Campana and Parque Nacional Omar Torrijos Herrera. A successful captive-breeding programme involving many zoos in North America is in place, although no re-introductions will be made until existing threats can be addressed. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is held at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama; eggs and/or larvae have been produced to date (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September 2007).	eng
54563	distribution	Karen Lips, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	This species is endemic to Panama, occurring east of the main Tabasará ridge in Provincias Coclé and Panamá at 335-1,315m asl.	eng
54563	habitat	Karen Lips, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is a terrestrial species of tropical montane forest, with breeding and larval development taking place in forest streams.	eng
54563	population	Karen Lips, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	This species was reasonably common at a number of localities, and has been recorded as recently as 2005, but it is apparently less abundant north of El Copé, in comparison with observations in 1980. It is very rare or extinct on Cerro Campana. It has been extinct in the El Valle de Antón for approximately 40 years. In recent years, populations have been declining catastrophically due to chytridiomycosis, and the well-known El Copé population collapsed and disappeared over the course of a few months in late 2004 (K. Lips pers. comm.). The chytridiomycosis epidemic appears to be spreading from west to east through Panama, and populations in the eastern part of its range are now at severe risk of disappearing.	eng
54563	threats	Karen Lips, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, which has led to catastrophic population declines in many other species of montane <em>Atelopus</em>. The deforestation of habitat for both agriculture and general infrastructure development, water pollution, and over collection for the pet trade are also threats to this species. In 2003, a road from Sorá to El Valle was opened along the ridge of the Cordillera Central, resulting in heavy sedimentation of most streams on the Pacific and Caribbean slopes, which has negatively affected a significant portion of the habitat used by this species (R. Ibañez, in litt. to E. La Marca).	eng
54564	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, Chris J. Reading, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Condorito and the Reserva Hídrica Provincial de Pampa de Achala.	eng
54564	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, Chris J. Reading, 2008	This species is restricted to the high plateau (Sierra Grande) of Córdoba and San Luis Provinces, Argentina, at 1,600-2,200m asl.	eng
54564	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, Chris J. Reading, 2008	It occurs in rocky outcrops in montane grasslands and reproduces in mountain streams during the final snowfalls of late August. Free-living larvae develop in these streams, and can occur below ice.<br/>Adults and juveniles are often found in close proximity of the breeding site stream. Juveniles and adults select granite outcrops after the breeding season and avoid the heavily grazed areas. Adults also select the stream and use tall tussock grassland in proportion to its availability. Juveniles use loose, flat, relatively small stones as shelters, while adults use larger rocks (Jofré et al., 2007).  Some habitat disturbance is tolerated.	eng
54564	population	Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, Chris J. Reading, 2008	It is common within its limited range. The population was apparently stable through 2002.	eng
54564	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, Chris J. Reading, 2008	The threats to this species are habitat loss due to extensive cattle ranching and the pollution of water sources by cattle. Some populations might also be declining due to fires. In addition, cattle affect larval survivorship directly by trampling, and indirectly through sediment deposition at the breeding sites, resulting from increased stream bank erosion. Future conservation management plans for the species should include the protection of the breeding sites and the surrounding terrestrial area (Jofré et al., 2007).	eng
54565	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
54565	distribution		This species is generally regarded as being distributed from northwest Amazonas state in Brazil, north into Colombia east of the Andes, and into southern Amazonas state in Venezuela.	eng
54565	habitat		It is an inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforests. It lays its eggs in shallow pools where the tadpoles also develop. It is an adaptable species	eng
54565	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54565	threats		There are no threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
54566	conservation		Its known range is within Ailaoshan National Nature Reserve.	eng
54566	distribution		This species is only known from Shuangbai County in Yunnan Province, China, from 2,550-2,600m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
54566	habitat		It inhabits bamboo forests and presumably breeds in the streams in bamboo forests and broadleaf forests.	eng
54566	population		Only one specimen has ever been collected, and this species is considered to be very rare and hard to find.	eng
54566	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
54567	conservation		This species is found in El Pinacade Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.	eng
54567	distribution		This species occurs from extreme southeastern California, southern Arizona and extreme southern New Mexico in the USA, south into Mexico. It has nearly been extirpated in California. It occurs from sea level to 1,610m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
54567	habitat		This species ranges from arid mesquite/creosotebush lowlands and arid grasslands to oak/sycamore/walnut groves in mountain canyons. It is often near permanent water but is also found near temporary water or far from water. It takes refuge in rodent burrows. It breeds and lays eggs in ponds, slow-moving streams, etc.	eng
54567	population		The total adult population size for this species is unknown but surely is many thousands. It is common throughout its range.	eng
54567	threats		No major threats have been identified (other than localized ones) for this species.	eng
54568	conservation		The species is not known to occur within a protected area. More exhaustive searches are needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
54568	distribution		This species is known only from elevations of 2,050-2,200m asl in the Loja Basin, an inter-Andean valley in Loja Province, Ecuador (Pramuk and Kadivar 2003). It is likely to have a restricted distribution, and recent surveys confirm this.	eng
54568	habitat		The species has been collected in small pools and irrigation canals. Little is known of its habitat requirements or ecology, but breeding is presumed to take place in freshwater by larval development.	eng
54568	population		Past collections indicate that the species was fairly common at areas nearby creeks, even near plantations; however, surveys undertaken between 1989 and 2001 failed to find the species. It appears that it has not been collected since 1968, and a serious decrease might have taken place.	eng
54568	threats		The apparent declines of this species might in part be due to the modification of much of the Loja basin area for agriculture, urbanization, and other regional development. It appears that populations of this toad in the area surrounding Provincia Loja have been severely affected by human activities (Pramuk and Kadivar 2003). Disease might also be a factor but there is no evidence to confirm this.	eng
54569	conservation		Its range includes either or both of Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboró.	eng
54569	distribution		The type specimens of this species come from a locality 12.7km north-west of Empalme, at 2,150m asl (Ergueta and Harvey 1996), in Bolivia, but Köhler (2000) did not find any individuals in this area. Harvey and Smith (1993) point out that the type locality for this species is located at La Serrania de Siberia, between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments in Bolivia. This is the only known locality.	eng
54569	habitat		This species occurs in aquatic and terrestrial habitats within cloud forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000), including small streams (Köhler 2000), and is a larval developing species.	eng
54569	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54569	threats		The major threat to it is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development.	eng
54570	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
54570	distribution		This species is found in North America from Labrador, Hudson Bay area, and Manitoba to northern Texas, Louisiana, central Alabama, northern Georgia, and North Carolina (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from most of the Coastal Plain.	eng
54570	habitat		It inhabits a wide variety of habitats, ranging from forests to prairies, wherever there is sufficient moisture and food. It hides under objects or burrows underground when inactive. In New York, distribution is apparently influenced by soil pH (Wyman 1988). It breeds in nearly any slow or standing body of water, including both permanent and temporary pools, generally in sites with few if any fishes (e.g., Holomuzki 1995). Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow areas. Embryo survival declines greatly at pH below 4.5 (J. Herpetol. 26:70). In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).	eng
54570	population		This species is widespread and abundant. It is stable overall, with localized declines.	eng
54570	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
54571	conservation		There are conservation units present within its range.	eng
54571	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in Amazonian Brazil and Colombia: Taracuá, Rio Vaupes, Brazil; Amazonas and Vaupes Departments of Colombia near the Brazilian border; and Vichada Department of Colombia near the Venezuelan border. It presumably occurs more widely, and is likely to be found in Venezuela and Peru.	eng
54571	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter in tropical rainforest. Embryonic and larval development occurs in temporary pools.	eng
54571	population		There is no information on the population of this species because it is rarely collected.	eng
54571	threats		There are no threats to this species in Brazil. In Colombia, it is threatened by deforestation.	eng
54572	conservation		Many protected areas in China support this species.	eng
54572	distribution		This species is known from southern China including Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hubei, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. It occurs from 750-3,020m asl.	eng
54572	habitat		It inhabits grassland and forests. It breeds in streams, pools, backwaters in rivers and ponds where the larvae also develop.	eng
54572	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
54572	threats		Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine is a major threat to this species.	eng
54573	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54573	distribution		This species is restricted to the southwestern Cape in South Africa, ranging from near Humansdorp in the east along the coastal flats and Cape Fold Mountains to Nieuwoudtville in the west. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl. There are very few recent records from the eastern part of its range, and there might be genuine gaps in its distribution not reflected in the map.	eng
54573	habitat		It is a species of fynbos heathland, surviving to some extent in agricultural areas. It breeds in temporary depressions in sandy areas, and also in clay soils.	eng
54573	population		It has disappeared from certain sites where it used to be common around Cape Town and Stellenbosch, but it is probably more stable and common through most of its range. It is thinly spread, and is rarely encountered in the eastern part of its distribution, probably due to limited habitat, but large-scale emergences have been observed.	eng
54573	threats		The main threats are continuing coastal development, the impacts of alien plants on its habitat, and wetland drainage for urbanization and agriculture.	eng
54574	conservation		It is present in the Farasan Islands Protected Area, Saudi Arabia.	eng
54574	distribution		This species is generally restricted to sites of surface water in widely separated areas of the southern Arabian Peninsula. It is absent from eastern Yemen and southern and central Oman. It is present on the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia. It has been recorded from sea level to 2,300m asl.	eng
54574	habitat		It is an opportunistic species that is present wherever there are water sources available; this includes garden courtyards, oasis, permanent springs, irrigation canals and permanent small rivers. Breeding takes place in stagnant and slow-moving water.	eng
54574	population		This species is common at water sources.	eng
54574	threats		There are no known threats to this species; much of its range is undeveloped.	eng
54575	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas. Further research is needed to assist its conservation.	eng
54575	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "from a pass approximately 5km (by road) north-east of Mendoza (06° 18'S; 77° 27'W, altitude approximately 2,400m asl), Provincia Rodriguez de Mendoza, Departamento de Amazonas, Peru" (Duellman and Schulte 1992).	eng
54575	habitat		Its habitat is montane tropical rainforest, and individuals have been found in bromeliads. Its breeding habits are not known, though it presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
54575	population		Nothing is known about its population status.	eng
54575	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
54576	conservation		Taxonomic research to determine the status of populations should be carried out. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54576	distribution		This species occurs in southern Brazil, Argentina (south to Chubut Province), Uruguay and Bolivia, from sea level up to 2,600m asl.	eng
54576	habitat		It is found at small ponds or bogs with stagnant water, in dry, temperate habitat, mostly in open areas. In Brazil and Argentina, it occurs mainly on the coastal zone. Males call at night from in the water or on the exposed edge of the water. Oviposition occurs in these temporary waterbodies and tadpoles feed and develop in the same site. It has adapted to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
54576	population		It was abundant in 2003 in Argentina.	eng
54576	threats		It is collected for educational and scientific use and threatened by mistreatment from children and by road kills, but the species in general is not threatened.	eng
54577	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The prevention of water pollution is needed. The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54577	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species has a wide distribution from Coquimbo (25°S) to Arauco Gulf (37°S), Chile, at elevations of 0-1,500m asl.	eng
54577	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It occurs near rivers, streams and reservoirs. Adults hide in small holes or under stones during the daytime. It reproduces in water near where it lives. The tadpoles are free swimming.	eng
54577	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Large populations were seen in 2003.	eng
54577	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	Habitat destruction is a threat to this species, as is water pollution caused by agriculture, for example pine plantations, agricultural crops and cattle.	eng
54578	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54578	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of Ethiopia (on both sides of the Rift Valley) and Eritrea. It is known with certainty only between 1,875 and 3,000m asl. Records down to 200m asl in Eritrea and 600m asl in southeastern Ethiopia require confirmation.	eng
54578	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland. There is some suggestion that the species might extend into arid savannah at lower elevations, but this requires confirmation. It breeds in permanent and probably also temporary pools (including in artificially maintained livestock-watering sites) in montane grassland.	eng
54578	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
54578	threats		Populations of this species are presumably impacted by environmental degradation due to human settlement and agricultural encroachment. However, this species is probably adaptable, and its habitat is not declining very rapidly, and so it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.	eng
54579	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. In Borneo the protection of large areas of rainforest in Kalimantan and Sarawak is needed. In Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia this species inhabits almost every protected forest area. It is also protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.	eng
54579	distribution		This species is found from Kyaik Ti Yo National Park in Mon State, Myanmar, through western Thailand, Tenasserim and Malaysia (including Penang and Tioman) to Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Natuna Besar and southwest Sulawesi (where it is introduced)), and Malaysian Borneo and Brunei. It is absent from Singapore, Phuket and other islands. It occurs from lowlands up to 1,200m asl (up to 1,400m asl in Sumatra).	eng
54579	habitat		In Borneo it is apparently confined to the banks of rainforest streams and rivers throughout its life cycle, and has been recorded only from heavily forested areas. It has not been reported from disturbed or heavily logged forests. Its larvae live on the bottom of riffles and rapids. In Sumatra and Java it is found in rivers or along small streams in various habitats, from primary rainforest to degraded areas and even near cities. On these islands, the species can tolerate a considerable amount of pollution and is still abundant where other species have disappeared.	eng
54579	population		Its abundance throughout its range varies greatly. It can be present and abundant, present but uncommon, or absent from forests that appear roughly the same.	eng
54579	threats		In Borneo the destruction of large portions of the lowland forests and the reduction of remaining forests into fragmented mosaic are the principal threats. On Borneo, deforestation has an immediate impact on larval development through the siltation of streams. However, in some other places (especially Java) it breeds in polluted rivers in cities. In Sabah and parts of Peninsular Malaysia, it is eaten by the local people.	eng
54580	conservation		It is only known from a small nature reserve, called Tongbiguan.	eng
54580	distribution		This species is only known from Yangbi, on the western side of Yunling Mountain, in Yunnan Province, China, from 1,800-2,400m asl.	eng
54580	habitat		It inhabits mountain forests and cultivated fields, and breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
54580	population		It is not uncommon within its restricted range.	eng
54580	threats		This species is threatened by habitat destruction taking place within its range due to smallholder farming.	eng
54581	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas including Ruhuna National Park, Bundala National Park, Muthurajawela Sanctuary and the Victoria-Randenigala-Rantembe Sanctuary.	eng
54581	distribution		This species is endemic to southern and southeastern Sri Lanka. It occurs from sea level up to 200m asl.	eng
54581	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of wet evergreen tropical forest and dry lands. Specimens have also been recorded in areas of human habitation. Adults are found under stones, leaf-litter and other ground cover. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
54581	population		It is a common species where it occurs. It is more common in areas outside primary forest. Although there are no quantitative data available on population size or trends, the population of this toad is considered to be stable at present.	eng
54581	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present. It is very common in areas of human habitation.	eng
54582	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas on the island.	eng
54582	distribution		This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs up to 2,700m asl.	eng
54582	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forest, cultivated fields, mixed forests and orchards. It breeds in streams and pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
54582	population		This is a very common species.	eng
54582	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species. It is also collected for food and traditional medicine.	eng
54583	conservation		It occurs in Mortenson Lake National Wildlife Refuge, where a recovery programme, using captive-bred animals and re-introductions, is being implemented. TNC recently acquired a 1,800-acre tract at Mortensen Lake and has arranged a conservation easement with an adjacent landowner. Lake George also is a toad refuge. The success of the recovery programme probably depends on finding some way to combat chytridiomycosis in the wild.	eng
54583	distribution		This species is restricted to the Laramie Basin, Wyoming, USA. The historical range extent was approximately 2,330km² (USFWS data). As of 2002, it was extant only at Mortenson Lake National Wildlife Refuge, which encompasses four impoundments: Mortenson, Garber, Gibbs, and Soda lakes; the refuge is closed to the public (USFWS 2002e). The extant occurrence probably would be extirpated without recent annual releases of captive-reared toadlets. Populations at former re-introduction sites (Lake George on the Hutton Lake National Wildlife Refuge, and Rush Lake) have been lost due to drought (USFWS 2002e).	eng
54583	habitat		Historically, it is associated with floodplain ponds along the Big and Little Laramie Rivers; use of lakes might have been limited due to saline conditions; irrigation might have flushed out the lakes and made them more suitable for toads (G. Baxter pers. comm.). Currently, it occurs in the vicinity of lakes and adjacent meadows. It uses rodent burrows for shelter. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water.	eng
54583	population		This species was common in the 1950s, but underwent a large decline in the 1960s and 1970s; it was thought to be extinct in the wild in the mid-1980s, but was found again at Mortenson Lake in 1987 and captive propagation began in the mid-1990s using toads from Mortenson Lake (USFWS 2002e). At Mortenson Lake, there has been no natural reproduction by wild toads since 1991; the population is maintained through release of captive-reared young (Parker, Anderson and Lindzey 2000). In June 2002, a survey at Mortenson Lake NWR yielded 124 yearlings and 4 adults (USFWS 2002e). Limited natural reproduction and recruitment of a few metamorphosed juveniles occurred in 2002 (USFWS 2002e). Despite releases of captive-reared individuals, the population at Mortenson Lake NWR appears to be declining (USFWS 2002e).	eng
54583	threats		Mortenson Lake, site of the only known extant population, is infected with the amphibian chytrid fungus (USFWS 2002e). This fungus has been implicated in declines and extinctions of amphibian species worldwide. Retrospective analysis shows that the fungus has been present at Mortenson Lake since at least 1989. In addition, chytridiomycosis is the most commonly seen disease in the captive population. Predation, pesticide use, irrigation practices, and lack of genetic diversity might also limit the abundance of Wyoming Toads in the Laramie Basin. The cause of the original decline remains unknown but might be associated with the invasion of chytrid into the area (USFWS 2002e). Mortenson Lake recently has become more saline (and less suitable for toads) as a result of drought-related increases in evaporation (USFWS 2002e). Salt-cedar was found (and removed) at Hutton Lake NWR in 2002. This plant has the potential to reduce habitat suitability (USFWS 2002e). For the past several years, beginning in late summer, adults with bacterial and fungal infections have been found moribund or dead (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 1999). Predators, probably mustelids, killed several radio-tagged individuals in 1998 (Parker, Anderson and Lindzey 2000).	eng
54584	conservation		It has been recorded from the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu) and Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka). The species has been the focus of recent studies (S.D. Biju 1998-2001).	eng
54584	distribution		This species is believed to be endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, and has been recorded from Kudremukh, Ponmudi and Kalakad. Specimens collected in Maharashtra are misidentifications of <em>Bufo c.f. scaber</em> (S.D. Biju pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
54584	habitat		It is a terrestrial species primarily associated with montane tropical moist forest, and is presumed to breed in streams. Individuals have been recorded in abandoned eucalyptus plantations. It has not been recorded from agricultural areas.	eng
54584	population		This is a rare species, and there are no estimates of population size or trends. Populations are fragmented, and the species is believed to be declining throughout much of its range.	eng
54584	threats		The main threat is the conversion of areas of suitable habitat to intensive plantations (tea, eucalyptus and <em>Acacia</em>), and industrial development and urbanization around Ponmudi.	eng
54585	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54585	distribution		This species is widely distributed from coastal northern Colombia, through Venezuela (from the Orinoco basin northwards), to the lower elevations of Trinidad. However, because of the taxonomic problems associated with this species, this distribution might not be very meaningful. It occurs up to 400m asl in Venezuela, and up to 1,000m asl at Santa Marta in the Sierra Nevada of Colombia.	eng
54585	habitat		It is generally a terrestrial species that is usually found in lowlands plains, savannahs, and dry forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds. On Trinidad, it is found in cane fields, rice fields, and other open agricultural areas. It can penetrate forests by following roads and lumber tracts, and has been reported from a number of disturbed habitats (eg. construction sites devoid of any vegetation).	eng
54585	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
54585	threats		It is not likely to be seriously threatened, but might be impacted be fires and droughts.	eng
54586	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected area, and is presumably present in the Kafue National Park in Zambia.	eng
54586	distribution		This species is so far known from two apparently isolated areas: the coastal plain of central Mozambique in the flood plain of the Pungwe River, north to Thuchila in southern Malawi; and floodplains in the Zambezi catchment area in central and southwestern Zambia. Because its call is not known, it is under-recorded, and probably occurs more widely, in particular between these two areas. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,000m asl.	eng
54586	habitat		More fieldwork is required to identify its preferred habitat, but it has been found in grassy areas that flood during the rains. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to take place in temporary pools. Its adaptability to altered habitats in unknown.	eng
54586	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54586	threats		No information is available.	eng
54587	conservation		It occurs in protected areas.	eng
54587	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern Argentina, central Paraguay, and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. It is found at approximately 80-300m asl.	eng
54587	habitat		It occurs in grasslands, wet Chaco, and wetlands (Pantanal). It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools (including agricultural pools).	eng
54587	population		It is abundant and the population is stable.	eng
54587	threats		It is not threatened currently, however, it is potentially threatened in the future by habitat destruction and pollution caused by agricultural activities.	eng
54588	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Java and Sumatra.	eng
54588	distribution		This species, endemic to Indonesia, is found in the southern part of Sumatra, Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok and it has been introduced to Sulawesi. Its occurrence in mainland Southeast Asia is uncertain. Records from Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975) probably refer to Bufo quadriporcatus or Bufo parvus. It is a low altitude species, occurring up to 700m asl.	eng
54588	habitat		It occurs in lowland forest, degraded forest, and tree plantations, but can also be found around towns in Bali and Lombok. The introduced animals on Sulawesi occur near towns. It breeds in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
54588	population		It is abundant in forested regions, but much less so in secondary and degraded habitats. It is common on Lombok but it is decreasing on Bali following the introduction of Bufo melanostictus. It is spreading on Sulawesi.	eng
54588	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss. Populations outside forested areas might be decreasing where <em>Bufo melanostictus</em> has been introduced. On Java the species is decreasing generally.	eng
54589	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Ethiopia or Somalia, and probably not elsewhere.	eng
54589	distribution		This species occurs in Eritrea, Djibouti and northern Somalia, and from two localities in adjacent northeastern Ethiopia.	eng
54589	habitat		It is particularly associated with permanent water in arid rocky habitats. It is apparently never found far from the shallow pools in which it breeds. The animals are particularly encountered swimming actively, sheltering amongst aquatic vegetation, or resting beneath stones near the water margin.	eng
54589	population		It is possibly locally common, but seems to exist in scattered and rather isolated populations, probably owing to the limited availability of suitable habitat in parts of its range.	eng
54589	threats		The most likely threat is the increase in human expansion and settlement, with the resulting increase in populations of domestic livestock impacting breeding pools.	eng
54590	conservation		In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and it also occurs in protected areas in Colombia. Legislation is needed to regulate the international trade and the harvesting of this species.	eng
54590	distribution		This species occurs in northern Ecuador (in Esmeraldas and Carchi Provinces), and in Colombia on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments, between 200 and 550m asl.	eng
54590	habitat		It lives in closed lowland tropical rainforest, coming close to human habitation in some areas. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools, sometimes close to rivers (where young animals in particular are often found).	eng
54590	population		It is locally common.	eng
54590	threats		The major threats it faces are deforestation for agricultural development and cultivation of illegal crops, logging, mining, the introduction of exotic species, human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. In Ecuador, there is commercial export of animals for pharmacological research and the pet trade.	eng
54591	conservation		It does not occur in protected areas, but it tolerates severe habitat alteration.	eng
54591	distribution		This species is found in southwestern Chiapas at the Sierra Madre del Sur and central Plateau of Chiapas, Mexico to southern Guatemala, at elevations of 1,000-3,200m asl. The Mexican and Guatemalan distributions are likely to be contiguous.	eng
54591	habitat		It inhabits only the highlands of southwestern Chiapas and Guatemala that are covered by coniferous forest. It is sometimes possible to find individuals in populated areas. It can occur in heavily disturbed, treeless areas. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
54591	population		It is common in Guatemala, and common where it occurs in Chiapas, Mexico.	eng
54591	threats		It is possibly threatened by water pollution, but this is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
54592	conservation		It occurs in Amani Nature Reserve and Udzungwa National Park, but expanded and strengthened protection of these and other forest reserves in the Eastern Arc mountains is necessary. The species requires close population monitoring.	eng
54592	distribution		This species occurs in the West and East Usambaras, the Ulugurus, and the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from 700m asl (perhaps lower) to 1,800m asl.	eng
54592	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane forest zones, occurring in leaf-litter on the forest floor, and breeding in streams. It tolerates limited habitat disturbance, but is not found in open habitats, except when these are close to forest.	eng
54592	population		It is not an uncommon species. However, there is evidence that it is becoming more scarce.	eng
54592	threats		It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, collection of wood, and human settlement, and its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
54593	conservation		Field surveys are urgently required to collect a neotype.	eng
54593	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan District, Mysore State" (Rao 1937), in the central Western Ghats of India. The collection is believed to have taken place at an altitude between 200 and 300m asl.	eng
54593	habitat		There is nothing known about its habitat or ecology, although it is presumably a water-breeding species, with larval development.	eng
54593	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is not known.	eng
54593	threats		The type locality is threatened by conversion to agricultural land (including tea plantations), and the development of regional infrastructure (such as roads).	eng
54594	conservation		This species is present in Parc National de Souss-Massa but is not protected by national legislation. It can be bred successfully in captivity.	eng
54594	distribution		This species is restricted to western, southern and eastern Morocco, ranging into northern Western Sahara and north-western Algeria, from sea level to 1,600m asl.	eng
54594	habitat		It is present in semi-arid, hilly areas with <em>Argania spinosa</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, and graminaceous vegetation. It may be found in ploughed fields (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996), and hides beneath stones during the day. The temporary ponds that it breeds in are mostly located in rocky areas, and it has been observed in artificial waterbodies (such as dammed temporary rivers).	eng
54594	population		It can be abundant in suitable habitat, but is in decline as its habitats are being lost.	eng
54594	threats		It is threatened through much of its range by increased aridity, pollution and drainage of its breeding habitats.	eng
54595	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54595	distribution		This species is known from the Cabinda enclave (Angola), and from Brazzaville in western Congo. Attempts to map its range at this stage are speculative, pending resolution of its taxonomic status. If it is valid, then it presumably also occurs at least in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54595	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology.	eng
54595	population		There is no clear information on the population status of this species, which seems to occur in any likely area where there has been very little herpetological work conducted for many years.	eng
54595	threats		Nothing is known about threats to this species.	eng
54596	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is considered to be Near Threatened in Spain because of recent declines due to habitat loss, as well as progressive aridity. The species is present in numerous protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
54596	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is considered to be Near Threatened in Spain because of recent declines due to habitat loss, as well as progressive aridity. The species is present in numerous protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
54596	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is widespread in Europe (excluding Ireland and most Mediterranean islands [though it is present on Sicily]), and northern Eurasia, with populations in parts of West Asia (Turkey, Syrian Arab Republic and Lebanon) and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). In Europe, it is present in most areas (including the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden and Finland), ranging as far eastwards as northern Kazakhstan and eastern Siberia. In the Middle East, it is found through much of Turkey, northwestern Syrian Arab Republic, and has recently been recorded from two mountainous locations in Lebanon. In Africa it has a very fragmented range in the more mountainous regions. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 3,000m asl, however in northern portions of the range the species occurs at much lower elevations.	eng
54596	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This species is widespread in Europe (excluding Ireland and most Mediterranean islands [though it is present on Sicily]), and northern Eurasia, with populations in parts of West Asia (Turkey, Syrian Arab Republic and Lebanon) and north Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). In Europe, it is present in most areas (including the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden and Finland), ranging as far eastwards as northern Kazakhstan and eastern Siberia. In the Middle East, it is found through much of Turkey, northwestern Syrian Arab Republic, and has recently been recorded from two mountainous locations in Lebanon. In Africa it has a very fragmented range in the more mountainous regions. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 3,000m asl, however in northern portions of the range the species occurs at much lower elevations.	eng
54596	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This is a widespread and adaptable species present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, groves, bushlands, meadows, arid areas, parks and gardens. It is usually in damp areas with dense vegetation, and large open areas are generally avoided. The species spawns and larval development takes place in still waters and slow-moving parts of rivers and streams. It is present in many modified habitats.	eng
54596	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This is a widespread and adaptable species present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, groves, bushlands, meadows, arid areas, parks and gardens. It is usually in damp areas with dense vegetation, and large open areas are generally avoided. The species spawns and larval development takes place in still waters and slow-moving parts of rivers and streams. It is present in many modified habitats.	eng
54596	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	Although this species is generally common over much of its range, some localized declines have been observed.	eng
54596	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	Although this species is generally common over much of its range, some localized declines have been observed.	eng
54596	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and common species. Populations might be locally impacted through deforestation, drainage of wetlands, pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanization, desertification, mortality on roads (migrating animals), and persecution. In parts of the former Soviet Union it is collected in small numbers for the pet trade. This species can be affected by the increase of UV-B radiation (Lizana and Pedraza 1998). Relict populations in montane areas in Lebanon might be threatened by the impacts of global warming. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to the species and has been reported in some Spanish and UK populations. It has declined extensively in Spain due to habitat loss and aridity. One subspecies in Spain, <em>B.b. gredosicola</em>, is threatened by predation by otters and competition with the frog <em>Rana perezi</em>, both of which appear to have moved into higher altitudes as a result of climatic warming. In the United Kingdom the species is increasingly suffering from habitat fragmentation and some unexplained declines have occurred.	eng
54596	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, 2008	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and common species. Populations might be locally impacted through deforestation, drainage of wetlands, pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanization, desertification, mortality on roads (migrating animals), and persecution. In parts of the former Soviet Union it is collected in small numbers for the pet trade. This species can be affected by the increase of UV-B radiation (Lizana and Pedraza 1998). Relict populations in montane areas in Lebanon might be threatened by the impacts of global warming. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to the species and has been reported in some Spanish and UK populations. It has declined extensively in Spain due to habitat loss and aridity. One subspecies in Spain, <em>B.b. gredosicola</em>, is threatened by predation by otters and competition with the frog <em>Rana perezi</em>, both of which appear to have moved into higher altitudes as a result of climatic warming. In the United Kingdom the species is increasingly suffering from habitat fragmentation and some unexplained declines have occurred.	eng
54597	conservation		The species is likely to be present in several protected areas. Further research is needed into the breeding biology of this species, and the possible adverse effects of competition with the invasive bullfrog.	eng
54597	distribution		This species is known from several localities in western Ecuador in the north-western Andean montane forest and western Ecuador moist forests. It has been recorded from 40-2,000m asl.	eng
54597	habitat		It is found from the lower Pacific Andean slopes up to cloud forests. In Las Pampas, the habitat of this species was described as being close to rivers/creeks in low montane cloud forest (Hoogmoed 1989). There is no information about its breeding habitats although it is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
54597	population		It is a rare species.	eng
54597	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, both for crops and livestock ranching, as well as logging and wood plantations. The invasive bullfrog (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) is probably also competing with this species.	eng
54598	conservation	Pedro Beja, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Per Nyström, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and is protected by national and sub national legislation throughout much of its range. The species is listed in many regional, national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. A re-introduction program in the UK has successfully established at least six, and perhaps quite a few more populations (Denton, <em>et al.</em> 1997; Zippel 2005).	eng
54598	distribution	Pedro Beja, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Per Nyström, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in southern, western and northern Europe, ranging from Portugal and Spain, north to Denmark, southern Sweden, and as far east as western Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia and Estonia. There are isolated populations in southwestern Ireland and scattered parts of the United Kingdom (north to southwestern Scotland). It occurs from sea level to almost 2,540 m asl (in Spain).	eng
54598	habitat	Pedro Beja, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Per Nyström, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is generally found in open and unshaded light sandy soils of coastal dunes, lowland heaths, semi-desert, high mountains, pine forest glades, gardens, parks, agricultural fields, sand and gravel quarries and meadows. In the daytime these animals hide in heaps of stones, in sandy soil and under debris. Spawning, followed by a short larval development period, takes place in sunny shallow temporary pools and lagoons. This is a pioneering species in much of southern Europe, sometimes temporarily colonizing new ponds; it is very much less adaptable in northern Europe.	eng
54598	population	Pedro Beja, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Per Nyström, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is locally abundant across much of its range, especially in southern Europe. It is much more localized and is declining in the northern parts of its range (e.g., in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Estonia). While generally declining in Poland, a large breeding population of about 500 individuals was recorded in 2002 in the Slowinski National Park. It is considered generally rare in eastern parts of its range.	eng
54598	threats	Pedro Beja, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, David Tarkhnishvili, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Per Nyström, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana,  Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threats to this species are loss of specialized habitats (such as heaths and dunes) by natural encroachment of scrub and woodland; afforestation, acidification of breeding pools, agricultural development, infilling of breeding sites (such as temporary pools and sand and gravel quarries); increased mechanization of sand and gravel extraction and infrastructure development for tourism. In some parts of its range (e.g. in UK and Spain) chytridiomycosis is a threat. The species is considered vulnerable to climate change, particularly in southern Europe.	eng
54599	conservation		USFWS (2001) designated as critical habitat approximately 182,360 acres in 22 units in Monterey, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, Orange, and San Diego counties. Critical habitat includes stream and river courses, riparian areas, and adjacent terrace and upland habitats. It does not include existing structures or other developed areas. See recovery plan (USFWS 1999). In Mexico this species is found within San Pedro Martir National Park.	eng
54599	distribution		This species formerly ranged from San Luis Obispo County, California, USA, south to north-western Baja California in Mexico; see Gergus, Sullivan and Malmos 1997 for southernmost record. It is now apparently extirpated in San Luis Obispo County; populations persist in headwater areas of streams in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Riverside, and San Diego counties; recent sightings of scattered individuals have been reported from Orange, San Bernardino, and southern Imperial counties (USFWS 1994). The majority of the remaining populations in Santa Barbara and Ventura counties are in Los Padres National Forest (five viable populations); Sespe Creek in Ventura County has the largest known population. Other populations occur in the Sisquoc, Santa Ynez, and upper and lower Piru drainages (USFWS 1994). It also occurs in San Diego County along the Santa Margarita, Guejito, Sweetwater, Vallecito, San Luis Rey, Santa Ysabel, Witch, Cottonwood, Temescal, Agua Caliente, Santa Maria, Lusardi, Pine Valley, Noble, Kitchen, Long Potrero, Upper San Diego, San Vicente, and Morena drainages; populations in the Temescal, Agua Caliente, Pine Valley, and Cottonwood drainages may be considered viable (USFWS 1994). It was recently recorded in Whitewater Canyon in Riverside County (Patten and Myers, 1992, Herpetol. Rev. 23:122). Recent surveys located very small populations in four creeks in south-western Riverside County (Temecula, Arroyo Seco, San Mateo, and Tenaja creeks) (USFWS 1994). The single recent record in San Bernardino County is from Deep Creek in the San Bernardino National Forest. It is also still extant in north-western Baja California.	eng
54599	habitat		This species inhabits washes, streams, and arroyos, and adjacent uplands (in desert and shrubland). It is also found on sandy banks in riparian woodlands (willow, cottonwood, sycamore, and/or coast live oak) in California. It is also found along rivers that have shallow gravelly pools adjacent to sandy terraces (USFWS 1993). Adults obtain shelter by burrowing into sandy soil. It lays eggs among gravel, leaves, or sticks, or on mud or clean sand, at the bottom of shallow quiet waters of streams or shallow ponds, in areas with little or no emergent vegetation. Newly metamorphosed individuals remain near pools for up to several weeks (until the pools dry up).	eng
54599	population		The total estimated breeding population is less than 3,000 individuals (USFWS, Federal Register, 6 May 1998). Only six of the 22 extant populations south of Ventura are known to contain more than a dozen adults (USFWS 1994). It has been extirpated from an estimated 75% of its former range in the USA (Sweet, in USFWS 1993). Reproductive success has been poor in recent years (USFWS 1993). There is very little recent information on the trends in this species in Mexico. It occurs in at least a couple dozen sites, but viable populations may remain in only five drainages (USFWS 1993). It is known in California from 22 river basins in nine counties (USFWS 1999).	eng
54599	threats		Threats include habitat degradation (mainly through urbanization, dam construction and ill-timed water releases, agriculture, road construction, off-road vehicle use, overgrazing, and mining activities, and also via drought and wildfires), recreational use of habitat (which causes habitat degradation and direct mortality), predation by introduced fishes and bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>), and small population sizes (see USFWS 1993 and 1994 for further details).	eng
54600	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54600	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in Congo, and has recently been confirmed from extreme southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It is also recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Records from West Africa are considered here to belong to Bufo togoensis. A record from Mumba in southwestern Tanzania requires confirmation. Most records are probably from below 1,000m asl, though it probably ranges higher than this.	eng
54600	habitat		This is a forest species. It can also be found is secondary brush. It breeds in lakes, ponds, and very slow-flowing creeks in poorly drained forest.	eng
54600	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54600	threats		It is presumably affected by ongoing loss of its forest habitat.	eng
54601	conservation		Much of its range is protected in forest reserves of the Mayan Mountains, in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachuá and the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico, and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras.	eng
54601	distribution		This species is found at low and moderate altitudes in northern and eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, and extreme western Honduras, from 100-1,080m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54601	habitat		It lives in and near streams in pristine forest in mountainous regions (in Honduras, in lowland moist and premontane wet forest). It breeds primarily in streams but has also been found breeding in pools in Guatemala.	eng
54601	population		It is still found in good numbers in appropriate habitats in Belize and Honduras, and is still common in the Sierra de Santa Cruz.	eng
54601	threats		In Honduras and Guatemala, it is threatened by habitat destruction, and in Belize, by hurricanes.	eng
54602	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Gunther Köhler, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It occurs in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and El Imposible National Park in El Salvador.	eng
54602	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Gunther Köhler, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	This species occurs on the Pacific slope from south central Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico south to Guatemala and western El Salvador, at elevations of 300-700m asl.	eng
54602	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Gunther Köhler, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It occurs in mid-elevation semi deciduous forest close to rivers and moderate-sized streams. It breeds in ponds and streams. It occurs in disturbed habitats, including shade coffee plantations.	eng
54602	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Gunther Köhler, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It is common throughout its range, especially in southern Mexico.	eng
54602	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Gunther Köhler, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	Habitat destruction and possibly water pollution are threats to this species.	eng
54603	conservation		It occurs in protected areas.	eng
54603	distribution		This species occurs in Amazonas, Colombia; eastern Peru; the states of Pará, Amazonas, and Rondonia, Brazil; and the Departamento Pando, Amazonian Bolivia.	eng
54603	habitat		It lives on the old growth humid forest floor and uses the water retained inside the "ouriço" of Brazil nuts to breed. It also uses small temporary pools.	eng
54603	population		It is locally abundant in Brazil, and locally common in Bolivia and Colombia.	eng
54603	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
54604	conservation		The range of the species includes the Reserva Ecológica los Indios.	eng
54604	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the lowlands of the Isla de Juventud and extreme western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 50m asl.	eng
54604	habitat		It inhabits savannah habitat, with pinewood and palms, with sandy soils. Males call from temporary pools (rain puddles), flooded pastures, and other shallow still water (which is also where the eggs are laid). It is an explosive breeder that breeds after heavy rains.	eng
54604	population		It can be very common at breeding aggregations, but is otherwise hard to find.	eng
54604	threats		The main threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation due to intensive agriculture and the extraction of sand for the glass industry. The invasive <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> (Marabu), a thorny, fast-growing woody species native to Africa that was introduced to the Caribbean in the 19th century, also poses a threat to native habitat, and is difficult and expensive to control.	eng
54605	conservation		Although this species can be found in protected areas, the protection of these areas is not always guaranteed, and some are subject to human disturbance; improved management of these is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
54605	distribution		This species occurs only in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas and a few other localities near the Santa Marta volcano, in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from 200-1,600m asl.	eng
54605	habitat		It inhabits tropical pine-oak forests with abundant leaf-litter. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
54605	population		This is a naturally rare species.	eng
54605	threats		The major threat to this species is loss and degradation of its pine-oak forest habitat due to agricultural activities (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and infrastructure development.	eng
54606	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed. It presumably occurs in some protected areas.	eng
54606	distribution		This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Muna, Buton and Banggai islands in Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl.	eng
54606	habitat		It lives in all habitats, including primary rainforest, secondary forest, plantations, cultivated land and towns. It breeds in ponds, paddy fields, and pools within slow-moving streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
54606	population		It is generally abundant throughout its range.	eng
54606	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
54607	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54607	distribution		This species has a wide distribution in the upper Amazon; it is known from eastern Ecuador; eastern Colombia (Amazonia and Vaupés); Marahuaca, Venezuela and Iquitos, Peru. In Venezuela, it is known from a single juvenile specimen from Temiche, Cerro Marahuaca, Amazonas State (La Marca 1992). It has been recorded at elevations of up to 1,350m asl. It has only been collected once in Ecuador. It occurs at Serra da Neblina, Amazonas, and Brazil.	eng
54607	habitat		It lives in old and second growth lowland tropical rainforest and it is found on the ground in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It reproduces in small rivers and temporary and permanent streams.	eng
54607	population		It is common in Colombia but rare elsewhere, although perhaps it is understudied.	eng
54607	threats		Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
54608	conservation		The species is not known to be present in protected areas, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection. The current population status of this species also needs to be determined.	eng
54608	distribution		This species is only recorded from Palma Pampa and Cordillera de Carpish, Departamento Huánuco, Peru. It is believed to have a genuinely restricted distribution, with an altitudinal range of 2,600-3,072m asl.	eng
54608	habitat		It is a species of primary cloud forest on the eastern Andean slopes of central Peru. It has also been found in disturbed areas at the forest edge. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it may breed in bromeliads, presumably by larval development.	eng
54608	population		This species is uncommon and probably declining.	eng
54608	threats		Deforestation for agriculture (potatoes) is a major threat. Agrochemical use has also contributed to the decline of this species at known sites.	eng
54609	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in protected areas.	eng
54609	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Sénégal: mare de Bata (Sahel de Nioro)" (Chabanaud 1919). The Bata marsh is actually in Mali not Senegal. The distribution of this species cannot be mapped as it has not been possible to specifically locate Bata marsh.	eng
54609	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, although it is presumed to breed in water.	eng
54609	population		The population status is not known.	eng
54609	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54610	conservation		Although it is known to occur in forest in a recreational area for tourists, expanded protection of lowland forest habitats is clearly necessary.	eng
54610	distribution		This species is only known with certainty from northern Bengkulu Province, Sumatra, Indonesia, where it occurs at low altitudes. It has not been found in West Sumatra, despite attempts to locate it there. There is an old record from Nias Island but there are doubts that the locality of this specimen has been correctly recorded.	eng
54610	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It probably breeds by larval development in slow-flowing streams.	eng
54610	population		It is probably rare, since a number of expeditions have collected only a few specimens, and it probably occurs at low densities.	eng
54610	threats		The primary threat is likely to be habitat conversion due to smallholder farming and logging activities.	eng
54611	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
54611	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific drainages from the Guatemala/Mexico border to central Costa Rica, and extending via interior valleys to the Atlantic drainages of Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua; an apparently disjunct population is known from the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is known from elevations ranging from sea level up to 1,435m asl. It is also likely to occur along the Pacific Coastal Plain of Chiapas, Mexico. Records from this area would unite the apparently allopatric populations known from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, with likely contiguous populations ranging widespread along the Pacific versant of Central America. If new records from southeastern Honduras were to be found, it would establish links between populations on the Atlantic and Pacific versants.	eng
54611	habitat		It inhabits lowland dry and moist forest, relatively open and disturbed areas, including pastures, roadside ditches, and gardens and vacant lots in urban areas. It breeds in ponds.	eng
54611	population		It is abundant throughout its range.	eng
54611	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
54612	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.	eng
54612	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2008	This species is known from the Great Plains and southwestern USA and northern Mexico. Southern Manitoba to southeastern Alberta, south to Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosí, Mexico; east to western Minnesota, western Iowa, central Missouri, central Oklahoma, and northern and western Texas; west to central Montana, eastern Wyoming, eastern and south-central Colorado, southeastern California, then north through southern Nevada and Arizona to northern Utah and south to Sonora and northerns and central Sinaloa (see map in Krupa, 1990). It is commonly found up to 1,800m asl, and up to 2,440m asl in Colorado.	eng
54612	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2008	This species inhabits deserts, grasslands, semi-desert shrublands, open floodplains, and agricultural areas, typically in stream valleys. It burrows underground when inactive. It breeds in rain pools, flooded areas, and ponds and reservoirs that fluctuate in size. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water (usually clear).	eng
54612	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2008	Its population is widespread. The population trend is unknown but is probably stable to slightly declining.	eng
54612	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2008	This species is not threatened overall. It uses some cultivated areas successfully, but extensive-intensive farming eliminates or reduces local populations. Breeding sites are typically the result of heavy rains and hence not generally subject to loss via water projects. In fact, this toad often breeds in reservoir edges. Suburban sprawl has eliminated breeding and non-breeding habitats in areas adjacent to growing cities in Colorado (Hammerson, 1999).	eng
54613	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	Protection of the original ecological conditions is needed.	eng
54613	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species is found on the lower central Mexican Plateau.	eng
54613	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species has close affinities to desert and shrublands. It presumably breeds in water.	eng
54613	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This is a species that is not known very well. There are no studies of the population status of this species but it has been recently collected in central Mexico where apparently healthy populations exist.	eng
54613	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	Conversion of land for agricultural purposes is the major threat to this species, as well as the proximity of its habitats to urbanised areas.	eng
54614	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and it occurs in several protected areas in Colombia as well in protected areas throughout much of its range in Central America.	eng
54614	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species ranges from north-central Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, on both Atlantic and Pacific slopes, extending to Pacific lowlands of Colombia and northern Ecuador. It occurs up to 1500m asl (Costa Rica).	eng
54614	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	A nocturnal species associated with humid lowland and submontane tropical forest, including secondary forest, forest edges, open areas close to the forest, and occasionally in open areas near towns. It is both terrestrial and arboreal, and breeds in streams, rivers and shallow pools.	eng
54614	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is scarce in Colombia and rare in Ecuador. It is a fairly common species in Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
54614	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, mining, exotic species introduction and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54615	conservation		This species is believed to occur in Parque Nacional Huascarán, Calipuy National Reserve and Sanctuary, and Baños de Chancay Reserved Zone. It is listed on the Peruvian Red List.	eng
54615	distribution		This species has been recorded from the Departments of Cajamarca, Ancash and La Libertad, in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 3,160-4,100m asl.	eng
54615	habitat		It is present in puna and high-altitude plateaus, and dry scrubland. This species breeds in temporary small ponds and permanent shallow streams. It is also present in agricultural land (mostly potato and maize fields).	eng
54615	population		This is an uncommon species.	eng
54615	threats		This species faces no major threats. Occasionally it has been recorded in the national pet trade.	eng
54616	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
54616	distribution		This species appears to be restricted to a west-facing slope descending into the Amazonian lowlands of Abra Malaga and San Luis, Provincia Urubamba (Departamento Cusco), Peru. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-3,200m asl.	eng
54616	habitat		This is a forest edge species specifically restricted to the zone of puna grassland directly adjacent to montane forest; it is not known whether or not it can occur in modified habitats. Its breeding habitat is not known, though breeding probably takes place in water.	eng
54616	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
54616	threats		There are not believed to be any major threats to this species at present; however, it might be susceptible to habitat loss in the future.	eng
54617	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Luis Carrillo, 2009	Protection of the original pine-oak forest and measures to avoid the pollution of streams from anthropogenic activities are required to protect this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). A consortium of partners are working on establishing a captive breeding programme and developing an education and awareness campaign for this species (Kapoor 2008). Apulco is a small area informally protected by a local community.	eng
54617	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Luis Carrillo, 2009	This species is found in the central Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico, in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. However, it only survives in northern Puebla at Apulco, at 1,400m asl, and Barranca de Xocoyolo, at about 1,300m asl.	eng
54617	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Luis Carrillo, 2009	It inhabits pristine cloud forests (dominated by oak) and breeding takes place in streams by larval development.	eng
54617	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Luis Carrillo, 2009	This species was believed to be extinct and has only recently been rediscovered (tadpoles and metamorphs) at Apulco and Barranca de Xocoyolo, where it is uncommon. There have been no recent records of the species at any of the previously known localities in Veracruz, and it is believed to be extinct in these sites.	eng
54617	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Luis Carrillo, 2009	The disappearance and disturbance of the pine-oak forests, as well as the pollution and desiccation of streams, are the major threats to this species. The habitat has been completely destroyed in the localities where this species appears to have been extirpated.	eng
54618	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54618	distribution		This species is known only from the Tingi Hills in Sierra Leone. It is probably related to the <em>Bufo latifrons</em> complex, and might not be a valid species.	eng
54618	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology.	eng
54618	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54618	threats		Nothing is known about specific threats to this species.	eng
54619	conservation		This species might occur in Parque Nacional El Pure, but more research is needed into its distribution since this is poorly known at present.	eng
54619	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, La Pedrera, in Amazonas Province, Colombia, at 150m asl. It possibly occurs in neighbouring Brazil. Its distribution is not completely known because it has just been described.	eng
54619	habitat		It is a terrestrial and diurnal species that lives in lowland rainforest and reproduces in slow-moving streams.	eng
54619	population		It could be common near its type locality.	eng
54619	threats		It is apparently not threatened within its known range.	eng
54620	conservation		It might occur within Rakhine Yoma Elephant Sanctuary, although the suitability of the forest habitat for the species within this area needs further research.	eng
54620	distribution		This species is currently known only from two closely situated localities adjacent to Rakhine Yoma Elephant Sanctuary, of the Gwa Township area, Rakhine Division, Myanmar, where it occurs below 100m asl. It is expected that additional surveys within the region will reveal further populations.	eng
54620	habitat		This is a species of primary evergreen forest, which is a seasonal breeder in freshwater habitats, and which is presumed to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
54620	population		It was found to be numerous at the type locality, although this might be a seasonal effect.	eng
54620	threats		It is threatened by logging of its forest habitat.	eng
54621	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54621	distribution		This species occurs in the Atlantic Forest of northeastern Brazil, at 0-900m asl. This species does not occur in Uruguay. Records from Misiones and northwestern Corrientes, Argentina, probably refer to B. ornatus. Records from eastern Paraguay remain unresolved, but are unlikely to refer to B. crucifer.	eng
54621	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter of the rainforest and also disturbed habitats. It reproduces in backwaters of rapidly flowing streams and temporary pools.	eng
54621	population		It is abundant in some areas and uncommon in others.	eng
54621	threats		Deforestation for agricultural crops and timber extraction are threats facing this species.	eng
54622	conservation		All known localities of this species are within protected areas. In Viet Nam these are within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Further documentation of the species' extent of occurrence, population status and ecological requirements in Viet Nam is needed.	eng
54622	distribution		This species is known from southern China in Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, from 450-1,870m asl, and from only two specimens in northern Viet Nam. One of these was collected on Mount Fan Si Pan near Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province (Liu et. al. 2000), and the other was collected at 1,900m asl in O Quy Ho, Sa Pa District, which is very close to, but on the other side of, Mount Fan Si Pan. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.	eng
54622	habitat		This species inhabits forest, and has not been found in open areas. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54622	population		It is uncommon.	eng
54622	threats		The threats that it faces are relatively unknown although presumably habitat destruction and degradation are important.	eng
54623	conservation		Relevant conservation measures for this species are unknown.	eng
54623	distribution		This species is known only from the Kaokoveld and Waterberg areas of northern and north-western Namibia, where it occurs up to at least 1,500m asl.	eng
54623	habitat		Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, although it presumably lives in semi-arid habitats and breeds in temporary waterbodies.	eng
54623	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54623	threats		There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
54624	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
54624	distribution		This species is known only from a small area near the coast of south-western Côte d’Ivoire between Sassandra and San Pedro, and it probably occurs more widely.	eng
54624	habitat		It is known only from the type locality, where it was found in a plantation, so it is not confined to primary forest.	eng
54624	population		There is no recent information on its population status, but given the amount of survey work that has been carried out in the general area, it must be very rare.	eng
54624	threats		Nothing is known about threats to this species.	eng
54625	conservation		It is present in several protected areas. In Ecuador it has been recorded from Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística; in Colombia it is known from Chiribiquete and el Pure National Parks. It is not known from protected areas of Peru or Brazil.	eng
54625	distribution		The type is known from Benjamin Constant, Brazil, specimens assigned to this species have also been recorded from Leticia, Colombia; central Peru; northern Ecuador. Colombian specimens have been recorded from 100-200m asl; Ecuadorian specimens have been recorded up to 300m asl.	eng
54625	habitat		This is generally a terrestrial species of primary lowland and premontane tropical moist forest (including terra firme forest) (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Breeding takes place in slow moving or stagnant waters.	eng
54625	population		This is a rare species throughout most of its range. Brazilian populations are not known.	eng
54625	threats		There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), but these are not considered major threats.	eng
54626	conservation		This species is found within the Mapimí Biosphere Reserve and Cuatro Cienegas Ecological Reserve in Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
54626	distribution		This species occurs from Colorado and Kansas in the USA (Conant and Collins, 1991) to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, Mexico.	eng
54626	habitat		This species inhabits arid and semiarid plains, valleys, and foothills in grasslands and desert shrublands. It burrows in soil or hides under rocks, in cracks in soil, or in rodent burrows when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of temporary ponds, rain pools, and pools along intermittent streams.	eng
54626	population		This species is widespread and at least locally common.	eng
54626	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
54627	conservation		This species is present in the Jebel Samhan Nature Reserve, Oman.	eng
54627	distribution		This species ranges throughout much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. It is present on the Farasan Islands and a number of other offshore Islands. The altitudinal range of the species is sea level to 2,200m asl.	eng
54627	habitat		This is an opportunistic species that is present wherever there are water sources available, including gardens, oases, permanent springs, irrigation canals and permanent small rivers. It is also frequently found at some distance from permanent water sources.	eng
54627	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
54627	threats		There are no known threats to this species; much of its range is undeveloped.	eng
54628	conservation		There is no information on relevant conservation measures.	eng
54628	distribution		This species occurs in north-western Paraguay (Chaco Department), and possibly in southern Brazil. It appears that a Peruvian record is likely to have been a misidentification, as the species has not been recorded from anywhere else in the Amazon basin.	eng
54628	habitat		It occurs mainly in dry savannahs and breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.	eng
54628	population		This species is not very well known, and there is very little information on its population status.	eng
54628	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
54629	conservation		The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra. To protect this species, conservation of hilly forest is needed.	eng
54629	distribution		This species occurs in eastern and central Sumatra, Natuna Besar and Borneo where it is found below 700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
54629	habitat		It is present throughout rainforest habitat, but it does not occur in swamp forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in standing water or in slow-moving intermittent streams. It is not found in open habitats outside forests.	eng
54629	population		Although the species appears to occur everywhere in well-drained lowland rainforest, it is not considered to be an abundant species.	eng
54629	threats		The species is threatened by clear felling of forests. This is occurring at an increasing pace in both Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
54630	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and some form of protection of the remaining habitat on the Adamawa Plateau is urgently needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54630	distribution		This species is known only from the Adamawa Plateau in north-central Cameroon.	eng
54630	habitat		It lives in gallery forests in a landscape of montane grassland and wooded savannah, and has been found breeding in streams.	eng
54630	population		There is very little information on its population status, and it has only been recorded on a few occasions.	eng
54630	threats		It is probably suffering from continuing degradation of its montane habitats as a result of expanding agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, wood extraction, fire, and human settlement.	eng
54631	conservation		It occurs in the Awash National Park in Ethiopia, in the Elba protected area in Egypt, but it is not in any protected areas in Somalia.	eng
54631	distribution		This species ranges from northern and central Somalia, through eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea, northwards through Sudan to extreme southeastern Egypt (vicinity of Gebel Elba only). It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
54631	habitat		It is a species of extremely arid localities, and is often found far from the nearest permanent water. It breeds in temporary pools in desert and semi-desert savannah, gheltas (permanent pools at the foot of cliffs or in the mouth of caves) and in water in caves. It can be found deep in burrows during droughts, it emerges from these to breed after rains.	eng
54631	population		It is apparently very common and widespread in Somalia, and has been reported as numerous near Port Sudan, but is somewhat rarer and more localized in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is highly localized and rare in Egypt.	eng
54631	threats		The most likely threat is the increase in human expansion and settlement, with the resulting increase in populations of domestic livestock impacting breeding pools.	eng
54632	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, such as Etosha National Park and the Skeleton Coast National Park.	eng
54632	distribution		This species occurs in southwestern Angola and northwestern Namibia from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
54632	habitat		It is a species of arid areas, living in grassland where there are rock outcrops. It breeds in small, temporary steams and presumably in the pools that form in these places.	eng
54632	population		It is very common in suitable habitat.	eng
54632	threats		It appears not to be facing any threats.	eng
54633	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54633	distribution		This species is found in northern Argentina (Buenos Aires), Uruguay (Artigas, Canelones, Cerro Largo, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rivera, Rocha, Tacuarembó), and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) below 500m asl.	eng
54633	habitat		It is terrestrial in open areas such as pastures and Pampas grassland. It breeds in temporary and permanent waterbodies. It persists even in areas with heavy agricultural activity.	eng
54633	population		It is common and the population is apparently stable.	eng
54633	threats		There are apparently no threats, and it adapts well to human agricultural activity.	eng
54634	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need to control the spread of invasive species within these existing protected areas.	eng
54634	distribution		This species has a wide but patchy distribution in lowland Cuba and the Isla de Juventud. It ranges from sea level up to 70m asl.	eng
54634	habitat		It inhabits xeric and mesic lowland forests and savannahs. The males call from flooded ditches and large temporary pools of rainwater, and the eggs are laid in still water. It is an explosive breeder, though outside the breeding season it remains in burrows below ground.	eng
54634	population		It is abundant during breeding, but otherwise burrows underground and is rarely seen.	eng
54634	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture (it occurs in an area of intense agricultural production), and pollution from agricultural pesticides. The spread of the invasive plant species <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> is also threatening this species' native habitat.	eng
54635	conservation		The species is known to occur in Parque Internacional La Amistad, a transboundary protected area between Panama and Costa Rica. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, the implementation of a disease management and captive-breeding programme is recommended.	eng
54635	distribution		This species occurs on both slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and the Atlantic slope of immediately adjacent Panama, from 760-2,100m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
54635	habitat		Its habitat is premontane and lower montane rainforest. It is a diurnal terrestrial species that is largely fossorial, and has been excavated from leaf-litter along stream banks in August. Juveniles have been found on rocky stream margins throughout the year. This species is an explosive breeder, with reproduction taking place in ephemeral pools after heavy rain in late April to May; eggs are laid in the shallow pools (Savage 2002).	eng
54635	population		The species was once abundant in Costa Rica, but it has undergone marked declines since the 1980s. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama, but it is presumed to have declined.	eng
54635	threats		The main cause of the population decline is likely to be chytridiomycosis. In addition, there is general habitat loss across the range due to agriculture and timber extraction.	eng
54636	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54636	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern South Africa, Swaziland, most of Zimbabwe, southern and central Mozambique and eastern Botswana, ranging westwards into the Caprivi Strip of Namibia and southwestern Zambia. It probably occurs in southeastern Angola. An isolated record from western Namibia is not mapped, and requires confirmation (it possibly refers to Bufo dombensis (M. Tandy pers. comm.).	eng
54636	habitat		It is a species of open bush land, grassland and savannah woodland, and is often associated with rock outcrops, and occasionally with sandy areas. It breeds in temporary pools. It does not occur in anthropogenically disturbed habitats.	eng
54636	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
54636	threats		Its habitat is not threatened and this species is not believed to be at risk.	eng
54637	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54637	distribution		This species is found in northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, Santa Fe), southern Paraguay, Uruguay (Canelones, Colonia, Montevideo, Río Negro, San José) and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) below 600m asl.	eng
54637	habitat		It occurs terrestrially in grasslands, including rice plantations. It breeds in temporary pools, and it adapts well to agricultural habitat.	eng
54637	population		It is common and the population is stable.	eng
54637	threats		There are no generalised threats against this species, although pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements might be localized threats. It is also threatened by automobile collisions.	eng
54638	conservation		In Bolivia it has been recorded from Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Carrasco National Park; and Tipnis Indigenous area and National Park. It is not present in any Peruvian protected areas.	eng
54638	distribution		This is a little known species of Peru and Bolivia. It is present in Peru in Santo Domingo, Carabaya, Departamento Puno and from the foothills of the Andes at Rurrenabaque. In Bolivia it is found in Departamentos La Paz and Cochabamba. It has an altitudinal range of 800-2,500m asl.	eng
54638	habitat		the habitat is primary and secondary montane rainforest of the Amazonian slopes of the Andes. The breeding habitat is not known, but it presumably takes place in water by larval development. It can occur in slightly disturbed forest, but not agricultural land.	eng
54638	population		It can be common at certain sites in Bolivia, however the abundance is not known for Peru.	eng
54638	threats		The major threats are not known. Presumably there is habitat loss through smallholder farming of coffee, coca and other crops.	eng
54639	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Additional survey efforts are required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.	eng
54639	distribution		This species has a very restricted range (only two known localities) in north-western Dominican Republic. Its altitudinal range is 150-175m asl.	eng
54639	habitat		It is found in xeric habitats with broadleaf gallery forest, typically in close proximity to streams. Males call from shallow running water, and eggs are laid in still water. It is not known whether or not animals stay close to streams or spread out into xeric habitats.	eng
54639	population		It is presumably very rare. It has not been encountered by any herpetologist in the three decades since it was discovered, including by herpetologists who have collected extensively on the island, as recently as 2003 (M. Hernandez pers. comm.).	eng
54639	threats		The species is threatened by habitat destruction from agriculture (crops and livestock) and subsistence wood collection.	eng
54640	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
54640	distribution		This species range occurs throughout most of eastern USA and northern shore of Lake Erie in Canada (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from northern New England and Florida peninsula.	eng
54640	habitat		It can be found in wooded areas, river valleys and floodplains, agricultural areas, usually in areas with deep friable soils. It burrows underground or hides under rocks, plants, or other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of marshes, rain pools, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water lacking a strong current.	eng
54640	population		The population is widespread, generally common and relatively stable, with local declines.	eng
54640	threats		It is not threatened range wide.	eng
54641	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the existing habitat is urgently needed.	eng
54641	distribution		This species has a fragmented distribution in eastern Dominican Republic, and is known from six to eight locations very close together. The exact elevational range is not known but it is definitely known from only below 500m asl.	eng
54641	habitat		So far it has only been recorded from degraded forest; however, it is difficult to find outside the breeding season and so may just not have been recorded from primary forest yet. Eggs are laid in temporary pools, and the larvae develop in the pools.	eng
54641	population		Althought this species was formerly known to be abundant at a breeding aggregation near the town of Higuey in 1972, extensive surveys in the region in 2003 did not find any individuals (M. Hernandez pers. comm.).	eng
54641	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation largely due to intensive agriculture, but also due to human settlement and livestock grazing. The development of new tourism facilities nearby poses an additional threat to the existing habitat.	eng
54642	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
54642	distribution		This species is not well known but it is known that it occurs in upland areas up to at least 1,880m asl, from central and northern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, east to southwestern Tanzania (Mbisi Forest).	eng
54642	habitat		It lives in montane forest and gallery forest, and on forest edges. There is no information on its breeding or on its adaptability to altered habitats.	eng
54642	population		It is not well known, and there is no information on its abundance.	eng
54642	threats		No information is available, though it is likely to be affected by forest loss for agriculture, livestock grazing and human settlement, as well as by fire.	eng
54643	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Kibale National Park in Uganda and the Virunga and Garamba National Parks in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54643	distribution		This species ranges from Ivindo Province in northeastern Gabon and Sangha Province in northern Congo, east to Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda, south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola. If Bufo djohongensis is considered to be a subspecies of this species, then it also occurs in the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon; however, other records of B. funereus from Cameroon appear to be in error. The identification of specimens assigned to this species from Nigeria and Benin should be checked, since they are unlikely to be true B. funereus, and might belong to B. djohongensis, or to another species.	eng
54643	habitat		It is a species of leaf-litter in the interior of rainforests, usually on slightly drier ground, such as ridge tops. The eggs are laid in slow-flowing streams during the dry season, where the larvae develop. It can survive in slightly degraded forests, but not in seriously altered habitats.	eng
54643	population		It appears to be quite common and easy to find in suitable habitats in Uganda.	eng
54643	threats		It is presumably being impacted by loss of forest, especially for agriculture and wood extraction, in some parts of its wide range.	eng
54644	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species.	eng
54644	distribution		This species is found in western Cuba, west of Pinar del Río. It has been recorded from sea level up to 280m asl.	eng
54644	habitat		It occurs along stream banks and under rocks in various habitats such as broadleaf forest, grassland, savannah and agricultural areas. It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as the freshwater body remains undisturbed. Males call at creek sides while eggs are laid in still water, where the tadpoles also develop. In some regions it can be an explosive breeder	eng
54644	population		It is a common species.	eng
54644	threats		Localized threats to this species include intensive agriculture, cattle grazing and agricultural pesticides; however, it is adaptable, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
54645	conservation	Annemarie Ohler, Nguyen Quang Truong, Michael Wai Neng Lau & Shi Haitao, 2004	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54645	distribution	Annemarie Ohler, Nguyen Quang Truong, Michael Wai Neng Lau & Shi Haitao, 2004	This species is known from Diouluoshan and Jianfengliang in Hainan, China and from the Annamite mountains of northern Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic, south to Cambodia (Nguyen and Ho 1996, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999). In China it has been recorded between 250-1,300 m asl, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from 500-600 m asl.	eng
54645	habitat	Annemarie Ohler, Nguyen Quang Truong, Michael Wai Neng Lau & Shi Haitao, 2004	It inhabits evergreen and evergreen-mixed deciduous forest. Animals are often found in or near streams (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999; Stuart 1999, 2005), including temporary streams. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It has not been found in open areas outside forest.	eng
54645	population	Annemarie Ohler, Nguyen Quang Truong, Michael Wai Neng Lau & Shi Haitao, 2004	It is listed as 'Rare' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is regularly collected but the actual population status is relatively unknown.	eng
54645	threats	Annemarie Ohler, Nguyen Quang Truong, Michael Wai Neng Lau & Shi Haitao, 2004	Habitat degradation due to agricultural development, logging and infrastructure development are the main threats facing this species.	eng
54646	conservation		Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Calilegua, which was created to preserve a representative part of the Yungas forest. Strengthened protection of this reserve, and expanded protection of other remaining habitat, is recommended.	eng
54646	distribution		This species occurs in Jujuy, Ledesma and Calilegua in Argentina from 1,000-1,700m asl.	eng
54646	habitat		It is restricted to montane forests (Yungas). It occurs on the ground and reproduces in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.	eng
54646	population		It is a rare species, but it is nevertheless recorded on a regular basis.	eng
54646	threats		The main threats include selective logging and clear cutting of primary forests, the introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.	eng
54647	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas in both China and Russia. The possible eradication of the species on Okinawajima in Japan needs confirmation, with surveys are needed for several years.	eng
54647	distribution		This species is known from Russia, China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Japan. It is found in the Russian Far East (including East Siberia) northwards to the Amur River valley; most of central, southeastern and northeastern China, throughout the Korean Peninsula and on Miyakojima and adjacent islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan. The subspecies, Bufo gargarizans miyakonis is endemic to Japan. It was originally distributed on Miyakojima and its adjacent islands, and was introduced to other islands in Ryukyu Archipelago including Okinawajima, Minami Daitojima and Kita Daitojima. In Okinawajima, Bufo gargarizans miyakonis have been captured since the early 1990's and it is now possibly eradicated. The altitudinal range of this species is from 20-800m asl.	eng
54647	habitat		The main habitats of this species are coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (and their glades), grasslands and meadows. It is also present in flood lands and river valleys. Although the species prefers habitats with high humidity, it is rare in very shaded or saturated coniferous forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in rivers, streams, ponds and pools. The species is generally tolerant of habitat modification and may be found in cultivated areas, villages and even parks and gardens in large cities (e.g. Khabarovsk, Russia).	eng
54647	population		This species is very common in China and in the Primorye and Khabarovsk regions of Russia; it is however, rare in both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. In Japan the population is decreasing (especially on Miyakojima) but is not in significant decline.	eng
54647	threats		Localized threats to this species include a general loss of suitable habitat through increasing urbanization and water pollution, mortality on roads and prolonged drought. The species is also captured for laboratory research, and has been gathered for traditional medicine by Chinese and Korean citizens in the Primorye Region of Russia over the last 10 years. In Okinawajima in Japan, the species has been captured since the early 1990's and is now possibly eradicated.	eng
54648	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54648	distribution		This species is widespread in South Africa, extreme southwestern Namibia, Lesotho and Swaziland. It ranges from sea level up to 3,400m asl.	eng
54648	habitat		It lives in many habitats, including fynbos heathland, succulent karoo, thicket, grassland, and Nama karoo. It breeds in many different types of permanent and temporary waterbodies, including streams, waterholes, lakes, rain pools, and even hoof prints. It is tolerant of low temperatures.	eng
54648	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
54648	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
54649	conservation	Tandy, M., Poynton, J., Largen, M., Howell, K., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Lötters, S., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54649	distribution	Tandy, M., Poynton, J., Largen, M., Howell, K., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Lötters, S., 2004	This species occurs from Ethiopia and Somalia south to northern parts of South Africa and the northern and eastern parts of Botswana. The apparent range disjunctions in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya might be artifacts of poor sampling. It is likely that the northeastern African populations (from northern Tanzania northwards) and the southern African populations (from Zambia southwards) belong to separate species, with true <span style="font-style: italic;">Amietophrynus garmani</span> occurring in northeastern Africa. The association of the recently reported population from western Tanzania (Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) to either of these northeastern and southern populations needs to be determined. The distributional boundary between this species and <em>Amietophrynus poweri</em> in southern Africa is very unclear, and they might not be separate species. In northeastern Africa it occurs from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
54649	habitat	Tandy, M., Poynton, J., Largen, M., Howell, K., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is a denizen of arid savannas, wooded savannas, and agricultural areas, breeding in temporary water (vleis, dams or pans), and sometimes-artificial pools and rivers. In western Tanzania toads were trap-captured entirely in woodland areas (Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
54649	population	Tandy, M., Poynton, J., Largen, M., Howell, K., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is common in eastern and southern Ethiopia and in southern Africa.	eng
54649	threats	Tandy, M., Poynton, J., Largen, M., Howell, K., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Lötters, S., 2004	The main threat is environmental degradation resulting from human expansion, settlement and agricultural encroachment. In western Tanzania, much of the miombo woodland area is increasingly threatened by habitat degradation following conversion to agriculture or overharvesting (see Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). However, this is an adaptable species that is not considered to be seriously at risk.	eng
54650	conservation		Protection of the suburban and tropical dry areas around Acapulco represents the only chance for the survival of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
54650	distribution		This species is known only from central coastal Guerrero, Mexico, in north-western Acapulco city.	eng
54650	habitat		The primary habitat is xeric and deciduous forest, and it has never been recorded out of the lowlands near Acapulco. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
54650	population		It is thought to be rare.	eng
54650	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and the expansion of plantations.	eng
54651	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Based on its known habitat and distribution, this species might occur in Pacaya Samiria, Alto Purús and Manu National Reserves in Peru. In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
54651	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is known from Venezuela, Amazonian Colombia in the foothills of the Cordillera Oriental, Ecuador and Peru. In Venezuela it has been reported from the state of Táchira, S Pregonero at Doradas and Uribante rivers. In Peru it is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes, from the regions of Loreto, Huánuco, San Martin and Madre de Dios. It has been recorded at elevations between 300 and 1,400m asl.	eng
54651	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	An inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforest and montane humid forest. It is found in primary forest, secondary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994) and open areas close to forest (Ron, 2001). Tadpoles live in low-gradient streams (Lynch, 2006).	eng
54651	population	Ariadne Angulo, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
54651	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Dam construction has been a threat to the habitat of some populations.	eng
54652	conservation		Intensive surveys are needed to relocate this species, which is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54652	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Río Grande de Jujuy, in Jujuy Province, Argentina. The altitude was not recorded, although it is likely to be above 2,800m asl. The type locality is vague, hampering efforts to clarify the status of this species.	eng
54652	habitat		It lives in mountain streams, but nothing more is known about its habitat and ecology.	eng
54652	population		It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1925, so its population status is unknown.	eng
54652	threats		The region where this species was collected is threatened by mining, destruction and degradation of watersheds and bogs, and the introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
54653	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas, including the Garamba National Park of northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
54653	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria eastward to central and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), Gabon, southwestern Congo, and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; it also occurs on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern Central African Republic, and probably also the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It can occur up to 200m asl.	eng
54653	habitat		It lives in lowland forest and can survive in degraded secondary habitats. It breeds in flowing water, including creeks in marshes and slow-flowing streams.	eng
54653	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54653	threats		It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.	eng
54654	conservation		Its presence has not been confirmed in any protected areas, but it is likely to occur in Iona National Park	eng
54654	distribution		This species is known only from Mossamedes District in south-western Angola, although its range is largely unknown.	eng
54654	habitat		It is associated with granitic inselbergs in dry, sandy areas. Its breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction presumably takes place in water.	eng
54654	population		There is very little information on its population status, and only a few specimens are known, presumably because of lack of herpetological survey work within its range.	eng
54654	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
54655	conservation	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Patricia Narvaes, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is in protected areas throughout most of its range.	eng
54655	distribution	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Patricia Narvaes, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs throughout much of the Amazonian Basin, from Western Pacific lowlands, central Panama and eastern lowlands adjacent to central Panama, through the Guianas, south through the Orinoco and Caribbean regions of Colombia, Margarita Island (Venezuela), Bolivian lowlands, throughout much of Brazil, northwestern Paraguay and northern Argentina. It is not present in Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador, Peru or Uruguay. Altitudinal range is up to 1,500m asl.	eng
54655	habitat	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Patricia Narvaes, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This taxon mainly inhabits open areas, savannahs, forests, river shorelines, and reproduces explosively in permanent and temporary waterbodies. By day, specimens hide in holes in the ground. Its presence in forests is apparently due to colonization of intervened habitats along roads and penetration tracks; it has been reported from urban areas in Bolivia. Breeding and larval development takes place in ponds. It can be found breeding in very small and shallow puddles (Lynch, 2006). Time of larvae development is 30 days. It feeds on ants and termites.	eng
54655	population	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Patricia Narvaes, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
54655	threats	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Patricia Narvaes, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
54656	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54656	distribution		This species is widely but patchily distributed in southern, central, and northern and north-western Hispaniola (both Haiti and Dominican Republic): Plaine du Nord-Valle de Cibao, Valle de San Juan, and Plaine du Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba. The altitudinal range is from 40m below sea level up to 107m asl.	eng
54656	habitat		It occurs in dry lowland valleys, in both mesic and xeric areas, retreating under rocks and logs. Males call from rain-flooded areas, and eggs are laid in still water. The species breeds year round in some areas. It is occasionally found near water with heavy concentrations of sulphur.	eng
54656	population		In suitable habitats, this species can be found all year round. However, according to B. Hedges (pers. comm.) the species is infrequently encountered.	eng
54656	threats		The major threats to this lowland species are habitat loss, due to both livestock grazing and selective logging, and agricultural pollution.	eng
54657	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. There is a need to control the spread of invasive species within existing protected areas.	eng
54657	distribution		This species is widespread but patchily distributed in Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud, at low elevations (sea level up to 70m asl).	eng
54657	habitat		Mainly a forest species, but it also occurs in xeric and mesic grasslands, and diurnally retreats in burrows near rocks. Males call while floating in rain-flooded pools and the eggs are laid in still water. This species is an explosive breeder.	eng
54657	population		It is abundant during the breeding season, but otherwise is rarely seen since it burrows underground.	eng
54657	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture (it occurs in an area of intense agricultural production), and pollution from agricultural pesticides. The spread of the invasive plant species <em>Dichrostachys cinerea</em> is also a threat to the species' native habitat.	eng
54658	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
54658	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, 2008	This species' geographic range extends from Amazonian Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Bolivia to the Guianas and central Amazonian Brazil. This species is found at elevations from 50-860m asl.	eng
54658	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, 2008	It is a nocturnal species that has been found on the ground, close to rivers, or in deep leaf-litter on the forest floor in tropical rainforests. The species seems to be associated with mature gallery forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent waterbodies, some dug by the adults; embryonic and larval development occurs in water.	eng
54658	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, 2008	It is locally common, except in the Guianas and Peru, where it is rare.	eng
54658	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, 2008	Logging, forest conversion and clear cutting are all threats to this species. It is not tolerant of habitat alteration. However, it has a vast range, and the threats to the species are generally localized. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
54659	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54659	distribution		This species occurs from extreme southern Somalia (M. Tandy pers. comm.), central and southern Kenya, though Tanzania, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola, south to northern Namibia, northern central and eastern South Africa. It occurs on the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba (Tanzania). The boundary between this species and Bufo regularis in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is poorly understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. It is introduced on Reunion (to France) and Mauritius. Records from southeastern Uganda might refer to Bufo regularis and therefore require confirmation. It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,900m asl.	eng
54659	habitat		It is a very adaptable species occurring in a wide variety of savannahs, grassland, thickets, and agricultural land. It is able to breed in more or less permanent and semi-permanent standing water. It breeds frequently in garden pools.	eng
54659	population		It is a very common species. It appears to be spreading in South Africa, perhaps at the expense of Bufo rangeri.	eng
54659	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
54660	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
54660	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Honduras (Caribbean slopes) and from southern Costa Rica (Pacific versant) south to northern Colombia (western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central, and the Magdalena Valley), and northwestern Ecuador. There are isolated populations on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, extending into adjacent Venezuela in the Sierra de Perijá. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.	eng
54660	habitat		It is a nocturnal, leaf-litter species of primary tropical moist forest and submontane humid forest, along small streams and large rivers, but can be found away from these sites during the non-breeding season. It occurs in disturbed areas, but only close to forest. It breeds in rocky pools along the borders of forest streams (Scott, 1983).	eng
54660	population		This species is generally abundant in Costa Rica, although it disappeared from Monteverde in the late 1980s (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, Panama. The species is relatively common in Nicaragua, but uncommon in Honduras. This species shows distinct population fluctuations. It is a rare species in Colombia and Venezuela but there are several recent records.	eng
54660	threats		The main threats are habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture, wood extraction, and cattle ranching. It is locally threatened by dams in Venezuela and by oil pollution in Colombia. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Chiriqui, Fortuna, Panama.	eng
54661	conservation		Better information on abundance and trends is needed.	eng
54661	distribution		This species can be found in South-central Canada and north-central USA, from southern Northwest Territories through Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to northern Montana, North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, and west-central Minnesota (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
54661	habitat		It's habitat is prairies, plains, aspen parklands; areas with relatively soft soil. It is usually found in or near water and burrows into soil when inactive. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow water of lakes, ponds, quiet streams, marshes, potholes, and roadside ditches.	eng
54661	population		Some local declines have been reported (Green 1997), but provincial conservation data centres rank this species as apparently secure in the main portion of its range in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.	eng
54661	threats		It is not threatened range wide. Local declines and low abundance in Alberta have been attributed to loss of wetlands; low abundance/population fluctuation in Manitoba possibly was due to drought (see Green 1997).	eng
54662	conservation		This species has been recorded from the protected areas of Tarai and Chitwan National Parks in Nepal, Namdhapa and Mouling National Parks and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve (in Arunachal Pradesh State) in India, and the Khungerab and Central Karakorum protected areas in Pakistan.	eng
54662	distribution		This species is widely distributed throughout the Himalayan mountains. It is found from the Hazara Division of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, through northern India and Nepal, and is presumed to be present in Bhutan although this is not yet confirmed. It is also known from the southern slopes of the Himalayas in Xizang (himalayanus) and northwestern Yunnan (cyphosus), China. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-3,500m asl.	eng
54662	habitat		It is generally a high-altitude species, although it may also be found in the evergreen forests of the foothills. It inhabits mountain forests and shrubland near streams and is also found in the vicinity of seepages and cultivated fields. It is largely terrestrial in nature and breeding takes place in hill streams, small pools and puddles where the larvae also develop. It is quite adaptable to anthropogenically modified habitats.	eng
54662	population		It is generally a common species of montane areas, although it is considered to be rare in Pakistan.	eng
54662	threats		The main threats are agrochemical pollution of land and breeding habitats, development of areas for tourism, clear-cutting of montane forests and over collection for food.	eng
54663	conservation		It occurs in the Namibia Desert National Park, and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
54663	distribution		This species is restricted to the central and western parts of Namibia.	eng
54663	habitat		It is a species of very dry semi-desert areas, where it is associated with rock outcrops. It breeds in temporary rock pools.	eng
54663	population		It is reasonably common in suitable habitat.	eng
54663	threats		It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened, so this species is, unlikely to be at risk, except to some extent by overgrazing by livestock.	eng
54664	conservation	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, 20 km north-east of the capital of San José.	eng
54664	distribution	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	This species occurred on the Volcán Barva, Cordillera Central, Costa Rica, at 200-2,200 m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
54664	habitat	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	This species lived in lower montane rainforest. It was a fossorial species, and could be found under surface debris within the forest during periods of heavy rain, but otherwise it concentrated on mossy stream banks during dry periods. It was an explosive breeder that laid its eggs in forest floor pools, as well as in man-made drainage ditches (Savage 2002).	eng
54664	population	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	It was formerly common in appropriate habitat and during the breeding season at the onset of the rainy season (2,765 males were seen visiting two pools in an eight-day period; Nowak and Robinson 1975). As of August 2007, it has not been seen since 1986 despite repeated searching (seven consecutive years of intensive searching to 2007 - Héctor Zumbado, Andres Vaughn, Warren Calvo, Adrián García unpublised data 2007) throughout its range, and it is now considered to be extinct (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).	eng
54664	threats	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	Although not proven, the main cause of the population decline and extinction is likely to be chytridiomycosis perhaps in synergy with the effects of climate change.	eng
54665	conservation		It has been recorded from Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh (Pillai and Ravichandran 1996) but reports from Bannerghatta National Park in Karnataka require verification. Recent regional studies including this species have been undertaken by Ravichandran. The actual presence of taxa referable to this species at the recorded localities requires investigation.	eng
54665	distribution		This species is known from above 200m asl in a small number of widely separated localities in Chittor and Nellore (Satyamurti 1967), and Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Reserve (Pillai and Ravichandran 1986), in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Intervening areas are devoid of records, though it might yet be found more widely. Its occurrence in the Western Ghats requires further clarification.	eng
54665	habitat		Very little is known about its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54665	population		There are no recent records for this species, which has a fragmented population that is believed to be declining. There are no quantitative estimates of its population status or trends.	eng
54665	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, but presumably include habitat loss.	eng
54666	conservation		It has been found in a few protected areas in Colombia.	eng
54666	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in Choco Department, and from two localities in north-western Ecuador (in Esmeraldas Province), and is presumed to exist in between these two areas. It occurs between 10 and 500m asl.	eng
54666	habitat		It lives on the ground in leaf-litter close to water sources, in lowland tropical moist forest. All records of this species come from mature forest. There is no information on its breeding biology, although reproduction is presumably by larval development in water.	eng
54666	population		It is a rare species, and there have been no records of this species in Ecuador since 1984.	eng
54666	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54667	conservation		A portion of the range previously occurred in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala, but it has now been extirpated from this region. Protection of the remaining habitat of this species is urgently required. Given the threat of chytrid, this species requires close population monitoring.	eng
54667	distribution		This species occurs at moderate and intermediate elevations of central and southern Guatemala and the Sierra de las Minas, eastern Guatemala, from 1,360-1,980m asl. Its range has also recently been extended into contiguous regions of Honduras in the western ranges of the Southern Cordillera Region in the departments of Intibuca, Lemipira and Ocotepeque, up to 2,020m asl (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, McCranie and Wilson (2002) refer all Honduran material to <em>Bufo coccifer</em>.	eng
54667	habitat		It occurs in pine-oak or premontane or lower montane moist forest, and breeds in ponds, marshes and wet meadows. Males have been observed calling from the banks of ponds.	eng
54667	population		This species persists in small numbers in appropriate habitat. Nearly continuous field work throughout the range of this species in Guatemala between 1989 and 1998 produced less than 10 observations.	eng
54667	threats		Its range is severely fragmented due to habitat loss, primarily due to agricultural activities. Formerly robust populations in Guatemala are now extirpated following severe alteration of montane wetlands and cloud forests, and may well have succumbed to the effects of chytrid, which has been documented in other anuran species in the same area (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
54668	conservation	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54668	distribution	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species occurs in central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Misiones and Corrientes, northeastern Argentina; and eastern Paraguay at 0-1,200m asl.	eng
54668	habitat	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in a large diversity of habitats, from forests to open areas such as Cerrado habitat. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds and streams. It occurs in substantially disturbed habitats.	eng
54668	population	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is common and the population is stable throughout much of its range. There are only two records from Paraguay. It is locally common in Argentina.	eng
54668	threats	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	There are no known threats to this species; it adapts well to human alteration of habitats and it even occurs in cities.	eng
54669	conservation		Occurs in the Parque Nacional Manu, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.	eng
54669	distribution		This species is restricted to southern Peru. Recorded from La Union, Departamento Ayacucho and the Amazonian slopes of Departamento Cuzco. It has an altitudinal range of 900-1,900m asl.	eng
54669	habitat		Its habitat consists of montane primary and secondary tropical forest. Breeds in slow streams and roadside ditches. It can be found at the edge of agricultural areas, but not in these areas.	eng
54669	population		It is a common species.	eng
54669	threats		Some localized deforestation for smallholder farming (eg. coffee and tea).	eng
54670	conservation		Relevant conservation measures are not known, and it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54670	distribution		The distribution of this species is not known. Hoogmoed (1989) noted that the published type locality of "Anden von Ecuador" is likely to be an error, and it was more likely to be in Mexico or central America. It has not been possible to map the distribution of this species.	eng
54670	habitat		There are no details of this species' habitat and ecology.	eng
54670	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
54670	threats		Nothing is known about threats to this species.	eng
54671	conservation		It occurs in the Nyanga National Park; continued and strengthened mangement of this protected area is needed.	eng
54671	distribution		This species in known only from the Nyanga Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe. It presumably occurs in adjacent Mozambique, but there have been no records here, probably because of a lack of herpetological work in this area. It has been found at 2,400-2,560m asl, but probably also occurs at slightly lower elevations.	eng
54671	habitat		It inhabits montane grassland with exposed bare granite. The animals hide under stones, in cracks in the granite, and in rodent burrows. It breeds in temporary pools, and larvae have been seen moving across wet granite faces.	eng
54671	population		It is rather cryptic and hard to find, but it seems to be fairly common within its very limited range.	eng
54671	threats		The high-altitude habitat of this species has remained relatively intact up until now, although it might be at increasing risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.	eng
54672	conservation		It might occur in the protected areas of the Bosque de Protección Pui Pui and the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos.	eng
54672	distribution		The geographic range of this species is the Andean valleys of Río Chanchamayo and Río Perene, in Junin Department, Peru.	eng
54672	habitat		Its habitat is montane tropical forest. This species' breeding habits are not known, though reproduction presumably takes place in water.	eng
54672	population		Its population status is not known. There do not appear to have been any recent records, perhaps because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54672	threats		The threats to this species are not known, and it is not known if it can survive outside montane forest habitat.	eng
54673	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
54673	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu and southern Hokkaido. It has also been introduced to Izu Oshima.	eng
54673	habitat		It occurs in a wide variety of habitats ranging from coastal areas to high mountains. It breeds in still water where the larvae also develop. It can also be found in anthropogenic habitats.	eng
54673	population		The population is decreasing but it is not in significant decline.	eng
54673	threats		The major threats to the species are mainly in the western part of its distribution. Infrastructure development for human settlement including the construction of roads are the main threats.	eng
54674	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54674	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal belt of Brazil, from the mouth of the Amazon in the north, south to the States of Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais, generally ranging inland up to 200km from the coast. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
54674	habitat		It occurs in secondary forest, savannah, agricultural lands, and other open areas and disturbed habitats. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.	eng
54674	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54674	threats		It appears not to be experiencing any threats.	eng
54675	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro.	eng
54675	distribution		This species is found in the Bolivian Andes, in Cochabamba, Santa Cruz and La Paz Departments. It is know from the type locality, El Chape, in Florida Province, Santa Cruz Department, at an altitude of 2,050m asl, and from Campamento Fortaleza, in Carrasco Province, Cochabamba Department, from 1,875-2,220m asl, and from four localities in Nor Yungas Province, in La Paz Department, from 1,440-2,250m asl.	eng
54675	habitat		It inhabits wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. Köhler (2000a) suggests that it is probably restricted to primary forest. The larvae develop in streams.	eng
54675	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54675	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture.	eng
54676	conservation		It is present in many protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
54676	distribution		This species is widely distributed in Borneo and Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to elevations of 1,600m asl.	eng
54676	habitat		It occurs along rocky creeks and riverbanks and also wanders widely through primary and secondary forests. Occasionally it is found near isolated houses in hilly terrain near forest and in some types of tree plantations. It breeds in rocky-bottomed, strong flowing streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
54676	population		It is relatively abundant in Borneo, but is comparatively rare in Sumatra.	eng
54676	threats		There are no threats to this relatively adaptable species.	eng
54677	conservation		It probably occurs within the Wolong Biosphere Reserve.	eng
54677	distribution		This species is known only from near Wolong, in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,800m asl.	eng
54677	habitat		This is a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.	eng
54677	population		This species is relatively unknown and only very recently described, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
54677	threats		BosqueThere is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54678	conservation		It is found in three protected areas in Egypt (Qarum, Lake Burullus and Nile Islands).	eng
54678	distribution		This species is known only from the Nile Delta in Egypt, extending as far south as Luxor. It is found between sea level and 150m asl.	eng
54678	habitat		It is an adaptable species, living in cropland, including rice fields, swampy areas, floating vegetation and presumably breeding by larval development in waterbodies. It has been recorded in the middle of Cairo (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
54678	population		It is apparently an abundant species.	eng
54678	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. There is some habitat loss and pollution within its range.	eng
54679	conservation		It is known from Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, and presumably occurs in many other protected areas.	eng
54679	distribution		This species occurs in northwestern Zimbabwe, northern Botswana, northern Namibia, and adjoining southern Angola. It is likely to be found in southwestern Zambia.	eng
54679	habitat		It is a species of sandy areas, where it is associated with ephemeral pools and pans in short grassland. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
54679	population		Little information is available, but it is likely to be common in suitable habitat.	eng
54679	threats		It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened, so this species unlikely to be at risk.	eng
54680	conservation		This species does not occur within any protected areas. Even though individuals of this species are often found close to human settlements, there is still little information on the population status of the species across its range, and its ecological requirements also need further study.	eng
54680	distribution		This species is found in the Pacific coastal plains of Mexico from central-southern Sonora to the south, including most of Nayarit (Rosamorada).	eng
54680	habitat		This species inhabits coastal open lowlands in thorn-forest or tropical deciduous forest at 200m asl. It is also found in human disturbed areas and can breed in dams and other artificial water systems.	eng
54680	population		Several large populations of this species have been recorded along its range.	eng
54680	threats		This species seems to be very resistant to polluted and drainage waters.	eng
54681	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54681	distribution		This species occurs discontinuously at high altitudes from 1,280-3,300m asl from central Ethiopia (both sides of the Rift Valley), south through the Kenya Highlands (where it occurs widely on both sides of the Rift Valley, and on the floor of the Rift Valley at Lakes Naivasha and Elmenteita), west to Mount Elgon and southeastern Uganda, and south to the rim of the Ngorongoro Crater in northern Tanzania.	eng
54681	habitat		It lives in montane grassland and forest-edge. It breeds in permanent pools, rain-fed temporary pools and flooded fields in montane grassland.	eng
54681	population		It is a common species.	eng
54681	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with consequent agricultural encroachment, and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
54682	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54682	distribution		This species has been recorded from montane areas of central and western Kenya, southwestern Uganda, northwestern Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Tanzania (Mahale Mountains), northeastern Zambia and northern Malawi (Misuku Hills). It probably occurs also in Burundi, and is likely to be more widespread than mapped in the mountains around the Albertine Rift in Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. It occurs from 1,500m asl (perhaps lower) up to at least 3,000m asl. Records from central Malawi require confirmation, as do low-altitude records in the Lake Victoria basin in Kenya and Uganda.	eng
54682	habitat		It lives in montane forest, occurring only in mature, undisturbed forest. It breeds in pools and slow streams.	eng
54682	population		It is a common species in Kibale Forest, but it is generally encountered only infrequently through most of its range.	eng
54682	threats		It is presumably being impacted by loss of forest, especially for agriculture and wood extraction, in some parts of its wide range.	eng
54683	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Kitulgala Forest Reserve, Messana Forest Reserve and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site.	eng
54683	distribution		This species is restricted to three sites in south-western Sri Lanka (Kitulgala Forest Reserve, Messana Forest Reserve and Sinharaja World Heritage Site). It ranges from 150-1,070m asl.	eng
54683	habitat		A terrestrial species associated with wet leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover, close to streams in tropical wet montane forest, its breeding biology has not been recorded, but it presumably takes place in water, probably in streams, by larval development.	eng
54683	population		Little is known about the population status of this species, but it is not common.	eng
54683	threats		Habitat loss (small-scale agriculture) and human disturbance (local tourism) are the primary threats to this species.	eng
54684	conservation		It has been recorded from the Konya Wild Life Sanctuary, but expanded protection of forest habitats in the species' range is needed. Further research is needed into the range and breeding biology of this species.	eng
54684	distribution		This species is known only from two localities (Koyna and Aboli) in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, India. Specimens have been recorded at elevations between 900 and 1,200m asl.	eng
54684	habitat		This is a terrestrial toad of moist to wet evergreen forest, and dry riparian grassland. Its breeding has not been recorded, but it presumably takes place in water, probably in streams, by larval development.	eng
54684	population		It is a rare species, and is uncommon at the type locality.	eng
54684	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and clear cutting of forests.	eng
54685	conservation		This species has not been recorded from any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority.	eng
54685	distribution		This newly described species was found on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It is known only from the type locality, Sabak Bernam, and from the North Selangor Peat Swamp, though it possibly occurs more widely.	eng
54685	habitat		It is a peat swamp specialist. It is thought be be an explosive breeder, and presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
54685	population		It is locally abundant, but it is possibly hard to find when not breeding (which may be one explanation for its recent discovery).	eng
54685	threats		The major threat is drainage and reclamation of peat swamps for agricultural purposes, and part of its type locality has already been destroyed.	eng
54686	conservation		The only protected area in which it is currently known to occur is Awash National Park.	eng
54686	distribution		This species is known only from the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia, at 700-1,585m asl, where it has been recorded from two localities: Lake Langano, and the Awash National Park. Its distribution is not typical of an endemic species to Ethiopia, and Largen (pers. comm.) considers that it might be found to occur in Eritrea and Somalia. However, Tandy (pers. comm.) thinks that it might be more restricted, and that the two known populations might belong to different species (in which case their ranges should not be joined, contrary to what has been done in attempts to map their distribution for this assessment).@@	eng
54686	habitat		It is associated with permanent water in arid savannah and semi-desert country. It has been found in and around small lakes, stream-fed pools, irrigation ditches, and large freshwater (non-alkaline) lakes, in a general landscape ranging from a sub-desert steppe of volcanic rubble, xerophilous grasses and thorn scrub, to heavily grazed <em>Acacia</em> savannah. It breeds in permanent lakes and pools.	eng
54686	population		This species was found to be reasonably numerous at both the type locality (Lake Langano) and in the Awash National Park during the 1970s. There has been little recent survey work within its range.	eng
54686	threats		The main threats to this species are environmental degradation and water pollution, resulting from urban expansion and human settlement, agricultural encroachment, and increasing numbers of domestic livestock. However, this species might well benefit from irrigation schemes on the Awash River, which could increase the availability of suitable habitat.	eng
54687	conservation		It has been recorded from the Khunjerab and Central Karakorum protected areas of Pakistan.	eng
54687	distribution		This species is restricted to the northwestern Himalayas of India and Pakistan. The eastern boundary of the range and the southwestern extension still need to be clarified (Stöck <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The map for this species is based largely on the distribution presented in Stöck <em>et al.</em>, 2001. It has been recorded at elevations of between 2,600 and 3,000m asl (Pakistan).	eng
54687	habitat		It is associated with areas of riparian vegetation in alpine forests. Breeding and larval development takes place in ponds and similar stagnant waters. During the day adults are usually hidden under rocks and other ground cover. It may also be found in slightly modified areas.	eng
54687	population		This is a locally common species.	eng
54687	threats		The main threats are the use of pesticides in fields, the pollution of streams with these agrochemicals, and the over-extraction of water from streams for agriculture and domestic use.	eng
54688	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54688	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon through mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), western and central Gabon and western Congo to the Mayombe Hills in western Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and possibly in southeastern Nigeria, but it has not been confirmed from these countries. Records from West Africa (Sierra Leone to Ghana) refer to Bufo togoensis. Records from Garamba National Park (Inger 1968) and other localities in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and also Kenya presumably refer to other species, perhaps within an overall Bufo latifrons complex.	eng
54688	habitat		This is a species of moist tropical lowland forest, living on the forest floor, often near streams, and requiring a closed canopy. It frequents streams with gravel beaches. It does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds in calm areas of large streams in the dry season.	eng
54688	population		It is a common species, at least in areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Cameroon and central Gabon, but it appears to be rare in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
54688	threats		It is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.	eng
54689	conservation		It is likely to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
54689	distribution		This species ranges from Djambala in southern Congo, south through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and eastern Angola, though northern and western Zambia and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, south to the Okavango Delta in northern Botswana.	eng
54689	habitat		It is tightly associated with permanent water, in particular swamps and flood plains bordering swamps. It presumably breeds in swamps and flooded grassland.	eng
54689	population		There is little information on this species, but apparently the congregate in very large numbers to breed.	eng
54689	threats		It occurs in a habitat that is not significantly threatened at present, but could become so in future as a result of agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.	eng
54690	conservation		Part of the range of this species is protected in La Muralla and Pico Bonito National Parks, the Lancetilla Botanical Garden, and the Reserva de Visda Silvestre Texiguat.	eng
54690	distribution		Disjunct populations of this species occur on the Atlantic slope of north-central Honduras at 0-1,600m asl.	eng
54690	habitat		It can be found in lowland moist, and premontane and lower montane wet, forest; all specimens have been collected from broadleaf forests. The larvae apparently develop in streams.	eng
54690	population		The population is apparently stable in appropriate habitat and the species is recorded on a regular basis.	eng
54690	threats		A major threat to this species is the impact of landslides on upper clear water streams, as a result of strong storms and human activities taking place in the lower portions of the streams. Habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, smallholder farming, logging, and expanding human settlements is also a significant threat.	eng
54691	conservation		Given its geographical distribution, this species could occur in the Rio Rimac Reserved Zones.	eng
54691	distribution		This species is known from Pisco north to Sechura desert, encompassing the Departments of Arequipa, Ancash, Ica, La Libertad and Lima, Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 70-2,830m asl.	eng
54691	habitat		Its habitat is arid Andean Pacific coastal valleys and agricultural areas (potatoes and maize) close to rivers and streams. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
54691	population		This species is abundant.	eng
54691	threats		There are no major threat to this species. There is some harvesting of individuals for laboratory experimentation. Tourism development is a localized threat.	eng
54692	conservation		It presumably occurs in the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania, but this has not yet been confirmed. It is likely to occur in several other protected areas.	eng
54692	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern Tanzania (in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains), south through eastern Tanzania to southeastern Malawi. It occurs up to at least 650m asl.	eng
54692	habitat		It is a species of woodland, thicket, dry forest and farmland, often in sandy areas. It has also been found on rocky outcrops. It can tolerate areas of low-intensity cultivation. Its breeding unknown, but it is presumably in water, either in streams or ponds. It is most often found after heavy rain.	eng
54692	population		It appears to be uncommon species, but it is difficult to detect, and might be overlooked.	eng
54692	threats		It is probably impacted by the intensification of agriculture and expanding human settlements.	eng
54693	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species. Improved management of these reserves, and strengthened protection of the remaining forest habitat, is required.	eng
54693	distribution		This species is only known from three very small distributional pockets (Pinar del Río Province, Sierra de Trinidad, and Sierra del Guaso) in Cuba, and each of these may turn out to be separate species. It has been recorded from 100-820m asl.	eng
54693	habitat		It is found in upland pinewoods and mesic broadleaf forest, and is terrestrial by day but may be arboreal at night. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat, and is always found by streams. Males call while floating on the surface of water. Eggs are laid in streams, where the larvae also develop.	eng
54693	population		It is generally an uncommon species, although one population in the west is known to be very abundant. However, the eastern population has not been found again since it was first described in the early 1900s.	eng
54693	threats		There is ongoing habitat loss in the upland woodlands in which it occurs from clear-cutting and subsistence logging, charcoaling, fires, and agricultural expansion.	eng
54694	conservation		It occurs in Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.	eng
54694	distribution		This species appears to be endemic to the Kenyan Highlands above 1,800m asl, where it occurs on both sides of the Rift Valley, and on Mount Kenya and in the vicinity of Limuru. Records from Nairobi require confirmation. A related species has been found in the Udzungwa Mountains of southern Tanzania, but this has not so far been named.	eng
54694	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland, moorland and forest patches, and it survives in agricultural land. It breeds in small, shallow permanent and semi-permanent pools in open areas.	eng
54694	population		It is a reasonably common species. There is some evidence of a decline at one site, but there is no information as to whether or not such a decline might have been more widespread (M. Tandy pers. comm.).	eng
54694	threats		There is little information on its threats, but although it is somewhat adaptable, it is possibly affected by the intensification of agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54695	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
54695	distribution		This species occurs on Pacific lowlands from Chiapas, Mexico to central Costa Rica (at 6-300m asl) and on the Atlantic slope in dry interior valleys of Guatemala and Honduras (up to 1,300m asl), and in the upper Río San Juan drainage in Costa Rica (0-1,300m asl).	eng
54695	habitat		It can be found in open areas including disturbed pasturelands in lowland dry forest and marginally in lowland moist and premontane moist forests. It reproduces in temporary pools.	eng
54695	population		It is common throughout much of its range.	eng
54695	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
54696	conservation		In Ethiopia, it is known from the outskirts of the Awash National Park, and is almost certainly present in the Omo and Mago National Parks. It occurs in the Tsavo West National Park in Kenya, and is probably present in several others. It does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia, and is unlikely to occur in any protected areas in Sudan.	eng
54696	distribution		This species occurs in arid lowlands from Somalia, through eastern and southern Ethiopia, extreme southeastern Sudan, to northern and eastern Kenya as far south as the Ngulia Hills in Tsavo West National Park. There is an apparently isolated population in the Awash Valley in central Ethiopia. It is likely to occur in northeastern Uganda.	eng
54696	habitat		It lives in very dry savannah where it apparently breeds in temporarily flooded hollows, including roadside ditches, immediately after the beginning of the rains.	eng
54696	population		It is apparently common at suitable sites, at least in southern Ethiopia.	eng
54696	threats		The main threat is environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.	eng
54697	conservation	Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	It is not known with certainty if the species is present in any protected areas. The exact distribution and natural history of this species is not well known and needs further research. Further research is needed into the possible impact of climate change on this species, especially concerning the desiccation of breeding habitats.	eng
54697	distribution	Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is endemic to the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. It is known from relatively few localities, mostly the western foothills of Kuzestan, Lorestan and Fars Provinces. The distribution map for this species is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has an altitudinal distribution of 750-1,200m asl.	eng
54697	habitat	Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	There is little is known about the habitat requirements of this species, though it presumably has similar habitat requirements to <em>Pseudepidalea surdus</em>; like many members of the genus <em>Pseudepidalea</em> it presumably breeds in still or slow moving waters.	eng
54697	population	Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species appears to be quite rare.	eng
54697	threats	Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, 2008	The main threats to this species are prolonged drought and some localized habitat destruction (often through agricultural expansion) in parts of its range.	eng
54698	conservation		The conservation, expansion and management of cloud forest are key measures to preserve this species since it has not been recorded from any of the Biosphere reserves in Chiapas, Mexico. It also does not occur in any protected area in Guatemala.	eng
54698	distribution		This species' geographic range extends from Los Chimalapas region in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico, south and east along the Atlantic versant as far as the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in Guatemala. It occurs at 1,000-1,600m asl.	eng
54698	habitat		This species is mainly associated with high humid areas in cloud forest and, in Mexico, pine-oak-Liquidambar forests. It breeds in streams.	eng
54698	population		It is rare across its range.	eng
54698	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss, due to agriculture and human settlement, and water pollution.	eng
54699	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. It is known to be present in the following protected areas in India: Sessa Orchid Wild Life Sanctuary, Namdapha National Park, Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary (Arunachal Pradesh) and Nameri National Park (Assam). It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.	eng
54699	distribution		This species is found throughout most of monsoonal mainland Southeast Asia and in northeast India (in Arunchal Pradesh and Assam). In Southeast Asia it is found up to 300m asl, in the northwestern part of its range it is found up to 2,350m asl.	eng
54699	habitat		It is generally associated with both open-canopy and closed deciduous forest types. It breeds explosively in rain-pools. It is able to survive in relatively degraded forest.	eng
54699	population		It is generally common in the deciduous forests of mainland Thailand, but rare in the peninsular rainforests and in India.	eng
54699	threats		Commercial clear-cutting of tropical forests appears to be the only major threat as this species appears to be quite able to maintain its populations even in degraded deciduous forests.	eng
54700	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54700	distribution		This species occurs very widely in humid savannah and savannah- forest transition zones from Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia eastwards to western Ethiopia and southwards to Swaziland and the northern regions of South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. There do not appear to be records from Mali, Togo, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It probably occurs more widely in the Democratic Republic of Congo than is mapped. It occurs up to 1,700m asl in South Africa, and probably higher in East Africa.	eng
54700	habitat		It is a species of humid savannahs, forest edges and degraded forest, extending into drier savannahs along rivers. It is also found in agricultural land. It breeds in rivers and streams in savannah areas and in temporary ponds and ditches, especially in the forest zone.	eng
54700	population		It is very common in many parts of its range.	eng
54700	threats		Some populations of this species are no doubt affected environmental degradation, resulting from the expansion of human settlement. However, it is widespread and adaptable and is not seriously at risk.	eng
54701	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Enrique La Marca, Santiago Ron, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
54701	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Enrique La Marca, Santiago Ron, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This is a species complex that occurs throughout the Amazon Basin of South America, the Guianas, and is also present in central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama, as well as in Gorgona Island, Colombia. Specimens recorded from the west coast of Ecuador are believed to refer to another species and are not mapped here. It is present from sea level to 2,400m asl.	eng
54701	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Enrique La Marca, Santiago Ron, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	Terrestrial and nocturnal toad found in primary and secondary lowland, premontane and montane tropical moist forest (including terra firme and seasonally flooded forest). Also present in open areas. In Gorgona Island its distribution appears to be influenced by the understory cover (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. , 2003). This species is an explosive breeder in temporary pools and streams. Males call along banks of watercourses. It is a very generalist species that can be found in disturbed areas.	eng
54701	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Enrique La Marca, Santiago Ron, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It is common throughout most countries but is uncommon in Colombia.	eng
54701	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Enrique La Marca, Santiago Ron, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
54702	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The preservation of ponds and other water systems is important for the reproduction and preservation of the populations of this species. It is known to occur in at least four protected areas along the Pacific coast (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54702	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is found along the Pacific coast of Mexico from southern Sonora to northern Chiapas. It is also recorded in the Balsas basin in Michoacán and on the Atlantic coasts of Veracruz.	eng
54702	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species dwells in tropical deciduous forest and tropical semi deciduous forest in the lowlands. It occurs in disturbed habitats, providing that these are not opened up too much. It breeds in streams.<br/><br/>While the species is known to feed on at least 19 prey taxa, dominant prey items consist of ants, beetles, and termites (Suazo-Ortuño et al., 2007).	eng
54702	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
54702	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Local populations might be affected by extreme habitat alteration, but generally this species is not threatened.	eng
54703	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. The species is not protected by national legislation in Morocco.	eng
54703	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas. The species is not protected by national legislation in Morocco.	eng
54703	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2008	This species has a fragmented range (there is a small area of occupancy within the wide extent of occurrence) in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and the North African Spanish territories of Melilla and Ceuta. Apparently isolated populations in northern Niger and northern Mali refer to <em>Bufo xeros</em> (U. Joger pers. comm.); an introduced population is present on mainland Spain close to the Parque Natural los Alcornocales. It is not confirmed from the Western Sahara, although it might occur in the extreme north (Geniez <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species range from around sea level up to 2,650 m asl in the Atlas Mountains.	eng
54703	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2009	This species has a fragmented range (there is a small Area of Occupancy within the wide Extent of Occurrence) in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and the North African Spanish territories of Melilla and Ceuta. Apparently isolated populations in northern Niger and northern Mali refer to <em>Bufo xeros</em> (U. Joger pers. comm.); an introduced population is present on mainland Spain close to the Parque Natural los Alcornocales. It is not confirmed from the Western Sahara, although it might occur in the extreme north (Geniez <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species range from around sea level up to 2,650m asl in the Atlas Mountains.	eng
54703	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2008	The species occurs in a wide-variety of habitats including rocky and stony areas, meadows, cork oak groves, Mediterranean scrub, and agricultural land and sometimes in urban areas. It breeds in fresh or brackish still or slow-flowing waterbodies. The females deposit approximately 5,000-10,000 eggs. During the day the adults of this species hide under rocks or in tunnels.	eng
54703	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2009	The species occurs in a wide-variety of habitats including rocky and stony areas, meadows, cork oak groves, Mediterranean scrub, and agricultural land and sometimes in urban areas. It breeds in fresh or brackish still or slow-flowing waterbodies. The females deposit approximately 5,000-10,000 eggs. During the day the adults of this species hide under rocks or in tunnels.	eng
54703	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2008	This is a generally abundant species.	eng
54703	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2009	This is a generally abundant species.	eng
54703	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2008	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Loss of suitable habitat and pollution resulting from development, and mortality through road kill are localized threats to some populations.	eng
54703	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Tahar Slimani, Philippe Geniez & Ulrich Joger, 2009	There are generally no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Loss of suitable habitat and pollution resulting from development, and mortality through road kill are localized threats to some populations.	eng
54704	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The range of this species includes several Biosphere Reserves. The preservation of forests is the only way to protect this species.	eng
54704	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is found in the Pacific coastal versant of Mexico, from southwestern Sonora to northern Colima, and is also recorded in southwestern Chihuahua.	eng
54704	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is commonly found in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, and riparian environments. It has also been recorded in lowland pine forest in Chihuahua. It presumably breeds in water.	eng
54704	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This is a common species.	eng
54704	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species requires the presence of ponds and other water systems to survive. The disappearance of forest patches can result in the local desiccation of water systems. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
54705	conservation	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It occurs in several National Parks and other protected areas, including La Selva, Monteverde and Reserva Indo-Maíz. Population monitoring is recommended in case of outbreaks of chytridiomycosis and/or other diseases. Further studies are needed into the identity of populations allocated to this species from the Pacific coast (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
54705	distribution	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands and middle elevations of the Atlantic slopes and Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, at elevations of 2-1,080m asl. It has recently been recorded from extreme southaeastern Nicaragua (Köhler et al., 2004).	eng
54705	habitat	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It lives in lowland moist and wet forests and the lower portion of premontane wet forest. It is most likely not very tolerant of either canopy removal of forest or alteration and/or siltation of breeding streams. Other species in this clade are highly intolerant of such impacts. It breeds in large streams and is sometimes encountered on the forest floor.	eng
54705	population	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is widespread and regularly encountered during breeding periods. It disappeared from Monteverde in the late 1980s and then reappeared in the 1990s (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
54705	threats	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Alteration of streams, including pollution is a threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat.	eng
54706	conservation		It occurs in Upemba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54706	distribution		This species is known only from three localities: Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo; Bwana Mkubwa, south of Ndola in northern Zambia; and Lago Cameia in eastern Angola. It presumably occurs more widely, and the map assumes its occurrence between the three known localities.	eng
54706	habitat		It apparently shows a preference for forest (presumably gallery forest) and woodland. It breeds in water.	eng
54706	population		There appear to be no recent records of this species, which is only known from a few specimens, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54706	threats		There is no direct information, although the habitats within its range are probably reasonably secure.	eng
54707	conservation		None needed, other than further taxonomic study. The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas across its range. The species should be exterminated from New Guinea as a matter of urgency.	eng
54707	distribution		This species occurs widely from northern Pakistan through Nepal, Bangladesh, India (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, southern China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau), Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam, Thailand and Cambodia to Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Anambas Islands and Natuna Islands, introduced to Bali, Sulawesi, Ambon and Manokwari, New Guinea (northeastern portion of the Vogelkop Peninsula, centred on Manokwari). It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
54707	habitat		It is mainly a species of disturbed lowland habitats, from upper beaches and riverbanks to human-dominated agricultural and urban areas. It is uncommon in closed forests. It breeds in still and slow-flowing rivers and temporary and permanent ponds and pools. Adults are terrestrial and may be found under ground cover (eg. rocks, leaf-litter, logs), and are also associated with human habitations. The larvae are found in still and slow-moving waterbodies.	eng
54707	population		It is an abundant species throughout its range that is probably increasing in many areas.	eng
54707	threats		There are no major threats to this very adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. It is eaten locally in northern Thailand.	eng
54708	conservation		This species occurs in at least two protected areas. Urgent protection of the forested areas along the Sierra Tarahumara area is recommended.	eng
54708	distribution		This species occurs in extreme central-eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental, south to western Durango and extreme north-eastern Sinaloa, Mexico.	eng
54708	habitat		It inhabits pristine conifer forests where it can be commonly found along low rivers and streams, where it breeds. It is not present in altered habitats.	eng
54708	population		This is a rare species.	eng
54708	threats		Disturbance, and any kind of alteration of forested areas that might cause the desiccation of streams and soils, are threats to this species.	eng
54709	conservation		<span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span> is a state protected species in Utah, Nevada and Arizona. Protected populations occur in the Virgin River and its tributaries in Zion National Park.	eng
54709	distribution		This species' range is continuous along the Virgin River and its tributaries in southwestern Utah, Clover Creek, Meadow Valley Wash and possibly the lower Muddy River in southern Nevada, USA (Blair 1955; Price and Sullivan 1988; Schwaner and Sullivan, in press), and scattered in locations across Arizona, and western New Mexico (Sullivan 1993). Known populations of the Arizona toad range from 365-1,770m asl (Blair 1955).	eng
54709	habitat		Rocky stream courses in pine-oak zone in Arizona and New Mexico, although irrigated cropland and reservoirs increasingly used (Price and Sullivan 1988). In Utah, occurs primarily along streams and washes bordered by willows and cottonwoods (Stebbins 1954; Blair 1955), but has been recorded in impounded areas such as Enterprise Reservoir and Gunlock Reservoir (Blair 1955), and more recently, in Quail Creek Reservoir (Sullivan 1995). Lays eggs among gravel, leaves, or sticks, or on mud or clean sand, at bottom of flowing or shallow quiet waters of perennial or semi permanent streams (Dahl <em>et al.</em> 2000) or shallow ponds. Breeding season is not correlated with rainfall (Blair 1955). Calling males heard as early as February at lower elevations, March-April at higher elevations (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Individual males, not all calling at the same time, strung out along the shores of streams and lakes (Blair 1955), sometimes in dense aggregations that include many terrestrial satellite males (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Most breeding is accomplished within two weeks (Schwaner <em>et al.</em> 1997), although males may continue to call until June or July (Schwaner, unpublished). Amplexus is axillary and males use the basket method (Krupa 1988) to maximize fertilization efficiency (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2000). Clutch size ranges from 3000-4000 eggs (Blair 1955), most of which hatch under ideal conditions. Unless periodic flash floods, natural drying or human alterations to the stream habitat occur, most tadpoles survive to metamorphosis (Schwaner, unpublished). Predation by mammals, birds and snakes, and over-winter mortality, seem to reduce annual production of young and adults (Schwaner, unpublished).	eng
54709	population		In Utah and Nevada, locally very common in suitable habitat within its small range (Schwaner and Sullivan, in press). Schwaner <em>et al.</em> (1997) estimated a population of 1,000 toads along a 1,500m transect of the Beaver Dam Wash at Lytle Preserve. A recent survey in Arizona indicated local declines but no obvious major trend (Sullivan 1993). <br/>The construction of impoundments (Sullivan 1993). Malmos <em>et al.</em> (2001) reported directional hybridisation by common male (<span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span>) and rare female (<span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii</span>) matings. Schwaner (2003) reported a hybrid swarm at a golf course near the junction of the Beaver Dam Wash with the Virgin River and genetic introgression of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii </span>into putative pure <span style="font-style: italic;">B. microscaphus</span> populations 60 miles upstream. Temporal separation of the two species by different breeding times (Sullivan 1995) was not evident.	eng
54709	threats		A major threat is hybridisation with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. woodhousii</span>, possibly facilitated by dam construction.	eng
54710	conservation		It has been recorded from the Kalakkad Mundauthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu) and Silent Valley National Park (Kerala).	eng
54710	distribution		This is a poorly known species that is presumed to be endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. A record from Maharashtra (Yazdani and Mahabal 1976) requires confirmation. Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (1998) clarified that it does not occur in Sri Lanka. The altitudinal range is from 1,400-2,100m asl.	eng
54710	habitat		A terrestrial species associated with montane 'shola' (grassland-forest mosaic) and tropical moist forest habitat; it has not been recorded from modified habitats. It may be found in the vicinity of water bodies, but the breeding habitat is not known.	eng
54710	population		It is a rare species.	eng
54710	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to the conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations), future dam development projects, road construction, and urbanization.	eng
54711	conservation		Several protected areas fall within the species' range.	eng
54711	distribution		This species is endemic to Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan provinces in China, and occurs from 1,700-3,700m asl.	eng
54711	habitat		It inhabits streams, alpine marshes and grasslands. It breeds in streams, ponds and pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
54711	population		It is a very common species in mountainous areas.	eng
54711	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
54712	conservation		It might well occur in Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.	eng
54712	distribution		This species has been recorded from Mount Kenya, the Kinangop Plateau and the highlands around Nairobi, Kenya. Its overall distribution and altitudinal range are still unclear because of confusion with <em>Bufo lonnbergi</em> and <em>Bufo nairobiensis</em>.	eng
54712	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it is apparently a montane forest species that presumably breeds in water.	eng
54712	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54712	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54713	conservation		Its range includes Kaiteur National Park in Guyana, and Canaima National Park in Venezuela.	eng
54713	distribution		This species is known from La Escalera region, in the state of Bolívar, in east Venezuela (La Marca, 1992), and from northwest Guyana from Tukeit, Roraima, and Ikarak. It has been recorded from 500-1,350m asl.	eng
54713	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of cloud forest and lowland moist forest. Breeding is likely to occur along creeks but otherwise there is very little information known about breeding habits.	eng
54713	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
54713	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
54714	conservation		The range of this species includes a number of protected areas.	eng
54714	distribution		This species is known from southern Arkansas, southern Mississippi, Louisiana, and central Texas in the USA, southward to Palma Sola, Veracruz, Mexico (Mulcahy and Mendelson 2000).	eng
54714	habitat		This species inhabits coastal prairies, barrier beaches, towns, and a variety of other habitats. Eggs and larvae develop in various kinds of pools, including roadside and irrigation ditches. This species is tolerant of substantial habitat alteration.	eng
54714	population		It is a widespread and common in suitable habitat.	eng
54714	threats		Not threatened.	eng
54715	conservation		This species is quite likely to occur in Reserva Comunal El Sira. Continued maintenance of this, and other remaining habitat in the Serrania de Sira, is necessary.	eng
54715	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Laguna, west slope of Serrania de Sira, Departamento Huánuco, Peru. The type specimen was recorded at 1,280m asl, but the species may well occur from 600 to around 2,000m asl (as another specimen is believed to have been found at 600m asl). It presumably ranges much more widely than has been mapped, but it is nonetheless likely to be endemic to the Serrania de Sira.	eng
54715	habitat		Their habitat is premontane and montane forest on an isolated mountain ridge of the upper Amazon Basin. Nothing is known about their breeding strategy, although it has been suggested that this may be a species that breeds by direct development. It is not known to what degree they can withstand any anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
54715	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
54715	threats		Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some disturbance due to farming activity and human settlements. In addition, the lower parts of the range are being selectively logged.	eng
54716	conservation		It has been recorded from the Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site; the continued management of these for biodiversity conservation is important.	eng
54716	distribution		This species has a restricted distribution in south-west Sri Lanka, and has been recorded at elevations of between 150 and 460m asl.	eng
54716	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found in, and around, tropical lowland moist forest. Adults have been recorded from rubber plantations, tea estates, and domestic gardens close to the forest edge only. The breeding habitat is not known.	eng
54716	population		It is not a common species, and populations may be declining proportionately with a loss in forest habitat.	eng
54716	threats		The main threats to the species are habitat loss, due to selective logging, and agrochemical pollution.	eng
54717	conservation		It occurs in the Nyika National Park. This species requires close population monintoring given that it is known from only a single location.	eng
54717	distribution		This species is known only from the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi and north-eastern Zambia. It is a high-altitude species, although its precise altitudinal range is not known.	eng
54717	habitat		It is apparently associated mainly with montane forest, and with wet, boggy places in grassland, and is never far from trees. It breeds in small, shallow pools.	eng
54717	population		It is probably reasonably common within its small range.	eng
54717	threats		Most, if not all, of the range of this species is in a protected area, and so it is probably not seriously threatened at present.	eng
54718	conservation	Matthias Stöck, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov,, 2008	This species might occur in a number of protected areas in northern Iran, however this requires further confirmation. In Turkmenistan, it has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve. Additional surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this species relative to related members of the '<em>Bufo viridis</em>' complex.	eng
54718	distribution	Matthias Stöck, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov,, 2008	This species is distributed in the west of the Central Iranian deserts and in the Kopet Dagh Mountains of Iran and Turkmenistan. It possibly occurs western Afghanistan (current range requires research). The distribution map for this species is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). The altitudinal range is not known.	eng
54718	habitat	Matthias Stöck, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov,, 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is not well known. It occurs in relatively arid areas, including slopes of mountains, and may breed in various slow-moving streams. The species can be found in somewhat disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
54718	population	Matthias Stöck, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov,, 2008	It is a common species in Turkmenistan. The population abundance of this species is not known for Iran.	eng
54718	threats	Matthias Stöck, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov,, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
54719	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	The preservation of natural ecosystems including the river systems can guarantee the survival of this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
54719	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species occurs from the Central Mexican Plateau, to the west in northern Colima and north-central Sinaloa, including northwestern, central and eastern Michoacán, central and southern Jalisco, northwestern Guerrero and Oaxaca, and from central Mexico to the east into south-central Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz, Mexico. It can be found between 610-2,400 m asl.	eng
54719	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, from lowland xeric scrubs and deciduous forest to coniferous and oak forests. It is also recorded in disturbed environments. It breeds in streams.	eng
54719	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This is one of the most common toads in Mexico, maintaining healthy populations along its range.	eng
54719	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	Desiccation, alteration and pollution of rivers and smaller streams are the main threats to this species, as it requires the presence of permanent, clean, shallow water.	eng
54720	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
54720	distribution		This species occurs in the Brazilian Cerrado from Maranhão to Minas Gerais states, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.	eng
54720	habitat		It occurs on the ground in the Cerrado near waterbodies, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
54720	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
54720	threats		Agriculture, crops and livestock, dam construction and fires are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
54721	conservation	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Steven Anderson, 2008	In Iran part of the species range along the Sarboz River is within a protected crocodile sanctuary.	eng
54721	distribution	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is restricted to the Sistan va Baluchistan Province of southeastern Iran and western Baluchistan of Pakistan. It has not been recorded from Afghanistan and does not occur in India (M. Khan pers. comm.). This species ranges from approximately sea level to around 700m asl.	eng
54721	habitat	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Steven Anderson, 2008	It is generally found in areas where available water occurs, including irrigated land, springs, oasis and all other wetlands. The habitat surrounding these wetlands is mostly semi-desert with date palms. The species largely depends upon wetlands created by agricultural activity. It breeds in ponds and oasis, often in date palm groves. The larvae feed on algal vegetation deposited on the surface of submerged objects. This is an adaptable species often found around human habitations.	eng
54721	population	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Steven Anderson, 2008	This toad is locally common in Iran (at areas with permanent water) and locally common in Pakistan (frequent at certain localities).	eng
54721	threats	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Steven Anderson, 2008	The populations of this toad in Pakistan are locally threatened by pollution through the use of agrochemicals, and drought and habitat alteration might be leading to some localized declines. There are no immediate threats to the species in Iran.	eng
54722	conservation		The range of the species includes some protected areas: in China it is known from Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve, and both of the populations in Myanmar are within protected areas.	eng
54722	distribution		This species is known from north-east and western Myanmar, extreme northern Viet Nam and Gaoligongshan in Yunnan (Tengchong, Baoshan and Lushui Counties), China, from 1,900-2,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54722	habitat		It inhabits forested mountain areas, and probably also occurs in the surrounding farmland. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
54722	population		This species is rare and is seldom found.	eng
54722	threats		Forest loss due to agricultural expansion is an ongoing threat.	eng
54723	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Research is needed to determine population trends and the importance of perceived threats. A Biodiversity Management Plan (under NEMBA) is required to underpin Memoranda of Understanding between multiple stakeholders. Monitoring is required at known breeding sites to determine their efficacy,&#160;especially&#160;in the eastern range. There is great potential to significantly improve the status of this species through conservation planning and control of threats posed by alien species (including fish, Guttural toads and plants). It occurs on the western fringe of Agulhas National Park, Table Mountain National Park as well as in various City of Cape Town reserves. However, much of its remaining habitat&#160; is made up of urban gardens, is unprotected, and requires significant public education to make any conservation measure a success.	eng
54723	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from a very small area (Extent of Occurrence 1,750 km<sup>2</sup>) of the Western Cape Province in South Africa, ranging from the Cape Peninsula eastward to the westernmost part of Agulhas National Park. Its Area of Occupancy (440 km<sup>2</sup>) is continually being reduced by ongoing development and habitat change within the City of Cape Town and Overstrand. It is only known to breed at low elevations, within 25 km of the sea, but adults have been found ranging in the mountains up to 500 m asl. Subpopulations from the City of Cape Town have been shown to be genetically distinct from those in the eastern area of this species' distribution and their disjunction is not believed to have been caused by anthropogenic effects.&#160;Subpopulations in Kleinmond, Betty's Bay and Pringle Bay are now thought to be extinct.	eng
54723	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It breeds in large wetlands, vleis, dams, and sluggish water in lowland fynbos heathland, as well as in altered habitats with permanent waterbodies, and occasionally temporary waterbodies that retain water well into summer, and has a preference for deep water, with floating plants. Females have been reported to lay nearly 25,000 eggs. It forages in fynbos heathland, farmland, suburban gardens, and urban open areas, although always in close proximity to freshwater habitats. There is an ongoing decline in the quantity and quality of suitable habitat for both foraging and breeding.	eng
54723	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is locally common and easily seen during breeding in August. Within the last 20 years it has undergone drastic declines from urban areas where it was once abundant, although no quantitative data are available. Collection of quantitative data is ongoing with which it is hoped to provide population data in the future.&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as more than half of the occupied habitat area is in small and isolated patches and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.	eng
54723	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although it is tolerant of habitat alteration, it is being negatively impacted by increased urbanization and agricultural expansion in its entire range. Road kills,&#160;urban design,&#160;alien vegetation and introduced fish are all thought to be important factors. A recent introduction and rapid expansion of <em>Amietophrynus gutturalis</em> into the City of Cape Town poses threats of competition and possible hybridisation.	eng
54724	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54724	distribution		This species, which is endemic to South Africa, is known mainly from the Eastern Cape Province east to Umtata in the former Transkei, with a few records from the Western Cape Province. It is mainly found quite close to the coast, but it ranges inland to Grahamstown, Kei Road, Stutterheim and Amatola Mountains. It is generally below 1,000m asl, but ranges up to 1,500m asl in a few places.	eng
54724	habitat		It is a species of grassy, open bushveld areas, and also thickets and agricultural areas. It breeds in large, permanent, usually deep pools, and calls from floating vegetation.	eng
54724	population		It is locally abundant, although populations declined in some areas due to habitat loss.	eng
54724	threats		It is probably being impacted by habitat fragmentation as a result of urban and agricultural development. Significant numbers of animals are also killed on roads.	eng
54725	conservation		It has been recorded from Indira Gandhi National Park (in Tamil Nadu), Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park (both in Kerala), and might also occur within other protected areas in the region.	eng
54725	distribution		This species is relatively widespread in the Western Ghats, India, from 400-900m asl. Dutta (1997) lists uncertain records from the Eastern Ghats, which require further verification.	eng
54725	habitat		It is a terrestrial toad associated with leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover of moist tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitat. Breeding takes place in slow-moving stretches of streams.	eng
54725	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
54725	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation caused by both regional infrastructure development (roads, dams, and urbanization) and the collection of wood and timber for subsistence use by local people.	eng
54726	conservation		It occurs in the Usangu Game Reserve.	eng
54726	distribution		This largely unknown species is found mainly in Tanzania, where it ranges widely from the Usangu Flats in the south, east to south of Mount Kilimanjaro, west to Mawere near Tabora, and north to Olorgesaile in the southern Rift Valley of Kenya. Its distributional limits are still not well known, and the map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
54726	habitat		It is a species of sparsely wooded grassland and savannah, and also of flood plains. It is not known how tolerant it is of habitat alteration. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
54726	population		There is very little information. It could be much more common than current records suggest, but there has been little herpetological work within its range.	eng
54726	threats		There is little information. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and by human settlement.	eng
54727	conservation		It occurs in a large number of protected areas, which should safeguard the survival of the species if current protection levels are at least maintained. It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.	eng
54727	distribution		This species is found in western and Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Myanmar, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Pini and Java). There is an isolated population in southeastern Thailand and the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Dring, 1979 and S. Swan pers. comm.). It does not occur in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). It occurs up to 520m asl.	eng
54727	habitat		It inhabits streams in primary and regenerating rainforest, mainly in lowlands. It has not been found in open areas outside forest. It breeds in forest pools and slow-moving streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
54727	population		It is abundant in most areas of suitable habitat in mainland Southeast Asia. It is considered to be uncommon in Indonesia.	eng
54727	threats		There are no major threats to the survival of this species at present.	eng
54728	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species.	eng
54728	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species is found in central and eastern Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 410m asl.	eng
54728	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It occurs along stream banks and under rocks in various habitats such as broadleaf forest, grassland, savannah and agricultural areas. It was found to use coastal xeromorphic scrub habitat only temporarily (Fong, 2007). It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as the freshwater body remains undisturbed. Males call at creek sides. Eggs are laid in still water, where the tadpoles also develop. In some regions it can be an explosive breeder.	eng
54728	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
54728	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Localized threats to this species include intensive agriculture, cattle grazing and agricultural pesticides; however, it is adaptable, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
54729	conservation	Tandy, M., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Salvador, A., 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54729	distribution	Tandy, M., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Salvador, A., 2004	This species occurs in Africa south of the Sahara from Mauritania eastward Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti; and in the Sahara, in the Trarza region (Mauritania) and in the Air mountains (Niger). Records from Yemen refer to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bufo tihamicus</span>. It is not present in Egypt, reports by Anderson (1898) refer to modern day Sudan (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There do not appear to be records from Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Chad and Central African Republic, but it is likely to occur in these countries.	eng
54729	habitat	Tandy, M., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Salvador, A., 2004	It is a species of xeric environments such as dry savannas and semi-deserts. It breeds in temporary puddles and ponds, and has been found close to rivers in Cameroon, although in Benin it appears to avoid rivers and creeks as breeding sites (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
54729	population	Tandy, M., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Salvador, A., 2004	It is a common species.	eng
54729	threats	Tandy, M., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Salvador, A., 2004	Drought is likely to be the most significant threat to this species, although in parts of its range an increase in the populations of humans and their domestic livestock is likely to impact unfavourably on the overall environment, perhaps especially breeding habitats.	eng
54730	conservation		There are no specific conservation measures currently in place, but further research is needed into the range, ecology, and population status of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and an <em>ex-situ</em> population should be established.	eng
54730	distribution		This species is known only from two sites: Parque Internacional La Amistad, a transboundary protected area between Costa Rica and Panama, and Cerro Bollo, in the western central cordillera of Panama. It has been recorded at 1,500-1,856m asl.	eng
54730	habitat		This is a largely unknown terrestrial species of tropical montane forest. There is no information available on reproduction or breeding habitats, though it presumably takes place in water. Assuming that it is similar to <em>Incilius fastidiosus</em> and <em>I. holdridgei</em>, it is likely to emerge unpredictably to breed, and is probably very hard to find.	eng
54730	population		There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. It can still be found above Boquete on the trail to Almirante and Cerro Bollo on the border between Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro Provinces.	eng
54730	threats		The closely related species <em>Incilius fastidiosus</em> and <em>I. holdridgei</em> have both declined dramatically, probably due to chytridiomycosis, and are now possibly extinct. This disease must be considered a very serious threat to <em>I. peripatetes</em> as well, and the disease has already passed through the range of this species. Destruction of available forest habitat (generally caused by the driving of cattle through La Amistad) is a threat to the species.	eng
54731	conservation		It is not found within any protected area, and protection of the species' original forest habitat is urgently needed.	eng
54731	distribution		This species is found in the Tepalcatepec Basin and surrounding areas in south-western Michoacán, south of the Balsas River in Guerrero, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than currently known.	eng
54731	habitat		It inhabits the Pacific lowlands in areas of seasonal tropical forest, and lives under rocks and logs close to streams, breeding in pools.	eng
54731	population		This is a rare species.	eng
54731	threats		The main threats to this species are infrastructure development and agricultural expansion, coupled with changes in the management of agricultural habitat.	eng
54732	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites where this species is known to occur. There is also a need for population monitoring given that it is known from only a single location.	eng
54732	distribution		This species has been recorded only from the Idanre Hills, in Ondo Province, south-western Nigeria. It is very likely to occur in other similar habitats in south-western Nigeria. There have been no recent records of the species, presumably because of a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54732	habitat		It is closely associated with gneiss domes or inselbergs in the forest zone, though is absent from similar inselbergs in the savannah belt. It lives terrestrially in patches of shrubby vegetation and forest on the gneiss domes. The eggs are probably laid on soil, and the tadpoles then disperse by crawling out on the wet, sloping (often almost vertical) rock.	eng
54732	population		It is reported to be very common within its small known range, and tadpoles are abundant during the wet season.	eng
54732	threats		Its rocky habitat is largely inaccessible and useless to humans, so this species is probably not facing any serious threats at present. However, it is intrinsically at risk because of its restricted range.	eng
54734	conservation		No conservation measures are needed for this species in the immediate future.	eng
54734	distribution		This species occurs on Balabac, Palawan, Dumaran, Culion and Busuanga in the Palawan Island group of the Philippines.	eng
54734	habitat		It thrives in degraded habitats and man-made environments, and is occasionally found in pristine lowland and montane rainforests. It breeds in water where the larvae also develop.	eng
54734	population		It is an abundant and common species.	eng
54734	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
54735	conservation		In Peru the species might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Alto Purus Reserved Zone, Parque Nacional Manu, Manu Reserved Zone and Amarakaeri Reserved Zone. It is present in many Bolivian protected areas.	eng
54735	distribution		This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of central and southern Peru, and the foothills and Andean slopes of Bolivia. It is not believed to be present in Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 350-2,000m asl.	eng
54735	habitat		It can be found in cloud forests on the Andean slopes, and tropical moist forest in the Amazonian foothills. It is associated with streams and standing water, where it presumably breeds. It can occur in modified habitats.	eng
54735	population		This species is reasonably abundant.	eng
54735	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
54736	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54736	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southern Angola, through the northern two-thirds of Namibia, to Botswana, southward to central South Africa. The eastern limit of its distribution is very uncertain due to confusion with Bufo garmani. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
54736	habitat		It is a denizen of open savannahs, wooded savannahs, thornveldt, river valleys and agricultural areas, breeding in temporary water (vleis, marshes, dams or pans), and sometimes-artificial pools.	eng
54736	population		It is a common species, and is often locally abundant.	eng
54736	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
54737	conservation		It occurs in protected areas.	eng
54737	distribution		This species occurs along the main trunk of the Amazon River from Manaus to eastern Ecuador, including Colombia and Peru. Although Frost (2002) records this species as spanning from the "Amazon river region from Ecuador to Manaus, Brazil", there have been no specific localities provided for eastern Ecuador.	eng
54737	habitat		It lives in old growth and old second growth Tropical rainforest (See discussion by Hoogmoed, 1986). It reproduces explosively in small temporary pools.	eng
54737	population		It is very common.	eng
54737	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.	eng
54738	conservation		It has been recorded in the Chitral Gol and Khunjerab protected areas of Pakistan.	eng
54738	distribution		This species is known only from the Himalayan moist-temperate forest in the northern North Western Frontier Province and northeastern Baltistan region of Pakistan. It might be present in Afghanistan, although this requires confirmation. The distribution map is largely based on Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has an altitudinal range of approximately 1,500-3,000m asl.	eng
54738	habitat		It is primarily a terrestrial species of Himalayan moist-temperate forest. Adults are often found under leaf-litter, rocks and other ground cover, usually close to sources of water. It breeds in rainwater pools, with the tadpoles developing in these pools. It is quite adaptable to habitat change.	eng
54738	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
54738	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat pollution through the use of agrochemicals.	eng
54739	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
54739	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2009	This species is known from California, Nevada, central Utah, Colorado, and southwestern Kansas in the USA, south to southern Baja California and central Mexico, and to the state of Querétaro. It occurs at elevations up to about 1,980m asl.	eng
54739	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2009	This species inhabits rocky canyons and gullies in deserts, grasslands, and dry woodlands. It hides under rocks, in rock crevices, or underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water in temporary rain pools, spring-fed pools, and pools along intermittent streams.	eng
54739	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2009	It is widespread and common.	eng
54739	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, Georgina Santos-Barrera, 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
54740	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
54740	distribution		This species is known only from Rio de Janeiro State in coastal Brazil. It occurs at very low elevations, from sea level up to only about 50m asl.	eng
54740	habitat		This species lives underground then emerges to breed around standing waterbodies in restinga (shrubland) vegetation and forest. It breeds in shallow temporary rain pools. It is an explosive breeder. It can also occur in urban gardens where rain puddles develop.	eng
54740	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54740	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development is a threat, although it is able to live in gardens where there are rain pools. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
54741	conservation		Preservation of some areas of swamp forest is needed to save the Bornean subpopulations. In mainland Southeast Asia population status information is needed. It is recorded from the Sungai Dusun Game Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
54741	distribution		This species occurs in Peninsula Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Sumatra, Natuna Besar and Pulau Bintan), and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
54741	habitat		Swamp forests are the primary habitat for this toad. It is known to breed in standing water. It has been recorded from rubber plantations, presumably close to primary forest (Dring, 1979, Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
54741	population		There are no estimates of the size of subpopulations in Borneo, but it appears to be common but not abundant in intact swamp forests. It is uncommon in Sumatra and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992), and presumably localized or uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
54741	threats		The species' habitat is being rapidly reduced due to the expansion of oil palm plantations, infrastructure development and logging.	eng
54742	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro.	eng
54742	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes, in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments. It has also been recorded in Chapare Province, Cochabamba Department and Caballero Province, Santa Cruz Department in Bolivia (Köhler 2000a; Cortez 2001). It has been recorded from 1,900-2,300m asl.	eng
54742	habitat		A terrestrial species inhabiting wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. The eggs are laid in lotic waters (Köhler 2000a).	eng
54742	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54742	threats		Major threats to this species' habitat include agriculture (mainly from smallholder farmers) and agricultural pollution. Köhler (2000a) points out that it is very common to find this species infected by parasites, with visible red pustules that, according to De la Riva (1997), are caused by the larvae of a trombidioid mite. However, it is not known whether or not the infestations have a negative effect on the species.	eng
54743	conservation		Habitat protection and monitoring needed.	eng
54743	distribution		This species occurs in the Coastal Plain, southeastern United States, from southeastern Virginia south through all of Florida and west to the Mississippi River in Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
54743	habitat		Sandy pine flatwoods and oak scrub; open pine and pine-oak woods; pine or oak savannahs with sandy soils; maritime forests. Occurs on some barrier islands in South Carolina. Seems to favour open-canopied pine flatwoods with grassy ground cover. When inactive, burrows underground or hides under surface objects. Eggs and larvae develop in rain pools, ditches, cypress and flatwoods ponds, and other flooded areas.	eng
54743	population		It is widespread and common. In Florida, seemingly less common than historically, but the species remains common to abundant in many areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
54743	threats		Does not appear to thrive in urban and suburban areas but might remain common in agricultural areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In some areas, threatened by conversion of habitat to dense monocultures of loblolly pine and by continued draining of surface waters in remaining stands of pine savannah and pine-oak (Mitchell 1991).	eng
54744	conservation		The range of this species includes many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of Buryatia and Irkutskaya Province (Russia).	eng
54744	distribution		This species is known from north and northeast China and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the whole of Mongolia and eastern Russia (Baikal area and the Far East). Presumed to occur in Republic of Korea, but this requires verification. Altitudinal range is between 600 and 2,700m asl.	eng
54744	habitat		The species inhabits the edges of coniferous and deciduous forests, groves, bush lands, meadows, forest steppes, steppes with sandy, rocky and alluvial soils, semi-desert, oases in dry steppes and the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. It is abundant around and in many human settlements, some cities and in agricultural landscapes. Although B. raddei is an opportunistic species, it prefers areas with soft, sandy and alluvial soils. It breeds in stagnant waterbodies such as ditches, pools and paddy fields.	eng
54744	population		The species is widespread and common over much of its range.	eng
54744	threats		There are no major threats to this species. It is locally impacted by high road mortality, and might possibly be threatened by over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine.	eng
54745	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54745	distribution		This species ranges through most of South Africa (excluding the central Karoo region), Swaziland and Lesotho, and almost certainly into extreme southern Namibia. It might also occur in extreme southeastern Botswana, extreme southern Zimbabwe and extreme southern Mozambique, but it has not yet been recorded from any of these countries. It is a low-altitude species, ranging up into the Drakensberg Mountains to over 1,000m asl.	eng
54745	habitat		It is a species of fynbos heathland, grassland, dry thicket forest, savannah and agricultural land. It breeds in dams, ponds, and pools along slow-forming streams, tending to favour permanent water.	eng
54745	population		It is a common species, though it is apparently declining along the northeastern escarpment of South Africa.	eng
54745	threats		It is generally not threatened. The cause of decline in northeastern South Africa is not clear, but it is possibly being displaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo gutturalis</span>, which is expanding its range, and with which it is hybridising. <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo gutturalis</span> probably does better than <span style="font-style: italic;">B. rangeri </span>in agricultural areas. Its decrease could also be the result of climate change.	eng
54746	conservation		It occurs in the poorly protected Kilombero Game Controlled Area.	eng
54746	distribution		This poorly understood species has been recorded only from the Kihansi-Kilombero floodplain in south-eastern Tanzania at 200-500m asl. The only records are from Merera, Mbega and from the confluence of the Kihansi and Kilombero Rivers, but it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
54746	habitat		There is very little information on its habitat and ecology, although it is presumably a species of floodplain grassland that breeds in water.	eng
54746	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, probably because of lack of survey effort.	eng
54746	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it could be impacted upon by agricultural encroachment, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54747	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54747	distribution		This very widely distributed African species ranges from Senegal to Nilotic Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia, southwards to western Democratic Republic of Congo, northwestern Angola, Uganda and central-southern Kenya. The boundary between this species and Bufo gutturalis in Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania is poorly understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. There do not appear to be records from Mauritania, Togo, Equatorial Guinea, Djibouti and Burundi, but it is likely to occur in these countries, and also in the northwestern part of Tanzania. Records from Eritrea predate the descriptions of B. asmarae and B. xeros, but it is possible that the species occurs in the western part of the country. Early records of this species from the Ghat region of southern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Algeria and northern Niger are thought to refer to Bufo xeros and are not mapped here (see Schleich <em>et al.</em>, 1996 for further details). It is introduced to the Cape Verde Islands. It occurs from near sea level up to 2,500m asl.	eng
54747	habitat		It lives in both moist and dry savannahs, montane grassland, forest margins, and agricultural habitats, often in association with rivers. Its range appears to be restricted by increasing aridity, and in drier areas, away from permanent water, it is replaced by species such as Bufo garmani and B. xeros. Its occurrence is very patchy in the forest zone, and it even avoids secondary forest, but lives in degraded habitats and towns (including gardens) in the forest zone. It breeds in rivers, making use of shallow areas on the edges, away from the main current.	eng
54747	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
54747	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. In Egypt, the range of the species is increasing with the development of irrigation schemes (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is collected in large numbers in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.), and has been imported into Canada from Egypt as part on the international pet trade (H. Gerson pers. comm.). However, this is not believed to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
54748	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54748	distribution		This species occurs in the Richtersveld, Bushmanland and Namaqualand regions of the Northern and Western Cape Provinces of western South Africa and adjacent southern Namibia. Its altitudinal range is unclear.	eng
54748	habitat		It is associated with arid rocky areas close to permanent or seasonal water. It breeds in small, spring-fed pools, small shallow seepages, vleis, seasonal streams and rivers, rain-filled depressions, and dams, but not in large perennial rivers.	eng
54748	population		It is generally not common, but can be locally abundant. Its breeding populations are scattered, presumably due to distribution of suitable habitats.	eng
54748	threats		It is not seriously threatened at present, since its habitat is largely secure. However, water extraction for livestock farming could eliminate local populations in future.	eng
54749	conservation		Present in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador; possibly occurs in several Peruvian protected areas.	eng
54749	distribution		This species' geographic range is from the southeastern lowlands of Ecuador to northern Peru, southern Colombia and parts of western Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of between 200 and 1,000m asl.	eng
54749	habitat		This species' habitat is tropical lowlands forest, where it lives in the leaf-litter. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it might breed in slow-flowing streams.	eng
54749	population		This species is infrequently encountered.	eng
54749	threats		There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). The type locality has mostly been converted to coffee plantations.	eng
54750	conservation	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
54750	distribution	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known from the Cerrado of central Brazil, from the states of Pará and Piauí to Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
54750	habitat	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs in open areas, and is associated with permanent streams and ponds, where the females lay their eggs. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance, even occurring in urban areas.	eng
54750	population	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
54750	threats	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Agriculture, fire and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
54751	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	The species is protected by Parque Nacional Lago Puelo and Parque Nacional Los Alerces (a single record) in Argentina, and Parque Nacional Puyehue and Parque Nacional Vicente Pérez Rosales in Chile.	eng
54751	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is endemic to the temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. In Chile, the distribution extends from Lanalhue Lake (37° 55'S; 73° 19'W), Arauco Province, to Palena 43°S (approximately). In Argentina, the species is restricted to southern Río Negro Province and northern Chubut Province (including a single record from Parque Nacional Los Alerces). It has an altitudinal range of 200-800m asl.	eng
54751	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	It inhabits humid to xeric forests, as well as open environments, some of them with a certain degree of disturbance (Vidoz and Ubeda 2000). Breeding occurs in shallow temporary ponds adjacent to rivers, reservoirs and lakes. Adults live in small holes or under bushes during the day.	eng
54751	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	The northernmost population in Chile is declining, while the Argentinean subpopulations seem to be stable, with successful reproduction with recruitment recently verified (Vidoz and Ubeda 2000). It is abundant during the breeding season when courtship aggregations are formed.	eng
54751	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	The major threat is degradation and fragmentation of habitat, due to agriculture, afforestation with exotic species (pine), overgrazing by cattle, and human settlements. Tourism development also appears to be a threat to the habitat of this species.	eng
54752	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Calilegua and Parque Nacional Baritú.	eng
54752	distribution		This species occurs in Calilegua, Ledesma Department, Jujuy Province and Arasayal, Orán Department, Salta Province, Argentina, from 700-1,700m asl. It is expected to occur more widely, and might be present in Bolivia.	eng
54752	habitat		It is a terrestrial species occurring in montane forests (Yungas). Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known. It reproduces in slow-flowing streams where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
54752	population		Although it is a rare species, it is nonetheless collected regularly.	eng
54752	threats		Selective logging and clear-cutting of primary forests are the main threat to this species, although it is also being affected by the introduction of predatory fish (trout) and the alteration of watersheds.	eng
54753	conservation		It is found in many protected areas in India and Sri Lanka.	eng
54753	distribution		This species is widespread in India and Sri Lanka. It is generally present from sea level to 300m asl.	eng
54753	habitat		This terrestrial species inhabits a number of habitat types including wet evergreen tropical forest, tropical dry forest, dry scrubland, grassland, coastal marshes and rural farmland areas. Adults are generally found under ground cover, or during the breeding season they are found in grasslands close to waterbodies. Larvae are aquatic and occur in stagnant waters.	eng
54753	population		It is a common species. Populations of this toad are generally considered to be decreasing over parts of its range (Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats in India).	eng
54753	threats		Deforestation for commercial purposes, pollution of land and waterbodies with agrochemicals and the loss of suitable habitat to urbanization are major threats to this species.	eng
54754	conservation		The only protected area in which it is known to occur is Upemba National Park.	eng
54754	distribution		This species is known only from Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might occur more widely. It has been recorded from 960-1,300m asl.	eng
54754	habitat		There is no information on this species' habitat and ecology, but it is presumably a savannah species that breeds by larval development in waterbodies.	eng
54754	population		There is no information on its population status. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54754	threats		There is no direct information on threats to it.	eng
54755	conservation		Taxonomic work to determine whether or not this represents a species complex is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54755	distribution		This species is known from Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Cordoba, Santa Fe, and Tucumán), Bolivia (Beni, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija), Brazil (from Ceará to Río Grande do Sul), Paraguay, and Uruguay (Artigas, Salto, Paysandu, Río Negro, and Soriano). It is known from 0-2,000m asl.	eng
54755	habitat		It is widespread, found in various habitats, including the Chaco, Cerrado, and Atlantic Forest regions, although it occurs mainly in open and urban areas. It has been observed eating bees at hives. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds where the tadpoles also develop, and prefers still waterbodies without much vegetation. Males calls at night from the edge or within the water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
54755	population		It is very common. Its range appears to be contracting in northern Cordoba and Jujuy, Argentina.	eng
54755	threats		There are no known threats to this species, except for the elimination of this species by apiculturists when they see it, but this is only a localized threat. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
54756	conservation		It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.	eng
54756	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from Municipio de Bonita, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, where it has been collected at 300m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known, and it is expected to occur more widely.	eng
54756	habitat		It inhabits dense gallery forest in the Cerrado savannah. Animals have been found close to streams and waterfalls, and this species breeds in small pools in slow-flowing streams. It might also occur in pastureland, although this requires verification.	eng
54756	population		This is a seasonally abundant species.	eng
54756	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54757	conservation		Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón, this area is poorly managed for conservation and is in urgent need of more effective management. Education and awareness of the local people regarding the use of this species is recommended. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
54757	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de San Luis, in Falcón State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 1,150-1,500m asl.	eng
54757	habitat		It occurs on vegetation in cloud forest. Some individual males have been observed calling in slow-moving water, and the larvae probably develop in water.	eng
54757	population		The most recent specimens were collected in 1992, and no additional specimens have been found since then (although this may be due to a lack of fieldwork within its range).	eng
54757	threats		The habitat of the species is under intense pressure from agriculture and livestock farming, even within Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón. The species is also used in local medicinal use for the preparation of treatments against dermal herpes.	eng
54758	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas, or whether or not it is protected by national legislation. It requires close population monitoring given that is known from only one location.	eng
54758	distribution		This species is possibly restricted to Wadi al Khalili near Mafhaq (1,550m asl) on a high plateau in northern Yemen.	eng
54758	habitat		It is found within the wadi, and shelters in the surrounding vegetation. Breeding takes place in pools.	eng
54758	population		It is probably common within its restricted range.	eng
54758	threats		There are no current threats to this species, although its restricted range makes it vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
54759	conservation		It is unclear as to whether or not the type specimen was collected within Silent Valley National Park.	eng
54759	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "near Valiaparai Thodu, Silent Valley Forests, Kerala" (Pillai 1981) in the Western Ghats of southern India. The type specimen was collected at an altitude of 800m asl.	eng
54759	habitat		This is a terrestrial species described from relatively open tropical moist forest. It may occur under rocks close to hill streams, but there is no further information known about its habitat and ecology.	eng
54759	population		It is known only from the holotype, as it has not been found again despite surveys within its range, so its population status is unknown.	eng
54759	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54760	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54760	distribution		This species' original description indicates that it was collected close to the Rio Chiriqui near Bocas del Toro, Panama. This is doubted by Dunn and Stuart (1951) and Savage (1972), who suggested that the true type locality was in South America, possibly Peru or Bolivia. In view of the uncertain distribution of this species it is not possible to map its range.	eng
54760	habitat		There are no details known regarding its habitat and ecology.	eng
54760	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
54760	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
54761	conservation		This species' range includes a couple of protected areas in Mexico.	eng
54761	distribution		This species is found in Oklahoma, southern New Mexico, and Texas in the USA, south through north central and northeastern Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
54761	habitat		This species inhabits grasslands, cultivated areas, and mesquite savannah. It burrows underground when inactive. It is often found in areas with sandy soil. The eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of rain pools and man-made ditches and ponds.	eng
54761	population		The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is commonly encountered throughout its extensive Texas range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is abundant in south-astern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
54761	threats		No major threats to this species are known. Populations might thrive with irrigation and construction of stock tanks (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
54762	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected area, and only the preservation and restoration of cloud forest patches in the Sierra de Juárez and the Sierra Mixe can guarantee the preservation of suitable conditions for the survival of this species. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54762	distribution		This species is known from two localities in northern Oaxaca in the Sierra de Juárez in Mexico, and another allopatric population has been recorded in the Sierra Mixe, south-central Oaxaca, Mexico; additional survey work is likely to result in its discovery at additional locations. The type locality is at 1,570m asl.	eng
54762	habitat		It appears that this species is confined to high elevations covered with primary cloud forests and lowland rainforest beneath the cloud forest. It breeds in permanent streams.	eng
54762	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
54762	threats		The main threats are the fragmentation and disturbance of the cloud and rainforest habitat, which results in the disappearance of streams and a decrease in the humidity of the leaf-litter.	eng
54763	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Ignacio De la Riva, Jesús Córdova-Santa Gadea, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	No specific conservation measures are required. In Chile it is suggested that Environmental impact reports should be undertaken in order to protect breeding areas. Occurs in many protected areas in Argentina and Chile. In Peru it is believed to occur in Parque Nacional del Huascarán, Huayllay National Sanctuary, Junín National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary, Alto Cañete Cochas Pachacayo, Apurimac and Aymara Lupaca Reserved Zones. In Bolivia it is known from Sajama, Ulla Ulla and Eduardo Avaroa protected areas.	eng
54763	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Ignacio De la Riva, Jesús Córdova-Santa Gadea, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	The Andean slopes of Argentina, Chile (altiplano in the North to the southern <em>Nothofagus</em> region), Bolivia, and Peru (regions of Puno, Cusco, Junin, and Huánuco); also present in parts of Argentinian Patagonia (<em>B. s. papillosus</em>). It has a wide altitudinal range of sea level (Azapa, Arica, Chile) to 5,100m asl.	eng
54763	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Ignacio De la Riva, Jesús Córdova-Santa Gadea, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	In the Andes the species is present in scrubland and grassland. In the more southern parts of its range it is found in forested areas. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds, altiplano lagoons and slow flowing streams. Has been recorded from arable areas.	eng
54763	population	Ariadne Angulo, Ignacio De la Riva, Jesús Córdova-Santa Gadea, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is generally abundant where it occurs.	eng
54763	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Ignacio De la Riva, Jesús Córdova-Santa Gadea, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species; there are some localized declines through the use of agrochemicals and over collection for educational use (dissections) at Universities. It is used for food and medicine in central Peru. In Chile it is threatened by hydroelectric dams, mining activities and water pollution.	eng
54764	conservation		Its range includes Cotapata, Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. It is also found in Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
54764	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Cochabamba, Lap Paz and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. It occurs from 1,000-2,300m asl.	eng
54764	habitat		It occurs in humid montane and cloud forest. It is also known to occur in disturbed habitats. There is no information about breeding habitats although it is presumed to be a larval developer in water.	eng
54764	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
54764	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
54765	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54765	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern Nigeria eastward to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southwestern Ethiopia, and northwestern and central Uganda. There is a separate population in southern coastal Somalia, coastal Kenya, and northeastern Tanzania (the species is absent from northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia). The type locality at Kihengo in east-central Tanzania (mapped as an isolated locality) is far from all other records of the species (and in view of the lack of any other records of the species in this area, more investigation of this record is required). Isolated inland records from Kenya (Ngatana and Lakes Baringo, Kenyatta and Mbaratumu) require confirmation.	eng
54765	habitat		It seems to be particularly associated with marshy areas in humid grassland or wooded savannah habitats, and has been found around human settlements. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
54765	population		It is generally common in suitable localities within its range.	eng
54765	threats		It is probably adversely affected by environmental degradation resulting from expansion of human settlement.	eng
54766	conservation		Several protected areas fall within the range of this species. It is listed as a major protected wildlife by Liaoning Province in China.	eng
54766	distribution		This species is known from the eastern part of Liaoning Province in China, and the central mountains in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea, from 200-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
54766	habitat		It inhabits riparian habitats in forested areas, and breeds in streams and rivers where the larvae also develop.	eng
54766	population		In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Republic of Korea this species is rare.	eng
54766	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
54767	conservation		Some populations are within national parks in the Venezuelan Coastal range, and the Sierra de Portuguesa (Portuguesa and Lara States). Lower montane forests in the Venezuelan Andes are in need of protection, especially the semi-deciduous forests that have been used for coffee and cacao plantations for centuries.	eng
54767	distribution		This species is known from the Venezuelan states of Aragua, Carabobo, Cojedes, Falcón, Lara, Miranda, Portuguesa, Yaracuy, and the Andean piedmont of Barinas State. It has also recently been reported from Colombia on the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental. It is a mid-altitude species, occurring up to 1,800m asl.	eng
54767	habitat		This is a nocturnal and crepuscular frog living on the floor of semi-deciduous (seasonal) forest in mountain regions of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range and the northernmost portion of the Venezuelan Andes. It is often associated with slow-flowing stream pools where it congregates in large numbers in the breeding season.	eng
54767	population		It is a common species.	eng
54767	threats		Habitat degradation is a major threat since most of the species' habitat is being converted for coffee and cacao plantations.	eng
54768	conservation	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Anslem de Silva, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	The species is present in many protected areas. It perhaps occurs in three protected areas in Iran.	eng
54768	distribution	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Anslem de Silva, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Within Iran the species occurs at the border with Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Afghanistan it is known from south of the Hindu Kush in the southeastern part of the country, and along the Helmand River west of the Sistan basin (Leviton and Anderson 1970). The only report of this species from Sri Lanka is that by Kirtisinghe (1957) who collected three specimens from Mutwal, a coastal suburb north of Colombo, in 1932. Kirtisinghe (1957) additionally suggested that this species might have been inadvertently transported from India by means of sailing vessels. There is a small disjunct population in northern Oman at Wadi Jubaitha, 20km east of Mahdah (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 4,500m asl.	eng
54768	habitat	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Anslem de Silva, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Found in a wide variety of habitats including; open plains, grasslands, scrubland, forest, suitable agricultural land and human habitations. Breeding occurs in permanent and seasonal pools, seasonal streams and slow-flowing streams. Adults hide under rocks and in crevices. It is a very adaptable species that may be found in houses.	eng
54768	population	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Anslem de Silva, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is a locally common species throughout its range.	eng
54768	threats	Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sushil Dutta, Annemarie Ohler, Saibul Sengupta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Anslem de Silva, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Localized threats over much of its range include loss of habitat to infrastructure development; intensification of agriculture; pollution of wetlands and land by agrochemicals; traffic related mortality; and long-term drought.	eng
54769	conservation		In northern Myanmar it has been found in Hkakabo Razi National Park and Htamanthi Protected Area.	eng
54769	distribution		This species is known only from northern Myanmar and extreme north-eastern India. At present it is known only from the following localities: Putao Plain (the type locality) in Kachin State, northern Myanmar; the area 20-30km to the east of the type locality in Putao Plain in Kachin State, northern Myanmar; Htamanthi, in northern Myanmar on the border with India; and extreme north-eastern India in Arunachal Pradesh and possibly in Assam. It is presumed to occur in between these localities, and probably also elsewhere, but due to lack of sampling in Myanmar and north-eastern India it has not yet been recorded more widely. Recent records from Myanmar are at 556-640m asl.	eng
54769	habitat		This is a species of subtropical forest that has also been found in slightly degraded habitats near very small villages. No information is known about its breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54769	population		It appears not to be a common species, and only six were encountered during a four month survey in northern Myanmar.	eng
54769	threats		There is some limited habitat loss taking place due to subsistence agriculture, but overall the forest within its range is not significantly threatened at the moment.	eng
54770	conservation		The species is not known from any protected area (it has not been recorded from a conservation forest about 10km from the only known locality). A community-based initiative involving local NGOs and communities is urgently needed to save the only known population of this species.	eng
54770	distribution		This species is known only from a tiny area on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is unspecified. It is apparently confined to Lubuk Selasi, at the head of the Terusan River at about 1,000m asl, on the borders of three districts, Padang Pariaman, Solok and Pesisir Selatan. Despite searches, it has not been found above 1,260m, or below 800m asl. Surveys in several other parts of Sumatra have failed to find this species, and it is likely to have a very restricted distribution.	eng
54770	habitat		It has been found along a small, clear stream with a width of 15m in secondary forest. No evidence of breeding has been found, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams. It is not known whether or not the species is dependent on forest, though this is likely.	eng
54770	population		This species was rediscovered in 2001 after a gap of 141 years. At present, it is only known from one area, but is relatively abundant within its tiny range.	eng
54770	threats		Since its rediscovery, there has been extensive and very rapid habitat destruction for rice paddies in its only known locality, leading to the siltation of streams, which might affect its ability to breed.	eng
54771	conservation	Tandy, M., Amiet, J.-L., Rödel, M.-O. & Hillers, A., 2004	It is included in Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in the Oban Hills National Park in Nigeria, the Korup National Park in Cameroon, the Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire, the Massif du Ziama Biosphere Reserve in Guinea, the Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, in North Lorma National Forest in Liberia, and almost certainly in several other protected areas. The Upper Guinea population requires further taxonomic studies (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
54771	distribution	Tandy, M., Amiet, J.-L., Rödel, M.-O. & Hillers, A., 2004	This species' main range is from extreme southeastern Nigeria eastward towards northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from southwestern and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, northern Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and central Gabon. In West Africa, there are isolated records from southern Ghana, southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia and southern Guinea. It does not appear to have been recorded from Sierra Leone, but it is likely to occur in this country. It is generally a low-altitude species.	eng
54771	habitat	Tandy, M., Amiet, J.-L., Rödel, M.-O. & Hillers, A., 2004	In Central Africa, it lives mainly in secondary forest, but also in tall primary forest, as well dense brush and cocoa plantations. In West Africa, it is restricted to primary forest along the banks of larger rivers. It breeds in relatively calm water in streams.	eng
54771	population	Tandy, M., Amiet, J.-L., Rödel, M.-O. & Hillers, A., 2004	It is generally uncommon through most of its range. It is very rare in West Africa.	eng
54771	threats	Tandy, M., Amiet, J.-L., Rödel, M.-O. & Hillers, A., 2004	Although it is tolerant of some habitat modification in central Africa, it is probably affected to some extent by forest loss, especially when the habitat becomes very open. In the past it has been harvested for the pet trade, and this might have impacted some populations, and so low-level illegal trade might continue. The West African form is considered to be possibly threatened (Hillers and Rödel 2007), given that in Upper Guinea it is found exclusively in large, healthy forests, never in smaller or degraded forests, and large pristine forests are very rare and threatened in Upper Guinea due to&#160;logging, small-holder agriculture and more and more mining activities [e.g. iron  ore in Guinea] (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
54772	conservation	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Sushil Dutta & Annemarie Ohler, 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Part of the range, along the Sarboz River of Iran, is within a well-protected crocodile sanctuary. The population found at the Taftan Mountain of Iran is also within a protected area.	eng
54772	distribution	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Sushil Dutta & Annemarie Ohler, 2008	This species is distributed in the highlands of southwestern Pakistan (western Baluchistan and around Quetta) and much of southern Iran (further verification of identity is needed for the possible isolated population of the Zagros mountains). It has been recorded from eastern Iraq (Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008). Altitudinal range in Iran is sea level to approximately 2,250m asl.	eng
54772	habitat	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Sushil Dutta & Annemarie Ohler, 2008	A little known species mostly confined to oasis, pools irrigated areas and their surroundings. Breeding occurs during monsoons, with males gathering in temporal pools. Eggs are laid in double strings, which are wound around the pond vegetation; resulting larvae feed on pond vegetation. During the dry season toads seek damp areas under stones and within vegetation; such sites may hold several toads. Present in agricultural areas and also in the vicinity of human settlements.	eng
54772	population	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Sushil Dutta & Annemarie Ohler, 2008	It is a relatively common species at some temporary waterbodies in Iran; less frequent in Pakistan. It is locally common at the Taftan Mountain in Iran (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). This species might be overlooked by confusion with juvenile <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> ssp.	eng
54772	threats	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Matthias Stöck, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Sushil Dutta & Annemarie Ohler, 2008	The species is generally threatened by intensification of agriculture, including the pollution of breeding sites. Some localized population declines might be occurring with extended periods of drought and habitat loss.	eng
54773	conservation		Conservation of the forested areas along the foothills of the Tacana volcano is necessary to ensure the preservation of this species. Fortunately, some programs of protection and restoration of the forests in the area have been implemented. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and ex-situ populations should be established if chytrid is shown to be a threat.	eng
54773	distribution		This species occurs at intermediate elevations along the Pacific versant of eastern Chiapas (Unión de Juarez), Mexico to western Guatemala, at elevations of 1,500-1,700m asl.	eng
54773	habitat		This species has been recorded in foothills in premontane tropical forest. It is probably a stream breeder.	eng
54773	population		This is a rare species throughout its range, and there are no recent records of it in either Mexico or Guatemala, despite searches.	eng
54773	threats		The alteration of the original forested areas by local people has severely impacted the only known habitat for this species. Furthermore, as a montane stream-breeding bufonid, it is possible that the species may be at risk of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54774	conservation		This species has been recorded from Taï National Park. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species, as well as the limits of its distribution range.	eng
54774	distribution		This species in known only from south-western Côte d'Ivoire. It possibly occurs in adjacent Liberia.	eng
54774	habitat		It is known only from primary rainforest. There is no information on its breeding, but if like <em>B. tuberosus</em>, then breeding is likely to take place in small forest streams.	eng
54774	population		It is clearly a very rare species, and is known from only four specimens in an area that has been thoroughly surveyed.	eng
54774	threats		There is ongoing forest loss in south-western Côte d'Ivoire, due to agriculture, timber extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54775	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54775	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Kenya, through Tanzania, southward to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, Malawi and adjacent Mozambique. It has a wide elevational range.	eng
54775	habitat		It lives in sandy habitats in woodland, grassland, open savannah and agricultural fields. It appears to be an opportunistic breeder, breeding in small temporary pools and apparently also in streams. The larvae develop very rapidly, metatmorphosing in just 13 days.	eng
54775	population		It is a hard species to find, but it apparently is reasonably common, at least in some places.	eng
54775	threats		It is an adaptable species, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
54776	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54776	distribution		This species is found in central and eastern Cuba from sea level up to 560m asl.	eng
54776	habitat		It is found in lowland mesic broadleaf forests and cultivated fields (providing farming is not too intensive). Males call in streams and shallow creeks, and eggs are laid in permanent water.	eng
54776	population		It is very common in suitable habitat.	eng
54776	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to intensive agriculture (livestock, sugarcane), charcoaling, and nickel mining. Pollution from agricultural pesticides is also a threat.	eng
54777	conservation		No conservation needed.	eng
54777	distribution		This species occurs in the Coastal Plain, USA, from southeastern Virginia to the Florida Keys, west to Louisiana; disjunctive population in Upper Piedmont and Blue Ridge of South Carolina (but not Georgia) (Laerm and Hopkins 1997).	eng
54777	habitat		It is adaptable and ubiquitous. Occupies a wide variety of wooded and unwooded habitats, which usually have sandy soil. Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of permanent ponds, woodland pools, and flooded depressions.	eng
54777	population		It is common in many areas throughout range, despite habitat alteration.	eng
54777	threats		Basically unthreatened. However, this species has become uncommon in areas where introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span> has proliferated in southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
54778	conservation		Several protected areas lie within the species' range.	eng
54778	distribution		This species is known from the northern Hengduan Mountains of southwestern China (Qinghai, Xizang, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces), from 2,100-4,300m asl.	eng
54778	habitat		It inhabits alpine grassland and cultivated fields. It breeds in stagnant pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
54778	population		It is a common species.	eng
54778	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
54779	conservation		There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
54779	distribution		This species has littoral habitats (sea level to 400m asl) along the Red Sea coastline of the Arabian Peninsula. It has an altitudinal range of 25-400m asl.	eng
54779	habitat		It can be found in arid vegetation (except in riparian vegetation close to wadis) and wherever there are available water sources. Breeds in still or slow moving water. It is common in arable land close to wadis.	eng
54779	population		It is abundant in wadis and irrigated areas.	eng
54779	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
54780	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54780	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone through Liberia, southern Guinea, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to western Togo. Records from central Africa refer to <em>Bufo latifrons</em>.	eng
54780	habitat		It lives only in primary forest, usually in close association with the streams in which it breeds, and is usually found on stones in shallow water, or among vegetation next to the streams. It breeds in the slow-flowing sections of the streams and the eggs are glued underwater with mud.	eng
54780	population		It is usually uncommon, but can be extremely abundant locally.	eng
54780	threats		This species is affected by ongoing deforestation throughout its range, due to logging, agricultural expansion, and human settlements. It is more threatened in the east of its range, where recent information on its status is very limited.	eng
54781	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54781	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in central Honshu.	eng
54781	habitat		It occurs in montane-forested areas, and breeds in streams.	eng
54781	population		More information is needed.	eng
54781	threats		Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
54782	conservation		Its range includes Mangkangjingshihou, Zulongba and Baimaxueshan Nature Reserves.	eng
54782	distribution		This species is restricted to Sichuan (Batang, Xiangcheng), Yunnan (Deqin), and the eastern tip of Xizang Autonomous Region, in China, from 2,600-2,700m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54782	habitat		It inhabits pools, marshes and the surrounding habitats in valleys, and breeds in pools and ponds. Records have also come from agricultural areas.	eng
54782	population		It is quite common in parts of its range.	eng
54782	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.	eng
54783	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54783	distribution		This species is known from southern and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island and Rio Muni), much of Gabon, central Congo, southwestern Central African Republic, and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been found up to 1,050m asl, but it is generally a lowland species.	eng
54783	habitat		It lives in moist lowland tropical rainforest, including primary and secondary forest with dense undergrowth in slightly marshy situations. It avoids well-drained forest. It breeds in small streams and the males call from cavities near water.	eng
54783	population		It is a very common species in Cameroon, but apparently less common in some other parts of its range.	eng
54783	threats		Although it can tolerate a certain level of habitat alteration, it cannot survive outside forest is almost certainly affected by ongoing forest loss.	eng
54784	conservation		It occurs in at least one protected area, the Samburu Game Reserve.	eng
54784	distribution		This species is known from just two localities in north-central Kenya: Loiengalani on the south-eastern shores of Lake Turkana, and Uaso Nyiro River in the Samburu Game Reserve. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
54784	habitat		The two known localities are in arid semi-desert regions with nearby permanent water (in one case a lake, in the other, a river). The breeding site at Loiengalani appears to be the lake.	eng
54784	population		There is no information on its population status. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54784	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54785	conservation		It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, but further protection of the remaining habitat in the range of this species is needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored and ex-situ populations should be established if chytrid is shown to be a threat.	eng
54785	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific versant of Mexico from the Chimalapas region in south-eastern Oaxaca south through Chiapas to extreme western Guatemala, at elevations of 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
54785	habitat		This species is closely associated with streams, which provide breeding habitat, in cloud forest; it also occurs in pine-oak (broadleaf) forest, and does tolerate moderate forest disturbance.	eng
54785	population		It is uncommon but still present in one Oaxaca locality, with no evidence of a decline. In Chiapas, it has declined and is now rare, though it still persists. Apparently, it is rare in Guatemala, as recent expeditions within its range have not recorded this species, indicating a decline there also.	eng
54785	threats		The major threat to this species has been the loss and fragmentation of suitable forest habitat as a result of livestock ranching and agricultural activities, and wood extraction. Since this is a montane, stream-breeding bufonid, it is possible that it may be affected by chytridiomycosis.	eng
54786	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54786	distribution		This species is known only from four nearby localities at the southern end of Lake Tanganyika: Kitungulu (Tanzania); Tatanda (Tanzania); Kalambo Falls (Zambia); and Mbala (Zambia).	eng
54786	habitat		There is very little information on its habitat and ecology. It was originally found in a remnant of rainforest, and has more recently been found in woodland.	eng
54786	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and only a few specimens are known.	eng
54786	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54787	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites where the species is known to occur. It might be present in the Udzungwa National Park, but it is not clear whether it ranges that far north.	eng
54787	distribution		This species occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains and Southern Highlands of Tanzania, from Dabaga south-west to Nyamwanga. It is found above 1,800m asl.	eng
54787	habitat		It is a species of swampy montane grassland. Its ability to adapt to habitat modification is unknown, though most records are from pristine grassland. It breeds in wet areas in the bottom of gentle valleys on high plateaus.	eng
54787	population		It appears to be locally abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
54787	threats		The montane grasslands of southern Tanzania are being destroyed and fragmented as a result of afforestation, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and human settlement, which is a major threat to this species.	eng
54788	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. An assessment of this species is urgently needed to determine whether or not it is taxonomically valid (Iskandar pers. comm.), and the type specimen should be examined as part of this process. A survey is also needed to determine whether or not this species in fact still survives on Weh Island.	eng
54788	distribution		This species is only known from the holotype from Weh Island, at the northern tip of Sumatra, in Indonesia.	eng
54788	habitat		No information is available on its habitat and ecology, although it is likely to be a lowland forest species that presumably breeds in water by larval development, though this has not been confirmed.	eng
54788	population		Its population status is unknown, although it is not certain that the species still survives as Weh Island is now heavily degraded and there is practically no forest left.	eng
54788	threats		There is no direct information known regarding threats to this species, although clearly forest destruction might well have been a serious threat as there is practically no forest habitat remaining on Weh Island.	eng
54789	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It occurs in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>B.v. wilsoni</em> is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54789	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of Mesoamerica from central Veracruz (in Mexico) to northern Costa Rica; in northeastern Querétaro, Mexico, and on the Pacific slope of Mesoamerica from around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico to central Guatemala, at elevations of 0-1,610m asl. The distinctive subspecies, <em>B.v. wilsoni</em>, occurs on the slopes of western Guatemala drained by the upper tributaries of the Río Grijalva at 300-800m asl.	eng
54789	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It can be found in lowlands through lower montane areas in moist and dry forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, and withstands substantial habitat disturbance. The subspecies <em>B.v. wilsoni</em> occurs in dry forest. It breeds in permanent ponds and occurs in disturbed habitats.	eng
54789	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It is common throughout its range. The subspecies <em>B.v. wilsoni</em> is common within its small range.	eng
54789	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	There are no known threats to this species. The subspecies <em>B.v. wilsoni</em> is considered to be adaptable and not significantly threatened within its small range.	eng
54790	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	A number of protected areas (more than 10) are present along the entire latitudinal range of <em>Nannophryne variegata</em>. Species is listed as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente Conocida) by Chile (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998) for VIII, IX and X Regions. National legislation to preserve the native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest is necessary for Chile.	eng
54790	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species is endemic to austral forests of Chile (western slopes of the Andes from 39°S to 51°S) and Argentina, from Shangrila (37°S) to 53°S in the Fuegian Archipelago. This species is the southernmost amphibian in the world, together with <em>Batrachyla antartandica</em>. Its elevational range is between 0-2,000m asl (northern Patagonia, Argentina).	eng
54790	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	Its habitat is in temperate to cold humid forests, bogs, and magallanic tundra. Occurs in marshes, under logs in the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest region as well as tundra surrounded by low stature <em>Nothofagus</em> forest in the subantartic region. Reproduces in shallow temporary pools and swamps. Tolerates some disturbance.	eng
54790	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is a locally abundant species. Reported to be abundant in 2002 on Isla Wellington, Chile. In Argentina it is more common in the south of the country.	eng
54790	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	Not threatened over the majority of its range. Habitat destruction and degradation (native forest loss) is a localized threat.	eng
54791	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54791	distribution		This species is known from the type locality of Hacienda Yanasona in the Upper Río Marañon area, Cajamarca, Peru.	eng
54791	habitat		Its habitat is the montane forest in the upper Amazon basin. Nothing further is known about its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
54791	population		It is a rare species, and there appear to be no recent records, perhaps because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
54791	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
54792	conservation		Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in Parque Nacional Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zone. Present in several protected areas in Bolivia.	eng
54792	distribution		This species is known from the Marcapata Valley, (Departamento Cusco); Tutumbaro, Río Piene, (Ayacucho); valley of the Río Cosñipata (Cusco); in Peru. In Bolivia, it is present in Departamentos La Paz; Cochabamba; Santa Cruz, and Chuquisaca. It has an altitudinal range of 500-2,100m asl.	eng
54792	habitat		Its habitat is in the montane tropical forest and cloud forest. It breeds in streams and can occur in slightly disturbed forest.	eng
54792	population		It is a common species.	eng
54792	threats		No threats in Bolivia; localized habitat loss in Peru.	eng
54793	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54793	distribution		This species has been recorded only from a wide area in central South Africa, and also further another near the Botswana border. Apparently isolated populations are perhaps part of a contiguous range. It is likely to be found in southern Botswana. It probably occurs mainly below 1,500m asl.	eng
54793	habitat		This species lives in Nama karroo shrubland, grassland, dry savannah and pastureland. It breeds in temporary shallow pans, pools or depressions containing rainwater, quarries, and rock pools along rivers.	eng
54793	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
54793	threats		Overall, it is not seriously threatened. In some places it is negatively impacted by maize farming, but it does better in areas of livestock farming.	eng
54794	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, is urgently needed.	eng
54794	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of western Cameroon at 1,200-2,500m asl, where it occurs on Mount Manenguba, the Bamileke Plateau (at Djuttitsa, Batie and Bangwa), the Bamboutos Mountains, and Riboa (between the Adamawa and Mambilla Plateaus). It might occur more widely, and if <em>Bufo djohongensis</em> proves to be a synonym, then its range will extend to the east of the Adamawa Plateau.	eng
54794	habitat		It lives along fast-flowing streams in montane grassland, sometimes with forest strips, and hides in holes during the day. It breeds in slow-flowing streams bordered with trees.	eng
54794	population		It is not a well-known species, though it is probably moderately common in suitable habitats.	eng
54794	threats		Although it can probably cope with some disruption to its habitat, it is probably suffering from continuing degradation of its montane habitats as a result of smallholder farming activities, livestock ranching, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54796	conservation		It occurs in Bwindi National Park, and possibly in some other protected areas.	eng
54796	distribution		This largely unknown species has been recorded only from Uganda, from Lira, south to Entebbe, and south-west to Bwindi Impenetrable Forest. It is likely to occur more widely. However, a Kenyan record from Katera, south of Mount Kenya, is far outside the expected range, and requires confirmation. Records from Egypt refer to <em>Bufo kassasii</em>. However, Tandy (pers. comm.) considers that this species ranges much more widely from Uganda, through the Nile Valley as far north as Egypt.	eng
54796	habitat		There is very little known about its habitat and ecology. It apparently occurs in marshy areas, where it presumably breeds.	eng
54796	population		There is very little information on its population status.	eng
54796	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54797	conservation		Its only known locality is within Wolong Biosphere Reserve. More work is needed to confirm the taxonomic validity of this species (Xie Feng pers. comm.).	eng
54797	distribution		This species is only known from Wolong in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,400m asl.	eng
54797	habitat		This species inhabits forests, and breeds in streams and pools.	eng
54797	population		It has only recently been described and at present there is no information available regarding its population status.	eng
54797	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54798	conservation		This species is not found within any protected areas in Mexico but occurs in several in the USA.	eng
54798	distribution		This species is found throughout most of central and southwestern USA and portions of adjacent northern Mexico. It is absent from high mountains and the West Coast.	eng
54798	habitat		This species inhabits grasslands, deserts and semi-desert shrublands, river valleys and floodplains, agricultural areas, usually in areas with deep friable soils. It burrows underground or hides under rocks, plants, or other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of marshes, rain pools, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water lacking a strong current.	eng
54798	population		Abundant and widespread. The population trend varies with location but is probably stable in most areas. See Sullivan and Lamb (1988) for evidence that B. woodhousii is displacing B. microscaphus in central Arizona.	eng
54798	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
54799	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54799	distribution		This African species ranges from southern Western Sahara, Sahelian Mauritania and Senegal, east to Ethiopia and Somalia, and south to Cameroon and Tanzania, with an isolated population in the Tassili Mountains of southern Algeria and southwestern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Records of Bufo mauritanicus from Niger and Mali refer to this species. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria and Central African Republic, although it presumably occurs in these countries. Possible records from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
54799	habitat		It is generally a species of very arid environments, and seasonally dry savannahs, woodlands and shrublands. It is often found in dry riverbeds, and around oases. It breeds in temporary pools, oases, and ponds near riverbeds. It is sometimes found close to permanent water, and in other places it appears to depend on temporary floods for breeding purposes.	eng
54799	population		It is generally common in suitable areas.	eng
54799	threats		Some populations might be adversely impacted by drought, as well as by human expansion and settlement, with the consequent increase in populations of domestic livestock. However, overall this is not a threatened species.	eng
54800	conservation		It has been reported from the Mizoram Wildlife Sanctuary, but additional habitat protection is necessary.	eng
54800	distribution		This species is known only from two sites, the type locality "Mawblang, ca. 5km. southeast of Cherrapunji town (Khasi-Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya), latitude 25° 15'N and longitude 91° 44'E, altitude above mean sea-level 4,369 ft. or ca. 1,330 meters", India, and a second, recently discovered site in Mizoram, Bangladesh. It probably occurs at least a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.	eng
54800	habitat		The habitat is primarily wet forest floor, although adjacent scrubland and grassland are also used. The adults are to some degree arboreal. Breeding occurs on both pandanas and the ground. Larvae are found in water holes, presumably in both trees and on the ground.	eng
54800	population		Little is known about this species other than the original description, but it is considered to be rare.	eng
54800	threats		The main threat is clear-cutting of the species' forest habitat.	eng
54801	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas that cover much of its range.	eng
54801	distribution		This species is endemic to South Africa, where it occurs in the Southwestern Cape Folded Belt east of Breede River and north of Worcester, in Western Cape Province. It ranges from Matsikammaberg near Vanrhynsdorp in the north, southward to the Hex River Mountains, and eastwards along the Langeberg mountain range to the Outenique, Swartberg and Kammanassie ranges, entering Eastern Cape Province marginally at Misgund in the Tsitsikamma Mountains. Its altitudinal range is 1,000-1,600m asl.	eng
54801	habitat		It is a species of mountain fynbos heathland and grassy fynbos. It breeds in shallow pools in seepage areas, or moist depressions, vleis and slow streams. It uses both permanent and temporary waterbodies.	eng
54801	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
54801	threats		The main the threat is loss of its fynbos habitat, mainly because of the spread of alien vegetation and fires taking place too frequently. Expanding human settlements might be a future threat.	eng
54802	conservation		This species occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range.	eng
54802	distribution		This species is known only from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. The only specimens were collected at 1,840m asl. It has not been found in other, better-surveyed parts of the Eastern Arc mountain chain.	eng
54802	habitat		The only specimens were collected in dry montane forest. The large toe pads suggest that it is arboreal. Its breeding is unknown, but the presence of large numbers of pigmented eggs in the only known specimens suggests that it is neither a live-bearer, nor a direct developer.	eng
54802	population		Only two female specimens are known.	eng
54802	threats		The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
54803	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place this species has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama), and Parque Nacional Tapantí and Parque Nacional Rincón de la Vieja (Costa Rica).	eng
54803	distribution		This species is known from humid premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant of the Cordillera de Talamanca in south-eastern Costa Rica and adjacent north-eastern Panama, from 1,051-2,040m asl (Savage 2002; Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It seems likley that the species is widespread in appropriate habitats along the Atlantic slopes in areas between Turriabla, Cartago, Costa Rica and Cerro Pata de Macho, Bocas del Toro, Panama (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
54803	habitat		It is a diurnal, species of deep forest (Savage 2002), that inhabits the deep leaf-litter of primary, or mature secondary forest with mature canopies, cloudforest or highland oak forest (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
54803	population		Vaughn and Mendelson (2007), mention that this is generally a rare toad with a few individuals being recorded along trails. However it is reported to be generally common in Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, by other researchers (Gerado Chaves pers. comm. 2007). It has been collected only a few times. Small aggregations of between two end eight animals, a few metres apart, have been observed (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
54803	threats		There are no known threats to this species; the Costa Rican part of the species range is almost all within well protected areas.	eng
54804	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54804	distribution		This species occurs in the Serra do Mar, Serra do Tabuleiro, and Serra Geral of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at approximately 300-1,100m asl.	eng
54804	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter in humid rainforest. It reproduces in bromeliads by larval development.	eng
54804	population		It is uncommon but widely distributed; it continues to be collected regularly.	eng
54804	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
54805	conservation		It occurs in Rio Trombetas Biological Reserve and National Forest.	eng
54805	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality (Parintins; Amazonas, Brazil) and lower Rio Trombetas, Pará, Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
54805	habitat		It can be found in leaf-litter in old-growth forest. The eggs are laid on aerial roots over temporary pools and the larvae develop in these pools.	eng
54805	population		It is abundant within its range.	eng
54805	threats		Deforestation by clear-cutting for cattle ranching and timber extraction are threats to this species.	eng
54806	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54806	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	This species is known only from the lowlands up to 900m asl in the States of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, in southern Brazil. Records from Rio Grande do Sul in extreme southern Brazil probably refer to other species.	eng
54806	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	It lives in terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads inside primary, secondary and seasonally flooded forests where it lays its eggs. The larvae develop in bromeliads. It does not survive in heavily degraded areas.	eng
54806	population	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
54806	threats	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	The major threats are habitat loss due to livestock grazing, clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, and human settlement.	eng
54807	conservation		It might occur in the Estacion Biólogica Santa Lucia, and Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi, but this is not confirmed. It has been found in forest on private land, and bromeliads from this area have been introduced into nearby protected areas. Since it is quite possible that these bromeliads contained larvae of the species, it may have become inadvertently established in these protected areas.	eng
54807	distribution		This species is known from only from two localities at around 800m asl in the state of Espírito Santo, southern Brazil: the type locality, Santa Tereza; and from nearby at Fundão. It almost certainly occurs a little more widely.	eng
54807	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forests, but not in more degraded habitats, and is dependent upon bromeliads in which it lays its eggs and in which the the larvae develop.	eng
54807	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
54807	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, the collection of bromeliads, and human settlement. The population at Fundão is threatened by coffee cultivation.	eng
54808	conservation		The species' occurs within several protected areas, mainly within its northern range. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
54808	distribution		This species is known from the lowland coastal forests of the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná, and from northern Santa Catarina State, Brazil. It occurs at very low elevations.	eng
54808	habitat		This species is found in secondary and primary forest on leaves near the ground and in bogs. It breeds in rain pools on the ground. It is not known to occur in anthropogenic habitats.	eng
54808	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54808	threats		Clear-cutting of forests, and large-scale livestock farming is an increasing threat within the range of the species.	eng
54809	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Fernando Castro, 2008	Many conservation units are present within its range.	eng
54809	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species occurs in Amazonian, Orinocan and the Andean foothills of Colombia (from the Llanos of Meta south to Amazonia), Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, central and southern Guyana, Suriname, and throughout French Guiana. It is generally found at 0-300m asl but can be found at up to 1,000m asl near Puyo, Ecuador.	eng
54809	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Fernando Castro, 2008	It can be found in old and second growth Tropical Moist Forest and Premontane Humid Forest on the forest floor. It is active on the forest floor by day (Lynch, 2006). Reproduction takes place in natural semi-permanent and temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid out of water usually on roots over the water, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
54809	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is locally abundant throughout its range, except it is rare in Bolivia.	eng
54809	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Fernando Castro, 2008	Logging, forest conversion and fires are threats to this species.	eng
54810	conservation		The creation of a new protected area, and research actions to determine if and where it occurs, are needed for its conservation.	eng
54810	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Bituruna, Paraná State, Brazil, at 980m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
54810	habitat		It occurs in the forest leaf-litter in humid rainforest. Its reproductive habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
54810	population		It is known only from three specimens collected in the early 1980s, and there is no current information on its population status.	eng
54810	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation arising from rearing of livestock by smallholders, and logging.	eng
54811	conservation		It is recorded from the Makoko and Kendonge Forest Reserves, and probably occurs in Korup National Park. It also has recently been found in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria.	eng
54811	distribution		This species is known from extreme south-western Cameroon in the general area of Mount Cameroon and surrounding forests, and from old specimens at 400-600m asl near Basile on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. It has recently been discovered in the Oban Hills in Nigeria (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). In Cameroon there are records from Mount Cameroon (especially from the southern slopes) where it has been recorded at an altitude of 200-1,250m asl, and also from the Kendonge Forest Reserve to the north of Mount Cameroon, the Mokoko Forest Reserve north-west of Mount Cameroon close to the border with Nigeria, and from Baro just outside the north-western border of Korup National Park. Although it can be expected between the known localities in Cameroon, there has been extensive herpetological fieldwork in this area, which is perhaps indicative of a patchy distribution.	eng
54811	habitat		It lives on forest edges and in clearings in moist forest from the lowlands to the submontane zone. They form aggregations of 5-40 individuals including males, females and juveniles. They are most often seen sitting on wet leaves of low herbaceous vegetation. It has also been found in selectively logged forest on the edge of small farms. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is suspected to have a viviparous mode of reproduction, since it is most closely related to the West African genus <em>Nimbaphrynoides</em>.	eng
54811	population		There have been very few records of this species, but it is common on the southern slopes of Mount Cameroon, and is especially numerous at around 1,000m asl. There is also a healthy population in the Makoko Forest Reserve, and it is locally extremely abundant in the Oban Hills. There is no recent information on its status on Bioko.	eng
54811	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss primarily due to agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54812	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54812	distribution		This species is known from the States of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas and northeastern Bahia, in coastal northeastern Brazil. It occurs patchily within its range, not in all areas of apparently suitable habitat. It occurs up to 800 masl.	eng
54812	habitat		It lives in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads, and in forest-floor leaf-litter inside primary and secondary forest. It is dependent upon bromeliads in which lays its eggs. The larvae develop in bromeliads. It does not survive in heavily degraded habitats.	eng
54812	population		It occurs patchily, but is common where it occurs.	eng
54812	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, and collection of bromeliads, wood plantations and human settlement.	eng
54813	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, although a protected area in the Itombwe Mountains has been proposed and should be established.	eng
54813	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Kiandjo, at 1,850-1,950m asl near Mwengwa, in the Itombwe Mountains, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
54813	habitat		It is found in montane forest.	eng
54813	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological fieldwork within its range.	eng
54813	threats		It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging, and infrastructure development.	eng
54814	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas, including Kerinci-Seblat National Park. Additional effective protection of lowland forests in Borneo, Sumatra and Java is needed. In mainland Southeast Asia no conservation measures are considered necessary beyond maintaining the protected areas that are already established. It is protected by the WARPA 1992 law of Thailand.	eng
54814	distribution		This species has been reported from widely scattered localities across Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Sumatra and Java (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to at least 1,200m asl.	eng
54814	habitat		The adults of this species live in the leaf-litter of lowland and submontane forests below 1,200m asl. It is usually seen in seepage areas and along the banks of slow moving, small, very shallow streams. It breeds in streams.	eng
54814	population		There are no subpopulation estimates for this species, and it has not been found in any significant numbers at any site in Borneo. It can be locally extremely common in Peninsular Malaysia, locally common in Sumatra, and uncommon in Java and Thailand and is listed as "Vulnerable" in the Thai 1996 Red List (OEPP, 1997).	eng
54814	threats		Destruction of the environment as a result of deforestation is the principal threat to this species. Forest clearing for traditional shifting agriculture probably has little impact on subpopulations because it leaves surrounding population sources to reinvade secondary forests that developed on abandoned agriculture sites. But the pace and scale of contemporary deforestation for large plantations limits the opportunities for re-establishing populations. However, one of the densest populations is at a reforestation site on the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur, attesting to the species' resilience, at least in certain situations.	eng
54815	conservation		This species occurs in the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park. Surveys are needed to locate this species and a captive-breeding programme might need to be established.	eng
54815	distribution		This species occurs only on Mount Pangrango, Mount Gedeh and Curug Luhur, Jawa Barat, Java, Indonesia, at altitudes between 1,000m and 2,000m asl.	eng
54815	habitat		It lives in the boundary zone between moist lowland and montane forest. It breeds in very slow-moving, intermittent streams in forest where the larvae also develop.	eng
54815	population		In 1976, this species was abundant within its small range. In 1987, it was very rare following the eruption of Mount Galunggung. There were no records from the early 1990s until 2003, when one individual was sighted from the Cibeureum Waterfall. It appears to have undergone a major decline.	eng
54815	threats		It appears to have declined drastically due to a volcanic eruption. However, its decline is also reminiscent of similar disappearances of montane stream-breeding amphibians in other parts of the moist tropics, and so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out (although this disease has not so far been recorded in this region).	eng
54816	conservation	Axel Kwet, Lucy Aquino, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Raúl Maneyro, 2008	It apparently does not occur in any large protected areas, although it occurs in several small regional and private reserves in Argentina.	eng
54816	distribution	Axel Kwet, Lucy Aquino, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Raúl Maneyro, 2008	This species occurs in Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, Uruguay (Artigas, Cerro Largo, Paysandú, Rocha, Salto, Tacuarambó, Treinta y Tres Departments), northern Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones, Santa Fé, and Entre Rios Provinces), and southern Paraguay at 0-1,200m asl.	eng
54816	habitat	Axel Kwet, Lucy Aquino, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Raúl Maneyro, 2008	It occurs in grasslands. It reproduces explosively in temporary pools and agricultural ditches. It occurs in substantially disturbed habitats, but is not found in areas with intensive cattle activities (perhaps due to soil compaction inhibiting the formation of temporary ponds; R. Maneyro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54816	population	Axel Kwet, Lucy Aquino, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Raúl Maneyro, 2008	It is uncommon and the population is probably stable in Brazil. It is rare in Paraguay. In Argentina and Uruguay, it is abundant during reproductive bouts.	eng
54816	threats	Axel Kwet, Lucy Aquino, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Raúl Maneyro, 2008	It is threatened in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay by pine and Eucalyptus plantations and drainage of wetlands. It is possibly threatened in the future by the pet trade.	eng
54817	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula. It is listed as vulnerable in the Rio Grande do Sul state threatened list.	eng
54817	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Cambará do Sul, and from 80km to the south-west in Sao Francisco de Paula, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at 900-1,100m asl. Its distribution is not well knon because its explosive breeding habits make it difficult to survey.	eng
54817	habitat		This species occurs in open grassy habitats and borders of auracaria forest, where it breeds after rains in flooded areas near small streams or ditches, with the eggs being deposited between stones in shallow water.	eng
54817	population		It has apparently disappeared from the type locality but persists at Sao Francisco de Paula.	eng
54817	threats		Fire and habitat loss due to cattle ranching are threats to this species, and it is potentially threatened by the international pet trade.	eng
54818	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54818	distribution		This species is known only from north-western Corrientes Province, Argentina, between 50 and 70m asl.	eng
54818	habitat		It occurs in seasonally inundated grasslands where it also reproduces. When breeding areas dry up it usually occurs underground. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
54818	population		It is known from only a few localities but it is common and its population is stable in suitable habitats.	eng
54818	threats		Loss of habitat due to the expansion of human settlements is a threat to this species, most notably the growth of the city of Corrientes.	eng
54819	conservation		It occurs in small provincial parks in Argentina, including Fachinal and the Campos San Juan private reserves. Broad-scale conservation actions are necessary to combat the effects of pollution on its breeding habitat.	eng
54819	distribution		This species occurs in the southern part of Misiones Province, Argentina, and Rivera, Tacuarembó, and Cerro Largo Departments in Uruguay at elevations of 150-350m asl.	eng
54819	habitat		It occurs in open areas with rocky outcrops, but also occurs in the ecotones between grasslands and forests of <em>Astronium balansae</em>. In Uruguay, it has been found in eucalyptus plantations. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, other than that males have been found in amplexus in temporary streams and the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
54819	population		It is very rare in Misiones (Argentina) where males have been found (in 1998 and 2003) in amplexus with females of other species, possibly because of a lack of conspecifics. The population status of the species in Uruguay is unknown.	eng
54819	threats		The pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices is a known threat to this species. In Misiones, it is also threatened by the conversion of native habitat to pine plantations.	eng
54820	conservation		It occurs in Guarita Municipal Park, but there is a need for improved protection of habitat at other sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
54820	distribution		This species occurs along the coast of Brazil in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande de Sul states, from 0-20m asl.	eng
54820	habitat		It occurs on sand dunes and nearby areas, and reproduces in temporary pools.	eng
54820	population		It was previously collected rather extensively, but there have only been a few recent collections and the species is believed to have undergone declines in recent years.	eng
54820	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of habitat for beaches, urbanization, and off-road recreational vehicle use.	eng
54821	conservation		It occurs in several private reserves in Paraguay; it is not protected elsewhere.	eng
54821	distribution		This species occurs in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and one locality in Formosa Province, Argentina, at approximately 90-150m asl.	eng
54821	habitat		It occurs in seasonally inundated grasslands where it also reproduces. It usually occurs underground when breeding areas dry up. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
54821	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
54821	threats		It is threatened by the pet trade and habitat destruction to expand soy plantations.	eng
54822	conservation		This species occurs in several protected areas in both Paraguay and Argentina. More research into the species' distribution and the effects of the pet trade is needed.	eng
54822	distribution		This species is known only from the Chaco of Argentina (Corrientes [one uncertain record], Chaco, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, and Formosa provinces) and Paraguay. It occurs at 50-100m asl.	eng
54822	habitat		It occurs in shrubland habitats, lays eggs in temporary pools and is an explosive breeder. It can also be found in disturbed areas such as livestock farms.	eng
54822	population		It is a common species.	eng
54822	threats		There are no known threats to this species. It is found in the international pet trade but this is not currently believed to be a threat to the species overall.	eng
54823	conservation	Débora Silvano, Paulo Garcia, 2004	There are no protected areas near where this species was collected. It is categorized as Vulnerable on the Brazil national list.	eng
54823	distribution	Débora Silvano, Paulo Garcia, 2004	This species is known only from the type locality: Torres, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. The type locality is listed as a municipality, which has since been divided into several municipalities.	eng
54823	habitat	Débora Silvano, Paulo Garcia, 2004	There is no information about its ecology or biology in the literature. It presumably breeds in water.	eng
54823	population	Débora Silvano, Paulo Garcia, 2004	The species had not been recorded since 1960, until its recent rediscovery (one juvenile) in 2004 (Escobar<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004).	eng
54823	threats	Débora Silvano, Paulo Garcia, 2004	There is no information on threats to this species, although there has been extensive habitat loss in its range due to urbanization in the last 30 years. The Coastal Atlantic Forest is considered to be one of the smallest and the most threatened ecosystems in Rio Grande do Sul (Fontana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003 in Escobar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
54824	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
54824	distribution		This species is restricted to coastal Uruguay (Montevideo, Canelones, Maldonado, and Rocha Departments) and adjacent Brazil (one locality in Rio Grande do Sul state). It occurs at sea level.	eng
54824	habitat		It is a diurnal species inhabiting coastal sand dunes. It is an explosive breeder, and may be found in large numbers in temporary pools after heavy rains; the larvae develop in these pools. It is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
54824	population		This species is in decline in some areas and extirpated in others. Nevertheless, it is still common at several localities.	eng
54824	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to human settlements, exotic tree plantations, and the drainage of wetlands.	eng
54825	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. This species requires continued close population monitoring particularly since it is known only from a single location.	eng
54825	distribution		The type locality of this species is Sierra de Ánimas, Maldonado Province, Uruguay, at an elevation of 350-500m asl. It occurs in an area of less than 10km².	eng
54825	habitat		It occurs in grasslands and rocky outcrops, and reproduces in permanent small streams. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
54825	population		It is common at its only known locality, and has not undergone any change in population size in 10 years of monitoring from 1990 to 2000.	eng
54825	threats		Although there are currently no major threats to the species, habitat loss and degradation due to wood plantations and touristic activities might result in declines in the future.	eng
54826	conservation		Research to determine the current status of this species is needed. It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54826	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Sao Lorenco do Sul, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at approximately 50m asl.	eng
54826	habitat		It occurs in a seasonally inundated habitat, in which its breeding habits are unknown, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other species of its genus.	eng
54826	population		Its population status is unknown. It is known from only two specimens, which were collected in 1905. Because it was only recently removed from synonymy there have been few recent attempts to locate the species, which might explain the lack of recent records.	eng
54826	threats		Rice farming is possibly a threat to its habitat.	eng
54827	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, Esteban Lavilla, 2004	It occurs in Tariquia Fauna and Flora Reserve in Bolivia. In Argentina, it occurs in Baritú and Calilegua National Parks.	eng
54827	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, Esteban Lavilla, 2004	This species occurs in the Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Tarija departments in Bolivia. In Argentina, the species occurs in Baritú and Orán, Salta province, and in Calilegua and Tiraxi, Jujuy province. The elevational range is from 700-1,800m asl.	eng
54827	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, Esteban Lavilla, 2004	In Bolivia, it lives in dry forest in Andean valleys, and has been found in very disturbed areas. In Argentina, it occurs in wet montane forests. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance and can be found in clearings on slopes as well as roadside ditches, but cannot tolerate more intensive habitat modification such as intensive logging or livestock grazing. It is a diurnal and terrestrial species, and an opportunistic extremely explosive breeder. It breeds at the edges of streams (though never in deep water), and also in roadside ditches, and lays its eggs in the water where the tadpoles then also develop. Males call during the day from the water's edge or from within the water.<br/><br/>The breeding activity of this species has been found to be opportunistic throughout a prolonged spring-summer breeding season. The onset and extent of breeding activity is directly influenced by rainfall. Spawning activity follows a pattern of two three-day peaks mostly related to heavy rainfall events. Annual patterns of arrival and length of residence of adults appear to be heavily influenced by the extent of the rainy season (Vaira, 2005).	eng
54827	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, Esteban Lavilla, 2004	In Bolivia, it is probably abundant. It is abundant during reproductive bouts in Argentina.	eng
54827	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, Esteban Lavilla, 2004	There are no major threats to this species in Bolivia. The major populations in Argentina are all within protected areas.	eng
54828	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54828	distribution		This species has a fragmented distribution, and is found in Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rocha, Florida and Ribera Departments in Uruguay. It occurs below 500m asl, but its exact altitudinal range is unknown.	eng
54828	habitat		It lives in grasslands and rocky outcrops and reproduces in small streams. It probably does not tolerate much habitat disturbance.	eng
54828	population		It is commonly found during reproductive bouts and has a population that appears to be stable at present.	eng
54828	threats		Exotic tree plantations are a threat to this species.	eng
54829	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sao Joaquín and Parque Estadual da Serra Furada.	eng
54829	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Bom Jardin da Serra, Sao Joaquim, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, at approximately 1,300m asl.	eng
54829	habitat		It is found on sphagnum moss in montane savannah. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
54829	population		It is only known from a single collection in 1970. There have been few recent attempts to locate this species because it was only recently described.	eng
54829	threats		The main threats to this species are probably the spread of pine plantations, overgrazing by cattle, and fires.	eng
54830	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>Close to the banks of Rio Uruguai there is a 740 ha conservation area,  Parque Estadual  Fritz Plaumann, but the species has yet to be found at this site (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). All known specimens have been recorded outside protected areas or other conservation sites (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).&#160; More information is needed on this species' population status, distribution and natural history.</p>	eng
54830	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from its type locality:   Nova Teutônia, Municipality of Seara, Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Baldo and Basso 2004, E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010)	eng
54830	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is believed to be an explosive breeder (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010), and it is thought to reproduce in temporary streams. It may also reproduce in temporary pools (P. Garcia pers. comm. June 2009). It is not known whether this species may occur in disturbed habitats.	eng
54830	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	There have been limited survey efforts in the area where it occurs (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). Until recently, the last reported collection dated back to August 1965 (D. Baldo pers. comm. June 2009). In the course of monitoring activities for hydroelectric power stations, recent records for this species have emerged by way of pitfall traps in other sites along the Upper Rio Uruguai (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010). A lack of records along the higher limits (730 m asl) of the municipality of Chapecó suggests that the species may be associated with lower elevations (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).	eng
54830	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>The region where this species is known to occur is highly disturbed, with a limited number of natural vegetation patches and many areas with agricultural and grazing crops (mostly small-scale farming) and pig farming (E.M. Lucas pers. comm. June 2010).<br/></p>	eng
54831	conservation		Occurs in several protected areas, including the Pampa de Achala Hydrological Reserve. Monitoring of numbers extracted for pet trade needed. Surveys are needed to relocate the subspecies M.s. spegazzini.	eng
54831	distribution		This species is known only from Argentina, where it has a fragmented distribution in the following provinces: Buenos Aires (undescribed subspecies); Córdoba (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. stelzneri</span>); San Luis (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. stelzneri</span>), and Salta (<span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. spegazzinii</span>). It occurs from sea level up to 1,750m asl. De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (2000) and Köhler (2000) consider that this species might occur in Bolivia.	eng
54831	habitat		It occurs in grasslands with rocky outcrops. Explosive breeder. The gelatinous egg masses are attached to the submerged stems of temporary shallow ponds, streams, and bogs. In San Luis, reproduces in roadside ditches. Somewhat tolerant of habitat changes as long as water sources do not disappear.	eng
54831	population		It is very common in isolated populations in Córdoba. However, the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">M.s. spegazzini </span>has not been seen since it was discovered (it was described in 1961).	eng
54831	threats		None. Adapts well to agriculture, occurring in rice plantations. This species is harvested for the international pet trade in Argentina.	eng
54832	conservation		It might occur in private reserves.	eng
54832	distribution		This species occurs in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil, at 200-1,000m asl. Populations from Argentina (M. spectablis) and Paraguay (M. fulvoguttatus) formerly ascribed to this species are now considered distinct species.	eng
54832	habitat		It occurs in open areas and forest. Reproduction is explosive and occurs in temporary pools.	eng
54832	population		The population status is unknown because it is very difficult to survey this species.	eng
54832	threats		Deforestation, cattle ranching and water pollution are threats to this species. It is also potentially threatened by the international pet trade.	eng
54833	conservation		It occurs in the Arabuko-Sokoke Nature Reserve (Kenya), the Shimba Hills National Park (Kenya), and potentially occurs in the Selous Game Reserve and Mikumi National Park (both in Tanzania) but it is not yet recorded from these places.	eng
54833	distribution		This species occurs in coastal Kenya and eastern Tanzania, including Zanzibar and Songo Songo Islands, ranging from Gede in the north, south to the Rondo Plateau. In Kenya, this species occurs only close to the coast, but in Tanzania it ranges inland as far as Kilosa and the Kihanis Gorge in the Udzungwa Mountains. It is generally a low-altitude species occurring up to 800m asl.	eng
54833	habitat		It is a species of lowland forest, dense woodland, thicket, and the forest-miombo woodland boundary. It survives in modified secondary habitats with good cover. It breeds by internal fertilization, laying eggs in small water-filled holes and crevices (including snail-shells), where the larvae develop.	eng
54833	population		It is regularly encountered, but it is a difficult species to detect, and so it might be more common than is generally supposed.	eng
54833	threats		It is probably affected by the loss of its habitat for agriculture, wood extraction and human settlement.	eng
54834	conservation		There is a population within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, particularly since it is restricted to a single location.	eng
54834	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, on top of Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas state (03° 40'N; 65° 27'W), at 2,600m asl, in Venezuela.	eng
54834	habitat		It inhabits high montane tepui habitat. It breeds by direct development, perhaps with internal fertilization.	eng
54834	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54834	threats		There are no current major threats, but its restricted range makes it susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfire.	eng
54835	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and is certainly present in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea) and Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
54835	distribution		This species occurs from southern Nigeria east through southwestern and southern Cameroon to mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records through most of its presumed range, probably because of limited sampling. The distribution map assumes its occurrence in the large area between Cameroon and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for which there do not appear to be any records. There do not appear to be any records from Central African Republic and Congo but it is assumed to occur in these countries. It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
54835	habitat		It lives in lowland forest. It is generally restricted to tall forest, but house been found in farms near forest on Bioko. They spend the day on the ground, and move up on to the vegetation at night. They nest in tree cavities containing water, and the tadpoles develop there. The male guards the eggs.	eng
54835	population		It is more common than Nectophryne batesii in most places, but in Korup National Park, this species is less numerous.	eng
54835	threats		It is presumably affected by forest loss.	eng
54836	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and is confirmed from Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
54836	distribution		This species occurs from southern Cameroon to southwestern Gabon, though southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records through most of its presumed range, probably because of limited sampling. The distribution map assumes its occurrence in the large area between southwestern Central African Republic and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for which there do not appear to be any records. There do not appear to be any records from Equatorial Guinea and Congo, but it presumably occurs in these countries, and is likely also to be present in southeastern Nigeria.	eng
54836	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, and is restricted to tall forest and does not occur in heavily degraded habitats. They spend the day on the ground, and move up in the vegetation at night. They nest in tree cavities containing water, and the tadpoles develop there.	eng
54836	population		It is somewhat uncommon in most places, though more common than Nectophryne afra in Korup National Park.	eng
54836	threats		It is presumably affected by forest loss.	eng
54837	conservation	Channing, A., Howell, K., Loader, S., Menegon, M. & Poynton, J., 2009	It was not known from any protected areas. Sufficient minimum bypass flow from the dam is required to maintain the spray habitat. An artificial sprinkler system is in place, and this is especially important in the dry season. Captive breeding is ongoing in Toledo and New York Bronx Zoos. The captive populations have fluctuated as husbandry problems have been encountered and addressed (animals were initially plagued with various infections and nutritional deficiencies); <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> colonies were comprised of a total of 460 individuals on February 12, 2007 (CBSG 2007). Reintroduction efforts should be preceded by an assessment of the species' habitat status and efficiency/operationality of the artificial sprinkler system currently in place.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54837	distribution	Channing, A., Howell, K., Loader, S., Menegon, M. & Poynton, J., 2009	This species was only known from the Kihansi Falls, in the Kihansi Gorge, in the Udzungwa Mountains, eastern Tanzania, at 600-940 m asl. Its global range covered an area of less than two hectares around the Kihansi Falls, and searches for it around other waterfalls on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains have not located any additional populations  (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
54837	habitat	Channing, A., Howell, K., Loader, S., Menegon, M. & Poynton, J., 2009	It lived only in soaked herbaceous vegetation in the spray zone of the Kihansi Falls. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born. Clutch size varies from 5–13 offspring (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
54837	population	Channing, A., Howell, K., Loader, S., Menegon, M. & Poynton, J., 2009	It was formerly abundant in a tiny area, with a population of around 17,000 animals. Reports indicate that the species fluctuated naturally in its population size. The population appeared to be at a high in May 1999, dropping to lower numbers in the course of 2001 and 2002 [total population estimates oscillated at around 11,000 individuals up until March 2002; see Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>(2006)], and at a high again in June 2003 [a total population estimate of 20,989 individuals; Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006)]. However, subsequently the population went into steep decline, and by mid-January 2004, only three individuals could be seen and just two males were heard calling. There were a few records of calling animals during the rest of 2004, and an unconfirmed report from May 2005 (CBSG 2007), but there are no records of any individuals since, despite surveys, and the species is now considered to be Extinct in the Wild.	eng
54837	threats	Channing, A., Howell, K., Loader, S., Menegon, M. & Poynton, J., 2009	The serious decline and extinction of this species appears related to the Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project, involving the construction of a dam in 2000 upstream on the Kihansi River, which cut off 90% of the original water flow to the gorge, thereby hugely reducing the volume of spray, particularly in the dry season, as well as altering the vegetational composition. An artificial gravity-fed sprinkler system was set up to mimic the natural spray of the Kihansi ecosystem with the remaining water flow. Unfortunately, the sprinkler system was not ready by the time the water was cut off in 2000, and by the time the sprinklers came on nine months later the ecosystem had already dried up (see Krajick 2006). Later, during the dry season in 2003, the artificial sprinkler system failed for a while. Around this time, the fungal disease chytridiomycosis was confirmed in dead animals of this species, and this disease is probably responsible for the final population crash. It is possible that the drought caused by the failure of the sprinkler system resulted in stress to the animals that rendered them susceptible to the disease. There are also reports that the 2003 crash coincided with a brief opening of the dam's floodgates to flush sediments; tests showed that these contained pesticides used in maize farming operations upstream, in concentrations sufficient to kill the toads (Krajick 2006). The impact of predation by safari ants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dorylus</span> sp.) and crabs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potomonautes</span> sp.) is unknown (Channing <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
54838	conservation		It occurs in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation. Improved management of this reserve, and the protection of other remaining forest habitat in the Ulugurus, is necessary.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54838	distribution		This species is known only from the northern part of the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania where it has been recorded at 600-2,200m asl.	eng
54838	habitat		The type series was collected in forest, secondary forest, banana cultivation and bamboo. From this information, it seems that it can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, but probably not the complete opening of its habitat that has taken place in some parts of the Ulugurus. It is ovoviviparous, with internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until the birth of the toadlets.	eng
54838	population		There have been no records of this species since the original collections of the species in 1926 and 1927. In view of the amount of herpetological work that has taken place in this area, it would appear to be a rare species.	eng
54838	threats		The habitat of this species is probably being lost to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements, especially at lower altitudes.	eng
54839	conservation		Amani Nature Reserve is currently the only protected area in which it is known to occur. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54839	distribution		This species is known only from Amani Nature Reserve, in the East Usambara Mountains, north-eastern Tanzania, at 920-950m asl. It is not known how widely it might occur within the East Usambara Mountains.	eng
54839	habitat		The only known specimens were collected in closed submontane forest relatively close to a stream and a dry riverbed. Its breeding requirements are unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets.	eng
54839	population		It is known only from two specimens, collected in traps in February 1999, in an area where the amphibian fauna has been very well studied. It appears to be a very rare species.	eng
54839	threats		The nature reserve in which it is found is well protected, but it is under pressure from illegal gold miners. Much of the forest away from the reserve is being progressively cleared, especially due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements.	eng
54840	conservation		Uluguru South Forest Reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54840	distribution		This species is known only from Uluguru South Forest Reserve, in the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. The altitude of this locality is not known, but it is likely to be greater than 2,000m asl.	eng
54840	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It could be a species of montane forest, or montane grassland, or possibly high-altitude swamps. The details of its breeding biology are unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets.	eng
54840	population		There is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in April 2002.	eng
54840	threats		The threats that this species might face are unknown, although much of Uluguru South Forest Reserve is very remote and faces few threats.	eng
54841	conservation		It occurs in the Uluguru North and Uluguru South Forest Reserves, and also in the Ukwiva Forest Reserve in the Rubeho Mountains. These forest reserves are in need of continued and strengthened management to ensure the maintenance of remaining forest habitat. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54841	distribution		This species is known only from the Uluguru and Rubeho Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at 1,200-1,500m asl, and probably higher.	eng
54841	habitat		It has been found only in undisturbed forest, and appears not to tolerate habitat alteration. It is ovoviviparous, with internal fertilization and the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until the toadlets are born.	eng
54841	population		It appears to be a reasonably common species.	eng
54841	threats		Its habitat is probably being lost, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54842	conservation		&#160;This species occurs in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, but not in any well-protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. The population status and trends of this species require monitoring.	eng
54842	distribution		This species is known only from the Mkalazi Valley at 1,200m in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. Surveys of other parts of the Udzungwa Forest Reserve have not located this species.	eng
54842	habitat		All specimens were found in moist submontane rainforest, close to a stream. At night they can be found on leaves 60-160cm above the ground, and during the day they hide on the ground under fallen trees and coarse wood debris. Its breeding strategy is unknown, but it is assumed to be a live-bearer, like other members of its genus, with internal fertilisation, giving birth to tiny toadlets.	eng
54842	population		It is reasonably common within its tiny range, though much less numerous than the sympatric <em>Nectophrynoides tornieri</em>.	eng
54842	threats		Its habitat is probably being lost due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54843	conservation		It occurs in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve, but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation and is in need of improved management. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54843	distribution		This species is known only from the Uluguru North Forest Reserve on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Uluguru Mountains, eastern Tanzania, at 1,080-1,345m asl. It appears to have a very restricted distribution.	eng
54843	habitat		This species is known only from tall, submontane rainforest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other member of its genus, with internal fertilization, giving birth to tiny toadlets.	eng
54843	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from two specimens, collected in 1996 and 2000.	eng
54843	threats		The submontane forest on the eastern slopes of the Uluguru Mountains has been extensively cleared, mainly due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54844	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54844	distribution		This species occurs in the Usambara, Uluguru, Nguru, Ukaguru, Mahenge and Udzungwa Mountains, and on Mount Rungwe, in eastern and southern Tanzania. It occurs from 300m (Kimboza Forest in the Uluguru foothills) up to at least 1,800m asl. This species will probably be eventually found throughout the Eastern Arc mountain chain. Some records from the West Usambara Mountains, and some of the specimens from the Uluguru Mountains, which are both included here, probably represent two undescribed species.	eng
54844	habitat		It lives in lowland and montane forest, and is found low in the vegetation and on the ground. It can tolerate some disturbance to its habitat, and can survive in banana plantations, but probably not in very open areas. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.	eng
54844	population		It is one of the most abundant amphibian species in the overall Eastern Arc mountain range.	eng
54844	threats		Its habitat is probably being lost, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
54845	conservation		It occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam's forest reserve at Mazumbai, but additional protection of the habitat in the West Usambara Mountains is needed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54845	distribution		This species is known only from the West Usambara Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. There are records from the Shume-Magamba Forest Reserve, the Mazumbai Forest Reserve, and the Ambangulu Estate between 1,230 and 2,000m asl.	eng
54845	habitat		All records have been from montane and submontane forest, including in the ecotone between forest and ericaceous vegetation. It is probably terrestrial, and some animals were found inside a rotten log. Its breeding is unknown, but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous, like other members of its genus, with internal fertilization, giving birth to tiny toadlets.	eng
54845	population		There is little information available on its population status. However, the fact that 23 specimens have been found widely over the West Usambara Mountains, despite limited survey effort, suggests that it is not uncommon in suitable habitat within its small range.	eng
54845	threats		In some parts of the West Usambaras its habitat is probably being lost, especially due to agricultural encroachment, commercial logging, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54846	conservation		It occurs in several forest reserves, but has not been found in any well-protected area. It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has thus far not been recorded. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54846	distribution		This species occurs in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains and in the Southern Highlands of eastern and southern Tanzania. It is a montane species, ranging from 1,350-2,800m asl.	eng
54846	habitat		It is a terrestrial species living in forest, bamboo, and grasslands at the forest edge. It has been found in maize cultivation, but needs to be close to the forest edge, and probably cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.	eng
54846	population		It is relatively common.	eng
54846	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss, especially at lower altitudes, due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction and expanding human settlements.	eng
54847	conservation		This species occurs in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, but not in any well-protected areas. The population status and trends of this species require monitoring. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
54847	distribution		This species is known from one tiny area, in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, above Chita, on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. It is found from 1,500-1,650m asl. It has not been found at other localities in the Udzungwa Mountains.	eng
54847	habitat		It is a species of montane moist forest, living on the ground. It is not known whether or not it can survive in anthropogenically disturbed habitats, since the only known site is in undisturbed forest. It breeds by internal fertilization, the females retaining the larvae internally in the oviduct until little toadlets are born.	eng
54847	population		The species is quite common in one tiny area, measuring roughly 300m x 300m.	eng
54847	threats		Its habitat is probably being lost due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
54848	conservation		This species presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status and trends of this species.	eng
54848	distribution		This species is known only from the Mount Nimba region in Liberia. It presumably also occurs in adjacent parts of Guinea and perhaps also in Côte d'Ivoire, but there have not yet been any records. It is a montane species, and the type locality is at 1,290m asl.	eng
54848	habitat		It is apparently a species of forest and forest edge close to savannah. It is a viviparous species, with the female nourishing the young internally prior to the birth of small toadlets.	eng
54848	population		It is apparently extremely common in its small range, but there do not appear to have been any recent records, presumably due to a lack of fieldwork in the area.	eng
54848	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to the mining of bauxite is the biggest threat to this species. There is probably also ongoing loss of forest due to wood extraction. The species is inherently at risk because of its small range.	eng
54849	conservation		The species' range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.	eng
54849	distribution		This species is restricted to the type locality: "Sector este, cima del Auyan-tepui, Estado Bolívar", in Venezuela (05° 53' 36"N; 62° 29' 12"W), at 1,750m asl.	eng
54849	habitat		It is an inhabitant of high montane tepui habitat. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
54849	population		It is a rare species.	eng
54849	threats		Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes, such as wildfire and disturbance of the habitat by tourists.	eng
54850	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Celsa Señaris, Stefan Gorzula, 2008	The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.	eng
54850	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Celsa Señaris, Stefan Gorzula, 2008	This species is restricted to the type locality, Cerro El Sol, to the north-east of the Auyán-tepui (0.6km² at 06° 06'N; 62° 32'W), in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,700m asl. The summit of Cerro El Sol covers less than 10 hectares (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54850	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Celsa Señaris, Stefan Gorzula, 2008	It is a diurnal toad that is found in thick herbaceous vegetation on peat bogs of high montane tepui environments. It breeds by direct development.	eng
54850	population	Enrique La Marca, Celsa Señaris, Stefan Gorzula, 2008	It is a very rare species. It was collected in 1987 (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54850	threats	Enrique La Marca, Celsa Señaris, Stefan Gorzula, 2008	Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfires. The herbaceous vegetation on Cerro El Sol is fire-prone during the dry season (S. Gorzula, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54851	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. A well-managed protected area would help to ensure the conservation of this range-restricted species. There is also a need for close population monitoring given that it is apparently restricted to a single location.	eng
54851	distribution		This species is known from the base of Mount Roraima on the border of Guyana and Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,060m asl. It is not absolutely certain which country the type specimen comes from, but it is presumed that the species is in fact present on both sides of the border.	eng
54851	habitat		It is an inhabitant of tropical moist submontane forest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
54851	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54851	threats		Threats to this species are unknown, although its range is in relatively pristine habitat at present.	eng
54852	conservation		It is recorded from Yuruaní National Monument. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is restricted to a single location.	eng
54852	distribution		This species is known from Tepuis Kukenan and Yuruaní, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 2,300-2,700m asl.	eng
54852	habitat		This is a diurnal frog that can be found on rocks in montane tepui environments. It is a communally breeding species, with breeding taking place by direct development in galleries within peat bogs.	eng
54852	population		It is a common species.	eng
54852	threats		Although there are no current major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to threatening processes such as wildfire.	eng
54853	conservation		It is protected in Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes in Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Monte Roraima in Brazil. There is a need for increased education among tourists to make them aware of the importance of not handling these animals in the wild. Close population monitoring is also required, particularly since this species is known only from a single location.	eng
54853	distribution		This species is restricted to the summit of Mount Roraima in Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil, and from Wei-Assipo-Tepui in Guyana. It has been recorded from 2,300-2,800m asl.	eng
54853	habitat		A diurnal toad usually found on open rock surfaces in high montane tepui environments. It breeds by direct development.	eng
54853	population		It is common on the summit of Mount Roraima, and its population is probably stable.	eng
54853	threats		Although there are no current major threats, the restricted range of this species makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes, such as disturbance by tourists (who frequently handle the animals).	eng
54854	conservation		It most likely occurs within Parque Nacional Canaima. Close population monitoring of this species is required, particularly since it is known only from a single location.	eng
54854	distribution		This species is restricted to the summit of Ilú-tepui (05° 25'N; 60° 58'W), in Bolívar State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 2,450-2,650m asl.	eng
54854	habitat		A diurnal, high-montane toad found in tepui habitats. It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs under rocks.	eng
54854	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
54854	threats		Although there are no current major threats, the restricted range of this species makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes, such as wildfire.	eng
54855	conservation		This species occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
54855	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Antisana, Napo Province, Ecuador, and from the volcano of Quilindana. In total, it is known from only four localities. It has been recorded between 3,400 and 4,000m asl.	eng
54855	habitat		It is terrestrial, and both diurnal and nocturnal, inhabiting wet sub-páramo habitats. The holotype was collected in an area of meadows with isolated patches of forest. Creeks and swamps are the typical landscape on the upper limit of the wet altitudinal forest (Hoogmoed 1987). It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on soil under vegetation.	eng
54855	population		It appears to be a rare, and locally uncommon species; however, this may be an artefact of inappropriate survey techniques.  For example, when digging into the soil under the páramo plants, dozens of specimens have been found (M. Yanez and D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). The population of this species is thought to be declining.	eng
54855	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, both crops and livestock; climate change may also be impacting the species.	eng
54856	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Taran Grant, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
54856	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Taran Grant, 2008	This species ranges from Ecuador (Parque Nacional Llanganates in Tungurahua Province), north to southern Valle del Cauca Department on the eastern and western flanks of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, between 2,800 and 4,700m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
54856	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Taran Grant, 2008	It lives on fallen leaves and on the ground in montane forest, bush land and páramo. Some populations live in terrestrial bromeliads, leaf-litter, and on vegetation up to 50cm above the ground. Other populations are fossorial. It breeds by direct development and has only been found in undisturbed habitats.	eng
54856	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Taran Grant, 2008	It is rare, localized, and uncommon where found.	eng
54856	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Taran Grant, 2008	The major threats are deforestation, due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54857	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almendáriz, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	The range of this species in Ecuador overlaps several protected areas, including the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and Parque Nacional Sumaco in Ecuador. It has not been found in any protected areas in Colombia. Improved and expanded habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this species in its montane forest habiat.	eng
54857	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almendáriz, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	This species is known from the Cordillera de Guacamayos in north-eastern Ecuador (in Napo Provice) and from the Valle del Sibundoy in Putumayo department, southern Colombia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its altitudinal range is 2,100-3,500m asl.	eng
54857	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almendáriz, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It lives in very wet tropical cloud forest, and is usually found at night on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, although it can be found up to 3m; specimens have been collected along a roadside, on moss in rock crevices. It is found both in undisturbed habitats and in disturbed forests, and individuals have been found away from water. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
54857	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almendáriz, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is locally uncommon.	eng
54857	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almendáriz, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging activities, and human settlement. An additional threat is pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54858	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but improved and expanded protection of the montane habitat of this species is necessary.	eng
54858	distribution		This species is known from the central páramos in Tolima, Caldas and Quindio Departments, on the eastern flank of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 2,700 and 3,700m asl.	eng
54858	habitat		It occurs on leaf-litter and rocks on the ground in Andean forests and páramos, and has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. It is a direct developing species.	eng
54858	population		It is not a common species.	eng
54858	threats		The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, mainly due to the expansion of agriculture, and pollution from the fumigation of illegal crops. Climate change is also a potential threat to this high-elevation species.	eng
54859	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Sumaco. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, particularly given its restriction to a single location.	eng
54859	distribution		This species is known only from around a small crater lake on the eastern slopes of Volcán Sumaco, in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,500m asl.	eng
54859	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the cloud forest surrounding the lake. This forest is made up of bamboo (<em>Chusquea</em> sp.), <em>Ficus</em> and other trees up to 20m tall. There is an abundance of epiphytes in the area. It is terrestrial, both diurnal and nocturnal, and specimens have been found under leaf-litter by day (Gluesenkamp 1995). It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on soil under vegetation.	eng
54859	population		It is locally common.	eng
54859	threats		There are no current major threats to the species, although eruption of Volcán Sumaco poses a future potential threat to its only known site.	eng
54860	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador, but it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Purace in Colombia. It is recommended that the existing protected areas network be expanded to incorporate remaining patches of high-elevation montane forest.	eng
54860	distribution		This species ranges from the type locality in Imbabura Province, Ecuador, north to Narino and Cauca Departments in southern Colombia. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The type locality is at 3,400m asl, and it occurs at similar altitudes in Colombia.	eng
54860	habitat		It has been found only in undisturbed habitats in dense upper montane forest, with trees reaching heights of as much as 10m, and in sub-páramo bushland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
54860	population		It appears to be a rare species; however, this may be an artefact of inappropriate survey techniques. For example, when digging into the soil under páramo plants, dozens of specimens have been found  (M. Yanez and D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).	eng
54860	threats		The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement. Pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops is an additional threat.	eng
54861	conservation		It has been recorded from Kinabalu National Park.	eng
54861	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu, Borneo. Specimens have been collected at 650m asl (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). Its range is not very well known and it might occur a little more widely.	eng
54861	habitat		It is presumed to be an arboreal toad of lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding is believed to take place in small, clear rocky streams. Juveniles have been observed along the bank of a "partially torrential stream" (Manthey and Grossmann 1997).	eng
54861	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
54861	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, but are presumed to include habitat loss.	eng
54862	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas. Protection of areas of lowland riverine forest is the primary conservation measure required. It is protected by wildlife legislation in Thailand. It has been bred in captivity in Europe (Schmidt, 1994).	eng
54862	distribution		This species is distributed in extreme southern Thailand (Satun), Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species that is present at elevations up to 700m asl.	eng
54862	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in forest and other dense vegetation along large lowland rivers. Breeding takes place in clear forest streams. Newly metamorphosed juveniles disperse through the surrounding forest and gradually become arboreal, moving up into the forest strata. It is unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54862	population		It is common in Borneo and Sumatra, locally abundant in Peninsular Malaysia, and uncommon in Thailand (Dring, 1979).	eng
54862	threats		The major threats to this species are riverine development, lowland forest clearance and the resulting sedimentation of streambeds.	eng
54864	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas including Batu Apoi (Brunei), and Lanjak Anteroi and the Crocker Range (both in Sabah). The protection of lowland forests in Sabah and parts of Sarawak now provide stable habitat for this species, but expansion of this protection to hilly lowland forests in Kalimantan is needed.	eng
54864	distribution		This species is known only from the forests of northern Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei Darussalam. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded. It is generally a lowland species occurring between 150 and 1,050m asl.	eng
54864	habitat		It has been recorded from hilly lowland, and submontane, tropical primary moist forest. It is an arboreal species that breeds in small, clear, rocky streams. It might possibly occur in areas that have previously been used for shifting cultivation, but it cannot adapt to significantly modified habitats.	eng
54864	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54864	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation.	eng
54865	conservation		The only known locality for the species is protected in Gunung Mulu National Park, a 52,000-ha park that is the most studied tropical karst area in the world. Further survey work is requried to determine the current population status of the species at this locality, and whether it might be present in other karst areas of Borneo.	eng
54865	distribution		This species is endemic to Borneo where it is known only from the type locality (Gunung Mulu National Park) in northern Sarawak, Malaysia; however, it might occur a little more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 65-1,200m asl.	eng
54865	habitat		All known specimens have been found in primary rainforest in limestone karst areas. The larvae are endotrophic and occur in small pools on the forest floor.	eng
54865	population		The population status and abundance of the species is not known.	eng
54865	threats		It is not certain whether this species is entirely restricted to karst areas, but, if so, then its distribution is likely to be extremely patchy and localized, thereby exposing this species to the hazards of stochastic events.	eng
54866	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Effective protection of lowland rainforest is needed.	eng
54866	distribution		This species is found as far north as Northern Trengganu, including Tioman and Aur Islands, in Peninsular Malaysia, and south to Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Ming, 2000). In the Philippines it is found only on Mindanao. It is also found in Siberut, north Sumatra, Mentawai, and Natuna Besar in Indonesia.	eng
54866	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in closed-canopy rainforest, mostly at elevations from 50-900m asl (Grandison, 1972). Breeding and egg deposition in the Philippines occurs in water-filled leaf axils, tadpoles are non-feeding, and the larvae undergo metamorphosis in the same microhabitats.	eng
54866	population		This species is small, cryptic and easily confused with juveniles of other toad species. The population in Singapore is considered small (Lim and Lim, 1992; Ming, 2000). In Indonesia the species is considered uncommon. In forested habitats of the Philippines, it is uncommon and is patchily distributed.	eng
54866	threats		In mainland Southeast Asia this species is unlikely to be threatened although it might be sensitive to deforestation. In the Philippines, the primary threat is the loss of the lowland rainforest.	eng
54867	conservation		The species is present in Kubah National Park, although the southern section is facing increasing pressure from encroaching logging activities. There is a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
54867	distribution		This species is known from south-western and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia) and Serasan (north-western Kalimantan, Indonesia), and might also occur in north-western Kalimantan (Indonesia) and south-western Sabah (Malaysia), in Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 200m asl.	eng
54867	habitat		It occurs in the leaf-litter of hilly lowland primary moist forest. The large eggs are probably deposited in very small rain pools.	eng
54867	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
54867	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging. The northern part of the range now consists of disturbed habitat (largely deforested) and it is unclear whether or not the species still survives there.	eng
54868	conservation		This species is present in several protected areas. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides, herbicides, and mine tailings and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.	eng
54868	distribution		This species is patchily distributed in Bohol, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao in the Philippines. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
54868	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in riverine areas in montane and lowland forests, and is able to survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54868	population		It is locally common.	eng
54868	threats		The major threats to this species include the loss of lowland rainforest (as a result of agriculture and logging), and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers due to agricultural effluents and mine tailings.	eng
54869	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54869	distribution		This taxon is known only from a single female specimen collected from the Akar (= Akah) River, Sarawak, Malaysia. As the specific collection locality on the Akah River could not be located, a distribution map cannot be completed for this species.	eng
54869	habitat		There are no details regarding its habitat and ecology, but it is presumably a lowland forest species that breeds in rain pools.	eng
54869	population		It is known only from the holotype, so there is no information on its population status.	eng
54869	threats		The threats to this species are not known, but might include deforestation of lowland forest.	eng
54870	conservation		The range of the species includes Kinabalu National Park. Other suitable montane forests, particularly those of Trus Madi, require more effective protection.	eng
54870	distribution		This species is known only from mountains in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak, in northern Borneo, Malaysia. It might also occur in the mountains of northern Kalimantan, Indonesia, but has not yet been recorded from there. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is present in forests above 1,500m asl.	eng
54870	habitat		All known observations were made in montane 'elfin' type forests. Adults are largely terrestrial and are found in leaf-litter, rock crevices, and holes in the ground. Breeding takes place in small, temporary pools on the forest floor, and tadpoles are endotrophic.	eng
54870	population		It is difficult to observe, but is considered locally abundant in montane forests (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
54870	threats		Habitat loss is probably the most serious threat, due mainly to logging. Logging is occurring at Gunung Murud, but is below the altitudinal range of this species. The development of recreation and tourism facilities is a potential threat.	eng
54871	conservation		The species' range includes Gunung Mulu National Park and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
54871	distribution		This species is known only from south-western and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), but probably also occurs in western Kalimantan (Indonesia), in Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is present at elevations around 800m asl.	eng
54871	habitat		Males have been seen calling from low shrubs in submontane and montane mossy forest. Eggs are probably deposited in very small rain pools.	eng
54871	population		It is moderately abundant within its restricted range.	eng
54871	threats		The major threat to the species is ongoing habitat loss due to agriculture and logging.	eng
54872	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas, but expanded and improved protection of the remaining forest habitat is necessary.	eng
54872	distribution		This species is restricted to the hilly areas in southern Hainan Province, China, from 350-1,400m asl.	eng
54872	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests. Males call near small streams, which are probably also the breeding sites.	eng
54872	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
54872	threats		The species is particularly susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation that is taking place primarily due to smallholder farming activities and small-scale wood extraction from expanding human settlements.	eng
54873	conservation		The presence of this species in protected areas requires further investigation. Some areas of habitat are protected in Sarawak.	eng
54873	distribution		This species occurs in Borneo (Brunei and Sarawak) below 1,000m asl. It is assumed to occur across the border into Kalimantan although there are no records from there yet.	eng
54873	habitat		It has been recorded only from lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding is presumed to take place in small forest pools.	eng
54873	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
54873	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to deforestation.	eng
54874	conservation		Improved protection and management of the peat swamp habitats and status surveys and other studies are desirable for this species.	eng
54874	distribution		This species occurs widely in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Peninsular Malaysia, it is now restricted to three localities, the Tasek Bera wetland, north Selangor Peat Swamp and Muar Peat Swamp. The Sungei Buloh population on Peninsular Malaysia has disappeared. It probably occurs more widely on Sumatra and Borneo than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
54874	habitat		This species is found in peat swamps and swamp forest. It breeds in swamps by larval development. It is not found in modified habitats.	eng
54874	population		In Peninsular Malaysia it is common where it survives. The Sungei Buloh population, reported in the 19th Century, has now disappeared. In Sumatra the species is common in swamps, but in Kalimantan it is uncommon.	eng
54874	threats		The major threats to this species are wetland drainage, pollution, and other forms of habitat degradation and destruction.	eng
54875	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, and Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios in Colombia.	eng
54875	distribution		This species is known from a single locality in the eastern cordilleras of south-eastern Darién Province in Panama adjacent to Colombia, extending into extreme north-western Colombia at Los Katios in Choco Department. It is a lowland species that ranges up to 1,400m asl.	eng
54875	habitat		This is a terrestrial inhabitant of both humid lowland and lower montane forest, although it is not known from secondary habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown; it might breed by direct development if it is like other members of its genus.	eng
54875	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
54875	threats		All known populations are in protected areas, but there are presumably populations outside protected areas that are likely to be threatened by deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54876	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of highland populations that might represent a different species.	eng
54876	distribution		This species occurs at moderate and low altitudes (from 200-1,700m asl) on the eastern Andean slopes and in the upper Amazon Basin of Ecuador, and in the Cordillera de Cutucú and Cordillera del Condór, in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
54876	habitat		It is usually found in leaf-litter, and sometimes on low vegetation, in tropical rainforest, and premontane humid forest. There is no information known about breeding habits, although it presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance, and is not known from secondary forest.	eng
54876	population		It is uncommon where it occurs.	eng
54876	threats		The major threats to the species’ habitat are agricultural development, involving both cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, and logging.	eng
54877	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area, although this species might occur in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, but sampling is needed to confirm this. A protected area is recommended for this species as it is unlikely to tolerate disturbance of its habitat, and its habitat is currently highly threatened.	eng
54877	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at Murrí (6° 43'N; 76° 20'W), Nutibara­La Blanquita Route, Frontino Municipality, in Antioquia Department on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,600-1,800m asl. The limits to its distribution are not known.	eng
54877	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that has only been found in wet primary forest. Its breeding habits are not known; it presumably breeds by direct development (if it is like other members of its genus).	eng
54877	population		The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from a few specimens.	eng
54877	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat fragmentation and loss due to the expansion of agricultural activity, timber extraction, and the cultivation of illegal crops, and also pollution arising from the fumigation of illegal crops.	eng
54878	conservation		The range of the species includes the Reserva La Forzosa, but other tracts of montane forest remain in urgent need of formal protection.	eng
54878	distribution		This species is known from the type locality: Santa Rita, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 1,890 and 1910m asl. It is also known from two other locations in Colombia: Guatape (Mesopotamia) and Amalfi (Anori) all in Antioquia Department, in the central Andes, between 1,800 and 1,900m asl. There is no suitable habitat available to the species between these known localities.	eng
54878	habitat		It occurs in the leaf-litter of sub-Andean and Andean forests, and is restricted to primary and good secondary forest. It most likely breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.	eng
54878	population		It is a common species.	eng
54878	threats		Habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture, timber extraction, desiccation, and the fumigation of illegal crops, are all major threats to the species' habitat. Climate change may also be a threat, given that this species occurs at relatively high elevations.	eng
54879	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, such that habitat protection remains the most urgent conservation action required. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
54879	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, "El Chaquiro, [department of] Antioquia, Colombia" (amended to "Hacienda Palmas, El Chaquiro, Antioquia Department, Colombia, 2,670m elevation"), and from nearby locations.	eng
54879	habitat		It occurs in high-altitude grassland, and has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
54879	population		It is a common species within its relatively small range.	eng
54879	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding pastures for cattle grazing. Climate change may be a threat in the future.	eng
54880	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54880	distribution		This species is known only from three widely separated localities near the Atlantic coast of Brazil: Salavador in the state of Bahia (the type locality); Almenara in the state of Minas Gerais; and Arataca in the state of Bahia. It is likely to be found elsewhere, and has been found up to 500m asl.	eng
54880	habitat		It lives in pristine and also somewhat disturbed forest in leaf-litter (although it has not been found in heavily degraded areas), and it is often associated with small streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it may breed by direct development, like other members of the genus.	eng
54880	population		There is little information on its population status.	eng
54880	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, and the establishment of wood plantations and human settlements.	eng
54881	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. Further survey work is needed to establish whether or not the species still occurs at the type locality or in any location outside the type locality, as the species might already be extinct in view of the scale of habitat destruction in the general vicinity.	eng
54881	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "Santa Rita Creek, fourteen miles north of the village of Mesopotamia in the southern part of the Department of Antioquia, Colombia", at 2,472m asl. It is unlikely to range more widely.	eng
54881	habitat		The type locality was forest when the specimens were collected, but the exact habitat requirements of the species are still unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.	eng
54881	population		This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1914. Searches of the type locality since then have not found it, and it is possible that it is now extinct.	eng
54881	threats		At the type locality there has been significant logging in the past, and there is now high human population density in this area with accompanying increased infrastructure development for human settlement. Agriculture, including the planting of illegal crops, is also a threat in the area as well as fumigation of illegal crops.	eng
54882	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, population status and ecological requirements is needed.	eng
54882	distribution		This species is known from the municipalities of Bello, Sonsón and Belmira, in the Cordillera Central in Antioquia Department, Colombia, where it has been recorded from 2,330-3,100m asl. The limits of its range are not yet known.	eng
54882	habitat		This inhabitant of grassland is usually found on vegetation up to 30cm above the ground, and on rocks above the ground along streams and roadsides, and in grassy areas near waterfalls. It is most likely a direct developing species although there have been no direct observations regarding its breeding biology.	eng
54882	population		It is a common species within its known range.	eng
54882	threats		There is very little information available on threats to this species.	eng
54883	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54883	distribution		This species is known only from near Campamento Ingeominas, near the headwaters of Río Amparradó in Dabeiba Municipality, Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 805m asl. The limits of its range are not yet known.	eng
54883	habitat		It is a terrestrial species in submontane forest. There is no information on its breeding habits, though reproduction is most probably by direct development.	eng
54883	population		There is no recent information on its population status, but it was uncommon when it was discovered.	eng
54883	threats		There is no direct information on its threats, but this species is likely to be threatened by deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54884	conservation		The exact locality where the species was found needs to be determined and a search for more specimens is necessary. Only after the locality has been rediscovered can more research into the species' real range, population status and habitat requirements be undertaken.	eng
54884	distribution		The exact location of the type locality in Colombia of this species is not known (and so it is not possible to draw a map of its range), but it is hypothesised that it is in southern Antioquia Department (Lynch pers. comm.).	eng
54884	habitat		Since the type locality is not known its habitat and ecology are also not known. It could breed by direct development if it is like other members of the genus.	eng
54884	population		This species is known only from one specimen.	eng
54884	threats		The major threats to it are unknown.	eng
54885	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
54885	distribution		This species ranges from northwestern Tanzania and southern Kenya (Olorgesailie) south to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Angola and western Zambia, as far as southeastern Botswana, southern Mozambique, Swaziland and the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It has not been recorded from Lesotho.	eng
54885	habitat		It occurs primarily in grassland and wooded savannah, but also in agricultural land, livestock ranches, and around human settlements. It breeds in deep, still waterbodies, including in dirty water, with a larval stage and gregarious tadpoles.	eng
54885	population		It is generally common, but it is hard to find when it is not breeding.	eng
54885	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
54886	conservation		The species is relatively common in the Bale Mountains National Park, but there is a need for improved protection of other sites at which this species has been recorded.<br/>  It is listed on Appendix I of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinophrynoides osgoodi</span>).	eng
54886	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountains of south-central Ethiopia (Arsi, Balé, Sidamo and Gamo Gofa Provinces) at 1,950-3,520m asl. With the exception of the population in the Gughe Mountains, all records are from east of the Rift Valley.	eng
54886	habitat		It is essentially a species of montane forest, though perhaps extending marginally into open moorland. It has been observed breeding in a small, probably temporary, pool in a grassy glade surrounded by <em>Hypericum</em> woodland.	eng
54886	population		It is locally common within its limited range.	eng
54886	threats		It is threatened by environmental degradation resulting from human settlement, specifically the destruction of forests through both subsistence and commercial exploitation.	eng
54887	conservation		It occurs in the Gungunyana Forest Reserve in Zimbabwe. The Chirinda Forest is administered by the Forestry Commission and is one of the best researched forests in Zimbabwe, but the area remains in need of strengthened protection.	eng
54887	distribution		This species is known only from the Chirinda Forest in eastern Zimbabwe and the Dombe Forest in adjacent Mozambique. In the Chirinda Forest it occurs at approximately 900-1,300m asl.	eng
54887	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of evergreen forest, often hiding inside or beneath rotten logs. The eggs are laid in pockets of water between the buttress roots of <em>Chrysophyllum gorungosanum</em> trees, or in water-filled grooves on the trunks of fallen trees. It is not found outside forest.	eng
54887	population		It is apparently common in its small range.	eng
54887	threats		Its forest habitat is threatened by agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54888	conservation		It possibly occurs in the Mafia Marine Park, but this remains to be confirmed, and improved protection of remaining suitable habitat on Mafia is a priority. On Zanzibar, the Jozani Forest, the largest tract of forest remaining on the main island, has recently had its protection status upgraded to that of a national park.	eng
54888	distribution		This species, which is endemic to Tanzania, is known only from the Mrora Forest on Mafia Island, and from the Jozani Forest on Zanzibar (and from an unmapped, unspecified locality on the east of Zanzibar). All records are from close to sea level.	eng
54888	habitat		It is terrestrial, occurring in lowland coastal forest. Some of its remaining habitat is degraded, and it seems to display some adaptability to living in such habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots like <em>Stephopaedes anotis</em>.	eng
54888	population		It is probably an uncommon species.	eng
54888	threats		Its habitat is being degraded rapidly on Mafia for agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlements.	eng
54889	conservation		It presumably occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
54889	distribution		This species is endemic to southeastern Tanzania, where it ranges from Kichi Hills south to the Rondo Plateau, and inland to Mahenge and the Kilombero Valley. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 1,000m asl.	eng
54889	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, living in forest and woodland. There is no information on its ability to adapt to secondary habitats. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots if like Stephopaedes anotis.	eng
54889	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
54889	threats		There is ongoing loss of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54890	conservation		It occurs in the Kwamgumi, Segoma and Mtai Forest Reserves, but these are not well protected and are in need of improved management.	eng
54890	distribution		This species is known only from the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. All records have been from below 410m asl.	eng
54890	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of lowland forest, but also survives in mildly disturbed, selectively logged forest. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it might breed in puddles in tree roots (like <em>Stephopaedes anotis</em>).	eng
54890	population		It is not uncommon within its very small known range.	eng
54890	threats		There is ongoing loss of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
54891	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54891	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, 5km south-west of Comas, in Junin Department, in the Andes of central Peru, at 3,283m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54891	habitat		It presumably lives in puna (high-elevation grassland).	eng
54891	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54891	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
54892	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
54892	distribution		This species is known only from Carapa and Yanamonte, on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in central Peru, below Abra Tapuna, on the west side of the Río Apurimac, in Ayacucho Department.	eng
54892	habitat		It possibly lives in puna (high-elevation grassland).	eng
54892	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54892	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
54893	conservation		The species might occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve, but is largely unprotected elsewhere in its range; additional protection of the remaining highland forests in Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, is needed. A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area involving the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species.	eng
54893	distribution		This species is known only from the mountains of western Cameroon, where it occurs on Mount Manenguba and in the Bamenda Highlands in the Bamboutos Mountains and Mount Oku. It also occurs at Santa on Mount Neshele. Its altitudinal range is from 1,750-2,600m asl, but it rarely occurs below 2,100-2,200m asl.	eng
54893	habitat		It is found on flat rocks in fast-flowing streams at high elevations, typically in montane forest patches. It breeds in streams, and it seems that after reproduction the adults disperse into forest patches, open bamboo glades, and montane grassland. The larvae live in fast, even torrential, water. During the dry season the adults may live in water, hiding under stones. It seems to occur at higher altitudes than other members of its genus, living at a higher altitude than both <em>Werneria tandyi</em> and <em>W. mertensiana</em> on Mount Manenguba.	eng
54893	population		It is not a common species. In 1985, it was reported as possibly nearing extinction in the Bamboutos Mountains.	eng
54893	threats		It is probably threatened by forest clearance and degradation resulting from overgrazing, fires, and cultivation.	eng
54894	conservation		In Cameroon, the species occurs in a few forest reserves, such as Nta Ali Forest Reserve; however, the higher elevation forest habitats in western Cameroon, particularly Mount Manenguba, are in urgent need of improved protection. The specimen recorded from Equatorial Guinea was found in Monte Alén National Park in Equatorial Guinea, although confirmation of the taxonomic identity of this population is needed.	eng
54894	distribution		This species is known from Cameroon where it has been recorded from Mounts Manenguba, Nlonako, Kupe and Nta Ali, and at Fotabong in western Cameroon, and on the mountains around Yaoundé (Kala and Mbam-Minkoum) in southern Cameroon. There is also one specimen recorded from Equatorial Guinea on Monte Alén, although this may be another species and requires confirmation. Its altitudinal range is from 800-1,050m asl. It probably also occurs on the southern and western slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, and perhaps also on the Obudu Plateau in eastern Nigeria.	eng
54894	habitat		It is associated with rocks in streams and waterfalls in forest and degraded secondary habitats at the lower limit of the submontane zone, although it has also been found in leaf-litter away from water. On Mount Manenguba it occurs at a lower altitude than <em>Werneria tandyi</em>, although their ranges might overlap slightly. It breeds in streams.	eng
54894	population		It has been found to be reasonably common in suitable habitat within its small range.	eng
54894	threats		This species is presumably affected by habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
54895	conservation	Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It does not occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining forest habitat on Mount Cameroon and Mount Kupe is urgently needed.  An ecotourism project has been established at Mount Kupe for some time, which aims to reduce hunting and agricultural expansion, and the area has been proposed as a Strict Nature Reserve (Réserve Écologique Intégrale). Further survey work is needed to confirm the existence and status of the population in Togo.	eng
54895	distribution	Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species is known from the lower slopes of Mount Cameroon at 700-1,200 m asl, from Mount Kupe around 900 m asl. The taxonomic status of the highly disjunct population from the highlands of west-central Togo ("Bismarkberg") is unclear, and there have been no records from Togo for more than 100 years.  It possibly has a wider range across the Cameroonian highlands than is currently known.	eng
54895	habitat	Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is associated with rocky streams and waterfalls in submontane forest and degraded secondary habitats. The lack of permanent streams at high elevations on Mount Cameroon probably imposes an altitudinal limit on the species in this part of its range, since it breeds in streams and lives exclusively in and around water.	eng
54895	population	Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is common, perhaps even abundant, in suitable habitat on Mount Cameroon. A survey in eastern Ghana in 2001 very close to the Togo highlands failed to recover this species.	eng
54895	threats	Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
54896	conservation		It may occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve, although this is not managed for biodiversity conservation; increased protection of the montane forest habitats in western Cameroon is rather urgently needed, particularly on Mount Manenguba.	eng
54896	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Manenguba and the Rumpi Hills in western Cameroon, though its range is not well understood. Its altitudinal range on Mount Manenguba is from 1,300-1,750m asl, and the single specimen from the Rumpi Hills was collected at 1,000m asl.	eng
54896	habitat		It lives on the verges of fast-flowing streams in submontane forest and degraded secondary habitats, where several individuals may cluster together on rocks in the splash zone. On Mount Manenguba it lives at a higher altitude than <em>Werneria merteniana</em>, but at lower elevations than <em>W. bambutensis</em>. It breeds in streams.	eng
54896	population		It is common within its limited range.	eng
54896	threats		It is presumably at risk from forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
54897	conservation		A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered in view of possible effects of climate change. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status and breeding habits of this species.	eng
54897	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the summit of Mount Oku at 3,000m asl in the Bamenda Highlands in western Cameroon. In view of the absence of suitable vegetation at other localities in Cameroon, this species is probably endemic to this area.	eng
54897	habitat		It lives in Afro-Alpine vegetation and grassland at the summit of Mount Oku. Its breeding habits are unknown, but since it lives above the water limit on Mount Oku, it is presumably either a live-bearer or a direct-developer laying eggs on the ground.	eng
54897	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
54897	threats		The habitat at the summit of Mount Oku is threatened by overgrazing and fire. Because it is a high-altitude species with a very limited range, it is potentially affected by climate change.	eng
54898	conservation		A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species (assuming that it occurs there).	eng
54898	distribution		This species is known from western Cameroon on Mount Oku (at 2,500m asl) and Mount Meletan at 2,200-2,700m asl in the Bamboutos Mountains. Both localities are within the Bamenda Highlands. There is some doubt as to the validity of the record from Mount Oku (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).	eng
54898	habitat		This is a species of montane grassland that retreats to areas near streams and small watercourses in bamboo forest in the dry season. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it is likely to breed in streams.	eng
54898	population		It was reported to be abundant on Mount Meletan.	eng
54898	threats		This species is almost certainly at risk from fire, overgrazing, and forest loss due to agriculture. Habitat damage is very severe in the Bamboutos Mountains.	eng
54899	conservation		It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but there is a need for improved protection of other sites at which the species is known to occur.	eng
54899	distribution		This species is known from eastern Nigeria on the Obudu Plateau and the higher parts of the Oban Hills, and from a number of montane localities in western Cameroon, including Mount Cameroon, the Rumpi Hills, Mount Kupe, Mount Manenguba, the Mbos Cliffs, and Foto. It is also known from Mount Kala and Mount Mbam-Minkoum near Yaoundé in southern Cameroon. Its altitudinal range is 800-2,000m asl.	eng
54899	habitat		It is confined to montane forest near streams and small waterfalls, and requires forest with a closed canopy. It moves further from watercourses during the rainy season. It presumably normally breeds in streams, though tadpoles have been found in a water tank.	eng
54899	population		It is generally uncommon.	eng
54899	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, which is continuing over much of its range.	eng
54900	conservation		One of the places in which it occurs (Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce) is a protected area.	eng
54900	distribution		This species occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales, and along Río Luisito, Santander Department, Colombia, from 1,700-2,000m asl.	eng
54900	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to running streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on the vegetation, and the larvae develop in the streams.	eng
54900	population		It was known to be common at least until 1987. Since then, no survey work has been conducted for this species.	eng
54900	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54901	conservation		Populations of this species are found within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.	eng
54901	distribution		This species is known from the Albarregas River and its tributaries in Monte Zerpa, north of the city of Mérida, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from altitudes between 1,975 and 2,400m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are still very unclear.	eng
54901	habitat		It lives on the upper surface of leaves about 2m above the streambed in montane cloud forests, where the eggs are also deposited. When hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
54901	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54901	threats		This species is sometimes threatened by periodic fast floods that devastate the margins of the streams, affecting the vegetation and the egg masses deposited there, which can result in the loss of the reproductive effort for one particular season. Introduced trout in the streams may prey on the species' larvae, and water pollution is also a threat.	eng
54902	conservation		The main priority is to limit the spread of trout. Some populations are found in protected areas, such as Sierra de Perijá and Sierra de La Culata in the Venezuelan Andes, and Guanenta Alto Rio Fonce Natural National Park in Colombia.	eng
54902	distribution		This species occurs in the Venezuelan Cordillera de Mérida and Sierra de Perijá, and in Colombia on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (in the Departamentos of Norte de Santandar to Cundinamerca), and on the Serrania de los Motilones. Its altitudinal range is 840-2,500m asl.	eng
54902	habitat		It lives in cloud forests and in montane evergreen dry forest, along mountain streams. The eggs are laid on vegetation over streams. It appears not to be affected by habitat loss in wider landscape, and survives even if tiny lines of trees remain along the sides of streams.	eng
54902	population		It is an uncommon species, but there are several recent records.	eng
54902	threats		This species has disappeared from streams where there are introduced trout.	eng
54903	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected areas.	eng
54903	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia and Caldas Departments, on the western flank of the central Andes in Colombia from 1,850-2,450m asl, and might occur a little more widely.	eng
54903	habitat		Its habitat is vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when hatched the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. The species requires gallery forest cover over the streams to allow it to reproduce.	eng
54903	population		It is a common species.	eng
54903	threats		Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat. Deforestation is only a localized threat at present, although desiccation and loss of overhanging leaves for breeding are potential problems in the future.	eng
54904	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Its distribution may overlap marginally with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Improved protection of the montane forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surveys are needed to determine this species' current population status.	eng
54904	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	This species is known from four localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Río Salado and the Cascada de San Rafael, Napo Province, Ecuador, and from 35 km southwest of San Francisco, Putumayo department, Colombia. It is found at altitudes of 1,300-1,900m asl.	eng
54904	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found in a bromeliad in the spray zone of a waterfall and on a cliff (Lynch and Duellman, 1973). It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
54904	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It is known to be rare; it was last recorded in 1979 and searches in 1999-2001 failed to turn up any individuals (Bustamante, 2002). However, the sampling effort throughout its range has probably been insufficient.	eng
54904	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation, as a result of agriculture and logging, are the main threats to this species. It is possible that chytridiomycosis may also have contributed to the decline. Predictions suggest that in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).	eng
54905	conservation		It may occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Further research into the distribution range and population status of this little-known species is needed, while the potential impacts of climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require investigation.	eng
54905	distribution		This species is known only from Fundo Nuevo Mundo (at 1,500m asl), a cloud forest of the Cordillera Azul in Huanuco Department, central Peru. It probably occurs a little more widely than is currently known, but it is believed to have a restricted range.	eng
54905	habitat		It is associated with stream habitats in montane tropical forest, where the trees are generally widely spaced and separated by 2-3m tall shrubland. Within this there are also wet depressions and small ravines, with slightly taller (4-9m) elfin forest. Eggs are deposited on leaves above streams, and larvae develop in the streams.	eng
54905	population		It is rare and poorly known.	eng
54905	threats		The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion from smallholder farming and human settlement.	eng
54906	conservation	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	The only protected area from which it is currently known is Yanayacu Biological Station.	eng
54906	distribution	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	Centrolene bacatum is known from three localities: 11.2 km west-southwest of Plan de Milagro (03 02′S, 78 35′W, 2350 m), Province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador; Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′S, 77 53′W; 2100 m), Province of Napo, Ecuador; and 35 km south-east of San Francisco (01 07′N, 76 49′W, 1950 m), Department of Putumayo, Colombia (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
54906	habitat	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	The species inhabits montane primary forest and to a lesser extent secondary forest. Individuals have been found on leaves approximately 130–200 cm above streams, where breeding takes place. Egg clutches are deposited on the upper side of different leaves. Egg clutches have been found to contain 16-20 eggs; embryos have a whitish coloration. Males call from the upper side of leaves (Guayasamin et al., 2006). The species reproduces in the month of April in permanent streams (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54906	population	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	Ten individuals of Centrolene bacatum were found at Yanayacu Biological Station during 3 years of inventory work; it is considered to be the most abundant centrolenid at this station (Guayasamin et al., 2006). At Yanayacu, calls of this species are frequently heard along streams, and it is considered to be relatively common (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54906	threats	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	The species' habitat is threatened by agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.	eng
54907	conservation		It occurs in the privately owned Reserva La Planada in Colombia, and could be in the binational reserve near Planada. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives, and, if necessary, an <em>ex-situ</em> captive population should be established.	eng
54907	distribution		This species is known from three nearby localities in Saloya River Valley in Ecuador (Pichincha Province), at 1,700-2,010m asl, and from the Pacific versant of Colombia, in the Reserva Natural La Planada, 1,780m asl, Nariño Department.	eng
54907	habitat		It lives on vegetation next to streams in humid upper montane forest. It breeds in streams and is probably not tolerant of degraded habitats.	eng
54907	population		In Ecuador, the most recent record is from 1989, and the species is no longer present in the Saloya Valley, and is apparently not in other nearby valleys. It has apparently declined seriously. In Colombia, many specimens were collected when it was first recorded, but there have been no recent surveys.	eng
54907	threats		The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.	eng
54908	conservation	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	There are several protected areas where it occurs, although other conservation actions may be contemplated in the event of positive detection of chytrid fungus in this species.	eng
54908	distribution	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	This species occurs in the Andes, including in the inter-Andean valleys from Colombia through to Ecuador, to Huancabamba in Piura Department in northern Peru, from 2100-3300 masl. All records of this species from Venezuela are now assigned to <em>Centrolene venezuelense</em>.	eng
54908	habitat	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	The species lives in montane primary and secondary forests, in páramo bushland and grassland, and in terrestrial bromeliads in inter-Andean valleys. It is nocturnal, sometimes arboreal, and lays its eggs on leaves above streams, the larvae then develop in these streams. In Ecuador, <em>C. buckleyi</em> seems to reproduce in the months of April and May in permanent streams. One clutch was found to contain 18 eggs (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54908	population	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	In Ecuador, at Yanayacu Biological Station, only three individuals of <em>Centrolene buckleyi</em> were found after an intensive 3-year inventory effort, suggesting that that this species is quite rare at this locality (Guayasamin et al., 2006). Elsewhere in Ecuador (e.g. Pilaló) the species was formerly abundant; however, it is now absent from these localities (Bustamante et al., 2005; J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008). It is still easily found in Colombia, while in Peru it is known only from two recent specimens.	eng
54908	threats	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	It appears not to be affected by habitat loss, surviving in areas with heavy human impact. The serious decline in Ecuador is thought to be due to chytrid fungus. However, predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).	eng
54909	conservation		It is not known currently to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54909	distribution		This taxon has been recorded from a non-specific locality in the Mérida Andes, in western Venezuela, at 2,400m asl.	eng
54909	habitat		There are no details regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54909	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
54909	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
54910	conservation		The species is not present in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed along the west slopes of Abra Tangarana.	eng
54910	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality on the west slopes of Abra Tangarana (1,080m asl) north-east of the San Juan de Pacaysapa, Departamento San Martin, in northern Peru. It is likely to occur more widely, but is believed to have a restricted distribution.	eng
54910	habitat		The area in which this species occurs supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. All individuals of this arboreal species were found on the upper surface of trees 1.5-2.0m above a small stream in a narrow ravine at night. Eggs are laid on leaves, and larvae develop in streams. This species needs the specific narrow microhabitat of flat damp areas with a constant source of water.	eng
54910	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54910	threats		The main threats to the species are unclear, but habitat loss, as a result of the expansion of agricultural activities, wood extraction, and human settlement, is likely to be the main threat.	eng
54911	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, but none in Ecuador. Further introductions of predatory alien fish should be prevented. The species is in need of close population monitoring given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54911	distribution		This species occurs in all three Cordilleras of Colombia from Antioquia, Caldas and Boyaca Departments, south to the north-western Andean slopes of Ecuador in Carchi and Pichincha Provinces. It has been recorded between 1,750 and 2,500m asl.	eng
54911	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest, where it can be found on vegetation next to running water or on rocks in streams and behind waterfalls. The eggs are placed on boulders in the splash zone of fast-flowing streams and waterfalls. It is a very territorial species, and the males guard the eggs. It is very susceptible to deforestation, and does not survive in degraded habitats.	eng
54911	population		It is localized, but can be conspicuous in its microhabitat. In Ecuador, the population at Quebrada Zapadores (Pichincha Province) appears to have disappeared.	eng
54911	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and deforestation, as a result of agricultural development (particularly the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other species in its family, it might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.	eng
54912	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species still survives.	eng
54912	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: San Francisco de Las Pampas, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador, at 1,800m asl.	eng
54912	habitat		It is found near streams in cloud forest. Reproduction is presumed to be via eggs laid on vegetation, with the tadpoles developing in water.	eng
54912	population		It has not been found since it was first described in the early 1980s. Intensive searching at Bosque Integral Otonga (near the type locality) has not turned up any individuals. However, the type region is large, and the species might have been overlooked.	eng
54912	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, due to small-scale agriculture and subsistence wood collection, is the primary threat to this species, but it might also have been impacted by chytridiomycosis.	eng
54913	conservation		Auyán tepui, the type locality of this species, is a protected Venezuelan Natural Monument within Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
54913	distribution		This species is only known from the summit and slopes of the Auyán tepui, in Bolívar State in Venezuelan Guayana, at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,900m asl. It might occur on other tepuis in Venezuela.	eng
54913	habitat		Specimens have been collected hanging on leaves and branches of vegetation over streams in montane forest. Eggs are laid on the undersides of leaves over water, and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
54913	population		It is a common species, especially seasonally during reproduction.	eng
54913	threats		It is not known if there are any threats to this species at present.	eng
54914	conservation		In Ecuador its distribution range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia.	eng
54914	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Western and Central Cordilleras in Colombia, from Antioquia Department, south to the Pacific versant of the Andes of north and central Ecuador (south to Cotopaxi Province). It has been recorded at 1,140-2,710m asl.	eng
54914	habitat		It lives on vegetation, usually along streams, but also beside still water, in cloud forest. It also lives near pastures, roadsides, but always close to forest. It breeds in streams and still pools.	eng
54914	population		It is a common species.	eng
54914	threats		The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54915	conservation		The range of this species is within the network of the following protected areas: Parque Nacional Natural Las Hermosas (in the páramo de las Papas), and Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. More research into its range, population status and ecological requirements is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the type locality. Unfortunately it is not safe to do research in this area at present because of security concerns.	eng
54915	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Paramo Guanacas in the central Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at around 1,900m asl. Ruiz-Carranza, Ardila-Robayo and Lynch (1996) rejected records from Risaralda Department, Colombia. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
54915	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to water sources in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water where they develop further. This species requires gallery forest to lay its eggs, and hence it is not able to persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
54915	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens. There has been no sampling for it since it was first collected.	eng
54915	threats		A major threat to its habitat is water pollution from agriculture. Deforestation is only a localized threat at present, although desiccation and loss of overhanging leaves for breeding are potential threats in the future.	eng
54916	conservation		This species probably has been recorded in several protected areas in Colombia, but is not recorded from any in Ecuador. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives, and, if necessary, an <em>ex-situ</em> captive population should be established.	eng
54916	distribution		This species occurs on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia in Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Risaralda Departments, south to the Tandayapa and Saloya Valleys, in Pichincha Province, Ecuador (where it has been recorded from four localities). Its altitudinal range is 1,900-2,400m asl.	eng
54916	habitat		It inhabits the upper elevations of cloud forest, surviving only in mature forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54916	population		It has disappeared from all known localities in Ecuador, the most recent record dating back to March 1979, although they might occur elsewhere in this country. In Colombia, it is very rare, and was last recorded in 1996. Overall, it appears to have undergone a serious decline.	eng
54916	threats		The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.	eng
54917	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur. Further research is needed to help better understand the threats to this species, and close monitoring of the population is recommended given the potential risk of chytridiomycosis.	eng
54917	distribution		This species is known only from forested slopes at elevations of 1,500-1,800m asl on the Pacific versant of the Cordillera Central in the department of Cajamarca in northern Peru. Its range is incompletely known, and it presumably occurs much more widely, but nevertheless probably has a somewhat restricted distribution.	eng
54917	habitat		Associated with streams in montane forest. At night, individuals were perched on the upper surfaces of leaves over streams; others were observed during the day resting vertically on upper leaf surfaces over streams where breeding occurred. Eggs are deposited on leaves above permanent and temporary streams, and larvae develop in the streams. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
54917	population		It is believed to be a common species; the type series is represented by 67 specimens.	eng
54917	threats		The threats to the species are not well known. It is probably susceptible to localized habitat loss as a result of livestock farming and selective wood extraction. It might also be vulnerable to the effects of localized climate change and infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54918	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of its range and its population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the type locality.	eng
54918	distribution		This species is known only from one stream at the type locality, in the municipality of San Jose de Isnos, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in Huila Department, Colombia, between 1,980 and 2,190m asl.	eng
54918	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to water sources or in streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. This species requires gallery forest to lay its eggs and hence it is very sensitive to the destruction of its forest habitat.	eng
54918	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a few specimens.	eng
54918	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation arising from the expansion of cattle ranching, desiccation of its forest habitat (due to deforestation), and water pollution.	eng
54919	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera de los Picachos.	eng
54919	distribution		This species occurs in the foothills of the east slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Caquetá and Meta Departments, Colombia, between 1,410 and 2,020m asl.	eng
54919	habitat		It occurs on vegetation along streams in premontane forest. It tolerates some degree of habitat loss. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
54919	population		It is common, with recent sightings.	eng
54919	threats		The loss of vegetation next to streamsides caused by the expansion of cattle ranching is a threat to local populations of this species. But generally its habitat is intact and it is not believed to be significantly at risk.	eng
54920	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubicki, Gunther Köhler, 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.	eng
54920	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubicki, Gunther Köhler, 2008	This species is known from scattered localities in humid lowland and premontane areas from southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica to western Panama, western Colombia (Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments), and northwestern Ecuador (provinces of Esmeraldas and Pichincha), and also from the caldera of the Río Grande de Tárcoles of central Costa Rica on the Pacific versant. Although the photograph of <em>Centrolene ilex</em> in Köhler (2001) is actually of <em>Cochranella spinosa</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007; Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007; Sunyer and Köhler, 2007) there are two additional verified records for Nicaragua (Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded up to 1,420m asl.	eng
54920	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubicki, Gunther Köhler, 2008	An inhabitant of humid lowland and montane primary and secondary forest, this species is usually observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. The eggs are deposited on leaves overhanging streams, and larval development takes place in these streams. It requires foliage over the streams, if the foliage is gone so is the species.	eng
54920	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubicki, Gunther Köhler, 2008	This species is difficult to find, but is regularly recorded from suitable habitat.	eng
54920	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubicki, Gunther Köhler, 2008	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat but there are no major threats to the species overall.	eng
54921	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
54921	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of 127km along the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén, on the north slope of the Sierra de Lema, Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 1,250m asl.@@	eng
54921	habitat		It occurs in montane tropical forest, where the single specimen that is known was found perched on the upper surface of a palm leaf about 2m above a stream. It is presumed that this species breeds by depositing eggs on leaves above streams, with the larvae developing in the streams.	eng
54921	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54921	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
54922	conservation		It has been recorded only from within the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo protected area.	eng
54922	distribution		This species is known only from the road between Pomacochas (in Florida District, Bongara Province), and Rioja Province at 2,000m asl in San Martin Department in northern Peru. The limits of its range are unknown.	eng
54922	habitat		This species is presumed to be associated with streams, as it was found at night on a bush in a stream in cloud forest. The area in which it was collected supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above streams, with larvae developing in the streams.	eng
54922	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.	eng
54922	threats		It is not clear what the major threats are to this species. There is a general regional destruction and loss of habitats through an increase in agricultural activities, selective wood extraction, and human settlement. Intervening valleys in the region are extensively cultivated. This species might also be at risk from chytridiomycosis, but this requires further investigation.	eng
54923	conservation	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	The known localities are not within protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the known localities.	eng
54923	distribution	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	This species is known from three sites: the type locality at La Guayacana, in the municipality of Tumaco, in Nariño Department, Colombia, at 100m asl; Tsejpu, Río Zapallo (150m asl); and Río Cachabí (200m asl), both in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It presumably occurs more widely, at least in the area between the known sites.	eng
54923	habitat	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	It occurs in tropical Pacific lowland rainforest. The first Ecuadorian specimen was found in mature forest away from streams. This species' breeding habits have not been observed, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other species of the genus.	eng
54923	population	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.	eng
54923	threats	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	Tsejpu, Río Zapallo is threatened by logging and might already have been cleared. The Colombian locality is presently not threatened.	eng
54924	conservation		Its distribution overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia, and further protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is necessary. Further research is needed to ascertain whether or not chytrid is a threat to this species; given the multitiude of current threats, including the impact of predatory fish, a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.	eng
54924	distribution		This species is known only from two general areas: on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental in Risaralda Department, Colombia; and seven localities on the western versant of the Andes in Ecuador in Pichincha Province. It probably occurs between these areas, but it is a rare species and hard to detect. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,600m asl.	eng
54924	habitat		It lives in cloud forest, including secondary forest, along streams, where it needs forest vegetation overhanging water, but it is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54924	population		It is known to have undergone declines in Ecuador, but has been seen as recently as August 2001. It appears to have disappeared entirely from some regions, such as the Río Faisanes area.	eng
54924	threats		The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include: deforestation due to agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.	eng
54925	conservation		It may occur in the Reserva Comunal El Sira. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this little-known species.	eng
54925	distribution		This species is known only from the Serrania de Sira at 2,000m asl, extending north-north-west to south-east between two large northward flowing rivers, the Río Pachitea on the west and the Río Ucayali on the east, in Huanuco Department, Peru, at 1,550-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but it nevertheless probably has a restricted distribution.	eng
54925	habitat		The fauna of the Serrania de Sira area apparently represent isolated relicts from Andean relatives that spread across the lowlands during periods of climatic depression in the Pleistocene. The area is cloud forest, and characterized by the presence of many bromeliads and moss. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.	eng
54925	population		The population status of this species is not known (its description was based on a single specimen).	eng
54925	threats		Although the area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some habitat disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the Serrania de Sira are being selectively logged.	eng
54926	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, John Lynch, 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the true population status of this species and, if necessary, an <em>ex situ</em> population should be established.	eng
54926	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, John Lynch, 2008	This species is known from several localities in Colombia (Florencia, in Caquetá Department, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, and Iconouz, in Tolima Department, on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental), and from the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes (Napo province). Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,800m asl.	eng
54926	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, John Lynch, 2008	It occurs on streamsides in montane cloud forests, including in secondary forest, providing there is good vegetation cover close to streams. It breeds at streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54926	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, John Lynch, 2008	It is common where it has been found in Colombia. In Ecuador, it is only known from one specimen (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
54926	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, John Lynch, 2008	There is very little information on threats to this species, but they are likely to include: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.	eng
54927	conservation		This species has been recorded only from within the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo protected area.	eng
54927	distribution		This species is known only from the road between Pomacochas (in Florida District, Bongara Province), and Rioja Province at 2,000m asl in San Martin Department in northern Peru. The limits of its range are unknown.	eng
54927	habitat		This species is presumed to be associated with streams, as it was found at night on a bush in a stream in cloud forest. The area in which it was collected supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above streams, with larvae developing in the streams.	eng
54927	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.	eng
54927	threats		It is not clear what the major threats are to this species. There is a general regional destruction and loss of habitats through an increase in agricultural activities, selective wood extraction, and human settlement. Intervening valleys in the region are extensively cultivated. This species might also be at risk from chytridiomycosis, but this requires further investigation.	eng
54928	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas (Rasgon, Estoraques and Guanentá).	eng
54928	distribution		This species occurs on both slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander and Norte Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,440m asl.	eng
54928	habitat		It occurs on vegetation on streamsides in cloud forest. It is not found outside old growth forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
54928	population		It is abundant, with many recent sightings.	eng
54928	threats		Habitat loss by cattle ranching and crop agriculture are threats to this species. Also, it disappears from streams where trout is introduced, such as in El Rasgon. But generally its habitat is intact and it is not believed to be significantly at risk.	eng
54929	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé.	eng
54929	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Inza, in Cauca Department, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central of the Andes, at 3,000m asl, in Colombia. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
54929	habitat		The only known specimen was found on vegetation along the side of a stream in sub-Andean forest. The larvae presumably develop in streams like other species of the genus, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
54929	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.	eng
54929	threats		Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat to this species, and human disturbance of the streams when planting illegal crops is also a problem.	eng
54930	conservation		More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
54930	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as "a small stream on Peters Mountain 3.6km north of Imbaimadai in the Pacaraima Mountains, 600m asl, in Administrative Region 7, Guyana, at 05° 44'N; 60° 18'W" (Noonan and Harvey 2000).	eng
54930	habitat		The type locality is in evergreen sclerophyllous forest. There is no information known regarding its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumably by larval development in streams.	eng
54930	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has only very recently been described, and which is currently known from only one specimen.	eng
54930	threats		There is nothing known about threats to this species, although the type locality is relatively remote and is not considered threatened at present.	eng
54931	conservation		It occurs in three Natural National Parks in Colombia: Farallones de Cali, Munchique, and Tatama. It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador. There is a need for further survey work in Ecuador to establish the current population status of the species in the wild.	eng
54931	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (in Pichincha Province, where it is known from three localities), north to the northern extent of the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,780-1,820m in Colombia, but has been found down to 1,350m in Ecuador. The Ecuadorian population appears to be isolated from that in Colombia.	eng
54931	habitat		It is a species of undisturbed cloud forest, and has not been found in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54931	population		In Ecuador, the species seems to have undergone a severe decline, and it has not been recorded in recent years. It remains uncommon in Colombia.	eng
54931	threats		The most likely cause of the severe decline of this species is the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats include deforestation, due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), fire, logging, and human settlement; the introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.	eng
54932	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for the protection of existing cloud forest fragments, such as the site known as "Pajarito".	eng
54932	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern flank of the northern portion of the Cordillera Oriental, Boyacá Department, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,200m asl.	eng
54932	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to or above streams in cloud forest, and can also occur in secondary forest. It lays its eggs on rocks in streams, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
54932	population		It is a common species.	eng
54932	threats		Deforestation due to agricultural activities (livestock ranching, and the cultivation of crops) is the main threat to this species.	eng
54933	conservation		It probably occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
54933	distribution		This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Río Salado, Río Azuelo and 16km from Santa Rosa in Napo and Sucumbíos Provinces, Ecuador, at 1,300-1,740m asl.	eng
54933	habitat		It is found near streams in cloud forest, and has been recorded over 3m above the ground. Eggs are presumably laid on vegetation, with the larvae developing in water.	eng
54933	population		First collected in 1971, this species was last recorded in 1977. Several trips to known localities where the species occurs have not turned up any individuals (e.g. Bustamante 2002); however, the area of available habitat in the vicinity of the type locality is large, and the sampling effort has probably been insufficient.	eng
54933	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation mainly due to smallholder farming and livestock ranching. It is possible that it may also have been affected by chytridiomycosis.	eng
54934	conservation	Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	In Ecuador, its distribution overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and within its range in Central America.	eng
54934	distribution	Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	This species ranges from eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, south to the Pacific slopes of Colombia and Ecuador. It is also found in Colombia on the northern and eastern flanks of the Cordillera Oriental south to Caldas, and in the Magdalena Valley. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
54934	habitat	Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	It is a nocturnal species of low vegetation in lowland tropical forests and in montane cloud forest, and is restricted to mature forest. It is occasionally found in disturbed habitats. It is frequently found near rivers and streams, so more common at higher altitudes. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water. The species has been found to exhibit strong site fidelity: in the course of two years, males in four headwater streams in El Copé, Panama, moved very little (mean = 2.33 m; mode = 0 m) (Robertson et al. 2008).	eng
54934	population	Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	This species is regularly recorded in Costa Rica. In Monteverde, Costa Rica, it has declined drastically since the mid 1980s. Other Costa Rican populations appear stable. In some sites such as Zarcero, it is the most common glass frog. The species is common in Panama and Nicaragua and moderately common in Honduras. It is common in Ecuador, and is moderately common in Colombia. It appears to be more common at higher altitudes, probably because of the presence of more stream habitats.	eng
54934	threats	Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Recorded declines in Costa Rica might be due to the disease chytridiomycosis, however this requires further investigation.	eng
54935	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
54935	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of Monte Duida, at 610m asl, in Amazonas Department in Venezuela.	eng
54935	habitat		The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
54935	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
54935	threats		There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
54936	conservation	Coloma, L.A., Ron, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	The species is not recorded from any protected area. Survey work is urgently required to determine the current population status of this species and the precise limits of its range. In addition, the few areas that still contain foothill evergreen forests require urgent conservation action (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
54936	distribution	Coloma, L.A., Ron, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from four localities clustered in two separate areas in the provinces of Napo, Orellana and Pastaza, Ecuador, between ca. 400-1,000 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006). It is apparently endemic to the foothill evergreen forests of the central section of the eastern Andean slopes of Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006). Its <span style="background-color: white;">extent of occurrence,</span> excluding degraded  unsuitable areas, is estimated to be close to 3,700 km² (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
54936	habitat	Coloma, L.A., Ron, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	It lives in lower sub-montane forest. The holotype was collected in the evening, after it had rained the previous day and night (Flores and McDiarmid 1989). Reproduction is presumed to be via eggs laid on vegetation overhanging rivulets or streams, with the tadpoles developing in water.	eng
54936	population	Coloma, L.A., Ron, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is only known from a handful of specimens, and it is considered to be a rare species (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
54936	threats	Coloma, L.A., Ron, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	Habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture and logging is the primary threat to this species. By 1996, the forest  at the type locality had been cleared. The remaining vegetation formation where this species is found has been reduced from a historical area of ca 13,200 km² due to intense anthropogenic activities, with much of the remaining forest in close proximity to areas of high human pressure (i.e., deforestation, agricultural activities and water pollution), and only about 10% of the remaining foothill evergreen forests are protected within  the Ecuadorian Protected Areas System  (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2006).	eng
54937	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
54937	distribution		This species is known from Filandia and Salinto in Quindio Department, and from Ucumari and Pereira in Risaralda Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Central, between 1,900 and 2,050m asl, in Colombia.	eng
54937	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, hence they do not tolerate much habitat disturbance.	eng
54937	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54937	threats		Although there are no major threats to the species overall at present, habitat loss and degradation,due to the expansion of cattle raising, and water pollution, are potential future threats. The invasive <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat, since it eats the tadpoles of this species.	eng
54938	conservation		Its range includes Reserva Regional Bosques de Florencia in the department of Caldas.	eng
54938	distribution		This species occurs north of the Cordillera Central in the department of Antioquia, on the eastern flanks of the Cordillera Central in the department of Risaralda, and on the western flank of the Cordillera Central in the department of Caldas, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 800-2,800m asl.	eng
54938	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in cloud forest. It lays its eggs on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below. It has also been recorded from secondary forests near water.	eng
54938	population		It is a common species.	eng
54938	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of agriculture, coupled with water source loss, and pollution from the fumigation of crops.	eng
54939	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54939	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl.	eng
54939	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation overhanging streams, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
54939	population		This is a rare species which has not been surveyed for since 1992.	eng
54939	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops. However, the overall condition of the habitat within its likely range is good, with extensive, undisturbed areas remaining.	eng
54940	conservation		This species occurs in the privately owned nature reserve (the Reserva Natural La Planada) at La Planada, Colombia. Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.	eng
54940	distribution		This species is known only from two localities at altitudes of 1,780 and 1,820m asl on the Pacific versant of the Andes: Tandayapa, in Pichincha Province, northern Ecuador; and La Planda, Nariño Department, in extreme southern Colombia.	eng
54940	habitat		This species lives on vegetation next to streams in humid upper montane forest. It presumably breeds in streams, with the eggs being laid on leaves overhanging the water into which the larvae drop and continue to develop.	eng
54940	population		It is known only from three specimens. There have been no records since the original description, probably because subsequent records have been assigned to <em>Centrolene lynchi</em>, with which it might be synonymous.	eng
54940	threats		If the threats to this species are the same as those facing <em>C. lynchi</em>, the most severe threat is likely to be the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of this species (this process is probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Additional likely threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out.	eng
54941	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
54941	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Magdalena Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 980 and 1,790m asl.	eng
54941	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to water sources in sub-Andean forests and cloud forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles fall in to the water below where they develop further.	eng
54941	population		It is a common species.	eng
54941	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as water pollution due to the fumigation of crops.	eng
54942	conservation		Its range includes several National Parks along the Venezuelan Cordillera de Mérida.	eng
54942	distribution		This species is known from the Andean Venezuelan states of Táchira, Mérida and Trujillo. It has been recorded between 2,100 and 3,050m asl.	eng
54942	habitat		It inhabits montane cloud forests, where it lives along cascading and other lotic watercourses, usually on overhanging vegetation. Like Centrolene buckleyi, it can probably survive in areas with heavy human impact.	eng
54942	population		It is a common species.	eng
54942	threats		Agriculture, crops and livestock, as well as flooding, might be impacting this species, but it is probably adaptable and not significantly threatened.	eng
54943	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.	eng
54943	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca, Santander and Tolima Departments, Colombia, between 1,130 and 2,060m asl.	eng
54943	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in premontane humid forest; it also occurs in secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
54943	population		It is common, with several recent records.	eng
54943	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (cattle ranching and crops).	eng
54944	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubiki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. It was recently recorded from the Parque Nacional Saslaya in Nicaragua (Köhler <em>et al</em>., 2004).	eng
54944	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubiki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is known from humid lowlands and premontane slopes from north-central Honduras to western Colombia (Chocó, Risaralda and Antioquia departments) and northwestern Ecuador (Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces), from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
54944	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubiki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is generally observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Populations can persist alond streams in pastures with minimal riparian growth (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). The larvae develop in streams. It is restricted to forest covered streams.	eng
54944	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubiki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is common and regularly encountered.	eng
54944	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Erik Wild, Brian Kubiki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat to the species habitat, but at present there are no major threats to the species.	eng
54946	conservation		The distribution range of this species appears to overlap with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and to ascertain the limits of its range.	eng
54946	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Río Azuela, Napo Province, in northern Ecuador, at 1,740m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely, but surveys elsewhere have not recorded it, and so its distribution is unlikely to be extensive.	eng
54946	habitat		It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found on a mossy limb of a bush about 1.5m above a cascading rivulet at night (Lynch and Duellman 1973). Its breeding is unknown, but is likely to take place in streams.	eng
54946	population		It has not been seen since its original discovery (one individual) in 1971. A few return visits to the type locality have not recorded it.	eng
54946	threats		At the type locality, patches of forest have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming.	eng
54947	conservation		The type locality is within a private reserve, which is part of a larger network of reserves. Maintenance of the habitat of this restricted-range species is essential to ensure its persistence, and it requires close population monitoring given its restriction to a single location.	eng
54947	distribution		This species is known only from near Boquerón at the base of Cerro Ingles, near Vereda La Amarillas, Município El Cairo, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,160m asl. Even though every stream within 5km of the type locality has been sampled, the species has not been recorded, suggesting that it has a very restricted range.	eng
54947	habitat		Specimens have been collected on vegetation next to an open stream in primary forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is likely to breed in streams.	eng
54947	population		It was reportedly a common species when collected.	eng
54947	threats		There are no major threats, but given its small range it is susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
54948	conservation		Its presence has not been confirmed from any protected areas, though it might occur in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Colombia. There is clearly a need for improved habitat protection of sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
54948	distribution		This species occurs between 400 and 800m along the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from El Tambito in Cauca Department, south to Ecuador. In Ecuador, it is known only from the type locality: Mindo, in Pichincha Province, at 1,540m asl.	eng
54948	habitat		It is an arboreal species, living on vegetation next to streams in humid lowland tropical forest and cloud forest. It seems to require closed forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging water.	eng
54948	population		It is reasonably common in Colombia, but there are no recent records from Ecuador.	eng
54948	threats		The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation).	eng
54949	conservation		Its range includes Amboro, Carrasco, El Palmar and Madidi National Parks.	eng
54949	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes, in the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, at 1,600-2,400m asl (Köhler 2000). Initially, it was known from 51.8km southwest of Tunari Village, Cochabamba Department (Cannatella 1980), and later it was reported in Sehuencas at 2,300m asl (De la Riva 1990), in La Siberia region between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz departments, and in La Yunga at 2,000m asl in Santa Cruz department (Marquez <em>et al.</em> 1996). It was reported from El Palmar in Chuquisaca department in 1997 (Harvey 1997).	eng
54949	habitat		This species inhabits wet montane forest including cloud and Yungas forest. It is an arboreal species, and can be observed perching on vegetation close to streams and small waterfalls, where it also breeds.	eng
54949	population		It is a common species. At present the population appears to be stable.	eng
54949	threats		Agricultural development, agricultural pollution and the development of roads are a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
54950	conservation		It is not currently known to occur in any of the Ecuadorian state natural protected areas. It is, however, protected at the Estación Biólogica Yanayacu.	eng
54950	distribution		This species is known from the type locality near Plan de Milagro, Morona Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,350m asl; and disjunctively at the Estación Biólogica Yanayacu, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,145m asl. Its distribution might be wider than is currently recognized, especially in the area between the currently known sites.	eng
54950	habitat		This species lives in cloud forest, where specimens have been collected from the upper sides of leaves and ferns within 2m of cascading streams (Wild 1994). It is found in old growth forest only. Eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
54950	population		Although it was common at Yanayacu in 2003, it was rare when it was collected near Plan de Milagro in 1984.	eng
54950	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging are threats to this species. It has what appears to be a very narrow altitudinal range, potentially making it vulnerable to climate change.	eng
54951	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Península de Paria.	eng
54951	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro El Humo and from a few kilometres north of Macuro, on the Península de Paria, in the eastern portion, in Venezuela. It has been recorded at altitudes of between 580 and 800m asl. It is known from only five localities, but it might occur more widely.	eng
54951	habitat		It occurs on vegetation overhanging and adjacent to cascading mountain streams, in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on the upper side of the leaves, and when hatched the larvae fall into the streams, where they develop.	eng
54951	population		It is common in the rainy season.	eng
54951	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development, selective logging and infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
54952	conservation		One of the localities from which it is known is within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
54952	distribution		This species is known from three localities on the western slope of the western Andes between 800 and 1,280m asl: Dabeiba and Frontino, both in Antioquia Department; and Mistrato in Risaralda Department.	eng
54952	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in very humid tropical forest and cloud forest. It presumably lays its eggs above the stream and the larvae then drop into the stream below, as with other species in the genus.	eng
54952	population		It is thought to be uncommon, and is currently known from only three specimens.	eng
54952	threats		The threats to this species include habitat loss due to timber extraction, cattle raising and agricultural development.	eng
54953	conservation		Further research is needed into this little-known species, including the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54953	distribution		The type locality of this species is the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).	eng
54953	habitat		The area in which it occurs supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. This species was found on the upper surface of leaves 1.5-2.0m above a small stream in a narrow ravine at night. It is an arboreal species. Eggs are presumably laid on leaves and the larvae develop in streams. This species needs the specific narrow microhabitat of flat damp areas with a constant source of water.	eng
54953	population		There is no information on its population status; it is currently known only from a single specimen.	eng
54953	threats		It is unknown what the threats are to this species, but they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.	eng
54954	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, 2008	Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
54954	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, 2008	This species is found on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern and southern Ecuador (Sucumbios, Pastaza and Zamora Chinchipe Departments), at elevations of 1,100-1,600m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
54954	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, 2008	It lives in montane rainforest along streams with steep gradients (Lynch and Duellman, 1973). Reproduction is presumed to occur via eggs laid on vegetation, with the tadpoles developing in the water.	eng
54954	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, 2008	This species is noted as being uncommon across most of its range.	eng
54954	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, mainly as a result of smallholder farming activities and clear-cutting of forests. Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).	eng
54955	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, but is adjacent to Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
54955	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the municipality of Urrao, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, between 2,330 and 2,490m asl.	eng
54955	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean primary forests, and requires canopy cover over streams. Eggs are laid on top of leaves, and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below. It is restricted to primary forest, as it requires overhanging branches for breeding habitat.	eng
54955	population		Its population status is unknown, but it is not thought to be a common species.	eng
54955	threats		Habitat degradation and loss caused by the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, and cultivation of illegal crops is a major threat.	eng
54956	conservation		Further research is needed into this little-known species, including on the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54956	distribution		This species is known only from two localities, firstly at 800m asl near to Tarapoto, and also at 730m asl at Cataratas de Ahuashiyacu on a north-west to south-east ridge north of Tarapoto Province, in San Martin Department, northern Peru. It is likely to occur much more widely.	eng
54956	habitat		The type locality (which is at 800m asl) is in the drainage of the Río Huallaga. The Cataratas de Ahuashiyacu (which is at 730m asl) is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rock walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders. In the type locality, the specimen was found at night on the upper surfaces of a vertical rock face about 3m above the ground in an area of dripping water. At the other locality the specimen was on a low bush next to a cascading stream at night. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in the streams.	eng
54956	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is currently known only from two specimens.	eng
54956	threats		The threats to this species are not known. Within the area there is deforestation through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. Local tourism is also a threat in the area, and the available habitat is very fragmented.	eng
54957	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.	eng
54957	distribution		This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca and Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,630 and 2,060m asl.	eng
54957	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in premontane and cloud forest, and has been recorded from secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
54957	population		It is common, and has recently been collected.	eng
54957	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat fragmentation and loss due to agriculture (cattle raising and crops).	eng
54958	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca and the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare.	eng
54958	distribution		This species is known only from the southern tip of the summit of Cerro Duida, at 2,140m asl, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela. It might occur on other mountain peaks in the area.	eng
54958	habitat		It occurs in shrubs in montane forest along streams. Its eggs are presumably placed on the upper surface of leaves, and the larvae then fall into streams where they develop.	eng
54958	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a few specimens.	eng
54958	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
54959	conservation		Further research is needed into this little-known species, including the potential impacts of localized climate change and potential infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54959	distribution		This species is currently known from two streams at the type locality: "the ridge above base camp (near Chorro Blanco, about 4-4.5km directly north-east of Monte Seco, Río Zaña, Cajamarca Department, Peru, at 2,610m asl" (Cadle and McDiarmid 1990); and from about 2.5km north-east of Monte Seco at 1,800m asl along a trail to Chorro Blanco, also in Cajamarca Department, Peru.	eng
54959	habitat		This is a montane tropical forest species. Individuals were active mostly on vertical rock faces in the splash or spray zones of waterfalls on rock ledges (upper and lower surfaces) in or around waterfalls, and on liverwort and moss-covered wet boulders in midstream. Many individuals were on rock ledges in waterfalls 6-8m high. Breeding was observed only along permanent streams at high altitudes. Given that all individuals were associated with rock faces near or in waterfalls and that no egg masses were found attached to vegetation, Cadle and McDiarmid (1990) considered that eggs of this species are attached to rocks.	eng
54959	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
54959	threats		The major threats to this species are not known. There is regional destruction and loss of habitat for livestock and due to selective wood extraction. Protected areas in the region are also threatened by these impacts.	eng
54960	conservation		The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica (two are volcanoes) and Panama. All known Costa Rican populations are within protected areas. It is also within a protected area in Colombia. The species appears to have disappeared in Costa Rica, and although this is marginal to the full range of the species, surveys are needed in Panama and Colombia to determine whether this decline is more widespread (Brain Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).	eng
54960	distribution		This species is known from scattered lowland and premontane localities from central Costa Rica (840-1,500m asl) and Panama (90-1,270m asl) to western Colombia (Choco, Antioquia and Risaralda departments from 100-1,650m asl).	eng
54960	habitat		It is an inhabitant of humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. It can be observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Larvae develop in streams. It is restricted to forest covered streams.	eng
54960	population		It is considered to be rare in both Costa Rica and Panama. It is fairly common in Colombia. As of 2007, there have been no recent records of this species from Costa Rica since 1986, despite directed survey efforts (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).	eng
54960	threats		In Panama the species is generally threatened by deforestation, but overall there are no major threats to the species. The causes of the decline in Costa Rica are not currently known.	eng
54961	conservation		In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. In Colombia it is known from two protected areas, Los Picachos Nature Reserve and Cueya de los Guacharos Nature Reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
54961	distribution		This species is known from the eastern Andes in Ecuador (Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests in the Eastern Subtropical Altitudinal Zone) and Colombia (departments of Casanare, Meta, Putumayo and Caqueta). It has been recorded between 300-1,000m asl.	eng
54961	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary cloud forest where it is usually found along the edge of streams. It breeds in permanent streams. It is not known from any anthropogenic habitats.	eng
54961	population		This species is common in forest.	eng
54961	threats		Smallholder farming of livestock and clear cutting of forests are a localized threat. Water and land pollution from illegal crops in Colombia is also a localized a threat. However there are no major threats to the species survival at present.	eng
54962	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as Parque Nacional Natural Nevado del Huila.	eng
54962	distribution		This species is known from Cauca, Huila and Tolima (Combeima) Departments, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, between 1,900 and 3,030m asl.	eng
54962	habitat		It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in sub-Andean and Andean forests. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs and hence are very sensitive to disturbance of their forest habitat.	eng
54962	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
54962	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting of forests and agricultural encroachment, due to the planting of illegal crops and cattle raising.	eng
54963	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
54963	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the southern slope of the Wilhelmina Mountains, Suriname. The type locality is within the range of 500-600m asl.	eng
54963	habitat		The type locality is within primary forest. There is no information regarding this species' breeding habits, though it presumably breeds in streams.	eng
54963	population		This species is known from only one specimen. Recent surveys of areas close to the type locality have not found this species but the type locality itself has not been resurveyed.	eng
54963	threats		There are no threats to this species at present as it occurs in a very isolated area.	eng
54964	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
54964	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species occurs in humid lowlands and premontane slopes from Atlantic slope eastern Honduras to central Panama and on the Pacific versant in humid upland or gallery forest situations from central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama, from 30-1,500m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
54964	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a nocturnal, arboreal species of humid lowland and montane forest. It may occur in suitable modified habitats (with some trees remaining), and is usually found in bushes and trees along forest streams. Eggs are deposited on vegetation overhanging streams; larvae develop in the streams.	eng
54964	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is regularly encountered in Costa Rica, and is considered to be common in Panama. There are few records from Honduras and Nicaragua.	eng
54964	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Generally threatened by both severe habitat loss resulting from deforestation, and water pollution.	eng
54965	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, while in Ecuador its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
54965	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, in Antioquia, Choco, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Nariño and Risaralda Departments, south to Cotopaxi Province in adjacent Ecuador. It is also known from the eastern slopes of the Cordlillera Central in the Department of Caldas, Colombia. In Ecuador it has been recorded from only five sites covering a relatively small area. It has been recorded at 1,780-2,650m asl.	eng
54965	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in montane forests, and is perhaps a little more arboreal than some other related species. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in selectively logged forest. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54965	population		It is very common in Colombia, but uncommon in Ecuador where it appears to have disappeared from Quebrada Zapadores in Pichincha Province, where it once occurred.	eng
54965	threats		The major threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Other threats include the introduction of alien predatory fish, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain sides as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.	eng
54966	conservation		Populations of this species occur in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá, and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
54966	distribution		This species is known from Choco, Antioquia, Valle de Cauca and Risaralda Departments, on the western flank of the western Andes, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is currently recorded as 1,900-1,960m asl but is presumably broader than this.	eng
54966	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in primary sub-Andean forests. Eggs are laid on the upper surface of leaves and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below where they then develop further.	eng
54966	population		It is very common.	eng
54966	threats		There are few threats at present to this very common species, because most of its range is in protected areas.	eng
54967	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas. However, additional habitat protection is required for this species, given its reliance on intact primary forest.	eng
54967	distribution		This species is known from three localities in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia, between 1,140 and 1,430m asl.	eng
54967	habitat		It is restricted to primary forest, occurring next to streams. It lays its eggs on the top of leaves in the canopy and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
54967	population		It is not a rare species but it is difficult to collect as it occurs high in the canopy.	eng
54967	threats		The main threats are habitat loss and fragmentation caused by the expansion of livestock ranching activities, timber extraction for subsistence use, and the planting of illegal crops.	eng
54968	conservation		The type locality is within the northern tip of Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.	eng
54968	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality: "La Playa, finca La Playa-La Primavera" (Ruíz-Carranza and Lynch 1996), in the municipality of El Tambo, in Cauca Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 1,200 and 1,500m asl.	eng
54968	habitat		It was found on vegetation along a stream in tropical primary forest. There is no information about its breeding habits, but it presumably lays its eggs on leaves, and the larvae then drop into the water, as with other species in the genus.	eng
54968	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen. There have been no surveys of the area since it was first collected because it is a dangerous place to visit, due to ongoing civil unrest.	eng
54968	threats		The cultivation of illegal crops and water pollution from agriculture are potential threats to this species' habitat.	eng
54969	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, and protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is urgently needed. Survey work is necessary to ascertain the current population status of this species; given the nature of some of the threats, an ex situ population may need to be established.	eng
54969	distribution		This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (at four locations in Napo Province: near Santa Rosa, Río Azuela, Río Salado, and Guacamayos), and also from the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Putumayo Department, Colombia. It has been recorded at 1,300-1,750m asl.	eng
54969	habitat		It inhabits mature, closed cloud forest, where it has been found on the leaves and stems of bushes and trees overhanging streams. It does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water.	eng
54969	population		It was most recently seen in Ecuador in 2000, and it appears to be very rare, having apparently disappeared from Río Azuela. There is no recent information from Colombia.	eng
54969	threats		The major threats include: deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Like some other centrolenids, this species might also be affected by the movement of the cloud layer up the mountain slopes as a result of climate change, resulting in reduced humidity within the altitudinal range of the species (probably exacerbated by habitat fragmentation). Chytridiomycosis may present a possible future threat.	eng
54970	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.	eng
54970	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia, Risaralda, Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments, on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia between 1,700 and 2,000m asl.	eng
54970	habitat		It occurs on vegetation away from streams in sub-Andean forests. Its breeding habits have not been observed, although it presumably breeds in streams.	eng
54970	population		It is a rare species.	eng
54970	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
54971	conservation		In Peru it occurs in the Manu Reserve Zone in Peru. Conservation units are present within its range in Brazil. In Ecuador its range overlaps with the Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
54971	distribution		This species' geographic range is from the Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. It is presumed to occur in southern Colombia, and is mapped as doing so, but there have not so far been any records from this country. In Peru it has been recorded from Panguana (200m) Dpto. Huanuco and Patikza (360m) Dpto. Madre de Dios. Elevation is to 360m asl.	eng
54971	habitat		Inhabits both primary and secondary lightly modified tropical forest (including seasonally flooded forest). Individuals are found on leaves and branches. Eggs are deposited of leaves above waterbodies; tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
54971	population		The population status is unknown.	eng
54971	threats		It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.	eng
54972	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54972	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54972	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
54972	population		It is a rare species, but nothing more is known about its population status as it has not been surveyed for since 1992.	eng
54972	threats		Habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species. The habitat around the type locality is in good condition.	eng
54973	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Amboró.	eng
54973	distribution		This species is known only from Santa Cruz Department, at the foot of the slopes of the Bolivian Andes. Records are from El Fuerte, Florida Province, at 1,600m asl, and La Hoyada and Mataracu, Ichilo Province, from 500-1,750m asl (Köhler 2000a; Lötters and Köhler 2000). It almost certainly occurs more widely.	eng
54973	habitat		It can be found in wet montane forest and in peri-Andean forests, specifically in Amazonian forests, in semi-humid montane forest, and in Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is an arboreal species that can be observed perching on wet sites next to streams (Köhler 2000a; Lötters and Köhler 2000). Egg clutches are deposited on rocks in streams.	eng
54973	population		Köhler (2000a) points out that if the environmental conditions are suitable it is easy to observe and is abundant.	eng
54973	threats		Water pollution from agriculture is a major threat.	eng
54974	conservation		This species occurs in the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require further investigation.	eng
54974	distribution		In central Peru this species is known along the Cordillera Oriental in Huancabamba (1,700m asl) and Valle del Perene (1,200m asl), in Pasco Department. In southern Peru it is known from Huanhuachayocc (1,630m asl), Ayacucho Department, and Cosñipata (1,700m asl), Cusco Department. It is likely that it occurs more widely.	eng
54974	habitat		In southern Peru, localities are in cloud forest at the start of the Andes. In central Peru, recorded localities are valleys (vegetation type not known) of the Amazonian drainage. Individuals have been recorded perched on herbaceous vegetation in cloud forest at night. It is not known if the species occurs in modified habitats. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.	eng
54974	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
54974	threats		In southern Peru it is threatened by loss and degradation of its habitat for human settlement and smallholder agriculture.	eng
54975	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
54975	distribution		This species has been confirmed from two widely separated localities on the Pacific slopes of the Andes: at Tandapey, Pichincha Province, and also at Paramba, Imbabura Province, Ecuador, at 780-1,460m asl.	eng
54975	habitat		It lives in premontane and montane forest and cloud forest, where it has been found 10m up in trees.	eng
54975	population		It has not been seen since 1973, despite repeated visits to one of the sites (Tandapey). It has not been found at Paramba since it was originally discovered.	eng
54975	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation primarily from the rearing of livestock, and logging, are threats to this species.	eng
54976	conservation	Fernando Castro, John Lynch, Taran Grant, 2008	The populations at La Costa are within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, and at Pialapi they are within the Reserva Natural La Planada (a regional reserve). One of the Ecuadorian localities is a protected area.	eng
54976	distribution	Fernando Castro, John Lynch, Taran Grant, 2008	This species is known from three localities in Colombia [Nariño Department (Pialapi); Valle del Cauca Department (Campe Alegre); and Cauca Department (La Costa), on the western flank of the western Andes in Colombia; and from three localities (Bosque Protector Mashpi, Rio Chalpi and Rio Anope, the latter two near the town of Saguangal) in the province of Pichincha, northwestern Ecuador (Yánez-Muñoz and Cisneros-Heredia, 2008). It is found between 500 and 1,250m asl.	eng
54976	habitat	Fernando Castro, John Lynch, Taran Grant, 2008	It occurs in rainforest on rocks in and beside streams, but all within the spray zone of the cascades of small streams. There is no information about its breeding habits, though it presumably breeds in streams. This species is a microhabitat specialist.	eng
54976	population	Fernando Castro, John Lynch, Taran Grant, 2008	Its population status is unknown. It might be rare, although there have been no surveys specifically targeting this species.	eng
54976	threats	Fernando Castro, John Lynch, Taran Grant, 2008	It is threatened by the expansion of agriculture, including the cultivation of illegal crops, and by water pollution and hydroelectricity schemes.	eng
54977	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54977	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 2,040-2,270m asl.	eng
54977	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
54977	population		It is rare, but it has not been surveyed for since 1992.	eng
54977	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
54978	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, 2008	Several protected areas are within the range of this species.	eng
54978	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, 2008	This species occurs in eastern Venezuela (one locality in Gran Sabana, estado Bolívar), southern Guyana, Suriname, all of French Guiana, central Amazonian Brazil (where it is known from only one area) (Lescure and Marty, 2001), Colombia (Amazonas department), and Ecuador (provinces of Orellana and Sucumbíos) (Guayasamin et al., 2006, 2008). It has been recorded from 90-900m asl.	eng
54978	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, 2008	It occurs alongside rivers, on leaves and branches of overhanging vegetation. It is an explosive breeder. It has been found in disturbed areas near streams (secondary forest and degraded habitats), and is apparently relatively adaptable to human disturbance.	eng
54978	population	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
54978	threats	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, 2008	Forest fragmentation, clear-cut logging and agriculture are only localized threats to the species' habitat and at present there are no major threats to the species overall.	eng
54979	conservation		Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54979	distribution		This is a little-known species, currently known only from Tutumbaro (at 1,840m asl) on the Río Piene, Ayacucho Department, in southern Peru. It might be more widespread than this.	eng
54979	habitat		The type locality is a disturbed cloud forest in a river valley with bamboo, ferns and elephant's ear plants. The individuals were recorded calling at night from the upper sides of leaves of herbaceous vegetation and elephant's ear plants within 1m of a slow stream. Eggs are presumably laid on leaves, with larval development in streams.	eng
54979	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has been collected only once. Four adult males were used to describe this species.	eng
54979	threats		The threats to this species are not known. The area in general is subject to loss and degradation of habitats due to human colonization and agricultural development.	eng
54980	conservation		The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus on this species require further investigation.	eng
54980	distribution		This species is known from two areas in Cuzco Department in southern Peru (Pistipata and Machu Pichu), and from a single locality in central La Paz, Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of 1,820-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, particularly in localities between the two currently known sites.	eng
54980	habitat		This species is strongly associated with streams. At Pistipata, the vegetation consists of coffee and tea plantations with remnants of cloud forest. In Bolivia it has been collected in primary montane forest. Individuals call on rainy nights, on herbaceous plants on dripping wet cliffs and the upper sides of leaves over water, all adjacent to streams. Egg clutches are laid on the tips of the upper surfaces of the leaves, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
54980	population		It is common in Peru, but uncommon in Bolivia.	eng
54980	threats		It is unclear what the threats are to this species, which is possibly impacted by the loss and degradation of its habitats for human colonization and agricultural development, although in Peru it seems to survive well in coffee and tea plantations.	eng
54981	conservation		The range of the species in Colombia does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection of sites where this species is known to occur. In Ecuador the species is found at Yanayacu Biological Station.	eng
54981	distribution		This species is known from Caldas (Samaná), Cauca (Inza) and Huila (San Jose Isnos) departments on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, between 1100 and 2800 masl. It is also known from the cloud forests surrounding Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′ S, 77 53′ W; 2100 m) in Ecuador (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
54981	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean and Andean forests, on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are sensitive to any disturbance of their forest habitat. <br/><br/>Calling activity has been reported for the month of June (Guayasamin et al., 2006). The species requires of a permanent source of water for its reproduction (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54981	population		In Ecuador, three individuals were collected during 3 years of inventory work, so it appears to be extremely rare here (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008). It appears to be a more common species in Colombia.	eng
54981	threats		Threats to this species include habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.	eng
54982	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas.	eng
54982	distribution		This species is known from Valle del Cauca Department, northwards through Choco and Risaralda departments to Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 900 and 1,450m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54982	habitat		It occurs in rainforests and sub-Andean forest, and is often found on vegetation along streams (being restricted to streams with canopy cover). It lays its eggs on the upper surface of leaves and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below.	eng
54982	population		It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
54982	threats		The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (cattle raising and planting of illegal crops), and water pollution.	eng
54983	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, hence there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where it is known to occur.	eng
54983	distribution		This species is known from Tolima, Antioquia and Caldas Departments on the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, between 500 and 930m asl, in Colombia. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
54983	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean forests, on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are very sensitive to habitat disturbance.	eng
54983	population		It is a very common species.	eng
54983	threats		The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to the expansion of agriculture (cattle raising and planting of illegal crops), and water pollution. A small white fly lays its eggs within the eggs of this species, resulting in egg mortality.	eng
54984	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
54984	distribution		This species is known from three localities in Antioquia (at Las Orquideas) and Choco (at Opogado and Jurado) Departments on the western flank of the western Andes, between 20 and 820m asl.	eng
54984	habitat		It occurs in lowland rainforest on vegetation along streams. It is presumed to lay its eggs on the top of leaves and the larvae when hatched to drop into the stream below, like other species of the genus. This species is restricted to streams with good forest cover.	eng
54984	population		It is an uncommon species, but there is not much known in general about its population status.	eng
54984	threats		The threats to it are minimal as one locality is in a well-protected area and the other known localities are forests that are currently not threatened by human activities.	eng
54985	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia or Ecuador, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
54985	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in Amazonian Ecuador (Santa Cecilia), from one location in Colombia (south-western Putumayo), and has recently been reported for the Alto Cainarachi Valley, department of San Martín, Peru (see Torres-Gastello et al. 2007). It occurs between 300 and 400 masl.	eng
54985	habitat		It occurs in lowland tropical primary and secondary rainforests, and sub-Andean forests, on vegetation next to running water sources like streams. The holotype was found in primary rainforest (Lynch and Duellman 1973). It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. The eggs are laid on leaves above the streams, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below.<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
54985	population		This is thought to be a rare species in Colombia, but there is no information on population status in Ecuador or Peru.	eng
54985	threats		The species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, as a result of agricultural expansion (including the planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.	eng
54986	conservation		It is not known to occur within a protected area.	eng
54986	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Benjamin Constant, Alto Solimões, Amazonas State, Brazil), and also from Leticia, Amazonas Department, Colombia.	eng
54986	habitat		It occurs and reproduces along forest streams, where it lays its eggs on vegetation above streams into which the larvae drop and develop.	eng
54986	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which was only recently found in Colombia.	eng
54986	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the sites near Leticia are threatened by logging.	eng
54987	conservation		The population occurs in a Natural Monument within the Parque Nacional Serrania de la Neblina. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known only from a single location.	eng
54987	distribution		This species is endemic to Cerro Aracamuni, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1,600m asl.	eng
54987	habitat		It lives and reproduces (by larval development) within terrestrial bromeliads in montane forest.	eng
54987	population		It is a rare species.	eng
54987	threats		There are no current major threats, but the restricted range of this species makes it vulnerable to threatening processes.	eng
54988	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at the sites where it is known to occur.	eng
54988	distribution		This species is known from Tolima (Falan near Mariquita), Antioquia (Anori), and Caldas Departments, between 1,100 and 2,000m asl, in Colombia. It is believed to occur more widely.	eng
54988	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves over-hanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs and hence are sensitive to any habitat disturbance.	eng
54988	population		It is a common species in Tolima, but is thought to be uncommon in Antioquia.	eng
54988	threats		The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.	eng
54989	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.	eng
54989	distribution		This species is known from both slopes of the western Andes, between Cauca and Risaralda Departments, and on the western slope of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 2,100 and 2,470m asl.	eng
54989	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. It lays its eggs on leaves above the water and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the stream below where they develop further. It is restricted to gallery forest due to its requirement for overhanging branches for breeding habitat.	eng
54989	population		It is not a particularly common species.	eng
54989	threats		The major threats are habitat loss, due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54990	conservation		Its range includes the Reserva Regional Bosques de Florencia and the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
54990	distribution		This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Quindio and Risaralda, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in the department of Caldas, and on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,400-2,410m asl.	eng
54990	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation next to running water such as streams. The eggs are laid on leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles fall into the water below where they develop further. It is also recorded from secondary forests.	eng
54990	population		It is a common species.	eng
54990	threats		The major threat is forest loss due to agriculture, both crops and livestock, and pollution (as a result of the fumigation of crops).	eng
54991	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but the type locality at least is in need of some formal protection or management.	eng
54991	distribution		This species is known only from one locality (two sites in close proximity to each other) at 800m asl on the south slope of the north-west-south-east range of the mountains immediately to the north of Tarapoto Province, San Martin Department, in northern Peru. It probably occurs more widely, but it is still likely to have a restricted distribution.	eng
54991	habitat		The type locality is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rocky walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders. The species was found perched on ferns on boulders, but most were on the boulders within 10cm of the waterline at night. They breed in streams, with eggs laid on leaves above water.	eng
54991	population		It is a common species at the type locality, and was described from a series of 31 adult males.	eng
54991	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, as well as the impacts of tourism. The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus require further investigation.	eng
54992	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador.	eng
54992	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador (at elevations of 1,310-1,700m asl) and in Ayacucho Province, southern Peru. The Peruvian specimens might refer to a distinct species (Duellman and Schülte, 1993). A similar form occurs in Putumayo Department, Colombia; however, further collections are required for taxonomic confirmation of this population (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005).	eng
54992	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It lives near streams in pre-montane forest (Lynch and Duellman 1973; QCAZ database). It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
54992	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	In Ecuador, it has disappeared from the type locality (Río Salado) and several other localities, but one specimen was seen in Azuela in 1998.	eng
54992	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, due mainly to the activities of smallholder farmers and as a result of logging. Given its narrow altitudinal range, its decline in Ecuador might be related to the impacts of climate change.	eng
54993	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
54993	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental, Florencia, in Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,410m asl.	eng
54993	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest, including secondary forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the streams.	eng
54993	population		It is rare, but it has not been surveyed for since 1992.	eng
54993	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle raising and the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
54994	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Manu. Further research into the distribution of this species is required as well as into the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54994	distribution		This species is known from two localities in Peru: Cosñipata (Cusco Department, at 1,700m asl) in the southern montane forest and Perene Valley (Pasco Department, at 1,200m asl) in the central montane forest. It is believed to occur in suitable intervening habitat.	eng
54994	habitat		Its habitat is montane primary and secondary tropical forest, close to streams. Individuals have been recorded calling at night from the upper sides of leaves of herbaceous plants adjacent to a small stream. It is not present in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited on leaves, and larvae develop in streams.	eng
54994	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54994	threats		In the Perene Valley it is threatened by agriculture (coffee, tea and coca cultivation) and human settlement.	eng
54995	conservation		The range of the species is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of its range, its population status and potential threats is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
54995	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Caldas Department, Colombia, between 1,850 and 1,940m asl.	eng
54995	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation alongside streams. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the water and when they hatch the larvae drop into the water below where they develop further. This species therefore requires gallery forest to lay their eggs; hence it is sensitive to any kind of habitat disturbance.	eng
54995	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54995	threats		The threats to it are currently unknown.	eng
54996	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Eric Berlin, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and Central America, but not in Ecuador. It was recently observed in the Indio-maiz Reserve in Nicaragua (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).	eng
54996	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Eric Berlin, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species occurs from eastern Honduras, through Costa Rica to eastern Panama, through the lowlands of western Colombia south to Río Palenque in Ecuador. It is known only from a single locality in Ecuador. There are a number of recently published records of this species in Nicaragua (Sunyer and Köhler, 2007), and it has recently been observed at the Indio-maiz Reserve in Nicaragua (Eric Berlin pers. comm. 2007). It is found up to 650m in Costa Rica and up to 800m asl in Panama. The photograph of <em>Centrolene ilex</em> in Köhler (2001) is of <em>Cochranella spinosa</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007; Gunther Köhler pers. comm. 2007). The species was erronously recorded from Rincon, Oca Peninsula, Costa Rica by Savage (2002) (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).	eng
54996	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Eric Berlin, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Occurs along streams in the low vegetation of lowland primary humid lowland forest. Animals are generally observed in riparian bushes and trees. Unlike other members of the genus the female deposits eggs on the underside of vegetation overhanging streams; the larvae develop in streams. It has not been found in degraded areas.	eng
54996	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Eric Berlin, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a common species in Colombia, but is uncommon in Ecuador. It is regularly encountered in Costa Rica and Panama, but is uncommon in Honduras.	eng
54996	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Brian Kubicki, Eric Berlin, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
54997	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where it is known to occur.	eng
54997	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Tolima, Caldas and Antioquia, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, between 400 and 1,650m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than these records suggest.	eng
54997	habitat		It occurs in sub-Andean forests on vegetation along streams. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water and when they hatch the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. They require gallery forest to lay their eggs, and hence are sensitive to any habitat disturbance.	eng
54997	population		It is a common species.	eng
54997	threats		The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.	eng
54998	conservation		The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus on this species require further investigation.	eng
54998	distribution		The type locality of this species is the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).	eng
54998	habitat		The type locality supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. Individuals have been recorded at night perched on the upper surfaces of ferns, leaves of trees and herbaceous vegetation at the edge of, or overhanging, a small cascading stream in a narrow rocky ravine. All individuals were less than 2m above the ground or water. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
54998	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described from two adult males and one adult female.	eng
54998	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, although they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural development, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.	eng
54999	conservation		It occurs entirely within Parque Nacional Manu. Further research is needed concerning the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
54999	distribution		This species is known only from Cosñipata (at 1,700m asl), in Cuzco Department in the Andes in southern Peru.	eng
54999	habitat		Its habitat is tall primary and secondary Amazonian cloud forest with some tree ferns and bromeliads and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. Individuals have been recorded perched on and calling from the upper sides of ferns along a dripping cliff at night (this species is often close to streams and waterfalls). Eggs are deposited on leaves and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
54999	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
54999	threats		There are no major threats to this species. A road passes through the park in which it is found, but this is not believed to be a significant threat.	eng
55000	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Península de Paria.	eng
55000	distribution		This species is endemic to Cerro El Humo, in Península de Paria, Sucre State, Venezuela, between 750 and 780m asl. Its distributional limits are still unknown.	eng
55000	habitat		It inhabits tropical humid forests, where it occurs along streams. It lays its eggs on the upper sides of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55000	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55000	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development and the clearance of vegetation overhanging streams.	eng
55001	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas.	eng
55001	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Risaralda and Antioquia on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, between 800 and 2,060m asl.	eng
55001	habitat		It occurs on vegetation next to streams in sub-Andean forests. It lays its eggs on the top of leaves and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below where they develop further. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
55001	population		It is a common species.	eng
55001	threats		The major threats are habitat fragmentation and loss, due to agricultural expansion (including planting of illegal crops) and timber extraction, and water pollution.	eng
55002	conservation		Some populations are within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande in Aragua State. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
55002	distribution		This species is known from the northern versants of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, in the central region, and from the Cerro Azul, in Cojedes State, in the Serranía del interior. It has an altitudinal range between 220 and 1,200m asl.	eng
55002	habitat		It occurs in cloud forests and gallery forests. It lays its eggs on either side of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55002	population		The current population status of this species is not known.	eng
55002	threats		Threats to this species are unknown, but the main threat is likely to be habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, logging, burning, and human settlements. The Venezuelan Coastal Range is a highly modified habitat.	eng
55003	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, 2008	Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali in Colombia, and Parque Nacional Darién in Panama.	eng
55003	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, 2008	This species is known from the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda, Chocó and Antioquia on the western flank of the western Andes, in Colombia, between 45 and 1,570m asl, from the provinces of Esmeralda and Imbabura, in Ecuador, and from the eastern cordilleras in the south-west of Darién Province in Panama.	eng
55003	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, 2008	It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforests, and sub-Andean forests, on vegetation next to streams. It lays its eggs on the lower surface of leaves and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below.	eng
55003	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55003	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, 2008	Localized threats to this species are habitat fragmentation and loss due to the expansion of agriculture, including the cultivation of illegal crops, and water pollution.	eng
55004	conservation		The range of this species is overlap with the Parque Nacional Manu. In Bolivia it is present in Pilon Lajas; Madidi; Cotapata and Amboro protected areas.	eng
55004	distribution		This species is known in Bolivia from Departamentos Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz. In Peru, it is known from several localities [Cosñipata (1,700m) (Departamento Cusco) and Tutumbaro (1,840m), (Departamento Ayacucho)] in cloud forest of the Cordillera Oriental. It has an altitudinal range of 300-2,000m asl.	eng
55004	habitat		An arboreal species associated with streams and edges of large rivers, from lowland to upland primary and slightly disturbed forest. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging the streams; the larvae develop in streams. The site at Tutumbaro (Peru) is a disturbed cloud forest in a river valley with bamboo, ferns and elephants ear plant. Individuals have been recorded calling at night from upper sides of leaves of herbaceous plants and elephants ear plant within 1m of a slow stream. Several of the males were observed calling from the undersides of leaves 1-3m above stream at night.	eng
55004	population		It is common in Bolivia, uncommon in Peru.	eng
55004	threats		There are no threats to the species in Bolivia; threats in Peru are not known. Good river quality is the main requirement for this species. The potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus for this species requires further investigation.	eng
55005	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Río Patuca, and it has been collected at the edge of the Río Platano and the Asang Launa Tawahka Biosphere Reserves.	eng
55005	distribution		This species is found in west-central Honduras along the middle portion of the Río Patuca, western Olancho and Quebrada Las Marias near La Colonia, north-western Olancho, at elevations of 100-700m asl.	eng
55005	habitat		It occurs and breeds along streams in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest.	eng
55005	population		It is moderately common but the population is decreasing.	eng
55005	threats		The main threats to the species are deforestation, forest fires, and water pollution. In addition, much of its range is threatened by the development of the Patuca 2 hydroelectric project.	eng
55006	conservation		The species' range includes a number of protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama. The Bahiasolano locality in Colombia is within Parque Nacional Natural Utría.	eng
55006	distribution		This species is known from the lowlands of south-eastern Costa Rica, and central and eastern Panama from 60-100m asl, and also from two localities in western Colombia (Jarado and Bahiasolano), both in Choco Department, from 0-200m asl. It probably occurs much more widely within its general range.	eng
55006	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest and pastures. In Costa Rica this species is most common in degraded habitat (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). Adults may be observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. Eggs are placed on the underside of smooth leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae drop into the water below where they complete their development.	eng
55006	population		It was recently rediscovered in Costa Rica, having not been reported in the country since the 1950s, although there is also a specimen that was collected in 1990 that was previously misidentified. It is now recognised as being a common species in Costa Rica that is not declining (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). There is often some confusion when identifying this species. It is common at some sites in Panama but is considered to be a rare species in Colombia.	eng
55006	threats		Certain populations of this species in Panama and Colombia are threatened by habitat loss, due to increasing agricultural cultivation and logging. There appear to be no major threats to this species in Costa Rica, where it is considered to be a very adaptable species found in disturbed habitats (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55007	conservation		The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55007	distribution		This species is known from the humid lowlands, premontane slopes, and lower areas of the lower montane belt of the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica, and the Pacific slope marginally in northwestern Costa Rica and from southwestern Costa Rica also on the Atlantic versant in central Panama (up to 1,580m asl). Some records from the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica may refer to <em>Hyalinobatrachium chirripoi</em> (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). In Colombia it is known from Tolima, Caldas, Boyaca, Cordoba, Antioquia, Risaralda, Choco and Valle del Cauca departments up to 1,800m asl.	eng
55007	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is observed in bushes and trees along forest streams. The larvae develop in these streams. It is restricted to the vegetation over the streams.	eng
55007	population		It is generally a common species throughout its range. The population declined drastically in Monteverde, Costa Rica, by early in the 1990s, but it has since partially recovered.	eng
55007	threats		General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat, but there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.	eng
55008	conservation		Some populations inhabit protected areas such as the Sierra de la Neblina, and Canaima National Parks. Others are protected within Natural Monuments, such as Cerro Jaua, Bolívar State.	eng
55008	distribution		This species was originally described from Pico Tamacuari, in Sierra de Tapirapecó, in Amazonas state in Venezuela, from 1,160-1,200m asl. It is now known to be widely distributed in the Guaianan Shield in Venezuela, in Amazonas and Bolívar States, at elevations between 300 and 1,850m asl. It is expected to be present in neighbouring Brazil and Guyana.	eng
55008	habitat		A nocturnal glass frog associated with vegetation along streams in tropical rainforest and montane environments in the Venezuelan-Guaianan shield. Males call from the undersides of leaves overhanging a rock cliff, 2-4m above a forest stream in a hanging valley. A clutch of eggs was found on the underside of a leaf.	eng
55008	population		It is a common species.	eng
55008	threats		It occurs in a region of very low human impact at present.	eng
55009	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species is still extant in the wild.	eng
55009	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Catacamas, Olancho department, east-central Honduras, at an elevation of 500-680m asl.	eng
55009	habitat		It was collected in vegetation along a small stream, in lowland moist forest. It presumably lays eggs in vegetation overhanging streams.	eng
55009	population		It is rare and is known only from a small section of a disturbed stream margin. It has not been seen since the first specimen was collected in 1967. McCranie and Wilson (1997b), collecting at the same locality, did not find this species.	eng
55009	threats		Habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is the major threat to this species.	eng
55010	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.	eng
55010	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in the Sierra de la Culata and the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, in the central part of the Venezuelan Andes, in Mérida State, between 1,800 and 2,400m asl. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
55010	habitat		It is found along cascading mountain streams in montane cloud forests. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams. The males care for the eggs, and then when they hatch, the larvae fall into the water below where they continue their development.	eng
55010	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55010	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, although in several parts of its range human activities such as agricultural development might have affected some populations.	eng
55011	conservation		Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
55011	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be a "waterfall in small forest stream on Cerro Yutajé" (Myers and Donnelly 2001), at 1,750m asl (at 5° 46'N; 66° 08'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela.	eng
55011	habitat		Specimens of this species were found perched near a little waterfall above a small stream in closed, mossy forest. It is a nocturnal species and males call upside down from the undersides of leaves in dense vegetation up to 3m above the ground. The larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55011	population		It was the only centrolenid heard or seen during a six-night search on Cerro Yutajé, where it was found to comprise a small group of fewer than 10 males calling in a concentrated area.	eng
55011	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55012	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection a much-needed conservation action for this species.	eng
55012	distribution		This species is known from two sites 50km apart, in Municipio Pajarito and Municipio Garagoa, in Boyacá Department, on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes, between 1,600 and 1,750m asl, though it might occur more widely.	eng
55012	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in cloud forest; the eggs are laid on the vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water. It also occurs in secondary forest.	eng
55012	population		It is a common species.	eng
55012	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by the expansion of cattle ranching and the planting of illegal crops. Pollution, resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops, is also a threat.	eng
55013	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. The populations of this species should be monitored as a matter of urgency to determine whether or not declines are taking place in suitable habitat.	eng
55013	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	This species occurs up to 1,700m asl in southeastern Brazil from the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo and southern Minas Gerais south to the State of Santa Catarina, though there are no confirmed records from the State of Paraná.	eng
55013	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous vegetation and trees usually in the immediate vicinity of running water in primary and secondary forest. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, the young hatching and falling into the water to continue their development. It is not found outside forest.	eng
55013	population	Paulo Garcia, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It is very common in some places, but there have been some apparent declines in others. It is not known whether or not these declines are real, or simply an effect of sampling.	eng
55013	threats	Paulo Garcia, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, selective logging, clear-cutting, dams and human settlement. The apparent declines noted in some places where suitable habitat remains are reminiscent of dramatic declines in other montane stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008).	eng
55014	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Brian Kubicki, 2009	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55014	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Brian Kubicki, 2009	This species occurs from Guerrero and Veracruz in southern Mexico, south through Central America to Colombia (in the Pacific lowlands south to Valle del Cauca, in the Middle Magdalena Valley, and on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental). Records from Venezuela are now referred to <em>Hyalinobatrachium guairarepanensis</em> (Señaris, 2001). Records from Guyana and Suriname presumably belong to undescribed species within this complex, but are retained here in <em>H. fleischmanni</em>, pending resolution of their status (although populations in Guayana are not mapped owing to lack of specification as the their location). The Ecuadorian records were removed from the synonymy of <em>Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni</em> by Ruiz-Carranza and Lynch (1998), and are now treated as <em>H. petersi</em>. It occurs below 1,680m.	eng
55014	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Brian Kubicki, 2009	It inhabits humid lowland and montane tropical and subtropical forest in bushes and trees along forest streams. It needs good vegetation cover, but can survive in secondary growth. It breeds in streams, with the eggs laid on leaves overhanging the water. In Costa Rica this species is known to tolerate substantial water pollution and habitat alteration.	eng
55014	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Brian Kubicki, 2009	It is a reasonably common species in South America. It is common in Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama, although it has declined substantially in Monteverde, Costa Rica and in montane areas in southern Mexico. At Monteverde, densities have declined from one male per metre of stream transect to a few males over several hundred metres. It is rare in El Salvador and uncommon in Nicaragua.	eng
55014	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Erik Wild, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Brian Kubicki, 2009	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, and declines in montane populations in Costa Rica and Mexico have been linked to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55015	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande.	eng
55015	distribution		This species is known from several localities in the Cordillera de la Costa, including La Sierra in Cojedes State, and Sierra de Aroa in Yaracuy State, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from 100-700m asl.	eng
55015	habitat		It inhabits montane forest environments, where it occurs along streams. It lays its eggs on the under side of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55015	population		It is probably an uncommon species.	eng
55015	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), as well as logging. Avalanches are a potential threat along the coast, especially during heavy rainfall periods.	eng
55016	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional El Avila and Parque Nacional Macarao. Further research is required to determine the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals may need to form the basis for the establishment of an ex-situ population.	eng
55016	distribution		This species is known from the central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range on the Cordillera de la Costa, at elevations between 720 and 1,000m asl.	eng
55016	habitat		It occurs along streams in seasonal (semi-caducifolious) forests. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55016	population		The population of this species is in decline, even in pristine habitats. It is associated with <em>Atelopus cruciger</em>, which has disappeared from almost all of its range, probably because of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55016	threats		Agriculture, logging, water pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement are all major threats to the species’ habitat. However, it is declining even in pristine habitats, suggesting that chytridiomycosis, or some other disease, may be playing a role in the observed declines.	eng
55017	conservation		Populations of this species are within Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
55017	distribution		This species is known only from Quebrada de Jaspe, in La Gran Sabana, Bolívar State, eastern Venezuela. It has an altitudinal range of 700-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
55017	habitat		This species is a tropical rainforest inhabitant that lays eggs on the leaves of overhanging vegetation along streams and rivers. The larvae fall into the stream below, where they develop further.	eng
55017	population		It is a common species.	eng
55017	threats		There are significant threats to this species' habitat arising from tourism.	eng
55018	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
55018	distribution		This species is only known from two localities in Venezuela, one in Bolívar State (Quebrada de Jaspe), and the other in Delta Amacuro State (Serranía de Imataca). At the first locality it occurs at altitudes between 850 and 1,000m asl, while at the second, in the Caño Acoima, it occurs at 25m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely, and it is likely to be present in neighbouring Guyana.	eng
55018	habitat		It is usually found on the upper surface of leaves in shrubs and trees along streams at about 2-7m above water level. It is also found in streams with jasper rocks. It lays its eggs on the underside of leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below, where they develop further.	eng
55018	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55018	threats		Logging is an ongoing threat to this species' habitat, and mining for gold and diamonds was a past threat.	eng
55019	conservation		It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, Alto Río Fonce and Area Natural Unica Los Estoraques.	eng
55019	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Norte de Santander and Santander Departments, Colombia, between 1,600 and 2,050m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55019	habitat		It occurs in riparian habitats in old-growth forests. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
55019	population		It is common, and there are many recent records.	eng
55019	threats		Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion (cattle ranching, planting of illegal crops, and especially onion farming) is the main threat to this species. Pollution, resulting from the fumigation of illegal crops, is also a threat.	eng
55020	conservation		It is not known if it is present in a protected area.	eng
55020	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on Peters Mountain, 3.6km north of Imbaimadai, Region 7, Guyana, where it was collected at 600m asl.	eng
55020	habitat		It is found in evergreen sclerophyllous forest. The animals were collected close to a shaded, fast-flowing stream, where they were found on leaves above the streams. The eggs are presumably deposited on leaves above tranquil sections of the streams, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
55020	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type series.	eng
55020	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55021	conservation		Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the potential impacts of localized climate change and possible infection with the chytrid fungus.	eng
55021	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality, the "west slope of Abra Tangarana, 7km (by road) north-east of San Juan de Pacaysapa (06° 12´S; 76° 44´W, 1080m [asl]), Provincia Lamas, Departamento San Martín, Perú" (Duellman and Schulte 1993).	eng
55021	habitat		The area in which this species was found supports lower montane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys are extensively cultivated. Individuals were recorded on the upper surfaces of leaves of trees 1.5-2.0m above a stream in a narrow ravine at night. Eggs are presumably deposited on leaves, with the larvae then developing in streams.	eng
55021	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described from two specimens: one adult male and one adult female.	eng
55021	threats		It is unknown what the threats are to this species but they are presumed to include habitat loss through an increase in agricultural cultivation, wood extraction and human colonization. The available habitat is very fragmented.	eng
55022	conservation		Delta populations lie within Parque Nacional Mariusa and Reserva de la Biósfera Delta del Orinoco.	eng
55022	distribution		This species is distributed along the Venezuelan Guayanan shield, in the States of Monagas and Delta Amacuro, in areas considered as flooded plains in the Orinoco river delta. It is known from lowland flooded areas, from sea level to 100m asl.	eng
55022	habitat		It occurs on the flooded plains of the Orinoco river delta. It lays its eggs on the underside of leaves over rivers and streams and flooded areas, and when hatched the larvae fall in to the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55022	population		It is a common species.	eng
55022	threats		The Orinoco delta is very important for oil in Venezuela and hence it is very vulnerable to oil spills and other pollution.	eng
55023	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ariadne Angulo, Javier Icochea, Andres Acosta, 2008	In Peru the range of this species overlaps with the Manu Biosphere Reserve. Known from the Limoncocha and Yasuní National Parks of Ecuador.	eng
55023	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ariadne Angulo, Javier Icochea, Andres Acosta, 2008	This species is present in much of the eastern Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador. The Peruvian population appears to be disjunctive from the Ecuadorian one; in Peru, the species is known from several localities: Cosñipata (1700 masl) and Quincemil in the region of Cusco, Piene (1840 masl) in the Ayacucho region (all in the Andes of southern Peru), Valle del Alto Cainarachi in the region of San Martín (Andes of northern Peru), and Panguana (200 masl) in the region of Huánuco (central Peru). In Colombia the species is known for departamento Meta (A. Acosta, pers. comm.). The altitudinal range of this species is 200-1840 masl.	eng
55023	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ariadne Angulo, Javier Icochea, Andres Acosta, 2008	Primary forest inhabitants in both cloud forest and lowland forest. Males were observed calling from the upper and lower surfaces of herbaceous leaves up to 2m above small rivulets. Breeds in small rivulets; eggs laid under leaves and fall into water to develop.	eng
55023	population	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ariadne Angulo, Javier Icochea, Andres Acosta, 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
55023	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ariadne Angulo, Javier Icochea, Andres Acosta, 2008	There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonisation.	eng
55024	conservation	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The range of the species includes Nouragues Nature Reserve, Trinité Nature Reserve and Kaw Nature Reserve in French Guiana, in Guyana it is found in the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve.	eng
55024	distribution	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This species is known from French Guiana (a dot-map of the distribution is given in Lescure and Marty, 2001) and central Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005). It has been recorded from 50-150m asl.	eng
55024	habitat	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This is a nocturnal, arboreal species that lives along fast-flowing streams and rivers in primary forest. It is usually found on the underside of leaves overhanging the river. Eggs are laid on these leaves, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
55024	population	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	It is a difficult frog to find, but it is not uncommon and can be found relatively easily when familiar with the call.	eng
55024	threats	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There are no major threats to the species, although near human settlements it might be experiencing some habitat loss, overall the vast majority of its habitat remains undisturbed.	eng
55025	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela. The rainforest in which this species occurs in Tobago is protected in the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. Taxonomic work is required to investigate whether or not populations of this species from Tobago represent a distinct species.	eng
55025	distribution		The nominal subspecies is known only from the eastern sector of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, with records from Serranía del Interior, Macizo de Turimiquire, and Serranía de Paria in the states of Monagas and Sucre, at elevations of 190-1,200m asl. The subspecies <em>H. o. tobagoensis</em> is recorded from north-eastern Tobago in Trinidad and Tobago. Reports from Colombia are incorrect.	eng
55025	habitat		A nocturnal species that lives on <em>Heliconia</em> vegetation over-hanging cascading streams about 2-6m above the water in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid on the underside of leaves, and the larvae develop in the water. It has been found only in mature, closed-canopy forest.	eng
55025	population		It is a common species across its range.	eng
55025	threats		In Venezuela, although some of its habitat is within protected areas, other areas are being lost due to human settlement and agricultural expansion. There are no known threats to the species in Tobago.	eng
55026	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the Andean population.	eng
55026	distribution		This species is known from Guacharaquita, in the state of Táchira, in the Venezuelan Andes at 1,768m asl, and from Mundo Nuevo, in the state of Cojedes, at 396m asl.	eng
55026	habitat		It occurs in evergreen dry forest in the Andes, and humid forests in the southern central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain tange. Eggs are laid on the underside of leaves in humid forest near streams, into which the larvae then fall to complete their development.	eng
55026	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55026	threats		The habitat of the Andean populations has suffered from intensive exploitation and degradation in the past, and these populations are now almost extirpated.	eng
55027	conservation		The range of this species is not currently within any protected areas. Management and conservation of its habitat, and the creation of a protected area, would help to conserve it. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is also needed.	eng
55027	distribution		This species is known from a small area in Santa Catarina State, in south-eastern Brazil. Knowledge of its range is very incomplete.	eng
55027	habitat		This species is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous plants and trees usually in the immediate vicinity of running water. It is known only from primary forest. It breeds in small streams, and possibly also in temporary ponds.	eng
55027	population		Its population status is unknown and there have been no recent collections.	eng
55027	threats		There is habitat degradation due to deforestation within its restricted range, as a result of agricultural development and logging.	eng
55028	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining cloud forest habitats is sorely needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
55028	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	This species is known from three localities: Río Azuela, Río Reventador and Río Salado, all in Napo Province on the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, at 1,740m asl.	eng
55028	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It lives in cloud forest. The holotype was found on the leaf of a herb over a small stream at night (Lynch and Duellman 1973). Reproduction is presumed to occur via eggs laid on vegetation, with the larvae developing in streams.	eng
55028	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	It was last recorded in 1979, when five specimens were collected from one site. The Río Azuela site has been revisited several times without locating any individuals.	eng
55028	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation is the main threat to this species, primarily due to smallholder farming and logging. At this stage it is not clear whether or not this species might have declined within pristine habitats. Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).	eng
55030	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Brian Kubicki, 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55030	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Brian Kubicki, 2008	This species is known from the humid lowlands on the Atlantic versant from north-central Honduras, and on the Pacific slope from southwestern Costa Rica up to 960m asl. It is also known from northern Colombia along the Pacific coast from Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments up to 300m asl into northwestern Ecuador, provinces of Esmeralda and Pichincha.	eng
55030	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Brian Kubicki, 2008	It is an arboreal species of primary humid lowland and montane forest. It occurs in riparian vegetation. Eggs are deposited on leaves and when hatched the larvae drop in to the streams where they develop further. It is known to persist in small patches of suitable habitat.	eng
55030	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Brian Kubicki, 2008	This species is moderately common in Honduras, but uncommon in Costa Rica. There is no information on the population’s status in Nicaragua and Panama. It is considered a rare species in Colombia.	eng
55030	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Fernando Castro, Taran Grant, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Brian Kubicki, 2008	Habitat loss resulting from deforestation, and water pollution are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall.	eng
55031	conservation		Some populations lie within the El Avila, Macarao and Henri Pittier and Rancho Grande National Parks.	eng
55031	distribution		This species is known from the southern slopes of the central part of Cordillera de la Costa, and Serranía del Interior, in the Venezuelan coastal range, at elevations between 1,200 and 1,800m asl.	eng
55031	habitat		It occurs along streams, and is usually found on overhanging vegetation up to 2m above the stream. The eggs are laid on the upper and under sides of leaves, and when hatched the larvae fall into the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55031	population		It is a common frog in undisturbed habitats.	eng
55031	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Agricultural pollution is also having an impact on populations.	eng
55032	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	Studies about the biology, ecology, and population range and dynamics of this species are necessary to determine the direct conservation measures for it. This species was originally reported to have been collected in Chiribiquete National Park, however this protected area is not in Vaupes Department, and it is unclear as to whether or not the species occurs in this protected area.	eng
55032	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	This species is known from tepuis at 400-800m asl in Vaupes department (note that the original publication erroneously listed the department as Caqueta), Colombia, and from the central slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Ecuador.	eng
55032	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It occurs in the dense understorey of old growth forest, next to small streams on tepuis. It lays its eggs on leaves above watercourses, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
55032	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is rare; it was seen in 1993, but no one has gone back to look for it since then.	eng
55032	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is threatened by illicit drug traffic and police measures including aerial fumigation to control this activity.	eng
55033	conservation		This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
55033	distribution		This species ranges from the Caribbean slope of Volcan Tenorio in the north of Costa Rica, south to the Fila Asuncion. It is present in west-central Panama, from 800-1,100m asl. It is found at altitude range between 400 to 1,116m asl.	eng
55033	habitat		It lives in premontane wet forest, and lays its eggs on vegetation over fast-moving streams, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.	eng
55033	population		The species is regularly recorded throughout its range in appropriate habitat.	eng
55033	threats		The range of this species is under very little pressure (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.), and populations are generally considered to be stable. The area of the type locality has been converted to cattle farms.	eng
55034	conservation		Its range includes several National Parks and other protected areas.	eng
55034	distribution		This species is known from the Guianan Shield in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, south of the coastal savannah belt. It has been recorded from 30-1,850m asl.	eng
55034	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforest and montane Guianan forests. Specimens were found in small, rocky permanent streams in primary forest. Lescure and Marty (2001) indicated that this is a nocturnal, arboreal species that lives in forests along rivers. The eggs are laid on the upper and under sides of leaves overhanging streams, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.	eng
55034	population		Published information indicated that this is an abundant frog in some localities (like Quebrada de Jaspe in Bolívar State, Venezuela) but no exact information was given to ascertain proper figures of population size.	eng
55034	threats		It occurs in an area of minimal human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened at present.	eng
55035	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, Diego Baldo, Julian Faivovich, 2008	Management and conservation of its habitat, creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas. Investigation in to reported population declines at some localities is needed.	eng
55035	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, Diego Baldo, Julian Faivovich, 2008	This species ranges widely in eastern and southern Brazil from the States of Espírito Santo and southern Minas Gerais, south to Rio Grande do Sul, and northeastern Misiones, Argentina. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
55035	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, Diego Baldo, Julian Faivovich, 2008	It is generally encountered clinging close to leaves of herbaceous vegetation and trees, usually in the immediate vicinity of running water in primary and secondary forest. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, the larvae falling into the water to continue their development. It does not occur in open or severely degraded areas.	eng
55035	population	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, Diego Baldo, Julian Faivovich, 2008	It is abundant in some places, but rare in others. Two new populations are known from Argentina. There have been some reports of declines in Rio de Janeiro where it was once common (Eterovick <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
55035	threats	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, Diego Baldo, Julian Faivovich, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, dams, tourism and human settlement.	eng
55036	conservation		In Ecuador, its distribution overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
55036	distribution		This species ranges from central Costa Rica, through Panama and the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, south to Mata Real in Azuay Province in Ecuador. It has also been reported from the Department of Caldas in the middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. It occurs below 400m.	eng
55036	habitat		It is a species of moist primary and secondary lowland forest, adults are usually found in bushes and trees along forest streams. It can tolerate some habitat degradation, but it requires the presence of vegetation over streams, and does occur not in open situations. The eggs are laid on the underside of leaves over streams, the males guard the eggs, and the tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
55036	population		It is moderately rare and patchily distributed in Ecuador and Colombia. In Central America it is not an abundant species. It is presumed to be in decline in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, Panama. It is considered to be stable in Costa Rica.	eng
55036	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55037	conservation		It has been recorded from a single private reserve (called 'Rainmaker'). There is a need for further taxonomic studies into this species.	eng
55037	distribution		This species was previously though to occur in scattered localities on the slopes of Volcán Tenorio, Guanacaste Province, to near Barú, Puntarenas Province, in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca in south-western Costa Rica, and from west-central Panama (Savage 2002). However, recent studies have revealed many of these populations to be <em>Hyalinobatrachium talamancae</em>, with <em>Hyalinobatrachium vireovittatum</em> now known only from the type locality ('16 km SW San Isidro de El General on the road to Dominical, 880 m' [Starret and Savage, 1973]) and Fila Chonta in the Pacific slope of Costa Rica (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).	eng
55037	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, and is seen in bushes and trees along forest streams, where larvae develop.	eng
55037	population		It is known only from a few records.	eng
55037	threats		The population outside of a private reserve is threatened by habitat loss (due to general deforestation).	eng
55038	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55038	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs in the lowland forests of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, and the Amazon drainage basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, western Amazonian Bolivia and Brazil. It was reported from the La Escalera region, Bolívar state, Venezuela (Duellman 1997), but this record has since be reassigned to <em>Ameerega picta</em> (Barrio-Amorós 2004). It is generally found below 300 m, but occurs up to 1,000 m asl in Ecuador and Colombia.	eng
55038	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is a diurnal species that is found on the forest floor of tropical lowland forests. It can be found throughout the day in primary or secondary forest and in edges and clearings (Rodríguez and Duellman 1994). It lays its eggs on the leaf-litter. Tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools.	eng
55038	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is common throughout much of its range. In Venezuela, it is just known from a single specimen without much data.	eng
55038	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55039	conservation		Recorded from Yasuni National Park in Ecuador. Not present in any protected areas in Peru  . This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
55039	distribution		This species can be found in eastern central Ecuador and adjacent areas of Peru. Its geographic range is below 550m asl.	eng
55039	habitat		This diurnal species has been collected in lowland tropical rainforest, and "rolling hills' where it can be found in leaf-litter. Eggs are laid in leaf-litter and the larvae are carried to streams. It is a secretive species known only from primary and good secondary forest.	eng
55039	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
55039	threats		No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Not thought to occur in the pet trade.	eng
55040	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2006	There is a population within Parque Nacional Dinira. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the population status of this  species as well as some of its threats.	eng
55040	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2006	This species is known only from the type locality: about 2km ESE by air from Agua de Obispo, in the state of Trujillo, Venezuela, at 2,250m asl (9.42'N, 70.05'W).	eng
55040	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2006	It occurs in small cold-water streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55040	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2006	It is a very rare species that appears to have declined. Several attempts to find it in recent years have failed, and it is still known only from the time it was first described.	eng
55040	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and road construction, is the major threat to the species. The locality is near the headwaters of a stream and thus could have been affected by a drought in the past. The species could also potentially be affected by disease, such as chytridiomycosis.	eng
55041	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55041	distribution		This Colombian endemic species is known from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Risaralda department, from the western slope of the Cordillera Central in Antioquia department, and from north of the Cordillera Central in Quindio department. It has been recorded from 1,450-2,000m asl.	eng
55041	habitat		A terrestrial species found on vegetation alongside water sources such as streams in sub-Andean forest ecosystems. It also occurs in secondary forests and is apparently adaptable to human disturbance. It lays its eggs on leaf-litter in the forest and then carries its tadpoles to water where they develop further.	eng
55041	population		It is a common species.	eng
55041	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species’ habitat. However these are only localized threats, and there are no major threats to the species overall at present.	eng
55042	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
55042	distribution		This species is known from Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in Cauca Department, northwards to La Serrania de los Paraguas in Valle del Cauca Department, on the western slope of the western Andes in Colombia, from 2,190-2,600m asl.	eng
55042	habitat		It occurs along streams in sub-Andean and Andean primary or good secondary forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Its breeding habits are not known, though it is likely to take place in streams.	eng
55042	population		It can be a locally abundant species.	eng
55042	threats		Localized threats to this species include habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, and cultivation of illegal crops, and water pollution.	eng
55043	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into this species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55043	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Finca Primavera, in the municipality of El Tambo, in Cauca Department, on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,400m asl.	eng
55043	habitat		It occurs on the ground near streams in sub-Andean forests, and it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Its breeding habits are not known but presumably are similar to other species of the genus, with the larvae being carried to streams to develop.	eng
55043	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.	eng
55043	threats		The major threats for this species are not known specifically, but presumably include habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of cattle raising, timber extraction, cultivation of illegal crops and water pollution.	eng
55045	conservation		A locality recorded for Cuzco is within Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
55045	distribution		This species is currently known only from two localities: San Pedro, Cosnipata (Cuzco Department), and San Gaban (Puno Department) in south-eastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is 820-1,480m asl.	eng
55045	habitat		This is a diurnal, riparian species of primary cloud and montane forest, which presumably lays terrestrial eggs, with the larvae then being transported to streams for development.	eng
55045	population		It is uncommon.	eng
55045	threats		In San Gaban it is mainly affected by agricultural activities (mosty smallholder cultivation of coffee).	eng
55046	conservation		The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and its southern limit is adjacent to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Surveys are urgently needed to establish the population status of this species.	eng
55046	distribution		This species occurs in a narrow altitudinal zone (2,710-3,500m asl) on the Cordillera Oriental (Cordillera Real or Central), and the Mazán River in southern Ecuador. There are records from six localities.	eng
55046	habitat		It lives in páramo, very humid montane forest, and lower humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying eggs on the ground, and the males bringing the tadpoles to streams for development.	eng
55046	population		The most recent record of this species is from December 1991. An extensive search in Mazán in 1995 (where the species was abundant in 1986) turned up no individuals. It appears to have undergone a serious decline.	eng
55046	threats		The primary threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, and logging. The possible disappearance of the species could be related to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55047	conservation		This species occurs within the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone and the Alto Mayo protected area	eng
55047	distribution		This species' geographic range is the northeastern slope of the Andes of Peru (Departmentos: Amazonas and San Martín). Estimated altitudinal range of 400-1,700m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
55047	habitat		It is a diurnal, terrestrial species of pre-montane and lowland rainforest. The species is associated with streams. Larvae are carried to streams by the female. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
55047	population		Abundance is not known.	eng
55047	threats		Because of the large areas of suitable habitat available in protected areas to this species there are no major threats. outside protected areas, there is some localized habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture.	eng
55048	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55048	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, El Boqueronin, in the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca Department on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, between 1,800 and 2,260m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55048	habitat		It occurs under rocks next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, though the larvae are presumably carried to streams to develop.	eng
55048	population		It is a locally abundant species, but was not recorded during surveys undertaken in 1997, and its current population status is uncertain.	eng
55048	threats		Habitat degradation caused by expansion of agriculture, water pollution, fumigation of illegal crops and timber extraction are all potential threats to this species' habitat.	eng
55049	conservation		Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and slightly overlaps Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
55049	distribution		This species is known from the western Andean slopes and in the western Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador. It occurs from 265-1,220m asl.	eng
55049	habitat		It inhabits humid sub-montane tropical forest, and lays its eggs outside water on leaf-litter or low vegetation. The adults then carry the tadpoles on their back to nearby streams where they develop further.	eng
55049	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
55049	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging, and agricultural pollution.	eng
55050	conservation		The only known population is protected within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
55050	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, in the central sector of Cerro Jaua, in Bolívar State (at 4° 49' 55"N; 64° 25' 54''W), in Venezuela, at 1,600m asl.	eng
55050	habitat		It occurs on the margins of streams on top of tepui and in the surrounding forest. The breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are presumably carried to streams to develop, like other species of the genus.	eng
55050	population		It is common on top of Cerro Jaua.	eng
55050	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55051	conservation		This species presumably occurs in several protected areas. Its taxonomic status is very confused, so further taxonomic research is required to resolve this.	eng
55051	distribution		This species is reported to range through French Guiana and adjacent Suriname, south to the Manaus area of Brazil. However, there is serious uncertainty as to what species is covered by this name, and attempts to map its range at this stage should be regarded as provisional.	eng
55051	habitat		It occurs in the leaf-litter of forests, where it lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water to develop further.	eng
55051	population		It is reportedly reasonably common in French Guiana.	eng
55051	threats		There are no known threats, and it occurs widely in an area of minimal human impact.	eng
55052	conservation		The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.	eng
55052	distribution		Anomaloglossus beebei is found in an area of ca 600 ha on the Kaieteur Plateau, at the eastern edge of the Pakaraima Mountains at an elevation of 450 masl, Guyana. It is possible that this species may occur elsewhere in the area (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
55052	habitat		The species is found exclusively in large terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia micrantha). Eggs are deposited on the leaves and the exotrophic tadpoles live in the water-retaining leaf axils (phytotelmata). Reproduction does not appear to be seasonally constrained, as courtship and tadpoles have been observed in March and June to August. Females examined in June and July had 1-5 pigmented eggs (0.9-1.1 mm), with clutch size usually comprised of 4 eggs. Tadpoles feed on detritus, insect larvae, unfertilized eggs and other tadpoles (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
55052	population		This species is considered to be common.	eng
55052	threats		The species might be extirpated in the near future in Kaieteur National Park, as its typical habitat is being slowly invaded by the neighbouring forest. Dead leaves from the surrounding trees cause the disappearance of suitable breeding habitat by filling the bromeliad phytotelms. Observations and interviews with local people suggest that this might have happened in the past to several populations of the species within the park (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55053	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Another specimen of this species is required to replace the now badly damaged holotype, and to enable much needed taxonomic research into the status of this species.	eng
55053	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Antadó, in the municipality of Ituango, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,450m asl.	eng
55053	habitat		It occurs on the ground next to streams in sub-Andean forests. Its breeding habits are not known, though it presumably breeds in streams. It is not known whether or not it occurs outside forest.	eng
55053	population		It is only known from the holotype (which is now badly damaged), so nothing is known about its population status.	eng
55053	threats		The threats to this species are unknown at present, although the only known locality is within a protected area.	eng
55054	conservation		Its distribution overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55054	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Napo Province in Ecuador, north to Florencia, Caqueta Department, in Colombia. Specimens assigned to this species have also been reported from the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera, in Antioquia, Caldas and Tolima Departments, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is about 1,000-2,000m.	eng
55054	habitat		It is always associated with streams in montane forest. It does not occur in degraded forest. The eggs are placed under rocks near streams, and the tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
55054	population		It is a common species.	eng
55054	threats		The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Also, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.	eng
55055	conservation		There is confusion regarding the taxonomy of this species, so further taxonomic research is needed to resolve this.	eng
55055	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Amalfi, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
55055	habitat		Its habitat and ecology are unknown, though it is likely that its larvae develop in streams.	eng
55055	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.	eng
55055	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55056	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to confirm its proposed synonymy with <em>Colostethus fraterdanieli</em>.	eng
55056	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Valle del Cauca Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, at 1,500m asl. However, it is most likely a synonym of a much wider ranging species.	eng
55056	habitat		It occurs on the ground near streams in sub-Andean forests. It is a very adaptable species and is also found in cropland and cow pastures. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter and the larvae are then carried to streams where they develop further.	eng
55056	population		It is common.	eng
55056	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
55057	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas in Colombia. It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
55057	distribution		This species is known from Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas in the Cordillera Occidental, Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,700-1,800m asl, and from two localities in Carchi Province in north-western Ecuador, at 600-900m asl.	eng
55057	habitat		In Colombia it is found on the ground in montane forest next to streams. In Ecuador it occurs in very humid premontane forest, and is apparently restricted to areas where mean annual precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55057	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
55057	threats		The major threats to this species are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis is also a possible future threat.	eng
55058	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
55058	distribution		This species is known from the type locality and its vicinity, at Pico Periquito, Rancho Grande, in Aragua State, Venezuela, at altitudes close to 1,300m asl.	eng
55058	habitat		It occurs in cloud forests, and breeds inside bromeliads, where the larvae develop.	eng
55058	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55058	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55059	conservation		Some populations lie within protected areas, such as the Duida-Marahuaca National Park in Venezuela. The creation of new protected areas and research actions on this species are needed. The Bolivian site is protected in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park.	eng
55059	distribution		This species has been reported from south of the Orinoco river in Amazonas State, Venezuela; Mato Grosso state, Brazil; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname and the extreme north of Bolivia. It was previously reported from many places in Venezuela. La Marca (1996) restricted its occurrence to south of the Orinoco river. Furthermore, its distribution was known from Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil and Perú, but Morales (1994) restricted its distribution to the refuges of Rondonia and Tapajós, in Brazil. Reports from the Guianas probably refer to another species, but are mapped here.	eng
55059	habitat		It occurs at the margins of lakes and pools of stagnant water in tropical rainforest and in Bolivia it is found in seasonally flooded forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55059	population		It is common at one site in Bolivia. Its status elsewhere is unknown.	eng
55059	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural activities is a threat to this species.	eng
55060	conservation		It is not known to occur within a protected area.	eng
55060	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, about 40km south of Manaus, in Amazonas State, Brazil.	eng
55060	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter in old-growth forest. Its reproductive habits are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55060	population		It is abundant in the one known locality.	eng
55060	threats		Logging is a threat to this species.	eng
55062	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55062	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "below Páramo El Molino, via Canaguá, on the Sierra Nevada [Sierra Nevada de Mérida], 2420m [asl], Distrito Arzobispo Chacón, Municipio Libertad, Estado Mérida, Venezuela". It occurs at an altitude of 2,350-2,700m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
55062	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched he carries the larvae on his back to streams where they develop further.	eng
55062	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55062	threats		Agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species' habitat. Introduced trout are also a threat.	eng
55064	conservation	Taran Grant, 2008	It is not known if it occurs in a protected area.	eng
55064	distribution	Taran Grant, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Villavicencio, Meta, Colombia, although there are apparently records from Serranía de la Macarena (see Lynch, 2006).	eng
55064	habitat	Taran Grant, 2008	There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although the larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55064	population	Taran Grant, 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55064	threats	Taran Grant, 2008	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55065	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine the status of the the subpopulation in Pastaza Province.	eng
55065	distribution		This species is known from the eastern side of the Andes, in Ecuador, in two general areas: four localities between 480 and 970m asl in Pastaza Province in central Ecuador, and Centro Shuar Yawi, at 920-1,040m asl, in Zamora Chinchipe Province in south-eastern Ecuador. Records from Peru require confirmation.	eng
55065	habitat		It occurs in eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests. The distribution lies mainly within very humid premontane forest and pluvial premontane forest. As with other members of the genus, it probably breeds on the ground, under rocks or in leaf-litter, and the larvae are carried by the parent to streams. Most members of this genus do not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55065	population		It was discovered in Zamora Chinchipe Province in 2003. However, surveys in Pastaza Province have not turned up any additional records of this species since it was first discovered.	eng
55065	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
55066	conservation	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of the Montagne Pelee. The species requires close population monitoring, given that it is restricted to a single location.	eng
55066	distribution	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is found on the south-eastern slope of Montagne Pelee, Martinique, at 500m asl.	eng
55066	habitat	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It lives in grassy areas on lava flows. Eggs are laid on the ground in a nest under leaves and guarded by the adults, and presumably the adults transport the larvae to water, as with other members of the genus.	eng
55066	population	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is relatively common in its tiny range.	eng
55066	threats	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	Although there are no current major threats to the species, its small range renders it at severe risk of stochastic events, especially from volcanic eruptions.	eng
55067	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Panama it is known from Parque Nacional Chagres. A survey is urgently needed to relocate this species in Ecuador and Colombia, and, if necessary, an <em>ex situ population</em> should be established.	eng
55067	distribution		This species apparently occurs in three separate areas: southern Panama; the lower Rio San Juan in Choco Department, Colombia, at low altitudes; and at 600-1,540m asl on the western slopes of the Andes in Carchi, Pichincha and Cotopaxi Provinces, Ecuador.	eng
55067	habitat		It is a diurnal, semi-aquatic species that occurs along rocky sections of streams in forest. In Colombia it is found in lowland humid tropical forest. In Ecuador it occurs in very humid premontane forest, and is apparently restricted to areas where mean annual precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. This species has not been found in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter and the larvae are transported to streams by the adults.	eng
55067	population		It is an extremely rare species, with only two specimens recorded from Colombia, and there have been no records from Ecuador since October 1985, despite extensive searching. This species is reasonably common in some localities in Panama.	eng
55067	threats		The major threats to this species are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the observed population decline in Ecuador.	eng
55068	conservation		It is found in at least one protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Peru.	eng
55068	distribution		This species occurs in Pakitsa, Parque Nacional Manu, Peru, and along the Jurua River, Acre State, Brazil, at approximately 250m asl. Note that the verbal range description in Morales (2000) does not match the map for this species in the same publication.	eng
55068	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, though it is likely to breed in water.	eng
55068	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55068	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55069	conservation		Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
55069	distribution		This species is known from the region of Alta Mira do Xingu, in Para State, Brazil, at 10m asl.	eng
55069	habitat		It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest. The eggs are laid on land and when hatched the parents carry the larvae on their backs to water where they develop further. It is adaptable to some habitat modification.	eng
55069	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55069	threats		Clear-cutting of the forest, and forest fires are major threats to this species' habitat.	eng
55070	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55070	distribution		This species is widespread in French Guiana and Suriname. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from 50-800m asl.	eng
55070	habitat		It occurs along the edge of rocky streams in rivulets. The complete development of the tadpoles is completed on the back of the males. The egg deposition site is unknown.	eng
55070	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55070	threats		There are no known threats to this species and most of its habitat is undisturbed and isolated at present.	eng
55071	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2004	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent habitat protection at sites at which it is known to survive.	eng
55071	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2004	This species is known only from four nearby localities at elevations of 2,340-3,000m on the western slopes of the Andes in Carchi Province, in extreme north-western Ecuador.	eng
55071	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2004	It occurs in wetlands and bogs, and in areas of cattle ranching surrounded by forest remnants. It lays its eggs on the ground, and the males carry the tadpoles to water where they develop further. Tadpoles have been found in the months of February and April (Yánez-Muñoz and Meza-Ramos 2006).	eng
55071	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2004	It is locally uncommon. Fifty calling males were recorded in 2003 in Moran, Carchi Province. A more recent study in this locality suggests that the population size is less than 40 individuals (Yánez-Muñoz and Meza-Ramos 2006). It appears to have disappeared from historical localities.	eng
55071	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2004	Habitat destruction and degradation is a significant threat to this species, due mainly to agriculture (including livestock ranching) and logging. It is possible that this species has been impacted by chytridiomycosis, which has been confirmed in other frog species within its range.	eng
55072	conservation		Some populations might be protected in Parque Nacional El Avila, near Caracas. Research into the cause(s) of the population decline is urgently needed, as are surveys to determine the current status of populations.	eng
55072	distribution		This species is known from the central part of the Venezuelan Coastal Range, in the vicinity of Caracas, from around 800 to at least 1,520m asl. Its presence has been suggested, but not confirmed, in Quebrada de Caurimare, Miranda State, also in the vicinity of Caracas.	eng
55072	habitat		It inhabits seasonal montane forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in water, like other species of the genus.	eng
55072	population		This species was once considered one of the more common species of the Caracas Valley; however, comprehensive surveys in 1992-1993 and, more recently, in 2004 have failed to find any populations in these areas. It is not known when exactly the decline began, but the decline of <em>Atelopus cruciger</em>, another formerly common frog from the same region, has been documented. It is possible that <em>P. dunni</em> has experienced a similar decline. There are no known extant populations in the wild at present, even in suitable habitat.	eng
55072	threats		The major threats to the species include habitat loss due to urban development and fires, and pollution. The cause(s) of the recent dramatic decline have not been established, but it is charecteristic of declines seen in other species impacted by chytridiomycosis.	eng
55073	conservation		It is currently known only from a single protected area: Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
55073	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, in the municipality of Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,300-1,400m asl.	eng
55073	habitat		The details of its habitat and ecology are unknown, and there is no information given in the original description. The larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55073	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55073	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55074	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
55074	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the Cordillera Oriental, La Cueva de las Moyas and the Páramo de Cruz Verde, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, between 3,030 and 3,300m asl.	eng
55074	habitat		It occurs in streams within caves and crevices. Breeding and larval development takes place in streams.	eng
55074	population		It was last seen in 1996. Three visits to the type locality have failed to turn up this species, and it is likely that it has declined severely due to complete habitat alteration.	eng
55074	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss due to conversion to timber forestry and water pollution caused by urban runoff.	eng
55075	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is needed to determine whether any animals survive around Loja and other nearby localities.	eng
55075	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, at elevations of 850-2,760m asl. It also occurs on the Pacific and Amazonian slopes of the Andes in the Huancabamba depression, Piura Department, northern Peru, at 600-1,800m asl.	eng
55075	habitat		It lives in dry and humid lowland and premontane forest, and occurs near streams, especially in dry forests. The larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55075	population		It is an uncommon species. In Ecuador, populations from Loja and nearby localities at the higher altitudes of its range seem to be extinct, but lowland populations are still extant with records as recently as 2003.	eng
55075	threats		The cause of the declines at high elevations, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be due to chytridiomycosis. Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural activities, is also a threat to this species, and the species may also be impacted by invasive alien species and pollution.	eng
55076	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
55076	distribution		This species is known only from the municipalities of Frontino and Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
55076	habitat		The details of its habitat and ecology are unknown, and there is no information given in the original description, although the larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55076	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55076	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55077	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
55077	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Morona Santiago Province, southern Ecuador, between 970 and 1,981m asl. Further surveys will probably show it to be more widely distributed.	eng
55077	habitat		This species' range lies within pluvial premontane forest and very humid premontane forest. The annual mean temperature is 18-24°C in both zones. The annual mean precipitation is 4,000-8,000mm in the pluvial premontane forest and 2,000-4,000mm in the very humid premontane forest (data updated from Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably takes place by females laying eggs on the ground, with the males bringing larvae to streams for development.	eng
55077	population		It has always been a rare species. It was not found during the Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) expeditions of 1993, 1999 and 2003 to the Cordillera del Condór region. However, its range is in a poorly explored area, and so its population status remains unclear.	eng
55077	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging are threats to this species. It is possibly also threatened by introduced species.	eng
55078	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
55078	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Quebrada La Ayura, in the upper part of the municipality of Envigado, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 2,200m asl.	eng
55078	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology, and there is no information given in the original description, although the larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55078	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55078	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55079	conservation		Habitat protection is needed for this species, which might occur in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu, although it has not been found there in two extensive collecting trips.	eng
55079	distribution		This species is known to occur in Amazonas Department in south-western Colombia, at 100-200m asl, and is likely to occur much more widely.	eng
55079	habitat		It occurs on the ground in forest. It lays eggs in the leaf-litter, and the males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small waterbodies for their development.	eng
55079	population		It is a rare species with few specimens in collections, although it was collected again in 2003.	eng
55079	threats		Habitat destruction caused by the expansion of agriculture is a threat.	eng
55080	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55080	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, 3km west of Pilaló on the Quevedo-Latacungo road, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador, and from a nearby site on the western slopes of the Andes, between 1,760-2,430m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than this.	eng
55080	habitat		Its range lies within very humid premontane forest and low humid montane forest. The annual mean precipitation is 2000-4000mm in the very humid premontane forest, and 1,000-2,000mm in the low humid montane forest. The annual mean temperature is 18-24°C in the very humid premontane forest, and 12-18°C in the low humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying eggs on the ground, and the males bringing the larvae to streams for their continued development.	eng
55080	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been found since its original description, although perhaps it has not been searched for.	eng
55080	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural expansion and logging are the major threats to this species.	eng
55081	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
55081	distribution		This species is known from the Municipality of El Tambo in Cauca Department, northwards to the municipality of El Cairo in Valle del Cauca Department, in Colombia, between 1,470 and 1,960m asl.	eng
55081	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter on the ground near streams in primary or good secondary cloud forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. The female lays terrestrial eggs; when they have hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to streams where they then develop further.	eng
55081	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
55081	threats		Localized threats to this species are habitat fragmentation caused by the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching, as well as water pollution from pesticides and the fumigation of illegal crops.	eng
55082	conservation		There are no specific conservation measures in place; the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
55082	distribution		This species occurs in humid lowlands on the Atlantic slope from Costa Rica to east-central Panama and on the Pacific versant in southwestern Costa Rica to west-central Panama. Suggestions that the species occurs in Colombia are incorrect (T. Grant pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 10-865m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
55082	habitat		It is a terrestrial, diurnal species generally found in the leaf-litter of humid lowland and montane forest; it may be found in secondary forest and plantations. Adults are often encountered along rocky sections of forest streams. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams where they develop.	eng
55082	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55082	threats		In general habitat loss occurs by the destruction of natural forests.	eng
55083	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this form is a complex of more than one species.	eng
55083	distribution		This species occurs in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Quindio, Risaralda, Antioquia, Nariño and Caldas, in Colombia, between 1,000 and 2,500m asl.	eng
55083	habitat		It occurs on the ground close to streams in cloud forests and in dry tropical forests. Eggs are laid on leaf-litter and then the larvae are carried to streams where they develop further.	eng
55083	population		It is a common species.	eng
55083	threats		The major threats to this species are agricultural development (including crops and livestock), logging, agricultural pollution, and the fumigation of crops.	eng
55084	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55084	distribution		This species is known from two localities at the heads of the Pastaza River on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, between 900 and 1,000m asl.	eng
55084	habitat		It inhabits tropical rainforest, but it is not known whether or not it can tolerate habitat disturbance. There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55084	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55084	threats		Major threats to this species’ habitat include agricultural activities (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging.	eng
55085	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55085	distribution		This species is currently known from the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, from 600-700m asl, and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55085	habitat		It occurs in moist forests in the eastern tropical altitudinal zone. Its range lies in a transition zone between humid tropical forest and very humid premontane forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55085	population		The population status of this species is not known, but it has been recorded as recently as 2001.	eng
55085	threats		Major threats to this species’ habitat include agricultural activities (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging.	eng
55086	conservation		In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and possibly with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
55086	distribution		This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes, in Napo Province, Ecuador, from 1,660-1,910m asl. Records from Colombia and Venezuela are in error (Ruiz-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 1996). In Ecuador, the sampling effort throughout the distribution range might be insufficient, and the known number of localities and its extent of occurrence are likely to increase with more sampling.	eng
55086	habitat		It occurs along streams in cloud forest where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C (Coloma 1995). Its level of tolerance to habitat disturbance is unclear, although it may tolerate some selective logging. Its reproductive mode is unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55086	population		There are no data available on the population status of this species, and there have been no recent records.	eng
55086	threats		The main threat to this species is probably deforestation due to expansion of agriculture. It is also threatened by atmospheric and water pollution, and by invasive alien species.	eng
55087	conservation		The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo.	eng
55087	distribution		This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality, Antadó, in the municipality of Ituango in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,500m asl.	eng
55087	habitat		It occurs on the ground in leaf-litter in cloud forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55087	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type series. The holotype is now badly damaged.	eng
55087	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55088	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55088	distribution		This species is known from the basins of Rio Jurua and Rio Ituxi, and also from Rondonia State, Brazil, from 60-250m asl.	eng
55088	habitat		It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.	eng
55088	population		It is a common species.	eng
55088	threats		Clear-cut logging and fires are threats to this species' habitat.	eng
55089	conservation		Its range includes indigenous reserves and national parks.	eng
55089	distribution		This species is known from the states of Amazonas and Acre and along the Jurua River, in Brazil, from 100-250m asl. There is very little information known about its distribution and attempts to map its range at this stage should be regarded as approximate.	eng
55089	habitat		It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.	eng
55089	population		It is a common species.	eng
55089	threats		Clear-cut logging and fires are threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55090	conservation		The type locality is within a protected area, and Silvânia is a national forest reserve.	eng
55090	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (Chapada dos Veadeiros, in Goiás State, Brazil), and from one record from Silvânia. It has been recorded from 1,500m asl. Attempts to map its distribution are approximate at this stage, and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55090	habitat		It is found in the leaf-litter of gallery forests, near streams or small ponds. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried by the parents to streams where they develop further.	eng
55090	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55090	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agriculture (both cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), as well as logging, mining, fire, agricultural pollution and dam construction.	eng
55091	conservation		Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
55091	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Alto río Parguaza, Serranía de Guanay (5° 55'N; 66° 23'W)" (La Marca 1996) in Amazonas State, Venezuela, from 1,650-1,800m asl. It is suspected to have a wider distribution.	eng
55091	habitat		It is a diurnal, terrestrial inhabitant of tropical rainforest. Males were found calling from shaded spots along a rocky stream. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55091	population		This is a common species.	eng
55091	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55092	conservation		One population is within Parque Nacional Guaramacal (at the limit of the range).	eng
55092	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, in the vicinity of the town of Boconó, in Trujillo State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,470m asl, and from a recently discovered population found inside the Parque Nacional Guaramacal, also close to Boconó. It is also now known from the states of Barinas and Portuguesa. It has been recorded from 600-1,800m asl.	eng
55092	habitat		It occurs in seasonal montane forest, and cloud forests. It is associated with temporary ponds, where the larvae presumably develop, but exact reproductive habits are unknown. It is probably able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance.	eng
55092	population		It is locally common.	eng
55092	threats		Human settlement, and associated infrastructure development, is a threat to some populations. The lagoon at the type locality has already disappeared. It might also be affected by drought.	eng
55093	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55093	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Venceremos, 394-395km along the Marginal de la Selva road at 1,620m asl (San Martin Department), on the eastern slopes of the central Andes in northern Peru.	eng
55093	habitat		This is a diurnal species that was collected in tropical montane forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55093	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55093	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
55094	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55094	distribution		This species is known only from the Alto del Buey area, in the Pacific lowlands of Choco Department, Colombia, between 200 and 300m asl.	eng
55094	habitat		It lives on the ground next to streams in lowland forest, and it has not been found in degraded areas. There are no data regarding its reproduction, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
55094	population		It appears not to be common. There has been very little recent information on this species, although it was collected in 2002.	eng
55094	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55095	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Machalilla, Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute, and Reserva Ecológica Arenillas.	eng
55095	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes and the coastal Cordillera in the provinces of Manabí, Guayas, Bolívar, Los Ríos, Azuay, and El Oro. It has been recorded from 70-1,500m asl (Coloma 1995) and has also recently been found in Loja (Almeida 2002).	eng
55095	habitat		It inhabits humid premontane forest, tropical thicket and thorny scrub, and very dry tropical forest (Coloma 1995). Eggs are laid on land in leaf-litter or under rocks, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.	eng
55095	population		It is a common species.	eng
55095	threats		The major threats to this species are agricultural development (involving cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock), logging, and creation of wood plantations. Introduced goats are also degrading the species' habitat, which is severely fragmented.	eng
55096	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
55096	distribution		This species is endemic to Colombia. In Colombia it ranges from northern Choco Department in the Pacific lowlands, around the northern tip of the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Andes, to the middle Magdalena Valley. It is a lowland species that occurs up to 400m asl.	eng
55096	habitat		It is a diurnal species of humid lowland and montane forest, living along streamsides. It is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams. It is assumed that the species has some immunity to anthropogenic habitat change.	eng
55096	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55096	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55097	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55097	distribution		This species is known from the eastern lowlands of Ecuador, between 250 and 350m asl. It is likely to occur much more widely.	eng
55097	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter in forest, and breeds in bracts of palms on the ground (the bracts fall to the ground and water collects in them) and other ephemeral small pools. It is probably able to adapt to some habitat modification and most likely occurs in secondary forest.	eng
55097	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55097	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, and oil exploration are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55098	conservation		The distribution range of the species overlaps Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo. Surveys are urgently required to determine the population status and continued persistence of this species.	eng
55098	distribution		This species was known from the inter-Andean valleys of Guayllabamba, Toachi, Chimbo, and Cañar, and on the western slopes of the Andes in northern and central Ecuador, where it occupied areas between 1,500 and 3,800m and was known from more than ten localities.	eng
55098	habitat		It lives in mid- to high-elevation humid montane forest (Coloma 1995). It lays its eggs on the ground, and males carry the eggs to small streams for development.	eng
55098	population		There are no records of this species since the 1960s. Bustamante (2002) provides data of its absence at Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras (Provincia Bolívar), where it used to be a common frog. It is possible that undetected relict populations might still survive.	eng
55098	threats		The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture, clear cutting, and human settlement; virtually no habitat remains where this species used to occur. Invasive alien species are also a threat.	eng
55099	conservation		This species is not recorded from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for protection of its remaining habitat. Further survey work is needed to determine this species' current population status and natural history.	eng
55099	distribution		This species is known only from the area of the type locality, Villavicencio, in the foothills of the Orinoco region, Meta Department, Colombia, at 580m asl, where it occurs in a single botanical garden surrounded by a substantial urban area.	eng
55099	habitat		It is known from small patches of forest and from a botanical garden; it has not been found in larger tracts of forest in nearby areas. It is a terrestrial and diurnal species, and it lays its eggs in the leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small streams for development.	eng
55099	population		It is scarcely distributed in its tiny area of occupancy. There are few specimens known, and it was last seen in 2002. Searches in outlying areas have not turned up any individuals.	eng
55099	threats		Habitat fragmentation and destruction caused by the expansion of human settlement, and water pollution, are the primary threats to this species.	eng
55100	conservation		Its distribution range overlaps with several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganatis, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. This species is in need of close population monitoring.	eng
55100	distribution		This species is known from a narrow altitudinal zone (1,140-1,300m asl) on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the vicinity of Volcán Reventador and in the Río Pastaza trench, in Napo, Orellana and Pastaza Provinces, Ecuador.	eng
55100	habitat		It occurs in premontane forest, where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and the annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. Reproduction probably occurs by the females laying the eggs on the ground, with the males taking the larvae to streams for their development.	eng
55100	population		It was formerly abundant, at least judging by the large numbers of specimens in museums, but there is little recent information.	eng
55100	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to agricultural expansion (involving crops, plantations and livestock) and logging, is the main threat to this species. Its narrow altitudinal range might leave it vulnerable to the effects of climate change.	eng
55101	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
55101	distribution		This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia in Cauca, Choco, and Valle del Cauca Departments, between 100 and 640m asl, although its distribution is not well known.	eng
55101	habitat		It lives along streams in lowland and foothill forests, and has not been found in degraded habitats. The details of its breeding biology are largely unknown, but it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
55101	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
55101	threats		The major threats to this species are deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55102	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
55102	distribution		This species is known only from the Serranía de Pirre, Darién Province, Panama, between 1,100 and 1,440m asl (Grant 2004).	eng
55102	habitat		This is a diurnal species of humid montane forest that is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the larvae to streams.	eng
55102	population		It appears to be less common on the northern end of the Serranía de Pirre in the ridge-top cloud forest at 1,100-1,230m asl.	eng
55102	threats		There are no immediate threats to the habitat in this species' range.	eng
55103	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, while in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, an <em>ex situ</em> population may need to be established.	eng
55103	distribution		This species occurs widely in the Western and Central Cordilleras, from Antioquia Department in Colombia, south to Cotapaxi and Las Pampas Provinces in northern Ecuador, from 1,460-2,120m asl.	eng
55103	habitat		It lives on the ground in very humid montane forest, and has also been found in open fields and very modified areas, but is always near streams. The eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and the male transports the larvae to slow-flowing streams.	eng
55103	population		It is still common in Colombia, but it has not been recorded in Ecuador since October 1990, despite extensive survey efforts.	eng
55103	threats		The serious declines noted in Ecuador can possibly be attributed to chytridiomycosis. Additional likely threats are: deforestation, due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, fire, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish species in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55104	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	There is a population within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada (Mérida State), in the Venezuelan Andes. Surveys are required to determine the population status of this species and whether it has been affected by disease. Given the potential risk of disease, there might be a need for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
55104	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	This species is known only from a very restricted area near Páramo de Mucubají, Sierra de Santo Domingo, in estado Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes, from 2,435-3,300m asl.	eng
55104	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It inhabits páramo grassland and sub-páramo shrubland environments and cloud forest, the highest environments in the Venezuelan Andes, resembling alpine tundra, but with daily temperature extremes. It is usually found within grasses and frailejones (<em>Espeletia</em> spp.), usually along and within streams.	eng
55104	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It has not been seen in at least a decade, and its range is very much reduced.	eng
55104	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Introduced trout and possibly disease might be threatening this species. This species shares its habitat with <em>Atelopus mucubajiensis</em>, a páramo frog well known for having experienced a dramatic population decline (La Marca and Reinthaler 1994; Lotters 1996; La Marca and Lötters 1997) probably due to chytridiomycosis, and so this disease must also be suspected in <em>C. leopardalis</em>.	eng
55105	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there are no conservation measures required for this species.	eng
55105	distribution		The original population from which this species was described has been introduced to Lima. Natural populations are present in Pacific inter-Andean valleys of Departamentos Ancash and Huanuco. Altitudinal range of natural populations is 665-2,180m. It almost certainly occurs more widely.	eng
55105	habitat		Present in arid areas including coastal 'desert' and dry shrublands. Generally occurs close to streams with dense vegetation; breeding takes place in quiet waters close to streams. The species is not greatly sensitive to habitat change.	eng
55105	population		It is a common species.	eng
55105	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
55106	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55106	distribution		This species is ostensibly known from the municipality of Apartado, Antioquia Department, in north-western Colombia, at 30m asl. However, there are doubts as to the provenance of the type specimen.	eng
55106	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, which presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
55106	population		It is known from just a single specimen, so its overall population status is not known.	eng
55106	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55107	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Machalilla and the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55107	distribution		This species is known from more than ten localities in the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador in the provinces of El Oro, Los Ríos, Bolívar, Guayas, Azogues, and Manabí, from 10-515m asl (Parker and Carr 1992; Coloma 1995).	eng
55107	habitat		It inhabits tropical thicket and thorny scrub and very dry tropical forest (Coloma 1995). It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.	eng
55107	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55107	threats		The major threats to the species are agriculture, involving cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock, and logging.	eng
55108	conservation		Its range includes a protected area for a dam project (Zona Protectora Macizo Turimiquire), but the habitat of this species is in need of much better protection.	eng
55108	distribution		This species is restricted to the Cerro Turimiquire, a mountainous region shared between Monagas, Sucre, and Anzoátegui States, in eastern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,630m asl.	eng
55108	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and sub-páramo shrubland. The eggs are laid on land and when hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water, where they develop further.	eng
55108	population		It is a common species.	eng
55108	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as road construction for telecommunications installations.	eng
55109	conservation		It was found in the private Reserva Maquipucuna, affording it protection of its habitat.	eng
55109	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Maquipucuna, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, at approximately 1,800m asl.	eng
55109	habitat		This species was recorded from a cloud forest stream. Its reproductive mode has not been documented, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55109	population		It has not been seen since the original discovery around 1990; recent searches in the type locality and the entire surrounding region have failed to locate any other individuals (although the sampling effort might have been insufficient).	eng
55109	threats		The area where this species was recorded is not currently threatened by forest destruction.	eng
55110	conservation		Several protected areas are present within its range.	eng
55110	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern, central and upper Amazon Basin of Brazil, from Cerro Marahuaca in Amazonas state, Venezuela, in the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes, Amazonas and Putumayo departments, Colombia and Peru, at 0-800m asl. The records in Venezuela might belong to a different, as yet undescribed species, but pending resolution they are included here.	eng
55110	habitat		It lives in secondary and old growth tropical rainforest on the forest floor. Reproduction occurs in small pools, the eggs are laid out of water and the tadpoles carried to the water.	eng
55110	population		It is common, and the population is stable.	eng
55110	threats		Clear cutting, logging, forest conversion and fires are threats to this species.	eng
55111	conservation		The range of this species might overlap with Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
55111	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Río Negro, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in Tungurahua Province, Ecuador, at 1,225m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
55111	habitat		It occurs in premontane forest where the annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm, and the annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. It occurs sympatrically with <em>Colostethus bocagei</em>, <em>C. kingsburyi</em> and <em>C. pulchellus</em>. Its breeding habits are unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams.	eng
55111	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and it is possible that it has not been seen or looked for since it was first described.	eng
55111	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species. By 1996, the forest had been cleared at the type locality. However, forested areas remain nearby, in Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay. Atmospheric and water pollution, and invasive alien species, are also threats.	eng
55112	conservation		Its range is in a single protected area: Parque Nacional da Amazônia.	eng
55112	distribution		This species is known only from Parque Nacional da Amazônia (along Rio Tapajos) in Brazil, at 100m asl.	eng
55112	habitat		It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is adaptable to some habitat modification. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they continue their development.	eng
55112	population		It is a common species.	eng
55112	threats		Clear-cut logging and fires are major threats to this species' habitat.	eng
55113	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas and Parque Nacional Carrasco.	eng
55113	distribution		This species is known from the western slopes of the Bolivian Andes. It was known initially from the type locality, approximately 0.25km east of the San Onofre road, 3.3km north of the road to Cochabamba-Tunari Village, in Chapare Province, Cochabamba Department, at 1,693m asl (Reynolds and Foster 1992). Gonzalez at al. (1999) then extended its distribution to western Bolivia, reporting it in the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas, and in the Yungas forest in La Paz Department. Only four populations of this species are currently known, two in the district of Cochabamba, and two in the northern district of La Paz.	eng
55113	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits the Yungas forest of Cochabamba and La Paz Districts (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Köhler (2000a) found specimens to be common during the day in undisturbed montane forest. The larvae were described by Reynolds and Foster (1992), and develop in streams.	eng
55113	population		The current population trend is unknown, but it is very possibly declining. The population at the type locality is probably now extinct, and has not been seen despite several visits to the area.	eng
55113	threats		Major threats to this species are agricultural development, road construction, and water pollution from agriculture.	eng
55114	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected areas, and so there might be a need to establish protected areas for this species if habitat degradation significantly increases.	eng
55114	distribution		This species is currently known only from near to the junction of the Río Napo and the much smaller Río Sucusari (Loreto Department), in Peru. Very little is known about the range of this recently described species, and it is likely that it is much more widely distributed. It has an altitudinal range of up to 200m asl.	eng
55114	habitat		It is a little-known diurnal frog of tropical lowland moist forest. While it is not generally associated with streams, adults probably carry the larvae to streams to develop.	eng
55114	population		There is nothing known about the population status of this species.	eng
55114	threats		There are probably no major threats to this species as there are few human activities within its range, although there is limited tourism development ongoing in the region.	eng
55115	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.	eng
55115	distribution		This species is known from Cerro Munchique, and Quintana (near Popayan in Cauca Department), between 2,100 and 2,350m asl, in Colombia.	eng
55115	habitat		It occurs on the ground next to streams in cloud forests. It lays its eggs on the ground, which (when hatched), are transported on the backs of the male to temporary ponds where they develop further. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
55115	population		It is a common species.	eng
55115	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement.	eng
55116	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed, for example regarding the limits of its range, and concerning its ecology and population status.	eng
55116	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Venceremos (at 1,620m asl) in San Martin Department on the eastern slopes of the central Andes in northern Peru. It probably occurs more widely over the Andean foothills of Peru.	eng
55116	habitat		This is a diurnal species that was collected in tropical montane forest. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae probably develop in streams.	eng
55116	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55116	threats		There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
55117	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species, and to monitor its status, given that it is known only from one site.	eng
55117	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Murisipan-Tepui (05 53N, 62 04W)", in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, at 2,350m asl.	eng
55117	habitat		The single specimen was collected under a rock in tropical montane forest. Breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae probably develop in streams.	eng
55117	population		It is known from only one specimen.	eng
55117	threats		There are no current major threats, but fires, caused by lightning, are a potential threat.	eng
55118	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, although the Cordillera del Condór is under little threat because the land mines left during the 1995 border war mean that there is little human disturbance of the region.	eng
55118	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the headwaters of the Río Piuntza, in the Cordillera del Condór, Morona Santiago Province, south-eastern Ecuador, at an altitude of 1,830m asl, although it probably occurs more widely.	eng
55118	habitat		It lives in cool montane cloud forest (Duellman and Simmons 1988). Its reproductive mode is unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams. It occurs sympatrically with <em>Colostethus exasperatus</em> and <em>C. shuar</em>.	eng
55118	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type series collected in early 1972 (when it was fairly common, with 18 specimens being collected).	eng
55118	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, although it is known that in 1996 there was forest still remaining at the type locality.	eng
55119	conservation		May occur in the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone and the Alto Mayo Protection Forest, Peru. This requires confirmation.	eng
55119	distribution		This species' geographic range is the lower northeastern slopes and foothills of the Andes from Perú in the region of Yurimaguas (Departamentos: Amazonas, Loreto, San Martin), and from southeastern Ecuador. It has been recorded between 500 and 1,550m asl.	eng
55119	habitat		"The distribution lies within the Very Humid Premontane Forest and Humid Premontane Forest. Annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and 1,000-2,000mm respectively; annual mean temperatures are 18-24 C in both zones." (Coloma 1995). A diurnal species that is mostly restricted to stream habitats. Eggs are laid on land and transported to streams by adults. Can occur in modified and lightly degraded habitat including rural gardens etc.	eng
55119	population		Not rare where it occurs.	eng
55119	threats		There are no immediate threats. Extreme habitat destruction and pollution are the only potential threats.	eng
55120	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55120	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality of 40km south of Manaus, at an altitude of 50m asl in Amazonas State, Brazil, in the municipality of Castanho, at 12km along the road to Autazes. It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
55120	habitat		It is found in tropical forest near igapó (i.e. flooded) forest. It is a largely terrestrial species found in leaf-litter or other ground cover. It breeds by direct development: nests are found in leaf-litter on the forest floor and the endotrophic larvae are not transported to aquatic sites but develop fully within the nests. This species has a clutch size of two to six eggs.	eng
55120	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55120	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55121	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in Colombia, and in more than twelve protected areas in Panama, as well as in a single protected area in Costa Rica. There is an urgent need to complete the taxonomic revision of the <em>Colostethus nubicola</em> species complex. Following a clarification of the taxonomic status of this group, it may be necessary to develop ex-situ insurance colonies for remaining western populations.	eng
55121	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Costa Rica (a single locality) and adjacent western Panama (1,050-1,600m), through eastern Panama in lowland and premontane zones (200-860m) to the Pacific coast of western Colombia, south to Valle de Cauca Department (up to 800m in Colombia).	eng
55121	habitat		It is a terrestrial and diurnal species of humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. Adults may be encountered along rocky sections of forest streams. It can occur in secondary forest and plantation forests, and occurs in degraded habitats in Colombia. The eggs are deposited in the leaf-litter and the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams to complete metamorphosis.	eng
55121	population		It remains widespread in the Choco of Colombia (Taran Grant pers. comm. 2007). It was formerly recorded at a single Costa Rica locality, Las Cruces (observed in 2002), but and has recently been found in the San Vito area (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It was formerly common in Panama, and while it is still present in Cerro Campana and eastern Panama (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007) it has significantly declined in western Panama and is now absent from Fortuna, Santa Fe and El Cope (Karen Lips pers. comm.).	eng
55121	threats		Declines in this species within the western part of the range are associated with the disease chytridiomycosis. Lips <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that 48 dead <em>Colostethus nubicola</em> (infected with the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) were recorded at El Cope in 2004. It is probably also affected by general habitat loss in Panama through deforestation. It is not generally considered to be threatened in Colombia at present.	eng
55122	conservation	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is known to occur in several protected areas, such as Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina. Research to determine the causes of the current decline is urgently needed.	eng
55122	distribution	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	Allobates olfersioides is found in coastal forests of the Atlantic Domain from sea level to about 1000 masl. The species can be found from the north of the state of Alagoas to the south of the state of Rio de Janeiro (between<br/>08 54 S and 23 00 S latitudinal degrees), potentially occurring in Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, state of Minas Gerais (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007).	eng
55122	habitat	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	Allobates olfersioides is diurnal and lives on the forest floor of primary and secondary forests. The tadpoles hatch in humid terrestrial nests and are carried by their parents to puddles or small rivulets on the forest floor where they feed until metamorphosis. Males are known to carry tadpoles (ca Gosner stage 25) (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007).<br/>Gravid females were observed in February, April, August, and September, suggesting that reproduction is likely to occur throughout the year. In addition, they have been found to have both mature eggs and developing follicles in the ovaries, which again suggests that they may reproduce more than once during the reproductive season. Females were found to have a maximum of 11 mature eggs (ca 1.5 mm each) and a mean of 8 eggs (Verdade and Rodrigues, 2007). In Bahia, this species was found to have a strong association to bromeliads (Tinoco et al., 2008).	eng
55122	population	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It used to be a very common species, but it has recently declined and is now absent from several historical localities in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. The species still appears to be relatively common in northeastern Brazil (V. Verdade, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55122	threats	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	Habitat loss, due to deforestation and agricultural development, is ongoing, but may not have been severe enough to cause the declines that have been observed. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008). Chytridiomycosis could be implicated in declines, specimens from Rio de Janeiro tested positive for chytrids (Carnaval et al., 2006).	eng
55123	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place for this species, which is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55123	distribution		This species has only recently been described and is known only from 12km north-east of Tarapoto, in San Martin Province, Peru.	eng
55123	habitat		This might be a forest species, with larvae that presumably develop in water.	eng
55123	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55123	threats		The threats to it are not known, although it could be threatened by habitat degradation through conversion to coffee plantations and general agricultural development.	eng
55124	conservation	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Its range includes Guanentá and Macarena protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what is probably a species complex.	eng
55124	distribution	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This species is known from the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caldas and Tolima, and from the western and eastern flanks of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander, Meta and Serranía de la Macarena. It has been recorded from 350-2,500m asl.	eng
55124	habitat	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It occurs on the ground in cloud forests and in tropical rainforests in the Orinoco region. It is adaptable to a degree of habitat modification and has been found in crop and pastureland. Lynch (2006) considered that the species was quite sensitive to habitat modification by man. Populations on the Orinocoan part of the range are associated to streams and are considered to be quite sensitive; however, populations on the Río Magdalena Valley can be found in disturbed areas and polluted streams, they can even be found in open areas near streams and small ponds (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008; J.V. Rueda, pers. comm. 2008).  The larvae develop in streams.	eng
55124	population	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55124	threats	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	There are no known threats to this widespread, adaptable species.	eng
55125	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
55125	distribution		This species occurs in Colombia and Panama. In Panama it is recorded east of the western cordilleras, in the Azuero Peninsula, on Isla Coiba, in central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras. In Colombia it is present in the Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios, Department of Chocó. It is a lowland species that occurs up to 800m asl (Panama).	eng
55125	habitat		It is a diurnal species of humid lowland and montane forest, living along streamsides. It is often found along rocky sections of forest streams. It apparently does not occur in degraded habitats. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams.	eng
55125	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55125	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55126	conservation		Some populations lie within the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare, and Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó, but measures are needed to stop the illegal mining that is destroying the forests at the type locality and polluting the water.	eng
55126	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality near the headwaters of the Orinoco River, at a place called Pista Constitución (2° 13' 49''N; 63° 20' 00''W) in Amazonas Department, Venezuela, in the vicinity of Cerro Delgado Chalbaud, at 670m asl.	eng
55126	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and adults carry the larvae to the stream where they develop further, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55126	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55126	threats		Gold mining is a major threat to this species' habitat.	eng
55127	conservation		There is a population of this species within Parque Nacional Canaima in Venezuela. Education and awareness is needed for this region, which is important for numerous endemic species.	eng
55127	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 112km along the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén, from an altitudinal range of 860-1,300m asl. The geographic coordinates for this location are 06° 01'N; 61° 24'W.	eng
55127	habitat		This diurnal frog has been found in a muddy roadside ditch, and on the rocky banks of rivers in tropical montane forests at Serrania de Lema. Larvae presumed to be of this species have been found in shallow puddles 5-10cm deep, as well as in small streams and under rocks in small pools in a roadside ditch.	eng
55127	population		It is a common species.	eng
55127	threats		This species might be threated by the construction of power lines which has caused deforestation and has also required the construction of access roads. Tourism is also a threat.	eng
55128	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas, although it might be present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, an indigenous people's reserve, but this requires further investigation.	eng
55128	distribution		This species is restricted to the Cordillera El Sira, Pasco Department, Peru, where it has an altitudinal range of 210-800m asl.	eng
55128	habitat		This species occurs in humid rainforest. Animals are active alongside small streams, especially near waterfalls where small caves provide shelter. The eggs are presumably deposited in leaf-litter, and a male has been observed carrying the hatched larvae to a stream to complete their development.	eng
55128	population		It is presumed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat.	eng
55128	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although some lower parts of the Cordillera El Sira are being selectively logged.	eng
55129	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
55129	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Pailas, an indigenous village between Sevilla del Oro and Méndez on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Morona Santiago Province, southern Ecuador, at an altitude of 2,195m asl. It might occur more widely, but the survey effort has been insufficient to confirm this.	eng
55129	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest, where annual mean precipitation is 1000-2,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24°C. Its reproductive mode and its tolerance to habitat disturbance are unknown, but the larvae probably develop in streams. It occurs in parapatry with <em>Colostethus anthracinus</em>, the range of which is close to the type locality of <em>C. peculiaris</em>, but they have not been collected sympatrically.	eng
55129	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has apparently not been recorded since the four specimens of the type series were collected in 1962.	eng
55129	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging. By 1996, the forest at the type locality was observed to be fragmented.	eng
55130	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Peru. Within Brazil, it has been recorded within many conservation areas (such as national forests). Further research into the taxonomy and range of this taxon is required.	eng
55130	distribution		This species has a confused disjunctive population distribution. In Peru it is suggested by Frost (1986) that it is known from the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes of Perú from 600-1,000m asl. (Departamentos: Huánuco, San Martín). However Morales (1994) states that it is known only from the type locality (Roque, San Martin). Taxa assigned to C. peruvianus are also reported to occur widely along Madeira River and Rondonia state, Brazil. The type locality in Peru and Brazilian range are represented on the map until the range of this species can be better confirmed. It might occur in Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
55130	habitat		In Peru it is a premontane species. In Brazil it inhabits lowland tropical moist forest. Generally a forest floor species, eggs are laid on the floor, and tadpoles are carried to small pools by the adults.	eng
55130	population		Abundance is not known. There is some doubt as to whether or not the Peruvian and Brazilian populations refer to the same species. Peruvian specimens are known only from museum collections.	eng
55130	threats		In Peru the species is threatened by conversion of habitat to coffee plantations and other agricultural activities, and generalised logging including clear cutting. Recent surveys have indicated that it is now not present at the Peruvian type locality. There are no major threats to the species in Brazil.	eng
55131	conservation		Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
55131	distribution		This species is known only from Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos, in the eastern Andean Cordillera, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,600m asl.	eng
55131	habitat		This species lives on the forest floors of premontane humid forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55131	population		It was abundant until 1998, and one visit in 2000 recorded several individuals. There have been no more survey visits to the site since then.	eng
55131	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a guerrilla stronghold where there is little anthropogenic habitat disturbance.	eng
55132	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this is a valid species (it is probably a synonym of <em>Colostethus pulchellus</em>).	eng
55132	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the western slope of the central Andes, in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,995m asl. It is most likely a synonym of a much wider ranging species.	eng
55132	habitat		It occurs in the lowest vegetation stratum of cloud forests. There is no information regarding its breeding habits or its adaptability to habitat disturbance, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55132	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55132	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55133	conservation		This species is not currently known from any protected areas, although it might occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo (but further investigations are required to confirm this). There is a need to protect habitat remnants at the type locality.	eng
55133	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "between Chachapoyas and Bagua Grande Alva, 500m asl, Amazonas Department, Peru" (Rivero 1991). It is not known if it ranges more widely than this.	eng
55133	habitat		This is a diurnal, terrestrial species, reported from moist lowland tropical forest, although it is not known if it was collected in primary or secondary forest, nor whether or not it can adapt to modified habitats. It is thought to be associated with stream habitats, where the larvae presumably develop.	eng
55133	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55133	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat degradation: the type locality is highly disturbed by agricultural activities (including coffee plantations) and urbanization (establishment of settlements and townships).	eng
55134	conservation		It is found within Parque Nacional Canaima, in which Mount Roraima is one of the protected tepuis.	eng
55134	distribution		This species is known from Mount Roraima, in Bolívar State, eastern Venezuela, close to the border with Guayana Esequiba, at altitudes between 1,800 and 1,950m asl. It potentially has a wider range since it is found on the mountain slopes as well.	eng
55134	habitat		It occurs on rocks covered by mosses and on moist soils, in areas with very low light intensity and abundant decaying vegetation in humid lower montane forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and the adults then carry the larvae to streams where they develop further, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55134	population		The population status of this species is not known, although it is possibly rare.	eng
55134	threats		The major threats to this species are avalanches and the disturbance of its habitat by tourists.	eng
55135	conservation		The range of the species in Colombia includes Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios, and in Panama it is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
55135	distribution		This species is known from the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands of Panama adjacent to south-eastern Costa Rica, and central Panama and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras. It is also present on Isla Colón. In Colombia, it is known from north of the Central and Western Cordillera in the departments of Choco and Antioquia. It has been recorded from 110-1,160m asl.	eng
55135	habitat		It is found on the forest floor and along rocky sections of forest streams in humid lowland and montane forest. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the adults carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.	eng
55135	population		This is a common species.	eng
55135	threats		Agriculture (crops, plantations and livestock), as well as logging, agricultural pollution and the fumigation of crops are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55136	conservation		Further taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
55136	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Amalfu (Los Auribios) in Antioquia Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is known rather imprecisely, being reported as 100-1,500m asl.	eng
55136	habitat		Nothing is known about this species' habitat and ecology, and no details are given in the original description, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55136	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55136	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55137	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia. The species requires close population monitoring, especially in view of the potential risk of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55137	distribution		This species occurs in the inter-Andean páramos of southern Colombia (in Nariño and Cauca Departments) and northern Ecuador (south to Cotapaxi Province), and on the eastern slopes of the Andes from southern Colombia south to the headwaters of the Río Pastaza in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,590-2,970m asl.	eng
55137	habitat		An inhabitant of both dry and humid montane forests. It is a terrestrial species, and breeding takes place in streams. It can be found in secondary growth near streams, but not in open areas.	eng
55137	population		It has disappeared from sites where it used to be abundant in Ecuador, but is still common at Cosanga in Napo Province. It remains common in Colombia.	eng
55137	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss as a result of agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops, are additional threats. There is heavy deforestation as a result of wood extraction at Cosanga, where the species survives in Ecuador. The cause of declines observed in Ecuador is not clear, but could be due to habitat loss, climate change, and/or chytridiomycosis.	eng
55138	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas; its geographic range is not included in any of the 26 Ecuadorian State Natural Protected Areas.	eng
55138	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, San Vicente, 3km west of Limon in the Cordillera Oriental, Azuay Province, southern Ecuador, at an altitude of 2,987m asl.	eng
55138	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest. Its reproductive mode and its tolerance of habitat disturbance are unknown, but the larvae are likely to develop in water.	eng
55138	population		It is probably known only from the type series of five specimens collected in 1962. Subsequent survey efforts for this species have been insufficient, but other members of this genus in ecologically similar areas in Ecuador have disappeared or declined.	eng
55138	threats		This species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging, and also by invasive alien species.	eng
55139	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
55139	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Calles, in the municipality of Urrao in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,300-1,400m asl.	eng
55139	habitat		Nothing is known regarding its habitat and ecology, and no details are given in the original description, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55139	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55139	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55140	conservation		Its range does not include a protected area. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55140	distribution		This species is known from two locations: the type locality of San Rafael, in Antioquia Department, and from Caldas Department, both in Colombia, from 1,200-1,340m asl, and it might occur more widely.	eng
55140	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of forests, although the exact habitat is not known. Its breeding habits are unknown (although the larvae are likely to develop in streams).	eng
55140	population		It is probably an uncommon species, which is still only known from four specimens, with two collected at each of the two known localities.	eng
55140	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55141	conservation	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, 2008	Although it occurs in several small private reserves, ex situ populations should be established because the entire range of this species is nearly entirely deforested and introduced bullfrogs could eliminate the species from remaining forest fragments. Further research and survey work is required to better understand its current population status and in order to advance appropriate conservation measures for this species.	eng
55141	distribution	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species occurs north of Villavicencio, in the eastern foothills of the Andes, Meta Department, Colombia, at 450-800m asl.	eng
55141	habitat	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is a terrestrial, diurnal species that occurs in foothill forest and lays its eggs in leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs, and then move the larvae to small streams for their continued development.	eng
55141	population	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is rare, and was last seen in 2001, despite recent survey work in its range.	eng
55141	threats	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, 2008	Habitat loss caused by agricultural expansion is the main threat to this species, and oil extraction may pose a future threat. It is also threatened by the introduced bullfrog, <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>.	eng
55142	conservation		It is known from a single protected area, the type locality being located within Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
55142	distribution		This species is known only from the top of Mount Roraima, in Bolívar State in south-eastern Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,700m asl.	eng
55142	habitat		The only known specimen was captured inside mosses covering the rocks on the walls of Mount Roraima. This is a rocky environment very close to the top of the tepui.	eng
55142	population		Nothing is known about the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen.	eng
55142	threats		Disturbance of its habitat by tourists is a major threat.	eng
55143	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still persists in the wild.	eng
55143	distribution		This species is known from Fusagasuga, between Alto de San Miguel and Aguadita, on the western flank of the eastern Andes, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, between 2,410 and 2,469m asl.	eng
55143	habitat		It lives on the forest floor and along streams in cloud forest; it is not found outside old-growth forest. Its breeding habits are not documented, but it is assumed that breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
55143	population		It is rare, and is known from only six individuals. Its range has been completely deforested, except for one private tract of land 11ha in size. Four expeditions since 1995 have failed to turn up any individuals of this species.	eng
55143	threats		Deforestation for the planting of crops and cattle grazing is the primary threat to this species.	eng
55144	conservation		The species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and in the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.	eng
55144	distribution		This species is known from the lower slopes of the north-western portion of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Magdalena Department, Colombia. It occurs between 680 and 1,540m asl.	eng
55144	habitat		It occurs along streams in cloud forest and dry tropical forests near the Caribbean coast. The eggs are laid in bromeliads, and the larvae are then carried on the back of the adults to water where they develop further.	eng
55144	population		It is a common species.	eng
55144	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution, and infrastructure development.	eng
55145	conservation		It occurs in at least one protected area: Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos.	eng
55145	distribution		This species is known only from Parque Nacional Natural Cordillera Los Picachos, in the eastern Andean Cordillera, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 1,600m asl.	eng
55145	habitat		This species lives on forest floors of premontane humid forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55145	population		It was abundant until 1998. One visit in 2000 found several individuals, but there have been no more visits to the site.	eng
55145	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a guerrilla stronghold where there is no anthropogenic habitat disturbance.	eng
55146	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas, and some form of formal protection is urgently required to conserve the habitat of this species.	eng
55146	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Until recently, this species was only known from the type locality at 830m asl, on the road from La Fria to Michelena, in Táchira State, Venezuela, although another population was found close by at a slightly higher elevation (about 1,500m asl). More recently, an additional locality was found along the piedmont of the Cordillera de Mérida. It may occur in suitable habitat in the near vicinity (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55146	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It occurs in humid lower montane Andean forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs until they hatch when he carries the larvae on his back to water, where they develop further.	eng
55146	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Some populations are still found along the Andean piedmont facing Lake Maracaibo. Recent field work has revealed several populations with numerous individuals (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55146	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging, water pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement. The species' area of occurrence is subject to strong anthropogenic pressure (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55147	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
55147	distribution		This species is known from a single locality in Venezuelan Guyana: the village of Las Majadas, in Bolívar State, at the merging of the Caura and Orinoco Rivers. It has a very restricted range in a degraded environment, where it has been recorded from 100m asl.	eng
55147	habitat		It occurs in semi-deciduous forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although larvae presumably develop in water, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55147	population		It is known from only two specimens, so nothing is known about its population status.	eng
55147	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development, both for crops and livestock, as well as infrastructure development for human settlements. Over-fishing is also a problem.	eng
55148	conservation		Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni, and Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha in Ecuador. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Colombia. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is desirable as it is likely that its range is larger than currently known.	eng
55148	distribution		This species is known from the tropical humid forest (Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone) of Amazonian Ecuador, and from southern Colombia (departments of Putumayo and Caqueta). It is known from elevations of 250-650m asl. The known number of localities and Extent of Occurrence are likely to increase with more sampling effort.	eng
55148	habitat		This species lives under leaf-litter near streams and on overhanging banks of permanent streams in primary and secondary forest. They lay their eggs in the leaf-litter and then the males carry the tadpoles on their backs to the water where they develop. It is not recorded from any anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55148	population		This appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
55148	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation might be a localized threat to the species. The natural vegetation of 14% of its distribution area in Ecuador (as defined by the GAA polygon) has been cleared by 1996 (based on Sierra, 1999 map).	eng
55149	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
55149	distribution		This species is known from Cerros Duida and Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela, at altitudes between 350 and 1,829m asl. It is known only from a few localities, and attempts to map its distribution at this stage are only approximate.	eng
55149	habitat		It lives near streams in tropical rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, although the larvae presumably develop in water, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55149	population		It is not a common species but its population is believed to be stable at present.	eng
55149	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55150	conservation		Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana and the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
55150	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Napo, Tungurahua, Morona Santiago and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, Ecuador, between 1,272 and 2,370m asl.	eng
55150	habitat		It lives in premontane and cloud forest (Coloma 1995) but its tolerance of disturbed habitats is unknown. Reproduction probably occurs by females laying eggs on the ground, with the males bringing the larvae to streams for them to complete their development. In north-eastern Ecuador it occurs in sympatry with <em>Colostethus bocagei</em>, <em>C. fuliginosus</em>, <em>C. kingsburyi</em>, <em>C. pulchellus</em> and <em>Minyobates abditus</em> near Volcán Reventador. In south-eastern Ecuador the species occurs with <em>C. kingsburyi</em>, and <em>C. pulchellus</em> at the Pastaza trench, and further south with <em>C. exasperatus</em>, <em>C. mystax</em> and <em>C. peculiaris</em>.	eng
55150	population		It was at least formerly abundant, judging by the large series collected through 1984 in the Kansas Museum. It was common in a stream near Loma El Trigal, on the road between Loja y Zamora, in 1987.	eng
55150	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development and logging.	eng
55151	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55151	distribution		This species is known only from the Manaus region, Balbin, Amazonas state, Brazil. It is probably more widely spread.	eng
55151	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of old growth and secondary tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs on land, and the larvae also develop on land.	eng
55151	population		It is abundant and the population is stable.	eng
55151	threats		Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
55152	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Iguaque.	eng
55152	distribution		This species occurs in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of the Cordillera Oriental; Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Meta Departments; Colombia, between 2,000 and 3,500m asl.	eng
55152	habitat		It lives in open areas, wetlands, forest edges and páramo. The eggs are laid on land, and the males carry the tadpoles to lentic waterbodies.	eng
55152	population		It is abundant, with many records in 2003.	eng
55152	threats		It apparently disappears from areas with heavily contaminated waters, with the contamination coming from agrochemicals and urban runoff.	eng
55153	conservation		This species occurs in at least two protected areas in Peru.	eng
55153	distribution		This species occurs to the north of the left bank of the Amazon River and the Rio Trombetas drainage, in Pará State, Brazil, and in the drainages of the Amazon and Maranon Rivers in Loreto, Peru.	eng
55153	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although the larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55153	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55153	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55154	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range.	eng
55154	distribution		The range of this species is not well known. It has been recorded on the Amazonian slopes of the north-eastern Andes and in the Huancabamba depression in northern Peru (Cajamarca and Piura Departments). It possibly occurs between 2,469 and 3,100m asl.	eng
55154	habitat		This is a little-known montane cloud forest species which presumably lays its eggs in leaf-litter on the forest floor and transports larvae to streams.	eng
55154	population		It is not abundant.	eng
55154	threats		Where it has been recorded in the Huancabamba depression it is threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities (mostly cultivation of potatoes).	eng
55155	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia and in Central America.	eng
55155	distribution		This species ranges from the Reserva Indio-Maíz and Rio San Juan in Nicaragua, through northeastern and southwestern Costa Rica, throughout much of central and eastern Panama (including several islands in Bocas del Toro), to the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northern Ecuador. It occurs below 800m.	eng
55155	habitat		A terrestrial and diurnal leaf-litter species of very humid lowland and premontane areas, where annual mean precipitation is 2,000-4,000mm and annual mean temperature is 18-24 C. It can be found in secondary growth and plantations, swampy areas in primary forest, but not in open areas. It is usually close to streams. The eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and both sexes carry the tadpoles to streams to complete metamorphosis in small, water-filled depressions.	eng
55155	population		It is a common species.	eng
55155	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, the introduction of alien predatory fish in streams, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55156	conservation		The area where this frog is found is protected within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.	eng
55156	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, a small valley at the north base of Pico Tamacuari, from 1,160-1,200m asl, in the Sierra Tapirapecó, Amazonas State, Venezuela (at 1° 13'N; 64° 42'W).	eng
55156	habitat		It is a diurnal frog found in rocky forest streams, where the larvae presumably develop. Its calls have been heard coming from beneath large boulders.	eng
55156	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55156	threats		Flash flooding is a potential threat to this species, and has been known to occur at the type locality.	eng
55157	conservation		Its type locality is protected within Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
55157	distribution		This species was until recently only known from a single locality in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at the foot of the Auyan tepui, at 1,650m asl, on a trail from Danto and Pinon. A second specimen was recently discovered by the Cucurital River. The exact distributional limits of this species are not yet known.	eng
55157	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforest, and males call in the margins of small streams in the forest or near waterfalls in the spray-zone. This species lays its eggs on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they develop further.	eng
55157	population		It is common.	eng
55157	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
55158	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if its range extends beyond the two known localities.	eng
55158	distribution		This species is known from two localities in Antioquia Department, in the northern Cordillera Central, Colombia, between 1,480 and 2,270m asl.	eng
55158	habitat		This species is presumably found beside streams in forest like other species of the genus. Its breeding habits are not known, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55158	population		Only a few specimens have been collected, and its population status is unknown.	eng
55158	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
55159	conservation		Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
55159	distribution		This species is known from nine localities in north-western Ecuador, from elevations of 200-1,410m asl.	eng
55159	habitat		It occurs in humid tropical forest and very humid premontane forest (Coloma 1995), as well as lowland grasslands. It lays its eggs on land in leaf-litter or under rocks, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults, where they develop further.	eng
55159	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55159	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution.	eng
55160	conservation		In Peru it is present in the protected areas of Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, Tambopata Reserve, Pacaya Samiria Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and possibly Yasuni National Park. It is present in protected areas in Colombia and is found in many Bolivian protected areas.	eng
55160	distribution		This species occurs in low elevation forest on the east side of the Cordillera Oriental of Perú. (Departamentos: Amazonas, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Puno), northern Bolivia, Amazonian Ecuador (Limoncocha and Tiputini), and two sites in southern Colombia (within Amazonas and Putumayo Departaments). It might possibly occur in Brazil. Its altitudinal range is from 100-250m asl.	eng
55160	habitat		Its habitat is an amazon lowland tropical moist forest. Not closely associated with bodies of water (Grant and Rodríguez, 2001). Adults are diurnal and live in leaf-litter. Eggs are laid on the forest floor; the male carries the tadpoles to streams. Has been recorded from selectively logged forest.	eng
55160	population		It is a common species.	eng
55160	threats		No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). The Ecuadorian populations have been subjected to severe habitat disturbance.	eng
55161	conservation		The type locality is within Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
55161	distribution		This species is so far known only from the type locality, a forest stream on Cerro Yutajé (5° 46'N; 60° 08'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,750m asl.	eng
55161	habitat		It is a diurnal, terrestrial species found in mossy gallery forests. There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55161	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
55161	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55162	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range, and its ecological requirements and population status.	eng
55162	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Tingo in the Río Utcubamba drainage, on the western slopes of the northern Cordillera Oriental (Amazonas Department), in the Andes of Peru, where it has been collected at an altitude of 2,391m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
55162	habitat		This species is presumed to have been collected in cloud forest, although nothing further is known about its habitat and ecology (but the larvae probably develop in streams).	eng
55162	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55162	threats		General threats to its habitat in the area mostly relate to agricultural activities (such as the cultivation of coffee and tea).	eng
55163	conservation		Indigenous reserves lie within its range.	eng
55163	distribution		This species is known from Rio Jurua, in Amazonas State, Brazil.	eng
55163	habitat		It occurs in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, where it is able to adapt to some habitat modification. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae are then carried to water by the adults where they develop further.	eng
55163	population		It is a common species.	eng
55163	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are clear-cut logging and fires.	eng
55164	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. The species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
55164	distribution		This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental, in Fusagasuga, Cundinamarca Department, and Icononso, Tolima Department, Colombia, at 1,500-1,800m asl.	eng
55164	habitat		It occurs near streams in cloud forest, and seems able to tolerate some minor habitat disturbance. The eggs are laid on land, and the males carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.	eng
55164	population		It is known to be an abundant species, although no one has looked for it since 1994.	eng
55164	threats		There are no current known threats to this species, and it is somewhat resilient to habitat disturbance. Nonetheless, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
55165	conservation		The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and slightly overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay. Survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species survives in its natural range.	eng
55165	distribution		This species occurs in the inter-Andean valleys and on the western slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador, at elevations of 1,770-3,500m asl.	eng
55165	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest, in ponds in open areas and in streams. Eggs are placed on the ground, and the males carry the tadpoles to streams where they develop further.	eng
55165	population		The most recent record of this species is from 1997 (QCAZ database). It was abundant in the Bosque Protector Mazán in 1986, but one year of searching in 1995 yielded only a single specimen. It was also abundant in Laguna Busa in 1987. Recent expeditions to the range have turned up no specimens, and no surviving populations are known.	eng
55165	threats		The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture and clear cutting, but this does not account for the observed decline, and chytridiomycosis is implicated as the likely cause of its apparent disappearance.	eng
55166	conservation		It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Natural de Macuira, Colombia. The population of this species requires close monitoring, particularly given that is known only from a single location.	eng
55166	distribution		This species is known only from the Parque Nacional Natural de Macuira, on the Serranía of Macuira, in the Department of Guajira, Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 210-780m asl. It occurs in an isolated area of forest habitat in an otherwise arid region, so it is very unlikely to occur anywhere else.	eng
55166	habitat		It lives in tropical forest with dry vegetation, and can be found in secondary forest. The eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the male carries the hatched tadpoles to streams and ponds to complete their development.	eng
55166	population		It is abundant in the rainy season.	eng
55166	threats		There are no current major threats to the species, and its only known population is within a national park. However, its restricted range renders it susceptible to threatening processes.	eng
55167	conservation		Further taxonomic work is required to determine the validity of this species: a more exhaustive comparison, or fresh specimens from the type locality, are needed in order to assess the taxonomic status of this species, <em>E. erythromos</em> (with which it might be conspecific), and the specimens from San Francisco de Las Pampas.	eng
55167	distribution		This species is known only from Tanti, and the vicinity of San Francisco de Las Pampas, at about 600-1,800m asl, in west-central Ecuador (Coloma 1995). The type locality, Tanti, is a farm on the highway midway between Santo Domingo de los Colorados and Alluriqu’n.	eng
55167	habitat		This species inhabits very humid premontane forest (Coloma 1995). There is no information about its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55167	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55167	threats		The major threats to its habitat include agricultural development (both for the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and logging.	eng
55168	conservation		A replacement for the badly damaged holotype is required to enable much needed research into the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
55168	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the municipality of Ituango in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at 1,575m asl.	eng
55168	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter near streams in cloud forests. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, but the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
55168	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been collected since the original type series.	eng
55168	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55169	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to both encourage the protection of remaining lowland habitat as well as establish a conservation management plan that includes some form of legislation concerning trade.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptophyllobates azureiventris</span>).	eng
55169	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Tarapoto-Yurimaguas Road, 700m asl (San Martín Department), Peru. It is presumed to have a restricted distribution.	eng
55169	habitat		Its habitat is lowland primary tropical rainforest, and eggs are laid under leaf-litter and the larvae are transported to small streams. Nothing is known about its adaptability to modified habitats.	eng
55169	population		It is not very common.	eng
55169	threats		The major threat to the species is general habitat loss resulting from various human activities; local people use the area for recreation and there are lots of settlements, with agricultural development, in lower areas. The species has been recorded in trade. Specimens presumably originated from illegal collection by tourists, although they may have been captive bred. However, the species has not been seen in the commercial trade over the last fifteen years.	eng
55170	conservation		The distribution range of the species might overlap with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, but its presence there has not been confirmed. There is an urgent need for further survey work to determine whether or not this species might survive at other sites near the type locality.	eng
55170	distribution		This species is only known from the eastern base of Volcán Reventador, south-west of the Río Azuela bridge on the Quito-Lago Agrio road, in Napo Province, at 1,700m asl, on the Amazonian versant of the Andes in Ecuador.	eng
55170	habitat		The type locality is a forested ridge, which has a relatively low canopy and is exceedingly dense in most places. This forest is cool and very damp, with a conspicuous moss layer and many epiphytes on the tree trunks. Specimens have been found by day, on or close to the ground, in the forest and in adjacent new clearings. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried on the back of the adults one by one to bromeliads, where they develop.	eng
55170	population		It no longer survives at its only known locality, but there is a small chance that it survives elsewhere in localities that have not yet been surveyed.	eng
55170	threats		Patches of forest at the type locality have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming. The species also could have been affected by the synergistic effects of chytridiomycosis and climate change.	eng
55171	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Utria. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55171	distribution		This species has a very restricted range around Alto del Buey, on the Serrania Baudo, in Choco Department, Colombia, between 980 and 1,070m asl.	eng
55171	habitat		It lives on the ground and in bromeliads in very humid pre-montane forests in the Pacific region of Colombia. There is no information on breeding, but it is probable that the eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and that the tadpoles are carried by the adults to bromeliads. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats.	eng
55171	population		There is little information on its population status.	eng
55171	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species, though it is likely that some populations are threatened by habitat loss due mainly to smallholder agricultural activities, logging, and human settlement. It might also be collected for the pet trade.	eng
55172	conservation		The only protected area from which it is currently known is the Reserva Nacional Alpahuayo Mishana. The taxonomy of this species requires resolution.	eng
55172	distribution		This recently described species is found near to the Iquitos Region in Loreto Department, Peru, where it is present below 200m asl. It is believed that it might range more widely, but further investigations are required to confirm this.	eng
55172	habitat		It is a diurnal species of primary lowland moist forest. Larvae are deposited in phytotelms.	eng
55172	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55172	threats		While this species might be threatened by trade, it is currently not possible to determine whether or not individuals being traded are captive-bred or wild-caught (or, if they are wild-caught, whether or not this species is being over-harvested). This species is threatened by the habitat loss occurring through agricultural activities in the south of the protected area in which it is found.	eng
55173	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad and Bosque Protector Palo Seco. Further research and survey work is needed to ascertain the possible negative impacts of trade and chytrid.	eng
55173	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This species is endemic to the western cordilleras and Atlantic lowlands of Panama. It occurs up to at least 1,120m asl.	eng
55173	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This is a phytotelmic canopy species of humid lowland and montane forest, with breeding taking place in bromeliads.	eng
55173	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
55173	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The main threat is habitat loss due to logging, livestock ranching and human settlement. The level of trade in this species is not known. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.	eng
55174	conservation		This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, and the species occurs within many protected areas. Within Colombia, Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. Nicaragua has established CITES export quotas for this species.	eng
55174	distribution		This species occurs in the humid lowlands from southeastern Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope and southeastern Costa Rica on the Pacific versant to northwestern Colombia (Golfo de Uraba on the Caribbean coast and the lower Atrato River drainage and Bahia Solano on the Pacific coast) (sea level up to 1,000m asl). In 1932, 206 specimens of <em>D. auratus</em> from Taboga or Taboguilla Islands, Panama were released in the upper Manoa Valley, Oahu, Hawaii in an attempt to control non-native insects (Silverstone, 1975; McKeown, 1996). A few feral populations of <em>D. auratus</em> descended from these animals still persist in the mountains and valleys of Oahu.	eng
55174	habitat		It is an arboreal and terrestrial diurnal species of humid lowland and submontane forest. It is also found in dense secondary growth and cocoa plantations (Kitasako, 1967). The adults are often associated large buttressed trees. Males are essentially non-territorial, but occasionally engage in aggressive competition (Wells, 1978). The species is polygynous; females actively compete for males and attempt to guard their mate from others. The species shows a high degree of paternal care. After oviposition upon leaf-litter the male guards and cares for the clutch of three to 13 eggs (Silverstone, 1975; Schafer, 1981; Heselhaus, 1992). On hatching (13-16 days in captivity) the tadpoles are carried by the male to a stagnant water body in a tree-hole, the leaf axil of a bromeliad (up to 30m from the forest floor), or a small ground pool (Eaton, 1941; van Wijngaarden, 1990). Wild tadpoles feed on protozoans and rotifers, and metamorphose after 39-89 days; in captivity, sexual maturity is attained at between six and 15 months (Eaton, 1941; Silverstone, 1975; Summers, 1990; Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). A reduction in the number of egg clutches and tadpoles maintained by the male results in a more rapid development of the eggs and higher growth rate of tadpoles (Wells, 1978; Summers, 1990). Longevity of at least six years reported in captivity (Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994).	eng
55174	population		This is an abundant species that is often seen and regularly recorded throughout its range. There is great geographic variation in the appearance of this species; over 15 distinct colour morphs of wild <em>D. auratus</em> have been recorded. (Heselhaus, 1992). The blue morph of <em>D. auratus</em> present on the Pacific side of Panama is believed to be threatened with extinction (Heselhaus, 1992).	eng
55174	threats		There is a general loss of suitably wooded areas and collection for the international pet trade. Owing to the apparently low fecundity of this species, the possibility exists that over harvesting, especially in the more rare morphs, might contribute to localized population declines. Approximately 18,500 specimens of <em>D. auratus</em> were reported in trade over the period 1991 to 1996. The great majority of specimens were live animals, exported from Nicaragua, and presumably destined for the herpetological pet market. The USA was by far the largest single importer of <em>D. auratus</em> (about 15,000 animals in total) during this period. It is believed that the trade in Nicaragua was decreasing by 2002 because of over collection. McKeown (1996) states that populations on Oahu are highly sensitive to destruction of their habitat and over collection. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on <em>D. auratus</em> is not known.	eng
55176	conservation		Present in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park and Tambopata National Reserve, Peru.	eng
55176	distribution		This species' geographic range is the lower Amazonian in Southeastern Peru (Departamentos: Cusco, Madre de Dios). Brazilian range is inferred from records close to the international border. Expected to occur in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is from 200-300m asl.	eng
55176	habitat		Its habitat is lowland moist forest. Associated with bamboo type habitats in forest. Breeds inside bamboo where it deposits larvae. Not present in modified habitat.	eng
55176	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55176	threats		There are no major threats to this species. Their specific bamboo habitat is not threatened. There is not thought to be any trade in this species. There is minor shifting cultivation within the species' range.	eng
55177	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is also necessary to review international legislation regarding the illegal trade of this species.	eng
55177	distribution		This species is known from both flanks of the western Andes, in the department of Valle del Cauca, and from the western flank of the central Andes, in the departments of Quindio and Risaralda, in Colombia, between 1,580 and 2,100m asl.	eng
55177	habitat		It occurs on the lowest stratum and on bromeliads in cloud forests and very dry forests. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and the larvae develop in bromeliads.	eng
55177	population		It is a common species, but it is believed to be declining.	eng
55177	threats		Habitat loss and degradation caused by agricultural expansion, timber extraction, crop fumigation, and the removal of bromeliads is a major threat. This species is also collected illegally for the pet trade.	eng
55178	conservation		It might occur in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.	eng
55178	distribution		This species is known only from the collection taken during the 1930s at the type locality (the mouth of Río Santiago), at 177m asl (Amazonas Department), in Amazonian Peru. It is not known if it ranges further than this.	eng
55178	habitat		It is a diurnal species of lowland tropical moist forest. Its breeding biology is not known, but it is believed to deposit the larvae in phytotelms.	eng
55178	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55178	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55179	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55179	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Cachoeira Juruá, Rio Xingu, Pará state, Brazil; from about 300km to the northwest of the type locality, Taperinha, Pará state, Brazil; and from Flona Tapajos, Santarem, Pará state, Brazil. It is probably more widespread than currently recognized.	eng
55179	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of the tropical rainforest. It uses the water inside the "ouriço" of Brazil nuts and small temporary pools for reproduction. Eggs are laid on the ground and the tadpoles are carried to pools to develop.	eng
55179	population		It is common where it is found.	eng
55179	threats		Forest conversion, logging, fire and the international pet trade are threats to this species.	eng
55180	conservation		It is listed on CITES Appendix II, but it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into its range and ecology, and its potential conservation measures.	eng
55180	distribution		This species is currently known only from Isla Loma Partida and Isla Popa in Bocas del Toro Province, Panama, where it is found from 5-140m asl. It possibly has a larger range than is currently known.	eng
55180	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor, and adults carry the larvae to phytotelms for their development.	eng
55180	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
55180	threats		The pet trade is a potential threat to this species, although current levels of exploitation are unclear.	eng
55181	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru it is present in Reserva Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo.	eng
55181	distribution		This species is recently described from northern Peru (Departamento: Loreto) and the eastern lowlands of Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 200-500m asl.	eng
55181	habitat		Found in primary lowland tropical rainforest on leaf-litter. This small diurnal frog is most frequently seen on logs or among leaf-litter in humid forest. Presumed to deposit larvae in bromeilads, this requires confirmation. Not present in modified habitats.	eng
55181	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55181	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized loss of primary forest. The impact of the pet trade on this species is not known. It is believed not to be a popular species, and is little traded. There is no official trade of the species from Peru or Ecuador; illegal exports of this species are thought to have occurred from Ecuador.	eng
55182	conservation		This species is not present in any protected areas. The Implementation of Conservation and Management Programs is important. There is a management programme under way for the species (ASPRAVEP Project).	eng
55182	distribution		This Peruvian endemic is restricted to San Martin and Loreto Departments. It has an altitudinal range of 200-600m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55182	habitat		It is a diurnal species of lowland and premontane moist forest. A phytotelm breeder It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
55182	population		It seems to be common.	eng
55182	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. The species is possibly threatened by localized habitat loss. It is suggested that over collection of this species for the international pet trade might be occurring; however any collection would be illegal, as exports of this species are not permitted from Peru.	eng
55183	conservation		This species possibly occurs in the Reserva Comunal Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo, but this requires further investigation. It is also not clear that it represents a valid taxon, so further taxonomic research is required to resolve this confusion.	eng
55183	distribution		This species' range is not known. It is possible that it was collected from a small region in the Ucayali drainage in Loreto Department, Peru, but this is not certain and no map can be produced for this species.	eng
55183	habitat		It is presumed to occur in lowland tropical moist forest. It probably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the adults deposit the larvae.	eng
55183	population		There is nothing known about the population status of this species.	eng
55183	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55184	conservation		It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Chagres and Area de Manejo Especial Nusagandi in Panama, and occurs in several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55184	distribution		This species ranges from the central and eastern cordilleras of Panama to the Pacific lowlands of Colombia as far south as the lower River Anchicaya. Its recorded altitudinal range is 160-800m in Colombia, perhaps higher in Panama.	eng
55184	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. The eggs are deposited on the forest floor, and the adults carry the larvae to plants (leaf axils, usually bromeliads) for development. It is associated with mature forest, and probably does not survive in degraded habitats.	eng
55184	population		It is considered to be common at some sites.	eng
55184	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It appears not to be in international trade.	eng
55185	conservation	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55185	distribution	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This species occurs in the lowland forests of Pará, Maranhão and Tocantins states, Brazil. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.	eng
55185	habitat	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It lives in the leaf-litter of the tropical rainforest, and reproduction takes place in temporary pools. Eggs are laid on the ground and the tadpoles are carried to the water.	eng
55185	population	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
55185	threats	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	Forest conversion, logging, fire and the international pet trade are threats to this species. The populations in Tocantins state are threatened by hydroelectric development.	eng
55186	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Corcovado.	eng
55186	distribution		This species occurs in the lowlands of south-western Costa Rica, adjacent south-western Panama, and possibly in south-eastern Costa Rica, from 20-100m asl.	eng
55186	habitat		A diurnal, terrestrial species most often found in relatively undisturbed humid lowland forest, but also recorded from secondary forest and plantations. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the female transports the tadpoles to bromeliads to complete metamorphosis.	eng
55186	population		It is common in Costa Rica.	eng
55186	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. The current level of offtake of specimens for the international trade is unknown.	eng
55187	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
55187	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific Lowlands of Colombia, in the Departments of Antioquia, Choco, and Valle del Cauca, from sea level up to 1,000m.	eng
55187	habitat		It lives mostly on the ground in tropical rainforests, but it can be found also perching on leaves at different levels above ground. It can survive in secondary forest, and in small plantations, but not in open areas. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.	eng
55187	population		It is a common species.	eng
55187	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species is also sometimes collected illegally for the international pet trade and the medicinal trade, but it is not clear that this has a significant impact on its populations.	eng
55188	conservation		It is present in the Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Treated in National legislation as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999).	eng
55188	distribution		This species' geographic range is the lower Amazonian in north central eastern Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Loreto, San Martín). Its altitudinal range is from 200-700m asl.	eng
55188	habitat		It is a diurnal species of primary lowland tropical moist forest. Phytotelm breeder. Not thought to occur in modified habitats.	eng
55188	population		Can be common where it occurs.	eng
55188	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture. Small-scale illegal trade in this species has been observed.	eng
55189	conservation		Present in lowland zone of Yanachaga Chemillen National Park, Oxapampa Province. There is no official exportation of this CITES App. II species from Peru.	eng
55189	distribution		This species' geographic range is lower Amazonian in central eastern Peru (Departamentos: Huánuco, Pasco). Its altitudinal range is from 400-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
55189	habitat		It is a diurnal species of premontane and lowland moist tropical forest. It breeds in phytotelms. Can occur in coffee plantations and other non-intensive crops, not present in dense monoculture.	eng
55189	population		It is relatively common where it occurs.	eng
55189	threats		No major threats, an adaptable widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Severe habitat loss might lead to a localized decline in the species. Specimens have been reported in trade, however the impact of trade on wild populations of the species is incompletely known. It is presumed that wild caught specimens have been illegally exported by tourists; there is no official exportation of the species from Peru. Trade levels are suspected to be low but require further investigation.	eng
55190	conservation		The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55190	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from two localities in Colombia on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental: west of Dagua at 850-1,200m on the south-facing versant of the upper Río Anchicayá drainage, Department of Valle del Cauca; and from Alto del Oso near San José del Palmar in the Department of Chocó. Its overall altitudinal range is between 600 and 1,200m asl. Records from the Serrania de Baudo in the Department of Chocó (not mapped) require confirmation.	eng
55190	habitat		It lives mostly on the ground in submontane tropical rainforests, but it can also be found perching on leaves up to 60cm above ground. It is not found in heavily degraded areas, but does occur in mature secondary forest. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried on the backs of the females to bromeliads, where they develop. The females feed the tadpoles on unfertilized eggs.	eng
55190	population		It is a locally common species in its tiny range.	eng
55190	threats		The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, as a result of agricultural development (illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution, resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It occasionally appears in the illegal pet trade.	eng
55191	conservation		Some populations live within protected areas south of the Orinoco river in Venezuela. It is considered in the Venezuelan Red Data Book as Lower Risk, Least Concern. It is listed under Appendix II of CITES (listed 22-10-1987), and in the European Community, it is listed under regulation 338/97, Annex B, listed on 01-06-1997 (Walls 1994; Cites web-site). It breeds easily in captivity.	eng
55191	distribution		This species is known from the Guianan Orinoco drainage of Venezuela north to the Río Orinoco (in Bolívar and Amazonas States), east into Guyana to the Essequibo River, south into extreme northern Brazil, and west into eastern Amazonian Colombia. In Venezuela it has been recorded from sea level up to 500m asl.	eng
55191	habitat		This brightly coloured diurnal frog is found in leaf-litter, on the ground, on open rocks, near rivers and rivulets, under logs and on trunks of fallen or inclined vegetation in tropical rainforests. During the dry season, specimens congregate under rocks and fallen tree-trunks. Eggs are laid out of water, and the tadpoles are then carried to streams where they develop further. It is adaptable to some habitat disturbance.	eng
55191	population		It is a common species.	eng
55191	threats		Agriculture, logging and fire are threats to the species' habitat. It is also in the international pet trade.	eng
55192	conservation		Listed on Appendix II of CITES. The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
55192	distribution		This species ranges from Panama (within El Valle and Cerro Campana, in the central areas of the country and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras), south to Colombia (south to Río Saija). It occurs below 1,000m, generally much lower.	eng
55192	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland forest. The eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the tadpoles are carried on the back of the male to bromeliads, where they develop. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in mature secondary forest.	eng
55192	population		It is very abundant in some areas.	eng
55192	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Unlike most species of Dendrobates this species is not collected for the pet trade.	eng
55193	conservation		Reportedly present in the Cordillera del Cóndor Reserve, this species is also protected by national legislation. Further research into the distribution and population status of the species is necessary, and there is a need to monitor its presence in international trade.	eng
55193	distribution		This species is currently known with certainty only from a single location in the vicinity of the town of Santa Rosa at the foothills of the Cordillera del Cóndor (Cajamarca Department), north-eastern Peru, at around 1,000m asl.	eng
55193	habitat		It has only been recorded from primary premontane forest, with breeding taking place in bromeliads.	eng
55193	population		The population status of this species is not known. Much of the area is deforested and populations are only known from forest remnants that remain on some steep cliffs and slopes.	eng
55193	threats		The main threat is habitat clearance for agricultural use (including pastureland and coffee cultivation). Recently, a few specimens have also been reported in international trade.	eng
55194	conservation		Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July 1985 forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55194	distribution		This species is known only from La Brea, near Patia River, Guangui, Cauca Department, in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, where it has been recorded between 50 and 200m asl. It is not known if it occurs more widely.	eng
55194	habitat		This species lives mainly on the ground in undisturbed, lowland rainforest, but it can also be found perching on leaves at different levels above the ground. There are no degraded habitats within its tiny known range, and so its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. There is no information on its breeding habits, but it is likely to be similar to <em>Dendrobates histrionicus</em>, where the eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.	eng
55194	population		It appears to be uncommon in its only known locality.	eng
55194	threats		There is little direct information on threats to this species, but the major threats are likely to include deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and also pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. This species has never been involved in the international pet trade.	eng
55195	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Measures need to be put in place to ensure levels of offtake of this species from the wild are sustainable. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55195	distribution		This species occurs from the central and western Andes, in Antioquia Department, to the eastern slope of the central Andes, in Caldas Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,160 and 2,200m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55195	habitat		It occurs on the ground in leaf-litter in montane forest, although it may also climb on vegetation in the interior of primary forest. It lays its eggs in leaf-litter and the tadpoles develop in bromeliads.	eng
55195	population		It is a common species.	eng
55195	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss/degradation, due to agriculture, logging and fire, and pollution as a result of the fumigation of crops. It is also harvested illegally for the international pet trade.	eng
55196	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and is found in several protected areas within its range. A well-studied population of <em>O. pumilio</em> is present in the Finca La Selva Biological Reserve, northeastern Costa Rica (Donnelly, 1989; Limerick, 1980; McVey, 1981; Pröhl, 1997); populations are suspected to occur in Braulio Carrillo National Park, Corcovado National Park, and Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. Within Panama the species is present in a number of protected areas including Isla Bastimentos National Marine Park within the Bocas del Toro archipelago (Summers <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Nicaragua has established a CITES 2001 export quota of 3,450 specimens for this species.	eng
55196	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox, 2008	This species' geographic range is the Atlantic versant, humid lowlands, and premontane slopes in eastern central Nicaragua (0-940m asl) south through the lowlands of Costa Rica and northwestern Panama (including many islands in Bocas del Toro), from 1-495m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
55196	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox, 2008	A diurnal and mostly terrestrial frog of humid lowland and premontane forest, cacao plantations, and abandoned forest clearings. Males appear to be fiercely territorial; individual territories have been estimated at 2.5 m2 (Donnelly, 1983). Observations concerning mating behaviour suggest that some <em>O. pumilio</em> are at times polygynous (McVey <em>et al.</em>, 1981; Donnelly, 1989; Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). Females lay a clutch of three to nine eggs in moist leaf-litter; clutch sizes in captive specimens of six to 16 eggs have been recorded (Limerick, 1980; Silverstone, 1975). There appears to be no information on the number of clutches laid annually. <em>O. pumilio</em> eggs hatch approximately seven days after oviposition, adults then carry the developed tadpoles from the forest floor to water filled bromeliads (Limerick, 1980). <em>O. pumilio</em> tadpoles have a very specialized oophagous diet, feeding solely on food eggs supplied by the female (Heselhaus, 1992; McVey <em>et al.</em>; 1981, Zimmermann and Zimmermann, 1994). There is little available information on wild larval development; Heselhaus (1992) reports that captive tadpoles fed an artificial diet ‘grow slowly, taking four to six months, a third longer than with natural feeding, to reach metamorphosis’. Sexual maturity is reached at a minimum size of 19mm (approximately 10 months). There are few data on longevity; Donnelly (1983) concluded that the population at Finca La Selva, Costa Rica was mostly comprised of ‘long-lived’ adults; Zimmermann and Zimmermann (1994) gave longevity of 4 years for captive <em>O. pumilio</em>.	eng
55196	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox, 2008	This is a common species throughout its range. The species exhibits significant colour and pattern polymorphism especially among populations in the Bocas del Toro archipelago of Panama (Summers <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Populations in forest habitat at La Selva, Costa Rica, seem to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
55196	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Neil Cox, 2008	Habitat loss and over-collection for the pet trade are the principal threats to this species. It is believed that the species is currently being unsustainably collected, and because of the apparently low fecundity of this species, the possibility exists that over-harvesting might lead to localized population declines. Distinct island forms are particularly susceptible to both over-collection, and the development of islands for tourism purposes. The great majority of reported trade over the period 1991 to 1996 was in live animals, presumably by the herpetological pet market. The largest overall exporter of <em>O. pumilio</em> between 1991 and 1996 was Nicaragua (>95% of exports); the USA consistently accounted for over 80% of recorded live <em>O. pumilio</em> imports from Nicaragua during this period. Current export levels from range states are not known. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on <em>O. pumilio</em> is not known. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
55197	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55197	distribution		This species occurs in southern Amazonia, in the Rio Madeira drainage of western Brazil, although it is known definitively only from Rondônia and adjacent Amazonas, and also Iquitos, Peru.	eng
55197	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs out of the water on a leaf, and the tadpoles are carried to the seasonal water sources including bromeliads.	eng
55197	population		It is abundant.	eng
55197	threats		Forest conversion, fire, logging and mining are threats to this species.	eng
55198	conservation	Icochea, J., Coloma,L.A., Ron, S., Jungfer, K.-H., Angulo, A., & Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2004	It is present in Alpahuayo Mishana Reserve (Peru). In Peru there is National legislation to treat as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999). This species should remain listed on CITES to prevent unsustainable trade. It is illegal to export the species from either Ecuador or Peru.	eng
55198	distribution	Icochea, J., Coloma,L.A., Ron, S., Jungfer, K.-H., Angulo, A., & Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2004	This species is known from the Iquitos and Yurimaguas Region, Loreto, northeastern Perú, and from two sites in Ecuador. A lowland species found below 200 m asl.	eng
55198	habitat	Icochea, J., Coloma,L.A., Ron, S., Jungfer, K.-H., Angulo, A., & Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2004	This diurnal frog occurs in primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest; it is mostly terrestrial but also climbs tree trunks (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It breeds in phytotelms, and may be found in mature secondary forest.	eng
55198	population	Icochea, J., Coloma,L.A., Ron, S., Jungfer, K.-H., Angulo, A., & Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2004	It is locally abundant in Peru, rare in Ecuador.	eng
55198	threats	Icochea, J., Coloma,L.A., Ron, S., Jungfer, K.-H., Angulo, A., & Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2004	Currently there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Illegal trade in this species has been observed (from 1987 to 1995), possibly caused through confusion of this species with a legally exportable species.	eng
55199	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55199	distribution		This species is known only from a few specimens collected somewhere in Pasco or Junin Departments, Peru. Its exact range is not known and so its range has not been mapped. The altitudinal range is suggested to be 600-1,500m asl.	eng
55199	habitat		This is presumably a tropical forest species that deposits eggs in the leaf-litter and carries its young to streams to complete their development.	eng
55199	population		It is known from very few specimens, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55199	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55200	conservation		It is present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, an indigenous people's reserve. Strengthened management may be necessary to ensure the maintenance of this species' habitat.	eng
55200	distribution		This species is known only from the Cordillera El Sira (in the departments of Huanuco, Pasco, Ucayali), Peru, at an altitude of 750-1,000m asl. This is a single isolated mountain, so the species is probably restricted to this area.	eng
55200	habitat		It is a diurnal species of primary montane cloud forest, and is presumed to use phytotelms for breeding. It is not known if it can occur in secondary or modified habitats.	eng
55200	population		Nothing is known of its population status, although it is likely to be rare.	eng
55200	threats		Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the range are subject to selective logging.	eng
55201	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Bosque Protector Palo Seco and Parque Internacional La Amistad. Further research is needed into the current population status of the species, and some form of management or legislation needs to be put in place in order to control the level of offtake for the pet trade.	eng
55201	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This species is a Panamanian endemic of the western Cordillera Central adjacent to Costa Rica. It is present at around 1,370m asl.	eng
55201	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	It is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest, with breeding taking place in plants.	eng
55201	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The species was formerly considered to be common, but its current population status is not known.	eng
55201	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. It is also subject to collection for the pet trade.	eng
55202	conservation		Cerro Yapacana is a Venezuelan natural monument, like most other tepuis in the region. Surveys are necessary to monitor the population trends of this species. Measures are also required to combat illegal trade of this species, and to regulate the mining activities so that the survival of the species is not jeopardised.	eng
55202	distribution		This species is restricted to Cerro Yapacana, at elevations from 600-1,300m asl, in Amazonas state, Venezuela.	eng
55202	habitat		It occurs in terrestrial bromeliads in montane tepui forest. Breeding probably takes place in bromeliads.	eng
55202	population		According to Gorzula and Señaris (1999) this frog is exceedingly common in bromeliads on the summit, and it is possible to collect hundreds in just a few hours. It is still found in great numbers.	eng
55202	threats		Intensive open gold mining in the area is a major threat to the species' habitat. Barrio and Fuentes (1999) reported the illegal collection and exportation of some 150 specimens to Germany, and other collections for scientific purposes. Wildfires might also be a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
55203	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55203	distribution		This species occurs in south-western Colombia (in Cauca and Narino Departments) and north-western Ecuador (in Pichincha, Esmeraldas, Imbabura, and Los Rios Provinces). It occurs from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55203	habitat		It lives in lowland and submontane rainforest and can survive in moderately degraded areas, at least in the more humid parts of its range. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are transported to bromeliads by the female.	eng
55203	population		It is very common in Colombia but has disappeared from most of its range in Ecuador, only still surviving in the north of its range in that country.	eng
55203	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, mining and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is sometimes recorded in the international pet trade.	eng
55204	conservation	Philippe Gaucher, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	Its range includes a few protected areas. This species breeds easily in captivity, and is found in zoos around the world.	eng
55204	distribution	Philippe Gaucher, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	This species is known from the lowland forests of the Guianas and adjacent Brazil. A point locality map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 600m asl.	eng
55204	habitat	Philippe Gaucher, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It inhabits the forest floor of tropical rainforest. Its eggs are laid out of water, and then the tadpoles are carried by the males to puddles (tree holes, etc) where they develop further.	eng
55204	population	Philippe Gaucher, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It is locally common in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). Elsewhere it is common but patchily distributed.	eng
55204	threats	Philippe Gaucher, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It is illegally collected for the pet trade.	eng
55205	conservation		The range of the species includes at least two protected areas on the Atlantic Coast. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Maintaining the CITES listing of this species is necessary to ensure its survival.	eng
55205	distribution		This species is widespread on the western flank of the eastern Andes, and the eastern flank of the central Andes, in Colombia, between 350 and 1,200m elevation.	eng
55205	habitat		It occurs in tropical humid, dry and very dry forests, on the lowest stratum of the forests, in the Caribbean and Andean region. The eggs are terrestrial and the adults then carry the tadpoles to temporary pools, where the tadpoles develop further. It is also known from disturbed habitats such as banana plantations, although it does require that the habitat be not entirely cleared.	eng
55205	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55205	threats		This species was popular in the pet trade but is now listed by CITES. It is very difficult to breed in captivity. There are no major threats to the species at present. It could be threatened by the pet trade if the CITES status was lifted.	eng
55206	conservation		Within Brazil there are a number of protected areas (conservation units) present within its range.	eng
55206	distribution		This species' geographic range includes east-central Peru (Huanuco, Pasco and Ucayali Departments) and adjacent Brazil. It has not yet been recorded from Bolivia, but is expected to occur there. It has an altitudinal range of below 300m asl.	eng
55206	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in small tree holes, tadpoles are carried to water by the parents. It is not known if it can occur in secondary or modified habitats.	eng
55206	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55206	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable protected habitat remaining. In Brazil there is localized forest conversion for agricultural purposes. There is possibly some illegal trade in this species.	eng
55207	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, but it is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55207	distribution		This species is currently known only from higher areas next to the road from Tarapoto to Yurimaguas, from 900-1,200m asl in San Martin Department, Peru, although it is possible that it might range more widely.	eng
55207	habitat		It is a species of primary tropical moist forest, so its adapatability to degraded habitats is not known. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although reproduction presumably takes place by larval development.	eng
55207	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55207	threats		Its threats include loss of habitat to agricultural development and collection of wood for subsistence purposes. Trade in this species has been observed at low levels.	eng
55208	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55208	distribution		This species occurs in the Amazon drainage basin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil, from the foothills of the Andes east to the mouth of the Amazon and north into eastern French Guiana, at below 400m asl.	eng
55208	habitat		This diurnal frog has been found in tropical rainforest, in epiphytes growing on trees, and in leaf-litter on the forest floor (Ron, 2001). At Lago Agrio, Ecuador, individuals have been collected on the ground in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). The eggs are laid on the ground, and the tadpoles are carried to the water in bromeliads. It has been seen 40m above the forest floor.	eng
55208	population		Its abundance varies throughout its range, it is common in Colombia while it is rare in Ecuador.	eng
55208	threats		Clear cutting, forest conversion, logging, fire, human settlement and water pollution (near Belem city) are threats to this species.	eng
55209	conservation		This species has been recorded from a protected area (Parque Nacional General de División Omar Torrijos Herrera).	eng
55209	distribution		This Panamanian endemic has been recorded from a single locality in the continental divide in Coclé Province on the Atlantic coast. It is arboreal, and difficult to survey, and consequently its range is considered to be incompletely known. The altitudinal range of this species might be 4-912m asl, although this requires further investigation.	eng
55209	habitat		It is a largely arboreal species of humid tropical lowland and montane forest. Breeding takes place in arboreal vegetation, and adults then transport larvae to forest streams to develop.	eng
55209	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
55209	threats		The main threats are general habitat loss (destruction of natural forests) due to agricultural development and logging, and potentially over-collection for the pet trade.	eng
55210	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55210	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from Río Anchicaya in Valle del Cauca Department, to Río Saija in Cauca Department, between 100 and 1,200m asl.	eng
55210	habitat		It lives on the ground and in bromeliads in primary and good secondary, lowland and sub-montane forests. The tadpoles presumably are deposited in bromeliads.	eng
55210	population		It is very common.	eng
55210	threats		The major threats are deforestation due to agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of crops. Unlike other species of the genus, it has not been recorded in international trade.	eng
55211	conservation		Although it occurs in the Santuaro de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, improved habitat protection is required, and there is a need to monitor and regulate the offtake of this species for international trade. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Dendrobates</em> spp. from the wild for breeding (or other) purposes.	eng
55211	distribution		This species occurs in the Santuaro de Fauna y Flora Guanentá, Alto Río Fonce, Río Cañaverales and El Reloj; and also in Municipio de Socorro, Santander Department, Colombia, at 1,700-2,000m asl.	eng
55211	habitat		It lives on the floor of cloud forest, and only occurs in secondary forest if there is a lot of leaf-litter and bromeliads (since it lays its eggs in leaf-litter and the males bring the larvae to the bromeliads).	eng
55211	population		It is common, with many recent records.	eng
55211	threats		Habitat fragmentation and loss is the main threat, and is taking place primarily due to agricultural expansion. This species is also found in the pet trade.	eng
55212	conservation		This species is currently listed on CITES Appendix II, and the type locality is within the private Reserva Natural La Planada.	eng
55212	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, La Planada, Altaquer, in Nariño Department, on the western flank of the western Andes, Colombia, between 700 and 2,020m asl. It occurs in a poorly explored region, and might range more widely.	eng
55212	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforests and cloud forests, and also along forest edges, provided they are moist, in the Pacific Andean region. Eggs are laid on the ground and the male carries the larvae to streams where they develop further.	eng
55212	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55212	threats		The threats to this species are unknown. However, the habitat outside the reserve in which it is found is threatened by habitat fragmentation and loss caused by expansion of agriculture, timber extraction, and chemical spraying of crops. Assuming that this species' range extends outside the reserve, its habitat must also be threatened by these processes.	eng
55213	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Stefan Lötters, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It is not known with certainty if it occurs in any protected areas. The impact on it of collection for medicinal use and commercial trade in wild specimens should be monitored.	eng
55213	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Stefan Lötters, Pablo Venegas, 2008	This species occurs in south-western Ecuador (in El Oro, Azuay and Loja Provinces) and north-western Peru (in Ancash, Piura and Tumbes regions), west of the Andes, at 153-1,769m asl. The record from Ancash, Peru, is doubtful (E. Lehr pers. comm.). It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55213	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Stefan Lötters, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It lives in equatorial dry forest near streams and can be found in altered habitats. It lays its eggs in leaf-litter, and the males carry the larvae to running and standing water where they continue their development.	eng
55213	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Stefan Lötters, Pablo Venegas, 2008	In southern Ecuador this is an abundant species.	eng
55213	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Stefan Lötters, Pablo Venegas, 2008	This species is threatened by agrochemical pollution of waterways, and is also collected for medicinal use in Ecuador (although not currently in sufficient numbers to be a threat).	eng
55214	conservation	Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas, but possibly occurs in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo.	eng
55214	distribution	Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	This species occurs in the Amazon drainage of Peru, from the eastern foothills of the Andes east to the Río Huallaga, in the departaments of Huánuco and San Martín, from 270-1,200m asl.	eng
55214	habitat	Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	This is a diurnal species of lowland and montane tropical moist forest that can be found in both primary and slightly degraded habitat. Eggs are deposited on the ground and the larvae are then transported to streams by the male.	eng
55214	population	Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It can be extremely common where it occurs.	eng
55214	threats	Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	There is significant habitat loss within its range due to agricultural activities (mostly coffee plantations).	eng
55215	conservation		In Ecuador its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55215	distribution		This species is known from the Ecuadorian Amazon Basin in Napo moist forests in the Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone, and from the department of Putumayo (between Alto Río Caquetá) in Colombia. It occurs between 200-700m asl.	eng
55215	habitat		This species lives in leaf-litter close to streams of primary and secondary Terra Firme forest and seasonal flooded forest. It has also been recorded from ant nests in banana plantations. Eggs are laid in leaf-litter and when hatched the males carry the tadpoles to small temporary or permanent pools on their backs and the tadpoles develop in these pools. It is not known from any anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55215	population		It is a common species in primary forest but is usually found in lower densities in secondary forest.	eng
55215	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to the species. The natural vegetation of 27.2% of its distribution area (as defined by the GAA polygon) has been cleared by 1996 (based on Sierra, 1999 map).	eng
55216	conservation		Its range includes Pilan Lajas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
55216	distribution		This species was originally known at the foot of the western Andes in Bolivia. It was recorded in San Carlos and San Ernesto (the type locality), in the department of La Paz. It was rediscovered in Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve by Gonzales <em>et al.</em> (1999) after a century, and is now known from an additional two localities. It has been recorded from 800-1,400m asl.	eng
55216	habitat		It is a terrestrial species from the Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Populations are also found in disturbed habitat such as pastureland. It lays its eggs terrestrially, and then the tadpoles are carried on the backs of males to streams, or small waterbodies, where they develop further.	eng
55216	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55216	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
55217	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Taran Grant, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje, Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, such as Gorgona Natural National Park. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of Dendrobates spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
55217	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Taran Grant, 2008	This species occurs in the southern part of the Colombian Pacific Lowlands (in Gorgona Island, Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca Departments) and in the northwestern lowlands of Ecuador (in Esmeraldas, Pichincha and Imbabura Provinces). It occurs below 1,460m asl.	eng
55217	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Taran Grant, 2008	It lives in on the ground in dense moist tropical rainforests. It can also be found in altered zones, such as gardens and railway tunnels. The species has been found to be associated to open areas (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).<br/><br/>The eggs are laid on the ground and the males transport all the larvae together to small streams.	eng
55217	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Taran Grant, 2008	It is a common species. It was found to be the most abundant species in Gorgona Island (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).	eng
55217	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Taran Grant, 2008	The major threats are: deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Also, chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it disappears if the habitat is far too open and therefore too dry. It appears in the international pet trade, but it is not known whether or not this is a significant threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a possible future threat.	eng
55218	conservation		It occurs in two national Parks, Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães and Parque Nacional do Pantanal.	eng
55218	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso), from two nearby localities (Barra do Bugres and Cáceres, Mato Grosso), from Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul, and from Santa Rita do Araguaia, in Goias, Brazil. It was collected in the Upper Negro region of the Pantanal.	eng
55218	habitat		Individuals were found amidst leaf-litter in gallery forests in the Cerrado, which is also its breeding habitat. The eggs are laid on land and then the larvae are deposited in streams where they develop further. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55218	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55218	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fire is threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55219	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas. Improved habitat protection is required at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
55219	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and adjacent areas including the Tarapoto-Yurimaguas road (San Martín Department) in Peru. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.	eng
55219	habitat		It inhabits lowland tropical moist forest and "rolling hills", and can be found in primary and possibly slightly degraded habitats. The breeding habitat is not known, although the larvae are presumably deposited in water.	eng
55219	population		There is nothing known about the population status of this species.	eng
55219	threats		The major threat is the loss of forest habitat through agriculture (coffee), livestock production, and subsistence wood collection. The species has not been recorded from international trade.	eng
55220	conservation		Its range includes the protected area of Reserva Ecológica Mache-Chindul. Further taxonomic research is required to determine whether or not this species is conspecific with <em>Colostethus whymperi</em>.	eng
55220	distribution		This species is known from two localities. The first is the type locality: Río Palenque, 47km south of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador, at 170m asl. The second is Montañas de Bilsa, in Esmeraldas Province. It is likely to occur at least a little more widely. This species has been recorded from 225-450m asl.	eng
55220	habitat		These frogs are apparently restricted to creek systems in tropical wet forest. At the type locality, the forest along these creeks has a somewhat broken canopy with significant amounts of bamboo and other secondary growth vegetation mixed with the tall trees. The relief is rather steep and much of the openness of the canopy appears to be due to tree falls, although there has been some cutting in the area (Vigle and Miyata 1980). The eggs are laid terrestrially and the larvae are then deposited in creeks and streams where they develop further.	eng
55220	population		It is rare. In July 2005 it was again recorded at the type locality in small numbers (Delia and Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).	eng
55220	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and logging. The type locality has been completely destroyed by a banana plantation.	eng
55221	conservation		The range of <em>Epipedobates espinosai</em> does not include any protected areas, and it might no longer occur in the type locality, which has been completely altered. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55221	distribution		This species is known only from Hacienda Espinosa, at about 350m asl, 9km west of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, in the province of Pichincha in north-western Ecuador.	eng
55221	habitat		If it still occurs, this species is presumably found in lowland forest. There is no reliable information on its breeding habits, although the larvae are presumably deposited in water for their development, as with other species of the genus.	eng
55221	population		The population status of this species is not known, and it might have disappeared from the type locality as a result of the complete alteration of this area.	eng
55221	threats		The major threats to this species are logging and the invasive species <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>.	eng
55222	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil and in Bolivia.	eng
55222	distribution		This species is known from southeastern (Minas Gerais, Goiás, and Tocantíns), northern (Pará), and northeastern (Maranhão), Brazil. It has also been recorded from five localities in the eastern Bolivian mountain ranges. It has been recorded from 400-1,500m asl.	eng
55222	habitat		A diurnal species found in rock crevices at creek margins in rupestrian fields, within the vegetation on a forest waterfall and amidst leaf-litter. Eggs are laid on the litter and tadpoles are then carried by their parents to streams where they develop further. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55222	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55222	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat. It is in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
55223	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Claude Gascon, 2008	Its range includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55223	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Claude Gascon, 2008	This species occurs in the "Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Bolivia, the Guianas, and Amazonian Brazil." (Frost, 2002). It occurs below elevations of 400m asl. There is one record from 1,500m asl in Colombia.	eng
55223	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Claude Gascon, 2008	It occurs on the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid on the leaf-litter, and the tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools. "Diurnal and terrestrial, this species is usually associated with fallen palm fronds, branches, and small gaps in the forest". (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994).	eng
55223	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Claude Gascon, 2008	It is not common in the Guianas but it is common elsewhere.	eng
55223	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Claude Gascon, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species.	eng
55224	conservation		There are no protected areas near the type locality. A search for any remaining populations is urgently needed before the species is declared extinct.	eng
55224	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Asarrio, on the Pescado River in the Amazonian lowlands, Caquetá Department, Colombia, at 200m asl. It has not been found elsewhere, and probably has a very small range.	eng
55224	habitat		The area where it was collected was lowland forest. It is probably a terrestrial and diurnal species, laying its eggs in leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to pools of water in epiphytes for development.	eng
55224	population		It is known from a single specimen, which was described in 1970. Recent work in the region has not turned up any new specimens. Given the level of habitat destruction that has taken place within its range, it could be extinct.	eng
55224	threats		The entire region where the type specimen was collected has been deforested for cattle farming since 1978.	eng
55225	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55225	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Nauta" (Cope 1874), which has traditionally been thought to be in Amazonian Peru in Loreto Department. However, it is far from certain that the type locality is in Peru, and it is more likely that this species comes from Panama.	eng
55225	habitat		This is possibly a lowland moist forest species that presumably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the adults deposit the larvae.	eng
55225	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55225	threats		Its major threats are not known.	eng
55226	conservation		Present in Parque Nacional Manu and Machiguenga Communal Reserve in Peru and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá in Brazil.	eng
55226	distribution		This species is found in southeastern Peru, in Manu, Urubamba and Altos Purus River drainage, and also recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. It can be found in altitudes of up to 500m asl.	eng
55226	habitat		A lowland tropical moist forest species; it specifically occurs in bamboo forest. Eggs are laid on land; the adults carry the tadpoles to streams. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitats.	eng
55226	population		It is a common species.	eng
55226	threats		No major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55227	conservation		Surveys of potentially suitable habitat within the area defined as "Chiriquí" during the initial species description, are urgently required to determine the continued existence of this species, which might now be extinct.	eng
55227	distribution		The type locality of this species is recorded as "Chiriquí", which at the time of description included the Atlantic versant and the Pacific versant of western Panama. Given the unspecified nature of the single locality a map cannot be produced for this species.	eng
55227	habitat		This species is largely unknown but it could have been collected from a forest habitat. The larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55227	population		The population status of this species is unknown, and the level of deforestation within the region of collection might have led to its extinction.	eng
55227	threats		The main threats are principally presumed to include habitat loss given the extensive deforestation of the Chiriquí region.	eng
55228	conservation		Studies about the biology, ecology, population range and dynamics of this species are necessary. It occurs in El Pure National Park.	eng
55228	distribution		This species is found in Amazonas, Caqueta and Vaupes Departments, Colombia, at 210m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl. data). It is likely that it occurs in neighbouring areas of Brazil.	eng
55228	habitat		It occurs in the humid forests of the Amazon region. It is terrestrial and diurnal. It lays eggs in the leaf-litter. The males probably take care of the eggs and then move the larvae to small streams for development.	eng
55228	population		This species is uncommon. It was collected in 2002 and 2003 in appropriate habitat.	eng
55228	threats		In the southern part of its range, it is threatened mostly by habitat destruction caused by expanding cattle ranching activities.	eng
55229	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with five protected areas including Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sangay and Limoncocha Reserva Biológica. In Peru, it is present in the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.	eng
55229	distribution		This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in southern Ecuador and northern Peru (Río Santiago), at elevations of 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55229	habitat		This diurnal leaf-litter frog occurs in lowland terra firme tropical rainforest. Eggs deposited in leaf-litter; tadpoles are carried to small streams. Has been recorded in old secondary forest.	eng
55229	population		This species can be common in some areas.	eng
55229	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Possibly potentially threatened by an increase in the pet trade.	eng
55230	conservation		The species occurs in Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park, possibly present in San Matias-San Carlos Protected Forest, Peru. In Brazil it is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá.	eng
55230	distribution		This species occurs in the Río Ucayali and Río Huallaga basins of eastern Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Pasco, Ucayali), and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is 274-800m asl.	eng
55230	habitat		Its habitat is primary premontane and lowland moist tropical forest. Not present in degraded areas. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter; larvae are carried to streams.	eng
55230	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55230	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is localized habitat loss through various agricultural activities (general crops and coffee). Not known to be in trade.	eng
55231	conservation		It is present in several protected areas throughout its range, and is protected by national legislation and listed on CITES Appendix II. The taxonomic status of the population recorded in Venezuela needs to be determined.	eng
55231	distribution		This taxon is known from the lowlands of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Peru. There is an isolated population in Venezuela still attributed to this species. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1200 masl.	eng
55231	habitat		It occurs among dead tree branches on the leaf-litter of tropical moist and dry forest. Eggs are laid on the leaf-litter; tadpoles are carried on the adult's back to temporary pools. Animals can occur in primary and secondary forest, at forest edges and in lightly degraded habitats.	eng
55231	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55231	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). A. picta is not often encountered in the pet trade.	eng
55232	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into this little-known species, for example regarding the limits of its range, and also its taxonomic status.	eng
55232	distribution		This species is known from the single location of Pongo, close to Tarapoto (San Martin Department), Peru, where it is possibly found at 1,000m asl.	eng
55232	habitat		This is a lowland tropical moist forest species, with larvae that presumably develop in water.	eng
55232	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55232	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55233	conservation		There are protected areas within its range.	eng
55233	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Navio, Amapá State, in the Guiana region of northern Brazil, at 100-310m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
55233	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the tropical rainforest floor. It probably lays its eggs in the leaf-litter, while the larvae are carried to temporary pools for their development.	eng
55233	population		It is very common in the type locality.	eng
55233	threats		The main threats to this species are international trade, and habitat destruction due to mining.	eng
55234	conservation		It might occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, although this requires confirmation. The taxonomy of this species requires further work; many specimens are misidentified in museum collections (Jungfer pers comm.).	eng
55234	distribution		This species' geographic range is the eastern versant of the Cordillera Azul, Ucayali Department, Peru, from 300-550m asl. It might range further, but this cannot be fully determined until taxonomic issues surrounding this species are resolved.	eng
55234	habitat		It inhabits lowland and tropical moist rainforest. It is not known if it can occur in degraded habitat, although it is possible that it occurs at forest edges. Eggs are deposited on the forest floor and the larvae are then transported to streams by the males.	eng
55234	population		There is nothing known about its population status.	eng
55234	threats		Within its current known range this species is threatened by smallholder subsistence farming (including cattle), other agricultural activities and deforestation for timber and subsistence use.	eng
55235	conservation		Its range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. Further taxonomic research is required to determine whether or not the two specimens collected so far are conspecific.	eng
55235	distribution		This species is restricted to the summit of the Chimantá Massif, where two specimens were collected on the north-western edge of the Amurí tepui, at 2,100 and 2,600m asl, in Venezuela. These two specimens were collected 45km apart and, according to Walls (1994), could possibly represent two species. This species could occur more widely.	eng
55235	habitat		It occurs in high montane environments, on the tops of tepui, where one specimen was taken from within the root mat of a <em>Bonnetia roraimae</em> tree. This species presumably breeds by larval development, but it is not known where the larvae develop.	eng
55235	population		It is probably a common frog at the type locality.	eng
55235	threats		There is no information known about threats to this species, but it occurs in a region of very limited human impact.	eng
55236	conservation		It is found in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. Further research is needed into this species, especially with regards to the impact of trade.	eng
55236	distribution		This species is endemic to the Cordillera Azul, Huánuco Department, Peru, where it can be found at an altitude of around 1,330m asl. The range of this species might be wider than is currently known. It has also been introduced to the Tarapoto area of San Martin Department, although very little is known about this population.	eng
55236	habitat		This species inhabits montane tropical rainforest. Eggs are deposited in leaf-litter, and the larvae are carried to streams for their development.	eng
55236	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55236	threats		This species is generally threatened by habitat clearance for agricultural activities (such as cultivation of tea, and other small scale farming). Illegal trade has also been recorded and might be a threat; it is known that local people illegally collect this species for dealers. The habitat area where it occurs is largely protected by the presence of terrorist groups.	eng
55237	conservation		Occurs in the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, and Manu Biosphere Reserve.	eng
55237	distribution		This species is known from lower premontane Andean forest in the upper Río Madre de Dios watershed, and Río Candamo y Guacamayo, Perú. (Departamentos: Cusco, Puno). It has an altitudinal range of 300-600m asl.	eng
55237	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical rainforest. An edge species that has been found close to disturbed areas. Eggs are deposited on the ground; males carry the larvae to streams.	eng
55237	population		It is generally uncommon.	eng
55237	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Not recorded in the pet trade.	eng
55238	conservation		It was known to occur in the buffer zone of the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos, but a species conservation programme is urgently needed.	eng
55238	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Río Iscozacín (a tributary of the Río Palcazú, in the Pachitea drainage), Pasco Department, Peru, at 400m asl. While it is not believed to be endemic to a specific area, recent surveys in nearby areas have not revealed this species (Icochea pers comm).	eng
55238	habitat		This species has been collected in lowland tropical rainforest. There is no information on its breeding habits, although the larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55238	population		It is presumed to be very rare, and it is 30 years since it was last recorded.	eng
55238	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural activities taking place within its range. The type locality was converted to agricultural use, and there is also dense cattle ranching.	eng
55239	conservation		It is not known with certainty if this species occurs in any protected areas, and expanded protection of the remaining montane forest within the range of the species' is recommended. The possible impact of overharvesting for medicinal use, and commercial trade in wild specimens, requires further investigation. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55239	distribution		This species is known only from seven localities on the Andean slopes of the Bolívar Province in central Ecuador, where it occurs at elevations of approximately 1,000-1,769m asl.	eng
55239	habitat		It lives in montane forest near streams. Eggs are laid in the leaf-litter, and the males carry the larvae to running and standing water for development. It is not known if this species can adapt to habitat modification.	eng
55239	population		It appears to have been declining in the northern portion of its range in Ecuador, where some populations have disappeared.	eng
55239	threats		The major threat is agrochemical pollution of waterways, and habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities. It is also collected for medicinal use in Ecuador. Some of the declines appear to have taken place in suitable habitat, so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a possible threat.	eng
55240	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in its range, except for in Venezuela and Guyana.	eng
55240	distribution		This species occurs below 500m asl in Bolívar state, Venezuela, and also in Guyana, Suriname and in the Amazon basin of Colombia, Brazil, Peru and northwestern Bolivia. Although the species range map in Walls (1994) depicts the species in French Guiana, a recent work by Lescure and Marty (2001) does not include this taxon for that country.	eng
55240	habitat		It is a diurnal and terrestrial species that is found in old and second growth tropical rainforests on the forest floor. The eggs are laid in the litter and the tadpoles are carried on the back to temporary pools.	eng
55240	population		It is common throughout its range.	eng
55240	threats		Deforestation is a threat to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55241	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro. Survey work is necessary to determine the population status and trends of this species. Captive breeding might be required if the risk of chytridiomycosis proves real.	eng
55241	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, stated to be "toma de agua de Mapararí" in the municipality of Federación, in Sierra de Churuguara, in the state of Falcón, Venezuela (approx. 10.47N, 69.25W), where it has been recorded around 800m asl. An additional population in Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro was found in May 2002 (J. Manzanilla pers. comm.).	eng
55241	habitat		It is a terrestrial, diurnal frog found in deciduous lower montane tropophilous forests. The larvae are presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams, as with other members of the genus.	eng
55241	population		There has been an observed decline in the population of this species. However, in May 2002, specimens were collected at the type locality and a new population was also found in Parque Nacional Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro.	eng
55241	threats		Habitat loss and degradation, due primarily to agriculture (crops and livestock), and general disturbance by humans, is the main threat. Water extraction is a threat at the type locality. Pollution and/or parasites might be causing what appear to be problems in the development or incomplete development of the limbs. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.	eng
55242	conservation	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	Its range does not include any protected areas, and expanded protection of the remaining montane forest within the range of the species is recommended.	eng
55242	distribution	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	This species is known from the Andes in the state of Mérida, in Venezuela. It occurs from 200-1,800m asl.	eng
55242	habitat	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	It inhabits seasonal (semi-deciduous) montane forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When hatched the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55242	population	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	It is a locally abundant species, but appears to be in decline in some parts of its range. La Marca (1995a) noted population declines in this species in several localities in the Andes of Venezuela.	eng
55242	threats	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction and alteration, due primarily to agriculture (for both crops and livestock), infrastructure development for human settlement in the vicinity of the city of Merida, and tourism development. In addition, pollution may also be contributing to the observed declines.	eng
55243	conservation	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	Its range does not include any protected areas. Improved habitat protection is required at sites where this species is known to occur. There is also a need for close population monitoring, particularly given its small range and the potential risk of a chytridiomycosis outbreak.	eng
55243	distribution	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	This species is known from a few localities in the vicinity of Santo Domingo, in the state of Mérida, in the Venezuelan Andes. It has been recorded from 1,300-1,950m asl.	eng
55243	habitat	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	It inhabits montane humid forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When the eggs are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to the streams where they develop further. It seems to be quite tolerant of habitat disturbance, and is sometimes found in very polluted streams (but see Major Threats).	eng
55243	population	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55243	threats	Rosemary Sanchez, 2008	Its habitat is impacted by agriculture, wood collection, and human settlement, although this does not seem to be having an immediate impact on the species. It is potentially at risk from a chytridiomycosis outbreak, since it has been reported to be infected (Lampo et al., 2006a), though it does not appear to show any symptoms of the disease. In May 2004, some specimens with malformations (polymelia, amelia) were found at the type locality (J. Manzanilla and E. La Marca pers. comm.) where significant pollution of the stream was also observed.<br/><br/>The species was recently found to be restricted to a small area with a radius of approximately 2 km², and it is abundant at only one site of ca 2 m² (Rosemary Sánchez, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55244	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier (Rancho Grande) and Parque Nacional San Esteban where it is a common species. Further work is required to resolve the taxonomy of this species. This species should be monitored carefully, given the potential future threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55244	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of the Venezuelan coastal range, from 30-1,610m asl.	eng
55244	habitat		This species is diurnal, and lives on the ground and along streams in semi-deciduous forest. Adults carry larvae on their backs to streams, where metamorphosis is completed.	eng
55244	population		It is very common.	eng
55244	threats		Fires are a major threat, as are agricultural encroachment and human settlement, although it appears not to be significantly threatened by pollution from domestic wastewater. Chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.	eng
55245	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection. This species requires close monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55245	distribution		This species is restricted to the Cerro Socopó in the municipality of Mauroa, in the state of Falcón, Venezuela, at 600-1,250m asl. It might occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
55245	habitat		It is a diurnal species that has been found living among grasses in a small marsh along an unpaved road, and in calm parts of a small stream. Males have been observed calling from river margins. The larvae are presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams where they develop further, as with other members of the genus.	eng
55245	population		It is a rare species that is probably declining rapidly because of habitat loss. It was last collected in 2004.	eng
55245	threats		The area around the site of its description was formerly cloud forest, but the forest was cleared to establish pasturelands for cattle farming. Climate change, acid rain, and pollution are also threats. It is potentially at risk from chytridiomycosis.	eng
55246	conservation		Its taxonomic status requires further research.	eng
55246	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, "Hato Arriba, Distrito Morán, Sierra de Barbacoas" (Yústiz 1991), at 1,800m asl in Lara State, Venezuela, and from a few other localities in the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55246	habitat		It inhabits moist tropical montane forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When the eggs hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55246	population		The population status of this species is not known. In May 2002, many specimens were found at the type locality and other additional localities.	eng
55246	threats		This species is threatened by the intensification of agricultural activities within its range.	eng
55247	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier. Additional surveys are required to establish whether or not this species is still extant, particularly since there is still suitable habitat in its natural range.	eng
55247	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and the nearby vicinity, at elevations between 900 and 1,100m asl, in Paso Portachuelo, near Estación Biológica de Rancho Grande, Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua State, Venezuela.	eng
55247	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest. Breeding habits are unknown, although it probably lays eggs on the forest floor and adults carry tadpoles to the stream where they develop further, like other species of the genus.	eng
55247	population		It has not been recorded since its discovery 50 years ago, and so it might have declined and possibly even disappeared. In the last 10 years, searches for the species have been unsuccessful. This is one of the largest species of the genus, occurring in one of the best-studied places in Venezuela, and so it is of great concern that no further populations or specimens of this frog have been discovered.	eng
55247	threats		Threats to this species are unknown, but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat.	eng
55248	conservation		The range of this species includes at least one protected area (Parque Nacional Guatopo), in which it is widely distributed.	eng
55248	distribution		This species is known from the states of Guarico and Miranda, in the central part of the coastal forest range of Venezuela, between 150 and 750m asl.	eng
55248	habitat		It occurs along the banks of fast-flowing streams in primary humid lowland forests. The eggs are deposited under decaying leaves on the forest floor. The larvae are then presumably carried on the backs of the males to streams where they develop further, as with other members of the genus.	eng
55248	population		Its population status is not known, although there have been recent collections of specimens in Parque Nacional Guatopo.	eng
55248	threats		Agriculture was a threat to this species in the past but this region is now within a protected area. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a future threat.	eng
55249	conservation		The rainforest in which this species occurs in Tobago is protected in Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. Survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, and research into the causes of the decline of this species is needed; a captive breeding programme might need to be established if the threat of chytridiomycosis proves real.	eng
55249	distribution		This species is restricted to the upland areas of north-eastern Tobago Island and Little Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago. It is found at elevations of between 120 and 360m asl.	eng
55249	habitat		This is a tropical forest species. Males of this species call from rocks in streams during the daytime. The eggs are laid on land; hatching tadpoles (11-19 in number) are carried to streams by the male where they complete their development. It is not thought to occur in degraded habitat.	eng
55249	population		Populations of this species have declined significantly over the last 10 years, prior to which it was thought to be relatively abundant.	eng
55249	threats		The causes of the current decline in this species are unknown. Areas of suitable habitat remain and there are no known human impacts on the species. It is possible that the species might have been impacted by chytridiomycosis, though this has not been proven.	eng
55250	conservation		Although most of the range of this species is within a protected area (Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria), this reserve is under pressure of deforestation (by the local people). Strengthened management and protection of this site is necessary to safeguard this species.	eng
55250	distribution		This species is known from Cerro Azul, Macuro, and Cerro El Humo, 10km north of Macuro, in Península de Paria, Sucre State, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 400-1,000m asl.	eng
55250	habitat		It lives along streams in lowland humid forest up to cloud forest habitat. A clutch of eggs is deposited in the leaf-litter of the forest floor, and then after hatching the larvae are carried to water where they develop further.	eng
55250	population		The population status of this species is not known, although specimens were collected in Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria as recently as May 2004.	eng
55250	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging and small-scale agriculture. Chytridiomycosis represents a potential future threat.	eng
55251	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	No conservation measures are known for this species in Trinidad.	eng
55251	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species is present in the Northern and Central Ranges of the island of Trinidad, in Trinidad and Tobago, occurring from montane areas down to sea level. In Venezuela, the taxonomic status of the populations from the southern versant of the central Venezuelan Coastal Range are currently being assessed (Manzanilla et al., in prep., in Manzanilla et al., 2007).	eng
55251	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Adults are found along densely shaded, narrow, shallow, slow-flowing, clear water streams in undisturbed montane and moist forests, where they engage in elaborate courtship and defensive behaviours. A terrestrial species, it lays its eggs in leaf-litter and on rocks near streams and the adults carry the tadpoles on their backs to the deeper stream pools. The populations in Tamana caves in central Trinidad are known to use the cave ponds for their tadpoles. Tadpoles in other populations have also been found in still temporary pools far from streams. The exact deposition site appears to be dependent on the presence of predators, with adults migrating significant distances in search of predator-free pools. These animals depend on the insects that eat bat guano for food.	eng
55251	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	In Trinidad it is considered to be very common with generally stable populations.	eng
55251	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	In Trinidad, the species is locally threatened by domestic, agricultural, and some industrial water pollution. On the southern slopes of the Northern Range in Trinidad, deforestation has resulted in fragmentation of the species' habitat.	eng
55252	conservation		Although it is protected in two Venezuelan Andean national parks (Yacambú and Terepaima National Parks), some populations (in Cubiro and Guarico) live outside protected areas. Expanded protection of the montane forest within the species' range is recommended.	eng
55252	distribution		This species is known mainly from Yacambú and Terepaima National Parks in Lara State, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,200-1,800m asl.	eng
55252	habitat		It occurs along streams and on the forest floor of montane moist and cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55252	population		It is a common species and there is currently no evidence of any decline. Healthy populations were found in April 2003 in Parque Nacional Yacambú.	eng
55252	threats		In some parts of the range, populations are affected by the extensive clearing of land for coffee plantations (and specifically by the agro-chemicals associated with the plantations).	eng
55253	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Some populations are protected within national parks (Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata). However, the existing protected areas network requires expansion to ensure the protection of suitable cloud forest habitats for this species. Further research is required to establish the reasons for the species' decline in apparently suitable habitat, and to determine whether chytrid poses a threat.	eng
55253	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	This species is known from the Andes of Mérida State, Venezuela, from 1,600-3,090m asl.	eng
55253	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It occurs in clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55253	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is a rare species and has been in decline in recent years.	eng
55253	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Some of the original environments occupied by this frog in the vicinities of the city of Mérida, in the Cordillera de Mérida, have been drastically changed by human activities, particularly due to agricultural expansion, for both crops and livestock. Much of the remaining habitat is severely fragmented. Introduced trout prey on the larvae of this species. However, this species is also declining in undisturbed habitats, which suggests an additional threat, possibly disease (such as chytridiomycosis).	eng
55254	conservation		A population probably occurs within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other tracts of montane forest habitat, are necessary.	eng
55254	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality and the vicinity: Páramo de la Culata, in the district of Libertador, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela, at 2,600-3,000m asl.	eng
55254	habitat		It inhabits clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests and sub-páramo shrubland. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55254	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55254	threats		Livestock farming is a major threat to the species' habitat, which is now severely fragmented. Introduced trout also prey on the larvae of this species.	eng
55255	conservation		The species' range may be partially within Parque Nacional Los Paramos. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other tracts of montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.	eng
55255	distribution		This species is known from the Venezuelan Andean states of western Mérida and eastern Táchira. It has been recorded between 1,825 and 2,670m asl.	eng
55255	habitat		It occurs in clear, fast-flowing streams in Andean cloud forests, and in the puddles alongside the streams, and is sometimes hidden inside introduced "kikuyo" pasture grasses (<em>Pennisetum clandestinum</em>). The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55255	population		It is an uncommon species and is in decline.	eng
55255	threats		Most of the species' original habitat has now been lost to agricultural activities (involving livestock and crops), and the remaining habitat is severely fragmented.	eng
55256	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	The range of this species does not include any protected areas; protection of remaining tracts of forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes is necessary.	eng
55256	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	This species is known from several localities within Mérida State, on the road from Mérida to La Azulita, in Venezuela, at elevations of 1,700-2,400m asl.	eng
55256	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is found along mountain streams in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55256	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
55256	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	The main threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as agricultural water pollution. The introduced bullfrog (<em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>) also poses a threat.	eng
55257	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to ensure that the remaining habitat at the type locality is maintained.	eng
55257	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Chorotal, 15km south-east of la Azulita, and the nearby vicinity, in Mérida State, Venezuela, between 1,880 and 2,400m asl.	eng
55257	habitat		It inhabits streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs; when they hatch, the male carries the larvae on his back to the water where they develop further.	eng
55257	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55257	threats		The primary threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and agricultural pollution. The invasive bullfrog <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat.	eng
55258	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Its range does not include any protected areas, although it is possible that it might occur in Parque Nacional Páramos El Batallón y La Negra. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.	eng
55258	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	This species is only known from a single zone near Bailadores, in Mérida State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
55258	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It inhabits dry evergreen montane forest, where it lives along slow-flowing streams. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55258	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
55258	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation, caused primarily by intensive agriculture, has reduced the area of occupancy of this species to less than 10km².	eng
55259	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of remaining tracts of forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes is necessary.	eng
55259	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	This species is known with certainty only from the type locality in Táchira State, Venezuela (Boca del Monte, Camino del Pregonero), from 2,300-2,800m asl. Other Táchira localities listed in Barrio (1999) are unconfirmed.	eng
55259	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It inhabits mountain streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55259	population	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
55259	threats	Enrique La Marca, Juan Elías García-Pérez, 2008	The major threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and agricultural pollution, and the area of occupancy of this species is now less than 20km².	eng
55260	conservation		A population may be protected within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Continued and strengthened management of this area, and expansion of the existing protected areas network to include other montane forest habitat in the Venezuelan Andes, are necessary.	eng
55260	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality, Vía El Morro, in the district of Libertador, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela, from 1,800-2,300m asl.	eng
55260	habitat		It inhabits mountain streams in cloud forest. The eggs are laid on land and the male protects the eggs. When they are hatched, the male carries the larvae on his back to water where they develop further.	eng
55260	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55260	threats		The major threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and predation on larvae by invasive trout; the area of occupancy of this species is now less than 20km².	eng
55261	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55261	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, along the Río San Juan drainage south to the Río Raposo, in Choco and Valle del Cauca Departments, between 90 and 1,000m asl.	eng
55261	habitat		It lives on the ground in humid lowland and submontane forests, and is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in degraded areas. The eggs are laid in leaf-litter, and the male takes the larvae to slow-flowing water.	eng
55261	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55261	threats		The major threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It sometimes occurs in very small numbers in international trade.	eng
55262	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55262	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, in Risaralda, Choco, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca Departments, between 500 and 1,500m asl.	eng
55262	habitat		It lives in humid lowland and montane forests, usually occurring near streams, and can survive in logged forest, but not in open areas. The eggs are laid on the ground and the male transports the larvae to streams.	eng
55262	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55262	threats		The major threats are: deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement; introduction of alien predatory fish in streams; and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It occurs in the international pet trade, but it is not known to what extent this poses a threat to the species. Chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.	eng
55263	conservation		This species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama and three in Costa Rica. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55263	distribution		This species is known from humid lowlands and marginally in the premontane zone of the Atlantic versant from extreme southeastern Nicaragua to central Panama (including islands in the Bocas del Toro Province), a single specimen from just west of the Panama Canal, from 10-601m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
55263	habitat		It is a terrestrial, diurnal species of humid lowland forest; it may be present in secondary growth and plantations. Adults are often found in the rocky sections of forest streams. Eggs are deposited in dry leaf-litter; the males transport hatching tadpoles to forest streams to complete metamorphosis.	eng
55263	population		This species is uncommon in northern Costa Rica, but more common in the south; presumably, it is also common in Panama.	eng
55263	threats		General habitat loss occurs by the destruction of natural forests and water pollution. In Costa Rica, there is some illegal collection of thi species for the international pet trade, however this is at a low level and probably does not constitute a major threat (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi; the current impact of this pathogen on populations is unclear.	eng
55264	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and the protection of part of this species' lowland forest habitat is recommended. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species should be investigated. Decree INDERENA No. 39 of 9 July, 1985, forbids the collection of <em>Phyllobates</em> spp. from the wild in Colombia for breeding (or other) purposes. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55264	distribution		This species is known only from tiny areas on the Pacific coast of Colombia on the Río Saija drainage, in Cauca Department, occurring up to 200m asl.	eng
55264	habitat		It lives on the ground in humid forests, and is only known from primary forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. The eggs are laid on the ground and the males transport the larvae to permanent pools.	eng
55264	population		It is extremely common in its tiny range.	eng
55264	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is very occasionally reported in international trade in small numbers.	eng
55265	conservation		Most of the species' range is in three protected areas in Costa Rica, including Parque Nacional Corcavado. There is a need for strengthened management of these sites, and expanded protection to include other remnant forest patches in Costa Rica. Management practices that could allow a commercial, sustainable harvest of this species for the pet trade should be investigated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55265	distribution		This species is known from the lowlands of the Golfo Dulce region of south-western Costa Rica, from 20-550m asl (Savage 2002), and has recently been recorded from close to the city of Dominical in the Provincia de Puntarenas of Costa Rica (Ryan 2002). It is expected to occur in parts of immediately adjacent south-western Panama.	eng
55265	habitat		This is a diurnal, terrestrial species associated with streams in primary lowland moist and wet forests. Eggs are usually deposited on leaves above the ground; the male carries hatching larvae to small pools to complete their development (Savage 2002).	eng
55265	population		This species is moderately common and regularly recorded (although extremely rare in Dominical, Costa Rica).	eng
55265	threats		This species is threatened by forest clearance for agricultural land and tree plantations. Water pollution caused by contamination from gold mining activities is also a threat, as is potential over-collection of adults for the pet trade.	eng
55266	conservation	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	It is known to occur in Cabañeros and Doñana National Parks, Spain, and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Spain, and is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books. Given the potential future threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored closely.	eng
55266	distribution	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	This species is restricted to southern and eastern Portugal and western and central Spain, from 100-1,300 m asl.	eng
55266	habitat	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	This species is closely associated with meadows and open oak (<em>Quercus</em>) forests, most often in sandy areas. Reproduction and larval development generally takes place in temporary waterbodies (most often stream habitats), occasionally in permanent waterbodies; larval development is relatively long in this species and may last more than one season. The species is not very adaptable.	eng
55266	population	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	It can be locally common in suitable habitat, and is more abundant in the western part of its range. Population declines have been observed in Spain, potentially because of introduced predators.	eng
55266	threats	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	The main threats are the loss of suitable Mediterranean forest habitat, the introduction of predatory fishes and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>), and the loss of suitable aquatic habitats through pollution, canal construction, dams, and urbanization. A potential future threat is chytridiomycosis, which has already affected the related <em>Alytes obstetricans</em> in Spain.	eng
55267	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
55267	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is restricted to the western and central Rif Mountains and middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is known only from about twenty fragmented localities, from 200-2,050m asl. This species is not present in the North African Spanish enclave of Ceuta (Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
55267	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is generally found in humid sites in montane karst and escarpment areas. Adults inhabit cracks and fissures in rocks, or live under stones close to permanent streams, pools, and other waterbodies. Surrounding vegetation may be scrub, cork oak groves, and orchards. It spawns in water, producing approximately 60 eggs at a time (with 3-4 clutches a year), which are then carried around outside the water by the male, who releases the larvae back into water at the point of hatching.	eng
55267	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
55267	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Alfredo Salvador, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threat to this species is considered to be the introduction of the predatory fish <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> to breeding ponds. Domestic water pollution is also a threat to the population in Chauen, although other populations in the surrounding area are not threatened by this contamination. Overall, the threats facing this species are currently localized, and it is not believed to be seriously threatened at present.	eng
55268	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and is protected by national legislation in many of its range states. The species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas. Further research into the current decline is needed especially into the impacts of disease. In Central Spain there is a captive breeding programme for this species, and some reintroductions have been carried out. In the Spanish national Red List is considered Near Threatened, and subspecies <em>pertinax</em> is considered Vulnerable.	eng
55268	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species ranges from the northern half of Portugal and Spain (where populations are very fragmented, and there is a small Area of Occupancy within its Extent of Occurrence), through most of France, to southern Belgium, extreme southeastern Netherlands, Luxembourg, western and north-central Germany, and western and northern Switzerland. Populations in coastal Portugal west of Lisbon are extinct. It has been introduced to the UK, with several established populations. It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 2,400m asl (in the Pyrenees).	eng
55268	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Rafael Marquez, 2008	It lives in terrestrial habitats, including temperate forests, semi-arid areas, walls, embankments, and slopes with small stones and sparse vegetation. Aquatic habitats in which the species breeds range from slow moving rivers to stagnant permanent ponds and pools; gravel and clay pits are also used. The larvae of this species frequently hibernate. The species can occur in suitable modified habitat such as traditional agricultural land, and even urban areas (e.g., in Barcelona).	eng
55268	population	Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Rafael Marquez, 2008	it is reported to be declining (including local extinctions) across its range, but it is still widespread and common in many areas (e.g., in much of France).	eng
55268	threats	Jaime Bosch, Trevor Beebee, Benedikt Schmidt, Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Jan Willem Arntzen, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Rafael Marquez, 2008	General habitat loss, largely to agricultural development (including loss of breeding sites), has contributed to the decline of the species in some areas. Fragmentation of populations might be a problem for the species, e.g. in Spain, Portugal and Germany. Certain populations of the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Alytes obstetricans pertinax</span> in protected areas of central Spain have severely declined and disappeared as a result of chytridiomycosis (Bosch <em>et al.</em>, 2001; Bosch <em>et al.</em>, 2000); a few specimens have recently been found again in this area (M. García-París and J.W. Arntzen pers. comm.). Additional mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal (Soares <em>et al.</em>, 2003); the disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced North American predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Mortality initially attributed to the bacteria <em>Aeromonas hydrophila</em> "red-leg disease" has also been reported (Márquez <em>et al.</em> 1995). Predation by<em> L. gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish species, such as salmonids, is also a considerable threat to this species.	eng
55269	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Pedro Beja, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The species is protected by national legislation in Spain and is listed in the Spanish national Red Data Book. It has been recorded from Doñana, Islas Atlánticas de Galicia, and Cabañeros National Parks, Spain. There is a need to further clarify the distribution of this species and the related <em>Discoglossus jeanneae</em>.	eng
55269	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Pedro Beja, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and most of western Spain), where it is found at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1,940m asl (Piedrahita, Spain).	eng
55269	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Pedro Beja, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	It is generally found within or in the direct vicinity of water (with surrounding dense vegetation), including still waters, swamps, mountain streams, drinking troughs and sometimes-brackish waters. The terrestrial habitats of the species occur on granite and other metamorphic rocks, and include sandy areas close to the sea, open areas, meadows, thickets, gulley's and woodland edges. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, within shallow permanent or temporary waterbodies. It is often present in slightly modified areas, such as traditional farmland.	eng
55269	population	Jaime Bosch, Pedro Beja, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	In Spain, it is abundant over much of its range (with the exception of the northeastern populations), while in Portugal the species can be locally abundant in fragmented populations.	eng
55269	threats	Jaime Bosch, Pedro Beja, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The main threats to this species are both a general intensification of agriculture and the introduction of predatory fishes and crustaceans (especially the Louisiana Crayfish-<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) through much of the species range. Desertification is a threat to the species in the more arid parts of its range such as southern Portugal. Additionally, hydroelectric projects are leading to habitat loss in parts of Portugal. However, overall this species is probably not seriously threatened at present.	eng
55270	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in France and Italy and is listed in the Regional Catalogue of Cataluña, Spain. The species is present in protected areas in Italy, and probably elsewhere within its range.	eng
55270	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2009	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in France and Italy and is listed in the Regional Catalogue of Cataluña, Spain. The species is present in protected areas in Italy, and probably elsewhere within its range.	eng
55270	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is native to the islands of Sicily (Italy), Malta and Gozo (Malta) (<span style="font-style: italic;">Discoglossus pictus pictus</span>), and to northern Algeria and Tunisia (<em>Discoglossus pictus auritus</em>). The western limit of its distribution in Algeria is unclear, and it might extend to the mountains close to the Moroccan border. The North African subspecies, <em>D.p. auritus</em>, has been introduced to southern France and northeastern Spain (Girona Province), where it is expanding its range. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,500m asl (Sicily).	eng
55270	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2009	This species is native to the islands of Sicily (Italy), Malta and Gozo (Malta) (<span style="font-style: italic;">Discoglossus pictus pictus</span>), and to northern Algeria and Tunisia (<em>Discoglossus pictus auritus</em>). The western limit of its distribution in Algeria is unclear, and it might extend to the mountains close to the Moroccan border. The North African subspecies, <em>D.p. auritus</em>, has been introduced to southern France and northeastern Spain (Girona Province), where it is expanding its range. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,500m asl (Sicily).	eng
55270	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is present in a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats including open, sandy coastal areas, pastures, vineyards, woods and forests, often in dense vegetation close to waterbodies. It breeds in most types of still water habitats, and is sometimes present in marshes and brackish water. In Sicily, populations have been associated with irrigation channels, water cisterns, pipes and canals in cultivated areas.	eng
55270	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2009	It is present in a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats including open, sandy coastal areas, pastures, vineyards, woods and forests, often in dense vegetation close to waterbodies. It breeds in most types of still water habitats, and is sometimes present in marshes and brackish water. In Sicily, populations have been associated with irrigation channels, water cisterns, pipes and canals in cultivated areas.	eng
55270	population	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2008	Introduced populations in Spain and France appear to be abundant and expanding their range. It is rather common in Sicily. Further information is needed on the populations of the species over the rest of its distribution, though it is believed to be common in some areas.	eng
55270	population	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2009	Introduced populations in Spain and France appear to be abundant and expanding their range. It is rather common in Sicily. Further information is needed on the populations of the species over the rest of its distribution, though it is believed to be common in some areas.	eng
55270	threats	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2008	Sicilian populations appear to be locally threatened (but not especially endangered) by a decline of traditional land-use, including urbanization. Maltese populations are reported to be threatened by groundwater extraction.	eng
55270	threats	Jaime Bosch, Franco Andreone, Miguel Tejedo, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Ulrich Joger, Philippe Geniez, Claudia Corti, 2009	Sicilian populations appear to be locally threatened (but not especially endangered) by a decline of traditional land-use, including urbanization. Maltese populations are reported to be threatened by groundwater extraction.	eng
55271	conservation	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Claude Miaud, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is also listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Italy. It has been recorded from Parco Regionale Sette Fratelli and Parco Nazionale Gennargentu-Golfo di Orosei in Sardinia. Further investigations into the genetic diversity of this species are needed. It occurs in the Parc National Port-Cros in France.	eng
55271	distribution	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Claude Miaud, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is mainly restricted to the islands of Sardinia, Italy and Corsica, France (where it is absent from the high mountains in the centre of the island), with other populations occurring on a number of smaller Mediterranean islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the Monte Argentario peninsula of the Italian mainland (Tuscany), and also the islands of Port-Cros and Le Levant in the south of France. It has been recorded at elevations from sea level to 1,770m asl (Sardinia).	eng
55271	habitat	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Claude Miaud, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species inhabits a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial habitats including still and slow-running waters in open or wooded (coniferous and broadleaf) areas and maccia; it may even occur in slightly brackish pools. The eggs are deposited between aquatic vegetation in streams, and the larvae develop in these streams. The species can tolerate some habitat disturbance.	eng
55271	population	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Claude Miaud, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is still relatively common in suitable habitat in both Sardinia and Corsica. Little is known about mainland populations of Tuscany, although it is possible that they are threatened due to their probable small size. Populations on Port-Cros Island (France) have increased following the eradication of introduced fish: <em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Scardinus erythrophalmus</em>.	eng
55271	threats	Franco Andreone, Roberta Lecis, Claude Miaud, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is threatened by general loss of suitable woodland and aquatic habitats. Aquatic habitats used by this species on Corsica (and presumably on Sardinia) are being lost through damming of streams and increased water abstraction for tourism. However, overall this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. There were some die-offs of this species in Sardinia in 2004 and 2006, but the cause is unknown (Bovero <em>et a</em>l. 2008).	eng
55272	conservation	Alfredo Salvador, David Donaire-Barroso, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Valentin Perez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in some protected areas.	eng
55272	distribution	Alfredo Salvador, David Donaire-Barroso, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Valentin Perez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present throughout much of the Mediterranean zone of Morocco and Ceuta and Melilla (Spain). Confirmation of the species presence in western Algeria is needed. The species reaches elevations of 2,600m asl in the High Atlas mountains.	eng
55272	habitat	Alfredo Salvador, David Donaire-Barroso, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Valentin Perez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is associated with streams, cisterns and pools of either fresh or saline water. It breeds in these wetland habitats; females lay a maximum of 1,000 eggs. Terrestrial habitats of the species include <em>Quercus</em> forest, Nerium oleander scrub and ruins. Individuals can often be found hiding under rocks, in crevices and even under the bark of cork oaks (<em>Quercus</em> sp.). It is presumed that the species can withstand some light habitat modification.	eng
55272	population	Alfredo Salvador, David Donaire-Barroso, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Valentin Perez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is generally common in Morocco, most especially in sub humid and humid areas.	eng
55272	threats	Alfredo Salvador, David Donaire-Barroso, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Valentin Perez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The localized loss of breeding sites through agricultural development and increased salinisation in lagoons are the main threats to this species. However, it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
55273	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55273	distribution		This species ranges throughout the Drakensberg and Maluti Mountains in South Africa and Lesotho and along the eastern escarpment of South Africa and Swaziland. Its altitudinal range is 580-2,675m asl.	eng
55273	habitat		It lives in montane forest and grassland. It breeds in fast-flowing perennial forested streams. It is always associated with permanent streams because the tadpole takes two years to develop.	eng
55273	population		It is a common species.	eng
55273	threats		The main threats are afforestation, siltation of streams, damming of mountain rivers, water extraction and the introduction of trout.	eng
55274	conservation		Almost the whole range of this species is conserved in protected areas.	eng
55274	distribution		This species occurs only in the Eastern Langeberg Mountains in Western Cape Province, South Africa, from the vicinity of Montagu and Kogman's Kloof, eastwards through Swellendam and Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve, probably as far east as the Gouritz River. Its altitudinal range is 215-500m asl.	eng
55274	habitat		It lives in forest patches surrounded by mountain fynbos heathland outside the breeding season. Fast-flowing perennial streams are required for breeding. The tadpoles take two years to develop.	eng
55274	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55274	threats		It is not significantly threatened. Locally, there are some impacts from alien species introductions (but less in the Langeberg than some other places), a small amount of afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently.	eng
55275	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55275	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Cape Province in South Africa, from the Cederberg in the north south to the Hex River, Du Toit's Kloof, Hottentots Holland and Klein River Mountains, and eastwards along the Riviersonderend and Langeberg Mountains to the vicinity of Ashton and Montagu. It altitudinal range is 60-1,770m asl.	eng
55275	habitat		It lives in fynbos heathland and forest. It breeds in perennial streams in forested gorges of the southwestern Cape mountains. The tadpoles take two years to develop.	eng
55275	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55275	threats		It is not significantly threatened. Locally, there are some impacts from alien species introductions (but less in the Langeberg than some other places), a small amount of afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently.	eng
55276	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55276	distribution		This species is endemic to the coastal mountain ranges of the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa, from the Huis and Pederberg Rivers in the Outeniqua Mountains in the west, eastwards along the Tsitsikamma and Kareedouw mountain ranges to the Krom River Forest Reserve in the east. Its altitudinal range is 230-790m asl.	eng
55276	habitat		It lives in fynbos heathland and forest. It breeds in fast-flowing streams in the mountains. The tadpoles take two years to develop.	eng
55276	population		There is little information, but it is probably locally common.	eng
55276	threats		Much of the range is protected, but some afforestation is taking place. Other threats include siltation of streams, and perhaps fires taking place too frequently.	eng
55277	conservation		It presumably occurs in Liuwa Plain and Lochinvar National Parks.	eng
55277	distribution		This newly described species is known only from western Zambia, from the Barotse floodplain along the Zambezi River, and from the Kafue Flats. Its geographic range remains largely unknown.	eng
55277	habitat		This is believed to be a fossorial species of floodplains in savannah country. If it is like other members of the genus, it nests in a burrow in wet soil adjacent to temporary water, into which the larvae move when hatched.	eng
55277	population		It has only recently been discovered, and only a few specimens have so far been found, so its population status is not clear.	eng
55277	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55278	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55278	distribution		This species is known only from Masiliwa in central Tanzania. The exact location of the type locality is still open to question.	eng
55278	habitat		It is believed to be a fossorial species of open woodland. If it is like other members of the genus, it nests in a burrow in wet soil adjacent to temporary water, into which the larvae move when hatched.	eng
55278	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only from three specimens in one locality. There have been no records since 1929, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
55278	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55279	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55279	distribution		This species occurs from Senegal east to Kenya, south to Angola, northern Botswana, central Mozambique, and extreme northern South Africa. It generally avoids the forest belt, but it is present in the West African forest zone, and in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Definite records are lacking from certain countries within its mapped range: Togo, Central African Republic, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, and Namibia. It might also occur in Sudan. There are not very many records from the different parts of its range, and so the map should be considered as highly provisional.	eng
55279	habitat		Through most of its range, it is a woodland and savannah species, though it occurs in forest and secondary habitats in West Africa. It is fossorial during the dry season. It nests in a burrow in wet soil by temporary water (even up to 200m from water). The tadpoles move into water (probably in the same way as Hemisus marmoratus) and the female guards the nest.	eng
55279	population		Since it is seen only during rainy weather or when it is breeding, it is hard to assess its abundance. It appears to fluctuate hugely in numbers. It can be abundant in the West African forest zone. There are no recent records from South Africa.	eng
55279	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
55280	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The highest priority for conservation research of this species is to assess its ability to disperse. Understanding the impact of perceived threats and population size and trends is also required. This species occurs in the iSimangaliso Wetlands Park, the Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Game Reserve, and other protected areas.	eng
55280	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species, which is known only from South Africa, occurs in southern Mpumalanga, and central and eastern KwaZulu-Natal, south to Durban on the coast (Extent of Occurrence of 51,000 km<sup>2</sup> and Area of Occupancy conservatively estimated to be 1%). The northernmost coastal record is from Hluhluwe. It ranges from sea level up to over 1,000 m on the summit of the Lebombo Mountains. It has not been recorded from Swaziland, but it presumably occurs in this country.	eng
55280	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It inhabits grassland and savannah. It breeds in seasonal pans, swampy areas, and in pools near rivers. It nests in burrows in wet soil by temporary water, and tadpoles move to water to develop.	eng
55280	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>Breeding congregations of this species appear to be relatively small and widely dispersed. This species is considered to be severely fragmented as no subpopulation has >50% of individuals and >50% of subpopulations are considered non-viable.</p>	eng
55280	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats include: habitat loss due to afforestation, sugar cane cultivation, and urbanization and invasive alien plants lowering the water table.	eng
55281	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55281	distribution		This species is widespread in the savannah zone of sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to western Eritrea, western Ethiopia, and southern Somalia, thence south to the northern and northeastern parts of South Africa, eastern and northern Botswana, northeastern Namibia, and Angola. There is an apparently isolated population south of Lake Tana in northwestern Ethiopia. It occurs in all countries within its mapped range, though definite records appear to be lacking for Sierra Leone, Mali, Togo, Rwanda, and Burundi. It occurs up to 1,850m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
55281	habitat		It is typically a savannah species, though it has also been found in primary and secondary forest, farm bush, montane grassland, and plantations. It breeds in permanent and temporary waterbodies, including isolated pools in rivers when the water levels drop. The eggs are laid in subterranean nests, where the tadpoles hatch. They subsequently move into water (the females dig channels for them to move along if they are close to water). It is likely that the females also carry the larvae to water, though this is not yet proven.	eng
55281	population		Because of its fossorial habits, it is generally seen only when it is breeding, or during the rainy season, when they occur regularly. It is a very abundant savannah frog in West Africa, and elsewhere in its range, as in northern South Africa.	eng
55281	threats		It is an abundant and adaptable species, which faces no significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55282	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55282	distribution		This species is endemic to the highlands of southwestern and western Ethiopia at 1,500-2,700m asl.	eng
55282	habitat		It is typically found in montane grassland, but penetrates at least marginally into tropical deciduous forest and into somewhat arid savannah. It is usually found in marshy situations, and in the vicinity of streams. It is a fossorial species, generally living underground except when breeding. The eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the tadpoles hatch, and from where they subsequently move into water to develop. Larval development has been confirmed in a small, semi-permanent pool, and has been suspected in a small river.	eng
55282	population		It seems to be relatively common in a number of different habitats.	eng
55282	threats		The main threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion	eng
55283	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park, and presumably in other protected areas.	eng
55283	distribution		This species is known only from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, though it ranges very close to the Ugandan and Central African Republic borders.	eng
55283	habitat		It is a fossorial species of lowland rainforest. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. Assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the tadpoles hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary waters to develop.	eng
55283	population		It is apparently common in suitable localities within its range.	eng
55283	threats		There is little direct information, but the species is at least potentially impacted by deforestation.	eng
55284	conservation		It is known from two protected areas in Gabon: Petit Loango National Park and the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua.	eng
55284	distribution		This species has been known for quite some time to be from extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo, north of the estuary of the Congo River. However, it has also recently been discovered in south-western Gabon in Petit Loango National Park and the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua (Burger pers. comm.). It presumably occurs in the intervening parts of Congo and the Cabinda enclave of Angola. In Gabon it has been found from sea level up to 110m asl.	eng
55284	habitat		This species has been found in pristine lowland rainforest, in secondary (but fairly well regenerated) forest, in small forest patches in savannah, and in forest along the savannah-forest ecotone. Its breeding habits are unknown, but assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are presumably laid in subterranean nests in which the larvae hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary water bodies to develop.	eng
55284	population		This is probably a common species, but because of its secretive and fossorial habits it is probably often overlooked. Most recent records have been from pitfall traps.	eng
55284	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species, bu the limited available data do not indicate any immediate threats.	eng
55285	conservation		It occurs in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and Mweru Wantipa National Park (Zambia).	eng
55285	distribution		This species is known only from Upemba National Park and Lake Mweru in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from Lake Meru Wantipa in north-eastern Zambia.	eng
55285	habitat		It is presumably a species of savannah woodlands. Assuming that its biology is similar to that of other members of its genus, the eggs are laid in subterranean nests in which the larvae hatch, and from where they subsequently move into permanent and temporary water bodies to develop.	eng
55285	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There do not appear to have been any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological fieldwork within its range.	eng
55285	threats		There is no direct information available on threats to this species. Much of its known range is inside protected areas, though the level of protection is weak.	eng
55286	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
55286	distribution		This species is known from southeastern New York, the southern Great Lakes region, and southern South Dakota to southeastern New Mexico, southern Texas, USA, and adjacent Mexico, and the Gulf Coast east to northwestern Florida. Isolated populations occur on the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. In Canada, it is restricted to Point Pelee (formerly) and Pelee Island in extreme southwestern Ontario (Oldham and Campbell, 1990 COSEWIC report).	eng
55286	habitat		This species inhabits the edges of sunny marshes, marshy ponds, and small slow-moving streams in open country and in forest along bodies of water without dense canopy cover. It may periodically range into adjacent non-wetland habitats in some regions. Eggs and larvae develop in the shallow water of ponds, marshes, ditches, slow streams, springs, or rain pools.	eng
55286	population		This species is common throughout most of its extensive range, although there have been some declines in the northwestern part of its range. Also, in the eastern portion of its range, populations are disappearing from agricultural and grazed areas in the Shendoah Valley of Virginia.	eng
55286	threats		It appears to be significantly threatened only in the northwestern portion of its range. The reasons for the declines remain speculative but vegetation succession, climatic fluctuations, predation by native and exotic species, competition from other frog species, and water pollution caused by pesticides and/or other chemicals associated with agriculture are possibly significant (Harding 1997, Lannoo 1998, Hammerson 1999, Hammerson and Livo 1999).	eng
55287	conservation		It benefits from most measures that protect wetlands.	eng
55287	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to southeastern Tennessee and southeastern Louisiana, USA.	eng
55287	habitat		Its habitat is grassy margins of swamps, marshes, lakes, ponds, streams, ditches, bogs, and nearby temporary pools, including such habitats in openly wooded areas that do not produce excessive shade. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water.	eng
55287	population		Its population is fairly abundant in many parts of its range.	eng
55287	threats		It is not very threatened but is detrimentally affected by activities that degrade or destroy wetlands, including changes that involve the introduction of exotic fishes.	eng
55288	conservation		Research is needed to determine whether or not this species can survive only in polluted areas, because of the ineffectiveness of the chytrid fungus in such environments. If this proves to be the case, then well-meaning conservation measures to abate water pollution could unintentionally lead to the extinction of this species. Given the nature of the threats, it may be worth considering the establishment of a captive-breeding programme for this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55288	distribution		This species occurs in the northern Cordillera de Talamanca, Cordillera de Tilarán and Cordillera Central, Costa Rica, at 780-1,650m. However, it has disappeared from most parts of its range, surviving mainly around San José only.	eng
55288	habitat		This is a nocturnal species that lives in premontane moist and wet forests and rainforest, and tolerates disturbance to its habitat. It remains the most abundant species in San José and suburbs near heavily polluted streams, especially in shade-grown coffee plantations and gardens. It breeds in streams.	eng
55288	population		Since the late 1980s, it has disappeared from pristine areas, including in protected areas such as Parque Nacional Tapantí and the Reserva Biológica Monteverde, where it was once common. It remains common only in highly altered habitats in metropolitan San José.	eng
55288	threats		Despite the apparent adaptability of this species, it is nonetheless subject to unconfirmed factors that have caused amphibian faunas to decline in certain locations in Central America, in particular the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis. It is possible that this species survives only in polluted areas because the chytrid fungus is more susceptible to pollution than the frog. The few, known remaining populations of this species are threatened by an introduced fish (<em>Xiphophorus hellerii</em>) that preys on the larvae. This species is also found in the international pet trade.	eng
55289	conservation		It has been recorded in protected areas in Ecuador but not in Colombia. It has been recorded from several protected areas in Central America.	eng
55289	distribution		This species occurs in the Atlantic versant from eastern Honduras to central Panama, and on the Pacific slope from eastern Panama through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (two known localities in Choco Department) to northwestern Ecuador. It has been recorded below 750m asl (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.).	eng
55289	habitat		A nocturnal, canopy species that inhabits primary humid lowland forest. Specimens have been found in the forest canopy and understorey above a headwater streamlet on a forested ridge. They have been seen at night on leaves and trunks of trees. It generally lives in the canopy, coming down only to breed. It breeds in tree holes and in small pools without fish. Eggs are deposited in the water-filled crevices and cavities of fallen trees; larvae develop in these pools. The same breeding site may be used until it is filled by falling debris (eg. leaves). It has been recorded only from undisturbed forest.	eng
55289	population		This species is often considered to be a rare species, although more likely it is under-recorded, since it is a canopy species and has a very soft call (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Only occasional individuals are seen from time to time.	eng
55289	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The known localities in Ecuador are facing considerable human pressure. This species occurs at too low densities to be of interest to the international pet trade.	eng
55290	conservation		It is protected by many parks throughout its range. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55290	distribution		This species is found on the Atlantic slopes and lowlands from southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca in Mexico, south-eastward to northern Honduras and continuing on to the Caribbean slope to Panama. There is also an isolated record from the Cartagena Botanic Garden in northern Colombia. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,250m.	eng
55290	habitat		This species inhabits tropical lowland and montane forest, where there is a continuous forest cover. The presence of temporary or permanent ponds is important for its reproduction. It can live in secondary forest, and even very heavily degraded areas as long as there is a tree close to a pond (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It does well in areas where there has been selective logging.	eng
55290	population		This is generally considered to be an abundant species.	eng
55290	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests although it is known to survive in places with a degree of anthropogenic alteration. It is also recorded within the pet trade.	eng
55291	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru it is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu and very possibly in Reserva Nacional Pacaya Samiria and Zona Reservada Allpahuayo Mishana. In Colombia it is present in the El Pure protected area.	eng
55291	distribution		This species occurs in the Amazonian lowlands in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Departments Amazonas, Loreto and Madre de Dios); recently recorded from 50km southwest of Manaus in central Brazil (Hoogmoed, pers comm.). It is suspected to occur in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is 50-600m asl.	eng
55291	habitat		A high canopy species of primary tropical lowland rainforest, descending to low branches to breed (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, this species has been collected in Terra Firme Forest on branches and shrubs (Ron, 2001). Breeding takes place in fallen trees containing small water pools; tadpoles have also been collected in small pools on the ground. The species may be found over small waterbodies.	eng
55291	population		It is rarely encountered.	eng
55291	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55292	conservation		The species occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, and Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species occurs in Colombia, as is predicted. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55292	distribution		This species is known from the single locality of Río Tuira at Río Mono in Darién Province, Panama. It has been recorded from five localities in Ecuador and is presumed to occur in Colombia, although it has not yet been recorded. It ranges from 100-1,000m asl.	eng
55292	habitat		An arboreal species of humid lowland forest. The single specimen in Panama was collected on a bush in a swamp. The holotype was found at night perched about one and a half meters above the ground in a bush at the edge of a swamp (Duellman and Trueb 1967). A gliding species, the Ecuadorian specimens have been heard calling from bushes overhanging a shallow pond in a banana grove at night (Duellman 2001). It deposits its eggs on the leaves floating on ponds, and larvae jump into the pond and develop in the water. Since it depends on the forest canopy, it is not very adaptable to disturbance.	eng
55292	population		The species is known only from a single record in Panama. It is considered to be rare in Ecuador.	eng
55292	threats		Habitat loss and degradation is a major threat in Ecuador, due to agriculture, timber, and human settlement.	eng
55293	conservation		This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Continued survey work is needed to monitor the population status of this species, and particularly to determine whether or not the reason for the apparent decline is due to chytridiomycosis. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55293	distribution		This species occurs from north-eastern Puebla state and south-central Veracruz state, Mexico, to north-western Honduras on the Atlantic versant; and from south-central Guerrero state, Mexico, to central El Salvador on the Pacific versant, at elevations of 300-1,500m asl.	eng
55293	habitat		It lives in lowland to montane moist forests on mountain slopes. It occurs in both pristine and disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place in small intermittent or permanent waterbodies.	eng
55293	population		It was formerly locally abundant in some locations in Chiapas state, Mexico, El Salvador and Guatemala. However, recent surveys in Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from all the sites surveyed. It is uncommon, but occasionally found in breeding aggregations in Belize and Honduras. In Guatemala and Honduras, the population is declining due to habitat destruction.	eng
55293	threats		Chytridiomycosis is probably the main cause of the disappearance of populations in Mexico, and the species is now probably seriously at risk from this disease. Habitat destruction due to subsistence and small holder agriculture is also a threat to this species, which also was formerly common in the pet trade.	eng
55294	conservation		The species has been recorded from several protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55294	distribution		This species occurs in humid lowlands and less commonly on premontane Atlantic slopes from north-eastern Honduras to south-eastern Costa Rica (Savage 2002), from 15-1,300m asl. There are currently only two records of this species in Nicaragua, both from the Bosawas area (Javier Sunyer pers. comm.); further surveys are needed to fully determine the range of the species in this country.	eng
55294	habitat		This is a seldom seen species of undisturbed lowland and montane humid and wet forests, being less commonly encountered in adjacent premontane wet forest and rainforest. It has a naturally highly fragmented habitat. This species lives in tree canopies, it is an explosive breeder descending to temporary pools to reproduce.	eng
55294	population		It is not especially common, but is regularly seen in mating aggregations at many sites.	eng
55294	threats		The major threats to it are general habitat loss and fragmentation through deforestation due to agricultural development and logging. In Costa Rica, recent studies indicate that, although it has a patchy distribution, there is no ongoing habitat loss at the known localities (Gerardo Chaves and Brian Kubiki pers. comm. 2007). In Honduras, habitat loss is taking place at two of the known localities, however much suitable habitat remains and it does not appear to be under threat (James R. McCranie  pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55295	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including at least three in Panama and three in Costa Rica. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, but it is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
55295	distribution		This species ranges widely in the humid lowlands and lower portions of the premontane zone of southeastern and southwestern Costa Rica, through Panama and the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 15-750m.	eng
55295	habitat		It is a nocturnal canopy species of undisturbed humid lowland forest. Explosive breeding takes place in temporary rain pools without fish following, or during, heavy rains. Eggs are deposited on the upper-surfaces of leaves, 1.5-8m above the water. Hatching tadpoles fall into the water below.	eng
55295	population		This species is rarely seen because of its arboreal habits. It abundance is unclear.	eng
55295	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The known localities in Ecuador are facing considerable human pressure. Museum specimens of this species have been found to be infected with chytridiomycosis, but the current impact of this pathogen on the species in the wild is not known.	eng
55296	conservation		It is protected in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Ocote, Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva de la Biósfera Tawahka Asagni in Honduras. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
55296	distribution		This species is found as fragmented populations on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State and northern Oaxaca State, Mexico; eastern Honduras; central Costa Rica; and central Panama, from 95-2,000m asl. It has not been recorded from Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, nor Nicaragua.	eng
55296	habitat		This species occurs in lowland rainforests and montane humid forest where it breeds in tree holes. It is found in both intact forest, and, in at least Costa Rica and Panama, it can be common in young secondary growth forest and coffee plantations far from forest (Brian Kubiki, Branko Hilje and Sofía Rodríguez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55296	population		There is little information on the population status of this species. In Costa Rica, this has always been a rarely seen species, but its call can be heard regularly in the appropriate habitat. Although several populations are known in Mexico, these are completely disjunct and it seems that the species has been extirpated from one or two locations. It is a rare species in Mexico and it has been found only once in the last 30 years. In Honduras, it is known only from two specimens. There are no recent data from Panama.	eng
55296	threats		The most important threats to it are severe disturbance, clearance and transformation of its original habitat to open areas, arising from smallholder farming and subsistence wood collecting.	eng
55297	conservation		The entire range of this species is within the protected area of the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, although maintenance and conservation of its habitat within the park is required.	eng
55297	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil), and from one other locality about 10km away. It was recorded around sea level.	eng
55297	habitat		It has been found at night on a rock in the margins of the Verde River. The type locality is closed forest and open areas so it is not clear exactly which habitat it was found in.	eng
55297	population		It is not thought to be a common species, and only a few specimens have been recorded.	eng
55297	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55298	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).	eng
55298	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of southeastern Brazil from southern Bahia to northern São Paulo. It occurs from close to sea level up to 500m.	eng
55298	habitat		It lives in bromeliads and bamboo cavities inside the forest and on the forest edge, and also in coastal restinga shrubland. It breeds in temporary pools and is not found in heavily degraded habitats.	eng
55298	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55298	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss, in particular due to expanding human settlements, but also due to expanding agriculture, livestock grazing, and clear-cutting, and the collection of bromeliads.	eng
55299	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55299	distribution		This species occurs in Amazonas State in southern Venezuela and in Bajo Río Iuirida in adjacent eastern Colombia. Its presence in adjacent Brazil, in similar suitable habitats, is expected. It is a lowland species.	eng
55299	habitat		It is an arboreal, nocturnal species living in flooded "varzea" forest. It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, but since most of its habitat is still in good condition, it is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded habitats. It is an explosive breeder, breeding in water in inundated areas.	eng
55299	population		It is a common species.	eng
55299	threats		Local population might be impacted by mining, but overall it is not seriously threatened.	eng
55300	conservation		It occurs in Serra do Tabeleiro State Park and several private reserves.	eng
55300	distribution		This species is known only from the coastal mountains of Santa Catarina state, Brazil, at 500-800m asl.	eng
55300	habitat		It lives on the edge of rainforest, and occurs in understorey vegetation. It reproduces in small water-filled holes in the ground.	eng
55300	population		It is abundant and the population is apparently stable.	eng
55300	threats		It is threatened by cattle that trample vegetation and cause water pollution.	eng
55301	conservation	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Axel Kwet, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil. Some populations are protected in Iguazú National Park and minor provincial reserves of Misiones Province.	eng
55301	distribution	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Axel Kwet, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2004	This species ranges widely in central and southeastern Brazil from Brasília, the Serra da Mantiqueira and the coastal ranges, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul and extreme northeastern Argentina in Misiones Province, at elevations of 300-1,200m asl.	eng
55301	habitat	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Axel Kwet, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2004	In the north of its range, it is a typical montane species, living on the forest edge and inside forest. In the south, it lives in more open habitats in shrublands and grasslands. It breeds near slow-flowing streams and permanent ponds with clear bottoms. It tolerates substantial habitat destruction.<br/><br/>Males build concealed subterranean nests and guide the females to these nests, where eggs (mean = 227 eggs; range = 101-288; n = 5 clutches) are laid. Embryos and facultatively oophagous tadpoles (at least in stage 25) stay in these nests until flooding transports them to ponds or streams (Haddad et al., 2005).	eng
55301	population	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Axel Kwet, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2004	It is a very common species.	eng
55301	threats	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Axel Kwet, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2004	Apart from the effects of water pollution, there are very few threats to this species.	eng
55302	conservation		Some populations of <em>A. s. pederseni</em> occur in the 17,600-ha Parque Nacional Mburucuya. The existing protected areas network requires expansion to ensure the protection of lowland riverine and wetland habitats. Further survey work is necessary to determine the status of populations of the nominate subspecies.	eng
55302	distribution		This species occurs in Argentina in north-west Corrientes Province (<em>A. s. pederseni</em>) and Entre Rios and Buenos Aires Provinces (<em>A. s. siemersi</em>). In Uruguay, it occurs in two localities in San Jose and Rocha states (<em>A. s. siemersi</em>). It occurs at elevations of 0-70m asl.	eng
55302	habitat		<em>A. s. pederseni</em> occurs in leaf axils of terrestrial <em>Aechmae</em> bromeliads in gallery forests along main river systems. It reproduces in temporary pools close to the bromeliads. The nominal subspecies occurs and reproduces in wetlands and river deltas (Río Paraná), and tolerates moderate habitat disturbance.	eng
55302	population		The nominal subspecies was known to be uncommon, and the last record is from 1982. All populations have disappeared from Argentina and Uruguay, the reason for which is not well understood. However, in 1983, the Paraná had the largest flood of the century and the population here subsequently disappeared and has not been found since, despite many attempts to relocate it. The subspecies <em>A. s. pederseni</em> is rare but was recorded in 2002 and 2003, and this population at least appears to be stable.	eng
55302	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by fires used to expand or maintain pastures and pine forestry plantations. Some populations are also likely to be threatened by the "Hidrovía Paraná-Paraguay" project (the transformation of the Paraguay-Paraná-Uruguay-La Plata river system into a 3,400-km long shipping canal). In Uruguay, this species is threatened by draining of wetlands for agricultural expansion.	eng
55303	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de Serra das Almas-Crateus, and probably also in other protected areas..	eng
55303	distribution		This species occurs widely in the xeric and subhumid regions of northeastern Brazil, south to northern Minas Gerais. It is a low altitude species.	eng
55303	habitat		It occurs in dry Caatinga savannah, and is usually found on vegetation, including in bromeliads, and in rock outcrops. It breeds in temporary streams in open areas.	eng
55303	population		It is a common species.	eng
55303	threats		The main threats relate to habitat loss, especially due to livestock, and also due to crops and fire.	eng
55304	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. ProAves, a Colombian NGO, in partnership with international conservation NGOs, has recently purchased an additional 1,560 acres of land to the north-west of the park, thereby expanding the current area under protection.	eng
55304	distribution		This species is known from the northern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, in northern Colombia, where it has been recorded from 1,230-2,700m asl.	eng
55304	habitat		It is found on rocks within fast-flowing streams near waterfalls in montane forest. The female puts her eggs on her back and the young develop directly.	eng
55304	population		It is a common species.	eng
55304	threats		Agriculture, as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement, are major threats to the species’ habitat. In particular, deforestation around streams is a major threat.	eng
55305	conservation		Its range includes Reserva Regional Bosque de Florencia in Caldas department.	eng
55305	distribution		This species is known from the western flank of the central Andes, in south Antioquia and Caldas departments, the north and south-eastern flank of the central Andes (in Antioquia and southern Tolima departments), and the western slope of the eastern Andes, in Santander and Cundinamarca departments, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 900-2,000m asl.	eng
55305	habitat		It is found on rocks in fast-flowing mountain streams in transition and montane forest. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, and the young develop directly.	eng
55305	population		It is a common species.	eng
55305	threats		Major threats to the species’ habitat include agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging; agricultural pollution is also a threat.	eng
55306	conservation		Additional survey work is urgently required to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild, although further taxonomic research is also needed to ascertain whether or not it is a valid species or not.	eng
55306	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: La Salina, Boyacá Department, Colombia, at 1,450m asl.	eng
55306	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. However, like other members of its genus, it is probably associated with streams and waterfalls in montane forest. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
55306	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from the single type specimen. Surveys in the region of the type locality have not produced any individuals.	eng
55306	threats		The region where this species occurs has been severely affected by mining for salt production, and all possible suitable remaining habitat for this taxon has been destroyed at the type locality.	eng
55307	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection and restoration of forested highland areas of northern Chiapas, Mexico, is needed. Further research is required to determine whether chytrid might pose a threat to this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55307	distribution		This species occurs above 1,600m asl on the northern slopes of the central highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, from Jitotol to Soluschiapa.	eng
55307	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in cascading mountain streams in cloud forest areas.	eng
55307	population		This is not a rare species.	eng
55307	threats		The main threat is deforestation and the disturbance of cloud forest remnants (at present, mountainous cloud forests are the most impacted habitats in Mexico). Chytridiomycosis may also also pose a  potential threat to this species.	eng
55308	conservation		Urgent protection of the Sierra de Juárez area is suggested since there are no existing protected areas in the region. In view of what appears to be a genuine risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and ex-situ populations may need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55308	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at elevations of 680-1,850m asl.	eng
55308	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian that requires the presence of streams and humid microhabitats.	eng
55308	population		This species is relatively uncommon and is known only from a few localities.	eng
55308	threats		The main threat to this species is the disturbance and desiccation of streams in cloud forest. In addition, larvae with keratinized mouthparts have been found in southern Mexico, which suggests infection with chytridiomycosis.	eng
55309	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and the lowland forest habitat of this species is in urgent need of protection. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and whether it is at risk of infection with chytrid.	eng
55309	distribution		This species is known from the humid lowlands of the Atlantic versant in southern Costa Rica and adjacent north-western Panama, from 170-440m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55309	habitat		The few known specimens have been collected on low vegetation (approximately 3m above ground) within humid lowland forest. The species may be associated with headwater streams (Savage 2002). Larval development is presumed to take place in these streams.	eng
55309	population		It is a rare species known only from three specimens.	eng
55309	threats		The major threat to the species is general habitat loss due to deforestation for smallholder farming activities, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species.	eng
55310	conservation		Its range includes several national parks, such as Braulio Carrillo, and other protected areas.	eng
55310	distribution		This species occurs on the Caribbean and Pacific slopes of the mountains of Costa Rica, at elevations of 500-1,580m asl.	eng
55310	habitat		It lives in premontane wet forest and rainforest. A nocturnal stream breeder, males call throughout the year but are most active from August to December. The species sometimes aggregates around small, shallow streams or seeps draining into streams. Tadpoles are found in quiet pools.	eng
55310	population		It is regularly encountered in suitable habitat throughout its range. This species persists in good numbers in areas known to be infected with chytridiomycosis (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55310	threats		Threats to this species include deforestation, stream alteration, and pollution, but populations are generally stable.	eng
55311	conservation		It occurs within the Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species, particularly given the threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55311	distribution		This species occurs in Sierra de Nombre de Dios and Montaña Macuzal, Atlantica and Yoro departments, north-central Honduras, at elevations of 90-1,400m asl.	eng
55311	habitat		It lives in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest. It has been collected along shallow, slow-moving streams. It lays eggs in vegetation over streams.	eng
55311	population		It is uncommon and all populations are believed to be declining.	eng
55311	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence and small holder agriculture, and logging, is the main threat to this species. Landslides on the upper clear water streams (caused by strong storms and human activities in the lower portions of the streams), water pollution, and fires are also threats. Chytridiomycosis presents a potential threat to this species.	eng
55312	conservation		The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo. There is a need for close population monitoring, particularly if chytrid is shown to represent a genuine threat. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55312	distribution		This species is known from extreme eastern Oaxaca (Chimalapas) and extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent Guatemala.	eng
55312	habitat		This species only inhabits montane cloud forest from moderate to high elevations in almost pristine environments. It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
55312	population		It is not very common.	eng
55312	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development. However, chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat.	eng
55313	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	In Honduras, it is known to occur in Parque Nacional Cusuco and in Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, both formally protected since 1987. Surveys are required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, particularly given the threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55313	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species occurs in Sierra de Omoa and Espíritu Santo in north-western Honduras and north-eastern Guatemala, between 40 and 1,570 m asl.	eng
55313	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It is found on low vegetation along streams in lowland moist forest, and premontane and lower montane wet forest. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
55313	population	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	Formerly, it was moderately common in appropriate habitat. Currently, though, the population is declining throughout its range.	eng
55313	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture (for uses such as pasture), wood extraction, and water pollution. A large population resides in Cusuco National Park; but in 2008, it became apparent that habitat destruction is beginning to encroach upon the habitat of this species. Several individuals were found less than 1 km away from an area being cleared for agriculture (J. E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008). Chytrid infection has recently been confirmed in this species (39.6% prevalence; Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press).	eng
55314	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from at least three protected areas in Panama, and more than three protected areas in Costa Rica. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species, and to ascertain clearly whether or not chytrid poses a threat or not. A captive-breeding programme might need to be established.	eng
55314	distribution		This species is known from the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama (300-1,450m asl). In Costa Rica, the species occurs on the Atlantic versant at 656-1,740m asl and on the Pacific slope at 880-1,600m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55314	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. Adults are usually found in the proximity of streams. During the day, individuals hide in vegetation, especially in leaf axils of epiphytes and terrestrial aroids. At night, moderately dense congregations have been found along small, fast-flowing streams. Males call from dense vegetation several metres away from the streams, from 0.5-3.0m above ground. Larvae develop in quiet pools, but sometimes adhere to large rocks in the stream bottom when the streams rise following heavy rains (Savage 2002).	eng
55314	population		It was formerly common but as of 2002 had apparently disappeared from its entire Costa Rican range except for a remnant population at Monteverde where it has declined substantially since the late 1980s. As of 2007, a new population was found in Tuis de Turrialba, Costa Rica (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). It is now infrequently seen in Costa Rica, and it is presumed to have declined in Panama.	eng
55314	threats		Museum specimens have been found to be infected with chytrid fungi, and although it requires confirmation, it is likely that infection with this pathogen, perhaps in combination with climate change, is responsible for the current population decline. Habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities is also a threat to this species.	eng
55315	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	The species' range overlaps with several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55315	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espírito Santo States), from 500-1,800m asl.	eng
55315	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This species is found in the forest sitting on vegetation 1-3 metres above the ground, mostly in bromeliads. Females carry the eggs in a pouch and release the tadpoles into bromeliads. It can live in disturbed habitats, almost anywhere with trees. They need bromeliads to breed.	eng
55315	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
55315	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	Habitat destruction due to clear-cutting of forests is a localized threat, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.	eng
55316	conservation		In Venezuela, a number of populations are located within Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria, while the species' rainforest habitat in Tobago is also partially protected. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
55316	distribution		This species is known from Peninsula de Paria in Venezuela, and from the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to approximately 1,000m asl.	eng
55316	habitat		A nocturnal and arboreal species, on Trinidad it is found in the leaf bases of bromeliads and aroids. It is also found in bushes or in montane humid forests, and appears not to have been reported from altered habitats. It carries its eggs on its back and has larvae that develop in the leaf axils of bromeliads.	eng
55316	population		The current population status of this species is not known.	eng
55316	threats		Some populations may be affected by small-scale agricultural activities and timber extraction. On Tobago road construction is probably having an effect on its habitat.	eng
55317	conservation		The species' range overlaps with several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55317	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espirito Santo States), from sea level to just above 1,000m asl.	eng
55317	habitat		This species occurs in the forest sitting on vegetation 1-3 metres above the ground, mostly in bromeliads. Females carry the eggs in a pouch and release the tadpoles into bromeliads. It can live in disturbed habitats, almost anywhere with trees. They need bromeliads to breed.	eng
55317	population		This is a very common species.	eng
55317	threats		Habitat destruction due to clear-cutting of forests is a localized threat, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.	eng
55318	conservation		The species occurs in several protected areas. More research into its Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55318	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Espirito Santo States). It occurs between 600-1,200m asl. It might also occur above this level.	eng
55318	habitat		This species occurs in bamboo clusters or on leaves of low vegetation in primary forest. Females carry eggs on their back and then deposit the tadpoles in bamboo stems. It can tolerate a degree of habitat disturbance, and can be found anywhere where there are trees and bamboo.	eng
55318	population		This is a very common species. There have been observed declines in some locations, but they are continuing to persist but at lower densities (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
55318	threats		There are no major threats to the species' overall survival at present.	eng
55319	conservation		Some populations protected within national parks in Venezuela, but it is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55319	distribution		This species occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa and the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela, extending into the northern Cordillera Oriental (dept Norte de Santander) in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,600m asl. The specimens from the Colombian and Venzuelan Andes belong to another, as yet, undescribed species (Barrio Amorós, 2004).	eng
55319	habitat		It is a species of pre-montane humid forests, that is particularly associated with bromeliads. The eggs are carried on the back of the female in a pouch, and the larvae are deposited in bromeliad axils. It can survive in degraded forest, so long as bromeliads are present.	eng
55319	population		It is an uncommon species. Four individuals were recorded in Venezuela in 1999, but there are no recent records from Colombia due to lack of surveys.	eng
55319	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, livestock, logging, and human settlement. Collection of bromeliads might also be a problem, at least locally, and habitat loss due to fire is also a threat.	eng
55320	conservation		This species has been recorded from the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
55320	distribution		This species is known only from the type collection in the higher western slopes of the Cordillera Colán in the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where it has been found at altitudes of 2,970-3,330m asl. It is difficult to determine whether or not it is endemic to the Huancabamba Depression.	eng
55320	habitat		This is a terrestrial species found above the tree line in grassy areas, bogs, and the fronds of terrestrial bromeliads. The adults carry the larvae on their backs before depositing them in a currently unknown site.	eng
55320	population		The population status is not known.	eng
55320	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown. It might be impacted by regional agricultural activities, but this requires further investigation.	eng
55321	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55321	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Caquetá, Huila, and Putumayo Departments) and in Ecuador south to Zamora Province, at 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
55321	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is arboreal, living on the vegetation next to water sources inside cloud forest. There is a record of an individual observed in a flat area on a ridge, with a relatively open canopy and many tree falls, but otherwise there is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
55321	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is a moderately common species.	eng
55321	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The major threats are deforestation due to smallholder livestock ranching and cultivation of crops (including some illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55322	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitats at sites where this species is known to occur in the Chocó-Darién forests of western Ecuador.	eng
55322	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador and western Colombia, at 100-600m asl. There is only one known locality in Ecuador in Esmeraldas Province. In Colombia, it is known from a small number of localities in the departments of Antioquia, Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Chocó. It could be more widespread than records suggest.	eng
55322	habitat		It is arboreal and lives on vegetation inside humid lowland forest near water. It has only been found in closed forest and has not been found in secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.	eng
55322	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55322	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55323	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas, such as Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.	eng
55323	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda, Chocó, and Antioquia, in the Andean cloud forests on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental, at elevations of 1,700-2,500m asl, in Colombia. It might occur more widely.	eng
55323	habitat		This species has only been recorded from primary forest, where they are found on vegetation. They are direct developing frogs with the eggs kept in the pouch of the female.	eng
55323	population		It is a common species.	eng
55323	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and fragmentation due to the expansion of agriculture (particularly cattle raising) and logging.	eng
55324	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55324	distribution		This species is known from the southern part of the Cordillera Occidental, and the central and southern part of the western flanks of the Cordillera Central and Macizo Central in Cauca, Nariño and Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,760-3,050m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
55324	habitat		It occurs on vegetation inside the forest and next to streams in Andean forests. It also inhabits open areas, pastures and human disturbed areas. The eggs are raised in a pouch on the back of the female and the tadpoles are then transported to small pools where the tadpoles develop further.	eng
55324	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55324	threats		There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
55325	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence is needed, and establishment of a protected area for this species would be advisable.	eng
55325	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Cauca and Huila on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central in south-central Colombia, from 2,000-2,600m asl.	eng
55325	habitat		It is arboreal, occurring on vegetation alongside streams in Andean forests. It has also been recorded from relatively disturbed areas such as in trees in farmers' gardens. Its main requirement is dense vegetation. The eggs develop in a pouch on the back of the female and then the larvae are transported to small pools where they develop further.	eng
55325	population		This is a common species.	eng
55325	threats		A major threat resulting in destruction of its habitat is the cultivation of illegal crops. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
55326	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, and its habitat is in urgent need of protection, particularly since it is confined to primary intact forest. Further survey work would help establish the species' current population status.	eng
55326	distribution		This species is known from only three localities from the north side of the Cordillera Central in the Department of Antioquia, to the eastern slopes of Caldas Department, Colombia, between 1,700 and 2,200m asl. It might be more widespread than current records suggest.	eng
55326	habitat		This species is a canopy dweller restricted entirely to primary Andean forest. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
55326	population		It is known from only 10 specimens and is thought to be a rare species.	eng
55326	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction for agriculture and livestock, and as a result of logging.	eng
55327	conservation		Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Calilegua, but there is a need for additional protection of Yungas habitat in the range of this species.	eng
55327	distribution		This species occurs on the slopes of the Andes in Jujuy Province, Argentina, at mid elevations from 1,550-2,600m asl.	eng
55327	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that lives in montane forests (Yungas), and occurs arboreally in tree crowns, tree holes and rock crevices. Although there are records of this species persisting in moderately disturbed habitats for a few decades, intensification of the disturbance eventually led to the species' disappearance in these areas. Males call from burrows, and during amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch, which is also where they develop into froglets.	eng
55327	population		It is very rare, but has been collected as recently as 2002.	eng
55327	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, mainly due to selective logging and clear cutting of primary forests.	eng
55328	conservation		Some populations are protected in Parque Nacional Baritú in Argentina, and Reserva Nacional de Flora y Fauna Tariquía in Bolivia.	eng
55328	distribution		This species is known from a few localities on the slopes of the Andes in Salta Province, Argentina, and also in Tarija Department, Bolivia, at 1,500-1,600m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than records indicate.	eng
55328	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in the canopy of montane forests (Yungas). During amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch. The females subsequently deposit the larvae in small pools of water on the forest floor where metamorphosis takes place. This species' tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.	eng
55328	population		It is a very rare species, but has been collected as recently as 2002 in Argentina.	eng
55328	threats		The major threats include selective logging, the clear-cutting of primary forests, introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.	eng
55329	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs, or occurred, in several protected areas in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica. A small ex-situ population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith <em>pers. comm</em>. September, 2007).	eng
55329	distribution		This species occurs in humid lowland and premontane forests from central Costa Rica to central Panama on the Atlantic slope, and from the Pacific versant of eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, to western Ecuador (south to Manta Real [Almendáriz and Carr, 1992]; however it has not been recorded from Manta Real in a recent survey [Ana Almendáriz pers. comm., 2007]); in Costa Rica, it is known from three localities in Limón Province (300-700m asl); the overall elevational range is from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55329	habitat		A canopy species of lowland and montane humid forest characterized by high humidity throughout the year, including both primary and secondary forest, but not occurring in open areas. Animals have been recorded in African palm plantations in Ecuador (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007). Individuals have been found near to rivers and creeks. It breeds by direct development, the female carries fertilised eggs in a pouch on her back, the eggs hatch as fully developed frogs. It has the largest known amphibian eggs.	eng
55329	population		The species has declined in El Cope (now gone from this site, Lips <em>et al</em>., 2006; Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007) and El Valle in Panama, and the last Costa Rican record is from 1996; it has not been recorded again in this country as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). As of 2007, there is little new information on the status of populations in eastern Panama, however it is presumed to still be present here (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm., 2007). The species was formerly common in Ecuador, however populations have now dramatically declined in this country although it is not certain that the species is extirpated, and it is considered to be nationally Data Deficient (Luis Coloma pers. comm. 2007). In Colombia, it appears to have never been an especially common species (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55329	threats		This species has disappeared from Costa Rica and western Panama; these declines have been associated with the disease chytridiomycosis (Lips <em>et al.</em>, 2006). This disease is also present in the lowlands of western Ecuador (Luis A. Coloma pers. comm. 2007), and may have contributed to the substantial declines of this species in Ecuador currently associated with extensive habitat loss. Areas of forest close to the type locality of "Cachabé" (= Cachabí), Provincia Esmeralda, Ecuador have now been deforested and no <em>Gastrotheca cornuta</em> are present here (Luis A. Coloma pers. comm. 2007). It is possible that the species has declined in Colombia, with few records and ongoing serious habitat fragmentation in Cauca and Nariño (John D. Lynch pers. comm. 2007; Fernando Castro pers. comm. 2007). Major threats other than disease are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55330	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, but none in Ecuador. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55330	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in the departments of Antioquia, Risaralda, Choco, Valle del Cauca and Cauca), and in one locality in the southern part of Pichincha Province, in northern Ecuador. There is also an isolated population at Florencia in the department of Caldas on the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 1,230-2,090m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known.	eng
55330	habitat		It lives on vegetation inside primary and secondary montane forests, usually near water sources. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.	eng
55330	population		It is rare in Ecuador, where it has not been found in recent years, but it is still common in Colombia.	eng
55330	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire is probably also a threat in some places. Its apparent disappearance in Ecuador could be due to habitat loss, but chytridiomycosis, which has affected other species of <em>Gastrotheca</em> in Ecuador, cannot be ruled out.	eng
55331	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55331	distribution		This species is known from north of the Río Medellín in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the northern department of Antioquia, Colombia from 2,000-2,700m asl.	eng
55331	habitat		It is known from primary and secondary forest and grassland. It is a very adaptable species found in human habitats such as plantations, farmland, and urban gardens, as long as there is a pool to breed in. The eggs are raised in a pouch on the back of the female and the tadpoles are then transported to small pools where the tadpoles develop further.	eng
55331	population		It is a common species.	eng
55331	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
55332	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making the protection of its high-elevation sub-páramo and forest habitat a priority. Survey work is needed to establish the status of populations in Colombia.	eng
55332	distribution		This species occurs at elevations of 2,530-3,400m asl in a small area in the southern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia (in the department of Narino) and in the Nudo de Pasto region in southern Colombia (also in the department of Narino) and northern Ecuador (Carchi Province).	eng
55332	habitat		It lives on vegetation in sub-páramo bush land and montane forests, often close to streams with forest remnants. The female carries the eggs in a dorsal pouch, and the larvae are deposited in slow-moving or standing water.	eng
55332	population		It is common and is frequently encountered, although there are few recent records from Colombia (due to lack of survey effort).	eng
55332	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire is probably also a problem in some places.	eng
55333	conservation		It is recorded from both Manú National Park and Machu Pichu.	eng
55333	distribution		This species is found along the Amazonian slopes of the Andes, and is recorded from three different areas, namely Machu Picchu, San Luis and San Pedro in the department of Cusco, southern Peru. Records from the department of Cajamarca are thought to be in error and require further verification. It has an altitudinal range of 2,000-3,000m asl.	eng
55333	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary montane tropical forest; it exhibits some resilience in the face of habitat distrubance, and may be found in low intensity farmed areas. The eggs hatch on the female's back, and the larvae are also carried on the back.	eng
55333	population		This species is very common.	eng
55333	threats		The major threat is extensive habitat loss due to agriculture (tea and coffee), and the development of infrastructure for tourism.	eng
55334	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55334	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of eastern Brazil, up to 700m asl, from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State of Espírito Santo.	eng
55334	habitat		It occurs in primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, and is associated mainly with terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads. It has also been found in bromeliads in shrubland and in rocky outcrops. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried in a pouch on back of the female, and the young frogs grow in bromeliads.	eng
55334	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
55334	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, selective logging, and collection of bromeliads, fire and human settlement.	eng
55335	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
55335	distribution		This species is known only from east of Canchaque and Huancabamba, on the western slope of the Huancabamba Depression (Piura Department), Peru, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 1,740m and 2,130m asl.	eng
55335	habitat		It has been recorded from cloud forest, montane dry forest, scrubby pasture and lightly disturbed areas. The breeding habitat is not known, though the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female.	eng
55335	population		The population status of this species is not known. There have been no recent records.	eng
55335	threats		There are no known major threats. It might be impacted by regional agricultural activities, but this requires further investigation.	eng
55336	conservation		Some populations are probably protected in Parque Nacional Los Alisos.	eng
55336	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of Sierra del Aconquija, Sierra de Medina and Sierra de Taficillo (near Tucumán), in north-western Argentina, in Catamarca, Tucumán and Salta provinces, at 1,500-2,000m asl. It might occur more widely, including in Bolivia.	eng
55336	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in the tree canopy of montane forests (Yungas). During amplexus, males place eggs in the marsupial pouch on the female's back. The eggs hatch and the larvae develop in the pouch. The females subsequently deposit the larvae in small pools of water on the forest floor where metamorphosis takes place. This species' tolerance to habitat disturbance is not known.	eng
55336	population		It is a very rare species. The most recent record is from 1995, but there has been no recent survey work.	eng
55336	threats		Major threats include selective logging, the clear-cutting of primary forests, introduction of predatory fish (trout), and the alteration of watersheds.	eng
55337	conservation		It is not known to be from any protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
55337	distribution		This species is found in the area of Nudo de Pasco in Departamentos Pasco, Junin and Huánuco, central Peruvian Andes. It is recorded at elevations of between 3,000 and 4,020m asl.	eng
55337	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of dry puna grasslands, this species breeds by direct development. It is quite common in traditionally cultivated arable land.	eng
55337	population		It is relatively abundant.	eng
55337	threats		There appear to be no major threats to the species. It can occur in low intensity agricultural areas.	eng
55338	conservation		In Ecuador, its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Further research is needed to investigate the cause of the apparent decline of this species in Ecuador.	eng
55338	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Pichincha and Cotapaxi provinces) and western Colombia (from Nariño Department to Antioquia Department). It has been recorded between 700 and 2,010m asl.	eng
55338	habitat		It is a nocturnal species, living on vegetation, including arboreal bromeliads, in forest habitats, usually next to water sources. It prefers undisturbed habitats, but can be found on the edge of secondary forest. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female.	eng
55338	population		The population status of this species across much of Ecuador is unknown. It was most recently recorded in 1996, and appears to have declined. Data from the Reserva Otonga (Pichincha Province) suggest that it is now absent from where it once occurred (L. Coloma pers. obs.). It is an uncommon species in Colombia.	eng
55338	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The decline in Ecuador is unexplained and has taken place within suitable habitats, and might perhaps be related to climate change, or to chytridiomycosis (which has been recorded in <em>Gastrotheca</em> species in Ecuador), or to a combination of these two factors.	eng
55339	conservation		It is protected within Parque Nacional Tamá in both Venezuela and Colombia.	eng
55339	distribution		This species occurs in the Páramo de Tamá, in Venezuela (Apure and Táchira Sates) and adjacent Colombia (Norte de Santander Department), at 2,300-2,350m asl.	eng
55339	habitat		This is a species found in cloud forest, which lives in rotten wood. It has been found in degraded forest, and although is very hard to see it is easily heard. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the back of the female.	eng
55339	population		It was abundant in the mid 1980s, and the absence of recent records is probably due to a lack of survey effort.	eng
55339	threats		There is very little recent information available, though much of its habitat is protected.	eng
55340	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
55340	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "El Tambo, 31.5km (by road) east of Canchaque, 2,770m [asl] (5° 22'S; 79° 33'W), Cordillera de Huancabamba, Departamento de Piura, Peru" (Duellman and Trueb 1988). It is difficult to determine as to whether or not it is endemic to the Huancabamba Depression.	eng
55340	habitat		This is an arboreal species in montane cloud forest, which presumably carries its eggs on the back of the female.	eng
55340	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
55340	threats		There is some small-scale deforestation in the vicinity of the collection site that might represent a threat.	eng
55341	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Carrasco, but further protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat in the species' range is needed. Further survey work is also required to determine the biology and population status of this species, particularly to ascertain whether or not it survives in the wild.	eng
55341	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "La Siberia", 40km from Comarapa toward Pojo, in Carrasco Province, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia, at 2,800m asl (De la Riva 1992). Surveys in nearby areas have not found this species, suggesting that it has a genuinely restricted range.	eng
55341	habitat		An arboreal cloud forest species, there is no information known about breeding, although the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, like other species of the genus.	eng
55341	population		This species is known only from a single female, collected in 1989, from the type locality, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55341	threats		Habitat degradation and loss as a result of agriculture (crops and livestock) is a major threat at the type locality.	eng
55342	conservation		Its geographic range slightly overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas, and it also occurs in the Bosques Protector Masan and Zurocucho. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to ascertain whether it is declining in suitable habitat due to chytrid.	eng
55342	distribution		This species is known from eight localities in intermontane basins in the Andes, in Azuay Province, southern Ecuador, at 3,000-3,600m asl.	eng
55342	habitat		It inhabits sub-páramo, subhumid pastureland and grassy páramo (Duellman and Hillis 1987). There is no information on the breeding habits of this species, but the eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, and it is likely that the larvae are deposited in small pools of water or streams.	eng
55342	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. It is often confused with <em>G. pseustes</em>, and it appears that one or other, or both, of these species may be declining.	eng
55342	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due, in particular, to large-scale livestock ranching. However, it might be declining even within suitable habitat, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55343	conservation		It is present in Santiago-Comainas Reserved Zone of Peru and Ecuador, and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador.	eng
55343	distribution		This species' range is the Upper Amazon basin in northern Perú (Departamento: Amazonas) and eastern lowlands of Ecuador. 250-1,200m asl	eng
55343	habitat		This is a canopy species found in primary tropical moist lowland and montane tropical forest. A direct development species, its eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
55343	population		The population status of this canopy species is unknown.	eng
55343	threats		This species faces no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to selective logging and agricultural activities. It might be susceptible to chytrid infection, but this requires further investigation.	eng
55344	conservation		In Peru, it might occur in Huayllay and Ampay National Sanctuaries, Junin National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary and Apurimac Reserved Zone. In Bolivia, it occurs in Carrasco National Park, Cotapata National Park, Pilon Lajas National Park and the Tariquia protected area. Further research into this species is needed.	eng
55344	distribution		This species occurs in the Amazonian drainage systems of the Andes, from central Peru to southern Bolivia, at altitudes of 1,500-4,230m asl.	eng
55344	habitat		It is present in primary, secondary and disturbed cloud and montane forest in the valleys of the central Andes. Taxa assigned to G. marsupiata also commonly occur in most types of regional agricultural areas and flooded areas. Breeding takes place in stagnant and slow flowing waters. It has a degree of tolerance to water pollution.	eng
55344	population		It is locally common.	eng
55344	threats		The threats to this complex species are difficult to determine. Forest populations might be threatened by deforestation and agricultural activities. The species might be in small-scale international trade, although there is often confusion between this species and G. peruana or G. riobambae.	eng
55345	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55345	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal regions and mountains of southeastern Brazil from the State of Espirito Santo, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,500m asl, but probably not all the way down to sea level.	eng
55345	habitat		It lives in the canopy of undisturbed primary forest, where it hides in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried in a pouch on back of the female, where it breeds its froglets.	eng
55345	population		It is probably common, but it is hard to detect since it is a canopy species. It is very poorly known and is not often found.	eng
55345	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to clear-cutting, selective logging, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.	eng
55346	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus. In Peru, it is present in some natural forest and also in Cutervo National Park and Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla.	eng
55346	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, 2008	This species occurs on the Andean slopes around the Huancabamba Depression region, Loja Province, southern Ecuador; and Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura regions, northern Peru; at 1,900-3,130m asl.	eng
55346	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, 2008	It occurs in shrubs in humid montane forests and in altered habitats. The females carry the eggs in pouches on their backs and put the tadpoles in streams.	eng
55346	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, 2008	It was common in Loja in 2003. It is also common in Peru.	eng
55346	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Javier Icochea, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation is a threat to this species, especially the forest destruction caused by agricultural activities in the locality of Celendín, Cajamarca department, Peru. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>G. monticola</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.	eng
55347	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, Juan Elías García-Pérez, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in both Colombia and Venezuela. In Panama the species has been recorded from Reserva Forestal Fortuna and Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
55347	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, Juan Elías García-Pérez, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	This species occurs in Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. It has been recorded from two general areas in Panama: the western central cordillera adjacent to Costa Rica, and the eastern cordilleras in southeastern Darien adjacent to Colombia. The area in Panama between places is well surveyed and it does not appear to exist here. In Colombia it occurs along the border with Panama, and also widely in the northern portions of the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Andes, and on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera (including the Cordillera Macarena), extending east to the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela. In addition, there is a record for Chorlaví, Putumayo department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 400-2,400m asl.	eng
55347	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, Juan Elías García-Pérez, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is an arboreal species of lowland forest and montane cloud forest, including in disturbed cloud forest. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female.	eng
55347	population	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, Juan Elías García-Pérez, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
55347	threats	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, Juan Elías García-Pérez, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is probably not threatened, since it is tolerant of forest alteration. It might be affected, at least locally, by pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55348	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
55348	distribution		This species is known from the south-west base of the Cordillera de Vilcanota, west of Río Putumayo, 10km (by road) from Ollantaytambo, and also from the Acjanaco-Pillahuata road (both sites are in Cuzco Department, Peru). It might be present in Puno Department, although this requires confirmation. This species' altitudinal range is 2,700-2,800m asl. Its total range is considered to be reasonably well-known.	eng
55348	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in cloud forest, but not in degraded habitats, in the Andes. The larvae develop in bromeliads.	eng
55348	population		It is very rare.	eng
55348	threats		It is threatened by deforestation for subsistence use of wood and timber and by increasing colonisation of the area. It is not considered to be threatened by agricultural activities.	eng
55349	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; however, it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. There is a need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species, and further research is also necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
55349	distribution		This species occurs on the upper Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes in Ecuador (Sucumbios, Imbabura and Carchi Provinces) and Colombia (on the eastern slope of the Nudo de Pasto in Narino and Putumayo Departments). Its altitudinal range is 2,600-3,100m asl.	eng
55349	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary cloud forest, and has also been found in agricultural fields (potato cultivation) in Ecuador, though it now appears to be reduced in this habitat. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are carried on the female's back.	eng
55349	population		It is now an uncommon species in Ecuador, whereas it was formerly common three decades ago.	eng
55349	threats		There are only four locality records in Ecuador and all are facing severe human-induced habitat deterioration. The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (mainly crops), logging, and human settlement, as well as fire. However, the decline in Ecuador remains unexplained, and might perhaps be related to climatic changes, since the species appears to have disappeared in pristine habitats. It is also possible that the use of agro-chemicals in agricultural areas (particularly for potato cultivation) could have led to declines in this habitat. Chytridiomycosis is probably not implicated in any declines, since the species is not associated with water, though this still cannot be ruled out.	eng
55350	conservation		A number of populations are protected in national parks, including Parques Nacionales El Avila, San Esteban, Yurubi and Henri Pittier. Research is needed to better understand the reasons for the species' decline in suitable habitats.	eng
55350	distribution		This species is known from the Cordillera de la Costa in the Venezuelan coastal mountain range, from 800-1,800m asl.	eng
55350	habitat		It is associated with bromeliads (especially during dry periods when it takes refuge in them) in cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the female's back.	eng
55350	population		In some places (such as in Cerro Avila; Barrio 1999) it seems to be an abundant species; however, in other places (such as Parque Nacional Henri Pittier; La Marca 1995b; Manzanilla <em>et al.</em> 1995), where it used to be common, it is now less so.	eng
55350	threats		Threats to its habitat are minimal in some places like Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, but elsewhere the habitat is severely threatened by agriculture, logging and infrastructure development. The cause(s) of the decline in pristine habitats is not clear, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out, but it seems improbable as this species is not associated with water.	eng
55351	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
55351	distribution		This species is possibly endemic to the Abra Tapuna, on the crest of the Cordillera Oriental in Ayacucho Department, Peru, where it has been found at approximately 3,710m asl. Its distribution is not well known.	eng
55351	habitat		This is a terrestrial species found in puna grasslands. The larvae develop in still waters.	eng
55351	population		There is no recent information on this species.	eng
55351	threats		It is not know what threats there are to this species, but they are likely to be minimal as it occurs in a very isolated area.	eng
55352	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	It is unclear if the species is present in any protected areas, but it might occur in the Huayllay National Sanctuary, Junin National Reserve, Chacamarca Historical Sanctuary and the Parque Nacional de Huascaran Sector Carpa.	eng
55352	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	This species is present in the Andean and inter-Andean valleys of northern and central Peru. It is present in the regions of Cajamarca, La Libertad, Ancash, Huánuco, Junin and Lima. It might occur in the region of Amazonas; this, however, requires confirmation. The altitudinal range is from 2,300m to 4,600m asl.	eng
55352	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	It can be found in high plains and puna habitats, and is present in traditional arable lands. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, drainage ditches and other still waters. The species can also be found in urban areas.	eng
55352	population	Ariadne Angulo, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	It is often a very abundant species.	eng
55352	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has previously been recorded in the pet trade in Germany, although this is not believed to represent a significant threat to the species.	eng
55353	conservation		Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
55353	distribution		This species occurs at 2,500-3,200m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern and central Ecuador, where it has been recorded from eight localities.	eng
55353	habitat		It is a nocturnal, arboreal inhabitant of cloud forests, and can also be found in forest edge and secondary, degraded habitats. It is closely associated with arboreal bromeliads. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are carried on the female's back.	eng
55353	population		It is not an uncommon species, but it appears to be declining, and some populations have disappeared.	eng
55353	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, this species is probably impacted by severe habitat loss, especially due to agriculture and the impacts of fire. The causes of its decline in pristine habitats are not clear; chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out, but it seems improbable, since this species is not associated with water.	eng
55354	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Parque Nacional Llanganates, the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, Parque Nacional Sangay and Parque Nacional Cajas. Given the threat of chytrid, it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
55354	distribution		This species occurs at elevations of 2,200-4,000m asl, in the Andes of northern and southern Ecuador, from Pichincha to Azuay Provinces.	eng
55354	habitat		This species can be found in old-growth cloud forest and altered zones such as secondary forest and pastures; it also can be found in páramo. The female carries the eggs in a pouch on her back and then deposits the larvae in small pools of water.	eng
55354	population		The populations in several localities (Cashca Totoras and near Parque Nacional Cajas) have disappeared. Many populations were once abundant in the mid 1980s, and these are now severely reduced. It can be easily confused with <em>G. litonedis</em>, which can complicate attempts to assess the population status of both species.	eng
55354	threats		Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species, and this is probably the main cause of its decline. It is relatively tolerant of habitat destruction, although it requires some thickets to persist. The conversion of habitat for human settlements has severely fragmented its habitat, and aggressive afforestation programmes in páramo habitats, using exotic pines, are probably also a threat.	eng
55355	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is found close to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species, and to investigate its breeding biology.	eng
55355	distribution		This species is known only from a limited region on the Abra de Zamora ridge, between Loja and Zamora, in the Cordillera Oriental in southern Ecuador, at 2,750-2,850m asl. Although it is known only from the type locality, it probably occurs more widely.	eng
55355	habitat		It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo. The type locality is exceedingly wet, with cold winds blowing from the east. The vegetation near the crest consists of grasses and dense bushes, and large bromeliads are abundant on the ground and in the bushes. Individuals have been found in bromeliads and under rocks. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, but it is not known whether or not this species breeds by direct development or by larval development.	eng
55355	population		There is little information on its population status, but it is probably a very rare species.	eng
55355	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, largely due to conversion of habitat to pine tree plantations, and expanding agriculture (involving both crops and livestock).	eng
55356	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
55356	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Yuraccyacu on the Tambo-Valle del Apurimac trail 2,620m asl, Departamento Ayacucho, Peru" (Duellman and Trueb 1988).	eng
55356	habitat		Its habitat is the cloud forest on the eastern slopes of the Andes. The eggs are presumably carried on the back of the female, but it is not known whether or not breeding is by direct development or larval development.	eng
55356	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
55356	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55357	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and the Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
55357	distribution		This species is restricted to the Andes and inter-Andean valleys in northern and central Ecuador from Imbabura south to Chimborazo. Its altitudinal range is 2,200-3,500m asl.	eng
55357	habitat		It lives on vegetation inside montane forests and in a variety of habitats ranging from wet montane meadows to dry rocky hillsides, agave plants and corn fields. It is often found close to water sources such as pools, streams and drainage, and irrigation ditches. The eggs are carried in a pouch on the back of the female, and the larvae are deposited in still water or very slow-flowing streams.	eng
55357	population		It was once a common species, but has undergone declines across much of its range.	eng
55357	threats		Probably much of its past decline relates to extreme habitat loss. Although the species is clearly adaptable, it probably cannot survive when nothing but pastures remain. Pollution and global and local climatic change could be implicated in the observed declines. It is unlikely to be a victim of chytridiomycosis (though this cannot be ruled out, in particular because of its association with streams).	eng
55358	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the breeding habitat of this species. More research is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality and to confirm whether the species is in decline, and the causes of the decline.	eng
55358	distribution		This species is only known from the immediate vicinity of the type locality: Valle de Sibundoy, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes, in southern Colombia, from 2,250m asl.	eng
55358	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near the forest edge in Andean forests; it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. The eggs develop in a pouch on the back of the female and the larvae are then transported to small pools where they develop further.	eng
55358	population		It was previously considered a common species. However, recent surveys of the type locality have not found the species (J. Lynch pers. comm.). It is uncertain whether this represents a real decline or simply lack of sampling.	eng
55358	threats		The main threat is the drainage of wetlands for agriculture and livestock farming, thereby reducing the breeding habitat available. Water pollution from agriculture is also a major threat.	eng
55359	conservation		The only known locality is within Parque Nacional Amboro, and continued management of this area is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur beyond the type locality.	eng
55359	distribution		This species is known only from Abra de la Cruz, in Parque Nacional Amboro, Caballero Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, at 2,286m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but it probably has a restricted distribution.	eng
55359	habitat		It has been recorded from cloud forest and is probably a direct developing species.	eng
55359	population		It is known from only two individuals, one collected in 1857, and the other in 1997. It is clearly very rare, because the area where it was rediscovered has been well surveyed, without success.	eng
55359	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as infrastructure development for human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
55360	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and some form of habitat protection is needed to ensure the maintenance of some cloud forest within the range of this species. Survey work is required to determine whether it might occur between known sites.	eng
55360	distribution		This species is known only from a few sites on the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental and associated ranges of Peru. It has been recorded from the departments of Huánuco, Pasco and northern Junín. The range is not completely known and it may occur more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from elevations of 2,500-3,090m asl.	eng
55360	habitat		It is an arboreal species that inhabits primary and disturbed cloud forest; it is sometimes present near villages and can be found in pastures with trees. Breeding is by larval development, and the larvae complete their development in ponds.	eng
55360	population		It is uncommon.	eng
55360	threats		The major threat is deforestation due to agriculture, logging and human settlement. The inhabited areas of Chaglla and Carpish are in a region of intensive cultivation, principally for potatoes.	eng
55361	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is known from three protected areas in Bolivia.	eng
55361	distribution		This species' geographic range is on the Amazonian slopes of Andes in Ecuador, Perú (Departamentos: Amazonas, San Martín) and Bolivia. In Ecuador it is found in the eastern Cordillera Real montane forests in the eastern subtropical altitudinal zone. Its altitudinal range is 400m to 2,000m asl.	eng
55361	habitat		This is an arboreal frog found in primary forest of lowland and montane humid forest. At Cordillera de Cutucú, Ecuador, one specimen was found in a flat area on a ridge with cloud forest that had a relatively open canopy and many tree falls (Duellman and Lynch, 1988). A direct development species, the eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
55361	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55361	threats		General habitat loss is through agricultural and human settlements.	eng
55362	conservation		The type locality is entirely within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, but there is a need to combat activities that result in the loss of native habitat within the park boundaries. More research is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55362	distribution		This species is currently known only from the region of the type locality: Cerro Munchique on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, in Cauca Department, Colombia, from 2,170-2,540m asl. It might occur somewhat more widely.	eng
55362	habitat		It occurs on vegetation and next to streams inside forest and at the forest edge, and seeks refuge in bromeliads. It can occur in habitat such as páramo as long as there are bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development, with the eggs kept in the pouch of the female until hatched.	eng
55362	population		It is relatively common at the type locality.	eng
55362	threats		Although its only known locality is a protected area, cultivation of illegal crops is leading to the destruction of native habitat in some parts of the park.	eng
55363	conservation		Some populations are protected within national parks (such as Parque Nacionale Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional Yurubí).	eng
55363	distribution		This species is known only from the Venezuelan coastal mountain range, in the Federal District, and in Aragua and Yaracuy States, from 650-1,200m asl. Its range is very poorly known.	eng
55363	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development, with the eggs and hatchlings being carried on the female's back.	eng
55363	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55363	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55364	conservation		In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay. It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indiwasi in Colombia.	eng
55364	distribution		This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, and in Amazonas Department in northern Peru. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in Huila and Caquetá Departments, Colombia, at 1,100-2,370m asl.	eng
55364	habitat		It lives in montane tropical forests (Duellman 1974), and it is likely that the eggs develop directly in a pouch on the female's back.	eng
55364	population		It is rare in Colombia, and there are very few, if any, specimens in Ecuadorian museums. It might be a hard species to find, and so its population status might be incorrectly estimated.	eng
55364	threats		In Ecuador, this species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development for livestock and crops, in addition to forest clearance. It is less seriously threatened in its Colombian and Peruvian ranges.	eng
55365	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional San Esteban. The taxonomic status of this species requires further clarification.	eng
55365	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at San Esteban, in Carabobo State, Venezuela.	eng
55365	habitat		It inhabits montane tropical forest, and is presumed to breed by direct development with the eggs and hatchlings being carried on the female's back.	eng
55365	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species, which has not been collected again since it was first described. It is not known whether or not it is very rare or whether or not it has disappeared.	eng
55365	threats		Agricultural development, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to this species' habitat.	eng
55366	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Sangay, in Ecuador. In Peru it is present in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.	eng
55366	distribution		This species occurs in the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru and Colombia (Caquetá to Putumayo), from 300-2,000m asl.	eng
55366	habitat		Individuals have been found in dense cloud forests where it favours perches, being found on the branches of bushes and small trees (Trueb 1974). At Cordillera del Cutucú, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in very wet forest, where the ground and most trees were covered with moss (Duellman and Lynch 1988); it was also collected at the same habitat type in Peru. It is not present in modified habitats. This species reproduces by direct development and the eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.	eng
55366	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55366	threats		This species is threatened by forest loss due to infrastructure development for human settlements, logging, and agricultural development (including for the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock). Although much forest habitat remains within the range of this species, it is very sensitive to slight habitat alteration and the rate of forest loss within the majority of its range (the Ecuadorian portion) is very high.	eng
55367	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad, the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, and Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
55367	distribution		This species occurs through much of the central and eastern cordilleras of Panama, south through the Pacific slopes of Colombia (in Antioquia and Cauca Departments, and almost certainly more widely) and the northern slopes of the western and central cordilleras, to north-western Ecuador (south to the Guajalito Protection Forest in Pichincha Province). It has not yet been recorded from Costa Rica (as of August, 2007) (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007), but may be present within this country. It is known only from a small number of localities within its overall range, from 300-2,000m asl.	eng
55367	habitat		Its habitat is very humid lowland, lower montane and cloud forests; it inhabits primary forest only. By day, individuals have been found in leaf-litter on the forest floor, whereas by night they favour perches above the ground. It lives only in areas of high frog densities, since it preys on other frogs. Breeding is by direct development; the eggs are carried on the back of the female.	eng
55367	population		This is a very rare species.	eng
55367	threats		The major threats are deforestation due to agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55368	conservation		Present in some protected natural areas (Reserva Comunal El Sira, Parque Nacional Manu) in Peru, and Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guacharos in Colombia.	eng
55368	distribution		This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin and lower Amazon slopes of the Andes in Peru (Departamentos: Cusco, Huánuco, Ucayali). It is known from only two localities in Ecuador, and a single locality in Colombia (Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guacharos). It is not present in Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is 300m to 2,000m asl. MAPPED IN BRAZIL, CHECK THIS OUT	eng
55368	habitat		This tree frog inhabits primary tropical rainforest and montane cloud forest. Individuals have been found in primary forest at night, perched on vegetation 0.3-0.7m above the ground (Sheil and Mendelson III, 2001). A direct development species; its eggs are carried in a pouch on the females back. It is not present in modified habitats. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.	eng
55368	population		It can be considered as an uncommon to even a rare species.	eng
55368	threats		No major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55369	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Cuera de los Guacharos, Colombia, and Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Brazil. Further survey work is needed to better determine the limits of the distribution of this species and its current population status.	eng
55369	distribution		This species is known from four localities in the Colombian Andes at 1,350-1,910m asl, and also from the Brazilian Amazon at much lower altitudes. On the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes it occurs in southern Antioquia Department, and the eastern slope in Caldas Department; on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes it occurs in Parque Nacional Cuera de los Guacharos, in Huila Department, and in extreme western Caqueta Department. In Brazil, it has been recorded from the vicinity of Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, in Acre State.	eng
55369	habitat		It occurs on the lower stratum of vegetation, among fallen leaves, and on shrubs in primary cloud forest. It is very sensitive to moisture and is restricted to primary forest. It eats other species of frogs, and probably only survives in areas of high frog density. Females lay their eggs and glue them on to their back, where they develop directly.	eng
55369	population		It is considered to be a very rare species, and is known only from about 20 specimens.	eng
55369	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to cultivation of illegal crops, livestock farming and logging.	eng
55370	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. In Colombia it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. In Peru it might be present in Gueppi Reserved Zone.	eng
55370	distribution		This species is the Upper Amazon Basin in southeastern Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 100-1,200m asl. In Ecuador, it is widely distributed; however it has not been found in recent years.	eng
55370	habitat		This is generally a primary tropical moist forest species. This frog has been found in primary and secondary forests (Duellman, 1978). In the Iquitos region, Perú, specimens have been found only in primary forest, where most individuals were found sitting on low vegetation at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). A direct development species; eggs are carried in a pouch on the female's back. It is not present in modified habitats. The species eats other frogs, and probably only survives in areas of high frog density.	eng
55370	population		It is generally a rare species. There is some population decline in Ecuador, the causes are unclear.	eng
55370	threats		There are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55371	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, Peru; Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and Parque Natural el Pure. It is also present in a number of protected areas in Brazil.	eng
55371	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the upper Amazon basin of Ecuador, Peru, Colombia and western Brazil, however it is not present in Bolivia. A lowland species, its altitudinal range is generally below 1,000m asl.	eng
55371	habitat		This rare, diurnal and nocturnal species has been found in Terra Firme forest, where it can be collected in leaf-litter but is sometimes found in the top of high trees in tropical rainforest. It is generally found only in undisturbed forests (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It breeds by direct development on the dorsum of the adult frog. It is probably a specialized predator on other frog species that only survives in areas of high frog density.	eng
55371	population		This is a cryptic species.	eng
55371	threats		It has no major threats, and is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and selective logging.	eng
55372	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55372	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of "Río Aloapan, 16.1km (by road) west of Jalapa de Díaz (18° 01' 12''N; 96° 39' 36''W), Oaxaca, Mexico" (Campbell and Duellman 2000). The specimens were collected at 405m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
55372	habitat		The only known specimens were collected on low vegetation at the edge of the Río Aloapan in lower montane rainforest. This species is presumed to be dependent on water for breeding and to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
55372	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the initial collection.	eng
55372	threats		Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.	eng
55373	conservation		It is present in numerous protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil and Peru.	eng
55373	distribution		This species' geographic range is Western Brazil (Acre, Amazonas and Rondonia), northeastern Bolivia, and southeastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55373	habitat		The habitat is lowland and premontane moist tropical forest. Generally, it is found in the understorey vegetation; it is a typical forest edge species. Breeding takes place in temporary pools. This species increases in number when habitats are disturbed, although it does require some nearby bushes and other low vegetation.	eng
55373	population		A common species, it is increasing in distribution in vegetation along newly constructed roads.	eng
55373	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
55374	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55374	distribution		This species is known from the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It occurs up to about 800m asl.	eng
55374	habitat		The species is found on the leaves of trees or shrubs, up to two metres above the ground, next to forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas such as banana plantations. It breeds in forest streams.	eng
55374	population		It is a common species.	eng
55374	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to clear cutting of forests is a localized threat to this species.	eng
55375	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Yasuni and Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha.	eng
55375	distribution		This species is known from Amazonian Ecuador, below 600m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and perhaps also in neighbouring countries.	eng
55375	habitat		It inhabits Eastern Cordillera real montane forest and Napo moist forests in the Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zone. At Santa Cecilia, although it was found in a wide variety of habitats including clearings, banana groves, swamps, and primary forest, most individuals were in secondary growth forest, where they were found on low vegetation at night. It is a larval developer.	eng
55375	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
55375	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55376	conservation	Ana Carolina Carnaval, Axel Kwet, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55376	distribution	Ana Carolina Carnaval, Axel Kwet, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species occurs in the Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,100m asl. This name has also been widely used for certain frogs from Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas and the lower Amazon basin, but they are now considered to belong to other, possibly undescribed, species.	eng
55376	habitat	Ana Carolina Carnaval, Axel Kwet, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It lives on shrubs or on the ground near waterbodies on the edge of tropical moist forests, in degraded forest, and in open areas near forest. It is not found in the interior of mature forest. It breeds in temporary or permanent still water, sometimes even in flowing water. Both egg deposition and larval development occur in lentic water (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It has been found very close to the sea.	eng
55376	population	Ana Carolina Carnaval, Axel Kwet, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55376	threats	Ana Carolina Carnaval, Axel Kwet, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	In view of its adaptability to degraded habitats, this species is not threatened.	eng
55377	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Toro Toro.	eng
55377	distribution		This species is found on the eastern Andes in southern Bolivia. It was recorded in the departments of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca and Potosi (Duellman, De la Riva and Wild 1997; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is also known from Tarija Department. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,500m asl and is currently known from 12 populations.	eng
55377	habitat		This species is arboreal and is known from open areas. It inhabits high Andean vegetation and dry inter-Andean valleys (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Köhler 2000a). Duellman, De la Riva and Wild (1997) observed individuals perching on small trees and bushes or on brush woods, close to stream banks in the Julpe River area. It breeds in streams.	eng
55377	population		It is locally common.	eng
55377	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to mining and agriculture (which, in turn, causes water pollution and sedimentation of streams).	eng
55378	conservation	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. A taxonomic review to resolve the status of the species complex is needed.	eng
55378	distribution	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species occurs in central, southern and southeastern Brazil, including Rondonia state; in extreme eastern Bolivia; in the drainages and the mouth of the Río Paraná, in Corrientes, Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires provinces, Argentina; in the oriental region of Paraguay; and in the northernmost part of Uruguay. The elevational range for this species is 0-2,000m asl.	eng
55378	habitat	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is a widespread, generalist species. It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in tropical rainforest and in open areas. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance, and it is commonly seen in human settlements and in disturbed environments.	eng
55378	population	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is common throughout most of its range, except in Paraguay.	eng
55378	threats	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Diego Baldo, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture could be affecting the species in Paraguay. This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection in São Paulo state, Brazil (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55379	conservation		In Ecuador, the geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní; and possibly occurs in Limoncocha Reserva Biológica.	eng
55379	distribution		This species is known from the Amazonian lowlands of Peru, northeastern Ecuador and two sites in the southern part of Amazonas Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is to 300m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.	eng
55379	habitat		A little-known nocturnal species, it is recorded from bushes in primary flooded and terra firme forest. Its breeding habitats are not known; observations suggest that it possibly uses bromeliads for refuge (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).	eng
55379	population		The population is not known. The species could be Near Threatened in Ecuador; however records from southern Colombia and Peru suggest that it might be much more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
55379	threats		In Ecuador there is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), and selective logging.	eng
55380	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55380	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in southeastern and southern Brazil. It occurs around 800-1,200m asl.	eng
55380	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It is not known from disturbed habitats. It breeds in permanent forest streams.	eng
55380	population		It is a common species, but hard to catch.	eng
55380	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to deforestation and large-scale farming is a localized threat to this species.	eng
55381	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55381	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Brasilien" (Lichtenstein and Martens 1856) which is presumed to refer to Brazil.	eng
55381	habitat		The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
55381	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55381	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55382	conservation		Some populations are within national parks (such as Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón).	eng
55382	distribution		This species is known from Aragua, Cojedes, Falcón and Zulia States, and from the district of Federal, in Venezuela, from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
55382	habitat		This species inhabits tropical moist forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, although its larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55382	population		It appears to be naturally very rare. In Falcón it might be common in the canopy.	eng
55382	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to clearance of the forests.	eng
55383	conservation		Present in the Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve.	eng
55383	distribution		This species has an apparently disjunctive distribution of near Iquitos (Loreto) in the north of Peru, and Cusco Amazonico, (Madre de Dios) 15km east of Puerto Maldonando. However, it might range more widely, especially between known sites, as it is likely that it is confused with similar hylids. Elevation is below 200m asl.	eng
55383	habitat		Its habitat is primary lowland tropical moist forest. Adults live around vegetation choked ponds; eggs are laid in the water. It is not known if this species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
55383	population		This species is not very common.	eng
55383	threats		Some localized habitat loss through small holder farming and subsistence use of forest. Some impacts of urbanization from Iquitos.	eng
55384	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas. While additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range, protection of the remaining cloud forest fragments is important to preserve the humid habitats for this species as well as other amphibians. It is listed by the Mexican government in the category "Special Protection" (Pr).	eng
55384	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Oaxaca, and north to the towns of San Gabriel and San Sebastián, in south-western Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55384	habitat		This species occurs in pine-oak and cloud forests, and prefers rocky streams with abundant vegetation as microhabitat. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55384	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since the 1960s. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55384	threats		This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The disappearance of the fragments of cloud forest in Oaxaca, the most fragile habitat in Mexico, is also threatening this species. At present this area is under extreme pressure from human population growth.	eng
55385	conservation	Jaime Bertoluci, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55385	distribution	Jaime Bertoluci, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species from the Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça in southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Bahia south to the southern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It is a montane species occurring over 1,000m asl.	eng
55385	habitat	Jaime Bertoluci, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a species of open, rocky high-altitude grassland that is often found on stones at the edge of brooks and streams. It breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55385	population	Jaime Bertoluci, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55385	threats	Jaime Bertoluci, Débora Silvano, 2008	The main threats are habitat degradation due to human settlement, tourism and fire.	eng
55386	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute. In Colombia it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
55386	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Nariño and Cauca Departments) and widely in western Ecuador, from 500-2,000m asl.	eng
55386	habitat		It lives on vegetation inside lowland and montane forests, usually very close to streams. Specimens have been found calling from vegetation over, and boulders in, cascading mountain streams. It can survive in secondary forest if vegetation persists around streams. The eggs are deposited among rocks at the water's edge, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
55386	population		It is locally very common in suitable habitats.	eng
55386	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is probably also affected by the introduction of exotic fish species, pollution from agriculture, and droughts.	eng
55387	conservation		Due to the risk of chytridiomycosis it should be monitored carefully for this disease.	eng
55387	distribution		This species is known from Yosocuno and near Nativitas in the Mixteca Alta area of north-western Oaxaca, Mexico, although the limits of its distribution are not known. Its altitudinal range is 2,455-2,670m asl.	eng
55387	habitat		It is associated with montane oak forest and sometimes uses bromeliads as refuges. Larvae of this species have been collected from a small stream.	eng
55387	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55387	threats		It is presumed to be threatened by the conversion of suitable forest habitat to agricultural land. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to this disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.	eng
55388	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55388	distribution		This species is known from the Cerrado of Central Brazil, at 800m asl.	eng
55388	habitat		It occurs in low vegetation next to permanent bodies of water, where it also breeds. It most likely lays its eggs in the water. It adapts well to human disturbance and is often found in pastures.	eng
55388	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
55388	threats		Logging, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55389	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55389	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	This species is known from the lowlands of the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Bahia, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
55389	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	Adults are found in stagnant water and on bulrushes (taboas) where there is no arboreal vegetation, in swamps. They breed in temporary or permanent stagnant pools. They have also been recorded in anthropogenic habitats such as gardens and artificial ponds.	eng
55389	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55389	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	There are no threats to this species overall.	eng
55390	conservation		The current known range of this species falls entirely within protected areas (Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama, and at least three protected areas in Costa Rica). Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55390	distribution		This species occurs in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,500-2,040m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55390	habitat		It is a nocturnal tree frog of humid lower montane rainforest. Breeding usually takes place in small puddles and water-filled depressions. Males call from leaves and twigs above the forest flood. Tadpoles are benthic (Savage 2002).	eng
55390	population		This is generally an uncommon species. The population is decreasing, but threats to the species remain unknown. In Costa Rica, the species has disappeared from Cerro Chompipe and Tapanti. It declined drastically in Monteverde, but a few individuals persisted until at least the late 1990s, and the particular site where they were found has not been visited since; there is a chance that it still survives at Monteverde. In Panama there is a scarcity of information on its distribution and abundance, though it appears to have declined, and the most recent record is from Parque Internacional La Amistad, in Chiriquí Province, in 1991.	eng
55390	threats		The reasons for the population decline of this species are not known with certainty, though it is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis, perhaps in association with climate change.	eng
55391	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. Current distribution and population status data in Southeast Asia are needed.	eng
55391	distribution		This species is known from southwestern and central China, northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunchal Pradesh and Nagaland), northern Myanmar, extreme northern Thailand and Viet Nam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest in Southeast Asia, especially in areas between known sites. It is known from elevations between 600-2,500m asl.	eng
55391	habitat		A largely arboreal frog of tropical evergreen and deciduous forest, that is also found in grasslands, and agricultural land close to forests. Breeding habitats are ponds and terraced paddy fields. It was observed as an explosive breeder in almost any water body, including rice paddy fields.	eng
55391	population		In China this is a very common species. There are no recent data available for Southeast Asia, suggesting that the species might be uncommon, at least, in Thailand and Viet Nam.	eng
55391	threats		General habitat degradation including water pollution might be a threat to this species. In India it is also potentially threatened by over collection for food and medicinal purposes. Consumption is only reported from Nagaland and Maghalaya in India.	eng
55392	conservation		It might occur in Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Rio Abiseo National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone and Tingo Maria National Park but this requires confirmation.	eng
55392	distribution		This species' geographic range is known only from three sites along the western slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, from close to Balzapata, Departamento Amazonas to the vicinity of Tingo Maria, Departamento Huánuco, and parts of Departamento San Martin, in Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 1,330-1,850m asl. It is assumed to occur more widely, in particular between known sites.	eng
55392	habitat		The habitat is not completely known; it has been recorded from partially cleared cloud forest. This species is presumed to breed in stagnant water, such as small pools. This species does not appear to be well known.	eng
55392	population		The population is not known, though it is likely to be common.	eng
55392	threats		The major threats are unknown. Agricultural development (e.g., coffee) might be a threat to this species.	eng
55393	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55393	distribution		This species is known only from Alto-Araguaya, the type locality on the border of the states of Mato Grosso and Goiás, Brazil, at 700m asl.	eng
55393	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.	eng
55393	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55393	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and dam construction.	eng
55394	conservation		The protection of forest fragments in eastern central Mexico is recommended since no protected areas currently are included within the species' range. Further survey work and research is needed to determine whether chytrid poses a threat to this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55394	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, from Tlaxcala and northern Puebla and east-central to southern Puebla, at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl.	eng
55394	habitat		This stream-breeding amphibian requires highly humid habitats such as streams in high-elevation cloud and pine-oak forests. It also takes refuge in bromeliads.	eng
55394	population		It is a common species.	eng
55394	threats		Disturbance and clearance of the primary forest and the desiccation of streams are the main threats to this species. Chytridiomycosis may be a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.	eng
55395	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55395	distribution		This species is known from the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre del Sur in the state of Guerrero, Mexico. The type collection was at approximately 2,000m asl.	eng
55395	habitat		This is presumed to be a montane forest species that breeds in temporary pools.	eng
55395	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55395	threats		The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by logging and agricultural development.	eng
55396	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats and part of its range includes Biosphere Reserves and Natural parks.	eng
55396	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species occurs from western and southeastern Colorado and southern Utah, south through Arizona and western New Mexico in the USA to northern Oaxaca in Mexico. There are also isolated populations in northeastern New Mexico and the Big Bend area of western Texas. It is found from near sea level to about 3,000m asl (Stebbins, 1985).	eng
55396	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This frog requires temporary or permanent pools in rocky arid scrub and mountains. It is found in rocky canyons and along intermittent or permanent streams. It frequents arroyos in semi-arid grassland, streams in pinon-juniper and pine-oak woodlands, and tropical scrub forest (Mexico) (Stebbins, 1985). It is primarily terrestrial, and in breeds in pools along canyon-bottom streams.	eng
55396	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	The total adult population size is unknown, but this species is common in some areas. The population is believed to be stable.	eng
55396	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species has well adapted populations along its wide range.	eng
55397	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55397	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species is known from Serra do Mar, Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Caraça, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 600-1,000m asl.	eng
55397	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species is found on vegetation near streams in primary and secondary forests. It breeds in permanent forest streams. It has not been recorded outside good forest.	eng
55397	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55397	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
55398	conservation		In Peru this species might occur in Apurimac Reserved Zone, Parque Nacional Manu, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone; but this requires confirmation. Present in several Bolivian protected areas.	eng
55398	distribution		This species' geographic range is the Amazonian slopes of the Andes of Peru (Departamentos Cusco and Puno) and Bolivia (Departamentos La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz). Its altitudinal range of 1,000-2,500m asl.	eng
55398	habitat		The habitat is primary montane and cloud forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It breeds in fast-flowing streams (highly adapted to this) and is not present in modified habitats.	eng
55398	population		Locally, it is very common.	eng
55398	threats		Deforestation through smallholder farming and mining (water pollution) are major threats. Chytrid fungus might be a threat to this species but requires confirmation.	eng
55399	conservation		It is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
55399	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, which is the summit of Huachamacari tepui (03° 50'N; 65° 45'W), in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at 1,700m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
55399	habitat		This species inhabits high montane tepui forest where it lays its eggs in very rapid waters. The larvae live in the fast-flowing sections of the rivers.	eng
55399	population		It appears to be common at the Huachamacari summit.	eng
55399	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
55400	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of its habitat is required as it does not appear to be able to withstand habitat disturbance. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55400	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 700-1,000m asl, and perhaps slightly higher.	eng
55400	habitat		This species occurs on the forest floor and in epiphyte bromeliads in primary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It breeds in bromeliads by larval development.	eng
55400	population		It is a common species.	eng
55400	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation is a localized threat to this species, but overall there are no major threats at present.	eng
55401	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55401	distribution		This species occurs in the Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, ranging from the State of Pernambuco south to the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 700m asl.	eng
55401	habitat		It is an adaptable species living in primary and secondary forest and forest edge, including degraded forest. It breeds in fish ponds, lakes and pools.	eng
55401	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55401	threats		It is adaptable to degradation of its habitat, and so it is not seriously threatened. Spread of intensive agriculture and human settlements might impact certain populations.	eng
55402	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55402	distribution		The distribution of this species is not known. The type locality of "angeblich aus Südamerica" (Peters 1873) suggests that it was collected in South America.	eng
55402	habitat		The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55402	population		This species is known only from a single specimen.	eng
55402	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55403	conservation		Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55403	distribution		This species' geographic range in the USA is from southern Illinois and western Kentucky to Gulf Coast, Louisiana to Florida Panhandle, eastern Georgia, and adjacent South Carolina; west of the Mississippi River, occurs disjunctive in central and northern Louisiana, southeastern Oklahoma and adjacent southwestern Arkansas, and central Arkansas (Conant and Collons 1991).	eng
55403	habitat		Its habitat is permanent wooded swamps (tupelo, cypress, birch, buttonbush, and vine tangles) bordering rivers and streams. It may climb high into trees and is generally intolerant of impoundments that flood habitat. Males call from trees, shrubs, and vines that are in or next to water. Eggs and larvae develop in swamp pools.	eng
55403	population		This species is widespread and common in the appropriate habitat. Most state herpetology accounts mention the existence of large populations. In South Carolina, Gibbons and Semlitsch (1991) noted "large choruses" in three locations on the Savannah River Site, plus additional smaller populations. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) rated this species as common to abundant in Florida. Barbour (1971) noted the occurrence of a "magnificent population" in some of the swamps in Hickman County, Kentucky. Redmond and Scott (1996) stated that this species is especially abundant around Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee. "Locally common in some good habitats" in the limited range in extreme southern Illinois (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Abundant in floodplain swamps in western Union and Alexander counties, Illinois (Smith 1961:87). Apparently stable; no evidence of a decline in recent decades.	eng
55403	threats		Swampy habitat protects the species from many threats deriving from habitat alteration, but threats include clearing and draining of baldcypress-tupelo swamps (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
55404	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. Further research to confirm the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55404	distribution		This species occurs in São Paulo State and Parana State, Brazil. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55404	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary ponds in open areas. It breeds in these ponds and is also found in very disturbed habitats such as agricultural land and artificial ponds.	eng
55404	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55404	threats		There are no current threats to this very abundant and adaptable species.	eng
55405	conservation		Present in many protected areas in Bolivia and Parque Nacional Manu in Peru.	eng
55405	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, Peru, Departamentos Cuzco and Puno; Bolivia, Departamentos La Paz, Cochabamba and Sanata Cruz. Its altitudinal range is 450-2,210m asl.	eng
55405	habitat		Its habitat is cloud and Yungas forest, breeds in slow flowing streams and ditches. It is present in disturbed habitat.	eng
55405	population		It is very common.	eng
55405	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
55406	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
55406	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Caracas, Venezuela, from 900-1,000m asl.	eng
55406	habitat		The habitat preferences of this species are unknown (they were not described in the original description). However, Caracas lies within a region dominated by humid premontane forest. This species is likely to breed by larval development in water, but this is not known for certain.	eng
55406	population		Its population status is unknown, but it is potentially a rare species. It has not been recorded since the original description. If this species is restricted to the Caracas Valley, there is a large possibility that this frog might now be extinct, since its natural habitat has been replaced by the metropolis of Caracas.	eng
55406	threats		This species is clearly threatened by the urbanization of Caracas, which has resulted in most of its habitat being destroyed.	eng
55408	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55408	distribution		This species from southern Brazil occurs in the coastal lowlands and the Serra do Mar, up to 1,200m, from Linhares in the State of Espírito Santo south to Florianopolis in the State of Santa Catarina.	eng
55408	habitat		It lives on low vegetation in secondary forest, often near swamps. It has also been found in open areas, such as grassland. It hangs its eggs in the vegetation above temporary still water, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
55408	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55408	threats		Due to its adaptability it is not seriously threatened, but is probably impacted locally by agriculture and wood plantations.	eng
55409	conservation		It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55409	distribution		This species is widespread in the upper Amazon Basin of Bolivia, western Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and southern Colombia. Distribution range is extending in vegetation alongside newly created roads. Elevation is from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55409	habitat		An inhabitant of bushes in open forest and clearings. Individuals can frequently be found in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in permanent and temporary shallow ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994); eggs are laid out of the water on leaves; tadpoles develop in the water. It can also breed in artificial ponds.	eng
55409	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
55409	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to clear cutting.	eng
55410	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55410	distribution		This species is known from the Federal District and the states of Goiás, Minas Gerais and São Paulo, in the Cerrado of central and southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55410	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near streams in primary and secondary forest, and also in forest edge and forest clearings. It breeds in permanent streams. It has also been found in plantations.	eng
55410	population		This is a very common species.	eng
55410	threats		There are no threats to this very common species.	eng
55411	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55411	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	This species occurs in the coastal region of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It ranges up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55411	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It lives on low vegetation, usually near pools of still water, in open areas, grassland, pastureland, secondary forest, and coastal restinga scrub, but not in primary forest. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
55411	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
55411	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is an adaptable species and does not appear to be facing any threats.	eng
55412	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Axel Kwet, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55412	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Axel Kwet, 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Brazil from the state of São Paulo, south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55412	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Axel Kwet, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in some plantations, but not in eucalyptus. It is not found in open habitats. Outside the breeding season it is found on trees. During the breeding season it is found in permanent waterbodies, such as ponds or lakes, or slowly flowing brooks. The egg clutch is laid between aquatic plants in these permanent waterbodies.	eng
55412	population	Paulo Garcia, Axel Kwet, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55412	threats	Paulo Garcia, Axel Kwet, 2008	Although somewhat adaptable, it is impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture and eucalyptus plantations, as well as by clear-cutting.	eng
55413	conservation		Protection and restoration of the degraded forest areas is recommended. The species' range includes a few protected areas, but these need restoration and better management at present. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55413	distribution		This species occurs at high elevations in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico, from Durango and adjacent Sinaloa southward to Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca, and to the east in the central Volcanic Belt to Hidalgo and Puebla.	eng
55413	habitat		It occurs only at high elevations in pine-oak and pine-fir forests and in the associated streams. It is a stream breeding amphibian.	eng
55413	population		It is a common species within appropriate habitat.	eng
55413	threats		Disturbance, clearance and modification of the species' habitat is the main threat. Chytridiomycosis might be a future threat, as it is a high-elevation, stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.	eng
55414	conservation		It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.	eng
55414	distribution		This species is known only from the north-eastern slopes of the central highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, between 1,600 and 1,700m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
55414	habitat		It occurs in streamside vegetation within cloud forest, and is presumed to breed in the streams.	eng
55414	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
55414	threats		The threats to this species are not known. However, it seems possible that it is suffering habitat loss through some degree of deforestation for timber and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
55415	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	Many populations are protected within National Parks and Biosphere Reserves. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Peru it can be found within the Manu Biosphere Reserve and Tambopata National Reserve. In Panama, it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Darién. In Guyana, it is known from the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve (Ernst et al., 2005).	eng
55415	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Amazon basin, the upper Orinoco river, the delta of the Orinoco river, Trinidad island (not present on Tobago) Trinidad and Tobago, the Guianas, Peru, lowland tropical Bolivia, the Amazonian basin of Brazil, the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, Esmeraldas department, Ecuador and the central and eastern lowlands of Panama. In Venezuela, it has been recorded in the states of Amazonas, Bolívar and Delta Amacuro, as well as from the Andean foothills of Barinas and Táchira. It has been recorded between 0 and 1,000m asl.	eng
55415	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a nocturnal species found in tropical rainforest, where it is found on trees up to a height of 5m. It is also found on bushes and trees in gallery forests, and it may use exposed bedrocks. The eggs are laid in mud basins, which are built by the males at the edge of watercourses or ponds (Duellman, 1997). The tadpoles are then washed into the river. During the dry season, they are active at night on sandy or muddy edges of slow-moving streams (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat modification.	eng
55415	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It represents the only case of a disappearing population in the Amazon basin (Ducke Reserve, Manaus, Brazil), although it is abundant elsewhere.	eng
55415	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55416	conservation		This species probably occurs in the Biotopo del Quetzal. Surveys are needed to determine the population status of this species, and the reasons for the observed decline. It is also necessary to ensure that ornamental plant farms adhere to protocols to ensure the safe and proper disposal of pesticides.	eng
55416	distribution		This species is found in the highlands of Alta and Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, at 1,300-1,536m asl.	eng
55416	habitat		It has been found in open, grassy meadows when they become flooded during the early part of the rainy season. It has also been found beneath sheaths of banana plants and in a bromeliad. This species appears to tolerate some level of habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place in temporary pools.	eng
55416	population		Campbell and Lawson (1992) report that the species can be abundant during the early part of the rainy season. Numerous recent visits to the range of this species have failed to turn up any individuals, suggesting a serious decline.	eng
55416	threats		A major threat to this species is the ornamental plants industry, which requires heavy use of pesticides and fungicides because the cut flowers and ferns exported to first world countries have to be completely free of insects or blemishes. In areas with many of these ornamental plant farms, the streams are typically heavily contaminated. Another cause of the observed declines, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be chytridiomycosis.	eng
55417	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, although a protected area is not necessary for such an adaptable species.	eng
55417	distribution		This species is known from the northern part of the western flank of the Central Andes in Antioquia department, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,580m asl.	eng
55417	habitat		It is found in open areas such as secondary forest and also pasture land. The eggs are laid in temporary and permanent pools. It can be found almost anywhere where there are ponds in which to breed.	eng
55417	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55417	threats		There are no known threats to this very common and adaptable species.	eng
55418	conservation	María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55418	distribution	María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	This species is found in the central part of Cordillera Oriental of the Andes (4° 40'N to 6°N), in the Cundinamarca, Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,750-3,900m asl.	eng
55418	habitat	María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	It occurs in streams and in bromeliads in premontane humid forest, cloud forest, and páramo, and also in open areas and secondary forest, and reproduces in streams.	eng
55418	population	María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	It is common, with many recent records.	eng
55418	threats	María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	Threats to this species include landscape transformation and habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching), the introduction of predatory trout, and water pollution due to the use of agrochemicals.<br/><br/>A <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection has been reported for this species (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008).	eng
55419	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Yasuni National Park and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística. Possibly occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu, Colombia. It is uncertain if it is present in a reserved zone within Peru.	eng
55419	distribution		This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia (Leticia), Ecuador, Peru, and western Brazil (Acre and Rondonia). It might be present in Bolivia, but requires confirmation. Its elevation is from 100-800m asl.	eng
55419	habitat		Its habitat is both secondary and primary tropical moist forest. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, all individuals were found at night on vegetation. Males usually call from emergent swamp vegetation, or, less frequently, at the edge of forest (Duellman, 1978). Eggs are deposited on leaves over waterbodies; larvae develop in these waters.	eng
55419	population		This is an uncommon species.	eng
55419	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55420	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55420	distribution		This species is from northeastern and eastern Brazil ranges from Sao Pedro da Agua Branca in the State of Maranhao, west and south through the States of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It occurs up to 700m asl.	eng
55420	habitat		It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including savannahs, shrubland, open areas, and dunes, but not in closed forest. It is usually found on vegetation near stagnant waterbodies. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55420	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55420	threats		It is a very adaptable species, and is not facing any known threats.	eng
55421	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is known from the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).	eng
55421	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs in the "Upper Amazon Basin of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, as well as French Guiana" (Frost, 2000). It was recently recorded in central Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005) and it is also known from widely scattered populations along the Madeira and Amazon Rivers in Amazonas state, Brazil. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001).	eng
55421	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This nocturnal species is usually observed on the leaves of bushes in tropical rainforest and secondary forest. After heavy rains, the frogs congregate at ponds in, or at the edge of, the forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been found in open areas and flooded forests (Ron, 2001). Eggs are laid out of the water on leaves, and the larvae develop in semi-permanent pools.	eng
55421	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is not common in French Guiana or Brazil (Lescure and Marty, 2001), but it is common in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.	eng
55421	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation is a threat to this species, but it does adapt to habitat alteration.	eng
55422	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Julian Lee, 2008	It is found in Parque Nacional El Cusuco and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras, and in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de la Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal in Guatemala. Further research is necessary to ascertain whether chytrid is a threat to this species.	eng
55422	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Julian Lee, 2008	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of north-western Chiapas State, Mexico; central and eastern Guatemala; the Maya Mountains of Belize; and north-western Honduras, at 350-1,790m asl.	eng
55422	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Julian Lee, 2008	It is found in bromeliads in premontane and lower montane wet forest. It breeds by larval development. It is also found in leaf sheaths on banana trees, and tolerates some level of habitat disturbance.	eng
55422	population	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Julian Lee, 2008	It is known from single specimens in Belize and Mexico. It is uncommon in Guatemala, but it continues to occur in suitable habitat, although some populations are in serious decline. In fact, some higher elevation populations in Guatemala, where most of the range occurs, appear to have declined sharply although the species has not disappeared; populations at lower elevations appear stable. It is relatively common in Honduras.	eng
55422	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Manuel Acevedo, Julian Lee, 2008	The main threat is deforestation, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and water pollution which is taking place at higher elevations. The declines observed at high elevations, which have taken place even in suitable habitat, could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55423	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55423	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buritis, in the state of Minas Gerais, in Brazil, from 500m asl.	eng
55423	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.	eng
55423	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55423	threats		The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.	eng
55424	conservation		The area from which it has been recorded belongs to the Brazilian military, potentially affording it some protection.	eng
55424	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Cachimbo" (Napoli and Caramaschi 1999), at about 09° 21'S; 54° 57'W, in the state of Pará, Brazil, between 200 and 400m asl.	eng
55424	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.	eng
55424	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55424	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.	eng
55425	conservation		In Paraguay the range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation programs for the protection of high forest in eastern Paraguay and water sheds is needed. In Argentina it occurs in Iguazu National Park and in several provincial and private reserves.	eng
55425	distribution		This species is known from Misiones and adjacent Corrientes provinces in northeastern Argentina, and from eastern Paraguay, and from Sao Paulo State and Rio Grande do Sul State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from 70-500m asl.	eng
55425	habitat		This species occurs in littoral swamps and bordering fast moving streams in forests and grassland. It breeds in these streams and flooded grasslands. It has been recorded from some artificial waterbodies. It has also been recorded in secondary forest as well.	eng
55425	population		This is a common species in Paraguay and Argentina, but it is considered rare in Brazil.	eng
55425	threats		Conversion of the land for agriculture is a major threat to this species in Paraguay and Brazil, in Argentina it is only threatened by the drying of streams caused by forest conversion to pine plantations.	eng
55426	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
55426	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs in the Amazon Basin from southern Colombia and adjacent Ecuador south through Peru to northern Bolivia, the Guianas and the upper Orinoco Basin in Venezuela and Brazil. It generally occurs below 400m asl but can occur at up to 1,000m asl in Ecuador.	eng
55426	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It inhabits the trees and branches of tropical rainforest. In the rainy season, nocturnal and arboreal adults are most commonly seen perched transversely on stems and small branches above slow moving streams (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles also develop in water.	eng
55426	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is abundant in much of its range, but it is uncommon in Suriname and Bolivia.	eng
55426	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Forest conversion, logging, clear cutting and fire are threats to this species.	eng
55427	conservation		It occurs in three protected areas: Guanentá, Rasgon, and Los Estoraques.	eng
55427	distribution		This species occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, Santander and Norte de Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,050-3,000m asl.	eng
55427	habitat		It lives in streams in cloud forest, and near streams in heavily disturbed areas. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
55427	population		It is common, with many recent records.	eng
55427	threats		Threats to this species include habitat loss due to agricultural cultivation and cattle ranching, and predation from introduced trout.	eng
55428	conservation		Its range includes Carrasco National Park.	eng
55428	distribution		This species is known from the Yungas of Cochabamba and La Paz departments, in Bolivia, from 700-2,300m asl.	eng
55428	habitat		It inhabits moist montane forest, as well as disturbed habitats. It breeds in small streams and roadside ditches.	eng
55428	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55428	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
55429	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	Most of the species' range occurs within several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of the species' habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence would be desirable.	eng
55429	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	This species is known from the type locality (Serra da Bocaina) and Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State, and in Serra da Mantiqueira (Parque Nacional do Itatiaia and Monte Verde), southeast Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.	eng
55429	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	This species occurs on vegetation near montane streams in primary and old secondary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55429	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	It is a common species.	eng
55429	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55430	conservation		The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Survey work is required to determine the current population status and range of this species, and particularly to ascertain whether or not it still survives at the type locality. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55430	distribution		This species has been recorded from the type locality of Totontepec, Sierra Mixes, and from one other locality west of Zacatepec, very near the type locality in Oaxaca, Mexico. The specimens from the type locality were collected between 1,780 and 1,896m asl, and the specimens from the second locality were collected at 1,360m asl. The exact limits of its distribution are not known, but it is believed to have a restricted distribution.	eng
55430	habitat		It inhabits tropical cloud forest. The adults have been found on vegetation along streams; larvae have been found in a pool in a small stream. It is presumed to be sensitive to habitat modification.	eng
55430	population		It is known only from the type series, and two other specimens recently collected from the second locality.	eng
55430	threats		The forest at the type locality has been cleared and no suitable habitat remains in the area. It is unlikely that any animals now remain at the type locality (Ustach <em>et al.</em> 2000). The second locality is also suffering from severe habitat fragmentation and the remaining habitat is likely to disappear in the near future. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation, stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55431	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area; a plan for the protection and/or restoration of the large forested areas of Sierra de Juárez is urgently required. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55431	distribution		This species is known only from the northern slope of the Cerro Pelón, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico at 2,500-2,700m asl.	eng
55431	habitat		This stream-breeding amphibian seems to occur in rocky streams in cloud forest areas.	eng
55431	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55431	threats		It has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. It occurs within an area in Sierra de Juárez, Mexico, which is undergoing a rapid rate of land transformation at present due to logging and agricultural activities.	eng
55432	conservation		This species has been recorded in Parque Internacional La Amistad and might occur in Parque Nacional Volcán Barú. Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55432	distribution		This species is known from the southern Cordillera de Talamanca, on Cerro Pando on the Pacific slope in Costa Rica and Atlantic versant in Panama, and on the Pacific slope in south-western Panama, from 1,810-1,920m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55432	habitat		It is found along torrential stream courses in primary humid lower montane forest throughout the year. Males are strongly territorial, with small home ranges. Eggs (clutches of 10-36) are deposited on leaf surfaces of low vegetation above streams; hatching tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below (Savage 2002).	eng
55432	population		Extensive monitoring has shown that this species has disappeared from its former range. It was formerly locally common in Tablas, Costa Rica, but has disappeared from all known sites since the early 1990s. In 2006, the Costa Rican portion of the species range was surveyed, however the species was not found (Joseph Vargas pers. comm. 2007). There is no information on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama, though this population has probably also declined seriously.	eng
55432	threats		The observed population decline is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis, since it has taken place within pristine habitats. Habitat loss as a result of smallholder livestock farming is also a threat.	eng
55433	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
55433	distribution		This species occurs only on the Pacific slopes of Andes in Ecuador from Carchi Province to Cotopaxi Province. It probably occurs a little more widely, including in extreme southern Colombia (J. Lynch pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
55433	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane cloud forests, but also in disturbed areas such as tree plantations, marshy clearings, artificial pools and water-filled roadside ditches. Individuals are sometimes founds in bromeliads and heliconias. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
55433	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55433	threats		It is an adaptable species, probably not facing any significant threats.	eng
55434	conservation		The species' entire range is protected within several protected areas. Maintenance and conservation of this habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is also needed, as it might be much larger than is currently known.	eng
55434	distribution		This species is known from Serra dos Órgãos, (Teresópolis, Petrópolis, Guapimirim and Mage), Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The true range of this species is most likely larger, in particular occurring between known sites. It has been recorded from around 1,750m asl.	eng
55434	habitat		This species is found on rocks along the edge of small montane streams in primary forest. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.	eng
55434	population		It is a common species.	eng
55434	threats		The habitat of this species is wholly within protected areas.	eng
55435	conservation		The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de Montecillos. Expanded protection of the montane forests of Honduras is necessary.	eng
55435	distribution		This species occurs in the Sierra de Opalaca and the Sierra de Montecillos, Montana de La Sierra, in south-west Honduras, at 1,800-2,160m asl.	eng
55435	habitat		It lives in arboreal bromeliads in lower montane moist forest, and breeds in ponds.	eng
55435	population		It is considered moderately common.	eng
55435	threats		The main threat to the species is deforestation primarily due to agricultural expansion (involving both crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.	eng
55436	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Puracé, and also Parque Nacional Natural Nevado del Huila. Taxonomic research is needed to confirm whether or not it is a synonym of a wider ranging species.	eng
55436	distribution		This species is found in the cloud forests on the eastern slope of the central Andes at altitudes of 2,400-2,850m asl, in the departments of Cauca and Huila (Belalcazar), in Colombia.	eng
55436	habitat		This inhabitant of Andean areas is found on vegetation or on the ground in forested areas near fast-flowing streams, not quite up to the altitude of the páramo alpine ecosystem. The eggs and larvae develop in water.	eng
55436	population		It is a common species.	eng
55436	threats		Localized threats to this species are water pollution and habitat loss due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
55437	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55437	distribution		This species from south-eastern Brazil ranges from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo to Juiz de Fora in the south-east of the state of Minas Gerais, from 70-800m asl.	eng
55437	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forests, and clearings inside forest, and is found on the border of small streams where it builds subterranean nests. The males call from underground, and the larvae develop in permanent streams.	eng
55437	population		It is common.	eng
55437	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, wood plantations, clear-cutting, fire and human settlement.	eng
55438	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area. Urgent restoration and protection of the remnants of cloud forest in the Sierra de Juárez is required. A field study is necessary to evaluate the population status of this species, and whether or not it still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55438	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, east of Oaxaca City, in south-eastern Mexico, at 2,640-2,890m asl.	eng
55438	habitat		This species is associated exclusively with pristine streams in cloud forests.	eng
55438	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55438	threats		This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The fragmentation and disturbance of the forest due to logging and other human activities, and the continuing desiccation of streams, has probably also contributed to the disappearance of this species.	eng
55439	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area, and the protection and/or restoration of the original habitat of this species is required. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species, and whether or not it survives in the wild; given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55439	distribution		This species occurs only in two locations, one on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Distrito de Pochutla, Oaxaca, Mexico (the type locality, at 2,160m asl), and one 7.5km south-east of Llano de Guadalupe, in north-west Oaxaca (2,850m asl).	eng
55439	habitat		This species was collected in pine-oak forest. It is believed to breed in small streams.	eng
55439	population		This species has only been collected twice, once in 1969 and again in 1993. Recent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful.	eng
55439	threats		A major threat is the loss of pine-oak forest habitat to logging and agriculture. It might also have been impacted by chytridiomycosis.	eng
55440	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55440	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Ribas do Rio Pardo, in Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, from 400m asl.	eng
55440	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds (in which it presumably breeds), in open areas.	eng
55440	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55440	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and the construction of dams.	eng
55441	conservation		Its range includes the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra del los Tuxtlas, but expanded protection of cloud forest habitat in this region is needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55441	distribution		This species is known from only three localities east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in northern Chiapas and eastern Oaxaca, Mexico. The type locality is at 1,690m asl.	eng
55441	habitat		It only inhabits high-elevation cloud forests with cascading mountain streams. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55441	population		This is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
55441	threats		Habitat loss due to logging represents the main threat to this species.	eng
55442	conservation		Urgent protection of the cloud and montane forest habitat of this species is required. An assessment of the population status of this species needs to be undertaken, particularly to determine whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55442	distribution		This species occurs from north-western Hidalgo to the south and west to northern Puebla, Mexico. It is found from 2,000-2,300m asl.	eng
55442	habitat		It is specifically associated with epiphytic vegetation (bromeliads) in cloud and evergreen montane forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
55442	population		This species is relatively common within its restricted range.	eng
55442	threats		The rapid rate of deforestation of the cloud and montane forests of Mexico is the main cause of the decline of this species and others. The disappearance of the forest results in the disappearance of streams and other water reservoirs where the species breeds. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus elsewhere.	eng
55443	conservation		The Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba probably protects the population, although the type locality is in a community land-use zone of the reserve. Broad-scale actions are necessary to deal with the threat of water pollution.	eng
55443	distribution		This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and is known from the type locality in Charazani and the nearby Pomasani River, in Huasawaico, Saavedra Province, in the department of La Paz (Aparicio 1999), Bolivia. There is an additional record from near Waleke, in Bautista Saavedra Province, Charazani Canton. The elevation range is 2,700-3,200m asl.	eng
55443	habitat		It is an aquatic and terrestrial species, inhabiting streams in the inter-Andean valleys (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is a stream breeder, and the larva is morphologically indistinguishable from larvae of <em>Hyloscirtus armatus sensu lato</em>, exhibiting stream adaptation through a robust body with strong tail musculature, enlarged oral disc, increased number of labial tooth rows, and complete marginal papillae (Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
55443	population		It is abundant at the type locality.	eng
55443	threats		The major threat to this species is water pollution: the only known population occurs in a stream used by the local communities living nearby (S. Reichle pers. comm.).	eng
55444	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas; as with many other montane cloud and pine-oak forest patches in Mexico, there is an urgent need for the protection of the forest remnants in the Chimalapas region.	eng
55444	distribution		This species is known only from the Chimalapas region that includes the Sierra Atravesada in south-eastern Oaxaca and adjacent Chiapas, Mexico, at 850-1500m asl.	eng
55444	habitat		This stream-breeding amphibian inhabits low or moderate altitude streams in cloud forest or dry pine-oak forest, and takes refuge in bromeliads.	eng
55444	population		It is known to be common.	eng
55444	threats		The main threat is deforestation resulting from logging, and the subsequent dessication of forest streams.	eng
55445	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in the region.	eng
55445	distribution		This species is found in central China including Taiwan, Province of China, from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
55445	habitat		It inhabits forest, cultivated fields, pools and the surrounding areas. It breeds in the pools.	eng
55445	population		It is a common species.	eng
55445	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.	eng
55446	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	The species is not known from any protected areas. This species is a priority for urgent survey work in order to determine whether or not it is still extant.	eng
55446	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This species occurs on the oriental slope of the Andes, and is known only from the type locality: "Parjacti, 83.2km by road north-eastern Cochabamba, on road to Villa Tunari, Chapare Province, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, elevation approximately 2,044m" (Reynolds and Foster 1992).	eng
55446	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is an arboreal forest species, reported in the Yungas forest (Reynolds and Foster 1992; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). There is no information on breeding, though it is likely to be a larval developer in water, like other species of the genus.	eng
55446	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	The population status of this species is not known, and it might be extinct. The areas surrounding the type locality have been well surveyed in recent years, but the species has not been recorded again since its original collection in the 1970s.	eng
55446	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	The quality of the species' habitat continues to decline due to agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
55447	conservation		Legal protection of the Natural Park in Guerrero is required since it is not in a biosphere reserve and currently lacks any management plan. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species; also, in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55447	distribution		This species occurs in Carrizal de Bravos, central-western Guerrero, Mexico. It is found from 2,340-2,600m asl.	eng
55447	habitat		It is associated with humid cool areas in wet pine-oak-fir cloud forest. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
55447	population		This is a very rare species.	eng
55447	threats		The disturbance and transformation of the species' forest habitat is the major threat, mainly as a result of logging and the continuing expansion of human settlements in the region. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55448	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
55448	distribution		This species' geographic range is not precisely determined, although it covers most of the southeastern and central USA and part of south-central Canada. It is sympatric with H. versicolor in south-central U.S. and Wisconsin area and perhaps many other areas as well. See Little <em>et al.</em> (1989) for information on distribution in West Virginia, southern Ohio, and southwestern Pennsylvania.	eng
55448	habitat		Its geographic range includes wooded areas and woodland edges (including woodlots in prairies), usually within a few hundred meters of water. It is often found in recently disturbed areas with abundant shrubs, herbaceous growth, and vines. It is an arboreal and terrestrial species. When inactive, it may hide in tree holes, under bark, under leaves, or under tree roots. In Tennessee, frogs associated with knothole cavities in trees in fall were not there after mid-November (Ritke and Babb 1991). Eggs are laid and larvae develop in temporary or permanent waters of flooded ditches, puddles, river sloughs, creeks, and small ponds, where there are woody branches or extensive herbaceous growth along the edges. Males call from water surface or from vegetation or ground near water. Individuals generally breed in the same site in successive years (Ritke <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
55448	population		Total adult population size is unknown but apparently common. It is probably relatively stable.	eng
55448	threats		It is not a threatened species.	eng
55449	conservation		No conservation measures are needed at present. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55449	distribution		This species occurs in the USA, from Delaware south to southern Florida along Coastal Plain, west to south-central Texas; north from Gulf Coast to southeastern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama; isolated population in south-central Missouri (Conant and Collins 1991). This species has been introduced into extreme northwestern Puerto Rico (Isabela-Aguadilla area), but it is not clear if it still survives there.	eng
55449	habitat		Swamps, marshes, and the edges of ponds, lakes, and streams, particularly where there is abundant floating and emergent vegetation. During daytime, rests among cattail blades or other leaves or shaded branches. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow, still water. Males call while perched on plants next to water (up to 5m above surface) or while sitting on floating plants. Larvae occur mainly in dense floating vegetation.	eng
55449	population		Total adult population size is unknown but it is apparently common, and is likely to be stable.	eng
55449	threats		There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55450	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55450	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of central Minas Gerais State in Brazil, above 900m asl.	eng
55450	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary streams (where it breeds) in forest and open areas.	eng
55450	population		It is common.	eng
55450	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat degradation due to smallholder livestock grazing, fire, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
55451	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55451	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	This species from the mountains of southeastern Brazil ranges in southern Rio de Janeiro and northeastern São Paulo States, and adjoining southeastern Minas Gerais (Napoli, 2005). Its altitudinal range is 800-1,200m asl.	eng
55451	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forests, and forest edge and clearings inside forest. It is usually found on vegetation in the forest and in clearings, near or away from streams. It breeds in streams where it constructs nests in mud.	eng
55451	population	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It is a common species, but has declined in some locations (Eterovick <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
55451	threats	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and human settlement. This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55452	conservation		The only known localities of this species are in protected areas: Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos, and Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina. However, it cannot now be located in these areas. Urgent surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species still survives.	eng
55452	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Mar at 800-1,200m asl in south-eastern Brazil in the states of Rio de Janeiro and extreme eastern São Paulo. Records from Parana State are incorrect, and records from Argentina have been assigned to <em>Hyla semiguttata</em>.	eng
55452	habitat		This frog is a species of primary and secondary forest, where the adults live in bromeliads, either epiphytic on trees or growing above or near the beds of swift, torrential brooks and streams. The larval stage lives in pools and basins in fast-flowing mountain streams and brooks, with stones or boulders in the stream-bed, surrounded by very turbulent water.	eng
55452	population		<em>Bokermannohyla claresignata</em> has not been recorded for 25 years, and extensive searches in recent years for this species in Rio de Janeiro have failed to locate it. The lack of records from São Paulo might be attributable to a lack of surveys. Difficulties in locating individuals might also be attributable to the species' preference for epiphytic bromeliads in tall, slender trees.	eng
55452	threats		This species appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and so the threats that it faces are not well understood. The apparent decline where suitable habitat remains is reminiscent of dramatic declines and disappearances in other montane stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as the cause of this.	eng
55453	conservation		Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina, where conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed.	eng
55453	distribution		This species is known from the Serra da Bocaina in São Paulo State, and also from Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, at altitudes above 200m asl.	eng
55453	habitat		The adults live in bromeliads on trees, near streams in primary forest. The larvae are specialized to live in swift mountain torrents.	eng
55453	population		There is no information regarding the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.	eng
55453	threats		At present, threats to this species are still relatively unknown.	eng
55454	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55454	distribution		This species from the Colombian Andes occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Central and eastern and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental (in the Departments of Cauca, Quindío, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca), at 950-2,300m asl.	eng
55454	habitat		It lives in disturbed areas that formerly supported cloud forest, and has not been found in closed forest. It is typically associated with open areas, especially where there are still waterbodies, such as small lakes, reservoirs, grassy marshes or pools, and natural and artificial wetlands. Some specimens have been found in Agave plants by day. It breeds in permanent ponds.	eng
55454	population		It is a common species.	eng
55454	threats		It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by water pollution resulting from aerial spraying.	eng
55455	conservation		It is known from several protected areas in Panama, and a single park in Costa Rica (Parque Internacional La Amistad). In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
55455	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of south-eastern Costa Rica to central Panama, from sea level to 1,116m asl, and also from the Pacific slopes of eastern Panama (Savage 2002). The possible presence of this species in Colombia adjacent to eastern Panama needs to be confirmed.	eng
55455	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest or humid lowland and montane forest, where it has been found along streams. The species breeds in swift streams; eggs are deposited under rocks, and larvae cling to rocks by means of an oral disk (Savage 2002).	eng
55455	population		Little is known about the population size or abundance of this species. It has disappeared from western Panama, including Reserva Forestal Fortuna (1996-97), and El Copé (2004); it is still present at low abundance in the Darien area (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). Remaining populations in central and eastern Panama are expected to severely decline in the near future (Karen Lips and Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). In Costa Rica, the species has not been recorded recently, however there has been little sampling effort in the range (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55455	threats		The declines in western Panama are probably due to chytridiomycosis (see Lips <em>et al</em>. 2006), and this is likely to be the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by the destruction of natural forests for the planting of crops, smallholder livestock ranching, and logging.	eng
55456	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, but the protection of the Sierra de Juárez and adjacent areas in northern Oaxaca is urgently required. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55456	distribution		This species is known from Cerro San Felipe, northern Oaxaca and So la de Vega and La Cofradia, central Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations from 1,540-2,650m asl and is currently known from only five localities. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
55456	habitat		From the limited information available, it appears that this frog inhabits and breeds in lower streams in montane cloud forest.	eng
55456	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55456	threats		Loss of the original montane forests on the slopes of northern Oaxaca due to agriculture, logging and human settlement is a major threat. Chytridiomycosis might be a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55457	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is present within numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55457	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species has two disjunctive populations. The first population ranges through Panama (Azuero Peninsula, central Panama and eastern lowlands), northern Colombia (Orinoco and Caribbean regions only), most of Venezuela and partially into northern Brazil, the islands of Trinidad and Tobago and throughout much of the Guianas. The second population is largely restricted to the Atlantic Forest region of Brazil. It is present at elevations of between 0-2,300m asl.	eng
55457	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species has a variety of habitats, ranging from humid tropical forests, semiarid environments, grasslands, llanos, intervening habitats, pastures and lower montane forests. It is an arboreal nocturnal species, found on leaves of trees, on shrubs and other vegetation near watercourses. The species breeds in temporary pools at the beginning of the rainy season. Specimens are occasionally also found on the ground. It is possible to find this species in severely degraded habitats including urban areas and human dwellings.	eng
55457	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55457	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no significant threats to this species. While there is significant population growth over much of the range of this species with resulting habitat loss (through infrastructure development and water pollution), much of this is localized. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55458	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55458	distribution		This species is known from the Cerrado of Central Brazil in the states of Goiás and Tocantins, from 1,500m asl.	eng
55458	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near permanent and temporary waterbodies in open areas, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55458	population		It is a common species.	eng
55458	threats		Logging and dam construction are threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55459	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2009	The protection and restoration of the original forest is necessary for the protection of this species and others inhabiting the cloud forests of the Sierra de Juárez. This species is considered "Threatened" by the Mexican government. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme.	eng
55459	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2009	This species occurs in Cerro Pelón and Cerro Humo Chico in the Sierra de Juárez, north-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico. It is currently known from only three localities. It is found from 2,640-2,670 m asl.	eng
55459	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2009	This species is known only from pristine forest, and requires the presence of low or moderate streams at high elevations in areas covered by cloud forest. It is likely to breed in streams.	eng
55459	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2009	This species used to be very conspicuous in its habitat. However, recent efforts to find individuals have been unsuccessful. It was last collected in 1980, and is possibly now extinct.	eng
55459	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2009	This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. The disturbance and clearance of the forest in the Sierra de Juárez has probably also contributed to its disappearance. The forest and stream at the type locality, however, appear to be healthy (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55460	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas, but the montane pine-oak forest habitats of Mexico in general are poorly protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether chytrid is a threat.	eng
55460	distribution		This species is known from the northern versant of the Sierra Juárez (at 1,600-2,180m asl), near the crest of the Sierra Juárez (Cerro Machín and Cerro San Felipe) (at 2,370 and 2,670m asl), and the Sierra Mixes (at 2,121-2,568m asl), Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
55460	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest at high elevations. Adults may be found close to forest streams or in arboreal bromeliads. The larvae have been found in pools in streams.	eng
55460	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55460	threats		It is presumably threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural land, and by logging. Chytridiomycosis may also pose a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream-dwelling amphibian, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55461	conservation		This species does not occur within a protected area, and protection of any remaining habitat for the species is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species, and whether or not it still survives at, or outside the vicinity of, the type locality.	eng
55461	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Campo Grande da Serra, and nearby Nova Manchester in São Paulo, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The type locality is between 600 and 800m asl.	eng
55461	habitat		Specimens were found on shrubs by the side of a brook at the type locality. There is no information on breeding habits, but reproduction might take place in streams.	eng
55461	population		This species is only known from a few specimens, and recent surveys in the area have not recorded it.	eng
55461	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development has destroyed the species' habitat at the type locality. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a threat.	eng
55462	conservation		This species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama, and two in Costa Rica. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55462	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica and western Panama (at 910-1,450m asl) and the Pacific slope of south-western Panama (at 1,200-1,400m asl) (Savage 2002).	eng
55462	habitat		An arboreal species of the lower reaches of cloud forest. It is associated with low dense vegetation overhanging small montane streams (less than 1m above the water). Tadpoles develop in these streams, adhering to rocks (Savage 2002).	eng
55462	population		It is now a rare species (Savage 2002). The Costa Rican population has declined dramatically, and it might now be extinct in this country. A dramatic decline was documented in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, in Panama, and the most recent record from this country is from the Bosque Protector Palo Seco, on the highlands of Bocas del Toro, in 1998.	eng
55462	threats		The decline in Costa Rica and in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Panama, is probably due to chytridiomycosis, and this is likely to be the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by habitat loss as a result of agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
55463	conservation	Gilda Andrade, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55463	distribution	Gilda Andrade, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	This species ranges very widely in northeastern and eastern Brazil from São Luis do Maranhão in the State of Maranhão, south to Ilha do Cardoso in the State of São Paulo. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55463	habitat	Gilda Andrade, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including open areas, pastureland, grassland, savannah, primary and secondary forest, coastal restinga scrubland. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies. It lays its eggs on tree leaves above the temporary and permanent waterbodies, and the larvae fall into the water to develop. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to March (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
55463	population	Gilda Andrade, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55463	threats	Gilda Andrade, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.	eng
55464	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to establish the relationship of this species to Hyla minuta. Its range includes Carrasco National Park.	eng
55464	distribution		This species is known from the foothills of the Andes and the northwestern Amazonian parts of Bolivia. It has been recorded from 180-700m asl.	eng
55464	habitat		It inhabits swamps and forest edges, where it also breeds. The eggs are attached to leaves, and tadpoles fall into the water below where they develop further. It is possibly adapted to some anthropogenic disturbance, but it does not occur in urban areas.	eng
55464	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55464	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present.	eng
55465	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the limits of its range, particularly to ascertain whether or not it might survive in forested areas outside the type locality. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55465	distribution		This species is known from a single female specimen collected in 1998 from the type locality: Quebrada Sancapech, Finca San Francisco, Huehuetenango department, Guatemala, at 1,270m asl. This locality is in the north-western portion of the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes.	eng
55465	habitat		It is recorded from cloud forest. There is no information on breeding, although closely related species breed by larval development in tree cavities and in bromeliads.	eng
55465	population		There is no information on current population status, and three subsequent trips to the type locality have not turned up any more individuals.	eng
55465	threats		Habitat loss is a threat to this species: it was found in the only small forest fragment in the area, which is surrounded by extensively cleared agricultural lands. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat, as other species of the genus have also declined in Guatemala due to the impacts of the disease.	eng
55466	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected area. Additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55466	distribution		This species is found on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental and associated ranges in Mexico. It is also found in central Veracruz and northern Oaxaca in Mexico. It occurs from 450-1,900m asl.	eng
55466	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest habitats. It breeds and takes refuge in bromeliads.	eng
55466	population		This has always been an uncommon species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1974. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55466	threats		This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. Deforestation and alteration of the cloud forest are probably also major threats, as it requires bromeliads in mature trees to survive.	eng
55467	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55467	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra do Navio, in the state of Amapá, in Brazil north of the Amazon Delta, and in neighbouring French Guiana. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl.	eng
55467	habitat		It occurs in the understorey vegetation of lowland tropical rainforest. Males call from above water (ponds and small rivulets), and the eggs are laid in the water, where the tadpoles also hatch and develop.	eng
55467	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55467	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
55468	conservation		It occurs in one protected area, the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, where work has been under way by The Nature Conservancy in conjunction with Fundación Natura and other partners to support the expansion of the existing reserve, as well as the the creation of a new public protected area.	eng
55468	distribution		This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental, in Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at 1,630-2,400m asl.	eng
55468	habitat		It lives in streams in cloud forests, and also in secondary forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
55468	population		It is known to be common, although there has been no survey work for this species since 1987.	eng
55468	threats		Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, represent the major threats to this species.	eng
55469	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica de Pedra Talhada in Alagoas State.	eng
55469	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil is known only from Areia Branca, in Sergipe State, and from the municipality of Quebrangulo in Alagoas State, from 160-360m asl. It almost certainly occurs more widely in north-eastern Brazil.	eng
55469	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forest. There is no information on its breeding habits, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
55469	population		There are only a few records of this species, and very little information is available concerning its population status.	eng
55469	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, wood extraction, fire, and human settlement.	eng
55470	conservation	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, John Lynch, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55470	distribution	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, John Lynch, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is found on the Caribbean and Gulf coasts of southern Mexico, south into Chiapas, northern Guatemala, and Belize. Further, south, the range is discontinuous with one or two localities in Honduras, several known localities in Nicaragua and then continuous from Costa Rica through Panama to Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Colombia, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands and on the western slopes on the Cordillera Occidental, as well as around northern edge of Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central to the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (in Santander Department). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
55470	habitat	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, John Lynch, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a species of humid tropical forest, including primary and secondary forest and forest edge, but also in heavily disturbed areas where most of the forest has been removed. The eggs are placed on leaves overhanging temporary (and sometimes permanent) pools; the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
55470	population	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, John Lynch, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat throughout its range, though is less common in Ecuador.	eng
55470	threats	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, John Lynch, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is very adaptable, and has been found in very open landscapes in Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55471	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and urgent protection of the cloud forest areas in Sierra de Juárez is recommended. A survey to determine whether or not this species is still extant in the wild is also required. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55471	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at around 2,000m asl on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juárez, in the vicinity of Vista Hermosa town, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
55471	habitat		This species is restricted to cloud forest, and is highly dependent on humid habitats and in particular, the vegetation along low streams as well as epiphytic plants that serve as a refuge. It is a stream-breeding species.	eng
55471	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1962. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55471	threats		This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. The disappearance or disturbance of the unique cloud forest environment, primarily through selective logging, at Sierra de Juárez, is also a serious threat to the survival of this species as well as many other amphibians, especially those associated with humid habitats.	eng
55472	conservation		It occurs in several reserves, including Serro do Tabuleiro State Park and Marumbi State Park.	eng
55472	distribution		This species occurs in Parana and Santa Catarina states, Brazil, at 300-1,100m asl.	eng
55472	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams in rainforests. It reproduces in small water-filled holes in the ground.	eng
55472	population		It is common and the population is stable within forest habitats.	eng
55472	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and water pollution are threats to this species.	eng
55473	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Cristina Arzabe, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55473	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Cristina Arzabe, 2008	This species from the Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Rio Grande do Norte, south to State of Paraná. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55473	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Cristina Arzabe, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in open areas (both natural and artificial habitats). It is usually on vegetation above and near the temporary and permanent small, still-waterbodies. It lays its eggs in water, where the larvae develop (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
55473	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Cristina Arzabe, 2008	It is an extremely common species.	eng
55473	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Cristina Arzabe, 2008	It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.	eng
55474	conservation		It is known to occur in at least one protected area (Parque Nacional do Pantanal).	eng
55474	distribution		This species occurs in the Cerrados of southwestern Brazil in the states of Mato Grosso do Sul and São Paulo. It possibly also occurs in adjacent Paraguay, but there are no records from there yet. It has been recorded around 800m asl.	eng
55474	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation in and surrounding temporary and permanent ponds, in open areas. It presumably breeds in ponds. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55474	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55474	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55475	conservation		The type locality is within a protected area.	eng
55475	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Veadeiros, in Goiás State, Brazil, from 1,200m asl.	eng
55475	habitat		It occurs in gallery forests along streams, in which it breeds.	eng
55475	population		It is a common species.	eng
55475	threats		Logging, mining and fires are major threats to its habitat.	eng
55476	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
55476	distribution		This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Oriental, from central Veracruz and south-east Puebla, southward to Oaxaca, the Valley of Oaxaca and the mountains south of the valley, in Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55476	habitat		It inhabits lowlands around the valley of Oaxaca where, for part of the year, it can congregate in flooded grassy fields or in the pine-oak and pine forests at higher altitudes. It requires the presence of bromeliads for refuge in the dry season. This species breeds in seasonal pools and streams.	eng
55476	population		It is a common species.	eng
55476	threats		At higher altitudes, forested areas are affected by infrastructure development for human settlement, which is degrading the habitat of this species.	eng
55477	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55477	distribution		This recently described species is known from two localities in the municipalities of São José da Vitória and Wenceslau Guimarães, in southern Bahia State, Brazil. The two known localities are at altitudes of 100-130m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the known sites.	eng
55477	habitat		It is primarily an inhabitant of tropical Atlantic rainforests. The two known sites are located in mountainous areas, receiving 1,500mm of rain annually. It can be found in primary forest with large trees and an abundance of epiphytes, but it has also been recorded from cocoa plantations adjacent to the forest. It is presumed that it breeds in temporary pools or permanent streams.	eng
55477	population		There is little information available on the population status of this species.	eng
55477	threats		The threats to this species are not known. Although it has been recorded from cocoa plantations, the long-term suitability of this habitat requires further investigation.	eng
55478	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The range of this species includes numerous protected areas.	eng
55478	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Durango and the Sierra Madre Oriental from southwestern Tamaulipas southward to the Cordillera Volcánica and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico. It is found at elevations of about 910-2,900m asl (Stebbins, 1985).	eng
55478	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It is found in mesquite-grassland, scrub forests and pine-oak forest. It has been recorded in bromeliads on pine trees (Duellman, 2001). It breeds in shallow pools, ponds, and slow moving streams. Egg masses are laid in loose clumps attached to vegetation in shallow water.	eng
55478	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	There are numerous secure populations of this species.	eng
55478	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55479	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55479	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species occurs in Misiones province, Argentina; Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Santa Catarina, São Paulo and Bahia states, Brazil, and in central, eastern and southern Oriental region, Paraguay, at 150-800m asl.	eng
55479	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It lives in tropical humid forests and at the edges of these forests. It reproduces by making nests in temporary and permanent pools (including artificial pools) and near slow-moving streams. In southeastern Brazil reproductive activity has been reported for the month of December, potentially also occurring in January (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).  It occurs in substantially altered habitats.	eng
55479	population	Esteban Lavilla, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is abundant throughout its range.	eng
55479	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Diego Baldo, 2008	Deforestation by clear cutting is a threat to this species, although it does adapt to selectively logged and second growth forest.	eng
55480	conservation		It is present in many protected natural areas in its range. In Peru, it occurs in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Reserva Comunal El Sira. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
55480	distribution		This species occurs in the Upper Amazon basin in the Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, at below 450m asl. It has not been recorded in Venezuela.	eng
55480	habitat		This nocturnal and arboreal frog is usually found throughout primary and secondary lowland and premontane tropical rainforest, and around forest ponds during the rainy season (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also. At Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, individuals were found in floodable forest and flooded forest (Mauritia flexuosa) on aquatic edges, shrubs, and branches of trees (Ron, 2001). It is also found in savannah ponds with low vegetation surrounding them.	eng
55480	population		It is common in much of its range and the population is stable.	eng
55480	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55481	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
55481	distribution		This species' geographic range is from Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plains, United States, from southern Virginia to eastern Louisiana, south to southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55481	habitat		It can be found in Pine flatwoods and savannahs and pine-turkey oak, usually near bogs or ponds. Occasionally it is found in hardwood forests and swamps. It is mostly arboreal, from low shrubs to high treetops. It hides under or in rotting logs, stumps, or snags during dry or cold weather. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded ditches and transient pools and ponds, occasionally in cypress swamps.	eng
55481	population		It is common to abundant in many areas.	eng
55481	threats		It is not threatened.	eng
55482	conservation		The species has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama, and in more than three protected areas within Costa Rica.	eng
55482	distribution		This species occurs on the slopes of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 750-1,900m asl (Savage 2002). It almost certainly occurs more widely than has been mapped, and is also probably found between known sites.	eng
55482	habitat		This is a nocturnal canopy species associated with primary humid premontane and lower montane forest. Breeding, egg deposition and larval development take place within tree-holes.	eng
55482	population		Because this is a high-canopy species, it is overlooked, and it is therefore hard to assess its population status.	eng
55482	threats		The main threat is general habitat loss as a result of deforestation due primarily to the clearing of land for livestock ranching.	eng
55483	conservation		This species' range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos, where maintenance and conservation of its habitat is needed. More research is also needed to aid its conservation, in particular to determine whether or not it still survives at the type locality.	eng
55483	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (Teresópolis) in Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The altitude of the type locality is about 1,500m asl.	eng
55483	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation at the edge of streams in montane primary forest. It presumably breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55483	population		The population status of this species is unknown, although it is known from only two specimens and it has not been found recently, so it is possible that it is extinct.	eng
55483	threats		There are several main threats facing this species. Although its known range is within a protected area, habitat degradation due to touristic activities is taking place within the area. There are also planned infrastructure developments for the park in which it occurs, and chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat.	eng
55484	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the limits of this species' range, its ecological requirements and its population status is needed.	eng
55484	distribution		This species is known only from about 40m asl from the vicinity of the type locality, which is Powakka , Suriname District, Suriname (Goin and Goin 1968).	eng
55484	habitat		The specimens were found in riverine forest along streams in moist savannah. There is no information about its breeding habits, though breeding might take place in streams.	eng
55484	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens. It has not been recorded since the 1970s but there might not have been sampling of the area since then.	eng
55484	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55485	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area.	eng
55485	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, Boyacá Department, Colombia, at 2,000-2,020m asl.	eng
55485	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, and temporary pools.	eng
55485	population		It is abundant, with many recent records. The population appears to be increasing.	eng
55485	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55486	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' ecological requirements is needed.	eng
55486	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Sinnamary, French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001), and from several localities in the coastal savannah belt in Suriname. A dot-map of the species' distribution is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 40m asl.	eng
55486	habitat		The species is found in savannah around temporary ponds created in the wet season. It can be found on bushes and in the grass. There is no information on breeding, but it most likely breeds in the ponds.	eng
55486	population		It is an abundant species that is easy to find in the breeding season.	eng
55486	threats		It does not appear to be threatened and seems to be unaffected by nomadic livestock farming.	eng
55487	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is present in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
55487	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs in tropical South America, east of the Andes, in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad island (Trinidad and Tobago), the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Amazonian Brazil. It is generally found below 500m asl, but in Ecuador it occurs at up to 1,200m asl.	eng
55487	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This nocturnal treefrog is found in trees and on branches along streams, open ponds, lakes and in gaps in primary forest (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It also occurs in flooded savannahs. Specimens can be found in disturbed areas such as gravel pits. In Brazil, it also occurs in Pantanal and Cerrado habitats. Reproduction takes place in permanent waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles, which are toxic to fish, develop in the water as well.	eng
55487	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is abundant throughout most of its range.	eng
55487	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55488	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55488	distribution		This species is endemic to southeastern Brazil, in the States of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55488	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary forest, but is not found in open areas. It sits on herbaceous vegetation above waterbodies, and breeds mainly in permanent, and sometimes temporary, still water. The eggs are laid on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
55488	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
55488	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, clear-cutting, fire, tourism, and human settlement.	eng
55489	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and habitat preservation and restoration is required. It is listed as "Threatened" by the Mexican government.	eng
55489	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species is known from north-eastern and western Querétaro, north-eastern Puebla and adjacent Veracruz, south to south-central Veracruz, in Mexico.	eng
55489	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It inhabits montane forest, and breeding takes place in temporary streams.	eng
55489	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It is not common.	eng
55489	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Conversion of forest to agricultural land has resulted in the disappearance of the original habitat of this species. The mesic montane forest is one of the most heavily impacted environments in Mexico. Pollution from mining is also degrading the quality of the species' habitat.	eng
55490	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55490	distribution		This species is known from the central plateau of Goiás and the Federal District and southeastern Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It has been recorded from 600-1,100m asl.	eng
55490	habitat		It occurs in small streams in gallery forests, where they also breed. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55490	population		It is a common species.	eng
55490	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55491	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, although conservation and maintenance of its habitat are needed.	eng
55491	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Parque Nacional do Itatiaia (Brejo da Lapa, Alto Itatiaia) on the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil, from 1,800-2,400m asl. This is a poorly sampled species that might occur somewhat more widely.	eng
55491	habitat		It has been recorded from montane secondary forest and shrubland, and also from farmland. It breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55491	population		It is fairly common.	eng
55491	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and agricultural encroachment.	eng
55492	conservation		It is recorded as having been present in a number of protected areas including: Parque Nacional Santa Fe, Parque Internacional La Amistad, and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. This species is an urgent priority for survey work, in order to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55492	distribution		This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central of Panama at elevations of 1,120-1,650m asl on both sides of the continental divide in the western part of the Serranía de Tabasará and on the Pacific slopes of the eastern part of the Cordillera de Talamanca. It has not been recorded from Costa Rica, but may be present in this country.	eng
55492	habitat		It is an arboreal species that inhabits humid montane forest, small ponds, puddles, and low-gradient streams. Breeding occurs in these aquatic habitats.	eng
55492	population		The population of this species has declined seriously. It is not certain that any populations now survive, and the species could be extinct.	eng
55492	threats		Infection by the chytrid pathogen was recorded by Lips (1999) at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, in Chiriquí, and this is probably the most serious threat to the species. It is probably also impacted by habitat loss caused by the destruction of natural forests.	eng
55493	conservation		More taxonomic research is desirable as the type specimen might prove to be a juvenile of another species.	eng
55493	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "in the forest at Mazaruni, British Guiana" (Goin 1966). The exact locality is unknown, and so no map has been drawn for this assessment.	eng
55493	habitat		It presumably inhabits lowland forest and breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55493	population		There is nothing known about the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.	eng
55493	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown. However, the type locality is within an undisturbed isolated region of forest.	eng
55494	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The distribution range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
55494	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs in the Guianas, in the Amazon Basin in Brazil (except in savannah enclaves), Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is generally found below 500m, but it can be found at up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55494	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This nocturnal and arboreal hylid frog is found in natural and secondary tropical rainforests, and in clearings. Males call from leaves on vegetation along watercourses, a few cm above water level. Reproduction takes place in permanent and temporary waterbodies. It is rarely observed far from forest ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in floodable forests, open areas and Terra Firme Forests (Ron, 2001).	eng
55494	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is common throughout its range.	eng
55494	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55495	conservation		Habitat protection and population monitoring needed.	eng
55495	distribution		This species occurs in the USA on the Coastal Plain and some upland areas from North Carolina to southern Florida, west to Louisiana, including northern Mississippi (Keiser, 1992, Herpetol. Rev. 23:86); disjunctive populations occur in Delaware and adjacent Maryland, southwestern Kentucky and adjacent Tennessee, and in southeastern Virginia; introduced and probably now extirpated in southern New Jersey (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55495	habitat		This species? habitat is sandy areas in pine savannahs and in low wet woods and swamps (e.g., willow oak-blackgum, cypress swamps). When inactive during cold or dry season, it burrows under tree roots, vegetation, or in soil; otherwise mostly arboreal and thus dependent on trees near water. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow water of ponds, swamps, and bayheads; in Virginia, breeding sites were temporary ponds dominated by graminoids, beneath open canopies (Mitchell 1991). Reproduction is more successful in semi-permanent ponds due to the absence of predatory fishes. In some areas, deep ponds, such as Carolina Bays and borrow pits, are preferred breeding sites.	eng
55495	population		Overall, trend is unknown but likely relatively stable. In Florida, declines might have occurred in altered habitats and in areas subject to excessive collecting (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
55495	threats		It is secure in the major portion of the range, less so in peripheral areas. In some areas, (e.g., Virginia) they are threatened by the conversion of native pine habitat to high-density monocultures of loblolly pine (Mitchell 1991). In Florida, habitat alteration and collecting for the pet trade are threats of unknown magnitude (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
55496	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for protection of remaining lowland forest habitat in this part of Ecuador.	eng
55496	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of north-western Ecuador, from 200-500m asl. It is known from three localities, but with further sampling is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55496	habitat		This is originally a lowland forest species. However, specimens have been collected at a large duckweed-covered pond in a banana plantation outside forest; a few individuals were calling from bushes at the edge of the water, while others were found on grasses overhanging shallow muddy pools (Duellman 1973). It breeds in ponds, and probably deposits its eggs in the water.	eng
55496	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55496	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, and much of the natural vegetation within its range has been cleared. While its occurrence in banana plantations may suggest that the species can survive in altered habitats, farming practices have changed radically over the last 20 years, especially with the use of pesticides, and cultivation that is more intensive. The soil is very fertile, and banana plantations do very well; however, these plantations are increasingly intensively managed and the use of pesticides poses an increasing threat.	eng
55497	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area, but it is able to live in agricultural areas.	eng
55497	distribution		This species occurs in coastal southeastern Brazil, in Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina states, at 0-200m asl.	eng
55497	habitat		It was presumably originally a forest species. However, it adapts well to rice fields and other agricultural habitats. It occurs in vegetation surrounding seasonal and permanent pools. It reproduces in water.	eng
55497	population		It is very common and the population is stable.	eng
55497	threats		Water pollution is possibly a threat to this species.	eng
55498	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55498	distribution		This species occurs in coastal eastern Brazil in the States of Espírito Santo and Bahia. It is possibly more widespread. It ranges up to 650m asl.	eng
55498	habitat		It occurs in coastal rainforest and in scrubby coastal "restinga" vegetation, as well as in gardens, farmland, and towns. It has been observed on vegetation around permanent ponds, where it breeds.	eng
55498	population		It is a common species.	eng
55498	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.	eng
55499	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
55499	distribution		This Japanese endemic species is distributed in Ryukyu Archipelago including Kikaijima, Amamioshima, Kakeromajima, Yoron Island, Ukejima, Tokunoshima, and Okinawajima.	eng
55499	habitat		This species occurs in wet areas, including marshlands and pools, in both grassland and forest, often close to human habitation. It can be found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by larval development in temporary pools and rice paddies.	eng
55499	population		It is a common species, though there are some localized declines where habitat is lost.	eng
55499	threats		There are no known significant threats to this species.	eng
55500	conservation		Conservation units are present within its Brazilian range. Possibly, present in the Peruvian protected areas of the Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Tamshiyacu Reserved Zone.	eng
55500	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Peru (Department of Loreto) and Rio Solimões, Rio Juruá and Rio Purus, Brazil. It is found at elevations up to 300m asl.	eng
55500	habitat		A little-known species, it is generally found in the understorey vegetation of tropical moist forest. It may be present close to open ponds and large streams. It is presumed that the eggs are deposited in water and the tadpoles then develop.	eng
55500	population		The population status is not known.	eng
55500	threats		No major threats, this is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture and selective logging.	eng
55501	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected area, and the implementation of a conservation strategy in the Sierra de Juárez is urgent. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine whether or not it survives in the wild; in view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55501	distribution		This species is found in Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca City, and Cerro San Felipe and Cerro Machin, Oaxaca, Mexico. It is also recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur (Puerto del Gallo) in south-western Guerrero and Oaxaca. It is known from elevations of 2,200-2,865m asl. With increased survey work, it is quite likely to be found elsewhere, especially in intervening areas between known sites.	eng
55501	habitat		This stream-breeding species occurs only in pine-oak forest at high elevations. It shows a close affinity to slow streams and small bushes.	eng
55501	population		This was never a common species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys at known sites to locate it have been unsuccessful.	eng
55501	threats		This species has disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis. Logging of the original pine-oak forest at Sierra de Juárez is also a major threat to this species.	eng
55502	conservation		It is known from several protected areas, including Reserva Científica Natural de Valle Nuevo, although most are in need of improved management.	eng
55502	distribution		This species occurs throughout much of Hispaniola, from sea level up to 1,856m asl, although populations are extremely fragmented.	eng
55502	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian found only in fast-flowing mountain streams in mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from rocks or low vegetation near and in water.	eng
55502	population		This species is believed to have undergone a decline in recent years, and during the course of recent surveys in Haiti was found to be absent from a number of streams (B. Hedges pers. comm.). In the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic, it appears to persist in appropriate habitat at many localities (based on field observations from 1998-2000; M. Hernandez pers. comm.).	eng
55502	threats		Due to the fact that it is a mountain stream-dweller, it is more sensitive to habitat destruction than many other species. In Haiti, severe degradation of streams has already significantly altered its breeding habitat. Mining is a threat in some areas in the Dominican Republic as is infrastructure development.	eng
55503	conservation		More taxonomic research is desirable as this might prove to be a juvenile of another species.	eng
55503	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality in Guyana of "valley of the Demerara River, British Guiana" (Ruthven 1919). The exact location is not known and hence no distribution map can be drawn for this assessment.	eng
55503	habitat		The region of the type locality is lowland tropical rainforest. There is no information regarding this species' breeding habits, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55503	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only one specimen.	eng
55503	threats		The major threats it faces are unknown. However, the region of the type locality is within an undisturbed, isolated region of forest.	eng
55504	conservation		The Venezuelan populations of this species are probably protected in the Sierra de la Neblina National Park. It occurs in protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55504	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Colombia in the departments of Amazonas, Vaupes and Irinida, and from extreme southern Amazonas state in Venezuela. It presumably occurs in intervening parts of Amazonian Brasil, and is mapped as doing so, although there are not yet any confirmed records. It is a lowland species recorded from around 200m.	eng
55504	habitat		It is an arboreal, nocturnal species of primary and secondary lowland moist forest, always associated with streams, and not occurring in open habitats. It breeds in large streams.	eng
55504	population		It is a common species.	eng
55504	threats		Apart from the local impacts of mining, it is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
55505	conservation	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It occurs in El Pure National Park and Caparu Biological Station.	eng
55505	distribution	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	This species occurs in southeastern Colombia in the departments of Amazonas, Caquetá, and Vaupés (Lynch, 2008), at 100-200m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl.). It almost certainly occurs much more widely, including in neighbouring Brazil.	eng
55505	habitat	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It lives in lowland rainforests where it occurs on the vegetation. It lays eggs in slow-moving streams, and the larvae develop there also.	eng
55505	population	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It is uncommon, but it was collected in 2002.	eng
55505	threats	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	This species is threatened mostly only in the southern part of its range, by habitat destruction caused by the expansion of cattle ranching activities.	eng
55506	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Dante Pavan, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55506	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Dante Pavan, 2004	This species from the Atlantic forests of coastal southeastern Brazil occurs from the State of Rio de Janeiro, south to the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m.asl.	eng
55506	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Dante Pavan, 2004	It lives in primary and old secondary forest along streams, and is not found in open habitats. It is usually found on the ground or on low vegetation near forest streams. It breeds in streams.	eng
55506	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Dante Pavan, 2004	It is reasonably common, but is not abundant.	eng
55506	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Dante Pavan, 2004	Some major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55507	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55507	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Pebas, Ecuador" (Cope 1871), Loreto Department, Peru. The holotype has been lost, and the description cannot be equated with any living species. The type locality is too vague (it might be Pebas Real) so the range of this species has not been mapped in this assessment.	eng
55507	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to breed by larval development in water.	eng
55507	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55507	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
55508	conservation		It has been collected in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, the Parque Nacional Pau Brasil, the Parque Nacional Descobrimento and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Ecoparque de Una.	eng
55508	distribution		This species is known from southern and eastern Bahia State and a single site in the Municipio de Minas Novas, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is approximately 90-300m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55508	habitat		This species is known from both late secondary tropical forest, with small streams and deep leaf-litter. Males are found vocalising under (or mostly) the leaf-litter, but exceptionally call from leaves and bushes above streams. Females are found on leaves above the margins of streams. It is presumed that reproduction takes place in the backwaters of these fast flowing streams. Many of the specimens were observed in secondary forest in fazendas (farms).	eng
55508	population		There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
55508	threats		The threats to this species are not known. It appears to tolerate a degree of habitat modification.	eng
55509	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.	eng
55509	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Alpinópolis, and from the immediate vicinity, in the Serra da Canastra, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. This is a poorly sampled region for amphibians, so it might occur more widely.	eng
55509	habitat		It occurs in rocky habitats in savannah, on stones or trees near small waterfalls of permanent streams. There is no information regarding its breeding habits, but it is likely to breed by larval development in steams.	eng
55509	population		There is no information regarding its population status.	eng
55509	threats		Potential threats to this species include habitat degradation due to agricultural development and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism, and also fires.	eng
55510	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, where conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required.	eng
55510	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, where it has been recorded from about 1,500m asl.	eng
55510	habitat		It occurs in primary and old secondary gallery forests, on the ground or in leaf-litter near water. It breeds in permanent streams. It has only been recorded from a protected area, so its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
55510	population		This is a fairly common species.	eng
55510	threats		Habitat degradation due to touristic activities can be a threat to this species.	eng
55511	conservation		There are protected areas within its range.	eng
55511	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Lago Codajás, situated north of the main stream of the Amazon between Manaus and Teffé in Amazonas State, Brazil.	eng
55511	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a lowland rainforest species that breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55511	population		Its population status is unknown, and there have been no records since it was discovered.	eng
55511	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55512	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55512	distribution		This species is widespread over much of central, eastern, and northeastern China. This is largely a lowland species.	eng
55512	habitat		This species inhabits mixed and deciduous broadleaved forests, bushlands, meadows, swamps, paddy fields, ponds and the surrounding vegetation. It can be found along the banks of rivers, streams and lakes. Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant ponds, puddles, oxbow lakes, flooded quarries and lakes with dense herbaceous vegetation.The species is presumed to tolerate some degree of habitat modification.	eng
55512	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
55512	threats		The species is threatened locally by pollution (often from agrochemical use) and by habitat loss to increasing urbanization.	eng
55513	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55513	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Santarém, in Pará State, Brazil.	eng
55513	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to be a lowland rainforest species that breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55513	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last collected over 100 years ago.	eng
55513	threats		There is no direct information on the major threats to this species.	eng
55514	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from a protected area (Bosque Protector de Palo Seco).	eng
55514	distribution		This species is a Panamanian endemic, known only from Río Changena, in Bocas del Toro Province at altitudes of 830-910m asl on the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Talamanca, not far from the border with Costa Rica. It might occur more widely.	eng
55514	habitat		This is an arboreal species that inhabits humid montane forest where there is high rain fall throughout the year. It breeds in forest ponds.	eng
55514	population		There is little information on its population status, since little work was undertaken on this species while it was considered to be a subspecies of <em>Hyla pseudopuma</em>. It is known only from a single locality where 48 specimens were collected. If its population status is similar to that of <em>H. pseudopuma</em>, it can be expected to be common.	eng
55514	threats		The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through the destruction of forests as a result of logging and agricultural development.	eng
55515	conservation		It is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
55515	distribution		The known range of this species is currently restricted to the summit of Cerro Marahuaca (03° 40'N; 65° 27'W), at 2,600m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, although it might occur more widely.	eng
55515	habitat		It inhabits high, montane tepui habitat such as shrubs and forest. The larvae live in fast-moving streams, and are highly adapted to this environment.	eng
55515	population		It is a common species.	eng
55515	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
55516	conservation		The range of this species is known to be within Texiguat Wildlife Refuge. Maintenance of existing tracts of remaining habitat is an important conservation measure for this species.	eng
55516	distribution		This species is found in the extreme west of the Sierra Nombre de Dios, La Fortuna village, between the Departamentos of Yoro and Atlantica, north-central Honduras. The type locality is at 1,550m asl.	eng
55516	habitat		This species is found on the ground and on low vegetation along streams, in lower montane wet forest. It lays its eggs in patches of moss in trees overhanging streams; when the eggs hatch the tadpoles fall in to the stream.	eng
55516	population		This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.	eng
55516	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and logging. This frog is very dependent on pristine habitat as it depends on sufficient humidity for moss for breeding in the trees.	eng
55517	conservation	Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy and Switzerland. It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
55517	distribution	Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is largely restricted to mainland Italy and the island of Sicily (Italy); smaller populations are present on the edge of its range in southern Switzerland and western Slovenia (a single site on the Italian border). The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to at least 1,855m asl.	eng
55517	habitat	Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is usually associated with lowland woodland and forest; also found in some wetland habitats (e.g. reedbeds). It breeds in standing waters (lakes, small stagnant ponds, water tanks). The species is sometimes found in modified habitats (e.g. rice fields).	eng
55517	population	Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is still quite abundant in Italy, although populations have declined in some alpine valleys.	eng
55517	threats	Franco Andreone, Benedikt Schmidt, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is potentially threatened by local habitat loss to urbanization and water pollution (presumably by agrochemicals). But overall, it is not seriously threatened.	eng
55518	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada, Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Guaramacal.	eng
55518	distribution		This species is known from the Andes of Venezuela, in the states of Mérida and Trujillo. It has been recorded from 1,800-3,000m asl. Records from Sierra del Turimiquire, in Sucre and Monagas States, are misidentifications.	eng
55518	habitat		It is found alongside streams in cloud forests. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging water, and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below.	eng
55518	population		It was formerly considered to be an uncommon species, and it t is possible that it is decreasing in some places due to habitat loss. However, in some places like Monte Zerpa, north of the city of Mérida, this frog has replaced a formerly abundant species (<em>Hyla platydactyla</em>) that has undergone serious declines.	eng
55518	threats		The major threat to this species’ habitat is agricultural development, involving both cultivation of crops and livestock grazing. Predation by introduced trout is also a problem.	eng
55519	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of Buryatia and the Evreiskaya Autonomous Province of Russia.	eng
55519	distribution		This species is widespread in Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands), central, northern and northeastern China, it is found throughout both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea, present in northern Mongolia and the southern Russian Far East.	eng
55519	habitat		This species inhabits mixed and deciduous broadleaved forests, forest steppes, bush lands, meadows, swamps, paddy fields, ponds, and the surrounding vegetation. It is often found along the banks of rivers, streams, and lakes. Spawning and larval development takes place in stagnant ponds, puddles, oxbow lakes, flooded quarries, and lakes with dense herbaceous vegetation. The eggs are sometimes deposited in river and stream pools. The species tolerates some degree of habitat modification, and may even be found in large cities.	eng
55519	population		This species is common throughout and is only rare and sporadically distributed in the area of Lake Baikal and Mongolia.	eng
55519	threats		The threats to this species are not well known, but are presumed to include general habitat loss, (often from changes in land use such as conversion of paddy fields to vegetable farming), pollution and prolonged drought in arid areas.	eng
55520	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55520	distribution		This species occurs only in the Cerrado biome in the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, in Brazil. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55520	habitat		It occurs on the upper parts of low vegetation, and inhabits springs, streams, and marshes, where it also breeds. It also adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55520	population		It is a common species.	eng
55520	threats		Logging and dam construction are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55521	conservation		It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55521	distribution		This species is known only from the town of Cobija (11° 00' 45''S; 68° 45' 27''W), at 250m asl, in Nicolas Suarez Province, Pando Department, extreme northern Bolivia (close to the border with Peru), and from Riberalta, in Beni Province, Bolivia. It is likely to have a much wider distribution in Bolivia and neighbouring Peru.	eng
55521	habitat		This is apparently not a forest species, and it has been found in open habitats with tall grass around small ponds and roadside ditches. It is probably well adapted to anthropogenic disturbance, and presumably breeds in ponds and ditches.	eng
55521	population		It is common at Cobija, although it is hard to find in certain seasons.	eng
55521	threats		Since it is an adaptable species it is not likely to be facing any particular threats at present.	eng
55522	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55522	distribution		This species occurs in the open grasslands of the Serra Geral, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil, at 900-1,730m asl.	eng
55522	habitat		It occurs in open grasslands and streams and reproduces in fast-flowing streams in open areas or along forest edges. Males have been observed perched on vegetation along the edge of pools, waterfalls and torrents.	eng
55522	population		It is abundant and the population is stable.	eng
55522	threats		Water pollution is a potential threat to this species.	eng
55523	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. The Government of Mexico considers it "Threatened" (Amenazada). Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55523	distribution		This species is known from two disjunct populations: one in San Vicente de Benitez, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, and the other in San Gabriel Mixtepec, Oaxaca, also in the Sierra Madre del Sur, south-western Mexico. It is found at elevations of 750-1,080m asl in Guerrero, and at elevations of 580-1,530m asl in Oaxaca. It might occur more widely.	eng
55523	habitat		This species only inhabits montane forest at moderate elevations. It breeds in temporary streams.	eng
55523	population		This species is not common. Recent surveys suggest that it has undergone a decline in numbers.	eng
55523	threats		The destruction and degradation of the original forest cover (mainly due to logging) in Guerrero, is the major threat to this species, and most of the localities where the species occurs have been severely impacted by human activities. Recently documented declines might be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55524	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements, and population status is needed.	eng
55524	distribution		This species is known from Mount Kanaima, Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna, west-central Guyana. It has been recorded between 800-1,500m asl.	eng
55524	habitat		It inhabits upland forest, and it has been observed along streams, and away from streams. There is no available information about breeding habits, though reproduction is likely to take place in streams.	eng
55524	population		It can be a locally abundant species.	eng
55524	threats		There are no known threats and the species known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.	eng
55525	conservation		It is possible that it occurs in El Pure National Park. Surveys are needed to establish its range.	eng
55525	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and one other location; it is known from lowland rainforest near Timbo, Vaupés department, Colombia, and at Tarapaca/Leticia, Amazonas department, Colombia, at 170m asl (J. Lynch, unpubl. data).	eng
55525	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest where it occurs in the vegetation. It is an arboreal and nocturnal species. Its reproductive sites are unknown, but breeding is likely to take place in water.	eng
55525	population		Few specimens of this species are known, but it was collected in Tarapaca in 2002.	eng
55525	threats		Both localities where this species is confirmed are threatened by habitat destruction caused by expanding cattle ranching activities. However, a large area of undisturbed forest occurs between these points where this species is also likely to occur.	eng
55526	conservation		This species is known to occur in Tambopata National Reserve, and given its known habitat and geographical distribution, it might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Peru.	eng
55526	distribution		This species is present throughout much of Amazonian Peru, including northern Departamento Loreto to the Iquitos area, through to the southeastern areas adjacent to the rivers Tambopata and Manu (Departamento Madre de Dios). It is also known from the vicinity of the Jurua river, Amazonas, Brazil, and a recent record from close to Parque Nacional Madidi, Bolivia. Its elevation is from 200-280m asl.	eng
55526	habitat		Generally, it is present in the understorey vegetation of humid tropical forest. Breeding congregations assemble near pools, egg deposition site not known; larvae develop in the temporary ponds. It is not known if the species can occur in secondary or modified habitats.	eng
55526	population		This is an abundant species. Duellman and Trueb (1989) stated that based on the number of individuals observed in breeding congregations, H. koechlini would be among the most abundant anurans at Cusco Amazonico. Later, Duellman (1995) found Hyla koechlini to be the most abundant species of frog at Cusco Amazonico. It is also common in the Tambopata National Reserve (A. Angulo pers. obs.).	eng
55526	threats		Present in a well conserved region with few threats.	eng
55527	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, so the protection of the unique habitat of this species is recommended, especially since several other threatened species are also found in this area.	eng
55527	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at San Vicente Lachixio, Sola de Vega District, in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,200m asl.	eng
55527	habitat		It inhabits dry pine-oak forest, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55527	population		Only one specimen has ever been collected of this species, which is thought to be rare.	eng
55527	threats		The main threat to this species is logging of the area by local people.	eng
55528	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
55528	distribution		This species is known from the Andes of central and northeastern Colombia in the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca, Santander, and Norte de Santander. It has been recorded from 1,600-3,600m asl.	eng
55528	habitat		It inhabits páramo, ponds, pasture (including artificial), urban zones, and gardens. It presumably breeds in ponds.	eng
55528	population		It is an abundant and extremely common species.	eng
55528	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species. It is used for experiments in universities for teaching purposes, but this is not considered a threat.	eng
55529	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a protected area (Parque Internacional La Amistad) in Panama. It does not occur in any protected areas within Costa Rica.	eng
55529	distribution		This species is found on humid premontane slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 368-1,200m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
55529	habitat		This is a nocturnal tree frog of humid lowland and montane forest characterized by rainfall throughout the year. This species can also be found in modified habitats (with some trees) such as pastureland. Eggs are deposited in pools within streams; the larvae develop in these pools.	eng
55529	population		This species is abundant in Costa Rica. There is no information available on the abundance of this species in Panama.	eng
55529	threats		There is some general habitat loss through deforestation.	eng
55530	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
55530	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs in the upper Amazon basin in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Amazonas, Barinas, Miranda, and Táchira states. It might be more common than might be expected from published records, extending along the flanks of the lowland versants of the Cordillera de Mérida from Táchira to Miranda states. It occurs at up to 1,500m asl.	eng
55530	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This nocturnal and arboreal species is usually found perching on shrubs and low trees along lagoons, pools, and streams and in rivers, in tropical humid forests. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also. It is also associated with open and disturbed habitats (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in open areas and floodable forests (Ron, 2001).<br/>The species is very adaptable and occurs commonly in sites of severe intervention (Lynch, 2006).	eng
55530	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is common throughout much of its range.	eng
55530	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55531	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55531	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	This species is known only from the Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes. In Colombia it occurs patchily in the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central, and on the eastern slope of the Nudo del Pasto (in the departments of Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, Quindio and Tolima). In northern Ecuador it is known only from a small area in Carchi and Imbabura Provinces. Its altitudinal range is 1,950-3,100m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55531	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	It lives on vegetation (including in bromeliads and on branches) in primary and secondary forests next to water sources (usually streams). It has been found in a small, wooded ravine in otherwise cleared pastureland, and breeds in slow-moving streams.	eng
55531	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	Although patchily distributed, it is common where found.	eng
55531	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Juan Manuel Renjifo, 2008	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55532	conservation		It might occur in the El Tama National Park in both Colombia and Venezuela, but its presence there has not been confirmed.	eng
55532	distribution		This species ranges from the headwaters of Tachira River in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, in the Department of Norte de Santander, Colombia, east along the northwestern slopes of the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela in Táchira and Mérida States. Its known altitudinal range is 1,250-1,700m asl.	eng
55532	habitat		It is a species of semi-deciduous montane forests, and it has been found singing from puddles in the middle of a road in a very disturbed area. It breeds in streams.	eng
55532	population		There is little information on abundance, due to lack of survey work, but it has been seen as recently as 1995. There is just one Colombian record. This species was listed by Vial and Saylor (1993) as having experienced population declines, but there is no evidence to support to this point or view, and the locality given ("Sierra del Turimiquire, Sucre/Monagas") is clearly in error. In 2001 it was reportedly found without difficulty in brooks of cloud forest (Barrio Amorós, 2001).	eng
55532	threats		It is not obviously threatened, since it has been found in degraded habitats. Almost all of its populations are in places without protection that have been much affected by coffee plantations.	eng
55533	conservation		It is present in many protected areas in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia.	eng
55533	distribution		This species is found throughout much of the upper Amazon basin in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. Its elevation is below 450m asl.	eng
55533	habitat		Generally, it is found on leaves and branches in lowland primary and secondary tropical moist forest, riverine forests, and degraded areas. It breeds in temporary or semipermanent ponds (Rodriguez and Duellman, 1994) .	eng
55533	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55533	threats		Because of the large areas of suitable habitat available to this species, there are no major threats. outside protected areas, there is some localized habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture.	eng
55534	conservation		Some populations are protected within Canaima National Park.	eng
55534	distribution		This species is known from the region of La Escalera and Cerro Roraima, in Bolívar state, Venezuela to western Guyana (Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna). It has been recorded from 600-1,400m asl.	eng
55534	habitat		It has been seen calling from boulders in, and leaves, branches, and a log above a cascading stream. It is also found in open areas with fringe vegetation and in waters that are very stagnant. Some specimens have been found on trees up to 3 metres above the water in gallery forest. The eggs are usually deposited on vegetation overhanging the streams, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop further.	eng
55534	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55534	threats		Fire is a localized threat, but this species occurs in a region of limited human impact so there are no major threats overall at present.	eng
55535	conservation		It occurs in several parks and protected areas.	eng
55535	distribution		This species occurs on the Araucaria plateau; Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná and Santa Catarina states; Brazil; at 800-1,100m asl.	eng
55535	habitat		It occurs in open savannah, and it is absent from closed-canopy forest. It is mainly found in the backwaters of small streams, and in the seasonal and permanent pools where it reproduces.	eng
55535	population		It is abundant and the population is stable.	eng
55535	threats		Water pollution is a localised threat to this species. It is, however, fairly adaptable to habitat disturbance and very good at dispersing.	eng
55536	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55536	distribution		This species is known from two sites in Mato Grosso State (Aripuanã and Apiacás) and a single location in Rondônia State (Nova Colina), Brazil. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55536	habitat		It occurs in the contact zone of the Cerrado savannah ecosystem and the Amazonian rainforest. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, although its breeding habits are not known.	eng
55536	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55536	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55537	conservation		Many conservation units occur within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
55537	distribution		This species occurs in the "Amazon Basin (Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil) " (Frost, 2000), at less than 600m asl. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001).	eng
55537	habitat		This frog is usually found at night on leaves and branches around ponds in tropical rainforest or open areas (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in secondary forest (Duellman, 1978). It also occurs in Cerrado and gallery forest in northeastern Maranhao, Brazil. Eggs are laid out of the water on leaves; and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
55537	population		This species ranges from uncommon to common.	eng
55537	threats		There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55538	conservation	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55538	distribution	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	This species occurs in Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in Rio de Janeiro, Paraná, Minas Gerais and São Paulo States, as well as Ilha Grande in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,200m asl, but in Ilha Grande it has been recorded at sea level.	eng
55538	habitat	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	This species occurs near rivulets and temporary ponds in primary and secondary forest. Subterranean nests are built in muddy soil or banks near the waterbodies. The tadpoles live in permanent streams. It has also been found in anthropogenic habitats such as gardens, plantations, etc.	eng
55538	population	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	It is a very common species.	eng
55538	threats	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	There are no known threats to this species. Clear cutting of forests could be a localized threat but it is not currently occurring within its range.<br/><br/>A similar species (<em>Aplastodiscus</em> cf. <em>leucopygius</em>) has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55539	conservation		The taxonomic status of this species within its taxonomic group needs to be resolved.	eng
55539	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, São Vicente, in São Paulo State, Brazil.	eng
55539	habitat		There is no information known regarding its habitat preferences or ecological requirements. However, other species within its taxonomic group breed in ponds.	eng
55539	population		It has only been collected once, so its population status is not known. It is very similar to other species in its taxonomic group in the surrounding region.	eng
55539	threats		Deforestation is presumably a threat to this species, although there is not enough information known at present to determine its major threats.	eng
55540	conservation	Diego Almeida, Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Ecuador, including Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay, but is apparently not recorded from any in Colombia. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55540	distribution	Diego Almeida, Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia (in Caquetá and Putumayo Departments) and Ecuador (south to Morona Province). It ranges from 2,000-2,600m asl.	eng
55540	habitat	Diego Almeida, Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It lives in upper humid montane forest, and it also survives in pastureland and other altered habitats. However, although it is adaptable, it probably cannot tolerate extremely severe habitat clearance, leading to a very open landscape. It is associated with creeks and breeds in streams. Individuals have been found on vegetation along small creeks within forests; tadpoles have been collected in bodies of water with limited movement (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005).	eng
55540	population	Diego Almeida, Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55540	threats	Diego Almeida, Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The major threats are habitat loss from agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species has a narrow altitudinal range, and lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have occurred in other frog species with stream-dwelling tadpoles, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. Mueses-Cisneros (2005) reports that all tadpoles examined in his study lack keratin in their mouthparts; however, he suggests that this is not necessarily related to chytrid infection.	eng
55541	conservation		It is protected in many parks throughout its range.	eng
55541	distribution		This species occurs in the Caribbean lowlands of Mexico and central America, from southern Veracruz, Mexico (including the eastern Yucatan Peninsula) southeastward through Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, at 0-1,585m asl.	eng
55541	habitat		It lives in lowland and montane tropical humid forest. It is found in temporary and permanent ponds where it breeds. It persists in disturbed habitats, as long as there is deep water available.	eng
55541	population		It is locally common throughout its range.	eng
55541	threats		It is threatened only by the complete removal of vegetation.	eng
55542	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
55542	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of Cerro Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at about 900m asl. There is some information to suggest that it might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
55542	habitat		It is an inhabitant of montane tepui environments. There is no information about its breeding habits, although it is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
55542	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55542	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
55543	conservation		It has been recorded from two protected areas: the congruent Reserva Biológica de Una and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Ecoparque de Una.	eng
55543	distribution		This species has been recorded from two protected areas in Una Municipality, Bahia State, Brazil. It is a lowland species that has been collected below 100m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, and the limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
55543	habitat		It inhabits fragments of lowland tropical closed-canopy gallery forest. Individuals have been found above ground in bromeliads and on leaves close to small streams and temporary pools. It is presumed to breed in small pools, or slow-flowing stream sections.	eng
55543	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
55543	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55544	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55544	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Japí, and Serra da Mantiqueira, and from Serra Paranapiadaba and Rodovia Mogi-Bertioga in Serra do Mar, in São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.	eng
55544	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation or on the forest leaf-litter near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55544	population		It is a common species.	eng
55544	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to clear-cutting of forests and infrastructure development are threats to this species.	eng
55545	conservation		Its range includes several National Parks.	eng
55545	distribution		This species is known from Sierra de San Luis to Unare depression, in northern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 200-1,600m asl.	eng
55545	habitat		It inhabits tropical moist forests in low and highlands. It is relatively adaptable and is found in some rural villages, and is an opportunistic species that takes advantage of human-induced clearings. It has been found breeding in permanent grass-covered, natural, or man-made pools, within primary cloud forest or near to human buildings.	eng
55545	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
55545	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species at present.	eng
55546	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for expanded protection of remaining forest habitats in the Colombian Andes.	eng
55546	distribution		This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in the department of Santander, Colombia, at 2,540-2,700m asl. It may be more widely distributed than existing records indicate.	eng
55546	habitat		It lives in streams in cloud forest, but only in old growth forest. The eggs are laid on vegetation, and the tadpoles larvae in streams.	eng
55546	population		It is known to be common, although there has been no survey work for this species since 1998.	eng
55546	threats		Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, are the major threats to this species.	eng
55547	conservation		It occurs in several parks and protected areas.	eng
55547	distribution		This species occurs in northern Rio Grande do Sul and southern Santa Catarina states, southern Brazil, at 500-1,000m asl.	eng
55547	habitat		It is found on forested mountain slopes, inhabiting streams with clear running water. The clutch is fixed to vegetation hanging into the water.	eng
55547	population		It is common and the population is stable.	eng
55547	threats		Water pollution and habitat loss due to deforestation and cattle ranching are threats to this species.	eng
55548	conservation		Many conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
55548	distribution		This species occurs in southern Venezuela, the Guianas, and the Amazon basin in Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Ecuador, it occurs at elevations of up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55548	habitat		It has been found on leaves and branches of primary and secondary tropical rainforest and in clearings near forest (Duellman, 1978). It is a nocturnal and arboreal species, usually in trees, but after heavy rains males call from the ground, grasses, herbaceous vegetation, or bushes around temporary ponds (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water and the tadpoles develop there also.	eng
55548	population		It is rarely seen in most of its range but it is locally common in Suriname.	eng
55548	threats		Forest conversion, logging, and clear cutting are threats to this species.	eng
55549	conservation	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55549	distribution	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known from the mountains of central Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. It has been recorded above 800m asl.	eng
55549	habitat	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs on stones at the edge of brooks and streams in gallery forests, and breeds in the streams. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55549	population	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
55549	threats	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Mining and logging, as well, as fire, and the disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.	eng
55550	conservation	Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
55550	distribution	Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	This species is widely distributed east of the Colombian Andes in Meta, Casanare, Cundinamarca, and Arauca Departments, at 280-800m asl.	eng
55550	habitat	Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It lives in wet savannahs near waterbodies. It appears to require open situations and accordingly is very common in transformed habitats (Lynch, 2006). It is tolerant of severe human impacts and it reproduces in seasonal and permanent pools.	eng
55550	population	Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
55550	threats	Jose Vicente Rueda, Fernando Castro, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It occurs in very disturbed and polluted areas. If <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em> is introduced to its range, the population might suffer.	eng
55551	conservation		The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed for this species. Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55551	distribution		This species occurs in the interior basins of Tocantins state, Brazil and the eastern Brazilian Amazon basin, including the Santa Cruz lowlands of Bolivia and northern Paraguay, French Guiana and Suriname.	eng
55551	habitat		It occurs on leaves and branches near waterbodies in tropical rain and dry forest and in forest edges. It reproduces in natural temporary ponds.	eng
55551	population		It is locally common in Bolivia and Brazil, but it is rare in the Guianas.	eng
55551	threats		Clear cutting is a threat to this species.	eng
55552	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection, and/or restoration, of pine-oak forests at sites where this species is known to occur. Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55552	distribution		This species is found only on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely, especially in intervening areas between currently known sites. It occurs at elevations of 900 and 2,000m asl.	eng
55552	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest, and is almost exclusively found in forest streams and the surrounding vegetation. Animals seek refuge in bromeliads during the dry season. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
55552	population		This is a common species.	eng
55552	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to expanding agriculture (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinized mouthparts, which suggests that chytridiomycosis might be a threat.	eng
55553	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into this species, for example to determine the limits of its range, and its ecological requirements and population status.	eng
55553	distribution		This species is poorly known, and has been recorded only from the type locality of "Huancabamba" (Boulenger 1912), in Pasco Department, Peru, where it was collected at 1,900m asl.	eng
55553	habitat		All that is known about its habitat and ecological requirements is that it lives in montane forests and is likely to breed in water.	eng
55553	population		There is nothing known about its population status. It has not been found since it was first collected.	eng
55553	threats		The major threats to this species are not known, although there is some agricultural development in the general area (cultivation of coffee and rearing of livestock).	eng
55554	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55554	distribution		This species is known only from the unspecified distribution of "Brasilia" (Schneider 1799), presumably Brazil.	eng
55554	habitat		Neither its habitat nor its ecological requirements are known, although it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
55554	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55554	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55555	conservation		Although most of the species' range is outside protected areas, it may occur in Parque Nacional La Culata and/or Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Remaining cloud forest habitats in the Venezuelan Andes are in urgent need of protection.	eng
55555	distribution		This species is known from the Andes of Mérida State, in Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,200-2,400m asl. Records from the Sierra del Turimiquire, in Sucre and Monagas States, are misidentifications.	eng
55555	habitat		It is an inhabitant of small ponds in cloud forests. It lays its eggs directly in water, where the larvae also develop.	eng
55555	population		This is an uncommon species that is estimated to have undergone a significant decline over the past ten years.	eng
55555	threats		The main threats are agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as agricultural pollution. The recent introduction of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> has probably been at least parly responsible for the decline in populations of this frog.	eng
55556	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
55556	distribution		This species is confined to the lowlands in State of Rio de Janeiro, below 100m, southeastern Brazil, from Itaguai in the west to Macae in the east.	eng
55556	habitat		It lives on vegetation near ponds and other still waters in a very wide array of habitats, from forest, to open areas, to cities. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
55556	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
55556	threats		Other than drainage of breeding sites for human settlement and mosquito control, this species faces no known threats.	eng
55557	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists and is protected in parts of its range by national and sub-national legislation. The species occurs in many European and North African protected areas.	eng
55557	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2009	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists and is protected in parts of its range by national and sub-national legislation. The species occurs in many European and North African protected areas.	eng
55557	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The natural distribution of this species is in the western Mediterranean. It is present in southern France, Monaco, coastal northwestern Italy (Ligury and southern Piedmont), Spain, Portugal, and in northern Africa (Morocco, northern Algeria, and northern Tunisia). In the drier parts of its range (for example in parts of north Africa and Iberia) its distribution is fragmented due to limited available habitat, and it has a small Area of Occupancy within its wider Extent of Occurrence. The species is also present on the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal) (it was introduced in antiquity on these islands). It is introduced on Menorca (Spain). The distribution in Algeria and Tunisia is poorly known but several authors have mentioned that the species ranges south of the Tell Atlas (D. Donaire-Barroso pers. comm.). It is generally found at low to mid elevations from sea level, rarely up to 2,650m asl (Morocco).	eng
55557	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2009	The natural distribution of this species is in the western Mediterranean. It is present in southern France, Monaco, coastal northwestern Italy (Ligury and southern Piedmont), Spain, Portugal, and in northern Africa (Morocco, northern Algeria, and northern Tunisia). In the drier parts of its range (for example in parts of north Africa and Iberia) its distribution is fragmented due to limited available habitat, and it has a small Area of Occupancy within its wider Extent of Occurrence. The species is also present on the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal) (it was introduced in antiquity on these islands). It is introduced on Menorca (Spain). The distribution in Algeria and Tunisia is poorly known but several authors have mentioned that the species ranges south of the Tell Atlas (D. Donaire-Barroso pers. comm.). It is generally found at low to mid elevations from sea level, rarely up to 2,650m asl (Morocco).	eng
55557	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species may be found in trees, shrubs, orchards, vineyards, and grasses generally near to freshwater habitats; the species can occur at high densities within suitable vegetation. Breeding and larval development take place in ponds, springs, irrigation ditches, temporary pools, flooded meadows, lagoons, cattle pools, wells and even swimming pools. It is sympatric in some areas with <em>Hyla arborea</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).	eng
55557	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2009	This species may be found in trees, shrubs, orchards, vineyards, and grasses generally near to freshwater habitats; the species can occur at high densities within suitable vegetation. Breeding and larval development take place in ponds, springs, irrigation ditches, temporary pools, flooded meadows, lagoons, cattle pools, wells and even swimming pools. It is sympatric in some areas with <em>Hyla arborea</em> (and produces infertile hybrids).	eng
55557	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2008	Generally, it is common across its range. Populations in southeastern Spain and isolated populations in the Basque country, Spain, are declining mostly through loss of breeding habitats. It is locally threatened in Italy.	eng
55557	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2009	Generally, it is common across its range. Populations in southeastern Spain and isolated populations in the Basque country, Spain, are declining mostly through loss of breeding habitats. It is locally threatened in Italy.	eng
55557	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is locally threatened by terrestrial habitat loss (intensification of agriculture; infrastructure development), aquatic pollution (agriculture; mosquito control), and loss of breeding sites (e.g.. drinking troughs). The introduction of predatory Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>), and fishes (such as <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) to breeding sites is a serious threat to this species. The species appears to show a greater resilience to eutrophication than many other species, possibly as the eutrophic waters promote the growth of reed mace and other favorable vegetation.	eng
55557	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Trevor Beebee, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Rafael Marquez, 2009	The species is locally threatened by terrestrial habitat loss (intensification of agriculture; infrastructure development), aquatic pollution (agriculture; mosquito control), and loss of breeding sites (e.g.. drinking troughs). The introduction of predatory Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>), and fishes (such as <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) to breeding sites is a serious threat to this species. The species appears to show a greater resilience to eutrophication than many other species, possibly as the eutrophic waters promote the growth of reed mace and other favorable vegetation.	eng
55558	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55558	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic versant of Mexico and Central America, from southern Veracruz and northern Oaxaca states, Mexico, south-eastward on the Pacific lowlands along central Guatemala and southward to Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, from sea level to 1,300m asl. It is also known from the north and east of South America (central Magdalena valley, Colombia), and from Venezuela to southeast Brazil, and also from Trinidad island, Trinidad and Tobago, from sea level to 300m asl.	eng
55558	habitat		This is a savannah and forest edge species, often associated with wetlands, that may commonly be found in disturbed or altered habitats at foothills and low elevations in secondary forests and pasture grasslands or cut-over forests. It is also found in marshy areas outside or adjacent to forest, including temporarily open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools and the eggs are put on leaves, with the tadpoles then falling into the water. In the Gran Sabana region in Southeastern Venezuela, it has been found calling at night from bushes and grasses in, and adjacent to, forest ponds (Duellman 1997). In Trinidad, it has been found on grass or small bushes over temporary pools, drains, or rice fields, in open country; and sometimes over temporary ponds at the edges of forests (Kenny 1969). This nocturnal species may hide on the undersides of leaves, or at the base of musaseae leaves (Solano 1968). In the Venezuelan Guayana, males of this species start calling from the marginal vegetation of temporary and permanent lagoons at the beginning of the mid rainy season (Gorzula and Señaris 1999).	eng
55558	population		It is abundant throughout its range, and probably increasing.	eng
55558	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
55559	conservation		This species is known from El Puré National Park and Amacayacu National Park in Colombia. The species is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55559	distribution		This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in southeastern Colombia (in the departments of Vaupés and Amazonas), adjacent Amazonas State, and western Acre State, Brazil, and in northeastern Peru. It has been recorded between 100-250m asl.	eng
55559	habitat		The species was recorded from primary forest. It is presumably a stream breeder, like other species in the genus. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
55559	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55559	threats		Smallholder farming and logging are localized threats to the habitat of this species, however there are no major threats to the species overall survival at present.	eng
55560	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55560	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	This species from the Atlantic forests of southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Bahia south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,600m asl.	eng
55560	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It lives in secondary forest, shrubland, coastal restinga scrub, and wood plantations, but not in primary forest. It is usually found on low vegetation near the waterbodies, such as ponds, large puddles or ditches at the forest edges or in clearings. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
55560	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
55560	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
55561	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The species has been recorded from several protected areas in both Panama and Costa Rica. Further surveys are required to fully determine the range of this species.	eng
55561	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	This species is known from humid lowlands and premontane slopes from Departamento Gracias a Dios in Honduras (McCranie <em>et al.</em>, 2003) and south-eastern Nicaragua to south-eastern Costa Rica on the Atlantic versant (20-900m asl), and on the Pacific versant in humid premontane areas of south-western Costa Rica and western and central Panama, at 1,000-1,330m asl (Savage, 2002). It is expected to have a wider distribution than is currently known.	eng
55561	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	This is a nocturnal canopy species of primary humid lowland and montane forest. Eggs are deposited in tree holes, which is also where the larvae develop. Males have been found calling from tree holes (McCranie <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
55561	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	There is no information on the population status of this rarely seen, high-canopy species.	eng
55561	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The major threat is loss of primary forest habitat due to agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlement.	eng
55562	conservation		It occurs close to Biotopo del Quetzal, and possibly occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. The cloud forest habitat of this species is in need of further protection.	eng
55562	distribution		This species is known from two disjunct populations, in the Municipio de Purulhá, in the department of Baja Verapaz, and the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Izabal Department, both in Guatemala, at 700-1,830m asl. It has been reported, but not collected, from the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas (this locality is not mapped here).	eng
55562	habitat		It occurs in the vegetation of pristine cloud forest, and is assumed to breed in tree cavities or bromeliads.	eng
55562	population		It has always been rare, and has not been seen since 1994, although there have been no recent searches specifically targeting this species.	eng
55562	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, primarily due to agriculture, logging, and expanding ornamental plant farms.	eng
55563	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55563	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Taperinha, Santarem, in Pará State, Brazil.	eng
55563	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it is likely to live in the rainforest and breed in water.	eng
55563	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has not been found again since it was first collected.	eng
55563	threats		There is no information regarding threats to this species.	eng
55564	conservation	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Ross MacCulloch, Jesús Manzanilla, Jerry Hardy, 2008	Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.	eng
55564	distribution	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Ross MacCulloch, Jesús Manzanilla, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is found in the Llanos of eastern Arauca-Meta (Colombia) and Venezuela eastwards through, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. It is also present on the Icacos Peninsula of southwestern Trinidad island. Lescure and Marty (2001) indicated that this species inhabits the littoral band at the north of French Guiana, and that further south the species is replaced by <em>Dendropsophus nanus</em>. It is found from sea level up to approximately 600m asl.	eng
55564	habitat	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Ross MacCulloch, Jesús Manzanilla, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is usually found in lowland savannahs, open grassland and at forest edges. In the Gran Sabana region, it has been found at night calling from leaves of bushes around a tropical forest pond, and from vegetation 40-60cm above the water. Eggs and tadpoles develop in temporary pools. It is an adaptable species.	eng
55564	population	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Ross MacCulloch, Jesús Manzanilla, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is generally a common species, although it is considered to be uncommon in Colombia.	eng
55564	threats	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Ross MacCulloch, Jesús Manzanilla, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. In Colombia, it is locally threatened by oil extraction and forest loss.	eng
55565	conservation	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, 2008	Its range includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
55565	distribution	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands east of the Andes, from the Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, and Venezuela southward through Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil to Bolivia (including interandean dry valleys), Paraguay, Uruguay, and Salta and Misiones Provinces in Argentina. In Bolivia, it occurs at up to 1,800m asl.	eng
55565	habitat	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is an inhabitant of tropical moist forests (including clearings), forest edge, and marshes. Although it is especially common in the lowlands, where the frogs congregate in large numbers at temporary ponds in the forest, it is also common around roadside ditches and puddles in the cloud forest on the steep slopes of La Escalera and at grassy ponds in the Gran Sabana (Duellman, 1997). It colonizes man-made standing water caused by agricultural activities and the constructions of roads (Gorzula and Señaris, 1999). It is found on leaves and branches in tropical rainforest. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in the water, and the tadpoles develop there also. In southeastern Brazil, reproductive activity has been reported for the months of December to January, and possibly also February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). Individuals from Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, were found in a restricted area of disturbed forest (Duellman, 1978).	eng
55565	population	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This is one of the most common amphibians of South America found largely in Brazil. In the rainy season, this is the most abundant species in the Gran Sabana region in southeastern Venezuela.	eng
55565	threats	Débora Silvano, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There is no relevant threat to the species overall.	eng
55566	conservation		The range of this species includes at least three protected areas, but further protection of the cloud forest fragments in Mexico is needed.	eng
55566	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental from central Nuevo Leon to central Veracruz, Mexico. Other allopatric populations occur in southern Veracruz, north-central Oaxaca and northern Chiapas, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55566	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest, and is frequently associated with bromeliads or elephant-ear plants. It can sometimes be found on the ground, in bushes, or on small plants. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
55566	population		This is a fairly common species.	eng
55566	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation arising from agricultural development and logging. Local people also consume it and it has been observed to be common in the local trade in Jalapa.	eng
55567	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection of remaining forested habitat in the Sierra de Juárez is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55567	distribution		This species is known only from Vista Hermosa town, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,800m asl.	eng
55567	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest, and occurs in mountain streams and rocky habitats.	eng
55567	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55567	threats		The major threat is the loss of original, intact cloud forest due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging.	eng
55568	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area, and protection and restoration of cloud forest remnants is extremely urgent. Survey work is necessary to establish its current population status. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55568	distribution		This species is known only from the Coscomatepec region in central Veracruz, Mexico, at altitudes of 900-1,500m asl.	eng
55568	habitat		It is highly associated with epiphytic plants in cloud forest, but breeds in temporary streams.	eng
55568	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55568	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of original forest cover to agricultural land, especially coffee plantations.	eng
55569	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
55569	distribution		This species occurs in the Anangu/Garzacocha region of the Río Napo in eastern Ecuador and nearby Amazonian Colombia and Peru. It is also known from Manaus and the Juruá river, Amazonas state, Brazil. It is found below 300m asl.	eng
55569	habitat		The type locality is a tropical wet forest and is believed to be mostly undisturbed except for scattered patches (Vigle and Goberdhan-Vigle, 1990). This species calls from water hyacinths and bushes in ponds and along slow-moving streams in, or at the edge of tropical rainforest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also.	eng
55569	population		It can be common in appropriate habitats; these are ponds with floating vegetation.	eng
55569	threats		Habitat destruction, degradation, and water pollution are threats to this species. The range in Brazil is well preserved.	eng
55570	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55570	distribution		The type locality of this species is listed in error as Panama in the original description, though it has been suggested that it comes from Bolivia. This name has not been assigned to any known species or place, and it is not known where the type specimen comes from.	eng
55570	habitat		There is no information known regarding its habitat or ecological requirements.	eng
55570	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55570	threats		There is no direct information concerning the major threats to this species.	eng
55571	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range.	eng
55571	distribution		This species occurs in Monagas, Bolivar and Amazonas states in Venezuela; the Amazon basin in the Guianas and Amapá, northern Pará and northern Maranhao states, Brazil, at 0-1,400m asl.	eng
55571	habitat		This nocturnal tree frog is found in open environments, grasslands, and Cerrado with scattered trees. In the Gran Sabana region, Venezuela, this species has been found in gallery forests in savannah, where it calls from trees, ferns and low bushes along a road cut, as well as from marginal vegetation of permanent lagoons and backwaters of slow-flowing rivers. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop there also.	eng
55571	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55571	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55572	conservation		Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, where maintenance and conservation of its habitat is required.	eng
55572	distribution		This species is only known from the Serra dos Órgãos, Rio de Janeiro State, south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs above 1,200m asl. It is likely also to be found at other sites.	eng
55572	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary forest, where it breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55572	population		It is a rarely encountered species.	eng
55572	threats		This species is threatened by infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
55573	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and effective formal protection of the Omiltemi State Ecological Park is needed; the Puerto del Gallo also requires urgent protection. Further survey work is needed to better understand the population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55573	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, in Omiltemi and Puerto del Gallo, Mexico, at elevations from 1,985-2,520m asl.	eng
55573	habitat		It inhabits high-elevation cloud and pine-oak forest, in association with streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it might take place in streams.	eng
55573	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55573	threats		Degradation and destruction of the forest patches in Guerrero due to smallholder farming activities and logging is a major threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis may also be a threat, since it occurs at high elevations (and presumably breeds in streams), and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55574	conservation		The creation and expansion of protected areas and research actions are needed. It does not occur in any protected area.	eng
55574	distribution		This species occurs in Serra do Mar and Serra Geral in Santa Catarina state, Brazil, at 800-1,100m asl.	eng
55574	habitat		It occurs in forest edges and gaps in vegetation. It reproduces in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55574	population		It is common and the population is stable.	eng
55574	threats		Even though it adapts well to habitat disturbance, it could be threatened by water pollution.	eng
55575	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomy research is needed to resolve the species complex.	eng
55575	distribution		This species occurs from northeastern Brazil southward through central Paraguay, northern Argentina, eastern Bolivia, to extreme southern Brazil, Uruguay, and the La Plata Basin in Argentina, at 0-1,500m asl.	eng
55575	habitat		It occurs on herbaceous vegetation at the edge of standing water. It is an unspecialized species that occurs in many habitat types including tropical rainforest and open areas (Amazonian savannah and disturbed areas). It breeds in temporary waterbodies. It also adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55575	population		It is very common.	eng
55575	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55576	conservation	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Débora Silvano, 2008	Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó, Área de Preservação Ambiental Sul and Reserva Particular do<br/>Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça.	eng
55576	distribution	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known from the Serra do Cipó, near Jaboticatubas, and from Serra do Caraça, both in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, above 800m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
55576	habitat	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs on vegetation near streams in gallery forest, and presumably breeds in streams. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55576	population	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55576	threats	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Débora Silvano, 2008	Mining, fires, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species' habitat. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a problem.	eng
55577	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection of the forests along the Sierra de Juárez and Sierra Mixe is required. The species is in need of close population monitoring, particularly if chytrid is shown to be a genuine threat.	eng
55577	distribution		This species is known from Sierra de Juárez and Sierra Mixe, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. A specimen has also been collected from Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico, but this record is in doubt. It probably occurs more widely than records suggest. It occurs at elevations of 680-2,256m asl.	eng
55577	habitat		It inhabits mesic cloud forest, and is commonly found in or near streams and low vegetation, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55577	population		This is a common species.	eng
55577	threats		The high rate of disturbance of the cloud forest is the main threat to this species. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinised mouthparts, suggesting that chytridiomycosis might be involved.	eng
55578	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55578	distribution		This species is known from just two localities in eastern Brazil: Pedra Azul in northern Minas Gerais State, and Maracas in central Bahia State. It presumably occurs more widely than this.	eng
55578	habitat		It lives in dry Caatinga (thorn forest) savannah, and in rock outcrops. It presumably breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
55578	population		It is very poorly known, and there is no information on its population status.	eng
55578	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and fire.	eng
55579	conservation		It does not occur within any protected areas, and its cloud forest habitat is in urgent need of protection. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55579	distribution		This species is known only from central Veracruz, Mexico, in the Huatusco region, at around 1,325m asl, although it might occur a little more widely.	eng
55579	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and breeds in streams.	eng
55579	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55579	threats		The main threat is the transformation of cloud forest fragments to coffee plantations.	eng
55580	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55580	distribution		This species from eastern and northeastern Brazil ranges from Prado in the south of the State of Bahia north to Brejo da Madre de Deus in the State of Pernambuco and to Crato in the State of Ceara.	eng
55580	habitat		It is a species of dry Caatinga savannah, living on low vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary or permanent pools.	eng
55580	population		It is a common species.	eng
55580	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, and fire.	eng
55581	conservation		Several protected areas are within the range of this species.	eng
55581	distribution		This species is known from Guania department in Colombia, Bolívar State in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Amapa state, in Brazil. It has been recorded up to 900m asl.	eng
55581	habitat		It is a nocturnal, arboreal species inhabiting tropical lowland rainforest. Reproduction most likely occurs in forest ponds and pools. Eggs and tadpoles are placed and develop in water. It is not known whether or not it is able to adapt to disturbance of its habitat.	eng
55581	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55581	threats		There are no major threats to this very widespread species, although there might be some localized threats to some populations.	eng
55582	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55582	distribution		This species is known only from two streams at altitudes of 2,225 and 2,350m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the province of Morona-Santiago, Ecuador.	eng
55582	habitat		It is known only from streams in cloud forests. It is active at night and breeds in mountain streams.	eng
55582	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55582	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but they are likely to include deforestation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, logging and the development of human settlements.	eng
55583	conservation		This species is not known to occur within any protected area. A specific survey to evaluate the conservation status of the cloud forest areas in the Huasteca region in Mexico is required, and a programme to restore and protect this area is important to conserve this and other amphibian species. It is a very high priority to relocate this species and determine its current population status; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55583	distribution		This species is known only from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz close to Teziutlán, at the border with the state of Puebla, Mexico. The type locality is at 1,600m asl.	eng
55583	habitat		It inhabits streams and bushes in cloud forest, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55583	population		This species has not been collected since it was first described, and is most likely a rare species.	eng
55583	threats		There is high pressure from infrastructure development for human settlements, and other anthropogenic activities in this region, and alteration of the original forest cover is resulting in the disappearance of streams and other water systems required for the survival of this species. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55584	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area (although it does occur in a forest reserve where protection is minimal).	eng
55584	distribution		This species occurs in the Municipio Albán (Granjas Padre Luna) and Laguna de Pedro Palo, Cundinamarca Department, Colombia, at 2,000-2,060m asl. It is expected to occur somewhat more widely.	eng
55584	habitat		It lives on shrubs in flooded grassland, pastures, marshes, and temporary pools. It presumably breeds in pools.	eng
55584	population		It is abundant, with many recent records.	eng
55584	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55585	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55585	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Paraguay".	eng
55585	habitat		There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.	eng
55585	population		There is no information regarding its population status.	eng
55585	threats		The major threats to it are unknown.	eng
55586	conservation		It has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama (including Parque Nacional Chagres), and from Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo (Costa Rica). It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
55586	distribution		This species occurs in scattered lowland and premontane humid forest sites on the Atlantic slope from central Costa Rica (at elevations of 600-750m asl) to central Panama and in the Pacific lowlands and western slopes of the Western Cordillera in Colombia (100-1,000m), south to northwestern Ecuador (550-920m). In Colombia, it also occurs around northern edge of Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central, and in the Magdalena Valley on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, reaching 1,600m in the Magdalena Valley.	eng
55586	habitat		It inhabits lower montane and lowland rainforest, where adults have been found in association with riparian vegetation and rocky streams, in which the tadpoles develop. Its adaptability to disturbed habitats is not known.	eng
55586	population		It is common in Colombia and Panama, but scarcer in Costa Rica and Ecuador.	eng
55586	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55587	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to expand the protected area coverage in the Colombian Andes. Research is needed to determine the current population status of this species and to ascertain whether chytrid poses a threat.	eng
55587	distribution		This species is known only from the Nudo de Pasto area on the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador. In Ecuador, it has been recorded only in the extreme north-eastern páramos around Sánta Barbara on the Cordillera Oriental on the border with Colombia. It has been recorded at about 1,950-2,700m asl.	eng
55587	habitat		A cloud forest species, it has also been found in partially cleared forest, where frogs were found at night on branches of trees above a stream. However, its adaptability to disturbed habitats is not well known. It breeds in streams.	eng
55587	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55587	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. All known localities in Ecuador are subject to severe human disturbance. The species lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55588	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55588	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic rainforest of eastern Brazil in São Paulo, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and eastern Minais Gerais states. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55588	habitat		It inhabits the borders of the Atlantic rainforest, and is also in gallery forests. It occurs on vegetation or on the ground near or in temporary or permanent waterbodies. It builds clay nests, and the larvae develop in water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance and does well in disturbed areas.	eng
55588	population		It is a common species.	eng
55588	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
55589	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
55589	distribution		This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin in Amazonas and Bolívar states, Venezuela; Colombia; Brazil; Ecuador; Bolivia and Peru, at up to 1,300m asl.	eng
55589	habitat		This tree frog species has been found on the leaves and branches of primary and secondary tropical rainforests, as well as open spaces close to forest. It prefers swamps within forest, but it also could be found in temporary watercourses or permanent ponds. Specimens usually perch at heights less than 1.5m, on leaves, frequently on Heliconia (De la Riva 1993). Reproduction occurs in temporary waterbodies. The eggs are laid in water and the tadpoles develop there too. According to the QCAZ database, individuals can be found in altered zones.	eng
55589	population		It is locally uncommon to common.	eng
55589	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55590	conservation		It apparently does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
55590	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (mouth of Pauini River) and Purus River in the central Amazon Basin in Brazil. It almost certainly occurs much more widely.	eng
55590	habitat		It occurs on leaves and branches in open areas near rivers in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid in streams and the tadpoles develop there also.	eng
55590	population		It is a common species.	eng
55590	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55591	conservation		It probably occurs in the Parque Nacional El Tamá in Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
55591	distribution		This species is known from a small area on the eastern slopes of Cordillera Oriental, Colombia (in the Departments of Boyacá and Norte de Santander) and from nearby at Betania in the State of Táchira, Venezuela. Its known altitudinal range is 2,200-3,000m asl.	eng
55591	habitat		It is an adaptable species, living in cloud forests, disturbed forests, tree plantations, and in deforested areas. It breeds in permanent pools.	eng
55591	population		It is an abundant species, although it is not often recorded due to lack of survey effort.	eng
55591	threats		Since it is tolerant of degraded habitats, and survives where there is heavy use of agro-chemicals, it is probably not a threatened species.	eng
55592	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work in areas of suitable habitat in order to determine whether or not this species still survives in its natural range, and to evaluate the present condition of the forested areas north to San Gabriel Mixtepec. The protection of remaining intact habitat within this area is recommended.	eng
55592	distribution		This species occurs in the Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Oaxaca, north to about San Gabriel Mixtepec and Jalatengo, Mexico, at between 1,200 and 1,700m asl.	eng
55592	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest. It generally dwells on low vegetation along streams, and breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55592	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not seen recorded since the 1960s. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
55592	threats		The destruction and degradation of its cloud forest habitat is a major threat to this species, and there is high pressure from infrastructure development for human settlements, and other anthropogenic activities in this region. However, this species has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55593	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, John Lynch, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacahi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute. In Peru it has been reported for Parque<br/>Nacional Cerros de Amotape (Venegas et al., 2008).	eng
55593	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, John Lynch, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (Chocó Department southwards), Ecuador (to south of Basaje) and Peru (region of Tumbes). It has been recorded at 100-1,000m asl.	eng
55593	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, John Lynch, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It lives in a very wide variety of habitats, including forest, degraded areas, gardens, and urban areas. It can be found in the canopy, but descends to lower vegetation at night to breed. It breeds in permanent pools, including artificial ponds.	eng
55593	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, John Lynch, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55593	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, John Lynch, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, 2008	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
55594	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the original cloud forest habitat is required. Given the apparent risk posed by chytrid, a captive-breeding programme may need to be established.	eng
55594	distribution		This species is found on the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca, and in central Guerrero and south-western Oaxaca in fragmented areas, at elevations of 1,280-2,000m asl.	eng
55594	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits cloud forest, close to low streams.	eng
55594	population		Recent surveys suggest that this formerly common species has declined and is now rare.	eng
55594	threats		The recently recorded declines are probably due to chytridiomycosis, although habitat loss and disturbance due to human activities (agriculture and logging) also represents a major threat to this species.	eng
55595	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of its remaining intact habitat is recommended. Survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
55595	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (approximately 15° 53'N; 91° 16'W) on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, at 1,050-1,080m asl.	eng
55595	habitat		It inhabits subtropical rainforest, breeding in temporary pools and slow-flowing streams, and also in the axils of elephant-ear plants. It can survive in heavily degraded habitats, providing that the habitat is not opened up too much.	eng
55595	population		It is rare and declining. Only 20 specimens have been collected and it is becoming harder to find.	eng
55595	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to human settlement (returning refugees), which is associated with expanding small-scale agriculture and wood collection. Chytridiomycosis also cannot be ruled out as a cause of the observed decline.	eng
55596	conservation		The type locality is within a protected area.	eng
55596	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Veadeiros, in the municipality of Alto Paraíso de Goiás, in Goiás State, Brazil, at 1,200m asl.	eng
55596	habitat		It is found along streams, in which it breeds, in gallery forests, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55596	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55596	threats		Logging and fires are the major threats to its habitat.	eng
55597	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.	eng
55597	distribution		This species is known only from two localities nearly 1,000km apart from each other: Río Cauca, near the border of Antioquia and Bolivar Departments in north-western Colombia; and extreme north-western Esmeraldas Province, in Ecuador, at 500m. It is likely to occur between these two localities.	eng
55597	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the canopy of rainforest, and probably breeds in tree holes.	eng
55597	population		It appears to be an extremely rare species, though this might be an artefact of it being a canopy species that is very hard to detect.	eng
55597	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Both localities from which is has been recorded are seriously threatened, with the only known site in Colombia particularly threatened by the expansion of livestock farming.	eng
55598	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Wilmar Bolívar, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
55598	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Wilmar Bolívar, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species from Central America occurs in the humid lowlands of the Atlantic versant from southeastern Nicaragua, including Isla Grande de Maíz, through Costa Rica to eastern Panama; and on the Pacific versant from central Panama to northwestern Colombia, and barely across the continental divide into northwestern Costa Rica. Its altitudinal range is 20-620m asl.	eng
55598	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Wilmar Bolívar, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It inhabits lowland humid forest, but may also occur in disturbed habitats. It is an explosive breeder following torrential rains. The eggs are deposited in small masses on the surface of shallow breeding ponds.	eng
55598	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Wilmar Bolívar, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Within forests it is a relatively rare species, however in Costa Rica, it is very common outside of forests, especially in areas of cattle pasture with some ponds (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
55598	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Wilmar Bolívar, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This is a very adaptable species, present wherever there are swampy or wet habitats (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). There may be localised threats through deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55599	conservation	Javier Icochea, John Lynch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	It is present in some Protected Natural Areas in Peru and in Yanachagana Chemillén, Manu, and Tingo María National Parks. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Sangay. In Colombia, it occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55599	distribution	Javier Icochea, John Lynch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	This species occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (to 5° 30'N) south to the Cordillera Central; along the length of the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and in Cusco, Junín, San Martín, Pasco, and Ucayali departments in Peru; at elevations of 410-2,190m asl.	eng
55599	habitat	Javier Icochea, John Lynch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	It is an arboreal and aquatic frog found in or along streams in cloud montane forest. Individuals have been seen on low bushes over torrential mountain streams, others have been found on vegetation along streams at night and in bromeliads by day (Duellman, 1972). It is not found in secondary forest, and it presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55599	population	Javier Icochea, John Lynch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	In Podocarpus in 1998, it was uncommon. It is common in Colombia, and in 2002, it was common in San Martin, Peru.	eng
55599	threats	Javier Icochea, John Lynch, Edgar Lehr, 2008	The principal threat to the species is the deforestation around streams for coffee and coca plantations.	eng
55600	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas, including: Parque Nacional Volcán Barú, Costa Rica; Parque Internacional La Amistad, Panama; and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Panama.	eng
55600	distribution		This species is known from three disjunct populations in the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,920-m asl (Savage 2002). It may range more widely than is currently known.	eng
55600	habitat		It inhabits the canopy of humid upper montane forest, and is associated with the bromeliad flora of this habitat. Animals are regularly heard in the transition zone between primary and secondary forest, and between secondary forest and "tree gardens" that are attached to contiguous forest (Erik Lindquist pers. comm. 2007), suggesting some adaptability to habitat degradation. The larvae develop in bromeliad pools, and hence this is a phytotelmic species.	eng
55600	population		The available evidence suggests that the Costa Rican populations are apparently stable in 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007) (although this observation may be linked to the difficulty in recording densities of this canopy species, Karen Lips pers. comm, 2007). A number of males were recently reported calling at Las Tablas, Costa Rica (Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007). It is seemingly common at some sites in Panama. The species is difficult to observe and is mostly recorded by its call.	eng
55600	threats		In Panama, the major threat is forest loss due to agricultural expansion, logging for timber, and human settlement. In Costa Rica, the entire of this range is within well protected areas and populations are stable.	eng
55601	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Continued and strengthened management of this reserve, and expanded protection of cloud forest elsewhere in the range of this species is needed.	eng
55601	distribution		This species occurs on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Santander, Colombia, at 1,750-2,000m asl.	eng
55601	habitat		It lives in streams in old growth cloud forest. It lays its eggs on vegetation, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
55601	population		It was common in Virolín in 1987; however, there has been no survey work for the species since.	eng
55601	threats		Habitat loss due to agriculture and cattle ranching, and predation by introduced trout, are the major threats to this species.	eng
55602	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, 2009	There are no conservation measures needed for this species; the population is probably increasing due to deforestation. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55602	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, 2009	This species occurs in east central Mexico, from southern San Luis Potosí and northernmost Querétaro southward through the eastern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, as well as from northern Guatemala and Belize to northern Honduras, at 0-770m asl.	eng
55602	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, 2009	It inhabits dry, moist, and wet forests, and is commonly found using bromeliads and banana plants as a refuge in the dry season. It tolerates significant levels of disturbance, and it breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55602	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, 2009	This hylid species is one of the most abundant throughout its range. It is probably increasing due to forest destruction.	eng
55602	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55603	conservation		Much of the species' range is included within national parks, including Parque Internacional La Amistad. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55603	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of the Cordillera Central and Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 1,930-2,800m asl. It might occur slightly more widely.	eng
55603	habitat		A nocturnal stream-breeding treefrog occurring in fast-flowing streams in lower montane and montane rainforests. Males call from rocks in streams and along stream margins, and sometimes from low vegetation near streams. Tadpoles typically are found adhering to large rocks in cold mountain streams (Savage 2002).	eng
55603	population		Recent searches in Cerro Chompipe, a known historical locality that has not suffered much habitat modification, have not found this species, although it continues to be seen at Cerro de la Muerte and several other localities within its range.	eng
55603	threats		Major threats include habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. The decline witnessed at Cerro Chompipe could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55604	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul and Reserva Ecológica Cotacahi-Cayapas in Ecuador.	eng
55604	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, from western Antioquia southwards to northwestern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 50-500m asl.	eng
55604	habitat		It is a species of closed forest, including small patches of secondary forest. However, it needs a closed canopy in order to survive. It lives on vegetation close to streams in which the tadpoles develop.	eng
55604	population		It is an uncommon species, but it can be found.	eng
55604	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55605	conservation		It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, but is likely to occur in a few.	eng
55605	distribution		This species is known only from Jaboticatubas, in the Serra do Cipó, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, above 800m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known, within the Serra do Cipó.	eng
55605	habitat		It is an explosive and restricted breeder with activity restricted to a few days at the beginning of the rainy season (hence making it potentially difficult to locate at other times). It breeds in swamps or temporary puddles, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55605	population		Although this species has not been recorded in 30 years, its particular breeding habits mean that it might have escaped detection in surveys of its range.	eng
55605	threats		The most significant threats to its habitat are infrastructure development for human settlement, and fires. Disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a threat.	eng
55606	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and improved protection of the forests of south-western Oaxaca and the central highlands of Guerrero is urgently needed. Close population monitoring is required, especially given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55606	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur, in central Guerrero, and central and south-western Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs at more localities than have been mapped within its general range.	eng
55606	habitat		It occurs in cloud and pine-oak forests at 700-1,070m asl and is commonly found in shallow water or on low vegetation along mountain streams. It breeds in streams.	eng
55606	population		This is a rare species, and it appears to have undergone declines.	eng
55606	threats		The high rate of habitat disturbance, due to agricultural activities within forested areas in Mexico, and specifically in Oaxaca and Guerrero, is the main threat to this species. Recent declines might also be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55607	conservation		It occurs in the Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata National Parks in Venezuela, and probably also occurs in other protected areas. Close population monitoring of this species is required, particularly if chytrid is shown to be a genuine threat.	eng
55607	distribution		This Andean species occurs in the Cordillera de Merida in the states of Barinas, Merida and Tachira, and from Sierra de Perijá in Zulia State, Venezuela, at 1,600-3,000m asl. It is also known from the eastern slopes of Cordillera Oriental in Colombia in the department of Norte de Santander, at 1,050m asl. Records from Sierra del Turimiquire in Sucre and Monagas states are in error.	eng
55607	habitat		It lives in cloud forests, and is able to tolerate minor habitat disturbance. It is usually found along streams, where it breeds.	eng
55607	population		Formerly an abundant species, there are few recent records, in part due to lack of survey efforts in its range. However, some populations, such as those north of the city of Mérida on Monte Zerpa, Venezuela, have experienced declines in suitable habitat (E. La Marca pers. obs.). However, in 2001 it was reportedly found without difficulty in Venezuela in brooks of cloud forest (Barrio Amorós 2001).	eng
55607	threats		The main threat is deforestation, especially the conversion of cloud forests to pasture lands. However, declines that have taken place in suitable habitat suggest another threatening process might be operating, possibly chytridiomycosis.	eng
55608	conservation		The range of this species includes two protected areas. No conservation measures are deemed necessary at present. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55608	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra Madre Occidental, from central Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Veracruz, and from the central Cordillera Volcanica in Mexico.	eng
55608	habitat		In central Mexico, this species occurs at high elevations (2,400-3,600m asl) in pine and fir forests in mountainous habitat. In Veracruz, it inhabits lower elevations (1,400-1,500m asl) and is associated with low and moderate streams and ponds, where it presumably breeds.	eng
55608	population		This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.	eng
55608	threats		This species appears to be well adapted and able to survive in disturbed areas.	eng
55609	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	The range of this species' includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence would be useful.	eng
55609	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	This species is known from the Serrania region of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, Brazil. It has been recorded above 900m asl.	eng
55609	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	This species occurs on vegetation around open ponds in meadows. The eggs are laid in gelatinous masses, which float on the water of permanent and temporary mountain pools and slow flowing streams. It is very adaptable and is found in almost any habitat where there is water available for breeding.	eng
55609	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55609	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	There are no major threats to this very common, adaptable species.	eng
55610	conservation		The range includes an archaeological park, which affords it some protection. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55610	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and upper Río Magdalena Valley, in Huila department, Colombia, from 1,750-2,250m asl. It probably occurs somewhat more widely.	eng
55610	habitat		A small frog inhabiting forest and secondary forest patches. It is adaptable and able to live in farmland. It lays its eggs in ponds and temporary pools where the tadpoles develop.	eng
55610	population		It is a common species.	eng
55610	threats		There are no known threats to this species that seems to be quite adaptable.	eng
55611	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55611	distribution		This species is endemic to southeastern and southern Brazil in the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Parana, and Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs at intermediate elevations at 800-1,400m asl.	eng
55611	habitat		It lives in forested habitats, and in grassland and pastureland, and is usually found on vegetation near ponds, pools, and lakes. It breeds in permanent pools and small streams, and the egg clutches are attached to vegetation in the water.	eng
55611	population		It is a common species. In Estação Biológica de Boracéia in São Paulo State, the species appears to have disappeared. The decline has been linked to the higher abundance of H. albopunctata.	eng
55611	threats		The main threats are water pollution, and loss of habitat due to fire.	eng
55612	conservation	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. Further research is necessary to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, and whether chytrid poses a threat.	eng
55612	distribution	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This Andean species from Colombia and Ecuador occurs on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental from Putumayo Department in southern Colombia south to Morona Province in southern Ecuador. It lives at elevations of 1,950-2,660m asl.	eng
55612	habitat	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is a species of cloud forest. Specimens have been found on stems and branches of bushes near, or over, streams at night. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55612	population	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	There is very little information, since there are only a few records of this species.	eng
55612	threats	Wilmar Bolívar, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, the planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species also lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55613	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine whether or not it still survives in the wild.	eng
55613	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: 5.8km (by road) west of Totontepec (17° 14' 24''N; 96° 03' 36"W), at an elevation of 2,103m asl, on the Sierra Mixes in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur more widely, but it is believed to have a small distribution.	eng
55613	habitat		It was collected in pristine cloud forest, and was found in crevices in boulders in a small stream and on leaves of vegetation surrounding the same stream. It is presumed to reproduce by larval development in the water.	eng
55613	population		The population status of this recently described species is not known.	eng
55613	threats		The type locality of this species was totally cleared and burned as far back as 1983, and the stream was badly silted and littered with burned logs. Even if the species does occur elsewhere, chytridiomycosis is a very real threat, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55614	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55614	distribution		This species is known from Rio de Janeiro State in southeastern Brazil, in lowland areas.	eng
55614	habitat		This species occurs in natural (such as savannahs and grasslands) and disturbed coastal areas (such as pastureland, and gardens). It breeds in temporary or permanent ponds.	eng
55614	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55614	threats		There are no threats to this very common and adaptable species.	eng
55615	conservation		It range includes several protected areas.	eng
55615	distribution		This species is known from the central highlands of Goiás, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais states, in Brazil, from 1,200m asl.	eng
55615	habitat		It occurs in rock crevices in permanent or temporary streams. Spawning occurs in both these sites. Tadpoles were found attached to stones on the bottom of pools within deep sections of permanent streams with small waterfalls and quartzitic rocks. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55615	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55615	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55616	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica and a single protected area in Panama.	eng
55616	distribution		This species occurs primarily in the humid, lower montane zone of the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and the Pacific slope of western Panama, but marginally in humid areas of the premontane zone, from 1,120-2,340m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
55616	habitat		It is a largely nocturnal tree frog of humid montane forest. It can be found in trees in pastures and similar open areas; it is commonly found in puddles on roads (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is an explosive small pond breeder; reproduction follows heavy rains, eggs are laid in small masses in the water.	eng
55616	population		In general, it is a very common species. In Panama, this species is presumed to have undergone some declines in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Although this species declined at one point at Monteverde and Cascajal, Costa Rica, populations have since recovered at Monteverde, and this species remains commonly encountered within Costa Rica.	eng
55616	threats		Generally, it is threatened by habitat loss through the destruction of natural forests. While museum specimens of this species have been found to have the chytrid fungi, the current impact of this pathogen on the species is not known.	eng
55617	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, and its remaining intact habitat is in urgent need of protection. Survey work is urgently required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
55617	distribution		This species is only known from Pilaló at 2,320m in Cotopaxi Provice, and nearby areas in Ecuador.	eng
55617	habitat		It has been found only in disturbed cloud forest, where adults have been found by day. There is no information on its ability to survive in heavily degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
55617	population		Recent efforts to locate the species at the type locality were unsuccessful, but more surveys are needed before it can be concluded whether or not this species has declined in suitable habitats.	eng
55617	threats		At the type locality, patches of forest have been cleared for agriculture and livestock farming, possibly posing a serious threat to the survival of the species. The species lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling tadpoles, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55618	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55618	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2004	This species is found in Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. In Panama, it is found in the Chitiqui lowlands, Azuero Peninsula and Río Bejuco. In Colombia, it occurs in the northern lowlands, including in the Lower and Middle Magdalena Valley, as well as in the Llanos region in the Departments of Arauca and Casanare. In western Venezuela, it is recorded from the States of Falcón, Mérida, and Táchira, and is to be expected in Zulia, Apure, and Barinas. It occurs from sea level to 700m asl.	eng
55618	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2004	It lives arboreally in degraded forests, humid lowland savannah, pastureland, and in agricultural and urban areas. It is not found in primary forest and it breeds in temporary and permanent ponds. It is often found in bushes at the edges of ponds or in the water in the shallows of these ponds. Nests are constructed mostly in sandy substrates at the edge of streams. Eggs (1783-2050, mean=1896) are deposited within this chamber and take 95 days (at 21 C) to complete development, up to and including metamorphosis. Reproduction peaks in February (dry season), although nests have been found at other times of the year (Chacón-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
55618	population	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2004	It is a very abundant species.	eng
55618	threats	Enrique La Marca, Jose Vicente Rueda, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.	eng
55619	conservation		Taxonomic research needed to determine status of species complex. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
55619	distribution		This is a widespread species from Misiones, Chaco, Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, and Santa Fe (0-1250m asl); all departments in Uruguay; Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina in Brazil; and southern Paraguay.	eng
55619	habitat		It occurs in open habitats in forests, grasslands, and flooded savannahs. It breeds in permanent ponds and flooded grasslands. It is possible that it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55619	population		It is a common species.	eng
55619	threats		This species is threatened by agricultural water pollution (specifically pesticide runoff) in Córdoba.	eng
55620	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55620	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	This species occurs throughout the Amazon basin in South America, south to the Chaco region of Paraguay and along the banks of the Río Paraguay-Parana, Argentina. It is present on Trinidad island, Trinidad and Tobago. It is found from the lowlands to 1,400m asl.	eng
55620	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	Individuals have been found in primary and secondary forest (Duellman, 1978), but it is usually found in grasses or bushes (leaves and branches) in flooded areas, seasonal swamps, slowly moving water, choked ditches or rivers. It is common to find it in pastures and fairly open country. The presence of this species might be associated with the plant <em>Montrichardia arborescens</em>. In the Iquitos region, Perú, this frog is common in permanent and semi permanent open ponds, where males call from water surface amidst grassy areas (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Eggs and tadpoles develop in the water. It can occur in badly degraded habitats, rural gardens and sometimes in towns.	eng
55620	population	Enrique La Marca, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55620	threats	Enrique La Marca, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Diego Baldo, Jerry Hardy, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species that has large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55621	conservation		There is no information available describing whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55621	distribution		The type locality and distribution of this species are not known.	eng
55621	habitat		There are no details regarding its habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
55621	population		There is no information regarding its population status.	eng
55621	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55622	conservation		The range of the species includes many protected areas.	eng
55622	distribution		This species is widespread in Amazonian Brazil, is present in southern Colombia and northern French Guiana, and occurs in Amazonian Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is from up to 400m asl. Records from Venezuela, documented from Amazonas State (a museum record from Bolívar state needs documentation for a precise locality) are misidentifications.	eng
55622	habitat		It is found in many habitat types. Within tropical forest is can be found on leaves and branches; in water or vegetation growing around ponds and lagoons; on the banks of large rivers; and can also be found in Amazonian savannah. Reproduction can occur in temporary waterbodies. It can also occur in degraded habitats and urban areas.	eng
55622	population		It is generally a common species outside Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
55622	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), fire, and infrastructure development. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55623	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Fazenda Vereda Grande.	eng
55623	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Presidente Olegário, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at 947m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
55623	habitat		It occurs on vegetation alongside streams in the Cerrado savannah, and also inhabits gallery forests, but it does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. Breeding takes place in water.	eng
55623	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55623	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging and agricultural pollution.	eng
55624	conservation		Its type locality is within a protected area.	eng
55624	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Pirassununga, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It most likely occurs in a larger area, but this area has been poorly sampled. It has been recorded from around 600-700m asl.	eng
55624	habitat		It is found on the top of blades of grass in savannahs, and breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55624	population		This is a very common species where it is known to occur.	eng
55624	threats		The main threats to this species are thought to be fire and agricultural pollution.	eng
55625	conservation		It is present in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55625	distribution		This species is found in the Upper Amazon Basin from southern Colombia through Ecuador, lower Amazon Basin in Perú (Departments: Amazonas, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco, Puno, Ucayali), and adjacent Brazil to Bolivia. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55625	habitat		An inhabitant of primary and secondary tropical rainforest, individuals congregate in and around permanent and temporary ponds and swamps for breeding. Eggs are deposited in ponds. Individuals can be found in clearings and slightly modified habitats.	eng
55625	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55625	threats		It has no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). It is only threatened by extreme habitat loss.	eng
55626	conservation		Found in many protected areas including three in Colombia; three in Ecuador; several conservation units in Brazil; and Parque Nacional Manu in Peru.	eng
55626	distribution		This species occurs in the Upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil. Its altitudinal range is around 100-200m asl.	eng
55626	habitat		This tree frog is generally found on branches in secondary and primary tropical rainforest, congregating for breeding in temporary ponds and swampy areas. Presumably, eggs and tadpoles develop in these waterbodies. It is an adaptable species and also occurs in degraded habitats and pastureland.	eng
55626	population		It is not an abundant species.	eng
55626	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.	eng
55627	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Karen Lips, 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in both Costa Rica and Panama. Further research is urgently needed into the population status of this species. Given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures likely should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
55627	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Karen Lips, 2008	This species occurs on the slopes of the cordilleras (Tilarán, Central and Talamanca) of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, from 1,210-2,040 m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55627	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Karen Lips, 2008	This species occurs along or in clear streams in lower and premontane rainforest. Males call at night from riparian bushes and herbaceous vegetation at the margin of or overhanging fast-moving mountain streams. Amplexus and egg deposition have not been observed in this species; tadpoles have been collected from streams.	eng
55627	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Karen Lips, 2008	In Costa Rica, it was presumed to have disappeared from Monteverde, Tapantí, and Las Tablas where it once was common. It was last seen in 1993 at Las Tablas and had apparently disappeared from Monteverde by 1989. As of August, 2007, even though some survey effort has taken place in the range there were not considered to be any other recent records from Costa Rica of this formerly common frog (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). More recent news from Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright (in litt. To Bruce Young, September 2007; http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7609780.stm), reported the rediscovery of this species at the Tropical Science Center Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, with several males being heard. In Panama, there are records from the Bajo Mono highlands of Chiriquí in 1982, and from Las Tablas in the early 1990s, but it had disappeared from the latter site by 1996. There might not be any subsequent records, indicating a decline and possible disappearance in this country, too.	eng
55627	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Karen Lips, 2008	The overall decline in this species is probably taking place as a result of infection of populations with the chytrid pathogen. Within Panama, it is threatened by general habitat loss through agriculture and selective logging.	eng
55628	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It occurs in no protected areas in Guatemala and in El Imposible National Park in El Salvador. It does not require protected areas.	eng
55628	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	This species occurs in Pacific lowlands and foothills from extreme eastern Oaxaca, east of the plains of Tehuantepec, Mexico, through Guatemala southward to central El Salvador. Another population occurs at the Cintalapa Valley in southwestern Chiapas (0-700m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55628	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It occurs in sub humid and humid lowlands and foothills. Populations persist in cutover forests and low scrubby forest. Not found in primary forest. It breeds in small temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55628	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It is common in Guatemala and El Salvador and abundant in Chiapas.	eng
55628	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	Water pollution is a localised threat.	eng
55629	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional El Chico, although this was logged in the last 10-15 years and is subject to human settlement. Expanded and strengthened protection of the high-elevation pine and fir forests in the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Hidalgo is necessary, and an extensive survey to establish the current population status of this species (and the threat posed by chytrid) is required. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55629	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra Madre Oriental, in extreme east-central Hidalgo, up to the border with the states of Puebla and Tlaxcala, Mexico. It has been recorded at 2,250-3,050m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55629	habitat		It occurs in pine and fir forests and montane meadows, and is commonly found close to streams, in which it breeds.	eng
55629	population		This is thought to be a rare species. Surveys conducted in 2001 within the species' range collected only a single specimen.	eng
55629	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the activities of smallholder farmers, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis may also be a  threat, as it is a high-elevation stream-breeding amphibian, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55630	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55630	distribution		This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of Beni Province, Bolivia.	eng
55630	habitat		There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.	eng
55630	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55630	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55631	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements, and population status is needed.	eng
55631	distribution		This species is known from the forested slopes of Mount Roraima and Mount Ayanganna in west-central Guyana, where it has been recorded from 1,430-1,500m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55631	habitat		It can be found along streams and elsewhere in the forest, both on the forest floor and in the higher foliage. There is no information available on its breeding habits, though reproduction is likely to take place in streams.	eng
55631	population		This is a relatively abundant species locally.	eng
55631	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and the known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.	eng
55632	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Ecuador.	eng
55632	distribution		This species is disjunctively distributed in the humid lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent southwestern Panama, central and eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, to western Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 10-900m asl.	eng
55632	habitat		It is an adaptable species that occurs in primary and secondary forest, but also in heavily altered areas such as small strips of trees in pastureland. Breeding takes place in a shallow water-filled depression constructed by the male close to a stream. Developing tadpoles swim from this nest to streams when they become flooded.	eng
55632	population		It is common in Ecuador, uncommon in Colombia, and fairly common on the south Pacific slope of Costa Rica.	eng
55632	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
55633	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It possibly occurs in Alto Purus in Peru. It was recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu in Colombia. In Brazil, it is present in a number of conservation units.	eng
55633	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the upper Amazon basin. It was recorded from Brazil (Acre, Amazonas and Pará); Colombia (Amazonas); Ecuador and Peru (Loreto and Huanuco). Its altitudinal range is below 700m asl.	eng
55633	habitat		Found on branches and low vegetation in primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Eggs are deposited out of the water on leaves; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It may occur in lightly disturbed habitat.	eng
55633	population		It is more common in the central Amazon; it is less common in Colombia and Peru.	eng
55633	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and logging (clear-cutting and possibly selective).	eng
55634	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. It occurs in protected areas throughout most of its range.	eng
55634	distribution		This species is known from the Cerrado of southern Pará to central Minas Gerais state, Brazil, from eastern Paraguay, and from eastern Bolivia in Santa Cruz department. There are only a few records known from eastern Paraguay.	eng
55634	habitat		It inhabits the Cerrado and occurs on the emergent or marginal herbaceous vegetation near ponds, pools, or lagoons in open areas. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds, near grassland vegetation. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55634	population		It is very common in Brazil, but is uncommon in Bolivia and Paraguay.	eng
55634	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, fires, and the construction of dams are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55635	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
55635	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in the Departments of Antioquia, Chocó and Valle del Cauca, Colombia, below 800m. There is also an unpublished record from Esmeraldas Province in northwestern Ecuador (K.-H. Jungfer, pers comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55635	habitat		It lives in undisturbed tropical rainforest, and is not found in degraded areas. It probably breeds in ephemeral and permanent ponds.	eng
55635	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55635	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55636	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55636	distribution		This species occurs in Eastern Nicaragua to central Panama on the Caribbean slope. In Panama, this species is found in the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands adjacent to southeastern Costa Rica, Cerro Campana, central Panama, and eastern cordilleras adjacent to central Panama. Its elevation is from sea level to 650m asl. Venezuelan specimens previously assigned to <em>Hyla albomarginata</em> are provisionally assigned to <em>Hyla rufitela</em>, and are known from a few localities along the Caribbean Coast and Maracaibo Lake Basin. They are not mapped here pending finally confirmation of their taxonomic identity.	eng
55636	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest and tolerates some disturbance.It can be found in open areas, but this needs to be close to forest (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).  It reproduces in swamps surrounded by trees.	eng
55636	population		It is locally common in the appropriate habitat.	eng
55636	threats		Major threats include habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests.	eng
55637	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and the establishment of new protected areas is a matter of urgency. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is in decline.	eng
55637	distribution		This species is known only from two localities 60km apart (Domingos Martins and Santa Teresa) in Espírito Santo State in the Atlantic coastal forest region of south-eastern Brazil, at 600-800m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
55637	habitat		It has been found only in secondary forest, and breeds in small, swift, clean mountain brooks. It does not appear to survive outside forest. It lives on vegetation 1-4m above the streams, and the egg clutches are attached to leaves overhanging the streams.	eng
55637	population		It is a rare species, though there have been some recent records.	eng
55637	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development (for wood plantations and livestock grazing), and clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
55638	conservation		It is found within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
55638	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at Cerro Jaua (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W), in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at 1,600m asl. It might also occur at lower altitudes on the slopes of Cerro Jaua, but this requires confirmation. It is probably a slope-loving species, and is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55638	habitat		This nocturnal species is found on branches of vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground, along streams on the slopes of tepui. Males call from small trees in the margins of the river and on rocks and small trees in the middle of the river. The breeding habits are unknown, although reproduction is likely to take place in streams.	eng
55638	population		It is common.	eng
55638	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55639	conservation		The protection of the Sierra de Juárez forest fragments is extremely urgent since there are currently no protected areas in this region. Further surveys to establish the species' population status are also required, and in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55639	distribution		This species occurs on the northern slopes of Sierra de Juárez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,580-2,020m asl.	eng
55639	habitat		This stream-breeding species exclusively inhabits cloud forest in the highlands of the Sierra de Juárez, and is found in moist and rocky habitats with abundant aquatic vegetation along streams.	eng
55639	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; however, it is probably quite rare, and there have only been a few individuals collected since the 1970s.	eng
55639	threats		The transformation and clearance of original cloud forest in the region is the main threat to this species. In southern Mexico, tadpoles have been found with damaged mouthparts, an indication of chytrid infection.	eng
55640	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, although it is on edge of the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras. Maintenance and/or protection of the species' remaining intact habitat is recommended.	eng
55640	distribution		This species is known from Cerro del Mono near La Unión in eastern Guatemala close to the border with Honduras; and nearby at Quebrada Grande, Department of Copán, in extreme western Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 1,370-1,450m asl.	eng
55640	habitat		It inhabits lower montane wet forest, where it breeds in tree cavities.	eng
55640	population		This is a poorly known species. Only two adult specimens have been collected from Honduras and one juvenile specimen from Guatemala. It is extremely rare and is probably in decline. Recent visits to the Honduran site have failed to find the species.	eng
55640	threats		The primary threat to the species is severe deforestation, due to coffee cultivation and livestock grazing. The only known site in Honduras is highly disturbed, but the habitat is in better condition at the Guatemalan site.	eng
55641	conservation		It can be found in many protected areas.	eng
55641	distribution		This species occurs in western Rio Grande de Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, Sao Paulo, Brazil; northern Argentina; Uruguay; and Oriental region of Paraguay, at an altitude of 0-1,000m asl.	eng
55641	habitat		This species occurs in natural and artificial open habitats including grasslands (including rice plantations). It breeds in small temporary and permanent waterbodies, such as ponds, ditches, puddles or flooded areas. It can be found on low vegetation near waterbodies; the small clutch of eggs is attached to aquatic plants.	eng
55641	population		It is very abundant and stable.	eng
55641	threats		There are no major threats. It adapts well to agricultural habitats.	eng
55642	conservation		Many protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
55642	distribution		This species is known from central and southern China, below 1,200m asl.	eng
55642	habitat		This species inhabits forests in hilly areas. It breeds in still waters such as paddy fields and pools.	eng
55642	population		It is a common species.	eng
55642	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
55643	conservation		It occurs within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, affording its habitat some degree of protection.	eng
55643	distribution		This species is known from two localities very close to each other within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes in Cauca Department, Colombia, at 2,190m asl. Field trips to comparable habitat south of the type locality have not found it, but it is likely to occur a little more widely than is currently known.	eng
55643	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation above forest streams. Since it is only known from the edge of streams it is thought to be able to tolerate some disturbance of the forest as long as the forest edge by the stream remains intact. Its breeding habits have not been observed, although it is known to have large larvae that take a long time to develop.	eng
55643	population		It has been collected only twice in the past 25 years, despite many surveys of the area, suggesting that it is a rare species.	eng
55643	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the cultivation of illegal crops in the park, in particular the water pollution arising from the chemical sprays used on the illegal crops.	eng
55644	conservation		Several populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55644	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon Basin in Venezuela (one record in the Cerro Neblina in extreme southern Amazonas state), Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northwestern Bolivia. In Ecuador it occurs in the Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests and Napo Moist Forests in Eastern Subtropical, Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zones. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,200m asl.	eng
55644	habitat		This nocturnal, arboreal species inhabits understorey vegetation in primary and secondary tropical rainforest, and forest edges. Individuals can be found in altered areas (QCAZ database). The eggs are laid out of water, the larvae is laid in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55644	population		It is a fairly common species in Peru and Ecuador. It is apparently less common elsewhere.	eng
55644	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55645	conservation	Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is protected by national legislation and is present in some protected areas.	eng
55645	distribution	Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean Islands of Corsica (France) and Elba, Cavallo, Monte Cristo, Sardinia, Maddalena, Caprera and San Pietro (Italy). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,750m asl (Corsica).	eng
55645	habitat	Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found within the vicinity of pools, ponds and streams, usually in woody areas. In residential areas they can be found in gardens, as long as there is nearby water. It reproduces in springs, cisterns and other suitable waterbodies.	eng
55645	population	Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is still quite widespread and common, especially in Corsica and Sardinia. The populations on the smaller islets are subject to fluctuations in size related to the temporary character of the breeding sites.	eng
55645	threats	Franco Andreone, Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There are no significant threats to this species at present.	eng
55646	conservation		The range of this species includes Chamela Biosphere Reserve. Protection and restoration of the remaining isolated forest fragments is recommended. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55646	distribution		This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Mexico from southern Jalisco to Oaxaca. There are records from Jalisco, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. It probably has a reasonably wide altitudinal range, and the type locality is at 1,968m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55646	habitat		This species inhabits lowland dry tropical forest. It is commonly found in temporary ponds during the rainy season, and has a short breeding season.	eng
55646	population		This species is common. It is often collected along the Pacific coast of Mexico.	eng
55646	threats		The small patches of cloud forest in this region are continuously being transformed to open cultivation areas reducing the habitat available to the species.	eng
55647	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Present in protected areas in Georgia (Hoseov and Skibahoa Reserves), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Jordan (Dana and Al Mujib Wildlife Reserves) and Lebanon (Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour).  It is present in several protected areas in Turkey. The contact zone between <em>H. savignyi</em> and <em>H. arborea</em> in Georgia requires special attention (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.)	eng
55647	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, U?ur Kaya, 2008	It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Present in protected areas in Georgia (Hoseov and Skibahoa Reserves), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Jordan (Dana and Al Mujib Wildlife Reserves) and Lebanon (Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour).  It is present in several protected areas in Turkey. The contact zone between <em>H. savignyi</em> and <em>H. arborea</em> in Georgia requires special attention (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.)	eng
55647	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is widespread in western Asia and southern Transcaucasia, including Cyprus, southeastern Turkey, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula (the Asir region of southern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen), Iran (Zagros region, and an isolated population in Golestan National Park [Max Kasparek pers. comm. November 2008]), northern Iraq, Talysh (Azerbaijan), Armenia, and northwestwards to Tbilisi, (Georgia). It has also been reported from the northeastern region of Sinai, Egypt (first recorded in the early 1990's). It is present from 400m below sea level (Jordan) to above 1,800m.	eng
55647	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This species is widespread in western Asia and southern Transcaucasia, including Cyprus, southeastern Turkey, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula (the Asir region of southern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen), Iran (Zagros region, and an isolated population in Golestan National Park [Max Kasparek pers. comm. November 2008]), northern Iraq, Talysh (Azerbaijan), Armenia, and northwestwards to Tbilisi, (Georgia). It has also been reported from the northeastern region of Sinai, Egypt (first recorded in the early 1990's). It is present from 400m below sea level (Jordan) to above 1,800m.	eng
55647	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Uğur Kaya, 2009	The species lives in much drier landscapes than <em>Hyla arborea</em>, including steppes, deserts and semi-deserts. It is also present in gardens, bush lands, montane forest edges, open oak and juniper forests, and areas with permanent or semi permanent water sources (including oasis) with good surrounding vegetation (e.g.. <em>Phragmites</em>, Oleander). The species may be found at considerable distances from waterbodies in xeric environments, such as rocky slopes and on the xerophytic bush <em>Alhagi pseudoalhagi</em>. Spawning and larval development takes place in small stagnant waterbodies, drainage canals and slow flowing brooks with dense herbaceous and shrub vegetation. The species is able to adapt to light habitat modification, and may be found in rural, or semi-urban, areas where suitable wetland habitat exists.	eng
55647	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, U?ur Kaya, 2008	The species lives in much drier landscapes than <em>Hyla arborea</em>, including steppes, deserts and semi-deserts. It is also present in gardens, bush lands, montane forest edges, open oak and juniper forests, and areas with permanent or semi permanent water sources (including oasis) with good surrounding vegetation (e.g.. <em>Phragmites</em>, Oleander). The species may be found at considerable distances from waterbodies in xeric environments, such as rocky slopes and on the xerophytic bush <em>Alhagi pseudoalhagi</em>. Spawning and larval development takes place in small stagnant waterbodies, drainage canals and slow flowing brooks with dense herbaceous and shrub vegetation. The species is able to adapt to light habitat modification, and may be found in rural, or semi-urban, areas where suitable wetland habitat exists.	eng
55647	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. It is the most abundant amphibian species in Israel; it is very common in Lebanon and is considered to be rare in Jordan.	eng
55647	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, U?ur Kaya, 2008	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat. It is the most abundant amphibian species in Israel; it is very common in Lebanon and is considered to be rare in Jordan.	eng
55647	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Uğur Kaya, 2009	Severe drought, drying from water extraction, overgrazing and habitat loss might lead to localized declines. In Syrian Arab Republic and the Arabian Peninsula it might be threatened by water pollution and anthropogenic changes of habitat. In Israel, available breeding sites have declined by up to 30% in recent years.	eng
55647	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, David Tarkhnishvili, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, U?ur Kaya, 2008	Severe drought, drying from water extraction, overgrazing and habitat loss might lead to localized declines. In Syrian Arab Republic and the Arabian Peninsula it might be threatened by water pollution and anthropogenic changes of habitat. In Israel, available breeding sites have declined by up to 30% in recent years.	eng
55648	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó.	eng
55648	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It has been recorded from above 1,000m asl.	eng
55648	habitat		It occurs on stones and rocks near permanent and temporary streams with running water in the Cerrado. The egg clutches are attached to the substrate and are well sheltered in rock crevices or under stones. Tadpoles are found only in permanent streams where males also call. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55648	population		It is a common species.	eng
55648	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fire, and the disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.	eng
55649	conservation		Its range includes the protected area of Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.	eng
55649	distribution		This species is known from two localities: the type locality in Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra; and Uberlandia, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
55649	habitat		This species inhabits gallery forests and occurs on low vegetation in the margins of streams. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. The larvae are found in small ponds at the edges of the streams.	eng
55649	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55649	threats		The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging, fires and the construction of dams.	eng
55650	conservation		In Bolivia it is present within the Manuripi Heath Nature Reserve. It is found within a number of conservation areas in Brazil including Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, in Acre State.	eng
55650	distribution		This species is present in Rondonia State and western Acre State Brazil, southeastern Peru (Cusco Amazonico), and northern and central Bolivia. It is present below 300m asl.	eng
55650	habitat		It is present in swamps at the edge of tropical moist tropical forest. Breeding is assumed to take place in these wetlands. It may be found in slightly degraded habitat.	eng
55650	population		It is a reasonably abundant species.	eng
55650	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55651	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected area in Brazil.	eng
55651	distribution		Hypsiboas semiguttatus occurs in the slopes of the Serra do Mar from the Municıpality of Piraquara in the state of<br/>Paraná (25 29 05 S, 48 59 02 W), through the Municipality of São Bento do Sul (26 15 01 S, 49 22 43 W), reaching Municipality of Rio dos Cedros (26 41 10 S, 49 20 00 W), both in the state of Santa Catarina, this last one being its southernmost record. The region is considered an area of contact between the Araucaria forest and the<br/>Atlantic forest, at 800–1200 masl (Garcia et al., 2007).	eng
55651	habitat		This species occurs on the slopes of rainforest in vegetation along rivers. It reproduces in streams and tolerates habitat disturbance.<br/><br/>Males call from vegetation, from October to February. Males start calling 1–2 h after sunset, on the margins of small dams that are filled by clean water streams from inside the forest. Males call from twigs or grassy vegetation at heights ranging between 0.1– 1.0 meter, close to water. Tadpoles are found in areas of calm water in the same streams (Garcia et al., 2007). The advertisement call of this species is described in Garcia et al. (2007).	eng
55651	population		This species is uncommon; its populations fluctuate but persist.	eng
55651	threats		This species' major threat includes deforestation, water pollution and tourism.	eng
55652	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55652	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2004	This species occurs in eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco in the north, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55652	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2004	It lives in primary and secondary forest, coastal restinga scrub, and also disturbed habitats, such as pastureland, but needs shrubs and cover. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies in clearings or on the forest edge. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds, and on the margins of lakes and reservoirs.	eng
55652	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2004	It is a common species.	eng
55652	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2004	It is a very adaptable species and is not facing any known threats.<br/><br/>It has, however, recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55653	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Jaime Bertoluci, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55653	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Jaime Bertoluci, 2008	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from Porto Seguro in the southern part of the State of Bahia, south though eastern Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro, to Capão Bonito in the State of São Paulo. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55653	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Jaime Bertoluci, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forest, and in gardens, but not in very open habitats. It is usually found on vegetation or on the ground near marshy patches, but is sometimes high up in trees where it is hard to find. It is an explosive breeder in temporary and permanent ponds on forest edges. Reproductive activity has been reported for the months of January and February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). The tadpoles eat other tadpoles.	eng
55653	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Jaime Bertoluci, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55653	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Jaime Bertoluci, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.	eng
55654	conservation		It is not known if it is present in any protected areas.	eng
55654	distribution		This species is mostly found in the central eastern coastal region of Bahia State, Brazil, although an Atlantic forest population is also present in Santa Terezinha Municipality in eastern Bahia. The altitudinal range of this species is approximately 20-720m asl, and it probably occurs at least a little more widely than is currently known.	eng
55654	habitat		This is a species generally associated with tall Restinga (coastal) forest that has also been collected in little-disturbed primary Atlantic forest. The Restinga vegetation is mostly large trees with a dense understorey on a sandy substrate. Individuals can be found calling from bromeliads. Breeding takes place in the slow backwaters of fast-flowing streams.	eng
55654	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55654	threats		It is probably threatened by disturbance of the Restinga forests due to agricultural development, logging and development of infrastructure for tourism and human settlement.	eng
55655	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55655	distribution		This species occurs in the state of Bolívar in Venezuela, and in the adjacent portion of western Guyana (Mt Ayanganna and Paramakatoi), from 500-1,850m asl.	eng
55655	habitat		It inhabits tropical rainforests, where it is found on leaves of low herbaceous plants and bushes usually over slow moving streams. Males have been found on exposed bedrock in streams of gallery forests and calling from marginal vegetation at heights up to 3m above the water. The eggs are laid in pools and slow moving streams, where the larvae also develop.	eng
55655	population		It appears to be a common species.	eng
55655	threats		There are no major threats to the species overall at present, since it occurs in a region where there are minimal impacts to its habitat.	eng
55656	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this represents a complex of species.	eng
55656	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia to Valle del Cauca Departments, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,100-2,000m asl.	eng
55656	habitat		It is found on low vegetation alongside streams in primary forest and secondary forest. It can tolerate some habitat destruction as long as vegetation remains alongside the stream. Eggs are laid on the top of leaves above the stream and when hatched the larvae drop into the stream below where they then develop further.	eng
55656	population		It is a common species.	eng
55656	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming and subsistence logging, and water pollution from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55657	conservation		The species' range overlaps with Tam Dao National Park and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam and many protected areas in China. Its population status and distribution data are required for Viet Nam.	eng
55657	distribution		This species is found in central and northern Viet Nam and in Zhejiang, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces in south and central China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The altitudinal range is between 400-900m asl.	eng
55657	habitat		This is an arboreal species inhabiting montane areas including cultivated fields, bamboo forests and shrubland. It breeds in rice fields and permanent pools.	eng
55657	population		It is common within its range.	eng
55657	threats		Habitat degradation is a potential threat to this species.	eng
55658	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	The range of this species falls entirely in the Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote. In view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to determine whether or not this species still survives; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
55658	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	This species is known only from the west slope of the Cofre de Perote Mountain, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,500-2,550 m asl.	eng
55658	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	It inhabits dry pine forest, and is found only in mountain streams in crevices and rocks.	eng
55658	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	This species used to be abundant, but it has not been collected in over 10 years despite numerous surveys in suitable habitats in the area from which it has been recorded.	eng
55658	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	The major threat to this species is the disappearance of suitable stream habitat. Its apparent disappearance in areas of remaining suitable habitat is suggestive of a threat such as chytridiomycosis, so this requires investigation. At the type locality, the frogs were known only from a single ravine and spring source. The spring had been capped and the flow directed via pipeline down the mountain towards an army outpost below. It appears there is no habitat for this species to breed in since the diversion of the spring flow (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2006).	eng
55659	conservation		The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, which is a well-preserved and protected area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55659	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra de Coalcoman and Cordillera Volcanica in Mexico. Michoacán, state of Mexico and Morelos, knows it from southern Sinaloa southward. It occurs from 100-1,500m asl.	eng
55659	habitat		This species inhabits tropical and semi deciduous forest and is also found in pine-oak forest. It breeds in water.	eng
55659	population		This is a common species.	eng
55659	threats		The major threat to this species is the disturbance and transformation of its forest habitat.	eng
55660	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs in at least two biosphere reserves including Chamela-Cuixmala, as well as other national parks. At present, no conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
55660	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs from central Sinaloa, southward along the Pacific lowlands to southern Oaxaca, and inland in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in Morelos and Puebla, Mexico. It occurs up to 1,332m asl.	eng
55660	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species inhabits subhumid lowlands in seasonal forests. It is highly associated with temporal streams and ponds where it breeds.	eng
55660	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This is a very common species. Several surveys conducted in central and Pacific Mexico report the presence of abundant populations of this species.	eng
55660	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	No specific threats have been identified for this species, but local populations are presumably impacted by deforestation.	eng
55661	conservation		It has not been confirmed from any protected areas.	eng
55661	distribution		This species occurs over a large area of northeastern Brazil from Manga in the north of the State of Minas Gerais, west to Sao Salvador do Tocantins in the State of Tocantins, north to Sao Pedro de Agua Branca and Ilha de Sao Luis in the State of Maranhao, east to Mamanguape in the State of Paraíba.	eng
55661	habitat		It lives in dry and moist savannah and shrubland, and is found on low vegetation near permanent and temporary ponds. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds.	eng
55661	population		It is a common species.	eng
55661	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, human settlement and fire.	eng
55662	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
55662	distribution		This species is known from Coastal Plain of the eastern USA from southeastern Virginia to Florida Keys, west to southeastern Texas (Conant and Collins, 1991). There are isolated occurrences in Mississippi, North Carolina, and northern Virginia. It is introduced on Grand Bahama Island and Little Bahama Bank (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991).	eng
55662	habitat		Open woods, cities, and towns; thick low vegetation near water; wherever there is adequate moisture, hiding places, nearby standing water, and insect food. When inactive, hides under loose bark, palm leaves, in tree holes, in gardens, and in other protected sites. There is a non-breeding "rain call" given by males from trees and bushes when rainfall is impending. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded roadside ditches, flat woods ponds, swamps, and small, semi permanent stock-watering ponds. Males call from debris and twigs above water, on ground near water, or hidden in grass clumps adjacent to permanent or temporary rain pools of moderate depth (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
55662	population		Often abundant, these species populations are likely to be stable.	eng
55662	threats		There are no major pervasive threats. It adapts to moderate habitat disturbance.	eng
55663	conservation		The geographic range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco. Continued and strengthened management of this reserve, and expanded protection of cloud forest elsewhere in the range of this species, are needed. Further survey work is necessary to determine its current population status, and whether chytrid poses a threat.	eng
55663	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Napo Province, Ecuador: Volcán Sumaco, and the Cordillera de Guacamayos. It probably occurs a little more widely. Its altitudinal range is 2,040-2,500m asl.	eng
55663	habitat		It lives in very humid, low cloud forest, and breeds in streams. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats.	eng
55663	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55663	threats		The main threat is forest clearance due to agriculture, livestock farming, and wood extraction. It lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55664	conservation		Its range is not within any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55664	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Poços de Caldas, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at about 1,200m asl.	eng
55664	habitat		The specimens were collected in savannah. This species is believed to be a stream breeder.	eng
55664	population		It has not been collected again since it was first described, and its current population status is not known.	eng
55664	threats		Mining and infrastructure development are major threats to the habitat in the region of the type locality, although there is no information known regarding specific threats to this species.	eng
55665	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species considering its small range.	eng
55665	distribution		This species is found on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Boyacá Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,000-2,020m asl.	eng
55665	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, and temporary pools.	eng
55665	population		This species is abundant and there are many recent records. Some populations even appear to be increasing.	eng
55665	threats		There are no current major threats; however, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
55666	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55666	distribution		This recently described species is known from Quebrangulo, in Alagoas State, Brazil, where it has not been observed below 600m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.	eng
55666	habitat		This species is known from grassland areas with rushes. It breeds in small pools and puddles, in which the larvae develop.	eng
55666	population		Its population status is unknown. It is found in seasonal spawning aggregations, whereas it is encountered less frequently outside rainy periods.	eng
55666	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55667	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, but has not been recorded from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55667	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern lowlands and cordilleras in the Darien Province of Panama, and in adjacent Colombia, extending the western and northern slopes of the Western Cordillera, as far south as the Department of Risaralda, and east to the middle Magdalena Valley in the Departments of Cunidnamarca and Boyaca. It occurs below 500m asl.	eng
55667	habitat		It is an arboreal species of humid lowland forest, which is able to survive in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55667	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
55667	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55668	conservation		The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. Protection of the remaining forest areas in southern Mexico is important. A declaration of the Chimalapas region as a biosphere reserve is urgently needed.	eng
55668	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of central Guerrero and eastern central Oaxaca, southward through the isthmus of Tehuantepec to northwestern Chiapas, Mexico. It is also found on the slopes of the Chiapan highlands, mainly in the Río Grijalva drainage, Mexico.	eng
55668	habitat		This species inhabits sub-humid oak and pine forest. It is commonly found in arboreal bromeliads. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
55668	population		This is a common species.	eng
55668	threats		Transformation or disturbance of the original forest habitat of the species is a major threat.	eng
55669	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55669	distribution		There is no indication of the type locality of this species in the literature. It is not known whether or not it is from Suriname, even though the name might imply this. It is known only from an illustration drawn in the 1700s.	eng
55669	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat and ecology.	eng
55669	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
55669	threats		There is no information on this species’ major threats.	eng
55670	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55670	distribution		This species is only known from Suwon in north-western Republic of Korea. Its distribution is not well known, but it probably occurs more widely than currently suggested.	eng
55670	habitat		There is very little information on its habitat and ecological requirements. It is known to inhabit paddy fields, and it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55670	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
55670	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55671	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for protection of the remaining cloud forest remnants in this area. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further research is needed to determine the levels of offtake of this species from the wild.	eng
55671	distribution		This species occurs in north-eastern Hidalgo, southward through northern Puebla to central Veracruz, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs at intermediate elevations.	eng
55671	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests characterized by moderate to low temperatures and high humidity. It is always associated with streams and epiphytic plants. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
55671	population		This is a common species. Several surveys conducted in the last few years in the Hidalgo-Veracruz region report healthy populations along its range.	eng
55671	threats		Transformation of the forest into cultivated areas affects the presence of trees and epiphytic plants, the preferred habitat of this species. In some towns in Veracruz, this species is consumed as a traditional cooked dish; however, there is no information on the level of offtake.	eng
55672	conservation		The only protected area from which it has been recorded so far is the Reserva Tapichalaca.	eng
55672	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of a small stream on the road between Yangana and Valladolid, in the Reserva Tapichalaca in Zamora-Chinchipe Province, Ecuador, where specimens were collected at around 2,667m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.	eng
55672	habitat		It was collected close to a stream in montane cloud forest, where a male specimen was recorded calling on a branch approximately 2.5m from the ground. It is presumed that the larvae develop in streams.	eng
55672	population		This species is known only from the recently collected type series.	eng
55672	threats		The threats to this species are not known. The only known population is in a protected area, but it is likely to occur in areas where its habitat is being degraded.	eng
55673	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection of the forested areas surrounding San Gabriel Mixtepec and Puerto del Gallo is recommended. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; if the threat of chytrid proves to be real, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55673	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Oaxaca and Guerrero, Mexico, in the vicinity of San Gabriel Mixtepec, south-western Oaxaca and Puerto del Gallo, Guerrero, Mexico, at elevations of 1,600-1,900m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55673	habitat		A stream-breeding species, it occurs in pine-oak forest, and individuals are often found on low vegetation such as ferns and bushes along mountain streams.	eng
55673	population		This was never a common species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it within known localities have been unsuccessful.	eng
55673	threats		Clearance of the original forest cover for conversion to agricultural land in the region is a threat to this species. However, the species has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55674	conservation		It has been recorded from a single protected area: Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
55674	distribution		This species is a Panamanian endemic restricted to Cerro Mali, adjacent to Colombia, at 1,265m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
55674	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, where it is an arboreal species that presumably breeds in water.	eng
55674	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type specimen.	eng
55674	threats		It has no known threats.	eng
55675	conservation		This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica. Further research is urgently needed into the ecology and population status of this frog; in view of the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55675	distribution		This species occurs in the lowest portion of the humid lower montane zone in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,100-1,650m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55675	habitat		It is a nocturnal tree frog occurring in humid premontane and lower montane rainforest areas. Males usually call from vegetation overhanging the fastest-flowing stretches of streams, 1-3m above the water. Amplexus and oviposition are unknown for this species. Eggs are deposited under rocks in streams, and the tadpoles attach themselves to rocks by means of the large oral funnel (Savage 2002).	eng
55675	population		In Costa Rica, it has disappeared from Monteverde, Tapantí, and Las Tablas where it once was common. As of August, 2007, even though some survey effort has taken place in the range there have been no recent records from Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). In Panama, there were records from the Cerro Horqueta highlands of Chiriquí in 1982. It used to be seen regularly at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí (Panama), but its population collapsed in January 1997, and it has not been seen there since. This is possibly the last record from Panama, and it seems that it might have disappeared from this country as well.	eng
55675	threats		The observed population decline has taken place in pristine habitats, and might be due to chytridiomycosis, and perhaps also the effects of climate change. It is generally also affected by habitat loss as a result of logging.	eng
55676	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55676	distribution		This species occurs in Acre (state), Brazil. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
55676	habitat		It is not usually found around temporary waterbodies in the tropical rainforest and in disturbed secondary habitats and it reproduces in temporary pools.	eng
55676	population		This species is locally abundant.	eng
55676	threats		There are no major threats and it adapts well to deforestation.	eng
55677	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55677	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality north of Ipanoré in Amazonas State, Brazil. It is likely to occur more widely. Attempts to map its range for this assessment should be regarded as very approximate, in view of the lack of specificity of the type locality.	eng
55677	habitat		It is probably found in the understorey vegetation of tropical rainforest, and it presumably breeds in water.	eng
55677	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
55677	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55678	conservation		It might be found in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador, and might also occur on Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasi in Colombia. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55678	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (two localities: La Barquilla and El Reventador in Sucumbios Province and Napo Province) and Colombia (eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Caqueta and Putumayo). It might be more widespread than records suggest. Its altitudinal range is 740-1,700m asl.	eng
55678	habitat		It inhabits cloud forests, as well as secondary forest. It is a stream-breeding species, particularly associated with creeks, streams and swampy areas in forest, especially with vegetation overhanging streams.	eng
55678	population		It is a moderately common species.	eng
55678	threats		The major threats are habitat loss from agricultural development, planting of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. The species lives in habitats where catastrophic extinctions have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling tadpoles, probably due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
55679	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55679	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon Basin in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Bolivia, and Brazil. It occurs up to 800 masl in Ecuador.	eng
55679	habitat		Although this species occurs in primary and secondary tropical rainforest, it most commonly is found around temporary ponds in clearings near forest. This species inhabits a variety of non-forest situations (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). Reproduction occurs in temporary bodies of water. Eggs are laid out of water, on leaves while tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
55679	population		It is uncommon throughout most of its range. Can be common in aquiculture ponds in Ecuador.	eng
55679	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55680	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of this species complex. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55680	distribution		This species is known from southern Mato Grosso and northern Mato Grosso do Sul, in Brazil, to the department of Beni, in eastern Bolivia and the department of La Paz, in western Bolivia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to 700m asl.	eng
55680	habitat		It occurs in the Pantanal, Cerrado, and flooded savannahs. It breeds on low vegetation near waterbodies such as rivers or in marshy grounds. It is not well adapted to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55680	population		It is a common species.	eng
55680	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.	eng
55681	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas. While additional survey work is urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is still extant in its natural range, a program to protect the forest areas surrounding the Cerro Teótepec is also recommended. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55681	distribution		This species is found only on the slopes of Cerro Teótepec, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,760-2,415m asl.	eng
55681	habitat		This species inhabits pine-oak and bamboo-tree fern forests. It is commonly found associated with cascading mountain streams where it breeds.	eng
55681	population		This is a rare species. Recent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful, suggesting a population decline, and it might even be extinct.	eng
55681	threats		It has possibly been impacted by chytridiomycosis. In addition, the transformation of the forests along the transect between Filo de Caballo and Atoyac to open agricultural lands and farmlands is having a detrimental impact on the remaining habitat of this species.	eng
55682	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.	eng
55682	distribution		This species is known from southern Shaanxi, southern Gansu, eastern Sichuan and central Anhui provinces in central China, from 600-2,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
55682	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, shrubland, grassland, edges of rivers and ponds in hilly areas. It breeds in still water in paddy fields and pools.	eng
55682	population		It is declining over some parts of its range.	eng
55682	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
55683	conservation		Present in El Pure National Park, Colombia and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística, Ecuador.	eng
55683	distribution		This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin of western Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-600m asl.	eng
55683	habitat		It is a canopy species observed in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is not recorded from secondary or modified habitat. Nothing further is known about this species, though it is likely to breed in water.	eng
55683	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55683	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55684	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil. It is not known from protected areas in Argentina or Uruguay.	eng
55684	distribution		There are a few localities in the departments of Treinta y Tres, Cerro Largo, and Tacuarembó in Uruguay and disjunctive in southern Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), and Corrientes in Argentina. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 90-1,000m asl.	eng
55684	habitat		It is exclusively living in open grassy habitats. It occurs in small waterbodies, such as ponds or temporary puddles where it breeds explosively.	eng
55684	population		It is uncommon but stable in Brazil. It is considered abundant in Argentina and Uruguay.	eng
55684	threats		One major threat is habitat degradation due to agricultural activities and water pollution. Fire is also a potential threat.	eng
55685	conservation		The range of the species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas, which is quite well managed. However, protection and restoration of the Volcán Sán Martin and surrounding areas is urgently required to ensure the species' persistence. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55685	distribution		This species is found in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas at Volcán San Martin, southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from 500-1,180m asl. There is also one specimen from Toledo District in Belize that has been assigned to this species, but further taxonomic work is required to confirm the identity of this population, which probably belongs to another species.	eng
55685	habitat		This species inhabits tropical rainforest on the slopes of Volcán San Martin. It is probably a stream-breeding species.	eng
55685	population		This is a rare species, and it is known from only two specimens collected at the type locality.	eng
55685	threats		Disturbance and transformation of the original forest habitat, primarily due to agricultural development, is a major threat to this species in its range (outside Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas).	eng
55686	conservation		It is not currently known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55686	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Selva Río de Oro, Chaco Province, Argentina, at 70m asl.	eng
55686	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is likely to breed in water.	eng
55686	population		It is known only from the type specimen collected in the 1960s, and has not been observed during at least three attempts to find it in recent years.	eng
55686	threats		Its major threats are not known.	eng
55687	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
55687	distribution		This species' geographic range is not precisely determined, although it covers much of the eastern USA and southeastern Canada. It is sympatric with H. chrysoscelis in Wisconsin, south-central U.S., and probably many other areas. See Little <em>et al.</em> (1989) for distribution in West Virginia, southern Ohio, and southwestern Pennsylvania. See McAlpine <em>et al.</em> (1991) for information on distribution in eastern Maine and southwestern New Brunswick.	eng
55687	habitat		It inhabits various kinds of wooded and forested habitats. It is both arboreal and terrestrial. It hides in tree holes, under bark, in rotten logs, under leaves, and under tree roots when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow woodland ponds and marshes, puddles, ponds in forest clearings, swamps, bogs, and many other kinds of permanent or temporary waters lacking a significant current, including ponds created through excavation by humans. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992). In central Ontario, embryos and larvae exhibited high degree of acid tolerance (J. Herpetol. 26:1-6).	eng
55687	population		The total adult population size is unknown but it is abundant and probably stable.	eng
55687	threats		This species is not threatened overall. Introduced bluegill sunfish might cause declines in larval tree frog abundance (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
55688	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55688	distribution		This species occurs widely in northern Colombia (including in the Magdalena River basin) and in northern and western Venezuela (including around Lake Maracaibo). In both countries it is also found in the Llanos ecosystem east of the Andes, in Barinas and Apure states in Venezuela, and in Arauca and Casanare states in Colombia. It occurs below 500m asl.	eng
55688	habitat		It is a nocturnal species of low altitude open environments of lowlands, including flooded grasslands, degraded areas with low vegetation, and shallow standing water. It breeds in standing water and swamps.	eng
55688	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55688	threats		It is a very adaptable species, which is not facing any known threats.	eng
55689	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
55689	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality in Gámbita, Santander Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental. Its altitudinal range is from 1,750-2,400m asl.	eng
55689	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in shrubs in flooded pastures, marshes, temporary pools.	eng
55689	population		It is abundant, and there are many recent records. It appears to be increasing in its population.	eng
55689	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55690	conservation		Conservation units are present within its range	eng
55690	distribution		This species is widespread in central Amazonia, Brazil.	eng
55690	habitat		It occurs in natural and artificial temporary ponds, forest edges, open areas, pastures, urban areas, and river edges. Its eggs and tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
55690	population		It is very abundant.	eng
55690	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55691	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello in Mexico, but is not recorded from any protected areas in Guatemala.	eng
55691	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of central Chiapas, Mexico, south-west to the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. In Guatemala, it occurs on the central Plateaus and in the south-east (1,450-2,340m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55691	habitat		It occurs in pine-oak and pine-fir forests and high grasslands. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds.	eng
55691	population		It is uncommon in Guatemala and has not been seen since 1995. Extensive recent surveys in the last few years indicate that this species is nearing extirpation in this country. It is still abundant in Chiapas.	eng
55691	threats		Loss of habitat due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is the major threat.	eng
55692	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55692	distribution		This species is known from the northern slopes of Mount Roraima and the slopes of Mount Ayanganna in west-central Guyana, from 1,480-1,550m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
55692	habitat		It has been recorded in primary montane forest. There is no information available about its breeding habits, but reproduction is likely to take place in water.	eng
55692	population		It is not thought to be a common species.	eng
55692	threats		There are no known threats and this species' known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.	eng
55693	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55693	distribution		This species is known from the low elevation Amazonian drainage of southeastern Colombia, southern Venezuela (Amazonas State), and central Amazonian Brazil. It occurs from up to 80-400m asl.	eng
55693	habitat		It is found in trees in tropical rainforest next to lakes, permanent waterbodies or flooded forest (igapo), especially in rivers of clear or black waters in the Amazon basin. It also occurs along side rivers in savannah enclaves in Amazonia. It lays its eggs in streams (no nests). The tadpoles live in the streams.	eng
55693	population		It appears not to be a common frog. It has been confused in the past with Hyla boans.	eng
55693	threats		There are no threats to the species overall at present, since most of its range is in areas of minimal human impact, although there are some localized threats.	eng
55694	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55694	distribution		This species from southern and southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Sao Paulo, Parana and Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 800m asl.	eng
55694	habitat		It is a species of flooded areas, such as abandoned rice fields. It is usually found on vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary and semi-permanent still waterbodies, and also semi-permanent swamps on forest edge. It is not found inside forest.	eng
55694	population		It is a common species.	eng
55694	threats		It is a very adaptable species and is not facing any known threats.	eng
55695	conservation		It occurs in the Estação Biológica de Santa Lucia and the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
55695	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of Santa Tereza Municipality, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650m asl, and from a newly discovered locality, Fazenda Palmeira, in Itapebi Municipality in the state of Bahia.	eng
55695	habitat		It is restricted to forest, including secondary forests, and can tolerate a degree of disturbance, but it is not found in open or severely degraded areas. It is usually found on vegetation near water, and breeds in forest streams.	eng
55695	population		It is common at the type locality, and there have been some recent collections there.	eng
55695	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
55696	conservation		The range of this species includes numerous protected areas.	eng
55696	distribution		This species can be found at the Mountains of central Arizona and south-eastward into west-central New Mexico; isolated population in Huachuca Mountains, Cochise County, southern Arizona; ranges southward into Mexico in the Sierra Madre Occidental to southern Chihuahua (Duellman 2001) and perhaps to north of the Mexico City region, but the precise distribution in Mexico is unclear due to taxonomic uncertainties (Frost 2002, Crother <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs at about 910-2,900m asl (Stebbins 2003).	eng
55696	habitat		In the USA it is found in wet meadows, near shallow pools, ponds, and slow-moving streams, in oak-pine and ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests. It occurs on the ground or in shrubs and trees. It breeds in shallow pools, ponds, and slow moving streams. Egg masses are attached to vegetation just below the water (Behler and King 1979).	eng
55696	population		There are numerous secure populations of this species.	eng
55696	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55697	conservation		The original collecting locality is protected within the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
55697	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the south fork of the Río Las Vueltas, on the south slope of Volcán Barva in Heredia Province, Costa Rica, at 2,100m asl.	eng
55697	habitat		It was found in lower montane rainforest and presumably breeds in water.	eng
55697	population		There is no information on its population status, as this species is known only from two specimens from the same locality (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
55697	threats		If this species has declined or disappeared, it would have happened in pristine habitat, and possible threats would therefore include chytridiomycosis, climate change and airborne pollution.	eng
55698	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55698	distribution		This species occurs in the State of Acre, Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
55698	habitat		It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in open grassland areas and disturbed habitats. It reproduces in temporary waterbodies.	eng
55698	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55698	threats		There are no major threats because it adapts well to deforestation.	eng
55699	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2008	The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera del Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán.	eng
55699	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2008	This species is known from south-western Zapotitlán de las Salinas, central Puebla, and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It might occur more widely than is currently known. It occurs at about 1,500m asl.	eng
55699	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2008	This stream-breeding amphibian inhabits temporary streams with rocks and arid scrub vegetation that provide suitable microhabitats. It seeks refuge in bromeliads during the dry season.	eng
55699	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55699	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2008	The major threat is the ongoing disturbance and loss of the species' arid tropical scrub habitat due to infrastructure development, partly due to the construction of tourist facilities.	eng
55700	conservation		Part of the range of this species is likely to be within Parque Nacional Yurubí.	eng
55700	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality, stated to be "Los Bacos" (Mijares-Urrutia and Rivero 2000) in the municipality of Bolívar, in the Sierra de Aroa in Yaracuy State, Venezuela (about 10° 22'N; 68° 50'W), at 1,580-1,600m asl. It might have a wider distribution within the Sierra de Aroa, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
55700	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forests that is likely to breed in water.	eng
55700	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55700	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), as well as logging. However, the cloud forests that this species inhabits, in spite of having been reduced in area, are still extensive and continuous above 1,000m asl.	eng
55701	conservation		This species is known from a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.	eng
55701	distribution		This species can be found in humid premontane areas or marginally in the lower montane zone of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,200-1,804m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55701	habitat		It inhabits bromeliads in humid montane forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in the bromeliads (phytotelmic species), with eggs laid on the outside leaves above the waterline in the bromeliad cups (Savage 2002). Populations can persist outside of forest where suitable trees with bromeliads remain, for instance within some pastures (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
55701	population		The available evidence suggests that Costa Rican populations are apparently stable in suitable habitat, and have not had the confirmed declines exhibited in many other montane species (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.), (although this observation may be linked to the difficulty in recording densities of this canopy species, Karen Lips pers. comm, 2007). As of 2007, there is little new information on the status of Panamanian populations (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm., 2007).	eng
55701	threats		The threats to this species are not well known, but in Panama they likely include general habitat loss as a result of logging, human settlement, and some agricultural activities. There are no threats to this species in Costa Rica.	eng
55702	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55702	distribution		This species is restricted to the Zhaoping area in eastern Guangxi, China, at around 140m asl, although it might be found to occur more widely.	eng
55702	habitat		Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, although it has been found inhabiting banana groves near a village. Its breeding habits are not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
55702	population		There is very little information on its population status.	eng
55702	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
55703	conservation	Débora Silvano, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It occurs in Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, Ceplac (Itabuna), Reserva Biólogica de Una, and Parque Nacional Descobrimento.	eng
55703	distribution	Débora Silvano, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	This species is known from the southern coastal area of the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil: from Itabuna south to Prado. It occurs very close to the sea, up to 50m asl.	eng
55703	habitat	Débora Silvano, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It lives in forest and forest edge, but not in more open habitats. It has been found in swamps on the forest edge, and in puddles inside, and on the edge, of forest. <br/><br/>It can be found perched on leaves of marginal vegetation of temporary ponds inside undisturbed or secondary forest patches (Pimenta et al., 2007).<br/><br/>It breeds in temporary puddles.	eng
55703	population	Débora Silvano, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It is very abundant within its small range.	eng
55703	threats	Débora Silvano, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. It is inherently at risk because of its very restricted range.	eng
55704	conservation		It occurs in four protected areas: Reserva Particular do Patrimonio Usina Frei Caneca; Parque Ecologio Vasconales Soburiho; Reserva Ecologia de Dois Irmaos, and Estação Ecológica de Murici.	eng
55704	distribution		This species is known from several localities in the northern part of the State of Alagoas and in the State of Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
55704	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, including secondary forest, and breeds in streams. It does not occur in open or degraded areas.	eng
55704	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
55704	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
55705	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and abundance of this species need to be researched. Its known locality is not within a protected area.	eng
55705	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Aitape, in northern coastal Papua New Guinea.	eng
55705	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown, but it possibly lives in rainforest, or possibly grassland. There is no information known regarding its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumed to be by larval development in water.	eng
55705	population		It has not been recorded again since it was first discovered, and it is considered to be a rare species.	eng
55705	threats		Insufficient data are available to determine what its major threats are.	eng
55706	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55706	distribution		This species is widespread across mainland New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula in Papua New Guinea in the east to Ambon in Indonesia in the west. It is also found on the Indonesia islands Misool and Seram. It is a lowland species, occurring below 700m.	eng
55706	habitat		It lives in tropical forest, including degraded forest, calling from trees adjacent to forest swamps. It is less common outside forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools and swamps.	eng
55706	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55706	threats		Its habitat is extensive and the species is not threatened at the present time.	eng
55707	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programs should be initiated for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas, however these areas require better management.	eng
55707	distribution		This species is widespread in the upland forests of New Guinea from Okapa in the central-eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea including the Huon Peninsular, to the Anggi Lakes region of the Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia. It is also known from Agaun in Milne Bay Province, southeastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs between 1,200-3,300m asl.	eng
55707	habitat		This species occurs along torrential mountain streams in rainforest. It breeds in fast moving, cold streams. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
55707	population		It appears to be abundant wherever it occurs, and certainly numbers at least in the millions.	eng
55707	threats		Its upland forest habitat in mainland New Guinea is in good condition, and there are no threats currently identified.	eng
55708	conservation		The taxonomy of these species complex needs must to be resolved. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programs should be initiated. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55708	distribution		This species is widespread in New Guinea from the Arfak Mountains (Vogelkop Peninsula) in the west (Indonesia) to the southeastern Peninsula of Papua New Guinea in the east, as far as Agaun in Milne Bay Province. It occurs from 500-2,000m asl.	eng
55708	habitat		It lives in vegetation along streams and small brooks in lowland and montane rainforest, and also occurs in disturbed habitats. It breeds in streams in which the younger larvae live. Old larvae are semi-terrestrial (Günther, 2006).	eng
55708	population		It occurs in large numbers wherever it is found.	eng
55708	threats		Suitable habitat is extensive and no serious threats are known. Locally, pollution of streams from mining is taking place.	eng
55709	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. Its range as currently defined does not overlap any protected areas.	eng
55709	distribution		For the purposes of this assessment (in view of the taxonomic uncertainties associated with this species), its distribution is considered to be limited to the Aru Islands and Misool Island (where it was originally described). Although it possibly also occurs on mainland western Papua, Indonesia, this has not been confirmed (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
55709	habitat		Its habitat is unknown, but it probably occurs in coastal lowlands, in rainforest or swampy habitats.	eng
55709	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55709	threats		There are no specific threats known for this species. However, the Aru Islands are being logged and cleared for agricultural land, which is most likely affecting its habitat.	eng
55710	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to better determine the distribution and population status of this species in the high mountains of central Papua New Guinea.	eng
55710	distribution		This species is currently known only from Mount Wilhelm in the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, but it might have a broader distribution at high altitudes in New Guinea. Another population might survive on Mount Giluwe and perhaps also on Mount Hagen. It has been recorded from above 3,000m asl, and so the amount of habitat available within its potential range is probably limited.	eng
55710	habitat		There are no specific data available, but it is probably found in montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in torrential high-altitude streams.	eng
55710	population		There is no recent information available on the population status of this species. There are specimens in a collection in Papua New Guinea from the 1970s and 1980s that might represent this species.	eng
55710	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, but it is known from an area where there is very little human impact. A potential future threat is the spread of chytridiomycosis, which has been implicated in the declines of high-altitude, torrent-dwelling tree-frogs in Australia.	eng
55711	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55711	distribution		This species is known from two localities in West Papua, New Guinea, Indonesia, about 100km apart: the Panara Valley near Doorman Top; and the Wapoga River headwaters (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2000), where it was recently discovered. It probably occurs in intervening areas where there is extensive suitable habitat, and its distribution is probably substantially broader than is currently recognized. It occurs over 1,000m asl.	eng
55711	habitat		It occurs on low vegetation along torrential mountain streams in submontane rainforest, where it is most often seen at night. It has only been found so far in closed forest, and it is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
55711	population		It was found to be common in its recently discovered site.	eng
55711	threats		No threats are known, and it probably has a relatively wide distribution.	eng
55712	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55712	distribution		This species is known from two widely separated localities in Papua New Guinea: the Schrader Mountains, and the southern flanks of the Star Mountains near the Papuan (Indonesia) border. It is known from altitudes between 1,600 and 2,200m asl.	eng
55712	habitat		It is found on vegetation along torrential mountain streams, in which it presumably breeds, in rainforest.	eng
55712	population		This species is not always collected when visiting the same location suggesting that it is either a rare species, or one that is hard to find.	eng
55712	threats		It is not known what the general threats are to this species, but localized threats might be an issue.	eng
55713	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be determined. It has not so far been found within a protected area.	eng
55713	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Tanimbar Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia.	eng
55713	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown, although it is presumed to breed in water by larval development.	eng
55713	population		There are no known records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55713	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55714	conservation		It occurs in Arfak Mountains National Park.	eng
55714	distribution		This species is known only from the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea. It was previously known only from the type locality, but it has been found more recently at 1,850m asl at the Anggi Lakes. The altitude of the type locality is unknown.	eng
55714	habitat		It is a montane forest species that can survive in degraded and secondary habitats. It breeds in small, slow-flowing streams and ditches.	eng
55714	population		It has been found to be common in overgrown roadside ditches and in slow-flowing streams.	eng
55714	threats		There are no threats known to this adaptable species, and the area where it occurs is well protected by local people.	eng
55715	conservation		Its Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status need to be better documented. Its range overlaps with a few protected areas however these are in need of better management.	eng
55715	distribution		This species is known from widely scattered localities in southern New Guinea and the Aru Islands. There is also an isolated population in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. It occurs at very low elevations, probably below 50m asl.	eng
55715	habitat		This species inhabits savannah areas. It breeds in temporary pools and swampy areas. It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification, inhabiting some rural gardens and villages.	eng
55715	population		This is a locally abundant species.	eng
55715	threats		There are no known threats. It probably mainly occupies open grassland habitats through a wide area and so is under little threat from forest clearance.	eng
55716	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species need to be better documented. It has not been found in any protected areas.	eng
55716	distribution		This species is known from a number of localities in the eastern mountains of Papua New Guinea, and it is probably widespread in suitable habitats in the region. It occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl and is likely to be restricted by the availability of suitable habitat.	eng
55716	habitat		It is not found in forest, but lives in deep, permanent swamps in grasslands, and in gardens in and near the swamps in which it breeds.	eng
55716	population		It is common, but occurs very patchily.	eng
55716	threats		There are few current threats, but it could potentially be at risk from drainage of swamps for agricultural use in the future.	eng
55717	conservation		No conservation methods are required at present. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55717	distribution		This species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs above about 1,200m asl up to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
55717	habitat		This species is common in deforested valleys in the mountains of New Guinea. It also persists in highly disturbed urban areas. It breeds in slow-moving water, ponds and dams. It was even observed breeding in an old swimming pool in Goroka Town, Papua New Guinea (S. Richards pers. comm.).	eng
55717	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
55717	threats		There are no known threats to this species. It is common in disturbed habitats and so is unlikely to be at risk.	eng
55718	conservation		It is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
55718	distribution		This species is known from 14 different locations in a narrow band on the eastern edge of the tablelands and the great escarpment of the Great Dividing Range, within central-eastern to lower north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. It is only found above 400m asl.	eng
55718	habitat		This species is associated with areas of unpolluted, upland streams in heath land or dry open forest on the tablelands, or wet sclerophyll and rainforest vegetation on the edge of the escarpment and in deeper gullies. The adults do not occur away from upland stream habitats. Nothing is known about habitat use of this species outside the breeding season. The larvae develop in the streams.	eng
55718	population		It is not abundant, and has generally been recorded as small populations.	eng
55718	threats		This species has a small geographic range and has suffered habitat loss and fragmentation through clearance for agriculture. Many of the streams within the species' range have been stocked with exotic fishes (carp, trout, mosquito fish) that are likely to be predators of the tadpoles. The impact of forestry practices at many sites where the species is known to occur requires assessment.	eng
55719	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and population status need to be documented. It occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
55719	distribution		This species occurs in the southern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Although its distribution is poorly documented, it probably occurs widely in monsoon forests and rainforest in southern New Guinea. It has not yet been recorded from Indonesia. All records are from below 100m asl.	eng
55719	habitat		It lives in closed-canopy rainforest, but also occurs in more open forest and moist savannah across southern New Guinea. It breeds in temporary pools, and survives in degraded habitats. It can tolerate bush fires.	eng
55719	population		It is locally abundant, but is sometimes hard to find.	eng
55719	threats		It is unlikely to be at risk.	eng
55720	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55720	distribution		This species is known from the Telefomin region of central New Guinea, and was reported by Menzies and Zweifel (1976) from the Vogelkop Peninsula. However, Richards (pers. comm.) is of the opinion that the Vogelkop specimens represent a different taxon and they are not included here within <em>Litoria dorsivena</em>. This species is known from altitudes around 1,800m asl.	eng
55720	habitat		This is a torrent-dwelling frog of montane rainforest, presumably found adjacent to torrential streams in which it probably also breeds.	eng
55720	population		There do not appear to be any records of this species since it was first described, and so its population status is unknown.	eng
55720	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55721	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, although further survey work should be conducted to better document its distribution.	eng
55721	distribution		This species is known from two localities in north-central Papua, Indonesia, and presumably occurs in the extensive suitable habitat in this region. Current records are from below 300m asl.	eng
55721	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest, including in degraded and disturbed habitats (it has been found in an area that had been very heavily logged), where it breeds in temporary and permanent swamps and pools.	eng
55721	population		It is reasonably abundant.	eng
55721	threats		It is unlikely to be majorly threatened by changing patterns of land use, particularly since it is known to persist in degraded rainforest habitats.	eng
55722	conservation		Surveys are needed to relocate this species, which is not known to occur in any protected areas, and also to determine its conservation needs.	eng
55722	distribution		This species is known only from Timor, Sumba, Sawu, and Alor in the Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesia and East Timor.	eng
55722	habitat		It probably lives in dry forest and breeds in water, although the details of its habitat and ecological requirements are not known.	eng
55722	population		Its population status is unknown, and there are no recent records presumably due to lack of survey work.	eng
55722	threats		There is no recent information regarding threats to this species, but it is probably threatened by habitat loss.	eng
55723	conservation		Much of its habitat is protected in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area. Its distribution needs to be better documented.	eng
55723	distribution		This species occurs on the southern slopes (730-1,200m asl) of the mountains of eastern New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea), including the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area (which encompasses most of its range).	eng
55723	habitat		It lives in small streams in rainforest, and breeds in streams. It can be found on forest edges, but not in significantly degraded habitats.	eng
55723	population		It is abundant in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55723	threats		No threats are known. Local communities protect its habitat to some extent.	eng
55724	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
55724	distribution		The type locality of this species is in northern Papua New Guinea, but the exact location is not known. Otherwise the species is known with certainty only from Ivimka Camp, at 100m asl in the Lakekamu Basin, Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2006). Records from Darai Plateau, Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, and from Dark End Lumber, Gulf Province, Papua New Guinea refer to <em>Litoria sauroni</em>, whereas those from Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea refer to <em>L. dux</em>, and those from the northwestern coastal mountains of Papua New Guinea refer to <em>L. huntorum</em>. Records from the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, could refer to one of these species, but most likely represent an undescribed species (S. Richards, pers. comm.). However, <em>Litoria graminea</em> almost certainly occurs more widely in eastern Papua New Guinea than is currently known.	eng
55724	habitat		This is an arboreal species, living entirely in the canopy of lowland and foothill rainforest. It needs high, closed-canopy, forest to survive, and is not found in degraded habitats. Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it possibly lays eggs in tree holes, and presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
55724	population		Although few specimens of this canopy-dwelling species exist in collections, it is probably abundant where it occurs, based on call records. It is hard to find, and so it has probably been under-sampled.	eng
55724	threats		There is no information on current threats to this species, but it probably requires intact rainforest and so would suffer from forest clearance.	eng
55725	conservation		A couple of protected areas occur within the range of this species. Protected areas are needed to safeguard its rainforest swamp habitat. Its distribution needs to be better documented.	eng
55725	distribution		This species is known from the southern slopes of the Star Mountains (Menzies 1993), the Southern Highlands Province (Richards, unpublished data), both in Papua New Guinea, and from the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula, in Papua, Indonesia. There is possibly a related population in the Fakfak Mountains on the Bomberai Peninsular. It occurs from 300-1,300m asl.	eng
55725	habitat		It is an inhabitant of swamps in tropical rainforest. It is also known to persist in disturbed habitats in the Southern Highlands. It breeds in small stagnant temporary or permanent pools in streams, and has also been observed breeding in ditches. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging the water and when hatched they drop into the water (Günther, 2006).	eng
55725	population		It is a locally very abundant species.	eng
55725	threats		Forest clearance in the foothills of the Star Mountains has damaged many breeding sites of this species.	eng
55726	conservation		Its distribution needs to be better documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55726	distribution		This species occurs on the southeastern coast of Papua New Guinea between Yule Island and Dogura, where it is relatively widespread. It is generally a lowland species, probably ranging from sea-level up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55726	habitat		It occurs in open, coastal tropical savannahs. It breeds in still water.	eng
55726	population		It is a common species.	eng
55726	threats		There are no known threats. Its habitat is unlikely to be at risk from existing or foreseeable impacts.	eng
55727	conservation		Its distribution should be better documented. It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55727	distribution		This species is widespread in the mountains of central New Guinea from the Star Mountains, Indonesia, in the west to at least Okapa in the eastern mountains of Papua New Guinea in the east. It is known to occur at 800-2,000m asl.	eng
55727	habitat		It occurs around swamps and small, slow streams in montane rainforest. It can survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in slow-flowing streams, swamps, and ditches along roads, laying its eggs on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall.	eng
55727	population		It is abundant throughout its range, but occurs patchily, and is not found in every stream where it would be expected.	eng
55727	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
55728	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55728	distribution		This species' geographic range is not known. It is known only from the type locality of "Java" (Ahl 1926), Indonesia. However, Iskandar and Colijn (2000), question whether or not this taxon was truly collected in Java. It is not possible to produce a map showing its range.	eng
55728	habitat		There are no details known concerning its habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
55728	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55728	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55729	conservation		Attempts are needed to discover populations of this species, which is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55729	distribution		This species is known from an unknown locality in northern Papua New Guinea. The collection took place during an expedition along the Ramu River and the river emerging at Madang.	eng
55729	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
55729	population		Only one specimen is known, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
55729	threats		If it was found in the Gogol Valley, this area is heavily degraded and this species is therefore likely to be threatened by changes to its habitat.	eng
55730	conservation		It occurs on a mountain where local communities are providing some habitat protection. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55730	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the upper Sepik drainage of northern Papua New Guinea. It probably occurs throughout this mountainous region but further data on its distribution are required. It occurs around 1,600m asl.	eng
55730	habitat		This species lives in and around small streams in montane rainforest, and probably breeds in torrential mountain streams.	eng
55730	population		It was rediscovered in 1993 on Mount Stolle, Sandaun Province, where it is reasonably common.	eng
55730	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in a very remote area.	eng
55731	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring. The taxonomy of different populations also needs to be assessed.	eng
55731	distribution		Populations referred to this species are found on the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, and in the Star Mountains of Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to about 1,000m asl.	eng
55731	habitat		This species inhabits small rainforest streams in the foothills. It probably breeds in rocky streams and lays unpigmented eggs, like other species of the genus.	eng
55731	population		The populations in the Star Mountains are considered to be locally abundant.	eng
55731	threats		Some streams within its range have been degraded by domestic pollution, potentially constituting a threat to it.	eng
55732	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55732	distribution		This species is currently known only from two mountains on Rossell and Tagula (Sudest) Islands in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Given the largely unbroken extent of habitat and low elevation on both islands, this species is likely to be widely distributed on both.	eng
55732	habitat		It is very common along low-elevation forested streams throughout central Tagula (Sudest). It is present along both rather large (approximately 5-8m wide) streams as well as tiny (around 1m) tributaries. Its breeding habitats are unknown.	eng
55732	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitat.	eng
55732	threats		There are no known threats. The habitat on Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel remains in reasonable condition. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging.	eng
55733	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, so there is a need for improved habitat protection at the lowland sites where this species is known to occur. The distribution of this species requires further documentation.	eng
55733	distribution		This is a poorly known species occurring in the north-western islands of the Solomons archipelago, from Isabel and New Georgia in the south, to Buka (in Papua New Guinea) in the north. Recent studies (S. Richards, unpubl.) suggest that this species is more widespread in the Solomon Islands than previously documented. It is a lowland species that probably occurs only up to about 50m asl.	eng
55733	habitat		This species is arboreal, and found in tropical rainforest. It possibly breeds in swamps in forests. In Bougainville it has been observed laying eggs on the vertical surface of trees above water-filled tree holes; the tadpoles then fall into the water.	eng
55733	population		There is no information on population status, but it most likely occurs at low densities.	eng
55733	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging.	eng
55734	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55734	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the headwaters of the Wapoga River in north-western Papua, Indonesia. It is probably more widespread in suitable habitat, but its distribution and population status require further documentation. It is known to occur at 550-1,200m asl.	eng
55734	habitat		It occurs in and around torrential streams, in which it presumably breeds, in closed-canopy rainforest.	eng
55734	population		It is an abundant species where found.	eng
55734	threats		No threats are known to this species, which occurs in a very remote area, with no people living in the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55735	conservation		The forest in the vicinity of the Ok Tedi mine needs urgent protection.	eng
55735	distribution		This species is known only from a small area at altitudes of 550-650m asl around the headwaters of the Ok Tedi River in the Star Mountains in Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution remains largely undocumented.	eng
55735	habitat		This species occurs in swamps in tropical rainforest. It lays its eggs on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched the larvae fall into the water below.	eng
55735	population		It has been observed as abundant in swamps but it might be declining locally.	eng
55735	threats		It is threatened by forest clearance taking place for development of mining infrastructure and for new villages associated with the Ok Tedi mine.	eng
55736	conservation		The taxonomy of the western populations needs to be assessed. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55736	distribution		This is a widespread species in the mountains of central and eastern New Guinea, occurring in eastern Papua (Indonesia) and most of Papua New Guinea. It occurs between 1,000m and 2,500m asl.	eng
55736	habitat		It occurs in and around torrential streams in montane rainforest. It breeds in streams. It has also been found in degraded forest.	eng
55736	population		It is abundant wherever it occurs.	eng
55736	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
55737	conservation		Further documentation of its distribution is needed. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. Its range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55737	distribution		This species is found across a wide area of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, and across the border at Okbap and Langda in Papua, Indonesia. It has recently also been recorded from Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province, greatly extending the range of the species eastward. It occurs from 1,000-2,500m asl.	eng
55737	habitat		This species inhabits torrential streams in montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in these streams.	eng
55737	population		This is an extremely abundant species.	eng
55737	threats		No threats are known. Because of its abundance, it is unlikely to be at risk.	eng
55738	conservation		There is an integrated conservation and development project taking place in the Toricelli Mountains, although this species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55738	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 550m asl in the Torricelli Mountains on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Animals that might be this species have also been found on Yapen Island at 650-850m asl (Gunther pers. comm.).	eng
55738	habitat		The type series was collected from a small grassy swamp in a forest clearing, which is presumably where this species breeds.	eng
55738	population		No information is available on its population status in its type locality, but the animals on Yapen Island are abundant.	eng
55738	threats		No information is available on the major threats to this species.	eng
55739	conservation		Further documentation of its distribution is needed. Its range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated.	eng
55739	distribution		This species is known from several localities in the eastern mountains of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), and is presumably widespread in this region. It occurs from about 1,200-2,400m asl.	eng
55739	habitat		This species inhabits small streams in lower-montane rainforest. It is also known to persist in degraded forest (S. Richards pers. comm.). It breeds in slow-moving small streams.	eng
55739	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55739	threats		Some populations are possibly being extirpated by clearing of forest for rural gardens, but it can withstand some forest disturbance.	eng
55740	conservation		Attempts are needed to rediscover this species and to document its distribution and population status. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55740	distribution		This species is known only from "Moaif", the type locality, in the northern lowlands of Papua, Indonesia.	eng
55740	habitat		It is presumed to live in forest and to breed in water.	eng
55740	population		It is known only from the type locality, and there have been no recent records, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55740	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55741	conservation		Further documentation of the species' distribution is needed. It is not known from any protected areas. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated.	eng
55741	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of Papua, Indonesia: the type locality in the Snow Mountains, and two locations in the Wapoga River headwaters (where the species was found in 1998). There was one specimen-collected 40km southeast of Nabire in Papua. It has been recorded between about 500-1,000m asl.	eng
55741	habitat		This species inhabits torrential streams in rainforest It lays unpigmented eggs near the streams.	eng
55741	population		It was quite abundant when collected at Wapoga River.	eng
55741	threats		There are no threats to this species as it is in a very remote area. The species is presumably secure, but data are lacking.	eng
55742	conservation		Its distribution needs to be better documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife management Area, and in some other protected areas.	eng
55742	distribution		This species is widespread in northern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), on Gebe and Yapen Islands, and is known from at least one site south of the central cordillera. It is a lowland species occurring up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55742	habitat		It occurs along small, quiet streams and seepages in tropical rainforest. It breeds in streams and seepages. It does not occur in significantly modified habitats.	eng
55742	population		It is abundant wherever it occurs.	eng
55742	threats		None are known.	eng
55743	conservation		Urgent efforts are needed to rediscover it and to determine its taxonomic status, distribution, and population status. This will require additional topotypic material to determine its taxonomic identity. It is probably a synonym of <em>Litoria nigropunctata</em>, but no specimens still exist for this species.	eng
55743	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Yapen Island (probably near Ansus), Papua, Indonesia.	eng
55743	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are unknown.	eng
55743	population		It has not been collected again since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55743	threats		There is no information on the threats to this species.	eng
55744	conservation		There should be further documentation of its distribution, and its population status also requires monitoring, particularly given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia. It should be noted that the Baiyer River Sanctuary is a small zoo, and not a protected area.	eng
55744	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Baiyer River Sanctuary, in Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 1,200-1,500m asl.	eng
55744	habitat		It lives and presumably breeds in mountain streams in rainforest.	eng
55744	population		It has only been found twice, the last time being in 1987. It is not common in its only known locality.	eng
55744	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55745	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species needs to be better documented to aid its conservation.	eng
55745	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality near Agaun, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea, at 1,200m asl.	eng
55745	habitat		The only known population was first observed around a pool in rainforest. Males were observed calling from low vegetation. These frogs lay eggs attached to leaves overhanging the water.	eng
55745	population		There is no information regarding its population status.	eng
55745	threats		The type locality was subsequently cleared for gardens, but the population appears to have persisted despite the clearance. Gardening might eventually impact on this (and other) populations. However, if this species has a wide distribution (as is likely), then gardening is unlikely to have more than a localized impact and will be of little concern in the foreseeable future.	eng
55746	conservation		It might occur in Arfak Mountains National Park. If it is a torrent-dwelling species, its population will require close monitoring, given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia.	eng
55746	distribution		This species is known only from Wendessi (at 2,400m asl) and from the Arfak Mountains (also at 2,400m asl), Papua, Indonesia. A recent specimen from Yapen Island might be this species, but this has not yet been confirmed (Gunther pers. comm.).	eng
55746	habitat		It presumably occurs in torrential streams in tropical rainforest.	eng
55746	population		There are no confirmed records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55746	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55747	conservation		The distribution of this species needs to be properly documented. It is known to occur within two protected areas.	eng
55747	distribution		This species is known from four localities between the Star Mountains and Haia on the southern side of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea, covering a linear distance of about 430 kilometres. It occurs from 300-1,200m asl.	eng
55747	habitat		It is found around forest pools in foothill rainforests. It breeds in temporary pools and swamps, and has also been observed breeding in seepages and ditches.	eng
55747	population		It is a relatively uncommon species.	eng
55747	threats		Some breeding sites in the Star Mountains have been destroyed by gardens (S. Richards pers. obs.).	eng
55748	conservation		The distribution of this species needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
55748	distribution		This species is known from Efogi and Tabubil in eastern Papua New Guinea, and it was recently discovered in the Kikori area of Gulf Province. It presumably occurs in the extensive suitable habitat that exists between these localities. A very similar species has been found on Yapen Island, which could be this form (R. Günther pers. comm.). It occurs at 100-800m asl in Kikori and around 1,100m at Efogi.	eng
55748	habitat		It is arboreal and is found near small streams and forest pools in lowland and foothill rainforests. Breeds in temporary and probably permanent pools and slow-flowing portions of streams. It is found in mature forest and in rural gardens.	eng
55748	population		It is uncommon, but is probably a canopy dweller, so it might be overlooked.	eng
55748	threats		No threats are known. Logging is ongoing, might have an impact on this species.	eng
55749	conservation		The distribution, and population dynamics of the species need to be determined. Its range overlaps with a few protected areas.	eng
55749	distribution		This species is widespread in the lowlands of mainland western New Guinea and Yapen Island, extending eastwards at least to the Lakekamu Basin. It occurs up to 650m asl.	eng
55749	habitat		It occurs in lowland rainforest. It breeds in still ponds and ditches. It can tolerate a large degree of habitat modification, and can be found around villages for example.	eng
55749	population		They can be locally common, but can also disappear and reappear from locations without explanation.	eng
55749	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55750	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. This species requires close population monitoring, given that it currently is known only from a single locality; further survey work is needed to determine whether or not it might occur more widely.	eng
55750	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Merauke, in southern Papua, Indonesia, and there have been very few records since it was first discovered in the late 1960s. It occurs close to sea level.	eng
55750	habitat		It has only been found in a grassy, swampy area in the town of Merauke, where it breeds. It presumably occurs elsewhere, but its broader habitat requirements are not yet known, and surveys have not been successful in locating it.	eng
55750	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55750	threats		There is no information on major threats, but given that it occurs close to sea level it might be susceptible to habitat loss due to development in coastal areas. It has been found once in the pet trade in Jakarta.	eng
55751	conservation		It has not so far been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
55751	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Upaelisafupi Stream, Cloudy Mountains, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It might be endemic to the Cloudy Mountains, as it has not been observed in the nearby Pini Range or in the southern end of the Owen Stanley Mountains, though it probably occurs at least a little more widely than has been mapped to date. The type series was collected at 700m asl.	eng
55751	habitat		All specimens of this species were collected 1.5-2.5m above the ground in low vegetation adjacent to a small, rocky, mountain stream in closed-canopy tropical forest. This species is believed to breed in streams.	eng
55751	population		It is known only from the type series, so its population status is not known.	eng
55751	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55752	conservation		Its current known range is wholly within Lorentz National Park, which is also a World Heritage Area.	eng
55752	distribution		This species is known only from the lowlands of the Lorentz River region of southern Papua, Indonesia. It presumably occurs more widely in the rainforests of this region but this is not a well-studied area.	eng
55752	habitat		There is no information available regarding the breeding habits of this rainforest species.	eng
55752	population		This species has not been collected since it was first described, so its population status is unknown; however there have been no surveys of the type locality since then.	eng
55752	threats		It is presumably not facing any particular threats, but is in fact secure due to the extensive areas of natural habitat that survive, but new data are required before a reasonable assessment can be made of the threats to it.	eng
55753	conservation		There should be further documentation of its distribution. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is found in Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55753	distribution		This species is known from a number of localities in rugged mountain habitats of eastern Papua New Guinea. Its altitudinal range is 850-1,500m.	eng
55753	habitat		It lives in and around torrential streams in rainforest. It appears to be tolerant of at least some level of habitat degradation, and can be found in rural gardens. It breeds in streams, including silted streams.	eng
55753	population		Its abundance ranges from uncommon to reasonably common.	eng
55753	threats		None are known. It is adaptable and occurs in remote areas where there is little human pressure.	eng
55754	conservation		The potential impacts of logging on this species need to be assessed. It occurs within several protected areas.	eng
55754	distribution		As it is currently recognized, this species occurs widely in the lowlands of New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Islands. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
55754	habitat		It occurs in lowland rainforest where it congregates around forest pools after heavy rains. It breeds in swamps, temporary forest pools, and in flooded ditches and pools in disturbed habitats such as gardens and regrowth forest.	eng
55754	population		It is abundant in lowland habitats.	eng
55754	threats		None are known, although logging might be impacting some populations in the Solomon Islands.	eng
55755	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55755	distribution		This species occurs in central southern New Guinea, and has been recorded from Papua New Guinea only. It is found below 500m asl.	eng
55755	habitat		It lives in permanent swamps in lowland rainforest and disturbed forest. It is known to persist in degraded habitats and breeds in swamps.	eng
55755	population		It is very abundant where it occurs.	eng
55755	threats		No threats are known. It does well in disturbed areas.	eng
55756	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55756	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality, the Baliem River Valley, and from Wanena, in Papua, Indonesia, at around 1,600m asl. It is presumably more widespread but additional data are lacking.	eng
55756	habitat		It was recorded in grassland and rural gardens, and was observed breeding in permanent pools.	eng
55756	population		Its population status is unknown, but the first collection contained hundreds of specimens.	eng
55756	threats		No threats to this species are known, but it appears able to withstand a degree of habitat modification.	eng
55757	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements, and population status need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55757	distribution		This species is known only from two locations: Sorong, on the Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua (Indonesia); and Wahai on Seram Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. It is a lowland species found near sea level.	eng
55757	habitat		It has been found in a town in Seram, and presumably breeds in water.	eng
55757	population		There have been no records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is not known.	eng
55757	threats		There are no data available concerning threats to this species.	eng
55758	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55758	distribution		This species is known from several localities in the coastal lowlands of southeastern Papua New Guinea. It is restricted to coastal plains at very low altitudes.	eng
55758	habitat		It is found around swamps in lowland closed forest. It is also known from open areas such as rural gardens. It breeds in swamps and intermittent pools.	eng
55758	population		It is a common species.	eng
55758	threats		There are no threats to this species at present.	eng
55759	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas, although its distribution needs to be properly documented.	eng
55759	distribution		This recently discovered species from New Guinea is known only from the Wapoga River headwaters in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,100m asl. However, its distribution is certainly wider than currently documented.	eng
55759	habitat		It has only been found in mature rainforest so far, in and around small, slow-flowing streams in which it breeds.	eng
55759	population		It is reasonably common where found.	eng
55759	threats		No specific threats to this species are known. However, although it is only known from a single locality, it is in a region of extensive, undisturbed forest with an extremely low human population density, and so it is not likely to be at risk in the near future.	eng
55760	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. The species requires close population monitoring given that it is known only from around the Enarotali area. Further survey work is necessary to establish whether or not the species occurs in habitats away from the lake shores.	eng
55760	distribution		This species is known only from several lakes in the Enarotali area of Papua, Indonesia, at about 1,700m asl.	eng
55760	habitat		It lives on the rocky shorelines of the lakes.	eng
55760	population		It has been found to be very common within a small area, and is very well represented in museum collections.	eng
55760	threats		No threats are known at present. However, since it occurs in an area subject to heavy tourist activity, it might be susceptible to disturbance and degradation of its habitat.	eng
55761	conservation		The taxonomic status of population at the type locality needs to be assessed, and there should be better documentation of its distribution. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It can be found in Crater Wildlife Management Area, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
55761	distribution		As it is currently recognized, this species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern mainland New Guinea (in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and is also known from Goodenough and Fergusson Islands, from 300-1,600m asl.	eng
55761	habitat		It lives in and around small streams in lowland and montane rainforest (hill forest). It breeds in streams, and also occurs in degraded forests and rural gardens.	eng
55761	population		It appears to be abundant throughout its range.	eng
55761	threats		No threats are known.	eng
55762	conservation		It is presumed to be present in several protected areas.	eng
55762	distribution		This species is known from a wide area in the Mato Grosso region of central and southern Brazil. It has been recorded between 200 and 400m asl.	eng
55762	habitat		It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. It breeds in the associated waterways.	eng
55762	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
55762	threats		No threats are known.	eng
55763	conservation		It is presumed to be present in several national parks.	eng
55763	distribution		This species is known only from southern Guyana and northern Brazil, and from north-central Bolivia. Its apparently fragmented distribution might be a reflection of the taxonomic problems associated with this species. It has an altitudinal range of 150-400m asl.	eng
55763	habitat		It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. It breeds in the associated waterways.	eng
55763	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
55763	threats		No major threats are known.	eng
55764	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas in Bolivia, Brazil, and Argentina.	eng
55764	distribution		Taxa assigned to this species by Frost (2003) are present in Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Santa Fé, and Santiago del Estero); Uruguay (known only from Termas del Arapey, Depto. Salto, and Artiga); Brazil (Matto Grosso and Rondonia); Paraguay; Bolivia (Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Pando). Recorded from elevations of 100-200m asl.	eng
55764	habitat		It is an aquatic species of open flooded savannah areas, and floating meadows of large rivers. Adults occur on emergent vegetation and breed in the associated waterways. Does not tolerate habitat disturbance that causes the disappearance of water (such as the drainage of wetlands).	eng
55764	population		It is a very common species near aquatic habitats.	eng
55764	threats		There are no major threats to this species; large areas of suitable habitat remain. Local populations are probably impacted by agricultural intensification and urbanization.	eng
55765	conservation		In Ecuador Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuni. It is not present in any Peruvian protected areas.	eng
55765	distribution		This species occurs disjunctively in Amazonian Ecuador and northeastern Peru. Further field sampling is expected to identify new localities. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55765	habitat		Its habitat is primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest, often close to bamboo habitats. At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this nocturnal species has been collected in floodable forests (Ron, 2001). Breeding takes place in bamboo and tree holes, tadpoles are raised by the female on unfertilised eggs. It is not present in disturbed areas.	eng
55765	population		It is not locally common.	eng
55765	threats		There are no major threats; it is a relatively widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55766	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given declines that have taken place in torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia and particularly given its small range. Further survey work is also necessary to better understand the distribution (including its possible occurrence on other islands and on the mainland of New Guinea), habitat requirements, and population status of this species.	eng
55766	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the east slope of Goodenough Island, in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea, at about 900m asl.	eng
55766	habitat		It inhabits small streams in forest. As with other species in the genus, this species presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles presumably have large suckers.	eng
55766	population		The current population status is unknown. It has been recorded on Goodenough Island at least once since it was first described, but has not been found on neighbouring islands.	eng
55766	threats		The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes.	eng
55767	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented, as well as the taxonomic status of different populations. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
55767	distribution		As it is currently recognized, this species has a relatively broad distribution in eastern Papua New Guinea and the D'Entecasteaux Islands (Goodenough Island, Fergusson Island and Normanby Island). It occurs at 100-1,600m asl.	eng
55767	habitat		It lives in and close to streams in rainforest. It presumably lays large eggs in torrential streams, and the tadpoles have large suckers. It has only been found in mature forest.	eng
55767	population		It is common where it has been found.	eng
55767	threats		No threats are known, since it lives in remote areas.	eng
55768	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55768	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Mount Dayman type locality, in Milne Bay Province, in extreme eastern Papua New Guinea. It has also been collected from other localities, but these specimens are not believed to be <em>Nyctimystes daymani</em>. The type locality is at about 700m asl.	eng
55768	habitat		Specimens have been found in rocky streams in forest. If this species is similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and has larvae which presumably have large suckers.	eng
55768	population		Its population status is unknown, but this species has probably not been recorded since it was first described.	eng
55768	threats		The major threats to it are unknown.	eng
55769	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented, as well as the taxonomic status of different populations. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It has been found in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55769	distribution		This species is relatively widespread over the rugged highlands of the Huon Peninsula and central Papua New Guinea, at 1,200-2,000m asl.	eng
55769	habitat		It lives in streams in montane rainforest. This species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It has only been found in mature forest.	eng
55769	population		It is common where it is found.	eng
55769	threats		No threats are known. It lives in very remote areas.	eng
55770	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55770	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in Papua, northwestern New Guinea, Indonesia, at about 600m asl. It probably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities.	eng
55770	habitat		It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the larvae have large suckers.	eng
55770	population		It was last recorded in 1998 (Richards et. al. 2000), and is known from only two specimens, one from each locality.	eng
55770	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
55771	conservation		Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55771	distribution		This species is relatively widespread in the mountains of eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), at 1,500-2,200m asl.	eng
55771	habitat		It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. Presumably this species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It can survive in rural gardens, and in phragmites, along streams.	eng
55771	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55771	threats		None are known, since it is adaptable and lives in remote areas.	eng
55772	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55772	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the type locality of "Camp VIa, Utakwa [or Octakwa] River, 3000 ft", Papua, Indonesia. The altitude of this locality is 914m asl. A specimen in the South Australian Museum from the Star Mountains in Papua New Guinea might represent a significant range extension, but further studies are required to confirm the identity of this specimen.	eng
55772	habitat		It presumably inhabits streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae presumably have large suckers.	eng
55772	population		This species has not been recorded again since it was first described, so its population status is unknown. A recent visit to the area failed to find it, but the survey was not exhaustive.	eng
55772	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55773	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55773	distribution		This species is known only from two mountains in south-eastern Papua New Guinea between 1,400 and 1,600m asl: the type locality ("Mondo, Papua" in the Central Province), and Mount Obree, approximately 150km to the south-east.	eng
55773	habitat		It is common along small (approximately 1-2m wide) streams in steep forested terrain. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.	eng
55773	population		It is common in suitable habitat. It was for a long time known only from the original collection but has recently been collected again (F. Kraus pers. comm.), and was possibly overlooked by earlier workers because it seems to inhabit only very tiny trickles instead of the larger streams that many other <em>Nyctimystes</em> species favour.	eng
55773	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present, and there is extensive suitable habitat still available between the two known localities.	eng
55774	conservation		Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs within the Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55774	distribution		This species is widespread in the mountains of central and eastern New Guinea. It occurs from 850-1,600m asl.	eng
55774	habitat		It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. Similar to other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles presumably have large suckers.	eng
55774	population		It is not a common species, and is only rarely encountered.	eng
55774	threats		There are probably no threats to this species at present; its habitat appears quite secure.	eng
55775	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55775	distribution		This species is relatively widespread in the mountains of eastern New Guinea, including the Huon Peninsula and throughout the Papuan Peninsula where it has been recorded with certainty from Woitape, as well as Mount Simpson, Milne Bay Province, near the southern tip of the island. It occurs from 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
55775	habitat		It is common along both open and forested larger streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has tadpoles with large suckers. It is tolerant of human habitat disturbance and is quite common in the village of Woitape, which provides only sparse arboreal vegetation along the river passing through the village.	eng
55775	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55775	threats		There are no threats to this relatively widespread and adaptable species.	eng
55776	conservation		Its type locality is within Arfak Mountains National Park. Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55776	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Hatam sul Monte Arfak", in the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia.	eng
55776	habitat		It is a montane species that presumably lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.	eng
55776	population		No data are available on its population status, and there are no known records since it was first described, although there have been no subsequent surveys of the area.	eng
55776	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
55777	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55777	distribution		This species is known only from mountains of north-central Papua New Guinea at 1,500-2,500m asl.	eng
55777	habitat		No data are available, but it presumably occurs along small streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has tadpoles with large suckers. It is not found in degraded habitats.	eng
55777	population		It is a low-density species.	eng
55777	threats		None are known.	eng
55778	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55778	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Simbang", on the Huon Peninsula in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
55778	habitat		It presumably occurs adjacent to streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.	eng
55778	population		There are no known records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown.	eng
55778	threats		There are no data available on threats to this species.	eng
55779	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55779	distribution		In Papua New Guinea, this species is so far known only from the southern slopes of the Star Mountains, while on the Indonesian side of the border it has been found at Okbap, which is also part of the large area of rugged and suitable habitat for this species in the Star Mountains region. Its altitudinal range is 1,600-2,000m asl.	eng
55779	habitat		It inhabits streams in tropical rainforest, and has also been found in rural gardens and in scrubby regrowth. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.	eng
55779	population		This species occurs at relatively low density.	eng
55779	threats		There are no known major threats to this species, although it is eaten locally.	eng
55780	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55780	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the western slope of Mount Victoria, Papua New Guinea. There is no exact altitudinal information known, although it is a montane species.	eng
55780	habitat		It presumably lives in streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.	eng
55780	population		There are no confirmed records of this species since it was first described, so its population status is unknown. However, it is a difficult taxon to distinguish from other similar species.	eng
55780	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and its habitat is not currently threatened.	eng
55781	conservation		Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. The taxonomic status of the populations on Rossel Island needs to clarified. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
55781	distribution		This species is known only from Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel Islands, in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea at 150-350m asl. However the populations on Rossel are most likely a separate species hence this species is probably restricted to Tagula.	eng
55781	habitat		It is common along small (approximately 1-2m wide) tributary streams of large, forested lowland streams. It apparently largely avoids the larger streams. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it is a larval developer in streams. There is no information on its adaptability to degraded habitats.	eng
55781	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
55781	threats		None are known. The habitat on Tagula (Sudest) and Rossel remains in reasonable condition. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged for logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging.	eng
55782	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55782	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the north-east slope of Mount Dayman, and from the eastern slope of Mount Simpson 40km further south, in Milne Bay Province, in extreme eastern Papua New Guinea. Its true range is probably small but is likely to include Mount Suckling to the north of Mount Dayman, although it is unlikely to extend further north than this. The type locality is at 1,370m asl, and this species has been recorded from 1,300-1,500m asl on the eastern slope of Mount Simpson.	eng
55782	habitat		This species is generally found along small streams (approximately 2-5m wide) in primary forest. On the eastern slope of Mount Simpson it has been observed to be tolerant of habitat disturbance and in places it lives along village streams largely devoid of trees. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays eggs in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
55782	population		It is known to be very common in areas of suitable habitat on Mount Simpson.	eng
55782	threats		It is unlikely at present that there are any major threats to this species, even though it is not known to what degree habitat destruction has taken place within its range. It is tolerant of the degree of disturbance that is characteristic of the area at present.	eng
55783	conservation		Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area and in other protected areas.	eng
55783	distribution		This is a widespread species that occurs in the mountains across most of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from 480-1,400m asl.	eng
55783	habitat		It lives in streams in tropical rainforest. This species lays large eggs in torrential streams. The tadpoles have large suckers. It has been found in areas where abandoned rural gardens have grown back into secondary forest.	eng
55783	population		It appears to be abundant wherever it occurs.	eng
55783	threats		None are known.	eng
55784	conservation		There are no protected areas within its range. Improved habitat protection is required at sites at which this species is known to occur. There is also a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
55784	distribution		This species is known only from several locations on Halmahera and Morotai Islands, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. Its elevational range is not known, but the highest point within its range is 1,200m asl.	eng
55784	habitat		There is no reliable information available, but it probably occurs in streams in tropical rainforest. As with other species in the genus, it presumably lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams and the tadpoles have large suckers.	eng
55784	population		The species was last collected on Halmahera Island in 1989.	eng
55784	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss, following the widespread logging that has taken place on Halmahera Island in the past few years.	eng
55785	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55785	distribution		This species is known from the Kokoda and Garaina areas between 400 and 700m asl, and from the western slope of Mount Obree at 900m asl, in eastern Papua New Guinea. It is expected to occur in the 130km gap between the Kokoda and Garaina areas.	eng
55785	habitat		It occurs along moderate-sized (approximately 3-8m wide) streams in tropical rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, it lays eggs in streams where the tadpoles also develop. On Mount Obree it has been recorded from secondary forest.	eng
55785	population		It has been found to be reasonably common, but is not abundant in the Kokoda and Garaina areas, and is common at Mount Obree.	eng
55785	threats		There are no known threats. It can tolerate living in disturbed areas near villages. Extensive habitat exists throughout its range.	eng
55786	conservation		Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. Given declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, monitoring programmes should be initiated. Its range includes Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
55786	distribution		This species is known from several locations in the rugged mountains of eastern New Guinea, between Mount Kaindi and Mount Obree, Central Province, and Mount Simpson, Milne Bay Province, in Papua New Guinea. It has been collected from 1,280-2,480m asl. It likely occupies most of the Owen Stanley Range at appropriate elevations.	eng
55786	habitat		It lives along small (1-2m wide) streams in montane rainforest. Similar to other species in the genus, it probably lays eggs in streams where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
55786	population		It is known to be common on the western slope of Mount Obree, Central Province, and on the eastern slope of Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province.	eng
55786	threats		Increased sedimentation in the streams due to mining is a localized threat. A road has also been built recently within its range. At Mount Simpson the species is utilized as a food item when it can be obtained. It is not known whether or not the current level of utilization is a threat.	eng
55787	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55787	distribution		This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality, Gapaia Creek, between Garaina and Saureli, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, which is about 1,280m asl. It is likely to have a relatively broad distribution in suitable habitats but additional data are needed.	eng
55787	habitat		It occurs in torrential mountain streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other members of the genus, this species lays large eggs in torrential streams and has larvae with large suckers.	eng
55787	population		Only one specimen is known, so its population status cannot be determined.	eng
55787	threats		The area from which it has been recorded is remote and is probably safe from most threats.	eng
55788	conservation		Given the declines of torrent-dwelling hylids in Australia, the population status of this species requires close monitoring.	eng
55788	distribution		This species is known from a small area of the eastern Star Mountains in the vicinity of the type locality (Telefomin, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea), and from an area 30km to the west. It has been recorded at about 1,750m asl. Although it is probably more widely distributed, no data are available to support this view at this stage.	eng
55788	habitat		This species occurs in torrential streams in rainforest. If it is similar to other species in the genus, it lays large eggs in torrential, clear and rocky streams, and the larvae have large suckers.	eng
55788	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55788	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and there are not thought to be any specific threats to its habitat at present.	eng
55789	conservation		There are many protected areas within the range of distribution of this species.	eng
55789	distribution		This species occurs in the Amazon Basin from Amapá, Brazil, through the Guianas, Venezuela (Amazonas State), to Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. There is a need for better documentation of the geographical range of the species, especially in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,200m asl in Ecuador.	eng
55789	habitat		Old and second growth rainforest. Reproduction in narrow permanent waterbodies (streams/igarapes) inside tropical moist rainforest; frogs call from understorey vegetation along the streams.	eng
55789	population		Uncommon and somewhat locally distributed in range.	eng
55789	threats		It is assumed that agriculture practices, habitat degradation, logging and habitat fragmentation might have some effect on local populations. But overall, it is unlikely to be significantly affected across its wide range, much of which experiences minimal human impact.	eng
55790	conservation		Protected under the figure of a Biosphere Reserve in Venezuela. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
55790	distribution		This species is known from the Amazon basin from southern Colombia, Ecuador through Brazil to the Guianas and northeastern Brazil at elevations up to 700m asl. There is a recent record from the Orinoco Delta in Venezuela, in Delta Amacuro state, and a record (but no specimen) in Santa María de Erebato, in estado Bolívar. A record from San Jacinto, northern Departamento Loreto, Peru might be in error.	eng
55790	habitat		Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens have been found on low vegetation in primary forest or at the edge of forest at night (Duellman, 1978). Probably reproduces in small permanent streams.	eng
55790	population		Apparently uncommon to rare throughout much of the range.	eng
55790	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation might threaten some local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
55791	conservation		Its distribution range includes Parque Nacional Yasuni in Ecuador, and it might also occur in protected areas in Peru.	eng
55791	distribution		This species is only known from lowland and intermediate elevations between 200 and 450m asl, of the Río Napo drainage in the provinces of Napo, Francisco de Orellana and Sucumbíos, in Ecuador. It is also known from the Iquitos area in the Loreto department in Peru. Further work is likely to show that this species occurs much more widely.	eng
55791	habitat		In Ecuador it occurs in the Napo moist forest in the Eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone. It is an inhabitant of primary forest. A canopy dweller, it breeds by larval development in bromeliads, usually very high up in trees (up to 15m above the ground). It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55791	population		The population status of this species is not known. This is primarily due to the species occurring in the high forest canopy, so it is very difficult to determine its population status.	eng
55791	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55792	conservation		This species might occur in Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone, Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone and Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos.	eng
55792	distribution		Specimens currently referable to O. elkejungingerae are now considered to be reasonably widespread in northern and central Peru. Peruvian specimens previously referred to as O. verruciger (from the central Peruvian Departments of Junin, San Martin and Ucayali) have been added to this account on the advice of Karl-Heinz Jungfer (pers comm). Restricted to moderate elevations (300-1,100m asl).	eng
55792	habitat		Lowland, premontane and montane forest, in the "rolling hills" area. Eggs are laid in small streams; the tadpoles develop here. Not recorded from secondary habitat.	eng
55792	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
55792	threats		Although parts of its range are threatened by clear-cutting, road development and coffee plantations (especially in San Martin), large areas of suitable habitat remain for the species.	eng
55793	conservation		More research into its extent of occurrence (for example, whether or not it occurs within any protected areas), ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55793	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Pakaraima Mountains of western Guyana. The adult male holotype was collected around 30km south-east of Imbaimadiai (5° 37' 30"N; 60° 14' 42"W), in Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana, at around 585m asl.	eng
55793	habitat		The one known specimen was collected in primary forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though reproduction is presumably by larval development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
55793	population		This is a very recently described species that is currently known only from one specimen (collected in 1997), so its population status has not been determined.	eng
55793	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and the known locality is in an undisturbed, remote area.	eng
55794	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55794	distribution		This species is known only from between 250 and 600m asl, in the Río Napo drainage in the provinces of Napo, Francisco de Orellana and Sucumbíos, Ecuador. It is expected to occur much more widely, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
55794	habitat		This species occurs in the eastern Cordillera Real montane forest and Napo moist forest in the eastern tropical altitudinal zone of Ecuador. Specimens have been found only occasionally, on trees or bushes around 6m above the ground in primary forest. It is a canopy dweller, which is where males call from, and is thought to breed in bromeliads (up to 30m above the ground). It has also been recorded from banana plantations.	eng
55794	population		The population status of this species is not known, since only a few specimens have been found so far. This is primarily due to it occurring in the high forest canopy, making it very difficult to survey.	eng
55794	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), and logging.	eng
55795	conservation		It occurs in El Pure National Park.	eng
55795	distribution		This species is known from Amazonas Department in Tarapaca/Leticia and Río Pure, Colombia. 100-200m asl. It is believed to occur much more widely, and it will probably be found in neighbouring Brazil and Peru.	eng
55795	habitat		It occurs in bromeliads in lowland rainforest and is arboreal and nocturnal. It reproduces in bromeliads and tree holes.	eng
55795	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55795	threats		It suffers some habitat loss in the southern part of the range. Most of the range is unthreatened.	eng
55796	conservation		Occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).	eng
55796	distribution		This species’ geographic range is in the Atlantic forests from Bahia south to Santa Catarina, Brazil; northeastern Argentina; and central and southern Oriental region, Paraguay. Its altitudinal range is 0-700m asl.	eng
55796	habitat		It is an arboreal frog that occurs on shrubs and trees inside rainforest. It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools inside forest. It is restricted to pristine habitats.	eng
55796	population		It is locally abundant and stable in suitable habitats in Brazil. It is assumed to be declining in Paraguay due to observed habitat loss.	eng
55796	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and dams is a major threat. It is probably seriously threatened in Paraguay.	eng
55797	conservation		This species might occur in Yanachaga Chemillen National Park. Possible conservation measures could include the extension of existing protected areas.	eng
55797	distribution		This species’ can be found in eastern premontane slopes of central Peru. It can be found at elevations of 730-1,000m asl.	eng
55797	habitat		This is an arboreal species of primary tropical moist forest. A phytotelm, breeding occurs in bromeliads. It is not present in degraded areas.	eng
55797	population		It is locally common in good habitat.	eng
55797	threats		Because of the large areas of suitable habitat still available to this species there are no major threats. There is some habitat loss through different human activities, principally agriculture (crops and ranching).	eng
55798	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Abraham Mijares, Celsa Señaris, 2008	Some populations are within protected areas.	eng
55798	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Abraham Mijares, Celsa Señaris, 2008	This species can be found in the Amazon basin, in the Guianas and the upper Amazon Basin in Venezuela (Amazonas and Bolivar states), Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). This species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 860m asl.	eng
55798	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Abraham Mijares, Celsa Señaris, 2008	It is in an arboreal species found in primary and secondary forests (often along rivers) and border of forest, usually at heights of up to 1.5m. It is associated with savannahs in Suriname. For reproduction, the species employs temporary ponds.	eng
55798	population	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Abraham Mijares, Celsa Señaris, 2008	This species can be considered as uncommon to common. It is not frequent in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001).	eng
55798	threats	Enrique La Marca, Robert Reynolds, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Abraham Mijares, Celsa Señaris, 2008	Although there are no major threats to this species, it is threatened locally in Venezuela by illegal mining, and water pollution from the mining is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
55799	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with several protected areas including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
55799	distribution		This species can be found throughout much of Amazonian Ecuador, and a single site in northeastern Peru. It might range further south, as it is often confused with a similar Osteocephalus. Its elevational range is 200-1,200m asl.	eng
55799	habitat		Specimens have been found in primary forest and forest edge (Duellman, 1978; Jungfer and Hödl, 2002). This is an arboreal species that breeds in temporary ponds and slow moving streams. It may occur in slightly degraded habitats.	eng
55799	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
55799	threats		Although there is considerable loss of habitat in Ecuador through settlement and agriculture, there are still large areas of suitable habitat available to this species.	eng
55800	conservation		Within Peru this species might occur in the Tambopata National Reserve (Doan and Arizábal, 2002). Given its habitat and geographic distribution it might also occur in Apurimac Reserved Zone, Manu Biosphere Reserve, Amarakaeri Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is also present in protected areas within Bolivia.	eng
55800	distribution		This species is found in the Upper Amazon Basin and lower Andean slopes, Departments of Madre de Dios and Puno, Peru; Departments of Beni and La Paz, Bolivia; also present in Rondonia, Brazil. It is present from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
55800	habitat		It is present in lowland tropical moist forest; generally in open lakes and swampy areas within, or close to, forest. It possibly occurs in palm tree savannah. Its eggs are laid in shallow pools.	eng
55800	population		It is abundant where it is present.	eng
55800	threats		There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55801	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Javier Icochea, 2008	In Peru, this species might occur in Santiago Comaina and Gueppi Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Bosque de Protección San Matias San Carlos, Yanachaga Chemillen National Park and Yanesha Communal Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and Parque Nacional El Pure.	eng
55801	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Javier Icochea, 2008	This species can be found in southern Colombia, Amazonian Ecuador and much of northern and central Amazonian Peru. Its elevation is between 200 and 700m asl.	eng
55801	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Javier Icochea, 2008	A sub-canopy (c. 20 m) species of floodplain tropical forest, and terra firme forest. It may be found on tree branches and in open areas (Ron, 2001). It is a phytotelm breeder, with eggs laid in bromeliads. It is not present in disturbed habitats.	eng
55801	population	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Javier Icochea, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55801	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Javier Icochea, 2008	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55802	conservation		This species has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
55802	distribution		This species occurs in the state of Acre, Brazil. It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
55802	habitat		This species can be found in leaf-litter of tropical rainforest. Its reproductive mode is unknown, though it is presumably by larval development. It is not known whether or not the larvae develop in plants, or in waterbodies.	eng
55802	population		It is locally abundant, but its distribution is not well known.	eng
55802	threats		Deforestation is probably a major threat.	eng
55803	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
55803	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species can be found in the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela and Colombia and in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas. It also occurs in gallery forest within the Cerrado of Mato Grosso and Maranhão, Brazil. An old record from Caracas, again cited in Barrio (1999) was considered to be erroneous by Trueb and Duellman (1971). Its altitudinal range is up to 1,250m asl.	eng
55803	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is a nocturnal frog found in primary and secondary tropical rainforest as well as gallery forest in Cerrado. Individuals perch on trunks in the forest (up to a height of 40m), or sit at the banks of ponds. Also found at the border of forest. The species reproduces in temporary ponds or watercourses (including water-filled tire tracks) in the forest or at the border where it lays eggs. Tadpoles live in the water. Newly metamorphosed individuals are associated with temporary ponds (Neckel-Oliveira, 2007).	eng
55803	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
55803	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Habitat loss/clear cutting are major threats.	eng
55804	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia it might occur in Cuevadea los Guacharos.	eng
55804	distribution		This species is found on the Lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and Colombia. Specimens previously referred to from central Peru (Departments of Junin, San Martin and Ucayali) have now been included in O. elkejungingerae (Karl-Heinz Jungfer pers comm.). It is possible that specimens considered to be O. verricigar in Colombia might refer to a different species (Karl-Heinz Jungfer pers comm.). It has an altitudinal limit of 1,400-2,000m asl.	eng
55804	habitat		This species’ habitat is montane and lowland tropical rainforests. At Cordillera del Dúe, Ecuador, the vegetation consists of lower humid montane forest, where there are many large trees, but the canopy is incomplete. Mosses and small ferns are abundant, and a thick layer of leaf-litter is present. Individuals of this species have been found in a broad, shallow ravine near to a stream. Males have been observed calling from low bushes and rocks along a pool in the stream (Trueb and Duellman, 1970). Breeding takes place in pools and slow streams. The species can be found alongside roads and in very disturbed habitat.	eng
55804	population		This is a common species.	eng
55804	threats		There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and logging, but since the species is very adaptable, these are probably not having a very serious impact on the species.	eng
55805	conservation		In Peru, this species might occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55805	distribution		This species is known from the upper Amazon Basin in Ecuador within a latitudinal range encompassed by the Río Napo to the north and the Río Curary to the south. Also known from two localities near Iquitos, Junction of Río Yanamono and Río Amazonas, Quebrada Grande, junction of Río Sucusari and Río Napo Departamento Loreto, in northeastern Peru. It has been recorded from Leticia in Colombia. All localities are from 100-250m in elevation. Further work is likely needed to understand if this species occurs more widely.	eng
55805	habitat		This species can be found in tropical primary moist forest including terra firme forest and seasonally flooded forest. It has been recorded from open areas (Ron and Pramuk, 1999) but this requires further investigation. Breeding takes place in temporary pools. It is not present in degraded areas.	eng
55805	population		This species is reasonably abundant.	eng
55805	threats		There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55806	conservation		Its range includes a protected area and several forest reserves, although they are not well managed at present.	eng
55806	distribution		This species is endemic to Jamaica, where it is widespread throughout the country, except in the southern parts. It has been recorded up to 1,500m asl.	eng
55806	habitat		It inhabits open woods, parkland, and montane forests, usually associated with bromeliads, which are used for retreat and calling sites. It is mainly arboreal. It can tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance, for example it can live in good secondary forest as long as there are bromeliads. It lays its eggs in bromeliads, and the tadpoles also develop there.	eng
55806	population		It is a common species.	eng
55806	threats		Deforestation for agriculture, human settlement, tourist development and selective logging is a localized threat,. Suitable secondary forest habitats are starting to develop at mid-elevations in Jamaica, due to abandonment of farms, and so in some places it might be increasing. It is mainly the coastal areas that's habitats are being affected the worst at present.	eng
55807	conservation		It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and increased management of these, and improved habitat protection, are necessary.	eng
55807	distribution		This species is endemic to central Jamaica. It formerly occurred on the south-western coast, at an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,200m asl.	eng
55807	habitat		This species is found in mesic broadleaf woods and forests on tree trunks and in bromeliads; it requires large dead trees. Males call from hollows in branches and bromeliads, and eggs are laid in bromeliads. It is not found in significantly altered habitats but can be found in regenerating forests.	eng
55807	population		There has been a decline in its abundance, and this species is now rarely encountered or heard calling, except in pockets of suitable habitat.	eng
55807	threats		It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, human settlements, development for tourist activities, and logging.	eng
55808	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55808	distribution		This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
55808	habitat		It is arboreal; males call from bushes and eggs are laid in standing water. It occurs anywhere near water in forests and anthropogenic open areas. It is an opportunistic breeder in any temporary or permanent standing waterbodies.	eng
55808	population		It is an abundant, ubiquitous species on Hispaniola.	eng
55808	threats		It has no apparent threats.	eng
55809	conservation		It is known from a few forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and increased management of these reserves, and improved habitat protection, are necessary.	eng
55809	distribution		This species has a restricted and fragmented range in central Jamaica, where it has been recorded from 120-880m asl.	eng
55809	habitat		It is found in bromeliads in pine and deciduous forests. Eggs are laid in bromeliads. It was thought not to have a call until recently as it does not have a vocal sac, but it actually does vocalize by means of vibration. It is restricted to old growth forest, and is not tolerant of disturbance of its forest habitat.	eng
55809	population		This species appears to be less common than <em>Osteopilus wilderi</em>.	eng
55809	threats		Deforestation is a major threat throughout its range, primarily for agriculture, human settlement, development for tourist activities, and selective logging.	eng
55810	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, although these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species in the wild, and to determine whether chytrid is a threat.	eng
55810	distribution		This species has a highly fragmented distribution on Hispaniola, which suggests that it is declining from a previously more uniform distribution. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,091m asl. It is presently known to persist at only one location in the Dominican Republic.	eng
55810	habitat		It occurs in mesic broadleaf forests, including remnant forests. Males call in flooded pools after heavy rain. Records from 40 years ago found the species in anthropogenic habitats such as rice fields, but recent records are all from forest. Eggs are laid in still water where the larvae also develop.	eng
55810	population		This species has always been hard to find, but even so it appears to be in decline, with many historic populations that appear to have disappeared. It was not recorded during extensive searches of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic in suitable habitat from 1998 to 2000. It was last recorded in Haiti in 1985.	eng
55810	threats		Major threats include deforestation due to agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, and logging. Since it appears to have declined in suitable habitats, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat.	eng
55811	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, Beatrice Ibéné, Rafael Joglar, Robert Powell, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55811	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, Beatrice Ibéné, Rafael Joglar, Robert Powell, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, 2008	This species occurs on Cuba, the Isla de Juventud (Cuba), Archipelago de los Canarreos (Cuba), the Archipelago de Sabana-Camaguey (Cuba), Cayos de San Felipe (Cuba), the Cayman Islands, and the following places in the Bahamas: Little and Great Bahamas Banks, Long Island, Cat Island, Conception Island, Rum Cay, San Salvador, Crooked-Acklands Bank, and Great Inagua Island. It is introduced on Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St John, St Thomas), Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Beef Island and Peter Island (British Virgin Islands), the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Florida Keys and mainland Florida (USA), Hawaii (USA), Anguilla, St Martin (France portion, not yet in Netherlands portion), St Barthelemy, Bonaire, and Limon, Costa Rica (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). It occurs from sea level up to 1,110m asl.	eng
55811	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, Beatrice Ibéné, Rafael Joglar, Robert Powell, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, 2008	It generally inhabits mesic habitats but may be found in xeric habitat in the Bahamas, living in all kinds of disturbed habitats, including towns and houses. It is also present in forests, mangroves and coastal areas. It can also tolerate brackish water. It is found on the ground and on tree trunks. Males call from vegetation near pooled rainwater. Eggs are laid in still water, including pools, marshes, flood pastures, and ditches. It is competing with other species, and predates native amphibians in the wild. It might also be a vector for pathogens.<br/><br/>Breeding events have been found to last only one night and male mating behavior changes from acoustic competition to scramble searching over the breeding event. Most males have similar opportunities to mate with a female, and there doesn't appear to be a direct adaptive benefit for high mating selectivity by females, which can increase the invasive capacity of <em>O. septentrionalis</em> (Vargas Salinas, 2006).	eng
55811	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, Beatrice Ibéné, Rafael Joglar, Robert Powell, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, 2008	It is an extremely abundant species. It is spreading rapidly, with frequent new island records (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
55811	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, Beatrice Ibéné, Rafael Joglar, Robert Powell, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, 2008	There are no threats to this species.  The species' diet suggests that it could severely impact native species, and its tadpoles impact those of some native anurans (see Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
55812	conservation		It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection. Its range overlaps with the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park. Given this species' very specific habitat requirements, improved and strengthened habitat protection and management is essential.	eng
55812	distribution		This species is restricted to central Jamaica at an altitudinal range of 120-880m asl.	eng
55812	habitat		It is commonly found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads in closed-canopy forests. The species can occur in secondary growth, as long as there are bromeliads (since the eggs are laid, and larval development occurs, in bromeliads only).	eng
55812	population		It is declining but is more common than <em>Osteopilus marianae</em>.	eng
55812	threats		The major threat to this bromeliad-dependent species is habitat loss due smallholder farming activites, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
55813	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve as well as a few other protected areas. Real protection of the tropical deciduous forest areas in coastal Mexico is needed.	eng
55813	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs from southern Sonora, southward along the Pacific coast including the Balsas Depression, to southern Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55813	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species inhabits xeric lowlands and tropical deciduous forest, commonly occurring in areas characterized by a prolonged dry season. In the rainy season it is common to find many individuals congregated in temporary pools and even in artificial ponds and other water reservoirs, where they breed.	eng
55813	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This is a common species.	eng
55813	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Transformation of the original forest habitat of this species is a major threat.	eng
55814	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55814	distribution		This species is known from the coastal mountains (Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira), in Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.	eng
55814	habitat		This species occurs on the vegetation near waterbodies inside primary and secondary forest. The clutches are laid on leaves above the water, when hatched the tadpoles drop into the permanent streams below. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats.	eng
55814	population		It is a common species.	eng
55814	threats		Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
55815	conservation		It has been recorded from two protected areas: Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Serra do Teimoso (Bahia); and Reserva Biólogica duas Bocas. Population monitoring is needed to determine wheter or not the species is in decline.	eng
55815	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in eastern and southeastern Brazil: Santa Teresa (type locality) and Cariacica in the State of Espírito Santo; and Jussari in the State of Bahia. It presumably occurs between these areas, and can be expected to occur at least a little more widely.	eng
55815	habitat		It is a forest species that cannot tolerate serious deforestation. Eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams, and when hatched they fall in to the stream below where they develop further.	eng
55815	population		It is very common where it occurs. At the type locality it appears to have experienced a significant decline (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
55815	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.	eng
55816	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.	eng
55816	distribution		This species is known from coastal mountains in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná States, Brazil. It occurs from 50-1,200m asl.	eng
55816	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near streams inside primary and secondary forest. The eggs are laid on leaves above the water, and when the tadpoles hatch they drop into the permanent stream below. It has also been found at the forest edge, but not outside forest.	eng
55816	population		This is a common species where it is found. It has undergone large population fluctuations in the past. Current declines in Rio de Janeiro need further monitoring to determine whether or not they are populations fluctuations or actual declines.	eng
55816	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development are major threats to this species.	eng
55817	conservation	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55817	distribution	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço (at Serra do Cipó and the Municipality of Turmalina and Nova Lima), and Serra do Caraça in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.	eng
55817	habitat	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species occurs in streams in gallery forests and open areas. The eggs are deposited on leaves above the water, and fall into the permanent stream below when hatched. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55817	population	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55817	threats	Paula Cabral Eterovick, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement, and disturbance of the habitat from touristic activities and fire are threats to the species.	eng
55818	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	In Peru, this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata National Reserve, and Gueppi Reserved Zone, and given its habitat and geographic distribution it might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. Additional conservation measures might include determination of the impact of harvesting for human consumption on the Balta (and maybe other) population(s) and if necessary implement a harvest management program.	eng
55818	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is found in Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana and upper Amazon Basin in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Christian Marty observed it for the first time in French Guiana in 1993 (Lescure and Marty, 2001). A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided by Lescure and Marty (2001). The altitudinal range is 0-300m asl.	eng
55818	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest and gently rolling hills covered with tropical forest. Specimens have been found in primary forest, secondary forest, and at the edge of the forest (Duellman, 1978). It reproduces in water-filled tree holes, temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55818	population	Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is not commonly recorded because of its arboreal habits.	eng
55818	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Although probably not generally threatened, local populations are no doubt impacted by various forms of deforestation. This species is eaten by the local population comprised of Cashinahua Indians (Balta, Departamento Ucayali) and the Achuar Indians in Ecuador. Although widespread, one of the populations is a source of protein for human consumption and it would be useful to determine whether or not other populations might be similarly exploited elsewhere.	eng
55819	conservation		Its ranges overlaps with all of the protected areas in Suriname and French Guiana.	eng
55819	distribution		This species is known from Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. In Guyana it is known only from the type locality ("area north of Acarai Mountains, west of New River (ca. 02°N; 58°W), Rupununi District, Guyana") in extreme southern Guyana (Duellman and Hoogmoed, 1992). It is widespread in Suriname and French Guiana (Lescure and Marty (2001) provide a dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana).	eng
55819	habitat		This species inhabits lowland primary forest. They breed in very small tree holes in the canopy of the forest. Females feed the tadpoles by depositing unfertilised eggs in the tree holes. The larvae are oophagous.	eng
55819	population		This species is often heard in the forest, but is difficult to see as it occurs very high up in the trees. Calling males were estimated at a density of 0.9km2 in primary forest in French Guiana (P. Gaucher pers. comm.).	eng
55819	threats		Clear-cutting of the forest might be a threat to this species in the future but at present its habitat is generally secure.	eng
55820	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Brazil. Occurs in a small private reserve in Argentina.	eng
55820	distribution		This species occurs in the mountainous parts of southern and southeastern Brazil (from southern Minas Gerais south to northern Rio Grande do Sul), west to east-central Misiones Province, Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 400-1,700m asl.	eng
55820	habitat		This is an arboreal frog found in the canopy of primary forest. It is an explosive breeder, spawning in permanent still waterbodies in the forest. Probably not tolerant of much habitat disturbance.	eng
55820	population		This species is not well known and is probably a rare species, although some very large populations have been found breeding in the northern part of its range. The southern population (which is probably a different species) seems to be much rarer. It is probably easily overlooked when not breeding.	eng
55820	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
55821	conservation		This species has been recorded from two protected areas: Parque Estadual Intervales and Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho.	eng
55821	distribution		This species is known only from two specimens, one collected in Parque Estadual Intervales, and the other in Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho, both in São Paulo State, Brazil.	eng
55821	habitat		It is presumed to be an inhabitant of moist tropical forest. One of the specimens was collected in an epiphytic bromeliad 10cm above the ground. It is presumed that egg deposition either occurs in pools in tree cavities, or in pools on the forest floor.	eng
55821	population		Since it is known only from two specimens, the population status of this species cannot be determined.	eng
55821	threats		The threats to this species are not known. Although the only known populations are in protected areas, it is also likely to occur in areas where its habitat is being lost.	eng
55822	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55822	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Brazil, from extreme southern Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul, inland to include eastern and central Minas Gerais. It ranges up to 800m asl.	eng
55822	habitat		It is a species of primary and secondary forest and forest edge, living on vegetation near waterbodies. It is an explosive breeder, using temporary and permanent ponds. The egg clutches are laid floating on the water.	eng
55822	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55822	threats		The only significant threats are clear cutting and water pollution, but this species is not seriously at risk.	eng
55823	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Conservation units are present within its range. Venezuelan population protected in Sierra de la Neblina National Park, Amazonas state. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55823	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is present in eastern Suriname, central Guyana, French Guiana and Amazonian Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Lescure and Marty (2001) gave a record for Peru. McDiarmid and Paolillo (1988) gave the first and only record of this species in Venezuela: Rio Baria, base del Cerro Neblina in Amazonas State; no further Venezuelan samples are known. Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.	eng
55823	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This frog inhabits the canopy of tropical primary rainforest, where they breed in tree cavities and may seldom, if ever, descend to the ground (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this species has been found in open area, floodable forest, and in Terra firme forest on branches of trees (Ron, 2001). It reproduces in tree cavities and it is characterized by loud vocalization.	eng
55823	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Rarely recorded, probably because of its arboreal habits.	eng
55823	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Local populations are no doubt impacted by forest conversion, clear cutting, selective logging, and human settlement. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
55824	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Jerry Hardy, Paulino Ponce, 2009	The wide distribution range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
55824	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Jerry Hardy, Paulino Ponce, 2009	This species is found in Central America, from central Tamaulipas and southern Sinaloa, Mexico southward on both coasts to central Nicaragua and on to the Pacific lowlands through Panama, from 0-1,610m asl. In South America it occurs throughout the Amazon basin, south to Paraná (Brazil), Paraguay, northern Argentina. It is also present on both Trinidad and Tobago. It has an altitudinal range in South America of sea level to 800m asl.	eng
55824	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Jerry Hardy, Paulino Ponce, 2009	This is an arboreal, canopy-dwelling forest and forest-edge species. It occurs in a number of habitat types from savannahs and other open habitats to both dry and moist forests. It can be found in disturbed habitats, animals may even be found within human dwellings. It can live within second growth forest and plantations. This species breeds at the beginning of the rainy season, with males calling at night while floating in large temporary pools or intermittent streams. The floating egg clutches are laid in the water where the tadpoles also develop.	eng
55824	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Jerry Hardy, Paulino Ponce, 2009	It is a very common species.	eng
55824	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Julian Faivovich, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Jerry Hardy, Paulino Ponce, 2009	There are no major threats, this is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to drying of wetlands, forest destruction, urbanization, pollution and fire. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55825	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. Research to determine its population status and distribution, and actions to protect the original habitat, are needed.	eng
55825	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (São Bento), Novo Horizonte, Lauro Muller in Santa Catarina State, and Serra de Araracuara, Guaratuba, in Parana State, southern Brazil, at approximately 800-1,000m asl.	eng
55825	habitat		It occurred on vegetation near forest streams in rainforest, laying eggs on vegetation overhanging the streams in which the larvae developed.	eng
55825	population		Once somewhat common in areas where it occurred, it has not been seen since 1970 despite repeated searches. The reasons for the decline are unknown.	eng
55825	threats		The habitat in the localities where the species occurred is relatively intact. Its disappearance from apparently suitable habitat is reminiscent of that of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as being the causative agent.	eng
55826	conservation		To aid its conservation, more research is urgently needed into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status, in particular to determine whether or not it has a restricted range, if it is subject to any major threats, and if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55826	distribution		This species is known only from Mongaguá in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, although the exact locality is not known. It might occur more widely, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
55826	habitat		Its preferred habitat is unknown (the habitat of the type locality was not given in the original description), but if it is similar to other species of the genus it possibly frequents forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though again if it is similar to other members of the genus reproduction is presumably by larval development in streams.	eng
55826	population		This species was described from only one specimen, so its population status is unknown, and no further collections have been made in the type locality.	eng
55826	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55827	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	It has been found in several protected areas.	eng
55827	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	This species from southeastern Brazil is known from four localities: Santa Teresa (the type locality) in the State of Espírito Santo; Teresopolis and Parati in the State of Rio de Janeiro; and Ubatuba in the State of Sao Paulo State. Its altitudinal range is 200-800m asl.	eng
55827	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	It lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It is usually found on vegetation near permanent or temporary shallow streams, in which the tadpoles develop.	eng
55827	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	It is common where it occurs.	eng
55827	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.<br/><br/>A similar species, <em>Phrynomedusa<em> cf. <em>marginata</em> has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).</em></em>	eng
55828	conservation		The range of this species is wholly within protected areas, although it is clear that conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required even in these areas.	eng
55828	distribution		This species is currently known only from Teresópolis, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and Boraceia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, from 800-1,500m asl, although its distribution is not well known. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites.	eng
55828	habitat		This species has only been recorded from streams in primary forest. Larvae have been found in small pools in permanent streams.	eng
55828	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55828	threats		Its habitat is being degraded in Boraceia, where harvesting of palmito palm trees is opening up the forest canopy.	eng
55829	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55829	distribution		This species is known only from the coastal areas of northeastern Brazil, from the States of Bahia, Alagoas and Pernambuco. It occurs up to 550m asl.	eng
55829	habitat		It has been found on the forest edge in bromeliads, and might also occur inside forest in bromeliads in the canopy. It has not been found in open or heavily degraded areas. It breeds in bromeliads by larval development.	eng
55829	population		It is a common species.	eng
55829	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55830	conservation		It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas, but maintenance and protection of its habitat is urgently required.	eng
55830	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the summit of Aripo, in the Northern Range, and probably also Morne Bleu Ridge, Trinidad Island, in Trinidad and Tobago. The total range of the species is estimated to be 10km² or less. It is known from around 940m asl.	eng
55830	habitat		It is found in montane rainforest and elfin woodland. It has a very specific microhabitat and is associated with the giant epiphytic bromeliad, <em>Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora</em>. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads. It is not adaptable to disturbance of its habitat.	eng
55830	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55830	threats		It is threatened by the collection of bromeliads from the forest, and the over collecting of specimens.	eng
55831	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55831	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality, Alhandra, which is close to sea level, in the state of Paraíba in north-eastern Brazil.	eng
55831	habitat		All the specimens were found inside bromeliads, in which this species is presumed to breed by larval development. Its broader habitat preferences are not known, although it is perhaps associated with coastal Restinga shrubland, or with forest.	eng
55831	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from a few specimens.	eng
55831	threats		It is known only from an area that has been heavily impacted by human activities and so it is likely to be threatened by these activities. These threats are human settlement, in particular, but also agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55832	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca and in the Estación Ecológica Murici.	eng
55832	distribution		This recently described species is known from several localities in north-eastern Brazil in the states of Alagoas and Pernambuco: Mata do Catole, in the municipality of Maceio; Rio Largo; Mata da Salava; the Estación Ecológica Murici; and Jaqueira. It occurs from sea level up to 650m asl.	eng
55832	habitat		It lives in arboreal bromeliads in forest, and also in bromeliads in rocky outcrops, but it has not been found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
55832	population		This is a common species.	eng
55832	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction, human settlement and collection of bromeliads. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction in extent of forest patches, and some populations in Alagoas appear to be at severe risk as a result of this.	eng
55833	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca and in the Estación Ecológica Murici.	eng
55833	distribution		This recently described species is known from two localities in north-eastern Brazil: Fazenda Bananeiras, in the municipality of Murici, in the state of Alagoas; and Usina Colonia in the state of Pernambuco. It has been recorded up to around 650m asl.	eng
55833	habitat		It lives in arboreal bromeliads in forest (in which it breeds by larval development), and has not been found in degraded habitats.	eng
55833	population		It is less common than <em>Phyllodytes edelmoi</em>, with which it shares a similar geographic range.	eng
55833	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction, human settlement and collection of bromeliads. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction in extent of forest patches.	eng
55834	conservation		It occurs in three reserves: Santa Tereza and Santa Lucia Estacion Biólogica; Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi; and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz.	eng
55834	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil is known from several localities in the State of Espírito Santo, from Domingos Martins northwards, as far as Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 600m asl.	eng
55834	habitat		It lives inside bromeliads in the canopy of lowland moist forest, and does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
55834	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55834	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55835	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55835	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal region of eastern Brazil from the State of Pernambuco, south to southern Espírito Santo State. Records from Paraíba require confirmation. It occurs up to 650m asl.	eng
55835	habitat		It lives in bromeliads in lowland moist forest and in coastal "Restinga" shrubland (including in quite open "Restinga"). It breeds by larval development in bromeliads. The females lay a few eggs in each leaf axil and use more than one bromeliad during egg laying.	eng
55835	population		It is a common species.	eng
55835	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, fire, logging, human settlement and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55836	conservation	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55836	distribution	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	This species from eastern Brazil is known from Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia, north to Areia Branca, in the State of Sergipe. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55836	habitat	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It lives in bromeliads in coastal "Restinga" scrub (including open "Restinga"), and also in secondary lowland moist forest. It is normally found in canopy bromeliads, and only very rarely in bromeliads on the ground or in low vegetation. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
55836	population	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55836	threats	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, human settlement, tourism, fire and collection of bromeliads. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)	eng
55837	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55837	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil is known only from the vicinity of its type locality at Maracas and Santa Ines in east-central Bahia State. Records from the state of Sergipe refer to the recently described <em>Phyllodytes punctatus</em> (Caramaschi and Peixoto 2004).	eng
55837	habitat		It apparently lives in terrestrial bromeliads in open areas, and breeds in the bromeliads by larval development.	eng
55837	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, of which there have been no recent field observations, probably due to a lack of survey effort.	eng
55837	threats		There is no direct information on the threats to this species, but in view of its known range the major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, fire and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55838	conservation		In Peru, this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata National Reserve and Gueppi Reserved Zone, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is not present in any Brazilian protected areas however the forests of this State are still well conserved.	eng
55838	distribution		This species is found in Peru, close to the Iquitos region (Departamento Loreto), and along the basins of the Tambopata, Manu and Madre de Dios rivers (Departamento Madre de Dios). It is present in Acre, Brazil and also occurs in northern Bolivia. It occurs at elevations of up to 200m asl.	eng
55838	habitat		A terrestrial species active on the ground or low vegetation. Restricted to lowland primary tropical rainforest. Eggs are laid on leaves; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
55838	population		It is not a common species, but it is relatively easily encountered	eng
55838	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55839	conservation	Ulisses Caramaschi, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Raphael Lima, Reuber Brandão, 2009	The species is known to occur in Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus (Araujo et al., 2007).	eng
55839	distribution	Ulisses Caramaschi, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Raphael Lima, Reuber Brandão, 2009	This species is known from Morro do Ferro (type locality), in the municipality of Poços de Caldas, state of Minas Gerais, and from Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus, in the municipality of Pedregulho, state of São Paulo, Brazil. The taxonomic status of the population at Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra, in the municipality of São Roque de Minas, Minas Gerais, requires assessment. It is found between 647-1540m asl.	eng
55839	habitat	Ulisses Caramaschi, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Raphael Lima, Reuber Brandão, 2009	This species has been found in transition zones between typical cerrado and secondary semideciduous forest. It occurs in open areas on shrubs near pools. The egg clutch is deposited on leaves above permanent flowing water, and when hatched the tadpoles fall into streams below.	eng
55839	population	Ulisses Caramaschi, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Raphael Lima, Reuber Brandão, 2009	It is a rare species. It seems to occur at low densities at the Parque Estadual das Furnas do Bom Jesus (Araujo et al., 2007).	eng
55839	threats	Ulisses Caramaschi, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Raphael Lima, Reuber Brandão, 2009	Habitat loss due to mining and fires, as well as pollution from mining activities, are the major threats.	eng
55840	conservation		It is present in the Reserva Comunal El Sira (an indigenous people's reserve). Further survey work is necessary to determine the precise limits of the distribution of this species, its current population status in the wild, and its breeding biology.	eng
55840	distribution		This species is known only from the west slope of the Serrania de Sira, Huánuco Department, Peru. It possibly occurs in the Cordillera Azul, but this requires further investigation. Its presumed altitudinal range is around 1,280m asl.	eng
55840	habitat		It has been recorded from low cloud forest at 1,280m asl. Otherwise, nothing further is known about this species, though it may use temporary ponds for breeding.	eng
55840	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55840	threats		Although the restricted area that the species inhabits is relatively inaccessible, there is some habitat disturbance due to farming and human settlement. In addition, the lower parts of the range are being selectively logged.	eng
55841	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, 2008	The species' distribution encompasses several protected areas.	eng
55841	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, 2008	This species is found in the Amazon Basin in Venezuela (Amazonas and Bolívar states), Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and the Guianas. It also occurs in the Cerrado habitat of Manhao state, Brazil. It has been recorded from 0-800m asl.	eng
55841	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, 2008	This is a nocturnal tree frog. It has been found calling from the limbs of trees in tropical rainforest at heights of more than 2m above the water in a forest pond (Duellman 1997). Gorzula and Señaris (1999) reported a leaf-nest found about 2m above a forest pool. Tadpoles then develop in temporary waterbodies. They are also found in gallery forest in Cerrado.	eng
55841	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, 2008	It is common throughout its range.	eng
55841	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, 2008	There are very few threats through its wide range, though it is probably impacted locally by very severe habitat loss, such as clear-cutting. It might benefit from road cuts through forest where individuals congregate to reproduce. There is currently an increased interest in the toxic compounds in the skin of this frog (which is used for hunting practices for several tribes of Amazonia). This might increase harvesting effort in the future, but at the moment, such utilisation is not considered to constitute a threat to the species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55842	conservation	Ignacio De la Riva, Guarino Colli, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	Taxonomic work is needed to determine the status of the populations in Rôndonia. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55842	distribution	Ignacio De la Riva, Guarino Colli, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is found in the dry Amazonian slopes of the Andes and lowlands of eastern Dept. of Santa Cruz (Bolivia); northern Argentina; and western Mato Grosso and Rôndonia, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is 200-1,800m asl.	eng
55842	habitat	Ignacio De la Riva, Guarino Colli, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It occurs in tropical dry forest, and edge situations close to rainforests. Males call at night from vegetation. The eggs are attached to leaves in vegetation above temporary pools, and hatched tadpoles drop in to the water below where they develop. They have also been observed breeding in artificial ponds in Parque Nacional Calilegua.	eng
55842	population	Ignacio De la Riva, Guarino Colli, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is common throughout most of its range.	eng
55842	threats	Ignacio De la Riva, Guarino Colli, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	Habitat destruction caused by agricultural practices (including fire) and wood extraction.	eng
55843	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Llanganates. In Colombia the Santander population overlaps with the Guanenta-Alto Río Fonce National Park. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not there are two different species in Colombia, considering the disjunctive nature of the species distribution. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is also desirable.	eng
55843	distribution		This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin and the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Colombia (departments of Caquetá and Santander) and Ecuador (Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forests and Napo Moist Forest in the Eastern Subtropical and Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zones). In Santander it is known from 1,700m asl, and in Caquetá it is known from around 400m asl. In Ecuador it is known from 400-1,800m asl.	eng
55843	habitat		This species inhabits lower montane and montane primary and secondary rainforest. Specimens have been taken at night on low vegetation overhanging pools of water (Cannatella, 1980). Eggs are laid on leaves above permanent pools, and when hatched the tadpoles drop in to the water below. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55843	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55843	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation from small farms, and clear cutting of forests are localized threats, however there are no threats known to the species' overall survival. In Ecuador its range is close to an active volcano.	eng
55844	conservation	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Débora Silvano, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55844	distribution	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known from Sergipe to São Paulo, in eastern Brazil, from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55844	habitat	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is mainly known from the Atlantic Forest edge. It occurs on vegetation near standing waterbodies. The egg clutch is deposited in leaf nests above the water, and when hatched the larvae fall in to the water below where they develop further. Reproductive activity in this species has been recorded in the months of December to February, potentially also occurring in November (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It probably adapts well to moderate anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55844	population	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55844	threats	Rogério Bastos, Dante Pavan, Débora Silvano, 2008	Mining and logging are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
55845	conservation		Present in Parque Nacional Manu in Peru, and numerous protected areas in Bolivia, and presumably Brazil.	eng
55845	distribution		This species is found in the Southwestern Amazon Basin from southeastern Peru (Departments of Madre de Dios and Ucayali); western Brazil (States of Amazonas, Acre, and Rondonia) through northern and eastern Bolivia (Departments of Pando, Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, and Santa Cruz). It is present at 450m asl.	eng
55845	habitat		It is present in primary lowland tropical moist forest, secondary forest and also disturbed open areas. Foam nests are made on leaves above pools, the tadpoles fall from these into the water.	eng
55845	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55845	threats		Because of the large areas of suitable habitat still available to this species there are no major threats.	eng
55846	conservation		Its type locality is within a protected area.	eng
55846	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Chapada dos Guimarães, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, at around 800m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
55846	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah, and occurs on vegetation near small streams in which it breeds.	eng
55846	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55846	threats		The major threats to this species’ habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock) and fire. The disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a threat.	eng
55847	conservation		Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, and might also be in Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.	eng
55847	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, "Loreto, Peru" and Moyobamba, Departamento San Martin, Peru. It has been recorded from two localities in Colombia (Caqueta Department). There is a single record from the Ecuadorian Amazon provided by Read (2002) with no specific locality data. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Its elevation is up to 800m asl.	eng
55847	habitat		A Lowland tropical rainforest species. At Loreto, Perú, one specimen was found in rolling terrain with steep slopes and small, sandy bottomed streams in primary forest (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The breeding habitat is not known, though the larvae are likely to develop in streams. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
55847	population		It is generally rare, with few specimens at each locality.	eng
55847	threats		A Lowland tropical rainforest species, it can be found in Loreto, Perú. One specimen was found in rolling terrain with steep slopes and small, sandy bottomed streams in primary forest (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The breeding habitat is not known, though the larvae are likely to develop in streams. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
55848	conservation		The known locality for this species is not within a protected area. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
55848	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, La Blanquita in the municipality of Frontina, in Antioquia Department, on the northern part of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,640m asl.	eng
55848	habitat		The one known specimen of this species was found on a leaf on vegetation near a stream in primary forest. Nothing is known about its breeding habits, although the larvae are likely to develop in streams.	eng
55848	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from one specimen. It has not been recorded again at the type locality, but it is most likely a very difficult species to find.	eng
55848	threats		Clearing of the forest for fruit cultivation is a major threat to the habitat in this species' range.	eng
55849	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55849	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of São Paulo south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55849	habitat		It lives inside moist primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, but not in more open areas. It is usually found on shrubs near standing waterbodies. The eggs are laid on leaves over permanent ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
55849	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55849	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, and clear-cutting.	eng
55850	conservation		It might occur in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán, but this requires confirmation.	eng
55850	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, near Balzapata, and upper Río Chiriaco, in Amazonas Department, Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 1,850-1,910m asl. It is not known if this species is restricted in range, or whether or not it is likely to be found more widely.	eng
55850	habitat		This is a cloud forest species about which very little is known. The larvae presumably develop in water.	eng
55850	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
55850	threats		It might be threatened by the agricultural activity (such as cultivation of coffee) that is occurring around the type locality.	eng
55851	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and its habitat may be in need of formal protection to guard against encroachment. Further research is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a genuine threat.	eng
55851	distribution		This species is known only from Agua Rica, south-west of Limón, on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at around 1,890m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
55851	habitat		It is apparently a species of montane cloud forest, presumably breeding in slow-flowing streams, or perhaps occasionally in still water.	eng
55851	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55851	threats		The habitat around the type locality is apparently not very threatened at the moment, although there is some agricultural encroachment of the forest. However, the species lives in montane habitats where catastrophic declines have affected other frogs with stream-dwelling larvae, probably as a result of chytridiomycosis, and so this is a potential threat.	eng
55852	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is not found in any Peruvian protected areas.	eng
55852	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in North Teniente Lopez, between Río Pastaza and Río Tigre, northern Departamento Loreto, Peru; and from three single localities in Ecuador. While the species is known from only a few sites it is expected to occur more widely in the suitable habitat between these areas. It occurs up to 450m asl.	eng
55852	habitat		Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. At Loreto, the holotytpe was found in a permanent or semi-permanent pond supporting Heliconia in a depression in rainforest. This specimen was perched on a leaf of a vine 4m above the ground; the vine was attached to a tree at the edge of the forest pond (Duellman and Mendelson III, 1995). The species deposits eggs on leafs overhanging temporary ponds; the larvae develop in the pools. It is not present in degraded habitat.	eng
55852	population		It is not an abundant species.	eng
55852	threats		The most western part of the Ecuadorian range is suffering from habitat loss (agriculture, logging etc.).	eng
55853	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Enrique La Marca, Jorge Céspedez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas, and can survive well in urbanised areas.	eng
55853	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Enrique La Marca, Jorge Céspedez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species' geographic range is South America, east of the Andes, including much of the Amazon basin, and it occurs as far south as northern Argentina. It is not present in the Amazonian areas of Ecuador or Peru. It occurs from the lowlands up to 1,500m asl.	eng
55853	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Enrique La Marca, Jorge Céspedez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This is a nocturnal species that perches on shrubs and herbaceous vegetation in seasonally flooded grasslands and open habitats in tropical dry forests. It is also common in secondary vegetation near moist sites. Males call from bushes in, and at the edges of temporary ponds in the forest, with most individuals perched within 1m of the surfaces of the ponds. Nests have been found at the beginning of the rainy season about 1m above the water of small pools. The eggs are deposited on leaves above the water; tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It has been recorded from urban areas in Bolivia.	eng
55853	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Enrique La Marca, Jorge Céspedez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
55853	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Enrique La Marca, Jorge Céspedez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	Extreme levels of habitat degradation, such as forest clear-cutting, fires, over-grazing by cattle, commercial agriculture might be impacting some local populations, but this species is adaptable, and there are probably no significant threats to its survival at present. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55854	conservation		Possibly occurs in Lagoa do Peixe National Park, but this is not confirmed. Creation of new protected areas and research actions needed.	eng
55854	distribution		This species can be found in extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), and Uruguay (Durazno, La Valleja, Maldonado, Rivera, Rocha, San Jose, and Treinta y Tres Departments), at an elevation of 0-500m asl.	eng
55854	habitat		It occurs in shrubland and is arboreal. It lays eggs on vegetation above standing water. The larvae develop in water and the tolerance to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
55854	population		It can be common in some parts of its range.	eng
55854	threats		Possibly threatened by pet trade and conversion of native habitat to pastures.	eng
55855	conservation		Within Costa Rica, the former range included several national parks and other protected areas; none of the remaining populations are within protected areas (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007). The species is known to be present within at least six Panamanian protected areas, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. A successful captive breeding program began in 2001 at the Atlanta Botanical Garden, which has since transferred individuals to other zoos to continue these captive breeding efforts. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September 2007).	eng
55855	distribution		This species occurs in Costa Rica and Panama, and marginally in Colombia. It occurs predominantly on the Atlantic versant from the vicinity of Tilarán, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, to western Panama; the disjunct Pacific slope records are from north-western Costa Rica and south-western, central, and extreme eastern Panama in the Darien area, where it extends marginally across the border into Colombia. In Costa Rica the species is now only known with certainty from three sites: Fila Asunción, 15km south-west of Limón (an abandoned farm); in a forested area near Parque Nacional Barbilla near Siquirres (where one female has been found); and from Guayacán (in Limón Province). The first of these three sites is the only site known to have a large breeding population. All other previously known Costa Rican populations of this species have disappeared including those in Monteverde, San Ramón, Braulio Carrillo, and Tapantí. Its altitudinal range is 440-1,600m asl.	eng
55855	habitat		It is a nocturnal tree frog associated with sloping areas in humid lowland and montane primary forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. The eggs are usually deposited on leaf surfaces and the larvae are washed off or fall into water below the site of oviposition.	eng
55855	population		It was once considered to be a reasonably common species in Costa Rica, but most populations have recently disappeared. The species is still considered to be reasonably common in lower elevation in central and eastern parts of Panama (where, for example, there are recent records from Palmarazo), but extensive declines have been recorded in western Panama from the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, (no records from this site since 1999) and El Copé, Coclé (declined from 2004, although it persists at a very reduced abundance [Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007]) (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is no recent population information from Colombia.	eng
55855	threats		The massive declines noted in this species are probably due to chytridiomycosis. Recent studies by Woodhams <em>et al</em>. (2006) found that among species studies, this was one of the more resistant species to infection with chytridiomycosis; possibly suggesting a reason for the continued persistence of limited numbers of this species at El Copé. General habitat loss also remains a threat, and this is especially the case in Costa Rica where deforestation by squatters threatens Fila Asunción, one of the three known remaining populations.	eng
55856	conservation	Jesús Manzanilla, Enrique La Marca, 2008	The type locality is protected within Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
55856	distribution	Jesús Manzanilla, Enrique La Marca, 2008	This species is known from the type locality in Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, in the vicinity of the biological station of Rancho Grande, on the road from Maracay to Ocumare, in Aragua state, Venezuela. More recently it has been recorded west of the park, near the town of Bejuma, state of Carabobo, and on Cerro Zapatero, between the<br/>towns of San Felipe and Nirgua, state of Yaracuy, Venezuela (Lotzkat et al., 2007). It has been recorded between 1,000-1,300m asl.	eng
55856	habitat	Jesús Manzanilla, Enrique La Marca, 2008	An inhabitant of cloud forest, it lays its eggs on leaves above pools and slow-flowing streams. It has a less elaborate nest than <em>Phyllomedusa trinitatis</em>.	eng
55856	population	Jesús Manzanilla, Enrique La Marca, 2008	It was overcollected following its description in 1962, and has not been recorded since 1974 at the type locality and its vicinities, despite considerable search efforts (Lotzkat et al., 2007). A few individuals were found in October 2006 at Cerro Zapatero; however, detailed studies on the population status of this species are needed (Lotzkat et al., 2007).	eng
55856	threats	Jesús Manzanilla, Enrique La Marca, 2008	It is not known if there are any threats to this species at present, although it does occur in a well-managed protected area. Up until the time it was last seen at Rancho Grande it suffered from being overcollected. If it occurs more widely than is currently known, it could be found in places where its habitat is threatened.	eng
55857	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55857	distribution		Caramaschi (2006) indicates that the species is only known from the Municipality of Jaboticatubas, in the Serra do Cipó,<br/>state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, associated to the Espinhaço mountain range.	eng
55857	habitat		It is believed to inhabit open areas and rocky Cerrado savannah on the tops of plateaus and mountain ranges. The egg clutch is presumably deposited on leaves above the water, and when hatched the larvae fall into a permanent stream below.	eng
55857	population		It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is not known.	eng
55857	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55858	conservation		It has been collected in the Reserva Ecológica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE).	eng
55858	distribution		This species is known from the plateaus in the state of Goiás (the Serra da Mesa, Chapada dos Veadeiros, and the Serra dos Pirineus) and in the Distrito Federal (in the Área de Relevante Interesse Ecológico (ARIE) do Capetinga, in the Reserva Ecológica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE)), Brazil. It occurs at altitudes above 900m asl.	eng
55858	habitat		It is found in open Cerrado savannah, with short and scattered shrubs, and breeds in small streams with the larvae developing in pools within the streams.	eng
55858	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55858	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
55859	conservation		In Peru this species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata National Reserve, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zone, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Peru. It is present in many Brazilian protected areas and presumably in protected areas in Ecuador and Bolivia.	eng
55859	distribution		This species is known from the upper Amazon basin in Ecuador, the lowlands east of the Andes in the Departments of Huánuco, Loreto, Ucayali and Madre de Dios, Peru; northern Bolivia and western Brazilian Amazonia. It has an altitudinal range of 100m to 400m asl.	eng
55859	habitat		It is usually found on trees around temporary pools in lowland primary and secondary tropical rainforest and forest-edge habitats. The eggs are deposited on leaves and the tadpoles develop in temporary waterbodies. It can be found in modified habitats at the forest edge.	eng
55859	population		It is a common species.	eng
55859	threats		There are no major threats, it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55860	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, although it might do so.	eng
55860	distribution		This species is known from only two localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes: Río Salado in Napo Province, Ecuador; and Caquetá Department, Colombia. It presumably occurs between these two sites. Its known altitudinal range is 1,350-1,400m asl.	eng
55860	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary montane forest, where it breeds in ponds.	eng
55860	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55860	threats		The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55861	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
55861	distribution		This species is known from two areas in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador: around the type locality, Río Anchicayá, in Valle Department, Colombia, at 300m asl; and Puerto Quito, in Pichincha Province, Ecuador. It will presumably be found to occur more widely, at least in the area between the two known sites. Its overall altitudinal range is 100-500m asl.	eng
55861	habitat		It inhabits lowland moist forest, and is found only in mature forest. The eggs are placed on leaves overhanging slow-flowing streams and ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
55861	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55861	threats		The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (including plantations), illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
55862	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable.	eng
55862	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	This species is known from southeastern Brazil, in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and São Paulo States. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55862	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	This species occurs on vegetation near standing waterbodies in savannah, forest edge and anthropogenic areas such as pasture land and rural gardens. The eggs are laid in leaf nests above the water and fall into the permanent streams below. Reproductive activity for this species has been reported for the months of December through March, potentially also occurring from July to November and April-May (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
55862	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55862	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	There are no known threats to this common, adaptable species.	eng
55863	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55863	distribution		This species occurs in the Chacoan region of eastern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and northern Argentina.<br/>Up to 1500 m	eng
55863	habitat		It occurs in the dry Chaco and is an arboreal species. It occurs on vegetation near temporary lagoons or ponds and the males call at night. They make a coarse leaf nest, filled with their glutinous egg-clutches which hangs over the water, the hatched tadpoles then drop in to the water below where they develop. It breeds only in the rainy season and is not tolerant of substantial habitat disturbance.	eng
55863	population		This species' geographic range is the Chacoan region of eastern Bolivia, northern Paraguay, Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,500m asl.	eng
55863	threats		It is threatened by the international pet trade and in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. Fires are also a threat.	eng
55864	conservation		Some populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55864	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon basin in Venezuela, southern Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and central and western Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.	eng
55864	habitat		It is a nocturnal species that is usually found perched on branches usually about 1-3m, but sometimes up to 7m, above temporary ponds. Eggs are laid on leaves and tadpoles develop in pools. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in forest at night (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been found in open areas and floodable forests (Ron, 2001). Occurs in second and old growth forest and disturbed habitats around ponds. It has been observed breeding in cesspools.	eng
55864	population		It is common throughout its range.	eng
55864	threats		Habitat loss/destruction and forest clear-cutting are major threats. Native peoples consume it but this activity does not threaten population levels.	eng
55865	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55865	distribution		This species can be found in the interior regions of the states of São Paulo and Paraná, Brazil; Misiones, Argentina; and southern Oriental region of Paraguay. It occurs at an elevation of 400-1,000m asl.	eng
55865	habitat		It occurs in the rainforest on herbaceous vegetation near swamps. The egg clutch is deposited in leaf nests above the water in permanent pools in forests. Larvae develop in pools. It occurs in secondary forest and pastures.	eng
55865	population		It is uncommon in Paraguay, but common in Brazil and Argentina.	eng
55865	threats		Deforestation due to agricultural activities is a threat.	eng
55866	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Several populations are found within protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. The population from Reserva Forestal Imataca in Venezuela has a high risk of becoming endangered once the forest is subject of logging practices and consequent depauperation of the original pristine forest vegetation.	eng
55866	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species’ geographic range extends from southeast Venezuela to French Guiana, Amazon basin in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Venezuela, it has been reported from the States of Bolívar (Reserva Forestal Imataca, and km13 on the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén), and Amazonas (base of Cerro de la Neblina, and Mavaca river). Its altitudinal range is 0-500m asl.	eng
55866	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This is an arboreal species living in pristine tropical rainforests, usually found on trees around temporary and semi-temporary pools during the wet season. A specimen from the Gran Sabana region of Venezuela was found calling from a Heliconia leaf near the edge of a temporary pond in the forest after a rain. It lays eggs on leaves and tadpoles develop in pools. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found at night on bushes and low trees in forest (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in open areas and floodable forests on shrubs and aquatic edges (Ron, 2001).	eng
55866	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is generally uncommon (common in Suriname).	eng
55866	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Various forms of habitat loss no doubt impact local populations, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
55867	conservation		The range of this species overlaps several protected areas along the Venezuelan Coastal Range.	eng
55867	distribution		This species is present in the Coastal Range mountains of northern Venezuela and has also been recorded over much of the island of Trinidad (in Trinidad and Tobago). It has been recorded from below 100m asl (on Trinidad) up to approximately 1,300m asl (in Venezuela).	eng
55867	habitat		It is a bush dwelling species commonly found in slender bushes at the edges of ponds, generally in quite open country, but also in moist forests. It is also found by ditches in secondary forests. The adults and their nests are found living in trees above water tanks and other man-made pools of water. It builds nests by joining two leaves, and then places the eggs in this nest overhanging standing water, and when hatched the tadpoles drop into the water below. It has also been found in polluted water, and is considered to be an adaptable species.	eng
55867	population		It is a common species.	eng
55867	threats		There is some severe habitat loss/degradation impacting some local sub-populations, but as a whole there are no major threats at present, since it is adaptable.	eng
55868	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Conservation units are present within the range of this species. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística de Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. Venezuelan populations are protected within Sierra de La Neblina National Park.	eng
55868	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species can be found in Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname and Amazon Basin from northeastern Brazil to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northern Bolivia and Venezuela (at Baría river, base of Cerro Neblina, Amazonas state). The dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). Its altitudinal range is 0-450m asl.	eng
55868	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is usually found on trees and bushes next to streams or permanent waterbodies in tropical rainforest. Eggs are found on leaves and tadpoles migrate into the water. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens of this species were found in primary forest and secondary forest at night, where adults were on bushes and trees (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, this nocturnal species has been found in inundated forest and open areas and terra firme forest (Ron, 2001).	eng
55868	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is common to abundant throughout its range.	eng
55868	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation might be a threat to some populations, but overall it is not threatened.	eng
55869	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. It probably does not occur in many protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55869	distribution		This species occurs widely in northwestern Colombia and the Magdalena Valley, extending into adjacent Panama, where it is known from two sites in the eastern lowlands in southeastern Darien Province. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.	eng
55869	habitat		It is an arboreal species, living on vegetation in humid lowland forest, including dry forest and degraded habitats with forest patches. Breeding occurs in swamps and ponds.	eng
55869	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
55869	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (especially for cotton and rice), illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the general use of agro-chemicals, as well as the spraying of illegal crops. Drying up of breeding sites is probably also a problem.	eng
55870	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the Chiapan cloud forests is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this, and other endemic, species in the region. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures might need to include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. Further research is needed to determine whether or not the species has been affected by chytrid. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55870	distribution		This species is found in the northern slopes of the Meseta Central de Chiapas, Mexico, and the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, western Guatemala, from 1,540-2,200m asl.	eng
55870	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests, and is associated with mountain streams where it breeds.	eng
55870	population		It was common according to Duellman (2001) but it might now be uncommon. Recent searches in Guatemala have failed to find the species, and it seems that this population is declining. It is known now from only one locality in Chiapas, in a fragile ecosystem supporting only a few individuals.	eng
55870	threats		The expansion of agriculture and human settlements in northern Chiapas and Guatemala are a major threat. However, the observed decrease might also be due to chytridiomycosis, which has seriously affected other stream-breeding amphibians in the region.	eng
55871	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection of remaining cloud forest habitat in southern Chiapas is urgently needed. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, the establishment of a captive-breeding programme might be necessary. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55871	distribution		This species can be found in extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, southward to northern Pacific Guatemala from 1,700-2,200m asl.	eng
55871	habitat		It occurs in cloud forests and is commonly found in vegetation along mountain streams.	eng
55871	population		It is uncommon in Guatemala and rare at one location in Chiapas.	eng
55871	threats		Deforestation and transformation of native forest to agricultural areas represents the main threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation, stream-breeder, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus in this region.	eng
55872	conservation		The only known locality is within Parque Nacional Pico Bonito. Further survey work is required to monitor the population status and trends of this species; in view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55872	distribution		This species occurs in only one locality, Cerro Bufalo, Quebrado de Oro, Sierra Nombre de Dios, Departamento Atlantida in north-central Honduras, between 930 and 1,550m asl.	eng
55872	habitat		A stream-breeding species, it has been found along streams in premontane wet forest.	eng
55872	population		It is moderately uncommon and appears to be in decline.	eng
55872	threats		Habitat destruction, due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood collection, and landslides represent major threats to this species. Tadpoles have been found infected with the chytrid fungus, and this is probably the cause of the recently observed decline.	eng
55873	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	The entire range of this species is within Parque Nacional Cusuco. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
55873	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species is found in Parque Nacional Cusuco on the Sierra de Omoa, Departamento de Cortés, north-western Honduras, between 1,410 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
55873	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This stream-breeding amphibian is found on low vegetation along streams, and in arboreal bromeliads in lower montane wet forest.	eng
55873	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species was previously moderately common, but populations are currently undergoing drastic declines.	eng
55873	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	In 2007, the overall prevalence of <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> in sampled individuals of this species was found to be of an order of magnitude of 78%. Larvae of this species which are infected with <em>Bd</em> commonly develop oral defects including disrupted tooth rows and eroded jaw sheaths (especially the upper jaw sheath) (Kolby, J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press).	eng
55874	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	The species occurs wholly within the Parque Nacional Cusuco, declared a national park since 1987. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55874	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species is only found within the Parque Nacional Cusuco in the Sierra de Omoa, Departamento de Cortés, north-western Honduras, between 1,490 and 1,680 m asl.	eng
55874	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This stream-breeding frog is found on low vegetation along streams in the lower montane wet forest. It is restricted to streams throughout its life cycle.	eng
55874	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It is considered moderately common within its very restricted range. However, the species is believed to be in decline given the absence of metamorphs observed during recent (2006-2008) field surveys (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55874	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Franklin Casteñeda, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection has recently been confirmed in this species (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008). It is likely to be highly susceptible to chytridiomycosis based on observations in its congener, <em>P. dasypus</em>.  In addition, tadpoles of this species have consistently been found in extremely low numbers (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55875	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. However, the range includes the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes as well as the slopes of the southern Guatemalan volcanoes, which are also proposed for protection. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether chytrid is a threat.	eng
55875	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the central and southern highlands of Guatemala at an altitudinal range of 2,400-3,500m asl.	eng
55875	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian, living in fir forest, pine-cypress forest, and montane grasslands. It is not known whether or not it can survive in lightly degraded habitats.	eng
55875	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
55875	threats		The main threat is habitat destruction due to expanding agriculture and human settlement, and extraction of wood. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat to this species, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected among congeners.	eng
55876	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	There is protection of the cloud forests in southern Mexico and it occurs in several parks in Honduras, one in Guatemala, and one in El Salvador. However, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, a captive-breeding programme might need to be established.	eng
55876	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species occurs on both versants from south-eastern Chiapas, Mexico, to east-central Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 950-2,600 m asl.	eng
55876	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This stream-breeding species inhabits cloud forests and premontane and lower montane forest. It is associated with cascading mountain streams.	eng
55876	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It is still relatively common in Honduras, but, while formerly common, it is now uncommon in Guatemala and El Salvador. It has not been recorded in Mexico since 1944, and recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful.	eng
55876	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Although it tolerates moderate habitat destruction, loss of original forest cover affects the microhabitat of this species. In Honduras, tadpoles have been found with deformed mouthparts, indicating chytridiomycosis. This is probably the explanation for the observed declines in the species in recent years.	eng
55877	conservation		This species occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, and also in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Protection of the cloud forested areas in southern Chiapas is needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55877	distribution		This species occurs in Chiapas, Mexico, and western Guatemala, in an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
55877	habitat		This is a high-elevation cloud forest species, associated with rocky mountain streams where it breeds.	eng
55877	population		A recent survey in Chiapas indicated its disappearance, at least from some localities, and there have been no records from Mexico since 1993. A survey of Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala in the Sierra de las Minas, showed a dramatic decline of this species, most likely due to chytridiomycosis (confirmed in a tadpole of another species at the same site). The survey also showed that the species no longer appears to be breeding at this site, although tadpoles have been observed at nearby localities.	eng
55877	threats		Although chytridiomycosis is the suspected cause of decline in Mexico and in Guatemala, deforestation and transformation of the original forested areas due to agriculture, logging and human settlement is also a major threat to the species.	eng
55878	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining forests in Chiapas, in particular, is urgent. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
55878	distribution		This species occurs in two disjunct populations on the Atlantic slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is from 1,175-2,200m asl. Its distribution remains largely unknown, and the species could occur more widely.	eng
55878	habitat		The species occurs in montane cloud forests, and is associated with high-elevation streams and adjacent low vegetation where it also breeds.	eng
55878	population		There is no information on its population status in Guatemala, but they are considered rare in Chiapas.	eng
55878	threats		The disturbance and deforestation due to human settlement and associated activities is a major threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat to this species, since it is a high-elevation stream-dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55879	conservation		The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura, which still contains well-preserved forest areas. Regular surveillance of this area is required to avoid illegal logging and other human activities from degrading the forest. Protection of other forest areas in Chiapas is needed. Further survey work is needed to better understand the population status of this species, and whether chytrid poses a threat. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55879	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Cerro Tres Picos and Soconusco region, south-western Chiapas, Mexico. It is known from elevations at around 2,130m asl.	eng
55879	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits cloud forest at high elevations.	eng
55879	population		It is considered rare.	eng
55879	threats		Transformation or deforestation of the cloud forests in the Soconusco region is a major threat to this species. Chytridiomycosis may also be a threat, as it is a high-elevation stream dweller, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus.	eng
55880	conservation		It is present in Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Mexico, and is presumably present in several protected areas in Guatemala. Improved legal protection of the extensive forested areas in Los Chimalapas is needed.	eng
55880	distribution		This species can be found on the Pacific slopes from Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, to central Guatemala, at 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
55880	habitat		This species inhabits pine-oak and cloud forests. It is closely associated with low vegetation along small mountain streams. Reproduction occurs via larval development in streams.	eng
55880	population		It is common to abundant in Chiapas and Guatemala.	eng
55880	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of the genus in the region.	eng
55881	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal. In view of the threat of chytrid, the status of this species should be very closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
55881	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra de las Minas and the Sierra de Xucaneb, central and eastern Guatemala, from 1,400-1,900m asl.	eng
55881	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests, living in vegetation near cascading streams, and breeds in clear streams. It can survive in old secondary forest.	eng
55881	population		It is an uncommon species. There is evidence of a recent dramatic decline and possible extirpation in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, in the Sierra de las Minas, possibly due to chytrid (a tadpole of another species at this site was confirmed to have chytridiomycosis).	eng
55881	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to encroaching agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations). There is also the risk of contamination or change in flow-regime of streams. As noted, chytridiomycosis is also a threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America, and due to the apparent disappearance of this species at a site where chytridiomycosis in another species has been confirmed.	eng
55882	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It occurs in Parque Nacional Celaque, and possibly also Parque Nacional Pital, both in Honduras; the Salvadorian population is not protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of this species in the Salvadorian part of the range.	eng
55882	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	This species is known from Parque Nacional Celaque, Montaña Celaque, in the department of De Lempira, western Honduras, and from El Pital in northern El Salvador near the Honduran border. It might occur in Parque Nacional Pital in Honduras (on the Salvadorian border), where larvae thought to belong to this species have been found. Its altitudinal range is from 2,450-2,530m asl.	eng
55882	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It lives on low vegetation and boulders along pristine streams in lower montane moist forest. It breeds in streams, and is not found in disturbed habitats.	eng
55882	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It is moderately common in Honduras; there are no recent records in El Salvador.	eng
55882	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	The main threat is habitat loss, mainly due to agricultural encroachment and wood extraction. Pollution from pesticides is also suspected to be a problem. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, given the impact that it has had on some other high-elevation stream-breeding members of this genus in Central America.	eng
55883	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas surrounding San Cristobal de las Casas is needed. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the population status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55883	distribution		This species is known only from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, in northern San Cristobal de las Casas, Mexico, at 2,400m asl.	eng
55883	habitat		It occurs in pine-oak forests, presumably inhabiting and breeding in mountain streams.	eng
55883	population		This is a rare species.	eng
55883	threats		The major threat to the species is clear-cut logging of its forest habitat, and transformation of the forest to agricultural land. Chytridiomycosis might also be a threat, since this is a high-elevation stream-dwelling species, and declines due to the disease have already been detected in other species of this genus.	eng
55884	conservation		This species occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas, Biotopo del Quetzal, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Bisis Caba. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the population status of this species requires close monitoring, and animals might need to be maintained in captivity. The taxonomic status of this species, relative to <em>Plectrohyla sagorum</em>, requires investigation.	eng
55884	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of the northern highlands in Guatemala from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes to the highlands of Alta Verapaz and the Sierra de las Minas, from 615-1,850m asl.	eng
55884	habitat		This stream-breeding species inhabits cloud forest, and individuals have been found among rocks alongside streams. It is not found in degraded habitats, but does occur in old secondary forest.	eng
55884	population		It is a common species, but there is evidence of a recent dramatic decline and possible extirpation in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, in the Sierra de las Minas, possibly due to chytridiomycosis (a tadpole of another species at this site was confirmed to have the disease). However, <em>P. quecchi</em> is reportedly still breeding at nearby sites.	eng
55884	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to encroaching agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations). There is also the risk of contamination or change in flow-regime of streams. As noted, chytridiomycosis is also a threat, given the impact that this has had on some other members of this genus in Central America, and due to the apparent disappearance of this species at a site where chytridiomycosis in another species has been confirmed.	eng
55885	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It is present in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo (Mexico) where a well-preserved forest still exists, but is not known from any protected areas in Guatemala, and there is a need for improved protection of suitable habitats for this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the status of populations in Mexico and El Salvador, and to assess the risk posed by chytrid.	eng
55885	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Chiapas, south-central Chiapas, Mexico, south-west to Guatemala and again in northern El Salvador (not mapped here), from 1,000-2,050m asl.	eng
55885	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	This stream-breeding amphibian exists only in cloud forests.	eng
55885	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	It is abundant in two localities in the Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. It is very rare in Mexico, where it is known from a single locality. Only one specimen is known from El Salvador.	eng
55885	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Manuel Acevedo, 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to deforestation and transformation of the original forest habitats in both southern Chiapas and Guatemala for agriculture, logging, timber plantations, and human settlement.  Since this is a relatively high-elevation, stream-breeding species, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat, and has already led to declines in other species in this genus in Central America.	eng
55886	conservation		It occurs in the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established	eng
55886	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in western Guatemala, at 3,200-3,395m asl.	eng
55886	habitat		All records have been from small caves, with streams flowing out of them. It is presumed that the adults live in the surrounding montane pine forest, which is now somewhat degraded.	eng
55886	population		The type series was collected in 1968. A visit to the cave where the series was collected in June 1989 turned up no individuals. The forest around the cave had been cleared, the area was heavily grazed, and the water in the stream in the cave was heavily silted. In 1995, a tadpole was found very close to the type locality in a stream that has subsequently dried up after the water was piped to the local community. In 2002, tadpoles were found at another locality (Magdalena). There are few other streams in the region and most natural habitat has been severely degraded.	eng
55886	threats		The main threats to the species, as already indicated, include forest destruction (due to expanding farming and human settlements, as well as wood extraction) and deterioration of water quality. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America.	eng
55887	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected area; the site from which it has been recorded is on private land. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, it is necessary to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status and the limits of its distribution, and possibly to initiate a captive-breeding programme.	eng
55887	distribution		As currently understood, this species is known only from the type locality on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Xucaneb, north of the Río Polochic, Alta Verapaz, in central Guatemala (15° 22'N; 90° 01'W), at 1,000m asl.	eng
55887	habitat		It apparently lives near, and breeds in, streams and waterfalls in montane forest. It has only been recorded from undisturbed habitats.	eng
55887	population		When discovered, a handful of adults and tadpoles were observed at the type locality. However, recent attempts to locate the species have not been successful.	eng
55887	threats		The only known site is facing habitat loss as a result of farming and wood extraction. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat, given the impact that it has had on some other members of this genus in Central America.	eng
55888	conservation		Research on population status and threats is needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55888	distribution		This species is discontinuously distributed from western Pennsylvania southwest to northeastern Mississippi, central Alabama, and Georgia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55888	habitat		It can be found in wooded hilly areas. it is terrestrial and probably hides under objects or underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in pools in or adjacent to woods: spring pools, flooded ditches, and pools along streams, woodland ponds. Eggs are attached to leaves, sticks, or other vegetation in water.	eng
55888	population		Historically represented by many and/or large populations throughout most of the range, but number of extant populations is unknown. Status is poorly known. Hulse <em>et al.</em> (2001) mapped 28 locations at the northern extent of the range in Pennsylvania but stated that all of these are historical records; "no specimens have been reported in the past 20 years or so."	eng
55888	threats		The major threats are unknown but logging might impact local populations.	eng
55889	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55889	distribution		This species can be found from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to eastern Georgia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55889	habitat		The habitat is in low areas in hardwood forests, swamps near rivers and streams, marshes, and wet open woods. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded ditches and shallow ponds.	eng
55889	population		Many secure populations occur across the range.	eng
55889	threats		There are no known threats. Clear cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.	eng
55890	conservation		This species occurs in San Pedro Martir National Park in Mexico.	eng
55890	distribution		This species occurs from southwestern California, south into northern Baja California Norte, Mexico. It is found from near sea level to about 2,290m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
55890	habitat		This species is found in rocky canyons near streams and washes with permanent pools. It requires some shade as it retreats to shaded rock crevices during the day. It ranges from desert and coastal stream-courses to the pine belt in the mountains (Stebbins 1985). It breeds in the quiet water of rocky streams. Eggs are attached to twigs or are loose on the bottom (Stebbins 1972).	eng
55890	population		This is a relatively common species.	eng
55890	threats		Under natural conditions, solar UV-B radiation reduces embryo survival. The effects of this at the population level remain to be determined (Anzalone <em>et al.</em> 1998). Local populations are impacted by urbanization.	eng
55891	conservation		A survey in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico and the surrounding areas is needed to determine the presence of this species in its only recorded Mexican locality. This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55891	distribution		This species is known from south-central United States (north to Kansas, south through Oklahoma and Texas) to extreme northeastern Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991, Collins 1993, Lemmon et al. 2007). In Mexico it is only known from the lower Rio Grande Valley in Tamaulipas, west to Matamoros, in extreme northeastern Tamaulipas. It was reported from Colfax County, northeastern New Mexico, apparently extending range about 325 km west (Herp. Rev. 22:64), but that specimen was later identified as P. triseriata (Degenhardt et al. 1996) [now P. maculata].	eng
55891	habitat		Habitat includes open prairie grasslands, pastures, meadows, shrubby areas, lawns near breeding habitat, and the edges of woodlands (Collins 1993, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This frog is most abundant near the edges of shallow semipermanent to permanent ponds, irrigation canals, and cattle tanks (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It goes underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary rain pools and sometimes in permanent ponds.	eng
55891	population		This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range (Pierce and Whitehurst 1990). Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10,000. This frog is abundant in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and south-central Kansas (Collins 1993).<br/><br/>Over the long term, likley stable in extent of occurrence; unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Current population trend is unknown but probably stable to slightly declining.	eng
55891	threats		No major threats are known. Various kinds of habitat loss and degradation attributable to human activities (e.g., urbanization, intensive agriculture) undoubtedly have caused localized declines.	eng
55892	conservation		There are no conservation methods needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55892	distribution		This species occurs throughout the eastern USA and adjacent southeastern Canada (east to Labrador, Bergman 1999), west to Manitoba, Minnesota, Iowa, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from southern Florida. It was formerly believed to have been introduced in Cuba (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), but it has not been found there (Powell and Henderson 1999).	eng
55892	habitat		Typically it is found in moist wooded areas, especially near breeding pools. The species is mostly terrestrial and it hides under logs, rocks, or other objects when inactive. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in small temporary or permanent waters of ponds (including those in fields with nearby forest), marshes, ditches, and swamps, especially those with standing plants, sticks, or other debris. Males call usually from among herbaceous vegetation adjacent to or standing in water. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).	eng
55892	population		There are thousands of populations and millions of individuals.	eng
55892	threats		Wetland drainage reduces the available habitat. It does not thrive in areas of urbanization and intense agriculture, but the species is moderately adaptable. However, the species does not face major threats on a global scale.	eng
55893	conservation		No conservation measures are needed. Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
55893	distribution		This species can be found in the southeastern USA from Pennsylvania and New Jersey to Texas and western Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55893	habitat		Habitat includes open and wooded areas such as meadows, moist forests, bottomland swamps, and the vicinity of ponds, bogs, and marshes; this is mainly an upland frog in the north, but it also inhabits lowlands in the south (Conant and Collins 1991). Breeding sites include shallow ponds, flooded woodlands and pastures, and rainwater pools in ditches, fields, and open woods; eggs adhere to sticks and grass (Mount 1975, Redmond and Scott 1996).	eng
55893	population		This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This frog is common to abundant in much of its range.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations. Many secure populations exist throughout the range.	eng
55893	threats		No major threats are known. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.	eng
55894	conservation		No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55894	distribution		This species can be found from the Southeastern U.S. from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida and west to southern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55894	habitat		This species occurs in pine flat woods and forests, wet meadows, moist woodlands, and prairies, often near small gum or cypress ponds; in or near ponds, potholes, and ditches with grassy margins or emergent vegetation. It is a primarily terrestrial species that burrows into banks of ponds and ditches. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded roadside ditches and fields, margins of shallow ponds, temporary woodland pools, and bogs. Eggs are attached to vegetation.	eng
55894	population		Many secure populations exist throughout the range.	eng
55894	threats		This species is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.	eng
55895	conservation		No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55895	distribution		This species’ geographic range is from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to southeastern Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55895	habitat		Its habitat is grassy/sedgy areas near bogs or ponds in pine flat woods or along pools and streams in hardwood forests and cypress swamps. It can usually be found perched in grasses, sedges, or low shrubs. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in grassy, rain-filled depressions and semi-permanent ponds.	eng
55895	population		Many secure populations exist throughout the range.	eng
55895	threats		This species is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.	eng
55896	conservation		No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55896	distribution		This species' geographic range is the Coastal Plain of southeastern United States from North Carolina to central Florida, west to southeastern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55896	habitat		It is found in pine flat woods and its habitat surrounds breeding pools. It burrows into the ground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded fields and ditches, pine barren ponds, and cypress ponds.	eng
55896	population		Many secure populations exist throughout the range.	eng
55896	threats		It is not threatened. Clear-cutting and urbanization probably impact local populations.	eng
55897	conservation		This species' range overlaps numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55897	distribution		This species occurs from southern British Columbia in Canada through the USA to Baja California, Mexico, then east to Montana, Idaho, and Nevada. It also occurs on the Channel Islands off southern California (Behler and King 1979). Desert populations in southern California were probably introduced. It is introduced on Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia (Reimchen 1990), Canada. It was recently found on Revillagigedo Island in Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, where it is probably breeding and was possibly introduced (Waters 1992). It occurs from sea level to over 3,000m asl.	eng
55897	habitat		This species is found in a wide variety of habitats including grassland, chaparral, woodland, forests and farmland. It is usually found among low vegetation near water. It breeds in marshes, lakes, ponds, ditches, reservoirs and slow-moving streams (Stebbins 1985). It lays eggs on submerged plant stems or on the bottom. It sometimes breeds in weakly brackish water.	eng
55897	population		There are many occurrences of this highly abundant species.	eng
55897	threats		Introduced mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) prey heavily on larvae and might negatively affect this species' populations (Goodsell and Kats 1999). However, this is not a pervasive threat. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
55898	conservation		Habitat protection needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55898	distribution		This species occurs in the USA from southern Kansas to southern Texas; disjunctive populations occur in west central and southwestern Illinois, southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
55898	habitat		It is basically a terrestrial species. It can be found in moist woods, sand prairies, ravines, along streams and swamps, around ponds, and cultivated areas. In addition it can be found in sand prairies and cultivated fields in southeastern Missouri and adjacent Arkansas. It burrows into soil when inactive, using its forelimbs. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded fields, ditches, sloughs, small ponds, or other temporary bodies of water.	eng
55898	population		It is apparently localized but not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
55898	threats		Extensive agriculture, housing developments, and other land uses have greatly reduced the breeding habitat in southeastern Missouri, though the species is still present in highly cultivated areas there (Johnson 2000). It is apparently more secure in the major part of its range in Texas and Oklahoma.	eng
55899	conservation		Many occurrences are in protected areas. In view of reported declines and taxonomic changes affecting the scope of the species, determination of current status is appropriate.	eng
55899	distribution		Range includes portions of southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from Michigan (Lower Peninsula), southern Ontario, and western New York through Indiana, Ohio, and western Pennsylvania to southern Illinois, western Kentucky, and northwestern Tennessee (Lemmon et al. 2007).	eng
55899	habitat		Habitats include damp meadows, marshes, forest edges, bottomland swamps, and temporary ponds, particularly in open country (Minton 2001, Gibbs et al. 2007). Formerly this frog was plentiful in agricultural and suburban situations in Indiana, but this is no longer the case (Minton 2001). Winter is spent underground or under surface cover. Breeding sites include quiet, shallow, usually temporary water with submerged and low emergent vegetation, especially rain-flooded meadows and ditches and temporary ponds in floodplains (Minton 2001, Gibbs et al. 2007).	eng
55899	population		This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This frog is common in much of its large range.<br/><br/>Over the long term, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined, but the degree of decline is uncertain. Minton (2001) stated that this species was numerous in Indiana in 1945-1970, declined markedly during 1975-1985, and apparently has increased since then. In discussing P. triseriata and P. maculata as a single species, Gibbs et al. (2007) cited declines in New York state during the period 1970-2000. Moriarty and Lannoo (in Lannoo 2005) also cited declines in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada.<br/><br/>Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are slowly declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
55899	threats		These frogs are tolerant of some forms of habitat alteration (e.g., clearing of forest), but loss of wetlands, forest expansion, and unknown factors (possibly including agricultural chemicals, drought, and chytrid fungus) have caused declines in some areas (Gibbs<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
55900	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55900	distribution		This species ranges widely through some southern parts of Brazil, in the following States: Minas Gerais; the southern part of Goiás; southern Bahia; and the northern part of Espírito Santo. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55900	habitat		It is almost entirely aquatic, and is found in lakes, ponds and other waterbodies in Cerrado and Caatinga savannah, and is often found floating at the surface of the water. It breeds in water. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55900	population		It is a common species.	eng
55900	threats		Expanding agriculture is impacting its populations, overgrazing by domestic livestock, infrastructure development (for expanding human settlements, and dams), and water pollution from agriculture are all threats.	eng
55901	conservation		Occurs in Aparados de Serra and Serra Geral National Parks.	eng
55901	distribution		This species is known only from open grasslands in the southern regions of the Serra Geral region of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 800-1200m asl.	eng
55901	habitat		It inhabits mainly permanent pasture ponds and still-water pools of slowly flowing creeks. The eggs are deposited separately or in small clumps, fixed to submerged plants.	eng
55901	population		It is common and stable.	eng
55901	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
55902	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55902	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in the north east of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities. It occurs around 500m asl.	eng
55902	habitat		It is an aquatic species that occurs in permanent ponds and still-water pools of slow moving streams near larger rivers in open areas. They breed in pools and streams. It has also been found in human habitats that have large water reservoirs.	eng
55902	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55902	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development for human settlement and agricultural pollution are threats to the species.	eng
55903	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55903	distribution		This species can be found in Northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones, Santa Fe and Santiago del Estero), Uruguay, and extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina) from 0-500m asl.	eng
55903	habitat		It is an aquatic species that occurs and reproduces in ponds and still-water pools of slowly moving creeks. Does not tolerate habitat disturbance that causes the disappearance of water (such as the drainage of wetlands).	eng
55903	population		It is very common and stable.	eng
55903	threats		There are no major threats. It apparently thrives in rice plantations that receive heavy doses of pesticides.	eng
55904	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Diego Baldo, 2008	Several protected areas occur within its range.	eng
55904	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Diego Baldo, 2008	The recent taxonomic reassignments of the subspecies of <em>Pseudis paradoxa</em> have implications for the current understanding of this species' distribution; it is currently known from the type locality ("Surinami") and the Brazilian states of Amapá, Roraima and Maranhão (see Aguiar-Jr. <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
55904	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is an aquatic species that occurs on vegetation in permanent waterbodies such as ponds and still-water pools of slow moving creeks, surrounded by forest, savannah or grassland. Also found in flooded plains and at the edges of ponds, swamps, frequently in mildly brackish water. Eggs and very large tadpoles can be found in water. It is a very adaptable species. It has been reported from rice fields in Trinidad (pending confirmation of this nominal species' presence in Trinidad). Adults aestivate in the soil during the dry season (Lynch 2006).	eng
55904	population	Ariadne Angulo, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is common throughout much of its range.	eng
55904	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Diego Baldo, 2008	There are no major threats, but local populations are affected by habitat loss due to agricultural activities and human settlement. In Paraguay, a species formerly considered to be <em>Pseudis paradoxa</em> (perhaps one of the subspecies recently elevated to full species status) is harvested for the international pet trade, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
55905	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55905	distribution		This species occurs in central Brazil in the States of Goias, Tocantins and Mato Grosso, along the Tocantins and Araguaia River basins. Its distribution is still imperfectly known. It occurs at low altitudes.	eng
55905	habitat		It is an aquatic species, and is found in permanent ponds, lakes and swamps, where it also breeds. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known.	eng
55905	population		It is a common species.	eng
55905	threats		Expanding agriculture is impacting its populations, overgrazing by domestic livestock, infrastructure development (for expanding human settlements, and dams), and water pollution from agriculture.	eng
55906	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It does not occur within any protected areas, and urgent protection of the original habitat of this species is required (especially in Aguascalientes where only a small area of suitable habitat remains). This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
55906	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs in southern Aguascalientes and extreme north-western Jalisco, Mexico, at elevations between 1,800 and 1,900m asl.	eng
55906	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It occurs only in flooded grasslands, and breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55906	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
55906	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The transformation of the original grassland habitat into agricultural land, and the subsequent pollution from pesticides, are major threats to this species.	eng
55907	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The species' range in Mexico includes several protected areas.	eng
55907	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs from south-central Arizona (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996) in the USA, southward along the Pacific coast through to western Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Colima in Mexico. Inland it is found from central Jalisco to northern Michoacán and adjacent Guanajuato, Mexico. It occurs from near sea level to about 1,490m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
55907	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	In Arizona, this frog lives in burrows in open mesquite grassland. In Mexico it is also found in tropical scrub forests. It is a terrestrial burrowing species. It is common in temporary pools formed by rains where it also breeds.	eng
55907	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Fieldwork in several localities along its range has recorded well-preserved populations, especially those occurring in Biosphere Reserves. Based on the map in Trueb (1969), there appear to be many populations, particularly in the southern part of its range.	eng
55907	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The species' is threatened by agricultural development in some parts of its range, especially within its wide Mexican range.	eng
55908	conservation		Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
55908	distribution		This species is restricted to the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Juárez in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, although it might occur more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 594-900m asl.	eng
55908	habitat		It inhabits mesic cloud forest. Males call from branches or bushes along streams in which the larvae develop.	eng
55908	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
55908	threats		The habitat of this species is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
55909	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection and restoration of forested areas in Guerrero is urgently needed. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species.	eng
55909	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, central Guerrero, Mexico, at elevations from 700-950m asl.	eng
55909	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is often found on low vegetation, under logs, rocks and vegetation along streams where it breeds.	eng
55909	population		It is not a common species.	eng
55909	threats		Habitat loss as a result of smallholder farming activities and logging is the main threat to this species. A larva has been found with keratinised mouthparts, indicative of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55910	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It occurs in at least two Biosphere Reserves in Chiapas (La Sepultura and El Triunfo) and is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government, although improved protection of forest habitats in southern Mexico is needed. It also occurs in Parque Nacional Montecristo in El Salvador, but is not protected in Guatemala. Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis populations of this species should be monitored closely.	eng
55910	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	This species ranges from south-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, southward to Guatemala and eastern El Salvador (from 500-2200m asl). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55910	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	The subspecies <em>Ptychohyla euthysanota euthysanota</em> lives in cloud forests while the other subspecies (<em>P. e. macrotympanum</em>) lives in broadleaf forests and pine forests. Both subspecies are highly associated with mountain streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
55910	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It is common in Guatemala and abundant in Chiapas, Mexico. Its population status is unknown in El Salvador.	eng
55910	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Manuel Acevedo, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	A major threat to this species is alteration of the original habitats and microhabitats due to smallholder agricultural activity and logging. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species, particularly for high-altitude populations. Declines due to chytridiomycosis amongst species of this genus have already been detected in Guatemala (Mendelson, <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
55911	conservation	Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas in its range. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
55911	distribution	Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species ranges from western Guatemala, through most of Honduras to central Nicaragua, from 620-2,070 m asl.	eng
55911	habitat	Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It is a forest species, living on low vegetation along mountain streams where it breeds, but is tolerant of some habitat disturbance. However, it does require some woody vegetation cover, such as trees along steams in pastureland.	eng
55911	population	Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It is still relatively common in some areas, but is in decline.	eng
55911	threats	Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, Joseph Mendelson III, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	The main threats are habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and pasture, forest fires, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is also a threat. Tadpoles have been found with deformed mouthparts, and one was confirmed with chytridiomycosis in Río Cafetal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala in the Sierra de las Minas, where there has been an observed dramatic population decline (although the species is still present at this site) (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004), while an additional positive chytrid test (57.5% prevalence) was confirmed for Parque Nacional Cusuco in Honduras (Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E. and Field, R. in press). Although this species is widely distributed across Mesoamerica, its fragmented distribution leaves populations highly vulnerable to local extirpation (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).	eng
55912	conservation		Although present in protected areas such as Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Las Cruces Biological Station (the latter is part of the Reserva de la Biósfera La Amistad), the habitat in the range of this species is in need of further protection.	eng
55912	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and extreme western Panama, from 880-1,524m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
55912	habitat		It is a nocturnal, stream-breeding species, present in humid montane forest and usually found along (and occasionally in) small streams and dense vegetation no more than one metre above the water.	eng
55912	population		It is moderately common in appropriate habitat.	eng
55912	threats		The major threats to the species are the alteration of water flow in streams (for instance through hydroelectric projects), and general habitat destruction due to smallholder livestock ranching and more extensive agriculture (crops). Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species.	eng
55913	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and the protection of the original forested areas in Guerrero and Oaxaca is urgently needed. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
55913	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico, at elevations between 700 and 2,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55913	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak and cloud forest, and is found in, or on, low vegetation along mountain streams. It breeds in streams and some populations have been found surviving in coffee plantations.	eng
55913	population		This is not a common species.	eng
55913	threats		The main threat is habitat loss mainly as a result of deforestation and the planting of coffee and other non-timber plantations. Larvae have been found in southern Mexico with keratinised mouthparts, indicative of chytridiomycosis.	eng
55914	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55914	distribution		This species is known only from the road to La Cumbre, Municipio de la Democracia, Huehuetenango, Guatemala, from approximately 600-1,000m asl.	eng
55914	habitat		It occurs along, and reproduces in, streams in dry forest.	eng
55914	population		It was found to be common in 1996 within this restricted range.	eng
55914	threats		Although this species does tolerate moderate levels of habitat destruction, wholesale habitat loss caused by agricultural activities is a major threat to the species. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
55915	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas and Montanos del Mico Catchment Reserve. Given the risk of chytridiomycosis, there may be a need to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
55915	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de las Minas, the Montañas del Mico, and the Sierra Xucaneb in eastern and central Guatemala, from 100-895m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
55915	habitat		This is a stream-breeding species that lives in moist tropical forest, often along streams, and is not found in degraded habitats.	eng
55915	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
55915	threats		Habitat loss, due to expanding agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, as well as water pollution, are the major threats to the species. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
55916	conservation		It occurs in protected areas in all three countries. Given the risk of chytridiomycosis, there may be a need to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
55916	distribution		This species occurs in extreme south-eastern Guatemala, northern and central El Salvador, and south-western to south-central Honduras, from 1,440-2,050m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
55916	habitat		This stream-breeding species lives on low vegetation along streams in premontane to lower montane moist forest. It is tolerant of some habitat disturbance; however, it requires some woody vegetation, such as trees along streams in pastureland.	eng
55916	population		It is relatively common.	eng
55916	threats		The main threats are habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, creation of pasturelands, and forest fires. Chytridiomycosis is also a major threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004), and similar declines have also been observed in Honduras.	eng
55917	conservation		This species has not been found in any protected area, though one has been proposed within its range. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established.	eng
55917	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra de Santa Cruz, eastern Guatemala, from 366-1,150m, though it might occur a little more widely.	eng
55917	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed subtropical moist forest and is found near, and breeds in, streams.	eng
55917	population		It is a common species within its range.	eng
55917	threats		The major threats to this species include habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat, and declines due to the disease have already been detected amongst other species of this genus in Guatemala (Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
55918	conservation		It is found in three protected areas, namely Pico Bonito, Texiguat, and Capiro y Calentura National Parks. Further survey work is necessary to determine the degree to which chytrid poses a threat to this species.	eng
55918	distribution		This species occurs in the Cordillera Nombre de Dios in the departments of Atlantida, Colon and Yoro in northern Honduras, at 160-1,580m asl.	eng
55918	habitat		A stream-breeding species, it lives on vegetation and boulders along streams, in lowland moist forest and premontane and lower montane wet forest. It can survive in somewhat degraded forest.	eng
55918	population		It is relatively common.	eng
55918	threats		The main threats are loss of habitat due to subsistence agriculture, creation of pastureland, and forest fires. Chytridiomycosis is also a plausible potential threat.	eng
55919	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
55919	distribution		This species appears to be restricted to the mesic forests of the Atlantic slopes of northern Oaxaca, Mexico, from 400-1,500m asl. It has been recorded from the Sierra Mazateca, the Sierra Juárez and the Sierra Mixes, and it might occur more widely.	eng
55919	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest and lower montane rainforest, where it is generally found in vegetation close to streams. The larvae develop in pools in the streams.	eng
55919	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55919	threats		Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction. Larvae have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinised mouthparts, indicating chytridiomycosis.	eng
55920	conservation		In Peru this species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve, Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Allpahuayo Mishana, Alto Purus, Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zones, and Pacaya Samiria National Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. It is present in many protected areas in Brazil.	eng
55920	distribution		This species is an Amazonian species of southern Colombia (Leticia); Departments of Madre de Dios, Ucayali, and Loreto, Peru; western Brazilian Amazonia; and northern Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It has an altitudinal range of 50-200m asl.	eng
55920	habitat		It is found in swampy areas in lowland tropical flooded rainforest, including floating meadows, and is associated with streams, rivers and waterways. The eggs and larvae develop in water, the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
55920	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
55920	threats		There are no major threats to this widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to shifting cultivation and logging.	eng
55921	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55921	distribution		This species occurs in the Southern Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), Paraguay, Bolivian Pantanal, and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 150-1000m asl.	eng
55921	habitat		It lives in savannah and shrubland. It is often found near temporary and permanent waterbodies, where it breeds. It adapts well to human disturbance.	eng
55921	population		It is common.	eng
55921	threats		There are no threats, although agricultural activities in eastern Paraguay might threaten some populations.	eng
55922	conservation		It occurs in at least three protected areas: Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama; Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Estação Veracruz, and Reserva Florestal da C.V.R.D.	eng
55922	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil is known from the region of Linhares in the State of Espírito Santo, north to Porto Seguro in the State of Bahia. It is a very low altitude species, occurring from sea level up to 30m asl.	eng
55922	habitat		It lives in bromeliads in forests, "Restinga" scrub, and open areas near the coast. It breeds by larval development in temporary ponds.	eng
55922	population		It is a common species.	eng
55922	threats		The main threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement, tourism, and collection of bromeliads. However, this species is reasonably adaptable, and is not significantly threatened.	eng
55923	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2004	The species is known from a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
55923	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2004	This species is known from Serra do Mar in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It occurs around 1,200m asl.	eng
55923	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2004	They are found on vegetation near small streams and brooks in primary and old secondary forest where they also breed. They have not been recorded outside forest.	eng
55923	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2004	This is a very common species.	eng
55923	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2004	Habitat loss due to deforestation, the creation of small farms for agriculture, and fires is a threat to the species.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
55924	conservation		There are no protected areas established on the island. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.	eng
55924	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Ilha de Alcatrazes, an island off the coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The maximum elevation of the island is no more than 100m asl.	eng
55924	habitat		It occurs in primary and secondary forest, and has also been recorded from degraded forest. The breeding habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
55924	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55924	threats		Ilha de Alcatrazes was used as a military base in the past, but this is no longer the case. Although there currently is no human settlement on the island, direct disturbance of the species, and degradation of its habitat from touristic activities and fire are ongoing threats.	eng
55925	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from at least one protected area (Parque Nacional Altos de Campana). Further research is needed into the range, ecology and potential conservation measures.	eng
55925	distribution		This species is a Panamanian endemic of the western Pacific lowlands, Azuero Peninsula, central Panama, and Pacific lowlands.	eng
55925	habitat		It occurs in xeric, scrubby forest and in savannahs. It can occur in artificial habitats and presumably breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
55925	population		It is common at a number of sites.	eng
55925	threats		Infrastructure development and water pollution are major threats.	eng
55926	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Axel Kwet, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55926	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Axel Kwet, 2008	This species occurs in coastal region of Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55926	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Axel Kwet, 2008	It is a species of open areas, including grassland and pastureland. It is found on vegetation above ponds and other area of standing water. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55926	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Axel Kwet, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55926	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Axel Kwet, 2008	It is a very adaptable species, and is not facing any known threats.	eng
55927	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed, as well as an assessment of what are the major threats to the species. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55927	distribution		This species is known from Mangaratiba in Rio de Janeiro State, to Picinguaba, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It is known up to 800m asl.	eng
55927	habitat		This species is known from primary forest but it might also occur in secondary forest. It breeds in permanent streams, and also in artificial ponds, but is otherwise not known from human habitats.	eng
55927	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55927	threats		Clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to the species, as it is not known to occur outside forest.	eng
55928	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55928	distribution		This recently described species from south-eastern Brazil is known only from Santa Teresa in the state of Espírito Santo, at 700m asl.	eng
55928	habitat		It is thought to live and breed in bromeliads in moist topical forest.	eng
55928	population		Only two specimens are known at present, and there is no other information regarding its population status.	eng
55928	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but in the vicinity of the type locality it is potentially at risk from expanding agricultural activity, wood plantations, and human settlements, as well as from the collection of bromeliads.	eng
55929	conservation	Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55929	distribution	Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species occurs in the coastal regions of eastern and southern Brazil, from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Santa Catarina. It ranges up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55929	habitat	Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It lives in both forest and in more open areas, such as "restinga" shrubland, but not in farmland. It is commonly, but not always, associated with bromeliads. It is often found in forest on vegetation near temporary and permanent ponds where it breeds.	eng
55929	population	Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
55929	threats	Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	In view of its adaptability, it is probably not seriously threatened, though agriculture, clear-cutting, removal of bromeliads, and human settlements might impact some populations.	eng
55930	conservation		The protected area which its known range is wholly within is Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.	eng
55930	distribution		This species is known only from a single protected area that is in both São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, in south-eastern Brazil. It has been recorded above 500m asl, to at least 1,600m asl, although the upper limit of its altitudinal range is not known. It might occur more widely.	eng
55930	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near streams, in which it breeds, in primary and secondary forest.	eng
55930	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55930	threats		There are no current threats to its habitat at present, since it is only known to occur in a protected area, but it might occur outside this area in which case these parts of its habitat could be under threat.	eng
55931	conservation		Both of the known localities are in protected areas.	eng
55931	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra da Bocaina and the Serra Itatiaia, in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, in south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely. It occurs above 1,200m asl.	eng
55931	habitat		It breeds in bromeliads in montane moist forest, but very little other ecological information is known.	eng
55931	population		It is known from fewer than 10 specimens, so its population status is not known. No attempts have been made to return to the localities for many years to try to collect the species.	eng
55931	threats		There is very little information regarding potential threats to this species.	eng
55932	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55932	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern Brazil from the State of Bahia, north to the State of Paraiba. It ranges up to 960m asl.	eng
55932	habitat		It is a very adaptable species that lives in lowland forest, forest edge, open habitats and rocky areas, often in bromeliads, on shrubs or in swamps. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55932	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55932	threats		Apart from bromeliad collecting, this species probably faces almost no threats.	eng
55933	conservation		It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca, which is also a sacred area for the indigenous people.	eng
55933	distribution		This species is known with certainty from Amazonas State, Venezuela. There are also specimens reported from Belem, in Para State, Brazil, although these are thought to be misidentifications, so are not considered valid for this assessment. This species is expected to occur more widely and has been recorded under 300m asl.	eng
55933	habitat		This species is usually found around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest or in forest edges surrounding tepuis. The eggs and larvae develop in water.	eng
55933	population		It is very rare.	eng
55933	threats		The lowland areas where this species occurs might be threatened in the future by the expansion of human settlements. However, at present, this species is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
55934	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55934	distribution		This species occurs in Argentina, in Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones and Chaco; in Brazil from Rio Grande do Sul to Sao Paulo; in Paraguay it occurs along the eastern and southern region and in Uruguay it can be found in the entire country. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,000m asl.	eng
55934	habitat		It can be found in grasslands and clearings in rainforest. It reproduces in temporary pools and occurs in altered habitats.	eng
55934	population		Its abundance varies from common to rare throughout its range.	eng
55934	threats		Selective logging, clear-cutting of primary forests for agriculture (including rice plantations) are major threats. Pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices-Industrial pollution (organic wastes) is also a threat.	eng
55935	conservation	Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Wilmar Bolívar, Ruth Amanda Estupinan, 2008	The species is not within any protected areas, but they are not thought to be necessary considering its adaptability to habitat disturbance. A determination of its exact range would be useful.	eng
55935	distribution	Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Wilmar Bolívar, Ruth Amanda Estupinan, 2008	This species is known from the Llanos of Colombia (departments of Arauca, Meta and Guaviare), from 200-500m asl. The type locality is "near junction of Río Guaviare and Río Ariari, Guaviare, Colombia".	eng
55935	habitat	Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Wilmar Bolívar, Ruth Amanda Estupinan, 2008	It is usually found around permanent waterbodies in tropical savannah. It lays its eggs and tadpoles in permanent pools. It is also found in a variety of anthropogenic habitats such as gardens and agricultural land.	eng
55935	population	Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Wilmar Bolívar, Ruth Amanda Estupinan, 2008	It is a very common species. Its range might even be increasing.	eng
55935	threats	Fernando Castro, Jose Vicente Rueda, Wilmar Bolívar, Ruth Amanda Estupinan, 2008	There are no major threats to this very common and adaptable species.	eng
55936	conservation		Several protected areas occur within the range of this species.	eng
55936	distribution		This species is known from Venezuela, lowland Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Amazonas and Pará states, in Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 650m asl.	eng
55936	habitat		It is usually found around or in bushes over small temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and forest edges. Males are found calling from vegetation 5-10m above the water of temporary pools in primary or secondary forest. It is an explosive breeder, and the eggs and tadpoles are found in temporary forest pools. It is very adaptable to human disturbance of its habitat.	eng
55936	population		It is a common species.	eng
55936	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present. Local threats include habitat destruction and fire.	eng
55937	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
55937	distribution		This species can be found in the humid lowlands and lower edges of the premontane zone from Honduras (Departamento Gracias a Dios) and Nicaragua to central Panama on the Atlantic versant and Pacific slope subhumid lowlands of northwestern Costa Rica south through the humid lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica, exclusive of western Panama on the Atlantic side from 1-700m asl (Savage, 2002; McCranie and Wilson, 2002). In Colombia it is known from Acandi, in the department of Choco around 30m asl.	eng
55937	habitat		It is a nocturnal, arboreal species that is usually found in bushes, low trees, stumps and fallen logs near the forest floor in tropical primary and secondary rainforest, but also in secondary growth or in isolated trees and shrubs in pastures and other open areas (Savage, 2002). Breeding occurs in temporary pools after heavy rains. Eggs and tadpoles live in the water.	eng
55937	population		It is a common species.	eng
55937	threats		There are no major threats to this wide-ranging, common species.	eng
55938	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55938	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Mar, in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, Brazil. It occurs above 800m asl.	eng
55938	habitat		The species occurs on leaves or stems of low vegetation near and away from streams or ponds in forests, secondary growth, or clearings. It breeds in natural or artificial pools, or slow flowing streams. It is also found in disturbed habitats such as pastureland and rural gardens.	eng
55938	population		It is a moderately common species.	eng
55938	threats		There are no major threats to this species, as it appears to be able to persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
55939	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research to resolve this species complex is needed.	eng
55939	distribution		This species is known from the highlands of Poços de Caldas to the southern part of Serra do Espinhaço, in Brazil. It has been recorded from above 800m asl.	eng
55939	habitat		It occurs in open areas on low vegetation near permanent or temporary ponds. The spawn are deposited in temporary or permanent ponds, and attached to the vegetation. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55939	population		It is a common species.	eng
55939	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as mining and fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55940	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.	eng
55940	distribution		This species is known only from the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, where it is known from the type locality in the Serra da Canastra, and a recently recorded locality at the Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Galheiro (Oliveira-Filho and Kokubum 2003). It has been recorded above 800m asl.	eng
55940	habitat		This species occurs in gallery forests on low vegetation near streams, in which it breeds, and apparently adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55940	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
55940	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are logging and fires.	eng
55941	conservation		The known sites of the species are wholly within a few protected areas, but the species clearly occurs outside protected areas as well. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat are essential. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside its known range.	eng
55941	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality (Teresópolis) in the state of Rio de Janeiro, and from Serra Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro State, and the region of Domingos Martins, in Espirito Santo State, Brazil. The distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs in intervening areas between the known sites. It occurs from 700-1,200m asl.	eng
55941	habitat		The species occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in forest edge. It breeds in slow-flowing permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55941	population		It is not thought to be a common species.	eng
55941	threats		The known range of this species is currently restricted to protected areas, so the main threat is fire, although there is some illegal infrastructure development for human settlement also occurring in the parks. It most likely occurs outside these areas, and hence will be locally threatened by farming and deforestation.	eng
55942	conservation		The range of the species includes at least two protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55942	distribution		This species is known from the valley of the Rio Doce in the state of Minas Gerais, in southeastern Brazil. It has been recorded from 300-600m asl.	eng
55942	habitat		This species occurs on low vegetation in primary and secondary forest at the edge of lakes where it also breeds. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
55942	population		It is a common species.	eng
55942	threats		Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to this species.	eng
55943	conservation		Parque Nacional Amboró is at the edge of its range. Taxonomic research and monitoring is needed to determine the taxonomic and population status of some of the subpopulations currently assigned to this species.	eng
55943	distribution		This species is found in temperate valleys east of the Andes in Bolivia at 1,000-1,800m asl. It is found in the departments of Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Köhler 2000). The records from Argentina are in error (Lavilla <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is still very little information on its extent of occurrence, and attempts to map its distribution at this stage should be regarded as approximate and preliminary.	eng
55943	habitat		This is an arboreal species from open areas in inter-Andean valleys, montane Tucumano-Bolivian forest and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). De la Riva (1993) and De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (1994) observed males calling at sunset from the ground or perching on bushes, brushwoods or rushes surrounding Bermejo Lake. Köhler (2000) states that it can be found next to ponds or water tanks on emergent vegetation. There is no other information on its breeding habits. This species is not thought likely to adapt well to altered habitats.	eng
55943	population		It is locally common at the three or four known locations.	eng
55943	threats		Its major threats are habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.	eng
55944	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55944	distribution		This species occurs in southern Brazil in the eastern portions of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande de Sul states, 0-1,200m asl.	eng
55944	habitat		Occurs in secondary and old growth forest habitats at slowly flowing streams or ponds with clear water. The males call at night on low vegetation next to water. The egg clutch is stuck to aquatic vegetation.	eng
55944	population		It is common and stable where suitable habitats survive.	eng
55944	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and water pollution is a major threat.	eng
55945	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55945	distribution		This species is known from central Brazil, from the type locality (Silvânia) and the municipality of Ipameri in the state of Goiás, and the Distrito Federal, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 700-1,200m asl.	eng
55945	habitat		In inhabits the Cerrado and occurs on vegetation near waterbodies inside or at the edge of gallery forests, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55945	population		It is a common species.	eng
55945	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging and fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55946	conservation		It is present in the Tambopata Reserved Zone, Peru, and several protected areas in Bolivia.	eng
55946	distribution		This species occurs in South America, and it is known only from southern Peru (Cusco Amazonico and Tambopata) and northeastern Bolivia (Departments of Beni, Pando and Santa Cruz) (De la Riva 1993, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its altitudinal range is up to 450m asl.	eng
55946	habitat		This is a nocturnal and arboreal species that is reported in the Amazonian rainforest and wet forest in transition to lowlands. De la Riva (1990) and De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (1994) point out that this species can be found calling on aquatic vegetation or on emerging bushes from temporary ponds, in primary forest or in ecotones; and also on peripheric vegetation from ponds. In Peru, this species is reported only from forest (Duellman and Wiens 1993). Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. The species is not present in degraded habitat.	eng
55946	population		It is a common species.	eng
55946	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
55947	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55947	distribution		This species is known from the coastal mountains of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais States in southeastern Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-2,200m asl.	eng
55947	habitat		This species is found on low vegetation or on boulders associated with ponds in open areas. Tadpoles have been collected from temporary and permanent ponds. It is also known from disturbed open areas such as artificial ponds and pastureland.	eng
55947	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55947	threats		There are no known major threats to this common and adaptable species.	eng
55948	conservation		In Peru, it is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and it might also occur in Gueppi and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Bahuaja Sonene National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is presumably present in protected areas in Brazil, Colombia and French Guiana.	eng
55948	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Departamentos Loreto and Madre de Dios). It is also present in Brazil from 70-90km north of Manaus. Records of this species in French Guiana might refer to a different taxon and require further investigation. It is a lowland species.	eng
55948	habitat		It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in lowland tropical rainforest or its edge. It occurs in rainforest more commonly than in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in open or Heliconia-choked ponds in clearings and in the forest (Duellman and Wiens, 1993). At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest edge, and banana grove habitats (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in floodable forest and Terra Firme Forest (Ron, 2001). Eggs and tadpoles develop in ponds.	eng
55948	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55948	threats		No major threats, a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to fire and slash-and-burn agriculture, but it is somewhat adaptable, and might not be greatly impacted by such alteration of tis habitat.	eng
55949	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55949	distribution		This species from coastal eastern and southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. It has been recorded up to 1,000m (but the natural limits are not clear because it spreads beyond its natural range in horticultural bromeliads).	eng
55949	habitat		It lives in open habitats, coastal "Restinga" scrub, and the edges of the forests, often it is found on low vegetation near waterbodies. It likes to shelter in bromeliads and is very abundant in those growing on rocks near the coast. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55949	population		It is a common species.	eng
55949	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, human settlement, tourism, and collection of bromeliads.	eng
55950	conservation		Part of its range is protected within Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
55950	distribution		This species is restricted to the general region of the type locality, which is given as "127km along the El Dorado-Santa Elena de Uairen road" (Duellman 1986), in Bolívar State, south-eastern Venezuela, at altitudes between 180 and 1,250m asl (05° 57'N; 61° 27'W). Its range is still largely unknown, and it is expected to occur more widely.	eng
55950	habitat		Males of this nocturnal species were found situatued horizontally or head-up, calling from leaves of herbaceous vegetation and bushes over a sluggish stream, or from small, deep ponds in forest, and on vines above and around vegetation around a temporary pool at the edge of the forest (Duellman 1997). It has also been recorded from marginal vegetation at the edge of a lagoon (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumably a larval developer in water.	eng
55950	population		It is not common.	eng
55950	threats		The installation of power lines and the associated development are localized threats to this species' habitat. The disturbance of its habitat by tourists and fires is also a problem. However, in general this species occurs in a region of relatively low human impact, and so it is probably not very seriously threatened.	eng
55951	conservation	Jaime Bertoluci, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	Much of the range of this species is in protected areas.	eng
55951	distribution	Jaime Bertoluci, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	This species occurs above 1,000m asl in the mountains of southeastern Brazil, from the Serra da Mantiqueira in the State of São Paulo north to the Serra do Caraça in the State of Minas Gerais.	eng
55951	habitat	Jaime Bertoluci, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It is a species of open, rocky, high-altitude grassland, living on the ground or on low vegetation near ponds or slow-flowing streams in the upper reaches of the mountains. It breeds in permanent and temporary slow-flowing water.	eng
55951	population	Jaime Bertoluci, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55951	threats	Jaime Bertoluci, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2008	Its habitat is under some pressure from fire and tourism, but this species is not seriously threatened.	eng
55952	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
55952	distribution		This species occurs in humid lowlands and lower premontane forests from eastern Nicaragua to northwestern Panama on the Atlantic versant and on the Pacific slope from the Río Barranca drainage of central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama. There is also isolated population at Bajo Calima in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia. It occurs from sea level to 1,200m, mostly below 700m. Records of Scinax quinquefasciata from Colombia might be referable to this species.	eng
55952	habitat		It is primarily a nocturnal species of lowland, and marginally montane, tropical forest. It can also be found in secondary and disturbed forest habitats. It breeds in temporary ponds during the wet season. Eggs are laid in the pond, or on adjacent vegetation, and the larvae develop in the ponds.	eng
55952	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55952	threats		The major threats are likely to be severe deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the use of agro-chemicals. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it probably cannot tolerate the opening up of the habitat on a large scale.	eng
55953	conservation	Cristina Arzabe, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55953	distribution	Cristina Arzabe, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species is widely distributed in eastern Brazil, from the State of Rio de Janeiro, north to the State of Paraíba, with an apparently isolated population in the State of Maranhão. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55953	habitat	Cristina Arzabe, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is an adaptable species that lives in primary and secondary forest, on forest edges, and in a variety of open habitats. It has also been found inside houses. It is often found on low vegetation near ponds, lakes or flooded areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55953	population	Cristina Arzabe, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
55953	threats	Cristina Arzabe, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	Apart from clear-cutting, this species does not face any serious threats.	eng
55954	conservation		Some populations might be protected within Canaima National Park in Venezuela.	eng
55954	distribution		This species is known from the general vicinity type locality, on km 144 on the road from El Dorado to Santa Elena de Uairén (05 53N, 61 23W), at an elevation of 1,210m asl, in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela. It has been recorded from 500-1,500m asl. It potentially also occurs in Brazil but there are no records from there as yet. It almost certainly occurs more widely.	eng
55954	habitat		Its habitat in Bolívar state has been defined as the marginal vegetation of oligotrophic wetlands (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Males of this species have been found calling from blades of grass in swallow marsh and from grass along a sluggish stream. Amplectant pairs have been found about 1m above water on a bush (Duellman 1997). By day, it hides beneath stones. Tadpoles apparently develop in shallow pools (about 15cm deep). It has also been recorded from around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and its edge.	eng
55954	population		It is a common species.	eng
55954	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present. It occurs in a region of limited human impact.	eng
55955	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
55955	distribution		This species occurs in coastal southeastern Brazil from the State of Espírito Santo, south to the State Santa Catarina. It altitudinal range is 100-1,300m asl.	eng
55955	habitat		It lives in primary and old secondary lowland and montane rainforest, it is usually found on vegetation near streams, where it breeds.	eng
55955	population		It is a common species.	eng
55955	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and human settlement.	eng
55956	conservation		In Peru, it might be present in Gueppi, Santiago Comaina and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Pacaya Samiria National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Alto Purus Reserved Zone and Parque Nacional Manu. In Ecuador it is found in Yasuni National Park; Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Gyabeuo.	eng
55956	distribution		This species can be found in much of the upper Amazonian region of Ecuador (including the Río Santiago Valley), throughout Peru (Departamentos San Martin; Loreto; Ucayali; Huánuco; Madre de Dios) and wide-ranging in western Brazil (Acre State). It is a lowland species.	eng
55956	habitat		A forest inhabitant, most individuals have been observed on bushes and branches of trees at night (Duellman and Wiens, 1993), although, at Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, specimens have been found in primary forest, secondary forest, forest edge, banana grove, and clearing habitats; individuals were on the ground and on vegetation (Duellman, 1978). Temporary pools are used as breeding habitats.	eng
55956	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
55956	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to clear cutting, fire and smallholder farming, but it is a reasonably adaptable species, and it might not be significantly affected by the alteration of its habitat.	eng
55957	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.	eng
55957	distribution		This species occurs in southern Brazil, lowland Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 0-2,000m asl.	eng
55957	habitat		It is usually found on low vegetation around temporary and permanent waterbodies. Eggs and tadpoles are found in the water. It can withstand some level of anthropogenic disturbance and has been found in rice cultivation.	eng
55957	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55957	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
55958	conservation	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Diego Baldo, Jose Langone, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.	eng
55958	distribution	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Diego Baldo, Jose Langone, 2008	This species is widespread in southern, southeastern and central Brazil as well as in eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina, and northern Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-2,000m asl.	eng
55958	habitat	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Diego Baldo, Jose Langone, 2008	It occurs in open habitats such as pastures. During breeding time it can be found in standing waterbodies, such as ponds. The spawn are attached to aquatic vegetation and the tadpoles develop in the water. It is very common in urban areas, and inside houses.	eng
55958	population	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Diego Baldo, Jose Langone, 2008	It is common even in deforested regions.	eng
55958	threats	Lucy Aquino, Rogério Bastos, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Diego Baldo, Jose Langone, 2008	There are no threats.	eng
55959	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. Venezuelan populations occur in a major Biosphere Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción de Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
55959	distribution		This species is present in the middle and upper Amazon Basin in Brazil, Venezuela (Amazonas state), Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. It occurs up to 1,000m asl in Ecuador.	eng
55959	habitat		This species can be found in primary and secondary tropical rainforests, flooded forest, edges, and even cultivated lands, with reproduction in ponds and temporary watercourses. It has been reported perched head down on Heliconia plants, shrubs and trees close to water (De la Riva 1993). It is usually found around temporary waterbodies and its edge. Eggs and tadpoles can be found in the water.	eng
55959	population		It is a common species. S. garbei seemed to become more common as forest was cut at Santa Cecilia, Ecuador (Duellman, 1978). It is not a common species in the primary forest at Cusco Amazónico, Perú, where solitary individuals were found throughout the year, but more commonly in the rainy season, on leaves and stems of bushes, palm fronds, and tree trunks 0.4-1.5m above the ground at night (Duellman and Wiens, 1993).	eng
55959	threats		There are no threats. It is an adaptable species.	eng
55960	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.	eng
55960	distribution		This species occurs in southern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay (along the Rio Parana), northeastern Argentina, and Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,200m asl.	eng
55960	habitat		It lives in open habitats and breeds on the ground or on low vegetation next to the water margins of standing waterbodies such as puddles, ponds or small lakes. Out of spawning period it is arboreal; the egg clutch is deposited on aquatic plants. It adapts to anthropogenic disturbance (often found in houses).	eng
55960	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55960	threats		There are no threats.	eng
55961	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
55961	distribution		This species occurs up to 1,200m asl in the Serra do Mar of southeastern Brazil from the States of Espírito Santo and southeastern Minas Gerais, south to the State of Parana.	eng
55961	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary lowland and montane forest, on forest edges, and in secondary growth, gardens, open situations, and even inside houses. It is usually found on low vegetation near streams and ponds. It breeds in pools along the side of streams, ponds, and even swimming pools.	eng
55961	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55961	threats		It is a very adaptable species, not facing any known threats.	eng
55962	conservation		In view of the lack of recent records and the decline of stream-breeding frogs in other parts of the wet tropics, it is an urgent priority to carry out surveys for this species.	eng
55962	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Santa Teresa and Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, at 650-700m asl.	eng
55962	habitat		This species lives in forest, where it was found on vegetation near streams. It apparently breeds in streams, and hides in bromeliads.	eng
55962	population		Only a few specimens are known. It has not been found in Santa Teresa since its initial discovery, despite searching, and so it is probably rare there, and only a few specimens are known from Domingos Martins.	eng
55962	threats		There is no direct information on the threats to this species, but in the vicinity of the type locality it is potentially at risk from expanding agriculture, wood plantations, and human settlements, as well as from the collection of bromeliads. The lack of recent records, despite searching, gives cause for concern, given the decline of stream-breeding frogs in other parts of the wet tropics. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis).	eng
55963	conservation		The species is known from two protected areas. The creation of new protected areas to conserve the species' habitat is desirable. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55963	distribution		This species is known from the state of São Paulo, in Brazil. It occurs from 700-900m asl.	eng
55963	habitat		The species occurs in primary and secondary forest edges on low vegetation near waterbodies, such as ponds and slow-flowing streams. The eggs are deposited near the water surface and are attached on to the vegetation in slow-flowing streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55963	population		It is a common species.	eng
55963	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation, and agricultural encroachment is a threat to the species.	eng
55964	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55964	distribution		This species occurs in the southeast of the state of Minas Gerais, and in the coastal Atlantic Forest of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
55964	habitat		The species is found on the vegetation of the marshy ground inside primary and secondary forests of the coastal lowlands. It has also been recorded from disturbed forest and near the forest edge, but not from open areas. It breeds in temporary rain pools.	eng
55964	population		It is a common species.	eng
55964	threats		Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to the species.	eng
55965	conservation		In Peru this species is known to occur in Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Alto Purus, Manu and Amarakaeri Reserved Zones, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.	eng
55965	distribution		This species is known from the lowland "rolling hills" of the southeastern slopes of the Andes (Departamento Huanuco, Departments of Ucayali and Madre de Dios), central and southern Peru, and also from a single locality in Colombia. It might occur in northern Bolivia and western Brazil. It can be found at elevations of 200m.	eng
55965	habitat		Its habitat is lowland primary tropical moist forest. It may occur at the forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. Eggs are deposited in temporary pools.	eng
55965	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
55965	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation.	eng
55966	conservation		The protected area within which this species is found is Kaw Nature Reserve.	eng
55966	distribution		This species is known from Gabrielle and Kaw Creek in north-eastern French Guiana (Lescure and Marty 2001), and is likely to occur more widely. A dot-map of the distribution is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs at very low altitudes, up to only about 10m asl.	eng
55966	habitat		This species inhabits marshes in lowland rainforest and has not been found in disturbed areas. It presumably breeds in water.	eng
55966	population		It is not thought to be a common species. It can be found relatively easily after heavy rains but otherwise it can be very difficult to locate.	eng
55966	threats		Its major threats are unknown, but most of the known range is within a protected area, so there are not expected to be any major threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
55967	conservation		The type locality is within the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins protected area.	eng
55967	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality (Juréia, Iguape) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, where it occurs from sea level up to about 500m asl. The region around the type locality has not been sampled so it might be more widespread than is currently known.	eng
55967	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest, and breeds in temporary pools.	eng
55967	population		It is common.	eng
55967	threats		The only known populations are within a protected area, where its habitat is likely to be relatively secure. Populations that are presumed to occur outside this area are likely to be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
55968	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
55968	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650m asl.	eng
55968	habitat		This species lives in forest and can survive in somewhat degraded habitat. It is found on vegetation near streams, in which it breeds.	eng
55968	population		It is very common in its small known range.	eng
55968	threats		This species might be threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement, but at present not much habitat loss is taking place near its only known locality.	eng
55969	conservation		It occurs in the El Tupurro National Park in Colombia, and probably in Cinaruco- Capanaparo National Park in Venezuela.	eng
55969	distribution		This species occurs in the "Llanos" of eastern Colombia and northern Amazonas State in Venezuela. The only Venezuelan record appears to be from Puerto Ayacucho, in Amazonas; in the map its presence is assumed in Apure and Barinas states. All records are from below 400m asl.	eng
55969	habitat		It is a species of moist savannahs, breeding in temporary and permanent ponds and flooded land.	eng
55969	population		It is a rare species.	eng
55969	threats		With the exception of the effects of fire on its habitat, this species is not likely to be threatened.	eng
55970	conservation		In Colombia the known locality in Puré is in Puré National Park. In Brazil the type locality is within an indigenous reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status, in particular in Brazil, is needed.	eng
55970	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in Amazonas, Brazil, and from Caparú (department of Vaupés) and Puré (department of Amazonas), in Colombia. It occurs between 100-200m asl.	eng
55970	habitat		It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in primary forest. Eggs and tadpoles are in the water. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
55970	population		In Colombia it is known as a common species, but there is no information available on the population status in Brazil.	eng
55970	threats		Shifting agriculture is the only potential threat to the species, although this is most likely a localized threat and not a major threat to the species overall.	eng
55971	conservation		The range of the species includes two protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55971	distribution		This species is known from Peruibe, Ubatuba and Ilha Bela in coastal São Paulo State, and also from Paraná State, Brazil. It occurs up to about 50m asl.	eng
55971	habitat		This species occurs in primary and secondary forest edge, and breeds in temporary pools. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
55971	population		It is a common species.	eng
55971	threats		Clear-cutting of the forest, and infrastructure development, particularly for tourism is a major threat.	eng
55972	conservation		Its range includes Parque Estadual da Serra da Tirrica. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55972	distribution		This species is known from Maricá to Cabo Frio, in the littoral region of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. It occurs up to 200m asl.	eng
55972	habitat		It is found in littoral forest (Restinga) in bromeliads in rocky outcrops where it also breeds. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
55972	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
55972	threats		Deforestation and the collection of bromeliads from the forest, as well as infrastructure development are major threats to the species.	eng
55973	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55973	distribution		This species can be found in the mountains of southeastern Brazil, at 700-1,200m asl in the State of Minas Gerais.	eng
55973	habitat		It lives inside lowland and montane forests, including riparian forests, and on forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is usually found on vegetation near streams. It breeds in streams and pools in streams.	eng
55973	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55973	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to wood plantations, logging, mining and human settlement.	eng
55974	conservation	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Its range overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
55974	distribution	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known from central Minas Gerais state in Brazil. It has been recorded above 700m asl.	eng
55974	habitat	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs in gallery forests in the Cerrado, and on the edge of the Atlantic Forest. It is found on low vegetation near waterbodies, such as ponds or streams where it also breeds. It probably adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55974	population	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55974	threats	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Débora Silvano, 2008	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
55975	conservation	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus <em>Scinax</em>.	eng
55975	distribution	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, 2008	This species is known from Serra do Espinhaço, Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Caraça, in Minas Gerais State, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 400-1,200m asl.	eng
55975	habitat	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, 2008	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest, and also shrubland and is usually found along the edge of streams. It breeds in permanent streams. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
55975	population	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55975	threats	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation from infrastructure development and agricultural encroachment are threats to the species.	eng
55976	conservation	César Luis Barrio Amorós, Enrique La Marca, 2006	It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Chorro El Indio, Venezuela.	eng
55976	distribution	César Luis Barrio Amorós, Enrique La Marca, 2006	This species is known from the Andes of Venezuela and Colombia. In Venezuela it is found on both sides of the Táchira depression. It is known from a single locality on El Tamá massif, an outreach of the Colombian Cordillera Oriental, at Bramón, 600m. It is widely distributed throughout the Cordillera de Mérida and found both on the northwest face of the Cordillera towards the Maracaibo lake basin (La Azulita at 1,400m, near Santa Cruz de Mora, 1,600m or in Chiguará at 1,400m) and the southeast face toward the upper drainage system of the Orinoquia lowlands or Llanos (Mesa de Quintero at 1,700m, Uribante dam, 1,000m). In Colombia it is known from two adjacent localities in cloud forest from 1,400-1,500m, close to the Venezuelan border (Chinácota).	eng
55976	habitat	César Luis Barrio Amorós, Enrique La Marca, 2006	It has been observed in disturbed vegetation above ditches surrounded by tall grasses as well as on artificial water tanks, ponds, and trails. It has also been observed in less disturbed areas with remnant forest patches (Parque Nacional Chorro El Indio). An individual has been found inside a bromeliad 2m above the ground on a fence post, however the breeding habitat of this species remains unknown.	eng
55976	population	César Luis Barrio Amorós, Enrique La Marca, 2006	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
55976	threats	César Luis Barrio Amorós, Enrique La Marca, 2006	The threats to this species are not known. There might not be any major threats to the species, as it appears to be able to exist within modified habitats.	eng
55977	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.	eng
55977	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra da Canastra in the mountains of south-western Minas Gerais State, Brazil, although it might occur more widely. It is found above 900m asl.	eng
55977	habitat		It inhabits the Cerrado savannah, and occurs on the ground or on low vegetation near ponds or small lakes, where it also breeds.	eng
55977	population		The population status of this very poorly known species is not known.	eng
55977	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development (for both crops and livestock) and fires.	eng
55979	conservation		The known range of this species is wholly within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Orgãos.	eng
55979	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra dos Orgãos in south-eastern Brazil, at about 1,200m asl. There has not been sampling outside its range, so it might have a wider distribution than is currently known.	eng
55979	habitat		It occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in clearings in primary and secondary forest, but has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds in bromeliads, and the larvae develop inside these.	eng
55979	population		It is very common within its very small range.	eng
55979	threats		If it is found to occur outside its known range within a protected area it might be threatened by habitat loss or degradation.	eng
55980	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.	eng
55980	distribution		This species can be found in Paraguay, northern Argentina (Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Formosa, Entre Ríos, Jujuy, Salta, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, Misiones, Buenos Aires), Uruguay (Artigas, Paysandú, Río Negro and Salto), eastern Bolivia (Beni, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija), and southwestern Brazil to Rio Grande do Sul State. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
55980	habitat		It occurs in forest, shrublands and grasslands. It breeds in temporary pools in open vegetation areas, the eggs being deposited in the water and the tadpoles developing in the same site. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55980	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
55980	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
55981	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within its range. For example, some populations occur within Canaima National Park, in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela.	eng
55981	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Venezuela and the Guianas, through the Amazon Basin of Brazil to northern Bolivia, and east the Brazilian States of Ceará and Maranhao. Records from the State of Alagoas in northeastern Brazil require confirmation. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m, probably higher.	eng
55981	habitat		It is usually found around temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest and rainforest edge. It is also present in more open areas such as Cerrado moist savannah and coastal savannahs (for example in the Guianas), as well as surviving to some extent in anthropogenic habitats, such as pastureland, secondary growth and rural gardens. Males of this nocturnal frog call from herbaceous vegetation 40-50cm above the water. The eggs and tadpoles can be found in the water.	eng
55981	population		It is locally abundant in Bolivia, Brazil, and the Guianas, but is rare in Venezuela.	eng
55981	threats		Overall, this species is not threatened, but habitat loss and fires probably impact local populations.	eng
55982	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into its Extent of Occurrence is desirable. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55982	distribution		This species is known from Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and São Paulo States, in Brazil. It occurs from 800-2,200m asl.	eng
55982	habitat		The species occurs on low vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest. It has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds in permanent streams.	eng
55982	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55982	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation, infrastructure development and agricultural encroachment is a threat to this species.	eng
55983	conservation		It might occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo, the Zona Reservada Biabo Cordillera Azul, Parque Nacional de Yanachaga-Chemillén, the Reserva Comunal Yanesha, and the Bosque de Protección San Matías-San Carlos (although this requires confirmation).	eng
55983	distribution		This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes in the departments of Amazonas, Pasco and San Martin, from 1,600-2,400m asl.	eng
55983	habitat		It can be found in upper and montane rainforest (cloud forest) and lower montane rainforest. It presumably breeds in ponds, swamps and open areas. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded habitats.	eng
55983	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
55983	threats		Specific threats to this species are not known, but there is general agricultural development throughout much of the region that is likely to be affecting it.	eng
55984	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
55984	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil occurs from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais, north to the States of Pernambuco and Paraiba.	eng
55984	habitat		It is a species of dry "Caatinga" savannah and rock outcrops, as well as agricultural land. It can be found in bromeliads or on vegetation near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
55984	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55984	threats		It is probably not seriously threatened, but some populations might be impacted by intensive agriculture, or by overgrazing by livestock.	eng
55985	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
55985	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Beni and Santa Cruz in eastern Bolivia. It has been recorded from 150-450m asl.	eng
55985	habitat		It typically inhabits open areas, but also inhabits various forms of forest and moist savannahs. It breeds in flooded savannahs and temporary ponds. It calls while perching on small grass in flooded areas. It also adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance, such as cattle ranching.	eng
55985	population		It is a common species.	eng
55985	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
55986	conservation		This species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve, and might also occur in the Alto Purus Reserved Zone, Manu Biosphere Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.	eng
55986	distribution		This species' geographic range is the upper Amazon Basin in extreme eastern Peru, in the drainages of the Río Purus and Río Madre de Dios, Departamento Madre de Dios. It can be found up to 200m asl.	eng
55986	habitat		Its habitat is lowland tropical rainforest. Eggs are deposited in temporary pools. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
55986	population		It is a very abundant species. It is one of the most abundant species at Cusco Amazonico (Duellman, 1995) and nearby Tambopata (Doan and Arizábal, 2000).	eng
55986	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation.	eng
55987	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and Argentina.	eng
55987	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in the states of São Paulo south to Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil; northeastern Misiones Province in Argentina; and a few localities in southern Oriental Region of Paraguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
55987	habitat		It occurs in forest and forest edges. It reproduces in temporary and permanent pools (including artificial pools and water-filled tire tracks on dirt roads). It occurs in secondary forest.	eng
55987	population		It is locally abundant in Brazil and Argentina but is rare in Paraguay.	eng
55987	threats		Clear-cutting for wood extraction and pine plantations is a major threat.	eng
55988	conservation	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus <em>Scinax</em>.	eng
55988	distribution	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	This species is known from southeastern Brazil in the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55988	habitat	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	This species lives and breeds in bromeliads inside primary and secondary forest and littoral shrub vegetation (Restinga). It has not been recorded outside forests.	eng
55988	population	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55988	threats	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, 2008	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forests, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is a threat to this species	eng
55989	conservation		This species occurs in Kaw Nature Reserve in French Guiana. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
55989	distribution		This species is widespread in French Guiana and southern Suriname and Guyana. A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is presented in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded between 200-700m asl.	eng
55989	habitat		This species is usually found in the trees around temporary pools in primary forest. It breeds in these pools. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
55989	population		This is not an uncommon species.	eng
55989	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present. It occurs in a region of very limited human impact.	eng
55990	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
55990	distribution		This species is widespread in western Ecuador. There are also records for the Pacific lowlands of Colombia in the Department of Chocó, though these might be referable to Scinax elaeochrous. It has been recorded from 20-500m asl. It has also become established as an alien species in the vicinity of Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos Islands (not mapped here).	eng
55990	habitat		It is a very adaptable species, living on the forest edge and in open habitats with some trees, even entering houses. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
55990	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
55990	threats		It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
55991	conservation		It is not known to occur within any protected areas, and conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into its extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is also needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.	eng
55991	distribution		This species is known from two localities: Monte Belo, and Poços de Caldas, both in Minas Gerais State, in south-eastern Brazil, where it has been recorded at around 1,000m asl. Sampling of this area is poor, so it might have a larger distribution than is currently known.	eng
55991	habitat		It occurs in primary and secondary gallery forests on vegetation along rivers, but has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats. Larvae were found in ponds on the streams margins.	eng
55991	population		It is a common species.	eng
55991	threats		Mining is the main threat to this species, in particular due to the pollution of its habitat that this activity causes.	eng
55992	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is desirable. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55992	distribution		This species from southern Brazil ranges from Ribeirão Branco in the state of São Paulo, south to northeastern part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul State. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
55992	habitat		This species occurs on vegetation near waterbodies in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It is not known from disturbed areas. It creates a foam nest in temporary pools, and is an explosive breeder.	eng
55992	population		It is a very common species.	eng
55992	threats		Habitat loss due to clear-cutting, agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development is threatening the species.	eng
55993	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Abraham Mijares, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Soberania in Panama as well as in South America.	eng
55993	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Abraham Mijares, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	This species can be found in the lowlands from central Panama to the eastern lowlands of San Blas, through to Colombia in the Magdalena Valley, Northwest Orinoquia and Upper Pacific region, and northern Venezuela and the Orinoco to Guyana and Suriname. It occurs up to 1,300m asl. In Venezuela, this species has been recorded from the states of Amazonas, Aragua, Bolívar, Carabobo, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Lara, Miranda, Monagas, Sucre, and Yaracuy. It is not reported from French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001), where it seems to be replaced by <em>Scinax proboscideus</em>.	eng
55993	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Abraham Mijares, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It is a nocturnal, largely arboreal species of sub-humid scrubby forest and moist savannahs found perched on low vegetation at the edges of temporary or permanent ponds close to moist forests. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. This species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
55993	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Abraham Mijares, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It is considered to be abundant in some localities.	eng
55993	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Abraham Mijares, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat.	eng
55994	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is present in many protected areas throughout its range and is very tolerant of human settlement.	eng
55994	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is present in Mesoamerica, in the Cerro Campana and Rio Trinidad, central Panama and eastern lowlands of Darien Province (Panama). In South America the species is widespread throughout the Amazon basin (also occurring in the Guianan Shield and on Trinidad and Tobago) and might be found from sea level to around 2,600m asl. It has been introduced to northern Puerto Rico, Martinique and Saint Lucia.	eng
55994	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This large, arboreal, nocturnal frog inhabits a vast array of habitats, from open environments to moist forests. In the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela, males have been found calling from the ground and low vegetation around temporary ponds in the forest, and amplectant pairs were on low vegetation. Scinax ruber is a "pest" species primarily inhabiting cleared areas in the rainforest. This species generally breeds in small temporary pools. In cultivated areas, the species breeds in roadside ditches and shallow, temporary ponds. Animals have been recorded in modified environments such as gardens and parks (Duellman and Wiens, 1993).	eng
55994	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This is a common species that is abundant in temporary waterbodies during the rainy season.	eng
55994	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
55995	conservation	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed. Further research is required to resolve taxonomic confusion within the genus Scinax.	eng
55995	distribution	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This species is known from the coastal region of Caraguatatuba, in São Paulo State, to Rio de Janeiro State, in Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
55995	habitat	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	It occurs in open areas such as savannahs, as well as in artificial habitats. It breeds in temporary pools from the rain, as well as in swamps. It is also found inside houses in rural areas, and in most artificial open areas.	eng
55995	population	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
55995	threats	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	Habitat disturbance and the creation of open areas favour this species.	eng
55996	conservation	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Brazil and Argentina. Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex.	eng
55996	distribution	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species occurs in southeastern, southern and central Brazil; northern La Paz in Bolivia (one locality); southern and central oriental region of Paraguay; Uruguay; and northeastern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Misiones and Santa Fe). It occurs from 0-1,500m asl.	eng
55996	habitat	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in open areas in grasslands and rushes, and communities of <em>Eryngium</em> sp., it also occurs in forests. During the spawning period it can be found at small permanent and temporary waterbodies, often at cattle ponds. The spawn are attached to aquatic vegetation. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
55996	population	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
55996	threats	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Diego Baldo, 2008	There are no threats to this species. Pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices - industrial pollution (organic wastes) might be localized threats.	eng
55997	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
55997	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2009	This species' geographic range is the Caribbean versant of Mexico, from central Tamaulipas, southward along the Atlantic coast to the Yucatan peninsula to Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. In the Pacific, it is found from Guerrero, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, southward to northwestern Costa Rica (0-1,530m asl). It also occurs on the Corn Islands, Nicaragua.	eng
55997	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2009	This species seems to prefer disturbed or altered habitats at foothills and low elevations in secondary forests and pasture grasslands or cutover forests. It is also found in disturbed areas in the savannahs and in marshy areas outside or adjacent to forest, including temporarily open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
55997	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2009	It is abundant throughout its range.	eng
55997	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2009	There are no major threats.	eng
55998	conservation		There is no information on conservation measures for this species.	eng
55998	distribution		This species is known only from the lost holotype from the state of Bahia. No map of its range can be drawn because of the lack of specificity of the type locality. This name cannot be assigned to any known species, though Hoogmoed and Gruber (1983) speculated that it could refer to <em>Hyla nebulosa</em>.	eng
55998	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
55998	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
55998	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
55999	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It is not yet known from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
55999	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Colombia (in the Departments of Chocó and Risaralda) and from northwestern Ecuador. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites in Colombia and Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 20-500m asl.	eng
55999	habitat		It lives in secluded places on forest edges and in open areas with some trees. The type series of this species was collected at a large duckweed-covered pond in a banana grove. The eggs are laid in water, and the tadpoles develop in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
55999	population		It is a common species.	eng
55999	threats		It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56001	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56001	distribution		This species is known from the coastal regions of the Atlantic forest of Rio de Janeiro State, and from Ilha Grande, in Brazil, up to 600m asl.	eng
56001	habitat		It occurs inside primary and old secondary forest near slow-moving streams, and spawns in slow reaches of small brooks. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
56001	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56001	threats		The major threats that it faces are habitat loss due to deforestation arising from agricultural encroachment, infrastructure development and fire.	eng
56002	conservation		Its range includes one protected area Sipaliwini in Suriname.	eng
56002	distribution		This species is known from the savannahs of El Manteco in Bolívar state, Venezuela, and from Guyana and Suriname (only Sipaliwini), and Brazil. It has a fragmented distribution because of its specialized habitat requirements. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56002	habitat		It inhabits savannahs and man-made open habitats. It breeds in ponds and standing water by larval development.	eng
56002	population		It has a scattered distribution, and is not a common species.	eng
56002	threats		Fires are a potential threat to the species' habitat. But in general it is not significantly threatened.	eng
56003	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
56003	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from Teresopolis in the State of Rio de Janeiro, north to Santa Teresa in the State of Espírito Santo. Its altitudinal range is 600-1,200m asl.	eng
56003	habitat		It lives in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads inside forest and rocky areas. It does not occur in heavily degraded areas. It breeds by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
56003	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56003	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, collection of bromeliads, human settlement, tourism and chemical spraying of bromeliads for mosquito control.	eng
56004	conservation	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56004	distribution	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Llanos of eastern Colombia at 200-880m asl, and has recently been recorded from the amazonian lowlands and eastern slopes of Andean Venezuela, from around 100-300m asl.	eng
56004	habitat	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a species of moist grassland, pastureland and savannahs near waterbodies. It reproduces in seasonal and permanent pools.	eng
56004	population	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
56004	threats	Jose Vicente Rueda, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	No threats are known.	eng
56005	conservation	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ulisses Caramaschi, Abraham Mijares, 2008	Several protected areas are present within the range of the species.	eng
56005	distribution	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ulisses Caramaschi, Abraham Mijares, 2008	This species occurs in Arauca, Meta and North Santander, Colombia, and in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and eastern, southern and southeastern Brazil. In Venezuela, it occurs in Falcón State (Mijares and Arends, 1999) and northeastern Venezuelan Caribbean coast, including Margarita Island. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
56005	habitat	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ulisses Caramaschi, Abraham Mijares, 2008	It inhabits tropical savannahs, forest edge and open areas. It is very adaptable to human disturbance. Males have been observed calling from <em>Heliconia</em> leaves about 1.5m above the ground and 2m from the edge of a forest pond, or from other vegetation above temporary ponds, or tussock of grasses in the pond. In Bolívar state, males concentrate in low bushes around lagoons during the rainy season. It breeds in standing water (permanent and seasonal). The eggs and tadpoles are in the water.	eng
56005	population	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ulisses Caramaschi, Abraham Mijares, 2008	It is a very common species. It is abundant around temporary waterbodies in the rainy season.	eng
56005	threats	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ulisses Caramaschi, Abraham Mijares, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
56006	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	The species doesn't need any particular protection measure. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56006	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species geographic range is from the Atlantic and pacific versants, from the Rio Grande embayment in extreme southern Texas, U.S.A. southward to Costa Rica, including the Yucatan Peninsula. In the Pacific, it occurs from southern Sonora southward to central Costa Rica (0-1,610m asl).	eng
56006	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	It can be found in lowlands and foothills; xerophytic vegetation and savannahs in semiarid regions in north, humid evergreen forest in Caribbean lowlands of Central America; gardens with pools. It can also be found in the vicinity of ponds, pools, canals, and flooded fields (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). It hides underground, under tree bark, in leaf axils, or in tree holes when inactive. It breeds in ponds.	eng
56006	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	It is widespread and abundant in Middle America.	eng
56006	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This is a well-preserved species that can survive even associated with human settlements and altered habitats.	eng
56007	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Belize, and in the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico in Guatemala. It is also found in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Ocote, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Montes Azules in Mexico, although more forest protection is needed in Mexico. Further monitoring needs to be conducted to determine whether or not the recently documented decline is due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56007	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of southern Mexico and northern Central America from Oaxaca and southern Veracruz through northern Chiapas, Mexico, and into El Peten and northern Alta Verapaz in Guatemala, and also Belize (from 300-1,200m asl). It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56007	habitat		It can be found in vegetation in humid mid-altitude and montane forests, and also occurs in secondary forest. It breeds in temporary pools and streams, and in depressions in logs that fill up with water.	eng
56007	population		It is uncommon, but its population is stable in suitable habitat, in Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala. Recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some localities.	eng
56007	threats		Habitat destruction is taking place in much of its range. The recently documented decline in Oaxaca has taken place in suitable habitat, and could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56008	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56008	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northeastern Honduras, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama to northern Colombia; and on the Pacific versant from central Costa Rica to southwestern Panama and from El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, Panama, to Colombia. In South America, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and western Ecuador, and around the northern slopes of the Western and Central Cordilleras in Colombia to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,600m asl (Costa Rica).	eng
56008	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest, where usually they are found in secluded sites at the edge of, or in, shallow temporary pools and occasionally at the edges of streams or large ponds. It tolerates substantial forest disturbance, and lives on forest edge and in open country, even where there are few trees. It breeds in small, usually temporary pools, even in footprints of cattle, and avoids larger ponds as breeding sites.	eng
56008	population		This is an abundant species throughout its range.	eng
56008	threats		It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56009	conservation	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The range of this species includes several national parks and other protected areas.	eng
56009	distribution	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species can be found from the Caribbean lowlands of Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua, at 15-520m asl.	eng
56009	habitat	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It lives in lowland tropical rainforest, and has also been found breeding in very disturbed habitats, including pastures (Gerardo Chaves and Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Males call throughout the rainy season, from shallow water and low bushes, usually hidden in vegetation. Breeding takes place in small, shallow temporary pools or ponds (Savage 2002).	eng
56009	population	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It has been considered uncommon, but regularly recorded in Costa Rica. However, a study in 2006 found this species to be abundant in northern Costa Rica (Mahmoot Sasa unpublished data).	eng
56009	threats	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Brian Kubicki, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to small- and large-scale agriculture and logging. The forests of south-eastern Nicaragua have been less altered than those on the Costa Rican side of the border.	eng
56010	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
56010	distribution		This species occurs in the humid lowlands from southwestern Costa Rica to eastern Panama on the Pacific slope, and on the Atlantic versant in central Panama, to northern Colombia and the middle Magdalena Valley. Its range is expanding in Costa Rica. It ranges from sea level up to 500m asl.	eng
56010	habitat		It is a nocturnal tree frog that inhabits lowland moist and wet forests close to shallow rocky pools, and stream banks. It can survive in secondary forest, but it generally needs good vegetation cover. In Costa Rica, it has been observed in relatively open areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It is less frequently found in the vegetation overhanging the streams. Benthic tadpoles are found in clear pools and slow-moving water.	eng
56010	population		It is a common species in Panama and Colombia. In Costa Rica it is rare, despite its expanding range.	eng
56010	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56011	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56011	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species ranges from northeastern Honduras to northwestern Panama on the Atlantic slope; and on the Pacific slope in southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama and El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, in west-central Panama. There is an isolated record from the middle Magdalena Valley in Santander Department, Colombia (that might eventually prove to be a separate species). It occurs from sea level to 1,525m asl.	eng
56011	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest in the vicinity of rocky streams where it reproduces. It can tolerate substantial disturbance of its habitat, and is found in plantations and urban areas.	eng
56011	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This is a common species throughout its range.	eng
56011	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56012	conservation		It is not so far known from any protected areas.	eng
56012	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Fazenda Santo Onofre, 10km east of Maracás, at 960m asl in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil. Frogs have been collected from other localities that probably represent this species, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
56012	habitat		It lives inside terrestrial bromeliads on the forest edge and in open areas, and can probably tolerate some habitat alteration. The larvae have been found in permanent pools.	eng
56012	population		It appears to be abundant in its only known locality.	eng
56012	threats		@The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, clear-cutting, ollection of bromeliads, and human settlement.	eng
56013	conservation		In Colombia it is known from Pure, La Paya, and Amacayacu protected areas. In Ecuador it is present in Cuyabeno. It is present in several conservation areas in Brazil.	eng
56013	distribution		This species is wide-ranging in the upper Amazon basin of southern Colombia, Peru and western Amazonia in Brazil. It is known only from a single locality in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 50-140m asl.	eng
56013	habitat		This is a semi aquatic frog. At night, they are found in permanent and semi permanent ponds in open areas. At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, all individuals were on emergent vegetation in a pond in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). It may also be found on floating mats of vegetation in large rivers. Eggs are laid in the water.	eng
56013	population		It is reasonably common.	eng
56013	threats		While there are no immediate threats to this species, localized habitat loss is no doubt affecting some populations.	eng
56014	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is present in Parque Nacional Manu in Peru. Found in many conservation areas in Brazil.	eng
56014	distribution		This species’ geographic range is from the upper Amazon Basin of southeastern Colombia, Ecuador (three localities), Peru and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 50-300m asl.	eng
56014	habitat		This semi aquatic frog is commonly found amidst floating vegetation, usually dominated by water lettuce (Pistia), in open permanent and semi permanent waterbodies (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994) including ponds, large lakes, flooded meadows and other lentic waterbodies (such as streams with standing water). It breeds in these wetlands. It may be present in altered habitats where waterbodies with floating vegetation are available.	eng
56014	population		It is generally common throughout much of its range.	eng
56014	threats		While there are no immediate threats to this species, localized habitat loss is no doubt affecting some populations.	eng
56015	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas. Some Venezuelan populations occur in protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
56015	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is widely distributed; it is present in the Orinoco basin of Venezuela (in the states of Amazonas, Bolívar, Delta Amacuro, Monagas and Sucre) and the Amazon basin of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil and Ecuador, it is also found on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago) throughout the Guianas and in the seasonally flooded lowlands of Maranhão, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 300m asl.	eng
56015	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is found in flooded plains, floating meadows, ponds and large lagoons with floating vegetation (especially <em>Eichhornia</em> sp.) in forest clearings, at forest edges and in savannah, where males call from herbaceous vegetation just above the surface of the water. It has also been found under the leaf litter in tropical rainforest, and in seasonally flooded agricultural land. At night, this semi aquatic frog congregates at permanent or semi-permanent ponds in open areas. The males call from floating vegetation or emergent grasses (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). This species breeds in the wetlands with which it is associated. It has been recorded from flooded roadside ditches (Trinidad).	eng
56015	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is common through most of range.	eng
56015	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	Fire and clear-cutting of forest might be localized threats to this species. It might also be threatened in some areas by water pollution.	eng
56016	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed. The effect of mosquito controls on the population also needs to be investigated.	eng
56016	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais States, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs above 1,000m asl.	eng
56016	habitat		The species occurs on vegetation above large ponds or lakes in open vegetation or at the edge of forests. It breeds in permanent ponds and lakes. The water is usually deep, never shallow. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56016	population		It is a common species.	eng
56016	threats		Drainage of waters for mosquito management and the application of insecticides to kill mosquitoes is a threat to the species. This is also occurring within protected areas.	eng
56017	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56017	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espírito Santo and Bahia, north to Praia do Forte. It is found close to sea level.	eng
56017	habitat		It is a very aquatic species, almost always found in small temporary and permanent pools or ponds at the borders of forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
56017	population		It is a common species.	eng
56017	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56018	conservation		In Itabuna it occurs in a research station run by CEPLAC, the Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira (the Executive Commission of the Cacaueira Farming Plan), which operates under the auspices of the Brazilian Government Ministry for Agriculture, Cattle Breeding and Supply. This species is also found at the Estação Experimental in Linhares, run by EMBRAPA, which is the Agricultural Research Corporation of the Brazilian Government Ministry for Agriculture, Cattle Breeding and Supply.	eng
56018	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil has been recorded from Itabuna and Ilhéus in the state of Bahia, and from Linhares in the state of Espirito Santo. It presumably occurs in intervening areas between these sites, although the limits of its distribution are still very poorly known. It occurs up to 50m asl.	eng
56018	habitat		This species lives in or near ponds on the forest edge, always staying close to water, and is sometimes found on vegetation near water. The eggs are laid on leaves above temporary or permanent ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56018	population		There is very little information on its population status as there have been very few records.	eng
56018	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56019	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
56019	distribution		This species is known from the south of Bahia State, southwards through Espirito Santo State and into Rio de Janeiro State, in southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to only about 100m asl.	eng
56019	habitat		This species is found only on floating vegetation in swamps (deep water >50cm) in open areas. The eggs are deposited on a leaf surface above the water. They can also live in disturbed habitats that have deep pools of water, such as cattle ponds.	eng
56019	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56019	threats		Habitat loss due to the drainage of wetlands for the creation of agricultural land, and pollution from agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
56020	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56020	distribution		This name cannot be related to any known population of frogs in the wild, and this species is only known from the unspecified locality of South America.	eng
56020	habitat		It is presumably a largely aquatic species that has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56020	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56020	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56021	conservation		It occurs in at least three protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).	eng
56021	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais, though the coastal regions of the States of Espirito Santo and Bahia. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
56021	habitat		It lives in secondary forest, clearings in forest and forest edges, and breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
56021	population		It is very abundant where it occurs.	eng
56021	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss especially due to wood plantations, but also due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56022	conservation		It occurs in Caxambu State Park, Paraná. It is listed as Vulnerable for Rio Grande de Sul state’s list of threatened species.	eng
56022	distribution		This species occurs in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 100-1200 masl.	eng
56022	habitat		It occurs on low bushes surrounding large permanent lakes in open areas.<br/><br/>Breeding occurs in the hot and rainy season and males call from the floating vegetation, generally in permanent ponds. The reproductive mode is probably by means of eggs and exotrophic tadpoles in lentic water (Toledo et al., 2007).	eng
56022	population		It seems to be an abundant species (Toledo et al., 2007).	eng
56022	threats		It is threatened by water pollution.	eng
56023	conservation	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
56023	distribution	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It probably has a very restricted range.	eng
56023	habitat	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	It is a high-elevation forest species. All specimens were collected at night, on leaves or branches, 1-3 m above ground. Females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back.	eng
56023	population	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	It is a relatively uncommon species.	eng
56023	threats	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56024	conservation	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
56024	distribution	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl  (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is thought likely to have a very restricted range.	eng
56024	habitat	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	A high-elevation forest species. All specimens were collected at night on leaves or branches 1-5 m above ground. Females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back.	eng
56024	population	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	This was the most abundant amphibian species encountered on Mount Ayanganna (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002).	eng
56024	threats	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56025	conservation	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	The range of this species is within Kaieteur National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
56025	distribution	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna and from Mount Wokomung, Guyana, between 1,490 and 1,550 m asl (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002, MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It probably has a very restricted range.	eng
56025	habitat	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	The species inhabits primary forest. Specimens were collected at night, on moss-covered branches or bog habitat, 1-4 m above ground, or in the base of a large terrestrial bromeliad. The females carry the eggs on their back, and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. They have not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
56025	population	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	This is not an uncommon species.	eng
56025	threats	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R. & Gaucher, P., 2009	There are no known threats, and all known localities for this species are in undisturbed, remote areas. Nonetheless, given its small range, it remains vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56026	conservation	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The range of the species includes Kaieteur Falls National Park. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56026	distribution	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This species is known from the lowlands of west-central Guyana, including the base of Mount Wokomung (05° 04' 53" N, 59° 50' 28" W, 680-698m), in the Pakaraima Mountains. It has been recorded up to 1,400m asl.	eng
56026	habitat	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	An inhabitant of lowland and montane primary forest, this species is usually associated with streams. Individuals have been found on rocks in streams and along the banks. The females carry the eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. Kok et al. (2006) report on a female carrying 25 eggs on her back.	eng
56026	population	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The species is abundant in suitable habitat at lower elevations (MacCulloch et al., 2006).	eng
56026	threats	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There are no known threats to the species overall, although it might be threatened locally. However, it occurs in a region of very limited human impact.	eng
56027	conservation		The range of the species includes Canaima National Park.	eng
56027	distribution		This species is endemic to Chimantá tepui in Bolívar state, Venezuela, where it is found at elevations from 1,850-2,600m asl.	eng
56027	habitat		It is found in association with humid rocky habitats, where it is found in crevices, caves, on open rock surfaces and adjacent peat bogs, in streams and rivers on the tepuis summits of the Chimanta massif. Juvenile frogs have been found inside terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia) in bogs bordering open rocky areas. Eggs and juveniles are carried on the back of females, and they reproduce by direct development.	eng
56027	population		It is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
56027	threats		There are unlikely to be any threats to this species. It occurs in a national park in a region of minimal human impact.	eng
56028	conservation		Its range is within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56028	distribution		This species is restricted to Mount Duida (at 1,400m asl, from which it was originally described) and the slopes and summit of Mount Huachamakari (at 1,700m asl), both in Amazonas State, Venezuela. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
56028	habitat		@It occurs on rocks in streams on the tops of tepuis. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and reproduces by direct development.	eng
56028	population		It is apparently not a common species.	eng
56028	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
56029	conservation		Its range is within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56029	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Duida and Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, where it has an altitudinal range of 340-1,200m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
56029	habitat		It occurs on rocks along the forested margins of small streams. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56029	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56029	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
56030	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
56030	distribution		This species is restricted to the type locality, the Jaua tepui, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,600m asl (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W), although the limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
56030	habitat		This species was found on rocks in a fast-flowing cascading stream, and it is known to reproduce by direct development, and to carry its eggs and juveniles on its back. It was found to be sympatric with <em>Stefania percristata</em>.	eng
56030	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56030	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56031	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
56031	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Jaua tepui, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 1,600m asl (04° 49' 55''N; 64° 25' 59''W). The limits of its distribution are not known, and it might also occur at lower altitudes on the slopes of Cerro Jaua, but it is probably a summit species.	eng
56031	habitat		This nocturnal species was found on branches of vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground, along streams at the top of the tepui. It reproduces by direct development, and carries its eggs and juveniles on its back.	eng
56031	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56031	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56032	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
56032	distribution		This species is known only from the summit of Cerro Sarisariñama, from 1,000-1,400m asl, in the state of Bolívar, in Venezuela. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
56032	habitat		Like other members of the genus, it is probably found on rocks and vegetation along streams on top of tepuis. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back and breeds by direct development	eng
56032	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is only known from the type series.	eng
56032	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56033	conservation		The type locality is within the Monumental Natural Los Tepuyes. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its restriction to Yuruaní tepui.	eng
56033	distribution		This species is known only from the summit of Yuruaní tepui, in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at 2,300m asl (05° 19'N; 60° 51'W). It probably has a very restricted distribution.	eng
56033	habitat		It occurs in crevices and on rocks near streams. It breeds by direct development, and it carries its eggs and the juveniles on its back.	eng
56033	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
56033	threats		There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56034	conservation	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56034	distribution	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This species is known from Mount Roraima (type locality, 1,402m; Duellman and Hoogmoed 1984), the north-east plateau of Mount Ayanganna, and Mount Wokomung, all in Guyana. The limits to this species' distribution are not known. It is found between 1234-1550m asl.	eng
56034	habitat	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This species inhabits primary forest, and the females presumably carry their eggs on their backs, with the juveniles developing fully there.	eng
56034	population	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There is no information on its population status.	eng
56034	threats	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There are no known threats to this species, and all the known localities are in undisturbed, remote areas.	eng
56035	conservation		This species occurs within Parque Nacional Canaima. In addition, Venezuelan flat top mountains (tepuis) are protected by law, so all the species occurring on them are protected.	eng
56035	distribution		This species is known from Aprada tepui (tepuis are Venezuelan flat top mountains) at 2,500m asl, and from Angasima tepui (Adanta) and Upuigma tepui (El Castillo), from between 2,000 and 2,100m asl. The mountain chains of Angasima tepui and Upuigma tepui are not physically connected, and lie about eight to 10km apart. Aprada tepui is likewise separated from the Chimantá massif, and lies about 20km to the north-east of it. This species therefore has a disjunct distribution.	eng
56035	habitat		This is a nocturnal frog found on open, rocky surfaces, and in crevices and depressions close to watercourses. It carries its eggs and juveniles on its back, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56035	population		It is common on these summits.	eng
56035	threats		There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present.	eng
56036	conservation		Some Venezuelan populations are protected within Canaima National Park in Bolívar State.	eng
56036	distribution		This species is known from Ayanganna Mountain in Guyana, in the La Escalera region and from the slopes of Auyantepui in Bolívar state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 600-1,500m asl.	eng
56036	habitat		A nocturnal species usually found on marginal vegetation of rocky permanent streams, most frequently closely associated with cascading mountain streams, on clean boulders in, and at the edges of streams, perched perpendicular to some branches over streams, and in the spray zone of waterfalls. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back where they breed through direct development.	eng
56036	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
56036	threats		There are probably no threats to this species, since it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.	eng
56037	conservation		Its range is within Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restriction to Auyan-tepui.	eng
56037	distribution		This species is endemic to the summit of Auyan-tepui, in Bolívar state, Venezuela, at elevations ranging from 1,750-2,400m asl. It probably has a genuinely restricted distribution.	eng
56037	habitat		This is a nocturnal frog that has been found hidden amongst rocks in cascading mountain streams, and about 1m above the ground on branches of tepui vegetation along watercourses. By day, specimens hide below rocks by the rivers, or in vegetation close to these watercourses. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back where they develop directly.	eng
56037	population		It is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
56037	threats		There are no major threats to the species, but it might be susceptible to wildfire and habitat disturbance by tourists.	eng
56038	conservation		It is protected in Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.	eng
56038	distribution		This species is known only from Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra Tapirapecó, at altitudes of 1,160-1,270m asl, in the Venezuelan state of Amazonas. It probably has a wider distribution than is known, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56038	habitat		This is a montane nocturnal frog that was found at a helipad clearing in ridge-top forest, and in low vegetation near a forested stream in the drainage of the north base of Pico Tamacuari. Adults carry the eggs and juveniles on their back, where they develop directly.	eng
56038	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56038	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
56039	conservation	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The range of the species includes Kaieteur Falls National Park. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56039	distribution	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	At the time of Duellman and Hoogmoed's (1984) review of <em>Stefania</em>, <em>S. woodleyi</em> was known only from the type locality: Mount Kanaima, Guyana, at an elevation of 700m asl. MacCulloch and Lathrop (2002) reported specimens collected from three additional locations in Guyana: Tukeit, near the base of Kaieteur Falls, 100m asl; Paramakatoi, 800m; and Ayanganna, 870m asl. More recently, MacCulloch et al. (2006) reported that the species was also found at the base of Mount Wokomung (05° 04' 53" N, 59° 50' 28" W, 698m), also in Guyana.	eng
56039	habitat	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The species inhabits primary lowland forest. It is usually found near streams on rocks or on branches. The females carry eggs on their back and juveniles develop fully on their mother's back. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.	eng
56039	population	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
56039	threats	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There are no known threats to this species, and its habitat is relatively isolated and is currently undisturbed.	eng
56040	conservation		It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56040	distribution		This species is known from the south summit of Mount Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela (03° 19'N; 65° 38'W), at 2,150m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56040	habitat		It inhabits high montane tepui vegetation, where it occurs in forest and shrubs adjacent to rivers, streams and peat bogs. It is suspected to breed by laying its eggs in shallow swampy areas, in which the larvae develop.	eng
56040	population		It is a common species.	eng
56040	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
56041	conservation		The national park within which this species has part of its range is Parque Nacional Juan Crisóstomo Falcón.	eng
56041	distribution		This species is an endemic of Cerro Galicia, Curimagua, in the Sierra de San Luis in the municipality of Miranda, in Falcón State, north-western Venezuela (11° 10'N; 69° 42'W), where it has been recorded around 1,300m asl. There is some doubt whether or not this locality is correct as it has not been seen again since it was first collected.	eng
56041	habitat		The specific habitat requirements of this species are not known. It has been suggested (Mijares-Urrutia <em>et al.</em> 1999) that it prefers to inhabit specific microhabitats that are difficult to access within the cloud forest, or alternatively it could be a frog with very secretive habits. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56041	population		Mijares-Urrutia <em>et al.</em> (1999) suspect that this species is scarce, and there have been no records since the type series was collected.	eng
56041	threats		Agricultural development (for both crops and livestock), is a threat to this species' habitat, despite the fact that it occurs inside a national park.	eng
56042	conservation		Some populations of this species are within Canaima National Park.	eng
56042	distribution		This species has been reported from Bolívar state, Venezuela, from Auyan-tepui, Abacapa-tepui, Acopán-tepui, Amurí-tepui, Apacara-tepui and Chimantá-tepui. It is a summit species and occurs from 1,630-2,600m asl.	eng
56042	habitat		During the day, the species is found within Brocchinia (terrestrial bromeliads), where it hides inside the contained water if disturbed. It breeds at night in shallow temporary pools in peat bogs or between the adjacent rocky areas. It lays its eggs in little pools or in swampy areas.	eng
56042	population		It is the most common frog on Auyan-tepui (Myers 1997). It is very common within its range.	eng
56042	threats		Wildfire and the disturbance of the species' habitat by tourists are the only known threats. In general this species is probably not at significant risk.	eng
56043	conservation		Iit is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
56043	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "Sabanas del talud del Guadacopiapuy-tepuy, cerca del Yuruani-tepuy" (Ayarzaguena, Señaris and Gorzula 1992) in the state of Bolívar, in south-eastern Venezuela, at around 1,250m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56043	habitat		It is found by day within the tubes of terrestrial <em>Brocchinia</em> bromeliads in high swampy montane environments on the summits of tepui. The breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds in water like other species of the genus.	eng
56043	population		It is only known from a few specimens, so there are no data on its population status.	eng
56043	threats		There is no information on specific threats.	eng
56044	conservation		Its habitat is protected within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56044	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Marahuaca, in Amazonas State, southern Venezuela, at 2,550m asl (03° 45'N; 65° 30'W). It might occur more widely.	eng
56044	habitat		This species inhabits high montane tepui vegetation, and reproduces in rivers by larval development.	eng
56044	population		It is common.	eng
56044	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
56045	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Canaima. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given that it is known only from a single location.	eng
56045	distribution		This species is restricted to the Ptari-tepui (5° 47'N; 61° 47'W), at 2,400m asl, in Bolívar state, Venezuela. It is likely to have a genuinely restricted range.	eng
56045	habitat		It is found in crevices and under slabs in rocky areas adjacent to shrublands on the bare sandstone summit of Ptari-tepui. Reproductive habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in water like other species of the genus.	eng
56045	population		It is a common species.	eng
56045	threats		Although there are no major threats, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56046	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Canaima.	eng
56046	distribution		This species is known only from La Gran Sabana region, in south-eastern Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 800-1,360m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56046	habitat		It has been suggested that this might be a terrestrial frog that takes refuge inside bromeliads during dry periods. The same plants are inhabited by this species in marshes and shallow pools (2-6cm deep) in savannah grassland, where it calls from Cyperaceae plants. It lays its eggs in ponds where the larvae also develop.	eng
56046	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56046	threats		Fires are the only known threat to this species' habitat, which overall is unlikely to be subject to any major threats.	eng
56047	conservation		The protected area in which the type locality is located is Parque Nacional Kaieteur (which is also known as Kaieteur Falls National Park).	eng
56047	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as "Kaieteur Falls, 366m asl (05° 10'N; 59° 28'W), Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana" (Duellman and Yoshpa 1996). It might occur more widely.	eng
56047	habitat		This species inhabits lowland tropical primary forest, and all the specimens were collected from the edge of the Potaro River. There is no information known about its breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56047	population		There is very little information on its population status. It is known only from a small number of specimens (at least three), all caught within 100m of each other.	eng
56047	threats		Since its known range is within a protected area there are not expected to be any major threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56048	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56048	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Itapetinga in central state of Bahia, north to Exu in the State of Pernambuco. It has been recorded at around 800m asl.	eng
56048	habitat		It is a species of the "agreste" transition vegetation between the moist Atlantic forest and dry "Caatinga" savannah. It is often found in bromeliads, and breeds in temporary ponds in open areas.	eng
56048	population		It is a common species.	eng
56048	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, collection of bromeliads and human settlement.	eng
56049	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Mache Chindul, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute. In Peru, it occurs in the Zona Reservada de Tumbes.	eng
56049	distribution		This species is found in the Pacific lowlands of South America from extreme southern Colombia (Nariño Department) through Ecuador, to the lowlands of northwestern Perú (Departamentos: Piura, Tumbes). Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
56049	habitat		It is an arboreal frog of lowland and premontane wet and dry forests. It has also been found in disturbed areas. Lives in bromeliads and holes in tree trunks. It reproduces in lentic waterbodies.	eng
56049	population		This species is common in Ecuador (many seen in 2003) and is uncommon in Peru.	eng
56049	threats		Large parts of the habitat have been destroyed by deforestation for agricultural activities and cattle ranching, but the species is reasonably adaptable and not seriously threatened.	eng
56050	conservation	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Monique Van Sluys, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56050	distribution	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Monique Van Sluys, 2008	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in coastal regions from the State of Espírito Santo to the State of São Paulo, and also in the interior in the State of Minas Gerais, north to São Domingos in the southern part of the State of Goiás. It is a low altitude species. It has been moved around outside its natural range in horticultural bromeliads.	eng
56050	habitat	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Monique Van Sluys, 2008	It is a species of primary and secondary lowland forest, and of coastal "restinga" scrub. It can tolerate a moderate amount of habitat disturbance. They are usually found inside bromeliads. The eggs are laid in the shallow waters of temporary and permanent pools, ponds and small lakes. Reproductive activity has been reported for the month of December, and potentially may also occur in February (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
56050	population	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Monique Van Sluys, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56050	threats	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Monique Van Sluys, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, and collection of bromeliads, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56051	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56051	distribution		This species can be found in the Yucatán peninsula, Mexico and southward to Guatemala and Belize. Also in Lago de Yojoa in northwestern Honduras (0-740m asl).	eng
56051	habitat		This species occurs in the lowlands of semi deciduous forests and savannahs with clearly seasonal rainfalls. In Guatemala this species occurs in subhumid habitats and savannahs. It avoids tall forest and also occurs in a variety of disturbed, anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
56051	population		This species has peripheral populations possibly in decline and other populations that are possibly increasing. It is still one of the most abundant frogs in the Yucatán. It is most abundant in areas that are the most disturbed in Mexico and it is common in Guatemala.	eng
56051	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
56052	conservation		The range of this species includes the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve. Further protection of the forest habitat of this species is needed.	eng
56052	distribution		This species is known from Pacific coastal Mexico, in central Sinaloa, southern Jalisco, Colima and Michoacán to Guerrero and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
56052	habitat		This species inhabits lowland xeric and thorn-scrub forest and tropical deciduous forest. Its breeding season is restricted to the rainy season as it breeds in the temporary streams and ponds formed by rainfall.	eng
56052	population		This is a common species.	eng
56052	threats		Changes in rainfall patterns affect the seasonal activity of this species. Fires might also impact it. But overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
56053	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the limits of its range and its ecological requirements is needed.	eng
56053	distribution		This species is known from the coastal lowlands of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, up to 50m asl.	eng
56053	habitat		It lives in bromeliads in Restinga vegetation and breeds in temporary rain pools in the same habitat. It is only usually found during the breeding period as it is otherwise hidden in bromeliads. This is the only frog that eats fruit.	eng
56053	population		It is very common.	eng
56053	threats		The major threat to it is the destruction of Restinga vegetation for the development of human infrastructure.	eng
56054	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest, Cavally Classified Forest and Ankasa Conservation Area.	eng
56054	distribution		This species is known from south-western Côte d’Ivoire in Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Cavally Classified Forest, and from south-western Ghana in Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north twinned with Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south. It might also occur across the border in Liberia.	eng
56054	habitat		It is confined to primary and secondary lowland rainforest, where it is dependent upon very large tree holes (an uncommon microhabitat) in which it breeds. It has been found in wet evergreen and moist semi-deciduous forest but is not found in degraded habitats.	eng
56054	population		It is not common, probably because of its very restricted habitat, or because it is reclusive and therefore easily overlooked.	eng
56054	threats		The major threat to this species is ongoing forest loss in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, due to agricultural development, timber extraction and human settlement.	eng
56055	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56055	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu), and south to extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo (Mayombe). It has been recorded from Gabon, and presumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.	eng
56055	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest. The frogs are arboreal and aquatic spending most of their time, and breeding, in the small bodies of water that accumulate in cavities of living and dead trees. It can survive in heavily degraded forest, providing that large trees survive.	eng
56055	population		This is a hard species to find, and so its abundance is unclear.	eng
56055	threats		Despite its tolerance of habitat modification, it depends on large trees with holes that collect rainwater, and is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss.	eng
56056	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56056	distribution		This species occurs above 400m asl in northern Mozambique, Malawi, and eastern Zambia, north to southwestern Tanzania in the Rungwa area north of Lake Rukwa. There are very few records from the northern part of its range, presumably due to lack of survey work, and its distributional limits are still poorly known.	eng
56056	habitat		It is a species of grassy pools and marshes in moist grassland and savannah. It can survive in anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in ephemeral ponds and with dense peripheral vegetation.	eng
56056	population		It is common wherever it is the only dwarf Afrixalus species present. Where it is sympatric with Arixalus delicatus, this species always appears to be the more rare of the two, and its populations are much smaller, with numbers of calling males at several sites estimated to be less 50 individuals.	eng
56056	threats		It is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although it might be in long-term decline as a result of unsuccessful competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus delicatus</span>, which appears to be an aggressive competitor. Some populations might be impacted by agricultural spread. Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.	eng
56057	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
56057	distribution		This species is endemic to Ethiopia, where it is currently known from only two areas (the vicinity of Bonga, and Godare) at 820-1,800m asl, in the south-western region of the country.	eng
56057	habitat		It is found in tropical deciduous forest and forest edge, breeding amongst herbaceous vegetation surrounding pools in forest clearings. It has also been found in coffee plantations and other secondary habitats. For breeding it requires emergent vegetation in marshy pools, at least some of which are likely to become dry for part of the year.	eng
56057	population		It appeared to be relatively common at the type locality in 1971, but its status is otherwise unknown due to lack of recent survey work.	eng
56057	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment (including coffee plantations).	eng
56058	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56058	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Zimbabwe, central Mozambique and southern Malawi, from low to medium altitudes. Records from northeastern Mozambique and southeastern Tanzania probably refer to other species, and are not included here.	eng
56058	habitat		It is a species of moist savannahs and shrubland, breeding in ephemeral grassy pools, flooded grassland and marshes. It can survive to some extent in anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56058	population		It is abundant at suitable locations.	eng
56058	threats		It is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although some populations might be impacted by agricultural spread and human settlement. Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations.	eng
56059	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56059	distribution		This species ranges from Avoca and Mount Edgecombe in KwaZulu-Natal (eastern South Africa) northward through the coastal belt of Mozambique, the low altitude parts of Malawi to Tanzania (inland as far as Singida and Ushora), southeastern Kenya, and southern Somalia as far north as Marere. It also occurs on Zanzibar. It is a low altitude species, and is found below 300m asl in South Africa, and below 500m asl in most of its range.	eng
56059	habitat		It is a species of coastal bush land; savannah, shrubland, grassland, forest, thicket and anthropogenically disturbed habitats. It breeds in emergent vegetation usually at the edges of relatively permanent water (including marshes, vleis and pools) favouring plants with long leaves that can be folded to make leaf nests over water.	eng
56059	population		It is common in the north of its range, where it occurs in very large breeding aggregations, but it has declined in extreme south of range where it is not common (though it is possibly under-recorded).	eng
56059	threats		In the south of its range it is threatened by sugar cane farming, urbanization, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up breeding sites). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations. However, overall it is not threatened.	eng
56060	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It presumably occurs in many protected areas. It has been reported for Kyabobo National Park (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
56060	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species apparently occurs in three major isolated populations: from eastern Sierra Leone east to western Togo; from western Nigeria to western Democratic Republic of Congo; and in western Angola. However, it is possible that the Angolan population is in fact contiguous with the one to the north. Records from Uganda and western Kenya refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus osorioi</span>, and records from the Central African Republic presumably refer to another species. The record in Rödel (2000) refers to another species.	eng
56060	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It lives in grassy vegetation, cultivated land, bush land and degraded forest in the forest belt and in forest outliers and gallery forests in moist savanna. It is very adaptable, but needs some form of cover. It is not found in primary rainforest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above still water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds, puddles, ditches, ruts and herbaceous marshes where they develop.	eng
56060	population	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is a common species, and is probably increasing, as forest is lost.	eng
56060	threats	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	There are no obvious threats to this species.	eng
56061	conservation		It is known to occur in the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
56061	distribution		This species is endemic to high-altitude areas of southern Ethiopia on both sides of the Rift Valley at altitudes of 1,700-2,750m asl.	eng
56061	habitat		It is found in montane forest at altitudes, and rarely in montane grassland after forest clearance, typically breeding amongst herbaceous vegetation surrounding pools in forest clearings. It can survive in suitable situations in plantations, rural gardens, and even urban areas. For breeding it requires emergent vegetation in marshy pools, at least some of which are likely to become dry for part of the year.	eng
56061	population		It is locally common within its relatively restricted range.	eng
56061	threats		Threats include forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment.	eng
56062	conservation		It occurs in the Salonga National Park.	eng
56062	distribution		This species is known only from the central parts of the Congo basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It probably has a wider distribution in the Congo basin than the few records suggest. There are no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56062	habitat		It is a species of lowland rainforest, and is unlikely to be tolerant of alteration to its habitat. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably lays its eggs on leave above water, into which the tadpoles fall and develop.	eng
56062	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56062	threats		Most of its habitat remains intact, but shifting agriculture might impact local population.	eng
56063	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56063	distribution		This species ranges from coastal Kenya southward through eastern and southern Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe to coastal KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. It is a lowland species generally occurring below 300m, though it has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.	eng
56063	habitat		It is a species of moist savannah, bush land, grassland, and dry forest, with a possible preference for dense savannah. It breeds in permanent and semi-permanent pools, dams, vleis and marshes with reeds and sedges, tending to favour permanent waterbodies. The eggs are laid on emergent vegetation, particularly on leaf blades of Cyperus sedges.	eng
56063	population		It is an abundant species in suitable sites, breeding in small congregations.	eng
56063	threats		In the south of its range it is threatened by sugar cane farming, urbanization, drainage of breeding sites, afforestation with pines, and the spread of eucalyptus (drying up breeding sites). Chemical spraying to control mosquitoes might impact some populations. However, overall it is not threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56064	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56064	distribution		This species occurs in the hilly areas of the West African forest zone in Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. It has also recently been recorded from Ghana in the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA) a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south. The distributional limits of this species, especially in relation to Afrixalus vittiger, remain largely unknown, and the map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56064	habitat		It occurs widely in degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone. It is not found in primary or even secondary forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.	eng
56064	population		It is a common species.	eng
56064	threats		There are no obvious threats, though local populations might be impacted by very severe habitat clearance.	eng
56065	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species ranks amongst the highest in the need for conservation orientated research within South African threatened frogs. The taxonomy of the species complex is in need of comprehensive review.&#160;Important questions are still unanswered concerning the call and tadpoles of this species.&#160;There is a definite need to identify management areas, describe breeding phenology, and to identify direct threats; in particular, the effects of changes in water quality at sites with this species need to be documented. The Area of Occupancy needs to be calculated as well as an assessment of the health of all known sites. Once this has been achieved, monitoring at known breeding sites should be instigated. It occurs in Tsitsikamma National Park, Goukamma Nature Reserve, and Diepwalle Forestry Area.	eng
56065	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species is known from around 7 locations at low altitude (< 250 m asl) on the south coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> on either side of the border between the <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Eastern   Cape</st1:place></st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on">Western Cape Provinces</st1:place>. Extent of Occurrence is 1,756 km² and the Area of Occupancy has not been formally calculated but is known to be declining as some sites (e.g. Covie) which are presumed lost as no adults or tadpoles have been found there for at least three years. Although some sites are pristine, others are threatened by alien vegetation.</p>	eng
56065	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>It lives in a coastal mosaic of vegetation types, including mountain fynbos heathland, and forest. It breeds in small dams and shallow semi-permanent water with much emergent vegetation and even in well vegetated ornamental garden ponds. It is suspected that this species requires high water quality for breeding.&#160;Habitat is declining due to encroachment by urban development, alien invasive vegetation and chemical pollution. Species in this genus deposit between 20 and 50 eggs on vegetation above the water. Tadpoles emerge, drop into the water and remain there until metamorphosis.</p>	eng
56065	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>The spatial distribution of this species is considered to be severely fragmented as no one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation. Visits to one site at Covie have not produced any individuals (adults or tadpoles) for three years. It seems likely that this subpopulation has become extinct, but further visits are required to substantiate this. The cause for this disappearance is as yet unknown, but change in water quality is suspected as a possible reason.<br/></p>	eng
56065	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threat is habitat loss due to urban and recreational development, afforestation, invasive vegetation, agricultural expansion and chemical pollution.&#160;These threats are likely to act locally on breeding sites.&#160;Drought may cause additional stresses for this species.	eng
56066	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. The protected area network in western Cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include the remaining montane forest habitats, particularly those on Mount Manenguba.	eng
56066	distribution		This species is known only from a few mountains in western Cameroon, specifically the western and southern slopes of Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, and the southern portion of the Bamileke Plateau (at Mount Bana, Foto and Batie), at an altitude of 1,200-1,900m asl.	eng
56066	habitat		It lives in montane forest (including secondary forest and forest edges), and raffia palm swamps, and is often associated with streams in which it breeds (which is unusual for a species in this genus).	eng
56066	population		It is generally an uncommon species.	eng
56066	threats		It is threatened by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.	eng
56067	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56067	distribution		This species occurs in southwestern and southern Cameroon, south to northeastern Gabon (at M'passa) east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southwestern Uganda. It is also recorded from the island Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.). There do not appear to be records from Central African Republic, Congo and Equatorial Guinea (mainland), though it presumably occurs in these countries. It is also likely to occur in Rwanda.	eng
56067	habitat		It is confined to forest interior, and does not occur in altered habitats. The eggs deposited on a leaf (which is not folded) near flowing water (unusually for Afrixalus species which usually breed in still water).	eng
56067	population		It is reasonably common in suitable habitat in Cameroon, but it is rare in Kibale Forest, Uganda, where it is on the edge of its range.	eng
56067	threats		Local populations are no doubt affected by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.	eng
56068	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park, and perhaps in other protected areas.	eng
56068	distribution		This poorly known species occurs in eastern and central Democratic Republic of Congo, at 750-1,000m asl. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably because of lack of recent herpetological work within its range.	eng
56068	habitat		It is found in dense forest, where it is associated with stagnant pools where it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, though it is likely to favour undisturbed forest.	eng
56068	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56068	threats		Local populations are probably being affected by forest loss as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and removal of wood.	eng
56069	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56069	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Bibundi, Cameroon, although this form cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.	eng
56069	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
56069	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56069	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56070	conservation		There are no records from Udzungwa National Park, but it is likely to occur there.	eng
56070	distribution		This species is endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains in southern Tanzania, occurring between 1,300 and 2,050m asl. It is possible that it also occurs in the Uluguru Mountains (Pickersgill 2007).	eng
56070	habitat		It is a species of marshy areas in open montane grasslands, and from grassy glades in forest/grassland mosaic. It has been found in pastureland, but it is not clear that in can survive in croplands.	eng
56070	population		It is moderately abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
56070	threats		Its montane grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.	eng
56071	conservation	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.O., 2004	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56071	distribution	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.O., 2004	This species ranges from extreme southeastern Guinea through Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and western Ghana, with a disjunct population in southwestern Nigeria.	eng
56071	habitat	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.O., 2004	It is found mostly in primary rainforest, although it has recently been recorded in farm bush (degraded forest and farmland) (Hillers and Rödel 2007). It is often found with <em>Afrixalus dorsalis</em> but separated by microhabitat preferences, with <em>A. dorsalis</em> using more open, exposed sites, and <em>A. nigeriensis</em> calling from dense vegetation. During breeding, the eggs are laid on leaves overhanging temporary ponds, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56071	population	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.O., 2004	In suitable habitats it is very common.	eng
56071	threats	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.O., 2004	It is probably losing much of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and logging.	eng
56072	conservation		It has been recorded from Virungas National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Bwindi National Park in Uganda.	eng
56072	distribution		This species occurs in Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi, and south-western Uganda, probably north to Mount Ruwenzori. It is normally found above 1,500m asl.	eng
56072	habitat		Its habitat is not well known, but it has been found in montane grassland, bamboo forests, and in wetland areas in reeds and papyrus. It breeds in marshy areas.	eng
56072	population		It is not a very abundant species.	eng
56072	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56073	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Drewes, R. & Lötters, S., 2004	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56073	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Drewes, R. & Lötters, S., 2004	This species ranges from western Angola, east through the Democratic Republic of Congo, to Uganda and western Kenya. It might occur in Burundi and Rwanda.	eng
56073	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Drewes, R. & Lötters, S., 2004	It lives in degraded secondary forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the central African rainforest belt. Its breeding is not known, but it probably breeds in temporary ponds and swamps, and perhaps also in small permanent waterbodies where there is vegetation above the water on which to lay eggs.	eng
56073	population	Schiøtz, A., Drewes, R. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is an abundant species that is probably increasing as closed-canopy rainforest is destroyed.	eng
56073	threats	Schiøtz, A., Drewes, R. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is a very adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56074	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56074	distribution		This species occurs from southeastern Nigeria east of the Cross River, through southwestern and southern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea to central Gabon. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern Central African Republic and northern Congo, but there are not yet any records from these countries.	eng
56074	habitat		It is a species of secondary forest and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone (and only rarely in undisturbed forest), often occurring in marshy areas. The eggs are laid on leaves over temporary and permanent pools, into which the tadpoles fall and develop.	eng
56074	population		It is a common species.	eng
56074	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56075	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56075	distribution		This species ranges from western and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Nigeria, east to western Ethiopia, and south to southern Tanzania and southern and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and probably also in northern Angola, Zambia and Malawi.	eng
56075	habitat		It occurs widely in moist and dry savannah, and degraded former forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.	eng
56075	population		It is generally an abundant species.	eng
56075	threats		It is an adaptable species that is facing no obvious threats.	eng
56076	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56076	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Bonamandune, near the city of Douala, in Cameroon. It is possible that it is not a valid species.	eng
56076	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
56076	population		If it is a valid species, it is possibly extinct following the very extensive habitat destruction that has taken place around the city of Douala. There have been no records since its discovery, despite extensive herpetological work in the area.	eng
56076	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the only area from which it has been found is now a large city.	eng
56077	conservation		It occurs in Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks in Kenya, and in Tarangire National Park in Tanzania.	eng
56077	distribution		This poorly known species has been recorded from a small number of localities in inland southeastern Kenya and northeastern Tanzania. It has been recorded from Ngomeni in Kenya south to Tarangire National Park in Tanzania. Its distribution is still imperfectly known, and it is probably more widespread than the few records suggest.	eng
56077	habitat		It is associated with grassy pools and marshes in dry savannah. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
56077	population		The limited information available suggests that it is common in suitable locations.	eng
56077	threats		Local populations are probably affected by overgrazing by domestic livestock, as well as by fire, and perhaps drought. However, it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.	eng
56078	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<em><em>    </em></em>    <p>Determining whether the two subspecies are separate species is a high conservation research priority for this species, and the entire genus in <st1:country-region><st1:place>South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> is in need of taxonomic attention. Insufficient information exists on life history of the subspecies, and monitoring of breeding sites is recommended at the extremes of the distribution. Although there are many threats to individual sites, the species as a whole is not considered to require conservation effort at this time.</p>  <p><em>Afrixalus spinifrons intermedius</em> occurs in the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khahlamba-Drakensberg</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>National   Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <em>Afrixalus s. spinifrons</em> occurs in a number of coastal protected areas.</p>	eng
56078	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species, which is endemic to South Africa, occurs as two subspecies: <em>A. s. spinifrons</em> occurs in the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands, and eastern Cape coast of South Africa at low to intermediate altitudes; <em>A.s. intermedius</em> occurs at altitudes above 1,000 m to around 1,500 m asl in western&#160;KwaZulu-Natal between the midlands and foothills of the Drakensberg. The Extent of Occurrence is around 19,000 km², and the Area of Occupancy is estimated to be 10% of this.	eng
56078	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is associated with low vegetation in shrubland and dry forest. It breeds in vleis (including dams) and temporary pools and pans (including roadside pools)&#160;and uses emergent vegetation to create egg nests.&#160;Species in this genus deposit between 20 and 50 eggs on vegetation above the water. Tadpoles emerge, drop into the water and remain there until metamorphosis.	eng
56078	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is hard to detect but it is known to be doing well at some sites where it appears abundant.	eng
56078	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>Certain subpopulations are affected by loss of wetlands through urban and recreational development, afforestation, agricultural expansion, pesticides, and overgrazing by livestock. Coastal populations (i.e. <em>A. s. spinifrons</em>) may be at higher risk than those inland due to heavier development pressure along the KZN coastline.&#160;</p>	eng
56079	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56079	distribution		This species is traditionally known only from Zanzibar Island in Tanzania. However, recent studies have shown that it occurs on the Tanzanian mainland from Amboni in the northeast, south to Liwale in the southeast, and inland to the Kilombero floodplain, as well as on Zanzibar. It is generally found below 300m asl.	eng
56079	habitat		It is a species of grassy pools and marshes in humid shrubland, mixed farmland and savannah. It breeds in marshes, shrub-dominated wetlands, and permanent pools.	eng
56079	population		It is an abundant species in suitable locations.	eng
56079	threats		Overall it is not threatened, and it is an adaptable species, but certain populations are affected by urbanization and water pollution. It is hybridising widely with the forest species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus stuhlmanni sylvaticus</span>, in areas where forests have been destroyed or heavily disturbed.	eng
56080	conservation		It occurs in the Shimba Hills National Park, but the maintenance and protection of other tracts of lowland coastal forest habitat is essential to ensure the persistence of this species.	eng
56080	distribution		This species ranges from the Shimba Hills in southern coastal Kenya south through the East Usambara foothills in north-eastern Tanzania, as far south as the Kazizumbwi Forest in central coastal Tanzania. There is an unconfirmed record from further north along the Tana River in eastern Kenya. It occurs only very patchily within the mapped range due to limited suitable habitat.	eng
56080	habitat		It is a species of lowland forest that can survive in secondary growth and plantations, but not in completely degraded habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and water-filled depressions in forest.	eng
56080	population		It is fairly abundant where it occurs.	eng
56080	threats		Although it can tolerate degraded forest and secondary growth, these habitats are also known to be suitable for <em>A. stuhlmanni</em> with which this species hybridizes, and this is probably the most serious threat to the species.	eng
56081	conservation		It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but there have not yet been any confirmed records.	eng
56081	distribution		This species occurs in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but it is a species of medium to high altitudes. Records from the coastal plain of Tanzania require confirmation.	eng
56081	habitat		It is a forest-dependent species, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in swampy valley bottoms and temporary pools in closed-canopy forest.	eng
56081	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
56081	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, logging, and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
56082	conservation		It occurs in Upemba National Park.	eng
56082	distribution		This species is known only from Lower Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might well occur much more widely than this.	eng
56082	habitat		It is believed to be a species of moist savannah, presumably breeding in small pools.	eng
56082	population		There is no recent information on its population status, but it is presumably abundant, since the type series consists of over 1,000 specimens.	eng
56082	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
56083	conservation		It is present in Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest (Côte d’Ivoire) and in Bobiri Forest Reserve (Ghana).	eng
56083	distribution		This species is known only from three general areas: Mount Nimba in western Côte d’Ivoire; Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest in south-western Côte d’Ivoire; and Bobiri Forest Reserve in south-western Ghana. It presumably also occurs in Liberia and Guinea, but there have not yet been any records.	eng
56083	habitat		It is a species of forest edge habitats, not being found in the forest interior, but nor is it found in heavily degraded habitats outside forest (such as farm bush). It is typically found along forest roads and in tree-fall gaps. It breeds in small temporary ponds and puddles, with the eggs being laid either on leaves above water, or directly in the water.	eng
56083	population		It is not common, but it is very hard to find and so is perhaps under-recorded.	eng
56083	threats		It is probably losing much of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements, and logging.	eng
56084	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Pickersgill, M., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56084	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Pickersgill, M., 2004	This species ranges widely through West Africa from Gambia east to Nigeria. It is presumed to occur in Senegal, but there does not appear to be a definite record from this country. The distributional limits of this species, especially in relation to <span style="font-style: italic;">Afrixalus fulvovittatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. quadrivittatus</span>, remain largely unknown, and the range map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56084	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Pickersgill, M., 2004	It occurs widely in moist and dry savanna, and occasionally in gallery forest. The eggs are deposited on folded leaves above water, and the tadpoles fall into ponds where they develop.	eng
56084	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Pickersgill, M., 2004	It is a very abundant species with huge populations in appropriate habitats.	eng
56084	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Pickersgill, M., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is facing no obvious threats.	eng
56085	conservation	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It has been reported from Kyabobo National Park in eastern Ghana (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It probably occurs in several other protected areas.	eng
56085	distribution	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species is known from isolated records from Gambia and southern Mali, east to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (on the Sudan border) in savannas. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Chad or Sudan, but it is likely to occur in these countries. The small number of records over much of its range probably reflects the lack of herpetological work in many parts of west and central Africa.	eng
56085	habitat	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is a species of dense moist, and open dry, savannas. It is probably tolerant, at least to some extent, of habitat alteration. It breeds in temporary ponds, eggs can be found above water.	eng
56085	population	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is locally very common, though it is patchily distributed.	eng
56085	threats	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	Overgrazing might impact local populations, but it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56086	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56086	distribution		This species is known from eastern Angola, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, most of Zambia, and southwestern Tanzania adjacent to the Zambian border. A record from Mbega in the Kilombero Valley of southeastern Tanzania probably refers to Afrixalus quadrivittatus (M. Pickersgill pers comm.). A record from Tulawaka in northwestern Tanzania, and records from Duque de Braganca and Cabiri in northwestern Angola (Ruas 1991) require confirmation.	eng
56086	habitat		It is a species of moist savannah and shrubland that is probably tolerant of some alteration of its habitat. It is typically associated with flooded grassland, small marshes, and temporary pools, in which it breeds.	eng
56086	population		It is relatively abundant where it occurs.	eng
56086	threats		It is probably reasonably adaptable, and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56087	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas and has definitely been recorded from the Reserve de Fauna de la Lope-Okanda in central Gabon.	eng
56087	distribution		This newly described species has been recorded from southern and southwestern Cameroon, where it occurs widely in the forest zone below 630m, south through central Gabon to southern Congo. Amiet (2000) shows that earlier records of Hyperolius tuberculatus from southern Congo (Largen and Dowsett-Lemaire 1991) are in fact of this species. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, and perhaps elsewhere.	eng
56087	habitat		The species occurs around large, slow-flowing rivers surrounded by intact rainforest. It ranges a little further north that Alexteroon obstetricans into slightly drier forest. Males call in vegetation close to rivers. Small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above small, residual ponds (close to rivers), into which the larvae fall, and develop.	eng
56087	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56087	threats		It is threatened by forest loss, especially as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging.	eng
56088	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected area, though it might well occur in the Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve; habitat protection is a matter of urgent priority for this species. Survey work is also required to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range.	eng
56088	distribution		This recently described species is known only from two localities at 800-1,050m asl, 6km apart near the villages of Betenge and Mofako on the eastern slopes of the Rumpi Hills in south-western Cameroon. It might occur a little more widely, but appears to be absent from other sites that have been explored nearby.	eng
56088	habitat		It is associated with narrow streams in forests, over which there is a continuous canopy. It favours well aerated, flowing water, but avoids torrents. Males call close to streams in dense vegetation, and they presumably breed in a similar manner to <em>Alexteroon obstetricans</em> (i.e., small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall, and develop).	eng
56088	population		There is no available information on its population status.	eng
56088	threats		Severe forest loss is taking place in the Rumpi Hills due to smallholder farming activities, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56089	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from the Reserve de Faune de la Moukalaba-Dougoua in southwestern Gabon.	eng
56089	distribution		This species has been recorded from southern and southwestern Cameroon below 800m, with a possible discontinuity in the general region of the Sanaga River. It has also been recorded from Monte Alen in Equatorial Guinea and from southwestern Gabon (M. Burger, pers comm.) and it presumably occurs widely in these two countries, and probably elsewhere, for example in northern Congo. However, the species is curiously patchy in its distribution, and is often absent from apparently suitable habitat within its general range.	eng
56089	habitat		It is associated with narrow streams in forests, over which there is a continuous canopy. It favours well aerated, flowing water, but avoids torrents. Males call close to slow-flowing streams. Small clumps of eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall, and develop.	eng
56089	population		It is a common species.	eng
56089	threats		The species requires closed-canopy forest, and is presumably declining due to forest clearance for agriculture and timber.	eng
56090	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. The protected area network in western Cameroon urgently needs to be expanded to include remaining montane forest habitats, such as those on Mount Cameroon.	eng
56090	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in western Cameroon: Mubenge on the southern slopes of Mount Cameroon, where it is known only from the type specimen; and Nkondjock at 750m asl on the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, where it is known from a small number of specimens and a handful of field observations. It presumably occurs more widely, but it has not been found elsewhere despite extensive fieldwork in the region.	eng
56090	habitat		It has been found in dense forest where the eggs are placed above small pools with stagnant or slowly flowing water, and the larvae develop in these pools. It is not known whether or not it can survive in secondary habitats.	eng
56090	population		This species is poorly known, but it seems to be rare. It is probably mute, and this makes it very hard to find.	eng
56090	threats		The major threat is likely to be ongoing forest loss due to subsistence wood cutting and agriculture, and human settlement.	eng
56091	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur, such as on the Itombwe massif. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
56091	distribution		This species is known only from the Itombwe and Kabobo highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from the mountains of western Rwanda. It has never been found below 2,100m, and is rare below 2,400m asl. There have been no recent records of this species, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.	eng
56091	habitat		It is a species of high-altitude forests, especially bamboo forest. By day, it hides in broken bamboo stems at 2-4m above the ground, or, where bamboo is scarce, it hides between bark and moss, which covers the tree trunks. There is no information on its breeding, but it is presumed to breed in water.	eng
56091	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
56091	threats		There is no direct information, but it is restricted to unprotected habitats that are probably being lost due to agriculture, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
56092	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is likely to be present in some.	eng
56092	distribution		This species is largely unknown but has been found from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through southwestern Cameroon (including at Mount Cameroon, Mount Manenguba, the Rumpi Hills, Fopwanga (near Nkondjock), the Mbos Plains, and the Yaounde area), east to Mbet, and south to Belinga in northeastern Gabon. It is likely to occur in Equatorial Guinea, but there have not been any records so far. It is probably a low to mid altitude species, but it has been recorded up to 1,850m asl.	eng
56092	habitat		It lives in montane and lowland moist forest, grassy meadows and coffee plantations. It is often associated with mountain streams, breeding in pure and well-aerated water. It can survive in degraded forest.	eng
56092	population		Its abundance is unknown, probably because it is almost mute and is therefore hard to find. It might be more abundant than the few records indicate.	eng
56092	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by severe and widespread forest loss, especially if this reduces the water quality.	eng
56093	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56093	distribution		This species is known only from the Itombwe Mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, where it has been recorded above 2,400m asl.	eng
56093	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland that is presumed to breed in water (although this has not been confirmed).	eng
56093	population		There is no information on its population status. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56093	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
56094	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56094	distribution		This species ranges from south-central Cameroon to northern Angola, east to central Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and recently from southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers comm.). It is presumed to occur in Congo.	eng
56094	habitat		It is associated with swamps, lakes and streams in the Central African forest belt, and it is often seen along large rivers. It can be found in undisturbed forest, but it has also been observed in very open bush land with no forest in the vicinity. The eggs are laid on leaves above still or flowing water, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56094	population		It is a common species.	eng
56094	threats		It is a very adaptable species, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threat.	eng
56095	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56095	distribution		This species is known only from the Lake Tumba region of west-central Democratic Republic of Congo, although it might occur more widely.	eng
56095	habitat		It has been found in open areas within forest. If it is similar to <em>Cryptothylax greshoffi</em>, then it breeds in a variety of both still and flowing waterbodies.	eng
56095	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56095	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if it is as adaptable as <em>C. greshoffi</em>, then it is unlikely to be seriously at risk.	eng
56096	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and in the Manombo Special Reserve.	eng
56096	distribution		This species occurs in the southeastern lowlands of Madagascar from sea level up to at least 800m asl.	eng
56096	habitat		It is a species of open areas, including savannahs, degraded habitats, agricultural areas, grasslands, and rice fields. It breeds in a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies, including rice fields.	eng
56096	population		It is locally common in some sites.	eng
56096	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There is a low level international pet trade, but this is probably not impacting negatively on the species.	eng
56097	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but perhaps occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
56097	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern Madagascar, close to the Montagne de Francais near the northern tip of Madagascar, and between Sambava and Andapa. It is likely to occur between these areas, and perhaps elsewhere, but it is probably patchy in its distribution due to the lack of suitable habitats in the arid area in which it lives. It is a low altitude species, occurring up to at least 500m asl.	eng
56097	habitat		The species thrives in open areas near rice fields, and is also found on the edge of sand dunes, and in villages and towns. It breeds in temporary and probably permanent waters.	eng
56097	population		It is common in its known localities.	eng
56097	threats		It is unlikely to be affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is probably not threatened, despite its small known range.	eng
56098	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56098	distribution		This species occurs at 500-1,600m asl in eastern and central Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed. Further research might show it to occur both north and south of the area mapped. There is an isolated record from northern Madagascar. Records from Marojejy and Manakara require confirmation. Records from Montagne d'Ambre probably refer to Heterixalus carbonei. Records from Tsaratanana could refer to either this species or H. carbonei.	eng
56098	habitat		It lives in deforested and otherwise degraded areas, such as savannahs, fields, croplands, urban areas and villages. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
56098	population		It is a common species.	eng
56098	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
56099	conservation		It occurs in Cap St Marie Special Reserve and Mandena Classified Forest, and possibly in Parc National d'Andohahela.	eng
56099	distribution		This species occurs in extreme southeastern and southern Madagascar, below 300m asl.	eng
56099	habitat		It lives in dry forest areas, rainforest edges, littoral forest on sand (i.e., habitat immediately behind sand dunes) deforested areas, croplands and villages and urban areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
56099	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
56099	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
56100	conservation		It occurs in Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha and Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre.	eng
56100	distribution		This species is known from Kirindy and Tsingy de Bemahara in western Madagascar (below 200m asl), and from Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar (at around 900m asl). It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these locations. Records from Tsaratanana could refer either to this species or to <em>Heterixalus betsileo</em>.	eng
56100	habitat		It is a dry forest species in the west and a rainforest species in the north, and has not been found outside forest so far. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
56100	population		It is uncommon in currently known localities.	eng
56100	threats		The major threat to it is forest loss for subsistence agriculture and local wood extraction.	eng
56101	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Isalo and Parc National d'Ankarafantsika, and possibly in other protected areas.	eng
56101	distribution		This species occurs in northwestern and western Madagascar, where it is broadly distributed. It might occur between the mapped localities. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
56101	habitat		It lives in dry forests, deforested areas, agricultural areas, especially rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water, including in rice fields.	eng
56101	population		It is common where it has been found.	eng
56101	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56102	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Masoala, and perhaps in other protected areas.	eng
56102	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern and eastern Madagascar where it is broadly distributed, mostly in low altitude areas up to 800m asl. It is also recorded on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). Records from the Andringitra area in southeastern Madagascar require confirmation and are not mapped here.	eng
56102	habitat		It lives on rainforest edges, dry forested areas, littoral forest on sand (i.e., the habitat immediately behind sand dunes) deforested areas, croplands and villages and urban areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
56102	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56102	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. Low numbers appear in international trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
56103	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Masoala and in the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.	eng
56103	distribution		This species was described from central-eastern Madagascar in the Perinet area, and it has also been found in coastal northeastern Madagascar. It presumably occurs in the intervening area. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
56103	habitat		Its ecological requirements are not well known, but it occurs in open areas in the rainforest belt, only occasionally penetrating the rainforest itself. It is found mainly in open areas and agricultural land, especially in rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
56103	population		It is a common species.	eng
56103	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56104	conservation		It probably occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, and perhaps in other protected areas.	eng
56104	distribution		This species occurs widely in the central plateau of Madagascar from 1,200-1,500m asl.	eng
56104	habitat		It lives in montane grassland, croplands, and disturbed areas at relatively high altitudes, but not in rice fields. It has a specialized breeding habitat, favouring acidic brown waters in permanent and temporary waterbodies.	eng
56104	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56104	threats		The transformation of bogs into rice fields might be a threat to this species. It is found in international trade, with hundreds being exported annually, although it is not clear that this constitutes a threat to the species. It is perhaps in competition with <em>Heterixalus betsileo</em>, which does well in rice fields.	eng
56105	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Ankarafantsika.	eng
56105	distribution		This species is known from northwestern and western Madagascar, at Nosy Be, Ankarafantsika (not mapped) and Kirindy (also not mapped). It is likely to occur between these sites. It occurs from sea level up to 300m asl.	eng
56105	habitat		It lives in open areas, rice fields, agricultural areas and dry forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
56105	population		It is common at its few known sites.	eng
56105	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56106	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56106	distribution		This species occurs in northwestern Madagascar. However, the taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species makes it impossible to determine its distribution accurately. It occurs at very low altitudes, probably below 200m asl.	eng
56106	habitat		It lives in open areas, agricultural land, urban areas, swamps and rice paddies. It breeds in temporary and permanent still waterbodies.	eng
56106	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56106	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56107	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56107	distribution		This species is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Ngoto, Lobajegebiet" (Ahl 1931), in the Central African Republic.	eng
56107	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56107	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56107	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56108	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56108	distribution		This species ranges from western Ethiopia, southern Sudan and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, through Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia, south to central Mozambique and Zimbabwe. There is an apparently isolated population in KwaZulu-Natal, eastern South Africa, and in extreme southern Mozambique. It might occur in northern Botswana and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, but the respective distributions of this species and Hyperolius nasutus are not well known. It is likely to range further west through the Central African Republic and southern Chad, but there are no records from these countries, and the respective distributions of this species and Hyperolius igbettensis (known from Cameroon westwards) are very poorly known. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl in Ethiopia, and 2,286m asl in Malawi.	eng
56108	habitat		It is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can be found around human settlements, but apparently does not respond well to extreme urbanization and agricultural intensification. It breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.	eng
56108	population		It is a common species through most its range, though it has decreased in South Africa, and now rare outside protected areas in that country.	eng
56108	threats		In South Africa it is threatened by afforestation, coastal development, wetland drainage, and lowering of water table due to the spread eucalyptus. The Ethiopian populations are almost certainly being affected by environmental degradation as a result of expanding human settlement. However, overall, this species remains abundant and is not seriously at risk.	eng
56109	conservation		It has not been confirmed from any protected areas.	eng
56109	distribution		This species is known only from south-western Cameroon, where it occurs as far east as the Yaounde region. It is generally a lowland species, but it has been found up to 1,300m asl to the north-east of Mount Cameroon.	eng
56109	habitat		It is strictly arboreal, and is confined to mature forest with large trees, with breeding taking place in water in tree holes.	eng
56109	population		In suitable habitats it can be a common species.	eng
56109	threats		A major threat to this species is presumed to be ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56110	conservation		It might occur in Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
56110	distribution		This species is known only from several localities in the mountains of western Cameroon, from Mount Manenguba north to the Bamileke and the Bamenda Highlands, ranging from 750-1,900m asl.	eng
56110	habitat		It lives in savannah, tall grassland, bush land, and herbaceous vegetation. Breeding takes place in shallow marshes, ponds, lakes and slow-flowing streams with tall, reedy vegetation.	eng
56110	population		It is common on the Bamileke Plateau, and is very common on the Mbos Plains at Mboassoum and Santchou.	eng
56110	threats		It might suffer from loss of habitat as a result of encroachment by agriculture and human settlements, but it is adaptable and is probably not at serious risk.	eng
56111	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56111	distribution		This taxon is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Deutsch-Ostafrika [Tanzania]" (Ahl 1931). It is not possible in this assessment to produce a species range map for this taxon, which cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.	eng
56111	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56111	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56111	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56112	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56112	distribution		This species from the eastern side of the African continent ranges from extreme southern Somalia, south through Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa), and inland to southern Malawi and extreme southeastern Zimbabwe. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 300m asl in South Africa.	eng
56112	habitat		It lives near water in low elevation dense, humid savannah and grassland. It breeds in shallow pans, vleis and marshes, with floating and emergent vegetation, usually, though not always, preferring temporary water.	eng
56112	population		It is generally a common species, though it has declined in areas heavily impacted by human activities in South Africa.	eng
56112	threats		It is generally not threatened, but it is affected by urban expansion, agricultural intensification and the introduction of bass in the south of its range. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56113	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56113	distribution		This very poorly known species has been found only in the Marungu Highlands, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,300m asl.	eng
56113	habitat		It is likely to be a montane grassland species that might breed in swamps and temporary pools.	eng
56113	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56113	threats		There is no direct information on threats to it.	eng
56114	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56114	distribution		This species ranges from western and central Cameroon east through Central African Republic, southern Sudan and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, southwestern Ethiopia, and western Kenya. It is presumed to occur in southern Chad. There are few records from the poorly explored regions of the Central African Republic and southern Sudan. It occurs at least up to 820m asl, probably higher.	eng
56114	habitat		It is a savannah species; breeding in small pools, penetrating forest in heavily deforested areas around Nkongsamba and Yaounde in Cameroon. In southwestern Ethiopia it has been found in tropical deciduous forest.	eng
56114	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56114	threats		There are unlikely to be significant threats within its wide range, though Ethiopian populations are possibly at risk from forest loss.	eng
56115	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It occurs in the Kyabobo National Park in Ghana, and in some small forest reserves in Ghana, as well as in some "sacred groves" that are protected traditionally by local communities.	eng
56115	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species is known only from the Akwapim-Togo Hills range in easternmost Ghana and adjacent western Togo.	eng
56115	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a species of secondary forest, forest edge and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably attaches its eggs to leaves above shallow, densely vegetated temporary ponds.	eng
56115	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is extremely abundant in its small range.	eng
56115	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	Despite its small range, it does not appear to be significantly threatened. Only complete opening up of its habitat would be adverse to it.	eng
56116	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56116	distribution		This species ranges from western Angola to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Zambia, Zimbabwe and northern Botswana. It is likely to occur in western Mozambique and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, but there have not yet been any records. Its distribution remains largely unknown due to confusion with the similar Hyperolius nasutus.	eng
56116	habitat		It is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.	eng
56116	population		It is a common species.	eng
56116	threats		It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in an area of low human impact.	eng
56117	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56117	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Farenda Bango, Loanda [Luanda]" (Ahl 1931), Angola.	eng
56117	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56117	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56117	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56118	conservation		The species occurs in the Bobiri Forest Reserve (although it is not clear how well protected this is) as well as the Ankasa Conservation Area.	eng
56118	distribution		This species is known from the Bobiri Forest Reserve in south-western Ghana and from the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south, also in Ghana. It is presumed to occur in other forests in Ghana, but it cannot range much further to the west, where <em>Hyperolius zonatus</em> occurs.	eng
56118	habitat		It is confined to lowland forest, where it is associated with temporary, stagnant pools in which it breeds. The eggs are laid on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56118	population		It is very common at the type locality (Bobiri Forest Reserve).	eng
56118	threats		It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56119	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.	eng
56119	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southeastern Nigeria, throughout southern Cameroon, as far as the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). A record from Medje in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo is doubtful and requires confirmation. The eastern and southern distributional limits of the species are very unclear, and it is likely to be found in Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. It is a lowland species not occurring above 600m asl.	eng
56119	habitat		It is described as a bush land species, presumably living in secondary vegetation in the tropical forest belt. It breeds in small ponds.	eng
56119	population		It is abundant near Mamfe in western Cameroon, and is common in southern Cameroon	eng
56119	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56120	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56120	distribution		This species is known only from coastal areas of south-western Cameroon within 30km of the coast.	eng
56120	habitat		It lives in degraded former forest (farm bush) on sandy soil, and can live within a few metres of the sea. Breeding takes place in small pools, and the eggs are placed 4-5m above still water into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56120	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
56120	threats		Although it is clearly adaptable, it is probably at risk from expanding agriculture and human settlements within its small range.	eng
56121	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56121	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Ngoto, in south-western Central African Republic. Records from Congo and western Democratic Republic of Congo are in error. This name cannot be linked to any known species in the wild, and is probably a synonym of another species.	eng
56121	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56121	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56121	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56122	conservation		It is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda) and the Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
56122	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, western Burundi, and south-western Uganda. It occurs between 1,600 and 2,850m asl.	eng
56122	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in swamps in montane grassland and forest.	eng
56122	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56122	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock) and human settlements.	eng
56123	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas, including Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and Sapo National Park in Liberia.	eng
56123	distribution		This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through Liberia and southern Guinea, to south-central Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
56123	habitat		It is arboreal, and confined to primary rainforest where it is generally found by streams. It breeds exclusively in flowing water, laying its eggs on leaves above water into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56123	population		In suitable habitats it is a common species.	eng
56123	threats		It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56124	conservation		It occurs in the Virungas National Park. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
56124	distribution		This species is known only from Kivu Province in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from Mount Ruwenzori south to the northern slopes of the Itombwe Mountains. It occurs at intermediate altitudes, and the type locality is at 1,750m asl. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of survey work within its range.	eng
56124	habitat		It is a species of transition forests, and its adaptability to degraded habitats is not known. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place in water.	eng
56124	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56124	threats		It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56125	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56125	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in western and northern Angola. Its distribution is not well known.	eng
56125	habitat		It presumably breeds in water.	eng
56125	population		The population status of this species is unknown, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56125	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56126	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56126	distribution		This species ranges from central and southern Cameroon, south to Angola and northwestern Zambia, and east to Uganda and westernmost Kenya. There do not appear to be records from the Central African Republic, but it is likely to be found in this country, and possibly also in Tanzania and Rwanda. It is not clear whether or not it occurs in the forested parts of the central Congo basin.	eng
56126	habitat		It lives in forest habitats (usually edges and clearings), degraded former forest (farm bush) and most savannahs. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, including swamps, swamp forest, lakes, pools and seasonally flooded grassland. Its breeding sites generally have abundant grassy vegetation.	eng
56126	population		It is a common species.	eng
56126	threats		It is an adaptable species that it is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56127	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56127	distribution		This species ranges through West Africa from eastern Sierra Leone to western Cameroon, where it extends to just south of the Sanaga River.	eng
56127	habitat		It lives in clearings in forest and degraded forest, as well as in cultivated land, secondary brush, and gallery forests in savannah. It avoids closed forest. It breeds in small, sometimes putrid, pools and marshes. The eggs are laid on leaves above water (the leaves are folded), and the larvae fall into the water, where they develop.	eng
56127	population		It is an abundant species that is probably increasing as its habitat is increasing.	eng
56127	threats		It is probably not seriously affected by habitat loss. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56128	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks. Research is needed to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in apparently suitable habitat.	eng
56128	distribution		This species is endemic to the Kenyan Highlands, east of the Rift Valley, from Limuru to Thompson’s Falls, and east to the Nyambeni Mountains. It is a montane species and the type locality is at 2,200m asl.	eng
56128	habitat		It is a species of open farmland and high-altitude grassland. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, pools. It is often found together with <em>Hyperolius montanus</em>.	eng
56128	population		It said to be an abundant species, but there has apparently been a general decline in its population.	eng
56128	threats		Its montane grassland and pastureland habitats are probably not seriously threatened (except perhaps by afforestation), but there has apparently been a general population decline in areas of suitable habitat for reasons that are not understood.	eng
56129	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56129	distribution		This species is known only from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo in the general vicinity of the Itombwe Mountains and the mountains to the west of Lake Kivu, though the limits of its distribution are not clear. The type locality is at 900-1,000m asl, so it is perhaps a species of intermediate altitudes.	eng
56129	habitat		It is apparently an arboreal forest species. Its breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction is presumably in water.	eng
56129	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56129	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
56130	conservation		It is present in the Bwindi National Park (Uganda), Ruwenzori Mountains National Park (Uganda), and Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
56130	distribution		This species occurs in western Rwanda, western Burundi, south-western Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (west of Lake Edward and in Mount Ruwenzori). It is a montane species, but its exact altitudinal range is unclear.	eng
56130	habitat		It is a species of montane forests, associated with rivers, streams and moving waters where it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
56130	population		It is rare and seldom found.	eng
56130	threats		Little information is available, though it is probably impacted by the loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
56131	conservation		It is not confirmed from any protected areas, though it probably does occur in at least one. Nonetheless, there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
56131	distribution		This species is known only from south-western Cameroon at 100-1,100m asl. It occurs as two separate populations: a northern range from Mboassoum and Mankouat (near Nkongsamba) to Fopouanga (near Nkondjock); and a southern population from near Kribi to the general vicinity of Yaounde. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56131	habitat		It inhabits dense primary and secondary forest, and does not survive outside forest. It breeds in flooded swamps with shallow water and in small pools.	eng
56131	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
56131	threats		It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture, and human settlements.	eng
56132	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56132	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of the general area of "Quilombo", Angola.	eng
56132	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56132	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56132	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56133	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56133	distribution		This species is known only from the type localities of "Rio Luinha, Quilombo and N'golla Bumba" (Noble 1924) in Angola. For this assessment, attempts to map its range show the general area of Quilombo. The sites of Rio Luinha and N'gollo Bumba could not be accurately mapped or located.	eng
56133	habitat		This species presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56133	population		Nothing is known about this species’ population status.	eng
56133	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56134	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56134	distribution		This species is known only from Lodjo, in the Ituri Forest in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, close to the border with Uganda.	eng
56134	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56134	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since the original description, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56134	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56135	conservation		It is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda) and Virungas National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
56135	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo from north-west of Mount Ruwenzori, south to west of Lake Kivu, extending into extreme south-western Uganda in the Bwindi Forest. Its recorded altitudinal range is 700-2,000m asl.	eng
56135	habitat		It is a species of transition and montane forest. It has been found in dense secondary vegetation overhanging a small stream and in a small marsh in forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place in aquatic habitats.	eng
56135	population		It is reasonably abundant where it occurs.	eng
56135	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and human settlements.	eng
56136	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56136	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of Duque de Bragança, Angola, although its name cannot be matched to any known species in the wild.	eng
56136	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56136	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56136	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56137	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56137	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	This species ranges widely through the forest zone of West Africa. It occurs as four subspecies: <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperolius f. fusciventris</span> from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia and westernmost Côte d’Ivoire; <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. lamtoensis</span> in southwestern, central and southeastern Côte d’Ivoire and in southwestern Ghana; <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. burtoni</span> in southeastern Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria; and an unnamed subspecies in southwestern Cameroon. The exact boundaries between these subspecies are not always clear. A record from Guinea-Bissau requires confirmation.	eng
56137	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It lives in clearings in forest, secondary forest, degraded forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lamtoensis</span> lives in primary forest in Taï National Park and elsewhere in Côte d’Ivoire, whereas the other subspecies are more associated with secondary forest and farm bush. The species breeds in small, temporary pools and marshes. The eggs are laid on leaves above water.	eng
56137	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It is an abundant species.	eng
56137	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">H. f. lamtoensis</span> is probably affected by the loss of its habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. The other subspecies are adaptable and are not facing any significant threats.	eng
56138	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56138	distribution		This species is known only from Befale in central Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
56138	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, but it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56138	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no records since the original description, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56138	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56139	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56139	distribution		This species ranges from southern Somalia to the northern coast and eastern highland of Kenya, south to Tanzania, where it ranges through most of the country. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. viridiflavus, H. mariae, H. marmoratus and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56139	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56139	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56139	threats		It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56140	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56140	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of "Loanda" (Ahl 1931), Angola, which presumably refers to Luanda, Angola.	eng
56140	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56140	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56140	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56141	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56141	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	This species ranges through West Africa from Sierra Leone to southern Gabon. Its occurrence in Gabon has only recently been confirmed (M. Burger pers. comm.), and it is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea, from where there have not yet been any confirmed records. There appear to be no records from Benin, and its apparent absence from this country might be genuine.	eng
56141	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It lives in and around large swamps in secondary habitats in the forest belt, in which it breeds. It does not live in undisturbed forest. In West Africa it is typical of the forest-savanna transition forest. It breeds in very large, mostly permanent ponds, often in huge numbers.	eng
56141	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It is very patchy in its distribution, and it is not found in many localities, but is present in vast numbers at suitable sites.	eng
56141	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Burger, M., 2004	It is likely to be threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements. It is found in patchy distribution and it is probably especially susceptible to the loss of breeding sites.	eng
56142	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Cape Peninsula National Park and De Hoop Nature Reserve.	eng
56142	distribution		This is a coastal species occurring at low elevations along the southern coast of the Western Cape Province (including the Cape Peninsula) in South Africa, east into the western part of the Eastern Cape Province.	eng
56142	habitat		It lives in wetlands in coastal fynbos heathland. It breeds in large and small pans, dams, vleis, and even slow-flowing streams. It needs emergent vegetation, and therefore requires relatively permanent water, though it seems to avoid very deep water.	eng
56142	population		It is a locally common species, though it has declined at the western extremities of its range.	eng
56142	threats		Spreading alien vegetation can lead to drying out of its breeding habitats. It is probably also adversely affected by fires. Several populations have disappeared due to the impacts of agricultural and urban expansion on its native habitat.	eng
56143	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56143	distribution		This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Ussagara, Neu Kamerun [Chad]" (Ahl 1931), so no distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.	eng
56143	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56143	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56143	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56144	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56144	distribution		This species is known only from the Democratic Republic of Congo north of the Congo River. Its distributional limits are very unclear and should be considered provisional.	eng
56144	habitat		There is no direct information on its habitat and ecology, but assuming that it is ecologically similar to <em>H. tuberculatus</em>, then it occurs in bush land and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, breeding in a variety of waterbodies.	eng
56144	population		There is no direct information on the population status of this species, but as a member of the <em>Hyperolius viridiflavus</em> complex it is likely to be abundant.	eng
56144	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56145	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56145	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimen from Congo da Lemba, in extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56145	habitat		This species presumably breeds in water, although its habitat and ecological requirements are not at all well known.	eng
56145	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single specimen, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of recent herpetological work within its range.	eng
56145	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56146	conservation		It is likely to be found in several protected areas.	eng
56146	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from a few records from a poorly explored area from extreme northwestern Zambia to central Malawi. However, it almost certainly occurs in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and eastern Angola, and it is likely that some recent records of Hyperolius bocagei, for example from Angola, northeastern Zambia and southwestern Tanzania (Sumbawanga) actually refer to this species.	eng
56146	habitat		It lives in rather humid, dense savannah, where the males call from scattered trees and grass stems. It can probably adapt to some extent to altered habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and marshes in savannah, and possibly also permanent pools.	eng
56146	population		Although there have not been many records, it is very common and conspicuous within its range.	eng
56146	threats		It occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56147	conservation		Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
56147	distribution		This species is known only from highlands at around 1,760m asl at Lusinga, in Upemba National Park, in Shaba Province, south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
56147	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, but if it is similar to <em>Hyperolius atrigularis</em>, then it might be a montane grassland species. Its breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction is likely to take place in swamps and temporary pools.	eng
56147	population		Its population status is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56147	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56148	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa Scap Forest Reserve; it could also occur in the Udzungwa National Park, although its presence there has not yet been confirmed.	eng
56148	distribution		This species is known only from the Luhega Forest in the Udzungwa Scap Forest Reserve at 1,740m asl in the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It is probably more widespread in the Udzungwa Mountains, though it appears to be absent from apparently suitable sites close to the type locality.	eng
56148	habitat		It has been found in swamps in dense montane forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place in swamps. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.	eng
56148	population		It is common in its only known locality.	eng
56148	threats		The main threat to the species is likely to be the loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction, and human settlements.	eng
56149	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56149	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Ethiopia, western Kenya, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, through western, central and southern Tanzania to Malawi, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola. There appear to be no records from Mozambique and Sudan, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It occurs up to at least 2,300m, asl perhaps higher.	eng
56149	habitat		It lives in moist savannah, tropical deciduous forest, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and it also survives in banana plantations (living in the leaf exils). The species has been found breeding in large ponds and swamps.	eng
56149	population		It is a common and conspicuous species.	eng
56149	threats		The Ethiopian populations might be affected by forest clearance, human settlement and agricultural encroachment, but overall, this species is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56150	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56150	distribution		This species is known mainly from central and southern Cameroon, south to the Petit Loango National Park in southwestern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). There are also records from west and central Uganda, from the Budongo Forest, southeast to Entebbe, and southwest to the Mghainga Gorilla National Park. There are apparently isolated populations on the lower slopes of Mount Cameroon, and in the foothills of the Rumpi Hills, Mount Manenguba, and the Bamileke Plateau in southwestern Cameroon. It is presumed to occur in Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56150	habitat		It lives where forest and savannah interdigitate in marshes, roadside ditches, small pools, tall grassland, and degraded forest, sometimes far from water. It breeds in still water in marshes and roadside ditches and small pools in degraded forest and in more open situations. It does not live in open savannah.	eng
56150	population		It appears to be common, at least in some localities.	eng
56150	threats		This is an adaptable species and is unlikely to be experiencing any major threats.	eng
56151	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Mont Peko National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal), and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
56151	distribution		This species occurs in southern Senegal, Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, northern Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. There is an outlying population at Lamto in central-southern Côte d’Ivoire, and it is speculated that this is introduced. It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau, but there have not so far been any records. It occurs mainly at reasonably high altitudes, up to 1,500m asl on Mount Nimba, but the population at Lamto is at a very low elevation.	eng
56151	habitat		It is a species of high-altitude grassland, savannah and gallery forests, living in particular in areas subject to flooding. The eggs are laid directly in water, usually in small, temporary pools and swamps with abundant grassy vegetation.	eng
56151	population		It is a common species.	eng
56151	threats		It appears to be a reasonably adaptable species and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56152	conservation		It is present in the Virunga National Park.	eng
56152	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its range is very imperfectly known, but at present it has been recorded from Niapu east to Kilo (west of Lake Albert), south to the Virunga National Park. It is likely to occur in Rwanda, but there do not appear to be any records. There is little direct information on its altitudinal range, but it is mainly a lowland species that probably occurs up to at least 1,500m asl.	eng
56152	habitat		It is presumably a forest species that breeds in water, but very little information is available. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown.	eng
56152	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56152	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
56153	conservation		It is recorded from the Bwindi National Park (Uganda), Kibale National Park (Uganda), Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Gombe Stream National Park (Tanzania), Kakamega National Park (Kenya) and probably several other protected areas.	eng
56153	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northwestern Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, southwestern and southern Uganda (north to Budongo Forest) and western Kenya (in Kakamega Forest). There is an apparently isolated population on the Ufipa Plateau in southwestern Tanzania. It has been recorded at least between 650 and 2,100m asl.	eng
56153	habitat		It is a species of forest interior and forest remnants (including small patches) and severely degraded former forest (farm bush). It does not survive in completely open habitats. It breeds in a variety of habitats, including papyrus and reed vegetation along savannah streams, swamps covered with grass, swamps in farm bush and dense swamp forests. The eggs are laid on leaves over water into which the tadpoles fall and develop.	eng
56153	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56153	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
56154	conservation	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Resolution of its taxonomic status is required.	eng
56154	distribution	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species is known only from the poorly defined type locality of Togo. No range map has been prepared for this species, since the type locality is not specific, and this is almost certainly not a valid species.	eng
56154	habitat	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56154	population	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	Its population status is unknown.	eng
56154	threats	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56155	conservation		It occurs in the Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana, but it is not known how well protected this area is, as well as the Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve, and the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprised of Nini-Suhien National Park to the north, and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south.	eng
56155	distribution		This species has been recorded from Lakota in south-central Côte d'Ivoire, and in Ghana from Bobiri Forest Reserve in the south-west and Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve, and the Ankasa Conservation Area. Surveys in the forests of south-western Ghana in recent years have not succeeded in locating this species.	eng
56155	habitat		It has only been found in lowland wet evergreen tropical rainforest, and it probably cannot survive in altered habitats. The males call at dusk, from branches above small, swiftly flowing streams in which the species breeds (it can sometimes be found up to 4m above water in the vegetation).	eng
56155	population		It could be a rare species, but it is very cryptic, and so might be under-recorded.	eng
56155	threats		It is threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture, and human settlements.	eng
56156	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and the Itombwe Mountains are in urgent need of formal protection.	eng
56156	distribution		This species is known only from the Itombwe Mountains in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality is at 2,550m asl. A mapped occurrence in Burundi (Schiøtz 1999) appears not to be correct.	eng
56156	habitat		It is a species of high-altitude bamboo forests. Its breeding biology is unknown, but if it is similar to the closely related <em>Hyperolius castaneus</em>, then it is likely to breed in swamps.	eng
56156	population		It is poorly known, but it is apparently a rare species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of recent herpetological work within its range.	eng
56156	threats		The major threat is likely to be habitat loss for agriculture, livestock and human settlements.	eng
56157	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of its habitat.	eng
56157	distribution		This species is known only from the area to the west of the southern part of the Itombwe Highlands and northern slopes of the Kabobo Highlands, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It has been recorded at 1,850-2,000m asl.	eng
56157	habitat		It is a species of transition forests, and its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. Its breeding biology is also unknown, though it presumably takes place in water.	eng
56157	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of recent herpetological work within its range.	eng
56157	threats		It is likely to be threatened by habitat loss for agriculture, livestock and human settlements.	eng
56158	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56158	distribution		This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locam Landana dictum, in frondibus Borassorum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared during this assessment for this species.	eng
56158	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56158	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56158	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56159	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56159	distribution		This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locum Landana dictum, in foliis Musarum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.	eng
56159	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56159	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56159	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56160	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Parks, and will probably also be found in other protected areas.	eng
56160	distribution		This species is known only from the Upemba area of southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and from extreme northwestern Zambia. It almost certainly occurs more widely, in particular in eastern Angola.	eng
56160	habitat		It lives in gallery forest and dry forest patches in the humid savannah zone. It probably breeds in streams and small marshes in gallery forest.	eng
56160	population		It is a common species is suitable habitats.	eng
56160	threats		It occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56161	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56161	distribution		This species ranges from eastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south to southwestern Tanzania, western Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. viridiflavus, H. mariae, H. marmoratus, H. glandicolor, H. parallelus and H. pyrrhodictyon are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.	eng
56161	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56161	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56161	threats		It is an extremely abundant species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56162	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas, including Mikumi National Park in Tanzania.	eng
56162	distribution		This species occurs in two separate areas: on the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts from Witu south to the Dar es Salaam area (and including Pemba, Zanzibar and Mafia islands), and inland as far as Mikumi National Park; and around Lake Mweru in northeastern Zambia and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.	eng
56162	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56162	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56162	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56163	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56163	distribution		This species ranges from northern Mozambique, through eastern Malawi and eastern Zimbabwe to Swaziland and eastern and southern South Africa. The western parts of the range in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa probably represent recent spread at higher altitudes. It has also extended its range along the south coast of South Africa (it originally did not occur west of Tstitsikamma. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl in South Africa.	eng
56163	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bus hand, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using permanent, but often also in temporary, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56163	population		It is an extremely abundant species, and it is extending its range towards the southwest in South Africa.	eng
56163	threats		It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56164	conservation		It has not been found in the Udzungwa National Park, though it might occur there.	eng
56164	distribution		This species is known only from southern Tanzania, where it has been recorded from the Udzungwa Mountains and from the Njombe area in the western part of the Southern Highlands. It has been suggested that it might occur in northern Malawi, but recent surveys on Mount Rungwe, in southern Tanzania, close to the Malawi border, did not find this species. Its altitudinal range is not recorded, but it is likely to be mainly above 1,800m asl.	eng
56164	habitat		It lives in open, windswept, montane grasslands. It has been found in pastureland, but it is not clear that it can survive in croplands. It breeds in shallow, temporary swamps.	eng
56164	population		It is rarely seen, but easily overlooked, and so perhaps not as rare as records suggest.	eng
56164	threats		Its montane grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.	eng
56165	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56165	distribution		This species ranges widely from northeastern Tanzania, through Malawi to central Mozambique. It is present on the island of Zanzibar. A record from Ngurdoto Crater in Arusha National Park, north-central Tanzania, was a misidentified Hyperolius viridiflavus ommatostictus. It is a low-altitude species, though it occurs to at least 1,000m asl.	eng
56165	habitat		It lives in dry forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and low-intensity farmland. It breeds in permanent and temporary ponds in rather open forest and farm bush.	eng
56165	population		It is a common species.	eng
56165	threats		Although it can withstand considerable habitat alteration, there is almost certainly a limit to the amount of opening of its habitat that it can tolerate.	eng
56166	conservation		It occurs in Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks.	eng
56166	distribution		This species is endemic to the Kenya Highlands. It is known with certainty from several localities to the east of the Rift Valley. Specimens from the Mau Forest and other localities to the west of the Rift Valley are provisionally assigned to this species. It is a montane species occurring up to 3,100m asl, and probably as low as 1,800m asl.	eng
56166	habitat		It is an adaptable species of montane grassland and farmland. It apparently breeds in marshes in savannah or very open farmed areas.	eng
56166	population		It is a common species.	eng
56166	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56167	conservation		It has not been confirmed from any protected areas, though it might occur in some.	eng
56167	distribution		This species occurs widely in the eastern part of southern Cameroon, with a recent record from Barrage de Tchimbele in northwestern Gabon. It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and perhaps also in other countries in the region.	eng
56167	habitat		It is a strictly arboreal species is confined to mature forest. It requires the presence of large trees, and it is not found outside forest. It breeds in water in tree holes, where the tadpoles develop very slowly.	eng
56167	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56167	threats		It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56168	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Channing, A., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2008	This species is known to occur in Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006) and in Pendjari National Park, Benin (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It may also occur in other protected areas.	eng
56168	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Channing, A., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2008	This species ranges from northern Botswana, northern Namibia and western Zambia, north to northern Angola. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records. It might occur in northwestern Zimbabwe, but its distribution is very poorly known. Records from northwestern Zambia possibly belong to an undescribed species. It has recently been reported from Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) and northern Benin (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
56168	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Channing, A., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2008	It is associated with emergent vegetation and sedges at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can be found around human settlements. It breeds in swamps, shallow pans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes, permanent and temporary pools and ponds. A prolonged breeder, it begins reproduction 2-5 months after the beginning of the rainy season. Females were found to lay an average of 150 and 199 eggs over two sampling periods (Rödel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
56168	population	Schiøtz, A., Channing, A., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
56168	threats	Schiøtz, A., Channing, A., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2008	It occurs widely in an area of limited human impact, and is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56169	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park.	eng
56169	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in south-western Côte d’Ivoire: the foot of Mont Niénokoué (approximately 15km west of Guiroutou) on the south-western edge of Taï National Park; and a nearby locality 30km to the north of this.	eng
56169	habitat		It is found only in primary rainforest, and probably attaches eggs to leaves above shallow temporary ponds and swamps, where the larvae develop.	eng
56169	population		It is a very uncommon species. A visit to the type locality in 2002 was unsuccessful in locating the species.	eng
56169	threats		It is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging, agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56170	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Although part of Mount Nimba is protected as the Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve (which was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1981) the site is urgently in need of stricter protection and improved management, particularly given that it represents the only known site where several highly threatened species are known to persist.	eng
56170	distribution		This species is known only from lowlands on the south-eastern foot of Mount Nimba in Côte d’Ivoire, though it presumably also occurs in Guinea and Liberia.	eng
56170	habitat		It lives in clearings in lowland forest, where it calls at the edge of large swamps. It presumably breeds in swamps.	eng
56170	population		It is apparently extremely common in its restricted range.	eng
56170	threats		The threats are hard to determine, since it is not known to what extent the species can adapt to opening up of its habitat. It appears to have a genuinely small range, since it is a conspicuous species and probably would have been found elsewhere if it is more widespread. It might be adversely affected by expanding agriculture, logging and human settlement.	eng
56171	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Channing, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56171	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Channing, A., 2004	This species ranges very widely through the West African savanna zone from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria, northern Cameroon and western Central African Republic. It presumably occurs in Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Niger and possibly Mauritania, though there do not appear to be published records from these countries. The eastern limit of its distribution, and its point of contact with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperolius viridiflavus</span>, are unknown. The range map should therefore be regarded as provisional.	eng
56171	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Channing, A., 2004	It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savanna, grassland and bushland, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created water bodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, water bodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56171	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Channing, A., 2004	It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56171	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Channing, A., 2004	It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56172	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56172	distribution		This species is known only from Sandoa, in Kasai Province, south-western Democratic Republic of Congo, near the border with Angola.	eng
56172	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, althought it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56172	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type specimen.	eng
56172	threats		Nothing is known about direct threats to this species.	eng
56173	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56173	distribution		This West African species occurs in southern Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
56173	habitat		In the forest zone, this species lives in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). In the savannah zone it lives in gallery forest. It has also been found on cultivated land, including irrigated rice fields. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
56173	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56173	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56174	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56174	distribution		This species ranges very widely through the central African rainforest belt from southeastern Nigeria, eastern to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and extreme southwestern Uganda (Mgahinga Gorilla National Park), south to the Cabinda Enclave (Angola). It also occurs on Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs from sea level, probably up to 2,000m asl.	eng
56174	habitat		It is a species typically associated clearings and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, but also occurring in the forest. It breeds in streams and small pools.	eng
56174	population		It is a very common species that is probably increasing with forest loss.	eng
56174	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56175	conservation		The only protected area in which this species is know to occur is Serengeti National Park.	eng
56175	distribution		This species has been recorded only from Gong Rock on Moru Kopjes in the southern sector of Serengeti National Park in northern Tanzania, at an altitude of 1,585m asl, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
56175	habitat		There is very little information on its habitat and ecology. It appears to be strongly associated with rocky habitats. Its breeding details are unknown, though reproduction is likely to take place in ephemeral pools.	eng
56175	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56175	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
56176	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56176	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Congo, through Angola to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Zambia, northern Botswana and northern Namibia. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. pyrrhodictyon and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional.	eng
56176	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56176	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56176	threats		It is an extremely abundant species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56177	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56177	distribution		This species is known from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, east to northern Congo and extreme southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.), south through mainland Equatorial Guinea to west-central Gabon. Records from the Democratic Republic of Congo lack precision and are not mapped here. Records of this species from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 1993) are misidentifications and probably refer to Hyperolius bolifambae (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).	eng
56177	habitat		It lives in secondary habitats, including degraded forest and bush land in the lowland forest belt. Breeding takes place in small swamps, pools and streams.	eng
56177	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56177	threats		It would probably be affected by extreme opening up of its habitat, but it appears to tolerant most current forms habitat change, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56178	conservation		It occurs in the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania, and it is almost certainly present in many other protected areas.	eng
56178	distribution		This species ranges from the lower Tana River, through the coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania to central coastal Mozambique. In Tanzania it is found inland as far as the Kilombero floodplain, and it probably occurs further inland than mapped in northern Mozambique. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56178	habitat		It is a species of low-altitude humid savannah woodland that is also found in scrubby coastal forest. It occurs in heavily degraded former forest at medium altitudes. It appears to be able to adapt to modified habitats. It breeds in marshes.	eng
56178	population		It seems to be uncommon and widely scattered, but it is secretive and hard to find, so it is probably under-recorded.	eng
56178	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56179	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56179	distribution		This species ranges from Cameroon south of the Sanaga River to central Democratic Republic of Congo, with records from southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.), Gabon and southern Congo. It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and probably also in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records of this species from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon (Lawson 1993) are misidentifications and probably refer to Hyperolius concolor (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.).	eng
56179	habitat		It lives in bush land and degraded forest in the forest belt, and also in flooded coastal grassland. It breeds in shallow pools and marshes, often in open situations.	eng
56179	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56179	threats		It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56180	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Mont Sangbé National Park and the Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests in Côte d’Ivoire and the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, in the Simandou Range, of southeastern Guinea.	eng
56180	distribution		This species ranges from northern and eastern Sierra Leone and southern Guinea to southwestern Ghana. It possibly occurs further east than mapped in Ghana in the forests along the Ghana-Togo border. It occurs at low and high altitudes.	eng
56180	habitat		It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings, and to a certain extent heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and sugar cane cultivation if plenty of tall trees remain. In primary it is only present close to larger rivers. It breeds in flowing water, from very small, slow-moving creeks to fast-flowing mountain streams in primary forest. The eggs attached to leaves above water, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
56180	population		It can be locally common, but it is usually uncommon.	eng
56180	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.	eng
56181	conservation		It occurs in the Nyika National Park in Malawi, and it might be found in the Udzungwa National Park in Tanzania, but there have not yet been any confirmed records from this area.	eng
56181	distribution		This species occurs in the Udwungwa Mountains, Southern Highlands and Ufipa Plateau (perhaps an isolated population) in southern and southwestern Tanzania, extending into northern Malawi (as far as the Nyika Plateau), and extreme northeastern Zambia. Records from Amani in northeastern Tanzania, and from the Kilombero Valley in southeastern Tanzania seem unlikely, and require confirmation. It is a montane species that is probably generally found above 1,400m and up to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
56181	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland that also adapts well to agricultural land. It breeds in small pools, ponds and streams.	eng
56181	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56181	threats		It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56182	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56182	distribution		This species ranges from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River to central Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. There are records from Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Congo. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. This species and Hyperolius concolor appear to avoid each other. If H. lomamiensis and H. olbrechtsi are synonyms of this species, then it also extends as far as southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. However, pending clarification of these points, the distribution map reflects a more restricted understanding of H. platyceps.	eng
56182	habitat		It lives in dense, degraded secondary habitats in the forest belt, and breeds in swamp forest, raphia swamps, artificial ponds, and still-water areas in braided streams. It does not occur in closed-canopy forest, though it may occur occasionally in clearings in mature forest. It does not live in grass-dominated habitats.	eng
56182	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56182	threats		It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56183	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56183	distribution		This species is known only from Tshimbulu sur Luebi, in Kasai Province, south-western Democratic Republic of Congo, and from Rio Chingufo, in north-eastern Angola.	eng
56183	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56183	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56183	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56184	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine, and monitor, the current population status of this species.	eng
56184	distribution		This species is probably restricted to the surroundings of the falls of the Lofoi River, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of survey work within its range.	eng
56184	habitat		It is only known from the area around the Lofoi River waterfalls. It could be a specialized species restricted to the spray zone of the waterfalls, or to humid forest fed by the spray.	eng
56184	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56184	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. However, any developments upstream of the falls could have a devastating impact on the micro-habitat on which this species depends, as happened with the Kihansi Spray Toad <em>Nectophrynoides asperginis</em>.	eng
56185	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56185	distribution		This taxon is known only from the untraceable type locality of "Locum Landana dictum, in foliis Musarum" (Rochebrune 1885), Cabinda enclave, Angola. No distribution map has been prepared for this species for this assessment.	eng
56185	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56185	population		The population is not known.	eng
56185	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56186	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but it has not so far been recorded there.	eng
56186	distribution		This species is known only from the plateau of the Udzungwa Mountains, south to the Njombe area in the Southern Highlands, southern Tanzania. It is a montane species, so far recorded at 1,500-1,850m asl.	eng
56186	habitat		It lives in open farmland, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and montane grassland. The males call from sedges near water, and from floating vegetation, in small pools in which they breed.	eng
56186	population		It is a common species.	eng
56186	threats		Despite its very small range, it is clearly an adaptable species, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56187	conservation		It occurs in the proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park. This needs to be gazetted to improve the survival chances of this species.	eng
56187	distribution		This species is endemic to the western parts of the island of Unguja (Zanzibar) in Tanzania. It occurs at very low elevations.	eng
56187	habitat		It lives in several habitats in the better vegetated western part of Unguja, including dry forest, moist forest, and bush land. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats, but cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. The males call from vegetation around pools, where they breed.	eng
56187	population		It is apparently common within its small range.	eng
56187	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. It is not known whether or not it occurs in the international pet trade, as records of it in trade probably refer to <em>Hyperolius substriatus</em>. In any case, the level of such trade is not likely to be sufficient to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
56188	conservation		Its taxonomic status requires further investigation.	eng
56188	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in western Angola: the margins of the Quanza River; Cabiri; and Catumbela.	eng
56188	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, which presumably breeds in water.	eng
56188	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56188	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56189	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56189	distribution		This species ranges from southernmost coastal Somalia south along coastal lowlands of Africa to southern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. There are also inland records in southern Kenya, southern Malawi, and southern Zimbabwe. Records from northern Malawi and northern Botswana are disjunctive from the main range of the species, and A Schiøtz (pers. comm.) has suggested that the Botswana records might not refer to this species. Records from extreme western Kenya and Soroti in central Uganda are not mapped and require confirmation. It occurs on Mafia and Songo Songo islands in Tanzania.	eng
56189	habitat		It lives generally in lower-lying coastal regions, and at higher altitudes in some places. It is a species of open savannah, bush land and grassland. It can survive in some modified habitats, and can re-establish populations following serious disturbance. It breeds in shallow pans, vleis, open swamps, and dams with water lilies or other floating vegetation. It uses both semi-permanent and permanent water. It differs from the similar Hyperolius viridis in that it calls from floating vegetation, as opposed to grass in wet fields.	eng
56189	population		It is a very common species through most of its range. It is relatively abundant in South Africa, often occurring in large numbers at breeding sites.	eng
56189	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56190	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56190	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Luvungi (sur la Ruzizi)" (Laurent 1940), in Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
56190	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56190	population		The population is not known.	eng
56190	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56191	conservation		It occurs in the Kafue National Park.	eng
56191	distribution		This species is known only from the area around the Kafue River in southwestern Zambia, and the uplands to the south, but not extending as far as the Zambezi River. Its distributional limits are still not well known.	eng
56191	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56191	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56191	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56192	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56192	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Mohorro, Tanzania.	eng
56192	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56192	population		The population is not known.	eng
56192	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56193	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56193	distribution		This species ranges from northern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia, to southwestern and southern Tanzania, and Malawi. The subspecies H.q. mertensi is known only from the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi. It is presumed to occur in northern Mozambique, but there have not so far been any records. It generally occurs at middle to higher elevations, usually above 1,000m, and occurring up to at least 2,300m asl.	eng
56193	habitat		It is a species of humid savannah woodland. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known. The males call from grass stems near swampy patches, where it breeds. The subspecies H.q. mertensi occurs in montane grassland, and is found on short grasses, breeding in small pools between tussocks.	eng
56193	population		It is a common species.	eng
56193	threats		It occurs widely in an area of low human impact, and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56194	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56194	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Vulkangebiet nordöstlich des Kivu-Sees" (volcano region north-east of Lake Kivu, on the boundary between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda). It is not possible to determine which country this species was collected in.	eng
56194	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56194	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56194	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56195	conservation		It occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, and probably also in the Udzungwa National Park.	eng
56195	distribution		This species is known only from the Kilombero floodplains and the lower eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from about 200m up to about 900m asl.	eng
56195	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in moist savannah, shrubland, grassland, forest and swamp forest. It probably also occurs in many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, and probably spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It presumably breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are presumably deposited directly into the water.	eng
56195	population		There is little information on its abundance, but it is likely to be common, like other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex.	eng
56195	threats		There is little direct information, but it is presumably an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, like other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex.	eng
56196	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56196	distribution		This species is known only from the Cabinda enclave in Angola.	eng
56196	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological preferences of this species, which presumably breeds in water.	eng
56196	population		Its population status is unknown. There have been no records since its discovery, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56196	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56197	conservation		It occurs in Hwange National Park and Matetsi Safari Area.	eng
56197	distribution		This species is known only from extreme northwestern Zimbabwe.	eng
56197	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56197	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56197	threats		It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56198	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur is needed.	eng
56198	distribution		This species is known from the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaus of eastern Nigeria, and the Bamenda Highlands, and the Adamawa Plateau (at Ngaouyanga and Banguve), western and central Cameroon. Two subspecies occur: <em>H. r. riggenbachi</em> and <em>H. r. hieroglyphicus</em>, the latter occurring in the Bamenda Highlands and on the Obudu Plateau, in an enclave surrounded by the former subspecies. Its altitudinal range is 900-1,800m asl.	eng
56198	habitat		It lives in wetlands and small wooded watercourses in montane grassland. Males call at dusk from the stems of waterside plants. It breeds in still water near streams.	eng
56198	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56198	threats		It is probably affected by the ongoing loss of its montane grassland, wetland and stream habitat due to small-scale agricultural activities and wood collection, as well as human settlement.	eng
56199	conservation		It presumably occurs at least in Salonga National Park, and perhaps in several other protected areas.	eng
56199	distribution		This species is so far known only from two localities in the Congo basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo: the type locality at Gembe, in the Marais Koiteko, near Lodja, Sankuru; and from Monkoto near Salonga National Park. It probably occurs widely in the southern Congo basin.	eng
56199	habitat		This species has been found in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), although it is not known whether or not it is found inside forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction presumably takes place in water.	eng
56199	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56199	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. Assuming that it survives well in farm bush, it might not be facing any significant threats.	eng
56200	conservation		It probably occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve, which is in need of strengthened management.	eng
56200	distribution		This species is known only from the Shimba Hills, south of Mombassa, in coastal Kenya, being replaced further south by <em>Hyperolius mitchelli</em>.	eng
56200	habitat		It lives in dry forest, dense humid savannah, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in marshes and temporary pools.	eng
56200	population		It is common in its tiny range.	eng
56200	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlements.	eng
56201	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas.	eng
56201	distribution		This species is known only from Omaniundu, near Lodja, Sankuru, in south-central Democratic Republic of the Congo. It probably occurs widely in the southern Congo basin.	eng
56201	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water.	eng
56201	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56201	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56202	conservation		It occurs in Garamba National Park.	eng
56202	distribution		This poorly known species is known from the northern half of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Its distribution is very poorly understood because of confusion with Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris, and the map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56202	habitat		It is a species of humid savannah, possibly occurring in clearings in the forest zone. It lives and breeds in marshes, ponds, springs and marshy vegetation along small streams.	eng
56202	population		There is very little information, but it is common at least in Garamba National Park.	eng
56202	threats		There is very little information, but it is probably adaptable and is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56203	conservation		It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56203	distribution		This taxon is known from Quilombo, Rio Luinha and Duque de Bragança, Angola. Attempts to map its range for this assessment show the general area of Quilombo and the area of Duque de Bragança.	eng
56203	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56203	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56203	threats		The threats to this taxon are not known.	eng
56204	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56204	distribution		This species occurs mainly in southern and eastern South Africa, ranging from Baviaanskloof in Eastern Cape Province, north and east along the coast through Kwazulu-Natal and Swaziland to Nespruit in Mpumalanga Province. It has not been found in Mozambique, but it is very likely to occur there. It is generally a low-altitude species in most places, but it occurs up to over 1,000m asl in some places.	eng
56204	habitat		It is a species of savannah and thicket, usually it is found in dense reeds and emergent vegetation along rivers and pans. It breeds in semi permanent water.	eng
56204	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56204	threats		Certain populations are probably being affected adversely by afforestation, commercial agriculture (especially for sugar cane), and urban spread. It is possibly benefiting from the spread of the invasive water hyacinth, which creates suitable breeding habitat.	eng
56205	conservation		It occurs in Tsavo East National Park.	eng
56205	distribution		This species is known only from a small area of southeastern Kenya, from Tsavo East National Park, east to near Kakoneni, north to Garsen.	eng
56205	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in dry savannah, shrubland and grassland, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56205	population		It is an extremely abundant species in its small range.	eng
56205	threats		It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56206	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, but if it is conspecific with <em>H. wermuthi</em> (and further taxonomic research is required to resolve this) then it is likely to be found in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, Taï National Park, and Diécké Classified Forest.	eng
56206	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from N'Zérékoré in southern Guinea.	eng
56206	habitat		Since the name <em>H. wermuthi</em> has been used for all subsequent records, there is no specific information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although it is presumably also found only in primary forest, where it breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds.	eng
56206	population		There have been no recent records, but it is presumably uncommon, as with <em>Hyperolius wermuthi</em>, with which this species is presumably conspecific.	eng
56206	threats		There is no information on threats to it, but as with <em>H. wermuthi</em>, agricultural expansion, logging, and encroaching human settlements are presumably all threats affecting it.	eng
56207	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Poynton, J. & Howell, K., 2004	It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, Nguru South and Kanga Forest Reserves, and probably also in the Udzungwa National Park, but definite records are lacking for the latter.	eng
56207	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Poynton, J. & Howell, K., 2004	This species has been recorded from the Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa, Mahenge, and South Nguru Mountains and from the lowland Ruvu South Forest Reserve in eastern Tanzania, and from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi. It probably occurs much more widely in suitable localities between the currently known sites. It occurs from the coastal plain, probably up to 2,000 m asl. Records from Zanzibar appear to be in error.	eng
56207	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Poynton, J. & Howell, K., 2004	It is found in evergreen forest, forest clearings and open farmland, usually in marshy areas. The eggs are deposited on leaves above water, and the parents guard the eggs. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
56207	population	Schiøtz, A., Poynton, J. & Howell, K., 2004	It appears to be a common species, but it is hard to find, and is almost certainly under-recorded.	eng
56207	threats	Schiøtz, A., Poynton, J. & Howell, K., 2004	It appears to be very adaptable. While overall it is probably not facing any significant threats, in the <st1:place>South Nguru</st1:place>s some of the major threats to the amphibian species of the area are forest loss and degradation as a result of fire, selective logging, encroachment from agricultural land and the removal of the forest shrub and herb layer for the cultivation of cardamom and yams (Menegon<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).	eng
56208	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56208	distribution		This very poorly known species ranges from northwestern Angola to southern Democratic Republic of Congo to east-central Zambia. It appears to occur at moderately high elevations. It distribution is very poorly known, and the maps should be regarded as preliminary. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56208	habitat		There is no information, though it presumably breeds in water.	eng
56208	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56208	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, though it occurs in an area of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56209	conservation		It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56209	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Bipinda, Cameroon.	eng
56209	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56209	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56209	threats		The threats to this taxon are not known.	eng
56210	conservation		It presumably occurs in the Gungunyana Forest Reserve.	eng
56210	distribution		This species is known only from the southern portion of the eastern Zimbabwe uplands, and adjacent Mozambique. Records from South Africa are in error.	eng
56210	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland and forest edge, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56210	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56210	threats		It is an extremely adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56211	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is found in the Bobiri Forest Reserve (Ghana), Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Korup National Park (Cameroon), and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
56211	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species ranges from southwestern Côte d’Ivoire west to western Cameroon, with an apparent distributional gap in Togo and Benin. It is to be expected in Liberia. It is presumed to occur in Togo (Segniagbeto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
56211	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It lives in lowland moist forest and in degraded forest and bush land. In Taï National Park it occurs only in primary forest. It breeds in temporary forest ponds, with the eggs that are placed on leaves above water, into which the tadpoles fall.	eng
56211	population	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is an abundant species.	eng
56211	threats	Schiøtz, A., Amiet, J.-L. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlements.	eng
56212	conservation		It probably occurs in the University of Dar es Salaam's forest reserve at Mazumbai. Further survey work is necessary to obtain a better understanding of the population status and distribution range of this species.	eng
56212	distribution		This species is known only from just outside the Mazumbai Forest Reserve at 1,410m asl in the West Usambara Mountains, in north-eastern Tanzania. It might occur more widely in the West Usambara Mountains, although there is little remaining undisturbed forest at this altitude.	eng
56212	habitat		It is known only from undisturbed montane forest. The only known breeding site is a small swamp in forest, bordering a small stream.	eng
56212	population		There is very little information on its population status, and only one small population is known. It possibly has no advertisement call, so it might be easily overlooked.	eng
56212	threats		The forest habitat outside the Mazumbai Forest Reserve is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
56213	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
56213	distribution		This species is known only from the unspecific type locality of "Africa" (Ahl 1931). It is not possible to map its distribution.	eng
56213	habitat		It presumably breeds in waterbodies and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
56213	population		The population is not known.	eng
56213	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56214	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56214	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Ukami, supposedly in the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania. However, this locality appears to be in the Udzungwa Mountains, so there is considerable doubt as to where the type specimen comes from. No distribution map is provided. This name cannot be linked to any known species in the wild, and is probably a synonym of something else.	eng
56214	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
56214	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56214	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56215	conservation		It occurs in Kyabobo National Park in Ghana.	eng
56215	distribution		This species occurs only from the Akwapim-Togo Range in eastern Ghana and western Togo.	eng
56215	habitat		It is a forest species that is restricted to an area where forest is severely degraded (though it does not occur in degraded habitats outside forest). A stream-breeding species, it is closely associated with very fast-flowing streams and waterfalls; the eggs are laid on leaves above water. It has been found on or near vertical cliffs in forest, in gullies in open forest, and in trees and on vegetation close to streams.	eng
56215	population		It is an uncommon species, and only a very few localities are known.	eng
56215	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.	eng
56216	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56216	distribution		This species ranges widely through the rainforest belt of central Africa, from southeastern Nigeria through Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo, to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is likely to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not yet been any confirmed records. It is recorded from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Amiet (2000) shows that earlier records of Hyperolius tuberculatus from southern Congo (Largen and Dowsett-Lemaire 1991) are in fact Alexteroon hypsiphonus.	eng
56216	habitat		It is a species of forest clearings and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), and secondary forest in the central African rainforest belt. It does not occur in closed, undisturbed forest. It breeds in both still and flowing water, using both temporary and permanent waterbodies.	eng
56216	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56216	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
56217	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56217	distribution		This species ranges from Lake Mbaratumu in south-central Kenya, through eastern and southern Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, to Swaziland to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa, south as far as Port Edward. It is a low-altitude species that is recorded up to 1,000m asl in Tanzania.	eng
56217	habitat		It is a species of low-altitude savannah woodland, bush land, grassland and thicket, often occurring in coastal habitats. It adapts to some altered habitats, including certain types of farmland, golf courses and parks. It breeds in reed beds on the periphery of swamps and rivers, as well as dense vegetation around pans, temporary pools and dams.	eng
56217	population		It is a very numerous species.	eng
56217	threats		Afforestation, sugar cane farming, and urban spread are affecting certain populations in South Africa. However, overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
56218	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56218	distribution		This species is known only from Cuilo, along the Luita River, in Lunda, northern Angola.	eng
56218	habitat		It was apparently found in gallery forest in the humid savannah zone. It presumably breeds in water.	eng
56218	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56218	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56219	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56219	distribution		This species ranges from northwestern Ethiopia through southern Sudan to western Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, northwestern Tanzania, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and probably eastern Central African Republic. The distributional limits between this species, and other members of the Hyperolius viridiflavus complex, in particular H. nitidulus, H. glandicolor and H. marginatus, are extremely unclear. The distribution map should therefore be regarded as provisional. It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,400m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
56219	habitat		It is associated in with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in all types of savannah, grassland, forest edge and bush land, as well as many human-modified habitats, including cultivated land, towns and gardens. It spreads rapidly into recently created waterbodies. It breeds in a wide variety of aquatic habitats, ranging from very small to very large ponds, usually using temporary, but often also in permanent, waterbodies. The eggs are deposited directly into the water.	eng
56219	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56219	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56220	conservation		It occurs in Bobiri Forest Reserve, but it is not clear how well protected this site is, as well as Boi-Tano Forest Reserve, Draw River Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south, in Ghana.	eng
56220	distribution		This species is known only from south-central and western Ghana and southern Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
56220	habitat		It occurs in closed-canopy lowland rainforest, where it calls from high up in the trees, sometimes far from water, but usually beside streams. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
56220	population		It appears to be a rare species. It is easy to overlook, since it is a canopy species, but it has a distinctive, though rarely heard, call.	eng
56220	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements.	eng
56221	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas so far, though it is likely to be found in some.	eng
56221	distribution		This species has been recorded with certainty only from the highlands of south-western Tanzania. There are records from near Mbeya in the southern highlands, and from Sumbawanga and Mumba on the Ufipa Plateau. Records from eastern Zambia require confirmation (Schiøtz pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than this, and is likely to be found in Malawi, Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56221	habitat		It is generally associated with high-altitude grassland. It differs from the similar <em>Hyperolius pusillus</em> in that it calls from grass in wet fields, as opposed to from floating vegetation. It presumably breeds in temporary pools and flooded fields.	eng
56221	population		This species is poorly known, but it is common where it occurs.	eng
56221	threats		There is little direct information on threats to this species, but some of its populations are likely to be impacted by afforestation, spread of agriculture, and expanding human settlements.	eng
56222	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, Taï National Park, and Diécké Classified Forest. Further taxonomic work is required to resolve the possibility that this species is a synonym of <em>H. soror</em>.	eng
56222	distribution		This species is known only from southern Guinea, Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. It is so similar to <em>Hyperolius fusciventris</em> that it might well be overlooked. It probably occurs up to over 1,000m asl on Mount Nimba.	eng
56222	habitat		It is found only in primary forest, and breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds.	eng
56222	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56222	threats		Agricultural expansion, logging, and encroaching human settlements are threats affecting this species.	eng
56223	conservation		This species was found in Virunga National Park.	eng
56223	distribution		This species is only known from Mount Teye at 1,800m asl on Mount Ruwenzori, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56223	habitat		It presumably breeds in water.	eng
56223	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from a single specimen.	eng
56223	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56224	conservation		It occurs in Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests, Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
56224	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone to south-central Côte d’Ivoire, through to extreme southern Guinea. It presumably occurs in Liberia, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records.	eng
56224	habitat		It lives only in primary rainforest and is usually found close to small temporary ponds and swamps. Eggs are laid on vegetation above small, stagnant pools.	eng
56224	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
56224	threats		Its forest habitat is being degraded by agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
56225	conservation		It occurs in Banco National Park and Mont Peko National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, and in Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana	eng
56225	distribution		This species ranges from south-western Côte d'Ivoire to south-central Ghana, though within this general range it is known only from 4-5 localities.	eng
56225	habitat		It is a species of secondary forest and forest edges, rather than undisturbed primary forest. It only occurs marginally in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.	eng
56225	population		There have only been a few records, but it is abundant where it has been found.	eng
56225	threats		It is probably suffering from severe deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and growing human settlements.	eng
56226	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56226	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2008	This West African species ranges from Gambia to southern Mali, northern Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Togo, northern Benin and northern Cameroon. There do not appear to be records from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Niger and Nigeria, although it presumably occurs in these countries. Only a few localities are known over a huge area, but this is probably at least in part due very limited fieldwork taking place within its range.	eng
56226	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2008	It is a species of dry savannas, wooded savannas and gallery forests. It breeds in temporary water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools. The frogs call from the ground and from elevated sites in the vegetation. It is believed to be an adaptable species.	eng
56226	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2008	It is a hard species to find, and expertise is needed to separate it from <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina senegalensis</span>, so it is probably significantly under-recorded. Nevertheless, it appears to be reasonably common in Comoé National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. There are indications that populations fluctuate significantly.	eng
56226	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2008	It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.	eng
56227	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), and in the protected area at Pic de Fon (Guinea).	eng
56227	distribution		This West African species is known from the forest zone of Sierra Leone, Liberia, southern Guinea, and extreme western Côte d’Ivoire (where it occurs at least in the Mount Nimba area). Earlier records of this species from further to the east are now separated as <em>Kassina arboricola</em> and <em>K. schioetzi</em>.	eng
56227	habitat		It is an arboreal, forest-dwelling species, which can exist in secondary forest. There also records from moist savannah and montane savannah areas as well as montane grassland. It seems to be able to survive in habitat fragments and gallery forests, but is unlikely to tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It presumably breeds in both temporary and permanent waterbodies, favouring large, well-vegetated pools, like other members of its genus.	eng
56227	population		There is no information on its population status, but it is probably not rare.	eng
56227	threats		Certain populations are probably suffering as a result of severe deforestation taking place due to agricultural expansion, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
56228	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56228	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species ranges from Senegal east to western Nigeria in the savanna zone. There are records from Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Niger and Nigeria. It might range further east than this, but this is not confirmed. It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau and Guinea, though there do not appear to be any records.	eng
56228	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a species of northern Guinea savanna woodland, extending into drier Sudan savanna. It is associated with various species of ponerine ants that hide in ant nests during the dry season. It breeds in temporary water, favouring large, well-vegetated, shallow pools. It is probably an adaptable species, though it is not very well known.	eng
56228	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is very common where it has been found, but it is patchily distributed and is often overlooked.	eng
56228	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is probably an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.	eng
56229	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56229	distribution		This species ranges from central Angola to western and northern Zambia. It presumably occurs in Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but it has not yet been confirmed from this country.	eng
56229	habitat		It is associated with dense swamps and flooded grasslands in wooded savannah. It breeds in flooded grasslands, marshes, and slow-flowing streams in dense vegetation.	eng
56229	population		It is a common species, and the males call in very large numbers from flooded grasslands.	eng
56229	threats		It occurs in a region with minimal human impacts, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56230	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park and Cavally Classified Forest.	eng
56230	distribution		This species is only known from western and south-western Côte d'Ivoire, from the Mount Nimba area, south to the Taï National Park. It is likely to occur in Liberia and Guinea, but there have not so far been any records. Records from Sierra Leone are in error.	eng
56230	habitat		It is a terrestrial species inhabiting lowland rainforest, and living only in mature and closed-canopy forest. It breeds in large temporary forest pools.	eng
56230	population		It is a very localized species, but nonetheless abundant where it occurs.	eng
56230	threats		It is probably suffering from severe deforestation as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and growing human settlements. The trend towards decreasing rainfall seriously affects this species in particular, since it lives in a sandy area, and low rainfall leads to drying out of its breeding ponds.	eng
56231	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas	eng
56231	distribution		This species ranges from Witu in coastal Kenya south to KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa, and inland to southern Malawi, eastern Zimbabwe and eastern Swaziland. It ranges up to 1,400m asl at Vumba in Zimbabwe, but it is generally low-altitude species.	eng
56231	habitat		It lives in savannah, bush land, grassland, and agricultural areas. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools, pans, vleis, marshes and dams.	eng
56231	population		It is a common species.	eng
56231	threats		In general, it is adaptable and is not facing any significant threats. However, in the south of its range it is locally impacted by afforestation, the spread of invasive trees (lowering the water table), sugar cane farming, and urban expansion. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56232	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56232	distribution		This species occurs in scattered locations in northern and southern Somalia, and northeastern Kenya and southern and eastern Ethiopia. It probably occurs between the recorded localities, but its distribution might also be fragmented by lack of available habitat. Records from northern Tanzania are in error. Overall, there are few records as a result of limited herpetological work within its range.	eng
56232	habitat		It is a species of arid savannah and bush land. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.	eng
56232	population		It is probably quite common at sites where permanent or seasonal water occurs within its generally arid habitat.	eng
56232	threats		The most obvious potential threat would be environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.	eng
56233	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve in Cameroon.	eng
56233	distribution		This species ranges from western and central Cameroon east though southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,600m asl in Cameroon. Its presence in northern Congo is presumed.	eng
56233	habitat		It lives in a variety of habitats, including lowland secondary forest and savannah, and montane forest and grassland. It also occurs in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in still water, but has also been found around streams at high altitudes.	eng
56233	population		There is little information on its abundance, though it is believed to be common in suitable le habitats.	eng
56233	threats		Given its tolerance of a broad range of habitats, it is unlikely to be under serious threat.	eng
56234	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it is likely to occur in some. Its taxonomic relationship to <em>Kassina maculosa</em> requires clarification (Laurent 1976; Schiøtz 1999).	eng
56234	distribution		This poorly known species is known only from northern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56234	habitat		It is a species found in clearings in rainforest, and also in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). Its breeding habits are unknown, but assuming that it is like other members of its genus, it breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.	eng
56234	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56234	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if, as it appears, it is tolerant of habitat alteration, then it is unlikely to be seriously threatened.	eng
56235	conservation		It occurs in Come National Park, Marahoue National Park, Lamto Reserve, Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and Mont Peko National Park.	eng
56235	distribution		This recently described species is known only from Côte d’Ivoire and extreme southeastern Guinea so far. It ranges from Lamto north to Comoé, and west to Mount Nimba.	eng
56235	habitat		It is mainly a species of wooded Guinea savannah and gallery forest, occurring only in very small numbers in open savannah. It appears to be reasonably adaptable, providing that good vegetation cover remains. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.	eng
56235	population		It is common in all of the localities so far investigated, but it is hard to find.	eng
56235	threats		It is probably not seriously threatened, except possibly by very severe opening up of its habitat for agriculture.	eng
56236	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M. & Lötters, S., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56236	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M. & Lötters, S., 2008	This species ranges very widely in the savannah zone of Africa from Senegal, east to western Ethiopia, southern Somalia, and Kenya, thence south to Namibia, and South Africa. Records from Eritrea refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina somalica</span>. There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Togo and Burundi, but it presumably occurs in these countries. Its distributional limits in Kenya and northern Tanzania with respect to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kassina somalica</span> are still poorly understood, and the distribution map should be considered provisional. It occurs up to 2,000 m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
56236	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M. & Lötters, S., 2008	It occupies a wide range of habitats, humid and dry savannas, shrubland, forest edge, degraded forest, the lower levels of montane grassland, and a variety of anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in both temporary and permanent water, favouring large, well-vegetated pools.	eng
56236	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M. & Lötters, S., 2008	It is an extremely widespread and abundant species.	eng
56236	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M. & Lötters, S., 2008	Although certain populations might be affected by very severe habitat degradation, in general it is not threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56237	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks in Kenya.	eng
56237	distribution		This species has been recorded from northern Eritrea, Ethiopia (southern and eastern parts of the country, and in the Rift Valley), northern and southern Somalia, eastern Kenya, and northern Tanzania. The distributional limits of this species are poorly understood in Kenya and Tanzania; the map should be considered provisional.	eng
56237	habitat		It lives in arid savannah, probably breeding in both permanent and temporary waterbodies.	eng
56237	population		It is probably quite common at sites where permanent or seasonal water occurs within its generally arid habitat.	eng
56237	threats		The most obvious potential threat would be environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.	eng
56238	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56238	distribution		This species is known only from western and northern Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is expected to occur in eastern Angola, but there have not yet been any records.	eng
56238	habitat		It is associated with flooded grassland in dense, moist savannah. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably takes place in flooded grassland.	eng
56238	population		Although it is a very secretive species, it is abundant in suitable sites.	eng
56238	threats		It occurs in a region with minimal human impacts, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56239	conservation		It is likely to occur in several protected areas, but there do not seem to be any definite records.	eng
56239	distribution		This very poorly known species occurs widely through much of Angola. It probably occurs mainly at medium elevations over 1,000m asl. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56239	habitat		It is presumed to be a species of savannah woodland. Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other Leptopelis species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56239	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56239	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56240	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56240	distribution		This species is known only from eastern Tanzania, where it ranges from Bagamoyo, south to the border with Mozambique, and inland as far as the Kilombero Valley. It presumably occurs in northern Mozambique, but there have not been any records so far.	eng
56240	habitat		It is a species of moist savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
56240	population		It is a common species.	eng
56240	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56241	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon, Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, and Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon.	eng
56241	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria to Cameroon and the Central African Republic to extreme western and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. A record from Dundo in extreme northeastern Angola (Laurent 1954, Ruas 1991) requires confirmation. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Leptopelis modestus (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.).	eng
56241	habitat		It is an ecologically versatile species, living arboreal in secondary forest, swamp forest and in degraded habitats (farm bush) outside forest. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near swamps and pools, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56241	population		It is a reasonably common species, but it does not usually occur at very high densities.	eng
56241	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56242	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, though there have not yet been any records.	eng
56242	distribution		This species is endemic to eastern and southern Tanzania, and occurs in the East Usambara Mountains, the Uzungwa Mountains, and on Mount Rungwe. It probably also occurs on other mountain ranges in the Eastern Arc Mountain chain. It ranges from 700-2,100m asl.	eng
56242	habitat		It is a species of transition and montane rainforest, and can tolerate limited habitat disturbance, although it requires forest in reasonable condition nearby. The eggs are laid in an underground nest near streams and pools (sometimes as much as 10m away), into which tadpoles emerge.	eng
56242	population		It is common along watercourses in the Udzungwa Mountains, but is apparently less common in the East Usambara Mountains.	eng
56242	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
56243	conservation		It is not known if this taxon occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56243	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Gbarnga, and from Mount Coffee, Liberia.	eng
56243	habitat		It presumably breeds by larval development in temporary waterbodies.	eng
56243	population		The population is not known.	eng
56243	threats		The threats to this taxon are not known.	eng
56244	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56244	distribution		This species ranges from Angola east through northeastern Namibia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe, thence north through western Tanzania, eastern Burundi, and eastern Rwanda to central Kenya, with apparently isolated populations in southern and western Ethiopia. It is also known from northern Cameroon, although this population could be connected to that in western Ethiopia through the very poorly explored region in southern Sudan, northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. Its distribution is not well known, and it might be found to occur in other countries such as Botswana, Mozambique, Nigeria and Uganda. Earlier records from South Africa appear to have been in error. It occurs up to 1,900m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
56244	habitat		It is essentially fossorial, although it has been collected from the axils of banana leaves, and lives in both dry and humid savannah and grassland, also penetrating at least marginally into clearings in tropical deciduous forest. It lives in anthropogenically disturbed habitats, for instance around Nairobi. It breeds in temporary pools, laying eggs in underground nest near the water.	eng
56244	population		It is likely to be overlooked because of its burrowing habits, but it is probably generally quite common, and can occur in great numbers during the breeding season. It is very common around Nairobi.	eng
56244	threats		Certain populations are probably impacted by the effects of human settlement and agricultural encroachment, though these seem likely to be minor in relation to the area of suitable habitat available. Overall it is not significantly threatened. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
56245	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
56245	distribution		This species ranges from southern Nigeria to southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is to be expected in southwestern Central African Republic and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola.	eng
56245	habitat		It is a species of dense rainforest, not occurring in secondary habitats. It is arboreal, often calling from branches and lianas high up in the forest. The eggs are laid in an underground nest near streams, into which tadpoles emerge.	eng
56245	population		It is a common species.	eng
56245	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.	eng
56246	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56246	distribution		This species of dubious taxonomic validity is known only from Musola on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
56246	habitat		It is likely to be a forest species, possibly breeding by direct development, if it is closely related to <em>Leptopelis brevirostris</em>.	eng
56246	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, probably due to taxonomic confusion.	eng
56246	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56247	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
56247	distribution		This species ranges from southern Nigeria, though southern Cameroon, to mainland Equatorial Guinea as far as Itsiba and Moudouma in south-central Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). Records from northern Gabon reported in Lötters <em>et al.</em> (2001) actually refer to an undescribed species (M. Burger pers. comm.). It occurs on the island of Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. It is presumed to occur in Congo, and probably also in southwestern Central African Republic, though records from these countries require confirmation.	eng
56247	habitat		It is a species of mature, closed-canopy lowland rainforest. It is a specialized snail-eater. The males call from branches, often in fairly large numbers and independent of water. It is believed to breed by direct development, presumably with the eggs laid in underground nests, with no free tadpole stage, but this is not yet confirmed.	eng
56247	population		It is a common species.	eng
56247	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.	eng
56248	conservation		It is known from the Ngorima East Reserve in Zimbabwe, and it probably occurs in some other protected areas.	eng
56248	distribution		This species occurs in southern Malawi, central Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
56248	habitat		It is a species of moist savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
56248	population		It is a common species.	eng
56248	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56249	conservation	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56249	distribution	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	This species ranges from Senegal and Gambia to Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Togo, northern Benin, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon and southern Chad. There do not appear to be any records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire and Niger, but it is likely to occur in these countries.	eng
56249	habitat	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It is a species of dry open savanna and grassland. It is believed to be fossorial, spending most of the year underground. Males have been found calling in flooded meadows, on bare ground or amid tufts of grass. It lays its eggs in a burrow in loamy soil (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). As in other <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptopelis</span> species, it is expected that larvae emerge and develop in water.	eng
56249	population	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	It appears to be a very uncommon species, and is known only from a very small number of records across its vast mapped range. The absence of records from large areas is partly related to the limited herpetological work that has been carried out in this area, but also due to its secretive habitats, and perhaps also a patchy distribution. In northern Benin it does seem to be very patchily distributed (Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
56249	threats	Schiøtz, A. & Rödel, M.-O., 2004	There is very little information, but it is unlikely that this species is significantly threatened	eng
56250	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon, and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.	eng
56250	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, with records from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is presumed to occur in Congo. It has a wide elevational range, from near sea level, probably to over 1,500m asl.	eng
56250	habitat		It is an arboreal species of lowland and montane rainforest that does not survive in secondary habitats. It presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground, but its breeding habits and habitats are unknown.	eng
56250	population		It is a common species.	eng
56250	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.	eng
56251	conservation		It is present in Kibale National Park (Uganda), Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Garamba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and probably many others.	eng
56251	distribution		This species occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern and western Uganda, northwestern Tanzania, and presumably also in Rwanda and Burundi. There is an apparently separate, isolated population in central and southeastern Cameroon and northeastern Gabon, though it could occur in the intervening area in southwestern Central African Republic, northern Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo. It couls also be present in extreme southern Sudan and extreme western Kenya. It has been recorded from below 1,000m up to at least 2,100m asl.	eng
56251	habitat		It is an arboreal species of lowland, montane and gallery forests, and also more open habitats, such as savannah woodland. It also lives in heavily degraded habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. In Cameroon it does not occur in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest, but it is found in raphia swamps, and seasonally flooded areas within forests where the canopy is discontinuous. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae are washed in water after flooding.	eng
56251	population		It is a common species that might be expanding as forest habitats are degraded.	eng
56251	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56252	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks in Kenya.	eng
56252	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal lowlands of southern Somalia, Kenya, and northeastern Tanzania, ranging inland as far as Nairobi in Kenya. It is generally a low-altitude species, perhaps ranging up to 1,500m asl in Kenya.	eng
56252	habitat		It is a species of savannah woodland, with many trees and bushes, and it can survive in various altered habitats, providing that there is good vegetation cover. It is also found in clearings in dry forest. During the breeding season, the males sit high up in bush and grasses, often quite far from water. It lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. It probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
56252	population		It is a common species.	eng
56252	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56253	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56253	distribution		This species ranges from western Angola through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to northwestern Zambia. Earlier records from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi appear to refer to other species.	eng
56253	habitat		It is a species of gallery forests, dry forests and well-wooded humid savannahs. It presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground, but its breeding habits and habitats are unknown.	eng
56253	population		It is a common species.	eng
56253	threats		It occurs widely in an area of very limited human impact, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56254	conservation		This species presumably occurs in Virunga National Park.	eng
56254	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality at 1,000m asl in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, near the Semliki Sector of Virunga National Park at the Mamudioma River (a tributary of the Djuma River), on the new road to Watalinga.	eng
56254	habitat		Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56254	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56254	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56255	conservation		It is known from at least one protected area: Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania.	eng
56255	distribution		This species is known from three localities: Mokanga, near Fizi, at 1,170m asl in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; Gombe Stream National Park in western Tanzania; and Senga, at 1,650m asl, in south-western Tanzania. Records from Burundi require confirmation, but it is very likely to occur in this country. In any case, it can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in areas between the currently known sites.	eng
56255	habitat		This species has been found on branches in dense bush at the edge of a clearing in dry forest, from where the males were calling. In south-western Tanzania it was found in riverine forest within pristine miombo (<em>Brachystegia</em> spp.) woodland. This species' adaptability to altered habitats is not known. There is no information on its breeding habits, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56255	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56255	threats		There is very little information on the threats to the species.	eng
56256	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56256	distribution		This species ranges widely through the lowlands eastern and southern Africa, from Mozambique north of the Save River and eastern Zimbabwe, north through Malawi and southern and eastern Tanzania, as far as the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal Kenya. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania). It ranges from sea level up to at least 1,600m asl.	eng
56256	habitat		It lives in lowland and montane evergreen forest and especially in dry forest, in both pristine and secondary habitats, often along streams. Males call from leaves of branches, often at 3-4m above the ground, and also from the mouth of burrows in the ground. It does not survive in open habitats outside forest, but it does occur in small forest remnants. If it is similar to most other members of its genus, it generally lays its eggs in a nest near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop. An egg mass has been observed in the root mass of floating vegetation in a permanent forest pond.	eng
56256	population		It is often a common species in suitable habitats, although it is perhaps more common at lower densities at higher altitudes because of lack of suitable breeding sites.	eng
56256	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.	eng
56257	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas, most notably the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
56257	distribution		This species is endemic to the Ethiopian plateau, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at altitudes of 1,900-3,900m asl.	eng
56257	habitat		It is a fossorial species, typically occupying montane grassland and sometimes Afro-alpine moorland, it is less commonly found at forest margins. It has also been found in rural gardens and urban areas. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary.	eng
56257	population		It is common to abundant at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.	eng
56257	threats		The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.	eng
56258	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56258	distribution		This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana to southwestern Togo, with a disjunctive population in southern Benin and Nigeria. It is confined to low elevations.	eng
56258	habitat		It is an adaptable species, living in primary and secondary evergreen forest, semi-deciduous forest, forest galleries in southern Guinea savannah, and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It is often found in humid, swampy areas, and near streams. It breeds in very small puddles and temporary ponds. The eggs are deposited in burrows on the ground, near the water, and the tadpoles move to water after hatching.	eng
56258	population		It is an extremely common species, but is more common in closed-canopy forests than in other habitats.	eng
56258	threats		Since it is an adaptable species, it is not significantly threatened	eng
56259	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56259	distribution		This species is known only from Congulu at 700-800m asl in western Angola.	eng
56259	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56259	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56259	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56260	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda, and the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park in Uganda. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species and to investigate aspects of its breeding biology.	eng
56260	distribution		This species is known only from high altitudes in north-western Rwanda, south-western Uganda and adjacent eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its range is centred on the Virunga volcanoes, with an altitudinal range of 2,000-2,800m asl and occasionally down to 1,500m asl. The map in Schiotz (1999) is in error, since it is, by mistake, a duplicate of that for <em>Leptopelis oryi</em>.	eng
56260	habitat		It is known from montane meadows in steep forest on volcanic soils, and also from highland savannahs and heathland. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is also unknown. There is no information on its breeding. However, assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other species in the genus, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56260	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
56260	threats		There is no direct information on threats, but most of its range is in protected areas. However, political instability and high human population pressure continue to threaten the remaining habitat in its range.	eng
56261	conservation		It occurs in Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda), and Bwindi National Park (Uganda).	eng
56261	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, north-western Burundi, and south-western Uganda. Its altitudinal range is unclear, although it is probably generally above 1,500m asl.	eng
56261	habitat		It lives in montane forests. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It breeds in seasonally flooded swamp forests where the eggs are buried in nests in the ground and the larvae then washed into water after flooding.	eng
56261	population		This is a common species.	eng
56261	threats		Little information is available on the threats it faces, although it is likely to be affected by loss of habitat for agriculture, wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
56262	conservation		Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
56262	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality, Nyonga, in Upemba National Park, Shaba Province, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56262	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56262	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56262	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56263	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Gola and Kambui Forest Reserves in Sierra Leone, Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire, Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests in Côte d’Ivoire, and Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana.	eng
56263	distribution		This species ranges from central Sierra Leone, through Liberia, southern Guinea and Côte d’Ivoire, to southern Ghana.	eng
56263	habitat		This species is arboreal and lives along streams in primary rainforest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in the proximity of streams, with nests that are built on land near the water.	eng
56263	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
56263	threats		Its forest habitat is being degraded by agricultural expansion, logging and growing human settlements.	eng
56264	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56264	distribution		This species is known only from Quissange in western Angola.	eng
56264	habitat		The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56264	population		There is no information on its population status. It is known only from the holotype, which has been destroyed.	eng
56264	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56265	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve (Gabon), and presumably several other protected areas.	eng
56265	distribution		This species ranges from Nigeria, Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea to southern Gabon, Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Its altitudinal range is not known.	eng
56265	habitat		It is a species of primary and secondary lowland rainforest, secondary growth, and palm plantations. It is typically associated with large, slow-flowing watercourses. Although it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat alteration, it cannot survive in open, degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.	eng
56265	population		It is a common species.	eng
56265	threats		Its forest habitat is being impacted by agricultural expansion, logging and increasing human settlements.	eng
56266	conservation		It presumably occurs in some protected areas.	eng
56266	distribution		This species lives in three widely separate regions: the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) (these animals having previously been identified as Leptopelis aubryi (R.C. Drewes pers. comm.); at 700-1,850m asl in eastern Nigeria (Obudu Plateau) and Cameroon (Mount Cameroon, Mount Manenguba, Bamileke Plateau (Mount Bana and Foto) and around Yaounde); and at medium to high (up to 2,000m asl) altitudes in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
56266	habitat		It lives around streams in thick vegetation in montane forest and secondary brush. It does not survive in open areas outside forest. It breeds in still water and marshes.	eng
56266	population		It is a common species.	eng
56266	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.	eng
56267	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56267	distribution		This species occurs from southern Malawi, through the lowlands of central and southern Mozambique, southeastern Zimbabwe and Swaziland, into northern and eastern South Africa, south to Durban (though there have been no recent records south of Richard's Bay). Records from the South African-Botswanan border areas require confirmation. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
56267	habitat		It lives in humid savannah woodland and coastal savannah-bush land-grass land mosaic, sometimes in the vicinity of rivers. It does not generally occur in agricultural land. It breeds in shallow, grassy pans and swamps. It makes a nest on the ground near the water. The larvae develop in the nest and then move into the water.	eng
56267	population		It is a reasonably common species through much of its range, but it is uncommon in South Africa.	eng
56267	threats		Although this species is not seriously threatened overall, it appears to be significantly impacted in South Africa by afforestation and urban spread.	eng
56268	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56268	distribution		This species is endemic to southeastern South Africa, ranging from Manubi in Eastern Cape Province, northeast to Sodwana Bay in KwaZulu-Natal. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
56268	habitat		It is a species of dry coastal forest and gallery forest. It also lives in parks and gardens, but not significantly in agricultural land, though it does survive in somewhat disturbed habitats. It uses permanent and semi-permanent water for breeding, favouring swamps and pans in forest and thicket. It makes a burrow nest on the ground near the water. The larvae develop in the nest and then move into the water.	eng
56268	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56268	threats		Its habitat is being lost, especially as a result of urban spread, expanding large-scale commercial agriculture, drainage of breeding habitats, drying out of breeding habitats due to the spread of invasive plants, and afforestation.	eng
56269	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56269	distribution		This species occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl on the Bamileke Plateau, Bamenda Highlands and Adamoua Plateau (including Tchabal Mbabo and Mount Nganha) in western and central Cameroon, and on the Mambilla Plateau in eastern Nigeria.	eng
56269	habitat		It lives is montane grassland and pastureland, and it has been found calling at tiny springs and seepage points in the complete absence of cover. It breeds in still water and marshes.	eng
56269	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56269	threats		It is capable of surviving in highly degraded habitats, and so is probably not seriously threatened.	eng
56270	conservation		It occurs in the Korup National Park in Cameroon, and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
56270	distribution		This species ranges very widely from extreme southeastern Nigeria, through central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo to western and central Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It presumably occurs in southwestern and southern Central African Republic and in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there do not yet appear to be any records from these areas. The limits of its distribution are poorly known through most of its range. It occurs at low altitudes, but also up to well over 1,000m asl in Cameroon.	eng
56270	habitat		It lives mainly in secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest belt, but sometimes also in undisturbed forest, and also gallery forests and in dense vegetation in montane grassland and moist savannah area. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.	eng
56270	population		It is a common species.	eng
56270	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats. It is used for human consumption and medicine, but probably not at a level that constitutes a threat to this species.	eng
56271	conservation		In Côte d’Ivoire, it occurs in Tai and Mont Sangbe National Parks, and in Haute Dodo and Cavally Classified Forests.	eng
56271	distribution		This species occurs in Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana. It possibly ranges as far east as Nigeria and its western limits in Liberia are unknown.	eng
56271	habitat		It is an arboreal species of primary forest, only rarely occurring in secondary forest. It breeds in small streams and small temporary ponds. The eggs are laid in holes in the ground close to water, or in dry areas where temporary ponds will form at the start of the rains.	eng
56271	population		In suitable habitats it is very common.	eng
56271	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agricultural cultivation, and the collection of wood.	eng
56272	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56272	distribution		This species ranges from central and southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, through mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Congo, to western and central Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records from Korup National Park in southwestern Cameroon are considered to be misidentifications, and possibly refer to Leptopelis calcaratus (J.L. Amiet pers. comm.)	eng
56272	habitat		It lives in lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and to some extent in secondary growth, though it requires the presence of trees. It breeds in forest swamps, the eggs are laid in nests on the ground close to water.	eng
56272	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56272	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.	eng
56273	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56273	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria through central and southern Cameroon and Gabon to southern Congo. It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and is to be expected in southwestern Central African Republic, western Democratic Republic of Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It lives below 1,000m asl.	eng
56273	habitat		It lives in dense primary and open secondary lowland forest. It does not occur in gallery forests in the savannah zone, and it avoids places where the understorey has been cleared. Males call from several metres above the ground. It breeds in raphia swamps, puddles, water holes and small streams, avoiding large swamps with deep water. The eggs are laid in nests on the ground, close to water.	eng
56273	population		It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
56273	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the collection of wood.	eng
56274	conservation		It occurs in Garamba National Park.	eng
56274	distribution		This species is known from just two localities: Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo; and savannah near Budongo Forest in western Uganda. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in the area between these two locations. There appear to be no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56274	habitat		It is a species of dense, humid savannah with tall grass and scattered bushes. The males sit high up in grass or on branches during the wet season. In the dry season they are found buried in soil, and under rocks. Its breeding is unknown, though it presumably lays eggs in a nest on the ground near water.	eng
56274	population		There is very little information, but it is reasonably abundant where it has been found.	eng
56274	threats		There is little information, but it is likely to be an adaptable species, and it occurs in a region of limited human impact.	eng
56275	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. This species requires close population monitoring given that it is restricted entirely to Príncipe.	eng
56275	distribution		This species is endemic to Príncipe Island, in São Tomé and Príncipe, in the Gulf of Guinea. It is present through most of the island, up to at least 700m, and possibly up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56275	habitat		It generally inhabits wet forest along the edges of creeks and streams. It can also be found in forest remnants and possibly in towns. It presumably buries its eggs close to water, with the tadpoles moving into pools or streams where they develop further.	eng
56275	population		It is a reasonably abundant species.	eng
56275	threats		There are no immediate threats, but increasing development of the island, leading to severe opening up of the habitat, is a potential future threat.	eng
56276	conservation		It presumably a occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
56276	distribution		This species ranges from the uplands of southern Tanzania, Malawi and northern Mozambique to northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. The limits of its distribution are very uncertain owing to confusion with Leptopelis bocagii. In particular, the distribution of this species in Angola is very unclear, and the maps should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56276	habitat		It is a species of upland humid savannah woodland that is able to adapt to farmland. It is fossorial for much of the year. The males call from the ground or from branches close to the ground. It breeds in partially flooded fields, presumably laying eggs in a nest on the ground close to water.	eng
56276	population		It appears to be a common species, but records are frequently confused with Leptopelis bocagii, making the situation very unclear.	eng
56276	threats		It appears to be an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, and in any case occurs in a region of low human impact.	eng
56277	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and in the University of Dar es Salaam's reserve at Mazumbai. It has not yet been recorded from Udzungwa National Park, but with further survey work probably will be shown to occur there.	eng
56277	distribution		This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: Uluguru, Udzungwa, East and West Usambara, and South Pare. It probably occurs a little more widely than these records suggest. Although mainly a montane species, it lives in the foothills down at least to 300m asl (perhaps lower), and up to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
56277	habitat		It inhabits closed, intact rainforest, not surviving in seriously disturbed habitats outside forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams, although the eggs are laid in a nest on land not far from water.	eng
56277	population		In some places it appears to be easy to find and even common, whereas in other places it is rare.	eng
56277	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, as well as the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
56278	conservation		Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
56278	distribution		This species is known only from Upemba National Park in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 700-1,300m asl.	eng
56278	habitat		It is presumed to be a species of savannah woodland. Assuming that it breeds in a similar manner to other <em>Leptopelis</em> species, it lays its eggs in a nest buried in mud near water, into which the larvae emerge and develop.	eng
56278	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; only a few specimens have ever been collected.	eng
56278	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, although it occurs in a region of low human impact, and it is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
56279	conservation		It is present in the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
56279	distribution		This species is endemic to the Ethiopian plateau, on both sides of the Rift Valley, at altitudes of 1,930-3,010m asl.	eng
56279	habitat		It is strictly associated with montane forest, not surviving in degraded habitats. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary. The eggs are laid in nests on land not far from water.	eng
56279	population		It is still locally common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.	eng
56279	threats		The main threat is habitat loss from forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment. In some areas, this species seems only to survive in isolated forest remnants, such as often occur along the slopes of steep-sided valleys.	eng
56280	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
56280	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern most Nigeria, southwestern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, western Gabon and southwestern Congo to extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and from Fort Crampel in central Central African Republic are not confirmed (this last record is found significantly outside the known range of the species).	eng
56280	habitat		It is an arboreal species of humid lowland rainforest, occurring in secondary forest, but not normally out degraded vegetation outside forest. It breeds in streams, the eggs presumably are laid in nests on land close to the water.	eng
56280	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56280	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the harvesting of wood.	eng
56281	conservation		It is not currently known to be present in any protected areas, and the protection of forest remnants in the Gughe Mountains, and the search for further sites where the species might be found, are of the highest priority.	eng
56281	distribution		This species is endemic to the Gughe Mountains, at 2,600-3,000m asl, in southern Ethiopia.	eng
56281	habitat		It is confined to montane forest remnants, and has not been found in degraded habitats. Calling males have been found along the banks of streams, in which larval development presumably occurs. The eggs are presumably laid in nests on land, near the water.	eng
56281	population		It was still reasonably numerous in at least two localities in 1975, but the absence of subsequent records is due to a lack of fieldwork.	eng
56281	threats		The main threats are forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment. The Gughe Mountains are heavily populated and intensively cultivated, and only small patches of montane forest remain.	eng
56282	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and the Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
56282	distribution		This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: East Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, and Udzungwa (Kihansi Gorge and Mwanihana Forest). It probably occurs a little more widely than records suggest. It occurs mainly above 900m asl, and it is probably sub-montane, perhaps not ranging much above 1,650m asl.	eng
56282	habitat		It inhabits wet submontane rainforest, but can tolerate slight disturbance and is sometimes found in banana patches in forest clearings. However, it is never found in open areas away from mature forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in water, and males call near streams. The eggs are probably laid in nests on land, not far from water (either streams or temporary pools).	eng
56282	population		It is a common species.	eng
56282	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, as well as the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat from the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
56283	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas. The most obvious requirement is habitat conservation at selected sites, within the species range, where still undamaged lowland forest survives.	eng
56283	distribution		This species is known only from the highlands of south-western Ethiopia, at altitudes of 1,500-2,200m asl.	eng
56283	habitat		It is confined to dense, tropical deciduous forest, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds by larval development in pools and small streams, both permanent and temporary. The eggs are laid in nests on land, not far from water.	eng
56283	population		It is still locally common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.	eng
56283	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to forest clearance, human settlement, and agricultural encroachment.	eng
56284	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve and the Udzungwa National Park.	eng
56284	distribution		This species is endemic to several mountains in the Eastern Arc chain of Tanzania, namely: East and West Usambara, Nguu, Udzungwa, Poroto and Mount Rungwe. It occurs above 900m asl, up to elevations of at least 1,800m asl in southern Tanzania.	eng
56284	habitat		It inhabits submontane and montane forest, and requires mature, closed-canopy forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it presumably breeds in water, and males call near streams. The eggs are probably laid in nests on land, not far from water (either streams or temporary pools).	eng
56284	population		It is a very common species through much of its range.	eng
56284	threats		It is affected by habitat loss as a result of expanding human settlements and agriculture, and the harvesting of wood. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat from the activities of illegal gold miners. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade although this is not currently believed to constitute a major threat.	eng
56285	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56285	distribution		This species ranges from Senegal and Gambia widely through the West and Central African savannah zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There do not appear to be records from Mali, Central African Republic, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
56285	habitat		It lives in dry and humid savannah woodland, shrubland and grassland. It is tolerant of alteration of its habitat. It breeds in temporary savannah ponds. The eggs are deposited in burrows on the ground, near the water.	eng
56285	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56285	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56286	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56286	distribution		This species is endemic to Gojjam Province, northern Ethiopia, at altitudes of 2,000-2,700m asl.	eng
56286	habitat		It is confined to montane grassland. Breeding activity is particularly associated with the banks of small streams, in which larval development occurs. The eggs are laid in nests on land near the water.	eng
56286	population		It is common to abundant at many sites within its limited range.	eng
56286	threats		The most likely threats are posed by human settlement and agricultural encroachment, but these seem to be minor in relation to the area of suitable habitat available.	eng
56287	conservation		It is presumed to occur in some protected areas, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
56287	distribution		This species is known only from southern Cameroon south of the Sanaga River, at 720m asl, and away from the coastal plain, although it might occur in neighbouring countries.	eng
56287	habitat		This species lives in lowland rainforest, in flat-bottomed valleys with slow-flowing streams, or on the ground with puddles and water holes in the rainy season. Breeding takes place in still water and marshes, and the eggs are presumably laid in nests on land, near water.	eng
56287	population		It appears to be uncommon and is thinly distributed within its range.	eng
56287	threats		It is probably threatened by ongoing forest loss, due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
56288	conservation		It is present in the proposed Obo National Park.	eng
56288	distribution		This species occurs on São Tomé and Príncipe islands, in São Tomé and Príncipe, from close to sea level up to at least 1,420m asl.	eng
56288	habitat		It lives in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), coconut groves, coffee plantations and disturbed areas. It lays its eggs on leaf surfaces over still or very slow-moving water, and the tadpoles develop in the water.	eng
56288	population		This species is common on both islands.	eng
56288	threats		It is currently not threatened, given its adaptability to modified habitats. A potential future threat is the development of the oil industry in the islands, which is likely to radically alter the overall environment.	eng
56289	conservation		A large portion of its range falls within the proposed 295km² Parc Naturel Obo.	eng
56289	distribution		This species is endemic to São Tomé Island in São Tomé and Príncipe. It is restricted to primary forest remnants at elevations usually above 800m asl.	eng
56289	habitat		It is restricted to primary rainforest, and is known to breed by larval development in tree holes. The same tree hole can be utilized by many individuals for breeding at different times.  It has previously been reported from towns, but there is now significant doubt about these records.	eng
56289	population		There is little information on the population status of this species, since it is notoriously difficult to find.	eng
56289	threats		Little information is available on threats, though it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction, and human settlements.	eng
56290	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas, and has definitely been reported from Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
56290	distribution		This species ranges from the Niger Delta in southern Nigeria, through southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon to the Mayombe Hills in southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs inland at least as far east as extreme southeastern Cameroon. It presumably occurs in Congo, southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but has not yet been recorded from these countries. Its southern and eastern distributional limits in particular are poorly known, and the map should be regarded as provisional in this regard.	eng
56290	habitat		It is an arboreal species of closed-canopy, undisturbed rainforest. The eggs are laid in a foam nest attached to leaves above slow-flowing streams. The larvae fall into the water and develop in the streams.	eng
56290	population		It appears to be a low-density species.	eng
56290	threats		It is presumably threatened by ongoing forest loss, especially for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
56291	conservation		It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park. Further protected areas are needed within its range.	eng
56291	distribution		This species is endemic in Ethiopia, occupying mountain areas to the east of the Rift Valley, at 1,980-3,200m asl.	eng
56291	habitat		It is typically found in montane grassland, less commonly at the margins of montane forest (Harenna Forest) on the southern slopes of the Bale Mountains. It breeds in marshes and pools, both permanent and temporary.	eng
56291	population		It is common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.	eng
56291	threats		The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.	eng
56292	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56292	distribution		This species is endemic to Ethiopia, occupying mountain areas to the west of the Rift Valley, generally at 2,500-3,000m asl, with two lower records at 820 and 1,750m asl.	eng
56292	habitat		It is typically found in montane grassland, less commonly at forest margins. The two lower altitude records are from clearings in tropical deciduous forest. It is also found in rural gardens and in urban areas. It breeds in marshes and pools, both permanent and temporary.	eng
56292	population		It is common at suitable sites within its relatively limited range.	eng
56292	threats		The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and agriculture.	eng
56293	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56293	distribution		This species has an apparently disjunctive distribution in three main areas: south-western Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, southeastern Guinea, and Liberia; southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon; and Bioko island (Equatorial Guinea) although there are no recent records from here. The western populations probably belong to an undescribed species.	eng
56293	habitat		It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings and farm bush (heavily degraded former forest). It lays eggs in larger temporary ponds in forest, where the larvae develop.	eng
56293	population		It is patchily distributed, but it can be extremely abundant locally.	eng
56293	threats		It cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally not very threatened.	eng
56294	conservation		There are no records from the Udzungwa National Park, but with further survey work it probably will be shown to occur there.	eng
56294	distribution		This species is known only from the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It has generally been recorded at 1,800-2,000m asl, but probably has a wider altitudinal range than this.	eng
56294	habitat		It lives in forest, montane grassland, and open farmland near forest. It breeds in shallow pools, including artificial ponds, with emergent vegetation. It is probably a forest species that moves into open areas when it is breeding. It exhibits a rather unusual and cryptic defensive posture.	eng
56294	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
56294	threats		Its montane forest and grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation, agricultural expansion, fire, and human settlement.	eng
56295	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56295	distribution		This species occurs in west-central Africa where it is recorded from Equatorial Guinea (mainland), Gabon, Congo, and the western part of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Cameroon and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Phlyctimantis boulengeri. It is likely to be found in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not yet been any records. The eastern limit of the distribution of this species with respect to Phlyctimantis verrucosus is not yet understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
56295	habitat		It is a species of secondary forest, forest clearings and farm bush (heavily degraded former forest). It breeds in grassy areas with deep temporary pools within the forest belt.	eng
56295	population		It is a common species.	eng
56295	threats		It cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally adaptable and is not significantly threatened.	eng
56296	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo, Kibale National Park (Uganda), Bwindi National Park (Uganda), and no doubt many other protected areas.	eng
56296	distribution		This species occurs in southern and western Uganda and northern Rwanda, west to eastern and central Democratic Republic of Congo. The western limit of the distribution of this species with respect to Phlyctimantis leonardi is not yet understood, and the map should be regarded as provisional. Its altitudinal range is not known, though it is likely to occur at least between 600 and 2,000m asl.	eng
56296	habitat		It is a species of both lowland and montane forest, generally associated with secondary and edge habitats, and in degraded areas, including farm bush. The eggs are laid in temporary pools, where the larvae develop.	eng
56296	population		It is generally a common species, though it is uncommon in Kibale National Park (Uganda).	eng
56296	threats		It probably cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, but it is generally not significantly threatened.	eng
56297	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56297	distribution		This species occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. It is only known from one record in Lesotho but presumably is more widespread in this country. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.	eng
56297	habitat		It is mainly a grassland species that also occurs in fynbos heath land in the Western Cape Province. It breeds in both temporary and permanent still waterbodies, such as pans, ponds, dams, and marshes, where it requires emergent vegetation. It lays its eggs on vegetation or other objects underneath the water. It is reasonably tolerant of disturbance and can breed in artificial ponds.	eng
56297	population		It is a common species.	eng
56297	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56298	conservation	Bell, B., Tocher, M., P., Waldman, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	NZ Department of Conservation (DOC), through its Native Frog Recovery Group and Native Frog Recovery Plan, administers conservation management of the species and permits appropriate species research. Regular population monitoring and a habitat restoration programme are needed. The colonization of the islands by introduced mammalian predators must be prevented.	eng
56298	distribution	Bell, B., Tocher, M., P., Waldman, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is confined to Maud Island, Marlborough Sounds, South Island, New Zealand. In 1997, 300 individuals were translocated to Motuara Island, where it seems to have been established successfully.	eng
56298	habitat	Bell, B., Tocher, M., P., Waldman, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	It can be found in coastal forest, mostly in deep boulder banks on lower slopes. It lays large unpigmented eggs in damp situations on the ground, which then undergo direct development without a larval stage.	eng
56298	population	Bell, B., Tocher, M., P., Waldman, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species' population is estimated at between 27,500 and 39,500 individuals in a 16-ha forest remnant on Maud Island. The founder population on Motuara Island&#160; is estimated to be comprised of at least 150 frogs (Tocher and Pledger 2005).	eng
56298	threats	Bell, B., Tocher, M., P., Waldman, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	The introduction of mammalian predators, such as <em>Rattus rattus</em> and <em>Mustela erminea</em>, represents a major potential threat to this species. Disease (chytridiomycosis) also represents a possible threat, since it has recently been identified in the closely related <em>L. archeyi</em>.	eng
56299	conservation		This species might occur in Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, Peru; and in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and El Pure National Park, Colombia.	eng
56299	distribution		This species can be found in Yapima, Departamento Vaupes, and Leticia, Departamento Amazonas, Colombia, to Quebrada Vasquez, north side of lower Río Tahuayo, Departamento Loreto, Peru. Its elevation is below 200m asl.	eng
56299	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary lowland tropical moist. The breeding habitat is not known. It is not known if it can adapt to significantly modified habitats.	eng
56299	population		It is common in Colombia and uncommon in Peru.	eng
56299	threats		There are no major threats to the species. There is some localized habitat loss to different human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), but its range is in an area of low human impact.	eng
56300	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is clearly a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or whether or not it is just undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
56300	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra (or Maciço) de Baturité, in the State of Ceará, north-eastern Brazil, at 600–1,000 m asl.	eng
56300	habitat		Most specimens have been found in dry or moist leaf-litter on the ground, in bromeliads, and stream margins in reasonably well-preserved closed forests. However, it can also survive in shaded coffee plantations. It is a diurnal species that breeds by direct development, and the eggs are probably deposited in wet spots on the ground.	eng
56300	population		It was very common within its small range, and often found at numerous localities since it was first described up until 1993; however, from 1994 to 2003 there were 34 surveys of the same sites and not a single individual was found, until in July 2004 three individuals were recorded.	eng
56300	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement. The very good soils and favourable climate of the area are encouraging agricultural expansion, and the species is unable to survive in the banana plantations that are rapidly taking over the area.	eng
56301	conservation	Reynolds, R., Rodrigues, M.T., Mijares, A. & MacCulloch, R., 2004	Its range includes several national parks.	eng
56301	distribution	Reynolds, R., Rodrigues, M.T., Mijares, A. & MacCulloch, R., 2004	This species occurs on the Guiana Shield, from Mount Roraima in Western Venezuela, to nearby Guyana (Mt Ayanganna, Mt. Wokomung, Kaieteur National Park and&#160; northern Pakaraima region), reaching to Serra do Veado, in Amapá state, Brazil. It is found between 40 and 2,200 masl.	eng
56301	habitat	Reynolds, R., Rodrigues, M.T., Mijares, A. & MacCulloch, R., 2004	This tiny diurnal frog is found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor of rainforests near streams. Often associated with formations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Monotagma spicatum</span>, males call from the base of plants, hidden among rootlets and among dead leaves at the base of&#160; plants (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The deposition of eggs takes place at the beginning of the rainy season, and they develop directly. One female was found to deposit a single, large egg among dead leaves (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
56301	population	Reynolds, R., Rodrigues, M.T., Mijares, A. & MacCulloch, R., 2004	It is not a common species. It is probably locally abundant, but its secretive habits make it hard to find (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. 2009).	eng
56301	threats	Reynolds, R., Rodrigues, M.T., Mijares, A. & MacCulloch, R., 2004	There are no known threats to the species at present, and it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.	eng
56302	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas, and the formal protection of remaining forest and forest fragments in the Serra de Maranguape is urgently needed.	eng
56302	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra de Maranguape, in the State of Ceará, north-eastern Brazil, at 800-900m asl.	eng
56302	habitat		This is a diurnal species that lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and has also been found in bamboo and banana plantations, as well as forest fragments (but not open habitats). It is a direct developer, and the eggs are probably laid on the ground.	eng
56302	population		It is abundant in certain parts of its small range and is regularly recorded.	eng
56302	threats		The Serra de Maranguape is being very heavily deforested, due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement.	eng
56303	conservation		This species occurs in the Reserva Particular do Partimônio Natural Serra do Jequitibá.	eng
56303	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil: Fazenda Luzitania on the Rio Almada near Ilheus; and Santa Teresinha. It presumably occurs more widely, including in intervening areas between the two known localities. It is found up to 800m asl.	eng
56303	habitat		At Fazenda Luzitania, a single specimen was collected in a cacao farm under cacao trees, bananas and some larger, emergent shade trees, on the ground in the leaf-litter near a small creek. At Santa Teresinha specimens were collected in terrestrial bromeliads in forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56303	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species, which is known from only four specimens.	eng
56303	threats		The major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, collection of bromeliads and logging.	eng
56304	conservation		Many subpopulations lie within protected areas such as National Parks and a Biosphere Reserve.	eng
56304	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon basin from Venezuela, Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Venezuela, it is known from the states of Amazonas, Bolívar and Barinas the species is probably present in Apure, given this pattern of localities. The indication of presence in Trujillo State by Barrio (1999:42) seems to be a lapsus since no specific locality is given, and the taxon is not indicated as coming from Trujillo in the states listing (Barrio:90). Its elevation is between 0-400m asl.	eng
56304	habitat		This species can be found on the floor of primary forest, where it is active by day and night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is also known from open environments such as grasslands surrounded by forest habitats. It lays eggs in foam nests on the ground.	eng
56304	population		This is a common species.	eng
56304	threats		Clear cutting is a major threat to this species.	eng
56305	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56305	distribution		This species occurs in the planalto and coastal Serra Geral of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil, at elevations of 300-1,100m asl.	eng
56305	habitat		Occurs in secondary and old growth forests, Araucaria stands, and plantations. Reproduction is unknown but presumed to have foam nests on the ground.	eng
56305	population		This is a common and stable species, especially in pine plantations.	eng
56305	threats		There are no threats. It adapts well to human alteration of native habitat.	eng
56306	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56306	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo. It ranges up to 1,700m asl.	eng
56306	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	It lives on the leaf-litter inside primary and secondary forest and shrubland, and can also survive in gardens. The tadpoles live in still water puddles and temporary ponds (unlike some species of the <em>Leptodactylus marmoratus</em> group which have terrestrial larvae).	eng
56306	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56306	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Ana Maria Telles, 2008	Since it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably not seriously threatened, but certain populations are probably impacted by agriculture, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
56307	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. This taxon needs taxonomic revision.	eng
56307	distribution		This species is found in the Lower Chaco and oriental region of Paraguay; eastern lowlands of Santa Cruz (Bolivia); northern Argentina (Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Misiones Provinces). Its altitudinal range is from 50-900m asl. Argentinian populations were assigned to this species by De La Riva (1996).	eng
56307	habitat		It can be found in open areas, breeding close to flooded grassland and temporary ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (and even found in gardens).	eng
56307	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56307	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
56308	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	The range of the species overlaps with all of the protected areas in French Guiana. It has been recorded in Parque Nacional Tumucumaque, Amapá, Brasil, and its distribution in Suriname overlaps the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (M. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence outside French Guiana, its ecological requirements and its population status is needed.	eng
56308	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This species is currently known from French Guiana and Suriname, where it is widespread, and from Brazil (states of Amapá and Pará). It may also likely be found in Guyana. <br/><br/>It has been recorded from 0-600 masl (M. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56308	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This species inhabits the leaf-litter of primary forest. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.  <br/><br/><em>Leptodactylus heyeri</em> exhibits nocturnal activity, males call at dusk in the rainy season (April-May). Individuals have been found both in moist low elevations and on the summit of small hills (about 120 masl), with or without rocks, in drier conditions. The species was never found during the dry season (Boistel et al., 2006).	eng
56308	population	Ariadne Angulo, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	It is not considered to be a very common species.	eng
56308	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	There are no known threats currently known for this species.	eng
56309	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is present in numerous protected areas.	eng
56309	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout most of the Amazon basin, south to Argentina and Paraguay. It is present on the southwest peninsula of Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago. It occurs from sea level to approximately 800m asl.	eng
56309	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a terrestrial species found in areas of open vegetation, such as stream and river edges and agricultural clearings. It is generally associated with primary and secondary forest, forest edges and in some places savannah (eg. Trinidad). De la Riva (1993) indicated that the species has been found in human clearings, and within secondary forest in Bolivia. In Trinidad, it has been reported from roadside marshes and in vegetation close to ditches. Generally, the species lays eggs on land and has a direct development breeding strategy.	eng
56309	population	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This is a common species.	eng
56309	threats	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no threats to the overall survival of the species.	eng
56310	conservation	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	The known locality in the Chinapau River area is within an indigenous reserve, affording some level of protection. It also occurs in Kaieteur National Park (Kok et al., 2007).	eng
56310	distribution	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	This species was originally known from three localities in Mazaruni-Potaro District, Guyana. In his description of the species, Heyer (1975) gave the type locality of Chinapoon River (at about 300m asl) on the upper Potaro River, and a second locality as Demerara Falls (it has not been possible to map this locality in this assessment as its exact location is unknown). Additional specimens were recently collected in October 2000 at 1,500m asl on Mount Ayanaganna in the Pakaraima Mountains, also in Potaro-Mazaruni District, Guyana (MacCulloch and Lathrop 2002). Heyer (1975) suggested that the Chinapoon River in the description of the type locality probably referred to Chenapowu River. Chenapowu (also referenced as Chenapou and Chenapau) is a river and a village on the upper Potaro River. Kok et al. (2007) recently reported records from Kaieteur National Park, Mount Ayanganna, Mount Wokomung and the Merume Mountains in the Pakaraima Mountains region of Guyana.	eng
56310	habitat	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	It inhabits lowland and montane tropical primary forest. <br/><br/>It is a mostly nocturnal species, inhabiting leaf litter. Reproduction seems to be constrained to the wettest months of the year. Gravid females have been found to contain 3-10 large white eggs (Kok et al., 2007).	eng
56310	population	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	It may be locally common (Kok et al., 2007).	eng
56310	threats	Robert Reynolds, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ross MacCulloch, Philippe Gaucher, 2008	There are no known threats to this species, and it occurs in a large area of undisturbed remote forest.	eng
56311	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56311	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná. Populations in the states of Espírito Santo (Almeida and Angulo, 2006) and Santa Catarina (Kwet, 2007) were recently found not to be conspecific with <em>Leptodactylus marmoratus</em>. The species ranges up to 1200 masl.	eng
56311	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It is a diurnal species that lives on the ground in primary and secondary forest, and also in clearings and on the forest edge, as well as in gardens. Males commonly call from the ground under vegetation in the late afternoons. The eggs are laid on the ground; tadpoles live and develop in the leaf-litter outside water.	eng
56311	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It is a very common species. It experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has since rebounded and is abundant again.	eng
56311	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
56312	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56312	distribution		This species is known from the states of Pará, Mato Grosso, Tocantins, and Goiás in Brazil, above 600m asl.	eng
56312	habitat		It inhabits the Cerrado, and occurs on the ground in moist fields in open habitats, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
56312	population		It is a common species.	eng
56312	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
56313	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	Some populations of this species occur in the national parks of Argentina (Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi and Parque Nacional Los Alerces), and it is also present in several protected areas in Chile.	eng
56313	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species occurs in the austral temperate forest of Chile (where it is known from several localities in the 11th Division) and Argentina between latitudes of 41°S and 46° 2'S. It is probably more widely distributed than currently understood. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,400m asl (in Argentina).	eng
56313	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species’ habitat is the cold mountain streams of austral temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, where it may tolerate some habitat disturbance. Specimens have been found under logs at the margin of mountain streams. Chilean localities typically occur in <em>N. antartica</em>, <em>N. betuloides</em>, and <em>Drymis winteri</em> forest, while at the Argentinian localities the main vegetation is pure deciduous <em>N. pumilio</em> forest. Reproduction takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
56313	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	Very little data are available on its population status. A population of at least 20 individuals was found in 2002 in Caleta Level, Chile, and there appears to have been little change to the available habitat between 1990 and 2002.	eng
56313	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2008	The major threat to this species is presumed to be introduced predatory salmonid fishes.	eng
56314	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Carmen Úbeda, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2004	It is present in Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, Parque Nacional Los Alerces and Parque Nacional Lago Puelo.	eng
56314	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Carmen Úbeda, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2004	This species is endemic to northwestern Argentinean Patagonia. It is present in the provinces of Río Negro (in several localities within the Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, <em>A. g. gargola</em>), Neuquen (volcanic tablelands of Lonco Luan and surroundings <em>A. g. neuquensis</em>) and Chubut (Parque Nacional Los Alerces and Parque Nacional Lago Puelo). It has an altitudinal range of 200-2,200m asl.	eng
56314	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Carmen Úbeda, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2004	This is a semi-aquatic species associated with both small alpine lakes and streams, and Patagonian forest streams. Breeding takes place in streams and ponds. The species may be found in areas slightly disturbed by cattle farming.<br/><br/>Adult frogs overwinter in both terrestrial and underwater conditions for ca 8 months per year (May to December) (Logares and Úbeda, 2006). The tadpole has a long development period (2-3 years) and overwinters in the water under a layer of ice and snow. They are locally abundant, and appear to be grazers of the periphytic community and detritus gatherers, with diet matching the tadpoles' morphological and structural adaptations to a lotic-benthic habitat (Baffico and Úbeda, 2006).	eng
56314	population	Esteban Lavilla, Carmen Úbeda, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2004	It is a common species.	eng
56314	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Carmen Úbeda, Néstor Basso, Boris Blotto, 2004	The ongoing introduction of exotic predatory fish species (trout) into the stream habitats of this species is considered to be a major threat, although population declines have yet to be observed.	eng
56315	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Formas, 2008	This species occurs in the Reserva Nacional Altos de Lircay.	eng
56315	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Formas, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Río Lircay, Alto de Vilches (35° 28'S; 71° 11'W), in Talca Province, Chile, on the western slopes of the Andes. Its altitudinal range is 900-1,200m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
56315	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Formas, 2008	Its habitat is <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Adults and larvae occur in the water or under rocks, but are always close to streams.	eng
56315	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Formas, 2008	This species was seen in small groups of 8-10 individuals in 2002, although nothing else is known about its population status.	eng
56315	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Formas, 2008	Forest fires are a common threat in the area, and tourists, which disturb the habitat, are another significant threat.	eng
56316	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Bernardo O'Higgins.	eng
56316	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known from two adult specimens at only two localities: Puerto Edén (49° 8'S; 74° 25'W) at Wellington Island; and Seno Huemules (48° 43'S; 74° 25'W), both in southern Chile.	eng
56316	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species occurs in tundra and small forests composed of <em>Nothofagus betuloides</em>, <em>Embothrium coccineum</em>, <em>Maytenus magellanicus</em> and <em>Drymis winterri</em>. It can be found under logs. Its reproductive details are unknown, though this presumably occurs by larval development in water.	eng
56316	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is probably a rare species. It was seen in 1998, but two expeditions in 2001 and 2002 to the same locality failed to locate it.	eng
56316	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56317	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area.	eng
56317	distribution		This species' distribution is not clear. It has been recorded from the poorly designated, imprecise type locality of Potero Grande in Chile.	eng
56317	habitat		There is nothing known about the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in streams, like other members of the genus.	eng
56317	population		It has not been collected for over 100 years.	eng
56317	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
56318	conservation	Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The area where it is thought to have been collected might be protected in Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael. The taxonomic status of this species needs further study.	eng
56318	distribution	Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is conclusively known only from one locality, Inchy, in coastal southern Chile. Charles Darwin collected this specimen. Confusion over the precise location has hampered efforts to rediscover this species. Records of this species from elsewhere in Chile and in Argentina refer to other species.	eng
56318	habitat	Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	While its actual habitat preference is not known the region of the type locality has tundra and islands of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.	eng
56318	population	Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56318	threats	Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The major threats to this species are unknown, but the region is completely inaccessible and uninhabited.	eng
56319	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas and no conservation measures are in place.	eng
56319	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Pehuenche Valley in Mendoza Province, Argentina, between 2,000 and 2,500m asl. It is considered possible that it might range more widely.	eng
56319	habitat		This riparian species breeds in permanent Andean alpine sulphuric streams.	eng
56319	population		It is locally common within its known range.	eng
56319	threats		There are no known current threats to it.	eng
56320	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56320	distribution		This species is known from Cerro Mirador in the Cordillera Pelada, Valdivia Province, Chile, at 1,100m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently recognized.	eng
56320	habitat		This species was found under logs in ecotonal areas between bogs and temperate <em>Nothofagus fitzroyi</em> forest. It reproduces by larval development in cold fast-moving streams.	eng
56320	population		Many individuals were found at the type locality in 2002.	eng
56320	threats		Its major threats are not known.	eng
56321	conservation	Herman Núñez, Alberto Veloso, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is known to occur in Parque Nacional Puyehue. There is a need to determine whether or not Argentinian populations of <em>Alsodes</em> from the forests of Neuquén and Río Negro Provinces are referable to this species.	eng
56321	distribution	Herman Núñez, Alberto Veloso, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is known from two localities in Andean Chile: Cautin (at a latitude of 38° 50'S), and Puyehue. Published records from Isla Wellington (at a latitude of 50° 00'S, Diaz and Nunez 1988) do not refer to this species. It has been recorded from altitudes of 500-1,000m asl. It is possible that Argentinean populations of <em>Alsodes</em> from the forests of Neuquén and Río Negro Provinces might belong to <em>A. verrucosus</em>, although until this can be verified these populations have not been included in attempts to map its range.	eng
56321	habitat	Herman Núñez, Alberto Veloso, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It occurs under logs and near damp areas in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and reproduces by larval development in cold deep streams.	eng
56321	population	Herman Núñez, Alberto Veloso, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The population status of this species is not well known. Five adults were collected in Puyehue during 2001.	eng
56321	threats	Herman Núñez, Alberto Veloso, Jose Núñez, Ramón Formas, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	Deforestation due to logging is a major threat. Argentinean populations possibly referable to this species are threatened by introductions of predatory trout.	eng
56322	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56322	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is restricted to the western slope of the Chilean Andes, at 38°S latitude, San Ignacio de Pemehue, Cautin Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is 1,000m asl.	eng
56322	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	The habitat for this species is unknown.	eng
56322	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species has not been seen since its description at the beginning of the 20th century. Three recent expeditions in 1995, 1996, and 2002 all failed to locate it.	eng
56322	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, 2008	Habitat destruction caused by pine plantations might be a threat to this species.	eng
56323	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	While the species was previously recorded from Parque Nacional Laguna Blanca it is now known only from the ponds within the buffer zone of the park. Measures need to be put in place to prevent the introduction of predatory fishes into the habitat of the remaining subpopulations.	eng
56323	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is endemic to north-western Argentinean Patagonia where it has been recorded from a system of endorreic and isolated lagoons scattered in the volcanic tablelands of Neuquen (between 38° 55' and 39° 32'S and 70° 20' to 70° 39'W). Its altitudinal range is 1,265-1,410m asl.	eng
56323	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	The species inhabits permanent lagoons that are surrounded by steppe and/or semi-desert. Individuals are found in areas adjacent to the ponds, in aquatic and terrestrial habitat, although most often in aquatic habitat, and breeding takes place within these ponds. It is not known from degraded habitats.<br/><br/>Tadpoles have been found January–March (Fox et al., 2005).	eng
56323	population	Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is common within its preferred habitat. New subpopulations have recently been discovered (at 14 satellite lakes/ponds), but the major subpopulation (Laguna Blanca) is believed to have been extirpated.<br/><br/>Surveys of this species in 15 lakes in and around Laguna Blanca National Park at various times between 2000 and 2002 revealed relatively high densities of individuals near shorelines (overall average highest density per lake of 0.58 individuals/m2). Densities were highest in late summer (March)(Fox et al., 2005).	eng
56323	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	The main subpopulation (Laguna Blanca) is believed to have been extirpated through predation by introduced fishes (perch and salmonids). The remaining subpopulations are isolated from this lake and mostly appear to be stable, although eutrophication of two ponds due to livestock may be leading to a decline in two subpopulations. Introduction of predatory fishes to the remaining lakes is a potential major threat to all subpopulations.<br/><br/>A recent study (Fox et al., 2005) reported that most populations had many dead and moribund tadpoles and frogs, all of which showed clinical signs of an unknown disease. While it does not appear to be decimating populations, the possible presence of pathogenic disease warrants special consideration.	eng
56324	conservation		The species was previously protected in Parque Nacional Laguna Blanca; however, it is now extirpated in this park because of the introduction of predatory fishes and habitat loss. Three of the subspecies lack any protection, and habitat protection is urgently needed as are measures to prevent the future introduction of predatory fish species.	eng
56324	distribution		This species is endemic to north-western Argentinean Patagonia, and has been recorded from a number of localities in Neuquen Province. The altitudinal range is from 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
56324	habitat		It lives on the ground under stones and in humid ravines surrounding small-scattered lagoons, in volcanic tablelands, with steppe and semi-desert landscapes; it is presumed to breed in the lagoons. The species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
56324	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56324	threats		The main threat is the introduction of predatory fishes (perch and salmonids) in Laguna Blanca, but it is also threatened by the loss of pond side vegetation through overgrazing and trampling by livestock (sheep).	eng
56325	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are necessary to determine the limits of the range of this species in this unexplored and remote area.	eng
56325	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality pond, Laguna de los Gendarmes (46° 6'S; 71° 41'W; ca 1,050m asl), and other nearby ponds in south-western Argentinean Patagonia (north-west of Santa Cruz Province). It is known only from a single plateau.	eng
56325	habitat		Its habitat comprises permanent and endorreic lagoons at approximately 1,000m asl in the hilly landscape of the Patagonian steppe, and the temperate deciduous austral beech forest (<em>Nothofagus pumilio</em>). Breeding takes place in permanent ponds. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
56325	population		It is a common species.	eng
56325	threats		The region where this species occurs is relatively remote, and is not currently experiencing any threats.	eng
56326	conservation		Further survey work is needed to confirm whether or not the species still survives at the type locality or if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality (although it is not a safe area to conduct fieldwork at present). If the species still survives, restoration and protection of its habitat will be necessary for its survival, since the type locality is not within any protected area.	eng
56326	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, 8km east of Sonsón, in the Cordillera Central, in the department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 2,780m asl. It might be more widespread, but it is difficult at present to survey in surrounding areas due to security problems.	eng
56326	habitat		The species was recorded on wet rocks very close to the surface of the stream in primary forest.	eng
56326	population		It is known only from three specimens, and while there have been at least a dozen surveys of the type locality since its first description they have all failed to find the species. It has not been seen again since it was first described.	eng
56326	threats		Unfortunately, the habitat of the type locality has been quite degraded, largely as a result of guerrilla activities.	eng
56327	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56327	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador from 50-900m asl.	eng
56327	habitat		It inhabits Western Ecuador Moist Forests in the Western Tropical Altitudinal Zone. Individuals are usually found in the leaf-litter. It can also be found in altered areas (secondary forest), but it is still restricted to habitats with leaf-litter. It breeds by direct development, and lays its eggs on leaf-litter.	eng
56327	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
56327	threats		Infrastructure development for human settlement, and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
56328	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56328	distribution		This species is endemic to the Cerrado of central Brazil, and is known from the states of Goiás, Tocantins, and Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from 500-1,500m asl.	eng
56328	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of gallery forests and open areas in the Cerrado. It breeds in the leaf-litter and breeds by direct development. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
56328	population		It is a common species.	eng
56328	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution, fires and dam construction are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
56329	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Nacional de Junin. Measures are urgently required to control and manage the offtake of this species from the wild.	eng
56329	distribution		This species' geographic range comprises the small tributaries of Lake Junin, and highlands and neighbouring cordilleras of Junin and Pasco Departments in central Peru. It occurs at an altitude of approximately 4,000m asl.	eng
56329	habitat		This is a semi-aquatic riparian species, found in small tributaries of Lake Junin but not in the lake itself.	eng
56329	population		It can be abundant where it occurs, but appears to have declined.	eng
56329	threats		The main threat to the species is exploitation for food and medicine.	eng
56330	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	More than ten protected areas are present within the range of this species in Chile and Argentina. National legislation to preserve <em>Nothofagus</em> forest at all latitudes is needed.	eng
56330	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is endemic to the austral forest of Chile and Argentina; it is distributed from Mehuin (39° 25’S) to the Virtudes Islands (51° 31’S). Its altitudinal range is from 50-1,000m asl.	eng
56330	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It can be found in very humid temperate to cold forests, bogs and wetlands surrounded by forests, shores of ponds, and lakes surrounded with swamps. Adults of this species also climb at <em>Nothofagus trees</em>. Eggs are laid on the ground under logs or moss. After rain, these areas are flooded and the tadpoles develop in flood water. The species can occur in lightly modified habitats such as rural gardens.	eng
56330	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is locally distributed and abundant in some localities. It was last seen in 2003.	eng
56330	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	Destruction and degradation of native forests (deforestation, fires and land use) are a major threat.	eng
56331	conservation		The population occurs in a highly protected area in Parque Nacional Los Alerces. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its restricted range.	eng
56331	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (Isla Grande in Menendez Lake, 42° 40'S; 71° 51'W), an island completely protected in Parque Nacional Los Alerces, Chubut Province, Argentina. It occurs at 500m asl.	eng
56331	habitat		It can be found in very humid temperate forest dominated by <em>Nothofagus</em>. Its breeding habitat is not known, but it may breed within small temporary pools. It is not known whether or not it can occur in modified habitats.	eng
56331	population		This species is locally common within its restricted range.	eng
56331	threats		There are no current threats at the type locality, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56332	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Ramón Formas, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. Legislation to preserve the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.	eng
56332	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Ramón Formas, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is endemic to the austral temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. It is distributed from Concepción (36° 47'S) to Coihaique (45° 33'S). It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,000m asl.	eng
56332	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Ramón Formas, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is widely distributed in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest with Mediterranean or oceanic influences; humid temperate forests; bogs, marshes and wetlands surrounded by forest; shores of ponds and lakes surrounded with swamps. It may be found under logs; males calls from crevices under moss close to streams. Eggs are deposited under logs or moss; following rain the egg deposition site becomes flooded and larvae develop in the floodwater. It tolerates some deforestation.	eng
56332	population	Carmen Úbeda, Ramón Formas, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is common in pristine habitats. There are large populations of this species.	eng
56332	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Ramón Formas, Helen Díaz-Paéz, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	There is some habitat destruction and degradation including exotic tree plantations and human settlements, mainly in the north part of the range.	eng
56333	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, 2008	It occurs in at least two protected areas.	eng
56333	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, 2008	This species is known from four localities: Puente Traihuanca (approximately at 46° 25'S; 72° 04'W), Laguna San Rafael, and Kent and Melchor Islands, Aisen Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is from 0-500m asl. Its distribution might be larger than currently understood.	eng
56333	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, 2008	This species can be found in steppe habitat in valleys surrounded by forest of <em>Nothofagus antartica</em>, <em>N. betuloides</em> and <em>Drymis winteri</em>, and it shows tolerance to deforestation. It is often found below logs and rocks and in shrub habitat. Eggs are laid under logs or moss. After rain, the area becomes flooded and larvae develop in the water.	eng
56333	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, 2008	It was found to be abundant in two localities in 1999.	eng
56333	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Helen Díaz-Paéz, 2008	This species is threatened by predation by introduced mink (<em>Mustela vison</em>).	eng
56334	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The species occurs in many national parks and reserves of Chile and Argentina. The northernmost populations of Chile are listed as "Vulnerable" (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998). National legislation to preserve the native forest and environment is needed.	eng
56334	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is distributed in Chile and Argentina with a wide latitudinal range in the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest region: approximately 1,600km between 32° 30'S and 46°S. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
56334	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, from <em>Acacia</em> steppe to Valdivian rainforest, and from temperate to cold conditions. Actual limits of distribution appear to be determined by restrictions on the reproductive process, imposed by total annual rainfall in the north and by minimum temperatures in the south. The species generally occurs in association with breeding sites (temporary or permanent shallow ponds surrounded with swamps and bogs). Northern populations of this species (in Central Chile) live in relictual forests. It may be found in marshes (swamps) of the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Males call from under bushes and eggs are laid under logs and in the leaf-litter inside the forest; following rain, the deposition area becomes flooded and larvae develop in water. It tolerates minor habitat disturbance.	eng
56334	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is generally a common species. Northern Chilean populations are declining due to habitat destruction.	eng
56334	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	The most impacted subpopulations are those of the north, which are affected by deforestation for cattle ranching and human settlements. Due to its wide distribution, major threats differ between regions, but include many forms of agriculture and wood plantations.	eng
56335	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56335	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil occurs from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul, and inland to the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56335	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and forest edge, but not outside the forest. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, ponds, and occasionally swimming pools. The tadpoles only eat the tadpoles of other species.	eng
56335	population		It is not a common species, and is hard to find, but can appear to be more abundant if it is looked for at the right time.	eng
56335	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting and human settlement, as well as harvesting for the national and international pet trade, which might be locally unsustainable.	eng
56336	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Morrocoy in Venezuela, and in several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
56336	distribution		This species occurs in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela (where it has been reported from the States of Falcón, Lara, Mérida and Zulia, and is expected from Trujillo). A record from Apure State, east of the Andes in Venezuela, is doubtful and requires confirmation; it is not mapped here. It is a species of low altitudes occuring from sea level up to 500m asl.	eng
56336	habitat		It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species that lives in grasslands and open environments, including semi-arid habitats. They make jelly nests in water and the carnivorous tadpoles develop in temporary pools. It is an opportunistic species, breeding when conditions become suitable.	eng
56336	population		It is generally an uncommon species. It can be abundant in certain localities, but its distribution appears to be patchy, there are sometimes several kilometres between populations, even in apparently suitable habitat. This species was listed as having experienced population declines by Vial and Saylor (1993), but there is little evidence to support this view.	eng
56336	threats		It might be adversely affected by droughts, and the national and international pet trade might have a local impact. Agriculture and livestock grazing in the eastern part of its range might also affect it.	eng
56337	conservation		The range of this species includes many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. The distribution of the species in Venezuela in not known with certainty, and is the reason why we do not know whether or not some populations live within protected areas.	eng
56337	distribution		This species geographic range exists from Amazonian Basin of Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, southern Venezuela (although there are no specimens to confirm as yet), Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 0-400m asl.	eng
56337	habitat		This species can be found in open environments in forested areas and on the ground in leaf-litter within old growth rainforest. At Santa Cecilia, one specimen was found sitting on the ground in secondary forest at the night (Duellman, 1978). Rodríguez and Duellman (1994) observed that this terrestrial, nocturnal frog backs into leaf-litter so that only the head is visible, in this position it waits for passing prey. It breeds in pools.	eng
56337	population		It is a rare to locally common species.	eng
56337	threats		The major threats are not known, although the species could be of interest to the pet trade, which might affect some populations.	eng
56338	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56338	distribution		This species' geographic range is from the Chacoan region of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. It has an altitudinal range of up to 700m asl.	eng
56338	habitat		It is a fossorial species. It breeds explosively during the first heavy rains of the year. In Cordoba, Argentina, it does not reproduce every year. The eggs are scattered on the bottom of the ponds and it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
56338	population		It is a common species, but it is seldom found during the dry season. It is declining in the southern portion of the range due to persecution.	eng
56338	threats		Local human populations persecute this species because of unfounded beliefs that it is venomous. It is also collected for the international pet trade. Eggs are sold internationally for scientific research.	eng
56339	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56339	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in north-eastern Brazil: Joazeiro, in the northern part of the state of Bahia; and Cabaceiras, in the state of Paraiba. It presumably occurs more widely, including in the intervening area between these two localities. All records have been from about 200m asl.	eng
56339	habitat		It is a species of dry Caatinga savannah, which presumably breeds in temporary ponds by larval development.	eng
56339	population		There is no information on this species' population status, since it is known from only a few specimens. Since it cannot be easily distinguished morphologically, it is probably under-recorded.	eng
56339	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species, but it is possibly affected by agricultural expansion, and especially by over-grazing by livestock. It is possibly also present in the national and international pet trade.	eng
56340	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
56340	distribution		This species can be found in the Pampean region of Argentina (Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Entre Ríos, La Pampa, Mendoza and Santa Fe), Uruguay (Rocha and San José), and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 0-500m asl.	eng
56340	habitat		This frog occurs in grasslands on the ground near temporary waterbodies, and also occurs in roadside ditches and in irrigated cropland. The eggs are laid on the bottom of temporary ponds.	eng
56340	population		It has apparently disappeared from at least two sites in Uruguay (Rocha, in Laguna de Castillos, and San Jose, in Delta del Tigre). It is rare in Argentina.	eng
56340	threats		Habitat loss (due to agricultural development and housing development) is a major threat, as is water and soil pollution due to agriculture, industry, and human settlement. It is sometimes subject to persecution because of unfounded beliefs that it is venomous. It is also collected for the international pet trade and its eggs are sold internationally for scientific research.	eng
56341	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Machililla and Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute in Ecuador, and the Zona Reservada de Tumbes in Peru. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species in Peru.	eng
56341	distribution		This species is found in xeric environments of north-western Peru (Departamento Tumbes) and the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (Guayas and Manabi Provinces). Two subspecies are recognized: <em>C. s. scaphiopeza</em> in Ecuador, and <em>C. s. stolzmanni</em> in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 0-100m asl.	eng
56341	habitat		The habitat where some individuals have been collected can be described as tropical scrub, which is usually fairly open with a few trees, but remains green for about half the year. Other specimens have been collected in an open and sandy desert, with scattered, low, desert vegetation, and trees that are absent except in or near temporary streambeds (Peters 1967). It lives below ground when not breeding, but is an explosive breeder during good rains (with breeding taking place in water).	eng
56341	population		It is a very rare species, but has been recorded in the last few years in Ecuador. There is no information on its population status in Peru.	eng
56341	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (especially cattle ranching), logging, and human settlement. Soil pollution, due to agrochemicals, also represents a threat.	eng
56342	conservation		Its taxonomic status should be reviewed, in particular in relation to <em>Ceratophrys cornuta</em> (Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.).	eng
56342	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the headwaters of the Pastaza River, in Napo Province, eastern Ecuador. The exact altitude of this site is unclear, though it is clearly a montane locality.	eng
56342	habitat		This is presumably a montane forest species. If it is similar to other species in its genus, it is an explosive breeder in ephemeral pools.	eng
56342	population		This species has not been seen since the original collection in the 1940s, though this is probably related to the lack of survey effort, and its elusive nature.	eng
56342	threats		There is no precise information, owing to uncertainty relating to the exact location of the type locality.	eng
56343	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas: Kaa-Iya in Bolivia, and PN Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay. Occurs in the Chancani Provincial Reserve, the Formosa Natural Reserve, Teuquito Multiple Use Reserve in Argentina.	eng
56343	distribution		This species can be found in the Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 70-200m asl.	eng
56343	habitat		This species can be found in Chaco dry shrubland and gallery forest. It is an explosive breeder during the first heavy rains, breeding in temporary ponds. outside breeding season adults remain buried underground. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
56343	population		It is not well known from Bolivia and Paraguay, but the Argentinian populations appear to be large and widespread. This species is rarely seen except when juveniles leave ponds where they develop.	eng
56343	threats		It is collected for the international pet trade, and subject to heavy collecting during the breeding season. It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.	eng
56344	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi and Parque Estadual do Forno Grande.	eng
56344	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in south-eastern Brazil at around 650m asl in the state of Espírito Santo: Santa Teresa and Castelo. It presumably occurs between these two localities, and probably more widely.	eng
56344	habitat		It is confined to forest, where it is arboreal, living in epiphytic bromeliads. Breeding is by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
56344	population		It is a common species.	eng
56344	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, especially due to the collection of bromeliads, and also due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and tourism, though some of its habitat is quite well protected.	eng
56345	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
56345	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Santa Teresa, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 675m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
56345	habitat		Its habitat is terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads near the ground inside forests and on the forest edge, but not in more degraded habitats. Breeding is by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
56345	population		It is a common species.	eng
56345	threats		The area where it is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby, due to agricultural development, wood plantations, bromeliad-collecting, logging, human settlement and tourism.	eng
56346	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56346	distribution		This species is known only from Alto Macae, Nova Friburgo, at 1,200m asl in the state of Rio de Janeiro, in south-eastern Brazil. Records from Santa Teresa in the state of Espirito Santo do not refer to this species (Peixoto pers. comm.).	eng
56346	habitat		If it is like other members of its genus, it presumably lives in bromeliads in forests, and perhaps also on rock outcrops, but not in more degraded habitats. It presumably breeds by larval development in bromeliads.	eng
56346	population		It has not been recorded since the type series was collected in 1909.	eng
56346	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by the collection of bromeliads, and by human settlement.	eng
56347	conservation	Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56347	distribution	Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	This species from south-eastern Brazil is known only from the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, where it occurs between 800 and 1,200m asl.	eng
56347	habitat	Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	The species is associated to streams, where individuals can be found on rocks near streams, in shallow water, soil and leaf litter (Jordão-Nogueira et al., 2006), in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in streams.<br/><br/>Individuals are mostly active by day, but also exhibit some nocturnal activity. The species feeds on arthropods, with beetles, ants, dipterans and insect larvae being the predominant items. Females have been found to contain between 70-127 unpigmented vitelogenic eggs (Jordão-Nogueira et al., 2006).	eng
56347	population	Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	Jordão-Nogueira et al. (2006) report on 37 individuals collected between late September and early October 2004.	eng
56347	threats	Bruno Pimenta, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	The main threat to this species is loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism.	eng
56348	conservation		It is now only known from Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó. Population monitoring is urgently needed for this species.	eng
56348	distribution		This species is known from Santana do Riacho in the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in south-eastern Brazil, from 800-1,000m asl.	eng
56348	habitat		This species lives in primary and secondary forest on the ground on the edges of permanent streams with sandy and rocky bottoms and with grass and shrubs on the borders. It breeds in the streams.	eng
56348	population		It is not a very common species. Populations outside the protected area in which it occurs appear to have disappeared even from apparently undisturbed streams. A few individuals were recorded from a stream inside the park in 2001. It might still be persisting in some streams in the park, but more surveys are needed to confirm its current population status.	eng
56348	threats		The main threats to it are loss of habitat as a result of wood extraction, livestock grazing, human settlement, tourism and fire.	eng
56349	conservation	Gabriel Skuk, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It occurs in at least three protected areas.	eng
56349	distribution	Gabriel Skuk, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	This species occurs in the southern and central part of the State of São Paulo, in southeastern Brazil at around 800m asl. Its altitudinal range is presumably wider than this.	eng
56349	habitat	Gabriel Skuk, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It lives on the ground near streams, on in the water, in primary and secondary forest. It is a diurnal species. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are placed in crevices under rocks or stones.	eng
56349	population	Gabriel Skuk, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It is very common in its relatively restricted range.	eng
56349	threats	Gabriel Skuk, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	The main threats are loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. In addition, the species has recently tested positive for the chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).	eng
56350	conservation		It occurs in the Estación Ecológica Murici.	eng
56350	distribution		This species is known only from Murici, in the state of Alagoas, north-eastern Brasil, at 600m asl.	eng
56350	habitat		It presumably lives in forest and breeds in streams, like its congeners.	eng
56350	population		There is no information on its population status. It has not been seen since it was first collected.	eng
56350	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood extraction and human settlement. The area where it is found is also suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction of forest patches.	eng
56351	conservation		This species occurs in some protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not it is declining even where suitable habitats survive, and whether or not chytridiomycosis is involved.	eng
56351	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from southern Brazil, mostly from the state of Sao Paulo, but also from south-western Minas Gerais State and south-western Rio de Janeiro State. It used to be found at the biological station at Boraceia in Sao Paulo, but can no longer be found there, having last been seen around 1980, despite subsequent searches. It is, however, still found in other places. Its altitudinal range is 500-2,000m asl. It has also been recorded from the Argentinean province of Misiones (a single specimen from 1961), but this record probably refers to another species.	eng
56351	habitat		This diurnal species occurs in and near rocky streams, in which it breeds, or marshy areas with slow-flowing water, in primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in open areas.	eng
56351	population		This species is uncommon. The population at Boraceia disappeared, despite apparently having suitable habitat remaining. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.	eng
56351	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. It is perhaps also affected by soil and water pollution due to agricultural and industrial practices. However, it appears that this species might also have experienced some unexplained declines in areas of suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as the cause.	eng
56352	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species is declining in the higher altitude parts of its range, even where suitable habitats survive.	eng
56352	distribution		This species occurs in southeastern Brazil in the States of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, from sea level to 1,800m asl. It used to be found at the biological station at Boraceia in Sao Paulo, but can no longer be found there; it was last seen around 1980, despite subsequent searches. It is, however, still found in other places.	eng
56352	habitat		It lives in and near rocky streams in primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in open areas. It breeds in streams and the eggs are placed in crevices under rocks and stones.	eng
56352	population		It is a very common species. The population at Boraceia disappeared (last seen in 1979), despite apparently having suitable habitat remaining, as well as the population at Santa Teresa. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.	eng
56352	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, tourism and fire. It is perhaps also affected by soil and water due to agricultural and industrial practices. However, it appears that the species might also have experienced some unexplained declines in areas of suitable habitat in the higher altitude parts of its range. Such declines are potentially ominous, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56353	conservation		Parque Nacional do Itatiaia is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
56353	distribution		This species is known only from two high-altitude localities in southern Brazil: Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, at Itamonte, in the state of Minas Gerais; and the Serra da Bocaina, in the northern part of the state of Sao Paulo. It might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-2,200m asl.	eng
56353	habitat		This species lives on the ground near fast-flowing streams in high-altitude grasslands. It breeds in the streams by larval development.	eng
56353	population		It is not common, but it can be found when being surveyed for.	eng
56353	threats		Its major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism and fire. It might also be adversely affected by freezing ice in the montane grasslands.	eng
56354	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56354	distribution		This species is known only from Fazenda Água Branca, in the state of Bahia, in eastern Brazil, close to sea level.	eng
56354	habitat		It presumably lives close to, and breeds in, streams in forest, like its congeners.	eng
56354	population		There is no information on its current population status. There have been no records since it was first collected.	eng
56354	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging and human settlement.	eng
56355	conservation		It occurs in Parque Estadual Rio Guarani, Brazil, and in Argentina in the Reserva de la Biósfera Yabotí, Parque Nacional Iguazú, and several provincial reserves.	eng
56355	distribution		This species can be found from 300-750m asl in Misiones, Argentina; Tres Baras de Paraná, Paraná, Brazil (here, its range is severely fragmented); and Itapua Department, Paraguay.	eng
56355	habitat		It occurs near permanent streams (in which it breeds) in rainforest, and probably does not tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
56355	population		It is common in its limited range.	eng
56355	threats		Threats to this species include selective logging, clear-cutting of primary forests, pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices, and industrial pollution by organic wastes. The introduction and spread of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> is also a threat to this species.	eng
56356	conservation	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species disappeared from a protected area in Belo Horizonte. It is, however, still present at the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça (Canelas and Bertoluci, 2007).	eng
56356	distribution	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species is known from Lagoa Santa, Belo Horizonte and Serra do Caraça, at 700-900m asl in the southern part of the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil. It could occur in other places, but it has not so far been discovered elsewhere.	eng
56356	habitat	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	It lives on the ground near streams inside forest, and breeds in the streams.	eng
56356	population	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	Two of the three known populations disappeared in the mid 1980s, the surviving population is from Serra do Caraça, with records dating from 2001-2002.	eng
56356	threats	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	There has been a huge urban expansion within this species' known range, with much forest being lost, and streams becoming polluted.	eng
56357	conservation		Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56357	distribution		This species’ geographic range is in the Serra do Mar in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 300-800m asl.	eng
56357	habitat		It was found in Atlantic forest fragments, at fast-running streams rushing over rocks. Adults and juveniles were found in the water and larvae were attached to rocks in the splash zone.	eng
56357	population		It was last collected in the late 1970s and recent surveys have failed to record it.	eng
56357	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown. It has apparently disappeared from seemingly suitable habitat. It is possibly threatened by tourism.	eng
56358	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional do Caparaó. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56358	distribution		This species is known only from the Pico de Bandeira, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, from 2,450-2,740m asl.	eng
56358	habitat		It was found by the side of a stream in montane grassland. If it is like other species of <em>Cycloramphus</em>, the larvae live on rocks out of water in the splash zones of waterfalls.	eng
56358	population		It is known from only two specimens collected in 1977 and 1980. The lack of subsequent records appears to be related to a lack of surveys, and there is insufficient information to know whether or not this species is common or rare.	eng
56358	threats		The main threat is probably habitat loss due to fire.	eng
56359	conservation		This species occurs in municipal parks that do not offer much protection. The creation of new protected areas is therefore needed.	eng
56359	distribution		This species can be found in the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina, Brazil, from 800-1,000m asl.	eng
56359	habitat		This is a terrestrial species that occurs in leaf-litter in rainforest. It probably lays eggs on the ground where larvae hatch and develop, away from water.	eng
56359	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in 2003.	eng
56359	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation arising from agricultural development and logging is a major threat.	eng
56360	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Improvement of law enforcement within protected areas to prevent habitat loss due to infrastructure development is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
56360	distribution		This species occurs in the Serra do Mar in the southeastern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro and the northern half of the state of São Paulo, including the offshore islands of Ilha Grande and São Sebastião. It occurs up to 800m asl. It is no longer known from the type locality, Boracéia, where some other species have also declined or disappeared in suitable habitat.	eng
56360	habitat		This species is common on the wet rocky faces of small streams in primary and secondary forest. Larvae were collected from the wet seeping rock walls. It has not been collected outside forest.	eng
56360	population		It is a common species. There is no longer a population at Boracéia (it was last recorded there in 1988), but it has not been observed to decline elsewhere. This decline is reminiscent of disappearances of stream-breeding, high-altitude frog species in other parts of the wet tropics.	eng
56360	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, and this is even taking place in some protected areas, even though illegal. However, it appears that the species might also have experienced an unexplained decline in an area of apparently suitable habitat in a higher altitude part of its range. Such a decline is potentially ominous, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56361	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas, but there remains a need for improved conservation and maintenance of existing habitat.	eng
56361	distribution		This species is known from the Serra dos Órgãos and Serra da Mantiqueira, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, from 800-1,200m asl.	eng
56361	habitat		It occurs on rock wall seeps and in forest streams in primary and good quality secondary forest. Larvae have been observed on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams.	eng
56361	population		This is not a common species.	eng
56361	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat, and this is taking place in some protected areas, even though this is illegal.	eng
56362	conservation		The one known locality for this species is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56362	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Alto Itatiaia, very close to the borders of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro States, in Brazil, at around 2,200m asl.	eng
56362	habitat		It presumably lives in leaf-litter, like other species in the genus, and breeds by larval development.	eng
56362	population		It is currently known from only two specimens.	eng
56362	threats		The major threats are unknown, although the type locality is in a protected area, affording the species some indirect level of protection.	eng
56363	conservation		The type locality is very close to Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56363	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Quecaba, Aguas Mornas, in Santa Catarina, Brazil, from 300-500m asl.	eng
56363	habitat		It occurs in Atlantic forest, probably in streams, in which it is likely to breed.	eng
56363	population		Its population status is unknown, since it was collected over 50 years ago.	eng
56363	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
56364	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, so the creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56364	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (Rio dos Cedros) in Santa Catarina State, Brazil, from 300-350m asl.	eng
56364	habitat		It is found in the rainforest, in fast-flowing rocky streams. It reproduces in streams and the larvae are found on rocks in the splash zone.	eng
56364	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in the late 1970s, and recent visits to type locality have failed to detect this species.	eng
56364	threats		Habitat loss due to logging and development of hydroelectricity infrastructure is a significant threat.	eng
56365	conservation		Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56365	distribution		This species can be found in the Serra do Mar in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil.	eng
56365	habitat		This species occurs on the forest floor of the rainforest. Reproduction is presumably by larval development.	eng
56365	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in 1950 and is known from only about six specimens.	eng
56365	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
56366	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, and population status is needed, in particular to determine whether or not its range is much larger than currently known.	eng
56366	distribution		This species is known from the eastern state of São Paulo, in Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,000m asl.	eng
56366	habitat		This species occurs on stones in primary and good quality secondary forest streams. Larvae are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams. It has not been recorded outside forested habitat.	eng
56366	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56366	threats		Air and water pollution from industry, and disturbance of the species' habitat by touristic activities are major threats.	eng
56367	conservation		It possibly occurs in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi, but this needs to be confirmed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56367	distribution		This species is known only from Casa Ypiranga in the Serro do Mar, near Morretes, in the state of Parana in southern Brazil, at around 600m asl. The type series was collected along the Curitiba-Paranagua railway.	eng
56367	habitat		The type series was collected in crevices and cracks in the vertical cliffs along the railway. If it is like other species of <em>Cycloramphus</em>, the larvae live on rocks in the splash zones of waterfalls and streams in rocky areas in and around forest.	eng
56367	population		It is known only from the type series, and searches since 1982 have failed to find any individuals.	eng
56367	threats		It might be impacted by tourism.	eng
56368	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56368	distribution		This species is known from parts of the Serra do Mar (including the Serra dos Órgãos, the Serra da Mantiqueira, and the Serra da Bocaina), in Brazil. It has been recorded between 100-1,100m asl.	eng
56368	habitat		It is restricted to forest, where it lives on the ground and is usually not associated with water. Its breeding habits are not known, though reproduction is presumably by terrestrial larval development. Advertisement and territorial calls are reported in Brasileiro et al. (2007).	eng
56368	population		It might be common but it is a very cryptic species, so it is very difficult to study.	eng
56368	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development might be a localized threat to this species, but its range overlaps with many protected areas.	eng
56369	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56369	distribution		This species occurs along the Atlantic coast of Brazil from the southeastern part of the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56369	habitat		This nocturnal species lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas, where it lives on stones at the margins of forest streams, where it breeds. The tadpoles develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls.	eng
56369	population		It is generally a common species. In the State of Rio de Janeiro, it was very common, then apparently disappeared for no obvious reason, and then reappeared and is now very common again.	eng
56369	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fire and human settlement.	eng
56370	conservation		Both areas where this species is found are within protected areas. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate it and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56370	distribution		This species is known from portions of the Serra da Bocaina (part of the Serra do Mar) and Itatiaia (in the Serra da Mantiqueira), in the northern coastal region of São Paulo State and the southern tip of Rio de Janeiro State, in Brazil. It occurs at around 800m asl.	eng
56370	habitat		This is a stream-associated species that occurs near waterfalls in forest. Larvae are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks, in or next to streams. At night this species often retreats into rock crevices.	eng
56370	population		Its population status is unknown, and it has not been collected for over twenty years, despite occasional searches.	eng
56370	threats		Its major threats are unknown, but the habitat of the known localities for this species is enclosed within protected areas.	eng
56371	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas, but not in any that are adequately managed.	eng
56371	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Mar in the states of São Paulo and Santa Catarina, in southern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Records from the state of Paraná require confirmation.	eng
56371	habitat		This species is associated with fast-flowing streams in primary and old secondary forest. The larvae develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls.	eng
56371	population		It is locally common in Santa Catarina State, where the populations appear to be stable where suitable habitat survives. There is little recent information from São Paulo State.	eng
56371	threats		The major threats to the known sites for this species are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism, dam construction and human settlement. A wider set of threats, such as agricultural development and logging, might impact other sites where this species has not yet been discovered.	eng
56372	conservation		The type locality is within a protected area (although it is not known exactly which one). Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56372	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State, Brazil. This locality is at 1,700m asl.	eng
56372	habitat		It presumably occurs in leaf-litter in forest and breeds by larval development.	eng
56372	population		This species is known from only one specimen.	eng
56372	threats		The threats are unknown, but the type locality is within a protected area.	eng
56373	conservation		Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins is the only protected area from which this species is currently known. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records.	eng
56373	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins, in Iguape, São Paulo State, Brazil. The type locality is at around 200m asl.	eng
56373	habitat		This species was found in a waterfall habitat at the edge of the rainforest. Males called from steep rock surfaces or in rock crevices, sitting near or under waterfalls. Larvae are presumably found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams, as with other species in the genus.	eng
56373	population		It has not been recorded again since it was first collected, so its population status remains unknown.	eng
56373	threats		The major threats are unknown, but its known range is within a protected area. Some other Cycloramphus species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56374	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Gaia in Paraná State. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56374	distribution		This species occurs in the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, in southern Brazil, at 500-900m asl.	eng
56374	habitat		This species is associated with fast-flowing streams and waterfalls in primary and old secondary forest. It sometimes hide in rock crevices. The larvae presumably develop out of the water in the splash zone of waterfalls, as is the case with other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species.	eng
56374	population		It has not been found since the original collections, when it was common. It is not known whether or not the lack of recent records is due to insufficient survey effort, or whether or not there might have been a genuine decline.	eng
56374	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, tourism and human settlement.	eng
56375	conservation		Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56375	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil; near Fazenda Unacau in São José da Vitória Municipality; and from a locality in Uruçuca Municipality (Dixo and Verdade 2004). It occurs up to 180m asl.	eng
56375	habitat		The type specimen was collected among rocks about 100m from a stream. The large distance between the collection site and the stream suggests that it is not stream-dependent, and the species' morphology is similar to that of the other forest floor species with terrestrial larvae, such as <em>Cycloramphus stejnegeri</em>.	eng
56375	population		There is no information and there have been very few records.	eng
56375	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, fire and human settlement.	eng
56376	conservation		It occurs in Parque Estadual Serra da Graciosa. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56376	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, São João da Graciosa, in the Serra do Mar in the state of Paraná, Brazil, from 50-150m asl.	eng
56376	habitat		This species occurs in fast-flowing rocky streams, in which it reproduces, in lowland forest.	eng
56376	population		Its population status is unknown. It has not been collected since the original collection in the late 1970s, despite survey efforts since 1986.	eng
56376	threats		It is possibly threatened by tourism.	eng
56377	conservation		Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56377	distribution		This species is known from the Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-1,200m asl.	eng
56377	habitat		It is a forest species associated with streams. Reproduction is presumably by larval development in or near streams.	eng
56377	population		It was found to be common within its known range in the 1970s. However surveys in the past few years have not found any individuals. Surveys of the neighbouring suitable habitat are needed to establish whether or not it occurs there.	eng
56377	threats		The known range of this species is within a protected area, so there are no known threats to its habitat, and the reason for the apparent decline is still unknown (but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out).	eng
56378	conservation		It occurs in Serra da Graciosa State Park. The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records.	eng
56378	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, São João da Graciosa, Serra do Mar in the state of Paraná, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 50-150m asl.	eng
56378	habitat		It occurs in fast-flowing rocky streams in lowland forest and it reproduces in streams.	eng
56378	population		The population is unknown. It has not been collected since the original collection in the late 1970s.	eng
56378	threats		The major threats are unknown. It is possibly threatened by tourism. Some other Cycloramphus species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56379	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Further research into the cause of the recent declines is needed.	eng
56379	distribution		This species is known from Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo, in Brazil, from about 800m asl.	eng
56379	habitat		This species is found under, or on top of, rocks in or next to small forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It presumably has larvae that are found on rocks that are covered with a film of running water, either on exposed rocks in or next to streams, like other members of the genus.	eng
56379	population		This is a reasonably common species; however, there has been an unexplained decline over its whole range recently. It was once common in Boracéia, but has been considered locally extinct there since 1988.	eng
56379	threats		There is a steel works on the coast that pollutes the water, which might be affecting local populations. The reason for the observed decline is currently unknown, but chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56380	conservation		This species' known range is within Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos.	eng
56380	distribution		This species is known from only a few localities in a small region of the Serra dos Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It is known from relatively high altitudes.	eng
56380	habitat		This species is usually found under leaf-litter in forest, or sometimes in burrows, but it has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. The eggs are laid under leaf-litter in burrows or under logs. It has terrestrial larvae which live away from water.	eng
56380	population		The population status of this species is unknown, but it is not regularly encountered when collecting.	eng
56380	threats		The major threats are unknown, but known localities are within protected areas.	eng
56381	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra. Given the declines of high-altitude stream-breeding species in other parts of the wet tropics, surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and to assess its status, especially in view of the lack of recent records. Some other <em>Cycloramphus</em> species have declined for unexplained reasons, and so it is an urgent priority to rediscover populations of this species.	eng
56381	distribution		This species’ geographic range is the most southerly extent of the Serra Geral in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where it is found from 400-900m asl.	eng
56381	habitat		This species occurs in rainforest in fast-moving rocky streams, in which it reproduces. The larvae attach themselves to rocks in the splash zone.	eng
56381	population		It has not been recorded since 1982, perhaps due to a lack of survey work.	eng
56381	threats		Road construction has altered streams where this species was once found, and might constitute a threat to it.	eng
56382	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56382	distribution		This species is restricted to a single locality on top of the Marahuaca tepui, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,550m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56382	habitat		It occurs in a high montane environment on top of the tepui. Its breeding habits are not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56382	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56382	threats		There is no direct information.	eng
56383	conservation		It occurs within Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca.	eng
56383	distribution		This species is known from Vegas Falls from the summit of Mount Duida, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at 1,402m asl. It might also occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56383	habitat		It inhabits the foothills of the montane tepui environment. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
56383	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56383	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56384	conservation		It might occur in the Reserva Comunal El Sira, which is an indigenous people's reserve.	eng
56384	distribution		This species can be found in Huancabamba, Pasco Department, and Huánuco Department, in central Peru. Further investigations might reveal that this cryptic species has a wider range. Its altitudinal range is 220-1,000m asl.	eng
56384	habitat		This is a terrestrial leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical moist forest. It probably breeds in a foam nest at the edge of temporary ponds.	eng
56384	population		This cryptic species is known only from a few specimens.	eng
56384	threats		General localized threats to it are habitat clearance for smallholder agricultural development, and for coffee and other cash crop plantations.	eng
56385	conservation		It is present in protected areas throughout much of its range.	eng
56385	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazonian lowlands of Peru (Departments of Amazonas, Huánuco, Junin, Loreto, Pasco, Madre de Dios, and San Martin), Amazonian Ecuador, southern Colombia, and adjacent western Brazil. It might occur in Bolivia, although this requires further investigation. It has an altitudinal range of 100-1,100m asl.	eng
56385	habitat		This is a diurnal, leaf-litter species of lowland and premontane tropical and floodplain forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It breeds in foam nests and deposits eggs in temporary ponds. It is also present in disturbed and secondary forest.	eng
56385	population		This species is abundant and common.	eng
56385	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56386	conservation		In Peru, the area of the range has been proposed as a Priority by the Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Colombia it is present in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu; Parque Nacional El Pure and Parque Nacional Cahuinari.	eng
56386	distribution		This species can be found in Colonia Departmento (Loreto), northeastern Peru and Amazonas in southeastern Colombia. Its altitudinal range is below 200m asl. The limits of its distribution are not very well known, and it can be expected to range more widely.	eng
56386	habitat		It inhabits closed-canopy (wide leaved) flooding forest with and wide leaves. Generally, it is present close to forest streams. It is present in secondary forest, but it is not known if it can occur in degraded forest.	eng
56386	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56386	threats		There are no major threats and there are large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56387	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56387	distribution		This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,818m asl.	eng
56387	habitat		It inhabits mesic woods and forests, and open habitats, usually found under ground litter, logs and trash. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development. It is also found in urban areas.	eng
56387	population		It is very common in forested, non-forested and urban areas.	eng
56387	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
56388	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
56388	distribution		This species is known from Cauca department, northwards to Antioquia department, in cloud forests on the western flanks of the Western Andes, in Colombia, from 2,000-2,600m asl.	eng
56388	habitat		This species is found on vegetation in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It is a direct developing species. It is not known from open habitats and requires dense vegetation.	eng
56388	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56388	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56389	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed.	eng
56389	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality and its vicinity between Papallacta and Cuyuja in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,660-2,750m asl. It probably occurs elsewhere, though it is unlikely to be a widespread species.	eng
56389	habitat		It occurs in upper montane cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development. There is no information on its adaptability to disturbed habitats.	eng
56389	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
56389	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation due to agricultural development, creation of plantations, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56390	conservation	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56390	distribution	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	This species ranges from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of the Darien Province, Panama, south through the Pacific lowlands and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia to El Oro Province in southern Ecuador. It also occurs from the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental to the Middle Magdalena Valley in Colombia, and in Gorgona Island, Colombia. It ranges from sea level to 2,330m asl.	eng
56390	habitat	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is a species that has been found in forest clearings, road cuts in forest, and banana, cacao and coffee plantations, as well as in forested areas (the latter in Gorgona Island. Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. (2003) found that this species is greatly influenced by the canopy cover. It is found in both lowland and montane habitats. It is mostly terrestrial, sometimes occurring off the ground in vegetation. It breeds by direct development, the eggs are deposited either on the forest floor or low in the vegetation.	eng
56390	population	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56390	threats	Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2008	It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
56391	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, although these are in need of improved and strengthened management.	eng
56391	distribution		This species occurs in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, with an altitudinal range of 30-1,150m asl.	eng
56391	habitat		It is found in mesic hardwood forests on the ground and in rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56391	population		It is uncommon even in suitable habitat.	eng
56391	threats		It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, subsistence farming, charcoaling, and tourism (both because of infrastructure development and the impact from tourists).	eng
56392	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected area., and there is an urgent need for the establishment of a protected area to safeguard the primary forest remaining at the type locality. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
56392	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, El Estadero, in Caldas Department, Colombia, from 2,000m asl.	eng
56392	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the understorey of very wet primary forest, and it breeds by direct development with eggs laid on the ground. It has not been recorded outside primary forest, suggesting that it is very sensitive to habitat disturbance.	eng
56392	population		It is not thought to be a rare species, but it is a difficult and dangerous area in which to conduct survey work.	eng
56392	threats		The main threat is habitat loss and destruction due to logging, agriculture and the planting of illegal crops.	eng
56393	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. This species is in need of close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
56393	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Pilalo on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in central Ecuador, at 760-2,486m asl. It is not likely to occur anywhere else.	eng
56393	habitat		It inhabits a region of cool cloud forest, but it is rarely observed within the forest, and is more often seen in exceedingly moist microhabitats in cleared areas near forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56393	population		It is extremely common in its tiny area of distribution.	eng
56393	threats		Ongoing habitat destruction and degradation might impact this species, though it seems to adapt relatively well to degraded areas. However, its restricted range means that it might not be able to withstand extremely severe habitat alteration that leads to a drying out of its moist microhabitats.	eng
56394	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas. Within Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul. In Ecuador, it occurs in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia it is known from the Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and La Paya protected areas. In Brazil it has been recorded in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá.	eng
56394	distribution		This species is generally an Amazonian species; it is present in the lowland reaches of the Andes in southern Ecuador; found in Departmento Loreto in northern Peru, southern Colombia, and Acre State Brazil. It can be found in elevations of 100-900m asl.	eng
56394	habitat		This is primarily an Amazonian species that invades the lower reaches of the Andes (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). In lowland forest, is found in terra firme and seasonally flooded forest with a close canopy and wide leaves. Individuals are usually found perched on leaves at night (10-15m); by day they have been found in bromeliads and sleeping on the undersides of leaves on bushes and trees (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994; Duellman, 1978). Feeds on ants and termites. This is a direct development species. The species is present in cultivated areas.	eng
56394	population		It is abundant in Colombia and Ecuador; known from relatively few individuals in Peru.	eng
56394	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Within Peru selective wood extraction and oil exploitation (northern Peru) and colonization (central Peru) are specific threats.	eng
56395	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and the Cachalú private reserve.	eng
56395	distribution		This species is known only from a tiny area on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes, near Virolín, in the department of Santander, Colombia, at 1,740-2,400m asl.	eng
56395	habitat		It occurs on vegetation in the undergrowth of cloud forests, and can only be found in old-growth forest. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
56395	population		It is a very uncommon species that has declined dramatically since it was first discovered. In 2001, only two individuals were recorded in the entire year.	eng
56395	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and livestock ranching.	eng
56396	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56396	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the northern slopes of the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, near Aldea Vista Hermosa, Guatemala, at 600-650m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56396	habitat		It has been found only in undisturbed forest habit transitional between premontane moist and premontane wet forest. Animals were found on or under rocks, and on leaf-litter near streams. This species presumably breeds by direct development, with eggs that are laid on land.	eng
56396	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56396	threats		It is facing habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activity and wood extraction. Water pollution is also likely to be a problem.	eng
56397	conservation		Its range includes a forest reserve, but there is no management of this area for conservation. There is an urgent need for effective and expanded protection of the pine forest habitat of this species.	eng
56397	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality: Loma del Espejo, Alturas de Pizarras del Sur, Sabanas Llanas, Pinar del Río, in western Cuba. It was collected at 130m asl.	eng
56397	habitat		It occurs in open, secondary pine forest, with a herbaceous vegetation layer primarily comprising <em>Lycopodiella</em> sp., ferns (<em>Pteris</em> sp.), and grass (<em>Eleocharis</em> sp.). The soil is acidic and is derived from sandstone. It is found on the ground under leaf-litter and other cover. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56397	population		It is moderately common but is a very cryptic species.	eng
56397	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to fires and clear-cut logging of the forest.	eng
56398	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56398	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: vereda El Centro, Betulia Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, at an altitude of 2,280m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56398	habitat		This species is associated with mature montane forest, where the holotype was found in leaf-litter. It is presumed to have a direct development breeding strategy.	eng
56398	population		It is known only from the holotype.	eng
56398	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56399	conservation		The type locality is wholly within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
56399	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Parque Nacional Las Orquídeas, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,410m asl. It might be more widely distributed.	eng
56399	habitat		This is an inhabitant of the understorey of very wet primary forest. It is a direct developing species.	eng
56399	population		It is not common.	eng
56399	threats		There are no known threats to this species within its known distribution, which is a large area of undisturbed and currently non-threatened forest.	eng
56400	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz.	eng
56400	distribution		This species’ geographic range is from the Paramos de Chingaza, Guerrero, and Sumapaz,  Cundinamarca Department, Colombia. Its altitudinal range is 2,600-3,300m asl.	eng
56400	habitat		It occurs in low shrubs in páramo habitat, and is able to tolerate some habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56400	population		It was recorded as abundant in appropriate habitat in 2001.	eng
56400	threats		Habitat loss caused by fires and cattle ranching is a major threat.	eng
56401	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56401	distribution		This species is known from the western flank of the central Andes in the departments of Quindío, Valle del Cauca, Caldas and Risaralda, Colombia, from 2,650-3,100m asl.	eng
56401	habitat		It occurs on herbaceous vegetation or on humid rocks, about 20cm above the ground. It is possible to find individuals under small waterfalls or in small brooks covered by undergrowth, or under alder crops (<em>Alnus acuminata</em>) in the forest and forest edges. It has not been found outside forest habitat. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56401	population		It is a very common species in its small range.	eng
56401	threats		There are no known major threats to this species, since its habitat is relatively secure.	eng
56402	conservation		The only known locality is not within a protected area. Further survey work is needed to confirm the persistence of the species at the type locality, and any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56402	distribution		This species is known from only one stream in Alta de Oso, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Chocó department, Colombia, at 950m asl.	eng
56402	habitat		This species occurs next to waterfalls and in channelled crevices, or on vegetation on the sides of the waterfalls. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56402	population		It has only been collected once and was observed to be uncommon. There have been numerous surveys of the type locality and surrounding areas since its original discovery, but the species has not been rediscovered.	eng
56402	threats		Habitat loss and degradation caused by subsistence wood collecting, agriculture (illegal crops), as well as pollution from the spraying of illegal crops, are all potential threats. Other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56403	conservation		Although its range is wholly within Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional la Bayamesa, these protected areas are in need of improved management.	eng
56403	distribution		This species occurs on Turquino Peak, Sierra Maestra, in Cuba, at 1,700-1,974m asl.	eng
56403	habitat		It occurs in high-elevation closed-canopy moist forest, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56403	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56403	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place as a result of clear-cutting, charcoaling, agricultural expansion, disturbance from touristic activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56404	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Jaragua, but this park is not well managed and significant habitat destruction is ongoing within the park's limits; this protected area is in need of improved and strengthened management for biodiversity conservation. The species is also present in the Reserva Cientifica Via Panomámica Aceitillar.	eng
56404	distribution		This species occurs on the Peninsula de Barahona, in Hispaniola, from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
56404	habitat		It is found in dry scrub forest, and retreats by day into caves and rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56404	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitat.	eng
56404	threats		The main threat is habitat loss from charcoaling and infrastructure development for human settlement. There is also a cement mine within the range of the species.	eng
56405	conservation		It has been recorded in the protected areas at Yaxchilan, and the El Triunfo and El Ocote Biosphere Reserves (where extensive forest remains) in Mexico. Additional fieldwork is needed to evaluate the status of the populations in the field.	eng
56405	distribution		This species can be found from central Veracruz in Mexico to western El Peten, Guatemala, at 0-600m asl.	eng
56405	habitat		It is an inhabitant of lowland moist forest, and occurs in low vegetation, including under leaf sheaths of banana plants. Reproduction occurs by direct development, probably on the ground in moist leaf-litter.	eng
56405	population		This is a poorly known species that has not often been collected; little is known about its biology and ecology. It is locally common in Chiapas and is known from a single locality from El Peten, Guatemala.	eng
56405	threats		The main threat to this species is the loss of the original forest cover, in particular due to logging and agriculture.	eng
56406	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas including the San Ramon, Monteverde, and Braulio Carrillo protected areas of Costa Rica, and Parque Internacional La Amistad (Costa Rica and Panama).	eng
56406	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northern and central Costa Rica, south to extreme north-western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 60-1,245m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56406	habitat		This species is found in lowland and premontane wet forest and rainforest areas. It has been found active on low vegetation at night, and in bromeliads and leaf-litter during the day (Savage 2002). Breeding takes place by direct development, with the eggs possibly deposited on vegetation. It does not adapt well to modified habitats.	eng
56406	population		This species is rarely seen and continues to appear occasionally on censuses at the San Ramon Reserve and at Monteverde, Costa Rica. It has always been a rare species for which there is little information on population trends.	eng
56406	threats		There appear to be no major threats to this species at present, as the whole of its naturally small historic range is within well-managed protected areas.	eng
56407	conservation		It is present in many protected areas. Within Peru the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Ecuador, the species is present in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It can be found in a number of Colombian protected areas. It is not known to occur in any Brazilian protected areas, but presumed to do so through its large range in this country.	eng
56407	distribution		This is an Amazonian species. In Ecuador it is known from many eastern localities at elevations up to 1,200m asl. In Peru it has been recorded from Departamento Loreto; Departamento Huanuco and southeast Peru in Departamento Madre de Dios. It is known only from a few localities in Amazonian Brazil (Amazonia) and is present at a single locality in Colombia (Santa Rosa de Sucumbios (400m asl) in Intend. Putumayo). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
56407	habitat		It generally occurs in closed-canopy, primary tropical forest, and occasionally flooded forest. Individuals may be found in leaf-litter in primary forest by day, but are usually perched on, and call from, low vegetation in the forest at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). This is a direct development species with eggs and young completely independent of standing water. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unclear, although specimens have been found in secondary forest (Duellman, 1978).	eng
56407	population		It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
56407	threats		There are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as logging, colonisation and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56408	conservation	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	Recommended conservation measures include improved management of the existing protected area and habitat maintenace within the national park.	eng
56408	distribution	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	This species has a very small range in the Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica, at 1,650-2,250m asl.	eng
56408	habitat	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It is a terrestrial species, found hiding under rocks in closed-canopy forest, and is not tolerant of habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56408	population	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	It was once a common species within its restricted range. It was last collected in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56408	threats	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2008	Although this species occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, the primary threat remains habitat destruction (even within the National Park where there are coffee plantations). Disturbance as a result of touristic activities is also a threat, since visitors to the park have a marked influence on the habitat and leave a great deal of litter behind.	eng
56409	conservation		The species occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.	eng
56409	distribution		This species has a small range in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,000-2,340m asl.	eng
56409	habitat		It is found in closed-canopy forest under rocks and logs in the daytime, and calls in the early evening from low herbaceous vegetation. It has been recorded from disturbed forest, but only in very recently disturbed forest suggesting that it might only be hanging on and not persisting in this habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56409	population		It is a very common species within its restricted range.	eng
56409	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56410	conservation		It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56410	distribution		This species can be found in the middle and upper Río Grijalva Basin from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the Montañas de Cuilco in western Guatemala to north of Ocozocuautla in Chiapas, Mexico, from 600-1,000m asl.	eng
56410	habitat		This species occurs in premontane dry forest along small tributary streams. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
56410	population		It is probably uncommon in Guatemala.	eng
56410	threats		Habitat loss and water pollution are the major threats to this species.	eng
56411	conservation	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, but improved protection of habitat at lower elevations, particularly in the south, is needed.	eng
56411	distribution	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	This species has a small range in the interior of Dominica, where it has been recorded from 300-1,200m asl.	eng
56411	habitat	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	Although a habitat generalist, it is an arboreal species with a preference for higher elevation rainforests, where the forest becomes a little more open. The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.  It has been found in disturbed areas, such as along access roads created to support the hydroelectric project in Parque Nacional Morne Trois Pitons.	eng
56411	population	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	It is generally abundant, and fills the ecological niche occupied by <em>Eleutherodactylus martinicensis</em> at lower elevations.	eng
56411	threats	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	On Dominica, the montane forests are largely inaccessible and secure due to the rugged topography of the area. However, there is some degradation taking place in the south of the island due to small-scale farming and selective logging.	eng
56412	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in Colombia, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
56412	distribution		This species occurs mainly in southern Colombia in the Pacific lowlands and slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the Departments of Nariño and Valle del Cauca, south to the Río Mira in extreme northern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 100-1,600m asl.	eng
56412	habitat		It is a forest inhabitant, occurring from tropical lowland forest to lower cloud forest. The ability of this species to adapt to disturbed habitats is unknown, although it is probably restricted to closed forest. It is closely associated with small streams, and only rarely strays from the immediate vicinity of these; they are not found along larger rivers. It is active at night, sitting on rocks or in rocky crevices, or on very steep cliffs alongside streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56412	population		It is a very uncommon species.	eng
56412	threats		The major threat is probably habitat loss, due to agricultural development (including plantations, and the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement. Pollution, resulting from the spraying of illegal crops, is also a significant threat.	eng
56413	conservation		One of the two recorded sites is in Parque Nacional Celaque. In view of the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56413	distribution		This species is known only from two sites in the Montana de Celaque, Departments of Lempira and Ocopepeque, western Honduras, at 1,400-1,840m asl.	eng
56413	habitat		It lives on the ground along mountain streams in premontane and lower montane moist forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, with eggs laid on land.	eng
56413	population		It has always been extremely rare, and might now be extinct.	eng
56413	threats		All streamside <em>Craugastor</em> known to occur above 900m asl have disappeared in Honduras for reasons that remain unclear, although infection with chytridiomycosis is clearly a possibility. Other threats include agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, forest fires, water pollution, and landslides.	eng
56414	conservation		Much of the known range of this species is in protected areas. However, further surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56414	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of the northern and central portions of the Costa Rican cordilleras at an altitude of 1,000-1,200m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56414	habitat		This nocturnal arboreal frog inhabits premontane wet forest and rainforest. It usually is found close to streams, but has occasionally been collected in bromeliads as much as 5m above ground. Males call from stream banks, and females descend from trees for mating (Savage 2002). Eggs are laid out of the water on the ground, and breeding occurs by direct development.	eng
56414	population		It was once common, or at least regularly seen, in Monteverde and the San Ramon Reserve, but as of August 2007, it has still not been recorded since 1990, despite searches, thus suggesting that a serious decline has taken place (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). It has also not been seen in Cascajal, San Jose Province, since 1972 (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
56414	threats		This species has disappeared from apparently suitable habitats, with the implication that the major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis (perhaps in combination with the effects of climate change), leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other montane amphibian species that are associated with streams.	eng
56416	conservation		It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, although coffee plantations have been expanding within the park's limits. Improved management of this important protected area is needed.	eng
56416	distribution		This species occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains, Jamaica, at an altitude of 545-1,970m asl.	eng
56416	habitat		It is found in deep woods on streamside rocks and among ground litter; the males call from concealed terrestrial sites. It can only tolerate very temporary habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are laid on the ground.	eng
56416	population		It is common in old-growth forests.	eng
56416	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and destruction, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, the removal of woody vegetation, and the impact of tourist activities.	eng
56417	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this largely unknown species.	eng
56417	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 2,770m asl on the western slopes of the Cordilera de Huancabamba, Piura Department, Peru. The range for this species is incompletely known; it is suspected to be endemic to Huancabamba but this cannot be confirmed (Wild pers comm.)	eng
56417	habitat		Its habitat is humid montane forest. The single known (male) specimen was calling from a reed leaf 0.5m above the ground at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56417	population		This species has been named from a single specimen.	eng
56417	threats		There is regional destruction and loss of habitats for livestock rearing and selective wood extraction in the area, and these threats could affect this species.	eng
56418	conservation		Much of the known range of this species is in protected areas. However, further surveys are urgently needed to relocate this species and determine its current population status; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56418	distribution		This species occurs in the Cerro Cacao in the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Cordillera de Tilarán (1,200-1,600m asl), and on the northern (600-1,700m asl) and eastern (900-1,400m asl) slopes of Volcán Poas (Cordillera Central) in Costa Rica (Savage 2002).	eng
56418	habitat		It inhabits tropical premontane and lower montane forest. It is nocturnal, foraging along steep sloping banks of mountain streams (Savage 2002). A female has been observed to lay her clutch of eggs in a hole and then cover it with sand (Hayes 1985).	eng
56418	population		The species has disappeared from Monteverde where it was abundant until the 1980s. There was one sighting in the northern part of the Cordillera de Tilaran in 1994, but the site has not been resurveyed since (J.A. Pounds pers. comm.). Recent surveys in Cerro Cacao (2001) and the Cordillera Central where the species was previously recorded have not revealed any individuals (F. Bolaños and G. Chaves pers. comm.). As of August 2007, there had been no new reports despite surveys within the species range (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
56418	threats		Since this species has disappeared from apparently suitable habitats-and some parts of its original habitat remain pristine-the major threat to the species is likely to be chytridiomycosis (perhaps in synergy with climate change), which has lead to catastrophic population declines in many other amphibian species that are associated with high-elevation streams.	eng
56419	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, but might occur in Parque Nacional Pico de Tancitaro. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of the species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56419	distribution		Historically, this species ranged in a wide area in Michoacán, Mexico, but it is now restricted to north-western and central Michoacán at around 1,500m asl.	eng
56419	habitat		This species inhabits pine-oak forest. It is clearly a terrestrial species that prefers to live under stones and on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56419	population		There is no information regarding the population status of this species.	eng
56419	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and infrastructure development for human settlements.	eng
56420	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. Continued protection of primary forest habitat is essential to ensure the survival of this species.	eng
56420	distribution		This species is known from Chicoral in Valle del Cauca Department, northwards to Pueblo Rico in Risaralda Department, in the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,880-2,500m asl.	eng
56420	habitat		It is found on low herbaceous vegetation or on epiphytic vegetation in forest habitats, and has not been recorded outside primary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56420	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
56420	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities, including the planting of illegal crops.	eng
56421	conservation		The Venezuelan populations are within Parque Nacional El Tamá and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon. Its occurrence in protected areas in Colombia is unclear.	eng
56421	distribution		This species occurs in the northern Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Norte de Santander and Santander, Colombia, and nearby at Macizo de Tamá in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is 1,900-3,550m asl.	eng
56421	habitat		It is a cloud forest species, also living in páramo grassland and sub-páramo bushland areas. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is usually found at night on low vegetation; during the day it hides under rocks, logs or among vegetation. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
56421	population		It is common in Colombia, but there is little information on its population status in Venezuela.	eng
56421	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including cultivation of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Fire might also be a threat. However, it has a broad altitudinal range, and overall its habitats are probably not seriously threatened.	eng
56422	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador.	eng
56422	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and the lower slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from Serranía de Baudó south to northwestern Ecuador. It occurs from sea level to 1,100m asl.	eng
56422	habitat		It is a species of lowland and submontane forest, not occurring in degraded habitats. It lives mainly along clearwater, gravely streams flowing through swampy moist rainforest. It is commonly found along small, sluggish streams at night, usually on the ground or on rocks beside or in the stream, or sitting in shallow water on gravel, silt, or submerged leaf-litter. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56422	population		It is an uncommon to moderately common species.	eng
56422	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56423	conservation		The type locality is protected inside Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
56423	distribution		This species is known only from a small stream in Rancho Grande, at 1,090m asl, in Aragua State, Venezuela.	eng
56423	habitat		Its habitat is montane streams in cloud forest.	eng
56423	population		It has not been seen for nearly fifty years, despite it being known from a well-surveyed area, so its population status is currently unclear. However, surveys in this area have not targeted this species or its microhabitat, so it is possible that it has been overlooked.	eng
56423	threats		This species is probably not threatened by habitat degradation as the habitat at the only known locality remains intact. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a threat to this species.	eng
56424	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.	eng
56424	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the lower cloud forest along the eastern base of the Cordillera Central, in the departments of Antioquia and Caldas, in Colombia, from 700-1,200m asl.	eng
56424	habitat		It is an arboreal species that has been recorded from secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56424	population		The population status of this species is unknown; there have not been enough surveys in this area.	eng
56424	threats		Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
56425	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56425	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species occurs on the islands of the Puerto Rican Bank, including Puerto Rico, the British Virgin Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has also been introduced to Panama City in Panama where its range appears to be expanding. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,219m asl.	eng
56425	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species inhabits xeric to mesic forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development. It is very common in disturbed habitats, pastures, open forests and urban areas. It has also been recorded in urban areas, in particular in residential gardens and vacant land, in Panama City where it is introduced.	eng
56425	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The species is not declining in the lowlands. The situation in the highlands is unknown.<br/><br/>This species appears to be declining wherever <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> spreads, but numbers are still high (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
56425	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	There are no known threats to this species, since forest habitats are currently spreading on Puerto Rico.	eng
56426	conservation		It occurs in the Montanos del Mico Catchment Reserve, and might also occur in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas. Close population monitoring is required given that this species is known from only a few sites.	eng
56426	distribution		This species occurs in the Montañas del Mico and the northern slopes of the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, in the Departamento de Izabal, eastern Guatemala, at 591-786m asl.	eng
56426	habitat		Although it is found at relatively low elevations, it lives in typical cloud forest conditions with frequent fog and drizzling rain. It is found in undisturbed forest only. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
56426	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56426	threats		Small-scale wood extraction is taking place, but much of its habitat is included in a protected area.	eng
56427	conservation		It occurs in the private Reserva Natural La Planada in Colombia, and in the Bosque Protector Río Guajalito in Ecuador.	eng
56427	distribution		This species is currently known only from two general areas in the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador: the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in extreme southern Colombia in the department of Nariño and adjacent Ecuador; and in the Saloya River Valley in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador. It is likely to occur between these two areas. Its known altitudinal range is 1,750-2,120m asl.	eng
56427	habitat		It is a species of montane cloud forest that is only found in undisturbed habitats. Individuals may be found in the leaf-litter and on low herbaceous vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56427	population		It is generally a rare species, although it is apparently moderately common at La Planada in Ecuador, close to the Colombian border.	eng
56427	threats		The major threats to this species are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56428	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The species occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56428	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is confined to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 333-1,640 m asl, although it occurs at lower altitudes only on the northern slope.	eng
56428	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It lives in closed-canopy forest. Males call near water, and it breeds by direct development with the eggs laid on the ground.	eng
56428	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species was formerly common in good habitat. It was last observed in 2005 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56428	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56429	conservation		It occurs in the La Planada private reserve in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56429	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (Imbabura and Pichincha Provinces) and extreme southern Colombia (Department of Nariño). It is likely to occur between these two areas, and perhaps more widely. Its known altitudinal range is from 1,460-2,800m asl.	eng
56429	habitat		It is a species of montane cloud forest, also surviving in secondary growth where there is good vegetation cover. It has been found on low vegetation in dense forest at night, sometimes close to streams. Juveniles are active during the day on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.	eng
56429	population		It is common in both undisturbed and secondary habitats.	eng
56429	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56430	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56430	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 3,370m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Amazonas Department, Peru.	eng
56430	habitat		It was found in páramo alpine habitat with scattered trees, often stunted and covered with lichens and mosses. Bushes and spiny bamboo are also characteristic of this habitat. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56430	population		There is no information on its population status, and it was named from just a single specimen.	eng
56430	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown, although there is regional destruction and loss of páramo habitat through an increase in livestock grazing, other agricultural uses and selective wood extraction.	eng
56431	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56431	distribution		This recently described species is presently known from three localities at 680-1,200m asl on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the province of San Martin, northern Peru. It most likely has a much wider range.	eng
56431	habitat		Individuals were found in lower humid montane forest. A juvenile was observed on an elephant-ear plant at night, and a male was on the leaf of a herbaceous plant at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56431	population		Only a few individuals have been observed, and two adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.	eng
56431	threats		Within its current known range it is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural development (including creation of coffee plantations), selective wood extraction and human settlement.	eng
56432	conservation		In the Dominican Republic, this species occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Baoruco Oriental. There is an urgent need for strengthened and expanded protection of forest habitats in the Massif de la Selle in Haiti.	eng
56432	distribution		This species occurs on the Massif de la Selle in Haiti and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola, at an altitude of 152-1,697m asl.	eng
56432	habitat		It is arboreal in closed pine and hardwood forests. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and on the ground under rocks. Habitat quality is declining and the species has been found in degraded habitats.	eng
56432	population		It is common within suitable habitat.	eng
56432	threats		Habitat destruction due to small-scale agriculture, cattle grazing, mining and charcoal collecting is taking place at a rapid rate in both Massif de la Selle and the Sierra de Baoruco.	eng
56433	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional Carrasco. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has a very restricted range.	eng
56433	distribution		This species is known from the type locality: the province of Chapare, in the department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, at 2,100m asl, and from a very nearby locality at 1,700m asl.	eng
56433	habitat		This is an arboreal species that inhabits moist montane forest. It appears to be dependent on the presence of epiphytes. There is no information known about breeding habits, but it probably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
56433	population		It is a common species at the type locality.	eng
56433	threats		Logging might be a threat in the future, but at present there are no major threats, and the population is stable.	eng
56434	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56434	distribution		This species is widespread in Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,212m asl.	eng
56434	habitat		It occurs in a wide variety of relatively mesic areas, including forests, caves, agricultural fields, and near human habitations. It is a very adaptable species. Eggs are laid in depressions in moist soil and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56434	population		This species is very common in suitable habitats.	eng
56434	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
56435	conservation		This species is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56435	distribution		This species is known only from two localities at altitudes of 2,963-3,330m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Colán in Amazonas Department, northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56435	habitat		It can be found in evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas, and is not known from modified habitats. The paratype was found in a grassy bog above the tree line. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56435	population		A few individuals have been observed in the area, and one adult female and one adult male were used to describe this species.	eng
56435	threats		Selective wood extraction might be taking place at the site from which this species is known (and would therefore constitute a threat to it), but this requires confirmation.	eng
56436	conservation		Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay, and also Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
56436	distribution		This species is known from the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andean Cordillera (Cordillera de Matanga to the Abra de Zamora) in southern Ecuador from 2,195-2,850m asl. It has also been reported from 3,400m asl at Río Mazan, Azuay. It is recorded from six localities.	eng
56436	habitat		It inhabits páramo grassland, sub-páramo shrubland and cloud forests (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56436	population		There is very little information available on the current population status of this species. Four individuals were collected in 1985, but there appear to be no subsequent records, though this is probably due to a lack of survey work within its range.	eng
56436	threats		The habitat of this species is under threat from agricultural activities and dam construction.	eng
56437	conservation		It occurs in the protected areas of Parques Nacionales Sierra de Bahoruco, Parques Sierra de Bahoruco Oriental and in the Reserva Cientifica Laguna Rincón in the Dominican Republic, and also in protected areas in Haiti, but there is a need for improved management of these areas for conservation.	eng
56437	distribution		This species occurs on the Massif de la Hotte, Massif de la Selle, Sierra de Baoruco, Cordillera Central, and Sierra de Neiba, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 800-2,500m asl.	eng
56437	habitat		It is found in upland closed-canopy forest and forest edge, under rocks and debris. Eggs are laid under rocks, and it breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
56437	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56437	threats		The cloud forest habitat of this species is being destroyed at a rapid rate, even in protected areas, as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56438	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	The species' range in Mexico includes several protected areas.	eng
56438	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species occurs from southeastern Arizona (Santa Rita and Pajarito mountains), southeastern New Mexico (lower Pecos River drainage), and central Texas (Edwards Plateau escarpment) in the USA, southward to central and western Mexico to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. In Texas, it is present in most of the canyons and in some other rocky areas from the Edwards Plateau to the Big Bend (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). The species is found between 404-2,945 m asl.	eng
56438	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species inhabits relatively low elevation areas in shrublands and deserts including treeless, dry, yucca-covered hills and brushy woodland, open pine forests and juniper-live oak woodland (Texas). It can also be found in large, low clumps of cactus (Sonora) and in rocky limestone areas. In Texas, it is found in canyons, often associated with creosote bush and mesquite in the west and with maples and other deciduous trees in the east (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is a terrestrial species and hides under rocks, in caves, or crevices. It lays eggs on land under rocks or logs, or in caves or crevices. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56438	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This is a very abundant species in Mexico. In Texas, this species is seldom seen and apparently exists only at low density (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999).	eng
56438	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56439	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
56439	distribution		This species is known from three sites in Antioquia Department (Antadó, Murrí, and Urrao) and at comparable altitudes on the western slope of the Serranía de los Paraguas, in Chocó Department, Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,900m asl. It might occur more widely, in particular between the two currently known areas.	eng
56439	habitat		It is found on herbaceous vegetation, in primary forest only. It is a direct developing species.	eng
56439	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
56439	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops are localized threats, but there are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56440	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, incuding the Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve.	eng
56440	distribution		This species has a patchy distribution in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, from 788-1,879m asl.	eng
56440	habitat		It is an arboreal species, inhabiting montane closed forest where it is often found in bromeliads. The males guard eggs laid in bromeliads.	eng
56440	population		It is relatively uncommon even within suitable habitat.	eng
56440	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat destruction due to agriculture and charcoal production.	eng
56441	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being degraded.	eng
56441	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species occurs in eastern and western Cuba, including the Isla de la Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,316m asl.	eng
56441	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is arboreal in mesic primary and secondary forests. It can tolerate shade grown coffee plantations, but relies on tall trees so it is not tolerant of very disturbed areas. The eggs are laid in bromeliads and also on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56441	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56441	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Clear-cutting of the forest, agriculture, infrastructure development for tourism and human settlement and disturbance of the forest by tourists are the main threats.	eng
56442	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and Parque Nacional Texiguat. Further research is necessary to establish the cause of declines at high elevations, particularly to ascertain whether chytrid is a threat.	eng
56442	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra Nombre de Dios, the Montaña La Muralla, and the Montaña Texiguat, in the departments of Atlántida, Colón, Yoro and Olancho in north-central Honduras, at 50-1,550m asl.	eng
56442	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, 2008	It lives on the ground, along small and medium-sized streams in lowland moist forest, and premontane and lower montane wet forest. It does not tend to survive in degraded habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56442	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, 2008	The lowland populations appear to be common, but higher elevation populations are severely reduced above 900m asl. However, a recent study found lowland (120 m) frogs strongly infected with chytrid fungus (Puschendorf et al., 2006).	eng
56442	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, 2008	The major threats include deforestation as a result of agricultural and livestock encroachment, human settlements, logging, fires and landslides. In addition, chytrid infection has recently been reported for a lowland population (Puschendorf et al., 2006).	eng
56443	conservation		It is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56443	distribution		This recently described species is known only from altitudes of 1,700-2,030m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Colán in Amazonas Department, in northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56443	habitat		Its habitat is evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. All individuals were found on the ground in humid montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56443	population		Six adult females and one adult male were used to describe this species.	eng
56443	threats		Selective wood extraction might be taking place at the sites from which this species is known (and would therefore constitute a threat to it), but this requires confirmation.	eng
56444	conservation		It occurs within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.	eng
56444	distribution		This species is known only from an isolated tepui in the Venezuelan state of Amazonas, specifically at the north base of Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra Tapirapecó (01° 13'N; 64° 42'W), from 1,160-1,460m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56444	habitat		This is a terrestrial, nocturnal frog inhabiting montane tepui forest. Specimens have been found at night on low vegetation. Its breeding habits are unknown, although it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56444	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56444	threats		There are no known threats to this species' habitat at present.	eng
56445	conservation		The species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Cerro Hoya, but expanded protection of habitat on the Azuero Peninsula is needed. Further research is also required to determine whether chytrid poses a real threat to this species.	eng
56445	distribution		This species is endemic to the Azuero Peninsula, Panama, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 61-940m asl.	eng
56445	habitat		This is a terrestrial species associated with streams in dry lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited on the ground.	eng
56445	population		It is apparently locally abundant.	eng
56445	threats		General habitat loss through deforestation is a major threat. Some other species of the genus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56446	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, such as Los Farallones de Cali and Munchique National Natural Parks.	eng
56446	distribution		This species occurs mainly on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from the Department of Antioquia south to Narino, with a possibly isolated population in Pichincha Province in northwestern Ecuador. There are additional populations on the northern slope of Cordillera Occidental (Antioquia), and on the eastern slope of Cordillera Central (Antioquia and Caldas). It occurs at elevations of 1,200-2,200m asl.	eng
56446	habitat		It is a nocturnal species of montane cloud forest, including secondary forest and clearings, but not in very open areas. It is not associated with streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56446	population		It is a not a common species.	eng
56446	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56447	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. Additional survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56447	distribution		This species can be found on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the Departament of Santander, Colombia, 1,740-2,300m asl.	eng
56447	habitat		It occurs on vegetation in the undergrowth of cloud forests. It can also be found at forest edges and shrubs in pastures, so it can tolerate some level of disturbance, but probably cannot tolerate the complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56447	population		This is a rare species that was last recorded in 2002.	eng
56447	threats		Major threats include habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and cattle ranching.	eng
56448	conservation		Its known range is wholly within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
56448	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Las Orquideas, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 1,780-2,000m asl. It might occur outside this locality but there are no other records at present.	eng
56448	habitat		This is an inhabitant of premontane and cloud forests, which is usually found on vegetation at medium to low heights above the ground, inside the forest or at the forest edge, but not outside forest habitat. It is a direct developing species.	eng
56448	population		It is not a very common species.	eng
56448	threats		There are no threats at present to its habitat in the protected area in which it is found.	eng
56449	conservation		Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.	eng
56449	distribution		This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 890-2,325m asl.	eng
56449	habitat		It is an arboreal species dependent on closed-canopy forest, retreating by day into bromeliads. Eggs are laid inside the bromeliads and the species breeds by direct development.	eng
56449	population		This species was common within its original habitat, which has now largely been destroyed.	eng
56449	threats		The habitat of this species is being destroyed at a high rate throughout the Tiburon Peninsula, as a result of logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture. Only small pockets of intact habitat remain..	eng
56450	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but it is found close to the northern limit of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. There is a definite need for expanded and improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.	eng
56450	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, 13.5km east of Loja, at the crest of the Cordillera (Abra de Zamora) between Loja Province and Zamora-Chinchipe Province, Ecuador, at 2,800m asl. It might occur elsewhere, though it is unlikely to have a very wide distribution.	eng
56450	habitat		It lives in high-altitude sub-páramo bushland habitats. Specimens have been collected during the day from terrestrial bromeliads. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56450	population		It is a moderately common species.	eng
56450	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, with the expansion of both agricultural activities and pine plantations.	eng
56451	conservation	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs in Parc National de la Guadeloupe, but the area is not well managed for biodiversity conservation. There is a need to expand and strengthen the existing protected area coverage of Guadeloupe. Furthermore, the species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the combined likely impact of introduced predators and the potential threat of chytridiomycosis; it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
56451	distribution	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This species occurs on the Basse-Terre portion of Guadeloupe, from sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
56451	habitat	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is aquatic, living in large and small streams, preferring boulders in reasonably fast-moving waters. It is usually found in rainforest, and also grassy savannahs. It only occurs in disturbed habitats where there are trees along rivers. The eggs are laid on vegetation and in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
56451	population	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is moderately common in suitable habitats within its small range.	eng
56451	threats	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	The stream habitat on Guadeloupe is fragile, small in extent, and the habitat continues to decline. The forest is being cleared for agriculture, especially banana plantations, and also for the construction of human settlements; the activities of local fishermen also lead to habitat disturbance. Another major threat is pollution from pesticides used in banana plantations, as well as from domestic sources. Predation from introduced predators, such as rats, cats and mongooses, may also be having an impact on numbers, while the introduced congener <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em> might be a competitor. Chytridiomycosis has also been recorded as present in some amphibian species on Dominica, and is a serious potential threat to this species.	eng
56452	conservation		Besides the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, this species also occurs in the Protected Landscape Maisi-Yumuri. Habitat maintenance within the range of this species is an essential requirement.	eng
56452	distribution		This species has an extremely restricted range in two locations in eastern Cuba: the mouth and lower reaches of the Río Yumuri; and the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt (though the taxonomic status of this population has been questioned). The altitudinal range is from 30-212m asl.	eng
56452	habitat		It is arboreal, found at low elevations in closed forest. They call from shrubs, and are also found in rock crevices. Breeding takes place by direct development. Although they can occur in coffee plantations, they are not found in open habitats.	eng
56452	population		There are only a few records of this species, despite extensive survey efforts to locate it. However, the species appears to be locally common when heard calling.	eng
56452	threats		This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to subsistence wood collecting, and smallholder farming activities, as well as moderate impacts from touristic activities.	eng
56453	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay. There is a need for expanded and improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.	eng
56453	distribution		This species is known only from eight localities on the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental, east of Cuenca, in Morono-Santiago Province, Ecuador, at 2,195-2,988m asl.	eng
56453	habitat		It inhabits high-altitude sub-páramo bushland and cloud forests, but can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56453	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56453	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, with the expansion of both agricultural activities and pine plantations.	eng
56454	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56454	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the area of the type locality of Sitio Sisavita, Vereda Carrizal, in the municipality of Cucutilla, Norte de Santander Department, Colombia. Animals have been collected at 2,250m asl, and it might occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
56454	habitat		It appears to be specifically associated with patches of moss along trails (presumably trails within forest). It is not found within the forest interior or in open areas. Animals may be found perched on ferns at night. It is a direct developing species and is thought to be a seasonal breeder. It is assumed to not be adaptable to habitat change.	eng
56454	population		This is an abundant species within its specific habitat type.	eng
56454	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss due to smallholder farming, and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56455	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56455	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species is known only from Miquihuana at 2,000m asl, south-west of Victoria in extreme southwestern Tamaulipas Province, and from northeastern Querétaro, both in Mexico. It is found between 1,590-2,000m asl.	eng
56455	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Specimens have been found in shrublands and adjacent conifer forests, and in live oak forests. It is assumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
56455	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56455	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Threats to this species are unknown. However it appears to inhabit a very restricted area hence any kind of alteration or transformation of the species' habitat is a major threat.	eng
56456	conservation		Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul.	eng
56456	distribution		This species is known from two streams at altitudes of 500 and 730m asl on ridges extending from the Andes into the Amazonian Basin in San Martin Department, and from Río Pauya, Loreto Department, in northern Peru. It was relatively recently discovered and is likely to range much more widely.	eng
56456	habitat		All the adults were found on mossy boulders, and some juveniles were also discovered on herbaceous vegetation, at night in a deep ravine in lower humid montane forest. The type locality is a rocky gorge into which two streams plunge. The sides of the gorge are nearly vertical rock walls, and the floor of the gorge is littered with huge boulders, many of which support thin layers of moss. The second locality is a wooded, boulder-strewn with cacade stream on the road. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56456	population		Its population status is unknown. Three adult males and two adult females were used to describe it.	eng
56456	threats		Within its current known range it is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural development (including the establishment of coffee plantations), selective wood extraction and human settlement. If this species is restricted to specific 'rocky gorge' type habitats, it might be particularly sensitive to habitat disturbance.	eng
56457	conservation		Although this species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, the type locality remains unprotected. Further research is needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the two known localities.	eng
56457	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Murri) and from Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, both in the municipality of Frontino, in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,100-2,000m asl.	eng
56457	habitat		It is usually found on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, inside cloud forests and very humid forest; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56457	population		It is more common at Murri than at Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas.	eng
56457	threats		Outside the national park, there is increasing pressure on the remaining habitat from agricultural development, including the planting of illegal crops.	eng
56458	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas and urgent protection of the cloud forest remnants in Mexico is required. Further work should be conducted to determine whether or not the recently documented declines are due to chytridiomycosis. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56458	distribution		This species occurs from the Atlantic foothills and slopes of south-eastern San Luis Potosi and northern Veracruz, to northern Oaxaca to the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. It is known from 400-1,900m asl.	eng
56458	habitat		It prefers rocky streams in premontane and lower montane wet forests, and is a direct developing species.	eng
56458	population		This is a common species, although recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some sites.	eng
56458	threats		Intense and rapid disappearance of cloud forests is a major threat. Recently documented declines in Oaxaca could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56459	conservation		The type locality does not fall within a protected area, and the habitat has been so badly disturbed that it might not even be suitable for protection. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not the species still survives at the type locality; any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56459	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality: 4km south of the junction of the Sonsón-Dorada and Argelia roads, Municipality of Sonsón, Department of Antioquia, in the northern part of the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes, at 2,350m asl.	eng
56459	habitat		It has been recorded from primary cloud forest on herbaceous vegetation and fallen leaves, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56459	population		It is uncommon; two specimens were collected in 1978 and a further four in 1981. Since then, repeated searches of the type locality have not found any individuals, and surveys in the surrounding areas have not recorded this species.	eng
56459	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (illegal crops) is the major threat at the type locality.	eng
56460	conservation		It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and the Estacion Demostrativa El Rasgon.	eng
56460	distribution		This species can be found from the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (departments of Cundinamarca, Boyaca, and Santander) at elevations of 1,750-2,400m asl.	eng
56460	habitat		It occurs in under storey vegetation near watercourses in cloud forest, and also occurs in secondary forest. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56460	population		This is a common species.	eng
56460	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, both crops and cattle ranching, is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56461	conservation		This species occurs in several protected areas, including the national parks of Henri Pittier, San Esteban, Macarao, and El Avila.	eng
56461	distribution		This species is known from the Venezuelan Coastal Range in the states of Aragua, Distrito Federal and Sucre. It has been recorded from 577-2,060m asl.	eng
56461	habitat		It is an inhabitant of upland montane cloud forests; its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56461	population		It is a common species.	eng
56461	threats		Habitat loss, due to agriculture and logging, is a major threat.	eng
56462	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56462	distribution		This species is known only from the southern and central parts of the State of Bahia, eastern Brazil, from Guaratinga north to Santa Teresinha. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
56462	habitat		It lives in lowland moist forests and in cocoa plantations. It is adaptable to more open areas, providing that trees are present. It has been found in the leaf-litter in cocoa plantations and in bromeliads in forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, but it is not known where it lays its eggs.	eng
56462	population		It is a common species.	eng
56462	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging, industry and human settlement.	eng
56463	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56463	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	This species from eastern and southern Brazil occurs from the State of Bahia, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
56463	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forest and forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is usually found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, or on leaves in low vegetation inside the forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56463	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56463	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear cutting, fires and human settlement.	eng
56464	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Guatopo, Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, and Parque Nacional San Esteban.	eng
56464	distribution		This species is known from the Venezuelan Coastal Ranges in the States of Aragua, Carabobo, Miranda, Sucre, and Yaracuy. It has been recorded from 250-1,600m asl.	eng
56464	habitat		A terrestrial and nocturnal frog that inhabits lowland humid and montane cloud forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56464	population		It is a common species.	eng
56464	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture.	eng
56465	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Cotapata, and the ecological needs of this species should be incorporated as part of the management plan of this protected area.	eng
56465	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Chaco, Bolivia, and from the nearby surroundings. The type locality might actually be "Chaco in the Unduavi valley, Yungas de La Paz, 16° 21'S; 67° 49'W, at approximately 1,850m." Its altitudinal range is around 1,850-2,700m asl.	eng
56465	habitat		This species is a diurnal inhabitant of montane cloud forest. There is no information on breeding, but it probably breeds by direct development like other species of the genus.	eng
56465	population		It is an abundant species at the type locality. However, although it is currently common, it is feared that the species will undergo a steep population decline in the near future, especially as the quality of its habitat declines.	eng
56465	threats		Agriculture and logging are the major threats to its habitat.	eng
56466	conservation		The species is not currently found within any protected area and, although a proposed local protected area (Managed Flora Reserve of Canasí) will include its habitat, it is unclear whether or not this area, if designated, will be well managed.	eng
56466	distribution		This species is only known from two small nearby sites, near Santa Cruz del Norte, La Havana Province, in Cuba. It has been recorded from around sea level.	eng
56466	habitat		It is found on limestone rocks and cliffs in open areas just beside the coast. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56466	population		It is a very common species within its restricted range.	eng
56466	threats		The species is restricted to an unprotected site close to an area of high human population density. Canadian tourist companies are planning the development of this part of the coast in the near future, and oil extraction activities are also taking place in this area.	eng
56467	conservation		The species' range includes Parque Nacional Guaramacal, but this area is not sufficiently managed to counter the threats to this species.	eng
56467	distribution		The species is only known from the type locality: Páramo de Guaramacal (between 2870 and 3000 masl), in the vicinity of Boconó, state of Trujillo, Venezuela.	eng
56467	habitat		Pristimantis boconoensis occurs in the páramo ecosystem (páramo grassland, cloud forests, and high-altitude forest), and can be found under the perennial shrubs of Espeletia, sometimes in boggy areas in the Páramo de Guaramacal and perhaps in other páramos (Rivero and Mayorga, 1973). Calling activity is reported to occur at nightfall and into the night (Rivero and Mayorga, 1973). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56467	population		It is considered to be a common species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56467	threats		The primary threat to the species is habitat loss due to infrastructure development (primarily the construction of power lines) and fire.	eng
56468	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal.	eng
56468	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of Alta Verapaz and the Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, at 1,300-1,700m asl.	eng
56468	habitat		It occurs on the forest floor in undisturbed cloud forest. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56468	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56468	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (in particular leather-leaf plantations), wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
56469	conservation		Occurs in PNNs Chingaza and Sumapaz.	eng
56469	distribution		This species occurs in Chingaza, Sumapaz, and Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Cundinamarca and Boyacá Departments, Colombia, 2,500-3,600m asl.	eng
56469	habitat		It occurs in cloud forests, páramo, and open areas. It also occurs in pastures as long as there are shrubs, and adapts well to disturbance. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56469	population		It is abundant and was collected in 2003.	eng
56469	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
56470	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.	eng
56470	distribution		This species is known from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, in Brazil. It only occurs up to about 400m asl.	eng
56470	habitat		This species occurs among the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest and forest edge. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
56470	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
56470	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation, infrastructure development for human settlement, and fires are major threats to the species.	eng
56471	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
56471	distribution		This species is known from southern portions of the central Andes of Colombia (in Cauca, Caldas, Huila, Quindio Tolima and Valle del Cauca departments), from 2,400-3,000m asl, in high cloud forests, and also from Cerro Munchique (at 2,520m asl) in the western Andes of Colombia.	eng
56471	habitat		During the day they occur on the ground and inside arboreal bromeliads. At night they are active on vegetation up to 2.5m above the ground. They inhabit open areas, beside and inside the forest. They also occur in virtually any other habitat including pastureland, croplands, heavily degraded forest etc. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56471	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56471	threats		There are no threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
56472	conservation	Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Gunther Köhler, 2008	Portions of the range of <em>C. bransfordii</em> are protected in national parks or protected areas of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Panamanian taxon is present within the protected areas of: area de manejo especial Nusagandi; Parque Nacional Chagres; Parque Nacional Soberania, and Parque Nacional Altos de Campana.	eng
56472	distribution	Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Gunther Köhler, 2008	This species can be found in Eastern Nicaragua to central Costa Rica. In Costa Rica it is known from 60-880m asl. In Nicaragua it has been collected as high as 1,330m at Cerro Kilambé. The Panamanian taxon formerly included within <em>C. bransfordii</em> is found on the Atlantic versant of central Panama, from the lowlands to elevations approaching 2,000m asl. All populations currently referred to as <em>C. bransfordii</em> are included on the map.	eng
56472	habitat	Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Gunther Köhler, 2008	<em>Craugastor bransfordii</em> is associated with lowland moist and wet forests, premontane wet forest, and marginally in premontane rainforest; may be found in moderately disturbed areas. The Panamanian taxon is also present in these habitat types, although it is unclear as to whether or not it is tolerant of habitat disturbance. Both taxa are terrestrial, direct development species occurring in the leaf-litter layer.	eng
56472	population	Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Gunther Köhler, 2008	Several related species have been included in<em> C. bransfordii</em> in the past making it difficult to discern distribution and abundance from the literature. <em>C. bransfordii</em> is known to experience marked population fluctuations from year to year. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica, appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56472	threats	Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Gunther Köhler, 2008	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat to these taxa. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56473	conservation		This species occurs in the Protected Landscape Maisi-Yumuri, but maintenance of other existing habitat within the range of this species is required.	eng
56473	distribution		This species is known only from two isolated locations on the Maisi Peninsula in extreme eastern Cuba, including from the mouth of the Río Yumuri. Its altitudinal range is from 30-221m asl.	eng
56473	habitat		It is found on rocks and cliffs in closed hardwood forest, habitat within which it is moderately common. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56473	population		There are only a few records of this species, despite extensive efforts to locate it.	eng
56473	threats		The primary threats to the species include habitat degradation and loss due to subsistence agriculture and wood collecting, and moderate impacts from touristic activities.	eng
56474	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali and Parque Nacional Natural Tatama.	eng
56474	distribution		This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia from the states of Antioquia, Cauca, Risaralda, Quindio and Valle del Cauca. It has been recorded from 1,140-3,200m asl.	eng
56474	habitat		It occurs inside forest, sub-páramo shrubland and páramo grassland, and during the day individuals are found inside bromeliads. It is found alongside mountain streams. It breeds by direct development and is also known from anthropogenic habitats such as pastureland.	eng
56474	population		It is a common species.	eng
56474	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.	eng
56475	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56475	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to a very small area on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, where it has been recorded at elevations of 575-2,375 m asl.	eng
56475	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is found under ground cover in dwarf cloud forest, and also in clearings (although the latter is not its main habitat, and it is not known whether or not the species can persist outside forest). Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56475	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It was formerly common in good habitat in the past, but due to habitat loss the species is now considered to be an extremely rare species. It has been recently (2006) recorded (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56475	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56476	conservation		Populations are found within Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata and possibly Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.	eng
56476	distribution		This species is known from the cloud forests (upper limit) and  páramo ecotones from Sierra de La Culata, state of Mérida, Venezuela, between 2900 and 3300 masl (La Marca, 2007). <br/><br/>La Marca (2007) indicated that the locality and elevation provided in the original description (Mérida, 1600 masl) may perhaps correpond with the locality from where specimens were sent to the British Museum (city of Mérida), as no additional specimens have been found for this specific locality.	eng
56476	habitat		It is terrestrial and normally found under rocks in páramo and the ecotone of páramo/cloud forest. La Marca (2007) also indicates that individuals can be found in rock walls, in páramo close to potato crops, and in abandoned fields surrounded by cloud forest. Other anuran species found with M. briceni include Mucubatrachus culatensis and Atelopus oxyrhynchus (La Marca, 2007). <br/><br/>The species breeds by direct development.	eng
56476	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56476	threats		There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56477	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, which are well managed at present.	eng
56477	distribution		This species is widespread in the interior of Puerto Rico and the uplands. It has been recorded from close to sea level up to 1,078m asl.	eng
56477	habitat		It is found in closed forest and open meadows. It also occurs in coastal grass-dominated wetlands in sympatry with Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008). Eggs are laid on the ground, and they breed by direct development. It has also been seen in banana plantations.	eng
56477	population		It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
56477	threats		There are no major threats to this species, although there might be localized threats from infrastructure development and agriculture.	eng
56478	conservation		It occurs in a single protected area in Mexico, Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, and is present in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Bisis-Cabá and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves in Guatemala. Survey work is needed to evaluate the status of this species in Chiapas.	eng
56478	distribution		This species is found on the Atlantic versant slopes of the northern highlands of Guatemala from Sierra de las Minas, Alta Verapaz, and Baja Verapaz, westward through Sierra de los Cuchumatanes to north-western Huehuetenango, Guatemala, then to Chiapas, Mexico, in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, at altitudes of 1,200-2,000m asl.	eng
56478	habitat		This species prefers riparian habitats along streams flowing through premontane and montane wet forests, cloud forest and humid pine-oak forest. It is commonly found on the ground or beneath leaf-litter along streams, where it also breeds by direct development.	eng
56478	population		It is uncommon throughout its range; there is no recent information from Chiapas.	eng
56478	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to agriculture and selective logging, particularly since it clearly does not adapt well to disturbed areas. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56479	conservation		It is recorded from the Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Peru, and the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador.	eng
56479	distribution		This species is known from the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (1,707-2,622m asl), northern (1,500-1,600m asl) and western (1,830m asl) slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, province of Zamora-Chinchipe, Loja, and the Cordillera de Cutucù (1,700m asl), province of Morona-Santiago in southern Ecuador. Also recorded from Abra Pardo Miguel (2,180m asl) in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in the department of San Martin, Peru (05° 46'S; 77°42'W).	eng
56479	habitat		It is present within humid montane forests. Individuals occur on low vegetation at night and in bromeliads by day (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Breeding takes place by direct development although the egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56479	population		This is an uncommon species. In Peru, only two specimens have ever been recorded.	eng
56479	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and human settlement.	eng
56480	conservation		In the south the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, (Madre de Dios). It is not known if the Contamana population is within a protected area. The species has been recorded in Brazil from both Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
56480	distribution		This species occurs in the lowland rainforest in Cocha Cashu Biological Station and Tambopata Research Center (Madre de Dios), the Andes ridge above the mouth of the Candamo and Guacamayo river, (Puno) (to 350m asl), from Contamana in central Peru (850m asl), and in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil.	eng
56480	habitat		This is a primary floodplain and upland forest inhabitant. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. Males called from 30-160cm above the ground from uncovered perched or more frequently from inside cavities formed by green leaves of small trees or by dead leaves accumulated in branches and small palms. This is a direct development species. It is not know to occur in degraded habitats.	eng
56480	population		The population is unknown.	eng
56480	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56481	conservation	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and the Reserva Ecológica El Angel.	eng
56481	distribution	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	This species occurs in the Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes. In Colombia it occurs on the Cerro Munchique in the Cordillera Occidental, and widely on both slopes of the Cordillera Central in Cauca, Nariño, Valle del Cauca and Putumayo Departments. It extends south to Ecuador, where it is found in Carchi, Imbabura, Sucumbios Provinces, south to Nevado Cayambe. It altitudinal range is from 2,500-3,700m asl.	eng
56481	habitat	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a species of primary and secondary forest and forest edges, sub-páramo bush land, páramo, open areas, and croplands. It is typically found on herbaceous and gramineous vegetation, and in bromeliads (including giant bromeliads in the páramo). It breeds by direct development, the eggs are deposited in bromeliads and in leaf-litter.	eng
56481	population	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
56481	threats	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It is probably also impacted by fire.	eng
56482	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama, two in Costa Rica (although it has not been recorded in this country since 1978), and a few in Colombia.	eng
56482	distribution		This species is known from the humid lowlands from southeastern Costa Rica of the southern Atlantic versant to western Colombia (from Choco southwards to Valle del Cauca departments as well as Gorgona Island in Cauca department); in Costa Rica it is known only from extreme southern Limón Province.	eng
56482	habitat		It is a nocturnal, riparian, primary forest species of lowland moist and wet forests. The species reproduces through direct development. It is has not been recorded outside mature forest.	eng
56482	population		It is a rarely seen species in Mesoamerica, and it is relatively uncommon in Colombia. In streams on Gorgona Island they are quite common. In Costa Rica, this species has not been recorded since 1978 despite extensive surveys in the historical range and may be extinct in this country (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
56482	threats		General habitat loss through deforestation and pollution of waterways are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall at present.	eng
56483	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Orquideas, but there is a need to strengthen and expand the existing coverage of protected areas in the Colombian Andes.	eng
56483	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Antioquia and Caldas on the Cordillera Occidental of the Colombian Andes from 1,140 -1,940m asl. Cochran (1970) recorded one individual from Valle de Cauca Cisneros below 500m asl, but Lynch (1997, 1998b) and Ruiz-Carranza, Ardila-Robayo, and Lynch (1996) did not consider this to be a valid record. Probably by mistake, Acosta-Galvis (2000) included Valle del Cauca in its distribution.	eng
56483	habitat		It is found among fallen leaves, and branches and leaves of low herbaceous vegetation in secondary montane forest and mature forests. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
56483	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56483	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the main threat to the species outside protected areas.	eng
56484	conservation		Although the known distribution of the species is wholly within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, this protected area is in need of improved and strengthened management. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
56484	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique in the department of Cauca, in the cloud forests on the western slopes of the western Andes in south-western Colombia, from 2,200-2,440m asl. However, it may be more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
56484	habitat		It occurs on the ground among logs and rocks inside cloud forests, and has not thus far been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56484	population		It is not a common species. Recent fieldwork has failed to find the species at any of the known localities (but the species has always been rare so no conclusions can be drawn yet).	eng
56484	threats		A major threat to the species is habitat loss within the park, due to the planting of illegal crops.	eng
56485	conservation		Its known distribution is not within a protected area. However, it is near Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, and further sampling in the park might find it here.	eng
56485	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Alto Río Cuevas, near Murri, in the municipality of Frontino, in Antioquia Department, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at 1,900m asl.	eng
56485	habitat		This species occurs in leaf-litter in cloud forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56485	population		It is known only from one specimen collected over 20 years ago. Repeated visits failed to find other individuals. However, no species of this species group is ever common (except for <em>Eleutherodactylus cerastes</em>).	eng
56485	threats		Agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops, are threats to its habitat.	eng
56486	conservation		In Peru this species might occur in one small-protected area in NW Peru Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Area de Recreación Cajas, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56486	distribution		This species from the Western Cordillera of the Andes ranges from southern Ecuador (at Luz Maria in Azuay Province, and around Cuenca de Loja in the Loja Basin in Loja Province), through the Huancabamba Depresion area of northen Peru, in the Provinces of Piura and Cajamarca, south at least as far as Huambos. In southern Ecuador it occurs at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl.	eng
56486	habitat		This species’ habitat is the tropical montane dry forest, montane cloud forest, and sub-páramo (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). It is characterized by a humid temperate regime. Although it sometimes is found on low vegetation at night, most individuals have been found by day; many were under rocks in sub-páramo, others were in either terrestrial or arboreal bromeliads in forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). A direct development species, the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in pastures and disturbed habitats.	eng
56486	population		It is a common species both in Peru and Ecuador (where seen in 2003). This species is the most widespread species of the genus in western Peru and Ecuador.	eng
56486	threats		In Peru (including within protected areas in the region), destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective wood extraction. In Ecuador habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats.	eng
56487	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, but there is an urgent need for the expansion and strengthening of the existing protected areas network in Colombia's Cordillera Occidental.	eng
56487	distribution		This species occurs in the cloud forests of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, from the department of Risaralda to the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 1,400-2,700m asl.	eng
56487	habitat		It is found on the ground in primary and secondary cloud forests, but has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56487	population		It is a common species.	eng
56487	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development, including the planting of illegal crops.	eng
56488	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. In Colombia it occurs in the La Planda private reserve.	eng
56488	distribution		This Andean species ranges along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental from La Planada in the department of Nariño in extreme southern Colombia, south to Cotopaxi Province in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,140-3,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56488	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in open areas. It is arboreal in bushes and trees, and is associated with epiphytes in high vegetation. It is especially abundant along trails through cloud forest, particularly in the proximity of small streams. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.	eng
56488	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56488	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development (including plantations, and the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56489	conservation		It might occur in Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56489	distribution		This species is known from cloud forest in the vicinity of the type locality, "Pass der Carretera Central auf 1,650m NN [asl]", in the Cordillera Azul in Huanuco Department, Peru.	eng
56489	habitat		Its habitat is cloud forest, where the trees are generally spaced widely, separated by 2-3m, in tall shrubland. Wet depressions and small ravines are scattered throughout the area, with slightly taller (4-9m high) elfin forest. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56489	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
56489	threats		There is no information about the threats to this species.	eng
56490	conservation		Its range is within Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
56490	distribution		This species is known from the summits of Cerro Yaví, at 2,150m asl, and Cerro Yutajé, at 1,700-1,750m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56490	habitat		This is a nocturnal species found in wet, mossy forests. Males call frequently, both during the day and night, from concealed sites in caves and from beneath thick moss mats growing over sandstone. At Cerro Yaví, all the specimens were collected at night in the forest, except for the holotype, which was collected while calling from underneath a moss mat on sandstone. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56490	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56490	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56491	conservation		The range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
56491	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, and most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between. It has been recorded from 2,440-2,800m asl.	eng
56491	habitat		It is found on low vegetation or in leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest or forest edge, but has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56491	population		It is a reasonably common species, and is very common in Munchique.	eng
56491	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) are the main threats to the species.	eng
56492	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56492	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the lowlands of southwestern Colombia (Departamentos of Valle de Cauca, Cauca, and Nariño) and northwestern Ecuador, below 1,000m asl.	eng
56492	habitat		It is a species of lowland tropical humid forests, also living in secondary growth, but not in open areas. Specimens have been found on low vegetation in the spray zone of a small waterfall. It is not known whether or not the species is restricted to these waterfall habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56492	population		It is generally uncommon, but is occasionally locally abundant.	eng
56492	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56493	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Protection and maintenance of the existing mangrove habitat of this species is essential, and further survey work is needed to determine whether or not the species might occur in other marshes nearby.	eng
56493	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is only known from one site (1ha), south-west of Dame-Marie, Département de la Grand 'Anse, on the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti. It occurs at sea level.	eng
56493	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This amphibian is confined entirely to coastal mangrove marshes. Its breeding habits and requirements are unknown, although it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56493	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	There is very little information available on the population status of this species. It was last recorded in 1991 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56493	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The fragile mangrove marsh in which it occurs is in an area of severe habitat destruction, and the mangroves are probably being cut for charcoal.	eng
56494	conservation	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56494	distribution	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This species is known only from the Serrania de San Lorenzo in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northern Colombia, at 1,520-2,200m asl. It probably occurs more widely in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta than is currently known.	eng
56494	habitat	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It occurs in riparian forest (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008). During the day it can be found under rocks along rivers in very humid areas. At night, it is found on top of leaves or branches, on bushes around 20cm above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56494	population	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It is a rare species. It was recently found during a survey at San Lorenzo (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).	eng
56494	threats	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging and agricultural pollution, are major threats to its habitat.	eng
56495	conservation		It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56495	distribution		This species is known from two sites 50km apart in the municipalities of Pajarito and Garagoa, both in Boyacá Department, Colombia, where it is found between 1,350 and 2,060m asl.	eng
56495	habitat		This species occurs in shrubs in riparian cloud forest, often near streams. It occurs in secondary forest, but it is not known if it can survive outside forest. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56495	population		It is common and has been collected as recently as 2002.	eng
56495	threats		Landscape transformation and habitat loss due to agricultural development and cattle ranching are major threats to its habitat.	eng
56496	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several Peruvian protected areas including Parque Nacional Manu, Tambopata Candamo National Reserve, Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul, Von Humbolt National Forest, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park, Machiguengo Communal Reserve and the El Sira Communal Reserve. In Colombia it is found in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu and El Pure National Park. There are no conservation measures in place in Brazil. It is not known as to whether or not there are any conservation measures in place in Ecuador.	eng
56496	distribution		This species is widespread over much of the upper Amazon basin. It is present throughout most of Amazonian Peru. Found in southern Colombia; in Brazil, it is known with certainty only from Solimoes River, Amazonas state. There are no exact locality records for Ecuador.	eng
56496	habitat		This species can be found in primary and secondary flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. This frog is most frequently observed perched on low vegetation in primary forest at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). It is presumed to be a direct development species; egg deposition site occurs on low vegetation. It is present in secondary forest and lightly degraded habitat.	eng
56496	population		outside Colombia and Ecuador, this is a common species.	eng
56496	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.	eng
56497	conservation		It is protected in Tapantí, Volcán Poas, Amistad, Volcán Irazu National Parks in Costa Rica, and in at least four protected areas in Panama. The one known location in Colombia is within Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas. Further studies are needed into the declines of this species in Costa Rica and western Panama, and the potential impacts of chytridiomycosis on eastern populations.	eng
56497	distribution		This species is known from lowland, premontane, and lower portions of the lower montane belts from the Atlantic slope of northern Costa Rica to northern Panama along the Pacific versant from extreme southwestern Costa Rica to western Panama up to 1,900m asl. In Colombia it is currently known only from one locality; Las Orquideas in Choco department, from 1,500m asl, but it is probably more widespread, occurring up to the Panamanian border.	eng
56497	habitat		This species occurs in the leaf-litter and low vegetation of primary lowland moist and wet forest, premontane wet forest and rainforest. It breeds by direct development. Females lay their eggs on leaf surfaces and brood them. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats.	eng
56497	population		The species has disappeared from lower portions of its range (<1000m) since the mid 1990's in Costa Rica but it appears to be stable at higher elevations (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). In western Panama the species has declined substantially at El Copé, Coclé (during 2004), although it is still present here in much reduced numbers (Lips <em>et al.</em>, 2006; Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007). In eastern Panama, 2007 surveys have found this species to still be common at higher elevations (Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007). There is little current information on the status of the populations in Colombia.	eng
56497	threats		The most likely cause of decline at lower altitudes is destruction of natural forests as a result of logging, agriculture and human settlement, and possibly infection with the disease chytridiomycosis. This is a paradoxical species because it has remained stable at higher elevations in Costa Rica, in contrast to many other species in which the higher elevation populations have declined most drastically. In Panama, some higher elevation populations have declined at El Copé, presumably through the impacts of chytridiomycosis (see Lips <em>et al</em>., 2006). Further studies are needed into the persistence of this species in areas of former decline.	eng
56498	conservation		The status of this species should be closely monitored, and, given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, some individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population. The species has been recorded from a few protected areas including Parque Internacional La Amistad. New information on the conservation status of this species is needed for Panama to determine whether it is possibly extinct.	eng
56498	distribution		This species is found on the extreme south-western Pacific slope of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, at elevations of 1,219-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56498	habitat		This terrestrial species occurs in streams in premontane and lower montane humid forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56498	population		This species used to be common in Costa Rica; however, like many other frogs in the <em>Craugastor rugulosus</em> group, it has disappeared from much of its known range. Likewise, populations are known to have declined in the uplands of western Panama. A field survey in 2004 within the Panamanian range of this species did not reveal any animals, and further information is urgently needed on the status of this species in Panama (Brian Kubicki pers. comm. 2007). No further information is currently available as to whether this species still persists in Panama (Jay Savage, Roberto Ibáñez and Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007).	eng
56498	threats		While the destruction of natural forests is presumably a threat to this species, the large population decline has taken place within pristine habitats, and this might well be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56499	conservation		There is a population within Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.	eng
56499	distribution		This species is known from a restricted locality in Amazonas State, Venezuela, from the north base of Pico Tamacuari, in the Sierra de Tapirapecó, at altitudes between 1,160-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56499	habitat		This is a terrestrial, diurnal, montane forest frog living in small caves under granite boulders. Some specimens were found in the roots of Araceae plants on the tops of boulders. At night, specimens were found perched on leaves in the forest about 1m above the ground. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56499	population		Based on the frequency of calling, this species seemed to be one of the most common frogs in the type locality area, according to Myers and Donnelly (1997).	eng
56499	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56500	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua. It also occurs in the Reserva La Planada private reserve, Colombia.	eng
56500	distribution		This species can be found in cloud forests from 1,750-2,800m asl, on the Pacific versant of the western Andes in northern Ecuador and adjacent southern Colombia (Nariño Department).	eng
56500	habitat		It is a nocturnal species that has been found in terrestrial bromeliads, and may be encountered on the sides of roads and in herbaceous vegetation, in leafy cloud forests. It is presumed to be a direct developing species although the site of egg deposition is not known. It is tolerant of habitat disturbance provided bromeliads are available.	eng
56500	population		It is fairly common, or at least was so when last searched for in the mid-1980s.	eng
56500	threats		This species is threatened by deforestation occurring for a range of reasons, including logging and agricultural development for the cultivation of crops (some of them illegal) and livestock grazing.	eng
56501	conservation		While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
56501	distribution		This species is found in humid forests of the Atlantic lowlands and southern premontane slopes from Honduras to eastern Panama (including islands in the Bocas del Toro) and marginally on the Pacific slope in northwestern Costa Rica, at elevations of 19-1500m asl (Savage, 2002; Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
56501	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest; it may occasionally be recorded in coffee fincas. Adults are found in leaf-litter by day, and on low vegetation at night. This species shows a direct development form of reproduction; eggs are deposited on low vegetation.	eng
56501	population		In Costa Rica it has disappeared from higher elevations of its range where it originally was rare (e.g., Peñas Blancas valley of Monteverde); populations appear stable in lowlands. Populations are considered to be stable in Panama; the species appears to be rare in Honduras.	eng
56501	threats		It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation.	eng
56502	conservation		Within Colombia some of the populations are distributed in several natural reserve areas that are well protected. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56502	distribution		This species can be found in low to moderate elevations along the Pacific versant of Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-2,300m asl, and Ecuador, at elevations of 500-2,000m asl (Frost, 2002). It is distributed in Colombia from the department of Antioquia, to the border of Ecuador (Depto Nariño). In Ecuador, occurs in Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Pichincha Provinces.	eng
56502	habitat		This species inhabits northwestern Andean montane cloud forest, and adjacent open, wet areas. The species is terrestrial with nocturnal habits, it can be found among fallen leaves. Some individuals can be observed on very low vegetation, on even grounds or on slopes. It is presumed to be a direct development species; the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56502	population		This is a rare species, seen most recently in 2001 in the Valle del Cauca, Colombia. There are many Colombian specimens in museum collections. There could be no recent records in Ecuador.	eng
56502	threats		Deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops cause general habitat loss.	eng
56503	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur.	eng
56503	distribution		This species is known from elevations of 1,735-1,840m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba (the Huancambamba depression is a complex system of relatively low ridges, basins, and valleys), and at 1,500m asl on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in the province of Piura, northern Peru. The range of this species is not completely known, and it could occur more widely.	eng
56503	habitat		An inhabitant of montane forest. Males have been found calling from leaves and stems of herbaceous vegetation 14-40cm above the ground along a road cut in cloud forest. Adults of both sexes were found in bromeliads by day. Breeding occurs by direct development.	eng
56503	population		It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
56503	threats		The major threat is the destruction and loss of habitat for livestock ranching and as a result of selective logging.	eng
56504	conservation		It is found in several protected areas in all three countries in which it occurs.	eng
56504	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from central Belize and central Guatemala to the La Ceiba city area on the northern coast of Honduras, from 20-1,000m asl.	eng
56504	habitat		It lives on the forest floor in lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and also in cocoa plantations and degraded forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56504	population		It is common in Guatemala, but relatively uncommon elsewhere.	eng
56504	threats		The major threat to it is habitat loss due to agricultural development for the cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, logging, development of infrastructure for human settlement, and fire.	eng
56505	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas in Colombia, and in Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
56505	distribution		This species ranges from the Department of Antioquia in western Colombia, south to Cimbo in the Province of Guayasca, western Ecuador. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.	eng
56505	habitat		It is a species of primary and closed secondary forest and forest edge. It does not occur in open areas, but is found on forest edge next to cultivated land. It lives in medium and low vegetation, sheltering by the day inside bromeliads and other plant leaf axils. It is often is found on vegetation beside streams, but it also occurs in forest away from streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56505	population		It is generally an uncommon species, but can be locally abundant.	eng
56505	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56506	conservation	Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Gustavo Cruz, Randy McCranie, 2008	It is found in El Cusuco National Park (Townsend et al., 2006). One locality in Honduras is on the edge of Cerro Azul National Park. Surveys are needed to determine where other remnant populations survive and how these could be better protected. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid is a real threat.	eng
56506	distribution	Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Gustavo Cruz, Randy McCranie, 2008	This species is known from the highlands between the Río Motagua in Guatemala and the Río Chamelecón in Honduras, at 30-1,370m asl.	eng
56506	habitat	Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Gustavo Cruz, Randy McCranie, 2008	This species inhabits lowland and premontane wet forest, living along small tributaries, especially of the Río Motagua. It is often found sitting on low vegetation, sometimes on the banks of streams. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding. It probably tolerates some habitat disturbance because one individual was found in a coffee plantation.	eng
56506	population	Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Gustavo Cruz, Randy McCranie, 2008	It has disappeared from above 900m asl in Honduras and much of the Honduran portion of the range is badly deforested; it was still common in 1998 in streams at 30-330m asl in extreme north-western Cortés Department in Honduras. It is uncommon in Guatemala.	eng
56506	threats	Manuel Acevedo, Larry David Wilson, Gustavo Cruz, Randy McCranie, 2008	Serious habitat degradation is taking place due to agriculture, livestock, logging, and human settlement. However, these threats do not account for the high-altitude declines seen in this species, which could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56507	conservation		The forests on Tobago in which the species is found are protected in the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
56507	distribution		This species is restricted to north-eastern Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago, from sea level to approximately 550m asl.	eng
56507	habitat		It is often found in forest leaf-litter and is more rarely encountered close to forest streams. The males call from low bushes. It is a species that breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in leaf-litter.	eng
56507	population		This species is quite common.	eng
56507	threats		There are no known threats to this species other than its rather restricted range which renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56508	conservation		There are several protected areas within the range of the species, including Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
56508	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Antioquia, Choco, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca, on the western slopes of the northern half of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at moderate elevations (800-1,540m asl).	eng
56508	habitat		An inhabitant of rainforest, it can be found along streams, on medium to low perches on vegetation, although adults are usually too heavy to be supported by the leaves so they are commonly found on rocks. Provided there is gallery forest present over streams, it is able to tolerate considerable habitat modification. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56508	population		It is a relatively abundant species.	eng
56508	threats		Although there are no major threats to the species overall at present, some localized habitat loss is taking place due to agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56509	conservation		Protected areas are present within the Brazilian range of the species.	eng
56509	distribution		This species occurs in low elevation forests in northeastern Brazil in Amapa, in French Guiana, and in Suriname. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
56509	habitat		It is usually found on the leaf-litter of tropical rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known. It is able to adapt to human disturbance.	eng
56509	population		It is a common species.	eng
56509	threats		Fire is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
56510	conservation	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Area Nacional de Recreación El Boliche, and Reserva Ecológica Cayamba-Coca.	eng
56510	distribution	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	This species occurs along the eastern edge of the Andes from southern Colombia (Departments of Nariño and Putumayo) southward to Napo Province in Ecuador. It occurs at 1,900-3,400m asl.	eng
56510	habitat	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a species of upper humid montane forest, sub-páramo bush land, and páramo grassland. It is associated with open areas, especially at very highest altitudes. However, in the forest zone, it is generally associated with primary, undisturbed forest, where it can be found in bromeliads up to 3m above the ground. It is generally found under rocks or logs on muddy ground during the day. At night it is very active on the ground and on low perches in grass or small bushes. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56510	population	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
56510	threats	Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Diego Almeida, Fernando Castro, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Wilmar Bolívar, 2008	The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56511	conservation		Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work in the region is required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56511	distribution		This species has a very restricted range on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 990-1,290m asl.	eng
56511	habitat		It has been found in upland hardwood forests and ravine pinelands. It prefers to hide under rocks, in sinkholes or in vertical rock crevices. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56511	population		Relatively few specimens of this species are known, and there is no information on its current population status.	eng
56511	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56512	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones de Cali, but there remains a need for improved protection of its remaining forest habitat in the Cordillera Occidental. Further survey work is necessary to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
56512	distribution		This species is known from Valle del Cauca and Choco Departments in the cloud forests of the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 900-2,200m asl.	eng
56512	habitat		The species is found mainly in the forest canopy and is mostly active in vegetation 1.5m above the ground in primary and secondary forest; it has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56512	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56512	threats		Forest clearance for agricultural development and cattle ranching has already destroyed some of the habitat within the range of the species.	eng
56513	conservation		Although the species has not been recorded from a protected area, the Quebrada de Oro is at the edge of Parque Nacional Pico Bonito.	eng
56513	distribution		This species was known only from Quebrada de Oro in the Río Viejo, south-east of La Ceiba, Department of Atlantida, northern Honduras, at 880-1,130m asl.	eng
56513	habitat		Animals were recorded along streams in premontane wet forest. It was presumably a direct developing species.	eng
56513	population		It was always extremely rare, and is now believed to be extinct. Several visits to the only known site in recent years have failed to locate the species.	eng
56513	threats		The species is believed to have disappeared through a combination of threats including deforestation resulting from agricultural encroachment, human settlement of the region, logging, fires and landslides. The area from which this species was recorded is subject to extensive landslides; these often severely impact the species habitat. It should be additionally noted that all streamside <em>Craugastor</em> above 900m asl have disappeared in Honduras in a manner that is consistent with the disease chytridiomycosis.	eng
56514	conservation		It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56514	distribution		This species is known only from altitudes of 600-800m asl in lower humid montane forest on the slopes of a ridge north-east of Tarapoto, in San Martin Department, Peru.	eng
56514	habitat		The area in which it was found supports premontane rainforest and cloud forest, whereas the intervening valleys, which it is not known to occur in, are extensively cultivated. All the adults were observed at night on rocks in and along cascading streams. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56514	population		Nine adult males and four adult females were used to describe this species, the population status of which is not known.	eng
56514	threats		There is some localized habitat loss where it is found due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agricultural activity (the cultivation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, for example), cultivation of cash crops (such as coffee) and human settlement. These might all be threatening this species.	eng
56515	conservation	Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
56515	distribution	Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	This species is restricted to Puerto Rico, Isla Vieques, Isla Culebra, U.S. and British Virgin Islands. The altitudinal range is from sea level to 335m asl.	eng
56515	habitat	Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	It is arboreal in xeric to mesic forests. This species is a habitat generalist, occurring in various anthropogenic habitats. It also occurs in both disturbed and natural coastal grass-dominated wetlands (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008). Males call from tall vegetation. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56515	population	Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>In Tortola, Virgin Gorda, the species appears to be declining wherever <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> spreads (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
56515	threats	Neftalí Rios-López, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
56516	conservation		The only known locality is right on edge of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, so the species might well occur within the protected area although there are no records to date. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species and to determine whether or not it is indeed present in Parque Nacional Cerro Azul.	eng
56516	distribution		This species is known only from between Laguna del Cerro and Quebrada Grande in the Department of Copan, in the extreme west of Honduras, at 1,000m asl, close to the Guatemala border.	eng
56516	habitat		Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species, but it is believed to occur in premontane wet forest, although the holotype was found on the ground in a coffee plantation, which might suggest some ability to adapt to secondary habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56516	population		It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
56516	threats		Primary threats probably include deforestation as a result of agricultural and livestock encroachment, human settlements, logging, fires and landslides.	eng
56517	conservation		In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area in the north-west, the Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
56517	distribution		This species is known from two disjunct regions: the Amazonian slopes (2,195-3,140m asl) of the Cordillera Oriental in the province of Morona-Santiago and Amazonian slopes (2,710-2,800m asl) of the Abra Zamora, Zamora-Chinchipe Province in the southern Cordillera Oriental, Ecuador (in southern Ecuador it is known from at least 12 localities); and the crest and upper eastern slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in northern Peru (around 05° 28'S; 79°17'W). It probably occurs in intervening areas between the currently known Ecuadorian and Peruvian distributions.	eng
56517	habitat		This species can be found in the cloud forest and sub-páramo of the high Amazonian slopes of the Andes (Lynch and Duellman 1980). The Huancambamba depression is a complex system of relatively low ridges, basins, and valleys. All individuals for which habitat data are available were found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Breeding takes place by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56517	population		It is a common species.	eng
56517	threats		In Peru, this species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of livestock farming and selective logging.	eng
56518	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but it occurs on the border of the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. It may be worth investigating the possible expansion of this reserve to include part of the range of this species.	eng
56518	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the foothills of the Andes in north-western Ecuador and south-western Colombia: Pote, Río Santiago, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; and the Altaquer-Tumaco Road, department of Nariño, Colombia. Its known altitudinal range is 360-1,200m asl.	eng
56518	habitat		It inhabits mature and secondary moist forest, but it is not found in open areas. Specimens have been found on leaves of bushes 50-60cm above the ground at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56518	population		It is an extremely rare species.	eng
56518	threats		The major threats are habitat loss -- most likely due to deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement -- and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).	eng
56519	conservation		The population is protected within the Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata. Close population monitoring of this species is required given that it is known only from a single locality.	eng
56519	distribution		This species is known only from a single, very restricted locality in the Páramo de Los Conejos, in the Sierra de la Culata, in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 3,000-3,600m asl.	eng
56519	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits páramo grassland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56519	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56519	threats		Agriculture and habitat disturbance by tourists are major threats.	eng
56520	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with Tumbes Reserve Zone in the department of Tumbes and Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone in the department of Amazonas, both in northern Peru. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56520	distribution		This species is known from 1,975m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù and Coangos at 1,500-1,600m asl on the western slope of Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, and from 1,750m asl on the eastern slope of the Cordillera del Cóndor, in the department of Amazonas, Peru. This species is also observed in the department of Tumbes. It might occur more widely, especially in areas between known locations.	eng
56520	habitat		All individuals have been collected in humid montane cloud forest. Adults have been found perched on low vegetation at night; juveniles and adults were on the forest floor by day. This species breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It has not been found outside old growth forest.	eng
56520	population		There is limited information on the population status of this species. In Ecuador, this species is rare although it was recorded in 2003 in two localities in the Cordillera del Cóndor. The Peruvian locality is the first record, and based on an adult female.	eng
56520	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation through agriculture (especially livestock ranching), logging, and mining. The Cordillera del Cóndor region is not currently threatened because of land mines remaining there from the 1995 border war.	eng
56521	conservation		The range of this species includes many protected areas. The range in Peru includes an area that has been proposed as a Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996).	eng
56521	distribution		This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin of western Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In northern Peru this species is observed in the Departments of Loreto and Ucayali. Frost included western Brazilian Amazonia in its range but inventories in that region did not record the species. Its altitudinal range is from 0-600m asl.	eng
56521	habitat		This species is a conspicuous forest inhabitant. They are found on the leaf-litter of primary and secondary tropical rainforest by day, but more commonly found on low vegetation at night. Eggs and direct development occur on land.	eng
56521	population		It is common in Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru.	eng
56521	threats		Logging, livestock, mining and fire might threaten some populations but there is no overall threat to the species.	eng
56522	conservation	Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Thomas, R., Powell, R. & Rios-López, N. , 2008	It occurs in all of the protected areas found in Puerto Rico. Monitoring of the disease is recommended.	eng
56522	distribution	Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Thomas, R., Powell, R. & Rios-López, N. , 2008	This species occurs on Puerto Rico, and has been introduced on to Isla Vieques and Isla Culebra, as well as to Dominican Republic, St. Thomas, St John and St. Croix in the US Virgin Islands, and Hawaii and Florida in the United States. Individuals of <em>E. coqui</em>  were introduced to New Orleans and Boston, although in New Orleans the species was never established, as introduced individuals were only males (Dundee 1991), and in Boston’s case, individuals appear to be restricted to a greenhouse at the University of Massachussetts’ grounds (Pearson 2006). It appears to have been incidentally transported to Guam, although it is not considered to have established a breeding population there (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). These instances are not mapped as part of the species' range. The species has been recorded from sea level up to the highest peak in Puerto Rico at 1,338 m asl.	eng
56522	habitat	Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Thomas, R., Powell, R. & Rios-López, N. , 2008	It is found in mesic forests. Males call from elevated exposed surfaces such as leaves and tree trunks. It has also been recorded from agricultural land including plantations and arable land, and other disturbed habitats such as towns. Nests are usually found on vegetation, and it develops directly.	eng
56522	population	Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Thomas, R., Powell, R. & Rios-López, N. , 2008	The lowland populations are common and should be considered "Least Concern" but apparently there has been an observed decline in the upland population in the Palo Colorado Forest, suggesting that upland populations should be listed as "Near Threatened" (Burrowes <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
56522	threats	Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Thomas, R., Powell, R. & Rios-López, N. , 2008	Habitat loss is a major threat to this species in particular clearance of the land for agriculture. The cause of the decline in the Palo Colorado Forest is chytridiomycosis probably linked to climate change. Rats and mongooses have been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators) to <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species in Puerto Rico (Hedges 1993), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993; and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <em>Eleutherodactylus coqui</em>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to establish their relative contribution to amphibian declines.	eng
56523	conservation		It has been collected in Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guácharos (Municipio Palestina, Huila) and the Reserva Forestal Ventana (Municipio Gigante, Huila).	eng
56523	distribution		This recently described species has been collected in Caqueta and Huila Provinces in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 (San Vicente de Caguán) to 2,600m asl (Gigante). It might occur more widely.	eng
56523	habitat		It is a montane forest species that is found along streams and on vegetation alongside roads, although it is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
56523	population		It was the most abundant frog in the type locality.	eng
56523	threats		The threats to it are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.	eng
56524	conservation		In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, and its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayamabe-Coca, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. In Colombia, it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasa.	eng
56524	distribution		This species can be found at moderate elevations (1,150-1,800m asl) along the eastern face of the Cordillera Oriental from southern Colombia (Caquetá) to southern Ecuador.	eng
56524	habitat		This species occurs in cloud forest. One individual was found on the forest floor by day, while others were found on the ground at night; some individuals have been found on stream banks (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56524	population		This is a rare species across its range; it has not been seen since 1990 in Colombia, although there has been little survey work.	eng
56524	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops), human settlement, and logging is the main threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56525	conservation		The species occurs only in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56525	distribution		This species is known from only one site on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 1,120m asl.	eng
56525	habitat		It is an arboreal species, occurring in high-elevation cloud forest. It has been recorded only from forest edge but this is probably not suitable habitat. Males call from bromeliads or orchids, which they appear to require for reproduction. The species breeds by direct development.	eng
56525	population		It is known from fewer than 10 specimens, and is probably very rare.	eng
56525	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56526	conservation		Part of the range is well protected within Parque Nacional Manu. Further survey work is necessary to determine the species' current population status and whether it is indeed confined to the Cosñipata Valley.	eng
56526	distribution		This species is believed to be entirely restricted to the Cosñipata Valley (1,580-1,700m asl), on the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental in Cusco Department, Peru.	eng
56526	habitat		It can be found in tall forest with some tree ferns and bromeliads and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. Except for a single individual that was collected under a rock, all specimens have been recorded calling from low vegetation in cloud forest at night. It is not known from modified habitats. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56526	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56526	threats		The major threat is small-scale agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) taking place within the valley.	eng
56527	conservation		It occurs in Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining existing habitat in the area, to ensure the persistence of this species, as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.	eng
56527	distribution		This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, from 303-760m asl.	eng
56527	habitat		It inhabits limestone caves and crevices in closed, humid forest; males call from well within the caves, where the eggs are laid. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56527	population		It is moderately common.	eng
56527	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place in the Formon-Macaya region, including throughout Parc National Macaya, due to logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture.	eng
56528	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas, including Park National Natural Katios in Colombia.	eng
56528	distribution		This species is known from the humid lowland and premontane forest zones of Costa Rica to extreme northwestern Colombia (Park National Natural Katios) from 10-2,000m asl.	eng
56528	habitat		A species of humid lowland and montane forest, it can be found in mature and second-growth forests and along forest margins; it also exists in coffee farms and brushy pastures. Adults can be found on the forest floor and in low vegetation. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56528	population		It is a regularly seen, abundant species.	eng
56528	threats		There are no major threats to this species that can adapt to significant habitat modification.	eng
56529	conservation		Its range possibly overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca. There is a need for improved protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species.	eng
56529	distribution		This species is only known from five localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, at 1,410-1,700m asl, in the Río Quijos Valley. It may have a slightly wider distribution.	eng
56529	habitat		It is a nocturnal cloud forest species, found among moss, ferns or herbaceous plants on cliffs over streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56529	population		It is reasonably common in its small range.	eng
56529	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement. About 60% of the natural vegetation had been removed from within its known range by 1996. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56530	conservation		Its range is not included in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the montane forest habitat of this species.	eng
56530	distribution		This species is known from more than ten locations in the vicinity of Pilalo on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental in central Ecuador, where it has been recorded from 760-2,486m asl.	eng
56530	habitat		Individuals have been found on low vegetation along, or on banks of, streams at night (Lynch and Duellman 1997) in montane forest. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid in leaf-litter.	eng
56530	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
56530	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to the species’ habitat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with montane streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56531	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56531	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, São Vicente, in the state of Mato Grosso, in Brazil, at around 200m asl.	eng
56531	habitat		It occurs on the border of the Cerrado savannah and the Pantanal wetlands. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
56531	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56531	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56532	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area.	eng
56532	distribution		This species is known from the northern and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia, from 1,530-2,600m asl. It is expected to occur more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
56532	habitat		During the day it can be found under rocks or on the upper surface of small leaves along rivers in very humid areas. At night, it is found on the upper surface of leaves or on branches or bushes 20cm above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56532	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56532	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development is a major threat to it.	eng
56533	conservation		It is present in several protected areas. The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu, (Madre de Dios) Peru. In Colombia it is present in Amacayacu, La Paya and El Pure. It is present in Yasuni and a second protected area in Ecuador.	eng
56533	distribution		This species is known from the eastern Amazonian lowland rainforest of Ecuador; and central Peru (Panguana, 200m asl, Huanuco, southern Peru, Pakitza, 350m asl (Madre de Dios) and Tavara (Puno)). In Colombia it is present in the Departamento de Putumayo at 400m asl, but penetrates the low cloud forest at the base of the Pastaza trench.	eng
56533	habitat		This species occurs in lowland primary rainforest, but invades low cloud forests. It is nocturnal and is found on low vegetation (0.5-1.5m) in dense forests (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). It is also present in secondary forest. It is presumed to be a direct development species; egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown, although it can be found in lightly modified habitat.	eng
56533	population		It is frequent in some areas, but not over the entire range.	eng
56533	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.	eng
56534	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the Reservas Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56534	distribution		This species occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Ecuador, from the provinces of Imbabura and Esmeraldas, south to Bolivar. It has been recorded from around ten localities.	eng
56534	habitat		It is a cloud forest species that lives in bromeliads by day. At night, individuals have been found on ferns and leaves up to 2m above the ground, in dense forest, and along streams. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56534	population		It appears to be an uncommon species, but it is hard to find, and so it might not be as rare as it seems.	eng
56534	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, plantations, logging, and human settlement. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56535	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
56535	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species geographic range is from the humid forests of lowland and premontane zones and lower portion of the lower montane zone from northern Costa Rica to western Panama (40-1,800m asl). There are no records of this species from Colombia although it has been cited as occurring there in some literature.	eng
56535	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species inhabits most forest types including humid lowland and montane forest. It is also found in degraded habitats outside forest. Adults are generally found on low vegetation. It is direct-developing species, and the eggs may be laid in the crevices of tree trunks.	eng
56535	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	While there might be more than one biological species classified in this taxon, with the exception of La Selva (Whitfield et al., 2007), there are no signs of decline anywhere in the Costa Rica range (Lips, 1998; Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007 [report on continued presence at Las Tablas]). There is no information on the populations of this species in Panama.	eng
56535	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat. While museum specimens of this species have been found to have the chytrid fungus, the current impact of this pathogen on the species is not known. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56536	conservation		In Bolivia it is protected by Madidi and Cotapata National Parks and Natural Areas of Integrated Management, and in Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Madre de Dios) and Parque Nacional Manu (Cuzco).	eng
56536	distribution		This species occurs east of the Andes, from central Peru to northern and central Bolivia. It is not present in Argentina (this is E. discodalis). In Bolivia, it is found in the Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000). In Peru it is found in the Departments Madre de Dios, Cusco, Huanuco and Junin. Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,000m asl.	eng
56536	habitat		This is a terrestrial and arboreal species. It inhabits the foothills of the Amazonian rainforest and Yungas forest (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). The understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. Köhler (2000) and Cortez (2001) point out that it is a mainly terrestrial species that is common in disturbed areas. It can be observed calling on the ground or on low brushwoods. This species breeds by direct development and egg deposition site is in leaf-litter.	eng
56536	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
56536	threats		There are no major threats to this species; it can survive in modified habitats including gardens.	eng
56537	conservation		The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional Pico Bonito. Surveys to determine whether or not there are surviving populations of this species are needed; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56537	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Cordillera Nombre de Dios on the Atlantic slope south of La Ceiba in northern Honduras at 1,520m asl.	eng
56537	habitat		The two known specimens were collected along a very small stream in lower montane wet forest.	eng
56537	population		A landslide destroyed the stream where the type specimen was collected in 1988. Visits to the area in 1995 and 1996 turned up no additional specimens.	eng
56537	threats		The major threat is likely to be chytridiomycosis, leading to a catastrophic population decline, as has occurred in many other high-elevation amphibian species that are associated with streams. Considering that all streamside <em>Craugastor</em> above 900m asl in Honduras have disappeared recently, this species might well be extinct.	eng
56538	conservation		Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Cajas and Parque Nacional Sangay. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56538	distribution		This species is known from five localities east and west of Cuenca, Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador, from 2,835-3,384m asl. It is also known from the Protected Forest of Mazan, within Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
56538	habitat		Individuals have been found beneath rocks and logs in sub-páramo shrubland and páramo grassland habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56538	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
56538	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture, is the major threat.	eng
56539	conservation		In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area (Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Improved and expanded protection of the habitat of this species is needed.	eng
56539	distribution		This Andean species is known from elevations of 2,470-2,710m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and at 3,000-3,100m asl on the the ridges north of the Cuenca de Loja, in southern Ecuador, and at elevations of 2,770-2,820m asl on the western slope of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in Piura Province in northern Peru.	eng
56539	habitat		It inhabits páramo, sub-páramo and humid cloud forests (Lynch 1979c; Duellman and Pramuk 1999). Specimens have been found in terrestrial bromeliads or under rocks; one individual from Peru was found in a tree at night (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56539	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56539	threats		General habitat loss through deforestation for livestock ranching and selective wood extraction is the main threat to this species, including even in protected areas.	eng
56540	conservation		The collection locality of this taxon is in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde.	eng
56540	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at Monteverde in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Its altitudinal range is 1,520-1,600m asl.	eng
56540	habitat		It has been recorded from herbaceous vegetation in the lower parts of montane rainforest.	eng
56540	population		This species is known only from three female specimens. Many herpetologists have searched for it without success (except for a report from the early 1980s). However, this species is hard to distinguish from related species, and there is a lack of knowledge about the microhabitats where it occurs, thus hampering survey efforts ever since it was described. Scientists have been unable to find this species since well before other species of amphibians began declining in Monteverde in 1988, and so there is no evidence that it disappeared as part of that phenomenon. The current population status is therefore unknown. There have been no new reports of this species as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
56540	threats		There is no reliable information on threats, but they might be affected by airborne pollution.	eng
56541	conservation		The range of this species is wholly within Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these specific areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat, is urgently needed.	eng
56541	distribution		This species is restricted to the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, at an altitude of 800-1,400m asl.	eng
56541	habitat		It is restricted to closed humid forest at high elevations, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56541	population		It is a common species within suitable habitat.	eng
56541	threats		The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction due to agriculture, woodcutting, and disturbance from touristic activities, as well as infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56542	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56542	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serrania de Perijá, Casa de Cristal, in the municipality of Manaure, César Department, Colombia. Animals were collected at 2,800m asl.	eng
56542	habitat		It was found below rocks, but there is no further information available regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It is presumed that this is a direct developing species.	eng
56542	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
56542	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to agricultural development and logging.	eng
56543	conservation		This species occurs in several forest reserves, but many of these are in need of improved management.	eng
56543	distribution		This species is widely, but patchily, distributed in western Jamaica from sea level to 635m asl.	eng
56543	habitat		It is found in association with rocks and caves and requires closed-canopy moist forest. This species breeds by direct development, and eggs are laid on the ground. It does not occur in open habitats.	eng
56543	population		It is more abundant than many other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> on Jamaica and is moderately common.	eng
56543	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation and loss due to agriculture, human settlements, tourism development, and logging.	eng
56544	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being degraded.	eng
56544	distribution		This species is restricted to Sierra Maestra and Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, in eastern Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,515m asl.	eng
56544	habitat		It is generally associated with streams but it can also be found far from streams, and is found under rocks or logs in predominantly riparian habitat. It can also be found in disturbed habitats such as agricultural land and even urban areas if there are streams. It lays eggs under stones at the water's edge.	eng
56544	population		It is very common in suitable habitat.	eng
56544	threats		Habitat destruction is taking place, even within the limits of protected areas. Its stream habitat is particularly sensitive to habitat alteration from agricultural water pollution.	eng
56545	conservation		It is present in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56545	distribution		This species is known only from 1,700m asl in humid montane forest on the western slopes of the Cordillera Colán, in Amazonas Department in northern Peru. The complete range of this recently described species is not known, and it might be endemic to the Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56545	habitat		It was found in evergreen forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. Breeding is presumably by direct development.	eng
56545	population		This species has been named from a single specimen, so its population status is not known.	eng
56545	threats		There might be selective wood extraction in the area in which this species is found (which would be a threat to it) but this requires confirmation.	eng
56546	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, and Parque Nacional Cotopaxi. In Colombia, this species does not occur in any natural reserve area.	eng
56546	distribution		This species can be found at elevations of 2,750-4,400m asl on the Nudo de Pasto of southern Colombia and in the western and eastern Andes of Ecuador south to the Desierto de Palmira.	eng
56546	habitat		This species can be found in montane forests and páramo habitats. In Ecuador, this species has been found on the crests of the eastern and western cordilleras and on the connecting ridges (Lynch, 1981). This species inhabits extensive gramineous areas and on typical vegetation (Puya) from the páramo; in the lowest area of its altitudinal distribution, this species is found in areas of eucalyptus, and on vegetation associated to the ground. When inactive, they shelter under rocks on very humid grounds. This species breeds by direct development and egg deposition occurs under rocks.	eng
56546	population		This species is widely distributed, and presumably relatively common. There were many records in 2000. In Papallacta, Ecuador, this species is more rare in the 2000s than it was previously. Recent surveys elsewhere in Ecuador indicate its normal presence at some localities (Bustamante, unpubl.).	eng
56546	threats		General habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crop cultivation are all threats. However, this is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
56547	conservation		In Mexico this species' range includes Sierra del Abra-Tamchipa Biosphere Reserve and El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
56547	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southern Texas in the USA, to adjacent northeastern Mexico. Its range in southern Texas has increased due to transport in potted plants. Introduced populations exist in the San Antonio and Houston areas, and at Port Aransas, Mustang Island (McCord, 1993, Herpetol. Rev. 24:65). In Mexico the species is found in central Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, eastern San Luis Potosi and along Veracruz and extreme northeastern Puebla. Its distribution is probably less fragmented than has been drawn.	eng
56547	habitat		This species inhabits low and moderate elevations in foothills. It is found in moist shaded vegetation, palm groves, thickets, ditches, resacas, lawns and gardens, and hides in sheltered moist spots when inactive and it sometimes burrows. It is a terrestrial breeder and breeds by direct development. It lays eggs in moist, sheltered spots on land.	eng
56547	population		This species can be common to abundant in suitable habitat. It is probably the most abundant frog in the lower Rio Grande valley in Mexico (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
56547	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
56548	conservation		In Peru occurs in the Manu and Bahuaja-Sonene National Parks. It is present in several protected areas in Bolivia.	eng
56548	distribution		This species can be found in the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia. It is known from Cosñipata (Departamento Cusco) Peru, south to central Bolivia (Cochabamba Department). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,800m asl.	eng
56548	habitat		This species is from primary and secondary tropical moist forest. Specimens may be found perched on low (< 50 cm) herbaceous vegetation and fern in cloud forest at night. This species breeds by direct development and is not present in modified habitats.	eng
56548	population		It is a common species.	eng
56548	threats		There is little information about threats to this species. It is possibly locally threatened by deforestation for agriculture.	eng
56549	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The species occurs in the Parc National Morne La Visite, but there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of this protected area, and maintenance of the existing habitat, is urgently needed.	eng
56549	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,720-2,200 m asl.	eng
56549	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The species is known to occur in high-elevation pine forest, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56549	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is very rare, and only a few specimens have ever been found. It was last recorded in the mid 1980s, but there have been few subsequent surveys.	eng
56549	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Severe habitat destruction is the primary threat to this species, largely as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56550	conservation		This species has been collected within Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid poses a real threat.	eng
56550	distribution		This species can be found in the cloud forest of the Sierra Xucaneb and the Sierra de las Minas, central Guatemala, at 1,500-2,290m asl.	eng
56550	habitat		This species can be found along streams in cloud forest. Reproduction occurs via direct development. It can persist in reduced numbers in moderately disturbed areas.	eng
56550	population		It is uncommon but still regularly seen in appropriate habitat.	eng
56550	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat destruction, and more than 50% of its habitat has been lost in the last 10 years due to conversion of forest to ornamental plant farms. Some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56551	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The range of this species includes the El Cido Biosphere Reserve and Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote. Improved protection of the montane forests along the Huasteca region in Mexico is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56551	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species is found in southern Tamaulipas, southern San Luis Potosi and adjacent north Querétaro, and northern Hidalgo to central Veracruz and adjacent northern Puebla, Mexico. The species is known to occur between 580-1,798 m asl (Nieto Montes de Oca and Pérez Ramos, 1998).	eng
56551	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It inhabits montane cloud forest and several individuals have been found on trees and bushes in cultivated land, suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56551	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This is a rare species.	eng
56551	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to logging, as well as some agricultural activities.	eng
56552	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador and in La Planada private reserve in Colombia.	eng
56552	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the foothills of the Andes in north-western Ecuador and south-western Colombia: El Cristal, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; Alto Tambo, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador; and the Altaquer-Tumaco Road, department of Nariño, Colombia. Its known altitudinal range is 830-1,200m asl.	eng
56552	habitat		It lives in humid montane and submontane forests, and also in disturbed forest, but not in open areas. It is generally active on low vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56552	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
56552	threats		The major threats are habitat loss -- most likely due to deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement -- and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).	eng
56553	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones de Cali.	eng
56553	distribution		This species is known from Valle del Cauca Department on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 1,750-2,600m asl.	eng
56553	habitat		It is usually active in the medium-high canopy inside primary and good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56553	population		It is not a rare species, but it is not common either.	eng
56553	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).	eng
56554	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area.	eng
56554	distribution		This species is known from the north-east slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,600m asl. It might occur more widely on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56554	habitat		It is an arboreal inhabitant of forested areas, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56554	population		It is rare.	eng
56554	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development is a major threat to this species.	eng
56555	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56555	distribution		This recently described species is known from a locality at an altitude of 183m asl in the Amazonian lowlands on the Río Tigres in extreme northern Loreto Department, Peru, although it is possible that it is more widespread.	eng
56555	habitat		The area it was found in is situated along the border of a swamp in secondary and primary forest. The only known specimen (a gravid female) was found on leaf-litter in primary forest. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56555	population		It is currently known only from the holotype, and there is no information on its population status.	eng
56555	threats		It is possibly threatened by localized habitat loss due to human activities such as agricultural development (including cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock.	eng
56556	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas. A systematic survey to corroborate the presence of this species in the type locality is required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56556	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Antiguo Morelos, southern Tamaulipas, Mexico at 250m asl.	eng
56556	habitat		It has been collected in caves and lowland forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56556	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56556	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss, particularly due to logging.	eng
56557	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco, and slightly with the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. Improved protection of the montane forest habitat of this species is needed.	eng
56557	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,350-3,155m asl. It has been recorded from nine localities and probably occurs somewhat more widely.	eng
56557	habitat		It inhabits upper montane forests and clearings and is tolerant of some limited habitat degradation. It is found beneath rocks and logs by day and on low vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56557	population		It is a common species within its small known range.	eng
56557	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to deforestation for agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56558	conservation		In Ecuador this species is known from many protected areas including Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Manu Reserve Biosphere of southern and Pacaya-Samiria Reserve Zone of northern Peru.	eng
56558	distribution		This species is present in suitable habitat throughout Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and presumably western Brazil. It ranges up to 1,000m asl.	eng
56558	habitat		This is an arboreal species occurring in primary and secondary forests (Duellman, 1978; Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994); this includes seasonally flooded, terra firme and upland tropical forests. It is presumed to breed by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.	eng
56558	population		It is frequent in good habitat.	eng
56558	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56559	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area, although it lies just outside the Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. This locality is within a "protected" area where the Corporación del Valle del Cauca (CVC) generates electricity as waters leave Lago Calima.	eng
56559	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality (over about 1km) of the Alto Río Calima in the Valle del Cauca department on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,230-1,250m asl. Surveys of the surrounding area have not recorded the species indicating that it is most likely a very restricted range species.	eng
56559	habitat		It is found in vegetation along the stream and on rocks inside and immediately adjacent to the stream in low cloud forest. It breeds by direct development. It is only known from this one stream and is thought to be a microhabitat specialist, like other species of the group.	eng
56559	population		It is quite common at the type locality.	eng
56559	threats		The main threat to this species is potentially the hydroelectric power dam only a few kilometres upstream, but there is no access to the species' habitat as it is part of the dam property. Its habitat does not appear to be otherwise threatened. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56560	conservation	Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, 2008	The species has been recorded from several protected areas. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith, pers. comm. September 2007).	eng
56560	distribution	Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, 2008	This species occurs on humid lowlands and premontane slopes on the Atlantic versant from southeastern Honduras, through northern Nicaragua to eastern Panama; on the Pacific slope, marginally in the Cordillera de Guanacaste and Cordillera de Tilarán of Costa Rica, southwestern Costa Rica, and adjacent western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1-1,620m asl. Records of this species from just west of the Canal area in Panama south through Colombia to western Ecuador are misidentified specimens of <em>Diasporus gularis</em>, <em>D. quidditus</em>, and <em>D. tinker</em> (Lynch, 2001).	eng
56560	habitat	Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, 2008	It is a generally arboreal, nocturnal, species of humid lowland and montane forest; also known to tolerate very disturbed habitats. This species has a direct development form of reproduction; eggs are deposited in bromeliads.	eng
56560	population	Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, 2008	This is a widely distributed and abundant species. It has declined from some higher-altitude parts of its range such as Monteverde, but also from lowland La Selva (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56560	threats	Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, 2008	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56561	conservation		The Omiltemi Park is under protection by the local people, although it no longer has any formal protection status and is subject to increasing anthropogenic disturbance. There is a need to protect the montane forest habitat of this species. A new survey to evaluate the current status of the populations in Guerrero is required.	eng
56561	distribution		This species is found in Omiltemi, Mazatlan and the surrounding areas of Chilpancingo, in north-central Guerrero, Mexico. The type locality is at about 2,250m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56561	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest and crops in the forest, and is commonly found under logs and rocks during the day. During the mating season males climb on rocks and bushes, and breeding is by direct development.	eng
56561	population		This is not a common species.	eng
56561	threats		Disturbance and/or loss of the forests north of Chilpancingo are the main threat for this species since it is restricted to high-elevation forests in the Omiltemi area.	eng
56562	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56562	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species is widespread in Cuba from 0-1,375m asl.	eng
56562	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This is a terrestrial species that requires closed mesic forest. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in damp leaf-litter.	eng
56562	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56562	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat destruction as a result of deforestation due to agricultural development for crop cultivation and subsistence farming, charcoal manufacture, and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism. Agricultural pollution is also a threat.	eng
56563	conservation		One locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, and the other is in a private reserve that has well-protected primary forest. The maintenance of these protected areas is essential for the long-term survival of this restricted-range, microhabitat specialist.	eng
56563	distribution		This species is known from two localities close together; one in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and the other just outside the park, both in Cauca department, on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 1,470-1,600m asl.	eng
56563	habitat		This species is a microhabitat specialist, found on rocks near waterfalls in streams in primary forests. It has not been recorded outside primary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56563	population		It is not thought to be a rare species.	eng
56563	threats		There are no major threats to the species' habitat at present, as its habitat is relatively well protected. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56564	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	In Bolivia, this species occurs in the Amboro, Tariquia and Aguarague protected areas. In Argentina, some populations are protected in Calilegua and Baritú National Parks.	eng
56564	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia (Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and Tarija from 950-2,200m asl) and northwestern Argentina (Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán Provinces from 700-1,200m asl).	eng
56564	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This terrestrial species occurs in the leaf-litter of humid montane forests. Eggs are laid under logs on the forest floor and develop directly. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance and can be found in clearings on slopes as well as roadside ditches, but cannot tolerate more intensive habitat modification such as intensive logging or livestock grazing.	eng
56564	population	Esteban Lavilla, Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is uncommon throughout its range. It is recorded every year in Argentina.	eng
56564	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	Habitat loss/degradation due to wood extraction and agricultural expansion are threats to this species.	eng
56565	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of the montane cloud forest habitat of this species.	eng
56565	distribution		This species is known from two localities on the western slopes of the Andes in Pichincha Province, north-western Ecuador: Quebrada Zapadores, near Chiriboga, at 2,020m asl; and from San Ignacio, at 1,920m asl. Reports from Colombia are in error (J. Lynch pers. comm.).	eng
56565	habitat		It inhabits montane cloud forest, although its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. Specimens have been found on low vegetation along streams at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56565	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56565	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing within its range, due to expanding agricultural activities (including the rearing of livestock) and human settlements.	eng
56566	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and an urgent programme of protection and restoration of the Agua del Obispo area is required. Further survey work to evaluate the population status of this species is also necessary. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56566	distribution		This species is known only from Agua del Obispo, central Guerrero, Mexico.	eng
56566	habitat		It inhabits a small area of pine-oak forest at moderate elevations. Individuals are frequently found perched on the branches of trees from which they usually call. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56566	population		This is a rare species.	eng
56566	threats		The primary threat is habitat loss and degradation, as the forested areas surrounding Agua del Obispo have been severely disturbed or transformed by human activities.	eng
56567	conservation		This species is known only from the Parc National Macaya; there is no active management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56567	distribution		This species is restricted to one site on the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 1,120m asl.	eng
56567	habitat		It is an arboreal species, occurring in high-elevation cloud forest. While it has been recorded from forest edge, this is probably not suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56567	population		It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
56567	threats		The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56568	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This species occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua-Indi Wasa, in Colombia. Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca in Ecuador.	eng
56568	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This species occurs at an elevation of 1,440-1,950m asl on the eastern face of the Andes in Putumayo and Caquetá (Colombia) and Napo (Ecuador). In Ecuador it is only known from three nearby localities.	eng
56568	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This species occurs in cloud forest, and is associated with stream habitats (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56568	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	Generally, this is not a common frog anywhere in its range, although a good-sized series was collected in Colombia in 1990 in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua.	eng
56568	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (including the planting of illegal crops) and logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56569	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and formal habitat protection is urgently needed to secure the future survival of this species.	eng
56569	distribution		This species is known from Páramo Sonsón, in southern Antioquia and eastern Caldas Departments, in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia, from 2,400-3,000m asl.	eng
56569	habitat		An inhabitant of sub-páramo, it is usually active among vegetation in the low stratum and is often found sheltering in epiphytes, in forested areas, but it can also be found in open areas. It has not been recorded from disturbed forest or from anthropogenic habitats, although it may occur in these areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56569	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56569	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).	eng
56570	conservation		It occurs in the Estación El Rasgón.	eng
56570	distribution		This species can be found on the eastern and western flanks of the Cordillera Oriental in Santander and Norte de Santander, Colombia, at 1,800-2,550m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56570	habitat		It occurs in the understorey of cloud forests, sometimes near streams. It also occurs in secondary forest, but has not been found outside forested areas. Reproduction takes place by direct development.	eng
56570	population		It is a common species.	eng
56570	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural crops and cattle ranching is the main threat to this species.	eng
56571	conservation		In Colombia, it is recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Munchique (Cauca) and La Planada (Nariño). In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua.	eng
56571	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imabura, Pichincha Province) and southern Colombia (departments of Cauca and Nariño), from 1,780-2,700m asl.	eng
56571	habitat		This is a montane tropical cloud forest species, and is present in humid microhabitats. At night,it perches on branches and herbaceous vegetation immediately above small streams and sits on rock faces in the spray zones of waterfalls; some have been found in crevices or between rocks in small streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56571	population		In 1977, this species was recorded as abundant in Carchi and Imbabura in Ecuador. However, during surveys conducted between 1997 and 2003, it was found to be rare at many localities	eng
56571	threats		Habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56572	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. This species would benefit from the creation of a protected area to conserve its habitat, as it is restricted to pristine páramo. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
56572	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Páramo del Duende, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, from 3,000-3,600m asl. Its range is likely to extend up to high areas next to the Farallones de Cali peaks.	eng
56572	habitat		It is usually found in bromeliads, and only in pristine humid alpine páramo habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56572	population		It is a very common species, although hard to catch.	eng
56572	threats		The locality is currently pristine páramo and is quite steep, so there are no present threats to this species' habitat. Climate change might represent a potential future threat since this species is located at high altitude in páramo habitat.	eng
56573	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães. Taxonomic revision is needed to determine whether or not Bolivian specimens represent a different species.	eng
56573	distribution		This species is known only from within 25km of the type locality, Chapada dos Guimarães, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, and from a single locality in Bolivia, although its distribution is still very poorly known. The records are from around 800m asl.	eng
56573	habitat		It occurs on vegetation in gallery forests in the Cerrado savannah, and breeds by direct development, although there is no information known about the egg deposition site. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
56573	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56573	threats		Agricultural development, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and fires, are major threats to this species’ habitat. Disturbance of the habitat by tourists is also a problem.	eng
56574	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, although more effective protection is required for this species.	eng
56574	distribution		This species is widespread in western and central Cuba from 0-830m asl.	eng
56574	habitat		It is found in closed-canopy mesic forests, and is normally terrestrial but calls from arboreal sites. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56574	population		It is a common species.	eng
56574	threats		The major threats to this species are agricultural development and pollution, and infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism.	eng
56575	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; however, it does not occur in any protected areas in Colombia. There is a need for improved protection of the montane forest habitat of this species. Further survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56575	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This species is found at intermediate elevations (from 2,300-2,900m asl) on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo Provinces) and southern Colombia (Putumayo department, eastern flank of the Nudo de Pasto). It is known from relatively few localities.	eng
56575	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This terrestrial species occurs in sloping areas of upper humid montane forest, but can also be found in forest edges. Specimens were found under rocks and logs, and on areas of humid grass by day (Lynch and Duellman 1980). They are also found amidst leaf litter (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56575	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	It has never been a common species but is regularly encountered in appropriate habitat. The last records might be from the 1970s in Ecuador, but there have been no known recent attempts to find it.	eng
56575	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	The major threats to this species are general habitat loss, caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), and pollution (from the spraying of illegal crops).	eng
56576	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Adolfo Amézquita, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza and Parque Nacional Natural Sumapaz.	eng
56576	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Adolfo Amézquita, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the páramos of Chingaza, Sumapaz, and La Rusia, in the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá, Colombia, from 2,600-3,300m asl.	eng
56576	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Adolfo Amézquita, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	This species occurs in páramo areas, and also in cloud forest. It is associated with herbaceous vegetation, and very small bushes.	eng
56576	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Adolfo Amézquita, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	It is an abundant species.	eng
56576	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Adolfo Amézquita, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2004	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to crop agriculture and cattle ranching.<br/><br/>A  infection has been reported for this species (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008).	eng
56577	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad, Bosque Protector Palo Seco, and Reserva Forestal Fortuna. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
56577	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This species is endemic to the western central cordillera of Panama. It has been recorded from altitudes of between 910 and 1,450m asl. It has not been recorded from Costa Rica, but may be present in this country.	eng
56577	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This is a terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development, with eggs deposited on the forest floor.	eng
56577	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	While there is little information available on the population status of this species, it is known to have declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí.	eng
56577	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The major threat to the species is general habitat loss as a result of smallholder farming activities, logging and human settlement, although the current observed population decline is thought to be due to chytridiomycosis (Lips 1999).	eng
56578	conservation		It is known from a few protected areas, although these areas do not provide sufficient protection for the species, and there is a need to provide more adequate protection of the remaining forest habitat.	eng
56578	distribution		This species is restricted to the Sierra de Trinidad, Cuba, from 350-830m asl.	eng
56578	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitant of closed-canopy, humid forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56578	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56578	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities.	eng
56579	conservation		Survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species, and the reasons for its decline. It is known to occur in the Parque Nacional La Tigra and the Reserva Biológica Cerro Uyuca.	eng
56579	distribution		This species is known from the Río Choluteca watershed from Cerro La Tigra and Cerro Uyuca to El Zamorano in south-central Honduras at elevations of 800-2,000m asl.	eng
56579	habitat		The preferred habitat of this species is premontane and lower montane moist forest. It occurs in leaf-litter, and has been collected along streams and in a citrus grove away from streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56579	population		There have been no sightings of this species since 1985 despite one targeted effort to look for this species. Considering that all streamside <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> occurring above 900m asl in Honduras have disappeared recently, this species might be extinct.	eng
56579	threats		Although the precise reasons for the declines seen in this species are unclear, it is possible that the apparent disappearance might be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56580	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56580	distribution		This species’ geographic range is Florencia, Caqueta Department, Colombia, at 740-1,660m asl, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental. Its distribution is probably much greater, considering the amount of available habitat nearby.	eng
56580	habitat		This is a species that inhabits cloud forests, on strata from the ground up to 2m above the ground, particularly on roadsides. It also occurs inside dense forests along forest breaks.	eng
56580	population		It is abundant and was collected in 1992, although no surveying has been conducted at this site in quite a while.	eng
56580	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
56581	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
56581	distribution		This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl, although it might be more widespread.	eng
56581	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56581	population		It is extremely abundant in its small range.	eng
56581	threats		The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as it is a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to agricultural development (including the creation of wood plantations), logging, human settlement and tourism.	eng
56582	conservation		It has been collected within the Reserve de la Biosfera Río Platano and on the edge of Parque Nacional Agalta. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established.	eng
56582	distribution		This species can be found in Sierra de Agalta and Sierra Punta Piedra in the departments of Olancho and Colon east-central and north-eastern Honduras, at elevations of 150-1,459m asl.	eng
56582	habitat		It occurs and breeds (by direct development) in leaf-litter on the ground in lowland and premontane moist forest. It is often found near streams.	eng
56582	population		Formerly, this species was relatively common, but now is apparently in decline. Substantial habitat has been lost in recent years, and a recent survey conducted in appropriate habitat turned up no records of this species.	eng
56582	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching), logging, human settlement, and forest fires. However, since the observed decline has also taken place in suitable habitat this could be suggestive of chytridiomycosis as a significant threat (at least to higher-altitude populations).	eng
56583	conservation		In Colombia, the species occurs in Reserva La Planada (department of Nariño), and in Ecuador its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56583	distribution		This species is found at elevations of 1,540-2,100m asl on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in Ecuador (Saloya Valley, Pichincha Province) and extreme south-western Colombia (La Planada, Nariño Department). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56583	habitat		It is a montane cloud forest species. It occurs in old growth and secondary forest, but not outside forest habitats. During the day, it can be found in epiphytic bromeliads as much as 7m off the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56583	population		It was abundant in suitable habitat in La Planada, Colombia, in the late 1980s, and has been recorded during the course of recent surveys in Ecuador.	eng
56583	threats		General habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat.	eng
56584	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Diego Almeida, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	It occurs in Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana in Ecuador.	eng
56584	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Diego Almeida, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	This species can be found in the valley of the Río Papallacta on the eastern face of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, and Putumayo Department, Colombia, at elevations of 2,160-2,750m asl. In Ecuador, the species is only known from four localities. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
56584	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Diego Almeida, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	This species has been found in partially cleared and old growth cloud forest. It is active at night on top of low herbaceous vegetation. Mueses-Cisneros (2005) reported finding specimens next to the shores of the Rio Putumayo and within the forest, from ground level, on top of herbaceous vegetation, up to 3m high, above shrubs. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56584	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Diego Almeida, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	This species was recorded as common in Guacamayos, La Sofia, Cosanga, and Reventador, Ecuador, in 2003.	eng
56584	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Diego Almeida, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	General habitat loss due to logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is a major threat.	eng
56585	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to investigate the current population status of this species, and to determine whether or not there are any immediate threats at present. Close population monitoring is required given that it is known only from the Volcán Sumaco.	eng
56585	distribution		This species is restricted to the peak of Volcán Sumaco, in Napo Province, Ecuador, at around 3,900m asl. It is not likely to occur elsewhere.	eng
56585	habitat		It lives in high-elevation grassland and bushland habitats on the Volcán Sumaco. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56585	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56585	threats		There is no recent information on threats in its only known locality. Its highly restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
56586	conservation		The type locality is next to Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, into which its range is known to extend.	eng
56586	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Teresópolis, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, although it might range more widely. It occurs between 800-1,100m asl.	eng
56586	habitat		This species occurs in the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest and forest edges. It is presumably a species that breeds by direct development, like others in the genus.	eng
56586	population		It is common.	eng
56586	threats		Its range overlaps with a protected area, but it also occurs outside this area, where infrastructure development for human settlement might be threatening some populations.	eng
56587	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56587	distribution		This species is known from the eastern and western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and the eastern and western slopes north of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Quindio, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca. It has been recorded from 980-2,600m asl.	eng
56587	habitat		It is associated with premontane and montane forests, cloud forests and secondary forests. It is also found on low vegetation and is very common in roadside forests, especially juvenile individuals.	eng
56587	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56587	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.	eng
56588	conservation	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	The species was well protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. It was formerly suggested that any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
56588	distribution	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	This species formerly occurred on the volcanoes Barva, Irazú, and Turrialba, of the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, at elevations of 1,100-2,100m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56588	habitat	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	It has been recorded along streams in premontane and lower montane rainforest; with breeding taking place on land by direct development at stream margins.	eng
56588	population	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	Although it has been well studied and collected extensively, and was formerly abundant throughout its range, it has not been recorded despite extensive directed surveys since 1986. There have been no new records as of August, 2007. A serious decline appears to have taken place and there is now considered to be no doubt that the species is extinct (F. Bolaños and G. Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
56588	threats	Bolaños, F. & Chaves, G., 2008	The most likely cause of its disappearance in suitable habitats is the disease chytridiomycosis, perhaps in combination with climate change or other, unknown, factors.	eng
56589	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56589	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of Estero Vicente, a tributary of the Río San Miguel, in Comunidada San Miguel, Parroquia Telembí, Cantón Eloy Alfaro, in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. This is a lowland species found approximately between 225 and 275m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56589	habitat		It is found in evergreen lowland tropical forest, where it breeds by direct development.	eng
56589	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
56589	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56590	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is known from two protected areas, and the naval station affords the species some level of protection.	eng
56590	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species occurs in Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo Province, in Cuba, from sea level up to 151m asl. It occurs on Guantanamo Naval Station and has only rarely been encountered outside this site.	eng
56590	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species is found in xeric rocky regions at low elevations in mesic tropical forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56590	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56590	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Infrastructure development for human settlement and tourist facilities, as well as the disturbance of the habitat by tourists, is the major threat to this species.	eng
56591	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species is urgently needed.	eng
56591	distribution		This species occurs in four localities in a limited area of cloud forest in the upper valley of the Río Pilatón in the province of Pichincha, Ecuador, at elevations of 1,700-2,010m asl.	eng
56591	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, in humid subtropical and humid temperate regimes, and is usually found away from streams. It occurs in bromeliads in the sub canopy. It breeds by direct development, which takes place in bromeliads.	eng
56591	population		It is an uncommon species. It has been recorded as recently as December 2002 in Pichincha.	eng
56591	threats		Habitat loss, due to logging, is the major threat to the species.	eng
56592	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Although it occurs in the Parc National Macaya, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also required to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56592	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, in Haiti, at 575-1,300m asl.	eng
56592	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is an arboreal species, occurring in mesic hardwood closed-canopy forests, and has not been recorded from disturbed forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56592	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is known to be a moderately common species in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 2005 (Hedges and Díaz, 2009).	eng
56592	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56593	conservation	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2004	This species is present in the Grand Etang Forest Reserve. Increased protection of its remaining rainforest habitat is needed. The species needs to be carefully monitored (Henderson and Berg, 2006).	eng
56593	distribution	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2004	This species is restricted to central and south-eastern Grenada, Lesser Antilles, where it has been recorded from 300-840m asl.	eng
56593	habitat	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2004	It inhabits rainforests and forest edge and montane meadows surrounded by agriculture. It lives on the ground and on vegetation. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56593	population	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2004	This species is poorly known, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56593	threats	Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2004	Habitat loss and destruction is the major threat to this species, primarily due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as agriculture.<br/><br/>It has also been suggested that the species could possibly be threatened by the invasive <em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>, although this is uncertain at this time (Henderson and Berg, 2006).	eng
56594	conservation		It is present in Reserva Comunal El Sira; this is specifically an indigenous people reserve. It is not known if this species is present in protected areas in Brazil.	eng
56594	distribution		This is a recently described species that is present in the region of Panguana (at 220m asl) and Serrania de Sira (at 800-1,380m asl) in a relatively small area in the extreme eastern portion of Huanuco, central Amazonian Peru. It was recently recorded from Acre and Amazonas States Brazil, where it is found at elevations above 1,380m asl.	eng
56594	habitat		It is an upland forest inhabitant. In Central Peru, the habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. The habitat type is not known for Brazil. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56594	population		Its population is unknown.	eng
56594	threats		There are presumed to be no major threats. It is now a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). In Peru, there has been a significant loss habitat through agriculture and colonization.	eng
56595	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina, in both Peru and Ecuador.	eng
56595	distribution		This is a recently described species that is known from one locality at 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera del Cóndor (Morona-Santiago), Ecuador. It can also be found in two localities along the Río Comainas (at 665 and 1,138m asl) on the eastern slopes of the southern part of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Amazonas Department, Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 665-1,830m asl.	eng
56595	habitat		Individuals have been found on low vegetation in humid montane forest at night (Duellman and Pramuk 1999). This species is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56595	population		The population status of this species is unknown. Four adult males and six adult females were used to describe it.	eng
56595	threats		It is threatened by localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agricultural activity (the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), and human settlement. In Ecuador, the known range is particularly threatened by road construction (Cisneros-Heredia pers comm.).	eng
56596	conservation		The range of the species is not in any protected areas, although protection of the species' habitat is not urgent at present as it is an adaptable species. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
56596	distribution		This species is known from the oriental slope of the Central Cordillera, between Caldas and Antioquia Departments, in Colombia, from 1,800-2,200m asl.	eng
56596	habitat		It is a common species in the forest, along roadsides and in adjacent areas. It is active at night on low vegetation. It is an adaptable species that is also found in places such as pastureland, and degraded former forest and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56596	population		It is a common species.	eng
56596	threats		There are no threats to this adaptable species.	eng
56597	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of the species, and its habitat is in need of urgent protection (particularly given its dependence on gallery forest to maintain humidity levels). Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56597	distribution		This species is found along forested streams in Antioquia, Tolima, and Caldas Departments, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,100-1,850m asl. The type locality is in San Carlos (Lynch and Rueda-Almonacid 1999).	eng
56597	habitat		This is a forest species usually found along the edge of streams that is associated with naturally occurring open areas in primary and secondary forests. Gallery forest cover is needed to keep humidity high; hence, it is very sensitive to any disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56597	population		There is no information on its current population status.	eng
56597	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation for agricultural development and the planting of illegal crops, although these activities are mainly localized at present. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56598	conservation		There are records of this species from Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, Parque Nacional Capiro and Parque Nacional Calentura. Surveys to relocate this species and to determine its current population status are urgently required; surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56598	distribution		This species can be found in Quebrada de Oro and Cerro Calentura in the Sierra Nombre de Dios in the Departments of Atlantica and Colon, northern Honduras, at elevations of 200-1,260m asl.	eng
56598	habitat		The species is known to occur in leaf-litter in undisturbed lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56598	population		Although once relatively common, it is now in decline: it was not recorded once during a total of 20 days of searching during 1995 and 1996 in suitable habitat.	eng
56598	threats		The most likely cause of the apparent disappearance of this species is chytridiomycosis.	eng
56599	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, Dpto Madre de Dios, Peru. It also occurs in protected areas in Brazil and Bolivia.	eng
56599	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon Basin of Peru (Department of Madre de Dios and Cusco and two places in the Department of Puno) and from Bolivia to Brazil. Its altitudinal range is up to 1,900m asl.	eng
56599	habitat		This species' habitat is humid montane and lowland forest, including secondary forest and edges. It inhabits upland, flooding, and oxbow palm swamp forest. Individuals are found in the leaf-litter, on vegetation and on bromeliads at night.	eng
56599	population		It is very common in Peru and Bolivia.	eng
56599	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
56600	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of the species, and there is a need for the protection of remaining tracts of montane forest in this region.	eng
56600	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities within the vicinity of the type locality, Puerto Suárez, on the Cordillera Occidental in Caldas Department, Colombia, from 1,800-2,650m asl.	eng
56600	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forests, and is very dependent on humid conditions and streamside conditions. It can be found on rocks and low vegetation. It needs gallery forest to maintain the humid conditions, and hence is not tolerant of any disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56600	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56600	threats		Habitat loss, as a result of deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), is the major threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> associated with montane streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56601	conservation		The range includes several protected areas.	eng
56601	distribution		This species is known from northeastern Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica, south to northwestern Colombia, up to 1,520m asl.	eng
56601	habitat		An inhabitant of humid lowland and montane forest, and is often seen in disturbed forest or forest edge. In lowland dry forest areas, it is restricted to riparian gallery forest in the dry season, but disperses throughout forest in the wet season (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). Reproduction occurs by direct development. In Colombia, it has not been recorded from secondary forest.	eng
56601	population		This species is often common in Costa Rica, although populations have undergone some recorded declines at La Selva (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
56601	threats		Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi (R. Puschendorf pers. comm.), but populations are still high. There are no major threats to the species habitat overall at present as it has a wide range.	eng
56602	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56602	distribution		This species is restricted to eastern Dominican Republic from 0-909m asl. Coastal populations have probably been extirpated from western La Romana.	eng
56602	habitat		It is found in mesic forests and occasionally mangroves, but does not adapt well to degraded forests. It calls from a variety of elevated surfaces. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are laid on the ground or in bromeliads.	eng
56602	population		It is very common in suitable habitat, especially in the eastern part of its range.	eng
56602	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss due to development of infrastructure (such as hotels) for tourism, and agricultural encroachment by smallholder farmers and livestock grazing.	eng
56603	conservation		The historical range includes Parque Nacional Tapantí as well as other protected areas. It is a high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species (most especially within the Cordillera de Talamanca) and determine whether or not it survives in the wild; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56603	distribution		This species was found in Costa Rica on the Meseta Central Oriental and Occidental, on the Pacific slopes of the volcanoes Poás and Barva, on the Atlantic slopes of the volcanoes Irazú, Turrialba, and on the slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca, at elevations of 1,050-2,286m asl.	eng
56603	habitat		It is a nocturnal species that has been found along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forest at both pristine and moderately disturbed sites. It reproduces in stream margins by direct development.	eng
56603	population		It has not been seen since 1986 despite extensive searches in a number of sites from which it was formerly known (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007). There is a possibility that populations persist in parts of the Cordillera de Talamanca, as limited survey work has recently taken place within this area. Until directed surveys have been undertaken in this region, the species is still considered to be extant.	eng
56603	threats		The most likely cause of the disappearance at known sites of this species is chytridiomycosis, possibly in combination with the effects of climate change.	eng
56604	conservation		Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56604	distribution		This species occurs on the western flanks of the Andes in the Ecuadorian provinces of Cotopaxi, Imbabura, and Pichincha, at 700-2,000m asl.	eng
56604	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland tropical forest and cloud forest. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56604	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56604	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56605	conservation		The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, but is not known to occur in a protected area in Haiti. Maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed, and further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
56605	distribution		This species has a restricted range on the Massif de la Selle, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) where it is known from only two isolated sites, one in Haiti, and one in the Dominican Republic. Its altitudinal range is 1,045-1,303m asl.	eng
56605	habitat		It inhabits high-elevation mesic forests, occurring in bromeliads in tall trees (which it uses as diurnal retreats, and for calling sites and breeding). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56605	population		This species is probably very rare; very few specimens have ever been collected and few individuals have been heard calling.	eng
56605	threats		The primary threat to the species is habitat destruction due to small-scale agriculture and charcoaling, a particular threat to the tall trees that are its favoured habitat.	eng
56606	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Natural Serranía de la Macarena.	eng
56606	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	This species can be found on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Meta, and from the Serranía de la Macarena, in Colombia. Its altitudinal range is from 1,000-1,600m asl. It might be more widely distributed than existing records indicate.	eng
56606	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	This species inhabits premontane humid forests, and is found on low vegetation. It has been recorded from secondary forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56606	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is a common species, and was last collected in 1993 when the last surveys took place.	eng
56606	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (crops and cattle ranching) is the main threat to this species.	eng
56607	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	Its range includes Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.	eng
56607	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This species occurs in Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, in La Siberia, which is at the border between the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz in Bolivia (De la Riva and Lynch 1997). It has been recorded from 2,000-3,000m asl.	eng
56607	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is a nocturnal inhabitant of the cloud forest of Yungas (De la Riva and Lynch 1997, De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is mainly terrestrial, and Köhler (2000) noted that some individuals could be observed perching actively on brushwoods, bushes and ferns, or on the ground during the day. It is a direct developing species, and clutches contain as many as 30 eggs.<br/><br/>The advertisement call of this species is described by Jansen and Köhler (2007).	eng
56607	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56607	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	Incidental habitat loss/degradation is a threat to local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened at present.	eng
56608	conservation	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	This species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic and the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti. However, there is little or no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being destroyed. Improved management of these protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed, while further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
56608	distribution	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle in Haiti, and the Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 803-2,100 m asl.	eng
56608	habitat	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs in upland mesic pine forests, usually under rocks and logs. It has been recorded from recently disturbed forest, although this is probably not suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56608	population	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	Known to be moderately common in suitable habitat, it was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56608	threats	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	Severe habitat destruction, as a result of charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture, is the primary threat to this species, and is taking place even in the protected areas of La Selle and Bahoruco.	eng
56609	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama and Colombia and one in Costa Rica.	eng
56609	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic lowlands from extreme southeastern Costa Rica to eastern Panama and on the Pacific versant in central Colombia; populations in the Ríos Sinú, Cauca, and Magdalena questionably placed here (following Lynch, 1985). In Costa Rica it is known from the Valle de Talamanca and the vicinity of Carbón, Limón Province, at elevations of 20-200m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56609	habitat		This is a nocturnal species of primary humid lowland forest, and secondary forest. Adults are found under surface debris and in leaf-litter, its range often associated with caves or rocky stream banks. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56609	population		It is common in Panama and relatively rare in Costa Rica.	eng
56609	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56610	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán in Peru, and in Ecuador with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Sangay, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56610	distribution		In Ecuador, this species is known from 1,000-1,800m asl on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental, from 1,700-1,975m asl in the Cordillera del Cutucú, and from 1,500-1,550m asl in the Cordillera del Condór. The only Peruvian record is at 1,700m asl on the western slope of the Cordillera de Colán, Bagua Province, Amazonas Department, from 05° 36'S; 78° 19'W. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between the known Ecuadorian and Peruvian ranges.	eng
56610	habitat		This species can be found in evergreen secondary and old growth humid montane forest with herbaceous plants, shrubs, and lianas. Specimens have been found on leaves of bushes or palm fronds 1-2m above the ground (Lynch and Duellman 1980). In Peru, the species was found along a stream in humid montane forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56610	population		This is an uncommon species in Ecuador, where it was first recorded as recently as 2003. In Peru, only a single specimen has been recorded.	eng
56610	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat destruction through an increase in livestock farming, agro-industrial development, and selective wood extraction.	eng
56611	conservation		Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
56611	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, at 1,700m asl in the Cordillera del Cutucú, and from one other locality about 400km north (in Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, at 2,000m asl), in Ecuador. It is likely to occur more widely, in particular between the known sites.	eng
56611	habitat		Specimens have been collected in a flat area on a ridge with cloud forest with a relatively open canopy and many tree falls (Duellman and Lynch 1988). It can also occur in fairly disturbed areas, for example it has been found on roadsides. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56611	population		It was found to be common in 2001 in Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
56611	threats		Agricultural activity (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) is a future threat, while logging, and infrastructure developments for human settlement, are ongoing threats to its habitat.	eng
56612	conservation		The type locality of this species is within Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.	eng
56612	distribution		This species is known only from Paranapiacaba, in São Paulo State, Brazil, at around 800m asl.	eng
56612	habitat		Its habitat requirements are unknown, but the type locality was primary forest at the time of collection.	eng
56612	population		It is known only from the type specimen (which is in bad condition), so there is no information on its population status.	eng
56612	threats		The major threats are unknown, but the type locality is now within a protected area.	eng
56613	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is therefore a need for urgent habitat protection in the range of this species.	eng
56613	distribution		This species occurs at elevations of 2,850-3,380m asl in a small part of the Ecuadorian Andes, west of the Páramo de Apagua, in the province of Cotopaxi.	eng
56613	habitat		It is a high-altitude cloud forest species, where individuals have been found under rocks by day. It has apparently also been found in high-altitude bush land and grassland. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56613	population		It is a common species within its small known range.	eng
56613	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to deforestation for agricultural development and human settlement.	eng
56614	conservation		Part of the species' range is protected within Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Further research is needed to establish the reasons for the decline of this species, even within protected areas; if chytridiomycosis is proved to be a genuine threat, then a captive assurance colony may need to be established.	eng
56614	distribution		The species is known to occur from Páramo Mucubají (Santo Domingo mountain range) to Páramo El Pajarito (Trujillo mountain range) and El Escurial (La Culata mountain range), in Venezuela, between 2900 and 4000 masl (La Marca, 2007).	eng
56614	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found in páramo grassland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56614	population		It is rare and in decline. Populations of this frog are undergoing declines in areas where it was previously abundant, such as the Páramo de Mucubají, although it is still common in less surveyed areas.	eng
56614	threats		Although most of the populations are in protected areas, agriculture (involving both crops and livestock), as well as fires, are threats to the species' habitat. However, the cause of the current declines is not known, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56615	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making the protection of habitat within its range an urgent priority.	eng
56615	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species is known from two localities in Ecuador (Papallacta Valley near Cuyuja, in Napo Province, and Monte Olivo, in Imbabura Province), and from three localities in Putumayo department, Colombia. It is found between 2,350-2,910m asl. It probably occurs more widely but this requires confirmation.	eng
56615	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This is a fossorial species of páramo grassland, cloud forest, and clearings (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56615	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species was rare at Monte Olivo, where it was last collected in the year 2000.	eng
56615	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture development and agricultural pollution, are the major threats.	eng
56616	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management and protection of these areas is necessary.	eng
56616	distribution		This species has a restricted range on the Sierra del Turquino in Cuba, from 800-1,974m asl.	eng
56616	habitat		It is arboreal and requires closed mesic cloud forests. It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are laid on the ground.	eng
56616	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56616	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation, as a result of deforestation due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourist activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement. Although it may occur in the core of the Sierra Maestra, it is restricted to high-elevation cloud forest, which is declining rapidly.	eng
56617	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the population status of this species.	eng
56617	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 300-1,886m asl.	eng
56617	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is a terrestrial species, found in closed-canopy forests, and appears to be associated with streamside habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56617	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	At the time of the last survey in 1991 it was known to be moderately common.	eng
56617	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56618	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The known range of the species is just outside Parc National Morne La Visite, although there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat within the park is being destroyed. This is clearly a species requiring urgent site-based conservation action specifically to conserve the remaining habitat in the area. Survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56618	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to one small locality in the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from 1,515-2,121m asl.	eng
56618	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs only at high elevations in moist forest, calling from the ground or from low grasses in the forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56618	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is very rare, and possibly already extinct. It has been seen only a few times, most recently in 1985 although there have been few herpetological surveys in the region since.	eng
56618	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The primary threat to the species is severe habitat destruction, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56619	conservation		Its range includes the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. Increased protection of the habitat of this species in the Ecuadorian Andes is necessary.	eng
56619	distribution		This species has been recorded from five localities on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the upper Río Papallacta Valley, in Napo Province, and Playon de San Francisco, in Sucumbios Province, Ecuador. It has been recorded from 2,105-2,890m asl.	eng
56619	habitat		This is an inhabitant of páramo, cloud forest, and clearings by day, and at night it has been found on rocks, on the ground and on low vegetation (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56619	population		The species is rare at Playon de San Francisco, where one individual was collected in the year 2000.	eng
56619	threats		The major threats to the species are habitat loss and degradation, due to livestock farming, fires and agricultural pollution.	eng
56620	conservation		It occurs in Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for urgent site-based conservation action to ensure the formal protection of remaining habitat on the Tiburon Peninsula and thereby the persistence of this and several other species of threatened amphibians in the region.	eng
56620	distribution		This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti, at an altitudinal range of 576-1,480m asl.	eng
56620	habitat		It is found in crevices of exposed limestone in closed moist forest, and calls from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56620	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56620	threats		This species is sensitive to habitat destruction (which is ongoing), although perhaps less so than other frog species. Logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture are major threats.	eng
56621	conservation		The protected area in which it occurs is the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park.	eng
56621	distribution		This species has a restricted range in eastern Jamaica, occurring from 0-1,650m asl.	eng
56621	habitat		This terrestrial species, often found on rocks, requires rainforest but can occur in secondary forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56621	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
56621	threats		Habitat destruction is taking place, even within the protected area in which it occurs, and there are coffee plantations within the park's limits. Hikers also disturb the species' habitat, and there is a lot of litter left behind from tourists visiting the park.	eng
56622	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and restoration and protection of the remaining habitat of this species is urgently required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56622	distribution		This species is known from the areas surrounding San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.	eng
56622	habitat		The primary habitat is pine and pine-oak forests at intermediate elevations. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56622	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56622	threats		Most of its range has been dramatically transformed in the past few years by an increased rate of logging and urbanization.	eng
56623	conservation		While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
56623	distribution		This species can be found in lowland and premontane humid forests of eastern and central Panama, where it is found at elevations of 10-850m asl, and on the Atlantic slopes of northwestern Panama and eastern Costa Rica. There are a few records for the premontane Pacific slope in Costa Rica, where it is found at elevations of 10-1,520m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56623	habitat		It inhabits the leaf-litter of humid lowland and montane forest; it is also present in cleared areas close to the forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56623	population		It is apparently common and regularly seen in Costa Rica.	eng
56623	threats		General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat.	eng
56624	conservation	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2004	It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, and several forest reserves.	eng
56624	distribution	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2004	This species is widespread in Jamaica, and it occurs up to 1,515m asl. It appears to have been accidentally introduced into Bermuda in vegetation imported from Jamaica in the 1890s. However, it became apparent that the population was declining by the mid 1990s, and might have been extirpated from Bermuda since no specimens of this species had been observed since 1994 (Bacon et al., 2006).	eng
56624	habitat	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2004	It is terrestrial and is found in a variety of mesic habitats including rural gardens and former forest. It is dependent on moist habitats, as well as in undisturbed forest. Agricultural land might not be suitable due to the pollution from agrochemicals. The eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56624	population	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2004	It can be common in suitable habitat.	eng
56624	threats	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, 2004	It is a relatively adaptable species although extensive clearance of the habitat is a major threat, for example from intensive agricultural practices and infrastructure development. It is less threatened than most other Jamaican species.<br/><br/><br/>In Bermuda, studies strongly suggest that Bermuda’s whistling frogs and toads were exhibiting effects caused by exposure to environmental stressors (pesticides and heavy metals, see Bacon et al., 2006).	eng
56625	conservation		Although recorded from several forest reserves, these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and there is a need to strengthen and improve the management of these reserves for biodiversity.	eng
56625	distribution		This species has a restricted range in western and central Jamaica, with an altitudinal range of 150-670m asl. Much of the mapped range includes many historical localities, and it is unclear whether the species still occurs throughout this range.	eng
56625	habitat		It is found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads or on rocks in wet limestone forests, and appears to be intolerant of any disturbance to its habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56625	population		It is very rare, with only a few records in the last decade.	eng
56625	threats		It is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agriculture, human settlements, logging, and bauxite mining.	eng
56626	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali and Regional Reserve Ucumari.	eng
56626	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Risaralda and Antioquia, and from the western slopes north of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caldas and Antioquia, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,680-2,320m asl.	eng
56626	habitat		It occurs mostly on leaves or branches along streams in cloud forest. It can also survive in secondary forests, but not in open areas outside forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56626	population		It is a common species.	eng
56626	threats		Major threats included habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and pollution as a result of the fumigation of crops. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high-elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56627	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is an urgent need for effective protection of remaining suitable habitat in the range of this species.	eng
56627	distribution		This species is restricted to the north-west of Haiti, ranging from 20-330m asl.	eng
56627	habitat		It is found on limestone ridges with boulders and xerophytic vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56627	population		It is relatively common in suitable habitats.	eng
56627	threats		Extremely severe habitat destruction due to charcoaling and small-scale agriculture is taking place on the north-western peninsula of Haiti, which now looks like a lunar landscape, devoid of vegetation, although some pockets remain where this species might occur.	eng
56628	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
56628	distribution		This species can be found on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental in Boyacá and Santander Departments, Colombia, at altitudes of 2,200-2,400m asl.	eng
56628	habitat		It inhabits very humid cloud forests, on vegetation above streams, and only occurs in well-preserved forests. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56628	population		This is a rare species that was collected for the last time in 1992. It has not been surveyed for since.	eng
56628	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops is the major threat to this species.	eng
56629	conservation		Survey work is urgently needed to establish the current population status of this species, subsequent to which a recovery program and strict protection of the species in the Pedregal Reserve and surroundings areas might need to be implemented. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56629	distribution		This species is known from a single locality (El Pedregal Reserve) in the Southern Distrito Federal, central Mexico, in the lava fields of Volcán Xitle, in the southern part of Mexico City.	eng
56629	habitat		It inhabits dry shrubland, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56629	population		This is not a very common species and it is difficult to collect.	eng
56629	threats		The extension of Mexico City has resulted in the disappearance of most of the available suitable habitat for this species, with the result that it is now believed to be restricted to a very small protected area, the Pedregal Reserve. The Pedregal has been subject to long-term disturbance (fragmentation and isolation), and is now little more than an isolated vegetation fragment of 160 ha with no natural corridors.	eng
56630	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected area. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56630	distribution		This species is known from Gran Rio, central Suriname, probably at around 250m asl.	eng
56630	habitat		The type locality of this species is primary forest.	eng
56630	population		It is known from only a single specimen.	eng
56630	threats		There are no threats to the type locality at present, as it is undisturbed and isolated.	eng
56631	conservation		It is not found within any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas along the Soconusco region in Mexico is clearly necessary. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56631	distribution		This species occurs in the Soconusco region and slopes of Volcán Tacana, southern Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent western Guatemala at Volcán Tejumulco, at elevations of 1,500-2,700m asl.	eng
56631	habitat		The primary habitat is montane cloud forests, and it breeds near streams and does so via direct development.	eng
56631	population		It is uncommon and is known only from few localities.The population in Guatemala is known to be declining, and there have been no records from Mexico since 1997 (recent surveys in Chiapas have not been successful in locating it).	eng
56631	threats		It is likely that this species is declining because of chytridiomycosis, which has heavily impacted some other streamside <em>Craugastor</em> species. Habitat loss is also a threat to the species, particularly in Mexico where the population occurs in a continuously altered forest.	eng
56632	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas, but these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation and the habitat within them continues to be degraded. The existing protected areas network is in need of more effective and strengthened management.	eng
56632	distribution		This species has a restricted range in central Cuba, where it has been recorded from sea level up to 820m asl.	eng
56632	habitat		It is associated with rocky areas in mesic, closed-canopy forests. It is restricted to these forest habitats and breeds by direct development.	eng
56632	population		It is common in suitable habitat, but is patchily distributed.	eng
56632	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, as a result of deforestation for agriculture, the development of tourism infrastructure, and the disturbance of habitat by tourist activities.	eng
56633	conservation		The majority of the Cockpit Country is government-owned Forest Reserve, although it has not yet been formally declared a protected area. Maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently required.	eng
56633	distribution		This species is known presently from only three localities in Cockpit Country, central-western Jamaica. It has been recorded from 250-640m asl.	eng
56633	habitat		It is terrestrial, and is found only in pristine closed-canopy forests, and does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56633	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56633	threats		The primary threat to the species is habitat destruction, due to agriculture development, expansion of human settlements, cutting of timber for firewood, and selective logging. Improved access to previously inaccesible parts of the interior by means of the building of roads has led to increased deforestation and selective logging.	eng
56634	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas, which are well managed. The species requires careful population monitoring, particularly in light of the potential threats posed by climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. In addition, further research may help elucidate the relative impact of introduced species (rats and mongoooses) on local populations.	eng
56634	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the interior uplands in Puerto Rico, having been recorded from 300-1,182m asl.	eng
56634	habitat		It occurs in forest and along forest edges or openings, retreating by day into bromeliads or under moss and rocks. It has not been recorded outside forest habitats. Eggs are laid in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56634	population		One population in the elfin forest has been reported as declining. However, apparent declines may be a result of variation in the survey methodology, given that acoustic surveys were conducted at different time frames early and later on in the study (N. Rios-López, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56634	threats		In the past, extensive deforestation took place over much of Puerto Rico due to agricultural expansion and wood-cutting; current disturbances include tourism and infrastructure development for tourism and radio communication facilities. As a high-altitude species, it might also be susceptible to climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges, 1993, and Thurley and Bell, 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide, 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of Eleutherodactylus coqui), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to elucidate their relative contribution to amphibian declines.	eng
56635	conservation		The range of this species includes a couple of protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is essential. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine whether or not it has a wider range than currently known.	eng
56635	distribution		This species is known from at least three municipalities in Serra do Órgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It occurs at elevations of 800-1,200m asl.	eng
56635	habitat		This species lives on the floor of primary or good quality rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
56635	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56635	threats		There are no known threats to the species' habitat at present, although there was some logging, but this occurred over a hundred years ago.	eng
56636	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Guanahacabibes, which is a well-protected area in Cuba. Protection of other tracts of suitable forest habitat where the species occurs is recommended.	eng
56636	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Peninsula de Guanahacabibes, in extreme western Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 20m asl.	eng
56636	habitat		It occurs in rocky areas and caves with high humidity in moist forest areas; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56636	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56636	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to infrastructure development; a road has recently been built directly through the habitat of the species, and the peninsula may become a landing point for cruise ships in the future.	eng
56637	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, but these are in need of improved protection and management.	eng
56637	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the upland areas (60-1,150m asl) of south-eastern Cuba.	eng
56637	habitat		It is arboreal in closed moist forest. Eggs are laid in bromeliads and breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56637	population		This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56637	threats		The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and human settlement.	eng
56638	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Diego Baldo, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56638	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species from southeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Espírito Santo, south to the State of Rio Grande do Sul. It is also recorded from Misiones Province in northeastern Argentina, presumably also in adjacent Paraguay (though it has not yet been recorded from this country). It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
56638	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Diego Baldo, 2008	It lives in primary and old secondary forest, but not in more open areas. It is found on the forest floor and on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development, and the egg clutches are laid in shallow cavities on the forest floor.	eng
56638	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is a very common species. It experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has since rebounded and is abundant again.	eng
56638	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Diego Baldo, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear cutting, fires and human settlement.	eng
56639	conservation		This species is a priority for further survey work to determine whether or not it might still survive in the wild, and surviving populations might need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme. The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the Agua del Obispo forests is urgent since there are many threatened amphibians known to occur in this area. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56639	distribution		This species is known only from Agua del Obispo at 980m asl, central Guerrero, Mexico, although it is likely to occur a little more widely.	eng
56639	habitat		It has been recorded inhabiting pine-oak forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56639	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1984. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
56639	threats		Loss of original forest cover due to conversion to agricultural land, and as a result of excessive logging, has had an impact of this species. However, it has also disappeared in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56640	conservation	Fernando Castro, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	It occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona, Colombia, and in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador, and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
56640	distribution	Fernando Castro, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	This species occurs widely in the lowlands of western Colombia (in Antioquia, Chocó, Risaralda, Valle, Cauca and Nariño Departments), south to northwestern Ecuador (as far as Huigra in Chimborazo Province). It also occurs around the northern tip of the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central in Cordoba Province, Colombia and in Gorgona Island, also in Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 400m asl. It has been reported from a single locality at 1,200m asl that requires confirmation.	eng
56640	habitat	Fernando Castro, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	It lives in both primary forest and disturbed habitats, including in deforested areas, with a strong preference for secondary, degraded vegetation. In Gorgona Island, however, this species was found to be associated to forested areas and its distribution was heavily influenced by the amount of canopy cover (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003).<br/>Specimens have been found on low vegetation in forest, and on bushes and herbaceous plants on open habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56640	population	Fernando Castro, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	It is an extremely common species, but is rare in primary forest.	eng
56640	threats	Fernando Castro, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, Taran Grant, Manuel Morales, 2008	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying.	eng
56641	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brain Kubiki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The species has been recorded from the protected areas of Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Further research is needed into the range and breeding ecology of this species.	eng
56641	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brain Kubiki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	This species can be found in the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 1,000-1,873m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56641	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brain Kubiki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It inhabits humid premontane forest. Little is known about the species’ biology, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56641	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brain Kubiki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It is generally a rare species.	eng
56641	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brain Kubiki, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The main threat is general habitat loss primarily due to agriculture and logging.	eng
56642	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Although occurring in several protected areas, several of these are not well managed for biodiversity conservation and habitat loss is proceeding within the boundaries of these reserves. There is a clear need to improve and strengthen the management of these existing protected areas.	eng
56642	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, the Sierra del Cobre, and the Sierra de la Gran Piedra, Cuba. The altitudinal range is 650-1,375m asl.	eng
56642	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is terrestrial and requires closed mesic forest. The species calls from the ground, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56642	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56642	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	The major threat is habitat destruction and loss due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourist activities, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56643	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species has never been recorded in a Biosphere reserve or any other protected area. A survey to evaluate the present status of this species in the field is required.	eng
56643	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species is known from the Big Bend region of Texas, USA, and southward in extreme southern Coahuila, central Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Guanajuato and Querétaro, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is from 600-2,000m asl.	eng
56643	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species occurs in areas of pine and oak forests. It has been found in springs, canyons, caves, and ravines. It hides under rocks and leaf-litter when inactive and sometimes burrows. It breeds by direct development and lays eggs in moist, sheltered spots on land.	eng
56643	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This is not a rare species, although its area of occupancy within its overall range is probably quite small.	eng
56643	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Urban sprawl and the transformation of original forests in some localities along its range threaten some populations of this species.	eng
56644	conservation		There are several protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
56644	distribution		This species is known from the state of Amapá in northern Brazil, southern French Guiana and eastern Suriname. It has been recorded from 30-310m asl.	eng
56644	habitat		It seems to prefer dry forest floor with some sunlight (Hoogmoed, Lynch, and Lescure, 1977). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known.	eng
56644	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56644	threats		Fire is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
56645	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, although these are often not well managed and habitat disturbance is ongoing within the parks' limits. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is recommended.	eng
56645	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, where it has been recorded from 1,545-2,455m asl.	eng
56645	habitat		It is terrestrial in high-elevation pine forests, and has not been recorded outside forested regions. It calls from low vegetation, the eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56645	population		It can be locally common, but it is patchily distributed.	eng
56645	threats		Disturbance from ecotourism is a major threat, as is habitat destruction due to agricultural activities.	eng
56646	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.	eng
56646	distribution		This species is known only from a very small area north-west of Nono at 2,140m asl on the western slope of the Andes in Pichincha Province, Ecuador.	eng
56646	habitat		It is found in cloud forest, where it is a highly specialized species, living on wet rock faces. It is unlikely to be very adaptable to modified habitats in view of its specialized microhabitat requirements. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56646	population		It is a very rare species, and only five specimens have ever been collected.	eng
56646	threats		The primary threat to the species is deforestation as a result of agricultural development (crops and livestock), and human settlement.	eng
56647	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia, it occurs in the private Reserva Natural La Planada, and also in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique.	eng
56647	distribution		This species' geographic range is the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Nariño Department, Colombia, and north-western Ecuador (El Cristal, Esmeraldas Province). It probably occurs more widely, and its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,020m asl.	eng
56647	habitat		This species has been found only in humid tropical cloud forest. It appears to be diurnal, and during the day individuals have been observed in recesses formed by buttresses and roots, and hopping in the leaf-litter (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56647	population		It was collected most recently in 1990 in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, when a single individual was located.	eng
56647	threats		It is threatened by general habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development and the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
56648	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, ex-situ populations may need to be established.	eng
56648	distribution		This species has a patchy distribution in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, and has an altitudinal range of 455-1,152m asl.	eng
56648	habitat		It is arboreal in mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from tree trunks and the canopy, eggs are laid in tree trunk cavities, and breeding is by direct development.	eng
56648	population		There are indications that populations have declined over the last three decades, even in suitable habitat (R. Joglar pers. comm.).	eng
56648	threats		The major threat to this species is chytridiomycosis (linked to climate change), which is suspected to be causing the observed declines in this species.	eng
56649	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance of the existing habitat is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and population status of this species.	eng
56649	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the vicinity of Río Pitzara, Pichincha Province, on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, at 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
56649	habitat		The species is terrestrial, restricted to primary cloud forest, and cannot tolerate any disturbance of its habitat. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56649	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
56649	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural development (crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.	eng
56650	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas; given the species' sensitivity to any habitat disturbance, protection of remaining primary forest habitat within the range of the species is essential.	eng
56650	distribution		This species is known from cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipalities of Guatepé and Anorí, in Antioquia department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,000m asl.	eng
56650	habitat		It is restricted to primary forest and breeds by direct development and is not associated with streams. It is very small (at most 23mm long) and is very sensitive to any variation in humidity. It is not tolerant of any habitat disturbance.	eng
56650	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56650	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops).	eng
56651	conservation		It occurs in Parc Naturel Morne La Visite and Parc National Macaya in Haiti, and also in Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruca and Parque Nacional Sierra Bahoruca Oriental in the Dominican Republic. There is an urgent need for strengthened management and protection of these reserves, particularly on the Tiburon Peninsula.	eng
56651	distribution		This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula and eastern Sierra de Baoruca, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,697m asl.	eng
56651	habitat		This species requires closed-canopy forest and frequents bromeliads. The eggs are laid in bromeliads and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56651	population		Although this species can be moderately common in suitable habitat, it is declining and rarely encountered in much of its range.	eng
56651	threats		It is rapidly declining throughout its range due to severe habitat destruction, even in protected areas. In the Dominican Republic much habitat destruction has taken place in the last 10 years due to agriculture and cattle grazing. In Haiti, severe habitat destruction has occurred in the Formon-Macaya region, including throughout Parc National Macaya, mainly due to logging (charcoal collection) by locals and slash and burn agriculture.	eng
56652	conservation		One known locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Purace, and the second locality will soon be protected within the newly created Parque Nacional Natural Fragua. Further survey work is necessary to establish the current population status of this species, its ecological requirements, and to determine whether it occurs outside the two known localities.	eng
56652	distribution		This species is known from two localities: one on the Oriental slope from the Cordillera Central in Huila Department, and the other on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in Caquetá Department, Colombia, from 2,300-2,600m asl.	eng
56652	habitat		This species inhabits intermediate strata in primary forest. As only a few individuals have been recorded, not much information is known regarding its exact habitat requirements, but it is believed to be extremely moisture dependent. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56652	population		It is an uncommon species, and is known only from six specimens.	eng
56652	threats		Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the main threat to the species.	eng
56653	conservation		There are two protected areas within its range.	eng
56653	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Cáceres, in Mato Grosso State, Brazil, at around 120m asl. It is probably more widespread, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56653	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the Pantanal wetlands, and it is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
56653	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56653	threats		It is likely to be threatened by habitat changes as a result of livestock farming.	eng
56654	conservation		There is a need for improved and expanded protection of the seasonal forest areas along Pacific coastal Mexico as well as the inland mixed forests. Further survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56654	distribution		This Mexican endemic is known from the south-western portion of the Mexican plateau, from Nayarit and Jalisco westward into Michoacán and the adjacent eastern state of Mexico.	eng
56654	habitat		This species occurs in lowland deciduous seasonal forest and even in lowland dry mixed forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56654	population		There is no information on its population status, but it is believed to be declining.	eng
56654	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to smallholder farming, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56655	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.	eng
56655	distribution		This species is known from Boraceia, Paranapiacaba, Riacho Grande and Teresópolis in the Serra do Mar, in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo States, Brazil. It has been recorded from 800-1,200m asl.	eng
56655	habitat		This species is usually found in the forest floor leaf-litter or occasionally on low vegetation, in primary and good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
56655	population		It is not a common species, but it is relatively easy to find if looking for it.	eng
56655	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement is threatening a few local populations, but overall the species appears unthreatened at present.	eng
56656	conservation		Its only known locality is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
56656	distribution		This species is known from the Serra do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States, Brazil, where it has been recorded from around 2,200m asl.	eng
56656	habitat		There is no information known about the habitat or ecological requriments of this species, which presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56656	population		Its current population status is unknown as it has not been surveyed for in this area for over 30 years, although it was reportedly common in surveys of this area in the past.	eng
56656	threats		The threat to this species is unknown, but the type locality is within a protected area.	eng
56657	conservation		The range includes Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
56657	distribution		This species is known from Valle del Cauca department in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, from 10-920m asl. It probably occurs more widely than records suggest.	eng
56657	habitat		An arboreal species found on middle and low strata on sloping terrain, inside or alongside small streams wherever there is suitable forest cover. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56657	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56657	threats		Although this species occurs in an area of low human population density, its habitat remains at risk from logging.	eng
56658	conservation		This species is protected in several national parks and private reserves in Costa Rica, and is probably present in a number of Panamanian protected areas.	eng
56658	distribution		This species is found in the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, from 1,500-2,500m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56658	habitat		This is a nocturnal species found in low vegetation in dense montane forest and rainforest. It may be found in both primary and secondary forest and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56658	population		It is an abundant species regularly seen in appropriate habitat, and has not declined at sites where many other species have disappeared, such as Monteverde (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1997) and Las Tablas (Lips 1998; Andrew R. Gray in litt. to Karen Lips, 2007).	eng
56658	threats		Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, although all known populations are within protected areas.	eng
56659	conservation		Although it occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruca and Parque Nacional Sierra Bahoruca Oriental in the Dominican Republic, there is a need to greatly strengthen and improve the management of these protected areas to ensure more effective protection of the broad-leaf forest habitat within these areas.	eng
56659	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the western Massif de la Selle in Haiti and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,061m asl.	eng
56659	habitat		An inhabitant of closed mesic broadleaf forests, as well as shade-grown coffee and cacao plantations, this is a very specialized burrowing species, with males calling from constructed underground chambers and the eggs being laid underground.	eng
56659	population		It can be locally uncommon and is patchily distributed.	eng
56659	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss: the forest of Baoruco is severely threatened by expanding agriculture and cattle grazing, even within Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco.	eng
56660	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but even this protected area is subject to the effects of habitat loss. Maintenance of the remaining suitable habitat and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.	eng
56660	distribution		The smallest frog in world, this species occurs only in Holguin Province in eastern Cuba from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
56660	habitat		It is found in closed rainforest on poorly drained soil, and maintenance of local humidity is critically important for its survival. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56660	population		The species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56660	threats		This species is threatened mainly by habitat loss as a result of the deforestation taking place from subsistence farming and wood collecting.	eng
56661	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
56661	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This species is known from the inter-Andean dry valleys and transitional zones within southwest Santa Cruz and northeast Chuquisaca departments in Bolivia. It has been recorded from 750-1,800m asl.	eng
56661	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	This species has been observed calling on rocky banks and under secondary formation brushwood. It is also known from primary dry forest, and disturbed dry forest. It breeds by direct development, and has also been recorded from degraded forest and rural gardens.	eng
56661	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	It is a locally common species.	eng
56661	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Jörn Köhler, 2004	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
56662	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Ecuador, although it has recently been collected from the Estacion Biólogica Yanayacu near Cusunga. Protection of montane forest habitat in the range of this species is recommended, and further survey work is needed to monitor the population status of this species, particularly given the potential threat of chytrid.	eng
56662	distribution		This species is known from only three localities in the upper Río Papallacta Valley, in Napo Province, Ecuador, from 2,160-2,750m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely.	eng
56662	habitat		Individuals have been found on bushes, and in bamboo at the edges of small cascading streams at night in upper humid montane forest. It has not been recorded from secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56662	population		Very little is known of this species' current population status, but it is a rare species at the Estacion Biólogica Yanayacu (where it was collected as recently as 2003).	eng
56662	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities and logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56663	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, but it is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
56663	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes from the department of Valle del Cauca in Colombia, south to the province of Pichinca in Ecuador, from 1,380-2,560m asl. It is presumably more widespread than current records suggest.	eng
56663	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest. It is not known if it can tolerate habitat degradation, but other members of its species group can tolerate limited disturbance. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56663	population		It is not particularly common, but it is not rare.	eng
56663	threats		The major threats are thought to be deforestation for the creation of plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56664	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios).	eng
56664	distribution		This species is known from lowland rainforest at Finca Panguana (200m asl) on the Río Llullapichis, 4-5km upstream from the Río Pachitea, (Huanuco), central Peru and Tambopata in Departmento Madre de Dios in southern Peru. It is not recorded from Bolivia; this lowland species is expected to range more widely. It is present below 200m asl.	eng
56664	habitat		Its habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. The holotype was found in a rocky streambed in lowland rainforest by day. This species breeds by direct development. It is not known if it occurs in modified habitats.	eng
56664	population		The population of this species is unknown.	eng
56664	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56665	conservation		It occurs outside any protected areas although the Motagua Valley has been proposed for a new national park. There is an urgent need to expand the protected areas network to include additional tracts of suitable remaining habitat in the range of this species. Further research is necessary to determine whether chytrid poses a threat.	eng
56665	distribution		This species can be found in mid Motagua Valley and associated areas in central and eastern Guatemala and the slopes of the Salamá Basin in Baja Verapaz, at elevations of 500-1,400m asl. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely.	eng
56665	habitat		It is restricted to narrow riparian corridors in premontane dry forest. No other member of the genus occurs in such dry areas in this part of Central America. Reproduction occurs via direct development.	eng
56665	population		It is an uncommon species, but it is still seen regularly.	eng
56665	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities and extraction of wood. Some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56666	conservation		It has been recorded from the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
56666	distribution		This species is known from only three localities on the eastern face of the Andes in Cocodrillos, Napo Province, Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,700-2,200m asl.	eng
56666	habitat		It is found in well-shaded cloud forest, and most individuals have been recorded perched on bushes or low trees at night (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It has also been found above small streams. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56666	population		It is a rare species (only three specimens were collected in 2001).	eng
56666	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56667	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.	eng
56667	distribution		This species is known from a single locality called "Reservorio de Mamo" (Lutz 1927), near La Guaira, in Venezuela, at around 500m asl.	eng
56667	habitat		Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56667	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56667	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56668	conservation		In Ecuador, its distribution range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca; it might also overlap with Parque Nacional Llanganatis and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru. Further survey work is needed to determine if the species is more continuously distributed between records in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
56668	distribution		This species has been reported from elevations of 1,370-1,910m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Napo and Sucumbios Provinces, Ecuador, and from about 1,300m asl on the southern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor in Departmento Cajamarca, Peru (06° 05'S; 78° 43'W). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
56668	habitat		This species occurs in cloud forest. They are most frequently encountered at night on leaves of herbaceous vegetation or low bushes in clearings or at the forest edge (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It occurs in old and second growth forest.	eng
56668	population		In Ecuador, it is an uncommon species. In Peru, it has only been reported from two specimens (both sub-adult females).	eng
56668	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to livestock ranching, agro-industry, and selective logging.	eng
56669	conservation		It is known from the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo.	eng
56669	distribution		This species is known only from two localities at 2,000-2,180m asl along the road from Abra Pardo de Miguel to Moyobamba on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central in northern San Martin Department, Peru (05° 46'S; 77° 42'W). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
56669	habitat		All the known individuals were found on leaves on low vegetation less than 1m above the ground in humid montane forest at night. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56669	population		Very few individuals of this species have been recorded, so its population status is unknown. One adult male and three adult females were used to describe it.	eng
56669	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to increasing agricultural activity, selective wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
56670	conservation		It occurs in Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce and in the Parque Nacional Natural Tamá.	eng
56670	distribution		This species has a discontinuous distribution on both slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, where it is found from 1,550-2,350m asl, in the departments of Cundinamarca (Laguna Pedro Palo), Boyacá, Santander, and Norte de Santander. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known localities.	eng
56670	habitat		This species is a cloud forest inhabitant, and occurs in leaf-litter and disturbed areas provided that small patches of forest remain nearby. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56670	population		This is a rare species that was last collected in 1991, but there has been no survey work since.	eng
56670	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops) is the main threat.	eng
56671	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
56671	distribution		This species is widespread in French Guiana and Suriname. The type locality, "the New River, British Guiana" is in an area claimed by Suriname, but is actually in Guyana. A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It has been recorded from 50-700m asl.	eng
56671	habitat		This is an arboreal species that is found only in primary forest. Eggs of this species have been observed underneath the moss on trees, 3-5m above the ground. It has not been recorded outside primary forest.	eng
56671	population		This is a common species.	eng
56671	threats		There are no real threats to this species at present.	eng
56672	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas across its range, although there is insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat is being destroyed.	eng
56672	distribution		This species occurs across most of Hispaniola. It might have a larger range than is currently known. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,697m asl.	eng
56672	habitat		A big frog found in mesic hardwood forests, it lays eggs in sheltered areas on the ground, and breeds by direct development. It is sensitive to severe habitat destruction, but can persist in plantations such as coffee and banana as long as there are trees and shade.	eng
56672	population		It is a common species.	eng
56672	threats		Habitat destruction, in particular agricultural expansion, livestock farming, urban development and charcoaling is a major threat.	eng
56673	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.	eng
56673	distribution		This species is known from the northern and north-western flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Magdalena and Guajira, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,530-2,130m asl.	eng
56673	habitat		A terrestrial frog, individuals have been found under logs or rocks on roadsides. When active, they occur on top of rocks, logs or low vegetation, beside streams. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56673	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56673	threats		Major threats include habitat loss, due to agricultural activities (involving both crops and livestock), as well as pollution due to the fumigation of crops.	eng
56674	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed even within the park boundaries. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is necessary.	eng
56674	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra and the Sierra del Cobre, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is 454-1,880m asl.	eng
56674	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It occurs only in moist closed forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56674	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	The species is uncommon even in suitable habitat.	eng
56674	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56675	conservation		This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56675	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of southern Sinaloa, Mexico.	eng
56675	habitat		It has been found on rocky and humid areas on the forest floor in the foothills of tropical deciduous forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56675	population		In the 1950s and 1960s it was said to be an abundant species within its range. However, it is now considered to be a rare species. It is possible that the apparent change in status might be a result of misidentifications, although it is possible there has been a real decline.	eng
56675	threats		Disturbance and desiccation of the crevice microhabitats used by this species, due to selective wood extraction and wild fires, is a major threat to it.	eng
56676	conservation		Its distribution range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
56676	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities along the eastern face of the Andes in Ecuador, at low to moderate elevations from 1,300-2,160m asl. It is currently known from only five localities, but probably occurs more widely.	eng
56676	habitat		Specimens have been found in cloud forest in low vegetation (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It does not occur outside old growth forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56676	population		It is fairly common in some areas, such as Estación Biólogica Yanayacu, where it has been seen repeatedly from 2000-2003.	eng
56676	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), logging, and human settlement.	eng
56677	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and habitat continues to be destroyed even within the park boundaries. Improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas is necessary.	eng
56677	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,230m asl.	eng
56677	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is arboreal in closed mesic forest, but appears to be less sensitive to habitat alteration than some other species in the genus. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56677	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56677	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss, due to agriculture, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56678	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56678	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality of Finca La Antigua, vereda Palma de Oro, Betulia Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, although it might occur more widely. It was collected between 1,300 and 1,700m asl.	eng
56678	habitat		It was collected close to streams in very humid forest, and is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
56678	population		It is known only from the type collection.	eng
56678	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56679	conservation	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	The type locality is within a protected area, Parque das Mangabeiras, but it is not well managed. The other known localities are within small protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat are required, as is taxonomic research to confirm the identity of newly collected specimens.	eng
56679	distribution	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species is known from the type locality (Belo Horizonte), from the Serra do Curral, Serra do Caraça and Ouro Preto in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It might also occur in a few other localities, but the identity of specimens from these other areas is still to be confirmed. It has been recorded from around 700-800m asl.	eng
56679	habitat	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species occurs on leaf-litter in gallery forests and in forest edges along creeks. The type locality is secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus.	eng
56679	population	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	It is observed to be common during the breeding season.	eng
56679	threats	Bruno Pimenta, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to clear-cut logging, disturbance due to tourism, and infrastructure development for human settlement in the area.	eng
56680	conservation		Its range is adjacent to Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, but it has not been recorded from inside the park.	eng
56680	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in Cauca Department on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 800-1,580m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
56680	habitat		It is active on low vegetation on slopes inside primary forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56680	population		This is thought to be an uncommon species as it has only been collected a few times, although the area is not well sampled.	eng
56680	threats		Habitat loss caused by the cultivation of illegal crops is a major threat to this species.	eng
56681	conservation		It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park and several forest reserves; however, there are coffee plantations even within the park's limits and habitat disturbance resulting from tourist activities in the park remains an issue. There is clearly a need for more effective and strengthened management of the existing protected areas in the region.	eng
56681	distribution		This species is widely, but very patchily, distributed in the Jamaican interior, ranging from 120-1,290m asl.	eng
56681	habitat		It occurs only in lowland and montane moist old growth forests, and is almost always associated with arboreal or terrestrial bromeliads. Males call from, and eggs are laid in, bromeliads.	eng
56681	population		It is uncommon.	eng
56681	threats		Its dependence upon bromeliads in mostly undisturbed forest makes it especially susceptible to habitat loss. Unfortunately, habitat degradation and deforestation is taking place in much of its range (such as the Blue Mountains) due to agricultural activities, human settlements, and logging.	eng
56682	conservation		The species does occur in the lower elevations of the Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Maintenance of the remaining suitable habitat and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.	eng
56682	distribution		This species is known from only a single locality in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, at an altitudinal range of 200-950m asl.	eng
56682	habitat		It occurs in closed mesic forest, but also occurs in secondary forests. It is usually found in leaf-litter and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56682	population		This is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
56682	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development.	eng
56683	conservation		Populations of this species occur within three national parks, including Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas; the maintenance of these protected areas is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its association with primary forest.	eng
56683	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia to Risaralda Departments on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-1,800m asl.	eng
56683	habitat		It is active on low vegetation in primary montane forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56683	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56683	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss, as a result of the expansion of agriculture and livestock farming in the region.	eng
56684	conservation	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Susan Koenig, Enrique La Marca, Roberto Ibáñez, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. Its introduced range is expanding due to human activity. It needs to be eradicated from its introduced range.	eng
56684	distribution	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Susan Koenig, Enrique La Marca, Roberto Ibáñez, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs on most of the Lesser Antilles. Within the Lesser Antilles it is unclear which populations are indigenous, and which are introduced. It has been suggested that it originated in St Lucia, but for the purposes of this assessment it is considered to be indigenous throughout the Lesser Antilles. It has been introduced in many other regions including Jamaica; in Venezuela, it has been reported from the states of Aragua, Bolívar, Distrito Federal, Lara, Mérida, Miranda, Monagas and Sucre, and its range is still expanding. It has been reported as introduced to San José in Costa Rica. It is also known from one introduced locality in Colombia, and from one in Guyana. It has also been introduced to Panama City, Panama and to the Port of Spain dock area (from where it is expanding its range) on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It has been introduced into the Bermuda islands. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,300m asl.	eng
56684	habitat	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Susan Koenig, Enrique La Marca, Roberto Ibáñez, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a very adaptive species and is found mainly in disturbed habitats, such as mowed fields, yards, gardens, sugar-cane fields, towns, houses, and plantations. It is even deliberately introduced to gardens. In some places it is also found inside forest, usually in gaps and clearings. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56684	population	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Susan Koenig, Enrique La Marca, Roberto Ibáñez, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This is an extremely abundant species, and its range is increasing.	eng
56684	threats	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Susan Koenig, Enrique La Marca, Roberto Ibáñez, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are, overall, no significant threats to this very adaptable, invasive species. In Bermuda, however, studies strongly suggest that Bermuda’s whistling frogs and toads were exhibiting effects caused by exposure to environmental stressors (pesticides and heavy metals, see Bacon et al., 2006).	eng
56685	conservation		Its range includes the Estacion Demostrativa El Rasgón. Additional protection of forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary.	eng
56685	distribution		This species is known from the region of the type locality on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Santander, Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,900-2,400m asl.	eng
56685	habitat		It lives on rocks and vegetation up to 3m above the ground along streams in mature forests (and is found only in the forest interior). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56685	population		It is a rare species, and appears to be in decline.	eng
56685	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss, due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as wood plantations. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the population status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56686	conservation		It has apparently been recorded from within Parque Internacional La Amistad.	eng
56686	distribution		This species is a Panamanian endemic known only from the type locality "along the Río Changena, Provincia Bocas del Toro, Panamá, 830m [asl]" (Lynch 1980) in the western Cordillera Central adjacent to Costa Rica.	eng
56686	habitat		This is a terrestrial, direct developing species found in humid montane forest.	eng
56686	population		It is known only from the 1966 type collection of six specimens.	eng
56686	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
56687	conservation		There are three protected areas within this species' range.	eng
56687	distribution		This species is known from both flanks of the Cordillera Occidental in the departments of Risaralda, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca, in Colombia, from 1,500-2,090m asl.	eng
56687	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests, and dense populations occur in some areas in forest and in open areas of scattered trees. It can occur in disturbed habitats as long as there are bromeliads on trees. Individuals are active up to 3m above the ground and are frequently found in bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are deposited inside bromeliads.	eng
56687	population		It is often rare, but can also be locally common.	eng
56687	threats		A localized threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation caused by smallholder farming and livestock grazing.	eng
56688	conservation		Although the species does occur in the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti, there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be lost. It is also known from Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, which is better-managed, but is nonetheless still suffering from significant habitat degradation. The maintenance of remaining suitable habitat across the range of the species and improved protection of existing protected areas is essential.	eng
56688	distribution		This species has a restricted range on the Massif de la Selle, in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic). It has been recorded from 1,242-2,146m asl.	eng
56688	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, occurring in mesic pine and broadleaf forests, and does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56688	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat, which is rapidly disappearing.	eng
56688	threats		The primary threat to this species is severe habitat destruction (even in the protected areas of Parc National Morne La Visite and Parque Nacional Sierra de Baoruco) as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling), and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56689	conservation	Rogério Bastos, Guarino Colli, Débora Silvano, Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56689	distribution	Rogério Bastos, Guarino Colli, Débora Silvano, Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	This species occurs in plateau areas of southeastern Brazil to southeastern Goiás state. It has been recorded above 600m asl.	eng
56689	habitat	Rogério Bastos, Guarino Colli, Débora Silvano, Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	It occurs in open areas or forest edges on low vegetation or above the ground, where it also breeds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance and breeds by direct development.	eng
56689	population	Rogério Bastos, Guarino Colli, Débora Silvano, Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
56689	threats	Rogério Bastos, Guarino Colli, Débora Silvano, Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fires, and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
56690	conservation		This has been collected within the recently created Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56690	distribution		This recently described species is known from a single locality at an altitude of 1,000m asl in the valley of the Río Utcubamba (a tributary of the Río Marañon), in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Amazonas Department, Peru.	eng
56690	habitat		Specimens were taken from moist leaf-litter in evergreen cloud forest with a high diversity of herbaceous plants, shrubs and lianas. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.	eng
56690	population		Only juveniles of this species are known, and its overall population status has not been determined.	eng
56690	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, although there is regional destruction and loss of habitat through increasing agricultural activity, selective wood extraction and human settlement.	eng
56691	conservation		It is known to occur in the 145,000-ha Parque Nacional Podocarpus, although the population at the type locality remains unprotected. Further survey work is necessary to better determine the current population status of this species, and to determine whether it might occur more widely than currently known.	eng
56691	distribution		This species is known from the type locality near Puyo, in the province of Pastaza, in Ecuador, and also from the upper watershed of Curintza in Parque Nacional Podocarpus at 2,700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the area between the two currently known sites.	eng
56691	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of montane cloud forest, occurring in the understorey herbaceous layer. The type locality consists of a mixture of heavily disturbed forest, a cutover and cultivated hillside, and less-disturbed, secondary growth forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56691	population		It is a very rare species. In two years of study in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, only two individuals were collected.	eng
56691	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock), as well as logging and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56692	conservation		The type locality is within Regional Reserve Serrania de los Paraguas. Maintenance of the species' habitat is essential to its long-term survival given its restriction to forest habitats. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.	eng
56692	distribution		This species is only known from the region of the type locality in the municipality of El Cairo, in Valle del Cauca and Chocó departments, Colombia, from 1,900-2,250m asl. It is unlikely to have a much wider distribution, as surveys of nearby areas have not found the species.	eng
56692	habitat		It is usually abundant on vegetation along small streams in primary and secondary cloud forests; it has not been recorded outside forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56692	population		It is a common species.	eng
56692	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present, as its known distribution is currently conserved within a protected area.	eng
56693	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Viñales, which is a well-managed protected area, and several nearby reserves.	eng
56693	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de los Organos and the Sierra del Rosario, Cuba. It has been recorded from 75-182m asl.	eng
56693	habitat		It occurs in rocky areas, and sometimes retreats to terrestrial bromeliads in closed-canopy mesic forest; it has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It calls from rock crevices, or sometimes on vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56693	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56693	threats		The major threat to the species is disturbance of its habitat by tourists.	eng
56694	conservation		In Colombia, the species is marginally present in La Planada private nature reserve, and in the lower parts of the following National Natural Parks: Cerro Munchique; Los Farallones de Cali; and Los Paraguas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56694	distribution		This species occurs from San Jose del Palmar on the Río San Juan, Department of Choco, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, south to northwestern Ecuador. It occurs from near sea level to 1,900m asl, though it is generally found below 1,000m asl.	eng
56694	habitat		It lives in lowland and submontane rainforest. It has been found in both primary and secondary forest, not in open areas. It often perches on broad leaves or on branches along streams at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56694	population		It is an uncommon species, but it is occasionally locally common.	eng
56694	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56695	conservation		In Peru, The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul (Loreto) and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Colombia it is present in La Paya and Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. In Ecuador it has been recorded from Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Yasuni National Park. In Brazil it has been recorded in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
56695	distribution		This species is known from lowland forest western Ecuador, Amazonian Peru, Leticia in Colombia and Acre State, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 100-900m asl.	eng
56695	habitat		It is a sub-canopy, primary and secondary tropical moist forest species (including flooded forest). Animals are frequently encountered in arboreal bromeliads by day; at night frogs are found on vegetation 1-2m above the ground (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56695	population		This is a common species.	eng
56695	threats		There are presumably no major threats, as it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56696	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56696	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. It is a high-altitude species, occurring at 800-2,500m asl. The type series from Iguape might have been from a lower altitude, but this area is now a city.	eng
56696	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and old secondary forest, but not in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56696	population		It is not common in some places, but is common in others.	eng
56696	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.	eng
56697	conservation	Wilson, L.D., Köhler, G., Cruz, G. & Ryan, M., 2009	It occurs in several protected areas and Multiple Use Areas. Further research is necessary to investigate the reasons for the apparent decline in populations of this species, but habitat loss appears to be a significant factor.	eng
56697	distribution	Wilson, L.D., Köhler, G., Cruz, G. & Ryan, M., 2009	This species occurs from the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of Honduras to northern and southwestern Nicaragua, at 100-1,640 m asl.	eng
56697	habitat	Wilson, L.D., Köhler, G., Cruz, G. & Ryan, M., 2009	It inhabits lowland and sub-montane wet and moist forests, and is found along streams and small rivers; it can survive in degraded forest and secondary growth. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on land.	eng
56697	population	Wilson, L.D., Köhler, G., Cruz, G. & Ryan, M., 2009	It was formerly common, but has declined, and seems to have disappeared above 900 m asl in Honduras, along with several other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu lato</span> species. Lowland populations survive, but, overall, the species is now relatively uncommon.   An isolated population of this species was found on Cerro Guanacuare, Coluteca Department, in 2006 (M. Ryan pers. comm. February 2009).      <p></p>	eng
56697	threats	Wilson, L.D., Köhler, G., Cruz, G. & Ryan, M., 2009	The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, livestock, logging, human settlement, and fire (as well as the added risk of resulting water pollution), but these do not explain the extent of the decline witnessed at higher elevations. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em>  <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu lato</span> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species. Pollution, presumably due to the fumigation of crops, has also been suggested as one cause of the decline at high altitudes.	eng
56698	conservation		It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat cotinues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area.	eng
56698	distribution		This species is restricted to a few localities in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, where it has been recorded from 818-1,455m asl.	eng
56698	habitat		It is found in arboreal bromeliads in mesic upland forest. The eggs are laid in bromeliads, and they breed by direct development. It has not been recorded from disturbed forest.	eng
56698	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56698	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place in its range, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56699	conservation		The most important protected area from which this species has been recorded is Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Further research is needed to determine the reason for the observed population declines.	eng
56699	distribution		Pristimantis lancinii can be found in the Cordillera de Mérida, within the National Parks of Sierra Nevada and Sierra de la Culata, in the states of Mérida and Trujillo, Venezuela, in subpáramo and páramo habitats, between 2500 and 3400 masl (La Marca, 2007).	eng
56699	habitat		Pristimantis lancinii is a terrestrial inhabitant of páramo grassland that breeds by direct development. <br/><br/>In the region of Mucubají, Pristimantis lancinii is sympatric with Pristimantis paramerus, Pristimantis kareliae, Paramophrynella ginesi, Atelopus mucubajiensis and Aromobates leopardalis. The species can be found amid vegetation and under rocks and moss next to streams.  P. lancinii was abundant in April 1981; however, it was difficult to find in the month of November of the same year (La Marca, 2007).	eng
56699	population		It is now very difficult to find (Barrio-Amorós, 2001), and populations are believed to be experiencing declines (although the exact rate of decline is not known).	eng
56699	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss, due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) and fires. However, most of the populations are within relatively well-managed protected areas, and the cause of the decline within these is not known, though chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
56700	conservation		It is present in many Colombian and Ecuadorian protected areas. Part of the Peruvian range has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). It is not present in any Brazilian protected areas.	eng
56700	distribution		This species is widespread in the upper Amazon Basin of southern Colombia, Ecuador, extreme western Brazil, and northern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,630m asl.	eng
56700	habitat		This species can be found in lowland and montane rainforest, cloud forest, terrae firme forest flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. Individuals have been recorded on the ground by day and on low vegetation at night. In the Andes all specimens were on bushes or low trees at night (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). It is a direct development species that presumably deposits its eggs in leaf-litter. It has been recorded from secondary forest and forest edge. Rodriguez and Duellman (1994) report females containing 20-52 unpigmented eggs.	eng
56700	population		It is common in Ecuador and adjacent Colombia, however, there are few individuals recorded in Peru.	eng
56700	threats		There are presumably no major threats and it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56701	conservation	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	The range of the species is included in the Páramo Urrao, which is a Protection Forest Reserve (IUCN category VI), but improved management and protection of this area are needed. There is also a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it is known only from the type locality.	eng
56701	distribution	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality, Frontino Páramo, in the municipality of Urrao, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, from 3,700-3,850 m asl. It is probably genuinely restricted to this area.	eng
56701	habitat	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	This is a páramo species that is usually found on vegetation and occurs among moss and axils of <em>Espeletia</em> spp. It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56701	population	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	The current population status is unknown; only seven specimens are known from three separate collections.	eng
56701	threats	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	The Frontino Páramo is in a remote area and at a very high elevation, so there currently are no significant threats. However, climate change might reduce the suitable habitat available and force the species to move to higher elevations, and hence further restrict its range.	eng
56702	conservation		It is found in the Río Blanco Water District of the city of Manesalles (a forest protected for water catchments), which affords some protection. However, there is a need for additional protection of this species' sub-páramo habitat.	eng
56702	distribution		This species is known from several locations in the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes: the type locality ("Boqueron, Serranía Las Valdías, Municipio de Medellin"), El Yerbal (in the municipality of Belmira) and Sonson, all three in the department of Antioquia; as well as Quebrada Negra vicinity, in the county of Pensilvania, and in the Reserva Río Blanco, County of Manizales, in the department of Caldas, north of Quindio and Tolima Departments. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently records suggest.	eng
56702	habitat		It is found on fallen leaves and grass roots in sub-páramo habitats; it is not known whether it can occur in disturbed habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56702	population		It is a rare species, although this may be partly due to the species' cryptozoic behaviour.	eng
56702	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including illegal crops).	eng
56703	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. Further work should be conducted to determine whether or not the recent declines are due to chytridiomycosis. It is protected by Mexican Law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56703	distribution		This species can be found on the Atlantic slopes of Mexico, from southern Veracruz to Tabasco and Chiapas, and southwards to western Belize, Guatemala, and northern Honduras, from 10-1,500m asl.	eng
56703	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter in lowland and premontane tropical forest and is tolerant of moderate habitat alteration (it occurs in cacao and shade-coffee plantations in Honduras). Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56703	population		It is uncommon in Belize and Guatemala, and rare in Mexico. There are few localities known for Honduras. Recent surveys in Oaxaca, Mexico, indicate that it has disappeared from some localities.	eng
56703	threats		Forest destruction and the conversion of forest to shaded crops are low threats, although subsistence agriculture is a threat in Honduras. The recent declines in Oaxaca could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56704	conservation		Some of its populations are included inside protected areas in Colombia (such as the Reserva Natural La Planada). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56704	distribution		This species is known from five localities at altitudes of 1,200-2,565m asl on the western flanks of the Andes in extreme south-western Colombia, and in the provincias of Carchi (Maldonado), Esmeraldas (El Cristal) and Pichincha (Río Faisanes) in northern Ecuador. Its distribution is not well known.	eng
56704	habitat		It can be found only in cloud forest, where it has been found on low vegetation near streams at night (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Reproduction is by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56704	population		It is a rare species known from very few collections. It was last recorded in 1992, but it has not been surveyed for intensively since then.	eng
56704	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development, logging and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species.	eng
56705	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
56705	distribution		This species has been recorded from Cerro Tacarcuna and Cerro Mali in the eastern cordillera in the south-east of Darién Province, south-eastern Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1,450-1,630m asl.	eng
56705	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56705	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species. There is no recent information on this species, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56705	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56706	conservation		It occurs in Katios National Natural Park in Colombia, and possibly in some other protected areas in this country. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56706	distribution		This species ranges from northwestern Ecuador, through western Colombia north to the border of Panama (there are currently no confirmed records from Panama, though it presumably occurs there). It occurs from sea level up to 1,230m asl.	eng
56706	habitat		It is a species of humid mature forest, secondary forest and forest edges, not occurring in open areas. It is mainly an arboreal species that is active at night on low vegetation or on tree trunks. When inactive, during the day, it is found in leaf-litter and inside bromeliads. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56706	population		It is common at around 300m asl in Ecuador, and is also generally common in Colombia.	eng
56706	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56707	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It occurs in several protected areas in both countries, although improved and strengthened management of these is needed. Further research is needed to investigate the reason for this species' decline at higher elevations.	eng
56707	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	This species occurs from central and eastern Honduras on the Atlantic versant to northern Nicaragua, at 40-1,200m asl.	eng
56707	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It lives on the ground of lowland moist forest and premontane wet forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats providing there is shade over leaf-litter. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56707	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It can be very common, but it is undergoing severe declines in Nicaragua at higher elevations.	eng
56707	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler, 2009	The main threats to its habitat come from agriculture, cattle ranching, logging, forest fires, and severe dry seasons. The causes of the declines at high altitudes are not understood.	eng
56708	conservation		It is included in a tiny provincial protected area, La Tabla, an "Area Protegida de Recursos Manejados".	eng
56708	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the northern foothills of the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, where it has a patchy distribution and ranges from 394-465m asl.	eng
56708	habitat		It is found in closed mesic forest including wet limestone forests. It calls from rock surfaces and from trees, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56708	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56708	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction from agricultural activities (mainly subsistence farming).	eng
56709	conservation		The species' distribution overlaps with Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve.	eng
56709	distribution		This species occurs in cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and also in the department of Antioquia, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,800-2,650m asl.	eng
56709	habitat		It is an arboreal, nocturnal species that inhabits areas covered by dense primary forest or minimally disturbed forest, and is quite sensitive to disturbance of its habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56709	population		The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56709	threats		The main threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).	eng
56710	conservation		It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56710	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the Andes of Venezuela and Colombia: near the town of La Grita at 1,768m asl in Táchira State, in Venezuela; and from Cabeceras del Río Pamplona, at 1,700m asl, on the border between Venezuela and Colombia.	eng
56710	habitat		It is a species of evergreen dry montane gallery forests, where it is typically found on rocks in streams. In Colombia it has been found in open, disturbed areas. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56710	population		It was found to be common in one stream in 1985, but could not be found in nearby streams. It was also found to be common on the Venezuela-Colombia border in 1992. The absence of subsequent records might be due to a lack of survey effort.	eng
56710	threats		Its forest habitat is being degraded for potato cultivation, but there is some evidence that it is adaptable to at least a measure of habitat alteration, so this degradation of its habitat might not be a serious threat to it.	eng
56711	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2004	Almost the whole island of St. John is protected as the Virgin Islands National Park, but there is a need for improved habitat protection on St. Thomas and St. Croix.	eng
56711	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2004	This species has a restricted range in St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has been recorded from sea level up to 10m asl.	eng
56711	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2004	This species inhabits open semi-xeric habitats, sheltering under surface debris. It is often encountered in agricultural areas on St. Thomas (Platenberg and Boulon, 2006). Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56711	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2004	This species is rarely encountered, but it has been recorded recently.	eng
56711	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2004	The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (involving both crops and livestock) and infrastructure development for tourism and human settlement.	eng
56712	conservation	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	The species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, but this area is not well-managed, and habitat degradation is ongoing. Improved management of existing protected areas and maintenance of remaining habitat are essential.	eng
56712	distribution	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Selle in Haiti, and Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 1,182-2,303 m asl.	eng
56712	habitat	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	It is a terrestrial species found in upland pine forest, preferring sheltered sites, and calling from the ground. It does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. The eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56712	population	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	For unknown reasons, it has been rarely encountered in the Dominican Republic in the last two decades, despite surviving in intact forest, which suggests that it might either be a rare species or one in rapid decline. It was last recorded in 2007 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56712	threats	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	The primary threat is severe habitat destruction as a result of logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56713	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	In Colombia, there are no natural reserve areas in the distribution area of this species. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56713	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	This species occurs in the upper humid forest at elevations of 1,960-3,400m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Andes and from 2,590-2,700m asl on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios, Imbabura, Carchi, Napo, and Pichincha Provinces) and southern Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo Departments).	eng
56713	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	This species’ habitat is páramo and upper cloud forest. It is a species with low diurnal activity and extensive nocturnal activity. During the day it occurs under rocks and on logs; at night it is active on low vegetation. It can also be found amidst leaf litter (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). Specimens from the Amazon slopes have been found in clearings in cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1980; Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It is able to withstand some habitat disturbance. Reproduction is presumed to occur via direct development.	eng
56713	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	It is abundant in 2000-2003 in all five Ecuadorian provinces where the species has been recorded.	eng
56713	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	General habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are all threats.	eng
56714	conservation		It is recorded from several protected areas, including Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas. However, there is a need for improved habitat protection across its range, particularly in the Chimalapas region. Further survey work is required to better understand the range and population status of this species.	eng
56714	distribution		This species can be found on the Atlantic versant of Mexico from central Veracruz eastwards to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and north-central Chiapas through northern Guatemala. One isolated population has been recorded in north-eastern Guatemala and another in south-western Belize. It also occurs on the Pacific versant in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. It occurs at 5-500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than known records suggest.	eng
56714	habitat		It is an inhabitant of lowland tropical rainforest and evergreen forest, and is associated with terrestrial microhabitats (commonly found under rocks). Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56714	population		There is little information on the current population status of this species across its range, but it is at best uncommon.	eng
56714	threats		Habitat loss, due to logging and smallholder agricultural activities, is a major threat to this species.	eng
56715	conservation		The range of the species includes National Natural Park Purace and Nevado de Huila National Natural Parks.	eng
56715	distribution		The occurrence of this species is clustered around the series of volcanoes that lie along the frontier of the departments of Cauca and Huila (Coconuco, Huila, Pan de Azúcar, Puracé, and Sotará), in Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,800-3,300m asl.	eng
56715	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of high-elevation cloud forest and páramos. Many specimens were found under rocks and logs on very humid soils during the day. At night, they are active on vegetation up to 1m above the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56715	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56715	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
56716	conservation		There is no natural reserve area inside its distribution area.	eng
56716	distribution		This species occurs at intermediate altitudes (2,300-2,900m asl) in the valley of the Río Chingual at localities in both Colombia (Nariño and Putumayo Departments) and Ecuador. In Ecuador, it is only known from around Santa Bárbara. It might occur more widely.	eng
56716	habitat		This frog inhabits leafy upper montane cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman 1980), where it is found among leaves and branches low above the ground. In secondary forests this species can extend its activity to the dense regenerating vegetation on the ground of the forest. It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56716	population		There is little recent information regarding its population status. It was common in the 1960s at the Ecuadorian locality.	eng
56716	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops is a threat to this species.	eng
56717	conservation		The type locality is a small private ecological reserve (the Estación Biológica y Reserva Jatun Sacha).	eng
56717	distribution		This Ecuadorian species is known from the type locality, in the flood plain of the Napo River, on the eastern face of the Ecuadorian Andes, at 450m asl, as well as from four other recently documented localities: Serena Village, on the south side of the upper Napo River, at 560m asl in Napo Province; 5km south of Dayuma Village at 267m asl, and the south side of the Yasuní River, at 220m asl, both in Orellana Province; as well as Morona Santiago Province (the precise locality has not been given).	eng
56717	habitat		The type locality is situated in flood-plain habitat, which is continually subjected to flooding and agricultural activities. Specimens have been located at night on vegetation 0.5-2m above the ground. The type specimens were collected in secondary forest. The habitat at other localities includes agricultural land surrounded by secondary forest, and coffee plantations surrounded by primary forest. This species therefore appears to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification.	eng
56717	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56717	threats		The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (involving both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock), as well as logging and road construction. The primary and secondary forest at the type locality is fragmented by farms, and the possible future construction of a road through the protected area in which it occurs is cause for concern.	eng
56718	conservation		The species occurs inside the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia. Further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species and the limits of its range. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored.	eng
56718	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, on the Cordillera Central in the Colombian Andes, from 2,000-2,450m asl.	eng
56718	habitat		This species is a microhabitat specialist that occurs on top of very humid rocks in stream rapids in cloud forest. It has not been recorded away from the vicinity of rapids in forested streams. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56718	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56718	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss caused by subsistence wood collecting and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops). The species is an extreme habitat specialist hence increasing its vulnerability to threatening processes. Furthermore, some other species of the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56719	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas, but many of these are in need of improved management.	eng
56719	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species is widely, but patchily, distributed through most of Cuba, at low to moderate elevations, from 50-1,150m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56719	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is a terrestrial species restricted to closed-canopy mesic and xeric forests, and is commonly heard calling from the ground. It lays a single egg under leaf-litter on the ground, and reproduction takes place by direct development.	eng
56719	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56719	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is particularly susceptible to habitat disturbance due to livestock and subsistence agriculture.	eng
56720	conservation		The single known specimen was collected within Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
56720	distribution		This species is known only from Cosñipata (at 1,700m asl) on the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental, in Cuzco Department, Peru. The range of this species is not completely known and it might occur more widely.	eng
56720	habitat		It was collected on a bush at night in montane tropical cloud forest. Reproduction in this species is presumably by direct development.	eng
56720	population		It is known from a single specimen.	eng
56720	threats		There is no information about threats to this species; the only known specimen came from within the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
56721	conservation		This species is known to occur in Biotopo del Quetzal and the Reserva de la Biósfera Bisis Cabá. In view of the severe risk of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations should be established. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56721	distribution		This species can be found on the Atlantic versant of Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico, southeast to Guatemala. It also occurs on the Pacific versant, from eastern Oaxaca through Chiapas to the south-western highlands of Guatemala, at elevations of 300-2,000m asl.	eng
56721	habitat		It can be found in lower montane evergreen forest, and it occurs and breeds by direct development near streams.	eng
56721	population		There are very few records of this species and it appears to be uncommon. In Chiapas, it is currently known only from a single site. Recent surveys in Guerrero and Oaxaca indicate that it has disappeared from all sites surveyed, suggesting a serious decrease.	eng
56721	threats		The declines witnessed in Mexico are probably due to chytridiomycosis, since some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis. Habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement is also a threat.	eng
56722	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56722	distribution		This species is known from three localities at altitudes of 470-1,200m asl on ridges of the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central in San Martin Department, northern Peru. It occurs through a relatively wide altitudinal range (including lowlands) and consequently might range much more widely.	eng
56722	habitat		At the type locality all the individuals were collected at night on low vegetation in lower montane rainforest. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.	eng
56722	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56722	threats		The threats to this species are not specifically known, although there is localized deforestation and loss of habitat in the area through an increase in agricultural activity, selective wood extraction and human settlement.	eng
56723	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making the protection of cloud forest habitat in the Papallacta Valley an urgent priority.	eng
56723	distribution		This species is known only from the Papallacta Valley on the eastern face of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, at 2,135-2,750m asl, though it probably occurs a little more widely.	eng
56723	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forests; one individual has been found under a rock by day, and others were collected on the leaves of herbaceous plants and low bushes at night. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56723	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56723	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are taking place due to agricultural development, livestock farming, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56724	conservation		Its range includes Carrasco National Park.	eng
56724	distribution		This species was initially known only from the type locality, Sehuencas, in Carrasco Province, in the department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. Recently it was found on the old road to Chapare, at 2,000-2,200m asl, and near to Karahuasi, in the department of Santa Cruz at 2,150m asl, in the northeastern Andes (Köhler and Lötters 1999, Köhler 2000). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
56724	habitat		This is an arboreal, mainly nocturnal, forest species, occurring in the Yungas forest. It has been observed on bushes, brush woods and ferns, at 0.3-2.0 metres above the ground. It can survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56724	population		It is a common species in Sehuencas.	eng
56724	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
56725	conservation		The species occurs in the Luquillo National Forest Reserve and the Carite Forest Reserve, which are well-managed protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56725	distribution		This species is restricted to the interior uplands of eastern Puerto Rico at elevations of 273-1,050m asl.	eng
56725	habitat		It is a terrestrial species occurring in mesic broadleaf forest where the males call from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56725	population		There has been an unexplained major decline in abundance in the last two decades, even in relatively well-protected forests (such as El Yunque, see Burrowes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), and some populations have been entirely extirpated.	eng
56725	threats		In the past, extensive deforestation took place over much of Puerto Rico due to agricultural expansion and wood-cutting; current disturbances include tourism and infrastructure development for tourism and radio communication facilities. As a high-altitude species, it might also be susceptible to climate change and/or chytridiomycosis. Rats and mongooses have also been suggested as potential threats (as invasive predators), although literature on this subject is equivocal (Hedges 1993, and Thurley and Bell 1994, support the notion that these introduced species comprise threats to amphibian species, while Reagan and Waide 1996, suggest that rats are lesser predators of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus coqui</span>), and there is currently no consensus regarding the impact that these species may or may not have on amphibian declines in Puerto Rico. Future research efforts directed at investigating the impact of these invasive species on amphibian populations may help to elucidate their relative contribution to amphibian declines.	eng
56726	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
56726	distribution		This species can be found in the Atlantic versant of Mexico from San Luis Potosi and Veracruz along the Caribbean lowlands to Belize and northwestern Honduras; crossing the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and thence southeast along the Chiapas and Guatemalan versant to El Salvador (Lynch, 2000). It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,100m asl.	eng
56726	habitat		It is only known from tropical lowland and montane rainforests. It occurs in the leaf-litter and can also occur in coffee plantations. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56726	population		It is common in Chiapas through El Salvador. It is the most common frog in the southern foothills of Guatemala. There are few records from Belize and Honduras.	eng
56726	threats		Deforestation is the only major known threat to this species.	eng
56727	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species might occur in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey, but this requires confirmation. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species has been recorded in the Sierra Madre Oriental.	eng
56727	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species occurs from central Nuevo León to western Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, northern Querétaro, and extreme north-western Hidalgo, Mexico, at moderate elevations from 650-2,000m asl. It is probably more widespread within its general range.	eng
56727	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species inhabits pine-oak forest habitats. On several occasions it has been collected from caves. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56727	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Although several additional populations have been identified, this species is nowhere common.	eng
56727	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	Habitat loss due to logging is the main threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56728	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas in Colombia, and in the Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56728	distribution		This species ranges from the eastern cordilleras in the southeast and southwest of Darién Province in extreme eastern Panama, south throughout western Colombia to the southern part of Guayas Province in Ecuador. It also ranges around the northern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the middle and upper drainage of the Magdalena Valley, in Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
56728	habitat		It is a species of lowland and submontane rainforest, with a few records also from dry forest. It is a terrestrial species that can survive in secondary forest, but not in open areas. It is often found along streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56728	population		It is a common species.	eng
56728	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56729	conservation		It occurs in the La Planada private nature reserve in Colombia, but there is a need for further protection of cloud forest habitat in the region.	eng
56729	distribution		This species is known only from a small area in the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, at La Planada at 1,200m asl in the department of Nariño, extreme southern Colombia, and just across the border at Maldonado at 1,410m asl, in the province of Carchi, extreme northern Ecuador.	eng
56729	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, and is associated with the spray zones of waterfalls, where it lives on vegetation and rocks. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown, but it is unlikely to tolerate significant habitat alteration. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56729	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56729	threats		The major threats are likely to be habitat loss and degradation, due to agricultural development, plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution (resulting from the spraying of illegal crops).	eng
56730	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further survey work is urgently needed to determine the population status of this species and whether or not it still survives in the wild. Maintenance of existing habitat at the type locality is also required.	eng
56730	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is known from a single locality in the Presquile du Nord Ouest, Haiti, at around 100 m asl.	eng
56730	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The species was recorded in a rocky ravine in remnant riparian forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56730	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It has not been recorded since it was first collected. At least one survey at the type locality in 1997-the last herpetological survey of the region-failed to record the species (S.B. Hedges pers. comm.).	eng
56730	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture are the main threats to the species.	eng
56731	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56731	distribution		This is a recently described species known from altitudes of 185-312m asl in the Amazonian lowlands on the Río Tigres in extreme northern Loreto Department, Peru. It is possible that it is more widespread.	eng
56731	habitat		All the known individuals of this species were found on the leaves of herbaceous plants and bushes 0.1-1.0m above the ground in primary forest at night. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56731	population		Three adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.	eng
56731	threats		It is possibly threatened by localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agricultural development (for both crops and livestock, for example).	eng
56732	conservation		Its range does not overlap any protected areas.	eng
56732	distribution		This species can be found from 1,140-1,960m asl in the Río Blanco drainage in Provincia Pichincha, in the north-western Andes in Ecuador, and probably occurs more widely.	eng
56732	habitat		This species can be found in montane cloud forest in humid tropical and humid temperate regions, in bromeliads in the sub canopy, and also in pastures and secondary forest. Individuals have been found on low vegetation at night, or on herbaceous plants and ferns near streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56732	population		During the course of survey work in 2002-2003 it was found to be common in Curipollo, Nonegal.	eng
56732	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
56733	conservation	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, Kelly Jones, 2008	It occurs in several forest reserves, but these do not guarantee the species' long-term protection, and there is a clear need for improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas.	eng
56733	distribution	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, Kelly Jones, 2008	This species has a restricted range in western Jamaica, ranging from sea level up to 680m asl.	eng
56733	habitat	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, Kelly Jones, 2008	This species is an inhabitant of mesic forests on the coast and in the uplands; although associated with closed-canopy forest, it can tolerate some habitat degradation. Males call from the ground or from low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development and may be associated with bromeliads.	eng
56733	population	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, Kelly Jones, 2008	It has rarely been encountered during the last decade, although it is commonly found in Dolphin Head in extreme western Jamaica. It has also been recently seen in Rocklands (B. Hedges, pers. comm. 2007; K. Jones, pers. comm. 2007).	eng
56733	threats	Blair Hedges, Susan Koenig, Byron Wilson, Kelly Jones, 2008	Although this species appears to be slightly more tolerant of habitat disturbance than some other species in the genus, such as <em>Eleutherodactylus sisyphodemus</em> and <em>E. griphus</em>, rather extensive habitat destruction and deforestation is taking place within its range, caused by agriculture, human settlement and logging.	eng
56734	conservation		Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon.	eng
56734	distribution		This species is known from the department of Santander, Colombia, where it has been recorded from 1,750-2,400m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
56734	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56734	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56734	threats		Its habitat is under high pressure due to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of cattle.	eng
56735	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Pablo Venegas, 2008	In Peru, this species occurs in the Zona Reservada de Tumbes and might occur in the Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56735	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Pablo Venegas, 2008	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. It is reported from below 1,600m asl in Santa Cruz, Cajamarca region, Canchaque, Palambra in Piura region, and in Lambayeque region it can be found as low as 450 m asl (all in northwestern Peru), but also as high as 3,200m asl in the sub-páramo in Province Loja of southern Ecuador. It also occurs in Azuay, Zamora Chinchipe Provinces in Ecuador. <br/><br/>It can be found between 450-3,200m asl.	eng
56735	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It occurs in montane forest, sub-páramo, and páramo. One specimen has been found in sub-páramo in Provincia Loja, Ecuador (Duellman and Pramuk, 1999). A number of specimens have been found under rocks at the edge of a stream in thorn forest with trees 12-18m high. Individuals have also been found in large bromeliads on rocky slopes and cliffs (Venegas, 2005).  This species breeds by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in secondary and old growth forest.	eng
56735	population	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Pablo Venegas, 2008	Both in Peru and Ecuador, it is a common species. It was last seen in 2003 in Ecuador.	eng
56735	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Pablo Venegas, 2008	Destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective logging is taking place, even within protected areas. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato </em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56736	conservation		Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.	eng
56736	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of the Oriental and Occidental Cordilleras in the departments of Santander and Boyacá, Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,460-3,340m asl. It probably occurs more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56736	habitat		It inhabits typical vegetation of high Andean forest: gramineous, herbaceous and small bushes, lichens and moss, and natural pastures. Individuals are active in leaf-litter, and during the day they can be found under rocks. This is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56736	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56736	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to agricultural development, creation of pine plantations, and overgrazing by goats, is a major threat.	eng
56737	conservation		This area has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996).	eng
56737	distribution		This species is known only from lowland forest in Colonia (a rural settlement), Loreto, in northern Peru. It might range more widely and is present below 20m asl.	eng
56737	habitat		This area is a flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It is not known if the species can occur in degraded habitat.	eng
56737	population		The population is unknown. Ten individuals were used to describe this species.	eng
56737	threats		This is largely unknown species. In the vicinity there is a general loss of habitat through agriculture, harvesting of wood, colonisation and oil exploration.	eng
56738	conservation		The range of the species includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve.	eng
56738	distribution		This species is known from the municipalities of Sonson and Belmira, in the high and sub-páramo areas of the department of Antioquia, and is also reported from Caldas Department, inside the Florencia forest, between Samana and Pensilvania, in Colombia, from 2,560-2,900m asl. It is unlikely that the species will be found to occur in between known localities as most of the habitat has already been degraded or destroyed.	eng
56738	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary forest, and is active on leaves and branches on high or medium strata. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56738	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56738	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).	eng
56739	conservation		The range of this species in Peru overlaps with some areas proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Cuyabeno Reserva. It is present in at least three Colombian protected areas. In Brazil it has been recorded in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
56739	distribution		This species is known from lowland forest in western Brazil, southeastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and eastern Peru (all Loreto and one record in Ucayali). Its altitudinal range is between 100-500m asl.	eng
56739	habitat		This species occurs in primary forest, where it is most commonly seen on the ground, logs, or tree roots along small streams at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). The microhabitat is very moist and the forest floor is heavily littered with wet dead leaves. It occurs in areas of flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves. It also occurs in the forests edges, near small streams secondary and modified forest. It breeds by direct development, leaf-litter Ovid position.	eng
56739	population		It is common in Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; it is uncommon in Brazil.	eng
56739	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56740	conservation		It occurs in Parque Municipal do Maciço da Costeira.	eng
56740	distribution		This species occurs in Sao Bento do Sul, Corupa, Blumenau, Florianopilis, and Garuva, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, at 100-700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
56740	habitat		It occurs inside secondary and old growth forest in humid areas, on the ground or on stones and low vegetation. The details of its breeding biology are unknown.	eng
56740	population		It is abundant and its population is stable.	eng
56740	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation.	eng
56741	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, Regional Reserve Ucumari and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.	eng
56741	distribution		This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central of Colombia in the departments of Cauca, Valle de Cauca, Choco, Risaralda, Quindio, Caldas and Antioquia. It occurs at moderate to intermediate elevations of 800-2,400m asl.	eng
56741	habitat		This is a terrestrial species that inhabits the leaf-litter and ground of cloud forests and secondary forests. It is active part of the day and night, on the fallen leaves on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56741	population		It is a common species.	eng
56741	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
56742	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat at what is currently the species' only known locality is urgently needed. The surviving population requires close monitoring.	eng
56742	distribution		This species is currently known only from a single locality of about one hectare in size at Meseta del Guaso, Cuba, at an elevation of 720m asl.	eng
56742	habitat		It is arboreal in mesic closed-canopy forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56742	population		It is moderately common at its only known locality.	eng
56742	threats		The main threat is habitat destruction due to subsistence farming and charcoaling, as well as clear-cutting.	eng
56743	conservation	Ross MacCulloch, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, 2008	Several protected areas are within the range of this species.	eng
56743	distribution	Ross MacCulloch, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, 2008	This species is known from eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Amapá and Amazonas states, in Brazil. It was recorded from only two localities in Brazil. As these localities are on opposite sides of the Amazon region, it is likely that the species has a much wider distribution than is mapped here. It has been recorded from 30-1,460m asl.	eng
56743	habitat	Ross MacCulloch, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, 2008	A terrestrial leaf-litter species found in tropical lowland and montane forest. It breeds by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known. It is adaptable to human intervention.	eng
56743	population	Ross MacCulloch, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, 2008	It is a common species. It is the second most commonly encountered anuran species at the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve in Guyana (Ernst et al., 2005).	eng
56743	threats	Ross MacCulloch, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, 2008	There are some localized threats to some populations, but overall the species' is not threatened at present.	eng
56744	conservation	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Studies on population trends and threats are needed.	eng
56744	distribution	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	This species can be found in south-central Texas, USA and in central Querétaro, Mexico. It can be found between 1,000-2,000m asl (Nieto Montes de Oca and Pérez Ramos, 1998).	eng
56744	habitat	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Cracks, caves, and crevices in cliffs and limestone hills in areas of woodland, scrubland, grassland, and desert; also among human-generated debris and on watered lawns (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999). Species is somewhat tolerant of suburbanization. It lays eggs on land in a moist, sheltered site.	eng
56744	population	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	Total adult population size is unknown; it is secretive and easily overlooked. It is rather common but somewhat localized and seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999).	eng
56744	threats	Geoffrey Hammerson, 2009	The major threats are unknown.	eng
56745	conservation		The type locality is near Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, but it has not been recorded from inside the park. Protection of the species' habitat is essential for the long-term survival of this restricted range, primary forest species.	eng
56745	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: La Empalada, in the municipality of Mistrató, in the department of Risaralda, Colombia, from 1,760-1,790m asl. There has been quite extensive sampling in the neighbouring regions suggesting that it is most likely confined to this area.	eng
56745	habitat		It is usually found on low vegetation and in leaf-litter, inside primary cloud forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56745	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56745	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development, particularly the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
56746	conservation		Some populations are distributed inside La Paya National Natural Park, Colombia. In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with the areas have been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Brazil, the range is within a well-conserved region of the Brazilian Amazonia. It might be within Limoncocha Reserva Biológica and Cuyabeno Reserva de Producción Faunística, Ecuador.	eng
56746	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazonian lowlands and slopes of northern Ecuador and adjacent southern Colombia (Departamentos de Amazonas y Putumayo), south to south-central Peru and parts of western Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal ranges from 100-1,300m asl.	eng
56746	habitat		This species’ habitat is the Amazon lowland and submontane primary and secondary moist tropical forest. Specimens of this species have been collected on low vegetation in forested situations at night (Lynch, 1974). During the day it shelters on fallen leaves on the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. It may be found in selectively cut secondary forest.	eng
56746	population		Generally, it is a rare to uncommon species.	eng
56746	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56747	conservation	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56747	distribution	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This species occurs on Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, La Desirade, Iles des Saintes, Martinique, Dominica, Antigua, St Martin (introduced), and St Barthelemy (where it has also been introduced) in the Lesser Antilles. It has been extirpated on St Lucia. It occurs from sea level up to at least 1,250m asl on Guadeloupe.	eng
56747	habitat	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs primarily in mesic forest areas, but has also been collected in dry forest. It has also been found in disturbed habitats, such as banana plantations, sugar cane fields, gardens, and houses. It is active on the ground, calling from soft, wet surfaces, but retreats to arboreal bromeliads. The eggs are laid on the ground.	eng
56747	population	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is a very common species, and is more common in undisturbed habitats.	eng
56747	threats	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	Although not seriously threatened, this species is affected by introduced predators, such as cats, rats and mongooses, by forest loss, and possibly also by pesticides. Another species in the genus (<em>Eleutherodactylus johnstonei</em>) is perhaps a competitor, and appears to be replacing this species in open areas.	eng
56748	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the montane forests at Cerro Ovando is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56748	distribution		This species is known from Cerro Ovando, south-western Chiapas, Mexico, and from one location in the Pacific versant at Aldea Fraternidad, northern Guatemala. It occurs from 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
56748	habitat		It is a terrestrial species inhabiting pine-oak forest at moderate elevations. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56748	population		This is a rare species.	eng
56748	threats		At present, the pine-oak habitat in the only two locations where this species occurs is still intact. However, logging represents a potential threat.	eng
56749	conservation		This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56749	distribution		This species occurs from south-eastern Michoacán, east to Morelos, in central Mexico.	eng
56749	habitat		It inhabits pine forest areas and requires abundant rocks and leaf-litter, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56749	population		This is not a common species, but there is very little recent information on its population status.	eng
56749	threats		Disturbance and transformation of the original forest due to the expansion of urbanised areas is a serious threat to this species.	eng
56750	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
56750	distribution		This species is known from the slopes and piedmont of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Cundinamarca and Meta, Colombia. It has been recorded from 450-1,800m asl.	eng
56750	habitat		This species is known from altered forests, and occurs on bushy vegetation. It is associated with fast flowing streams.	eng
56750	population		It is a common species.	eng
56750	threats		Agriculture might be a localized threat to the species but there are no major threats to the species survival at present.	eng
56751	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
56751	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species can be found in the Atlantic versant from extreme southeastern Honduras to western Panama (including the Bocas del Toro Islands), at elevations of 1-1,200m asl.	eng
56751	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. It reproduces in the leaf-litter via direct development and it tolerates habitat disturbances.	eng
56751	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species is relatively common in Costa Rica, although populations have shown some decline at La Selva (Federico Bolaños, pers. comm.; Whitfield et al., 2007). It is rare in Honduras and Panama at the edges of its range.	eng
56751	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a major threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56752	conservation	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
56752	distribution	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This species is known from northern and western areas from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the locality of San Lorenzo, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira, and Magdalena in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,300-2,450m asl.	eng
56752	habitat	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This is a terrestrial species known from cloud forest areas. It occurs in closed-canopy (up to 25 m) secondary forest, riparian forest, and pine plantations (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).  It can be found on fallen leaves and under rocks and logs. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56752	population	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It is very common. Recently found in surveys at San Lorenzo (Carvajalino-Fernández et al., 2008).	eng
56752	threats	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, are major threats to this species' habitat	eng
56753	conservation		The range of this species is wholly within Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, although logging is taking place within this area. A survey to evaluate the population status of this population in Los Tuxtlas is needed, and real protection of the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas and the surrounding areas is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56753	distribution		This species is known only from Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Mexico. The type locality is recorded as 900-1,200m asl.	eng
56753	habitat		The primary habitat is lowland tropical humid rainforest; it seems to live on the ground and under leaf-litter. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56753	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56753	threats		The high rate of transformation of original forest habitat in this area is notorious, and deforestation for the cultivation of coffee, fruits and tobacco is rapidly increasing.	eng
56754	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. As such, there is a need for improved and strengthened management of these existing protected areas.	eng
56754	distribution		This species has a restricted range in Pico Turquino and Santiago de Cuba Province, Cuba, where it ranges from 845-1,974m asl.	eng
56754	habitat		It is arboreal in closed moist forests. The species breeds in and lays its eggs in bromeliads, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56754	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56754	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction, which is taking place as a result of deforestation for agricultural activities, woodcutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56755	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Ulrich Sinsch, 2008	It is reported to occur in the Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008).	eng
56755	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Ulrich Sinsch, 2008	This species is known only from three localities, at altitudes of 2,800-3,470m asl, on the road from Balsa to Leymebamba, near the crest of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, and at Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla, all in the region of Amazonas, northern Peru. It is not known if this species has a restricted range, but it is possible that it may occur in between known sites.	eng
56755	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Ulrich Sinsch, 2008	This species is found in montane forest. Individuals can be collected under stones by day. Those recorded from 3,470m asl were in areas of wet páramo vegetation, whereas an individual collected from 3,300m asl was in elfin forest. Both habitats are within very humid montane forest. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56755	population	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Ulrich Sinsch, 2008	There is no information on its population status. Three adult males and one adult female were used to describe it.	eng
56755	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Ulrich Sinsch, 2008	The major threats to it are unknown, although there is general regional destruction and loss of habitat through an increase in livestock grazing, other agricultural activities and selective wood extraction. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>P. melanogaster</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.	eng
56756	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional El Tamá.	eng
56756	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, stated to be "km. 15 Delicias a Rubio" (Rivero 1982), 1,800m asl in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56756	habitat		This is an arboreal inhabitant of seasonal, semi deciduous forest, which breeds by direct development.	eng
56756	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56756	threats		Clearance of its habitat for coffee plantations is the most likely threat to it.	eng
56757	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica (including Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, and Parque Internacional La Amistad) and Panama (Parque Nacional Chagres and Parque Nacional Volcán Barú). Studies are needed to better understand the taxonomic relationship between this species and <em>Pristimantis cruentus</em>, so as to aid in the correct identification of populations (Gerardo Chaves, pers. comm.).	eng
56757	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, 2008	This species is found in the cordilleras of Costa Rica and the highlands of central Panama, at elevations of 1,150-2,700m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56757	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, 2008	It inhabits relatively undisturbed, dense, primary humid montane forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56757	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, 2008	In Costa Rica, this species is rarely seen and there is little information on its population status. Lips (1998) reported a sharp decline at Las Tablas (Costa Rica), but populations have persisted at Monteverde (Costa Rica) (Pounds <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Further information is needed on the status of the species' populations in Panama.	eng
56757	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Brian Kubicki, 2008	In Panama, the major threat is logging. In Costa Rica the species is not threatened. The cause of the decline at Las Tablas has not been determined, but chytridiomycosis may be involved, as it was detected in this species at this location (Lips <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2003). It persists at Monteverde where chytrid has also been recorded (Pounds <em>et al.</em>, 1997).	eng
56758	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Parima-Tapirapecó.	eng
56758	distribution		This species is known from "Ridge N Pico Tamacuari, 1,270m asl, Sierra Tapirapecó" (Myers and Donnelly 1997), in the state of Amazonas, in Venezuela (01° 13'N; 64° 42'W). It has been recorded from 1,160-1,270m asl and probably occurs more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56758	habitat		This inhabitant of montane tepui forests breeds by direct development.	eng
56758	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56758	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56759	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios) in southern Peru and Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul in Central Peru.	eng
56759	distribution		This species is known from several localities: Colonia and Cosñipata (Cusco); between Mitupucuru and Estero Ruana (Ayacucho); from three localities in Finca Panguana (Huanuco) in central Peru; and Cocha Cashu and Tambopata (Madre de Dios) in southern Peru. Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,200m asl.	eng
56759	habitat		This is a cloud forest and lowland forest inhabitant. In Central Peru, specimens were obtained on leaves at night. Some were found in a pineapple patch by day, others were found in bromeliads by day. In Cosñipata Valley, one was found on a fern at night. It is a direct development species that can be found in edge and slightly modified habitats.	eng
56759	population		The population status is unknown.	eng
56759	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
56760	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Madidi and Parque Nacional y Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and also Parque Nacional Carrasco.	eng
56760	distribution		Initially, this species was known only from the type locality, 3.3km north of the road towards San Onofre, in Chapare Province, in Cochabamba Department, but more recently there are more records from La Paz Department, also in Bolivia (Lynch and Duellman 1997; De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cortez 2001). It has been recorded from 1,950-2,400m asl.@@	eng
56760	habitat		An inhabitant of Yungas forest, this species has not been recorded from disturbed areas. It is a terrestrial species, although its limbs suggest that it might be adapted to a more arboreal lifestyle. It is both nocturnal and diurnal. Reproduction is by direct development, and juveniles are seen during December and January.	eng
56760	population		It is a rare species, and only a few individuals have been observed. It is no longer recorded at the type locality.	eng
56760	threats		Agricultural activity, logging and the construction of roads are major threats to this species' habitat.	eng
56761	conservation		Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species (including whether or not it even still survives in the wild), and particularly to establish the reasons for its decline.	eng
56761	distribution		This species is known only from Montañas del Merendón on the Sierra de Omoa, west of San Pedro Sula in the Department of Cortés, Honduras, at elevations of 150-200m asl.	eng
56761	habitat		It occurs and reproduces by direct development in leaf-litter on the ground of lowland moist forest, and is often found in the vicinity of streams.	eng
56761	population		It was formerly relatively common but is now in precipitous decline. It was not recorded in the course of visits to the known range of the species in 1996 and 1998 where the habitat remains relatively intact.	eng
56761	threats		Since the range of this species is well protected from obvious human disturbance (the area from which it is known has been managed and protected for the last 30 years), the cause of its decline is unclear. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species. On the other hand, this species occurs at a much lower altitude than most frog species that have been affected by such unexplained declines.	eng
56762	conservation		It is so far known only from the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estacion Demonstrativo el Rasgon. Further survey work is recommended to ascertain whether the species might occur more widely.	eng
56762	distribution		This species is known from two protected areas on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in the department of Santander, Colombia, from 2,400m asl.	eng
56762	habitat		It inhabits the interior of very humid cloud forests, and is found on vegetation on the low stratum. It is not found outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56762	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56762	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss, as a result of agriculture, and agricultural pollution.	eng
56763	conservation		It is present within the recently created Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán.	eng
56763	distribution		This species is known only from 525m asl in the Río Marañon Valley in Amazonas Department, Peru. It has only recently been described and might range more widely.	eng
56763	habitat		This species occurs in tropical moist forest, especially near streams. The vegetation in these areas consists principally of leguminous plants and other drought-resistant trees. Both terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads are locally abundant, and this region also supports thorn forest. This is a direct developing species.	eng
56763	population		Only a few individuals have been observed, so its population status is not known.	eng
56763	threats		There is some localized habitat loss through human activities, principally agriculture, which might be affecting this species outside the protected area in which it has been found.	eng
56764	conservation		The range of this species includes a few Biosphere Reserves. The protection and restoration of extensive areas of montane forest in Oaxaca, Veracruz and Hidalgo is needed to protect this species and other amphibians that are found in the area.	eng
56764	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of north-central Oaxaca, Guerrero, Puebla and adjacent Veracruz and Hidalgo, Mexico. It is known from 1,500-3,420m asl.	eng
56764	habitat		This species occurs in pine-oak montane forest and montane cloud forest. It is a terrestrial species, frequently found under leaf-litter, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56764	population		This is a common species, although recent surveys in Oaxaca suggest that it has disappeared, at least from certain sites.	eng
56764	threats		Deforestation and transformation of the original forest can affect the microhabitat for this species, however large populations have been found in Oaxaca and Guerrero. Recently documented declines in Oaxaca have taken place in suitable habitat, and could be due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56765	conservation	Cruz, G., Wilson, L.D., Kolby, J.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species has been recorded within the Parque Nacional Cusuco and Parque Nacional Cerro Azul. Despite occurring within these protected areas, this species still experienced dramatic population declines for unknown reasons (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. November 2008). Further research is required to determine the status of the surviving population at Cusuco National Park.	eng
56765	distribution	Cruz, G., Wilson, L.D., Kolby, J.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from west and northwest Honduras. It is recorded from Cerro Azul in Copán Department, and from Montaña del Cusuco (National Park) and Montaña del Merendón (west of San Pedro Sula) in the Department of Cortés, within the Sierras of Espíritu Santo and Omoa. The species is found at elevations of 1,050-1,841 m asl.	eng
56765	habitat	Cruz, G., Wilson, L.D., Kolby, J.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This is a leaf-litter species found along streams in pre-montane and lower montane wet forest. The species breeds by direct development.	eng
56765	population	Cruz, G., Wilson, L.D., Kolby, J.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	It was formerly relatively common, but underwent a precipitous decline. This species had not been seen alive since 1983 (Kolby and McCranie 2009), and repeated attempts to relocate this frog in appropriate habitat and weather conditions in Parque Nacional Cusuco between 1992 and 1996 were unsuccessful. It was considered to be Extinct until an individual was recently (2008) recorded from Cusuco National Park (Kolby and McCranie 2009).	eng
56765	threats	Cruz, G., Wilson, L.D., Kolby, J.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	While the species is clearly threatened by habitat loss and degradation (largely resulting from the conversion of forest to subsistence agricultural use), this does not explain the sudden disappearance of populations from areas of pristine forest (namely Parque Nacional Cusuco). It seems possible that factors related to declines in other montane frog species, such as chytridiomycosis and climate change, might have contributed to the species' decline.  Although this species undergoes direct development, its <em></em><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>affinity towards streamside habitats creates a heightened risk for chytridiomycosis.  In 2008, <em>Plectrohyla dasypus</em> larvae infected with amphibian chytrid fungus were recorded from the same stream area where this species was rediscovered. The single adult male <em>C. milesi</em> recorded in 2008 tested negative for chytrid infection by PCR analysis (Kolby and McCranie 2009).  It is hopeful that a small population of resistant individuals may persist in Cusuco National Park, but even so, the existence of this species remains in jeopardy.  Shortly after making this discovery, a large treefall crashed onto the site where <em>C. milesi</em> was found, demolishing the understorey vegetation and altering the forest patch (J.E. Kolby pers. comm. November 2008). <span lang="EN-US">Almost no original forest occurs at Cerro Azul and there is none&#160;remaning&#160;at the  Merendón locality (J. McCranie pers. comm. October 2009).	eng
56766	conservation	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The range of this species includes several national parks.	eng
56766	distribution	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species' geographic range is from the Atlantic slope from eastern Honduras to southeastern Costa Rica, at elevations of 15-940m asl.	eng
56766	habitat	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species can be found in the forest floor leaf-litter in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forest. It reproduces via direct development and it tolerates some forest disturbance.	eng
56766	population	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is uncommon, but widespread and regularly seen. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced declines (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56766	threats	Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56767	conservation		It is known from several protected areas, including Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve.	eng
56767	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic, with an altitudinal range of 879-2,300m asl.	eng
56767	habitat		It requires mesic upland broadleaf or pine forests. Males call from low vegetation; eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56767	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56767	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction due to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock.	eng
56768	conservation		Its range includes the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, and the Estación Demonstrativo El Rasgon.	eng
56768	distribution		This species is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, and Santander, Colombia, from 1,740-2,400m asl.	eng
56768	habitat		It inhabits low level vegetation in very humid cloud forests, and is able to adapt to secondary forest as well as forest edges. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56768	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56768	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agricultural development.	eng
56769	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of this species, making the protection of cloud forest habitat at the type locality a priority. Further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
56769	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, between the municipalities of Ramiriqui and Zetaquira in the Cordillera Oriental, in the department of Boyaca, Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,060-3,800m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56769	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest, and individuals can be found under rocks and logs during the day. At night they are active on low vegetation in open areas and inside the forest, and in areas surrounded by potato crops and cattle ranching. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56769	population		It is a rare species, and fewer than ten individuals have been collected.	eng
56769	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, and in particular potato farming.	eng
56770	conservation		The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Chamela-Cuixmala. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56770	distribution		This species is known from the lowlands (700m asl or below) of southern Jalisco and Colima, Mexico, but is perhaps more widespread.	eng
56770	habitat		It can be found in tropical deciduous forest, and requires an abundance of leaves and debris on the ground. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.	eng
56770	population		It is thought to be a common species.	eng
56770	threats		Habitat loss and fragmentation, due to clear-cutting and smallholder agricultural activities, represents the main threat.	eng
56771	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, which makes formal protection of this species' high-altitude habitat a priority.	eng
56771	distribution		This species is known only from eight localities on the edges of the Ambato-Riobamba Valley in central Ecuador between 2,560 and 3,700m asl.	eng
56771	habitat		It lives in high-altitude páramo grassland and sub-páramo bush land. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56771	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56771	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation. At the type locality, for example, patches of natural vegetation have been cleared for agriculture, livestock farming, and pine plantations, and this is believed to be having a serious impact on the species.	eng
56772	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56772	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Cauca, Valle, Risaralda, and Choco on the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 1,110-2,350m asl.	eng
56772	habitat		It occurs along streams on medium to low level vegetation in primary and secondary cloud forest. Although it has not been recorded outside forest it is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56772	population		It is usually a common species.	eng
56772	threats		Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops) is a localized threat to this species, but there are currently no major threats to it. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
56773	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional El Tamá.	eng
56773	distribution		This species is known only from Matamula, in the municipality of Delicias, Táchira State, in the Venezuelan Andes, at an altitude of 1,120m asl.	eng
56773	habitat		This arboreal inhabitant of seasonal (semi-deciduous) forests breeds by direct development.	eng
56773	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56773	threats		The threats to this species are mostly unknown, although it is probably affected by the creation of coffee plantations.	eng
56774	conservation		The Department of Natural Resources controls access to Mona Island, which is gazetted as a nature reserve. There is a need to control introduced predators on this island, and to monitor the population of this species closely.	eng
56774	distribution		This species is known only from Mona Island (Puerto Rico). Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 10m asl.	eng
56774	habitat		It is found in limestone solution holes in dry scrub forest. It is uncommonly recorded in bromeliads. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56774	population		It is an abundant species on the island.	eng
56774	threats		This species has a very restricted range, being confined entirely to Mona Island, and is vulnerable to the impacts of introduced predators on the island.	eng
56775	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it has been recorded from the adjacent protected areas of Parque Nacional Volcán Barú and Parque Internacional La Amistad.	eng
56775	distribution		This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central of Panama adjacent to Costa Rica, although its distribution is incompletely known. It is known to occur at an altitude of around 1400m asl.	eng
56775	habitat		This is a terrestrial and low vegetation species of humid montane forest. It reproduces by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not clear.	eng
56775	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
56775	threats		The major threat is presumed to be general habitat loss through deforestation.	eng
56776	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas (including Valle Nuevo Natural Scientific Reserve). However, several of these existing protected areas are in need of more effective management.	eng
56776	distribution		This species occurs in a limited range at high elevations on the Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic. It has been recorded from 1,270-2,424m asl.	eng
56776	habitat		This species is associated with closed-canopy forest and forest remnants, and is primarily found in the fern understorey. Males call from arboreal vegetation, including ferns. Eggs are laid on the ground, and breeding is by direct development.	eng
56776	population		It is common in suitable habitat at high elevations.	eng
56776	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction from agricultural development, livestock farming, and disturbance from tourist activities.	eng
56777	conservation		The species has been recorded from two protected areas in Panama and the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo in Costa Rica. The known location is not within a protected area in Colombia but the area in between the known localities includes several protected areas that it is likely to be recorded from. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
56777	distribution		This species is known from the premontane zone of the Atlantic slope from central Costa Rica (1,245m asl) and Pacific versant central Panama (550-975m asl), and is also known from localities near La Hondura, San José Province, in Costa Rica. In Colombia it is still known only from the type locality in Río Raposa, Valle del Cauca department, but it most likely occurs up to the Panama border along the Pacific coast. This is a very small frog found in the canopy, and so it is probably significantly under-recorded, and the apparently patchy distribution is probably not an accurate representation of its status.	eng
56777	habitat		This is a nocturnal species of humid montane forest. It is principally a canopy species with few known specimens. It is presumed to breed by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
56777	population		There is very little information, since it is so hard to collect.	eng
56777	threats		The major threats are unknown at present, but its known range in Colombia is currently not threatened and is remote from human influence.	eng
56778	conservation		Its range includes Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56778	distribution		This species has a scattered distribution in the region of the type locality, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, where it has been recorded from 800-1,380m asl. It is currently known from only six localities.	eng
56778	habitat		It is an inhabitant of humid tropical and subtropical primary forest and altered zones within primary forest (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Adults live in the forest canopy and breed by direct development.	eng
56778	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
56778	threats		Habitat degradation and loss, mainly due to rapidly expanding banana plantations, is a serious threat.	eng
56779	conservation		Both sites from which it is known are within protected areas: the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo in Peru, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. Additional taxonomic research is required to resolve the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
56779	distribution		This is a recently described species known from the eastern slope of Abra Pardo Miguel (San Martin Department) on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera Oriental in northern Peru; and from La Pituca, Río Curintza (Zamora), Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 1,800-2,000m asl.	eng
56779	habitat		The Peruvian locality is a stream with rocky banks in humid, upper montane forest. Stones along the edge of the stream are covered with moss. The frogs were found by day in cavities between stones. According to Schulte (pers. comm.), the frogs are "imitating exactly a mossy stone". This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56779	population		Only a few individuals have been observed, and four adult females were used to describe this species. Those specimens are poorly preserved as they died en route from the type locality to the collector's home in Tarapoto, Peru.	eng
56779	threats		There is some localized habitat loss due to activities such as agriculture (both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) that might be a threat to this species. Gold mining might affect it in Ecuador.	eng
56780	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	Much of its range is included in protected areas, including Parque Nacional Chagres.	eng
56780	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	This species is endemic to the central cordilleras of Panama, ranging from 700-1,000m asl.	eng
56780	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	It is associated with low vegetation in humid montane forest. Breeding is by direct development, although the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56780	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	It is generally rare, but common in a few sites such as the head of the Río Changuinola and the Bosque Protector Palo in Bocas del Toro Province and the continental divide near Copé, Coclé Province.	eng
56780	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, 2009	The principal threat is habitat loss, mainly due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56781	conservation		The species' distribution includes National Natural Park Purace.	eng
56781	distribution		This species is known from about a dozen localities; Paramos on the Nudo de Pasto and the southern end of the Central Cordillera in Colombia (from 2,900-3,275m asl), Paramo de Purace, on the occidental slope of the central Cordillera in the department of Cauca from 2,900-3,000m asl, the department of Nariño: Laguna de la Concha, Paramo del Tabano, Pasto. The range of this species might extend in to Ecuador (but has not yet been recorded), since the habitat is the same beyond the border.	eng
56781	habitat		It is usually found on vegetation in páramo to sub-páramo and upper Andean forest. It is active mostly at night or at sundown. When inactive during the day, it occurs under rocks, logs and among dense grasses. It breeds by direct development. It has not been collected from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56781	population		It is a common species.	eng
56781	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are only localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species overall at present.	eng
56782	conservation		t is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56782	distribution		This species is known only from Finca Volcán, in the Sierra de Xucaneb, Alta Verapaz Department, central Guatemala, at 875m asl. However, there is now some doubt as to the correctness of the locality data associated with the specimen (Savage pers. comm.) and there might also be taxonomic problems with this species.	eng
56782	habitat		This species presumably inhabits premontane wet forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56782	population		It is known only from a single female specimen collected in 1978. It is likely to be rare, since subsequent attempts to locate it have been unsuccessful.	eng
56782	threats		Very little is known about the threats that it faces, but its habitat is being lost due to agricultural encroachment.	eng
56783	conservation		The projected range of this species includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, although there are no records from these parks yet. Until collectors become familiar with the necessary collection techniques the existing data on its range will remain incomplete.	eng
56783	distribution		This species is known from two widely separated areas along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from Chocó, Valle del Cauca, and Antioquia Departments, from 2,100-2,250m asl. The gap in the known distribution is surely a consequence of a lack of survey effort and hence it is presumed in this assessment that it occurs in between these two areas.	eng
56783	habitat		Most collectors probably never see this species or, if they do, they see it and mistake it for insect droppings. The largest specimen ever found was only 17mm long. The colouration makes the organisms very cryptic on the surface of ferns very near the tips where water collects and drips. This species has only been recorded from primary forest and from forest edges. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56783	population		This is a very abundant species at two localities on the Serrania de los Paraguas. However, at the only other locality from which it is known (western Antioquia) it is uncommon.	eng
56783	threats		The major threats to its habitat are habitat destruction due to the cultivation of crops and livestock farming, as well as chemical pollution from spraying of the crops.	eng
56784	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56784	distribution		This species occurs widely in southeastern Brazil in the States of Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and possibly elsewhere. It altitudinal range is 50-1,300m asl.	eng
56784	habitat		It lives in lowland and montane forest, forest edges and eucalyptus plantations, but not in more open areas. It climbs on tall herbaceous vegetation and lays its eggs in epiphytic bromeliads, among other places. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56784	population		It is a common species.	eng
56784	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.	eng
56785	conservation		Its range overlaps slightly with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56785	distribution		This species is known from more than ten localities on the lower Pacific slopes of the Andes, from the province of Cotopaxi northwards to the province of Carchi in Ecuador. It is also likely to occur in adjacent Colombia, although there are, as yet, no confirmed records. It ranges from 600-1,540m asl.	eng
56785	habitat		An inhabitant of humid premontane forest; most individuals have been observed in the immediate vicinity of streams (Lynch and Duellman 1997). Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56785	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56785	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, which has been particularly severe in the last few years due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging; pollution due to agriculture is also a threat. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56786	conservation		This species' distribution includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve, and also Ucamari Regional Park.	eng
56786	distribution		This species occurs in the northern half of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Tolima, Caldas, Quindia, Risaralda and southern Antioquia, in Colombia, at elevations of 1,800-2,200m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56786	habitat		This is a diurnal and terrestrial species, restricted to primary cloud forests with abundant fallen leaves on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56786	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56786	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops) is the major threat.	eng
56787	conservation		It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. In Peru, it has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56787	distribution		This species is known from three localities in Peru between 1,080 and 2,180m asl along the road from Abra Pardo Miguel to Moyobamba, San Martin Province, on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central. It has recently been recorded from a single locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, Ecuador, at 1,800m asl.	eng
56787	habitat		This is a montane and cloud forest species, and is not known to occur in degraded habitats. Adults and juveniles have been found approximately 1m above the ground in humid montane forest at night; one juvenile was on the ground by day. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56787	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56787	threats		In Peru, the major threat is loss of habitat for agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. In Ecuador, selective logging is the primary cause for loss of habitat.	eng
56788	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza.	eng
56788	distribution		This species is known from the type locality and a discontinuous range in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Meta in Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,100-3,870m asl.	eng
56788	habitat		It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo shrubland, páramo grassland, and forested areas. It is usually found on vegetation, or during the day it can be found under rocks and logs, and in active periods on low vegetation. It also occurs in secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56788	population		It is a common species.	eng
56788	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as fires are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
56789	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Tamá in Venezuela, and in the PNN Pisba and the PNN El Cocuy in Colombia.	eng
56789	distribution		This species occurs in the Páramo de Tamá, in the State of Táchira, Venezuela, and in the pàramos in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia (in the Departments of Boyacà, Norte de Santander, and Santander). Its altitudinal range is 2,500-4,100m asl.	eng
56789	habitat		It is a species of páramo montane grassland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56789	population		It is apparently an abundant species, but has only seldom been recorded in recent years due to lack of effort.	eng
56789	threats		Apart from the effects of fire on its habitat, this species is probably not facing any significant threats.	eng
56790	conservation		This species' only known locality is within Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.	eng
56790	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra de Cubatão, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, at around 800m asl.	eng
56790	habitat		The type locality is old secondary forest, and the specimens were all collected on either the forest floor or on low vegetation. This species presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
56790	population		It is known only from three specimens.	eng
56790	threats		It is currently known only from within a protected area, so its habitat is currently protected, although air pollution has been a problem in this region in the past.	eng
56791	conservation		Its range overlaps with several protected areas including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganatis, Parque Nacional Sangay, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56791	distribution		This species can be found along the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes in the Río Pastaza Valley (1,180-1,800m asl), southern Ecuador (Provincia de Morona-Santiago, from 2,195-2,835m asl), Cordillera del Due (1,150-1,700m asl), and Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Curintza, 2,600m asl).	eng
56791	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests. The frogs have been found on low vegetation and rocks, usually along streams, at night (Lynch and Duellman 1980). Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56791	population		It is a rare species in parts of its range, for example, at Parque Nacional Podocarpus where it was last seen in 1997.	eng
56791	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and logging, is the main threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56792	conservation		In Peru, the range of this species is overlap with the areas have been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps several protected areas. It is present in three Colombian protected areas.	eng
56792	distribution		This species is known from eastern Ecuador; northeastern Peru and from around Puerto Nariño (Amazonas) in southwest Colombia. Its elevation is from 200-900m asl.	eng
56792	habitat		It can be found in the upper Amazon basin and cloud forest. The frogs are active on the forest floor by day; a few have been found on low herbaceous vegetation at night (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). This species breeds by direct development. It may be found in primary, secondary and lightly modified habitat.	eng
56792	population		It is a common species.	eng
56792	threats		Presumably, there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56793	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species inhabits a few biosphere reserves and other protected areas throughout its range.	eng
56793	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs from northeastern Zacatecas to southern Sinaloa, southwestward to Pacific Nayarit, and then south to northeastern Oaxaca, in Mexico. Inland it is found from Guerrero to Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, the State of Mexico and Veracruz. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of 2,600m asl (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56793	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs in tropical deciduous forest to trough oak, pine and fir forest, and in coastal towns (including the downtown area of the city of Guadalajara) (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56793	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	From field collections in recent years it appears that this is an abundant species in some locations.<br/><br/>It is the most abundant amphibian species in the city of Guadalajara (Ponce-Campos and Huerta-Ortega, 2004).	eng
56793	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This frog requires an abundance of leaves and debris on the ground in the forest, and fragmentation and alteration of the forest can disturb and reduce this microhabitat.	eng
56794	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The range of this species includes the Parque Nacional Nevado de Colima. There is currently a program for park management, and those responsible for the program visit the area frequently (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its limited range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56794	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is known from eastern Colima and adjacent Jalisco, on the slopes of the Nevado de Colima, Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from 600-2,400m asl.	eng
56794	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It is terrestrial and inhabits tropical lower montane forest, pine and oak forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56794	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The species is considered to be widespread on the slopes of the volcano and is very abundant during the rainy season (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56794	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The major threat to this species is the eruption of the nearby Volcán de Fuego de Colima. <br/><br/>While there is tourism in the area, road access is limited and difficult, limiting the impact of this activity on the species (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56795	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
56795	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species can be found in lowland and premontane humid Atlantic forest slopes from northeastern Honduras to western Panama and Pacific versant Costa Rica and west-central Panama, at elevations of 4-1,200m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56795	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This is a diurnal, forest-floor species of humid lowland and montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56795	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species is relatively uncommon, but widely distributed, and regularly seen in Costa Rica. The population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56795	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	General habitat loss by the destruction of natural forests is a threat to this species. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56796	conservation	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	Although the species occurs in the Parc National Macaya and the Parc National Morne La Visite in Haiti, there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. It is also known from Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic, which is better managed than protected areas in Haiti; however, degradation of the habitat within the park's limits continues. Strengthening the management of the existing protected areas network is essential, as is maintenance of the remaining habitat within the range of the species. Survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56796	distribution	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de la Selle, in Haiti, and Sierra de Bahoruco, in the Dominican Republic, Hispaniola. It has been recorded from 576-1,515 m asl.	eng
56796	habitat	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	It is usually found in sinkhole caves in upland broadleaf forest and forest remnants, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Males call from tall vegetation and rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56796	population	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	It is an uncommon species. It was last recorded in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56796	threats	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Robert Powell, 2008	The primary threat is habitat destruction (due to charcoaling and agriculture), which is ongoing even in the protected areas of the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti and the Massif de la Selle. Similarly, deforestation is taking place at the one known locality in the Dominican Republic as a result of mining, charcoaling, and agriculture.	eng
56797	conservation		It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, although this is not a well-managed protected area and there are even coffee plantations within the park's limits (as well as significant disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities). There is a clear need for improved and strengthened management of this particular protected area.	eng
56797	distribution		This species has a very restricted range in the Blue Mountains, in eastern Jamaica, and has been recorded from 1,060-1,880m asl.	eng
56797	habitat		It is a terrestrial species restricted to dense closed-canopy deciduous forest, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. Males call on the ground, and eggs are laid in hollows beneath rocks. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56797	population		It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
56797	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and destruction, primarily due to smallholder farming activities, and also from introduced vegetation.	eng
56798	conservation		Its range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56798	distribution		This species is known from six localities on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Cotopaxi and Pichincha, Ecuador, at 1,140-2,100m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56798	habitat		It is a cloud forest inhabitant, and it is not known whether or not it tolerates minor habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56798	population		It is a common species.	eng
56798	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56799	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Internacional La Amistad (Costa Rica and Panama) and two protected areas in Panama, and subpopulations within these seem relatively secure. Further research is needed into the range and ecology of this species, as well as the impact of chytridiomycosis.	eng
56799	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of south-eastern Costa Rica and north-western Panama at an altitude of 400-1,450m asl.	eng
56799	habitat		This species can be found in the spray zone on rocks, boulders, and cliff faces in the middle of moderate-sized cascading streams in lowland moist forest, premontane and lower montane wet forest and rainforest. It does not occur in modified habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56799	population		It is a rare species in Costa Rica, being recorded very infrequently. The last record for Costa Rica was in 1984, but there have been very few surveys in the region (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.). In Panama it is believed to have declined in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí.	eng
56799	threats		The main threat to this species is believed to be the disease chytridiomycosis, and it has already disappeared from one site where chytrid fungus was found.	eng
56800	conservation		Some populations of this species occur in protected areas, including National Natural Park Purace and National Natural Park Huila.	eng
56800	distribution		This species is known from between the departments of Cauca and Huila, on the central Cordillera, in Colombia, from 3,200-3,500m asl.	eng
56800	habitat		It is usually found in bushy and herbaceous vegetation in páramo (not forest). It is active mostly at night, although it calls during the day, from shelters. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56800	population		It is a common species.	eng
56800	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present. Although there might be some localized threats, its habitat is largely isolated from threat due to its high elevation.	eng
56801	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56801	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities in western Mexico in the states of Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco and Michoacan. Its range is not well known, and its altitudinal limits are unclear.	eng
56801	habitat		There is no direct information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it is likely to be associated with semi-deciduous forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56801	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56801	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56802	conservation		Some populations are included inside protected areas in Colombia (in the Reserva Natural La Planada, Parque Nariño and Parque Nacional Natural Munchique). In Ecuador, its geographic range coincides with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56802	distribution		This species can be found in cloud forest at altitudes of 1,255-1,780m asl on the Pacific versant of the Andes in the departments of Cauca and Nariño, Colombia, and at 1,200-2,600m asl in the provinces of Carchi (Maldonado), Esmeraldas (Cristal, Río Blanco), and Imbabura (Cuellaje), in Ecuador.	eng
56802	habitat		It is a nocturnal species that occurs on low vegetation (0.5-5m above the ground) in cloud forest in areas next to forest breaks or on high branches on sloping areas inside relatively undisturbed forest. One Ecuadorian specimen was obtained from the canopy of a felled tree by day (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56802	population		It has always been considered an uncommon species, and it was last collected in the late 1980s. The region where it is known to occur has been only infrequently surveyed.	eng
56802	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation due to logging, agricultural development, and the cultivation of illegal crops are all threats to it.	eng
56803	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas throughout its range. In Peru the range of this species overlaps with Cordillera del Colan (Amazonas), Cordillera del Cóndor and Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). It is present in a number of Brazilian protected areas including Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo Galeras, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha. It is present in four Colombian protected areas.	eng
56803	distribution		This species is distributed throughout the Amazonian basin of Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia and Acre State, Brazil. Within Brazil, it has an additionally apparent disjunctive population close to Manaus, Amazonas state. The wide altitudinal range of 100-2,000m asl is probably indicative of the taxonomic difficulties with this species. In particular, the high elevation possibly represents a taxon restricted to Ecuador.	eng
56803	habitat		Generally it is a lowland tropical moist forest to cloud forest. In Ecuador only the species ascends to slopes of the Andes to high elevations. Adults have been observed on low (up to 3m) vegetation at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development and possibly a leaf-litter egg deposition site. It has been found in degraded habitats.	eng
56803	population		It is a common species.	eng
56803	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56804	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, but may occur in the Reserva Ecológica El Ángel. There is a need for the protection of the high-elevation páramo habitat of this species.	eng
56804	distribution		This species is known from Páramos del Angel and Chamizo, Carchi Province, in extreme northern Ecuador, at elevations of 3,000-4,150m asl. More survey work, including in nearby Colombia, might turn up additional localities for this species.	eng
56804	habitat		It can be found in sub-páramo and páramo habitats, and is also found in secondary forest. It is a fossorial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56804	population		In 2000, it was noted as being uncommon in Chamizo. In 2002-2003, Páramos del Angel was burned and subsequent visits have failed to find this species.	eng
56804	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture and wood extraction. Severe fire damage might have extirpated this species from Páramos del Angel.	eng
56805	conservation		This species occurs in a few protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.	eng
56805	distribution		This species is known from Rio de Janeiro State including Ilha Grande, in Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
56805	habitat		This species occurs on the ground inside primary and secondary forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like others in the genus. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
56805	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56805	threats		Clear cutting of the forest was a threat to the species habitat in the past but it has now stopped. Infrastructure development for human settlement and tourism is a major threat at present, including inside the protected areas.	eng
56806	conservation		The biological reserve in which it occurs is the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
56806	distribution		This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the state of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl, although it might be more widespread.	eng
56806	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the ground of primary and secondary forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56806	population		It is a common species within its small known range.	eng
56806	threats		The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to creation of wood plantations, smallholder farming, logging, human settlement and tourism.	eng
56807	conservation		The entire range of this species is within Parque Nacional Muralla. Further research is needed into the reasons for the species' decline, and additional survey work is required to assess its current population status. If the risk of chytridiomycosis proves real, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56807	distribution		This species is restricted to north-western Olancho, Honduras, at elevations of 1,180-1,350m asl.	eng
56807	habitat		This species can be found in premontane moist forest, where it has been found in leaf-litter near streams. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56807	population		It used to be relatively common but it is now in decline. Fieldwork within the range of this species in 2001 failed to turn up this species.	eng
56807	threats		The precise reasons for the decline of this species are unclear. However, some other species in the genus that are associated with high-elevation streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species.	eng
56808	conservation		Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu in Peru, and Parque Nacional Carrasco in Bolivia.	eng
56808	distribution		This is a recently described species known from Paracti (Cochabamba Department), in Bolivia, at altitudes of 650 and 1,300m asl, and in Peru from Pakitza (at 350m asl) and Madre de Dios. Both localities are separated by a distance of approximately 700km. This species' altitudinal range is 350-1,300m asl.	eng
56808	habitat		The Bolivian localities comprise evergreen tropical montane forest; in Peru it is known from lowland forest areas. It has been recorded calling from bushes at the edge of the road during light rain and was heard from the canopy at about 6-10m above the ground during a heavy downpour. Reproduction in this species is by direct development.	eng
56808	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56808	threats		There are not thought to be any major threats to this species, which is presumed to be widespread and to have large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (involving both crops and livestock, for example), oil exploration and settlement.	eng
56809	conservation		A survey to determine the presence of this species in the only protected area within its range, Omiltemi Park, is required. No records have been reported recently, even when the park was under state protection. Recently, the park has been subject to human activities that jeopardize the survival of the native fauna and flora. This species is in urgent need of habitat protection. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56809	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur, central Guerrero, Mexico, at altitudes of 2,200-2,600m asl.	eng
56809	habitat		It inhabits pine, oak and pine-oak forests, and requires an abundance of leaf-litter on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56809	population		This is a relatively common species.	eng
56809	threats		Habitat loss and disturbance due to smallholder farming activities, livestock and removal of wood through logging and subsistence collection, is having a negative impact on the microhabitat of this species.	eng
56810	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status; in view of the risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56810	distribution		This species can be found at moderate elevations of the Sierra de Omoa west-south-west of San Pedro Sula on the Atlantic versant of north-western Honduras, at elevations of 760-1,150m asl.	eng
56810	habitat		The species occurs in, and breeds by direct development along, streams in premontane wet forest.	eng
56810	population		It is known from 24 specimens. Formerly, it was moderately common, but is now undergoing a precipitous decline. A visit to the area of the type locality in 1996 failed to turn up individuals of this or any other amphibian.	eng
56810	threats		Although habitat loss is certainly affecting this species, this does not explain the dramatic decline that has taken place. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a major threat to this species.	eng
56811	conservation		The species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama, and from several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
56811	distribution		This recently described species is widely distributed in the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of central Panama. In Colombia it is known from west of the Andes from the Panamanian border to northern Cauca department, at elevations of up to 1,040m asl.	eng
56811	habitat		It is a large terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest. Direct development is the method of reproduction and the egg deposition site is not known. It requires moist conditions and hence is restricted to primary forest.	eng
56811	population		It is generally considered to be a rare species throughout its range.	eng
56811	threats		General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests are localized threats, but there are no major threats to the species' overall survival at present.	eng
56812	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and slightly Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. It has also been recorded from the Llanganates and Sangay National Parks.	eng
56812	distribution		This species’ geographic range is from the Páramos to the north and east of Guaranda on the western slope of the Andes, and on the eastern slope of the Andes in Llanganates and Sangay National Parks, Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 3,160-3,800m asl. It is known from fewer than ten localities.	eng
56812	habitat		This species can be found in Páramo habitats where it is mostly found in terrestrial bromeliads of the genus Puya. Its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56812	population		It is a somewhat uncommon species in Llanganates in 2000-2002. It is heard more easily than it is found.	eng
56812	threats		There are no major threats, although feral cows and fire are potential threats.	eng
56813	conservation	Blair Hedges, 2008	Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species might possibly still survive in the wild, and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then any surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56813	distribution	Blair Hedges, 2008	This species formerly occurred in eastern Jamaica at an altitudinal range of 225-1,215 m asl.	eng
56813	habitat	Blair Hedges, 2008	This is a stream-dwelling species associated with aquatic and riparian habitats in mesic forests. Males call from rocks in streams or at waterfall bases. There is a possibility that it could have been a live-bearing species, but this is unconfirmed.	eng
56813	population	Blair Hedges, 2008	It has not been seen since the mid-1980s and is now possibly extinct. In 1985, it was still abundant in its range but within one or two years, the species underwent a marked and rapid decline.	eng
56813	threats	Blair Hedges, 2008	This species has apparently disappeared from its known range, even though its range included the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park, and some undisturbed forest still survives; this suggests that factors other than habitat loss are implicated in its disappearance, such as chytridiomycosis and introduced predators (<em>Rattus rattus</em> is abundant throughout Blue Mountains up to the highest peaks).	eng
56814	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Podocarpus. There is a need for improved protection of the sub-páramo habitat of this species.	eng
56814	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern Andes from the valley of Cuenca to the Loja Basin, in southern Ecuador, where it has been recorded from five localities. Its altitudinal range is 2,720-3,120m asl.	eng
56814	habitat		It inhabits sub-páramo bushland with scattered trees, and has been found in terrestrial bromeliads under stones in dirt banks; it is not known whether it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56814	population		It is moderately abundant, being neither rare nor common.	eng
56814	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, and human settlement.	eng
56815	conservation		It occurs in the El Yunque de Baracoa Ecological Reserve, but improved protection and maintenance of the existing habitat are still required.	eng
56815	distribution		This species is known from a single locality around El Yunque de Baracoa, Cuba, at an altitude of about 300m asl.	eng
56815	habitat		It requires undisturbed moist forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56815	population		This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56815	threats		The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and disturbance from touristic activities.	eng
56816	conservation		Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and slightly with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56816	distribution		This species is known from the north-western flank of the Andes in Ecuador, from 400-1,800m asl.	eng
56816	habitat		It is an inhabitant of humid temperate and subtropical primary and secondary forest (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56816	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56816	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and logging, and the habitat within its range is now severely fragmented. Agricultural pollution is also a threat to this species.	eng
56817	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.	eng
56817	distribution		This species is known only from along the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia from Paramillo (Antioquía Department) to Valle del Cauca Department, and from the eastern slope of the department of Caldas in the Cordillera Central. It occurs at moderate elevations from 700-2,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56817	habitat		A nocturnal species that inhabits primary or secondary forests with good regeneration. It perches on branches and bushes very high above the ground. Eggs are laid on logs and moss, and breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56817	population		It is a common species.	eng
56817	threats		The primary threats are habitat loss, due to agriculture (both crops and livestock), and pollution, as a result of the fumigation of crops.	eng
56818	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Yasuní.	eng
56818	distribution		This species is known from the eastern lowlands of Ecuador, between 250 and 350m asl. It is very poorly known, and is probably more widespread, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56818	habitat		It is an inhabitant of moist Napo forests in the tropical eastern altitudinal zone. It has been recorded only from primary forest, and does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. It is an arboreal species, found up to 30m above ground at the base of bromeliads. Two specimens were found on the ground immediately after large trees had been felled.	eng
56818	population		There is very little information known about its population status, but this is probably because it is a canopy species that is very hard to detect.	eng
56818	threats		Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species’ habitat.	eng
56819	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species occurs in the Parc National Macaya and Parc National Morne La Visite, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these protected areas, and maintenance of the remaining habitat within the species' range, is essential.	eng
56819	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is restricted to the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de la Selle, in Hispaniola, where it has been recorded from 333-1,212 m asl.	eng
56819	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is found under rocks in upland primary forest. Although it was collected at the edge of forest in a disturbed area, this is unlikely to be suitable habitat. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56819	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It was moderately common in suitable habitat, which has now largely disappeared within its range. It was last recorded in 1991 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56819	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction, primarily due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture, which is taking place even in the protected areas of the La Hotte and La Selle ranges.	eng
56820	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
56820	distribution		This species is known from the altiplano antioqueño from the central Cordillera, in the Department of Antioquia, in Colombia, between 1,800 and 3,100m asl.	eng
56820	habitat		It is a nocturnal species that is active inside dense forests and can also persist in secondary forest and wet pastureland on the ground. It breeds by direct development and is very dependent on moisture.	eng
56820	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
56820	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present. Cattle ranching and agriculture are localized threats at present.	eng
56821	conservation		It is protected in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachúa in Guatemala. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56821	distribution		This species can be found on the lower Caribbean slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent Guatemala, where it is known from small tributaries that drain into the lower Río Grijalva, at altitudes of 300-350m asl.	eng
56821	habitat		It can be found in premontane wet forest along small tributary streams in which it presumably breeds.	eng
56821	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
56821	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural development is a major threat to this species, and water pollution represents an additional threat.	eng
56822	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, but it is afforded some protection due to the isolation of some of its populations confined on the Marias Islands. Taxonomic revision of this species is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56822	distribution		This species is known from the state of Nayarit on the Pacific mainland, and from two of the three Marias Islands in the Pacific Ocean, Mexico.	eng
56822	habitat		It inhabits shrublands and dry forest at low altitudes, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56822	population		No information on the population status of this species is known.	eng
56822	threats		Disturbance and transformation of its habitat due to tourism and smallholder agricultural activity is a major threat to it.	eng
56823	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali, Parque Nacional Natural Tatama, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas and Regional Reserva Ucumari.	eng
56823	distribution		This species is known from the western Cordillera Occidental, between Carmen de Atrato in Choco department and Munchique in Cauca department, and from the western slope of the Cordillera Central in Quindío department, Colombia. It has been recorded from 900-2,400m asl.	eng
56823	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forest with good regeneration and weeds in open areas. It is very adaptable to secondary habitats. It is a nocturnal species, and can be found on branches up to 3 metres above the ground, sometimes next to streams. During the day they hide under rocks or logs and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56823	population		It is a common species.	eng
56823	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as the fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.	eng
56824	conservation		Its range includes Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, and several forest reserves.	eng
56824	distribution		This species is widespread in Jamaica, and has been recorded from 0-1,640m asl.	eng
56824	habitat		It is found in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including riparian forest, open forest and forest edges; it can also be found in banana groves and pastures as long as they are near the forest edge, and can tolerate moderate habitat disturbance. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56824	population		It is considered to be a common species.	eng
56824	threats		It is intolerant of complete habitat clearance arising from agricultural and infrastructural development.	eng
56825	conservation	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Richard Thomas, 2008	The Sierra de Neiba was declared a protected area, but it is not effectively managed, and habitat destruction within this area has been severe. Improved protection of the remaining habitat on the Sierra de Neiba is urgently required.	eng
56825	distribution	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is restricted to the crest of the Sierra de Neiba, along the border between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, Hispaniola. It has also been recorded from another locality in the Dominican Republic to the south-east of the Sierra de Neiba. Its altitudinal range is from 1,455-1,870 m asl.	eng
56825	habitat	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is found under rocks and logs, and in low arboreal bromeliads, in high-elevation, dense, closed hardwood forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56825	population	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat, although this habitat is declining extremely rapidly. It was last recorded in 1996 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56825	threats	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Richard Thomas, 2008	The main threat to the species is severe habitat destruction and deforestation, primarily due to subsistence farming and charcoaling.	eng
56826	conservation		It occurs in Sierra Nevada National Park (Páramo of Mucubají).	eng
56826	distribution		Pristimantis paramerus is only known from the region of Mucubají, state of Mérida, Venezuela, in páramo habitats, between 3200 and 3330 masl (La Marca, 2007).	eng
56826	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitant of páramo grassland, and breeding is by direct development.<br/><br/>Individuals of this species have always been found associated to rocks in páramo streams (La Marca, 2007).	eng
56826	population		It is an uncommon species. Vial and Saylor (1993) recorded the species as undergoing population declines, but failed to provide any documented evidence to support this view. Subsequently, Barrio-Amorós (2001) reported an alarming decline, to the point where it is now very difficult to find.	eng
56826	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, due to agricultural activities (the cultivation of crops) and fire, and associated pollution.	eng
56827	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is known to occur in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56827	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is known from only two localities in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 950-1,050 m asl.	eng
56827	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This is a fossorial species that inhabits closed forest; males call from shallow, underground chambers. The eggs are also laid underground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56827	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It was known to be moderately common in its original habitat, which has now largely disappeared from within its range. It was last recorded in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56827	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56828	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, Karen Lips, 2009	The species has been recorded from Estacion Biólogica Las Cruces in Costa Rica, and from three protected areas in Panama, including Parque Nacional Chagres. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is breeding at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama (Edgardo Griffith, pers. comm. September 2007).	eng
56828	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, Karen Lips, 2009	This species can be found on the Pacific slopes of south-western Costa Rica (at 884-1,220m asl) and the Atlantic slopes of north-western Panama (at 365-1,450m asl), to central and eastern Panama (at 50-800m asl) (Savage, 2002). It is difficult to observe, and so might have a much wider range.	eng
56828	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, Karen Lips, 2009	It is a nocturnal species inhabiting low vegetation within dense humid premontane and montane forest. It can also be found in forest edge habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56828	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, Karen Lips, 2009	It is uncommon, but regularly seen in Costa Rica.	eng
56828	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, Karen Lips, 2009	The major threat is habitat loss due to agro-industry and clear-cutting of the forest. The species is present at El Copé, Panama, however owing to the species natural rarity at this site, it is difficult to determine whether the population abundance declined as part of the significant amphibian die-offs recorded here in 2004 (Karen Lips, pers. comm. 2007).	eng
56829	conservation		Some populations of this species are within Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. There is an urgent need for the protection of remaining forest habitat within the range of this species, particularly given its senstivity to habitat disturbance.	eng
56829	distribution		This species is known from four localities in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipality of Guatepé, in Antioquia Department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,850m asl.	eng
56829	habitat		It is usually found on vegetation in the intermediate and lower strata of high-altitude Andean cloud forests; it is restricted to primary forest because of its moisture needs. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56829	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56829	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).	eng
56830	conservation		It occurs in the La Planada private nature reserve in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul.	eng
56830	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands and on the western slopes of the Andes from the Department of Nariño in extreme southern Colombia, south to Manta Real in western Ecuador. A record from the Valle del Cauca in Colombia (Kattan, 1984) refers to Eleutherodactylus palmeri (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). Its altitudinal range is from 200-2,000m asl.	eng
56830	habitat		It is a species of lowland tropical rainforest and montane cloud forest. It occurs in primary and secondary habitats, but not in open areas. It is nocturnal, and is found at night on shrub-like vegetation up to 2m above the ground, and during the day in bromeliads axils. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56830	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56830	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56831	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Population monitoring is needed to determine the current status of the populations in Estação Biológica de Boracéia.	eng
56831	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	This species occurs widely in southeastern Brazil in the States of Espírito Santo, southern Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and possibly elsewhere. It ranges up to 800m asl.	eng
56831	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It lives on the floor of primary and secondary forest in the leaf-litter, and does not occur in open habitats. It breeds by direct development, and eggs have been found in a low bank of earth.	eng
56831	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is a very common species. It has experienced a population decline at Estação Biológica de Boracéia (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
56831	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fires and human settlement.	eng
56832	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it is possible it may occur in Parque Nacional Sangay. Further survey work is required to better understand the range and ecology of this species.	eng
56832	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in the Upper Río Pastaza Valley in the vicinity of Yungilla and Mount Tungurahua, near Baños, in Tungurahua Province, Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,800-1,840m asl. Additional survey work may reveal that the species occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56832	habitat		It is known only from altered, degraded montane forest, with some exotic trees. Its apparent rarity might be related to it possibly having a strong preference for pristine habitats, where it could prove to be more common. Breeding is believed to by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56832	population		It has always been a rare species.	eng
56832	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, rearing of livestock, logging, and human settlement.	eng
56833	conservation		It has been recorded in Ecuador from the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. In Peru it has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56833	distribution		This species is currently known from a single locality at 3,470m asl on the road from Balsa to Leimebamba, near the crest of the northern part of the Cordillera Central in the department of Amazonas, Peru. Recently, it was recorded in Ecuador from a locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at 1,800m asl.	eng
56833	habitat		This is a montane forest species that is not well known. It breeds by direct development and it is not known if it can tolerate modified habitats.	eng
56833	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56833	threats		The species is threatened by selective logging activities in Ecuador. Threats in Peru are unknown, but there is general deforestation as a result of an increase in livestock and other agricultural activities, and selective logging.	eng
56834	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Armando Bermudez, Parque Nacional Jose del Carmen Ramirez, and the Reservas Cientificas Valle Nuevo and Del Ebaño Verde, but there is inadequate management of these areas for biodiversity conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for improved and strengthened management of these protected areas, and for close population monitoring of the species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.	eng
56834	distribution		This species is restricted to the highest elevations of the Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic, where it has been recorded from 2,000-3,050m asl.	eng
56834	habitat		It is terrestrial and found in upland closed forest and forest remnants, and has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. It calls from low vegetation, lays its eggs on the ground, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56834	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56834	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and destruction, due to agriculture, livestock farming, and disturbance from tourist activities. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species in La Vega and Valle Nuevo in the Dominican Republic.	eng
56835	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56835	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil occurs in the State of Bahia, Brazil, from Teixeira de Freitas north to Cairu. It ranges up to 130m asl.	eng
56835	habitat		It lives on low vegetation inside primary and secondary forest. It does not occur in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56835	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56835	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.	eng
56836	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It occurs in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be lost. Improved management of the existing protected areas, and maintenance of remaining habitat within the species' range, is urgently required.	eng
56836	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is restricted to the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti, where it ranges from sea level to 750 m asl.	eng
56836	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is terrestrial, typically found in association with caves or creek beds, in closed forests. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56836	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Although it was common in the 1960s, it has only been encountered at two localities during many surveys conducted over the last two decades. It was last seen in 1991, although there have been no subsequent surveys to look for the species.	eng
56836	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The reason for the decline in the species is not known, but habitat destruction is severe throughout the Tiburon Peninsula, mainly as a result of logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56837	conservation		Its distribution range includes Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
56837	distribution		This species is known from north of the Pastaza River, in Amazonian Ecuador below 600m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, probably in neighbouring Colombia and Peru, although this requires confirmation.	eng
56837	habitat		It is an inhabitant of Eastern Cordillera Real Montane Forest and Napo Moist Forests in the eastern tropical Altitudinal Zone. Specimens have been taken by day on the forest floor and by night on low vegetation in forests. At Parque Nacional Yasuni it has been recorded in Terra Firme primary forest. It is also known from secondary forest, and clearings.	eng
56837	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56837	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
56838	conservation		There is a need for improved management of the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve.	eng
56838	distribution		This species is restricted to the Atlantic versant of the north-eastern and eastern portions of the departments of Olancho and Colón, respectively, in Honduras, at elevations of 150-680m asl.	eng
56838	habitat		It can be found in lowland moist and premontane wet forest. It reproduces by direct development along streams.	eng
56838	population		It is relatively common, but is likely to be decreasing due to ongoing habitat destruction within its range. The dramatic declines that have been seen in some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> in Honduras have not been observed in this species so far.	eng
56838	threats		Although this species occurs in the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, forest destruction throughout this species' range, mainly as a result of agricultural expansion, is nonetheless rampant and causing a decrease in available habitat for this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, especially in Honduras, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56839	conservation		It occurs in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina in Peru, and in Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador.	eng
56839	distribution		This species is known from altitudes of 1,700m asl in the Cordillera Cutucù, from 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, both in Ecuador, and from 1,138m asl on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Amazonas Department, Peru. Its range is not very well known.	eng
56839	habitat		It has been found so far only in old growth cloud forest. The only record for this species in Peru was on a leaf two metres above the ground at night. It is presumed to be a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56839	population		Few individuals of this species have ever been observed, and it is a rare species in Ecuador (where it was last recorded in 1998).	eng
56839	threats		Loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural development, wood extraction and mining are all threats to this species.	eng
56840	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56840	distribution		This species is distributed on the Caribbean slopes of northern Chiapas, Mexico, where it is known from along the small, upper tributaries that drain into the Río Grijalva and the Río Usumacinta (Campbell and Savage 2000). It has been recorded at altitudes of 400-1,700m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56840	habitat		It inhabits premontane wet forest and lower montane wet forest, where individuals have been found by day under rocks by a mountain stream. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56840	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56840	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming and logging.	eng
56841	conservation		This species' range includes Florencia Forest, an area in the process of being declared a natural reserve.	eng
56841	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Antioquia, Caldas (type locality: Samaná), and Tolima on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 1,180-1,500m asl.	eng
56841	habitat		It is found mostly inside mature forests, but also occurs in areas near the forest edge (though it has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats). It is nocturnal, and occurs on vegetation alongside small streams. It breeds via direct development.	eng
56841	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56841	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock, illegal crops) is the major threat to the relic patch of forest in which this species occurs. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56842	conservation		It occurs in the Blue and John Crow Mountain National Park.	eng
56842	distribution		This species occurs in the north of the Blue Mountains and the John Crow Mountains, extending to the north-eastern coast of Jamaica. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,275m asl.	eng
56842	habitat		It is found in mesic forests (montane rainforest, wet limestone forest, elfin woodland) in rocky areas. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56842	population		This species is fairly common and more abundant than some other frog species in the Blue Mountains.	eng
56842	threats		Its range is limited and its forest habitat is declining rapidly due to agriculture, human settlement, and logging.	eng
56843	conservation		The species' range includes National Natural Park Las Hermosas.	eng
56843	distribution		This species is known from the Occidental slope of the central Cordillera, from Cerro Pan de Azucar, the vicinity of the type locality (Tenerife, Valle del Cauca department), and also from above Chaparal, in Tolima department, all in Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,850-3,460m asl.	eng
56843	habitat		It inhabits sub-páramo and páramo areas, occurring on low vegetation and on the ground among grasses. It is a species that breeds via direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
56843	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
56843	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops is a problem at lower elevations, but at higher elevations, where it mainly occurs, its habitat is not currently threatened.	eng
56844	conservation		It is present in the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina, and is also believed to occur in the Zona Reservada Cordillera de Colán. Further research into this species is required.	eng
56844	distribution		This species is endemic to Cajamarca and Amazonas Departments, northern Peru. It is present at two localities (at 1,138m and 1,750m asl) on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Condór; a single locality (at 1,300m asl) on the southern edge of the Cordillera del Condór; and at altitudes of 1,830m asl and 2,400m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central. This species is believed to have a continuous distribution between the Cordillera del Condór and the Cordillera Central, and might prove to be more widespread.	eng
56844	habitat		It can be found in humid and semi-arid montane forest, but it is not known if it can occur in modified habitats. The holotype was collected in an arboreal bromeliad by day in semi-arid forest. Specimens from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Condór were found on low vegetation at night in humid montane forest. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
56844	population		There is no information on its population status. Records of three adult males and one adult female were used to describe this species.	eng
56844	threats		It is threatened in the south of its range by deforestation through increased agricultural activity (rearing of livestock and cultivation of crops), by selective wood extraction and by increasing colonization of the area.	eng
56845	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, although it is possible it may occur in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
56845	distribution		This species is known only from Abra de Zamora, in the province of Zamora-Chinchipe, southern Ecuador, at 2,850m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56845	habitat		It inhabits sub-páramo bushland with scattered trees. The holotype was found in a terrestrial bromeliad during the day, while the paratype was found on the branch of a brush at night. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56845	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56845	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, livestock farming, and human settlement.	eng
56846	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados, Bosques de Florencia.	eng
56846	distribution		This species is known from the Central Cordillera, from the department of Valle del Cauca, through Quindio, Tolima, Risaralda, Caldas and Antioquia, with one population isolated on the Occidental Cordillera in Jerico, Antioquia department, Colombia. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in Caldas department. It has been recorded from 1,900-3,700m asl.	eng
56846	habitat		It is an inhabitant of cloud montane forests and sub-páramo shrubland areas. A nocturnal species, it occurs in secondary forests and in areas that have been disturbed. It occurs on low vegetation, up to 2 metres above the ground. It is quite adaptable and can be found in most agricultural land and rural areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56846	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56846	threats		There are no major threats to this widespread, adaptable species.	eng
56847	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Barbilla.	eng
56847	distribution		This species ranges from central to south-eastern Costa Rica, on the Atlantic slopes at elevations of 39-1,200m asl.	eng
56847	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter of lowland and premontane moist rainforest. It can persist in moderately disturbed areas, including plantations (cacao, coffee and exotic trees) and breeds on the forest floor.	eng
56847	population		It is collected occasionally. It can experience marked population fluctuations from year to year.	eng
56847	threats		The species is relatively adaptable, being only absent where land is thoroughly converted to open pasture and pineapple plantations. The range of this species is severely fragmented by this habitat loss.	eng
56848	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas. The range of this species overlaps with Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios), Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul in Central Peru and Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone in northern Peru. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. It is present in a number of protected areas in Brazil.	eng
56848	distribution		This species is widespread in the upper Amazon basin of western Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and southern Colombia. It is found at elevations of 200-1,750m asl.	eng
56848	habitat		Primarily it is a terrestrial (and low vegetation) species of upland cloud, flooded lowland and oxbow palm swamp forest (Lynch, 1980; Lynch and Duellman, 1980). A species that breeds by direct development, its egg deposition takes place in leaf-litter. It may also occur in secondary habitat.	eng
56848	population		It is a common species.	eng
56848	threats		There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56849	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	In Colombia, this species occurs in the San Augustin Archaeological Park and probably also occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua. In Ecuador, it occurs in Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
56849	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species can be found in cloud forest at 1,410-2,750m asl on the eastern face of the Andes, and on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central in the departments of Caquetá, Huila, and Putumayo (Colombia), and Sucumbios, Napo, and Pastaza provinces (Ecuador). It probably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between known populations.	eng
56849	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species can be found in montane cloud forest. It has been found in old-growth forest and in adjacent altered forest. It is nocturnal and occurs inside bromeliads from ground level up to 2m high, and also on herbaceous and shrubby vegetation up to 1.5m high. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56849	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	Historically, this species has been uncommon where collected.	eng
56849	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is a threat.	eng
56850	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56850	distribution		This species is known from the type locality "approximately 2km W [west] of Huambos (06° 27´S; 76° 57´W, elevation 2500m [asl]), Provincia de Chota (Duellman 1991), and from Río Zaña, ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, 1800 masl (Duellman and Lehr, 2007), both in the Department of Cajamarca, Peru.	eng
56850	habitat		The type locality supports low, scrubby forest vegetation with scattered terrestrial bromeliads. Individuals of this species were observed in terrestrial bromeliads or calling from rock ledges at night. Presumably this species breeds by direct development.	eng
56850	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56850	threats		The threats to this species at the only recorded site are not known, although in general there is regional loss of habitat due to increased agricultural activity and selective wood extraction.	eng
56851	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and immediate protection of the remaining habitat at the type locality is urgently required.	eng
56851	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: La Cantera, Miranda, Granma Province, eastern Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 100-270m asl.	eng
56851	habitat		It is found on rocks and cliff bases in closed mesic forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56851	population		Only about 20 specimens of this species have ever been collected, and despite surveys and field collections in surrounding areas, it has not been found elsewhere.	eng
56851	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to mining and smallholder agricultural activities.	eng
56852	conservation		Not currently known from any protected areas. Efforts are ongoing to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a protected area. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted range.	eng
56852	distribution		This species is known from two localities, both in the Serrania de los Paraguas in Choco and Valle del Cauca departments, on the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, between 2,160 and 2,400m asl. It probably does not occur in adjacent Risaralda department (because a sister species is found there).	eng
56852	habitat		It is usually found on top of leaves in dense primary cloud forests. It is active at night, on medium to high vegetation (up to 2m above the ground), and occasionally it occurs on vegetation along streams. It has only been recorded from dense pristine forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56852	population		A minute frog species found on the tops of leaves in primary cloud forest. It is very difficult to collect, and relatively few specimens have been successfully collected.	eng
56852	threats		The habitat of the type locality is relatively unthreatened at present, but there is a road proposed for this area in the future, which will present a major threat to the species if it goes ahead.	eng
56853	conservation		This species' type locality is within the Reserva de la Biósfera de La Amistad.	eng
56853	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Costa Rica in Puntarenas Province, Cantón Coto Brus, Zona Protectora Las Tablas, Finca Jaguar (8° 55´N; 82° 44´W) on the Río Coton around 20km north-north-east of La Lucha, at 1,850m asl.	eng
56853	habitat		The one known individual was found on a rocky stream bank in lower montane rainforest.	eng
56853	population		There is no information regarding its population status; it is known only from a single specimen	eng
56853	threats		Disease might be an immediate threat to this species; the single known individual was found in association with dead and dying frogs, and was observed to be sick. Pollution might pose an additional threat.	eng
56854	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
56854	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, about 30km north-west of Cuenca, in the province of Azuay, Ecuador, at 3,580m asl. The area where it occurs is poorly explored, and it is likely that it will be found to occur more widely.	eng
56854	habitat		It is a species found in páramo dominated by bunch grass, where individuals have been located beneath stones by day. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56854	population		It is common at its type locality.	eng
56854	threats		There is no recent information on threats at its only known locality.	eng
56855	conservation		In Peru, this species might occur in one small-protected area in NW Peru Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, and Area de Recreación Cajas.	eng
56855	distribution		This species occurs at elevations of 1,800-3,100m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental and the Andean plateau of southern Ecuador, south to northern Peru on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba in Piura Province and San Andrès de Cutervo (at 1,800m asl) in the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental in Cajamarca Province.	eng
56855	habitat		It can be found in the upper humid montane forest at sub-páramo. Many frogs are abundant in forest-edge situations, but scarce in the interior of the forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). In Ecuador, many individuals have been found in the axils of elephant ear plants and arboreal bromeliads by day. In Peru, an individual was found on a mossy cliff at night and another was calling at night from low vegetation. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. It occurs in disturbed and undisturbed habitats.	eng
56855	population		In Ecuador this species is common (recorded in 2003), but in Peru it is a rare species.	eng
56855	threats		Destruction and loss of habitats for livestock and selective wood extraction are major threats to this species. This also applies to the protected areas in the region.	eng
56856	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of the species, such that the remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection, particularly considering this species' low tolerance of habitat disturbance.	eng
56856	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Pan de Azúcar, in Antioquia department, Colombia, at 1,800m asl.	eng
56856	habitat		It is usually found on vegetation in cloud forests, and is thought to be restricted to forest habitat. It breeds via direct development.	eng
56856	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56856	threats		The habitat at the type locality has been badly destroyed as a result of human settlement and the collection of firewood.	eng
56857	conservation		The species is found in several protected areas.	eng
56857	distribution		This species occurs between the departments of Antioquia and Cauca, on the central Cordillera of Colombia, between 2,540-3,400m asl.	eng
56857	habitat		It is an inhabitant of sub-páramo and páramo areas, as well as upper primary and secondary forest. During the day it occurs on the ground, among low grass or under logs and rocks. At night, when active, it can be found on vegetation, especially in open areas on top of weeds. It breeds via direct development.	eng
56857	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
56857	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no threats overall to this species at present.	eng
56858	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco. The sites at which it is known to occur in Haiti are in need of improved management and protection.	eng
56858	distribution		This species occurs on the Massif de la Hotte, Tiburon Peninsula, and Plaine de Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba, Haiti; and along the south-western coast of the Dominican Republic, excluding the Peninsula de Barahona. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,758m asl.	eng
56858	habitat		It is terrestrial in dry scrub forest, mesic broadleaf forest, and secondary forests. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56858	population		This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56858	threats		Forest loss due to subsistence agriculture, charcoaling, and livestock is the main threat within the range of this species.	eng
56859	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Guanahacabibes, which is a well-protected area, as well as several other protected areas.	eng
56859	distribution		This species has a restricted range and patchy distribution on the Peninsula de Guanahacabibes, Alturas de la Habana-Matanzas, and Isla de Juventud, in Cuba. It has been recorded from sea level up to 381m asl.	eng
56859	habitat		It is found in rocky areas, coastal cliffs and caves in mesic forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56859	population		It is considered to be uncommon, and is usually only seen in suitable habitat from June to October.	eng
56859	threats		The major threat is habitat disturbance from tourist activities and infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
56860	conservation	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It occurs in Parc National de la Guadeloupe. Additional protection of the forest habitat of this species is required, and it is also necessary to control introduced predators within existing protected areas.	eng
56860	distribution	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Basse-Terre portion of Guadeloupe in the Lesser Antilles, ranging from sea level to 1,250m asl.	eng
56860	habitat	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is a terrestrial species in mesic forests and rainforests, and calls from the ground or low vegetation. It can survive in secondary forest, but not outside forest. The eggs are laid on the ground and on bromeliads, and develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
56860	population	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	It is a little more common than <em>Eleutherodactylus barlagnei</em> in suitable habitats within its small range. It has decreased in general in the north of its range, probably due to damage to its habitat. It has also decreased around the Volcán Soufriere in the south of its range since 1991, probably due to the effects of volcanic eruptions.	eng
56860	threats	Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, 2008	The forest habitat on Guadeloupe is fragile, small in extent, and habitat quality continues to decline. Major threats include pollution from pesticides used in banana plantations, forest clearance for agriculture (especially banana plantations) and construction of human settlements, and introduced predators (particularly rats, cats and mongooses). The introduced <em>E. johnstonei</em> might be a competitor, and appears to be displacing this species. Some recorded declines are associated with the effects of volcanic eruptions.	eng
56861	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56861	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental in Peru. Two localities are at altitudes of 3,050 and 3,200m asl on the road between Cajamarca and Celendin (on the eastern slopes of Abra Comulica); the third locality at 3,760m asl is north of Cajamarca. Its range is not completely known, and it is difficult to estimate if this species has a much larger range. There have been very few surveys of the region.	eng
56861	habitat		This is a little-known species found in montane grassland. All individuals have been collected under stones by day. Those from 3,050m asl were in a wet grassy area, whereas the individual from 3,200m asl was in tussocks. The only specimen at 3,760m asl was collected under a rock in a grassy region by day. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
56861	population		Three adult females were used to describe it.	eng
56861	threats		A general threat in the area, which might also be impacting this species, is agricultural development (principally potato cultivation).	eng
56862	conservation		It might occur in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. It does not occur in a reserve in Guatemala.	eng
56862	distribution		This species occurs in southern Mexico and Guatemala, ranging from central Guerrero, southeastward through Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as far as northern Chiapas, extreme southern Chiapas (on the Pacific slopes), and western Guatemala. It has been recorded at 700-1,000m asl.	eng
56862	habitat		This species occurs at lowlands in tropical seasonal forest. Individuals can be found on the rocks, on the ground or under rocks and debris. The species can be found in disturbed habitat and it reproduces via direct development.	eng
56862	population		It is abundant in Chiapas and Guatemala.	eng
56862	threats		Disturbance and transformation of the original tropical forests areas are threats.	eng
56863	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Armando Berudez and in the Reservas Cientificas Valle Nuevo and Del Ebaño Verde, but there is inadequate management of several of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. There is a need for improved management and protection of these reserves, and also for close population monitoring of the species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.	eng
56863	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic, from 1,212-1,770m asl.	eng
56863	habitat		It occurs in upland pinewoods and forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from the ground or from rocks, eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56863	population		It is clearly rare and is known from only a few localities.	eng
56863	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, in particular from agriculture, livestock farming, charcoaling, and disturbance from ecotourism. Chytrid fungus has been detected in this species in La Vega and Casabito in the Dominican Republic.	eng
56864	conservation	Hedges, B., Díaz, L. & Powell, R., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56864	distribution	Hedges, B., Díaz, L. & Powell, R., 2004	This species occurs on Cuba, Little and Great Bahamas banks, Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac. It is introduced on Jamaica, and in Florida, Alabama (not mapped here), Georgia (Winn <em>et al.</em> 1999), Louisiana (Platt and Fontenot 1993), Hawaii (Kraus <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It was also recorded as an introduced species in central Veracruz, Mexico, but it has not been recorded there again since the 1970s and is not mapped here. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 727 m asl.	eng
56864	habitat	Hedges, B., Díaz, L. & Powell, R., 2004	It is mostly terrestrial in mesic and xeric areas, forests, caves, beaches, nurseries, gardens, urban areas, but is found in arboreal bromeliads on Grand Cayman. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56864	population	Hedges, B., Díaz, L. & Powell, R., 2004	This species is very common in all habitats.	eng
56864	threats	Hedges, B., Díaz, L. & Powell, R., 2004	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
56865	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá and Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
56865	distribution		This species is known from the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental from the department of Cauca northwards to the department of Antioquia, and including Risaralda, Choco and Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia, from 1,580-2,600m asl.	eng
56865	habitat		A nocturnal species, it occurs on top of low vegetation near streams in forest. It breeds by direct development and has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
56865	population		It is usually an uncommon species, but it is a microhabitat specialist making it difficult to find. At a locality near Quernal, in Valle del Cauca, a large series was collected when collectors adapted their techniques and began searching in low trees along steep banks.	eng
56865	threats		Habitat loss caused by agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is the main threat to this species.	eng
56866	conservation		In Bolivia it is protected by Madidi and Cotapata National Parks and Natural Areas of Integrated Management, Pilon Lajas Biosphere and Indigenous Land Reserve; and Carrasco and Amboro National Parks. In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu. No conservation measures are needed.	eng
56866	distribution		This species occurs east of the Andes from the Department of Ayacucho, Peru to west-central Bolivia (Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz). It is present at approximately 950-3,470m asl (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000).	eng
56866	habitat		It is an arboreal species present in primary (and disturbed) montane cloud and Yungas forest, and open areas, including sub-páramo (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000; Cortez 2001; Köhler 2000). It perches on vegetation 0.5-2.0m asl. Gravid females have been collected from January to July. It is possible that reproduction stops during the peak of the dry season, at least in some places. The species may use bromeliads as a place for oviposition, but this needs confirmation. While it is present in disturbed forest it does not occur in agricultural areas.	eng
56866	population		In Bolivia, Köhler's studies in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz; Aguayo's (2000) in Cochabamba, and Cortez' (2001) in La Paz indicate that this is an abundant species. Its abundance in southern Peru is not known.	eng
56866	threats		There are no major threats to this species. There are some localized threats through degradation of habitats for agriculture, deforestation, livestock and wood extraction	eng
56867	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56867	distribution		his species is known only from the type locality, a cloud forest at San Eusebio, near La Carbonera, in Mérida State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,316m asl. It might occur a little more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56867	habitat		It is known only from montane cloud forest, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56867	population		There is no recent population information on this species.	eng
56867	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56868	conservation		There is no information. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56868	distribution		This species is known only from Igaraçu in the state of Pernambuco in north-eastern Brazil.	eng
56868	habitat		It is likely to be a forest species.	eng
56868	population		There is no information on its population status, and it has not been recorded since the original collection over 100 years ago.	eng
56868	threats		There is no direct information on threats to it, although the forests in the state of Pernambuco have been very heavily impacted by human activities.	eng
56869	conservation		It is likely to be protected by Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.	eng
56869	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slope of the Andes, from the Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, to southern Florida Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. It has been recorded from 2,000-2,500m asl. It might occur more widely but this requires confirmation.	eng
56869	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that is both nocturnal and diurnal. It inhabits the Yungas forest (Köhler 2000), and breeds by direct development.	eng
56869	population		It is a common species.	eng
56869	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.	eng
56870	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The species has been recorded from many protected areas in Costa Rica and Panama, including Parque Internacional La Amistad and Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. Further research is needed into the possible decline of the species at Reserva Forestal Fortuna, and the potential impacts of the chytrid pathogen on this species.	eng
56870	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2009	This species is fairly widespread on both slopes of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, at elevations of 1,089-2,650m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56870	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It is a diurnal species inhabiting leaf-litter in primary humid premontane and montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56870	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It is generally common and regularly recorded in Costa Rica (Pounds <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Lips, 1998), although there are indications that it has undergone declines at several sites at which it was formerly common, such as the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, Chiriquí, in Panama.	eng
56870	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2009	Declines of this species have been recorded in both Panama and Costa Rica. For example, in Panama a massive die-off of amphibians has been observed at the Reserva Forestal Fortuna, with chytridiomycosis suspected as the major causal factor (Lips, 1999), and they are now no longer common at Las Tablas in Costa Rica where they were formerly abundant (K. Lips, pers. comm.). On the other hand, museum specimens of this species collected from La Selva-Volcán Barva (now in the Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo) in 1986 have been found infected with chytrid fungi (Puschendorf, Bolaños and Chaves, 2006), yet the species appears to have persisted in this area, where strong declines have taken place amongst other species (R. Puschendorf, pers. comm.).	eng
56871	conservation		Some populations occur in Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, but there is a need for additional protection of primary forest habitat in the range of this species.	eng
56871	distribution		This species occurs in the areas of Murri, Las Orquideas and San Jose del Palmar, on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,140-1,540m asl.	eng
56871	habitat		It inhabits low vegetation, especially ferns next to streams in primary forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56871	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
56871	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).	eng
56872	conservation		This species is an urgent priority for survey work in order to determine whether or not it still survives in the wild, and any surviving populations might need to be maintained in captivity if the risk of chytridiomycosis proves genuine. The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection and restoration of the remaining cloud forest is urgently needed in the Sierra de Juárez where no protected areas currently exist. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56872	distribution		This species is known only from Vista Hermosa town, Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at about 1,500m asl.	eng
56872	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forest; it appears to have arboreal habits and breeds by direct development.	eng
56872	population		This has always been a rare species, but it appears to have gone into serious decline, and has not been recorded since 1983. Recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful, and it might now be extinct.	eng
56872	threats		Although disturbance and clear cutting of montane cloud forest habitats in Sierra de Juárez (primarily for agriculture) represent a threat to this species, it has disappeared even in suitable habitat, probably due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
56873	conservation		While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas. There is a need to protect lowland forested areas close to the Caribbean coast.	eng
56873	distribution		This species can be found in the humid lowlands of Atlantic slope southeastern Nicaragua, southeastern Costa Rica and adjacent northwestern Panama, at elevations of sea level-260m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56873	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of the leaf-litter in lowland moist and wet forests. This species also occurs in disturbed habitats and banana plantations. It has a direct development form of reproduction.	eng
56873	population		It is a common to abundant species.	eng
56873	threats		It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation.	eng
56874	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The Citadel Laferriere is a World Heritage Site (designated in 1982), and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Haiti. The current status of the species is unclear, and further survey work is needed determine its population status. Maintenance of the surrounding forest is necessary.	eng
56874	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species has a very restricted range, and is found only in and around the Citadel Laferriere (Citadel of King Christophe), a huge fortress built on the peak of a mountain nearly a thousand metres above the plain from which it rises, in northern Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 550-650 m asl. There is a second, albeit questionable, record from the nearby Carrefour Marmelade.	eng
56874	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It was recorded from a moist dungeon in an old fort and probably occurs in the surrounding forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56874	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is probably rare. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56874	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The primary threat to this species is habitat destruction due to charcoal collection and subsistence farming.	eng
56875	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas that are well managed. Further survey work is necessary to monitor the status of populations, particularly given the threat of chytrid, and it may be necessary to establish a captive-breeding programme.	eng
56875	distribution		This species is restricted to the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 273-1,182m asl.	eng
56875	habitat		It is terrestrial in mesic, upland broadleaf forests, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It calls from bushes and tree trunks, eggs are laid in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56875	population		Studies have shown that populations have been declining (R. Joglar pers. comm.).	eng
56875	threats		Although some habitat destruction is taking place, this is not sufficient to explain the extent of the observed declines. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species, and is likely to be implicated in the declines (R. Joglar pers. comm.).	eng
56876	conservation		Currently, the species is not known to occur in any protected area, and so protection of the only highland forest where this species is found is essential to ensure its persistence.	eng
56876	distribution		This species is known only from the western foothills and highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, at 760-1,100m asl, in an area bordered by Cintalapa, Berriozabal and Presa Nezahualcoyotl.	eng
56876	habitat		It is associated with wet forest areas, and inhabits the forest floor under leaf-litter among limestone boulders and limestone caves. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56876	population		This is a rare species.	eng
56876	threats		The primary threat to this species is reduction of original forest cover, since it occurs in an area of high human-induced disturbance, and its only known habitat covers a very small area.	eng
56877	conservation		It occurs in the Laguna de Barbaro Reserve and the Punta Cana private reserve.	eng
56877	distribution		This species has an apparently patchy distribution within a restricted range in La Romana Province, Dominican Republic, where it ranges from sea level up to 60m asl.	eng
56877	habitat		It occurs in low elevation semi-mesic broadleaf forests. Males call from dense understorey, eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56877	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56877	threats		There is severe habitat destruction taking place within its range, mainly due to tourism, slash and burn agriculture, and livestock farming.	eng
56878	conservation		The geographic range of this species overlaps several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Sumaco, Parque Nacional Llanganates and Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
56878	distribution		This species occurs in cloud forests, at elevations of 1,140-1,700m asl, on the eastern face of the Andes and the Cordillera de Cutucú in Ecuador.	eng
56878	habitat		It inhabits cloud forests; specimens have been found on low vegetation at night, and most were found in ravines near streams (Lynch and Duellman 1980). It also occurs in secondary forest and forest edges. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56878	population		It is generally an uncommon species.	eng
56878	threats		Habitat loss and degradation, mainly due to agricultural activities, is the main threat to this species. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56879	conservation		It occurs in the Area Natural Unica los Estoraques and the Estacion Experimental El Rasgon in Venezuela. Its occurrence in protected areas in Colombia is unclear.	eng
56879	distribution		This species occurs in Colombia in the Cordillera Oriental (including the Serranía de Los Motilones), in the Departments of Norte de Santander and Santander; and in Macizo de Tamá and the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela. Its altitudinal range is 1,600-2,700m asl.	eng
56879	habitat		It lives in cloud forests, including secondary forest, and in terrestrial bromeliads in sub-páramo bush land. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56879	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
56879	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops. Deforestation due to potato cultivation is perhaps the most significant threat. However, many of its habitats, especially at higher altitudes, are unlikely to be seriously threatened.	eng
56880	conservation		It occurs in the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru, and in Parque Nacional Podocarpus in Ecuador. Further survey work is needed to better understand the limits of the distribution of this species.	eng
56880	distribution		This species is known from elevations of 1,710-2,620m asl in the southern part of the Cordillera Oriental, in the provinces of Loja and Zamora Chinchipe, 1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù, and from 1,550m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Morona-Santiago Province. The only Peruvian record is from the upper Río Comainas, at 1,750m asl, on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor, in the province of Condorcanqui, Amazonas Department. Sampling effort through the range is insufficient.	eng
56880	habitat		This species can be found in montane cloud forests; specimens have been collected in bromeliads and in low vegetation by night (Lynch 1979c). In the Cordillera del Cóndor of Ecuador, gravid females were found in January and August. Breeding is thought to take place by direct development.	eng
56880	population		It is very rare in Ecuador, while in Peru only a single juvenile specimen has been recorded.	eng
56880	threats		The main threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities, wood extraction, and mining.	eng
56881	conservation		Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
56881	distribution		This species is known only from the summit of Cerro Yaví, in Amazonas State, Venezuela, at an altitude of 2,150m asl. It might occur more widely, but this requires confirmation.	eng
56881	habitat		This is a nocturnal species that was collected on low vegetation and in a small cave in montane tepui forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56881	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56881	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
56882	conservation		It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve, and possibly in the Bladen Nature Preserve and the Chiquipul Forest Reserve, in Belize. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Guatemala, but might occur in Parque Nacional Río Dulce.	eng
56882	distribution		This species is known only from central and eastern Guatemala, and adjacent southern Belize, at 150-1,170m asl. It might occur in Honduras, but has not yet been recorded.	eng
56882	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed lowland and premontane moist and wet forests, and is often found far from streams. It is sometimes found in limestone outcrops and caves. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56882	population		It is rarely encountered, but is sometimes locally common.	eng
56882	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and logging.	eng
56883	conservation		In Colombia it is known from La Payas Nature Reserve. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.	eng
56883	distribution		This species is known from Amazonian Ecuador (Sucumbios, Orellana and Pastaza Provinces) and adjacent Colombia in the Department of Putumayo. It has been recorded between 330-570m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
56883	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forest and flooded forest (Duellman, 1978). It is active mostly at night among fallen leaves and low vegetation, it is frequently found in epiphytes. It presumably breeds by direct development like other species in the genus, with egg deposition in the leaf-litter. The ability of the species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56883	population		In Ecuador, it is an uncommon frog although widely distributed. There is no population information for Colombia.	eng
56883	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no known threats to the species' overall survival at present.	eng
56884	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is an urgent need for the protection of primary forest habitat within the range of this species.	eng
56884	distribution		This species is known only from six localities at elevations of 1,500-2,710m asl on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Imbabura and Pichincha, north-western Ecuador.	eng
56884	habitat		It lives in primary forest, and is somewhat adaptable, being found on forest edges and the edges of pastures. The use of ferns by this species stands out dramatically in comparison with the limited degree to which most other Andean <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> perch on ferns. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56884	population		It is a moderately common species.	eng
56884	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement.	eng
56885	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56885	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca, Choco and adjacent Risaralda Departments in the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia, from 2,200-2,400m asl. It might be more widespread, but more survey work is needed to confirm this.	eng
56885	habitat		It is restricted to canopy forests on hill slopes, and may be associated with waterfalls. It occurs on low and high vegetation in the canopy, showing population fluctuations depending on weather conditions (during wet cycles it was rare, and during dry cycles it was common, suggesting that it is in the canopy during the wet cycle). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56885	population		For many years this species appeared inexplicably rare, but during an El Nino event in 1997 more than 50 were caught in an hour.	eng
56885	threats		The habitat of this species is relatively secure at present, although if a planned road is built this will be a major threat to its habitat.	eng
56886	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, 2008	In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
56886	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, 2008	This species can be found at 1,660-3,300m asl on the eastern face of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo provinces) and southern Colombia (Caquetá and Putumayo departments). It is likely to be a little more widespread, in particular in areas between known sites.	eng
56886	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, 2008	This is a nocturnal, cloud forest species. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is strongly associated with water and the edges of streams; some individuals occur on riparian vegetation, but the majority occurs on rocks in the watercourses. During the day it is possible to find them under rocks. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56886	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, 2008	This species is reasonably common, and was found in great abundance along the road above western Caquetá in every stream in a transect in 1990.	eng
56886	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops).	eng
56887	conservation		Its range includes Canaima National Park, and Kaiteur National Park.	eng
56887	distribution		This species is known only from the region of La Escalera, in Bolívar State, Venezuela, and in adjacent Guyana and southern French Guiana (M. Hoogmoed pers. comm.). It probably occurs mainly at intermediate elevations, up to around 1,600m asl.	eng
56887	habitat		This is a nocturnal arboreal species that inhabits forests. It has been collected at the Gran Sabana region on a cliff, and on leaves of herbaceous vegetation and bushes at heights of 1-1.5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56887	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56887	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56888	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas; further research is urgently required into the possible ongoing impact of pathogens on populations of this species. An <em>ex-situ</em> population of this species is held at the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center in Panama; eggs and/or larvae have been produced to date (Edgardo Griffith pers. comm. September, 2007).	eng
56888	distribution		This species is endemic to the western and central cordilleras of Panama, and is present at altitudes of between 560 and 1,000m asl.	eng
56888	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic species associated with humid montane forest streams. It breeds by direct development, although the site of egg deposition  is not known.	eng
56888	population		It is reported to be common where it occurs.	eng
56888	threats		Although general habitat loss through deforestation is a recognized threat, pathogens, possibly including the chytrid fungus, are also considered to be a threat.	eng
56889	conservation		Its range is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.	eng
56889	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Bocaina, São Paulo State, Brazil. The exact altitude of this locality is unknown, but it is probably at around 1,000m asl.	eng
56889	habitat		It is known from the leaf-litter of forests. The type locality has both secondary and primary forest, but it is not known in which area exactly this species was collected from. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
56889	population		This species is only known from a few specimens, and there is no recent information on its population status.	eng
56889	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56890	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay, but there is a need for additional protection of suitable habitat in the Cordillera de Matanga.	eng
56890	distribution		This species is known from six localities in the Cordillera de Matanga east of Cuenca, in the province of Morona Santiago, southern Ecuador, at 2,652-3,384m asl.	eng
56890	habitat		It seems to be primarily an inhabitant of páramo grassland that ranges down into meadows and pastures in upper cloud forests. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56890	population		It is a common species.	eng
56890	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, which is taking place due to agricultural development (involving both crops and livestock) and human settlement.	eng
56891	conservation		This species occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Mexico.	eng
56891	distribution		This species is known from extreme southern Michoacán and México (state) in Mexico, south and east along the Pacific slope to western Guatemala. It also occurs in Veracruz and eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, on the Atlantic slope. In Guatemala it is known from above 2,000m asl.	eng
56891	habitat		It occurs in a great variety of habitats, from lowland forests (tropical rainforest, tropical semi-deciduous forest) to montane pine and pine-oak forests, and cloud forests. It can survive in secondary forests, but not in open habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56891	population		It is a common species.	eng
56891	threats		The major threat is the clearance of forest habitat for agriculture and as a result of logging, which is probably leading to the disappearance of shade, humidity and leaf-litter microhabitats on which the species depends.	eng
56892	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps several protected areas, including the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56892	distribution		This species can be found in the upper cloud forest at elevations of 2,075-3,000m asl on the western flank of the Andes in the provinces of Pichincha, Imbabura, Carchi, Cotopaxi and Bolívar, Ecuador.	eng
56892	habitat		It seems to be restricted to the upper humid montane forest, and has been found most commonly under stones, logs, and wood chips along road cuts and in pastures by day (Lynch and Duellman 1997). In Cashca Totoras, this species is only found near streams. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56892	population		It is recorded as being uncommon in two sites (at Intag and Moran, in 2002), but common in Cashca Totoras (in 2000-2003).	eng
56892	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to livestock farming and wood extraction activities, and the habitat is now severely fragmented.	eng
56893	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas; however, there are ongoing efforts promoting the creation of a formal protected area that would include the Serrania de los Paraguas. This species requires close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted range.	eng
56893	distribution		This species is known from two localities on the Serrania de los Paraguas, in Valle del Cauca and Choco departments, on the Cordillera Occidental in western Colombia, from 2,100-2,250m asl.	eng
56893	habitat		This species is restricted to forest habitat, or the forest edge. It occupies exactly the same microhabitat as <em>E. myops</em> with which it is microsympatric. At one of the two localities, <em>E. quantus</em> is more abundant than <em>E. myops</em>, but the reverse occurs at the other locality suggesting local ecological differences. It breeds via direct development.	eng
56893	population		This species is sometimes regularly encountered and sometimes inexplicably uncommon. Its very small size probably explains its rarity in collections.	eng
56893	threats		The habitat of the species is relatively unthreatened at present, although if a planned road is built this will present a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
56894	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru. In Ecuador, it is present in several protected areas.	eng
56894	distribution		This species is distributed primarily on the eastern slopes of the Andes, where it is known in Ecuador from elevations of 920-1,740m asl in the Cordillera Oriental, (Morona-Santiago) at 1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Cutucù, and 1,500-1,550m asl (Napo) on the western slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor. In Peru it is known from elevations as low as 200m asl in the Amazonian lowlands (Amazonas). In Colombia it is known from a single site in western Putumayo. Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,900m asl.	eng
56894	habitat		It is present in the Amazon cloud forest (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). In both Peru and Ecuador, all individuals have been found on low vegetation at night. It is a species that breeds by direct development; the egg deposition site is not known. It is not known if the species occurs in degraded habitats.	eng
56894	population		It is a common species.	eng
56894	threats		Presumably, there are no major threats to this species. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56895	conservation		The species has been recorded from three protected areas in Panama including Parque Nacional Darién, and its range also includes a few protected areas in Colombia.	eng
56895	distribution		This recently described species in Mesoamerica is found in both central Panama, and the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama. It also occurs in northwestern Colombia. It occurs from elevations of sea level to about 500m asl.	eng
56895	habitat		This is a terrestrial and arboreal species of primary and secondary humid lowland forest and forest edge. It breeds by the direct development method of reproduction; the egg deposition site is not known. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
56895	population		It is generally considered to be a common species, but it is difficult to find, as it is so small.	eng
56895	threats		General habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a localized threat, but there are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
56896	conservation		In Colombia most of the populations are inside La Planada Natural Reserve. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
56896	distribution		This species can be found at elevations of 1,410-2,710m asl, on the Pacific slopes of the western Andes in Ecuador, and in extreme southern Colombia, in Nariño Department, at elevations of 1,700-2,600m asl.	eng
56896	habitat		This species occurs in cloud forest in the humid temperate regime and humid subtropical regime. Most individuals have been found perched on leaves and branches at heights up to 2.5m above the ground, but one was found sitting amidst dead bamboo leaves on the ground (Lynch and Duellman 1997); they are sometimes found near streams. It is presumed to breed by direct development, though the site of egg deposition is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
56896	population		Locally common (for example, in Intag, Imbabura, Ecuador, in 2003), this species has disappeared from some localities where it was known to exist historically. For example, it was common when it was collected in the Quebrada Zapadores, Ecuador in the 1970s, but had disappeared by 1997 at this locality despite a lack of habitat disturbance.	eng
56896	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging, agricultural development (livestock ranching and illegal crops), and human settlement is a major threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56897	conservation		The range of the species overlaps with three protected areas.	eng
56897	distribution		This species occurs from Cauca and Huila departments to Quindio and Tolima Departments on the Central Cordillera, in páramo areas including Parque Nacional Natural Nevado Huila, Barragan, Pan de Azucar and Campanario. It has been recorded from 3,000-3,570m asl.	eng
56897	habitat		It is usually found on vegetation in páramo, represented mostly by gramineous or sparse vegetation. It breeds by direct development. It is not known from anthropogenic habitats but its range is above the elevation of such settlements.	eng
56897	population		It is a common species.	eng
56897	threats		It lives in a remote area and there are no known threats.	eng
56898	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56898	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Mamanguape in the State of Paraíba, south to Prado in the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
56898	habitat		It lives is primary and secondary forest, on the forest edge, and in rocky areas, but not in agricultural land or plantations. It is usually found on the ground in leaf-litter, and also in low vegetation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56898	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
56898	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.	eng
56899	conservation		The type locality is within the protected area of the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.	eng
56899	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Boracéia, in São Paulo State, Brazil, at around 900m asl.	eng
56899	habitat		This species is found only in primary or secondary forest, primarily in leaf-litter, but it can also be found calling on low vegetation. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
56899	population		It is known only from a few specimens, but it is a very difficult species to find and is also hard to differentiate from other species, so other specimens might exist that have been misidentified. Visits to the type locality have heard it calling in great numbers, suggesting that it could be common, although it has not often been collected.	eng
56899	threats		It is threatened by the extraction of palm trees, which is opening up the canopy of the forest and disturbing its habitat.	eng
56900	conservation		The species has been recorded from the Panamanian protected areas of Parque Nacional Darién and Area de Manejo Especial Nusagandi. Its range includes several protected areas in Colombia.	eng
56900	distribution		This species occurs from the south from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama to the Río San Juan de Micay in western Colombia, in the forested lowlands north and west of the Andes extending in to the middle of the Magdelana valley, south to dry forests. There are isolated populations in the Montes de Maria and along the Serrania de Perija and possibly in the inter-Andean valley of the Río Cauca, Colombia. It is known up to 1,500m asl.	eng
56900	habitat		A largely terrestrial species also associated with low vegetation in humid lowland and montane forest also common in wet pastureland and rare in primary forest. It breeds by the direct development method of reproduction; the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56900	population		This species is reasonably common.	eng
56900	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.	eng
56901	conservation		In view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, the status of this species, and particularly the surviving population at Río Murciélago, should be closely monitored, and <em>ex-situ</em> populations might need to be established. The species has been recorded from several protected areas in the past.	eng
56901	distribution		This species can be found from the lowlands and premontane slopes from eastern Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope and north-western Costa Rica on the Pacific versant to extreme western Panama (including Isla Escudo de Veraguas), exclusive of the Golfo Dulce region of south-western Costa Rica, at elevations from sea level up to 1,220m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56901	habitat		The species is associated with small streams principally in lowland and premontane wet forests, although also dry forest with perennial streams, and is often found on rocks and under boulders in the stream. The only known remaining site in Costa Rica is dry forest that has a constant flowing stream (even through the dry season) and has a water temperature higher than other sites in Costa Rica from which it has disappeared. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56901	population		It was formerly widespread in Costa Rica but has not been seen in much of its range since 1986. Sites where it was formerly common, such as Volcán Cacao, have been searched repeatedly in the last decade without success. A small population persists in the Río Murciélago, in the Guanacaste Conservation Area, where several individuals were recorded in 1994, 1995, and 2003 (Sasa and Solórzano 1995; M. Sasa unpubl.; Puschendorf <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is nothing known about the populations in Panama, and only a few specimens are known from Nicaragua (though this might well be due to a lack of survey effort).	eng
56901	threats		It is generally affected by the destruction of natural forests for agriculture and timber, but this does not explain its disappearance from pristine habitats. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a threat to this species.	eng
56902	conservation		It should be noted that some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher altitudes, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a threat to this species, and is something that needs to be monitored for carefully.	eng
56902	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca of south-western Costa Rica, between 1,480-1,820m asl.	eng
56902	habitat		This species occurs in stream margins in the upper portions of premontane wet forest and rainforest and in the lower section of lower montane rainforest. One female was collected in a bromeliad. This species' breeding site is unknown.	eng
56902	population		It was collected on a number of occasions in the 1970s. It has not been seen since the 1980s, but there have been no searches for it in known sites for at least 10 years, or perhaps more. Ther have been no recent sightings of the species as of August, 2007.	eng
56902	threats		Forest destruction and possibly also airborne pollution are its major threats.	eng
56903	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56903	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serrania de Perijá, Casa de Cristal, Municipio de Manaure, César Department, Colombia. Animals were collected at 2,800m asl.	eng
56903	habitat		It was found below rocks, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56903	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
56903	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming and small-scale susbsistence wood extraction.	eng
56904	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, making habitat protection a priority for this species.	eng
56904	distribution		This species is known from the district of Bogota, the municipality of Silbate and the municipality of Cabrera in the department of Cundinamarca, in Colombia, from 2,000-2,800m asl.	eng
56904	habitat		It inhabits Andean forest, and some individuals have been found under logs and rocks. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56904	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56904	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (involving cultivation of crops, and livestock farming).	eng
56905	conservation		Galeras is designated as a Fauna and Flora Sanctuary. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, given its extremely restricted range.	eng
56905	distribution		This species is known from an active volcano (Galeras) in the Municipality of Pasto, in the department of Nariño, in Colombia. It has been recorded from 3,150-3,720m asl.	eng
56905	habitat		The species is very adapted to volcanic soils and vegetation, and occurs at the sub-páramo and páramo altitudinal level and also slightly into forest. They are usually found under rocks or inside the sparse vegetation of the area. It breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats, but there are no human settlements at these high elevations anyway.	eng
56905	population		It is a common species.	eng
56905	threats		The main threat to the species is the active volcano, since there is not much human activity at this elevation.	eng
56906	conservation		The range of the species includes Park National Natural Tatama and Park National Natural Orquideas.	eng
56906	distribution		This species occurs in cloud forest sites on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Antioquia and Chocó departments, in Colombia, from 1,790-2,250m asl. It probably also occurs in the western Department of Risaralda as well, but there are currently no records from there.	eng
56906	habitat		The species inhabits heavily degraded areas next to dense forests. It is common to find them on the ground, among leaf-litter or on herbaceous vegetation or grasses. It is not common inside the forest. It breeds by direct development, and requires very moist conditions, hence the degraded habitat must still be moist.	eng
56906	population		At different localities it can either be uncommon or very abundant.	eng
56906	threats		There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.	eng
56907	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
56907	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of Pico Periquito, in Rancho Grande, Aragua State, Venezuela, at altitudes between 1,090 and 1,275m asl. It could occur more widely but this requires confirmation.	eng
56907	habitat		It is a nocturnal inhabitant of cloud forests that reproduces by direct development.	eng
56907	population		It is a rare species, but there is very little recent information on its population status. The type locality is one of the best-studied localities in the entire Venezuelan coastal mountain range. The absence of recent records might indicate that this species is rare, or is facing declines, or occurs in a microhabitat that has not been adequately sampled.	eng
56907	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56908	conservation		In Peru it occurs in the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. Within Bolivia it has been recorded in the protected areas of Madidi, Carrasco, Cotapata and Amboro. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
56908	distribution		This species can be found in the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. It is known from four localities in Peru: Huanhuachayocc (1,650m asl) on the trail from Tambo to Apurimac Valley, (Departamento Ayacucho); Buenos Aires (2,400m asl) in Cosñipata, n the northeastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a front range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental and, Hacienda Huyro (1,720m asl) in Umasbamba Valley (both in Departamento Cuzco), and in elfin forest at 1,870m asl in the isolated Serranìa del Sira, (Departamento Huanuco). In Bolivia, it is known from the Departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. Its altitudinal range is from 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
56908	habitat		This species occurs in the montane forests on the Amazonian slopes. Individuals may be found perched on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development. It is not known is this species occurs in degraded areas.	eng
56908	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56908	threats		There are no major threats to this species. There is some localized loss of habitat for agriculture and colonization in Central Peru; in southern Peru localized agriculture (including livestock) and colonization are the main threats.	eng
56909	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat is an urgent priority.	eng
56909	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species has a very restricted range (occurring in just one small area) on the north-eastern base of the Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest, Haiti, at an altitude of around 30 m asl.	eng
56909	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is a terrestrial species that has been found in leaf-litter and under rocks in forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56909	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is moderately common in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 1985 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56909	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The main threat is extensive habitat destruction due to logging by local people (charcoaling) and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56910	conservation		It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura.	eng
56910	distribution		This species is largely restricted to western Veracruz and adjacent Hidalgo and Puebla in Mexico between 1,200 and 2,100m asl. There is an apparently disjunct population in central and south-eastern Chiapas (and adjacent Oaxaca) (Lynch 2000b). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56910	habitat		This species inhabits tropical montane forest, and it is not known if it can survive in disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56910	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56910	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to logging, human settlement, and some agricultural activities.	eng
56911	conservation		Within Ecuador it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but it is not known from any protected areas in Peru. Further survey work is necessary to determine whether this species might occur more widely than currently known.	eng
56911	distribution		This species can be found in the Andes of Peru and Ecuador. It has been recorded from elevations of 2,770-3,050m asl on the western slopes and crest of the Cordillera de Huancabamba, Piura Department. Peru; recently, it was collected in Ecuador from Curintza, in the province of Zamora Chinchipe, in Parque Nacional Podocarpus at 1,800m asl.	eng
56911	habitat		It inhabits dense, humid montane and cloud forest, and it is not known if it can survive in degraded areas. Individuals have been found at night on low vegetation, and under ground cover by day. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56911	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
56911	threats		The major threat across the range is habitat loss, due to deforestation for agriculture (mostly livestock farming) and selective wood extraction.	eng
56912	conservation		In Ecuador the species is present in Parque Nacional Podocarpus, but it is not recorded from any protected areas in Peru.	eng
56912	distribution		This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru it is known from a single locality at 1,080m asl on the road from Abra Pardo Miguel to Moyobamba, San Martin Province (Amazonas Department) on the east slope of the northern part of the Cordillera Central. In Ecuador, it is known from a single locality in Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at an elevation of 1,800m asl. It perhaps occurs a little more widely.	eng
56912	habitat		It is an arboreal species (> 3m) of primary cloud and montane forest; it is not known if this species occurs in degraded areas. Specimens have been recorded from terrestrial bromeliads in lower humid montane forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56912	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. Only a few individuals have been observed.	eng
56912	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (mostly livestock) and selective logging.	eng
56913	conservation		The species has been recorded from at least two parks in Panama, but there is clearly a need for additional protection of its montane forest habitat. Further research is needed into the potential impacts of the chytrid pathogen on this species.	eng
56913	distribution		This species can be found in premontane and lower montane southern slopes of the Cordillera Talamanca-Barú of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 950-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56913	habitat		It is associated with rocks and waterfalls in streams within humid montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56913	population		It was historically quite common where it occurred. In Costa Rica, this species was last recorded in 1964, no recent searches (as of August, 2007) have revealed more animals and it is believed to be extinct in this country. It is believed to have declined in upland western Panama, though this requires further investigation. No further information is currently available as to whether this species still persists in Panama (Jay Savage, Roberto Ibáñez and Karen Lips pers. comm. 2007)	eng
56913	threats		It has possibly disappeared in Costa Rica, and it is believed to have declined in pristine habitats in western Panama. Other species of this <em>Craugastor</em> group that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, and so this might be a cause of the decline in this species. In addition it is generally affected by the destruction of natural forests for agriculture and timber.	eng
56914	conservation		It is known to occur in several protected areas. Further research and survey work is needed to determine the reasons for the decline, and the species' current population status. In view of the possible risk of chytridiomycosis, surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56914	distribution		This species has a patchy distribution in the interior uplands of Puerto Rico at an altitudinal range of 40-1,152m asl.	eng
56914	habitat		It is terrestrial in mesic forests. Males call from the ground or low vegetation. Eggs are laid in rotten logs, and develop directly.	eng
56914	population		There has been an unexplained decline of this species during the last two decades.	eng
56914	threats		The cause of the decline in this species is not known, but it is thought that chytridiomycosis linked with climate change might have played a role.	eng
56915	conservation	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is a need for improved management of these for conservation.	eng
56915	distribution	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra Maestra, Sierra de la Gran Piedra, and Cuchillas de Toa, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 290-1,150m asl.	eng
56915	habitat	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	It is found in closed mesic upland forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56915	population	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56915	threats	Blair Hedges, Luis Díaz, 2008	Habitat destruction is taking place, even in the protected areas, as a result of agriculture, wood cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56916	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Taran Grant, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
56916	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Taran Grant, 2008	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from northern Honduras through Nicaragua and Costa Rica to Panama, on the Pacific slope from southwestern Costa Rica through Panama to western Colombia, south to the Department of Valle del Cauca. It occurs from sea level to 1,600m asl.	eng
56916	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Taran Grant, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, but also survives in disturbed habitats, including degraded secondary vegetation, plantations, rural gardens and urban areas. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are deposited in the leaf-litter.	eng
56916	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Taran Grant, 2008	This is a common species in Honduras and Costa Rica but is rare Panama, and is moderately common in Colombia. The population at La Selva appears to have experienced a decline (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56916	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Larry David Wilson, Taran Grant, 2008	It is very adaptable, and is overall not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56917	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56917	distribution		This species has an island-wide distribution in Cuba, excluding the extreme east. It has been recorded from sea level up to 830m asl.	eng
56917	habitat		It lives in riparian and aquatic habitats in forests and disturbed habitats, as long as there are streams or swamps. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56917	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
56917	threats		Water pollution and habitat loss from agriculture, and infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat.	eng
56918	conservation		It is protected within Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
56918	distribution		This species is known from Rancho Grande, where it is still commonly observed around the Rancho Grande Biological Station, in Aragua State, Venezuela, at around 1,100m asl. It might range more widely than is currently known.	eng
56918	habitat		This arboreal inhabitant of cloud forest breeds by direct development.	eng
56918	population		It is a common species.	eng
56918	threats		There are no threats to its habitat at present.	eng
56919	conservation		Its range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay, and it occurs in both Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Parque Nacional Cajas.	eng
56919	distribution		This species’ geographic range in southern Ecuador includes Andean cordilleras surrounding the Cuenca basin, from 2,620-3,600m asl, and Parque Nacional Podocarpus. It is known from more than ten localities.	eng
56919	habitat		It occurs on the ground and in low vegetation in cloud forest and páramo vegetation, in well-preserved habitats. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56919	population		It is an uncommon to rare species in El Cajas and Podocarpus.	eng
56919	threats		This species is not seriously threatened as it generally occurs in areas that are not heavily affected by habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
56920	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas, making protection and maintenance of remaining habitat an urgent priority.	eng
56920	distribution		This species is known from only three localities in the Sierra Maestra, south-eastern Cuba, at an altitude of 80-240m asl.	eng
56920	habitat		It occurs along streams with grassy margins in moist forest. Males call from river beaches of sand and pebbles and from emerging rocks. Eggs are laid in excavated holes on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56920	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56920	threats		There is a high level of human disturbance and habitat destruction in the range of the species due to infrastructure development for tourism and human settlements, agricultural expansion, and water pollution from agricultural activities and human settlements.	eng
56921	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. In view of the disappearance of other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> above 900m asl in Honduras, the population status of this species needs to be carefully monitored.	eng
56921	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of western and central Guatemala, including the mountains of Alta Verapaz, and the eastern portion of the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, in the department of Quiché, at 770 ­ 1,250m asl.	eng
56921	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, living along streams, and is not found in degraded forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56921	population		It is a common species, though decreasing.	eng
56921	threats		There is continued degradation of its habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, logging, and human settlements. Water pollution is also a threat to its breeding habitat.	eng
56922	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is a need for improved management of these areas for conservation.	eng
56922	distribution		This species has a restricted and very patchy range in the Sierra Maestra and Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, Cuba. Its altitudinal range is from 212-1,060m asl.	eng
56922	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary mesic forest. Males call from shrubs and small trees. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56922	population		This species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
56922	threats		Habitat destruction is taking place, even in protected areas, as a result of agriculture, wood cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
56923	conservation	Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Manuel Morales, John Lynch, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas. In Colombia it occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona.	eng
56923	distribution	Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Manuel Morales, John Lynch, 2008	This species occurs below 800m asl in north-western Ecuador, and across the border in Colombia near Altaquer in Nariño Department. It also occurs on Gorgona Island, situated 56km off Colombia’s Pacific coast.	eng
56923	habitat	Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Manuel Morales, John Lynch, 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland forest, not occurring in open areas. It is sometimes, but not always, found near streams. Specimens have been found at night on low vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56923	population	Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Manuel Morales, John Lynch, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
56923	threats	Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Manuel Morales, John Lynch, 2008	The major threats are likely to include agricultural development (livestock, plantations, and illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56924	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas.	eng
56924	distribution		This species occurs in the lowlands of western Colombia from 0-900m asl, in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Choco, Risaralda, and Antioquia, and it probably occurs a little more widely. Records from Ecuador are in error.	eng
56924	habitat		It appears to be restricted to primary and secondary forest, and is not found in open areas. It lives on fallen leaves on the ground and on very low herbaceous vegetation. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56924	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56924	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for the creation of plantations, cultivation of illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56925	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cusuco and Parque Nacional Texiguat in Honduras, but not in any protected areas in Guatemala.	eng
56925	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This species is known from extreme eastern Guatemala near the Honduran border, and from the following localities in western and north-central Honduras: Cerro Quebrada Grande, Montaña Pico Pijol, Montaña La Fortuna, Montaña Portillo Grande, Parque Nacional Cusuco, and Montaña Merendón west of San Pedro Sula. Its altitudinal range is 1,050-1,800m asl.	eng
56925	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	It lives on the forest floor in premontane and lower montane wet forest, and also occurs in degraded forest and coffee plantations (but not in more open habitats). It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56925	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	This is a moderately common species.	eng
56925	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, Jonathan E. Kolby, 2008	The major threat to this species is severe habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement, and fire. In addition, chytrid infection has recently been detected in this species (4.9% prevalence; Kolby J.E., Padgett-Flohr, G.E., and Field, R.,  in press), although it is considered to be unlikely that the species is threatened by chytridiomycosis, possibly attributed to their ability to dissociate from permanent water sources.  The two infected individuals likely represent those which haphazardly ventured close enough to a stream to acquire the chytrid fungus (J.E. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56926	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Macarao.	eng
56926	distribution		This species is known only from a juvenile series collected from Curucuruma, in the state of Aragua, Venezuela, at about 1,000m asl. It might occur more widely, but more surveys are needed to confirm this.	eng
56926	habitat		It probably occurs in cloud forest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56926	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
56926	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
56927	conservation		The geographic range of the species overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Sumaco, and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
56927	distribution		This species occurs on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, from the Pastaza trench (at 1,080-1,300m asl) and from the north in the Cordillera del Dué (at 1,150m asl). It is known from six localities.	eng
56927	habitat		An inhabitant of cloud forest, individuals have been found up to 2m above the ground on herbaceous plants, bushes, or low limbs of trees at night. It probably does not survive in degraded habitats. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56927	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56927	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development (particularly livestock farming), logging, and human settlement.	eng
56928	conservation		The range of this species includes Reserva de la Biósfera Encrucijada and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, both in Mexico.	eng
56928	distribution		This species is known from extreme south-eastern Pacific Chiapas, Mexico, and adjacent northern Guatemala, from 0-700m asl.	eng
56928	habitat		It inhabits cloud forests, and is not known from altered habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56928	population		This is an abundant species within its restricted range.	eng
56928	threats		The major threat is disturbance and transformation of the original forest areas due to agriculture and logging.	eng
56929	conservation		Some populations are inside the Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatama. Protection of the species' habitat is essential to its long-term survival given its reliance on an intact forest canopy.	eng
56929	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia, Chocó and Risaralda departments on the western versant of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,000-1,900m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56929	habitat		It occurs on cliffs or on rocks in streams with a suitable forest canopy cover. It breeds by direct development, and juveniles occur on vegetation near streams.	eng
56929	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
56929	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams at high elevations have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56930	conservation		The species' range is not currently within any protected area, which means that habitat maintenance and protection is essential to ensure its persistence. Survey work to evaluate the current population status of this species is also needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56930	distribution		This species is known only from Sierra de Coalcoman, north-western Michoacán, Mexico, occurring only at elevations above 2,000m asl.	eng
56930	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest and cloud forest, and requires the presence of bromeliad plants in the dry season, and low bushes and trunks on the ground in the humid season. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56930	population		This is a rare species.	eng
56930	threats		The main threat is habitat disturbance and loss due mainly to agriculture and logging.	eng
56931	conservation	Hedges, B., Inchaustegui, S. & Powell, R., 2004	It's range coincides with the Parque Nacional Sierra de Bahoruco, but additional protection and maintenance of habitat in the Sierra de Bahoruco is necessary. Further survey work is also required to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56931	distribution	Hedges, B., Inchaustegui, S. & Powell, R., 2004	This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de Bahoruco, in the Dominican Republic. It has been recorded from 727-1,370 m asl.	eng
56931	habitat	Hedges, B., Inchaustegui, S. & Powell, R., 2004	This is a cloud forest species, found in terrestrial upland mesic broadleaf and pine forests. It is also found in recently clear-cut forest, but it is probably not able to sustain a population in that habitat (R. Powell pers. comm. June 2009). Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56931	population	Hedges, B., Inchaustegui, S. & Powell, R., 2004	This species has only been encountered once or twice during many visits to the region over the last two decades. It was last recorded in 1999 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56931	threats	Hedges, B., Inchaustegui, S. & Powell, R., 2004	It is restricted to an area suffering severe habitat destruction, largely due to the impacts of agriculture and charcoaling.	eng
56932	conservation		It is known to occur in the Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo and the Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina.	eng
56932	distribution		This species is known only from the Andes of northern Peru. It has been recorded at 2,180m asl on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in San Martin Province from 1,138m asl, and from 1,750m asl on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor (in Amazonas Department). The altitudinal range of this species suggests that it might range more widely; further surveys are needed within the region.	eng
56932	habitat		It is a humid montane forest species that is not known to occur in degraded areas. Individuals were collected on low vegetation (less than one metre above the ground) at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56932	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
56932	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown, although within the region there is a general loss and degradation of habitats due to agricultural activity (including livestock rearing) and some mining activities.	eng
56933	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica. Further research is needed into the range, ecology, and potential conservation measures for this frog.	eng
56933	distribution		This species is known from the humid lowland and premontane zones of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent southwestern Panama, at elevations of 10-1,220m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56933	habitat		It is a large, nocturnal, terrestrial species of primary humid lowland forest, secondary forest, and plantations. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are probably deposited in leaf-litter. Juveniles may be found active during the night and day. Juveniles have been seen mainly in the mid to late wet season (Savage, 2002, M. Ryan pers. comm.).	eng
56933	population		It is a common species that is regularly seen in Costa Rica. It is not very abundant from the Río Terraba to Río Savagre along the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, and appears to be one of the least common frogs in this region.	eng
56933	threats		It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation. In five years of surveys it was not found to occur in forest patches less than 10ha in size (M. Ryan pers. comm.).	eng
56934	conservation		The range of this species includes two small-protected areas.	eng
56934	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of Mexico, from central Guerrero eastward through southern Puebla and southern Oaxaca into extreme southwestern Chiapas.	eng
56934	habitat		This species inhabits only lowland tropical dry forest and premontane and lower montane dry forest, where it lives close to rocky streams and other moist habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56934	population		This is a very common species. However, there appear to have been some disappearances in Guerrero and Oaxaca.	eng
56934	threats		The fragmentation, deforestation, and desiccation of the species' forest habitat are major threats, as it requires moist habitats to survive. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully, and the declines observed in Guerrero and Oaxaca could be due to this cause.	eng
56935	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
56935	distribution		This species is known only from Molleturo on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the province of Azuay, Ecuador, at 2,317m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
56935	habitat		The only known specimens were collected from beneath stones in an area of pastureland and scrubby vegetation, with little remaining forest. This is presumably a montane forest species that has been able to adapt to highly disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56935	population		There is no recent information, probably due to insufficient survey effort.	eng
56935	threats		There is no recent information on threats at its only known locality.	eng
56936	conservation		Some populations are inside Yotoco Forest Reserve, which affords some protection to the species' habitat, but there is clearly a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species, particularly given its microhabitat requirements.	eng
56936	distribution		This species is known only from four localities in the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia, at elevations of 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
56936	habitat		It is terrestrial, commonly found in leaf-litter in primary and disturbed forests, but is restricted to moist conditions. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56936	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56936	threats		This is a large frog with a small population that is very sensitive to human disturbance. All known localities are threatened by the expansion of the city of Cali, in particular due to agriculture and human settlements.	eng
56937	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
56937	distribution		This species can be found in the Pacific drainages of Tonalá, Chiapas, Mexico, where it occurs on the Pacific versant in the vicinity of Escuintla, south-eastward through southern Guatemala to eastern El Salvador, 400-2,000m asl.	eng
56937	habitat		It inhabits steep, rocky streams primarily in Premontane Wet Forest, but also in Lowland and Lower Montane Wet Forests. Reproduction occurs via direct development. Occurs in second growth forest and shade coffee plantations.	eng
56937	population		This species is common and persistent in Guatemala and El Salvador. It is abundant in Mexico.	eng
56937	threats		Habitat loss is a major threat. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56938	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Further research is necessary to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat. Further, given that this may represent a complex of species, each with an exceedingly small range, taxonomic work is needed to ascertain the true taxonomic status of individual populations.	eng
56938	distribution		This species is widely, albeit patchily, distributed in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), with an altitudinal range from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
56938	habitat		It occurs in xeric pine forest and mesic forest, including in degraded areas. Males call from, and females lay eggs in, closed underground chambers. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56938	population		It is rarely encountered, and believed to be declining in suitable habitat for reasons that are unknown.	eng
56938	threats		The major threat is severe habitat destruction due to agriculture (the cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and charcoaling. However, this does not explain the decline in suitable habitats, and other factors such as invasive predators, climate change, and chytridiomycosis may be implicated.	eng
56939	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the adjacent, recently established El Dorado Nature Reserve.	eng
56939	distribution		This species is known from the north-western slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, Colombia, at 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
56939	habitat		An inhabitant of moist forest habitats, it is arboreal and nocturnal, occurring under rocks and logs during the day.	eng
56939	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56939	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (cultivation of crops and livestock farming).	eng
56940	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Columbia River Forest Reserve and probably in the Bladen Forest Reserve in Belize; and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve and the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Further research is necessary to establish the reasons for the declines witnessed in this species in undisturbed habitat.	eng
56940	distribution		This species is known from the foothills of eastern Guatemala, including the Montañas del Mico, the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, and the northern portion of the Sierra de Merendón. It is also known from the Maya Mountains of Belize. It ranges from near sea level to about 900m asl.	eng
56940	habitat		It inhabits lowland and premontane wet and moist forest, living in and alongside streams. It is not found in degraded forest. It breeds by direct development and the eggs are laid on land.	eng
56940	population		Although still common in Belize, it has suffered serious population reductions since the 1990s in Guatemala, where it was formerly common.	eng
56940	threats		Habitat loss is taking place due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. However, it is declining even in suitable habitat in Guatemala. Other species of the genus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56941	conservation		It was recorded in Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
56941	distribution		This species is known only from Santa Isabel in Cosñipata Valley, at an altitude of 1,700m asl, and from the north-eastern slopes of the Cadena de Paucartambo, a frontal range of the Andean Cordillera Oriental, both in Cuzco Department, Peru.	eng
56941	habitat		This species was found in cloud forest in areas with some tree ferns, bromeliads, and luxuriant undergrowth of mosses and ferns. All individuals were found on low herbaceous plants at night. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
56941	population		It is a rare species, and despite occurring in a relatively well-surveyed area it has not been recorded since its original collection.	eng
56941	threats		The species is currently known only from within the well-protected Parque Nacional Manu. It is not known if there are populations outside this area, and if these are threatened.	eng
56942	conservation		The species occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and in the Reserva de Vida Silvestre Texiguat. Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline in pristine habitat. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population.	eng
56942	distribution		This species is found in Cerro Bufalo in the Dept. of Atlantida and Montaña La Fortuna in the Department of Yoro, Honduras, at elevations of 1,550-1,800m asl.	eng
56942	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter in lower montane wet forest. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
56942	population		Although always rare, the species is now in precipitous decline. Visits to the sites, both in 1995 and 1996, failed to turn up any individuals.	eng
56942	threats		Habitat destruction caused by subsistence agriculture and landslides are the major threats. However, these threats do not account for its decline in pristine habitats. Rather, its disappearance is likely to be as a result of disease (such as chytridiomycosis), although it is perhaps surprising for this to be the case in such a species since it is not associated with streams.	eng
56943	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
56943	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slope of the Andes, in the western region of the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, between 400-1,850m asl.	eng
56943	habitat		It has been reported from Interandean Valleys and semi-humid montane forest. It is a terrestrial and arboreal species, and can be found calling on bushes 0.6-2.0 metres above the ground, near small streams in forest and open areas, as well as disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56943	population		It is an abundant species at the type locality, and also common elsewhere.	eng
56943	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
56944	conservation	Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	This species is found in Parque Estadual Pico do Marumbi.	eng
56944	distribution	Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	This species is known from Atlantic forest in the municipalities of Guaraqueçaba, Piraquara, and Morretes, in Paraná State, Brazil, from 40-1,100m asl.	eng
56944	habitat	Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It occurs in secondary and old growth coastal rainforest, where it is found in vegetation and on the forest floor. It reproduces by direct development and lays eggs on the ground.	eng
56944	population	Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	It is abundant within its range.	eng
56944	threats	Magno Vicente Segalla, 2008	Its habitat is under threat due to selective logging, cattle ranching, and tourism.	eng
56945	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a natural reserve area. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56945	distribution		This species is known from the western flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena, Colombia, from 1,100-2,600m asl.	eng
56945	habitat		This arboreal species is found on dense vegetation and branches, and is active up to 1.5m above the ground. It is more common in the interior of forests than next to streams. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56945	population		It is very common.	eng
56945	threats		Cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock, are major threats to this species' habitat. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
56946	conservation		It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve and probably in the Bladen Forest Reserve in Belize; and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve and the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. Further research is needed to determine the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
56946	distribution		This species is known from the Maya Mountains in Belize south to the Caribbean foothills of Guatemala, including the Sierra de Santa Cruz, the Montañas del Mico, and the eastern portion of the Sierra de las Minas, from sea level up to 1,160m asl.	eng
56946	habitat		It lives on the forest floor near streams in moist forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
56946	population		It has declined drastically in Guatemala, where it is now extinct at localities where previously hundreds could be found in a few hours. It is now rare at those Guatemalan localities where it still survives. It is still common in Belize.	eng
56946	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement. It is declining, even where suitable habitat remains, for reasons that are not understood. However, some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56947	conservation		Some populations are within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas and Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56947	distribution		This species is known from Antioquia, Choco, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca Departments on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, from 50-1,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely, in particular between known sites.	eng
56947	habitat		It is restricted to closed-canopy forest alongside streams in primary forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56947	population		This is a locally abundant species.	eng
56947	threats		It is probably affected by ongoing forest loss in some parts of its range, especially for agriculture and logging, as well as by fumigation of illegal crops. However, much of its habitat is relatively remote from human influence, though this is likely to change in the near future. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
56948	conservation		The range of this species includes the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo. Further survey work is necessary to evaluate the current population status of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56948	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Ovando and surrounding areas, in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico, at 1,200-1,900 m asl.	eng
56948	habitat		It inhabits montane cloud and mixed forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56948	population		The current population status is unknown.	eng
56948	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due, in particular, to logging.	eng
56949	conservation	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	There are no formal protected areas within the range of the species, although Páramo Urrao is a Protected Forest Reserve. The creation of a protected area to conserve the habitat of this species is recommended, although this measure alone will not protect the species against the effects of climate change. Close population monitoring of this species is required, given its extremely restricted range.	eng
56949	distribution	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	This species is known only from the region of the type locality in the Páramo de Frontino, in the department of Antioquia, in Colombia, at 3,300-3,800 m asl. It is probably genuinely restricted to this area.	eng
56949	habitat	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	It occurs in páramo and sub-páramo areas, amongst fallen leaves, grass and sparse vegetation. It is closely associated with the leaf axils of <em>Espeletia</em> spp. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56949	population	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	The species is rare in collections, but it is difficult to access the páramo for herpetological surveys; it is probably not a rare species.	eng
56949	threats	Castro, F., Herrera, M.I. & Lynch, J., 2009	The range of the species is at very high elevations and out of reach of human disturbance at present. However, climate change could be a future threat that reduces the suitable habitat available to the species.	eng
56950	conservation	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	Some populations of this species are within Parque Nacional Natural Serranía de La Macarena. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56950	distribution	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This species is known from Serranía de Macarena and the piedmont of the Cordillera Oriental in the departments of Meta and Cundinamarca, Colombia, from 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
56950	habitat	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This nocturnal species is associated with fast-flowing streams, with individuals usually occurring on vegetation up to 50cm above the ground, sometimes in secondary habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56950	population	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
56950	threats	Martha Patricia Ramírez Pinilla, Mariela Osorno-Muñoz, Jose Vicente Rueda, Adolfo Amézquita, María Cristina Ardila-Robayo, 2008	This is an adaptable species, and probably is not significantly threatened by habitat loss at present, although its habitat will become threatened by cultivation and fumigation of crops (which could cause pollution of streams), and the rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
56951	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, making the protection of remaining forest habitat in the range of this species a priority.	eng
56951	distribution		This species is known from north-western Durango and adjacent Sinaloa, from Revolcaderos Durango to El Palmito, Sinaloa, Mexico. The type locality is at about 1,830m asl.	eng
56951	habitat		It inhabits mixed boreal-tropical forest; the original habitat was described by Webb (1962) as transitional pine-oak forest. It is restricted to rocky habitats such as crevices and boulders. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56951	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56951	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to logging and clear-cutting.	eng
56952	conservation	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Marcelino Hernandez, Robert Powell, 2008	The range of the species includes several protected areas, but there is very little management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Improved management of these, and maintenance of other remaining habitat, is essential. Research is also needed to determine whether or not chytrid is implicated in the decline of the species.	eng
56952	distribution	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Marcelino Hernandez, Robert Powell, 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Cordillera Septentrional and Cordillera Central, in the Dominican Republic, and in the Massif du Nord, Haiti. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,758 m asl.	eng
56952	habitat	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Marcelino Hernandez, Robert Powell, 2008	It is usually found beside streams in mesic closed-canopy rainforests. Males call from the river and stream banks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56952	population	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Marcelino Hernandez, Robert Powell, 2008	It was common in the past and was known from many localities, but it has not been recorded since the mid 1980s. Extensive surveys were carried out within its range between 1998 and 2000 (M. Hernandez pers. comm.), but these failed to find any individuals, thus suggesting a catastrophic decline, even within suitable habitats.	eng
56952	threats	Blair Hedges, Sixto Inchaustegui, Marcelino Hernandez, Robert Powell, 2008	In the Cordillera Central, habitat destruction is taking place as a result of agricultural development (including livestock farming), and disturbance from ecotourism. However, chytridiomycosis is a possible reason for its decline within suitable habitats.	eng
56953	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	In Ecuador the species is present in Parque Nacional Podocarpus; in Peru it is known from Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008). Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56953	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru it has been recorded from localities at elevations of 2,400-2,850m asl in the northern part of the Cordillera Central (Amazonas region). In Ecuador, it is known from a single locality in the Romerillos, Parque Nacional Podocarpus, at 1,900m asl. It might range more widely.	eng
56953	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	It is known only from disturbed cloud forest. The type locality is on a mostly cultivated ridge with remnants of dense low forest (6-8m high) bearing many orchids and bromeliads. A second Peruvian locality is on a ridge overlooking the cultivated valley. In both localities, the individuals were found in large terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56953	population	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56953	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Wilfredo Arizabal, Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction through an increase in agriculture, selective logging, and human settlement. Enciso et al. (2008) recently reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>P. schultei</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.	eng
56954	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It was previously known from a protected area on St. John, and it may occur in Virgin Gorda Peak Forest Park. The habitat of this species on Tortola and Virgin Gorda requires improved protection, and there is also a need to control invasive predators. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56954	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is now restricted to Tortola, Virgin Gorda and Great Dog in the British Virgin Islands, having been extirpated from St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands. It has been recorded from sea level up to 227m asl.	eng
56954	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is found in dry scrub forest in terrestrial bromeliads, and has not been recorded outside forested areas. Males call from near to the ground and terrestrial bromeliads; eggs are laid in bromeliads, and breeding is by direct development.	eng
56954	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species appears to be declining wherever <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> spreads. The Great Dog population is somewhat distinct, extremely limited in range, and very susceptible to development there (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
56954	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Infrastructure development for tourism, human settlement, and road construction is a major threat. Rats and mongooses have also been introduced to the island and most likely pose a threat.	eng
56955	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area, in order to ensure the persistence of this species as well as other threatened amphibians known only from this area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56955	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is known from one locality in the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti, at an altitude of 1,060-1,081 m asl.	eng
56955	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is found under rocks at high elevations in closed moist forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
56955	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It has only been encountered once during the last two decades, despite considerable collecting effort in its only known locality prior to 1991. The species is rarely encountered even in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 1984 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
56955	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The reason for the decline of this species is unknown, although there has been severe habitat destruction within its range due to charcoal collection and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
56956	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
56956	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Yaraccyacu, Ayacucho Department, Peru, at 2,620m asl. It might range much more widely, but there has been little survey work of the surrounding areas.	eng
56956	habitat		Individuals of this species were collected in cloud forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56956	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56956	threats		Threats at the type locality are unknown. Generally in southern Peru, agriculture (including livestock) and colonization are the principal threats.	eng
56957	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed given that the species is not tolerant of much disturbance of its habitat.	eng
56957	distribution		This species is known from two localities: one in the municipality of Sonsón and the other in Belmira, both in the department of Antioquia, Colombia. It has been recorded from 2,620-2,800m asl.	eng
56957	habitat		It is restricted to primary forest or slightly disturbed forest, along streams, in dense vegetation. It is also common in areas with waterfalls. This is a nocturnal species, and during the day it is usually found under rocks. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56957	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
56957	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56958	conservation		In Colombia some populations of this species are distributed in La Planada National Reserve, while in Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
56958	distribution		This species is known from a few localities at elevations of 1,200-1,780m asl in cloud forest on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador (Carchi and Esmeraldas Provinces) and adjacent Colombia (Nariño Department). It might occur a little more widely.	eng
56958	habitat		It is nocturnal, and is usually active on vegetation 1-3m above the ground, inside dense and undisturbed cloud forests. It may occur on vegetation along streams. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56958	population		There is little information on the current population status of this species. However, it was observed and photographed in the mid-1990s in La Planada, Colombia.	eng
56958	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56959	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, although the type locality is within an area protected for its role as a water catchment.	eng
56959	distribution		This species is known from a couple of localities that are very close to one another in Paramo de los Valles, in the municipality of Cajamarca in Tolima Department, in the central Cordillera Oriental, Colombia, at altitudes of 3,400-3,680m asl. The range of this species could be wider, as the region to the south of the known localities has not been well surveyed.	eng
56959	habitat		It is typically found on low vegetation among grasses in páramo, and has also been recorded from pastureland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56959	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56959	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by cattle grazing, and in particular the burning of the páramo in order to cause the grass to grow faster for the cattle to graze upon.	eng
56960	conservation		In Peru the range of this species overlaps with the Cordillera de Colán Reserved Zone, a 60,000ha protected area declared in 2002. In Ecuador it is present in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
56960	distribution		This species can be found in the Andes of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In Peru, it has been recorded from elevations of 1,850m asl on the upper western slopes of the northern Cordillera Central (drained by tributaries of the Río Chiriaco flowing northward into the Río Marañon), and from 1,700m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera Colan (both sites in Amazonas Department). It is known in Ecuador from a single locality at 1,850m asl, in the Curintza, Zamora Chinchipe Province, Parque Nacional Podocarpus. This species might range more widely than these current records suggest.	eng
56960	habitat		This is a montane tropical forest species. In Peru, males were recorded calling at night from leaves of low herbaceous plants in highly disturbed, humid, upper montane forest. In the Cordillera Colan, a sub-adult female was found on a bush near a stream, and two juveniles were collected in leaf-litter in humid montane forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development. It is not known if this species occurs in degraded areas.	eng
56960	population		The current population status is unknown; only a few individuals have been observed.	eng
56960	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to selective logging and agriculture (including livestock).	eng
56961	conservation		It is unclear whether this species is represented in a protected area; clearly, though, habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the persistence of this restricted-range species.	eng
56961	distribution		This species is restricted to St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, from 275-922m asl.	eng
56961	habitat		It is arboreal and can be found in rainforests, forest edge and montane meadows surrounded by agriculture. It lives on the ground and on vegetation. The eggs are laid on the ground, and breeding occurs by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
56961	population		It is not a well-known species, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
56961	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as for agriculture.	eng
56962	conservation		It is not currently recorded from any protected areas, but there are ongoing efforts to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a wildlife reserve.	eng
56962	distribution		This species is known only from forested streams along the highway between Cartago and San José del Palmar on the western slopes of the Serranía de los Paraguas, in the department of Chocó, Colombia, from 1,850-1,860m asl.	eng
56962	habitat		It occurs along streams and by waterfalls, on wet rocks and moss inside the forest; adequate canopy cover is an important habitat requirement. It breeds by direct development and some juveniles are found on wet vegetation next to waterfalls.	eng
56962	population		This is a locally common species.	eng
56962	threats		The habitat of the species is relatively unthreatened at present, although if a planned road is built this will present a major threat to the species' habitat. Agricultural development (illegal crops) also presents a potential future threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56963	conservation		Most of the range of this species is within the mountains of Los Paraguas, which forms a natural unit of the high Andean ecosystem. At present there is an ongoing effort to transform this area into a wildlife reserve. Other populations are inside Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. Conservation of the species' habitat is essential for its long-term survival since it is restricted to primary forest.	eng
56963	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the departments of Valle del Cauca and Choco, in Colombia, from 1,700-2,250m asl.	eng
56963	habitat		This is a nocturnal species found on medium to high level vegetation in primary cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56963	population		It is uncommon.	eng
56963	threats		There are currently no major threats to the species' habitat although there are plans to build a road across the Serrania de los Paraguas. This will become a major threat if the plans go ahead, and would provide access for the expansion of agricultural activities and logging.	eng
56964	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for protection of montane pine-oak forest habitat in this part of the state of Oaxaca. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56964	distribution		This species is known only from Zanatepec, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,450-1,600m asl.	eng
56964	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest and breeds by direct development.	eng
56964	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
56964	threats		The major threat is habitat disturbance and degradation due to logging and the creation of agricultural land. The area where this species occurs is still relatively undisturbed, due to the lack of roads and towns; however, logging is expected to increase in the next few years.	eng
56965	conservation		Its geographic range does not overlap any protected areas, making it a priority to protect the remaining fragmented habitat of this species.	eng
56965	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Cashca Totoras, Bolivar Province, in central Ecuador, at 3,200m asl. It may be more widely distributed than current records suggest.	eng
56965	habitat		At the type locality, all individuals were in the vicinity of a spring in upper humid montane forest, but many individuals were found in herbaceous vegetation in forest. It also occurs, to a limited extent, in secondary forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56965	population		The species is locally abundant in a patch of forest (Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras) of about 300ha.	eng
56965	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and logging; the forest habitat in and around the type locality is now severely fragmented.	eng
56966	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of this species, and its remaining habitat is in urgent need of protection.	eng
56966	distribution		This species is known from the páramos on the border of the departments of Tolima and Quindio, in the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 3,580-3,680m asl.	eng
56966	habitat		It occurs in páramo areas, under rocks, logs, and in the roots of grasses among <em>Espeletia</em>; it is also found in pastureland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56966	population		It is a common species.	eng
56966	threats		Habitat loss caused by cattle grazing (and in particular, burning of the páramo in order to cause the grass to grow faster for the cattle to graze upon) is the major threat.	eng
56967	conservation		Most populations are inside Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados.	eng
56967	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Caldas, Risaralda and Tolima on the Cordillera Central, in Colombia, from 2,700-4,350m asl.	eng
56967	habitat		It occurs in páramo vegetation and is active at night, calling on the ground among grasses and low bushes. During the day it occurs on graminaceous vegetation or under logs and rocks. It also occurs above the tree line and can be found in pastureland, but this is a marginal habitat for the species. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56967	population		The species is very abundant in Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados and is also common elsewhere.	eng
56967	threats		Habitat loss caused by smallholder livestock grazing and cultivation of crops (some of them illegal) is a threat to it outside protected areas. However, this species is adaptable and much of its range is at altitudes above the level of significant human impact, and so it is not greatly threatened.	eng
56968	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but this area is in need of improved management for biodiversity conservation.	eng
56968	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Arroyo Bueno, La Melba, Holguin Province in eastern Cuba, at less than 200m asl.	eng
56968	habitat		It occurs on riverbanks along streams and in the leaf-litter in secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56968	population		It is uncommon even in suitable habitat.	eng
56968	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction due to human settlements and agriculture.	eng
56969	conservation		The only known locality is within La Planada Natural Reserve. Continued management and maintenance of this protected area is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its dependence upon good forest. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of this species, and to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
56969	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality in cloud forest on the western slope of the Andes in extreme southern Colombia. It is presumed to extend into adjacent Ecuador but has not yet been recorded there. It ranges from 1,700-2,020m asl.	eng
56969	habitat		It is nocturnal, and is usually found on medium to high vegetation along side streams inside primary forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56969	population		It is not a common species.	eng
56969	threats		There are no major threats to the habitat at the type locality at present, but there is pressure from local people to convert the current protected area to land for agriculture and cattle farming.	eng
56970	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Javier Icochea, Ariadne Angulo, Claude Gascon, 2008	The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve, (Madre de Dios), Bahuaja-Sonene National Park and Machiguenga Communal Reserve. In Brazil it has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
56970	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Javier Icochea, Ariadne Angulo, Claude Gascon, 2008	This species is known in Peru from lowland rainforest in Cocha Cashu and La Colpa, Río Tambopata, (Madre de Dios); ridges above mouths of Candamo Guacamayo River, (Puno); Panguana, Río Pachitea (Huánuco); and  Alva (Amazonas). It is also present in Acre state, western Brazil (Gascon pers comm.), department of Pando, Bolivia, and has been recently recorded at Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Orellana province, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia, 2006). It is also known from elevations of 200-300m asl.	eng
56970	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Javier Icochea, Ariadne Angulo, Claude Gascon, 2008	This is a low vegetation species that is a floodplain and upland forest inhabitant. In Manu, the understorey level is composed of palms, ferns, heliconias, shrubs and young trees. In Central Peru, the habitat is mainly covered with unexploited primary forest. Males usually call from low vegetation 0.1-2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development; gravid females contained 11-25 mature eggs. It is not present in degraded habitats.	eng
56970	population	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Javier Icochea, Ariadne Angulo, Claude Gascon, 2008	Many specimens were used to describe this species.	eng
56970	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Javier Icochea, Ariadne Angulo, Claude Gascon, 2008	There are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56971	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and its cloud forest habitat is in need of protection.	eng
56971	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in the Río Saloya basin, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, from 1,700-2,050m asl.	eng
56971	habitat		It can be found in cloud forest in a humid temperate regime, occurring in low vegetation near streams. It also occurs in old and secondary growth. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
56971	population		It is a rare species, and was seen most recently in 2002.	eng
56971	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (primarily livestock farming) and wood extraction.	eng
56972	conservation		Both of this species' known localities are within protected areas.	eng
56972	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Boracéia) and from Atibaia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It has been recorded around 800m asl.	eng
56972	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter and low vegetation in primary and secondary forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
56972	population		The population status of this species is unknown, as it is only known from a few specimens from each locality.	eng
56972	threats		There are no major threats to its habitat at present, although palm trees are collected in the Boracéia locality, potentially degrading its habitat by opening up the forest canopy.	eng
56973	conservation		Urgent protection of the Sierra de Juárez forests is needed. There are no federal protected areas in this region, and those that do exist are "ejidal", meaning they belong to several local owners with no legal and continuous protection. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56973	distribution		This species is known from Cuautlapan, central Veracruz, and Vista Hermosa in the Sierra de Juárez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, above 1,800m asl.	eng
56973	habitat		Individuals of this species have been found in rainforest (cloud forest). It breeds by direct development.	eng
56973	population		Formerly an abundant species (E. Smith pers. comm.), at present it is hard to find more than one or two specimens during the course of an evening's fieldwork suggesting a recent population decline.	eng
56973	threats		The accelerated rate of transformation of the original forests in northern Oaxaca is certainly the cause of the decline of amphibian populations in the Sierra de Juárez region. Both regions where the species is found are under extreme pressure from local human populations with some parts completely transformed by agriculture and logging. However, it is not clear whether the recent decline reported in this species is solely due to habitat degradation, or whether some other factors might also be at play.	eng
56974	conservation		Its range does not include any protected areas, though it may occur in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. There is a need for improved protection of cloud forest habitat within the range of this species.	eng
56974	distribution		This species is known only from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, in the vicinity of Bogotacito, on the Duitama-Charalá road, in Gambita Municipality, Santander Department, Colombia, from 2,200-2,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56974	habitat		It occurs in very humid cloud forests on vegetation in the low stratum. Although commonly found in the forest interior, it has also been recorded from secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56974	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56974	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (particularly livestock farming) and pine plantations.	eng
56975	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
56975	distribution		This species' range is the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera de Matanga and the Cordillera del Cóndor in southern Ecuador, from 1,707-2,835m asl.	eng
56975	habitat		This species can be found on low vegetation in well-preserved cloud forests. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56975	population		It is rare in the Cordillera del Cóndor.	eng
56975	threats		Its range is not significantly threatened since people are averse to entering the area due to the land mines left during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995.	eng
56976	conservation		Further survey work is required to determine the population status of this species and the reasons for its decline within pristine habitats. If disease is shown to be a major threat, then surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> population. It occurs in Parque Nacional La Muralla and Parque Nacional Pico Pijol and the Reserva de Vida Silvestre Texiguat.	eng
56976	distribution		This species is known from three localities in north-central Honduras: Parque Nacional La Muralla, in north-western Olancho Department; Montaña La Fortuna, in Parque Nacional Pico Pijol, near Portillo Grande in Yoro Department; and Cerro San Francisco, in Atlantida Department. It has been recorded at 1,125-1,900m asl.	eng
56976	habitat		It occurs and reproduces by direct development on the ground along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forest.	eng
56976	population		Although formerly relatively common, this species is now in precipitous decline. Recent surveys indicate that it has disappeared from at least two of its three known localities (last seen in Texiguat in 1993), with no recent information from the third locality (Parque Nacional Pico Pijol).	eng
56976	threats		Although habitat destruction caused by subsistence agriculture is a major threat, the species' decline in pristine areas is not entirely understood. However, it should be noted that many other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances at higher elevations due to chytridiomycosis, and so this is presumably a major threat to this species.	eng
56977	conservation		Although there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Costa Rica.	eng
56977	distribution		This species can be found in humid lowlands and premontane slopes on the Pacific versant of western Panama and Costa Rica, on the Meseta Central Occidental, and in gallery forests in the subhumid northwest and peripherally on the Atlantic lowlands near Laguna Arenal, at elevations of 3-1,330m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56977	habitat		This is a diurnal leaf-litter species found in humid lowland-dry forest, but may also be present in other forest types, secondary forest, plantations and pastureland. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
56977	population		It is a very common species.	eng
56977	threats		Generally it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.	eng
56978	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Henri Pittier.	eng
56978	distribution		This species is known from Pico Periquito, Rancho Grande, in Aragua State, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 1,100-1,200m asl.	eng
56978	habitat		This species is a cloud forest inhabitant that breeds by direct development.	eng
56978	population		No specimens have been collected recently. The type locality is near a biological station frequently visited by herpetologists, and so the absence of records suggests that it might be rare, or else it has seriously declined or occurs in a microhabitat that has not been well studied.	eng
56978	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
56979	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain the remaining habitat at the type locality. Further research is needed for this largely unknown species.	eng
56979	distribution		This species is known only from 1,735-1,840m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera de Huancabamba (Piura Department), Peru.	eng
56979	habitat		It can be found in humid montane forest, where males have been observed calling from herbaceous vegetation 0.3-1.0m above the ground. Individuals have also been collected from low vegetation in disturbed habitat where there were a few large trees present. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
56979	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
56979	threats		The threats to it are unclear, although at the type locality there is some destruction and loss of habitat to due to livestock grazing and subsistence collection of wood.	eng
56980	conservation		This species is not found in any protected area, and protection of the remaining montane forest habitat is urgently needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56980	distribution		This species can be found from San Marcos and Sololá, Guatemala, and adjacent eastern Chiapas, Mexico, at elevations of 1,300-2,200m asl.	eng
56980	habitat		It inhabits tropical humid cloud forests. It is a terrestrial species that can also be found in small bushes. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
56980	population		There are no recent records from Chiapas and the species is uncommon in its small range in Guatemala.	eng
56980	threats		Loss and disturbance of the original forest habitat, primarily due to agriculture and logging, is the major threat.	eng
56981	conservation		In Colombia it occurs in the Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and La Planada private nature reserve. In Ecuador its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Parque Nacional Mache-Chindul, Parque Nacional Machalilla, and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
56981	distribution		This species occurs in the lowlands of southwestern Colombia (in Cauca and Nariño Departments) and western Ecuador (south to Manta Real), at 100-670m asl.	eng
56981	habitat		It lives in primary or slightly disturbed forest. It is a canopy-dweller, and is usually encountered at night on medium to high bushes, and in arboreal bromeliads, often near streams and rivers. During the day, it shelters in bromeliad axils. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the egg deposition site is not known.	eng
56981	population		It can be locally common, but it is hard to detect since it is a canopy-dweller.	eng
56981	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
56982	conservation		Its range includes Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. Protection of the montane habitat of this species is essential, given its intolerance of any habitat disturbance.	eng
56982	distribution		This species is known from cloud forest in the municipalities of Pensilvania and Samaná, in the department of Caldas, and from the municipalities of Sonson and Guatepé, in Antioquia Department, on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, in Colombia. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,800m asl.	eng
56982	habitat		A nocturnal species, it is usually found perching on low vegetation in primary forest, to which it is restricted. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56982	population		It is common in Florencia (in Samana), but is generally uncommon elsewhere.	eng
56982	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation as a result of the collection of firewood by locals, as well as the clear cutting of the forest and general disturbance by humans, and possibly also the cultivation of illegal crops.	eng
56983	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras. It is present in Guepi Reserve Zone, Peru. It occurs in a number of protected areas in Brazil.	eng
56983	distribution		This species is present throughout much of the Amazonian lowlands of Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia and western Brazil (Acre). It has been recorded from elevations of 200-950m asl.	eng
56983	habitat		This species can be found in primary tropical lowland terra firme forest. The species is usually found in the litter of tropical rainforests, occasionally in open areas. It breeds by direct development and egg deposition occurs in leaf-litter. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
56983	population		It is a rarely found species.	eng
56983	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
56984	conservation		The range of the species is wholly within La Planada Natural Reserve. Continued management and maintenance of this reserve is essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species, particularly given its reliance on good forest. Further survey work is needed to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
56984	distribution		This species is known only at the type locality, on the pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Nariño, Colombia, from 1,700-2,020m asl. It is presumed that this species may be found in the northern area of Ecuador, in the province of Carchi, but it has not yet been recorded there.	eng
56984	habitat		It is nocturnal, found on vegetation 1-2m above the ground, near streams in primary or good quality secondary forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56984	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56984	threats		There are no major threats to the habitat at the type locality at present, but there is pressure from local people to convert the current protected area for agricuture and cattle grazing. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56985	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Puracé and Parque Nacional Natural Nevado de Hulia in Colombia. It is not recorded from any protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
56985	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species can be found from the southern Cordillera Central, from Nevado de Huila, Colombia to extreme northern Ecuador, at 2,280 -3,500m asl. The central and northern Cordillera Central records (Antioquia-Tolima departments) and the Cordillera Occidental records (Jericó, Antioquia departments), correspond to a different species, <em>E. permixtus</em>. In Ecuador, it is now known from two localities, El Carmelo and El Chamizo in Carchi Province.	eng
56985	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	This species occurs in cloud forest, sub-páramo, and páramo areas. It has been found beneath rocks, logs, or in deep grass. It has also been reported as being associated to streams, bromeliads, leaf litter and vegetation up to 3m high (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). At night, specimens are active on vegetation (Lynch 1979d). It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known. It occurs in old-growth and secondary forest.	eng
56985	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	It was abundant in the 1970s and 1980s throughout its range. Since then, only a few individuals have been found in Ecuador, at El Chamizo, in Carchi Province in 2000.	eng
56985	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops).	eng
56986	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, but additional protection of the cloud forest habitat in the range of this species is necessary.	eng
56986	distribution		This species has been recorded from 11 localities on the upper slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in the provinces of Imbabura and Pichincha, north-western Ecuador, at elevations of 1,550-3,190m asl.	eng
56986	habitat		It is a cloud forest species. Most individuals have been found under stones or clods of earth by day. Although it can tolerate a small amount of habitat degradation, it cannot survive in places where opening up of the habitat results in a decrease in humidity. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
56986	population		It was once very common, but it has now declined in certain places, especially where disturbance leads to general drying out of the habitat.	eng
56986	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement.	eng
56987	conservation		It is present in the Reserve Forest of Zipaquirá and Cogua. Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza	eng
56987	distribution		This recently described species is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in Cundinamarca Department, and in the Reserve Forest of Zipaquirá and Cogua, Colombia. It has an altitudinal range of 2,530-2,900m asl, and it might occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
56987	habitat		This species is present in remnant patches of cloud and riparian forest, but not in areas modified for agriculture. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56987	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
56987	threats		The clearance of suitable forest areas for agricultural use is the main threat to this species.	eng
56988	conservation		This species occurs in a few protected areas, but there is insufficient management of these for conservation, and the habitat continues to be degraded. Improved protection of the existing protected areas network is needed, as is urgent research to determine the cause of the decline.	eng
56988	distribution		This species was formerly known from upland areas throughout western Cuba in Pinar del Río and Matanzas Provinces, Cuba, but its range has now decreased significantly. It has been recorded from 70-155m asl.	eng
56988	habitat		The species inhabits rocky areas and caves in lowland, mesic closed-canopy broadleaf forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56988	population		It is known from a relatively small number of scattered localities, and is considered to be a very rare species. There have been recent declines in the population, even in good habitat.	eng
56988	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development for tourism, disturbance of the habitat by touristic activities, and agriculture. Two specimens collected in 2003 showed signs of disease, although the results of studies investigating which disease specifically are pending. However, declines within suitable habitat are suggestive of chytridiomycosis.	eng
56989	conservation		Protection of the forests of central Oaxaca is extremely urgent since no protected areas exist in this region. Further survey work is needed to establish its current population status. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56989	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlán and Mixteca Alta, Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
56989	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest areas, and breeds by direct development.	eng
56989	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
56989	threats		The major threat is habitat disturbance and loss due to agricultural expansion and logging.	eng
56990	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
56990	distribution		This recently described species is known from the area of Municipio de Inzá and Municipio Paéz, Cauca Department, Colombia, although it might occur more widely. It has been collected between 2,400 and 2,670m asl.	eng
56990	habitat		This is a species found in high Andean forest, where specimens were located at night perched along streams. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56990	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
56990	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
56991	conservation		The species has been recorded from at least three protected areas in Panama, including Parque Nacional Chagres. In Colombia its range includes several protected areas.	eng
56991	distribution		This species is known in Panama from east-southeast of the main Tabasara ridge, and adjacent central areas. In Colombia it is known west of the Andes south to Valle del Cauca department, and across the northern edge of the western and central cordilleras, then in to the middle Magdalena valley. It is known up to 1,400m asl.	eng
56991	habitat		It is an understorey inhabitant, mainly found in the leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest humid lowland and montane forest. Direct development is the method of reproduction and the egg deposition site is not known. It is able to tolerate a lot of disturbance of its forest habitat. It has also been found well adapted to shady coffee plantations.	eng
56991	population		There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species in Panama. In Colombia it is an abundant species.	eng
56991	threats		There are no major threats to this quite adaptable species at present.	eng
56992	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
56992	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species is known from humid lowland forests of the Atlantic versant from Nicaragua to eastern Panama, at elevations of 15-646m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
56992	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This nocturnal species inhabits low vegetation within humid lowland and montane forest. It is sometimes found within modified habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56992	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species is common in the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica; it is also abundant in Panama. However, the population at La Selva, Costa Rica appears to have experienced declines (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56992	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Federico Bolaños, 2008	Generally it is threatened by habitat loss resulting from severe deforestation. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
56993	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Cueva de los Guácharos. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
56993	distribution		This Colombian species is known from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the extreme west of the department of Caquetá, as well as from the type locality in the headwaters of the Río Magdalena, in the department of Huila. It occurs at moderate altitudes between 1,350 and 2,040m asl.	eng
56993	habitat		It is nocturnal, occurring on vegetation along streams and on damp soils. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56993	population		It is a common species.	eng
56993	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are the cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
56994	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and urgent protection and restoration of the original native forests in the Tarahumara Mountains is necessary. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56994	distribution		This species is known from eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua (Tarahumara mountains), to Jalisco, Mexico, in the Sierra Madre Occidental, at elevations of around 2,400m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
56994	habitat		It inhabits pine forest and lives under bark and leaves on the ground. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
56994	population		This is a rare species.	eng
56994	threats		The main causes of habitat loss and disturbance in the Tarahumara forests are logging and agriculture (both for crops and livestock).	eng
56995	conservation		Within Costa Rica this species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Corcovado and the Reserva Biólogica el Naranjal; it is not recorded from any protected areas in Panama. Studies are needed to determine the reasons behind the drastic decline, possibly through the disease chytridiomycosis, in this species. Further field studies are urgently needed to locate any remaining individuals.	eng
56995	distribution		This species is known from south-western Costa Rica and extreme south-western Panama, at elevations of 25-525m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
56995	habitat		A nocturnal species associated with rocky areas of streams in humid lowland forest. It breeds via direct development.	eng
56995	population		This is a large species, unlikely to be overlooked, that was formerly very abundant. Since 2000, extensive field work within distribution has revealed only a single individual (photographed in 2001 in Esquinas, Osa Peninsula) (Gerardo Chaves and Brain Kubicki pers. comm. 2007).	eng
56995	threats		A number of other species of the genus <em>Craugastor</em> have suffered serious recent declines, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis. It was suggested during an earlier version of the GAA (2004) that as this species occurs at lower elevations than some of these affected congeners, it might have been at lower risk of infection. However, recent surveys have now located only a single individiual, and it appears as though chytridiomycosis, or a similar disease or event, has resulting in the drastic decline of the population. Outside protected areas, the main threat is habitat loss due to logging.	eng
56996	conservation		This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56996	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, south of Rayón Mescalapa, in Chiapas, Mexico, although it might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is not clear.	eng
56996	habitat		This is presumably a montane forest species that presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
56996	population		There is no recent information regarding its population status, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
56996	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
56997	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
56997	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the departments of Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena, Colombia, from 1,300-2,700m asl.	eng
56997	habitat		This is a nocturnal species that can be observed perching on arboreal bromeliads, in which it shelters during the day. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are also laid on arboreal bromeliads.	eng
56997	population		It is extremely abundant.	eng
56997	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are cultivation and fumigation of crops, and the rearing of livestock.	eng
56998	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. There is a need for improved protection of remaining primary forest within the range of this species.	eng
56998	distribution		This species occurs along the western base of the Andes in Ecuador. It has been recorded from five localities, at elevations between 220 and 830m asl.	eng
56998	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary, perhaps undisturbed, forests, in humid climes (Lynch and Duellman 1997), and breeds by direct development.	eng
56998	population		It is a rare species.	eng
56998	threats		Habitat degradation and loss is particularly severe within its range (primarily due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock, as well as logging and road construction), and much of the remaining habitat is now severely fragmented.	eng
56999	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The taxonomic status of this species requires revision. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
56999	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is known from southern Sinaloa to southwestern Nayarit, Mexico. It occurs between 840 and 2,200m asl.	eng
56999	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It inhabits dry shrubland, tropical dry forest and pine forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
56999	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The species is common in southwestern Nayarit, although not so common in Jalisco (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
56999	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Disturbance and transformation of forest to agricultural land is a major threat.	eng
57000	conservation		Some populations occur within Henri Pittier, Macarao, El Avill and Guatopo National Parks.	eng
57000	distribution		This species is known from the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela, and from the Federal District, and the states of Aragua, Carabobo and Miranda. It has been recorded from 300-1,200m asl.	eng
57000	habitat		It is a nocturnal inhabitant of humid lowland forest and cloud forests. It is not known to occur in open habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57000	population		It is a common species.	eng
57000	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present, and its habitat is well protected.	eng
57001	conservation		Although it occurs in the Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, the area is not effectively managed and most of the threats are taking place within the park's boundaries. Improved management and protection of this area is essential to ensure the persistence of this species.	eng
57001	distribution		This species has a restricted range in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, Cuba, occurring at an altitude of 300-600m asl.	eng
57001	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, found only in closed mesic forests, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57001	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57001	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and deforestation, as a result of the impacts of subsistence farming and charcoaling. Mining within the park might also pose a threat to this species.	eng
57002	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Munchique, Regional Reserve Río Blanco, Parque Nacional Natural Serrania Los Paraguas, Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas, Regional Reserve Ucumari and Regional Reserve Bosques de Florencia.	eng
57002	distribution		This species is known from the Occidental Cordillera (from the departments of Antioquia and Cauca), and from the Occidental slope of the Central Cordillera (from the departments of Valle del Cauca and Caldas) and the Oriental slope of the Central Cordillera (in the department of Caldas), Colombia. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
57002	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary forests (cloud forests), and is also well adapted to disturbed areas. It is active at night, and occurs on low vegetation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57002	population		It is a common species.	eng
57002	threats		The fumigation of crops is a major threat to the species’ habitat.	eng
57003	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but there is often insufficient management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be degraded. More effective management of these protected areas is required to ensure the long-term survival of this species.	eng
57003	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de Cubitas and the Sierra de Najasa, Pan de Matanzas, Sierra de Trinidad, in Cuba. It appears to have a relictual and patchy distribution. It has been recorded from sea level up to 390m asl.	eng
57003	habitat		It is found on large rocks and in caves in broadleaf forest (mesic or semi-xeric), and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57003	population		It is an uncommon species that is difficult to find outside appropriate weather conditions.	eng
57003	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (smallholder farming) and mining.	eng
57004	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is known only from the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area. Survey work is also necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57004	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	One of the smallest frogs in the world, this species has a very restricted range, occurring only on the peaks of Formon and Macaya at high elevations on the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 1,700-2,340 m asl.	eng
57004	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	It is slightly arboreal in closed montane pine and cloud forest with shrubs, tree ferns, bromeliads, and climbing bamboo. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57004	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Believed to be common in suitable habitat, it was last recorded in 1991 (although there have been no surveys of the area since).	eng
57004	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, Robert Powell, 2008	Severe habitat destruction is taking place primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
57005	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but it may occur in the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
57005	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Pilaló, at 2,460-2,480m asl, in the province of Cotopaxi, western Ecuador, but it might occur more widely.	eng
57005	habitat		It is a species of humid upper montane forest. It has been found along forest edges, but is more common inside forest. Adults and juveniles have been found in terrestrial and arboreal bromeliads by day, and perched on vegetation and tree limbs at night. It is presumed to breed by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
57005	population		At the time of its discovery, it was considered to be uncommon. Recent attempts to locate the species at Pilaló have been unsuccessful, but more intensive surveys are needed.	eng
57005	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation which is taking place due to agricultural development (including livestock farming), logging and human settlement. As such, the forest at its only known locality is now severely fragmented.	eng
57006	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Fernando Nogales, Diego Almeida, 2008	In Colombia, it occurs in the Volcán Galeras and Volcán Chiles protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica el Angel and Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
57006	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Fernando Nogales, Diego Almeida, 2008	This species is known from Volcán Galeras (Nariño) and Páramos in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador (Carchi, Imbabura and Napo Provinces). Its altitudinal range is 3,220-4,150m asl.	eng
57006	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Fernando Nogales, Diego Almeida, 2008	It can be found in páramo and sub-páramo habitats. Specimens have been collected by day beneath rocks (Lynch, 1981). It occurs inside leaf axils and holes in <em>Puya</em>, <em>Espeletia</em>, and <em>Cortadeira</em> plants. It is presumed to be a direct development species with eggs that are deposited in moss. It occurs in secondary sub-páramo and in recently burned páramos in Ecuador.	eng
57006	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Fernando Nogales, Diego Almeida, 2008	It was collected in the mid 1990s in Colombia. It was found to be common to abundant in 2000 (Papallacta, Napo) and 2003 (El Angel, Carchi) in Ecuador.	eng
57006	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Santiago Ron, Luis A. Coloma, John Lynch, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Fernando Nogales, Diego Almeida, 2008	It occurs at very high elevations above the level of serious human impact, and so it is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
57007	conservation		This species was collected from within an indigenous reserve. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57007	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the valley of the Río Lari, in Limón Province, Costa Rica, at 400-440m asl.	eng
57007	habitat		The species was recoreded from premontane rainforest.	eng
57007	population		It is known only from two males found calling alongside streams; nothing is currently known about population abundance.	eng
57007	threats		There is little habitat loss within the range of this species.	eng
57008	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
57008	distribution		This species is known from southern Córdoba and western Antioquia departments, south to Valle del Cauca departments, in Colombia, up to at least 1,880m asl.	eng
57008	habitat		It is found in leaf-litter and on epiphytes and bushes in areas of good forest, they also occupy secondary forest and even banana plantations. It is a species that breeds by direct development. Males frequently call from the underside of leaves causing a certain frustration for collectors.	eng
57008	population		This is a common species.	eng
57008	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
57009	conservation		It occurs marginally in Parque Nacional Alejandro de Humboldt, but additional protection of forest habitats is clearly needed. As a stream-associated species of eastern Cuba, this species must be monitored carefully because other stream-dwelling amphibians in the West Indies have disappeared suddenly after being formerly abundant.	eng
57009	distribution		This species is restricted to Macizo de Sagua-Baracoa, eastern Cuba, at an altitude of 195-900m asl.	eng
57009	habitat		This is a riparian/aquatic species occurring in streams and nearby areas in mesic closed forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57009	population		It can be moderately common in the narrow, suitable habitat in which it occurs.	eng
57009	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to deforestation for subsistence farming and logging, and mining.	eng
57010	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios) in Peru. In Brazil it is present in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre. It is not known to occur in any Bolivian protected areas.	eng
57010	distribution		This species is known from central (a single locality) and (presumably) northern Bolivia, central and southern Amazonian Peru (Departmentos Madre de Dios, Cusco and Puno) and recorded from western Acre State, Brazil. This is a lowland species.	eng
57010	habitat		All specimens were found in primary humid tropical rainforest. At Finca Panguana and Cosñipata Valley (Peru) many individuals were found by day, they were in leaf-litter on the forest floor, and others were calling from a log. It breeds by direct development and is not present in modified habitats.	eng
57010	population		It is a common species.	eng
57010	threats		There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration and colonization.	eng
57011	conservation		The species' range is within the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.	eng
57011	distribution		This species is known only from the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, in the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 1,800-2,400m asl.	eng
57011	habitat		It is a nocturnal species, found on low vegetation alongside streams in primary or secondary forest with suitable canopy cover. They lay eggs in the moss beside the stream, and breed by direct development.	eng
57011	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57011	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by subsistence wood collecting and clear cutting, and agricultural expansion (the planting of illegal crops). Water pollution, resulting from spraying of illegal crops, is also a threat.	eng
57012	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Sangay.	eng
57012	distribution		This species is known from low to moderate altitudes (320-1,250m asl) in the valley of the Río Pastaza, on the Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes. It might occur more widely but this requires confirmation.	eng
57012	habitat		It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, and it possibly also adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
57012	population		The population status of this species is not known, and there is very little recent information.	eng
57012	threats		Agricultural development, for both crops and livestock, as well as logging, are major threats to this species’ habitat.	eng
57013	conservation		There are no protected areas near where this species has been found, but one has been proposed for the Sierra de Danta Cruz. Given the likely threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures likely should include the establishment of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
57013	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Izabal, Guatemala, at 900m asl. Recent specimens collected 10km from the type locality might belong to this species.	eng
57013	habitat		It is known to inhabit old-growth premontane wet forest, and is unlikely to be able to adapt to degraded habitats. Individuals have been seen at night along streams. They presumably breed by direct development and are not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
57013	population		There is no information on population status, but congenerics inhabiting similar habitats and elevations have declined significantly.	eng
57013	threats		Habitat destruction is taking place due to recent human settlement, as well as agricultural encroachment and wood extraction. Some other species of <em>Craugastor</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57014	conservation		The range of this species overlaps Parque Nacional Llanganatis, the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, the Reserva Ecológica Antisana, and Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras.	eng
57014	distribution		This species is known from the east slope of the Ecuadorian Andes, from near the border with Colombia, in the province of Sucumbios, south to the Llanganatis Mountains (Napo and Tunguragua Provinces) at altitudes between 2,360 and 3,700m asl.	eng
57014	habitat		it inhabits páramo, sub-páramo, and montane forest habitats. Individuals have been taken by day beneath rocks or logs in pastures or páramos. It also occurs in secondary and old growth forest, but not in heavily degraded areas. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
57014	population		It is common in Sucumbios and Napo (in 2000-2003). However, recent exploration of the Llanganatis Mountains has not revealed any individuals.	eng
57014	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities (crops and livestock ranching), plantations and logging.	eng
57015	conservation		As far as is known, this species occurs only in the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.	eng
57015	distribution		This species is known only from a single forest fragment, the Florencia Forest, Samaná municipality, in Caldas department, on the Cordillera Central of Colombia, from 1,900-2,400m asl.	eng
57015	habitat		A nocturnal species, usually found on low vegetation in dense, reasonably intact forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57015	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57015	threats		The main threats to the species are habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops).	eng
57016	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps the  Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas. There is a need for additional protection of humid montane forest in the range of this species.	eng
57016	distribution		This species is known from nine localities at elevations of 2,870-3,190m asl on the western slopes of the Andes in the provinces of Bolívar, Cañar, and Cotopaxi, Ecuador.	eng
57016	habitat		It has been found at the upper edge of humid montane forest. Although some specimens have been found under rocks by day in disturbed areas, it is more abundant on vegetation in well-preserved forest. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
57016	population		It was common at Casco Totoras in 2003, where the population appears to be stable. However, in some nearby areas its habitat is severely disturbed and fragmented.	eng
57016	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is very serious in its range due primarily to the activities of smallholder farmers and subsistence harvesting of wood.	eng
57017	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57017	distribution		This species occurs mainly in the Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela, extending westwards to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (where it is found in Parque Nacional Natural Tamá at 2,300m asl), Colombia. In Venezuela it is known from Boca de Monte, near Camino de Pregonero in Tachira State, and from La Soledad in Barinas State. Its altitudinal range is 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
57017	habitat		This species is found in cloud forest, where it lives in bromeliads and breeds by direct development.	eng
57017	population		It is an uncommon species, known from only a small number of specimens, including just five from Colombia (though it has been collected again in this country since 2001).	eng
57017	threats		There is little direct information on threats to this species, but human-induced deforestation and habitat alteration are probably having a significant impact on it, due to activities such as smallholder agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
57018	conservation		The forests of Tobago in which this species is found are protected as the Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given that it has such a limited range.	eng
57018	distribution		This species is restricted to lowland parts of north-eastern Tobago Island (in Trinidad and Tobago).	eng
57018	habitat		It is generally associated with forest and more specifically with palm trees. Males call from the ends of palm tree fronds, and females have been found on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development; the site of egg deposition is not known, but may be within the palm trees.	eng
57018	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57018	threats		There are no threats to this species, but its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
57019	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Turquino and Parque Nacional La Bayamesa, but there is no management of these areas for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. As such, improved management of these, and maintenance of the remaining habitat, is urgently needed. Furthermore, this species requires close monitoring given that many other stream-dwelling <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have suddenly disappeared for unexplained reasons, even in pristine habitat.	eng
57019	distribution		This species is restricted to the Sierra Maestra, Cuba, within an altitudinal range of 455-1,400m asl.	eng
57019	habitat		It is aquatic and restricted to high-altitude montane streams in closed cloud forest. It is the most aquatic of all Cuban <em>Eleutherodactylus</em>. It breeds by direct development with eggs that are laid on land.	eng
57019	population		This species is common in suitable habitats, although the availability of this habitat is limited.	eng
57019	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat destruction that is taking place due to agricultural expansion, wood-cutting, disturbance from tourists, and infrastructure development for human settlement; as a high-altitude, cloud forest, stream-dwelling species, it also might be susceptible to chytridiomycosis.	eng
57020	conservation		The range of this species falls within the Macizo Montanoso del Turimiquire Protective Zone, but there is a need for improved management of this area for biodiversity conservation.	eng
57020	distribution		This species is known from La Trinidad, Monte Turimiquire, in a cave at about 1,830m asl, in the eastern portion of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range between Sucre and Monagas States.	eng
57020	habitat		It has been found in a cave in cloud forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57020	population		It is believed to be a rare species.	eng
57020	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture, involving both crops and livestock.	eng
57021	conservation		The Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57021	distribution		This recently described species is known from the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce, Hacienda La Sierra, Municipio de Paipa, Boyacá Department, Colombia, and it might occur more widely. It has been collected at 2,700m asl.	eng
57021	habitat		It is found in both oak and pine forests, where animals have been recorded perched on bromeliads, on leaves and occasionally in the leaf-litter. It is more abundant in native forest than restored (30 year old oak) forest. It is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
57021	population		It is a common species.	eng
57021	threats		The threats to this species are not known. It is currently only known from within a protected area, but it is likely to be impacted by forest loss if it occurs more widely.	eng
57022	conservation		Within Costa Rica the range of this species is protected by several national parks and a private reserve. In Panama it is present in a number of protected areas including Parque Internacional La Amistad and Reserva Forestal Fortuna.	eng
57022	distribution		This species is known from humid premontane slopes of the Cordillera Central, Cordillera Costeña, Cordillera de Tilarán, and Cordillera de Talamanca up to western Panama; also marginally in lower montane belt, at elevations of 920-1,590m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
57022	habitat		A leaf-litter frog primarily of premontane wet forest, rainforest and marginally in lower montane wet forest. It may also be found in secondary forest, plantations (such as shaded coffee) and pastureland. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57022	population		It is described by Savage (2002) and Pounds <em>et al.</em> (1997) as a common species. Because of the difficulty in identifying it, there are no good population data.	eng
57022	threats		There are currently no known threats to the species.	eng
57023	conservation		It occurs in the Luquillo National Forest. In view of the possible risk of disease to this species, the status of this species should be closely monitored, and it might be necessary to establish <em>ex-situ</em> assurance colonies.	eng
57023	distribution		This species has a very restricted distribution in the Sierra del Luquillo, Puerto Rico. Its altitudinal range is from 660-1,039m asl.	eng
57023	habitat		It lives underground in elfin forest, and males call from root cavities of various trees. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
57023	population		The population of this species is currently believed to be stable.	eng
57023	threats		Although the population is currently stable, and there are no immediate major threats to the habitat of this species, its very restricted range and specialized habits make it vulnerable to extinction even in the protected areas of El Yunque through stochastic and/or global processes, which may include climate change and/or chytridiomycosis.	eng
57024	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almendáriz, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica El Angel, Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, and Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo.	eng
57024	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almendáriz, 2008	This species occurs in Andean Valleys from southern Colombia to Central Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is from 2,200-3,400m asl.	eng
57024	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almendáriz, 2008	Normally this species is found in grasslands and cultivated areas in inter-Andean Valleys (Lynch, 1981). The species occurs in the forested regions in the humid temperate and humid sub temperate regimes (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It has also been reported to occur in pastures, ditches, shrubs, crops, forest edges and urban areas (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). By day individuals have been found beneath rocks, dirt clods, wood, bricks, paper, or under the cover of grass (Lynch and Duellman, 1980). At night, males are actively calling on low herbaceous vegetation within one meter of the ground. Reproduction appears to be year-round (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in burrows excavated by the frogs themselves. It can be found in heavily disturbed habitats including downtown Quito.	eng
57024	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almendáriz, 2008	An abundant species in Ecuador, this frog is heard whenever it rains in Quito.	eng
57024	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Lily Rodríguez, Jorge Luis Martinez, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Ana Almendáriz, 2008	It is threatened only by heavy agrochemical pollution.	eng
57025	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and protection of the fragments of cloud forest and pine-oak forests that still remain in the Guerrero area is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57025	distribution		This species is known from Puerto del Gallo, north-central Guerrero, and the Sierra del Sur de Oaxaca, Mexico. The recent record from Oaxaca is probably in error and is currently under taxonomic revision. The type locality in Guerrero is at 2,034m asl.	eng
57025	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak and montane cloud forest remnants, and breeds by direct development.	eng
57025	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57025	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation due to logging and the cultivation of crops.	eng
57026	conservation		There are many populations inside Los Nevados National Natural Park. Some populations are also within the Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve. It might also occur in other protected areas.	eng
57026	distribution		This species is known from Valle del Cauca department northwards to Antioquia department on the Central Cordillera, in Colombia, between 2,250-3,600m asl.	eng
57026	habitat		It occurs in areas from cloud forest up to páramo. It inhabits and thrives in disturbed forests, and is very common on low vegetation next to roads and streams. During the day it can be found under rocks and logs. It is a species that breeds by direct development. It is quite tolerant of habitat destruction; its only requirement is moist conditions.	eng
57026	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57026	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species. However, it should be noted that some other species of Eleutherodactylus that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57027	conservation		The forests on Tobago in which the species occurs are protected, mainly in Little Tobago Game Sanctuary. Further research is needed to establish the reasons for the declines observed in this species.	eng
57027	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Trinidad and Tobago, where it is widespread in forested areas, occurring up to 936m asl. In Venezuela this species has been reported from Distrito Federal, Sucre and Zulia States, occurring up to 500m asl, but these specimens most likely belong to another, as yet undescribed species, and so are not mapped here.	eng
57027	habitat		This is a nocturnal species that lives on bushes or on the ground in tropical forests. The eggs are laid either on the ground or in bromeliads and breeding is by direct development.	eng
57027	population		There is little information on its population status. However, populations on Tobago have declined over the past five years; it is not known whether it is declining on Trinidad.	eng
57027	threats		The threats to this species are unknown. Since declines on Tobago have been taking place within suitable habitat, chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
57028	conservation		Some populations are within Parque Nacional Sierra de La Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.	eng
57028	distribution		This species is known from La Mucuy, Monterey, Monte Zerpa and the Bosque de San Weusebio, in Mérida State, in the Venezuelan Andes, from 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
57028	habitat		It lives in bushes and on the ground in cloud forests and secondary forests. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57028	population		It is a common species.	eng
57028	threats		Its habitats are not seriously threatened at present, and much of its range is in protected areas.	eng
57029	conservation		There are no areas of natural reserve in its distribution area in Colombia. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserca Biológica Limoncocha and Parque Nacional Yasuní. The range of this species also overlaps with Parque Nacional Cordillera Azul and might overlap with Otishi National Park, Peru. It is not recorded from any Brazilian protected areas.	eng
57029	distribution		This species is known from the Amazonian Ecuador and Colombia (Putumayo), western Brazilian Amazonia (Purus River) and eastern Peru (several places in Loreto and a single site in Cusco). Its altitudinal range is from 100-600m asl.	eng
57029	habitat		This species is found in disturbed areas, secondary forests, and in primary forests sitting in bushes at night (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994; Duellman, 1978). During the day it can be found on the forest ground. It breeds by direct development; the eggs are presumably deposited in the leaf-litter, under ground cover and possibly in bushes.	eng
57029	population		It appears to be a common species over much of its range.	eng
57029	threats		Presumably there are no major threats. It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
57030	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but most of these are in need of improved management for conservation.	eng
57030	distribution		This species is widespread in Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 845m asl.	eng
57030	habitat		It is an arboreal species sometimes found in bromeliads, but also outside bromeliads, in mesic forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from tree branches and leaves, and eggs are laid in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
57030	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
57030	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural activities is the main threat.	eng
57031	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57031	distribution		This species is widespread on Cuba, including the Isla de Juventud. It has been recorded from sea level up to 845m asl.	eng
57031	habitat		It occurs in mesic secondary and primary forest and grassland. Males call from grasses and low herbaceous leaves. It has also been recorded from agricultural land, and other disturbed habitats. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57031	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitats.	eng
57031	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
57032	conservation		The species' distribution is within the recently gazetted Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.	eng
57032	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, in the Municipality of Pensilvania, Department of Caldas, in Colombia, at 1,800-2,400m asl.	eng
57032	habitat		It is a nocturnal species, often found perching on medium to high vegetation, next to streams in primary forest with suitable canopy cover. During the day, it is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and lays up to 18 eggs that are deposited on moss, up to 1m above ground.	eng
57032	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57032	threats		The main threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation caused by logging (subsistence wood collecting, clear cutting) and agricultural development (the planting of illegal crops).	eng
57033	conservation		The range of the species overlaps with a few protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
57033	distribution		This species is known only from Serra dos Orgãos in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-1,200m asl.	eng
57033	habitat		This species lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor, or on low vegetation, and breeds in terrestrial bromeliads inside primary or secondary forest. The eggs are not laid in the water of the bromeliad but on the axil of the outer leaves. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
57033	population		It is a common species.	eng
57033	threats		Habitat loss due to clear cutting of the forest was a threat in the past. Infrastructure development for human settlement is an ongoing threat, even inside some protected areas.	eng
57034	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is known to occur only in the Parc National Macaya, but there is no management of this area for conservation, and the habitat continues to be destroyed. Urgent site-based action is required in the Massif de la Hotte to conserve the remaining habitat in the area.	eng
57034	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species has a very restricted distribution on the peaks of Formon and Macaya on the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from 1,700-2,340m asl.	eng
57034	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is a terrestrial species, occurring in open sites in montane closed pine and cloud forest. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57034	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is believed to be common in suitable habitat. It was last recorded in 2006 (Hedges and Díaz 2009).	eng
57034	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss, primarily due to logging (charcoal collection) by local people and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
57035	conservation		In Peru, the range of this species overlaps with Parque Nacional Manu and Tambopata-Candamo National Reserve (Madre de Dios). In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galereas, Reserva Ecológica Antisana and Parque Nacional Llanganates.	eng
57035	distribution		This species is known from the Amazon basin of southern Ecuador, Amazonian Bolivia, and eastern Peru. The presence of this species in Brazil requires further investigation. It is found in lowlands and recorded as high as 1,700m asl by Duellman and Pramuk, (1999).	eng
57035	habitat		high-elevation, premontane and lowland primary forest (including swamp forest) with close canopy and wide leaves. It is usually observed perched on leaves of trees and bushes at night in swamp forest. It has been found in rotten logs during the day. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition site is not known. In Ecuador the species has been found in secondary forest and areas slightly disturbed by agriculture.	eng
57035	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
57035	threats		Presumably there are no major threats. It is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). For Ecuador, climate change has been suggested as a threat to this species.	eng
57036	conservation		Most of the Colombian populations are inside La Planada Natural Reserve. In Ecuador, its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
57036	distribution		This species is known from five localities on the western flank of the Andes in extreme southern Colombia (1,700-2,020m asl) and provinces of Carchi, Cotopaxi, and Pichincha, Ecuador (900-1,800m asl). In Colombia, it occurs on the western slope from the Cordillera Occidental, in the department of Nariño. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57036	habitat		This species can be found in cloud forest in the humid subtropical and temperate regime (Lynch and Duellman 1997). It occurs on vegetation up to 1.5m above ground, inside the forest as well as next to waterfalls. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited on the tops of leaves; the clutch is guarded by an adult. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is unknown.	eng
57036	population		It was found to be rare in 2002-2003 at the La Favorita Experimental Station in Pichincha, but was common at La Planada in Colombia in 1998.	eng
57036	threats		Habitat loss caused by logging and agricultural development (livestock and illegal crops) is a threat. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57037	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	It has been reported for Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda (Gillingwater and Patrikeev, 2004). It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57037	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species is known from southeastern Potosí, Querétaro and northwestern Hidalgo and northern Puebla, Mexico, at 200-2,945m asl.	eng
57037	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This species inhabits montane cloud forest and pine-oak forest, although it has also been found in grazed areas, rock crevices and stone walls. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57037	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	This is a common species.	eng
57037	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Luis Canseco-Márquez, 2009	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
57038	conservation		This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57038	distribution		This species is known from Puebla, Hidalgo and Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
57038	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, although it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57038	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57038	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57039	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with the Santiago Comainas Reserve Zone, Peru. In Ecuador this species occurs in Parque Nacional Podocarpus.	eng
57039	distribution		This species occurs in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. In Ecuador it is known from: the area north of San Lucas, in Loja Province, at 3,100m asl; at Abra Zamora at 2,500-2,800m asl; and at Curintza, Romerillos and Bombuscaro, in Zamora Chinchipe Province, at 2,100m asl. In Peru it occurs in Amazonas Province on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Cóndor and Upper Río Comainas at elevations of 665-1,750m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57039	habitat		Specimens are found beneath stones and logs in sparsely wooded pasture or in cloud forest and sub-páramo habitats. Peruvian specimens were collected at night on vegetation up to 2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
57039	population		It is a common species.	eng
57039	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, logging, mining, and human settlement.	eng
57040	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua and Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
57040	distribution		This species is known from the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and Bolivar, western Ecuador, at elevations of 1,800-3,000m asl.	eng
57040	habitat		It occurs in relatively intact cloud, humid montane, and temperate montane forest. It can be found near streams and in bromeliads. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
57040	population		It is rare throughout much of its range.	eng
57040	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation due to smallholder agricultural activities, and subsistence wood collection. Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57041	conservation		The range of the species includes Parque Nacional Natural Puracé. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57041	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Huila, Nariño and Cauca, on the east slope of the highlands of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, from 2,900-3,275m asl.	eng
57041	habitat		This nocturnal species occurs on vegetation up to 1.5m above ground, inside the forest as well as next to streams. During the day it can be found under rocks and logs, and it is also found in páramo vegetation. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57041	population		It is common.	eng
57041	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss, in particular in Nariño Department, caused by logging and agricultural development for crop cultivation (including illegal crops) and rearing of livestock. Other high-altitude, stream-breeding <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species have undergone declines possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so this might be a potential future threat.	eng
57042	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of remaining habitat in the range of this species.	eng
57042	distribution		This species occurs on mountain crests east and north of Loja, in Loja and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, southern Ecuador, at 2,710-3,100m asl. It is known from only three localities.	eng
57042	habitat		It inhabits páramo grassland and sub-páramo bush land. Specimens have been collected beneath rocks or on vegetation. It is not known whether or not it tolerates habitat degradation. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development, but the site of egg deposition is not known.	eng
57042	population		It was relatively common in the late 1960s, but there has been much habitat loss since then, and insufficient fieldwork in the area where it occurs.	eng
57042	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation which is taking place due to agricultural development (including livestock farming) and human settlement.	eng
57043	conservation		Some populations of this species are slightly below the Florencia Forest, an area that is in the process of being declared a natural reserve area. Unfortunately they will most likely not be included in this reserve, however protection of this species' habitat is probably not necessary at present as it is tolerant of significant disturbance of its habitat.	eng
57043	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Antioquia and Caldas on the Oriental slope, of the northern central Cordillera, and from the occidental slope of the oriental Cordillera in the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. It has been recorded from 800-1,880m asl.	eng
57043	habitat		A nocturnal species, it is usually found under bushes, in forest edge, secondary forest, and open areas in forests. It breeds by direct development. It is able to withstand significant disturbance of its forest habitat and actually seems to benefit from it.	eng
57043	population		It is a common species especially in secondary forest.	eng
57043	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species at present.	eng
57044	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57044	distribution		Pristimantis vilarsi is known from Brazil (only from the Purus river), Colombia (between the river Guaviare and Caquetá), northern Peru (one record in Loretoyacu, in the department of Loreto) and from southern Venezuela. <br/><br/>In Venezuela it is distributed through all known lowland rainforest south of the Orinoco river, except for the extreme eastern ones (e.g. Imataca) (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).<br/><br/>It has been recorded from 100-1230 masl.	eng
57044	habitat		This species is found in the leaf-litter of lowland tropical rainforest. It is easily found at night, on low plants, leaves, rocks, mossy walls, and on the ground, near or far from streams. During the day it can be found on leaf litter. Calling males have been seen on rainy nights in May 2005 at Tobogán de la Selva, Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas state, Venezuela (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).<br/><br/>It is a direct developing species, although the egg deposition site is not known. It is apparently able to adapt to some disturbance of its habitat.	eng
57044	population		It is a common species.	eng
57044	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
57045	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57045	distribution		This species is confined to eastern Brazil in the State of Bahia, from Prado north to Santa Teresinha. Records from Perambuco and Alagoas require confirmation. It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
57045	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest, and forest edge. It does not occur in more open areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57045	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57045	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.	eng
57046	conservation		Some populations occur within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Los Farallones.	eng
57046	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca, on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,700-2,680m asl.	eng
57046	habitat		It occurs on grasses along roads and forest edge, and is never found far from forest. A nocturnal species, during the day it can be found under rocks and logs in forested areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57046	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57046	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by deforestation for agricultural development (including the cultivation of illegal crops).	eng
57047	conservation		Three of the localities in which it occurs are within Parque Nacional de Las Orquídeas, and the fourth is in Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo.	eng
57047	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the western part of Antioquia Department, on the western and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and from one locality in northern Antioquia Department, on the northern face of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia, between 1,480 and 1,940m asl,	eng
57047	habitat		It is restricted to very humid forests, and occurs on Araceae vegetation and ferns, up to 1.5m above the ground. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57047	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57047	threats		There are no threats to the species' habitat at present as its known range is wholly within two parks.	eng
57048	conservation		The range of this species includes Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve.	eng
57048	distribution		This Mexican endemic ranges from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental in western Mexico from the Rio Fuerte drainage in northern Sinaloa, to the Rio Balsas drainage in southwestern Michoacán.	eng
57048	habitat		This species inhabits lowland dry forest and premontane dry forest from 60-2,150m asl. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57048	population		This is a common species.	eng
57048	threats		Infrastructure development for human settlements and logging are threats to the forest habitat of this species.	eng
57049	conservation		While there are no specific conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from many protected areas in Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
57049	distribution		This species is known from very humid lowland and premontane areas from southwestern Costa Rica to western central Panama on the Pacific versant and in central Panama on the Atlantic slope, at elevations of sea level to 1,700m asl (Savage, 2002); this species is not present in Colombia.	eng
57049	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of relatively pristine humid lowland and montane forest, secondary forests and tree plantations. Breeding takes place in bromeliads and it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57049	population		It is a common species that is regularly seen in southern Costa Rica.	eng
57049	threats		It is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.	eng
57050	conservation		It is present in the Los Tuxtlas National Biosphere Reserve. Further survey work is needed to establish the current population status of the species.	eng
57050	distribution		This species is known only from the isolated Sierra de Los Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, Mexico, at altitudes between 400 and 1,200m asl.	eng
57050	habitat		It occurs along streams in premontane and lower montane wet forests; it is not known if this species can adapt to habitat modification. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57050	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57050	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss in the region.	eng
57051	conservation		Its range overlaps Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Parque Nacional Machalilla and Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute.	eng
57051	distribution		This species is known from more than ten localities on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, from 100-1,270m asl.	eng
57051	habitat		Although it occurs in wet areas, the species can also tolerate conditions in the relatively dry forests. It occurs in humid subtropical regime, humid tropical regime, dry subtropical regime and dry tropical regime (Lynch and Duellman, 1997). It is more commonly found in forests, but can also be found in plantations and highly disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57051	population		It is a common species.	eng
57051	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, agricultural pollution and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat. Its habitat is presently severely fragmented.	eng
57052	conservation	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	There are no protected areas on the island, and so effective protection of the species' remaining habitat is needed to ensure its persistence.	eng
57052	distribution	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	This species is restricted to Ile de la Tortue, in Haiti, where it has been recorded from around 400 m asl.	eng
57052	habitat	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	It is a terrestrial species, found on rocks and in leaf-litter, in xeric hardwood forest. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57052	population	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	There is little information available on this species' population status. It has not been collected since it was first described, although there has been no recent survey work for this species.	eng
57052	threats	Blair Hedges, Richard Thomas, 2008	Extensive habitat degradation, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture, is taking place on Ile de la Tortue.	eng
57053	conservation		The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57053	distribution		This species is endemic to Hispaniola. It is widespread in eastern Hispaniola and occurs in central Haiti. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 788m asl.	eng
57053	habitat		It is terrestrial in a variety of mesic habitats, including plantations, woods, gardens, ravines, and trash piles in urban areas. Males call from caves, rocks, or low vegetation. Eggs are laid on the ground and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57053	population		This is a common species.	eng
57053	threats		There are no known threats to this species currently, although habitat destruction is taking place.	eng
57054	conservation		Its distribution includes several protected areas, but most are in need of greatly improved management and protection. There is also a need for improved habitat protection at unprotected sites where this species is known to occur, particularly in the Massif de la Selle.	eng
57054	distribution		This species occurs in the Tiburon Peninsula, east to the Massif de la Selle, and also in the Massif du Nord, in Hispaniola. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,324m asl.	eng
57054	habitat		It is arboreal in mesic broadleaf forest, and is found in bromeliads and other plants. It can also be found in the leaf axils of banana plantations. Males call from the forest canopy, and eggs are laid in bromeliads; breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
57054	population		It is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
57054	threats		Severe habitat destruction is taking place within its range, due to charcoaling and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
57055	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain the remaining habitat at the known localities. Further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
57055	distribution		This species is known from two localities at altitudes of 1,600 and 1,735m asl in humid montane forest on the western slope of the Cordillera de Huancabamba, in Piura Department, Peru.	eng
57055	habitat		It is a humid montane cloud forest species that has also been recorded from disturbed habitats. Calling takes place from low vegetation and this species breeds by direct development.	eng
57055	population		It is common where it is found, although few individuals have been observed.	eng
57055	threats		The threats to it are unclear, although there is some destruction and loss of habitat in the area due to livestock grazing and subsistence collection of wood.	eng
57056	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, most of which are well managed. Further research is necessary to determine the reasons for the species' decline.	eng
57056	distribution		This species is restricted to the interior uplands of Puerto Rico, where it has been recorded from 150-1,189m asl.	eng
57056	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, occurring in mesic upland forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. Males call from low vegetation, and breeding is by direct development.	eng
57056	population		Studies show that populations of this species are declining in both the higher and lower elevations of its range (R. Joglar pers. comm.).	eng
57056	threats		Although some habitat destruction is taking place (due to agriculture and infrastructure development for roads and human settlement), the primary reason for the observed declines is believed to be chytridiomycosis (acting in combination with climate change).	eng
57057	conservation	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	In Colombia because of its extensive distribution many of this species populations are inside protected areas: Munchique, Los Farallones, Las Orquideas, Tatama, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Cueva de los Guacharos, Las Hermosas, Los Nevados, and Purace National Natural Parks; La Planada Natural Reserve, and some areas that are in the process of being declared protected areas like Los Paraguas Mountains and Florencia forest. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Reserva Geobotánica Pululahua, Parque Necional Cotopaxi, Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva de Producción Faunística Chimborazo, and Area de Recreación Cajas.	eng
57057	distribution	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	This species is known from lower montane and cloud forest at 800-3,300m asl on both Pacific and Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Colombia and Ecuador. It occurs from southern Ecuador, to the three Cordilleras and the northern area from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. It is the most widespread <em>Pristimantis</em> in the Colombian Andes. The records from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta might be in error.	eng
57057	habitat	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	It occurs in deforested and disturbed areas, next to streams or far from them, in cloud forest and sub-páramo habitats. It is tolerant of substantial habitat disturbance. It also occurs inside old-growth forest, but it is not very common. It perches on vegetation up to 3m above ground, during the day it can be found on fallen leaves. It breeds by direct development and the egg deposition occurs under rocks.	eng
57057	population	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	It is abundant in Colombia, although it has been declining in some localities in Ecuador. It appears to undergo population fluctuations. For example in Huacalito, the species ranged from common to absent to common over the course of six years. Populations in western Cundinamarca were common until the mid 1940s but have not been observed in numerous trips between the late 1960s and 2000. In Ecuador, it was previously abundant at many localities, although it has been recently found at sites such as Bosque Protector Cashca Totoras, Provincia Bolívar, Reserva Otonga (QCAZ database) it is not as common as in the past. (Bustamante 2002; L. Coloma pers. obs.)	eng
57057	threats	Fernando Castro, Maria Isabel Herrera, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, 2008	Presumably extinctions in western Cundinamarca are a result of water pollution from Bogotá. It should be noted that some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus sensu lato</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully (the disappearances in western Cundinamarca appear to predate the appearance of chytridiomycosis as a threat to amphibians).	eng
57058	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of this species. A protected area would be desirable for this species, to prevent human disturbance from reducing the species' already restricted range in the future. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
57058	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Deude Paramo, in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, on an isolated mountain at 3,300-3,600m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57058	habitat		It occurs in grasses in páramo, where it breeds by direct development.	eng
57058	population		This species is known from only a few specimens.	eng
57058	threats		There are no threats to at present as it occurs at such high altitudes that there are no human disturbances to its habitat.	eng
57059	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá.	eng
57059	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, which is given as El Cerro de Tatama, in Choco Department, Colombia, at 4,050m asl. However, this locality is actually in Risaralda Department.	eng
57059	habitat		The habitat at the type locality is páramo. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57059	population		The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from one specimen.	eng
57059	threats		There are no threats to its habitat at present as it is at too high an altitude for human interest.	eng
57060	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas, Biotopo del Quetzal, and the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatanes.	eng
57060	distribution		This species occurs in the central highlands of Guatemala, including the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, the Sierra de Xucaneb, and the Sierra de las Minas. It lives at 600-1,300m asl.	eng
57060	habitat		It lives in cloud forest, including slightly degraded forest, and is usually found on bushes and undergrowth. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
57060	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57060	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, extraction of wood, and human settlement.	eng
57061	conservation		It is not currently recorded from any protected area, but there are ongoing efforts to transform the Serrania de los Paraguas into a wildlife reserve. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.	eng
57061	distribution		This species is known only from two sites on the crest of the Serranía de los Paraguas on the border of the departments of Chocó and Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 2,100-2,250m asl.	eng
57061	habitat		Individuals perch on low vegetation inside dense undisturbed forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57061	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57061	threats		There are no threats to the species' habitat at present, but there are plans to build a road along the Serranía de los Paraguas that will threaten the species' habitat in the future if it goes ahead as planned.	eng
57062	conservation		Its range includes Monumento Natural Los Tepuyes.	eng
57062	distribution		This species is known from the summit of Cerro Yaví, at 2,150m asl, and Cerro Yutajé, at 1,700m asl, in Amazonas State, Venezuela. Its distribution is not very well known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57062	habitat		It is nocturnal, and has been found on low vegetation in wet, mossy forests and in bromeliads (such as <em>Brocchinia</em> species) in Cerro Yutajé. It has been found on low vegetation in cooler forest and on a more open, windy site, perched on a dry leaf, at the summit of Cerro Yaví. Some specimens have also been found under slabs of rock. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
57062	population		It is reported to be the most common <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> species on Cerro Yaví (Myers and Donnelly 1996), and is in general a common species.	eng
57062	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57063	conservation		A portion of this species' range is within the Reserva de la Biósfera Sian Ka'an, which affords it some protection. Protection of the original forest in the Yucatan Peninsula is also recommended. This species is protected by Mexican Law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57063	distribution		This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, in east-central Yucatan and north-central Quintana Roo, Mexico. The type locality is 10m asl.	eng
57063	habitat		Its habitat is lowland tropical semi-deciduous and deciduous forest. It is both terrestrial and arboreal and is sometimes found in caverns and cenotes. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57063	population		It is rarely encountered but is occasionally locally common.	eng
57063	threats		The major threats to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to tourist activities, in particular along the Quintana Roo Mayan area.	eng
57064	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	The species is protected by national parks or natural monuments throughout its range.	eng
57064	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	This species is known from Amazonas state in Venezuela, southernmost Colombia, from Roraima and Amapá in Brazil, Suriname, French Guiana and Guyana. It has been recorded from 10-300m asl.	eng
57064	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is usually found in the litter of tropical rainforests. It breeds by direct development, although the egg deposition site is not known. The ability of this species to adapt to modified habitats is not known.	eng
57064	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is generally not a common species, but is reportedly common in French Guiana.	eng
57064	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	There are no known threats to this widespread species.	eng
57065	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas (such as Parque Nacional Viñales), but there is a need to improve the management of these reserves for conservation.	eng
57065	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Sierra de los Organos and the Sierra del Rosario, in western Cuba. It has been recorded from 75-182m asl.	eng
57065	habitat		This is a large species that is found in rock crevices and caves in mesic broadleaf forest. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat and is always associated with limestone. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57065	population		It can be locally common, but is also uncommon in some localities; only a few individuals have been recorded at one locality in the Viñales region, despite many collections in nearby areas (B. Hedges pers. comm.).	eng
57065	threats		The main threat is infrastructure development for tourism, and the disturbance of habitat by tourist activities.	eng
57066	conservation		Several protected areas are present within the range of this species (WWF-INPA conservation units).	eng
57066	distribution		This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil at 10-60m asl, and has been recorded from INPA WWF reserves near Manaus, and also from reserves near Belem. It is presumably much more widespread, especially in the intervening parts of the Amazon basin between Manaus and Belem.	eng
57066	habitat		It occurs in the leaf-litter of tropical rainforest, and is also found in secondary and degraded habitats. Egg deposition and direct development takes place on land.	eng
57066	population		It appears to be a common species.	eng
57066	threats		Fires are a threat to this species.	eng
57067	conservation		Surveys are urgently needed to establish whether or not this species still survives in the wild.	eng
57067	distribution		This species is only known from Zongo Valley, in Murillo Province, in the department of La Paz, Bolivia, at 1,250m asl (Reichle and Köhler 1997).	eng
57067	habitat		The single specimen was found under rocks in Yungas forest (Reichle and Köhler 1997). The absence of finger discs suggests it is a terrestrial species. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57067	population		It is known only from the holotype, which was collected in January 1996. A subsequent visit to the type locality in 1999 and then in 2002/2003 found no individuals and it might now be extinct.	eng
57067	threats		The type locality has been entirely destroyed with the construction of a hydroelectric power plant.	eng
57068	conservation		The range of the species does not include any protected areas, and protection of its habitat is clearly needed, particularly given its reliance upon intact forest.	eng
57068	distribution		This species is known from three localities in Antioquia Department, on the northern Cordillera Occidental of Colombia, from 2,030-2,800m asl.	eng
57068	habitat		It is usually found perched on very low vegetation, up to 20cm above the ground, along streams inside primary or secondary forest or forest edge, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. It is nocturnal, and breeds by direct development.	eng
57068	population		It is a common species.	eng
57068	threats		The major threat is habitat loss caused by agricultural development (primarily for cattle and the cultivation of illegal crops). Some other species of <em>Eleutherodactylus</em> that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57069	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but many of these are in need of improved management.	eng
57069	distribution		This species has a restricted range in the Sierra del Rosario, the Sierra de Camarones, and Pan de Matanzas, in western and central Cuba. It has been recorded from 155-390m asl.	eng
57069	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found in mesic broadleaf forest, and has not been recorded outside forest habitat. At the Sierra de Camarones locality it is found on rocks. Eggs are laid on the ground, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57069	population		It is a rare species; in several decades of field work B. Hedges (pers. comm.) encountered it only once.	eng
57069	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, infrastructure development for human settlement, and tourism; agricultural pollution may also be having a negative impact on populations.	eng
57070	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
57070	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of the departments of Valle del Cauca, Choco, Risaralda and Antioquia, in northwestern Colombia, from 230-800m asl.	eng
57070	habitat		This is a nocturnal species, occurring in primary forest or gallery forest. It is found along streams or rivers and seems partial to waterfalls, and can even be found on rocks in the middle of the river. It breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in depressions on the soil. It is restricted to gallery forest.	eng
57070	population		It is a large, common frog.	eng
57070	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops, and pollution resulting from fumigation of illegal crops is a threat. It should be noted that some other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus </span>that are associated with streams have undergone dramatic declines and disappearances, possibly due to chytridiomycosis, so the status of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
57071	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirements is needed.	eng
57071	distribution		This species is known from Serra dos Orgãos and the coastal mountains of Rio de Janeiro city, in Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57071	habitat		This species occurs on the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest. There is no information known about its breeding habits, though it is believed to be by direct development. It has also been recorded from domestic gardens near the forest, that also have trees.	eng
57071	population		It is a common species.	eng
57071	threats		Habitat loss due to clear-cutting of the forest, and illegal infrastructure development for human settlement even within protected areas are major threats to the species.	eng
57072	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and ecological requirement is needed.	eng
57072	distribution		This species is known from Serra dos Orgãos, and the lowlands of Silva Jardim and Casimiro de Abreu, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
57072	habitat		This species occurs among the forest leaf-litter in primary and secondary forest. There is no information known about breeding, though it is believed to be by direct development. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
57072	population		It is a common species.	eng
57072	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation and infrastructure development for human settlement, including illegal development within protected areas, is a major threat to the species.	eng
57073	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection in the Miomoso do Sul.	eng
57073	distribution		This species is known only from Mimoso do Sul, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 70m asl. With survey work, it probably will be shown to occur more widely.	eng
57073	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57073	population		It is reasonably common at the only known locality.	eng
57073	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlement.	eng
57074	conservation		It occurs in the Estacion Biólogica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
57074	distribution		This species is known only from near Santa Teresa, in the State of Espirito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at around 650m asl. It might be more widespread.	eng
57074	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary forest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57074	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57074	threats		The area where the species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where the species might occur), due to agriculture (including wood plantations), logging, human settlement, and tourism.	eng
57075	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	Present in at least 10 national parks of Chile and Argentina. Legislation to protect native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.	eng
57075	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is widespread within the <em>Nothofagus</em> temperate forests of Chile and Argentina from 39° 30'S to 49° 10'S. Its altitudinal range is from 10-1,300m asl.	eng
57075	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	It occurs in shady microhabitats (swamps and streams borders) in humid forests dominated by <em>Nothofagus</em> spp. Larval development takes place in water-filled cavities on the ground; the species has free-swimming tadpoles. It may be present in slightly disturbed habitat.	eng
57075	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	The species is common in appropriate habitats.	eng
57075	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Néstor Basso, 2008	General habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation is a major threat. Water pollution caused by forestry work is also a threat.	eng
57076	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It occurs in the Contulmo National Monument. There is a need for improved protection of native temperate forest habitat in this region of Chile.	eng
57076	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Contulmo National Monument, Bío-Bío Province, south-central Chile, at an elevation of 50-350m asl. Considering the available habitat in the region, the range is probably not much larger than is currently recognized.	eng
57076	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It can be found under logs and rocks in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and does not tolerate extensive habitat disturbance. It lays eggs in small, terrestrial water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.	eng
57076	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is generally uncommon. A small series was collected most recently in 2002.	eng
57076	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss as a result of conversion to large-scale pine and eucalyptus plantations. There is also disturbance of the habitat from tourist activities.	eng
57077	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Néstor Basso, 2008	The species is present in at least six national parks in Chile and one in Argentina. Legislation to protect the native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.	eng
57077	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is mostly found in the temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forests of Chile (40° 50'S to 45° 20'S), with a single known locality in Argentina (Lago Puelo National Park, Chubut Province) (Ubeda <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,500m asl.	eng
57077	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is a terrestrial species of humid forests associated with cold streams. Larval development takes place in water-filled cavities on the ground. Adults occur under logs or in small holes at the edges of forest streams. Males call in the breeding season from small holes during the daytime. Females deposit eggs inside the holes and free-swimming tadpoles characterize the species. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.	eng
57077	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Néstor Basso, 2008	Populations are generally small. During the breeding season, up to 15 individuals can aggregate. It was last recorded during November 2002.	eng
57077	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Ramón Formas, Néstor Basso, 2008	Destruction and degradation of native <em>Nothofagus forests</em> (generally through fires and plantation forestry with exotic species) are major threats.	eng
57078	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It occurs in Nahuelbuta National Park, which is relatively well managed, but there is a need for additional protection of native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest.	eng
57078	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is known only from three localities located not far from each other: Pichinahuel, Rucapehuen, and Ramadillas, all in Arauco Province, Chile. Its altitudinal range is from 100-800m asl.	eng
57078	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is commonly found under logs and rocks in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Although it can persist near streams in disturbed areas, it does not occur in pine plantations. Eggs are laid in small, terrestrial water-filled holes on hillsides, where the larvae develop.	eng
57078	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is locally common within its limited range.	eng
57078	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of wood extraction and conversion to pine and eucalyptus plantations. There is also some habitat disturbance from tourist activities.	eng
57079	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca and the Monumento Natural Cerro Ñielol. Legislation to protect the <em>Nothofagus</em> forest habitat is needed.	eng
57079	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is known from 38°S to 40°S in Cautín and Valdivia Provinces, Chile, from 50-1,000m asl.	eng
57079	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species can be found under logs close to swamps or streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, and it may persist in fairly disturbed areas. Eggs are deposited in small, water-filled holes on hillsides.	eng
57079	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is locally common.	eng
57079	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction and establishment of pine and eucalyptus plantations. In the northern part of its range it is threatened by forest fires.	eng
57080	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Carmen Úbeda, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca and Parque Natural Alerce Costero in Chile. In Argentina, it occurs in Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi. There is a need for improved legislation to protect remaining tracts of <em>Nothofagus</em> forest in the range of this species.	eng
57080	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Carmen Úbeda, 2008	This species occurs in the lake region of Chile, approximately from 40°S to 44°S, and from a single locality in Argentina (Puerto Blest, Río Negro Province). Its altitudinal range is from 50-1,000m asl.	eng
57080	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Carmen Úbeda, 2008	This species is found under large logs and rocks near streams in temperate <em>Nothofagus</em> forest. Eggs are deposited in small, water-filled holes on hillsides.	eng
57080	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Carmen Úbeda, 2008	It is uncommon even in suitable habitats. In Chile it was recorded as recently as November 2002, but there have been no records for Argentina since 1973.	eng
57080	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Jose Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Carmen Úbeda, 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction and establishment of pine and eucalyptus plantations.	eng
57081	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
57081	distribution		This species is known only from the north-western and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, northern Colombia, from 1,550-2,870m asl. It may occur more widely than current records suggest, but is likely to be restricted to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
57081	habitat		It is both nocturnal and diurnal, and appears to be confined to forest where it occurs under rocks and logs (which is also where it lays its eggs). Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57081	population		It is a common species.	eng
57081	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and destruction due to agriculture.	eng
57082	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57082	distribution		This montane species from south-eastern Brazil occurs in the states of Sao Paulo, extreme south-western Rio de Janeiro, and extreme southern Minas Gerais, from 1,500-2,500m asl.	eng
57082	habitat		It lives in high-altitude grassy fields with rocks in open areas. Breeding in this species is probably by direct development.	eng
57082	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57082	threats		Its only threats are likely to be the impacts of tourism and fire on its habitat.	eng
57083	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57083	distribution		This species is known only from the State of Acre in the Brazilian Amazon. Its range is very poorly known, and it presumably ranges more widely, including into neighbouring Peru and Bolivia.	eng
57083	habitat		This species can be found in the forest floor in the tropical rainforest. Reproductive mode is unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in water.	eng
57083	population		Few specimens have been collected. Its abundance is unknown.	eng
57083	threats		Some logging for timber is now taking place within its range, but overall it occurs in an area of limited human impact.	eng
57084	conservation		It occurs in many conservation units.	eng
57084	distribution		This species? distribution is in the Amazon basin, from Colombia, Peru and French Guiana to the Amazon River in Brazil. It is rare in French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). There is a dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). Its altitudinal range is from 0-200m asl.	eng
57084	habitat		It occurs in marshes, swamps, and flooded forest. Lescure and Marty (2001) suggest that males also call from flooded holes. Reproduction is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development in water.	eng
57084	population		It is an uncommon to rare species.	eng
57084	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
57085	conservation		Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57085	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, Lima Duarte, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, although it might occur more widely. This locality is at around 1,000m asl.	eng
57085	habitat		This diurnal species is found along, and breeds in, streams in secondary forest (there being no remaining primary forest at the type locality).	eng
57085	population		It is a common species at the type locality.	eng
57085	threats		Disturbance from tourism is its main threat.	eng
57086	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57086	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Paraná, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57086	habitat		It is active diurnally on rocks and low vegetation along larger forest streams and small forest rivers, including both primary and old secondary forest. The tadpoles live in streams with rocky bottoms where the water is relatively calm.	eng
57086	population		It is generally common, but is uncommon in some places. It appeared to decline significantly in Boracéia, from being once common, it was considered locally extinct in 1998, it has recently been captured again using pit-fall traps.	eng
57086	threats		There are few threats, since it lives in steep areas with little development, and much of its habitat protected. The effects of tourism and water pollution are probably the most significant impacts.	eng
57087	conservation		The only known locality is within Parque Nacional do Caparaó.	eng
57087	distribution		This species is known from one locality in the Caparaó Mountains, on the border of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo States, in Brazil, where it has been recorded at around 2,000m asl.	eng
57087	habitat		This diurnal species is found along streams in primary and secondary forest. The larvae presumably live in shallow rivelets in the forest, as with other species in the genus.	eng
57087	population		Its population status is unknown. There are no recent records of this species, but there has not been sampling of the area for a long time. Surveys in 1981,1987 and 1988 failed to find any individuals.	eng
57087	threats		Its major threats are unknown, but its habitat is enclosed within a protected area.	eng
57088	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos.	eng
57088	distribution		This species is known from Alto do Soberbo in the Serra dos Orgãos, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, where it occurs from 800-1,500m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known and it might occur more widely.	eng
57088	habitat		This diurnal species is usually found along streams in primary and good quality secondary rainforest. Males are observed calling along streams, in which this species breeds.	eng
57088	population		It is very common.	eng
57088	threats		Clear-cut logging and infrastructure development for human settlement are the major threats to its habitat.	eng
57089	conservation	Patricia Narvaes, Dante Pavan, 2004	The range of this species includes the Estação Ecológica da Juréia-Itatins.	eng
57089	distribution	Patricia Narvaes, Dante Pavan, 2004	This species is known from the Serra dos Itatins, in São Paulo State, Brazil, from 50-700m asl.	eng
57089	habitat	Patricia Narvaes, Dante Pavan, 2004	This diurnal species inhabits small streams in primary and secondary forest. Males are territorial and call from rocks along streams. Oviposition takes place in submerged nests, previously excavated by the male in sand and gravel.	eng
57089	population	Patricia Narvaes, Dante Pavan, 2004	It is very common in primary forest, but is less common in secondary forest.	eng
57089	threats	Patricia Narvaes, Dante Pavan, 2004	Habitat loss due to the felling of palm trees is a threat to its habitat, and is also occurring within the protected area in which the species is found. Infrastructure development for human settlement and disturbance by tourists are also threats.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
57090	conservation		The type locality is within Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
57090	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerias States, Brazil, between 2,000-2,500m asl.	eng
57090	habitat		This diurnal species occurs on rocks and low vegetation along forest streams in primary and secondary forest, and has also been observed in open grassland. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57090	population		Its population status is unknown, and it was last collected in 1976.	eng
57090	threats		Fire, disturbance from tourism, and extreme frosts are its major threats.	eng
57091	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
57091	distribution		This species from southern Brazil is known from the Serro do Mar in the south-western part of the state of São Paulo, and from the eastern part of the state of Paraná. It is also known from the Ilha do Cardoso in Cananéia Municipality, in São Paulo State. Its altitudinal range is 100-1,100m asl.	eng
57091	habitat		This species found in primary and old secondary forest is active during the day on rocks and low vegetation along larger forest streams and small forest rivers. The males call from shaded places near streams on rocks and in rock crevices and caves. The larvae live in streams with rocky bottoms where the water is relatively calm.	eng
57091	population		It is common.	eng
57091	threats		This species' major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development for crops, livestock grazing logging, tourism, and human settlement. It is probably also at risk from water pollution.	eng
57092	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57092	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: extreme southeastern Minas Gerais; south and central Espírito Santo; Rio de Janeiro; and east to central São Paulo. It's altitudinal range is 600-1,500m asl.	eng
57092	habitat		It is a diurnal species of primary and secondary forest, not being found in open areas. It lives on rocks and low vegetation along forest streams. It breeds in small streams.	eng
57092	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57092	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, tourism, fire and human settlement. It is probably also at risk from water pollution.	eng
57093	conservation	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	Its range includes Parque Estadual de Campos do Jordão, and a few other small parks.	eng
57093	distribution	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	This species is known from the type locality (Campos do Jordão, in São Paulo State), and also Monte Verde, Camanducaia, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It has been recorded from 1,400-1,800m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57093	habitat	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	This diurnal species occurs on stones or hidden under rocks in forest stream margins in primary and good secondary forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
57093	population	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	It is a common species.	eng
57093	threats	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, 2004	Tourism disturbance is a threat to it, as is infrastructure development for human settlement.<br/><br/>The species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection with a variety of methods. Although infected tadpoles appear to co-exist with the disease, the presence of the fungus is of concern given the threats that assail the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest (Toledo et al., 2006a).	eng
57094	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas, included Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral National Parks.	eng
57094	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	This species occurs in extreme southern Santa Catarina and in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 400-1,000m asl.	eng
57094	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	It occurs in forest, inhabiting streams and cascades with clear running water. Males calls on stones or hidden under rocks at the stream margin. The spawn is probably deposited below stones in slow flowing streams.	eng
57094	population	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	It is abundant and stable in appropriate habitats.	eng
57094	threats	Paulo Garcia, Magno Vicente Segalla, 2004	Water pollution, deforestation, and pine and banana plantations are all threats.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006b).	eng
57095	conservation		The type locality is in Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.	eng
57095	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra do Mar, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It most probably occurs elsewhere along this mountain range but no sampling has been carried in the potential range. The known locality is at around 800m asl.	eng
57095	habitat		This diurnal species presumably occurs in small rivulets in the Serra do Mar mountains. The known locality is good secondary forest. No information is known about this species' breeding habits, but it presumably breeds in the small rivulets and the larvae develop in streams, as with other species in the genus.	eng
57095	population		The population is unknown and it is presently only known from a few specimens.	eng
57095	threats		Its threats are unknown, but the known locality is within a protected area, affording its habitat some protection. There was some logging of the area in the past, and air pollution was also a past threat.	eng
57096	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
57096	distribution		This species occurs in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, Brazil. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
57096	habitat		It is a diurnal species found in forest streams in primary and secondary forest. It breeds in the small rivulets, and the tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
57096	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57096	threats		Habitat loss due to infrastructure development for human settlement, clear cutting of forests and fire are localized threats, but there is no major threat to the species overall.	eng
57097	conservation		Both of the known localities are within protected areas; Parque Nacional do Itatiaia and Parque Municipal da Serra do Japi. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is required. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the two known localities.	eng
57097	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais States) and from Serra do Japi in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. It has been recorded between 800-2,000m asl. It presumably occurs in suitable habitat between these localities.	eng
57097	habitat		It is a diurnal species found in streams in primary and secondary forest. It presumably breeds in the small rivulets and the tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
57097	population		It is a common species.	eng
57097	threats		Livestock farming was a threat in the past in Serro do Japi. Fire might also be a threat at this locality, and there is also disturbance from military activities and tourism.	eng
57098	conservation		All its known localities are in protected areas.	eng
57098	distribution		This species is known from two localities at around 1,200m asl in the Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It probably occurs more widely, but its distribution is poorly known.	eng
57098	habitat		It occurs at permanent stream margins in riparian forests in primary and secondary gallery forests. Larvae were found in the same streams.	eng
57098	population		It is not a very common species.	eng
57098	threats		Habitat degradation due to tourism and fire are the major threats to this species.	eng
57099	conservation	Paulo Garcia, 2004	It occurs in Grutas de Botuvera and one other Municipal park.	eng
57099	distribution	Paulo Garcia, 2004	This species occurs in eastern and coastal Santa Catarina, southern Brazil, at 150-1,000m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
57099	habitat	Paulo Garcia, 2004	It occurs on stones or hidden under rocks at forest streams margins in rainforest. It reproduces in streams.	eng
57099	population	Paulo Garcia, 2004	It is common and stable in suitable habitat.	eng
57099	threats	Paulo Garcia, 2004	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
57100	conservation	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Ana Maria Telles, Jaime Bertoluci, 2004	The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed, in particular to try and determine what caused the apparent decline.	eng
57100	distribution	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Ana Maria Telles, Jaime Bertoluci, 2004	This species is known from Serra do Mar, in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro State, and Ilha Grande, in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. It has been recorded up to 900m asl.	eng
57100	habitat	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Ana Maria Telles, Jaime Bertoluci, 2004	This diurnal species inhabits primary and secondary forest along streams. Males call next to or over small streams on roots, rocks, and leaves. It breeds, and tadpoles develop in small-forested streams. It has not been collected outside forest habitat.	eng
57100	population	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Ana Maria Telles, Jaime Bertoluci, 2004	There has been an observed decline at Boracéia, but this appears to have reversed and it is now considered a very common species. It is more common in primary compared to secondary forest.	eng
57100	threats	Carlos Frederico da Rocha, Monique Van Sluys, Ana Maria Telles, Jaime Bertoluci, 2004	Habitat loss due to tourism disturbance and infrastructure development for human settlement is a major threat. <br/><br/>The cause of the observed decline is not known, although this species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006b).	eng
57101	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
57101	distribution		This species is known only from the Itatiaia Mountains at around 2,200m asl on the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil.	eng
57101	habitat		It lives in primary forest in and around streams (in which it breeds) and cascades with clear running water. The males calls from stones or secluded places under rocks at the margins of the streams.	eng
57101	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57101	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, tourism and fire.	eng
57102	conservation	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It occurs in Parque Natural do Caraça, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça and Parque das Mangabeiras.	eng
57102	distribution	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	This newly described species from the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil is known only from the Serra do Curral and the Serra do Caraça, at around 850-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
57102	habitat	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It lives in the transition zone between the Atlantic rainforest and the Cerrado savannah domains, where it is found on the margins of small streams in secondary gallery forest. It presumably breeds in the streams.	eng
57102	population	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	It is a common species within its small known range.	eng
57102	threats	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Bruno Pimenta, 2008	The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to the creation of wood plantations, logging, human settlement, tourism and fire.	eng
57103	conservation		Parque Nacional do Caparaó is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57103	distribution		This high-altitude species is known only from Parque Nacional do Caparaó, in the state of Minas Gerais in south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs at around 2,300m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57103	habitat		It is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds, in open high-altitude grassland.	eng
57103	population		Only a few specimens are known. The lack of subsequent records appears to be related to a lack of surveys, and there is insufficient information to know whether or not this species is common or rare.	eng
57103	threats		The main threat to this species is probably habitat loss due to fire and the effects of tourism.	eng
57104	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	At least ten protected areas occur within the range of the species. In Chile the species is listed as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente conocida) (Reglamento de la Lez de Caza, Chile, 1998). Legislation to protect the native <em>Nothofagus</em> forest is needed.	eng
57104	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	This species is endemic to the austral <em>Nothofagus</em> forests of Chile and Argentina. In Chile it is distributed from Ramadillas (37° 18'S) to Wellington Island (49° 10'S) in Valdivia, Osorno, Chiloé, and Pallena Provinces. In Argentina it is present in Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut Provinces. Its altitudinal range of 0-1,000m asl.	eng
57104	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It occurs below logs and rocks in wetlands of temperate <em>Nothofagus forest</em>. Adults occur in permanent and temporary pools, swamps, and marshes. It requires vegetation-surrounding wetlands for egg deposition. Larval development occurs in pools and ponds.	eng
57104	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
57104	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Ramón Formas, Esteban Lavilla, Néstor Basso, 2008	Generally threatened by habitat destruction caused by wood extraction, establishment of pine plantations and loss of poolside breeding vegetation. Introduced predatory fishes (trout) might also present a threat to the species.	eng
57105	conservation		It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní. In Peru, this species is known to occur in the Tambopata National Reserve and Parque Nacional Manu, and might also occur in Santiago Comaina, Pacaya Samiria and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones, Bosque de Proteccion Alto Mayo, Amarakaeri and Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zones and Bahuaja Sonene National Park.	eng
57105	distribution		This species is known from the Upper Amazon Basin in southern Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, and western Brazilian Amazonia along the Jurua River. In Peru, it is known from slopes east of the Andes to lowland Amazonian plains encompassing the Departaments of Amazonas, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and San Martin. Its altitudinal range is from 100-1,000m asl.	eng
57105	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of primary and secondary tropical moist forest; specimens may be collected in clearings, open areas and banana groves. It breeds by direct development; gravid females contain 15-51 eggs. It is not known if it can occur in modified habitats.	eng
57105	population		It is a very common species throughout its range.	eng
57105	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
57106	conservation		Its range includes Carrasco and Amboro National Parks.	eng
57106	distribution		This species is known from seven localities Santa Cruz and Cochabamba departments on the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia, from 1,000-2,150m asl. It was formally known only from the type locality, Chape, in Florida Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, at 2,060m asl. It might well occur more widely.	eng
57106	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits the Yungas forest. It has been found under rocks, and males have been observed perching on small secondary vegetation. It also tolerates disturbed habitats. There is no information known about breeding, although it probably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
57106	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57106	threats		There are no threats to this species at present.	eng
57107	conservation		It might occur in the Zona Reservada Biabo Cordillera Azul.	eng
57107	distribution		This species is presently known only from the area of Ponga de Shilcayo and in the surrounding areas of near Tarapoto, Zapatero and Shapaja (San Martin Department), Peru. It is presumed that this species has a larger range, and that further sampling within the region will indicate this. It is present at altitudes of 360-680m asl.	eng
57107	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of lowland tropical forest, which may also be found in rocky streambeds in ravines on mountain slopes. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57107	population		Nothing is known about its population status.	eng
57107	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is possible that habitat degradation and loss is happening in the vicinity of the town of Tarapoto.	eng
57108	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, though habitat protection might be necessary in the future. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.	eng
57108	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality in the Cordillera del Cóndor (1830 masl), Morona-Santiago Province, Ecuador.	eng
57108	habitat		This species can be found in subtropical old-growth forest. At Río Piuntza, Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador, two specimens were collected by day on the forest floor (Lynch 1974). It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.	eng
57108	population		It was uncommon when last recorded in 1999.	eng
57108	threats		It occurs in an area that was mined during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995, with the result that there is little human activity in the area now. However, a proposed road might introduce threats to the area.	eng
57109	conservation		Its range includes the Estação Biológica de Santa Lúcia and the Reserva Biológica de Duas Bocas.	eng
57109	distribution		This species is known from three records: two from Espirito Santo State, and one from the type locality in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at around 700m asl.	eng
57109	habitat		It occurs on the ground in forest, and it is possibly an explosive breeder that is likely to breed by direct development.	eng
57109	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
57109	threats		Logging is a major threat to this species' habitat.	eng
57110	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay, although it is not known from any protected areas in Argentina.	eng
57110	distribution		This species is known from the Chaco of Paraguay (in Central, Presidente Hayes, and Alto Paraguay Departments) and northern Argentina (in Chaco, Cordoba, Corrientes, Formosa, Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero Provinces). In Paraguay it occurs up to 200m asl.	eng
57110	habitat		It inhabits dry scrubland and semi-arid areas, and breeds in temporary pools and water tanks on cattle farms. In Argentina, it occurs in vegetation near saline lakes. During the dry season individuals burrow underground and wait for rains before emerging again. The breeding season is short and larval development is rapid.	eng
57110	population		It is a common species in Paraguay but is very rare in Argentina, where it was last collected in 1986. Extensive work in an area in Cordoba where it was once recorded has not turned up any recent specimens.	eng
57110	threats		This species can be threatened by fires, and potentially also by over-grazing by livestock.	eng
57111	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57111	distribution		This species is known from northern, central and eastern areas of Chacoan environments: Argentina (provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Salta, and Formosa), Bolivia (departments of Santa Cruz and Tarija), and Paraguay (departments of Presidente Hayes, Boquerón, and Alto Paraguay). Its altitudinal range is from 0-200m asl.	eng
57111	habitat		It occurs in the dry and wet Chaco. It breeds in temporary and artificial ponds. Its adaptation to anthropogenic disturbance is not known.	eng
57111	population		It is common in the northern portion of its range. It is rare and declining in Argentina.	eng
57111	threats		There are few threats at present, although the causes of the declines in Argentina are not understood, and fire and over-grazing by livestock could be involved. However, the possible future construction of a water channel to transport water from Río Paraguay to central Chaco will result in the introduction of a number of potential predatory fish species into Paraguay. Habitat destruction for agriculture is a threat in Argentina. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
57112	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Defensores del Chaco in Paraguay. In Argentina, occurs in the Chaco, Río Pilcomayo, and Copo National Parks, the Los Colorados Private Reserve, and the Teuquito Multiple Use Reserve. More research into the species' distribution, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
57112	distribution		This species is known from La Rioja, Formosa, Cordoba, Salta, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, and Chaco provinces, Argentina, and also from adjacent Paraguay (Departamento Alto Paraguay). It occurs up to 300m asl.	eng
57112	habitat		This is an aquatic species that inhabits dry scrubland and semi-arid areas. They breed in temporary pools and water tanks on cattle farms. During the dry season they burrow underground and wait for rain before emerging again. They have a very short breeding season and the tadpoles develop rapidly.	eng
57112	population		It is an uncommon species throughout its range.	eng
57112	threats		It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.	eng
57113	conservation	Neftalí Ríos-Lopez, 2008	It occurs in all the protected areas of Puerto Rico. A study of population trends is desirable (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
57113	distribution	Neftalí Ríos-Lopez, 2008	This species occurs on Puerto Rico, Isla Vieques, Isla Culebra, and the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. The altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,030m asl.	eng
57113	habitat	Neftalí Ríos-Lopez, 2008	It is semi-aquatic, inhabiting streams, marshes, and irrigated fields, as well as drainage ditches and gutters in both forested, open country and urban areas. Males call from ground or aquatic vegetation, eggs are laid in foam nests.	eng
57113	population	Neftalí Ríos-Lopez, 2008	While this species is abundant and widespread in the U.S. Virgin Islands, it appears to be in decline in the British Virgin Islands (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
57113	threats	Neftalí Ríos-Lopez, 2008	While this is an adaptable species and is known to occur in brackish waters, a potential threat to species viability in coastal wetlands is comprised by the predicted rise in sea level and salt water intrusion as a consequence of global warming (Rios-López, 2008).<br/><br/>Its tadpoles may be vulnerable to competition from <em>Osteopilus septentrionalis</em> (Perry and Gerber, 2006).	eng
57114	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
57114	distribution		This species occurs in Central America from the lowlands of the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, south through Panama to South America, it is also present on the Caribbean slope of Nicaragua and on Providencia and San Andrés Islands, Colombia and San Miguel and Saboga (Panamá). In South America it has a patchy distribution from Madeira River (Brazil) to the high Magdalena Valley in Colombia and southern Venezuela, southward to Bolivia, and also including Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It occurs up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57114	habitat		It is a large, mostly nocturnal species of open grassy areas, humid lowland forest, dry forest, secondary forest, swamps, pasture, drainage ditches and rice fields. It is not present in coffee plantations. The adults live in a burrow retreat, although there is no evidence that they excavate these burrows. It is usually associated with permanent water sources, although may also be found in marshes and temporary ponds. The eggs of the species are laid in foam nests, often hidden in vegetation. The larvae develop in shallow, muddy ponds, where they take refuge under leaves on the bottom. It probably breeds during the early to mid rainy season.	eng
57114	population		This is a common species.	eng
57114	threats		There are no major threats to this species; it does not appear to be affected by water pollution.	eng
57115	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57115	distribution		This species is known from southern and southeastern Bolivia to northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Pantanal in Brazil. It can be found up to 800m asl.	eng
57115	habitat		It occurs in semi-arid environments. The males build a deep mud nest for egg laying at the borders of temporary ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57115	population		It is common in most of its range and is abundant in Argentina.	eng
57115	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
57116	conservation		At least two protected areas are within the extent of occurrence of this species, but its occurrence in these areas is not confirmed.	eng
57116	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the Caatinga region of northeastern Brazil, from sea level to 400m asl, and it has also been recorded further south on the coast of Bahia state, Brazil. It is not known whether or not this coastal population is contiguous with the main range of the species.	eng
57116	habitat		It is an inhabitant of dry Caatinga savannah. Nothing is known about the ecology of this species, though it presumably breeds in temporary pools, like other species of the genus, and is a larval developer.	eng
57116	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
57116	threats		Threats to this species are unknown, though overgrazing and fire could possibly impact it.	eng
57117	conservation		It has been recorded from within Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó.	eng
57117	distribution		This species is known from the Serra do Espinhaço, in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, from 1,200m asl. Its range is not well known, and it probably occurs more widely.	eng
57117	habitat		This inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah lays its eggs in subterranean foam nests (sometimes under stones), and the larvae are then carried to water such as puddles, swamps or temporary ponds.	eng
57117	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57117	threats		Logging and fires are threats to this species. Disturbance of its habitat by tourists is also a major threat.	eng
57118	conservation		The taxonomy needed to resolve this species is complex. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57118	distribution		This species is known from Northern Argentina (Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Tucumán), Chaco and western oriental region of Paraguay; northern Uruguay (Artigas and Salto), lowland Bolivia; and parts of western (Acre) and southern Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul). It occurs from 0-1,000m asl.	eng
57118	habitat		It occurs on the ground near ponds and flooded areas. It deposits eggs in large foam nests over puddles and flooded areas, with covered or bare vegetation, in water less than 15cm deep. Males call from the water's edge or from within the water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57118	population		This is a common species. In Cordoba, populations have declined substantially due to persecution.	eng
57118	threats		It is consumed as food in Argentina, and this has lead to a decline in populations in Cordoba.	eng
57119	conservation	Fernando Castro, Enrique La Marca, Adolfo Amézquita, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57119	distribution	Fernando Castro, Enrique La Marca, Adolfo Amézquita, 2008	This species occurs widely in Colombia and marginally in Venezuela in the foothills and lower slopes of the Andes. In Colombia it occurs on the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, in the Cauca and Magdalena valleys, and in the western and eastern foothills of the Cordillera Oriental (including the eastern Llanos area). In Venezuela it has been reported from the Doradas River area in Táchira State. Its altitudinal range is 140-1,800m asl, with a doubtful elevation record of 2,600m asl.	eng
57119	habitat	Fernando Castro, Enrique La Marca, Adolfo Amézquita, 2008	It lives in lowland and lower montane and montane humid forest, but also in any degraded habitats where there are puddles. It is a terrestrial and nocturnal species, and is closely associated with waterbodies. It shelters on muddy holes near water, and it breeds in temporary pools, using foam nests.	eng
57119	population	Fernando Castro, Enrique La Marca, Adolfo Amézquita, 2008	It is an abundant species that appears to be increasing.	eng
57119	threats	Fernando Castro, Enrique La Marca, Adolfo Amézquita, 2008	It is not facing any significant threats.	eng
57120	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57120	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of southeastern Brazil in the state of Minas Gerais. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,400m asl.	eng
57120	habitat		It is an inhabitant of the Cerrado. Eggs are laid in subterranean foam nests (sometimes under stones), and the tadpoles are carried by water to puddles and streams. It is not known whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57120	population		It is a common species.	eng
57120	threats		Fire and disturbance of the habitat by tourists is a major threat.	eng
57121	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in Peru including the Tambopata National Reserve.	eng
57121	distribution		This species is known from areas adjacent to the Rivers Tambopata and Manu (Madre de Dios), Peru; northern Bolivia and might occur in central Bolivia. It can be found at an elevation of up to 450m asl.	eng
57121	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that is present in clearings in lowland primary and secondary tropical rainforest. Reproduction takes place in foam nests, in temporary ponds. It may be found in urban areas and other disturbed habitats.	eng
57121	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57121	threats		There are no apparent threats to this species.	eng
57122	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57122	distribution		This species is known from the Amazon Basin in Colombia and Venezuela. It can also be found in the northwestern sector of the Amazon basin in southwestern Colombia, northeastern Brazil, and extreme southern Venezuela. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Cerro Neblina, Estado Amazonas. Its distribution is not completely known. It can be found at altitudes below 400m asl.	eng
57122	habitat		This species can be found in rocky habitats in the forest of tropical rainforest. It also occurs in flooded forest. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water.	eng
57122	population		It is locally common.	eng
57122	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57124	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57124	distribution		This species is known from northern Argentina, Paraguay, most of the lowlands of Bolivia and central Brazil. It can be found at elevations up to 500m asl.	eng
57124	habitat		A terrestrial species occuring in open habitats. It breeds in temporary ponds and northern populations do not adapt as well as other leptodactylids to anthropogenic disturbance, but it is still found in cattle areas. In Argentina, it does adapt to severe habitat disturbances.	eng
57124	population		It is common throughout its range.	eng
57124	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
57125	conservation	John Fa, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, Christopher Magin, 2008	The protected areas of Dominica are generally above the maximum known elevation of the species and contain few, if any, animals. Captive populations occur in Jersey (Montserrat origin), St Louis (Dominican origin) and some other zoos. No hunting of animals on Dominica has been allowed since 2003, and public awareness actions have taken place to inform the Dominican public of the magnitude of threat facing their national dish and to discourage illegal hunting.	eng
57125	distribution	John Fa, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, Christopher Magin, 2008	This species occurs mostly on the western side of Dominica (there is a more limited population-possibly translocated or reintroduced-on the eastern side, but not mapped here) and in the Centre Hills of northern Montserrat, having been unsuccessfully introduced on Jamaica and Puerto Rico. It has apparently been extirpated from Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St Kitts, and might once also have occurred on St Lucia and Antigua. Its range is now restricted on Dominica to around 25 km² and to about 20 km² on Montserrat. It is a relatively low-altitude species on Dominica, occurring from sea level up to (rarely) 400 m asl. On Montserrat it is present from sea level to 430 m asl.	eng
57125	habitat	John Fa, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, Christopher Magin, 2008	The species lives in dense secondary vegetation, plantations (Dominica only), ravines, and flooded forest. It is terrestrial and nocturnal, hiding in burrows during the day in moist forest. It appears as though the animals are associated with certain soil types that allow the digging of nests. The eggs are laid in foam nests at the bottom of a burrow. The tadpoles (26-43 per nest) develop terrestrially in the nest, not in water. Both females and males guard the nest. The larvae feed on infertile eggs deposited in the nest burrow by the female.	eng
57125	population	John Fa, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, Christopher Magin, 2008	The species might have been in decline on Montserrat since Cyclone Hugo in 1989 and the Soufriere volcanic eruption of 1995, but analysis of census data does not confirm this (J. Fa pers. comm.). The population on the eastern Centre Hills of Montserrat is relatively inaccessible, and is consequently larger. On Dominica it was formerly abundant in suitable habitat (possibly as recently as 2002), despite heavy exploitation for food (estimated annual harvest of 8,000-36,000 animals), but the population started to crash during 2002 with few individuals reported in 2003, and it might now be nearing extinction with a population suggested to be as low as 8,000 animals (Magin 2004).	eng
57125	threats	John Fa, Blair Hedges, Beatrice Ibéné, Michel Breuil, Robert Powell, Christopher Magin, 2008	The species is consumed by humans and is prized for its meat (both subsistence and commercial use for tourists), which has contributed to its decline. Substantial habitat loss is also taking place over much of its range due to agriculture, human settlement and pressure from touristic development. On Montserrat, populations in the South Soufriere Hills, Soufriere Hills and Garibaldi Hill have been lost to lava flows from recent volcanic eruptions. The population of Dominica, where the species was once most abundant, has declined catastrophically from 2002 until the present, following a major confirmed outbreak of the fungal disease chytridiomycosis. This decline is continuing and appears to have significantly impacted most, if not all, of the population in that country.	eng
57126	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57126	distribution		This species from southern and southeastern Brazil and adjacent coastal islands from the northern part of the State of Santa Catarina, north to the State of Rio de Janeiro. It ranges up to 800m asl.	eng
57126	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, living in primary and secondary forest near streams, but not in more open areas. It breeds in streams.	eng
57126	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57126	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, human settlement and tourism.	eng
57127	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Abraham Mijares, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Geoffrey Hammerson, Jay Savage, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57127	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Abraham Mijares, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Geoffrey Hammerson, Jay Savage, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species occurs from extreme southern Texas, USA, through Mexico and Central America to the Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, through most of northern Venezuela, as far as the lower Orinoco basin, and the Llanos region of both Venezuela and Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,530m asl.	eng
57127	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Abraham Mijares, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Geoffrey Hammerson, Jay Savage, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a terrestrial, nocturnal species found in savannah, grassland, semi-arid lands, and open habitats in humid and dry, lowland and montane tropical forests. It is seen near marshes, ponds, and any temporary lentic body of water, and is common in open and disturbed sites, and also in grasslands, cultivated fields, roadside ditches, and a wide variety of other habitats. It often hides under rocks or in burrows under clumps of grass. It lays its eggs in foam nests whipped from body secretions; foamy masses may be placed in excavations made in ground by male. The larvae live in the watery centre of the foam mass until rains allow them to swim into nearby pools.	eng
57127	population	Ronald Heyer, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Abraham Mijares, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Geoffrey Hammerson, Jay Savage, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a widespread and common species in a variety of habitats in the Yucatan Peninsula and vicinity (Lee 2000). In Texas, populations reportedly are sparse but probably stable (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) or extirpated (Dixon 2000). It is very common in Costa Rica, and is a very common species in South America.	eng
57127	threats	Ronald Heyer, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Abraham Mijares, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Geoffrey Hammerson, Jay Savage, Larry David Wilson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is an adaptable species that is facing no major threats. It might be extirpated at the northern periphery of the range in southern Texas due to heavy use of organophosphates (Dixon 1987, 2000).	eng
57128	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57128	distribution		This species is known from central to southern Brazil; also in Uruguay (Riveira Department). Its altitudinal range is from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
57128	habitat		It occurs in open areas, on the ground, near waterbodies. It lays its eggs under the ground, and the tadpoles are carried by water to ponds. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (has been collected in Eucalyptus plantations).	eng
57128	population		It is a common species.	eng
57128	threats		Agriculture, extraction (mining), fire and infrastructure development (dams) are all threats.	eng
57129	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas in South America, but none in Panama.	eng
57129	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific lowlands of Panama from the Azuero Peninsula to central Panama, throughout South America, east of the Andes, south to southern Brazil, Bolivia, and northern Argentina. It is distributed over much of Trinidad and Tobago (including Little Tobago Island). It occurs up to 1,700m asl.	eng
57129	habitat		This is a terrestrial and nocturnal frog found in open country, savannahs, grasslands, marshy areas, degraded forests and urban habitats. Males of this species start calling at the onset of the very first rains. Breeding takes place in small burrows in shallow temporary wetlands and the edges of permanent lagoons. The eggs of the species are laid in foam nests within the burrows, when the burrows flood the larvae escape into the adjacent wetlands where the tadpoles then develop. It is an adaptable species that can survive in modified habitats.	eng
57129	population		It is common throughout much of its range, although it is generally not a common species in Panama.	eng
57129	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57130	conservation		Taxonomic research to resolve this species complex is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57130	distribution		This species is known from Southern Brazil through Uruguay to Paraguay (lower Chaco and the south), inter-Andean dry valleys in Bolivia, and northern Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Misiones, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán). It occurs from 0-1,700m asl.	eng
57130	habitat		A terrestrial species occuring in open areas, on the ground near waterbodies. It deposits its eggs in foam nests in terrestrial burrows, and the larval development takes place in temporary ponds and flooded grasslands. It is also found in urban areas in southern Brazil.	eng
57130	population		It is uncommon in Bolivia and Paraguay, but common in southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.	eng
57130	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57131	conservation		In Bolivia it is present in Madidi and Carrasco protected areas. In Peru this species might occur in Rio Abiseo National Park, Biabo Cordillera Azul Reserved Zone, Tingo Maria and Yanachaga Chemillen National Parks, Yanesha Communal Reserve, Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos and Apurimac Reserved Zone (although this requires confirmation). There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
57131	distribution		This species is known from the Andes of southern and central Peru and northern Bolivia. In Peru it occurs on the northeastern slopes of the Andes to central-eastern slopes, encompassing the Departments of Huánuco, Ayacucho, Junin, Pasco, San Martin and Ucayali. In Bolivia it is present in the Departamentos of La Paz and Cochabamba. It has an altitudinal range of 100-1,800m asl.	eng
57131	habitat		This species can be found in both montane primary and lowland tropical moist forest of the Amazonian slopes and Andes foothills of the Andes. Breeding takes place in foam nests within stagnant waters. Occasionally it is found close to roadside ditches in forest habitat.	eng
57131	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57131	threats		At present, there are only localized threats to this species. Certain populations are probably impacted by deforestation.	eng
57132	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
57132	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, near Cartagena, in Colombia. The type locality is unspecific and hence it is not possible to determine the distribution of this species.	eng
57132	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
57132	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
57132	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57133	conservation		No information is available. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species still survives.	eng
57133	distribution		This species is known only from Nossa Senhora do Socorro, in the state of Sergipe, in north-eastern Brazil.	eng
57133	habitat		If it is like other members of its genus, it probably occurs near forest waterbodies, and makes foam nests in temporary pools.	eng
57133	population		There have been no records of it since the original collection in the 1860s.	eng
57133	threats		If this is a forest-dwelling species, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development, logging, livestock grazing and human settlement.	eng
57134	conservation	Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57134	distribution	Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	<em>Leptodactylus jolyi</em> is known to occur in disturbed areas around Paranapiacaba and Rio Grande da Serra (around 23 44’ 21’’ S, 46 23’ 02” W, 760 masl), both in the state of São Paulo, Brazil (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). Cerrado populations from Minas Gerais and São Paulo may be conspecific with <em>Leptodactylus sertanejo</em>.	eng
57134	habitat	Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	It is a terrestrial, grassland species, usually found near waterbodies. It breeds in temporary pools, digging its nest near the water. Males call from human altered habitats such as fallow plots in urban areas covered by short (< 1m tall) grass-like vegetation. Males call either from within underground chambers or exposed (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). The reproductive season coincides with the rainy season (September-February). Clutch size is unknown (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57134	population	Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	It is common at the type locality (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57134	threats	Ariovaldo A. Giaretta, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, tourism and fire.	eng
57135	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha and in Venezuela it occurs in the Canaima National Park, and in Biosphere Reserves like the Orinoco-Casiquiare.	eng
57135	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is known from the Greater Amazon basin of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil north to Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas. In Trinidad and Tobago it is known only from a single specimen collected at an unspecified locality on Trinidad Island in 1915; verification of the presence of the species in Trinidad and Tobago is needed and it is not mapped here. This species occurs from sea level to 1,800m asl.	eng
57135	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species can be found on the forest floor and in burrows; savannah enclaves in the tropical old and second growth rainforest; usually call next to temporary or semi-permanent waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been collected in Terra Firme forest on leaf-litter (Ron, 2001). At Iquitos region, this nocturnal frog inhabits upland forests, where pairs construct foam nests in depressions next to shallow pools (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). In Guyana, the species appears to prefer habitats that contain large and deep lentic sites exhibiting comparatively high dynamics due to frequent flooding and draining events. It has been recorded in both primary and exploited forest sites, although reproduction could only be confirmed in primary forest (Ernst et al., 2007).	eng
57135	population	Ronald Heyer, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is common throughout its range.	eng
57135	threats	Ronald Heyer, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Enrique La Marca, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is, overall, not seriously threatened and is reasonably adaptable. Selective logging, however, may affect larval growth and survival (Ernst et al., 2007).	eng
57136	conservation		Given its geographical distribution, this species might occur in Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape and El Angolo Game Preserve in Peru. It occurs in Machililla, Manglares Churute, and Mache Chindu National Parks.	eng
57136	distribution		This species is known from coastal central Ecuador to coastal central Peru (Congon). In Peru it occurs in Departments of Ancash, Cajamarca, Piura, and La Libertad. Its altitudinal range is 0-400m asl.	eng
57136	habitat		This species can be found in dry equatorial forest. In this area, however, it is completely restricted to wet areas. Specimens of this species have been taken on the floor of scrub forest as well as in and about drainage ditches and bushes at a farm (Heyer and Peters, 1971). It occurs also in secondary forest. Eggs are deposited in foam nests in waterbodies.	eng
57136	population		It is uncommon in Ecuador (recorded in 2002) and Peru (recorded in 2001).	eng
57136	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species.	eng
57137	conservation		The species has been used in experimental commercial frog farms (Péfaur and Sierra 1995). It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57137	distribution		This species occurs in the Cerrados and Caatingas Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Bolivia, northern Argentina (Misiones and Corrientes Provinces), and southern Brazil. It occurs at elevations of up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57137	habitat		This species can be found in open habitats and savannah enclaves in dry and moist tropical forests. In Bolivia it has been reported from primary and secondary forests, along rivers, and in pasturelands; also in temporary ponds (De la Riva 1993). It occurs in the water or on the ground near waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. It is a very adaptable species and is a hgood coloniser of man-made, or formerly closed habitats (Heyer 2005).	eng
57137	population		It is presumably a common species over much of its range.	eng
57137	threats		There are no major threats to this species. It is harvested for human consumption, but there is no evidence that this is at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57138	conservation		It does occur in several protected areas, but monitoring of its population status is needed, and there is a need to ensure that harvesting of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.	eng
57138	distribution		This species occurs in the Gran Chaco of Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina, from 0-300m asl.	eng
57138	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of open habitats that breeds in temporary ponds. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57138	population		It is common in parts of Paraguay and Bolivia but is rare in Argentina due to over-harvesting for the international pet trade.	eng
57138	threats		Over-harvesting for the international pet trade is a major threat. It is collected in Paraguay and Argentina, and each adult is worth $300-$600.	eng
57139	conservation		The taxonomy to determine the status of the southern distribution of this complex species is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57139	distribution		This species is known from Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán (Argentina); Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, Tarija (Bolivia); Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil); southern Paraguay; and Uruguay. Its altitudinal range is from 0-600m asl.	eng
57139	habitat		A terrestrial species found in grassland habitats. It occurs on the ground near waterbodies. It breeds underground (making its nests in chambers beneath the soil), and the larvae then develop in water. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57139	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57139	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
57140	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas, including Canaima National Park.	eng
57140	distribution		This species occurs in the Brazilian Amazonia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela (1 record) and the Guianas. Its altitudinal range is from 15-700m asl.	eng
57140	habitat		It is found in savannahs, open areas, forest edges, and secondary and primary lowland forest. It can sometimes be found under logs. Reproduction occurs in temporary waterbodies. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water.	eng
57140	population		It is common in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia, but rare in Colombia.	eng
57140	threats		It is not seriously threatened. It is possibly impacted locally from fire and serious habitat degradation, though it is tolerant of some habitat modification.	eng
57141	conservation		Some populations are found within protected areas.	eng
57141	distribution		This species occurs below 1,250m asl in southern Venezuela and eastern Colombia. In Venezuela, it has been reported from Amazonas and Bolívar states, and in Colombia from Guainia and Vichada states. There are two isolated populations on rocky outcrops in southern Colombia.	eng
57141	habitat		It is a rock-dwelling, nocturnal, terrestrial frog inhabiting rocky areas (both granitic and sandstone) in both savannah and forest. It is associated with streams. It builds a foam nest, and the tadpoles live in splash zones on rocks out of the water.	eng
57141	population		It is a common species.	eng
57141	threats		No threats are known.	eng
57142	conservation		There are several protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
57142	distribution		This species is known from Colombia (one locality in Guania), Venezuela (the states of Bolívar and Amazonas), Brazil (Amazonia-Tapajos National Park), and Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. It has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.	eng
57142	habitat		It occurs in open areas and rural gardens, as well as forests. Gorzula and Señaris (1999) stated that it is an indicator of oligotrophic non-forest areas. Some individuals sit at the edges of water in ditches or streams by day, but most sit on the ground by night, sheltered by rocks or leaves. Some specimens were found sitting in the openings of holes in the ground, and most juveniles shelter under rocks or logs by day (Duellman 1997). The eggs are laid in foam nests on land, and the tadpoles then develop in lentic water. It is tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
57142	population		It is a common species. Duellman (1997) reported this species to be abundant throughout the cloud forest and in the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela.	eng
57142	threats		There are no threats to this adaptable species.	eng
57143	conservation		The range does not include any protected areas, so protection of remaining habitat at sites at which this species is known to occur is urgently needed. Additional survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57143	distribution		This species is an endemic of Cerro Socopó, about 30km by road south-west of Guajiro, in the municipality of Mauroa in Falcón State, Venezuela, at about 1,250m asl. Mijares (1997) suggested it might be present in Cerro Azul (about 1,880m asl) and Cerro Cerrón (about 2,080m asl). These Cerros, along with Cerro Socopó, comprise the Serrania de Ziruma.	eng
57143	habitat		It inhabits small streams bordered by open vegetation with shrubs and herbaceous plants. The habitat surrounding the known localities is artificial open land, which is a result of the clearing of cloud forest, suggesting that the species may inhabit other natural open places nearby. It is a diurnal terrestrial species that breeds in ponds. It makes foam nests on the water and the tadpoles are free-living.	eng
57143	population		The population status of this species is not known. It is known from only two collections, both made prior to the description of the species in 1997. A brief attempt to find the species in 2003 was not successful, perhaps because this survey took place below the elevation at which this species was previously recorded.	eng
57143	threats		The main threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture (both crops and livestock) and fires, and pollution as a result of agricultural activities.	eng
57144	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Jay Savage, Taran Grant, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57144	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Jay Savage, Taran Grant, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species ranges from southern Tamaulipas on the Atlantic slope of Mexico, and from southern Sonora on the Pacific slope of Mexico, southwards through Central America to South America west to the Andes, as far south as Rios Province in Ecuador. It occurs from sea level up to 1,550m asl.	eng
57144	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Jay Savage, Taran Grant, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, but also survives in mangroves, open grassy areas, flooded pastures, disturbed secondary growth, farmland and urban areas. It reproduces by larval development in foam nests in burrows, usually on the edge of temporary waterbodies. The species exhibits parental care, with the female creating a channel to move the larvae if the burrow dries.	eng
57144	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Jay Savage, Taran Grant, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It is common to abundant throughout its range.	eng
57144	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Georgina Santos-Barrera, Julian Lee, Jay Savage, Taran Grant, Ana Almendáriz, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying.	eng
57145	conservation		Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
57145	distribution		This species is known from the Guianan region of Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. It has not yet been recorded from Guyana. In Brazil, it is known from Acre, Pará and Roraima (Heyer, 2005). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
57145	habitat		It inhabits rocky outcrop areas, in lowland tropical rainforest (Heyer, 1995; Heyer, 2005). It places foam nests under stones, and the tadpoles are raised in riverlets during the rainy season.	eng
57145	population		It is a common species.	eng
57145	threats		There are no threats to this widespread species at present.	eng
57146	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57146	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	This species is known from Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, northeastern and central Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. It does not occur as far south as Paraguay (Heyer, 1978). It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57146	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary tropical rainforests, forest edge, and savannah enclaves in forest, flooded and open environments. It lives on the ground around temporary ponds and other waterbodies. The males construct basins in muddy areas that are flooded by heavy rains. Eggs are laid in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. It is adaptable to human modification of its habitat.	eng
57146	population	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	It is a fairly common species.	eng
57146	threats	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. Fire, clear cutting, logging, infrastructure development and agricultural expansion might impact local populations.	eng
57147	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Débora Silvano, Steffen Reichle, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	Taxonomic work is needed to resolve the status of this complex species. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57147	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Débora Silvano, Steffen Reichle, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	This species is known from the eastern foothills of the Andes in Bolivia and the Yungas of northwest Argentina, extending eastward through Paraguay, Mato Grosso and Goiás to Bahia, Brazil. It ranges southward to central Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Córdoba, Chaco, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Misiones, Salta, Santa Fe, San Luis, Santiago del Estero and Tucumán) and Uruguay. It occurs from 0-1,800m asl.	eng
57147	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Débora Silvano, Steffen Reichle, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	It occurs throughout the Chaco and much of the Cerrado in grassland, on the ground near standing waterbodies where it breeds. Reproduction occurs in foam nests under ground and the larvae develop in water. Reproductive activity in southeastern Brazil has been reported for the month of October, although the species may potentially reproduce in August, September and November (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).  It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. Some populations occur in forests and deforested areas.	eng
57147	population	Ronald Heyer, Débora Silvano, Steffen Reichle, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	It is abundant in Argentina and fairly common elsewhere. This species occurs in dispersed populations so large series are rarely collected.	eng
57147	threats	Ronald Heyer, Débora Silvano, Steffen Reichle, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	There are no threats, although some populations might be susceptible to clear-cutting.	eng
57148	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57148	distribution		This species ranges widely in eastern Brazil from the State of Rio Grande do Norte, south to the eastern part of the State of Sao Paulo. It occurs from the lowlands up to 900m asl.	eng
57148	habitat		It lives in muddy places at secondary lowland forests, shrubby vegetation, and wet cow pastures near forest, but not in primary forest. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57148	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57148	threats		Apart from the impacts of clear-cutting and overgrazing by livestock, this species is probably not facing any threats.	eng
57149	conservation		Since it currently has no formal protection, consideration should be given to establishing Icacos Swamp as a protected area. There remains a need for further surveys at appropriate times of the year at the type locality to determine whether or not this species still persists.	eng
57149	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Icacos Swamp on the south-western peninsula of Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
57149	habitat		A specimen of this species was found calling at night in a burrow under a mass of fern roots in a stagnant swamp. It is presumed to use aquatic habitats for breeding and to breed by larval development.	eng
57149	population		The current population status of this species is not known. Since the species was described, extensive surveys of the type locality have not located any further specimens.	eng
57149	threats		There are no known threats at present; the Icacos Swamp is a relatively pristine area.	eng
57150	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed.	eng
57150	distribution		This species is known from São Paulo State to Santa Catarina State, Brazil. It occurs up to 900m asl.	eng
57150	habitat		It is known from open areas along river and forest edges, and in natural and anthropogenic clearings in forest. Males of this species start calling at the onset of the very first rains, and then breeding occurs, prior to flooding, in small burrows excavated by the males in shallow temporary pools. Eggs are laid in foam nests.	eng
57150	population		It is a common species.	eng
57150	threats		Habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment and infrastructure development for tourism are major threats.	eng
57151	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Jose Langone, Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Esteban Lavilla, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
57151	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Jose Langone, Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Esteban Lavilla, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs widely in South America east of the Andes. It occurs in: the Icacos Swamp in the southwest peninsula of Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago); the Orinoco basin of Colombia and southern Venezuela; the Guianas (only in savannah areas) south through Amazon Basin in Brazil to northern and eastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz); the States of Amazonas, Bahia, Ceará, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and São Paulo in Brazil; eastern Paraguay; the whole of Uruguay; and the States of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, La Pampa, Misiones, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa Fé, San Juan and San Luis in Argentina. The identity of specimens referred to this species in Venezuela remains unclear. It has been recorded from sea level to around 1,400m asl.	eng
57151	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Jose Langone, Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Esteban Lavilla, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many habitats, including savannahs, grasslands, open habitats in dry areas, forest edge, and along riverbanks in humid tropical forests. This species is well adapted to habitat modification and disturbance, and can be found in rural gardens, secondary habitats and urban areas. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies. It is frequently found in ponds, small lakes or flooded areas. The spawn is deposited in large foam nests on the water surface. Tadpoles exhibit schooling behavior. Specimens have been found along the banks of large lagoons in Bolívar state, Venezuela.	eng
57151	population	Ronald Heyer, Jose Langone, Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Esteban Lavilla, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This is a very common species throughout much of its range. The population in Uruguay is stable.	eng
57151	threats	Ronald Heyer, Jose Langone, Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ismael di Tada, Diego Baldo, Esteban Lavilla, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There is no significant threat, since it is very adaptable. Hunting for food might impact populations locally, as might extreme habitat degradation and fire.	eng
57152	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this complex species.	eng
57152	distribution		This species is known from Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil. It has an altitudinal range from sea level up to 1,700m asl. In Brazil it is only known from Roraima state.	eng
57152	habitat		It lives on the forest floor in gallery forests, but apparently it is not present in open savannahs in Venezuela, but is found at forest edges in savannahs in Brazil. It lays its eggs in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in water. It is adaptable to human habitats and occurs in completely disturbed areas including cattle pastures.	eng
57152	population		It is a common species.	eng
57152	threats		There are no threats to this widespread, adaptable species.	eng
57153	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Yanachaga Chemillen (J. Icochea pers. comm.). It might also occur in Yanesha Communal Reserve and Bosque de Proteccion San Matias San Carlos.	eng
57153	distribution		This species is known from the Chontilla, Iscozazin Valley, Pasco, and Serrania de Sira, Huánuco, central Peru, east of the Andes. Its altitudinal range is from 780-2,500m asl.	eng
57153	habitat		This species can be found on the forest floor of the Amazonian flanks of the Andes. Reproduction takes place in foam nests in temporary ponds. There is no information on whether or not this species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
57153	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
57153	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to increased agricultural activity, largely driven by government policies (land tenancy of the area is conditional upon converting forest to agricultural land).	eng
57154	conservation		Many populations are protected within protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
57154	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the Amazon forest. It ranges from southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador and eastern Peru in the west of its range, into northern Bolivia, much of central and parts of norther Brazil, with records from French Guiana.	eng
57154	habitat		It is a nocturnal, terrestrial frog found in leaf-litter in primary, secondary, and seasonally flooded tropical rainforests. It has also been found in more open areas and in seasonally flooded forest. Reproduction takes place in temporary waterbodies; tadpoles are carnivorous and cannibalistic. Eggs are found in foam nest and tadpoles are usually found in lentic water (though in some places the larvae are terrestrial).	eng
57154	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
57154	threats		There are no threats. It might be locally threatened in Colombia by consumption by Amerindian people. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
57155	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57155	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	This species is known from Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, and the Amazon basin in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and isolated localities from the Cerrado in central Brazil. It has been recorded up to 600m asl. Before a recent revision (1994) of this taxon, it was confused as<em> Leptodactylus podicipinus</em> and <em>Leptodactylus wagneri</em>, and no major revision of Venezuelan material has been undertaken, the true geographic distribution of the species in unclear in Venezuela. The listed Venezuelan localities produce an unlikely distribution pattern, and so it is necessary to confirm the identity of Venezuelan specimens in order to clarify its geographic range in this country.	eng
57155	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	It is an inhabitant of tropical rainforest, forest edge, open areas, savannah enclaves in the tropical rainforest, and open Cerrado formations. It is usually found on the ground near waterbodies. It lays its eggs in foam nests in temporary pools, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. It is considered to be a highly adaptable species to secondary and anthropogenic habitats. In Guyana, this species was found in primary forest exclusively, and it appears to prefer habitats that can be characterized by open, scarcely vegetated understorey and the presence of large, highly dynamic aquatic sites (Ernst et al., 2007).	eng
57155	population	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
57155	threats	Ronald Heyer, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Changes in thermal environment, however, can affect larval growth and survival (Ernst et al., 2007).	eng
57156	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57156	distribution		This species is known from Misiones, Argentina; Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, and Santa Catarina, Brasil. Here, its altitudinal range is from 400-1,200m asl. The range of this species is not completely understood because in appearance it is very similar to Leptodactylus gracilis.	eng
57156	habitat		This species can be found in savannahs and forest edges. It reproduces in foam nests placed in holes dug into the ground. It occurs in deforested areas, and adapts fairly well to agricultural activities.	eng
57156	population		It ranges from abundant to common across its range. Populations in Misiones are stable.	eng
57156	threats		Cattle ranching is a threat in Brazil. In Misiones, the establishment of pine plantations threatens populations.	eng
57157	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57157	distribution		This species is known from open formations of Paraguay south to Uruguay (Salto Department), adjacent Argentina, Bolivia, central and western Brazil, and extending along the Rio Madeira and Rio Amazonas within the Amazon basin. An outlier population occurs in Igarapé Belém, Amazonas, Brazil. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57157	habitat		It lives in grasslands and open habitats, often living near ponds and flooded areas. It lays eggs in foam nests at the edges of permanent and temporary ponds and flooded areas, whether or not covered or cleared of vegetation, but generally in shaded areas about 5 cm deep. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance (occurs in urban areas in northern Argentina).	eng
57157	population		It ranges from rare to very common throughout its range (common especially in suitable habitat).	eng
57157	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57158	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas,	eng
57158	distribution		This species occurs in South America near the coast in north-central and northeastern Colombia and in northwestern and north-central Venezuela. It is a lowland species that is usually found close to sea level. In Central America it is known from the lowlands of the Pacific slope from northwestern Costa Rica to northern Colombia, although its occurrence in northwestern Colombia is presumed, since the species also occurs in Panama, but it is not been recorded from this area and is, therefore, not mapped as doing so. Atlantic slope records also indicate the region near Laguna de Arenal and the San Carlos area in Costa Rica and the Canal Zone area of central Panama, from 3-1,150m asl.	eng
57158	habitat		This is a nocturnal species associated with open habitats in humid lowland forest, other forest types, grassland, marshes, swamps, temporary ponds and ditches. In Costa Rica, animals can frequently be found in urban areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is an explosive breeder that deposits eggs in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
57158	population		It is a common species.	eng
57158	threats		It is opportunistic, and is not facing any known threats.	eng
57159	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57159	distribution		This species is known from the central Brazilian Cerrado, from the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso and Tocantins, Ceara and Maranhão. It has been recorded from 400-1,000m asl.	eng
57159	habitat		It occurs in Cerrado savannah on the ground near permanent waterbodies, where it also breeds. It vocalizes in open areas. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance (even occurring in urban areas).	eng
57159	population		It is a common species.	eng
57159	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57160	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Ronald Heyer, 2008	Many populations are within protected areas.	eng
57160	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Ronald Heyer, 2008	This species is known from the Amazon basin of Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil. Records from southern Venezuela are misidentified specimens of <em>L. riveroi</em>. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.	eng
57160	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Ronald Heyer, 2008	This species can be found in leaf-litter on forest floor and in swamps in tropical rainforest; also found on the edges of clearings and in more open areas in forest. Reproduction occurs in semi-permanent waterbodies. Males call from within holes in the ground. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. Tadpoles resemble those of <em>Hypsiboas geographicus</em> and <em>Leptodactylus riveroi</em>, but do not form schools (Lima, 1992). In Guyana, the species was observed to prefer habitats characterized by an open canopy and the presence of small and shallow, but comparatively persistent, aquatic habitats, often occurring in disturbed habitats and to a lesser degree within primary forest (Ernst et al., 2007).	eng
57160	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Ronald Heyer, 2008	It is common to locally common throughout its range.	eng
57160	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Ronald Heyer, 2008	There are no major threats.	eng
57161	conservation		It is present in numerous protected areas in Peru and Bolivia. In Brazil it has been recorded in the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre.	eng
57161	distribution		This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes, Departments of San Martin, Pasco, Loreto, Cusco, Junin, Huánuco, and Madre de Dios, Amazonian Peru; eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes. It is also present in Leticia, Colombia and western Acre State, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 200-2,050m asl.	eng
57161	habitat		This species can be found in lowland rainforests as well as montane rainforests. It breeds in pools and other stagnant waters. It may be found in roadside ditches, and completely degraded areas.	eng
57161	population		It is a frequently observed species.	eng
57161	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
57162	conservation		The conservation measures are not known.	eng
57162	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Nauta, in Loreto Region, Peru. The type specimen has been lost, and attempts to map this species' range can only mark the approximate position of the type locality, and should therefore be regarded as provisional.	eng
57162	habitat		The habitat and ecological requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
57162	population		Nothing about this species' population status is known.	eng
57162	threats		The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
57163	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57163	distribution		This species is known from the Amazon basin in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela, at altitudes from 90-450m asl. In the Brazilian Amazon, it is known only from fragmented forests around Manaus, in Amazonas state.	eng
57163	habitat		It is a nocturnal, terrestrial species found at regular intervals on the forest floor and along the banks of rivers in tropical rainforest. The eggs are laid in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in lentic water. The tadpoles resemble those of L. rhodomystax and Hypsiboas geographicus, forming congregations.	eng
57163	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57163	threats		Mining and associated water pollution is a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
57164	conservation		Its range includes Canaima National Park and Kaiteur National Park.	eng
57164	distribution		This species is known from the state of Bolívar, in Venezuela and Guyana (Chinoweing and Kaiteur Falls). It has been recorded from 230-2,100m asl.	eng
57164	habitat		This moderately large, terrestrial Leptodactylus is found in tropical rainforests. In the La Escalera region, Venezuela, most individuals were associated with seepages and rivulets on granitic bedrock (Duellman 1997) that seems to be characteristic of the species' habitat throughout its range (Heyer 1995). Its presence is invariably associated with seasonally dry rocky areas such as granite outcrops and sandstone escarpments (Gorzula and Señaris 1999). Breeding occurs on bedrock seepage and very shallow water-foam nests. Tadpoles swim over rocks (very common on rock surfaces).	eng
57164	population		It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
57164	threats		Fires are a threat to the species' habitat locally, but in general it is not significantly threatened.	eng
57165	conservation		Its range includes Canaima National Park, in Bolivar State, Venezuela.	eng
57165	distribution		This species is known from the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela. It might occur a little more widely. It has been recorded from 800-1,250m asl.	eng
57165	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of savannahs (natural and human induced by fire destruction of original moist tropical forest). Duellman (1997) reported that this species was found in cloud forests on the slopes of the Sierra de Lema and in the Gran Sabana region of southeastern Venezuela, under rocks and logs by day and on open ground at night, especially at the edges of small ponds and slow-moving streams. In heavy rains they begin to call a lot. They lay masses of eggs in foam nests, and the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
57165	population		It is a common species within its range.	eng
57165	threats		Fires are a threat to the species' habitat locally, but in general it is not significantly threatened.	eng
57166	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas, although it does occur near the edge of Parque Nacional Celaque. While further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species and the limits of its range, improved habitat protection and maintenance of the existing habitat is also urgently needed.	eng
57166	distribution		This species is known from Montañas de Celaque and Sierra del Merendón in the Department of Ocotepeque in extreme western Honduras, at elevations of 1,470-2,000m asl.	eng
57166	habitat		The species has been collected in pastures around small ponds and inundated areas in premontane moist forest and lower montane moist forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57166	population		It is known from only three localities: it has already disappeared from one of these (El Chagüitón); at the second (Belén Gualcho), it persists rather precariously in a pool dug to provide water for cattle in a pasture; and at the third (El Portillo), its status is unknown.	eng
57166	threats		Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and the creation of pasture for cattle ranching, as well as urbanization, is the main threat to this species.	eng
57167	conservation	Ronald Heyer, Cristina Arzabe, Ana Carolina Carnaval, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).	eng
57167	distribution	Ronald Heyer, Cristina Arzabe, Ana Carolina Carnaval, 2008	This species occurs widely in eastern Brazil, from the State of Paraiba west to the State of Ceará, south to the State of Rio de Janeiro and extreme northern São Paulo. It occurs up to 900m asl.	eng
57167	habitat	Ronald Heyer, Cristina Arzabe, Ana Carolina Carnaval, 2008	It lives in primary and secondary forest, including dry forest and forest edge, but not in open areas. It may also be found in cacao plantations. It digs subterranean burrows near temporary ponds, in which it breeds.	eng
57167	population	Ronald Heyer, Cristina Arzabe, Ana Carolina Carnaval, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57167	threats	Ronald Heyer, Cristina Arzabe, Ana Carolina Carnaval, 2008	Apart from the impacts of clear-cutting, intensive agriculture and overgrazing by livestock, this species is probably not facing any threats.	eng
57168	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ronald Heyer, Claude Gascon, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57168	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ronald Heyer, Claude Gascon, 2008	This species is known from the central and western Amazon basin from the Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru to Brazil. It is generally found in the lowlands, but there are records up to 1,200m asl in Ecuador.	eng
57168	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ronald Heyer, Claude Gascon, 2008	It lives on the forest floor of tropical rainforest, including secondary forest, and more open areas in forest. Eggs are found in foam nests and tadpoles are found in lentic water. Adults tend to occur in holes in the ground.	eng
57168	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ronald Heyer, Claude Gascon, 2008	It is common in the Guianas and Brazil but uncommon in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.	eng
57168	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Ronald Heyer, Claude Gascon, 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular agricultural expansion, logging and fire are threats to this species.	eng
57169	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57169	distribution		This species is known from central, southeastern and northeastern Brazil, eastern Bolivia and southern Paraguay. It occurs up to 2,000m asl.	eng
57169	habitat		It occurs in open areas and rocky outcrops, in rock or termite cavities and the tadpoles develop in lentic habitats (quiet side pools of the stream). It does not seem to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57169	population		It is only common in ideal habitat situations.	eng
57169	threats		There is little information, but overgrazing, agricultural intensification, and fire might impact local populations.	eng
57170	conservation		This species' type locality is within Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros.	eng
57170	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Alto Paraíso de Goiás, in Goiás State, Brazil, at 1,200m asl.	eng
57170	habitat		It occurs in open habitat in grasslands near waterbodies. The larvae are found in streams running down the hillsides.	eng
57170	population		The current population status is not known.	eng
57170	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57171	conservation	Cristina Arzabe, Ronald Heyer, 2008	It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
57171	distribution	Cristina Arzabe, Ronald Heyer, 2008	This species from northeastern Brazil has a very wide range from northern Minas Gerais and northern Bahia, north to the States of Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, and Rio Grande do Norte.	eng
57171	habitat	Cristina Arzabe, Ronald Heyer, 2008	It is a species of dry and moist savannah and agricultural land in the Cerrado and Caatinga ecosystems, and in dune systems in Atlantic Rainforest zone. It builds foam nests and incubating chambers on wet ground near temporary ponds. The larvae develop in water.	eng
57171	population	Cristina Arzabe, Ronald Heyer, 2008	It is a common species. In Bahia, the species occurs in high densities on preserved habitats in the northern region, but is absent from sites further south with more human pressure (Tinoco et al., 2008).	eng
57171	threats	Cristina Arzabe, Ronald Heyer, 2008	Apart from the impacts of intensive agriculture, overgrazing by livestock and fire, this species is probably not facing any threats. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)	eng
57172	conservation	Jerry Hardy, Ronald Heyer, Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	In Tobago it occurs within protected forest areas. It is not known to occur in any protected areas elsewhere in its range.	eng
57172	distribution	Jerry Hardy, Ronald Heyer, Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	This species is known from the Lesser Antillean islands of St. Vincent and Bequia (St Vincent and Grenada banks), Grenada and is widespread on the continental islands of Trinidad and Tobago. It has been recorded from sea level up to near 730m asl.	eng
57172	habitat	Jerry Hardy, Ronald Heyer, Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	This is a terrestrial and nocturnal forest and forest edge species often found close to forest stream banks, shaded gullies, and caves. It may also be found in meadows, at roadsides in parks and rural yards. The species breeds in waterbodies such as streams and drainage ditches, and the larva develop in these wetlands. The eggs are laid in foam nests in temporary ponds and ditches, and the larvae develop in water. It is able to adapt well to altered habitats.	eng
57172	population	Jerry Hardy, Ronald Heyer, Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	It is a common species throughout most of its range. <br/><br/>Its present status in Bequia is unknown (Daudin and de Silva, 2007).	eng
57172	threats	Jerry Hardy, Ronald Heyer, Blair Hedges, Robert Powell, 2008	Habitat destruction is taking place due to urbanization and tourism development, as well as for agriculture, but it is not known how this is affecting the species. There are no known threats to this species in Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
57173	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57173	distribution		This species can be found on the Pacific slope of Colombia (Antioquia Department) to central Ecuador, at elevations of 0-1,400m asl. See taxonomic note.	eng
57173	habitat		This species can be found in open areas of lowland and montane dry and moist tropical forests. It known to occur in human-modified habitats such as roadsides, pastures, secondary forest as well as the interior of old growth forest. It lays eggs in foam nests attached to low vegetation, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
57173	population		It is common in Ecuador (recorded in 2003) but possibly uncommon in Colombia where research effort has been more limited.	eng
57173	threats		It is threatened by agrochemicals, but persists in severely deforested areas.	eng
57174	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57174	distribution		This species is known from two localities at around 200m asl in the state of Bahia, in eastern Brazil: Itajibá and Guaratinga. It will probably prove to be more widespread.	eng
57174	habitat		This is a species of wet pastures at the edge of forest, which can survive in wet fields outside forest. It breeds using foam nests in temporary pools.	eng
57174	population		It is abundant in its two known localities.	eng
57174	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, creation of wood plantations and human settlement.	eng
57175	conservation		It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
57175	distribution		This species is present as disjunctive populations in southern Colombia; throughout much of Amazonian Ecuador; disjunctive populations in northern Peru and western Brazil (Acre). It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,800m asl.	eng
57175	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that occurs in a wide variety of habitats. Specimens have been found in clearings, marshes and swamps, primary forest, secondary forest, terra firme forest, flooded forest, streams, and lakes (Duellman, 1978; Ron, 2001). It is usually not found too far from waterbodies. Eggs are laid in foam nests in lentic waterbodies; the tadpoles develop in these areas. It may be found in modified areas including agricultural land.	eng
57175	population		Its abundance is variable throughout its range.	eng
57175	threats		There are no threats to this species; it can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
57176	conservation		It occurs in Nonoai State Park, Rio Grande do Sul. It is listed by Paraná state as critically endangered. It occurs in Iguazu and El Palmar National Parks and the Yaboti Biosphere Reserve in Argentina.	eng
57176	distribution		This species is known from Southern Brazil (Paraná to Rio Grande do Sul), Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina (Misiones and Entre Rios). It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,200m asl.	eng
57176	habitat		It occurs in open and forested areas on rocky soil along rivers. Tadpoles are found in temporary ponds along rivers. It occurs in deforested areas.	eng
57176	population		In Paraná, the Itaipú dam destroyed all known populations. The status in Santa Catarina is unknown. It is common in fairly disturbed sites in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and Uruguay. It is common in Misiones and Uruguay.	eng
57176	threats		Habitat degradation due to agricultural activities, water pollution, hydroelectric development, and pine plantations are all threats.	eng
57177	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57177	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is known from the Orinoco Basin of Colombia and Venezuela and the Amazonian basin of Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. In Trinidad and Tobago it is known only from a single specimen collected at an unspecified locality on Trinidad Island in 1915; verification of the presence of the species in Trinidad and Tobago is needed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl (Bolivia).	eng
57177	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a terrestrial frog of primary and secondary tropical rainforest, that is often associated with ant nests (<em>Atta</em> spp.). It can be found at the forest edge, pastures, and, in Bolivia, in the gallery forest within wet savannah. Animals can be found below logs, leaf-litter and other cover in forests. The species builds foam nests at the edge of temporary pools; the larvae develop within these waterbodies. It has been recorded from logged forest, although its ability to adapt over the long-term is unclear.	eng
57177	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is locally common throughout its range.	eng
57177	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57178	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57178	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the central part of the State of Alagoas, south to the state of São Paulo. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 600m asl.	eng
57178	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It lives in primary and old secondary forest, and also in agro forestry systems such as cacao plantations. It is usually found on the ground near waterbodies. It is an explosive breeder, using temporary still waters.	eng
57178	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It is generally uncommon, though it is locally very common in cacao plantations in the State of Espírito Santo. At Reserva Florestal de Morro Grande, the use of sampling techniques that target leaf litter taxa shed 18 individuals for this species (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).	eng
57178	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, wood plantations, logging and human settlement.	eng
57179	conservation		Larvae of this species have been observed in Parque Estadual da Pedra Azul.	eng
57179	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality and the vicinity of the fountainhead of the Rio Jucu, next to Parque Estadual de Pedra Azul, in the municipality of Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. It has been observed at 1,200-1,500m asl. This species might occur a little more widely, but it might also be restricted to a single river drainage.	eng
57179	habitat		This species is associated with clean, cold upland streams with some lentic water pools in the Atlantic rainforest, and it is assumed that it does not tolerate habitat modification. Larvae have been observed in the pools.	eng
57179	population		It is presumed to have a low population density, as with other members of this genus.	eng
57179	threats		The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be adversely affected by forest loss due to smallholder agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
57180	conservation		Its only known locality is within Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.	eng
57180	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Bocaina, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The exact locality is not known but is thought to be above 500m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.	eng
57180	habitat		The single specimen from which this species is known was found concealed under a rock at the margin of a mountain stream at night. This species presumably breeds in streams like other species in the genus.	eng
57180	population		This species is known from only one specimen.	eng
57180	threats		The major threats are unknown, however its habitat is within a protected area.	eng
57181	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, 2004	Parque Florestal do Itapetinga is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57181	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, 2004	This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Florestal do Itapetinga, Atibaia, in São Paulo State, Brazil. This locality is at around 800m asl. It probably occurs at least a little more widely.	eng
57181	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, 2004	Individuals were found in a small, clean, cold montane rivulet in forest, and larvae were found in deeper pools.	eng
57181	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, 2004	The population status is unknown, this species is only known from a few specimens.	eng
57181	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, 2004	Habitat loss due to human settlement and fire might be threats to this species.<br/><br/>A similar species (<em>Megaelosia</em> cf. <em>boticariana</em>) has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
57182	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence is needed, in particular to determine whether or not the species occurs within the two disjunctive populations.	eng
57182	distribution		This species is known from the Serra do Mar in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, Brazil. It is known from above 900m asl. It is also known from one locality in southern Rio de Janeiro State.	eng
57182	habitat		It occurs during the day on emergent rocks in shallow places in primary forest. Larvae were collected from under large rocks in a moderate-sized forest stream. The tadpoles develop in the streams. It has not been recorded outside forest habitat.	eng
57182	population		It is a common species, but very difficult to catch.	eng
57182	threats		This species is restricted to primary forest and is threatened by water pollution, infrastructure development, and any kind of forest clearance.	eng
57183	conservation		Parque Nacional do Itatiaia is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57183	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Parque Nacional do Itatiaia, on the border of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, although it probably occurs more widely. The locality is somewhere between 500-1,000m asl.	eng
57183	habitat		During the day it is found on emergent rocks in shallow places in streams in primary forest. Eggs are laid under large rocks in moderately-sized forest streams, in which the larvae also develop.	eng
57183	population		The population status of this species is unknown, as it is known only from a few specimens. However, it is not considered rare, but just very difficult to catch as it is very agile.	eng
57183	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, but the type locality is in a very secure national park, providing very good protection for its habitat.	eng
57184	conservation	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	The range of this species overlaps with the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.	eng
57184	distribution	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	This species is known from the region of the type locality (Alto da Serra), and Boraceia, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and probably occurs at least a little more widely. It has been recorded between 700-900m asl.	eng
57184	habitat	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	It occurs along small to medium-sized mountain streams in the forest. Adults and juveniles are diurnal and have been observed on large rocks, or in the water. Larvae have been observed in slow water in the deepest parts of a mountain stream.	eng
57184	population	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	The population status is unknown, it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
57184	threats	Carlos Alberto Gonçalves da Cruz, Ana Maria Telles, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2004	The major threats are unknown, but the species' habitat is secured within a very good protected area.<br/><br/>This species has recently tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Toledo et al., 2006b).	eng
57185	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Quebrada el Condorito and the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve.	eng
57185	distribution		This species is endemic to the Sierras Grandes de Cordoba, Argentina, where it ranges from 1,800-2,500m asl.	eng
57185	habitat		It occurs in montane grasslands and rocky outcrops therein. Reproduction takes place in permanent streams and it does not tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
57185	population		It is a rare species, but populations appear to be stable where suitable habitat remains.	eng
57185	threats		Habitat fragmentation caused by cattle ranching is a threat to this species; cattle ranching also leads to the deterioration of water quality for breeding sites. Some populations might be declining due to fires.	eng
57186	conservation	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	Taxonomic work is needed to resolve this species complex. It also occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57186	distribution	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	This nominal species is known from central and southern Brazil (from Minas Gerais south), Uruguay, Paraguay and northern and central Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, La Rioja, Misiones, Río Negro, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, San Luis, Tucumán).<br/><br/>The tetraploid <em>Odontophrynus americanus</em> presents three disjunct population groups, isolated from one another by diploid populations. One of these tetraploid groups is distributed in central and eastern Argentina, southern Brazil, southern Paraguay, and Uruguay, with the other two population groups of the tetraploid form inhabiting southeastern Brazil, and northwestern Argentina respectively (Rosset et al., 2006).<br/><br/>It occurs from 0-2,000m asl.	eng
57186	habitat	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	It is a fossorial species occuring in open grasslands and savannahs. During breeding time it is found at shallow, temporary ponds and flooded areas. Males call at night from the edge of, or from within the water. The eggs are laid on the muddy bottom of a pond and the tadpoles develop in the same site. It tolerates substantial habitat disturbance.	eng
57186	population	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	It is common throughout much of its range.	eng
57186	threats	Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57187	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
57187	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Aguadita Springs (30km north in Famatina village: 28° 54'S; 67° 31'W), La Rioja, Argentina, at 2,200m asl, and from one other site nearby. Specimens referred to this species from Catamarca Province (in Lavilla and Cei 2001) do not pertain to this species.	eng
57187	habitat		This species is found in montane dry shrublands and nearby rocky outcrops, and breeds by larval development in small spring-fed pools.	eng
57187	population		Its population status is not known. The type series was collected in the 1970s, but no one has returned to the type locality since then. However, a few adults were found at a nearby site in 2002.	eng
57187	threats		The major threats to this species are nomadic livestock and firewood extraction, which cause habitat loss and degradation.	eng
57188	conservation		It presumably occurs in some protected areas.	eng
57188	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Cristalia in northern Minas Gerais, north to Urucui in Tocatins and Guaramiranga in Ceara, east to Areia in Paraiba. It avoids very low altitudes, and is commonly found around 800m asl.	eng
57188	habitat		It is a species of "Caatinga" savannah that has also been found on the edge of wet forests. It is usually found on the ground near water. It is an explosive breeder, and the tadpoles live in small intermittent streams and temporary ponds.	eng
57188	population		It can only be readily found when it is breeding, and then it is common.	eng
57188	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire.	eng
57189	conservation	Ismael di Tada, 2008	It occurs in the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve.	eng
57189	distribution	Ismael di Tada, 2008	This species is known to occur in Córdoba and Santiago del Estero provinces, Argentina. It can be found at altitudes of 1,450-1,600m asl.	eng
57189	habitat	Ismael di Tada, 2008	It occurs under rocks in montane grasslands and forests. It reproduces in permanent mountain streams. The larvae develop in these streams for more than a year before metamorphosis. It tolerates substantial habitat modification.	eng
57189	population	Ismael di Tada, 2008	It is common and stable in Argentina in suitable habitats.	eng
57189	threats	Ismael di Tada, 2008	It is somewhat threatened by habitat destruction (including by fire) for wood extraction and cattle ranching.	eng
57190	conservation	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Dante Pavan, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57190	distribution	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Dante Pavan, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	This species is known with certainty only from Goiás, São Paulo, and Minas Gerais states, Brazil. In spite of Cei (1980) and Frost (2000), there do not appear to be reliable records of its presence west of eastern Brazil (Cochran, 1955). Lavilla <em>et al.</em> (2000) do not recognize its presence in Argentina, and there are no specimens from Paraguay in the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay. It has an altitudinal range of 500-1,000m asl.	eng
57190	habitat	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Dante Pavan, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	A fossorial species that can be found in open areas and forest edges. It reproduces explosively in temporary pools (including artificial pools).	eng
57190	population	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Dante Pavan, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	It is an abundant and stable species. It occurs in suburban gardens.	eng
57190	threats	Débora Silvano, Norman Scott, Lucy Aquino, Axel Kwet, Dante Pavan, Ulisses Caramaschi, 2008	Severe habitat loss due to infrastructure development and agricultural activities (cattle ranching) can impact this species, and its habitat is fragmented.	eng
57191	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Ismael di Tada, Boris Blotto, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species is not known from any protected area.	eng
57191	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Ismael di Tada, Boris Blotto, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species is known from the provinces of Santiago del Estero, Chaco, Córdoba, Formosa, Jujuy, Santa Fé, Santiago del Estero and Salta, in Argentina. In Paraguay, it has been found in the departments of Alto Paraguay, Boquerón, and Presidente Hayes (Rosset et al., 2006). The population from Pampa Grande (Santa Cruz department, Bolivia) is also considered to be <em>Odontophrynus lavillai</em> based on photographic records (see Rosset et al., 2006).<br/><br/>Its altitudinal range is from 150-2,100m asl.	eng
57191	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Ismael di Tada, Boris Blotto, Diego Baldo, 2008	This is a fossorial species of open habitats from the Chaco to the Inter Andean Valleys. Breeding and larval development takes place in temporary waterbodies, including roadside ditches. The species shows some adaptability to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57191	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Ismael di Tada, Boris Blotto, Diego Baldo, 2008	In general this is a locally common species. Small populations have been found as recently as 2002.	eng
57191	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ignacio De la Riva, Ismael di Tada, Boris Blotto, Diego Baldo, 2008	In Argentina the species is threatened by habitat destruction through wood extraction and general agricultural activities.	eng
57192	conservation		It is not known from any protected area. Additional survey work is needed to establish whether or not this species might still survive in the wild, prior to the recommendation of any specific conservation actions.	eng
57192	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: Botucatu, in São Paulo State, Brazil. It is known from around 800-900m asl.	eng
57192	habitat		This species occurs on the ground near waterbodies in open areas near forest edge; it is not known from anthropogenically disturbed habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57192	population		It is only known from a few specimens, and was last collected in 1990. A drastic population decline is suspected to have taken place; subsequent searches have not been successful in finding this species, either at the type locality, or elsewhere, and it might now be extinct.	eng
57192	threats		The type locality for this species has been destroyed by infrastructure development and agriculture.	eng
57193	conservation		It occurs in the Pampa de Achala Regional Hydrological Reserve, Cordoba, Argentina.	eng
57193	distribution		This species occurs in central and south-central Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 50-1,500m asl.	eng
57193	habitat		This species can be found in montane forests, rocky outcrops, and scrub habitats. It reproduces in permanent streams. The larvae remain in streams where metamorphosis occurs after about eight months. It tolerates substantial habitat destruction.	eng
57193	population		It is less common than other Odontophrynus in Argentina but regularly recorded.	eng
57193	threats		It is threatened by water pollution and fires caused by agricultural and mining activities.	eng
57194	conservation		This species is known only from protected areas, though it presumably also occurs more widely.	eng
57194	distribution		This species is known only from Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros (in Alto Paraíso de Goiás Municipality), Parque Estadual dos Pirineus (in Pirenópolis Municipality), both in Goiás State, and from the Distrito Federal, Brazil. It is presumed to occur more widely. It has been recorded above 800m asl.	eng
57194	habitat		An inhabitant of the Cerrado savannah, it occurs on the ground near waterbodies, but does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. The larvae are found in small temporary streams.	eng
57194	population		This is a common species.	eng
57194	threats		The major threats to its habitat are agricultural development (for both the cultivation of crops and the rearing of livestock) and fires.	eng
57195	conservation		Both of the localities from which it is known are in protected areas.	eng
57195	distribution		This species from south-eastern Brazil is known from two localities in the Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo: Boraceia in Salesopolis, and Serra de Paramapiacaba in Santo Andre. Its altitudinal range is 500-800m asl.	eng
57195	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, forest clearings and forest edges, where it deposits its eggs in muddy, temporary ponds.	eng
57195	population		It is common at its two known localities.	eng
57195	threats		Although this species has so far been found only in protected areas, it is almost certainly found in other places, where the major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting and tourism.	eng
57196	conservation		No information is available. It is a high priority to relocate this species and to determine whether or not it is declining in suitable habitat. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57196	distribution		This species is known only from Campos do Jordao in the Serra de Mantiqueira, in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at 1,700m asl.	eng
57196	habitat		If it is like other <em>Paratelmatobius</em> species, it will be found to be terrestrial in forest and forest clearings, with breeding taking place in temporary ponds or streams.	eng
57196	population		There is no recent information its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected in 1953.	eng
57196	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cut logging. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
57197	conservation		It occurs in two protected areas.	eng
57197	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in the Serra do Mar in the state of São Paulo, south-east Brazil, although it might be more widespread: Paranapiacaba, Boracéia and Salesópolis. Its altitudinal range is 500-800m asl.	eng
57197	habitat		It lives on the ground near small temporary streams inside primary forest. The eggs are laid in small ponds at the edges of the temporary streams.	eng
57197	population		It is less common than <em>Paratelmatobius cardosoi</em>, but it can still be found.	eng
57197	threats		Although it has so far been found only in protected areas, this species is almost certainly found in other places where the major threats to it are probably related to habitat loss and degradation due to clear-cutting and tourism.	eng
57198	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of this species, making habitat maintenance and protection for this species a very high conservation priority. A more carefully managed burning regime would also benefit this species.	eng
57198	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, in the vicinity of Albania, in the municipality of Herveo, department of Tolima, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, Colombia, from 3,100-3,400m asl. It is most likely restricted to this area.	eng
57198	habitat		It occurs under rocks and logs in grasses in sub-páramo areas. It can also be found in pastureland and arable land, although this is not ideal habitat as it is often burned. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57198	population		This is a rare species.	eng
57198	threats		The major threat to this species is fire, in the form of frequent burning of the páramo so that the grass grows more quickly for cattle grazing.	eng
57199	conservation		Carrasco National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57199	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, 10 km N of Monte Punko, in Carrasco National Park (17 33' S, 65 17' W, 3350 masl), and from the nearby locality of Jatum Potrero, Carrasco National Park (17 31' 26" S, 65 11' 21" W), both in the Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, between 3250-3400 masl. It possibly occurs more widely.	eng
57199	habitat		The species lives in the ‘‘ceja de Monte’’, covered by low, humid montane forest typical of the Yungas region in the<br/>transition to paramo vegetation (De la Riva, 2007).<br/><br/>It breeds by direct development.	eng
57199	population		It is a common species.	eng
57199	threats		Assuming that it is present outside the national park, this species is presumably impacted by habitat loss and degradation as a result of overgrazing, smallholder farming, and expanding human settlements.<br/><br/>The predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are also considered to pose a serious threat to the species, in addition to its restricted distribution (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57200	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and improved habitat protection and maintenance is required at sites where this species has been recorded. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57200	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Rio Marcapata" on the Amazonian slopes of the southern Andes of Peru (Cusco Department) at 2,740m asl. It is believed to occur much more widely than is currently known.	eng
57200	habitat		This species can be found in montane cloud forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57200	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
57200	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and disturbance due to small-scale agriculture (potatoes, livestock) and firewood collection.	eng
57201	conservation		It does not exist in any protected areas. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very restricted range.	eng
57201	distribution		This species has been recorded from the type locality, 15km south-east of Maraypata near Laguna Gwengway, and from Alcas, San Rafael District, Ambo Province (Huanuco Department). It occurs at altitudes of around 3,680m asl.	eng
57201	habitat		This is a montane forest inhabitant that is now found in Puna grassland as a result of deforestation. It can be found in gardens, potato fields, and other similar habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57201	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57201	threats		The major threat to this species in the past was loss of forest habitat, but the species seems to have adapted relatively well in the face of such habitat degradation. There are no immediate threats at present, although agrochemical pollution might pose a threat in the future.	eng
57202	conservation		The major part of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Yanachaga Chemillen, and given the pressures facing this area the continued maintenance and management of this area will be essential to ensure the long-term survival of this species.	eng
57202	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Cordillera Yanachaga, at 2,300-2,700m asl (in Pasco Department) in Peru. Although its range is not well known, it is presumed to be confined to the Cordillera Yanachaga.	eng
57202	habitat		It is a terrestrial species inhabiting montane cloud forest and elfin forest; it is not known if it occurs in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57202	population		Its current population status is unknown, but it may be uncommon.	eng
57202	threats		The Yanachaga Mountain is the last large forested area in this region of Peru, and there is increasing human pressure to convert the land for agricultural activities (for example, "Rocoto" [chilli pepper] plantations).	eng
57203	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and the habitat of this species is in urgent need of protection.	eng
57203	distribution		This species is known currently from two localities near El Carmelo and in El Chamizo, Carchi Province, Ecuador, at 3,100-3,200m asl. It was recently discovered in Nariño Department on the Colombian side of the border near Carmelo. It might range a little more widely.	eng
57203	habitat		Specimens have been collected by day beneath logs in a wet pasture in páramo habitat; they have also been found in holes in the ground. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
57203	population		It was rare at El Chamizo in 2000, where two individuals were found.	eng
57203	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to the expansion of agricultural activities.	eng
57204	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, making protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat a high priority.	eng
57204	distribution		Melanophryne carpish is known from cloud forests at elevations between 2750 and 2960 masl in central Peru (Department of Huánuco: Cordillera de Carpish), and in northern Peru (Department of Amazonas: Laguna de los Cóndores: 6 50′49″ S, 77 41′40″ W). The distance between the two localities is 364 km (airline) (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).	eng
57204	habitat		Specimens have been found on the ground and in a pitfall trap near terrestrial bromeliads (November and February, respectively) and in the centre of a water-filled bromeliad about 1 m above ground during the afternoon (a gravid female, found in July).  Melanophryne carpish is restricted to primary cloud forests with (terrestrial) bromeliads, which are used as hiding places and presumably for deposition of eggs. One female contained 83 pigmented eggs that have an average diameter of 1.6 ± 0.14 mm (n = 10) (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). Tadpoles were found in November in bromeliads (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Stomach contents of one specimen revealed arthropods belonging to the following orders/families: Coleoptera, Juliaformes, Formicidae and Staphylinidae (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).	eng
57204	population		Melanophryne carpish is considered to be either a secretive and/or rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57204	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and firewood collection.	eng
57205	conservation		Research is needed to resolve its taxonomic identity.	eng
57205	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Monte Redondo, Buenavista, in either the department of Cundinamarca or the department of Meta, Colombia, at 1,000-1,300m asl.	eng
57205	habitat		This is probably a terrestrial species, living among fallen leaves and under rocks and logs in cloud forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in its genus.	eng
57205	population		It is known only from the type specimen (now lost) which was collected more than 100 years ago.	eng
57205	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. However, deforestation as a result of agricultural development and cultivation of illegal crops is taking place within its range.	eng
57206	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, but further survey work is needed to determine whether it might occur beyond the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
57206	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "S slope Abra Acjanacu, 14km NNE Paucartambo", Cordillera de Paucartambo (Cusco Department), at 3,400m asl in Peru; it is endemic to the south-east of the Cordillera Paucartambo.	eng
57206	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of wet puna and elfin forest, and is not present in degraded areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
57206	population		It is very common where it occurs.	eng
57206	threats		The major threat is the destruction of habitat by the activities of smallholder farmers.	eng
57207	conservation		The species is not known to be present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur.	eng
57207	distribution		This species is known only from three mountain peaks: Chaglla, Maraypata, and Palma Pampa, in the Departamento Huánuco, Peru, at an altitude of 3,070-3,380m asl.	eng
57207	habitat		It is terrestrial and can be found in montane cloud forest and wet shrubland, and formerly in forested wet grassland close to the edge of forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57207	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57207	threats		It is severely threatened by agricultural activities (especially potato cultivation).	eng
57208	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is required.	eng
57208	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, given as "on the road across the northern part of the Cordillera Central between Leimebamba and Chachapoyas, at 19km SSW [south-south-west of] Leimebamba, in cloud forest, Amazonas, Peru" (Duellman 2000). It is believed to be a range-restricted species, but its distribution is still not understood.	eng
57208	habitat		It has been collected in montane cloud forest, where it is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57208	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
57208	threats		Its threats are not known.	eng
57209	conservation		Although it has been recorded within Parque Nacional Podocarpus, additional habitat protection is required. Further survey work is necessary to help better determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57209	distribution		This species is known from the community of Cajanuma and Parque Nacional Podocarpus, Lojas Province, between 2215 and 3200 masl, on the eastern Andean Cordillera in southern Ecuador, and from the Rio Blanco Basin (3100 masl), Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru.	eng
57209	habitat		It occurs on the ground in páramo habitat. Reproduction is believed to occur by direct development.	eng
57209	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57209	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat destruction and degradation, in particular for small-scale agriculture and non-timber plantations; it might also be impacted by fires.	eng
57210	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.	eng
57210	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "Conchamarca, Ambo, of the eastern Andean slopes of central Peru (Departamento: Huánuco) 3,420m asl".	eng
57210	habitat		It is terrestrial and can be found in <em>Polylepis</em> forest ("Queñoales") and pasture with bushes ("Matorral Húmedo"). The species needs moist areas to survive, and has not been found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57210	population		It is extremely rare.	eng
57210	threats		The <em>Polylepis</em> forests have been reduced drastically by human activities over the years (primarily due to potato farming and cattle ranching).	eng
57211	conservation		The local people of Maraypata informally protect the remaining forest, but given the continuing rate of forest loss there might well be a need for the establishment of a formal protected area and an official management plan.	eng
57211	distribution		This species has been recorded from different valleys in Huánuco, on the Andean slopes of central Peru (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). It has been reported from localities such as Conchamarca, Yaurin, Huancamonte and Maraypata (Province of Ambo, Department of Huánuco). It has an altitudinal range of 3030-3430 masl.	eng
57211	habitat		It occurs in <em>Polylepis</em> forest ("Queñoales"), montane forest, and pasture with bushes ("Matorral Humedo"); it is also present in disturbed areas where water is available. It has been observed during the day on the ground and in the leaf litter, while at night it is found on leaves. Lehr (2006) reports that the species is active at night on the vegetation, between 0.3–1.5 m above ground. <br/><br/>It breeds by direct development.	eng
57211	population		The species is common in the leaf litter during daytime and at night on plants (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57211	threats		The <em>Polylepis</em> forests have been reduced drastically by human activities over the years (primarily due to potato farming and cattle ranching).	eng
57212	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs entirely in Parque Nacional Carrasco. Close population monitoring of this species is required, given that it appears to have such a limited range.	eng
57212	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella iatamasi </span>is known from the type locality and its surroundings, in the northwestern limit of Carrasco National Park (boundary between Arani and Chapare), in the Province of Cochabamba, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). Its elevational range varies between 2,600-4,192 m asl.	eng
57212	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	The species occurs in cloud forest, elfin forest, and humid páramo. Calls are emitted from mosses on the floor by day (De la Riva 2007). It is often found under stones at higher elevations, and on vegetation at lower elevations. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57212	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is considered to be an abundant species.	eng
57212	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	There are no major threats at present; however, its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes. In addition, the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose a serious threat to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57213	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.	eng
57213	distribution		This species is known from two locations on the Andean slopes of central Peru: Cascas near Huasihuasi (Departamento Junín) and Bellavista and Jatunchinchi, Paucartambo region, Departamento Pasco. It is present at altitudes from 2,800-3,820m asl.	eng
57213	habitat		It can be found in primary montane cloud forest, and at forest edges, but not in degraded habitats. It is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57213	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57213	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, including potato farming and livestock ranching.	eng
57214	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary.	eng
57214	distribution		This species is known only from "Palma Pampa' and the Cordillera de Carpish, on the eastern slopes of the Andes in central Peru (Departamento Huánuco), at an altitude of 2,600-3,020m asl.	eng
57214	habitat		An inhabitant of montane cloud forest, it can also be found in forest edge but not in agricultural land. It is a direct developing, terrestrial species.	eng
57214	population		There is limited information available on its population status, but it is known to be very rare at the type locality.	eng
57214	threats		The main threat is habitat destruction as a result of agricultural activities, primarily from potato farming and livestock ranching.	eng
57215	conservation		It probably occurs in Carrasco National Park. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
57215	distribution		This species is known only from the Serrania Siberia (17 50' S, 64 45' W, 2500-3160 masl), on the border of the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, (provinces of Carrasco and Caballero, respectively), Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
57215	habitat		It is a terrestrial species inhabiting cloud and elfin forest, and its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. It has been found near rocks along a road, under stones and logs, on moss and on tree roots, and is both diurnal and nocturnal (males call both day and night, De la Riva, 2007). Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57215	population		It is apparently a fairly common species. However, it does not seem to have been recorded since 1994, though this is probably the last time a herpetologist visited the area where it occurs.	eng
57215	threats		There is ongoing habitat loss and degradation, due to the activities of smallholder farmers, timber harvesting, and expanding human settlements. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57217	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and immediate protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is necessary. Attempts to breed this species in captivity have proved unsuccessful.	eng
57217	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "north slope of Abra Tapuna, 7km N Mahuayura", Cordillera Oriental west of the Río Apurimac (Departamento: Ayacucho). It was collected at an elevation of 3,710m asl.	eng
57217	habitat		It can be found in montane shrubland and cloud forest, but it is not known whether or not it could occur in degraded areas. It is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57217	population		The current population status is unknown.	eng
57217	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss, primarily from the clearance of land (mainly through the use of fire) for agriculture.	eng
57218	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to protect the cloud forest habitat of this species.	eng
57218	distribution		This species is known from the departments of Huanaco (Huancapallac), Junin (type locality: Cascas, near Huasahuasi) and Pasco. It has been collected at elevations between 2,600 and 2,750m asl.	eng
57218	habitat		This is a terrestrial species that can be found in cloud mountain forest, and dry Andean valleys with scrub vegetation; it is not known from degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
57218	population		It is uncommon.	eng
57218	threats		The major threat is general habitat loss as a result of agricultural activities (cultivation of potatoes, and livestock farming), and deforestation for firewood.	eng
57219	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57219	distribution		This species occurs on the Cordillera Oriental of the Colombian Andes between 3,000 and 3,600m asl. There are isolated records from the departments of Boyaca, Santander (including the type locality at the Páramo de la Rusia) and Norte de Santander. Its distribution is still not well known, and it probably has a much wider range than is currently known.	eng
57219	habitat		It is terrestrial, and is found in páramo grassland and montane forest, as well as secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57219	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57219	threats		This species might be threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to agricultural development, grazing by domestic livestock, and the spread of pine plantations.	eng
57220	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas. There is a general need for further research into the fauna of the Huancabamba depression fauna. It has been suggested that a protected area should be established in the region.	eng
57220	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, "El Tambo, 31.5km E [east of] Canchaque (Departamento: Piura) at 2,770m asl" (Cannatella 1984), Peru. Its total range is not known but it is believed to be restricted to the Huancabamba region.	eng
57220	habitat		This terrestrial species can be found in humid montane forest under rocks. Although it is not known if it occurs outside primary montane forest, it has been found along forest edges (including roads). It breeds by direct development.	eng
57220	population		It was common when collected in 1991, but its current population status is not known.	eng
57220	threats		The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through agricultural activities (including the cultivation of potatoes, and livestock grazing).	eng
57221	conservation		Although it is present in the Santuario Nacional Tabaconas-Namballe, protection and maintenance of the habitat on the Cordillera de Huancabamba is necessary.	eng
57221	distribution		This species is known only from sites at El Tambo on the Cordillera de Huancabamba (Departamento Piura) and Santuario Nacional Tabaconas-Namballe (Cajamarca) in Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 2770-3100 masl.	eng
57221	habitat		It can be found in humid montane forest under rocks, and in páramo habitats (hiding in low vegetation), but does not occur in agricultural areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
57221	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57221	threats		In Huancabamba, the main threat to the species is expanding agricultural activities (mainly due to potato farming and livestock ranching).	eng
57222	conservation		Its range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
57222	distribution		This species is known from three localities in the vicinity of Papallacta, in Napo Province, and from El Chamizo in the province of Carchi, northern Ecuador, at 3,000-3,350m asl. Its range is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57222	habitat		Specimens have been collected beneath rocks and logs in grassy páramo, sub páramo, or (rarely) in high montane forest habitats. This is a terrestrial species that reproduces by direct development.	eng
57222	population		It was rare in El Chamizo in 2000, when only one individual was found.	eng
57222	threats		The major threats to it are habitat destruction and degradation due to smallholder farming, human settlement and fires.	eng
57223	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection and maintenance a priority. The species is, in general, quite poorly known, and further research is needed into its biology and population status.	eng
57223	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the eastern Andes west of the Apurimac River, and from Cordillera Vilcabamba, Departamento Ayacucho, Peru, between 2,460 and 2,650m asl. It is believed to be a genuinely restricted-range species.	eng
57223	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting montane cloud forest, but it is not known whether or not it occurs in degraded areas. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57223	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57223	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, subsistence wood collecting, and human settlement.	eng
57224	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
57224	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Maraynioc, in Junín Department, Peru. It might be a restricted-range species.	eng
57224	habitat		It is presumably found in montane cloud forest, where it is probably a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57224	population		There is no information on its current population status. It has not been seen or collected since the 1800s.	eng
57224	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57225	conservation		It is probably present in Parque Nacional Manu, but populations occurring outside the park remain in need of protection.	eng
57225	distribution		This Peruvian endemic is known from Abra Accanacu, Paucartambo, in the department of Cusco. The original publication gives an incorrect locality of "near Juliaca, Departamento: Puno". Records from Bolivia are misidentifications. It is present at elevations of 2,800-3,500 m asl.	eng
57225	habitat		It can be found in the altiplano shrublands, and may be found at the edges of agricultural land (but not in cultivated areas). It breeds by direct development.	eng
57225	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
57225	threats		General habitat loss through agricultural activity (cultivation of potatoes) and other human activities is the major threat.	eng
57226	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
57226	distribution		Psychrophrynella pinguis is known only from the type locality of "Choquetanga Chico" (16 48' S, 67 21' W), in Inquisivi Province, department of La Paz, Bolivia, at 3450 masl (Harvey and Ergueta 1998; De la Riva, 2007). Although it is likely to have a small range, its distribution is still very incompletely known.	eng
57226	habitat		Individuals of this species have been found under stones in a humid stream bed; the area consists a mixture of low elfin forest and pastures, with abundant mosses and lichens. Other anurans found at the type locality were Pristimantis platydactylus, Telmatobius espadai, and Gastrotheca marsupiata (Harvey and Ergueta, 1998; De la Riva, 2007).<br/><br/>The species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57226	population		It is known only from the original specimens, and there has been no recent surveying of the type locality.	eng
57226	threats		It is probably threatened to some extent by smallholder agriculture. <br/><br/>In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
57227	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, so protection and maintenance of existing habitat is a priority. Further research is needed into the biology and population status of this species.	eng
57227	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Celendin and its surroundings, in the vicinity of Cajamarca, Departamento Cajamarca, Peru. It has an altitudinal range of around 3,200m asl.	eng
57227	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting páramo grassland, and is not found in degraded areas. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
57227	population		It was previously common, although its current population status is not known.	eng
57227	threats		Habitat loss, as a result of agricultural expansion (potato farming and livestock ranching), represents the major threat to the species.	eng
57229	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this little-known species.	eng
57229	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, 13km east-south-east of Yamobamba, in Otuzco Province, La Libertad Department, Peru. Although it is likely to have a small distribution, the limits of its distribution are not very well known.	eng
57229	habitat		The habitat type of this species is not known. It is terrestrial, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57229	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
57229	threats		It is possibly threatened by general agricultural activities.	eng
57230	conservation		The species is known to occur in Coscapa, which is within the contiguous Cotapata preserved area (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
57230	distribution		Psychrophrynella wettsteini is known from the surroundings of the area of Unduavi, in the Unduavi Valley, Province of Sud Yungas, Department of La Paz (16 19' S, 67 54' W), and the locality of Coscapa, which is within the contiguous Cotapata preserved area and is 3.1 km (airline) from the type locality. Although it is most abundant between 3200 and 3700 m, the total altitudinal range of the species is 2900–3900 masl (De la Riva, 2007 and references therein).	eng
57230	habitat		The species has been found from the upper limits of the cloud forest to humid paramo grassland. Individuals are found under stones and are active by day and night, including calling activity (De la Riva, 2007). Gravid females have been reported to have an average of 13 eggs 5 mm in diameter during the months of March, July, August, and December, and clutches have been found under stones in August an January (De la Riva, 2007 and references therein).<br/><br/>The species survives well in in disturbed habitats.	eng
57230	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57230	threats		The major threats to this species are not known. It is possibly threatened by general agricultural activities.	eng
57231	conservation		All known localities are within Carrasco National Park.	eng
57231	distribution		This species occurs on the northeastern slope of the Andes, from Chapare Province, Department of Cochabamba, to eastern Caballero Province, Department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (De la Riva and Köhler 1998, Köhler 2000). It occurs at 1,700-2,300m asl.	eng
57231	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that can be found in very humid cloud forest or in Yungas forest. During the day, it can be found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. One individual was found inside an epiphytic bromeliad, 3-4m from the ground (Köhler 2000b). It breeds by direct development.	eng
57231	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57231	threats		There are no known threats, since its forest habitat is well protected.	eng
57232	conservation		Given its known habitat and geographic distribution, this species might occur in the Santuario Nacional Tabaconas Namballe, in Peru.	eng
57232	distribution		This species can be found on the high ridges in the Andes in the region of the Huancabamba Depression in Loja Province (Ciudad de Loja), southern Ecuador, and Piura Department, northern Peru. In Peru it is known only from one site 33km south-west of Huancabamba. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is known from altitudes of 2,040-3,000m asl in Ecuador, and from 1,700m asl in Peru.	eng
57232	habitat		This nocturnal and terrestrial species lives in cracks in the ground below the leaf-litter in upper montane forest, but not in old growth forest. It also occurs in areas bordering pastures and other open areas. Reproduction occurs by direct development.	eng
57232	population		This species’ population status is known only at a few localities, possibly because it is hard to collect. Judging by its calls, it was common in Loja in 2003.	eng
57232	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to subsistence agriculture.	eng
57233	conservation		Its geographic range overlaps Parque Nacional Sangay in Ecuador.	eng
57233	distribution		This species is known from moderate altitudes on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes from the Cordillera del Cóndor in Peru, and the Cordillera de Cutucú in Ecuador (in Pastaza, Zamora Chinchipe, and Morona Santiago Provinces). It has an altitudinal rage of 900-1,700m asl. It was recently recorded from the Alfonso Ugarte military post in Amazonas Department, Cordillera del Cóndor, Peru, at 1,138m asl.	eng
57233	habitat		The holotype was collected during the day in leaf-litter in cloud forest (Lynch 1976d), and it also occurs in old growth and secondary forest. Reproduction occurs via direct development.	eng
57233	population		It is rarely encountered, possibly due to its secretive habits.	eng
57233	threats		Its range in the Cordillera del Cóndor is not significantly threatened since people are averse to entering the area due to the land mines left during the Ecuador-Peru border war in 1995.	eng
57234	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed.	eng
57234	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the east slope of Abra Chinchillo, 42km north of Balsas, Chachapoyas Province, Amazonas Department, Peru, at 2,870m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57234	habitat		It was recorded from disturbed cloud forest, where it is a terrestrial species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57234	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which has probably not been recorded since it was described.	eng
57234	threats		The threats to this species are unknown. It is possibly threatened by agricultural development.	eng
57235	conservation	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Javier Icochea, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is present in Parque Nacional Manu, Peru.	eng
57235	distribution	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Javier Icochea, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	This species occurs in the western Amazon basin, with records from Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia. In Ecuador it is known from Tiputini Biodiversity Station, province of Orellana; in Peru it is present in the regions of Loreto, Cusco, Huánuco and Madre de Dios, with an apparently isolated population in San Martin (this possibly being a new species). It also occurs in western Brazil (Amazonas State), southeastern Colombia (Amazonas Province), and northern Bolivia. It has been found at elevations of 100-1,200m asl.	eng
57235	habitat	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Javier Icochea, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is a leaf-litter species of lowland, premontane and montane primary tropical moist forest. Its reproductive mode is not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development. It is generally not present in modified habitats.	eng
57235	population	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Javier Icochea, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	It is a reasonably abundant species.	eng
57235	threats	Karl-Heinz Jungfer, Marinus Hoogmoed, Ariadne Angulo, Robert Reynolds, Javier Icochea, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, 2008	Presumably, there are no major threats to this species; it is a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as clear cutting and smallholder agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
57236	conservation		All of its known localities are within Parque Nacional Carrasco.	eng
57236	distribution		This species has been recorded from Chapare and Carrasco Provinces, in Cochabamba Department, on the slopes of the Bolivian Andes at 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
57236	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, living in the leaf-litter of tropical moist montane forest, where it is apparently restricted to undisturbed forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57236	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57236	threats		There are no known threats, since its forest habitat is well protected.	eng
57237	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57237	distribution		This species ranges from Linhares in the northern part of the State of Espírito Santo, north to Prado in the southern part of the State of Bahia, southeastern Brazil. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 30m asl.	eng
57237	habitat		It lives on the ground in forest, forest edge, degraded habitats and pastures, as well as in swamps. It breeds in foam nests in temporary ponds.	eng
57237	population		It is a common species.	eng
57237	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to intensive agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and clear-cutting and human settlement.	eng
57238	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57238	distribution		This species ranges widely in northeastern Brazil, from the State of Maranhao, south to the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Records from Argentina are apparently based on confusion with Physalaemus biligonigerus.	eng
57238	habitat		It is a species of open areas, living in dunes, "Cerrado" and "Caatinga" savannahs and coastal "Restinga", but not in forest. It is usually found on the ground near temporary ponds, or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57238	population		It is a common species.	eng
57238	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire.	eng
57239	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57239	distribution		This species is known from Mato Grosso and Mata Grosso do Sul in Brazil, Paraguay, the eastern lowlands of Bolivia, and northern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,200m asl.	eng
57239	habitat		It occurs on the ground near semi-permanent or temporary waterbodies or flooded grasslands where it breeds. It also breeds in temperate ponds and roadside ditches. It adapts very well to human disturbance, pollution and agricultural activities (including pesticide usage).	eng
57239	population		It is common and stable in Argentina.	eng
57239	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57240	conservation		It has been collected in the Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar. There is a need for further survey work to determine, and monitor, the population status of this species.	eng
57240	distribution		This species is known only from the municipality of Ubatuba, on the northern coast of São Paulo State, Brazil. All specimens collected and observed were at an altitude of 0-50m asl. It probably has a genuinely restricted distribution that is characteristic of the <em>Physalaemus signifer</em> group to which it belongs.	eng
57240	habitat		This species is associated with ponds or leaf-litter of the coastal plain in the Atlantic rainforest. It reproduces on the forest floor near places that are prone to flooding. The eggs are laid in a foam nest built on the water surface, and are anchored to the margins of ponds, or alternatively, on the wet leaf-litter close to the ponds.	eng
57240	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57240	threats		The major threats to this species are not known, but it might be affected by localized forest loss.	eng
57241	conservation		It presumably occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina.	eng
57241	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra da Bocaina, at 1,200m asl in the state of Sao Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57241	habitat		It is a terrestrial forest species, living near temporary ponds in which it presumably breeds.	eng
57241	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; there have been no recent observations, but this might be due to a lack of surveys.	eng
57241	threats		It is likely to be affected by clear-cutting. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude, water-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
57242	conservation	Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2004	Taxonomic studies are needed to resolve the status of different populations that might represent different species. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57242	distribution	Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2004	This species is known from northern and central-western Argentina (Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Jujuy, La Pampa, Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Tucumán), adjacent Bolivia; Paraguay; Uruguay (Artigas, Cerro Largo, Paysandu, Rivera, Río Negro, Rocha, Salto, Soriano, Tacuarambo, Treinta and Tres) and southern and central Brazil. It occurs from 0-1,400m asl.	eng
57242	habitat	Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2004	It occurs in grassland near temporary and permanent lentic waterbodies where it breeds. Males call from the edge or from within the water, and the eggs are deposited in spherical foam nests that float on top of the water. It is able to adapt to anthropogenic disturbance.<br/><br/>Fecundity appears to be variable: a population in Argentina has been reported to produce between ca 1000 and 1600 eggs per female, whereas a population in Uruguay has been reported to produce ca 200-400 eggs (Camargo et al., 2008).	eng
57242	population	Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2004	It is common throughout its range.	eng
57242	threats	Axel Kwet, Steffen Reichle, Lucy Aquino, Débora Silvano, Esteban Lavilla, Ismael di Tada, 2004	It is not threatened overall. It is threatened to some extent in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, and land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. However, it is a very adaptable species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
57243	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas, but it probably occurs in Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar.	eng
57243	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Campo Grande, in the municipality of Santo André, in the state of São Paulo, south-eastern Brazil, at 800m asl, although it is almost certainly more widespread.	eng
57243	habitat		It lives in old secondary forest (there being no primary forest left at its only known locality), and forest edges, but not in more open areas. It is terrestrial, usually being found near standing water. The eggs are deposited in foam nests in shallow temporary ponds.	eng
57243	population		It is locally common in the small area from which it is known.	eng
57243	threats		The major threat to this species is probably loss of habitat due to human settlement.	eng
57244	conservation		It occurs in the Estación Ecológica Murici.	eng
57244	distribution		This species is known only from the municipalities of Passo de Camaragibe and Murici, in the state of Alagoas in north-eastern Brazil, where it occurs up to 600m asl.	eng
57244	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter around ponds in lowland moist forest. The eggs, which are laid in foam nests, have been observed in temporary ponds and in the water of tree holes near the ground.	eng
57244	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57244	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and human settlement.	eng
57245	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57245	distribution		This species has a wide distribution in central Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and the lowlands of central and eastern Bolivia. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57245	habitat		It lives on the ground near permanent and temporary bodies of water in the savannah habitats of the Cerrado and Pantanal. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57245	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
57245	threats		The spread of intensive agriculture in the Cerrado biome is presumably affecting local populations of this species.	eng
57246	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57246	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from the State of Paraiba (at Sao Jose do Bonfim), south to the central part of the State of Bahia (as Maracas) and the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais (at Manga). It is a lowland species, typically found at around 200m asl.	eng
57246	habitat		It lives in "Caatinga" dry savannah, where it is terrestrial, usually being found near temporary ponds or in the water. It presumably makes foam nests with larval development in temporary pools.	eng
57246	population		It is a rare species over its large range.	eng
57246	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing and fire.	eng
57247	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57247	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	This species is known only from the Pacific lowlands and Andean foothills of north-western Ecuador, from 100-1,000m asl, from Río Cupa south to Río Baba. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57247	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	It lives in tropical moist forest, and in more open, altered habitats. It breeds by larval development, making foam nests in small still waterbodies.	eng
57247	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
57247	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Ana Almandáriz, 2008	Although this is an adaptable species, it is probably affected by the very severe habitat degradation that is taking place within its range due to livestock grazing and clear-cutting, especially when the habitat is opened up completely.	eng
57248	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57248	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the type locality the Reserva Biológica Nova Lombardia, in the State of Espirito Santo, north to Itabuna in the southern part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 750m asl.	eng
57248	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, but always occurs inside forest, not in more open habitats. It lives on the forest floor in leaf-litter near temporary waterbodies, in which it makes foam nests to breed.	eng
57248	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57248	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.	eng
57249	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Bolivia. It occurs in Calilegua National Park in Argentina.	eng
57249	distribution		This species is known from the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, and Formosa in Argentina, and from Chacoan Bolivia in the Department of Tarija. It has an altitudinal range of 200-700m asl.	eng
57249	habitat		This species can be found in the Chacoan lowlands and lower Yungas habitats. It breeds explosively in ephemeral ponds and waterbodies and deposits its eggs in foam nests over water. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It adapts very well to human disturbance, pollution and agricultural activities (including pesticide usage).	eng
57249	population		It is locally abundant in Argentina.	eng
57249	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
57250	conservation	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Diego Baldo, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
57250	distribution	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Diego Baldo, 2008	This species is known from northeastern, central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Misiones and Entre Rios, Argentina; Eastern Paraguay. In addition, there is a single specimen tentatively listed as this species, coming from El Manteco, in Bolivar State, Venezuela. The identity of this specimen requires further investigation. It occurs up to 2,000m asl.	eng
57250	habitat	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Diego Baldo, 2008	This is a widespread, nocturnal species that occurs in many habitats including open grassland, flooded savannahs, and pastureland. It breeds in cattle ponds or temporary waterbodies such as puddles, often in water-filled hoof tracks. The eggs are laid in foam nests, attached to grass stems at the margin of the pond. It is a very adaptive species.	eng
57250	population	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is common throughout much of its range.	eng
57250	threats	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Diego Baldo, 2008	It is not threatened overall. It is locally threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff.	eng
57251	conservation		There is a protected area at the type locality, in which it might occur.	eng
57251	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil. Its distribution is not well known, and it might occur more widely. It is found above 800m asl.	eng
57251	habitat		It lives on the ground in rocky fields, and probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance. It presumably breeds in water, although this has not been confirmed.	eng
57251	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57251	threats		This species is possibly affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.	eng
57252	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
57252	distribution		This species occurs widely in eastern Venezuela, southern Guyana, Suriname, and central and eastern Brazilian Amazonia. Its altitudinal range is 0-350m asl.	eng
57252	habitat		It is a very adaptable species, living on the forest edge, in clearings, and in a variety of anthropogenic habitats. Habitat disturbance enables the species to expand its range. Breeding takes place in temporary pools during the late wet season (March to April). The eggs are laid in foam nest next to pools, and the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
57252	population		It is a common species.	eng
57252	threats		There are no threats to this very adaptable species	eng
57253	conservation		The type locality is in Parque Estadual do Itacolomi.	eng
57253	distribution		This recently described species was collected in the Serra do Italcolomi in the Serra do Espinhaço, Minas Gerais State, Brazil, at approximately 1,600m asl.	eng
57253	habitat		The specimens were collected in an ephemeral pond located in a rocky field, with bushes and small trees and a sandy soil predominantly covered by grasses in a Cerrado savannah habitat type known as "campo rupestre". This species is presumed to breed in pools and to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
57253	population		Its population status is unknown as yet as this species is currently known only from the type series.	eng
57253	threats		The pond that this species was collected from was affected by livestock (horse faeces) and accidental burning of surrounding vegetation.	eng
57254	conservation	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Gaurino Colli, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species might occur at the Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó. It is known to occur at Reserva Particular do<br/>Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça (Canelas and Bertoluci, 2007).	eng
57254	distribution	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Gaurino Colli, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known only from Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça, in the state of Minas Gerais, in south-eastern Brazil, where it is found above 800m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57254	habitat	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Gaurino Colli, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a species that is found in shrubland and grassland, which breeds in temporary puddles or swamps where it makes floating foam nests. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57254	population	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Gaurino Colli, Débora Silvano, 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57254	threats	Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Paula Cabral Eterovick, Gaurino Colli, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is possibly affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.	eng
57255	conservation		It occurs in the Punta Lara Reserve in Argentina.	eng
57255	distribution		New research has shown this species is more widely distributed than previously recognized. It is known from Buenos Aires and Entre Ríos in Argentina; from Santiago Vázquez to Arroyo Solís, in the margins of La Plata River, Uruguay and from one population at Cerro Colorado (Florida) and another from Rivera Department. It has an altitudinal range of 0-100m asl.	eng
57255	habitat		It occurs in seasonally flooded grasslands and rocky outcrops near rivers. It reproduces in temporary pools and its tolerance to habitat disturbance unknown.	eng
57255	population		It is rarely found except during reproductive periods. Its population status is unknown although this species was collected in both Uruguay and Argentina in 2002.	eng
57255	threats		Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are major threats. Habitat destruction is another threat to this species.	eng
57256	conservation	Celsa Señaris, Fernando Castro, 2008	It occurs in protected areas in both countries.	eng
57256	distribution	Celsa Señaris, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species was previously recorded only from the non-specific type locality "Venezuela". However, <em>Physalaemus enesefae</em> has now been shown to be a synonym of this species, thus clarifying its geographic range. It is widespread in northern Venezuela south of the Andes and the coastal mountains, with records from the states of Apure, Bolívar, Cojedes, Guárico and probably Portuguesa, and an isolated record to the south in the state of Amazonas. In Colombia, the species has been recorded for the "Llanos orientales" in the departments of Arauco, Meta and Casanare. It occurs below 800m asl. It is likely to occur in Guyana, but there are no records.	eng
57256	habitat	Celsa Señaris, Fernando Castro, 2008	It lives in savannahs, grassland, shrubland, pastureland and tropical rainforest. It is nocturnal, and is usually found near pools, and the males have been observed calling from secluded places and from herbaceous vegetation. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57256	population	Celsa Señaris, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57256	threats	Celsa Señaris, Fernando Castro, 2008	With the exception of the impacts of fire on the vegetation structure, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
57257	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57257	distribution		Physalaemus marmoratus can be found in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), and also in Paraguay (Nascimento et al., 2006).	eng
57257	habitat		Physalaemus marmoratus breeds in temporary shallow ponds of open habitats. Males call floating on the water with the large vocal sac inflated. During the axillary amplexus a foam nest is constructed on the water surface where the unpigmented eggs are deposited (Nascimento et al., 2006).<br/><br/>It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57257	population		This is an uncommon species.	eng
57257	threats		There are no major threats, although agricultural activities could be a threat in eastern Paraguay, and probably also in parts of Brazil.	eng
57258	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Axel Kwet, Magno Vicente Segalla, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57258	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Axel Kwet, Magno Vicente Segalla, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, 2004	This species is known from Misiones, Argentina; Durazno, Florida, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rivera, Rocha, San Jose, Soriano and Canelones, in Uruguay. In Brazil, it is known in Parana, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,200m asl.	eng
57258	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Axel Kwet, Magno Vicente Segalla, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, 2004	This species’ habitat is in the forest borders and Cerrado grasslands. It is a terrestrial species that reproduces using a foam nest in natural temporary pools. It adapts to heavily disturbed and polluted habitats.<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species lays between 400 and 800 eggs per female, whereas in Uruguay these figures ranged between 700 and 1300 eggs per female (Camargo et al., 2008).	eng
57258	population	Esteban Lavilla, Axel Kwet, Magno Vicente Segalla, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, 2004	It is abundant and widespread.	eng
57258	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Axel Kwet, Magno Vicente Segalla, Jose Langone, Diego Baldo, 2004	There are no major threats -- it adapts to fairly polluted areas.	eng
57259	conservation	Lavilla, E., Kwet, A., Langone, J. & Faivovich, J., 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57259	distribution	Lavilla, E., Kwet, A., Langone, J. & Faivovich, J., 2004	This species is known from Buenos Aires and Entre Ríos in Argentina. It is known to occur within the entire country of Uruguay. In Brazil it is known from Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. It has an altitudinal range of 0-750 m asl.	eng
57259	habitat	Lavilla, E., Kwet, A., Langone, J. & Faivovich, J., 2004	It occurs in grasslands near waterbodies. It makes foam nests in natural temporary pools. It occurs in urban areas in Uruguay. Females were found to have an average of 296.95 (range 70-621) mature oocytes (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Reproduction has been reported from April to June, which coincides with autumn and early winter in Uruguay  (Maneyro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).	eng
57259	population	Lavilla, E., Kwet, A., Langone, J. & Faivovich, J., 2004	It is uncommon throughout most of its range. It is common in Uruguay during the short reproductive period (April-June).	eng
57259	threats	Lavilla, E., Kwet, A., Langone, J. & Faivovich, J., 2004	Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are major threats. Habitat destruction is another threat.	eng
57260	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57260	distribution		This species from southern Brazil is known from only two localities: Campos do Jordao in the Serra da Mantiqueira, in the state of São Paulo; and Poces de Caldas, in the state of Minas Gerais. It occurs above 1,200m asl, and it almost certainly occurs more widely than is currently known.	eng
57260	habitat		It lives in open areas and in secondary forest, and is terrestrial, usually being found near temporary ponds or in the water. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds, where it builds a foam nest.	eng
57260	population		It is a common species in its only known localities.	eng
57260	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to creation of wood plantations, livestock grazing, mining and human settlement.	eng
57261	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57261	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais (at Manga) and from the central part of the State of Bahia (at Itabuna), north to Sao Jose do Bonfim and Mamanguape in the State of Paraiba. It occurs up to 240m asl.	eng
57261	habitat		It lives in "Caatinga" dry savannah, and spreads into open areas where the Atlantic forest is cleared. It is terrestrial, and is usually found near temporary ponds or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds, building a foam nest.	eng
57261	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57261	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing and fire.	eng
57262	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Research actions and creation of new protected areas is needed.	eng
57262	distribution		This species occurs in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 0-1,200m asl.	eng
57262	habitat		This species inhabits leaf-litter of damp woodland, frequently in secondary forests or transition zones from woodland to grassland. During breeding the frogs are found at small ponds or temporary waterbodies such as road puddles. The eggs are laid in foam nests attached to grass stems at the margins of ponds.	eng
57262	population		It is an abundant and stable species.	eng
57262	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.	eng
57263	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57263	distribution		This species is known primarily from the Serra do Mar in southern Brazil, ranging from Santa Teresa in the State of Espirito Santo, south to Sao Bento do Sul in the State of Santa Catarina. It is typically found at around 800m asl.	eng
57263	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, and on the forest edge, but not in more open areas. It is terrestrial, and is usually found near temporary ponds or in the water. It breeds in temporary ponds, building a foam nest.	eng
57263	population		It is a common species.	eng
57263	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57264	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
57264	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species has been recorded from western Ecuador (Provincia de Manabí and Provincia del Guayas) from sea level to 330m asl.	eng
57264	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It has been recorded from lowland evergreen and semi deciduous Costa forest and lowland dry shrub. It inhabits open artificial areas, such as pastures, the vicinity of buildings and other cleared areas. It breeds in stream pools and presumably temporary pools during the rainy season.	eng
57264	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is seasonally abundant.	eng
57264	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
57265	conservation		It used to at least occur at the Estação Biológica de Boracéia.	eng
57265	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Mar, in the state of São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil, up to 1,200m asl. Its distribution is likely to be at least a little wider than is currently known.	eng
57265	habitat		It lives in primary forests in leaf-litter or on stones near water. It is often associated with small temporary pools (even boot prints) on the forest floor. Unlike most other species of <em>Physalaemus</em>, it breeds in temporary streams, where the eggs are deposited in foam nests in wide pools in the streams.	eng
57265	population		There is very little recent information, there have been few recent attempts to study or locate it, and there are no recent records.	eng
57265	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, though it is likely to be impacted by clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. The lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high-altitude, stream-breeding frogs in the wet tropics, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out.	eng
57266	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57266	distribution		This species is known from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 0-1,200m asl.	eng
57266	habitat		It occurs in forests, but also adapts well to human-disturbed habitats. It breeds in small temporary waterbodies such as puddles, gutters, or ditches. The spawn is deposited in small foam nests under roots, leaves or branches at the margins of waterbodies.	eng
57266	population		It is abundant and stable in suitable habitats.	eng
57266	threats		It is probably locally impacted by severe habitat loss, for example from commercial cattle ranching, expanding wood plantations, clear felling, and expanding human settlements. However, it is generally adaptable and not significantly threatened.	eng
57267	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57267	distribution		This species occurs widely in central and southeastern Brazil, the eastern Santa Cruz lowlands of Bolivia, eastern Paraguay and the alto-Paraguay area. In spite of assertions by Cei (1980) and Asociación Herpetológica Argentina (2000), the species probably does not occur in Argentina. Its altitudinal range is from 0-1,500m asl.	eng
57267	habitat		It is a typical fossorial and seasonal frog, well adapted to a semi-arid continental climate. It inhabits savannah and grassland habitats in the Cerrado biome, and occurs on the ground near standing and temporary waterbodies, such as ponds and swamps, where it also breeds. It does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57267	population		It is a common species.	eng
57267	threats		The spread of intensive agriculture in the Cerrado biome is presumably affecting local populations of this species.	eng
57268	conservation		This species is only known from the following areas, which are all protected areas: Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, the Reserva Biológica de Sooretama, and the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala.	eng
57268	distribution		This species from south-eastern Brazil ranges from Linhares, in the state of Espírito Santo, west to Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, in the state of Minas Gerais, and occurs up to 500m asl. Its distribution is still not very well known.	eng
57268	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, where it is usually found on the forest floor in leaf-litter near temporary waterbodies (but not in open areas). The eggs are laid in foam nests on the leaf-litter near water, and larval development takes place in temporary pools.	eng
57268	population		It is locally common.	eng
57268	threats		Although all known sites are protected, this species almost certainly occurs in nearby areas, where agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, human settlement and dams threaten its habitat.	eng
57269	conservation	Magno Vicente Segalla, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57269	distribution	Magno Vicente Segalla, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species occurs widely in southern and southeastern Brazil from the State of Santa Catarina north to the southern part of the state Espírito Santo and the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57269	habitat	Magno Vicente Segalla, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, living in the leaf-litter, on the ground or in low vegetation, including grass near marshy ponds at the edge of the forest. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds.	eng
57269	population	Magno Vicente Segalla, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is a very abundant species.	eng
57269	threats	Magno Vicente Segalla, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57270	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57270	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species is known to occur in Amazonian Ecuador, northeastern Peru, and Amazonian Colombia. Further research is needed to determine whether the species that occurs in French Guiana is <em>P. petersi</em>, <em>P. freibergi</em>, or an undescribed species (Funk et al., 2008). We temporarily include this population in <em>P. petersi</em>'s account until its taxonomic status can be clarified. It occurs between 89 and 1200 masl in Ecuador.	eng
57270	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This diurnal and nocturnal species has been found in primary and secondary forest, and forest edge (Duellman, 1978). It is terrestrial, and is often found in leaf-litter. Breeding takes place in temporary waterbodies and slow-moving streams during the wet season. Its eggs on foam nest next to pools and tadpoles are found in the water.	eng
57270	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
57270	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Local populations are probably impacted by severe habitat loss, such as clear-cutting, and agricultural expansion. However, overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
57271	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It occurs in Machililla National Park in Ecuador.	eng
57271	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Pablo Venegas, 2008	This species is known from southwestern Ecuador, where it occurs in Manabi, El Oro, Guayas, and Loja Provinces. It has an altitudinal range of 0-530m asl.	eng
57271	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It can be found in scrub savannah, Pacific tropical forest and equatorial dry forest. This species can be found in areas of human-modified habitat (QCAZ database). This is an explosive breeder, laying eggs in a foam nest in temporary pools.	eng
57271	population	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Pablo Venegas, 2008	It can be abundant during reproductive bouts (recorded in 2002).	eng
57271	threats	Ariadne Angulo, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Diego Almeida, Fernando Nogales, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Pablo Venegas, 2008	The main threats are habitat loss owing to agricultural expansion and human settlement. It is reasonably adaptable, but probably cannot withstand very serious habitat degradation.	eng
57272	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Julian Lee, Gerardo Chaves, Celsa Señaris, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jerry Hardy, 2009	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
57272	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Julian Lee, Gerardo Chaves, Celsa Señaris, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jerry Hardy, 2009	This species occurs in Central America on the Atlantic versant of Mexico from southern Veracruz southwards to eastern Panama. There is also one record from central Querétaro, Mexico. In South America this species is found from northern Colombia south to the Magdalena Valley of Colombia and the Orinoco River in Venezuela. It is widespread in Trinidad and Tobago, and is likely to occur in Guyana, but there no records. It is a mostly lowland species occurring up to 1,540m asl.	eng
57272	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Julian Lee, Gerardo Chaves, Celsa Señaris, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jerry Hardy, 2009	It is a species of lowland savannahs and open environments, as well as natural and disturbed humid lowland and montane forest, tropical dry forest, and other anthropogenic habitats, commonly in, around and in almost any natural or human-made temporary ponds, puddles, potholes, hoof prints, ditches, pastures, secondary growth and along forest edges or small permanent ponds or water catchments. The males call at night while floating on water. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools. Females of this species prefer nesting communally when pairs happen to be found in the same area (Zina, 2006).	eng
57272	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Julian Lee, Gerardo Chaves, Celsa Señaris, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jerry Hardy, 2009	It is an extremely common species in South America and much of Central America. It is uncommon in southwestern Campeche, Mexico, and Belize.	eng
57272	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Federico Bolaños, Julian Lee, Gerardo Chaves, Celsa Señaris, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Jerry Hardy, 2009	With the exception of the impacts of fire on the vegetation structure, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
57273	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It has been recorded from a private protected area adjacent to a national protected area (Reserva Ecológica Manglares-Churute).	eng
57273	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species has been recorded in western Ecuador (Guaya and El Oro Provinces) from sea level up to 150m asl.	eng
57273	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The species is found in lowland deciduous, semi deciduous and evergreen Costa forest. A number of individuals have been collected in artificially open areas, breeding in the vicinities of buildings, pastures and agricultural lands. Animals have been recorded from flooded rice fields and grasslands and banana plantations. The species breeds in small ponds during the rainy season. Floating foam nests are constructed.	eng
57273	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The species can be abundant during the breeding season.	eng
57273	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
57274	conservation		It occurs in the San Martin Reserve-Park, Entre Rios, the El Bagual Reserve, Formosa, and in small private reserves in Argentina.	eng
57274	distribution		This species is known from the Corrientes, Formosa, Santa Fé, Misiones, and Entre Rios provinces (Argentina); Uruguay; southern Oriental region and lower Chaco, Paraguay; and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). It has an altitude of 0-500m asl.	eng
57274	habitat		It is a grassland species that occurs near semi-permanent or temporary waterbodies where it breeds. The eggs are laid in foam nests, attached to vegetation at the margin of the pond. It occurs in rice fields, other agricultural areas, and rural gardens.	eng
57274	population		It is uncommon in Paraguay and Argentina, but locally common in Brazil.	eng
57274	threats		It is not threatened in Paraguay where it occurs in cattle pastures nor in Brazil where it occurs in rice cultivation. It is also not threatened in Argentina.	eng
57275	conservation		It occurs in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca.	eng
57275	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Ibitipoca, at 1,200-1,680m asl in the state of Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57275	habitat		It is found in secondary forests and gallery forests (there being no primary forest left within its known range), living in leaf-litter or on stones near water. The eggs are deposited in foam nests in wide pools in temporary streams.	eng
57275	population		It is not very common.	eng
57275	threats		The only known site where this species occurs is well protected, so its main threats are habitat damage due to fire and the effects of tourism.	eng
57276	conservation		It occurs in the Junkanigas RAMSAR site (declared in 2002) and the Ibara Provincial Reserve.	eng
57276	distribution		This species is known from Santa Fe, Corrientes and Chaco, Argentina. The populations that are reported from Paraguay don't belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of 30-60m asl.	eng
57276	habitat		It occurs in seasonal wetlands where it remains underground when water is not present. It reproduces in these seasonal wetlands. It occurs in disturbed habitats wherever there is temporary water and dirt to burrow itself in.	eng
57276	population		This is a common species. New populations were discovered in the early 2000s, showing that this species is more abundant than was previously recognized.	eng
57276	threats		Pollution of soil and water due to agriculture, industries and human settlements are all threats. Habitat destruction is another threat.	eng
57277	conservation	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57277	distribution	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	This species from southeastern and eastern Brazil ranges from the northern part of the State of São Paulo, north to the southern part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl. The animals in São Paulo probably belong to a separate, undescribed species.	eng
57277	habitat	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is found in flooded areas, or near temporary and permanent ponds, inside or at the edge of primary and secondary forest. It does not occur outside forest. The eggs are laid in foam nests on the leaf-litter or mud near temporary and permanent ponds, in which the larvae develop. Reproductive activity has been reported for the month of November, with the potential of also occurring in October, although longer breeding periods are also known to occur (Abrunhosa et al., 2006).	eng
57277	population	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57277	threats	Monique Van Sluys, Carlos Frederico da Rocha, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging and human settlement.	eng
57278	conservation		It occurs in the Florestal Nacional Mario Xavier protected area, but this is poorly protected and in need of improved management.	eng
57278	distribution		This species is known only from Horto Florestal de Santa Cruz, Itaguaí Municipality, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, south-eastern Brazil. The only known site is very close to sea level.	eng
57278	habitat		It was probably originally a primary forest species, but now lives only in secondary forest, since this is all that remains within its range. It is usually found near ponds in forest. The eggs are laid in a foam nest on the surface of temporary pools.	eng
57278	population		It has a very small, but stable, population.	eng
57278	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to conversion of habitat to eucalyptus plantations, and human disturbance.	eng
57279	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57279	distribution		This species from coastal southeastern Brazil ranges from the eastern part of the State of São Paulo to the northeastern part of the State of Paraná, Brazil. It occurs close to sea level.	eng
57279	habitat		It is a species of lowland forest and forest edge, as well as coastal "Restinga" scrub, but not in more open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds and other areas subject to flooding on the forest floor. The males call from the edges of forest ponds, and the eggs are laid in a foam nests that can be deposited on the water, or anchored to the margins of the ponds, or placed on humid leaf-litter near the ponds.	eng
57279	population		It is a common species.	eng
57279	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57280	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57280	distribution		This species is known from the Southern Amazon basin in drainage of Madeira, Tapajos and Jurua rivers, Brazil.	eng
57280	habitat		This species can be found in leaf-litter in lowland rainforest. Its reproductive mode is unknown, though it is likely to be by direct development. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
57280	population		It appears to be stable, but population size hard to assess because it can be sampled only with pitfall traps.	eng
57280	threats		Deforestation from agriculture and logging is probably impacting local populations, but overall, this species is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57281	conservation		It occurs in Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula.	eng
57281	distribution		This species is known from Uruguay (in the departments of Canelones, Florida, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rocha, San José and Treinta y Tres, Artigas, Durazno, and Río Negro) and from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), from 0-1,100m asl.	eng
57281	habitat		It occurs in coastal sand plains, open savannahs, rocky outcrops, grasslands and open montane habitats, and probably does not tolerate habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place in temporary pools.	eng
57281	population		This species is rare and occurs in widely scattered populations. It is probably extinct in Montevideo Department because of habitat destruction.	eng
57281	threats		The main threat is habitat destruction due to encroaching cultivation of crops, establishment of pine plantations, and encroaching human settlements.	eng
57282	conservation		It occurs in at least three protected areas in Argentina.	eng
57282	distribution		This species is known from Argentina, in Jujuy, Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, Formosa and Santiago del Estero Provinces. Museum specimen records from eastern Santiago del Estero, Formosa, and Chaco Provinces might have incorrect locality information recorded on their labels. It can possibly be found in dry lowlands and submontane habitats in southern Bolivia (the species is cited for Bolivia based on a record more than 100 years old, and it was tentatively included as a Bolivian species by De la Riva <em>et al.</em> (2000)). It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.	eng
57282	habitat		It occurs in the Chaco-Yungas transition on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Argentina (and possibly Bolivia). It also occurs in montane grasslands. Pairs build foam nests that float in small permanent and temporary pools. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It also occurs in disturbed habitats, including urban areas.	eng
57282	population		It is abundant in Argentina.	eng
57282	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
57283	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
57283	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	This species ranges from Guyana and northern Brazil (Roraima State), through Venezuela (including Isla Margarita) and eastern and northern Colombia into the Pacific lowlands of Panama from Azuero to central Panama. It is native in Aruba, but introduced in Curaçao, Klein Bonaire and Bonaire. Its range does not reach French Guyana (cf. Lescure and Marty 2001), and there are no records from Suriname. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
57283	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It lives in open grasslands and savannahs, often in relatively dry areas. The species uses ephemeral or permanent small water pools for breeding, but can also be found far from the water. At the onset of the first rains, these frogs emerge from sandy soils where they hide during the dry season. They make foam nests in water. It is a very adaptable species to human-induced change of its habitat.	eng
57283	population	Enrique La Marca, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57283	threats	Enrique La Marca, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Robert Reynolds, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Abraham Mijares, Ross MacCulloch, 2008	There are no known threats, since it is a very adaptable species.	eng
57284	conservation	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	There a number of populations that are protected by the National Parks of Argentina and Chile. In Chile this species is considered as "Insufficiently Known" (Inadecuadamente Conocida) (Reglamento de la Ley de Caza, Chile, 1998).	eng
57284	distribution	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species occurs over a wide geographic range in Argentina and Chile including the Patagonian steppes, transitional zones, and austral temperate forests. It has an altitudinal range of 0-2,300m asl.	eng
57284	habitat	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	Typically it occurs below rocks or in vegetation in steppe habitats. The species can persist in harsh climatic conditions. Reproduction takes place in the margins of seasonal pools; it has free-swimming larvae. The species is somewhat tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
57284	population	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	This is a very common species in Patagonia. The species presumably has a large and well distributed population.	eng
57284	threats	Carmen Úbeda, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	There are no significant threats to the species as a whole.	eng
57285	conservation		The species is present in several protected areas in Bolivia and two (Los Andes Provincial Reserve and Laguna Pozuelos National Park) in Argentina, but not found in Peruvian protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for the species in Bolivia and Peru.	eng
57285	distribution		This is an Andean species ranging from southern Peru, through much of Bolivia (Departments of Santa Cruz, Tarija, Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Oruro and Potosi) and northwestern Argentina. It is present at elevations of 1,600-4,200m asl.	eng
57285	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of open montane puna grassland and semi deciduous forest habitats (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000, Köhler 2000). Pairs build foam nests that float in small permanent and temporary pools. This species is present in agricultural land.	eng
57285	population		It is a common species throughout its range.	eng
57285	threats		There are no major threats to this species in its range.	eng
57286	conservation	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Cristina Arzabe, Gilda Andrade, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57286	distribution	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Cristina Arzabe, Gilda Andrade, 2008	This species is distributed very widely in northeastern Brazil, from the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais and the central part of the State of Bahia, north to the States of Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará and Maranhão. It occurs up to 750m asl.	eng
57286	habitat	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Cristina Arzabe, Gilda Andrade, 2008	It is a species of "Caatinga" and "Cerrado" savannah that also lives in dune fields. It can live close to human habitation. It is a fossorial species that spends much of the year buried below ground, but emerges to breed explosively in temporary water. It makes foam nests and has very rapid larval development.	eng
57286	population	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Cristina Arzabe, Gilda Andrade, 2008	It is a very abundant species. In Bahia, the species occurs in high densities on preserved habitats in the northern region, but is absent from sites further south with more human pressure (Tinoco et al., 2008).	eng
57286	threats	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Cristina Arzabe, Gilda Andrade, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and fire. In Bahia, this species was found to be one of the most threatened by environmental loss (Tinoco et al., 2008)	eng
57287	conservation		Taxonomic work to resolve the status of allopatric populations is needed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57287	distribution		This species is known from central Argentina surrounding the Salinas de Ambargasta (Córdoba, La Rioja, San Juan, Catamarca, and Santiago del Estero Provinces) and from southern Bolivia, in the Department of Santa Cruz (at 200m asl). It has an altitudinal range of 100-700m asl in Argentina.	eng
57287	habitat		It is a terrestrial species on open habitats such as grasslands in the Chaco. It is an explosive breeder. Pairs build foam nests that float in small temporary pools. Its adaptation to anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.	eng
57287	population		It is locally common throughout its range.	eng
57287	threats		No threats to this species are known; its habitats are not significantly threatened.	eng
57288	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Quebrada del Condorito and the Reserva Hídrica Provincial de Pampa de Achala.	eng
57288	distribution		This species is endemic to the Pampa de Achala, Cordoba Province, Argentina, from 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
57288	habitat		It occurs in montane grasslands and associated rocky outcrops. Adults live under rocks or in abandoned rodent holes outside the breeding season. It reproduces explosively during the first rains in November and December. Pairs spin a gelatinous nest attached to vegetation in temporary pools, or sometimes in backwater pools of streams.	eng
57288	population		It is abundant within its small range, although it is seen only during the breeding season.	eng
57288	threats		Significant threats to this species have previously included extensive cattle ranching and the associated alteration of water sources. However, the recent declaration of protected areas within its range means that the future of this species now looks much more secure.	eng
57289	conservation	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ulrich Sinsch, Jörn Köhler, Wilfredo Arizabal, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	In Bolivia it is present in the Apolobamba and Eduardo Avaroa Natural Reserves, Cotapata National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management and Carrasco and Sajama National Parks. In Peru it has been recorded from the Reserva Nacional Salinas, Agada Blanca and Pampa Galeras-Reserva de Junin. It occurs in the Laguna Pozuelos National Park in Argentina.	eng
57289	distribution	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ulrich Sinsch, Jörn Köhler, Wilfredo Arizabal, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species occurs from central Peru to central Bolivia, northeastern Chile and northwestern Argentina. In Peru the species is present in the regions of Ancash, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Lima, Cusco, Huancavalica, Junin and Pasco. In Bolivia it occurs in the Departments of Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Tarija and Potosi (De la Riva <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Chile, the species is known only from Putre and Chungara Lake, Parinacota Province, close to the Peruvian border. It is present at an altitudinal range of 3200-5400 masl.	eng
57289	habitat	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ulrich Sinsch, Jörn Köhler, Wilfredo Arizabal, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is a terrestrial species of open montane puna, grassland and páramo habitats. It is frequently found under rocks close to small seasonal waterbodies and peat bogs, or at the sides of streams (Cortez 2001). It breeds explosively in slow-moving streams and small ponds. It is present in irrigated agricultural land.	eng
57289	population	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ulrich Sinsch, Jörn Köhler, Wilfredo Arizabal, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is generally a locally common species; in Chile it has a small, decreasing population. It is a rarely recorded species in Argentina but few herpetologists venture to its inaccessible habitat.	eng
57289	threats	Claudia Cortez, Steffen Reichle, Ulrich Sinsch, Jörn Köhler, Wilfredo Arizabal, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	In Chile livestock are considered to be a threat.<br/><br/>The species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection, although it did not exhibit  clinical signs of chytridiomycosis. In addition, there is evidence of upward expansion of this and another two anuran species to newly available habitat brought about by recent deglaciation in the Andes of Peru. The large increase in the upper limit of known Bd infections (from 4112 to 5348 masl) also expands the spatial domain of potential Bd pathogenicity (Seimon et al., 2006).	eng
57290	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57290	distribution		This species is known from Argentina in Catamarca, Córdoba, La Pampa, La Rioja, Mendoza, Neuquén (?), Río Negro, Salta, San Juan, San Luis and Tucumán. It has an altitudinal range of 150-1,200m asl.	eng
57290	habitat		It occurs in grasslands and open scrubland. Adults live under rocks or in abandoned rodent holes outside the breeding season. It reproduces explosively during the first rains in November and December. Pairs spin a foam nest that floats in temporary pools (sometimes in backwater pools of streams). It is abundant in agricultural cropland.	eng
57290	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57290	threats		It is not threatened overall.	eng
57291	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57291	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species is widely distributed in Chile from the northern arid territories to the southern <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and from sea level to the vegetation line in the Andes range western slopes of Central Chile. In Argentina, it is widely distributed from the western shore of Laguna Superior de Epulafquen, Departamento Minas (Neuquén) south to the area between La Plata and La Chico lakes, Departamento Río Senguer (Chubut). It has an altitudinal range of 0-2,100m asl.	eng
57291	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is typically found in <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, but may also be found in steppe, grassland and transitional zones. It may also be found in urban areas, and in other altered habitats. Adults occur terrestrially in vegetation, below logs and below rocks. It reproduces in all types of waterbodies (although the species generally prefers shallow ponds). Free-swimming larvae characterize it.	eng
57291	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is a very abundant species within its preferred habitat.	eng
57291	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Carmen Úbeda, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species, though a number of populations are impacted by fires, water pollution (by both agriculture and industry) and habitat desiccation.	eng
57292	conservation		It has been recorded from Parque Nacional Calilegua and Pampa de Achala Provincial Hydrological Reserve.	eng
57292	distribution		This species is known from Argentina in Catamarca, Córdoba, Chaco, Jujuy, Salta, Santiago del Estero, San Juan, San Luis and Tucumán. It has an altitudinal range of 250-1,500m asl.	eng
57292	habitat		It is a terrestrial species in open lowland and montane shrublands. It is an explosive breeder. Its pairs build gelatinous nests that float in small temporary pools. Males call from the edge or from within the water. It occurs in agricultural habitats.	eng
57292	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57292	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57293	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57293	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Paraná. Records from Paraguay appear to be in error. It occurs at 500-1,700m asl.	eng
57293	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not open areas, living in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Adults are sometimes found in the stumps of tree ferns. It breeds in mountain streams.	eng
57293	population		It is a common species.	eng
57293	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism.	eng
57294	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57294	distribution		This species is known from several localities in Misiones Province, Argentina, and in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, at elevations of 150-1,200m asl.	eng
57294	habitat		This species can be found in forest patches along margins of small streams. It reproduces in flowing streams. It evidently tolerates some level of disturbance because it is found along streams in pastures and young second growth.	eng
57294	population		It is uncommonly seen because of its habits, but regularly encountered when sampling with pitfall traps in appropriate habitat.	eng
57294	threats		Habitat loss due to selective logging and clear-cutting of old growth forests, cattle ranching, and forest plantations are all threats to this species. Water pollution caused by agricultural practices (cattle) and industrial pollution (organic wastes) is another threat.	eng
57295	conservation		This species' range overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
57295	distribution		This species is known from the Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and central districts of Misiones Province, Argentina, from 300-1,200m asl.	eng
57295	habitat		It inhabits <em>Araucaria</em> forests in mountainous regions, and breeds in small streams. Outside the breeding season it occurs in leaf-litter. The eggs may be deposited under stones on streambeds.	eng
57295	population		It has never been recorded as being abundant, and one population in Sao Francisco de Paula has disappeared.	eng
57295	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation, for smallholder livestock ranching, and the establishment of pine plantations. It is also threatened by pollution of soil and water due to agricultural practices and industrial pollution with organic wastes.	eng
57296	conservation	Diva Borges-Najosa, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57296	distribution	Diva Borges-Najosa, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Pernambuco, south to the State Santa Catarina, with isolated populations at Maranguape and Ibiapaba in Ceará. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57296	habitat	Diva Borges-Najosa, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, on the forest edge, and in degraded areas near forest. It lives in the forest leaf-litter. It spawns in temporary slow-flowing water in forest or on the forest edge.	eng
57296	population	Diva Borges-Najosa, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57296	threats	Diva Borges-Najosa, Gabriel Skuk, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and tourism. It is also harvested for the international pet trade, though this is unlike to have a significant impact on the populations.	eng
57297	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57297	distribution		This species can be found in the southern regions of the Serra Geral, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 500-1,000m asl.	eng
57297	habitat		It inhabits forests in mountainous regions. It breeds in small streams. Outside the breeding season, it occurs terrestrially in the leaf-litter. The eggs may be deposited under stones of streambeds.	eng
57297	population		It is common and apparently stable in suitable habitats.	eng
57297	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat.	eng
57298	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
57298	distribution		This species is known only from Fazenda Jaburi, in the municipality of Espigão D'oseste, in the state of Rondonia, in the south-central Amazon basin of Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
57298	habitat		It is known only from open rainforest, where it presumably breeds in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
57298	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57298	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57299	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57299	distribution		This species occurs widely in northeastern Brazil, from the central part of the State of Bahia, north to the States of Paraiba, Ceara and Piaui.	eng
57299	habitat		It is a terrestrial frog found in dry "Caatinga" savannah and secondary forest. The eggs are laid in temporary streams.	eng
57299	population		It is a common species.	eng
57299	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, livestock grazing, clear-cutting, human settlement and fire.	eng
57300	conservation		There is a protected area in this region (Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó) in which this species presumably occurs.	eng
57300	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil, where it is found above 800m asl, occurring at least up to 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57300	habitat		It is a species of Cerrado savannah that reproduces in temporary or permanent streams.	eng
57300	population		It is not common.	eng
57300	threats		It might be affected by fire, and by disturbance resulting from tourism.	eng
57301	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57301	distribution		This species from the highlands of southeastern Brazil is known from the States of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It is found from at least 650m up to over 1,000m asl.	eng
57301	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forest, but probably not in open areas, living in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in slow-flowing water.	eng
57301	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57301	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing, human settlement and fire.	eng
57302	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Veadeiros.	eng
57302	distribution		This species is known only from central Brazil, in the State of Goiás. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely. It has been found at around 1,200m asl, though its elevational range is presumably broader than this.	eng
57302	habitat		It lives in open habitats in Cerrado savannah. There is no information on whether or not it adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. It breeds in streams.	eng
57302	population		It is a common species.	eng
57302	threats		It populations are believed to be impacted by expanding agriculture, overgrazing by domestic livestock, wood extraction, and fire.	eng
57303	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57303	distribution		This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the central part of the State of Bahia, south to the southern part of the State of Espírito Santo. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
57303	habitat		It is a forest species, and can live in secondary forest but not open habitats. It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, and it breeds in small forest streams.	eng
57303	population		It is a common species.	eng
57303	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.	eng
57304	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57304	distribution		This species occurs in the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira in the States of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and extreme southeastern Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. Its altitudinal range is from 500-1,300m asl.	eng
57304	habitat		It lives mainly in primary forest, but also in old secondary forest, where it is found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in permanent and temporary streams.	eng
57304	population		It is common where it is found.	eng
57304	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to tourism, human settlement and fire. However, the forest is reasonably well protected within its range.	eng
57305	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
57305	distribution		This species is known from the municipalities of Santa Teresa, Colatina, and Domingos Martins, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, where it occurs up to 650m asl.	eng
57305	habitat		@It lives in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas, where it is usually found along small mountain streams in the forest, in which it breeds. The males call from under large rocks or from rock crevices.	eng
57305	population		It appears to be a common species (as judged by the abundance of its larvae).	eng
57305	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.	eng
57306	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. Conservation and maintenance of its habitat is needed, in particular the creation of a protected area is necessary. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
57306	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the Poços de Caldas Plateau, in Minas Gerais State in south-eastern Brazil, where it was recorded at around 1,200m asl.	eng
57306	habitat		This species occurs in small temporary streams, in which it breeds, near swamps at the edge of riparian forests.	eng
57306	population		Its population status is unknown, but it is only known from a few specimens. It is probably declining at the type locality but probably occurs elsewhere.	eng
57306	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation arising from mining. Pollution from the mining industry is also a threat.	eng
57307	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57307	distribution		This species is known only from Cachoeiro do Itapemirim, in the state of Espírito Santo in south-eastern Brazil, although it might occur more widely. The only records are from low altitudes close to sea level.	eng
57307	habitat		It has been found in primary and secondary forest, living in leaf-litter near streams in which the larvae probably develop.	eng
57307	population		It is known only from four specimens.	eng
57307	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing, human settlement and logging.	eng
57308	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57308	distribution		This species from eastern and southern Brazil occurs in the States of Bahia, Espírito Santo, extreme northeastern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (though some questions have been raised about its presence in the last State). It occurs up to 800m asl.	eng
57308	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary forest, and is not found outside forest. It lives in the leaf-litter on the forest floor. It breeds in small forest streams.	eng
57308	population		It is a common species.	eng
57308	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, human settlement, fire and logging.	eng
57309	conservation		It occurs in Serra do Tabuleiro State Park. The creation of new protected areas and research actions are needed.	eng
57309	distribution		This species is known from the coastal forests of Santa Catarina, Brazil, at elevations of 300-1,000m asl.	eng
57309	habitat		It occurs on the forest leaf-litter near streams. It reproduces in backwaters of small streams.	eng
57309	population		It is rare, but stable in suitable habitat.	eng
57309	threats		Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
57310	conservation	Lily Rodríguez, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
57310	distribution	Lily Rodríguez, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	This species occurs from eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Roraima (northern Brazil), to eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, southwestern Brazil and northern Argentina. In Bolivia it occurs in the Departments of Beni, La Paz and Santa Cruz. It is absent from French Guiana. It can be found at altitudes of up to 700m asl.	eng
57310	habitat	Lily Rodríguez, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is a terrestrial species occurring in a wide variety of habitats, including the Cerrado, Chiquitano forest, transitional humid forest, tropical moist forests, humid savannahs, swampy areas, and flooded fields. It reproduces in permanent and temporary ponds and moist grasslands. Eggs and tadpoles breed in the water. It is adaptable to human induced habitat change.	eng
57310	population	Lily Rodríguez, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
57310	threats	Lily Rodríguez, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Boris Blotto, 2008	There are no major threats. It might be locally impacted by habitat loss for agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development, as well as fires and pollution.	eng
57311	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.	eng
57311	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra dos Carajás, in the municipality of Marabá, Pará State, Brazil. Attempts to map its distribution for this assessment show the general area of the Serra dos Carajás, to which this species is believed to be endemic.	eng
57311	habitat		It is known from upland open vegetation formations, such as the Pampas, Pantanal, Llanos and Cerrado. It is presumed to reproduce in either or both permanent or temporary ponds, and to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
57311	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57311	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57312	conservation		It is present within areas northeast of Iquitos (Peru) that has been proposed as Priority by Conservation of Biodiversity (Rodriguez, 1996). It is present in a number of Brazilian protected areas.	eng
57312	distribution		This species is known from Leticia, Amazonas, in southern Colombia, and from Explorama and Río Pauya, Loreto in northern Peru. It has been recorded along the edges of Jurua River, Brazil. It has an altitudinal range of 100-300m asl.	eng
57312	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species present in primary flooding forest with close canopy and wide leaves; and possibly in more open/edge areas. Eggs are deposited in shallow pools.	eng
57312	population		It can be abundant where it occurs.	eng
57312	threats		Presumably there are no major threats; it is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss due to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
57313	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57313	distribution		This species is known from Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones, and Santa Fé in Argentina. In Uruguay it is known throughout the country. It is known from Minas Gerais, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, in Brazil. In Paraguay it is known from the central and southern Oriental region. Its altitudinal range is 0-1,000m asl.	eng
57313	habitat		This species can be found in grasslands, including rice plantations. It reproduces in temporary pools including agricultural ditches. It adapts well to disturbed habitats.	eng
57313	population		It is abundant throughout much of its range.	eng
57313	threats		There are no threats to this species, it adapts well to agriculture.	eng
57314	conservation	Celsa Señaris, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	Some Venezuelan populations occur within protected areas.	eng
57314	distribution	Celsa Señaris, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	This species occurs in the "Llanos" lowlands of Colombia and Venezuela in the Orinoco drainage system. It generally occurs up to 800m asl, but it is also found at the southern end of Cerro Corocoro in Venezuela at the unusual altitude of 1,220m asl.	eng
57314	habitat	Celsa Señaris, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is a species of savannahs, grasslands, degraded tropical dry forests, and gallery forests. During the dry season it can be found in dry leaf-litter along the beds of temporary woodland streams. In the Cerro Corocoro area, which is well drained and seasonally arid, it has been found in sparse aquatic vegetation in shallow water along the edge of a drying, boulder-strewn stream. The animals breed in temporary and permanent pools, and in temporary streams. They have been found climbing aquatic thorny palms (<em>Bactris</em> spp.) from which they descend to lay eggs in temporary or permanent ponds.	eng
57314	population	Celsa Señaris, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
57314	threats	Celsa Señaris, Jose Vicente Rueda, 2008	It is not seriously threatened, but expanding rice fields, and the associated chemical water pollution are probably impacting some populations.	eng
57315	conservation		There is a protected area in the Serra do Cipó (Parque Nacional da Serra do Cipó) in which this species presumably occurs.	eng
57315	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Cipó, in the state of Minas Gerais in southern Brazil, where it occurs above 800m asl. Its distribution is poorly known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57315	habitat		It lives in open, grassy areas around temporary ponds, in which it presumably breeds. It adapts to some anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57315	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57315	threats		It might be affected by fire, expanding human settlements, and disturbance resulting from tourism.	eng
57316	conservation		Its taxonomic status requires investigation.	eng
57316	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Itá Ibaté, in Corrientes Province, Argentina, at approximately 600m asl.	eng
57316	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.	eng
57316	population		It is known only from the type series collected in the 1960s.	eng
57316	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57317	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57317	distribution		This species is known from eastern Santa Cruz (Bolivia); central, southeastern and southern Brazil; Itapua (Paraguay); and Corrientes and Misiones (Argentina). It has an altitudinal range of 0-1,000m asl.	eng
57317	habitat		It can be found in marshland within Cerrado and seasonally flooded grasslands, where it breeds. It adapts to human disturbance (for example, occurs in rice cultivation).	eng
57317	population		This species is locally abundant.	eng
57317	threats		Although it is not threatened overall, it might be affected locally by the same threats facing the Cerrado biome (such as fires and agriculture).	eng
57318	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57318	distribution		This species occurs in the Lower and Middle Magdalena Valley in northern Colombia, in the Caribbean areas in northern Colombia and Venezuela, and in Lake Maracaibo basin in Venezuela. It occurs up to 150m asl.	eng
57318	habitat		It lives in savannahs, dry forests, and riparian forests in open, dry environments. Its breeding is not known, though it presumably takes place in water.	eng
57318	population		It is very common in Colombia, but appears to be uncommon in Venezuela.	eng
57318	threats		It is an aggressive species, not facing any known threats.	eng
57319	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be resolved.	eng
57319	distribution		This species is known only from Rio Piedade, São Jose do Rio Preto, in the state of São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil.	eng
57319	habitat		If it is like other species in the genus, it breeds in water (possibly in temporary pools), probably in forest.	eng
57319	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57319	threats		No information is available.	eng
57320	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57320	distribution		This species occurs widely in south-central Brazil, and has been recorded from the Distrito Federal, and from the States of Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo. It has been found at 600-1,200m asl.	eng
57320	habitat		It is a species of Cerrado savannah, living in moist fields, and pastures. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance. It breeds in temporary pools and swamps.	eng
57320	population		It is a common species.	eng
57320	threats		Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of intensive, commercial agriculture, as well as by fire and dam construction.	eng
57321	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57321	distribution		This species occurs widely in the Cerrado biome of south-central Brazil, and it is recorded from the States of Bahia, Goiás, Tocantins and Minas Gerais. It is found at 400-1,200m asl.	eng
57321	habitat		It lives in Cerrado savannah, occurring in open areas, and breeding in somewhat wet, marshy areas, and temporary pools. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57321	population		It is a common species.	eng
57321	threats		Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of intensive, commercial agriculture, as well as by fire and dam construction.	eng
57322	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Chapada da Diamantina.	eng
57322	distribution		This species is restricted to the region of Chapada Diamantina, in the northern part of the Espinhaço Range in the state of Bahia, eastern Brazil, at around 1,200m asl.	eng
57322	habitat		It lives on the banks of small streams with white sand and rocks, in high-altitude grassy vegetation, and breeds in temporary streams and ponds.	eng
57322	population		This species is common within its small range.	eng
57322	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to expanding cultivation of crops and livestock grazing, and fire.	eng
57323	conservation		Although it is not currently protected in any reserve, its range still includes much intact forest.	eng
57323	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Mar in the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina in southern Brazil at 800-1,000m asl.	eng
57323	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that lives in secondary and old growth forest. It reproduces in ephemeral pools. It does not occur in open areas outside forest.	eng
57323	population		It occurs in scattered localities, but it is often common where is found. Its population is stable in suitable habitats.	eng
57323	threats		The main threats are deforestation, expanding cattle ranching, and expanding pine plantations.	eng
57324	conservation		It is present in Salinas y Aguada Blanca Reserva Nacional. Education programmes are needed to inform local people of the importance of ensuring that the harvest of this species from the wild is managed sustainably. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57324	distribution		This species is endemic to the Arequipa region of Perú (Arequipa and Moquegua departments). It has an altitudinal range of 2,000-4,500m asl.	eng
57324	habitat		It is a riparian semi-aquatic frog. It is present in streams, wet grassland and shrublands, and ditches. It may be found in modified habitats wherever there are streams or ditches. Eggs are laid in the water.	eng
57324	population		It is common where it occurs, but declines have been noted at lower elevations, probably because of over-harvesting.	eng
57324	threats		A major threat to this species is water pollution caused by agrochemicals and domestic waste. It is also harvested for food and for use in traditional medicine. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be very susceptible to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. arequipensis</em>.	eng
57325	conservation	Javier Icochea, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2004	It is present in Parque Nacional Río Abiseo.	eng
57325	distribution	Javier Icochea, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2004	This species is restricted to the westernmost ridge of the Cordillera Central of northern Peru (in the departments of Amazonas, San Martin and La Libertad). It is only recently discovered and might range much more widely. Large areas of potentially suitable habitat are available that have not been surveyed. It can be found at altitudes of 2,600-4,000m asl	eng
57325	habitat	Javier Icochea, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2004	This is a semi-aquatic riparian species that lives under rocks at the edge of small streams, in which it presumably breeds, in very humid sub alpine páramo. <br/><br/>Tadpoles assigned to this species appear to represent the most specialized <em>Telmatobius</em> larvae known to date (Aguilar et al., 2007).	eng
57325	population	Javier Icochea, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2004	Its population status is not known.	eng
57325	threats	Javier Icochea, Ulrich Sinsch, Edgar Lehr, 2004	The threats to this species are not well known. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might prove to be very susceptible to chytridiomycosis, but this has yet to be reported from <em>T. atahualpai</em>. This species might also be subject to over-harvesting, like many other members of the genus, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
57326	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional y Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Cotapata, and Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, this species should be monitored closely.	eng
57326	distribution		This species is known only from the Yungas forests of La Paz Department, Bolivia, from 2,000-3,000m asl. <em>Telmatobius ifornoi</em>, known only from Chuspipata, in Nor Yungas Province, La Paz Department, at 3,050m asl, is now considered to be a synonym (Lavilla and Ergueta 1999).	eng
57326	habitat		It is an aquatic species that occurs in fast-flowing rivers and streams in cloud forests and Yungas forest. It is often present in the muddy bottoms of streams. There is no information on its breeding biology, though it presumably takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
57326	population		This is the most common and widespread <em>Telmatobius</em> species in Bolivia.	eng
57326	threats		It is affected by ongoing habitat loss and degradation, as a result of logging and agricultural expansion. It is also threatened by water pollution and aquaculture. Despite these threats its populations appear to be currently stable. However, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat that could cause serious declines, but this has not yet been confirmed in this species.	eng
57327	conservation		Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.	eng
57327	distribution		This species is known from the Cordillera Occidental of northern Perú, in the departments of Cajamarca and La Libertad, where it has been collected at elevations of between 2,000 and 3,520m asl.	eng
57327	habitat		It is a riparian semi-aquatic species, and can be found under rocks along streams in cloud forest to páramo; it is also present in irrigation ditches in cultivated areas. It is presumed to be a stream breeder.	eng
57327	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
57327	threats		There is little information available on its threats, although water pollution might be a localized threat. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius brevipes</em>, but congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.	eng
57328	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed to ensure the maintenance of suitable habitat for this species. It also requires close population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid infection.	eng
57328	distribution		This species is known from the upper Huallaga River and its tributaries, in Huánuco Department, Peru, and it has an altitudinal range of 2,000-3,600m asl.	eng
57328	habitat		It is a riparian semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, living in small streams in shrubland and cloud forest, and is not present in cultivated areas.	eng
57328	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
57328	threats		Agrochemical runoff into streams, as a result of use in potato cultivation, is a major threat to this species. Other <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are believed to be particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, though the pathogen has yet to be reported from this species.	eng
57329	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, but might range into the lower elevations of Parque Nacional Huascarán. Further research is needed to determine the levels of offtake of this species from the wild. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57329	distribution		This species is endemic to the Peruvian Andes and is known from the vicinity of the type locality "Puna de Crusjircan" in the department of Ancash, and from the Río Blanco, near Banos, in the department of Huanuco. It is known from 3,950-4,000m asl, but presumably has a broader elevational range than this.	eng
57329	habitat		This species is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog of the puna. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57329	population		It has been recorded as abundant.	eng
57329	threats		Water pollution from mines and domestic use of water is a localized threat. It is probably also collected for food and medicine. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. carrillae</em>.	eng
57330	conservation		A few populations are protected in Parque Nacional Los Alisos. Conservation actions needed to conserve the species include the expansion of existing protected areas to ensure increased protection of habitat; the control of invasive predators within protected areas; and close population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chyrid.	eng
57330	distribution		This Argentinean endemic is distributed from the type locality of La Banderita (27° 08'S; 66° 02'W) (Catamarca Province) north to Los Sosa River (Tucumán Province), ranging from 1,400-2,200m asl.	eng
57330	habitat		It is mostly aquatic, occurring in montane forest streams in the Aconquija Range (Tucumán-Catamarca, Argentina), and is not present in modified areas. Breeding takes place in the streams, and the larvae are aquatic; there is no dispersal between streams.	eng
57330	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57330	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-cutting of primary forests and conversion of habitat to wood plantations. Other threats include alteration of watersheds, sedimentation and pollution of waterbodies (often by livestock, but also from mining waste), and predation by introduced trout. Chytridiomycosis may be a potential future threat.	eng
57331	conservation	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	A 95% of its estimated geographic range is found within Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). The risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
57331	distribution	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is only known from three localities, in the vicinity of Abra de Zamora and from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the provinces of Loja and Zamora Chinchipe, southern Ecuador (Merino-Viteri et al., 2005). Its geographical range has been calculated at ca 107.9 km2 (Merino-Viteri et al., 2005). Its altitudinal range is 2,700-3,200m asl.	eng
57331	habitat	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It lives in very wet, cold elfin forest dominated by thick layers of moss, lichens, liverworts, dense bushes, bromeliads and bamboo, and it is closely associated with streams. Individuals have been found beneath rocks in a roadside streambed, and in a roadside ditch. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57331	population	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	The species has not been collected since November 1981 in spite of 10 surveys conducted between 1987 and 2003 in its type locality (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).	eng
57331	threats	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	There is evidence that <em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (including chytridiomycosis, but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat loss and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. <em>Telmatobius</em> species have traditionally been heavily used for food by local people.	eng
57332	conservation		Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is present within the Cordillera El Colán protected area.	eng
57332	distribution		This species is known only from the Cordillera El Colán, in Amazonas Department in the northern Peruvian Andes, at 2,410m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
57332	habitat		This is a riparian, semi-aquatic species of rocky high-gradient streams in undisturbed cloud forest. It is not known if it can occur in disturbed habitat.	eng
57332	population		Nothing is known about its population status.	eng
57332	threats		Outside existing protected areas, the major threat is likely to be ongoing forest loss. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius colanensis</em>, but congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.	eng
57333	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected areas. There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
57333	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Cerro Madrid (29° 39'S; 68° 36'W), in Gualcamayo Valley at 3,050m asl in San Juan Province, Argentina. This is the southernmost species of <em>Telmatobius</em>.	eng
57333	habitat		All that is known about its habitat and ecological requirements is that it is thought to have been collected from a mountain stream.	eng
57333	population		It is known only from the type series of three individuals.	eng
57333	threats		The type locality is in a gold mining area that is dangerous for researchers to visit, so the threats to this species remain poorly known. It is possible that the presumed aquatic habitat of this species might be being polluted by mercury, although this requires verification. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57334	conservation		It is present in the Lake Titicaca Reserve, but measures are needed to maintain suitable aquatic habitat for breeding and to mitigate the impacts of other threats. Captive-breeding programmes around Lake Titicaca are generally considered to have been unsuccessful to date. In Peru, National legislation to treat as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19.1999) is needed.	eng
57334	distribution		This species is endemic to Lake Titicaca of Peru (Departamento Puno) and Bolivia (Departamento La Paz) at an elevation of 3,810m asl.	eng
57334	habitat		It is a wholly aquatic species, with reproduction taking place in shallow waters close to the Lake's shoreline.	eng
57334	population		It was previously common, but it has experienced massive declines, and it is now seriously threatened.	eng
57334	threats		Major threats include over-harvesting of adults, the presumed predation of larvae by introduced trout, water extraction from the Lake, and domestic and agricultural water pollution. There has been a severe loss of suitable aquatic habitat where reproduction takes place. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis remains a potential future threat.	eng
57335	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It does not occur in any protected area. Inclusion in the national and international legislation as VU is needed.	eng
57335	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Las Cascadas, along the Loa River, in El Loa Province, Chile (22° 29'S; 68° 58'W) on the western slopes of the Andes. It can be found up to 2,260m asl, and probably occurs elsewhere along the Loa River.	eng
57335	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	It is found in a river that crosses a desert. It reproduces in the river, and has large free-swimming larvae.	eng
57335	population	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	There are large populations where it occurs, and in 2002 it was abundant at the type locality.	eng
57335	threats	Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, 2008	The major threat to this species is water pollution caused by mining activities. It might also be threatened in the future by chytridiomycosis.	eng
57336	conservation		It is not known to be present in any protected areas. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57336	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: 13km ESE Yamobamba, 18km SE Agallpampa on the road from Otuzco to Huamachuco (7° 59'S; 78° 36'W), La Libertad Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes, at 3,290m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
57336	habitat		It has been collected in a densely vegetated roadside marsh in an open pasture. The marsh was fed by a brook draining into the Rio Moche, and was in the very humid subalpine páramo. The frogs were active in pools and running water by day. Breeding takes place in wetlands.	eng
57336	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
57336	threats		The threats are not currently known. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius degener</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.	eng
57337	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco and possibly also in Parque Nacional Amboro.	eng
57337	distribution		This species is known only from the slopes of the Bolivian Andes, at La Siberia, on the border between the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, and from Sehuencas in Parque Nacional Carrasco. It has been found at approximately 2,600m asl, though it presumably has a broader elevational range than this, and may also occur more widely.	eng
57337	habitat		It is both aquatic and terrestrial, and inhabits cloud forest and mountain streams, though its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
57337	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57337	threats		It is likely to be adversely affected by ongoing habitat loss and degradation taking place mainly due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57338	conservation	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57338	distribution	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Puquios, in El Loa Province, Chile (21° 00'S; 68° 23'W). It can occur up to 4,150m asl. It is probably more widely distributed than is currently recognized.	eng
57338	habitat	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The pool in which this species can be found was formed by local people damming a hot stream. This species' breeding habits are unknown, though reproduction is presumably by larval development in water.	eng
57338	population	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	When it was discovered in 1998, there were more than 30 individuals in a tiny pool. The same pool held only four individuals in 2001.	eng
57338	threats	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	Its major threats are unknown, although chytridiomycosis might be a potential future threat.	eng
57339	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas. Habitat protection and maintenance is recommended, complemented by more general actions to mitigate the effects of water pollution and channelization, and to manage exploitation. Close monitoring of surviving populations of this species is required.	eng
57339	distribution		This species is known only from the canyon of the Río Huayllamarca, in Carangas Province, Oruro Department, in the Bolivian Andes, at around 3,965m asl.	eng
57339	habitat		It lives in streams in high-elevation puna grassland habitats, where it presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
57339	population		It is fairly common at the type locality.	eng
57339	threats		Populations are possibly affected by water pollution from agriculture, over-harvesting for medicinal use, and the deviation of water from streams for the irrigation of crops. Although not yet recorded, chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57340	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and there might be a need for improved habitat protection at the type locality. The species is in need of close population monitoring given its very limited range and the potential threat of chytridiomycosis..	eng
57340	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "la cordillera de Catamarca en el arroyo `Aguas Calientes' (4,020m asl) en las inmediaciones de Cazadero Grande", Catamarca, in north-western Argentina.	eng
57340	habitat		It is an aquatic species known only from a single thermal spring of about 5km in length. Breeding takes place in the stream and the species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
57340	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
57340	threats		This species is potentially threatened by the use of the stream as a watering point for passing livestock, and the removal of vegetation from the area for firewood, but at present these threats appear to be minor, and no decline has been noted. Chytridiomycosis also is a potential future threat.	eng
57341	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at the type locality. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of the species, and there is a need for close monitoring of populations given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57341	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Río Sihuas, in the department of Ancash, in the Peruvian Andes at an elevation of 2,700m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57341	habitat		This is a riparian semi-aquatic species. It is found under rocks in fast-flowing streams in alder forest. It is also found under rocks in pools and moist soil. Reproduction occurs in streams. It is not known if it occurs in degraded habitats.	eng
57341	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57341	threats		It is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations might be particularly prone to infection with chytrid, although this pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. hockingi</em>.	eng
57342	conservation		It occurs in the National Reserve of Andine Fauna Eduardo Avaroa. Further research is needed to investigate the reasons for the declines observed in this species.	eng
57342	distribution		This species occurs in the southern Andean highlands of Bolivia, in Sud Lípez, in the southern part of the department of Potosí, at around 4,200m asl.	eng
57342	habitat		It is an aquatic species that lives in very scattered populations in small streams, rivers and peat bogs, in a cold desert landscape. Some populations live in thermal springs. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
57342	population		It is locally common. Although its populations appear to be relatively stable, there is some evidence of a decline.	eng
57342	threats		The causes of the observed declines are not known, but given the high elevation at which the species occurs, climate change could be a threat.	eng
57343	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required to ensure the long-term persistence of this species.	eng
57343	distribution		This species is known only from two nearby localities in Jujuy Province, in north-western Argentina: El Moreno (the type locality); and El Angosto. Its altitudinal range is 3,500-3,600m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57343	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, and is found in high mountain streams usually surrounded by scrubby bush land. It is not known from any modified habitats.	eng
57343	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57343	threats		Current threats include pollution of the streams by livestock, and collection of vegetation surrounding the streams for firewood (leading to increased run-off sedimentation). Other potential threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), stream pollution from mining activities, destruction of high mountain bogs associated with the streams, and alteration of stream watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential future threat.	eng
57344	conservation		It is not known to be present in any protected areas. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57344	distribution		This species is known only from the Cordillera de Huancabamba (in Piura Department) at an altitude of 1,840-3,080m asl.	eng
57344	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, and can be found under rocks in streams in very humid montane forest, humid lower montane forest and possibly dry lower montane forest. It may occur in disturbed areas, where water quality remains good, and has been recorded close to towns and agricultural areas.	eng
57344	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57344	threats		There are no current major threats known for the areas occupied, though there may be some localized stream degradation. However, <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. ignavus</em>, congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.	eng
57345	conservation		This species might occur in the protected area of the Reserva Nacional Pampas Galeras, although this requires confirmation.	eng
57345	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Allipaca, near Puquio, Ayacucho Department, in the southern Peruvian Andes, at around 3,300m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57345	habitat		It is a riparian semi-aquatic frog that may be found under rocks in streams and waterfalls in montane shrubland and grasslands. It breeds in streams.	eng
57345	population		Its population status is not known. It is a very poorly known species.	eng
57345	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, which has yet to be reported from <em>T. intermedius</em>.	eng
57346	conservation		It might be present in the Reserva Chacamarca although this requires confirmation. There is a need to regulate its harvesting and to reduce the local water pollution. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis this species should be monitored closely.	eng
57346	distribution		This species is known from much of the central Andes in Peru (from the departaments of Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Junín), from 2,700-4,500m asl.	eng
57346	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic riparian frog, and may be found in muddy beds of streams among shrublands and grasslands. It has been found in ditches on arable land. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57346	population		It was previously common, but has undergone declines.	eng
57346	threats		This species is locally affected by harvesting for both food and traditional medicine, and by water pollution (from agrochemicals and domestic waste). <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, although this disease has yet to be reported from this species.	eng
57347	conservation		The species is not present in any protected areas, and therefore habitat protection is a priority. Further survey work is necessary at higher elevations to establish the current status of those populations.	eng
57347	distribution		This species is restricted to the valley of Tafí in Tucumán Province, Argentina, with an altitudinal range of 1,900-3,100m asl.	eng
57347	habitat		It is a wholly aquatic, stream-breeding species of mountain streams within bog land areas; at higher elevations, the surrounding vegetation is shrubland, while the vegetation in lowland areas includes some trees (<em>Alnus</em> spp.). The species is not present in any modified habitats.	eng
57347	population		It was previously common and had been recorded from seven localities. However, the species was last collected in 1992 and it appears to have disappeared from the lower parts of its range (it was not found during intensive surveys in 2003). The status of populations at higher elevations is currently not known, as there have been no recent collections within this part of the range.	eng
57347	threats		Current threats to the species include predation by introduced exotic fishes (trout); urbanization and the drainage of bogs; alterations of watercourses (through measures such as canalization); degradation of bog habitat by four-wheel drive vehicles; potato cultivation close to the stream edges (increasing sedimentation); construction of roads across the streams; plantation of exotic tree species (pines, with subsequent sedimentation during harvesting); and construction of power-lines in the gorges and within the streams (also resulting in stream sedimentation). Potential future threats include water pollution through mining activities, and also chytridiomycosis: populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius laticeps</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk	eng
57348	conservation		It may be present in Parque Nacional Cutervo, although this requires confirmation. Further research into this little-known species is needed.	eng
57348	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of the town of Cutervo, Cajamarca Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes, and was collected at an elevation of 2,620m asl. It is expected to occur more widely, but additional survey work is needed to confirm this.	eng
57348	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, with breeding taking place in streams and ditches in the town.	eng
57348	population		Nothing is known about the population status of this species; it was last collected in 1993 by J. Wiens at the type location.	eng
57348	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, although it is presumably impacted by habitat loss, while within Cutervo it is threatened by water pollution. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. latirostris</em>, congeners nearby in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species may be seriously at risk.	eng
57349	conservation	Javier Icochea, Wilfredo Arizabal, Edgar Lehr, Ignacio De la Riva, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	In Bolivia the species has been recorded from Parque Nacional Cotapata and Parque Nacional Sajama. In Peru, it presumably occurs in Reserva Nacional del Titicaca. In Chile, it occurs in Parque Nacional Lauca. It is plausible that some populations of this widespread species are extinct or have declined due to chytridiomycosis, but further survey work is needed to investigate this.	eng
57349	distribution	Javier Icochea, Wilfredo Arizabal, Edgar Lehr, Ignacio De la Riva, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This species has the broadest distribution of any <em>Telmatobius</em> species. It is known from the Andean region of southern Peru, northern and central Bolivia and northern Chile. It is recorded in Peru from the Lake Titicaca and Cusco region (Cusco and Puno departments), with uncertain records from Ayacucho (not mapped). In Bolivia, it is recorded from the departments of La Paz, Oruro, and the highlands of Cochabamba. It is present in the altiplano of northern Chile (Parinacota, Lauca River, and Chungara Lake, Parinacota Province). It is also recorded from three localities in Argentina (Jujuy Province on the Bolivian border), although the taxonomic status of these specimens is unclear. It occurs from 3,000-5,244 asl.	eng
57349	habitat	Javier Icochea, Wilfredo Arizabal, Edgar Lehr, Ignacio De la Riva, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog of streams, waterfalls and slow moving water in montane grasslands and shrublands. Breeding takes place in small lakes, streams and rivers with good water quality.	eng
57349	population	Javier Icochea, Wilfredo Arizabal, Edgar Lehr, Ignacio De la Riva, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	In Bolivia and Peru it is locally common, although declines have been reported for Peruvian populations (Seimon et al., 2006). In Chile the species is reported to have large populations, and to be abundant in high plateau streams.	eng
57349	threats	Javier Icochea, Wilfredo Arizabal, Edgar Lehr, Ignacio De la Riva, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Esteban Lavilla, 2008	This or a closely related species is currently subject to human consumption in southern Peru (Angulo, 2008), and is susceptible to eutrophication of waterways through agricultural activities (livestock and agrochemicals). It is not currently threatened in Chile.<br/><br/>The species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> infection (Seimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005, 2006) in the Cordillera Vilcanota of southern Peru, specimens exhibited clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis. Healthy specimens, however, were found in the region of Puno, also in southern Peru, during recent fieldwork (February 2006; I. De la Riva pers. comm.). There is evidence of upward range expansion of this and another two anuran species to newly available habitat brought about by recent deglaciation in the Andes of Peru. The large increase in the upper limit of known Bd infections (from 4,112 to 5,348 m asl) also expands the spatial domain of potential Bd pathogenicity (Seimon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006).	eng
57350	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Huascaran. There is a need to regulate harvesting and offtake of this species. Close population monitoring is required, particularly given the potential threat of chytrid.	eng
57350	distribution		This species is endemic to Ancash Department, Peru. It is restricted to the Río Santa, from the type locality of the "mouth of Rio Santa 500m from Lake Conococha, Provincia Recuay (4,050m asl)" 30km northwards along this river and in small rivers and waterways associated with the river (Conococha, Catac, Laguna Aguashcocha, Pachacoto). It has an altitudinal range of 3,515-4,150m asl.	eng
57350	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic stream-breeding, frog restricted to the puna region, and may be found under rocks and submerged plants in slow-moving sections of rivers. It is not recorded from degraded habitats.	eng
57350	population		It is uncommon.	eng
57350	threats		Major threats include local use for food and medicine (including the larvae), and water pollution from mining and agrochemical use. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at high elevations are particularly prone to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>T. mayoloi</em> it could be at risk.	eng
57351	conservation		Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.	eng
57351	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern-most ridge of the Cordillera Central, Amazonas Department, in the northern Peruvian Andes at an altitude of approximately 2,050m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57351	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, and may be found under rocks in cloud forest streams. It has been observed in muddy roadside ditches at night.	eng
57351	population		Nothing is known of the species' current population status.	eng
57351	threats		The major threats are not known. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius necopinus</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk.	eng
57352	conservation	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	About 9.7% (942.5 km2) of the species' geographic range is comprised within Ecuador's Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, mostly in Parque Nacional Cajas (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although protection and maintenance of existing habitat is clearly needed, the risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
57352	distribution	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	This species has been recorded from more than 10 localities on both slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes from the Cuenca Basin (in the Province of Azuay) north to Juan Benigno Vela (in the Province of Tungurahua). Records from Intac in the Province of Imbabura are considered to be invalid, and are not mapped here. The altitudinal range is 2,469-4,000 m asl. The geographic range comprises ca 9,675 km2 (Merino-Viteri<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).	eng
57352	habitat	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	Its ecological realm includes cloud forests, moist scrubland, high-altitude páramo grassland, evergreen montane forests and dry montane scrubland (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is found in the vicinity of streams and rivers. By day, adults usually are found beneath rocks and in weedy vegetation in and at the edge of streams (where they breed).	eng
57352	population	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	It was formerly reasonably common, but it has declined dramatically and might be extinct. It was last recorded in Lagunas de Atillo, in the Province of Chimborazo, in December 1994. Subsequent surveys at historical localities (N=9, 1994-2005) have been unable to locate the species again (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).	eng
57352	threats	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, 2008	<em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (not only from chytridiomycosis-confirmed in this species in 1994-but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat destruction and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. Local people have traditionally heavily used species of the genus for food.	eng
57353	conservation		It is present in Parque Nacional Calilegua, although the reserve is in need of improved management. This species requires close population monitoring given that it is currently known from only a single site, and there is the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57353	distribution		This species is currently only known from the Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy Province, in north-western Argentina. The type locality of "Cerro de la Escalera, Orán Range, Salta Province", is unspecific and cannot be relocated, and therefore is not mapped here. It has an altitudinal range of 1,400-2,550m asl.	eng
57353	habitat		It is mostly aquatic and inhabits and breeds in streams in montane forest. The species is not known to occur in modified habitats.	eng
57353	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57353	threats		The only known populations of this species are within a protected area. If the species occurs outside the Parque Nacional Calilegua, then threats might include selective logging, introduction of predatory fishes (trout), alteration of watersheds, and the impacts of mining operations. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57354	conservation	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, 2008	It does not occur in any protected area. Strict monitoring of population and inclusion in national legislation as DD is needed.	eng
57354	distribution	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, 2008	This species is known at only a single locality, Ollagüe, in El Loa Province, Chile (21° 13'S; 68° 15'W), at 3,800m asl.	eng
57354	habitat	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, 2008	This is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, occurring in streams and small rivers in the high Andes, and which is not known to occur in modified or degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57354	population	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, 2008	It is only known from a single collection made in 1998 when a few animals were found. No one has returned to this site since.	eng
57354	threats	Alberto Veloso, Ramón Formas, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, but this has yet to be reported for <em>T. peruvianus</em>.	eng
57355	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas; there are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
57355	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, La Ciénaga (about 27° 30'S; 67° 00'W), close to the town of Medanitos (27° 32'S; 67° 36'W), in Catamarca Province in north-western Argentina. It might range more widely and further surveys are needed in the surrounding areas. It was collected at 3,300m asl.	eng
57355	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, occurring in high mountain streams surrounded by montane grasslands. Breeding takes place in the streams.	eng
57355	population		It is a rare species, which has not been surveyed for since it was discovered.	eng
57355	threats		The threats to it are unknown. Potential threats in the general area include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), water pollution through mining activities, destruction of high mountain bogs (from which the streams originate) by cattle, and the alteration of watersheds. <em>Telmatobius</em> species living at high altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, so this is a potential future threat for this species.	eng
57356	conservation		The species is not present in any protected areas, and therefore habitat protection is a priority. Further survey work is necessary at lower elevations to establish whether any populations may still survive.	eng
57356	distribution		This species is restricted to the Calchaquí Valley, Catamarca and Tucumán Provinces, Argentina. It has been recorded from seven localities, and has an altitudinal range of 2,600-4,200m asl.	eng
57356	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, breeding in mountain bog streams surrounded by dry shrubland. It does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
57356	population		It has disappeared entirely from the lower-elevation parts of its range.	eng
57356	threats		Current threats to the species include: introduction of predatory exotic fishes (trout); urbanization and the drainage of bogs; alterations of watercourses (through measures such as canalization); degradation of bog habitat by four-wheel drive vehicles; potato cultivation close to the stream edges (increasing sedimentation); construction of roads across the streams; plantation of exotic tree species (pines, with subsequent sedimentation during harvesting); and construction of power-lines in the gorges and within the streams (also resulting in stream sedimentation). Potential threats include water pollution through mining activities, and chytridiomycosis: populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are very susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis. The pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius pisanoi</em>, but congeners in Ecuador have disappeared, and so this species would appear to be seriously at risk	eng
57357	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and protection of suitable habitat is urgently required. There is also a need for continued population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid.	eng
57357	distribution		This species is known only from three nearby localities in Jujuy Province, north-western Argentina: El Moreno, El Angosto and San Jose de Chani. It has an altitudinal range of 3,600-3,750m asl.	eng
57357	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by rough bush land, and does not occur in modified areas.	eng
57357	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57357	threats		Current threats include the pollution of streams by livestock activities, and the collection of vegetation surrounding the streams for firewood (resulting in run-off and stream sedimentation). Potential threats from nearby villages include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), stream pollution through mining activities, and the destruction of high mountain bogs (stream watersheds). Chytridiomycosis also poses a potential future threat.	eng
57358	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas; further research is needed into this species.	eng
57358	distribution		This species can be found in central western Andean slopes of Departamentos Ancash and Lima, Peru. It was recorded from elevations of 2,000-4,000m asl.	eng
57358	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog present in streams, and canals and ditches close to fields. It is a stream breeder.	eng
57358	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
57358	threats		The major threats to this species are water pollution through agrochemicals and domestic waste. It might be utilized locally for food, but this requires confirmation. <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius</span> populations living at high elevations might be particular prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis; the pathogen has yet to be reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">T. rimac</span>.	eng
57359	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas, and protection of suitable habitat is clearly required. There is also a need for continued population monitoring, particularly given the threat of chytrid.	eng
57359	distribution		This species is known only from two localities within the Famatina range of mountains, Aimogasta (type locality 28° 33'S; 66° 49'W) and a gorge near to Anjullon (28° 44'S; 66° 56'W), in La Rioja Province, western Argentina. It has been recorded from elevations between 1,800 and 2,050m asl.	eng
57359	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by dry bush land, and is not present in modified habitats.	eng
57359	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57359	threats		Current threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout); stream pollution through livestock and mining activities; collection of streamside vegetation (with resulting increased runoff); and destruction of high mountain bogs and other watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57360	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Survey work in the tributaries of the El Ingenio is urgently needed to ascertain whether the species is still present; the possibility of re-introducing the species to the El Ingenio stream also should be considered.	eng
57360	distribution		This species is known only from four sites: the El Ingenio stream (which is the type locality), and its tributaries the Río Arenal, Loma Redonda and Lio los Cerrillos, in the Campo Arenal area of Catamarca Province, north-western Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 3,000-3,050m asl.	eng
57360	habitat		It is an aquatic species, breeding in high mountain streams surrounded by shrubland, but is not present in modified habitats.	eng
57360	population		This is a rare species that has not been seen since a catastrophic flooding event took place in 1997 when the main river, El Ingenio, rose seven metres above its normal level and washed away everything except for large rocks. While it seems that the species no longer survives in the El Ingenio stream itself, the tributaries of El Ingenio have not been surveyed since the flooding event.	eng
57360	threats		Previous, and possibly remaining, major threats to any surviving populations include pollution from mining activities; introduction of predatory fishes (trout); destruction of high mountain bogs; and alteration of watersheds. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential future threat.	eng
57361	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco and Parque Nacional Amboro. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57361	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the La Siberia region of the Bolivian Andes in the departments of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, from 2,000-2,900m asl.	eng
57361	habitat		It lives in montane cloud forest, and is found near small rivers and in roadside ditches. It is both aquatic and terrestrial, and breeds in streams. It is able to tolerate some level of habitat disturbance.	eng
57361	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
57361	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture and timber extraction, and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57362	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional El Palmar and Parque Nacional Amboró. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis there is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
57362	distribution		This species is endemic to the Bolivian Andes, where it has been recorded from the departments of Chuquisaca, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz (Köhler 2000a), from 1,000-2,800m asl.	eng
57362	habitat		It is an aquatic species, occurring in both open and forest habitats, in inter-Andean valleys. It can be found at night by the sides of roads, in waterways or trenches, or in ponds and small streams (Köhler 2000a). There is no information on its breeding biology, though it presumably takes place by larval development in water.	eng
57362	population		It is locally common, although it is apparently in decline.	eng
57362	threats		It is probably declining because of water pollution, and habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development, logging, and livestock grazing. <em>Telmatobius</em> populations living at higher altitudes might be particularly prone to becoming infected with chytridiomycosis, so this disease might be a potential threat for this species in the future.	eng
57363	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for immediate protection of its montane forest habitat. This species requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57363	distribution		This species is known from only four localities (Río Encrucijada, La Cumbrecita, Cerro el Manchao and Casa de Piedra de los Cajones) in the Sierra de El Manchao, Catamarca Province, in north-western Argentina. It has an altitudinal range of 2,200-2,300m asl.	eng
57363	habitat		It is wholly aquatic, breeding in small rivulets in mountain Yungas forest. The species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
57363	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57363	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, due to both selective logging and clear-cutting of primary Yungas forest. Other threats include the introduction of predatory fishes (trout), alteration of watersheds, agricultural activities, and potential mining within the area. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57364	conservation		Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.	eng
57364	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "13km ESE Yamobamba, 18km SE Agallpampa on road from Otuzco to Huamachuco (75° 09'S;  78° 36'W)" in the Cordillera Occidental, Huamachuco (La Libertad Department), in the northern Peruvian Andes. It has been collected at 3,290m asl. Its distribution is poorly known and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57364	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic frog, that breeds in streams, pools and marshes in very humid subalpine páramo. It is not known from degraded habitats.	eng
57364	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57364	threats		There is no information on immediate threats to the species. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius thompsoni</em>, this species would appear to be at risk.	eng
57365	conservation		Survey work is needed to establish the population status of this species, and it requires careful population monitoring, particularly given the risk of chytridiomycosis. It is not known to be present in any protected areas.	eng
57365	distribution		This species is currently known from the Cordillera Oriental of northern Perú (in Amazonas Department) at 2,150-3,470m asl. Its distribution is poorly known and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57365	habitat		It is a riparian, semi-aquatic, stream-breeding frog, typically found under rocks, and along streams and drainage ditches, in very humid montane forest. It is not known from degraded habitats.	eng
57365	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57365	threats		There is no information on immediate threats to the species. Populations of other species in the genus living at high elevations are susceptible to infection with chytridiomycosis, and, although the pathogen has yet to be reported from <em>Telmatobius truebae</em>, this species would appear to be at risk.	eng
57366	conservation	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Approximately 4.9% (6.5 km2) of its estimated geographic distribution is comprised within Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although protection and maintenance of existing habitat is clearly needed, the risk of disease means that it is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status. Any surviving individuals should form the basis for the initiation of a captive-breeding programme.	eng
57366	distribution	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	This species is known only from six localities in the general vicinity of the Cajanuma Mountains, Cordillera Oriental, in Loja and Zamora Chinchipe Provinces, southern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-3,050 m asl. Its geographic range is approximately 132 km2 (Merino-Viteri <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
57366	habitat	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	It is found in the vicinity of streams, rivers and irrigation ditches, in pastures, humid montane shrubland and humid montane forest. Adults can be found beneath stones and logs in or near streams (which is also where they breed). It is not known to what extent it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
57366	population	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	Populations of this species have declined seriously, and it was last recorded in July 1987, close to Centro Administrativo of Parque Nacional Podocarpus. It might possibly survive in the south-eastern páramos of Loja Province, but there are also concerns that it is already extinct.	eng
57366	threats	Andrés Merino-Viteri, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, 2008	<em>Telmatobius</em> species in Ecuador have been impacted by disease (including chytridiomycosis, but also from another fungal disease, a nematode infection, and from morphological malformations). Climatic abnormalities might also be implicated, and are perhaps related to the incidence of disease outbreaks. In addition, habitat destruction and degradation is taking place due to agricultural development (crops and livestock ranching) and human settlement. Species in the genus are also commonly used for food.	eng
57367	conservation		It might be present in Parque Nacional Cotapata and in the Apollobamba Mountains. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57367	distribution		This species occurs in the Yungas of the department of La Paz, Bolivia, at an altitudinal range of 3,000-3,600m asl.	eng
57367	habitat		This species inhabits upper montane humid forests. It is an aquatic species that has been observed both in streams and under big, flat stones (Lavilla and Ergueta 1995). There is no information on the breeding habits of this species, but it presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57367	population		It is an uncommon species; the most recent records date to 2004.	eng
57367	threats		This species might be threatened by the loss of riparian habitat and water pollution, presumably from agricultural activity and from domestic sources. It might also be susceptible to infection with the chytrid pathogen.	eng
57368	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
57368	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Río Vilama, in El Loa Province, Chile, at 2,500m asl. Its range might be wider than is currently recognized.	eng
57368	habitat		It occurs within a montane river in the high desert.	eng
57368	population		It was found to be abundant when the type locality was visited in 1998 and 1999.	eng
57368	threats		The only currently known threat to this species is water pollution caused by mining. Chytridiomycosis is a possible future threat.	eng
57369	conservation		It presumably occurs in Parque Nacional Carrasco. There is a need for close monitoring of the status of this species given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
57369	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern Andes of Bolivia, between Chapare Province, in the department of Cochabamba, and Caballero Province, in the department of Santa Cruz, at 2,000-3,000m asl (De la Riva 1994).	eng
57369	habitat		It is an aquatic species that can be observed on the bottom of small streams or rivers, and in ponds, in montane cloud forest and Yungas forest. It presumably breeds in water by larval development. It is not known from exposed areas outside forest.	eng
57369	population		It is locally common.	eng
57369	threats		It is probably declining because of habitat loss and degradation, due to agriculture and logging, and also water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is a potential future threat.	eng
57370	conservation	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Débora Silvano, 2008	It occurs in the Serra do Cipó National Park, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça and in some other protected areas.	eng
57370	distribution	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Débora Silvano, 2008	This species is known only from the Serra do Espinhaço and Serra do Caraça, in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil.	eng
57370	habitat	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Débora Silvano, 2008	It lives in rocky, rupestrian open areas on wet rock walls near streams or water falls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures. The tadpoles live on wet rock walls where water the water drains.	eng
57370	population	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Débora Silvano, 2008	It is a common species is its relatively small range.	eng
57370	threats	Ulisses Caramaschi, Luciana Barreto Nascimento, Débora Silvano, 2008	There is little information, but it is potentially affected by fire, and by disturbance resulting from tourism. In view of the declines observed in some of the species of <em>Thoropa</em> in southeastern Brazil, this species should be monitored for possible future population collapses, perhaps due to chytridiomycosis.	eng
57371	conservation	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Glaucia Moreira, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. In view of the declines observed in some of the species of <em>Thoropa</em> in southeastern Brazil and the confirmed presence of the chytrid fungus in this species, populations should be monitored for possible declines.	eng
57371	distribution	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Glaucia Moreira, 2008	This species from southern and eastern Brazil ranges from the southern part of the State of Paraná, north to the State of Bahia, inland to the eastern part of the State of Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57371	habitat	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Glaucia Moreira, 2008	It is found in rocky areas in forest, above forest, or near forest, living on wet rock walls near streams or waterfalls. The egg clutch is deposited in rock fissures. The tadpoles have been found on wet rock walls where water drains. The species feeds mostly on invertebrates, especially ants, beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders (Siqueira et al., 2006).	eng
57371	population	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Glaucia Moreira, 2008	It is a common species. It was once common in Estação Biológica de Boracéia, but has not been recorded there since 1979 and is now considered to be locally Extinct (Eterovick, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). This appears however to be a very localized decline and it is still found in the rest of the state as well as in other states.	eng
57371	threats	Paulo Garcia, Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Glaucia Moreira, 2008	Major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, human settlement, tourism and dams. In addition, this species has tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).	eng
57372	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra. Given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis, there is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
57372	distribution		This species occurs in the southernmost part of the Atlantic forest in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, from 300-1,000m asl.	eng
57372	habitat		This species lives in forested areas on rocky cliffs; eggs are deposited under waterfalls on rocks.	eng
57372	population		It is rarely collected, although it was found in 2001, and it appears to have disappeared from some localities.	eng
57372	threats		Some populations of this species have been affected by changes in watercourses, and by sedimentation caused by road construction, as well as by general forest loss. However, these factors do not fully account for the recorded declines. Like amphibians in some other parts of the wet tropics, it appears to have disappeared from areas of apparently suitable habitat, and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a threat, even though this disease has not yet been confirmed from Brazil.	eng
57373	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. In Peru it is known from the Gueppi Reserved Zone. In Brazil (Acre) it is known from Floresta Nacional em Rhondonia and Chico Mendes Extractive Reserva.	eng
57373	distribution		This species is found throughout much of Amazonian Peru and Ecuador; it is present in the State of Amazonas (Brazil); it has been recorded from parts of Colombia and was recently recorded from Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of approximately 100-1,150m asl. It probably occurs even more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57373	habitat		It is active by day and night, on the forest floor and in swampy areas in the forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, specimens have been found in seasonally flooded forests and open areas (Ron, 2001). The eggs are laid out of, but close to, water; the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
57373	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57373	threats		It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.), oil exploration, bauxite mining (Rhondonia) and colonization.	eng
57374	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi.	eng
57374	distribution		This species is known only from the municipality of Santa Teresa, in the state of Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil, at 650-675m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57374	habitat		It is found in forest, including secondary forest (but not in open areas) where it lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Assuming that it breeds in the same way as <em>Zachaenus parvulus</em>, the egg clutch is deposited on the ground under leaves, and the terrestrial larvae live and develop in a hole under the leaf-litter.	eng
57374	population		It is a hard species to find, and so its population status is unknown. However, it has been found in the type locality since the initial collection.	eng
57374	threats		The area where this species is found is quite well protected (as a biological reserve), but habitat loss is taking place nearby (where it might occur), due to agricultural development, creation of wood plantations, logging, human settlement and tourism.	eng
57375	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional da Serra des Orgaos and other protected areas.	eng
57375	distribution		This species is known only from the Serra do Mar and Ilha Grande, in the State Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57375	habitat		This species lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest. The egg clutch is deposited on the ground under leaves, and the terrestrial larva lives and develops in a hole under the leaf-litter.	eng
57375	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57375	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, tourism and fire. However, its habitat is reasonably well protected.	eng
57376	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
57376	distribution		This species' distribution is not clear. The type locality is "Port Otway, Patagonia" (Cope 1890). Lynch (1971) mentions that it is based on one specimen from Port Octay, Chile. The name cannot be matched to any known species occurring in either Argentina or Chile (Lavilla pers comm.).	eng
57376	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
57376	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57376	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57377	conservation		No specific actions are required. Its range includes a number of protected areas.	eng
57377	distribution		This species occurs from the Huon Peninsula, along the central mountainous spine of New Guinea from Purosa (Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea) west to the Sibil Valley (Papua, Indonesia), and in Central Province (Mount Obree) and Milne Bay Province (Munimum) in southeast Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 1,450-2,000m asl.	eng
57377	habitat		This species is found on the forest floor in tropical hill and montane rainforest. They breed in ephemeral ponds. One specimen was collected in a rural garden, suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation.	eng
57377	population		It is not observed to be a common species.	eng
57377	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57378	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57378	distribution		This species occurs on Aru Island and in northern, southern, and eastern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57378	habitat		It lives on the floor of tropical rainforest and lowland dry forest, as well as in teak plantations. It breeds in ephemeral and permanent ponds.	eng
57378	population		It is very abundant.	eng
57378	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57379	conservation		The Extent of Occurrence and population status of the species needs to be documented. It is known from the Arfak Mountains National Park.	eng
57379	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of western and central Papua, Indonesia. It has been collected around 2,000m asl.	eng
57379	habitat		It inhabits forest floor in montane rainforest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, although it presumably breeds in pools on the forest floor. It has not been recorded from degraded habitats.	eng
57379	population		It is not thought to be a common species.	eng
57379	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57380	conservation		The Extent of Occurrence and population status of the species need to be determined. The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57380	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Namosado, in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 930m asl.	eng
57380	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and is likely to have an aquatic larval stage.	eng
57380	population		There is no information on its population status, and it has not been recorded since it was first described.	eng
57380	threats		The threats are unknown.	eng
57381	conservation		Its range includes at least two protected areas, namely the Gibraltar Range National Park and Washpool National Park.	eng
57381	distribution		This species is known from the north-eastern corner of New South Wales close to the border with Queensland. There are seven confirmed localities, and several other as yet unconfirmed localities, suggesting that it most likely has a larger range than is currently mapped here. It occurs at elevations above 600m asl.	eng
57381	habitat		It is usually found in streams or temporary pools in high rainfall rainforest. It lays eggs in nests in the ground, where the larvae also complete their development.	eng
57381	population		It is not a common species, and most known populations are small.	eng
57381	threats		Livestock farming is a major threat to the species, mainly due to the trampling of nest sites.	eng
57382	conservation		Most of its habitat occurs within national parks (such as Richmond Range National Park and Yabbra National Park).	eng
57382	distribution		This species is known only from three localities within one continuous forest block in the Richmond Range and Yabbra Range in north-eastern New South Wales. It may possibly also occur at three additional locations, but these require confirmation and hence are not mapped here. It occurs at elevations above 600m asl.	eng
57382	habitat		It inhabits montane moist forest and subtropical rainforest where there are seepage areas beside seasonal or permanent streams and other water saturated sites. They lay eggs in a foam nest hidden from light and the larvae develop entirely on the yolk.	eng
57382	population		There are no documented declines in this species.	eng
57382	threats		In some areas there has been considerable clearing of the habitat, but the majority of the habitat is now protected. However, it may still be susceptible to upstream disturbances that affect hydrological regimes or water quality. Direct damage to breeding habitat by domestic stock has been observed at one site.	eng
57383	conservation		The Kirindy Forest forms part of the Menabe Forest complex, which has been proposed as part of the Systéme d’Aires Protégées de Madagascar.	eng
57383	distribution		This species is only known from Kirindy Forest (not Kirindy-Mitea) in western Madagascar, at around 100m asl.	eng
57383	habitat		It inhabits dry deciduous forest, and has not been found outside forest in open areas, but does occur in somewhat degraded forest. It breeds in temporary pools and puddles; the larvae grow rapidly, developing in 12 days.	eng
57383	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57383	threats		Kirindy Forest is seriously threatened by subsistence farming, wood extraction, and livestock.	eng
57384	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57384	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in eastern Madagascar, and also at Montagne d'Ambre and     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve in extreme northern Madagascar (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Records from western Madagascar require confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
57384	habitat		It is a tropical forest species, including both undisturbed and disturbed habitats (such as edges and clearings in the forest). It is not found in open areas. It requires leaf-litter, and survives in tree plantations. It breeds explosively in temporary and permanent still water.	eng
57384	population		It is a very common species, breeding in very dense populations.	eng
57384	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57385	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo; Parc National Tsingy de Bemahara; and Fôret D'Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
57385	distribution		This species in western, northwestern and northern Madagascar, with records from the following localities: Kirindy Forest (not Kirindy-Mitea); Sahamalaza Peninsula (Berara); Tsingy de Bemahara; Benavony; Montagne des Français and Fôret D'Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It was recently described and so its true geographic range is still not very well known, and it probably occurs between the recorded localities. Populations from west Madagascar previously attributed to Aglyptodactylus madagascariensis might belong to this species. It is a low-altitude, occurring below 300m asl.	eng
57385	habitat		It lives in dry and humid tropical forests, and also in somewhat degraded forest, but it is not found outside the forest. It breeds in pools or marshy areas, both temporary and permanent, including still pools in dried up riverbeds.	eng
57385	population		It is probably common, but it is hard to find when it is not breeding.	eng
57385	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57386	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57386	distribution		This species is widely distributed in northeastern, eastern and southeastern Madagascar. It ranges from around 100m up to 1,000m asl. Records from western Madagascar refer to Boophis occidentalis.	eng
57386	habitat		It is an arboreal species of moist rainforests, including slightly disturbed habitats, but it is not found in open areas. It can be found in isolated gallery forests. It is usually near streams, at least during the breeding season. It breeds explosively in streams and in small trickles of water.	eng
57386	population		It is locally common within its range.	eng
57386	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is collected for the international pet trade in very small numbers, but this is very unlikely to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57387	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National d'Andohahela and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57387	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar. There are three confirmed localities: Andohahela and Nahampoana in the south, and Andasibe in the north. These have been joined into a single polygon in the map on the assumption that it occurs in intervening localities. Its altitudinal range is 400-900m asl. Records from Ranomafana, Zahamena and Masoala in northern and northeastern Madagascar could belong to this species or to Boophis sibilans.	eng
57387	habitat		It is a rainforest species, generally found along small streams and brooks. It is only in pristine forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
57387	population		There is very little information, but it is rare in Andasibe but common in Nahampoana.	eng
57387	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be impacted by pollution of streams.	eng
57388	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.	eng
57388	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Andohahela in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, above 400m asl. A photograph of a specimen from 1,000m asl much further north at Ranomafana possibly also represents this species.	eng
57388	habitat		This is a species that is found in pristine rainforest, and which does not occur in degraded areas. It breeds in streams.	eng
57388	population		It is abundant within its small known range.	eng
57388	threats		The area where it occurs is well protected. If it occurs more widely (as is likely), then its forest habitat is probably receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57389	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.	eng
57389	distribution		This species occurs at Benavony and Manongaribo, in north-western Madagascar, and probably occurs widely in the low-altitude Sambirano forest zone. It is probably even more widespread than this, and might occur at Tsaratanana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 200-700m asl.	eng
57389	habitat		It is a species of pristine and slightly degraded forest close to primary forest. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57389	population		Little information is available, but it is not particularly rare.	eng
57389	threats		There is very rapid deforestation within its range due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoaling, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57390	conservation		The Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
57390	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud and nearby localities in north-eastern Madagascar, from 800-1,000m asl. It might prove to occur at other sites, although it has not been confirmed at Marojejy.	eng
57390	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest, and of slightly degraded habitats (but these are always close to good forest). It breeds in streams.	eng
57390	population		It is common in its small range.	eng
57390	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57391	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely.	eng
57391	distribution		This species is known from several high-elevation localities in central Madagascar, including Andringitra, Ankaratra, Mandraka, Itremo, Col des Tapias and Ambohitantely. It occurs at 1,200-1,800m asl, possibly higher.	eng
57391	habitat		It is a species of high-elevation rainforest. It also survives in degraded areas and open habitats, providing that some trees remain. It needs fast-flowing, clean streams for breeding, and so it is not found in villages.	eng
57391	population		It is locally very abundant.	eng
57391	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also adversely affected by the pollution of breeding streams.	eng
57392	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57392	distribution		This species occurs at Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar, and further south in the general vicinity of Tsaratanana. Other rainforest areas of northern Madagascar might also harbour this species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 500-900m asl.	eng
57392	habitat		It is a species of humid rainforest, surviving only in slightly modified habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
57392	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57392	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57393	conservation		All known sites are in protected areas.	eng
57393	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar, from the Andasibe area south to Andohahela. It is also known from Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. Its altitudinal range in eastern Madagascar is 400-1,000m asl, and it is recorded at 1,500m asl at Ambohitantely.	eng
57393	habitat		It is a rainforest, surviving at most only in slightly altered areas. It breeds in streams.	eng
57393	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57393	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also adversely affected by the pollution of breeding streams.	eng
57394	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana and the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.	eng
57394	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Andasibe south to Ranomafana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 800-1,000m asl.	eng
57394	habitat		It is a rainforest species, living along streams, and also surviving at the edge of rainforest, but never fully outside forest. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57394	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57394	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57395	conservation		The taxonomy of this species requires revision, since it includes more than one species (Glaw pers. comm.). It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57395	distribution		This species is widely, but patchily, distributed in the northern half of Madagascar, from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57395	habitat		It lives in a variety of habitats, including rainforest and dry forest, and also in savannah close to forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
57395	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57395	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57396	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, and probably in the nearby Parc National de Mantadia.	eng
57396	distribution		This species from east-central Madagascar is known with certainty only from a small area around Andasibe. Records from Marojejy, Masoala and Tsaratanana probably belong to an undescribed species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 815-900m asl.	eng
57396	habitat		This species occurs in rainforest, including old secondary forest close to pristine forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
57396	population		It is normally considered to be rare, as although it was once found to be common this was only in a very small area.	eng
57396	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57397	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57397	distribution		This species is widely distributed in western and southern Madagascar, from sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57397	habitat		It lives in dry forest, open areas, rice fields, savannahs, and wetland areas. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57397	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57397	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57398	conservation		The taxonomy of this species needs revision, since it probably includes two species (Glaw pers. comm.). It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57398	distribution		This species occurs in east-central Madagascar, where it is known from two confirmed localities in the eastern rainforest belt: Ranomafana, and Farimazava Forest in the Antoetra area. Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,000m asl.	eng
57398	habitat		It lives inside forest, and in open areas in rainforest, and also does well in disturbed habitats, including in agricultural sites. It breeds in streams.	eng
57398	population		It is locally abundant in Ranomafana.	eng
57398	threats		This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57399	conservation		This species occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
57399	distribution		This species occurs in north-eastern Madagascar at Marojejy and Andrakata, where it has been recorded from around 300m asl. Its geographic range is not completely known.	eng
57399	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary rainforest, but not in open areas, and breeds along brooks and streams.	eng
57399	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57399	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57400	conservation		It occurs in the Ranomafana and Mantadia National Parks.	eng
57400	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from small number localities in central eastern Madagascar (Ranamafana, Mantadia and Mandraka), and one western record (Mahajeby Forest). Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-1,100m asl.	eng
57400	habitat		It is a species of rainforest, including disturbed sites adjacent to rainforest. It breeds in wide forest streams.	eng
57400	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57400	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57401	conservation		Its only known site is on the border of the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57401	distribution		This species is known only from Andasibe at about 900m asl, in central eastern Madagascar. It is likely to be found elsewhere.	eng
57401	habitat		It is known from secondary growth around an artificial dam, close to rainforest, and has also been found in open grass near the lake created by the dam, and in nearby forest. It has not been found in very open areas away from forest. It presumably breeds in the dam's lake, where the water is slow-flowing.	eng
57401	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57401	threats		The only known site for this species is reasonably well protected. If it occurs elsewhere, it is likely to be experiencing habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57402	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57402	distribution		This species is widespread on the high plateau of central Madagascar, but it is also known from western Madagascar (Ambohijanahary) and northern Madagascar (Tsaratanana). Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-2,200m asl. Records from Kalambatritra (not mapped) require further investigation.	eng
57402	habitat		It lives in rainforests, fields, and disturbed stream sides near slow-moving and stagnant water, rice fields, and degraded sites. It breeds in slow moving and still waters, both permanent and temporary.	eng
57402	population		It is a common species.	eng
57402	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. It is collected for local consumption, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57403	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra and Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57403	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana to Andasibe and also further north at Besariaka. It recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,000m asl.	eng
57403	habitat		It is a species of primary and secondary rainforests and rainforest edges, usually in clearing and openings, and around ponds along rivers, but not deep in the forest interior. It does not survive in very open areas. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57403	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57403	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57404	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National d'Andohahela.	eng
57404	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in south-eastern Madagascar (Nahampaoana, Andohahela, and Marovony) at 200-400m asl.	eng
57404	habitat		It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, and breeds in streams.	eng
57404	population		It is moderately common.	eng
57404	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57405	conservation		This species has not been found in any protected areas so far, but it does occur close to the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra. The relationship between this species and <em>Boophis idea</em> needs to be clarified (Vences pers. comm.).	eng
57405	distribution		This species has been recorded in eastern Madagascar at Andasibe and Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie), and presumably occurs in intermediate localities. A record from Ranomafana requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
57405	habitat		It is a species found in rainforest and disturbed sites in rainforest. It has also been found in eucalyptus plantations and in open areas away from forest, where some trees survive. Breeding probably takes place in still water.	eng
57405	population		It is a rare species, of which there have been very few observations.	eng
57405	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57406	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57406	distribution		This species ranges widely in the eastern rainforests of east-central Madagascar, from Fiherenana southwards. Its recorded altitudinal range is 900-1,100m asl.	eng
57406	habitat		It is a rainforest species, usually observed in disturbed or open areas in rainforest, and the forest edge. It has also been found in agricultural areas, and in large swamps, but generally close to forest. It uses temporary and permanent still waterbodies for breeding.	eng
57406	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57406	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57407	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.	eng
57407	distribution		This species is known from Nosy Be Island and from Sahamalaza Peninsula (Berara) on the mainland, north-western Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to 200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57407	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, and also occurs in tree plantations, gallery forest, and dense secondary vegetation, but always along streams, in which breeding takes place.	eng
57407	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57407	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by water pollution on Nosy Be, and also by the drying up of streams as a result of water abstraction.	eng
57408	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra.	eng
57408	distribution		This species has a restricted range in south-eastern Madagascar, and is known only from Andringitra. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,500-2,650m asl. It perhaps occurs more widely.	eng
57408	habitat		This is a species of montane heathland, with its known localities being mainly above the tree line. It breeds in brooks and streams. The large larvae probably take at least one year to complete metamorphosis.	eng
57408	population		It is common at higher altitudes, but is rare at lower altitudes.	eng
57408	threats		There are few threats where this species occurs, but fire and livestock grazing could possibly affect it.	eng
57409	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57409	distribution		This species is known only from Vohidrazana and near Andasibe at 850-900m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57409	habitat		It lives in vegetation along streams in which it breeds, both inside forest and in dense secondary vegetation in open areas outside forest.	eng
57409	population		It is common at its only known sites.	eng
57409	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57410	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57410	distribution		This species is known from many localities in eastern Madagascar, and from Isalo and Ambohititantely in the west. It is a mid-altitude species, occurring at 300-1,100m asl.	eng
57410	habitat		It is a species of both pristine and degraded rainforest, and secondary vegetation where trees survive. It probably cannot survive complete opening up of the habitat. It is always along streams, where it breeds.	eng
57410	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57410	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by pollution of its breeding streams.	eng
57411	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57411	distribution		This species is widespread, occurring in numerous localities in eastern Madagascar, and also at Montagne d'Ambre in northern Madagascar and Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to about 1,700m asl.	eng
57411	habitat		It lives in pristine and disturbed rainforest, but not outside forest. It breeds in still or slow-flowing water.	eng
57411	population		It is a common species.	eng
57411	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but not a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57412	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra and Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57412	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Ambohimitombo south to Andringitra, from 900-1,500m asl. Records from elsewhere require confirmation, and probably refer to other species.	eng
57412	habitat		This is a rainforest species that is not found in secondary habitats. It is most often seen at night along streams in which it probably breeds.	eng
57412	population		It is locally common where found.	eng
57412	threats		The major threat to this species is rapid loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57413	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57413	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Mandraka in central eastern Madagascar, at 1,200m asl. Records from Andohahela, Ranomafana, Ambatovaky and Anjanharibe-Sud might refer to this species, or to undescribed species, or to <em>Boophis liami</em> or <em>B. solomaso</em>. A possible record from Mantadia requires further investigation.	eng
57413	habitat		It lives in secondary vegetation at the edge of streams in which it breeds, near degraded rainforest. It is likely to be a forest species persisting in secondary habitat, and it is not found in areas without trees.	eng
57413	population		This species is rare in its only proven locality.	eng
57413	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57414	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57414	distribution		This species is widespread in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, at 300-1,000m asl.	eng
57414	habitat		It is a primary and secondary rainforest species, not living outside forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
57414	population		It is a common species.	eng
57414	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57415	conservation		It occurs in the Andringitra and Ranomafana National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
57415	distribution		This species is known from many localities over a fairly broad range in the high plateau and montane areas in central Madagascar. It occurs at 1,400-2,400m asl.	eng
57415	habitat		It lives in montane forest, scrubby forest on boulder, and savannah areas at high altitudes, but not in agricultural areas. It breeds in brooks and streams.	eng
57415	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57415	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. Siltation of streams might also be impacting its breeding habitat. It is collected in small numbers for the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57416	conservation		It occurs in the Andohahela and Ranomafana National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
57416	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforest belt of southeastern Madagascar, from Ranomafana south to Andohahela. Older records from elsewhere in Madagascar probably belong to other species. Its recorded altitudinal range is 300-800m asl.	eng
57416	habitat		It lives in pristine and degraded rainforest, and in open areas in and adjacent to the forest, but not in very open habitats far from forest. Dense breeding aggregations have been observed. It breeds in streams.	eng
57416	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57416	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57417	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Isalo and is likely to occur in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, although it has not yet been found there. It also occurs in one planned protected area (Sahamalaza).	eng
57417	distribution		This species has been recorded from four widely separated localities in western and north-western Madagascar: Isalo; Bemaraha; Sahamalaza, and outside the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra. It occurs from close to sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57417	habitat		It lives in dry and transitional forest, and has been found in severely degraded habitats with planted trees along streams in a village, although it probably cannot survive in completely open habitats. It is an explosive breeder in streams.	eng
57417	population		There is little information on the population status of this species, but it can be locally abundant.	eng
57417	threats		The major threat to this species is rapid habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by pollution of its breeding streams.	eng
57418	conservation		It occurs in the Manombo Special Reserve.	eng
57418	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern and southeastern Madagascar from the Masoala Peninsula south to Fort Dauphin. It occurs from sea level up to 550m asl.	eng
57418	habitat		It lives in open coastal forest, degraded forest, and in highly disturbed habitats at low elevations. It is not found in closed-canopy forest. It breeds in swamps and in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57418	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57418	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57419	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, Parc National de Ranomafana, and in protected areas near Andasibe.	eng
57419	distribution		This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Madagascar from Perinet south to Fort Dauphin, from sea level up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57419	habitat		It is associated with ponds and swamps in secondary and degraded forest, and with streams with trees in agricultural areas. It probably cannot tolerate the complete opening up of its habitat. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57419	population		It is locally common, but it is an explosive breeder and is often hard to detect.	eng
57419	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57420	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and possibly also in Parc National d'Andohahela and Parc National d'Andringitra.	eng
57420	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from south-eastern Madagascar at Ranomafana, with unpublished records from Andohahela and Andringitra, and possible specimens from Kalambatritra. It is likely that new localities will be discovered, both as a result of exploration and as a result of re-identification of existing museum specimens. It has been recorded at 800-1,100m asl.	eng
57420	habitat		It is restricted to pristine rainforest, and is always found close to fast-flowing streams, in which it presumably breeds.	eng
57420	population		This is a rare species.	eng
57420	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57421	conservation		It occurs in the Ranomafana and Midongy-du-Sud National Parks, and in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57421	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Perinet south to Midongy-du-Sud, at 850-1,000m asl.	eng
57421	habitat		It is a species of rainforest, not occurring in secondary habitats. It probably breeds in slow-flowing brooks.	eng
57421	population		It is a common to abundant species locally.	eng
57421	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57422	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
57422	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the central-eastern rainforests of Madagascar, from Ambatovaky south to Ranomafana. Its recorded altitudinal range is from 450-915m asl.	eng
57422	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest and of nearby degraded habitats. It is not found in open areas away from forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57422	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57422	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57423	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, and in the Analamazoatra Special Reserve.	eng
57423	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern and southern rainforest belt of Madagascar, from Andasibe south to Nahampoana. Its recorded altitudinal range is 300-900m asl. Some old records of this species might be referable to Boophis bottae, or to undescribed species.	eng
57423	habitat		It lives along streams in, and at the edge of, rainforest, but never fully outside forest. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57423	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57423	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57424	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57424	distribution		This species is very wide-ranging in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, at 800-1,650m asl.	eng
57424	habitat		It lives in primary rainforest along streams, and does not survive in altered habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
57424	population		It is a common species.	eng
57424	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57425	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and probably in several other protected areas, including those near Andasibe.	eng
57425	distribution		This species occurs only in east-central Madagascar. Although there has been some confusion in identifying this species, studies of type specimens show that it clearly represents a valid, distinct species that seems to be restricted to highland areas from 900-1,500m asl.	eng
57425	habitat		It lives in rainforest, and also in open grassland close to forest fragments. Breeding presumably takes place in streams and brooks.	eng
57425	population		It is a rare species, known from only a few localities.	eng
57425	threats		This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57426	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Mantadia.	eng
57426	distribution		This species occurs in the central part of the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar, from Mantadia south to Antoetra, from 900-1,200m asl.	eng
57426	habitat		This species is found only in pristine rainforest, and probably breeds in small brooks and streams.	eng
57426	population		It is locally common.	eng
57426	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57427	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57427	distribution		This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana in south-eastern Madagascar, at 900-1,000m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57427	habitat		It lives in pristine forest along streams and brooks, in which it presumably breeds, and has not so far been found in secondary forest.	eng
57427	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57427	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57428	conservation		This species is known from three protected areas: Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre;     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008); and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57428	distribution		This species is known from     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Parc National de la Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), from the Andapa region, and from the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, in northern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from 650-1,150m asl. It might prove to be more widespread.	eng
57428	habitat		It inhabits both pristine and degraded rainforest, as well as secondary vegetation where trees survive. It probably cannot survive complete opening up of the habitat. It is always found along streams, in which it breeds.	eng
57428	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57428	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements. It is probably also impacted by pollution of streams.	eng
57429	conservation		This species occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57429	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the type locality near Andasibe in east-central Madagascar. Records from Ranomafana, Zahamena and Masoala in northern and north-eastern Madagascar could belong to this species or to <em>Boophis albipunctatus</em>. It has been recorded at 900m asl.	eng
57429	habitat		It is restricted to pristine rainforest, where it is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
57429	population		This species is moderately common where it has been found.	eng
57429	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be impacted by pollution of streams.	eng
57430	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57430	distribution		This species is known only from Vohidrazana at 850m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57430	habitat		It lives in pristine forest and in old secondary vegetation, and is presumed to breed in brooks.	eng
57430	population		It is uncommon.	eng
57430	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57431	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57431	distribution		This species is widely in eastern Madagascar, from Mananara south to Andohahela, at 300-900m asl.	eng
57431	habitat		It has only been found in pristine forest. It breeds in small streams in rainforest.	eng
57431	population		It is a common species.	eng
57431	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57432	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57432	distribution		This species is broadly distributed through eastern and northern Madagascar, from sea level to 900 m asl.	eng
57432	habitat		It lives in many habitats, including degraded rainforest, coastal forest, urban areas, rice fields and other croplands, and savannah. It is sometimes associated with large open streams in forest. It breeds in temporary pools and rice fields.	eng
57432	population		It is very common at many localities throughout its range.	eng
57432	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57433	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57433	distribution		This species is widely distributed along the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar from Masoala south Kalambatritra. Its altitudinal range is 350-1,000m asl.	eng
57433	habitat		It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, but not in open habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
57433	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57433	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57434	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57434	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern and northwestern Madagascar, south to the Masoala Peninsula, at elevations of 500 to at least 1,100m asl.	eng
57434	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest along small streams and brooks in which it breeds. It is not found in secondary habitats.	eng
57434	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57434	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57435	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, making protection of remaining habitat in Ankaratra a top priority. Continued monitoring of the population is essential.	eng
57435	distribution		This species has been recorded only from the Ankaratra Massif, a small, unprotected locality in east-central Madagascar, at 2,100m asl. It is a mountain-top species, the Ankaratra summit being at 2,643m asl. It is unlikely to have a large range.	eng
57435	habitat		Although this species might originally have occurred in montane rainforest, it is now restricted to high-elevation grasslands with relict montane forest. It breeds in fast-flowing mountain streams and inhabits nearby degraded areas. This habitat is burned annually and is subject to extensive overgrazing and cultivation (as potato fields).	eng
57435	population		Its population is undoubtedly small, since the species is rare and only occasionally encountered.	eng
57435	threats		Since it lives in a severely degraded area, its habitat is under constant threat from fire, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding potato farming. It might also be threatened by the impacts of pollution and siltation of its breeding streams, as well as from droughts. As a mountain-top species, it is potentially at risk from global warming. It is one of the most threatened amphibians in Madagascar.	eng
57436	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Privée de Berenty and in Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea.	eng
57436	distribution		This species has been recently described from Kirindy Forest in central-western Madagascar. It also occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Privée de Berenty in extreme south-eastern Madagascar. It might have a more extensive range than is currently known, possibly occurring between these two sites. It has only been recorded at very low altitudes, below 100m asl.	eng
57436	habitat		This species lives in dry tropical woods and forest, and has not been found in cleared areas. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
57436	population		It is locally common at Kirindy, but there is only one specimen known from Berenty.	eng
57436	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57437	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57437	distribution		This species is widely distributed in northern, west central, and southwestern Madagascar below 800m asl.	eng
57437	habitat		It is a species of the drier parts of Madagascar, occurring in open areas, including rice fields and other agricultural sites, savannahs, semi-desert scrub, dry deciduous forest, littoral forest, also locally outside forest in some more humid areas. It is often associated with sandy soils, and is fossorial outside the breeding season. It breeds explosively in temporary ponds.	eng
57437	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57437	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57438	conservation		A carefully regulated trade is the best management option for this species. It occurs in the Ranomafana, Mantadia and Andringitra National Parks, and in the Pic Ivohibe Special Reserve. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57438	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in east-central Madagascar from Fierenana south to Andringitra, at 600-1,200m asl.	eng
57438	habitat		It is a terrestrial species in rainforest. It has also been found outside forest in slash-and-burn areas, even at considerable distance from forest. It probably cannot tolerate complete opening up of the habitat. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae are washed by rain into streams, where they develop.	eng
57438	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57438	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, deforestation does affect it adversely. It is in the international pet trade, but this is unlikely to be a serious threat.	eng
57439	conservation		It is found in the Manombo Special Reserve and Parc National de Ranomafana. There is a need for trade in this species to be carefully regulated including the maintaining limited exportation quotas. Attention should be given to conservation of the two distinct population conservation units of this species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57439	distribution		Until recently, this species was known only from a single locality, (next to Tolongoina, south-east Madagascar) but recent fieldwork has extended its known range by the discovery of several new populations, all in south-eastern Madagascar, from Parc National de Ranomafana (at Mangevo) south to near Manambondro, at 60-629m asl (Rabemananjara <em>et al.</em> 2005; Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006; Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
57439	habitat		It lives in rainforest, including in very tiny patches. It is now found only in degraded rainforest, probably because of severe habitat degradation within its range. It is not found in open areas, nor in littoral forest on a sandy substrate. It presumably breeds in swamps or small streams, with the eggs being laid on the ground near water.	eng
57439	population		It is locally abundant, but there is very limited suitable habitat within its range.	eng
57439	threats		The area where the species occurs is being degraded rapidly due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoaling, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat.	eng
57440	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57440	distribution		This species is widely distributed in western and southwestern Madagascar, with recent records from Isalo and from the central plateau near Antsirabe. It ranges from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
57440	habitat		It occurs in a variety of habitats including dry forest, savanna woodland, degraded habitats and in open areas. It is a terrestrial species. The eggs are laid on land near water, and the larvae develop in temporary and permanent pools, and sometimes in brooks.	eng
57440	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57440	threats		It is an adaptable species, and there are few, if any, habitat-related threats, though it might be impacted by fires and by overgrazing by livestock. It is has been suggested that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but it is only traded in low numbers.	eng
57441	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making protection of the remaining habitat of this species a top priority. A moratorium on the export of <em>Mantella cowani</em> was implemented in 2003 (through the application of a zero export quota on any CITES Appendix II species until populations recover).	eng
57441	distribution		This species occurs on the high plateau of east-central Madagascar from Antakasina, Antoetra, and Itremo with old records to the west that require further investigation. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) located two main population nuclei: the first around Antoetra region, and the second in the Tsinjoarivo area, at about 200 km from Antoetra. It occurs at 1,000-2,000m asl. There is conflicting information on its distribution based on (often very unreliable) hearsay reports from commercial collectors. The Farimazava population next to Antoetra might no longer survive.	eng
57441	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, living in tiny strips of vegetation along streams and nearby montane grassland savannah and humid stone walls. It lives in underground cavities during the dry season, and it can hide in these during fires. It presumably breeds like other mantellas, with the eggs laid on the ground, and the larvae developing in streams. So far, there are no data are on tadpole morphology.	eng
57441	population		It was formerly reported as being common, but a drastic population decline occurred recently, as deduced from a dramatic reduction in its distribution and in the number of mature adults (Andreone and Randrianirina 2003).	eng
57441	threats		The fact that the observed decline in this species followed a period of increased exploitation for the international pet trade suggests that populations were over-collected, resulting in a population reduction. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) note that collectors used to collect 2,000 individuals a day, but in 2003 only 100-150 animals per day were collected by an entire village. The species also occurs in a region that has largely been deforested, and the remaining forest fragments are being lost due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction and charcoal production, fires, and expanding human settlements. However, the species appears able to adapt to open areas, and usually does not penetrate within forests. The Farimazava population next to Antoetra has hybridized with <span style="font-style: italic;">Mantella baroni </span>and might no longer be distinct.	eng
57442	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but is likely to occur in Parc National de Mantadia and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Zahamena. A carefully regulated trade is required for this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57442	distribution		This species is known from a few localities covering a very small area in east-central Madagascar: Ifoha west of Parc National de Mantadia; a forest area east of Ambohimanarivo; and outside the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Zahamena. Its recorded altitudinal range is 800-1,057m asl.	eng
57442	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of forest edge around swamps. It has been found in secondary forest, but not in open areas. Breeding is similar to other mantella species, with the eggs laid on the ground and the larvae developing in swamps.	eng
57442	population		It is locally common, but has a patchy occurrence.	eng
57442	threats		The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but this has not been demonstrated.	eng
57443	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional de Isalo. Trade in this species needs to be very carefully regulated, and the populations require close monitoring (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57443	distribution		This species is endemic to a small region in south-western Madagascar. It is known from many sites within the Isalo Massif, either within or outside the national park (at 700-1,000m asl). Recent surveys have shown it to be distributed more widely than was once thought. It ranges from Grotte des Portugais and Amparambatomavo, south in a thin band to Ambatovaky and Sakavato (F. Andreone pers. comm.). Records from near Toliara (Busse and Böhme 1992), and from the Morondava region and Mandena (Glaw and Vences 1994) are probably erroneous (Vences, Glaw and Böhme 1999).	eng
57443	habitat		It is usually found around seasonal streams, and in wet canyons (where it is sometimes, but not always, associated with narrow gallery forest). It breeds in a similar way to other mantella species, with the eggs laid on the ground and the larvae developing in swamps or in slow running temporary streams. It is apparently it is resistant to the repeated fires that are common in the Isalo area.	eng
57443	population		This species is sometimes locally abundant in suitable habitat; where present it may occur with high densities.	eng
57443	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to grazing and fire, and in some localized regions due to mining for sapphires. It is actively sought after for the pet trade, and during the rainy season up to several thousand specimens can be collected. Such collecting might pose a major threat to the species, but this has not, as yet, been demonstrated.	eng
57444	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57444	distribution		This species is known from at least ten localities in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, at 300-950m asl.	eng
57444	habitat		It is a terrestrial species in rainforest, including in slightly degraded forest. It lives along brooks and streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
57444	population		It is locally common.	eng
57444	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It has appeared in very small numbers in the pet trade, but is not likely to be heavily collected.	eng
57445	conservation		This species occurs in several protected areas, and is also maintained and bred in several facilities outside Madagascar. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57445	distribution		This species is relatively widely distributed in north-eastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Folohy (where its habitat has been degraded), and occurs from 0-600m asl. It is known from more than five localities and probably occurs at more sites than are currently known.	eng
57445	habitat		This is a rainforest species, which is often particularly abundant in bamboo forest and other types of forest with abundant tree holes (in which it breeds). It is primarily terrestrial but also climbs on low vegetation.	eng
57445	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57445	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is traded in low numbers for the international pet trade, but not at a level that is likely to constitute a threat.	eng
57446	conservation		Its presence is not confirmed in any protected areas, but it occurs close to Parc National de Ranomafana. There is a need for careful regulation of the trade in this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57446	distribution		This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from near Niagarakely, south to Ranomafana. It has been recorded from 700-1,050m asl.	eng
57446	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, living in forest and forest edge, in particular along streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
57446	population		It is uncommonly encountered, but large numbers have been recorded in trade.	eng
57446	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It is also possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes poses a threat, but this requires further investigation.	eng
57447	conservation	Raxworthy, C., Vences, M., Glaw, F., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy. The second site at the Analabe Rainforest is not protected, but is currently remote from logging activities (N.H.C. Rabibisoa pers. comm.). It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57447	distribution	Raxworthy, C., Vences, M., Glaw, F., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species occurs in northeastern and northern Madagascar, with records from Marojejy at 300 m asl and Est Betaidambo in the Analabe Rainforest along Ramena River (west of Tsaratanana Reserve National Integral) at 700 m asl. It was described in 1999, based on a single specimen in the collections of the Zoological Institute of the University of Antananarivo. The original description was based on a colour slide, but the holotype has since been found and redescriptions have been published (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
57447	habitat	Raxworthy, C., Vences, M., Glaw, F., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This is a species of low and mid altitude rainforest. It is terrestrial, and 4-5 individuals have been found in a stony brook. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is likely to reproduce like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mantella</span>, with the eggs being laid on the ground, and the larvae developing in water.	eng
57447	population	Raxworthy, C., Vences, M., Glaw, F., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	The population status of this species is unknown, but the paucity of records suggests that it is rare.	eng
57447	threats	Raxworthy, C., Vences, M., Glaw, F., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	Its forest habitat is likely to be receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) record that there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its assumed habitat in northern Madagascar.	eng
57448	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making protection of remaining habitat a top priority, particularly given the high rate of habitat loss and degradation within its range. The species also requires careful population monitoring, and any trade should be carefully regulated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57448	distribution		This species occurs in several fragmented localities in east-central Madagascar covering a small area south of Fierenana, at 900-1,000m asl.	eng
57448	habitat		It is a terrestrial species living in gallery forest around large swamps, and in seasonally flooded forest, but is not found outside forest. Breeding is the same as other mantellas, with the eggs being laid on land and the larvae being washed into swamps by rain. It is very seasonal in its breeding, and hard to find when it is not breeding.	eng
57448	population		It is a locally common species, and has been observed at high densities.	eng
57448	threats		The area where this species occurs is severely threatened, with its forest habitat receding due to the impacts of subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal production, the spread of eucalyptus, fires, and expanding human settlements. It has, in the past, been collected in large numbers by commercial collectors, and trade might pose a major threat to the species.	eng
57449	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Any future trade in this species should be carefully regulated. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57449	distribution		This species occurs in northern and northeastern Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Zamena, at 100-1,000m asl.	eng
57449	habitat		It lives on the ground along streams in rainforest and forest edge, but not in severely degraded habitats. It presumably breeds like other mantellas, with the eggs laid on land, and the larvae developing in streams.	eng
57449	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57449	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It has so far only been traded in very small numbers, but there could be greater demand in the future.	eng
57450	conservation		It occurs in the Reserve De Biosphere De Mananara Nord and the Réserve Spéciale d' Ambatovaky. There is a need for careful regulation of the trade in this species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
57450	distribution		This species has been recorded in north-eastern Madagascar from Mananara-Nord, south to An'Ala, at 300-950m asl.	eng
57450	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of swampy rainforest, and does not occur in secondary habitats. It breeds in swamps in forest.	eng
57450	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57450	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. It is possible that over-collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but this requires further investigation.	eng
57451	conservation		This species has recently been recorded from the Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Montagne des Français has been granted Temporary Protected Area Status (the first of three steps necessary to create a permanently protected area) (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Increased protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is needed. Any future trade in this species should be carefully regulated. It is maintained in captivity in several facilities outside Madagascar. Research is needed to establish the taxonomic status of populations to the south-west of the type locality.	eng
57451	distribution		This species occurs in several localities in extreme northern Madagascar, including   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008),  Montagne des Français, Antogombato, Andranotsymaty, Antsahampano, Ivovona, Anjiabe, Andoajampoana, Mangoaka, Antsiranana, Ankitsakalaninaombi, Daraina, Mahavavona, Joffreville, Francom and the island of Nosy Hara. There are records from 5 to 959m asl, though most records are below 300m asl.	eng
57451	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of deciduous dry forest on karst landscape, usually found near temporary brooks and streams, where it breeds. It can survive in degraded habitats to some extent (see D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), but it needs shade and good vegetation cover. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) mention animals being found within extended mango plantations.	eng
57451	population		It is a common species, albeit very localized.	eng
57451	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, due to the impacts of fires, selective logging and the collection of firewood, and livestock grazing; it is also affected by the subsequent permanent drying out of smaller streams following forest loss. It has been recorded in the pet trade in relatively large numbers, although this is now greatly reduced.	eng
57452	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57452	distribution		This species is recorded from east-central and southeastern Madagascar, at 600-1,100m asl. Some specimens formerly assigned to this species are now thought to belong to M. brevipalmatus.	eng
57452	habitat		It is a forest floor species, living in rainforest, but not in secondary habitats. Its breeding is unknown, but the eggs are probably laid on land, with the larvae developing in streams.	eng
57452	population		It is a common species.	eng
57452	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57453	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57453	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in northeastern, eastern and central Madagascar, from Marojejy and Andohahela. It occurs from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
57453	habitat		It is a rainforest, usually found in association with slow-flowing streams and swamps, and sometimes also fast-flowing streams. It is not found in secondary habitats. The eggs are laid on leaves above water into which the larvae fall.	eng
57453	population		It is a common species.	eng
57453	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57454	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57454	distribution		This species, as recently redefined, is known only from two localities, Andasibe and An'Ala, at 850-900m asl.	eng
57454	habitat		This terrestrial species is often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.	eng
57454	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57454	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57455	conservation		This species occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and Parc National de Marojejy, and probably also in other protected areas. Its taxonomy needs revision (Raxworthy and Vences pers. comm.).	eng
57455	distribution		This species was stated in the original description to be widely distributed in eastern and central Madagascar, and also to occur in Andohahela in south-eastern Madagascar. However, taxonomic confusion between this species and <em>Mantidactylus bicalcaratus</em> makes its distribution very unclear. Its altitudinal range is 300-1,500m asl.	eng
57455	habitat		This is an arboreal inhabitat of rainforest, being particularly associated with screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.). It is only found in pristine forest. The eggs are laid in leaf axils (often of <em>Pandanus</em>), and this is where the larvae also develop.	eng
57455	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57455	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57456	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely.	eng
57456	distribution		This species is widely distributed in east-central Madagascar at 1,000-2,000m asl, from Ambohitantely south to south of Ranomafana.	eng
57456	habitat		It lives near seeps and tiny amounts of slow-flowing water in open areas, rice paddies and other agricultural areas, forest edge, and inside montane forest. It has been found in gardens in Antananarivo. The egg deposition side is unknown, but the tadpoles have been found in seeps.	eng
57456	population		It is a common species.	eng
57456	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57457	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57457	distribution		This species is known only from Ambohimitombo and possibly very nearby at Antoetra, in east-central Madagascar, at 1,100m asl.	eng
57457	habitat		A recent specimen provisionally attributed to this species from Antoetra was recorded near a stream in montane grassland near a forest.	eng
57457	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57457	threats		There is no direct information on its threats. However, it is likely that its habitat is at least under pressure from fires and livestock grazing, and pollution and siltation of streams.	eng
57458	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, and Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.	eng
57458	distribution		This species is known only from Montagne d'Ambre, Tsaratanana and Manongarivo in northern Madagascar, at 500-1,200m asl.	eng
57458	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest only. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is perhaps by direct development, since the species is not associated with streams.	eng
57458	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57458	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57459	conservation		It occurs in the     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve, the Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57459	distribution		This species is known from several areas in northern and northwestern Madagascar, from Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to near Maevatenana. It probably also occurs in other areas. It has been recorded at 200-1,150m asl.	eng
57459	habitat		It lives only in pristine rainforest, along streams and rivers on the forest floor. Its egg deposition site is not known, but tadpoles live in streams.	eng
57459	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57459	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57460	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57460	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in east-central Madagascar, from Ambatuvaky south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 500-1,100m asl.	eng
57460	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest, and has once been found in secondary habitats next to forest. The eggs are laid on leaves above streams, into which the larvae fall and develop.	eng
57460	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57460	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57461	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57461	distribution		This species is wide ranging in northern and east-central Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Ranomafana. It has been recorded at 300-1,200m asl.	eng
57461	habitat		It is a species of the rainforest floor. It does not survive in heavily degraded areas. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
57461	population		It is a locally and seasonally abundant species.	eng
57461	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57462	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, Parc National d’Andringitra and Parc National d’Andohahela, and in the Réserve Spéciale du Pic d'Ivohibe.	eng
57462	distribution		This species has a relatively broad distribution in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana south to Andohahela, and occurs from 500-1,300m asl.	eng
57462	habitat		It lives in crevices among boulders and rocky areas, usually close to flowing waters. This species is found in pristine forest, and does not survive in secondary or degraded areas. The details of its breeding biology are unknown, though breeding possibly takes place in water flowing among rocks.	eng
57462	population		It is a rather rare species.	eng
57462	threats		This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57463	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57463	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in northern, eastern and western Madagascar. The map is very provisional since this is an unresolved species complex. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57463	habitat		It lives in both intact and degraded rainforest, and is occasionally observed in deforested agricultural areas, where some shade and cover remain. It breeds in streams, pools, puddles and rice fields. Knoll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) collected larvae from "small and very shallow, slow-flowing streams".	eng
57463	population		It is very common at many sites.	eng
57463	threats		Deforestation appears to be affecting some populations, but not others, presumably reflecting the fact that this is a complex of several species. However, as currently understood, this species is, in general, not significantly threatened.	eng
57464	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57464	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in northern and eastern Madagascar, from Montagne d'Ambre south to Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57464	habitat		It is an arboreal species of rainforest, including degraded forest, where Pandanus occurs in the understorey. It has also been found in eucalyptus plantations, but not in open areas. It breeds in Pandanus leaf axils by larval development.	eng
57464	population		It is locally abundant where screw-pines (Pandanus) occur.	eng
57464	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the harvesting of screw pines, which are used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57465	conservation		It occurs in numerous protected areas throughout the eastern rainforest belt.	eng
57465	distribution		This is a widely distributed species in northern and eastern Madagascar, with one record in central Madagascar. Two isolated records from west central and south-central Madagascar need to be confirmed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57465	habitat		It is a streamside species in rainforest, including degraded forest, and open areas adjacent to forest. It is often associated with wetlands, bogs, stagnant water, and seeps, but not fast-flowing streams. It breeds in permanent and temporary pools and in slow-moving water. Knoll <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) collected one of the benthic larvae "from a puddle beside a footpath on muddy ground".	eng
57465	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57465	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57466	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Parc National d’Andringitra.	eng
57466	distribution		This species occurs in the Ranomafana area, south through the Andringitra Mountains to the Chaines Anosyennes, in south-eastern Madagascar. It has been recorded at 800-1,500m asl, and possibly also occurs lower than this.	eng
57466	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of rainforest that is not tied to water, and also occurs in somewhat degraded habitats. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development.	eng
57466	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57466	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57467	conservation		It occurs in at least one reserve near Andasibe, and in Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57467	distribution		This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from Andasibe and Ranomafana. It occurs at 800-1,200m asl.	eng
57467	habitat		It lives in swamps in or near forest, and in degraded habitat where there are swamps, but not in agricultural areas. It often calls from low vegetation. It breeds in swamps, the eggs being laid on leaves above water.	eng
57467	population		It is a locally very abundant species.	eng
57467	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. However, being reasonably adaptable, it is less affected by these threats than many other species.	eng
57468	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout the eastern rainforest belt.	eng
57468	distribution		This species occurs in northeastern and eastern Madagascar from Nosy Mangabe Island south to Ambila. It also occurs on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). It ranges from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57468	habitat		It occurs in rainforest, degraded forest, and invasive eucalyptus forest in the rainforest belt. It is not found in open areas. It probably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57468	population		It is a common species.	eng
57468	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57469	conservation		It occurs in Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely and in the Parc National d'Andringitra.	eng
57469	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of the high plateau of central and east-central Madagascar, from Ambohitantely south to Andringitra. Additional localities will probably be found as a result of further survey work. It is recorded from 1,400-2,400m asl.	eng
57469	habitat		It lives alongside streams in mid to high-elevation forests. It also occurs outside forest in high-altitude savannah and in disturbed and cleared areas in wet marshy places, but not in agricultural land. It breeds in streams.	eng
57469	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57469	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There might be some threatened cryptic species within this unresolved complex.	eng
57470	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.	eng
57470	distribution		This species is known from Andohahela and Manantantely in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, but it has only recently been described and its distribution in relation to other species is not yet understood. It has been recorded from 300-600m asl.	eng
57470	habitat		It lives in crevices among boulders and rocky areas in pristine forest, usually close to flowing waters, and does not survive in secondary or degraded areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it possibly takes place in water flowing among rocks.	eng
57470	population		It is locally moderately common.	eng
57470	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57471	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57471	distribution		This species from eastern Madagascar occurs widely in the coastal rainforest belt from Marojejy southwards, probably as far as Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
57471	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.	eng
57471	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57471	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57472	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57472	distribution		This species from east-central Madagascar is known with certainty only from the vicinity of Andasibe and An'Ala. Records from other parts of Madagascar might be referable either to this species, or to <em>Mantidactylus tandroka</em>, <em>M. tschenki</em>, or <em>M. moseri</em>. It is likely to occur at least in Ambohitantely, Zahamena and Mantadia, and perhaps elsewhere. Its recorded altitudinal range is 850-1,200m asl, possibly higher.	eng
57472	habitat		It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it climbs on low vegetation. It is almost never found in disturbed areas. Its breeding is unknown, and could either be by direct or larval development.	eng
57472	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57472	threats		The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57473	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Isalo.	eng
57473	distribution		This species occurs in west-central Madagascar, where it is known only from the Isalo Massif. Records from Analavelona are not confirmed. Records from Tsingy de Bemaraha and the Kelifely Plateau refer to an undescribed species. It has been recorded at 200-800m asl.	eng
57473	habitat		It lives in dry tropical forest, usually near streams, and often in canyons, and has not so far been found in disturbed areas. Breeding takes place in pools in permanent streams.	eng
57473	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57473	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. Not all of the Isalo Massif is protected.	eng
57474	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57474	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in Madagascar, usually above 600m to 2,400m asl. The map is extremely provisional given the taxonomic complexities associated with this unresolved complex.	eng
57474	habitat		It lives along streams, usually in open areas (such as agricultural areas and above the tree line in montane grassland), but sometimes in forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
57474	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
57474	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. There might be some threatened cryptic species within this unresolved complex.	eng
57475	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, the Réserve Spéciale du Pic Ivohibe, and Parc National de Midongy-du-Sud.	eng
57475	distribution		This species is known from many localities in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana south to Midongy-du-Sud, from 700-1,050m asl.	eng
57475	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary rainforest, and is sometimes found in quite disturbed habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development, and away from water.	eng
57475	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57475	threats		This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57476	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57476	distribution		This species is widely distributed and known from many localities in eastern Madagascar from Masoala south to Andohahela. It occurs from sea level up 1,200m asl.	eng
57476	habitat		It lives in rainforest and disturbed secondary areas, and is arboreal, sometimes being found in leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus). It does not survive in completely open areas. It breeds explosively in temporary and permanent ponds, and pools within streams.	eng
57476	population		It is locally extremely common when breeding.	eng
57476	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57477	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57477	distribution		This species occurs on the plateau of central Madagascar, and on the eastern slopes, from Ambohitantely south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 900-2,000m asl.	eng
57477	habitat		It lives in open marshy areas, forest edge, near villages in secondary vegetation. It is not known from agricultural areas. It breeds in marshes.	eng
57477	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57477	threats		It is an adaptable species, with few threats, but is probably impacted by livestock overgrazing and fires.	eng
57478	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Mantadia and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57478	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Andasibe area, including from two protected areas. Records from further south appear to be referable to other species, although it is probably more widespread. It has been recorded at 800-1,200m asl.	eng
57478	habitat		It lives in secondary and degraded forest, and low secondary vegetation, but only rarely in primary forest. It is most often observed on low vegetation far from water. It breeds by direct development and is not associated with water.	eng
57478	population		It is locally very abundant within its known range.	eng
57478	threats		This species is probably not affected by deforestation as it is adaptable and therefore unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57479	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, Parc National d'Andringitra, Parc National d'Andohahela, and probably Parc National de Midongy du Sud.	eng
57479	distribution		This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar from Ranomafana, south to Andohahela. Records from northern Madagascar require further investigation. It has been recorded at 1,350-2,500m asl.	eng
57479	habitat		It is always associated with rocky outcrops, both in forested zones, and above the tree line. It breeds in streams. The very large tadpoles spend at least a year in the stream before metamorphosis.	eng
57479	population		It is a rare species. No adult males have ever been collected.	eng
57479	threats		Being in remote rocky areas, it is probably not as seriously threatened as several other species. However, it is probably impacted by fires, livestock (affecting water quality), and water pollution.	eng
57480	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57480	distribution		This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana at 650-1,050m asl in south-eastern Madagascar, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
57480	habitat		It lives in secondary and degraded forest, and low secondary vegetation, but only rarely in primary forest. It is most often observed on low vegetation far from water. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not associated with water.	eng
57480	population		It is very abundant.	eng
57480	threats		This species is probably not affected by deforestation, as it is adaptable and therefore unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57481	conservation		It occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
57481	distribution		This species is widely distributed at numerous localities in northern and eastern Madagascar, and also occurs at Isalo in western Madagascar. The distribution map is not very meaningful since this is an unresolved complex. It ranges from sea level to 2,500m asl.	eng
57481	habitat		It is usually closely associated with streams in primary and degraded rainforest. It needs some tree cover at lower altitudes. It is also found in montane heathland, but not in agricultural areas. It lives on the ground, on rocks, and in low vegetation. It breeds in streams.	eng
57481	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57481	threats		It is probably not threatened, except perhaps by extreme deforestation. However, some of the constituent species in the unresolved complex are possibly threatened.	eng
57482	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, Parc National de Masoala, and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57482	distribution		This species is known from Andasibe in eastern Madagascar, north to Masoala, Anjanaharibe and Marojejy in northeastern Madagascar. It has been recorded at 500-1,000m asl.	eng
57482	habitat		It is an arboreal species found only in pristine rainforest. The eggs on leaves above streams, into which the tadpoles presumably fall, and develop.	eng
57482	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57482	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57483	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57483	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Sambava south to Andringitra. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57483	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest, being often found in swamp forest and littoral forest, but not in disturbed forest. It is most often found in the axils of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). Its breeding is probably unknown, and it is not clear if it is by larval or direct development.	eng
57483	population		It is infrequently found. It seems to have a surprisingly low population density, but it is perhaps not being correctly sampled.	eng
57483	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of screw pines (Pandanus spp.), which are used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57484	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57484	distribution		This species is known from many localities in eastern and northeastern Madagascar. However, the map is misleading due to taxonomic and nomenclature problems. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57484	habitat		It is found in or near streams in forest in more or less pristine rainforest. It has been found in open areas near forest, but it is thought that these are surviving individuals from recent forest clearance, and that the species cannot maintain long-term populations outside forest. Its breeding is unknown, but it is probably by larval development in streams.	eng
57484	population		It is rare in places where it has been heavily harvested, but can be locally abundant elsewhere along forest streams.	eng
57484	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is collected for human consumption, and this can have a local impact on populations.	eng
57485	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57485	distribution		This species is widespread throughout the rainforest belt of eastern and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andohehela. It has been recorded at 200-1,000m asl.	eng
57485	habitat		It is a rainforest species that has been found in tree holes and temporary waterbodies. It has also been found in eucalyptus growth near rainforest, but general it is found only in mature forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57485	population		It is a common species.	eng
57485	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57486	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas including the      Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
57486	distribution		This species is relatively widespread in northern Madagascar from     Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) to the Masoala Peninsula and Nosy Be Island. It occurs from near sea level up to 900m asl. Specimens reported from western and southeastern Madagascar (Blommers-Schlösser and Blanc, 1991) and from Mayotte (a French island in the Comoro archipelago) are probably in error, or belong to undescribed species (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
57486	habitat		It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest, and in plantations and dense secondary growth, but not in very open areas. It needs tree cover and shade. It is usually found on the forest floor, and calls from bushes. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.	eng
57486	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57486	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57487	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra.	eng
57487	distribution		This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar, from the Kalambatritra Reserve south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from 1,200m asl, perhaps up to 1,800m asl.	eng
57487	habitat		It lives among rock outcrops with dripping water in montane rainforest, and is not found in degraded areas. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.	eng
57487	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57487	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57488	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57488	distribution		This species is widespread in northern and eastern Madagascar. The map is not meaningful for the same reason as for Mantidactylus grandidieri. It has been recorded at 200-1,000m asl. Records from Nosy Be probably refer to M. ulcerosus.	eng
57488	habitat		A semiaquatic species found in or near streams in forest in pristine rainforest. Its breeding is unknown, but it is probably by larval development in streams.	eng
57488	population		It is a moderately common species, being more common in the north of its range.	eng
57488	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is collected for human consumption, and this can have a local impact on populations.	eng
57489	conservation		It occurs in at least two protected areas: the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana and Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre.	eng
57489	distribution		This species is known only from northern Madagascar, at Montagne d'Ambre, Tsaratanana and Nosy Be Island. Following Vences <em>et al.</em> (2002b) records from eastern Madagascar are not considered here. It has been recorded at 300-1,400m asl.	eng
57489	habitat		It inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, and is not found in disturbed areas. It probably breeds by direct development, but this requires confirmation.	eng
57489	population		It is a rare species, with very few records.	eng
57489	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57490	conservation		This species possibly occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
57490	distribution		This species is known only from near An'Ala in eastern Madagascar, and from Andapa in north-eastern Madagascar, from 500-840m asl.	eng
57490	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest along swampy streams and in secondary bushland, but not in very open areas. It breeds in pools and swamps close to streams.	eng
57490	population		It is a locally abundant species, especially when breeding.	eng
57490	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57491	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57491	distribution		This species is known only from the Ankaratra Massif in central Madagascar south to Antoetra. Its recorded altitudinal range is 1,000-1,600m asl.	eng
57491	habitat		It lives in swamps in forest, forest edges, degraded forest, savannahs, and montane grassland. It breeds in swamps.	eng
57491	population		It is locally very abundant.	eng
57491	threats		Although it is an adaptable species, its habitat is probably being impacted by overgrazing, fires (which are likely to be too frequent), and by drought. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened.	eng
57492	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57492	distribution		This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar at Marojejy, Anjanaharibe-Sud, and Betaolana. It possibly occurs on the Masoala Peninsula. It has been recorded at 600-900m asl. Reports from south-eastern Madagascar (Anosyenne Mountains) are due to the mislabelling of a specimen.	eng
57492	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of pristine rainforest, and is not found in disturbed areas. If the records of this species from Masoala are correct, then it also occurs in small patches of heathland. It is not associated with water, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57492	population		It is moderately common.	eng
57492	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57493	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d’Andohahela and Parc National de Midongy-du-Sud.	eng
57493	distribution		This species occurs in south-eastern Madagascar, from Mindongy-du-Sud south to Fort Dauphin, from near sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
57493	habitat		This adaptable species does require some tree cover, and lives in leaf-litter in rainforest, degraded habitats, and eucalyptus plantations. It is independent of water and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57493	population		It is very abundant.	eng
57493	threats		This species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57494	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and Parc National de Masoala, the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe and the Réserve Spéciale d'Ambatovaky, and the Réserve de Biosphère de Mananara-Nord.	eng
57494	distribution		This species occurs in northern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Ambatovaky, and from the islands of Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
57494	habitat		This species is found only in undisturbed rainforest, where it lives independently of water, and probably breeds by direct development.	eng
57494	population		It is locally abundant, but very rare in some places.	eng
57494	threats		It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57495	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57495	distribution		This species is very widely distributed in northern and eastern Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambre south to Andohahela. It also occurs on Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). It has been recorded from near sea level up to 2,050m asl.	eng
57495	habitat		It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest. It is arboreal, often found in leaf axils or screw pines (Pandanus spp.) and other plants. It is associated with swamps, and can be found outside forest in swamps and pools in some places, but it avoids very open areas without cover. It breeds in swamps.	eng
57495	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57495	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of screw pines, which are used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57496	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57496	distribution		This species has a wide distribution, and is recorded from many localities in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, with a few records on the central plateau, and one isolated locality in south-central Madagascar (Isalo). It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57496	habitat		It is associated with rocky streams in rainforest, degraded forest, and open areas adjacent to forest, and in more open savannah on the high plateau of Madagascar. It breeds in streams. The eggs are laid on steep rocks near streams, tadpoles in water.	eng
57496	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57496	threats		It is probably not affected by anything other than very extreme deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57497	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57497	distribution		This species is widely distributed in coastal eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. A record from Antsalova in western Madagascar is not included in this species, following Vences and Glaw (2001). It occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
57497	habitat		It is both arboreal and terrestrial in pristine rainforest. It probably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57497	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57497	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57498	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra.	eng
57498	distribution		This species is known only from Andringitra in south-eastern Madagascar, where the species is restricted to elevations between 1,500 and 2,500m asl. It has been found at about ten localities in Andringitra.	eng
57498	habitat		It lives in rocky streams in forest or above the tree line. It is not dependent on forest and is usually found outside forest in rocky landscapes. The species is largely aquatic and breeds in the slower-flowing parts of streams.	eng
57498	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57498	threats		Its habitat is probably being impacted by overgrazing and fires (which are likely to be too frequent).	eng
57499	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57499	distribution		This species is known only from Antsirasira at around 100m asl in north-western Madagascar, although it probably occurs more widely.	eng
57499	habitat		It has only been found around a temporary pond in a cacao plantation, living in leaf-litter. The original habitat is unknown, but it was presumably rainforest. This species' breeding habits are unknown, but reproduction is likely to take place in temporary ponds.	eng
57499	population		It is locally abundant in a very small area.	eng
57499	threats		There is very little information available on threats to this species, which is clearly adaptable, although it might be affected by extreme opening up of its habitat.	eng
57500	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57500	distribution		This species is disjunctly distributed in eastern Madagascar from Andapa south to St Luce. Specimens from northeastern Madagascar might belong to a different species. It occurs from sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57500	habitat		It lives in rainforest, including coastal littoral forest, but not in degraded areas. It is usually found near streams and swamps in sandy areas. It breeds in swamps.	eng
57500	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57500	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57501	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57501	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Masoala to the Ranomafana region. Some previous records from northeastern Madagascar refer to M. striatus. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57501	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest, usually observed on leaves of low vegetation. Its breeding is unknown, but it is possibly by direct development, since the species appears not to be associated with waterbodies.	eng
57501	population		It is rarely encountered, but has been found to be locally abundant at a few sites.	eng
57501	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57502	conservation		It might occur in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57502	distribution		This species is known from Benavony (near Ambanja), Manongarivo, and Tsaratanana in north-western Madagascar, at 200-1,100m asl.	eng
57502	habitat		It is an arboreal species in primary forest near streams, and is not found in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, and probably lays its eggs on plants above the water.	eng
57502	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57502	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57503	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57503	distribution		This species ranges widely in eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohehela, at 200-900m asl.	eng
57503	habitat		It is a species of rainforest and forest edge, not surviving in heavily degraded areas. It lives along, and breeds in, brooks.	eng
57503	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57503	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57504	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela.	eng
57504	distribution		This species appears to be restricted to a small area in extreme south-eastern Madagascar, where it ranges from 800-1,400m asl.	eng
57504	habitat		It inhabits rainforest, living in and around streams, and is not found in secondary habitats. The eggs are laid outside water close to streams; the larvae then move to water, where they develop.	eng
57504	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57504	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57505	conservation		It occurs in the Andohahela and Midongy-du-Sud National Parks.	eng
57505	distribution		This species has a small range in extreme south-eastern Madagascar from Midongy-Sud to Andohahela, at 50-1,000m asl.	eng
57505	habitat		It occurs in degraded as well as pristine forest, but usually in mature forest; it has once been recorded in an open area next to relict forest. It lives in fast-flowing, rocky streams, where it breeds.	eng
57505	population		It is locally common. However, it has become extinct in some localities around Fort Dauphin.	eng
57505	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is also collected for human consumption, but this is probably only a localized threat.	eng
57506	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57506	distribution		This species is widely distributed at numerous localities in northern, eastern and central Madagascar, from Tsaratanana south Andohahela. The map is not very meaningful since it is an unresolved species complex. It occurs from sea level up to 2,500m asl.	eng
57506	habitat		It is usually closely associated with streams in primary and degraded rainforest. It needs some tree cover at lower altitudes. It is also found in montane heathland, but not in agricultural areas. It lives on the ground, on rocks, and in low vegetation. It breeds in streams.	eng
57506	population		There is conflicting information on its abundance, probably reflecting the fact that it is a complex of species.	eng
57506	threats		It is probably not threatened, except perhaps by extreme deforestation. However, some of the constituent species in the unresolved complex are possibly threatened.	eng
57507	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57507	distribution		This species is known from Marojejy south to Andasibe in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, at 300-900m asl.	eng
57507	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest, sometimes close to streams, but usually at some distance from them. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.	eng
57507	population		It is locally abundant, but is sometimes rare.	eng
57507	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57508	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57508	distribution		This species ranges widely in eastern Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Ranomafana. There are also two isolated localities in west-central Madagascar (Ambohijanahary and Mahajeby Forest), and one on the central plateau at Ambohitantely. It has been recorded at 600-1,500m asl, but probably also occurs lower than this.	eng
57508	habitat		It is a streamside species living on the ground in pristine and very slightly degraded rainforest. It breeds in brooks and streams.	eng
57508	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57508	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57509	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and the protection of remaining habitat (including important streams) on the Ankaratra Massif is urgently needed. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not the species might survive elsewhere on the Massif, and to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
57509	distribution		This species occurs in a single, small area at 2,200m asl on the Ankaratra Massif in central Madagascar. This site is within 443m of the highest Ankaratra summit (2,643m asl).	eng
57509	habitat		Although it originally lived in montane rainforest, it is now known only in high-altitude grassland with forest remnants. It breeds in fast-flowing mountain streams.	eng
57509	population		In the last 20 years, it has only been recorded in a single stream, where it is known to be rare. Despite recent survey work, it has not been found at other locations on the Ankaratra Massif.	eng
57509	threats		The main threats to its habitat on the Ankaratra Massif are fire, overgrazing by livestock, and expanding potato farming. However, water pollution and stream sedimentation as a result of agriculture and mining might also be threats. As a mountain top species, it could also be at risk from the effects of global warming.	eng
57510	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57510	distribution		This species ranges widely in northern, eastern and central Madagascar from Tsaratanana south to Andohahela, at 500-2,000m asl.	eng
57510	habitat		It is an arboreal species living along streams in pristine rainforest. It is not found in altered habitats. The eggs are placed on leaves above water, and the larvae develop in slow-flowing streams	eng
57510	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57510	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57511	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, and in the Masoala and Marojejy National Parks.	eng
57511	distribution		This species is known only from east central and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andasibe, at 500-1,200m asl.	eng
57511	habitat		It lives along brooks in primary forest. It is not found in altered habitats. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
57511	population		It is a locally abundant species, but its apparent abundance varies seasonally.	eng
57511	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57512	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, and perhaps in Parc National d’Andohahela.	eng
57512	distribution		This species has been recorded from two localities at 400-900m asl in south-eastern Madagascar: Ranomafana, and Chaines Anosyennes. It is suspected to occur more widely, in particular between these two known sites.	eng
57512	habitat		This is a species of pristine rainforest only. It is not tied to water, so presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57512	population		It is a moderately common species, but is less common than the closely related <em>Mantidactylus luteus</em>.	eng
57512	threats		It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57513	conservation		It occurs in all the protected areas within its range including the Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
57513	distribution		This species occurs in northern Madagascar from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to Sahamalasa and Masoala. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900m asl. It might be more widespread.	eng
57513	habitat		It lives in pristine and degraded rainforest, as well as in secondary vegetation. It has been observed both on the ground and in trees. It breeds in streams.	eng
57513	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57513	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57514	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57514	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57514	habitat		It is an arboreal species living in pristine and disturbed rainforest and swamp forest, but not in open areas. It is usually observed in the leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It breeds in the leaf axils of Pandanus by larval development.	eng
57514	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57514	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is probably also affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57515	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57515	distribution		This species is known from only a few localities in eastern and central Madagascar that are widely scattered, suggesting either that more than one species is involved or that additional intervening localities exist that have not yet been confirmed. The known areas are: St Luce and other localities around Fort Dauphin; Marojejy to Betaolona; and Ambohitantely. This species has been recorded from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57515	habitat		This is an arboreal species of rainforest. Its microhabitat is the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.), in which it breeds by larval development. It can live in degraded forest providing that <em>Pandanus</em> pines survive.	eng
57515	population		It is locally common.	eng
57515	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57516	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57516	distribution		This species is widely distributed in eastern and northeastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andringitra. It has been recorded from sea level up to 850m asl. It is also known from Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe.	eng
57516	habitat		It is found both on the ground and in trees, usually near streams in pristine rainforest. It is not found in altered habitats. Its breeding is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.	eng
57516	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57516	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. There is probably little habitat left in the southern part of its range.	eng
57517	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy, Parc National de Masoala, and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57517	distribution		This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar from Marojejy, south to Masoala. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
57517	habitat		It lives along streams in pristine rainforest, and does not survive in altered habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, and it is not clear if it is by direct or larval development.	eng
57517	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57517	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57518	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Masoala and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57518	distribution		This species is known from Anjanaharibe-Sud, south to the Masoala Peninsula in north-eastern Madagascar, at 500-1,000m asl.	eng
57518	habitat		It lives only in pristine rainforest. There is no information on its breeding biology, but it probably breeds by direct development.	eng
57518	population		It is not a common species, and is hard to find.	eng
57518	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57519	conservation		It occurs on the border of the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57519	distribution		The confirmed sites for this species are from Fierenana to Andasibe in eastern Madagascar. It is likely to occur much more widely, and there are unconfirmed reports from Ranomafana far to the south. This species has been recorded from 900-1,200m asl.	eng
57519	habitat		It lives in open swamps (in which it breeds) and flooded rainforest, and also in somewhat degraded forest.	eng
57519	population		It is very abundant, but rarely encountered.	eng
57519	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57520	conservation		It occurs only in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
57520	distribution		This species is known only from Parc National de Marojejy, at 1,250m asl, in north-eastern Madagascar. It is unlikely to be very widespread.	eng
57520	habitat		It is known only from a single site where it has been found in bushes in an artificial clearing surrounded by montane forest. It calls during the day. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it lives far from water, so it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57520	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
57520	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present. However, its forest habitat is at risk of receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57521	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57521	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Madagascar, from Fierenana south to Ranomafana. It probably occurs both north and south of these localities. Calls that are almost certainly attributable to this species have been heard as far south as Andohahela. Its recorded altitudinal range is 600-1,200m asl.	eng
57521	habitat		It lives mainly in pristine forest, and is occasionally found in degraded forest patches. It is not associated with water. It possibly breeds by direct development, though this is not proven.	eng
57521	population		It is locally a very abundant species.	eng
57521	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57522	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe. Although not yet confirmed from Parc National de Masoala, it is likely to occur there as well.	eng
57522	distribution		This species is known only from the island of Nosy Mangabe and the nearby mainland along the coast of the Antongila Bay. It might occur more widely on the Masoala Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 400m asl.	eng
57522	habitat		It lives on low vegetation near streams and brooks, and among boulders and in caves, in pristine rainforest; it cannot survive in altered habitats. The breeding biology is unknown, and it could reproduce by either direct or larval development.	eng
57522	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57522	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57523	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Kalambatritra, Parc National d’Andohahela, and Parc National d’Andringitra.	eng
57523	distribution		This species is known only from south-eastern Madagascar, from Andringitra south to Andohahela, where it ranges from 600-1,000m asl. Records from north-eastern Madagascar are erroneous.	eng
57523	habitat		This is a species of pristine rainforest only, which does not live in altered habitats. It is found on the forest floor, and is particularly associated with bamboo. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development.	eng
57523	population		It is a rare species with a patchy distribution.	eng
57523	threats		It is threatened by the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57524	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Marojejy and Parc National de Masoala.	eng
57524	distribution		This species is recorded from north-eastern Madagascar from Marojejy, and from Betaolana to Masoala, at approximately 400-800m asl.	eng
57524	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest, where it is often found close to, but sometimes at some distance from, small streams. It is not found in altered habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, and it is not clear if it takes place by larval or direct development.	eng
57524	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57524	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57525	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
57525	distribution		This species is known with certainly only from the Marojejy Massif at 700-1,400m asl in north-eastern Madagascar. There is one specimen collected from Tsaratanana that probably belongs to this species, but this awaits confirmation.	eng
57525	habitat		It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it can be found climbing on low vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, and could be by either direct or larval development.	eng
57525	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57525	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57526	conservation		This species occurs in Parc National de Mantadia, and possibly also in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57526	distribution		This species is known only from Andasibe and Mantadia in east-central Madagascar, although it is likely to be more widespread. All records are from around 900m asl. The distributional relationship between this species and its sibling and cryptic species, <em>Mantidactylus eiselti</em>, needs to be clarified.	eng
57526	habitat		It lives in primary and secondary rainforest, and in eucalyptus plantations near forest. It probably breeds by direct development, but this has not yet not been confirmed.	eng
57526	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57526	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57527	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57527	distribution		This species is widely distributed in many localities in eastern Madagascar except in the northeastern region, from Voloina south to Nampoana. It has been recorded at 100-1,100m asl.	eng
57527	habitat		It lives in rainforest and in heavily disturbed secondary habitats, but not in open areas. It is an arboreal species most often found in leaf axils, especially of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57527	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57527	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57528	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, but its range comes close to Parc National de Midongy du Sud.	eng
57528	distribution		This species is known only from three sites in eastern and south-eastern Madagascar at approximately 450-850m asl: An'Ala, Befotaka and Vondrozo, although it probably occurs more widely.	eng
57528	habitat		It lives in swampy areas in both pristine and degraded rainforest, though it is not known how tolerant it is of habitat degradation. It probably breeds in swamps and slow-moving small streams.	eng
57528	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57528	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57529	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57529	distribution		This species is known only from the general vicinity of Ranomafana, in south-eastern Madagascar, at 600-1,200m asl. There are possible records requiring confirmation from elsewhere in south-eastern Madagascar.	eng
57529	habitat		It is usually observed near streams and tiny trickles of water in rainforest, where it climbs on low vegetation. It is not found in disturbed areas. Its reproductive mode is unknown, and it could be by either direct or larval development.	eng
57529	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57529	threats		This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57530	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57530	distribution		This species complex is widely distributed in Madagascar except the high plateau and in the arid southwest. The map is not very meaningful, since it is an unresolved complex. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57530	habitat		It is associated with (usually slow-flowing) streams in rainforest and in heavily degraded areas, and in open swampy areas. It does survive in agricultural land. It breeds in many types of water, especially slow-flowing streams.	eng
57530	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57530	threats		It is generally not seriously threatened, since it is very adaptable. However, some of the cryptic species within the complex might prove to be threatened, especially by pollution of streams, and extreme opening up of the habitat.	eng
57531	conservation		It occurs in Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, Manombo Special Reserve, Parc National de Ranomafana, and Andohahela National Park.	eng
57531	distribution		This species is widely distributed in southeastern and eastern Madagascar, from Andasibe south to Andohahela. It has been recorded at 50-1,050m asl.	eng
57531	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest, living on the forest floor and on low vegetation. It does not survive in altered habitats. It probably breeds by direct development.	eng
57531	population		It is rarely encountered.	eng
57531	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57532	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe, but is not yet confirmed from Parc National de Masoala.	eng
57532	distribution		This species occurs around the Antongila Bay and on the island of Nosy Mangabe in north-eastern Madagascar. Records from Andohahela in south-eastern Madagascar require confirmation, and are not included here. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100m asl.	eng
57532	habitat		It inhabits very low altitude rainforest, living along rocky streams among boulders and moss, and is intolerant of disturbed habitat. It breeds along streams under mossy boulders, the eggs being laid on rocks.	eng
57532	population		It is locally common.	eng
57532	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, and expanding human settlements. Forest loss is particularly severe on the coast of mainland Madagascar.	eng
57533	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57533	distribution		This species is widely distributed in northwestern and northeastern Madagascar from Soalala east to Sambava. Records from elsewhere in Madagascar require confirmation. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57533	habitat		It occurs in several habitats, especially in open areas, in swampy places adjacent to degraded rainforest, in areas with cultivated trees, and in coffee and cacao plantations. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds and swamps.	eng
57533	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57533	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57534	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.	eng
57534	distribution		This species is known from north-western Madagascar at Manongarivo and Tsaratanana, from 800-1,000m asl, and probably occurs a little more widely.	eng
57534	habitat		It is known only from pristine forest and has not so far been found in secondary areas.	eng
57534	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57534	threats		The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57535	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, Parc National de Mantadia, and Parc National de Ranomafana.	eng
57535	distribution		This species occurs from Ambohitantely and the Andasibe region, south to Ranomafana, at 850-1,500m asl, in central, eastern and southeastern Madagascar.	eng
57535	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, often found near streams, usually in pristine or only slightly disturbed rainforest. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are presumably laid on land.	eng
57535	population		It is a moderately common species locally.	eng
57535	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57536	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57536	distribution		This species is known only from An'Ala at 850m asl in eastern Madagascar, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57536	habitat		It lives in primary and degraded forest near streams, in which it probably breeds.	eng
57536	population		It is a moderately abundant species.	eng
57536	threats		The major threat to this species is the serious deforestation that is taking place at its only known locality, where there appears to be harvesting of timber for buildings through selective logging. This species is probably also being affected by forest loss due to agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
57537	conservation		Maintaining the protected areas in the northern and western mountains of Thailand, safeguarding these from further fire and encroachment impacts, and further developing the protected areas system of eastern Myanmar are recommended for this species.	eng
57537	distribution		This species is known from eastern Myanmar and northern, southern and western Thailand. It was originally recorded also from China but this population has now been described as a distinct species (B. platyparietus). Records from the Tay Nguyen plateau of south-central Viet Nam represent B. intermedia (Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is generally found in hilly to steep mountainous areas above 500m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57537	habitat		This species inhabits evergreen forests. Males have been observed calling from small mountain streams. They are a stream-breeding species, and the larvae develop in water.	eng
57537	population		No quantitative data are available, but anecdotal information indicates that the species is uncommon to rare even in the areas where it occurs (Taylor, 1962). When commissioned, collectors have had difficulty-finding animals.	eng
57537	threats		An apparently strong tie to evergreen forest makes this species sensitive to forest degradation processes, including fires and logging. Its long larval stage requiring clear, clean streams adds a further sensitivity to drought and pollution.	eng
57538	conservation		It might occur in Fubo, Chishuihe and Changjianghejiang-Xiaoboduan Nature Reserves, although this requires further investigation.	eng
57538	distribution		This species is found at two clearly separated localities in Junlian and Hejiang Counties, in Sichuan Province, China, where it has an altitudinal range of 800-1,100m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57538	habitat		It is found close to streams or springs in forested areas. The eggs are deposited under stones in the streams.	eng
57538	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
57538	threats		This species is threatened by over harvesting for food by local people. It is probably also threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder agriculture, logging and human settlement.	eng
57539	conservation		All of the localities in Myanmar are within protected areas. It is also in Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam. More information is needed on population status, distribution and natural history. Meanwhile the management of protected areas within its known range could be strengthened.	eng
57539	distribution		This species is known from northern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), northeastern Myanmar (Boulenger, 1887), and northern Thailand in Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai and southwestern Yunnan in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it is presumed to be present in Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded at mid to high altitudes, from 650-2,100m asl.	eng
57539	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forest and streams. It breeds in small hill streams and tadpoles depend on clean, clear water.	eng
57539	population		It is common and frequently encountered in China although few records/specimens exist from mainland Southeast Asia even from well-surveyed areas.	eng
57539	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation due to dams and power plants are major threats to this species. It is collected by local villagers for consumption.	eng
57540	conservation		This species is not currently recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where the species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57540	distribution		This species is known only from the Tay Nguyen Plateau of south-central Viet Nam, though it might extend into southern Lao People's Democratic Republic or extreme north-eastern Cambodia. It has been recorded above 900m asl.	eng
57540	habitat		This species is known from forested areas, and breeds in streams.	eng
57540	population		It was common at the type locality in the early 1900s, but there is no recent information on its status.	eng
57540	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear cutting and human settlement.	eng
57541	conservation		The range of this species overlaps several protected areas.	eng
57541	distribution		This species is known from southern and southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Hunan and Yunnan Provinces, from 1,000-2,450m asl. It is likely to be found in Viet Nam, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
57541	habitat		It inhabits small and medium hill streams and the surrounding forests. It breeds in the streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57541	population		It is common in its localities.	eng
57541	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species. It is also collected by local villages for consumption in certain areas, although at present this is not considered a major threat.	eng
57542	conservation		Several parks in Sabah, Malaysia, have large tracts of appropriate habitat, including Gunung Mulu, Crocker Range, and Gunung Kinabalu National Park. However, there remains a need for improved protection and maintenance of submontane forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia.	eng
57542	distribution		This species is known only from montane regions (750-1,800m asl) of northern Borneo.	eng
57542	habitat		An inhabitant of sub-montane forests (oak-chestnut and mossy forest), adults are found in the leaf-litter, and on vegetation close to streams (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Breeding occurs in small, clear, rocky, mountain streams.	eng
57542	population		It appears to be relatively abundant.	eng
57542	threats		The major threat to this species is loss of habitat through logging, particularly in the Trus Madi portion of the species' range. Other parts of the range are threatened by forest clearance for pine and eucalyptus plantations.	eng
57543	conservation		It occurs in Gunung Mulu National Park. The species is in need of close population monitoring given its restriction to a single locality. Further survey work is required in areas of suitable habitat adjacent to Gunung Mulu.	eng
57543	distribution		This species is known only from one site within Gunung Mulu National Park, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia at 1,800m asl.	eng
57543	habitat		This species inhabits montane forest; all specimens were seen calling along small, clear mountain streams.	eng
57543	population		The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57543	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present. However, despite the presence of this species within a protected area, there is always a potential risk of encroaching habitat loss.	eng
57544	conservation	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	Several parks in Sarawak provide refuge, but effective preservation of lowland hill forests in Kalimantan is needed if the range of this species is to be preserved. It is currently present in at least five protected areas.	eng
57544	distribution	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	This species is known from northwestern and north-central Borneo in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei Darussalam. It is found above 300 m asl.	eng
57544	habitat	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	It occurs in hilly, lowland rainforests. Adults can be found on the forest floor, moving to clear, rocky streams to breed.   Larvae are fossorial and live in gravel beds of riffles and rapids in small streams (Haas<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).   It appears able to tolerate some habitat modification.	eng
57544	population	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	It is very common within suitable habitat.	eng
57544	threats	Inger, R., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M. & Yambun, P., 2004	Deforestation, and siltation of larval habitats, are the main threats to the species.	eng
57545	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to rediscover this species.	eng
57545	distribution		This species is known only from old specimens from Bunguran Besar (Great Natuna Island), Indonesia.	eng
57545	habitat		As with certain other members of its genus, this species is presumably found in lowland forest areas. It probably breeds in streams.	eng
57545	population		There have been no records since its discovery over 100 years ago, presumably due to a lack of survey work, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57545	threats		The forest loss that is taking place within its range might constitute a threat to it.	eng
57546	conservation		It occurs in the Lipaso Forest Reserve, but this is probably not being managed adequately for the purpose of biodiversity conservation. More effective protection and preservation of mid-elevation forests in the area around the Maliau basin (Sabah) is essential. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
57546	distribution		The only record of this species is from the type locality: the bank of a small tributary of Sungai Liwagu, in the Lipaso Forest Reserve, Labuk and Sugut District, Sabah, in Malaysian Borneo. It was recorded at an elevation of 310m asl. It has not been found in Gunung Kinabalu National Park, not far from the type locality, despite intensive sampling.	eng
57546	habitat		It was found along a clear, rocky hill stream in lowland forest. If this species behaves like its congeners, adults move widely through the forest and larvae develop in the gravel beds of riffles and rapids.	eng
57546	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and it appears to be rare.	eng
57546	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss, since it occurs in a lowland forest type that is being rapidly logged. Siltation of larval habitats is a threat.	eng
57547	conservation		It is present in the Danum Valley and Gunung Mulu National Park. However, more effective protection of lowland hill forest is necessary; some of the localities from which it was originally reported have been heavily logged.	eng
57547	distribution		This Bornean endemic is known from a wide area of Sabah and northern Sarawak, Malaysia. The type locality was at 150m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57547	habitat		An inhabitant of lowland, hilly rainforest. Adults move to small, clear, rocky streams to breed; the larvae require silt-free, gravel or rocky bottom streams.	eng
57547	population		It seems to be relatively abundant in some regions.	eng
57547	threats		The major threat to this species is logging, which also contributes to the siltation of streams and thereby hinders the ability of tadpoles to feed.	eng
57548	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for more effective protection of lowland hill forest in eastern Sarawak. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
57548	distribution		This species occurs on Serhassan Island (Lesser Natuna) off the western tip of Borneo, and in eastern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia. It probably occurs more widely in Sarawak than current records suggest.	eng
57548	habitat		It inhabits lowland rainforest, where it occurs on the forest floor and the lower hebaceous strata. They breed in clear, rocky, small streams.	eng
57548	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species. It is difficult to find outside the breeding season.	eng
57548	threats		The main threat to the species is the deforestation of Sarawak's forests, which is detrimental to both adult and larval stages. Threats to the species on Serhassan Island are not known.	eng
57549	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
57549	distribution		This species has been reported from many localities in Borneo as well as Riau and West Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species generally found below 750m asl.	eng
57549	habitat		Adults and juveniles disperse widely in lowland tropical moist forest. Breeding and larval development takes place in quiet stretches of small streams.	eng
57549	population		It is uncommon in Sumatra. There are no population estimates for Borneo, but larvae are quite abundant in quiet rainforest streams.	eng
57549	threats		Deforestation is the main threat to this species.	eng
57550	conservation		It is found within Xe Xap National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. Surveys of the species' population status and distribution are urgently required, based on which options for protected area establishment and/or engagement of local people to reduce their impact on the species' habitat will need to be determined.	eng
57550	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of Ko Rong village, Gia Lai Province, on the Tay Nguyen plateau of south-central Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), and from the Annamite Mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). It has been recorded from 800-1,600m asl.	eng
57550	habitat		It is recorded from wet evergreen forest, and breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57550	population		It is apparently not extremely rare in Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998), but is known from only a single specimen in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999).	eng
57550	threats		In Viet Nam, the only known locality has been badly affected by logging and by clearance of the forest undergrowth (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
57551	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Wu Guanfu, Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2004	It appears adequately protected if existing protected areas in Viet Nam and Thailand remain secure. It is considered Vulnerable in the 1997 Thai Red List (OEPP 1997).	eng
57551	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Wu Guanfu, Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2004	This species is known from a number of locations in northern and central Viet Nam, as well as from Doi Inthanon and Doi Ang Khang in northern Thailand, northwest and central Lao People's Democratic Republic and southwestern Yunnan, China. It occurs at moderate to high altitudes from 800-2,400 m asl.	eng
57551	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Wu Guanfu, Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2004	It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in small hill streams.	eng
57551	population	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Wu Guanfu, Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2004	In China this species is rare and hard to find, especially outside the breeding season. However, it has been recorded as common in Cuc Phuong National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
57551	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Wu Guanfu, Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2004	Habitat destruction and degradation, including the construction of dams and power plants are threats to this species.	eng
57552	conservation		It is known only from Gunung Kinabalu National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
57552	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu in Borneo, Malaysia, where it has been recorded at elevations of 1,750-2,200m asl (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
57552	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of montane tropical moist forest (inhabiting the transition zone between upper oak-chestnut and mossy forest). Adults can be found in leaf-litter, rock crevices, and in holes in the ground. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57552	population		It is generally an uncommon species.	eng
57552	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present. However, despite the presence of this species within a relatively well-managed protected area, there is always the potential risk of encroaching habitat loss.	eng
57553	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas on Hainan.	eng
57553	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountain ranges of central and south-western Hainan, China, from 270m to over 1,000m asl.	eng
57553	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in hill streams.	eng
57553	population		It is uncommon (Lu Sunqing pers. comm.).	eng
57553	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence agriculture and small-scale wood collection. Local people also collect the species for food.	eng
57554	conservation	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Robert Inger, Stuebing, R., Yambun, P., Makl & Kusrini, M., 2004	The range of the species includes numerous protected areas.   It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kusrini <em>et al. </em>2008).	eng
57554	distribution	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Robert Inger, Stuebing, R., Yambun, P., Makl & Kusrini, M., 2004	This species is found in Palawan, Mindoro, Bohol, Basilan, and Mindanao in the Philippines and in Java, Sumatra, Madura and in Kangean in Indonesia. It has been recorded from sea level to 1,570 m asl.	eng
57554	habitat	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Robert Inger, Stuebing, R., Yambun, P., Makl & Kusrini, M., 2004	It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests. In Indonesia, tadpoles have been collected from quiet pools and ponds. In the Philippines, tadpoles have been taken in flowing streams in lowland forest. Examined females have been found to contain 400-1,300 eggs (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
57554	population	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Robert Inger, Stuebing, R., Yambun, P., Makl & Kusrini, M., 2004	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57554	threats	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Robert Inger, Stuebing, R., Yambun, P., Makl & Kusrini, M., 2004	The major threat to this species is deforestation. In Java, this is mainly due to small-scale agriculture and urban development (M. Kusrini pers. comm. September 2009). More recently, the species has tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span>, although there are currently no records of population declines for this species (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
57555	conservation		It inhabits most protected forest areas of southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. In Borneo and Sumatra, the effective preservation of alluvial forest areas would protect this species.	eng
57555	distribution		This species is found in Indonesia in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan. In Malaysia it has been reported with certainty from two sites in Sarawak. In mainland Southeast Asia it is known from Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, but is absent from Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is generally recorded at low altitudes but can be found up to 1,000m asl in Thailand.	eng
57555	habitat		An inhabitant of primary lowland evergreen rainforest and adjoining degraded forest and plantations. Breeding takes place in small, slow-flowing streams, and tadpoles live in pools and deep sections of these streams. Adults and juveniles range widely in forest.	eng
57555	population		It is generally common in Malaysia, but is considered uncommon in Thailand and Sumatra. Population size is variable in Borneo.	eng
57555	threats		The main threat to this species is the rapid clearing of lowland forests.	eng
57556	conservation		It is known to occur in a number of protected areas. Sampling needs to be conducted in the submontane and montane zones in central Kalimantan to determine the extent of occurrence of this species.	eng
57556	distribution		This is a Bornean endemic recorded from three corners of the island. It has not been reported yet from the main mountain mass in Kalimantan. It is suspected to have a much wider range than is currently known. It has an altitudinal range of 900-1,800m asl.	eng
57556	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane forests. Adults and juveniles disperse widely through forests and breeding takes place in small streams. Larvae develop in quiet pools of such streams.	eng
57556	population		It is abundant at a number of localities.	eng
57556	threats		Deforestation of the oak/chestnut forests, which contain valuable timber, is proceeding rapidly with consequent shrinkage of the habitat of this species. In the past, submontane forests at the elevations occupied by this species were essentially continuous over a large portion of Borneo. Logging is changing this once continuous habitat into a series of islands. Under these circumstances, local subpopulations that go extinct because of stochastic fluctuation cannot be re-established by immigration.	eng
57557	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas in mainland Southeast Asia, but not in Borneo. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
57557	distribution		This species is known from southern Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Leong, 2000) and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations below 300m asl.	eng
57557	habitat		It inhabits lowland rainforest, including regenerating forest. Adults and juveniles range widely in swampy forest. Breeding takes place in small, slowly flowing streams. Tadpoles live in slow-flowing sections of forest streams.	eng
57557	population		In Malaysia and Singapore the species is common, but nothing is known about its' abundance in Borneo.	eng
57557	threats		Lowland forest clearance is the main threat to this species.	eng
57558	conservation		Population status and distribution surveys including basic natural history information are required before meaningful conservation measures can be formulated for this species.	eng
57558	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Lang Bian Mountain of southern Viet Nam.	eng
57558	habitat		It is presumably a stream breeding species.	eng
57558	population		There have been no recent records of this species, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
57558	threats		There are no threats reported for this species.	eng
57559	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Chan-ard, T., Dutta, S., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	Substantial populations are securely protected in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Thailand.	eng
57559	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Chan-ard, T., Dutta, S., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	All confirmed records of this species are from northern, northeastern, western and Peninsular Thailand, northeast India (Assam and Meghalaya) southeastern Bangladesh (Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district), southern Myanmar and western Lao People's Democratic Republic. It might extend into northern Peninsular Malaysia (P. van Dijk and R. Sukumaran pers. comm.). Altitude records range between 60 and 1,350 m asl.	eng
57559	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Chan-ard, T., Dutta, S., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It is often found under leaf-litter in evergreen forest in monsoon and rainforest climatic regions, as well as dense mixed deciduous forest. Tadpoles inhabit deep sections of forest streams with little current.	eng
57559	population	van Dijk, P.P., Chan-ard, T., Dutta, S., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	The occurrence of this species can be localized, but where the species occurs adults tend to be fairly common and tadpoles are generally abundant.	eng
57559	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Chan-ard, T., Dutta, S., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	While individuals and populations could be affected by forest clearance and other impacts such as stream pollution, drought, and local collection for consumption (northeastern Thailand), these threats are unlikely to threaten its survival in the near future.	eng
57560	conservation		Further surveys are urgently required to determine the population status and distribution of the species. Based on the results, protected areas encompassing viable populations of the species should be established. <em>Ex-situ</em> conservation breeding might be desirable, but no Leptobrachium species has yet been bred in captivity.	eng
57560	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Ko Rong, Tram Lap and Buon Luoi villages on the Tay Nguyen Plateau, in Gia Lai Province of southern central Viet Nam, from 600-1,000m asl. It perhaps occurs a little more widely.	eng
57560	habitat		It is known from evergreen-forested areas. Larvae inhabit stony clear streams (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
57560	population		Locally, this species is not uncommon, and larvae and amplexing pairs have been observed (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998a).	eng
57560	threats		The main threat to this species is clear-cut logging.	eng
57561	conservation		It occurs in Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve, although there is a need for improved management outside the core area.	eng
57561	distribution		This species is restricted to Jingdong County in central Yunnan Province, China, at around 2,400m asl.	eng
57561	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in streams.	eng
57561	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
57561	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, primarily due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
57562	conservation		It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Teman Negara National Park, and the Crocker Range.	eng
57562	distribution		This species is known from Gunung Kinabalu, Trus Madi, the Crocker Range and Mendolog, in Borneo, Malaysia. It might also occur in the central mountains of Borneo. It has an altitudinal range of 350-1,700m asl.	eng
57562	habitat		It is a little-known terrestrial species of sub-montane and montane forest. Breeding takes place in forest streams.	eng
57562	population		It is generally believed to be uncommon, although Malkmus <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that it is common on the banks of streams crossing through oak-chestnut forests on Gunung Kinabalu.	eng
57562	threats		The major threat is the rapid logging of sub-montane forests, which contain valuable timber. The resultant increased siltation of forest streams is also a threat to larval habitat.	eng
57563	conservation		More information is needed on the taxonomy, distribution and population status of this species, while conservation measures should focus on ensuring that all distinct taxa are included in securely protected areas. The Fan Si Pan type locality is included in Hoang Lien Son Nature Reserve. The referred Cuc Phuong and Doi Inthanon locations are also already protected.	eng
57563	distribution		This species is known from Fan Si Pan Mountain, northern Viet Nam, on the Chinese border (Dubois 1983; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are unconfirmed records from Cuc Phuong National Park (van Dijk pers. obs.) and perhaps from Doi Inthanon, Thailand (see Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), but these have been taken into account when mapping the range of this species, and its distribution remains very unclear.	eng
57563	habitat		This is a species that inhabs fast-flowing streams in shady forest. The referred specimen from Cuc Phuong was found at the side of a stream in a karst forest area at about 400m asl (van Dijk 2000). The specimen from Doi Inthanon was found near a peat swamp area in a stream at 2,550m asl (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
57563	population		It is relatively common at Fan Si Pan Mountain.	eng
57563	threats		The major threats to this species are forest degradation (due to agricultural development and logging) and stream pollution. All three known and referred localities are also popular tourist destinations, with associated development plans and threats.	eng
57564	conservation		It is found in several large parks in Sabah, Sarawak and east Kalimantan.	eng
57564	distribution		This Bornean endemic has been found at many sites in Sabah, and in adjacent parts of Sarawak and Kalimantan, from 200-1,500m asl.	eng
57564	habitat		It lives in closed-canopy forests, and breeding occurs in small, clear, rocky streams.	eng
57564	population		There are no estimates of subpopulation status, but it is not rare at sites where it has been found.	eng
57564	threats		The main threat to this species is clearance of its forest habitat.	eng
57565	conservation		In mainland Southeast Asia one population is securely protected in Taman Negara National Park, and this species is also found in at least three protected areas in Borneo.	eng
57565	distribution		This species has been recorded mainly from Borneo, where there are records from Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Brunei Darussalam. In peninsular Malaysia, records from two mountain peaks (Gunung Tahan and Gunung Benom) have been assigned to this species (Grandison 1972; Berry 1975). In Peninsular Thailand there are records from Thong Pha Phum Forest, in Kanchanaburi Province, but these require verification. It probably occurs more widely on Borneo than current records suggest. It has an altitudinal range of 150 to above 1,500m asl.	eng
57565	habitat		It is confined to primary and old secondary rainforests. Adults and juveniles live in the floor litter and in the herb and shrub strata. Breeding occurs in streams with clear water and sandy to rocky bottoms. Larvae live amid the rocks on the bottom of the watercourse.	eng
57565	population		In Borneo it appears to be abundant at some sites in some years and much less common in others, while in Peninsular Malaysia it appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
57565	threats		Deforestation is the principal threat to this species, while siltation of streams following deforestation is a threat to the larval habitat.	eng
57566	conservation		It is present in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary in central Sarawak. However, there is a need for more effective preservation and protection of lowland rainforest in western Kalimantan. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
57566	distribution		This Bornean endemic is known from western Sarawak, Malaysia and adjacent parts of west Kalimantan, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It is a lowland species found from 100-500m asl.	eng
57566	habitat		It is restricted to closed-canopy hilly rainforest and does not occur in disturbed habitats. Adults and juveniles occupy the forest floor and shrub strata. Adults breed along the banks of clear, rocky streams and the larvae develop in the riffles of such streams.	eng
57566	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
57566	threats		The major threat is logging, which also results in increased siltation of forest streams and thereby poses a threat to larval habitat.	eng
57567	conservation		The species is known to inhabit a number of legally protected areas (Taman Negara National Park and Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary) and watershed/amenity protection areas (Genting Highlands). Monitoring populations and studying its conservation biology would be useful.	eng
57567	distribution		This species is known from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Marathiwat and Yala Provinces in extreme southern Thailand south to central Peninsular Malaysia. Its altitudinal range is from 300-1,200m asl.	eng
57567	habitat		It inhabits moist rainforest. Individuals are generally found in or near streambeds. It is thought to breed in streams.	eng
57567	population		It is uncommon to common in areas where it occurs.	eng
57567	threats		Its habitats are relatively secure, and it can survive in forests that have been selectively logged. Locally, some populations might be at risk from forest clearance.	eng
57568	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
57568	distribution		This species is known from central and southern China (including Hong Kong), from 110-1,400m asl.	eng
57568	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests and high-altitude grasslands. Breeding occurs in streams.	eng
57568	population		It has a large population.	eng
57568	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species.	eng
57569	conservation		It is found in Gunung Kinabalu National Park.	eng
57569	distribution		This species is currently known only from Gunung Kinabalu, Borneo, at 1,850m asl.	eng
57569	habitat		All known specimens were found on the ground in montane forest (oak-chestnut); breeding presumably takes place in streams.	eng
57569	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
57569	threats		There are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
57570	conservation		Its only known locality is within Na Hang Nature Reserve, established in 1994, which is considered relatively undisturbed (BirdLife International 2001).	eng
57570	distribution		This species is known only from Na Hang Nature Reserve, in Tuyen Quang Province in northern Viet Nam (Lathrop <em>et al.</em> 1998). Records from Sa Pa (Fan Si Pan) and Tam Dao (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) seem to be in error. It might occur more widely.	eng
57570	habitat		This species is known from a cave entrance at 314m asl. The general surroundings are karst forest ranging from 300-800m asl. Breeding presumably occurs in streams.	eng
57570	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
57570	threats		Forest destruction and stream pollution might be significant threats in the wider area, but more information is needed to determine the specific threats to this species.	eng
57571	conservation	Fei Liang & Wu Guanfu, 2004	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
57571	distribution	Fei Liang & Wu Guanfu, 2004	This species is known from central and southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou and Hubei provinces, and from Phongsaly, Bolikhamxay and Khammouan provinces, Lao People's Democratic Republic. It occurs from 600-1,800 m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57571	habitat	Fei Liang & Wu Guanfu, 2004	It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding broadleaf and mixed forests. It breeds in streams.	eng
57571	population	Fei Liang & Wu Guanfu, 2004	This is a very common although difficult to catch amphibian.	eng
57571	threats	Fei Liang & Wu Guanfu, 2004	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular infrastructure for human settlement and water pollution from agriculture.	eng
57572	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand and elsewhere, and its survival should be secure as long as these protected areas remain intact. In China it occurs in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve. Further taxonomic studies would be desirable, as would information on distribution, population status and natural history of the various forms.	eng
57572	distribution		This species is known from eastern Myanmar, most of Thailand (Taylor, 1962; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999), several localities from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), northern and central Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Lathrop et al, 1999b; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), Mengyang in Jinghong County in southern Yunnan, China, and is localized in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975). It is known from 200-1,900m asl.	eng
57572	habitat		It inhabits streams and streamside evergreen forest. Tadpoles inhabit clear swift-flowing sand gravel streams.	eng
57572	population		It is a small cryptic species but is generally fairly common and sometimes very common in suitable localities.	eng
57572	threats		Degradation of forest and streams through agricultural and other developments are threats to this species.	eng
57573	conservation		The species is known from the protected areas of the Crocker Range and Gunung Kinabalu National Park. There remains a need for greatly improved protection of lowland rainforest habitat at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57573	distribution		This species has been recorded from a number of sites in northern Borneo. Most records are from Sabah (Malaysia), but it is also known from north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia) and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia). It has an altitudinal range of 500-1,500m asl.	eng
57573	habitat		It occurs in the leaf-litter and lower shrub layer of closed-canopy forests. It breeds in small, clear, rocky streams.	eng
57573	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
57573	threats		The major threat to this species is logging of lowland rainforest.	eng
57574	conservation		The known range of this species is just outside Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
57574	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in Viet Nam, from 1,660-2,040m asl. It is likely to range more widely, but its distribution is still very poorly known.	eng
57574	habitat		It occurs in montane forest and is a stream breeding frog.	eng
57574	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
57574	threats		There is no information available regarding threat to this species but they are presumably similar to those for other amphibians in the region.	eng
57575	conservation		The only known population of this species inhabits a national park. Tourism and local development within the national park should be carefully managed and regulated.	eng
57575	distribution		This species is known only from the middle-upper slopes of Tam Dao in northern Viet Nam, at about 900-1,100m asl. It is likely to range more widely, but its distribution is still very poorly known.	eng
57575	habitat		It is known from sloping boulder streams, in which it breeds, in closed evergreen forest.	eng
57575	population		It is not particularly rare at the type locality, but it has not been found or reported elsewhere despite being highly distinctive and visible, suggesting that it is a highly localized species.	eng
57575	threats		The only known streams inhabited by this species are downstream from Tam Dao village, which is a growing tourist destination, with inherent risk of pollution and development affecting the species. Forest in the town's vicinity continues to be gradually but extensively modified by collecting for subsistence and local and regional trade.	eng
57576	conservation		Herpetological surveys are required to determine whether or not this species is present in existing protected areas on the Kon Tum Plateau. Additional protected areas might need to be established in the Buen Luoi-Tram Lap-Kon Cha Ran area. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
57576	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of Kon Cha Rang and Tram Lap villages on the Kon Tum plateau of southern Viet Nam, as well as Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quang Nam Province, from 900-1,200m asl. It might range a little more widely than records suggest.	eng
57576	habitat		It is known from montane forest, and breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57576	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
57576	threats		The Kon Tum plateau is suffering substantial forest loss from agriculture and clear-cutting, with much resultant stream degradation.	eng
57577	conservation		Its range includes Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve.	eng
57577	distribution		This species is known only from Zhushihe Township, Mangla County, southern Yunnan Province, China, from 850-1,000m asl. It is likely to range more widely, in particular into neighbouring Lao People's Democratic Republic.	eng
57577	habitat		It inhabits high quality evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in hill streams.	eng
57577	population		This is a very rare species.	eng
57577	threats		Forest destruction is ongoing in the area, and only a tiny area of forest remains within this species' known range.	eng
57578	conservation		The species exists in protected areas in Sabah, but remains unprotected in Sarawak. There is an urgent need for the protection of remaining suitable lowland forest habitats at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
57578	distribution		This species is known only from western Sabah and east-central Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo at elevations of 200-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57578	habitat		It is known only from primary, hilly, lowland rainforest. Adults and juveniles live on the forest floor. Breeding presumably takes place in small, clear streams as with other species of the genus.	eng
57578	population		It does not appear to be common or abundant at any site.	eng
57578	threats		The major threat is the loss of habitat through clear-cutting, and most suitable lowland habitat in Sabah has now been logged.	eng
57579	conservation		All known populations are within protected areas.	eng
57579	distribution		This species is restricted to Gunung Kinabalu National Park, the Crocker Range, and Mount Trus Madi, Borneo, from 1,300-1,600m asl.	eng
57579	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of montane forests, and breeding takes place in small forest streams.	eng
57579	population		It is recorded infrequently.	eng
57579	threats		There are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
57580	conservation		It is present in several protected areas. Required conservation measures include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the effective protection of remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests.	eng
57580	distribution		This species occurs on Balabac and Palawan Islands, in the western Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, although its distribution does appear to be patchy.	eng
57580	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor litter of montane and lowland rainforests and appears to be dependent on mountain streams where it breeds. The larvae are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams.	eng
57580	population		It is often common.	eng
57580	threats		The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest habitat to shifting agriculture, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers due to agricultural effluents and mine-tailings.	eng
57581	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Ujung Kulon National Park and Gunung Halimun National Park, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Park and Gunung Tangkuban Perhahu National Reserve.	eng
57581	distribution		This species is endemic to Java, Indonesia, where is has a fragmented range due to limited available habitat. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 1,200m asl.	eng
57581	habitat		It lives on the forest floor of primary and secondary forests, and to some extent, plantations. It breeds in streams.	eng
57581	population		It is common but not abundant.	eng
57581	threats		The main threat is encroachment of the natural forests on Java for small-scale farming, and for wood. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
57582	conservation		This species occurs in most protected areas of Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew, 1987) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992). In Borneo and Sumatra the expansion of effective preservation of lowland forests linked by forested corridors is essential. It has been bred in captivity occasionally by zoos (Frankfurt/Main, Germany) and private hobbyists (Schmidt, 1976; Pfeuffer, 1989).	eng
57582	distribution		This species is known from Yala, southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962), throughout Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975; Dring, 1979), Tioman Island, Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992; Leong, 2000), Sumatra, Bintan, all parts of Borneo and the Natuna Islands. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57582	habitat		It inhabits intact lowland and submontane rainforest, generally in the vicinity of forest streams. Adults are terrestrial in habits, but tadpoles live in clear forest streams (Dring, 1979).	eng
57582	population		It is regularly encountered, and its characteristic call is frequently heard in suitable habitat. It is uncommon in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992).	eng
57582	threats		Loss and fragmentation of the species' habitat are the major threats. Local populations might become exposed to the hazards of stochastic events. The species is harvested for the national and international pet trade, which might affect local populations.	eng
57583	conservation		Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, such as Mount Malindang National Park, and other protected areas, although there is a need for improved protection on Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, and Bohol to protect the remaining forest on these islands.	eng
57583	distribution		This species is known from Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Samar, and many parts of Mindanao, in the southern and eastern islands of the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57583	habitat		It is usually found on the forest floor in leaf-litter of montane and lowland rainforests and is dependent on mountain streams where it breeds. Tadpoles are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams.	eng
57583	population		It is generally common.	eng
57583	threats		Major threats include the loss of the lowland rainforest due to logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, due to agricultural effluents and mine-tailings.	eng
57584	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
57584	distribution		This recently described species is known from the Lang Bian Plateau, Lam Dong Province, and Buon Luoi, Gia-Lai Province, in Viet Nam, and also from Huey Sapan in Lao People's Democratic Republic (although this locality could not be located and has not been used when mapping this species' range for this assessment). It might occur more widely.	eng
57584	habitat		It is presumably a lowland forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.	eng
57584	population		This species is known only from the type series.	eng
57584	threats		The threats to it are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and human settlement.	eng
57585	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
57585	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Buon Luoi, 20km west of the town of Kannack, An Khe District, Gia-Lai Province, Viet Nam, although it might occur more widely. It was collected at between 700 and 750m asl.	eng
57585	habitat		This is presumably a lowland forest inhabitant that breeds in streams.	eng
57585	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
57585	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and human settlement.	eng
57586	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a couple of protected areas in the region, including the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in China, in the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao People's Democratic Republic and the one known locality in Thailand is in Doi Phu Kha National Park.	eng
57586	distribution		This species is found in southern Yunnan (Hekou and Pingbian) and southern Guangxi (Longzhou) in China and is reportedly widespread throughout Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000), yet recent surveys have only yielded a few specimens (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999, Nguyen and Bain pers. comm.). Specimens have been collected from southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and one on the hilltop of Doi Phu Kha, Nan Province, Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.). The records from central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) might be in error (B. Stuart pers. comm.).	eng
57586	habitat		In China this species is known from forest from 220-1,200m asl. In the rest of its range there is little known except that specimens have been reported from a swampy area and evergreen forest (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999) and stated to occur from 250m to 1,500m asl (higher towards the southern part of the range). It has also been recorded along forest streams and very close to streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
57586	population		In China this species is considered rare but there are no population estimates available for other parts of its range. Inger <em>et al.</em> (1999) reports of many animals calling at a breeding site, suggesting that the species can be locally common.	eng
57586	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing in China, in particular for rubber plantations. Water pollution and shifting agriculture are threats to this species in Thailand, and general clear cutting of forests and slash-and-burn agriculture is reducing the habitat of this species over much of the rest of its range.	eng
57587	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas in both Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic. In China it occurs in the following National Nature Reserves: Dawangling, Baiyong, and Xishuangbanna. More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution, taxonomy and natural history before conservation measures can be determined.	eng
57587	distribution		This species is known from the Annamite Mountains in Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic, and the mountains of northern Viet Nam as well as southern Yunnan (Mengla), western Guangxi (Dawangling Nature Reserve) and southeastern Guangdong (Baiyong Nature Reserve and Heweishan) in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In Viet Nam it is known between 250m asl (northern Viet Nam) to 1,700m asl (Kon Tum plateau) (Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000). In China it has been recorded from 470-900m asl.	eng
57587	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forest and the associated small hill streams. It is found near and in forest streams where it also breeds. Males have been observed calling from foliage about 2.5m above the ground.	eng
57587	population		This species was originally thought to be very rare when it was known only from Yunnan. Recent information suggests that it is more common in the Baiyong National Nature Reserve in China and also in Viet Nam.	eng
57587	threats		There is ongoing forest loss, and threats from dams and power plants.	eng
57588	conservation		The range of this species overlaps several nature reserves. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57588	distribution		This species is restricted to Ping Wu and Maoxian Counties, in northern Sichuan Province, China, between 1,300 and 2,000m asl.	eng
57588	habitat		It inhabits forests, and breeds in small hill streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57588	population		There is no information on its current population status.	eng
57588	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, due in particular to the activities of smallholder farmers.	eng
57589	conservation		This species occurs in the Ailao Shan National Nature Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
57589	distribution		This species is restricted to Jingdong County, in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 2,300-2,450m asl.	eng
57589	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests and breeds in streams, where the larvae also develop.	eng
57589	population		This is a very rare species.	eng
57589	threats		The habitat of this species is relatively well protected at present, and there are currently no major threats. However, its restricted range renders it particularly vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
57590	conservation		This species occurs in the Ailao Shan National Nature Reserve.	eng
57590	distribution		This species is restricted to Jingdong, Shuangbai and Xingping counties, in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,500-2,450m asl.	eng
57590	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in slow-flowing streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57590	population		This is probably not an uncommon species.	eng
57590	threats		Habitat loss is taking place within the range of this species, mainly due to agricultural development.	eng
57591	conservation		The range of this species does not overlap with any protected areas, making protection of the remaining habitat in the area a priority to ensure the species' survival.	eng
57591	distribution		This species is known from a single small stream in Puxiong in Yuexi County, in southern Sichuan province, China, from 2,850-3,000m asl.	eng
57591	habitat		It inhabits mixed forests, and breeds in small streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57591	population		The only known population comprises probably less than 100 individuals, and is declining.	eng
57591	threats		Habitat loss and degradation, due to logging and hill fires, represents the major threat to this species. The disappearance of forests has also caused a reduction in rainfall in the region and many streams have dried up in the area as a result.	eng
57592	conservation		Its range overlaps several protected areas.	eng
57592	distribution		This species is known from Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guizhou and Chongqing Provinces in central China, from 1,790-2,300m asl.	eng
57592	habitat		It occurs in forest and shrubland habitat, and breeding takes place in small, shallow-gradient streams.	eng
57592	population		It is uncommon.	eng
57592	threats		The major threats to this species are very rapid habitat destruction and degradation, through logging in particular.	eng
57593	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas, including: Emeishan, Wawushan, Gonggashan, Wolong, and Dujiangyan.	eng
57593	distribution		This species is endemic to central Sichuan Province, China, and occurs from 1,200-2,000m asl. It probably ranges slightly more widely.	eng
57593	habitat		It is a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams (which is also where the larvae develop).	eng
57593	population		There is little information on the population status of this species, but it is known to be relatively rare.	eng
57593	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, collection of firewood, and infrastructure development.	eng
57594	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with two protected areas; Emeishan Natural Heritage Reserve (a World Heritage Site) and Wawushan Mountain National Forest Park.	eng
57594	distribution		This species is endemic to Emei and Hongya counties in central Sichuan Province, China, from 1,520-1,920m asl. However, it might occur more widely than records suggest.	eng
57594	habitat		It inhabits forests and breeds in streams.	eng
57594	population		It is so far known from only two locations, and it is rare at both of these.	eng
57594	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, partly due to infrastructure development associated with increased tourism.	eng
57595	conservation		The only known population is within a small-protected area, Guangwushan Natural Reserve.	eng
57595	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Guangwu, in Nanjiangxian County, Sichuan Province, China, at 1,600m asl.	eng
57595	habitat		It inhabits streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding forest.	eng
57595	population		The population status is unknown, further studies are needed	eng
57595	threats		Tourism is a threat to its habitat.	eng
57596	conservation		The range of this species partly overlaps two protected areas, namely Emeishan Natural Heritage Reserve and Wawushan National Forest Park.	eng
57596	distribution		This species is known only from two locations in Emei and Hongya Counties in central Sichuan Province, China, at 1,050-1,800m asl.	eng
57596	habitat		It inhabits forests, breeding in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57596	population		It is relatively abundant at both locations.	eng
57596	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due primarily to smallholder farming activities; disturbance from tourists is an increasing threat.	eng
57597	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, so there is a clear need for the protection of the montane habitat of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57597	distribution		This species is known only from two locations in Daliangshan in Zhaojue and Yuexi Counties, southern Sichuan Province, China, at 2,700-3,300m asl.	eng
57597	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits forest and shrubland habitats.	eng
57597	population		There is no information on its current population status.	eng
57597	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to the impacts of nomadic livestock farming and wood extraction.	eng
57598	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
57598	distribution		This species is known from southern Gansu, southern Shaanxi, and central and northeastern Sichuan provinces in China, from 700-2,000m asl. Its distribution appears to be increasing and it is now found at lower elevations.	eng
57598	habitat		It inhabits forests and hill streams, and breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
57598	population		This is a common species that is increasing for reasons that are not understood..	eng
57598	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are main threats to this species, although they are probably not impacting it very seriously.	eng
57599	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of its habitat.	eng
57599	distribution		This species is known only from Yuexi (Puxiong) County in south Sichuan Province, China, from 2,600-2,900m asl.	eng
57599	habitat		It inhabits marshes, streamside pools, backwater pools, small streams and the surrounding forest. Breeding occurs in streams.	eng
57599	population		It is rare, and there are only two populations, both of which are declining.	eng
57599	threats		The major threat is forest loss due to subsistence wood collection, but fire is also a serious threat (one fire event led to an overall population decline of more than 70%).	eng
57600	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas, but there is a need to promote awareness amongst tourists of the need to minimize their disturbance of cave habitats.	eng
57600	distribution		This species is known from Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Hunan provinces in central China, from 1,000-1,790m asl.	eng
57600	habitat		It inhabits limestone caves in forested habitats. Breeding takes place in springs and stream pools inside the limestone caves.	eng
57600	population		There is limited information on the population status of this species, but it is known from only a few sites within its apparently large range.	eng
57600	threats		The major threat to this species is posed by the disturbance and degradation of its limestone cave habitat, mainly due to increased tourism. Tadpoles of this species are also collected for food.	eng
57601	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
57601	distribution		This species is known from southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan Provinces, China, from 1,800-3,300m asl.	eng
57601	habitat		It inhabits riparian habitats, and breeds in small- to medium-sized hill streams.	eng
57601	population		It appears to have a small population.	eng
57601	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due to clear-felling and agricultural expansion.	eng
57602	conservation		Its range overlaps several protected areas.	eng
57602	distribution		This species is endemic to central Sichuan Province in China, and occurs from 1,700-2,520m asl.	eng
57602	habitat		It occurs in shrublands and coniferous forest, and breeding takes place in small streams and marshes.	eng
57602	population		It is known from only seven or eight locations and its population appears to be small.	eng
57602	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are possible threats to this species.	eng
57603	conservation		The type locality might be within Washan Nature Reserve.	eng
57603	distribution		This species was only recorded once from the non-specific type locality of Washan, in southern Sichuan Province, China (there are several localities with this name in Sichuan).	eng
57603	habitat		There is no information known regarding its habitat preferences, though it is likely to be associated with montane forest. It presumably breeds in streams, like other members of the genus.	eng
57603	population		Only one specimen was ever collected and the species has never been found again.	eng
57603	threats		It is difficult to determine what threats there are to this species without accurate knowledge of its extent of occurrence.	eng
57604	conservation		The range of the species includes Baimaxueshan, Habaxueshan, Panzhihuasutie and Yading Nature Reserves.	eng
57604	distribution		This species is known from southwestern Sichuan and northwestern Yunnan provinces, in China, from 2,010-3,300m asl.	eng
57604	habitat		It is usually found along medium sized streams and springs in forest. It breeds in the same habitats.	eng
57604	population		It has a large population that is currently stable.	eng
57604	threats		Logging occurred in the past within the range of the species but this has now ceased and is no longer a threat. There are no other threats known currently.	eng
57605	conservation		The recent sightings of this species are from within Hkakabo Razi National Park.	eng
57605	distribution		This species is known only from Adung Valley in extreme northern Myanmar, at 3,650m asl.	eng
57605	habitat		It inhabits mountain streams, in which it presumably breeds.	eng
57605	population		It is known only from two specimens collected in 1931 by a professional plant collector. There have been recent sightings of it but no collections have been possible (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
57605	threats		There is no information available regarding threat to this species.	eng
57606	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas.	eng
57606	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimen collected in Bhutan. As the type locality for this species is only given as 'Bhutan', it has not been possible to produce an accurate distribution map for it.	eng
57606	habitat		Although nothing is currently known about the habitat of this species it is presumed to be associated with and to breed in streams, like other species of the genus.	eng
57606	population		There is no information available on the population status or abundance of this species.	eng
57606	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57607	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas in the region.	eng
57607	distribution		This species is known from northwestern Nepal, and southeastern Qinghai, the eastern and southern part of Xizang, southern Gansu and northwestern Sichuan provinces in western China. It is likely to occur in Bhutan and India, but there are not so far any records. It is found at high elevations of 2,200-5,100m asl.	eng
57607	habitat		It is an alpine species associated with the headwaters of streams, stream banks and the edges of glacial lakes in grassland habitats. It breeds in streams. Information on the development of the tadpoles is given by Song and Huang (1990).	eng
57607	population		This is a very common species.	eng
57607	threats		The major threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use, and the pollution of waterways and the surrounding land by agrochemicals. Overgrazing might also be a threat in parts of its range.	eng
57608	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57608	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of 'Taining' [Qanning Mountain], Daofu Country, Sichuan Province, China, at around 3,500m asl.	eng
57608	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in small forest streams, and also spring-fed streams in alpine meadows.	eng
57608	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57608	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57609	conservation		Three protected areas are present within the range of this species, namely Wolong Nature Reserve, Emeishan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve, and Wawushan National Forest Park.	eng
57609	distribution		This species is only known from three locations in Emei, Hongya and Wenchuan in Sichuan Province, south-western China, at 2,700-3,400m asl.	eng
57609	habitat		It is a stream-breeding amphibian that inhabits small streams and the surrounding habitat, near the peak of mountains.	eng
57609	population		The population is small and declining.	eng
57609	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due mainly to infrastructure development for tourist activities; water pollution is an additional threat.	eng
57610	conservation		A few small-protected areas are present within the range of this species such as Gonggashan and Daochengyading National Nature Reserves.	eng
57610	distribution		This species is known from western Sichuan and northwestern Yunnan (Zhongdian) provinces in China, from 2,200-4,000m asl.	eng
57610	habitat		It inhabits small forest streams and spring-fed streams in alpine meadows. It breeds in streams.	eng
57610	population		The population is presumed to be large considering its wide distribution.	eng
57610	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species.	eng
57611	conservation		Part of the range of this species is within the Gaoligong Shan Nature Reserve, now part of the Three Parallel Rivers World Heritage Site.	eng
57611	distribution		This species is only known from Gongshan and Biluoxueshan, in north-western Yunnan Province, China, from 2,500-3,850m asl. It is likely to be found in neighbouring northern Myanmar, but there are no records to date.	eng
57611	habitat		It inhabits spring-fed marshes in conifer forests, and breeds in very small streams.	eng
57611	population		It is probably quite a rare species.	eng
57611	threats		The major threat is habitat encroachment for agriculture and human settlement.	eng
57612	conservation		This species' only known location is within Gonggashan National Nature Reserve.	eng
57612	distribution		This species is known only from Jiulong County in southern Sichuan Province, China, from 3,120-3,750m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57612	habitat		It inhabits seepages, marshy pools and the surrounding areas in high mountains, and breeds in streams.	eng
57612	population		It is found in only one location, where the population is currently stable, although very small.	eng
57612	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57613	conservation		Much of the range of this species lies within the Liupanshan National Nature Reserve. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.	eng
57613	distribution		This species is only recorded from Liupanshan, in Jinyuan County, Ningxia Huizu Zizhiqu Autonomous Region, China, from 1,900-2,500m asl.	eng
57613	habitat		It inhabits forest where it breeds in small- to medium-sized, spring-fed streams.	eng
57613	population		It is common within its small range.	eng
57613	threats		Its habitat is within a protected area so it is not presently threatened by habitat destruction or degradation. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
57614	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.	eng
57614	distribution		This species is known only from Garze County, in north-western Sichuan province, and Jiangda, in eastern Xizang province, China, from 3,300-3,500m asl.	eng
57614	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in small hill streams, low-gradient spring-fed streams, and low-gradient medium-sized streams. The surrounding habitats are a mosaic of alpine meadows and forests.	eng
57614	population		Only three specimens have ever been collected (including the type specimen), two of which were collected in the 1970s. It has not been found in its natural range since the 1970s despite repeated searches by herpetologists, and it is possible that it is now extinct.	eng
57614	threats		The species is threatened by ongoing habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (livestock and crops) and human settlement; climate change might also pose a future threat. Poor recruitment as a result of these threats might be a factor contributing to the species' disappearance.	eng
57615	conservation		A lot of protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
57615	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Qinghai, western Sichuan, eastern Xizang and northwestern Yunnan provinces in western China, from 2,600-4,200m asl.	eng
57615	habitat		It inhabits small to medium sized low-gradient streams, seepages and spring-fed marshes in sub-alpine and alpine areas. The surrounding habitats may include cultivated fields, forests, shrublands, grasslands and/or only sparse vegetation. It breeds in freshwater.	eng
57615	population		This is a very common species.	eng
57615	threats		There are no threats known, expect perhaps overgrazing.	eng
57616	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area, and the montane habitat of this species is in need of protection. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
57616	distribution		This species is only known from Muli, in south-western Sichuan Province, China, from 3,050-3,400m asl.	eng
57616	habitat		It inhabits low-gradient streams and riparian habitats (mainly shrublands), and breeds in streams.	eng
57616	population		There is no information on its current population status.	eng
57616	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to overgrazing from livestock and increasing human settlement.	eng
57617	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in protected areas, but it might occur in Rara National Park or Shey-Phoksundo National Park.	eng
57617	distribution		This species is restricted to the mountains of north-western Nepal, where it has been recorded from 3,000-5,000m asl.	eng
57617	habitat		It is an alpine species strongly associated with streams in grassland habitats. While the species is known to breed in streams there is little information available on the site of egg deposition or larval ecology.	eng
57617	population		It is considered a rare species.	eng
57617	threats		The main threat to this species is the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation). There is also ongoing habitat loss for agriculture and human settlement.	eng
57618	conservation		The range of this species is just outside Niubeiliang National Nature Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
57618	distribution		This species is only recorded from Ningshaan County, southern Shaanxi Province, China, where it has been recorded from 1,970-2,550m asl.	eng
57618	habitat		It is found near streams among grasses in mixed forest. The breeding habitat is unknown, but it is presumably in streams where it breeds by larval development.	eng
57618	population		The population status of this species is not known; only two specimens have ever been collected.	eng
57618	threats		There is little direct information on threats; however, it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities.	eng
57619	conservation		Its range probably overlaps at least one protected area.	eng
57619	distribution		This species is recorded from Linzhi, Bomi and Yadong Counties, Xizang Zizhiqu, China and from northeastern Pakistan, eastern Nepal and northwestern India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations between 3,000 and 5,000m asl.	eng
57619	habitat		An alpine species associated with streams in moist, forested and grassland habitats in hilly areas. It breeds in low-gradient streams and pools, laying eggs under fallen logs or under stones. Tadpoles over-winter.	eng
57619	population		It lives in groups and is locally common.	eng
57619	threats		The main threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation), and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.	eng
57620	conservation		The range of this species overlaps several reserves, including Jiangshan, Tangjiahe and Wanglang Nature Reserves.	eng
57620	distribution		This species is only known from Pingwu County, in north-eastern Sichuan Province, China, at about 2,200m asl.	eng
57620	habitat		It lives close to villages in secondary vegetation and in small streams fringed by dense shrubs. It breeds under rocks in streams.	eng
57620	population		It is common, although the population is believed to be small.	eng
57620	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural development and human settlement.	eng
57621	conservation		The only known confirmed location is within the Jintangkongyu Nature Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given it is known from only one protected area.	eng
57621	distribution		This species is reported from Kangding and Muli, in western Sichuan Province, China, at about 3,400m asl. The population from Muli might actually be <em>S. muliensis</em>.	eng
57621	habitat		It inhabits small, slow-flowing streams surrounded by lush vegetation in forest or grassland habitat. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.	eng
57621	population		At the one confirmed location the species is considered to be rare.	eng
57621	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present. However, its restricted range renders it more vulnerable to threatening processes.	eng
57622	conservation		The Nielamu location in China is within the Yadong National Nature Reserve.	eng
57622	distribution		This species is found throughout much of Nepal and in parts of northern India (West Bengal, Sikkim and Meghalaya) and from southern Xizang province (Yadong, Cona and Nielamu) in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and is expected to occur in Bhutan. It is present at elevations between 2,700 and 5,000m asl.	eng
57622	habitat		It is an alpine species associated with small streams, seepages, stream-fed marshes and the surrounding forests and grassland habitats. It is known to breed in streams.	eng
57622	population		In Nepal and India this species is considered common, but in China fewer than ten specimens have been collected and it is considered rare.	eng
57622	threats		The main threats to this species are the diversion of water from breeding streams for agricultural use (irrigation), and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.	eng
57623	conservation		It is recorded from the Luojishan, and Panzhihua-Sutielin Nature Reserves.	eng
57623	distribution		This species is only known from Yuexi, Mianning, and Xichang in southern Sichuan Province, China, from 2,600-3,750m asl.	eng
57623	habitat		It inhabits small- to medium-sized streams and the surrounding riparian forest. It sometimes also occurs in marshes and at the marshy edges of lakes. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57623	population		There is no information on the currrent population status of this species.	eng
57623	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused by logging in the Yuexi area.	eng
57624	conservation		The entire known range of this species is within Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves.	eng
57624	distribution		This species is restricted to Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan in central Yunnan Province, China, from 800-2,600m asl.	eng
57624	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests and breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57624	population		It is rare and difficult to find.	eng
57624	threats		Its habitat is well protected, and it is not facing any known threats.	eng
57625	conservation		The species' range overlaps with a few protected areas, including Pinghushan and Badagongshan National Nature Reserves, and Emei Shan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve. It is a protected species in Sichuan, Hunan and Guizhou Provinces.	eng
57625	distribution		This species is known from Emei Shan and Junlian in Sichuan Province, Jiangkou and Yinjiang in Guizhou Province, and Sangzhi in Hunan Province, China, from 600-1,700m asl.	eng
57625	habitat		It breeds in slow-flowing streams surrounded by forest, cultivated fields, and grassland.	eng
57625	population		It is a rare species, and has nearly disappeared from Emei Shan.	eng
57625	threats		The major threats to this species are over-collecting for the pet trade and habitat loss and degradation.	eng
57626	conservation		Although one population inhabits the Hoang Lien Son National Park, and the adjacent Hoang Lien Nature Reserve, there is a need for improved management of these existing protected areas to halt ongoing degradation of habitat within them.	eng
57626	distribution		This species is known from the Fan Si Pan mountain area of extreme northern Viet Nam, at about 1,900-2,500m asl.	eng
57626	habitat		It inhabits closed-canopy forests; adults live on the forest floor up to 15m away from streams, while during the breeding period the animals move to small, slow-moving streams. Males construct and guard nests under rocks in the stream. Water temperatures may be as low as 11°C during egg development.	eng
57626	population		It is not uncommon in suitable habitat (S. Swan pers. comm.).	eng
57626	threats		The larvae of this species are at least one year old before metamorphosis, which may result in this species being more susceptible to degradation of its forest and stream habitats. The area of occurrence, which includes Hoang Lien Son National Park, is under significant threat from over-exploitation of natural resources, land clearance for cultivation, and accidental fire. The habitat type most threatened is lower montane evergreen forest, which has already been significantly reduced in extent. Remaining areas of natural habitat at all elevations are being degraded by selective timber extraction, collection of firewood and establishment of cardamom plantations. An additional potential threat is tourism development (Tordoff 2002).	eng
57627	conservation		It occurs in Leigongshan Nature Reserve, which is reported to be highly degraded, and there is clearly a need for improved management of this area. There is also a need to carefully monitor and regulate local trade in this species. All frogs, including this species, are protected in Guizhou.	eng
57627	distribution		This species is known from only two locations at Leishan, in south-eastern Guizhou Province, China, from 800-1,800m asl.	eng
57627	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57627	population		It is now considered to be a very rare species.	eng
57627	threats		Over-collecting by local villagers for consumption is a major threat to this species, and habitat destruction and degradation due to collection of wood is also a potential threat.	eng
57628	conservation		Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a protected species in Jiangxi and Fujian.	eng
57628	distribution		This species is known from Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi and Hunan provinces in southern China, from 580-2,030m asl.	eng
57628	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forests, and breeds in streams. The tadpoles over-winter.	eng
57628	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57628	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular logging, infrastructure development and dam construction.	eng
57629	conservation		Provided existing protected areas in Peninsular Thailand, Malaysia and Sumatra remain intact and free from disease impacts; no additional conservation actions seem necessary for this species.	eng
57629	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Thailand from Nakhon Sri Thammarat southwards (Taylor, 1962) through most of Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975, as M. montana) and from Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs from the lowlands at about 150m asl up to montane forests over 1,500m asl (Dring, 1979).	eng
57629	habitat		This species inhabits closed-canopy evergreen forests. Tadpoles develop in forest streams.	eng
57629	population		There are no published data and collected series are generally modest (Grandison, 1972; Dring, 1979), corresponding to the 'occasional' encounter rates at most locations, though it can be locally abundant (P.P. van Dijk, J. Sukumaran, D. Sharma, J. Tang, Y. Norsham, D. Iskandar and Mumpuni pers. comm.).	eng
57629	threats		This species appears widespread and adaptable enough not to be threatened by anything other than widespread systemic habitat degradation, pollution or epidemic disease.	eng
57630	conservation		It has been recorded from the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
57630	distribution		This species has been recently described from Phnom Aural, in the eastern Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, where it occurs from 500-1,140m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57630	habitat		This species is known to occur close to cascade sections of mountain streams in evergreen hill forest. It presumably breeds in streams, like other species of the genus.	eng
57630	population		In favourable habitat it is common.	eng
57630	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57631	conservation		The two protected areas in which it is found, namely Gunung Kinabalu and Tama Negara National Parks, are well protected.	eng
57631	distribution		This species is known from Gunung Kinabalu and the Crocker Range on Borneo, in Sabah (Malaysia), from 1,200-1,900m asl.	eng
57631	habitat		It is restricted to montane forests, where adults and juveniles have been found in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Breeding is thought to take place in slow-flowing regions of clear, rocky streams.	eng
57631	population		There are no estimates of the status of its subpopulations but it does not appear to be abundant.	eng
57631	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57632	conservation		The species has been recorded from Moulin Wild Life Sanctuary and Shera Wild Life Sanctuary in India and many protected areas in China. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Bordoloi (2000).	eng
57632	distribution		This species is present in northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland states) and central China. It is found at elevations of 100-2,500m asl.	eng
57632	habitat		It is associated with riparian vegetation, hill streams and leaf-litter in evergreen tropical forest habitat. It breeds in streams.	eng
57632	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57632	threats		Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
57633	conservation		Much of the range of this species falls inside country parks in Hong Kong.	eng
57633	distribution		This species was, until very recently, thought to be restricted to Hong Kong, southern China, and the only confirmed records are still from Hong Kong. A specimen from Fujian Province in China was reported in the original description, but there are no recent records from there (and it is not mapped as occurring there). Animals tentatively referrable to this species have also been reported from Lang Son and Ha Bac Provinces of north-eastern Viet Nam by Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000 (also not included in the map). This species has been recorded from 20-750m asl.	eng
57633	habitat		It inhabits forests, and breeds in hill streams.	eng
57633	population		In Hong Kong it is uncommon; there is no information on the status of populations from Viet Nam.	eng
57633	threats		The major threats are habitat loss and degradation, caused by urbanization and water pollution (as a result of chemicals used in mosquito control programmes).	eng
57634	conservation		Its range probably overlaps with Badagongshan Nature Reserve.	eng
57634	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Tianping Mountain, Sangzhi, in northern Hunan Province, China, at 1,600m asl.	eng
57634	habitat		This species probably inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests, like most other members of the genus. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
57634	population		Only one specimen has ever been collected, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57634	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57635	conservation		It occurs within Daweishan National Nature Reserve.	eng
57635	distribution		This species is known only from Daweishan in Pingbian and Hekou Counties, in southern Yunnan Province, China, at around 1,900m asl, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57635	habitat		It inhabits hilly areas and is probably a forest inhabitant that breeds in streams, like most other members of the genus.	eng
57635	population		This is a rare species.	eng
57635	threats		It could be threatened in the future by tourism, if this is not carefully managed.	eng
57636	conservation		Continued protection of Gunung Mulu National Park is required to ensure the long-term conservation of this species.	eng
57636	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, Borneo, at 1,800m asl, and has not been found in Kinabalu National Park despite intensive sampling there, so its range appears to be genuinely restricted.	eng
57636	habitat		The only known specimens were found along a small, clear, rocky stream in montane forest. Larvae presumably develop in slow-flowing parts of these streams.	eng
57636	population		There is very little information on population status.	eng
57636	threats		There are no major threats to this species since its habitat is well protected.	eng
57637	conservation		The range of this species includes the Great Snow Mountain National Nature Reserve (Yongde County), and the Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve (Jingdong Country).	eng
57637	distribution		This species is known only from Jingdong and Yongde counties in south-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,400-2,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely than records suggest.	eng
57637	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor of evergreen broadleaf forests. It breeds in the head of streams and the larvae are then washed some distance downstream.	eng
57637	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
57637	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture (including plantations) and subsistence wood collection.	eng
57638	conservation		In China this species has been recorded from Ailaoshan, Lujiang, and Juheyinyongshuiyuan Nature Reserves.	eng
57638	distribution		This species is known from the areas of Jingdong and Gongshan in Yunnan Province, China and from a recent record from Puliebadze in Nagaland State, India. It is presumed that further field surveys will indicate that this species ranges more widely than is currently known. It has been collected up to 2,225m asl (Nagaland).	eng
57638	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of montane tropical forest. It is found close to streams in bushes and shrubs. Breeding is presumed to take place in the streams. It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat change.	eng
57638	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57638	threats		In China this species is threatened by clear cutting of forests. It is presumed that it is also threatened in India by habitat loss.	eng
57639	conservation		Much of the range of this species in China falls within Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve. The one known locality in Viet Nam is within the Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
57639	distribution		This species is known from central and southern Yunnan province (Luchun, Jingdong, Jinping and Shuangbai) in China, and has recently been discovered from Mount Fan Si Pan in Viet Nam. In China it has been recorded from 1,000-2,400m asl. In Viet Nam it was collected at 1,600m asl.	eng
57639	habitat		It inhabits forests, and is a stream breeding amphibian. In Viet Nam it was collected in montane forest and scrub vegetation at the forest edge. The males were observed calling from vegetation near mountain streams.	eng
57639	population		It is considered somewhat uncommon in China, but there are no population estimates available for Viet Nam.	eng
57639	threats		In China, forest clearance is a threat, but most sites are now well protected. In Viet Nam, forest degradation from wood collection and cardamom plantations alongside the streams are threats.	eng
57640	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. More work is needed to ascertain whether or not this is a valid species, and if so, its distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs should be determined. The identity of the animals from China attributed to this species also needs to be clarified.	eng
57640	distribution		This species is known with certainty from "Upper Rotung (2000ft [610m asl])" in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. There are also records from Motuo County at 2,500m asl in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China (Fei 1999), but it is not certain that these refer to the same species, and so are not included in the map here.	eng
57640	habitat		This species probably occurs in tropical moist forest, but nothing is known regarding its habitats and biology. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus.	eng
57640	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known with certainty only from a single specimen.	eng
57640	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57641	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.	eng
57641	distribution		This species is known from Zhejiang, Hunan, Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangxi Provinces in central China. Animals tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan, northern Viet Nam, by Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 480-1,900m asl.	eng
57641	habitat		This species inhabits forests and hill streams.	eng
57641	population		There is a large population of this species in China. There is no population information available for Viet Nam.	eng
57641	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species in China. In Viet Nam there is no available information on potential threats.	eng
57642	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas in Thailand, including the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, but stronger protection of its habitat in Peninsular Malaysia is required.	eng
57642	distribution		This species is only known from the mountain ranges of southern Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, from 300-1,000m asl. Records from Cambodia remain unconfirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57642	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed evergreen rainforest and montane moss forest. Larvae live in small, clear, swift-flowing streams.	eng
57642	population		This is an uncommon species even in prime habitat.	eng
57642	threats		Some subpopulations might be threatened by local forest clearance, although overall its montane forest habitat is reasonably secure.	eng
57643	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. Taxonomic research to review variation across the species' range would be useful.	eng
57643	distribution		This species is widespread from northeastern India (Arunchal Pradesh and Nagaland) through northern Myanmar, northern and western Thailand, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and northern Viet Nam south through the Annamite mountains of the Lao-Vietnamese border region, and southern and western Yunnan and western Guangxi provinces, in China. It is found at elevations between 250-2,500m asl.	eng
57643	habitat		It exclusively inhabits evergreen forest areas, in monsoon and perennial rain climates. It breeds in streams and tadpoles live in clear, swift-flowing streams.	eng
57643	population		It is known to be common throughout most of its range.	eng
57643	threats		It is a widespread species; individual populations experience a wide variety of threats. The species overall is probably only potentially threatened by pervasive impacts such as mass forest destruction or water pollution/erosion runoff. In China it is collected locally for food.	eng
57644	conservation		It is recorded from at least one protected area, Mangshan National Nature Reserve.	eng
57644	distribution		This species is known from southern Hunan and northern Gaungdong Provinces in China, from 380 to over 1,000m asl.	eng
57644	habitat		It inhabits forests and streams (in which it breeds).	eng
57644	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
57644	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation, arising from smallholder agriculture and dam construction.	eng
57645	conservation		Part of the range of this species in China is within Motuo National Nature Reserve.	eng
57645	distribution		This species is restricted to Medog, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 850-1,350m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in north-eastern India.	eng
57645	habitat		It is known from forested areas, where adults are often found near streams, lakes and cultivated fields. It breeds in streams.	eng
57645	population		There is no population information available for this species.	eng
57645	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
57646	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in China. It is found within the Hoang Lien San National Park in Viet Nam, and within Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand. Further study is needed to determine the complete Extent of Occurrence of this species.	eng
57646	distribution		This species is known from central and southwestern China, from 550-2,850m asl. Animals tentatively referred to Megophrys minor were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai province, northern Viet Nam, from 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em>, 2000, and from Chiang Mai 'Thailand' by Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and eastern Myanmar.	eng
57646	habitat		This species inhabits forests and streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
57646	population		There is no information on the population status of this species in Viet Nam or Thailand, but in China, it is very common.	eng
57646	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
57647	conservation		The three localities where this species has been recorded are all inside nature reserves: Jiangshan, Tangjiahe, and Daxiaonanshan.	eng
57647	distribution		This species is known from Kuang-wu Shan in Nankiang County and Qingchuan in Sichuan Province, and Wenxian, in Gansu Province, China, from 1,600-1,850m asl.	eng
57647	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and surrounding shrubland habitat. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.	eng
57647	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57647	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, especially due to infrastructure development for touristic activities.	eng
57648	conservation		Part of the range of this species falls within protected areas in China. The one location in Viet Nam from which it has been tentatively recorded is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
57648	distribution		This species is known from six locations in southern Sichuan, China, from 700-1,500m asl. Records tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam, at 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em> (2000), but the identity of these records has not yet been confirmed.	eng
57648	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and forests, and breeding takes place in streams.	eng
57648	population		This is a common species.	eng
57648	threats		The habitat of this species is threatened by smallholder farming activities and tourism.	eng
57649	conservation		The one location in Viet Nam from which it has been tentatively recorded is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. The other location in China is within Motuo National Nature Reserve.	eng
57649	distribution		This species was originally known only from Medog, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 1,530m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in north-eastern India. Animals tentatively referred to this species were reported from Fan Si Pan Mountain, Lao Cai Province, northern Viet Nam, at 1,400-1,900m asl, by Orlov <em>et al.</em> (2000), but their range has not been mapped as part of this assessment, pending confirmation of their identity.	eng
57649	habitat		This species inhabits forests and breeds in streams.	eng
57649	population		This is considered a rare species in China. There is no population status information available from Viet Nam.	eng
57649	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57650	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing, Yang Datong, Ohler, A. & Wu Guanfu, 2004	The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas in China. In Viet Nam it is found in Hoang Lien Son National Park and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it occurs in Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart 2005). Further degradation of Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tam Dao Nature Reserve should be prevented.	eng
57650	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing, Yang Datong, Ohler, A. & Wu Guanfu, 2004	This species is known from northern Viet Nam, Phongsaly province in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, and southern Yunnan and Guangxi provinces in China. In Viet Nam, it is known from four localities; Fan Si Pan and Tam Dao National Park, Ha Giang Province and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is known from 1,400-1,700 m asl at Fan Si Pan, 900-1,200 m asl at Tam Dao (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000), 600 m asl at Phongsaly (Stuart 2005), 1,000-1,500 m asl at Ha Giang and from 730-1,800 m asl in China. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
57650	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing, Yang Datong, Ohler, A. & Wu Guanfu, 2004	It lives near streams in evergreen forest and its tadpoles develop in clear mountain streams.	eng
57650	population	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing, Yang Datong, Ohler, A. & Wu Guanfu, 2004	In China this species is quite common. It is considered 'Rare' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
57650	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing, Yang Datong, Ohler, A. & Wu Guanfu, 2004	In Viet Nam, both areas of occurrence, while declared as nature reserves, continue to be extensively impacted by forest product collection, agricultural and forestry activities, fires and presumably pollution (BirdLife International 2001). In China, serious habitat destruction and degradation is ongoing due, in particular, to the expansion of rubber plantations.	eng
57651	conservation		Its wide range and known occurrence in several protected areas throughout its range suggests that no immediate conservation measures are needed at present. Additional information on population status, distribution and biology would be useful.	eng
57651	distribution		This species is known from Myanmar as far south as Tenasserim, northern Thailand, Phuket Island (Thailand), northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, northern Viet Nam, southern Yunnan and southwestern Guangxi in China, and Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh in India, and Bhutan and Nepal. It is known from two isolated localities in Chittagong and Chittagong Hill-tracts in Bangladesh and most likely occurs more widely in this country. It occurs at elevations of between 500 and 2,500m asl.	eng
57651	habitat		It is known from evergreen broadleaf forest alongside streams. Males have been observed calling from logs, bushes and rocks along streams. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
57651	population		This is generally an uncommon species, and is rarely encountered in numbers.	eng
57651	threats		Forest loss is ongoing within the Chinese range of the species. Localized clearance of forest habitat and agricultural pollution are threats in South Asia. In Southeast Asia stream degradation from human clearance and collection activities as well as pollution might be a threat.	eng
57652	conservation		It has been reported from Mouling National Park and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve, in Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
57652	distribution		This species is restricted to four areas of north-eastern India: Mouling National Park, and northern West Siang District, both in Arunachal Pradesh; Darjeeling and Kalimpong in West Bengal; and the Garo Hills and Tura Hills in Meghalaya. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at altitudes between 1,100 and 2,000m asl.	eng
57652	habitat		This species is associated with riparian vegetation in tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in forest streams.	eng
57652	population		There is no information available on population trends or abundance.	eng
57652	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57653	conservation		Some of the localities of this species are within protected areas, including Wolong, Luojishan, Fengtongzai, Meigudafengding and Labahe National Nature Reserves.	eng
57653	distribution		This species is endemic to western Sichuan province, China, from 2,000-3,200m asl.	eng
57653	habitat		It inhabits hill streams in thick forests and shrublands, and breeds in slow-flowing streams.	eng
57653	population		It is a rare species, with a small population.	eng
57653	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are possible threats to this species.	eng
57654	conservation		The one known occurrence of this species is not within a protected area.	eng
57654	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Fenghuang Village, in Shuicheng County in western Guizhou Province, China, from 1,800-1,870m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57654	habitat		It inhabits low-gradient streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests.	eng
57654	population		It is known only from a singe location. There is no information known regarding the size of the population.	eng
57654	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57655	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with quite a few protected areas in the region.	eng
57655	distribution		This species is known from central and southwestern China in Hunan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Yunnan provinces, from 800-1,800m asl.	eng
57655	habitat		An inhabitant of hill streams in evergreen broadleaf forests. It breeds in streams.	eng
57655	population		There is a large population of this species.	eng
57655	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are threats to this species including agriculture and dam construction.	eng
57656	conservation		Its range includes Wawushan National Forest Park.	eng
57656	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Wawushan, in Hongya County, Sichuan Province, China, at approximately 1,800m asl, and is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57656	habitat		It inhabits small streams and damp soils that have a thick growth of grasses or bushes, and also rock crevices. It breeds in streams, and the larvae live in holes or under stones in the streams.	eng
57656	population		It is not common, and is difficult to find. Only one population is known.	eng
57656	threats		The major threat to this species is increasing tourism to the area.	eng
57657	conservation		Part of its range is within Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve.	eng
57657	distribution		This species is known from Wuliangshan in Jingdong County, central Yunnan Province, China, from 2,000-2,400m asl. It has also recently been recorded from Puliebadze and Noklak, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar, although there are no records from there yet.	eng
57657	habitat		It inhabits evergreen broadleaf forests, and breeds in small hill streams.	eng
57657	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57657	threats		This species is potentially threatened by forest loss that is taking place outside the protected area in which it occurs (i.e. in the buffer zone).	eng
57658	conservation		The range of the species includes Shenglongjia National Nature Reserve.	eng
57658	distribution		This species is endemic to Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi and Hubei provinces in central China, and occurs above 1,000m asl.	eng
57658	habitat		It inhabits small hill streams and the surrounding riparian habitats. It probably breeds in streams like other species of the genus.	eng
57658	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57658	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
57659	conservation		The range of this species is not within any protected area.	eng
57659	distribution		This species is only known from Zhangmo, Nyanang, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 700-1,000m asl.	eng
57659	habitat		It inhabits streams and the surrounding forests.	eng
57659	population		It is a very rare species. Only three specimens are known, all from the type locality.	eng
57659	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57660	conservation		The range of some populations falls within established national parks and a Biosphere Reserve (Parque Nacional Serranía de la Neblina and the Reserva de Biosfera Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare).	eng
57660	distribution		This is a monotypic genus known only from the general vicinity of the type locality, on the foothills of Cerro Neblina, near the Rio Baria, in Amazonian Venezuela, at 140m asl. The limits of its distribution are unknown, and it could occur more widely.	eng
57660	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of lowland tropical rainforests, and has not been found in modified habitats.	eng
57660	population		It is apparently a common species.	eng
57660	threats		This species lives in a remote area that is at least partially protected, so it is unlikely to be seriously threatened by any particular pressures. However, deforestation and habitat degradation due to smallholder agriculture and logging probably threaten local populations, and gold extraction might pose a future problem, if illegal mining starts in the area where it occurs.	eng
57661	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57661	distribution		This species is known from the type locality at Mambimap Village, in the Adelbert Range of Papua New Guinea at 1,360m asl, and from the Bewani Mountains and the Hunstein Mountains of northern Papua New Guinea. It is likely to occur in all of the North Coast ranges.	eng
57661	habitat		It is a forest species, but has also been found in rural gardens adjacent to a village. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably laying eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57661	population		It is quite common at the type locality and the series collected at the Bewani Mountains is quite large suggesting that it is also common at this locality.	eng
57661	threats		There are no known threats. It seems to be adaptable to some extent, since it has been found in a rural garden. There is extensive suitable habitat available within the range of the species.	eng
57662	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. Its range might include the Mount Wilhelm protected area.	eng
57662	distribution		This species is known from the Bismarck, Schrader and Hagen mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea, and probably in other ranges in the general vicinity (Menzies 1999). It has been collected from 2,100-2,400m asl.	eng
57662	habitat		Little is known, but certainly occurs in montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57662	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57662	threats		Selective logging, and the clearance of forests for rural gardens are localized threats.	eng
57663	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57663	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 2,400m asl: the north-western slopes of Mount Giluwe, and south-east of Mount Hagen.	eng
57663	habitat		It lives in mid-altitude montane rainforest, where it is a presumed direct developing species, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57663	population		It is a common species.	eng
57663	threats		It is perhaps locally threatened by selective logging.	eng
57664	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57664	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "near Kowat, Adelbert Range" (Menzies 1999), in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, at 900m asl.	eng
57664	habitat		It inhabits hill forest and, like other species in the genus, presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57664	population		It is quite common.	eng
57664	threats		Shifting cultivation is threatening its habitat.	eng
57665	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57665	distribution		This species is known from Aieme Creek, a tributary of the Musgrave River, in Central Province at around 450m asl, and from the region from Dorobisoro to Laronu on the western slope of Mount Obree from 600-800m asl, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57665	habitat		It occurs in the foothill rainforest at Aieme Creek, and is common in patches of relatively undisturbed habitat around some of the villages west of Mount Obree. It does not appear to be particularly tolerant of habitat disturbance as it is absent from the adjacent secondary forest that is regenerating. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57665	population		It is quite a common species in undisturbed habitat.	eng
57665	threats		Habitat destruction due to logging might be a threat to this species in some areas, although it is unlikely to be a wide ranging threat given the extent of forest still remaining between the two currently known sites.	eng
57666	conservation		Its range overlaps with the edge of Wandamen Nature Reserve.	eng
57666	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality in the Wondiwoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, from 800-950m asl.	eng
57666	habitat		It occurs in dense primary rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57666	population		It is an abundant species within its small range.	eng
57666	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
57667	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57667	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Moiyokabip, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. The altitude at which it was found has variously been given as 1,200m and 1,520m asl.	eng
57667	habitat		It lives in rainforest and can possibly adapt to secondary and degraded habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably breeding on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57667	population		It is quite common in its type locality.	eng
57667	threats		No information is available.	eng
57668	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected area, and protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat around the type locality is recommended. Further survey work is needed to determine the biology and population status of the species, and to understand the limits of its range better.	eng
57668	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at Mount Elimbari, Simbu Province, Papua New Guinea, and is thought likely to have a very narrow distribution. It was collected between 2,400 and 2,500m asl.	eng
57668	habitat		It occurs in montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57668	population		It is quite common at the type locality.	eng
57668	threats		The habitat of this species has become isolated and fragmented due to clearance of the land around the area of the type locality. It is also threatened by bushfires that are increasing due to intensified droughts.	eng
57669	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57669	distribution		This species is known from the Hagen Range, northeast of Mendi, and the Kubor Range, east of Mount Hagen, in Papua New Guinea, and from intervening areas with suitable habitat. Its altitudinal range is 1,920-2,500m asl. It is thought likely to have a reasonably wide distribution.	eng
57669	habitat		It lives in mid-montane forest. It has been found in places where selective logging has been taking place. It is presumed to breed by direct development, and probably lays eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57669	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
57669	threats		There is little information, though it appears to be tolerant of at least a degree of logging.	eng
57670	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. Part of its range overlaps with the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.	eng
57670	distribution		This species is known from three widely scattered locations: the Ok Tedi headwaters region, the Moro and Gobe highlands region, and in the eastern Schrader Mountains, all in the mountains of western and central Papua New Guinea. It presumably occurs more widely, especially in intervening areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,900m asl.	eng
57670	habitat		It lives in lower montane rainforest, including disturbed forest habitats. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57670	population		It is abundant wherever it has been found.	eng
57670	threats		None are known and it is tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
57671	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area	eng
57671	distribution		This species has been found in mountainous terrain spanning over 200km linear distance in eastern Papua New Guinea from at least the Ekuti Dividing Range near Wau to Myola in the Owen Stanley Ranges. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-2,930m asl.	eng
57671	habitat		It lives in mid-montane rainforest, and on the forest edge, but does not tolerate severe habitat degradation. However, it has been found in a few rural gardens. It is presumed to breed by direct development, probably laying eggs on the ground or in moss on tree trunks.	eng
57671	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57671	threats		Burning and other forms of habitat degradation have greatly reduced its occurrence around the type locality (Hidden Valley).	eng
57672	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented.	eng
57672	distribution		This species' geographic range is unknown. The only known specimen was collected in the Digul River area, Merauke Regency, Papua, Indonesia. The precise (and indeed even the general) locality has not been determined.	eng
57672	habitat		This species' habitat is presumably rainforest. Like other members of its genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57672	population		The population status of this species is unknown. The one known specimen still exists.	eng
57672	threats		The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57673	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but a management plan has been suggested for the Peruvian population.	eng
57673	distribution		This species is known in Peru only from the type locality, "Lodge Cuzco Amazónico" (Wild 1994), Río Madre de Dios, about 15km east-north-east of Puerto Maldonado, in Madre de Dios Department. In Bolivia, it is known only from a single site. It is expected to range more widely (Reichle pers comm.), and is present below 200m asl.	eng
57673	habitat		It can be found in temporary swamps, and permanent waterbodies, in flooded primary tropical rainforest. It might lay eggs on the surface of swamps, but this requires further investigation. In Bolivia it has been found in both disturbed and forest edge habitat.	eng
57673	population		This species is common in Bolivia.	eng
57673	threats		The Peruvian locality is threatened by selective wood extraction, although this might be potentially beneficial in that small ponds might be created (J. Icochea pers. comm.).	eng
57674	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57674	distribution		This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar in the rainforest belt from the Antongila Bay area south to Andohahela. It is also on Nosy Mangabe and Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie). Records from further north in northeastern Madagascar and from northwestern Madagascar are based on misidentifications. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300m asl.	eng
57674	habitat		It is an arboreal species in pristine and degraded forest, bamboo forest, and secondary growth. It does not occur in completely open areas, and needs trees for breeding. It breeds in tree holes by larval development and non-feeding tadpoles.	eng
57674	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57674	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57675	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andringitra. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known from only a single protected area.	eng
57675	distribution		This species occurs at 2,000-2,658m asl in south-eastern Madagascar, where it is known with certainty only from Andringitra. Records from Andohahela require confirmation, and the species has not been found there in recent surveys. It might occur more widely, but there is very little high-altitude habitat at other sites in south-eastern Madagascar.	eng
57675	habitat		It lives in rocky areas within heath land and grassland at high elevations above the tree-line. It breeds in small rock pools and has non-feeding tadpoles.	eng
57675	population		It is abundant at several localities within Andringitra.	eng
57675	threats		Its habitat is largely immune to destruction, and even fires are unlikely to have much effect on this species. It might possibly be susceptible to climatic changes, as it is confined to mountain tops.	eng
57676	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely, which is poorly managed, and Parc National d'Andohahela, which is well managed.	eng
57676	distribution		This species occurs in extreme south-eastern Madagascar at Andohahela and Nampoana, with a recent record from Ambohitantely in central Madagascar. It ranges from sea level to 1,500m asl. Its distribution is evidently not very well known.	eng
57676	habitat		This species lives in pristine forest and degraded forest, but is not found in open areas because it needs trees for breeding. It breeds in tree holes and has direct developing larvae.	eng
57676	population		It is seemingly abundant at Andohahela, but is not common at Ambohitantely.	eng
57676	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57677	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and the habitat of the Anosy Mountains is in urgent need of protection.	eng
57677	distribution		This species has a very small range in south-eastern Madagascar, in the Anosy Mountains, at 1,900m asl, close to the mountain summit which is at 1,959m asl. It apparently does not occur at Andohahela.	eng
57677	habitat		It is apparently confined to bamboo forests at high elevations, and presumably breeds in water filled cavities in bamboo and has a non-feeding larval form.	eng
57677	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57677	threats		The main threat is likely to be habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements. However, as a mountain-top species, it could also be a risk from global warming,	eng
57678	conservation		The area where it occurs used to be protected by local people to at least some extent.	eng
57678	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Oro Province, Papua New Guinea: the type locality near the Myola Guest House, at 2,700m asl and Mount Tafa, at 2,400m asl.	eng
57678	habitat		One individual was found in leaf-litter on a forested ridge. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57678	population		Only two specimens are known; this is a very hard species to find.	eng
57678	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in an area that has experienced very little human impact.	eng
57679	conservation		Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57679	distribution		This species is known from two widely separated mountainous regions at high elevations in Papua New Guinea: in the Owen Stanley Range; and in the mountains south of Wau, Morobe Province. It presumably occurs in intervening areas where there is much additional suitable habitat. It occurs from 2,800-3,840m asl.	eng
57679	habitat		It lives in high-altitude grasslands and is a species that breed by direct development.	eng
57679	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57679	threats		There are no known threats. The habitats where it occurs are not under any immediate threat.	eng
57680	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57680	distribution		This species is known so far only from the vicinity of the Myola Guest House, 7km south and 6km west of Mount Bellamy, Oro Province, in Papua New Guinea, at 2,080-2,270m asl, and is likely to occur more widely.	eng
57680	habitat		It lives in montane grassy meadows and is presumed to breed by direct development. It has also been found on montane forest edges, and in treefern-dominated grassland.	eng
57680	population		It is a common species.	eng
57680	threats		The habitat in the area where it occurs is probably reasonably secure, so there are currently no known threats to this species.	eng
57681	conservation		It is found in several protected areas.	eng
57681	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the States of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and northeastern São Paulo. It is a lowland species occurring up to 200m asl.	eng
57681	habitat		It is found in lowland primary and secondary forest, living on the ground in the leaf-litter. It is not found in open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds inside the forest.	eng
57681	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
57681	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, human settlement, tourism and fire.	eng
57682	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57682	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Stolle, in Sandaun Province, western Papua New Guinea, at about 1,600m asl. Given the extensive available habitat, it might eventually be found to be more widely distributed.	eng
57682	habitat		It lives in mossy rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57682	population		When collected it was not observed to be common, and only three specimens were collected.	eng
57682	threats		There are currently no known threats to it.	eng
57683	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57683	distribution		This species occurs in lowland rainforest over much of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and Yapen Island (Indonesia), but it is apparently absent from the eastern half of Papua New Guinea. It occurs from the lowlands up to 1,000m asl.	eng
57683	habitat		It occurs in lowland and foothill rainforest, and also persists in highly degraded rainforest habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, probably with subterranean nests.	eng
57683	population		It is abundant where it occurs, but is distributed patchily.	eng
57683	threats		Although not well known, this species has a broad distribution across most of western and central New Guinea and given extent of suitable habitat and lack of threats there appears to be no cause for concern.	eng
57684	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
57684	distribution		This newly described species is known only from the type locality, Mount Nibo, 9km north and 15.5km east of Lumi, between 700-1,550m asl, in the Torriceli Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57684	habitat		It is presumably a forest inhabitant and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57684	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
57684	threats		There are currently no known threats to this species.	eng
57685	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
57685	distribution		This species is known from Mount Somoro and Wilbeite Village, in the Torricelli Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. It was collected somewhere between 730-1,420m asl.	eng
57685	habitat		This is presumably a forest inhabitant that presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57685	population		It is known only from two specimens.	eng
57685	threats		There are no major threats to it at present.	eng
57686	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57686	distribution		This species is known only from a single series of specimens from the type locality, Arau, in the Kratke Mountains, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 1,400m asl.	eng
57686	habitat		It occurs in habitat described as a transition between mid-mountain fagaceous (belonging to the beech family of trees) forest and a lower-montane mixed rainforest rich in herbaceous undergrowth. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57686	population		No information is available; there have been no recent records.	eng
57686	threats		No data are available.	eng
57687	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. The range of the species might include Cyclops Mountains Nature Reserve.	eng
57687	distribution		This species is known from the north coast mountain ranges of mainland New Guinea, spanning 300km east-west between Tawarin River, Papua, Indonesia and the Torricelli Mountains, Papua New Guinea. It occurs around 1,000m asl.	eng
57687	habitat		It is closely associated with small mountain streams in rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57687	population		It is abundant within small streams.	eng
57687	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57688	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57688	distribution		This species is known from several localities on the northern slopes of the central mountains of Papua (Indonesian New Guinea), including the Star Mountains, and the Kosarek, Bimi and Oksibil areas of Jayawijaya District. It possibly also occurs at a site 9km west of Telefomin, in Papua New Guinea. For the purposes of this assessment, the Telefomin locality has been excluded from the distribution map, pending confirmation of this population's identity. Its altitudinal range is 1,400-1,840m asl.	eng
57688	habitat		Thrives in disturbed habitats, including villages, lawns and rural gardens, and presumably occurs in forest as well. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57688	population		Locally, it is very abundant.	eng
57688	threats		There are probably no threats. It is a very adaptable species.	eng
57689	conservation		Its range does not overlap with any protected areas.	eng
57689	distribution		This poorly known species has been recorded only from two localities 38km apart: Mount Victoria, and the Myola Guest House, in the Owen Stanley Range in south-eastern Papua New Guinea. It is possibly more widely distributed. Myola Guest House is at about 2,000m asl.	eng
57689	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter and beneath logs in mossy montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57689	population		The population status of this species is unknown. The most recent record of it is from 1987.	eng
57689	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57690	conservation		It occurs in the Crater Wildlife Management Area, and probably other protected areas.	eng
57690	distribution		This species is broadly distributed along the flanks of the central mountain range of New Guinea, between the Wapoga drainage in western Papua, Indonesia and the Purari River drainage in Papua New Guinea, at elevations of 80-1,520m asl.	eng
57690	habitat		It lives in tropical forest, breeding in mud cavities, where around 14 eggs are laid. It breeds by direct development. It is not found in degraded habitats.	eng
57690	population		It appears to be abundant where it occurs.	eng
57690	threats		Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not threatened at present.	eng
57691	conservation		It occurs in the Crater and Kikori Wildlife Management Areas, and probably other protected areas, though these are not necessarily secure from threats such as logging.	eng
57691	distribution		This species is known from several widely scattered localities in the Gulf Province of Papua New Guinea, and it is probably widely distributed in suitable habitats in southern Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species, occurring below 600m asl.	eng
57691	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland rainforest. It makes nests in soil cavities and breeds by direct development. It is not found in degraded areas.	eng
57691	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
57691	threats		Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not seriously threatened at present. However, the Kikori Wildlife Management Area, where it occurs, is slated for logging one day in the future.	eng
57692	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57692	distribution		This species is known from three widely separated locations in northern Papua New Guinea: the Hunstein, Schrader and Adelbert Mountains. It has been recorded between 600-1,370m asl. It is presumed to occur between these localities, and perhaps more widely.	eng
57692	habitat		It occurs in rainforest, and is presumably a species that breeds by direct development like other species in the genus.	eng
57692	population		It has been observed as a locally quite common species.	eng
57692	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57693	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57693	distribution		This species is known only from Kosarek, Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, at 1,400m asl. It is possibly more widespread in suitable habitat.	eng
57693	habitat		This species presumably occurs in rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57693	population		It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1979.	eng
57693	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. However, not much forest is left in the area from which it was collected.	eng
57694	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
57694	distribution		This species is known from widely scattered locations in Papua, Indonesia between the eastern Vogelkop in the west and the Lorentz River in the east. It is probably widely distributed in suitable habitat. It occurs from 850-2,500m asl.	eng
57694	habitat		It lives near streams in low-mid-montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57694	population		They have been observed to be relatively uncommon.	eng
57694	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57695	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57695	distribution		This species is known only from two areas in northern Papua New Guinea at 900-1,600m asl: the Adelbert Mountains, and the mountains of the Huon Peninsula. It is very poorly known. An animal that is almost certainly known to be this species was collected at 1,100m asl on the Huon Peninsula in 2003.	eng
57695	habitat		This species lives in rainforest and good secondary growth rainforest, in leaf-litter in very wet, mossy forest. It appears able to withstand a small degree of habitat disturbance, and it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57695	population		There is little information available regarding this species' population status, since there have been only a few records of it. The animals located in 2003 were abundant.	eng
57695	threats		There are no major known threats to it.	eng
57696	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of the species. Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly investigated, particularly to determine whether or not it is able to withstand logging pressure.	eng
57696	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in north-eastern New Britain, Papua New Guinea. S. Richards (pers. comm.) has recently documented a population of this species to the south-west of the two previously known populations. It has been recorded from 350-1,000m asl.	eng
57696	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest, and has also been found in recently cleared rainforest (although the long-term survival of this population has not been documented). It breeds by direct development.	eng
57696	population		It occurs in high densities in some habitats.	eng
57696	threats		It is threatened by the logging of lowland forest in New Britain.	eng
57697	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57697	distribution		This species has a wide distribution in the eastern half of Papua New Guinea, including the Huon Peninsula and several islands off the eastern tip of the mainland. Its altitudinal range is from 60-1,750m asl.	eng
57697	habitat		This is a riparian species that occurs in and next to small rocky streams in rainforest. It breeds by direct development, with nests with around 12 eggs in mud and sand chambers adjacent to streams. It has also been found in muddy streams in semi-degraded areas.	eng
57697	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
57697	threats		Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is probably not seriously threatened at present.	eng
57698	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known to occur within any protected area.	eng
57698	distribution		This species is known from the type locality 4km north of Lae (at sea level), and from the north-west slope of Mount Shungol 30km to the south-west of the type locality (at around 700m asl), in Papua New Guinea.	eng
57698	habitat		The type specimen was collected in lowland rainforest, whereas at Mount Shungol this species was found in the leaf-litter of primary rainforest. Like other members of the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57698	population		Only one specimen was obtained from the type locality, and the population status at Mount Shungol is not known.	eng
57698	threats		Habitat disturbance might be a local threat to it.	eng
57699	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57699	distribution		This species was known only from one old specimen from the type locality near Sattelberg, on the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, which was collected at an unknown altitude.	eng
57699	habitat		This species probably occurs in lowland rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57699	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and the single known specimen has been destroyed.	eng
57699	threats		There are no known threats to this species, although habitat clearance for rural gardens has taken place around the tip of the Huon Peninsula.	eng
57700	conservation		None required at present. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57700	distribution		This species occurs in a relatively wide area of mountains in western Papua New Guinea, extending almost to the Papuan (Indonesia) border. It almost certainly also occurs in suitable habitats in Papua, Indonesia but as yet has not been recorded from there. It occurs from 600-1,600m asl.	eng
57700	habitat		It occurs along small streams in rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57700	population		It seems to be abundant where it occurs, and presumably has large populations throughout its known range and elsewhere in suitable, unexplored areas. It is probably stable and secure.	eng
57700	threats		There are no known threats.	eng
57701	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
57701	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the Bewani Mountains in north-western Papua New Guinea. It seems likely that it will be found in additional mountain ranges north of the Sepik River (such as the Torricelli Mountains and the Cyclops Mountains). It has been collected between 950 and 1,200m asl.	eng
57701	habitat		It has been collected on the floor of primary medium-crowned lowland hill forest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57701	population		This species appears to be uncommon.	eng
57701	threats		No data are available.	eng
57702	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57702	distribution		This species is known from the type locality on Mount Rossel, Rossel Island, at 700m asl, and has recently been collected in central Tagula (Sudest) Island from 150m asl, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57702	habitat		It is found in the leaf-litter of primary rainforest and cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57702	population		It was originally known only from a single specimen collected around 1960, but it has recently been collected again at the type locality as well as at the new locality of Tagula Island. It is not considered an uncommon species although it is not readily collected in large numbers either.	eng
57702	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present. Tagula and Rossel Islands are very largely covered by primary or slightly disturbed rainforest and suitable habitat for this species is plentiful.	eng
57703	conservation		The type locality of this amphibian species is situated in the Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area has not yet been formally gazetted. Conservation of <em>Erica</em> woodland and heath throughout the Ethiopian mountains is a high priority. Clearly, there is an urgent need to conduct further survey work to establish whether this species might be more widely distributed.	eng
57703	distribution		This species is endemic to the Bale Mountains, east of the Rift Valley, in Ethiopia, where it has been found at 3,200m asl.	eng
57703	habitat		It is known only from giant heath (<em>Erica arborea</em>) woodland, just below the timberline. All specimens have been collected by day from beneath logs and boulders. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but females have been found to contain large and unpigmented ova, which is probably indicative of either direct development or at least of a terrestrial nest.	eng
57703	population		It seemed to be reasonably numerous in the type locality in 1986; the absence of recent records is due to a lack of survey effort.	eng
57703	threats		Direct damage to the narrow belt of giant heath with which this animal is associated, by either humans or their livestock, does not seem very likely in the near future, but would be disastrous. A more worrying possibility is the indirect harm resulting from logging of contiguous tall forests at a slightly lower elevation.	eng
57704	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
57704	distribution		This species is known from several localities between Garaina and Popondetta in Morobe and Northern Provinces, eastern Papua New Guinea. It is presumably widespread in the lowland and hill forests in this region. It is known from up to 700m asl.	eng
57704	habitat		It presumably lives in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57704	population		The population is unknown.	eng
57704	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57705	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57705	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Tafa, at 2,070-2,590m asl in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.	eng
57705	habitat		It lives in montane rainforest, where it is probably secretive and terrestrial, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57705	population		No information is available; there have been no recent records.	eng
57705	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, though it probably occurs in a remote area.	eng
57706	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented, particularly on mainland Papua New Guinea. It is not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
57706	distribution		This species is known from the eastern tip of the New Guinea mainland, and Woodlark, Rossel, and Tagula (Sudest) islands. It is a lowland species that has been recorded up to 350m asl.	eng
57706	habitat		A fossorial species found in primary or secondary lowland rainforest or cloudforest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a direct developer.	eng
57706	population		It is a reasonably common species where it occurs.	eng
57706	threats		There are no threats to this species at present. The forest on Tagula Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered. There are no immediate plans for logging and most of the species' known range is forested. The species is utilized on Tagula Island for magic purposes (it is believed to provide fertility to land if planted) but the level of utilization is likely to be too low to be a major threat.	eng
57707	conservation		It is found within Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57707	distribution		This species is known from several localities within the mountains in the vicinity of Wau, Papua New Guinea, from 2,100-2,600m asl.	eng
57707	habitat		It lives in montane rainforest in moss and breeds by direct development.	eng
57707	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57707	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57708	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57708	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at around 1,500m asl near Agaun, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It is possibly more widespread in suitable habitat.	eng
57708	habitat		It lives in montane rainforest, where it is secretive, terrestrial, and fossorial, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding in this species is by direct development.	eng
57708	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57708	threats		It might be threatened by forest loss as a result of expanding rural gardens.	eng
57709	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57709	distribution		This species is known from several high-altitude localities in the Eastern Highlands and Western Highlands provinces, Papua New Guinea. It occurs from 1,800-3,500m asl.	eng
57709	habitat		It presumably lives in montane rainforest and forest/grassland mosaic. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57709	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57709	threats		There are no known threats to this species. There are unlikely to be serious threats to its survival within its known range.	eng
57710	conservation		The Nature Conservancy is currently negotiating a land concession in the Adelbert Mountains, which would help to conserve this species.	eng
57710	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the Adelbert Mountains, at around 1,500m asl, in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57710	habitat		It lives on the ground in primary tropical rainforest, where it breeds by direct development. It can also survive in secondary and degraded habitats and appears to be quite adaptable.	eng
57710	population		It appears to be common at the type locality.	eng
57710	threats		There is little information on threats to this species. The region where it occurs is densely populated by people, and forest clearance for rural gardens is taking place, but this species is not thought to be threatened, given its adaptability.	eng
57711	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57711	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountains of the southwestern Cape, South Africa, from Hottentots Holland east to the Langeberg. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57711	habitat		It is a burrowing frog living in fynbos heatland and forest. It does not adapt well to alteration of its habitat. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57711	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57711	threats		The main threats to this species are loss of its habitat as a result of afforestation, the spread of alien vegetation, and fires taking place too frequently. However, overall, its habitat is well protected.	eng
57712	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57712	distribution		This species ranges from northwestern Angola, through northern Namibia, southwestern Zambia, much of Botswana and Zimbabwe, to southern Mozambique, Swaziland, and South Africa as far south as Eastern Cape Province. It generally occurs below 1,400m asl.	eng
57712	habitat		It is a species of dry savannah woodland and bush land, also occurring in agricultural areas and towns. It avoids montane grassland and forest. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57712	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57712	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.	eng
57713	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Determining the basic biology including habitat choice and dispersal is seen as being a high priority for this species together with the identification of direct threats. Interim conservation agreements need to be made with land owners. Once population estimates have been made, monitoring of populations and habitat is required.&#160;The&#160;Mkambati population is in a&#160;protected area.	eng
57713	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This recently described species occurs from 25 to 1 400m asl in the Kwazulu-Natal midlands of south-eastern South Africa along the mist belt from Boston in the west to Melmouth in the north-east and down to the coast at Mkambati. Its Area of&#160;Occurrence is declining and is currently approximated to be 10% of the measured Extent of Occurrence, 11 000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
57713	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is most often found on the edges of wood plantations in grasslands, and it presumably breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests. Ongoing sylviculture over most of its area of occurrence threatens the habitat of this species. At Mkambati it occurs in undisturbed grassland.	eng
57713	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is an uncommon species that occurs in congregations of 20-30 individuals.&#160;No one site holds >50% of individuals and the distances between subpopulations are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.&#160;<p></p>	eng
57713	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats to this species are believed to be continued afforestation in the region and the construction and maintenance of roads.	eng
57714	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57714	distribution		This species occurs only on the southern slopes of the Cape Fold Mountains, South Africa, from the Langeberg Mountains near Swellendam in the west, to the Outenique Mountains in the east. It ranges from sea level up to over 1,000m asl.	eng
57714	habitat		It is a burrowing frog in forest, forest fringes and fynbos heathland. It does not survive in disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57714	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57714	threats		The main threats to this species are loss of its habitat as a result of afforestation, the spread of alien vegetation, and fires taking place too frequently. However, overall, its habitat is well protected.	eng
57715	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57715	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of the southwestern Cape, South Africa, from the Cederberg in the northwest to the Outenique Mountains in the southeast. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57715	habitat		It is a fossorial species of fynbos heathland and mountain fynbos that also lives in pine plantations. It presumably breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57715	population		It is a reasonably common species. Its populations are not dense, but they are widespread.	eng
57715	threats		It is to some extent impacted by alien plants that damage its habitat, but overall it is not seriously threatened.	eng
57716	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57716	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern Tanzania south to the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, through southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Outside South Africa, the distribution of the species is poorly known especially in Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. It might occur in eastern Angola. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
57716	habitat		It is found in a variety of habitats including open woodland and grassland, and mountain slopes, generally in moister areas. It can adapt to modified habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57716	population		It is a common species.	eng
57716	threats		It is an adaptable species, and is not facing any significant threats.	eng
57717	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57717	distribution		This species occurs along the Namaqualand coast of South Africa, and in adjacent sandy inland areas, from the Gariep (Orange) River south to the Langebaan area. It is a lowland species.	eng
57717	habitat		It is a fossorial species that lives in scrub-covered sandy areas in the succulent karroo biome. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57717	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57717	threats		There is some agricultural expansion in south of its range, which might be impacting this species.	eng
57718	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57718	distribution		This species occurs in south-central Africa. Its distribution is centred on Zambia, with records from eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, western and southern Malawi and western Mozambique. Records from Tanzania are based on misidentifications, and records from Zimbabwe require confirmation.	eng
57718	habitat		It is a fossorial species associated with sandy soils in savannah woodland, shrubland and grassland. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57718	population		It is locally a very common species.	eng
57718	threats		It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in a region where natural habitats are largely intact.	eng
57719	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57719	distribution		This species is endemic to southwestern South Africa. There are two subspecies: Breviceps r. rosei occurs on the west coast of Western Cape Province, and on Robben Island; Breviceps r. vansoni occurs on the south coast of Western Cape Province.	eng
57719	habitat		It lives in sandy soils in coastal thickets, including on vegetated dunes, and also inland in a few places in fynbos heathland. It is reasonably adaptable, and survives in some modified habitats. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57719	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57719	threats		It is no doubt impacted in some places by coastal development and by the spread of alien vegetation and agriculture. But overall, it is adaptable and is not significantly at risk.	eng
57720	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Despite threats, including sugar farming, afforestation and agriculture, this species is not seen as having a high priority for conservation research or other actions in view of its large Extent of Occurrence. It also occurs in Mlawula Nature Reserve in Swaziland, and in Greater Saint Lucia Wetlands National Park, Hluhluwe Game Reserve and Mkuze Game Reserve in South Africa.	eng
57720	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known from Mtunzini in KwaZulu-Natal, south-eastern South Africa, north through Swaziland along the Lebombo Mountains to Komatipoort in Mpumalanga Province, in eastern South Africa. It has a relatively large Extent of Occurrence (12,700 km²) and Area of Occupancy estimated at 3% of its Extent of Occurrence (381 km²). It is a lowland species (0-350 m asl) occurring in flat and hilly areas.	eng
57720	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This is a species of coastal and dune forest, and dry woodland savannah, which is not found in altered habitats. It presumably breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests.	eng
57720	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>It appears to&#160;be a fairly&#160;common species.</p>	eng
57720	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Afforestation, sugar farming and subsistence agriculture are localized threats in parts of its large range.	eng
57721	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Resolving taxonomic issues, identifying management units, biology and threats are seen as key priority research areas for this species. Additional policy is required in terms of agreements with commercial land owners. Of the threats, it is important to invest effort into how this species can best co-occur with developing agriculture. Once population sizes have been established, monitoring of populations and habitat should be put in place.&#160;It occurs in several protected areas, including Blouberg Nature Reserve, Thabina Nature Reserve, and the Wolkberg Wilderness Area.	eng
57721	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the Limpopo Province of north-eastern South Africa, where it occurs in two disjunct subpopulations: <em>Breviceps s. sylvestris</em> occurs along the eastern escarpment; and <em>B. s. taeniatus</em> occurs in the Soutpansberg Mountains. The Extent of Occurrence is 11,700 km<sup>2</sup>, but the Area of Occupancy of the two subpopulations is thought to be only 101 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;The two subspecies are thought to be isolated by about 80 km of unsuitable habitat. It is a highland species, occurring between 800 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
57721	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It breeds in natural forests, grassy forest fringes, and adjacent open grassland and gardens, but never far from forest. Individuals have also been found in plantations. Nests have been found under stones with the female in attendance. It breeds by development occurring directly in subterranean nests.	eng
57721	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is locally common to abundant. Its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (i.e. more than half of the total number of individuals are in isolated patches).	eng
57721	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The main threats are loss of habitat due to afforestation, fire, fruit plantations, and subsistence agriculture, and to a lesser extent housing.	eng
57722	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57722	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern plateau slopes of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, from the Nico Malan Pass in Eastern Cape Province, northward through extreme eastern Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland to the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
57722	habitat		It is a fossorial species living in forest and adjacent grassland along the eastern escarpment down to coastal bush along the KwaZulu-Natal coast. It also lives in suburban gardens. It breeds by direct development, and is not associated with water.	eng
57722	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57722	threats		The most significant threat is loss of habitat due to afforestation. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.	eng
57723	conservation		Protection of lowland tropical forest is the main conservation measure required for this species. It has been recorded from Matang National Park in Sarawak, and possibly occurs in adjoining Kubah National Park.	eng
57723	distribution		This little-known species is a Bornean endemic recorded only from the Bidi area of extreme western Sarawak (Malaysia) and from one locality in north-central Kalimantan (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57723	habitat		It is a burrowing frog occurring in lowland rainforest. Nothing is known about the breeding habitats of this species, but reproduction is presumably by larval development in water, like other members of the genus.	eng
57723	population		Nothing is known of population size or abundance.	eng
57723	threats		The principal threat to it is loss of habitat through clear-cutting.	eng
57724	conservation		It is present in Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
57724	distribution		This species is presently known only from the type locality, Gunung Mulu, in Borneo. It is difficult to find and is expected to range much more widely.	eng
57724	habitat		It is a burrowing species collected in tropical swamp forest that is presumed to breed in standing water after heavy rains, like other members of the genus.	eng
57724	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
57724	threats		It is currently known only from one site. There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57725	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Stuart, B., 2004	The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
57725	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Stuart, B., 2004	This species is known from eastern Myanmar through most of Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, to southwestern Cambodia, southern Viet Nam and central Peninsular Malaysia (Taylor 1962, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999, Stuart and Emmett 2006). In Cambodia it is known from 400 m asl (Stuart and Emmett 2006).	eng
57725	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Stuart, B., 2004	Most observations are from disturbed forest areas, forest edge and other secondary/impacted habitat, from level lowlands to mid-altitude hill areas, but no records are available from agricultural landscapes. It breeds in, and tadpoles grow, in rain pools. It is an explosive breeder.	eng
57725	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Stuart, B., 2004	This is a cryptic species, but emerges in substantial numbers to breed.	eng
57725	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Stuart, B., 2004	This species is collected for consumption in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) and parts of Thailand, and is probably affected by severe habitat loss in some places. But overall, this species is adaptable and is not significantly threatened.	eng
57726	conservation		It is present in the Danum Valley Protected Area.	eng
57726	distribution		This species is endemic to northern Borneo and has been recorded from several widely scattered localities in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and can be expected to occur in Indonesia and Brunei Darussalam.	eng
57726	habitat		It has been found only in lowland rainforests, where it is a burrowing species that probably lays its eggs in pools of standing water on the forest floor.	eng
57726	population		It has been collected only rarely, and nothing is known about its population status.	eng
57726	threats		The major threat to its habitat is deforestation due to clear-cutting.	eng
57727	conservation		Although it is not known from any protected areas, the type locality is very close to Gunung Leuser National Park.	eng
57727	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Tanjung Laut, and it was rediscovered at Sauraya, on the Alas River, in 1999. Both localities are below 200m asl.	eng
57727	habitat		This species is found in lowland primary forest. If it is like other members of the genus, it is likely to be a burrower, laying its eggs in pools of standing water on the forest floor.	eng
57727	population		A single specimen was collected in 1999, but its overall population status is unknown.	eng
57727	threats		It is likely to be threatened by clear-cutting of forest.	eng
57728	conservation		Several protected areas lie within the range of this species.	eng
57728	distribution		This species was originally thought to be restricted to southwestern China (Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou provinces), but it has recently been found in Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (Orlov, 2002). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in northern parts of Southeast Asia, and it can be expected to be found in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and eastern Myanmar. It has been recorded from 700-2,400m asl.	eng
57728	habitat		It is found in a very wide variety of habitats in hilly areas, and breeds in pools and paddy fields.	eng
57728	population		In China this species is common and easy to find. There is no information available on the population status in Viet Nam.	eng
57728	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation resulting from human settlement are major threats to this species in China. Farm ducks also eats it. Threats to this species in Viet Nam are unknown at present.	eng
57729	conservation		It has been found in the Udzungwa and Shimba Hills National Parks, and the Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
57729	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities in eastern and northeastern Tanzania and in southeastern Kenya. In Tanzania, it is known from the North Pare, South Pare, East Usambara, Uluguru, Nguu, Nguru, Ukaguru and Udzungwa mountains, Tanzania, including the mountain foothills. In Kenya, it is known from the Taita and Shimba Hills, Kenya. It occurs from lowlands (down at least to 300m asl) up to 2,200m asl.	eng
57729	habitat		It lives on the forest floor, hiding under rotting logs or stones. It can also climb to at least 2m in the vegetation, and has been found in the leaf axils of both wild and cultivated bananas. In most places it is somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation, though generally needs to be close to mature forest, though it has been found far from forest in degraded habitats in the Ukaguru Mountains. Its breeding habitats are unknown, but it is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
57729	population		It is secretive, but during the rains, it appears to be not uncommon.	eng
57729	threats		Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is probably adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
57730	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57730	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Galela, on Halmahera Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, at about 650m asl.	eng
57730	habitat		It presumably lives in rainforest, and (like other members of the genus) breeds by direct development.	eng
57730	population		It has most likely not been collected since it was first described from a single specimen, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57730	threats		No information is available.	eng
57731	conservation		Its distribution and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57731	distribution		This species is found in several localities in the region of the type locality in the Western Highlands Province, central Papua New Guinea, at 2,200-2,500m asl.	eng
57731	habitat		It lives in burrows in mossy microhabitats on the forest floor in extremely rugged mountains. It is known to persist in secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57731	population		It is not uncommon, and is probably moderately common in some places.	eng
57731	threats		There is little information, and it can persist in secondary habitats. Grazing by domestic pigs might be a problem, since they can break up the mossy microhabitats. It lives above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place.	eng
57732	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It occurs in a couple of protected areas.	eng
57732	distribution		This species is widespread in the eastern half of the Papua New Guinean mainland, and on Tagula Island in the Louisiade Archipelago. It has been recorded up to 1,520m asl.	eng
57732	habitat		It occurs on the forest floor in rainforest. Males have been observed calling from low trees and rock crevices. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57732	population		It is uncommon where it occurs.	eng
57732	threats		None are known.	eng
57733	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57733	distribution		This species is known only from a non-specific type locality, in northern Halmahera Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, perhaps up to 670m asl.	eng
57733	habitat		It presumably lives in rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57733	population		It has not been recorded since it was first described, and its population status is not known.	eng
57733	threats		There are no data available on specific threats to this species, although there is some circumstantial evidence of extensive forest loss on Halmahera.	eng
57734	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented; in particular with a view to determining whether or not the two known populations are contiguous. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57734	distribution		This species is known only from two widely separated areas of mainland New Guinea: Onin Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia; and the southern slopes of the Star Mountains, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution might prove to be continuous, but new data are urgently required to assess this possibility. The type locality in Papua is at 70m asl, and in the Star Mountains it has been recorded from 1,460-1,600m asl.	eng
57734	habitat		It lives in tropical rainforest, where the type specimen was found in a limestone cave. Specimens observed by Richards (pers. comm.) were in hill and montane rainforest. Like other species in the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57734	population		This is not thought to be a common species.	eng
57734	threats		There are no known major threats to it.	eng
57735	conservation		It occurs in Manusela National Park on Seram.	eng
57735	distribution		This species is known from a few specimens from three small islands off the Papuan coast in Indonesia: Ambon and Seram Islands in the Maluku Islands, and Batanta Island. It is a lowland species, and was found below 50m asl.	eng
57735	habitat		It lives in seasonally flooded lowland forest, where it is terrestrial, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57735	population		When it was last found (in 1987, on Seram), it was variously reported as being very rare and common.	eng
57735	threats		There are no specific data on threats to this species, but there is evidence of increasing disturbance of the forest on Seram, and the habitats on Ambon are very heavily disturbed.	eng
57736	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57736	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Kerewa, in Papua New Guinea, at 3,340m asl. It probably occurs on other mountains nearby.	eng
57736	habitat		The type locality is within montane rainforest, where (like other species in the genus) this species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57736	population		The population status of this species is unknown, and there have been no records of it since it was first described.	eng
57736	threats		It is possibly threatened by fires lit by local people as part of their shifting agricultural practices.	eng
57737	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57737	distribution		This species is known from a number of localities in the Eastern Highlands and Chimbu provinces, in Papua New Guinea. Its altitudinal range is 2,000-3,100m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records indicate.	eng
57737	habitat		It lives in montane rainforest in rugged mountains and can tolerate some habitat degradation. It is a terrestrial species and breeds by direct development.	eng
57737	population		It is one of the most common frogs where it occurs.	eng
57737	threats		It is possibly threatened by logging in some parts of its range, though insufficient data are available. However it occurs in some inaccessible areas where it should be safe.	eng
57738	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. This species is a priority for survey work, in order to establish its current population status.	eng
57738	distribution		This species is known from Sanana Island, in the Sula Islands, Indonesia. It is known only from the type specimen, and there have been no records since it was first described.	eng
57738	habitat		It presumably occurs in lowland forest, though there is no recent information. There is also no information on its breeding details, though it presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
57738	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57738	threats		This species is likely to be seriously threatened by the extensive logging taking place on Sanana Island.	eng
57739	conservation		The Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57739	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the Crater Mountain Biological Station located in the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area in south-western Chimbu Province, on the southern escarpment of the Central Range, Papua New Guinea, at altitudes of 850-900m asl.	eng
57739	habitat		Specimens were collected in hill forest, where one adult was found underground, and the other two adults were collected in a ditch. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57739	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
57739	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57740	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. The range of this species includes the Cyclops Nature Reserve.	eng
57740	distribution		Although few data are available about this species, it appears to be widespread in the northern lowlands of central New Guinea. It occurs between the Sepik River and the summit of the north coastal ranges, in East Sepik and West Sepik provinces, Papua New Guinea. B. Tjaturadi (pers. comm.) recently found this species in the Cyclops Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, and its distribution might be broader than has so far been documented. It has been recorded from 240-1,000m asl.	eng
57740	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest, secondary forest and anthropogenic grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57740	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
57740	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57741	conservation		Taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether or not more than one species is included in this "taxon". It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57741	distribution		As currently understood taxonomically, this species occurs throughout New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and including Yapen, Biak, Goodenough, Fergusson and Misima islands) from close to sea level up to at least 1,920m asl.	eng
57741	habitat		It burrows in the forest floor in lowland and hill rainforest, and also in degraded forest, forest edges, rural gardens, and around landslides. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57741	population		It is widespread but occurs at relatively low densities.	eng
57741	threats		None are known, given its adaptability and wide distribution.	eng
57742	conservation		The impacts on this species of forest damage and habitat damage at the summit of Mount Binnie, especially that resulting from the Ok Tedi mine, should be closely monitored.	eng
57742	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at an altitude of 2,200m asl, on the summit of Mount Binnie, in the Star Mountains, Western Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57742	habitat		This species lives in burrows and under large stones in disturbed and primary montane rainforest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
57742	population		When collected it was observed to be relatively uncommon, but there have been no further surveys of the area since then.	eng
57742	threats		It is known only from an area that has been severely impacted by the Ok Tedi mine, and so it is probably experiencing habitat loss.	eng
57743	conservation		Its distribution needs to be properly documented. It is found in Crater Wildlife Management Area and other protected areas.	eng
57743	distribution		Based on recent unpublished observations by S. Richards (pers. comm.), this species has a relatively wide distribution in Western and Gulf provinces, Papua New Guinea, from 100-1,100m asl.	eng
57743	habitat		It is arboreal, in lowland and hill rainforest. It breeds by direct development in pandans and tree ferns. It can also be found marginal habitats and forest edges, providing pandans are present.	eng
57743	population		It is a widespread but relatively low density species.	eng
57743	threats		None are known, though it might be affected by logging locally.	eng
57744	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
57744	distribution		This species is known from a number of localities in the rugged central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea, in Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, Simbu (Chimbu) and Morobe provinces. It has been recorded from 1,400-2,580m asl.	eng
57744	habitat		It lives in hill and montane rainforest, often in steep country such as cliffs. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57744	population		It is not a common species but can be found in large numbers in appropriate habitat.	eng
57744	threats		In Simbu Province it is collected to be fed to pigs.	eng
57745	conservation		Its distribution, habitat requirements and abundance need to be properly documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57745	distribution		This species has a rather wide distribution at high altitudes in the mountains of central Papua New Guinea in Southern Highlands, Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, and Chimbu provinces. Its altitudinal range is 2,230-3,400m asl.	eng
57745	habitat		It lives on the forest floor in dense, primary montane rainforest. It breeds by direct development. It is reasonably adaptable to degraded habitats, including rural gardens.	eng
57745	population		It is not usually a high-density species, but small areas with dense populations are sometimes found.	eng
57745	threats		It is probably not threatened, since it is a reasonably adaptable species.	eng
57746	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Effective protection of lowland forests is needed in some parts of its range.	eng
57746	distribution		This species occurs in southern and western Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Tioman Island, and northern and central Borneo. It has been recorded between 150m and 1,200m asl.	eng
57746	habitat		It inhabits primary rainforest and edge habitats. It breeds in small, temporary waterbodies that are rich in decaying organic matter. Tadpoles have been found in stagnant water. In Borneo it has been found in rural gardens.	eng
57746	population		It appears to be abundant in Borneo, uncommon on the peninsula and in Thailand, and not uncommon but patchily distributed in some sites in the Philippines.	eng
57746	threats		The major threats to this species include deforestation, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers.	eng
57747	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57747	distribution		This species is found in remnants of the Atlantic rainforest in the state of Alagoas at Maceio and Rio Largo, in north-eastern Brazil. All records are from near sea level.	eng
57747	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forest, living on the ground in leaf-litter or under fallen palm leaves, and is not found outside forest. It shows a preference for humid sites, and is probably an explosive breeder in temporary ponds.	eng
57747	population		It is hard to find, and its population status is unknown.	eng
57747	threats		The major threats to this species are probably related to habitat loss due to agricultural development, livestock grazing and human settlement. The area where it is found is suffering from severe fragmentation and reduction of forest patches.	eng
57748	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57748	distribution		This species ranges widely from the eastern part of the Department of Santa Cruz in Bolivia, through Paraguay, to central and southeastern Brazil (in the States of Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais and São Paulo). Its elevational range is 100-1,500m asl.	eng
57748	habitat		It lives in open areas in savannahs in the Chaco and Cerrado biomes, and also in the Chiquitano dry forests of Bolivia. It is normally associated with temporary waterbodies and flooded areas in forests, grasslands, fields, where it breeds. It appears to adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57748	population		It is a common species.	eng
57748	threats		Certain populations might be impacted by fires and the spread of intensive agriculture, but overall, this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
57749	conservation		It is present in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador; and possibly in the Guippe protected area of Peru.	eng
57749	distribution		This species is present in two localities in Amazonian Ecuador, below 400m asl (Provincia de Sucumbios and Provincia de Napo). It was reported from Iquitos, Peru by Rodriguez and Duellman (1994). While the species is known from relatively few sites, it is believed to be much more widespread. It occurs at elevations of 200-400m asl.	eng
57749	habitat		It can be found in primary forest (Rodríguez and Duellman, 1994). At Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, individuals were found in or near a semi-permanent pond in primary forest at night (Duellman, 1978). It breeds in temporary ponds. It is not known if this species occurs in degraded habitats.	eng
57749	population		This is a cryptic species; there is no information on the population status. The sampling effort throughout its range is probably insufficient.	eng
57749	threats		It is presumably a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). In Ecuador it is threatened by destruction around the Napo River.	eng
57750	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57750	distribution		This species is known only from very low altitudes, up to 40m asl, in the States of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo in southeastern Brazil.	eng
57750	habitat		It is a species of forest edge, and primary and secondary forest, not occurring in open areas. It breeds in temporary ponds inside a lowland forest.	eng
57750	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
57750	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to clear-cutting, industry, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57751	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas (including Parque Nacional Manu, Pacaya Samiria Reserve, Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru; and the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, and Parque Nacional Yasuní in Ecuador.)	eng
57751	distribution		This species is known from eastern Amazonian Perú (Departamentos: Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Ucayali), eastern Ecuador, and western Brazil (Acre, Rondonia and surrounding areas). It is present in southern Colombia (Acosta Galvis, 2000). It occurs in northern Bolivia (De la Riva et al, 2000; Steffen Reichle pers comm.). It has been recorded up to elevations of 300m asl.	eng
57751	habitat		It lives in holes, leaf-litter, and ponds and swamps in terra firma primary and secondary tropical rainforest and in seasonally flooded forest. It is usually fossorial but has been found in bushes. Breeding occurs in marshy areas; larval development takes place in these areas. It is not known if it occurs in degraded areas.	eng
57751	population		It is abundant in terra firma primary forest.	eng
57751	threats		It is generally a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, agriculture (crops, livestock etc.) and colonization.	eng
57752	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama, Reserve Biólogica de Duas Bocas, and Reserva da Curd.	eng
57752	distribution		This species ranges from Cariacica in the State of Espírito Santo, north to Nova Vicosa in the southern part of the State of Bahia, eastern Brazil. It is a lowland species, occurring up to 60m asl.	eng
57752	habitat		It is a species of lowland forests, including secondary forests, not occurring in open habitats. It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. It has also been observed in temporary ponds inside the forest, where it is probably an explosive breeder.	eng
57752	population		It is believed to be common, but it is a secretive species that is hard to detect.	eng
57752	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, logging and human settlement.	eng
57753	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, although there is still a need for expanded protection of Atlantic forest habitats in this region of Brazil.	eng
57753	distribution		This species is known only from very low altitudes, up to 40m asl, in the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo in south-eastern Brazil, with disjunct populations in the southern part of the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. However, it might occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57753	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary forest, but not in open areas. It has been observed in temporary ponds inside lowland forest, and is known to be an explosive breeder.	eng
57753	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57753	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to agriculture (including wood plantations and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlement.	eng
57754	conservation		t is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57754	distribution		This species is known only from Aruanã and Canabrava, in the state of Goiás, in east-central Brazil, at 200-400m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
57754	habitat		This very poorly known species occurs in Cerrado savannah. Members of this genus are normally associated with temporary ponds for breeding.	eng
57754	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57754	threats		This species is likely to be threatened by the spread of intensive agriculture, fire, and the building of dams.	eng
57755	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57755	distribution		This recently described species has only been recorded from the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area in the municipality of Camamu, Bahia State, Brazil, where it was collected at 120m asl.	eng
57755	habitat		It was collected in a temporary pool within tropical forest that was a mix of early secondary growth and good cover. Surrounding farms in the area have good forest cover. Breeding in this species takes place in temporary ponds.	eng
57755	population		It was common in the breeding season at its only known locality.	eng
57755	threats		The threats to this species are not known. However, the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area has been designated for use by rural farmers by the Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA). As such it seems likely that a degree of habitat modification will take place in the area, and it is not known if this species will be threatened by, or be able to adapt to, these changes.	eng
57756	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57756	distribution		This recently described species has only been recorded from the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area in the municipality of Camamu, Bahia State, Brazil, where it was collected at 120m asl.	eng
57756	habitat		It was collected in a temporary pool within tropical forest that was a mix of early secondary growth and good cover. Surrounding farms in the area have good forest cover. Breeding in this species takes place in temporary ponds.	eng
57756	population		It was common in the breeding season at its only known locality.	eng
57756	threats		The threats to this species are not known. However, the Projecto de Assentamento Zumbi dos Palmareas area has been designated for use by rural farmers by the Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA). As such it seems likely that a degree of habitat modification will take place in the area, and it is not known if this species will be threatened by, or be able to adapt to, these changes.	eng
57757	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas through its wide range.	eng
57757	distribution		This species is known from Venezuela (a single locality in Amazonas state, at the base of Cerro Neblina in Baría river), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil (in the vicinity of Manaus in Amazonas state). It occurs up to 300m asl.	eng
57757	habitat		It is a nocturnal, fossorial species, usually hiding in holes or in the leaf-litter of tropical rainforests. Embryonic and larval development takes place in water. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools. It probably occurs in disturbed habitats, but its adaptability to such anthropogenic zones is not yet known.	eng
57757	population		It is a common species.	eng
57757	threats		There are no overall threats, but there are localized threats from clear-cutting.	eng
57758	conservation		It occurs within the large Parque Nacional da Amazônia.	eng
57758	distribution		This species is known from Humaitá and Uruá, Amazonas and Pará States, and possibly also from Acre State, in Brazil.	eng
57758	habitat		It occurs in leaf-litter of old-growth forest and probably breeds explosively in temporary pools.	eng
57758	population		It is common within its limited range and its population is probably stable.	eng
57758	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57759	conservation	Magno Vicente Segalla, Paulo Garcia, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57759	distribution	Magno Vicente Segalla, Paulo Garcia, 2008	This species occurs in the States of Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo in southeastern Brazil. It ranges from sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57759	habitat	Magno Vicente Segalla, Paulo Garcia, 2008	It is a species of primary and secondary forest, also occurring on the forest edge, but not in more open habitat. The eggs are laid in temporary ponds amid air bubbles produced by the parents, tadpoles develop in these ponds.	eng
57759	population	Magno Vicente Segalla, Paulo Garcia, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
57759	threats	Magno Vicente Segalla, Paulo Garcia, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, logging, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57760	conservation		It probably occurs in at least one protected area (Parque Nacional do Pantanal Matogrossense).	eng
57760	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, in south-central Brazil, and has been found at around 300m asl.	eng
57760	habitat		It is a species found in Cerrado savannah and the Pantanal wetlands, living in savannah, shrubland and grassland. There is no information on its breeding habits, but it probably reproduces explosively in temporary pools.	eng
57760	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57760	threats		There is little direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture (in particular cattle ranching and soybean cultivation), as well as fires and the impacts of dams.	eng
57761	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas in Colombia. Further research is needed into the range (particularly in Panama), ecology, and potential conservation measures for this frog.	eng
57761	distribution		This species is reported in Mesoamerica from the Central Panama lowlands; it is also present in Colombia. The range map for this species probably under-represents its distribution in Panama. In Colombia it is known from the Caribbean coast and the Uraba Gulf to the Magdalena valley, from 0-600m asl.	eng
57761	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of open grassy areas, occasionally occurring within forest. Breeding takes place in ponds. It can also occur in pastures, arable land.	eng
57761	population		It is considered to be common in some areas in Panama. In Colombia it is not a common species, and is quite secretive.	eng
57761	threats		There are no major threats to this quite adaptable species.	eng
57762	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57762	distribution		This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: Espírito Santo; southeastern Minas Gerais; and southern Bahia (north to Una). It ranges up to 550m asl.	eng
57762	habitat		It is a species of primary and secondary forest, but not in more open habitat, living on the forest floor. It is an explosive breeder. The eggs are laid in temporary ponds in forest, in which the tadpoles develop.	eng
57762	population		It is a common species.	eng
57762	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing, and logging and human settlement.	eng
57763	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57763	distribution		This species occurs widely through Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazilian Amazonia. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 200m asl.	eng
57763	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter or in holes in the forest floor in lowland tropical rainforest. It is an explosive breeder. The animals congregate to breed on one night in temporary pools in primary forest. The eggs laid on the surface of the water, and embryonic and larval development takes place in pools.	eng
57763	population		It is the most common Microhylid in the forests of French Guiana (Lescure and Marty, 2001). It is commonly found during the breeding season but is elusive at other times.	eng
57763	threats		There are no threats overall, but there is ongoing habitat loss due to logging and fire, affecting local populations.	eng
57764	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Yasuní (Ecuador); Parque Nacional Manu, Pacaya Samiria Reserve, and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Peru). Present in a number of protected areas in Colombia and Bolivia. In Brazil it has been recorded from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá, Acre State.	eng
57764	distribution		This species can be found in the Eastern Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador; Colombia (Leticia); Peru (Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali); northern and central Bolivia and western Acre State, Brazil. It is a lowland species of below 400m asl (Steffen Reichle, pers comm.).	eng
57764	habitat		It is found in leaf-litter, on low herbaceous vegetation, and in and around ephemeral ponds and swamps in primary tropical rainforest. It is an explosive breeder in the above waterbodies; eggs are deposited on the pond surface. It has been recorded from selectively logged areas (Bolivia); and lightly disturbed habitats (Peru). This species has an interesting mutualistic relationship with tarantula species.	eng
57764	population		It is common in Peru and Bolivia; uncommon in Ecuador and Colombia.	eng
57764	threats		It is a generally widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
57765	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
57765	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Mount Sisa in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. The type series was collected at 2,000m asl; the species was absent from forest near the summit of Mount Sisa at 2,500m asl, so it might have a narrow distribution.	eng
57765	habitat		It is found within forest leaf-litter in the transition zone between <em>Nothofagus</em>-dominated vegetation with a rather open understorey, and a more dense higher altitude moss forest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57765	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
57765	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57766	conservation		The extent of its distribution needs to be documented, and a search for additional populations needs to be undertaken. Its range does not overlap with any protected areas.	eng
57766	distribution		This species is known only from two sites 1km apart on Mount Menawa, in the Bewani Mountains, West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, where it has been collected from 950-1,200m asl.	eng
57766	habitat		This species inhabits the interior and edges of closed-canopy rainforest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
57766	population		When collected, it was recorded as common, but difficult to find.	eng
57766	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57767	conservation		Further document of its distribution is needed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57767	distribution		This species ranges widely along the bases of the northern coastal mountains of New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), up to 500m asl.	eng
57767	habitat		It is a censorial species that lives in tropical rainforest and on forest edges, but not in really degraded areas. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57767	population		It occurs patchily, being common only very locally.	eng
57767	threats		It is probably not threatened, except very locally.	eng
57768	conservation		Further documentation of the species' distribution is needed. There are a couple of protected areas within the species range.	eng
57768	distribution		This species is widespread in the north coastal ranges from the Adelbert Range in the east, to the Bewani Mountains in the west, and in the Star Mountains in the south of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 1,320m asl.	eng
57768	habitat		This species is restricted to the interior and edge of tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57768	population		It is has been observed to be locally abundant.	eng
57768	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57769	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
57769	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from the Mount Carbine Tableland, Thornton Uplands, Finnigan Uplands and Bakers Blue Mountain in north-eastern Queensland. It is generally recorded from above 750m asl, although it was once recorded from around 586m asl, although there is a suggestion that this record might be a misidentified <em>C. exiguus</em>.	eng
57769	habitat		It is an inhabitant of moderate- to high-elevation tropical rainforest. Males are usually observed calling from amongst leaf-litter, or from under logs and roots and other debris on the forest floor. It is a terrestrial breeder, and the young develop directly into fully formed froglets.	eng
57769	population		It occurs at moderate to high densities, and is one of the most frequently encountered amphibians within its range.	eng
57769	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. Its very restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
57770	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
57770	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality, the bank of the Aimba River, and the near vicinity, on Tagula (Sudest) Island (on which it might occur more widely), in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been collected at 15m asl (and possibly up to 50m asl).	eng
57770	habitat		It has been collected in secondary forest and lowland rainforest adjacent to the Aimba River. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development. It appears to be adaptable to a degree of habitat modification.	eng
57770	population		It is abundant.	eng
57770	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57771	conservation		As there have been no confirmed records of this species for over 100 years, there is an urgent need to determine its current status, and the correct identities of the animals (which fit its description) that are widespread in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.	eng
57771	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Moroka, at 700m asl, in Papua New Guinea. Animals that fit the description of this species, but which are not yet confirmed as being of this species, are widespread in south-eastern Papua New Guinea.	eng
57771	habitat		It is presumably a forest inhabitant that breeds by direct development.	eng
57771	population		t is known only from the type series, described in 1898.	eng
57771	threats		No data are available.	eng
57772	conservation		It might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.	eng
57772	distribution		This recently described species is known from the type locality, 7km north of the village of Konti (about 12km north-east of Serui), and its vicinity, on Yapen Island, in Papua Province, Indonesia. It might also have been recorded at a second locality approximately 25km west of the type locality, although this requires confirmation and has not yet been mapped. The type locality is 650m asl.	eng
57772	habitat		The area where this species was collected is covered by patches of primary and secondary rainforest. Animals were found perched on fern fronds or leaves of shrubs 1.5-3.0m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57772	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
57772	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57773	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57773	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Bewani Mountains, Papua New Guinea, at 950m asl.	eng
57773	habitat		It was found among shrubs in closed-canopy rainforest. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57773	population		Only two specimens were collected and no others were observed or heard calling at the type locality, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57773	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57774	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57774	distribution		This species is found in northern New Guinea (in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) at 700-1,600m asl.	eng
57774	habitat		This species can be found among bushes in tropical rainforest. It is arboreal, living up to 10-15m above ground. It breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed habitats.	eng
57774	population		It is common locally.	eng
57774	threats		It is probably not threatened, since it lives in remote, extensive, rugged habitats.	eng
57775	conservation		The species' range includes Lakamu Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57775	distribution		This species is found in the eastern half of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 1,300m asl.	eng
57775	habitat		This species inhabits low vegetation in tropical rainforest. It is a direct developing species that breeds on the top of forest floor vegetation in valleys.	eng
57775	population		It is relatively common and regularly encountered.	eng
57775	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57776	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57776	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Mount Dayman, at around 1,400m asl, in Papua New Guinea. Other populations have been referred to this species from the vicinity of Wau and westwards in Papua New Guinea, but these belong to an undescribed species.	eng
57776	habitat		This species inhabits low vegetation in tropical rainforests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
57776	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species, since there have been no recent records.	eng
57776	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
57777	conservation		Its type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57777	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Dayman in Milne Bay Province, south-eastern Papua New Guinea, at 2,230m asl.	eng
57777	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57777	population		The original collection contained 78 specimens. There have been recent surveys of the species' known range but results of these surveys are not yet available (Allison pers. comm.). Apart from this, there is no recent information on this species' population status.	eng
57777	threats		Part of the type series was collected in a patch of forest in grassland suggesting that habitat fragmentation might be a threat to this species. However, insufficient data are available at this stage to state this with certainty.	eng
57778	conservation		It is found in Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57778	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Kaindi, near Wau in Papua New Guinea, at 1,900-2,500m asl.	eng
57778	habitat		It lives in mossy montane rainforest, and along roadsides by forest, but not in heavily degraded habitats. It is found at night in low vegetation, up to 1m above the ground, and in leaf-litter during the day. Brreeding is by direct development in this species.	eng
57778	population		The most recent records of this species are from the 1980s, when it was reasonably common.	eng
57778	threats		It is threatened by the extensive forest loss that has occurred within its range due to fires.	eng
57779	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57779	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Galela, on northern Halmahera Island, Maluku Province, Indonesia, at 670-760m asl.	eng
57779	habitat		Its habitat is unknown, but it presumably lives in rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57779	population		There have been virtually no surveys for amphibians in the Maluku Islands for many years, and this species was last recorded in the late 1800s.	eng
57779	threats		There are no data available on specific threats to this species, but extensive forest loss has been reported on Halmahera Island.	eng
57780	conservation		All populations occur within the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and the current tenure is a forest reserve under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992. The area is currently managed by the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, and is proposed for national park status. The area is included in the Wet Tropics Management Plan and the Wet Tropics Conservation Plan. Currently the access road onto the Carbine Tableland has been closed in most of the habitat suitable for this species, and the road is not maintained in the remainder.	eng
57780	distribution		This Australian endemic is known only from a small area above 1,100m asl on the Carbine Tableland, north-west of Cairns in northern Queensland, Australia. Suitable habitat exists in the Daintree National Park/ Mossman Gorge section, but the presence of the animal has yet to be confirmed there.	eng
57780	habitat		It is seen on leaf axils and crevices in branches, bark, roots or rocks in rainforest. Males call from, and eggs have been found in, <em>Linospadix</em> palms. The young develop directly into fully formed froglets.	eng
57780	population		It is not considered a common species and has a patchy distribution, although in some parts of its range it can occur at moderate to high densities. Its patchy distribution may be linked to its preference for understorey dominated by <em>Linospadix</em> palms, and the availability of this microhabitat.	eng
57780	threats		Potential threats include climate change (see Williams and Hilbert 2006) and habitat degradation, mainly from human impacts on the parks (for example, erosion following human traffic, increased visitation, habitat degradation, and infrastructure development, such as roads and telecommunications towers, walking tracks and other tourist facilities).	eng
57781	conservation		Mount Michael is currently not included within any protected area. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to ascertain whether there are any major threats within its range.	eng
57781	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Michael, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, at 3,100m asl. It has not been recorded from other mountain ranges nearby suggesting that it might be endemic to Mount Michael.	eng
57781	habitat		This species inhabits montane rainforest and alpine grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57781	population		There are no records of this species since it was first described in 1962, but there have been no surveys of the area since.	eng
57781	threats		There is a high human population density in the lowlands of Mount Michael, which is placing increasing pressure on the forests at higher elevations.	eng
57782	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57782	distribution		This species is known from the central mountainous region of Papua New Guinea, from Chimbu Province to Morobe Province, at 2,200-2,650m asl. The southeastern and western populations might be disjunctive, though they are mapped as being contiguous.	eng
57782	habitat		This species inhabits montane rainforest and forest edges, but not in areas where the habitat is severely degraded. It is found in vegetation up to 1m above ground at night, and in leaf-litter during the daytime. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57782	population		It is very common where it occurs.	eng
57782	threats		It occurs in a remote area and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57783	conservation		The species' Extent of Occurrence needs to be determined. Its range is not known to include any protected areas.	eng
57783	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of Lae (Morobe Province) to the Adelbert Mountains (Madang Province), Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.	eng
57783	habitat		This species inhabits lowland rainforest and breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it occurs in disturbed habitats.	eng
57783	population		It has been recorded as common.	eng
57783	threats		None known, although logging might affect some populations.	eng
57784	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57784	distribution		This species is known only from one locality on Mount Hunstein, Papua New Guinea, at 1,000m asl.	eng
57784	habitat		It was found in shrubs in closed-canopy rainforest, and this species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
57784	population		It is known from only a single specimen.	eng
57784	threats		There are no known threat to it, and the type locality is probably safe from human disturbance for the time being.	eng
57785	conservation		The species' Extent of Occurrence needs to be determined and the population status assessed. It might occur within Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57785	distribution		This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea from the Southern Highlands and Western Highlands provinces south-eastward to the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province. It occurs from 1,900-2,800m asl.	eng
57785	habitat		This species inhabits montane rainforest, among boulders and grass near streams. It is an adaptable species that can probably withstand a degree of habitat degradation. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57785	population		It is a common species.	eng
57785	threats		There are no threats known.	eng
57786	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57786	distribution		This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua New Guinea from the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province, to Western Highlands Province. There are also disjunctive populations in the Adelbert Mountains and on the Huon Peninsula. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-2,900m asl.	eng
57786	habitat		This species inhabits hill and montane rainforest, including formerly logged forest. It lives in low vegetation, and has also been found in landslides, rockslides, and rocky areas. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57786	population		It is common where it is found.	eng
57786	threats		It is probably not threatened.	eng
57787	conservation		The species' Extent of Occurrence on other mountains in the vicinity needs to be documented. It is known to occur in Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57787	distribution		This species is found on the mountains in the vicinity of Wau, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 2,300-3,000m asl.	eng
57787	habitat		This species inhabits heavily mossed montane rainforest edge, alpine grassland and secondary and disturbed rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57787	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57787	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57788	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57788	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "on the west slope of Mount Riu, on Tagula (Sudest) Island, in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea" (Zweifel 1962). Its altitudinal range is 250-350m asl.	eng
57788	habitat		It is found in tropical rainforest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57788	population		It has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1956, and only three specimens are known.	eng
57788	threats		There are no known threats to this species. The forest on Tagula (Sudest) Island was damaged by logging 100 years ago, but has since recovered, and there are no immediate plans for logging.	eng
57789	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
57789	distribution		This recently described species is known from the type locality 16km north of Fakfak town on the Bomberai Peninsula (the neck of the Vogelkop Peninsula), Papua, Indonesia, and might occur more widely. It was collected at 860m asl.	eng
57789	habitat		It has been found in primary forest consisting of dense bushes below tall trees. Animals were found perched on herbaceous vegetation, on lower parts of shrubs or on leaf-litter. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57789	population		High densities of this species have been recorded.	eng
57789	threats		The main threat to this species is loss of habitat. During the 1980s and early 1990s many of the tall trees in the Fakfak Mountains were cleared during road construction. However, by 2000 much of the road had been covered by secondary growth and plantations, although it is not known if this is favourable habitat for this species.	eng
57790	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57790	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Myola Guest House, 7km south and 6km west of Mount Bellamy, in Northern Province, Papua New Guinea, at 2,080m asl. It is presumably more widely distributed within suitable habitat.	eng
57790	habitat		It inhabits moss and leaf-litter in montane rainforest, and is not known to occur in disturbed habitats.	eng
57790	population		There is no information available on its population status, but it proved difficult to find in the field.	eng
57790	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57791	conservation		Although relatively widespread, this species is poorly known and there is an urgent need to document its extent of distribution, habitat requirements and population status. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57791	distribution		This species occurs in southern and eastern Papua New Guinea, including islands in the D'Entrecasteaux group. It ranges up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57791	habitat		This species has been collected adjacent to rocky streams and in trees in tropical rainforest. It is somewhat adaptable to habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57791	population		It is common in some places but is not abundant.	eng
57791	threats		It is probably not threatened. The habitat on Goodenough Island in the D'Entrecasteaux group is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes.	eng
57792	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe, Monongarivo Special Reserve, and Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57792	distribution		This species occurs in extreme northern and northwestern Madagascar to Manongarivo; it has also been recorded from the islands of Nosy and Nosy Komba. It ranges from close to sea level to 1,100m asl.	eng
57792	habitat		It lives in both pristine and disturbed rainforest, ylang-ylang (perfume bush) cultivation, coffee and cacao plantations, and secondary vegetation. It is very adaptable, and occurs wherever there are tree holes and bamboo. It breeds in tree holes and bamboo, and has non-feeding larva.	eng
57792	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
57792	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened. However, if sugar cane farming spreads, this opens up the habitat too much, and would be a serious threat.	eng
57793	conservation		It occurs in Yapen Nature Reserve.	eng
57793	distribution		This newly described species is known only from Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea, Indonesia), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl. It has only been found immediately around the type locality, and has not yet been found elsewhere.	eng
57793	habitat		It lives on the floor of tropical forest, including in secondary re-growth forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57793	population		It is a reasonably abundant species.	eng
57793	threats		This species might be threatened by the selective logging that is continuing in the area where it is found.	eng
57794	conservation		The distribution and ecology of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57794	distribution		This species is known from the lowlands of Papua New Guinea from Finschhafen, Morobe Province, to Popondetta, Northern Province. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
57794	habitat		This species is found in burrows in the forest floor on forested hillsides at fairly low elevations. It can tolerate a degree of habitat modification and has been found in burrows on abandoned logging roads. It is breeds by direct development.	eng
57794	population		It is a locally very common species.	eng
57794	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57795	conservation		Even though it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.	eng
57795	distribution		This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 400-800m asl. Some very similar animals have been found far away in the Crater Mountains of Papua New Guinea (Bickford pers. comm.), but their range has not been mapped in this assessment.	eng
57795	habitat		It lives under leaf-litter on the forest floor, and has only been found so far in mature forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57795	population		This species has been found to be abundant during rain.	eng
57795	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.	eng
57796	conservation		Its range includes Oia Mada Wara Wildlife Management Area on Goodenough Island. Further survey work is needed to better determine the population status and distribution of this species on other islands in Milne Bay, as well as on the mainland.	eng
57796	distribution		This species is known from Goodenough Island and the Cloudy Mountains of the southernmost mainland of Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from about 800-1,600m asl.	eng
57796	habitat		This species is found below ground in lowland hill forest to montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57796	population		Only two specimens were collected from Goodenough Island, but calls heard during collection suggested a common species within its small range.	eng
57796	threats		The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, though it remains intact at higher altitudes.	eng
57797	conservation		Even though it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.	eng
57797	distribution		This newly discovered species was found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, at 400-800m asl.	eng
57797	habitat		It lives under leaf-litter on the forest floor, and has only been found so far in mature forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57797	population		It is very abundant; more so than the sympatric <em>Copiula major</em>.	eng
57797	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.	eng
57798	conservation		The distribution of the species needs to be further documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
57798	distribution		This species is known from eastern Papua New Guinea; Central Province, and Fergusson, Woodlark and Misima Islands, Milne Bay Province. It has been recorded up to 200m asl on the mainland and Misima Island, and from 960-1,330m asl on Fergusson Island, and from sea level up to 100m asl on Woodlark Island.	eng
57798	habitat		This species is found in long grass or similar vegetation, and in tropical rainforest. It is a very adaptable species that is tolerant of habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57798	population		It is a very abundant species, even in disturbed habitat.	eng
57798	threats		None known, and it appears to be able to persist in heavily modified habitats such as domestic gardens.	eng
57799	conservation		It occurs in Yapen Nature Reserve (although the logging taking place elsewhere on Yapen Island is also taking place here).	eng
57799	distribution		This species is found in the Wewak area on the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and from Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea, Indonesia), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl.	eng
57799	habitat		It inhabits open secondary woodland in the Wewak area and degraded forest on Yapen Island, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57799	population		It is a common species.	eng
57799	threats		There is little information on the threats to this species (although selective logging is taking place on Yapen Island), but it is possibly not seriously threatened, given that it appears to be able to persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
57800	conservation		None required apart from documenting its natural history. It is known to occur in Cyclops Nature Reserve.	eng
57800	distribution		This species is found on forest slopes in northeastern New Guinea. It has been recorded from 670-1,220m asl.	eng
57800	habitat		This species inhabits the forest floor in lowland and hill tropical rainforest. It is not known whether or not it occurs in disturbed habitats. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
57800	population		It is a common species.	eng
57800	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57801	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57801	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	This species can be found in the Amazon Basin from the Guianas, Venezuela (from a few localities in Bolívar state), Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It has an elevation of 0-600m asl.	eng
57801	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is a nocturnal frog of fossorial and secretive habits, found beneath dead leaves or at the edges of water in flooded depressions and semi-permanent and seasonal ponds of old growth tropical rainforests. It breeds in pools.	eng
57801	population	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	Very few records exist probably because it persists underground except during brief explosive periods of reproduction.	eng
57801	threats	Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is not seriously threatened, but local populations would suffer from deforestation.	eng
57802	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. Conservation of the species' habitat is advisable as it is unlikely to tolerate significant disturbance of its habitat. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
57802	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Quebrada Guanguí, in the upper Río Saija drainage, in the department of Cauca, Colombia, from 100-200m asl. It is most likely a wider ranging species, but more sampling is needed to confirm this.	eng
57802	habitat		It calls from beneath leaf-litter and from holes in the ground covered with leaf-litter in humid tropical forest. The eggs and larvae develop in small temporary rain pools.	eng
57802	population		It is thought to be a rare species, but it is a secretive forest species so this has not been confirmed.	eng
57802	threats		There are no threats to the habitat at the type locality at present because there is not much human influence in the area.	eng
57803	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biólogica de Sooretama, which forms part of the Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves World Heritage Site.	eng
57803	distribution		This species occurs on the coastal plain of the states of Espírito Santo and southern Bahia, south-eastern Brazil, ranging up to 60m asl.	eng
57803	habitat		It is found in forest, including secondary forest and forest edges, but not open areas. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools in forest and on the forest edge.	eng
57803	population		There is no information on the population status of this cryptic species.	eng
57803	threats		The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, industry, and human settlement.	eng
57804	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57804	distribution		This species is known from central and southern Chaco: northern Argentina; southeastern Bolivia; Paraguay; and Brazil (from Maranhão to São Paulo). It occurs at elevations up to 1,500m asl.	eng
57804	habitat		Burrowing form occurs on the ground near waterlogged soils, where it breeds explosively in temporary pools. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
57804	population		It is locally abundant during reproductive bouts.	eng
57804	threats		It is threatened in Argentina by the destruction of Chaco habitat for agriculture and wood extraction, land and water pollution caused by agrochemical runoff. In Paraguay, this species is captured (legally) for the international pet trade.	eng
57805	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. The species is not listed in the CITES Appendices. Trade in wild animals should be sustainably regulated through a quota system. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) undertook a study into the economics of captive-breeding this high-demand species, concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) determined that the market demand for this species could easily be met through captive-breeding only.	eng
57805	distribution		This species occurs widely along the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar. It is a very secretive species and probably occurs at many more localities than records indicate. The northernmost locality (Sambava) has not been confirmed since its original description. Most records are concentrated in east-central Madagascar from Antsihanaka south to Fierenana, with isolated records further south at Vondrozo and Soavala. Its recorded altitudinal range is 150-900m asl.	eng
57805	habitat		It is usually found in primary rainforest and swamp forests, and in clearings and poorly drained places adjacent to or within forest. It is not found in severely degraded habitats. It breeds in temporary and permanent pools.	eng
57805	population		It varies in abundance from extremely common to very rare.	eng
57805	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is exploited commercially, but probably not at a level that seriously impacts populations. This exploitation results largely from the placement of its sister species, Dyscophus antongili (the Tomato Frog), on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
57806	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57806	distribution		This species occurs widely in northwestern and western Madagascar, from Ambanja south to Tsimanampetsotsa, from sea level to 400m asl.	eng
57806	habitat		It lives in dry tropical forests and savannahs and in more moist forests in the far north. It is not known from heavily degraded areas. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
57806	population		It is a common species.	eng
57806	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fires, and livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
57807	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57807	distribution		This species occurs in southeastern Bolivia, southern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina, south-eastern Brazil, and Uruguay. It ranges between sea level and 200m asl.	eng
57807	habitat		It occurs in seasonally flooded grasslands, and leaf-litter of dry and moist forest. It is nocturnal, feeding principally on ants and reproduces in lentic pools. Eggs float on top of the water. It is tolerant of some habitat modification and can survive in rural gardens and urban areas.	eng
57807	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
57807	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57808	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional da Serra Geral and Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra, and also in the Pro-Mata (Protection of the Mata Atlântica in Minas Gerais (PROMATA/MG)) Reserve.	eng
57808	distribution		This species is restricted to the south-eastern border of the Planalto das Araucárias, Serra Geral, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from 900-1,200m asl.	eng
57808	habitat		It occurs in subterranean habitats in open fields and breeds explosively in temporary ponds.	eng
57808	population		It is uncommon but its population is apparently stable and it is regularly recorded.	eng
57808	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to cattle ranching.	eng
57809	conservation	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57809	distribution	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species is found in Mesoamerica in the western Pacific lowlands of Panama. In South America this species has been recorded in Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela (Sucre and Bolìvar states), Trinidad Island, Trinidad and Tobago and the Guianas. Its distribution is poorly known, and its taxonomic status is in need of revision. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
57809	habitat	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It lives in leaf-litter and in tree holes in tropical rainforests and on the forest edge, as well as grasslands and shrublands. Breeding takes place in ponds, and eggs and tadpoles in water. Male specimens have been found calling from water up to 30cm deep, in flooded forest. It is tolerant of some habitat modification and can survive in rural gardens and pastureland.	eng
57809	population	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is considered to be common at some sites.	eng
57809	threats	Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, Esteban Lavilla, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. But shifting cultivation, logging, fire, infrastructure development, agro industrial farming and water pollution might impact local populations.	eng
57810	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57810	distribution		This species from northeastern Brazil ranges from Parana in the State of Goias, north to Balsas in the State of Maranhao and Picos in the State of Piauí.	eng
57810	habitat		It is a species of "Caatinga" and "Cerrado" savannah, occurring in a wide variety of anthropogenic habitats. It is very resistant to habitat modification. It is a fossorial species, emerging to breed explosively in temporary ponds.	eng
57810	population		It is a common species.	eng
57810	threats		Apart from the effects of over-grazing by livestock, this species is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
57811	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
57811	distribution		This species is restricted to the Yungas forests of north-western Argentina, where it is currently known only from the type locality: Los Toldos, Santa Victoria Department, Salta Province, at 1,100m asl (22° 18’S; 64° 40'W). Specimens from Bolivia with spotted bellies that are currently attributed to <em>Elachistocleis ovalis</em> might pertain to this species.	eng
57811	habitat		This species is known from subtropical montane moist forest, where it reproduces in temporary pools. Activity appears to be associated with rainy weather conditions. Its tolerance to habitat disturbance unknown, although the one site where this species was collected is in a heavily disturbed agricultural area.	eng
57811	population		<em>Elachistocleis skotogaster</em> is known only from the type series of 10 individuals collected in 1999. A subsequent visit in 2000 to the type locality failed to record this species, possibly because this visit was during a drier period.	eng
57811	threats		It might be threatened by the heavy deforestation and cattle ranching that are occuring in the type locality.	eng
57812	conservation		It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is urgently needed.	eng
57812	distribution		This species ranges widely in northern Venezuela, east to northern Suriname, and it is also present on Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It is presumed to occur in northern Guyana, though there are not yet any records from this country. Records from Colombia and Panama refer to Relictivomer pearsei (see taxonomic notes). It is a lowland species occuring up to at least 500m asl, and all records are from close to sea level.	eng
57812	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of tropical forest, including closed-canopy secondary forest, and possibly also coastal savannahs. In Trinidad animals occur in the forest leaf-litter; males may be found calling from small water-filled stump holes (Murphy, 1991). It is not found in open country on Trinidad (Kenny 1969). Spawning takes place in temporary pools, the eggs float and are non-adhesive, and the larvae develop in the same waterbodies.	eng
57812	population		There is little information, but it is possibly a rare species.	eng
57812	threats		The threats to this species are not well known. It is generally considered to be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, presumably this is localized and is a result of deforestation, although this requires confirmation.	eng
57813	conservation		No conservation methods are needed.	eng
57813	distribution		This species is native to the USA from southern Maryland to southeastern Kansas, south to Florida Keys and eastern Texas. It has scattered disjunctive populations along the northern and western margins of its range (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on the Little and Great Bahama banks, and on Grand Cayman Island, Cayman Islands, where it is very abundant (Schwartz and Henderson 1988, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
57813	habitat		It occupies a wide variety of shaded moist habitats. It burrows into soil or hides in or under surface cover or debris when inactive. Males call from sheltered locations, often from beneath objects at water's edge or partially buried in grass (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs and larvae develop in lakes, ponds, sloughs, flooded roadside ditches, swamps, stream margins, rain puddles, etc. Uses both temporary and permanent waters. Can persist in human modified habitats such as residential areas.	eng
57813	population		It is represented by many and/or large populations throughout most of the range (Nelson 1972). In Florida and eastern Texas, common to abundant even in many suburban situations (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The introduced population on Grand Cayman is very abundant.	eng
57813	threats		It is not threatened.	eng
57814	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout much of its range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57814	distribution		This species can be found in the Atlantic slope of Mexico, from central Veracruz to the south and east to southern Campeche and Quintana Roo to Guatemala, Belize and the north-central coastal areas of Honduras, at elevations of 0-350m asl. An isolated population occurs in Sian Kaan Biosphere Reserve in the Yucatán Peninsula.	eng
57814	habitat		It is terrestrial, inhabiting tropical humid forests with abundant leaf-litter coverage. In Belize and Mexico, occurs in semi deciduous forest. It occurs in cacao groves and breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57814	population		It is locally common in Mexico and Belize; uncommon in Guatemala and Honduras.	eng
57814	threats		Deforestation is a threat to this species, although it can tolerate plantations.	eng
57815	conservation		Some populations of this species inhabit Biosphere Reserves and other protected areas. The remaining populations are not in need of conservation measures at present. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57815	distribution		This species occurs from southern Nebraska, southeastern Colorado, and southern Arizona (Sullivan <em>et al.</em> 1996), in the USA, to Sonora and coastal Sinaloa and Nayarit in Pacific Mexico. Inland it occurs from Sonora eastward to central Chihuahua through Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and extreme east San Luis Potosí and adjacent Veracruz in Mexico.	eng
57815	habitat		This species inhabits semi-arid and arid lowlands such as mesquite and shrublands. It is also known from grasslands, rocky wooded hills, marsh edges, near springs, streams, and rain pools, river floodplains, scrub desert, and cultivated fields. It hides in rotten logs and stumps, burrows, and under rocks and other cover when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains and larger ponds that dry up in some years.	eng
57815	population		Total adult population size is unknown but is locally common. In Texas it can be abundant in grassland and desert habitats (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
57815	threats		No major threats have been identified for this species. However global climatic changes can affect seasonal arid cycles in parts of its range.	eng
57816	conservation		Protection of lowland forests is needed. Protected at La Selva and Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sureste (formerly known as the Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve in Nicaragua.	eng
57816	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slope of southeastern Nicaragua and Costa Rica, at elevations of 1-500m asl.	eng
57816	habitat		It inhabits leaf-litter of lowland moist and wet forests and breeds in temporary pools.	eng
57816	population		It is rarely seen except during exhaustive searches in leaf-litter plots where it can be regular. It can be seen in large numbers during brief explosive breeding aggregations. In Costa Rica, it is a very easy species to see during the explosive breeding period (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
57816	threats		Forest destruction is a major threat to this species.	eng
57817	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	It occurs in several protected areas in Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
57817	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species can be found from southern Sinaloa southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Pacific versant and from central Veracruz to the south and east to Oaxaca and Chiapas continuing to Guatemala and El Salvador, at elevations of 0-1,000m asl.	eng
57817	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species can be found in the lowlands in tropical moist and dry forests. It breeds in temporary and permanent ponds and can tolerates habitat disturbance.	eng
57817	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	It is common in Guatemala and uncommon in El Salvador; it is abundant in Mexico.	eng
57817	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57818	conservation		It is not presently known from any protected areas, and improved protection and preservation of rainforest habitats is needed in Sarawak and Kalimantan.	eng
57818	distribution		This species is endemic to Borneo and has been reported only from several lowland points in Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, although the amount of available habitat is rapidly declining. It is likely to be found in north-western Kalimantan (Indonesia), but this has not yet been confirmed. It is present at elevations below 300m asl.	eng
57818	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter of the forest floor, but has also been found in tree holes. It has not been found outside forest. Nothing is known of its breeding habits.	eng
57818	population		There is no information on the current population status of this secretive species.	eng
57818	threats		The major threat is forest loss and fragmentation, due to clear-cutting.	eng
57819	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented further. It is found in the Kamiali Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57819	distribution		This species is found in eastern Papua New Guinea, including in the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux islands and Woodlark Island. It occurs below 500m asl.	eng
57819	habitat		This species inhabits forest floor in primary tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it is adaptable to secondary habitats.	eng
57819	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
57819	threats		Given its wide distribution in remote areas, it is unlikely to be threatened. It is utilized on Tagula (Sudest) Island for magic (it is believed to provide fertility to land if planted) but the level of utilisation is not a major threat at present.	eng
57820	conservation		It inhabits many protected areas in the region, and ensuring their integrity (particularly by preventing collection of frogs at breeding sites) should go a long way towards securing the conservation of this species. The effects of harvesting of non-protected populations should also be investigated.	eng
57820	distribution		This species is known from north-central Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998), through mainland Thailand (Taylor 1962), southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999), and Cambodia (Bourret 1942), to southern Viet Nam, from southern Gai Lai Province to the Mekong River (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is found up to 600m asl.	eng
57820	habitat		It is an inhabitant of dipterocarp forest and other deciduous forest areas, and breeds in seasonal or temporary deep rain pools (Heyer 1973; Inger and Colwell 1977; Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
57820	population		It is locally common at breeding sites, but is otherwise a highly cryptic fossorial species, only occasionally seen on the forest floor (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998). Large numbers are traded for consumption in rural markets, indicating either large populations, or intensive collection at limited breeding sites (Taylor 1962; P. van Dijk pers. comm.).	eng
57820	threats		This species is threatened by local consumption in substantial numbers in parts of Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, where it is collected during breeding seasons. The females found in markets in Thailand are getting smaller, suggesting an adverse effect of collection on the species. It is apparently not greatly affected by forest degradation, but it is generally not commensal in human habitation or agricultural landscapes.	eng
57821	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57821	distribution		This species can be found in the Amazon basin: French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Venezuela. Dot-map of distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). In Venezuela it is known from a single record in Bolívar state, at Reserva Forestal Río Grande, between Río Grande and El Palmar. In Ecuador it is known from only three localities. It occurs up to 400m asl.	eng
57821	habitat		Terrestrial frog found in the leaf-litter of primary and secondary tropical rainforests, including flooded forests. It has been found in ponds and flooded areas within forest. Eggs and tadpoles occur in the water.	eng
57821	population		It is uncommon through much of its range, although it is reported as abundant in Peru and Bolivia.	eng
57821	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57822	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, and in several forest reserves; there is a need for increased protection and improved management of these and other reserves in the East Usambaras.	eng
57822	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the East Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) and the Nguu Mountains in north-eastern Tanzania. It ranges from 600m to at least 1,200m asl.	eng
57822	habitat		It is found in lowland and montane forest, and is sometimes associated with wild bananas. It appears to be very rare in heavily disturbed forest or in open areas. However, it is locally abundant in stands of introduced bamboo in the Amani Botanic Garden. The eggs are deposited in hollow bamboo stems or leaf axils (and perhaps tree holes) where water is trapped, and where the larvae develop.	eng
57822	population		It is generally an uncommon species, and is very hard to find outside the breeding season. However, it is easily found in the Amani Botanic Garden in the East Usambaras during the breeding season due to the extensive stands of exotic bamboo, with which it is closely associated (30% of holes in broken bamboo stems have been found to contain eggs, larvae or adults).	eng
57822	threats		It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. The habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
57823	conservation		It might occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but there have not so far been any records.	eng
57823	distribution		This species is known only from the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. It is a montane species, but its elevational range is not clear, although it ranges higher than <em>Hoplophryne rogersi</em>.	eng
57823	habitat		It inhabits montane forest, and is often found inside fallen bamboo stems or on wild bananas. It is not found in disturbed forest. The eggs are laid on the inner surface of banana leaves or in stems, or in split bamboo; the tadpoles develop in water trapped in leaf axils or in bamboo.	eng
57823	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57823	threats		It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially due to small-scale agriculture and logging.	eng
57824	conservation		Although it is found in Yapen Nature Reserve, logging continues here.	eng
57824	distribution		This newly described species is known from two localities in Papua, Indonesia: Yapen Island (off the north coast of New Guinea), 7km north of Kontiunai, at 620-680m asl; and Dabra (on the New Guinea mainland), at 80m asl. It has only been found immediately around the type localities, and has not yet been found elsewhere.	eng
57824	habitat		It lives on the floor of tropical forest, including in secondary re-growth forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57824	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57824	threats		It might be threatened by selective logging.	eng
57825	conservation		Even though it occurs in Wandamen Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.	eng
57825	distribution		This newly discovered species from New Guinea has been found in two localities in Papua, Indonesia: the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 350-850m asl; and the Fakfak Mountains, on the Fakfak Peninsula, at 860m asl. Specimens from Batanta Island might also belong to this species.	eng
57825	habitat		It lives on the floor of tropical forest under leaf-litter, and can tolerate a small amount of logging. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57825	population		It is common, but not abundant.	eng
57825	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.	eng
57826	conservation		It occurs in the Kikori integrated conservation and development project area.	eng
57826	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Sisa, at 2,000m asl, in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57826	habitat		It has only been found in primary forest, calling from exposed positions on litter on the forest floor, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57826	population		It is a relatively low density species.	eng
57826	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, though the one area in which it has been found is reasonably secure from disturbance.	eng
57827	conservation		Taxonomic studies are urgently required to determine how many taxa are included in this species complex, and their ranges subsequently need to be documented to determine whether or not any have restricted distributions that might make them susceptible to threats such as localized logging or mining activities.	eng
57827	distribution		The type locality of this species is Katow, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. It is mapped here as a complex, but some of the component species have now been described. The resolution of the complex is not complete however and the real distribution of H. rufescens has not yet been determined. The complex has been recorded up to 3,570m asl.	eng
57827	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that is active at night on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57827	population		This species is very common within its range.	eng
57827	threats		The range of this species is uncertain so it is impossible to determine threats at present.	eng
57828	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57828	distribution		This newly discovered species from New Guinea is known only from the headwaters of the Wapoga River, at 1,070m asl in Papua, Indonesia.	eng
57828	habitat		It was found in tall forest, under debris on the forest floor.	eng
57828	population		It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
57828	threats		There appear to be no threats to this species in the remote, rugged area in which it was found.	eng
57829	conservation		Even though it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.	eng
57829	distribution		This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 360-650m asl. It was recently recorded by Günther (2003) from the Fakfak Mountains, and it almost certainly occurs on Yapen Island.	eng
57829	habitat		It has been found only in primary forest, where it lives below leaf-litter on the forest floor and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57829	population		It is common, but not abundant.	eng
57829	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.	eng
57830	conservation		Although it occurs in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, this area is not secure from logging.	eng
57830	distribution		This newly described species from Papua, Indonesia, is found at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula in the Wondowoi Mountains, at 580-950m asl.	eng
57830	habitat		It has been found only in primary forest, where it lives below leaf-litter on the forest floor, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57830	population		It is reasonably abundant, but only on the ridge above 800m asl, above the level of <em>Hylophorbus picoides</em> and <em>H. tetraphonus</em>.	eng
57830	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging, which might be a threat.	eng
57831	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	It occurs in several protected areas, including Reserve de la Biosfera El Triunfo (Mexico) and Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas (Guatemala). There is a need for improved protection of the tropical cloud forests in central Chiapas.	eng
57831	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	This species can be found from central Chiapas, Mexico, to Guatemala, El Salvador, and south-western Honduras, at elevations of 1,470-2,200m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57831	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	This species occurs in humid pine-oak forests. It is able to tolerate some limited habitat destruction, but probably requires humid microclimates, and occurs in short-grasses and in coffee groves. It breeds in temporary to semi-permanent pools.	eng
57831	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	The status of this species is unknown in Guatemala and El Salvador. It is rare in Honduras, and uncommon and declining in Chiapas.	eng
57831	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Gunther Köhler, Manuel Acevedo, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Antonio Muñoz Alonso, 2009	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due in particular to logging of its pine-oak forest habitat.	eng
57832	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Paul Walker, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	Conservation measures are not needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57832	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Paul Walker, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species can be found in the Pacific and Atlantic slopes in Mexico, in the Atlantic, from southern Texas, USA, to Costa Rica, in the Pacific, from southern Sonora to Costa Rica, at elevations of 0-2,100m asl.	eng
57832	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Paul Walker, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This species inhabits low and moderate elevations in tropical humid forests as well as disturbed and opened habitats. It can also be found in moist sites in arid areas; margins of ponds, marshes, under leaf-litter, in underground burrows, under rocks and other surface cover, in packrat nests. Eggs and larvae develop in pools formed by heavy rains or irrigation water.	eng
57832	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Paul Walker, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	This dry Pacific slope species is currently spreading into Meseta Central and to the Caribbean slope at Cachí, Cartago Province, in Costa Rica. However, this species has disappeared and then reappeared in limited parts of its range at Monteverde (Pounds <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is common along both Pacific and Atlantic slopes in Mexico, and is widespread and common in the Yucatan Peninsula (Lee 2000). In Texas, it is fairly common but seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico, it is abundant in old growth vegetation but rare in second growth.	eng
57832	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Paul Walker, Federico Bolaños, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57833	conservation		Both of the known regions where it occurs lie within protected areas, and continuation of rigorous management of the existing parks is the best guarantee for the conservation of this species.	eng
57833	distribution		This species has been found at several sites within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, from 1,300-1,800m asl, and at one site in the Crocker Range to the south, in western Sabah, Borneo.	eng
57833	habitat		It lives within the litter of montane forests (oak-chestnut), and is presumed to breed in small temporary pools on the forest floor and possibly in phytotelms (water-filled cavities in plants such as bromeliads).	eng
57833	population		It is regarded as very common within Gunung Kinabalu National Park.	eng
57833	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
57834	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
57834	distribution		This species is known only from old specimens from Bunguran Besar (Great Natuna Island), Indonesia.	eng
57834	habitat		It presumably occurs in lowland forest areas, as with certain other members of the genus, and probably breeds in still water temporary pools and puddles.	eng
57834	population		There have been no records since its discovery, and its population status is unknown.	eng
57834	threats		There is no direct information available on the threats to this species, although it might be seriously threatened if forest loss is taking place within its range.	eng
57835	conservation		This species was not collected in a protected area.	eng
57835	distribution		This species was collected in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, Malaysia, at "Long Re (03° 42' 02"N; 115° 32' 06"E), east of Bario along [the] forest trail to [the] Kalimantan border" (Das and Haas 2003). It was collected at an altitude of around 1,050m asl.	eng
57835	habitat		It was found calling from a water-filled node of a bamboo plant that had fallen across a forest path within primary submontane forest, following a night of torrential rainfall. Its breeding habitats are unknown, but this species may breed in these water pools at the internodes of bamboo plants.	eng
57835	population		It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is not known.	eng
57835	threats		The whole of the Kelabit Highlands, where the holotype was collected, are threatened by commercial logging (presumably both clear-cutting and selective logging). The type of bamboo in which this species was found is harvested by local people for subsistence use.	eng
57836	conservation		It has been recorded from at least three protected areas. Preservation of rainforests is important for the survival of this species.	eng
57836	distribution		This species is endemic to central and northeastern Borneo, occurring in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations between 200-1,300m asl.	eng
57836	habitat		It lives in the floor litter of closed-canopy montane and lowland forests. Breeding takes place in very small rain pools, and possibly in phytotelms. Specimens have been recorded from areas that have been severely logged.	eng
57836	population		There are no estimates of population size, although the species is reported to be abundant in some areas.	eng
57836	threats		Deforestation is the main threat to this species.	eng
57837	conservation		The species inhabits several protected areas throughout its range. Safeguarding the integrity of existing protected areas and gathering information about the species' conservation biology is desirable.	eng
57837	distribution		This species is known from Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, including Hong Kong, in southern China, central Myanmar through northern Thailand, and much of Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and virtually all of Viet Nam (Matsui <em>et al.</em>, 1996; Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It occurs from lowlands up to 900m asl.	eng
57837	habitat		It inhabits grasslands, shrublands, and deciduous forest and is also found on the edge of rainforest (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It has also been found in degraded forest and abandoned and cultivated fields. It breeds in small temporary rain pools or freshwater marshes.	eng
57837	population		It is generally not a common species, not even at breeding aggregations, and populations appear to be localized within its wide range.	eng
57837	threats		Destruction and degradation of breeding habitats caused by land use changes and the intensification of agriculture are threats to this species in China. In mainland Southeast Asia there might be localized impacts from forest degradation or the pollution of rain pools.	eng
57838	conservation		It is present in Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak), Betung Kerihun National Park (Kalimantan), and Ulu Temburong National Park (Brunei). Protection of lowland forests in Sarawak and Kalimantan is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
57838	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in Borneo: in south-central Sarawak (Malaysia), around Betung Kerihun National Park in Kalimantan (Indonesia), and in Brunei Darussalam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 150-300m asl.	eng
57838	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of closed-canopy forests. Breeding almost certainly occurs in small rain pools.	eng
57838	population		It is rarely found, and is known from only a few specimens.	eng
57838	threats		Habitat loss due to logging is the principle threat.	eng
57839	conservation		It might occur inside Long Shan Nature Reserve.	eng
57839	distribution		This species is known from Menglian County in southern Yunnan Province, China, and will probably be found to occur more widely (Yang Datong pers. comm.), including in Myanmar. It has been recorded from 300-1,000m asl.	eng
57839	habitat		It inhabits fields near forest, and small ponds, and breeds in ponds and flooded paddy fields.	eng
57839	population		It is common in its only known locality.	eng
57839	threats		Pollution is possibly a threat to this species.	eng
57840	conservation		On Java, it occurs in the Ujung Kulon National Park. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of this species.	eng
57840	distribution		This recently described species is known only from Lampung on Sumatra, and Ujung Kulon National Park in west Java, Indonesia.	eng
57840	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, and degraded, patchy forest. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it probably breeds in small, still-water pools and puddles.	eng
57840	population		The population status of this species is unknown; there is only one recent record.	eng
57840	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and agricultural encroachment.	eng
57841	conservation		Although it is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, it might occur in other montane forests in other parts of Sarawak and Kalimantan, so the continued maintenance of these forest habitats is essential.	eng
57841	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, Borneo. It has not been recorded in the heavily surveyed Gunung Kinabalu National Park, and probably does not occur in Sabah. It is restricted to altitudes above 1,500m asl.	eng
57841	habitat		It is known from montane forest and is presumed to breed in small, temporary forest pools.	eng
57841	population		Nothing is known about its population status.	eng
57841	threats		There are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
57842	conservation		Orang National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
57842	distribution		This species is known only from Orang National Park, in Assam, India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The holotype and paratypes were collected at 100m asl.	eng
57842	habitat		It was collected in dry grassland adjacent to forest, or close to emergent trees bordering grassland. Pairs in amplexus have been collected in early June (during the south-west monsoon). Males call after heavy showers from the bank of small puddles, while hiding under roots and overhanging blades of grasses (<em>Saccharum</em> sp.) and from thickets of ferns. The larval stages of this species are unknown (Dutta <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
57842	population		It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
57842	threats		Encroachment by human settlement around Orang National Park might be a potential threat to this species.	eng
57843	conservation		Although present in several forest reserves, and Templer's Park, these areas are in need of stronger legal protection and management.	eng
57843	distribution		This species is known at present only from Pasoh Forest Reserve, Gombak Forest Reserve, Frim, and Templer's Park in Selangor and Negeri Sembilan States in Peninsular Malaysia. All records are from below 300m asl.	eng
57843	habitat		All records are from undisturbed lowland rainforest and associated bamboo stands (Kiew 1984a; Manthey and Grossmann 1997). Reproduction sites include water-filled bamboo stumps and other cavities.	eng
57843	population		It is quite common within its restricted range.	eng
57843	threats		This species has a limited range, in which its available habitat is small, fragmented, and being converted to non-timber plantations and through infrastructure development.	eng
57844	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. The preservation of the lowland rainforest is essential for the conservation of this species.	eng
57844	distribution		This species is widespread in southern Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Laut in the Natuna Islands and has been found in one locality on Java.	eng
57844	habitat		It is found in the leaf-litter of lowland and hill forests and occasionally in disturbed forests. It breeds in small pools of water.	eng
57844	population		In most of its range this species is considered to be common.	eng
57844	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation.	eng
57845	conservation		It presumably occurs in Siberut National Park and in Gunung Niut Penrisen Nature Reserve. There is a need to establish more effective protection of rainforest habitats at moderate elevations within the range of the species.	eng
57845	distribution		This species is only known from Sipura, Siberut, Tanah Masa, and Pini (Mentawai Islands, Indonesia), and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia) on Borneo. The Kalimantan locality is less than 30km² from the town of Penrissen. The species is not known to occur below 1,000m asl.	eng
57845	habitat		It is a forest floor species that occurs in submontane areas. It is presumed to breed in very small rain pools.	eng
57845	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57845	threats		The major threat to this species is forest loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
57846	conservation		The only known locality is at the core of Taman Negara National Park, Peninsular Malaysia's largest protected area. Safeguarding the park should help conserve the species.	eng
57846	distribution		This species is known only from Kuala Teki in the Gunong Tahan mountain complex in central Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
57846	habitat		It is known only from the flanks of the Gunong Tahan mountain complex, presumably in primary rainforest. If it is like other members of the genus, it breeds by larval development, perhaps in rain-filled cavities.	eng
57846	population		Its population status is unknown and it has not been reported since 1922, but the absence of records might be indicative of a lack of survey efforts rather than an absence of the species.	eng
57846	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57847	conservation		It has been recorded from Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
57847	distribution		This species is widely distributed throughout much of the lowland forest of Borneo, below 300m asl, and is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.	eng
57847	habitat		This is a lowland, tropical moist forest species, not found in modified habitats, and is presumed to breed in small pools of standing water on the forest floor.	eng
57847	population		It is relatively abundant where it occurs.	eng
57847	threats		It is threatened by the loss of habitat as a result of clear-cutting of tropical forest.	eng
57848	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed for this widespread, common species. Its range includes several protected areas. The subspecies endemic is found in Mount Harriet National Park, South Andaman Island, India.	eng
57848	distribution		This species occurs in southern Peninsular Thailand, it is widely distributed throughout Malaysia (including Sabah, Sarawak and Phuket Island), central and western Indonesia (Nias, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Timor, Sulawesi, Kabaena, Muna, Butung and Wowoni), and Palawan in the Philippines. There is a possibly isolated population near Tak in western Thailand. The subspecies K.b. goshi is endemic to Little Andaman and South Andaman Islands, India and is assessed here as part of K. baleata. It has been recorded up to 800m asl, in the Andaman Islands it is known to occur at sea level.	eng
57848	habitat		This species inhabits lowland rainforests and is also tolerant of disturbed habitats. It has been collected in flood plains and has been observed in arboreal situations up to 6m above the ground. In the Andaman Islands it is reported to be a tree-hole nester. It is known to breed at the beginning of the rainy season. Tadpoles do not feed and develop rapidly.	eng
57848	population		It is an explosive breeder that is locally common.	eng
57848	threats		No significant threats are presently known to this species. In the Andaman Islands it is threatened by the loss of the preferred habitat of old ficus trees.	eng
57849	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.	eng
57849	distribution		This species is known from central to northeast China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea (including Cheju-do Island). It is found between 10-900m asl.	eng
57849	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, and other cultivated fields and is also found around villages. It breeds in ponds, ditches and rainwater pools.	eng
57849	population		It is a common species.	eng
57849	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
57850	conservation		No conservation measures are needed at present for this species. The range of the species includes a few protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
57850	distribution		This species is widespread in the Philippines. It is found on the central islands of Negros, Panay, Guimaras and Cebu, in many parts of Luzon including the adjacent smaller islands of Polillo and Marinduque, on Mindanao Island, Leyte Island, and the islands of Patnanungan, Jomalig, Catanduanes, Tablas, Romblon and Sibuyan. A record from Mindoro is presently attributed to this taxon. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57850	habitat		It is usually found in secondary growth vegetation and man-made habitats, but it also inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforests.	eng
57850	population		It is an abundant and common species especially during the wet season.	eng
57850	threats		The most important threat to this species is the pollution of streams and rivers especially from agricultural run-off.	eng
57851	conservation	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	Only a few protected areas, such as Pulag National Park, are currently found in this region of the Philippines. There is a need for increased protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.	eng
57851	distribution	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and possibly in the Sierra Madres, on northern Luzon Island, and Polillo and Palaui in the Philippines.	eng
57851	habitat	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	It inhabits lower montane and lowland forests, but occasionally is also found in forest edge habitats. It lives in water-filled tree holes and hollows. Tadpoles have been collected in the same microhabitats.	eng
57851	population	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	It appears to be common, especially in forest and forest edge.	eng
57851	threats	Arvin Diesmos, Angel Alcala, Rafe Brown, Leticia Afuang, Genevieve Gee, Katie Hampson, Mae Leonida Diesmos, Aldrin Mallari, Perry Ong, Dondi Ubaldo, Baldwin Gutierrez, 2009	The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras. The montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.	eng
57852	conservation		A protected area needs to be established on the island of Catanduanes to protect this island's biodiversity.	eng
57852	distribution		This species is found on Catanduanes Island and on several mountains of the Bicol Peninsula, in the Philippines, from 200-300m asl.	eng
57852	habitat		It inhabits lower altitude montane and lowland forests, where it is found in forest, along forest edges, and in secondary growth vegetation. This is a highly adaptable species that also occurs in modified habitats beside these forests. It lives and presumably breeds in water-filled tree-holes and hollows.	eng
57852	population		It is a common species.	eng
57852	threats		The main threat to this species is continued destruction of lowland rainforest for agricultural development and human settlements. However, this species is adaptable and is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
57853	conservation		It is known to occur in or near a number of protected areas, but several of these are not secure from the threats of uncontrolled fires and collecting of frogs for human consumption. Efforts are needed to secure these national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and to manage the exploitation of populations of this species outside protected areas.	eng
57853	distribution		This species is known from mainland Thailand, adjoining southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor 1962; Stuart 1999), and Dac Lac Province in southern Viet Nam (Orlov 2002). It presumably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57853	habitat		It is known mostly from areas originally covered with deciduous dipterocarp forest, and has not been reported from agricultural areas. Breeding takes place in seasonal pools (Heyer 1973).	eng
57853	population		There is no reliable information available on the population status of this species. Large numbers in markets could indicate large populations, or intensive collection, or both. It has not been found during some recent herpetofauna surveys of areas where it was historically known to occur (P. van Dijk pers. comm.), suggesting a possible decline.	eng
57853	threats		The major threat to this species is intensive collection for local consumption, gravid females being preferred. Its habitat has also been extensively impacted by fire and other anthropogenic processes, or cleared completely for agricultural development and other land uses.	eng
57854	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. It can live in disturbed habitats; hence protected areas are not essential for the species' long-term survival.	eng
57854	distribution		This species occurs on major islands all over the Philippines. It has recently been recorded on Palawan.	eng
57854	habitat		It is usually found in human habitats such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes. Tadpoles develop in the same microhabitats.	eng
57854	population		It is abundant and common especially during the wet season.	eng
57854	threats		Available information indicates that this species is not subject to any significant threats. A possible threat is predation and competition from alien invasive species.	eng
57855	conservation	Lue Kuangyang, Yuan Zhigang, Shi Haitao, Geng Baorong, Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Robert Inger, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker & Ghazi S.M. Asmat, 2004	There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present. Its range overlaps with numerous protected areas.	eng
57855	distribution	Lue Kuangyang, Yuan Zhigang, Shi Haitao, Geng Baorong, Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Robert Inger, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker & Ghazi S.M. Asmat, 2004	This species is widespread through much of Southeast Asia, South Asia and China. In Southeast Asia it occurs from Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam, south to Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Borneo Pontianak), Sulawesi (Makassar, Palu, and Flores) and the islands of Tioman, Phuket, Langkawi and Singapore. It has a fragmented range in India (known to occur in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Bangladesh. In China it is known from Yunnan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, and also Hong Kong and Macau. It has been introduced to Taiwan, Province of China. It is found from sea level up to 750 m asl.	eng
57855	habitat	Lue Kuangyang, Yuan Zhigang, Shi Haitao, Geng Baorong, Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Robert Inger, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker & Ghazi S.M. Asmat, 2004	It is a species commensal with humans that rapidly colonizes urban habitats. It is quite adaptable and was presumably originally a wetland/riverbank/forest edge species that has adapted successfully to agricultural and residential landscapes, although it can still be found in dry forests. It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, breeding in small pools, usually seasonal rain pools, or ponds. It can burrow or climb into shrubby trees.	eng
57855	population	Lue Kuangyang, Yuan Zhigang, Shi Haitao, Geng Baorong, Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Robert Inger, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker & Ghazi S.M. Asmat, 2004	This species is generally quite common throughout most of its range.	eng
57855	threats	Lue Kuangyang, Yuan Zhigang, Shi Haitao, Geng Baorong, Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Robert Inger, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker & Ghazi S.M. Asmat, 2004	It is collected for consumption in many places, but this does not appear to have a significant impact on its populations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. It meets several criteria to be considered a vertebrate pest, and an accidentally imported individual was recently intercepted at Perth International Airport, Australia (Tyler and Chapman 2007), while another one was intercepted at Andersen Air Force Base, in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
57856	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas, such as Pulag National Park. There is a need for increased protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the Cordilleras.	eng
57856	distribution		This species is found in the mountains of the Central Cordilleras and Sierra Madres of northern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
57856	habitat		The primary habitats for this species are the lower montane and lowland forests, including streams and rivers. It is occasionally found in disturbed habitats adjacent to these forested areas.	eng
57856	population		It is common wherever it is found but has a very localized distribution.	eng
57856	threats		The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras, and the pollution of streams and rivers. The montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.	eng
57857	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas in the region.	eng
57857	distribution		This species is endemic to northeastern Sichuan and southernmost Gansu provinces, in southwestern China, from 500-1,200m asl.	eng
57857	habitat		It is found in hilly areas near villages. It has also been recorded from tree-holes. It breeds in rain-filled, temporary pools and ponds.	eng
57857	population		In the past it was a very common species, but it might not be as common now.	eng
57857	threats		Infrastructure development is a major threat to this species.	eng
57858	conservation		It has a wide range and is expected to occur in numerous protected areas.	eng
57858	distribution		This species is found throughout much of eastern India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It has been recorded from sea level up to 200m asl in India, and from sea level up to 1,300m asl in Sri Lanka.	eng
57858	habitat		It is a burrowing species found in a wide variety of habitat types including dry forests, plantations (coconut and rubber), wetlands and areas close to human habitations. It is generally found under leaf-litter, in loose soil, and under logs and other ground cover. Breeding and larval development take place in stagnant and temporary waterbodies.	eng
57858	population		It is a common species.	eng
57858	threats		The pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals and the loss of suitable terrestrial habitat through urbanization are the main threats to this species.	eng
57859	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.	eng
57859	distribution		This species is known from Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces in southwestern China, from 1,430-2,320m asl. It is likely to occur in eastern Myanmar, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
57859	habitat		It lives in cultivated fields, and near and in villages. It breeds in temporary pools, ponds, irrigation ditches and roadside ditches.	eng
57859	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57859	threats		There are no known threats to this species, although water pollution might possibly be a threat.	eng
57860	conservation		The most important conservation measure for it is the continued designation of Mount Banahaw and Mount Isarog as protected areas.	eng
57860	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of south-eastern Luzon Island and from Polillo Island in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57860	habitat		It inhabits lower montane and lowland forests, occasionally being found in human-modified habitats beside these forests. It prefers cool and unpolluted mountain streams, where its larvae have been observed.	eng
57860	population		It is common in intact forest but has a patchy distribution. It is still known from fewer than 20 specimens, although recent field surveys show that it is fairly common in its preferred habitat.	eng
57860	threats		Populations of this species outside the two protected areas that it also occurs in are threatened by forest loss through small-scale logging and agriculture development. The disturbance of the lowland forest in the protected areas where it occurs is not significant.	eng
57861	conservation		Its range includes Mount Kaindi Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57861	distribution		This species is known from 1,400-2,000m asl at several localities between the eastern edge of Eastern Highlands Province, and Wau, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
57861	habitat		It lives under litter on the rainforest floor and breeds by direct development.	eng
57861	population		It is thought to be a reasonably common species.	eng
57861	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57862	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
57862	distribution		This species is known the southern end of the Owen Stanley Mountains, Pini Range, and Cloudy Mountains of southern Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,550m asl.	eng
57862	habitat		This species is found on the forest floor in the leaf-litter of lowland hill forest. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a direct developer.	eng
57862	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
57862	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57863	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57863	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Victoria, Mount Tafa and the Owen Stanley Mountains south of Wau, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea, at 2,200-2,700m asl.	eng
57863	habitat		This is a terrestrial species found on the forest floor in rainforest, which is presumed to breed by direct development. It is not found in degraded habitats.	eng
57863	population		It is uncommon.	eng
57863	threats		There are some local threats to this species, such as gold mining in Hidden Valley, which could bring many people into the area. It is likely to be safer elsewhere in its range in the Owen Stanley Mountains.	eng
57864	conservation		The extent of occurrence for this species needs to be determined and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
57864	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Opio and the Kubor Range in Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. Zweifel (2000) also referred a specimen from Baiyer River to this species, which has been recorded from between 1,750 and 2,180m asl.	eng
57864	habitat		No information is available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
57864	population		It is known only from three specimens.	eng
57864	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
57865	conservation		It occurs in Crater Wildlife Management Area and Lorentz National Park.	eng
57865	distribution		This species is widespread in central mainland New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), at 15-1,550m asl.	eng
57865	habitat		It is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor, always in mature forest, not in degraded habitats. It breeds on the forest floor, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
57865	population		It varies in its abundance from uncommon to very common.	eng
57865	threats		With the exception of localized impacts, there are no known threats to this species.	eng
57866	conservation		The species' extent of occurrence needs to be determined and its population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57866	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Myola Guest House, in Northern Province, Papua New Guinea, 5km east and 0.5km south of Myola town, at 2,080m asl.	eng
57866	habitat		This species was found on litter on the forest floor in lower montane forest, and found by day under "surface cover" (Zweifel 2000). It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
57866	population		It is considered relatively common.	eng
57866	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57867	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d'Andohahela and the Tolagnaro Fivondronana Classified Forest. Further research is needed to investigate the breeding biology of this species.	eng
57867	distribution		This species is known only from extreme south-eastern Madagascar, in the Anosyenne Mountains, Parc National d'Andohahela, and Tsitongambarika (north of Tolagnaro). It occurs at 700-1,900m asl.	eng
57867	habitat		It occurs in forests in an area of extensive, continuous rainforest, and is thought to be associated with boulders and granitic outcrops. It is not known from disturbed habitats. The breeding biology of this species is completely unknown.	eng
57867	population		It is apparently not common, but it is very hard to detect, and probably has a patchy occurrence.	eng
57867	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57868	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57868	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Papua New Guinea: the type locality (Arau), and the northern side of the Huon Peninsula. Its altitudinal range is 1,100-1,400m asl.	eng
57868	habitat		It lives in zones transitional between mid-montane and lower-montane forest, where it calls from exposed positions on the forest floor. It has been found only in mature forest.	eng
57868	population		It is reasonably common where it has been found.	eng
57868	threats		No information is available.	eng
57869	conservation		None required. Its range includes a number of protected areas.	eng
57869	distribution		This species occurs on the north coast of Papua (Indonesia), north and south of the central range of Papua New Guinea and from Normanby Island also in Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,430m asl.	eng
57869	habitat		This species is active at night on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It is an adaptable species that has also been recorded from rural gardens. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
57869	population		This species is abundant within its range.	eng
57869	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57870	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57870	distribution		This species is known only from Rossel Island, Papua New Guinea, where it occurs from sea level up to 700m asl. Records from Tagula (Sudest) Island belong to a distinct and as yet undescribed species.	eng
57870	habitat		It inhabits lowland rainforest and cloud forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57870	population		There have been no recent records.	eng
57870	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present. Rossel Island is very largely covered by primary or slightly disturbed rainforest, habitat is plentiful, and this species ranges across the entire altitudinal range of the island.	eng
57871	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. Safeguarding the ecologically intact survival of substantial areas of montane forest, including protection from pollution impacts, would protect the species from the effects of hill development.	eng
57871	distribution		This species might be endemic to the hill and mountain areas of Peninsular Malaysia. There are old records and one recent one from Sumatra, Indonesia. The range mapped in Sumatra remains uncertain. It can occur as low as 550-790m asl, but it occurs mainly above 1,000m asl.	eng
57871	habitat		It inhabits evergreen rainforest and forest edge, and is an extremely secretive species. It lives in, calls from and breeds in hollows in tree trunks and bamboo by larval development, but its distinctive call makes it easily recognisable and able to be surveyed (P.P. van Dijk, Norsham, Y., J. Sukumaran, Mumpuni pers. obs.). The population density seems to be limited by tree hole availability. Clearing in and around forests can encourage the growth of giant bamboos that can provide additional microhabitat.	eng
57871	population		Populations of this species are known from most surveyed hill and mountain areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Where it occurs it is generally numerous (based on calls), especially above 900m asl.	eng
57871	threats		It is able to withstand modest habitat impacts such as road construction, but would be threatened, at least locally, by plans for the large-scale Malaysian Highlands Development Project.	eng
57872	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo, and has been recorded in a protected area in Sumatra. Effective preservation of lowland forest is needed to conserve this species.	eng
57872	distribution		This species is widely distributed in Borneo, and has also been recorded from northern Sumatra (known only from a single specimen). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species occurring below 700m asl.	eng
57872	habitat		It lives in lowland primary rainforest. Males call from water-containing holes in trees. Breeding and larval development takes place in the tree holes.	eng
57872	population		It is considered to be locally abundant.	eng
57872	threats		The principal threat to the species is clear-cutting of lowland tropical rainforest.	eng
57873	conservation		It is occurs in several protected areas including Ujung Kulon National Park, Gunung Halimun National Park, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Park and Gunung Tangkuban Perhahu National Reserve.	eng
57873	distribution		This species is known only from the central and western parts of the island of Java, and was recently discovered in the Barisan-Selatan National Park in Lampung, at the southern end of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57873	habitat		It inhabits primary and secondary forest, and survives in small numbers in agricultural gardens and plantations. It breeds in ponds, slow-flowing streams and pools along braided streams.	eng
57873	population		It is common in forests, but is found in much smaller numbers in disturbed habitats.	eng
57873	threats		It is tolerant of a degree of forest alteration, but declines in the population are observed where forest has been degraded.	eng
57874	conservation		One locality, Khao Sebab in Thailand, is a protected area, and large parts of the Cardamoms have recently also come under protection. Effectively protecting areas of natural habitat in southern Viet Nam is a priority for the species, as is collecting more information on its status, distribution and biology.	eng
57874	distribution		This species is known from the southern Indochinese hill rainforest block, from southeastern Thailand through the Cardamoms of Cambodia to the Kon Tum-Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam and the Annamite mountains of southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor, 1962; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Stuart, 1999, Swan pers. comm.). Altitude records range between 600-1,200m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Stuart, 1999).	eng
57874	habitat		All available records are from swampy muddy areas in forest. It presumably breeds in swamps and pools by larval development.	eng
57874	population		The limited information available suggests that the species is uncommon to locally common.	eng
57874	threats		Forest degradation might be a threat, but otherwise threats are mostly unknown for this species.	eng
57875	conservation		Field surveys are needed to gather appropriate data on the population status of this species and its preferred habitat. Ensuring that the known highland populations in Peninsular Malaysia are included within protected areas is also important for its conservation.	eng
57875	distribution		This species has been recorded with certainty only from Bukit Larut, the Cameron Highlands, and the Genting Highlands at 1,200-1,900m asl in Peninsular Malaysia. There is an old, low altitude, record from the Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur that requires investigation, and it probably refers to <em>Microhyla palmipes</em>, or a juvenile <em>M. borneensis</em>. Records from peninsular Thailand require confirmation. A record from Tawitawi Island in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines refers to <em>M. petrigena</em>. Records from Borneo probably refer either to <em>M. petrigena</em> or <em>M. borneensis</em>. It seems likely that this species (<em>M. annectens</em>) is endemic to the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia, perhaps extending into extreme southern Thailand.@@	eng
57875	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor and puddles in evergreen submontane and montane rainforest (Grandison 1972; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), and breeds in temporary pools.	eng
57875	population		Population data for this species are largely unknown because most recent records have come from the same location, where it can be readily found.	eng
57875	threats		There are some localized threats to this species, mainly relating to agricultural activities and the development of tourist and transport infrastructures, although the montane forests of Peninsular Malaysia are reasonably secure.	eng
57876	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Yang Datong, Ohler, A., Lu Shunqing, Dutta, S., Bordoloi, S., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	The range of this species includes several protected areas. No conservation measures appear necessary at present although resolution of the taxonomic status of this complex is needed.	eng
57876	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Yang Datong, Ohler, A., Lu Shunqing, Dutta, S., Bordoloi, S., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	This species ranges from southern Yunnan Province (Jinghong, Mengla and Mengyang counties) in China, northeast India, eastern Bangladesh, through Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, and southern Viet Nam, south to Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia) and parts of Borneo, but is absent from Singapore. The only recorded island occurrence is on Langkawi (Berry 1975). It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
57876	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Yang Datong, Ohler, A., Lu Shunqing, Dutta, S., Bordoloi, S., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It inhabits various types of moist evergreen forest, including monsoon and perennial rainforest types, being generally associated with hilly regions (Dring 1979, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Stuart 1999, Berry 1975), and often found near streams (Stuart 2005). It also occurs in secondary growth. Breeding mainly takes place in still pools.	eng
57876	population	van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Yang Datong, Ohler, A., Lu Shunqing, Dutta, S., Bordoloi, S., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It is generally common in appropriate habitat, forming large choruses.	eng
57876	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Yang Datong, Ohler, A., Lu Shunqing, Dutta, S., Bordoloi, S., Sengupta, S. & Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	Selective logging does not pose a serious threat to this species, but deforestation does threaten local populations. It is also reported to be controlled as a pest in South Asia, although the reasons behind this are currently unclear. Water pollution might possibly be a threat in China.	eng
57877	conservation		More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution and conservation biology. Effective preservation of lowland forest is essential for the survival of the species. It is present in several protected areas.	eng
57877	distribution		This species is known from many scattered localities in Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and probably occurs over the whole island in suitable environments. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 70-550m asl.	eng
57877	habitat		It is known from lowland areas of primary rainforest, forest edges and moderately modified rainforest. Explosive breeding takes place in forest pools. Adults are generally found in leaf-litter.	eng
57877	population		Although this species is not seen often, this is probably a reflection of its small size and camouflaged colouration. It is difficult to locate and is most likely to be seen after heavy rains.	eng
57877	threats		The major threats to this species are largely unknown, although it is unlikely to tolerate extensive forest degradation from logging and expanding oil palm plantations.	eng
57878	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong & Bosco Chan, 2004	Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
57878	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong & Bosco Chan, 2004	This species is known from central, southern and south-western China, including Taiwan and Hong Kong, eastern Myanmar, throughout Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (Bourret 1942, Taylor 1962, Berry 1975, Lim and Lim 1992, Nguyen and Ho 1996, Stuart 1999). It generally occurs in lowlands and at mid-altitudes up to about 220-1,500 m asl.	eng
57878	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong & Bosco Chan, 2004	A species of the forest edge, occasionally encountered on the forest floor of primary forest, but most often heard in massive choruses at forest edge puddles and pools. It is also known occasionally from plantations, tall shrublands and cultivated fields. It breeds in relatively permanent still waters, such as grassy pools, marshes, ponds and paddy fields in hilly areas.	eng
57878	population	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong & Bosco Chan, 2004	It is generally abundant in appropriate habitat in Southeast Asia. It is regarded as a rare species in Taiwan, Province of China. The distribution in China is fragmented.	eng
57878	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong & Bosco Chan, 2004	Habitat destruction and degradation due to residential and agricultural development are threats to this species in China. No populations were ever found in paddy fields in Taiwan, Province of China, presumably owing to the use of pesticides and fertilizer application.	eng
57879	conservation		It has not been recorded from a protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine the range, habitat preferences and population status.	eng
57879	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Mayabunder (east of Burma temple), North Andamans" (Pillai 1977), in the Andaman Islands, India.	eng
57879	habitat		This is presumed to be a fossorial or terrestrial species, possibly associated with the leaf-litter substrate of tropical moist forest, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
57879	population		It is known only from the type locality, where it is presumed to be rare.	eng
57879	threats		It might be threatened by urbanization around Mayabunder.	eng
57880	conservation		Cat Tien National Park is close to the type locality.	eng
57880	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Ma Da forest, in Dong Nai Province, southern Viet Nam, although it might occur more widely.	eng
57880	habitat		It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
57880	population		No information is available on the population status of this species.	eng
57880	threats		No information available for this species.	eng
57881	conservation		Taxonomic studies of this species in relation to <em>Microhyla annamensis</em> and <em>M. erythropoda</em> are desirable.	eng
57881	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Da Lat on Lang Bian Plateau, Viet Nam.	eng
57881	habitat		This species presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
57881	population		It has not been found since the original description in 1943, although the type locality is easily accessible for survey work.	eng
57881	threats		No information is available.	eng
57882	conservation		Many protected areas in the region support this species. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
57882	distribution		This species occurs in central, southern and south-western China, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, including major islands such as Taiwan, Province of China, Hainan, Sumatra, Penang, Siberut, Phuket as well as Great Nicobar Island, India. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57882	habitat		It inhabits disturbed areas such as riverbanks, gardens, fire-maintained grassy areas, paddy fields and savannah forest as well as secondary vegetation. It breeds in temporary rain puddles, paddy fields, ditches, marshes and slow-flowing streams.	eng
57882	population		It is generally abundant in appropriate habitats.	eng
57882	threats		Clear-cutting of forests might threaten the species is some parts of its range. It is eaten in northern Thailand, but this is not considered to be a threat.	eng
57883	conservation		The species has been recorded from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site. Continued active management of this area is required, and further survey work is needed to monitor the population status of the species.	eng
57883	distribution		This species is known only from two sites in southern Sri Lanka: Morningside in eastern Sinharaja (06° 24'N; 80° 37'E), and Mahawalatenna in Balangoda (06° 35'N; 80° 45'E). The recorded elevation range is 515-1,110m asl.	eng
57883	habitat		This is a terrestrial species associated with shaded, wet leaf-litter, in tropical moist forest. Larvae are found in inland wetlands, including old abandoned gem mining pits surrounded by tropical forest.	eng
57883	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57883	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss, due to the establishment of cardamom plantations, as well as by pollution resulting from agriculture.	eng
57884	conservation		The only known population is within the Danum Valley Conservation Area, which is the largest protected lowland dipterocarp forest in Malaysian Borneo. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from a single protected area.	eng
57884	distribution		This species is presently known only from the Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. It appears to have a genuinely restricted distribution. Specimens have been collected below 250m asl.	eng
57884	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the forest floor. Little is known of its habits, but presumably it breeds in small rain pools like most of its congeners.	eng
57884	population		It is known only from two or three specimens.	eng
57884	threats		The Danum Valley is a well-protected area. However, its restricted range renders it susceptible to threatening processes.	eng
57885	conservation		Its range overlaps with a few protected areas in the region.	eng
57885	distribution		This species is known from Shaanxi, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Zhejang and Anhui Provinces in central China, from 100-1,700m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
57885	habitat		It inhabits hilly areas in grassland and is found near streams. It breeds in paddy fields and pools.	eng
57885	population		It is a common species.	eng
57885	threats		Habitat degradation from agricultural pesticides is a major threat to this species.	eng
57886	conservation		It is found in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
57886	distribution		This is a very widespread species, occurring through most of South Asia, including Sri Lanka. It occurs up to 2,000m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Microhyla fissipes</em> is not clear, but has been arbitrarily set at the western border of Myanmar, pending further information.	eng
57886	habitat		It occupies a number of habitat types including lowland scrub forest, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and urban areas. Sub-fossorial in habit, it is also found in forest floor leaf-litter. It is mostly a nocturnal species that is only active diurnally during the rainy season. It breeds in temporary rain pools and other bodies of still water. It can occur in modified areas, such as non-intensively farmed agricultural land.	eng
57886	population		It is a common species through most of its range.	eng
57886	threats		Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.	eng
57887	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. On Peninsular Malaysia, further surveys of known and possible additional localities would be desirable, as would ensuring adequate long-term protection of the known sites.	eng
57887	distribution		This species is known from three widely separated locations in Peninsular Malaysia (Batu caves, Kuala Tahan in Taman Negara National Park, and Sekayu waterfalls in the adjoining area of Trengganu-Berry, 1975; Leong and Tan, 2001), as well as from Sumatra, Nias, Java, Madura and Bali (Indonesia). Its distribution in Indonesia is patchy within the range mapped.	eng
57887	habitat		All three Peninsular Malaysian localities are in forest where foothills meet lowland. In Indonesia the species is found in forest at low and higher altitudes. It breeds in stagnant ponds and slow-flowing water. It is usually confined to forest and forest edge habitats.	eng
57887	population		In Peninsular Malaysia the population status of this species is largely unknown. A single specimen was collected in 1998 in Trengganu. In Indonesia the species is very abundant in several places, but less common in others.	eng
57887	threats		The population at Batu Caves in Peninsular Malaysia is severely impacted by (past) mining, religious and recreational use of the site, and encroachment by expanding residential housing. On Sumatra, forest loss is the main threat.	eng
57888	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas.	eng
57888	distribution		This species is endemic to eastern and central Borneo where it is known from scattered localities below 250m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.	eng
57888	habitat		It occurs in primary lowland rainforest where adults live on the ground in the leaf-litter and breed in very small rain pools.	eng
57888	population		As the species is easy to find when it is breeding, it is presumed to be abundant.	eng
57888	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation through clear-cutting.	eng
57889	conservation		It has been recorded from at least three protected areas including Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak) and Batu Apoi National Park (Brunei).	eng
57889	distribution		This species occurs below 700m asl in central and north-eastern Borneo in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), and Brunei Darussalam. It also occurs on Tawitawi Island in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, where a record of this species (Diesmos and Leong pers. comm.) was previously incorrectly assigned to <em>Microhyla annectens</em>.	eng
57889	habitat		Adults occur in the litter of lowland primary rainforest, and breed in small, clear streams.	eng
57889	population		As the species is easy to find when it is breeding, it is presumed to be abundant.	eng
57889	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation through clear-cutting.	eng
57890	conservation		Where the original specimens were collected is now in Nui Chua Nature Reserve. Its possible occurrence in Binh Chau Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve should be investigated.	eng
57890	distribution		This species is known only from the coastal area of Thuan Hai to Vung Tau Provinces in southern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942).	eng
57890	habitat		Breeding in this species presumably takes place in water by larval development.	eng
57890	population		It has not been recorded since the 1940s.	eng
57890	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the region is presumably extensively modified by agricultural development.	eng
57891	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Zhao Ermi & Geng Baorong, 2004	It is probably secure from all but the most pervasive threats, and is known to inhabit many protected areas. Conservation action appears not to be warranted at the moment beyond maintaining existing protected areas.	eng
57891	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Zhao Ermi & Geng Baorong, 2004	This species is known from central, southern and southwestern China (including Hainan Island, Hong Kong and Macau), and Mainland Thailand at least as far south as Prachuab Khiri Khan province (perhaps to Chumphon), Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam. It is not reported from Myanmar (Taylor 1962, Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has been introduced to Guam, although it is unknown whether it has established a breeding population in the island (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It occurs from lowlands just above sea level to highlands up to at least 1,100 m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
57891	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Zhao Ermi & Geng Baorong, 2004	It is mainly observed in forest edge situations. It inhabits disturbed areas such as cultivated fields, abandoned fields, grasslands and plantations, but is apparently not a commensal of large-scale agricultural areas. It breeds in large temporary rain pools, ponds or paddy fields.	eng
57891	population	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Zhao Ermi & Geng Baorong, 2004	It is a common species in appropriate habitat, although it is cryptic, seasonal and not often seen.	eng
57891	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Zhao Ermi & Geng Baorong, 2004	This species is marketed for human consumption in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999).	eng
57892	conservation		Given its wide range and habitat preferences, it is likely to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
57892	distribution		This species is widely distributed throughout Sri Lanka and much of peninsular and northwestern India, and is also present in Bangladesh. It occurs from sea level up to around 460m asl in Sri Lanka and 700m asl in India.	eng
57892	habitat		A lowland species inhabiting dry forest, shrubland and grassland, agricultural land and often close to human habitation (including urbanised areas). Individuals are found in loose soil, amongst leaf-litter, and under logs and other ground cover. Breeding takes place in still waters and paddy fields. There is little information available on larval ecology.	eng
57892	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57892	threats		Pollution of land and waterways by agrochemicals, wetland reclamation (drainage for urbanization) and loss of habitat to infrastructure development are all threats to this species.	eng
57893	conservation		It is known to occur in the Bilgiris Rangaswamy Wild Life Sanctuary in Karnataka, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, and to investigate further its breeding biology.	eng
57893	distribution		This species is known from Biligirirangan Hills (Karnataka) and Wayanad (Kerala) (Biju 2001) in the southern Western Ghats at elevations ranging between 600 and 1,800m asl.	eng
57893	habitat		It is a terrestrial, leaf-litter species of hilly areas, associated with riparian vegetation (especially grassland) in moist evergreen tropical forest. It has also been recorded from lightly disturbed forest fringes. There is little information on its breeding biology, but it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
57893	population		There is no information on the population status of this recently described species.	eng
57893	threats		In the past, the major threat to this species was habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land (cultivated fields) and the extraction of wood from tropical forests. Habitat loss due to urbanization in the region is now the main threat.	eng
57894	conservation		This species has been recorded from Gunung Leuser and Taman Negara National Parks. Remnants of the Batu Caves limestone outcrop should be effectively protected and restored where possible. This species' taxonomic status should also be reviewed.	eng
57894	distribution		This species is known in Peninsular Malaysia from two localities: Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur (the type locality), and Kuala Tahan in the Taman Negara National Park. In Sumatra it is known from three localities: two in Gunung Leuser National Park in Aceh (Iskandar pers. comm.), and one near Lahat in south Sumatra (Mumpuni pers. comm.). It is a low altitude species.	eng
57894	habitat		The type locality of this species was originally a limestone crag area surrounded by lowland forest. It is found in forested areas in Sumatra. It presumably breeds in slow-flowing streams, but no data are available to confirm this.	eng
57894	population		In Peninsular Malaysia there are no population data available for this species, which has not been reported in recent decades despite its type locality being extremely easy to access. In Sumatra this species is rare but it has been collected as recently as 1999.	eng
57894	threats		The most serious threat through most of this species' range is likely to be forest clearance through logging. The type locality is now a partly quarried limestone crag surrounded by housing estates, and is annually flooded with pilgrims.	eng
57895	conservation		Besides the Horton Plains National Park, it also has been recorded from the Pattipola Forest Reserve, Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
57895	distribution		This species is endemic to the central hills of Sri Lanka at an altitude of 1,800-2,200m asl.	eng
57895	habitat		It occurs in lentic habitats, in upper montane grassland and forest. Adults are generally found close to pool and grassland edges, while larvae are found in both permanent and seasonal pools.	eng
57895	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57895	threats		The major threat is habitat loss through conversion to intensive agricultural use (e.g. vegetables); other threats include droughts and fires, especially in Horton Plains National Park.	eng
57896	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Jarujin Nabhitabhata, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing & Dutta, S., 2004	Good populations of this species inhabit a variety of protected areas. Taxonomic research on the status of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Micryletta</span> and presumed subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">M. inornata lineata</span> Taylor, 1962 would be useful.	eng
57896	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Jarujin Nabhitabhata, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing & Dutta, S., 2004	This species is known from the Andaman Islands in India, from Mengla in southern Yunnan, China, throughout Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia, including some islands such as Phuket (Frith 1977). It is not recorded from Myanmar but it probably occurs in the eastern and southern parts. It is unknown from Singapore. The type locality is an unspecified location in Sumatra, where there were no records until it was recently rediscovered from Lahat, south Sumatra, Indonesia (Mumpuni pers. comm.). In India it occurs at elevations up to 50 m asl, in Cambodia it has been reported from 37 m asl, whereas in Lao People's Democratic Republic it has been recorded from 200-545 m asl.	eng
57896	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Jarujin Nabhitabhata, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing & Dutta, S., 2004	It is generally found at the forest edge and in other disturbed situations, but it is rarely commensal in agricultural or residential areas. It breeds in small temporary rain pools and is an opportunistic, explosive breeder.	eng
57896	population	van Dijk, P.P., Jarujin Nabhitabhata, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing & Dutta, S., 2004	It is a cryptic and inconspicuous species that can be moderately common in places in Southeast Asia (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). In India it is considered common but in China it is reportedly rare.	eng
57896	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Jarujin Nabhitabhata, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing & Dutta, S., 2004	In China, there is serious habitat loss, especially from rubber plantations and expanding human settlements. Elsewhere in its range it is not known to be significantly threatened.	eng
57897	conservation		It is protected within Kenting National Park at the southern tip of Taiwan, Province of China, but other populations require stricter protection. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
57897	distribution		This species has a fragmented distribution in central and southern Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs below 1,000m asl.	eng
57897	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forests, and is sometimes also found in cultivated fields and orchards. It breeds by larval development in temporary rainwater pools, blocked ditches and cisterns.	eng
57897	population		Only three or four populations have ever been found of this species, and it is considered to be very rare.	eng
57897	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to human settlement and small-scale agriculture.	eng
57898	conservation	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57898	distribution	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	This species from southeastern Brazil occurs in the following States: Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (including on Ilhabela Island), and southeastern Minas Gerais. It occurs up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57898	habitat	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, living in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, and does not occur in open areas. It breeds by direct development: the larvae develop in the eggs in the leaf-litter.	eng
57898	population	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is a very common species, though difficult to find.	eng
57898	threats	Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, Vanessa Verdade, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, logging, fire, tourism and human settlement.	eng
57899	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57899	distribution		This species ranges from the Cuenca Basin in Azuay Province, south to Barrio-Laguna, in Canton Saraguro, in Loja Province in southern Ecuador. It has been recorded at 2,450-2,650m asl in the Cuenca Basin, and at 2,620m asl at Barrio-Laguna.	eng
57899	habitat		It lives in pastures, grassland, and agricultural fields and degraded secondary habitats, not in closed forest. Animals have been collected close to small pools. Its breeding is unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in ponds.	eng
57899	population		It is a common species.	eng
57899	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any known threats.	eng
57900	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57900	distribution		This species occurs in lowland and premontane zones from Costa Rica and Panama to montane Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Costa Rica it is found primarily on the lower Atlantic slopes of the cordilleras, and in the lowlands and on the slopes of the southwestern region. In Colombia, it occurs in the Pacific lowlands, on the lower western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, and around the northern edge of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
57900	habitat		It is a secretive, nocturnal leaf-litter species of humid lowland, montane forest, including secondary forest and areas close to these forests. Adults are generally found under fallen logs and other surface debris. Breeding takes place in swamps and shallow water-filled depressions on the forest floor.	eng
57900	population		It is rarely found, probably largely due to its secretive habits.	eng
57900	threats		The major threats are likely to be deforestation for agricultural development, plantations, illegal crops, logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
57901	conservation		It has been recorded from Lorentz National Park, which is reasonably well protected.	eng
57901	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in New Guinea, North River (Lorentz River), near Sabang, in Papua, Indonesia. It probably occurs at around 150m asl.	eng
57901	habitat		There are no specific data on its habitat and ecological requirements, but it presumably occupies tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57901	population		It is known only from the type specimen.	eng
57901	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57902	conservation		Further documentation of the species' Extent of Occurrence and habitat requirements is needed as well as an assessment of the current population status. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
57902	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Papua New Guinea: Owen Stanley Mountains, Central Province, to Mount Dayman, Milne Bay Province. It is a montane species occurring up to 2,800m asl.	eng
57902	habitat		This arboreal species inhabits tropical rainforest and breeds in trees. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
57902	population		It can be locally very common.	eng
57902	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57903	conservation		Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, such as Mount Malindang National Park, although there is a need for increased protection of remaining forest habitats on Mindanao.	eng
57903	distribution		This species is known from Biliran Island and several montane localities on Mindanao, in the Philippines. It is expected to be found on intervening islands.	eng
57903	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy forest but has also been found in disturbed lower montane forest. Male calling aggregations have been observed beside ponds and lakes. It is known to breed by direct development, and does not require water for breeding.	eng
57903	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
57903	threats		The major threat is the loss of lower montane and lowland rainforest on Mindanao due to agriculture (crops and plantations) and logging.	eng
57904	conservation		This species might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.	eng
57904	distribution		This recently described species is known only from collections made on Waira Mountain about 7km north-north-east of the village of Kontiunae (Konti), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia, at 600-680m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57904	habitat		The type series was collected in dense vegetation under closed-canopy rainforest. The frogs were found in bird's nest ferns at heights of 4-10m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a direct developing species.	eng
57904	population		It was more abundant at the type locality than the sympatric <em>Oreophryne waira</em>.	eng
57904	threats		Selective logging was recorded in the area where the type series was collected, and this might be a threat.	eng
57905	conservation		This species occurs in Wandamen Nature Reserve, though this is not secure from logging.	eng
57905	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the Wondiwoi Mountains, west of the coastal village of Yretuar, at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, and from 54km along the Nabrie-Mapia road, in Papua, Indonesia, at 350-750m asl. It almost certainly ranges more widely.	eng
57905	habitat		It lives on low vegetation in tropical rainforest up to 2m above the ground. It occurs in dense and open forests, but not in secondary habitats, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57905	population		This species is abundant at its type locality.	eng
57905	threats		Some selective logging is taking place within its range, but this is probably not a serious threat.	eng
57906	conservation		The distribution of this species needs to be documented and its population status needs to be assessed. Its taxonomy is currently under investigation. Its range probably includes Cyclops Nature Reserve.	eng
57906	distribution		This species' known geographic range extends from Madang, on the north coast of Papua New Guinea, to possibly as far as the Cyclops Mountains, Papua, Indonesia. It is present on Kairuru Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to about 1,000m asl.	eng
57906	habitat		It occurs in lowland rainforest, and degraded forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57906	population		It is not a common species.	eng
57906	threats		None known, but no data available.	eng
57907	conservation		An assessment of the impact of logging on the species is required. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57907	distribution		This species is widespread on the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea, ranging up to 350m asl, perhaps higher.	eng
57907	habitat		This species is arboreal, the males calling from bushes and trees at night in lowland rainforest. Survives well in very degraded forest and gardens. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57907	population		It is abundant within its distribution.	eng
57907	threats		Logging is very intensive on the island and might impact some populations, but this species is very adaptable.	eng
57908	conservation		Its extent of occurrence at high altitudes in central New Guinea needs to be documented. It has not been recorded from any protected area.	eng
57908	distribution		This species is currently known from three localities: from high altitudes 9km north-east of Lake Habbeman; from about 70km south-east of Angguruk; and from the southern slopes of the Valentyn Mountains, all in the central mountain ranges of eastern Papua, Indonesia. It occurs from 2,800 up to 3,500m asl.	eng
57908	habitat		It inhabits montane rainforest and grassland and breeds by direct development. Specimens have been collected under low vegetation or on moss in moist habitats.	eng
57908	population		There were no records of this species since the 1970s, when it was observed to be relatively common, until it was recently found at two new localities.	eng
57908	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and it occurs within a remote area, affording it some protection.	eng
57909	conservation		It probably occurs in the Bogani-Nani Wartabone National Park and the Tangkoko-Batu Angus and the Dua Sudara Nature Reserves. However, these two nature reserves have been very heavily deforested. There is a need for much strenghtened management of existing protected areas in this region, and also for further survey work to determine the population status of this species.	eng
57909	distribution		This species is known only from northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, above 1,000m asl.	eng
57909	habitat		It occurs in montane forest, and presumably lays eggs on the ground that develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
57909	population		The current population status of this species is unknown. Until it was rediscovered in 1999, it was known only from the holotype.	eng
57909	threats		The area where it occurs is experiencing some of the most severe habitat loss in Sulawesi, with forest clearance having taken place almost up to the mountain summits.	eng
57910	conservation		It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.	eng
57910	distribution		This recently described species is found on the crest of the Wondiwoi Mountains and adjacent eastern slopes (the western slopes have not been surveyed) down to 750m asl at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, in Papua, Indonesia, and it might occur more widely. Its altitudinal range is 750-900m asl.	eng
57910	habitat		This species occurs in tropical rainforest with patchy, dense undergrowth. Animals were found perched in bushes and other vegetation between 1 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited 1.5-2.4m above the ground, and are guarded by the male parent (Günther, 2006).	eng
57910	population		Specimens of this species are difficult to find, so its population status is not known.	eng
57910	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57911	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57911	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Went Mountains, at 800-1,050m asl, in Papua, Indonesia.	eng
57911	habitat		It presumably lives in tropical rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57911	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no records since the original description.	eng
57911	threats		There are no data available regarding threats to this species, although the only known locality is in a remote area, with very little development.	eng
57912	conservation		The taxonomic status of the Idenburg River population needs to be determined in order to clarify the extent of occurrence of this species, the range of which includes Lorentz National Park.	eng
57912	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of central Papua, Indonesia.	eng
57912	habitat		It inhabits lower montane rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
57912	population		Its population status is unknown, as there are no known collections of it since it was first described.	eng
57912	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which has part of its range in an protected area, affording it some level of protection.	eng
57913	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements, and population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57913	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Morotai Island, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia, but probably also occurs on Salawati and Halmahera (although the specimens from these islands have been lost). Specimens from Geg Island might also belong to this species, which is presumably a lowland species.	eng
57913	habitat		It presumably lives in tropical forest and breeds by direct development.	eng
57913	population		Its population status is unknown as it has probably not been recorded since it was first discovered.	eng
57913	threats		No data are available.	eng
57914	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of the species need to be documented. Taxonomic issues are currently being addressed. Its range includes Kamiali Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57914	distribution		This species is known from the Huon Peninsula southeast to Kokoda and Popondetta, Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57914	habitat		It is found in rainforest, but is also adaptable and found in rural gardens and urban areas. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
57914	population		It is a very common species.	eng
57914	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57915	conservation		It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
57915	distribution		This recently described species is distributed in the Adelbert Mountains and adjacent coastal region of Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, westward to the south slope of the Schrader Mountains, and probably northwest as far as the vicinity of Lumi, West Sepik Province. It has an altitudinal range of 0-975m asl.	eng
57915	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical rainforest. Animals were found perched in vegetation up to 5m above ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
57915	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57915	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57916	conservation		The extent of occurrence and the population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57916	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality 18km south-west of Bernhard Camp, along Idenburg River, Papua, Indonesia, at 2,150m asl, and it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
57916	habitat		It inhabits montane rainforest, where it is arboreal and scansorial, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57916	population		There have been no records of it since its discovery.	eng
57916	threats		There is no information available regarding threats to this species, but it is known from a very remote area with few human impacts.	eng
57917	conservation		The species' distribution on nearby islands needs to be documented and an assessment of the population status at the type locality is needed. Its range probably includes Oia Mada Wara Wildlife Management Area.	eng
57917	distribution		This species is known only from two islands in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea: the eastern slopes of Goodenough Island, at 1,600m asl, and from 980-1,830m asl on Fergusson Island.	eng
57917	habitat		This species is found in trees and on the ground in open lower montane tropical rainforest and lowland hill forest, as well as in bamboo groves. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate secondary habitats, since it occurs above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place. It is a direct developer and egg clutches have been observed in the hollowed centres of standing, dead bamboo stems.	eng
57917	population		It appears to be very common, at least on Fergusson Island.	eng
57917	threats		No threats are known at the higher elevations where the species occurs. The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes. On Fergusson Island, the habitat is impacted by gardening up to 300-400m asl in the east, and up to 700m asl in the west.	eng
57918	conservation		The distribution of the species needs to be determined and the current population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57918	distribution		This species is known only from Milne Bay Province in Papua New Guinea, specifically from two of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Goodenough Island and Fergusson Island). On Goodenough Island it is known from 1,600m asl, and from Fergusson Island it is known from 1,720-1,830m asl in the east of the island.	eng
57918	habitat		It is found on the forest floor and in trees in montane tropical rainforest, where it presumably breeds by direct development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate secondary habitats, since it occurs above the altitude at which rural gardening takes place.	eng
57918	population		Little information is available regarding the population status of this species, but it might be moderately common within its tight altitudinal band. It has only recently been rediscovered after an absence of records for many years.	eng
57918	threats		There are no known threats to this species at the higher altitudes where it occurs. The habitat on Goodenough Island is heavily impacted by gardening and fires, as well by as expanding human populations, up to 300m asl, but is still intact at higher altitudes. On Fergusson Island, the habitat is impacted by gardening up to 300-400m asl in the east, and up to 700m asl in the west.	eng
57919	conservation		It occurs in Komodo National Park and perhaps other protected areas within its range.	eng
57919	distribution		This species is known only from the islands of Sumbawa, Rinca, Komodo, and the western part of Flores, in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, below 600m asl.	eng
57919	habitat		It lives in bushes and trees in tropical dry forest and shrubland. Breeding is presumably by direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground.	eng
57919	population		It is not an abundant species, but is still regularly recorded.	eng
57919	threats		Very little is known about threats to this species, but plans for introducing livestock to the area would be particularly detrimental.	eng
57920	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
57920	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Moroka [Central Province], British New Guinea [Papua New Guinea]" (Parker 1934). It is most likely a lowland species.	eng
57920	habitat		This species presumably inhabits tropical rainforest and, like other species in the genus, presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57920	population		It has not been collected since the late 1800s, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57920	threats		There is no information on threats.	eng
57921	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
57921	distribution		This recently described species is distributed throughout the Island of Biak and the east of Supiori, Papua, Indonesia. The altitudinal range of the species is not known.	eng
57921	habitat		It has been found in swamps, under fairly dry conditions in cultivated areas and also in remote tropical forests. Animals have been collected perching in vegetation between 0.5 and 7m above ground level. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57921	population		It is presumed to be a common species.	eng
57921	threats		The species has been recorded in cultivated land, and so it might not be significantly threatened.	eng
57922	conservation		The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57922	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Moroka, and from the Milne Bay area, in Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species.	eng
57922	habitat		It is known from lowland rainforest and presumably breeds by direct development (like other species in the genus).	eng
57922	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57922	threats		Its major threats are unknown.	eng
57923	conservation		The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57923	distribution		This species is known only from a single locality from New Guinea, in the Derewo River basin in the mountains of western Papua, Indonesia, at 2,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
57923	habitat		This species is found in moss on boulders and trees in montane tropical rainforest. There is no degraded forest where the species has been found, and so its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57923	population		It is common in its only known locality, but occurs patchily.	eng
57923	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
57924	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status for this species need to be determined. There are no protected areas within the known range of this species.	eng
57924	distribution		This species occurs in the lowlands of Halmahera, Ternate, and Batjan Islands, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia.	eng
57924	habitat		It is presumably a forest dwelling species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57924	population		There are no recent records of this species, but there have been no surveys of this area.	eng
57924	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
57925	conservation		The mountain forests on Bali are protected, but for recreational purposes, not for biodiversity conservation. On Lombok the species presumably occurs in Gunung Rinjani Nature Reserve. There is clearly an urgent need for survey work to establish the current population status of this species on the two islands, and its presence within existing reserves.	eng
57925	distribution		This species is known only from the islands of Bali and Lombok in Indonesia, from above 1,000m asl.	eng
57925	habitat		It is known only from highland forest. It presumably lays eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
57925	population		There is no recent information on this species, and it has not been recorded since the 1930s.	eng
57925	threats		The habitat of this species is being severely impacted by very large-scale international tourism.	eng
57926	conservation		There is no information on conservation measures for this species.	eng
57926	distribution		This recently described species is known from Ialibu, in Southern Highlands Province, and Tabubil, in Western Province, Papua New Guinea, from 550-1,920m asl, and it might occur more widely.	eng
57926	habitat		It has been collected in tropical forest, where animals were found on vegetation above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57926	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
57926	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57927	conservation		This species presumably occurs in Cyclops Nature Reserve.	eng
57927	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Matapau, in West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea. It has also tentatively been identified as occurring in the Sentani region of Papua, Indonesia, at 90-300m asl.	eng
57927	habitat		The animals in Sentani live in very disturbed forest and in sago swamps in highly disturbed habitats, but there is no information on the habitat at the type locality.	eng
57927	population		The animals occurring at Sentani are common, but there is no information on this species' population status at the type locality.	eng
57927	threats		The animals at Sentani are probably not threatened, as they do well in disturbed habitats. Nothing is known about threats to this species at the type locality.	eng
57928	conservation		It might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.	eng
57928	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality (and its immediate vicinity), which is near the road to the village of Ambaidiru, about 17km north-east of Serui, on a ridge of Amoman Mountain (belonging to the Tamampi Massif), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia. This species was collected at altitudes of 800-1,200m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57928	habitat		The type series was collected in dense vegetation in rainforest. The frogs were perched on leaves and shrubs between 0.5 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57928	population		It can be common in suitable habitat, although this requires further investigation.	eng
57928	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57929	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area. More research and survey work is needed to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
57929	distribution		This species is known only from Rama Mese on the eastern side of the island of Flores in Indonesia, although it might occur a little more widely.	eng
57929	habitat		It lives in bushes and trees in tropical dry forest and shrubland, and presumably lays its eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development.	eng
57929	population		There is no information on its population status. The most recent specimens were collected in 1997.	eng
57929	threats		There is little information on specific threats to this species, but it would presumably suffer from extensive habitat loss.	eng
57930	conservation		It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.	eng
57930	distribution		This recently described species is known from the slopes and valleys east of the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, from 450-800m asl. It is possible that it is also present on Yapen Island and in the Fakfak Mountains, although further studies are needed to confirm the identity of animals from these regions.	eng
57930	habitat		It is found in tropical forest, where specimens were mainly found perched on the leaves of shrubs between 0.3 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57930	population		This species is relatively abundant.	eng
57930	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57931	conservation		It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.	eng
57931	distribution		This recently described species is known from the slopes and valleys east of the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, from 500-900m asl. It is possible that it is also present in the Fakfak Mountains, although further studies are needed to confirm the identity of animals from this area.	eng
57931	habitat		It occurs in tropical rainforest, where specimens were found perched in trees between 3 and 6m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57931	population		Specimens of this frog are difficult to find.	eng
57931	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57932	conservation		It occurs in the Gunung Lompobatang and Latimojong Nature Reserves.	eng
57932	distribution		This species is known only from Mounts Lompobatang and Latimojong, above 1,000m asl in southern Sulawesi, and from Gunung Karua at 1,200m asl in south-central Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
57932	habitat		It lives in undisturbed highland forested areas. It presumably lays eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
57932	population		It appears to be an uncommon, and patchily distributed, species.	eng
57932	threats		The primary threat is habitat conversion due to smallholder farming.	eng
57933	conservation		This species might be present in Pulau Yapen Tengah Nature Reserve.	eng
57933	distribution		This recently described species is known only from collections made on Waira Mountain about 7km north-north-east of the village of Kontiunae (Konti), on Yapen Island, Papua, Indonesia, at 600-680m asl, and from a second site 5km north-west of the type locality (also on Yapen Island) at altitudes of 900-1,150m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57933	habitat		The type series was collected in dense vegetation under closed-canopy rainforest. The frogs were perched on leaves and shrubs between 1 and 3m above the ground. Like other species in the genus, this is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57933	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57933	threats		It might be threatened by selective logging, which was recorded in the area where the type series was collected.	eng
57934	conservation		The taxonomic status of the Yapen Island populations needs to be assessed. This species' known range probably includes Yapen Nature Reserve.	eng
57934	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in north-western Papua, Indonesia, at 1,070m asl, and also from Yapen Island (also in Papua), at 500m asl.	eng
57934	habitat		It is found under leaf-litter and on low foliage in dry ridges in tropical rainforest, and has not been found in degraded habitats. Like other species in the genus, it breeds by direct development. The males parent guards the eggs on the ground, and transports the juveniles on its back (Günther, 2006).	eng
57934	population		It is thought to occur only at low densities.	eng
57934	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
57935	conservation		The species needs to be rediscovered and its extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status need to be determined.	eng
57935	distribution		No specific locality is known for this species, but it probably occurs somewhere in the northern half of Papua New Guinea.	eng
57935	habitat		It is presumably a tropical forest species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57935	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
57935	threats		No data are available.	eng
57936	conservation		Until this species is rediscovered, no conservation plans can be made.	eng
57936	distribution		This species is known only from the Mengkoka Mountains in south-eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia. However, the exact location of these mountains is not clear, and it is not possible to determine this species' range.	eng
57936	habitat		This is likely to be a burrowing species in rainforest that presumably lays its eggs on the ground and breeds by direct development.	eng
57936	population		It is known only from the holotype, so its population status is unknown.	eng
57936	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
57937	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57937	distribution		This species ranges from Vaupés and Amazonas in southeastern Colombia, across the lowlands of southern Venezuela (Amazonas state) and through the Guianan region (Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana), to Amapá in Brazil. The Venezuelan populations range from the base of Cerro de la Neblina in southernmost tip of Venezuela, northward to the upper Ventuari River. The elevational range for this species is from about 200-1,100m asl.	eng
57937	habitat		It is a diurnal tropical rainforest species, males calling mostly on rainy days. They perch next to streams, or live on the forest floor under leaves or among roots. The males are territorial. The eggs are laid inside or outside water. The tadpoles are aquatic and hide under leaves in small ponds. It is not very adaptable to habitat alteration.	eng
57937	population		It is a common species.	eng
57937	threats		Local populations are probably impacted by habitat loss caused by logging, human settlement and agricultural (including ranching) development. But overall it occurs in a region of minimal human impact.	eng
57938	conservation		It occurs in Canaima National Park (Venezuela).	eng
57938	distribution		This species is known from Venezuela (Gran Sabana in Bolívar state), and adjacent Guyana (in the region of Mount Roraima) from 700-1,400m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
57938	habitat		It is a diurnal species that lives in tropical rainforest, usually adjacent to streams. Tadpoles have been found in La Escalera region amidst leaves in a slowly flowing, tannin-coloured stream on sandy substrate (Duellman 1997). It also uses streams with rocky streambeds. Males call from between rotten trunks, holes, mats of roots and from under rocks, usually near swampy areas. The tadpoles burrow in the sandy bottom of streams.	eng
57938	population		It is common within its range.	eng
57938	threats		It occurs in an area of limited human impact, but local populations are probably impacted by agriculture, logging and human settlement	eng
57939	conservation		It occurs in Canaima National Park (Venezuela). Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the identity of specimens from Jaua-Sarisariñama.	eng
57939	distribution		This species occurs on Chimantá tepui, Jaua tepui and Mount Roraima in Bolívar state, southeastern Venezuela, and Mount Ayanganna in western Guyana. It occurs at 1,500-2,151m asl.	eng
57939	habitat		It is a diurnal toad living at the borders of slow-flowing streams in high montane tepui habitats. It calls from holes in leaf-litter or from between trunks or in crevices between rocks near montane streams. The tadpoles live in the substrate at the bottom of small ponds adjacent to flowing waters (the spiracle protrudes from the substrate enabling respiration).	eng
57939	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
57939	threats		Tourism could be a threat in Mount Roraima, but otherwise there are no significant threats.	eng
57940	conservation		The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be further documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
57940	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the central mountains of Papua New Guinea from Mount Hagen in the west to Mount Otto in the east. It occurs at about 1,800-2,800m asl.	eng
57940	habitat		This species is found on saturated ground under moss in montane forest. It has not been observed in disturbed habitats. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57940	population		It is reportedly quite common.	eng
57940	threats		There are no known threats to this species and its range is quite isolated.	eng
57941	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current population status need to be documented for this species. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57941	distribution		This species is known from the Hellwig and Wichmann Mountains near Lake Habbema, and in the vicinity of Doorman River, in central Papua, Indonesia, at 2,200-3,000m asl. It is possibly more widespread.	eng
57941	habitat		This is presumably a montane forest species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57941	population		There is no recent information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57941	threats		There is no information available on specific threats to this species, but it occurs in a very remote area.	eng
57942	conservation		The species' extent of occurrence needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57942	distribution		This species is known only from Kaironk Valley in the Schrader Mountains, Madang Province, and from 120km to the south-west at Mendi in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. It was recorded between 2,200 and 2,400m asl. It might have a wide distribution in Enga Province, where there has been little survey work.	eng
57942	habitat		This species was found under logs on the forest floor just inside primary forest close to anthropogenic grassland. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57942	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57942	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
57943	conservation		The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be documented and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57943	distribution		This species is known only from 2,050-2,600m asl on Mount Dayman and Mount Simpson, in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. It might be endemic to this mountain complex.	eng
57943	habitat		This fossorial frog is usually found in either montane closed-canopy forest or (more frequently) in open tussock grass and shrublands. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
57943	population		It is a common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
57943	threats		There are unlikely to be any threats to it as its habitat is sufficiently isolated from areas of human settlement such that habitat disturbance is insignificant.	eng
57944	conservation		Further documentation of the species distribution is required. Its range includes Mount Wilhelm National Park.	eng
57944	distribution		This species is known from four disjunctive regions at very high altitudes in the mountains of central Papua New Guinea. It is recorded from 2,490-4,000m asl.	eng
57944	habitat		It inhabits alpine grassland with tree ferns. Like other species in the genus, it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
57944	population		It is a very common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
57944	threats		There are no known threats to this species due to its high elevation. Fire is a potential threat.	eng
57945	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57945	distribution		This species is distributed in scattered localities in eastern Madagascar, from Ambana north to Ambatovaky. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 950m asl.	eng
57945	habitat		It is found near pools and marshes in clearings in rainforest. It is also found in secondary vegetation, but not in very open areas away from forest. It is an explosive breeder using permanent and temporary pools. It is fossorial when it is not breeding.	eng
57945	population		It is locally and temporally abundant.	eng
57945	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57946	conservation		It possibly occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, although it has not so far been recorded there, despite intensive sampling. Additional survey work is needed to determine the status of this species and whether or not it even still survives in the wild.	eng
57946	distribution		This species is known only from the hills west of Amani, in the East Usambara Mountains, in north-eastern Tanzania, probably at around 900m asl.	eng
57946	habitat		It is apparently a forest species found in leaf-litter, with ecological and breeding requirements perhaps similar to those of the <em>Hoplophryne</em> species. No other information is available on its habitat and ecology.	eng
57946	population		It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since the late 1920s, despite extensive herpetological work in the Amani area (though perhaps not quite in the area where this species occurs).	eng
57946	threats		This species is likely to be adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially due to small-scale agricultural activities. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
57947	conservation		It possibly occurs in Varirata National Park.	eng
57947	distribution		The type locality for this species is in the Sogeri plateau 8km north and 27km east of Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea, at 460m asl. The limits of its distribution are not well understood.	eng
57947	habitat		This is a very adaptable species that calls from concealed positions (possibly in holes) in mowed lawns, plantations, and in closed-canopy rainforest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
57947	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
57947	threats		Since it appears to be able to withstand severe habitat disturbance, it is probably not facing any serious threats.	eng
57948	conservation		More information is needed before realistic conservation measures can be formulated for this species. Better management of Templer's Park, Selangor, would benefit the population there, and options to designate Gunung Benom a protected area should be explored. It occurs in several protected areas on Sumatra.	eng
57948	distribution		This species is found in Indonesia at low altitudes on Siberut, Tanah Masa, Sipora, Pini and Sumatra, and in Peninsular Malaysia (from Johor to Kedah). There is a new record from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary at 700m asl in Narathiwat Province, in extreme southern Thailand (Yodchaiy Chuaynkern pers. comm.).	eng
57948	habitat		This species inhabits rainforest at low to medium altitudes, including forest edges. In Thailand it has been found in clearings in the forest. They can live up to 30m above the ground in trees where they are very difficult to find, which might explain the relatively small number of records. They breed in temporary forest pools.	eng
57948	population		It is uncommon but has been recorded from several locations in all three countries in recent years. Normally only a few specimens are collected at a time.	eng
57948	threats		Forest degradation is likely to be the major threat to this species, since it does not appear to survive in severely degraded habitats.	eng
57949	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
57949	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern Namibia and eastern Angola through western Zambia, to southern Democratic Republic of Congo at Lake Mweru. It possibly occurs in northern Botswana and western Zimbabwe, but it is not definitely recorded in these countries. Records from southern Tanzania require confirmation.	eng
57949	habitat		There is very little information on this species. It is presumably occurs in savannah woodland. If it is like other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools and pans.	eng
57949	population		It is known from very few records over its wide range. It appears to be a rare species.	eng
57949	threats		It is unlikely to be threatened, since it occurs in a region where natural habitats are largely intact.	eng
57950	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
57950	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Angola, south through western and southern Namibia to the northern part of the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs from 600-1,200m asl.	eng
57950	habitat		It is a species adapted to arid environments, and is closely associated with inselbergs and other rock exposures. It breeds in temporary pools and depressions in rocky arid areas, favouring deep rock pools that keep water for a long time, as the tadpole is a relatively slow developer.	eng
57950	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
57950	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present, although quarries and mines might be localized threats, particularly pollution resulting from mines.	eng
57951	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57951	distribution		This species ranges from extreme southern Somalia and from Lake Baringo in the Kenyan Rift Valley, south through Tanzania and eastern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo to western Angola, northern Namibia, northern and eastern Botswana, northeastern South Africa and Swaziland. It also occurs on the islands of Zanzibar and Mafia. It occurs from sea level up to at least 50-1,450m asl.	eng
57951	habitat		It is a species of savannah woodland and grassland. It also occurs in agricultural habitats. It breeds in temporary pans and pools, and in flooded grassland and small dams.	eng
57951	population		It is a common species.	eng
57951	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is well known in the pet trade but this is not currently at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
57952	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57952	distribution		This species ranges from Senegal east in the savannah zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There do not appear to be records from Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Niger, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
57952	habitat		It lives in very open grassy savannah and in wooded savannah, but it is not found in forest. It also occurs in agricultural habitats. It is associated with various species of ponerine ants, and they hide in ant nest during the dry season. It breeds in large temporary ponds, where it has large floating egg masses.	eng
57952	population		It is a common species.	eng
57952	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
57953	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57953	distribution		This poorly known species has been recorded only from southern Somalia and southern Ethiopia. It presumably occurs between these two areas, and perhaps more widely, for instance in northeastern Kenya.	eng
57953	habitat		It is probably a species of open dry savannahs and dry grassland. The single Ethiopian record is from riverine <em>Acacia</em> woodland in a region otherwise dominated by arid savannah. If it is like other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools and pans. Outside the breeding season it probably lives in subterranean cavities near water.	eng
57953	population		There is very little information. Only a single (juvenile) specimen has been collected in Ethiopia, so its numerical status in this country remains unknown.	eng
57953	threats		There is little information, but the most likely threat is environmental degradation resulting from human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock.	eng
57954	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57954	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Tsaratanana at 2,000-2,600m asl in northern Madagascar. Records from Marojejy and Andringitra require confirmation.	eng
57954	habitat		It lives in high-elevation rainforest and bamboo forest, and is not found in open areas. Its breeding is unknown, but presumably takes place by larval development in water-filled bamboo stems.	eng
57954	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57954	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is potentially susceptible to dry season fires.	eng
57955	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, Zahamena Special Reserve, Parc National de Mantadia, Réserve Spéciale d’Ambatovaky, and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra.	eng
57955	distribution		This species has a relatively broad distribution in northeastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andasibe. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,100m asl.	eng
57955	habitat		It is an arboreal species in rainforest, found in holes in trees, in bamboo stems, and in the leaf axils of traveller’s palms and screw pines (Pandanus spp.). It has been found in degraded forest but not in open areas. It breeds by larval development in water-filled tree holes and bamboo.	eng
57955	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57955	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57956	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57956	distribution		This species has a very uncertain distribution because of its confused taxonomic status. The type locality is "East Betsileo", which is presumably in east-central Madagascar, but this is not a specific locality, so no range map can be prepared for this species. Some other specimens have also been assigned to this species, but it is not clear that this is correct.	eng
57956	habitat		It is presumably an arboreal rainforest species that breeds in tree holes and bamboo.	eng
57956	population		There is no recent information available on the population status of this species.	eng
57956	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
57957	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas including Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
57957	distribution		This species is widely distributed, in northern, eastern and central Madagascar, from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and Montagne d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) south to Andohahela. It also occurs on the island of Nosy Managabe. There is an isolated population in west-central Madagascar at Ambohijanahary. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
57957	habitat		It is a rainforest species, where it is usually arboreal but is occasionally found on the ground. It needs mature forest. It breeds in tree holes.	eng
57957	population		It is a locally abundant species, but is sometimes rare.	eng
57957	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57958	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57958	distribution		This species is known only from north-eastern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Ambolokopatrika and Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif. Current records are from 875-975m asl. It might occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
57958	habitat		It lives in mid-high-altitude transitional forest, with tall trees and an abundance of epiphytic plants. It climbs on small tree trunks 2-4m above the ground. It is apparently not a phytotelm specialist, but probably hides in tree holes, under bark, and at the base of epiphytes. Breeding presumably takes place via larval development out of water. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
57958	population		There is very little information on its population status, and it is thus far known from only six specimens.	eng
57958	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57959	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe, the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo, and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57959	distribution		This species is apparently restricted to a small area in extreme north-western Madagascar, from Tsaratanana to Manongarivo, including the island of Nosy Be. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
57959	habitat		It is found only in pristine rainforest. Breeding is by larval development in the axils of plants, such as screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.).	eng
57959	population		It can be a locally abundant species.	eng
57959	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements. It occurs in a region where the rainforest is fragmented, and continuing loss of habitat can be expected. Its bright colouration might make it attractive for future commercial collecting. It might also be affected by the collection of screw pines, the leaves of which are used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57960	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy, the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.	eng
57960	distribution		This species occurs in northern Madagascar, on the island of Nosy Be in the north-west, and at Sambava, Marojejy and Antanaharibe-Sud in the north-east. The identity of the populations near Antongila Bay is uncertain, and the overall range of this species is very poorly known. It occurs from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57960	habitat		It is an arboreal inhabitant of rainforest that is also found in coffee plantations and bamboo growth, as it can occur outside forest where tree holes and bamboo are available. This species presumably breeds by larval development in tree holes.	eng
57960	population		This is a locally abundant species, but it has a patchy distribution.	eng
57960	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fires and expanding human settlements.	eng
57961	conservation		It might occur in several protected areas, depending on the resolution of its confused taxonomic status.	eng
57961	distribution		This species occurs in northern and eastern Madagascar. The taxonomy of this form is extremely confused, and some literature records might refer to other species. As a result of this, attempts to map its range probably do not give a meaningful picture of its distribution. It has been recorded from 300-1,500m asl.	eng
57961	habitat		It is an arboreal rainforest species that is usually found in the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.) and in bamboo stems, in which it breeds by larval development. It can survive in slightly degraded areas, secondary vegetation, and eucalyptus growth, but not in very open areas.	eng
57961	population		It is moderately common.	eng
57961	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of <em>Pandanus</em>, which is used for making the roofs of huts.	eng
57962	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud, and may also occur in Parc National de Masoala.	eng
57962	distribution		This species is endemic to north-eastern Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Anjanaharibe-Sud Massif, Andapa Fivondronana and the Masoala Peninsula. It has been recorded at 600-1,250m asl.	eng
57962	habitat		It is a species of transitional forest and medium altitudes, with tall trees and abundant lichens, mosses and ferns. It appears to be closely associated with screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> spp.). It has been found in degraded forest, providing that screw pines are still present. It presumably breeds by larval development in the leaf axils of screw pines.	eng
57962	population		It has only recently been discovered, but it appears to be moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
57962	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It is probably particularly sensitive to the collection of screw pines, which are used for making the roofs of huts.	eng
57963	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57963	distribution		This species is known from only three specimens collected in 1949 at 2,600m asl on the Tsaratanana massif in northern Madagascar, close to the summit, Maromokotro, which is at 2,876m asl. Records from Anjanaharibe-Sud and other locations away from Tsaratanana refer to another species (C.J. Raxworthy pers. comm.). It might be restricted to the highest parts of the Tsaratanana massif, and attempts to relocate the species have been successful (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).	eng
57963	habitat		It inhabits tall montane rainforest and bamboo, and is probably not found outside mature forest. It presumably breeds in bamboo stems by larval development.	eng
57963	population		It is known from only three specimens collected in 1949. It has not been found in two surveys within its high-elevation range since the mid 1990s.	eng
57963	threats		Its forest habitat is probably secure at the high elevations at which it occurs, but, as it is a mountain-top species, it might be at risk from global warming.	eng
57964	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57964	distribution		This species is widespread in northern and east-central Madagascar from Manongarivo south to Andringitra. It has been recorded at 400-1,200m asl.	eng
57964	habitat		It is an arboreal species of rainforest, most often observed in screw pine (Pandanus spp.) leaf axils. It also occurs in secondary and degraded vegetation, but not in completely open areas. It breeds in Pandanus leaf axils by larval development.	eng
57964	population		It is a common species at some localities..	eng
57964	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by the collection of Pandanus, which is used for the roofs of huts.	eng
57965	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57965	distribution		This species occurs in many localities in central-eastern and southeastern Madagascar, from Anjanaharibe south to Anadohahela, and also at Ambohitantely on the central plateau. It has been recorded at 100-1,500m asl.	eng
57965	habitat		It is a terrestrial and fossorial species of rainforest, including littoral forest. Its ability to adapt to modified habitats is not known. Its breeding is completely unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57965	population		It is locally abundant, but it is difficult to find.	eng
57965	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57966	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
57966	distribution		Although the range of this species is not known, it is presumed to be restricted to Madagascar, as are all other species of <em>Plethodontohyla</em>.	eng
57966	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are not known, although breeding is thought likely to be by larval development, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or tree holes.	eng
57966	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
57966	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
57967	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57967	distribution		This species occurs in many localities in east-central and southeastern Madagascar from Ambatovaky south to Andohahela. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl. Specimens from northern Madagascar might belong to this species, but this requires confirmation, and is not included here.	eng
57967	habitat		It is a fossorial and terrestrial species of rainforest, including in somewhat degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57967	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57967	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57968	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Ranomafana, which is relatively well managed.	eng
57968	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in east-central Madagascar, one of them (East Betsileo) being very vague. The only precisely known locality is Parc National de Ranomafana. Although the species might occur in other rainforest areas, many have now been surveyed and the species has not been reported from any of them. It has been recorded at 900-1,100m asl.	eng
57968	habitat		It is a terrestrial and sub-terrestrial species of rainforest, and has so far not been found in degraded habitats. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57968	population		It is a rare species, and only a few specimens are known.	eng
57968	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. The habitat surrounding Parc National de Ranomafana continues to be degraded.	eng
57969	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Zahamena, Parc National de Mantadia and Parc National d'Andringitra.	eng
57969	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Madagascar from Zahamena south to Andringitra, at 900-1,400m asl.	eng
57969	habitat		It is a terrestrial and fossorial species of primary and somewhat degraded rainforest, and also occurs in pine plantations. It is particularly associated with forests that are rich in moss and lichens. It is not found in open areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57969	population		It is an uncommon to moderately common species.	eng
57969	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57970	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Betampona and Parc National de Marojejy, and probably in Parc National de Masoala and Parc National de Mananara Nord.	eng
57970	distribution		This species is known from four localities in north-eastern and eastern Madagascar: Betampona; Marojejy; Ambolokopatrika; and Masoala. Its altitudinal range is approximately 200-1,000m asl.	eng
57970	habitat		It is a fossorial and terrestrial species of rainforest, including coastal rainforest. It has so far been found only in mature forest. There is no information on breeding, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or tree holes.	eng
57970	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
57970	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements. The coastal rainforest is under particularly serious pressure as a result of human activities.	eng
57971	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
57971	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in the Tsaratanana Massif in northern Madagascar, at 2,000-2,600m asl.	eng
57971	habitat		It is terrestrial and occurs in high-elevation forest and perhaps montane grassland, and has not been recorded in degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or in tree holes.	eng
57971	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57971	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57972	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57972	distribution		This species is widely distributed in many localities in northeastern, east central and southeastern Madagascar from Marojejy south to Andohahela. Specimens from Kalambatritra in southeastern Madagascar might belong to this species, but this requires confirmation. It has been recorded at 400-1,100m asl, but perhaps also occurs lower than this.	eng
57972	habitat		It is a species of pristine rainforest, sometimes living on vegetation and sometimes in tree holes. It has not been found in altered habitats. It breeds in tree holes by larval development.	eng
57972	population		It can be a locally common species.	eng
57972	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57973	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57973	distribution		This species is widely distributed at several localities in northern, eastern, southeastern, and mid-western Madagascar. It could be a complex of several species and the map might therefore not give a meaningful distribution. It has been recorded at 300-1,000m asl.	eng
57973	habitat		It is a burrowing species that lives in rainforest, including degraded forest, but not in open areas. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57973	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
57973	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57974	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de Ranomafana, and in the Analamazaotra and Ambohitantely Special Reserves.	eng
57974	distribution		This species occurs in central and eastern Madagascar from Ambohitantely and the Andasibe area, south at least to Ranomafana. It occurs at 500-1,500m asl.	eng
57974	habitat		It lives in pristine and degraded forest, but not in open areas. It breeds in tree holes and leaf axils by larval development, possibly exhibiting parental care.	eng
57974	population		It is a very abundant species locally.	eng
57974	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57975	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Marojejy, the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe, and the Réserve de la Biosphère du Sahamalaza-Iles Radama. Further research is required to resolve the taxonomic status of this species.	eng
57975	distribution		This species is known from several localities in northern Madagascar, from Sahamalaza to the island of Nosy Mangabe, from sea level up to high altitudes.	eng
57975	habitat		This is a fossorial and terrestrial species of lowland and montane rainforest, which is not found in degraded areas. It is thought likely to breed by larval development, possibly underground, or in leaf axils or tree holes.	eng
57975	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
57975	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57976	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
57976	distribution		This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar, from Marojejy south to Andohahela. There are also records from Bemahara and Ambohijanahary in west-central Madagascar. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
57976	habitat		It is a species of rainforest, including degraded forest, not found in open areas. It is both terrestrial and found in low vegetation. It breeds in leaf axils and tree holes by larval development.	eng
57976	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57976	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
57977	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57977	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in many localities in northeastern and east-central Madagascar from Masoala south to the lowlands east of Ranomafana. It possibly occurs further south. It has been recorded from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
57977	habitat		It is a rainforest species, usually being found in very slightly degraded areas. It is terrestrial and sometimes fossorial, often living in leaf-litter. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to be by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or in tree holes.	eng
57977	population		It is usually a rare species, but it is sometimes found in reasonable numbers.	eng
57977	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
57978	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Marojejy, and Réserve Spéciale d’Anjanaharibe-Sud.	eng
57978	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from northern Madagascar from Tsaratanana to Marojejy, at 900-2,100m asl. Records from further south in Madagascar refer to <em>Plethodontohyla coronata</em>.	eng
57978	habitat		It is a species of middle- to high-elevation rainforest, and has not so far been recorded from degraded areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it is likely to take place by larval development out of water, possibly underground, or in leaf axils, or tree holes.	eng
57978	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57978	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57979	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There might be a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
57979	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from central Madagascar from Angavokely, south to Zanzinakely. It probably occurs more widely in central Madagascar. Records from northern Madagascar (Tsaratanana) and extreme south-eastern Madagascar require confirmation and probably refer to other species. Its confirmed altitudinal range is 1,600-2,400m asl, although it probably also occurs at lower elevations.	eng
57979	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of rainforest, including open areas near rainforest. It has also been found in pine plantations, high-altitude grassland and heath land, and even in potato fields. Breeding takes place in a subterranean jelly nest, and they have non-feeding tadpoles that complete their development in the nest.	eng
57979	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57979	threats		Although it appears to be a relatively adaptable species, it is probably impacted by frequent fires and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
57980	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
57980	distribution		This species occurs in the Usambara (East and West), Nguu, and Nguru Mountains in northeastern Tanzania at around 900 to 2,000m asl.	eng
57980	habitat		It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
57980	population		It is a common species.	eng
57980	threats		It is almost certainly being adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
57981	conservation		It presumably occurs in Nyanga National Park and several neighboring state parks.	eng
57981	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, north of Mutare. It is likely to occur across the border in Mozambique, but has not so far been recorded there. It probably occurs mainly above 1,500m asl.	eng
57981	habitat		This is a terrestrial species of montane forest, usually found under rotten logs or under piles of leaf-litter; its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known. Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not associated with water. The eggs are laid in a burrow, consisting of a hollow in humus beneath a layer of dead leaves.	eng
57981	population		It is believed to be reasonably common within its small range.	eng
57981	threats		The high-altitude habitat of this species has remained relatively intact up until now, but it might be at increasing risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.	eng
57982	conservation		It is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has not so far been recorded from there.	eng
57982	distribution		This species occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania, and on Mount Rungwe in southern Tanzania. In the northern Udzungwa Mountains it occurs very close to the range of <em>Probreviceps loveridgei</em>, and the two species are possibly sympatric. It occurs in the montane and submontane zones, and its altitudinal range in the Udzungwa Mountains is 1,050-2,100m asl, and it has been found at 1,550m asl on Mount Rungwe.	eng
57982	habitat		It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they breed by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
57982	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
57982	threats		It is almost certainly adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture.	eng
57983	conservation		It occurs in the Uluguru North and South Forest Reserves, and is generally protected by the remoteness of the area in which it occurs. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from a single site.	eng
57983	distribution		This species is known only from the upper elevations (1,800-2,500m asl) of the Uluguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania.	eng
57983	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland, where it lives on the ground and is semi-fossorial. It occurs marginally in montane forest close to grassland. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they breed by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
57983	population		It is quite common.	eng
57983	threats		Its habitat is probably reasonably safe, and the species might not be seriously threatened, although it might be susceptible to burning of its grassland habitat.	eng
57984	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Field surveys and the designation of a neotype are required before the species' range; population status and habitat requirements can be determined.	eng
57984	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "[the] Base of [the] Anamallai Hills, Coimbatore District" (Rao 1937), in the southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India.	eng
57984	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat or ecological preferences, though it is likely to occur in moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires free-standing waterbodies for breeding or whether or not it breeds in habitats such as leaf axils or tree holes instead.	eng
57984	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the lost holotype.	eng
57984	threats		The major threats are not known.	eng
57985	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Field surveys and the designation of a neotype are required before the species' range; population status and habitat requirements can be determined.	eng
57985	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Saklespur, Hassan [District]" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at 948m asl.	eng
57985	habitat		Nothing is known about its habitat or ecological preferences, though it is likely to occur in moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires free-standing waterbodies for breeding or whether or not it breeds in habitats such as leaf axils or tree holes instead.	eng
57985	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the lost holotype.	eng
57985	threats		The major threats are not known.	eng
57986	conservation		It has only been recorded with certainty from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Records from other protected areas, namely Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakkad Wild Life Sanctuary (both in Tamil Nadu), Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka), Bhimashankar Wild Life Sanctuary (in Maharashtra), and Purna Wild Life Sanctuary (in Gujarat), may refer either to this species or to congenerics. Further taxonomic studies are urgently needed to clarify its precise distribution and altitudinal range, and to resolve confusion with related species (current collections of it probably represent more than one species).	eng
57986	distribution		This species is currently reported to be widely distributed throughout the Western Ghats of India. The type locality is Wayanad, and the species is only known with certainty from this site (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
57986	habitat		It inhabits low foliage, such as leaf sheaths of palms and tree fern fronds, in tropical moist forests. It breeds by larval development, and deposits its eggs in tree holes where the larvae develop. Breeding begins soon after the onset of monsoon rains. This species has been recorded from a cardamom plantation adjoining a forest reserve suggesting that it is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification, but presumably still requires trees for breeding.	eng
57986	population		It is rare and difficult to find.	eng
57986	threats		The major threat to it is conversion of areas of suitable forest habitat to agricultural land (including eucalyptus, coffee and tea plantations).	eng
57987	conservation		It was rediscovered in the Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa, but the other populations remain unprotected.	eng
57987	distribution		This species is known only from three sites in the southern Western Ghats: Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary (in Goa); Sakleshpur, Hassan District (in Kasrnataka); and Amboli (a hill station in Maharashtra). It can be expected to occur somewhat more widely than these current records suggest. It has been reported from 400-800m asl.	eng
57987	habitat		It is a terrestrial frog associated with tropical moist evergreen and deciduous forests, and can be found in disturbed secondary forest although this is not the preferred habitat. Rao (1937) reported specimens from the "whorls of banana leaves", but this requires confirmation. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires waterbodies for breeding.	eng
57987	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57987	threats		The major threat is habitat loss following conversion to agricultural land (including plantations) and infrastructure development (for industry, tourism, and human settlement).	eng
57988	conservation		The only known population is protected within the Kanneliya Forest Reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is currently known only from a single site.	eng
57988	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka. The type series was collected at 150m asl in Kanneliya Forest Reserve (near Galle).	eng
57988	habitat		Adults are terrestrial and arboreal and prefer lowland moist forest habitats. Breeding takes place, and tadpoles have been found in, tree holes. It has not been recorded from modified habitats.	eng
57988	population		It is known only from the type locality, and is considered to be locally rare.	eng
57988	threats		The species' habitat is protected within the Kanneliya Forest Reserve. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
57989	conservation		It has been recorded in a number of protected areas: the Knuckles Range, Namunukula Forest Reserve, Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the Royal Botanical Gardens, and Udawattakele Reserve Forest.	eng
57989	distribution		This species occurs in a number of isolated populations in the low country wet zone and the central hills of Sri Lanka, including Sinharaja Forest, Knuckles Range, and Namunukula and Udwattakele. It has an altitudinal range of 460-1,220m asl.	eng
57989	habitat		It is arboreal, terrestrial, and sub-fossorial, and mostly inhabits moist montane forest. Adults can be found in leaf-litter, under ground cover, in tree holes and crevices, and in water tanks. Larvae are found in stagnant waters. It can also be found in gardens, secondary forest and other lightly disturbed areas.	eng
57989	population		It is a locally common species with a stable population.	eng
57989	threats		The main threat to this species is agrochemical pollution of land and water.	eng
57990	conservation		Besides Horton Plains National Park and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve, it is also recorded from Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve and Pattipola Forest Reserve. Further research is needed to investigate the breeding biology of this species, and also to understand the reasons for the die-back of mature trees in some of its key protected habitats.	eng
57990	distribution		This species is endemic to the central hills of Sri Lanka where it has been recorded at elevations of 1,830-2,135m asl.	eng
57990	habitat		It is generally restricted to montane tropical moist forest habitats. Adults can be found in leaf-litter (and are at least partially fossorial), under stones and other ground cover, beneath bark, on the trunks of trees, and in the canopy. Breeding is thought to take place by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires water for breeding.	eng
57990	population		It is a rare species.	eng
57990	threats		The principal cause of decline appears to be habitat loss through the conversion of forests to cultivated land (tea plantations), logging with subsequent replanting of plantation forests (in Pattipola) and droughts and fire (especially in Horton Plains National Park). Die-back of mature trees in Horton Plains National Park and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve is also a key threat to the species (although the causes of this die-back are not known).	eng
57991	conservation		It has been recorded from Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley National Park, both in Kerala, which form part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. It is also present in the Ponmudi Hills of Kerala.	eng
57991	distribution		This species is believed to be restricted to the southern Western Ghats, Ponmudi Hills (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Wayanad and the Silent Valley (Kerala), and Saklespur, Hassan District (Karnataka) in India. The distribution record in the Shevaroys Hills of the Eastern Ghats, as reported in Dutta (1997), requires further confirmation. It has been reported from elevations of 300-950m asl.	eng
57991	habitat		It is found in tropical moist evergreen and deciduous forests, and coffee plantations with a natural canopy cover. It can be found in tree holes between two and four metres above ground level (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984), and in the leaf-litter substrate. It may also be found in abandoned eucalyptus plantations close to forest. It presumably breeds by larval development, like other members of its genus, but it is not known whether or not it requires waterbodies for breeding.	eng
57991	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
57991	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to conversion to agricultural land (including coffee plantations) and human settlements.	eng
57992	conservation		In view of its wide range it is possible that this species occurs in a number of protected areas in both India and Sri Lanka.	eng
57992	distribution		This species is widely distributed in India and Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 1,000m asl in India, and from 3-175m asl in Sri Lanka.	eng
57992	habitat		It is found in various types of forest, grassland and pastureland, often close to human habitations. It is found in dry soil areas with ground cover (such as stones and logs). In India individuals are associated with termite mounds. It is an explosive breeder in temporary pools.	eng
57992	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
57992	threats		General habitat loss through infrastructure development and various forms of pollution is a major threat.	eng
57993	conservation		It is likely to occur in some protected areas, but this is not confirmed.	eng
57993	distribution		This species occurs mainly in the lowlands of northern Colombia, including the Middle Magdalena Valley, and extending eastwards to northwestern Venezuela (probably in southwestern Zulia State). There is an isolated population of the Pacific versant of central Panama. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
57993	habitat		There is little information. It is a terrestrial species of lowland forests, and possibly also savannahs. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
57993	population		There is little information, but it appears to be uncommon.	eng
57993	threats		It is presumably affected by ongoing habitat loss.	eng
57994	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe.	eng
57994	distribution		This species occurs on two islands (Nosy Be and Nosy Komba) off the north-west coast of Madagascar, and in north-eastern Madagascar between Sambava and Andapa. An old record from "Imerina" is too vague to be of value, while records from Réunion Island are erroneous. It has been recorded from sea level up to 300m asl.	eng
57994	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest, heavily degraded secondary vegetation, and plantations, provided there is sufficient shade, tree cover and leaf-litter. It is a terrestrial species found in leaf-litter and in burrows. It breeds in underground nests with parental care, but it is not known if breeding takes place by larval or direct development.	eng
57994	population		It is a common species on Nosy Be. There is no information from elsewhere, but it is clearly much more rare on the mainland of Madagascar.	eng
57994	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, fire, and expanding human settlements.	eng
57995	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making this a priority species for immediate habitat protection. There is also a need for controlled, sustainable trade in this species.	eng
57995	distribution		This species is known only from Fierenanan, at 950m asl, in eastern Madagascar (though it might occur more widely).	eng
57995	habitat		It is probably restricted to large, flooded forest areas on sandy ground, and presumably breeds in swamps. Its adaptability to altered habitats is unknown.	eng
57995	population		There is little information on the current population status of this species. However, it is presumably locally common, at least according to evidence from commercial collectors.	eng
57995	threats		The major threat is forest loss due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, spread of invasive eucalyptus, livestock grazing, and expanding human settlements. It might also be affected by over-collecting for the international pet trade.	eng
57996	conservation		It occurs in the Berenty and Isalo National Parks, and probably in other protected areas.	eng
57996	distribution		This species is widespread in west-central, southwestern, and extreme southeastern Madagascar from Kirindy Forest south and east to the Fort Dauphin region. It has been recorded from sea level up to 800m asl.	eng
57996	habitat		It lives in dry forest, spiny forest, littoral forest, bush savannah, arable land, rice fields, and urban areas, often in sandy areas with intermittent rainfall. It is an explosive breeder, usually in temporary pools and in rice paddies.	eng
57996	population		It is a very common species seasonally.	eng
57996	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57997	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
57997	distribution		This species is widely distributed in northwestern, western, southwestern and extreme southeastern Madagascar. It probably occurs in most dry areas of western and southwestern Madagascar. It has been recorded from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
57997	habitat		It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including sub deserts, open areas in dry forest, urban areas, agricultural land, savannahs, and scrubby vegetation. Large breeding aggregations have been observed during rainy episodes. It breeds in temporary ponds.	eng
57997	population		It is a very common species when breeding.	eng
57997	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
57998	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional de Isalo. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Controlled, sustainable trade of this species is required, possibly involving a trade quota. Additional studies are needed to determine if this species is suitable for commercial captive-breeding operations (see Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
57998	distribution		This species is restricted to a few areas within the northern postion of the Isalo Massif (at 700-1,000m) near Isalo (in the Province of Fianarantsoa) in south-western Madagascar. Recent surveys have shown it to occur a little more widely than was previously thought, from Amparambatomavo south to Lola (F. Andreone pers. comm.).	eng
57998	habitat		It is found in open, rocky areas, generally in dry forest, and in more humid vegetation in canyons. It is partly rupicolous and able to climb vertical walls within the narrow canyons of the Isalo Massif. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) note that the species is largely fossorial and specialised to live within the narrow and wet canyons of the Isalo Massif, and has a high dispersal capability (most likely during storms in the rainy season). Breeding is presumed to take place in shallow, temporary pools.	eng
57998	population		It appears to be locally abundant in the humid canyons.	eng
57998	threats		Over-collection for the international pet trade could be a significant threat to this restricted-range species, and it is still commonly recorded in international trade (the high level of mortality among captive animals might be contributing to the high level of trade). Its habitat might also be at risk from fire, wood extraction, overgrazing by livestock, and recent sapphire mining activities in areas adjacent to the species' known range. Disturbance by tourists within the range of the species are reported to have increased, but the impacts of this are unclear.	eng
57999	conservation		It occurs in Parc National d’Andringitra.	eng
57999	distribution		This species occurs on the central plateau of Madagascar from Ankaratra south to Andringitra, from 1,300-2,000m asl.	eng
57999	habitat		This is a fossorial species found in montane forests, savannahs and agricultural areas. Breeding takes place in large, temporary, and perhaps also some permanent, pools.	eng
57999	population		It is locally common, but the extent of its habitat is somewhat limited.	eng
57999	threats		The major threat to this species is considered to be the loss of suitable breeding habitats to agricultural activities, even though this is an adaptable species. Introduction of predatory fish into pools is also a significant threat.	eng
58000	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, Parc National de Mantadia and Parc National de Zahamena. Mattioli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) undertook a study into the economics of captive breeding this species, concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes, and indeed that market demand could potentially be fully met with captive-bred animals.	eng
58000	distribution		This species occurs in east-central Madagascar from Zahamena south to the Andasibe area. It has been recorded at 100-1,000m asl.	eng
58000	habitat		It is a species of rainforest and degraded secondary vegetation in the east, and deciduous dry forest in the west. It does not survive in very open areas. Breeding takes place by larval development in shallow, temporary pools.	eng
58000	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
58000	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock grazing), timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, the spread of invasive eucalyptus, fire, and expanding human settlements. The bright colouration of this species might make it more attractive for commercial collecting in the future. There are currently small numbers in the pet trade, but probably not at a level to have a negative impact on the species.	eng
58001	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58001	distribution		This taxon is known from the non-specific type locality of "Côte N.O. [north-west] de Madagascar", and no distribution map can be prepared for it.	eng
58001	habitat		It presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
58001	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58001	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58002	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58002	distribution		This species occurs widely in eastern Madagascar from Masoala south to Chaines Anosyennes, at 100-1,100m asl.	eng
58002	habitat		It lives in pristine rainforest, swampy forest, forest edge and degraded forest. It does not occur in very open areas. Breeding takes place in temporary pools in and near forest.	eng
58002	population		It occurs patchily, and is not common, but it is occasionally found in large numbers when breeding.	eng
58002	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, and invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
58003	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58003	distribution		This taxon has been recorded from Lavenambato, in Tulear region, south-western Madagascar.	eng
58003	habitat		It is presumed to breed by larval development in water.	eng
58003	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58003	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58004	conservation		It almost certainly occurs in the Selous Game Reserve, and possibly in the Udzungwa National Park, but records are lacking.	eng
58004	distribution		This species occurs in southeastern Tanzania from the Uluguru Mountains, southwest to Mount Rungwe and Songea, and southeast to Nchingidi. It occurs at both low and high altitudes up to 1,600m asl, perhaps more.	eng
58004	habitat		It lives in lowland and submontane forest and miombo woodland, where it burrows into logs in dry season. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate any degradation of its habitat. Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it is presumed to be by direct development.	eng
58004	population		It is irregular in occurrence, but this is probably because it is overlooked because of its very secretive habits.	eng
58004	threats		Because the ecological requirements of this species are so poorly known, it is not possible to assess its threats.	eng
58005	conservation		Its range overlaps several protected areas. The extent of occurrence of the species needs to be further documented.	eng
58005	distribution		This is a very widespread species that is common in rainforest habitats on mainland New Guinea from the western tip of the Vogelkop Peninsula in Papua, Indonesia, to eastern Papua New Guinea. It occurs at altitudes up to 1,500m asl, although there are old records from 2,600m asl.	eng
58005	habitat		It is a terrestrial and scansorial species that calls from bushes and saplings in rainforest understorey at night, and hides beneath litter and logs during the day. It has also been found in disturbed habitats such as gardens and degraded forest. It breeds by direct development, and the male parents carry the babies on their backs (Günther <em>et al</em>., 2001; Günther, 2006).	eng
58005	population		It is a common species with overall numbers likely to be in the millions.	eng
58005	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58006	conservation	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas (eg. Parque Estadual do Rio Doce).	eng
58006	distribution	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species from eastern Brazil ranges from the State of Espírito Santo and the southeastern part of the State of Minas Gerais, to the central part of the State of Bahia. It occurs up to 550m asl. Records from the State of Rio de Janeiro are now referred to <em>Stereocyclops parkeri</em>.	eng
58006	habitat	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It lives in the leaf-litter on the floor of primary and secondary forest. It breeds in small, temporary ponds inside the forest. It in not found in open habitat outside forest.	eng
58006	population	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is very common at breeding sites, but is normally secretive and hard to find.	eng
58006	threats	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Bruno Pimenta, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to agriculture, wood plantations, livestock grazing and logging and human settlement.	eng
58007	conservation	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, including Bosque da Barra, and Floresta Nacional Mario Xavier.	eng
58007	distribution	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	This species occurs in the lowlands of the State of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil, close to sea level.	eng
58007	habitat	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It lives in coastal "restinga" scrub, forest edge, and primary and secondary forest. It is an explosive breeder, using both small and large temporary ponds. A population from Rio de Janeiro had reproductive activity recorded for the month of December (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It is not found in open habitat outside forest.	eng
58007	population	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	It is abundant where it is found.	eng
58007	threats	Oswaldo Luiz Peixoto, Sergio Potsch de Carvalho-e-Silva, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to fire, tourism and human settlement.	eng
58008	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana, Parc National de Montagne d'Ambre, and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo.	eng
58008	distribution		This species occurs from Montagne d'Ambre and Tsaratanana south to Sahamalaza in northern and northeastern Madagascar. It occurs from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
58008	habitat		It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, secondary growth, and plantations in rainforest areas. It does well in disturbed habitats such as cacao plantations. It breeds in terrestrial nests with non-feeding larvae.	eng
58008	population		It can be a very abundant species.	eng
58008	threats		It is probably not significantly affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
58009	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status, since it is not clear what animals are covered by its name (Glaw pers. comm.).	eng
58009	distribution		This species occurs in eastern and north-eastern Madagascar from Montagne d'Ambre south to the Andasibe area, from sea level up to 1,300m asl. It probably occurs at more localities than have so far been recorded.	eng
58009	habitat		It lives in rainforest, and also in somewhat secondary habitats, including forest edges. It is terrestrial, and lives in leaf-litter. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.	eng
58009	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58009	threats		The forest habitat of this species is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
58010	conservation		It occurs in the Reserve Speciale d'Ambohitantely, which is very poorly protected. Improved management and protection of the remaining habitat of this species is clearly urgently needed.	eng
58010	distribution		This species is known only from two small habitat fragments in the vicinity of Ambohitantely, in central Madagascar, at 1,500m asl. Surveys at other potential localities on the high plateau have yet to reveal any additional populations (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> . 2008).	eng
58010	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting montane forest, and has not been found in altered habitats. Breeding is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em> (terrestrial nests with non-feeding larvae).	eng
58010	population		It is very rarely found.	eng
58010	threats		The forest is disappearing very rapidly at its only known locality due to the impacts of fire, illegal woodcutting by local people, and overgrazing by livestock. No other suitable habitat is found anywhere nearby. As of 2006, habitat loss was continuing, and this species will disappear unless this can be addressed (D. Vallan pers. comm.).	eng
58011	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe and the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Glaw pers. comm.).	eng
58011	distribution		This species is reliably known only from Nosy Be Island, and Benavony and Manongarivo on the adjacent mainland, in north-western Madagascar. A badly damaged specimen from Montagne d'Ambre cannot be assigned to any known species. This species occurs from sea level up to 700m asl.	eng
58011	habitat		It lives in the leaf-litter of both primary and degraded rainforest, and in coffee plantations. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.	eng
58011	population		It is common and adaptable on Nosy Be, but is much less common on the mainland.	eng
58011	threats		This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing, fire and expanding human settlements.	eng
58012	conservation		It occurs in Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobe on Nosy Be. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.	eng
58012	distribution		This species is apparently restricted to two small islands: Nosy Be and Nosy Komba off the north-west coast of Madagascar. It might occur on the adjacent mainland, but it has not been found there during recent surveys. It has been recorded from sea level up to 300m asl.	eng
58012	habitat		It lives in pristine and secondary rainforest, coffee plantations, and dense vegetation along roads. Although it is somewhat adaptable, it needs some shade and leaf-litter. It breeds in a foam nest in leaves on the ground, with non-feeding tadpoles in the nest.	eng
58012	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
58012	threats		High human population density and urbanization on the islands of Nosy Be and Nosy Komba are undoubtedly contributing to a reduction in the availability of suitable habitat. Any factors resulting in the loss of humid leaf-litter, such as expanding sugarcane cultivation, will be very detrimental for this species. Other possible threats include fires and pollution from agricultural pesticides.	eng
58013	conservation		It occurs in Parc National de Marojejy.	eng
58013	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in north-eastern Madagascar (Marojejy and Voloina), from 100-1,300m asl.	eng
58013	habitat		It lives terrestrially in forest in leaf-litter and is probably adaptable, although it is not found in plantations. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.	eng
58013	population		There is no specific information on its population status, but it is probably a very rare species.	eng
58013	threats		This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
58014	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Nosy Mangabe. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
58014	distribution		This species is known from Nosy Boraha (Ile St Marie) and Nosy Mangabe, two islands along the north-east coast of Madagascar, and also from Nahampoana, 1,000km to the south in extreme south-eastern mainland Madagascar. It seems likely that geographically intermediate populations will be found, although it is not certain that the recorded populations necessarily belong to the same species. It has been recorded from sea level up to 100m asl.	eng
58014	habitat		It lives terrestrially in rainforest and degraded, secondary vegetation, but not in very open areas. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>Stumpffia gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.	eng
58014	population		It is locally common.	eng
58014	threats		This species' forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, invasive spread of eucalyptus, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
58015	conservation		It possibly occurs in Parc National de Marojejy and the Réserve Spéciale d’Analamazaotra, depending on the resolution of its taxonomic status.	eng
58015	distribution		This species has been reported from Marojejy, Andasibe and Nahampoana, three widely separated localities in eastern Madagascar, although the record from Nahampoana, in south-eastern Madagascar, might refer to <em>Stumpffia tetradactyla</em>. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,300m asl.	eng
58015	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species, living in rainforest, forest edges, and eucalyptus at the edge of forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but is likely to be similar to that of <em>S. gimeli</em>, which has terrestrial nests that contain non-feeding larvae.	eng
58015	population		Around Andasibe this species is locally abundant. There is no information regarding its population status at other localities.	eng
58015	threats		Its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture, timber extraction, charcoal manufacture, livestock grazing and expanding human settlements.	eng
58016	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, for example Kaieteur and Mabura Hill Forest Reserve (Guyana), La Neblina (Venezuela), and several in Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana.	eng
58016	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	This species ranges widely in northern and central Brazilian Amazônia, through the Guianas, to southeastern Venezuela (the only known record from this country coming from Bolívar state, east slopes of Cerro Santa Rosa, in the Serranía del Supamo), and southeastern Colombia. A dot-map of its distribution in French Guiana provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs at low elevations at 100-700m asl.	eng
58016	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It lives under leaf-litter and in holes in the ground in humid tropical forests at low elevations. It lays large, terrestrial eggs, which develop into non-feeding tadpoles on the ground, and which do not develop in water. It is not known from degraded habitats.	eng
58016	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is a rare frog in collections and its range is poorly documented. However, it can be locally common in places.	eng
58016	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Robert Reynolds, César Luis Barrio Amorós, 2008	It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations might be impacted by fire and clear cutting.	eng
58017	conservation		The range in Colombia overlaps with La Paya National Park. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno and Limoncocha Biological Reserve. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence and population status is needed.	eng
58017	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Vaupés and Putumayo departments, Colombia, and adjacent Ecuador (Napo Moist Forests of the Eastern Tropical Altitudinal Zone). It has been recorded between 200-600m asl.	eng
58017	habitat		It is a fossorial species that inhabits tropical moist forests. It lives on and under the forest floor, and in muddy areas next to water springs. Clutches of two embryos are laid 10cm underground and the young breed by direct development without a larval stage. It has not been recorded from anthropogenic habitats.	eng
58017	population		It is a very difficult species to find so it appears to be uncommon, but it is secretive, and so it might be more common than it appears.	eng
58017	threats		Habitat loss caused by deforestation, agricultural development, and illegal crops are localized threats but there are no known major threats to the species overall at present.	eng
58018	conservation		It potentially occurs in the Serranía de la Neblina National Park in Venezuela, and is likely to be present in other protected areas.	eng
58018	distribution		This species is known only from three widely separated areas in the Amazon basin: Vaupés in southeastern Colombia; the Baría river, at the base of Cerro Neblina, in Amazonas state, southern Venezuela; and the vicinity of Manaus, Amazonas state, in central Brazil. It presumably occurs widely between these localities. All records have been from around 100m asl.	eng
58018	habitat		It is usually found in leaf-litter or in holes in the ground in tropical rainforest. It can also be found in muddy areas next to water springs. It calls from rotten tree trunks and logs. Clutches of two embryos are laid 10cm underground. These terrestrial eggs are large and develop into non-feeding tadpoles, which do not require water. It is not adaptive to human modification of its habitats.	eng
58018	population		It is not a very common species.	eng
58018	threats		It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations might be impacted by shifting agriculture and clear cutting.	eng
58019	conservation		In Ecuador, it occurs in the Reserva Biológica Limoncocha, Parque Nacional Yasuní and Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno. In Peru it occurs in Parque Nacional Manu, Bahuaja Sonene National Park, Pacaya-Samiria Reserve, and Reserva Comunal El Sira. In Peru it is covered under national legislation; treated as "Situación Indeterminada" (Decreto Supremo N° 013-99-AG, May-19-1999).	eng
58019	distribution		This species is known from eastern Ecuador, and the eastern Amazonian region of Perú (Departamentos: Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios). It is present from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
58019	habitat		It is present in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (terra firme and flooded). It has been recorded from both leaf-litter and bromeliads. It is a phytotelmic species that breeds in leaf axils, probably by direct development. It may be found along roadsides and in old growth secondary forest.	eng
58019	population		It can be abundant.	eng
58019	threats		It is generally a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Over harvesting of bromeliads might lead to some localized declines.	eng
58020	conservation		In Peru it is present in several protected areas (Pacaya-Samiria Reserve, Alpahuayo Mishana Reserve). In Colombia it is present in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu.	eng
58020	distribution		This species can be found in the Northeastern Amazon of Perú (Departamento: Loreto) and southern Amazonian Colombia (Leticia region). It is present below 200m asl. It is likely to be found in neighbouring Brazil.	eng
58020	habitat		It has been recorded from both leaf-litter and bromeliads in primary tropical moist rainforest. It is a phytotelmic species that breeds by direct development. Eggs are deposited in bromeliad axils. It is not present in degraded habitats.	eng
58020	population		It is a possibly common, cryptic species.	eng
58020	threats		Large areas of suitable habitat are remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.). Over harvesting of bromeliads might lead to some localized declines.	eng
58021	conservation		The species might occur in Gueppi Reserved Zone, Peru. It is not known to be present in any Brazilian or Colombian protected areas.	eng
58021	distribution		This species was known originally from Amazonian Peru, where it was discovered at San Jacinto, near Teniente Lopez, in Loreto Province. There are now records that are believed to refer to this species from Tabatinga, in Amazonas State, Brazil (700km ESE of San Jacinto), and from Leticia in southeastern Colombia. These records are included in the distribution map, and it is presumed to occur in the intervening areas. Its altitudinal range is from 190-350m asl.	eng
58021	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species of lowland primary forest. It is only present in damp forest, and is not present in modified habitats. The reproductive mode is not known, but it is likely to be by direct development in bromeliad axils.	eng
58021	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
58021	threats		There are presumably no major threats, since it is probably a widespread species with large areas of suitable habitat remaining. There is some localized habitat loss to general human activities such as collection of wood, logging (selective and clear-cutting), collection of bromeliads, and agriculture (crops, livestock etc.).	eng
58022	conservation		Given the species' wide range it is probably present in a number of protected areas.	eng
58022	distribution		This species is widely distributed in peninsular and northeast India and throughout much of Bangladesh. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 600m asl.	eng
58022	habitat		This fossorial species is found in both forests and agricultural land. Breeding takes place in shallow ponds and marshy wetlands.	eng
58022	population		It is a common species.	eng
58022	threats		The principal threats to this species are agrochemical pollution of waterbodies and urbanization.	eng
58023	conservation	Das, I., Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	This wide-ranging species presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58023	distribution	Das, I., Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	This species is widespread in South Asia, and is found throughout much of southern and eastern India, northwestern India, and has also been recorded from northeastern Pakistan (Shakarparian Hills, Islamabad), Nepal and northern and southeastern Sri Lanka. It is present from sea level up to approximately 1,000 m asl (Pakistan).	eng
58023	habitat	Das, I., Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	This is a completely fossorial species that buries itself in loose, moist soil. Specimens have been observed in dry forest areas, plains, home gardens and low-intensity agricultural areas. The adults surface only during the summer monsoons; during the dry months they retreat into the soil. In Pakistan, termites are reportedly the main food of this species. Breeding takes place during the monsoon rains. Males call from the banks of torrents or paddy fields, and eggs are laid in masses which float on the water surface.	eng
58023	population	Das, I., Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	Little is known about the population status of this species. The range is contiguous and populations might generally be stable. In Sri Lanka and in Gujarat, India, the species is regarded as common in its preferred habitat, whilst in Pakistan it is considered rare.	eng
58023	threats	Das, I., Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	The main threats are the loss of suitable habitat to increasing urbanization, and the pollution of both land and wetlands with agrochemicals.	eng
58024	conservation		The distribution of this species needs to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58024	distribution		This species is known only from the Star Mountains of central New Guinea (in Papua New Guinea), to the northern Star Mountains at Okbap (in Indonesia). Its altitudinal range is 1,900-2,100m asl.	eng
58024	habitat		Animals of this species call from open, boggy areas in mid-montane rainforest. This species has also been found underneath moss on vertical seepage banks in disturbed habitats, and it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58024	population		There is little information; it appears to be localized.	eng
58024	threats		It might be threatened by the extensive forest clearance that is taking place within its range for rural gardens, although it might be somewhat adaptable.	eng
58025	conservation		The type locality is within Arfak Mountains National Park.	eng
58025	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Makwam, Papua, Indonesia, including at the Anggi Lakes. It occurs around 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
58025	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter and below logs on the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and breeds by direct development.	eng
58025	population		It was reportedly fairly common when it was collected.	eng
58025	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58026	conservation		The distribution needs to be documented, particularly in areas between currently known localities. It is likely to occur in some protected areas, but this has not yet been proven.	eng
58026	distribution		This species has been recorded from four localities in southern Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea. All localities are near sea level, and it is unlikely to occur above 500m asl. The mapped distribution presumes its occurrence between known locations.	eng
58026	habitat		It presumably inhabits the forest floor in lowland rainforest, but there are no ecological data. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58026	population		Only four specimens are known.	eng
58026	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58027	conservation		No specific actions required but documentation of the species' ecology and distribution would be worthwhile. It is not known from any protected area.	eng
58027	distribution		This species is found in the Schrader, Hagen and Kubor Ranges and the Sepik-Wahgi Dividing Range of central New Guinea, Papua New Guinea, at 1,300-2,900m asl.	eng
58027	habitat		This fossorial species is adaptable and is known from cultivated areas and lower and mid-montane forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58027	population		It is common in lower and mid-montane forest.	eng
58027	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58028	conservation		It occurs in Lorentz National Park.	eng
58028	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality near the upper Lorentz River, and Eipomek, approximately 140km east of the type locality, in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,700-2,400m asl.	eng
58028	habitat		It inhabits montane forest, and possibly also montane grasslands (according to local informants; Blum and Menzies 1988), and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58028	population		It is reportedly rare, according to local people.	eng
58028	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, but the area around Eipomek has been heavily cleared for rural gardens.	eng
58029	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species needs to be documented. Its range does not include any protected area.	eng
58029	distribution		This species is known only from localities between 1,300 and 2,160m asl in the eastern Huon Peninsula mountains, Papua New Guinea.	eng
58029	habitat		It was found in tropical rainforest in humus on the forest floor, from where males were heard calling during the day. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
58029	population		There are no records of this species since it was first collected, although there have been no subsequent surveys of the area.	eng
58029	threats		It is not known what threats there are to this species, although there might be some villages nearby that could threaten its habitat in the future.	eng
58030	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is likely in Lorentz National Park.	eng
58030	distribution		This species occurs at moderate to high elevations in the mountains of Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea). It has been found at 1,800-2,800m asl.	eng
58030	habitat		This species inhabits the forest floor in montane rainforest. It has been found in moss and leaf-litter in podocarp and elfin forest, but has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
58030	population		It is a reasonably common species, but is not abundant.	eng
58030	threats		It occurs in very remote areas, and there are no known threats.	eng
58031	conservation		None required apart from further documentation of the species' distribution. Its known range includes Crater Wildlife Management Area.	eng
58031	distribution		This species is known from the southeastern part of New Guinea, from near the Papua (Indonesia) border almost to Port Moresby. It has been recorded between 240-1,270m asl.	eng
58031	habitat		This species is found under humus on the forest floor in tropical rainforest. It is not known from degraded habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development and under logs.	eng
58031	population		It not a common species.	eng
58031	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58032	conservation		The distribution and population status needs to be documented, including populations in forest habitats. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58032	distribution		This species is known only from Eipomek Valley and the adjacent Famek Valley, and from Okbap, in western New Guinea (Papua, Indonesia), from 1,800-2,080m asl.	eng
58032	habitat		It is found in tropical rainforest under moss, and also between 20 and 30cm deep in the ground in grasslands and gardens, so it can clearly persist in severely modified habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58032	population		It is not a common species, and occurs at low densities.	eng
58032	threats		This species is probably not facing any major threats, as a result of its adaptability.	eng
58033	conservation		The habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
58033	distribution		This species is known from the northern foothills of the Nassau Mountains, Papua (Indonesia), eastward in the north coast ranges of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 700-880m asl.	eng
58033	habitat		This species is found on the forest floor in lower montane rainforest. It has not been recorded from degraded habitat. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
58033	population		It is thought to be an uncommon species.	eng
58033	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58034	conservation		It could occur in Lorentz National Park, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
58034	distribution		This species occurs in the high mountains of central Papua, Indonesia, at 2,000-2,800m asl.	eng
58034	habitat		It is found only in montane forest, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58034	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58034	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in very remote areas.	eng
58035	conservation		This species' range includes Arfak Mountains National Park.	eng
58035	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, "Hatam" (probably near Makwam), in the northern Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, Papua, Indonesia, at 1,500m asl. The name of the type locality is not actually a place but the name of the local people in this area.	eng
58035	habitat		It occurs in montane forest, where it is probably a terrestrial species, rather than fossorial, based on its morphological evidence. It is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
58035	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from only three specimens.	eng
58035	threats		Its habitat might potentially be threatened by smallholder farming, which is common in this area.	eng
58036	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58036	distribution		This species occurs on the north coast of Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea, and central mountains of Papua New Guinea. It ranges up to 1,300m asl.	eng
58036	habitat		It inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforest, and cleared areas such as small-scale subsistence farms around villages, where it calls from beneath the humus on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58036	population		It is not common anywhere, occurring at low densities.	eng
58036	threats		It is unlikely to be threatened in view of its wide distribution and tolerance of habitat modification.	eng
58037	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
58037	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Angguruk, in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,400m asl.	eng
58037	habitat		No information is available.	eng
58037	population		Its population status is unknown. It has only been collected once, in 1979.	eng
58037	threats		The possible threats to this species are not known, although the area in which it was collected is quite disturbed and has been so for quite some time.	eng
58038	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58038	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known only from the type locality in Eipomek Valley, Papua, Indonesia, at 1,800m asl.	eng
58038	habitat		It inhabits grassy and rocky areas, including in anthropogenic habitats, where it calls from beneath rocks or vegetation. Breeding in this species is by direct development.	eng
58038	population		It is common where it is found.	eng
58038	threats		It is unlikely to be facing any serious threats, particularly given its adaptability to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
58039	conservation		The extent of occurrence and population status of this species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58039	distribution		This species is known only from below 300m asl in the vicinity of Lae, Papua New Guinea, although it might also occur in the Adelbert Mountains.	eng
58039	habitat		It is found beneath leaf-litter in rainforest, and can possibly adapt to degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development in this species.	eng
58039	population		Only three specimens have been collected, but it appeared to be common in its type locality.	eng
58039	threats		Although the forest at the type locality has been destroyed by infrastructure development, clearly posing a threat to this species, the surrounding habitats remain intact.	eng
58040	conservation		The extent of occurrence and population status of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58040	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Papua New Guinea: Mambimap, at 1,500m asl in the Adelbert Mountains, Madang Province; and further to the west in the Bewani Mountains, West Sepik Province (Allison pers. comm.).	eng
58040	habitat		This is a fossorial species that breeds by direct development. Males call from below ground in old gardens, areas of tall grass, and closed forest.	eng
58040	population		It appeared to be common at its type locality.	eng
58040	threats		Although there is very little information on the threats to this species, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened, given its apparent adaptability to secondary habitats.	eng
58041	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. There are no protected areas within the known range of the species.	eng
58041	distribution		This species is known from the Bewani Mountains and the Hunsein Range, Papua New Guinea, from 1,000-1,920m asl.	eng
58041	habitat		It was collected on the ground in montane forest, where it breeds by direct development.	eng
58041	population		It was observed to be uncommon in the Hunstein Range.	eng
58041	threats		There are no known threats to it, and its known range is in isolated areas.	eng
58042	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58042	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Tembagapura, in the Sudirman Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, at 2,200m asl. It is likely to prove more widely distributed along the southern versant of the central dividing mountain range of western New Guinea.	eng
58042	habitat		This is a fossorial species that was collected from within surface litter of a very mossy montane closed-canopy forest, on a steep slope facing south-west that was drained by a small stream. Breeding in this species is presumably by direct development.	eng
58042	population		It is known only from the type series, so its population status is unknown.	eng
58042	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58043	conservation		The potential distribution of this species on other north-coast mountain ranges of New Guinea needs to be investigated. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58043	distribution		This species is known only from the Bewani and the Hunstein Mountains, in northern Papua New Guinea, at 900-1,400m asl.	eng
58043	habitat		It is an arboreal species living in tropical rainforest in epiphytes, and which also burrows into the leaf-litter. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58043	population		It appears to be common at both known localities.	eng
58043	threats		There is little information available on threats to this species, although it occurs in some very remote areas where there is little human impact.	eng
58044	conservation		The distribution needs to be documented, particularly its occurrence between the only three known localities. Its range includes Arfak Mountains National Park and Wandamen Nature Reserve.	eng
58044	distribution		This species is known from three separate localities, from the Vogelkop Peninsula, from the base of the Wandamen Peninsular in the Wondiwoi Mountains, and from the Star Mountains of Papua, Indonesia. It has been recorded from 500-1,260m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely.	eng
58044	habitat		It calls at night only, from beneath the forest floor (20-30cm below the ground) in humus in hill forest. It has not been recorded in degraded habitats. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
58044	population		It was observed as common in the Wondiwoi Mountains.	eng
58044	threats		Logging is potentially a threat to this species.	eng
58045	conservation		The extent of occurrence and population status of the species needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58045	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known only from Eipomek Valley in Papua, Indonesia, at 1,800m asl.	eng
58045	habitat		It has been found in moss and short grass in secondary vegetation (rural gardens), usually in wetter places, and may also occur in forest (but this has not yet been confirmed). It appears to be terrestrial rather than fossorial.	eng
58045	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58045	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species, but it is known only from an area that has been extensively cleared for rural gardens, although it appears to be able to adapt to this anthropogenic habitat.	eng
58046	conservation		The distribution of the species needs to be documented and further clarification of the habitat requirements is necessary. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58046	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known only from three localities at moderate to high altitudes (1,000-3,500m asl) in the southern watershed of the central mountain ranges of Papua, Indonesia.	eng
58046	habitat		It is found in wet places in forest under ferns and mosses, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58046	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58046	threats		No information is available.	eng
58047	conservation		No conservation measures are required. The range of this species includes a number of protected areas.	eng
58047	distribution		This species is known from western Papua, and the north coastal ranges of New Guinea, and from the Schrader Mountains of Papua New Guinea. It is present on Yapen Island. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.	eng
58047	habitat		It calls from beneath the soil surface in tropical rainforest. It is also known to persist in heavily disturbed habitats including villages and degraded forest. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development.	eng
58047	population		It is a common species.	eng
58047	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
58048	conservation		The distribution needs to be documented more adequately, and the population status needs to be assessed. It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.	eng
58048	distribution		This species from New Guinea occurs in the central mountain ranges of eastern Papua (Indonesia) and western Papua New Guinea, at 1,280-2,000m asl.	eng
58048	habitat		No data are available, but it presumably lives on the floor in tropical rainforest, but has also been found in rural gardens and other degraded areas as well. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58048	population		It appears to be very uncommon and is hard to find.	eng
58048	threats		Very little information is available, but it appears to be adaptable to secondary habitats.	eng
58049	conservation		The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
58049	distribution		This species is known from the central mountain ranges of Papua, Indonesia to western Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from 2,200-2,800m asl.	eng
58049	habitat		It inhabits high-elevation mossy rainforest, otherwise nothing known. Like other species in the genus, it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58049	population		It was observed to be uncommon, but very little information is known.	eng
58049	threats		There are local threats from mining; in particular Mount Fubilan has been reduced to nothing by mining.	eng
58050	conservation		More information is needed.	eng
58050	distribution		This Australian endemic is known from near Nerang, north to the Enguella Region, west of Mackay, Queensland, Australia.	eng
58050	habitat		They inhabit seasonally inundated drainage lines in forested areas usually dry sclerophyll forest. Males call from small burrows and females deposit their eggs in the burrow. They will also use abandoned crayfish holes.	eng
58050	population		It is a common species.	eng
58050	threats		More information is needed.	eng
58051	conservation		It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, making the protection of forest habitat within its range an urgent priority.	eng
58051	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats in India, and is known from only two localities, both in Idukki District in the Cardomom Hills in Kerala: Kattapana; and near Idukki town. Its recorded altitudinal range is 850-1,000m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
58051	habitat		It has been found in disturbed secondary forest contiguous with montane evergreen forest, but presumably occurs in undisturbed forest as well (though apparently it does not survive in open, completely cleared habitats). For most of the year it is a fossorial species, living from 1.3-3.7m below ground. It comes to the surface for a few weeks a year to breed in temporary and permanent ponds and ditches by larval development. It often breeds in ponds close to streams.	eng
58051	population		It is a rare species, though very hard to find. Only 135 specimens have so far been observed, and, of these, only three have been females.	eng
58051	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to expanding cultivation (of coffee, cardamom, ginger and other species).	eng
58052	conservation	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Marc Cheylan, Rafael Marquez, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas, including several NATURA 2000 sites, and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Spain, and is listed in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books.	eng
58052	distribution	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Marc Cheylan, Rafael Marquez, Philippe Geniez, 2008	This species is present in most of the Iberian Peninsula (except the northern area of the Peninsula and parts of central and northern Portugal), and southern France. There are also isolated populations in western France. It occurs from sea level (France and Spain) up to 1,770m asl (Spain). Its Area Of Occupancy is much smaller than its Extent Of Occurrence, as it is restricted to a specific type of habitat.	eng
58052	habitat	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Marc Cheylan, Rafael Marquez, Philippe Geniez, 2008	The burrowing habits of this species generally restrict its distribution to areas with sandy or soft soils. It occurs in dunes, oak forest, scrub, cultivated land, and open areas, sometimes close to human habitation. In France it is largely restricted to coastal regions. It breeds in temporary pools and livestock ponds with thick vegetation that occasionally may be brackish. This species has a long larval development period, which makes it vulnerable to introduced predators and desiccation of ponds.	eng
58052	population	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Marc Cheylan, Rafael Marquez, Philippe Geniez, 2008	This species is generally common in suitable habitat. However, population declines have been observed in most of its range.	eng
58052	threats	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Marc Cheylan, Rafael Marquez, Philippe Geniez, 2008	In Iberia threats include the isolation of populations by agricultural intensification, destruction of wetland habitats (by urban development) and their pollution (with agrochemicals), and introduction of predatory Louisiana crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) and fish (such as <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>) to breeding areas. Mortality on roads, and tourism development, are causing localized declines in some populations. In France, tourism and wetland drainage are the principal threats to this species. Overall, the severity of the threats to this species appears to be increasing.	eng
58053	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention; listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by legislation in Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia (Yugoslavia) and Israel. It is recorded in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books and Lists. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran. There have been successful captive breeding and re-introductions of this species in Armenia. Conservation measures, such as habitat construction, are taking place in Israel. Further status surveys are needed in parts of its range or potential range (e.g., Albania, Moldova, Ukraine, Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq).	eng
58053	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention; listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by legislation in Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia (Yugoslavia) and Israel. It is recorded in a number of national and subnational Red Data Books and Lists. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran. There have been successful captive breeding and re-introductions of this species in Armenia. Conservation measures, such as habitat construction, are taking place in Israel. Further status surveys are needed in parts of its range or potential range (e.g., Albania, Moldova, Ukraine, Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq).	eng
58053	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species occurs in the south-east Balkans, east to south-eastern Transcaucasia and northern Iran, and south to the Levant. In the Balkans it occurs in Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, southern Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey. It occurs widely, but in scattered populations in Turkey. In Caucasian region it is found in southeastern Armenia, Georgia north to Tbilisi and Azerbaijan, north to southern Dagestan in Russia, and east to the Caspian coastal area of Iran. In the Levant it occurs in northern Syrian Arab Republic and in the southern Coastal Plain [Ashdod] of Israel (the southernmost limit of its range), but it is probably extinct in Jordan where it has not been observed since 1984. It has been recorded from two sites in Lebanon in 2005; in the Hasbani Valley and in the Bekaa Valley near the Aammiq marsh. The species is also expected to occur in Albania, Ukraine and Moldova, but there appear not to be confirmed records from these countries, and records from northern Iraq require confirmation. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m asl.	eng
58053	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species occurs in the south-east Balkans, east to south-eastern Transcaucasia and northern Iran, and south to the Levant. In the Balkans it occurs in Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, southern Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey. It occurs widely, but in scattered populations in Turkey. In Caucasian region it is found in southeastern Armenia, Georgia north to Tbilisi and Azerbaijan, north to southern Dagestan in Russia, and east to the Caspian coastal area of Iran. In the Levant it occurs in northern Syrian Arab Republic and in the southern Coastal Plain [Ashdod] of Israel (the southernmost limit of its range), but it is probably extinct in Jordan where it has not been observed since 1984. It has been recorded from two sites in Lebanon in 2005; in the Hasbani Valley and in the Bekaa Valley near the Aammiq marsh. The species is also expected to occur in Albania, Ukraine and Moldova, but there appear not to be confirmed records from these countries, and records from northern Iraq require confirmation. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m asl.	eng
58053	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is a largely fossorial species. Terrestrial habitats occupied are generally open uncultivated lands such as light forests, steppe (and steppe-like habitats), semi-desert and rocky areas. It is generally less selective than Pelobates fuscus in terms of soil preference, inhabiting not only soft soils suitable for a fossorial life (although they are preferred), but also solid, rocky soils, particularly friable clay with pebbles. Spawning sites include stagnant temporary waterbodies; river or lakeside temporary waterbodies and large permanent pools. It can occur in slightly modified areas, including intensively grazed areas.	eng
58053	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is a largely fossorial species. Terrestrial habitats occupied are generally open uncultivated lands such as light forests, steppe (and steppe-like habitats), semi-desert and rocky areas. It is generally less selective than Pelobates fuscus in terms of soil preference, inhabiting not only soft soils suitable for a fossorial life (although they are preferred), but also solid, rocky soils, particularly friable clay with pebbles. Spawning sites include stagnant temporary waterbodies; river or lakeside temporary waterbodies and large permanent pools. It can occur in slightly modified areas, including intensively grazed areas.	eng
58053	population	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It appears not to be a common species; although a number of populations are often highly fragmented and subject to significant population fluctuations especially in the south of its range. The species is uncommon in Serbia (Kalezic and Dzukic 2001). It is relatively common in Iran. In Lebanon there are very localized but small populations. It is a threatened species in Israel. The species is possibly extinct in Jordan. This species is very rare in the Caucasus Region.	eng
58053	population	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It appears not to be a common species; although a number of populations are often highly fragmented and subject to significant population fluctuations especially in the south of its range. The species is uncommon in Serbia (Kalezic and Dzukic 2001). It is relatively common in Iran. In Lebanon there are very localized but small populations. It is a threatened species in Israel. The species is possibly extinct in Jordan. This species is very rare in the Caucasus Region.	eng
58053	threats	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is generally threatened by habitat loss through drainage or loss of breeding wetlands and conversion of land to agricultural and industrial use. Threatened by habitat destruction (especially of breeding sites) in Jordan and Israel. In Iran it is threatened by Caspian Sea coastal development, including holiday homes and agriculture (rice). Fragmented populations are susceptible to extinction through population fluctuations, most especially within arid landscapes.	eng
58053	threats	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is generally threatened by habitat loss through drainage or loss of breeding wetlands and conversion of land to agricultural and industrial use. Threatened by habitat destruction (especially of breeding sites) in Jordan and Israel. In Iran it is threatened by Caspian Sea coastal development, including holiday homes and agriculture (rice). Fragmented populations are susceptible to extinction through population fluctuations, most especially within arid landscapes.	eng
58054	conservation		It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, though it may be present in the Merja Zerga Biological Reserve. There is certainly a need for improved protection of the habitat of this species.	eng
58054	distribution		This species is known only from fragmented localized areas on the coastal plains of north-western Morocco. The northernmost location is the town of Larache, while the southernmost population is known from the north-eastern part of the salt marshes of Oualida. The species may range further south than Oualidia, and this possible range extension requires further investigation. Yus Ramos and Cabo Hernandez (1986) mentioned the presence of <em>Pelobates cultripes</em> in the Melilla region (Spain), which might refer to <em>P. varaldii</em>, though this record is far outside the known range of any <em>Pelobates</em> species. <em>P. varaldii</em> is not found above 350m asl.	eng
58054	habitat		It is generally fossorial, inhabiting lowland sandy uncultivated soils, sometimes in the vicinity of cork woodlands. The spawning sites are most often still temporary waterbodies (such as dayas and rain puddles). It does not occur in anthropogenically modified habitats.	eng
58054	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, although it is believed to be declining.	eng
58054	threats		The major threats include habitat loss and degradation due to the conversion of land to livestock pasture, and the pollution of stagnant waters with livestock droppings (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996). In addition, arable agriculture may be leading to the loss or disturbance of the sandy substrate soil habitat, with which the species is strongly associated. Populations of the species are now often restricted to temporary ponds, and those remaining in permanent waterbodies are being eliminated through the presence of predatory fishes (specifically <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>).	eng
58055	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is listed in the Regional Catalogue of Andalucía, Spain. It is not yet protected by national legislation. It is present in Doñana and Sierra Nevada National Parks, Spain.	eng
58055	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	This species is endemic to southeastern Portugal and southern Spain. Further investigations into the range of this recently described species are needed in Portugal . It is present from sea level to approximately 1,450m asl in Granada province, Spain.	eng
58055	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	It can be found in dry or slightly damp open habitats including open woods, shrubland, salt marshes and cultivated areas. It can survive in intensively farmed areas. It breeds after rain in shallow sunny ponds (up to 1.5m deep), lagoons, stream backwaters, drains, roadside ditches and possibly in salt marshes. It is present in some modified habitats (such as non-intensively farmed fields).	eng
58055	population	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	It is locally abundant in suitable habitat in Spain, and it is increasing in Donana. It is considered to be scarce in Portugal.	eng
58055	threats	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	Loss of suitable freshwater breeding habitats (including stream channelization) is a threat as is habitat fragmentation. Predation of larvae and adults by exotic fish and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) introductions is also a threat.	eng
58056	conservation	Mathieu Denoël, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	This species is protected by national legislation throughout its range states (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997) and it is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is recorded several national and subnational Red Data Books and lists and it is present in a number of protected areas (including several NATURA 2000 sites). In some areas protection of temporary ponds is a conservation priority for the species.	eng
58056	distribution	Mathieu Denoël, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	This species is found in western Portugal, northern, central and eastern Spain, most of France, and in coastal northwestern Italy (only in Liguria and southern Piedmont). In Portugal there is limited information on the distribution of this species in relation to <em>Pelodytes ibericus</em>. It occurs from sea level up to 1,630m asl.	eng
58056	habitat	Mathieu Denoël, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	Its preferred habitats are dry or damp stony areas (including drystone walls). It is also observed in dunes, flooded quarries and cultivated areas. It is often present in calcareous or sandy areas. Aquatic habitats, where it breeds, include shallow, sunny, open (often ephemeral or temporary) waters, small pools, ditches and slow, small streams with a sandy substrate. It can occur in traditionally farmed areas.	eng
58056	population	Mathieu Denoël, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	It is generally locally abundant over much of its range. The species is generally scarce in Portugal, and it is threatened in Italy due to loss of breeding sites on the edge of its range. Populations in southern Spain and northern Portugal are highly threatened and fragmented.	eng
58056	threats	Mathieu Denoël, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, 2008	Threats include drainage of marshland and canalization of rivers (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Loss of suitable freshwater breeding habitats and habitat fragmentation are also threats. Intensification of agriculture is threatening the species in Iberia. Desertification is a threat in parts of its range (southern Portugal). Predation of larvae and adults by exotic fish and Louisiana Crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) introductions (especially in Iberia) is also a threat. Hydroelectric projects are leading to habitat loss in parts of Portugal.	eng
58057	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58057	distribution		This species is endemic to Riviersonderend, Du Toitsberg, Elandskloof and Limietberg Mountains in Western Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs at 300-2,000m asl.	eng
58057	habitat		It is a species of fynbos heath land that does not survive in degraded areas. It breeds in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams. It lays 8-10 eggs in moss or similar vegetation, which develop directly, without a larval stage.	eng
58057	population		It is patchily distributed but widespread but in small populations in a habitat that is not significantly fragmented.	eng
58057	threats		Its habitat is largely protected, although it is being impacted by the spread of alien species (in particular pines), and fires taking place too frequently. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor.	eng
58058	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species requires monitoring of habitat and populations to achieve ecologically sound fire management once basic information concerning population size and phenology is collected. Removal of alien invasive plant species, <span style="background-color: white;">already being implemented in some protected areas,</span> should continue across the entire range of this species. It occurs in Babilonstoring, Fernkloof, Maanschynkop and Vogelgat Nature Reserves. The effects of fire on this and other species of&#160; <em>Arthroleptella&#160;</em>requires research.</p>	eng
58058	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from two locations on the slopes of the lower Klienrivier and Babilonstoring Mountains, near Hermanus, in Western Cape Province, South Africa, above 200 m asl and up to 1,100 m asl.&#160;Most of its very restricted extent of occurrence (EOO) (17 km² and area of occupancy estimated at 10% of EOO) falls within protected areas.	eng
58058	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This is a species of fynbos heathland, which does not survive in degraded areas. It breeds in wet mossy areas near densely vegetated streams and hillside seepages. It presumably lays its small direct-developing eggs (expected to be 10 like other members of the genus) in moss or similar vegetation.</p>	eng
58058	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It occurs in small, widely scattered subpopulations associated with seepages within two locations, one a large mountain range and the other a small mountain range. Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of subpopulations within each location if the fires are not severe enough to extirpate the entire location.<p></p>	eng
58058	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>Its habitat is largely protected, although one threat to it is the spread of alien species (in particular pines and hakeas)&#160;and too frequent and intense fires which are&#160;expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus).&#160;However, these threats are not considered to be severe or intense but require active management as they will act synergystically.</p>	eng
58059	conservation		Much of its range at high altitudes is in protected areas.	eng
58059	distribution		This species is known from KwaZulu-Natal Province and East Griqualand (in Eastern Cape Province), southeastern South Africa. It occurs up to 2,700m asl.	eng
58059	habitat		It lives in pockets of forest and dense vegetation in the Drakensberg and the midlands in Kwa-Zulu Natal. It breeds in wet mossy areas in riverine bush and forest near waterfalls and rapids. Clutches of 14-40 eggs are laid in moss and leaf-litter on edges of streams. The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
58059	population		It lives in small, fragmented populations over wide area.	eng
58059	threats		There are no obvious threats, since its habitat is generally well protected.	eng
58060	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although urban spread, invasive plants and fire are threats, no conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species. Much of this species' range is protected in the <span style="background-color: white;">well-managed </span>Hottentots Holland and Kogelberg Nature Reserves. Taxonomic revision is still in progress and more work on population status is required in order to begin monitoring populations trends (and the effect of threats such as fire frequency). Results from research need to feed into conservation management plans in affected areas.	eng
58060	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the Hottentots Holland and Kogelberg Mountain (up to 1,200 m asl) complexes, South Africa. It has a small Extent of Occurrence of 283 km<sup>2</sup> with an Area of Occupancy estimated at 10%.	eng
58060	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It inhabits fynbos heathland and does not survive in degraded areas. Breeding is by direct development, and eggs (average expected to be 10 like other members of the genus) are laid in wet vegetation in fynbos seeps and marginally in forest habitats.	eng
58060	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs in small, widely scattered <span style="background-color: white;">subpopulations (these are currently estimated to be 12). F</span>ire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of locations.	eng
58060	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Even though its habitat is largely protected, the major threats to this species are the spread of alien species (in particular pines) and too frequent and intense fires. Coastal populations are likely to be affected by urban development. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor.	eng
58061	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species; however,<span style="background-color: white;"> monitoring programs are required to determine population trends</span>. Most of this species' range is in Table Mountain National Park and Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens and thus potential impacts from tourism need to be properly managed. Results from research need to be placed into a management framework for active conservation measures, inclusive of invasive species control.	eng
58061	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to Table Mountain and to the other mountains of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, where it occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. It is very restricted with a small Extent of Occurrence (134 km<sup>2</sup>) and an Area of Occupancy estimated to be 10%.	eng
58061	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of fynbos heathland and forest that does not survive in developed areas. Breeding is by direct development, with 5-12 eggs being laid in moss or similar vegetation in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams.	eng
58061	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species appears to be relatively abundant on the Cape Peninsula.&#160;Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) but the species as a whole should be buffered against these fluctuations by the relatively large number of locations<span style="background-color: white;"> (currently estimated to be 10).</span></p>	eng
58061	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Even though its habitat is largely protected, the major threats to this species are the spread of alien species (in particular pines) and too frequent or intense fires which cause extreme population fluctuations. Increased tourism in the area needs to be properly managed to minimise impact. There has probably been some loss of habitat in the past due to urban development and pine plantations on parts of the mountains.	eng
58062	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although it occurs in the Ngele Forest Reserve, most of the habitat of this species is not protected, so improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is a priority. The relative impact of perceived threats needs to be researched and populations together with habitat require monitoring. Recent surveys have found that the majority of populations occur on land belonging to two private forestry companies (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). These companies initially responded positively towards the species' conservation, and management guidelines were developed and provided to both companies, with one company implementing a long-term monitoring programme for this species (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). However, there has been a recent change in environmental management staff and no further monitoring efforts have taken place since. It is unknown whether these companies have implemented the suggested management recommendations (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009).	eng
58062	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is restricted to a small area of mist belt on the eastern escarpment of KwaZulu-Natal Province (which includes the former enclave of Eastern Cape, recently incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal), South Africa. Six fragmented and isolated subpopulations were known until 2004 (Minter <em>et al.</em> 2004). Recent surveys indicate that the species is extant at four of the six known sites, but it is possibly extinct at two of these sites (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). In addition, it has been found to occur more extensively in <st1:place><st1:placename>Ngele</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> than previously known, in the Mpur forestry area, and a new population within the Ixopo region (Roelton Dam) was also discovered (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009).   Within the Mpur forestry area, <em>A. ngongoniensis</em> was recorded at several new sites (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). In total, 12 subpopulations are now known, although these are aggregated in only four locations. It is known to occur between 1,020 and 1,720 m asl, and its total area of occupancy is estimated to be 9 km² (J. Harvey pers. comm. December 2009), while its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 1,525 km².<br/>  <br/>  <em></em> <strong></strong>      <p><a name="OLE_LINK1"><em></em></a> <strong></strong></p>	eng
58062	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is known from montane forest and, to a lesser extent, high-altitude grassland (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It appears to be strongly associated with riparian zones, and in grassland sites, with very dense vegetation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). Most sites from which it has been recorded are surrounded by exotic tree plantations (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It generally prefers steep slopes, close to seepages. It breeds in decaying vegetation at the base of grass and sedge tussocks on grassy slopes in the mist belt of the escarpment. Males call from well-concealed positions at the bases of grass tussocks by day, while at night they climb to calling positions about 20 cm below the tips of grass stems. The eggs are laid on damp soil or vegetation and develop directly, without a larval stage.	eng
58062	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Based on surveys conducted in 2003–2005, the global adult population size of <em>A. ngongoniensis</em> is estimated to lie between 2,495 and 3,350 individuals (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). It is uncertain how many discrete subpopulations are involved, but for the purposes of this assessment we are provisionally<span style="background-color: white;"> considering twelve subpopulations, two of which may be extinct, </span>based on the results of recent field work (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). The largest single subpopulation would appear to occur in <st1:place><st1:placename>Ngele</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, and while '<st1:place><st1:placename>Poortje</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>Forest'</st1:placetype></st1:place> may also hold a large subpopulation, this still needs to be confirmed  (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009). Although the Mpur forestry sites are separated, various sites may be connected as part of a larger subpopulation  (J. Harvey pers. comm. August 2009).&#160;The spatial distribution of this species is not considered to be severely fragmented as one subpopulation/location holds >50% of individuals. Other subpopulations are small and scattered and distances are considered to be too great for dispersal within one generation.<br/><em></em><p></p>	eng
58062	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The habitat of this species is experiencing a rapid rate of loss, due to afforestation, the spread of invasive wattle trees (lowering the water table), and the impact of inappropriate fire regimes. Additional threats include timber plantations, overgrazing, fragmentation, dust and habitat damage due to harvest activities (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006, 2009). The greatest threats are fires, invasive plants and habitat fragmentation resulting in population isolation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009). Forest populations appear to be less threatened given that their habitat patches are typically larger and not as exposed to many of the identified threats, including burning (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2006). Inappropriate use of agrochemicals for alien plant control could also potentially impact upon a population, although this has not been investigated (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009). Climate change could also be a potential threat given predictions of loss of grassland biome and species range shifts and contractions due to changes in climatic conditions. This species has a small range and has less than half the population distributed in subpopulations that are within a transformed land matrix and it is not likely that there is 'new' habitat to colonise, although this requires further investigation (J. Harvey pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <br/><br/><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
58063	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Many of the known locations are within protected areas. There are no immediate priorities for conservation research of this species.	eng
58063	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to southwestern South Africa, where it lives at low altitudes near Rooi Els and Betty's Bay, and at higher altitudes in the Hottentots-Holland, Kogelberg and Kleinrivier Mountains, east to the Bredasdorp Mountains, Western Cape Province. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl. Counting mountain ranges as locations, it is known from at least 16 locations and probably occurs in many more. Its estimated extent of occurrence is 6,382 km².	eng
58063	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a species of lowland and montane fynbos heath land that also survives in certain anthropogenic habitats, such as exotic plantations in places (though these are not favoured habitats). It breeds in wet mossy areas near rivers, hillside or roadside seepages, and heavily vegetated streams. It lays around 10 eggs in moss or similar vegetation, which develop directly, without a larval stage.	eng
58063	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is a common species, and is occurs less patchily than other <em>Arthroleptella</em> species.	eng
58063	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Its habitat is largely protected, although it is being impacted by the spread of alien species (in particular pines), afforestation, and fires taking place too frequently. Coastal populations are likely to be impacted by urban development. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor as most reserves are actively managed.	eng
58064	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve, but there is a need for expanded and strengthened protection of forests in the Usambara Mountains. The species also requires close population monitoring, particularly given the possible threat of chytridiomycosis.	eng
58064	distribution		This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) in north-eastern Tanzania, at 600-1,800m asl.	eng
58064	habitat		It is associated with rocky streams in montane forests, and is generally confined to mature forest. It lays its eggs on rocks over which water is trickling, close to torrential streams and waterfalls. The larvae remain attached to the rocks, where they develop. When not breeding, the adults can be found on the forest floor, in holes on the ground, and in rock crevices.	eng
58064	population		It is common in its specialized habitat.	eng
58064	threats		This species is adversely affected by general encroachment and degradation of the forest, and siltation of streams. A potential future threat might be the fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, since the related species, <em>A. yakusini</em>, has been shown to carry this fungus. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
58065	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park. Populations should be carefully monitored, particularly since chytrid has been confirmed in this species.	eng
58065	distribution		This species is known only from the Uluguru, Udzungwa and Mahenge Mountains in eastern Tanzania, with an altitudinal range of approximately 350-1,950m asl.	eng
58065	habitat		It is associated with rocky streams in montane forests, and is generally confined to mature forest (though is possibly more tolerant of open woodland situations than <em>Arthroleptides martiensseni</em>). It lays its eggs on rocks over which water is trickling, close to torrential streams and waterfalls. The larvae remain attached to the rocks, where they develop. When not breeding, the adults can be found on the forest floor, in holes on the ground, and in rock crevices.	eng
58065	population		It is regularly encountered in suitable habitat, and is not uncommon.	eng
58065	threats		This species is adversely affected by general encroachment and degradation of the forest, and siltation of streams. This species has been confirmed as carrying the fungus that causes chytridiomycosis, but it is not yet known if this will lead to a catastrophic reduction in populations, as has been the case with amphibians in other parts of the world.	eng
58066	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58066	distribution		This species occurs in most of southern Africa, but only in uplands north of the Tropic of Capricorn, and in highland areas in Tanzania and Kenya, north to Ethiopia (where it occurs mainly to the east of the Rift Valley, with isolated populations to the west). Its range in Tanzania and Kenya is very poorly known, and it is expected to occur in Uganda. Its presence in Angola has not been confirmed. It occurs up to 2,500m asl in Ethiopia. Its range might have increased during the last century due to human activity.	eng
58066	habitat		It is a species of grasslands (including montane grassland) and dry savannahs, favouring open areas with short vegetation, and is extremely successful in grassy meadows. It breeds in any shallow water body, including vleis, flooded depressions, drainage ditches, puddles, small pools, inundated grasslands and shallow pans, especially where grass is growing. They have been found in large numbers in disused termitaria.	eng
58066	population		It is extremely common and occurring in almost all suitable habitats throughout its range. It is usually present in high densities.	eng
58066	threats		It is a supreme generalist, and it adapts extremely well to disturbance.	eng
58067	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No research or conservation priorities are listed for this species.&#160;It is known from Karoo National Park, Vrolijkheid Nature Reserve and Boesmanskloof Private Nature Reserve.	eng
58067	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is endemic to the Karoo (between 750 and 1,500 m asl) in the Western Cape and Northern Cape Provinces in South Africa. It has a large extent of occurrence (23,575 km²) and an area of occupancy of 1,746 km².	eng
58067	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It lives in dry shrubland, semi-deserts, and rocky areas. It is probably associated with stony substrates, aestivating in rock cracks and crevices during harsher conditions. It is an opportunistic breeder, taking advantage of rainfall of sufficient magnitude, regardless of the season in which it occurs. It breeds in temporary natural stream side pools, but is also able utilize man-made water sources.	eng
58067	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Where it is known&#160;it appears to be locally abundant.	eng
58067	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	There is no information on threats to this species, but given that it is probably fairly adaptable, and that it occurs in an area of low human impact, it is probably not particularly threatened.	eng
58068	conservation		It occurs in Upemba National Park.	eng
58068	distribution		This species is known only from Katanga Province, in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58068	habitat		It is likely to occur in inundated grasslands in savannah, like other members of its genus, and it presumably breeds in inundated grasslands, marshes and temporary streams and pools.	eng
58068	population		Only 12 specimens of this species are known.	eng
58068	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58069	conservation		It occurs in the Richtersveld Contractual National Park and in the Goegap Wildflower Reserve. Its presence in the Namaqualand National Park and Ai-Ais Fish River Canyon Trans-frontier National Park (in Namibia) is unconfirmed but likely.	eng
58069	distribution		This species occurs in the Upland Succulent Karoo biome, from Nuwerus, just north of the low-lying Knersvlakte, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, north to the Hunsberg in Namibia. It is absent from a narrow strip along the coast.	eng
58069	habitat		It is associated with the distribution of granitic inselbergs in dry shrubland and semi-desert. It probably spends a large proportion of its time aestivating in cracks and under layers of granite. It is only active after suitably large rainfall events. It breeds in any small body of water that can hold water for a sufficiently long period to enable the tadpoles to complete their development, such as pools in rocky streambeds, and eroded "tanks" in the granitic bedrock, which have good water holding abilities.	eng
58069	population		It appears to occur in fairly large populations, but it is seldom encountered due to the low numbers of days per year that it is active (as a result of the low rainfall), and the poor collecting effort in its range.	eng
58069	threats		Some populations are probably being impacted by mining for copper and quarrying for granite. Otherwise, it is probably not facing any threats.	eng
58070	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58070	distribution		This species ranges from Swellendam in the Western Cape Province in South Africa, east and north to the Tugela River basin in KwaZulu-Natal, and the lowlands of southern Swaziland. It is absent from higher altitudes along the Mpumalanga and Kwa-Zulu Natal escarpment, where it is replaced by its sister-taxon, Cacosternum parvum. It occurs up to at least 1,400m asl, perhaps higher. Records from Mozambique require clarification (E. Scott pers. comm.).	eng
58070	habitat		It inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types, including fynbos heath land, savannah, shrubland, grassland, farmland, plantations, rural grassland, degraded forest and urban areas, occurring in areas of relatively high rainfall. It breeds in vleis and deeper pools in open wooded grassland areas, in thick reed beds, and in dense grassy verges of ponds. Its habitat preferences are generally more restrictive than those of Cacosternum boettgeri. During dry periods, these frogs aestivate below the surface, or under logs and stones, sometimes emerging in large numbers after heavy rain.	eng
58070	population		It is one of the commonest frogs in its range, and can be heard calling from almost every substantial rut, drainage ditch and puddle in the wet season.	eng
58070	threats		It is an adaptable species and it appears not to be threatened.	eng
58071	conservation		It is present in many protected areas, including the Royal Natal National Park, and the Giant’s Castle and Cathedral Peak Game Reserves.	eng
58071	distribution		This species is restricted to high-altitude habitats above 1,200m asl up to at least 2,100m asl in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, occurring along the Kwa-Zulu Natal Drakensberg escarpment, the Mpumalanga Escarpment and Wolkberg Arc. It occurs at higher altitudes than the closely related Cacosternum nanum.	eng
58071	habitat		It appears to occur mainly in high-altitude grassland habitats, but also in pastureland, plantations and montane forest. It breeds in well-vegetated ponds, ditches, marshes, streams and inundated grassland. The males conceal themselves in very dense vegetation, mainly grasses, at the edge of small waterbodies or streams. Its ecology is broadly similar to that of Cacosternum nanum, except that it appears to occur more frequently in anoxic, marshy habitats.	eng
58071	population		It is locally abundant where it occurs, and inhabits most suitable habitat within its range.	eng
58071	threats		It is an adaptable species, and is not considered to be threatened or in immediate need of conservation action.	eng
58072	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58072	distribution		This species' distribution is not known with certainty, but it is likely to be the winter rainfall regions west and south of the Cape Fold Mountains, in southwestern Cape Province, South Africa. It is a low altitude species.	eng
58072	habitat		It is a species of fynbos heath land, and in the dry season individuals have been found aestivating under stones or logs and amongst the roots of dead reed-like plants in dried up watercourses. It is capable of persisting in highly disturbed urban and agricultural areas. It breeds in ditches, irrigated land, inundated grasslands and small pools (livestock watering holes) and puddles.	eng
58072	population		It is locally abundant and present in almost every suitable water body, bar those that are heavily polluted with industrial waste.	eng
58072	threats		Although the southwestern Cape is under huge pressure from agriculture, urban development, the draining of wetlands and invasive alien plants, it does not appear to be perturbed by such activities, and it readily adopts man-made waterbodies as alternative habitat. Its status should, however, be kept under review because of its small range that is subject to extreme pressures.	eng
58073	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No conservation actions are prioritised for this species. It is known from Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and Greater Saint Lucia Wetland Park and Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve in South Africa.	eng
58073	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs in South Africa and Lesotho, where it has been recorded from the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal Province (South Africa) and coastal regions (0 m asl) from Durban north to Charter's Creek. It is also known from the southern Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa, up to at least 1,800 m asl, perhaps higher. Its distribution is large (Extent of Occurrence is 25,650 km<sup>2</sup>), and Area of Occupancy (estimated at 2% of EOO) is incompletely known at present.	eng
58073	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is generally associated with grassland areas, and breeding takes place in dense grass tussocks in inundated wetlands, marshy areas, or adjacent to slow-flowing side waters of highland streams. It is found in both low- and high-altitude habitats.	eng
58073	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>It appears to be relatively abundant in places where it is found.</p>	eng
58073	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>There are no major threats known to the species at this time. Potential future threats are small scale farming and pollution associated with fertiliser and pesticides.</p>	eng
58074	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park in Cameroon, Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea, Moukalaba-Dougoua Faunal Reserve in Gabon, and Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in Central African Republic.	eng
58074	distribution		This species is known from western, central and southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (including the island of Bioko), Gabon, southern Congo, and southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It might occur in southeastern Nigeria, the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58074	habitat		It is a lowland forest species that can survive in somewhat degraded forest, but not in open habitats outside forest. The males call from cavities and holes near streams, and it breeds in still water pools along streams.	eng
58074	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58074	threats		Despite its adaptability, it is likely to be affected by forest loss due to logging, agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
58075	conservation		It occurs in Bale Mountains National Park, although this protected area has not yet been formally gazetted. Conservation of <em>Erica</em> woodland and high-altitude forest throughout the Bale Mountains is a priority. Clearly, there is an urgent need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species, and to determine whether it might occur more widely than currently known.	eng
58075	distribution		This species is restricted to the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, at 2,400-3,200m asl. It has so far been found only in two localities near Katcha, but probably occurs a little more widely.	eng
58075	habitat		It is known only from giant geath (<em>Erica arborea</em>) woodland and adjoining <em>Schefflera</em>-<em>Hagenia</em> forest, where it is found on the grassy banks of small, fast-flowing streams. The breeding behaviour is unknown, but female specimens contain large and unpigmented ova. The presence of such eggs is generally considered to be indicative of either direct development or at least a terrestrial nest. If true in this case, the eggs are most likely to be deposited amongst herbaceous vegetation on the banks of small, swift-flowing streams, which is the habitat where fully mature females have been found.	eng
58075	population		It seemed to be reasonably numerous at the type locality in 1986. The absence of subsequent records is due to the lack of survey effort.	eng
58075	threats		Direct damage to the narrow belt of giant heath (with which this animal is most closely associated), by either humans or their livestock, does not seem very likely in the foreseeable future, but could be disastrous if it did occur. A more worrying threat is the possibility of logging in contiguous tall <em>Schefflera</em>-<em>Hagenia</em> forests at slightly lower elevations.	eng
58076	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Umtamvuna Nature Reserve and Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve.	eng
58076	distribution		This species is restricted to south-eastern South Africa, where it ranges from Dwesa Nature Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province east to southern and central KwaZulu-Natal Province. It occurs below 900m asl.	eng
58076	habitat		It lives in coastal forests and gallery forests, where it is usually found along streams, and does not survive in open areas. It breeds in streams, hanging its eggs above water on branches, and sometimes on rock faces. The larvae fall into the water where they develop.	eng
58076	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58076	threats		Much of the forest habitat of this species has been lost for sugar cane cultivation and other agriculture, woodcutting, afforestation and urbanization. It is also threatened by pollution and siltation of streams.	eng
58077	conservation		It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve (which is in need of continued and strenghtened management), although Mount Ribaue remains unprotected.	eng
58077	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi and Mount Ribaue in Mozambique, where it occurs above 1,200m asl up to almost 3,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely in the mountains of south-eastern Malawi and northern Mozambique.	eng
58077	habitat		It is particularly associated with rocky areas in both montane forest and grassland. The eggs are laid in wet moss at the edge of rivulets running over rocks, and the larvae disperse by migration across wet rocks.	eng
58077	population		It is abundant on Mount Mulanje, breeding in vast numbers.	eng
58077	threats		Although somewhat protected, the habitat on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of subsistence agriculture and extraction of wood. Other threats include uncontrolled fires and the spreading of exotic pines throughout the plateaus (pines are invading and locally replacing the natural vegetation as they regrow faster after fires).	eng
58078	conservation		This species occurs in Korup National Park.	eng
58078	distribution		This species occurs from south-eastern Nigeria to south-western Cameroon, generally at low altitudes, and also on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
58078	habitat		It lives close to flowing water in closed-canopy lowland forest. The eggs are placed on moist rock surfaces close to streams, and the larvae develop on the rock surfaces in damp conditions. This is the most water-dependent member of the genus in Cameroon.	eng
58078	population		It is fairly common.	eng
58078	threats		It is threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
58079	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park, and possibly in a few other protected areas.	eng
58079	distribution		This species is known only from the lowland, coastal plain of south-western and southern Cameroon and from Bioko Island in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
58079	habitat		It lives in lowland forest and mangrove forests, and can tolerate a limited degree of habitat disturbance. The males call in forest, often far from water, and guard a nest of eggs on large leaves a few centimetres above the ground. This species appears not to be water-dependent, and the larvae are presumably terrestrial.	eng
58079	population		It is a common species.	eng
58079	threats		It is threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
58080	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas, including Mont Sangbe National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
58080	distribution		This species occurs in the hilly parts of West Africa in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire, from near sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
58080	habitat		It is found only in forested hilly country, and lives in or near water, breeding in fast-flowing streams. The eggs are laid on land, and the larvae attach themselves by means of suckers to rocks in waterfalls and rapids.	eng
58080	population		Although it is patchily distributed, it is very abundant where it occurs, for example on the Freetown Peninsula in Sierra Leone.	eng
58080	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. In some places it is also adversely affected by mining activities, for example on the Simandou Range, and on Mount Nimba.	eng
58081	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and La Lopé National Park (Gabon).	eng
58081	distribution		This species occurs in southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (both Rio Muni (mainland) and the island of Bioko), south as far as southwestern Gabon (M. Burger pers. comm.). It probably occurs in southeastern Nigeria. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,768m asl.	eng
58081	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, especially in rocky areas. It does not adapt well to modification of its habitat, though it is found in more mature secondary forest. The adults live in cracks and fissures in rocks. The eggs are deposited in fissures in cliff faces, on tree trunks, and on leaves, and are guarded by the male. The tadpoles fall to the forest floor and are terrestrial. This species is probably not water-dependent, though it is sometimes found by streams.	eng
58081	population		It is a common species.	eng
58081	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58082	conservation		It occurs in Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea and Monts de Cristal National Park in Gabon (created in 2002); it may occur in Campo Ma'an National Park in Cameroon.	eng
58082	distribution		This species is known only from the western slope of the southern Cameroon plateau, Cameroon, from Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea, and from Barrage de Kinguele in north-western Gabon.	eng
58082	habitat		It lives in rocky areas in lowland forest, usually near flowing water, and cannot survive significant modification of its forest habitat. The eggs are laid, and the larvae develop, on rocks outside water, but in the splash zone of streams and small waterfalls.	eng
58082	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58082	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58083	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park in Cameroon and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
58083	distribution		This species occurs on the Adamawa Plateau and the western Cameroonian mountains (on both the western and eastern slopes up to 1,450m asl), and in the hilly areas of southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon (from Yaounde southwest to Mount Alen, south to Barrage de Tchimbele and Barrage de Kinguele in northwestern Gabon). It has also been recorded from the base of the Mambila Plateau in Nigeria.	eng
58083	habitat		This species is associated with rocky areas in forest up to 1,450m asl, often close to streams. It is also sometimes found in secondary habitats. The eggs are deposited on large rock surfaces on cliffs, and are guarded by the male. The tadpoles develop terrestrially on the cliff surfaces and do not require water.	eng
58083	population		It can be common in suitable locations.	eng
58083	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58084	conservation		It is not known to occur in any formal protected areas, and there is a need for improved and expanded protection of montane forests in western Cameroon, particularly on Mount Manenguba and in the Rumpi Hills.	eng
58084	distribution		This species occurs only in the mountains of western Cameroon: on the southern slopes of Mount Manenguba; Mount Nlonako; the Rumpi Hills; and the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau at Mount Bana, Petit Diboum, and the Mbos Cliffs. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,500m asl.	eng
58084	habitat		It is found in submontane forest, including secondary growth, where it characteristically sits on rocks in the middle of fast-flowing streams, or on vegetation near the streams. The eggs are deposited on wet rock surfaces in the splash zone of waterfalls that are guarded by the male. The larvae develop on these rocks, and do not enter water.	eng
58084	population		It is a common species.	eng
58084	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat due to agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58086	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58086	distribution		This species ranges from southern Somalia and Kenya, south to eastern Zimbabwe, Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa. It occurs on Mafia, Zanzibar and Pemba islands in Tanzania. It is likely to occur in Zambia, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records. Records from Budongo Forest in western Uganda, from Lokichokio in northwestern Kenya and from Ngatana in northeastern Kenya require confirmation, and are not mapped here. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
58086	habitat		It is a species of dry and humid savannahs, shrubland, grassland and coastal habitats, and it is adaptable to alteration of its habitats. It breeds in temporary, and sometimes permanent, waterbodies, including puddles, pools, swamps, vleis, roadside ditches, and flooded grassy depressions.	eng
58086	population		It is generally a common, sometimes abundant, species, though there have been no recent records from South Africa, which is on the edge of its range.	eng
58086	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, though it does seem to have declined in the edge of its range in South Africa for reasons that are not clear.	eng
58087	conservation		It has apparently been recorded from the Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda and the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and presumably occurs in Kahuzi-Biega National Park. However, the effectiveness of the conservation of these areas is probably compromised by the unstable political situation within its range. There is a need for further survey work in this region to better determine the distribution and current population status of this species.	eng
58087	distribution		This very poorly known species has been recorded only from the "Lake Region" of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, and north-western Burundi. There do not appear to be any recent records of this species, presumably because of lack of herpeological work within its range. It is presumably a montane species, but its altitudinal range is not recorded.	eng
58087	habitat		It is probably a forest species. It has been recorded as occurring in forest streams, where it presumably breeds.	eng
58087	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58087	threats		Assuming that it is a forest species, it is probably affected by the increased collection of firewood and building materials.	eng
58088	conservation		Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy, to determine whether or not it is in fact a distinct species.	eng
58088	distribution		This species is known only from Accra, Ghana.	eng
58088	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of other members of the genus, and it likewise probably also breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58088	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58088	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58089	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas.	eng
58089	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mauda (Uele), in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. When mapping its range this can only be done approximately, owing to a lack of specificity regarding the type locality.	eng
58089	habitat		This species' habitat and ecological preferences are not known, although they are presumably similar to other members of the genus, and it likewise probably also breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58089	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58089	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58090	conservation		It probably occurs in all of the forested protected areas within its range.	eng
58090	distribution		This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea, Liberia, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to south-western Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Togo and Benin, and its absence from these countries might be genuine, owing to lack of suitable habitat.	eng
58090	habitat		It inhabits primary lowland rainforest, and can survive in small forest fragments, though at lower population densities (and it might not be able to persist for long in such situations). Breeding takes place in very small temporary puddles.	eng
58090	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58090	threats		The major threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
58092	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.	eng
58092	distribution		This species is known only from the Mount Nimba area in extreme south-eastern Guinea and north-eastern Liberia, from the Taï National Park in south-western Côte d’Ivoire, and from Draw River and Boi Tano Forest Reserves, Ghana. It presumably occurs a little more widely than this, although it has not been found in surveys of many intervening areas.	eng
58092	habitat		All specimens have been found in primary forest close to inselbergs in leaf-litter. Its biology and breeding are unknown, although most records have come from drier parts of the forest suggesting that it is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
58092	population		It is an extremely rare species.	eng
58092	threats		It is affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. On Mount Nimba it is also threatened by potential mining concessions.	eng
58093	conservation		Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
58093	distribution		This species is known only from Upemba National Park, and nearby areas, in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58093	habitat		Nothing is known.	eng
58093	population		It is apparently a very common species, although there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58093	threats		There is no recent information.	eng
58094	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58094	distribution		This very poorly known species has been recorded only from the Itombwe Highlands in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, above 2,400m asl.	eng
58094	habitat		There is very little information regarding its habitat and ecology, although it is known to live in swamps in montane forest, where it presumably breeds.	eng
58094	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
58094	threats		There is no recent information on threats to this species.	eng
58095	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas within its large range.	eng
58095	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon, east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Uganda and Rwanda. There are records from mainland Equatorial Guinea and from the island of Bioko, Gabon, Congo, and southwestern Central African Republic, and it is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. There is an absence of records through much of the Congo Basin, but this is probably due to under-sampling. However, its northern and southern distributional limits are very poorly known, and should be regarded as provisional. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, probably higher.	eng
58095	habitat		It lives on the floor of primary, secondary and riparian rainforest, and is often associated with rivers. It is not found in open habitats outside forest. It breeds in small pools.	eng
58095	population		It is a common species.	eng
58095	threats		It is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58096	conservation		It has been recorded from the Kakum National Park in Ghana, and it is probably present in several other protected areas.	eng
58096	distribution		This species' main range is from southeastern Nigeria to southern Cameroon and northeastern Gabon (at Makokou). It presumably occurs in mainland Equatorial Guinea, but there have not so far been any records. There are outlying records to the west of the main range from Iperin in southwestern Nigeria, the Togo-Volta Highlands in eastern Ghana, and from Kakum in southern Ghana. It generally occurs at fairly low altitudes. The records from southwestern Nigeria and Ghana might belong to another species (Rödel, M.-O. <em>et al.</em>, in press). Animals very similar to this species, but much smaller, have been found in central Gabon, and are not mapped here.	eng
58096	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest and in degraded secondary vegetation near forest, but not in open areas away from forest. It breeds in small pools.	eng
58096	population		It is common around Yaounde in Cameroon, but it is generally localized and uncommon through most of its range.	eng
58096	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.	eng
58097	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and the Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda). However, the quality of habitat in these protected areas has declined due to the influx and settlement of refugees as a result of regional political instability.	eng
58097	distribution		This very poorly known species occurs in the mountains of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from the region of Mount Ruwenzori, south to west of Lake Kivu, and in western Rwanda, and north-western Burundi. It is very likely to occur in Uganda, but there appear to be no confirmed records. It occurs at very high altitudes, from at least 2,400m asl (perhaps lower) to over 3,000m asl.	eng
58097	habitat		It is a species of swamps and marshes in both montane forest and montane grassland. It presumably breeds in swamps.	eng
58097	population		There is little recent information on the population status of this species, but it is apparently not uncommon in suitable habitat.	eng
58097	threats		It is probably affected by the mass movement and settlement of refugees, and the resultant increased demands for firewood and building materials.	eng
58098	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58098	distribution		This very poorly known species is known only from its type locality, Luanda, in Angola.	eng
58098	habitat		Its habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but are presumably similar to those of other members of the genus, and this species probably likewise breeds in water.	eng
58098	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
58098	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58099	conservation		It occurs in the Ruaha, Tarangire, Serengeti and Rubobo Island National Parks.	eng
58099	distribution		This recently described species ranges widely in the interior of northern and central Tanzania, from the Great Ruaha River, north to the Serengeti National Park, and west to Rubondo Island in Lake Victoria, and Tabora. Frogs that are probably this species have been heard in the Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya.	eng
58099	habitat		It occurs in savannahs, including in areas with long dry seasons, and breeds in flooded grassland and in pools of water with fringing vegetation. It also breeds in paddy fields, and has been found in ditches in towns.	eng
58099	population		It is a common species.	eng
58099	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58100	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58100	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	This species is known from Senegal, Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Benin, but it is likely to occur in these countries. Records of this species from Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo have been assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynobatrachus gutturosus </span>by Perret (1988). It is mainly a lowland species, but occurs up to 1,200 m asl in Cameroon.	eng
58100	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It is a species of gallery forests in humid savannas, secondary forest along streams in the forest zone, and farm bush. It sometimes colonizes savanna habitats that have not been burned. It breeds in temporary stagnant pools.	eng
58100	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It is a very common species where it occurs.	eng
58100	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.	eng
58101	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58101	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Congo" (Ahl 1923), which is presumably in Democratic Republic of Congo. Because of the lack of explicit locality data, it is not possible currently to map its range.	eng
58101	habitat		Its habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but are presumably similar to other members of the genus, and this species probably likewise breeds in water.	eng
58101	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records.	eng
58101	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58102	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon), Petit Loango National Park (Gabon) Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve, and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
58102	distribution		This species occurs from southwestern Cameroon south through Gabon to southwestern Congo, and inland as far as southwestern Central African Republic (M. Burger pers. comm.). It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni).	eng
58102	habitat		It is a species of lowland rainforest, surviving to some limited extent in degraded forest. It is often found by tracks and small marshes in the forest. It breeds in small pools.	eng
58102	population		It is a common species.	eng
58102	threats		It is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58103	conservation		It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. There is a need for improved habitat protection of montane forest habitats in Cameroon.	eng
58103	distribution		This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon at 850-1,850m asl. There are records from the Obudu Plateau and the higher parts of the Oban Hills in Nigeria, and from the Rumpi Hills, Mount Kupe, Mount Manenguba, Mount Nlonako, and the Bamileke plateau (Petit Diboum, Mount Bana, Fotabong an Foto) in Cameroon.	eng
58103	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane primary and secondary forest, degraded forest, and dense brush where it breeds in still pools along mountain streams. It does not appear to survive in completely open habitats.	eng
58103	population		It is abundant at 1,400m asl on Mount Manenguba, but rare at 1,000m asl on Mount Nlonako.	eng
58103	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.	eng
58104	conservation		Upemba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
58104	distribution		This species was described from Upemba National Park, in Shaba Province in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records have also been claimed from north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe, but it is likely that these actually refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus mababiensis</em> (which this species might indeed be a junior synonym of). Pending resolution of its taxonomic status, this species is currently understood as occurring only in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58104	habitat		It is associated with streams and marshes in humid savannah and gallery forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but reproduction presumably takes place in water, as with most other members of its genus.	eng
58104	population		It is a cryptic species, but apparently it is not uncommon in suitable habitat. However, there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work in the area.	eng
58104	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58105	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58105	distribution		This species is known only from Haute Lubitshako, in Fizi District in southern Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 1,900-2,000m asl.	eng
58105	habitat		It is presumed to be a forest species, breeding in water, but its specific habitat requirements are not known.	eng
58105	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58105	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58106	conservation		It is present in Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo); Bwindi National Park (Uganda); Ruwenzori National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).	eng
58106	distribution		Assuming that this species includes Phrynobatrachus petropedetoides, it is known to occur at least in the Ituri Forest at Medje (northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo), Mount Ruwenzori, and Kibale and Bwindi Impenetrable Forests (southwestern Uganda). It occurs at least between 800 and 1,800m asl. Its distribution is very unclear, and the map joins known localities. Records from western Tanzania require verification.	eng
58106	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter and beside streams in montane forest and is not a typical Phrynobatrachus in that lays its eggs off of the ground, usually in tree holes, often above streams, and the parents guard the eggs. It appears to be a species confined to the interior of forest.	eng
58106	population		It is very poorly known, but it appears to be an uncommon species in Kibale Forest, but more common in the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest.	eng
58106	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
58107	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58107	distribution		This species is endemic to Príncipe island in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. It is present from sea level up to 948m asl.	eng
58107	habitat		It is a typical puddle frog, present in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), and abandoned plantations where wet conditions prevail. It breeds in most types of water, but it is not found in drainage ditches. It is generally not present close to human habitation.	eng
58107	population		It is generally common where it occurs.	eng
58107	threats		It is an adaptable species facing no immediate threats.	eng
58108	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58108	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map this species' distribution should be considered as approximate.	eng
58108	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and this species likewise presumably breeds in water.	eng
58108	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58108	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58109	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58109	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species occurs in the Guinea savanna zones of West Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to Nigeria. There are records from Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mauritania and Niger, but it almost certainly occurs in these countries.	eng
58109	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a species of humid and dry savanna, also living in altered habitats, such as agricultural areas and villages. It breeds in a variety of temporary water habitats, including small temporary ponds and puddles, and ditches in villages.	eng
58109	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a very common species.	eng
58109	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58110	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park and Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.	eng
58110	distribution		This species occurs in central and eastern Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia and western Côte d’Ivoire. Records from Guinea-Bissau require confirmation. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, perhaps higher.	eng
58110	habitat		It is a rainforest species, where it is generally found close to small streams in leaf-litter. It can survive in secondary forest and plantations, but not in open areas. It is presumed to breed in stagnant or slow flowing water, and lays its eggs on the surface of the water.	eng
58110	population		It is very common in Guinea, but it is very rare in Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
58110	threats		It is affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. In some places it is also affected by mining.	eng
58111	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58111	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buta, in north-central Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58111	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.	eng
58111	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58111	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58112	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas across its range. There is a need for further survey work in order to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
58112	distribution		This species is known only from the heavily fragmented forest region of south-western Ghana and south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire. It is known from Banco National Park in Côte d’Ivoire and from five localities in Ghana: Kakoum National Park; Boi-Tano Forest Reserve; Draw River Forest Reserve; the Ankasa Conservation Area, a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve to the south; and Bobiri Forest Reserve.	eng
58112	habitat		It is usually found on the floor of swampy primary rainforest, but it has also been found at the edge of small temporary pools in bamboo forest and close to forest edge. Its breeding is unknown, though it is likely to take place in water.	eng
58112	population		There is very little information concerning its population status, since only a few specimens are known. It is a very inconspicuous forest floor species, so it is probably often overlooked or mistaken for other <em>Phrynobatrachus</em> species.	eng
58112	threats		It is presumably affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.	eng
58113	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58113	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality at Yambata in northern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Cameroon are in error and refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus accraensis</em>. The location of the type locality is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution must be considered as approximate.	eng
58113	habitat		Its habitat and ecological requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it probably also breeds in water.	eng
58113	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58113	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58114	conservation		It occurs in Kibale National Park and Bwindi National Park (both Uganda) and Kakamega National Park (Kenya).	eng
58114	distribution		This species occurs in western and southwestern Uganda (north to the Budongo Forest), eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and western and northwestern Rwanda. There is an apparently isolated population in western Kenya, but the range is still very poorly known, and the map should be regarded as provisional. Records from Mount Kenya and from Katera south of Mount Kenya are not included here, pending confirmation of their identity. Its altitudinal range is not well known, but it is probably usually above 1,000m asl.	eng
58114	habitat		It is a leaf-litter puddle frog, generally living in the interior of, and on the edge of montane forest. It is often associated with swampy in forest. The eggs are larvae laid in water, generally in swampy situations, where the larvae develop.	eng
58114	population		It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
58114	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitats for agriculture, livestock, wood extraction and human settlements.	eng
58115	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire) and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
58115	distribution		This species occurs in the western Upper Guinea forest zone of West Africa, in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, and western Côte d’Ivoire, up to approximately 1,000m asl.	eng
58115	habitat		It is restricted to the drier parts of primary rainforest, where it is an arboreal species usually found low in the trees. It breeds by larval development in tree holes, and also in empty nuts, snail shells, and other tiny waterbodies. Eggs are attached to the bark of the tree or the top of a shell or similar, above the water, and they then hatch four to five days later and the larvae drop into the water below where they complete their development.	eng
58115	population		It is a common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58115	threats		This species is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.	eng
58116	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58116	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species is known from eastern Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with an isolated population in Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (previously assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynobatrachus calcaratus</span>, but referred to this species by Perret (1988)). It is presumed to occur in Guinea and might also occur in Mali and Burkina Faso. Its distribution is still very imperfectly known, and it might comprise more than one species. Specimens from southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo previously allocated to this species are now assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. rungwensis</span> (Poynton and Broadley 1985). Likewise, specimens from Malawi are now assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. stewartae</span> (Stewart 1967). A specimen from Angola appears to be intermediate between <span style="font-style: italic;">P. gutturosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. rungwensis</span> (Poynton and Haacke 1993).	eng
58116	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a species of closed-canopy forest, gallery forests, and humid wooded savannas, though it is much more typical of forests. It can probably survive in secondary forest. It is usually found in the surroundings of ponds and swamps. It breeds in large temporary ponds and swamps.	eng
58116	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58116	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.	eng
58117	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58117	distribution		This species ranges from the Adamawa Plateau in central Cameroon south to southwestern Congo. There are no records from Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Central African Republic, but it is presumed to occur in these countries. It is a lowland species that avoids the littoral zone, and probably occurs up to at least 1,200m asl.	eng
58117	habitat		It lives in and around raphia swamps, ditches, marshes and small pools in forest (including seasonally flooded forest), degraded secondary habitats (farm bush), and gallery forests in the savannah zone. It breeds in still water.	eng
58117	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58117	threats		It is an adaptable species and it is presumably not seriously affected by forest loss.	eng
58118	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58118	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in southern Ethiopia: near Bore at 2,650m asl, 70km north-west of Kebre Mengist, to the west of the Rift Valley; and near Dorse at 2,600m asl to the east of the Rift Valley. It is likely to be found more widely.	eng
58118	habitat		At Bore, this species was found amongst herbaceous vegetation at the margins of pools in grassy glades surrounded by forest comprised of <em>Schefflera</em> and <em>Hagenia</em> species. At Dorse, it was collected from a heavily grazed marshy area of extensively cultivated habitat supporting only remnants of former forest cover. It breeds in pools and marshes.	eng
58118	population		It was common near Bore in 1975.	eng
58118	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
58119	conservation		Although not recorded from Mount Kenya and the Aberdares National Parks, it is possible that it does occur there, but further survey work is needed to better understand the distribution of this species in the Kenyan highlands.	eng
58119	distribution		This species is currently known from only two montane localities in Kenya: Irangi Forest on the south-eastern slopes of Mount Kenya; and Kimande on the south-eastern slopes of the Aberdare Mountains. It probably occurs a little more widely in the Kenyan highlands (at least on Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountains). Its currently known altitudinal range is approximately 1,900-2,300m asl.	eng
58119	habitat		It appears to be a diurnal species. Males have been found calling on the banks of small streams in montane forest, from under roots or logs, and from holes in the mud. It is probably dependent upon montane forest for its survival. It possibly reproduces in streams, although this requires confirmation.	eng
58119	population		There is little information on its population status since it is a difficult species to locate.	eng
58119	threats		It is possible that the Kimande population is now extinct because of severe modification of the native habitat by local subsistence farming. This is also likely to be a threat to the species elsewhere in its range.	eng
58120	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Kenya, Aberdares and Arusha National Parks.	eng
58120	distribution		This species occurs widely in the highlands of Kenya, with records from the Cherangani Hills in the northwest, the Nyumbeni Hills in the northeast, and from several places in the Central Highlands, including Mount Kenya, the Aberdare Mountains and Thika, among others. There is an apparently isolated population on Mount Meru in northern Tanzania. It is a montane species occurring up to 3,000m asl.	eng
58120	habitat		It is a species of montane meadows and grassland. It is often associated with the edge of waterbodies such as swamps and streams, where it breeds.	eng
58120	population		It is a common species.	eng
58120	threats		Little information is available, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture might impact local populations.	eng
58121	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Kenya and Aberdares National Parks.	eng
58121	distribution		This species is endemic to the Kenyan Highlands east of the Rift Valley. It is known from the Aberdare Mountains and Mount Kenya, south to Nairobi. It occurs up to 3,100m asl.	eng
58121	habitat		It is associated with rain-filled temporary pools in montane grassland, where it presumably breeds.	eng
58121	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58121	threats		There is little information available on threats to this species, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture.	eng
58122	conservation		It occurs in several forest reserves, including the Amani Nature Reserve and in the University of Dar es Salaam's nature reserve at Mazumbai. There is a need for improved management and protection of forest reserves in the Usambara Mountains.	eng
58122	distribution		This species is known only from the East and West Usambara Mountains (including the Magrotto ridge) in north-eastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is 700-1,500m asl.	eng
58122	habitat		It is generally associated with montane and submontane forest, and is also found in rural gardens and in open areas, but generally not far from forest and certainly not in completely open landscapes. Breeding takes place in small streams, marshes and pools, egg masses being attached to rocks or vegetation above the water.	eng
58122	population		It is widespread and common within its small range.	eng
58122	threats		The encroachment and degradation of the forest for agriculture, human settlement and wood is probably adversely affecting this species to some extent, despite the fact that it is somewhat adaptable. Its habitat in the East Usambaras has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
58123	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Kakoum National Park (Ghana), and in several other protected areas.	eng
58123	distribution		This species is confined to the upper Guinea forest zone of West Africa in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, and perhaps even higher.	eng
58123	habitat		It is found only in forest, mostly in primary but sometimes also in secondary forest, and is usually associated with swampy areas, breeding in small forest streams.	eng
58123	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58123	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.	eng
58124	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58124	distribution		This species ranges very widely in eastern and southern Africa from northern Tanzania south to eastern South Africa, west to Namibia and Angola. There is an isolated record from Isiolo in Kenya, northeast of mount Kenya. Because of taxonomic uncertainties, the northern limits of the distribution are unclear. The species might extend even as far as Ethiopia and Sudan. Records of Phrynobatrachus parvulus from Uganda (Kibale Forest-Vonesh (2001), Bwindi Impenetrable Forest-Drewes and Vindum (1994), and Kampala-M. Pickersgill (pers. comm.) might refer to this species.	eng
58124	habitat		It lives in open and wooded savannah, less frequently grassland. It survives in agricultural land. It breeds in permanent, semi-permanent and temporary waters, including marshes, vleis and ponds, slow-flowing streams, the edges of small pans, and shallow stagnant water amongst emergent vegetation.	eng
58124	population		It is a widespread and very common species that is found in huge numbers at breeding aggregations	eng
58124	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58125	conservation		Further research is required to resolve this species' taxonomic status.	eng
58125	distribution		Assuming that this is a valid species, it is known only from Crater Lake at 2,000m asl on Mount Manenguba, in western Cameroon.	eng
58125	habitat		It presumably breeds in Crater Lake, which is relatively shallow. The surrounding habitat is montane grassland.	eng
58125	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records.	eng
58125	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58126	conservation		It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park in Ethiopia, and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
58126	distribution		This species is endemic to Ethiopia, where it is widely distributed in the central and southern parts of the country on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is generally found at 1,300-2,800m asl, possibly down to 800m asl.	eng
58126	habitat		It is found amongst herbaceous vegetation or rocks at the swampy margins of lakes, rivers, streams and temporary pools in both moist grassland and forest clearings. It breeds in lake edges, rivers, streams and pools.	eng
58126	population		It is quite common in Ethiopia wherever suitable habitat is found.	eng
58126	threats		It is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
58127	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58127	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map this species' distribution should be considered as approximate.	eng
58127	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.	eng
58127	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58127	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58128	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58128	distribution		This species ranges very widely in the savannah zone of Africa, from Senegal and Gambia, east to Ethiopia and Eritrea, south to Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. It occurs on the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania). There appear to be no records from Burkina Faso, Chad and Lesotho, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It occurs up to 2,200m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
58128	habitat		It is typically associated with herbaceous vegetation along the margins of shallow marshes, lakes, rivers, streams and pools, both permanent and temporary. It is found in semi-desert scrub, arid and humid savannah, agricultural land, and even at clearings deep within forest. It breeds in temporary ponds and puddles associated with pans, streams or vleis.	eng
58128	population		It is a widespread and often abundant species.	eng
58128	threats		It is an adaptable species that is facing only local threats.	eng
58129	conservation		The taxonomic status of both this species and <em>P. brongersmai</em> needs to be re-examined.	eng
58129	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality, Lambarene, Ogowe, in west-central Gabon, and (on the assumption that <em>Phrynobatrachus brongersmai</em> is a synonym of this species), from Grand Cape Mount in western Liberia.	eng
58129	habitat		This species' habitat and ecological requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.	eng
58129	population		There are no recent records from either country, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range, although recent collections of frogs from southern Guinea might refer to <em>P. brongersmai</em> (Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
58129	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58130	conservation		It occurs in the Ngezi Forest Reserve, which protects the last remaining stand of indigenous rainforest on the island. Continued management and protection of this forest reserve is essential to the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether the species still survives elsewhere on Pemba.	eng
58130	distribution		This species is known only from the northern part of Pemba Island, Tanzania, where it has been recorded from three localities: Machengwe Swamp; Wete; and Ngezi Forest Reserve.	eng
58130	habitat		It lives on the forest floor, and in forest fringes and clearings, and has not been found in areas away from the forest. It breeds in pools, marshes, puddles and roadside ditches in and near tropical evergreen lowland forest.	eng
58130	population		It is a common species in Ngezi Forest Reserve. It is not clear that it survives elsewhere on the island, although intensive surveys have not yet been carried out.	eng
58130	threats		It is probably greatly reduced in population size because of the almost complete loss of indigenous broadleaf lowland forest in Pemba, largely for agriculture. There has been widespread introduction of clove trees throughout the island, and it seems not to be present in clove thicket. It is now intrinsically at risk because of the small size of its remaining distribution.	eng
58131	conservation		It occurs in Garamba National Park.	eng
58131	distribution		This very poorly known species is known only from west-central and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The map is provisional, connecting the three localities from which this species is known: Kunungu, Mauda and Garamba National Park. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58131	habitat		It is known from grassy and shrubby savannah, and from gallery forests in Garamba National Park. Its habitat preferences in the forest zone (e.g., at Kunungu and Mauda) are not clear, though it is suspected to survive well in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). There is no information on its breeding, though it is presumably similar to most other members of the genus, and breeds in water.	eng
58131	population		It is apparently fairly abundant in Garamba National Park.	eng
58131	threats		There is no direct information, but this species is beloved to be adaptable, and not facing any significant threats.	eng
58132	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58132	distribution		This species occurs mainly in upland areas of Angola, Botswana, Zambia, northern and eastern Zimbabwe, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, and southern Tanzania. Records from Uganda (Kibale Forest-Vonesh (2001), Bwindi Impenetrable Forest-Drewes and Vindum (1994), and Kampala-M. Pickersgill (pers. comm.)) are currently assigned to this species (though they might refer to Phrynobatrachus mababiensis), and are mapped here disjunctive from the main distribution. It is likely to occur in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, and in northern Mozambique, but there do not appear to be any records from these countries. Most records are probably from over 1,000m asl, and it probably occurs up to over 2,000m asl.	eng
58132	habitat		It is a species of humid savannahs and grassland, including montane grassland, sometimes penetrating montane forest. It survives well in agricultural land, including in rice paddies. It breeds in grassy pools, puddles and marshes.	eng
58132	population		It is an abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
58132	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58133	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58133	distribution		This species ranges from the Nile Valley of central and southern Sudan, south through the Democratic Republic of Congo to Zambia, Malawi, and northern Mozambique. A record from Ujiji in western Tanzania suggests that the species is more widespread in that country. Records from Cameroon refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus steindachneri</em>.	eng
58133	habitat		It lives in humid savannah, grassland, and rainforest and degraded former forest (farm bush) at medium altitudes in permanently wet sites. It is believed to be able to survive in agricultural land in wet areas. It is particularly associated with flooded grassland, interspersed with reeds, where it presumably breeds.	eng
58133	population		Although it is patchy in its distribution, at suitable locations populations tend to be large, and it can be locally very abundant.	eng
58133	threats		It is probably an adaptable species that is only facing localized threats.	eng
58134	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Taï National Park and Mont Péko National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
58134	distribution		This species ranges from central Sierra Leone, through Liberia and southern Guinea, to south-western Côte d’Ivoire. It probably occurs up to at least 1,000m asl, and perhaps even higher.	eng
58134	habitat		It lives in swampy parts of primary rainforest, and does not survive in secondary habitats. It deposits its eggs terrestrially close to water, and the larvae develop in extremely small puddles.	eng
58134	population		It is a very common species, more so than <em>Phrynobatrachus guineensis</em> with which it has been confused.	eng
58134	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements. Some populations might also be affected by mining activities.	eng
58135	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It occurs in several protected areas, including Tai, Banco, Mont Péko, Mont Sangbé and Kyabobo National Parks, and Haute Dodo Classified Forest.	eng
58135	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species from West Africa occurs in Liberia, southern Guinea, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southwestern Ghana, with separate populations in eastern Ghana, Togo and southern Nigeria.	eng
58135	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a species of primary and sometimes secondary forest. It does not survive outside forest. It breeds in temporary puddles and small ponds.	eng
58135	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is very common in suitable habitats.	eng
58135	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements. Some populations might also be impacted by mining.	eng
58136	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58136	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buala am Uam, in southern Chad. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution should be considered as approximate.	eng
58136	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although its requirements are presumably similar to those of most other members of the genus, and it likewise presumably breeds in water.	eng
58136	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58136	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58137	conservation		Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
58137	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Buddu Forest, in southern Uganda along the western shore of Lake Victoria. The location of the site is not absolutely clear, so attempts to map its distribution should be considered as approximate. It has also been reported from Mount Kenya, but this requires confirmation.	eng
58137	habitat		This species most likely has similar habitat and ecological requirements to those of most other members of the genus, and presumably also breeds in water.	eng
58137	population		The population status of this species is unknown.There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to taxonomic confusion, and due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58137	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58138	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
58138	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (in the vicinity of Upemba National Park), east to southern and central Tanzania (as far as the Udzungwa Mountains), south to Kasungu in central Malawi (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). It has not been recorded from northeastern Zambia but presumably occurs in this country. Most records are probably from above 1,000m asl, and it probably occurs up to 2,000m asl.	eng
58138	habitat		It is a species of miombo woodland savannahs, and open grassland, including montane grassland. It is particularly associated with grassy pools, puddles and marshes where it presumably breeds. It is likely to be able to adapt to altered habitats, although data are lacking.	eng
58138	population		It is a common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58138	threats		There is very little information, but it is unlikely to facing anything other than localized threats.	eng
58139	conservation		It occurs in Garamba National Park.	eng
58139	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo in both the savannah and forest zones: Buta; Garamba National Park; Faradje; Kisangani; and Avakubi. The map joins these localities. There do not appear to be any recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58139	habitat		At Garamba, it is found in a variety of habitats from gallery forest to open grassland, frequenting marshes, ponds and streams. Its habitat preferences in the forest zone are not clear, though it is suspected to survive well in heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). There is no information on its breeding, though it is presumably similar to most other members of the genus, and breeds in water.	eng
58139	population		It is apparently a fairly abundant species in Garamba National Park.	eng
58139	threats		There is no direct information, but this species is believed to be adaptable, and not facing any significant threats.	eng
58140	conservation		A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area by local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of <em>Phrynobatrachus steindachneri</em>. The species might also occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
58140	distribution		This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Nigeria it is known from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it occurs in the Bamenda highlands at Mount Oku, Bangwa, Banyo, the Bamboutos Mountains and Foulassi. It occurs up to 2,100m asl on Mount Oku.	eng
58140	habitat		It is associated with slow-flowing watercourses in montane forests, forest strips, and montane grassland. It can be found in very open situations. It breeds in still water and marshes.	eng
58140	population		It is common, even abundant, within its small range.	eng
58140	threats		It is presumably adversely affected by the ongoing loss of forest and the degradation of montane grassland within its range due to agricultural expansion (particularly overgrazing by livestock), wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
58141	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58141	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Fort Crampel, in the Central African Republic.	eng
58141	habitat		It probably has similar habitat and ecological requirements to those of most other members of the genus, and presumably also breeds in water.	eng
58141	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58141	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58142	conservation		It occurs in Mulenge Forest Reserve, and the type locality is close to Nyika National Park, in which it is also likely to occur.	eng
58142	distribution		This very poorly known species is so far known only from two localities: Rumpi, in northern Malawi; and Mulenge Forest, in south-central Tanzania. It presumably occurs in intervening locations, and perhaps more widely. Its altitudinal range is unclear, though it probably occurs above 1,200m asl.	eng
58142	habitat		It appears to be restricted to marshy areas in dry forest and grassland, especially where there is vegetation in the water. It presumably breeds in marshes and well-vegetated waterbodies.	eng
58142	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58142	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58143	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58143	distribution		This species is known only from an approximate type locality in the massif of Nanzergwa, Burundi, at 2,300-2,500m asl.	eng
58143	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a montane forest species, breeding in water.	eng
58143	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58143	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58144	conservation		It occurs in Taï National Park. Further work is required to resolve its taxonomic validity.	eng
58144	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality, Tai Forest, in south-western Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
58144	habitat		It is believed to be a lowland rainforest species that presumably lives in similar habitats to those of most other members of the genus, and that probably also breeds in water.	eng
58144	population		It has not been found since it was originally collected in 1975. Over 30,000 frogs have been checked in the type locality in recent years, without recording this species, so it is either extremely rare, or not a valid species.	eng
58144	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but if it is a forest-dependent species, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agricultural development, logging and human settlements.	eng
58145	conservation		It probably occurs in all of the forested protected areas within its range.	eng
58145	distribution		This species occurs in Sierra Leone, southern Guinea, Liberia, western and southwestern Côte d’Ivoire and Boi Tano Forest Reserve and Draw River Forest Reserve in Ghana. Records from Cape Three Points Forest Reserve in southwestern Ghana require confirmation (M.O. Rödel pers. comm.). It was for a long time known only from the type locality, N'Zébéla and N'Zérékoré, in southern Guinea until the synonymy with P. alticola was confirmed. It occurs up to 1,600m asl.	eng
58145	habitat		It is a species found in leaf-litter of secondary forests with a broken canopy, tree fall gaps in primary forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) and occasionally in moist savannah. It breeds by direct development. The eggs are laid on the ground, and the larvae develop with the gelatinous mass.	eng
58145	population		It is an extremely common species.	eng
58145	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, it is probably affected by agricultural expansion, logging and human settlements when these lead to serious opening up of the habitat.	eng
58146	conservation		This species occurs in Matipa Forest Reserve in the Misuku Mountains. Its taxonomic status requires review.	eng
58146	distribution		This species occurs in the Ukinga and Rungwe Mountains of southern Tanzania, and in the Misuku Mountains and at Nchenachena in northern Malawi, and at Maroka (in the highlands south-west of Zomba) in southern Malawi. It has recently been found much further to the north in the Uluguru Mountains of eastern Tanzania. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between the currently known sites. It is a montane species, probably occurring above 1,000m asl, and perhaps ranging to over 2,000m asl in places.	eng
58146	habitat		It appears to be a species of montane forest, forest edges, and open montane grassland. It apparently lives in marshy areas in open situations, or at the edge of montane forest, and presumably breeds in marshes and associated pools.	eng
58146	population		There is very little information on its population status. It has only seldom been recorded, presumably due to confusion with <em>Phrynobatrachus parvulus</em> and <em>P. mababiensis</em>.	eng
58146	threats		The main threats to this species are agricultural expansion, wood extraction and expanding human settlements, which are most likely adversely affecting it by causing the ongoing loss of forest and degradation of montane grassland within its range.	eng
58147	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park and in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve.	eng
58147	distribution		This species is known only the southern and eastern Udzungwa Mountains, northern Uluguru Mountains, and the Nguu Mountains in eastern Tanzania, generally occurring above 900m asl. It presumably occurs in some other mountains of the Eastern Arc range.	eng
58147	habitat		It inhabits submontane and montane forest, where it is associated with mountain streams. Its breeding biology is unknown, though it presumably takes place by larval development in small streams. It has not been found in degraded habitats.	eng
58147	population		It is regularly encountered within its small range.	eng
58147	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.	eng
58148	conservation		It has been recorded from Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kibale National Park (Uganda), and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Uganda).	eng
58148	distribution		This species occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, western Rwanda, north-western Burundi and south-western Uganda. It probably occurs mainly above 1,500m asl, ranging to at least 2,300m asl.	eng
58148	habitat		It is a leaf-litter species of mountain forest that is particularly associated with swamps and rivulets. The eggs are laid, and the larvae develop, in these waterbodies. It occurs only in undisturbed habitats.	eng
58148	population		In Uganda, the species is recorded as being common in the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, but uncommon in Kibale Forest.	eng
58148	threats		Little information is available, though it is likely to be impacted by loss of habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock), wood extraction, and human settlements.	eng
58149	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas including Taï National Park, Haute Dodo Classified Forest, and Banco National Park in Côte d'Ivoire, and Kakoum National Park in Ghana.	eng
58149	distribution		This species is known only from south-western and south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire, and from south-western Ghana. It might occur in Liberia, but there have not been any records so far.	eng
58149	habitat		It is a species of primary forest, and is not found in secondary forest. It deposits eggs on dried-up puddles just before the rains, and the larvae develop in very small puddles.	eng
58149	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitat.	eng
58149	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
58150	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be reassessed.	eng
58150	distribution		This species is known only from its approximate type locality of Boutry, in south-western Ghana.	eng
58150	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements, which are assumed to be similar to those of most other members of the genus. This species therefore also probably breeds in water.	eng
58150	population		There have been no recent records of it, presumably due to taxonomic confusion.	eng
58150	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58151	conservation		It might also occur in the Bafut-Ngemba Forest Reserve.	eng
58151	distribution		This species is restricted to the mountains of eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Nigeria it is known from the Obudu Plateau, and in Cameroon it occurs in the Bamboutos Mountains, the Bamileke Plateau (at Bangwa), Mount Manenguba, Mount Kupe, and the Rumpi Hills.	eng
58151	habitat		It lives in and around small streams, roadside ditches, raphia swamps and marshes, surrounded by submontane and montane forest and grassland. It can survive in altered habitats. It breeds in still water and marshes.	eng
58151	population		This is a common species within its range.	eng
58151	threats		It is an adaptable species, not at serious risk from habitat change.	eng
58152	conservation		It occurs in Korup National Park (Cameroon) and Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
58152	distribution		This species occurs from southwestern Cameroon south to Monte Alen in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni). It probably occurs up to over 1,000m asl. Records from the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) refer to Dimorphognathus africanus.	eng
58152	habitat		It lives in the vicinity of streams in forest, and only survives in secondary habitats at higher elevations. They lay eggs on leaves close to water, but not above water. The tadpole falls to the ground and develops on land (it never enters water). The tadpole does not have a fully developed alimentary canal, and so it does not eat, but instead is dependent on its yolk. The alimentary canal is only developed and functional at the time that the tadpole develops into a frog. This process is referred to as semi-direct development.	eng
58152	population		It is a common species.	eng
58152	threats		It is presumably threatened by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58153	conservation		All populations recorded to date have been found in protected areas.	eng
58153	distribution		This species occurs only in the southern part of the Hottentots Holland and Kogelberg Mountains complex, and the Klein River Mountains, in the south-western part of Western Cape Province, South Africa, from 200-1,800m asl.	eng
58153	habitat		It inhabits mountain fynbos heathland, and is restricted to areas with high rainfall (2,000-3,000mm of rain per year). It breeds in shallow streams and seepages.	eng
58153	population		It is a common species.	eng
58153	threats		The main threats to this species are the spread of alien species (pines in particular), afforestation, construction of dams, and too frequent fires. However, these threats are believed to be relatively minor.	eng
58154	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58154	distribution		This species ranges widely through the equatorial forest zone of central Africa from southeastern Nigeria and Cameroon south through Gabon to the Mayombe region of western Democratic Republic of Congo, and east to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are uncertainties as to its distributional limits, especially along the southern border of its range. There do not appear to be records from Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
58154	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It is not known how adaptable it is to alteration of its habitat, but it can probably survive in secondary habitats providing that some form of canopy cover, or at least shade, remains. It breeds in still water, and has predatory tadpoles.	eng
58154	population		It is a very common species where it occurs. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako in Cameroon.	eng
58154	threats		It is presumably affected, at least locally, by severe forest loss such as clear felling, and the expansion of open agricultural systems. This species is commonly kept in captivity as a pet, but international trade is not believed to be a threat to its populations. Overall, this species is not seriously threatened, since much of its habitat remains intact.	eng
58155	conservation		Its taxonomic status requires clarification.	eng
58155	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Mauda (the type locality) on the upper reaches of the Ubangi River in the extreme north-east of the country; and Kotili, near Buta, in the northern Congo basin. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
58155	habitat		This species is presumed to be ecologically similar to <em>Hymenochirus boettgeri</em>, and to therefore be a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It presumably breeds in still waterbodies.	eng
58155	population		There is little information on this species' population status, but over 400 specimens have been collected at Kotili.	eng
58155	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58156	conservation	Measey, J., Tinsley, R. & Beier, M., 2006	It is known to occur just outside the borders of the Lac Téle Community Reserve (LTCR) in the Congo, operated by the Wildlife Conservation Society (Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It is likely to occur within the Reserve.	eng
58156	distribution	Measey, J., Tinsley, R. & Beier, M., 2006	This species is known from the type locality north of the mouth of the Congo River, in extreme western Democratic Republic of the Congo, northeast along the border with Congo as far north as the border with the Central African Republic, and from the Likouala Region, Republic of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Congo</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It may occur more widely.	eng
58156	habitat	Measey, J., Tinsley, R. & Beier, M., 2006	The two individuals reported from the Congo were found in amplexus in flooded forest (Jackson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It is presumed to be ecologically similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenochirus boettgeri</span>, in other words, a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers.	eng
58156	population	Measey, J., Tinsley, R. & Beier, M., 2006	The population status of this species is unknown. It was recently reported from two specimens in the Republic of Congo (Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58156	threats	Measey, J., Tinsley, R. & Beier, M., 2006	There is no direct information on threats to this species. There is significant trade of this species as a pet, although it is not thought to be a major threat at present.	eng
58157	conservation		Its taxonomic validity requires further investigation.	eng
58157	distribution		This species is known only with certainty from its type locality, "Fernand-Vaz" (Boulenger 1906), on the coast of central Gabon.	eng
58157	habitat		It is presumed to be ecologically similar to <em>Hymenochirus boettgeri</em>, and to therefore be a water-dependent species, generally found in still, shaded water in lowland rainforest, and in pools by slow-flowing rivers. It presumably breeds in still waterbodies.	eng
58157	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no subsequent records of it since its discovery, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58157	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58158	conservation	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ross MacCulloch, Claude Gascon, Manfred Beier, 2009	It occurs in several protected areas throughout range, including Canaima National Park in Venezuela.	eng
58158	distribution	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ross MacCulloch, Claude Gascon, Manfred Beier, 2009	This species occurs in eastern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and northern and central Brazil. Disjunctive records from Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor and Reserva Extrativista do Alto Juruá in western Acre State in western Brazil might refer to another species. Despite its wide distribution, it is known from only a few records, possibly due to lack of herpetological work within its range. Venezuelan specimens were previously reported as <em>Pipa aspera</em> (La Marca, 1992). It is a lowland species, occurring up to 860m asl.	eng
58158	habitat	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ross MacCulloch, Claude Gascon, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is an aquatic species living in permanent and temporary waterbodies in tropical rainforest, including ponds, puddles and roadside ditches. These animals can cross land when their ponds dry out. Direct development takes place on the dorsum of the adult in water. It is apparently adaptable to human disturbance (although a population in eastern Venezuela disappeared after a road was asphalted).	eng
58158	population	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ross MacCulloch, Claude Gascon, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is a common species.	eng
58158	threats	Abraham Mijares, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Ross MacCulloch, Claude Gascon, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is probably not seriously threatened, but local populations are probably impacted by logging and fire.	eng
58159	conservation	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R., Gaucher, P., Beier, M. & Kunz, K., 2004	The range of this species includes one protected area within each country. More research into the species' extent of occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed.	eng
58159	distribution	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R., Gaucher, P., Beier, M. & Kunz, K., 2004	This species is known from western French Guiana, eastern Suriname and central Guyana. It probably occurs more widely. It has been recorded from 100-300 m asl.	eng
58159	habitat	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R., Gaucher, P., Beier, M. & Kunz, K., 2004	An aquatic frog found in calm areas of small streams amongst the leaf-litter. It has also been recorded from deep stagnant rock pools. The eggs are laid on the back of the female and develop directly on the back. It has not been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
58159	population	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R., Gaucher, P., Beier, M. & Kunz, K., 2004	It is not thought to be a common species.	eng
58159	threats	Reynolds, R., Hoogmoed, M., MacCulloch, R., Gaucher, P., Beier, M. & Kunz, K., 2004	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
58160	conservation	Cristina Arzabe, Gabriel Skuk, Manfred Beier, 2008	It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
58160	distribution	Cristina Arzabe, Gabriel Skuk, Manfred Beier, 2008	This species occurs widely in eastern and northeastern Brazil in the following States: Ceará, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, and Minas Gerais, and presumably also Rio Grande do Norte and Sergipe.	eng
58160	habitat	Cristina Arzabe, Gabriel Skuk, Manfred Beier, 2008	It is an aquatic species that occurs in permanent waterbodies in dry "Caatinga" savannah and "agreste" transition vegetation between "Caatinga" and Atlantic Forest. It breeds in water, the eggs being carried on the back of the female, with the larvae developing in the water. It can be found in fish farms, where it can be a pest.	eng
58160	population	Cristina Arzabe, Gabriel Skuk, Manfred Beier, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat, but such habitats are scarce through much of its range.	eng
58160	threats	Cristina Arzabe, Gabriel Skuk, Manfred Beier, 2008	The major threats are probably related to habitat loss due to livestock grazing and agriculture, in particular contamination of breeding ponds as a result of their being used by livestock. Pollution of waterbodies by pesticides might also be a problem.	eng
58161	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Manfred Beier, 2009	It has been recorded from the Reserva Canclón Hidrológica in Panama, but additional protection of the wetland habitat of this species is needed. Further research is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
58161	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Manfred Beier, 2009	This species has been recorded from the Río Ucurgantí and Río Canclón of Darien Province, Panama, and tentatively from Río Zulia in Norte de Santander, in northern Colombia. It occurs up to 30 masl.	eng
58161	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is an aquatic species restricted to swamps and other suitable wetlands. The eggs presumably develop on the back of the female, either by larval or direct development.	eng
58161	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Manfred Beier, 2009	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
58161	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Manfred Beier, 2009	The major threat is habitat loss and destruction of forests surrounding the wetlands (due to logging, subsistence agriculture, and livestock farming); water pollution is also a threat.	eng
58162	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Jesús Manzanilla, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is not known from any protected areas. The introduced populations need to be controlled to prevent its expansion into the Orinoco river basin.	eng
58162	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Jesús Manzanilla, Manfred Beier, 2009	This species occurs mainly in northern Venezuela, centred on the Lake Maracaibo Basin. Its range includes a small part of northeastern Colombia. It has been introduced into the Lake Valencia Basin in northern Venezuela, posing concern about its possible expansion to the south into other river basins, such as the Orinoco. In Venezuela, its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 300m asl.	eng
58162	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Jesús Manzanilla, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is an aquatic species living in lakes, ponds, and marshes in flat, open areas, including grassland and flooded habitats. It is able to cross land. The eggs are carried on the back of the female, and the larvae emerge into water, where they develop.	eng
58162	population	Enrique La Marca, Jesús Manzanilla, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is a very common species. Its introduced population is expanding into previously unoccupied areas in central Venezuela.	eng
58162	threats	Enrique La Marca, Jesús Manzanilla, Manfred Beier, 2009	There are no known threats. It is controlled as a pest, but this has a negligible impact on its populations.	eng
58163	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Manfred Beier, 2009	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58163	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Manfred Beier, 2009	This species is widespread in the Amazon basin of South America in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. It is also present at scattered localities in southern and eastern Trinidad Island (in Trinidad and Tobago). It is a lowland species found below 400m asl.	eng
58163	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Manfred Beier, 2009	Aquatic species that lives in slow flowing watercourses, backwater of streams, and ponds and pools in tropical rainforest, hiding under submerged leaf-litter. They also occur in flooded forest. They seldom venture onto land, where they move clumsily. Direct development takes place on the dorsum of the adult.	eng
58163	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is common throughout its range.	eng
58163	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Débora Silvano, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, Manfred Beier, 2009	It is not seriously threatened, but local populations are probably impacted by habitat loss and degradation due to logging, agricultural expansion, and human settlement.	eng
58164	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Manfred Beier, 2008	It occurs in at least one conservation unit.	eng
58164	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Manfred Beier, 2008	This species is known from widely scattered localities in the Amazonian basin of Brazil, Colombia and Peru. There is also a record from French Guiana (housed at KUH), although it needs to be verified.	eng
58164	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Manfred Beier, 2008	It is an aquatic species. It occurs in permanent waterbodies associated with salt licks in the tropical rainforest. The eggs presumably develop on the back of the female, either by larval or by direct development.	eng
58164	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Manfred Beier, 2008	It is possibly abundant but it is poorly known.	eng
58164	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Miguel Trefaut Rodrigues, Manfred Beier, 2008	Forest destruction and international trade are both threats to this species.	eng
58165	conservation		It has not been confirmed from any protected areas, and there are very few within its range.	eng
58165	distribution		This species ranges from southern Guinea-Bissau, through western Guinea, to southern Sierra Leone.	eng
58165	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, and is usually found in still water, milky, silt-laden water, shaded by trees in lowland forest, including secondary forest. However, it has also been found in small, very slow-moving rocky streams, and in water in agricultural land, providing that the water remains shaded. It can thrive in newly created aquatic habitats, which it readily colonises overland. It avoids waterbodies with large fish populations. It breeds in water and has predatory tadpoles.	eng
58165	population		It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
58165	threats		The main threat might be harvesting for local human consumption. The animals are caught with whicker trays. Removal of shade trees and introduction of predatory fish might also be threats, at least locally. However, it is thought that the species is not seriously threatened.	eng
58166	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58166	distribution		This species' distribution is very poorly known. There are records from: Garamba National Park in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa in western Democratic Republic of Congo; northeastern Angola; several localities covering most of Gabon; Point Noire in Congo; mainland Equatorial Guinea; and Longyi, Akok, Efulen, Bipindi, Nkoemvone and Ebolowa in Cameroon south of the Sanaga River. We follow Loumont (1983) in provisionally assigning records to the west and north of the Sanaga River to Silurana tropicalis. The distribution map should be considered as provisional.	eng
58166	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, that is found in small water holes in lowland rainforest around 1m deep and 1-2m in diameter. It can tolerate some habitat disturbance, but require canopy cover over its ponds. It has filter-feeding tadpoles.	eng
58166	population		It is a very abundant species locally.	eng
58166	threats		It is presumably affected, at least locally, by severe forest loss such as clear felling, and the expansion of open agricultural systems.	eng
58167	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58167	distribution		This West Africa species ranges from Senegal to western Cameroon north and west of the Sanaga River. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). We follow Loumont (1983) in provisionally assigning records to the east and south of this range to Silurana epitropicalis. However, the distributional limits of both species require further clarification. There do not appear to be any records from Mali, but it might occur in the extreme south of this country.	eng
58167	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, associated with secondary and primary forest, and degraded former forest (farm bush), living in all kinds of stagnant waters. It enters streams and rivers during dry season, and breeds in temporary pools during the wet season. It is associated with gallery forests in the savannah zone.	eng
58167	population		It is an extremely common species in the forest zone of West Africa.	eng
58167	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is harvested for human consumption, which might have a local impact on certain populations.	eng
58168	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
58168	distribution		This species is known only from highland areas of western Cameroon, in particular from Mount Manenguba and the Bamileke and Bamenda Plateaus. Specific localities include Mount Manenguba (1,900m asl), the Mifi-Noun River near Galim (1,100m asl), Mbouda (1,400m asl), Tadu (near Mount Oku), Ber, Nkoutoupi, Nchoupa, and Bangourain. It is probable that specimens from Manengole (600-700m asl) and Bangwa (1,400-1,500m asl) belong to this species.	eng
58168	habitat		It is water-dependent and has been found in a shallow crater lake overgrown with grass, in a swamp, and in artificial fishponds, generally in areas of montane grassland and pastureland. It breeds in still water, and migrates for short distances over land outside the breeding season.	eng
58168	population		It is a poorly known species, but it has been found to be abundant at least on Mount Manenguba and at Galim. It is probably generally abundant in the Cameroonian highlands.	eng
58168	threats		It is harvested locally, and some of its habitats might be under threat from expanding agriculture, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlements. However, it does appear to be capable of colonising artificial habitats, and it can co-exist with at least some introduced fish species.	eng
58169	conservation		The distribution of this species is still very poorly known, and it has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, but it is almost certainly present in several.	eng
58169	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the four localities: Longyi, north of Kribi, on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon; Mekambo in north-central Gabon; Makokou in northeastern Gabon; and Bouchia in southern Central African Republic. It no doubt occurs elsewhere, but because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic Xenopus species, probably some records of this species have been assigned to Xenopus fraseri. The map joins the three known localities on the assumption that it occurs in the intervening area. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea and Congo, and possibly in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58169	habitat		It is a water-dependent species found in small water holes and shady swamps (including pools only 200m from the sea at the type locality) in lowland forest. It is clearly adaptable, since it has also been found in swamps at the edge of a village. It breeds in still water. In Cameroon, it occurs in the same water holes as Silurana epitropicalis, but the two species have different diurnal activities, X. andrei being active on the water surface at night, and S. epitropicalis being active in the daytime. In Bouchia it is sympatric with X. pygmaeus, X. muelleri and S. epitropicalis.	eng
58169	population		Very little information is available, but many specimens were found at Bouchia.	eng
58169	threats		In view of its wide distribution and likely adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.	eng
58170	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Elgon, Lake Nakuru and Marsabit National Parks, and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
58170	distribution		This species has been recorded with certainty from the highlands of Kenya, from Mount Elgon in the west, to Marsabit in the north, and Nairobi in the south. It occurs in the Rift Valley at Lakes Naivasha and Nakuru. There are records from Tanzania at: Bermi near Babati; Serengeti National Park; and Njombe in the south of the country. It seems likely that this species replaces Xenopus muelleri in upland areas through most of East Africa, and many records previously assigned to X. muelleri in the inland parts of East Africa might well refer to this species. It is likely to occur in Uganda. The current map should be considered provisional. It occurs above 1,000m asl, especially above 1,800m asl, and has been found up to 2,400m asl, probably higher.	eng
58170	habitat		It is a water-dependent species associated with high-altitude grassland and moorland, including pastureland. It does not occur in forest. It lives and breeds in pools and slow-flowing streams.	eng
58170	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
58170	threats		It is unlikely to be threatened, since it is adaptable, and its habitats are not significantly threatened.	eng
58171	conservation		The distribution of this species is very poorly known, and it is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58171	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mawa, halfway between Yokadouma and Moloundou in the upper Boumba Valley in south-eastern Cameroon. It probably occurs more widely in the central African forest belt, but there have been no additional records, presumably because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic <em>Xenopus</em> species. It is likely that some records of this species have been assigned to <em>X. fraseri</em>.	eng
58171	habitat		This is a water-dependent species in a lowland rainforest region. Its ecology is likely to be similar to that of <em>X. fraseri</em>, which is an adaptable species.	eng
58171	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58171	threats		It is unlikely to be facing any particular threats, particularly given its likely adaptability, and the fact that it is almost certainly more widespread than is currently known.	eng
58172	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58172	distribution		This species has its range centred on the Ethiopian Plateau (where it occurs on both sides of the Rift Valley and it the Valley itself) and Eritrea, and it is reputed to occur in the Lake Turkana region of northwestern Kenya and immediately adjacent Sudan. Its altitudinal range is 820-2,745m asl; records up to 3,500m asl are unsubstantiated.	eng
58172	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, living in permanent water in a wide variety of habitats, including both montane and lowland forest, montane grassland, <em>Acacia</em> woodland and arid savannah. It breeds in permanent, still and slow-flowing waterbodies.	eng
58172	population		It is common to abundant in many localities.	eng
58172	threats		The most likely threats are environmental degradation and aquatic pollution resulting from human activities. However, it is a resilient species, and is not seriously threatened.	eng
58173	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58173	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon to eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and south to northern Angola. It also occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Records from northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, up to the border with Uganda, probably refer to Xenopus pygmaeus. Records from central and southern Angola (Ruas 1996) require confirmation.	eng
58173	habitat		It is a water-dependent species of lowland rainforest, living and breeding in pools, and sometimes in slow-flowing streams. It can tolerate habitat degradation, providing that shade is provided by overhanging trees. It has filter-feeding tadpoles.	eng
58173	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
58173	threats		In view of its wide distribution and adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.	eng
58174	conservation	Richard Tinsley, Leslie Minter, John Measey, Kim Howell, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Antonio Romano, 2009	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58174	conservation	Tinsley, R., Minter, L., Measey, J., Howell, K., Veloso, A., Núñez, H. & Romano, A., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58174	distribution	Richard Tinsley, Leslie Minter, John Measey, Kim Howell, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Antonio Romano, 2009	The range of this species is unclear following the removal from <em>Xenopus victorianus</em> from <em>X. laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals from southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique southwards (including in almost all of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland) belong to <em>Xenopus laevis</em>. In addition we treat all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE as belonging to <em>X. laevis sudanensis</em>. Records from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this <em>X. victorianus</em>.  This species ranges from sea-level up to 3,000m asl.<br/><br/>It is introduced in several places outside its native range, including the USA where it was first introduced in the 1930s and 1940s for laboratory use and later as an aquarium pet. It was introduced and established locally in California (San Diego, Orange, Riverside, Los Angeles, Ventura, and Imperial counties) and Arizona (Tucson area) (Stebbins 1985, Lafferty ad Page 1997). It has been recorded from, but it is not established in Colorado. It has also been introduced to Chile (introduced in the 1970s to central Chile, Valparaiso to Concepción Provinces), parts of the United Kingdom (extant in south Wales and presumed extirpated from the Isle of Wight [not mapped here], and a number of occasional records from other locations [not mapped], the Departments of Deux-Sèvres and Maine et Loire in France and Java (Indonesia) [not mapped here]. It is introduced also in the Lage stream, about 20 km W of Lisbon, Portugal (Rebelo <em>et al</em>., 2007) and there is a large invasive population in Sicily (Lillo <em>et al</em>. 2005; Faraone <em>et al</em>. 2008) [not mapped here]. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Sudan, but there do not appear to be confirmed records from this country. Records from Congo refer to <em>Xenopus petersii</em>. Its range is also extending in parts of Africa, often by introduction because it is used for live bait, and it has spread extensively in South Africa. It occurs up to 3,000m asl.	eng
58174	distribution	Tinsley, R., Minter, L., Measey, J., Howell, K., Veloso, A., Núñez, H. & Romano, A., 2008	The range of this species is unclear following the removal from <em>Xenopus victorianus</em> from <em>X. laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals from southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique southwards (including in almost all of Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland) belong to <em>X. laevis</em>. In addition we treat all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE as belonging to <em>X. l. sudanensis</em>. Records from Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this <em>X. victorianus</em>. There is an isolated record from Gabon (M. Beier pers. comm. January 2006). <br/><br/>It is introduced in several places outside its native range, including the USA where it was first introduced in the 1930s and 1940s for laboratory use and later as an aquarium pet. It was introduced and established locally in California (San Diego, Orange, Riverside, Los Angeles, Ventura, and Imperial counties) and Arizona (Tucson area) (Stebbins 1985, Lafferty ad Page 1997). It has been recorded from, but it is not established in Colorado. It has also been introduced to Chile (introduced in the 1970s to central Chile, Valparaiso to Concepción Provinces), parts of the United Kingdom (extant in south Wales and presumed extirpated from the Isle of Wight [not mapped here], and a number of occasional records from other locations [not mapped], the Departments of Deux-Sèvres and Maine et Loire in France and Java (Indonesia) [not mapped here]. It is introduced also in the Lage stream, about 20 km W of Lisbon, Portugal (Rebelo <em>et al</em>. 2007) and there is a large invasive population in Sicily (Lillo <em>et al</em>. 2005, Faraone <em>et al</em>. 2008) [not mapped here]. It is presumed to occur in southwestern Sudan, but there do not appear to be confirmed records from this country (there is an uncertain record assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">X. l. sudanensis</span> from Jebel Marrah, Sudan (M. Beier pers. comm. January 2006) [not mapped here]). Records from Congo refer to <em>X. petersii</em>. Its range is also extending in parts of Africa, often by introduction because it is used for live bait, and it has spread extensively in South Africa. This species ranges from sea-level up to 3,000 m asl.	eng
58174	habitat	Richard Tinsley, Leslie Minter, John Measey, Kim Howell, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.	eng
58174	habitat	Tinsley, R., Minter, L., Measey, J., Howell, K., Veloso, A., Núñez, H. & Romano, A., 2008	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.	eng
58174	population	Richard Tinsley, Leslie Minter, John Measey, Kim Howell, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is an extremely abundant, and often increasing, species.	eng
58174	population	Tinsley, R., Minter, L., Measey, J., Howell, K., Veloso, A., Núñez, H. & Romano, A., 2008	It is an extremely abundant, and often increasing, species.	eng
58174	threats	Richard Tinsley, Leslie Minter, John Measey, Kim Howell, Alberto Veloso, Herman Núñez, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is very successful and adaptable, and is an invasive species in many areas. Recent studies show that it is not impacted by the herbicide atrazine. Chytridiomycosis was detected in museum specimens of this species dating back to 1938, and it is hypothesized that the international trade in this species might have introduced this fungal disease to other regions of the world. The disease does not appear to have any detrimental affect on populations of this species.	eng
58174	threats	Tinsley, R., Minter, L., Measey, J., Howell, K., Veloso, A., Núñez, H. & Romano, A., 2008	It is very successful and adaptable, and is an invasive species in many areas. Recent studies show that it is not impacted by the herbicide atrazine. Chytridiomycosis was detected in museum specimens of this species dating back to 1938, and it is hypothesized that the international trade in this species might have introduced this fungal disease to other regions of the world. The disease does not appear to have any detrimental affect on populations of this species.	eng
58175	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More data are needed in order to determine the conservation status and requirements of this species.	eng
58175	distribution		This species is known only from two sites in the mountains east of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, between Dodola and Aselle (the type locality) at 2,650m asl, and in the Arussi Mountains at 2,500m asl. It could be more widespread.	eng
58175	habitat		It is a water-dependent species. At the type locality it was found in pools, streams and marshes surrounded by grassy clearings derived from montane forest. At its other site, it was found in a stream flowing through cultivated land. It is perhaps formerly a montane forest species, with only remnant populations surviving due to habitat loss, but this has not been confirmed. It presumably breeds in water, like other species of <em>Xenopus</em>.	eng
58175	population		There is very little information: only a few specimens are known.	eng
58175	threats		The most likely threats to this species are forest loss, environmental degradation and aquatic pollution resulting from human activities such as shifting agriculture and smallholder farming.	eng
58176	conservation		A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving community management of the area involving the local villages. This project needs to take into account the conservation needs of this species. A captive-breeding programme should be considered in view of the risk of a catastrophic collapse of the population if a predatory fish species is introduced to the lake.	eng
58176	distribution		This species is endemic to Lake Oku at 2,200m asl on Mount Oku, western Cameroon. It might occur elsewhere in the Cameroon highlands, but there are few lakes with ecological characteristics similar to Lake Oku.	eng
58176	habitat		Lake Oku is a shallow, eutrophic lake completely surrounded by montane rainforest. This species is entirely water-dependent, quite inept on land, and is the main aquatic vertebrate in the lake, filling the ecological niche of a fish.	eng
58176	population		It is abundant in Lake Oku.	eng
58176	threats		The main threat to this species would appear to be the risk of introduction of a predatory fish species into Lake Oku, which could wipe out this restricted-range species. Such a scenario is highly plausible given the high protein demands of surrounding communities.	eng
58177	conservation		Its range includes many protected areas.	eng
58177	distribution		This species appears to occur in three separate populations: from eastern Côte d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso eastward across Sudan-Guinea zone to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Sudan, northern Uganda, and perhaps northwestern Kenya; from the Kenyan coast, south to northeastern South Africa, Swaziland, northern Botswana, northeastern Namibia, and southeastern Angola; and from the Ennedi in northeastern Chad. It seems likely that many records from the inland parts of Tanzania currently assigned to this species should in fact be referred to Xenopus borealis, and the distribution maps probably records this species as occurring much too widely in this country. It is mainly a lowland species, but probably occurs up to at least 2,000m asl.	eng
58177	habitat		It is a water-dependent species, using both temporary and permanent ponds, and also streams and rivers in the dry season. In West Africa it occurs mainly in the dry savannah and northern humid savannah zones, preferring drier condition to Xenopus laevis. It is found in agricultural and other altered habitats. It seldom occurs in forests. It also prefers hotter conditions compared with X. laevis, and uses muddier waters. It breeds in still water pools	eng
58177	population		It is a common species.	eng
58177	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
58178	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58178	distribution		This species ranges from southern Gabon, Congo, Angola and extreme northern Namibia, east to southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, extreme western Zimbabwe and northern Botswana. Records from Tanzania require confirmation.	eng
58178	habitat		It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.	eng
58178	population		It is an extremely abundant species.	eng
58178	threats		It is very successful and adaptable, and is invasive in many areas.	eng
58179	conservation		It might occur in the Garamba and Virunga National Parks in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58179	distribution		This species ranges from Bagandou, Etoi and Bouchia in southern Central African Republic, east to northeastern Democratic Republic Congo as far as Semliki in western Uganda. It presumably occurs in northern Congo, but this has not yet been confirmed. Because of the difficulty in identifying cryptic Xenopus species, probably some records of this species have been assigned to Xenopus fraseri. This probably includes at least some X. fraseri records from Garamba and Virunga National Parks.	eng
58179	habitat		It is a water-dependent species found in small water holes, pools and shady swamps in lowland forest. It is clearly adaptable, since it has also been found in swamps at the edge of a village. It breeds in still water. In Bouchia it is sympatric with X. andrei, X. muelleri and S. epitropicalis.	eng
58179	population		It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
58179	threats		In view of its wide distribution and likely adaptability to altered habitats, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened. It is harvested for human consumption, and this might have an impact on local populations.	eng
58180	conservation		It is not know from any well protected areas.	eng
58180	distribution		This species is known only from near Bundibugyo in Semliki Valley in western Uganda, at the foot of the Ruwenzori Mountains at 700m asl, and from Budongo Forest, east of Lake Albert, in western Uganda. It presumably occurs elsewhere, including in nearby Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58180	habitat		It is assumed to be a water-dependent species in lowland rainforest. However, the type locality is a pool in a banana plantation, where it lives together with <em>Xenopus pygmaeus</em>. It appears that, like <em>X. fraseri</em>, it can survive in degraded habitats, provided that the pools which it requires for breeding in are shaded.	eng
58180	population		It is a very poorly known species, and there is no information on its population status.	eng
58180	threats		There is very little direct information on threats to this species. It probably cannot withstand complete opening up of its habitat, and it is likely also to be harvested locally for human consumption.	eng
58181	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda), Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).	eng
58181	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains bordering the Albertine Rift in southwestern Uganda, western and northern Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It ranges as far north as Kibale Forest in Uganda. Records from Tanzania are now considered to be doubtful. It is a high-altitude species, descending as low as 1,200m asl.	eng
58181	habitat		It is a water-dependent species of highland swamps and lakes, often occurring in small and large ponds, very rarely in rivers, and occasionally in streams. It is not a forest species, and it is adaptable, living in high-altitude grassland and agricultural areas, where it does not require shade. However, it is not normally in very open water where fish are present. At the lower elevational limit of its range in the Kibale Forest, where it is rare, it is perhaps more of a forest species.	eng
58181	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
58181	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened, although harvesting for human consumption might have a local impact.	eng
58182	conservation		It occurs in the Virunga National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), Volcanoes National Park (Rwanda), Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (Uganda) and Kibale National Park (Uganda).	eng
58182	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains bordering the Albertine Rift in southwestern Uganda, western Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It ranges as far north as Kibale Forest in Uganda. It probably occurs in northwestern Burundi. It is known to occur from 1,200 up to 2,300m asl.	eng
58182	habitat		It is a water-dependent species of highland swamps and lake margins, often occurring in small and large ponds, ditches and streams. It is a very adaptable species, found in both forest and in high-altitude grassland and agricultural areas, where it does not require shade. It is replaced by Xenopus pygmaeus in lowland forest.	eng
58182	population		It is a very abundant species.	eng
58182	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not significantly threatened, although harvesting for human consumption might have a local impact.	eng
58183	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58183	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Lubile, in Pangi Territory in east-central Democratic Republic of Congo, at 700m asl.	eng
58183	habitat		It is likely to be associated with streams and rivers, in which it presumably breeds, in lowland rainforest.	eng
58183	population		There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.	eng
58183	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58184	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58184	distribution		This species ranges widely in eastern and southern Africa, occurring mainly in upland areas (especially in the tropics) from Eritrea and Ethiopia south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, and Angola. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m asl in South Africa 2,800m asl in East Africa and 3,100m asl in Ethiopia. It presumably occurs in extreme southern Namibia and in the Caprivi Strip, but there do not appear to be any records from this country. A record from Landiani in northern coastal Kenya requires confirmation.	eng
58184	habitat		It requires permanent water surrounded by dense herbaceous vegetation, in grassland, forests, savannah and agricultural land. It prefers shallow water, including ponds, streams and rivers, and breeds in still water and on the edges of streams.	eng
58184	population		It is very common in many sites throughout its range.	eng
58184	threats		It is a widespread and adaptable species that is facing only localized threats.	eng
58185	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas other than Virunga National Park.	eng
58185	distribution		This species is known only from Virunga National Park in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, at 600-2,200m asl.	eng
58185	habitat		It lives in and around streams, in which it presumably breeds, in submontane and montane rainforest.	eng
58185	population		There is very little information on its population status, although the type series was very large, indicating that it is common within its small known range. There have been no recent records.	eng
58185	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. The effects of political instability in the area on this species are not known.	eng
58186	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58186	distribution		This species ranges widely in South Africa, Lesotho, western Swaziland and extreme southern Namibia. There are also isolated populations in the Naufluft Mountains and along the Fish River in south-central Namibia.	eng
58186	habitat		It is a species of grassland, fynbos heath land, and succulent karroo and Nama karroo shrubland. It survives in altered habitats such as pastureland and agricultural land. It breeds in well-vegetated streams rivers, and in ponds and dams in dry areas.	eng
58186	population		It is a common species, with large breeding aggregations.	eng
58186	threats		It is not significantly threatened, it is an adaptable species, but some local populations have been adversely affected by dams. The construction of the Hardap Dam on the Fish River in Namibia appears to have had a negative influence on the habitat downstream, as the river is considerably drier than it was before the dam was built. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Western Cape and Northern Cape, South Africa.	eng
58187	conservation		It occurs in Chimanimani National Park and adjacent state forests, as well as Rhodes Nyanga National Park.	eng
58187	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, on Inyangani Mountain and in Chimanimani National Park. It occurs above 2,000m asl. It is likely to occur in nearby Mozambique, but there have not so far been any records.	eng
58187	habitat		It lives in and around rocky, fast-flowing streams in montane grassland. Adults have been found sitting on rock ledges behind waterfalls, or on rocks in the middle of rapids; juveniles frequent more quiet backwaters. The eggs are laid in shallow rocky pools.	eng
58187	population		There is little recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
58187	threats		The high-altitude habitat of this species has been relatively intact up until now, but it might be at risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.	eng
58188	conservation		It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain Forest Reserve, which is in need of continued and strengthened management.	eng
58188	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Mulanje in southern Malawi, where it occurs above 2,000m asl.	eng
58188	habitat		It is a strongly aquatic species associated with pools in cold mountain streams in montane grassland and forest, but it does not survive in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams, and the larvae apparently remain in the water for two years before metamorphosing.	eng
58188	population		It is common in its restricted range.	eng
58188	threats		Although somewhat protected, the habitat on Mount Mulanje continues to be lost in places as a result of subsistence agriculture, and the extraction of wood (which in turn probably results in the siltation of streams).	eng
58189	conservation		It occurs in Virunga National Park and Mount Elgon National Park.	eng
58189	distribution		This species is known from Mount Ruwenzori in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and south-western Uganda, at 700-2,500m asl. There have been more recent records from Mount Elgon in western Kenya (and it is assumed to also be present on the Ugandan side of Mount Elgon). It is probably also present on other mountains in eastern and central Africa.	eng
58189	habitat		It lives in and around streams, in which it presumably breeds, in submontane and montane rainforest.	eng
58189	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species, although the type series was very large, indicating that it is common within its small known range.	eng
58189	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. The effects of political instability in the area on this species are not known.	eng
58190	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No conservation actions are currently prioritised for this species, although further research on population trends would be useful and required for a sound basis for future monitoring.&#160;Taxonomic investigations of disjunct distributions require attention.&#160;It is currently known from four protected areas: Grootvadersbos Nature Reserve, Boosmansbos Wilderness Area, Swartberg Nature Reserve, and Garcia State Forest.	eng
58190	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known from the Swartberg, Langeberg and Hottentots-Holland mountain ranges&#160;in the eastern part of Western Cape Province, South Africa. It occurs at medium to high altitudes, up to at least 1,800 m asl.	eng
58190	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It inhabits mountain fynbos heathland, and is associated with rocky streams on steep, well-vegetated slopes, and forest gorges. It breeds in pools at the sides of streams, and in deeper, slow-flowing water.	eng
58190	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	.It is considered to be a common species in all three mountain ranges.	eng
58190	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Much of its habitat is protected, but even within the protected areas this species may be threatened by the damming of streams, the spread of invasive alien plants, and by too frequent fires. However, these threats are currently thought not to be sufficiently intense and are being presumably managed within the protected areas.	eng
58191	conservation		It occurs in Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks in Kenya and Arusha National Park in Tanzania. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status.	eng
58191	distribution		This species occurs mainly in the central highlands of Kenya on the Mau Escarpment, the Aberdare Mountains, Mount Kenya and the Cherangani Hills, between 2,080 and 3,100m asl. It has also been recorded from Arusha and Mount Meru in northern Tanzania (Pickersgill pers. comm.; Lötters <em>et al.</em> 2004). Records from Ethiopia have been shown to be wrongly assigned (Largen 2001), and records from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo might refer to other members of this genus, and therefore require confirmation.	eng
58191	habitat		It is presumably associated with streams in montane grassland, and perhaps also forest, but it has also been found in a town.	eng
58191	population		This is a common species.	eng
58191	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58192	conservation		This widespread species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58192	distribution		This species ranges from Sierra Leone in the west to Uganda, western Kenya and northwestern Tanzania in the east, south to northeastern Angola. There is probably a discontinuity in its range between western Togo and western Nigeria. There appears to be an isolated population on the Jos plateau in northern Nigeria. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It is assumed to occur in Rwanda and Burundi, but there do not appear to be any confirmed records from these countries.	eng
58192	habitat		It is a species of secondary habitats and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush) in the forest zone, and in gallery forests in the humid svanna zone. It avoids closed forest in central Africa. In West Africa, it occurs in closed-canopy forest as well as in secondary habitats. It is usally found low in the vegetation. In central Africa it breeds in still-water ponds, marshes, raphia swamps and creeks, and sometimes-in very slow-flowing water. In West African breeds in large temporary ponds, and permanent streams, associated with dwarf crocodiles Osteolaemus tetraspis.	eng
58192	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58192	threats		It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to face anything other the localized threats.	eng
58193	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).	eng
58193	distribution		This species occurs in southwestern and southern Cameroon and mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), south to central Gabon. It occurs mainly at low altitudes, but it occurs up to more than 1,000m asl in Cameroon. It presumably occurs in northern Congo, though there have not yet been any records from this country.	eng
58193	habitat		This is a species of primary and slightly disturbed rainforest, requiring a closed canopy. It is usally found on low vegetation in the forest. It breeds in slow-flowing water, in particular in slow areas in streams, and in pools isolated from the main current, usually on a sandy substrate.	eng
58193	population		It is a common species.	eng
58193	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58194	conservation		It occurs in Cross River National Park in Nigeria, but there is a need for improved and strengthened protection of the forest habitat of this species in western Cameroon.	eng
58194	distribution		This species is known from a small area of western Cameroon, from the Rumpi Hills to the southern slopes of the Bamileke Plateau, and Nkongsamba, and from the Oban Hills in Nigeria where it has recently been recorded (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is not clear, but it is probably found mainly at intermediate elevations.	eng
58194	habitat		This is a forest species known from hilly country in the foothills of the Cameroonian mountains, and it does not survive in degraded habitats. It lives close to fast-flowing streams, where it breeds; the larvae can be found in calmer areas of these streams.	eng
58194	population		It is uncommon.	eng
58194	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements.	eng
58195	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58195	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Angola, through the Caprivi Strip of Namibia to extreme northern Botswana, extreme southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, much of Zambia (except the northeast), eastern and northern Zimbabwe, southern Malawi, and west-central Mozambique.	eng
58195	habitat		It is a species of open savannahs, savannah woodland, and forest, occurring mainly in upland areas. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. Its breeding has not been described, but, like others members of its genus, it presumably requires permanent waterbodies, such as lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps	eng
58195	population		It is a common species in much of its range.	eng
58195	threats		It is widely distributed in an area of limited human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
58196	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58196	distribution		This species occurs from Senegal to western Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and southern Somalia, south to southern Mozambique, with an apparently isolated population in northern Eritrea. It is presumed to occur in Guinea, Togo, Chad, Sudan, and possibly Liberia, but definite records appear to be lacking from these countries.	eng
58196	habitat		This is a strongly aquatic species in savannah areas, where it lives in and around permanent lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps. It also survives in modified habitats. It usually occurs in permanent waterbodies, but if these dry out, it hides in sheltered areas and termitaria. It breeds in still-water lakes, ponds and swamps.	eng
58196	population		It is a common species.	eng
58196	threats		It is a very widespread and adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is used locally as a food source in West Africa, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
58197	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
58197	distribution		This species occurs from northeastern and north-central Angola through southern Democratic Republic of Congo to northern Zambia. A record from western Angola requires confirmation. It is poorly known, and is likely to range more widely.	eng
58197	habitat		There is little information, but it has been found in riparian forest in humid savannah, occurring mainly in upland areas. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It is associated with permanent waterbodies. Its breeding has not been described, but, like others members of its genus, it presumably requires permanent waterbodies, such as lakes, small rivers, ponds and swamps	eng
58197	population		There is little recent information, but it is likely to be common in suitable habitats.	eng
58197	threats		It is widely distributed in an area of limited human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
58198	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).	eng
58198	distribution		This species occurs from southwestern and southern Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of Congo, south at least to southern Congo. Its eastern limits in the Democratic Republic of Congo are unclear, although its range is as far east as Kasai Province. There are records from Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic and Congo, and it is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola. It is a low-altitude species.	eng
58198	habitat		It is a lowland forest species that can survive in gallery forests and heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It is often founds along the banks of large, slow-flowing stream and small rivers, in which it breeds.	eng
58198	population		It is a common species.	eng
58198	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58199	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of montane forest habitat at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
58199	distribution		This species is known only from western and central Cameroon on the Bamiléké and Adamawa Plateaus, generally above 1,000m asl. There are records from Bangwa, Ibong, Ndom, Banen, Bagam, Ngaoundere, Tibati, Mount Nganha, and Mayo Darle.	eng
58199	habitat		It lives in the submontane zone along water courses bordered by gallery forest. It also occurs at lower elevations in forest outliers. Males sing in chorus in flooded areas in gallery forest, and tadpoles have been found in pools in small streams.	eng
58199	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
58199	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture (crops and livestock grazing), logging, and human settlements.	eng
58200	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Taï National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), Kakoum National Park (Ghana), Boi Tano Forest Reserve (Ghana) and the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA), a twin wildlife protected area comprising Nini-Suhien National Park (166km²) to the north and the Ankasa Forest Reserve (343km²) to the south (Ghana).	eng
58200	distribution		This species is known from several records in West Africa: southern Guinea (Mount Nimba and Ziama Forest); northern Liberia (Mount Nimba); south-western Côte d'Ivoire (Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Taï National Park); and south-western Ghana (Kakoum National Park, Boi Tano Forest Reserve and the Ankasa Conservation Area). Perret (1977) noted its presence in Nigeria, but no localities were given in Perret (1983), so its occurrence in Nigeria requires confirmation.	eng
58200	habitat		It inhabits lowland forest, and is known only from undisturbed primary forest. It presumably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58200	population		It is a very rare species, and is rarely encountered.	eng
58200	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
58201	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas.	eng
58201	distribution		This species is known only from a restricted area on the western escarpment of Angola. There are records from Congulo and Quirimbo, and it is likely to occur more widely.	eng
58201	habitat		It apparently occurs in swamps in forest, and presumably breeds in water (although this is not known for certain).	eng
58201	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58201	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58202	conservation		The only known locality in China is within Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve, and the locality in Myanmar is within Hkakabo Razi National Park.	eng
58202	distribution		This species is known from the western slope of Gaoligongshan, including Pianma Township, Lushui and Yangbi Counties, in Yunnan Province, China, and from Pangnamdim in extreme upper Myanmar (Smith 1940). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,540-1,620m asl.	eng
58202	habitat		This species lives in mountain streams, in which it breeds, in fast-flowing water and waterfalls, and in the surrounding habitats.	eng
58202	population		It is a very rare species in China. It was apparently locally common at Pangnamdim, at least in the 1930s (Smith 1940), although there is no recent population information available from Myanmar.	eng
58202	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58203	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation, but it is not known from any protected areas. Recent field studies were undertaken by Ray (1999).	eng
58203	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Chakrata, in Uttaranchal, India, although it might occur more widely. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
58203	habitat		Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements, although it has been recorded from hill stream habitat. All that is known about its breeding biology is that the eggs are deposited on the leaves of aquatic plants.	eng
58203	population		There is no information available on the population status of this recently described species.	eng
58203	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58204	conservation		Its range includes three protected areas in Viet Nam, and in China it occurs in Huangliangshan and Daweishan National Nature Reserves. Ensuring that socio-economic and tourist developments at Sa Pa do not impact the ecological viability of the area would be a primary conservation objective.	eng
58204	distribution		This species is known from Hekou and Luchun Counties in south Yunnan Province, China (where Zhao and Adler (1993) referred to it under its <em>Amolops macrorhynchus</em> synonym), from Sa Pa in extreme northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942), and from the extreme northern Annamite Mountains (S. Swan pers. comm.) of Viet Nam. It is likely that this species occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 800-1,700m asl.	eng
58204	habitat		It is found in clear, swift-moving streams, and on the ground in closed-canopy primary forest up to four metres from water. It inhabits waterfalls during breeding.	eng
58204	population		In China this species is considered to be rare, but in Viet Nam it has been observed to be abundant during the breeding season (S. Swan pers. comm.).	eng
58204	threats		The integrity of the type locality, Sa Pa, is under some threat from forest clearance and tourist infrastructure development (BirdLife International 2001). Within its range in China there is very little habitat destruction and degradation, which is now only taking place in the reserve buffer zones.	eng
58205	conservation		A considerable proportion of its populations occur in nature reserves and the habitats are accorded some form of protection. The Vietnamese range of the species is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
58205	distribution		This species is known from southern, central and west China including Shannxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guixhou, Zhejiang, Hunan, Fujian, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. Records from Yunnan province, and from Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (Ohler et. al., 2000) refer to <Amolops mengyangensis </em> (Ohler, 2007). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations between 700-1,900m asl.	eng
58205	habitat		A territorial species found in hill forests and on boulders along streams during the breeding season. It breeds in streams.	eng
58205	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
58205	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation, the construction of hydroelectric plants and the liming of streams for fish are major threats to this species in China. It is also collected in China by the local people for consumption in certain areas, although this is not considered a threat. In Viet Nam cardamom plantations along the streams might be a threat.	eng
58206	conservation		It has been recorded from Namdhapa National Park and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary (both in Arunachal Pradesh). It is protected by national legislation in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sabitri Bardoli and Maren Ao.	eng
58206	distribution		This species is recorded from India (Himanchal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), northern Bangladesh and much of Nepal. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,500m asl.	eng
58206	habitat		It is associated with streams and riparian vegetation within tropical evergreen forest. Breeding takes place in streams. There is little available information on egg deposition or larval ecology.	eng
58206	population		It is generally considered to be rare.	eng
58206	threats		There is a continuing loss of suitable stream habitats, through both deforestation and changes in water management (dams).	eng
58207	conservation		This species has been recorded from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Mouling National Park (Arunachal Pradesh, India). Recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by Roy (1999), Brodoli and Borah (1998-2002) and Chanda (1994). It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58207	distribution		This species is known from northeast India (Meghalaya, Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland and West Bengal). Records in Fei (1999) from Xizang province near the border with India require confirmation. It is found at elevations of between 100 and 1,700m asl.	eng
58207	habitat		A semi-aquatic species found in hill streams. Calling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge.	eng
58207	population		It is reported to be common where it occurs.	eng
58207	threats		It is threatened by changes in water management (dam construction) and unspecified agricultural pollution.	eng
58208	conservation		This species is known from a few protected areas including Shengnongjia Nature Reserve and Emeishan Mountain Scenic Site.	eng
58208	distribution		This species is known from eastern Sichuan and western Hubei provinces in China, between 1,000-2,200m asl. It is known from fewer than 10 locations, but it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58208	habitat		It lives in forests and breeds in streams.	eng
58208	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58208	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation are major threats to this species.	eng
58209	conservation		Much of its existing range is within nature reserves and forest parks. There is a need to control harvest and trade in this species.	eng
58209	distribution		This species is endemic to south-west and central Hainan Province, China, and has been recorded from 80-960m asl.	eng
58209	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and cascades fringed by forests.	eng
58209	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58209	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture and the construction of hydroelectric plants. Exploitation for human consumption is also a major threat to this species.	eng
58210	conservation		Most of the range of the Hong Kong population is within protected areas, and it is also protected in Hong Kong under the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance. At least one population in Guangdong occurs in Gutian Nature Reserve and its surroundings in Huidong County.	eng
58210	distribution		This species is known only from a small area of southern China in Hong Kong (both the New Territories and Hong Kong Island) and nearby Guangdong Province at 20-790m asl (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It probably occurs a little more widely, but records from Fujian Province refer to <em>Amolops daiyunensis</em>. However, it is unlikely to occur in other areas in Hong Kong as extensive searches have not turned up any new locations (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). In Guangdong Province it is difficult the survey effort is a lot less extensive, but studies on Wutongshan close to the border with Hong Kong found <em>Amolops ricketti</em> (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It is possible that it also occurs in the mountain ranges in eastern coastal Guangdong between Hong Kong and Gutian, but this cannot stated with any degree of certainty until more fieldwork is carried out (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
58210	habitat		It is an inhabitant of forest-fringed, small hill streams, particularly those with cascades. It does not survive where the forest is removed. The eggs are laid in rock crevices near cascades and watrerfalls where the water splashes over them, and the larvae cling to the stones and rocks in streams by means of a ventral sucker.	eng
58210	population		It is a common species in Hong Kong where there is suitable habitat.	eng
58210	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by silviculture, clear-cutting, and the construction of hydroelectric plants and other infrastructure. However, the population in Hong Kong appears to be relatively secure, but part of the habitat of the Guangdong population was under threat in 1997 when it was last surveyed.	eng
58211	conservation		It is protected by national legislation, but it has not been recorded from any protected areas. Fieldwork was recently undertaken in the area by Ray (1999).	eng
58211	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality near Sahiya, in Uttaranchal, India, at 500m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
58211	habitat		It is believed to be restricted to hill streams, but nothing further is known of its biological or ecological requirements.	eng
58211	population		There is no information available on this species' population status.	eng
58211	threats		Threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
58212	conservation		Part of the range of this species falls within the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve, which forms part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas World Heritage Site.	eng
58212	distribution		This species is only known from Deqing and Zhongdian in north-western Yunnan Province, and Daliangshan in Sichuan Province, China, from 1,020-2,000m asl.	eng
58212	habitat		It inhabits hill streams inside forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
58212	population		It is a common species.	eng
58212	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due mainly to smallholder farming activities.	eng
58213	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, though there are several nature reserves within its range.	eng
58213	distribution		This species is endemic to Kangding County in west Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 2,600-3,500m asl.	eng
58213	habitat		It inhabits montane streams in forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
58213	population		It is known from only three locations, but is considered to be common at all three.	eng
58213	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development.	eng
58214	conservation		Its range is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. Evaluating the taxonomic status of this species compared to <em>Amolops viridimaculatus</em> (a fairly widespread species found in, and endemic to, adjoining Yunnan Province, China) is advisable.	eng
58214	distribution		This species is known only from Pangnamdim, in the Nam Tamai Valley, in extreme northern Myanmar (Smith 1940).	eng
58214	habitat		It can be presumed that this species inhabits torrential streams or waterfall areas, like other species in the genus, although this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
58214	population		Only two known specimens were collected in 1937-39, so this species' population status is not known. Results from recent herpetological surveys are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58214	threats		There are no known threats to this species, which occurs in what is a pristine area of Myanmar.	eng
58215	conservation		It inhabits probably every significant protected area from Hala Bala to Endau-Rompin. No conservation action appears necessary, though it would be a good species for long-term monitoring.	eng
58215	distribution		This species inhabits the Thai-Malay Peninsula from extreme southern Thailand, to Johor State, Malaysia (Taylor, 1962; Berry, 1975). It is known from at least 43-1,500m asl.	eng
58215	habitat		It exclusively occurs on boulders and bedrock in and along fast-flowing, clear-water forest streams, from lowlands to highlands. Tadpoles live in the same streams, attaching themselves to rocky surfaces using their ventral suction area.	eng
58215	population		This is a common and abundant species. It is found in most rushing forest streams in Peninsular Malaysia, each substantial boulder has one or more <em>A. larutensis</em> on it and one needs to watch carefully to avoid stepping on them accidentally. It appears to have been common historically, and is still considered to be at present (Berry, 1975). It is probably the most common frog in forest boulder streams all through the Thai-Malay Peninsula.	eng
58215	threats		The tadpoles are susceptible to water pollution, in particular sedimentation. It is used in medical research but the numbers collected are not at a level to constitute a threat.	eng
58216	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to determine the validity of this species.	eng
58216	distribution		This species is known only from Qiliba, in Zhaojue County, western Sichuan Province, China, at around 3,000m asl.	eng
58216	habitat		It is found in hilly areas where it inhabits streams, in which it breeds, and the surrounding habitats.	eng
58216	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
58216	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58217	conservation		Part of its range might fall within Wolong Biosphere Reserve.	eng
58217	distribution		This species is confined to Li County and Maoxian County, and might also occur in Wenchuan County, in central Sichuan Province, China, from 1,300-2,350m asl.	eng
58217	habitat		It lives in and along streams in forests, and breeds in streams.	eng
58217	population		It is a common species with a stable population within its small range.	eng
58217	threats		This species is locally threatened by dam construction.	eng
58218	conservation		Part of the species' range overlaps with Wawushan National Forest Park.	eng
58218	distribution		This species is restricted to Zhaojue, Mianning, Hongya, Luding and Baoxing in southern Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,840-3,700m asl.	eng
58218	habitat		It inhabits small mountain streams in forests and grasslands, and also breeds in streams.	eng
58218	population		It is known from ten locations. Several populations have been experiencing declines, with one poulation known to have declined by more than 50 per cent.	eng
58218	threats		The main threat to this species is continuing infrastructure development for human settlement. There is also significant water pollution from the mining industry.	eng
58219	conservation		Taxonomic evaluation of this species in comparison with other <em>Amolops</em> species from south-west China is advisable.	eng
58219	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in north-east Myanmar, near the border of China, at 2,000m asl.	eng
58219	habitat		There is nothing known about its habitat preferences beyond that the type locality is at 2,000m asl. More knowledge of the topography of the area would be needed to determine what kind of habitat is most likely here.	eng
58219	population		There is no population information available for this species, which has not been recorded again since its discovery.	eng
58219	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58220	conservation		Certain populations of this species occur in some nature reserves.	eng
58220	distribution		This species is endemic to southeastern Gansu and western Sichuan provinces, China. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 2,800m asl.	eng
58220	habitat		An inhabitant of large streams and small rivers, in forest and shrubland, it also breeds in streams.	eng
58220	population		It is very abundant and easy to collect.	eng
58220	threats		Water pollution from various sources is a major threat to this species.	eng
58221	conservation		Viable populations of this species inhabit several protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring and natural history/conservation biology studies are desirable but are not currently necessary for the species' survival. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58221	distribution		This species is reported from northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya and Nagaland), Nepal, Bangladesh (Khagrachari Hill-district), Bhutan through northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940) and Tenasserim (latopalmatus-Boulenger, 1882) and northern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) to western Yunnan (Longchuan) and southern Xizang (in disputed territory between China and India), China. It is found between 100-2,000m asl.	eng
58221	habitat		It inhabits waterfall areas, bedrock and boulders in torrential perennial streams in evergreen forest. Breeding takes place within the streams and tadpoles inhabit the same streams as adults.	eng
58221	population		It is reportedly relatively common in appropriate habitat throughout most of its range, although in Yunnan, China it is considered very rare and is known from only one specimen and a few field observations.	eng
58221	threats		It could potentially be threatened by systemic impacts such as hydrological changes or massive forest destruction, but it appears to be generally secure in ecologically functional forest. Some populations might be declining due to loss of habitat from agricultural pollution and the construction of dams.	eng
58222	conservation		The range of this species includes Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh State, in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sarkar (1992) and Shresthra (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58222	distribution		This species is found in Nepal, northeastern India (West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) and southeastern Xizang province (Bomi, Medog, Cona and Chayu), China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found at elevations of 850-2,350m asl.	eng
58222	habitat		While primarily found in shaded stream rapids, this frog has also been recorded from ponds in secondary habitat. Eggs are deposited on aquatic plants, and in stone crevices at the edge of steams.	eng
58222	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58222	threats		There is a continuing loss of habitat to urbanization. The species is also threatened by dam construction, and possibly over collection for medicinal use.	eng
58223	conservation		It is not known to occur in a protected area.	eng
58223	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "2km east of Barabise" (Yang 1991), Barabise (27°  33'N; 86° 06'E), along Sabhaya, Kbota, a tributary of the Arun River, in Nepal, at 1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
58223	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic species, confined to hill streams.	eng
58223	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the type collection.	eng
58223	threats		Threats to this species are not known.	eng
58224	conservation		It is found in Tam Dao National Park, Hoang Lien Son National Park and Ba Be National Park in Viet Nam and in quite a few protected areas in China. Safeguarding, and restoring where possible, the ecological integrity of hill areas in northern Viet Nam would be highly desirable.	eng
58224	distribution		This species is known from several localities in northern Viet Nam (Bourret, 1942; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999), as well as southern and western China including Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hubei, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces. It has been recorded from 410-1,520m asl.	eng
58224	habitat		It inhabits boulder and bedrock surfaces at waterfalls and in torrential stream sections in forest. Tadpoles inhabit the same streams.	eng
58224	population		It is not uncommon in appropriate habitat (Bourret, 1941, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
58224	threats		Stream pollution is a concern at least in Tam Dao in Viet Nam and probably elsewhere, as are ongoing socio-economic developments (slope agriculture, residential and tourism infrastructure).	eng
58225	conservation		Strengthening existing, and creating new protected areas to protect the fauna and flora of the Tay Nguyen Plateau of southern Viet Nam is recommended. Studies of the conservation biology of this endemic species are highly desirable, as are further herpetological surveys of the Annamite Mountains.	eng
58225	distribution		This species is endemic to Kon Cha Ran, An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, and Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quong Nam Province, in southern Viet Nam, where it occurs at 800-1,000m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Bain pers. comm.).	eng
58225	habitat		Specimens (adults and juveniles) were collected from wet vertical rock faces at a waterfall at 1,000m asl in relatively intact forest (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has also been collected from rocks beside waterfalls at 800m asl.	eng
58225	population		It is a locally common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
58225	threats		The main threat to this species is logging on the Tay Nguyen Plateau for coffee cultivation.	eng
58226	conservation		Part of the range of this species is within Huangshan Scenic Area.	eng
58226	distribution		This species is restricted to Huangshan in Anhui Province, and Jiande and Anji counties in Zhejiang Province, China. It has been recorded from 150-700m asl.	eng
58226	habitat		It occurs in hill streams and the surrounding habitats, and breeds in streams. The existence of tadpoles has not been recorded for this species. This is the only amphibian known to make use of ultrasonic communication; males produce diverse bird-like melodic calls with pronounced frequency modulations that often contain spectral energy in the ultrasonic range (Feng <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
58226	population		It is very rare and known from fewer than five locations.	eng
58226	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and clear-cutting.	eng
58227	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in Hainan (nature reserves and forest parks).	eng
58227	distribution		This species is an endemic of central and south-western Hainan, China, and has been recorded from 80-780m asl.	eng
58227	habitat		It inhabits medium- to large-sized streams, and surrounding riparian habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58227	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58227	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due, in particular, to agricultural activities.	eng
58228	conservation		It occurs in the Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species given its very limited range.	eng
58228	distribution		This species is restricted to two mountains, Wuliang and Ailao, in Jingdong County, Yunnan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
58228	habitat		It inhabits montane streams in sub-tropical, evergreen, broad-leaved forests, both during the breeding and non-breeding season.	eng
58228	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
58228	threats		There are no known current threats to this species. However, its restricted range makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58229	conservation		In China this species occurs in Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve (which is not well protected), and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserve (which is well protected). In Viet Nam it occurs in Hoang Lien Son National Park. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58229	distribution		This species is known from western Yunnan Province in the Gaoligongshan area, and Wuliangshan in central Yunnan Province, China, and from one location (Fan Si Pan Mountain) in northern Viet Nam (Ohler 2000). It has also recently been recorded from Dzuna, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar but there are as yet no confirmed records. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. In China it has been recorded from 1,400-2,350m asl, and the one known locality in Viet Nam is at 1,750m asl.	eng
58229	habitat		In China this species is known from hill streams in forest, and in Viet Nam the only record is from a large stream with boulders in montane forest. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58229	population		In China this species is uncommon, while in Viet Nam only one specimen was collected in 1997 and no other individuals were sighted at the time (S. Swan pers. comm.).	eng
58229	threats		This species is threatened by small-scale agricultural development, and dam construction.	eng
58230	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58230	distribution		This species is known from Fujian, Anhui and Zhejiang provinces in China, and has been recorded from 100-1,100m asl.	eng
58230	habitat		It occurs in big streams and the surrounding forest habitat, both during breeding and non-breeding season.	eng
58230	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58230	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
58231	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58231	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Cameroon and eastern Gabon, east through southwestern Central African Republic and northern Congo to central Democratic Republic of Congo. It might occur in Equatorial Guinea. There is an isolated record from Kakindo in south-central Angola but there is doubt regards the identity of this specimen (Rödel <em>et al.</em>, in press). The contact zone between this species and Aubria subsigillata requires further investigation.	eng
58231	habitat		It lives in swamps or along small streams in lowland forest, gallery forest and degraded secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. It breeds in still-water pools, swamps and marshes.	eng
58231	population		Little information is available on its abundance.	eng
58231	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
58232	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Taï National Park and Banco National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea and Liberia), and Korup National Park (Cameroon).	eng
58232	distribution		This species ranges from southern Guinea and northern Liberia, through southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Ghana to southern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon (as far as Kribi). The apparent distribution gap in Benin and Togo might be genuine. The contact zone between this species and Aubria subsigillata requires further clarification, and it is possible that further studies will show that this species does not range east of Ghana, and that the species in Nigeria is in fact A. subsigillata.	eng
58232	habitat		It lives in primary forest in swamps or along forest streams. Unlike other members of its genus, it appears not to occur in secondary habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
58232	population		It is quite a common species, but it is not abundant.	eng
58232	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58233	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58233	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Cameroon, though mainland Equatorial Guinea to southwestern Gabon. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The contact zone between this species and the more recently described Aubria masako and A. occidentalis is poorly understood and requires further investigation. It is possible that this species ranges as far west as Nigeria. An old record from Angola is shown by Perret (1996) to belong to a very different, undescribed species.	eng
58233	habitat		It lives in swamps or along small streams in lowland rainforest, gallery forest and degraded secondary habitats (farm bush) in the forest zone. It breeds in still-water pools and marshes.	eng
58233	population		Little information is available on its abundance.	eng
58233	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not likely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
58234	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58234	distribution		This species is known only from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, occurring below 1,000m asl.	eng
58234	habitat		It inhabits rainforest, but also lives in gardens, villages, towns, and other anthropogenic habitats. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58234	population		It is a common species.	eng
58234	threats		The war in Bougainville has probably minimised impacts of logging, but it is doubtful that this species would be adversely affected by logging.	eng
58235	conservation		Its distribution on Bougainville and other islands needs to be determined, and its population status needs to be assessed. There are no protected areas within the species' range.	eng
58235	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at the southern end of Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded between 500 and 1,500m asl.	eng
58235	habitat		It inhabits tropical rainforest and reproduces by direct development, laying its eggs in trees.	eng
58235	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58235	threats		It is not clear what the threats are to this species. The conflict on Bougainville Island, which ended in 1997, probably minimised the impacts of logging on this species.	eng
58236	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58236	distribution		This species occurs on Buka and Bougainville Islands, Papua New Guinea, up to 500m asl.	eng
58236	habitat		It inhabits the floor of tropical rainforest, and also degraded habitats, such as rural gardens, forest regrowth, and plantations. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58236	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
58236	threats		The war in Bougainville has probably minimised impacts of logging, but it is doubtful that this species would be adversely affected by logging.	eng
58237	conservation		The distribution on Bougainville and other islands needs to be documented, and the population status needs to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58237	distribution		This species is known from northern and southern Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58237	habitat		This species inhabits tropical rainforest, and can also survive in degraded habitats such as rural villages, plantations and degraded forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58237	population		It is a common species.	eng
58237	threats		There are unlikely to be any threats to this species.	eng
58238	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58238	distribution		This species occurs on northern and southern Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, at 700-1,000m asl.	eng
58238	habitat		It is a scansorial and arboreal species inhabiting rainforest. It has not been found in degraded habitats, perhaps because the habitat within its altitudinal range is still in good condition. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58238	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
58238	threats		The war in Bougainville has probably minimised potential impacts of logging and mining.	eng
58239	conservation		The species' range in the Solomon Islands needs to be documented. Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
58239	distribution		This species is known from Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea), Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands. It occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
58239	habitat		This species inhabits forest floor in lowland and foothill rainforest (S. Richards pers. obs.). It appears to be able to persist in secondary forest, rural gardens, villages etc. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58239	population		It is an extremely abundant species in lowland rainforest and logged habitat, and appears to be more abundant in disturbed compared to pristine forest.	eng
58239	threats		There are none known and this species appears to be able to persist in secondary forest and other disturbed habitats.	eng
58240	conservation		The impacts of logging on the species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58240	distribution		This species is found throughout the Solomon Islands, including Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. It occurs from coastal areas up to 700m asl.	eng
58240	habitat		It is a scansorial species living in tropical rainforest, and also in rural gardens and degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development, with the eggs deposited in vegetation above the ground.	eng
58240	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58240	threats		It is probably not threatened, unless there are any negative impacts of invasive species, or from serious clear-cutting.	eng
58241	conservation		The impacts of logging on this species need to be determined, and the range in the Solomons Archipelago needs to be further documented. There are no protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
58241	distribution		This species is known from Buka and Bougainville Islands in Papua New Guinea, and Choiseul and Isabel Islands in the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.	eng
58241	habitat		It is a scansorial species in lowland and hill rainforest. They have also been found on the forest edge, and in native bananas (not in plantations), but it prefers primary forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in leaves in trees about 2m above the ground.	eng
58241	population		This species appears to be abundant (S. Richards pers. obs.).	eng
58241	threats		Logging is a threat to this species, particularly in the political Solomon Islands portion of the range.	eng
58242	conservation		The Solomon Islands Government is currently formulating legislation to control the export of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58242	distribution		This species is found on the Solomon Islands and Bougainville and Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.	eng
58242	habitat		This species inhabits the forest floor in tropical rainforest, and appears to persist in secondary forest, rural gardens and other degraded areas. It is an amphibian that breeds by direct development and lays eggs in small hollows at the base of trees.	eng
58242	population		This species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
58242	threats		In the past this species was exported in large numbers to Europe and other regions for the pet trade. Despite this it remains widespread and exceptionally abundant throughout the Solomon Islands.	eng
58243	conservation		Preserving and restoring the ecological integrity of the northern Vietnamese hill forests and streams, particularly of Tam Dao National Park, should be a target measure for this species' conservation. Evaluating the taxonomy of the large <em>Paa</em> and <em>Limnonectes</em> frogs of Asia, incorporating Chinese specimens, would also be very helpful. This species is listed as 'threatened' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
58243	distribution		This species is known from northern Viet Nam, in Chapa and Bac-Kan (Bourret 1942). The record from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) is excluded here because of a probable identification error.	eng
58243	habitat		The observations made by van Dijk (1999) of what were presumed to be these species, noted it in small streams overgrown by dense secondary forest at 800-900m asl. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58243	population		It has apparently not been recorded in the literature since 1942. Frogs tentatively identified as this species were not uncommon at Tam Dao in 1999 (van Dijk unpubl.), though they were not reported from here by Inger <em>et al.</em> (1999).	eng
58243	threats		This species might be threatened by local consumption, and also from forest degradation and stream pollution arising due to agricultural development (including smallholder farming and creation of tree plantations), and logging and increasing human settlement.	eng
58244	conservation		Its range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Pu Hoat Nature Reserve in Viet Nam, and Huang Lian Shan Nature Reserve in China. Safeguarding representative parts of the Sa Pa-Fan Si Pan region as strictly protected areas is also recommended as a conservation measure for this species.	eng
58244	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942), and also from Pu Hoat, Nghe An Province, also in Viet Nam. One specimen has also been collected in Huang Lian Shan Nature Reserve in Yunnan Province, southern China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The type specimen was collected at 1,700m asl (Bourret 1942). Newer records are from 1,250-2,050m asl.	eng
58244	habitat		It was found on leaf-litter close to and in streams, and breeds in streams.	eng
58244	population		This species is thought to be rare (Swan pers. comm.). It is known from a single specimen collected in 1938 (Bourret 1942), and also from more recent records (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000; Swan pers comm.).	eng
58244	threats		The Sa Pa-Fan Si Pan area is under threat from subsistence agriculture and development for tourism (BirdLife International 2001). This species is also probably consumed locally.	eng
58245	conservation		There are many protected areas within the range of this species. It is necessary to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.	eng
58245	distribution		This species is endemic to central China, and has been recorded from 500-2,000m asl.	eng
58245	habitat		It is an inhabitant of forest and shrubland, and breeds in hill streams by larval development.	eng
58245	population		It is a common species although some populations have experienced declines.	eng
58245	threats		The most important threat to this species is over-collecting for food, although water pollution caused by the mining industry is also a threat.	eng
58246	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shresthra in Pashupati nagar (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58246	distribution		This species is present in central and eastern Nepal and also in parts of northeastern India (Sikkim, West Bengal and Meghalaya). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected to occur in Bhutan. It has been recorded from elevations between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.	eng
58246	habitat		While this species is known to inhabit mountain streams in forested areas, very little other information is available on its ecology or breeding habits. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
58246	population		It is considered to be very rare, although no quantitative data exist.	eng
58246	threats		Loss of forest surrounding streams, potential siltation of breeding sites, changes in water resource management (dam construction) and other infrastructure development are all major threats.	eng
58248	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas, including Wuliangshan and Huanglianshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need to control harvest and trade in this species.	eng
58248	distribution		This species is restricted to central and southern Yunnan Province, China, from 1,650-2,200m asl. It presumably occurs in northern parts of Southeast Asia, in particular in northern Viet Nam, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
58248	habitat		It inhabits fast-flowing hill streams and riparian habitats in forests and grassland, as well as drainage ditches by roadsides, and ponds. Breeding takes place in water.	eng
58248	population		It is a rare species, but its habits make it hard to find. It appears to be in serious decline.	eng
58248	threats		Over-collecting for food is a serious threat to this species; habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture and wood extraction is an additional threat.	eng
58250	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Pic de Fon Classified Forest (Guinea), Haute Dodo Classified Forest and Mont Sangbe National Park (Côte d'Ivoire), and the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Liberia and Guinea).	eng
58250	distribution		This species ranges from northern Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia to south-western Côte d'Ivoire. It occurs from low altitudes to more than 1,000m asl. Records from eastern Ghana and Togo refer to <em>Conraua derooi</em>. A record from eastern Côte d'Ivoire refers to a juvenile <em>Hoplobatrachus occipitalis</em>.	eng
58250	habitat		It lives in or near fast-flowing permanent streams in rainforest in hilly country. It is forest-dependent, and is not found in open areas. It breeds in streams and the tadpoles are usually found in the slow-flowing or nearly stagnant sections of streams.	eng
58250	population		It is extremely localized, but abundant wherever it occurs.	eng
58250	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements. In certain places its habitat is also being lost due to mining, for instance at Simandou in the Pic de Fon Classified Forest in Guinea, and Mount Nimba in Guinea and Liberia. Mining is probably also leading to the pollution of breeding streams.	eng
58251	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58251	distribution		This species occurs in the Ethiopia highlands west of the Rift Valley, and in Eritrea, at altitudes of 800-2,500m asl.	eng
58251	habitat		It is a highly aquatic species, particularly associated with permanent rivers, streams and large pools in both montane grassland and montane forest	eng
58251	population		It seems to be relatively common in several sites in Ethiopia, though it is almost certainly under-recorded because it is so difficult to catch.	eng
58251	threats		Although not generally threatened, local populations are probably affected by environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of resources for subsistence and commercial purposes, as well as water pollution.	eng
58252	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Korup National Park (Cameroon), Monte Alen National Park (Equatorial Guinea), and Lope-Okanda Faunal Reserve (Gabon).	eng
58252	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Nigeria to the Mayombe region of extreme western Democratic Republic of Congo. There are records from southwestern and southern Cameroon, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo. It is assumed to occur in southwestern Central African Republic and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it has not been confirmed from these countries. It occurs on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It occurs at low elevations, probably up to over 1,000m asl.	eng
58252	habitat		It lives in or near fast-flowing, clear-water rivers and streams at low altitudes in rainforest. It can survive in somewhat degraded forest, providing that trees remain and that it is not open farm bush. The males call close to water. It breeds in running water where the flow is not too fast or torrential. The young spend the day on gravel and sand at the side of streams and rivers. Around Nkongsamba in western Cameroon, Conraua crassipes, C. goliath and C. robusta occur sympatrically.	eng
58252	population		It is a common species.	eng
58252	threats		It is adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements, and well as by sedimentation of its breeding streams.	eng
58253	conservation		There are some small protected areas within the range of the species, including Kiabobo National Park in Ghana, but it has not been confirmed from any of these. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat in the range of the species is recommended. Surveys are urgently needed to determine whether or not this species survives. Captive breeding might need to be considered.	eng
58253	distribution		This species was described from Misahohé in western Togo, and all records of <em>Conraua alleni</em> from eastern Ghana and Togo refer to this species. It is likely that the species is endemic to the Togo-Volta Highlands of eastern Ghana and western Togo.	eng
58253	habitat		It is a forest-dependent species living in or near fast-flowing water. The tadpoles have been found in streams.	eng
58253	population		It was probably once quite abundant, but a recent survey in Ghana failed to find it, suggesting a serious decline. There is no recent information from Togo.	eng
58253	threats		Most of the forest habitat within its small range has been lost, and so this species is probably very seriously threatened, if not extinct. Habitat loss is taking place as a result of agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlements. Stream sedimentation might be having an affect on breeding.	eng
58254	conservation		It occurs in the Cross River National Park in Nigeria. There is a need to work with local communities to ensure that the harvest of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.	eng
58254	distribution		This species occurs in the foothills of the main mountain range in western Cameroon (excluding Mount Cameroon). It is known from Nkongjock, Nta Ali, the Bamileke Plateau, Mount Manenguba, Mount Kupe, and the Rumpi Hills. It has recently been recorded from the Oban Hills in Nigeria (M. Gartshore pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is 750-1,400m asl.	eng
58254	habitat		It lives in and near cold, fast-flowing streams, in grassland as well as forest. It does not require tree cover, and in Nkongsamba it can be found in urban areas. It prefers colder, faster water than does <em>Conraua goliath</em>, and the tadpoles live in fast, even torrential, water. Around Nkongsamba, <em>Conraua robusta</em>, <em>C. crassipes</em> and <em>C. goliath</em> occur sympatrically.	eng
58254	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58254	threats		This large species is harvested for food and is considered a delicacy. Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging, and human settlements; the sedimentation of its breeding streams is probably also having a detrimental impact on the species.	eng
58255	conservation		The impacts of logging need to be documented, and the species' ability to persist in disturbed habitats needs to be investigated. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58255	distribution		This species occurs virtually throughout the Solomon Islands and on Bougainville in Papua New Guinea, up to 700m asl.	eng
58255	habitat		This species inhabits small streams in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It also occurs along streams in somewhat degraded areas, provided that vegetation is left along the streams.	eng
58255	population		It is common within its range, but it occurs patchily.	eng
58255	threats		Clear-fell logging might have some impact on populations of this species. It is also eaten locally.	eng
58256	conservation		The impacts of logging in particular need to be assessed, but also the collection levels for food and sale need to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58256	distribution		This species occurs in the Solomon Islands and on Bougainville and New Britain in Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 700m asl.	eng
58256	habitat		This species inhabits streams and small rivers in lowland rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It has also been found in streams and rivers in rural gardens and degraded forest. It has also been found in caves.	eng
58256	population		This species is common within its range.	eng
58256	threats		Logging and collection for food and for export to the pet markets in Europe and elsewhere might be impacting some populations.	eng
58257	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status for this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58257	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Guadalcanal Island, in the Solomon Islands.	eng
58257	habitat		This species presumably inhabits montane tropical rainforest, and presumably breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.	eng
58257	population		It has not been recorded again since it was discovered in 1968, but there have been no recent surveys of the area.	eng
58257	threats		There are no known threats to this species. The civil war in Guadalcanal has probably reduced the threat from extractive industries.	eng
58258	conservation		The impact of logging on this species needs to be assessed.	eng
58258	distribution		This species is known from the Solomon Islands archipelago and Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea. However, it has not been well characterized, and it is possible that it is conspecific with <em>Discodeles bufoniformis</em>.	eng
58258	habitat		It presumably occurs along small streams in lowland rainforest, breeding by direct development and laying its eggs on the ground.	eng
58258	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58258	threats		This species might be threatened by logging, which might have impacted some populations and will probably continue to do so. It is apparently also eaten on Makira Island.	eng
58259	conservation		The impacts of logging need to be assessed, and the species' distribution among the islands of the Admiralty Archipelago needs to be determined. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58259	distribution		This species is known only from the Manus and Rambutyo in the Admiralty Islands, Papua New Guinea. It is a lowland species, being found below 100m asl.	eng
58259	habitat		This species inhabits streams in tropical rainforest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground. It has also been found in suburban areas, rural gardens, and other degraded habitats, but lives at higher densities in mature forest.	eng
58259	population		It was recorded as recently as 2002, and is relatively common.	eng
58259	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, logging could have a major impact on this species (about 30% of islands are subject to serious logging pressure). It is consumed locally for food.	eng
58260	conservation	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Sushil Dutta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, it is very widespread and tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. In view of the species wide range it is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It has been recorded from two protected areas in Iran.	eng
58260	distribution	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Sushil Dutta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species ranges throughout much of South Asia including southern Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. It is also present in southeastern Iran (this is the westernmost part of its range). An old record from Thale Sap Songkhla in southern Thailand is believed to be in error and is not considered to be valid. It is present from sea level to at least 2,500m asl.	eng
58260	habitat	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Sushil Dutta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This frog is a very aquatic species found in marshes, pools and various other wetlands within a variety of habitat types. It has been recorded from brackish water in southern Sri Lanka. Adults are generally found basking at the edge of the waterbodies and males call from within the water. The species breeds, and the larvae develop, in suitable waterbodies. The species may be found in modified habitats, usually where suitable wetland habitat is available.	eng
58260	population	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Sushil Dutta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is very common in undeveloped areas.	eng
58260	threats	Muhammad Sharif Khan, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Sergius Kuzmin, Sushil Dutta, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. The species is locally threatened over parts of South Asia by pollution of aquatic habitats (generally through the use of agrochemicals), prolonged drought in arid areas, and the drainage (wetland reclamation) and desiccation of wetlands. There are no known threats to this species in Iran or Afghanistan.	eng
58261	conservation		There are no known conservation measures.	eng
58261	distribution		This species is restricted to areas of permanent and temporary water in the Red sea coastal region of Yemen and Saudi Arabia. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,400m asl.	eng
58261	habitat		It is a highly aquatic species, found in temporary and permanent waterbodies; it is also present in irrigated areas. Eggs are laid in the water. The species may aestivate during the dry season.	eng
58261	population		It is extremely abundant where it occurs	eng
58261	threats		There are no threats to the species.	eng
58262	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58262	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Khugairk Reserve Forest, Manipur, India (alt. ca. 925m [asl])" (Chanda 1990). The limits of its distribution are still not known, and it might range more widely.	eng
58262	habitat		This species presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58262	population		It is known only from the holotype.	eng
58262	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58263	conservation		It is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Convention. It has a wide range and is presumed to occur within many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58263	distribution		This species is widespread in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. It is present from sea level to approximately 760m asl.	eng
58263	habitat		It is a largely aquatic species, found in most types of waterbodies, and in various habitats, where it is associated with aquatic vegetation. It has been recorded from brackish water in Sri Lanka. It breeds in the waterbodies.	eng
58263	population		It is generally common throughout its range.	eng
58263	threats		Agrochemical pollution of aquatic habitats is the main threat to the species. Capture of adults for food, mortality in fisheries and use, as research animals are also threats, at least locally.	eng
58264	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58264	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of Schwe Gyen on the Sitang River, Pegu (Bago) Division, Myanmar. It is not possible to map its distribution, as it is not possible to accurately locate the type locality.	eng
58264	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58264	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58264	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58265	conservation		It has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park on South Andaman Island. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58265	distribution		This species is known only from South Andaman Island, India. It is generally found close to sea level. It perhaps occurs more widely within the Andaman Islands.	eng
58265	habitat		It is found in grassland, primary and secondary forest, and near mangrove forests. Breeding takes place in ponds. It can also live in disturbed habitats (paddy fields). It is known to hybridise with Fejervarya limnocharis in the wild.	eng
58265	population		It is an abundant in rice paddy fields.	eng
58265	threats		There are no current threats to this species.	eng
58266	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58266	distribution		This species is known only from the unspecified type locality of "India". It is presumed to have been collected within the boundaries of current-day India.	eng
58266	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58266	population		The population is not known.	eng
58266	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58267	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58267	distribution		This taxon is known only from the unspecified type locality of Bengal that might now possibly be within either Bangladesh or India.	eng
58267	habitat		It is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58267	population		Its population is not known.	eng
58267	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58268	conservation	Biju, S.D. & Dutta, S., 2004	It is included as part of ongoing field studies by S.D. Biju (pers. comm.), and it is protected by national legislation.	eng
58268	distribution	Biju, S.D. & Dutta, S., 2004	This species is thought to be endemic to the Western Ghats mountain range in India. Specimens referable to the type description have been located in Wayanad (Kerala). There is a need to confirm the identity of populations reported from outside Kerala (e.g., those from Maharashtra; Biju <em>et al.</em> in prep.). It has been recorded at altitudes between 400 and 1,250 m asl.	eng
58268	habitat	Biju, S.D. & Dutta, S., 2004	It is a grassland frog associated with waterlogged or marshy areas, and it has also been recorded from suitable wet patches of forest and lightly degraded former forest.	eng
58268	population	Biju, S.D. & Dutta, S., 2004	This is a locally uncommon species.	eng
58268	threats	Biju, S.D. & Dutta, S., 2004	The main threat to this species is continuing habitat loss caused by the conversion of suitable areas to agricultural use (including plantations).    Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agro-ecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).	eng
58269	conservation	Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni & Robert Inger, 2004	The range of this species includes a number of protected areas. Monitoring of populations and harvest levels in countries where it is exploited is needed. This species needs to be eradicated from New Guinea, and its breeding status in Guam needs to be determined. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58269	distribution	Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni & Robert Inger, 2004	This is a widely distributed frog. It is known from coastal southern China in Guangxi and Hainan Provinces, from Great Nicobar Island in India, and from most countries in Southeast Asia including the Philippines. In New Guinea introduced populations are known from the Sorong, Manokwari, Nabire and Jayapura areas of Papua, Indonesia. It has been introduced to Guam, although its breeding status and range in this island are unclear (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
58269	habitat	Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni & Robert Inger, 2004	It occurs in mangrove forest, estuarine habitats, swamps and open, wet coastal areas, such as roadside ditches and puddles. It also thrives in man-made environments such as rice paddy fields. Tadpoles develop in rain pools above the high water line on the mainland, and in any body of standing water in the Philippines. It is tolerant of moderate salinity.	eng
58269	population	Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni & Robert Inger, 2004	It is common to abundant in appropriate habitats. It is introduced to New Guinea and its population there is increasing.	eng
58269	threats	Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, N., Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni & Robert Inger, 2004	Over-harvesting is a potential threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation might also be threatening some populations, in particular the destruction of mangroves for wood, expansion of human settlements, and the construction of roads. There are no threats to the species in the Nicobar Islands. In New Guinea this species is probably a threat to native fauna.	eng
58270	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58270	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of Jessore, Bangladesh.	eng
58270	habitat		It is thought likely to be an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58270	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58270	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58271	conservation		It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park, Agra-Bopats Forest Reserve, Pattipola Forest Reserve and the Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
58271	distribution		This species is restricted to the central hills of Sri Lanka. Krishnamurthy and Shakunthala (1993) reported it from Karnataka, India. Dutta (1997) rejected the species' presence in India, but notes that there is an unspecified form of <em>Fejervarya</em> in Karnataka and Maharashtra that is closely related to <em>F. greenii</em> (S. Dutta pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,700-2,135m asl.	eng
58271	habitat		It is associated with wetland habitats (including riparian vegetation) within montane tropical moist forest, and is not present in modified habitats (since there are only pockets of natural habitat within these). Adults are both aquatic and terrestrial, and may be found under grass tussocks. Larvae are present in shallow, vegetated, slow-flowing waters and marshes.	eng
58271	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58271	threats		The loss of forest habitat through conversion to cultivated land (tea plantations), pollution (principally by agrochemicals), desiccation of wetlands and forest fires in Horton Plains, and predation by introduced trout (<em>Salmo</em> sp.) are the main threats to this species.	eng
58272	conservation		None are needed, other than determining its geographic distribution.	eng
58272	distribution		This species occurs in Bandung and Sukabumi in western Java, Indonesia. It has been recorded between 200 and 700m asl. It was only recently described and probably occurs more widely on Java.	eng
58272	habitat		This species is only known from paddy fields, where it also breeds.	eng
58272	population		This newly described species is locally common.	eng
58272	threats		None are known since it lives entirely in human modified habitat.	eng
58273	conservation	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., & Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	It has been recorded in the following protected areas; Kudremukh National Park (Karnataka), Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyer Tiger Reserve and Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), and Indira Gandhi National Park (Tamil Nadu). It is included in a number of ongoing field studies in the Western Ghats. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58273	distribution	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., & Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	Specimens referred to this species have been recorded throughout the Western Ghats, India. Records from Gujarat require confirmation (S.D. Biju pers. comm.) and are not included as part of this assessment. This species has recently been reported from Arunachal Pradesh, India (Sarkar and Ray 2006), although given the huge geographic discontinuity these populations might pertain to another species.	eng
58273	habitat	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., & Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	Habitats include wet evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest and marshlands. It has been recorded from modified habitats including agricultural land and villages. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds. There is little information available on larval ecology.	eng
58273	population	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., & Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	It is a locally common species, although it is considered to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh (Sarkar and Ray 2006).	eng
58273	threats	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., & Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	Habitat loss as a result of intensive agriculture and urbanization is a major threat.   Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).	eng
58274	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas including Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Udawattekele Forest Reserve, Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Kelani Valley Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Knuckles Forest Reserve, Tangamalai Forest Reserve and the Wasgamuwa National Park.	eng
58274	distribution		This species is a widely distributed Sri Lankan endemic found throughout much of the south and centre of the island. It is present from 150-1,580m asl.	eng
58274	habitat		It is associated with tropical forest, savannah, grasslands and wetlands, in both montane and lowland areas. Specimens have also been recorded in rubber and palm oil plantations and home gardens. Adults are generally semi-aquatic in nature. Larvae are aquatic and may be found in puddles, pools and streams (often at the edges).	eng
58274	population		It is generally a common frog.	eng
58274	threats		Agrochemical pollution of land and water appears to be the main threat to this species.	eng
58275	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Wai Neng Lau, M., Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A., Sabitry Bordoloi, Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	Many protected areas in the region support this species. Taxonomic analysis of the <span style="font-style: italic;">F. limnocharis</span> complex is needed, and determination of the species' breeding status in Guam is also required. No other conservation actions are necessary at this time. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58275	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Wai Neng Lau, M., Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A., Sabitry Bordoloi, Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	This species is widespread throughout much of South Asia and Southeast Asia, including many islands in Indonesia, the Philippines, Phuket and Singapore and is also found in northern, central, southern and south-western China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau). It is distributed in western Japan, in the western half of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu Districts and Nansei Islands. It was recently introduced to Tsushima and Iki. The northern extremity of the species range in Japan is expanding rapidly. It has also been introduced to Guam, although it is not known whether it has established a breeding population there (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is found from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
58275	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Wai Neng Lau, M., Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A., Sabitry Bordoloi, Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	It inhabits most open wet habitat types, including river floodplains, wet agriculture areas such as rice fields, ditches, marshes, parks, gardens and other habitats and in closed-canopy forest (although this is rare in some regions). Its breeding and larval development take place in various wetland habitats.	eng
58275	population	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Wai Neng Lau, M., Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A., Sabitry Bordoloi, Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	Frogs of this complex are generally common and abundant in suitable habitat. A slight decline (associated with pesticide application) has recently been observed in the Sri Lanka population/species and deformed specimens have also been observed.	eng
58275	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Wai Neng Lau, M., Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Dutta, S., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., de Silva, A., Sabitry Bordoloi, Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	The main threats to this species are the use of agrochemicals, specifically pesticide application, the drainage of suitable wetland areas and prolonged droughts. Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central Western Ghats (Gurushankara<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
58276	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58276	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of Manila, Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
58276	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58276	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58276	threats		The specific threats to it are not known, though the type locality is now a large city.	eng
58277	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58277	distribution		This species was originally described from the type locality of "Hong-Kong", China. The type specimens are believed to have been lost and a neotype (the holotype of <em>Rana gracilis</em>; Wiegmann, 1834) from Kap Shui Mun, Lantau Island, Hong Kong, China, was designated by Dubois and Ohler (2000).	eng
58277	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58277	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58277	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58278	conservation		The species appears to have been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and it is protected by national legislation. Further systematic work and field studies are urgently required to determine the current taxonomic and population status of this species.	eng
58278	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the type series collected from Naduvattom, Tamil Nadu (not Kerala as stated in the type description) in the southern Western Ghats. It is a montane species found at elevations of around 2,200m asl.	eng
58278	habitat		This little-known species of tropical moist forest is generally terrestrial in nature. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58278	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
58278	threats		This species is threatened by a continuing loss of habitat caused by the conversion of forest to agricultural use and for commercial timber plantations.	eng
58279	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation. Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.	eng
58279	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Water courses in the forests of Jog, Shimoga, Mysore State, 4,000-5,000 feet [around 1,200-1,500m asl]" (Rao 1922), in Karnataka in the Western Ghats, in southern India.	eng
58279	habitat		As the original collection took place in "the forests of Jog" (Rao 1922) it is presumed that this is a species of wet semi-evergreen forest that breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58279	population		It is known only from the type collection, so its current population status is unknown.	eng
58279	threats		The remaining forests in the area of the type collection are threatened by a number of factors, including the conversion of land for agricultural use (including for paddy fields and coconut palms), and subsistence harvesting of timber and wood products by local people.	eng
58280	conservation	Sabitry Bordoloi & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	The species is present in Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India, and might be found in other protected areas in Nepal and Nagaland. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shresthra (2000). It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58280	distribution	Sabitry Bordoloi & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	This species is present in Nepal where it occurs throughout much of the country, and has recently been recorded from Nagaland (where it is widely distributed) and West Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, as well as from southern and southeastern Bangladesh. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is generally found at elevations below 500 m asl.	eng
58280	habitat	Sabitry Bordoloi & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	It occurs in grassland, forest and agricultural land (especially paddy fields) and close to human settlements. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools, marshes and paddy fields. There is no information on egg deposition or larval ecology.	eng
58280	population	Sabitry Bordoloi & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	It is considered to be common.	eng
58280	threats	Sabitry Bordoloi & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	The main threats are the loss of breeding habitat (including pollution and/or poisoning by agrochemicals), and over harvesting (mostly for subsistence use, and medicinal use).	eng
58281	conservation	Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Das, I. & Vijayakumar, S.P., 2008	The range of this species includes a number of protected areas, including the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve. A taxonomic evaluation of this species is required. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58281	distribution	Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Das, I. & Vijayakumar, S.P., 2008	This species is widespread in Southeast Asia. It is known from a number of possibly isolated locations in Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Taylor 1962, Berry 1975 and Frith 1977), it occurs widely in Borneo, and on Siberut, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Tawi-tawi and Jolo in Indonesia. In the Philippines, it occurs only on the islands of Palawan (from where there have been no recent records), Balabac and Sibutu. It is known from Car Nicobar, Teressa, Katchall, Nancowry, Kamorta, Pulo Milo, Little Nicobar, and Great Nicobar Islands in India (S.P. Vijayakumar pers comm.). It has also been reported from Arunachal Pradesh, in India (Sarkar and Ray 2006). It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
58281	habitat	Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Das, I. & Vijayakumar, S.P., 2008	It is usually found in secondary-growth vegetation and human-modified habitats such as grassy or shrubby vegetation in swampy situations, disturbed environments, towns, cities and logging roads, but it also inhabit lowland and lower montane rainforests and swamp forest. Males call from ditches, flooded fields, and ponds. The species breeds in rainwater ponds, flooded fields, lowland swamps, tree holes, and roadside ditches.	eng
58281	population	Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Das, I. & Vijayakumar, S.P., 2008	It is fairly common throughout its range, except in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is considered to be rare.	eng
58281	threats	Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Inger, R., Das, I. & Vijayakumar, S.P., 2008	In the Nicobar Islands it is threatened by the loss of its forest habitat as a result of agricultural encroachment, expanding wood plantations, growing human settlements, and the construction of roads. However there are no significant threats to the species overall.	eng
58282	conservation		It is present in the Nilgiri Biosphere Protected Area, and is protected by national legislation. It is included as part of ongoing field studies from 1998 onwards (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
58282	distribution		This species is known with certainty from only two populations, in Wayanad in Kerala and the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. Reports of this species from Maharashtra require further confirmation and are not included as part of this assessment. It has been recorded from 800-1,600m asl.	eng
58282	habitat		It is associated with stagnant and running waters in disturbed forest and cultivated areas adjacent to forests, and is not found in cultivated areas away from the forest. Breeding takes place in both artificial and natural ponds. There is little information on its larval ecology.	eng
58282	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
58282	threats		The main threats to this species are continuing habitat loss due to agriculture (involving crops, livestock farming, and plantations) and human settlement.	eng
58283	conservation		It has been recorded from the Chandaka Wildlife Sanctuary and the Simlipal Tiger Reserve. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58283	distribution		This species is endemic to the State of Orissa in eastern India. It has been recorded at elevations between 100 and 500m asl. It is widely distributed throughout Orissa.	eng
58283	habitat		It is generally associated with grasslands and agricultural areas, with nearby ponds, streams and other suitable wetlands. There is little information on breeding biology or larval ecology.	eng
58283	population		It is a common species.	eng
58283	threats		Agrochemical pollution of both terrestrial and aquatic habitats is the main threat to this species.	eng
58284	conservation		Recent sampling in the Parambikulam area has failed to locate any specimens that are referable to the type description, so further sampling of the area's forests is urgently required. It is possible that the type locality might be in a protected area (possibly the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary), but the original site of collection is unclear. This species is protected by national legislation. Its taxonomic validity needs to be investigated.	eng
58284	distribution		This species is known only from the Western Ghats type locality of "Parambikulam forests, Cochin State" (Rao 1937), now in Kerala, India. It is possible that the type specimen was collected at around 700m asl.	eng
58284	habitat		While this species was collected from "Parambikulam forests" (Rao 1937) there is no confirmed information on its habitat and ecology. It is presumed to breed in water by larval development.	eng
58284	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.	eng
58284	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58285	conservation	Tej Kumar Shrestha & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	The species is known to occur in Royal Chitwan National Park.	eng
58285	distribution	Tej Kumar Shrestha & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	This species occurs in central and eastern Nepal, and in southern and southeastern Bangladesh. It occurs at elevations below 500 m asl.	eng
58285	habitat	Tej Kumar Shrestha & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	It is associated with paddy fields. Reproduction takes place in both ponds and paddy fields.	eng
58285	population	Tej Kumar Shrestha & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	It is considered to be common.	eng
58285	threats	Tej Kumar Shrestha & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	The main threat to this species is the pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals.	eng
58286	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58286	distribution		This taxon is known only from the type locality of a "small pool of water at a height of about 2,000 feet [600m asl] on the Penang hill", Malaysia.	eng
58286	habitat		It is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58286	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58286	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58287	conservation		Its taxonomic status needs to be resolved before conservation measures can be recommended for it.	eng
58287	distribution		According to Taylor (1962), this species is known from Pattani, Songkhla and Phatthalung Provinces in southern Thailand, and Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia. Recent records from Thailand come from Toh Daeng peat swamp in Narathiwat Province. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In particular, it is possible that some records of <em>Fejervarya cancrivora</em> in Peninsular Malaysia refer to this species.	eng
58287	habitat		It presumably lives in brackish water and heavily disturbed, impacted environments, and breeds in stagnant water.	eng
58287	population		No clear information is available regarding this species's population status due to the confusion with <em>F. cancrivora</em>.	eng
58287	threats		Populations that could represent this species are harvested for human consumption, which could represent a threat to it.	eng
58288	conservation	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S. & Padhye, A., 2004	It has been recorded from several protected areas. There are several ongoing field studies into the region's amphibian fauna. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58288	distribution	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S. & Padhye, A., 2004	This species is widespread throughout the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,500 m asl.	eng
58288	habitat	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S. & Padhye, A., 2004	It is associated with riparian and forest edge habitats, in open and lightly degraded tropical moist semi-evergreen forest. There is little information on breeding biology or larval development.	eng
58288	population	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S. & Padhye, A., 2004	It is a locally common species. There are no quantitative population data available.	eng
58288	threats	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S. & Padhye, A., 2004	General loss of riparian and forest edge habitat by localized agriculture (small scale farming) is a major threat.   Morphological abnormalities, presumably due to chemical contamination, have been found in some frogs inhabiting agroecosystems in the central <st1:place>Western Ghats</st1:place> (Gurushankara<em> et al. </em>2007).	eng
58289	conservation		It is protected by national legislation. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status.	eng
58289	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Wattekole, Coorg [Mysore], S. India" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India. It was collected at an altitude of around 400m asl.	eng
58289	habitat		It is presumed that this is a moist tropical forest species that breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58289	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.	eng
58289	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58290	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58290	distribution		This taxon is known only from the unspecific type locality of "Borneo". It is not possible to map its distribution, since it is not even known which country it was collected in.	eng
58290	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic taxon with larval development.	eng
58290	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58290	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58291	conservation	Dutta, S., Sengupta, S., Uddin Sarker, S. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	Given its extensive range it is likely that the species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58291	distribution	Dutta, S., Sengupta, S., Uddin Sarker, S. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	This species is widely distributed over much of central northern India and western Peninsular India, southern Nepal, eastern Pakistan (from lower Punjab, Sindh) and Bangladesh. It is found at elevations below 2,000 m asl.	eng
58291	habitat	Dutta, S., Sengupta, S., Uddin Sarker, S. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	It is associated with paddy fields and similar wetland habitats. It breeds in paddy fields and other suitable wetlands. Non-breeding individuals may be found hiding in crevices, and under vegetation and other ground cover.	eng
58291	population	Dutta, S., Sengupta, S., Uddin Sarker, S. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	It is a common species, especially in paddy fields.	eng
58291	threats	Dutta, S., Sengupta, S., Uddin Sarker, S. & Sharif Khan, M., 2004	The main threat to this species is the pollution of waterbodies with agrochemicals.	eng
58292	conservation	Sabitry Bordoloi, Annemarie Ohler & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal, Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Baghmara Reserve Forest in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58292	distribution	Sabitry Bordoloi, Annemarie Ohler & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	This species is widely distributed in Nagaland, India, up to 2,440 m asl, and has recently been confirmed to occur in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura, India. It is also known from southern Nepal, where it is restricted to elevations below 500 m asl, and from south and southeastern Bangladesh. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58292	habitat	Sabitry Bordoloi, Annemarie Ohler & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	It is associated with open grasslands, and is often found close to permanent pools and streams. Breeding takes place in temporary and permanent pools and paddy fields.	eng
58292	population	Sabitry Bordoloi, Annemarie Ohler & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	It is a common species.	eng
58292	threats	Sabitry Bordoloi, Annemarie Ohler & Tej Kumar Shrestha, 2004	Contamination of waterways by agrochemicals, especially pesticides, is a major threat. They are also collected locally for use as meat and for religious purposes.	eng
58293	conservation		None needed for this adaptable species.	eng
58293	distribution		This species is known only from Timor (including East Timor), Wetar, Sumba, Alor and Damar in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. It occurs at low altitudes.	eng
58293	habitat		It occurs in paddy fields, where it also breeds.	eng
58293	population		This is an abundant species.	eng
58293	threats		None are known. It lives in human-modified habitats, and so it is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
58294	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
58294	distribution		This species occurs on all the major islands in the Philippines.	eng
58294	habitat		It is usually found in anthropogenis habitats such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes. It breeds in nearly any body of available water.	eng
58294	population		It is abundant and common where present.	eng
58294	threats		Available information indicates that this species is not subject to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival at present.	eng
58295	conservation		It has been recorded from Tsavo East National Park in Kenya, but does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia.	eng
58295	distribution		This species occurs from northern Somalia to southern Kenya (as far south as Voi), and in southern Ethiopia. There are very few records, and the map assumes that the species occurs in large areas between known sites.	eng
58295	habitat		It is a fossorial species of arid savannah and semi-desert country, and is likely to be found above ground only during seasonal rains. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58295	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species.	eng
58295	threats		The most likely threat is drought, but also environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent increase in populations of domestic livestock (perhaps especially impacting breeding sites).	eng
58296	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58296	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	This species ranges very widely in tropical and subtropical Africa from Senegal and Gambia east to Kenya and south to northern Namibia, northern Botswana, southern Mozambique and northern South Africa. It appears not to have been recorded from Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries. It is a low-altitude species, occurring up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
58296	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It is a burrowing species, only seen above ground during the breeding season. It occurs in dry and more humid savannas, and it is absent from pockets of forest and high rocky terrain within its range. It is able to survive in modified habitats. It is an explosive breeder, and is known to breed in large temporary waters and small mud holes with and without vegetation. These are not common habitats, hence its patchy distribution.	eng
58296	population	Rödel, M.-O., Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It is common in many parts of its range, although it is often of very patchy occurrence. However, it is generally uncommon in West Africa, with small populations at any one locality.	eng
58296	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58297	conservation		The taxonomic status of this form, and its relationship to <em>H. ornata</em>, needs to be resolved.	eng
58297	distribution		This species is known only from three localities in central Angola: Bié, Bingondo, and Bimbe. However, Poynton and Haacke (1993) suggested that Angolan populations of <em>Hildebrandtia ornata</em> approached this species morphologically.	eng
58297	habitat		If this species is similar to <em>H. ornata</em>, it is a fossorial savannah species that breeds explosively in temporary waterbodies.	eng
58297	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58297	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58298	conservation		Given the wide range of this frog, it is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58298	distribution		This species is present throughout most of South Asia in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of sea level to 600m asl.	eng
58298	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of seasonally flooded dry grasslands, open plains and arid areas. Breeding, and presumably larval development, takes place in many different types of waterbodies. Adults are often found in burrows, and are known to aestivate during dry periods. It is present in cultivated areas and around human settlements.	eng
58298	population		It is a locally uncommon species. The total population is widely distributed, and the species is found at many localities.	eng
58298	threats		Habitat loss through the general development of infrastructure within the region, and adult mortality through road kill (in India) are threats to this species. Over collection of adults for subsistence use (in India) might also be a threat, as well as the reclamation of wetlands in Sri Lanka.	eng
58299	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58299	distribution		This species of the African savannah zone ranges from southern Mauritania to Ethiopia, south through East Africa to northern Zambia, southern and western Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and coastal Congo and Gabon. There are isolated populations in southwestern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, southeastern Western Sahara and nearby Mauritania, the Air mountains of Niger, and northern Mali [Adrar de Iforas]).	eng
58299	habitat		It lives in many habitats from dry savannahs to disturbed forest, using logging roads and rivers to penetrate deep into lowland forest. It breeds in small to medium-sized temporary waters, but not in permanent waters, since it cannot compete with fish.	eng
58299	population		It is widespread and common over much of its range, with relict isolated populations in oases and wells in the Sahelian and Saharan regions.	eng
58299	threats		Human consumption is a problem locally, especially in West and Central Africa. However, it is an adaptable species, and overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
58300	conservation		The range of this species includes many protected areas. This is a Class II state major protected animal in Mainland China and also a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. Management of the exploitation of wild populations might be needed in certain localities.	eng
58300	distribution		This species is widespread from central, southern and south-western China including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau to Myanmar through Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam and Cambodia south to the Thai-Malay peninsula. Records from further south are attributed here to Limnonectes cancrivora and L. raja. It was introduced and established in Sabah, Borneo in the 1980's (Inger and Tan, 1996). It has also recently been introduced to the Philippines and so far is known from central Luzon and from Puerto Princesa City on Palawan. It occurs up to 700m asl.	eng
58300	habitat		It lives in paddy fields, irrigation infrastructure, fishponds, ditches, floodplain wetlands, forest pools, and other wet areas. The tadpoles live in pools and ponds. The adults are effective predators on other species of frogs and its larvae prey on tadpoles of other species.	eng
58300	population		It is common in appropriate habitat, although the numbers of large animals might be depressed by local exploitation. Captive-bred tadpoles are released by rural people and the Fisheries Department in Thailand and probably elsewhere.	eng
58300	threats		It has probably taken advantage of the conversion of lowland forest to wet rice culture, and has managed to thrive in these conditions, despite exploitation. Agricultural change, pollution, hydrological changes, and competition from exotic bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) represent a potential threat, but the species is unlikely to be seriously impacted throughout most of its range soon.	eng
58301	conservation		It is listed in Appendix II of CITES. Export for commercial purposes from India and Bangladesh is prohibited by appropriate national legislation. It is included in Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (as amended in 1991). Improved identification of specimens exported from Southeast Asia (including those indicated as being of captive-bred origin) is required to determine whether or not they are <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tigerinus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">H. rugulosus</span>. Within India and Bangladesh there is a need to monitor populations of this species over the next five years, to determine current population trends. Protection of this species since the mid-1990's has resulted in a rise in numbers, although populations are still considered to be low. It has been recorded from numerous protected areas throughout its range.	eng
58301	distribution		This species is found throughout most wetland areas of India, Bangladesh and much of northern Pakistan, and is recorded from the southern parts of Nepal, and from upper and northern central Myanmar (Smith, 1940; Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998). It has been reported from Afghanistan close to the Khyber Pass (Kullmann 1974), although this report needs to be reconfirmed. The presence in Bhutan of this species needs to be confirmed. Populations in Sri Lanka are now believed to belong to a separate taxon and have not been included in this account. It has also been introduced to the Maldives and Madagascar, where it is expanding its range at low altitudes in the northwest and on the island of Nosy Be. A principally lowland species, it is found at elevations between 25 and 800m asl, over much of its range, although it might occur up to 2,000m asl in Nepal (Dubois, 1976).	eng
58301	habitat		It is mainly aquatic, inhabiting mostly freshwater wetlands, both natural and artificial (especially paddy fields). It is absent or uncommon in forested areas and coastal regions (Fugler, 1983). It is mostly solitary and nocturnal, inhabiting holes and bushes near permanent water courses and pools (Dutta, 1990). Its diet includes invertebrates, small mammals and birds. Breeding takes place during the monsoon season, when adults congregate at ephemeral rainwater pools. It produces large numbers of eggs (and so has potentially high levels of recruitment), but there are high mortality rates among tadpoles, froglets and adult frogs.	eng
58301	population		At present the species is considered to be locally common throughout much of its South Asian range. However it is predicted that populations might decline in the near future because of habitat loss and water pollution. It is farmed in substantial numbers in Thailand for domestic consumption and export (Pariyanonth and Daorerk, 1995). It is common in Madagascar where it is introduced, and its range is expanding.	eng
58301	threats		It was once heavily collected for the international frog legs trade. Legal export of this species from the range states of India and Bangladesh has been banned since the mid-1990's. Specimens currently traded under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">H. tigerinus </span>are likely to be confused with specimens of the Southeast Asian congenic <span style="font-style: italic;">H. rugulosus</span>. Loss of wetland habitats through infrastructure development, prolonged drought and water pollution by pesticides and other agrochemicals are now the main threats to the species. It is considered a pest in Madagascar, where it was originally introduced as a source of human food, and it is still harvested for this purpose, but not at a level to contain the spread of the species.	eng
58302	conservation		It is known from at least five protected areas. Preservation and protection of large areas of hilly rainforest are needed.	eng
58302	distribution		This species is endemic to central and northern Borneo. It has a wide altitudinal range of 150-1,600m asl.	eng
58302	habitat		Primary rainforests in hilly terrain is the principal habitat, though the species has also been observed in old secondary growth. Adults are terrestrial and disperse widely through the forest. Tadpoles cling to rocks in the strongest rapids in clear streams and presumably feed on lithophytic algae.	eng
58302	population		Although tadpoles have been seen rather often, adults are seen only rarely. Estimates of subpopulation size do not exist.	eng
58302	threats		Deforestation and subsequent siltation of streams are the main threats to this species.	eng
58303	conservation		It is found in Halimun National Park, Ujong Kulon National Park, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, and Dieng Nature Reserve.	eng
58303	distribution		This species is endemic to Java, Indonesia. From current knowledge it occurs only in west and central Java from 50-1,200m asl.	eng
58303	habitat		It is restricted to unpolluted, clear, fast-flowing streams and torrents, in forests and in somewhat more open areas. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58303	population		It is a common species in its specialized habitat.	eng
58303	threats		Soil erosion and the sedimentation of streams, as well as agro-chemical pollution, are the main threats to this species. These threats, which result from habitat modification taking place around streams, are leading to a rapid loss of suitable habitats within its range.	eng
58304	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58304	distribution		This species is known only from collections at two sites (Si Rambé and Bantjan Batu) in the vicinity of Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia. The Bantjan Batu specimen was collected at 400m asl.	eng
58304	habitat		This is probably a tropical forest species that is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
58304	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which was described on the basis of museum specimens collected before 1920.	eng
58304	threats		The threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss due to logging and the creation of plantations.	eng
58305	conservation		The species' range includes numerous protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve what might be a species complex.	eng
58305	distribution		This species is known from central Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999; R. Bain pers. comm.), the Annamite mountains of central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and northern and western Thailand (Yang 1991, in Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Records from northern Vietnam and from Yunnan and Guangxi on China refer to <em>Amolops mengyangensis</em>. Known localities are between 600 and 1,500m asl.	eng
58305	habitat		It has been observed on rock faces, boulders and streamside vegetation in the spray zones of waterfalls, in evergreen forest (Stuart, 1999), as well as in hill streams. It breeds in clear, flowing streams. It has not been found outside forest.	eng
58305	population		It is apparently not uncommon locally, as reasonable series have been collected from Tam Dao (Bourret, 1941; Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999) in Viet Nam.	eng
58305	threats		The specific threats to this species are not certain, but it is believed to be affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming,  harvesting of wood and expanding human settlements.	eng
58306	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat, and Barisan-Selatan National Parks.	eng
58306	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountains of western Sumatra (in Aceh, North Sumatra, West Sumatra, Bengkulu and Lampung Provinces). It occurs from 200 to more than 1,200m asl.	eng
58306	habitat		It lives in clean torrents and fast-flowing streams in forest and open areas near the forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
58306	population		It is abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
58306	threats		The major threat is siltation of the streams and chemical pollution resulting from deforestation and agriculture (paddy fields).	eng
58307	conservation		Because of taxonomic uncertainty it is not clear as to which protected areas this species occurs in. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by S.D. Biju. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58307	distribution		This species complex has been described over a wide distribution in the Western Ghats in India. The map shows the range of the species complex only. Taxonomic confusion prevents an accurate estimate of altitudinal range.	eng
58307	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with riparian habitats in wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps. It is not present in cultivated areas. Breeding takes place on wet cliffs and the larvae are found on these surfaces close to streams.	eng
58307	population		Due to taxonomic uncertainty there is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
58307	threats		It is threatened by the conversion of forest to agricultural use (including coffee, tea and cardamom plantations), the construction of roads, and deforestation for subsistence purposes.	eng
58308	conservation		It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Periyar Tiger Reserve (in Kerala). It has been included in field studies by Ravichandran (1995-1997) and Biju (2000-present). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58308	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. Populations occur at Ponmudi, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (in Kerala), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) and Coorg and Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka). It has an altitudinal range of 800-1,200m asl.	eng
58308	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams in wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps. It may be found at forest edges, but not in agricultural land. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.	eng
58308	population		It is locally common.	eng
58308	threats		The main threat to this species is the loss of forested areas following conversion to agricultural land (including coffee, tea and cardamom plantations), and harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes.	eng
58309	conservation		It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Ghandi National Park (in Tamil Nadu), and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary (in Kerala). It has been included in field studies by Ravichandran (1995-1997) and Biju (1997-present). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58309	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India. It is known from Srivilliputhur, Indira Ghandi National Park, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu), and Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Ponmudi Hills and Athirimala (all in Kerala). It has an altitudinal range of 600-1,000m asl.	eng
58309	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams in primary wet evergreen and semi-evergreen tropical forests and swamps, and is not present in secondary forest or modified habitats. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.	eng
58309	population		It is locally uncommon, and believed to be declining.	eng
58309	threats		The main threat is the loss of forested areas through conversion to agricultural land (including coffee and tea plantations), and the harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes. Road construction, especially in Ponmudi and surroundings, is an additional threat to the habitat of this species.	eng
58310	conservation		It is not known to be present in any protected areas. Further surveys are required at the type locality, and within suitable nearby forests, to determine the range and population status of this species. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58310	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "Gundia, forêt de Kemphole, à l'ouest de Sakleshpur, Karnataka, Inde" in the Western Ghats of India. The type locality is at an elevation of around 200m asl.	eng
58310	habitat		It is a terrestrial species of moist tropical forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.	eng
58310	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58310	threats		The species is threatened by habitat loss caused by intensive livestock production, harvesting of wood and timber by local people, road construction, and the development of tourism facilities.	eng
58311	conservation		It has been recorded in the following Wildlife Sanctuaries of Maharashtra State: Bhimashankar, Chandoli, Kalsubai Harishchandra, Koyna National Park, and Phansad. It is protected by national legislation	eng
58311	distribution		This taxon is known with certainty only from the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State in India. All additional records are believed to refer to other taxa. Further taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the precise identity of specimens currently assigned to this species collected outside Maharashtra State. It has an altitudinal range of 400-1,200m asl.	eng
58311	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with leaf-litter of moist, tropical, semi-evergreen forest. It is also found in degraded forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on moist surfaces next to streams.	eng
58311	population		It is locally common, even in degraded forest areas.	eng
58311	threats		It is mostly threatened by the conversion of forested land to intensive agricultural use. Harvesting of wood for subsistence use by local people and road construction are also threats. The type locality (Matheran) is threatened by tourism development.	eng
58312	conservation		It has been recorded from the protected areas of Athirimala Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulam National Park (all in Kerala), and Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakkad-Mundanthuai Wildlife Sanctuary (both in Tamil Nadu). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58312	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It is known from the Agasthyamala Hills, Kalakkad-Mundanthuai, Athirimala, Periyar Tiger Reserve (a recent collection by S.D. Biju) and Eravikulam National Park (in Kerala) and the Anamalai Hills of Parambikulam and Indira Ghandi National Park (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu). It occurs at elevations above 800m asl.	eng
58312	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with the leaf-litter substrate of moist tropical semi-evergreen forest, and it is not known from modified habitats. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.	eng
58312	population		It is locally uncommon.	eng
58312	threats		The major threat is clearance of forested land for agricultural use (including tea plantations), timber plantations, and the harvesting of wood by local people for subsistence use.	eng
58313	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation.	eng
58313	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.	eng
58313	habitat		The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.	eng
58313	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so its population status is unknown.	eng
58313	threats		The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use.	eng
58314	conservation		The species is present in Indira Ghandi National Park. It is included as part of field studies by Biju (1997) and Vijaykumar (1999 and ongoing). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58314	distribution		This species is known only from a restricted area in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats in India. It is found at an elevation of around 500m asl. It has also been reported from Maharashtra, but this record requires further investigation and is not included in this account.	eng
58314	habitat		A terrestrial species associated with leaf-litter in tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.	eng
58314	population		It is very rare and is known to be declining at its only known site.	eng
58314	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to subsistence wood collecting.	eng
58315	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor (1995 and onwards) and Biju (1997 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58315	distribution		This species is widespread in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has a wide altitudinal range of between 200 and 1,100m asl.	eng
58315	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with riparian vegetation and leaf-litter in wet evergreen, and semi-evergreen, tropical forests and swamps. It has been recorded in coffee plantations and disturbed forest. Breeding takes place on wet rocks, and the larvae are found on wet rock surfaces next to streams.	eng
58315	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
58315	threats		Conversion of land to commercial agricultural use (including coffee plantations) appears to be the main threat to this species. Harvesting of wood and timber for subsistence use, and the development of mining and tourism in the Western Ghats region are also threats.	eng
58316	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation.	eng
58316	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kemphole Ghats, Hassan, Mysore, South India" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 400m asl.	eng
58316	habitat		The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds like other members of the genus, with larvae being found on wet rocks next to streams.	eng
58316	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58316	threats		The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use, road construction and the development of tourism facilities.	eng
58317	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.	eng
58317	distribution		This species is reported from Dayangdong, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it is found at 3,100m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.	eng
58317	habitat		It lives under moss in forest and probably breeds on land, and is probably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
58317	population		It has a low population size.	eng
58317	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
58318	conservation		The species is present in at least five protected areas. More needs to be learned of breeding habits and subpopulation sizes.	eng
58318	distribution		This species is known only from northern and western Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at altitudes of 100-900m asl.	eng
58318	habitat		It is known only from lowland and mid-elevation primary rainforests where it has been found in the floor litter and along stream banks. It probably breeds on land by direct development, like other members of its genus.	eng
58318	population		No subpopulation size estimates have been made. At one or two localities it seems to be relatively common.	eng
58318	threats		Deforestation is the most serious threat to this species.	eng
58319	conservation		It occurs in the Xishuagbanna National Nature Reserve and in the Xishuangbanna Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.	eng
58319	distribution		This species is known from southern Yunnan Province (Mengla, Jinghong and Cangyuan Counties) in China. It is expected to occur in adjacent Lao People's Democratic Republic and Myanmar, but due to lack of survey effort and taxonomic problems it has not yet been recorded. It occurs at elevations of 550-760m asl.	eng
58319	habitat		It occurs in or near streams in forested areas. It uses soft, muddy soil for its nests. The eggs are laid in a hole in the ground covered with leaves, and are guarded by the male. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58319	population		This is a rare species that is very difficult to find.	eng
58319	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation is the major threat to this species, in particular due to agriculture, and infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
58320	conservation		Its only known locality is not within any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.	eng
58320	distribution		This species is known only from Medog County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 1,500m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.	eng
58320	habitat		It inhabits forests at the edge of a lake, where it lives under moss and probably breeds on land. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
58320	population		It has a small population size.	eng
58320	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58321	conservation		Its only known locality is not with any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.	eng
58321	distribution		This species is known only from Medog County, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at around 890m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.	eng
58321	habitat		It lives under moss in forest and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
58321	population		It has a small population size.	eng
58321	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58322	conservation		Safeguarding the existing protected areas of Peninsular Thailand, and ideally adding Ulu Muda to the protected areas of Peninsular Malaysia, should safeguard the species' survival. Status surveys and conservation biology studies would be welcome.	eng
58322	distribution		This species is known from southern Tenasserim, Myanmar, and the Nakhon Sri Thammarat mountains (Smith, 1930) and the Trang mountains in Thailand. Its distinctive calls have also been heard in the forest of the Thai-Malay border region hills. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded at altitudes of about 300-600m asl (Smith, 1930).	eng
58322	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor near, yet above streams in closed-canopy rainforest. Distinctive calls are also heard in old rubber plantations. It is suspected to breed by direct development (Dubois, 1987) analogous to Taylorana hascheana.	eng
58322	population		Where this species occurs it tends to be rather common, but individuals are very difficult to find.	eng
58322	threats		A primary conservation concern would be the loss of closed-canopy rainforest habitat.	eng
58323	conservation		Its only known locality is not with any protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species has a larger range than is currently known, and to gather further information regards its population status and habitat requirements.	eng
58323	distribution		This species is restricted to Yi'ong, in Bomi County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it has been recorded at around 2,300m asl. It possibly ranges more widely, and its distributional limits are still unclear.	eng
58323	habitat		This species inhabits mixed forests, and lives under moss. It calls far from water in the breeding season, and probably breeds on land by direct development, like other species of the genus.	eng
58323	population		It has a small population size.	eng
58323	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58324	conservation		The species has been recorded from Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Knuckles Forest Reserve, Udawattakele Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary, Thangamale Sanctuary, Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve, Kitulgala Forest Reserve and Labugama-Kalatuwana Forest Reserve.	eng
58324	distribution		This is a widespread endemic of western, southern and central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of between 60 and 1,525m asl.	eng
58324	habitat		It is an aquatic species found in many forested and shaded wetland habitats, including shaded stream banks and under grass tussocks in marshes. It may also be found in home gardens. Larvae are wholly aquatic. It is not present in polluted waters.	eng
58324	population		It is considered to be a common species, but little else is known about the population size or trends.	eng
58324	threats		Agrochemical pollution, and drainage of wetlands (wetland reclamation for housing and vegetable farms) are the main threats to this species.	eng
58325	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
58325	distribution		This species is endemic to Somalia. Most records are from the south of the country in Bakool and Bay Provinces. It has also been recorded near the coast, north of Mogadishu, at Bud Bud in Galguduud Province, and near Garoowe in Nugaal Province. Recorded localities are the general vicinity of Garoowe, Bud Bud, El Ure (Uegit), Sciù Manàs (Baidoa), Dinsor, Rahole, Afgoi, and Showli Berdi (Bardera). It has been recorded up to 500m asl.	eng
58325	habitat		Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it is presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and small reservoirs.	eng
58325	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
58325	threats		There is little information on threats to this species. It might be affected by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at present.	eng
58326	conservation		There remains a need for much improved protection of the remaining rainforest habitats on Palawan, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides. Human exploitation of this species needs to be investigated to determine if this activity needs to be regulated.	eng
58326	distribution		This species is endemic to the Philippine islands of Balabac, Busuanga, Culion and Palawan. At present, the population on Mindoro is also attributed to this species. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites on Palawan.	eng
58326	habitat		It inhabits streams, rivers and pools in lower montane and lowland forests. Eggs are deposited on rocks or vegetation beside rivers and streams usually above water. It is somewhat adaptable, especially to modified wetland habitats.	eng
58326	population		It is a common species.	eng
58326	threats		Threats include deforestation due to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine-tailings. Harvesting for human subsistence is a possible threat.	eng
58327	conservation		It is found in the Gunung Latimojong Nature Reserve and Gunung Lompobatang Protection Forest. There is a need for improved habitat protection throughout its range.	eng
58327	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Lompobatang and Mount Latimojong, in south-western Sulawesi, Indonesia, above 1,200m asl.	eng
58327	habitat		It lives in undisturbed highland forest, usually close to small rivers and streams, and breeds on land. The eggs are laid on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. The larvae hatch on land and slide and tumble downhill into slow- to medium-flowing streams, where they develop further.	eng
58327	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58327	threats		The main threat is forest clearance for smallholder farming, which has resulted in extensive forest loss on mountain slopes within its range, and the drying up of the streams on which the species depends.	eng
58328	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forest in Kalimantan is essential for the conservation of this species.	eng
58328	distribution		This species has been found only in central and southern Kalimantan in Borneo, Indonesia, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58328	habitat		It is known only from the floor of lowland rainforests, where it is associated with slow-flowing streams in which it is likely to breed by larval development.	eng
58328	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
58328	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging.	eng
58329	conservation		This species inhabits a great number of protected areas throughout much of its range, and is protected by the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA), 1992, in Thailand. There is a need to ensure that the harvesting of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner (this species could benefit from commercial farming). Clarification of the taxonomy of the <em>blythii</em> complex is necessary to identify cryptic species of conservation concern.	eng
58329	distribution		This species ranges widely in south-east Asia, from Viet Nam and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, to Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra, the Anambas Islands and the Natuna Islands (Indonesia). It is also present on the islands of Phuket, Langkawi, Penang and Tioman. It has not been recorded from the Cardamom Mountains in Cambodia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
58329	habitat		It inhabits streams with gravel and boulders in primary and secondary evergreen forest. Males build a nesting hollow in a sandy streambed area, and the larvae develop in streams.	eng
58329	population		The population status of this species is locally variable, ranging from uncommon in western Thailand to very common in areas where harvesting does not occur in Peninsular Malaysia. It is generally less common in easily accessible areas near human habitation than in similar inaccessible areas, indicative of depleted populations due to harvesting. Cessation of harvesting leads to population recovery in five to 10 years (P. van Dijk pers. comm.).	eng
58329	threats		The major threat to this species is intensive collection for consumption at subsistence levels, and for local, national and international trade. Some populations have also probably been eliminated locally due to forest clearance.	eng
58330	conservation		Taxonomic research is needed to confirm the identity of some of the specimens recently attributed to this species.	eng
58330	distribution		This species is known with certainty from Da Ban, Lam Dong Province, southern Viet Nam (Smith 1922, in Bourret 1942). It has also been recorded from Moray (Kon Tum), Soklang (Gia Lai) and Phu Quoc Island (Kien Giang) by Sang and Cuc (1996), but there is some doubt associated with these identifications (although they are included in this account, and have been used when mapping its distribution). It has been recorded at about 200m asl.	eng
58330	habitat		It is found in swampy riverside floodplain areas in lowland forest. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it probably reproduces by larval development in water.	eng
58330	population		It is known from a single collection from the 1920s. Subsequent records from scattered locations are associated with some doubt, so this species' population status is not known.	eng
58330	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58331	conservation		It presumably lives in Gunung Rinjani Nature Reserve on Lombok, but there is probably less protection for the populations on Sumbawa and Flores. Surveys are needed to collect up-to-date information regarding the species' range, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
58331	distribution		This species is known only from Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, where it occurs up to at least 1,200m asl. There is little recent information on this species generally due to the lack of research in the area over the last 30 years. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58331	habitat		It is thought to live near forested streams like other members of the genus, and the larvae presumably develop in streams.	eng
58331	population		It is believed to be a common species.	eng
58331	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species, although forest loss might be a problem.	eng
58332	conservation		It is likely to inhabit several of the protected areas in peninsular Thailand, while referred specimens have been recorded from a number of Malaysian protected areas (Berry 1975). On Indian territory, where this species is protected by national legislation, it has been recorded from Mount Harriet Island National Park and Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Taxonomic clarification of the <em>L. macrognathus</em> species group is needed.	eng
58332	distribution		This species has been recorded from Tenasserim in Myanmar, and adjoining Prachuab and Chumphon Provinces of Thailand (Taylor 1962), in addition to a referred specimen recorded from Phuket (Frith 1977), localized occurrences in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Taylor 1962). The distribution in Peninsular Malaysia is questionable. Available records range from foothills up to 1,100m asl in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975).	eng
58332	habitat		This is a terrestrial species found in primary tropical forest. Breeding and larval development take place in forest streams.	eng
58332	population		No reliable data on its population status are available for this species, due to possible confusion with the sympatric <em>Limnonectes macrognathus</em> and <em>L. plicatella</em>.	eng
58332	threats		Over most of its range there are no specific threats to it. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, agricultural expansion, selective logging and road construction are believed to constitute threats.	eng
58333	conservation		The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Borneo, and the Sulawesi population is in a protected area, although confirmation is required that the forest at the Sulawesi site has not been logged.	eng
58333	distribution		This species is mostly known from lowland forests in northeastern and eastern Borneo. There has been one record from Sulawesi in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations below 650m asl.	eng
58333	habitat		It lives in the litter stratum of pristine lowland forests, but also in old secondary forest. Males guard small clutches of eggs under dead leaves and carry tadpoles to small rain pools on the forest floor where the larvae then develop.	eng
58333	population		It might be an uncommon species, although there are no population size estimates available.	eng
58333	threats		Clear-cutting of forests to establish oil palm plantations is the main threat to the species.	eng
58334	conservation		It is present in several protected areas on the island.	eng
58334	distribution		This species is known from hilly areas in central and south-western Hainan, China, from 290-1,000m asl.	eng
58334	habitat		It inhabits small, low-gradient streams, seepages and marshes in forested areas, and breeds in streams.	eng
58334	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58334	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, in particular due to agriculture and infrastructure development.	eng
58335	conservation		Many protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
58335	distribution		This species is known from central and southern China, including from Taiwan, Province of China, and Hong Kong. It has been recorded from 150-1,100m asl.	eng
58335	habitat		It inhabits seepages, low-gradient streams, ditches, pools and marshes in forested areas. It can also be found in human-modified habitats such as roadside ditches in forested areas.	eng
58335	population		In mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, it is very common, but in Hong Kong, it is considered to be rare.	eng
58335	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture and the construction of dams.	eng
58336	conservation		It occurs in the Raua Aopa Nature Reserve and several protected areas in New Guinea. The taxonomy of this species requires clarification to determine whether or not it harbours one or more sibling species with potentially restricted ranges.	eng
58336	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern peninsula and southeastern peninsula of Sulawesi, and on Muna, Buton, Wowoni and Kabaena Islands, in Indonesia, where it occurs up to 600m asl. It also occurs in the Maluku Islands (Halmahera, Seram, Ambon, Haluku, Saparua, Buru, and some other smaller islands) and is widespread on the New Guinea mainland in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It ranges up to 1,600m asl in New Guinea.	eng
58336	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic species living and breeding along side and in small and large streams, swamps and pools in tropical rainforest. It is also found in rural gardens, large pools, and degraded forest.	eng
58336	population		It is an abundant species, although it is only considered reasonably common in New Guinea.	eng
58336	threats		The main threat is exploitation for human food, since the animals on Sulawesi, which represent an undescribed species, are very large. It is also eaten in New Guinea.	eng
58337	conservation		It is known or suspected to inhabit most protected areas, in mainland Thailand and adjacent Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia, which contain streams in evergreen or mixed deciduous forest in hill or mountain areas.	eng
58337	distribution		This species is known from most of mainland Thailand and Cambodia, and from northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Taylor, 1962; Stuart, 1999; Ohler, et. al, 2002). It has been recorded at altitudes ranging from 200 (Inger and Colwell, 1977) to 800m asl, although Taylor (1962) recorded the species at 2,200m asl.	eng
58337	habitat		It inhabits small streams in evergreen or dense deciduous forest. It breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
58337	population		It is generally a relatively common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
58337	threats		The main threats involve forest degradation processes, which open up the canopy and interfere with the hydrological cycle, for example agricultural encroachment, logging and fires.	eng
58338	conservation		It inhabits a number of protected areas in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. A study of the taxonomic variability of this single widespread taxon would be interesting to compare to the great radiation that the direct-developing frogs of Sri Lanka show.	eng
58338	distribution		Nearly all records of this species are from the hill and mountain areas of Myanmar, west Thailand and the Thai-Malay Peninsula (Smith, 1940, Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975 and Kiew, 1987), with outliers in northern Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret, 1941 and Stuart, 1999). It is also known from Phuket Island in Thailand, Natuna Besar Island in Indonesia, Penang, Pulau Langkawi and Tioman Islands in Malaysia, but surprisingly not from China. It has not been recorded in surveys in Cambodia or southern Viet Nam. It is not present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (I. Das pers. comm.). It occurs between 50 and 1,000m asl.	eng
58338	habitat		It characteristically lives on fairly steep slopes in evergreen forest (rainforest or monsoon forest, primary or regenerated) with a fairly dense leaf-litter layer on soil, sloping to small streams. Males make an eggcup under forest floor leaf-litter, and the eggs develop directly without an aquatic larval stage (Taylor, 1962).	eng
58338	population		In appropriate habitat the species is not uncommon, based on distinctive calls. The animals are very rarely seen and are quite difficult to locate and catch.	eng
58338	threats		There are no major threats to the whole population at present. Populations persist in abandoned rubber plantations within the Kuala Lumpur metropolis, indicating the robustness of populations (P. van Dijk pers. comm.).	eng
58339	conservation		It occurs in the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park. Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and the degree to which it is being harvested for food.	eng
58339	distribution		This species is endemic to the province of North Sulawesi, in Indonesia. It is a lowland species occurring below 600m asl.	eng
58339	habitat		It lives near medium- to fast-flowing streams in forest. It can survive in secondary forest provided there is suitable canopy cover. It breeds in streams.	eng
58339	population		It is an uncommon species, and only a few specimens have been collected.	eng
58339	threats		The primary threat is forest clearance due to smallholder farming activities. It is also occasionally harvested for food.	eng
58340	conservation		It is present in at least three protected areas, although more effective protection of areas of hilly, lowland rainforest in Sarawak and Kalimantan is needed.	eng
58340	distribution		This species is known only from the central hilly regions of Borneo, below 500m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than currently recorded.	eng
58340	habitat		It is known only from the banks of clear, rocky streams in hilly lowland primary rainforest. Juveniles and adults do not disperse from the immediate vicinity of such streams and the larvae develop in pools along those streams.	eng
58340	population		It is considered to be locally abundant. A density of 20-60 individuals per 600m of stream length was estimated at one site in Sarawak surveyed in 1962-63.	eng
58340	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation arising from clear-cutting. As it is quite large, local people often hunt this species for food, and its long life cycle and small clutch size make it particularly vulnerable to overharvesting.	eng
58341	conservation		The species has been recorded from Danum Valley National Park. Survival of this species will depend on the preservation of areas of lowland rainforest.	eng
58341	distribution		This species has been found at a number of scattered locations in the northern half of Borneo, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58341	habitat		It is usually seen along slow-flowing, sandy-bottomed or slightly silty streams in primary or disturbed lowland rainforest. It sometimes also occurs in swampy areas. Adults feed on large prey, including other frogs and small reptiles. Larvae develop in quiet side pools of streams.	eng
58341	population		Its overall population status is unknown, but a density of 20-50 individuals per 600m of rainforest stream was estimated at one site surveyed.	eng
58341	threats		This species is probably being seriously affected by the extensive logging that is taking place within much of its range. Localized over-harvesting for food might also be impacting some populations.	eng
58342	conservation		It occurs in Gunung Rinjani Natural Reserve on Lombok.	eng
58342	distribution		This species occurs in Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Adonara and Lembata in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
58342	habitat		It lives around forested streams in primary and secondary wet and dry forest where a good canopy remains. It breeds in streams.	eng
58342	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
58342	threats		The most serious threats are the exploitation for food and water pollution from agriculture. Any forest clearance would also be detrimental to the species.	eng
58343	conservation		It is present in Sumasan National Park in Kalimantan.	eng
58343	distribution		This species is known only from two small areas in western Borneo: Merkata, in the Kenepai Mountains, in western Kalimantan (Indonesia); and extreme western Sarawak (Malaysia) near Sematan. Records from Sabah (Malaysia) in northern Borneo are not confirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58343	habitat		It is known only from lowland peat swamp forest. Breeding is presumably by larval development in water.	eng
58343	population		There are no estimates of population status available.	eng
58343	threats		Clear-cutting of lowland forest habitat is the main threat to this species.	eng
58344	conservation		The type locality is on the edge of Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
58344	distribution		This species is known from Nape, on the Khammon Plateau, in the Nakai-Nam Theun area of Lao People's Democratic Republic near the Vietnamese border (Bourret 1942). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
58344	habitat		This species is thought likely to live in forest and to breed by larval development in water.	eng
58344	population		It has not been recorded again since a single specimen was collected in 1926-27, despite herpetofaunal surveys in the general area (Stuart 1999), so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58344	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58345	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58345	distribution		This species is known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya State, India.	eng
58345	habitat		Its preferred habitat type is not known, although it is presumed to breed in freshwater and to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
58345	population		It is known only from the lost type specimen.	eng
58345	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58346	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas, and the priority is to safeguard these. Clarification of its taxonomic status and studies of its conservation biology and harvest levels are needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58346	distribution		This is a very wide-ranging species. It is found in southern Yunnan and Guangxi provinces, China, in two small areas of northeastern India (in Arunachal Pradesh), and throughout Southeast Asia south to Java, Borneo, the Anambas Islands and the Natunas Islands, but it has not been recorded from Cambodia or Singapore. It occurs from 200-1,800m asl.	eng
58346	habitat		It is found in small, clear streams in evergreen forest in hilly areas. It breeds in small tributary streams and the larvae develop in quiet pools along these streams. It does not wander from the vicinity of streams. In China it has also been found in still-water ponds and streams among fields.	eng
58346	population		It is a common and locally abundant frog.	eng
58346	threats		The major threat to this species is deforestation, and although the species complex as a whole is not at risk, some of its component cryptic taxa might be threatened by local threatening processes. It is locally collected for consumption and in China this might be threatening the species' survival.	eng
58347	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Sengupta, S. & Bordoloi, S., 2004	The species is well represented in protected areas and watershed protection forests in Peninsular Malaysia. In India it has been reported from Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary and the Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh. In Borneo, effective preservation of hilly lowland rainforest, especially in Kalimantan, is needed, although it has been recorded for Kubah National Park (Das <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Verification of the taxonomic status and variability across its wide and apparently disjunctive distribution is needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58347	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Sengupta, S. & Bordoloi, S., 2004	This species is known from northeastern India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar (the Dawna Hills, Schwe Settaw on the Shan/Mandalay border, and Kachin Hkakabo National Park), the Chumphon area of Thailand, extreme southern Thailand, throughout Peninsular Malaysia, and central and western Sarawak, central Kalimantan and Brunei in Borneo, and in Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The altitudinal range is from 50-1,400 m asl.	eng
58347	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Sengupta, S. & Bordoloi, S., 2004	It inhabits small shallow streams in closed-canopy rainforest, and is associated with sand, gravel and rocks. In Borneo this species occurs along the banks of small streams, in pools in swampy streams, in seepage areas near streams in hilly primary forest, and in road-side rainwater drains.	eng
58347	population	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Sengupta, S. & Bordoloi, S., 2004	It is common in suitable habitat in Peninsular Malaysia. It is either localized in occurrence or rare in most of Thailand. It is locally abundant in Sumatra, and occurs patchily in Borneo, although a recent study found it to be the most abundant anuran species in the Matang Range (Das <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58347	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R., Sengupta, S. & Bordoloi, S., 2004	Deforestation is the major threat to this species, leading to range constriction and fragmentation.	eng
58348	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
58348	distribution		This species is endemic to Borneo. It is found in most hilly, lowland areas and is present at elevations up to 700m asl.	eng
58348	habitat		It lives along the banks of small to large, rocky streams in hilly rainforest. It also survives in secondary habitats. Larvae develop in quiet side pools of such streams. Adults do not wander from the vicinity of stream banks.	eng
58348	population		Estimates of subpopulation size at one locality were 80-180 individuals per 600m of stream.	eng
58348	threats		Deforestation by severe clear-cutting, with consequent constriction and fragmentation of the range, is the greatest threat. Localized over-hunting is a potential threat because of the long life cycle and small clutch size of this species.	eng
58349	conservation		It is not known whether or not the range of this species includes any protected areas. Surveys in this area of Myanmar are needed to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
58349	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of Tenasserim, in southern Myanmar. As a result of this lack of specificity, it is not possible to create a distribution map for this species.	eng
58349	habitat		It is thought likely to live in forest and to breed by larval development in water.	eng
58349	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58349	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58350	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas. Conservation measures must include the regulation and proper disposal of pesticides and herbicides, and the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Levels of human exploitation of this species need to be investigated to determine if harvesting from the wild needs to be managed more sustainably.	eng
58350	distribution		This species has been recorded from many localities on Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque and Polillo Islands, in the northern Philippines.	eng
58350	habitat		This species inhabits streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests, and is also found in forest edge and agricultural areas near intact natural forests.	eng
58350	population		It is common in appropriate habitats, but has declined in places due to over-harvesting.	eng
58350	threats		The major threats to this species include habitat loss, due to expanding agriculture, logging and human settlements, and the pollution of streams and rivers. Harvesting by local people is also a threat.	eng
58351	conservation		It occurs in Ujung Kulon National Park on Java. The harvest of this species from the wild needs to be managed in a sustainable manner.	eng
58351	distribution		This species is found throughout Java and Lampung Province in the south of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 700m asl.	eng
58351	habitat		It inhabits forested areas near streams. It can survive in secondary forest where suitable canopy cover remains. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58351	population		Although formerly common, this species is now generally considered to be uncommon, though not rare.	eng
58351	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction (due to agriculture and subsistence wood collection), and water pollution. It is highly exploited as a food source, and animals from eastern Java are found in international trade.	eng
58352	conservation		It is likely to occur in several protected areas in peninsular Thailand and beyond. The absence of records from protected areas is more an issue of identification difficulties rather than the absence of survey efforts. Clarification of the taxonomy of this species is therefore needed. Safeguarding protected areas in the Thai-Malay peninsula should be the main objective for the conservation of this species.	eng
58352	distribution		This species is known from the Bagu Yoma hills of Myanmar through peninsular Thailand, Phuket Island, and perhaps also to northern Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia (Bourret 1942; Taylor 1962; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also present on Langkawi Island (Malaysia), and the Thai islands of Terutao, Rawi and Ladang. Its range largely overlaps with that of <em>Limnonectes doriae</em>. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58352	habitat		The habitat for this species has not been recorded, but it presumably lives in streams in evergreen forest.	eng
58352	population		No reliable data are available regarding its population status, due to possible confusion with <em>L. doriae</em> and <em>L. pileata</em>.	eng
58352	threats		No specific threats are known for this species, although it could presumably be affected by forest degradation and hydrological changes due to smallholder farming and logging.	eng
58353	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas. It apparently coexists parapatrically with its sibling species in Lore Lindu National Park, and it extends to Poso and Tanah Toraja. Conservation measures for this species must include the protection of remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests. Levels of human exploitation need to be investigated to determine if this needs to be managed more sustainably.	eng
58353	distribution		This species complex is found on Mindanao, Basilan, Bohol, Camiguin, Samar and Leyte Islands in the Philippines, from 1,200-1,800m asl, as well as on Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
58353	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and deposits egg clutches in quiet side pools of forested riverine habitats.	eng
58353	population		It is common to very common where its habitat remains intact, although some populations are in decline because of over-exploitation.	eng
58353	threats		On Sulawesi, the major threat to the populations of this species is human exploitation for both local consumption and international trade. In the Philippines, threats include habitat loss due to agriculture and logging, and pollution of streams and rivers from agricultural pesticides, herbicides, and mine-tailings, as well as harvesting for human subsistence and for international export.	eng
58354	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, although more effective conservation of peat swamps and low alluvial rainforests is needed.	eng
58354	distribution		This species is known from extreme southern Peninsular Thailand, peninsular Malaysia (and Sarawak) and Singapore to Indonesia (including Sumatra and Kalimantan), up to 150m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58354	habitat		It inhabits shallow, gentle streams and nearby swampy areas including peat swamps, very flat alluvial forests (both primary forest and mature secondary growth), and overgrown plantations. The eggs are laid in sandy streambeds but no nest is constructed (Kiew 1984c).	eng
58354	population		It is generally not rare, but it is also not an abundant frog (Lim and Lim 1992); it is considered rare in Thailand.	eng
58354	threats		The major threat to this species is deforestation. It is also collected for subsistence use and trade (Lim and Lim 1992; P. van Dijk pers. comm.), but most collection pressure is deflected from it by the sympatric occurrence of the larger and more common <em>Limnonectes blythii</em>.	eng
58355	conservation		It is protected by national legislation. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
58355	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya State, India, at 1,500m asl.	eng
58355	habitat		There is no available information on its habitat requirements, though it is likely to live in montane forest and presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
58355	population		There is no available information on population status.	eng
58355	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58356	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58356	distribution		This species is endemic to north-eastern India, where it is found below 1,100m asl in the states of West Bengal, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland.	eng
58356	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic species found near streams in tropical moist forest.	eng
58356	population		There is no information on population status.	eng
58356	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58357	conservation		Further surveys are required to determine the range, population status and habitat requirements of this species before conservation measures can be determined.	eng
58357	distribution		This species is known only from Basilan Island in the Philippines. A record from western Mindanao is believed to be a misidentification.	eng
58357	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.	eng
58357	population		There is no available information on population status.	eng
58357	threats		Possible threats to this species include deforestation through logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers. However, updated information on the status of this species and its habitat on Basilan Island are not available from which to make definitive conclusions.	eng
58358	conservation		It occurs in Ujung Kulon, Gunung Halimun, Gunung Gede Pangerango National Parks, and Gunung Tangkuban Perahu Natural Reserve.	eng
58358	distribution		This species is found throughout Java and the Lampung Province in the south of Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs from near sea level up to above 1,200m asl.	eng
58358	habitat		It is a species of the forest floor. It lives only in undisturbed forest. Reproduction is unknown, but the eggs might be laid on the ground near streams. The tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
58358	population		It has declined due to forest loss, but it is still common in suitable habitat.	eng
58358	threats		The major threat is habitat loss for smallholder farming.	eng
58359	conservation		It occurs in Gunung Lompobatang Natural Reserve.	eng
58359	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Lompobatang in south-west Sulawesi, Indonesia. It lives above 1,000m asl.	eng
58359	habitat		It lives in and around streams in montane forest, and it is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed forest. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58359	population		It is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
58359	threats		It is threatened by forest loss caused by the expansion of smallholder farming.	eng
58360	conservation		The taxonomy of this species needs to be resolved. The distribution among the Maluku Islands needs to be documented, and an assessment of the taxonomic status of the island populations needs to be undertaken. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58360	distribution		This species occurs on the islands of Sulawesi, Togian, Peleng, Seram, Buru, Ambon, Obi, Bacan, Batudaka, Togian and Talatakoh and Halmahera in Indonesia, up to 1,200m asl. It might also occur on Salayar, Sangihe and Talaud, but these are not yet confirmed, and so are not mapped here. However, when this complex is resolved, Limnonectes modestus will probably be confined to Bolaang Mongondow and Gorontalo, in northern Sulawesi (the remainder of the complex belonging to undescribed species) (D. Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
58360	habitat		It is found near small streams and water pits in many habitats from forest to human habitation to mangrove forests. It can tolerate brackish water. It breeds in streams.	eng
58360	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58360	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58361	conservation		Although montane forest in this part of Peninsular Malaysia is relatively secure in some places, there is still a need for improved protection of montane forest habitats. Surveys are needed to determine whether <em>L. nitidus</em> is genuinely restricted to the Cameron Highlands and the Fraser's Hills.	eng
58361	distribution		This species is known only from the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hills of Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia. Other records are attributable to <em>L. tweediei</em> (Dring 1979). The altitudinal range is 900-1,500m asl.	eng
58361	habitat		It is known from montane rainforest and congregates and breeds in permanently wet seepage areas (Dring 1979; Manthey and Grossmann 1997; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999; Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).	eng
58361	population		It can be locally common within its small range (Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).	eng
58361	threats		Development of the Cameron Highlands and Fraser's Hills for agriculture (tea and vegetables) and tourism, and plans for industrial estates, pose real threats to this species.	eng
58362	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure is to ensure protection of the remaining rainforests of Palawan and Borneo.	eng
58362	distribution		This species is found throughout western to northern Borneo, and from only two localities on Palawan Island (the type locality) in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found from about 100-1,200m asl.	eng
58362	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It wanders through the forest and is confined to the floor stratum. Males guard small clutches of eggs under dead leaves and carry the tadpoles to small rain pools where they develop.	eng
58362	population		It is patchily distributed but can be locally abundant.	eng
58362	threats		The habitat of this species is generally protected on the island of Palawan and in Borneo. However, deforestation remains a threat.	eng
58363	conservation		It is present in protected areas in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula (such as Pasoh Forest Reserve and Tasek Bera). Effective preservation of the remaining lowland swamp forest is the main conservation measure recommended for this species.	eng
58363	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities in Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975; Dring 1979) and Borneo, and it has been recorded from Singapore (Lim and Lim 1992), southern Thailand (Chan-ard pers. comm.) and Natuna Besar and Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It occurs at altitudes below 200m asl.	eng
58363	habitat		It generally inhabits lowland swamp forest areas with small rivers and streams. Adults are found along clay and gravel stream banks, and breeding takes place in these streams. It appears to be able to tolerate selective logging, but does not adapt to more heavily modified habitats.	eng
58363	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
58363	threats		The principal threats to this species are destruction of forests through clear-cutting, conversion to non-timber plantations, urbanization, fire and water extraction.	eng
58364	conservation		The species is confirmed from enough protected areas and watershed protection areas to expect that viable populations will persist for the foreseeable future.	eng
58364	distribution		This species occurs from far southern Thailand (Yala and Narathiwat provinces, Taylor, 1962), through most of Peninsular Malaysia and Penang Island (Berry, 1975) to Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992 and Ming, 2000). There is also a record from the Khao Pra Bangkram Wildlife Sanctuary further to the north in Peninsular Thailand. It occurs from lowlands up to about 1,200m asl.	eng
58364	habitat		It inhabits small streams and is associated with swampy puddles in primary and degraded rainforest. It lays its eggs in small-excavated holes on the edge of streams. The tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
58364	population		This is not a rare frog in appropriate habitat, but it is never abundant. It is considered uncommon in Singapore and Thailand.	eng
58364	threats		Some habitat loss is taking place, which is detrimental to local populations, but overall the species seems secure.	eng
58365	conservation		It is present in Kayanmantran Protected Area. More effective preservation of areas of lowland rainforest in Kalimantan is essential for the conservation of this species.	eng
58365	distribution		This species has been seen at localities in northern and central Kalimantan, Borneo. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is unclear, but it is believed that this species only occurs below 500m asl.	eng
58365	habitat		It lives in primary lowland rainforest. Very little is known of the ecology of this species, although it is known to have a very small clutch size, and it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
58365	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58365	threats		The greatest threat to this species is presumably deforestation.	eng
58366	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas in Indonesia and Singapore and in Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58366	distribution		This species is known from lowland coastal areas of northern and western Sumatra (in Bengkulu, West Sumatra, North Sumatra and Aceh Provinces, all along coastal area to about 200km inland), the Mentawai Islands (Enggano, Siberut, Sipora, Batu Islands (Pini, Tanah Masa and probably in Tanah Bala), Nias and Simeulue), and Natuna in Indonesia; and from Great Nicobar Island (India), Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. It probably also occurs on Banyak and Pagai islands in Indonesia.	eng
58366	habitat		It occurs in low areas along rivers in tropical forest and forest edges in leaf-litter. It breeds in rivers.	eng
58366	population		It is common in Indonesia and abundant in the Nicobar Islands.	eng
58366	threats		It is probably threatened to some extent by habitat loss and pollution from agriculture. Animals are harvested for food and traded within Indonesia and are probably exported to Singapore.	eng
58367	conservation		Two of the three known localities are within protected areas. The Ta Dung locality is not in a protected area. More information on the species' population status, habitat requirements and threats are required before conservation actions can be determined.	eng
58367	distribution		This species is known from eastern Cambodia and the neighbouring area of Viet Nam in Ta Dung Mountains, Lam Dong Province (B. Stuart, R. Bain and T. Nguyen pers. comm.). It is found up to 900m asl.	eng
58367	habitat		It inhabits small streams in dry evergreen forests. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it is presumably by larval development in forest streams.	eng
58367	population		This species was originally known only from a single specimen collected in 1941 (Bourret 1942), but it has recently been rediscovered at the type locality and in other localities.	eng
58367	threats		The major threat is forest loss and degradation as a result of fire, logging, and agricultural clearing; hydrological changes also might be a threat to this species.	eng
58368	conservation		It occurs in Templer's Park and a number of forest reserves and watershed protection areas (Berry 1975; P. van Dijk pers. comm.; D. Iskandar pers. comm.), but no population appears to be entirely secure. Surveys of existing protected areas might be appropriate, as would improved protection measures to safeguard the ecological integrity of Templer's Park and the Gombak Valley in Malaysia and Lembah Anai Natural Reserve in Sumatra.	eng
58368	distribution		This species is known from Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Trengganu and Pahang States in Peninsular Malaysia, from 200-900m asl (Dring 1979; Berry 1975; Y. Norsham pers. comm.). A population occurring in one tributary in western Sumatra, Indonesia, has been provisionally assigned to this species. Its reported occurrence on Tioman Island, Malaysia, was probably based on a misidentification (Leong Tzi Ming pers. comm.).	eng
58368	habitat		This species is known from muddy pools in rainforest near small streams and seepages in which it makes holes for breeding. It appears not to occur in disturbed areas.	eng
58368	population		In appropriate habitat in Malaysia this species is fairly common. In Sumatra it is considered to be rare.	eng
58368	threats		The most likely significant threats to this species are pollution, and extensive habitat degradation through clear cutting and conversion of forest to plantations.	eng
58369	conservation		It has been recorded from several protected areas, including Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Taman Negara National Park, and the Crocker Range. Expansion of effective protection of submontane and montane forests is essential.	eng
58369	distribution		This species is known only from northern Borneo in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It possibly occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-2,000m asl.	eng
58369	habitat		It has been observed only along the banks of clear, rocky streams in montane forests. Larvae cling to rocks in the rapids of clear streams and feed on lithophytes.	eng
58369	population		It can be locally abundant.	eng
58369	threats		Habitat loss due to logging is a major threat to this species.	eng
58370	conservation		It is known only from Matang Forest Reserve, in Sarawak. Directed surveys in adjacent areas of suitable habitat are needed to determine whether or not the species ranges more widely.	eng
58370	distribution		This species is known only from Matang in western Sarawak (Malaysia), Borneo. The type locality is below 700m asl.	eng
58370	habitat		It occurs in lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in rapids and probably feed on lithophytic algae.	eng
58370	population		It has been recorded as abundant at the type locality.	eng
58370	threats		The only known locality of this species is within a protected area, and its habitat is not currently threatened. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58371	conservation	Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M., Yambun, P. & Mumpuni, 2004	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Kayan Mentarang National Park, Gunung Mulu and the Crocker Range.	eng
58371	distribution	Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M., Yambun, P. & Mumpuni, 2004	This species is known only from mountainous areas of northern Borneo, in Sabah and north-eastern Sarawak (Malaysia), and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), from 750-1,700 m asl.	eng
58371	habitat	Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M., Yambun, P. & Mumpuni, 2004	It has been found only in submontane and montane forests, where it breeds in small, clear, rocky streams. The larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and probably feed on lithophytic algae. It does not adapt to modified habitats.	eng
58371	population	Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M., Yambun, P. & Mumpuni, 2004	It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58371	threats	Inger, R., Iskandar, D., Das, I., Stuebing, R., Lakim, M., Yambun, P. & Mumpuni, 2004	The major threat to this species' habitat is clear-cutting.	eng
58372	conservation		Its habitat requires effective preservation, and its taxonomy also needs clarification.	eng
58372	distribution		This species has been reported only from Sungai Metallum, in Bintulu District, central Sarawak (Malaysia), Borneo, although it might occur more widely.	eng
58372	habitat		It is found in primary, hilly, lowland rainforest, where it breeds in streams.	eng
58372	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58372	threats		The main threat to this species is clear-cutting.	eng
58373	conservation		The species has been recorded from many protected areas. Continued effective protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.	eng
58373	distribution		This species is restricted to northern Borneo, in Sabah and northeastern Sarawak (Malaysia) and northeastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It occurs from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
58373	habitat		It occurs in hilly lowland rainforest, and slightly disturbed forest. Larvae cling to rocks in strong currents in clear, rocky streams in forests and feed on lithophytic plants.	eng
58373	population		It appears to be locally very abundant.	eng
58373	threats		Siltation of streams as a result of deforestation eliminates the larval feeding microhabitat of this species.	eng
58374	conservation		This species has been recorded from several protected areas, but more effective protection of lowland rainforest is needed.	eng
58374	distribution		This species is known from central Sarawak and adjacent Kalimantan, Borneo, below 300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58374	habitat		It lives in hilly lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae. It appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
58374	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58374	threats		The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
58375	conservation		It has been recorded from Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary and Betung-Kerikum National Park. More effective protection of large areas of rainforest is needed.	eng
58375	distribution		This species is known from central Sarawak (Malaysia) and central Kalimantan (Indonesia), Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58375	habitat		It lives in hilly lowland rainforest and breeds along small, clear, rocky streams. Larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae.	eng
58375	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58375	threats		The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
58376	conservation		It has been recorded from the protected areas of Gunung Kinabalu, the Crocker Range and Kayanmantaran National Park.	eng
58376	distribution		This species is known only from western Sabah (Malaysia) and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia), Borneo, below 1,300m asl.	eng
58376	habitat		It has been found only in hilly rainforests. Breeding occurs in clear, rocky streams, and larvae cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae.	eng
58376	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58376	threats		The principal threat to this species is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
58377	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58377	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.	eng
58377	habitat		The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species. It presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.	eng
58377	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the lost holotype.	eng
58377	threats		The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use (including coffee cultivation).	eng
58378	conservation		This species complex has been recorded from many protected areas and is protected by national legislation. Given that this is a species complex further research is required to resolve its taxonomy.	eng
58378	distribution		This is a species complex endemic to the southern Western Ghats of India, where it occurs from 200-1,000m asl.	eng
58378	habitat		This species complex is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist tropical evergreen forest, and is commonly found at the forest edge, but not outside the forest. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58378	population		It is common.	eng
58378	threats		The major threats to its habitat are the conversion of forest to cultivated areas (including coffee and tea plantations), subsistence harvesting of wood and timber, modification of waterways (through dam construction), and infrastructure development.	eng
58379	conservation		Its range includes the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and it is protected by national legislation. Further surveys are required to better determine the population status and range of this species.	eng
58379	distribution		This species is known from three sites: Ponmudi and Sabarigiri in Kerala, and Siruvani in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 300-750m asl.	eng
58379	habitat		This is a forest species associated with hill streams, riparian habitats and leaf-litter in moist tropical evergreen forest, and so far not known from modified habitats. It has aquatic larvae and breeds in streams.	eng
58379	population		It is locally uncommon.	eng
58379	threats		The primary threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat through the localized harvesting of wood and timber for subsistence use. Siltation of streams resulting from deforestation is also a threat.	eng
58380	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of the species and the limits of its distribution range. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58380	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "Kottigehar, Kadur", and from a recently discovered population at Bhadrea, in Chicamangalore District, Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India. The altitude of the type locality is not known, but it was most recently collected at an altitude of approximately 1,000m asl. It appears to have a very small distribution.	eng
58380	habitat		Presumably a forest species, it was recently collected close to a road and a stream. Like other members of the genus, it probably has aquatic larvae in streams.	eng
58380	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58380	threats		The major threat to the species is general habitat loss as a result of agriculture, including paddy fields and cash crops such as coconut and cashew.	eng
58381	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58381	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kottigehar, Kadur" (Rao 1937), in Karnataka, in the Western Ghats in India.	eng
58381	habitat		The habitat preferences of this species are not known, although it is possibly a forest species. It presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other members of its genus.	eng
58381	population		It is known only from the holotype which is now lost, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58381	threats		Assuming this species still exists, it is likely to have been threatened by changes in land use, as the area where it was collected from has been completely deforested.	eng
58382	conservation		It has been recorded from Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, and Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing field studies by Biju (1999 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58382	distribution		This species is known from the southern Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in India. The range map shows the distribution of specimens currently assigned to <em>M. nudis</em>; however, there is a need for further clarification of the range of this species. It has been collected at 800m asl.	eng
58382	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with hill streams (but not in the streams) in moist tropical forests. It may be found in lightly degraded forest. Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.	eng
58382	population		It is a common species at the type locality and in the surrounding area (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
58382	threats		It is largely threatened by the clearance of forested land for agricultural use, and subsistence wood collection by local people within Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
58383	conservation		It has been recorded from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mukurthi National Park, and from Eravikulam National Park, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, in Tamil Nadu. The species is included as part of ongoing field studies by Biju (1998 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58383	distribution		This species is restricted to the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu), the Eravikulam National Park (in Kerala) and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu) in the southern Western Ghats of India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,400m asl.	eng
58383	habitat		It is associated with hill streams in moist tropical forests. It is found in areas of the forest floor with high humus levels. It is not present in modified habitats. Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.	eng
58383	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
58383	threats		It is mostly threatened by the clearance of forested land for agricultural use, and the subsistence harvesting of wood and timber by local people.	eng
58384	conservation	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., Bhatta, G. & Adoor, S., 2004	It has been recorded from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (in Tamil Nadu), and Kudremukh National Park (in Karnataka). The species is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor in Karnataka (1997 and onwards). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58384	distribution	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., Bhatta, G. & Adoor, S., 2004	This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 400-1,400 m asl.	eng
58384	habitat	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., Bhatta, G. & Adoor, S., 2004	It is associated with rocky streams within moist evergreen tropical forest, and it can be found at forest edges and in slightly disturbed forest. Individuals are diurnal and are often found attached to vertical surfaces of wet rocks in fast flowing streams (<st1:place>Krishna</st1:place> and Krishna 2006).  Breeding takes place in streams by larval development.	eng
58384	population	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., Bhatta, G. & Adoor, S., 2004	It is a locally abundant species (<st1:place>Krishna</st1:place> and Krishna 2006).	eng
58384	threats	Biju, S.D., Dutta, S., Bhatta, G. & Adoor, S., 2004	It is threatened by commercial deforestation (clear-cutting) of its forest habitat, the modification of waterways (through dam construction), and the construction of human settlements. It is possible that these threats, especially deforestation, have significantly increased levels of stream sedimentation.	eng
58385	conservation		Specimens attributed to this species have been recorded from Silent Valley National Park and Muthenge National Park, both in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and it is protected by national legislation. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (pers. comm.). Possible misidentifications of this species need to be resolved.	eng
58385	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India. Mapping of its distribution has included where specimens attributed to it have been recorded. However, there are considerable difficulties with misidentifications of this taxon, and therefore confirmation of the true <em>Micrixalus silvaticus</em> at these sites is required.	eng
58385	habitat		This species is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist tropical evergreen forest. It has aquatic larvae that live in streams.	eng
58385	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58385	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58386	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58386	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Kempholey, Hassan" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 200m asl.	eng
58386	habitat		It is presumed that this is a moist tropical forest species that presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.	eng
58386	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the lost holotype.	eng
58386	threats		The area where it was collected, and might possibly still occur, is threatened by clearance for agricultural use (including plantations).	eng
58387	conservation		It is only known from the well-protected Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, and it is also protected by national legislation. This species is subject to ongoing studies by Biju (pers. comm.).	eng
58387	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Silent Valley National Park, in the Western Ghats in India at approximately 900m asl. It possibly occurs a little more widely.	eng
58387	habitat		It is associated with hill streams and riparian habitats in moist evergreen tropical forest. The type specimen was collected on the forest floor. This species presumably has aquatic larvae in streams, like other species of <em>Micrixalus</em>.	eng
58387	population		It is currently known only from two specimens.	eng
58387	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58388	conservation		Although protected by national legislation, it is not known from any protected areas and there is an urgent need for improved habitat protection. It was recently the subject of field studies by Biju (1996 -2001). Further research is required to investigate the breeding biology of this species.	eng
58388	distribution		This species is restricted to Gundia in Karnataka, and Calicut and adjoining areas in Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. Other surveys in the vicinity of the two known sites have not revealed any additional populations. The altitudinal range of this lowland species is between 40 and 200m asl.	eng
58388	habitat		This is a semi-aquatic, terrestrial species recorded from grassy areas adjacent to paddy fields, disturbed (open) moist tropical forest, stream banks and abandoned quarries. There is no information on the breeding biology or larval ecology of this species.	eng
58388	population		It is common where it occurs.	eng
58388	threats		Habitat loss and degradation as a result of the expansion of commercial, intensive agriculture is the major threat to the species.	eng
58389	conservation		It is presumed to occur in many protected areas. Measures are needed to regulate and ensure the proper use and disposal of pesticides and herbicides.	eng
58389	distribution		This species is endemic to central, western and southern Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of 60-1,200m asl.	eng
58389	habitat		It is a largely aquatic species, found mostly in rocky cascades, on wet rock surfaces and under boulders, in lowland and sub-montane tropical moist forest. Tadpoles are found on wet rock surfaces. It may also be found in disturbed areas provided there is suitable aquatic habitat for breeding.	eng
58389	population		It is a common species.	eng
58389	threats		Water pollution due to agrochemicals, and the desiccation of habitats during periods of drought, are the main threats to this species.	eng
58390	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58390	distribution		This species is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for the species.	eng
58390	habitat		There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species. It presumably bred on wet rock surfaces near streams, like other members of the genus.	eng
58390	population		Known only from the type series collected more than a 100 years ago. It has not been recorded since it was originally described. Recent and extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have been unable to relocate this frog, and it is now believed to be extinct.	eng
58390	threats		The reasons for the extinction of this species are not known.	eng
58391	conservation		It has been recorded in the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but improved protection and maintenance of existing habitat is needed.	eng
58391	distribution		This species, a Sri Lankan endemic, is restricted to the Knuckles Mountain range at 200-1,220m asl.	eng
58391	habitat		It is largely aquatic, and adults are found in crevices, under boulders, and on other flat, wet surfaces in rocky hill streams of montane forest. Tadpoles are found on wet rock surfaces.	eng
58391	population		It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
58391	threats		The main threats to this species include habitat loss due to the grazing of livestock and disturbance by local tourism, and water pollution (agrochemicals) from tea and cardamom estates.	eng
58392	conservation		Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58392	distribution		This species is known from southern and eastern Xizang, China and the Tibetan Plateau of Nepal. It has recently been reported from Kashmir by Dutta (1997), but the distribution within this region requires clarification. It occurs at elevations between 2,850-5,000m asl.	eng
58392	habitat		It inhabits high-altitude grassland, forest, shrubs, lakes, ponds, marshes, streams and rivers in the Tibetan Plateau. It breeds explosively in suitable streams and marshes.	eng
58392	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58392	threats		There are no known major threats to this species. Overgrazing is potentially a threat, but is thought to have minimal impact.	eng
58393	conservation		Several protected areas are present within the range of this species. Chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out as a cause of the recent decline, and this should be investigated.	eng
58393	distribution		This species is known from Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan Provinces in China, from 3,300-4,500m asl. Specimens originally reported from Pakistan and the Kashmir region have been allocated to other taxa.	eng
58393	habitat		It lives and breeds in alpine marshes, pools, ponds and streams in open high-altitude habitats.	eng
58393	population		It is thought to be quite common, although one population has undergone a decline over the past five years in apparently suitable habitat.	eng
58393	threats		A major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation caused by over-grazing by livestock. The reasons for the recent rapid decline of one population in an apparently suitable habitat are not known. Climate change might be a factor and can be considered a threat now and in the future.	eng
58394	conservation		A few protected areas are present within the range of this species, including the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve.	eng
58394	distribution		This species is endemic to northwestern Yunnan province in China, from 3,120-4,100m asl.	eng
58394	habitat		It inhabits lakes, pools and ponds in alpine areas, occurring near streams and rivers in open, high-elevation habitats. It breeds in still-water pools and ponds.	eng
58394	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
58394	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58395	conservation		It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Kerala, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (1997-present) and Addoor (1997-present). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58395	distribution		This species has been reported from the Ponmudi Hills, Athirimala and Wayanad in Kerala, Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and Kudremukh National Park within the Western Ghats of India. Records from Kudremukh require further investigation to confirm that they belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,000m asl.	eng
58395	habitat		It occurs in riparian habitats and hill streams in tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, and may also be present in slightly degraded habitats. There is little information on its breeding biology or larval development, though breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
58395	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58395	threats		The main threat to this species is the loss of forest habitat as a result of the harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes.	eng
58396	conservation		It has been recorded from Periyar Tiger Reserve, Silent Valley National Park, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Ghandi National Park, both in Tamil Nadu. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58396	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern region of the Western Ghats in India at 400-1,800m asl.	eng
58396	habitat		It is associated with evergreen and semi-evergreen moist and deciduous forest, and is not found in agricultural areas. It is a semi-terrestrial frog that is largely found in the leaf-litter and also under rocks and logs. There is little information on its breeding biology, though breeding is presumably by larval development in streams.	eng
58396	population		The population is fragmented, and its status varies between localities.	eng
58396	threats		The forest habitat of this species is being cleared for conversion to agricultural land (including tea plantations), and it is being exploited for timber and wood by local people. The construction of dams is also threat.	eng
58397	conservation		It has been recorded from Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Indira Ghandi National Park, and Nilgiris State Forests all in Tamil Nadu, and from Kudremukh National Park and its surroundings in Karnataka. The species is included as part of ongoing studies by S.D. Biju. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58397	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern parts of the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 500-2,000m asl.	eng
58397	habitat		It occurs in riparian habitats and streams of tropical moist evergreen forest; it is not present in degraded areas. There is little information on breeding, though it presumably takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
58397	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
58397	threats		The major threat is the loss of habitat following conversion to both non-timber (tea) and timber plantations (pine and eucalyptus), and exploitation for timber and wood by local people.	eng
58398	conservation		It has been recorded from Koyna and Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuaries in Maharashtra State. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58398	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of Maharashtra State in India. It has been recorded from Konya Valley, Bhimashankar, and Amboli. Records outside Maharashtra need further confirmation. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,200m asl.	eng
58398	habitat		It occurs in torrential hill streams in riparian habitat of tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. It has also been collected from disturbed forest edge habitats. They are often found inhabiting crevices between rocks in the streams. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58398	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
58398	threats		The conversion of forest to agricultural areas, water pollution by agrochemicals, the siltation of streams resulting from deforestation, and the construction of roads and the development of tourism in the region, are all considered threats to this species.	eng
58399	conservation		It is protected by national legislation, and is included as part of ongoing field studies by Addoor (1997-present).	eng
58399	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India in Karnataka State, where it is currently only known from Kudremukh National Park (though it might occur a little more widely). It is found at around 900m asl.	eng
58399	habitat		It has been recorded from torrential hill streams in riparian habitat in tropical evergreen forest, and is not known from disturbed habitats. The species inhabits caves beneath boulders in the riffle zone of water. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58399	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58399	threats		The Kudremukh National Park is threatened by mining activities, and the harvesting of wood and timber by the local people. The development of recreation activities in the area is also considered a threat.	eng
58400	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation.	eng
58400	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of the "Hills of Kempholey Ghats, Hassan, Mysore, S. India" (Rao 1937) in the southern Western Ghats of Karnataka State in India. It was collected at around 400m asl.	eng
58400	habitat		It was collected from under rocks close to waterfalls in tropical evergreen forest (Rao 1937). It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58400	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58400	threats		The habitat used by this species is generally threatened by the conversion of native forest to cultivated areas and the subsistence harvesting of wood and timber.	eng
58401	conservation		The species has been recorded from several protected areas throughout the Western Ghats. There is an urgent need for a taxonomic revision of this species, since it almost certainly represents a complex of several distinct and isolated forms. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58401	distribution		This species has a wide distribution in the Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from elevations up to 1,000m asl in Kerala.	eng
58401	habitat		It inhabits torrential streams in evergreen, moist deciduous forest. Although it may be found in forest edge, it does not occur in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58401	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, partly hindered by the large degree of intraspecific variation evident in this species.	eng
58401	threats		The conversion of forested land to agricultural use (including tea, coffee, and paddy fields), and the harvesting of wood and timber by local people are threats to this species. The construction of roads and the development of tourism in the region are leading to further loss and degradation of the species' habitat.	eng
58402	conservation		It has been reported from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, and is protected by national legislation.	eng
58402	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern region of the Western Ghats of India, where it has been recorded from the Ponmudi Hills and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Kerala. Unpublished reports of this species outside Kerala require confirmation and hence are not mapped here, although it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,150m asl.	eng
58402	habitat		It is semi-aquatic and has been recorded from riparian habitats and hill streams in tropical moist evergreen forest; it may be found at the forest edge, but not in heavily cultivated land. There is little information on its breeding habitats, though breeding presumably takes place by larval development in streams.	eng
58402	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58402	threats		The major threat is the conversion of forest habitat to agricultural land and plantations (tea and coffee).	eng
58403	conservation		It has been recorded from Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, although the other localities are apparently unprotected. It is included in national legislation.	eng
58403	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from three locations: Kudremukh National Park, and Jog (Shimoga) and Kemphole Ghats, all in Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India (though it may occur a little more widely). It has been collected at an elevation of 1,200m asl.	eng
58403	habitat		It is semi-aquatic and inhabits marshes within moist tropical forest (and is not present in very disturbed forest). There is little information available on the species' ecology or breeding habitats, though it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
58403	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
58403	threats		Habitat loss and degradation as a result of logging, agriculture, and mining (in Kudremukh) is the major threat to this species.	eng
58404	conservation		This species is protected by national legislation.	eng
58404	distribution		This species is known only from type locality of "Forests of Kempholey, Saklespur, Hassan, Mysore" (Rao 1937), in the Western Ghats of India, at around 400m asl.	eng
58404	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It is possibly a forest species that presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58404	population		It is known only from the lost holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58404	threats		The area from where this species was collected is threatened by agricultural development, road construction and the development of tourism facilities.	eng
58405	conservation		It is currently known only from the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, and it is included in national legislation. There is a need for further survey work to determine whether the species might occur outside the type locality.	eng
58405	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality within Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India, at an elevation of 700m asl.	eng
58405	habitat		The original collection took place in shallow water within disturbed tropical moist forest, close to a cardamom plantation. It is also believed to occur within undisturbed forest. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
58405	population		It is a recently described frog that has only been recorded twice, and is reportedly not a common species (Ravichandran pers. comm.).	eng
58405	threats		The major threat to this species is the cultivation of cardamom and tea in the buffer zone of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.	eng
58406	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas in Borneo, and the Sumatran specimens were collected in a protected area. The preservation of lowland tropical moist forest in Borneo is recommended as a conservation measure for this species.	eng
58406	distribution		This species has been found at many localities in north-western Borneo, from 65-1,200m asl. It was also recorded once in Lampung, Sumatra, but its distribution here is still questionable. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58406	habitat		This is a largely aquatic species, most often seen in seepage areas in primary lowland rainforest. Larvae also develop in these thin films of water. This species appears to be unable to adapt to modified habitats.	eng
58406	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58406	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
58407	conservation		It has been recorded from Mouling, Aru, and Nameri National Parks and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58407	distribution		This species is known from north-eastern India and Bhutan, although its distribution in Bhutan is not clear. It has also been recorded from Rangamati Hill-district in Bangladesh. Recent field studies indicate a wider distribution range than previously recorded in north-east India (A. Ohler pers. comm.). It is a lowland species that occurs below 400m asl.	eng
58407	habitat		It is associated with small, still waters and slow-moving waters in tropical moist forest. Reproduction takes place in small ponds and ditches.	eng
58407	population		It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
58407	threats		Water pollution due to agrochemicals is the principal threat to this species, although habitat loss and degradation due to small-scale agriculture and wood collection is also a threat.	eng
58408	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed at present for this widespread, abundant and adaptable species.	eng
58408	distribution		This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
58408	habitat		It lives in paddy fields and other disturbed habitats, and breeds in paddy fields and slow-moving streams.	eng
58408	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58408	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
58409	conservation		Research is needed to determine the conservation needs of this species.	eng
58409	distribution		This species is endemic to Flores Island in the Lesser Sunda Islands, in Indonesia.	eng
58409	habitat		It presumably lives in swampy areas and perhaps paddy fields, but data to confirm this are lacking. It is likely to breed in water by larval development.	eng
58409	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been a few recent records.	eng
58409	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
58410	conservation		In the Philippines, based on present information, no conservation measures are needed for this species in the immediate future. In Peninsular Southeast Asia it is widespread and confirmed from several protected areas (Kiew, 1987, Manthey and Grossmann, 1997) in Thailand and Malaysia, and no conservation action appears warranted at present. In Borneo the protection of lowland forests in Sabah and parts of Sarawak now provide stable habitats for this species.	eng
58410	distribution		This species is found in Peninsular Thailand including Phuket (Taylor, 1962, Frith, 1977), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975, Dring, 1979, Kiew, 1987 and Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992), Borneo, Pulau Bajau, Anambas Islands and Natuna Besar (Indonesia) and all the major islands in the Philippines. Records from mainland Southeast Asia (Viet Nam, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, monsoon Thailand) are attributed to Occidozyga martensii for this assessment. However taxonomic questions regarding this species might alter this distribution. It is not known from high altitudes (Dring, 1979).	eng
58410	habitat		In Peninsular Southeast Asia this species inhabits shallow muddy puddles and pools near small forest streams, and is occasionally found in gentle stream sections and is apparently purely aquatic. It is a species of the forest edge, but not a human commensal of strongly disturbed or dynamic areas. In the Philippines it is found in anthropogenic habitats in the lowlands and occasionally in undisturbed lower montane and lowland forests. In Borneo this species is most often seen in marshy areas, small puddles and small streams in lowland rainforest. Tadpoles have been seen most often in marshes on the peninsula and in any standing body of available water in the Philippines.	eng
58410	population		In Peninsular Southeast Asia this is generally a common to abundant species in appropriate habitat. In the Philippines it is also abundant and common.	eng
58410	threats		In the Philippines, available information indicates that this species is not subjected to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival. In Peninsular Southeast Asia the species could potentially be threatened by major forest impacts, or canopy opening drying out the forest floor. In Borneo, deforestation, with the resultant restriction and fragmentation of habitat, is probably the main threat to this species.	eng
58411	conservation	Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Shi Haitao, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker, 2004	Its range overlaps with several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58411	distribution	Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Shi Haitao, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker, 2004	This is a widespread species that is found in southern China (including Hong Kong), India (West Bengal) and much of Bangladesh, and throughout the lowland plains of Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam, northern Peninsular Malaysia, and Sumatra and Java in Indonesia (Bourret 1942, Taylor 1962, Berry 1975, Inger and Colwell 1977, Iskandar 1998, Zug <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1998 and Stuart 1999). It occurs up to 750 m asl.	eng
58411	habitat	Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Shi Haitao, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker, 2004	It inhabits grasslands, forest edges, dry forests and lowland wetlands with dense aquatic vegetation, including pools, ponds, marshes, shallow reservoir margins, ditches, paddy fields and slow-flowing creeks. It breeds in the same habitats.	eng
58411	population	Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Shi Haitao, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker, 2004	It is abundant in appropriate habitat. In Hong Kong, the population has recently declined very quickly.	eng
58411	threats	Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Zhao Ermi, Geng Baorong, Shi Haitao, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta, Sohrab Uddin Sarker, 2004	There are no significant threats seriously impacting this species. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58412	conservation		Animals fitting the description and reputed range of magnapustulosus occur within adequately protected areas (Pha Taem National Park, Mae Yom National Park, Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Kradung National Park). A thorough taxonomic re-evaluation of O. magnapustulosus is needed.	eng
58412	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities in Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (A. Ohler pers. comm.) and is wholly within the range of O. martensii. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58412	habitat		Animals fitting the description of magnapustulosus occur in seepages, puddles and other shallow waters along streams and rivers, where they also breed. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats such as gardens.	eng
58412	population		Any population data on magnapustulosus, if a recognisable species, is drowned in the population data of the sympatric and abundant O. martensii.	eng
58412	threats		Water pollution might be a threat to this species.	eng
58413	conservation		The range of this species is known or expected to overlap with several protected areas. Maintaining existing protected areas will safeguard the species under present conditions. Taxonomic revision, in particular with regards to the possible synonymy of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. magnapustulosus</span>, is needed.	eng
58413	distribution		This species is widespread and is known from southern and southwestern China (Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan Provinces), from throughout Thailand (Taylor, 1962) including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Cambodia (Bourret, 1941, Swan, pers comm. 2001), and Viet Nam (Bourret, 1941, Nguyen and Ho, 1996, as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynoglossus laevis</span>, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is also known from the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). Surprisingly, it is not recorded from Myanmar, though it almost certainly occurs in the eastern hills. It is known from between 10-1,000m asl.	eng
58413	habitat		It primarily occurs in streamside puddles, seepages, lowland plains and other damp patches along streams and rivers, as well as rain puddles and small pools, in areas of forest on slight to moderate slopes, in areas of seasonal rainfall (Stuart, 1999, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). Tadpoles apparently live largely buried in soft puddle substrate. It is not known from level lowland plains (where <span style="font-style: italic;">O. lima</span> occurs). In China it has also been recorded from paddy fields.	eng
58413	population		It is generally abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
58413	threats		It is probably not threatened by anything less than the complete loss of forest cover.	eng
58414	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Gunung Lombobatang Natural Reserve and Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani-Wartbone National Parks.	eng
58414	distribution		This species is endemic to the western and northern parts of Sulawesi, in Indonesia. It ranges from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
58414	habitat		It lives in stony, highland streams in closed-canopy forest. It presumably breeds in streams.	eng
58414	population		It appears to be common in suitable habitat.	eng
58414	threats		Forest loss is taking place, which impacts on the species, but it is still widely distributed and relatively common.	eng
58415	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58415	distribution		This species occurs widely through Sumatra and Java, Indonesia, up to 700m asl. It is present on Sipura and Simeulue islands in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia.	eng
58415	habitat		It lives in lowland moist forest, where it is always close to water. It can survive in secondary forest, providing that it is not too seriously degraded. It breeds in puddles, ditches and slow-flowing streams.	eng
58415	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58415	threats		The main threat to this species is the loss of lowland forests.	eng
58416	conservation		Taxonomic reassessment of this species is needed.	eng
58416	distribution		This species is known only from the type localities, Da Lat (Lam Dong Province, Lang Bian Plateau) and Thua Thien (Hue), in Viet Nam. These two type localities are so imprecisely known that they might be anything between a coastal lagoon to mountain areas over 1,500m asl.	eng
58416	habitat		It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58416	population		This species has not been recorded again since it was first described.	eng
58416	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58417	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, although it is protected by national legislation in India. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Bordoloi in India in 2001 and by Shresthra in Nepal in 2001. Surveys are needed to determine more accurately its distribution (especially its probably occurrence in Bhutan), ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
58417	distribution		This species is known from eastern Nepa and from north-eastern India in West Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh Provinces, between 1,500 and 3,000m asl. It is presumed to occur in Bhutan.	eng
58417	habitat		It is associated with rocky streams and brooks in montane forests, and with pools in forest clearings. It needs moderate temperatures and high humidity. The tadpoles develop in streams.	eng
58417	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58417	threats		It is generally threatened by habitat destruction as a result of localized deforestation and changes in waterway management (such as dam construction).	eng
58418	conservation		A few protected areas are present within the range of this species, including Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar (which is the type locality), and Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve in China. Further herpetological surveys of northern Myanmar are needed to determine the range of this species in this country. Further research is also needed to resolve the confusion relating to the nomenclature and taxonomy of this species.	eng
58418	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, Pangnamdim, in northern Myanmar, which is 910m asl (Dubois 1975), and from adjacent Xizang Autonomous Region and north-western Yunnan Province, China, from 1,000-2,080m asl. It probably ranges slightly more widely, especially in Myanmar.	eng
58418	habitat		In China this species is known from medium and small streams in forested areas, and sometimes also from springs near paddy fields. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones. There is no information on its recorded habitat in Myanmar.	eng
58418	population		This species is considered uncommon in China. In Myanmar, it has not been collected again since the type series was collected in the 1930s. Results from recent surveys of the area are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58418	threats		The main threat in Myanmar to this species and most of the species in its genus is local consumption. In China it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural development and the subsistence collection of wood.	eng
58419	conservation		It occurs in the Yadong National Nature Reserve in China. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58419	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Nepal to West Bengal, India and Yadong, in southern Xizang province, China. It probably ranges at least a little more widely, perhaps into Bhutan. It is present at elevations of 2,600-3,400m asl.	eng
58419	habitat		It inhabits small streams and the surrounding grassland and temperate forest. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58419	population		It is considered to be rare in China. There is no population information available for India and Nepal.	eng
58419	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58420	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, but many are in need of improved and strengthened management. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.	eng
58420	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southern China, and occurs from 300-1,900m asl.	eng
58420	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and nearby ponds, and breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58420	population		It is a very common species, although there has been an observed decline.	eng
58420	threats		The major threats to the species are over-exploitation for human consumption, habitat destruction and degradation (mainly due to wood collecting), and water pollution.	eng
58421	conservation		In Viet Nam this species is within Hoang Lien Son National Park, and in Thailand records are from Doi Pa Hom Pole National Park in Chiang Mai.	eng
58421	distribution		This species is known from the Sa Pa region of northern Viet Nam (Dubois 1987) and Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (Khonsue and Thirakhupt 2001). It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to occur in eastern Myanmar, southern China, and northern Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded from 1,570-2,090m asl.	eng
58421	habitat		It inhabits small and large streams in montane forest and scrub vegetation. Specimens are usually found in or beside these streams, in which they breed.	eng
58421	population		It was observed to be common in suitable habitat in northern Viet Nam (Swan pers. comm.), although its population status in Thailand is not known.	eng
58421	threats		This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation due to agricultural development and infrastructure development for human settlements. Most of the species in the genus <em>Paa</em> are consumed locally to a varying degree within their range.	eng
58422	conservation		It is not known to occur within any protected areas.	eng
58422	distribution		This species is known only from Mama, in Cona County, southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, and has been recorded from 2,900-3,400m asl. It might occur a little more widely, perhaps in neighbouring India and Bhutan.	eng
58422	habitat		It inhabits small streams in forested and shrubby areas, and breeds in these streams, laying its eggs under stones.	eng
58422	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58422	threats		This species is known only from a remote area where there are few, if any, threats.	eng
58423	conservation		It has been recorded from Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and Royal Chitwan National Park.	eng
58423	distribution		This species is known only from western Nepal, from 2,200-2,600m asl.	eng
58423	habitat		It is associated with stream habitats in upland temperate rainforests. There is little information on larval habitats, although it is presumed that larvae also occur in stream habitats.	eng
58423	population		It has a restricted range and is considered to be rare.	eng
58423	threats		The main threats to this species are the degradation and destruction of its habitat as a result of small-scale agricultural development, and wood extraction.	eng
58424	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in the region.	eng
58424	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southern China and is found in Fujian, Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, including Hong Kong. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from just above sea level to 1,400m asl.	eng
58424	habitat		It inhabits small, hill streams in forests or shrublands. It sometimes also occurs in seepages, stream-fed marshes, and forests. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58424	population		It is a very common species, although it is believed to be in decline.	eng
58424	threats		The major threat to this species is over-collecting for human consumption, and habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
58425	conservation		Its known locality in Myanmar is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park. Clarification of its taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in the Himalayan foothills, eastern Myanmar and China, is also necessary to aid this species' conservation.	eng
58425	distribution		This species is known with certainty from the Kakhien Hills of eastern Myanmar. There is an old record from western Yunnan Province, China, but there are insufficient details to enable it to be included in attempts to map this species' range. A record from northern Myanmar (Smith 1940) refers to <em>Paa arnoldi</em>.	eng
58425	habitat		This species probably inhabits, and breeds in, hill streams in forested areas.	eng
58425	population		This species' population status is not known. It has not been recorded in Myanmar since it was discovered over a century ago, and results from recent surveys of the area are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.). There is no population status information available for China.	eng
58425	threats		Threats to this species are not known.	eng
58426	conservation		It is not known to occur within any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58426	distribution		This species is known only from a few sites in the fast flowing streams of Rush Valley in Hazara Division, North West Frontier, Pakistan and in Jammu and Kashmir. It might also occur in Nepal and Bhutan although further surveys are needed to confirm this. It has been recorded from elevations of 1,200-1,500m asl.	eng
58426	habitat		It is associated with torrential streams and nearby pools, and also frequents quieter and clear water pools in the beds of torrents or waterfalls. It feeds on water-visiting insects. It breeds in torrent pools from March to May. The call is low-pitched, and is barely heard away from the torrent. Large eggs are laid singly and are enclosed in a double jelly capsule. The tadpoles live in fast-moving aquatic habitats, and feed on algal growths on the surface of submerged stones. During the rainy season, to avoid the fast flow of water, the tadpoles either migrate into crevices under stones where the force of the flow is at a minimum, or hold on to the surface of rocks with the oral disc which acts as an effective sucker giving them a very firm hold. The species is not able to adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
58426	population		The population is considered to be stable at present.	eng
58426	threats		Prolonged drought is the only known threat to this species. Its habitat is not currently under threat.	eng
58427	conservation		The range of the species includes three small sub-national protected areas: Ruoliaojian, Daiyunshan, and Jiulongshan.	eng
58427	distribution		This species is restricted to Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces in central China, and occurs above 800m asl.	eng
58427	habitat		It inhabits hill streams in forests, and breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58427	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58427	threats		Over-collecting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to logging and infrastructure development, is also a threat.	eng
58428	conservation		Part of the range of this species is covered by the Yadong National Nature Reserve in China. In India it is known from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh State. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Shrestra (2001). It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58428	distribution		This species ranges throughout much of Nepal, Bhutan, and northern India and is also present in southern Xizang province (Yadong and Nielamu) in China. It has been recorded at elevations of 1,500-3,500m asl.	eng
58428	habitat		It is associated with streams in high-altitude shrubland. It breeds in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58428	population		It is reported to be a common species in South Asia, but is considered rare in China.	eng
58428	threats		Some decrease in available habitat due to the localized clearance of shrubland is occurring within the species' range. It is also threatened by changes in waterway management, for example dam construction.	eng
58429	conservation		The location in Yunnan is in the Lugu Lake Nature Reserve.	eng
58429	distribution		This species is only known from Ninglang, Jingdong and Shuangbai counties, in Yunnan, Yanyuan, and Sichuan provinces in China. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs from 2,100-2,650m asl.	eng
58429	habitat		It inhabits the quiet shores of lakes, and small islands in the lakes. Breeding takes place in the lakes, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58429	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58429	threats		A major threat to this species is the negative impact of tourism on the habitat around the lakes in which this species occurs. It is also subject to over-harvesting for food.	eng
58430	conservation		It occurs in the Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan National Nature Reserves. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.	eng
58430	distribution		This species is endemic to central Yunnan Province (Jingdong and Shuangbai Counties) in China, and occurs from 1,800-2,600m asl.	eng
58430	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in forest streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58430	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58430	threats		The major threat is overharvesting by the local people for food.	eng
58431	conservation		Its type locality is probably within Motuo National Nature Reserve.	eng
58431	distribution		This species is known only from Medog, in south-eastern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, where it has been recorded from 1,000-1,100m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, perhaps ranging into neighbouring India.	eng
58431	habitat		It inhabits forested streams, and sometimes also occurs at the edges of pools and ponds. It breeds in streams and the eggs are laid in water under stones.	eng
58431	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
58431	threats		There are currently no known threats to this species.	eng
58432	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, though there are several within its range. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58432	distribution		This species is restricted to western Nepal and northern India (Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal). It is present at elevations of 1,000-2,400m asl.	eng
58432	habitat		It is associated with montane subtropical forests and streams. Breeding takes place in streams; however, there is no information available on larval ecology.	eng
58432	population		It is reportedly a fairly common species.	eng
58432	threats		Loss of available habitat through the localized clearance of forest is a major threat. It is also threatened by changes in waterway management, for example, following dam construction.	eng
58433	conservation		It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58433	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality of Mokokchung (26° 20'N; 94° 30'E), in Nagaland, north-east India, at 1200m asl. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
58433	habitat		It is believed to occur in stream habitats, in which it presumably breeds, in upland tropical forests.	eng
58433	population		There is very little information regarding its population status. Recent herpetological surveys in Nagaland have not located a second population.	eng
58433	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58434	conservation		It has been recorded in Lantang National Park in Nepal.	eng
58434	distribution		This species is found throughout much of Nepal at elevations of 2,600-3,900m asl, and also in Nielamu County in Xizang province, China around 3,400m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely, perhaps ranging into India and Bhutan.	eng
58434	habitat		It is associated with stream habitats in montane forest. It breeds in streams and the eggs are laid in water under stones.	eng
58434	population		In Nepal it is fairly common at higher elevations, however in China it is considered very rare.	eng
58434	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present.	eng
58435	conservation		This species occurs within Rara National Park, and possibly also within Royal Chitwan National Park. It has recently been studied by Shrestha (2001).	eng
58435	distribution		This species has been recorded from Lake Rara in Nepal, at 3,000m asl. Reports from Royal Chitwan National Park (Schleich 1993) require confirmation.	eng
58435	habitat		There is little information known regarding its habitat and ecological requirements, although it is known to occur in Lake Rara, and also to be associated with tropical montane forest.	eng
58435	population		There is no information available on population numbers or trends.	eng
58435	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58436	conservation		The range of this species includes Changling Nature Reserve. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably.	eng
58436	distribution		This species is only known from Hejiang County, in south-eastern Sichuan Province, China, from 650-1,500m asl.	eng
58436	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and surrounding riparian habitat. Breeding takes place in streams, the eggs being laid in water under stones.	eng
58436	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58436	threats		The main threat to this species is over-harvesting for human consumption.	eng
58437	conservation		It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park.	eng
58437	distribution		This species is endemic to Nepal. It is known from Lac-Kutsab-Terna Tal (the type locality) and Royal Chitwan National Park. It has been recorded at elevations between 2,500 and 3,500m asl.	eng
58437	habitat		It is associated with high-altitude streams, springs, and other running waterbodies within forest and grassland habitats. There is no information available on larval habitat and ecology.	eng
58437	population		It is generally considered to be a rare species.	eng
58437	threats		The main threat is loss of habitat due to subsistence wood collecting.	eng
58438	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in the region.	eng
58438	distribution		This species is endemic to central China and is known from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan and Guangxi provinces. It has been recorded from 510-1,500m asl.	eng
58438	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in streams in forested regions; the eggs are laid in water under stones.	eng
58438	population		This species is currently believed to be in decline.	eng
58438	threats		Over-collecting for human consumption is a threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, in particular dam construction and logging.	eng
58439	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in China. One location in Viet Nam is within Tay Con Linh II Nature Reserve. Harvest management or cessation, and the safeguarding of suitable habitat are priorities for the conservation of this species. Clarification of the taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in this region are necessary.	eng
58439	distribution		This species is found in central, south-western and southern China, including Hong Kong. Its range in Viet Nam is difficult to define since many older records of <em>P. spinosa</em> probably refer to other <em>Paa</em> taxa, including <em>P. verrucospina</em> and <em>P. yunnanensis</em>. Bourret (1942:291) stated that he encountered <em>P. spinosa</em> only from Mao Son and Bac-Kan. It has been recorded from 200-1,500m asl.	eng
58439	habitat		It lives and breeds in rocky streams in evergreen forest and open countryside on hills and mountains. It breeds in streams, and the eggs are laid in water under stones.	eng
58439	population		This species is believed to have undergone a dramatic decline in China. Bourret (1942) encountered rather large numbers in Mao Son, but also noted intensive collection. It was recorded to be common in Ha Giang Province, Viet Nam (R. Bain pers. comm.).	eng
58439	threats		It has been collected for consumption throughout its range for many decades and such harvesting still continues; even in the 1930s it was traded from Mao Son as far as Hanoi (Bourret 1942). It is presumably also impacted by extensive habitat degradation, due to agriculture and the construction of dams (the latter involving changes in hydrology).	eng
58440	conservation		The species occurs in the Hazar Ganji protected area in Pakistan.	eng
58440	distribution		This species is found in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan (especially around Quetta and Mastung). This species might occur in India, further confirmation is required. It is reported at altitudes of 1,800-2,000m asl in Afghanistan (Kullmann 1974).	eng
58440	habitat		This is an aquatic species, it inhabits clear pools with flowing stream (karez) water. When disturbed it jumps into the depths of the water and hides under gravel at the bottom or under dense marginal vegetation and thick floating algal cover. The frog never leaves the water; even in freezing winter when the upper water surface is frozen, it remains sluggishly active beneath in the unfrozen water. In summer it usually sits in the marginal vegetation or under undercut rocks along sides of streams (Khan and Ahmed 1987). Reproductive activity in this species is at its peak from April to June. Males call from the margin of flowing water at sunset. The call is a low-pitched melodious "Taroon, taroon, taroon" uttered three to four times rapidly. One has to wait for 5-10 minutes to hear the next outburst of calls. The eggs are large (2.6-3 mm) and laid in groups enclosed in jelly coats, which soon are attached to the submerged vegetation. Abortive interspecific amplectic pairing is common between Paa sternosignata and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Khan and Ahmed 1987). The frog feeds on insects, crabs, small fishes, dragonflies, and a host of other water-visiting arthropods. The tadpole feeds on algal vegetation. This is a specialized amphibian that does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
58440	population		It is a generally common species.	eng
58440	threats		In Pakistan the species is threatened by aquatic pollution from agrochemicals and washing detergents; it might also be threatened by over harvesting for science research in schools and colleges. There are no known threats to the species in Afghanistan.	eng
58441	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas. The type locality is not within a protected area.	eng
58441	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality on Taihang Mountain, near Jiyuan city, in Henan Province, central China, where it has been recorded from 728-1,230m asl. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.	eng
58441	habitat		It inhabits streams, in which it probably breeds, and the surrounding hill forest.	eng
58441	population		There is only one known population and it seems to be a rare species.	eng
58441	threats		Threats to this newly described species are not yet known.	eng
58442	conservation		Significant areas of appropriate habitat appear to be covered by the collective protected areas of Viet Nam and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, but harvesting is still a problem in these areas (BirdLife International 2001), and so needs to be managed more sustainably. Clarification of the taxonomic identity and the distribution of <em>Paa</em> frogs in this region is also necessary.	eng
58442	distribution		Allowing for the uncertainty associated with the attribution of various <em>Paa</em> populations to various names, this appears to be a taxon ranging from south of the Chinese border through the Annamite Mountains to southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret 1942; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999; Ohler et. al. 2000; B. Stuart pers. comm.), and has been recorded from 500-1,700m asl.	eng
58442	habitat		It has been recorded in and around streams, in which it breeds, in hill and lower montane evergreen forest.	eng
58442	population		It is thought to be common throughout most of its range.	eng
58442	threats		The major threat is collection for consumption, and presumably also degradation of forest habitat and stream sedimentation, as a result of logging.	eng
58443	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58443	distribution		This species is restricted to northern Pakistan and northwestern India. It is a high-altitude species found at elevations of 2,000-3,000m asl.	eng
58443	habitat		It is associated with high-altitude streams, springs, fountains and other running water within open forest and grassland habitats. There is little information available on larval habitat or ecology.	eng
58443	population		It is regarded as uncommon, but not rare.	eng
58443	threats		The threats to this species are poorly known, but its habitat is reasonably secure.	eng
58444	conservation		It might occur in the Jingangshan Nature Reserve, but this needs to be confirmed. It is important to carry out surveys to determine the distribution, threats and conservation needs of this very distinctive species.	eng
58444	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality near Jiyuan city, in Shengcheng County, Henan Province, China, where it was collected at an altitude of 424m asl. As details of the only collection site were not provided in the original description, the distribution map is approximate. The species might occur more widely.	eng
58444	habitat		It lives in streams, in which it probably breeds, and in the surrounding forest areas.	eng
58444	population		The population status of this species is not known. Only one small population has so far been found.	eng
58444	threats		The threats to this species are not known. However, the area in which it occurs has in the bast been impacted by clear-felling of forest, and selective logging still continues.	eng
58445	conservation		It is present in several protected areas in China. The two localities in Viet Nam are within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tam Dao National Park. Studies of the intensity of harvesting of this species are required, and there is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of populations in Southeast Asia, and there is also a need for further taxonomic work to clarify the taxonomic status of frogs in the genus present in mainland Southeast Asia and the Himalayan foothills.	eng
58445	distribution		This species is known from south-western and central China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan and possibly also Hubei Provinces. The only reasonably reliable records from mainland Southeast Asia are from Sa Pa (Bourret 1942, as <em>Rana yunnanensis</em> and <em>R. phrynoides</em>). Records from the Kakhien Hills of Myanmar may be a consequence of Bourret (1942) considering <em>Paa feae</em> a synonym. However, <em>P. yunnanensis</em> is recorded from most of Yunnan Province adjoining eastern Myanmar (Fei and Ye 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. In China it is known from elevations of 1,500-2,950m asl, and in Viet Nam from 800-1,000m asl (Bourret 1942).	eng
58445	habitat		It has been recorded from rocky streams in high mountains in closed-canopy forest and grassland, and has also been found in ditches. The eggs are laid under stones in streams.	eng
58445	population		Although there are no available data on the population status of Southeast Asian populations, in China it is a common species (though it has declined significantly).	eng
58445	threats		Over-collecting for human consumption is the major threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation (caused by agricultural expansion), and water pollution.	eng
58446	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Given the increasing rate of forest loss within the Solomon Islands, especially at lower elevations, there is a definite need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.	eng
58446	distribution		This species is known from several large islands in the Solomon archipelago, including Bougainville and Buka in Papua New Guinea. Recent studies (S. Richards, unpubl.) suggest that this species might have a wide distribution in the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from 700-1,500m asl on Bougainville, but in the Solomons it has been recorded only up to 250m asl.	eng
58446	habitat		It is found on low vegetation and trees in tropical rainforest, and also in good quality secondary forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58446	population		It is a very uncommon species.	eng
58446	threats		Logging might be impacting some populations, particularly in the Solomons.	eng
58447	conservation		Its distribution on islands in the Solomon Islands archipelago needs to be documented, in addition to the impacts of logging needing to be assessed.	eng
58447	distribution		This species is known from Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea, and has also recently been recorded from Choiseul and Isabel Islands in the Solomon Islands (Richards pers. comm.). It has been found at 700-1,500m asl on Bougainville, and at 100-200m asl, possibly higher, on Choiseul and Isabel.	eng
58447	habitat		On Choiseul and Isabel, this species is active at night on the floor in tropical rainforest. On Bougainville, it lives on cliffs in steep mountains, and in cracks and fissures in the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development, laying its eggs in fissures.	eng
58447	population		It is rare on Choiseul and Isabel, and very uncommon and hard to find on Bougainville.	eng
58447	threats		Logging has possibly impacted some populations.	eng
58448	conservation		The distribution of the species on islands in the Solomon's Archipelago needs to be documented and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58448	distribution		This species is known from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea and Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.	eng
58448	habitat		This species occurs in leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland rainforest. It is apparently also able to persist in regrowth forest (S. Richards pers. obs). It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58448	population		This species was abundant on Choiseul and Isabel Islands during May 2000 (S. Richards pers. obs.), but was not considered common on Bougainville Island. It is likely a common species, and probably numbers in the millions.	eng
58448	threats		This species does not appear to be threatened, but logging will probably impact some populations.	eng
58449	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed to assess the population status, distribution and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
58449	distribution		This species is known from three regions of New Britain, Papua New Guinea: the Whiteman, Range; the Nakanai Mountains; and the Baining Mountains (Kraus and Allison, 2007). It has been recorded from sea-level up to 865m asl.	eng
58449	habitat		It inhabits primary and advanced secondary rainforest, but has not been recorded from disturbed habitats. Animals are typically found while calling hidden in burrows under limestone rocks, crevices in such rocks, or under leaves, but they can also found wandering on the forest floor during the day (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Males call from within leaf-litter on the forest floor in lowland and foothill rainforest (Kraus and Allison, 2007). It is a species that breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58449	population		It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
58449	threats		It is believed to be threatened by the extensive logging currently taking place on New Britain, as the species does not adapt well to seriously modified habitats.	eng
58450	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58450	distribution		This species is known only from Batanta and Waigeo Islands off the western coast of Papua, Indonesia. Recent records from Yapen and Gag Islands require confirmation.	eng
58450	habitat		It is presumably a lowland forest species. The animals from Gag Island were found in a sago swamp; those from Yapen Island were in hilly forest. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58450	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58450	threats		This species is threatened on Waigeo Island by logging.	eng
58451	conservation		Its range includes Wandamen Nature Reserve.	eng
58451	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Wondiwoi Mountains, Papua, Indonesia, from 400-800m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
58451	habitat		It inhabits primary rainforest and breeds by direct development. The males call from the forest floor, and its eggs are also laid on the ground.	eng
58451	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
58451	threats		Some populations of this species might be threatened by selective logging.	eng
58452	conservation		The impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in some.	eng
58452	distribution		This species is restricted to the island of New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Its distribution on New Britain is poorly documented. It occurs up to 400m asl, probably higher.	eng
58452	habitat		The adults occur on the floor of lowland and foothill rainforest, and juveniles climb up to 1m above ground on low vegetation. It is a direct developing species that lays its eggs on the ground. It also occurs in agricultural areas.	eng
58452	population		It is a low-density species. It was last recorded in 2000, but there have been very few records.	eng
58452	threats		Serious logging might be a threat to this species, but further research into the effects of logging is required.	eng
58453	conservation		Additional data on the Extent of Occurrence of this species are urgently required. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58453	distribution		This species is known only from the Weitin Valley, southern New Ireland, and from the Wanui area, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea. It might have a broader distribution on these islands (and on other islands). It has been recorded from 100-1,300m asl.	eng
58453	habitat		This species is found under litter in lowland and foothill rainforest and in heavily disturbed rainforest vegetation and rural gardens. Males call from elevated perches at night. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58453	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58453	threats		There are no known threats, and it appears able to withstand selective logging, although clear felling might be a threat.	eng
58454	conservation		It is likely to occur in the Bawa River Watershed Forest Reserve (and Palaui Island is a marine reserve), but there is clearly a need for further protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests, especially adjacent to protected forested parks.	eng
58454	distribution		This species is known thus far from several localities along the north coast of Luzon Island and on Palaui Island, in the Philippines, at elevations from sea level up to perhaps 200m asl.	eng
58454	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, occasionally being found in human-controlled environments beside the forest. It breeds by direct development, and is presumed to breed and nest in the leaf-litter of the forest.	eng
58454	population		It is known to be common to very common.	eng
58454	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and logging of the lowland rainforest (which is the primary habitat of this species).	eng
58455	conservation		Its range includes Cyclops Mountains Nature Reserve.	eng
58455	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Cyclops Mountains in north-eastern Papua, Indonesia.	eng
58455	habitat		This species is probably restricted to hilly tropical rainforests. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58455	population		Its population status is unknown. It has not been recorded for many years, and recent surveys of the foothills of the Cyclops Mountains found no individuals.	eng
58455	threats		The threats to this species are unknown. Most of the Cyclops Mountains are included in a protected area, but fires and illegal removal of vegetation are encroaching on this habitat.	eng
58456	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. The protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests is recommended.	eng
58456	distribution		This species is known from the rainforests of Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte, Samar, Siquijor, Bohol, Cebu, Negros, Panay, and Mindanao in the Philippines.	eng
58456	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in anthropogenic habitats beside the forest. It breeds and lays its eggs in leaf-litter, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
58456	population		It is a common to very common species.	eng
58456	threats		This is one of the most common forest species in the Philippines; however, some populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, especially of the lowland rainforest.	eng
58457	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58457	distribution		This species is known from two areas northeast of the "birds-neck" in Papua, Indonesia: about 100-120km southeast of Nabire; and around Siewa, about 80km north-east of the first site. Its altitudinal range is 80-700m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
58457	habitat		This species inhabits closed primary forest, secondary forest and small-scale subsistence farms around villages. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58457	population		It is exceptionally abundant around Siewa, and is also abundant in its type locality.	eng
58457	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable.	eng
58458	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. The protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests is recommended.	eng
58458	distribution		This species is known from the rainforests of western and southern Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes, Tablas, Romblon, Marinduque, Cebu, Negros, and Panay in the Philippines.	eng
58458	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in human-controlled environments beside the forest. It breeds and breeds by direct development in the leaf-litter of the forest.	eng
58458	population		It is often a common to very common species.	eng
58458	threats		This is one of the most common forest species in the Philippines; however, some populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation, especially of the lowland rainforest.	eng
58459	conservation		Surveys are needs to clarify the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements and conservations needs of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58459	distribution		This species is known only from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea. It is probably a foothill species, but this is not entirely clear, and more work is needed to clarify its distribution.	eng
58459	habitat		This species probably occurs in rainforest habitats. It is not known whewther or not it can tolerate disturbance to its habitat. It breeds by direct development and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
58459	population		Little information is available regarding its population status.	eng
58459	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, but very extensive logging is taking place within its range.	eng
58460	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. The designation of the remaining rainforests on the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol, and Dinagat as protected areas is needed.	eng
58460	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of Bohol, Leyte, Biliran, Maripipi, Dinagat, Panglao, and Mindanao Islands in the Philippines, from sea level to 700m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58460	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests; it also survives in disturbed habitats adjacent to forested areas. It breeds by direct development and is believed to deposit its eggs in leaf axils, epiphytes, and aerial ferns.	eng
58460	population		It is common to very common in humid forest.	eng
58460	threats		The major threat is the loss of habitat due to shifting agriculture and the logging of lowland rainforest.	eng
58461	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58461	distribution		This species is widespread in the Solomon Islands from Bougainville (Papua New Guinea) in the north to at least Malaita in the south. It ranges up to 700m asl.	eng
58461	habitat		This species inhabits closed-canopy rainforest and old regrowth forest. These frogs live in the trees, between about 2m and 20m above the ground. It is a species that breeds by direct development that lays its eggs in trees.	eng
58461	population		It is a very common and abundant species.	eng
58461	threats		It might be threatened by logging. However, the observation that this species can persist in regrowth forest suggests that it might be resilient to a degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
58462	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.	eng
58462	distribution		This species is known from the mid-montane rainforests (600-1,400m asl) of Mount Banahaw, on southern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
58462	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum and herb layer vegetation in mossy and montane rainforest. It lays its eggs in terrestrial nests and breeds by direct development.	eng
58462	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
58462	threats		It is currently known to occur in a generally well-protected locality on Luzon Island, and existing threats (shifting agriculture and logging) are not presently significant.	eng
58463	conservation		The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining rainforests of the islands of Romblon and Tablas as protected areas. The population on Sibuyan Island is generally well protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species on the three islands.	eng
58463	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of Romblon, Tablas, and Sibuyan Islands in the Philippines at elevations between 800 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
58463	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
58463	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species.	eng
58463	threats		The populations on the smaller islands of Tablas and Romblon are particularly threatened by continuing habitat loss due to small-scale logging and conversion of lowland rainforest to agricultural land.	eng
58464	conservation		This species is known to occur in four generally well-protected localities on Luzon Island, and so the most important conservation measure is the continued designation of three of these (Mount Banahaw, Mount Makiling and Mount Bulusan) as protected areas. This species is also very common on Mount Malinao, which is not a formally protected area.	eng
58464	distribution		This species occurs in the rainforests of south-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at around 600m asl.	eng
58464	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, where it deposits its eggs (which undergo direct development) in tree holes, pandans and tree ferns. This species also lives in disturbed, secondary habitats.	eng
58464	population		It is common in forested areas and disturbed areas adjacent to forests.	eng
58464	threats		Its habitat is threatened due to shifting agriculture and logging, but not to a significant degree at present.	eng
58465	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be more fully documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58465	distribution		This species is known only from mountains in the Aresi area near Kunua, on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, at 700-1,000m asl. It might possibly occur more widely in the Solomon Islands.	eng
58465	habitat		It is found on steep mountain slopes in dense forest and along streams, but not on ridge tops. It breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.	eng
58465	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58465	threats		There are probably no threats to this species at present.	eng
58466	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and current population status of the species need to be documented. It is not known from a protected area.	eng
58466	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Ti, in the Nakanai Mountains in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, at around 900m asl.	eng
58466	habitat		This species occurs in rainforest on low vegetation, and breeds by direct development, laying its eggs in trees.	eng
58466	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last recorded in 1999 and is known only from three specimens.	eng
58466	threats		It is not clear whether or not there are any threats to it. There is a large amount of logging occurring on New Britain Island, but it is uncertain whether or not it is occurring within the range of this species.	eng
58467	conservation	Richards, S. & Allison, A., 2004	The distribution of this species on New Britain needs to be documented, and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58467	distribution	Richards, S. & Allison, A., 2004	This species is known from New Ireland Island and from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea. It might be widespread on New Britain. It occurs up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
58467	habitat	Richards, S. & Allison, A., 2004	On New Ireland, this species was found in rural gardens and plantations at night and in caves during the day. On New Britain, this species was found in primary rainforest and in disturbed forest adjacent to small rural gardens, and also in streams and wet gulleys. Here, it was found on the forest floor or on logs, 20–50 cm high (  Foufopoulos<span class="A1"> and Richards<span class="A1"> 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58467	population	Richards, S. & Allison, A., 2004	The population in New Britain appears to be common. It is more common at lower altitudes.	eng
58467	threats	Richards, S. & Allison, A., 2004	No threats are known to this species, although logging might impact on some populations.	eng
58468	conservation		Additional data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed. It is not known to occur in any protected area.	eng
58468	distribution		This species is known from localities across much of New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea.	eng
58468	habitat		It has been recorded from plantations, indicating perhaps some degree of tolerance to habitat modification, where it was calling from beneath coconut husks and leaves. It presumably also occurs in rainforest.	eng
58468	population		The population status is unknown. It is not known whether or not it has been collected since it was first described.	eng
58468	threats		None known.	eng
58469	conservation		This species is known to occur in several well-protected areas on Luzon Island, including Mount Makiling National Park.	eng
58469	distribution		This species is known from Mount Makiling and its immediate vicinity, on southern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at around 400m asl.	eng
58469	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in undisturbed and disturbed lower montane and lowland forests, and is occasionally found in anthropogenic habitats beside the forest. It deposits its eggs in leaf-litter nests and breeds by direct development.	eng
58469	population		It is common to very common in forest and disturbed areas.	eng
58469	threats		Its habitat is threatened due to shifting agriculture and logging, but not to a significant degree at present.	eng
58470	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.	eng
58470	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Banahaw, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
58470	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests. It deposits its eggs in shrub layer vegetation, in tree ferns, aerial ferns, and pandanus. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58470	population		It is very common above 800m asl on Mount Banahaw, and populations appear to be stable.	eng
58470	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present since it occurs in the high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbance. However, its restricted range makes it vulnerable to these threatening processes.	eng
58471	conservation		The species' distribution on other islands (if present) and on Bougainville needs to be documented. The species' habitat preferences and population status also need to be assessed. It is not known to occur within any protected area.	eng
58471	distribution		This species is known only from Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, where it has been recorded between 700 and 1,500m asl.	eng
58471	habitat		This is a terrestrial inhabitant of rainforest, which breeds by direct development. As its known range is within a pristine area, its adaptability to degraded habitats is unknown.	eng
58471	population		It is a very uncommon species that is difficult to find.	eng
58471	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and it is at a high enough altitude that logging is unlikely to be a threat.	eng
58472	conservation		Its Extent of Occurrence needs to be documented further and the impacts of logging need to be assessed. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58472	distribution		This species is known from Bougainville Island, North Solomons Province, Papua New Guinea and has recently been found on Choiseul and Isabel Islands, Solomon Islands (Richards, unpublished data). It has been recorded up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58472	habitat		This species is found in trees about 2-10m above ground in lowland tropical rainforest or old regrowth forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development and that lays its eggs in trees.	eng
58472	population		This species is common where it occurs.	eng
58472	threats		None are known, but some populations might be impacted by logging.	eng
58473	conservation		The distribution, habitat requirements and current population status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58473	distribution		This species is known only from New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded from three locations (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006): St. Paul in the Baining Mountains, Gazelle Peninsula, East New Britain Province, at 100–400m asl;  the ridge between the Ivule and Sigole Rivers, in the Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain Province, at 900–1,200m asl; and Wanui Camp, Wanui River Valley (near Wide Bay), East New Britain Province, at 310m asl. It probably occurs more widely on New Britain in montane areas.	eng
58473	habitat		This species has been found in primary rainforest, and in disturbed habitat and regrowth forest. Males typically perch 3–5 m above the ground on leaves or thin twigs and branches of understory forest trees (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Across the local landscape in the Nakanai Mountain, calling <em>P. nexipus</em> were more common in<br/>deep ravines and cloud-shrouded valleys (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds by direct development and lays its eggs in trees.	eng
58473	population		In the Nakanai Mountains calling males were subjectively classified as ‘‘widely spaced,’’ with as much as 200m of forest between vocalizing individuals (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006), suggesting that is might be a low-density species.	eng
58473	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, but very serious logging is taking place on New Britain Island, and this might impact some populations.	eng
58474	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
58474	distribution		This species occurs on Sangihe, Talaud, Seram, Halmahera, Ambon, Sula, Banggai and is widespread throughout the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, and across northern mainland New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on several major islands off the north and west coasts of New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea). It is a lowland species, occurring below 1,200m asl.	eng
58474	habitat		It is found in a wide variety of habitats, from closed forest to secondary regrowth, gardens and other heavily disturbed habitats. It can survive in brackish water. It breeds by direct-development, laying its eggs on the ground, and so is not dependent upon water.	eng
58474	population		It is an exceptionally abundant species through most of its range.	eng
58474	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58475	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
58475	distribution		This species is known only from the northern end of Bougainville Island and from Buka Island, North Solomons Province, Papua New Guinea. It occurs below 100m asl, but only on uplifted coral. It certainly does not occur further south in Bougainville due to the lack of uplifted coral landscapes.	eng
58475	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found in lowland rainforest and regrowth forest, rural gardens, villages, and other anthropogenic habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58475	population		Its abundance is very hard to determine, since it is a diminutive species and very hard to find.	eng
58475	threats		It is an adaptable species, but might be at risk from stochastic threatening processes, owing to its very small distribution.	eng
58476	conservation		It occurs in the Seventy Islands Reserve, and in a proposed reserve on Babeldaop.	eng
58476	distribution		This species is found throughout the Palau Archipelago, except in the Southwest Islands, from the Kayangel Atoll in the north, south to Angaur in the south, Republic of Palau.	eng
58476	habitat		It lives terrestrially in all kinds of habitats, including pandan savannah, forest, agricultural areas, and urban areas. It is found even on tiny, rocky islands, and on the edges of mangrove swamps, and it might be somewhat tolerant of saline conditions. Females congregate in very large numbers in natural caves, and in old bunkers (both concrete and dug-out bunkers) left from the Second World War. It breeds by direct development, though the nests are very hard to find.	eng
58476	population		It is very abundant.	eng
58476	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
58477	conservation		The most important conservation measure is the continued management of Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park. There is also a need for continued monitoring of the population status of this species given that it is known only from this site.	eng
58477	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Banahaw and Mount San Cristobal, on Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It ranges from 1,350-1,500m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).	eng
58477	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in mossy and montane rainforests. It breeds by direct development with breeding presumably taking place in leaf-litter and eggs laid in terrestrial nests.	eng
58477	population		It is characterized as uncommon at the type locality, but its population is apparently stable.	eng
58477	threats		This species is not likely to be threatened at present since it occurs in the middle- to high-elevation montane forests, which are relatively less subjected to deforestation and other human disturbances. However, its restricted range makes it more vulnerable to these threatening processes.	eng
58478	conservation		Additional data on the Extent of Occurrence and abundance of this species are required. The range of the species includes Wandamen Nature Reserve and Batanta Nature Reserve.	eng
58478	distribution		This species is known from Batanta and Waigeo Islands and the Arfak Mountains, Vogelkop Peninsula, and southeast of Nabire, and the Fakfak Mountains of Papua, Indonesia. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.	eng
58478	habitat		This species inhabits rainforest, and is usually found near streams (Günther, 1999). It is a species that breeds by direct development. It has not been recorded from degraded habitat.	eng
58478	population		It is not a common species.	eng
58478	threats		There are no known threats to the species overall. There is some logging, taking place on Waigeu Island.	eng
58479	conservation		The Extent of Occurrence, habitat requirements and population status of this species need to be documented. There are no confirmed records from protected areas.	eng
58479	distribution		This species is known only from New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea, where its distribution is poorly documented.	eng
58479	habitat		Its habitat is unknown, but it is presumably found in lowland and foothill rainforest. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
58479	population		The population is unknown.	eng
58479	threats		Logging is potentially a threat to this species.	eng
58480	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas, though this is not confirmed.	eng
58480	distribution		This species occurs on New Britain and New Ireland, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Reports from Manus Island, in the Admiralty Archipelago, seem to represent a different, undescribed species. It is presumably a low altitude species.	eng
58480	habitat		This species inhabits rainforest, disturbed forest, plantations and gardens. They are often associated with coconut husk piles. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58480	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58480	threats		It is an adaptable species that appears not to be threatened.	eng
58481	conservation		It is known to occur in Aurora National Park, but there remains a need for improved protection of the remaining forests in the Sierra Madres.	eng
58481	distribution		This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines, at 600-1,200m asl.	eng
58481	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58481	population		It is common in intact and lightly disturbed lowland forests, but is uncommon at higher elevations.	eng
58481	threats		The major threat is the loss of lowland rainforest due to small-scale logging and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
58482	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58482	distribution		This species occurs through most the Solomons Archipelago (in both the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea), from sea level up to 500m asl.	eng
58482	habitat		It inhabits lowland and hill forest, including disturbed regrowth forest, rural gardens, coconut plantations, and open areas. It breeds by direct development, laying its eggs on the ground.	eng
58482	population		It is an abundant species	eng
58482	threats		It is an adaptable species, and appears not to be facing any threats.	eng
58483	conservation		Its range includes a few vast protected areas in the Sierra Madres. Intensive public education campaigns are needed to supplement current efforts to protect the remaining forests in these areas.	eng
58483	distribution		This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded from 100-400m asl.	eng
58483	habitat		It inhabits the forest floor stratum in lower montane and lowland forests, breeding and making its nests in leaf-litter. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
58483	population		It is common and widespread.	eng
58483	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to shifting agriculture and logging of the lowland rainforest, which is the primary habitat of this species.	eng
58484	conservation		It has been confirmed as occurring in Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, Colo-I-Suva Forest Park, Garrick Memorial Park, Bouma Forest Reserve, and Savura Forest Reserve. The main priority conservation measure for this species is the conservation of mature forest, especially along streams.	eng
58484	distribution		This species is widespread in Fiji on the islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Ovalau and Taveuni, occurring at approximately 50-800m asl.	eng
58484	habitat		It is naturally a forest species, living especially along streams in giant <em>Pandanus</em>, bird's nest ferns and the common lily (<em>Colospermum montanum</em>). It is also found, though at much lower densities, in rural gardens, plantations, and in pandans in pastureland. It breeds by direct development, the eggs being laid in leaf axils. The clutch size is less than 30 eggs.	eng
58484	population		It can be locally common in suitable areas, in particular in mature, wet forest along streams, but is much less common in secondary and degraded habitats.	eng
58484	threats		The main threat to this species is probably forest loss due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction, and logging.	eng
58485	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58485	distribution		This species is found on all the major islands of the Solomons Archipelago (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands) and on many smaller islands as well. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.	eng
58485	habitat		This species inhabits closed rainforest and disturbed forest habitats, and is also found in gardens, villages and plantations.	eng
58485	population		This is an exceptionally abundant species where it occurs and the total population is likely to be many millions.	eng
58485	threats		There are no known threats to this species, and it appears to be resilient to even severe levels of habitat modification.	eng
58486	conservation		A number of protected areas support this species.	eng
58486	distribution		This species is restricted to higher altitudes in the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded from 1,100-3,300m asl.	eng
58486	habitat		It inhabits forests, and breeds in streams.	eng
58486	population		It is a common species, and its populations are stable.	eng
58486	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species, although usually natural habitats by mountain streams are protected for preserving water resources even in disturbed areas. This species is not thought to be significantly threatened.	eng
58487	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of low-altitude hill forests within its range.	eng
58487	distribution		This species is endemic to lowland areas in western Taiwan, Province of China, from 170 to about 500m asl.	eng
58487	habitat		It inhabits low-altitude hill forests and the associated streams. Breeding normally takes place in streams and ditches with running water, but has also been observed occasionally in still-water pools.	eng
58487	population		It is a common species.	eng
58487	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agriculture and infrastructure development.	eng
58488	conservation		The species has been reported from Nameri National Park and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Sengupta at Nameri and Pakhui (from 2000 to 2001), and by Bardoloi and Ao at Sanuoru, Rukhrona and Jakhama, in Nagaland (from 2000 to 2002). It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58488	distribution		This species has been recorded from disjunct areas in north-east India. The main part of the distribution appears to be within central and western Nagaland; a second population has been reported from the Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and nearby Nameri National Park in Assam. Reports of this species from Manipur by Dutta (1997) require further investigation and are not mapped here. It is likely to occur somewhat more widely. It is present at elevations of 200-1,600m asl.	eng
58488	habitat		It is largely aquatic and associated with hill streams in wet tropical evergreen forest. Breeding occurs in streams, and the males guard the developing tadpoles.	eng
58488	population		It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
58488	threats		The major threat to this species is the pollution of streams by toxins used to capture fish.	eng
58489	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2004	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58489	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2004	This species ranges from Guinea and Liberia east to the Central African Republic, and south to extreme western Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its eastern distributional limits in Central African Republic, Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo are not known. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The apparent distribution gaps between Benin and Nigeria are possibly real. It is presumed to occur in the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, although there appear to be no confirmed records from this country.	eng
58489	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2004	It lives in lowland moist forest. It generally requires a forest canopy, but it can tolerate some disturbance of its habitat, although there are some records from heavily degraded former forest (farm bush). It breeds in temporary small pools and marshy depressions in stream valleys, and starts breeding the moment the pools start filling up with water. In West Africa, it spawns terrestrially, before the rains fill up the pools.	eng
58489	population	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2004	It is a common species.	eng
58489	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L., Burger, M. & Largen, M., 2004	Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58490	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58490	distribution		This species ranges from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia, south through East Africa to South Africa and Botswana, and west to Angola and southern Congo. It occurs up to 1,800m asl in Ethiopia. There do not appear to be confirmed records from Burundi and Rwanda, though it is likely to occur in these countries.	eng
58490	habitat		It is a species of open country in woodland, savannah, grassland, and agricultural and suburban areas, but also found in forest clearings. It is usually (but not always) found in close proximity to permanent water. It breeds in shallow temporary ponds.	eng
58490	population		It is abundant in many parts of its range..	eng
58490	threats		It is an adaptable species that is only likely to be facing localized threats. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Kenya.	eng
58491	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) and presumably also in several other protected areas.	eng
58491	distribution		This species ranges from western Angola, through Shaba Province in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, to northern Zambia and southern Malawi. There are few recorded localities through its wide range. It presumably occurs also in western Mozambique and it is possibly also present in Tanzania.	eng
58491	habitat		It is apparently associated with humid savannah and forests. Its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. The males call from concealed positions in dense vegetation in swamps or slow-flowing streams. Its breeding is unknown, but it presumably takes place in swamps and streams.	eng
58491	population		It is a poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.	eng
58491	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
58492	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some.	eng
58492	distribution		This poorly known species has been recorded only from southern Senegal (Casamance), Guinea, Sierra Leone, and southern Côte d’Ivoire (at Lamto). It presumably occurs in Guinea-Bissau and Liberia, though there are no confirmed records from these countries.	eng
58492	habitat		It lives in humid savannah, secondary forest, and gallery forest. Animals have also been found in a ditch near degraded former forest (farm bush), indicating that this species is reasonably adaptable to secondary habitats. It breeds in temporary marshes and permanent pools.	eng
58492	population		There is very little information on its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected many years previously, and since it was described it has not yet been related to any species in the wild, though it appears to be taxonomically valid (Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
58492	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species.	eng
58493	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Ohler, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58493	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Ohler, A., 2004	This species ranges widely from Senegal and Gambia, east to northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Garamba National Park). There appear to be no records from Guinea-Bissau and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
58493	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Ohler, A., 2004	It is most common in humid wooded savannas, but it is also present in dry savannas and disturbed areas in forest zone (farm bush). It breeds in small, stagnant temporary pools.	eng
58493	population	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Ohler, A., 2004	It is an abundant species.	eng
58493	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Amiet, J.-L. & Ohler, A., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58494	conservation		It occurs in the Mulanje Mountain and Zomba Mountain Forest Reserves. Additional survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species, and to better understand the immediate threats.	eng
58494	distribution		This species is known only from Mulanje Mountain and the Zomba Plateau in southern Malawi. Its altitudinal range is unclear, although it presumably occurs above 1,000m asl.	eng
58494	habitat		It is a rupicolous species, associated with open rock faces, often hiding in clumps of vegetation growing out of cracks in the rock. The surrounding environment is usually moist savannah or montane forest. The larvae develop on rock faces covered by a film of water, where they feed on algae.	eng
58494	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58494	threats		Little direct information is available on its threats, but presumably the ongoing loss of forest and woodland habitat might result in a reduction of water seeping over rocks, thus destroying its breeding habitat.	eng
58495	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it is presumably present in some.	eng
58495	distribution		This species ranges from western Angola to northwestern Zambia. It is presumed to occur in adjacent southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo, but there do not appear to be any records from this country.	eng
58495	habitat		It is a species of humid savannah where it is associated with flooded grassland, in which it presumably breeds. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.	eng
58495	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; this species is very poorly known.	eng
58495	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
58496	conservation		As this species is very poorly known, further research is required to resolve its taxonomy, and all claimed specimens should be examined to determine whether or not they refer to the same species (Largen pers. comm.).	eng
58496	distribution		This species was described from Medje in the rainforest of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo on the basis of specimens that seem to represent a distinct species. There are old records from Boyulu and Kisangani (Noble 1924), which is also in the forest zone of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and there are more recent records from Budongo Forest and Bwamba Forest in western Uganda. Records from Faradje and Garamba in the savannah zone of north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo are probably in error, partly for ecological reasons, and partly because Inger (1968) did not record this species from Garamba National Park.	eng
58496	habitat		This is a species found in lowland rainforest. The specimens from Boyulu were found in temporary pools formed in the road through the forest, and which contained large masses of spawn.	eng
58496	population		$Exxclude$The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58496	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
58497	conservation		It occurs in Kibale National Park and Bwindi National Park (both in Uganda), as well as a recent record in Serengeti National Park in Tanzania.	eng
58497	distribution		This species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu Province), Rwanda, Burundi, and southwestern Uganda. There is also an isolated, recent record at Schaller's Spring in the Serengeti, Tanzania, at 1,799m asl (Channing, <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Its altitudinal range is from 1,200-1,600m asl, although it probably ranges higher than this.	eng
58497	habitat		It is a terrestrial forest species of swampy areas on the forest edge, also occurring in disturbed habitats, including ditches alongside roads. It breeds in streams.	eng
58497	population		It can be common in suitable habitat, especially at higher elevations.	eng
58497	threats		There are probably no threats to this species in view of its adaptability.	eng
58498	conservation		It occurs in the Bale Mountains National Park.	eng
58498	distribution		This species is endemic to the highlands of central Ethiopia west of the Rift Valley, and southern Ethiopia east of the Rift Valley, occurring at 2,500-3,100m asl. It is probably more widespread than current records suggest.	eng
58498	habitat		It is a species of montane grassland and occasionally forest-edge habitats. It is also found in disturbed habitats, for example around Addis Ababa. It breeds in permanent pools, temporary rain-fed pools and flooded fields in montane grassland.	eng
58498	population		It is locally common in suitable habitat, and can sometimes be found in large numbers.	eng
58498	threats		The main threats are associated with environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of natural resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes.	eng
58499	conservation		The best-known population of this species is found in Bale Mountains National Park. Conservation of montane forests is the highest priority conservation measure for this species.	eng
58499	distribution		This species occurs in the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, and in the highlands on both sides of the Rift Valley. It is generally found at 1,500-2,500m asl, though it possibly extends as low as 1,300m asl near the shore of Lake Abaya (the type locality). Its distribution is severely fragmented although it probably occurs more widely than current records show.	eng
58499	habitat		It seems to be particularly associated with long grasses and similar coarse herbaceous vegetation in forest clearings, not necessarily very close to permanent water. Its breeding behaviour is unknown, but it presumably takes place in pools in forest clearings and at forest margins.	eng
58499	population		It appears to be a rather rare species (though this might be due in part to the difficulty in distinguishing between this species and <em>Ptychadena neumanni</em>).	eng
58499	threats		The main threats to this species are related to environmental degradation resulting from encroaching human settlements, with the consequent exploitation of forest resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes, including activities such as logging and agricultural development.	eng
58500	conservation		Awash National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
58500	distribution		This species is known only from two closely adjacent sites at 800-1,000m asl in the northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Further survey work might show it to occur in neighbouring northern Somalia, Djibouti, and southern Eritrea.	eng
58500	habitat		This species is associated with permanent water (in which it breeds), which is provided at one site by pools deep amongst lava boulders, and by effluent streams from a hot spring at the other, in a sub desert steppe of volcanic rubble, xerophilous grasses and dense <em>Acacia</em> thickets.	eng
58500	population		It appeared to be fairly numerous at its type locality in 1970. The absence of subsequent records is due to a lack of survey work.	eng
58500	threats		The main threats to this species are probably related to environmental degradation resulting from expanding human settlements, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock (a hazard which exists even within Awash National Park, where it occurs). Assuming that it is more widespread than current records indicate, drought might be expected to pose a threat to some populations.	eng
58501	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
58501	distribution		This species is endemic to southern Somalia, particularly, but not entirely, in the floodplains on the Jubba and Webi Shabeelle Rivers.	eng
58501	habitat		Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats. It breeds in temporary pools and gheltas (permanent pools at the foot of cliffs or in the mouth of caves).	eng
58501	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
58501	threats		There is little information. It might be impacted by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at the moment.	eng
58502	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and it is certainly present in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
58502	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Angola, through western and northern Zambia and southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Rwanda and the Udzungwa Mountains in southeastern Tanzania. It is presumed to occur in Burundi, but there do not appear to be any records from this country. It appears to be mainly an upland species, and it occurs up to 1,900m asl in Tanzania, and probably higher elsewhere. Records from Cameroon refer to Ptychadena straeleni.	eng
58502	habitat		It is a species of moist upland savannah and montane grassland. Its adaptability to modified habitats is not known. It has been found in grassland bogs, and the males call from flooded grassland, where it presumably breeds.	eng
58502	population		It is believed to be a common species.	eng
58502	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58503	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and it is certainly present in Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
58503	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern and eastern Angola, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, and northern Botswana, to southern Democratic Republic of Congo, most of Zambia, northwestern and eastern Zimbabwe, Malawi and northern Mozambique. It is generally in upland areas, though it is found on the coast in Mozambique.	eng
58503	habitat		It is a species of moist grassland and savannah, and is sometimes common in dambos. Its ability to adapt to altered habitats is not known. The males call from concealed positions close to water. It breeds in shallow temporary pans and pools.	eng
58503	population		It is a common species.	eng
58503	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58504	conservation		Bale Mountains National Park is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
58504	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, at 1,550m asl.	eng
58504	habitat		It has been found in <em>Podocarpus</em> forest amongst herbaceous vegetation on the forest floor, and in a shallow, stagnant pool, devoid of aquatic vegetation, close to the edge of a fast-flowing river.	eng
58504	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58504	threats		The habitat at the type locality is reasonably secure. Other populations of this species (that are yet to be discovered) might be expected to be threatened by environmental degradation resulting from increasing human settlement, with the consequent exploitation of resources (particularly forest resources) for both subsistence and commercial purposes.	eng
58505	conservation		Garamba National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
58505	distribution		This species is known only from Garamba National Park, Ulele, in north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It presumably occurs more widely, and is likely to be present in southern Sudan.	eng
58505	habitat		This is a species of open and wooded humid savannah. It is associated with marshes and temporary and permanent waterbodies, and is also found along the sides of streams. Its breeding habits are unknown, but breeding presumably takes place in water.	eng
58505	population		It is apparently common in Garamba National Park, although there have been no records since its discovery in 1959, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58505	threats		It occurs in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be facing any major threats.	eng
58506	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, although it might occur in some.	eng
58506	distribution		This species ranges from northeastern and eastern Angola to northwestern Zambia, and adjacent southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58506	habitat		It is a species of humid savannah woodlands that has been found in dambos and flooded grassland, where it presumably breeds. The males call from damp ground in the open. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.	eng
58506	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it is a very poorly known species.	eng
58506	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58507	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58507	distribution		This West African species ranges through the forest zone from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia, to Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. There do not appear to be records from Benin and Togo, but it presumably occurs in these countries. Records from Agwarra in western Nigeria, and from central Benin, require verification, since they comes from well north of the forest zone, and are not mapped here. They perhaps refer to Ptychadena tellini. There is a possible record from southern Senegal that also requires confirmation, and is not mapped.	eng
58507	habitat		It lives in primary rainforest, and especially in secondary forest, but not in open habitats outside forest. It breeds in ditches along forest roads, and in temporary ponds.	eng
58507	population		It is a very common species, especially in secondary forest.	eng
58507	threats		Despite being somewhat adaptable, it is presumably adversely affected by the loss of forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlements.	eng
58508	conservation		It occurs in the Aberdares and Mount Kenya National Parks.	eng
58508	distribution		This species is known only the mountains of Kenya on both sides of the Rift Valley, north of Nairobi. It is known from Mount Elgon, Tambach, Njoro, the Aberdare Mountains, Mount Kenya and the Nyambeni Hills. It has been recorded between 1,900 and 2,550m asl.	eng
58508	habitat		It is a species of humid montane grasslands, fields and forest clearings. It breeds in herbaceous marshes and permanent ponds.	eng
58508	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58508	threats		Little information is available, but it is probably adaptable and not facing many threats. Local populations might be impacted by overgrazing by livestock, and smallholder agriculture.	eng
58509	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some.	eng
58509	distribution		This species is so far known only from Katima Mulilo and the surrounding areas in the eastern Caprivi Strip of north-eastern Namibia. It almost certainly occurs more widely, especially in south-western Zambia, south-eastern Angola, and northern Botswana.	eng
58509	habitat		This species is known from dry wooded savannah, where the males call from concealed positions under vegetation while sitting in shallow water. Breeding is believed to take place in shallow, muddy, temporary pools.	eng
58509	population		It is apparently not uncommon at its only known site.	eng
58509	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, but it is likely to occur widely in an area of limited human impact.	eng
58510	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Minter, L., Howell, K., Nussbaum, R., Vences, M. & Baha El Din, S., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58510	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Minter, L., Howell, K., Nussbaum, R., Vences, M. & Baha El Din, S., 2008	This very widely but patchily distributed species occurs from Mauritania and Senegal, west to Ethiopia, south to South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Angola. It occurs on Mafia Island (Tanzania). In West African it occurs mainly in the forest zone, but in most of the rest of the continent it is more closely tied to the humid savannah zone. There appear not to be published records from Benin, Togo, Chad, Burundi, Uganda, and Congo, though it presumably occurs in these countries. Earlier reports from Eritrea have proved to be incorrect. There are additional populations in the Nile regions of Egypt and Sudan; on Madagascar; on the Seychelles; and on the Mascarene Islands. In Egypt it occurs along the Nile Valley and throughout the Nile Delta, east to Port Said and Suez, and west to Alexandria. It is widely distributed through the whole of Madagascar. On the Seychelles, where it is probably introduced (Vences <em>et al.</em> (2004), it has the widest distribution of all amphibian species known from those islands, being recorded from: Cerf, Curieuse, Félicité, Fregate, Grand Souer, La Digue, Mahé, Praslin, and Silhouette. Populations on the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius and Réunion) are introduced. It has a very wide altitudinal range, occurring from sea level to over 2,000 m asl.	eng
58510	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Minter, L., Howell, K., Nussbaum, R., Vences, M. & Baha El Din, S., 2008	In Africa it lives in agricultural areas, rice fields, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation and marshy areas, and is often found near large lakes, rivers and other wetland habitats (including irrigation canals). It does not normally live in forest (although it has been recorded in a gallery forest of the Sahel savanna; Padial and De la Riva 2004), but spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts, and in West Africa it is found mainly in rice fields and savanna. In Madagascar and the Seychelles, it lives in extremely varied habitats, including rainforest (marginally), dry forest, fields, savannas, grassland, and urban areas. It breeds in all still and slow-flowing water types.	eng
58510	population	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Minter, L., Howell, K., Nussbaum, R., Vences, M. & Baha El Din, S., 2008	It is patchily distributed in many parts of Africa, but is often hugely abundant where it does occur. It is a very abundant species on Madagascar and the Seychelles, and is said to be numerous throughout the Nile Delta and nearby areas in Egypt.	eng
58510	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Minter, L., Howell, K., Nussbaum, R., Vences, M. & Baha El Din, S., 2008	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58511	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58511	distribution		This species ranges from southern Kenya, through Tanzania, to Malawi, Zambia, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, northern and eastern Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, northern and northeastern South Africa, and Swaziland. It is presumed to occur in southeastern Angola, but there do not yet appear to be any records from this country. It occurs at 200-1,200m asl in South Africa, and might occur higher elsewhere.	eng
58511	habitat		It usually lives in dry savannah, bush land, and grassland, but it has also been found in humid savannah and forest. It can survive in altered habitats. It breeds in temporary and semi-permanent water, pans, vleis, dams, and inundated grassland.	eng
58511	population		It is a relatively abundant species with large breeding assemblages.	eng
58511	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58512	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58512	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Didda, in the Arrussi Mountains east of the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, at 2,000-3,000m asl. There is a second possible record, from south of Ketama, west of the Rift Valley. It is likely to occur more widely on the Ethiopian plateau.	eng
58512	habitat		There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds in water.	eng
58512	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it was described on the basis of specimens collected many years earlier. There are no recent records, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58512	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species, although the habitat in the type locality is unprotected.	eng
58513	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58513	distribution		This species is endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia, where it occurs widely on both sides of the Rift Valley, but appears to be absent from the northernmost parts of the country. Its altitudinal range is 820-3,800m asl.	eng
58513	habitat		It occupies an exceptionally wide variety of habitats, including clearings in both lowland and montane forest, open grassland at moderate to high elevations, and even penetrates well into the Afro-alpine moorland zone. It is, however, clearly intolerant of even mild aridity, and is conspicuously absent from all types of savannah. It breeds in large numbers in inundated land, as well as pools, streamlets and water-filled ditches, both temporary and permanent.	eng
58513	population		Within its range, it is probably the commonest amphibian species in Ethiopia.	eng
58513	threats		Although not generally threatened, certain populations are probably impacted by environmental degradation resulting from human expansion and settlement, with the consequent exploitation of natural resources for both subsistence and commercial purposes.	eng
58514	conservation		It is not recorded from any protected areas (though it may be present in the proposed Obo National Park).	eng
58514	distribution		This species is restricted to the island of São Tomé, in São Tomé and Príncipe, in the Gulf of Guinea. It is a lowland species, occurring from sea level up to approximately 600m asl. Some of the localities listed in Loumont (1992) may not be accurate, but the lowland records are more likely to be accurate than the higher elevation records. Many of the localities are in the vicinity of São Tomé town but also include Diogo Vaz, to the north. A recent survey (Drewes and Stoelting 2004) collected adults in São Tomé town in a vacant lot, several in a riverine situation also in the town, and larvae from a place called Java. The two São Tomé town sites are not far apart, but Java is nearly 600m asl.	eng
58514	habitat		It has been found in marshy areas on the outskirts of town, and in banana plantations and cultivated land close to small bodies of water. It is associated with still water, including ponds, drainage ditches and puddles, but generally appears to require permanent water. It is believed to breed in ponds, and is not thought to breed in streams.	eng
58514	population		It was once considered a common species, but many sites have now dried up and populations have disappeared. It was previously reported from marshy places in urban areas but now appears to be absent from many previously recorded sites. It has been recently collected at a few sites but the number of sites where it can still be found is diminishing.	eng
58514	threats		The primary threat is drainage of wetland habitat and ponds for agriculture and urban expansion.	eng
58515	conservation		It occurs in the Upemba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo), and presumably in several other protected areas.	eng
58515	distribution		This species occurs in Shaba Province in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and in northern Zambia, above 750m asl. It is likely to occur in eastern Angola and southwestern Tanzania.	eng
58515	habitat		Very little is known, but it has been found in moist savannah woodland, grassland, and on the grassy wet verge of a lake. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. It apparently breeds in the rainy season, but few details are available.	eng
58515	population		There is very little information on this species, though it is likely to be common in suitable habitat.	eng
58515	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58516	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58516	distribution		This species ranges very widely in sub-Saharan Africa in the savannah zone surrounding the forest belt, from Senegal and Gambia east to Kenya and south to Angola, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe, northern and eastern South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It does not appear to have been recorded from Burkina Faso, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, but is presumably present in these countries, and it might also occur in Niger. It occurs from sea level up to over 2,000m.	eng
58516	habitat		It lives in savannah, agricultural areas, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation, and marshy areas. It does not normally live in forest, but spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas in Central Africa, but not in West Africa. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts, preferring very small, temporary waterbodies, and it is not generally found large ponds.	eng
58516	population		It is a common species.	eng
58516	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58517	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, but it probably occurs in some.	eng
58517	distribution		This species ranges from western Angola to northeastern Zambia. It presumably occurs in the intervening region of southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. There are very few records of this species, and its distribution is very imperfectly known, presumably due to lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58517	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is presumably a species of humid savannah, and, if it is similar other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58517	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58517	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, but it is probably widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58518	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58518	distribution		This species ranges from southern Cameroon and Gabon south to southwestern Congo, east through southwestern Central African Republic to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is presumed to occur in mainland Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni), and perhaps also the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but there have not so far been any records from these countries.	eng
58518	habitat		It lives in agricultural areas, degraded forest, secondary vegetation with tall herbaceous vegetation (farm bush), and marshy areas. It does not normally live in closed forest, but it spreads rapidly along roads in forested areas. It breeds in puddles, ditches and ruts.	eng
58518	population		It is a common species.	eng
58518	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58519	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58519	distribution		This species ranges from eastern and northern South Africa, north to Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda and Kenya, with an apparently isolated population south of Lake Tana, at 1,900m asl in Ethiopia. It has not been recorded from Burundi, but it is likely to occur in this country. Isolated records in Kenya from Katera south of Mount Kenya, and from Nyahururu north of the Aberdare Mountains require confirmation. It occurs mostly in cooler regions, and is generally found above 1,200m asl in the tropical parts of its range.	eng
58519	habitat		It is a species of moist grassland, savannah and forest, often at higher altitudes. It is an adaptable species that can survive in altered habitats. The Ethiopian locality is in an area of montane grassland and lakeshore habitats. The eggs are laid in shallow grassy, temporary pools.	eng
58519	population		It is generally common where it occurs. Its status in Ethiopia is unclear, since there have been no records since 1902.	eng
58519	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58520	conservation		It presumably occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.	eng
58520	distribution		This species from hilly areas in west Africa is known from Sukurela in Sierra Leone, Macenta and Seredou in Guinea, and Mount Nimba in Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
58520	habitat		Very little is known about its habitat and ecological requirements. It has been collected in swamps in savannah and grassland, so it might not be a forest-dependent species. If it is similar to other members of its genus, it probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58520	population		There is very little information regarding its population status. It was described from museum specimens collected many years previously, and since it was described it has not yet been related to any species in the wild, though it appears to be taxonomically valid (Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
58520	threats		The threats to this species are not known. If it is correct that this is not a forest-dependent species, it might not be facing any serious threats.	eng
58521	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58521	distribution		This species ranges from Senegal to northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Ethiopia. Records from coastal Gabon and southern Congo are provisionally assigned here to Ptychadena taenioscelis, though they could belong to this species. The boundary between this species and Ptychadena taenioscelis is imperfectly understood (especially in Uganda, from where neither species has been recorded, but both probably occur). There to not appear to be records from Mauritania, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Niger, Chad, Sudan and Uganda, but it is likely to occur in these countries. It occurs up to 1,900m asl in Ethiopia.	eng
58521	habitat		It lives in dense, low grassland throughout the humid and dry savannah zone, and also in dry forests, gallery forests, montane grassland, and in some disturbed habitats in the forest zone. It is often found close to water, and especially on the banks of rivers and pools. It breeds in shallow ponds and ditches, both permanent and temporary.	eng
58521	population		It is a very common and abundant species.	eng
58521	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58522	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.	eng
58522	distribution		This species is known only from the Loma Mountains at 400m asl in Sierra Leone, and from Mount Nimba (at 500-800m asl) in Guinea and Liberia. It presumably also occurs on the Côte d’Ivoire side of Mount Nimba, and probably also on other mountains in west Africa.	eng
58522	habitat		Very little is known about its habitat and ecology. It has been found in savannah and grass steppe. Breeding probably takes place in shallow puddles.	eng
58522	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58522	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, although it is likely to be threatened by mining activities on Mount Nimba.	eng
58523	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Poynton, J., Channing, A. & Baha El Din, S., 2004	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58523	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Poynton, J., Channing, A. & Baha El Din, S., 2004	This species ranges from Senegal, east to southwestern Ethiopia and southern Somalia, south to Malawi, central Mozambique, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Angola. Although this species is reported from a very wide area in Africa, there are very few records from most of its range, and it has not been recorded from many countries where it is likely to occur. The distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs in areas between the recorded localities. There are records from Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Cameroon, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola. The populations in northern Eritrea and Egypt (localities in the Nile Delta and at Fayoum) appear to be genuinely isolated. It is presumed to occur in Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Niger, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Uganda, and Zambia.	eng
58523	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Poynton, J., Channing, A. & Baha El Din, S., 2004	It is a savannah species, including in quite arid habitats, and has also been found in grassland, partially flooded rice fields and dry yam fields. It is often seen near rivers and lakes, and it breeds in flooded grasslands, rice fields, and temporary pools. It is known to feed on other frogs and large terrestrial animals (Baha El Din 2005).	eng
58523	population	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Poynton, J., Channing, A. & Baha El Din, S., 2004	It is apparently common where it occurs, but it is patchily distributed. It is a rare species in Egypt, where it is currently only known from two specimens (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58523	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Largen, M., Poynton, J., Channing, A. & Baha El Din, S., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58524	conservation		It is present in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site, and it presumably occurs in several other protected areas.	eng
58524	distribution		This range of this species is very imperfectly known. There are definite records from Entebbe in Uganda (the type locality), central Cameroon, and Mount Nimba in Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea. There are published records in addition from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Angola, but it is not certain that these refer to this species. If its distribution is not fragmented, it presumably occurs widely in West African savannahs, in southern Chad, the Central African Republic, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and southern Sudan. The distribution map is very provisional, and it has been assumed that the range is fragmented. There have been no recent records from Uganda and Mount Nimba, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work in these areas.	eng
58524	habitat		In Cameroon it lives in savannahs and grasslands, including flooded grassland, avoiding areas with tall grass and other vegetation. It breeds in temporary marshes. On Mount Nimba it is said to live in both forest and savannah.	eng
58524	population		In Cameroon, its abundance is hard to determine, since the species is difficult to capture.	eng
58524	threats		It is unlikely to be facing serious threats, at least in Cameroon, where it seems to be an adaptable species. There is no direct information from elsewhere in its range.	eng
58525	conservation		It occurs in the Garamba National Park, and presumably in other protected areas.	eng
58525	distribution		This species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Parc National de la Garamba), northern Central African Republic, and the Adamawa Plateau in central Cameroon (where it occurs up to 1,100m asl). It is presumed to occur widely in this vast, poorly explored area, including in southern Chad and southwestern Sudan.	eng
58525	habitat		This is a savannah species, and it has been found breeding in large numbers in a lake with herbaceous margins on the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. Its adaptability to modified habitats is not known.	eng
58525	population		There is little information on its abundance.	eng
58525	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, but it is probably widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58526	conservation		It occurs in the Mount Nimba World Heritage Site.	eng
58526	distribution		This species is known only from the Loma Mountains in Sierra Leone and Mount Nimba in Guinea, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. It might occur on other mountains in west Africa.	eng
58526	habitat		It has been found in savannah and grass steppe, and breeds in shallow puddles.	eng
58526	population		The population status of this species is unknown. There have been no recent records, presumably due to the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58526	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, although it is likely to be threatened by mining activities on Mount Nimba.	eng
58527	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58527	distribution		This species ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, through western Zambia and Angola, to the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, northern Botswana, and northwestern Zimbabwe.	eng
58527	habitat		It is associated with deep, permanent waters in savannahs, including pools, swamps and river backwaters. The eggs are laid in shallow water. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known.	eng
58527	population		It is common along the upper Zambezi and along the rivers of the Okavango system.	eng
58527	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58528	conservation		It occurs in Mount Nimba World Heritage Site (Guinea, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire), Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and possibly also other protected areas.	eng
58528	distribution		This species ranges from Sierra Leone, through southern Guinea and Liberia, to southern Côte d’Ivoire and south-western Ghana.	eng
58528	habitat		This is a lowland rainforest species, and its adaptability to altered habitats is not known. The details of its breeding biology are also unknown, but if it is similar to other members of its genus then it probably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58528	population		It is rare in Taï National Park (south-western Côte d’Ivoire), but perhaps more common in coastal forest in Côte d’Ivoire; it is locally common in Sierra Leone.	eng
58528	threats		The major threats to this species are the loss and degradation of forest due to agricultural development, logging and expanding human settlements.	eng
58529	conservation	Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Burger, M. & Lötters, S., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58529	distribution	Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Burger, M. & Lötters, S., 2004	This species ranges from Gabon, southern Congo, Angola, the Caprivi Strip of Namibia and northern Botswana east through Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Malawi, northern Mozambique, Tanzania and southeastern Kenya. Records from Gabon and southern Congo have been assigned here to this species, but they could belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ptychadena pumilio</span>. The boundary between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pumilio</span> is uncertain (especially in Uganda, from where neither species has been recorded, but both probably occur). There is an apparently isolated population in eastern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), possibly also occurring in southern Mozambique.	eng
58529	habitat	Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Burger, M. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is a species of grasslands and savanna woodlands, including in miombo woodlands. It can survive in altered habitats. The eggs are laid in shallow water, including flooded grassland, temporary pools and seepages.	eng
58529	population	Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Burger, M. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is a common species that can have dense breeding aggregations. However, the isolated South African population is uncommon and sparsely distributed.	eng
58529	threats	Poynton, J., Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Burger, M. & Lötters, S., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations. However, the South African population is losing habitat to commercial agriculture and plantations.	eng
58530	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58530	distribution		This West African species occurs in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d’Ivoire. However, its range is very imperfectly known, and it is unlikely that all published records actually refer to this species.	eng
58530	habitat		It lives in the humid savannah zone, not in forest zone. It can survive in altered habitats, and has been found in partly flooded rice fields. It reproduces in small, stagnant, temporary waters in savannah, and also in flooded fields and pans.	eng
58530	population		It is uncommon in Comoé National Park (Côte d’Ivoire), and its abundance elsewhere is not clear.	eng
58530	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58531	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58531	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	This species ranges from Mauritania and Senegal, east to Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Garamba National Park). There do not appear to be records from Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso, Niger and Sudan, but it presumably occurs in these countries.	eng
58531	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It lives in dry savannas, and is also present in humid savannas, but prefers the former. It breeds in very small temporary waters, not in large ponds. It can survive in altered habitats.	eng
58531	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It has a low population density, and is distributed patchily within its wide range. In northern Benin it was found to be common after the first rains of the season (Nago<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006).	eng
58531	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Amiet, J.-L., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58532	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58532	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Angola, through southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, and western Mozambique. A record from Mahenge in southeastern Tanzania requires confirmation. It is generally associated with upland areas.	eng
58532	habitat		There is little information. It is presumably associated with moist savannah. The males call from the base of grass tussocks in deeply flooded areas. It presumably breeds in flooded grassland and temporary pools. It adaptability to altered habitats is not known.	eng
58532	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it is a poorly known species.	eng
58532	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58533	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas, including the Upemba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
58533	distribution		This species ranges from Rwanda and Burundi, through eastern and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, central Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Angola. There is an isolated population at Soutpansberg in northern South Africa. It is an upland species, occurring at 800-2,300m asl.	eng
58533	habitat		It is a species of medium- to high-altitude grasslands, in the vicinity of pools, seepages, dambos and permanent sponges, where it presumably breeds. The males call from shallow water. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not known.	eng
58533	population		It is believed to be reasonably common in suitable habitat. There are no recent confirmed records from South Africa, and the continued existence of this isolated population should be investigated.	eng
58533	threats		There is very little information, but it is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58534	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58534	distribution		This species is known only from a small area south-east of Lake Tana in Ethiopia, along the road from Bahar Dar to the Tisist Falls of the Blue Nile River, at 1,800-1,850m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
58534	habitat		It lives in montane grassland and shrubland, and it has been found breeding in temporary pools and streamlets in montane grassland bordering the upper reaches of the Blue Nile River.	eng
58534	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58534	threats		There is little information on threats to this species, but it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural development, expanding human settlements and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
58535	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58535	distribution		This species occurs widely in South Africa, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, extending north to southern Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya. It distribution needs re-examination in light of recent separation of Pyxicephalus edulus from P. adspersus. Many specimens have not been clearly assigned between these two species. It is presumed to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but there have not been any confirmed records from this country.	eng
58535	habitat		It is a species of drier savannahs. It is fossorial for most of the year, remaining buried in cocoons. They emerge at the start of the rains, and breed in shallow, temporary waters in pools, pans and ditches. They are active by day during the breeding season. They can tolerate habitat alteration, but not urbanization.	eng
58535	population		It is common in many of the southern parts of its range, it has apparently declined in South Africa, especially in Gauteng Province, but it is still locally common in some places. Boycott (2001) declared the species to be extinct in Swaziland. It seems to be very uncommon in the northern parts of its range, with very few confirmed records from Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya (though this might in part be due to identification problems).	eng
58535	threats		The major threat through most of its range is harvesting of frogs for local consumption, which is believed to be responsible for some population declines. In South Africa, breeding habitat has been lost due to urbanization. This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58536	conservation	Channing, A., Poynton, J., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	There are large populations in many protected areas.	eng
58536	distribution	Channing, A., Poynton, J., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	This species ranges from southern Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania, south to Mozambique, southern Malawi, southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, northern and eastern South Africa and Swaziland. There are also populations currently assigned to this species in northern Benin, northern Nigeria and northern Cameroon, and in Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia. There are no records in the poorly explored regions between Cameroon and Somalia, nor between Nigeria and Senegal, and so its occurrence in these areas is not indicated on the distribution map. However, it might occur in the intervening areas in the Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, and also in Togo, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Guinea. Its distribution in eastern and southern Africa needs re-examination in light of recent separation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyxicephalus edulis</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. adspersus</span>. Many specimens have not been clearly assigned between these two species, and so the distribution map should be regarded as provisional. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl in South Africa.	eng
58536	habitat	Channing, A., Poynton, J., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It inhabits flat areas in open grassy woodland and marshy areas in eastern and southern Africa, and in very dry savannah in West Africa. It has been recorded from riverine and woodland habitats in western Tanzania (Gardner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is fossorial, only coming to the surface at the beginning of the rainy season. It breeds in shallow, well-vegetated seasonal pans (although it has also been found at a puddle without vegetation in northern Benin; Nago <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), as well as many man-made small waterbodies. It has been found in rice paddies in Mozambique. It is active at night during the breeding season. The males guard the tadpoles, protecting them from predation.	eng
58536	population	Channing, A., Poynton, J., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	It is a common species in East Africa and is quite common in South Africa.	eng
58536	threats	Channing, A., Poynton, J., Minter, L. & Howell, K., 2004	The major threat through most of its range is harvesting of frogs for local consumption. This species is sometimes also found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat. In western Tanzania, much of the miombo woodland area is increasingly threatened by habitat degradation following conversion to agriculture or overharvesting (see Gardner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58537	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
58537	distribution		This species is endemic to Somalia, ranging from Galguduud Province in the south, north to Bari Province. Most records are from Mudug Province in the vicinity of Hobyo (Obbia), and between Hobyo and Gaalkacyo (Galcaio).	eng
58537	habitat		Its habitat preferences when it is not breeding are not well known, though it presumably a species of dry savannahs and semi-arid habitats, living fossoially outside the breeding season. It breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58537	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58537	threats		There is little information. It might be impacted by livestock grazing, and perhaps fire and droughts, but otherwise it does not appear to be significantly threatened at the moment.	eng
58538	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
58538	distribution		This species is known from central and southern China in Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces, and also Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs from 30-1,800m asl.	eng
58538	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, marshes, ditches, ponds and hydrophytes-filled lakes. It breeds in still-water habitats.	eng
58538	population		This is a common species.	eng
58538	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are probably threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development for human settlement and water pollution from agriculture.	eng
58539	conservation		Some populations are protected in national parks, although more protected areas need to be established on Leyte to protect the remaining forest on this island.	eng
58539	distribution		This species is known only from very few localities on Leyte, Samar, and Mindanao Islands in the Philippines.	eng
58539	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests.	eng
58539	population		Moderately-sized numbers of samples in museums suggest that it might be common in preferred high-altitude stream habitats. However, there is very little field information regarding this species' population status.	eng
58539	threats		The most important threats to this species include deforestation through logging, habitat conversion to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run-off.	eng
58540	conservation		The species is known to inhabit a number of protected areas in Peninsular Thailand, as well as several informally protected waterfall recreation areas. It has also been recorded from Madhupur National Park in Bangladesh and Mouling National Park and Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve in India. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58540	distribution		This species is present in northern Bangladesh, northeastern India (Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), Myanmar and Peninsular Thailand (Bourret, 1941, Taylor, 1962). A record from Mao Son, in northern Viet Nam, was based on a misidentified Huia nasica (Bourret, 1941: 350). It occurs at elevations below 1,000m asl.	eng
58540	habitat		In South Asia this species is associated with riparian grasses and shrubs. Known occurrences in Southeast Asia are in evergreen forest near large streams in hill areas, usually within the vicinity of waterfalls. Tadpoles inhabit these large streams with boulders and sandy bottoms.	eng
58540	population		Adults are only occasionally encountered, but the distinctive tadpoles are impossible to overlook. Indications are that the species is not uncommon in areas where it occurs (P. van Dijk pers. comm). In Bangladesh the species is observed to be declining.	eng
58540	threats		The species would be threatened by major impacts on forest streams such as clear cutting of forests or water diversion, but seems able to tolerate modest impacts from tourism in Southeast Asia.	eng
58541	conservation		It might occur in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
58541	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, being only on Amamioshima and Tokunoshima of the central Ryukyu Islands.	eng
58541	habitat		It only inhabits streams surrounded by primary or well recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest.	eng
58541	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58541	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and the construction of roads, and on Tokunoshima the range of the species is particularly limited and presently very fragmented. Other threats include alteration of rivers, pollution from pesticides, and predation by invasive mongooses.	eng
58542	conservation		There are a number of protected areas within the range of this species. It is listed in the Red Data Books of the Middle Urals (Permskaya and Sverdlovskaya provinces, Russia) and the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous County (Russia). Further information on the possible farming of this species is needed.	eng
58542	distribution		This species is widespread in West and East Siberia (northwards to 58-72°N, southwards to 52-55°N), the Russian Far East, northern and central Mongolia and northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Neimenggu [Inner Mongolia] and possibly in Shaanxi). The boundary between this species and <em>Rana coreana</em> is unclear. For the purpose of this assessment, we have arbitarily assumed the boundary between the two species to be 40ºN on the Korean Peninsula, south of which <em>R. coreana</em> occurs. This means that <em>R. amurensis</em> occurs in the northern part of the Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea, but not in the Republic of Korea. This is mostly a lowland species occurring up to 600m asl.	eng
58542	habitat		The species is present in coniferous (fir, spruce, larch etc.), mixed and deciduous forests (through which it penetrates the tundra and forest steppe zones), shrublands and grasslands. It is found most frequently in open, wet places such as wet meadows and forest glades, swamps, overgrown lakeshores, riverbanks, and floodplains. On Sakhalin Island, the species is present in tussock tundra like bogs. Reproduction and larval development takes place in shallow lakes, ponds, ditches, large puddles and marshes with stagnant water. Large numbers of this frog may be found hibernating in the bottom mud of ponds and pools. It may be found in slightly modified habitats.	eng
58542	population		It is common and widespread in Siberia, the Far East of Russia, northern Mongolia and China. There have been some local population declines in urban and industrial areas.	eng
58542	threats		The species is mostly threatened by general habitat loss (such as the construction of dams on large rivers in Siberia), and the drainage and pollution of breeding pools. There is significant over harvesting of this species for food, especially in Russia where illegal collection has increased since the 1990s.	eng
58543	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2004	The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is listed as 'Threatened' in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
58543	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2004	This species is known from Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi provinces in southwestern China, northeastern India (Sarkar and Ray 2006), northern and northeastern Myanmar (Smith 1940), northern and central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999), north-west Viet Nam (Bourret 1941, Ohler <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al. </span>2000) and northern Thailand (Nabhitabhata 1989). It is found at elevations between 200-2,060 m asl.	eng
58543	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2004	It is found in low tree branches and on rocks along shaded rocky streams and large rivers with boulders, in evergreen forest and agricultural areas. It breeds in streams. The generation length of this species is estimated to be five years.	eng
58543	population	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2004	In China this species was formerly common, but it is now rare. There has been a population decline estimated to be more than 30% over the last three generations, inferred from over-collecting and information on habitat destruction and degradation. However Bourret (1942) found the species to be rather common at Sa Pa in Viet Nam. Recent (late 1990's) records are available from two sites in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999) and two sites in Viet Nam (S. Swan pers. comm.). It is considered to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh based on collections made up until 1993 (Sarkar and Ray 2006).Where it has been collected recently in Southeast Asia it has been common (S. Swan pers. comm. and B. Stuart pers. comm.).	eng
58543	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Swan, S., Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2004	Over-collecting for food is a threat to this species. Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation and the impacts of power plants are also threats.	eng
58544	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas.	eng
58544	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Longtou, in Anlong County, Guizhou Province, China, where it has been recorded from 1,480-1,550m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
58544	habitat		It inhabits shaded hill streams 2-3m wide in forested areas, and breeds in these streams.	eng
58544	population		It is rare at its single known locality.	eng
58544	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58545	conservation		Doi Inthanon is one of Thailand's flagship National Parks, which has some constraints but is essentially secure. The one known location in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within Nakai Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. More surveys are likely to find more populations of this species in the future.	eng
58545	distribution		This species is known from Doi Inthanon and the Mae Sruay District, in Chiang Rai Province in northern Thailand (Inger and Cha-nard, 1997), and the Annamite mountains of central Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999). Further surveys are likely to discover this cryptic species (which looks like a small Rana livida) in other areas, especially in areas between known sites. In Thailand it has been recorded from 1,100-1,800m asl, and in Lao People's Democratic Republic from 600-700m asl.	eng
58545	habitat		It is known from rocky streams in evergreen forest in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), and from near small waterfalls from 1,100-1,800m asl at Doi Inthanon (Inger and Cha-nard, 1997; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999), and from Chiang Rai Province at 1,200m asl in small waterfalls.	eng
58545	population		The abundance of records since its taxonomic recognition (four locations reported within three years) suggests that the species is not rare in suitable habitat. It was recorded as common within its range in Lao People's Democratic Republic.	eng
58545	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture, infrastructure development and water pollution.	eng
58546	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. Better information on current population status and trends is needed to aid its conservation.	eng
58546	distribution		This species is known from northern and central Mississippi, north-central Louisiana, and eastern Texas north through eastern Oklahoma, north-central Arkansas, western Tennessee, and western Kentucky through southern Indiana and Illinois, across Missouri, northern Iowa, and eastern Kansas, USA (Altig and Lohoefener 1983; Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
58546	habitat		This species inhabits moist meadows, pasturelands, river flood plains, pine scrub, and golf courses. It hides in crayfish, reptile, or rodent burrows when inactive, and also under logs and in sewers. Eggs are laid and larvae usually develop in temporary water such as in flooded fields, ditches, farm ponds, and small lakes.	eng
58546	population		It can be locally common in remnant habitat patches, but much of its native habitat has been lost. It is secretive but not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Illinois, it is uncommon and declining in some areas where breeding habitats have been drained or stocked with predatory fish (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999). The species was locally plentiful in western Indiana until about 1970, when it declined markedly and disappeared from many sites for reasons that are not well understood, including some in which the habitat did not change in any obvious way (Minton 2001). It might no longer occur in southern Iowa (Johnson 2000). It has been found repeatedly and in large numbers in the Ouachita River bottomlands in Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989).	eng
58546	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation particuarly through drainage of its breeding habitat. It is also threatened by the stocking of breeding waters with predatory fish (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999).	eng
58547	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58547	distribution		This species is found widely on New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and from Waigeo and Aru Islands (Indonesia). It occurs up to 1,500m asl.	eng
58547	habitat		It inhabits rivers and, to a lesser extent, streams, in lowland rainforest, usually in mature forest. It breeds in rivers and streams.	eng
58547	population		It is a common species.	eng
58547	threats		It is extensively eaten by local communities.	eng
58548	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is presumed to be present in a many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58548	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is presumed to be present in a many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58548	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	This species is found throughout most of the northern, central and eastern parts of Europe, eastwards to Siberia (Yakutia and Baikal Lake), Russia and Xinjiang Province, China. It is no longer believed to be present in Serbia and the original records were probably in error (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). It is typically a lowland species, but can occur at altitudes close to 1,500m asl. (Altai Mountains).	eng
58548	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	This species is found throughout most of the northern, central and eastern parts of Europe, eastwards to Siberia (Yakutia and Baikal Lake), Russia and Xinjiang Province, China. It is no longer believed to be present in Serbia and the original records were probably in error (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). It is typically a lowland species, but can occur at altitudes close to 1,500m asl. (Altai Mountains).	eng
58548	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats including tundra, forest tundra, forest, forest steppe, steppe, forest edges and glades, semi-desert, swamps, peatlands, moorlands, meadows, fields, bush lands, gardens. It has a breeding season, and spawning and larval development takes place in various stagnant water bodies of low acidity, including lakes, ponds, swamps, puddles and ditches. There is some evidence that the species can occur in agricultural landscapes, and in some areas it appears to be adapting to urban conditions (e.g.. Vershinin, 1997).	eng
58548	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats including tundra, forest tundra, forest, forest steppe, steppe, forest edges and glades, semi-desert, swamps, peatlands, moorlands, meadows, fields, bush lands, gardens. It has a breeding season, and spawning and larval development takes place in various stagnant water bodies of low acidity, including lakes, ponds, swamps, puddles and ditches. There is some evidence that the species can occur in agricultural landscapes, and in some areas it appears to be adapting to urban conditions (e.g.. Vershinin, 1997).	eng
58548	population	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is generally common, and is abundant in central-eastern Europe. It is extinct in Switzerland in the extreme southwestern part of its wide range. It is considered to be rare and declining in China.	eng
58548	population	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is generally common, and is abundant in central-eastern Europe. It is extinct in Switzerland in the extreme southwestern part of its wide range. It is considered to be rare and declining in China.	eng
58548	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is threatened by the destruction and pollution of breeding ponds (including acidification) and adjacent wetland and terrestrial habitats, especially through urbanization, recreation, tourism, industry and overstocking of cattle. Additional threats are prolonged drought and predation of spawn by waterfowl. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Berlin, Germany - however the extent to which this is a threat is unknown.	eng
58548	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Milan Vogrin, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is threatened by the destruction and pollution of breeding ponds (including acidification) and adjacent wetland and terrestrial habitats, especially through urbanization, recreation, tourism, industry and overstocking of cattle. Additional threats are prolonged drought and predation of spawn by waterfowl. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Berlin, Germany - however the extent to which this is a threat is unknown.	eng
58549	conservation		This species has been recorded from two protected areas in Kirgizia, and is listed in the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan. International cooperation for research towards the conservation of this species needs to be established.	eng
58549	distribution		This species is known only from southern Kazakhstan, northern Kirgizia and western China (north-western Xinjiang). The geographic range of this species is highly fragmented. There are other isolated historic records in Kazakhstan, but there have been no surveys of these areas to confirm whether or not the species still exists there. It is a montane species recorded from elevations of between 700 and 1,000m asl.	eng
58549	habitat		It is mainly found in wooded areas of river valleys in mountains, steppe and desert. It may be present in swampy areas, meadows, bush lands, ponds, streams, ditches and other wetlands. The inhabited waterbodies are often temporary and are only present after the spring floods; after these wetlands dry up, the frogs migrate to other waterbodies. Suitable wetland habitats are often scarce within the distribution range of the species. This species breeds and larval development takes place in the various waterbodies. In China, the species is reported to be present in suburban ponds.	eng
58549	population		It is a relatively common species in China. It is widespread in Kyrgyzstan, but has a small and declining range in Kazakhstan.	eng
58549	threats		The isolated populations of this species in arid zones makes them very sensitive to anthropogenic changes in the environment including drainage of wetlands, urbanization, flooding, destruction of riparian groves and pollution of waterbodies. Prolonged droughts in arid areas are also a threat to this species. It is regularly used in traditional Chinese and Uigur medicine, although the impacts of this on populations needs further research. The continuing dispersal of the large predatory frog <em>Rana ridibunda</em> into the range of <em>Rana asiatica</em> might represent another threat.	eng
58550	conservation		One location in Viet Nam is within Kon Chan Ran Nature Reserve and the whole population in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Establishing a secure protected area on the Tay Nguyen Plateau is a high conservation priority (Kon Cha Ran is decreed as a Nature Reserve, but no conservation action has been implemented; BirdLife International 2001).	eng
58550	distribution		This species is known from the southern Annamite Mountains of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999; Stuart 1999). It has been recorded between 700 and 1,200m asl, and is so far known from only four localities.	eng
58550	habitat		All records of this species are from streams in wet evergreen forest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
58550	population		The species can be locally common, a series of 33 and 17 specimens were collected in a single night each (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It was regularly encountered when collected in Lao People's Democratic Republic (B. Stuart pers. comm.), but was considered not to be common when collected in some areas of Viet Nam (Nguyen pers. comm.).	eng
58550	threats		The species' habitat is under threat from forest degradation due to clearance for agriculture and logging (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999, BirdLife International 2001). Long-term changes to hydrology might also be a threat.	eng
58551	conservation		It is present in many protected areas in Sri Lanka, and might occur in Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, India. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58551	distribution		Specimens currently assigned to this species have been collected in the southern Western Ghats of India and in Sri Lanka. Reports of this species from other parts of the Western Ghats appear to be misidentifications. It has an altitudinal range of 200-1,400m asl in India, and from 5-660m asl in Sri Lanka.	eng
58551	habitat		It is a semi-arboreal, and semi aquatic frog, associated with wetlands in tropical moist forest, swamp forest, and coastal regions. Adults are frequently found on rocks in waterbodies. In India, the larvae are reported to occur in streams and other running waters; they can also be found in tea and coffee plantations, but only at the forest edge.	eng
58551	population		It is locally abundant at confirmed localities in the southern Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka.	eng
58551	threats		There is continuing loss of the habitat of this species largely caused by the conversion of land for agricultural use (including the drainage of wetlands) and the development of mining. Agrochemical pollution is also a threat.	eng
58552	conservation		There is no information on conservation measures for this species.	eng
58552	distribution		The type series of this recently described species was collected in the foothills within 1km of the former Biological Station of Pusppenssat, 54km along the Nabire-Mapia road, about 30km in a direct line from Nabire, in Papua, Indonesia. Specimens that possibly also belong to the same species (although this has not yet been confirmed) have also been collected from Wapoga Alpha Camp, 120km east-north-east in a direct line from Nabire. The type series was collected between 650 and 850m asl.	eng
58552	habitat		It has been located in a mixture of primary and secondary rainforest, where adults were mainly found close to mountain streams, but were also found close to two permanent pools that had through-flowing water. Most of the specimens were found perched on vegetation 0.5-1.5m above the ground, although some were also observed on rocks in the waterbodies. Larvae were found in small pools alongside slow-running sections of the streams. This species can tolerate habitat disturbance: specimens were collected close to a road and in rural villages.	eng
58552	population		There is no information on the overall population status of this species, which is only known from the type series.	eng
58552	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58553	conservation		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rana aurora</span> occurs in many protected areas, including several small wildlife refuges in Oregon and Washington managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and in some state refuges. Most of its range is within actively managed agricultural and forestry matrix (under the control of private owners, the Bureau of Land Management, or the U.S.  Forest Service).	eng
58553	distribution		Range extends from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island in Canada, south along the coast of the United States (primarily west of Cascade-Sierran crest), to northwestern California (Shaffer et al. 2004). The species has been introduced and is well established and widely distributed on Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), British Columbia; it is unclear whether the species is native there or introduced many years ago (Ovaska et al. 2002). Rana aurora also is introduced and established on Chichagof Island, Alaska; the source of the frogs was Oregon (Hodge 2004).	eng
58553	habitat		Habitat includes the vicinity of quiet permanent waters of streams, marshes, or (less often) ponds and other quiet bodies of water. The frogs are sometimes found in damp woods and meadows some distance from water, especially during wet weather. This species occurs in sites with dense vegetation (e.g., willows) close to water and some shading. Red-legged frogs may occupy ephemeral pools if the water remains until late spring or early summer (Biosystems Analysis 1989). Estivation sites include small mammal burrows and moist leaf litter in dense riparian vegetation up to 26 meters from water (Rathbun et al. 1993, cited by USFWS 1994). Desiccation cracks in dry pond bottoms may be used as refuges (Alvarez, 2004, Herpetol. Rev. 35:162-163). Breeding sites most often are in permanent water; eggs are attached to stiff submerged stems at the surface of the water.	eng
58553	population		This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This species is relatively widespread and common over most of its range (McAllister and Leonard, in Jones et al. 2005; Pearl in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>Over the long term, extent of occurrence, area of occurrence, number/condition of subpoppulations, and population size have declined, but the amount of decline is uncertain. Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, though the magnitude of the decline is uncertain.	eng
58553	threats		Factors contributing to local declines include wetland destruction and degradation/fragmentation, urbanization, residential development, reservoir construction, stream channelization, livestock grazing of riparian vegetation, off-road vehicle activity, drought, overharvesting, and exotic fishes (bass, mosquitofish) and possibly bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998; USFWS 1994, 1996, 2000; Adams 1999, 2000; Lawler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999; Cook and Jennings 2001; Kiesecker, Blaustein and Miller 2001a; Cook 2002). An important threat is the loss of wetlands in the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and Puget Lowlands (Washington), but populations remain in some urbanized areas (see Pearl, in Lannoo 2005). Conversion of habitat to more permanent ponds is an important threat (as this allows breeding waters to be invaded by non-native predators). Habitat characteristics and good leaping ability may render <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana aurora</span> less vulnerable to bullfrog predation than is <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana pretiosa</span> (Pearl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). McAllister and Leonard (in Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) noted that in many areas red-legged frogs coexist with bullfrogs.<br/><br/>Declines in the red-legged frog complex (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana draytonii</span>) also have been attributed to global warming, UV-B radiation (Belden and Blaustein 2002), airborne contaminants (pesticide drift), and disease (see Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) found support for the negative impact of wind-borne agrochemicals and weaker evidence for the widespread impact of habitat destruction and UV-B radiation; evidence did not support the hypothesis that declines have been caused by climate change.	eng
58554	conservation		It has been recorded from Ba Be Lake National Park, Na Hang Nature Reserve and Pu Mat Nature Reserve.	eng
58554	distribution		This recently described species is currently known from forested montane river systems in a few localities across northern Viet Nam. Specimens have been collected from 178m up to at least 300m asl (the upper altitudinal range limit of this species is not currently known). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58554	habitat		This species is found in forested montane river systems that vary from shallow and slow-moving, to torrential and deep. Animals may be observed on boulders and logs in and around the water and in the adjacent forest. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.	eng
58554	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58554	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss arising from logging, smallholder agriculture and expanding human settlements.	eng
58555	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58555	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Tay Nguyen plateau of the central highlands in Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam, and might occur more widely. It has been collected at altitudes of between 700 and 900m asl.	eng
58555	habitat		This species inhabits forested montane river systems on or near rapids or waterfalls in primary and disturbed secondary growth. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.	eng
58555	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58555	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by ongoing forest loss arising from logging, smallholder agriculture and expanding human settlements.	eng
58556	conservation		It has been recorded in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary of Thailand, and the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary of Peninsular Malaysia. It might also be present in other protected areas of the Banjaran Bintang and the Banjaran Titi Wangsa mountains.	eng
58556	distribution		This montane species has been recorded from the Banjaran Bintang mountain range of Peninsular Malaysia and the Banjaran Titi Wangsa mountain range of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It might also be present in the mountain ranges of Banjaran Benom, Banjaran Gunong Tahan and Banjaran Timur, all in Peninsular Malaysia, and might also occur in the highlands of the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of at least 700-1,300m asl.	eng
58556	habitat		It does not occur in modified habitats, but it appears to be a strict inhabitant of undisturbed streams in highland and montane tropical forests. Adult males have been observed calling from the sides of forest streams while perched low on fallen branches or live vegetation, or on sandy banks or leaf-litter. The larvae inhabit well-shaded streams with clear, slow-flowing water and a sandy substrate.	eng
58556	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58556	threats		The habitat of this species is threatened, at least locally, by logging and smallholder agricultural development.	eng
58558	conservation		It is confirmed from a number of protected areas (Templer's Park-Berry, 1975) and can be expected in other protected areas that contain swampy habitat.	eng
58558	distribution		This species is known from Johor and Selangor States, in Peninsular Malaysia, from the island of Singapore, and from a number of localities on Borneo in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is also present on Natuna Besar Island, Pini and Tanah Masa islands in the Mentawai Islands, and on the islands of Sumatra, Bangka and Java, all in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 600m asl.	eng
58558	habitat		It is known from a variety of lowland floodplain situations, including peat swamp forest and swampy flatland primary forest at low elevations, usually in swampy areas. It breeds in water, but its breeding habits are very poorly known.	eng
58558	population		It is commonly heard but seldom seen. It is considered uncommon in Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992).	eng
58558	threats		Further loss of swampy habitat is the main threat to this species.	eng
58559	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2008	Further surveys are needed to accurately determine this species range. It is protected by national legislation in Israel, and it is present in the Azraq Wetland Reserve, Dana Wildlife Reserve and Al Maujib Wildlife Reserves of Jordan and the Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour protected areas in Lebanon.  It is found several protected areas in Turkey.	eng
58559	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2009	Further surveys are needed to accurately determine this species range. It is protected by national legislation in Israel, and it is present in the Azraq Wetland Reserve, Dana Wildlife Reserve and Al Maujib Wildlife Reserves of Jordan and the Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden, Ammiq marshes and Sandy Beach of Sour protected areas in Lebanon.  It is found several protected areas in Turkey.	eng
58559	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2008	This species ranges widely in the eastern Mediterranean. In Turkey this species is widespread along the Aegean coast and the southern part of the Anatolian highlands. It is also found on the Greek islands close to the coast of Turkey including the island of Rhodes (Arnold, 2002), and ranges through much of Cyprus. It is present in eastern Syrian Arab Republic (with isolated populations in the north and east), most of Lebanon (where it is a common species), northeastern Jordan (with an isolated population known from the Azraq Oasis), Lebanon (a common species), much of Israel (except the extreme south), and Egypt (Nile Delta and northeastern Sinai (Disi <em>et al.</em>, 2001; S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It might range more widely, and records from Iraq (not mapped) require confirmation; this will be determined by ongoing taxonomic work. In Jordan the species has been collected from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
58559	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2009	This species ranges widely in the eastern Mediterranean. In Turkey this species is widespread along the Aegean coast and the southern part of the Anatolian highlands. It is also found on the Greek islands close to the coast of Turkey including the island of Rhodes (Arnold, 2002), and ranges through much of Cyprus. It is present in eastern Syrian Arab Republic (with isolated populations in the north and east), most of Lebanon (where it is a common species), northeastern Jordan (with an isolated population known from the Azraq Oasis), Lebanon (a common species), much of Israel (except the extreme south), and Egypt (Nile Delta and northeastern Sinai (Disi <em>et al.</em>, 2001; S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It might range more widely, and records from Iraq (not mapped) require confirmation; this will be determined by ongoing taxonomic work. In Jordan the species has been collected from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
58559	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2008	This is a largely aquatic species of permanent wetlands with rich aquatic vegetation. The species' habitats include permanent ponds, rain pools, streams, rivers, irrigation channels, reservoirs, marshes, springs and fishponds, being sometimes found in surrounding terrestrial habitats. It is able to survive in areas with organic pollution and tributaries from hot mineral springs. It is a seasonal breeder, with breeding taking place in permanent waterbodies. This species can occur in modified habitats where suitable wetlands exist.	eng
58559	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2009	This is a largely aquatic species of permanent wetlands with rich aquatic vegetation. The species' habitats include permanent ponds, rain pools, streams, rivers, irrigation channels, reservoirs, marshes, springs and fishponds, being sometimes found in surrounding terrestrial habitats. It is able to survive in areas with organic pollution and tributaries from hot mineral springs. It is a seasonal breeder, with breeding taking place in permanent waterbodies. This species can occur in modified habitats where suitable wetlands exist.	eng
58559	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2008	It is generally common to abundant in humid areas. In Lebanon it is very abundant in the lowlands and is also common at higher elevations. It is common, but localized in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58559	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2009	It is generally common to abundant in humid areas. In Lebanon it is very abundant in the lowlands and is also common at higher elevations. It is common, but localized in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58559	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2008	It is threatened by a localized loss of habitat through the drainage of wetlands, pollution, excessive drought and the development of coastal areas. It is caught and exported from Turkey to western Europe for food which represents a significant threat. It is exported in large numbers from Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There are no threats to the species in Lebanon. On the smaller islands in Greece where this species is present, it is sometimes threatened by water abstraction by local people.	eng
58559	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Sergius Kuzmin, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Petros Lymberakis, Wolfgang Böhme, Sherif Baha El Din,, 2009	It is threatened by a localized loss of habitat through the drainage of wetlands, pollution, excessive drought and the development of coastal areas. It is caught and exported from Turkey to western Europe for food which represents a significant threat. It is exported in large numbers from Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There are no threats to the species in Lebanon. On the smaller islands in Greece where this species is present, it is sometimes threatened by water abstraction by local people.	eng
58560	conservation	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>Rana</em> (=<em>Pelophylax</em>)<em> lessonae</em>). It is present in some protected areas.	eng
58560	distribution	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is present in peninsular Italy (south of Genoa and Rimini), the islands of Elba and Sicily (Italy) and on the island of Corsica (France). There is probably at least one introduced population in the UK (it is not known if it persists) (not mapped here). It has also been introduced to Sardinia, Italy. It has an altitudinal range of at least up to 1,800m asl.	eng
58560	habitat	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is associated with still and slow moving waters, where it breeds, and the surrounding terrestrial habitats. It may occasionally be found in modified habitats	eng
58560	population	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is a locally common species.	eng
58560	threats	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is threatened by the localized loss of suitable wetland habitat (presumably through drainage for agriculture and urbanization). <em>Pelophylax</em> species have been widely translocated (they are eaten by people), and different species within the genus hybridize readily; consequently hybridization presents a threat to the genetic integrity of the species.	eng
58561	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gunther Köhler, Larry David Wilson, Julian Lee, Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, 2008	Further taxonomic studies are needed. This species occurs in several protected areas and is considered (probably incorrectly) under the Special Protection category by the Red Data Book of the Mexican Government.	eng
58561	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gunther Köhler, Larry David Wilson, Julian Lee, Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, 2008	This species can be found in extreme southern New Mexico (Eddy County) and central and western Texas (north to Collin County), USA, south through eastern and southern Mexico through the Yucatán peninsula, Belize, northern Guatemala to northeastern Nicaragua. Introduced and well established at numerous sites along the lower Colorado River from the Mexican border north to Yuma, Arizona, and east 265km along the Gila River, to approximately Buckeye, Maricopa County, replacing native <em>L. yavapaiensis</em> (Platz <em>et al.</em> 1990, Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989, Platz 1991). A dichopatric population is present in western Chihuahua, Mexico (Smith and Chizar, 2003). It has a elevational range of sea level to 2,595m asl (western Chihuahua).	eng
58561	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gunther Köhler, Larry David Wilson, Julian Lee, Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, 2008	This species can be found along streams and rivers, springs, stock ponds, backwaters, canals, drainage ditches, and arroyo pools in grassland, shrubland, savannah, desert, and woodland areas; chiefly a stream dweller. It utilizes both temporary and permanent water. Eggs and larvae develop in flowing or non-flowing water (mostly the former).	eng
58561	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gunther Köhler, Larry David Wilson, Julian Lee, Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, 2008	This is one of the most widespread species of the genus. In some areas it has been detected that it can survive even under anthropogenic disturbed circumstances.	eng
58561	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Gunther Köhler, Larry David Wilson, Julian Lee, Rogelio Cedeño Vázquez, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
58562	conservation		Many populations are in preserves of various types, but this does not ensure adequate protection from exotic species.	eng
58562	distribution		This species can be found in the United States in the southern edge of South Dakota to central Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), west to eastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and central New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996), east in the Prairie Peninsula to Indiana, south along the Mississippi River to southeastern Missouri (Johnson 1987). Disjunctive populations occur in southeastern Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989), and an apparently introduced population at Ashurst Lake, Coconino County, north-central Arizona (not mapped here) (Brown 1992). It occurs to elevations of around 1,800m asl in Arizona and Colorado, 1,000-2,250m asl in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Stebbins (1985) reported the elevational range as 110-2,590m asl.	eng
58562	habitat		It is usually found in the vicinity of streams, ponds, creek pools, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, and marshes in areas of prairie and desert grassland, farmland, and prairie canyons. Stebbins (1985) also mentioned oak and oak-pine woodland as habitat. It is generally found in or near water, but it may range into surrounding terrestrial habitat in wet weather. When disturbed, it often seeks refuge in vegetation surrounding bodies of water. It burrows into mud and leaves of pond and stream bottoms in winter. It has been found in caves in Oklahoma. See Brown (1992) for further details for various states. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary or permanent pools, ponds, flooded areas, sloughs, and marshes, commonly in muddy water. Males frequently call while floating at the water surface (Brown 1992).	eng
58562	population		There are hundreds of occurrences (Brown 1992) of this species. Most state accounts do not distinguish between historical and recent occurrences. Recorded from virtually every county within its range in Texas (Dixon 2000). Documented in every one of several dozen counties in Kansas (Collins 1993). Recorded in nearly every county (about 47) within the range in Missouri (Johnson 1987). Lynch (1978) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Nebraska. Recently recorded from about 25 counties in Illinois; 17 additional counties have pre-1980 records; widespread but not abundant in peripheral prairie remnants and south along the Mississippi River bottomlands (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Hammerson (1999) mapped approximately 100 collection/observation sites in Colorado. Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> (1996) recorded 100+ locations in New Mexico. It is "locally common" and "commonly seen" in suitable habitat in north central Texas and the Texas Panhandle (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000). It is common throughout Kansas, found in every aquatic situation (Collins 1993). It is widespread and locally common throughout historical range in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Declines or extirpations of local populations have been noted in Iowa (Christiansen and Bailey 1991), Illinois (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999), Arizona (Frost and Bagnara 1977, Frost 1983, Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989), Colorado (Hammerson 1982, 1999), and Texas (Platz 1981); see also Hayes and Jennings (1986). However, these declines have been noted primarily around the margins of the range; the species apparently remains common and relatively stable in the range core.	eng
58562	threats		Suggested causes of declines or extirpations of local populations include water pollution; groundwater pumping; introduction of exotic fishes and amphibians; agricultural development; increased aridity/drought; habitat loss or alteration; toxicants; competition with <span style="font-style: italic;">Rana berlandieri</span>; and predation by, competition with, and/or larval inhibition by bullfrogs (see Brown 1992 and Hammerson 1999). In Illinois, most of original habitat has been rendered unsuitable by agriculture (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
58563	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute in Ecuador, and might also occur in Zona Reservada de Tumbes, Parque Nacional Cerros de Amotape, and Coto de Caza El Angolo in Peru.	eng
58563	distribution		This species is known only from the Pacific versant of the Huancabamba Depression, in tributaries of the Río Chira, in the departments of Piura and Tumbes, Peru, and the provinces of El Oro and Loja, Ecuador, at elevations of 300-700m asl.	eng
58563	habitat		This species occurs in tropical forest, but has also been found in disturbed habitats. It occurs near fast-flowing rivers and reproduces in pools of water near rivers.	eng
58563	population		It is locally common in permanent waterbodies.	eng
58563	threats		The major threat is ongoing habitat loss, mainly as a result of agricultural expansion and human settlement.	eng
58564	conservation		A number of protected areas occur on various public lands throughout the species' range. The most abundant populations are on federal lands, including Conecuh National Forest (Alabama), Eglin Air Force Base (Florida), and Fort Benning (Georgia). These areas receive at least some protection relevant to the needs of this frog. Elsewhere, existing regulatory mechanisms probably are insufficient for adequate protection of breeding and non-breeding habitat. It is listed as a species of special concern in Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and is protected in Alabama. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is currently evaluating the range-wide status of this frog to determine if it warrants federal recommendation as a threatened species (L.V. LaClaire pers. comm.).	eng
58564	distribution		This species is found in the USA from the Coastal Plain from the southern half of North Carolina (Beaufort County) to southern Florida (Collier County on the west coast, Broward County on the east coast), west to the Tombigbee River of Alabama. There are isolated populations in central Alabama (with a historical record from Shelby County) and central Tennessee (Atlig and Lohoefener 1983; Bailey 1991; Conant and Collins 1991; Godley 1992; Redmond and Scott 1996; Miller and Campbell 1996). Most of its range is contained within the range of the gopher tortoise <em>Gopherus polyphemus</em> (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
58564	habitat		Its primary habitat is native xeric upland habitats, particularly longleaf pine-turkey oak sand hill associations; also xeric to mesic longleaf pine flat woods, sand pine scrub, xeric oak hammocks, and ruderal successional stages of these habitats. It is absent from most coastal islands and dunes (Godley 1992). Burrows of the gopher tortoise or rodents are used for shelter (Gentry and Smith 1968; Lee 1968; Franz 1986), and it also hides under logs and under or in stumps (Wright and Wright 1949). Breeding occurs in ephemeral to semi-permanent graminoid-dominated wetlands that lack large predatory fish (Bailey 1991; Moler and Franz 1987; J.G. Palis unpubl.). This species does not adapt well to habitat degradation or the introduction of predators to its breeding habitat.	eng
58564	population		In Alabama, this frog occurs at six breeding sites (M.A. Bailey pers. comm.). In Florida, it is extant at 79 sites east of the Apalachicola River (R. Franz unpubl.) and it breeds in at least 25 sites west of the Apalachicola River (J.G. Palis pers. comm.). It is known from two specimens in Tennessee (Redmond and Scott 1996; M.A. Bailey pers. comm.), and it is known to occur at seven sites at least in Georgia, including Fort Benning (where 60-110 breeding adults were recorded in a two acre pond; Andrews pers. comm.), Fort Stewart (18 breeding sites recorded; D.J. Stevenson pers. comm.), McIntosh County, Baker County (at least five sites), Charlton County (C.W. Seyle unpubl.), Taylor County (three breeding sites), and Marion County. It is known from two sites (Savannah River Ecology Lab and Santee Coastal Reserve) in South Carolina. In North Carolina, it breeds at 11 sites (A.L. Braswell unpubl.). Though few data are available concerning changes in the species’ population status, much information exists on the reduction of its habitat and breeding sites. The longleaf pine (<em>Pinus palustris</em>) community, the ecosystem primarily inhabited by this species, has been reduced to less than 5% of its historical range (Frost 1993; Outcalt and Sheffield 1996). Bailey (1994) reported that eight of 14 known breeding sites in Alabama are considered historic and of the six extant ponds, only three supported substantial populations. However, since that study, one historic site has been reconfirmed as extant, two additional breeding ponds have been discovered, and one previously known breeding site has been extirpated due to the introduction of predatory fish (M.A. Bailey pers. comm.; J.B. Jensen pers. comm.). Although a few new North Carolina sites have been documented in recent years (Beane and Hoffman 1995, 1997), Braswell (1993) found only 11 of 32 previously known breeding sites to be active in North Carolina. Twelve sites are known from South Carolina, though only four remain extant (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.). Of 23 historic breeding sites in Georgia investigated by Seyle (1994) 12 were judged suitable, eight were considered degraded but marginally suitable, and three were judged unsuitable. Only one site was found to contain the frogs during two extensive surveys of Georgia's coastal plain in late winter and early spring of 1995. However, heavy rains during the autumn of the previous year might have contributed to early breeding, and therefore low detectability during the survey period (Moulis 1995a,b). Extensive surveys are lacking for Florida. The total population size of this species is not known but it is apparently declining in many areas.	eng
58564	threats		Threats to this species are many and include loss of longleaf pine habitat through maximum-yield timber management (for example, through establishment of pine monocultures) and decreased frequency of fire; introduction of predatory fish into breeding ponds; road construction near breeding sites; and declining populations of gopher tortoises whose burrows are used extensively by gopher frogs (Bailey 1991; Godley 1992). Mechanical site preparation techniques (such as roller chopping) destroy burrow openings, which may trap inhabitants. Routine pine straw harvest and associated removal of herbaceous vegetation also degrades the habitat quality (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). Introduction of predatory game fishes (<em>Lepomis</em> spp. and <em>Micropterus</em> spp.) is detrimental as these species feed upon gopher frog tadpoles and possibly eggs. In some instances, introduction of mosquito fish (<em>Gambusia</em> spp.) can also be detrimental to gopher frogs and other larval amphibians (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). Breeding sites are often degraded by off-road recreational vehicle (ORV) use or by sand roads that pass through or adjacent to the ponds as vehicular traffic disrupts pond floor micro-topography and eliminates herbaceous vegetation (J.G. Palis pers. comm.). More specifically, large tires of ORVs may break the organic hardpan that lies below the pond floor. This hardpan prevents water from draining into the sand below the wetland (LaClaire and Franz 1991), so breaking the hardpan could result in a shorter hydroperiod and thus make some wetlands unsuitable for gopher frog reproduction. Loss of herbaceous vegetation from ORV use could also discourage gopher frog reproduction since egg masses are attached to stems of herbaceous vegetation (Bailey 1990; J.G. Palis pers. comm.). Erosion of unpaved roads lying adjacent to breeding sites may result in sedimentation into the ponds. Introduction of sediment is exacerbated by the placement of wing ditches that divert water from roads into ponds. Heavy grazing by cattle in summer in dried pond basins might reduce or eliminate frog oviposition sites and/or alter pond nutrient cycling.	eng
58565	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Sixto Inchaustegui, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Arvin Diesmos, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk, Masafumi Matsui, Benedikt Schmidt, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	There are no measures required to conserve this species. Instead, eradication of this species from its introduced range is a conservation priority. In Asia, this species is believed to have a negative impact on the native amphibian fauna. It should be monitored and controlled. Farming activities should concentrate on native Rana rugulosa. Farming of Rana catesbeiana should at least be strictly contained, including water discharges from farms that should be carefully controlled or prevented. Ideally, the farming of the species outside its range should be prohibited. Studies of actual and potential ecological impacts should be conducted, perhaps leading to an elimination programme. Awareness of the potential threat posed by this species to native biodiversity must be raised.<br/>The Venezuelan government has taken actions to avoid the spread of this species. There has been an eradication program, with participants from the University of Los Andes at Mérida, the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC) and the Ministry of Environment, instated at the beginning of 2002.	eng
58565	conservation	Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Schmidt, B., Miaud, C. & Martínez-Solano, I., 2009	There are no measures required to conserve this species. Instead, eradication of this species from its introduced range is a conservation priority. In Asia, this species is believed to have a negative impact on the native amphibian fauna. It should be monitored and controlled. Farming activities should concentrate on native <span style="font-style: italic;">Hoplobatrachus rugulosus</span>. Farming of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lithobates catesbeianus </span>should at least be strictly contained, including water discharges from farms that should be carefully controlled or prevented. Ideally, the farming of the species outside its range should be prohibited. Studies of actual and potential ecological impacts should be conducted, perhaps leading to an elimination programme. Awareness of the potential threat posed by this species to native biodiversity must be raised. The Venezuelan government has taken actions to avoid the spread of this species. There has been an eradication program, with participants from the University of Los Andes at Mérida, the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC) and the Ministry of Environment, instated at the beginning of 2002.	eng
58565	distribution	Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Schmidt, B., Miaud, C. & Martínez-Solano, I., 2009	This is a very wide-ranging species. Its native range is from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, southern Quebec, Canada, south to eastern North America, except southern Florida, USA, then southward through Veracruz, Mexico. It is also found in Sinaloa, and probably other areas in Mexico, as well (these are not shown on the map). This species was introduced to Mexico at the beginning of last century. It was introduced to 'La Garita' in Costa Rica, but now appears to be extinct in this country (G.&#160; Chaves pers. comm.). It is also introduced in Cuba, Puerto Rico (introduced 1935), Hawaii (introduced mid- to late 1800s, now on all main islands), Isla de la Juventud, Hispaniola (only confirmed in northern and eastern Dominican Republic, not in Haiti) and Jamaica. Its range is increasing in some areas. It is introduced to South America. In Venezuela, there is an expanding population near La Azulita, in Mérida state, at the Andean versants facing Lake Maracaibo basin. In Colombia it is known from the Middle Magdalena Valley, north to the lowlands on the Caribbean coast. It has also been found in Bogotá, although it is not known whether it has established a population there. In Peru it has become established around Iquitos in central Loreto Department in the Amazon Basin, and also around Lima on the Pacific coast. There are also a number of populations established in Ecuador and Brazil. It has been introduced in Rincón de Pando, Canelones, Uruguay, and in Misiones, Argentina. In Europe, where it is introduced, the largest population occurs within the Po River Valley (Italy) where formal introductions continued at least until 1937. Other populations have been reported from Belgium (recorded from several sites in Wallonia and at least one population is known in Flanders), the Netherlands, central and southwestern France, Germany (in the vicinity of Bonn and also in Baden-Wuttemburg), Greece (Crete), Spain (Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here], Villasbuenas de Gata in Cacerés [not recently observed and not mapped here] and Sierra de Collserola, Cataluña Province [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here]) and the United Kingdom (possibly now eradicated). It has possibly been introduced to Switzerland, although this requires further confirmation. In Asia, where it is also introduced, it is found in several localities in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand [not mapped here] and Singapore [not mapped here]. It has been introduced to mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, for raising in farms for human consumption. Feral populations have become established in Taiwan, Province of China, Kunming in Yunnan province, Sichuan, Xinjiang and possibly other places in China as a result of escape or deliberate release. Individuals have been found in the wild in Hong Kong probably from releases of market animals. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this species is now established in Hong Kong. It is found widely from southern Hokkaido to Ishigakijima in Japan.	eng
58565	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Sixto Inchaustegui, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Arvin Diesmos, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk, Masafumi Matsui, Benedikt Schmidt, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This is a very wide-ranging species. Its native range is from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, southern Quebec, Canada, south to eastern North America, except southern Florida, USA, then southward through Veracruz, Mexico. It is also found in Sinaloa, and probably other areas in Mexico, as well (these are not shown on the map). This species was introduced to Mexico at the beginning of last century. It was introduced to 'La Garita' in Costa Rica, but now appears to be extinct in this country (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). It is also introduced in Cuba, Puerto Rico (introduced 1935), Hawaii (introduced mid- to late 1800s, now on all main islands), Isla de la Juventud, Hispaniola (only confirmed in northern and eastern Dominican Republic, not in Haiti) and Jamaica. Its range is increasing in some areas. It is introduced to South America. In Venezuela, there is an expanding population near La Azulita, in Mérida state, at the Andean versants facing Lake Maracaibo basin. In Colombia it is known from the Middle Magdalena Valley, north to the lowlands on the Caribbean coast. It has also been found in Bogotá, although it is not known whether it has established a population there. In Peru it has become established around Iquitos in central Loreto Department in the Amazon Basin, and also around Lima on the Pacific coast. There are also a number of populations established in Ecuador and Brazil. It has been introduced in Rincón de Pando, Canelones, Uruguay, and in Misiones, Argentina. In Europe, where it is introduced, the largest population occurs within the Po River Valley (Italy) where formal introductions continued at least until 1937. Other populations have been reported from Belgium (recorded from several sites in Wallonia and at least one population is known in Flanders), the Netherlands, central and southwestern France, Germany (in the vicinity of Bonn and also in Baden-Wuttemburg), Greece (Crete), Spain (Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here], Villasbuenas de Gata in Cacerés [not recently observed and not mapped here] and Sierra de Collserola, Cataluña Province [only a few individuals observed and not mapped here]) and the United Kingdom (possibly now eradicated). It has possibly been introduced to Switzerland, although this requires further confirmation. In Asia, where it is also introduced, it is found in several localities in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand [not mapped here] and Singapore [not mapped here]. It has been introduced to mainland China and Taiwan, Province of China, for raising in farms for human consumption. Feral populations have become established in Taiwan, Province of China, Kunming in Yunnan province, Sichuan, Xinjiang and possibly other places in China as a result of escape or deliberate release. Individuals have been found in the wild in Hong Kong probably from releases of market animals. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this species is now established in Hong Kong. It is found widely from southern Hokkaido to Ishigakijima in Japan.	eng
58565	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Sixto Inchaustegui, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Arvin Diesmos, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk, Masafumi Matsui, Benedikt Schmidt, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species inhabits ponds, swamps, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, brackish ponds (in Hawaii), stream margins and irrigation ditches. It is sometimes found in temporary waters hundreds of metres from permanent water. It winters at the bottom of pools. It may disperse from water in wet weather. Eggs and larvae develop in permanent slow or non-flowing bodies of water.	eng
58565	habitat	Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Schmidt, B., Miaud, C. & Martínez-Solano, I., 2009	This species inhabits ponds, swamps, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, brackish ponds (in Hawaii), stream margins and irrigation ditches. It is sometimes found in temporary waters hundreds of metres from permanent water. It winters at the bottom of pools. It may disperse from water in wet weather. Eggs and larvae develop in permanent slow or non-flowing bodies of water.	eng
58565	population	Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Schmidt, B., Miaud, C. & Martínez-Solano, I., 2009	There are thousands of occurrences of this species. It is highly abundant and its global population is increasing. Although some of the populations in Europe of this species are increasing, other introductions not have become fully established. In Asia, it is only present in isolated pockets. Animals have been deliberately introduced to northern Thailand in the hope of augmenting native frog production. Farmed animals are exported alive to East Asia (Pariyanonth and Daorerk 1995, Lim and Lim 1992) and can escape or be released to become established. A growing population is now established in the Venezuelan Andes (C. Gottberg and A. Diaz pers. comm.), near the town of Jají, in Mérida State.	eng
58565	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Sixto Inchaustegui, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Arvin Diesmos, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk, Masafumi Matsui, Benedikt Schmidt, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	There are thousands of occurrences of this species. It is highly abundant and its global population is increasing. Although some of the populations in Europe of this species are increasing, other introductions not have become fully established. In Asia, it is only present in isolated pockets. Animals have been deliberately introduced to northern Thailand in the hope of augmenting native frog production. Farmed animals are exported alive to East Asia (Pariyanonth and Daorerk, 1995; Lim and Lim, 1992) and can escape or be released to become established. A growing population is now established in the Venezuelan Andes (C. Gottberg and A. Diaz pers. comm.), near the town of Jají, in Mérida State.	eng
58565	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Blair Hedges, Rafael Joglar, Sixto Inchaustegui, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Arvin Diesmos, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk, Masafumi Matsui, Benedikt Schmidt, Claude Miaud, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	There are no threats to this species. Outside its native range, this species is considered a pest. It has been observed predating on native species in Puerto Rico, including on <em>Leptodactylus albilabris</em>, and is a potential predator of other native species throughout its introduced range. It is a possible vector of pathogens.	eng
58565	threats	Santos-Barrera, G., Hammerson, G., Hedges, B., Joglar, R., Inchaustegui, S., Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A., Iskandar, D., van Dijk, P.P., Masafumi Matsui, Schmidt, B., Miaud, C. & Martínez-Solano, I., 2009	There are no threats to this species. Outside its native range, this species is considered a pest. It has been observed predating on native species in Puerto Rico, including on <em>Leptodactylus albilabris</em>, and is a potential predator of other native species throughout its introduced range. It is a possible vector of pathogens.	eng
58566	conservation		It occurs in Lore Lindu National Park, where it is abundant.	eng
58566	distribution		This species is endemic to central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It occurs below 700m asl.	eng
58566	habitat		It lives in lowland forest, including heavily disturbed forest. It breeds in slow-flowing streams and perhaps ponds and marshes.	eng
58566	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58566	threats		It is presumably impacted by the loss of its habitat.	eng
58567	conservation	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It probably occurs in a protected area on Karpathos, but there is a need for further research into the range and low population of this species. Monitoring and effective protection and appropriate management of the single site at which it is known to occur is needed.	eng
58567	distribution	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is known only from Karpathos Island, Greece. It is currently only known with certainty from a single river, near Olimbos in the mountains on the north side of the island, and it does not appear to range more widely.	eng
58567	habitat	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is a mostly aquatic species, largely restricted to permanent still or slow-running waters and apparently sensitive to habitat change. Breeding and larval development presumably take place in these waterbodies.	eng
58567	population	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The known population on Karpathos is reported to be 'modest' (Beerli <em>et al.</em> 1994). Earlier literature sources from the 1960s have indicated that water frogs were abundant on the island, but around 1992 they were difficult to find (with very few adults being observed, but several juveniles) (P. Beerli pers. comm.). Recent reports indicate that it is quite common in its single site on Karpathos. Current population trend has not been quantified, but there certainly was a decline from the 1960s to the present.	eng
58567	threats	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss and degradation of suitable aquatic habitats. Although the site from which the species is known is fairly remote, freshwater habitats are subject to a number of threats such as excessive water abstraction and climate change. Fires are an additional potential threat, and the species may be vulnerable to climate change.	eng
58568	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R. & Kusrini, M., 2004	Provided existing protected areas and watershed forests remain reasonably intact, and that there isn't an epidemic event of chytridiomycosis, the species appears reasonably secure.   It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kusrini <em>et al. </em>2008).	eng
58568	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R. & Kusrini, M., 2004	We restrict this species to southern Sumatra, Java and Bali (Indonesia). Specimens from outside this range are referred to in the accounts for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. raniceps and H. mocquardi</span> (Sulawesi only). It is present below 1,571 m asl.	eng
58568	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R. & Kusrini, M., 2004	It is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. On Sumatra it also breeds in ponds and in paddy fields. The maximum clutch size of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. chalconota</span> is 2,207  eggs and it breeds year round (Premo 1985). Tadpoles live inside pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams (Grandison 1972, Dring 1979).	eng
58568	population	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R. & Kusrini, M., 2004	It is generally common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas.	eng
58568	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Inger, R. & Kusrini, M., 2004	It has recently tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span>, although there are currently no reports of population declines for this species (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
58569	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58569	distribution		This species is known from southwestern China in Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, from 1,100 up to 3,000m asl. It presumably occurs in neighbouring countries, in particular Viet Nam and Myanmar, but there have not so far been any records.	eng
58569	habitat		It inhabits forests, shrubland, alpine meadows and lakeshores. It breeds in marshes, ponds, ditches and backwaters in rivers.	eng
58569	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58569	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular agriculture and water pollution.	eng
58570	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Swan, S., 2004	The population in Thailand inhabits Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary. In Viet Nam it is known from Hoang Lien Son National Park and Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve. In Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Detailed survey data is needed, based on which further conservation measures can be formulated. Taxonomic re-evaluation of this species is needed, in particular with regards to similar species recorded from China and with specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Babina lini</span> from Viet Nam and Thailand.	eng
58570	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Swan, S., 2004	This species is known from the Sa Pa area of north and central Viet Nam (Bourret 1942) as well as from a single location in northern north-east Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999; as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. adenopleura</span>) and from Xieng Khouang and Salavan provinces in Lao People's Democratic Republic. In Thailand it has been recorded at about 1,400-1,500 m asl, and in Viet Nam from 500-1,900 m asl, while in Lao People's Democratic Republic it is known from 1,220 m asl.	eng
58570	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Swan, S., 2004	In Thailand it was observed at pools and small streams surrounded by dense grassy and shrubby vegetation in montane scrub forest on peat and sand. Tadpoles inhabit the same streams. In Viet Nam it is known from pools in scrubby vegetation, evergreen forest and grazing areas. It was reported from the vicinity of a brick factory at Sa Pa (Bourret 1942). In Lao People's Democratic Republic it was reported from a slow-moving muddy stream with palm trees (Stuart 2005).	eng
58570	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Swan, S., 2004	Locally, it was apparently common in 1937 (Bourret 1942). It is frequently encountered during the breeding season and is considered to be locally common (S. Swan and T. Nguyen pers. comm.). It is not uncommon at the single known location in Thailand (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.).	eng
58570	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Swan, S., 2004	It is adaptable to habitat degradation, but habitat impacts at Sa Pa have accelerated recently (BirdLife International 2001) which might pose a threat. It is consumed locally in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005).	eng
58571	conservation		It has been recorded from Mount Harriet National Park and Saddle Peak National Park, and is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58571	distribution		This species appears to be endemic to small parts of South Andaman and North Andaman in the Andaman Islands of India, below 500m asl, where it is currently known only from Mount Harriet and Saddle Peak.	eng
58571	habitat		It is thought to be an arboreal species of tropical moist forest. Breeding takes place in tree holes by larval development.	eng
58571	population		It is not an uncommon species.	eng
58571	threats		The major threat to this species is forest loss due to clear-cutting.	eng
58572	conservation		There are many protected areas within its range. It can be successfully reproduced in captivity; farming of this frog takes place in north and northeastern China. It is listed on the Red Data Book of Mongolia.	eng
58572	distribution		This complex species is widespread in central and northeastern China, and is also considered to be present in eastern and southeastern Mongolia (a distinct isolated population at Ganga-Nuur Lake, Dariganga Sum, Sukhbaatar Aimag). It occurs at elevations of 600-4,000m asl.	eng
58572	habitat		It is associated with hill forests, particularly those near streams, rivers and ponds. It also occurs in cultivated fields, marshes and lakeshores. It breeds in small pools close to rivers and other wetlands, and it hibernates underwater in streams and rivers.	eng
58572	population		It is very widespread and common in China; in Mongolia it is more sporadically distributed.	eng
58572	threats		In northeastern China, the main threat is over-exploitation for food and traditional Chinese medicine. Throughout its Chinese range, it is also threatened by general habitat destruction and degradation. The threats to Mongolian populations are not known.	eng
58573	conservation		The only known location for this species is inside the Mount Emei Scenic Area World Heritage Site. However, further survey work is required on Mount Emei to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.	eng
58573	distribution		This species is only known from Mount Emei, in Sichuan Province, China. It has been recorded from 1,600-1,800m asl.	eng
58573	habitat		It is an inhabitant of mixed forests, and breeds in still-water pools and ponds.	eng
58573	population		It is known from only one location, and has not been seen since 1983, despite many searches.	eng
58573	threats		Small-scale agriculture is continuing on parts of Mount Emei, and atmospheric pollution is leading to the acidification of streams.	eng
58574	conservation		The species is not present in any protected areas, and maintenance of the vegetation surrounding the lake should be a priority conservation action. The population status of this species requires careful monitoring.	eng
58574	distribution		This species is known only from the Lago de Las Minas, about 6km southeast of San José Alchichica, Puebla, Mexico. Lago de Las Minas is approximately 1km long by 0.5km wide. It might be found in other similar habitats within the same valley, although this has yet to be determined. Nevertheless, its range is likely to be very restricted. It occurs at approximately 2,324m asl.	eng
58574	habitat		It is known only from the vegetation (bullrushes) surrounding the eastern shore of Lago de Las Minas, and presumably breeds in the lakes' waters. It is not known if this species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
58574	population		This species is known to be quite scarce.	eng
58574	threats		The water-level in the lake has dropped approximately 2m since the 1950s, principally through extensive groundwater pumping for agricultural development. There is also continued deterioration in the quality of habitat surrounding the lake.	eng
58575	conservation		It occurs in Coconino, Tonto, Apache, Sitgreaves, Gila, and Coronado national forests (Jennings 1995; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997). Both the northern and southern populations of <em>R. chiricahuensis</em> are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2002, and a recovery team was established in 2003. Conservation actions will include both short-term interim actions to prevent further deterioration of the species’ status, and longer-term planning for eventual recovery of the species. Arizona Game and Fish Commission Order 41 prohibit the collection of this species from the wild in Arizona. It is included as Wildlife of Special Concern in Arizona (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1996). Priority research topics include identification of the importance of disease, pesticides and other contaminants, climate change, UV radiation, fire management, and possibly other threats to the status and recovery potential of the Chiricahua Leopard Frog. Also, research is needed on key aspects of the frog’s status, distribution, and ecology.	eng
58575	distribution		This species is known from Arizona and New Mexico in the United States, and from Mexico (Platz and Mecham 1979). The range of this species is divided into two areas. The first includes northern montane populations along the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau (= Mogollon Rim) in central and eastern Arizona and west-central New Mexico. The second includes southern populations located in the mountains and valleys south of the Gila River in south-eastern Arizona and south-western New Mexico, and extends into Mexico along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental (Platz and Mecham 1979). Populations in the northern portion of the range might soon be described as a new species (Platz pers. comm.). Elevations of Chiricahua Leopard Frog localities range from 1,000-2,710m asl (Platz and Mecham 1979; Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997; Smith and Chiszar 2003).	eng
58575	habitat		This species occurs in a wide variety of permanent and semi-permanent aquatic systems in oak, mixed oak and pine woodlands, chaparral, grassland, and even desert habitats (Stebbins 1985b). The perennial or near-perennial habitats from which they are known or likely to have occurred and reproduced include springs, cienegas, earthen cattle tanks, small creeks, and slack water of main-stem rivers (Sredl and Jennings 2005). Many habitats are modified or artificial aquatic systems (Sredl <em>et al.</em> 1997; Sredl and Saylor 1998). Deep areas, root masses, and undercut banks are used when escaping capture. Habitat heterogeneity is likely important. The frogs will move into newly created suitable habitat rapidly, if near to occupied habitat (Sredl and Jennings 2005).	eng
58575	population		It is rare in suitable habitat. It is known from several dozen locations in Arizona and New Mexico, in addition to others elsewhere in the range. Local abundance appears to fluctuate greatly. Populations in stock tanks generally include fewer than 100 individuals. Historically, it occurred at 212 sites in Arizona, 170 in New Mexico, and 12-13 in Mexico (USFWS 2000). These numbers pertain to both <em>R. chiricahuensis</em> and the undescribed new species from the northern portion of the range. It is now absent from many historical localities and numerous mountain ranges, valleys, and drainages within its former range (USFWS 2000). Where still present, populations often are few, small, and widely scattered (USFWS 2000). Possibly some disappearances from historical sites represent natural fluctuations rather than long-term declines caused by human impacts, but in most areas disappearances appear to reflect real, on-going declines (USFWS 2000).	eng
58575	threats		The most important threats are disease (chytridiomycosis, documented in this species as early as 1992), non-native predators and competitors (bullfrogs, sport fish, crayfish), effects of small, isolated populations, loss of aquatic habitat through drying, damming, diverting, or siltation, and heavy grazing (USFWS 2002).	eng
58576	conservation	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Yuan Zhigang, Peter Paul van Dijk, Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta & Sabitry Bordoloi, 2004	Existing protected areas seem to secure viable populations throughout the range of the taxon, and their maintenance is of prime importance. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed, as this might be a species complex containing a number of highly threatened species. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58576	distribution	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Yuan Zhigang, Peter Paul van Dijk, Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta & Sabitry Bordoloi, 2004	This taxon ranges from northeastern India (West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram), possibly Bangladesh (its presence in this country requires confirmation) through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic and much of Viet Nam to central and southern China (Shannxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan and Hong Kong). The southern limit in Peninsular Thailand is uncertain [Smith (1930) noted specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. chloronota</span> (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. livida</span>) from Nakhon Si Thammarat and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hosii</span> from Chumphon, indicating a substantial overlap]. Taylor (1962) ignored any peninsular occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. chloronota</span> (as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. livida</span>). It ranges from 100-1,900 m asl.	eng
58576	habitat	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Yuan Zhigang, Peter Paul van Dijk, Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta & Sabitry Bordoloi, 2004	It inhabits forested montane river. The rivers can vary from shallow and slow moving to torrential and deep. Animals can be found on boulders and logs, both in and around the water. It is presumed to breed in streams, but its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
58576	population	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Yuan Zhigang, Peter Paul van Dijk, Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta & Sabitry Bordoloi, 2004	In South Asia this is regarded as a common frog with a stable population. In Southeast Asia it is not a rare frog but it is rarely common, never reaching the densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. hosii</span> in comparable habitat.	eng
58576	threats	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Yuan Zhigang, Peter Paul van Dijk, Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Sushil Dutta, Saibul Sengupta & Sabitry Bordoloi, 2004	It is threatened by deforestation, the pollution of waterways (often with agrochemicals), and hydrological changes. These frogs are harvested for food by some ethnic groups in Viet Nam and farmers in China (Yunnan and Hainan). Often, only the females are harvested, as these are thought to be 'adult' frogs (Bain <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
58577	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. It is currently included in legislation by the Ministry of the Environment of the Republic of Korea.	eng
58577	distribution		This species is known from the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea.	eng
58577	habitat		It inhabits rice paddies and ponds.	eng
58577	population		It is greatly reduced in numbers, and has recently been recorded from only four locations.	eng
58577	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are the major threats to this species, in particular due to changes in agricultural land use from rice to other crops, which is greatly reducing the habitat available to the species. Infrastructure development and water pollution pose additional threats.	eng
58578	conservation		No conservation methods are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58578	distribution		This species can be found throughout eastern USA and adjacent southeastern Canada (Conant and Collins 1991). Introduced in Newfoundland, British Columbia (not mapped here), Washington, Utah, and probably elsewhere.	eng
58578	habitat		It can be found on the margins of virtually any body of permanent or semi-permanent water; young may use temporary pools. It may disperse from water in wet weather, especially at night. It seeks cover under objects on land, underground, or in water when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in shallow, slow- or non-flowing water.	eng
58578	population		Thousands of populations are abundant and stable.	eng
58578	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
58579	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58579	distribution		This taxon is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Cordofan", which is in modern-day Sudan, and not in Egypt (Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58579	habitat		This is presumably an aquatic species that breeds by larval development.	eng
58579	population		Its population is not known.	eng
58579	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58580	conservation		The type locality is in Kerinci Seblat National Park.	eng
58580	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities (Barisan, Kerinci, Batang, Tarusan and Solok) in west Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is probably at around 1,200m asl.	eng
58580	habitat		It lives in montane forest, and the type specimen had unpigmented eggs, suggesting that the eggs are hidden in streams. The specimens collected recently in Solok were found along the banks of streams in forested habitat.	eng
58580	population		A very large series was recently collected from a new locality near Solok, and this is believed to be the first collection of this species since the original description. There has been very little surveying of this area so its population status is still unknown.	eng
58580	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58581	conservation	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Although it occurs in many protected areas, several are not well protected or managed for biodiversity conservation. Further research into the population status and distribution of this species is urgently needed.	eng
58581	distribution	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Crete, Greece, where it is patchily distributed in the lowlands over a wide area generally below 100m asl.	eng
58581	habitat	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is associated with wetlands including slow-moving rivers and streams, lakes and marshes. Breeding and larval development presumably take place in these waterbodies.	eng
58581	population	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It does not appear to be particularly abundant, and is especially difficult to find in dry years.	eng
58581	threats	Peter Beerli, Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The loss of aquatic habitats is the principal threat to this species. Extraction of stream water in the uplands for agricultural irrigation (for bananas) leaves many lowland reaches dry during the summer months. Additional habitat loss may be occurring through infrastructure and tourism development. It might be impacted by the introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeiana</em>.	eng
58582	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas. Safeguarding the ecological integrity of its forest habitat, particularly with regard to fire containment within protected areas, should be a priority. Research is needed to determine the geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
58582	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities through Thailand, eastern Myanmar, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic and southern China (Smith, 1930; Taylor, 1962; Yang, 1991; Zhang and Wen, 2000; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Through most of this area it is known from very few records. In southern China it is so far known from southern Yunnan, Guangxi, Gaungdong and Hainan provinces. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, for example in northern viet Nam. It is found at about 500-760m asl.	eng
58582	habitat		It is a poorly known species that has been recorded from monsoon evergreen forest and rainforest, usually on the forest floor in the vicinity of fast-flowing streams, creeks and rivers. It probably breeds in streams.	eng
58582	population		It is generally an uncommon species, and is only occasionally encountered through most of its range.	eng
58582	threats		It is apparently restricted to closed-canopy evergreen forest, and is probably threatened by logging, agricultural encroachment, expanding human settlements and fire.	eng
58583	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Goa, and it is protected by national legislation.	eng
58583	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the Western Ghats of India, from 500-2,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58583	habitat		It is a terrestrial leaf-litter frog, found in a number of tropical forest types (evergreen to semi-evergreen moist forest, and into dry deciduous forest). It is also found in lightly degraded areas. It breeds in natural and artificial waterbodies (in both ponds and large lakes).	eng
58583	population		This is a locally abundant species.	eng
58583	threats		The major threat to this species is general habitat loss through conversion to agricultural land and plantations (including eucalyptus, coffee and tea), and exploitation of its habitat for timber and wood by local people. Road kill during migration to breeding habitats is also a problem. The larvae of this species are collected for local consumption.	eng
58584	conservation	Uğur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2009	It is listed on Appendix II the Bern Convention and on Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is protected by national legislation in many countries and is recorded in several national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in Turkey is needed. Conservation initiatives involving head-starting have been undertaken for the small Jersey population which have been remarkably successful. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.  In Spain, it is an endangered species and there are habitat restoration and population monitoring efforts ongoing.  In some parts of its range, there have been successful efforts to restore pond habitats.	eng
58584	conservation	U?ur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II the Bern Convention and on Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is protected by national legislation in many countries and is recorded in several national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. Further research into the distribution limits of this species in Turkey is needed. Conservation initiatives involving head-starting have been undertaken for the small Jersey population which have been remarkably successful. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.  In Spain, it is an endangered species and there are habitat restoration and population monitoring efforts ongoing.  In some parts of its range, there have been successful efforts to restore pond habitats.	eng
58584	distribution	Uğur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2009	This species is widely distributed in much of Europe and northern Turkey. Within Europe it is widespread, but it is restricted to Álava, Burgos and Navarra Provinces in Spain, the southeast coastline of Sweden and the islands of Denmark, and it is absent from Portugal, the British Isles (except the island of Jersey, where a small population is present). In addition, there is a need to confirm the presence of this species in Poland, where it is supposed to occur in the southeast. In the former Soviet Union, it is known only from the Transcarpathian Plain (including adjacent foothills and mountain slopes) of the Ukraine. In Turkey this species is found in Turkish Thrace and northern parts of Anatolia; further studies are needed to determine the distributions of Rana dalmatina and Rana macrocnemis along the southern Black Sea coastline. It occurs from sea level to elevations approaching 1,700m asl.	eng
58584	distribution	U?ur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	This species is widely distributed in much of Europe and northern Turkey. Within Europe it is widespread, but it is restricted to Álava, Burgos and Navarra Provinces in Spain, the southeast coastline of Sweden and the islands of Denmark, and it is absent from Portugal, the British Isles (except the island of Jersey, where a small population is present). In addition, there is a need to confirm the presence of this species in Poland, where it is supposed to occur in the southeast. In the former Soviet Union, it is known only from the Transcarpathian Plain (including adjacent foothills and mountain slopes) of the Ukraine. In Turkey this species is found in Turkish Thrace and northern parts of Anatolia; further studies are needed to determine the distributions of Rana dalmatina and Rana macrocnemis along the southern Black Sea coastline. It occurs from sea level to elevations approaching 1,700m asl.	eng
58584	habitat	Uğur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2009	It is found in glades and open sites within light deciduous woodland (oak, beech, hornbeam etc.), and less frequent in meadows and thickets. It generally it does not occur in pasture, arable areas or coniferous forests. In Spain the species is restricted to <em>Quercus pedunculata</em> oak forest, and is associated with wet meadows. It spawns in small wetlands (pools, fens and marshes, ditches) within forests and at their edges. High levels of larval mortality have been recorded.	eng
58584	habitat	U?ur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	It is found in glades and open sites within light deciduous woodland (oak, beech, hornbeam etc.), and less frequent in meadows and thickets. It generally it does not occur in pasture, arable areas or coniferous forests. In Spain the species is restricted to <em>Quercus pedunculata</em> oak forest, and is associated with wet meadows. It spawns in small wetlands (pools, fens and marshes, ditches) within forests and at their edges. High levels of larval mortality have been recorded.	eng
58584	population	Uğur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2009	It is a relatively abundant species. The species is common in much of central and eastern Europe (e.g.. Hungary and Romania). In Turkey it is patchily distributed. It is scarce to uncommon in northern Europe (e.g.. Sweden, Denmark). In Spain, it is extremely rare.	eng
58584	population	U?ur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	It is a relatively abundant species. The species is common in much of central and eastern Europe (e.g.. Hungary and Romania). In Turkey it is patchily distributed. It is scarce to uncommon in northern Europe (e.g.. Sweden, Denmark). In Spain, it is extremely rare.	eng
58584	threats	Uğur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2009	It is generally threatened by the drainage and eutrophication of breeding sites, development (and logging) of suitable habitat, and replacement of deciduous forest habitat with unsuitable coniferous species. It is locally threatened by road mortality during breeding migrations. Grossenbacher (in Krone <em>et al.</em>, 1997) reported skin diseases (possibly associated with viral infection) in populations from Switzerland and northern Italy that are potentially related to declines and may be related to polluted water. It is experiencing localized declines in southwestern Europe.	eng
58584	threats	U?ur Kaya, Sergius Kuzmin, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Steven Anderson, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Per Nyström, Benedikt Schmidt, Brandon Anthony, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	It is generally threatened by the drainage and eutrophication of breeding sites, development (and logging) of suitable habitat, and replacement of deciduous forest habitat with unsuitable coniferous species. It is locally threatened by road mortality during breeding migrations. Grossenbacher (in Krone <em>et al.</em>, 1997) reported skin diseases (possibly associated with viral infection) in populations from Switzerland and northern Italy that are potentially related to declines and may be related to polluted water. It is experiencing localized declines in southwestern Europe.	eng
58586	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is currently protected in many provinces of China.	eng
58586	distribution		This species is known from central China in southeastern Sichuan, northeastern Yunnan and western Guizhou provinces, from 1,000-1,800m asl.	eng
58586	habitat		It inhabits marshes, pools, ponds and the surrounding habitats in hilly areas. It lives in still water ponds. It nests and breeds around the ponds in May.	eng
58586	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58586	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
58587	conservation		Its taxonomic status needs to be resolved.	eng
58587	distribution		This species is known only from Bandar Bharu in north Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a lowland species.	eng
58587	habitat		There is no information on the habitat and ecological preferences of this species, which presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58587	population		It is known only from the holotype, which is now lost, so its population status is not known.	eng
58587	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58588	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. The effect of the local trade on the population status of the species in the Lake Pátzcuaro area needs to be evaluated, and there is a need to manage the offtake of this species for human consumption in a sustainable manner. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58588	distribution		This species is known from Lake Pátzcuaro, Lake Cuitzeo and the surrounding streams in Río de Morelia, central Michoacán, Mexico.	eng
58588	habitat		It is an aquatic species that lives in deep water with abundant nutrients; eggs are laid in the streams.	eng
58588	population		It used to be common but over harvesting has greatly reduced the population.	eng
58588	threats		This species is locally exploited for human consumption, particularly around the Lake Pátzcuaro area where it is considered a delicious dish. However, no data are available regarding the number of individuals in the local trade.	eng
58589	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58589	distribution		This species is considered here to occur in the Russian Far East from near the confluence of the Zeya River into the Amur River eastwards to the Pacific coast and northwards to the southeast of East Siberia (Yakutia), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea and Tushima Island in Japan. It might also occur in northern China, however further taxonomic studies are needed to confirm this. The altitudinal range of this species is sea level to at least 900m asl.	eng
58589	habitat		Although this species is generally associated with areas of broadleaf, coniferous and mixed woodland, it may also be found at the forest edge, in valleys, in wet lowland meadows and in paddy fields. It breeds in stagnant and slow-flowing waterbodies such as lakes, ponds, ditches, pools at stream edges and puddles. Animals may hibernate underwater in streams. It can be found close to human habitations.	eng
58589	population		It is a widespread and common frog. Some localized population declines caused by habitat loss have been observed.	eng
58589	threats		Some populations of this species have declined because of industrial pollution, urbanization and the construction of reservoirs. In the 1990s, mass collecting of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dybowskii</span>, mainly in the Primorye Region of Russia, for the trade in traditional Asian medicine led to population declines at a number of sites. Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species.	eng
58590	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to determine the status of this species.	eng
58590	distribution		This species is known from Flores, Sumba, Timor (including East Timor), Wetar, Babar and Tanimbar in Indonesia. It is a lowland species.	eng
58590	habitat		It lives in lowland dry forest and savannahs in wet areas, such as marshes and streams. It presumably breeds in water by larval development but there is currently no information.	eng
58590	population		It is probably uncommon, but there is little information. There are a few recent records.	eng
58590	threats		There is no information regarding threats to this species.	eng
58591	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58591	distribution		This species is found in northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning Provinces) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea. The species is not present in southern Primorye, Russia (S. Kuzmin pers. comm.). The suggestion that the species occurs in Russia (eg. by Bannikov, 1977) is based on the description of Rana emeljanovi Nikolsky, 1913, from Yimianpo, Shangzhi County, Heilongjiang Province, China ("Imienpo Station, Chinese Eastern Railway, Manchuria"), later considered as Rana rugosa emeljanovi (Nikolsky, 1913). A subsequent record eastwards from that locality is close to the border with Russia, and it was expected that the species would occur in the southern Primorye Region based on its existence in Democratic People's Republic of Korea (in close proximity to the Russian border). However, all specimens from Primorye attributed to R. emeljanovi have proven to be other amphibian species, including the frog Rana nigromaculata and even the toad Bufo gargarizans. Special searches for this species in the southernmost part of the Primorye have yet to discover Rana emeljanovi. It has been recorded from 100-300m asl.	eng
58591	habitat		This species inhabits slow-flowing rivers, streams, artificial ponds, paddy fields, wetlands and ditches.. It forages on the banks of watercourses and even in paddy fields, and breeds in the water back area of the streams and rivers and in ponds, paddy fields, ditches, pools and streams.	eng
58591	population		It is a common species.	eng
58591	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular changes of land use from paddy fields to other crops are reducing the species' available habitat.	eng
58592	conservation	Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas, though it might occur in Amvrakikos Gulf. There is a need to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
58592	distribution	Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species is restricted to western Greece (including the island of Kerkyra), and southern Albania. It seems likely that populations of this species are fragmented because there are extensive areas of unsuitable habitat within its range. It occurs from sea level to around 500m asl.	eng
58592	habitat	Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species is mostly aquatic and is commonly associated with still waters, slow-moving rivers, canals, and marshes, often with rich vegetation at their edges. Breeding and larval development takes place in these waterbodies. It is not known if the species can adapt to changes in habitat.	eng
58592	population	Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species has been described as quite abundant throughout much of its range (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997), although some populations are believed to be in decline.	eng
58592	threats	Thomas Uzzell, Petros Lymberakis, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	The main threats to this species are general loss of wetland habitat (through drainage for urbanization, tourism and agricultural intensification), water pollution, and large-scale commercial collection for food (it is harvested in enormous numbers in Albania).	eng
58593	conservation	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, .N, Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Inger, R., Stuebing, R., Yambun, P. & Makl, 2004	It is found in several protected areas within its range.	eng
58593	distribution	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, .N, Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Inger, R., Stuebing, R., Yambun, P. & Makl, 2004	This species is widespread in Asia from Myanmar, east through Mainland Southeast Asia, and then south to Peninsular Southeast Asia including Singapore, and Indonesia and Borneo. It has been introduced to Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines. It occurs at elevations up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
58593	habitat	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, .N, Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Inger, R., Stuebing, R., Yambun, P. & Makl, 2004	It is characteristic of vegetated floodplain ponds and is also frequently associated with rice fields. It breeds only in stagnant waterbodies.	eng
58593	population	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, .N, Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Inger, R., Stuebing, R., Yambun, P. & Makl, 2004	It is abundant in appropriate habitats.	eng
58593	threats	Diesmos, A., Alcala, A., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Gee, G., Sukumaran, J., Yaakob, .N, Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I., Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Inger, R., Stuebing, R., Yambun, P. & Makl, 2004	The only threats to this species are water pollution by agrochemicals and over-harvesting of populations for food, although these threats are only impacting some populations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58594	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Maria Ogielska, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, 2008	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and is protected by national legislation in many countries. It is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58594	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Maria Ogielska, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, 2008	This species ranges throughout most of western, central and eastern Europe; populations are largely sympatric with populations of the parental species. It is absent from much of Scandinavia (although present in Denmark and southern most Sweden [it is unclear as to whether or not the Swedish populations are relicts or introductions]). In Italy it is present only with certainty in the River Po plain. The species has been introduced to the United Kingdom [not mapped here] and to Spain at Villasbuenas de Gata, Cáceres and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana. It is generally a lowland taxon which might occur up to approximately 1,550m asl.	eng
58594	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Maria Ogielska, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, 2008	It is a largely aquatic species associated with wetlands such as ponds, channels, ditches and slow moving rivers and streams. It is generally absent from forests, very large pools and strongly flowing waterbodies. The species spawns and larval development takes place within wetland habitats. It can occur in artificial waterbodies, and has spread in parts of its range through the irrigation of formerly unsuitable habitat (e.g.. in parts of Romania).	eng
58594	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Maria Ogielska, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, 2008	It is generally stable with large populations in Eastern Europe. There have been population declines reported in parts of Western Europe.	eng
58594	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Maria Ogielska, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, 2008	It is generally threatened by aquatic pollution (often by agrochemicals) and drainage of wetland habitats. The frog-leg trade and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations of the former Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003). Declines in the parent species <em>R. lessonae</em> can directly affect dependant populations of <em>R. esculenta</em>.	eng
58595	conservation		Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although more protected areas need to be established on Mindanao and Negros Islands, to protect the remaining forest on these islands. This species is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
58595	distribution		This species is known with certainty from several localities on Mindanao Island in the southern Philippines. Populations on Negros, Panay and Masbate Islands in the Philippines have also been attributed to this species, but might be considered a separate taxon in the future. Until this taxonomic revision is in place, they are still considered here as being part of this species. A population from Lore Lindu National Park in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, has also been attributed to this species but this is most likely in error (Brown pers. comm.) and hence it is not included here.	eng
58595	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in cool mountain streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forest.	eng
58595	population		This is an uncommon species, even in its preferred habitats.	eng
58595	threats		The most significant threat to this species is deforestation due to smallholder agriculture and logging.	eng
58596	conservation		This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58596	distribution		This species is known only from China where it has been recorded from Jianyang, Chongan and Dehua of Fujian Province, Longquan and Jiande of Zhejiang Province and Huangshan of Anhui Province. It is found at elevations of 600-1,525m asl.	eng
58596	habitat		This species is found in mountain forest streams. The species breeds in the streams and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
58596	population		It is quite common in suitable habitat.	eng
58596	threats		It is threatened by clear-cutting of forest habitat.	eng
58597	conservation		The species is present in Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary and is presumed to occur in other protected areas within the Cardamom Mountain range.	eng
58597	distribution		This species is found throughout the Cardamom Mountains of western Cambodia. The holotype of this species was collected at 710m asl.	eng
58597	habitat		It has been recorded from a variety of habitat types including dry dipterocarp, lowland dry evergreen and hill evergreen forests, moorland areas on the top of the central range, and flooded forest in the Veal Veng wetland. The species is typically found close to permanent watercourses, often slower moving sections of mountain streams; it is presumed to breed in these streams. It has been recorded from both heavily disturbed areas as well as near-pristine forests.	eng
58597	population		This species is common and widespread in the Cardamom Mountains.	eng
58597	threats		In view of its wide range and adaptability there are presumed to be no major threats to this species.	eng
58598	conservation		It has not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58598	distribution		This species is known from Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores in Indonesia. It is a lowland species.	eng
58598	habitat		It lives in lowland dry forest and savannahs in wet areas, such as marshes and streams. It presumably breeds in water but there is no information.	eng
58598	population		It is an uncommon species, but there is only a little information known. There are a few recent records.	eng
58598	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58599	conservation		This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58599	distribution		This species can be found on the Pacific versant of Mexico, from southwestern Sonora to northwestern Costa Rica, at elevations of 0-1,300m asl.	eng
58599	habitat		This species occurs in lowland tropical forest and seasonal tropical forest, as other species of frogs it requires the presence of permanent pools and lagoons for reproduction. It has adapted to survive under anthropogenic conditions such as flooded agricultural lands and other water content systems.	eng
58599	population		It is widespread and common.	eng
58599	threats		There are no major threats to this species. It is used for human consumption and research, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
58600	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.	eng
58600	distribution		This species is known from Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces in central China and Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded below 1,200m asl.	eng
58600	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, lotus ponds, ponds, marshes and ditches. It breeds in still water.	eng
58600	population		The population in Taiwan, Province of China, is declining, but the population in Mainland China appears to be stable.	eng
58600	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development and water pollution. It is also consumed locally.	eng
58601	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58601	distribution		This species occurs in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, in northeastern India. Reports of the species from Manipur by Dutta (1997) require verification. It has an altitudinal range of 40-1,000m asl.	eng
58601	habitat		It is associated with tropical forest, shrubland and grasses of hilly areas. It is believed to breed in streams, although this requires verification. It is not known if it can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
58601	population		It is a locally abundant species, however the population is believed to be declining.	eng
58601	threats		The general threats to this species are ongoing localized deforestation for subsistence use and the development of tourism facilities in areas such as the Garo Hills.	eng
58602	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58602	distribution		This species is widespread across mainland New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and on Waigeo Island (Indonesia) and Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea). It ranges up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58602	habitat		This species is associated with, and breeds in, rainforest streams. It can be found on the forest floor, and perched on vegetation near streams. It does not occur in degraded habitats.	eng
58602	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58602	threats		It is not threatened, except locally by forest loss. It is captured for food by local human communities, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
58603	conservation		It is present in protected areas throughout much of its range. Effective preservation of suitable forest habitat is the main conservation measure needed for this species.	eng
58603	distribution		This species occurs in Peninsular Thailand from Chumphon southwards throughout much of Peninsular Malaysia and the islands of Penang and Pulau Tiga. It is not reported from Singapore. It is also present in swampy areas of Sumatra, Natuna Besar (both Indonesia) and Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found from lowlands up to 700m asl.	eng
58603	habitat		It is known mainly from near pools, swamps, small lakes and slow-flowing rivers enclosed by rainforest, mature rubber plantations and swampy areas. It has also been recorded from a cave habitat (Boulenger, 1912). Breeding takes place in still waters.	eng
58603	population		It is generally not uncommon where it occurs, but it is well camouflaged and its presence is best confirmed by its distinctive call.	eng
58603	threats		In mainland Southeast Asia there are no specific threats recorded for the species. The loss of swamplands is a concern (caused by logging, plantations or wetland drainage) for some populations.	eng
58604	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58604	distribution		This species is a widespread Sri Lankan endemic. It has been recorded from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
58604	habitat		It is a lowland species of marshes, agricultural land, and grassland and bush forests. It is not present in primary forest. Adults are semi-arboreal and semi-aquatic, and are generally found in marshy areas, and often found on small bushes, under logs, leaf-litter and other ground cover. Tadpoles are found in stagnant waters.	eng
58604	population		It is a common species.	eng
58604	threats		It is threatened by the loss of habitat through wetland reclamation (for building developments), urbanization and aquatic agrochemical pollution.	eng
58605	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is protected by national legislation in former Yugoslavian countries (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001). It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58605	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species is restricted to the Balkans, ranging from southeastern Bosnia Herzegovina in the northwest, through western, central and southern Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, most of Greece and southwestern and southern Bulgaria. It occurs at altitudes of 200-2,000m asl.	eng
58605	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This is a largely aquatic, montane species associated with cold small clear rivers, streams and springs often located in shady deciduous and mixed forest. It may also occur in moors and meadows, and around glacial pools in lakes. Breeding and larval development takes place in these waterbodies. It is presumed that the species can tolerate some slight habitat modification.	eng
58605	population	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is reported to be generally abundant in medium to high-altitude areas (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997), and remains relatively widespread in the Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001).	eng
58605	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	The major threat to this species is the loss of suitable habitat, resulting from forest fires, wetland drainage, construction of dams, etc. It is also affected in some places by pollution.	eng
58606	conservation	Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, and is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Monitoring of the population is necessary to determine the degree of decline as a result of invasive species.	eng
58606	distribution	Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This species is present in southern France and north-eastern Spain (Catalonia, Aragon, Navarra and the Basque Country) (Crochet <em>et al.</em> 1995; Dubois and Ohler 1994). It is also present in the southern Rhone Valley (Pagano, Joly and Hotz 1997). It is difficult to determine the distribution limits of this species because of hybridization.	eng
58606	habitat	Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	<em>Rana grafi</em> occurs in mixed colonies with <em>R. perezi</em>, and lives in similar habitat, being found in a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies (such as pools, streams, ditches, and irrigation canals), where it breeds. Terrestrial habitats include forests, scrubland, agricultural areas and coastal marshes.	eng
58606	population	Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	The species' population has been greatly affected by the introduction of <em>P. ridibundus</em>, and in many areas where it was previously found only the invasive species remains.	eng
58606	threats	Miguel Tejedo, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	The major threat to this species is displacement by the invasive species <em>P. ridibundus</em>. It is possibly also threatened by the drainage of suitable wetlands for agricultural, urban and tourism development. Agrochemical pollution of breeding waterbodies is also presumed to be a threat.	eng
58607	conservation		Some protected areas are present within the range of this species in China. The one known location in Viet Nam is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
58607	distribution		This species is known from hilly areas in south-western China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and possibly Hunan Provinces, and from one location, Hoang Lien Son National Park, in northern Viet Nam (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000). It has been recorded from 1,150-3,200m asl.	eng
58607	habitat		It inhabits medium and small hill streams in montane forest, and sometimes also occurs near still-water pools. It may on occasion leave water to live in forest, shrubland and grassland, but it returns to breed in streams.	eng
58607	population		In China this species was formerly common, but it is now uncommon. In Viet Nam it was found to be relatively common in appropriate habitat (S. Swan pers. comm.)	eng
58607	threats		The main threats to this species in China are over-collecting for local consumption, and habitat destruction and degradation due to shifting agriculture and smallholder farming (which might also be a threat in Viet Nam).	eng
58608	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.	eng
58608	distribution		This species is known from the Mao Son Mountains in Tonkin, northern Viet Nam, as well as from Five Finger Mountain on Hainan Island (China), and Ch'ungan Hsien and Yeping, Fujian Province, China. Attempts to map this species' distribution show the approximate localities from where it has been collected. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58608	habitat		This species occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and is believed to breed in these streams.	eng
58608	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58608	threats		The threats to this species are not known, though it is presumably affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.	eng
58609	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure needed at present is the designation of the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Mindanao as protected areas.	eng
58609	distribution		This species is known from Basilan, Bohol, Camiguin Sur, Dinagat, Samar, and many parts of Mindanao Island, in the southern Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58609	habitat		It is an inhabitant of undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in mountain streams, and the tadpoles develop in water.	eng
58609	population		It is common in unpolluted rivers and streams and is also at times common in disturbed habitats, lakes and waterways in deforested areas.	eng
58609	threats		Important threats to this species are the loss of the lowland rainforest and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.	eng
58610	conservation		Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range and ecological requirements of this species. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58610	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known from with certainty only from the Went Mountains, Papua Province, Indonesia, at around 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely. Records from other partos of New Guinea and Seram Island (Indonesia) may refer to other species.	eng
58610	habitat		It presumably inhabits streams in rainforest and breeds in quiet pools on the edge of streams, but there is no direct information.	eng
58610	population		There is no information. It is known from just two specimens collected in the early part of the 20th Century.	eng
58610	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58611	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58611	distribution		This species is known from southern South Carolina to southern Florida, west to southeastern Texas, United States (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on the Great Bahamas Bank (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), in northern Puerto Rico where it is well established (Rios-Lopez and Joglar 2000).	eng
58611	habitat		This species occurs in permanent lakes, ponds, swamps, marshes, and streams; especially those with abundant emergent or floating herbaceous vegetation; old rice fields and rice field reservoirs. Occurs in mangroves in the Bahamas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs and larvae develop in permanent bodies of water. In South Carolina, males moved from cypress-hardwood zone to grass-herb zone 40-50m asl from shore during breeding period; females in grass-herb zone were ready to ovulate (Lamb 1984). When calling, males float in water.	eng
58611	population		Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) stated that this species, though still readily found, does not seem to be as common as in the past (Florida). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) indicated that populations decline during droughts and "erupt" in wet years (Texas).	eng
58611	threats		Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development. It is a possible threat to native species in Puerto Rico, and it might be a vector of pathogens.	eng
58612	conservation	Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	Many protected areas support this species. No active conservation intervention appears necessary at present. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. Monitoring of the population status appears warranted, especially where it appears to have declined and where it has been introduced and continues to expand its range (Guam).	eng
58612	distribution	Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	This species is known from central Viet Nam, north to southern and central China in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. It has been introduced to Guam, where it has established an expanding breeding population (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It has been recorded up to 1,100 m asl.	eng
58612	habitat	Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	This frog inhabits pools, paddy fields, marshes, ditches and slow-moving streams and the surrounding habitat in lowlands and low plateaus. It breeds in pools and slow moving streams. It is tolerant of habitat modification and has also been observed breeding in artificial pools and rice fields.	eng
58612	population	Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	Available data indicate that the species is relatively common in Viet Nam (Bourret 1941; S. Swan pers. comm.) and is able to survive in good numbers in disturbed habitats. In China it has declined significantly in some parts of its range because of habitat loss and degradation, and over-consumption. It seems to be expanding its range rapidly in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58612	threats	Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Geng Baorong, Gu Huiqing, Shi Haitao, Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	While the species is consumed and traded, it has also taken advantage of the habitat provided by wet rice culture, and survives in disturbed habitats. In China, however, its decline in some parts of its range has been associated to habitat loss and degradation.	eng
58613	conservation		Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.	eng
58613	distribution		This species is endemic to southern and south-western Hainan, where it is known from Jiangfenglian, Diaoluoshan, Wuzhishan, Yinggeling and Wanning counties, China. It has been recorded from 200-900m asl. It is likely to be found in other locations.	eng
58613	habitat		This frog inhabits large to medium streams and the surrounding forests. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58613	population		It is a very rare species (Lu Sunqing pers. comm.).	eng
58613	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation caused by shifting agriculture, past logging in the area, and the construction of hydroelectric power plants.	eng
58614	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58614	distribution		This species is known from the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from southern North Carolina (at least formerly) to northern Florida, west to southeastern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
58614	habitat		It occurs in swamps along streams and edges of shallow ponds and impoundments (including beaver ponds). Eggs and larvae develop in permanent swamp waters.	eng
58614	population		In Florida, it can be quite common in proper habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
58614	threats		Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development.	eng
58615	conservation		Part of its range is within Cenwanglaoshan Nature Reserve.	eng
58615	distribution		This species is endemic to Hejiang and Gulan Counties in Sichuan Province, and Cenwanglaoshan in Guangxi Province, China, where it has been recorded from 450-1,540m asl.	eng
58615	habitat		This frog inhabits shaded hill streams and the surrounding riparian forests, and breeds in the streams.	eng
58615	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58615	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58616	conservation	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Italy. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58616	distribution	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species occurs on the island of Sicily (Italy) and on the Italian mainland, south of a line from Genoa to Rimini. It is also present on the Italian islands of Elba and Giglio. It is found at least up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58616	habitat	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is associated with still and slow moving waters and is found in nearby terrestrial habitats. This species is usually found in mixed colonies with <em>Pelophylax bergeri</em>. It can occur in slightly modified habitats.	eng
58616	population	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This is a locally abundant species that does not appear to be declining.	eng
58616	threats	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is threatened by the localized loss of suitable wetland habitat (presumably through drainage for agriculture and urbanization). It might also be threatened through predation by introduced fish. <em>Pelophylax</em> species have been widely translocated (they are eaten by people), and different species within the genus hybridize readily; consequently hybridization presents a threat to the genetic integrity of the species.	eng
58618	conservation		Ensuring that the existing protected areas where the species occurs remain intact should secure its survival in mainland Southeast Asia.	eng
58618	distribution		This species is known throughout the Thai-Malay Peninsula from about Chumphon southwards (Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975), including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Tioman (Berry, 1975) and smaller islands. It is also widespread in Borneo (in hilly terrain), and in the Mentawai Islands (Tanahmasa, Tanahbala and Pini), Sumatra, Bangka, Belitung and Java in Indonesia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,700m asl.	eng
58618	habitat		It is mainly associated with clear, swift-flowing boulder streams in evergreen primary rainforest in hilly areas, and is sometimes found in the forest at modest distances from streams. It is occasionally found in old secondary forest that has streams of the appropriate type. It breeds in streams.	eng
58618	population		It is generally a common frog in suitable habitat. It is still abundant in forest with slightly polluted water. In such situations it can still be found where most other species have disappeared.	eng
58618	threats		While individual populations might suffer from the impacts of deforestation and water pollution, these are not significant threats across the species' range.	eng
58619	conservation		The range of this species includes the Laotudingzi Nature Reserve.	eng
58619	distribution		This species was originally thought to occur only in Huanren County, in Liaoning Province, China. It is now also found in the Republic of Korea and presumably also occurs in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. It has been recorded around 520m asl.	eng
58619	habitat		It inhabits rivers in hilly areas and the surrounding forests and grasslands. It breeds in streams and rivers.	eng
58619	population		It is now known from over 10 locations. The Korean population is not believed to be in decline but it might be declining in China, but not at a particularly fast rate.	eng
58619	threats		This species is used for food and in traditional Chinese medicine.	eng
58620	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas.	eng
58620	distribution		This species is endemic to central China, and is found in Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui and probably Jiangxi provinces. It has been recorded from 60-1,070m asl.	eng
58620	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, lotus ponds and other ponds filled by water plants.	eng
58620	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58620	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by infrastructure development and water pollution are threats to this species.	eng
58621	conservation		The range of this species is most likely just outside the Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar. It is likely to occur in several protected areas in India, and Nepal, but this is not yet confirmed. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58621	distribution		This species is known from northern Myanmar (Bhamo and Teinzo, upper Ayeyarwady valley towards the Yunnan border), eastern Bangladesh (Khabongpuria in Khagrachari Hill-district), eastern Nepal, and also northeast India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The record from Bangladesh was originally incorrectly identified as Rana tytleri, but has subsequently been assigned to this species. It is found at elevations below 500m asl.	eng
58621	habitat		This frog is associated with riparian forest habitats. Breeding takes place in forest streams. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
58621	population		It is a very poorly know species, and there are not many recent records. It is considered to be rare in Nepal. It has not been recorded in Myanmar since the type series was first collected over 100 years ago. Results from recent surveys in Myanmar are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58621	threats		Deforestation and infrastructure development are the main threats to this species.	eng
58622	conservation	Miguel Tejedo, Jaime Bosch, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, 2008	It is present in Parque Natural del Gorbea and Parque Natural de Izki in Spain, where it is also protected by national legislation and listed in the national Red Data Book as vulnerable. This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. There have been some recent reintroductions of captive-bred individuals in central Spain.	eng
58622	distribution	Miguel Tejedo, Jaime Bosch, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, 2008	This species is endemic to Portugal and north-western and central Spain. It mostly occurs in montane areas up to 2,425m asl (such as the Sierra de Béjar, central Spain). Isolated populations of this species are present in the Basque Country, Central System Mountains, Extremadura in Spain and Marinha Grande and Serra de Sao Mamede in Portugal.	eng
58622	habitat	Miguel Tejedo, Jaime Bosch, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, 2008	This is an aquatic species usually found in shady habitats (with abundant vegetation) close to rivers, streams, lakes and marshes. The species' terrestrial habitats include woods, moors, meadows and areas of low scrub. In the north of its range it can occur down to sea level along slower flowing rivers. Breeding and larval development takes place within various shallow stagnant waterbodies.	eng
58622	population	Miguel Tejedo, Jaime Bosch, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, 2008	It is reasonably common in northern Portugal and north-western Spain. Populations in the Central System Mountains and Extremadura of Spain are declining very seriously. There is also evidence of population declines in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid, Spain).	eng
58622	threats	Miguel Tejedo, Jaime Bosch, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, 2008	Threats to this species include pressure from tourism development, urbanization of the lowland range, habitat loss through intensification of agriculture and deforestation and re-afforestation with non-native monocultures, introduction of non-native predatory fishes (salmonids) and mammals such as <em>Neovison vison</em> (American mink), desertification in southern Portugal, and habitat loss through hydroelectric projects. Recreational use by people of its habitats may cause disturbance to the species.	eng
58623	conservation		There is a need for improved protection of the remaining forests in the Cordilleras on Luzon.	eng
58623	distribution		This species occurs in the Central Cordilleras, on northern Luzon Island, in the Philippines. It has been recorded approximately between 850 and 950m asl (R. Brown pers. comm.).	eng
58623	habitat		It inhabits cool streams and rivers in montane rainforest, and is able to tolerate a small amount of disturbance. It presumably breeds in streams and lays its eggs in water.	eng
58623	population		It usually occurs in fairly good numbers in suitable habitat.	eng
58623	threats		The most important threat to this species is the deforestation of lower montane and lowland forests in the Cordilleras. Montane forests are either being converted to vegetable farms or are being developed into real estate.	eng
58624	conservation	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and it is protected by national legislation. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58624	distribution	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Apennine Mountains and other hilly areas of Italy south of the Po Valley. It is generally found at elevations ranging between 30 and 1,400m asl.	eng
58624	habitat	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is a mostly montane species associated with fast flowing streams that have a rocky substrate. It may also be found in small ponds or mountain peat bogs. It also occurs in some man-made habitats such as water troughs.	eng
58624	population	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is quite common.	eng
58624	threats	Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threats to this species are the loss of stream habitats and aquatic pollution presumably through agriculture and urbanization, and also predation by introduced salmonid fishes.	eng
58625	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
58625	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Oki Island, Osumi Islands and is introduced to Hachijojima.	eng
58625	habitat		It occurs widely in grasslands from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in paddy fields and wetlands. They breed from January to March; females deposit 500-3,000 eggs in sunny and shallow pools of rice fields or swamps. The larvae metamorphose from May to June; half of them mature in autumn, and then the others mature the following year.	eng
58625	population		The population is decreasing, but it is not in significant decline.	eng
58625	threats		There are no threats to this adaptable species.	eng
58626	conservation		The distribution and population status of this species need to be documented. It occurs in the Jimi River Wildlife Management Area.	eng
58626	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of central and western New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but is severely under-recorded. Known localities include: the Wapoga River headwaters in West Papua; the Jimi River in Papua New Guinea; the Baliem Valley in West Papua; and 30km southeast of Nabire (West Papua). Its altitudinal range is 700-1,700m asl.	eng
58626	habitat		This species inhabits streams in rainforest. It breeds in large mountain streams. It has been found in degraded habitats, including rural gardens.	eng
58626	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58626	threats		There is little information, though it is eaten locally. This probably does not constitute a threat, but would become so if this becomes part of an international trade for food.	eng
58627	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. There is a need to ensure that offtake from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. Surveys are needed to establish the range of this species, and to determine its conservation needs.	eng
58627	distribution		This species is known from southern China and northern Viet Nam. In China, there are records from southwestern Yunnan Province (Jingdong, Jinping, Luchun, Yongde, Cangyuan and Menglian counties), and in Viet Nam it is currently known only from the vicinity of Mount Fan Si Pan. It can be expected to occur in nearby Laos and Myanmar. It has been recorded from 1,000-1,900m asl.	eng
58627	habitat		It inhabits montane streams in forested areas, in particular in the vicinity of waterfalls. It has also been found along the mossy slopes of a man-made culvert. Breeding takes place in streams by lareval development. It probably does not occur where forest has been removed.	eng
58627	population		This was formerly a common species, but it is now considered to be rare.	eng
58627	threats		In China this species has declined seriously because of over-harvesting for food. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation caused by small-scale subsistence logging and agriculture, expanding human settlements, and the establishment of power plants.	eng
58628	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for immediate protection of the montane forest habitat of this species. A survey of the San Luis Potosí localities is needed to establish the population status of the species in that region. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58628	distribution		This species is known only from south-eastern San Luis Potosí and eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, at low to moderate elevations.	eng
58628	habitat		It is found in low and moderate elevation montane forest, and is usually found in or near river systems, and breeds in rivers.	eng
58628	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58628	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and disturbance due to clear-cutting of the forest, which could in turn lead to the disappearance or drying out of permanent water bodies.	eng
58629	conservation		Ensuring that designated protected areas within its range remain ecologically intact is the main conservation objective.	eng
58629	distribution		This species is known from Jinxiu and Dayaoshan in Guangxi province, and Jianfenglian in Hainan province in China, and from the Lang Bian and Kon Tum Highlands of southern Viet Nam through the Annamite mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (Smith, 1921, Bourret, 1941, Inger, 1999, Stuart, 1999), and also from Thailand in Phu Luang, Loei Province (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In the Annamite mountains it was recorded from 500-700m asl, and in Thailand above 1,000m asl, and in China above 500m asl.	eng
58629	habitat		It has been reported from leaf-litter and on low vegetation near streams in evergreen forest. Breeding aggregations have been observed in paddy fields near forests.	eng
58629	population		It is generally an uncommon frog even in areas where it is confirmed to occur, as indicated by small collection series and late reporting from long-term surveyed areas.	eng
58629	threats		Most records originate from forested areas that are already protected parks or otherwise relatively secure from extensive deforestation, but frequent fires are a source of concern.	eng
58630	conservation		Much of this species' range is afforded a degree of protection, and it is found in Columbia River Forest Reserve, the Reserva Natural Bladen, and the Reserva de la Biósfera Montañas Mayas Chiquibul.	eng
58630	distribution		This species is known only from the Mayan Mountains in Belize from 100-600m asl.	eng
58630	habitat		It lives in lowland primary wet forest and open parkland pine forest and savannah, and is not found in disturbed habitats. It is associated with streams, in which it breeds.	eng
58630	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
58630	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, although at present this is not serious.	eng
58631	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas. There is a need for improved protection of the remaining forested areas within the range of this species.	eng
58631	distribution		This species is known from Junlian County in Sichuan Province and Bijie, Dafang, Hezhang, Nayong and Qianxi in Guizhou Province, China. It has an altitudinal range of 650-1,150m asl.	eng
58631	habitat		It is associated with large streams in forested areas, and breeding takes place in streams. It is not known if this species is adaptable to habitat change.	eng
58631	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58631	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to logging and smallholder farming activities.	eng
58632	conservation		It occurs in Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat and Barisan-Selatan National Parks.	eng
58632	distribution		This species is known from the entire mountain ridge along the western side of Sumatra, in Indonesia. It was rediscovered in the late 1990s, and has now been recorded widely. It occurs above 700m asl.	eng
58632	habitat		It lives in primary submontane and montane rainforest along streams. It does not appear to tolerate forest disturbance. It breeds in streams.	eng
58632	population		It is a common species, especially around 1,000m asl.	eng
58632	threats		The major threat is the loss of its montane forest habitat, though forest loss is less serious at higher altitudes in Sumatra.	eng
58633	conservation		The distribution of this species needs to be documented, and the taxonomy of different populations needs to be assessed. It is within the Makira Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area.	eng
58633	distribution		This species is widespread in the Solomon Islands, and also occurs on New Ireland and Buka Island, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 300m asl.	eng
58633	habitat		This species inhabits small, slow streams in lowland rainforest. It has also been recorded from wet grassy areas in disturbed habitats.	eng
58633	population		It has been observed as common, and also not so common in some areas.	eng
58633	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58634	conservation		The range of this species includes Guangwushan Nature Reserve, a small nature reserve in Nanjiang County.	eng
58634	distribution		This species is endemic to Nanjiang County in Sichuan Province, China, where it has been recorded around 1,650m asl.	eng
58634	habitat		It inhabits large streams in hill forests, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
58634	population		It is only known from a single location and has only a small population.	eng
58634	threats		The restricted range of this species makes it especially vulnerable to threatening processes, such as ongoing habitat loss.	eng
58635	conservation		It is presumed to occur in some protected areas, although this requires confirmation.	eng
58635	distribution		This species occurs in Qinhai, west of Ganshu, northwest of Sichuan and northeast of Xizang, China. It occurs in some alpine areas.	eng
58635	habitat		This species is found in alpine meadows, marshland and grassland. It breeds in small pools close to rivers and other wetlands, and it hibernates underwater in streams and rivers. It probably can adapt to a small degree of habitat change.	eng
58635	population		It is presumably common in suitable habitat.	eng
58635	threats		This species is threatened by overgrazing of grasslands by livestock and by climate change.	eng
58636	conservation		The known range of this species is within Kunyu Mountain National Forest Park.	eng
58636	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from Kunyu Mountain, near Yantai city, in Shandong Province, China, at around 400m asl.	eng
58636	habitat		It inhabits hill forests and grassland near streams and rivers. It breeds in small, still water areas of rivers and hibernates under water.	eng
58636	population		It is considered a rare species.	eng
58636	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58637	conservation	Thomas Uzzell, Franco Andreone, Petros Lymberakis, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The species is present in the Lake Skadar protected area, on the border of Montenegro and Albania, and presumably in several other protected areas. Monitoring of commercial collection of this species is needed.	eng
58637	distribution	Thomas Uzzell, Franco Andreone, Petros Lymberakis, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is distributed throughout much of Greece and Albania. In 1941 the species was also introduced to Imperia province, Liguria, northwestern Italy where it is currently expanding its range (Lanza, 1962; Lanza and Corti, 1993). It has an altitudinal distribution of sea level to a maximum of 1,000m asl.	eng
58637	habitat	Thomas Uzzell, Franco Andreone, Petros Lymberakis, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is a largely aquatic species, generally found in areas close to suitable open water wetland habitats. It breeds in various stagnant and slow-moving waterbodies. Introduced populations of this species in Italy do not form hybridogenetic hybrids with native species (T. Uzzell pers. comm.).	eng
58637	population	Thomas Uzzell, Franco Andreone, Petros Lymberakis, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It was considered by Gasc <em>et al.</em> (1997) to be common throughout its range.	eng
58637	threats	Thomas Uzzell, Franco Andreone, Petros Lymberakis, Milan Vogrin, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is threatened in its native range by drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial (including mining) contaminants. In northern parts of its native range (e.g., Lake Skadar) it is significantly threatened by over collection for commercial purposes. The species is additionally threatened by accidental introductions of commercially transported non-native water frogs. However, it remains abundant in many places.	eng
58638	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2008	Large areas of apparently suitable habitat for this species are within the protected area network of all the range countries. Clarification of the taxonomic status of several of the Myanmar endemics resembling&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Pelophylax</span><em> lateralis</em> is needed.	eng
58638	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2008	This species is known from a variety of locations in southern China, Myanmar, mainland Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam (Bourret 1941, Taylor 1962, Inger and Colwell 1977, Yang 1991, Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998, Fei <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stuart 1999). Records from Malaysia refer to <em>Humerana miopus</em> (Taylor 1962). In China it is restricted to to southern Yunnan Province (Jinghong, Mangyang, Mengla, Pingbian and Hekou counties). It has been recorded from 60-1,000 m asl.	eng
58638	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2008	Most records originate from deciduous forest areas, often with shrublands, grasslands or riverbanks as part of the habitat structure (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998, Stuart 1999). It is found in particular in still-water habitats with lush grasses at the edge, such as ponds and paddy fields. Taylor (1962) found the species breeding in a recently flooded rice paddy, and B. Stuart (pers. comm.) found the species in a coffee plantation in Lao People's Democratic Republic at 1,000 m asl. It breeds in standing water such as pools and puddles.	eng
58638	population	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2008	It is apparently not an abundant species through much of its range (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998), but it is a common species in southern Yunnan Province, China.	eng
58638	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Stuart, B., Yang Datong & Lu Shunqing, 2008	The species' deciduous forest habitat is affected by agricultural encroachment and fires. Water pollution and habitat loss due to human settlement are the main threats to this species in China. However, overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
58639	conservation		This species is believed to occur in several protected areas.	eng
58639	distribution		This species has been recorded on the island of Borneo from Sadong and Sematan, in Sarawak (Malaysia), the inland swamp forests of Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia, and has been collected as far north as south Thailand (Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary). The species has also been recorded from Natuna Besar Island (Indonesia) in the South China Sea. This is a lowland species.	eng
58639	habitat		The species is predominantly an inhabitant of lowland freshwater and peat swamp forests. Males call from among or on top of leaf-litter of the forest floor, or perched on low vegetation up to one metre above ground. It is presumed that the species breeds in forest streams, although this requires verification. The species can be found in disturbed habitats and secondary forest that are adjacent to good stands of intact forest. It has been recorded from the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur (Peninsular Malaysia) where some forest fragments remain.	eng
58639	population		It is locally abundant where suitable habitat exists. Healthy populations have been recorded within the inland swamp forests of Singapore. It is considered to be uncommon in Thailand.	eng
58639	threats		The habitat of this species is being impacted, at least locally, by logging and other forms of forest loss.	eng
58640	conservation		Many protected areas support this species.	eng
58640	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southern China and is known from Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Taiwan and Hong Kong. It has been recorded from 30-1,500m asl.	eng
58640	habitat		It inhabits forests, and breeds in pools, marshes, paddy fields, ditches, ponds and slow-flowing streams.	eng
58640	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58640	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, in particular logging, is a possible threat to this species.	eng
58641	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.	eng
58641	distribution		This species was collected at Lung Tao Shan, in north Kwangtung, China, at 700m asl.	eng
58641	habitat		It probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.	eng
58641	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58641	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58642	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Wogan, G., Chan-ard, T., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S., Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It is known from Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park in northern Myanmar and Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary and Thong Pha Phum National Park in Thailand. Re-evaluation of the taxonomic status and surveys of forest areas in its known range are desirable. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58642	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Wogan, G., Chan-ard, T., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S., Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	This species is known from eastern Assam, northern Mizoram and Meghalaya in northeastern India, from Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district in Bangladesh, and from the Bago Yoma Mountains and Tenasserim, in Myanmar (Bourret 1942). It is also reported from adjacent western Thailand (Nabhitabhata 1989), in Thong Pha Phum district and Sang Ksla Buri district, Kanchana Bui Province. An old record from central Viet Nam might be based on a misidentified specimen (Bourret 1942: 315) and is not included here. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. In Thailand it has been recorded from 600-700 m asl, but in India it is known only from below 500 m asl.	eng
58642	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Wogan, G., Chan-ard, T., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S., Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It is known from streams in evergreen forest, and is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
58642	population	van Dijk, P.P., Wogan, G., Chan-ard, T., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S., Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	It is reportedly uncommon in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.), and relatively common where collected in Myanmar (G. Wogan pers. comm.). In Mizoram, India, it is considered moderately common during the rainy season (Lalremsanga <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58642	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Wogan, G., Chan-ard, T., Ohler, A., Sengupta, S., Asmat, G.S.M., 2004	Deforestation, fire impacts and agricultural encroachment might be a threat to this species.	eng
58643	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries and is recorded on a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of the species' range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58643	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, 2008	This species is distributed over much of Europe, ranging as far east as the southern Ural Mountains of Russia. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula (except for introductions to Spain in Cáceres [Villasbuenas de Gata] and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana), much of Scandinavia, central and southern Italy (exact distribution not known but thought to be replaced by <em>P. bergeri</em>) and it is absent from the Balkans. There are two isolated relict populations - one near Oslo (Norway) and Uppland (Sweden) north of Stockholm. It is native (formerly extirpated) to the British Isles and has been recently reintroduced from Sweden. It might occur up to 1,550m asl in southern parts of its range.	eng
58643	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, 2008	It is present in deciduous and mixed forests, forest steppe, steppe, bush lands (e.g. riparian alder groves), meadows, fields and fens. It may often be found in shallow stagnant waterbodies (usually without fish) such as lakes, ponds, swamps, large puddles, clay and gravel pits, and ditches, often covered with dense herbaceous vegetation. It breeds in these wetlands, but may be found hibernating away from waterbodies. It is not very adaptable, but can occur in slightly modified habitats.	eng
58643	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, 2008	Although this species is reported to be declining over much of its European range (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997), it remains widespread and common in Poland, the Baltic Republics, Moldova, Russia and the Ukraine.	eng
58643	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, Miklós Puky, Judit Vörös, 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural intensification and urbanization, channelization of waterbodies, drainage and pollution of wetlands, and the introduction of predatory fishes to breeding sites. It is additionally threatened by afforestation (in northern parts of the range) and competition with the larger sympatric R. ridibunda. The frog-leg trade (which is increasing) and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations within Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
58644	conservation		It occurs in Huanglianshan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves.	eng
58644	distribution		This species is known only from the mountainous region in Jiangcheng and Luchun Counties, in southern Yunnan Province, China, from 1,400-1,650m asl. It probably occurs more widely, and can be expected to be recorded from neighbouring Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam.	eng
58644	habitat		It inhabits rice paddies, marshes and ponds and the surrounding habitats. It breeds in still water habitats.	eng
58644	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58644	threats		The major threats to this species are local consumption of it for food, water pollution, and habitat loss due to infrastructure development for transport and human settlement.	eng
58645	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in a protected area.	eng
58645	distribution		This species' range is unclear. The only confirmed locality is that of the neotype, at Thagata Juwa village on the hills south-west of Mount Mooleyit, in the Dawna Mountains, Myanmar, at 400-500m asl, collected by Fea in 1887. Maps showing the distribution of this species do not show the locality of Thagata Juwa village, but the area of Mount Mooleyit (also known as Malayit Taung) instead.	eng
58645	habitat		This species probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.	eng
58645	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58645	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58646	conservation		This species is protected within Yangming San National Park.	eng
58646	distribution		This species is endemic to northern and central Taiwan, Province of China, where it has been recorded below 1,000m asl.	eng
58646	habitat		It inhabits cultivated fields and broadleaf forests. It breeds in marshes, pools, and ponds.	eng
58646	population		It is a rare species that appears to be in decline.	eng
58646	threats		The major threat is extensive habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to infrastructure development. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
58647	conservation		Maintenance of existing protected areas and watershed protection forests in which the species occurs are the only conservation measures required at present.	eng
58647	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, with a single old record from Nakhon Si Thammarat in southern Thailand (Berry, 1975, Taylor, 1962). It is present on the island of Penang (Malaysia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Altitudinal records range between 100 and 1,350m asl.	eng
58647	habitat		It is a leaf-litter frog that has bee recorded from lowland and submontane primary rainforest and from somewhat disturbed habitats. Adults disperse widely through the forest and breed in rain pools of varying size.	eng
58647	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
58647	threats		Severe deforestation is the principal threat, resulting in contraction and fragmentation of its habitat.	eng
58648	conservation		Several protected areas are within its range.	eng
58648	distribution		This species is endemic to eastern Guizhou, southern Hunan and northern Guangxi Provinces in central China, from 900-1,500m asl.	eng
58648	habitat		This species inhabits hill streams in broadleaf forests, and presumably breeds in streams.	eng
58648	population		It appears to be generally uncommon.	eng
58648	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation due mainly to agriculture.	eng
58649	conservation		It is somewhat protected in several federal and state parks and refuges, though management usually ignores this species. A considerable portion of the range of the West Desert population is under management of the US Bureau of Land Management. Wasatch Front population occurs mainly on private land, with some federal ownership along Jordanelle Dam and the Provo River. Great Basin population occurs primarily on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. A conservation agreement for both the Wasatch Front and West Desert populations has been developed by state and federal agencies. Conservation activities implemented for the least chub should also benefit the West Desert population.	eng
58649	distribution		This species is known to occur in North America from extreme southeastern Alaska, southwestern Yukon, northern British Columbia, and western Alberta south through Washington east of the Cascades, eastern Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana to Nevada (disjunctive, Mary's, Reese, and Owyhee river systems), southwestern Idaho (disjunctive), Utah (disjunctive, Wasatch Mountains and west desert), and western and north-central (disjunctive) Wyoming (Stebbins 1985; Green <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997). Disjunctive populations occur on isolated mountains and in arid-land springs. It occurs from sea level to about 3,000m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
58649	habitat		It is highly aquatic; rarely found far from permanent quiet water; usually occurs at the grassy/sedgy margins of streams, lakes, ponds, springs, and marshes (Hodge 1976, Licht 1986). Animals may disperse into forest, grassland, and brush land during wet weather. Breeds usually in shallow water in ponds or other quiet waters. See Munger <em>et al.</em> (1998) for quantitative information on habitat in southwestern Idaho.	eng
58649	population		Its widespread, numerous populations (Hodge 1976, Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983), though the disjunctive southern populations are limited in number. It is numerous in many areas in Canada and the Rocky Mountains. Significant declines have occurred in some areas of Utah and Wyoming. It has possibly declined in Idaho, but apparently numbers are still high (Phillips 1990; Groves pers. comm., 1992). Declines have been reported for disjunctive populations in the Wasatch Front in Utah. The West Desert (Bonneville) population has declined in range and abundance. Recent intensive surveys indicate severe declines in the Great Basin populations. See Federal Register, 7 May 1993, 2 April 1998. Northern populations appear to be stable.	eng
58649	threats		Populations in western Utah are limited by scarce habitat (springs) and are potentially threatened by habitat degradation from cattle grazing and agricultural activities. Oil and gas exploration is a increasing threat. Water development could lower water tables and adversely impact spring habitats. Introduced bullfrogs and fishes might have an adverse impact, but the current degree of threat is unknown. Mosquito control agents pose a potential threat. Wasatch Front population is facing serious threats from habitat loss and modification, especially water development associated with the Central Utah Project; current and imminent threats include the Provo River Restoration Project and Wasatch County Efficiency Project; wetlands created as mitigation for the Central Utah Project have contributed only minimally to spotted frog reproduction. Additional threats include continued development along the Wasatch Front, water diversions for irrigation, cattle grazing, timber harvesting, and construction of roads and trails. A recent conservation agreement among the state of Utah and other agencies has significantly reduced the level of threat to the Wasatch Front and West Desert populations (Federal Register, 2 April 1998). Great Basin population has been adversely affected by habitat degradation resulting from mining, livestock grazing, road construction, agriculture, and direct predation by bullfrogs and non-native fishes. Not likely to be at risk from present acidification inputs in the Rocky Mountains (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Possibly global climate changes are a factor (Hayes and Jennings 1986). At the embryonic stage, UV-B radiation currently does not seem to be contributing to population declines (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
58650	conservation		Parts of this species' range are protected in national parks although more protected areas need to be established on Luzon to protect the remaining forest on these islands.	eng
58650	distribution		This species is known from many parts of Luzon Island, in the Philippines, and probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58650	habitat		It inhabits swift-flowing, cool mountain streams and rivers in montane rainforest. Eggs are laid in streams, where the larvae develop.	eng
58650	population		It is very common in many localities, especially in and around forested habitats, including secondary forest and forest edges.	eng
58650	threats		Some populations in the lowland rainforests are threatened by deforestation, due to processes such as agricultural development, logging, and infrastructure development for human settlements.	eng
58651	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is listed in the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan and has been recorded from protected areas in Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It is found in protected areas in Turkey.  This species was included in the supplement to the Red Data Book in Russia and several regional Red Data Books due to declines because of raccoon predation and habitat loss from deforestation.	eng
58651	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is found in the Caucasus Mountains and throughout much of Anatolia, Turkey. An isolated population exists on the Strizhament Mountain in the Stavropolskii Region of Russia. It has been recorded from Iraq (Kevork 1972) but further details of this population are needed and it is not mapped here. It has an altitudinal range sea level to 3,000m asl.	eng
58651	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is mainly found in humid areas included broadleaved, mixed and coniferous forests, swamps, steppes, sub alpine and alpine meadows. In dry areas this species is generally limited to areas close to permanent lakes, rivers, brooks and springs that are often surrounded by dense herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. It breeds in various stagnant and slow-flowing waterbodies. It is presumed to be tolerant of some habitat disturbance such as light grazing.	eng
58651	population	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is mostly common over its range. There are significant declines in parts of its range.	eng
58651	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Max Sparreboom, Ismail Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Güven Eken, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	In the Caucasus of the former USSR destruction and pollution of suitable habitat by cattle has caused some local population declines.  In the western Caucasus, this species is threatened by predation invasive introduced raccoons (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) and deforestation for agriculture and timber.  The species is under pressure from grazing and development for tourism in Turkey. It is possible that deforestation (especially of <em>Juniperus</em> woods) might have contributed to the increasing aridity of the Kopet-Dagh Mountains in Turkmenia, leading to the extinction of the species. Prolonged drought might be a threat to populations in more arid areas.	eng
58652	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
58652	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities throughout mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Viet Nam and the northern tip of Malaysia and Penang Island) and in to southern China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong) and might also occur in southern Jiangxi and Fujian. Its range might be confounded with regard to R. taipehensis and R. erythraea. It has been found up to 1,500m asl.	eng
58652	habitat		It is known from a variety of lowland wetlands including lakes, river floodplains and irrigated agricultural landscapes, but also from damp grassy areas in deciduous forest and open mountaintop habitat.	eng
58652	population		It is very localized in its occurrence, not relating to apparent habitat features, but it is relatively common where it occurs (Smith, in Taylor, 1962). It is considered rare in north-central Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
58652	threats		Threats to populations include wetland drainage, changes in agricultural practices and fires, but overall the species appears secure from most threats at present. Modernisation of agricultural practices is also reducing the amount of suitable habitat available in China.	eng
58653	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas. The taxonomic validity of this species requires further investigation.	eng
58653	distribution		This species occurs only in the highlands of western and central Guatemala, from 1,500 up to at least 2,500m asl.	eng
58653	habitat		It lives in cloud forest, including degraded forest, and grassland. It breeds in streams and small temporary ponds.	eng
58653	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58653	threats		There is ongoing degradation of its habitat due to agricultural encroachment, wood extraction, human settlement, and water pollution.	eng
58654	conservation		Much of its habitat is protected, and it occurs in Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani-Wartabone National Parks.	eng
58654	distribution		This species is known from central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is a lowland species, found from 900-1,000m asl, but probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58654	habitat		It lives along streams, in which it presumably breeds, in primary and secondary forests with a canopy.	eng
58654	population		It is an uncommon species and only a few specimens have been collected in recent years.	eng
58654	threats		The main threat to this species is the loss of its forest habitat due to smallholder farming. Water pollution due to agriculture is also a threat.	eng
58655	conservation		Protection of the forested areas in Oaxaca and Chiapas is the only chance for this species in this area. Otherwise occurs in several protected areas in much of its range.	eng
58655	distribution		This species can be found from Chiapas, Mexico, to central Nicaragua on the Atlantic versant and from eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, to Honduras and El Salvador on the Pacific versant, at elevations of 40-1,980m asl.	eng
58655	habitat		It occurs and reproduces in ponds and streams in lowland moist and wet and premontane moist and wet forests.	eng
58655	population		It is relatively common in Honduras and locally abundant in El Salvador. In Nicaragua, it has disappeared over the last eight years from certain localities, and declines have also been noted in Mexico and Guatemala. It is common in Guatemala.	eng
58655	threats		Declines and disappearances in some areas are probably related to deforestation and water pollution.	eng
58656	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2008	The range of this species is not within any protected area. The creation of protected areas in Sonora or Sinaloa is recommended to protect this species.	eng
58656	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2008	This species is known from east-central Sonora along the Sierra Madre Occidental through western Chihuahua, Sinaloa and Nayarit to central Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from close to sea level to 470m asl (Smith and Chiszar, 2003).	eng
58656	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2008	This species is predominantly aquatic, dwelling in temporary or permanent pools formed by rainfalls in shrublands and mesquite forests. It breeds in pools. It is a very poorly known species.	eng
58656	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
58656	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Oscar Flores-Villela, 2008	Severe droughts might affect this species, but this has not been studied.	eng
58657	conservation		It is found in numerous protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58657	distribution		This species is present throughout much of the Western Ghats, and also in the Eastern Ghats of India. Reports from northeastern India need verification and are not included here. It has a wide altitudinal range being found from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
58657	habitat		It is a terrestrial species adapted to a wide variety of habitats including semi-evergreen moist deciduous forest, plantations, agricultural fields and rural gardens. Breeding takes place in temporary ponds and other waterbodies.	eng
58657	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
58657	threats		Aquatic pollution (agricultural and domestic), severe droughts and wildfires are the main threats to this species.	eng
58658	conservation		Although recorded from protected areas on Mindoro, there is a need for additional protection of remaining forest habitats in the range of this species.	eng
58658	distribution		This species is known only from the islands of Mindoro and Sibay, from sea level to 600m asl, in the Philippines.	eng
58658	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. Breeding takes place in streams in forested and disturbed areas, and the larvae develop in quiet side-pools in rivers.	eng
58658	population		It is common in several localities on Mindoro.	eng
58658	threats		Important threats to this species are the loss of the lowland rainforest due in particular to agricultural activities (cultivation of crops and livestock farming) and logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, due mainly to agricultural effluents.	eng
58659	conservation		The range of this species includes many protected areas.	eng
58659	distribution		This species is known from northern Viet Nam and the Annamite mountains of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bourret, 1941, Inger, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). It has been recorded from 200-1,300m asl.	eng
58659	habitat		It has been reported from leaf-litter banks and in shallow water along rocky streams in evergreen forest. It has also been found in modified habitats but always near forest. It breeds in pools and slow moving streams in forest. Males have been observed calling from beside the pools.	eng
58659	population		Large series of specimens were collected in the 1930's and 1990's (Bourret, 1941 and Inger et al, 1999), indicating a locally fairly common species. It is quite common where it has been recorded in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam (Stuart, 1999 and R. Bain pers. comm.).	eng
58659	threats		Widespread forest clearance is a threat to this species.	eng
58660	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58660	distribution		This species is found in Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, Gaungxi and Guangdong Provinces in central China. It has been recorded from 390-1,650m asl.	eng
58660	habitat		This frog inhabits fast-flowing hill streams and creeks surrounded by lush vegetation (normally forests but sometimes cultivated fields). It breeds in the same habitats.	eng
58660	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58660	threats		There are no major threats to this wide-ranging species at present.	eng
58661	conservation		The type locality is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park in Myanmar. Taxonomic evaluation of this species, including comparison with other montane Chinese species, is needed.	eng
58661	distribution		This species is known only from two specimens collected in 1875 "at a hill stream debouching [= flowing] into the Irrawady at the second defile [= narrow gorge]" (Anderson 1879) in the Myanmar-Yunnan Province (China) border region.	eng
58661	habitat		No further information is known regarding its habitat and ecology, other than that the type specimens came from a montane stream. This species presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
58661	population		It has not been recorded again since it was first described, and results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58661	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
58662	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and improved protection and maintenance of forest habitat in the species' range is required. It is also necessary to ensure that offtake of this species from the wild for human consumption is managed sustainably. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58662	distribution		This species occurs from southern Nayarit and western Jalisco, east to northern Michoacán, and southern Guanajuato, Mexico. It occurs from 823-1,520m asl.	eng
58662	habitat		This species is predominantly an aquatic species that inhabits and breeds in permanent lakes, rivers and pools in shrubland and pine-oak forest.	eng
58662	population		It was previously a common species, but there has been a recent decline particularly in the southern part of its distribution.	eng
58662	threats		Water pollution is a major threat to this predominantly aquatic species. It is also harvested for food in parts of its range, in particular in the south, a threat that is thought to be increasing. In addition, there is widespread habitat destruction and degradation through much of its range, primarily as a result of logging of its pine-oak forest habitat.	eng
58664	conservation		There are no protected areas on Little Corn Island. There is a need for regular survey work to closely monitor the poulation status of this species.	eng
58664	distribution		This species is restricted to Little Corn Island (3km²) off the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua.	eng
58664	habitat		This species is an inhabitant of tropical moist lowland rainforest. Little Corn Island receives over 4,000mm of precipitation annually. It breeds in small permanent or temporary pools.	eng
58664	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58664	threats		The Corn Islands (Islas del Maiz) are becoming a popular holiday destination; the growing tourism industry will probably lead to an increase in infrastructure development on the islands resulting in unfortunate habitat loss and degradation.	eng
58665	conservation		The species' range includes protected areas in Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and China. Upgrading protected areas to securely encompass the habitats and endemic species of the Tay Nguyen and Lang Bian Plateau regions is a high conservation priority. More information on the species' range, population status and habitat requirements is also needed.	eng
58665	distribution		This species is known from a few widely scattered locations in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam and southern China. There are records from: the Tay Nguyen Plateau and Lang Bian Mountain of southern Viet Nam (Smith, 1921, Bourret 1942 and Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999); Khao Yai National Park in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Ubon Ratchathani Province, and Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary in Chachoengsao Province, Thailand (Chuaynkern <em>et al</em>., 2004); Phnom Aural in the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary, Kampong Speu Province, southwest Cambodia (Chuaynkern <em>et al</em>., 2004), and from the Cardomom Mountains, Cambodia (Stuart and Emmett, 2006); and rom Menglun and Mohan in Mengla County, southern Yunnan Province, China (Rao and Yang, 1997). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it might also occur in southern Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has been recorded between 600-1,200m asl.	eng
58665	habitat		It has been recorded from dry evergreen forest. Males have been observed calling from underneath dense vegetation around the edge of ponds and streams. It breeds in streams ponds containing aquatic plants. It probably does not survive where its habitat has been badly degraded.	eng
58665	population		It can be locally common, series of 26 and 21 specimens were collected in a single night each in Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). However, it is thought to be uncommon in Thailand (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.), and is rare in China (Yang Datong, pers. comm.).	eng
58665	threats		Its habitat is under threat from forest degradation as a result of clearance for agriculture, human settlement and logging (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, BirdLife International 2001). In China, its habitat is also being impacted by tourists.	eng
58666	conservation		It is not known to be present in any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently needed.	eng
58666	distribution		This species is known only from eastern Fujian province (Fuzhou, Fuqing, Yongtai and Changle, Xianyou), China. It has been recorded from 110-550m asl.	eng
58666	habitat		It inhabits pools, marshes and grassy banks along small streams, but also occurs in the grassy edges of paddy fields. It breeds in still-water habitats.	eng
58666	population		This is an uncommon species that is in decline, and the Fuzhou population has entirely disappeared.	eng
58666	threats		The decline of this species is probably related to habitat loss due to infrastructure development and intensification of agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
58667	conservation		Safeguarding existing protected areas within the species' range (Khao Luang, Khao Nor Chu Chi, Perlis State Park, Taman Negara) and improving protection for other remaining lowland forest (Belum-Temengor, Ulu Muda, Pasoh) is recommended.	eng
58667	distribution		This species is known from southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, below 300m asl (Taylor, 1962, Grandison, 1972 and Berry, 1975).	eng
58667	habitat		It occurs in primary and secondary forest, including open areas near forest, particularly along rivers, as well as along forest edges and in overgrown rubber plantations in low hill areas. It is tolerant of selective logging. Breeding choruses of about a dozen animals are regularly encountered (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It breeds in pools (Grandison, 1972 and Berry, 1975).	eng
58667	population		It ranges from being abundant in certain localities to being uncommon in others.	eng
58667	threats		It is a lowland forest species; populations are at risk from ongoing loss of their remaining habitat, especially from infrastructure development.	eng
58668	conservation		It is presumably present in a number of protected areas.	eng
58668	distribution		This species is restricted to Sulawesi, Indonesia where it is distributed throughout the island and on several offshore islands. It occurs from sea level to at least 1,000m asl.	eng
58668	habitat		It is assumed that this species has similar ecological requirements to R. chalconota in that it is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. Tadpoles live in side pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams.	eng
58668	population		Presumably it is common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas.	eng
58668	threats		There are currently no significant threats to this species.	eng
58669	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. The most important conservation measure is to designate the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Palawan as protected areas.	eng
58669	distribution		This species only occurs in the Palawan Island group, in the western Philippines, including Palawan, Culion and Busuanga, but is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58669	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests, where it breeds and lays its eggs. The larvae develop in quiet side pools in clean rivers.	eng
58669	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58669	threats		Important threats to this species might include the loss of lowland rainforest due to forest clearance, and pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.	eng
58670	conservation		The extent of occurrence, habitat requirements and current conservation status of this species need to be documented. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58670	distribution		This species is known from Halmahera and Bacan, in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. It ranges up to 700m asl.	eng
58670	habitat		It has been found in water-filled pits in a village, where it presumably breeds. There is no other information.	eng
58670	population		It is believed to be a common species.	eng
58670	threats		No information is available, though there is circumstantial evidence of severe logging on Halmahera.	eng
58671	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58671	distribution		This species occurs from extreme eastern Jalisco and Michoacán, to the east through the State of Mexico, D. F. Morelos and Tlaxcala northward to Hidalgo, Queretaro and southern San Luis Potosi, Mexico.	eng
58671	habitat		This species prefers pine-oak or oak forests above 2,000m asl. It breeds in lakes and big pools. It survives in moderately degraded habitats.	eng
58671	population		In several recent field surveys this frog has commonly been found. It might be in decline is some areas.	eng
58671	threats		Desiccation and alteration of the original ecological conditions can affect populations of this species, however it appears to be resistant to a degree of habitat degradation since it is often found near human settlements. Aquaculture has introduced some invasive predators to parts of the species' range. These predators eat tadpoles and young juveniles. It is harvested for human consumption, and this is probably impacting some populations.	eng
58672	conservation		The species' range includes protected areas in Viet Nam and Thailand. Upgrading protected areas to securely encompass the habitats and endemic species of the Tay Nguyen and Lang Bian Plateau regions is a high conservation priority. Clarification of the taxonomic status of northern Lao and Vietnamese records of this species is needed. This species is included in Thailand's OEPP 1997 Red List.	eng
58672	distribution		This species is known with certainty from the Lang Bian and Tay Nguyen highlands of southern Viet Nam (Smith, 1921 and Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999), and probably also from Tam Dao (northern Viet Nam). It has also been collected from Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chanta Buri Province, southeastern Thailand. The record from Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999) is in error (B. Stuart pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from both Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia. It has been recorded between 700 and 1,500m asl in Viet Nam, and from 900m asl in Thailand.	eng
58672	habitat		It is known from streams in evergreen forest. It breeds in streams.	eng
58672	population		Reported collections of this species generally consisted of a single specimen or small series of specimens, indicating a rare or very cryptic frog.	eng
58672	threats		Most of the species' habitat is threatened by forest degradation, clearance for agriculture and logging (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and BirdLife International 2001).	eng
58673	conservation		It occurs in the Huong Son Reserve in Viet Nam and in the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area and the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Areain Laos (Bain and Stuart, 2005).	eng
58673	distribution		This species is occurs quite widely in the cental highlands of Viet Nam, and in the adjacent mountains of eastern and southern Laos (including the Bolovens Plateau) at 200-1,500m asl (Bain and Stuart, 2005). There are records from:  the Tay Nguyen plateau in the central highlands of Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam; the Tra My Region, in Tra Don Commune, Ngoc Linh Mountain, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam; the Huong Son Reserve, in Rao An Region, Ha Tinh Province, Vietn Man; the Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, in Kaleum District, Xe Kong Province, Laos; and the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area, on the Bolovens Plateau, in Pakxong District, Champasak Province, Laos (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2003; Teynié <em>et al</em>., 2004; Bain and Stuart, 2005).	eng
58673	habitat		It inhabits forested montane river systems, and may be found on or near rapids or waterfalls, often on rocks and trunks of large trees. It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It probably cannot adapt to significant alteration to its habitat.	eng
58673	population		It is apparently common in suitable habitat.	eng
58673	threats		It is presumably affected by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.	eng
58674	conservation		Its range includes Ko Chang National Park, and several protected areas within the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia. Surveys to determine the species' range, habitat requirements and population status are needed.	eng
58674	distribution		This species is known from the type locality, the island of Koh Chang, Trat Province, in south-east Thailand, and is also found in the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Ohler, Swan and Daltry 2002). It has been recorded below 800m asl.	eng
58674	habitat		This species is known from evergreen forest on the lower slopes of the mountains as well as in gallery forest, and also heavily disturbed areas and forest edge habitat. Males were heard calling from near streams where they were concealed in undergrowth. The exact breeding habits are unknown.	eng
58674	population		It is common in Koh Chang (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.) and also in the Cardamom Mountains at lower altitudes (S. Swan pers. comm.).	eng
58674	threats		A threat to this species is probably the clear-cutting of forests although it appears to also inhabit disturbed areas.	eng
58675	conservation		It is unclear whether it occurs in any protected areas, though there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats and improved control of introduced predators on Okinawa.	eng
58675	distribution		This species is found only on the northern part of Okinawajima Island, Japan.	eng
58675	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in streams surrounded by primary or well-recovered secondary broad-leaved evergreen forest.	eng
58675	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58675	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation as a result of deforestation and the alteration of rivers arising from the construction of roads and dams. Predation by introduced mongooses is also a threat.	eng
58676	conservation		It has been recorded in Wuzhishan and Bawangling Nature Reserves.	eng
58676	distribution		This species has been recorded from Qiongzhong, Lingshui, and Baisha in Hainan Province, China. It has an altitudinal range of 350-850m asl.	eng
58676	habitat		This species is associated with streams in forested regions. Breeding takes place in streams.	eng
58676	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58676	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, principally due to smallholder farming activities and clear-cutting of forests.	eng
58677	conservation		The range of this species includes a few protected areas. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
58677	distribution		This species occurs on the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau in south-eastern Jalisco, northern Michoacán and southern Guanajuato. It is known from 1,500-2,500m asl.	eng
58677	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forests and mesquite grasslands, and requires the presence of lakes, pools or slow-flowing streams.	eng
58677	population		This species is relatively common.	eng
58677	threats		The main factors affecting populations of this frog are general habitat loss (arising from shifting agriculture and clear-cutting), and alteration and desiccation of waterways. There is also disturbance of some populations, caused by poachers of the monarch butterfly (<em>Danaus plexippus</em>).	eng
58679	conservation		It is present in many protected areas.	eng
58679	distribution		This species is known from the Russian Far East (from Evreiskaya Autonomous Province to the lower reaches of the Amur River), central, northern and north-eastern China, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and Japan. In Japan this species is distributed in Honshu (except Sendai Plan, Kanto District and the area along Shinano River), Shikoku and Kyushu. There is a problem with the potential introduction of this species to other areas through the live animal trade. The small distribution in southern Yunnan probably represents an introduced population. This species occurs below 2,200m asl.	eng
58679	habitat		The terrestrial habitats of this species include meadows, leafy and mixed pine and broadleaved forests, bush lands and desert (in Turkmenistan). The species is also present in suitable modified habitats. Within these habitats it inhabits various types of stagnant waterbodies, including river pools, channels, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps, ditches and paddy fields. The female deposits 1,800-3,000 eggs in shallow water. The larvae hatch in five to seven days and usually begin metamorphosis about 45 days later. They reach sexual maturity at three years of age.	eng
58679	population		It is widespread and common in the Far East of Russia (with some localized declines), but it is declining in China (although it remains a common species). The decline is not considered to be so severe in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. In Japan the population is decreasing but it is not in significant decline, and is considered a common species.	eng
58679	threats		The threats to this species are not well known. In some parts of Asia it has declined seriously because of over-exploitation in the live animal trade, water pollution, and changes in land management use from paddy fields to other crops.	eng
58681	conservation		Securing the ecological integrity of existing protected areas that include this species is most likely to secure viable populations of all morphotypes. Taxonomic studies are also needed. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58681	distribution		This species is known from southern Yunnan, China, and southern Myanmar through Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Viet Nam and Cambodia to the northern half of Peninsular Malaysia (Bourret, 1941, Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999), and has an island occurrence on Phuket (Frith, 1977). It has been recorded once from North Sumatra, Indonesia, and has also been reported from localities in Assam, Meghalay and Nagaland in India. It usually occurs at mid-altitudes (from 200-600m asl), but ranges as widely as 60-1,200m asl.	eng
58681	habitat		It inhabits gentle streams in evergreen forest (including evergreen galleries in deciduous forest areas) (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). Tadpoles live in quiet stream sections. It is generally not a commensal of humans, though it can be found close to settlements if the streams and surrounding forest are intact. It has occasionally been seen in drains in towns.	eng
58681	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
58681	threats		The main potential threats to this species are the loss of forest canopy over its streams and hydrological changes. Its range in China is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation for agriculture, wood and power plants.	eng
58682	conservation		Taxonomic revision of the species is required. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58682	distribution		This species is widespread in lowland tropical savannahs of southern New Guinea. It has been recorded up to 500m asl.	eng
58682	habitat		This species inhabits tropical flooded savannahs, and also foothill rainforest. It breeds in permanent swamps and temporary grassy flooded ditches. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats.	eng
58682	population		This species is abundant where it occurs.	eng
58682	threats		There are no known threats to the species.	eng
58683	conservation		Taxonomic confirmation of this species' status is needed (compared with other species such as <em>Rana macrodactyla</em>, for example).	eng
58683	distribution		This species is known only from the type specimens collected at "Toungoo" (Bourret 1942), in the Bago Yoma Mountains, in Myanmar.	eng
58683	habitat		There is no information available regarding the habitat requirements of this species. However, it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58683	population		It has not been reported since it was first collected, despite recent surveys of the type locality (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58683	threats		This main threats to the habitat in the Bago Yoma area are extensive wildfires and extensive logging.	eng
58684	conservation		Although approximately 90% of the total range of the species is within Eglin Air Force Base, US national security has priority over wildlife. Fish and Wildlife Service, in concert with the Nature Conservancy and Eglin Air Force Base have recently drafted up a research and management plan for the species. It is protected as a Species of Special Concern by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.	eng
58684	distribution		This species is endemic to Yellow and East Bay river drainages in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton counties, Florida, USA (Moler 1993). Its area of occupancy might be less than 20km². It has an elevation of 3-55m asl.	eng
58684	habitat		Breeding and non-breeding habitat includes: early successional shrub bog communities; in or near shallow, non-stagnant, acid (pH 4.1-5.5) seeps; and along shallow, boggy overflows of larger seepage streams that drain extensive sandy uplands, frequently in association with lush beds of sphagnum moss. It is often associated with black titi and Atlantic white cedar. Eggs are laid in thin films at the water surface of pools. Males typically call from shallow water surrounded by sphagnum (Moler 1993). It apparently tolerates disturbance because some populations occur in heavily silted streams and, in areas where streamside vegetation is more mature hardwood forest, it occurs typically only in disturbed sites (Moler 1992a).	eng
58684	population		It is known from approximately three-dozen localities along tributaries of the East Bay, Shoal and Yellow Rivers in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton counties, Florida, USA. The number of adult individuals is unknown, but the species is probably uncommon in appropriate habitat. Calling males can make the species seem more abundant than it actually is.	eng
58684	threats		Improper watershed management is a potential threat; at some sites, excessive stream siltation stemming from poor placement of roads or poor forest management in surrounding uplands has degraded habitat, but frog populations often are not negatively affected by this (Moler 1992a). Major threats are stream impoundment and habitat succession (Moler 1992a).	eng
58685	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a few protected areas. In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park. In Taiwan, Province of China, it was discovered in Lienwachih Experimental Forestry Station, Nantou County. This area, having a small piece of undisturbed subtropical forest, is (or soon will be) protected by law.	eng
58685	distribution		This species is found in Nantou County and Yilan County in Taiwan, Province of China, and also on the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.	eng
58685	habitat		It occurs in lowland and montane areas, inhabiting forests, marshes, pools and ditches with water plants. It breeds in nests in the mud banks surrounding ponds, pools and swamps. Egg masses are enclosed in a layer of jelly substance and are deposited in round holes constructed on wet muddy ground. Rains are vital because hatched larvae need to be flushed to the nearby waterbodies. The larvae use shallow puddles that receive continuing input from seepage or trickling water.	eng
58685	population		It is a rare species throughout its range, and populations on Ishigakijima and Iriomotojima in Japan are in decline.	eng
58685	threats		The disturbance of natural forests resulting in the failure of nest construction on muddy ground is a major threat to this species. The development of low-lying wetlands is a threat in the Japanese part of the range. It may also be at risk from competition with the introduced <em>Bufo marinus</em> in Japan.	eng
58686	conservation		A number of protected areas are within the range of this species.	eng
58686	distribution		This species is endemic to central China (southern Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, western Hunan and southwestern Hubei Provinces). It occurs from 520-2,100m asl.	eng
58686	habitat		It inhabits hill forests and grass clumps in forests. It breeds in late summer in ponds, pools, winter flooded fields and backwaters in small streams. Tadpoles over-winter.	eng
58686	population		It is a common species.	eng
58686	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, in particular dam construction and water pollution.	eng
58687	conservation		A survey of the Omiltemi State Park is recommended in order to confirm whether or not the species has indeed disappeared from this area. Another survey of Agua del Obispo is required to check the population status in this locality. If the species still persists in Agua del Obispo, a recovery programme might be needed and perhaps from here individuals could be taken and reintroduced to the Omiltemi area. Protection of the remaining habitat at Agua del Obispo is needed. This species is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.	eng
58687	distribution		This species is known from only two locations in Mexico: Omiltemi State Park, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Guerrero; and Agua del Obispo, in north-western Guerrero. It is a montane species and the type locality is at about 2,400m asl.	eng
58687	habitat		It occurs in montane forest and requires the presence of slow or moderate streams for breeding.	eng
58687	population		This species has not been recorded since 1978, and it is feared that the species might now be extinct. It seems to be extirpated in the Omiltemi State Park, since a recent one-year survey of this site yielded no individuals; there is no recent information on its status at Agua del Obispo.	eng
58687	threats		Although generally affected by habitat loss, the most likely cause of the extinction of the population in the Omiltemi State Park is the piping of water from streams within the species' range to provide the city of Chilpancingo with water. However, it might also have disappeared due to chytridiomycosis, since other montane stream-breeding amphibians have also disappeared from suitable habitats without any apparent reason.	eng
58688	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58688	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Sado Island, and many other islands. It can occur up to 2,000m asl.	eng
58688	habitat		It occurs in a variety of habitats including forests and paddy fields from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in shallow ponds, pools and paddy fields.	eng
58688	population		It is a common species.	eng
58688	threats		There are no threats to this species at present.	eng
58689	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58689	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	This species occurs widely in the Amazon Basin of South America including in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, the Guianas and Brazil. The species also occurs in the northern Atlantic forest (Sergipe to Paraiba, Brazil), and in the Central Range and southeast corner of the island of Trinidad (in Trinidad and Tobago). The species has been recorded from close to sea level to up to 1,000m asl (Venezuela).	eng
58689	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is a nocturnal tropical rainforest species, living terrestrially in and around permanent waterbodies, including slow-flowing watercourses, rivers, and lakes and at the edges of ponds. It also occurs in flooded forest. Their eggs are deposited in the water at the beginning of the dry season, and the tadpoles develop in water. The Atlantic Forest populations breed year round and only in slow-moving streams.	eng
58689	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	It is common in parts of the Brazilian Amazon but uncommon to rare elsewhere.	eng
58689	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Jerry Hardy, 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In Peru, local populations are threatened by the introduction of <em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>. Local populations are probably also impacted by habitat loss.	eng
58690	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58690	distribution		This species can be found in Eastern North America from the Gaspe Peninsula to Wisconsin, south to southern South Carolina, northern Georgia, southern Mississippi, and southeastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from most of far southeastern U.S. and the prairie region of Illinois and vicinity.	eng
58690	habitat		There are various habitats in wooded regions; vicinity of cool clear streams and ponds in north; warm, turbid swamps in parts of south. Disperses from water's edge into fields and woods in some regions. When inactive, hides at bottom of water body or in caves in some areas. Eggs and larvae develop in standing water of woodland ponds, bog ponds, stream pools, sloughs, and flooded ditches; often in sites with few or no fishes (e.g., Holomuzki 1995).	eng
58690	population		There are thousands of populations; it is abundant, and stable.	eng
58690	threats		There are no major threats. Local populations are no doubt impacted by clear-cutting and urbanization.	eng
58691	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
58691	distribution		This species is very widespread across northern New Guinea (both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and a number of offshore islands, including Waigeo, Salawati, Batanta, Biak and Manus, and Fergusson and Normanby in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
58691	habitat		This species inhabits swampy forests and flooded grasslands, including disturbed habitats. It breeds in pools and swamps.	eng
58691	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58691	threats		There are unlikely to be any significant threats to this widely distributed species.	eng
58692	conservation	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Trevor Beebee, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is recorded in the national Red Data Book of Spain, and several regional Red Data Books. It occurs in many protected areas including Doñana and Cabañeros National Parks in Spain. In Portugal it is present in Peneda-Gerês National Park, where the population of Carris Lake has been impacted by disease. Further research into the impacts of disease on this species is needed.	eng
58692	distribution	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Trevor Beebee, 2008	This species is found in southern France and across the whole of the Iberian Peninsula. It has been introduced to the Balearic Islands, and the Canary Islands (Spain), two sites in the United Kingdom (Sheppey, Kent and Newdigate, Surrey) and Madeira and the Azores (Portugal) (the distribution in the Azores requires further details and is incompletely mapped here). It occurs from sea level up to 2,380m asl (Sierra Nevada, Spain).	eng
58692	habitat	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Trevor Beebee, 2008	It inhabits a wide variety of temporary and permanent waterbodies (pools, streams, ditches, irrigation canals etc.). The terrestrial habitats of the species include forests, Mediterranean-type scrub, agricultural areas, rocky areas, coastal marshes, gardens and urban parks. It breeds in various aquatic habitats, and is able to tolerate some habitat disturbance.	eng
58692	population	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Trevor Beebee, 2008	It is generally widespread and common over much of the Iberian Peninsula, while populations in France are reported to be scarce and dispersed (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). This species appears to be expanding its range to higher elevations, possibly as a result of climate change.	eng
58692	threats	Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Pedro Beja, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Trevor Beebee, 2008	There are generally no major threats to this widespread species. Localized threats include changes in habitat through the loss of traditional agricultural methods, drainage or pollution of wetlands, collection of individuals for human consumption and hybridization with introduced farmed European ranids (<span style="font-style: italic;">R. esculenta</span> complex). Mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. The disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory North American fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by <em>Lepomis gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish species occurs but is probably not a threat, and it is not greatly threatened in Portugal by the expansion of non-native predatory crayfish (Beja pers. comm.). In France, it is being displaced within some of its range by the introduced species <em>Pelophylax ridibunda</em>.	eng
58693	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though the type locality is close to Gunung Leuser National Park.	eng
58693	distribution		This species is known only from Laut Tadder, in Aceh Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a lowland species.	eng
58693	habitat		The type specimen was collected along the edge of a lake, and this species presumably breeds in water.	eng
58693	population		It is known only known from the holotype, which was collected sometime before 1923. The lack of subsequent records is probably due to limited herpetological survey work within its range.	eng
58693	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58694	conservation		It is present in a number of protected areas across the region. Effective preservation of lowland rainforests is essential for this species.	eng
58694	distribution		This species has been recorded from widely scattered localities throughout Borneo, Sumatra, and possibly the Malay Peninsula. A population also occurs on Tioman Island. In general, there is considerable uncertainty about the identification, and consequently the range of this species (see taxonomic notes for this species and R. signata). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is found below 1,000m asl.	eng
58694	habitat		It occurs in primary and slightly disturbed rainforests. Breeding takes place in small streams and the tadpoles live in quiet side pools and in accumulations of dead leaves in open pools.	eng
58694	population		It appears to be abundant at most localities.	eng
58694	threats		Deforestation is the principal threat to this species, resulting in the contraction and fragmentation of the habitat.	eng
58695	conservation		Populations exist in dozens or hundreds of protected areas, though management of those areas might not take leopard frogs into consideration. In Panama it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Altos de Campana. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex.	eng
58695	distribution		This species is known from Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay, Canada, south to Kentucky and New Mexico, USA (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991). It has a spotty distribution in the west, where it has been introduced in many localities. It is also known from Panama where it is endemic to the central cordillera and western Pacific lowlands, although this is most likely an undescribed species (see taxonomic note). It occurs at approximately 100-600m asl in the eastern portion of the Panamanian distribution.	eng
58695	habitat		Springs, slow streams, marshes, bogs, ponds, canals, flood plains, reservoirs, and lakes; usually permanent water with rooted aquatic vegetation. In summer, commonly inhabits wet meadows and fields. Takes cover underwater, in damp niches, or in caves when inactive. Over winters usually underwater. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in shallow, still, permanent water (typically), generally in areas well exposed to sunlight. Generally eggs are attached to vegetation just below the surface of the water. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).<br/>In Panama, it is a largely terrestrial species of humid lowland and montane forest.	eng
58695	population		In North America there are thousands of populations. The total adult population size is probably in the hundreds of thousands or millions. It is still widespread and common in many areas, especially in lowland areas, but many other populations appear to have declined, especially in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, where the species no longer is extant in most localities where historically it occurred (Corn and Fogleman 1984; Corn <em>et al.</em> 1989; Koch and Peterson 1995; J. Reichel, unpublished map, 1996). It has nearly disappeared from the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, though natural wetland habitats remain apparently undisturbed with acceptable water quality (Koch and Peterson 1995). It is apparently extirpated from most of its historical range in Washington (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has not been observed in recent years in the few historical localities in Oregon (Csuti <em>et al.</em> 1997). Local extirpations have been reported for Alberta (Russell and Bauer 1993) and British Columbia (Orchard 1992). In Panama it can be common in some areas but declining in parts of its range.	eng
58695	threats		Threats and degree of threat vary greatly across its range. Threats include habitat loss, commercial over-exploitation, and in some areas, probably competition/predation by bullfrogs or other introduced species. The decline in Rocky Mountains (Corn <em>et al.</em> 1989) is not due to acidification of breeding habitats (Corn and Vertucci 1992). Laboratory results suggest that there might be an interaction between crowding, temperature, and mortality from bacterial infection (e.g., red-leg disease); there was higher mortality when frogs were subjected to crowding and high temperatures (Brodkin <em>et al.</em> 1992). Agricultural chemicals such as atrazine have caused feminisation of frogs in agricultural areas (Hayes <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Panama it is threatened by general habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests.	eng
58696	conservation		In Japan its range includes several protected areas. The small populations on the Kurile Islands might need conservation attention.	eng
58696	distribution		This species is known from the Hokkaido and its adjacent small island in Japan, and from Sakhalin and the southern Kurile Islands, Russia. It occurs from the coast up to 2,000m asl.	eng
58696	habitat		It is found in broadleaf, coniferous and mixed woodland, in open areas, grasslands shrubland, bamboo groves, swamps, lake shores, flood lands and near to hot springs. It breeds in stagnant and slow-flowing waters. This species can be found in drainage ditches.	eng
58696	population		This is a common species that is not in decline.	eng
58696	threats		There are no threats to this species in Japan. In Russia it might be threatened by habitat loss and pollution of wetlands.	eng
58697	conservation		A number of protected areas fall within the range of this species.	eng
58697	distribution		This species is known from Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and maybe Jiangxi Provinces in eastern China. It occurs up to 1,200m asl.	eng
58697	habitat		It inhabits ponds (especially lotus ponds), paddy fields and ditches in plains and low hills. It breeds in still water.	eng
58697	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58697	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by urbanization and water pollution are major threats to this species. It is also consumed locally and traded within China.	eng
58698	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region.	eng
58698	distribution		This species is endemic to southwestern China and occurs in southwestern Sichuan, western Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, from 1,150-2,300m asl. It can be expected to occur in neighbouring Myanmar, though there are not yet any records.	eng
58698	habitat		It inhabits paddy fields, ditches and ponds, and also breeds in these habitats.	eng
58698	population		It is a common species, although there has been a population decline recently.	eng
58698	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by urbanization and water pollution are major threats to this species. It is also eaten locally by people.	eng
58699	conservation		The species range includes several protected areas. A population recovery programme has been made by an NGO in Hiroshima Prefecture (R.p. brevipoda). R.p. brevipoda is listed in the Japanese Red Data Book.	eng
58699	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. The nominate subspecies R.p. porosa is distributed in Kanto District, Sendai Plain and Shinano River, Honshu Island; R.p. brevipoda is distributed in Nagano Prefecture, Tokai District, Kinki District and Setouchi District, in western Honshu and Shikoku islands.	eng
58699	habitat		Both subspecies occur in grassland, paddy fields, rivers, ditches and other wetlands in lowland areas. Rana porosa breeds in paddy fields and wetlands. It is always found near water.	eng
58699	population		More information is needed.	eng
58699	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction, including decreasing numbers of paddy fields, construction of roads and housing, and water pollution.	eng
58701	conservation	Oscar Flores-Villela, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve and Manantalán Biosphere Reserve are both within its range.	eng
58701	distribution	Oscar Flores-Villela, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is found in western Mexico from southern Nayarit, northern Aguascalientes, and south through to Colima. <br/><br/>The type locality is at 1,158m asl, but the species in known to occur within an altitudinal range of 876-2,000m asl. It could be at a lower elevation in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (P. Ponce-Campos, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
58701	habitat	Oscar Flores-Villela, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species inhabits tributaries of the Río Grande de Santiago, and the surrounding forest, and breeds in rivers and streams.	eng
58701	population	Oscar Flores-Villela, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Its population status is unknown.	eng
58701	threats	Oscar Flores-Villela, Luis Canseco-Márquez, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Its habitat is being impacted by livestock grazing.	eng
58702	conservation		The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. An extensive search within the known range of this species is needed to determine whether or not it still survives. It is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.	eng
58702	distribution		This Mexican endemic is known only from the northern state of Puebla, in the vicinity of Huauchinango city and adjacent Río Necaxa.	eng
58702	habitat		The main habitat in Río Necaxa, and the surroundings of Huauchinango, is pine and pine-oak forest. This frog is highly associated with permanent river systems where it breeds.	eng
58702	population		This species has not been seen since it was first collected almost 50 years ago. Several recent field surveys in the Huauchinango area reported no individuals of this frog, and it is probably extinct.	eng
58702	threats		The disappearance of these permanent rivers has contributed to its decline, and perhaps extinction, and the damming of the Nexaca River for hydroelectric power, in particular, is believed to have affected this species.	eng
58703	conservation		The range of this species includes at least three protected areas. Protection of the original habitats will prevent the desiccation of streams inhabited by this frog. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58703	distribution		This species occurs from southern Sinaloa and Durango, southward to Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima, in Mexico.	eng
58703	habitat		It is an inhabitant of rocky cascading streams in tropical dry forest, and maybe also coniferous forest at low to moderate elevations. It breeds in streams.	eng
58703	population		This is a very common species.	eng
58703	threats		This species appears very resistant to human impacts on its habitat and other related activities.	eng
58704	conservation		Provided existing protected areas and watershed forests remain reasonably intact, the species appears secure. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58704	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992, Ming, 2000), including most islands including Phuket (Frith, 1977), Penang (Manthey and Grossmann, 1997) and Tioman (Berry, 1975). It has also been recorded from most of Borneo, the Great Nicobar Islands, in India, as well as from northern and western Sumatra, the Anambas Islands and the Natunas Islands in Indonesia. It occurs up to at least 1,000m asl.	eng
58704	habitat		It is typically seen on rocks and vegetation along small lowland forest streams, but is also seen away from streams in forest, or in highland areas. Primary and degraded forests are equally favoured, but a reasonably closed canopy and gently flowing water are essential. Adults disperse widely in the forest and may even be found in wooded gardens. Breeding occurs at quiet side pools of forest streams or in temporary ponds at the edges of forests. On Sumatra it also breeds in ponds and in paddy fields. Tadpoles live in side pools and quiet, deeper sections of streams (Grandison, 1972, Dring, 1979).	eng
58704	population		It is generally common in lowland forest streams, and is less common but still present in highland areas. In Borneo, because of its explosive breeding, it can appear very abundant or rare locally.	eng
58704	threats		There are currently no significant threats to this species.	eng
58705	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2009	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is listed in a number of national and regional Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. There is a need to control or eliminate this species where it has been introduced outside its natural range, as it is a threat to native species. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58705	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2008	It is listed on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive and on Appendix III of the Berne Convention, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is listed in a number of national and regional Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas. There is a need to control or eliminate this species where it has been introduced outside its natural range, as it is a threat to native species. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58705	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2008	This is a widespread species in western, central and eastern Europe and ranges as far eastwards as eastern Kazakhstan. There are introduced populations in the southeast United Kingdom (where the range is spreading), Switzerland, Belgium (Wallonia), Spain (Villasbuenas de Gata, Cáceres and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana), Siberia and Kamchatka, Russia and northwestern Xinjiang (Yining, Tacheng, Wenquan, Huocheng and Xinyuan), China. It is present throughout Turkey (although this might represent a separate taxon), possibly Syrian Arab Republic, much of Iran, northeastern Iraq and most of northern Afghanistan (absent from Pakistan). Isolated populations are present in Bahrain (it is not known as to whether or not this is an introduction) and within Saudi Arabia (relict populations in the southern Hadramaut, and an introduction at Al Kharj). Further investigations are needed into the range of the species within Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Numerous introductions have expanded the range in Siberia and Kamchatka. In Central Asia, it is often difficult to distinguish between the periphery of natural range and the areas occupied after dispersal and introductions. Numerous populations in Kazakhstan have originated through deliberate introductions from local laboratories and universities. The species was introduced into Siberia and Kamchatka through the accidental introduction of tadpoles with fish into reservoirs with warm discharge waters from electric power stations. It occurs from sea level to altitudes of around 2,500m asl.	eng
58705	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2009	This is a widespread species in western, central and eastern Europe and ranges as far eastwards as eastern Kazakhstan. There are introduced populations in the southeast United Kingdom (where the range is spreading), Switzerland, Belgium (Wallonia), Spain (Villasbuenas de Gata, Cáceres and unspecified localities in Galicia, Cataluña and Comunidad Valenciana), Siberia and Kamchatka, Russia and northwestern Xinjiang (Yining, Tacheng, Wenquan, Huocheng and Xinyuan), China. It is present throughout Turkey (although this might represent a separate taxon), possibly Syrian Arab Republic, much of Iran, northeastern Iraq and most of northern Afghanistan (absent from Pakistan). Isolated populations are present in Bahrain (it is not known as to whether or not this is an introduction) and within Saudi Arabia (relict populations in the southern Hadramaut, and an introduction at Al Kharj). Further investigations are needed into the range of the species within Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Numerous introductions have expanded the range in Siberia and Kamchatka. In Central Asia, it is often difficult to distinguish between the periphery of natural range and the areas occupied after dispersal and introductions. Numerous populations in Kazakhstan have originated through deliberate introductions from local laboratories and universities. The species was introduced into Siberia and Kamchatka through the accidental introduction of tadpoles with fish into reservoirs with warm discharge waters from electric power stations. It occurs from sea level to altitudes of around 2,500m asl.	eng
58705	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2008	It is a highly opportunistic amphibian, living in mixed and deciduous forests, forest steppe, and steppe and other grasslands, semi-desert and desert zones. Arid areas are largely colonized through river valleys and channels. The frog prefers open, well-warmed areas with abundant herbaceous vegetation. It is a semi-aquatic species, inhabiting (and breeding in) a wide variety of flowing and stagnant water habitats, from shallow puddles and ponds to large lakes, reservoirs, rivers and brooks. It may also be found in slightly saline water; on the northern shore of the Apsheron Peninsula (Caspian Sea), reproduction has been observed in marine water at a distance of 0.5-1m from the shore. It is present in many modified habitats.	eng
58705	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2009	It is a highly opportunistic amphibian, living in mixed and deciduous forests, forest steppe, and steppe and other grasslands, semi-desert and desert zones. Arid areas are largely colonized through river valleys and channels. The frog prefers open, well-warmed areas with abundant herbaceous vegetation. It is a semi-aquatic species, inhabiting (and breeding in) a wide variety of flowing and stagnant water habitats, from shallow puddles and ponds to large lakes, reservoirs, rivers and brooks. It may also be found in slightly saline water; on the northern shore of the Apsheron Peninsula (Caspian Sea), reproduction has been observed in marine water at a distance of 0.5-1m from the shore. It is present in many modified habitats.	eng
58705	population	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2008	This is generally a common to abundant species where it occurs.	eng
58705	population	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2009	This is generally a common to abundant species where it occurs.	eng
58705	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Loss of breeding habitats may lead to localized declines, but it is very resistant to environmental pollution and animals may be found in highly polluted waters (such as chemical or metallurgic pollution) where other amphibian species cannot survive. Severe, or prolonged, droughts may lead to localized population declines of this frog in arid areas. The harvesting of this species for educational and medical research, or food, appears to have little effect on some populations, although the frog-leg trade and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations in eastern Asia, in the former Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly also in Romania. In Turkey, the harvesting of frog populations allocated to <em>Pelophylax ridibunda</em> for food appears to be a threat, thus the frog-leg trade and very significant levels of pollution due to some industrial areas might be leading to significant declines in populations in Turkey.	eng
58705	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Tatjana Dujsebayeva, Boris Tuniyev, Theodore Papenfuss, Trevor Beebee, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, 2009	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Loss of breeding habitats may lead to localized declines, but it is very resistant to environmental pollution and animals may be found in highly polluted waters (such as chemical or metallurgic pollution) where other amphibian species cannot survive. Severe, or prolonged, droughts may lead to localized population declines of this frog in arid areas. The harvesting of this species for educational and medical research, or food, appears to have little effect on some populations, although the frog-leg trade and high levels of pollution are leading to significant declines in populations in eastern Asia, in the former Yugoslavia (Dzukic, 1996; Ljubisavljevic <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly also in Romania. In Turkey, the harvesting of frog populations allocated to <em>Pelophylax ridibunda</em> for food appears to be a threat, thus the frog-leg trade and very significant levels of pollution due to some industrial areas might be leading to significant declines in populations in Turkey.	eng
58706	conservation		It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
58706	distribution		This species is widely distributed in Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, Sado Island, Oki Island etc.). It is a lowland species found below 300m asl. It was introduced to Hawaii probably in 1895 or 1896 (Oliver and Shaw, 1953) and now occurs on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai (McKeown, 1996).	eng
58706	habitat		It is widespread in artificial ponds, paddy fields, rivers, streams and wetlands. It breeds in these wetland habitats.	eng
58706	population		This species is common in suitable habitat.	eng
58706	threats		There are no threats to this species.	eng
58707	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58707	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58707	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2008	This species is widely distributed (but with fragmented populations due to patchy available habitat) from northwestern Western Sahara, through Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla (Spain), Algeria (south to the Hoggar Massif), Tunisia, northern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and northwestern Egypt (Siwa Oasis only). It has been introduced in Gran Canaria, Spain. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,670m asl.	eng
58707	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is widely distributed (but with fragmented populations due to patchy available habitat) from northwestern Western Sahara, through Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla (Spain), Algeria (south to the Hoggar Massif), Tunisia, northern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and northwestern Egypt (Siwa Oasis only). It has been introduced in Gran Canaria, Spain. The species has an altitudinal range of sea level to 2,670m asl.	eng
58707	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2008	It is mostly confined to montane and wetland areas within its range. The species is largely aquatic, being found in and around streams, oasis pools, irrigation canals, lakes and other waterbodies. Eggs are deposited in water. It is not known whether or not the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
58707	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is mostly confined to montane and wetland areas within its range. The species is largely aquatic, being found in and around streams, oasis pools, irrigation canals, lakes and other waterbodies. Eggs are deposited in water. It is not known whether or not the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
58707	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2008	It is abundant where suitable wetland habitat exists, and it is the most common amphibian of the Maghreb region. It is localized and uncommon in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58707	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is abundant where suitable wetland habitat exists, and it is the most common amphibian of the Maghreb region. It is localized and uncommon in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
58707	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2008	The species is presumed to have no major threats, although it might be locally threatened by over-exploitation of water resources, pollution and fragmentation of populations. There has been some loss of habitat around Ceuta and Melilla.	eng
58707	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Ulrich Joger, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	The species is presumed to have no major threats, although it might be locally threatened by over-exploitation of water resources, pollution and fragmentation of populations. There has been some loss of habitat around Ceuta and Melilla.	eng
58708	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58708	distribution		This Japanese endemic species is distributed in central Honshu in Kinki District and western Kanto District. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58708	habitat		It occurs in forests in montane areas, and breeds in streams.	eng
58708	population		More information is needed.	eng
58708	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
58709	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
58709	distribution		This species occurs in the Palawan island group (Palawan, Busuanga, Culion, Balabac and Ramos) in the Philippines. A population from Sulawesi, Indonesia, has also been attributed to this species.	eng
58709	habitat		It inhabits lowland and lower montane rainforests, as well as secondary growth vegetation and anthropogenic habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
58709	population		In the Philippines, it is common in forested areas and disturbed areas adjacent to forest. In Sulawesi, The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58709	threats		Logging is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
58710	conservation		Its two localities are probably within protected areas, one of which is Badagongshang National Nature Reserve.	eng
58710	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Tianping, in Sangzhi County, Hunan Province, and from Dadongshan in Guangdong Province, China, at around 1,350m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
58710	habitat		It is found in hilly forest areas, where it inhabits and breeds in streams.	eng
58710	population		This might be a very rare species.	eng
58710	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58711	conservation		Many protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
58711	distribution		This species is widely distributed in central China in Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces. It has been recorded from 200-1,400m asl.	eng
58711	habitat		It inhabits streams of different sizes and the surrounding forests, and breeds in streams.	eng
58711	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58711	threats		Infrastructure development, dam construction, and harvesting for consumption are all major threats to this species. It is also threatened by fisheries related by catch.	eng
58712	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58712	distribution		This taxon was recorded in Thailand from the approximate locality of "Hat Sanuk, Siamese Malaya, near Tenasserim border".	eng
58712	habitat		It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58712	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
58712	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58713	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58713	distribution		This species occurs in North America from Labrador to southern Manitoba, south to northern New England and northern Wisconsin (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
58713	habitat		Bogs, cold lakes and ponds, inlets and outlets of ponds and lakes; occupies sphagnum mats and emergent vegetation (e.g., lily pads) in open water. It hibernates underwater. Eggs and larvae develop in permanent lakes and ponds.	eng
58713	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably more than 100,000. It is abundant in suitable habitat in northern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981).	eng
58713	threats		None. There is minimal human impact in much of its range.	eng
58714	conservation		The last known population in the Desoto National Forest, Mississippi, is not entirely protected. In Mississippi, the gopher frog is classified as Endangered by the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks (R. L. Jones, MDWFP pers. comm., 1995). In December 2001, the species was listed as Endangered under the US Endangered Species Act, but no critical habitat was designated (USFWS 2001). A Gopher Frog Recovery Team has since overseen conservation strategies that include pond water supplementation in dry years, habitat management, assisting larval survivorship, captive rearing, construction of an alternative-breeding pond, and treating infected larvae. This programme needs to be continued and expanded. Surveys are needed to check the status of the recently discovered populations, and to determine whether or not the species survives elsewhere.	eng
58714	distribution		Historically, this species occurred on the coastal plain of the southern USA from eastern Louisiana and southern Mississippi to the Mobile River delta in Alabama, USA. By 2003 it was only known from Glen's Pond in Desoto National Forest in Harrison County, Mississippi (USFWS 2000h; Young and Crother 2001). However, very recently individuals have been seen at two other sites: one calling male was seen at McCoy's Pond 50 miles east of Glen's Pond, and 50 tadpoles were collected from Mike's Pond, 20 miles west of Glen's Pond (Zippel 2005). It is not known whether or not these are stable breeding populations. It occurs from near sea level to 65m asl.	eng
58714	habitat		Breeding and non-breeding habitat includes both upland sandy habitats historically forested with longleaf pine and isolated temporary wetland breeding sites imbedded within this forested landscape. This frog spends the majority of its life in or near underground refugia and historically used gopher tortoise burrows for this purpose (Allen 1932; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Glen's Pond population occurs in an area presently lacking gopher tortoises, although tortoises probably occurred historically in the area and do occur nearby. Refugia include abandoned mammal burrows and holes in and under old stumps (L.V. LaClaire pers. obs., 1996; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species does not adapt to human disturbance of its habitat.	eng
58714	population		Only one extant population was known as of 2000 (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Historical records exist for three parishes in Louisiana, eight counties in Mississippi, and one county in Alabama. Recent surveys have been unable to document the continued existence of the species in Louisiana (Seigel and Doody 1992; Thomas 1996; J. Pechmann pers. comm. 2003) or Alabama (Bailey 1992b, 1994). The last observation of this gopher frog in Louisiana was made in 1967 (G. Lester, Louisiana Natural Heritage pers. comm., 1991) and in Alabama in 1922 (Löding 1922). In 1987 and 1988, surveys of ponds in six Mississippi counties verified the presence of the species at only four sites in Harrison County (Crawford 1988). At three of the four sites, only one individual was observed. Subsequent to this work, surveys have documented the continued existence of only one population, represented by Crawford's fourth site in Harrison County. Based on census data collected 1996-2001, the population was estimated at 60-100 individuals (Richter and Seigel 2002; Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). The population appears to be declining because of two fungal diseases, one of them chytridiomycosis.	eng
58714	threats		Major threats include population isolation (inbreeding and susceptibility to catastrophic events), urbanization, two diseases, and apparent lack of a nearby suitable habitat. The range has been significantly reduced as a result of habitat destruction, fragmentation, and modification. Pre-settlement longleaf pine forests were the dominant forest type of the south-eastern coastal plain. Today, less than two percent of the original longleaf pine forests remain (Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). These areas are usually second-growth forests often degraded by turpentine, grazing, and disruption of the natural fire regime (Boyce and Martin 1993; Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). Many areas have been converted from open longleaf pine sand hill communities to dense monocultures of sand, loblolly, or slash pine (Boyce and Martin 1993; Ware, Frost and Doerr 1993). Land management practices have altered the soil horizon, forest litter, herbaceous community, and the occurrence of fallen trees and stumps used as refugia. Isolated temporary wetlands are required for breeding. Factors affecting quality of breeding ponds include timber site preparation methods that alter existing hydrology, domestic animal grazing, clearing and draining for agricultural or urban uses, ditching, soil disturbance, and fire exclusion. The breeding habitat at Glen's Pond, and most of the surrounding adult habitat, are located in the DeSoto National Forest. Silviculture, including timber sales with associated clear-cutting, is the primary activity in this area. Less than 50 percent of the Forest is maintained as longleaf pine, with the remainder converted to slash pine or loblolly pine. The Mississippi Gulf Coast has experienced a recent upsurge in residential development, largely as a consequence of gambling casinos located in the Biloxi-Gulfport area. The land immediately north and west of the only known breeding site was owned by International Paper and managed for paper production until it was sold in 1999 to a land developer who intends to build a retirement community and golf course. This development will make conducting prescribed burns difficult and increase the chances of further modification to the breeding site and the associated upland habitat. The US Forest Service is negotiating the purchase of a small (30 ha) buffer to facilitate burning. Habitat alteration is likely the primary factor in the loss of gopher frog populations in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi. At least 13 (72 percent) of the 18 historic gopher frog sites have been degraded due to intensive forestry practices. Forests around breeding ponds were clear-cut extensively in the mid-1950s and then again in the 1980s and 1990s. In most cases, these forests were replaced with dense pine plantations. Within these plantations and in the longleaf pine habitats, fire suppression has further has reduced the quality of the terrestrial and aquatic habitat for the Dusky Gopher Frog. Both the forests and the ponds have lost the open, grassy character that is necessary habitat for the species. Canopy closure from fire suppression also alters the forest floor vegetation. Without fire, encroachment of woody vegetation threatens the open, herbaceous character typical of most gopher frog breeding ponds. In addition, fire causes the release of nutrients bound in plant material. This release of nutrients results in a flush of primary productivity that is important to the herbivorous gopher frog tadpoles. Fire suppression has negatively impacted at least 13 (72 percent) of the 18 historical sites, but controlled burns conducted 1987-2003 have improved conditions at Glen's Pond. Expanding urbanization has been a factor in the degradation of at least three (17 percent) other sites. One of these historic breeding ponds is in a residential backyard and has been altered to hold water permanently (Thomas 1996). Forestry practices and expanding urbanization are also threats to the single remaining population. For example, a four-lane highway is being constructed that will further subdivide available habitat. Direct take for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is not currently considered to be a threat. An unidentified fungal disease has caused >90% mortality of tadpoles. Chytridiomycosis has also been detected in other species of frog at the breeding site, but its effects on Dusky Gopher Frogs are currently unknown. Temporary ponds altered to form more permanent bodies of water and stocked with fishes are no longer suitable breeding sites. The Dusky Gopher Frog is adapted to temporary wetlands and its larvae cannot survive the heavy predation of bass and sunfish commonly used to stock ponds. Introduction of predatory fishes into ponds for recreational use has caused declines in Gopher Frog (<em>Rana capito</em>) populations in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1995). Construction of drainage ditches and firebreaks into ponds might also provide avenues for introduction of fish into breeding sites. High annual variation (5-37%) in intensity of egg mass mortality occurred during a three-year study (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional undetermined amount of the egg mortality was due to predation by caddisfly larvae (Order Trichoptera, Family Phryganeidae) on the egg masses (Richter 2000). Gopher frog breeding sites have been degraded by roads that pass through or are adjacent to ponds. Erosion of unpaved roads adjacent to breeding sites may result in an influx of sedimentation from surrounding uplands during rainstorms. Off-road recreational vehicle (ORV) use can cause direct mortality of tadpoles and adults (J. Jensen, Georgia Department of Natural Resources pers. comm., 1996) and alter the quality of a breeding site. Vehicular traffic disrupts the contours of the pond floor, eliminates herbaceous vegetation, and can alter the hydrology of the site (L.V. LaClaire pers. obs., 1995). Loss of herbaceous vegetation from ORV usage could also discourage gopher frog reproduction, since egg masses are attached to stems of herbaceous vegetation (Bailey 1990; Palis 1995). ORV tracks have been documented within the Glen's Pond breeding site (G. Johnson, U.S. Forest Service pers. comm., 1994). Low reproductive potential might also represent a threat to this species' continued existence. Studies at the Mississippi breeding site suggest that females do not breed until two to three years of age and might breed only in alternate years and/or have only a single lifetime breeding event (Richter and Seigel 2002). Both larval and metamorph survival appears to be low (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Variability in weather events can further reduce reproductive potential. Annual variability in rainfall, which influences how frequently and how long a pond is appropriate breeding habitat, can result in a number of years with complete reproductive failure (Richter <em>et al.</em> 2003). Studies of other species of ranid frogs (e.g., Berven and Grudzien 1990) suggest that many anuran populations show a strong meta-population structure. In meta-populations, adults are typically faithful to breeding sites but juveniles may disperse to new breeding areas before reaching maturity. As a result, reproductive failure at a single pond can be compensated for by recruitment at another site. Such a strategy also leads to a lower probability of genetic isolation and inbreeding (Stacey, Taper and Johnson 1997). Because there is only one known breeding site (until very recently), this population is highly susceptible to genetic isolation, inbreeding, and catastrophic events. Thus, the probability of extinction is higher than would otherwise be the case. Insecticides and herbicides might pose a threat. The aquatic larvae are likely most vulnerable to chemical changes in their environment. Adult gopher frogs are predaceous and could be affected by pesticides accumulated in their invertebrate prey. If a golf course is built in the drainage area of the breeding pond, as proposed, the chemicals used to maintain the golf course could pose a significant threat to the population.	eng
58715	conservation	Thomas Uzzell, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. 'Green frogs', including <em>R. shqiperica</em>, are not protected by law in Yugoslavia (Kalezic and Dzukic 2001; Ljubisavljevic, Dzukic and Kalezic 2003). The species is present in the Lake Skadar protected area, on the border of Montenegro and Albania.	eng
58715	distribution	Thomas Uzzell, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	This lowland species is restricted to western Albania and southern Montenegro at elevations below 500m asl.	eng
58715	habitat	Thomas Uzzell, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	It has been reported from heavily vegetated aquatic habitats including ditches, swamps, marshes, the edges of slow-flowing rivers and the shoreline of Lake Skadar. Breeding, and larval development, takes place in these wetland habitats. It is not known if the species can successfully adapt to habitat modification.	eng
58715	population	Thomas Uzzell, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58715	threats	Thomas Uzzell, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	The major threat is drainage of wetland habitats and aquatic pollution of many waterways caused by agrochemical and industrial (including mining) contaminants. In the northern parts of its range (e.g. Lake Skadar) it is significantly threatened by over collection for commercial purposes. An additional threat is the accidental introduction of commercially transported non-native water frogs.	eng
58716	conservation		The species' range is within the Gaoligongshan and Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserves.	eng
58716	distribution		This species is found in Zhaojue County in southwestern Sichuan province, and Gongshan, Zhongdian and Deqin counties in northwestern Yunnan province, China. Within this range it has a very small area of occupancy. However, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it can also be expected from northern Myanmar. It has been recorded from 2,760-3,800m asl.	eng
58716	habitat		It inhabits pools, marshes, slow-flowing streams and the surrounding alpine grasslands and shrublands. It breeds in water.	eng
58716	population		It is a very common species in some places, but uncommon in others.	eng
58716	threats		There are no known threats at present.	eng
58717	conservation		It occurs in Siberut, Gunung Leuser, Kerinci-Seblat and Barisan-Seblat National Parks in Indonesia, and the only known record in Malaysia is from Lakum forest reserve.	eng
58717	distribution		This species is known from areas below 700m asl in Siberut and Sumatra (in Aceh, North Sumatra, Bengkulu, West Sumatra and Lampung Provinces), Indonesia, and from one locality in Peninsular Malaysia; the catchment area of Sungai Temir, within the Lakum forest reserve, Raub, Pahang. In Indonesia, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it probably also occurs more widely in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
58717	habitat		In Indonesia it is known to live along streams in lowland forest, and breed in streams. The one specimen found in Peninsular Malaysia was found at the edge of a temporary pool away from streams.	eng
58717	population		There are only very few records, so it is probably uncommon.	eng
58717	threats		The main threat is habitat loss, especially due to expanding oil palm plantations. There might also be pollution of its breeding habitats.	eng
58718	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection and maintenance of forest habitats in the Sierra Madre del Sur. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
58718	distribution		This species is widespread through the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
58718	habitat		This species inhabits conifer forests at intermediate elevations. It breeds in streams.	eng
58718	population		There are many healthy populations of this species along its range although it is reportedly rare in some parts.	eng
58718	threats		Logging is probably a threat to this species. Tadpoles have been found in southern Mexico with loss of keratinized mouthparts, which suggests that chytridiomycosis might be a threat.	eng
58719	conservation		It is found in protected areas on the Malay Peninsular (e.g. Temengor, Ulu Muda, Pasoh) and in Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak). Protection of lowland tropical forest is the main conservation measure required. The taxonomic status of this species is currently under investigation.	eng
58719	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (and Penang and Tioman Islands) (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975), and large parts of Borneo. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Confusion between Rana signata and Rana picturata makes many old Bornean records suspect. It occurs below 700m asl.	eng
58719	habitat		It is abundant in lowland forests, including swamp and heath forest, and is commonly found in the riparian vegetation along stream banks. Metamorphs disperse through the forest, and when they are half grown they return to the stream banks. Tadpoles develop in quiet side-pools at the edge of streams.	eng
58719	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
58719	threats		Deforestation is the principal threat to this species.	eng
58720	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas. The most important conservation measure needed is to designate the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest on Luzon as protected areas.	eng
58720	distribution		This species is found in many parts of Luzon including the adjacent smaller islands of Polillo, Palaui, Catanduanes, and Marinduque, in the Philippines. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58720	habitat		This species inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in clean streams and rivers, and the larvae develop in quiet side pools.	eng
58720	population		It is common in forested areas and disturbed areas near forest.	eng
58720	threats		Important threats to this species are the loss of lowland rainforest (due to agricultural development and logging) and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers, especially due to agricultural effluents.	eng
58721	conservation		It requires further research to assess its taxonomic validity.	eng
58721	distribution		This species is known only from the holotype collected in China. It has not been possible to accurately identify its distribution.	eng
58721	habitat		It probably occurs near to fast-flowing rivers and streams in montane tropical forest, and presumably breeds in the streams.	eng
58721	population		There is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58721	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58722	conservation		This species' range overlaps several protected areas. Protection of the forests and water systems along its range protects the main habitat of this species.	eng
58722	distribution		This species is known from central Mexico, from eastern Michoacán eastward to the central State of Mexico and Morelos, north through Tlaxcala to eastern Hidalgo, and south to central Puebla and a small portion of western Veracruz, to the highlands of northwestern Oaxaca.	eng
58722	habitat		This species occurs in oak, pine-oak and fir forests above 1,500m asl. It prefers marshy edges of ponds and lakes but primarily inhabits the edges of mountain streams. It breeds in large ponds and at the lake edge.	eng
58722	population		This is a very common species.	eng
58722	threats		Deforestation, pollution and alteration of water reservoirs can directly affect the populations of this species.	eng
58723	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58723	distribution		This species is known from the lowlands of the southeastern USA, southern New York to Florida Keys, west to eastern Kansas and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991). It is introduced on Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991).	eng
58723	habitat		It occurs in the vicinity of virtually any freshwater habitat; also slightly brackish marshes. In summer disperses from water into moist vegetation. Occupies bottoms of pools and caves when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in still, shallow waters of many kinds. Males call from water.	eng
58723	population		This is the most abundant frog in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is abundant in eastern Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and widespread and locally abundant in Illinois range (Phillips <em>et al.</em> 1999). Populations in Indiana have not undergone the drastic decline in numbers that has occurred in Rana pipiens (Minton 2001).	eng
58723	threats		Traffic on roads near ponds might be a local threat. Palis (1994) reported large numbers of road-killed individuals adjacent to a pond in Florida. Within a single population, families of leopard frogs vary in their tolerance to the insecticide carbaryl (Bridges and Semlitsch 2001). Local populations are no doubt impacted by urbanization.	eng
58724	conservation		This species is present in a number of protected areas on the island, including Wuzhishan Nature Reserve.	eng
58724	distribution		This species is endemic to southern and south-western Hainan, China. It has been recorded from 80-840m asl.	eng
58724	habitat		It inhabits tropical forests, and breeds in pools and slow-flowing streams.	eng
58724	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58724	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by shifting agriculture, logging, and the construction of hydroelectric plants are major threats to this species.	eng
58725	conservation		The taxonomic status of this species needs to be assessed. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
58725	distribution		This species is widespread in the mountains of New Guinea from the Vogelkop Peninsula in the west (Indonesia) to the southeast peninsula of Papua New Guinea. It has also been recorded from Yapen Island (Indonesia) and Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby Island in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands (Papua New Guinea). It occurs from about 100m up to 1,800m asl.	eng
58725	habitat		This species inhabits and breeds in fast- or moderately flowing streams in tropical rainforest, rural gardens, villages, and degraded habitats.	eng
58725	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58725	threats		It is not threatened, though it is captured for food by local human communities.	eng
58726	conservation		In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park, although there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in these islands.	eng
58726	distribution		This species is endemic to the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.	eng
58726	habitat		It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest and streams in mountains, and is also found in coastal areas.	eng
58726	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58726	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, due to logging and human settlement, particularly on Ishigakijima.	eng
58727	conservation		A number of protected areas on the island support this species.	eng
58727	distribution		This species is widely distributed in hilly areas below 2,000m asl in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
58727	habitat		It inhabits hill streams in broadleaf forests, and breeds in small mountainous, shady creeks with quite a lot of rocks. Egg masses are attached under rocks where stream water is present.	eng
58727	population		It is a common species.	eng
58727	threats		Agriculture and infrastructure development are threats to this species, but it is not seriously at risk.	eng
58728	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58728	distribution		This species occurs in northern North America from Alaska to Labrador (Chubbs and Phillips 1998), south to New Jersey, northern Georgia, and northern Idaho; spotty distribution south to northern Colorado in Rocky Mountains; also disjunctive populations in Arkansas-Missouri (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991). Ranges farther north than any other North American amphibian.	eng
58728	habitat		It occurs in various kinds of forest/woodland habitats; edges of ponds and streams; also willow thickets and grass/willow/aspen associations. When inactive, hides in logs, humus, leaf-litter, or under logs and rocks. Eggs are laid and larvae develop usually in small fish-free ponds, temporary or permanent, in wooded (usually) or open areas. In the Shenandoah Mountains, breeding adults were 100% faithful to the ponds in which they first bred; approximately 18% of the juveniles dispersed to breed in ponds other than the one of origin (Berven and Grudzien 1991). Experiments and field observations by Hopey and Petranka (1994) indicate that adults are able to assess the presence of fishes in ponds and may change breeding sites accordingly to avoid those with predatory fishes. In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).	eng
58728	population		It is abundant and widespread.	eng
58728	threats		Not threatened overall, but threats to local populations include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Not likely to be at risk from present acidification inputs in the Rocky Mountains (Corn and Vertucci 1992).	eng
58729	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
58729	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. Rana tagoi tagoi is found on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, while Rana tagoi yakushimensis is found on Yakushima and Rana tagoi okiensis is found on Oki Island.	eng
58729	habitat		It occurs in montane areas in the leaf-litter of forests close to streams. They are often found underneath the stones in streams. They breed from April to May; females deposit about 40-100 eggs under stones in streams or pools.	eng
58729	population		More information is needed.	eng
58729	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
58730	conservation		The species' range includes several protected areas. No further conservation measures appear necessary at present.	eng
58730	distribution		This species is known from central and southern China (including Yunnan, Guizhou, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Taiwan and Hong Kong), through northern Viet Nam through the Annamite foothills of Viet Nam and Lao People's Democratic Republic to southern Viet Nam, Cambodia and northeast Thailand. It is recorded with some degree of doubt from northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940). There is a recent record from Chittagong district in Bangladesh. Range information might be affected by former confusion of Rana taipehensis with Rana macrodactyla and Rana erythraea. It is likely also to be in northern Peninsular Malaysia (P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It occurs from lowlands up to about 800m asl.	eng
58730	habitat		It inhabits open, grassy wetland areas, rice paddies, river floodplains and forest ponds and swampy areas in deciduous forest. It breeds in standing water that has any kind of thicket around the edge.	eng
58730	population		It is generally recorded as common.	eng
58730	threats		Given its adaptability to a variety of wetland types including agricultural landscapes, its wide distribution and its small size, the species appears only under potential threat from pesticide pollution. It is also persecuted as a pest in some parts of its range.	eng
58731	conservation		A team of U.S. and Mexican partners are working to re-establish the Tarahumara Frog back into Big Casa Blanca and Sycamore canyons, Arizona (Rorabaugh and Humphrey 2002, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). The range of the species includes the Mount Wrightson and Pajarita wilderness areas in Arizona, and La Reserva Para Protecíon de Flora y Fauna Sierra de Alamos-Río Cuchujaqui, Sonora.	eng
58731	distribution		This species' historical range included extreme south-central Arizona, USA, (known from Tinaja, Sycamore, and Pena Blanca/Alamo canyons in the Atascosa-Pajarito-Tumacacori Mountains complex; and Gardner, Big Casa Blanca, and Adobe canyons in the Santa Rita Mountains; Rio Altar and Santa Cruz River drainages), south in the Sierra Madre Occidental and adjacent sky island mountain ranges in Sonora and Chihuahua to northern Sinaloa, Mexico, at elevations from 460-2,070m asl (Zweifel 1968c, Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001). Most localities are in the mountains of eastern Sonora. The Tarahumara Frog has been extirpated from the USA since 1983, and more recently, from several sites in northern Sonora (Hale and May 1983, Hale <em>et al.</em> 1995, Hale 2001).	eng
58731	habitat		This species inhabits streams and plunge pools in canyons located within oak and pine-oak woodland, and the Pacific coast tropical area (foothill thorn scrub and tropical deciduous forest; Hale and May 1983, McCranie and Wilson 1987). Plunge pools in canyons with low mean flows (<0.2 cubic feet per second) and relatively steep gradients (>60m per km of stream) provide the best breeding sites (Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001). Permanent water is necessary for metamorphosis. At Pena Blanca Spring and Tinaja Canyon, Arizona, and Arroyo El Salto, north-eastern Sonora, Tarahumara Frogs inhabited artificial impoundments (Hale and May 1983, Hale 2001, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005).	eng
58731	population		Tarahumara Frogs are known from 63 localities (Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). The status of the species has been closely tracked in Arizona and at selected localities in Sonora. Extirpations from Arizona localities occurred from 1948-1983. The last wild Tarahumara Frog observed in the USA was found dead in Big Casa Blanca Canyon in May 1983. Two northern Mexican populations were recorded as having declined in the early 1980s (Hale and May 1983). Surveys from May 1998 to May 2000 in Sonora yielded Tarahumara Frogs at 6 of 11 historical localities and three new localities (Hale <em>et al.</em> 1998, Hale 2001). The status of the species in Chihuahua and Sinaloa is unknown. Generally, where the species is currently extant, no long-term declines are apparent (Rorabaugh and Hale 2005). However, since chytridiomycosis is confirmed in this species, and populations have been lost, future declines can be expected.	eng
58731	threats		Hale and Jarchow (1988) listed the following possible causal mechanisms in the extirpation of Tarahumara Frog populations: 1) winter cold; 2) flooding or severe drought; 3) competition; 4) predation; 5) disease; and 6) heavy metal poisoning. Airborne pollutants from copper smelters might have been responsible for toxic levels of cadmium in streams inhabited by Tarahumara Frogs (Hale and Jarchow 1988); however, frogs found during die-offs exhibited symptoms that are now associated with chytridiomycosis, a fungal disease known to affect amphibians globally. Histology of frogs collected during die-offs in Arizona and Sonora from 1974-1999 revealed the presence of chytrids (Hale 2001, Rorabaugh and Hale 2005, T.R. Jones and P.J. Fernandez pers. comm.). Cold weather can be a contributing factor in mortality (Hale and Jarchow 1988) and might be associated with chytridiomycosis-related mortality (Hale 2001). Other threats include introduced predatory fishes (e.g. green sunfish and bluegill) and bullfrogs (Hale and Jarchow 1988). The Tarahumara Frog is now apparently replaced by the bullfrog in the Pena Blanca area in Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989). Poor agricultural practices at Arroyo El Cobre in southern Sonora resulted in erosion from slopes and sedimentation of pools inhabited by the Tarahumara Frog. The Tarahumara Frog has apparently been replaced at this site by <em>Rana pustulosa</em> and <em>R. magnaocularis</em> (Hale 2001).	eng
58732	conservation		It is unclear as to whether or not populations assigned to this taxon occur in protected areas. Its taxonomic status requires further research.	eng
58732	distribution		This species is found at scattered localities in the humid Atlantic lowlands of eastern Nicaragua through to south-eastern Costa Rica, and in the humid premontane and lower montane areas of upland Costa Rica, including the Meseta Oriental, the Meseta Occidental and probably also the Cordillera Central, at altitudes of 60-1,862m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
58732	habitat		It is a semi-aquatic species of ponds, swamps, and marshes in lowland wet forest, premontane moist and wet forests, and rainforest. Mating takes place during the wet season; the eggs are attached to aquatic vegetation and the larvae develop in these wetlands.	eng
58732	population		Taxonomic uncertainty precludes attainment of accurate population data.	eng
58732	threats		It is possible that this species is threatened by habitat loss through both deforestation and also water pollution caused by runoff from agricultural pesticides. Highland ranid populations in Costa Rica are considered to perhaps be threatened by chytridiomycosis, although it is not clear if this is one of the species at risk.	eng
58733	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas in Sri Lanka, and in India (where it is protected by national legislation) it has been recorded from Konya Wild Life Sanctuary in Maharashtra, Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu. It is included as part of ongoing studies by Biju (1998 and onwards) and Addoor (1992 and onwards).	eng
58733	distribution		Specimens currently assigned to this species have been collected in Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 60-1,830m asl in Sri Lanka and 200-1,800m asl in the Western Ghats.	eng
58733	habitat		It is a largely terrestrial species (although males can be seen in low vegetation) associated with shaded hill streams and riparian vegetation in semi-evergreen moist tropical forest. It is not found in modified (agricultural) habitats. Adults are often encountered on wet boulders in streams, and breeding takes place in these streams.	eng
58733	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
58733	threats		The main threats to this species are the conversion of forested land for agricultural use (for tea, cardamom, and rubber plantations), subsistence harvesting of wood and timber, the development of mining and roads (in India), agrochemical pollution and (again in India) the construction of dams.	eng
58734	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58734	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and on Annex V of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It has been recorded in a number of national and sub-national Red Data books and lists, and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It is present in many protected areas. In parts of its range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
58734	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is widespread throughout most of Europe, ranging from northern Spain to the Urals (absent from southern and central Iberia, much of southern Italy [scattered Appenine populations] and the Caucasus), and eastwards to the western part of West Siberia and northern Kazakhstan through northern Greece and Bulgaria. It has a patchy distribution in the mountainous parts of the Balkans. Recorded from sea level to elevations approaching 2,700m asl (Pyrenees).	eng
58734	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is widespread throughout most of Europe, ranging from northern Spain to the Urals (absent from southern and central Iberia, much of southern Italy [scattered Appenine populations] and the Caucasus), and eastwards to the western part of West Siberia and northern Kazakhstan through northern Greece and Bulgaria. It has a patchy distribution in the mountainous parts of the Balkans. Recorded from sea level to elevations approaching 2,700m asl (Pyrenees).	eng
58734	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	Many terrestrial (associated with woodland) and aquatic habitat types are used. Present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, forested tundra and steppe, bush and shrublands, glades, grasslands, dry and wet meadows, marshes, fields, rural gardens, parks, and urban areas. Aquatic habitats include both temporary and permanent ponds, lakes and rivers; spawning and larval development occurs in these waterbodies. It does well in many modified habitats such as rural gardens.	eng
58734	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	Many terrestrial (associated with woodland) and aquatic habitat types are used. Present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, forested tundra and steppe, bush and shrublands, glades, grasslands, dry and wet meadows, marshes, fields, rural gardens, parks, and urban areas. Aquatic habitats include both temporary and permanent ponds, lakes and rivers; spawning and larval development occurs in these waterbodies. It does well in many modified habitats such as rural gardens.	eng
58734	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	It is generally very common, although localized declines have recently been noted in a number of western European countries (e.g.. Switzerland, Spain).	eng
58734	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	It is generally very common, although localized declines have recently been noted in a number of western European countries (e.g.. Switzerland, Spain).	eng
58734	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The main localized threat is the general pollution and drainage of breeding sites and wetlands. Over collection for medical research, food and commercial purposes is a threat in parts of its range. Deforestation might have led to a gradual "northward retreat" of the species over southern parts of its distribution. Overcollection for medical research has been a threat in the past, however the extent to which it is a current threat is unknown.	eng
58734	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Boris Tuniyev, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, Per Nyström, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Jon Loman, Dan Cogalniceanu, Tibor Kovács, István Kiss, 2009	There are no major threats to this species. The main localized threat is the general pollution and drainage of breeding sites and wetlands. Over collection for medical research, food and commercial purposes is a threat in parts of its range. Deforestation might have led to a gradual "northward retreat" of the species over southern parts of its distribution. Overcollection for medical research has been a threat in the past, however the extent to which it is a current threat is unknown.	eng
58735	conservation		The Shapotou location is within a national nature reserve. There is a need to manage the offtake of this species for human consumption in a sustainable manner.	eng
58735	distribution		This species is only known from Shapotou and Shenjiatan, in Yinnan County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, along the shores of Huang He (Yellow River) at the edge of the Tengger Desert, China.	eng
58735	habitat		It inhabits pools along the banks of the Yellow River at the edge of desert.	eng
58735	population		It is a common species, but is probably in decline.	eng
58735	threats		The major threat is over-collecting for food; other threats include drought and water pollution.	eng
58736	conservation		<em>Rana terentievi</em> might occur in three nature reserves in Tajikistan.	eng
58736	distribution		This species is known from the plains and mountain areas of southern Tajikistan (south of the Gissar Ridge), from the environs of the settlements of Obi-Garm, Shaartuz, near Dushanbe City, and also from other areas. It probably also occurs near the lower reaches of the Amu-Darya River and in northern Afghanistan.	eng
58736	habitat		In the valley near Obi-Garm, this frog was recorded in puddles and swamps near warm springs. Frogs designated as <em>Rana ridibunda</em> are known to be common in the rivers of southern Tajikistan.	eng
58736	population		More information is needed regarding its population status.	eng
58736	threats		The threats are unknown.	eng
58737	conservation		This species occurs in several protected areas in China, Viet Nam and Laos. In some areas, measures might be needed to manage harvesting of the species to ensure sustainability. Research is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the population on Hainan Island. Further work is also needed to determine its geographic range, threats, and conservation needs.	eng
58737	distribution		This species is known from southern China, northern Laos and northern Viet Nam. In China, there are records from southern Yunnan Province (Mangla, Pingbian and Hekou Counties), and from Hainan Island (Bawangling, Jianfengling, Diaoluoshan and Limushan). It has been recorded from a few areas in northern and north-central Viet Nam, and from Phongsaly Province in northern Laos. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and possibly in Myanmar. It has been recorded from 120-1,000m asl.	eng
58737	habitat		This species occurs in montane streams and rivers that vary from shallow and slow-moving to torrential and deep. It can be found on boulders, logs, earthy banks and vegetation both in and around the water as well as in the adjacent hilly evergreen forest. It survives near Mount Tay Con Linh II in Viet Nam, where little original habitat occurs due to small-scale livestock farming and cultivation, so it appears able to tolerate some degree of habitat degradation. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it presumably breeds in rivers and streams by larval development.	eng
58737	population		It is an uncommon that appears to be in decline, at least in China.	eng
58737	threats		On Hainan this species is threatened by local people collecting it for consumption. Its habitats are also under threat from deforestation and the construction of hydroelectric power plants. Elsewhere it is presumably affected to some extent by forest loss. For example, small-scale livestock farming, and cultivation (including rice paddies, palms, cinnamon trees, tea, and bamboo), have removed much original habitat around the streams in which this species is found near Mount Tay Con Linh II. At that site, local people also hunt other species of amphibians for food, but it is not known whether or not they collect this species. In Laos, significant areas of forest have been lost due to shifting cultivation and associated fires.	eng
58738	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within its range.	eng
58738	distribution		This species is endemic to south-eastern Anhui and Zhejiang Provinces in central China, where it has been recorded from 100-700m asl.	eng
58738	habitat		It inhabits open, low-gradient large streams and small rivers, and sometimes also occurs in still-water pools close to streams.	eng
58738	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58738	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by infrastructure development and water pollution.	eng
58739	conservation		Its range includes Aurora Memorial National Park. The most important conservation measure required is the protection of the remaining tracts of intact lowland rainforest in the Sierra Madres of Luzon.	eng
58739	distribution		This species is found in the Sierra Madres, on north-eastern Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
58739	habitat		It inhabits cool streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests. It breeds and lays its eggs in water, and it is presumed that tadpoles develop in water.	eng
58739	population		It is common in Aurora Memorial National Park in one river drainage, but is known only from two other localities.	eng
58739	threats		The most important threats to this species include logging, conversion of habitat to agriculture, and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run-off.	eng
58740	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58740	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from the vicinity of Muong Do village, in Phu Yen District, Son La Province, Viet Nam.	eng
58740	habitat		This species inhabits rugged mountainous terrain, where it was collected from a small cascading clear-water forest stream that was flowing through secondary tropical forest. It is presumed that this species breeds in streams.	eng
58740	population		It is known only from two specimens, the holotype and the paratype, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58740	threats		The specific threats to it are not known, though it is presumably affected by forest loss due to smallholder farming, logging and increasing human settlement.	eng
58741	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58741	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is found only on Tsushima Island.	eng
58741	habitat		It occurs in forests and streams from lowland to hilly areas. It breeds in rice paddies, ditches, swamps, and other wetland habitats.	eng
58741	population		It is a common species.	eng
58741	threats		There are no known threats to this species at present although its restricted range makes it particularly susceptible to threatening processes.	eng
58742	conservation		The species is present in a number of protected areas including Pakhui Wild Life Sanctuary (Assam) and Nameri National Park (Arunachal Pradesh) both in India.	eng
58742	distribution		This species ranges through southern Nepal, much of northeastern India, and throughout Bangladesh. The species might occur in Myanmar but its presence here requires confirmation. It is a lowland species found up to 300m asl.	eng
58742	habitat		This species is associated with a variety of aquatic habitats such as pools, lakes and marshes. It may be found in bank side vegetation, and within scrubland and tropical forest habitats. The species generally breeds in stagnant waterbodies. The species can be found in artificially flooded agricultural areas.	eng
58742	population		It is a common species.	eng
58742	threats		The main threats to this species are water pollution with agrochemicals and possible localized over collection of the species for food. However, it is probably not very significantly threatened.	eng
58743	conservation		In Japan its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a national park, although there is clearly a need for improved protection of forest habitats in these islands. There is also a need to control invasive toads, especially within protected areas.	eng
58743	distribution		This species is endemic to the Japanese islands of Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima.	eng
58743	habitat		It inhabits upstream areas surrounded by primary broad-leaved evergreen forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
58743	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, although the populations on Ishigakijima have undergone substantial declines.	eng
58743	threats		The major threats are deforestation and competition with increasing populations of the exotic <em>Bufo marinus</em>, particularly on Ishigakijima.	eng
58744	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58744	distribution		This species ranges from southern Veracruz, Mexico, south along the Atlantic coastal plain to the Pacific coast in southeastern Oaxaca and northeastern Chiapas, Mexico, to both coasts in Nicaragua, south through Costa Rica and Panama to the Pacific coast of Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. In Colombia it also ranges around the northern edge of the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central to the middle and upper Magdalena Valley, where it occurs on both the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central and the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental. There is also an isolated population on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 880m asl.	eng
58744	habitat		It lives terrestrially in very humid tropical forest and in dry forest, and it also survives in anthropogenically disturbed habitats in more open situations, where it is often more common. It is closely associated with water, preferring ponds and other forms of still water, and generally remains near the edges. Males have been observed calling from floating vegetation or from shores. It breeds in permanent and sometimes temporary pools, and also in streams.	eng
58744	population		It is a common species throughout its range.	eng
58744	threats		It is very adaptable, and is not significantly threatened, except possibly by pollution resulting from aerial spraying. It might possibly suffer from competition with introduced <em>Rana catesbeiana</em>.	eng
58745	conservation		The range of this species includes quite a few protected areas.	eng
58745	distribution		This species is known from the Provinces of Guizhou, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hong Kong in China. It has been recorded from 600-1,525m asl.	eng
58745	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding forests, and breeds in streams.	eng
58745	population		It is a common species, but is in serious decline because of habitat loss.	eng
58745	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation (clear-cutting), infrastructure development and dam construction are major threats to this species.	eng
58746	conservation	Robert Puschendorf, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Alberth Rojas C and Olivier Castro, 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. The current status of the surviving populations requires further investigation; given the threat of chytridiomycosis, recommended conservation measures should consider the establishment of a captive-breeding programme. There is an urgent need to maintain the habitat at the two known Costa Rican localities.	eng
58746	distribution	Robert Puschendorf, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Alberth Rojas C and Olivier Castro, 2008	This species was previously widely distributed in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and western Panama, at elevations of 1,500-2,700 m asl (Savage 2002). It is now known only with certainty from near Monteverde and the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco (exact locality not mapped here) in Costa Rica, with no recent reports from Panama.	eng
58746	habitat	Robert Puschendorf, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Alberth Rojas C and Olivier Castro, 2008	It is a semi-aquatic frog occurring in lower montane and lower portions of montane rainforest. The species prefers dense woods, but may also be found near bodies of water in clearings or pastures. The recently discovered population close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco, was found in an open area close to secondary forest and some shallow ponds of slow moving water, with additional animals found in secondary growth forest (Alberth Rojas C.  pers. comm. 2008). Calling and mating take place at night, with males generally calling from vegetation in water. Breeding sites include shallow ponds, puddles or slow-moving waters. Eggs are attached to vegetation (Savage 2002).	eng
58746	population	Robert Puschendorf, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Alberth Rojas C and Olivier Castro, 2008	It was once very common in Costa Rica but had apparently disappeared from the country by 1990. However, a single individual was reported in 2002 from near Monteverde, and larvae were found and reared in 2003. One small breeding pool is now known near Monteverde in the Monteverde Conservation League Children's Eternal Rainforest (Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright in litt. To Bruce Young September 2007). This population was reported to be healthy, with several hundred animals, including numerous breeding pairs, juveniles and egg clutches observed (Andrew Gray and Mark Wainwright in litt. To Bruce Young). In November 2007, a second (possibly large) population was discovered close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco in Costa Rica, at 1,984m asl (Alberth Rojas C. and Olivier Castro pers. comm. 2008). The status of the population in Panama is unclear (there have been no recent surveys in the area as of September 2007 [Roberto Ibáñez pers. comm. 2007]), but it has presumably also declined, and possibly disappeared, from this country.	eng
58746	threats	Robert Puschendorf, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Alan Pounds, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Alberth Rojas C and Olivier Castro, 2008	Chytridiomycosis appears to be the main cause of the decline of this species. It has disappeared from pristine habitat in Costa Rica, and probably also in Panama. Museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi, and individuals have been found with severe chytridiomycosis (Lips 2003; R. Puschendorf unpubl.). Habitat loss, due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement, has presumably also affected this species. Animals from the recently discovered population close to the Parque Nacional Juan Castro Blanco have been found with deformities, and there is some suggestion that agricultural chemicals, possibly applied to the grassy vegetation in the area, might be the cause of the deformities and the lack of larvae recently observed in the nearby stream (Alberth Rojas C.  pers. comm. 2008).	eng
58747	conservation		Monitoring is needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58747	distribution		This species can be found in the Coastal Plain in the eastern USA from New Jersey to southeastern Georgia and extreme northern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991). It has a spotty distribution.	eng
58747	habitat		This species can be found in sphagnum bogs and swamps and sphagnum borders of lakes and ponds; tea-coloured, slow moving water with abundant emergent or floating vegetation. Active adults occur at the water's edge or on partly submerged logs or among vegetation and are often in same habitats as Hyla andersonii. Eggs are laid and larvae develop in pools in adult year-around habitat; globular egg masses are attached to underwater vegetation. In southern New Jersey, calling sites had more submerged shrubs than did control sites (Given 1988).	eng
58747	population		It has a localized distribution but can be common where it does occur (Gosner and Black 1968). It is uncommon at the southern extent of the range in northern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Gosner and Black (1968) mapped 33 sites in New Jersey and 31 locations elsewhere throughout the range. Tobey (1985) mapped only about a half dozen locations in Virginia (about the same as Gosner and Black 1968).	eng
58747	threats		Threatened by loss or degradation of habitat (e.g., through ditching) at the periphery of the range in Virginia (Mitchell 1991). Local populations are presumably impacted by urbanization.	eng
58748	conservation		It might be present in Wondiwoi Nature Reserve.	eng
58748	distribution		This recently described species is known from two populations, one that ranges from 250-700m asl on the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandamen Peninsula, and a second population from the northern and southern slopes of the Fakfak Mountains, north of Fakfak town, at around 250-900m asl, in Papua, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58748	habitat		This species is associated with slow-flowing streams in closed-canopy primary rainforest. Adults are often found perched on the leaves of low vegetation 0.5-2m above the ground, and larvae have been collected in streams and from a roadside ditch.	eng
58748	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58748	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58749	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures in place, this species has been recorded from many protected areas. It should be monitored carefully to establish whether or not the disappearances at higher altitudes was due to chytridiomycosis, and how the species is recolonising these sites.	eng
58749	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This species is found in humid lowlands on the Atlantic versant from north-eastern Honduras to central Panama, both slopes of the cordilleras of Costa Rica and western Panama, the lowlands of south-western Costa Rica and eastern Panama, and gallery forests in non-peninsular north-western Costa Rica, from sea level up to 1,740m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
58749	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	This is a diurnal species associated with small streams in humid lowland, montane and gallery forest. It is found wherever patches of forest remain, even within urban areas. Larvae are found in small streams.	eng
58749	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	Once a common species, it initially declined in many montane areas of Costa Rica. It disappeared from Tapantí and the higher regions of Monteverde by the late 1980s, and disappeared at the same time from San Ramón Reserve but reappeared in 1994. It also appears to have declined at La Selva, a lowland site (Whitfield et al., 2007). It is still abundant in Tinamascas (along the road from San Isidro to Dominical), Parque Nacional Corcovado, and Ciudad Colón. It remained generally common at low elevations, and as of August 2007, the species was recolonising areas from which it had previously declined.	eng
58749	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Gerardo Chaves, Jay Savage, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Federico Bolaños, 2008	It is generally threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) resulting from agricultural development, logging, and development of human infrastructure. The disappearances at higher altitudes may have been due to chytridiomycosis, however animals are now recolonising these sites. At La Selva, declines seem to be driven by climate-driven reductions in quantity of standing leaf litter (Whitfield et al., 2007).	eng
58750	conservation		Its range includes two small provincial protected areas, Fangshan and Luojishan, and Panzhihuasutie National Nature Reserves.	eng
58750	distribution		This species is known from south-western Sichuan, north-eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou provinces in south-western China. It occurs from 1,700-2,950m asl.	eng
58750	habitat		It inhabits hill streams and the surrounding riparian habitats. Breeding takes place in small streams.	eng
58750	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58750	threats		Agricultural development and water pollution are the major threats to this species.	eng
58751	conservation		The one known location of this species is not within any protected area, and the establishment of a well-managed protected area for this species is urgent. Given the small population size, this species requires close monitoring.	eng
58751	distribution		This species is found in only one cave in Baicun, Wuchuan County, in Guizhou province, China, at about 700m asl. Attempts to locate the species at other localities have been unsuccessful.	eng
58751	habitat		Frogs at the type locality were found in a stream some 30m inside a limestone cave. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
58751	population		The population is known to be very small.	eng
58751	threats		This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat requirements, which make it particularly vulnerable to disturbance, particularly since touristic activities in the area are becoming an increasing problem.	eng
58752	conservation		Its one known locality is within Wawushan National Forest Park.	eng
58752	distribution		This species is known only from Zhangcun Village, Hongya County, in Sichuan Province, China, at around 1,300m asl.	eng
58752	habitat		It inhabits hilly areas, and probably lives in forests. Breeding takes place in slow-flowing streams and stagnant pools.	eng
58752	population		There is no information regarding this species' population status.	eng
58752	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58753	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
58753	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southern China (Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Gaungdong, Guangxi and maybe Henan Provinces). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,400m asl.	eng
58753	habitat		It inhabits forests and sometimes grasslands. It breeds in paddy fields, ponds and temporary pools with some herbaceous plants.	eng
58753	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58753	threats		Infrastructure development and water pollution are major threats to this species.	eng
58754	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. Protection of the original tropical forest is needed.	eng
58754	distribution		This species occurs in Southern Jalisco and Colima southeast along the Mexican Plateau in Michoacán, State of Mexico and Morelos southward to Guerrero and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58754	habitat		This species inhabits tropical seasonal forest at low elevations. It is highly associated with water systems such as streams, rivers and permanent and temporary ponds where it also breeds.	eng
58754	population		This is an abundant species throughout most of its range.	eng
58754	threats		Disturbance and desiccation of the water systems as a consequence of the alteration of the forest coverage is a threat to this species.	eng
58755	conservation		It is found in several protected areas within its range. There are no conservation measures needed based on the current understanding of its distribution, taxonomy and population status. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58755	distribution		This species is widespread throughout South Asia from Pakistan in the west, through India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, to Chitten Wildlife Sanctuary, Sagaing in central Myanmar (Zug, 1998). It possibly also occurs in Bangladesh. It is probably more widely distributed through the Irrawady plains but no specific records are available. It has been reported at elevations from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
58755	habitat		It has been reported from many habitats including seasonal, deciduous forest, arid plains and scrubland, grassland, areas of human habitation, plantations, and temporary stagnant wetlands in the breeding season (ponds). Adults are often found under ground cover.	eng
58755	population		It is a generally common species through most of its range. It is locally common at Sagaing Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar, but is strongly seasonal (Zug, 1998). It is regarded to be common in Sri Lanka outside the central hills.	eng
58755	threats		Habitat loss as a result of infrastructure development is the main threat to this frog. It is also threatened by agrochemical pollution and wetland reclamation in Sri Lanka.	eng
58756	conservation		Given the species' wide range it is likely to occur in numerous protected areas. It is protected by national legislation.	eng
58756	distribution		This species occurs in the Eastern and Western Ghats of India in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. It has been recorded from elevations of 600-1,000m asl.	eng
58756	habitat		It is a fossorial species of scrubland, forest (moist and dry deciduous), and forest edge habitat. It is generally only encountered during the wet season. It breeds in temporary pools by larval development.	eng
58756	population		It is locally abundant in some areas, but might be showing an overall population decline.	eng
58756	threats		The main threats to this species are the conversion of its habitat to agricultural land and road construction.	eng
58757	conservation		It is protected by national legislation. A more detailed taxonomic study of the possible second specimen is required.	eng
58757	distribution		This species is currently known with certainty only from the type locality of "Wattakole, Coorg" (Rao 1937) in India. A second site (Gumta, Karnataka) recently recorded by Padhye (pers. comm.), requires further confirmation and is not included in this assessment. Only the type locality has so far been used in attempts to map this species' distribution.	eng
58757	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known, but it presumably breeds in temporary pools.	eng
58757	population		It is currently known with certainty only from the type specimen, which is recorded as lost by Dutta (1997), so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58757	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58758	conservation		The species is known from the Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal. A recent field study was undertaken by Shrestha (2001).	eng
58758	distribution		This species is endemic to the central and eastern Himalayan foothills of Nepal. Its distribution is still very poorly known, and it can be expected to occur more widely, including in India and Bhutan. It has been recorded at elevations of 100-500m asl.	eng
58758	habitat		It is a fossorial species that breeds in pools and marshes. There is little information known about egg deposition or larval ecology.	eng
58758	population		It is generally considered to be rare, although this might be a reflection of the collection methods used for this cryptic species.	eng
58758	threats		Water pollution from agrochemicals is the only identified threat to this species.	eng
58759	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas in India and Sri Lanka. It is protected by national legislation in India.	eng
58759	distribution		This species is widely distributed over much of India and Sri Lanka. It is present from sea level up to 200m asl.	eng
58759	habitat		It is a largely sub-fossorial species found in loose soil within dry forest, scrubland and agricultural areas. Adults can be found in cracks in mud and inside sand heaps. It is an explosive breeder in temporary monsoon pools.	eng
58759	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58759	threats		The main threats to this species are the loss of suitable habitat through infrastructure development and urbanization, agrochemical pollution, the desiccation of the habitat and wetlands reclamation (for housing in Sri Lanka).	eng
58760	conservation		Further work is required to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding this species' genus, including whether or not this is a valid species. It has been recorded from Kashitapo Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
58760	distribution		This species is known only from Dharan, and its immediate vicinity, in Nepal, where it has been recorded from 100-300m asl.	eng
58760	habitat		It is a fossorial species associated with sandy marshland.	eng
58760	population		It is common within its known restricted range.	eng
58760	threats		The main threat to this species is the pollution of marshland by agrochemicals.	eng
58761	conservation		The range of this species includes Kinabalu, Tawau Hills, and Gunung Mulu National Parks. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland rainforest in hilly terrain in Kalimantan is needed	eng
58761	distribution		This is an endemic species of Borneo; it is widely distributed in Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei Darussalam, and northern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is known from elevations between 150 and 1,000m asl.	eng
58761	habitat		It is most common in primary lowland rainforest where it perches on vertical rock faces alongside or in the midstream of rapids in clear, swift, rocky streams. It can occur in disturbed areas close to primary forest.	eng
58761	population		At some localities it is very abundant.	eng
58761	threats		Deforestation is the principal threat to this species.	eng
58762	conservation		In Borneo, a number of well-protected national parks provide refuge for the species, and it is found in a few protected areas in the Philippines. Conservation measures must include the protection of the remaining rainforest, especially riverine habitats and gallery forests in the Philippines, and increased protection of the lowland forests of Kalimantan.	eng
58762	distribution		This species is found in Palawan, Mindanao, Leyte, Bohol, Basilan, Busuanga, Culion, and Samar Islands in the Philippines, and has been observed at many sites in Borneo (in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. All records are from between 150-1,000m asl.	eng
58762	habitat		It is found along clear, small, rocky streams in primary forest in hilly terrain. Adults perch on twigs of vegetation overhanging streams or on rocks lining the banks. It breeds, lays its eggs and undergoes larval development in water. Tadpoles have been found in masses of dead leaves submerged in water.	eng
58762	population		It is very common where it occurs.	eng
58762	threats		This species occupies a wide geographic and elevational distribution. Nevertheless, some populations are subject to the threats of deforestation, and the pollution of streams and rivers.	eng
58763	conservation		It is present in at least four protected areas, including Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks. Improved protection of hilly forests in Kalimantan is needed.	eng
58763	distribution		This Bornean endemic is known from most of the hilly forests of Sabah (Malaysia) and Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei Darussalam, and from north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 150-1,800m asl, but it is rare below 500m asl.	eng
58763	habitat		It lives along the banks of clear, small, rocky streams in primary forests, and can be found perching on rocks either along banks or mid-stream, usually near rapids. Breeding takes place in streams, but the larvae have yet to be recorded.	eng
58763	population		This species can be very common along some rocky streams.	eng
58763	threats		Deforestation caused by logging, and the associated sedimentation of streams, are the principal threats to this species.	eng
58764	conservation		Most of its range is within protected areas.	eng
58764	distribution		This species is almost entirely restricted to the mountain ranges of the Western Cape Province of South Africa, extending north as far as Hoogvertoon in the Cederberg, and from the Cape Peninsula east as far as Witelsbos Forest Reserve in the Tsitsikamma Mountains, in the Eastern Cape Province. It occurs up to 1,670m asl.	eng
58764	habitat		It inhabits mountain fynbos heath land and it is sometimes found on the margins of forest. It breeds during the winter in shallow, seasonal, well-vegetated marshy areas and seepages in high rainfall areas. The eggs are laid out of water on waterlogged earth. Once they have developed to a certain stage the rains sweep them down to streams where the larvae complete their development.	eng
58764	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
58764	threats		The main threats are the spread of invasive alien vegetation, afforestation, fires taking place too frequently, and urban development in certain coastal areas. However, most of its range is in protected areas, and it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
58765	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58765	distribution		This species ranges from southern South Africa along the south and east coast, from Bonnievale in Western Cape Province eastwards through the Eastern Cape Province to coastal KwaZulu-Natal Province, and inland to the borders of Lesotho, and the Drakensberg escarpment of Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces and Swaziland, then northwards to Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, and southwestern Zambia. It most likely occurs throughout Lesotho but more sampling is required to confirm this. It is sporadically distributed in the high-altitude grasslands of the eastern Free State, Guateng, North West and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa. It occurs from sea level to 1,100m asl.	eng
58765	habitat		It occurs in forest, fynbos heath land, thickets, grassland and savannah. The eggs are laid singly in shallow water on the edges of streams or other bodies of water with grassy margins. It can also be found in well-vegetated human-maded dams, ponds and irrigation canals. It can tolerate disturbance and has been found in urban gardens and plots, and in dams in forestry plantations.	eng
58765	population		It is a common species.	eng
58765	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58766	conservation		It occurs in Arusha National Park (Tanzania), Kililmanjaro National Park (Tanzania), Nyika National Park (Malawi), and probably several other protected areas.	eng
58766	distribution		This species occurs in the mountains of Tanzania (Mount Meru, Mount Kilimanjaro, West Usambaras, Ulugurus, Rubehos, Udzungwas, Southern Highlands (including Mount Rungwe), and Ufipa Plateau), Malawi (Misuku Hills, Nyika Plateau, Zomba Plateau, Shire Highlands and Mount Mulanje), and northeastern Zambia (Nyika Plateau). It is a montane species, probably generally found above 1,500m asl, and ranging up to 3,000m asl.	eng
58766	habitat		It is a montane grassland species, and it can be found far from water, except when it is breeding. The males call from flooded grass. The eggs are laid in cluster just above streams underneath dense vegetation. The larvae develop in streams.	eng
58766	population		It is a common species.	eng
58766	threats		Its montane grassland habitat is threatened in parts of its range due to afforestation, overgrazing, agriculture, human settlement and invasive spread of eucalyptus and other trees, all of which can lead to siltation of its breeding streams.	eng
58767	conservation		There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
58767	distribution		This species is endemic to South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. It is widely distributed, except in the drier areas, in the Western Cape Province, east through the Eastern Cape Province, to Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal Province, and northwards through western Swaziland to Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces. There are isolated populations in South Africa on the borders with Botswana and Namibia, and it presumably occurs in these two countries, although there have not so far been any records. It is introduced on St. Helena. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
58767	habitat		It inhabits all biomes of South Africa, excluding the arid areas, such as forest, fynbos heath land, thicket, savannah and grassland, as well as modified habitats. It breeds in almost any well vegetated shallow body of water, such as pools, dams, ponds, ditches, and brackish pools along the coast within the spray zone, and shallow seeps. It can also tolerate polluted waters. It lays its eggs out of the water in moist situations, and the tadpoles enter the water to complete their development.	eng
58767	population		It is a common species.	eng
58767	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations. Chytrid fungus was detected in this species in Western Cape, South Africa.	eng
58768	conservation		Its range includes uKhahlamba-Drakensburg Park. More surveying within the species' range is needed, especially monitoring for any chytridiomycosis impacts.	eng
58768	distribution		This species is endemic of the high slopes of the Drakensberg Mountains and Lesotho Highlands, in South Africa and Lesotho. It occurs at 1,800-3,000m asl.	eng
58768	habitat		It lives in high-altitude riverine grassland. It breeds in seepage areas on the rocky banks of slow-flowing streams, or near the edges of pools. It lays its eggs in water.	eng
58768	population		It is an uncommon species. There have only been two records since 1975, but this is probably a result of limited survey effort.	eng
58768	threats		Despite its rarity, it faces few threats due to the remoteness of its habitat. However, being a high-altitude stream-breeder, it is a candidate species for chytridiomycosis.	eng
58769	conservation		It occurs in the Kitumbeine Forest Reserve.	eng
58769	distribution		This recently discovered species is known only from Mount Kitumbeine, an extinct volcano in northern Tanzania, from 2,180-2,800m asl. Its range is likely to be very restricted, since most other sites where it could occur have already been surveyed without success. However, it is possible that it might be found on the poorly surveyed peaks of Monduli, Longido and Gelai.	eng
58769	habitat		It has been found along semi-permanent and seasonal streams, and around temporary pools in montane <em>Juniperus</em> forest, and tussock montane grassland. It is able to survive in heavily disturbed forest. It presumably breeds in pools or streams by larval development, but this is not confirmed. Males have been heard calling in April.	eng
58769	population		It is apparently common in its small range.	eng
58769	threats		The habitats on Mount Kitumbeine are threatened by livestock grazing, human settlement, and fire.	eng
58770	conservation		Its entire known range is within the Arusha National Park. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
58770	distribution		This species is known only from the high elevations of Mount Meru in northern Tanzania at around 3,000m asl (although it apparently also occurs at somewhat lower elevations than this).	eng
58770	habitat		It is presumably associated with streams both in upper montane forest and in afro-alpine heath land. Breeding takes place in streams at the beginning of the year, with juveniles present by April.	eng
58770	population		There is little direct information on the population status of this species, although there are recent records.	eng
58770	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58771	conservation		It occurs in the Nyanga National Park, the Chimanimani National Park, and the Gungunyana Nature Reserve (all in Zimbabwe).	eng
58771	distribution		This species occurs widely in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and on Mount Gorongoza in Mozambique. It is a montane species, probably occurring well above 1,000m asl.	eng
58771	habitat		It lives in montane grassland and forest, and also in bracken heath land. It is associated with streams and small rivers in which it presumably breeds.	eng
58771	population		It is common within its restricted range.	eng
58771	threats		Its high-altitude habitat has been relatively intact up until now, but it might be at risk from wood plantations, overgrazing by livestock, and human settlement.	eng
58772	conservation		It occurs in the Richtersveld National Park.	eng
58772	distribution		This species lives in mountainous areas of Namaqualand, north of the Knersvlakte and south of the Orange River, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. It has not so far been recorded from Namibia, although it is likely to occur there. It is found at 200-1,600m asl.	eng
58772	habitat		It lives in springs and streams in rocky hills and mountains in the Succulent Karoo and Fynbos (heath land) biomes. It breeds in springs and streams, small permanent and temporary ponds, as well as small artificial dams. It lays its eggs out of water under rocks or in rock crevices, tunnels in vegetation, or rodent burrows. Development is arrested after the tadpole's eyes and tail are formed, and awaits the rains that hatch the eggs and sweep the tadpoles into water.	eng
58772	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58772	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss due to grazing pressure (including trampling at watering points), and siltation and pollution of the streams. The type locality, an old reservoir in the town of Springbok (for which the species is named), has been turned it into a duck pond.	eng
58773	conservation		This species does occurs in a few protected areas (such as Entumeni Nature Reserve and Ngome Forest Reserve).	eng
58773	distribution		This species ranges from the Weza Forest in KwaZulu-Natal northwards along the foothills of the Drakensberg mountain range in South Africa. Isolated populations exist further to the east in Qudeni Forest, Entumeni Nature Reserve, and Ngome Forest Reserve, and along the southern boundary of Mpumalanga Province. It occurs from low altitudes up to 2,000m asl. It might occur in Lesotho, but it has not so far been found there.	eng
58773	habitat		At lower altitudes it inhabits mist-belt forest, and at higher altitudes up to 2,000m asl it occurs in montane grassland. This species appears to be quite sensitive to habitat degradation. It breeds in quiet pools in clear streams. The eggs are laid on vegetation dangling into the water or on rocks, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
58773	population		It is a rare species, which appears to be in decline in some regions.	eng
58773	threats		This species is threatened by afforestation, and by the introduction of exotic trout that prey on the larvae. There has also been some loss of the indigenous forest for agricultural development.	eng
58774	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58774	distribution		This widespread species from the savannah zone of sub-Saharan Africa occurs in xeric regions from Senegal, Mauritania (Adrar and presumably the extreme south), and east to Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, southwards to southern Angola, northeastern Namibia, and South Africa. There is probably a disjunction in its range in southern Tanzania, northern Zambia and northern Mozambique due to lack of suitable habitats. Records appear to be lacking from Burkina Faso, Chad, and Central African Republic, though it presumably occurs in these countries. It is very hard to identify with certainty without calls, so the distribution map is provisional, and many of the records might refer to Tomopterna tandyi.	eng
58774	habitat		It is a species of sandy soils along drainage lines in dry savannah, grassland and in semi-desert conditions. At higher altitudes it is found in montane grassland. It breeds in temporary pools in dry areas, and in roadside puddles and oases.	eng
58774	population		It is a very common species in suitable habitats.	eng
58774	threats		It is a very resilient species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58775	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58775	distribution		This recently discovered species is known only from its type locality, Khorixas, in north-western Namibia. It almost certainly occurs more widely in the Kaokoveld area, and some previous records of other <em>Tomopterna</em> species, in particular <em>T. tandyi</em>, might refer to this species.	eng
58775	habitat		It has been found in arid wooded savannah. There is no information regarding its breeding biology, although reproduction presumably takes place in temporary waterbodies, as with other species of <em>Tomopterna</em>.	eng
58775	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from five specimens.	eng
58775	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58776	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58776	distribution		This species is endemic to South Africa, where it ranges from Namaqualand, southward in sandy areas to the Western Cape, and eastwards along the coast to Port Alfred. It occurs in low-lying areas.	eng
58776	habitat		It lives in fynbos heath land and succulent karroo shrubland, and also in agricultural land. It breeds in both temporary and semi-permanent water in pans, pools, vleis and dams, in flat, sandy areas.	eng
58776	population		It is a very abundant species with large populations.	eng
58776	threats		Local populations are probably impacted by the spread of alien vegetation (leading to a lowering of water table), and by agricultural and urban expansion, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
58777	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58777	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Angola, through northern Namibia and Botswana, to southern Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Swaziland, and southern Mozambique. It occurs from sea level to 1,500m asl. It is indistinguishable morphologically from Tomopterna cryptotis and T. tandyi, but it has a distinct call. Records based on morphology might be assigned to the wrong species.	eng
58777	habitat		It is a savannah, seeming to prefer sandy soils. It also survives on disturbed areas. It breeds in large and small temporary waterbodies, such as pans, vleis and flooded grassland.	eng
58777	population		It has very large populations in Mozambique, Kruger National Park and northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), but it appears to be rare elsewhere.	eng
58777	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58778	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58778	distribution		This species is known from northern South Africa, eastern Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern Zambia, southern and western Mozambique and southern Malawi. It might occur in Swaziland. It is also known from a few localities in Kenya, which suggests that it is also present in Tanzania. A record from Namibia was a misidentification. It occurs mainly below 1,000m asl.	eng
58778	habitat		It is a savannah, associated with sandy soils. It also survives on disturbed areas. It breeds in still regions of rivers or streams, isolated pools, pans and dams, generally favouring temporary waterbodies.	eng
58778	population		It is less common than some other Tomopterna species.	eng
58778	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58779	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58779	distribution		This species occurs mainly in northern and eastern South Africa, extending into Swaziland and southern Mozambique. It is likely to occur in Lesotho. It ranges from sea level to 2,000m asl.	eng
58779	habitat		It lives in grassland and savannah, and it can also be found in agricultural habitats. It breeds in shallow temporary, semi-permanent and permanent streams, furrows or vleis, also in still water (but it favours slow-flowing water).	eng
58779	population		It is a somewhat uncommon species.	eng
58779	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58780	conservation		It is likely to be found in many protected areas.	eng
58780	distribution		This species is known from South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and southwestern Angola, and from the interior of Tanzania and Kenya. For the most part distributional records have not been separated between this species and Tomopterna cryptotis. The distribution map is therefore incomplete and provisional, and is based on confirmed records only in South Africa, Tanzania and Kenya. There are no definite records from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland, although it almost certainly occurs in these countries. It occurs from sea level to over 1,800m asl.	eng
58780	habitat		It is a species of dry savannah, bush land and grassland, and it is often found in agricultural areas. It is particularly associated with loose sandy soils where temporary pans form. It breeds in temporary shallow water, ditches, streams and dams, and is commonly found in farm dams.	eng
58780	population		Its abundance is unclear, due to widespread confusion with related species. However, it is locally abundant in South Africa.	eng
58780	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats, except in localized situations.	eng
58781	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58781	distribution		This species ranges from northwestern Namibia and western Angola, through Zambia, Zimbabwe and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, to northern Tanzania. It is likely to be found in Mozambique and Malawi.	eng
58781	habitat		It is a species of open savannah woodland. The males call from the edge of water, often camouflaged among pebbles. It breeds in shallow pools and pits. Its adaptability to altered habitats is not clear.	eng
58781	population		There is little information, although it is believed to be common in suitable situations.	eng
58781	threats		It is widely distributed in a region of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except in local situations.	eng
58782	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58782	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.	eng
58782	habitat		It occurs in forests along montane rivers. It is common in rivers and forests in montane areas.	eng
58782	population		It is a common species.	eng
58782	threats		Dam construction, in particular the construction of artificial concrete riverbanks, is a localized threat to this species.	eng
58783	conservation		Several protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
58783	distribution		This species is widespread in Taiwan, Province of China, and is also distributed in the Ryukyu Archipelago in Japan. It has been recorded below 1,800m asl, but it is more common at lower altitudes.	eng
58783	habitat		It occurs in a wide variety of habitats. It inhabits streams and hot springs, and breeds in slow-flowing waters such as streams, ditches, rivers, paddy fields, springs, pools and seepages.	eng
58783	population		It is a common species.	eng
58783	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species, in particular agriculture and infrastructure development.	eng
58784	conservation		It is present in several protected areas on the island.	eng
58784	distribution		This species is endemic to the hilly areas (80-800m asl) in central and south-western Hainan, China.	eng
58784	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in medium and large streams, usually in forested regions, including in heavily disturbed forest.	eng
58784	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58784	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, due to smallholder farming activities and dam construction, is a localized threat. Over-exploitation for human consumption might also be a threat.	eng
58785	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas on the island. It is a Class II protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
58785	distribution		This species is widespread in Taiwan, Province of China, below 1,800m asl.	eng
58785	habitat		It is found at low to medium altitude, in unpolluted hill streams. It breeds in mountain streams or rivers in relatively open areas. Egg masses are deposited directly in water, and no foam nests are produced.	eng
58785	population		It is a common species.	eng
58785	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are localized threats to this species, in particular agriculture and infrastructure development. It is also collected for consumption locally.	eng
58786	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58786	distribution		This species is known only from two widely separated localities in north-eastern India: close to Cherrapunji town in Meghalaya State, and Namdapha Biosphere Reserve in the state of Arunchal Pradesh. It was collected at the type locality at around 1,330m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular between the currently known sites.	eng
58786	habitat		There is little information available regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It is said to be a bush frog, and probably occurs in montane forest. The original description mentions that it has a free-living larval stage, although this requires confirmation.	eng
58786	population		It is still known only from the type collection.	eng
58786	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58787	conservation	Chou Wenhao, Shi Haitao, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing, Peter Paul van Dijk, Annemarie Ohler, Sushil Dutta & Mohini Mohan Borah, 2004	It occurs in a number of protected areas within its range, including Daweishan, Huangliangshan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves in China, Namdhapa National Park (Arunachal Pradesh) in India, and Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. The maintenance of these protected areas and the expansion/improvement of their management is necessary.	eng
58787	distribution	Chou Wenhao, Shi Haitao, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing, Peter Paul van Dijk, Annemarie Ohler, Sushil Dutta & Mohini Mohan Borah, 2004	This species is known with certainty from northeast India (Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar, isolated locations in northern Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, northern and southern Viet Nam and the Cardamom mountains of Cambodia as well as southwestern Yunnan and Hainan in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. All confirmed records of this species from Southeast Asia are at altitudes between 250 and 1,500 m asl (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999; Stuart 1999 and Stuart 2005), but in India it is only known from below 100 m asl. In China it occurs up to 1,630 m asl.	eng
58787	habitat	Chou Wenhao, Shi Haitao, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing, Peter Paul van Dijk, Annemarie Ohler, Sushil Dutta & Mohini Mohan Borah, 2004	It inhabits open grassy areas that may be surrounded by slope or montane evergreen forest or scrub. It is also found in paddy fields. It breeds in swampy, grassy pools where it makes foam nests above the water.	eng
58787	population	Chou Wenhao, Shi Haitao, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing, Peter Paul van Dijk, Annemarie Ohler, Sushil Dutta & Mohini Mohan Borah, 2004	It is reportedly common in China, not common in Southeast Asia, and rare in India.	eng
58787	threats	Chou Wenhao, Shi Haitao, Yang Datong, Lu Shunqing, Peter Paul van Dijk, Annemarie Ohler, Sushil Dutta & Mohini Mohan Borah, 2004	Habitat impacts, including clearing for agriculture, water pollution and wildfires, are presumably localized threats to this species.	eng
58788	conservation		Further taxonomic studies of this species are recommended. Its only known locality is Dudhwa National Park.	eng
58788	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality of Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh, India, where it was collected below 100m asl, although it is expected to occur more widely.	eng
58788	habitat		This is a semi-arboreal species that is mostly associated with scrub forest, grassland and rural areas. Breeding takes place in permanent pools, although there is little other information available on its egg deposition or larval ecology.	eng
58788	population		It is considered to be rare.	eng
58788	threats		Since it is known only from within a protected area, there are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
58789	conservation		Taxonomic validation is needed for this species. It has been reported from Phu Kradung National Park in northern Thailand.	eng
58789	distribution		Although this species has been reported from parts of northern and south-eastern Thailand, it appears that many records might be confusions with other <em>Chirixalus</em> species. Until its range can be better confirmed, its distribution has been considered here as being the area of the type locality of Nong Khor in Chonburi Province, south-eastern Thailand. This species has been recorded up to about 900m asl, although the identity of these specimens requires confirmation.	eng
58789	habitat		It is reported to be known from "small rain pools or ponds chiefly in lowland forest" (Taylor 1962).	eng
58789	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58789	threats		The most likely threats to it are large scale forest clearance and fire.	eng
58790	conservation		Establishing the taxonomic validity of this species is required before further conservation measures can be considered.	eng
58790	distribution		This species is known only from Sui Kat, in the Lang Bian plateau in southern Viet Nam, where it was collected at 1,000m asl.	eng
58790	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species were not reported beyond that the collection locality was at 1,000m asl. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.	eng
58790	population		It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1918 and it has not been recorded since, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58790	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58791	conservation		It inhabits a significant number of protected areas in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic and Viet Nam. No measures beyond safeguarding the integrity of these protected areas are considered required at present.	eng
58791	distribution		This species is known from Myanmar (Zug <em>et al.</em>, 1998), Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Cambodia and Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,700m asl.	eng
58791	habitat		It breeds at grassy rain pools in deciduous forest in lowlands, up to lower montane evergreen forest. It has also been recorded from forest edge and scrubland. It has not been reported or encountered away from breeding pools.	eng
58791	population		It is generally relatively common where it occurs at breeding aggregations, but it is rarely as numerous as syntopic C. vittatus.	eng
58791	threats		Clear cutting of forests is a threat to this species.	eng
58792	conservation		It occurs in Daweishan National Nature Reserve in China, and in Kon Cha Ran Nature Reserve and Tam Dao National Park in Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). Further efforts are needed to establish protected areas at Buon Luoi and elsewhere in the An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam.	eng
58792	distribution		This species is known from Hekou and Pingbian in Yunnan, China, from Tam Dao in northern Viet Nam (Nguyen Quong Truong pers. comm.), and from the higher altitudes of the Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 700-2,000m asl.	eng
58792	habitat		This species is known from pools and swampy riparian areas in forest, although the non-breeding habitat is poorly known. Single eggs are laid on plant stems above water.	eng
58792	population		It is considered common in China. In Viet Nam it is known from a single specimen collected in 1918, and then large series were collected from 1993 to 1995 (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It was also recorded from a few specimens in Tam Dao in 2000.	eng
58792	threats		The principal threats to this species are forest degradation and water pollution arising from agricultural activities.	eng
58793	conservation		It has been collected at the headquarters of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Wildlife Sanctuary, but apparently not within the protected area itself.	eng
58793	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from the south-western foothills of Rakhine Yoma, Gwa Township, in Rakhine State in western Myanmar, at close to sea level.	eng
58793	habitat		Individuals were found in disturbed habitat between mountain evergreen forests and agricultural land, 1-2m above the ground in bushes. This species may be restricted to remaining secondary habitat in Rakhine as remnant populations, or (as with other <em>Chirixalus</em> species in Myanmar) they might prefer degraded habitats. Animals were not found in evergreen forests (Wilkinson <em>et al.</em> 2003). The eggs are deposited in foam nests, in particular on plants of the genus <em>Arum</em>, hanging over standing water. The larvae presumably develop in the water.	eng
58793	population		The animals were collected in a seasonal breeding chorus, so it was difficult to determine its abundance, and its population status remains unknown.	eng
58793	threats		Given its adaptability to agricultural land, this species is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
58794	conservation		Some major strongholds for this species are listed as Sites of Special Scientific Interest, and all translocated populations have been released into protected areas. This species is also protected in Hong Kong. There was a successful collaborative breeding and release programme involving Melbourne Zoo, WWF Hong Kong, the University of Hong Kong and the Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Gardens. Monitoring of wild populations is ongoing.	eng
58794	distribution		This natural distribution of this species is restricted four islands (Lantau, Lamma, Chek Lap Kok and Po Toi) in Hong Kong. As mitigation of the effects of airport construction on Chek Lap Kok, the Chek Lap Kok population was translocated to suitable sites on Hong Kong Island and the New Territories (including Tsiu Hang Special Area, Tai Lam Country Park and Tai Po Kau Nature Reserve). It occurs from sea level to 650m asl.	eng
58794	habitat		It inhabits forests, old plantations and nearby streams and marshes, but does not occur in open areas. Breeding takes place in shaded temporary pools, marshes, seepages, slow-flowing stream pools, ponds and water-filled small containers.	eng
58794	population		Of the eight new sites to which populations were translocated, only seven still hold breeding populations.	eng
58794	threats		Infrastructure development for human settlement and the construction of an airport are the major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
58795	conservation		Namdapha National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
58795	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Namdapha National Park, in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India, although it is likely to occur more widely. It is a lowland species that was recorded at an altitude of 500m asl.	eng
58795	habitat		This is a little-known inhabitant of tropical forest and shrubland that presumably breeds by larval development, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
58795	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58795	threats		This species might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna. It might also possibly be threatened by invasive alien plant species (<em>Mikania</em> sp. and <em>Lantana camara</em>).	eng
58796	conservation		It has been recorded from Nameri National Park and Orang National Park.	eng
58796	distribution		This species is known from northeast India (West Bengal and Assam) and south-eastern Bangladesh (Chittagong and Rangamati Hill-district), and might occur more widely. It is generally a lowland species found at elevations below 100m asl.	eng
58796	habitat		It is an arboreal species that is mostly associated with scrub forest habitats. Breeding takes place in pools, with eggs deposited on vegetation.	eng
58796	population		It is generally believed to be a reasonably abundant species.	eng
58796	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58797	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species. There are no conservation measures considered necessary beyond maintaining the existing protected areas, where the species is well established.	eng
58797	distribution		This species has a scattered distribution in southern and southwestern China (Fujian, Xizang, Yunnan, Guangxi and Hainan) and ranges from northeastern India (West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh) through eastern Myanmar, mainland Thailand, Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Cambodia to Viet Nam. It occurs from sea level up to about 1,500m asl.	eng
58797	habitat		It is an inhabitant of open grassy areas in tropical forest and forest edge. It breeds in forest ponds and rain-pools (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999 and Stuart, 1999). It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification and has been found in paddy fields.	eng
58797	population		It is generally considered common, and has been reported as common at breeding aggregations, hundreds of animals often assembling (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
58797	threats		There are no known threats to this species. It is able to adapt to some disturbed habitats.	eng
58798	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas, for example the Omo and Mago National Parks in southern Ethiopia. It does not occur in any protected areas in Somalia.	eng
58798	distribution		This species occurs in lowland eastern and southern Ethiopia, most of Somalia, and in northern and northeastern Kenya. It is likely to occur in extreme southeastern Sudan. It appears to be sympatric with Chiromantis petersii in parts of northern Kenya.	eng
58798	habitat		It is a species of arid savannahs and shrubland, breeding in foam nest above temporary pools.	eng
58798	population		It does not appear to be unduly rare, but still unresolved taxonomic problems make assessment difficult.	eng
58798	threats		The most obvious threat is environmental degradation as a result of human settlement and expansion, with consequently increased populations of domestic livestock. However, this species is likely to be reasonably adaptable.	eng
58799	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
58799	distribution		This species is known only from Kenya and Tanzania where it ranges through much of the inland areas of both countries, generally in areas experiencing less than 800mm mean annual rainfall. It appears to be sympatric with Chiromantis kelleri in parts of northern Kenya.	eng
58799	habitat		It is a species of dry savannah woodland that also occurs in agricultural and suburban situations. It breeds in temporary pools, using foam nests.	eng
58799	population		It is a reasonably common species.	eng
58799	threats		It is unlikely to be significantly threatened, except perhaps locally by overgrazing by domestic livestock.	eng
58800	conservation	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Burger, M., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58800	distribution	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Burger, M., 2004	This species ranges from Sierra Leone east to Uganda, including on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Togo, Benin, and the Cabinda enclave of Angola, though it is likely to occur in these countries.	eng
58800	habitat	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Burger, M., 2004	It is a species of the forest belt, and is found in primary rainforest, secondary forest, and the transition zone between forest and savannah. It does not survive in heavily degraded former forest (i.e., farm bush). It can survive in quite dry habitats. It always uses temporary stagnant water for breeding, ranging from small ponds to huge temporary lakes. It breeds using foam nests above the water.	eng
58800	population	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Burger, M., 2004	It is a common species.	eng
58800	threats	Schiøtz, A., Rödel, M.-O. & Burger, M., 2004	It is not seriously threatened, but is locally impacted by very severe deforestation.	eng
58801	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
58801	distribution		This species ranges from coastal Kenya south to northern KwaZulu Natal in South Africa, and inland as far west as eastern Botswana and west-central Angola. It is present on the island of Zanzibar in Tanzania. It might occur in extreme southern Democratic Republic of Congo and extreme southern Somalia, but apparently has not been recorded yet been recorded in these countries. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58801	habitat		It is a very adaptable species living in all types of savannah, shrubland, disturbed forests, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and suburban areas. It breeds in temporary pools using foam nests.	eng
58801	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
58801	threats		It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58802	conservation		This species occurs in many protected areas in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
58802	distribution		This species is found in Taiwan, Province of China, and is also distributed in Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima in Japan. In Taiwan, Province of China, it has been recorded from 300-2,000m asl.	eng
58802	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forests, mixed forests and bamboo forests. It breeds in cut bamboo stems and tree hole by larval development.	eng
58802	population		It is a common species; however there has been a decline due to habitat loss.	eng
58802	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species. Any action to reduce the number of tree holes will certainly disturb the population. Previous deforestation and forest modification have greatly reduced the species' numbers. However, bamboo plantations in certain areas have had a positive impact on the population because bamboo stumps are ideal breeding sites. In recent years, deforestation has slowed significantly.	eng
58803	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
58803	distribution		This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China, and occurs below 2,000m asl.	eng
58803	habitat		It inhabits shrubland, grassland, paddy fields and nearby pools. It usually breeds in shallow, still waterbodies.	eng
58803	population		It is a common species.	eng
58803	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are potential threats to this species, in particular infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
58804	conservation		It occurs in Halimun and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Parks.	eng
58804	distribution		This species occurs in at least three areas of the island of Java, Indonesia, above 700m asl. It was rediscovered in 1997 after a long absence of records.	eng
58804	habitat		It lives in undisturbed highland forest. It presumably breeds in tree holes by larval development, but its breeding habits have not been recorded.	eng
58804	population		It is a rare species, and fewer than ten specimens are known.	eng
58804	threats		The major threat to this species is the loss of its forest habitat due to smallholder farming and subsistence wood collection.	eng
58805	conservation		The species has been recorded from Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary and Mouling National Park in Assam, and Nameri National Park in Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
58805	distribution		This species has a fragmented range in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, India. It probably occurs somewhat more widely, and might be present in Bhutan, although this requires confirmation. It has been recorded at elevations of 300-1,500m asl.	eng
58805	habitat		It is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest and shrubland. Breeding is believed to take place in ponds surrounded by shrubs.	eng
58805	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58805	threats		Subsistence wood collection is a threat to the species' habitat.	eng
58806	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, but more effective protection of lowland rainforest is critical to ensure the persistence of this species.	eng
58806	distribution		This species is found from Yala in extreme southern Thailand (Taylor 1962) through Peninsular Malaysia (Berry 1975), Singapore (Lim and Lim 1992), Sumatra (including Siberut in the Mentawai Islands) in Indonesia, northern parts of Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), and Palawan in the Philippines. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 50-700m asl.	eng
58806	habitat		Adults live in the shrub and lower tree strata in primary and secondary forests. This species breeds by larval development in arboreal water-filled cavities and in rotting logs.	eng
58806	population		It is widespread but nowhere is it common.	eng
58806	threats		The major threat is forest clearance due to agriculture and logging.	eng
58807	conservation		Its known range is not within any protected area. Further surveys to locate additional populations are needed. In the absence of adequate information on threats, no conservation measures can be suggested beyond the recommendation that the type locality be conserved.	eng
58807	distribution		This species is known only from Buon Luoi, An Khe, in Gia Lai Province in southern Viet Nam. It is uncertain whether or not it is restricted to a small range, or whether or not it is more widespread but has not been recognized as distinct because of its similarity to other <em>Philautus</em> species (which are a very difficult group to distinguish between). It has been recorded from 700-750m asl.	eng
58807	habitat		All the known specimens were collected from shrubs and grassy vegetation along a steep rocky stream in evergreen forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development, although this has not been confirmed.	eng
58807	population		Only a single population is known, from which eleven animals were collected in 1995 (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
58807	threats		It might be threatened by the substantial forest and stream degradation occurring on the Kon Tum plateau (Darevsky and Orlov 1997; Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
58808	conservation		It occurs in the Labugama and Dediyagala Forest Reserves.	eng
58808	distribution		This species is endemic to the southwest lowlands of Sri Lanka, where it occurs at elevations of 78-150m asl. There are records from Labugama, Dediyagala and Kanneliya. Its predicted Area of Occupancy is 500km2.	eng
58808	habitat		It is a habitat generalist, living in a wide variety of open, closed and disturbed habitats, including forest, forest edge, bush land, plantations and home gardens. It is very adaptable. It breeds by direct development	eng
58808	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
58808	threats		Apart from the possible impacts of agro-chemicals, this species is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
58809	conservation		Some populations of this species are protected in national parks, although there remains a need for improved protection of remaining forested habitats on Mindanao.	eng
58809	distribution		This species is found in Jolo, Basilan, and in many parts of Mindanao, in the Philippines.	eng
58809	habitat		It inhabits arboreal and occasionally terrestrial microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests and disturbed areas adjacent to forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58809	population		It is a common species.	eng
58809	threats		The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest due to agriculture (crops and plantations), logging, and human settlement.	eng
58810	conservation		The only known population is within Gunung Mulu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for targeted surveys to determine and monitor the population status of this species.	eng
58810	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park, in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations of around 1,300m asl.	eng
58810	habitat		It lives in the shrub stratum of submontane and montane forests. Males call in groups, and breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
58810	population		The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58810	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present; however, its restricted range makes it especially vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58811	conservation		It is not known to have occurred in any protected areas.	eng
58811	distribution		This extinct Sri Lankan species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon" (not "Peradeniya" as sometimes stated) and from Nuwara Eliya, a resort town among mountains at 1,700-2,500m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Only the site of Nuwara Eliya has been mapped here. Reports of this frog occurring in India (Krishnamurthy and Sakunthala 1993) are believed to be erroneous (S.K. Dutta pers. comm. 2002).	eng
58811	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58811	population		It is known only from two specimens, and was last collected around 1886. It is now thought to be extinct since recent extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.	eng
58811	threats		The threats that led to the extinction of this species are not known, though habitat loss through conversion of land to agricultural use seems the most likely cause.	eng
58812	conservation		Further taxonomic research is required to clarify whether or not this is a valid species. Its range includes Dayaoshan and Dalaoshan National Nature Reserves.	eng
58812	distribution		This species is known only from Dayaoshan and Dalaoshan in Guangxi Province, and from Medog in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 850-1,350m asl.	eng
58812	habitat		It inhabits mid-altitude and montane moist forests, and breeds in pools by larval development.	eng
58812	population		It is rare in its known localities.	eng
58812	threats		The main potential threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to agricultural development.	eng
58813	conservation		It is found in Horton Plains National Park, but there is need for strengthened protection of habitat in the Central Hills of Sri Lanka.	eng
58813	distribution		This species is endemic to the Horton Plains and Pattipola, in the Central Hill Country, in Sri Lanka, and occurs from 1,890-2,135m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58813	habitat		It hs been found mostly on shrubs (usually less than 0.3-2m above ground) in montane tropical forest, forest edge (bordering tea plantations) and anthropogenic habitats. It is active by day and night, and at night adult males perch on branches and leaves and vocalize (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The  female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58813	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
58813	threats		The Pattipola population is threatened by timber harvesting of a plantation near the Horton Plains National Park.	eng
58814	conservation		The only known site for this species is within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for targeted surveys to determine and monitor the population status of this species.	eng
58814	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu in northern Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations of 900-3,000m asl.	eng
58814	habitat		It is confined to submontane and montane forests and breeds by direct development. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
58814	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58814	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present; however, its restricted range makes it especially vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58815	conservation		The known locality of this species in Myanmar is just outside Hkakabo Razi National Park. It has also been recorded from Nameri National Park in India. Recent field studies have been done by Sengupta in Nameri National Park in India (2001 to 2002).	eng
58815	distribution		This species is known from northeast India (Assam and Meghalaya) and southern Xizang (probably in the China-India disputed zone), in China. It is also known from a single location in northern Myanmar, close to the Yunnan, China border. It has been recorded at elevations below 1,400m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in intervening areas between currently known sites.	eng
58815	habitat		It is an arboreal species of tropical forest edge and marshes, that breeds in small, temporary water pools by larval development. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
58815	population		In India this species is considered to be uncommon, but not rare. It is known from only one location in China. In Myanmar it has not been collected again since it was first recorded. Results from recent surveys of the Myanmar location are not yet available (G. Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58815	threats		The restricted range of this species makes it especially susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
58816	conservation		It occurs in Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary and Dibang Wildlife Reserve.	eng
58816	distribution		This species is present in eastern Nepal, northeast India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, Meghalaya and Nagaland), and possibly Bhutan. It is present at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.	eng
58816	habitat		It is an arboreal species associated with montane tropical forest and shrubland. It is a direct developer. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
58816	population		It is considered to be a naturally rare species.	eng
58816	threats		Agricultural pollution from tea plantation pesticides is the only recognized threat to this species, but this is only considered to be a problem in parts of its range.	eng
58817	conservation		It is found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.	eng
58817	distribution		This species is endemic to the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 810-1,830m asl. There are records from Moray, Agra Bopath and Dayagama (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58817	habitat		It occurs in the open canopy of montane forest and anthropgenic habitats. It is a cryptic species; calling adult males are most often seen at night perched high on shrubs, 1.5-3m above the ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58817	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58817	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to wood extraction, the expansion of tea cultivation, and human settlement; agro-chemical pollution represents an additional threat.	eng
58818	conservation		It is present in Gunung Kinabalu National Park and the Crocker Range. Strengthened and expanded protection of submontane and montane forests is essential for the long-term survival of this species.	eng
58818	distribution		This endemic is known only from western Sabah, in Borneo, Malaysia, at elevations of 750-1,800m asl.	eng
58818	habitat		It has been found in primary and selectively logged forests, where it calls from shrubs and small trees 2-4m above the ground. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
58818	population		It is locally abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
58818	threats		The major threat is habitat loss in lowland areas due to clear-cutting, and the forests at one locality, Mount Trus Madi, have already been severely damaged.	eng
58819	conservation		It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site. There is a need for continued population monitoring of this species.	eng
58819	distribution		This species is endemic to the general region of the Sinharaja World Heritage site of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 513-1,270m asl. There are records from Morningside Forest Reserve, the nearby Handapan Ella Plains and western Sinharaja near Kudawa (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58819	habitat		It is found only in closed-canopy rainforest and cloud forests and cardamom plantations within cloud forests, close to streams and marshy areas. Adult males are usually perched about 1m above ground, on understorey shrubs (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding takes place by direct development, and it is not dependent upon water.	eng
58819	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
58819	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment (especially for tea), human settlement and illegal logging. It is also at risk from agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58820	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
58820	distribution		This species occurs above 900m asl on Java and Sumatra in Indonesia.	eng
58820	habitat		It inhabits primary submontane and montane forests, and is not found outside forests. Adults are often found on shrubs. It breeds by direct development, laying eggs in tree holes.	eng
58820	population		It is a common species.	eng
58820	threats		It is affected by forest loss locally but remains common through most of its range.	eng
58821	conservation		It might occur in Ba Na-Nui Chua Nature Reserve, but surveys are needed to establish this. Strengthening of the protected status of the area is also required.	eng
58821	distribution		This species is known only from the Ba Na area, Thua Thien-Hue Province, in Viet Nam (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001). Ba Na Mountain is isolated by lowlands from the rest of the Annamite mountain chain.	eng
58821	habitat		The habitat of this species is unknown. It presumably breeds by direct development, although this has not been confirmed.	eng
58821	population		This species was common in the 1930s but has not been reported from the field since. It is unclear whether or not it has disappeared or if no surveys have been conducted for it, and if no findings of any such surveys have then been published.	eng
58821	threats		The specific threats to this species are unknown. Habitat impacts at Ba Na have been very extensive in some areas, including the use of defoliants during the Viet Nam War, logging, and tourism developments (BirdLife International 2001), but it is unclear to what extent these have impacted this species.	eng
58822	conservation		It has been recorded in the Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by S.D. Biju (from 1998 to 2001).	eng
58822	distribution		This species is restricted to the tropical forests of Agasthyamala Hills in the southern Western Ghats of India. Specimens previously reported from northern Kerala belong to <em>Philautus glandulosus</em> (S.D. Biju pers. comm.). The type specimen was collected at Athirimala at around 1,250m asl.	eng
58822	habitat		It is associated with the understorey of undisturbed tropical moist evergreen forest, and is believed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
58822	population		This species is common where it occurs.	eng
58822	threats		This species occurs in a remote area, which is not presently threatened by habitat modification, although this could possibly change in the future.	eng
58823	conservation		It has been recorded in the Dajipur Wildlife Sanctuary, Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimasankar Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahabaleshwar Reserve Forest, all in Maharashtra State. A taxonomic revision of this species is urgently required (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
58823	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of India in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. It was recently reported from Chicamangalore in Karnataka (Bossuyt <em>et al.</em> 2001). It has been recorded from elevations of between 400 and 1,300m asl.	eng
58823	habitat		It is an arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest and shrubland. It is also present in secondary forest disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58823	population		It can be a common species, but is reported to have declined in the vicinity of Pune town.	eng
58823	threats		Habitat loss as a result of logging, infrastructure development, and disturbance due to touristic activities, is believed to be the main threat to this species.	eng
58824	conservation		It is present in Gunung Kinabalu National Park and the Crocker Range.	eng
58824	distribution		This species has been reported only from the mountains of western Sabah and from a hill in eastern Sabah in Borneo, Malaysia. It is present at elevations between 640 and 1,800m asl.	eng
58824	habitat		It has been seen in lowland, submontane and montane forests, and can occur in slightly disturbed forest. It perches in tall shrubs and small trees 2-5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58824	population		It is often locally abundant.	eng
58824	threats		Clear cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.	eng
58825	conservation		It is found in the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.	eng
58825	distribution		This species is endemic to the Peak Wilderness and the Central Hill Country of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 810-1,370m asl. It is currently known from only two sites, but is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58825	habitat		It is terrestrial, and has been observed in closed-canopy habitats, both in disturbed and undisturbed forests. Adults are strictly nocturnal; males have been observed perching on branches of low shrubs 20-50cm above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58825	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58825	threats		There is some encroachment of the forest habitat of this species, mainly for tea cultivation and firewood collection, and it is potentially at risk from agro-chemicals. The area is also subject to disturbance by visiting pilgrims.	eng
58826	conservation		The only protected area from which it is currently known is Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
58826	distribution		This species has been recently described from Phnom Samkos and Phnom Tumpor, in the western Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, from 1,250-1,650m asl. It might occur more widely within these mountains.	eng
58826	habitat		It has been recorded in montane evergreen forest, where the holotype and the paratypes were found on the leaves of bushes. The holotype was collected hundreds of metres from any water source, while the paratypes were collected approximately 2.5m from a mountain stream. It is presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.	eng
58826	population		The population status of the species is not known.	eng
58826	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
58827	conservation		It has been recorded from Doi Inthanon National Park in Thailand, and from Hoang Lien Son National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
58827	distribution		This species is known from three nearby localities in Karen State in eastern Myanmar (Bourret 1942; Bossuyt and Dubois 2001), but it has not been recorded in Myanmar since it was first described. It was recorded twenty years ago in Thailand from Doi Inthanon National Park in Chiang Mai Province, and was recently confirmed from Fan Si Pan in northern Viet Nam (Ohler <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Thailand this species has been recorded at 1,300m asl, and in Viet Nam it was recorded from 1,250-2,000m asl.	eng
58827	habitat		In Thailand this species was collected from tropical moist submontane forest. In Viet Nam it was recorded in lower and upper montane forest. It breeds beside small streams, presumably by larval development.	eng
58827	population		Its population status is unknown. It has not been recorded from the type locality in Myanmar since it was first described, and there have been no recent herpetological surveys of the area.	eng
58827	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation arising from agricultural development.	eng
58828	conservation		It has been recorded in Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Haycock Forest Reserve, Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve and Knuckles Forest Reserve.	eng
58828	distribution		This species is known from isolated populations in the south-western region of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded at elevations of 200-1,100m asl. Specific records come from Haycock, Weddagala, Kitugala, Kosmulla, Pathanegala, Kadugannawa and Pussellawa.	eng
58828	habitat		It is a canopy species of lowland and montane tropical moist forest. Adults have been observed perched 0.3-2m above the ground on branches, mossy logs and sometimes on mossy rock surfaces (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58828	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
58828	threats		The major threat is habitat loss as a result of the conversion of forest habitat to cultivation (tea, cardamom and shifting cultivation) and urban areas, and the extraction of timber; agrochemical pollution is also a threat to this species.	eng
58829	conservation		It is not known with certainty from any protected areas, and improved protection of remaining habitat in the range of this species is recommended. Field studies including this species are ongoing (Biju 2001 and onwards).	eng
58829	distribution		This species is known only from Munnar, Kerala, on the south-western slopes of the Cardamom Hills, Kerala (S.D. Biju pers. comm.), in India. The exact location of the type locality of Travancore is non-specific. It was collected at an altitude of 1,400m asl. Because of difficulties with identification, there is a need to reconfirm records of this species from outside the Cardomom Hills area. This includes records from the Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, and from the Anaimalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, all of which appear to be doubtful (S.D. Biju pers. comm.).	eng
58829	habitat		It is a nocturnal, arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest; it can also occur in secondary or disturbed habitat. It is believed to breed by direct development.	eng
58829	population		This species was rediscovered after 125 years (Biju and Bossuyt 2003), and is considered to be locally common at its only known locality.	eng
58829	threats		This species is threatened by the conversion of natural forest to intensively cultivated areas (including non-timber plantations).	eng
58830	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas, though it may occur in Kudremukh National Park. It is part of ongoing regional field studies by S.D. Biju.	eng
58830	distribution		This species is restricted to Chikmalagur (where it is known from three localities), in Karnataka State, in the southern Western Ghats of India. The altitudinal range is between 800 and 1,200m asl.	eng
58830	habitat		It is arboreal, occurring in tropical moist evergreen forest, though it may also be found in secondary forest close to primary forest edge. It is believed to breed by direct development.	eng
58830	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58830	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas.	eng
58831	conservation		Examination of the type specimens is needed, to confirm this species' taxonomic validity. The type locality is close to the Western Forest Complex of Thailand, which is the largest surviving forest tract of Thailand, and which is comprised of a number of individual protected areas.	eng
58831	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Ataran River, in Tenasserim, Myanmar.	eng
58831	habitat		It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58831	population		There is no information regarding its population status, as it is known only from the two or four type specimens collected in, or before, 1870 (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001).	eng
58831	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58832	conservation		It presumably occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park.	eng
58832	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Kerinci, in West Sumatra, Indonesia, and is presumably a montane species.	eng
58832	habitat		There is no direct information on its habitat and ecological preferences, but the type locality is in montane forest. Reproduction is presumably by direct development.	eng
58832	population		It is known only from the type series and another old specimen, so nothing is known regarding its population status.	eng
58832	threats		This species could be threatened by the habitat loss that is taking place on the lower slopes of the mountain, as a result of smallholder farming and subsistence-level extraction of wood. If it is actually restricted to Mount Kerinci, it could also be at risk from volcanic eruptions.	eng
58833	conservation		It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, which was inscribed in 1988.	eng
58833	distribution		This species is found only in the general Sinharaja region of south-western Sri Lanka from 150-660m asl. There are records from Sinharaja, Morawaka and Deniyaya (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58833	habitat		It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, in damp shaded closed-canopy rainforest habitats. At night, males perch and vocalize from branches and leaves around 0.3m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is a direct developer and is not dependent on water.	eng
58833	population		It is a common species.	eng
58833	threats		It is largely restricted to protected forests, and hence its habitat is generally well protected at present. However, it is probably impacted by firewood collecting and illegal gemstone mining.	eng
58834	conservation		Specimens have been collected from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.	eng
58834	distribution		This species is known from just two locations in south-western Sri Lanka: Morningside (at 1,060m asl), near Rakwana in the Sinharaja area; and Pituwala (at 60m asl) (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58834	habitat		It inhabits closed-canopy forests and cardamom plantations within forests, usually close to water. Adult males have been observed at night, vocalizing while perched on low shrubs, 0.3-2m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58834	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58834	threats		The major threat is the loss of habitat due to firewood collection, the encroachment of tea cultivation, and expanding human settlements; agro-chemical pollution is an additional threat.	eng
58835	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58835	distribution		This species is a Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Queenwood Estate, Dimbulla, Ceylon", at 1,500m, where it was collected in 1933 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58835	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58835	population		It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since its original collection and the species is now believed to be extinct because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58835	threats		The threats that resulted in the extinction of this species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58836	conservation		Although it has been recorded in Danum Valley National Park, more effective protection of remaining lowland forests in Borneo is essential.	eng
58836	distribution		This species is known only from two sites, one in Sabah (Danum Valley) and one in Sarawak (Sungei Pesu), in Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at elevations up to 300m asl.	eng
58836	habitat		It has been recorded only in primary, lowland rainforest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58836	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58836	threats		The clear-cutting of lowland forest is the most serious threat to this species at present.	eng
58837	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58837	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in north-eastern India, although there is confusion over whether or not this refers to Darjeeling in West Bengal State, or Khasis in Meghalaya State. It is therefore not possible to attempt to produce a distribution map for this species until this confusion is resolved. This species was reportedly recorded from 1,000-1,500m asl.	eng
58837	habitat		Nothing conclusive is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. Its breeding is unknown, and could be by either larval development or direct development.	eng
58837	population		Nothing is known regarding its population status, except that the type specimen is reported to have come from a very restricted locality.	eng
58837	threats		Threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
58838	conservation		The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, although the area where it was collected is within a proposed transboundary nature reserve. The establishment of effectively protected areas in the mountains around the type locality is essential. Directed surveys are recommended to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
58838	distribution		This species is known only from a single mountain (Muruk Miau) in south-western Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. The single specimen was collected at 1,550m asl. It is thought likely to have a very limited distribution.	eng
58838	habitat		The specimen was found in recently logged oak forest, although it is probable that the usual habitat is primary montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58838	population		Although it is presently known from only a single specimen, it might not be a rare species.	eng
58838	threats		The species' habitat is potentially threatened in future by logging, although there is less logging at higher elevations, where the timber is less valuable.	eng
58839	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58839	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the type locality of "Queenwood Estate, Dimbulla, Ceylon", at 1,500m asl, where it was collected in 1933 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58839	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58839	population		This species is known only from the holotype. There have been no sightings since 1933 and the species is believed to now be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58839	threats		The threats that resulted in the extinction of the species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58840	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58840	distribution		This recently described species was originally collected in 1882 from an unspecified locality on Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for this species.	eng
58840	habitat		There is no information about the habitat requirements of this species. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58840	population		There have been no records since 1882, and it is presumed to be extinct, because extensive searches have failed to rediscover this species.	eng
58840	threats		The threats that led to the extinction of this species are not known, though habitat loss seems the most likely cause.	eng
58841	conservation		It is present in the Knuckles Forest Reserve, Horton Plain National Park and the Sinharaja World Heritage Site.	eng
58841	distribution		This species is restricted to tropical montane forests in central and southern Sri Lanka between 1,060 and 2,135m asl. There are records from Horton Plains, Agra Bopath, Corbett's Gap (southern Knuckles Range), Handapan Ella Plains and Morningside (see Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005; Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is likely to occur more widely, especially in intervening areas between known sites.	eng
58841	habitat		It is arboreal, and associated with the understorey of tropical moist montane evergreen forest. Individuals are found on, or under, leaves. It is very sensitive to any disturbance of its habitat. Breeding takes place via direct development, with the eggs attached to the underside of leaves.	eng
58841	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58841	threats		The major threat is the conversion of native forest to cultivated areas (including tea and cardamom estates), dieback of mature trees, fires, and droughts (especially in Horton Plains); land pollution from agrochemicals is an additional threat.	eng
58842	conservation		It has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve, Gannoruwe Forest Reserve and Sinharaja World Heritage Site.	eng
58842	distribution		This species is known from widely scattered localities across central, eastern and southern Sri Lanka. It has been recorded from elevations between 305 and 700m asl. There are records from Monaragala, Knuckles, Gannoruwa and Hantana, and it probably occurs more contiguously than has been mapped.	eng
58842	habitat		It is a mostly arboreal species, generally found in riparian habitats in moist tropical forest. It has also been reported from home gardens, and edges of tea, rubber and cardamom plantations, and is generally very adaptable. Adults are found on twigs, leaves and wet rocks. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58842	population		It is fairly common where it occurs.	eng
58842	threats		Deforestation for agricultural land (principally tea, cardamom and rubber estates) and agrochemical pollution are the main threats to this species.	eng
58843	conservation		Surveys are urgently needed to locate populations of this species.	eng
58843	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Malabar" (Boulenger 1882) in the Western Ghats of India.	eng
58843	habitat		It was collected in 'hill forest', although nothing else is known about its biology or ecology. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
58843	population		It is known only from the type series, collected in 1882, so its current population status is unknown.	eng
58843	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species, although there is possibly some habitat loss taking place, as a result of the conversion of forest to agricultural land, that could be a threat.	eng
58844	conservation		It occurs in Gilimale Nature Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, Kottawa Forest Reserve and Haycock Hill Forest Reserve.	eng
58844	distribution		This species is endemic to the south-western lowlands of Sri Lanka, and is found from 60-660m asl. It has been recorded from Kottawa, Haycock, Gilimale and Induruwa (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58844	habitat		It occurs in shaded places including rainforests and anthropogenic habitats, and is usually observed 0.3-2m above ground, perched on branches or leaves. Calling males are sometimes found concealed in dried, curled leaves, although in Gilimale males were always observed vocalizing while on leaves (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58844	population		It is common.	eng
58844	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to logging and the expansion of tea cultivation. It might be adversely affected by agricultural chemicals that are used heavily in its range.	eng
58845	conservation		It is found in the Knuckles Forest Reserve.	eng
58845	distribution		This species is endemic to the northern Knuckles Range in central Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 450-1,220m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58845	habitat		It is found mainly in closed-canopy habitats that include natural forest, anthropogenic habitats, secondary forests, and cardamom plantations. Adults have been observed at night perched 2-4m above ground on branches, tree trunks, and moss-covered rocks (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is a direct developer, and is not dependent on water.	eng
58845	population		It is a common species.	eng
58845	threats		The major threats are habitat destruction (including the extraction of wood for subsistence use, and infrastructure development for human settlement) and agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58846	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, but it might occur in Puliebadze Wildlife Sanctuary. Improved habitat protection at sites at which this species is known to occur is needed.	eng
58846	distribution		This species has been recorded from the Garo Hills in Assam and Meghalaya, and from Dzulake in Nagaland, India. It is a lowland species found at elevations of 90-500m asl. It probably occurs more widely, in particular in areas between known sites.	eng
58846	habitat		It is associated with bushy areas close to perennial streams, in moist tropical forest. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development, although this requires confirmation.	eng
58846	population		It is considered to be rare within its restricted range.	eng
58846	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to commercial logging (clear-cutting).	eng
58847	conservation		It has been recorded in many protected areas including the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (which includes Silent Valley National Park and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary), Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary, Ponmudi Wildlife Sanctuary, and Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, Kudremukh National Park in Karnataka, and Indira Gandhi National Park and Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Tamil Nadu.	eng
58847	distribution		This Indian species has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills, and Agasthyamala Hill ranges, Kudremukh National Park, and from several localities in Maharashtra State. Records from Maharashtra require further investigation to confirm that they belong to this species. It has an altitudinal range of between 400 and 2,000m asl.	eng
58847	habitat		It is a nocturnal, arboreal species associated with the understorey of tropical moist forest. It can also occur in modified habitats such as coffee, tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. It is a direct developer, and deposits its eggs (20-45 eggs) on leaves (Biju 2003).	eng
58847	population		It is relatively common where it occurs.	eng
58847	threats		It is threatened by the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including tea and coffee plantations) and timber plantations.	eng
58848	conservation		All the known localities of this species in Southeast Asia are within protected areas. In China part of its range is within protected areas, including the Daweishan National Nature Reserve. Clarification of the species' taxonomy is needed.	eng
58848	distribution		This species is known from southeastern Yunnan (Hekou) and Central Guangxi (Damingshan) provinces in China, and from northern Viet Nam, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Doi Inthanon in Thailand. It has an estimated altitudinal range of 600-1,800m asl. It probably occurs much more widely, in particular in areas between known sites.	eng
58848	habitat		It is known from evergreen and bamboo forest. The eggs are laid on leaves overhanging temporary pools in the forest. The larvae then drop in to the water where they continue to develop. It has not been found outside forest.	eng
58848	population		In China this species is considered uncommon. There is no reliable information from Southeast Asia regarding the status of populations from recent surveys.	eng
58848	threats		It is dependent on primary forest so it is particularly susceptible to forest clearance and degradation. Water pollution might also be a threat.	eng
58849	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required.	eng
58849	distribution		This species appears to be restricted to one locality: Munnar, in the southern Western Ghats of India, where it has been recorded from 1,500m asl.	eng
58849	habitat		It is an arboreal species, found commonly in montane forest, and in secondary growth close to shola forest, but can also be found in tea plantations (although it is doubtful that populations can persist in these areas). It breeds by direct development.	eng
58849	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
58849	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat fragmentation due to tea and eucalyptus plantations, and it is unlikely to be able to survive in the face of extensive habitat loss.	eng
58850	conservation		The taxonomy of this and other similar species needs to be conclusively determined, and requires further research. Populations that might represent this taxon occur in Viet Nam in Tam Dao National Park, Cuc Phuong National Park, and some other protected areas (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
58850	distribution		This species was described from the Lang Bian peaks in southern Viet Nam, at around 2,000m asl. Bourret (1942) referred additional material from throughout Viet Nam to this species, which might or might not have been correct. For this assessment, attempts to map its range consider just the restricted range of the type series. Uncertain taxonomy precludes drawing a map of the greater range of this taxon, which might be synonymous with other taxa reported from Viet Nam, Thailand and Myanmar.	eng
58850	habitat		This species has been reported from shrubby vegetation (Smith 1924; in Bourret 1942), and presumably breeds by direct development (although this has not been confirmed).	eng
58850	population		Populations tentatively referred to <em>Rhacophorus verrucosus</em> (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999) but matching the description of <em>Philautus gryllus</em> given by Bourret (1942), are widespread and common.	eng
58850	threats		It is presumably affected by impacts on the habitat in the Lang Bian area, such as agricultural development and fires.	eng
58851	conservation		The known populations of this species are all within Gunung Kinabalu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. There is a need for further survey work to determine and monitor the population status of this species.	eng
58851	distribution		This species is known only from the area of Sg. Silau-Silau and Sg. Liwago on Gunung Kinabalu in the Province of Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at 1,400-1,500m asl.	eng
58851	habitat		It is a montane forest species. Males call from perches on the leaves of shrubs and bushes above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
58851	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58851	threats		There are no major threats to the species at present, especially since its range is within a protected area; however, its restricted range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes, and if it ranges outside the protected area then it might be susceptible to ongoing habitat loss.	eng
58852	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58852	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the type locality of "Pattipola, Ceylon [= Sri Lanka]", where it was collected in 1899 (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58852	habitat		The habitat requirements of the species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58852	population		It is known only from the holotype, and there have been no sightings since 1899. The species is believed to now be extinct, because recent extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58852	threats		The causes of the extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58853	conservation		It occurs in Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.	eng
58853	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southwestern Sri Lanka. It has an altitudinal range of 15-684m asl.	eng
58853	habitat		It lives at 1-4 metres above the ground in mixed agro forestry ecosystems in formerly forested land, including home gardens, agricultural land and forest edges. It lives on the upper surface of leaves. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
58853	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58853	threats		In local situations it might be impacted by expanding intensive, commercial agriculture, in particular tea plantations. It is possibly also affected by agricultural chemicals. However, it is very adaptable and is not believed to be threatened.	eng
58854	conservation		It is present in several protected areas, but more effective preservation of lowland forests is necessary.	eng
58854	distribution		This species has been found in southern Sabah (Malaysia), central Sarawak (Malaysia), and western Kalimantan (Indonesia), on Borneo. It is a lowland species found up to 350m asl.	eng
58854	habitat		This species has not been found outside lowland rainforests, where males call from small trees along riverbanks. Its breeding details are not known, but it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
58854	population		It is assumed to be relatively abundant.	eng
58854	threats		Clear-cutting of the forest is a major threat to this species.	eng
58855	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58855	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the imprecise type locality of "Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to map this species because the exact type locality is not known.	eng
58855	habitat		The habitat requirements of the species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58855	population		It is known only from the type series. There have been no sightings of the species since it was described in 1876, and it is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58855	threats		The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58856	conservation		It is known from a number of protected areas including Gunung Mulu National Park and Gunung Kinabalu National Park, both of which are World Heritage Sites. Continued effective protection of forests above 1,000m asl is essential for the conservation of this species.	eng
58856	distribution		This species is known from three areas within submontane or montane sites in north-western Borneo (in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and in Brunei). It is present at elevations of 1,300-1,600m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely.	eng
58856	habitat		All three localities are within mossy montane forest. It is active at night, when temperatures are below 20°C, and males call from shrubs 1-4m above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
58856	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58856	threats		The known habitat of the species is fragmented and clear-cutting of the forest is a major threat.	eng
58857	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species still survives in the wild.	eng
58857	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Ungaran, Central Java, Indonesia.	eng
58857	habitat		It presumably inhabits montane forest, and is believed to be a direct-developer, not dependent upon water.	eng
58857	population		It is known only from the holotype, and has not been recorded for over 90 years, so it might already be extinct (particularly if genuinely confined to the type locality).	eng
58857	threats		Forest loss at the type locality has been so severe that almost no habitat remains.	eng
58858	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58858	distribution		This species was collected in Darjeeling, in West Bengal State, India. Attempts to map its distribution for this assessment show the general area of Darjeeling.	eng
58858	habitat		Nothing is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is not known if it has a direct development breeding strategy.	eng
58858	population		It is known only from the type collection, so there is no current information regarding its population status.	eng
58858	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although there has been a significant anthropic impact on the natural habitat in the Darjeeling area since it was described.	eng
58859	conservation	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Annemarie Ohler & Steven Swan, 2004	The species' range in China includes a few protected areas, including the Dayaoshan Nature Reserve, and in Viet Nam it occurs in Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
58859	distribution	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Annemarie Ohler & Steven Swan, 2004	This species is known from northern Guangxi (Dayaoshan in Jinxiu County and Huaping in Longsheng County) and southern Hunan (Yizhang County) provinces in China, and from one location, Fan Si Pan Mountain, in northern Viet Nam. In China it has been recorded around 1,080 m asl, and in Viet Nam it has been recorded from 1,850-2,050 m asl.	eng
58859	habitat	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Annemarie Ohler & Steven Swan, 2004	In China this species is known from forests, and in Viet Nam it was reported from upper montane forest, secondary growth, forest edge and near streams. Breeding was observed in July and August in a pool, with larval development.	eng
58859	population	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Annemarie Ohler & Steven Swan, 2004	This species is known from only three locations in China. Only three specimens were collected in Viet Nam.	eng
58859	threats	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Annemarie Ohler & Steven Swan, 2004	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and fires is a major threat to this species.	eng
58860	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58860	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Tura" (Boulenger 1919) in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya State, in north-east India.	eng
58860	habitat		It is believed to be associated with the undergrowth of moist evergreen forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development (although this has not been confirmed).	eng
58860	population		It is known only from the type specimen, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58860	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
58861	conservation		It has been recorded from Gunung Mulu National Park, but there is a need for more effective protection of peat swamp forest habitats in Sarawak.	eng
58861	distribution		This species is known from two widely separated areas in Sarawak, Borneo (Malaysia), where it has been collected at 200m asl.	eng
58861	habitat		The only known specimens were found in heath forest. It is closely associated with <em>Nepenthes</em> plants. and eggs are deposited in their pitchers. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58861	population		The current population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58861	threats		Loss of habitat due to the deforestation and fragmentation of peat swamps is the major threat to this species.	eng
58862	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58862	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka) (Dutta and Manmendra-Arachchi 1996). The type locality is too general to allow the production of a meaningful map for this species.	eng
58862	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58862	population		It is known only from the type specimen (collected before description in 1856), and it is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.	eng
58862	threats		The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58863	conservation		It occurs in Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve; however, this reserve requires better management to ensure the persistence of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine the precise population status of this species.	eng
58863	distribution		This species is known from a single specimen from Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve (06° 20' N; 80° 18' E), at 560m asl, in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It seems to be restricted to the type locality.	eng
58863	habitat		The type specimen was collected from a low (50cm above the ground) branch on the border of forest, beside a tea garden. It presumably breeds by direct development and it is not dependent upon water.	eng
58863	population		This species is known only from the holotype, and is presumed to be very rare.	eng
58863	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of smallholder farming, in particular tea plantations. It is also potentially affected by pollution from agricultural chemicals and run-off.	eng
58864	conservation		The range of this species includes the Daweishan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves.	eng
58864	distribution		This species is currently known from southwestern and southern Yunnan (Longchuan, Yingjiang, Pingbian, Luchun and Hekou Counties), in China. It has been recorded from 1,150-1,600m asl. It might have a wider distribution than is currently known, and must occur in neighbouring countries.	eng
58864	habitat		It inhabits shrubland in river valleys. Its breeding habitats are not known, and could be by either larval or direct development.	eng
58864	population		It is a common species, but it is very small and easily overlooked.	eng
58864	threats		Agriculture and small-scale collecting of wood are major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
58865	conservation		Some of the remaining patches of this species' habitat are currently within protected areas.	eng
58865	distribution		This species is known from central and northern Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), and the islands of Balabac and Palawan in the Philippines. In Borneo it has been recorded from 700-2,900m asl, but in the Philippines it is known from much lower altitudes of 30-1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58865	habitat		It occurs in submontane and montane forests, where it is usually seen in the low shrub layer, and has not been found outside forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58865	population		Large sample sizes at one locality in central Palawan indicate that this species might have been common at the time.	eng
58865	threats		In the Philippines some populations of this species are threatened by habitat conversion to agricultural land. In Borneo, deforestation is a major threat.	eng
58866	conservation		It occurs in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and inscribed in 1988.	eng
58866	distribution		This species is known only from the Handapan Ella Plains, near Suriyakanda, at 1,270m asl, in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is probably restricted to this area.	eng
58866	habitat		The holotype was collected perched on the leaf of a cardamom plant, about one metre above ground, in the early evening. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58866	population		It is known only from the holotype, and is thought to be a very rare species.	eng
58866	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, particularly the loss of canopy trees in part due to illegal gemstone mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemical run-off.	eng
58867	conservation		It is possible that this species occurs in Kudrumkh National Park, as the collection site coordinates indicate that its range falls within this protected area.	eng
58867	distribution		This species has been collected at Madenadu (12° 27'N; 75° 38'E), and from Kirundadu (12° 29'N; 75° 47'E), which are both near Madikeri in Kodagu District. It has also been collected from Malleshwaram in Kudrumukh, in Chikmagalur District (13° 12'N; 75° 16'E). All these three known sites are in the Western Ghats of the southern part of Karnataka State, India. The altitudinal range of this species is 920-1,120m asl.	eng
58867	habitat		Its description does not contain any details of the habitat in which the specimens were collected. It is presumed that the animals were collected in tropical forest, and it is further presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.	eng
58867	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58867	threats		The threats to this species at the specific collection localities are not known. There is an ongoing loss of natural habitats due to anthropic disturbance over much of the Western Ghats, and this might be a threat.	eng
58868	conservation		It has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve, which has been declared as a National Man and Biosphere Reserve and has also been nominated for declaration as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve and a natural World Heritage Site.	eng
58868	distribution		This species was previously reported from several locations in Sri Lanka (Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi 1996). However, recent information indicates that it is limited to a small area of the Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005), where it has been recorded at elevations of 603-760m asl.	eng
58868	habitat		It is associated with submontane tropical moist forest, but is also found in cardamom plantations (provided there is no agrochemical use). Animals are usually found on wet rock surfaces, crevices and boulders that are very close to or actually in streams, and in moist leaf-litter. It breeds by direct development, with eggs laid in the riparian zone close to streams.	eng
58868	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58868	threats		The main threats to this restricted-range species are conversion of forest habitat to cultivated land (cardamom), firewood collection, and agrochemical pollution of land and water (specifically by insecticides).	eng
58869	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58869	distribution		This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the type locality is too imprecise.	eng
58869	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58869	population		The species is known only from the holotype specimen. There have been no sightings for over 70 years and the species is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58869	threats		The cause of the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor to its demise.	eng
58870	conservation		Resolving the taxonomy of the <em>R. verrucosus</em> and <em>P. gryllus</em> species groups is a priority requirement before conservation actions can be formulated for this species. The population in Tam Dao is within a protected area.	eng
58870	distribution		This species was described from Mao Son in northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942). A specimen from Tam Dao was subsequently also attributed to it (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999). It has also recently been found on Mount Tay Con Linh II, in Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province (Bain and Truong 2004). Clarification of its relationship with <em>Philautus gryllus</em> and <em>Rhacophorus verrucosus</em> might alter its known range. It has been recorded from 700-1,200m asl.	eng
58870	habitat		Specimens attributed with certainty to this taxon originate from forested mountain areas. This is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
58870	population		It is either a rare, localized species, known from two animals collected at Mao Son in 1937 and one at Tam Dao in 1995 or 1996, or it is part of a widely distributed abundant species that is not currently recognized.	eng
58870	threats		Its type locality has now been reduced to grassland and some secondary forest, which has presumably affected it, as a result of smallholder farming and clear-cutting logging.	eng
58871	conservation		Its one known location is within a national nature reserve.	eng
58871	distribution		This species is known only from Medog County in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 1,500m asl.	eng
58871	habitat		This species was collected from the leaf of a shrub at the edge of a lake, in which it might possibly breed.	eng
58871	population		Only one specimen has ever been collected.	eng
58871	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58872	conservation		It occurs in the buffer zone of Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve.	eng
58872	distribution		This species is known only from Zhushihe, in Mengla County in southern Yunnan Province, China, where it has been recorded from about 900m asl.	eng
58872	habitat		It inhabits streamside shrublands.	eng
58872	population		It is a very rare species, and fewer than ten specimens are known.	eng
58872	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat destruction, which is ongoing in the region as a result of agricultural development and subsistence collection of wood.	eng
58873	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58873	distribution		This species is known only from the Abor Hills in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India. The exact area within the Arbor Hills is not known, and so attempts to map its distribution can only be considered as approximate. This is a lowland species present at altitudes below 100m asl.	eng
58873	habitat		This is a poorly known species associated with tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like most other species in the genus, but this requires confirmation.	eng
58873	population		Its population status is unknown, and there have been no records since it was first described.	eng
58873	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58874	conservation		It has been recorded from Horton Plains National Park, Agra Bopath Forest Reserve and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve.	eng
58874	distribution		This species is endemic to the Central Hills of Sri Lanka at elevations of 1,555-2,135m asl. There are records from Agra Bopath and Horton Plains (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58874	habitat		It inhabits both closed and open canopy habitats, including grasslands. Most sub-adults and juveniles were found in grassland and disturbed habitats, while mature males and larger females were usually found in closed-canopy habitats. Adults have been observed perched on branches 0.5-3.5m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development, and the eggs are deposited in humus.	eng
58874	population		Anslem de Silva (pers. comm.) reports that the population in the Horton Plains National Park may occur at a density of around 62,000 individuals per km², which suggests that the species is abundant where it occurs.	eng
58874	threats		The major threats are habitat loss, through the commercial harvesting of timber (clear-cutting) and firewood collection, agrochemical pollution, and the desiccation of habitat through periods of drought. In Horton Plains National Park, forest fires and dieback of mature trees are also threats.	eng
58875	conservation		It occurs in at least three national parks, including Gunung Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks.	eng
58875	distribution		This species is known from montane forests in north-western Borneo, from 1,500-3,000m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58875	habitat		It is a montane species of oak-chestnut forest. Males call from the shrub layer 0.5-3m above the ground. It breeds by direct development and eggs may be deposited in pitcher plants (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
58875	population		Estimates of the population from the calls of isolated males suggest that it is locally abundant.	eng
58875	threats		There are no threats to the species at present as most of the logging in Borneo is occurring at lower altitudes.	eng
58876	conservation		One of its known localities is within Namdapha National Park.	eng
58876	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India: Tirap District, and Namdapha National Park. It is a lowland species that was collected at an altitude of 350m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known.	eng
58876	habitat		It is found in tropical moist forest and shrubland, where it might breed by direct development, like other species of the genus (but this has not been confirmed).	eng
58876	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58876	threats		This species might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna. It might also possibly be threatened by invasive alien plant species (<em>Mikania</em> sp. and <em>Lantana camara</em>).	eng
58877	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58877	distribution		This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "southern Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.	eng
58877	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58877	population		It is known only from the lectotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1869, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.	eng
58877	threats		The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58878	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58878	distribution		This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon [=Sri Lanka]" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known. Specimens previously attributed to this species from India (Krishnamurthi and Shakunthala 1993) are now believed to be a separate taxon (Biju 2001), and specimens reported by Karunaratne (1998) are believed to belong to a different species (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.)	eng
58878	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58878	population		It is known only from the holotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1869, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58878	threats		The cause for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58879	conservation		It occurs in Haycock Hill-Hiniduma Forest Reserve; however, this reserve is in need of better management to ensure the persistence of this species.	eng
58879	distribution		This species is only known from Haycock Hill (Hiniduma) Forest Reserve (06° 20'N; 80° 18'E) in south-western Sri Lanka, at 660m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It seems to be restricted to the type locality.	eng
58879	habitat		The type specimen was found in closed-canopy forest on a wet rock. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58879	population		It is known only from the type specimen and is believed to be a very rare species.	eng
58879	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to the encroachment of tea plantations. It is probably also affected by agro-chemicals.	eng
58880	conservation		It is known to be present in several protected areas across the region.	eng
58880	distribution		This species is endemic to the hilly areas in southern Hainan Province, China, where it has been recorded from 320-1,080m asl.	eng
58880	habitat		It inhabits rainforests and bamboo forests, and breeds in rain-filled bamboo stems by larval development. It has not been recorded outside forest.	eng
58880	population		It is known from less than 10 locations.	eng
58880	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to infrastructure development for tourism and logging.	eng
58881	conservation		It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and which was inscribed in 1988) and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.	eng
58881	distribution		This species is recorded only from Morningside and Handapan Ella Plains, on the eastern side of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site in south-western Sri Lanka, from 1,060-1,270m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58881	habitat		It is found only in closed-canopy forests and cardamom plantations within cloud forests. All specimens were collected from a cardamom plantation, from 1-2m above the ground, while perched on shade trees (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
58881	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58881	threats		It is threatened by the loss of the forest canopy for firewood, expansion of cardamom plantations (at the expense of cloud forest habitat), clearing of undergrowth, and human settlement. Changing agricultural practices within cardamom plantations could also negatively affect this species, particularly the increased use of agro-chemicals.	eng
58882	conservation		Many protected areas in the region supports this species.	eng
58882	distribution		This species is known from 250-1,500 m altitude in southern and southwestern China in Xizang, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, as well as in Lao Cai and Ha Giang Provinces, Viet Nam. It presumably occurs in other neighbouring countries.	eng
58882	habitat		It inhabits forests and shrublands. It breeds in ditches and temporary pools.	eng
58882	population		It is very common in Hainan (Lu Shunqin pers. comm.)	eng
58882	threats		Agriculture and logging are probably impacting its habitat when these are carried out too intensively.	eng
58883	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58883	distribution		This species is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Peradeniya is not the correct type locality (K. Manamendra-Arachchi pers. comm.). It is not possible to produce a meaningful distribution map for this species.	eng
58883	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58883	population		The species is known only from the lectotype. There have been no sightings since the species was described in 1872, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58883	threats		The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58884	conservation		It occurs in Gunung Haliman National Park and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park.	eng
58884	distribution		This species is known only from three specimens from West Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Gunung Pangrango, from where there have been no recent records. It was rediscovered in Gunung Halimun National Park in 1998. It lives above 1,000m asl.	eng
58884	habitat		It lives in pristine montane forest, and has not been found outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
58884	population		It is very rare, and only three specimens are known.	eng
58884	threats		Its habitat is threatened by subsistence wood collection.	eng
58885	conservation		The species occurs in the eastern part of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, and inscribed in 1988.	eng
58885	distribution		This species is known only from the Handapan Ella Plains, near Suriyakanda, at 1,270m asl, in south-western Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is probably restricted to this area.	eng
58885	habitat		The type specimen was collected from a branch about two metres above ground in a cardamom plantation. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58885	population		It is known only from the holotype and it is believed to be a very rare species.	eng
58885	threats		The quality of the habitat is deteriorating due to the loss of canopy trees, in part due to illegal gemstone mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemicals.	eng
58886	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Ohler, A., 2004	Many of the protected areas of Thailand (e.g., Doi Suthep, Doi Chiang Dao, Phu Luang, Khao Yai), Cambodia (Bokor) and Viet Nam (Tam Dao) contain good populations of this species. It is also found in Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005). Provided protected areas remain intact, no further conservation action appears necessary for the species at present.	eng
58886	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Ohler, A., 2004	This species is known from Myanmar, northern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999), northeastern and southeastern Thailand, Cambodia and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005). It has been recorded from 50-1,400 m asl.	eng
58886	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Ohler, A., 2004	It inhabits primarily open habitats, including forest edge, open stunted scrub forest and tall reed patches. Eggs are presumably laid away from water in damp vegetation axils, and have direct development.	eng
58886	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Ohler, A., 2004	It is a species that is difficult to find in the field, but its distinctive call is widely heard, indicating abundant populations at suitable locations.	eng
58886	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Ohler, A., 2004	There are no major threats to the species at present.	eng
58887	conservation		It is known to occur in a number of protected areas in the Malay Peninsular, and in Borneo it occurs in Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks.	eng
58887	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (Taylor, 1962, Berry, 1975 and Dring, 1987), and from Borneo (both Malaysia and Indonesia), where it is known from a number of scattered montane localities. The taxonomic status of populations on Natuna Islands is unclear (Dring, 1987). It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,600m asl.	eng
58887	habitat		It is generally found in submontane and montane forests, but can also occur in disturbed forest edges. During the day, they rest under dead leaves in the floor litter. It is thought to have direct-developing eggs.	eng
58887	population		It is generally common where it occurs.	eng
58887	threats		Small-scale farming is increasingly threatening populations surrounding Gunung Kinabalu in Borneo.	eng
58888	conservation		It occurs in the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.	eng
58888	distribution		This species was until recently known only from the lost type specimen that was collected from Kandy in central Sri Lanka. However, there are doubts as to whether or not this is the correct collection site. In recent years, additional specimens have been collected that appear to be this species in the Kandy area, from Nawalapitiya and Gannoruwa at around 684m asl.	eng
58888	habitat		Its habitat requirements are poorly known, but it has been collected perched on a <em>Syzygium</em> bush about 2m above ground, at the edge of moist evergreen forest. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, though it is unlikely to occur in severely disturbed habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58888	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
58888	threats		It is probably affected by habitat loss due to farming, collection of firewood, timber extraction, and expanding human settlements, as well as pollution by agro-chemicals.	eng
58889	conservation		Its range includes Labugama-Kalatuwawa Forest Reserve.	eng
58889	distribution		This species occurs widely in southwestern Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 15-700m asl. There are records from Perediniya, Galle, Kitugale and Pussellawe.	eng
58889	habitat		It lives up to 1 metre above the ground on leaves and twigs in lowland moist forest, degraded forest, small farms, and urban gardens in the lowland wet zone. It is very adaptable. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
58889	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58889	threats		Agro-chemical pollution and intensive urbanization is a major threat to this species, although these are mainly localized at present.	eng
58890	conservation		It is found only in Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.	eng
58890	distribution		This species appears to be restricted to Morningside Forest Reserve in the Rakwana Hills, in the Sinharaja area of south-western Sri Lanka, at 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58890	habitat		It is a habitat specialist, found near streams and marshy areas in closed-canopy cloud forest, including forests disturbed by cardamom plantations. At night, males perch up to about two metres above ground, on leaves, from which they vocalize (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58890	population		It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
58890	threats		The habitat of this species is threatened by the expansion of tea and cardamom plantations, the collection of wood, expanding human settlements, and agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58891	conservation		The type locality is within the Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, but the effectiveness of this protection is unclear. There is a need to closely monitor the population status of this species.	eng
58891	distribution		This species is known from only a single locality in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at 850m asl.	eng
58891	habitat		It was collected in submontane mossy forest, and has so far not been found outside forest. Frogs were found perched on the leaves of shrubs at night. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58891	population		More than 20 individuals were seen in two nights at the type locality indicating that the species was locally abundant.	eng
58891	threats		Although present within a formally gazetted protected area, its restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58892	conservation	Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Pethiyagoda, R., Karunarathna, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs outside the Maduru Oya National Park and may also occur in Wasgomuwa National Park. To preserve its habitat as a way of aiding its conservation, cooperative habitat management with the local human communities is urgently needed.	eng
58892	distribution	Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Pethiyagoda, R., Karunarathna, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from the following four localities: Angammadilla, near Polonnaruwa, in North Central province, Nilgala forest and Maragala Kanda, both in Monaragala district, Uva province, and from Maduru Oya, Ampara district, Sri Lanka. It is believed that it might also occur in Wasgomuwa National Park, which is very close to Angammadilla. It probably has a significantly wider distribution than is currently known. It occurs between 90-218 m asl.	eng
58892	habitat	Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Pethiyagoda, R., Karunarathna, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	It lives less than two metres above the ground on leaves in hedges and dry shrubby habitats alongside paddy fields. It breeds by direct development, depositing ca 17 eggs in a self-made nesting chamber and mixing the eggs with soil and leaf litter (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2007).	eng
58892	population	Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Pethiyagoda, R., Karunarathna, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	Recent surveys in Monaragala, Nilgala and Maduru Oya have recorded 2-3 individuals in ca 100 m² of forested areas (S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
58892	threats	Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Pethiyagoda, R., Karunarathna, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	The main threats to this species are man-made forest fires,  pollution of its habitat by agro-chemicals, and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification (i.e., chena, tea, cocoa, mahogany and teak plantations; S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009) and expanding human settlements. Some road kills have also been identified (S. Karunarathna pers. comm. September 2009), although they are likely to be minor threats.	eng
58893	conservation		It is present in Dediyagala Forest Reserve, Yagirala Forest Reserve, Haycock Forest Reserve and Gilimale-Eratne Forest Reserve.	eng
58893	distribution		This species is endemic to central and south-western parts of Sri Lanka at elevations of 30-900m asl. There are records from Kosmulla, Dediyagala, Yagirala, Induruwa, Norton Bridge and Haycock (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58893	habitat		It is largely arboreal, and is associated with the upper storey of closed-canopy forest habitats, but has also been observed perched on tall shrubs and occasionally on the forest floor, where it is assumed to have descended to breed. It calls from the forest canopy (10-20m above the ground), even during the daytime (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding presumably takes place by direct development.	eng
58893	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58893	threats		The main threat is habitat loss as a result of commercial extraction of timber (selective logging) and clearance of habitat for tea plantations; agrochemical pollution from tea estates is an additional threat.	eng
58894	conservation		Several protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58894	distribution		This species is known from 830-1,350m asl in Guangxi (Nanning, Dayaoshan and Huaping), Guangdong (Nanling) and Fujian (Chongan) Provinces in central China, as well as one record at 1,400m asl on Mount Tay Con Linh II, Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, north-eastern Viet Nam (Bain and Truong 2004).	eng
58894	habitat		It inhabits forests, and breeds in tree holes, bamboo stems, small pools and ponds.	eng
58894	population		There is no information available about the population status of this species.	eng
58894	threats		The major threats to this species' habitat are agricultural development and logging.	eng
58895	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58895	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, and is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon (Farmlands)" or "Taralanda" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.	eng
58895	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58895	population		It is known only from the holotype specimen. There have been no sightings since the species was described in 1927, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58895	threats		The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58896	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
58896	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Kandy and Peredeniya, from 500-800m asl, in central Sri Lanka, although it might occur more widely (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58896	habitat		It lives up to two metres above the ground on leaves in the understorey of moist evergreen forest; it also occurs in heavily degraded forest and even in rural gardens in the suburbs of Kandy. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
58896	population		It is very common in a variety of habitats.	eng
58896	threats		It is potentially at risk from agro-chemical pollution, and perhaps also very severe habitat clearance.	eng
58897	conservation		The type locality is a sacred grove, which is relatively small and does not guarantee protection. Improved protection and maintenance of the remaining habitat is needed, in addition to survey work to determine the species' current population status.	eng
58897	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality: "Kapildhara Falls, Amarkantak (23° 10'N; 81° 70'E), ca. 190km southeast of Jabalpur City, Shahdol, Jabalpur District, Madhya Pradesh, central India."	eng
58897	habitat		It is nocturnal, associated with old growth, tropical, moist, semi-evergreen and mesic forest, and does not occur outside forest. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
58897	population		There are no details about the population status of this species.	eng
58897	threats		The main threat is believed to be the loss of suitable habitat due to harvesting of wood for subsistence purposes, infrastructure development for tourism, and fires.	eng
58898	conservation		It occurs in the Knuckles Forest Reserve and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.	eng
58898	distribution		This species is endemic to central Sri Lanka, and occurs in two disjunctive populations, one in the Central Hill Country, and the other in the Knuckles Range. It has been recorded at 1,250-1,300m asl. There are records from Perediniya, Agra-Bopath, Bogowantalawa, and the Knuckles Range (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58898	habitat		It lives in both closed and open canopy rainforest, where it has been found at night on boulders and branches near streams. During the day, it hides in rock crevices on the margins of streams. It has not been found away from forest (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding presumably is by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58898	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
58898	threats		It is probably affected by habitat loss due to farming (cultivation of cardamom and tea), collection of firewood, timber extraction and plantations (pine), and expanding human settlements, as well as pollution by agro-chemicals (resulting in deterioration of water quality).	eng
58899	conservation		This species is known only from Gunung Kinabalu National Park. The population status of this species requires close monitoring given its very limited range.	eng
58899	distribution		This species is known only from the montane forest between Layang Layang and Pakka Cave on the south-western slopes of Gunung Kinabalu, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,200-3,050m asl. It is likely to be very restricted in its distribution.	eng
58899	habitat		This is a montane forest species occurring in mossy forest at the lower elevation parts of its range (below 2,600m asl). The eggs and larvae of this species have been found in pitcher plants (<em>Nephenthes</em> sp.). This species breeds by direct development.	eng
58899	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58899	threats		There are no known threats to this species, since its habitat is well protected. However, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58900	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and the Horton Plains National Park.	eng
58900	distribution		This species is endemic to the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka at 810-2,300m asl. There are records from the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Agra Bopath, Horton Plains and Pedro (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58900	habitat		It appears to be largely restricted to closed-canopy cloud forests, though it has also been found in the understorey of a pine plantation and more rarely in abandoned tea plantations. At night, adults have been observed perched on leaves 1-2m above ground. During the day, juveniles have been observed on the forest floor, on wet, marshy ground, and adults on lichen and moss-covered branches and tree trunks. Adult males are group callers (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). This species breeds by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58900	population		It is a common species.	eng
58900	threats		Although much of its range is in protected areas, the quality of much of its habitat is being threatened by illegal firewood collection, clear-cutting for timber, and conversion to agricultural land (tea estates). Forest fires and dieback of mature trees in Horton Plains National Park are also threats, and pollution by agro-chemicals might also be a problem.	eng
58901	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
58901	distribution		This species is known only from the holotype, collected at Pattipola at 1,829m asl in central Sri Lanka.	eng
58901	habitat		This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58901	population		There is no information on its population status; the only known specimen was collected sometime before 1913.	eng
58901	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
58902	conservation		It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas, but habitat protection and maintenance are urgent priorities for this species, and additional survey work is necessary to assess its current population status.	eng
58902	distribution		This species is restricted to a small area of forest, in and around Shilong, Meghalaya, in north-eastern India. It has been recorded from elevations below 1,400m asl.	eng
58902	habitat		It is associated with tropical moist forest, and probably breeds by direct development, like other species in the genus.	eng
58902	population		The population is believed to have declined significantly. While it was considered to be abundant in the 1970s, it is now difficult to find specimens of this frog. Recent ongoing (post 1993) vocalization surveys in and around Malki Forest (the type locality) have failed to record this species (D. Roy pers. comm.).	eng
58902	threats		Selective logging, the collection of wood for subsistence use, and urbanization, are all major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
58903	conservation		It has been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The species was recently included in field studies by Biju (1998-2001).	eng
58903	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Nilgiri Hills of the southern Western Ghats of India. It is a highland species occurring up to 2,000m asl.	eng
58903	habitat		It is an arboreal species associated with tropical moist evergreen forest, although it can occur in modified areas. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
58903	population		It is commonly seen in the Nilgiri Hills (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001), but is believed to be declining.	eng
58903	threats		The major threat is the conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including timber and non-timber plantations).	eng
58904	conservation		It is found in the Tangamalai Sanctuary and Agra Bopath Forest Reserve.	eng
58904	distribution		This species is known only from two locations in the lower Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, at 1,550-1,600m asl, on either side of the Horton Plains Plateau, near Agarapatana and Haputale. Specific records come from Agra Bopath and the Tangamalai Sanctuary (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58904	habitat		It occurs in both closed-canopy forests and open, anthropogenic habitats. Adults have been observed at night on stream banks and perched on branches 1-4m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). Breeding is by direct development and the species is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58904	population		It is uncommon.	eng
58904	threats		It is threatened by the encroachment of tea cultivation, the removal of firewood, expanding human settlements, and agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58905	conservation		The species is found in the Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.	eng
58905	distribution		This species is endemic to the Sinharaja area of south-western Sri Lanka, where it appears to be restricted to the Morningside Forest Reserve, near Rakwana, on the eastern side of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, at an elevation of 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58905	habitat		It is essentially a ground-dwelling, leaf-litter species, found in closed-canopy montane forest, and forest fragments within cardamom plantations. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58905	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
58905	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the encroachment of cardamom plantations, removal of wood for subsistence use, and illegal gem mining. It is probably also adversely affected by agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58906	conservation		It is known only from the proposed Similipal Biosphere Reserve.	eng
58906	distribution		This recently described species is currently known only from Orissa State, at the northern tip of the Eastern Ghats in eastern India. It has been collected at altitudes of around 770m asl.	eng
58906	habitat		It has been found underneath rotten sal leaves, and in loose leaf-covered soil and inside rotten logs sometimes close to riverbanks. The habitat type in which this species was collected is unclear, though it is likely to be tropical dry forest. This is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
58906	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
58906	threats		The threats to this species are not known, though its habitat might be under pressure.	eng
58907	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to establish whether or not this species still survives, particularly at the type locality, but also on the nearby Mount Marapi.	eng
58907	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Talakmau, in West Sumatra, Indonesia, at 1,200m asl.	eng
58907	habitat		It presumably occurs in montane forest, and, like other species of the genus, breeds by direct development.	eng
58907	population		The population status of this species is unknown; it is known only from the holotype.	eng
58907	threats		The type locality has already been completely cleared of forest for smallholder farming, and there is also the risk of volcanic eruption.	eng
58908	conservation		It is found in many protected areas including Hiniduma Forest Reserve, Sinharaja Forest Reserve (World Heritage Site), Labugama Forest Reserve, Kanneliya Forest Reserve, and Haycock Forest Reserve. There is an ongoing captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
58908	distribution		This species is widespread in south-western and central Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 80-1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58908	habitat		It lives in lowland rainforest up to three metres above the ground in vegetation, on wet rocks in cascades, leaves and tree trunks. It can also be found on wet rocks in streams in home gardens, among cardamom, in rubber plantations and along the edge of tea estates, providing that the area around the stream remains well vegetated. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
58908	population		It is a common species.	eng
58908	threats		The major threats to this species are the clearing of the forest and other vegetation around streams for cultivation of tea and other crops, the collection of wood, expanding human settlements and agro-chemical pollution. However, it is very common and adaptable, and so is not currently considered to be seriously threatened.	eng
58909	conservation		It occurs within an area protected by the State Forest Department. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
58909	distribution		This species is restricted to the area of Ponmudi Hill in the northern part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (formerly Ashambu Hills), Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,030m asl.	eng
58909	habitat		It is primarily an open grassland species, but it is also associated with grassland shrubs. It breeds by direct development and eggs are deposited at the base of grass clumps or in rock crevices.	eng
58909	population		It appears to be a common species.	eng
58909	threats		It occurs in an area of grassland and forest that is generally reasonably well protected. However, the expansion of the surrounding tea plantations might be considered a threat in the future.	eng
58910	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority.	eng
58910	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities in the vicinity of the Amboli forest in Sawantwadi District, Maharashtra, in the northern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded at an elevation of approximately 750m asl.	eng
58910	habitat		It was collected in extremely disturbed areas close to evergreen forest patches, although it is not known whether or not it occurs in primary evergreen forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58910	population		It is very rare in its known localities.	eng
58910	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss and fragmentation due to urbanization and tourism development.	eng
58912	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for close montoring of the population status of this species.	eng
58912	distribution		This species is known from Kodaikanal in Dindigal Anna District, Tamil Nadu State, in the southern Western Ghats of India, at elevations of 1,900-2,300m asl.	eng
58912	habitat		It inhabits grassland, and associated fringes of shola forest. The original series was collected during a rainy night from leaves, about 1m above ground in shrubs near the roadside. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58912	population		It is a very common to abundant species.	eng
58912	threats		There are no threats to this species at present, given its apparent adaptability to significantly altered habitats. However, its very limited range could render it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58913	conservation		This species is known from the Wayanad Sanctuary.	eng
58913	distribution		This species is widely distributed at 1,000-1,150 m altitude in Wayanad District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of India.	eng
58913	habitat		This species has been commonly found in roadside vegetation and gardens, even right near human habitation. Individuals were found at 1-2 m above the ground on roadside vegetation and coffee plants. The species breeds by direct development.	eng
58913	population		The species is abundant.	eng
58913	threats		There are no significant threats known to this species, given its apparent adaptability to significantly altered habitats.	eng
58914	conservation		The range of the species is not within any protected area, and protection of the remaining habitat at the species' only known locality is an urgent priority.	eng
58914	distribution		This species is known only from a single locality close to Munnar, Kerala, along the Ghat road to Devikulam, in the southern Western Ghats of India, where it was collected at 1,500m asl.	eng
58914	habitat		It is known only from a small area (less than 20km²) of secondary vegetation, adjoining the forest along the Ghat road. Specimens were found close to a tea plantation, but not inside the plantation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58914	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58914	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat clearance for tea and eucalyptus plantations, all the more concerning since there are no other areas of suitable habitat known in the surrounding region.	eng
58916	conservation		It might be present in Shenduruny Sanctuary and Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary. Strengthening the existing protected areas network and maintenance of remaining habitat in the range of the species are recommended conservation actions. Further survey work is necessary to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
58916	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 1,000 m asl on Ponmudi Hill, part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (=Ashambu Hills) in the Western Ghats of India. It might possibly occur more widely in Wynaad District.	eng
58916	habitat		This species is known from a patch of evergreen forest surrounded by grassland. Individuals were found calling in the late evening at 8-15m above the ground in the forest canopy. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58916	population		The population status of this species is not known, but it could be common within its very limited range.	eng
58916	threats		The habitat of this species is known to be declining, and the expansion of surrounding tea plantations is likely to exacerbate the rate of forest loss.	eng
58917	conservation		It occurs within an area protected by the State Forest Department. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
58917	distribution		This species is restricted to the area of Ponmudi Hill in the northern part of the Agasthyamala Hill range (formerly Ashambu Hills), Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded from an elevation of 1,030m asl.	eng
58917	habitat		It is an arboreal species, recorded from both primary and old secondary tropical moist deciduous forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58917	population		It is a common species at its known locality.	eng
58917	threats		It occurs in an area of forest that is currently protected. Restricted logging and tourism are minor threats. However, the expansion of the surrounding tea plantations might be considered a threat for the future.	eng
58919	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58919	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Nuwara Eliya (06º 57'N, 80º 47'E) [Newera-Elllia], in Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58919	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58919	population		It is known only from the lost holotype. There have been no records since the species was described in 1853, and it is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have failed to rediscover this frog.	eng
58919	threats		The threats that resulted in the extinction of this species are not known, although presumably habitat loss was a major factor.	eng
58920	conservation		It occurs in the Sinharaja Forest Reserve (World Heritage Site), Kanneliya Forest Reserve and Kottawa Forest Reserve.	eng
58920	distribution		This species is endemic to the lowland wet zone of south-western Sri Lanka, occurring from 60-515m asl. There are records from Kottawa, Kanneliya, Sinharaja and Kosmulla (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58920	habitat		It is a habitat generalist, living both in closed-canopy rainforest, and in open, anthropogenic, habitats. It is typically found in shrubs about one metre above the ground, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58920	population		This is a common species.	eng
58920	threats		This species is potentially threatened by agro-chemical pollution, and also very severe habitat clearance for cultivation of tea, cardamom and other crops, leading to large-scale opening up of the vegetation.	eng
58921	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Conservation measures needed for this species include the protection of the remaining lowland rainforests and the restoration of degraded forests.	eng
58921	distribution		This species occurs on Luzon, Leyte, Samar, Mindanao, and Siquijor, in the Philippines.	eng
58921	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and is a direct developer.	eng
58921	population		It is common to very common in forested areas, even in some disturbed areas adjacent to forests. It is one of the most common forest species of Philippine frog and it inhabits a considerably wide geographic and elevational distribution.	eng
58921	threats		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests. It lays its eggs on leaves, and breeds by direct development.	eng
58922	conservation		It occurs in Mount Malindang National Park, but there is a need for improved protection of the remaining montane rainforest of Mindanao. This species may potentially be declining significantly at the type locality and so immediate surveys are needed to assess its population status.	eng
58922	distribution		This species is currently known from a few mountains on north-western Mindanao Island, in the Philippines.	eng
58922	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in mossy and montane rainforests, and has not been found outside forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58922	population		It was uncommon on Mount Malindang, the type locality, at the time of the original collection and no recent field studies of this area have been conducted. Specimens from two mountains east of Mount Malindang (Mount Kitanglad and Mount Lumot) may refer to this species.	eng
58922	threats		It inhabits high-elevation forests, which are generally less threatened by habitat conversion, agriculture, and human encroachment. Nonetheless, these threats remain an issue for some populations of this species.	eng
58923	conservation		It is known from Gunung Mulu National Park, Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (in Malaysia), and Ulu Temburong National Park (in Brunei). Continued effective protection of areas of lowland rainforest is essential for the species' conservation.	eng
58923	distribution		This species is known only from scattered localities in north-western and western Borneo (Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam). It is present at elevations below 700m asl.	eng
58923	habitat		It has been found in a variety of lowland rainforest environments. Most individuals have been seen on low shrubs. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
58923	population		In general, only a few individuals have been seen at any one locality. It is considered common in Ulu Temburong National Park, Brunei.	eng
58923	threats		The major threat is logging of the lowland forest habitat, and much of its habitat has already been lost.	eng
58924	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58924	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type locality is not known.	eng
58924	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58924	population		It is known only from the lectotype and type series, and has not been recorded since the original description in 1864. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog and it is now considered to be extinct.	eng
58924	threats		The causes of the species' extinction are not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58925	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further field studies in the area of collection are urgently required to learn more about this little-known frog, and determine its range, population status and habitat requirements.	eng
58925	distribution		This species is known only from the region of the type locality, which is "Peddavalasa (17° 47'N; 82° 16'E), ca. 1,000m altitude [asl], Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh State, south-eastern India" (Das and Chanda 1998) in the Eastern Ghats of India.	eng
58925	habitat		It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
58925	population		It is known only from museum specimens, and there are currently no known populations of this species.	eng
58925	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58926	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of protected areas in the Nilgiri Hills, including Mukkurthi National Park.	eng
58926	distribution		This species is known only from Ooty and its surroundings in the Nilgiri Hills in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India, where it has been recorded at an elevation of between 1,700 and 2,000m asl.	eng
58926	habitat		It is a terrestrial species associated with montane tropical moist evergreen forest, but it can also be found in grasslands and modified areas close to the forest; however, it is not clear whether populations can persist in these areas. In forests it is found in leaf-litter and under ground cover. It reproduces through direct development, and the eggs are deposited under stones (Dubois 1986; Bossuyt and Dubois 2001).	eng
58926	population		The range is continuous and it is one of the most common species in the Nilgiri hills (Biju 2001). However, the population is generally believed to be declining.	eng
58926	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss through the conversion of forest to plantations and the development of regional infrastructure.	eng
58927	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected area.	eng
58927	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "Bodanaikanur, Travancore, at the foot of the hills on the eastern side" in the Western Ghats of India. The altitudinal range is reported to be up to 400m asl.	eng
58927	habitat		It is believed to have been an arboreal species of tropical moist evergreen forest. It is presumed to have been a direct developing species, like other species of the genus.	eng
58927	population		It is known only from the holotype specimen, and was described in 1891. Extensive recent field surveys of the area, and surrounding suitable habitat, have not relocated this species, and it is now considered to be extinct.	eng
58927	threats		The extinction of the species was caused by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and urban development.	eng
58928	conservation		It is not known with certainty if this species is present in any protected areas, although it is possible that it occurs in Kudrumkh National Park as the collection site coordinates indicate that its ranges falls within this protected area.	eng
58928	distribution		This species has been collected at Kirundadu (near Madikeri: 12° 29'N; 75° 47'E), in Kodagu District, and also from Malleshwaram in Kudrumukh in Chikmagalur District (13° 12'N; 75° 16'E). Both known sites are in the Western Ghats of the southern part of Karnataka State, India. It has been collected at altitudes between 920 and 940m asl.	eng
58928	habitat		The description of this species does not contain any details of the habitat in which the specimens were collected. It is presumed that the animals were collected in tropical forest, and it is further presumed that this species has a direct development mode of reproduction.	eng
58928	population		The population status of the species is not known.	eng
58928	threats		The threats to it at the specific collection localities are not known. There is an ongoing loss of natural habitats over much of the Western Ghats due to anthropic activities, and this might be a threat.	eng
58929	conservation		Its one known locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park.	eng
58929	distribution		This species is known from Htingnan in northern Myanmar, and possibly from the Hkamti Plain. Attempts to create a distribution map for it for this assessment should be considered as approximate.	eng
58929	habitat		This is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, although this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
58929	population		It has not been recorded since it was first described from two specimens collected in the 1930s, and results from recent herpetological surveys of the area are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
58929	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58930	conservation		Its known range is wholly within Gunung Mulu National Park, which is also a World Heritage Site. Directed surveys are needed to determine and monitor the population status of this species.	eng
58930	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Mulu National Park in northern Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia, at elevations of 900-1,300m asl.	eng
58930	habitat		The original series was found in submontane forest. Males were calling from near ground level up to 2m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
58930	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
58930	threats		There are currently no major threats to the species since its habitat is relatively well protected. However, its restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
58931	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58931	distribution		This species is known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (= Sri Lanka). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type collection is not known (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58931	habitat		The habitat requirements of this frog are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58931	population		This species is known only from the lectotype. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have not relocated this species and it is now believed to be extinct.	eng
58931	threats		The cause of the species' extinction is not known, but habitat loss seeems likely to have been a contributing factor.	eng
58932	conservation		It is known from the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand. In Malaysia, it is also known to occur in a number of semi-protected areas such as Fraser's Hill, Larut Hill and Genting Highlands, but it has not been confirmed from Taman Negara National Park.	eng
58932	distribution		This species occurs in extreme southern Thailand (Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary) and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from 500-1,600m asl.	eng
58932	habitat		It lives in submontane and montane forest and forest edge. It has not been found outside forest. It is presumed to be a species that breeds by direct development, like most other species of the genus.	eng
58932	population		It is generally an uncommon, but not a rare, species.	eng
58932	threats		It is presumably being impacted by ongoing forest loss in Peninsular Malaysia as a result of tourism, industry and forestry.	eng
58933	conservation		It is found in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site (the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests), and forest reserves bordering the eastern margin of the World Heritage Site.	eng
58933	distribution		This species is endemic to the general Sinharaja region of south-western Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from 510-1,270m asl. There are records from Morningside, Handapan Ella Plains and Sinharaja (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58933	habitat		It inhabits closed-canopy rainforest habitats and cardamom plantations within the forest. Adult males have been observed calling at night while perched on ferns, 0.3-1m above ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water.	eng
58933	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
58933	threats		It is threatened by habitat loss, due to habitat encroachment for tea and cardamom plantations, and human settlement; agro-chemical pollution is an additional threat.	eng
58934	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas, making the protection of its forest habitat an urgent priority.	eng
58934	distribution		This species is endemic to a small part of the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka, and has been recorded from Agra Bopath (at 1,555m asl) and Ambewela (at 1,830m asl) (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It might occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58934	habitat		It occurs in both open and closed-canopy vegetation, including cloud forests and adjacent anthropogenic habitats. They have been observed 1-5m above ground, perched on leaves and twigs on shrubs, in the forest understorey. In closed-canopy habitats, it inhabits the top stratum (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent on water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58934	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
58934	threats		The habitat of this species is gradually declining due to encroachment by tea cultivation and human settlements, and it is particularly sensitive to the removal of the humus layer where it lays its eggs. It is probably also threatened by agro-chemicals.	eng
58935	conservation	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is found in some very small protected areas around Bandung; in addition, the forest surrounding the Chevron Geothermal Concession has a protected status, and Cikaniki also occurs within a National Park (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
58935	distribution	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from the mountains near Bandung, above 1,000 m asl, from Cikaniki in Mount Halimun and from Chevron Geothermal Concession (950 m asl) in Mount Salak, in   Mount Halimun Salak National Park, West Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Pangalengan, at 1,000 m asl.	eng
58935	habitat	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species can be found in ponds in montane forest. It breeds all year long in Chevron; however, it seems that the highest number of breeding events occur during high rainfall (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). Contrary to the characteristic reproduction mode of this genus, this species has a free-living tadpole stage, and females attend to their eggs until they hatch (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). Mean clutch size is 52 eggs (n = 12; range: 37–66 eggs, SD= 8.25; M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
58935	population	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is relatively common in ponds in the Chevron Geothermal Concession area and in Cikaniki, with up to 11 individuals reported for one pond in the Chevron Geothermal Concession (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
58935	threats	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to small-scale farming.	eng
58936	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park. Improved protection of the remaining rainforests on the island of Mindanao is necessary.	eng
58936	distribution		This species is found in various montane regions of Mindanao, in the Philippines.	eng
58936	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and has also been found in slightly disturbed habitats (but only at the forest edge). It breeds by direct development.	eng
58936	population		It is common in forested habitats and disturbed habitats adjacent to forest.	eng
58936	threats		The major threat is the continued loss of the lower montane and lowland rainforest, due to logging, agriculture, and infrastructure development.	eng
58937	conservation		It has been recorded in the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species, given that there have been no recent field studies.	eng
58937	distribution		This species is restricted to tropical forests in the vicinity of Coorg in Karnataka, and Wayanad and the Ponmudi Hills in Kerala, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has been recorded at elevations between 900 and 1,200m asl.	eng
58937	habitat		It is nocturnal and arboreal, and associated with the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest and shrubland. It is present in secondary forest and cultivated land (including tea and coffee plantations), provided that these are not managed too intensively. Breeding is believed to take place by direct development.	eng
58937	population		The current population status is unknown, but the species is known from very few localities.	eng
58937	threats		The major threat is conversion of native forest to intensively cultivated areas (including tea, coffee and other non-timber plantations).	eng
58938	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58938	distribution		This recently described species is a Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the general type locality of "Ceylon" (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). It is not possible to produce a distribution map for this species because the exact location of the type collection is not known.	eng
58938	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58938	population		It is known only from the holotype and two paratypes. There have been no records since the type collection (sometime before 1947) and the species is now believed to be extinct, because recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka have failed to rediscover this frog.	eng
58938	threats		The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss was a contributing factor.	eng
58939	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
58939	distribution		This is an extinct Sri Lankan endemic, known only from the type locality of "Point de Galle, Ceylon".	eng
58939	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably bred by direct development.	eng
58939	population		It is known only from the holotype specimen described in 1927. There have been no records since this time and the species is now believed to be extinct. Recent, extensive field surveys of the amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka, including at the type locality, have not rediscovered this frog.	eng
58939	threats		The reason for the species' extinction is not known, but presumably habitat loss contributed to its demise as the town of Galle is heavily urbanized.	eng
58940	conservation		It is present in the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve.	eng
58940	distribution		This species is known only from central Sri Lanka at 500-800m asl, where it has been recorded from Gannoruwa Forest and gardens around Tiverton Estate, and it has also been observed at Hantana and Udawattakelle Forest Reserves near Kandy (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005).	eng
58940	habitat		It inhabits closed-canopy rainforest habitats with little understorey, and also occurs in residential gardens with plenty of leaf-litter. It is active by both day and night. Specimens collected during the day were on the ground in leaf-litter. At night males have been recorded calling from branches and leaves 0.3-1.5m above the ground (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2005). This species breeds by direct development. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
58940	population		It is a rare species.	eng
58940	threats		It is losing its forest habitat to expanding human settlements, and small-scale wood extraction. Agrochemical pollution from areas surrounding the forest is also a threat.	eng
58941	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species.	eng
58941	distribution		This species is endemic to central China and is known from Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, Jiangxi and Fujian Provinces. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 700-1,300m asl.	eng
58941	habitat		It inhabits creeks, ponds, paddy fields and the surrounding habitats (such as shrublands and forests) in hilly areas. It breeds in still water habitats such as ponds, pools and paddy fields.	eng
58941	population		It is a very common species.	eng
58941	threats		Infrastructure development for tourism and agricultural pollution are major threats to the species.	eng
58942	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forests is essential for this species.	eng
58942	distribution		This species is found from extreme southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) throughout Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), and from scattered localities across Borneo and Sumatra and Natuna in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It ranges up to 600m asl.	eng
58942	habitat		It lives in lowland marshy evergreen rainforest areas, mainly in flat terrain. It can be found in primary and in mildly disturbed selectively logged forest. It forms breeding aggregations around temporary rain pools.	eng
58942	population		It is generally an uncommon to rare species where it occurs in mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra (low numbers collected by, for example, Grandison, 1972 and Dring, 1979). In Borneo, it appears to be common in flat, swampy rainforests.	eng
58942	threats		It is not known to be specifically threatened, though ongoing deforestation throughout its range is a concern.	eng
58943	conservation		It has been recorded from many protected areas including the Udawattakele Sanctuary in Kandy, and Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary and Singharaja World Heritage Reserve.	eng
58943	distribution		This species is a widely distributed Sri Lankan endemic. Specimens previously attributed to this species from the Western Ghats of India have now been assigned to Polypedates pseudocruciger (Das and Ravichandran, 1998). It has been recorded at elevations of between 15 and 1,525m asl.	eng
58943	habitat		It is a tree frog of the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka. It is generally an arboreal species of secondary forest habitats (including degraded forest), but can also occur in banana groves, home gardens, houses and other buildings. It is not present in primary forest. Larvae may be found in semi-permanent pools, stock tanks, and in stagnant water, including man-made habitats.	eng
58943	population		It is a common species.	eng
58943	threats		This species is mostly threatened by agrochemical pollution of land and water.	eng
58944	conservation		Its one known location is within Hoang Lien Son National Park.	eng
58944	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Fan Si Pan, in northern Viet Nam, from 1,600-2,100m asl.	eng
58944	habitat		It was recorded from lower and upper montane evergreen forest, and was also observed breeding around a buffalo wallow in heavily degraded forest.	eng
58944	population		It is reportedly common during breeding, although it has only been recorded once since it was first described over sixty years ago.	eng
58944	threats		The main threats to this species are presumably encroachment of agriculture, and forest clearance through subsistence collection of wood.	eng
58945	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. In Viet Nam the known range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park and Tay Con Linh II National Park.	eng
58945	distribution		This species is known from southwestern and central China in Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces, and from extreme northern Viet Nam near the border with China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 1,400-3,200m asl.	eng
58945	habitat		It inhabits upper montane forest, and breeds in pools and ponds, sometimes being found in disturbed areas close to human habitation. Males were heard calling from beside temporary pools.	eng
58945	population		It is very common in China. It was first discovered in Viet Nam in 2000, and is reportedly uncommon there.	eng
58945	threats		Logging and agriculture are major threats to the species.	eng
58946	conservation		It has been recorded from the Horton Plains National Park, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve and the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary.	eng
58946	distribution		This species is found in the Central Hill Country of Sri Lanka at elevations of 1,200-2,135m asl.	eng
58946	habitat		It is arboreal and terrestrial; adults are found in the canopy and on tree trunks of montane tropical moist forest, and also in grasses at the edge of ponds. Larvae are found in both permanent and seasonal ponds in grasslands. It is not present in modified habitats.	eng
58946	population		It is a common species.	eng
58946	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to the conversion of forest to cultivated land (tea and vegetables), commercial harvesting of timber (clear cutting), fire (in the Horton Plains), and the development of infrastructure for tourism. Agrochemical pollution, drought, and die-back of mature trees are additional threats.	eng
58947	conservation		It is present in Morningside Forest Reserve; however, while Morningside itself belongs to the Forest Department, it has not yet been assured a permanent conservation status.	eng
58947	distribution		This species is known from only a single locality in the Morningside Estate in south-western Sri Lanka, and was collected at an elevation of 1,060m asl (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2001).	eng
58947	habitat		It is arboreal known only from montane tropical moist forest. Adults are generally found up to two metres above the ground, on twigs and leaves in bushes close to stagnant pools. Breeding occurs in these pools.	eng
58947	population		It is generally a rare species.	eng
58947	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to canopy removal and the clearance of undergrowth, expanding timber plantations, subsistence collection of wood, encroaching tea and cardamom plantations, and urbanization. It might also be impacted by the adverse effects of agro-chemical pollution.	eng
58948	conservation		In China this species occurs in the Daweishan and Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserves. Maintaining and improving the protection of this species within existing protected areas is recommended. It is listed as 'Vulnerable' in the 1997 OEPP Thai Red List. The rating of 'Threatened' for <span style="font-style: italic;">R. nigropalmatus</span> in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) might refer in part to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. feae</span>.	eng
58948	distribution		This species is known from southern Yunnan (Mengla, Hekou and Pingbian Counties) in China, the Karen Hills of Myanmar (Boulenger, 1893), Doi Inthanon (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999) and Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand, northern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999-records from central Lao People's Democratic Republic refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dennysii</span>), and Viet Nam (Bourret, 1942). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded between 600 and 1,900m asl.	eng
58948	habitat		It has been recorded in closed-canopy evergreen rainforest. Bourret (1942) reported it as a commensal at Sa Pa resort town. It breeds in streams, ponds and paddy fields and holes in trees. It seems to require large trees.	eng
58948	population		This is an uncommon species, generally only isolated individuals are recorded. An exception was when it was recorded as 'extremely abundant' at Sa Pa (Bourret1942) in Viet Nam.	eng
58948	threats		It was reportedly heavily collected for consumption in the past and is still collected (S. Swan pers. comm.). It is restricted to primary forest so is particularly susceptible to habitat loss and degradation. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
58949	conservation		Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve is within the range of this species.	eng
58949	distribution		This species is known from the western slope and southern part of Gaoligongshan (Gongshan, Tengchong and Baoshan Counties), in western Yunnan Province, China, and it has also recently been recorded from Puliebadze, in Nagaland, India. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar, but it has not yet been recorded from there.	eng
58949	habitat		It inhabits agricultural land in hilly areas, and often occurs near streams, ponds and pools, and in the surrounding bamboo clumps, trees, shrubs and grasses. It lays eggs on leaves above water, and the larvae then develop in the water below.	eng
58949	population		It is a common species.	eng
58949	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural development and subsistence wood collecting.	eng
58950	conservation		Additional specimens need to be collected to confirm its taxonomic validity.	eng
58950	distribution		This species is known only from a single locality on Samar Island, in the Philippines. Its distribution cannot be mapped, as its precise range is not known.	eng
58950	habitat		It reportedly inhabits arboreal microhabitats in lower montane and lowland forests, and presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58950	population		The population status of this species is unknown. It has not been recorded for 150 years, presumably because of a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
58950	threats		Possible threats to this species include small-scale logging and the conversion of its major habitat, the lowland rainforest, to agricultural land.	eng
58951	conservation		Part of the range of this species is within Dayaoshan National Nature Reserve and Dujiangyan Natural and Historical Heritage Reserve.	eng
58951	distribution		This species is known only from Hongfoshan, in Dujiangyan Shi, Sichuan Province, and from Dayaoshan in Jinxiu County, Guangxi Province, China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 800-1,100m asl.	eng
58951	habitat		It is found in hilly forested and shrubland areas, and breeds in stream-fed ponds.	eng
58951	population		It is known from only two locations.	eng
58951	threats		The major threats to it are agricultural development and logging, which lead to habitat loss and degradation.	eng
58952	conservation		It occurs in the Galathea Biosphere Reserve on Great Nicobar Island. Survey work is needed to obtain a better understanding of the current population status of this species.	eng
58952	distribution		This species is endemic to Great Nicobar Island (of the southern portion of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), India, where it has been recorded from at least three separate localities at elevations up to 500m asl.	eng
58952	habitat		It is an arboreal species of tropical moist forest. Specimens have been collected in low shrubs and in puddles away from riparian vegetation. It is presumed to breed in temporary pools.	eng
58952	population		Reports from 1994-1997 indicate that the species appears to be reasonably abundant on the island (R. Daniels pers. comm.), although there are no quantitative data to support this.	eng
58952	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to intensive crop production and human settlement.	eng
58953	conservation		The main conservation issue is the cryptic diversity within the species complex as some of the hidden taxa might be of conservation concern, but reliable recognition needs to be established before conservation strategies can be formulated.	eng
58953	distribution		This species occurs throughout northeast India and Bangladesh, it is marginal in Nepal, and possibly occurs in Bhutan (although this requires confirmation). It is considered here to be present in western Yunnan, China. It also occurs throughout most of mainland southeast Asia, including islands large (e.g. Phuket (Frith, 1977) and Singapore (Lim and Lim, 1992 and Ming, 2000)) and small (e.g. vegetated rocks off Tioman and Redang), and is widespread (and introduced) throughout the Philippines, and is present in Borneo, Mentawai, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Bali, Lombok, Natuna Islands, Anambas Islands, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Timor and is introduced to Papua (not mapped here). It also is found in China. It is introduced to Japan and is found in Okinawajima, Tonakijima, Kurimajima, Miyakojima, Iejima, Iheyajima, Izenajima, Sesokojima and Yabuchijima. It is found up to 1,500m asl.	eng
58953	habitat		It is a very adaptable opportunist and commensal, occurring from beach vegetation through all manner of human habitats (such as agricultural areas, ditches, artificial ponds and lakes, gardens, even in houses) and natural edge habitats to closed primary forest. It appears to be dependent on human activities to create suitable habitats. There might be separation among habitat axes among the component species in the <em>leucomystax</em> complex.	eng
58953	population		It is abundant and common throughout its range.	eng
58953	threats		It is not subjected to any significant degree of disturbance, which could threaten its survival. Presumably heavy application of pesticides around houses might pose threats to local subpopulations. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
58954	conservation		It has been recorded from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the largest remnant of Sri Lanka's forests, which was inscribed in 1988.	eng
58954	distribution		This species is endemic to central and south-western Sri Lanka, where it has been recorded at elevations of between 150 and 1,300m asl.	eng
58954	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in lowland, submontane and montane tropical moist forests. Adults can be found on moss, bushes and tree trunks up to 2m above the ground. It is rarely found outside primary habitat. It can be found close to stagnant water, and breeding takes place in rocky pools in streams.	eng
58954	population		It is rare.	eng
58954	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to subsistence wood extraction, and conversion to tea and cardamom plantations; agrochemical pollution (of both land and water) is an additional threat.	eng
58955	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
58955	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, Sumatra (including Mentawai and Natunas), most of Borneo, and southwestern Philippines. It has been recorded up to 1,250m asl.	eng
58955	habitat		It generally inhabits primary forest and edge areas. It breeds in rain pools, ditches, and builds foam nests.	eng
58955	population		It is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
58955	threats		It is not subject to any significant threat.	eng
58956	conservation		The species is known to occur in numerous protected areas in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.	eng
58956	distribution		This species is found throughout most of India, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, as well as western Bangladesh and Chittagong district in south-eastern Bangladesh. It has been reported from sea level up to at least 1,500m asl.	eng
58956	habitat		It has been recorded from a wide variety of habitat types including tropical dry and moist forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas and close to human habitations. It is largely arboreal, although it can be found on walls and hidden under rocks and leaves. Males have been reported calling from the ground. It breeds in temporary pools and paddy fields.	eng
58956	population		It is widely distributed, common and a human commensal. Population fluctuations in the species need to be investigated.	eng
58956	threats		In Sri Lanka, habitat pollution by agrochemicals is the main threat to the species. Otherwise, this species is not facing any significant threats.	eng
58957	conservation	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Yang Datong & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	Many protected areas in China support this species. In India it is known from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve.	eng
58957	distribution	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Yang Datong & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	This species is widespread in central, southern and south-western China, including Taiwan, Province of China, Hainan, Hong Kong and Macau. It has also recently been recorded from northern West Siang District, in Arunachal Pradesh, and from Watiyem, in Nagaland, in India. It has recently become established in Guam (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
58957	habitat	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Yang Datong & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	It inhabits various kinds of habitats including cultivated fields, grasslands, shrublands, plantations, forests, ponds, and marshes and near streams. It breeds in still water. Foam nests have been found to contain 300–400 eggs each and are often found in shallow, still water, typically attached to emergent vegetation (Christy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58957	population	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Yang Datong & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	It is widely distributed and breeds well in artificial, still waterbodies.	eng
58957	threats	Michael Wai Neng Lau, Chou Wenhao, Yang Datong & Annemarie Ohler, 2004	Habitat destruction such as urban development and habitat degradation such as water pollution might potentially threaten some populations of this species, but overall there are no major threats.	eng
58958	conservation		It is found in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
58958	distribution		This species is known with certainty from Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces in central, southern and southwestern China, and from northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940) and northern Viet Nam. It is suspected to range into northern Thailand and beyond (P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It occurs from 50-1,100m asl.	eng
58958	habitat		It inhabits forests and the surrounding areas. It breeds in still-water habitats such as pools, ponds, marshes and paddy fields. It makes foam nests over pools when breeding.	eng
58958	population		Due to confusion with other species, the population status of this species is not known.	eng
58958	threats		It inhabits lowland forest, which is the most threatened habitat in this region; therefore forest clearance and degradation are likely threats to this species.	eng
58959	conservation		It has been recorded from Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and Mouling National Park in Arunachal Pradesh. Recent field studies have been undertaken by Borah and Dutta (2001) and Bardoloi (2001). Its taxonomic status requires further investigation.	eng
58959	distribution		This species is known from the states of Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh in north-eastern India, where it has been recorded between 1,100 and 1,500m asl.	eng
58959	habitat		This is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest, shrubland and grasslands. Breeding takes place in small, temporary water pools.	eng
58959	population		Its population size is believed to be small.	eng
58959	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation, by both subsistence and commercial means.	eng
58960	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58960	distribution		This species occurs in several widely scattered subpopulations in central and south-western China: Yuexi County in Anhui Province; Longling and Pingbian Counties in Yunnan Province; Weining and Leishan Counties in Guizhou Province; and Sangzhi and Chengbu Counties in Hunan Province. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 600-2,100m asl.	eng
58960	habitat		It inhabits forest edges, shrubland, paddy fields, stream banks and creeks in hilly areas, and breeds in pools, ponds and ditches near paddy fields.	eng
58960	population		It is very rare.	eng
58960	threats		The major threat to this species' habitat is the development of human settlements and associated infrastructure.	eng
58961	conservation		A number of protected areas are within the range of this species.	eng
58961	distribution		This species is known from Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei and Guangxi Provinces in central and southern China. It has been recorded from 700-2,000m asl.	eng
58961	habitat		It inhabits forests and sometimes farmland, and breeds in still-water habitats such as pools and ponds.	eng
58961	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
58961	threats		Agriculture and logging are major threats to this species.	eng
58962	conservation		It is present in many protected areas in Borneo and Sumatra. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
58962	distribution		This species has been found at many sites in Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia) and on Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present at elevations below 1,000m asl.	eng
58962	habitat		This arboreal species lives in lowland forests, in flat and hilly terrain. It uses the shrub and tree strata and breeds in temporary rain pools. It has been recorded in disturbed habitats, such as logged areas at the forest edge.	eng
58962	population		It is a common species.	eng
58962	threats		Clear cutting of forests is the main threat to this species. Regulated selective logging does not seem to pose a threat. The species was previously included in the pet trade, but was found to be unsuitable (most specimens died shortly after capture).	eng
58963	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of protected areas.	eng
58963	distribution		This species is widely distributed throughout the southern Western Ghats of India. It is reported from elevations of between 200 and 950m asl.	eng
58963	habitat		It is an arboreal edge habitat species generally associated with the understorey of tropical, moist evergreen forest. Specimens have been collected close to marshes and streams, in forest grassland and also in disturbed habitats close to human habitations. Breeding takes place in small temporary ponds, and eggs are laid on a leaf over the pond.	eng
58963	population		It is a common species.	eng
58963	threats		Severe degradation of the species habitat as a result of agro-industry farming is a major threat.	eng
58964	conservation		This species probably occurs in Songshan Nature Reserve, although this requires confirmation.	eng
58964	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Banshan, in Puer County, Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs between 1,990 and 2,000m asl.	eng
58964	habitat		It lives in meadows in montane forest. The eggs are laid in foam nests in grasses, presumably close to stagnant waterbodies in which the larvae develop.	eng
58964	population		There is nothing known.	eng
58964	threats		The threats to this species are not known, although there is clear-cutting of forest and agrochemical pollution occurring within the general area.	eng
58965	conservation		It is reportedly present in Orang National Park in India.	eng
58965	distribution		This species is found throughout the southern Himalayan foothills of Nepal, India, and possibly Bhutan, and is marginal in northern Bangladesh. It is a lowland species present at elevations below 500m asl.	eng
58965	habitat		It is an arboreal species associated with tropical forest and shrubland. Reproduction and egg deposition take place in branches overhanging small pools, and hatching larvae drop into the pools.	eng
58965	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
58965	threats		Deforestation for local subsistence and urbanization are the main threats to the species.	eng
58966	conservation		The only known location is within Dayaoshan Nature Reserve. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
58966	distribution		This species is restricted to Dayaoshan, Jinxiu County, in Guangxi Province, China. It has been recorded from 800-1,500m asl.	eng
58966	habitat		It is an inhabitant of forest habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
58966	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58966	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, especially for wood extraction and farming.	eng
58967	conservation		It has been recorded from Royal Chitwan National Park. Recent fieldwork has been undertaken by Shresthra (2001).	eng
58967	distribution		This species is endemic to the Himalayan foothills of eastern Nepal, and has been recorded from 100-300m asl.	eng
58967	habitat		It is an arboreal tropical forest inhabitant. Amplexus, breeding and egg deposition take place on branches and leaves close to ponds.	eng
58967	population		It is considered to be rare when compared to other Nepalese <em>Polypedates</em> species.	eng
58967	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present.	eng
58968	conservation		It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
58968	distribution		This species is endemic to southern Sichuan Province and Lichuan County in Hubei Province, China. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest. It has been recorded from 2,000-3,150m asl.	eng
58968	habitat		It inhabits hilly areas, and probably lives in forests and breeds in still water habitats such as pools and ponds.	eng
58968	population		It is a very common species within its restricted range.	eng
58968	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation, in particular due to farming of livestock.	eng
58969	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58969	distribution		This species has been collected from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, and from the south-eastern slope of Gunung Dempo, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatra, Indonesia. It was collected at altitudes of between 1,415 and 1,575m asl.	eng
58969	habitat		This species has been collected in secondary growth tropical forest, in overhanging vegetation close to pools and slow-flowing streams. It presumably makes foam nests with the larvae then developing in the freshwater below.	eng
58969	population		It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58969	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, though it is likely to be impacted by forest loss as a result of smallholder farming and subsistence collection of wood.	eng
58970	conservation		Besides Gunung Kinabalu National Park, it is also present in the Crocker Range, in Malaysian Borneo; however, the Sumatran locality lies outside any protected areas.	eng
58970	distribution		This species is known from northern Borneo (Malaysia) and from one locality in Sumatra, Indonesia. It has an altitudinal range of 700-1,800m asl.	eng
58970	habitat		It has been found only in primary submontane and montane forests. Males call from trees overhanging small, clear, rocky streams where the larvae develop.	eng
58970	population		It appears to be abundant in Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Borneo.	eng
58970	threats		Habitat loss as a result of clear-cutting is the major threat to this species, and logging has already severely damaged the habitat at one known locality, Mount Trus Madi, in Borneo.	eng
58971	conservation		The only known location in Cambodia is within Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary. Herpetological surveys of existing protected areas on the Kon Tum Plateau are needed to determine the presence of this species in existing protected areas. Protected areas in the Buen Luoi-Tram Lap-Kon Cha Ran area are in need of improved management.	eng
58971	distribution		This species is known from the Kon Tum-Da Lat Plateau, of the southern Annamite Mountains, in Viet Nam and the extreme east of Cambodia. It was originally known from a single specimen collected at 200m asl (Smith 1924), but has subsequently been collected from 700-1,200m asl (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).	eng
58971	habitat		It is found in substantial numbers in rainforest. It makes foam nests in trees above quiet parts of streams and swampy floodplain (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).	eng
58971	population		In Viet Nam it was the most locally common tree frog (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).	eng
58971	threats		Deforestation of the Kon Tum-Da Lat Plateau (Darevsky and Orlov 1997; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and other systemic impacts are prime concerns for this species. The amount of available habitat within its range is very limited.	eng
58972	conservation		Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus complex is required before meaningful conservation measures can be implemented. In the Philippines, the remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest on the islands where this species occurs should be designated as protected areas. In Borneo, several well-protected parks in Sabah and Sarawak provide refuges for this species, and elsewhere in its range it also occurs in protected areas. Effective preservation of lowland forests in Kalimantan is essential.	eng
58972	distribution		This species is known from Sumatra, Siberut, Borneo (where it has been recorded from many scattered localities), the Philippines, Peninsular Malaysia and India (Arunachal Pradesh State). Records from northern monsoon areas (Thailand, Viet Nam) are probably referable to Rhacophorus verrucosus and Rhacophorus bisacculus (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). In the Philippines, it is known from a few mountain localities on Luzon, Leyte, Polillo, Negros, Bohol, Mindanao and Basilan. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58972	habitat		It is an arboreal species of tropical forest and shrubland. Breeding choruses have been observed at lower elevations in swampy areas and small quiet mountain streams. The tadpoles develop in puddles or small pools of stagnant water.	eng
58972	population		It is only occasionally encountered, but it can then be found in substantial numbers (Dring 1979). In Borneo, rather large breeding choruses have been observed at a number of sites; hence it appears to be abundant. It is uncommon in Sumatra and Siberut in Indonesia. In the Philippines there have been very few records of this species and it is still known from less than five localities.	eng
58972	threats		Deforestation of lowland areas is the major threat to this species.	eng
58973	conservation		Breeding sites of this species are designated as a natural monument by many local authorities. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
58973	distribution		This Japanese species is found on Honshu except Ibaragi Prefecture. It is also found on Sado Island. It is introduced to Izu Oshima and Niijima.	eng
58973	habitat		It occurs in forest from lowland to montane areas. It breeds on trees adjacent to ponds, paddy fields and other wetland areas.	eng
58973	population		More information is needed.	eng
58973	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
58974	conservation		It is only found in disturbed farmland areas. Presently there are about 20 landowners who have agreed to maintain the traditional farming practices for the forseeable future in the Yulin area in the central part of Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
58974	distribution		This species is known from agricultural areas in Chiayi, Yunlin and Tainan Counties, in south-western Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs up to 1,000m asl.	eng
58974	habitat		It is associated with disturbed areas with traditional farming practices, and inhabits bamboo forests, orchards, sugar-cane fields, scrubland and cultivated fields in the lowlands. It breeds in temporary rain water pools in orchards.	eng
58974	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58974	threats		Infrastructure development for industry and human settlement, and agricultural pollution, are its major threats.	eng
58975	conservation		It is protected within Fu-shan Nature Reserve and Li-chia Wildlife Refuge. Further research is needed to investigate the reasons for the decline in this species, and close population monitoring is required.	eng
58975	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities in Ilan, Taitung, Taichung, Hualien, Kaohsiung and Kenting in Taiwan, Province of China. It has been recorded from low to mid altitudes.	eng
58975	habitat		It inhabits primary broadleaf forests, and breeds in tree holes and buckets placed in forests.	eng
58975	population		It is a rare species that is believed to be in decline.	eng
58975	threats		The cause of the decline in this species is not clear, since its habitat is not believed to be currently threatened.	eng
58976	conservation		The population in Lao People's Democratic Republic is within Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitats in Viet Nam.	eng
58976	distribution		This species is known from the An Khe District, in Gia lai Province, Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and from the southern Annamite mountains of Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). The type locality is at 700-750m asl, but it has also been recorded around 1,000m asl.	eng
58976	habitat		It is known from wet evergreen forest. Animals have been found on the banks of forest streams, perched on grassy vegetation 20-50cm above the surface and about 3m from the water. Tadpoles were found in a swampy forest pond (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999).	eng
58976	population		It was reportedly common at the one known location in Lao People's Democratic Republic (T. Chan-ard pers. comm.).	eng
58976	threats		No specific threats have been indicated for the species, but the An Khe District site is known to be impacted by forest clearance for agriculture (Darevsky and Orlov 1997).	eng
58977	conservation		It has been recorded from Kinabalu and Gunung Mulu National Parks and the Crocker Range. Preservation of montane forests is the main conservation measure needed for this species.	eng
58977	distribution		This species ranges along the mountainous ridge of north-western Borneo, Malaysia, from 1,200-2,200m asl.	eng
58977	habitat		It has been seen only in submontane and montane forests. Males gather at small ponds in which the larvae develop, in or at the edge of these forests.	eng
58977	population		It can be locally abundant.	eng
58977	threats		A possible future threat to the species' habitat is logging of upland forests, although at the moment its forest habitat is well protected in its only known localities.	eng
58978	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58978	distribution		This species has been collected from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, in Sumatra, Indonesia, at 1,440m asl.	eng
58978	habitat		The type series was found along a stream trickling through tall upper montane forest. Adults were found calling from vegetation 1.3-2.0m above deep pools where the stream flowed down a steep basaltic slope, Foam nests were found floating on the water.	eng
58978	population		It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58978	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss caused by smallholder farming, small-scale subsistence collection of wood, and increasing human settlement.	eng
58979	conservation		It occurs in Barisan-Selatan, Kerinci-Seblat and Gunung Leuser National Parks.	eng
58979	distribution		This species is known from Mount Kerinci, Barisan-Selatan, Bengkulu, Jambi and Aceh in Sumatra, Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58979	habitat		This species occurs in lowland and submontane forest, and presumably breeds in water, probably in streams.	eng
58979	population		It seems to be uncommon.	eng
58979	threats		The main threat is localized forest loss due to agricultural development (including for non-timber plantations).	eng
58980	conservation		Its range includes a few protected areas, including Mount Malindang National Park and Mount Apo Natural Park. There is a need for improved protection of remaining tracts of intact lowland and montane rainforest in the islands where this species occurs.	eng
58980	distribution		This species has been recorded from southern Luzon, Bohol, and Mindanao in the Philippines. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
58980	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats, usually beside water (streams, ponds, rivers) in undisturbed lower montane and lowland forests.	eng
58980	population		It is locally common, but patchily distributed.	eng
58980	threats		Important threats are the loss of the lowland rainforest due to agriculture and logging, and the pollution of mountain streams and rivers especially due to agricultural effluents.	eng
58981	conservation		Provided the existing protected areas of the region remain intact the survival of this species appears secure. Surveys are needed to clarify its distribution more accurately.	eng
58981	distribution		This species is widely distributed from northeastern India (Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur) and Bangladesh, through Myanmar (Boulenger, 1893), western and southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962; Inger and Colwell, 1977), southern China (southern Xizang Province) (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999), to Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975; Manthey and Grossmann, 1997). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded at altitudes of 100-900m asl in Thailand and southern Viet Nam, but up to 1,800m asl in Peninsular Malaysia (Dring, 1979; Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), 2,100m asl in China and 2,200m asl in India. Records from southern Yunnan Province, Guangxi Province and Hainan Province in China, and from eastern Thailand, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, and central Viet Nam refer to <em>Rhacophorus rhodopus</em>.	eng
58981	habitat		It is an arboreal species known from closed-canopy evergreen forest, forest edge, and bamboo in lowland and montane rainforest areas. It breeds by larval development in rain pools and standing water in streams in forest. Foam nests are created on tree branches overhanging shallow moving water. It sometimes also occurs in orchards and cultivated areas.	eng
58981	population		It is generally a common species. It can be absent, however, from apparently suitable areas near to where it occurs.	eng
58981	threats		It is probably impacted by degradation of its forest habitat through logging, agricultural encroachment, and human-induced wildfires, but it is able to adapt to some anthropogenic habitats, so it is probably not seriously threatened. It is consumed locally in India as food and medicine, but probably not at a level sufficient to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
58982	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus group is needed.	eng
58982	distribution		This species is known from Nagaland, in northeast India, and from Phu Kradung and Phu Luang in northern northeastern Thailand to southeastern Thailand and the Cardamom mountains of Cambodia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and can be expected from Myanmar. It is a highland species found at elevations of 1,450-2,000m asl.	eng
58982	habitat		It is an arboreal species that inhabits scrubby vegetation, evergreen forest and forest edge. It has also been recorded from a rubber plantation. Breeding takes place in shallow forest ponds. During the breeding season the males have been observed calling from the banks of streams and pools.	eng
58982	population		It is a common species.	eng
58982	threats		While the known populations occur well inside protected areas, some of these remain under some threat from human-induced wildfires.	eng
58983	conservation		It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park, both in Tamil Nadu, and Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. Recent investigations into the ecology and breeding biology of this species have been undertaken by S.D. Biju (1999-2001).	eng
58983	distribution		This species is restricted to the southern Western Ghats of India in Kerala (Agasthyamala Hills of the Neyar Wildlife Sanctuary and Munnar) and Tamil Nadu (Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Indira Gandhi National Park). It is reported from elevations of 900-1,400m asl.	eng
58983	habitat		It is generally found along streams in montane tropical moist forest, and is not present in degraded habitats. An arboreal species, it may be found in both the canopy and understorey levels of the forest (3-5m above the ground). It breeds on vegetation overhanging streams, and the larvae develop in the streams.	eng
58983	population		It is a rare species and is difficult to locate.	eng
58983	threats		The major threat is habitat loss following the conversion of forest to agricultural land (including tea plantations).	eng
58984	conservation	Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	Its range includes a number of protected areas.	eng
58984	distribution	Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	This species is known from the Kon Tum Plateau of southern and central Viet Nam, the limestone region of central Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and the Annamite mountain region and Tam Dao (from referred juveniles), northern Viet Nam (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999, Stuart 1999). It is unclear whether or not the patchy distribution represents actual patchy occurrence, habitat specialization or limited survey effort. It has been recorded at altitudes between 700 and 1,250 m asl in Viet Nam, and from 220-1,300 m asl in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999, 2005).	eng
58984	habitat	Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	It is restricted to undisturbed evergreen rainforest, and is generally observed on streamside vegetation (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).	eng
58984	population	Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	This is a localized but presumably relatively common species in appropriate habitat, as evidenced by fairly large series in museums (Inger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).	eng
58984	threats	Peter Paul van Dijk & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	The major threat to this species is habitat loss due to smallholder and shifting agriculture, fires, and wood collection from the forest.	eng
58985	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
58985	distribution		This species has been recorded from Gunung Dempo, Sumatera Selatan, from Bukit Kaba, Bengkulu, from the Bukit Barisan range near Kepahiang, Bengkulu, and from about 24km (by road) west of Sungaipenuh, Jambi, all in Sumatra, Indonesia. It has been collected at altitudes between 600 and 1,630m asl.	eng
58985	habitat		This species occurs in forest of the Bukit Barisan range. Males call from low vegetation near to streams, and it is presumed that this species has a foam nest and that the larvae develop in freshwater.	eng
58985	population		It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
58985	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss caused by smallholder farming, small-scale subsistence collection of wood, and increasing human settlement.	eng
58986	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Protection of tropical moist forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
58986	distribution		This species is known from the Thai-Malay Peninsula south of Chumphon in Thailand (Smith, 1930, Taylor, 1962, Dring, 1979, Kiew, 1987 and Manthey and Steiof, 1998), and is also present in Singapore (Leong, 2000). There is a single record from Buen Luoy, in southern Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999). It is also found in Sumatra, Indonesia and has been reported from a few localities in Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia), but these are scattered over a large portion of the island. It has an altitudinal range of 150-1,600m asl.	eng
58986	habitat		All known records originate from primary rainforest, mostly in close vicinity to flowing forest streams. Males have been seen calling from trees overhanging streams, and the larvae are presumed to live in these streams.	eng
58986	population		This is generally an uncommon to rare species in areas where it is known to occur, also indicated by the scarcity of museum series of more than a single specimen (Dring, 1979, Manthey and Steiof, 1998, Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
58986	threats		Deforestation of moist tropical forest is the only substantial threat to this species.	eng
58987	conservation		Its range includes many protected areas. The rating of ‘Threatened’ for R. nigropalmatus in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) might refer in part to R. dennysii.	eng
58987	distribution		This species is known historically from northern Myanmar and China (Zhao and Adler, 1993). It is also known from northern Viet Nam and central Lao People's Democratic Republic. The type locality 'Singapore' is clearly based on a traded specimen (Bourret, 1941). It is known from altitudes up to 900m asl.	eng
58987	habitat		It inhabits forests and riparian forests in hilly areas. It breeds in still waters such as paddy fields, pools, ditches, marshes and ponds. It is mostly restricted to primary forest. The call of this species is exceptionally loud.	eng
58987	population		It is a rarely encountered species that is uncommon when encountered.	eng
58987	threats		Its known areas of occurrence in Viet Nam continue to suffer from persistent processes degrading the forest, such as non-timber forest products collection, plantations, wildfires and changes to hydrology (BirdLife International 2001). Small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade.	eng
58988	conservation		Its taxonomic validity and locality of origin need to be determined.	eng
58988	distribution		This species is known only from the holotype and one paratype, and is said to come from Java, Indonesia. However, examination of the holotype has cast doubt as to the likelihood of it having an Asian origin (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
58988	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It is likely to breed in water by larval development, like other members of the genus.	eng
58988	population		It is known only from the holotype and one paratype.	eng
58988	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58989	conservation		It occurs in Daweishan National Nature Reserve in China, and in Hoang Lien Son National Park in Viet Nam.	eng
58989	distribution		This species is known from one locality in Viet Nam (Mount Fan Si Pan, at 1,900m asl), and from one locality in China (in Pingbian County, south-eastern Yunnan Province, at around 1,950m asl). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
58989	habitat		In China, this species is a forest inhabitant that congregates around a stream-fed pond for breeding. In Viet Nam it was observed breeding around a buffalo wallow in heavily degraded forest.	eng
58989	population		There is no information on the population status of this species in China. In Viet Nam it is known only from one breeding event.	eng
58989	threats		There are various threats to this species across its known range. Only one breeding pond in China is known and this is subject to disturbance by tourism development. Much of the vegetation around the pond was cleared in 1995 and a footpath was built around the pond in 1996. A breeding congregation still occurred in 1996, and it is not known how this modification will affect the breeding success of this species. In Viet Nam, the encroachment of agriculture, and forest clearance, are presumably threats to it.	eng
58990	conservation		It is known from a number of protected areas in Borneo, but more effective protection of lowland forests in other parts of Borneo is necessary.	eng
58990	distribution		This species has been recorded from the northern half of Borneo, including Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), Kalimantan (Indonesia), and Brunei Darussalam. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded below 250m asl.	eng
58990	habitat		It occurs in flat or hilly rainforests, and forms breeding aggregations around forest rain pools and swampy ground. Spawning sites are on the forest floor (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
58990	population		This species forms rather large breeding aggregations, suggesting that it is locally abundant.	eng
58990	threats		The major threat to this species is clear-cutting of lowland forest.	eng
58991	conservation		Its taxonomic status and validity need to be determined.	eng
58991	distribution		This species is known only from Totoiya, in the Bulawa Mountains, in Sulawesi, Indonesia. The location of the type locality has not been determined, and so its range cannot be mapped.	eng
58991	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds in water, like most other species of the genus.	eng
58991	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
58991	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
58992	conservation		In Borneo and Palawan, several totally protected areas provide refuge for this species.	eng
58992	distribution		This species has been recorded in Borneo in the mountainous area from Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Sabah to Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, Malaysia, including Brunei. In the Philippines, it occurs only on the island of Palawan. It has mainly been recorded from 750-1,800m asl, although in the Philippines several records have come from lowland forests at 300m asl.	eng
58992	habitat		It inhabits arboreal microhabitats, usually beside water (such as streams, ponds and rivers) in lower montane and lowland forests. Most individuals have been seen perched on moss-covered logs.	eng
58992	population		In Borneo, the fact that it has been seen at almost every submontane site where sampling has been intense, despite its cryptic form, suggests that it is common.	eng
58992	threats		The major threat to this species in Borneo is deforestation by clear-cutting; in the Philippines, some populations of this species are also threatened by habitat loss.	eng
58993	conservation		In Lao People's Democratic Republic this species is known from Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area. There is a need for improved protection of forest habitat on the Kon Tum plateau.	eng
58993	distribution		This species is known from Tram Lap, An Khe district, in Gia Lai Province and Ngoc Linh mountain, in Quang Nam Province, both on the Kon Tum Plateau of southern Viet Nam (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999), and from the Annamite mountains of southern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 1999). It has been recorded between 800 and 1,400m asl. It has only a small area of occupancy within its overall range due to limited suitable habitat.	eng
58993	habitat		It is found on vegetation on swampy banks of forest streams in undisturbed, wet evergreen rainforest. It is a stream-breeding amphibian.	eng
58993	population		It was observed to be common during the breeding season (T. Nguyen pers. comm.).	eng
58993	threats		Forest degradation is an issue at the type locality (Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999) and generally throughout the Kon Tum Plateau, mainly due to agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
58994	conservation		It is known from at least three protected areas in Borneo (including Gunung Mulu and Kayan Mentarang National Parks). Improved protection of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
58994	distribution		This species is known from northern Borneo, in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is present below 200m asl.	eng
58994	habitat		It has been recorded only in primary lowland rainforest. It is presumed to breed in temporary water pools, like most other species of the genus.	eng
58994	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
58994	threats		The rapid pace of logging of lowland rainforests is a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
58995	conservation		It is present in many protected areas. Preservation of lowland forest is the main conservation measure required for this species.	eng
58995	distribution		This species is known from across Sabah (Malaysia), central Sarawak (Malaysia), and western and north-eastern Kalimantan (Indonesia) in Borneo, from 750-980m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58995	habitat		This species is confined to primary and old secondary hilly rainforests, where it lives in the vegetation lining the banks of small, clear, rocky streams. Foam nests are placed in branches overhanging these streams and the larvae live in the rocky bottoms of riffles.	eng
58995	population		In some areas it appears to be locally abundant.	eng
58995	threats		The major threats to this species are deforestation through clear-cutting and the resulting stream siltation (which deprives larvae of feeding sites).	eng
58996	conservation	Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, 2004	It probably occurs in Rawa Aopa Natural Reserve on Sulawesi.	eng
58996	distribution	Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, 2004	The type locality of this species is Tua Palutal, in Sulawesi, Indonesia, but this place cannot be located. Recent collections come from Buton Island in Indonesia. This species is confined to altitudes below 700 m asl.	eng
58996	habitat	Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, 2004	It is confined to lowland forest, and can probably also live in somewhat disturbed forest. Females have been found to contain 29–108 eggs (Gillespie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Foamy egg masses are attached to the trunks of trees, 1–3 cm above water-filled tree cavities and tadpoles have been found in these water-filled cavities (Gillespie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
58996	population	Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, 2004	It has been recorded as recently as 2002, and is considered rare on Buton Island.	eng
58996	threats	Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, 2004	There is little information on direct threats to this species, but it is likely to be affected by habitat loss arising from smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence collection of wood.	eng
58997	conservation		It has been reported from many protected areas including Kinabalu, Tawau Hills, Lanjak Entimau and Gunung Mulu National Parks.	eng
58997	distribution		This species has been recorded from numerous localities in northern Borneo, below 250m asl. It is likely to occur more widely than current records suggest.	eng
58997	habitat		It lives in primary or secondary lowland rainforests, in flat and hilly terrain. Males call singly at breeding sites, which are water-containing holes in the trunks of very large trees.	eng
58997	population		It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
58997	threats		The major threat to the species' habitat is the rapid pace of clear-cutting of the forest.	eng
58998	conservation	Nguyen Quang Truong & Raoul Bain, 2004	This species' type locality is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Protection of the small section of forest in the Ha Giang location is needed.	eng
58998	distribution	Nguyen Quang Truong & Raoul Bain, 2004	This species is known from the type locality of Fan Si Pan mountain, at 1,900 m asl, Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province, at 1,400 m asl, and also from Ha Giang Province, at 1,100 m asl, in Viet Nam (Bain and Truong 2004, Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
58998	habitat	Nguyen Quang Truong & Raoul Bain, 2004	It has been recorded from evergreen forest close to a stream.	eng
58998	population	Nguyen Quang Truong & Raoul Bain, 2004	It is known only from a few specimens, so its population status cannot be determined.	eng
58998	threats	Nguyen Quang Truong & Raoul Bain, 2004	The Ha Giang location is only in a small section of forest that is likely to be destroyed or degraded in the near future by agricultural encroachment and logging.	eng
58999	conservation		It has been recorded from a number of isolated protected areas including Tawau Hills and Gunung Mulu National Park. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland forest in central Sarawak and Kalimantan is recommended.	eng
58999	distribution		This species has been found below 700m asl in northern and western Borneo, where there are records from Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesia).	eng
58999	habitat		It has been found in primary and slightly disturbed lowland rainforests in flat and hilly terrain, where it perches on low vegetation overhanging small, rocky streams or swampy pools, in which it is presumed that the larvae also develop.	eng
58999	population		There is no information on current population status.	eng
58999	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of logging.	eng
59000	conservation		It has been recorded from the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, but remains unprotected in the remainder of its range. Further surveys to determine the full range of this recently rediscovered tree frog are urgently required.	eng
59000	distribution		This species is restricted to two small areas of the southern Western Ghats of India in Kerala (Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and its surroundings) and Karnataka (Coorg and its surroundings) at an elevation of approximately 800m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59000	habitat		It inhabits tropical moist evergreen forest and deciduous forest, and has been recorded from secondary (disturbed) forest and coffee plantations (though this is not suitable habitat). An arboreal species, it is believed to occur in the lower canopy and understorey levels of the forest. Breeding takes place on vegetation overhanging small pools, and the larvae develop in these pools.	eng
59000	population		It is locally common.	eng
59000	threats		It is threatened by the conversion of forest areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations).	eng
59001	conservation		It has been recorded from numerous protected areas including Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, all in Kerala, and Kudremukh National Park and Nagarhole Wild Life Sanctuary, both in Karnataka.	eng
59001	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,200m asl.	eng
59001	habitat		It is an arboreal species of tropical moist evergreen forest, deciduous forest, secondary (disturbed) forest and coffee plantations. It is present in the lower canopy and understorey levels of the forest. It breeds in vegetation overhanging ponds, and the tadpoles develop in the pools.	eng
59001	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
59001	threats		Conversion of forest habitat for use as intensively farmed agricultural land (coffee plantations) is a major threat.	eng
59002	conservation	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs in Mount Merapi, Gunung Halimun and Gunung Gede Pangrango National Parks, as well as in the Taman Safari Park. It is important to assess the presence and extent of the impact of the chytrid fungus on frog populations in Indonesia (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
59002	distribution	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from several areas in Java, including two areas in Jawa Barat, one area in Jawa Tengah, one area in Jawa Timur, seven sites within  Gede Pangrango National Park, six sites within Halimun Salak National Park,   the forest around the Taman Safari Indonesia Zoo in Cisarua, West Java, Cibodas Botanical Garden, Telaga Warna and Mount Merapi National Park, Java, Indonesia (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009). It is known to occur from 100-1,795 m asl (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
59002	habitat	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It lives in lowland and montane forest, including in disturbed forest. It breeds in streams. One female was found to contain 180 eggs (M. Kusrini pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
59002	population	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
59002	threats	Iskandar, D., Mumpuni, Kusrini, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	The major threat is the loss of forest habitat due to smallholder farming and subsistence wood collecting. More recently, this species has tested positive for <span style="font-style: italic;">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</span> (Kusrini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), although there are no reports of associated declines in this species.	eng
59003	conservation		It occurs in Kaeng Kra Chan National Park in Thailand, and in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in China. In northeastern India the species is present in Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve and it presumably occurs in a number of other protected areas.	eng
59003	distribution		This species is known from eastern Nepal, it is presumed to be in southern Bhutan, it is known from northern Bangladesh, India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal and Manipur), northern Myanmar, western Thailand and southern Xizang (Medog) and southern Yunnan (Jinghong, Mengla and Rui Li counties) provinces in China. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 500-2,000m asl.	eng
59003	habitat		It inhabits lowland to submontane moist evergreen forest. It makes foam nests above pools and ponds. outside the breeding season it lives high in the canopy.	eng
59003	population		In China it is probably common, but it is easy to find only in the breeding season. There is no information on the population status of this species elsewhere in its range.	eng
59003	threats		Deforestation and degradation of the species' habitat as a result of agriculture, logging and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59004	conservation		The type locality is in Kerinci Seblat National Park.	eng
59004	distribution		This species is known only from Kerinci, on Sumatra, Indonesia. It is presumably a montane species, and occurs above 700m asl.	eng
59004	habitat		The type locality is montane forest, and this species is likely to breed in slow-flowing streams.	eng
59004	population		There have been no records since it was first described from five specimens, so its population status is unknown.	eng
59004	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it, although habitat loss is taking place on the lower montane slopes as a result of smallholder farming and small-scale subsistence collection of wood.	eng
59005	conservation		A number of protected areas are present within the range of this species. It is also a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
59005	distribution		This species is widely distributed in hilly areas in Taiwan, Province of China, below 2,500m asl.	eng
59005	habitat		It inhabits forests, orchards and tea plantations, and breeds in still-water habitats such as ponds, pools, and cisterns and blocked roadside ditches. It occasionally breeds in pools of intermittent streams, potholes and streamside pools.	eng
59005	population		It is a common species.	eng
59005	threats		There are no major threats to this very adaptable species at present.	eng
59006	conservation		This species occurs in Gunung Lombobatang Natural Reserve.	eng
59006	distribution		This species is known only from south-western and central Sulawesi, in Indonesia, where it is found above 1,000m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59006	habitat		It lives in montane forest, including disturbed forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
59006	population		It is relatively common.	eng
59006	threats		The principal threat to its habitat is encroaching smallholder farming.	eng
59008	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas. Safeguarding the integrity of protected areas is a primary objective.	eng
59008	distribution		This species is known from mainland Southeast Asia with certainty from the Thai-Malay Peninsula from Ranong south to Endau-Rompin (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975), from Borneo from eastern Sabah south to southeastern Kalimantan and west to central Sarawak, and also from Sumatra, in Indonesia. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It occurs up to 600m asl.	eng
59008	habitat		It is found typically in primary evergreen rainforest, but it has also been found in old shifting cultivation, but not in open areas. Breeding aggregations form in vegetation near forest pools, descending from higher strata in the forest to breed at rain pools, and also animal wallows, and usually egg masses are attached to low vegetation overhanging these pools.	eng
59008	population		It is generally a rarely encountered species; this is because it is only seen when it comes down from the trees to its breeding aggregations where it can be locally common (Grandison, 1972 and Dring, 1979).	eng
59008	threats		Deforestation and further degradation of rainforest habitat constitute the most significant threats. There is small-scale pet trade of this species, but this is not considered a threat.	eng
59009	conservation		This species requires a taxonomic reassessment.	eng
59009	distribution		This species is known only from Daban, at 200m asl, on the Lang Bian plateau of southern Viet Nam (Smith 1924; Bourret 1942).	eng
59009	habitat		This is presumably a rainforest inhabitant, like most <em>Rhacophorus</em> species, breeding in water by larval development.	eng
59009	population		There are no known records of it since it was first collected in 1918, so its population status is not known.	eng
59009	threats		The specific threats to this species are not known, but forest degradation in the Lang Bian region is likely to be a cause for concern.	eng
59010	conservation	Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Chan-ard, T., Stuart, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	In Viet Nam it occurs in Cuc Phuong National Park, Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Ke Go Nature Reserve, Pu Mat National Park and Huong Hoa Nature Reserve. In Lao People's Democratic Republic, it is found in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart 2005).	eng
59010	distribution	Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Chan-ard, T., Stuart, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species ranges from Cuc Phuong National Park in Nin Binh Province, in northern Viet Nam, south to Phong Nha-Ke Bang in Quang Binh Province and Huong Hoa Nature Reserve in Quang Tri Province, in central Viet Nam. Additional localities in northern and central Viet Nam include Ke Go Nature Reserve (in Ky Anh District, Ha Tinh Province), Huong Son Forest (in Huong Son District, also in Ha Tinh Province), and Pu Mat National Park (in Con Cuong District, Nghe An Province; Truong pers. comm.). It is also present in nearby eastern Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2005), and in Amnat-Charoen Province, north of Ubon, close to the Mekong River, in eastern Thailand (Chan-ard pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been found up to 850 m asl.	eng
59010	habitat	Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Chan-ard, T., Stuart, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	It has been recorded from primary forest and close to streams, and presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.	eng
59010	population	Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Chan-ard, T., Stuart, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	The number of records suggests that it is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat.	eng
59010	threats	Nguyen Quang Truong, Raoul Bain, Chan-ard, T., Stuart, B. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is threatened by small scale logging, and probably also by agricultural expansion and increasing human settlement.	eng
59011	conservation		Its range includes Iriomote Island which is now protected as a National Park.	eng
59011	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Ishigakijima and Iriomotejima. The highest peak on Iriomotejima is 469m asl.	eng
59011	habitat		It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, and breeds in grassland and wetland areas. It is mainly arboreal, but in the breeding season mainly from December to March it comes down to the forest floor. It is occasionally found in agricultural areas but is mainly a forest species.	eng
59011	population		It is not a common species on Iriomote Island, although its arboreal habits make it hard to find.	eng
59011	threats		The Ryukyu archipelago has been largely transformed from forest as a result of cultivation and damage during World War II. The Island of Iriomote is where some of the last remaining forest is, and it is currently protected as a National Park. The species' restricted range makes it particularly vulnerable to threatening processes.	eng
59012	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Prevention of further deforestation is the most important conservation measure.	eng
59012	distribution		This species is known from several localities in Peninsular Malaysia (and Pulau Tiga Island) and is widespread in Sumatra (including Siberut and Sipora), Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia), and the Philippines (Mindanao, Negros, Bohol and Luzon). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,015m asl.	eng
59012	habitat		It is an inhabitant of primary and secondary rainforest. It breeds at swampy forest pools. It is widely distributed through the forest, probably in higher strata, and descends to the shrub layer and forms breeding aggregations around rain pools, even at the edge of forest.	eng
59012	population		It is locally common in intact forest and forest edge but patchily distributed and activity patterns are temporally variable. It can form moderate-sized breeding aggregations.	eng
59012	threats		The most important threat to this species is logging.	eng
59013	conservation		It presumably occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park.	eng
59013	distribution		This species is known only from West Sumatra, Indonesia. The type locality is Kerinci.	eng
59013	habitat		It is found in primary and secondary montane forest, and breeds in streams.	eng
59013	population		This seems to be a rare species, and until recently there were no records at the type locality since its discovery. It was rediscovered 200km to the north near Padang, above 1,000m asl, in 2001.	eng
59013	threats		It might well be threatened by the clearance of its habitats for paddy fields, tea cultivation, and vegetable gardens.	eng
59014	conservation		Several protected areas occur within the range of this species, and it is also a nationally protected species.	eng
59014	distribution		This species is known from Taipei, Ilan and Taoyuan in northern Taiwan, Province of China, from 400-600m asl.	eng
59014	habitat		It inhabits orchards, tea plantations, bamboo forests, shrublands and forests in hilly areas, where these habitats are stable. It breeds in tree holes or, in marginal habitats, in cisterns, buckets or water tanks in orchards.	eng
59014	population		It is a common species.	eng
59014	threats		The principal threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation arising from the creation of plantations and the development of infrastructure for human settlement. Some populations have also disappeared because orchards were changed to tea plantations, which generally need frequent pesticide application.	eng
59015	conservation		Safeguarding the intact survival of substantial areas of forest, covering the full altitudinal gradient, in Malaysia's Main Range would be the main conservation priority for the species and the peninsular herpetofauna. It has been recorded (as R. tunkui) in the Endau-Rompin National Park and Taman Negara National Park, of Peninsular Malaysia, and it is present in protected areas on Sumatra.	eng
59015	distribution		This species has been recorded from the foothills and mountains of the Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia at 250-1,100m asl, extending to Pattani, southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962 and Berry, 1975). From Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin (as the synonym R. tunkui Kiew, 1987). It has been recorded from several localities in Sumatra (often under R. dulitensis), Indonesia. There are questionable records from Nias (Grandison, 1972), Indonesia (D. Iskandar pers. comm.). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
59015	habitat		All records of this species are from closed-canopy rainforest at low to medium altitudes. It makes foam nests and breeds in small forest rain pools and puddles, including the beds of intermittent streams.	eng
59015	population		It is encountered in diffuse concentrations in most areas of intact rainforest that have been surveyed in Peninsular Malaysia. However, known historic populations in Malaysia (e.g. Gombak-Berry, 1975) have apparently disappeared (P.P. van Dijk pers. obs. 2000 to 2001). It is reported to be uncommon in Sumatra (as R. dulitensis).	eng
59015	threats		Relatively large areas of appropriate forest habitat remain in the species' range, but few of these areas are truly secure from future logging options and pervasive impacts such as fragmentation (and habitat drying) by roads, drains along roads, power line clearings and reservoirs.	eng
59016	conservation		While known to be present in the Indira Gandhi National Park in Tamil Nadu, further habitat protection is needed.	eng
59016	distribution		This species is restricted to the Indira Gandhi National Park and surroundings in Tamil Nadu, in the southern Western Ghats of India. It has an altitudinal range of 1,000-1,300m asl.	eng
59016	habitat		It is arboreal, occurring in the lower canopy and understorey levels of tropical moist evergreen forest. It is not present in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place on vegetation overhanging temporary pools, and tadpoles develop in these pools.	eng
59016	population		The species is locally common where it occurs.	eng
59016	threats		The main threat is conversion of forested areas to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber plantations) outside the Indira Gandhi National Park, and the extraction of wood and timber by local people.	eng
59017	conservation		None of the six known populations in Peninsular Malaysia inhabit an adequately protected area. Surveys are needed to verify its occurrence in adequately protected areas (particularly the Malaysian and Indonesian populations), and to identify any undiscovered populations (for example in Brunei and Kalimantan). The conservation of mature lowland rainforest is essentail for this species.	eng
59017	distribution		This species is known from southern Thailand, Malaysia (on the Peninsula and in Sarawak and Sabah in Borneo), and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java). There are no records from Brunei or Kalimantan (Indonesia) but its occurrence is expected in the places. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and although fragmentation of its lowland forest habitat has probably reduced its range (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It occurs up to about 1,400m asl, though it occurs mainly at lower elevations.	eng
59017	habitat		It has been recorded from primary and secondary evergreen rainforest. It has also been observed in forest edge near villages. It is a canopy species that makes foam nests above pools and ponds inside forests. Adults probably spend most of the time in the upper forest strata. It has been seen in Bogor Botanic Garden on Java. It is an explosive breeder that apparently descends from the canopy only occasionally to congregate at breeding pools, attracting about a dozen animals, suggesting that it might be abundant locally.	eng
59017	population		It is generally considered to be rare, but this is probably in part an artefact of the difficulty in locating it.  A few tens of animals can be seen at breeding sites.	eng
59017	threats		The main threat is the loss of its rainforest habitat and potentially water pollution. Removal of mature lowland forest through logging, agricultural expansion and human settlements has probably reduced the available habitat significantly for this species (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).	eng
59018	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
59018	distribution		This species is known only from Sangihe Island in Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
59018	habitat		This species presumably occurs in lowland forest and breeds in water, but these details require confirmation.	eng
59018	population		It is known only from the holotype, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
59018	threats		The specific threats to it are unknown, although it might be suffering from habitat loss.	eng
59019	conservation		Surveys to confirm the continuing existence of this species, starting in the lowlands of southern Taman Negara National Park, are needed before conservation measures can be developed. Kuala Teku (the exact location of which is somewhat uncertain) might be part of Taman Negara.	eng
59019	distribution		This species was for a long time known only from a specimen from Bukit Besar, Pattani, Thailand, collected in 1903, and from another from Kuala Teku, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia, collected in 1906 (Taylor 1962; Berry 1975). It was rediscovered in 1977 in Gombak in Selangor Province, Peninsular Malaysia, and was recorded there again in 1996.	eng
59019	habitat		The Bukit Besar specimen originated from "thick jungle" at 750m asl, while the Kuala Teku specimen was collected at 200m asl, indicating that this is an inhabitant of closed-canopy rainforest (Taylor 1962; Berry 1975). The habitat at Gombak, at 300m asl, is similar. This species presumably breeds in pools.	eng
59019	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59019	threats		The specific threats to it are unknown, although forest clearance and degradation can be assumed to be threats. These arise from the creation of large-scale non-timber plantations, selective logging, and infrastructure development for transport and human settlement.	eng
59020	conservation		It has been reported from three protected areas including Danum Conservation Area and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Expansion of effective preservation of lowland rainforest is essential for the conservation of this species.	eng
59020	distribution		This species is known from scattered localities across Borneo in Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia), and Kalimantan (Indonesia), below 250m asl.	eng
59020	habitat		It has been seen only in primary lowland rainforest. The breeding habitat has yet to be recorded, though it presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
59020	population		It is locally abundant at some sites.	eng
59020	threats		The major threat to the species' habitat is clear-cutting logging of the rainforest.	eng
59021	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
59021	distribution		This species is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands in Japan.	eng
59021	habitat		It occurs in wetlands from hilly areas to lowland areas, especially in paddy fields. It breeds mainly in paddy fields.	eng
59021	population		It is a common species.	eng
59021	threats		There are no known threats to this very widespread species.	eng
59022	conservation		Several protected areas are present within its range and it is also a nationally protected species.	eng
59022	distribution		This species is endemic to Nantou County, northern Taiwan, Province of China, where it has been recorded below 1,500m asl.	eng
59022	habitat		It inhabits orchards, forests and arable lands in hilly areas. It breeds in still-water habitats such as blocked ditches, rain pools, paddy fields, ponds and marshes. Paddy fields in the hilly areas are its major breeding habitat.	eng
59022	population		It is a common species.	eng
59022	threats		The main threat to this species is the decreasing area of paddy fields for breeding in as a result of market-based decisions on what crops will be cultivated in the fields.	eng
59023	conservation		Its type locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. Further research might be required to resolve its taxonomic status.	eng
59023	distribution		This species is known only from a single specimen from Patsarlandam, northern Myanmar, close to the Chinese border (Smith 1940).	eng
59023	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.	eng
59023	population		It has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1937-39, so its population status is unknown. Results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
59023	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59024	conservation		Its one known location in China is probably within Motuo National Nature Reserve, and the location in India is within Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve.	eng
59024	distribution		This species is known from Medog County in Xizang Autonomous Region, China, from 1,200-1,500m asl, and from northern West Siang District, in Arunachal Pradesh, India. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
59024	habitat		It inhabits forests, and has been found on banana leaves. It breeds in still-water habitats such as lakes.	eng
59024	population		This is a common species.	eng
59024	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59025	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59025	distribution		This species is known from Shangluolong, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China, and from two small populations in the states of West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 100-2,000m asl in India.	eng
59025	habitat		This species has been recorded in India as being arboreal and associated with tropical moist forest. Breeding has been recorded from bushes near to small forest ponds. In China it is known from bamboo forests, where it hides in the stems of the bamboo during the day.	eng
59025	population		It has not been recorded in China for 90 years, while in India the population is small and is believed to be in decline.	eng
59025	threats		The main threats to this species are deforestation for subsistence use, and infrastructure development for industrial purposes and as part of urbanization processes.	eng
59026	conservation		Its type locality is within Hkakabo Razi National Park. It would be worthwhile to assess this species' taxonomic relationship with <em>Rhacophorus verrucopus</em>.	eng
59026	distribution		This species is known only from Htingnam in upper Myanmar (Smith 1940).	eng
59026	habitat		The habitat requirements of this species are not known. It presumably breeds in water by larval development, like most other members of its genus.	eng
59026	population		There are no data available regarding its population status, beyond the observation that Kaulback collected 13 specimens (Smith 1940). This species has not been recorded since it was first collected in 1937-39, and results from recent surveys of the type locality are not yet available (Wogan pers. comm.).	eng
59026	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59027	conservation	S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	It has been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, in Tamil Nadu. More surveys are required to better circumscribe its distribution and its population trends (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).	eng
59027	distribution	S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	This species is known from at least five highland localities (1,900 to 2,630 m asl)  in the Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu District, Tamil Nadu, India. It is believed to be restricted to high altitudes in the Western Ghats of India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
59027	habitat	S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	A terrestrial species, it seems to be restricted to disturbed evergreen sholas (isolated montane forest patches)(Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Individuals were always found in the direct proximity of mountain streams and close to the ground, e.g. leaf litter, rock patches, tall grass clumps and the undergrowth of shrub vegetation (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Foam nests are suspended 3 m above the water surface and can contain around 208 eggs (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
59027	population	S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	This species can be locally abundant, although it is not uniformly common throughout its range (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).	eng
59027	threats	S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Chelmala Srinivasulu, Ariadne Angulo, 2009	This species' forest habitat is subject to severe fragmentation due to the scale of agricultural, livestock farming and logging activities, and rural and/or urban development (S.D. Biju pers comm. October 2009).	eng
59028	conservation		Part of the range of this species overlaps with a nature reserve.	eng
59028	distribution		This species is known only from Beibeng, Medog, in southern Xizang Autonomous Region, China. It probably occurs more widely, and in particular in nearby India. It has been recorded from 800-1,500m asl.	eng
59028	habitat		This species inhabits forests, and has been found in shrubs near a lake. It is active at night and is often found in the undergrowth (shrubs and grass) of forests. Its breeding habitat is unknown, but it presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
59028	population		It is not uncommon.	eng
59028	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59029	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. Clarification of the taxonomy of the R. appendiculatus complex is required before meaningful conservation assessment can be made.	eng
59029	distribution		Species limits within the R. appendiculatus-verrucosus group are unclear, and thus the distribution of R. verrucosus sensu strictu. It is known with certainty from the Karen Hills and northern Myanmar (Smith, 1940). Referred populations are known from the Kon Tum Plateau of southern Viet Nam. Populations from northern Viet Nam, northern and central Lao People's Democratic Republic and northern and southeastern Thailand are provisionally included for the purpose of this assessment (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999, Stuart, 1999, S. Swan pers. comm. and P.P. van Dijk pers. comm.). It has been recorded from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
59029	habitat		The animals are most commonly observed in shrubs and other vegetation at close to distant proximity to forest streams (at 3-100m distance), in rainforest.	eng
59029	population		Populations of the species are generally common where they occur (Inger <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
59029	threats		Populations might be under impact from forest degradation and clearance, but the species is not known to be acutely threatened.	eng
59030	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59030	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. Rhacophorus viridis viridis is found in Okinawajima, Iheyajima, Kumejima, and Rhacophorus viridis amamiensis is found in Amamioshima, Tokunoshima, Kakeromajima, Ukejima and Yorojima.	eng
59030	habitat		It occurs in forest close to paddy fields and wetlands. It breeds in wetlands and paddyfields by larval development.	eng
59030	population		It is a common species.	eng
59030	threats		There are no known threats to this species. Its habitat appears to be secure.	eng
59031	conservation		The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
59031	distribution		This species is known from Longrui and Diwangling in Guangxi, China, and from a thin strip of forest along the border of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam States in India, to Myanmar through Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart, 1999), Viet Nam (Orlov, 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (Berry, 1975), the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (Ohler <em>et al.</em>, 2002) and Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurs up to 1,400m asl.	eng
59031	habitat		It inhabits tropical and subtropical forests. It is usually encountered on low vegetation or tree stumps but may spend most of its life in water-filled tree cavities (Orlov, 1997). It breeds in tree holes, small rainwater pools or water-filled containers.	eng
59031	population		It is rarely encountered, probably because of its cryptic lifestyle. Occasional small accumulations occur at breeding sites.	eng
59031	threats		The main threat to the species is the loss of its forest habitat.	eng
59032	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A. & Kunz, K., 2004	Its range is within Hoang Lien Son National Park. Safeguarding the integrity of Fan Si Pan mountain and the Sa Pa vicinity is of prime importance for the conservation of this species.	eng
59032	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A. & Kunz, K., 2004	This species is known only from the vicinity of Sa Pa, in northern Viet Nam, from 1,200-1,900 m asl (Bourret 1942, Orlov 1997).	eng
59032	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A. & Kunz, K., 2004	It is known from a karst canyon in montane evergreen forest (Orlov 1997). In captivity, small clutches of about 4-15 eggs are deposited a few cm above water level. The tadpoles eventually drop into the water where they develop (K. Kunz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
59032	population	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A. & Kunz, K., 2004	It has been collected only on a few occasions in small numbers in a very limited area (Bourret 1942, Orlov 1997).	eng
59032	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Ohler, A. & Kunz, K., 2004	The most likely potential major threat to the species is habitat loss due to agricultural activities, selective logging, fires, and the development of infrastructure for tourist activities.	eng
59033	conservation		Improving protection at Tam Dao National Park and establishing a protected area conserving the remaining natural habitats at Mao Son is recommended for this species' conservation. It has been bred in captivity (Orlov 1997).	eng
59033	distribution		This species is known from the Mao Son and Tam Dao mountain ranges of northern Viet Nam (Bourret 1942; Orlov 1997; Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999), and it can be expected to occur more widely. It has been recorded from 800-1,300m asl.	eng
59033	habitat		It is known from steep rocky cliffs in primary evergreen rainforest. It breeds by larval development in rock cavities containing water (Orlov 1997), and also in tree holes.	eng
59033	population		One of the sites from which it is known was only reported in the 1930s, and the other has only recently been discovered. It has not been recorded at the type locality since it was first collected. It is a cryptic and localized species, but large series of specimens have been observed and collected at Tam Dao (Orlov 1997), suggesting that this is a species that might be locally common.	eng
59033	threats		This species is threatened by forest damage in Tam Dao, which continues to be significant (BirdLife International 2001). Clear-cutting at Mao Son has also reduced the available habitat for this species. This is one of the few regional frog species for which there is a specific demand in the global pet trade.	eng
59034	conservation		It is known to inhabit three protected areas.	eng
59034	distribution		This species is known from northern Thailand (Taylor, 1962) and northern and southern Viet Nam (Orlov, 1997 and Inger et al, 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded from 700-1,300m asl.	eng
59034	habitat		It is known from evergreen forest, mainly in monsoon areas. It breeds in water pools in cavities in Karst (Orlov, 1997). It is evidently a microhabitat specialist. It presumably also breeds in tree holes.	eng
59034	population		It is presumably a rare species, as it is known only from single or small numbers of encounters at known localities (Taylor, 1962, OEPP, 1997 and Orlov, 1997).	eng
59034	threats		Deforestation and other habitat impacts on non-protected areas of occurrence, and to some extent within the protected areas where the species occurs, are of concern.	eng
59035	conservation		Of the two known occurrences in protected areas in mainland Southeast Asia (Bukit Timah, Singapore, and Templer's Park, Malaysia), only one protected area is reasonably free from degradation. Securing the integrity of Templer's Park, designating Gunung Lawit as a protected area if suitable forest remains, and surveys and biological studies are all recommended. In Borneo, the known locality is in the Danum Conservation Area.	eng
59035	distribution		This species is known from southern Thailand (Taylor, 1962), Peninsular Malaysia (and Tioman Island) (Dring, 1979, Manthey and Grossmann, 1997), Singapore (Leong 2000), from two localities in Borneo (Malaysia) and from three localities in Sumatra, Indonesia and Siberut in the Mentawais. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It is a lowland species occurring between 100 and 800m asl.	eng
59035	habitat		The few known specimens were encountered in lowland rainforest. Eggs are placed above water-filled cavities in trees. One group of tadpoles was found in a water-containing hole in the trunk of a large tree. It is a microhabitat specialist of old-growth primary forest.	eng
59035	population		It is a difficult to find species, evidenced by the small number of records, and its discovery in well-surveyed Singapore as late as the year 2000 (Leong, 2000).	eng
59035	threats		The main impacts have been the extensive logging and clearing of lowland rainforest throughout the species' known range.	eng
59036	conservation		Its range includes Dayaoshan Nature Reserve.	eng
59036	distribution		This species is known only from Dayaoshan in eastern Guangxi Province, China, at around 1,350m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
59036	habitat		This species inhabits subtropical forests, and all the specimens were found inside pools of water in hollowed logs that the local villagers had put out. It probably breeds in small waterbodies such as water-filled receptacles.	eng
59036	population		It is known from only one locality, where it has only been found on two occasions.	eng
59036	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59037	conservation		It might occur in Taman Negara (Kiew, 1990) but it is not known from other protected areas in Malaysia. Surveys of remaining suitable habitat and natural history studies are recommended. It might occur in the Lembah Anai Nature Reserve in Sumatra.	eng
59037	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia at low to medium altitudes. There are only a few records from widely scattered locations, none of them very recent, and the map gives only a very general indication of its distribution. It has been recorded up to 1,200m asl.	eng
59037	habitat		It is known from evergreen rainforest. It is probably arboreal, breeding in tree holes, but there is no information on this.	eng
59037	population		Most observations and collections have consisted of only single animals, indicating an uncommon to rare or very secretive species.	eng
59037	threats		Ongoing logging of hill forest is the primary threat to this species.	eng
59038	conservation		Basic biological information about the species (taxonomic re-assessment, distribution, habitat, abundance) is needed before realistic conservation measures can be contemplated.	eng
59038	distribution		This species is known only from Thao, in central Myanmar (Bourret 1942).	eng
59038	habitat		The habitat requirements and breeding biology of this species are not known, although it presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
59038	population		It has not been recorded since the two type specimens were collected sometime before 1927, so its current population status is unknown. The lack of subsequent records is probably related to an absence of herpetological work within its range.	eng
59038	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59039	conservation		It occurs in protected areas in Thailand and Viet Nam (in Khao Sebab and Cat Tien National Parks, respectively), but ensuring that suitable habitat in Gia Lai Province, southern Viet Nam, becomes effectively protected would benefit this species.	eng
59039	distribution		This species is known from south-eastern Thailand (Taylor 1962) with certainty, and there are referred populations from southern Viet Nam (Orlov 1997b; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it is expected to occur in Cambodia. It has been recorded at altitudes between 50 and 1,200m asl.	eng
59039	habitat		It is known from evergreen forest, and has also been recorded from a rubber plantation. It has been heard calling from high in the canopy, and it breeds in water-filled tree holes, particularly in fallen rotting tree trunks.	eng
59039	population		It is generally a rare or uncommon species, and only small series have been collected.	eng
59039	threats		The main threat to this species is clearance or damage to remaining evergreen forests in its range due to smallholder farming and selective logging.	eng
59040	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59040	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, 2009	This species is found in coastal lowlands from southern Texas, USA to northwestern Honduras in Atlantic drainage, Río Balsas (Mexico) to Costa Rica in Pacific drainage. It is found at elevations of sea level to above 500m asl.	eng
59040	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It is a lowlands inhabitant of tropical dry and moist forest. Generally associated with seasonal flooded areas where it remains under the ground in the dry season. It can be found in forest, thorn scrub, savannah, and cultivated areas with friable soils. It is fossorial except after heavy rains. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.	eng
59040	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It is rare and local in Texas, common widespread in Mexico and northern Central America (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1999, Lee, 2000).	eng
59040	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Federico Bolaños, Gerardo Chaves, Larry David Wilson, Jay Savage, Gunther Köhler, 2009	There are no major threats.	eng
59041	conservation		Several populations of this species occur in natural protected areas in the USA and Mexico. The populations occurring outside these reserves have been identified as healthy in most of cases.	eng
59041	distribution		This species occurs from southeastern California, southeastern Colorado, and central Oklahoma in the USA, to the tip of Baja California, northern Nayarit, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and northern Veracruz in Mexico.	eng
59041	habitat		This species is commonly found in arid and semi-arid shrublands, short grass plains, mesquite savannah, creosote bush desert, thorn forest, cultivated areas, and tropical deciduous forest (Mexico). Like other Pelobatid species it is considered opportunistic since it appears only when rainfalls form temporary pools. Eggs and larvae develop in these temporary pools. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive.	eng
59041	population		In the USA there are hundreds of occurrences of this species, and it is locally common. Large populations still occur in northern Mexico and even in central Mexico where more human populations exist.	eng
59041	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
59042	conservation		Research needed on population status. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59042	distribution		This species occurs in the USA from Southern New England across the southern Great Lakes states to southeastern Missouri, south to the Gulf Coast, from eastern Louisiana to southern Florida (absent at higher elevations in Appalachians) (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59042	habitat		Areas of sandy, gravelly, or soft, light soils in wooded or unwooded terrain. Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.	eng
59042	population		Many populations known. Probably there are many undiscovered populations; evades detection via erratic nocturnal activity. Secretive; usually more abundant than is apparent. Overall, probably relatively stable.	eng
59042	threats		Urbanization is a known threat in the northeastern USA (Klemens 1993). Pesticide use in conjunction with forest pest management is a potential threat.	eng
59043	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59043	distribution		This species is found in central and eastern Oklahoma, western and central Arkansas, eastern and southern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59043	habitat		It can be found in areas of sandy, gravelly, or soft, light soils in wooded or unwooded terrain; sandy open woodland and savannah, mesquite scrub (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Burrows underground when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools formed by heavy rains.	eng
59043	population		It is represented by many and/or large populations throughout much of the range. Probably there are many undiscovered populations; evades detection via erratic nocturnal activity. Total adult population size is unknown; surely more than 10,000, perhaps more than 100,000. It is secretive, often more numerous than is apparent; locally common to abundant (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Overall, probably relatively stable. Over the long term, probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence but has experienced an unknown level of decline in population size, inhabited area, and number/condition of populations.	eng
59043	threats		It is subject to localized extirpation as a result of urbanization, intensive agricultural development, and other severe habitat alterations. Pesticide use in conjunction with pest management is a potential threat. Overall, not very threatened. Rated as secure in Texas (A. Price pers. comm., 2004), which encompasses most of the range of the species.	eng
59044	conservation		This species occurs in protected areas in part of its range in the USA and Canada, but not in Mexico.	eng
59044	distribution		This wide ranging species occurs from south-central Canada (north to near Outlook, Saskatchewan; Can. Field-Nat. 106:311-315) to north-central Mexico, west to western Montana, eastern Colorado, eastern Arizona, east to western Iowa, eastern Missouri, and central Arkansas in the USA (Herp. Rev. 20:12). There are disjunctive populations in southern Texas and in Arkansas, and in adjacent Mexico (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991) in northern Chihuahua eastward to Tamaulipas.	eng
59044	habitat		This species occurs in shrublands, grasslands and semi-desert areas. It is almost always found around temporary pools formed by rainfall. Eggs and larvae develop in flooded areas such as these temporary pools, but they also breed in permanent waters, especially those that fluctuate greatly in water level. It is usually found in areas with friable soils. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive.	eng
59044	population		This species is widespread and locally abundant.	eng
59044	threats		This species is very resistant to climate changes and modification of original habitats.	eng
59045	conservation		This species is protected in a few small Nature Conservancy preserves, some US Department of Defence, Department of Energy, and Bureau of Land Management lands, some National Monuments, and some National Wildlife Refuges. It also occurs within the University of California's Natural Reserve System. This species is also covered in some US federal Habitat Conservation Plans, but is is not listed by US state or federal agencies.	eng
59045	distribution		This species occurs in the Central Valley and bordering foothills of California and along the Coast Ranges (south of San Francisco Bay) in the USA, southward into north-western Baja California, Mexico. It is found from near sea level to 1,363m asl (Zeiner <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1988, cited by Jennings and Hayes 1994), but usually below 910m asl (Stebbins 1985b).	eng
59045	habitat		It lives in a wide range of habitats, from lowlands to foothills, in grasslands, open chaparral and pine-oak woodlands. It is fossorial, and breeds in temporary rain pools and slow-moving streams (for example, in areas flooded by intermittent streams). It also breeds in stock tanks and other artificial water bodies as long as the surrounding habitat is not developed for human settlement or irrigated agriculture.	eng
59045	population		Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped several dozen localities with extant populations. The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least many thousands. Since the 1950s, substantial declines have been noted in the Central Valley and southern California. In southern California, more than 80% of the previously occupied habitat has been developed or converted to incompatible uses; more than 30% has been similarly affected in northern and central California (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In both the US and Mexican portions of its range, this species is still common where appropriate habitat exists.	eng
59045	threats		The main threat to this species is the development and conversion of habitat to incompatible uses such as human settlement and irrigated agriculture, which destroy the terrestrial habitat and change the hydroperiod of temporary pools. Recruitment may be unsuccessful in pools with bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) or introduced fish (for example, at least historically, those containing mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia</em>) used for mosquito abatement).	eng
59046	conservation		No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59046	distribution		This species can be in Southern British Columbia, Canada (Cannings 1999) southward in the USA through central and eastern Washington and Oregon, southern Idaho, eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, and northwestern Colorado to northwestern Arizona (Hall 1998). It can be found from the edge of Cascade-Sierra axis east to the Rockies. It is found at elevations of about 850m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59046	habitat		This species is found mainly in sagebrush flats, semi-desert shrublands, pinyon-juniper woodland. Digs its own burrow in loose soil or uses those of small mammals. Breeds in temporary or permanent water, including rain pools, pools in intermittent streams, and flooded areas along streams. Eggs are attached to vegetation in water or placed on bottom of pool.	eng
59046	population		It is widespread and locally abundant. Range size and population levels are relatively stable.	eng
59046	threats		Most of its habitat is not subject to incompatible uses or major threats.	eng
59047	conservation	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	No conservation measures are needed for this species. The species' range in Mexico and the USA includes several protected areas.	eng
59047	distribution	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs from southeastern Utah, southern Colorado, and northern Oklahoma south through Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas in the USA, to Guerrero and Oaxaca (Stebbins 1985, Conant and Collins 1991) in Mexico. It is found up to about 2,470m asl in some areas.	eng
59047	habitat	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is frequently found in desert grassland, short grass plains, creosote bush, sagebrush, and semi-desert shrublands, mixed grassland/chaparral, pinyon-juniper and pine-oak woodland and open pine forest. Similar to other Scaphiopodid species, this species is considered opportunistic. It burrows underground or occupies rodent burrows when inactive. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary pools and ponds formed by heavy rains.	eng
59047	population	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is widespread and locally common. It is the most widespread species of Spea in Mexico with numerous populations in Central Mexico, even adjacent to human settlements and urbanised areas.	eng
59047	threats	Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	In some areas, local populations have been eliminated or reduced by agricultural development, urbanization, and other habitat alterations, but most of its habitat is not significantly threatened.	eng
59048	conservation		The forest areas in which this species lives are managed for conservation by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles-Islands Development Company Silhouette Conservation Project. However, the forests have no formal legal protection. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59048	distribution		This species is restricted to Silhouette Island, in the Seychelles, occurring above 250m asl. It has an area of occupancy of 665ha.	eng
59048	habitat		It is restricted to high forest over 250m asl, and is closely associated with the palm <em>Phoenicophorium borsigianum</em>, most individuals being found in axils of the palm. Its breeding habits are unknown, but it probably takes place by direct development, with the eggs being laid on the ground, or in leaf axils, or both.	eng
59048	population		It is common in its small range, with a maximum population density of 30 animals per hectare, and a total population estimate of fewer than 20,000 animals.	eng
59048	threats		There are no major current threats, other than the inherent risks associated with having a very small range.	eng
59049	conservation		This species occurs, or used to occur, in three national parks: Lagunas de Zempoala, Ajusco Mountain, and Desierto de los Leones. However, surveys conducted in the 1970s and 1980s recorded the species as present in Ajusco and Desierto de los Leones, but absent from Lagunas de Zempoala. There is an urgent need for more effective conservation of the forest and streams of this species, including the control of introduced predatory fishes, and for new field surveys to assess declines that may have occurred in the last 15 years. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59049	distribution		This species occurs in isolated populations to the west and south of the valley of Mexico, in the states of Morelos and Mexico and the Distrito Federal. The known populations include Lagunas de Zempoala, Ajusco Mountain and Desierto de los Leones, although it has also been found in some additional sites. Its altitudinal range is 2,700-3,200m asl.	eng
59049	habitat		The species lives and breeds in small, permanent streams flowing through high-elevation pine or pine-oak woodland forests. It has also been found in streams in cleared pastures. Although metamorphosis is complete, in the wild some adults as well as larvae remain in the stream year-round.	eng
59049	population		The species was formerly common, with larvae present in most small streams within its range. It appears now to be greatly reduced.	eng
59049	threats		The forest and stream habitat in the vicinity of Mexico City where the species lives has been severely altered, leading to greatly degraded habitat. Illegal logging in national parks, very heavy recreational tourism, stream pollution and sedimentation, and stream diversion have all had negative impacts. Introduced predatory fishes (trout and others) have eliminated the species from many streams, and local consumption for food may be an issue.	eng
59050	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. The conservation and restoration of the natural habitats for this species is urgent, and new field surveys are required to assess the population status of this species. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity and reintroduce it in the wild. It is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59050	distribution		This species is found in a small area around Tacicuaro, north-western Michoacan, to the west of Morelia City in Mexico. It occurs at about 2,000m asl.	eng
59050	habitat		This is a metamorphosing species spending most of the time on land in a mosaic of natural grasslands and pine-oak forests. It requires ponds of moderate depth in which to breed, and is able to survive in somewhat modified landscapes, taking advantage of cattle ponds for larval development.	eng
59050	population		There is no information on current population status; there has been limited fieldwork carried out on this species since the early 1980s.	eng
59050	threats		The desiccation, pollution, and conversion of former ponds, small reservoirs, and open habitats to grow crops, represent the main threats to this species, coupled with the urban expansion of Morelia and Uruapan. Introduced predatory fish are also a major concern, both in ponds and small streams.	eng
59051	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area. However, this is a species that could recover its numbers if the lake can be kept clean and restored. Conservation and restoration of its habitat is therefore urgent. This species can be bred in laboratory conditions, and so captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate the natural habitats. Studies are needed to evaluate the sustainability of the harvest as well as the impacts of introduced predatory fishes. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59051	distribution		This species is known only from one lake (Lago Zacapu) and its surrounding streams, in north-western Michoacan, Mexico, at 2,000m asl.	eng
59051	habitat		This species is paedomorphic, and requires a clean, cool aquatic habitat. It is found only in Lago Zacapu and the spring-fed streams and canals associated with the lake. They do not metamorphose in nature, and individuals that have been artificially induced to metamorphose with thyroid hormone in the laboratory do not thrive. Their diet consists largely of snails and crawfish.	eng
59051	population		Although it is not rare, it is probably declining.	eng
59051	threats		The major threat to this species is the pollution of the lake, although the animals are also heavily harvested for food, and predatory fish have been introduced into the lake, which might well pose a major problem for the species.	eng
59052	conservation		Wetlands protection is needed.	eng
59052	distribution		This species can be found in the Ozark Plateau and Ouachita Mountains of southern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and western Arkansas, United States.	eng
59052	habitat		It is found in forested areas in vicinity of breeding pools, usually under objects or underground. Lays eggs on submerged plant material or on bottom of shallow ponds or temporary pools. Some eggs may survive temporary periods without standing water (Hutcherson <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
59052	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It appears to be stable.	eng
59052	threats		Threats include: draining or filling of breeding ponds; introduction of predatory fishes in conjunction with deepening of breeding ponds; loss and degradation of forest habitat surrounding breeding ponds. However, the species is apparently secure in a major portion of its range and because major threats tend to be localized occurrences, significant population declines have not been reported.	eng
59053	conservation		Additional protection of forested ravines is needed as a conservation measure for this species in the Bluegrass region of Kentucky, which is undergoing rapid urbanization.	eng
59053	distribution		This species occurs in the USA in central Kentucky, south-western Ohio, south-eastern Indiana, and also Tennessee (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1997). There are isolated populations in Livingston County, Kentucky, and westernmost West Virginia. Kraus and Petranka (1989) and Kraus (1996) provide further information on this species' range.	eng
59053	habitat		This species can be found in upland deciduous forest in regions of undulating topography, mostly in areas with limestone bedrock, although some are found in non-calcareous regions with sandstone and shale (Kraus and Petranka 1989). Adults are usually found underground, under rocks, leaves, and logs. This species breeds most frequently in first and second order streams, and typically deposits eggs singly on undersides of flat rocks in pools and (less often) in faster-flowing regions. It less frequently breeds in ponds. Its breeding is most successful in streams that are seasonally ephemeral, have natural barriers (such as cascades and waterfalls) that prevent the upstream movement of predatory fish, and that have large flat rocks for oviposition (Kraus and Petranka 1989). This species might be restricted to upper portions of breeding streams because of fish predation (Petranka 1983). Larvae in stream pools in Kentucky were most abundant among filamentous green alga (<em>Cladophora</em>), which provides protection from predators and supports prey organisms (Holomuzki 1989).	eng
59053	population		Its total adult population size is unknown.	eng
59053	threats		The main threats to this species have been destruction of native forests and their replacement with pastureland or residential areas (Petranka 1998). Stream drying, flooding, and predation were observed to be important sources of mortality in Kentucky by Petranka (1984b).	eng
59054	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, making the conservation and restoration of the natural habitats for this species urgent. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity, in which case captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate natural habitats. It is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59054	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, San Martin, in north-western State of Mexico, at 2,500m asl.	eng
59054	habitat		This is a metamorphosing species spending most of its time on land in a mosaic of natural grasslands and pine-oak forests, living in somewhat more open habitats than <em>Ambystoma amblycephalum</em>. It requires ponds and small streams in which to breed.	eng
59054	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59054	threats		The habitat of this species is under threat from agriculture, in particular from commercial wheat farming, leading to the desiccation and pollution of its breeding lakes and water reservoirs within its small range. However, survival of this species appears to be compatible with cattle grazing, particularly if stock ponds are available for breeding. Introduced predatory fish also pose a serious threat to this species.	eng
59055	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area, and conservation of its remaining habitat is urgent. This species has been bred in captivity, and so captive animals could be a source of new individuals to repopulate natural habitats. Studies are needed to evaluate the sustainability of the current harvest, as well as the impacts of introduced predatory fishes. This latter information is particularly important since <em>A. dumerilii</em> is unique among aquatic ambystomatids in its apparent long-term coexistence with introduced largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) for the last 60 years. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
59055	distribution		This species is known only from Lago Pátzcuaro in north-western Michoacan, Mexico, at 1,920m asl, and has not been recorded from other localities.	eng
59055	habitat		This species does not metamorphose and lives permanently in water. It has a winter breeding season. No field studies of any other aspect of the ecology of the species have been conducted.	eng
59055	population		The species is believed to be in very serious decline, and might be close to extinction. Recent declines in the catch by local fishermen seem to indicate a severe population crash (information from 2003).	eng
59055	threats		The filling and pollution of the only lake that the species inhabits is the major threat to its survival. The lake is an important area for local fisheries. Predatory fish have been introduced into the lake, which might be a major problem for the species, although it has been able to co-exist with such species for a long time. The animals are harvested both for human consumption and for medicinal purposes (they are supposed to be a cure for respiratory problems).	eng
59056	conservation	Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Fieldwork in the Santa Cruz area is required in order to confirm the presence of this species in the wild, and to draw up plans for the conservation of its habitat. It is protected under the category 'Pr' (special protection) by the government of Mexico.	eng
59056	distribution	Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is known only from a small area around Santa Cruz, south-west of Guadalajara, in south-central Jalisco, Mexico, at approximately 1,494.5-1,586m asl. A population in the Guadalajara area requires taxonomic confirmation. This species' range is not well understood.	eng
59056	habitat	Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This is a metamorphosing species that spends most of its time on land in desert shrubland and thorn forest. However, a larval stage could persist in water bodies around Guadalajara. It has been found on roads at night, and larvae have been collected in small pools and artificial ponds. Individual animals can live for 25 years.	eng
59056	population	Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	There is very little information on this species.	eng
59056	threats	Brad Shaffer, Oscar Flores-Villela, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The main threat to this species is the general destruction and fragmentation of its habitat as a result of smallholder farming. It is also adversely affected by water pollution, and construction of roads and human settlements. Introduced predatory fish are another serious problem.	eng
59057	conservation		Needed conservation measures include maintaining forested conditions in areas within at least 200-250m of breeding sites. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.	eng
59057	distribution		This species can be found from the Pacific coast of North America from extreme southeastern Alaska south through western Canada and northwestern U.S. to the Gualala River, California. It occurs from sea level to about 3,110m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59057	habitat		It occurs in open grassland, woodland, and forest near breeding ponds. Non-paedomorphic adults are underground most of the year. During the breeding season, they often are found under rocks and logs. Larvae have been reported to be restricted to shallow areas in lakes with fishes. Adult and larval northwestern salamanders are distasteful to fishes and bullfrogs, allowing coexistence (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993). Eggs are laid in ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams; usually attached to vegetation in shallows (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1995) or deeper water (e.g., 0.5-1.0m below water surface) (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
59057	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and possibly exceeds 100,000. Its' populations appear to be stable.	eng
59057	threats		A major threat is probably the removal of forest surrounding ponds and small lakes. Ambient ultraviolet radiation causes increased mortality of eggs (compared to UV-B-shielded eggs) (Blaustein <em>et al.</em> 1995), but natural oviposition sites often might not be subject to damaging levels of UV. Experimental data indicate that larvae are negatively impacted by the presence of trout (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1998), yet salamanders and trout coexist in some areas (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59058	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area, and the conservation and restoration of its habitats is urgent. It might be possible to breed this species in captivity. A survey is urgently needed to determine the current status of this species. Protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59058	distribution		This species is known only from a small area on the north-western periphery of Toluca city, central State of Mexico, Mexico, at 3,000m asl.	eng
59058	habitat		This is a metamorphosing species spending most of its time on land in grassland habitat. It breeds in small pools and ponds, both artificial and natural.	eng
59058	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
59058	threats		Introduced predatory fishes are the major threat to this species, but the habitat also has been heavily impacted due to extensive urban and agricultural expansion (leading to the desiccation and pollution of its breeding habitat).	eng
59059	conservation		Needed conservation measures include protection of seasonal ponds and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the ponds. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation. Conservation goals and better status information need to be developed with respect to pure and hybridised populations; should they be assessed separately? If so, what is the status of unhybridised populations?	eng
59059	distribution		This species' range was mapped by Conant and Collins (1991) as encompassing an area in the USA from southeastern New York through Pennsylvania and eastern and southern Ohio to southern Indiana, and southward to south-central Kentucky and northern Virginia, with an extensive area of hybridisation with A. laterale northward of this range to eastern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Upper Peninsula of Michigan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and eastward to Nova Scotia. However, for most of this range, karyological and electrophoretic data are unavailable, so the precise range of pure jeffersonianum populations is uncertain (Bogart and Klemens 1997). The core of the range of pure A. jeffersonianum populations likely extends from Pennsylvania southwestward to Kentucky. The jeffersonianum genome is widely distributed in eastern North America but exists primarily in hybrids (Bogart and Klemens 1997). Individuals that have solely the A. jeffersonianum genome occur in many hybridised populations. Although Klemens (1993) mapped distinct ranges for A. jeffersonianum and A. laterale in Connecticut and adjacent regions, he included in the range of each species populations that were dominated by the pertinent genome, including hybrids. Data presented by Bogart and Klemens (1997) indicate that the few populations in New England and New York represented by only the A. jeffersonianum genome had sample sizes of only 1-3 individuals, so these actually might have been hybrid populations. Phillips (1991) extended the range of A. jeffersonianum into east central Illinois, based on one juvenile raised from a larva, but since only one specimen was examined (and he did not indicate what identification criteria were used), it is unclear whether or not the population represents pure A. jeffersonianum or a hybrid population. Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1999) indicated the occurrence of both pure A. jeffersonianum and hybridised A. jeffersonianum ("A. platineum") in east central Illinois, and they stated that the hybrids use A. texanum sperm to activate egg development. In northern New Jersey, Nyman <em>et al.</em> (1988) found that triploid hybrids apparently occur wherever A. jeffersonianum is found. In Indiana and Ohio, jeffersonianum genomes exist in hybridised individuals that also contain A. texanum and/or A. tigrinum genomes (Morris 1985, Morris and Brandon 1984,Selander <em>et al.</em> 1993, Selander 1994).	eng
59059	habitat		It hides in rodent burrows and beneath leaf-litter, logs, and other surface objects. It also hibernates underground or in rotting logs. In some areas it can be found in caves in (e.g., West Virginia) (Green and Pauley 1987). Eggs are attached to sticks and plant stems in ponds and pools with adjacent forest. Presence of fishes and newts reduces reproductive success. Not found in floodplains, swamps or marshes in New Jersey (Nyman <em>et al.</em> 1988). In central Pennsylvania, embryonic mortality was high in ponds below pH 4.5, though this was affected by the availability of other larval amphibians as prey (Sadinski and Dunson 1992).	eng
59059	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely is greater than 10,000 for unhybridised populations. In an extensive survey of New England and New York, Bogart and Klemens (1997) did not find any "sizable" populations. The only populations represented by only the <span style="font-style: italic;">jeffersonianum </span>genome were a few from which only 1-3 specimens were obtained; these might have yielded hybrid individuals if they had been adequately sampled. In Kentucky, where most populations might (but not certainly) represent pure <span style="font-style: italic;">A. jeffersonianum</span>, the species appears to be uncommon, based on the poorly known distribution (Barbour 1971). Similarly, in West Virginia, another area likely represent by pure populations (though this is uncertain), the species is believed to occur state-wide but has been documented only from a minority (14) of the state's counties (Green and Pauley 1987), suggesting that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. jeffersonianum</span> is uncommon there.	eng
59059	threats		It is vulnerable to detrimental alteration of vernal pool breeding sites, especially as a result of residential development. Threats to local populations likely include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Some local populations incur heavy road mortality during migrations to and from breeding sites (Klemens 1993). Increased acid deposition is a potential threat.	eng
59060	conservation		The species would benefit from increased protection of lowland forested wetlands.	eng
59060	distribution		This species is found in North America from southeastern Quebec to Lake Winnipeg, south through Great Lakes region and New England to northern Indiana and New Jersey. Several apparently disjunctive populations occur around the periphery of the range (e.g., see Brownlie [1988] for Nova Scotia record). Hybridises with A. jeffersonianum over a large area south of this range.	eng
59060	habitat		In New England and New Jersey, generally associated with lowland swamps and marshes and surrounding uplands with sandy or loamy soils (Nyman <em>et al.</em> 1988, Klemens 1993). Can occur in overgrown pastures. Adults usually under are objects or underground. Eggs are attached to submerged sticks or bottom of shallow forest ponds and pools. At Isle Royale, Michigan, breeds in splash pools on exposed rocky shorelines (Van Buskirk and Smith 1991). In northern Minnesota, successful reproduction in acidic bog water either does not occur or is a rare event (Karns 1992).	eng
59060	population		The total adult population size is unknown, but it likely exceeds 100,000.	eng
59060	threats		The biggest threat is loss and degradation of habitat as a result of conversion to agricultural and urban use. Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Increased acid deposition is a potential threat.	eng
59061	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Río Frio, but there is huge recreational disturbance in this protected area, including forest clearance. Forest and stream restoration, and the protection of key sites around Río Frio, are the key priorities. Captive breeding is very difficult for coldwater-adapted <em>Ambystoma</em> species, although it is possible, and should be considered. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59061	distribution		This species is known only from around Río Frio town, in the State of Mexico close to the borderline with Puebla, in central Mexico, at around 3,000m asl. It has not been found at the type locality for over 30 years, since this area is extremely polluted from the town of Río Frio. However, in 1983 it was still found in three sites in small streams at 9 and 15km to the north-east of Río Frio.	eng
59061	habitat		This species requires the presence of shallow water in streams and humid pine forest areas for breeding; one breeding site is in a stream next to a major road. It metamorphoses, but the adults stay in the water.	eng
59061	population		Formerly relatively common, there appears not to have been any reports of this species for the last 20 years, probably because of the lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
59061	threats		The pollution and desiccation of the breeding streams in the vicinity of Río Frio town, as well as the clearance of pine forests (for grazing and other economic activities), are the major threats to this species. It is probably caught locally for food, and introduced predatory fish are also a threat.	eng
59062	conservation		It is listed as Threatened by the Commonwealth of Virginia. Research is needed on movement ecology and demography.	eng
59062	distribution		This species is known from lower elevations of the Coastal Plain of the Carolinas and Virginia, USA (Conant and Collins 1991). Details of distribution are not especially well known; probably additional populations remain to be discovered.	eng
59062	habitat		It can be found in tupelo and cypress bottoms in pinewoods, open fields, and lowland deciduous forest (Behler and King 1979). Pine savannahs, low wet woods, and swamps (Martof <em>et al.</em> 1980). It usually burrows near breeding ponds. Eggs are attached to submerged plant material or bottom debris of acidic, fishless ponds in or near pine stands (Behler and King 1979). In Virginia, breeds in fish-free vernal pond in a large clear-cut area and in ephemeral sinkhole ponds up to 1.5m deep, within bottomland hardwood forest mixed with pine (Mitchell 1991). Larvae develop in the ponds. Distances moved into terrestrial habitat unknown but likely greater than 150 meters.	eng
59062	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least 10,000.	eng
59062	threats		Threats include drainage of breeding sites, other hydrological alterations that might affect breeding sites, and urbanization and forestry practices that destroy or degrade non-breeding habitat (Mitchell 1991). Many breeding sites have been lost through draining of wetlands and conversion of forests into croplands (Petranka 1998).	eng
59063	conservation		Fisheries management could improve the status of salamander populations by not introducing fishes into salamander habitats where fishes are not native. Removal of non-native fishes from otherwise favourable salamander habitat is appropriate in many locations.	eng
59063	distribution		This species can be found in North America from southeastern Alaska southward to Tuolumne County, California, east to Rocky Mountains (east to east-central British Columbia, west-central Alberta, western Montana, and central Idaho). There are isolated populations in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties, California (Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). It occurs from sea level to about 3,050m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59063	habitat		It is found in a wide variety of habitats, from semiarid sagebrush deserts to sub alpine meadows, including dry woodlands, humid forests, and rocky shores of mountain lakes. Adults are subterranean except during the breeding season. It breeds in temporary or permanent ponds or in quiet water at the edge of lakes and streams. During the breeding season adults may be found under logs, rocks, and other debris near water. Eggs are attached to vegetation or loose on bottom.	eng
59063	population		The total adult population size is unknown, but it surely exceeds 10,000.	eng
59063	threats		In the Cascades of northern Washington, larval abundance was related to both lake productivity and the presence of introduced trouts (reduced larval abundance when trout present) (Tyler <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Montana, introduced trout populations clearly excluded salamanders from lakes (Funk and Dunlap 1999).	eng
59064	conservation		Needed conservation measures include protection of vernal pools and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the pools. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation. The species could benefit from regulations that minimize acid deposition.	eng
59064	distribution		This species can be found throughout most of the eastern USA and adjacent southern Canada; west to eastern Iowa and eastern Texas (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59064	habitat		This species can be found in hardwood and mixed forests, vicinity of swamps and vernal pools; usually underground or under soil surface objects except during breeding period. In New York, distribution apparently is influenced by soil pH (Wyman 1988). Eggs usually are attached to submerged stems or other objects in vernal pools and semi permanent or permanent ponds in or adjacent to forest. In many areas, the species breeds mainly in ponds inaccessible to predatory fishes; however on the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the southeastern USA, spotted salamanders breed in sloughs or backwater lowland areas along streams that frequently contain or are easily colonized by predatory fishes that opportunistically feed on amphibian larvae (Semlitsch 1988). Eggs may be laid in ponds when they are ice-covered if salamanders already are present in the pond (States <em>et al.</em> 1988). Egg masses often exhibit an aggregated dispersion pattern.	eng
59064	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely is greater than 100,000 and might exceed 1,000,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.	eng
59064	threats		Threats to local populations include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Many populations are becoming increasing isolated as deforestation and loss of vernal pools reduce gene flow among demes (Petranka 1998). This might result in inbreeding depression and reduce the probability of re-establishment of extirpated populations. Local populations might be heavily impacted by excessive mortality of adults caused by vehicles on roads near breeding sites. Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Embryo mortality generally decreases as pH deceases below 6.0, though in some areas successful reproduction has occurred at a relatively low pH (Cook 1983, Blem and Blem 1989). In central Pennsylvania, low pH was associated with deleterious sub lethal effects on larvae (Sadinski and Dunson 1992). High concentrations of various chemical elements, unfavourable temperatures, or low oxygen content might result in reproductive failure; see Blem and Blem (1991) and Albers and Prouty (1987). De-icing salts that contaminate roadside vernal pools result in reduced embryonic survival (Turtle 2000).	eng
59065	conservation		Needed conservation measures include protection of vernal pools and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m from the pools. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.	eng
59065	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern USA from New Hampshire southward to northern Florida, west through southeastern New York to Lake Michigan region, south to eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas. It is absent from most of the Appalachian Mountains.	eng
59065	habitat		It can be found in various wooded habitats, vicinity of swamps and vernal pools. More tolerant of dry habitats than are most salamanders; can be found on rocky bluffs and slopes and wooded sand dunes. Adults are entirely terrestrial and are usually found under surface objects or underground. Eggs are laid in forest depressions such as vernal pool basins and sometimes at the edges of permanent ponds, swamps, and slow-moving streams; in areas likely to be flooded by fall rain. Oviposition sites typically are in bare mineral soil beneath protective cover of leaf-litter, log, detritus, or rock.	eng
59065	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.	eng
59065	threats		Threats to local populations likely include intensive timber harvesting practices that reduce canopy closure, understorey vegetation, uncompacted forest litter, or coarse woody debris (moderately to well-decayed) in areas surrounding breeding sites (deMaynadier and Hunter 1999). Breeding sites are vulnerable to destruction and degradation through draining and filling, and many are being isolated by habitat fragmentation, which could eventually result in deleterious levels of inbreeding and reduced chances of re-establishment of locally extirpated populations. Thousands of local populations already have been eliminated by habitat loss, and more will be lost in the future (Petranka 1998). This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
59066	conservation		It occurs in Bosencheve National Park. There is a need for forest restoration surrounding the city of Morelia and in the vicinity of Patzcuaro. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59066	distribution		This species occurs in the north-eastern parts of the state of Michoacan, from Morelia to the south and east to El Mirador and nearby localities, Mexico, at altitudes above 2,200m asl.	eng
59066	habitat		It inhabits streams in pastureland, as well as in forests, so it appears not to be forest-dependent. They appear to favour clear water, but they have been found in very cloudy water, and behind small dams constructed for livestock. Most individuals do not metamorphose, but local people report that some do. Most of the animals spend most of their time in streams, where they can be found all year long. Those individuals that do metamorphose probably spend most of their time on land in pine and fir forests.	eng
59066	population		Although confined to a small area, in 1999 it was found to be abundant in several localities, with many populations appearing to be stable.	eng
59066	threats		Major threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation, due to smallholder farming, infrastructure development, and groundwater extraction (resulting in desication of its breeding streams), and pollution. Introduced predatory fishes might also be a problem.	eng
59067	conservation		It is said to occur in Nevado de Toluca Volcano National Park (though this might refer to <em>A. altamirani</em>), but this area lacks effective protection. The population in the Special Reserve of the Monarch Butterfly has been studied recently, and is considered to be secure. More effective conservation of its habitat, and mitigation of pollution, is needed, as are field studies to verify its status. This species is considered as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the government of Mexico.	eng
59067	distribution		This species is known only from central Mexico, in the Ajusco region of Distrito Federal and the adjoining state of Mexico, with a disjunctive population in the north-east of the state of Guerrero between Taxco and Tetipac. The type locality is 13km west of Villa Victoria. This species is found above 2,800m asl. Its distribution is very unclear, and it seems possible that some records are confused with those for <em>Ambystoma altamirani</em> (Shafer pers. comm.). Attempts to map its distribution should be considered highly provisional.	eng
59067	habitat		This species is associated with slow-flowing streams in pine or pine-oak forests. It does metamorphose, but the adults stay in water.	eng
59067	population		There is very little information on its population status, except in the Special Reserve of the Monarch Butterfly, where a well-studied population appears to be stable.	eng
59067	threats		There has been very serious disturbance of the forest and stream habitats of this species since 1980 with the disappearance of streams required for its survival. Much of the habitat loss is due to illegal logging in national parks, and the very heavy and poorly managed impact of recreational tourism in the parks. There has also been pollution of streams, and this species is probably caught locally for food. Introduced predatory fish might also be a problem.	eng
59068	conservation	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas. Improved habitat protection is needed throughout its range. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59068	distribution	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from northeastern Sonora to the south in western Chihuahua, east Sinaloa to Durango and Zacatecas, and south to Jalisco, Mexico, at 1,675-3,100m asl.	eng
59068	habitat	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs only at high elevations in pine and pine-oak forest with slow-flowing, shallow streams. It occurs in both streams (its presumed natural habitat) and artificial ponds for livestock (in which it can reach very high larval densities). The species is variable with respect to metamorphosis; it can breed as a metamorph or as a paedomorph. The adults live in farmland, ranch land, and forest.	eng
59068	population	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species is often common throughout its range.	eng
59068	threats	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Introduced predatory fishes are a problem. Expansion of agriculture might pose a threat to this species. However, the species does fine in cattle areas, at least as long as breeding habitat is available. Overall, this species is probably not seriously threatened.	eng
59069	conservation		Needed conservation measures include protection of seasonal ponds and adjacent wooded areas up to at least 200-250m asl from the ponds. Also, regulatory agencies should attempt to minimize forest fragmentation.	eng
59069	distribution		This species can be found in the south-eastern USA from the Coastal Plain of South Carolina through northern Florida, west to eastern Texas and southeastern Oklahoma; north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois; disjunctive populations in occur Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59069	habitat		It is usually found near breeding ponds--in pine flatwoods, floodplains, and bottomland hardwood forests. In South Carolina, avoided clear cuts and open fields, occurred in all types of forest (Semlitsch 1981). Terrestrial adults live in underground burrows; sometimes found under logs or other objects in damp places. Breeds in shallow ponds and flooded depressions that are free of fishes and that often have abundant emergent and/or submerged vegetation. Eggs are attached to stems or sticks or to the substrate. Reproductive success positively correlated with duration of standing water in breeding pond, but not with number of breeding females or number of eggs laid (Semlitsch 1987).	eng
59069	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.	eng
59069	threats		Threats include: draining or filling of breeding ponds; introduction of predatory fishes in conjunction with deepening of breeding ponds; loss and degradation of forest habitat surrounding breeding ponds. Many local populations have been lost, as native forests with seasonal pools have been converted to agricultural and urban uses. In Louisiana, a clear-cut near a breeding pond apparently affected the salamander population by (1) lowering the survival of adults immigrating from the clear-cut side of the pond, and (2) displacing adults to a less suitable terrestrial habitat (Raymond and Hardy 1991).	eng
59070	conservation	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	It does not occur in any protected area, and the protection of the Alchichica lake is an urgent priority. In addition, consideration should be given to establishing a captive-breeding programme. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59070	distribution	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	This species is endemic to Laguna Alchichica, a saline crater lake in eastern Puebla, eastern-central Mexico, at 2,290m asl.	eng
59070	habitat	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	It usually does not metamorphose, and most individuals live permanently in water. It breeds in the lake, and is usually found in very deep water, often more than 30m below the surface.	eng
59070	population	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	It is a rare species, having formerly been quite common. However, it has been seen recently by divers deep in Laguna Alchichica. In addition, in June 2005 the species was found to be numerous amongst the deeper edges of the tufa outcrops at the lake's edge (T. Burkhardt pers. comm. 2006).	eng
59070	threats	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Timothy Burkhardt, 2009	The most serious threat is water extraction and diversion, leading to the lake becoming even more saline; the water level has dropped many metres over the last two decades. Continued transformation and pollution of the lake will result in the disappearance of this species. Attempts to introduce fish in the lake have failed because it is too saline.	eng
59071	conservation		Needed conservation measures include protection of bottomland forest habitat that includes vernal ponds (Petranka 1998).	eng
59071	distribution		This species occurs in the USA. It can be found in Southern Michigan, southwestern Ontario (Pelee Island), Ohio, western West Virginia, western Kentucky, central Tennessee, and Alabama west to southern Iowa, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas, south to Gulf Coast.	eng
59071	habitat		It tolerates a wide range of ecological conditions: tall grass prairie, moist pine woodland, flood plain forest, oak woodland, dense hardwood forest, and intensely farmed areas. Adults are usually found underground, under rocks, leaves, logs, in crayfish burrows, etc. Breeding sites variable, include forest ponds, temporary pools, ditches, spring-fed pools, and slow upper portions of streams. Typically breeds in ponds or other lentic habitats; attaches small clumps of eggs to vegetation or detritus in exposed sites; sometimes breeds in streams (recorded in Kentucky and Indiana); sometimes lays eggs cryptically as in A. barbouri; sometimes lays eggs singly (Kraus and Petranka 1989).	eng
59071	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Overall, its populations are stable, though there are some local declines due to habitat loss.	eng
59071	threats		The biggest threat is conversion of bottomland habitat to agricultural uses (Petranka 1998).	eng
59072	conservation		Needed measures include basic habitat protection and policies/regulations that discourage/prohibit the introduction of predatory fishes into habitats where they are not native. Further research on phylogeographic patterns and taxonomic status of major population segments is needed. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59072	distribution		This species can be found throughout much of the USA, southern Canada to northern Mexico in the Sierra Madre Occidental. It is absent from most of the Great Basin, New England, and the Appalachian mountains. From sea level to around 3,660m asl in the Rocky mountains. Introduced populations occur in central California [not mapped here], where they hybridise with A. californiense (Riley <em>et al.</em>, 2003); in the western U.S. populations are sometimes moved in association with the fish bait industry. In Mexico, the species apparently has a limited distribution in the northwest, where its interactions with A. velasci require additional investigation.	eng
59072	habitat		It can be found in virtually any habitat, providing there is a terrestrial substrate suitable for burrowing and a body of water nearby suitable for breeding. Terrestrial adults usually are underground, in self-made burrows or in those made by rodents, shrews, or other animals. In New York, adults on land used wooded areas and avoided grassy areas (Madison and Farrand 1998). At high elevations in the Rocky Mountains, metamorphosed adults commonly occur in ponds throughout the summer. Eggs are attached to submerged objects or pond bottom. Breeds in a wide range of environments, ranging from clear mountain ponds to temporary, manure-polluted pools in the lowlands. Always breeds in sites where predatory fishes are absent. In the mountains of western Colorado, associated with ponds that have silty bottoms, low alkalinity, and no fishes (Geraghty and Willey 1992). In the southeastern U.S., requires relatively flatwoods ponds that do not contain fishes.	eng
59072	population		This is one of the most abundant Ambystoma species. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 1,000,000. Tiger salamanders occur throughout their historical range in the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains of Colorado and adjacent states. They remain easy to find and locally abundant in suitable habitat statewide. Ponds often contain up to several thousand larvae. Recent surveys found no evidence of significant declines in distribution or abundance (Corn, Stoltzberg, and Bury 1989; Hammerson 1989a, 1992; Corn, Jennings, and Muths 1997). In the Rocky Mountains, a local decline in numbers over several years, reported by Harte and Hoffman (1989), turned out to be a temporary fluctuation from which the population subsequently recovered (Wissinger and Whiteman 1992). Hovingh (1986) reported that tiger salamanders remain quite common in aquatic systems in glaciated portions of the Uinta Mountains in northeastern Utah. The widespread creation of small, fishless artificial bodies of water has provided much suitable habitat where previously there were little, and these salamanders have been quick to colonize it (Norris 1973; pers. obs.). Populations east of the Appalachians are highly patchy in distribution with several local extirpations having been documented over the past 20 years. Remaining eastern populations are small in size and several are in decline (Church 2003, Semlitsch <em>et al.</em> 1996, Zappalorti 1994). In Mexico this species is generally not uncommon.	eng
59072	threats		In Mexico it has been observed that in some localities this species can resist conditions of pollution and other kinds of alteration of the environment. Many mountain lakes formerly inhabited by tiger salamanders now have few or none of these amphibians due to the stocking of trout, which easily consume and deplete the larval populations (e.g., Blair 1951; pers. obs.). Geraghty and Willey (1992) found that fish absence was the most important factor influencing tiger salamander presence in Gunnison County and vicinity, and Corn, Jennings, and Muths (1997) reported that trout and tiger salamanders rarely occur together in Rocky Mountain National Park. Trout and tiger salamanders do occasionally coexist in some lakes (Dartt 1879; Blair 1951), but only where vegetated shallows provide habitat not easily accessible to the fishes. Some have suggested that breeding-pond acidification related to atmospheric pollution might cause periodic failure of tiger salamander reproduction in the mountains of Colorado (Harte and Hoffman 1989, 1994). Low pH, even if not fatal to salamander larvae, might result in reduced growth rates and ultimately could diminish salamander populations through decreased survival or feeding success (Kiesecker 1996). However, recent water chemistry data, together with information on acid tolerances of salamander larvae, suggest that eggs and embryos in the wild do not experience harmful levels of acidification (Corn, Stoltzenburg, and Bury 1989; Corn and Vertucci 1992; Wissinger and Whiteman 1992; Vertucci and Corn 1994). Under certain conditions, larval populations might be vulnerable to bacterial infections associated with livestock grazing. In the mountains of Utah, Worthylake and Hovingh (1989) observed recurrent mass mortality of larvae associated a bacterial infection and suggested that increased nitrogen levels due in part to sheep grazing might have been involved. Bryant (1995) observed a mass mortality event in the summer of 1993 that appeared to be associated with an opportunistically pathogenic bacterium. In Arizona, similar die-offs, apparently associated with bacterial pathogens, have been reported (Pfennig, Loeb, and Collins 1991). Cannibal morphs seemed particularly vulnerable, probably due to their feeding on diseased larvae. Again, fecal contamination of ponds by introduced livestock was suggested as a possible cause of the fatal outbreaks. In contrast to these reports, larvae sometimes do thrive in large numbers in manure-laden ponds in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Nevertheless, die-offs of larvae, apparently associated with pathogenic bacteria, have been observed in Colorado (Hammerson 1999). Populations in the southeastern USA have been detrimentally affected by deforestation and loss of wetland habitats and appear to be declining (Petranka 1998). Population viability analyses of populations in the eastern USA have shown that demographically isolated populations are highly susceptible to extinction, particularly under conditions of high weather variability (Church 2003).<br/>This species is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
59073	conservation	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It probably occurs in a few protected areas. Increased efforts at habitat conservation are urgent. Populations from the volcanic lakes of western Puebla are morphologically distinct and might be recognizable as distinct species, although they are identical based on DNA (Shaffer and McKnight, 1996). Captive breeding for these populations might be needed to protect them from decimation by introduced predatory fishes. This species is protected under the category Pr (Special protection) by the Government of Mexico.	eng
59073	distribution	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species occurs widely in Mexico from the Sierra Madre Occidental (close to the border with the USA [New Mexico]), south to Michoacan (close to Patzcuaro Lake), Toluca City, the State of Mexico, and Puebla, thence north through the Sierra Madre Oriental to the vicinity of Saltillo in Coahuila.	eng
59073	habitat	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Its ecology is similar to that of <em>Ambystoma tigrinum</em>. It breeds in deep volcanic lakes, shallow vernal pools, artificial cattle ponds, and intermittent, fish-free stream pools. This is primarily a grassland species that occurs in sparse forest and semi-arid grasslands, above about 1,800m asl. It may breed as either as metamorphic or paedomorphic individuals.	eng
59073	population	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	There is little information on its abundance, probably owing to taxonomic confusions.	eng
59073	threats	Brad Shaffer, Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	Many populations of this widely distributed species are secure, but some are at serious risk. Increased urbanization, especially near Mexico City, in combination with other threats such as forest clearance, water extraction, pollution and the introduction of fishes, including trout, catfish and centrarchids (sunfishes and bass), carp (<em>Cyprinus carpius</em>) and mosquitofish (<em>Gambusia</em>), and frogs (<em>Lithobates catesbeianus</em>) for exploitation have caused a decline in some populations of this species.	eng
59074	conservation		Protection of coastal plain wetlands is the major conservation need.	eng
59074	distribution		This species can be found in the Coastal Plain of southeastern North America from southeastern Virginia to Florida and eastern Louisiana.	eng
59074	habitat		This species can be found in swamps, bayous, margins of muddy sloughs, cypress heads, drainage ditches, sluggish streams, wet meadows, muddy lakes; soft substrate for burrowing or thick aquatic vegetation important for shelter. Often uses crayfish burrows. It may leave water, especially on rainy nights; sometimes found under objects at water's edge. Eggs are laid under objects in damp place near water's edge or possibly in shallow water, or underground.	eng
59074	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and might exceed 100,000.	eng
59074	threats		Widespread loss of wetlands undoubtedly has eliminated many local populations, but the species remains common in many other areas (Petranka 1998).	eng
59075	conservation		To assist its conservation, further work is needed to verify extant occurrences and field-check the type locality (Levy County). Surveys for this species in managed areas within its range need to be conducted, and potential sites should be identified from topographic maps. Entire drainage basins (including uplands) need to be preserved, and occurrences in at least 10 different drainages, preferably including at least one occurrence each in Georgia and Alabama, should be protected. Direct exploitation of this species needs to be monitored, and state limits on collecting should be established if exploitation is extensive. Pollution of its habitat also needs to be prevented.	eng
59075	distribution		This species can be found in the lower Gulf coastal plain of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, USA. It is nearly endemic to the Florida panhandle and adjacent Alabama (west to the western side of Mobile Bay) and Georgia (with two known localities), but with occurrences extending southward along the Gulf Coast of peninsular Florida to Levy and Hernando Counties. It appears not to range more than 80-120km inland from the coast (Means 1996).	eng
59075	habitat		This species is found in deep, organic, liquid muck in alluvial swamps of low-gradient second or third order streams, spring runs, and occasionally swampy terrace streams in floodplains. It is very habitat-dependent, so maintenance of non-polluted muck is essential for its survival.	eng
59075	population		The total adult population size is unknown.	eng
59075	threats		Potential threats to this species include exploitation and degradation of surrounding habitat (for logging and mining activities, and for the disposal of power plant sludge, for example). Stream pollution (for example by agricultural runoff), and groundwater disturbance are also potential threats. It occurs in very few protected areas, so its habitats are at significant risk.	eng
59076	conservation		No major threats currently exist, and no specific conservation measures are needed at this time.	eng
59076	distribution		This species occurs in the eastern USA in western Alabama through eastern Texas, north through Mississippi, Arkansas and western Tennessee to southeastern Missouri and adjacent Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998).	eng
59076	habitat		Common habitats include wooded alluvial swamps, calcareous streams, marshes and lakes in flood lands, seepy pools and swampy banks of bayous and cypress sloughs. Extensive networks of crayfish burrows are a common feature of habitat. It usually lays eggs under logs in or near water; terrestrial development of larvae might be typical (Salthe 1973).	eng
59076	population		The number of occurrences is unknown but probably is at least a few hundred. Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.	eng
59076	threats		Loss of natural wetland habitat has been offset by the creation of canals and permanent ponds, which serve as suitable habitat because this amphiuma can coexist with fishes (Petranka 1998).	eng
59077	conservation		Many of the presently known populations are in national or state forests, national parks, and other public lands, where there is good potential for protecting habitat. The St. Louis Zoo maintains a captive-breeding programme for this species.	eng
59077	distribution		This species occurs in the USA from southern Illinois (with a recent record from Wabash River; Smith 1961; Brandon and Ballard 1994; Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999), southern Indiana (Minton 1972), Ohio (Pfingsten and Downs 1989), Pennsylvania (McCoy 1982), and south-western and south-central New York (Bishop 1941), to central and south-central Missouri (Johnson 1987), northern Arkansas (the Black River system and north fork of White River, and Eleven Point River, Randolph County; Trauth, Wilhide and Daniel 1992), northern Mississippi, Alabama (Tennessee River drainage; Mount 1975), northern Georgia, the western Carolinas (Martof <em>et al.</em> 1980), western Virginia (Tobey 1985), West Virginia (throughout, west of the Allegheny Front; Green and Pauley 1987), and extreme western Maryland. In Kentucky, near the centre of the range, Barbour (1971) regarded the species "most common in the upper reaches of the Cumberland, Kentucky, and Licking river systems". In Tennessee, no records exist for locations west of the Tennessee River (Redmond and Scott 1996). Collections are known from south-eastern Kansas (Neosha River), but these are likely to have been from introduced individuals and not from a naturally occurring population (Collins 1982, 1993; W.H. Busby pers. comm.). There are early reports, of uncertain validity, of Hellbenders in Iowa (Nickerson and Mays 1973b). Old records from the Great Lakes (Lake Erie) drainage, New Jersey, and Louisiana are probably erroneous (Pfingsten and Downs 1989; Harding 1997).	eng
59077	habitat		It can be found in rocky, clear creeks and rivers, usually where there are large rocks for shelter. It usually avoids water warmer than 20°C. Males prepare nests and attend eggs beneath large flat rocks or submerged logs.	eng
59077	population		The total adult population size is unknown, but the population is in overall decline (although there are secure populations in many areas).	eng
59077	threats		The principal threat to this species is degradation of habitat, since it is a habitat specialist with little tolerance of environmental change (Williams <em>et al.</em> 1981). It breathes primarily (approximately 90%) through the skin (Guimond 1970) and is therefore dependent on cool, well-oxygenated, flowing water. Construction of dams stops swift water flow and submerges riffles. Logging, mining, road construction and maintenance, and other activities, can cause extensive sedimentation that covers the loose rock and gravel important as nest sites, and for shelter and food production. In Illinois, "most former rocky habitat has been buried under silt" (Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999). Chemical pollutants and acid mine drainage are probably destructive, especially to eggs and larvae. Thermal pollution of water with a consequent oxygen loss would also be detrimental. Several streams in Alabama "have been polluted, impounded, or otherwise modified to the extent that they are, from all indications, incapable of supporting hellbender populations" (Mount 1975). Injuries and deaths sometimes also result when the salamanders are hooked by anglers, and some fishermen still believe that Hellbenders are dangerously poisonous and also destroy game fish and their eggs (both beliefs are false), and therefore kill them at every opportunity. In the past, there were even attempts by organized sportsmen’s groups in West Virginia to eradicate them. There is some collecting of Hellbenders for sale as live animals or as preserved specimens. Over-collecting has been considered a serious threat in some parts; a decline was noted in the early 1990s, apparently due to collecting. Nickerson and Mays (1973b) noted additional factors they suspected might affect local populations, such as gigging (hunting of the species at night), heavy canoe traffic, dynamiting of large boulders to enhance commercial canoe traffic, and riverside cattle and pig pens. Hellbenders generally are intolerant of heavy recreational use of habitat.	eng
59078	conservation		It occurs on several large designated wilderness areas.	eng
59078	distribution		This species can be found in the USA in northern Idaho and a small adjoining portion of extreme western Montana (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Petranka 1998); disjunctive populations in the Salmon River drainage near Warm Lake, Idaho (Petranka 1998). This species is known from two locations in western Montana (Reichel and Flath 1995). Occurs in over 250 miles of stream (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59078	habitat		Larvae usually inhabit clear, cold streams, but are also found in mountain lakes and ponds. Adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, etc, near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985). Eggs usually are laid in headwaters of mountain streams. Breeding typically occurs in water-filled nest chambers under logs and rocks or in rock crevices.	eng
59078	population		Total adult population size is unknown but might exceed 10,000. Historical information is poorly documented, but probably declined due to loss of habitat. Currently, stable in undisturbed areas and readily reinvades disturbed areas as they improve (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59078	threats		It is threatened by loss of habitat and habitat degradation due to logging, road construction, and siltation. Readily reinvades disturbed areas as they are restored. The Potlatch Timber Company (owns approximately 400,000-600,000 acres) is currently developing a management plan with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to leave buffer zones along streams (C. Peterson pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59079	conservation		Numerous sites are protected in Washington.	eng
59079	distribution		This species can be found in the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, south through the southern Cascades and Willapa Hills to streams that drain into the Columbia River Gorge in northwestern Oregon, USA (Stebbins 1985). It can be found from near sea level to about 975m asl (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59079	habitat		It can be found in streams and rivers in moist coniferous forests (water temperatures usually range from 8-14 C) (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). It is sometimes found in clear, cold mountain lakes and ponds, and sometimes occurs on land along water courses (Jones and Corn 1989). It lays eggs in nest chambers under stones, cutbanks, or logs (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
59079	population		The total adult population size is unknown but it probably exceeds a few thousand. Trend is poorly known. Declining to stable in Oregon (M. Stern pers. comm., 1997). Probably stable for the past 20 years in Washington where at least 100 localities are known (J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59079	threats		Logging is the biggest threat to this species; logging could increase water temperatures to unsuitably high levels and result in siltation, which might detrimentally affect food resources. Overall, it is considered to be only locally threatened.	eng
59080	conservation		<em>Dicamptodon ensatus</em> occurs in numerous protected areas, and is therefore probably only moderately threatened, even though its range is small and close to urban areas.	eng
59080	distribution		This species can be found in west-central California, USA (Good 1989). It also occurs from Sonoma and Napa Counties south to Santa Cruz County and to Monterey County (Petranka 1998). It is found from 0-900m asl.	eng
59080	habitat		Larvae of this species usually inhabit clear, cold streams, but are also found in mountain lakes and ponds. Adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, for example, near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985b). Eggs are usually laid in the headwaters of mountain streams. Breeding typically occurs in water-filled nest chambers under logs and rocks or in rock crevices.	eng
59080	population		The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand. It is locally abundant (J.W. Petranka pers. comm.), but terrestrial adults are far less abundant than the aquatic larvae (Petranka 1998). No population data are available to determine trends in its population status (D.B. Wake pers. comm.).	eng
59080	threats		The greatest threats to this species are stream siltation and urban development (Petranka 1998; D.B. Wake pers. comm.), and it is also threatened by habitat fragmentation due to land use changes, including urbanization, agricultural development, and logging (H.H. Welsh pers. comm.). In the related Pacific giant salamander (<em>D. tenebrosus</em>), larvae may be reduced in numbers where there has been clear-cut logging (Corn and Bury 1989) or siltation from roads (Welsh and Ollivier 1998). However, opening of forest canopies over streams might lead temporarily to higher primary productivity that in turn increases the body sizes of larval <em>D. tenebrosus</em> (Murphy and Hall 1981).	eng
59081	conservation		Habitat protection is needed.	eng
59081	distribution		This species occurs from Western North America from southern British Columbia (Chilliwack River drainage) south through western Washington and western Oregon to northwestern California (Good 1989; Farr, 1989 COSEWIC report; Petranka 1998).	eng
59081	habitat		Larvae and paedomorphic adults usually inhabit clear, cool or cold, well-oxygenated streams and often take cover under stones (Parker 1991); aquatic stages also occur in some mountain lakes and ponds. Metamorphosed adults are found in humid forests under rocks and logs, etc., near mountain streams or rocky shores of mountain lakes (Stebbins 1985). Eggs are attached to logs or rocks in creeks (Nussbaum and Clothier 1973, Jones <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
59081	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. Larvae are often abundant and are far more common than the adults.	eng
59081	threats		Logging and associated water temperature increases and siltation are a potential threat. Abundance is much greater in old growth and mature forests than in young forests (see Petranka 1998). However, overall, this species is not significantly threatened at present.	eng
59083	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.	eng
59083	distribution		This species is known with certainty from Xinduqiao County, Sichuan Province, China. A second population from Zhendoushan might belong to this species. In general, this species might be more widespread, but further investigation is needed to confirm the identity of populations other than the Xinduqiao County population reported by Fu <em>et al.</em> (2001). It can be found at elevations of 1,800 to around 4,000m asl.	eng
59083	habitat		This is a largely aquatic species associated with slow-flowing streams in grassland areas. Animals can occasionally be found on the stream bank. The female lays a pair of egg sacs and attaches these below stones in the stream. It is unlikely to be adaptable to habitat modification.	eng
59083	population		This species is common within its restricted range.	eng
59083	threats		The species is threatened by overgrazing of habitat by livestock (presumably the vegetation surrounding streams), and the local use of the species for traditional medicine.	eng
59084	conservation		The only known locality is within a protected scenic site, Emeishan Mountain Nature and Historical Heritage Site. There remains a need to monitor and control levels of offtake of this species from the wild.	eng
59084	distribution		This species is only known from the Longdong River, Mount Emei, in Sichuan Province, China, from 1,300-1,800m asl. However, it might occur a little more widely.	eng
59084	habitat		It inhabits the lower section of rivers and springs in forested areas and requires cool water for breeding and stones for the eggs to adhere to. Breeding is not possible in disturbed habitats.	eng
59084	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
59084	threats		Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species. In the past, stones were collected from the riverbed as construction materials, which impacted on the species' breeding success (although this is now controlled).	eng
59085	conservation		Most of the range of this species falls within several protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably. Further research is needed to determine the impact of the recent disease outbreak.	eng
59085	distribution		This species is found in western Sichuan and north-western Yunnan provinces in China. It was previously found in south-eastern Guizhou, China, but it has not been seen there for over 60 years. It was previously thought to be in southern Shaanxi, but this is now considered a distinct species. It has been recorded from 1,500-3,900m asl.	eng
59085	habitat		It is an inhabitant of high-altitude streams and lakes, and also the surrounding forests (broadleaf and coniferous), and sometimes occurs in marshy grassland. Breeding occurs in the streams and lakes.	eng
59085	population		This species is common within its range, but it has declined significantly in recent years due to over-harvesting.	eng
59085	threats		Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and for food is a major threat to this species; harvesting methods include poisoning and electrocution. There are also reports of a recent outbreak of disease. Water pollution from mining is also a threat.	eng
59086	conservation		It probably occurs in Laoxiancheng and Taibashan Nature Reserves.	eng
59086	distribution		This species is known from the type locality of the upper stream of the Heihe River, near Hua Er Ping village, in Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi Province, China, at 1,260m asl. It is believed to range throughout the area of Taibeishan Mountain in Shanxi Province, although the limits of its distribution are still not clear.	eng
59086	habitat		This species is aquatic and inhabits fast-flowing streams. It has been found under rocks in the stream and under rocks on the banks of the streams. The collection site, which has steep slopes, is well shaded by the canopy of the vegatation on the banks of both sides of the river. It is presumed that this species breeds in the streams and has a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
59086	population		It is known only from the type series, so there is no information regarding its population status.	eng
59086	threats		The main threats to it are the loss of forest habitat surrounding the streams, as a result of clear-cutting, and the harvesting of animals for medicinal use.	eng
59087	conservation		Part of the range of this species falls within protected areas. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.	eng
59087	distribution		This species is found in central China from 1,500-4,250m asl.	eng
59087	habitat		It lives and breeds in streams and seepages in high mountains or plateaux. Some populations hibernate on land in winter. This species has a low reproductive rate.	eng
59087	population		An observed population decline has resulted in the species becoming increasingly difficult to find in several of its past strongholds.	eng
59087	threats		Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species. Habitat loss, and water pollution resulting from mining activities, are also threats.	eng
59088	conservation		Part of the species' range is within Luojishan Nature Reserve. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed sustainably.	eng
59088	distribution		This species is known from south-western Sichuan Province (Yanyuan, Xichang, Mianning, and Puxiong counties) in China, from 2,900-4,400m asl.	eng
59088	habitat		It lives and breeds in streams and lakes surrounded by dense vegetation.	eng
59088	population		This species is uncommon and the population is believed to be small.	eng
59088	threats		Over-collecting for traditional Chinese medicine and food is a major threat to this species.	eng
59089	conservation		Although the species is present in the small Longwangshan Nature Reserve, stricter management of the breeding sites is needed. A captive-breeding programme should also be established.	eng
59089	distribution		This species is known only from five small pools at the top of Mount Longwangshan, in the small Longwangshan Nature Reserve, Anji county, north-western Zhejiang, China, at about 1,300m asl.	eng
59089	habitat		Breeding takes place only in the five small pools, with the breeding season running from end November to mid-March, which is the only time that adults can be found. Each female deposits 140-174 eggs, and the larvae develop in the pools; larvae take three years to reach sexual maturity.	eng
59089	population		This species is considered rare and the population is believed to comprise only 250-300 breeding females.	eng
59089	threats		The very small range and very limited number of breeding sites makes this species especially susceptible to habitat alteration, which is increasingly a problem due to the growing threat of human disturbance at the site, especially from touristic activities.	eng
59090	conservation		The species is protected within Yu-san National Park and the Tawushan Nature Preserve.	eng
59090	distribution		This species is restricted to Ali Shan, Yu Shan, and Pei Ta Wu Shan in Taiwan, Province of China. It occurs above 1,800m asl.	eng
59090	habitat		It inhabits primary conifer forests and broadleaf forests close to streams. It probably breeds in streams, and the larvae most likely develop in streams.	eng
59090	population		This species is considered to be very rare.	eng
59090	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and degradation, due in particular to infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
59091	conservation		It is protected in Nara Prefecture, Oita Prefecture, and Mie Prefecture as a natural monument.	eng
59091	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan, and is distributed in the Kinki district of Honshu, Shikoku, and the Sobo area of Kyushu.	eng
59091	habitat		It occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest, broad-leaved evergreen forest, and mixed forest. It breeds in montane streams, where the larvae develop.	eng
59091	population		The populations of Kyushu and Honshu are declining, but it seems that the population of Shikoku is abundant and stable.	eng
59091	threats		In Honshu and Kyushu, the major threat is habitat loss due to the construction of roads and dams, and logging. This species is also common in the pet trade.	eng
59092	conservation		This species has been recorded from the Wuyishan National Nature Reserve, Fujian Province.	eng
59092	distribution		This species is known from Hubei Province (the city of Yichang) and Fujian Province (at Chongan), China. There have been no records from the type locality in Hubei Province for the last 70 years. Records from Zheijian Province refer to <em>H. yiwuensis</em>. It ranges up to 1,400m asl, and probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59092	habitat		It inhabits forests and arable fields in hilly areas. It breeds in pools and small streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59092	population		It is generally considered rare, although outside the breeding season they are difficult to find. Populations at several localities are believed to be declining.	eng
59092	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, in particular due to infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
59093	conservation		This is a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China. It is present in Ray-yuan Nature Reserve and Taroko National Park.	eng
59093	distribution		This species is restricted to the high mountain ranges of Taiwan, Province of China, at around 2,100m asl.	eng
59093	habitat		It inhabits primary forests. Breeding takes place in headwater streams and underground seepages where the larvae also develop.	eng
59093	population		It is known to be rare, and is seldom encountered.	eng
59093	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to the development of infrastructure for tourism.	eng
59094	conservation		It probably occurs in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation.	eng
59094	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas in Kanto, Chubu, Hokuriku, Kinki and Chugoku Districts.	eng
59094	habitat		This species occurs in broad-leaved deciduous forest, mixed forest and conifer forest. It breeds in narrow streams or ravines where the larvae also develop.	eng
59094	population		More information is needed.	eng
59094	threats		There are no known significant threats to this species at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and all threats are localized.	eng
59095	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species.	eng
59095	distribution		This species is known from northeast China (Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces), the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. It occurs from 100-800m asl.	eng
59095	habitat		It inhabits hill forests and breeds in stream pools and nearby still-water pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
59095	population		It is a common species.	eng
59095	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by deforestation and water pollution are major threats.	eng
59096	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59096	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Tohoku District and Niigata Prefecture, Tochigi Prefecture and Ibaragi Prefecture. It occurs from coastal areas up to 1,500m asl.	eng
59096	habitat		It is a forest species that breeds in streams where the larvae also develop. It is not able to adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
59096	population		More information is needed.	eng
59096	threats		There are no known significant threats to this species at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59097	conservation	Kaneko, Y., Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59097	distribution	Kaneko, Y., Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas of Chugoku and Kyushu Districts. It is found between   300-1,000 m asl (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
59097	habitat	Kaneko, Y., Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forests and mixed forests. It breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59097	population	Kaneko, Y., Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is common in its range (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
59097	threats	Kaneko, Y., Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59098	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59098	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is widely distributed in the western region including Kinki, Chugoku, Shikoku and Kyushu Districts. It is known from coastal to hilly areas up to 300m asl.	eng
59098	habitat		This species occurs in forests. It breeds in paddy fields, ditches and springs where the larvae also develop.	eng
59098	population		The populations in Kyoto and Osaka Prefectures are threatened.	eng
59098	threats		This species is threatened by housing and road construction, water pollution, invasive species and drying out of its habitat. It is also collected for the pet trade.	eng
59099	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59099	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in Tohoku, Kanto and Hokuriku Districts. It is also found on Sado Island. It occurs from sea level up to around 2,500m asl.	eng
59099	habitat		This species occurs from coastal areas to alpine zones in forests and montane grasslands. It breeds in lakes, ponds, pools, paddies, and ditches.	eng
59099	population		More information is needed.	eng
59099	threats		There are no significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59100	conservation		Further research is required to fully resolve its taxonomic status.	eng
59100	distribution		This species is known from the south of the Republic of Korea. It has been recorded from the mainland and has also been found on Keoje, Namhae, Chindo and Cheju Islands. However, its distribution is still very poorly known. This is a lowland species.	eng
59100	habitat		It is presumed to inhabit forests and to breed in streams and nearby pools.	eng
59100	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
59100	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
59101	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59101	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is only found in Hokkaido.	eng
59101	habitat		This species occurs from lowland to alpine zones in forests and grassland. It breeds in lakes, marshes, ponds, pools, and ditches by larval development.	eng
59101	population		More information is needed.	eng
59101	threats		There are no significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59102	conservation		This is a protected species in Taiwan, Province of China, and it is present in Taroko National Park.	eng
59102	distribution		This species is restricted to the central mountain range and Nau Kou in Taiwan, Province of China, above 2,750m asl.	eng
59102	habitat		It inhabits undisturbed conifer forests at high elevations. Breeding takes place in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59102	population		It is a very rare species.	eng
59102	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation, mainly due to the development of infrastructure for tourism.	eng
59103	conservation		There are currently no known conservation measures in place.	eng
59103	distribution		This is a Japanese endemic that is mainly distributed in Kanto District on Honshu Island. It occurs up to 300m asl.	eng
59103	habitat		It occurs in forests from coastal areas to hilly areas. It breeds in paddy fields, ditches, and springs where the larvae also develop.	eng
59103	population		Most populations of this species are currently believed to be in decline.	eng
59103	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss due to infrastructure development (housing and road construction), water pollution, invasive species, and the drying out of its habitat. It is also collected for the pet trade.	eng
59104	conservation		There are no conservation measures.	eng
59104	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is found only on Tsushima Island.	eng
59104	habitat		It occurs from lowland to montane areas. It breeds in narrow streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59104	population		More information is needed.	eng
59104	threats		There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59105	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. It is an urgent priority to re-locate this species, and determine its conservation needs.	eng
59105	distribution		This species was described from the area "between Pamir and Samarkand", which is possibly in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, although the exact collection localities are not known. There have been no more records of this species since the collection of the type series, so attempts to map its distribution have been based on the area most suitable for salamanders within the expedition route of the collector of the type series.	eng
59105	habitat		It is possibly associated with rivers in humid mountain valleys. It is presumed to breed in water and to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
59105	population		As this species is known only from the type series, there is no information regarding its current population status.	eng
59105	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
59106	conservation		There are no protected areas within the range of this species, and there is a need for improved protection and maintenance of existing forest habitat in its range.	eng
59106	distribution		This species is present in Zheijian Province (Zhenhai, Xiaoshan, Wenling, Yiwu, Beilun and Zhoushan [including Zhoushan Dao Island]), China. It is present at elevations of 50-200m asl.	eng
59106	habitat		It inhabits forests and arable fields in hilly areas. It breeds in pools and small streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59106	population		It is common in most of its localities.	eng
59106	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss, due to clear-cutting, and water pollution (presumably by agrochemicals).	eng
59107	conservation		Part of the range of this species may lie within Jinggangtai Nature Reserve, although there is still a need for improved habitat protection.	eng
59107	distribution		This species is only known from the vicinity of Shancheng, Henan Province in central China, from 400-910m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59107	habitat		It inhabits small, slow-flowing streams in plantation forests. The breeding biology is not known, but it presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
59107	population		There is no information on the current population status of this newly described species. It is rare, and hard to find.	eng
59107	threats		The major threat is habitat destruction and degradation due to small-scale subsistence agriculture and infrastructure development.	eng
59108	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59108	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is distributed in montane areas in Honshu and Shikoku.	eng
59108	habitat		It occurs small streams and in the adjacent forested habitats in montane areas. It breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
59108	population		More information is needed.	eng
59108	threats		There are no known significant threats at present. Its habitat is in good condition, and any threats are localized.	eng
59109	conservation		Several protected areas occur within the species' range. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner. This salamander is included in several captive breeding programmes in Europe.	eng
59109	distribution		This species is known from the Dabieshan area (Hubei, Henan, and Anhui Provinces) in central China, from 380-1,100m asl.	eng
59109	habitat		It inhabits slow-flowing hill streams in forested areas. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
59109	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59109	threats		Over-collecting for human consumption is a major threat to this species. It is also probably threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, due to human settlement and smallholder farming activities.	eng
59110	conservation		It has not been recorded in protected areas.	eng
59110	distribution		This species is known only from its type locality of Puxiong, Yuexi City, Sichuan Province, China, where it was collected at 2,900m asl.	eng
59110	habitat		The only known specimen was collected in an artificial cave used for food storage. However, this is suspected to be a temperate forest species.	eng
59110	population		Its population status is not known, and only one specimen has been recorded, probably as a result of a lack of survey effort in the area.	eng
59110	threats		It is threatened by clear-cutting of forest.	eng
59111	conservation		Part of the species' range overlaps with Badagongshan and Xingdoushan National Nature Reserves.	eng
59111	distribution		This species occurs in Nanchuan, Sichuan, Suiyang, Guizhou, Lichuan, Hubei, Sangzhi, and Hunan provinces in China.	eng
59111	habitat		It is terrestrial, normally hiding under the roots of bamboo or in burrows under mosses and soil. It breeds in small streams in April; the larvae develop in these streams.	eng
59111	population		It is a rare species.	eng
59111	threats		Habitat degradation and destruction is the main threat, due in particular to smallholder farming activities, clear cutting of forest, and infrastructure development for tourism.	eng
59112	conservation		Its range overlaps with several protected areas.	eng
59112	distribution		This species is known from central China including Henan, Shaanxi, Sichuan and Hubei Provinces, from 900-2,350m asl.	eng
59112	habitat		It is an aquatic species that inhabits small, low-gradient streams in forested areas. Eggs are laid in sacs that are then attached to the underside of rocks in the streams.	eng
59112	population		It is common within its range.	eng
59112	threats		The most significant threat to this species is over-exploitation as a food source, although habitat destruction and degradation (including for the construction of dams) are also affecting its habitat.	eng
59113	conservation		Taibaishan National Nature Reserve and Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve are within the range of this species. There is a need to implement measures to ensure that the offtake of this species from the wild is managed in a sustainable manner.	eng
59113	distribution		This species is restricted to southern Shaanxi (Zhouzhi and Ningshaan Counties) and north-eastern Sichuan (Wanyuan County), China, from 1,600-1,860m asl. It is known from only three locations.	eng
59113	habitat		It inhabits small hill streams and riparian habitats, usually in forested areas. It breeds in the mouth of the springs and larval development takes place in the water.	eng
59113	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59113	threats		It is threatened by exploitation for food and traditional Chinese medicine, as well as by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.	eng
59114	conservation		The species is present in many protected areas. It is listed in the Red Data Books of the Middle Urals (Perm and Sverdlovsk provinces of Russia) and the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous County (Russia), Altaiskii Region (Russia), as well as the Red Data Book of Mongolia. The species is protected in Heilongjiang Province, China and is designated a natural monument by Kushiro City and Shibecha Town, Japan.	eng
59114	distribution		This species ranges from the north of European Russia (Arkhangelskaya Province) through the Polar Urals and Siberia to Chukotka Peninsula, then southwards along the Pacific coast to northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoling and Inner Mongolia Provinces), northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea, central Mongolia, southern Siberia, and through northern Kazakhstan to Nizhegorodskaya Province in European Russia. The species is also present in Kushiro marshland in Hokkaido, Japan, and the disputed island of Kunashiri.	eng
59114	habitat		It is found in wet coniferous, mixed, deciduous forests in the taiga zone and riparian groves in tundra and forest steppe. In forests, it is mostly found in glades and along the edges of woods not far from stagnant or semi-flowing waters. It is more rarely found in meadows, willow stands, fields, suburban and urban areas. In the Polar Urals and the north of West Siberia, the species is found on the shores of small lakes surrounded with swamps in shrubby and sedge-shrubby tundras. In the forest steppe region it is found in marshes in meadows, meadow steppes and small-leafed forests. The species breeds in ditches, pools and slow-flowing streams.	eng
59114	population		In general this species is common over its wide range. There are some localized declines in parts of its range, in Mongolia (the southern margin of the species' range), there are small isolated populations, some of which are declining and are considered to be threatened.	eng
59114	threats		There are no major threats to this species. The species is locally threatened by desiccation of wetlands, loss of terrestrial habitat, pollution and increased urbanization.	eng
59115	conservation		Protection of mature and old growth forests is the most important long-term conservation need for this species. The trend for increasing scarcity of required coarse woody debris on the forest floor might be counteracted to some degree by existing and proposed forest management plans for the Spotted Owl (<em>Strix occidentalis</em>) and Marbled Murrelet (<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em>; Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59115	distribution		This species has a patchy distribution from Del Norte and Siskiyou Counties, California, north through western Oregon to the Columbia River, USA (Jackman 1998).	eng
59115	habitat		This species inhabits moist coniferous forests (such as redwood, Douglas fir, western hemlock, and Port Orford cedar forests), in forest edges, forest clearings, talus, and burned-over areas. It is usually found under bark, in rotten logs, or in rock crevices, and it may aggregate in decayed logs in summer. The downed logs that it inhabits are large (greater than 50cm in diameter), and of mid-decay classes with sloughing bark (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). This species also sometimes climbs high into trees. It lays its direct-developing eggs in cavities in rotten logs, in rock crevices, under bark, or among vegetation. Welsh and Wilson (1995) reported a clutch of <em>Aneides ferreus</em> or <em>A.vagrans</em> eggs that had been deposited in a fern clump at the base of a limb 30-40m above the ground in a large redwood tree.	eng
59115	population		It is generally scarce, but locally common. However, current forest management practices are causing declines.	eng
59115	threats		This species is threatened by intensive, short-rotation logging practices that result in increasing scarcity of coarse woody debris on the forest floor (Corn and Bury 1991). These salamanders may thrive initially after logging but then decline as stumps and logs decay and critical microhabitats are eliminated (Petranka 1998).	eng
59116	conservation		Better information is needed concerning the threats to this species and its population trends. The unexplained causes of recent declines also need to be determined.	eng
59116	distribution		This species can be found from extreme south-western Oregon south through north-western California, USA (as far south as central Santa Cruz and western Santa Clara Counties). It occurs from sea level to over 1,700m asl (Stebbins 1985b).	eng
59116	habitat		It can be found in forests, woodlands and grasslands. Southern populations prefer moist woodlands along streams and seepages, while northern populations are found in grassy areas, and far northern populations in moss-covered rockslides (Behler and King 1979). It is primarily terrestrial and is found under surface cover. A nest found in Santa Clara County, California, was located about 38cm below the surface of the ground in a soil cavity (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).	eng
59116	population		No quantitative data are available on the population status of this salamander, but it is uncommon or rare in many areas where formerly it was common (Wake, cited by Petranka 1998).	eng
59116	threats		The most well understood threat to this species is habitat destruction (clear-cutting logging), but declines also appear to have taken place as a result of unexplained causes.	eng
59117	conservation		Maintenance of mature forest conditions with downed logs is the most important conservation need.	eng
59117	distribution		This species can be found in the Sacramento Mountains, Capitan Mountains, and Sierra Blanca in Lincoln and Otero counties of southern New Mexico, United States. It is found largely within Lincoln National Forest; at elevations of 2,438 (possibly 2,380) to 3,600m asl (Ramotnik 1997).	eng
59117	habitat		It can be found in Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and white fir forests. Typically found on north- and east-facing slopes; often found in canyons in rotting logs, rock crevices, or under forest litter. Spends much of its life underground. Females with eggs have been found in cavities in Douglas-fir logs (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59117	population		Ramotnik (1997) mapped slightly more than 100 collection/observation sites in 3 highly localized areas in 2 counties of New Mexico. Total adult population size is unknown but probably is at least several thousand. Appears to be numerous in several restricted areas (New Mexico Department of Fish and Game 1985). Densities of 6/100m2 were found in occupied areas (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, cited by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996).	eng
59117	threats		Threats include logging, overgrazing, and forest fires. It is highly vulnerable to desiccation and exposure due to habitat alteration. Negatively impacted by opening up of shady mature forest and by destruction or removal of downed logs (Bury <em>et al.</em> 1980). Intensive logging, slash removal, and burning probably are detrimental (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, Ramotnik 1997). Populations may persist through the first intensive logging of an area, but may not survive a repeated 10-year logging cycle (Ramotnik and Scott 1988, cited by Degenhardt <em>et al.</em> 1996). Apparently relatively secure under current management practices (Ramotnik 1997).	eng
59118	conservation		The most important conservation need is protection of oak and sycamore woodland habitat and especially large old oak and sycamore trees. It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59118	distribution		This species occurs in the Coast Ranges of California from Humboldt County, USA, to northwest Baja California Norte, Mexico. It also occurs in the central Sierra Nevada foothills; South Farallon, Santa Catalina, and Isla Coronado Norte (Behler and King 1979). It lives from sea level to about 1,500m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59118	habitat		It inhabits coastal live-oak woodlands; yellow pine and black oak forests in the foothills. It is found on ground under leaf-litter, rocks, logs, etc.; it also climbs trees. It retreats to tree cavities, rodent burrows, caves, and mine shafts in summer. Lays eggs in hollow trees or logs and in cavities in the earth (Behler and King 1979). In Baja California it lives in sycamore woodland. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59118	population		It appears to have declined in some areas since the 1970s (D. B. Wake, cited by Petranka 1998), but remains common in many places.	eng
59118	threats		It is a major threat is loss of large oaks and sycamores used for nesting and estivation.	eng
59119	conservation		Protection of mature and old growth forests is the most important long-term conservation need for this species. The trend for increasing scarcity of required coarse woody debris on the forest floor may be counteracted to some degree by existing and proposed forest management plans for the Spotted Owl (<em>Strix occidentalis</em>) and Marbled Murrelet (<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em>; Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59119	distribution		This species occurs in the USA from northern Del Norte and Siskiyou Counties, California, south through extreme western Trinity, Humboldt, and Mendocino Counties in an increasingly narrow, forested coastal strip to the vicinity of Stewart's Point, north-western Sonoma County, California. It is widespread on Vancouver Island and neighbouring islands in British Columbia, Canada, but reports from mainland British Columbia are unreliable. All Canadian populations might be derived from human-mediated introductions that occurred in conjunction with shipments of tan oak bark from California (Wake and Jackman, in Jackman 1998). The type locality in Humbold County is at 500m asl.	eng
59119	habitat		This species occurs in moist coniferous forests, in forest edges, forest clearings, talus, and burned-over areas. It is usually found under bark or in rotten logs (in which it may aggregate in summer), and it requires large (greater than 50cm in diameter) downed logs of mid-decay classes with sloughing bark (Thomas <em>et al.</em> 1993). It often occurs high in trees, and some individuals or populations may rarely descend to ground level. It lays its eggs in cavities in rotten logs, under bark, or among vegetation. Welsh and Wilson (1995) reported a clutch of <em>Aneides vagrans</em> or <em>A. ferreus</em> eggs that had been deposited in a fern clump at the base of a limb 30-40m above the ground in a large redwood tree.	eng
59119	population		The total adult population size of this species is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand.	eng
59119	threats		This species is threatened by intensive, short-rotation logging practices that result in increasing scarcity of coarse woody debris on the forest floor (Corn and Bury 1991). These salamanders may thrive initially after logging but then decline as stumps and logs decay and critical microhabitats are eliminated (Petranka 1998).	eng
59120	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59120	distribution		Boundy (2000) provided the most up-to-date description of the range, which has changed in recent years as a result of taxonomic revisions: in the USA from coastal southwestern Oregon south through north coastal California to the vicinity of the Russian River, thence southward along the coast and through the Coast Ranges and valleys to the northern edge of the Monterey Bay lowlands and the vicinity of Tres Pinos Creek in Santa Cruz and San Benito counties; distributed in the inner Coast Ranges from just north of Newville in Tehama County to the San Luis Reservoir drainage in Merced County; isolated populations occur in the Sacramento Valley at Sutter Buttes, Sutter County, and in riparian zones near the Sacramento River, and near Shasta Reservoir in Shasta County; distribution in the Sierra Nevada foothills extends from near Paradise, Butte County, south to Fiddletown, Amador County.	eng
59120	habitat		Grasslands with scattered trees, chaparral, woodlands, redwood forests; occurs under leaf-litter, rotten logs, and surface debris when the surface is moist; retreats to rodent burrows and other cavities in the soil during the dry season. Lays eggs under bark (or other litter) on the ground or in cavities in rotten logs or in the soil (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). Tolerates considerable habitat alteration.	eng
59120	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. It is common in many areas. Its populations appear to be stable.	eng
59120	threats		None are known.	eng
59121	conservation		Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats.	eng
59121	distribution		This species can be found in the Merced River drainage through to the American River drainage, at altitudes below 300m asl, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998). Its distribution remains largely unknown.	eng
59121	habitat		It is generally found in open, brushy areas on the margins of often dense chaparral. Scattered pine (<em>Pinus sabiniana</em> and <em>P. ponderosa</em>), <em>Quercus</em>, and <em>Aesculus</em> species may be present (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
59121	population		Its total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least a few thousand.	eng
59121	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
59122	conservation		Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.	eng
59122	distribution		This species is known from 11 localities ranging from 1,050-1,500m asl in the San Gabriel Mountains, California, USA (Wake 1996; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 1998), although its distribution is poorly known.	eng
59122	habitat		It has been found under rocks, wood, or fern fronds on a steep north-west-facing talus slope shaded by <em>Quercus chrysolepis</em> and <em>Pseudotsuga macrocarpa</em>, on soil along Soldier Creek at the base of the talus slope, and under rocks and logs 10-15m from a stream in Rockbound Canyon (Wake 1996).	eng
59122	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000.	eng
59122	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59123	conservation		Research on population status and threats needed. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
59123	distribution		This species is widely distributed in central coastal California, USA, from Santa Cruz southward to near the junction of Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Kern counties (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59123	habitat		Habitats range from deeply shaded, moist redwood and mixed evergreen forests through oak woodlands and chaparral to oak savannah (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59123	population		Total population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.	eng
59123	threats		None known. Its habitat appears to be secure.	eng
59124	conservation		Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in Yosemite National Park.	eng
59124	distribution		This species occurs in California, USA, from the southern boundary of Yosemite National Park south nearly to the Kern River on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada and Greenhorn Mountains; ranges north to Feliciana Mountain and Jerseydale Ranger Station, Mariposa County; in the northern part of the range, occurs from near the eastern margin of the Central Valley up to about 1,800m asl (Dinkey Creek drainage, Fresno County); appears to occur only at low elevations on the eastern margins of the Central Valley in the southern part of the range (below 300m asl in the White River drainage, Kern-Tulare county line) (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
59124	habitat		It can be found in a wide range of habitats, from mixed Sierran coniferous forests (Pinus, Abies, Calcocedrus, Sequoia, Quercus) at high elevation, to open woodlands, to open grasslands at low elevation (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
59124	population		Total adult population size is unknown but likely is at least a few thousand.	eng
59124	threats		Other than outright habitat destruction, no specific threats are known.	eng
59125	conservation		Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.	eng
59125	distribution		This species can be found in California, USA, in the Santa Lucia Range in extreme south-western Monterey County and northern San Luis Obispo County, from near sea level up to nearly 1,000m asl on Pine Mountain and Rocky Butte in northern San Luis Obispo County (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its distribution is probably still poorly known.	eng
59125	habitat		Its habitats range from closed-canopy forest at higher altitudes to rather open oak woodlands near the coast, including open yellow pine forest and the leaf-litter of laurel and sycamore woodland (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59125	population		Total population size is unknown but probably is at least a few thousand and possibly many 10,000s.	eng
59125	threats		Threats are unknown.	eng
59126	conservation		Better information is needed on trends and threats.	eng
59126	distribution		This species is known only from the drainage of the Kaweah River system from relatively low altitudes (below 500m asl) up to high altitudes (2,200m asl) in Tulare County, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998), although its distribution is probably still incompletely known.	eng
59126	habitat		It is found in areas of scattered trees. The type locality is relatively damp, and is shaded by oaks, sycamore, white alder, buckeye, cottonwood, and redbud. This species is also found in mixed coniferous forest at higher altitudes (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
59126	population		Total adult population size is unknown.	eng
59126	threats		Specific threats are unknown.	eng
59127	conservation		Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed. Its habitat is in protected areas.	eng
59127	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in the northern Santa Lucia Mountains, Monterey County, California, USA, from the Monterey Peninsula to near the Monterey-San Luis Obispo county line (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59127	habitat		Primary habitat is mesic redwood and mixed evergreen forests; inland, also inhabits wooded north-facing slopes with tan oak and maples; when surface moisture is present, can be found under cover in open, disturbed habitats (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59127	population		Total population size is unknown but probably is at least 10,000. Species has been found abundantly at only a few sites (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59127	threats		Specific threats are unknown. Its habitat appears not to be threatened.	eng
59128	conservation		It occurs in Sierra San Pedro Mártir National Park.	eng
59128	distribution		This species occurs in southern California, USA, from the base of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains south to the vicinity of El Rosario, Mexico. There is an isolated population in the San Pedro Mártir Mountains, Baja California, Mexico; and on Catalina, Los Coronados, and Isla Todos Santos Sur (USA) (Stebbins 1985, Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). The San Pedro Mártir population might be a distinct species. The subspecies <em>B. m. aridus</em> is known only from Hidden Palm Canyon, Riverside County, California, USA. The species has been recorded at elevations of 300-1,000m asl.	eng
59128	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that lives in chaparral, coastal live-oak woodlands, canyons, washes at the base of grass-covered hills, rural gardens, urban areas, and in trash. It retreats to burrows or underground crevices in sandy or gravelly soil during cold or dry weather. It can be found under rocks and litter in the wet season. It species reproduces by development.	eng
59128	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is generally common within its range.	eng
59128	threats		The only known significant threat is intensive habitat alteration. These salamanders can co-exist with low intensity suburbanization (Petranka 1998).	eng
59129	conservation		Better information on abundance, trends, and threats is needed.	eng
59129	distribution		This species can be found in California, USA. It has a restricted distribution in the southern Santa Lucia Range of north-central San Luis Obispo County, where it is generally found above 400m asl. Populations west of Atascadero on Highway 41 and in the Cuesta Ridge Botanical Area might represent this species, but have not been examined for differences in DNA sequences or allozymes (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its distribution is probably still very poorly known.	eng
59129	habitat		It inhabits deeply shaded slopes with abundant leaf-litter in mesic canyons wooded with tanbark oak, coast live oak, sycamore, laurel, and poison oak. It is also found in less shaded areas with blue oaks and coast live oaks (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59129	population		This species' total adult population size is unknown, but it might be declining. It was formerly common, and has recently become difficult to find (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59129	threats		Specific threats are unknown.	eng
59130	conservation		Better information is needed on abundance, trends, and threats. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
59130	distribution		This species can be found in Santa Cruz Island and southern coastal mountains of California, USA, from around San Simeon in Monterey County southward to the Palos Verdes Hills and Santa Ana Mountains (Petranka 1998); Sierra Nevada populations formerly included in this species are now assigned to B. gregarius (Stebbins 1985, Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
59130	habitat		Primarily oak-woodland; ranges into mixed oak-pine forests, streamside areas, and dry grassland. Occurs under rocks and logs, under bark, and in termite channels in damp locations (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59130	population		Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds a few thousand. Its population appears to be stable.	eng
59130	threats		None known. Its habitat appears to be well protected.	eng
59131	conservation		All islands are protected within either the Channel Islands National Park or by The Nature Conservancy.	eng
59131	distribution		This species is restricted to Anacapa, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel islands, off the coast of Santa Barbara, California, USA (Jockusch <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2001; Wake and Jockusch 2000).	eng
59131	habitat		It can be found in oak woodland, chaparral, and grassland, under stones and wood. It is a terrestrial breeder.	eng
59131	population		Total adult population size is unknown, but the species is extremely abundant throughout the limited range.	eng
59131	threats		Unthreatened if present land ownership is maintained.	eng
59132	conservation		All known localities where this species has been recorded are on public lands administered by the USDA Forest Service or National Park Service (specifically, Kings Canyon National Park).	eng
59132	distribution		This species is known from two areas in Fresno County, California: the vicinity of the type locality in the lower drainage of the Kings River system, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of 335-340m asl (Jockusch, Wake and Yanev 1998); and Summit Meadow, at an elevation of 2,470m asl, in Kings Canyon National Park and about 37 kilometers east-south-east of the lower elevation sites (Stebbins 2003). Additional populations might occur in between known sites. Salamanders discovered in the Middle Fork Kaweah River drainage (610m asl, Sequoia National Park) have been referred to this species (Jockusch and Wake 2002).	eng
59132	habitat		It is known from a well-shaded, north-facing slope in an area of mixed chaparral with <em>Aesculus</em>, <em>Umbellularia</em>, and <em>Quercus wislizenii</em> and scattered <em>Pinus sabiniana</em>, <em>P. ponderosa</em>, and <em>Q. douglasii</em>; found under rocks in areas of talus near the roadside (Jockusch, Wake and Yanev 1998).	eng
59132	population		The small cluster of sites at lower elevations appear to be stable; salamanders have been found here intermittently for the last 25 years. A total of seven specimens have been found at the single high-elevation site on two occasions over a 45-year period (Hansen and Wake 2005).	eng
59132	threats		Threats are unknown. Its habitat does not appear to be threatened, although the lower Kings River sites are located immediately adjacent to a road and probably would be affected by road construction.	eng
59133	conservation		The Kern Plateau and Scodie Mountain populations are on United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service land, but the level of protection might be inadequate.	eng
59133	distribution		This species is known from about three dozen sites from 1,615-2,800m asl in the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA: in Kern Plateau, Tulare County, the western margin of the Owens Valley, Inyo County, and the Scodie Mountains, Kern County (Wake, Yanev and Hansen 2002).	eng
59133	habitat		It can be found along small permanent creeks and springs with riparian vegetation in arid wooded mountains, typically under stones and wood (Wake, Yanev and Hansen 2002). It breeds terrestrially by direct development.	eng
59133	population		The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be at least several thousand. Extensive fieldwork by Wake, Yanev and Hansen (2002) yielded more than 350 specimens. The habitat is of limited extent, especially the springs of the Kern Plateau and Scodie Mountains. Its population trend is unknown, but very likely to be relatively stable. Wake, Yanev and Hansen (2002) mentioned no evidence of any declines.	eng
59133	threats		This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation through capping of springs by man, or other alterations of spring water habitat. Its habitat is easily altered by intrusion by man. Flash floods also pose a natural threat. These threats tend to be very localized, however, and overall this species is not significantly threatened under current conditions.	eng
59134	conservation		Mature and old-growth forest with large rotting logs might be necessary for maintaining viable populations. Several populations might occur in Mount Hood and Mount Jefferson Wilderness Areas, but are not yet documented. In the Oregon Cascade Mountains, steep terrain is often not subject to intensive timber harvest, so populations are somewhat protected in these areas.	eng
59134	distribution		This species occurs in north-central Oregon: it occurs on the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains in Lane, Linn, Marion, Clackamas, and Multnomah counties; the Columbia River Gorge in Multnomah and Hood River counties; and several sites on the eastern slopes of the Cascades in Hood River and Wasco counties (Kirk 1991). It usually occurs at elevations of 600-1,300m asl, but to 15m asl in Columbia River gorge. It is generally scarce, occurring in scattered and often widely separated colonies, but sometimes locally common (Stebbins 1985b). See Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm (1983) and Kirk (1991) for spot maps.	eng
59134	habitat		It can be found in moist Douglas fir and mixed maple, hemlock and red cedar woodlands; it is dependent on mature and old-growth stands, commonly in large downed logs. Bury and Corn (1988a) found that fewer numbers occurred in logged than in mature forests. This species also occurs in the recent lava flows near the crest of the Cascades and in second-growth forest (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). It is found under rocks, log, bark and moss; also found in rotting logs, in holes and crevices in the ground, and in termite burrows. Nests that have been located were found under bark and in rotten logs (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983). It probably also lays eggs underground (Stebbins 1985b).	eng
59134	population		This species is known to be common in suitable habitat. Results of time-constrained searches (Gilbert and Allwine 1991) showed that Oregon Slender Salamanders were second only to ensatinas in abundance in naturally regenerated stands.	eng
59134	threats		It is moderately threatened and declining due to logging of old-growth Douglas-fir forest; managed forests do not provide ideal habitat. It can be extirpated by clear cutting or even thinning, and is common only in stable, old-growth forests with many large, old logs. Timber harvest might result in slow, long-term decline, which might not be evident during surveys done soon after timber harvest.	eng
59135	conservation		Its range includes Sumapaz and Chigaza National Natural Parks, and the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce.	eng
59135	distribution		This species is known from the highlands of the Oriental Cordillera in the Eastern Andes, and occurs north of Bogotá to the Páramo de La Rusia, and south of Bogotá to Aguadita, near Fusagasuga, in Colombia, in the departments of Boyaca and Cundinamarca. It has been recorded from 1,750-3,650m asl.	eng
59135	habitat		It occurs in undisturbed or slightly disturbed cloud forests, among fallen leaves on slopes, or on bushes and herbaceous vegetation. It also occurs in páramo and secondary disturbed forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
59135	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
59135	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused mainly by agriculture is a major threat.	eng
59136	conservation		It occurs in the Los Tuxtlas National Park and the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve.	eng
59136	distribution		This species occurs in Mexico in the Los Tuxtlas area southern Veracruz, the Los Chimalapas area of extreme eastern Oaxaca, and Caribbean slopes of western and central Chiapas. It generally lives below 1,000m asl.	eng
59136	habitat		It is found in tropical lowland forest and along the edges of clearings. It can also survive in well-shaded plantations. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent on water.	eng
59136	population		It seems to be fairly common.	eng
59136	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and human settlement.	eng
59137	conservation	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Steffen Reichle, Ana Almandáriz, Fernando Castro, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59137	distribution	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Steffen Reichle, Ana Almandáriz, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species occurs on the eastern and lower slopes of the Andes from the amazonian slopes of Táchira state in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador to Bolivia, and also in the Amazon Basin in Brazil. It occurs up to elevations of 1,500m asl in Bolivia. A record from the Magdalena valley in Colombia is a mis-identification of another species (see Lynch, 2006).	eng
59137	habitat	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Steffen Reichle, Ana Almandáriz, Fernando Castro, 2008	It occurs on low vegetation in lowland rainforest. Its breeding habits are unknown, though it is presumably a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
59137	population	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Steffen Reichle, Ana Almandáriz, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is locally common throughout its range.	eng
59137	threats	Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Steffen Reichle, Ana Almandáriz, Fernando Castro, 2008	Forest conversion for agriculture and timber is a localized threat to this species.	eng
59138	conservation		It is known to occur in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. There is a need for additional survey work to better understand the population status of this poorly known species.	eng
59138	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica at 15-1,116m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59138	habitat		It lives in lowland moist and wet forests and premontane rainforest, and does not occur in degraded habitats. It is nocturnal and arboreal, living especially in bromeliads, and being found on leaves of trees at night. It is usually reported in the axils of palm trees that are being harvested for 'heart of palm' (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Breeding takes place by direct development, and the species is not dependent on water.	eng
59138	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species; it is rarely seen, and known from one specimen from each of its localities.	eng
59138	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities and wood extraction.	eng
59139	conservation		It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad.	eng
59139	distribution		This species is endemic to the western Cordillera Central in Panama, adjacent to Costa Rica, at 1,200-1,600m asl.	eng
59139	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, and climbs on low vegetation, although it is not fully arboreal. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59139	population		It is known from three specimens and is probably a rare species. It was last recorded in the early 1990s.	eng
59139	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, especially as a result of expanding livestock farming at lower altitudes.	eng
59140	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, David Wake, Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It is known to occur in the following protected areas: Nusagandi, Darien, Chegres, Palo Seco. Much of its known range is protected in Panama. In Colombia it is found within Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona (Urbina-C. and Londoño-M. , 2003).	eng
59140	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, David Wake, Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	This species lives in the Atlantic lowlands of Panama below 500m asl. It ranges from western Panama adjacent to southeastern Costa Rica, through central Panama and the eastern lowlands, into western Colombia (south to Department of Cauca), and at San Luis, Río Claro, in the Magdalena Valley, Antioquia Department, at 470m asl. It also occurs on Gorgona Island, Colombia, and Colón Island, Panama.	eng
59140	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, David Wake, Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland forest, and is arboreal, living in bromeliads and bananas (heliconias). It can survive in secondary forest, provided that it is not very degraded. It is presumed to breed by direct development, not dependent upon water.	eng
59140	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, David Wake, Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	It is a fairly common species in Panama, uncommon in Colombia.	eng
59140	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, David Wake, Wilmar Bolívar, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
59141	conservation		Its range includes protected areas such as Parque Nacional Henri Pittier and Parque Nacional San Esteban.	eng
59141	distribution		This species is restricted to the central part of the Venezuelan coastal mountain range in Aragua, Carabobo and Yaracuy States, Venezuela, where it has been recorded from 800-1,300m asl.	eng
59141	habitat		It inhabits montane cloud forest and breeds by direct development (the eggs are laid in bromeliads).	eng
59141	population		It is naturally rare.	eng
59141	threats		There are minimal threats to its habitat at present.	eng
59142	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for urgent protection of the remaining native habitat at the type locality. Further survey work is required to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
59142	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Hacienda La Victoria (La Granja Infantil-an orphanage, 6km north of Albán on the Albánto Sasaima Road) between Albán and Sasaima...", in the Cordillera Oriental about 50km north-west of Bogotá, in the department of Cundinamarca, in Colombia, at around 1,780m asl.	eng
59142	habitat		It occurs in undisturbed or slightly disturbed montane cloud forest, among fallen leaves on slopes, and on bushes and herbaceous vegetation. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59142	population		It is known from only six specimens, and is thought to be a rare species; no specimens have been found recently despite surveys at the type locality.	eng
59142	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, primarily due to agriculture, is the major threat, and the habitat in which the species occurs is now severely fragmented.	eng
59143	conservation		The remaining habitat is a watershed reserve, but this is not managed for biodiversity conservation, and the habitat is subject to high rates of disturbance. Improved management and protection of this area is urgently needed.	eng
59143	distribution		This species is restricted to one hillside at 1,840-2,070m asl on Cerro Cantagallo in Honduras. There is no other suitable habitat nearby, and so the species is unlikely to occur elsewhere.	eng
59143	habitat		It is arboreal, living in bromeliads in a tiny patch of cloud forest in an agricultural area. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59143	population		It is relatively abundant in a tiny area of not much more than 100ha. Searches in the only known locality during July 2007 failed to locate the species, although this does not necessarily mean that the species was absent (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59143	threats		The major threat to the species is clearance of its remaining forest habitat for subsistence farming, and the collection of bromeliads. Some habitat was still at the site in July 2007, however this has been reduced further since the previous conservation assessment (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59144	conservation		Four of the five sites from which this species is reported are within protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Celaque, Reserva Biológica de Guajiquiro, Reserva Biológica de Opalaca and Reserva Biológica de Montecillos.	eng
59144	distribution		This species is known only from the Montana de Celaque, the Sierra de Opalaca and the Sierra de Montecillos in the departaments of Lempira and Intibuca y La Paz in the south-west of Honduras. It is found between 1,900 and 2,620m asl.	eng
59144	habitat		It has been found in lower montane moist forest in arboreal bromeliads, on wet mosses on the ground, and along the sides of streams; there is little information on its adaptability to habitat degradation. Breeding is by direct development, with the species laying its eggs in low bromeliads and in mosses.	eng
59144	population		In Montana de Celaque, it is abundant in suitable habitat. The species was collected at Reserva Biológica de Opalaca in October 2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59144	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to subsistence agriculture and frequent forest fires.	eng
59145	conservation		It occurs in the Cerro Vueltas Biological Reserve.	eng
59145	distribution		This species is known only from the humid montane zone of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, from 2,530-2,990m asl.	eng
59145	habitat		It lives in montane rainforest in talus on steep slopes. While it is more common in forest, it can be found in heavily disturbed areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It is a species that breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59145	population		It is a common species. Field surveys continue to register this species within its range with no sign of any change in abundance.	eng
59145	threats		Local populations might be affected by forest destruction, in particular for extracting wood (partly for charcoal). However, the species lives in a generally inaccessible area, and its habitat is not thought to be significantly threatened.	eng
59146	conservation		Its range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi Cayapas and Mache Chindul.	eng
59146	distribution		This species is known from the type locality (the vicinity of Santo Domingo de los Colorados), and from the lower part of the Río Bolaniguas and Bilsa Reserve, in Provincia de Pichincha, in Ecuador. It has been recorded from 250-600m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, but is currently known only from four localities.	eng
59146	habitat		It inhabits moist forest in the western tropical altitude zone. The holotype was captured on a broad-leafed fern at night (Brame and Wake 1963b). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59146	population		It is considered to be quite rare.	eng
59146	threats		Livestock farming and logging are threats to the species' habitat.	eng
59147	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Braulio Carrillo and Tortuguero (among others) in Costa Rica, and Chagres, Palo Seco, and Fortuna in Panama.	eng
59147	distribution		This species is found in the humid lowlands and premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica and western Panama, and the Pacific versant of southwestern Costa Rica and Cerro Campana, Panama, at 40-1,245m asl.	eng
59147	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest. It is mainly arboreal (in bromeliads), but can be found on the ground. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water. It can tolerate a limited degree of habitat modification.	eng
59147	population		This species seems to have experienced some recent declines at places in the lowlands (such as at La Selva), however at other lowland sites it remains common (Federico Bolaños Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59147	threats		The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming, extraction of wood, and human settlement.	eng
59148	conservation		It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the border of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
59148	distribution		This species is found in the humid lower montane areas on or near the Costa Rica-Panama border, on the Pacific versant of Costa Rica at 1,650-1,980m asl, and the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of western Panama at 1,810-2,780m asl.	eng
59148	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, living on the ground and in low vegetation; there is little information on its adaptability to disturbed habitats. This species breeds by direct development (Hanken 1979)	eng
59148	population		This is a naturally rare species.	eng
59148	threats		The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming activities and logging.	eng
59149	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vásquez, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	In Honduras, two of the four populations are within protected areas, namely Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco, Parque Nacional Cerro Azul, and a watershed reserve at Río Santa Ana. In Guatemala, it is not found within a protected area.	eng
59149	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vásquez, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	This species is known from Honduras and Guatemala. In Honduras it is found in four small isolated areas in the west of Honduras: El Chaguitón and El Portillo in the department of Ocotepeque; Quebrada Grande in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in the department of Copán; and in Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco in the department of Cortez. In Guatemala it is found in the area of La Unión, Department of Zacapa, and in the mountains above the city of Zacapa. It ranges from 1,370-2,000m asl. Records from the Sierra de Metapán in Santa Ana Department, north-west El Salvador, refer to an undescribed species (E. Greenbaum, pers. comm.).	eng
59149	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vásquez, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	It is found in arboreal bromeliads and on the ground in lower montane wet forest. In Guatemala an animal has been found within a banana plant in a coffee plantation (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez, pers. comm. 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development and lays eggs in bromeliads and on the ground.	eng
59149	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vásquez, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	In Honduras, it is generally uncommon and may be declining in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). In Guatemala, it appears to be relatively common at its known sites (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito, pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59149	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vásquez, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	The main threat is habitat loss due to subsistence and smallholder agriculture and forest fires. In Guatemala, a specimen of this species has been recorded infected with the chytrid fungus. Chytrid infection has also been detected in this species in Honduras (J. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
59150	conservation		Much of its range is included in the proposed Parque Nacional Cuchumatán. Surveys are needed to gather more information on its current population status, distribution, and threat status.	eng
59150	distribution		This species is restricted to the departments of El Quiché and Huehuetenango, Guatemala, in the Cordillera de los Cuchumatanes at 1,200-2,500m asl.	eng
59150	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest and can survive in degraded habitats. Individuals have been found on the ground, under bark, and in arboreal bromeliads. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59150	population		It is quite common but there is little recent information on its population status, although at least eight populations are known. Searches in 2005 did not encounter this species in the Cuchumatanes but further work in this area is needed (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59150	threats		The main threat to this species is loss of its habitat through agricultural encroachment. Although it can tolerate some habitat degradation, it does not live in open agricultural habitats.	eng
59151	conservation		Its taxonomic validity needs to be assessed.	eng
59151	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern lowlands of San Blas in Panama, adjacent to Colombia, where it occurs up to 50m asl.	eng
59151	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest, and is arboreal. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59151	population		It is very poorly known, and has been collected only twice, with no records of it for 30 years.	eng
59151	threats		The main threat to this species is likely to be habitat loss due to smallholder farming, wood extraction, and expanding human settlements.	eng
59152	conservation		The only known site is in the Parque Nacional La Muralla, which was declared as a protected area in 1987, but this area is poorly protected, and habitat loss is continuing. Improved protection and management of this area is urgently needed.	eng
59152	distribution		This species is known only from Monte Escondido on the Atlantic versant in the north-western portion of the Department of Olancho, north-central Honduras, at 1,430-1,550m asl.	eng
59152	habitat		It is found on low vegetation, on the ground, and on arboreal bromeliads in lower montane wet forest. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59152	population		It is a moderately common species within its tiny range.	eng
59152	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss and degradation due to encroaching coffee cultivation, subsistence agriculture, and livestock ranching activities.	eng
59153	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	It occurs in the Parque Nacional El Cusuco, and while the protection of this area has been improved in recent years, there is still a need for additional protection of the remaining habitat in the area is needed. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species as well as the possible impact of chytrid fungus.	eng
59153	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	This species is known only from the Sierra de Omoa on the Atlantic versant of north-western Honduras at 1,470-2,200 m asl.	eng
59153	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	It has been found on low vegetation and on the ground of lower montane wet forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59153	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	Fewer than 30 specimens are known, and it is believed to be an uncommon species.	eng
59153	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	Its habitat is threatened by encroaching subsistence agriculture and forest fires. Chytrid infection has been reported in this species (J. Kolby pers. comm. 2008).	eng
59154	conservation		None known. Further research into this species is required.	eng
59154	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality along the Río Santa Rosa, a few kilometres upstream from the Río Apurimac, between Pataccocha and San Jose, in Ayacucho Department, Peru. It might range more widely, but further investigations of the region are needed to confirm this. Its altitudinal range is incompletely known; it has been collected at 1,000m asl.	eng
59154	habitat		This species was collected in coffee groves, which perhaps indicates a degree of adaptability to anthropogenic habitats. It is likely to occur mainly in mid-altitude forest, where it presumably lays terrestrial eggs and breeds by direct development.	eng
59154	population		Its population status is unknown. At the time of its discovery, extensive searches over the period of a week yielded a total of 10 specimens.	eng
59154	threats		There is very little information. It appears to be somewhat adaptable, since it was found in a coffee grove.	eng
59155	conservation		The area where this species was collected is now within the Parque Nacional Tapantí. There is a need for additional survey work to determine and monitor the population status of this species.	eng
59155	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, near Quebrada Valverde, near Tapantí, Cartago Province, Atlantic versant, Costa Rica, at 1,555-1,650m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59155	habitat		It lives in arboreal vegetation (mosses and liverworts) in lower montane rainforest. It does not occur in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59155	population		Only two specimens plus some egg clutches are known. It has not been recorded in recent surveys, however it occurs in arboreal vegetation and is difficult to find (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59155	threats		There are no major threats known. However, its small range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59156	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Julian Lee, Ted Papenfuss, Franklin Castañeda, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	In Honduras this species is found in the Cerro Azul National Park, Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, and at the edge of Parque Nacional Cusuco, and in Guatemala it occurs in Parque Nacional Laguna Lachuá and the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico. Given the potential threat of chytridiomycosis populations of this species should be monitored carefully.	eng
59156	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Julian Lee, Ted Papenfuss, Franklin Castañeda, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	This species ranges from extreme northern Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, and Cayo District in southern Belize, to north-central Honduras. In Honduras it is known from Quebrada Grande in Copán Department, Sierra de Merendón west of San Pedro Sula, Cortés Department, and Portillo Grande in Yoro Department. It occurs from 50-1,450m asl, and probably occurs more widely within the general distribution than currently recorded.	eng
59156	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Julian Lee, Ted Papenfuss, Franklin Castañeda, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	It lives in premontane wet forest, and also successfully in disturbed habitats such as cardamom plantations. The females tend to live on the ground under logs, while the males are arboreal. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59156	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Julian Lee, Ted Papenfuss, Franklin Castañeda, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	It is extremely common in some places within its restricted range.	eng
59156	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Julian Lee, Ted Papenfuss, Franklin Castañeda, Sean Rovito, Jonathan Kolby, 2008	This species is potentially threated by the international pet trade, in which it features significantly, and since this species takes 10-12 years to mature such trade could easily be locally unsustainable. Chytrid infection has been recently reported for this species (J. Kolby, pers. comm. 2008). It has also recently been reported in animals that were imported into Belgium. However, the origin of this infection (whether from the wild, or from other captive animals) is not known.	eng
59157	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Franklin Casteñeda, Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco and the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Honduras, but there is a need for improved protection of forest habitats elsewhere in the range of the species. In Guatemala the Sierra de Caral is a proposed protected area.	eng
59157	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Franklin Casteñeda, Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito, 2008	This species is known from the eastern mountains of the Atlantic versant of Guatemala (mountains of Sierra de Caral) and from the western mountains of Honduras. In Honduras it is known from Quebrada Grande in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul in Copán Department, and from Parque Nacional Cerro Cusuco and the Merendón Mountains (a watershed protected area) west of San Pedro Sula in Cortés Department. It occurs at 1,200-1,600m asl.	eng
59157	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Franklin Casteñeda, Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito, 2008	It lives in premontane and lower montane moist forest, and is found in arboreal bromeliads, on low vegetation, and under rotten trees in the ground. It prefers intact forest, and can be found on forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water.	eng
59157	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Franklin Casteñeda, Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito, 2008	In Honduras this species appears to have declined in the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul.	eng
59157	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Franklin Casteñeda, Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito, 2008	The main threat is loss of habitat for subsistence and small-scale agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
59158	conservation		It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' close to Finca Insula in Chiapas, Mexico (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm., 2007), and from the proposed protected area of Volcán Atitlán. Surveys are urgently needed to establish the current population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59158	distribution		This species ranges from extreme south-eastern Chiapas, Mexico, along the Pacific versant to Volcán Atitlán, south-western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,500-2,100m asl.	eng
59158	habitat		It is an arboreal species, inhabiting pristine cloud forest habitats, and is often found in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59158	population		Although it used to be common, it appears to have undergone declines and is now uncommon. It was common on Volcan Tacana in the 1970's, but no recent surveys have been made. It was rare, but still present in Departamento San Marcos in 2005.	eng
59158	threats		The major threat is the loss of cloud forest due to extensive agricultural activities (including agro-industry crop farming), logging, and human settlement.	eng
59159	conservation		One site where this species was collected is now protected as Parque Nacional Tapantí. However, extensive work in recent years has failed to locate it in this locality, and in any case it needs to be determined whether or not the Tapantí population belongs to this species, or whether or not the two populations belong to different species.	eng
59159	distribution		This species is known from the Río Chitiria (near Turrialba) and Tapantí, in Cartago Province, Costa Rica, from 775-1,550m asl. Both localities are on the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica.	eng
59159	habitat		This species lives in premontane wet forest and rainforest, where it forages on elevated logs and leaf surfaces within a metre of the ground. It appears not to be able to survive in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59159	population		It is known from only ten specimens, and there is very little information on its population status, although it appears to be rare. Extensive work in Tapantí has failed to find it again, and it has probably almost disappeared from the Río Chataria, due to habitat loss.	eng
59159	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss. Its habitat at the type locality (Río Chitiria) has almost disappeared due to small-scale subsistence wood extraction.	eng
59160	conservation		There are several protected areas within its range, including Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Yasuni, Reserva Biólogica Limoncocha, and Reserva de Produccion Faunistica Cuyabeno.	eng
59160	distribution		This species occurs north from Río Curaray in Amazonian Ecuador, and in a single site in Colombia. It has been recorded below 700m asl. It is very likely to occur more widely.	eng
59160	habitat		Individuals have been found in primary and old secondary forest. At Yasuní National Park, it has been found in Terra Firme forest and seasonally flooded forest on bushes and branches of trees, up to 2 metres above the ground. It is nocturnal, and oviparous with direct development. It probably does not adapt well to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
59160	population		It is locally common, but it appears to experience population fluctuations (being more abundant at some times of the year than at others).	eng
59160	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
59161	conservation		It might be found in the Biosphere Reserve of La Encrucijada, Chiapas, Mexico, but is not otherwise known from any protected area. In Guatemala there is a small reserve of cloud forest in San Marcos. The Instituto de Historia Natural of Chiapas is conducting a conservation project in this area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59161	distribution		This species is known from the slopes of the Tacana volcano in Chiapas, Mexico, and from the mountains along the south-western Guatemalan Plateau (in particular the Atitlán, Tajumulco and Tacana volcanoes). Its altitudinal range is 1,800-2,200m asl.	eng
59161	habitat		It occurs on mountain slopes covered by pine-oak and cloud forests, living in the vegetation, and under the bark of logs, rarely in bromeliads; it is not commonly found on the ground, and does not occur in disturbed habitats. Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water.	eng
59161	population		It appears to have always been a relatively uncommon species.	eng
59161	threats		The main threat is the loss of forest habitat due to agricultural expansion, logging, and conversion to urban lands, activities that have been very severe throughout its range.	eng
59162	conservation		A survey to evaluate the population status of this species is required.	eng
59162	distribution		This species ranges from the Pacific slopes of southern Chiapas, Mexico, to south-western Guatemala, from sea level to 700m asl. It is likely to occur more widely in Guatemala than has so far been recorded, but still appears to have a relatively limited range.	eng
59162	habitat		It occurs in subtropical lowland areas of mixed forest, and also in banana plantations and the edges of cane fields in riparian areas. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59162	population		It is not uncommon, but has probably declined through habitat loss.	eng
59162	threats		This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from increasing urbanization, settlement by refugees, and expanding agricultural cultivation and livestock gazing. Although it is tolerant of modified habitats, the level of habitat disturbance is extremely severe throughout most of its range, and it probably cannot survive in very open areas.	eng
59163	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo in Chiapas, which includes some areas that still have pristine habitat. In Guatemala it is found within the protected volcans. It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' in Departamento San Marcos, Guatemala (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm., 2007). There is a need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species in the remainder of its range. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59163	distribution		This species occurs along the Pacific border of Chiapas, Mexico, south-east to the Pacific slopes of Guatemala as far as Volcán Atitlán. Its altitudinal range is 1,800-2,500m asl.	eng
59163	habitat		It occurs in montane cloud forest and pine-oak forests, and requires pristine habitat. It is semi-arboreal, but can also be found under bark or under logs. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59163	population		This species appears to be still relatively common (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59163	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss following the transformation of forest habitats to agricultural lands and for human settlement. Habitat loss through its range has been quite extensive. When forest is cleared, a close relative, <em>Bolitoglossa lincolni</em>, colonizes the range of, and hybridizes with, <em>Bolitoglossa franklini</em>.	eng
59164	conservation		One of the sites where this species has been collected is now protected in Parque Nacional Tapantí. All suitable habitat has been lost at the type locality (Río Quirí).	eng
59164	distribution		This species is known only from two sites in the vicinity of Tapantí, Cartago Province, central Costa Rica, at 1,225-1,280m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59164	habitat		It lives in premontane rainforest and does not appear to be able to adapt to secondary habitats. One individual was collected from a moss mat 10cm above the ground on a tree (Savage 2002). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59164	population		There is very little information on its population status, but it is probably very rare.	eng
59164	threats		The habitat outside the Parque Nacional Tapantí has been lost to large-scale coffee plantations; the remaining habitat in the park is relatively secure.	eng
59165	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Guaramacal. Further survey work is needed to determine the threats to this species, and to monitor its population status.	eng
59165	distribution		This species is known from Macizo de Guaramacal, in the Cordillera de Merida in Trujillo state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 1,800-2,400m asl.	eng
59165	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found on rocks in cloud forest. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59165	population		It is a common species.	eng
59165	threats		Threats to this species are unclear; its small range probably makes it more susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59166	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Ecológica Huitepec run by Pronatura near San Cristobal, Chiapas, Mexico. It is not known from Parque Nacional de las Cuchumatanes in Guatemala.	eng
59166	distribution		This species is known from Cerro Zontehuitz, San Cristobal de las Casas, and Chamula Districts, north-central Chiapas, Mexico, and from several populations in the Cordillera de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, from 1,200-2,800m asl.	eng
59166	habitat		It inhabits coniferous and oak forest often associated with limestone outcrops. It is a crevice-dweller sometimes found beneath flakes of rock on ledges, or under the bark of logs on the ground and less frequently in arboreal bromeliads. This species can persist in degraded habitats, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
59166	population		It is a common species.	eng
59166	threats		The main threats to this reasonably adaptable species are the alteration and clear-cutting of its habitat due to increasing settlement, and expanding cultivation and livestock grazing.	eng
59167	conservation		It occurs in Biotopo del Quetzal, the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas and several private reserves.	eng
59167	distribution		This species is known only from the mountainous regions of south-eastern Guatemala, from 1,000-2,290m asl.	eng
59167	habitat		This species lives in cloud forests and also in coffee plantations shaded by bananas. It tends to be arboreal, occurring under bark and in bromeliads, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
59167	population		It can be locally common. It was still found to be a locally common species in 2007 (Ted Papenfuss pers.c omm. 2007).	eng
59167	threats		This species is threatened by changes in agricultural practices since although it can persist in shade-grown coffee plantations, it cannot survive in more open areas (which tend to lose humidity and become too dry), and there is now a tendency to halt coffee farming in favour of other agricultural activities, most of which are resulting in more open situations unsuitable for this species.	eng
59168	conservation		Because more than 20 years have passed since it was discovered, a survey is needed to evaluate the status of this species and its habitats in the Filo de Caballos-Atoyac area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59168	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero at the Río Atoyac drainage, in the northern areas of Puerto del Gallo, Mexico. It occurs from 765-2,800m asl, although this upper limit is uncertain.	eng
59168	habitat		It it a terrestrial species that lives in tropical semi-deciduous forest and premontane cloud forest, but can also survive in shaded coffee plantations. The species was associated with red bananas, although this is perhaps a habitat where it was easiest to locate. The type series was found in bromeliads in forest and in leaf-litter in coffee plantations. This species reproduces by direct development.	eng
59168	population		It has not been collected since it was first described, but it was fairly common when first found.	eng
59168	threats		Because the species persists in highly modified habitat (e.g., red bananas in regions of shade grown coffee), the conversion to yellow bananas is the greatest known threat to the species.	eng
59169	conservation	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	The type locality is not within a protected area. There is a need for close monitoring to determine if climate change is having any effect on the population, particularly given its confined range.	eng
59169	distribution	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality in the Páramo del Duende, Cerro Calina, municipality of Río Frio, in the department of Valle del Cauca, in Colombia, from 3,000-3,600 m asl.	eng
59169	habitat	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	It occurs in páramo areas, on low vegetation and in bryophytes. It has not been recorded from other habitats. There is no information on its breeding biology, but it presumably takes place by direct development like other species of the genus.	eng
59169	population	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	There is no information on its current population status; it is only known from five specimens.	eng
59169	threats	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	The type locality is pristine páramo, and is relatively inaccessible at present which affords it some protection. Climate change poses a potential future threat.	eng
59170	conservation	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	The type locality is within Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. The species has recently been reported for Reserva Natural Colibrí del Sol (Fundación ProAves 2008).There is a need for close monitoring to determine if climate change is having any effect on the population, particularly given its confined range.	eng
59170	distribution	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality and Puente Largo, in the Municipality of Frontino in Antioquia department, on the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 3,600-3,700 m asl.	eng
59170	habitat	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	It is restricted to páramo areas, among fallen leaves and fallen trunks and on the low strata of vegetation. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59170	population	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	It is restricted to the Páramo Frontino, and is not common. It was seen as recently as 2008 (Fundación ProAves 2008).	eng
59170	threats	Castro, F., Isabel Herrera, M. & Lynch, J., 2009	The type locality is pristine páramo, and is relatively inaccessible at present which affords it some protection. Climate change poses a potential future threat.	eng
59171	conservation		There are no protected areas near where this species has been found. Surveys are urgently needed to establish its current range and population status in the wild.	eng
59171	distribution		This species has only been found within 1km of the type locality on the Caribbean escarpment of the western Cuchumatanes, Departamento Huehuetenango, western Guatemala. The exact locality is the Las Nubes sector of Finca Chiblac, approximately 12km north-northeast of Santa Cruz Barillas, at about 1,400m asl. There has been little nearby sampling and the species may range more widely within the escarpment.	eng
59171	habitat		The only two individuals known were taken from under bark from felled logs in a clearing in very wet (approximately 6,000mm annual precipitation) montane forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59171	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it has not been collected since its discovery, despite recent searches.	eng
59171	threats		Severe habitat loss is known to have taken place at its only known site due to the settlement of refugees and expanding agriculture, and more broadly throughout the range.	eng
59172	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Coiba in Panama and in Parque Nacional Corcovada in Costa Rica.	eng
59172	distribution		This species occurs in south-western Costa Rica and adjacent western Panama, and on the Azuero Peninsula and the Isla Coiba, Panama. It occurs up to 880m asl.	eng
59172	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and premontane forest, where it requires pristine habitat. It is nocturnal and arboreal and lives in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59172	population		In Costa Rica, this species turns up occasionally on surveys, but it is uncommon. There is very little information from Panama, where it might be declining.	eng
59172	threats		There is some habitat loss due to agriculture (crops and livestock) and clear cutting.	eng
59173	conservation		It has been recorded from the Huitepec Ecological Reserve in Chiapas.	eng
59173	distribution		This species occurs on the central plateau of Chiapas, Mexico, and in several mountainous areas in western Guatemala, including the upper slopes of the Guatemalan Plateau close to the Mexican border, Vulcan Tajumulco, Montanas de Quilco, and the south-western and eastern Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. Its altitudinal range is 2,200-3,000m asl.	eng
59173	habitat		This species is largely terrestrial, living in low vegetation, under bark, and in bromeliads. It seems to be more of a generalist than other nearby congeners, and it can survive to some degree in degraded vegetation. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59173	population		It is locally common, for example at Quilco and San Cristobal. Unlike most species of salamanders in the department of San Marcos in Guatemala this species remains abundant and has not declined.	eng
59173	threats		A serious threat to this species is the complete clearance of forest due to logging, and expanding agricultural cultivation, livestock grazing, and human settlement. Although it is reasonably adaptable, it does not survive when habitats become very open.	eng
59174	conservation		Although the species occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Agalta, improved management of this area is required (particularly to control frequent fires).	eng
59174	distribution		This species is known only from the Parque Nacional Sierra de Agalta, in the Departamento de Olancho, east-central Honduras, from 1,840-2,240m asl. It may be present in nearby elfin and cloud forest within the same mountain range, however this requires confirmation.	eng
59174	habitat		It lives in lower montane wet forest (cloud and elfin forest) where it can be found in bromeliads near the ground, on low moss-covered branches of trees, and on the ground under moss and leaves. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59174	population		It is a locally common species in the elfin forest, but is uncommon in cloud forest (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59174	threats		The main threats to the species stem from forest fires and extended dry seasons. The fires are generally in the surrounding area, however, these still represent a threat to the species. There is continuing habitat loss in the area, through high pressure for conversion of land to subsistence agricultural use and coffee plantations.	eng
59175	conservation		The type locality is not within a protected area. More research into the species' Extent of Occurrence, ecological requirements and population status is needed, in particular to determine if it occurs outside the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
59175	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central on the border of the municipalities of La Victoria and Norcasia, in the valley of La Miela River, at exactly 500m asl, in Caldas Department, Colombia. It might occur more widely in suitable habitats in nearby sites.	eng
59175	habitat		Assuming that this species still survives, it is an inhabitant of the understorey of tropical moist forest, where it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59175	population		It appears to be a rare species, although more information is needed to confirm its population status.	eng
59175	threats		The type locality has now been lost due to the construction of a dam.	eng
59176	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need for improved maintenance and protection of pine-oak forests in the Sierra Madre del Sur. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59176	distribution		This species is known only from the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca between San Gabriel Mixtepec and Pochutla, Mexico. It is known from an altitude of about 1,000-1,500m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59176	habitat		It terrestrial and lives in pine-oak forests and in shaded coffee plantations. In the forest it is possible to find individuals inside logs and in rock rubble. In mix-use shade-coffee plantations the species can be found in the leaf axils of red banana plants. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59176	population		It is a locally common species where there are red bananas.	eng
59176	threats		Although this species can survive outside its original forest habitat, it does not tolerate the transformation of landscape into very open, and hence less humid, habitats. Such habitat modification is taking place because of increased human settlement and the abandonment of coffee plantations in favour of other forms of agriculture.	eng
59177	conservation		It occurs in two protected areas: Parque Nacional Volcán Barú in Panama, and Parque Internacional La Amistad in Panama and Costa Rica. Survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species in the wild.	eng
59177	distribution		This species is found on the lower montane and montane slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca-Baru of eastern Costa Rica and western Panama. Its altitudinal range is 1,920-3,444m asl.	eng
59177	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, and seems to spend the day under rocks, while at night it is found on mossy trunks and limbs of trees. It survives in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development and the species is not dependent upon water.	eng
59177	population		Although known to be common, there have been no records of this species for over ten years, although there has been a lack of survey work.	eng
59177	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, severe habitat loss due to smallholder agricultural activities, and probably also fire, is a threat.	eng
59178	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama. It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
59178	distribution		This species has been recorded from the Río Arquia area in Antioquia Department in the Chocó region of Colombia, south to Quibdo in Chocó Department. Specimens have been referred to this species from the Darién and San Blas regions of central and eastern Panama. It occurs below 600m asl. It is presumably found in intervening areas between the mapped localities.	eng
59178	habitat		It is an arboreal species in humid lowland forest, and does not occur in disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59178	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
59178	threats		There are very few threats within its range in Panama, though there is a small amount of shifting cultivation. In Colombia, the major threats are deforestation for agricultural development (including the planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
59179	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra de la Minas and Biotopo del Quetzal. Field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and population status of the species.	eng
59179	distribution		This species is known from six localities, spanning approximately 160km, in the mountains of central Guatemala, including the Sierra de Chuacús and the Sierra de la Minas, at an altitude of 1,550-2,730m asl.	eng
59179	habitat		It lives in both cloud forest and less humid oak-pine forest and forest edge, but not in degraded habitats. It can be found beneath logs, under bark of fallen logs, or in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development and it is not dependent upon water.	eng
59179	population		It is a rare species and hard to find.	eng
59179	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlement.	eng
59180	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including the Reserva de la Biosfera Maya in Guatemala and the Reserva del Hombre y Biosfera del Rio Platano in Honduras.	eng
59180	distribution		This species ranges from the Atlantic slope of Chiapas, Mexico, through southern and central Belize and northern Guatemala to southern and northern and central Honduras. There is an isolated population in the Yucatan Peninsula, at northwestern Quintana Roo and adjacent Yucatan. It occurs up to 1,500m asl.	eng
59180	habitat		It inhabits lowland tropical forest and premontane forest where it requires the presence of bromeliads and other epiphytes as a refuge during the dry season. It is probably most common in banana groves on the forest edge, and it also lives in selectively logged forest and shaded coffee plantations (in this last habitat it occurs mainly in the lowlands). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59180	population		It is much less common than it was because of habitat loss and fragmentation. It can however be locally common, and has been found at rather high densities recently (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59180	threats		The main threat is conversion of forest and well-shaded anthropogenic habitat to open countryside and pastureland. The lowland area of Guatemala and Chiapas (Mexico) where this species occurs is being converted to cattle pasture and human settlements (Gustavo Ruanco pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59181	conservation		It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the Costa Rica-Panama border.	eng
59181	distribution		This species is known from the humid lower montane zone on both slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca of western Panama and eastern Costa Rica, at 1,670-2,660m asl. There is a question as to how far east it extends in Panama, since the specimen from near Volcán Barú is taxonomically questionable.	eng
59181	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, being scansorial, foraging in vegetation up to 1m above the ground, and sometimes hiding in bromeliads during the day; it does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59181	population		This is quite a common species, and its population in Costa Rica is apparently stable (at least through 1996) at Las Tablas.	eng
59181	threats		The major threat is destruction of natural forests due to expanding agriculture, logging, and human settlements.	eng
59182	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Natural Volcán Mombacho. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
59182	distribution		This species is known only from Volcán Mombacho, Departamento de Granada, Nicaragua, at 950-1,250m asl. It might occur on other volcanoes in south-western Nicaragua.	eng
59182	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and elfin forest, but is also somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation and can live in introduced tall grass. It is arboreal and breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59182	population		It is very abundant within its small range.	eng
59182	threats		This species is known from an isolated volcano in south-western Nicaragua where severe habitat degradation has occurred except for a small area of cloud forest where the species lives, and which is currently well protected.	eng
59183	conservation		Its range includes several small reserves surrounding the Pacific slope volcanoes. Surveys are needed to determine its abundance and threat status.	eng
59183	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of southwestern and southeastern Guatemala, including the Pacific versant, being known from much of the plateau region of Guatemala, several of the Pacific volcanoes, and the Las Nubes highland block east of Guatemala City. The idnetification of the population recorded from the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes needs confirmation. Its elevational distribution is from about 1,300-3,000m asl. Recent surveys are finding this salamander at higher elevations than they ever were in the 1970s (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59183	habitat		It lives in drier subtropical forests (oak-pine forests on the plateau) and also in secondary habitats. Individuals have been found under logs, in logs, and in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59183	population		It is quite a common species. It is abundant on the Volcan Pacaya National Park (Carlos Vasquez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59183	threats		It is probably suffering from general habitat encroachment, although it is somewhat adaptable.	eng
59184	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of pine-oak forest habitats in the range of this species.	eng
59184	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of the Atlantic slopes of eastern Chiapas (Mexico) and northern Guatemala. In Guatemala, it occurs in the Sierra de Los Cuchumatanes, Alta Verapaz highlands, and the Sierra de Santa Cruz. Its altitudinal range is 140-1,500m asl. It probably occurs more widely in this range than current records suggest.	eng
59184	habitat		It lives in cloud forest and pine-oak broadleaf forests, but is somewhat adaptable and has been found under rocks in gardens and in coffee plantations. During dry periods it hides in arboreal bromeliads up to 5m above the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59184	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59184	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture (livestock), wood extraction, and human settlement, which results in the opening up, and hence drying out, of its habitat.	eng
59185	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59185	distribution		This species is known from elevated areas in the department of Santander on the Occidental slope of the Occidental Cordillera, in Colombia. It was also found in a coffee plantation in Socorro. It has been recorded from 1,400-1,700m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
59185	habitat		It is found inside highly humid forests, usually among fallen leaves or herbaceous vegetation (epiphytic). It has also been recorded from a coffee plantation. It can also live in disturbed forest. It is a species that breeds by direct development.	eng
59185	population		It is a common species.	eng
59185	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture is a major threat.	eng
59186	conservation		It has been recorded from the Zona Protectora Cerros de Escazu and from the Reserva Forestal Los Santos.	eng
59186	distribution		This species occurs in the humid lower montane and montane zones of the northern Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica, at 1,650-3,000m asl.	eng
59186	habitat		This species inhabits humid montane forest, and has been found in somewhat degraded habitats. It is terrestrial, living in holes and under logs and rocks, and it breeds by direct development.	eng
59186	population		It is extremely rare, and only a very small number of specimens are known. It has not been recorded in the last 20 years.	eng
59186	threats		Outside of protected areas the main threat to it is habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests for agricultural development, wood extraction, and human settlement. However, since it lives in a relatively cold region the pressure on its habitats is not very severe.	eng
59187	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need for further research into the impact of logging operations on this species. It has been recorded from degraded pine forest, and details are needed on whether populations can persist in this modified habitat.	eng
59187	distribution		This species is known only from the slopes of the interior of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Mexico, from 1,800-1,920m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
59187	habitat		The species now occurs in degraded pine forests, and was probably originally found in mature pine forests. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59187	population		It is poorly known, only from a handful of specimens, and it appears to be very uncommon.	eng
59187	threats		The main threat to its survival is logging of its pine forest habitat.	eng
59188	conservation		It occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura and Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, Mexico, but not in any protected areas in Guatemala or Honduras. This species is protected by the Mexican Government under the category Pr. Further research is needed to determine the impact of the disease chytridiomycosis on this species.	eng
59188	distribution		This species occurs along the Pacific versant of Meso America from Cerro Baul in extreme eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, to Vulcan Atitlan in central southern Guatemala. There are isolated populations in the continental divide region of western Chiapas (Mexico), and at Barranca de Trincheras (on the edge of the Montesillos Biological Reserve), Comayagua, in south-central Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 10-1,600m asl. It is doubtful that it still occurs at the only known locality in Honduras (the only known specimen from this site was collected in 1951).	eng
59188	habitat		It lives in subtropical moist forest, pine and pine-oak forests, as well as in shaded coffee and banana plantations. It is arboreal. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59188	population		It is a very common species in Guatemala and Mexico. In Honduras it is known from a single specimen.	eng
59188	threats		The main threat is disturbance and transformation of shaded habitat to pasture or other very open habitats. The Honduran population might have disappeared due to regular burning of the pine-oak forests. Some specimens collected in 2006 in Guatemala tested positive for the chytrid fungus, although the impact of the pathogen on this salamander si currently not known (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59189	conservation		Part of the range of this species is included in Parque Nacional Sierra de las Minas. There is a need for close population monitoring.	eng
59189	distribution		This species ranges from the Atlantic slopes of Alta Verapaz to the Montañas del Mico, Guatemala, at 100-1,200m asl. It definitely occurs in Honduras, and it might be widespread in this country, but the exact localities are not yet clear due to recent taxonomic changes, and so it is not currently mapped in this country.	eng
59189	habitat		It lives in rainforests and cloud forests, usually in disturbed habitats, and can be found at night on low vegetation near streams and also under leaf sheaths of banana plants. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59189	population		This species was formerly common, but has undergone declines and is now rare.	eng
59189	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to encroachment of agricultural activity and human settlement, and the loss of bromeliads.	eng
59190	conservation		It is found in Parque Nacional Sierra de la Culata and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. It is listed as an endangered species in the Venezuelan Red Data Book.	eng
59190	distribution		This species is restricted to cloud forests in the vicinity of Mérida city, in Mérida state, Venezuela. It has been recorded from 2,000-3,500m asl (Brame and Wake 1962).	eng
59190	habitat		It is restricted to cloud forests, and breeds by direct development.	eng
59190	population		It is not a common species.	eng
59190	threats		Some populations might be affected by logging and agriculture; however, much of its habitat is conserved in protected areas.	eng
59191	conservation		Its range overlaps with Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Parque Nacional Llanganates, Parque Nacional Sangay, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and Reserva Ecológica Antisana.	eng
59191	distribution		This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador. It has been recorded from 1,600-2,200m asl.	eng
59191	habitat		It is a montane forest species; it is not known whether or not it can persist in altered habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59191	population		It is a rare species.	eng
59191	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging, mining, and infrastructure development for human settlement are major threats to the species’ habitat. Agricultural pollution is also a threat.	eng
59192	conservation		There are no protected areas within its range, and there is an urgent need to protect the habitat at its only known locality. Further research is needed to help document the full range of this species.	eng
59192	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality: Municipio de Pandi, in the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, at 1,300m asl. It is likely to occur a little more widely than is currently known.	eng
59192	habitat		It is found in low vegetation in riverine forest areas, and breeds by direct development.	eng
59192	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59192	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by agriculture (involving the cultivation of crops and livestock farrming) is the major threat, and the habitat is now severely fragmented.	eng
59193	conservation		Based on its known habitat and distribution, this species might occur in Bosque de Protección Alto Mayo, and Santiago Comaina and Allpahuayo Mishana Reserved Zones in Peru. In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva de Producción Faunística Cuyabeno, Parque Nacional Yasuní, and Reserva Biológica Limoncocha.	eng
59193	distribution		This species can be found along the Amazonian slopes of Departamento San Martin (Moyobamba) and Departamento Loreto, northern Peru and eastern lowlands of Ecuador. It has an altitudinal range of 200-800m asl.	eng
59193	habitat		It is an arboreal bush species of premontane and lowland rainforests. At Puerto Libre and Santa Cecilia, Ecuador, most of the specimens were found in secondary forest at night, although some were in primary forest (Duellman, 1978). At Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, individuals have been collected in Terra Firme forest and seasonal flooded forest (Ron, 2001). Individuals can be found in modified areas such as shade grown coffee plantations and selectively logged forest. It is an ovoviviparous species.	eng
59193	population		It can be abundant where it occurs.	eng
59193	threats		The species survives in modified habitats and there are no major threats other than extreme forest clearance.	eng
59194	conservation		The range of this species includes several national parks along the Cordillera de Talamanca, such as Parque Nacional Chiripó, Parque Nacional Tapantí and Reserva Biológica Cerro las Vueltas. Further research is needed to better understand the reasons for the declines observed in this species.	eng
59194	distribution		This species is restricted to the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica at 1,870-3,620m asl. Populations in the southern Talamanca probably represent a different species.	eng
59194	habitat		It lives in humid lower montane, montane, and sub-alpine zones, occurring in forest as well as disturbed areas such as road sides and garbage dumps. The species appears to be more frequently found at road edges, with this observation not linked to limited sampling effort (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59194	population		It still occurs in many places within its range, but has drastically declined in many sites where it was formerly abundant. Some populations have declined by more than 90% while others appear to be stable. There are, however, reports that the species is now recovering at some localities where it had formerly declined (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Further details on this recovery are needed.	eng
59194	threats		Habitat loss and fragmentation are ongoing within its range, but probably do not account for the level of decline that has been observed. The declines have been very patchy, and might be linked to subtle, as yet unknown, habitat disturbance (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Animals can be found in open areas, and it is possible that the declines are linked to specific microhabitat loss - for instance the availability of particular logs, rocks or other ground cover (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). Declines in suitable habitat could also be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis). The well-studied population of Cerro de la Muerte has undergone a enigmatic decline, with no animals recorded during surveys in 2005 (Lips and Donnelly, 2005; Karen Lipps pers. comm., 2007). Declines have also take place on Cerro Cuericí (Karen Lipps pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59195	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Darién in Panama, but is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status.	eng
59195	distribution		This species occurs at Medellin in the department of Antioquia, Colombia, at 1,540m asl. Specimens from the eastern lowlands in the south-west of Darién Province in Panama have also been referred to this species, but this is probably incorrect.	eng
59195	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest in Colombia, and humid lowland forest in Panama, and is arboreal. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
59195	population		This appears to be an extremely rare species; fewer than five specimens have been collected in its entire range.	eng
59195	threats		There is no information available on specific threats to this species, although it is likely to be impacted by forest loss arising from activities such as logging and smallholder farming.	eng
59196	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas and is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59196	distribution		This species ranges widely from southern San Luis Potosi southward through southern Veracruz to north-western Chiapas, Mexico, where it occurs below 1,100m asl.	eng
59196	habitat		It lives in tropical forests and savannahs, and can survive in modified habitats such as cities, farmland, banana plantations and areas of coffee cultivation. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59196	population		It was formerly quite common, but is now hard to find.	eng
59196	threats		Although it is generally adaptable, the transformation of the landscape into very open habitats probably causes a general drying of microhabitats to the detriment of this species.	eng
59197	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, Parque Nacional Pico Pijol, and it might be present in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge. Further research is needed into the enigmatic population declines of this species, especially at the localities of Quebrada de Oro and Texiguat.	eng
59197	distribution		This species occurs in the Montana de Pijol (department of Yoro), Quebrada de Oro, Cerro Bufalo, and Cerro San Francisco (department of Atlantida), all in north-central Honduras, at elevations of 980-1,920m asl.	eng
59197	habitat		It lives in arboreal bromeliads, on low vegetation, and on the ground under rotten plant material, in premontane and montane wet forests. It can survive in degraded habitats close to forest, especially on banana plants. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59197	population		It was previously considered to be a fairly common species. However, it has not been found in the Quebrada de Oro during expeditions in 2003 and 2005, and declines of anurans have recently been reported from this same area (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). Two specimens were found at Texiguat during September 2003 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59197	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding subsistence and small-scale agriculture (involving the cultivation of crops and livestock farming), forest fires, and logging.	eng
59198	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59198	distribution		This species is known from the Oriental slope of the Central Cordillera (Antioquia, Caldas, Tolima and Huila departments) in Colombia, from 1,200-2,000m asl.	eng
59198	habitat		It occurs in premontane forest, on low herbaceous vegetation, in primary and good secondary forests and bromeliads, as well as in bushes along side streams. Breeding habits are not known. It also occurs in pastureland and near urban areas.	eng
59198	population		It is a common species and thrives in disturbed habitats.	eng
59198	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
59199	conservation		It is not known from any protected area, making the protection of forest habitat for this species a priority. Efforts should be made to encourage red banana cultivation. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59199	distribution		This species is known only from a very restricted area to the north and south of Putla town in extreme western Oaxaca, Mexico, at 800-1,400m asl. Extensive surveys for the species have not been conducted and it might occur more widely.	eng
59199	habitat		It lives in secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest, as well as in shaded banana and coffee plantations. It is arboreal, and most specimens have been collected in the leaf axils of red banana trees and other large-leaved plants. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59199	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59199	threats		This species appears to be relatively resistant to habitat modification (taking place across the range due to logging and agriculture) and occurs in shaded plantations, though even these habitats are threatened as a result of shifting agricultural practices - specifically the change from red bananas to yellow bananas as a crop of choice.	eng
59200	conservation		It occurs in the Montverde Biological Reserve, Volcán Irazu National Park, Volcán Poas National Park, Braulio Caurillo National Park, and Guanacaste National Park, all in Costa Rica. In Panama it occurs in Fortuna National Park. It is also found in La Amistad National Park in both countries.	eng
59200	distribution		This species occurs in humid premontane and lower montane areas in the cordilleras of Costa Rica, at 500-2,048m asl, and adjacent western Panama, at 830-2,050m asl.	eng
59200	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, also occurring in slightly degraded habitats. It is largely terrestrial, but has been found climbing vegetation. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
59200	population		It is less common at some sites, however the rate of decline is not known, and animals are still regularly found (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59200	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and extraction of wood. However, much of its range is protected, and it is probably only threatened in localized situations.	eng
59201	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Urgent protection of the forests on Volcán Tzontehuitz and the San Marcos area is needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59201	distribution		This species is known in Mexico from Volcán Tzontehuitz, north-east of San Cristobal de las Casas, central Chiapas. In Guatemala, it occurs in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, the highlands associated with Volcán Tajamulco, and in Zunil and the heights above Totonicapan. Its altitudinal range is 2,400-3,300m asl. It probably occurs in intervening areas between the mapped localities.	eng
59201	habitat		It inhabits high elevations in areas of cloud forest and pine-oak forests. It is largely terrestrial, being found occasionally in bromeliads or under bark. It can tolerate, and perhaps even benefit from, some disturbance of its habitat, but it avoids grasslands. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59201	population		It appears to be still relatively common in Mexico and is still common in the Cuchumatanes and Totonicapan in Guatemala. However, it appears to have declined substantially in San Marcos in Guatemala, and has not been found in recent surveys (2005 and 2007) on Cerro Tecpan and high areas near Nahuala (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59201	threats		Although this species does well with moderate habitat disturbance, the very serious deforestation on Volcán Tzontehuitz is a major threat. Grazing by sheep is the main threat in this area, and any form of habitat management that leads to the encroachment of grassland is detrimental for the species. Habitat still seems to be intact where the species has not been found recently (Carlos Vasquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59202	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo and Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura, in Chiapas, Mexico. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59202	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of Meso America from San Luis Potosi and Veracruz to northern Chiapas, Mexico southwards to Guatemala and Belize, reaching northern Honduras. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl, but generally favours low altitudes.	eng
59202	habitat		It lives mainly in bromeliads in tropical and subtropical wet forests, as well as in citrus orchards, banana plantations, and pine plantations. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59202	population		It is one of the more common lowland salamanders.	eng
59202	threats		The main threat is conversion of forest and well-shaded anthropogenic habitat to open countryside and pastureland.	eng
59203	conservation	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler and Carlos Vasquez, 2009	It is not currently known from any protected areas in Guatemala, although protected areas are proposed within the species range. It might occur in Parque Nacional El Imposible in El Salvador (though this is not confirmed). The maintenance of shaded habitats is important to ensure the long-term persistence of this species.	eng
59203	distribution	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler and Carlos Vasquez, 2009	This species is found in the upper coastal plain at moderate elevations (600-1,250m asl) on the Pacific slopes of southern Guatemala and from one locality in El Salvador (at the Instituto Tropical de Investigaciones Científicas in San Salvador).	eng
59203	habitat	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler and Carlos Vasquez, 2009	Originally an inhabitant of forest environs, these habitats have largely disappeared within its range, and it is now found mainly in shaded coffee plantations (under bananas) and in sugar-cane fields. In El Salvador, it is reported from dry forest at around 700m asl (Köhler et al., 2006). In Guatemala, it has been recorded in lowland wet forests (<1600m asl) (Wake and Lynch, 1976). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59203	population	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler and Carlos Vasquez, 2009	It used to be reasonably common in suitable habitat, but is now uncommon.	eng
59203	threats	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler and Carlos Vasquez, 2009	The major threat in the past has been habitat loss, due mainly to subsistence agricultural activities and wood extraction. The clearance of shaded habitats to open, drier landscapes will be severely detrimental to this species.	eng
59204	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.	eng
59204	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in northern Colombia, at 1,000-2,140m asl.	eng
59204	habitat		It is a montane forest species, living principally in bromeliads (in which it breeds by direct development). It has also been found in decaying logs and stumps and under decaying leaves.	eng
59204	population		It is an uncommon species and there have been no recent sightings (although this is most likely due to a lack of survey effort).	eng
59204	threats		The main threat to it is deforestation due to small-scale agriculture.	eng
59205	conservation		In occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59205	distribution		This species occurs in the humid lowlands and premontane slopes of the Atlantic versant from southeastern Costa Rica (at 780m asl) to Central Panama (from 1-750m asl) (including Isla Colón); also from the Pacific slope at El Valle de Anton, Cocle Province, and La Campana, Panama Province, Panama (from 300-850m asl).	eng
59205	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59205	population		It is a common species in Panama. In Costa Rica, it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1984; there have been no new records as of August, 2007.	eng
59205	threats		The major threat to this species is the destruction of natural forests for agriculture, livestock, human settlements, and industry.	eng
59206	conservation		The record from the department of Cordoba is in the Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo. Improved habitat protection at sites at which the species is known to occur is necessary.	eng
59206	distribution		This species from north-western Colombia is known from the Pacific lowlands in the departments of Chocó and Valle del Cauca, and from a single locality in the department of Cordoba. Its altitudinal range is 20-400m asl. It probably occurs more widely between the confirmed localities.	eng
59206	habitat		It occurs in very humid tropical forest, and can be found on low herbaceous vegetation, fallen leaves and epiphytes. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
59206	population		It appears to be a rare species.	eng
59206	threats		The major threats are habitat loss due to agricultural development (including planting of illegal crops), logging, and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
59207	conservation		Its range includes Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas.	eng
59207	distribution		This species occurs in the north-western lowlands of Ecuador, below 1,000m asl. It is likely to have a slightly larger range than currently known.	eng
59207	habitat		Individuals have been found in dense wet forest, as well as in a grassy field, cleared for cattle grazing (Brame and Wake 1963b). However, this does not necessarily suggest that the species adapts well to human-modified landscapes, and they might prefer regenerated forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59207	population		The current population status of this species is not known.	eng
59207	threats		Agriculture, both crops and livestock, as well as logging are major threats to the species’ habitat.	eng
59208	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it might occur in Parque Nacional Chirripo. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species, and research is also necessary to investigate the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
59208	distribution		This species is known only from the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica, at 2,355-3,000m asl. It might extend into western Panama.	eng
59208	habitat		It lives in lower montane and montane rainforests, being found in talus on steep slopes, and on road cuts, but generally not in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59208	population		This species was formerly rare, and has now decreased even further. There has been a fair amount of survey work on this species, and it is rarely seen.	eng
59208	threats		Habitat loss has been taking place throughout the range, but this probably is not sufficient to explain the levels of decline observed in the species. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).	eng
59209	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas (except if its presence is confirmed in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada), but it occurs very close to Parque Nacional Sierra la Culata. Universidad de los Andes has a private reserve where this species was collected. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species.	eng
59209	distribution		This species is apparently restricted to cloud forests in the vicinity of La Carbonera, Campo Elías Municipality, in Mérida State, Venezuela. In the original description, Barrio-Amorós and Fuentes-Ramos (1999) indicate that it is also present in Quebrada La Mucuy (in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada), but no museum numbers are given, and the only specimen coming from this place, listed by them, is a <em>Bolitoglossa orestes</em>. It has been recorded from 2,000-2,800m asl.	eng
59209	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitant of mossy terrain in cloud forests, and even in drier sub-páramo shrubland. It has been collected in rotting tree trunks and beneath logs and stones, but never in bromeliads or epiphytes on trees. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59209	population		Recent fieldwork indicates that, although secretive, it is not rare in the La Carbonera region.	eng
59209	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to smallholder agricultural activities. The recent introduction of <em>Rana catesbeiana</em> in the vicinity of the type locality may pose a problem in the near future.	eng
59210	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas. There is a need for urgent habitat protection within the species Honduran range (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).	eng
59210	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic slopes from northeastern Honduras, through the eastern half of Nicaragua, to southeastern Costa Rica and on the Pacific slope in passes between volcanoes in Guanacaste and Río Barranca. Its altitudinal range is 2-1,052m asl.	eng
59210	habitat		It lives in lowland moist and wet forests, ranging marginally into premontane wet forest and rainforest. It tends to forage near ponds, and is somewhat adaptable, being found in plantations and on grasses. It has been found in rice plantations in eastern Honduras (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59210	population		It is a reasonably common species, though there have been local disappearances due to habitat loss.	eng
59210	threats		It parts of its range it is threatened locally by habitat loss, especially due to expanding human settlements and agriculture, and wood extraction. In Honduras, rapid habitat loss is currently taking place in Rus-Rus, one of the best localities for this species in Honduras (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). In Costa Rica, it is not threatened by habitat loss and is frequently seen in open areas (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
59211	conservation		It is found in the Lagunas de Montebello Nature Reserve, Mexico, on the border with Guatemala. There is a need for fieldwork to determine the current population status of this species. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59211	distribution		This species is found in the interior valley of southern Chiapas, Mexico, extending into extreme western Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-2,000m asl. The range map is based on the only two confirmed specimens of the species known, and the habitat between the two sites seems suitable, however no field work has been done in this area (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59211	habitat		It is an inhabitant of tropical deciduous forest, in a dry valley with a limestone substrate. It is not known whether or not it occurs in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59211	population		It is only known from very few specimens, and there is no information on its population status.	eng
59211	threats		There are no known threats to this species over its range. The area is generally unsuitable for agricultural use.	eng
59212	conservation		Much of its range is protected by numerous national parks and private reserves, such as Parque Nacional Guanacaste. Further research is needed to determine the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
59212	distribution		This species occurs on both slopes of the Cordillera de Guanacaste, the Cordillera de Tilarán, and the Cordillera Central and their outliers in central and northern Costa Rica, at 1,245-2,900m asl.	eng
59212	habitat		It lives in lower montane wet forest and rainforest, and marginally in the upper portion of premontane rainforest. It is frequently found in bromeliads and under fallen trees, logs, or rocks. It can occur in secondary growth, isolated trees in pastures, and other anthropogenic habitats, provided that there are trees and adequate cover. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59212	population		The current population status of the species is not known, but it appears to have declined (although it is still recorded on a regular basis).	eng
59212	threats		The species seems have become extremely rare at Monteverde, and declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis). Earlier reports suggested that this salamander seemed to have disappeared from Parque Nacional Poas, however populations are still present here (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007). The species does not appear to be significantly threatened by habitat loss, as animals can be found in open areas, amongst rocks and observed crossing roads (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59213	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler and Franklin Castañeda, 2009	Cerro El Pital, which is the highest point in El Salvador, was declared a Biological Reserve in 1987, but on the Honduran side of the border only. Expansion of this protected area to include all of the Cerro El Pital is urgently needed.	eng
59213	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler and Franklin Castañeda, 2009	This species occurs on Cerro El Pital in the Department of Ocotepeque in south-west Honduras, and in adjacent north-western El Salvador, at 2,150 m asl.	eng
59213	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler and Franklin Castañeda, 2009	It lives on low vegetation in lower montane moist forest, and in nearby degraded areas where there is good cover. Animals have been recorded from bromeliads, a tree fern, on tree trunks, under ground cover, and close to streams in cloud forest (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59213	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler and Franklin Castañeda, 2009	It is an uncommon species.	eng
59213	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Gunther Köhler and Franklin Castañeda, 2009	The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to the impacts of forest fires, and encroachment by subsistence farming.	eng
59214	conservation		It occurs in the Serrania de Pirre in Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
59214	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern lowlands and cordilleras of Panama in the Darién region, adjacent to Colombia, at 800-1,400m asl.	eng
59214	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland and montane forest, where it is arboreal, and breeds by direct development.	eng
59214	population		Very little is known regarding its population status. It was rediscovered recently when two specimens were collected. These were the first records in many years.	eng
59214	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
59215	conservation		The range of the species includes a few protected areas.	eng
59215	distribution		This species is known from high elevations of the central Andes (Cordillera Central) in the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Quindio, Risoralda and Tolima, in Colombia, between 2,210-3,000m asl.	eng
59215	habitat		The species occurs in premontane forest and sub-páramo among fallen leaves on the ground, and in low bromeliads. It has also been recorded from disturbed habitats such as pastureland and heavily degraded forest.	eng
59215	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59215	threats		Habitat destruction caused by deforestation, agriculture, illegal harvesting and chemical aspersion are localized threats but there are no major threats to the species overall.	eng
59216	conservation		It occurs in Los Chimalapas, which is poorly protected. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59216	distribution		This species is known from a few localities, all in southern Mexico in the western part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec: in extreme southern Veracruz; extreme north-eastern Oaxaca; and extreme north-western Chiapas. It is found up to 500m asl.	eng
59216	habitat		It lives in tropical lowland forest, but it has been found in disturbed habitats, presumably due to the level of human impact on natural habitats within its range. The species has been collected at night on low vegetation. It is possible that the species is confined to limestone outcrops, the habitat in which it was first recorded. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59216	population		There is little recent information concerning its population status, though it was abundant when first found. It was recorded in 1999 for the first time in many years.	eng
59216	threats		The main threat to it is further opening up of its habitat due to expanding agriculture and increasing wood extraction.	eng
59217	conservation		Some of its populations are within Parque Nacional Natural Munchique and Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali.	eng
59217	distribution		This species occurs from the department of Valle del Cauca, extending to the department of Cauca (Munchique), on the Oriental slope of the Cordillera Occidental, in Colombia, from 1,980-2,050m asl.	eng
59217	habitat		It occurs on herbaceous vegetation, epiphytes and fallen leaves, inside cloud forests with high humidity, and it has also been recorded from disturbed forest edges such as roadsides in forest. The details of its breeding habits are not known.	eng
59217	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59217	threats		There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
59218	conservation		In Mexico it is found in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, and in Belize it occurs in the Shipstern Nature Reserve and in the Fireburn Nature Reserve. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59218	distribution		This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs in northern and central Yucatan and Quintana Roo Mexico. There are two isolated populations: one in south-central Campeche, Mexico, and the other in northeastern Belize. All populations are below 150m asl.	eng
59218	habitat		It lives in lowland tropical forest and thorn forest and in disturbed habitat around villages. It is mainly terrestrial, living beneath surface debris on the forest floor, and in sink holes. It is also arboreal, being found in bromeliads. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59218	population		This is an uncommon, low-density species, but it can be found from time to time.	eng
59218	threats		Although it is somewhat adaptable, transformation of the original habitats is the major threat.	eng
59219	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59219	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern part of the Sierra Madre del Sur near Quiogolani, Mexico, at around 1,875m asl.	eng
59219	habitat		This species lives in pine-oak forest, which in is now severely degraded, and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59219	population		It is known from fewer than ten specimens, and was only described in 2002. Specimens, however, have been known for a considerable time (since early in the 20th century). The species has appeared to persist through periods of disturbance mainly from logging.	eng
59219	threats		The species is generally threatened by the clearance of the forest within its tiny range for smallholder farming; although this threat may have lessened in recent years.	eng
59220	conservation		This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are urgently needed to establish its current population status.	eng
59220	distribution		This extremely distinctive species is known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality in extreme north-western Guatemala, on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, at 1,310m asl. There has been little nearby sampling and the species may range more widely within the escarpment.	eng
59220	habitat		It has been collected in both disturbed and undisturbed wet forest (approximately 6,000mm annual precipitation). The animals were found under pieces of wood and logs. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59220	population		The species is known only from 12 specimens collected at the type locality. It has not been seen since 1976, despite recent searches.	eng
59220	threats		There is severe habitat loss taking place at the type locality due to the settlement of refugees and expanding agriculture.	eng
59221	conservation		This species occurs on private land. It is not found in any protected areas, and protection of the forests in the Husteca region is urgently required. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59221	distribution		This species is known from a small patch of forest around Tianguistengo in north-eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, from 1,900-2,100m asl.	eng
59221	habitat		It inhabits humid pine-oak or cloud forests, where it lives in bromeliads and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59221	population		The species has not been found since the early 1980s, despite recent attempts to locate it.	eng
59221	threats		Since this species is dependent upon bromeliads in trees, the major threat to it is deforestation and fragmentation, which is taking place in its only known locality due to expanding agricultural development and extraction of wood.	eng
59222	conservation		It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). Considerable doubts remain as to its taxonomic status, and further research is required to resolve this issue.	eng
59222	distribution		This species is known only from central Veracruz, near Huatusco, Mexico, at 1,000-1,200m asl.	eng
59222	habitat		It lives in bromeliads and moss in cloud forests, and is not found in degraded habitats. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59222	population		This species was once abundant, but it has not been found since the early 1980s despite repeated attempts.	eng
59222	threats		The main threat to this species is deforestation of its cloud forest habitat.	eng
59223	conservation		It is possibly found in Parque Nacional Los Marmoles and the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra Gorda, and is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59223	distribution		This species is known only from Tamualipas, San Luis Potosi, north-western Hidalgo, eastern Queretaro and Puebla, Mexico, at 2,000-2,300m asl.	eng
59223	habitat		This is a terrestrial species inhabiting only pristine pine-oak forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59223	population		It generally an uncommon species.	eng
59223	threats		Its forest habitat is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture, and from wood extraction.	eng
59224	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Rancho del Cielo. Further research is necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat.	eng
59224	distribution		This species is known only from the Reserva de la Biósfera Rancho del Cielo in Tamaulipas in north-eastern Mexico, at 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
59224	habitat		It lives in bromeliads in cloud forest, occurring only in undisturbed habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59224	population		It is probably uncommon and decreasing, but can still be found.	eng
59224	threats		Declines are taking place in suitable habitat, and these could be the result of threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).	eng
59225	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional El Chico, but improved management of this area is urgently needed to reduce the heavy impacts of tourism, including more fires, and the cutting of forest for recreational facilities. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59225	distribution		This species is known only from a small area of southern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,500-2,700m asl.	eng
59225	habitat		It inhabits only pristine pine-oak and fir forests, where it is found under bark or logs. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59225	population		It used to be abundant, but its numbers are now severely reduced.	eng
59225	threats		Most of the forests where this species has been recorded have been severely transformed through the activities of smallholder farmers, logging, and human settlement. It has disappeared even from areas where the habitat has been only slightly degraded.	eng
59226	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and maintenance and protection of the La Joya forests is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59226	distribution		This species is known only from La Joya, central-western Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,200 m asl.	eng
59226	habitat		The species lives in bromeliads in pine-oak and cloud forests. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59226	population		It was abundant in its tiny range, but severe habitat degradation has taken place to the extent that the species has not been detected despite recent attempts.	eng
59226	threats		All areas surrounding La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining: between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available for this species was halved due to the expansion of mining activities; the remaining available habitat was only about 15ha in 2004.	eng
59227	conservation		It is not known from any protected area. A survey is needed to evaluate the status of this species, and protection of the original habitat (both of the caves and the surrounding forest) is urgent. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59227	distribution		This species is known only from south-eastern San Luis Potosi and eastern Queretaro, Mexico, at around 2,400m asl.	eng
59227	habitat		It lives in caves and crevices in pine-oak forest, and has also been found in a tunnel under a church. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development.	eng
59227	population		Although it has never been common, it used to be seen regularly. However, the species has not been located in recent years, despite searches.	eng
59227	threats		The removal of the forest habitat from above the caves has caused the caves to dry out, resulting in the apparent disappearance of this species.	eng
59228	conservation		The type locality is on the edge of the Parque Nacional Los Mármoles, but it is not certain that the species still occurs here, or anywhere else, and additional survey work is required to ascertain whether or not this species survives in the wild. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59228	distribution		This species is known only from a cave near Durango town, in northern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,160 m asl. However, the exact location of the cave has not been recorded, and the range map shows the approximate area of collection.	eng
59228	habitat		It is a crevice-dweller that apparently requires humid caverns in pine-oak forest in order to survive. It breeds by direct development and is terrestrial.	eng
59228	population		It has not been seen since it was first described, despite subsequent cave searches in the region where it was first found.	eng
59228	threats		The forest habitat surrounding the caves is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture, and from wood extraction. Like <em>Chiropterotriton magnipes</em>, this species might have disappeared due to the drying of its caves following the removal of forest.	eng
59229	conservation		It is recorded from Parque Nacional El Chico (where it is now extremely rare, but these records might refer to a different species) and from the Reserva de la Biósfera El Cielo (where it is also very rare). Further research is necessary to understand the reasons for the decline of this species in suitable habitat. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59229	distribution		This species occurs in southern San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and southern Hidalgo, Mexico, at 2,000-2,900m asl. The Hidalgo population might belong to an undescribed species.	eng
59229	habitat		It lives in pine and pine-oak forests, only in undisturbed habitat, where it lives in arboreal bromeliads (and is also a crevice-dweller). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59229	population		It used to be abundant in Parque Nacional El Chico (Hidalgo), but in the early 1980s it largely disappeared, although a few individuals have been found there in recent years. It can no longer be found at its type locality in San Luis Potosi.	eng
59229	threats		The cause of its decline is not clear, although it could be very sensitive to even minor modifications of its forest habitat. Most of the forests where this species has been recorded have been severely transformed by agricultural activities and logging. Declines that have taken place in suitable habitat could be the result of other threats such as climate change or disease (possibly chytridiomycosis, although this normally impacts species that are associated with water).	eng
59230	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Cumbres del Ajusco and Parque Nacional Iztaccíhuatl-Popocatépetl.	eng
59230	distribution		This species occurs on the southern and eastern margins of the Mexican Plateau, Mexico, above 2,500m asl.	eng
59230	habitat		It lives in pine-oak forest and fir forest and can survive in slightly disturbed habitats. It is terrestrial and breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59230	population		It is quite a common species.	eng
59230	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to logging and human settlement.	eng
59231	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, although it is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59231	distribution		This species is known from several locations around Cerro Potosi near Ojo de Agua, north-west to Galeana town, Nuevo Leon, north-eastern Mexico, above 3,000m asl.	eng
59231	habitat		It lives terrestrially in pine and pine-fir forest, and its preferred microhabitats are under fallen logs and under bark. It can also live in somewhat disturbed habitat. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59231	population		The most recent surveys indicate that this species is still present and abundant.	eng
59231	threats		The habitat of this species is probably relatively secure, although it is at risk from logging.	eng
59232	conservation	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, 2008	In Hidalgo it occurs on private land, and not in any protected areas. The record from Querétaro is from Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve (Gillingwater and Patrikeev 2004). Protection of the forests in the Husteca region is urgently required. Further research is also needed to clarify its taxonomic status.	eng
59232	distribution	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, 2008	This species is known from a small area around Tianguistengo in north-eastern Hidalgo, Mexico, at altitudes of 1,640m asl and slightly higher. A record from Querétaro may also pertain to this species (Gillingwater and Patrikeev 2004).	eng
59232	habitat	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, 2008	The species inhabits humid pine-oak or cloud forests, living in low vegetation and on the ground. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59232	population	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, 2008	It can be found but is uncommon.	eng
59232	threats	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Ted Papenfuss, 2008	The major threat to this species is widespread deforestation, which is taking place in its only known locality due to expanding agricultural development and the extraction of wood.	eng
59233	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas, making formal protection of its remaining cloud forest habitat an urgent priority.	eng
59233	distribution		This species is known only from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, Pena Verde, and at Sierra de Mazateca on the Guelatao-Vista Hermosa transect, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is 1,530-2,050m asl. The species is presumed to occur between the known localities in appropriate habitat, but further data are required.	eng
59233	habitat		The species inhabits undisturbed cloud forests, being found in bromeliads and other epiphytic plants, and in leaf-litter, and does not tolerate disturbance of its habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59233	population		It is still occasionally recorded but considered to be very rare.	eng
59233	threats		The major threat to the species is loss of habitat due to logging, expanding agricultural activity, and human settlements.	eng
59234	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is therefore an urgent need for the protection of the cloud forest habitat of this species. Survey work is necessary to determine its current population status.	eng
59234	distribution		This species is known only from two locations in northern Jitotol, north-central Chiapas, Mexico, at 1,200-1,550m asl. It is presumed to occur between the known localities in appropriate habitat, but further data are required.	eng
59234	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest, and seems to require microclimates with very high humidity. It has been found at roadsides, but it is not known whether or not it can live in disturbed habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59234	population		It is likely to be very rare; only 3-4 specimens of this species are known and recent surveys have failed to record any specimens.	eng
59234	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, and also logging.	eng
59235	conservation	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, 2008	It occurs in Parque Nacional El Cusuco.	eng
59235	distribution	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, 2008	This species occurs at middle and high elevations in Parque Nacional El Cusuco, in the Sierra de Omoa in Cortés Department, in extreme north-western Honduras. Its altitudinal range is 1,220-2,200m asl. It probably also occurs in nearby eastern Guatemala, although these records might involve <em>Cryptotriton wakei</em>.	eng
59235	habitat	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, 2008	It lives in pre-montane and lower montane wet forest and cloud forest, and is able to withstand some habitat degradation, providing this is not severe. It is an arboreal species, living in bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59235	population	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, 2008	It is a reasonably common species. It was recorded from Parque Nacional El Cusuco in 2004-2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007, Townsend et al., 2006).	eng
59235	threats	Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Randy McCranie, Franklin Castañeda, 2008	The main threat is forest loss due to expanding subsistence agriculture, in particular the creation of coffee farms. It might also be adversely affected by prolonged periods of drought.	eng
59236	conservation		It occurs in the Biotopo del Quetzal where its habitat is well protected.	eng
59236	distribution		This species occurs in the vicinity of Purulhá in the Biotopo del Quetzal (upwards of 1,660m elevation) and nearby mountains, Guatemala. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptotriton</span> at Finca Volcán may belong to this species, but requires further investigation.	eng
59236	habitat		It lives in humid cloud forest in lower montane wet forest, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It is typically found in arboreal bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59236	population		It was formerly a common species, but now appears to be rare (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59236	threats		There is extensive habitat loss through much of its range due in particular to expanding subsistence farming, and the cultivation of ferns for floral arrangements, which are then exported to Japan.	eng
59237	conservation		It has been recorded from the 'Quetzal Reserve' close to Finca Insula in Chiapas, Mexico (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). This species is in need of improved habitat protection and close population monitoring.	eng
59237	distribution		This species is restricted to south-western Guatemala, being known only from the southern slopes of Volcán Tajumulco and adjacent volcanic highlands in San Marcos, Guatemala. It occurs at elevations of 1,700-2,700m asl.	eng
59237	habitat		It lives in humid montane forest and forest edges, surviving only in mature old-growth forest. It is a bromeliad specialist. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59237	population		It used to be extremely common, but seems to have undergone declines: when it was discovered in the 1930s, nearly 60 specimens were collected just by searching bromeliads at the type locality. Forty years later, they could be found in around half of all bromeliads inspected. It is now even less common (2005) than it was in the 1970s (Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59237	threats		Much of its forest habitat has been cleared for livestock, cultivation of crops, and wood extraction. The reasons behind the decline in density of this species is not known.	eng
59238	conservation		The type locality is inside a proposed semi-protected area (multi-use forest), but it is not known if the species still survives at the type locality and further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.	eng
59238	distribution		This species is known from a single site south-west of San Juan Ixcoy, in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, at about 2,860m asl. There is a probable recent record from Villa Alicia San Martin Cuchumatanes, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
59238	habitat		It lives in high-elevation, very humid oak forest. Individuals have been found under moss and bark on large fallen trees; it has also been found in moss, but not in bromeliads. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59238	population		There is no information on current population status.	eng
59238	threats		Although there has been extensive forest clearance for timber around the type locality, a small patch of oak forest (less than 10km2) is known to remain in the area.	eng
59239	conservation		This species occurs in Reserva de la Biósfera La Sepultura. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59239	distribution		This species occurs only on Cerro Pres Picos in extreme south-western Chiapas, Mexico, above 2,000m asl.	eng
59239	habitat		It is a bromeliad dweller in cloud forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59239	population		There is no recent information on the population status of this species, but it was common in its very small range in the 1970s.	eng
59239	threats		It lives in a very remote area, and its habitat remains largely intact. Its small range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59240	conservation		It occurs in the proposed Parque Nacional Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and presumably in the Reserva de la Biósfera Visis-Cabá. The populations in the Montañas de Cuilco are not protected.	eng
59240	distribution		This species occurs in western Guatemala on the Montañas de Cuilco, and in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, at an altitude of 2,100-2,700m asl.	eng
59240	habitat		It occurs in bromeliads or under bark on logs and stumps in forest at the subtropical-temperate forest transition zone. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59240	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
59240	threats		Forest clearance continues at the type locality, mainly as a result of wood extraction and expanding smallholder farming. Deforestation is also underway over most of the species range.	eng
59241	conservation		The entire range of this species is within the 12,000-ha Parque Nacional Montaña Santa Bárbara.	eng
59241	distribution		This species is known only from Parque Nacional Montaña Santa Bárbara, in western Honduras, at 1,829-2,744m asl.	eng
59241	habitat		It lives in lower montane wet forest and montane rainforest, being found in arboreal, and sometimes terrestrial, bromeliads. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59241	population		It can be locally common in suitable habitat. Recent surveys found many salamanders, with little indication of decline in numbers in recent years (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
59241	threats		Earlier reports suggested that there was continued forest loss in the range of this species due to expanding subsistence agriculture and forest fires. However, recent surveys have found that there are large areas of suitable habitat without roads or people, and logging operations or significant expansion of agriculture into the park is considered unlikely (Ted Papenfuss and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2008).	eng
59242	conservation		It might occur in the Reserva de la Biósfera El Triunfo, which is close to Cerro Ovando, but it has not so far been found there, despite searches. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59242	distribution		This species is known from one locality: Cerro Ovando, south-western Chiapas, Mexico, at 2,000m asl.	eng
59242	habitat		It lives in pine-oak forest, and is found only in bromeliads. It is not found in disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59242	population		It is probably common in its very small range; on one occasion, 34 individuals were found in a single bromeliad.	eng
59242	threats		Its forest habitat is potentially threatened by expanding agriculture and wood extraction, but fortunately this species occurs in an area where anthropogenic impacts on its habitat have been minimal.	eng
59243	conservation		This species does occur in several protected areas, but to assist its conservation forest buffers should also be left around seepages and headwater streams in areas scheduled for logging (Petranka 1998).	eng
59243	distribution		This species occurs in relatively isolated, localized populations in south-western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and north-central Alabama, USA. In Alabama, an apparent hiatus exists between western populations in the Fall Line Hills region and eastern populations in the Blue Ridge and adjacent piedmont regions, and an apparently disjunctive population is also present in the piedmont of north-eastern Georgia (Harrison 1992). This species occurs at up to 210-1,340m asl in the east, and as low as 30m asl in west-central Alabama. A record from Transylvania County, North Carolina, is based on a misidentified <em>Desmognathus wrighti</em>. There are an estimated 21-100 extant locations in North Carolina (H.W. LeGrand pers. comm.), while Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 14 collection sites in Tennessee. Williamson and Moulis (1994) mapped 52 collection locations in Georgia. There are possibly 6-20 extant occurrences in Alabama (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.). It was recently discovered at two locations in South Carolina (Livingston, Spencer and Stuart 1995), where the conditions of the occurrences were considered good, although these occurences have not been extensively surveyed (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.).	eng
59243	habitat		It can be found beneath leaf-litter or surface debris on the ground in mixed hardwood forests near small creeks, springs, and seepage areas, and also occurs in damp shaded ravines. Females usually oviposit beneath clumps of moss or other objects within or near seepages or in the vicinity of small streams. Development is direct, so there are no aquatic larvae. Outside the breeding season these salamanders are usually found beneath leaf-litter on the banks of small streams or in the vicinity of seepage areas. They are seldom active on the surface and are probably not very adaptable to habitat degradation.	eng
59243	population		The total adult population size of this species is unknown. Overall, it is common to sometimes very common in undisturbed, suitable habitat. However, it is sometimes not present in what seems to be suitable habitat. It was not considered rare by the Scientific Council on Reptiles and Amphibians in North Carolina during the late 1980s (H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993). This species is declining in Alabama (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.), and possibly also in North Carolina (A.L. Braswell pers. comm.). It is listed in Tennessee as in need of management (Redmond and Scott 1996), and is believed to be stable in South Carolina (S.H. Bennett pers. comm.).	eng
59243	threats		A significant threat to this species is logging, which has evidently extirpated some Alabama populations (Folkerts 1968). Southern populations are also vulnerable to intensive forest management practices such as clear-cutting. It is moderately threatened in Alabama by conversion of hardwood forest to pine plantations (J.R. Bailey pers. comm.).	eng
59244	conservation		Occurs in several managed areas; one third of known occurrences are protected. Additional ravines within the range of the species should be surveyed, and the upstream and downstream extent of each occurrence should be determined. The following measures are needed: prevent pollution, siltation, and impoundment; maintain forested slopes above streams; eliminate feral hogs, when present; protect via acquisition or easement any occurrences not yet within managed areas.	eng
59244	distribution		This species is endemic to lower south-eastern USA (Alabama, Florida, Georgia). This species is known from watersheds of upper Choctawhatchee River in Alabama; upper Apalachicola River, upper Ochlockonee River and lower Chipola River in Florida; and Chattahoochee River and lower Flint River in Georgia. Lower Chattahoochee River drainage basin from the Fall Line at Columbus, Georgia, south to the northern edge of the Dougherty Plain physiographic region of Georgia and Alabama to about the Miller-Early county line in Georgia; abundant in ravines along the eastern valley wall of the Apalachicola River downriver from the town of Chattahoochee, Florida, to Outside Lake near the town of Estiffanulga; ranges to about 50km upstream from Chattahoochee along the Pelham Escarpment; common in ravines along the Ochlockonee River and its two major tributaries, Little River and Telogia Creek, in the Tallahassee Red Hills of Florida; a few populations are known from the lower Chipola River in ravines above its confluence with the Apalachicola River (Means 1993). Populations probably occur in most/all suitable microhabitats within the range. See Means and Karlin (1989) for further details and map.	eng
59244	habitat		It can be found within and adjacent to seepage streams within steep-sided ravines in slope forests; sometimes also in mucky floodplain and bottomland forests. Undisturbed, pristine ravines and seepage streams are ideal. Uses logs, rocks, leaf-litter, and leaf packs for cover, also takes refuge in friable stream banks (Means and Karlin 1989). Eggs are attached in cluster to under surface of twig or small log or rock, and are immersed in trickling water; larvae found in very shallow water trickling through decomposing litter on saturated sites adjacent to larger brooks, on sandy or organic substrates (Means and Karlin 1989).	eng
59244	population		No concrete information regarding abundance, but probably abundant throughout range. Local populations can be very large.	eng
59244	threats		In general it is not currently significantly threatened. Relies on good water quality. Potential future threats include: impoundment and/or pollution of streams; possible siltation from logging uplands/ravines; disturbance by hogs. Tolerates some degradation of habitat.	eng
59245	conservation		Important conservation measures include protection and maintenance of mature bottomland hardwood forests.	eng
59245	distribution		This species can be found in the Coastal Plain, USA, from southeastern Virginia to central Florida, west to eastern Texas (Means 1999).	eng
59245	habitat		Mucky areas near springs, swamps, cypress heads, mud-bottomed streams, floodplain pools, and ravine streams where pockets of organic debris collect; usually in or near moving water. Its environment is usually acidic. Hides under leaves, logs, or debris or in burrows during day. Eggs are laid under or in logs or in depressions under moss or other cover near water. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59245	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.	eng
59245	threats		Loss of mature bottomland hardwood forest is the major potential threat.	eng
59246	conservation		Maintenance of wooded buffers along small streams is needed (Petranka 1998). Occurs in Queen Wilhelmine State Park, Arkansas (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997). Probably occurs in Ouachita State Park and the Hot Springs area; has not been collected there (S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59246	distribution		This species can be found in the Ouachita Mountains in southeastern Oklahoma and westcentral Arkansas, United States (Means 1999); elevational range 120-790m asl (Petranka 1998). In Oklahoma, 19 sites were documented from 1993-1995 (M. Lomolino pers. comm., 1997). Karlin <em>et al.</em> (1993) documented 49 collection sites from 1977-1984, including 11 locations in Oklahoma and 38 locations in Arkansas. Karlin (pers. comm., 1997) recently documented two additional locations near Little Rock, Arkansas, in the Arkansas River.	eng
59246	habitat		It can be found in rocky, gravelly streams. Adults are usually found in water under rocks, juveniles and larvae usually under rocks in shallow water or in wet gravel or rock rubble of seepages. Egg clutches were found chambers in mud in seepage areas at depth of about 0.5m near permanent water table (Trauth 1988). The larval period lasts about one year.	eng
59246	population		Fewer than 1000 individuals probably occur at most collection locations; at western end of range abundance drops to fewer than 100 individuals per location; most abundant in central Ouachita Mountains (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997). Probably over 10,000 individuals range wide; numbers decrease toward eastern end of range (S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997). No hard abundance information is available. It is probably slightly declining; during annual collections with herpetology classes, getting harder to find; no hard population data available to determine trends (A. Karlin pers. comm. 1997). Its population is generally stable. There might have slight declines in timbered areas due to stream clogging from siltation, but the species recolonises after the stream recovers (S. Trauth pers. comm. 1997).	eng
59246	threats		The greatest potential threat is stream siltation resulting from timbering activities (A. Karlin pers. comm., 1997; S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997; Petranka 1998). Populations near Little Rock and Hot Springs, Arkansas, might be threatened by future urban development (A. Karlin and S. Trauth pers. comm., 1997). However, most populations are basically secure, and it is not significantly threatened.	eng
59247	conservation		None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59247	distribution		This species occurs in the Southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, USA, from somewhere between Linville Falls and McKinney Gap (Burke and McDowell counties, North Carolina) on the Blue Ridge Divide and Iron Mountain Gap on the North Carolina-Tennessee boundary (Mitchell-Unicoi counties, North Carolina-Tennessee) to the valley of the Pigeon River (Haywood and Buncombe counties, North Carolina); this area includes the Blue Ridge, Black, Bald, and Unaka mountains (Tilley and Mahoney 1996).	eng
59247	habitat		It is usually found at lower elevations and in winter usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams; animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water. Clear-cutting of dry sites strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993), but the species is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). However, much of the range of the species is well protected, and it is not significantly threatened.	eng
59247	population		It is one of the most common species in the southern Appalachian Mountains (Petranka 1998).	eng
59247	threats		Clear-cutting of dry sites strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993), but the species is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). However, much of the range of the species is well protected, and it is not significantly threatened.	eng
59248	conservation		Research is needed to clarify distribution, population, and threat status.	eng
59248	distribution		This species is known from tributaries of the west fork of Wolf Creek and Helton Creek, in Union County, Georgia, USA. These streams flow independently into the Nottely River, which is a tributary of the Hiwassee River, in the Tennessee River drainage. This species might be more widespread in the Nottely River watershed.	eng
59248	habitat		This is a semi-aquatic species found along small streams, and which has aquatic larvae (Camp <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
59248	population		Its total adult population size and trends are unknown, although it has been observed to be abundant where collected.	eng
59248	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
59249	conservation		None are needed.	eng
59249	distribution		This species occurs in North America from southern New Brunswick, southeastern Quebec, and southern Ontario (Kamstra 1991) southwest to eastern Ohio, southern Illinois, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana; disjunctive populations in northeastern Arkansas and southern Arkansas-northern Louisiana; southeast to western and central Carolinas, northern and central Georgia, and the Florida panhandle. Populations in the southern part of the range were proposed as a distinct species (D. conanti) by Titus and Larson (1996), but the proposed split is premature without further data from the contact zone (Petranka 1998).	eng
59249	habitat		It can be found in rock-strewn woodland streams, seepages, and springs in north; floodplains, sloughs, and mucky sites along upland streams in south. Usually near running or trickling water. It hides under leaves, rocks, or other objects in or near water, or in burrows. Eggs are laid near water under moss (e.g., in Tennessee; see Hom 1988) or rocks, in logs, and in stream-bank cavities. Its larval stage usually aquatic.	eng
59249	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. There are numerous stable populations throughout the range.	eng
59249	threats		No major widespread threats. Locally, populations are reduced by water pollution from mining runoff and urbanization impacts (Petranka 1998).	eng
59250	conservation		It occurs almost entirely within national park boundaries; most populations are protected (Petranka 1998).	eng
59250	distribution		This species can be found in the Great Smoky Mountains, Balsam Mountains, and Plott Balsam Mountains, 900-2,024m asl, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, USA (Petranka 1998). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 24 locations in Tennessee. Estimated 21-100 sites in North Carolina (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997); condition of sites estimated to be 100% good; no historical information available (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59250	habitat		It can be found in small streams and seepage areas, in leaf-litter, and under surface objects on floor of cool, moist, red spruce-Fraser fir and hardwood forests. It can also be found on wet rock faces. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59250	population		Total adult population size is unknown. Numbers believed stable, but not adequately surveyed (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997). Common; populations have been stable over time (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59250	threats		There is no reason to consider it threatened (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997). It might be detrimentally affected by acid rain, but there is no hard evidence. The highest deposition rates of nitrogen and sulfate in North America occur on the highest peaks of the Great Smoky Mountains (K. Langdon pers. comm., 1997). Due to a highly restricted range and proximity to a major road, a small population on the edge of the range on Waterrock Knob along the Blue Ridge Parkway, North Carolina, is very vulnerable to extirpation (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59251	conservation		Prevention of stream siltation and impoundment are the primary conservation needs. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59251	distribution		This species can be found in the Southern Appalachian Mountains, USA, from southwestern Virginia (Whitetop area, Grayson and Washington counties) though eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina to northeastern Georgia and northwestern South Carolina; elevations of 305-1,676m asl (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998). Also reported from Patrick and Floyd counties, Virginia. Extralimital records might represent introductions via discarded fish bait; further study is needed.	eng
59251	habitat		It can be found in small to medium-sized, cool upland streams or spring runs. It hides under rocks in shallow water, most commonly in riffles. It is intolerant of siltation. It attaches eggs to undersides of rocks or logs in main current of stream.	eng
59251	population		Total adult population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59251	threats		Dams have eliminated many populations (Petranka 1998). Forestry and agricultural practices that result in stream siltation are a threat (Martof 1962, Petranka 1998). Deforestation or forest fires might render streams unsuitable (see Mitchell 1991). However, much of its habitat is protected, and so threats tend to be localized.	eng
59252	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59252	distribution		This species can be found in the eastern USA from southwestern Pennsylvania southwest in uplands through West Virginia, western Maryland, western and northern Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, western South Carolina, and northern Georgia to central Alabama and disjunctive to southern Alabama and the extreme western tip of the Florida panhandle (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998). Evidently it does not occur north or west of the Ohio River in the northern part of the range.	eng
59252	habitat		It can be found in mountain streams, small rocky spring-fed brooks in hardwood-shaded ravines, seepages, muddy section of streams. Hides under rocks or moss, and in burrows in mud banks. Sometimes perches on wet rocks. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks or leaves in water or seepages; also under or in logs near water.	eng
59252	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).	eng
59252	threats		No major pervasive threats are known.	eng
59253	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59253	distribution		This species occurs in the USA. Ridges of the Ridge and Valley Physiographic Province, including Brumley, Clinch, Walker, and Potts mountains of southwestern Virginia; Cumberland Mountains and Plateau of southeastern Kentucky, and the Allegheny Mountains and Plateau of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York through the Adirondack Mountains to southern Quebec (Tilley and Mahoney 1996). Populations in the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee have recently been described as a new species; D. ochrophaeus (Anderson and Tilley, 2003).	eng
59253	habitat		It can be found at lower elevations and in winter it usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams. Animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59253	population		Total adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 100,000.	eng
59253	threats		No major threats of widespread significance.	eng
59254	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59254	distribution		This species can be found in the United States. Two allopatric units: (1) Appalachian Plateau of northeastern Alabama and (2) southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province south of the Pigeon River (the latter including the Balsam, Blue Ridge, Cowee, Great Smoky, Nanatahala, Snowbird, Tusquitee, and Unicoi mountains and low-elevation populations in the gorges of the Hiwassee, Ocoee, and Tugaloo rivers), Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee; at least some of the populations in the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee might represent this species (Tilley and Mahoney 1996).	eng
59254	habitat		Habitat ranges from low gorges to the highest mountaintops in the Great Smoky Mountains (Petranka 1998). The species often is abundant on wet rock faces. At lower elevations and in winter, this salamander usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs, and small streams; it may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations and is a characteristic inhabitant of the floor of spruce-fir forests. Individuals frequently climb plants on rainy nights (Petranka 1998). Adults and juveniles congregate in seepages and underground retreats in winter (Shealy 1975). Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams, usually at or slightly above the water surface (Pope 1924, Martof and Rose 1963, Forester 1977, Bruce 1990, Petranka 1998). The larvae develop in water.	eng
59254	population		This is one of the most common salamander species in the southern Appalachian Mountains (Petranka 1998).	eng
59254	threats		There are no major pervasive threats.	eng
59255	conservation		It is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59255	distribution		This species can be found in the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, USA, from Floyd County, Virginia, to somewhere between Linville Falls and McKinney Gap on the Blue Ridge Divide (Burke and McDowell counties, North Carolina) and to the headwaters of Toms and Clark creeks about 1.5km northeast of Iron Mountain Gap on the North Carolina-Tennessee boundary (Tilley and Mahoney 1996) (this headwaters area is in Mitchell and Unicoi counties, according to Tilley and Mahoney 1996, or in Avery and Carter counties, according to Petranka 1998).	eng
59255	habitat		It can be found at lower elevations and in winter usually concentrates near seepage areas, springs and small streams. Animals may range into adjacent wooded areas in wet weather. It is more terrestrial at higher elevations, characteristic inhabitant of floor of spruce-fir forests. It is often abundant on wet rock faces. Eggs are laid in wet rock crevices or under rocks, logs, or moss in seepage areas or near small streams. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59255	population		It is common at higher elevations throughout its range (Petranka 1998).	eng
59255	threats		"Local populations are often severely depressed after clear-cutting, and low-elevation populations might take many decades to recover following intensive timbering" (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1994, Petranka 1998).	eng
59256	conservation		Regulation of collection for use as fish bait might be appropriate in some areas.	eng
59256	distribution		This species can be found in Southern West Virginia through mountains to northern Georgia, USA. Scattered populations in South Carolina and Georgia Piedmont, possibly due to use as fish bait. Generally found at elevations above 500m asl to at least 1,646m asl, but it might occur at lower elevations if the conditions are suitable (Petranka 1998).	eng
59256	habitat		It can be found in or along swift, boulder-strewn mountain streams. Also near waterfalls and places where cold water drips or seeps. Refuges are in rock crevices or in burrows (Camp and Lee 1996). It is usually under rocks in daytime. Sometimes basks in sun on wet rocks. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks or on tree roots in streambed, apparently in headwater tributaries in North Carolina (Bruce 1985). The larvae develop in water.	eng
59256	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).	eng
59256	threats		Locally populations might be depleted through use as fish bait, and streams exposed to acidic leachate from mining could experience negative impacts (Petranka 1998).	eng
59257	conservation		Most occur on federal land including national forests, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and the Blue Ridge Parkway (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59257	distribution		This species can be found in higher elevations of the Unicoi, Cheoah, Great Smoky, and Great Balsam mountain ranges of the southwestern Blue Ridge Physiographic Province in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, United States (Tilley 2000); found at elevations of 640-1,805m asl, usually above 1,000m asl (Conant and Collins 1991, Tilley 2000).	eng
59257	habitat		It can be found in stream headwaters and seepage areas, where ground water percolates to surface through muck, mossy rocks, Impatiens, and nettles. It can also be found under rocks in a few mm of water at margins of seeps, among gravel and cobble where water percolates. Eggs are laid mostly beneath mosses growing on rocks, on logs, or on soil surface. Nest sites 16-83 cm from nearest open water, commonly beneath mosses on logs lying in and around seepage areas (Jones 1986). The larvae develop in water.	eng
59257	population		Total adult population size is unknown. Tilley (2000) mapped more than 100 collection sites; these represent at least a few dozen distinct populations (assuming a separation gap of 1km between populations). (S. Tilley pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59257	threats		Not threatened (S. Tilley pers. comm., 1997). The major threat is probably acid rain, but there is no hard evidence (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1997). Potential threats: sensitive to stream pollution and siltation (such as in coal mining areas) (Petranka 1998).	eng
59258	conservation		Population monitoring needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59258	distribution		This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky and adjacent southwestern Virginia, southward to eastern Tennessee, USA (Barbour 1971, Conant and Collins 1991, Redmond and Scott 1996). It can be found at elevations of 300-1,220m asl.	eng
59258	habitat		It can be found in mountain brooks, spring runs, and roadside puddles in wooded mountainous terrain; Adults hide under rocks or logs in water, or in splash zone crevices. Larvae and juveniles occupy smaller seeps. Eggs are laid under rocks or in or under logs at streamside.	eng
59258	population		Total adult population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59258	threats		Threats include habitat degradation by siltation and pollution. However, it is not significantly threatened through most of its range.	eng
59259	conservation		Virginia populations are well protected, occurring entirely within the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area and national forest lands (Pague 1991; S. Roble pers. comm., 1997). However, logging activities and recreational development potentially threaten some parts of this range (Pague 1991). Mitchell (1991) recommended that trail development not include increased access to high-elevation spruce-fir forests (to discourage over collecting).	eng
59259	distribution		This species can be found in the United States. Southern Appalachians from southwestern Virginia into eastern Tennessee and southwestern North Carolina, primarily in high-elevation forests (Harrison 2000): Mount Rogers, Whitetop, Grandfather, and Roan mountains, Black Mountains, Great Smoky, Plott Balsam, and Great Balsam mountains, Wayah Bals, and Standing Indian Mountain. It can be found at elevations of 762-2,082m asl (Harrison 2000).	eng
59259	habitat		It is found chiefly in spruce-fir forests, also (in lower abundance) hardwood forests at lower elevations (Harrison 2000), though Petranka (1998) stated that these salamanders often occur at relatively high densities in mature mesophytic cove forests lower elevations. Hides under moss, leaf-litter, logs, bark on stumps, and rocks. Ascends trees to about 2m in wet or foggy weather. Spends winter in underground seepages. Eggs are laid in underground cavities among rocks of spring seeps, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59259	population		Total adult population size is unknown. It is common in old-growth forests, but uncommon in young forest stands (Petranka 1998). It is rare throughout its range (Pague 1991). Populations appear to be viable within the Virginia portion of the range (Mitchell 1991). Virginia population appears to be stable (J. Organ pers. comm., 1997). Populations across range are stable, common, and healthy; no reason to consider threatened (S. Tilly pers., comm., 1997). In Tennessee, listed as in need of management (Redmond and Scott 1996).	eng
59259	threats		Threats include fragmentation of spruce-fir forest through logging and increased recreational development, factors that open the forest canopy (e.g., acid rain, spruce budworm, etc.), and (locally) over collecting (Pague 1991; J. Organ pers. comm., 1997). Occurs at high elevation; much of spruce-fir forest in this area has been destroyed by acid rain and Balsam woolly aphid (S. Tilly pers. comm., 1997). Red spruce-Fraser fir forests are declining in many high-elevation sites of the southern Appalachians. The extent to which local populations are being affected as these forests disappear is not known (Petranka 1998). Any loss of habitat would be a serious threat to populations in Virginia (Pague 1991).	eng
59260	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas. E. e. klauberi occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59260	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern British Columbia in Canada, south through the Coastal Ranges of the USA to extreme northwestern Baja California and the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California in Mexico (Mahrdt <em>et al.</em> 1998); and along the western slopes of Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada in California in the USA. It is absent from Sacramento-San Joaquin valley, California. It occurs as a large number of separate subspecies. The subspecies E. e. klauberi occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, Mexico, above 2,000m asl. It occurs from sea level up to elevations of about 2,350m asl (Stebbins 1985). See Moritz <em>et al.</em> (1992) for a general but up-to-date distribution map.	eng
59260	habitat		This species can be found in the north: Douglas-fir/maple forests, forest clearings. In coastal areas, redwood forest, chaparral, oak woodland, canyons. Sierra Nevada: pine-oak-incense cedar forests. In dry or cold weather: in caves, underground, in rotting logs. Eggs are laid underground, or under the bark of or within rotting logs (Stebbins 1985), where they develop directly without a larval stage. E. e. klauberi lives in mixed conifer forest and lays its eggs on the ground.	eng
59260	population		In the USA and Canada the total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Its population appears to be stable. It is a rare species in Mexico, there have been only a few observations, but they are still found.	eng
59260	threats		In moist climates, ensatinas tolerate intensive forestry practices fairly well, but in drier climates recently logged areas have lower population densities than do old growth forests, presumably reflecting moisture differences (see Petranka 1998). In Mexico the nominate subspecies is probably heavily impacted by the loss of habitat as a result of the development and expansion of vineyards.	eng
59261	conservation		In minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).	eng
59261	distribution		This species can be found in Eastern North America. It is also found in Southern Quebec and eastern Ontario south to northern Virginia, eastern West Virginia, and central Ohio; isolated populations in southern Labrador (Jacobs 1987, Conant and Collins 1991, Sever 1999).	eng
59261	habitat		It can be found in rocky brooks, springs, and seepages; animals may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Bahret (1996) documented a breeding population in an acidic, fish-free lake in New York; occurred to depths of 19.5m. Adults hide under objects in or near water. In New York, rarely found on soils of low pH (Wyman 1988, Wyman and Jancola 1992). Eggs typically are laid on underside of submerged rocks, logs, or aquatic plants. Bahret (1996) found eggs in a lake at depths of 9.0-13.5 m, on the topmost leaves of water moss, far from shore and from surface drainage inlets.	eng
59261	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Many stable populations.	eng
59261	threats		No major pervasive threats. Often common in and along streams in semi-cleared areas and in second-growth woods surrounded by suburban areas (G. Hammerson pers. obs), though Petranka (1998) stated that the species is often absent from urban areas or highly disturbed landscapes such as result from intensive timbering, land clearing, stream pollution, and stream siltation.	eng
59262	conservation		Research on species and range limits, population status, and threats needed.	eng
59262	distribution		This species' geographic range is incompletely known. Harrison and Guttman (2003) stated that it is known from portions of the piedmont in both North and South Carolina, the upper coastal plain in South Carolina, and portions of the central coastal plain in North Carolina, USA. Additionally, it has been collected in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida (Jensen pers. comm.). This species corresponds in part with the previously recognized "yellow morph" of <em>Eurycea quadridigitata</em>. Harrison and Guttman (2003) reported that populations of the yellow morph from South Carolina and Louisiana appear to comprise two species, based on genetic differences. Thus further study is needed before the range of <em>E. chamberlaini</em> can be precisely described.	eng
59262	habitat		It occurs in a variety of habitats but seems to prefer seepage areas near streams or ponds, particularly in piedmont and upper coastal plain areas. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59262	population		Harrison and Guttman (2003) mapped 21 occupied sites in North Carolina and South Carolina, managing to list 50 paratypes, and to observe 1-8 specimens per site. This species is therefore considered not particularly rare nor abundant. It is known from populations in other states too.	eng
59262	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
59263	conservation		The type locality for this species is located in a municipal park. Salado salamanders are listed as a Candidate species for Federal listing. Habitat protection and population monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59263	distribution		This species is known only from Big Boiling (= Main, Salado, or Siren) Springs and Robertson Springs at Salado, Bell County, Texas, United States (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Salamanders that might represent this species have been found in springs of nearby Buttermilk Creek (G. Longley pers. comm. to Chippindale; Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is known from 2-3 sites, though additional occurrences might remain undetected (these salamanders are elusive and difficult to find) (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59263	habitat		It is an entirely aquatic species, known only from the immediate vicinity of spring outflows, under rocks, and in gravel substrate (Chippindale 2005). Breeding takes place in water.	eng
59263	population		Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) collected most specimens in 1989-1991, when several could sometimes be found on a single visit. Between 1991 and 1998, no additional animals were located despite more than 20 visits to the type locality; one specimen was found in August 1998.	eng
59263	threats		Most spring outlets at Salado have been altered to some degree, and several groundwater contamination incidents have occurred recently (and more may occur in the future) (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59264	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
59264	distribution		This species can be found in the USA. It occurs in Illinois, Indiana, southern Ohio, western West Virginia, and central Virginia south to northern Florida, southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, and southeastern Louisiana (Jacobs 1987, Conant and Collins 1991, Sever 1999). An old record for Michigan needs verification (Sever 1999).	eng
59264	habitat		It can be found on rocky brooks, springs, seepages, river swamps (e.g., tupelo-cypress), forested floodplains with stagnant pools; it may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Adults hide under objects in or near flowing water. It is often found crossing roads in rainy weather during breeding season. Eggs are laid on/under submerged rocks, logs, or aquatic plants.	eng
59264	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.	eng
59264	threats		Like many salamanders, this species is sensitive to intensive timbering, land clearing, and stream pollution and siltation, and it is often absent from urban areas and highly disturbed landscapes (Petranka 1998), but overall the species is unthreatened.	eng
59265	conservation		Forested buffers should be retained along streams and associated wetlands (Petranka 1998).	eng
59265	distribution		This species can be found in the eastern USA from Virginia and Tennessee south though the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the Gulf Coast, including eastern Louisiana and western Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Carlin 1997).	eng
59265	habitat		It can be found in forested floodplains, ditches, damp streamsides, seepage springs. It may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. It hides in rock crevices, crayfish burrows, and under rocks, logs, and other debris. Eggs are laid in underground crevices associated with springs, temporary pools, and slow-moving streams; under rocks in streams; in bogs; or in woodland ponds. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59265	population		No quantitative data available but apparently regularly recorded in appropriate habitat.	eng
59265	threats		It is basically unthreatened, but widespread loss of bottomland hardwood forests likely has resulted in the loss of many populations (Petranka 1998).	eng
59266	conservation		It occurs in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park (USFWS 1999). Most of the North Carolina populations are on Nantahala National Forest lands. <em>E. junaluska</em> is a species of special concern in North Carolina and it is listed as a species in need of management in Tennessee.	eng
59266	distribution		This species is known from a portion of the Blue Ridge Mountains in south-western North Carolina and south-eastern Tennessee, USA (Conant and Collins 1991; Redmond and Scott 1996; Ryan 1997; USFWS 1999). It is extant in 17 streams (USFWS 1999).	eng
59266	habitat		Its non-breeding habitat is unknown. Adults have been found hiding under objects in or along streams where reproduction and larval development take place. They may be found on roads near creeks on rainy nights, suggesting movement between a terrestrial habitat (possibly forest) and breeding sites along streams. It does not tolerate alterations to stream habitats.	eng
59266	population		A reliable estimate of population size cannot be made (Bruce and Ryan 1995). It is rare, even where known to be present (Ryan 1997). Richard Bruce (pers. comm., 1998) rated it as the rarest salamander in North America. Natural heritage programs estimated abundance at less than 1,000 individuals in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park (Dana Soehn pers. comm., 1998) and occupied habitat in North Carolina at 10-15 miles of stream (H. LeGrand pers. comm., 1998). Sever (1983) collected fewer than 50 transformed individuals in more than 10 years of fieldwork. Bruce (1982) collected only five adults during a survey period lasting over a year. A 1994-1995 survey of 63 locations yielded seven transformed individuals and no more than two adults; the remaining observations were of larvae and eggs (Bruce and Ryan 1995). There is no direct evidence of any population declines; no populations are known to have been lost since the species was described (USFWS 1999). It is possibly stable in some areas, but specific range wide information on population trends is not available. One of three populations identified during a 1994-1995 survey appeared to be stable (Bruce and Ryan 1995). The Tennessee Valley and North Carolina populations probably are stable (H. LeGrand and R. Smith pers. comm., 1998).	eng
59266	threats		This species currently appears to be unthreatened. Potential threats include siltation due to logging, road construction for logging activities, urban development, and other activities that would negatively impact water quality (Braswell 1989; H. LeGrand and R. Smith pers. comm., 1998). Due to a widely disjunctive distribution, it is quite unlikely that migration will be sufficient for recolonization of populations that experience declines or local extinctions (Ryan 1998). Reckless sampling and site disruption during spring may cause undue stress to brooding females and result in the abandonment of clutches (Bruce and Ryan 1995).	eng
59267	conservation		Its range includes Guadeloupe River State Park. It is listed as Threatened by the state of Texas, but has no special recognition by the Federal Government.	eng
59267	distribution		This species is described by Chippindale, Hillis and Price (2000) and is included in the <em>E. latitans</em> complex populations from Cascade Caverns, Bear Creek Spring, Cibolo Creek Spring, Kneedeep Cave Spring, Honey Creek Cave Spring, Less Ranch Spring, Cherry Creek Spring, Cloud Hollow Springs, and Rebecca Creek Spring, in Comal, Kerr, Kendall, and Hays counties, in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA. Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (1994) noted that these populations might comprise multiple species.	eng
59267	habitat		It can be found in springs and caves containing water in limestones. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose.	eng
59267	population		No detailed population surveys have been conducted; the abundance of salamanders appears to vary considerably among localities, but actual numbers are difficult to assess.	eng
59267	threats		It is potentially threatened by declining water quantity and quality.	eng
59268	conservation		Although strip mining and acid drainage from coal mining likely have impacted many populations, this species remains widely distributed and is in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).	eng
59268	distribution		This species can be found in the USA from southern New York to Missouri, south to Arkansas, Tennessee, extreme northeastern Mississippi, northern Alabama, extreme northwestern Georgia, western North Carolina, and northwestern Virginia (Carlin 1997).	eng
59268	habitat		It can be found in streamsides, spring runs, cave mouths, abandoned mines; also ponds in northern New Jersey (Conant and Collins 1991). Animals may disperse into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. Hides in rock crevices and under rocks, logs, and other debris. Eggs are laid in underground crevices associated with springs, temporary pools, and streams; under rocks in streams; in woodland ponds; or are attached to objects in or above water in caves.	eng
59268	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.	eng
59268	threats		It is not generally threatened.	eng
59269	conservation		Better information is needed on abundance and trends.	eng
59269	distribution		This species can be found in the Eastern Oklahoma to northern Virginia, north to central Indiana, south to central Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59269	habitat		It can be found in caves (usually limestone); also rocky streams and springs, and wooded areas and fields, usually near caves or limestone outcrops. It hides under objects during day in non-cave areas, except in wet weather when it may be found in the open. Eggs are laid in cave streams or pools, springs, or in rocky streams outside caves. Larvae remain in cave pools until winter or early spring when pools begin to overflow; larvae washed into larger streams, where they remain until metamorphosis.	eng
59269	population		Total adult population size is unknown.	eng
59269	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59270	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
59270	distribution		This species can be found in the USA from southern Missouri to central Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma; also (at least formerly) southeastern Kansas (Conant and Collins 1991, Collins 1993, Petranka 1998).	eng
59270	habitat		It can be found in cave springs and their runs; cold, clear streams. Disperses into wooded terrestrial habitats in wet weather. It hides under rocks, logs, and other objects in or out of water. Eggs are laid on undersides of rocks in cave streams and springs.	eng
59270	population		It apparently has sizable populations although supporting evidence is sparse.	eng
59270	threats		Due to its close association with water, this species is less affected by land clearing and deforestation than are many other salamanders (Petranka 1998).	eng
59271	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, and there is a need for improved protection of its habitat. It is a candidate for both state and federal listing.	eng
59271	distribution		This species can be found in springs and possibly one cave associated with drainages of the south, middle, and north forks of the San Gabriel River, Williamson County, in the northern Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA; populations from the Cowan Creek drainage and from Bat Well in the Berry Creek drainage are provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Cowan Creek drains into Berry Creek, which drains into the San Gabriel River below the city of Georgetown (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59271	habitat		It is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. They are known only from the immediate vicinity of spring outflows, under rocks and leaves and in gravel substrate, and from two water-containing caves. Nothing is known of its breeding biology, though some other spring-dwelling species of central Texas <em>Eurycea</em> are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrates.	eng
59271	population		The population of this species is apparently declining.	eng
59271	threats		Populations within the city of Georgetown proper probably are on the brink of extinction (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Development of retirement and leisure communities (Sun City Georgetown), and quarrying (Middle Fork San Gabriel River), are taking place near some salamander populations, but currently these do not appear to be a major threat to salamander habitat (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59272	conservation		It does not appear to occur in any protected areas. They receive no protection by either the state of Texas or by the Federal Government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59272	distribution		This species is formerly thought to be a wide-ranging species (Sweet 1984). Recent genetic data indicate restriction to Helotes Creek Spring (Bexar County), Leon Springs (Bexar County), and Mueller's Spring (Kendall County), in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas, USA (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59272	habitat		It occurs in springs in limestones, under rocks and leaves, and in gravel substrate. This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown in the wild, but closely related species are thought to deposit eggs in gravel substrates. Bogart (1967) described courtship and oviposition in this species; in the laboratory, eggs were deposited on a variety of substrates.	eng
59272	population		No detailed population surveys have been conducted; they can be common at spring outflows, but their abundance appears to vary considerably among localities, and actual numbers are difficult to assess.	eng
59272	threats		It is poorly known, but presumably vulnerable to water quality degradation and aquifer loss.	eng
59273	conservation		Further research is needed to resolve its taxonomic status.	eng
59273	distribution		According to Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (1994, 2000) this species is assigned to the following populations of <em>Eurycea pterophila</em>: Fern Bank Spring, Peavey's Springs, Boardhouse Springs, Zercher Spring, Grapevine Cave, and T Cave, in Blanco, Hays, and Kendall Counties, Blanco River drainage, Texas, USA.	eng
59273	habitat		It can probably be found in springs.	eng
59273	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
59273	threats		The threats are unknown.	eng
59274	conservation		Further taxonomic study is needed to define the valid taxa in this complex.	eng
59274	distribution		This species can be found in the USA on the Coastal Plain, North Carolina to Lake Okeechobee, Florida, west to eastern Texas; disjunctive population in western South Carolina (Conant and Collins 1991). Record from Barry County, Missouri, reported in 1945, has not been substantiated by more recent collections; Johnson (1987) did not include this species as a part of the Missouri herpetofauna.	eng
59274	habitat		It can be found in low swampy areas, margins of pine savannah ponds, and bottomland forests. It hides under logs or other debris during day. In Alabama, peaks in terrestrial activity coincided with late fall-early winter rains (Trauth 1983). It lays eggs in seepage areas or near the edge of shallow ponds on undersides of logs or leaves, under or on sphagnum or pine needles, or on rootlets beneath logs.	eng
59274	population		It is moderately abundant throughout the range (Petranka 1998).	eng
59274	threats		In minimal need of protection, though many populations likely have been eliminated through loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998).	eng
59275	conservation		Some populations occur within city of Austin preserves, while a population that may represent this species exists on the Travis County Audubon Sanctuary (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59275	distribution		This species occurs in springs of the Jollyville Plateau region north-west of Austin in Travis and Williamson counties, Texas, USA, and in springs of nearby Brushy Creek; the known range includes the Brushy Creek, Bull Creek, Cypress Creek, Long Hollow Creek, and Walnut Creek drainages; the Shoal Creek drainage includes a population provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Also provisionally assigned to this species are populations from Kretschmarr Salamander Cave (Travis County), Testudo Tube (Williamson County), and caves of the Buttercup Creek system, Williamson County, though some of these cave forms may represent distinct species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59275	habitat		Although most populations occur in springs, certain cave-dwelling populations have been provisionally assigned to this species (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose.	eng
59275	population		Chippindale <em>et al.</em> (2000) mapped 4-5 population clusters. Although they may be common at some spring outflows, the species is apparently declining in population size and number/condition of occurrences (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000; and see update by Davis <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59275	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to ongoing rapid urbanization (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000; Davis <em>et al.</em> 2001). For example, an office building was recently built directly above one location. Large amounts of foam have been observed at the type locality (Still House Hollow Springs), and some individuals recently examined from this location exhibited spinal deformations (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). The aquifers that this species depends upon are small and localized and thus susceptible to pollution, drying, or draining (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
59276	conservation		Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the status of this species.	eng
59276	distribution		This complex includes populations from a number of discrete localities in Texas in the USA. There are records from the following counties: north-western Medina (although this population has possibly been extirpated), Real, Kerr, Bandera, Edwards, Uvalde, and Gillespie (Chippindale <em>et al.</em> 2000). Some or all of these locations eventually might be recognized as having distinct species.	eng
59276	habitat		This species occurs in springs.	eng
59276	population		The current population is unknown.	eng
59276	threats		The Valdina Farms Sinkhole population from north-western Medina County might be extinct due to flooding of its only known habitat.	eng
59277	conservation		This species requires habitat protection and more research on its population status and trends.	eng
59277	distribution		According to Bury, Dodd and Fellers (1980), the range of this species includes the drainages of the Neosho and Illinois Rivers, the Springfield Plateau section of the Ozark plateaus of south-western Missouri (McDonald County), north-western Arkansas (Benton, Washington, and Carroll Counties), and north-eastern Oklahoma (Adair, Cherokee, Delaware, Mayes, and Ottawa Counties), USA, at elevations below 305m asl. Petranka (1998) also indicated that the range includes eastern Oklahoma, south-western Missouri, and north-western Arkansas (but see Taxonomy).	eng
59277	habitat		Its habitat is small, clear, spring-fed streams with temperatures normally under 24°C, with a coarse substrate of sand, gravel, or bedrock, where it hides under or among rocks or in submerged vegetation (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). It is most commonly found in shallow (less than 10mm deep), slowly moving water with medium-sized rocks and with high densities of aquatic invertebrates (Tumlison, Cline and Zwank 1990b,c). It lives below the substrate surface during droughts, and it may use karst systems to move within or between stream systems (Tumlison, Cline and Zwank 1990c). Eggs are laid on the undersides of rocks.	eng
59277	population		Its total adult population size is unknown, but it has been found at 50 of 213 sites examined in three states.	eng
59277	threats		This species is threatened by direct habitat destruction (for example by flooding by impoundments), and by activities (such as agriculture, urbanization, stream channeling, and gravel removal) that result in silting or pollution of the aquatic habitat (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980).	eng
59278	conservation		Spring outlets are appropriately managed, but the aquifer recharge zone is not (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). It occurs within Critical Habitat designated for Barton Springs Salamander. Austin Blind Salamanders are currently listed by the Federal Government as a Candidate species; they receive no special protection in Texas.	eng
59278	distribution		The extent of the species' subterranean range is unknown; it was observed in three of the four spring outlets at Barton Springs, Zilker Park, Austin, Texas, USA (typically only juveniles) (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59278	habitat		It has been observed at spring outlets, but is probably mostly restricted to subterranean cavities of the Edwards Aquifer (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species is completely aquatic and does not metamorphose. Breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59278	population		Monthly censuses at Barton Springs from July 1998 to December 2000 yielded 1,518 observations of Barton Springs Salamander <em>E. sosorum</em> and only 17 of Austin Blind Salamander (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, the Austin Blind Salamander appears to be primarily subterranean, and so its abundance is unknown.	eng
59278	threats		Former management of Barton Springs outlets probably was detrimental, but now management there is favourable (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001). The biggest threat currently comes from development of the recharge zone of the Barton Springs segment of the Edwards Aquifer, which has resulted in increased siltation of the aquifer and springs (Hillis <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
59279	conservation		No conservation measures are needed.	eng
59279	distribution		This species is found in the Southern Appalachian Mountains in the USA (mainly the southern Blue Ridge Mountains physiographic province), from western Virginia southward through eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina to western South Carolina and northern Georgia, possibly also northern Alabama (but apparently records there represent E. cirrigera) and north-central South Carolina (Sever 1999).	eng
59279	habitat		It can be found in rocky brooks, springs, and seepages; animals may disperse into terrestrial habitats in wet warm weather. Adults hide under objects in or near water. Eggs are laid in water on underside of rock, log, etc.	eng
59279	population		Many populations are known.	eng
59279	threats		Basically unthreatened, but clear cutting strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59280	conservation		This species would benefit from the protection of watersheds that drain into sinkhole systems (Petranka 1998).	eng
59280	distribution		This species can be found in the Ridge and Valley Province of Roane, Knox, and McMinn Counties, eastern Tennessee, USA (Petranka 1998; Frost 2002). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped five locations within the range of this taxon.	eng
59280	habitat		It is a peadomorphic species than can be found in aquatic habitats and is restricted to caves. Based on what is known about egg deposition sites in spring salamanders (<em>G. porphyriticus</em>), clutches will be attached as a single mass to the underside of large stones.	eng
59280	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species, but the population in Berry Cave appears to be declining (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).	eng
59280	threats		It may be threatened by the destruction of watersheds where inhabited caves are located.	eng
59281	conservation		It occurs in Russell Cave National Monument (Godwin 1995b). This species is listed as Threatened by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency. This species would benefit from protection of watersheds that drain into sinkhole systems (Petranka 1998).	eng
59281	distribution		This species can be found in the southern Cumberland Plateau of south-central Tennessee and north-eastern Alabama, in the Nashville Basin south-east of Nashville, Tennessee, and north-western Alabama and north-western Georgia, USA. Godwin (1995b) regarded Jess Elliot Cave as the most significant site in Alabama. Cave Cove Cave supports the largest population in Tennessee (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).	eng
59281	habitat		It occurs in streams in caves that contain amphipods and other aquatic organisms that can serve as food; individuals may be found in rimstone pools, stream runs and pools, and pools isolated by receding waters. Water tends to be clear and free of sediment; substrates include rock, gravel, sand, and mud (Godwin 1995b). Sinkholes are an important habitat component, allowing for detritus inflow (Caldwell and Copeland 1992). Occasionally, it occurs in epigean environments; probably these individuals have been washed out of caves (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980). The habitats for breeding and non-breeding are likely to be the same, but courtship has never been observed in this species. This species is unlikely to tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
59281	population		There are approximately two-dozen known populations, though others probably exist (Godwin 1995b). Godwin (1995b) reported this species in 6 of 14 Alabama sites surveyed in 1994-1995. Abundance is difficult to determine. Information available suggests populations contain small numbers of individuals, with densities ranging from 0.06-0.15 animals/m² (Petranka 1998). The population in Custard Hollow Cave, Tennessee, appears to be declining (Caldwell and Copeland 1992).	eng
59281	threats		Threats include: flooding following dam construction; water pollutants in runoff from agricultural and residential areas; increased water flow and siltation resulting from deforestation, mining, and urbanization; and deposition of fill and trash in sinkholes (Caldwell and Copeland 1992; Godwin 1995b; Petranka 1998).	eng
59282	conservation		No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59282	distribution		This species can be found in eastern North America from southern Quebec and southern Maine to northern Georgia, Alabama, and northeastern Mississippi (Conant and Colins 1991).	eng
59282	habitat		Small, clear upland streams; clear springs; caves; shaded seepages; occasionally in swamps and lake margins. Sometimes also in forested wet areas away from streams, especially during rainy periods. Often under rocks, logs, leaves, or moss in or near water. Eggs usually are attached to undersides of rocks in running water.	eng
59282	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000.	eng
59282	threats		Deforestation and its impacts on stream conditions are the primary potential threats, but in general this species is secure throughout most of its range.	eng
59283	conservation		The Nature Conservancy owns an easement on the cave system and has title to one entrance; but another entrance and the entire watershed remain unprotected. Additional taxonomic work is probably necessary to clarify the taxonomic status of this species using both morphometric and molecular analyses.	eng
59283	distribution		This species is endemic to one relatively small cave system: General Davis Cave, Greenbrier County, south-eastern West Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998; Beachy 2005). Cave explorers have observed West Virginia spring salamanders almost 2km beyond the cave entrance.	eng
59283	habitat		It occurs during breeding and non-breeding periods in limestone cave stream passages with large amounts of decaying organic matter; it is present in the streams and on mud banks along the streams. It is undoubtedly dependent on high-quality water and the availability of organic material flushed into the cave from outside sources.	eng
59283	population		Reports typically are of 10 to fewer than 100 individuals per survey; the population size varies but probably totals fewer than 300 individuals.	eng
59283	threats		No immediate threats are known, but logging has been proposed by the current owner of the watershed, an activity that would lower water quality in the cave where the species occurs. The same owner almost broke through into the cave system during a recent pond construction project.	eng
59284	conservation		Caves in the Marianna Caverns State Park are protected. Conservation measures include: monitoring known populations and water quality; limiting human intrusion into caves by means of signs, fences, or gates as appropriate; protecting associated bat populations; and limiting pollution and water table fluctuations. Populations cannot be considered adequately protected just because cave mouths are protected.	eng
59284	distribution		This species can be found throughout the Marianna Lowlands-Dougherty Plain physiographic region, in the states of Florida and Georgia, USA. It is known from several caves in Jackson County, Florida; also occurs in Dougherty and Decatur counties, Georgia. It occurs in at least two sites in Georgia and at least 11 sites in Jackson County, Florida.	eng
59284	habitat		It is a resident of the Marianna Lowlands (Dougherty Plain) karst aquifer; it is found in subterranean streams and clear pools in caves and deep wells. It may sometimes leave water and climb limestone walls of caves. It may ultimately depend on guano from associated bat populations.	eng
59284	population		The total adult population size is unknown, and the current trend is also unknown. In the period 1969-1992, populations seemed fairly abundant, in spite of heavy collecting in one or two localities (Means 2005).	eng
59284	threats		Threats include pollution from agricultural runoff and fluctuations in the water table due to impoundments and human use. Over-collecting for science or by herp enthusiasts is a potential threat.	eng
59285	conservation		Many populations are adequately protected.	eng
59285	distribution		This species is discontinuously distributed in the US and Canada from Nova Scotia (Friet and MacDonald 1995), New Brunswick, southern Quebec (e.g., Sharbel 1990), southern Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin (Vogt 1981), and Minnesota (Dorff 1995, Hall <em>et al.</em> 2000) south to southeastern Oklahoma, Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989), Mississippi, Alabama (Mount 1975), Florida panhandle, and Georgia (Conant and Collins 1991). Distribution is fairly continuous in the northeastern part of the range, spotty in the southwestern part.	eng
59285	habitat		Adults live under objects or among mosses in swamps, boggy streams, and wet, wooded or open areas near ponds or quiet, mossy or grassy/sedgy pools (the larval habitat). Sphagnum moss is commonly abundant in suitable habitat. Eggs are laid in moss or other protected sites immediately above or next to a pool, into which the larvae drop or wriggle after hatching. Does not require pristine habitat; Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1999) noted that in Illinois "several localities are second-growth woods in soggy soils below dams of man-made lakes."	eng
59285	population		The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and might exceed 100,000. The species is more abundant than available records indicate, being relatively difficult to find. Its population is probably relatively stable overall.	eng
59285	threats		Primary potential threat is loss/degradation of habitat, but this is ameliorated in some areas by wetland protection regulations. However, colonies might be more or less isolated by the species' relatively restricted habitat preferences, and development of intervening uplands might inhibit dispersal and colonization of new habitats (Harding 1997). Populations may flourish in many moderately developed and semi-rural areas in southern New England (Klemens 1993). Road mortality does not appear substantial when compared to many species of frogs and Ambystoma salamanders (Klemens 1993). Impoundments likely have reduced the range in some areas (Means 1992). It is tolerant of non-destructive intrusion.	eng
59286	conservation		Entire or most of distribution is public land, some of which is protected (e.g., in national parks).	eng
59286	distribution		This species can be found in High Sierra Nevada, California, USA, from Sonora Pass, Alpine County, to Franklin Pass area, Tulare County; low elevation records are from the south side of Yosemite Valley (Stebbins 1985). It has an isolated population at Smith Lake, Desolation Wilderness, El Dorado County. Its distribution might be more continuous than present records indicate. It can be found at an elevation of 1,220-3,660m asl.	eng
59286	habitat		It can be found among Granite rock exposures, talus, and rock fissures, near seepages from streams or melting snow, also in spray zone of waterfalls. Apparently prefers north-facing slopes. It can also be found under rocks or in caves or crevices during daylight hours. It is a terrestrial breeder.	eng
59286	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is likely to be stable.	eng
59286	threats		No present threats, due especially to remoteness of habitat.	eng
59287	conservation		The only known population of the species is found within La Pera conservation area, which is a state level protected area established in 2006. As of August 2007, no management practices have been implemented in La Pera. Securing and restoring forest at La Pera is essential. This species is listed as "Endangered" by the Mexican government.	eng
59287	distribution		This species is known only from south-western Chiapas, Mexico, north of Berriozabal town close to the airport, at around 1,200m asl.	eng
59287	habitat		It lives in moist evergreen forest and montane rainforest. This species seems to prefer the trunks of mature large and medium-sized trees, but can also be found on the leaves of understorey forbs, or crawling on limestone. Its habitat is in a karstic area. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59287	population		It was thought to be extinct until ten individuals were recorded in December 2000 (A. Muñoz Alonso pers. comm.). Surveys in 2006 and 2007 failed to locate the species. However, it is noted that these surveys occurred on much wetter nights then in 2000 and it is thought that in such conditions the animals move further up in the trees (T. Papenfuss and A. Muñoz Alonso pers. comm.). It is extremely rare.	eng
59287	threats		The last few decades have seen extensive transformation of the northern forests of Chiapas, with serious forest loss and fragmentation taking place due to logging and expanding agriculture (including coffee plantations). Around the newly gazetted La Pera conservation area many of these coffee plantations have been abandoned. Habitat within La Pera is of mixed quality, but is somewhat protected by boulders in the karstic landscape.	eng
59288	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area. Preservation and restoration of the mountain forests on Cerro Baul is essential.	eng
59288	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Baul, above 1,600m asl, in extreme eastern Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
59288	habitat		It lives in cloud forests at high elevations, being found in bromeliads, and cannot survive in disturbed forest. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59288	population		A single individual was located in a recent survey (2007) (T. Papenfuss pers. comm.).	eng
59288	threats		The forests on Cerro Baul are now extremely disturbed and much reduced in extent, in part due to a large fire occuring in the late 1990s.	eng
59289	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59289	distribution		This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Oriental around Cuautlapan, in east-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 800-1,250m asl.	eng
59289	habitat		The species inhabits pine-oak forest where it can be found beneath stones, logs and other debris, and in subterranean situations. It is somewhat adaptable, and can also survive in shaded coffee plantations, but it does not tolerate the opening up of the landscape (which leads to the drying out of its microhabitat). It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59289	population		The species is uncommon, and is hard to find. It was recorded from two localities as recently as 2007.	eng
59289	threats		The habitat of this species is under threat from expanding agriculture and human settlements, and extraction of wood.	eng
59290	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva de la Biósfera Los Tuxtlas, which affords a degree of protection, although there remains a need for more effective management of this area.	eng
59290	distribution		This species is restricted to the San Martín and Santo Marta volcanoes, Los Tuxtlas, in coastal Veracruz, Mexico, occurring from 100 up to 1,300m asl.	eng
59290	habitat		It is terrestrial and fossorial living in leaf-litter in lowland wet forest, and is not very tolerant of habitat disturbance. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59290	population		It is still quite an abundant species.	eng
59290	threats		The main threat is deforestation, as a result of expanding subsistence farming and human settlements, and also logging. Much of the lowere forest on San Martin has been denuded (Joseph Mendelson pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59291	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, making habitat protection a priority to ensure the long-term survival of this species. Further survey work is needed to determine its current population status.	eng
59291	distribution		This species is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,100m asl.	eng
59291	habitat		It lives in cloud forest, where it is terrestrial and fossorial, and does not survive in seriously disturbed habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59291	population		It is very poorly known, and only a few specimens have ever been recorded, despite much fieldwork having been carried out in its range.	eng
59291	threats		The main threats are habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, and expanding agriculture.	eng
59292	conservation		Virtually all of the range of this species is within well-managed protected areas. A significant portion of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.	eng
59292	distribution		This species occurs in the subhumid and humid premontane and montane areas of the Cordillera de Tilaran and the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, from 1,010-2,500m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59292	habitat		It is found in terrestrial and arboreal moss mats in premontane moist and wet forest and rainforest and lower montane rainforest. It can also survive alongside roads where there are moss mats, and has been recorded from pastures, but it does not survive in heavily degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59292	population		It can be locally common, and is regularly recorded within its range as of August 2007 (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59292	threats		There are no major threats to this species.	eng
59293	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito, the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, Parque Nacional Pico Pijol and the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul. The management and protection of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul has improved over the last five years (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59293	distribution		This species is known from five localities in north-central Honduras, in the departments of Atlantida, Yoro, and Cortes, at 860-1,990m asl.	eng
59293	habitat		It lives in low vegetation, moss, and on the ground and tree trunks in premontane wet and lower montane forest. It is not a bromeliad specialist, but is occasionally found in them. It can survive in lightly degraded habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development. Clutch sizes range from 5-19 eggs.	eng
59293	population		It is an uncommon species, and in general, no population changes have been observed (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007). A single specimen was collected in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge in 2003; two specimens were collected in June 2007 from the Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59293	threats		The main threat is forest loss due to expanding agriculture.	eng
59294	conservation		Much of the known range is protected in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59294	distribution		This species is known only from a small area around the type locality: Reserva Biológica Monteverde, Alajuela Province, in the Cordillera de Tilarán, Costa Rica, at 1,550-1,650m asl.	eng
59294	habitat		It lives in terrestrial and arboreal moss banks and in bromeliads in premontane and lower montane rainforest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59294	population		Individuals occasionally are found in Monteverde.	eng
59294	threats		There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59295	conservation		The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Guanacaste. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59295	distribution		This species is known only from the Volcán Orosí and Volcán Cacao, these being the north-western most mountains of the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, 1,400-1,580m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59295	habitat		It is an arboreal species, usually found in moss mats and bromeliads in lower montane forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water. There is no indication that the females attend the eggs.	eng
59295	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59295	threats		There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59296	conservation		The only known site is in the Parque Nacional La Muralla, which was declared as a protected area in 1987. However, this area is poorly protected, and habitat loss is continuing. Improved management of this protected area and additional protection of the remaining habitat is urgently needed.	eng
59296	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro de En Medio, Department of Olancho, north-central Honduras, at 1,760-1,780m asl.	eng
59296	habitat		It has been found inside rotten logs on the floor of lower montane wet forest. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to secondary habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59296	population		It is generally uncommon, although it can be found in reasonable numbers in suitable habitat.	eng
59296	threats		The only remaining habitat of this species is threatened by encroaching coffee cultivation, subsistence agriculture, and livestock.	eng
59297	conservation		It occurs in the 12,000-ha Parque Nacional Montana de Santa Barbara.	eng
59297	distribution		This species is known only from the Montana de Santa Barbara, in the department of Santa Barbara, west-central Honduras, at 1,640-1,980m asl. It probably occurs a little more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59297	habitat		It lives on the ground in leaf-litter, and on low vegetation, in lower montane wet forest. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to secondary habitats. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59297	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59297	threats		The major threat is continued forest loss due to expanding subsistence agriculture and forest fires. Prolonged dry seasons are an increasing problem.	eng
59298	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas, but does occur in the Reserva Indígena Chirripó.	eng
59298	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality on the north-facing premontane slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca, near Moravia de Chirripó, in Cartago Province in eastern Costa Rica, at 1,100-1,200m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it might occur more widely.	eng
59298	habitat		It lives in premontane rainforest, probably in moss mats, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59298	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known from one specimen only, and is likely to be rare.	eng
59298	threats		The major threat is loss of habitat due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.	eng
59299	conservation		Part of its range is protected in Parque Nacional Tapantí.	eng
59299	distribution		This species is known only from the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, from 1,200-2,200m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59299	habitat		It lives in moss mats and bromeliads in premontane rainforest and lower montane wet forest, and is not found in degraded habitats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59299	population		It is not uncommon, and is probably the commonest salamander in Parque Nacional Tapantí.	eng
59299	threats		The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, as a result of encroaching agricultural cultivation and livestock grazing.	eng
59300	conservation		Much of the range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo.	eng
59300	distribution		This species occurs on the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica, from 1,370-1,800m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59300	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter and moss banks in lower montane rainforest and marginally in higher altitude portions of premontane rainforest. It can be found in pastures under moss mats. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59300	population		It has been found to be more common than was once thought, but there are still few records.	eng
59300	threats		The main threat to this species is forest loss and fragmentation, as a result of encroaching agricultural cultivation and livestock grazing.	eng
59301	conservation		The entire known range of this species is protected in Parque Nacional Saslaya. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59301	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Sasalya and Cerro El Torro in Parque Nacional Saslaya, north-central Nicaragua, at 1,280-1,370m asl (Köhler <em>et al</em>., 2004).	eng
59301	habitat		It lives in lower montane wet (cloud) forest, and is arboreal, hiding in thick moss. It is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59301	population		It is reasonably common in its small range.	eng
59301	threats		There are no major threats known, and its habitat is well protected. Nonetheless, its restricted range renders it vulnerable to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
59302	conservation		Its type locality is in the Reserva de Manantiales Montañas del Mico.	eng
59302	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Montañas del Mico, in Izabal Department in eastern Guatemala, at 744m asl.	eng
59302	habitat		The single known individual of this species was found inside a log in very wet forest (experiencing more than 4,000mm of annual precipitation). This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59302	population		No data are available regarding its population status. Only a single specimen is known.	eng
59302	threats		There are no known threats to it since it occurs in a protected area.	eng
59303	conservation		The only known locality for this species is close to Parque Nacional Tapantí, in which this species might occur (although it has not so far been discovered there, despite being searched for).	eng
59303	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in the Orosi River Valley at the north end of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 1,300m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
59303	habitat		It was found in leaf-litter in premontane rainforest. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59303	population		Only one specimen is known.	eng
59303	threats		The main threat to it is forest clearance for cattle ranching. A hotel has been built on the site of the type locality, however there is apparently suitable habitat remaining in the area (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
59304	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, the Biotopo del Quetzal in Baja Verapaz, and in a private reserve in Alta Verapaz, as well as in the proposed Parque Nacional Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59304	distribution		This highly distinctive species is known from just four localities: Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello, in southern Chiapas, Mexico; the north-eastern slopes of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, western Guatemala; the mountains of Alta Verapaz in central Guatemala; and the mountains of Baja Verapaz, also in central Guatemala. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-1,610m asl.	eng
59304	habitat		It lives in humid pine-oak forest and cloud forest, with specimens having been found under moss and bark; it is not found in disturbed habitat. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59304	population		It is a very uncommon species: there is only a single record from Mexico.	eng
59304	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, together with logging.	eng
59305	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, David Wake, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It occurs in the Palo Seco Forest Reserve in Panama, but not currently recorded from any protected areas in Costa Rica. Further studies are needed into populations declines in this species.	eng
59305	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, David Wake, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, 2009	This species is known from the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica and extreme north-western Panama, at 19-850m asl (Savage, 2002).	eng
59305	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, David Wake, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It inhabits humid lowland forest, and old banana plantations, living in leaf litter. It cannot survive in open habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59305	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, David Wake, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, 2009	It is an uncommon species.	eng
59305	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, Jay Savage, David Wake, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, 2009	The main threat is opening up of its forest habitat for agriculture, livestock, logging and human settlement.	eng
59306	conservation		It occurs in the Manuel Antonio, Corcovado Golfito, Equines, and Baru National Parks, and perhaps in other protected areas.	eng
59306	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of southwestern Costa Rica and extreme western Panama from sea level to 880m asl. Some previous records from Panama were previously confused with <em>Oedipina parvipes</em>.	eng
59306	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter in lowland moist and wet forest and rainforest. It also survives in old banana plantations, and somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59306	population		It is a common species.	eng
59306	threats		The main threat is opening up of its forest habitat for agriculture, logging and human settlement.	eng
59307	conservation		It is not known from any protected area, and protection of the remaining habitat within the range is urgently required. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
59307	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, El Empalme, and another nearby site to the west, on the Pan-American Highway south of Cartago in the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, at 2,286-2,320m asl.	eng
59307	habitat		It lives in lower montane rainforest. One individual (the holotype) was collected under moss and another was discovered at the edge of degraded forest. It presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59307	population		Only three individuals have ever been collected, and none since 1985.	eng
59307	threats		The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.	eng
59308	conservation		It has been recently recorded from two private reserves (Pocora and Reserva las Brisas le Alegria) (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).	eng
59308	distribution		This species is known from four localities, Finca Los Diamantes (Guapilles), Pocora (a private reserve), Reserva las Brisas le Alegria, Alto Guayacan, on the Atlantic versant of Costa Rica, from 60-750m asl. Its distribution is not well understood, and it is suspected to occur more widely.	eng
59308	habitat		This species lives inside rotten logs or under bark on fallen trees in banana plantations and degraded habitats, and it might also be arboreal. Animals have recently been found within logs in scrubby areas, and appear to very specifically favour young secondary growth forest (Eric Berlin pers. comm.). It presumably lived originally in lowland moist forest. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59308	population		This species is presumably very rare, perhaps because most of the lowland forest has been cleared within its range. Only three specimens were collected between 1959 and 2001. Four additional specimens have recently been collected (Eric Berlin pers. comm.).	eng
59308	threats		It might have declined as a result of the clearance of its forest habitat for agricultural development (pinappleas and other crops), livestock rearing and human settlement. Although this salamander is found in secondary habitat, this modified habitat is itself now being cleared from within the species range (Eric Berlin and Brian Kubicki pers. comm).	eng
59309	conservation		Further research is required to resolve the taxonomic relationships between the specimens from the different known localities.	eng
59309	distribution		This species occurs very sparsely in the humid Atlantic lowlands from eastern Nicaragua, through Costa Rica to central Panama, up to 600m asl. If it is a single species, it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites.	eng
59309	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
59309	population		This is a rare species with a wide range, with one specimen recorded from each of its known localities. There are no recent records from Costa Rica.	eng
59309	threats		This species has most likely been affected by the destruction of its natural forest habitat for logging, agricultural development, livestock rearing, and human settlement.	eng
59310	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. In Panama it occurs in the following protected areas: Cerro Campana National Park; Soberania National Park; Chagres National Park; and Isla Barro del Colorado National Monument.	eng
59310	distribution		This species occurs in the central Panama lowlands eastwards to San Blas, below 800m asl. It also occurs through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. It is also found on Gorgona Island in Colombia. It occurs here at very low altitude, many specimens being collected at 70-90m asl.	eng
59310	habitat		It lives on the ground, and on bushy vegetation, logs and rocks in humid tropical lowland forest. It does not survive in degraded areas, but is found on forest edges. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59310	population		It is a common species in Colombia, but is very rare in Ecuador. It is generally somewhat uncommon but is not rare in Panama.	eng
59310	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
59311	conservation		It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
59311	distribution		This species ranges from extreme northeastern Panama, through the Atlantic versants of Costa Rica and Nicaragua to north-central Honduras. It occurs generally below 600m asl. Records up to 1,780m asl in Honduras might refer to another species.	eng
59311	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest, where it is terrestrial and semi-fossorial. It can survive in somewhat disturbed forest where there are still tall trees. In Honduras, it has been recorded from shaded coffee plantations (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.). It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59311	population		It is uncommon but present widely. In Honduras it is fairly common, with between five and seven specimens recorded in 2006 (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).	eng
59311	threats		The main threat to this species is the drying of the soil resulting from the loss of trees. This is happening through much of its range due to the expansion of agriculture and human settlements, as well as logging. The conversion of shaded coffee plantations to open plantations is likely to lead to a decline in this species (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.).	eng
59312	conservation		It occurs in the Columbia River Forest Reserve in Belize, and in the Montanas del Mico Catchment Reserve in Guatemala. It was collected from a private protected area in Honduras. Most of its habitat is poorly protected. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59312	distribution		This species occurs in northern Chiapas, Mexico, central and southern Belize, and central and eastern Guatemala with three recent records from northwestern Honduras. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has been recorded up to 1,035m asl in Honduras.	eng
59312	habitat		It inhabits tropical and subtropical wet forest, and tolerates modest disturbance of its habitat. It lives in the channels of fallen logs, in termite nests on the ground, in leaf-litter, in holes, and in tree stumps. It has been found in coffee plantations in Honduras. It has even been found in a parking lot. However, it is generally associated with moist microhabitats where there are abundant logs on the ground. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59312	population		It is generally uncommon, but occasionally significant numbers can be found.	eng
59312	threats		Deforestation and other disturbances to the forest are clearly threats to this species when they lead to the desiccation of the soil, as is the case in most areas that have been cleared for commercial agriculture and livestock. Conversion of shaded coffee plantations to open areas or open coffee plantations would likely lead to a decline in this species.	eng
59313	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico Bonito and in the Texiguat Wildlife Refuge, but protection of these areas is very poor and there is a need for improved management.	eng
59313	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Bufalo in the department of Atlantida, and from near La Fortuna in the department of Yoro, north-central Honduras, at 1,580-1,810m asl.	eng
59313	habitat		It lives inside rotten logs on the ground, and probably also in the soil, in lower montane wet forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59313	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59313	threats		The main threats are expanding subsistence agriculture, forest fires, and small-scale cattle ranching.	eng
59314	conservation		It occurs in the La Selva Biological Station and Reserve in Costa Rica, but there are otherwise very few protected areas within its range. The species is in need of close population monitoring.	eng
59314	distribution		This species is known from the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica and extreme north-western Panama, at 3-710m asl.	eng
59314	habitat		It inhabits lowland rainforest, where it can be found in leaf-litter, under rotten logs, moss or rocks, on tree trunks or on the ground. It can tolerate very limited habitat degradation. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59314	population		It was formerly common, but is now very rare, though still surviving at several sites, including La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica.	eng
59314	threats		Habitat destruction due to expanding agriculture, logging and human settlements is probably the main cause of the decline.	eng
59315	conservation		It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad on the border of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
59315	distribution		This species occurs in the Cordillera de Talamanca in extreme southern Costa Rica and immediately adjacent western Panama, at 1,810-1,950m asl.	eng
59315	habitat		It is a fossorial species inhabiting humid lower montane forest areas, and it is not found in degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59315	population		It used to be common, but has undergone considerable declines across its range.	eng
59315	threats		The main threat is habitat loss caused by expanding smallholder farming, and logging.	eng
59316	conservation		Its taxonomy needs further investigation. There are no definate records from protected areas, it has been collected close to Trifinio National Park and is likely to be present in Opalaca Biological Reserve.	eng
59316	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific versant of south-central and south-eastern Guatemala and south-western Honduras, at 1,000 ­ 2,000m asl. Its distribution is very poorly known, and is probably further confounded by taxonomic confusion. Attempts to map its distribution at this stage should be regarded as provisional.	eng
59316	habitat		It lives in mesic broad-leaf forest and pine-oak forest, and can tolerate some habitat degradation, provided the soil does not dry out. Two specimens were collected in coffee plantations in the area of Marcala La Paz (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm.) A single animal has been recorded from a corn field adjacent to primary tropical forest, however it is not known if the species can persist in this habitat. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59316	population		It is a very poorly known species, and is probably uncommon.	eng
59316	threats		The main threat to this species is any form of land management that leads to the drying out of the soil, such as annual burning, cattle ranching, road building, clear felling, and many forms of agriculture. Such damaging forms of habitat loss are very extensive within its range.	eng
59317	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area, and some form of habitat protection is urgently needed on the Isla Escudo de Veraguas.	eng
59317	distribution		This species is known only from the Isla Escudo de Veraguas in the Bocas del Toro Province, Panama. If it is restricted to this island, it is the only tropical salamander that is endemic to an island. It is found close to sea level.	eng
59317	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest and mangrove forest. Salamanders were collected in decaying fronds and associated moist litter near a fallen palm in a coconut palm grove in late March in 1991. The eggs were found inside a pile of coconut trash at the base of a tree (<em>Terminalia</em>) on the beach at Guayami Settlement. The eggs belonged to two clutches, each containing six embryos. The embryos began hatching on the way back to camp from the field. One newly hatched embryo measured 11.8 mm in total length and retained gills. The species breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59317	population		It is known from only eight adult specimens and two clutches of eggs.	eng
59317	threats		Forest clearance is taking place on the Isla Escudo de Veraguas, mainly due to people visiting the island to cut wood.	eng
59318	conservation		It occurs in the Manuel Antonio, Carara and Corcovado Golfito National Parks in Costa Rica. None of its range in Panama is protected.	eng
59318	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific slope of southern Costa Rica and in a small area of adjacent southwestern Panama. Its altitudinal range is 5-1200m asl.	eng
59318	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter, often near tree buttresses, in Lowland Moist and Wet Forests and Premontane Rainforest. It is adaptable, being found in old plantations and in highly disturbed areas. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59318	population		It is a common species.	eng
59318	threats		It is probably adversely affected by very serious habitat destruction, but generally it faces few threats.	eng
59319	conservation		It occurs in the following protected areas: Cerro Campana National Park; Soberania National Park; Chagres National Park; Isla Barro del Colorado National Monument; and close to Utria Natural National Park in Colombia.	eng
59319	distribution		This species occurs in central Panama in the Pacific and Atlantic lowlands and cordilleras, and in the eastern cordilleras adjacent to central Panama, extending into the Choco region and the Lower Cauca Valley in Antioquia Department of northwestern Colombia. It is found below 700m asl.	eng
59319	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest, living in leaf-litter. It is not found in degraded habitats, but it can tolerate slight disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59319	population		It is slightly more common than the sympatric Oedipina complex. There is no recent information from Colombia.	eng
59319	threats		The major threats are deforestation for agricultural development, illegal crops, logging and human settlement, and pollution resulting from the spraying of illegal crops.	eng
59320	conservation		It is not known from any protected area, and habitat protection is urgently needed. Further survey work is also needed to determine the current population status of this species and whether or not it survives in the wild.	eng
59320	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, near El Empalme (along the Pan-American Highway, south of Cartago) at the northern end of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, at about 2,286m asl (Savage 2002).	eng
59320	habitat		It inhabits lower montane rainforest, and possibly lives below the ground. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59320	population		There is no information on current population status; no individuals have been collected since 1952 (Savage 2002; Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007), and it is possible that it is now extinct.	eng
59320	threats		The major threat is likely to be loss of habitat due to increased urbanization, and expanding smallholder farming and cattle ranching activities.	eng
59321	conservation		It occurs in the Reserva Biológica Monteverde and in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo. The species is in need of close population monitoring.	eng
59321	distribution		This species occurs in the humid lower montane and premontane zones of the Cordillera de Tilarán, the Cordillera Central, and the Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica, at 775-2,050m asl.	eng
59321	habitat		It lives in moss mats near streams and under rocks and logs in premontane and lower montane rainforest. It is relatively aquatic, and is usually found close to streams, although it is not dependent upon water for breeding. It also occurs in road cuts and quarries, and in secondary habitat, provided that it is not too degraded and desiccated. Breeding takes place by direct development.	eng
59321	population		It used to be common, but appears to have undergone recent declines of potentially greater than 50% (although individuals continue to turn up in surveys conducted in appropriate habitat).	eng
59321	threats		The causes of the extensive population decline in this species are currently not understood. Chytrid fungus has been recorded within the range of the species, however further research is needed, as it is not certain that the disease chytridiomycosis is responsible for the populations declines (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to smallholder farming activites (including livestock farming), wood collection, and human settlement. Some of its habitat might be at risk of flooding due to the construction of a dam.	eng
59322	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Saslaya (in Nicaragua) and in Parque Nacional Arenal and several catchment forest reserves in Costa Rica. There is a need for close population monitoring of this species. Surveys are urgently needed to determine the rate of population decline, and to identify remaining populations.	eng
59322	distribution		This species occurs in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. It can be found on the Atlantic and Pacific slopes in northern Costa Rica and on the Atlantic slope of central Costa Rica, at 19-1,253m asl. In Nicaragua, it is known from two localities: Hacienda la Cumplida (north-east of Matagalpa) at 730m asl; and Parque Nacional Saslaya, at 945m asl (Köhler <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
59322	habitat		It lives in moss banks and under logs in lowland and premontane wet forest, and can survive in somewhat degraded habitats. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59322	population		It was formerly very common, but has undergone serious declines (although individuals continue to turn up in surveys conducted in appropriate habitat). The reasons for the declines of this species and the rate of decline are not known, and while the last specimen was collected in 1996, the species may still persist (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
59322	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to smallholder farming activities, wood collection, and human settlement.	eng
59323	conservation		A small part of its range is protected at the Estación Biológica Las Cruces. The forest where this species has been collected is severely fragmented. Incentives for private forest protection need to be continued and strengthened.	eng
59323	distribution		This species is known only from the humid premontane Pacific versant in extreme south-western Costa Rica and adjacent Panama, from 1,200-1,400m asl, although its distribution is poorly known.	eng
59323	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter in premontane rainforest and breeds by direct development.	eng
59323	population		There are no population data and the range is still incompletely known for this recently described species (as of August 2007).	eng
59323	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat clearance, and much of its habitat has been cleared for coffee in the last 30 years, with only small forest fragments remaining. It is also threatened by increasing human settlement.	eng
59324	conservation		It is not known from any formal protected areas, and any remaining suitable habitat in the range of the species requires urgent protection. Further survey work is needed to better determine the current population status of the species.	eng
59324	distribution		This species is known only from the Pacific slope of south-western Guatemala in the departments of San Marcos and Quezaltenango, from 1,400 ­ 1,500m asl.	eng
59324	habitat		It presumably once occurred in subtropical and lower montane wet forest, but this has largely been cleared within its range. Animals have been found under rotting logs and piles of dead vegetation, and in soil banks in recently cleared agricultural plantations, and in other disturbed areas (including shade-grown coffee habitats). It breeds by direct development.	eng
59324	population		It is very uncommon, although it is probably difficult to find given its subterranean habits.	eng
59324	threats		The major threat is the conversion of areas of shade-grown coffee, and other shaded habitats, to more open environments.	eng
59325	conservation		Isla de Amapala has been declared a multiple-use zone, but this affords no real protection for this species.	eng
59325	distribution		This species was first described from Isla de Amapala in Valle Department, off the Pacific coast of southern Honduras, near sea level, and this remains the only confirmed location. It has also been recorded from the city of Tegucigalpa at 1,000m asl, but the authenticity of this record has been questioned.	eng
59325	habitat		There is very little information regarding its habitat and ecological requirements. It was recorded in a mineshaft on Isla de Amapala, but it is not now known where the (presumably long-abandoned) mine is. This species is most likely to breed by direct development.	eng
59325	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, and there have been no records since before 1904. It is known from three specimens: two from the island, and one that is said to come from Tegucigalpa. Attempts to relocate this species on the island have not been successful.	eng
59325	threats		So little is known about this species that the threats cannot be defined.	eng
59326	conservation	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler, 2009	In El Salvador, it occurs in Parque Nacional El Imposible and probably also in Parque Natural Cerro Verde. It is not known from any protected areas in Guatemala or Honduras. Further research is required to clarify its taxonomic status.	eng
59326	distribution	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler, 2009	This species ranges from south-eastern Guatemala to central El Salvador, and is also known from the lower Motagua Valley in the vicinity of Doña María in eastern El Salvador. Records from southern Honduras provisionally assigned to this species will probably be shown to refer to another species (D. Wake, pers. comm.). Overall, there is very little information on its distribution, probably in part because of taxonomic confusion. Its altitudinal range is 140 ­ 1,140m asl (upper elevation recorded in Köhler et al., 2006).	eng
59326	habitat	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler, 2009	This species presumably originally inhabited lowland and mid-altitude forest. It has been collected from beneath a rotting log in open forest and from the rubble of a collapsed shack. It has also been found underground near a small river. The only Honduran specimen was found in the patio of a house in a small town (Franklin Castañeda, pers. comm. 2007). However, very little is known of its ecological requirements. Köhler <em>et al.</em> (2006), recently indicate that the species is found in dry forest, evergreen forest and subtropical humid forest; and that it appears to do well in distrubed areas with a number of records from urban areas and modified habitats (including coffee plantations and scrub pasture). Breeding is by direct development in this species.	eng
59326	population	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler, 2009	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59326	threats	Manuel Acevedo, David Wake, Gunther Köhler, 2009	It was previously considered to be presumably threatened by the ongoing loss of forest habitat as a result of smallholder farming and rearing of livestock, small-scale subsistence wood extraction, and increasing human settlement. However, this species appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat modification (see Köhler <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
59327	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Volcán Irazú, Volcán Turrialba, Parque Nacional Tapantí, Volcán Poás, Monteverde (at least formerly), and Volcán Tenorio. Further research is needed to determine the causes of the decline in undisturbed habitats, such as at Monteverde.	eng
59327	distribution		This species occurs from Volcán Tenorio, south through the cordilleras and Meseta Central to the Panama frontier, at 750-2,150m asl, in Costa Rica (Savage 2002). Its presence in Panama has not been confirmed.	eng
59327	habitat		It inhabits humid premontane and lower montane forest. It has been found living in leaf-litter, under decaying logs, and in moss banks. It has also been found in pastures, gardens and even cities and can withstand significant habitat modification. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59327	population		It is still a regularly seen species. However, population declines have been noted in parts of the species range including Monteverde and Cascajal; although reduced populations remain at these localities. The reasons for these declines is unclear.	eng
59327	threats		The species is generally not threatened by habitat loss. The reasons behind the population decline in some populations are not known.	eng
59328	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making habitat protection an urgent priority for this species. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. Further studies are needed into the reasons for the decline of this species.	eng
59328	distribution		This species occurs on the Sierra Madre Oriental from around Cuautlapan north to Teocelo in east-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 800-1,500m asl.	eng
59328	habitat		It inhabits cloud and oak forest, and is usually found living in bromeliads or on the ground in terrestrial microhabitats. This species is somewhat adaptable, and can survive in shaded coffee plantations provided that humidity levels are maintained, but it does not tolerate the opening up of the landscape (which leads to the drying out of its microhabitat). It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59328	population		It used to be uncommon, but has undergone significant population declines. The species has only been observed once since 1997 despite many attempts to locate it.	eng
59328	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and human settlements, and extraction of wood.	eng
59329	conservation		None needed.	eng
59329	distribution		This species is known from the central USA in southern Missouri, the highlands of northern and western Arkansas, the northern and central portions of eastern Oklahoma, and the Balcones Escarpment area of south-central Texas; also assigned to this species are populations from Independence, Johnson, Logan, Polk, Scott, and Van Buren counties, Arkansas; and Warren County, Missouri (north of the Missouri River) (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
59329	habitat		It is commonly under rocks or logs in damp ravines and moist wooded hillsides; it may retreat underground or burrow into piles of leaf-litter in dry summer weather; it sometimes occurs in the twilight zone of caves (Missouri, Johnson 1987, 2000). Wooded ravines and floodplains, along shale banks of rivers and streams, and cave entrances are also suitable habitats (Texas, Garrett and Barker 1987). Eggs are laid in damp protected locations underground, under rotten logs, or in other damp vegetative debris. There is no aquatic larval stage.	eng
59329	population		It is known from many populations throughout range.	eng
59329	threats		It is apparently unthreatened and is locally impacted by deforestation.	eng
59330	conservation		It probably occurs within several protected areas (e.g., Bat Cave) and probably also receives some protection on lands in the Pisgah National Forest where the forest cover is maintained (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003). Conservation activities that promote mature closed-canopy forests should benefit this species. It is not listed on state or federal endangered species lists. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59330	distribution		The range has not yet been clearly delineated for this recently split species, but as currently understood it occurs in Blue Ridge Mountains in the north-eastern part of the Blue Ridge isolate of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex, Buncombe, Rutherford, and Henderson counties, North Carolina, USA; elevations range at least 1,109-1,116m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59330	habitat		It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder that breeds by direct development.	eng
59330	population		Because this species was recently described, there are no specific population data available. Highton and Peabody (2000) listed two sampling localities. Based on the proximity of these localities to the transects worked by Petranka (1999), this salamander might have been sampled in the latter study, in which it was the second most abundant salamander in the study.	eng
59330	threats		Clear cutting has been reported as a cause of the declines of local populations of the <em>P. jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993; Petranka 1999). Data presented by Petranka might or might not apply specifically to <em>P. amplus</em>.	eng
59331	conservation		None needed.	eng
59331	distribution		This species can be found in the Ozark region of southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, and eastern Oklahoma, United States (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1997).	eng
59331	habitat		Vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. It occurs under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59331	population		Many populations are known, and the populations appear to be stable.	eng
59331	threats		Apparently none. Locally impacted by deforestation.	eng
59332	conservation		Studies needed on population status and natural history.	eng
59332	distribution		This species can be found between the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers on the western slopes of the Unicoi Mountains and nearby lowlands in north-eastern Polk and eastern Monroe Counties, Tennessee, and also in north-western Graham and north-western Cherokee counties, North Carolina, USA (Highton 1986). Its range is still poorly known.	eng
59332	habitat		It can be found in mountainous and lowland forested habitats (Highton 1983), and it breeds terrestrially by direct development.	eng
59332	population		Highton (1986) mapped 26 collection sites for this species, though these do not all necessarily represent distinct occurrences. Its overall population status is not known.	eng
59332	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
59333	conservation		Part of the range of this species is within the Nantahala Game Lands, which offer some measure of protection because the forest is typically left intact. There is also an effort to declare much of the range as Wilderness, which, if successful, would further protect the species. The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59333	distribution		This species occurs in an area of approximately 15 square kilometres in Cheoah Bald, Graham and Swain counties, North Carolina, USA; its elevational range is at least 975-1,524m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59333	habitat		It is found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder. Most of the species range includes second growth forest, so it must be somewhat tolerant of disturbance.	eng
59333	population		This species is common in suitable habitat (six or more specimens can be found within a 1-2 hour search). The population is probably stable.	eng
59333	threats		Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations of other members of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable, but is at least a few decades (Ash 1997; Petranka 1999; Ash and Pollock 1999).	eng
59334	conservation		No conservation measures are needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59334	distribution		This species can be found in North America in Minnesota and western Ontario to southern Quebec and Newfoundland, south to North Carolina and northeastern Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Petranka 1998).	eng
59334	habitat		It can be found in damp microhabitats in wooded areas; inside logs, under leaf-litter, or under surface objects during day. Goes underground during freezing or hot, dry weather. In New York, tended to be absent where soil pH was less than 3.8; much more abundant in beech forest than in hemlock forest (Wyman 1988, Wyman and Jancola 1992, Frisbie and Wyman 1992). It occurs in altered habitats where damp microhabitats remain, such as in urban and suburban gardens. Lays eggs in cavity in log or stump or under rock or other objects on ground, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59334	population		This is an extremely abundant species. Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds many millions of individuals. Thousands of localities are known.	eng
59334	threats		Intensive timber harvest causes major declines in abundance (deMaynadier and Hunter 1995). Negative impacts of intensive timber harvesting extend at least 25-35m into uncut forest (deMaynadier and Hunter 1998). Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Animals have been exported from the United States to Canada as part of the international pet trade. However, none of these factors pose serious threats to the global population, and the species can adapt to certain modified habitats.	eng
59335	conservation		Maintenance of mature hardwood forest habitat is key to the long-term persistence of viable populations of this species (Petranka 1998). Taxonomic study needed to clarify systematic status.	eng
59335	distribution		This species is found in the eastern USA, in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces of Virginia and North Carolina west to the French Broad River and south to the northern Piedmont of South Carolina, and parts of the Valley and Ridge physiographic province in western Virginia and extreme eastern West Virginia and in a small area of the Coastal Plain of eastern Virginia (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989); also probably the Blue Ridge Mountains and Valley and Ridge provinces in northeastern Tennessee (Redmond and Scott 1996).	eng
59335	habitat		It is presumed to be the same as Plethodon glutinosus: Wooded slopes, ravines, floodplains, shalebanks, and cave entrances, most often in hardwood forest, sometimes in pinelands. It is generally under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59335	population		It is widespread and common.	eng
59335	threats		Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999). However, logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population.	eng
59336	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59336	distribution		This species can be found in the central United States from Illinois and Indiana southward through western and central Kentucky to central Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1997).	eng
59336	habitat		It can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. Under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59336	population		Many unthreatened populations persist.	eng
59336	threats		None known. Local populations are impacted by deforestation.	eng
59337	conservation		No conservation measures are needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59337	distribution		This species is found in extreme southwestern Washington south to extreme northwestern California, USA (Petranka 1998). It is found from sea level to about 1,000m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59337	habitat		It is found along shady streams or stream seepages in wet rocky areas; talus slopes, moss-covered outcrops, often under rocks, logs, moss and leaf-litter. Animals may enter water to escape predators. Eggs are laid on land in moist crevices or cavities, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59337	population		Many unthreatened populations are known.	eng
59337	threats		It is not strongly tied to old growth forest; it can be abundant in forests of all ages, though it is more likely present in logged forests when mature timber is present upstream (Corn and Bury 1991); hence logging is not a major threat to this species	eng
59338	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59338	distribution		This species can be found in the USA in southeastern Indiana, Ohio (except northwestern part of the state), northern Kentucky, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northwestern West Virginia (Highton 1999, Regester 2000).	eng
59338	habitat		It is terrestrial and found under logs, stumps, rocks, or leaf-litter on moist wooded slopes of valleys and ravines; high densities on wooded talus; sometimes along stream margins; rarely on dry ridge crests, hilltops, or valley floors (Regester 2000). Generally underground in mid-winter and summer. Lays eggs under rocks or in underground cavity, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59338	population		There are many occurrences; well over 100 widely distributed collection sites (e.g., Pfingsten and Downs 1989).	eng
59338	threats		None known. Local populations are impacted by deforestation.	eng
59339	conservation		It occurs in Redwood National Park and associated state redwood parks in Humboldt and Del Norte Counties, California.	eng
59339	distribution		This species can be found in the vicinity of Port Orford, south-western Oregon, south to central Humboldt County, north-western California, USA (Petranka 1998). It occurs from sea level up to about 1,600m asl (Ollivier and Welsh 1999).	eng
59339	habitat		It is strongly associated with moist talus and rocky substrates in redwood or Douglas fir forests, including in riparian zones. It is usually found among moss-covered rocks, under associated bark and other forest litter, but usually not in seeps or other very wet areas. It is associated with older forests with closed, multi-storied canopy (composed of both conifers and hardwoods), with a cool, moist microclimate, and rocky substrates dominated by cobble-sized fragments, and these conditions may be optimal throughout most of the range (Welsh 1990; Welsh and Lind 1995). In coastal regions it may be common in recently harvested forest areas with no associated older forests (Diller and Wallace 1994). The eggs are laid in concealed terrestrial sites where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59339	population		The total adult population size is unknown but it is locally abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
59339	threats		It is declining due to clear-cutting logging of old-growth forest habitat, especially in drier inland locations.	eng
59340	conservation		Maintenance of mature hardwood forest habitat is key to the long-term persistence of viable populations of this species (Petranka 1998).	eng
59340	distribution		This species can be found in the USA. Plethodon glutinosus complex: southern New Hampshire (disjunctive), western Connecticut, and New York south to central Florida, west to Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and south-central Texas (disjunctive) (Petranka 1998). Plethodon glutinosus sensu Highton <em>et al.</em> (1989): northeastern USA to central Illinois, south to central Alabama, central Georgia, western Virginia, northern Maryland, and central New Jersey.	eng
59340	habitat		There are wooded slopes, ravines, floodplains, shalebanks, and cave entrances; most often in hardwood forest, sometimes in pinelands. It is generally under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59340	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. There are hundreds of occurrences. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).	eng
59340	threats		Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999). However, logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population.	eng
59341	conservation		None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59341	distribution		This species can be found in the eastern USA in the Susquehanna River Valley, Pennsylvania, to New River, northwestern Virginia, including eastern West Virginia and western Maryland (Highton 1999).	eng
59341	habitat		It is found in valley and ridge physiography, generally in mature hardwood forests with well-drained soils. It lays eggs in moist cavity, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59341	population		Stable populations occur throughout the range	eng
59341	threats		None. Local populations are no doubt impacted by deforestation.	eng
59342	conservation		Most known U.S. sites (87%) occur on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, but these data are biased by the fact that most surveys have been conducted on National Forest lands. Sites located off Forest Service land receive little, if any, protection from land management activities. Both Idaho and Montana have stream protection zones (voluntary in Montana), as do most forests. However, the seeps and small, high gradient and intermittent streams that provide most of the known habitat receive minimal protection under these guidelines that are based primarily on protecting downstream water quality, rather than on maintaining high quality on-site habitat in these areas (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
59342	distribution		This species is a remnant of a once diverse plethodontid salamander fauna in the central Rocky Mountains, North America, that was likely reduced by climatic changes over the last 10-14 million years (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983, Tihen and Wake 1983). The species maintains a disjunctive distribution at elevations up to 1,524m asl in northern Idaho, western Montana, and southeastern British Columbia (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1997). Recent surveys have found this species to be more widely distributed than previously known, particularly in British Columbia. The North Fork of the Clearwater and the St. Joe drainages in Idaho, and the lower Clark Fork and Kootenai Rivers in Montana, comprise the core of the species U.S. distribution (Wilson and Simon 1987, Genter <em>et al.</em> 1988, Groves 1988). The Selway drainage comprises the southern limit of known range in Idaho (Wilson 1990) and Copper Creek and the Moyie River drainage the northern limit (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1989). In Montana, the southern limit of known distribution is Sweathouse Creek in the Bitterroot River drainage (Wilson and Simon 1987) and the northernmost population is along the South Fork of the Yaak River. Recent surveys have expanded the known range in British Columbia. Prior to 1999, these salamanders were known only from along watercourses (streams, waterfalls and seepages) that drain into the Moyie River, Duck Lake and Kootenay Lake (Holmberg <em>et al.</em> 1984; Orchard 1990; Charland 1992; Ohanjanian 1997a, 1997b, 1998). Work carried out in 1999 by Dulisse (1999), however, showed that they also occur in the Columbia River drainage; they were found near Lower Arrow Lake at Tulip Falls, in Syringa Creek Provincial Park, west of Castlegar. In 2000, they were found north of Nakusp at a falls that flows into Upper Arrow Lake, on Mark Creek (a tributary of the St. Mary's River near the town of Kimberley), along the east shore of the Duncan Reservoir, in low-elevation (950m asl) avalanche paths along Howser Creek (east of the Duncan Reservoir), and at additional sites along the east side of Kootenay Lake (Ohanjanian 1999, 2000, Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000, Ohanjanian et. al 2001). In 2001, Coeur d'Alene Salamanders were found 95km north of Revelstoke, the most northerly location to date. Although not all localities of occurrence have been identified, the southern, eastern and western edges of the distribution are likely limited by lack of moisture, discontinuous geological formations, and high temperatures (Wilson 1993). The northern limit of current distribution probably represents the extent of successful recolonization of suitable habitat (Lynch 1984).	eng
59342	habitat		Primary habitats are seepages and streamside talus; also inhabits talus far from free water (deep talus mixed with moist soil on well-shaded north-facing slopes); in wet weather, occurs also in leaf-litter and under bark and logs in coniferous forest. Terrestrial breeders with direct development; eggs presumably are laid in underground rock crevices, although no nest sites have been found in the wild.	eng
59342	population		There are 97-192 documented U.S. sites: 164 in northern Idaho and 28 in Montana (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994). In British Columbia, as of 2001, there were 44 confirmed sites on 42 distinct watercourses (Ohanjanian 1997a, 1997b, 1998, 1999, 2000; Dulisse 1999; Ohanjanian and Beaucher 2000; Ohanjanian et. al 2001). Total number of adults is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000.<br/><br/>Trend unknown. Most occurrences have been found since 1985. Of the 192 currently mapped occurrences in the U.S., only nine (5%) are of unknown status (no salamanders found in the most recent survey, possibly due to sub optimal survey conditions or difficulty in locating historical sites).	eng
59342	threats		Timber harvest, road and trail construction, water diversion projects, pollution, introduction of exotic species, fire, illegal collecting, and potential deleterious genetic effects due to small isolated populations are threats to this species. Restricted mobility and increasing habitat fragmentation make it susceptible to local extirpation as well (Cassirer <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
59343	conservation		This species is protected from the detrimental effects of clear-cutting (Ash 1997, Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993, Petranka 1998, Ash and Pollock 1999) by occurring completely within the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. It does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species.	eng
59343	distribution		This species can be found in Gregory Bald and Great Smoky isolates, and the extreme northern part of the Balsam isolate, in North Carolina and Tennessee, USA, from 768-1,780m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59343	habitat		This species inhabits moist dense hardwood, coniferous, and mixed forests with mossy logs and slabs of rock. It is found in burrows, leaf-litter, or in spaces under rocks and logs during the day. It tolerates some level of disturbance, and much of its range occurs in secondary growth forest. Breeding is by direct development, and the eggs are probably laid in underground cavities.	eng
59343	population		Dodd (2004) mapped more than 100 collection or observation sites in the Great Smokies, and reported that this species is generally abundant.	eng
59343	threats		Potential threats to this species are factors that negatively affect spruce fir forests such as global warming, acid rain, and balsam woolly adelgid (<em>Adelges piceae</em>) infestations.	eng
59344	conservation		There are several occurrences in Cumberland Gap National Historic Park, Jefferson National Forest, and Beaks Interstate Park. Maintaining the availability of mature hardwood forest habitat is important to the long-term persistence of viable populations.	eng
59344	distribution		This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky, northeastern Tennessee, southern West Virginia, and southwestern Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998). Primarily in the Cumberland Plateau, but extending into the Valley and Ridge of Russell and Washington counties, Virginia.	eng
59344	habitat		Optimal conditions include mature hardwood forests (Petranka 1998). Generally they are found under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf-litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices. It is a terrestrial breeder.	eng
59344	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. There are probably reduced populations in past; expanded with current trend to reforestation.	eng
59344	threats		Deforestation, agriculture, and strip-mining constitute potential threats. However, the general trend within its range is reforestation.	eng
59345	conservation		Research needed on taxonomic and threat status.	eng
59345	distribution		This species is known only from Round and Kiamichi Mountains in Polk County, Arkansas, and LeFlore County, Oklahoma, USA (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989), although its range is poorly known.	eng
59345	habitat		It is a forest species that breeds terrestrially by direct development.	eng
59345	population		Population size is unknown.	eng
59345	threats		Deforestation is presumably a local threat for some populations.	eng
59346	conservation		Population monitoring is needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59346	distribution		This species can be found in the northern half of Louisiana and south-central Arkansas, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59346	habitat		Its' typical habitat is hardwood forest; when inactive, occurs under logs, leaf-litter, and other cover, in mammal burrows, or in various holes or crevices. Eggs are laid probably in or under logs. It has no aquatic stage.	eng
59346	population		It appears to be relatively common within range.	eng
59346	threats		There is little information on its status but it is evidently not threatened. Local populations are probably impacted by deforestation.	eng
59347	conservation		Portions of the species' range are protected in South Mountain State Park. The species also occurs in South Mountain Game Lands where the forest is generally maintained intact (D. Beamer pers. comm.). The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59347	distribution		This species can be found in the South Mountains, in Burke, Cleveland, and Rutherford counties, in the Piedmont Province of North Carolina, USA; its elevational range is at least 543-823m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59347	habitat		It is found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development in the same habitat. It tolerates some level of disturbance because much of its range occurs in second growth forest.	eng
59347	population		It is common and relatively easily found even in areas that are not prime habitat (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003).	eng
59347	threats		Clear cutting has been reported to strongly deplete local populations of the <em>P. jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable but is at least a few decades (Ash 1997, Petranka 1999, Ash and Pollock 1999). <em>Plethodon meridianus</em> appears to be somewhat tolerant of habitat degradation, since much of its range has been logged and is now covered in second-growth forest (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003). Some areas in the South Mountains are being used for residential development, so habitat destruction is a threat (D. Beamer pers. comm., 2003).	eng
59348	conservation		Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
59348	distribution		This species can be found in cowee isolate, Balsam isolate (except the extreme northern part), and the Blue Ridge isolate (except the extreme northeastern part) of the Plethodon jordani complex, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, USA; it has an elevational range at least 256-1,295m asl (usually above 800m asl) (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59348	habitat		It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development. It is fairly tolerant of timber cutting. Seven hours of search effort over four nights in each of two sites yielded 50 individuals in an area that had been clear-cut 10 years earlier and 65 individuals in a forested site (Ash <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
59348	population		Highton and Peabody (2000) listed 13 sampling locations. It is locally a fairly common species.	eng
59348	threats		Although clear-cutting probably causes initial declines, this species shows a good ability to recover population densities, and it is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
59349	conservation		Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
59349	distribution		This species can be found from eastern USA. Six isolates (Flat Top, Buckhorn, Burkes Garden, Knob, Clinch, Brumley) in the Valley and Ridge Province of Virginia and five isolates (Roan, Bald, Black, Max Patch, Sandy mush) in the Blue Ridge Province of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee; elevational range at least 1,036-1,420m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59349	habitat		It is often found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59349	population		Eleven populations are known. No other population data available.	eng
59349	threats		Although clear-cutting probably causes initial declines, on the assumption that it is similar to the closely related P. metcalfi, this species shows a good ability to recover population densities, and it is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
59350	conservation		Most of the species' potential habitat is in the Crockford-Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area. A request to list the species as "threatened" under the federal Endangered Species Act was submitted by John Jensen to the USFWS-Athens, GA Field Office. Private land within the range of the species should be considered for acquisition or the establishment of conservation easements. Timber harvest should be avoided in occupied habitats; if timber harvest does occur, it is important to retain a forested canopy surrounding significant rock-outcroppings and caves, as well as to retain a suitable amount of coarse woody debris. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59350	distribution		This species is limited to the Cumberland Plateau of extreme north-western Georgia, USA. All known populations occur on the eastern slope of Pigeon Mountain in Walker and Chattooga counties (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988, Jensen 1999, Buhlmann 2001, Jensen, Camp and Marshall 2002). Sites occur at altitudes ranging from 220-570m asl (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988).	eng
59350	habitat		Pigeon Mountain Salamanders are associated with limestone outcroppings, boulder fields, and caves (Wynn, Highton and Jacobs 1988). Those found in caves are rarely deeper than the twilight zone. Individuals are most often found in and around cracks and crevices within rocks. These microhabitats are embedded within mesic deciduous forests consisting of an over-storey comprised primarily of oak and hickory (Jensen 1999). However, Pigeon Mountain Salamanders are rarely encountered away from rock outcrops or caves (Jensen, Camp and Marshall 2002).	eng
59350	population		Wynn, Highton and Jacobs (1988) reported the species as very abundant, far outnumbering other syntopic salamander species. Recent surveys at two of the known sites indicated no detectable change in their abundance (J.B. Jensen pers. obs.); however, Pigeon Mountain salamanders have become uncommon at one locality, possibly due to disturbance created by increased cave visitation and/or perhaps scientific over-collecting (Jensen 1999).	eng
59350	threats		The restricted distribution of Pigeon Mountain Salamanders makes them especially vulnerable to threats. Mineral rights to a portion of this property are leased to a mining company that has proposed quarrying operations, which might threaten both this species and Green Salamanders, another rare amphibian. Over-collection for scientific study and possibly the illegal pet trade, as well as disturbance from recreational cavers, might threaten populations. Loss or reduction of moisture-trapping canopy covers as a result of timber removal on private lands could pose a future threat. However, at present the species appears to be stable and the impacts of these threats is probably relatively limited.	eng
59351	conservation		Much of its habitat is now protected, and its populations are likely to be stable. Most occurrences are within George Washington National Forest, where many sites are classified as roadless areas or unforestable. The United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service is aware of the populations of this species and its sensitivity.	eng
59351	distribution		This species can be found in the Shenandoah, North, and Great North mountains, George Washington National Forest, Virginia (Augusta, Rockingham, and Shenandoah Counties) and West Virginia, USA (Green and Pauley 1987; Conant and Collins 1991; Petranka 1998), from 735-1,200m asl (but mainly from 900-1,200m asl).	eng
59351	habitat		This species occurs in ridge and valley areas in mixed deciduous forest interspersed with Virginia pine and hemlock and numerous rock outcrops (Green and Pauley 1987). It is most abundant in old-growth forests with many downed logs and in areas with an abundance of surface rocks (Mitchell 1991), including talus. It tends to be most abundant on north-facing slopes. During the day it is found under rocks and logs or in burrows. Breeding is terrestrial by direct development.	eng
59351	population		Its total adult population size is unknown but deforestation has probably reduced its distribution and abundance compared with historical levels.	eng
59351	threats		The principal threats to this species include deforestation through logging, and defoliation by gypsy moths (<em>Lymantria dispar</em>); the effect of spraying pesticides to control gypsy moths is unknown (Mitchell 1991). Firewood collection and over-collection of individuals are also potential threats.	eng
59352	conservation		None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59352	distribution		This species can be found in Eastern Kentucky, southern West Virginia (west of the New and Kanawha rivers and south of the Teays River valley), western Virginia, northwestern North Carolina, and northeastern Tennessee, United States (Highton 1999).	eng
59352	habitat		It is terrestrial. It can be found under logs, stumps, rocks, or leaf-litter on moist wooded slopes of valleys and ravines; high densities on wooded talus; rarely on dry ridge crests, hilltops, or valley floors (Regester 2000). Generally underground in mid-winter and summer. Lays eggs under rocks or in underground cavity, which develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59352	population		It is common in many areas. Populations are presumed to be relatively stable.	eng
59352	threats		Deforestation and urbanization have eliminated local populations (Petranka 1998), but overall the species appears to be secure in most of its range.	eng
59353	conservation		The taxonomic status of this nominal species warrants further study. Its type locality is in Beavers Bend State Park.	eng
59353	distribution		This species is known from the type locality in McCurtain County, Oklahoma, and from a single locality in north-western Sevier County, Arkansas, USA (Highton <em>et al.</em> 1989; Huntington <em>et al.</em> 1993). Its distribution is not well known, and it purportedly occurs more widely in Arkansas.	eng
59353	habitat		Its primary habitat is presumably hardwood or mixed forest. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59353	population		Its population is unknown.	eng
59353	threats		The threats are unknown. The only known site is a protected area.	eng
59354	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59354	distribution		This species can be found in four widely separated geographic isolates in the USA: eastern Oklahoma-Arkansas; southeastern quarter of Missouri; eastern Tennessee-western North Carolina-Georgia-eastern Alabama and central Louisiana (Petranka 1998).	eng
59354	habitat		It is found under rocks, rotten logs, and mosses in forested areas. In dry summer months it occurs in and near damp areas. Uncommonly found in twilight zone of caves. Eggs are laid in moss or rotten log, or under a rock or log, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59354	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. It is locally common.	eng
59354	threats		It is unthreatened overall. Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999).	eng
59355	conservation		Much of the range occurs in the Nantahala National Forest, although some clear cutting occurs there. Conservation activities that promote mature closed-canopy forests should benefit this species. The species does not appear on any state or federal list of endangered species.	eng
59355	distribution		This species can be found in Standing Indian, Wayah, Tusquitee, and Unicoi isolates of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex, North Carolina and Tennessee, USA; it has an elevational range of at least 853-1,494m asl (Highton and Peabody 2000).	eng
59355	habitat		It can be found in mesic forest, often under leaf-litter, logs, or mossy rocks. It is at least somewhat tolerant of disturbance, because it is common in second growth forests that were at one time uprooted by wild pigs (Bishop 1928). It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59355	population		This species can be very common in portions of its range. It is probably stable at present.	eng
59355	threats		Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations of other members of the <em>Plethodon jordani</em> complex (Petranka, Eldridge and Haley 1993); the time required for recovery is debatable, but is at least on the order of a few decades (Ash 1997, Petranka 1999, Ash and Pollock 1999).	eng
59356	conservation		Majority of range occurs in Blue Ridge Parkway National Park, Great Smoky National Park, and U.S. Forest Service lands (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997); many of these populations receive some degree of protection (Petranka 1998).	eng
59356	distribution		This species can be found in the USA. It can also be found in the Blue Ridge physiographic province of southwestern North Carolina west of French Broad River, and immediately adjacent Tennessee; also northern Rabun County, Georgia, and Oconee, Pickens, Abbeville and Anderson counties, South Carolina (Highton 1983, Petranka 1998). Tennessee: Unicoi Mountains in Monroe and Polk counties and the Great Smoky Mountains in Sevier and Cocke counties (Redmond and Scott 1996). It can be found at elevations up to 1,550m asl (Petranka 1998).	eng
59356	habitat		Birch-beech-hemlock forest with witch hazel, mountain laurel, and rhododendron understorey; home range typically includes a retreat hole (Nishikawa 1990). Highest densities occur in mature, mesic hardwood forests (Petranka 1998). It is a terrestrial breeder, with direct development.	eng
59356	population		Overall populations are stable. Hairston and Wiley (1993) monitored populations in mature forests in western North Carolina for nearly two decades and found no evidence of long-term population declines (cited by Petranka 1998). Estimated 5 or less extant sites in Georgia (R. Mac Beth pers. comm., 1997). It is common in main portion of range in North Carolina (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997). Redmond and Scott (1996) mapped 21 collection localities in Tennessee.	eng
59356	threats		Historical populations are threatened by clear cutting, currently believed to be stable (J. Petranka pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59357	conservation		Adequately protected in Mount St. Helens National Monument and Olympic National Park.	eng
59357	distribution		This species can be found in Willapa Hills, and Olympic and Cascade mountains, Washington, USA; disjunctive centres in the Willapa Hills, on the Olympic Peninsula, and in the southern Cascade Ranges are separated by glacial and alluvial deposits that might limit the regional distribution (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995). Coexists with Dunn salamander southeast of South Bend, Pacific County, Washington (Stebbins 1985). It generally occurs in small isolated populations.	eng
59357	habitat		Moist coniferous forests and open areas. Found on wet soil near seepages, streams, lakes, and rivers, also found on talus slopes (especially well-shaded, north-facing slopes). It can also be found under bark, in and under logs, and in leaf-litter in wet weather. Two clutches have been found in nature. One nest was under a moss covered stone; eggs were in the usual grape-like cluster and attached to the stone by a single gelatinous thread, as in other Plethodon (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983). The other clutch was in a moist, partially rotted log along a stream in old-growth forest (western red-cedar/Douglas-fir/western hemlock/grand fir) in Washington (Herp. Rev. 20:48). The eggs develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59357	population		About 80 populations are known (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995), 70% in excellent to good condition (J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997). Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several thousand. It is generally uncommon. Stable to slight decline over past 20 years (J. Flackenstein pers. comm., 1997). Probably was more widespread 200 years ago.	eng
59357	threats		It is currently not very threatened; perhaps extirpated by logging in lowland sites in late 1800s (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995; J. Fleckenstein pers. comm., 1997). Managed forests generally do not provide the woody debris needed for shelter and nesting (Welsh 1990, Wilson <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is sedentary, with narrow ecological tolerance; limited ability to survive in or colonize disturbed habitats.	eng
59358	conservation		No conservation measures are needed for this species. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59358	distribution		This species can be found in Western North America from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, south through western Washington to southwestern Oregon (Petranka 1998). It occurs from sea level to about 1,250m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59358	habitat		It can be found in humid coniferous forests; damp talus slopes and shaded ravines. Found under rocks, logs, leaf-litter, and other forest debris. On Vancouver Island, small individuals were found under small rocks and away from discrete cover objects in leaf-litter and under moss more frequently than were larger individuals (Ovaska and Gregory 1989). Lays eggs on land in moist retreats, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59358	population		It is one of the most commonly encountered terrestrial salamanders throughout its range (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
59358	threats		There are no major threats to this species. Logging is not a major threat because this species maintains thriving populations in young forests.	eng
59359	conservation		Habitat protection and population monitoring needed. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.	eng
59359	distribution		This species can be found in the USA. Southeastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia as far east as Hayters Gap in Washington County, eastern Tennessee, the French Broad River valley of western North Carolina, extreme northwestern Georgia, northern Alabama, and extreme northeastern Mississippi (Highton 1997). Its distribution is highly fragmented.	eng
59359	habitat		It can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines, canyons, rubble, seepages, caves, and wooded slopes. It is mostly found under rocks, logs, or leaves during day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59359	population		It is common in suitable habitat. Mount (1975) mapped more than 50 collection sites in Alabama. Highton (1997) reported large numbers in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.	eng
59359	threats		urbanization and conversion of forest into cropland have eliminated many populations, but the species remains common in suitable habitat (Petranka 1998). Most of the habitat loss was not recent. It is probably now stable and not seriously threatened.	eng
59360	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas. Additional research is needed on its population status and the threats that it faces.	eng
59360	distribution		This species can be found in eastern West Virginia and adjacent north-western Virginia, USA, from 1,100-1,200m asl. Highton (1999) mapped 28 collection sites, and six sites where hybrids with <em>Plethodon hoffmani</em> occur.	eng
59360	habitat		It is often found under objects in wooded areas. Eggs are laid in moist cavities, where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
59360	population		This species' population status is not known but it is presumed to be stable.	eng
59360	threats		It is not known what threats there are to this species, which is unlikely to be seriously threatened, although some populations are probably affected locally by clear-cutting logging.	eng
59361	conservation		It occurs in scattered protected areas (state parks, nature preserves, and national forest). This species is listed as an endangered species in South Carolina and as a species of special concern in Louisiana.	eng
59361	distribution		This species can be found in east-central Alabama and adjacent Georgia, with scattered, isolated populations in western South Carolina (Greenwood, Edgefield, and McCormick counties), southwestern Alabama, southern Louisiana, and Mississippi, USA (Conant and Collins 1991, Highton 1986, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Herp Rev. 22:62; Petranka 1998). Occupies less than 4 hectares in Louisiana (S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). One documented site in excellent condition in Louisiana (S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). Four sites mapped in Georgia, based on publication "Distribution of Amphibians and Reptiles in Georgia" (R. MacBeth pers. comm., 1997). In Alabama, an estimated 101+ extant occurrences; difficult to distinguish from P. ventralis (formerly a form of P. dorsalis) and the two species' distributions overlap; this might result in an overestimate of population numbers; condition of populations estimated to be 30% excellent, 20% good, 20% fair, and 30% poor (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997). Thirty-nine occurrences from 1980-1995 documented in South Carolina; estimated 21-100 extant occurrences; extensively surveyed in the mid-1980s (S. Bennett pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59361	habitat		It can be found in the mesophytic forest (maple, hickory, oak, poplar, and elm) bordering rocky feeder streams; under logs, bark, and leaf-litter on forest floor and along rocky streambeds. It is also found in moist forest on steep north-facing slopes with rock outcrops. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development in the same habitats. It tolerates some level of disturbance because it persists in second growth forest throughout much of its range.	eng
59361	population		Total adult population size is unknown but probably greatly exceeds 10,000. Possibly extremely abundant in Alabama; it might be confused with <em>P. ventralis</em> (formerly a form of <em>P. dorsalis</em>), resulting in an overestimate of abundance (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997). It is stable in Louisiana and South Carolina (S. Bennett and S. Shively pers. comm., 1997). Possibly declining due to loss of habitat in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59361	threats		Deforestation and the conversion of deciduous forest to pine monocultures maintained on short harvesting cycles have adversely impacted many populations (Petranka 1998). Moderately threatened by development and silviculture in Alabama (M. Bailey pers. comm., 1997).	eng
59362	conservation		Yellow-spotted isolates, whose systematic affinities have not been determined, occur in Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia; these populations should receive high priority for protection (Petranka 1998). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59362	distribution		This species can be found in the Appalachian Plateau of the eastern USA from southwestern New York to northeastern Tennessee and northwestern North Carolina (Petranka 1998).	eng
59362	habitat		It can be found in upland forests and woodlands (e.g., red spruce-yellow birch, mixed deciduous). Found in rock crevices, under rocks, logs, and leaves, and in twilight zone of caves (at lower elevations). Eggs are laid in damp logs, moss, cave crevices, and other protected sites.	eng
59362	population		Populations are secure in a broad portion of range.	eng
59362	threats		No major threats. Local populations are likely to be impacted by deforestation.	eng
59363	conservation		In Virginia, much of the range occurs in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area, primarily in zones designated as protected. However, fragmentation could threaten this population (Pague 1991). The Grandfather Mountain population currently receives adequate protection by the current landowner. Due to the generally small and isolated populations of this species, all populations are vulnerable to accidents or policy changes in land management (Braswell 1989). It is listed as a species of special concern in North Carolina and Virginia and as Wildlife in Need of Management in Tennessee.	eng
59363	distribution		This species is found in Whitetop, Mount Rogers, and Pine Mountain, Virginia, south-westward to Yancy County, North Carolina, extreme eastern Tennessee, and eastward to Grandfather Mountain, Caldwell County, North Carolina, USA (Pague 1991). Populations are apparently isolated from each other (Pague 1991). It occurs at elevations of 760m asl or more, but chiefly in spruce forests above 1,500m asl (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59363	habitat		It inhabits spruce-fir, birch-hemlock, and primarily deciduous forests, and is also found in grassy spots and boulder fields. It is usually found under rocks or logs, or in leaf-litter, during the day, and tends to be associated with rocky substrates. Breeding and non-breeding habitats are the same. The eggs are laid in small cavities in rotting conifer logs or beneath moss mats. It is apparently not tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
59363	population		Populations in North Carolina and Virginia are believed to be declining (H. LeGrand and S. Roble pers. comm. 1997). Grandfather Mountain (North Carolina) and Mount Rogers (Virginia) populations are large and probably stable (W. Van Devender pers. comm. 1997; D.A. Beamer pers. comm. 2003).	eng
59363	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to development and logging (Braswell 1989). Forest fragmentation, catastrophic fires, or forest die-off resulting from acid rain or spruce budworm could have significant adverse effects on the relatively small isolated populations (see Pague 1991). Most populations are protected to some degree by their occurrence at high elevations (Petranka 1998).	eng
59364	conservation		Less intensive timber harvesting practices would benefit this species (Petranka 1998). It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
59364	distribution		This species is found in the Southern Blue Ridge Mountains in Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, USA (Petranka 1998).	eng
59364	habitat		This species can be found in wooded hillsides and ravines where rock slides are covered with mosses and ferns; areas with old windfalls; damp, shaded, cracked rock outcrops; grassy areas near woodlands. Found in and under rotting logs and other cover by day. It is a terrestrial breeder with direct development.	eng
59364	population		It is locally abundant in many parts of the range (Petranka 1998).	eng
59364	threats		Not threatened overall. Clear cutting strongly depletes local populations (Petranka <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
59365	conservation		The species does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
59365	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Teotepec, in the Sierra de Atoyac in south-central Guerrero, Mexico, above 2,000m asl. Its range is not well understood, and it could occur more widely.	eng
59365	habitat		This species is known from open fir-pine-oak forest with bunchgrass. It apparently needs the presence of fallen logs as daytime refuges. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59365	population		It is known from only one collection, and has not been seen for many years (since the 1960s). Recent attempts to locate it have not been successful.	eng
59365	threats		Even though it lives in a remote area, it is threatened by logging that has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and there is also pressure on its habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.	eng
59366	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, but habitat loss is ongoing within this protected area and there is a need for improved management. The species is also in need of close population monitoring. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59366	distribution		This species is known only from central Mexico, in the extreme east of Mexico State, in southern Federal District, and in Morelos, at around 3,000m asl.	eng
59366	habitat		It lives in pine, pine-oak and fir forests, and is terrestrial, being found under the bark of logs and stumps; it does not tolerate serious habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59366	population		It used to be abundant, but it has recently disappeared from parts of its range.	eng
59366	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, due to the heavy transformation and logging of forested areas along the transvolcanic belt of Mexico.	eng
59367	conservation		It is not found in any protected areas. Further studies are needed within the Sierra Madre del Sur region.	eng
59367	distribution		This recently described species is known from the east and north-east of Cerro Pico del Aguila in the Sierra de Malinaltepec, Guerrero, Mexico. The limits of its distribution are not known. It has an altitudinal range of 1,645-1,740m asl.	eng
59367	habitat		This species occurs in mixed montane forest, where it is found under rocks, in holes, and under the bark of trees. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59367	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
59367	threats		Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.	eng
59368	conservation		Urgent protection of any remaining forest near the type locality area is required, but security problems in the area make it difficult to implement conservation measures for this species. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. The taxonomic validity of this species is not clear and needs to be investigated.	eng
59368	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of San Vicente Lachixio town, in the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.	eng
59368	habitat		It is known from pine-oak forest, where it lives in sinkholes, crevices and caves, always in moist places. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
59368	population		There have been no records of it for 15 years, but it was never common. Recent searches for it have been unsuccessful, and it might already be extinct.	eng
59368	threats		Its habitat around San Vicente Lachixio town has largely disappeared, with almost all the trees having been cut down. As a result, the habitat has dried out, which is to the detriment of this species.	eng
59369	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to establish whether or not this species might survive in the wild outside its only known locality.	eng
59369	distribution		This species is known only from Totontepec, at 2,500m asl, in central-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
59369	habitat		This is the only known aquatic plethodontid salamander in Mesoamerica, occurring in streams in cloud forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59369	population		It is known from only three specimens collected in 1978. There have been many subsequent, unsuccessful searches for it, and it is likely to be extinct.	eng
59369	threats		The cloud forest habitat of this species has been completely destroyed at the type locality due to wood extraction, farming, and human settlement. The resulting degradation of streams due to burned debris has probably also contributed to the species' disappearance.	eng
59370	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59370	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the type locality of 4km west of Peña Verde, the northern-most peak in the Sierra de Juárez, Oaxaca, Mexico. The type series was collected at 2,805m asl. This species is believed to be a montane specialist with a restricted distribution, though the limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
59370	habitat		It occurs in pine cloud forest (and in barren open lands at higher altitudes) where it is found under rocks, under the bark of logs, and in or under decaying wood. Reproduction is by direct development; one collected female was found guarding a clutch of 22 eggs under the bark of a log.	eng
59370	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
59370	threats		The habitat of this species is under threat from small-scale farming and large-scale timber extraction.	eng
59371	conservation	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, James Hanken, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59371	distribution	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, James Hanken, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	This species' main distribution is along the western and southern margins of the Mexican plateau, with numerous isolated populations from the border area of central Sonora and Chihuahua, and from central Tamaulipas, to the mountains of central Guerrero. Its altitudinal range is 750-3,300m asl.	eng
59371	habitat	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, James Hanken, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The species inhabits pine and pine-oak forests at high elevation, as well as forest edges and grazed areas. It also occurs in degraded forest, coffee plantations, rural gardens, and very close to urbanized and highly disturbed areas. It is terrestrial, commonly found beneath logs, rocks, waste timber, brush piles and within leaf litter.  It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59371	population	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, James Hanken, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	It was once common at numerous localities, but has become increasingly rare, and has disappeared from many places from which it was formerly known. It was the most common salamander species encountered at the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda in Querétaro (Gillingwater and Patrikeev, 2004).	eng
59371	threats	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, James Hanken, Paulino Ponce-Campos, 2008	The cause of its decline is unclear. Forest clearance for farming, urbanization and wood extraction are taking place in many parts of its range, but these do not seem to explain the level of decline that has been observed.	eng
59372	conservation		It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). Habitat protection is an urgent priority. The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the enigmatic population decline. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59372	distribution		This species is known from Volcán Tacaná (in extreme eastern Chiapas, Mexico), discontinuously eastwards as far as Volcán Chicabal (in south-western Guatemala), at 2,400-2,800m asl.	eng
59372	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak and upper cloud forest, where it is strictly terrestrial, and can tolerate only very limited habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59372	population		It was formerly extremely abundant, but has undergone extensive declines. Recent surveys (2005 and 2006) at Volcán Chicabal and at San Marcos, in Guatemala, have not revealed any specimens (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007), despite it once being one of the most abundant species at those same localities (collected many times in consistently large numbers). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification, and are not a result of overcollection of specimens.	eng
59372	threats		The decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to clear-cutting of forest, urbanization, human settlement, and expanding agriculture (including livestock farming).	eng
59373	conservation	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Jean Raffaelli, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas, and is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59373	distribution	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Jean Raffaelli, 2008	This species can be found in central Mexico in the states of Estado de Mexico, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla and Morelos. It might be more widespread than current records suggest. Its altitudinal range is between 1,100 and 3,000m asl.	eng
59373	habitat	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Jean Raffaelli, 2008	This species lives in pine, pine-oak, fir, and cloud forests, and in the upper extent of lowland forest. It is commonly found beneath rocks, logs and other debris on the ground. It also occurs in somewhat disturbed habitats, such as forest edges, rural gardens, and small patches of forest in urban areas. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59373	population	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Jean Raffaelli, 2008	This species used to be common, although it has undergone declines. The subspecies <em>Pseudoeurycea cephalica rubrimembris</em> remains not uncommon in the outskirts of Tianguistengo village in north-eastern Hidalgo State.	eng
59373	threats	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, Jean Raffaelli, 2008	It is probably threatened by agricultural expansion, expanding human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range.	eng
59374	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of forest habitats of the Sierra de Juarez. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59374	distribution		This species is restricted to the highlands of central and west-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,200-2,700m asl.	eng
59374	habitat		It is terrestrial and inhabits pine and pine-oak forests hiding under bark and in leaf-litter. It can tolerate limited habitat disturbance, and is sometimes found in rural gardens and selectively logged lots. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59374	population		It is fairly common, although it has not been seen at the type locality (Cerro San Felipe) for many years.	eng
59374	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to extensive agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging.	eng
59375	conservation		Surveys are needed to confirm whether or not and where this species might survive in order to plan for its conservation. It is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59375	distribution		This species is known only from Pluma Hidalgo town, Sola de Vega, and close to Municipio Putla Villa de Guerrero all in south-western Oaxaca, Mexico, from 900-2,500m asl.	eng
59375	habitat		It presumably originally lived in undisturbed forest, but all records have been from disturbed forest and coffee plantations, which might explain its present rarity. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
59375	population		It appears to be a very rare species, with fewer than ten specimens known.	eng
59375	threats		The heavy disturbance and transformation of the original habitat of this species for agricultural development, logging, and human settlement has probably led to its decline and possible disappearance.	eng
59376	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and habitat protection is urgently required.	eng
59376	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Miramundo in the highlands to the south-west of Jalapa, Departamento de Jalapa, Guatemala, at 2,530m asl. It might occur more widely on some of the isolated volcanic peaks of south-eastern Guatemala.	eng
59376	habitat		It inhabits broadleaf forest, and has been collected from inside and beneath rotting logs, and in bromeliads. It is now found only in severely degraded forest edges. It breeds by direct development.	eng
59376	population		It used to be relatively common, but is now much less so in its tiny range. It has not been recorded since the 1970s and visits to the range in 2005 and 2007 have not revealed any animals (Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59376	threats		The major threat to this species is continuing forest loss due to extensive smallholder farming activities (including cattle grazing) and logging.	eng
59377	conservation		It may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco, although this requires confirmation. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59377	distribution		This species is known from Acultzingo town along the Puebla-Veracruz border to the Sierra Zongolica, Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,900-2,200m asl.	eng
59377	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest to lower cloud forest, apparently requiring the presence of abundant bromeliads in mature trees and does not survive in heavily degraded habitats (though it is found at forest edge). It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59377	population		The species is rare, but consistently located in small numbers from known localities.	eng
59377	threats		The major threat is the loss of large bromeliad-covered trees, particularly as habitat is being lost due to expanding agriculture, human settlements, and wood extraction.	eng
59378	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Pico de Ozizaba. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59378	distribution		This species occurs in two localities in Mexico: on and around Volcán Pico de Orizaba, east-central Veracruz; and from the slopes of Volcán La Malinche on the Tlaxcala-Puebla border. It occurs at higher elevations than any other salamander, up to 5,000m asl, with a lower altitudinal limit of around 2,800m asl.	eng
59378	habitat		It lives terrestrially in pine-oak forest and in bunch grass above the timberline, and does tolerate some level of habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59378	population		Although this has never been a common species, it has become increasingly rare in recent years.	eng
59378	threats		The habitat of this species has been heavily disturbed at lower elevations, especially due to logging. It might be more secure at higher elevations, where human impacts are less severe.	eng
59379	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but it is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59379	distribution		This species is known from the areas surrounding Galeana and Iturbide towns, in southern Nuevo Leon, Mexico, from 1,800-2,800m asl.	eng
59379	habitat		It inhabits semi-open oak forest with thorny scrub. This terrestrial species can be found under stones, and it can also tolerate considerable habitat modification and has been found in agave plantations and scrubby open country. Breeding is by direct development.	eng
59379	population		It is not common but is still recorded regularly.	eng
59379	threats		The main threat to this species is complete clearance of its habitats, due to clear-cutting and the development of human settlements.	eng
59380	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority.	eng
59380	distribution		This species is known from the eastern margins Sierra Madre Oriental of Hidalgo, Mexico, where it has been recorded from northern Puebla and Veracruz at 1,000-2,000m asl (though it mainly occurs at higher elevations within its range).	eng
59380	habitat		This is a terrestrial species that inhabits the pine-oak-cloud forest interface, and is able to live in somewhat disturbed habitats. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59380	population		Formerly quite abundant, this species has become very hard to find in recent years. For example, a visit to the known locality of Cerro Loma Alta in 2003 yielded no records of this species (last found there in 1999). It also used to be common at La Joya, but was last recorded there in 1997.	eng
59380	threats		Serious habitat destruction is taking place within its range as a result of logging, mining, agriculture, and human settlement. All areas surrounding La Joya have been highly disturbed as a result of extensive logging and mining, and the remaining available habitat at this locality was only about 15 ha in 2004. Another known locality, Cerro Loma Alta, which was visited in 2003, was found to have been virtually destroyed as a result of logging and invasive plants.	eng
59381	conservation		It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). Habitat protection is an urgent priority. The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the population decline. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59381	distribution		This species occurs in the Soconusco area, in Chiapas, Mexico, eastward to the Volcán Chicabal in Guatemala, at an altitude of 2,400-2,900m asl.	eng
59381	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak and upper cloud forest, where it is strictly terrestrial and can tolerate only very limited habitat disturbance. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59381	population		It was formerly a common species, but has undergone declines in recent years. Recent surveys (2005 and 2006) at Volcán Chicabal and at San Marcos revealed a single specimen from Volcán Chicabal, and no specimens from San Marcos (Sean Rovito and Carlos Vásquez pers. comm. 2007), despite it being once one of the most abundant species at those same localities in Guatemala (collected many times in consistently large numbers). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification.	eng
59381	threats		The decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by the alteration and clear-cutting of its habitat, due to urbanization, human settlement (refugees), and agricultural expansion (including livestock farming).	eng
59382	conservation		The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59382	distribution		This species occurs between Cerro Pelón and Vista Hermosa in the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at an altitude of 2,400-3,000m asl.	eng
59382	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pristine moist forest habitats, and has been found under loose bark or fallen trees, or under moss on rocks and logs. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59382	population		It used to be very common, but has undergone dramatic declines and is now uncommon. Only one individual has been located in recent years (c. 2000).	eng
59382	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due primarily to logging, as well as agricultural expansion and human settlement. The reasons for the dramatic recent declines in this species require further investigation.	eng
59383	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, including Parque Nacional Cumbres del Ajusco, though many of these are in need of improved management for the benefit of biodiversity conservation. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59383	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Puebla and western Veracruz to Plaxcala, Estado de Mexico and Distrito Federal, Mexico. There is an isolated population in northern Hidalgo. Its altitudinal range is 2,500-3,200m asl.	eng
59383	habitat		It lives at high elevations in pine and pine-oak forests. It is terrestrial, and can withstand only limited disturbance to its habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59383	population		It used to be the commonest salamander on the Mexican Plateau. It is still present, but is far less abundant, although not uncommon.	eng
59383	threats		Its habitat is threatened by agriculture, forestry, and human settlement, as well as touristic activities within national parks.	eng
59384	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and improved protection of the forest habitat of this species in the trans-Mexican volcanic belt is urgently needed. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59384	distribution		This species occurs in the volcanic belt of central-western Mexico at 2,850-3,000m asl. Two allopatric populations are known, one in north-eastern Michoacan and the other in north-western Mexico State.	eng
59384	habitat		It is a terrestrial species, inhabiting highland coniferous forests, and living beneath logs, the bark of logs, rocks and other debris. It does not tolerate much disturbance of its habitat. Breeding takes place by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59384	population		This has never been a common species. Several animals were recently found at the type locality, following several years without any sightings.	eng
59384	threats		The major threat is habitat loss, mainly due to logging.	eng
59385	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, such that the most important conservation measure required for this species is the protection and maintenance of its remaining native habitat.	eng
59385	distribution		This species is known from the central Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico: Cerro San Pedro Chiconquiaco, near La Joya, central Veracruz; and Quetzalan, Puebla. It ranges from 1,200-1,500m asl.	eng
59385	habitat		The species inhabits cloud forest, being found in decaying wood, under bark of logs, under moss, and under pine logs. Although not arboreal, it is often recovered off the ground. It survives in degraded forest, and rural gardens and has even been found in garbage. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59385	population		In the past it was not considered to be rare, and could be reliably found, but it appears to have declined. A brief search of Cerro San Pedro Chiconquiaco in 2003 was not successful in locating the species.	eng
59385	threats		Despite its ability to tolerate some habitat degradation, extensive forest loss due to agriculture, logging, and mining are adversely affecting this species. All areas surrounding the type locality of La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining. Between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available for this species was halved due to the expansion of mining activities. The remaining available habitat at this locality was only about 15ha in 2004. Another known locality, Cerro Loma Alta, was visited in 2003 and was found to be virtually destroyed by logging and invasive plants.	eng
59386	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for improved protection of the forest habitat of this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59386	distribution		This species is restricted to the upper slopes of Cofre de Perote and nearby mountains, in the general vicinity of Antonio Limon town, west-central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,400-4,000m asl. The total range of this species seems likely to be under 5,000km2 but greater than 100km2.	eng
59386	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine forest and bunch grass above the timberline; usually being found under rocks and logs on moist soils. It can tolerate some level of habitat disturbance, provided that this is not too serious. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59386	population		It is an uncommon species. An individual was observed on two separate occasions in 2003.	eng
59386	threats		The habitat of this species has been heavily disturbed at lower elevations, especially due to logging, agriculture, and human settlement. It might be more secure at higher elevations, where human impacts have been less severe. In 2003, pine forest at both the upper and lower elevations on Cofre de Perote were found to have been extensively cut for pastures for cattle, and as a result of logging.	eng
59387	conservation		It does not occur in any protected area. Further detailed studies are urgently needed to finally determine whether this species is still extant, and to understand if there are any threats to it.	eng
59387	distribution		This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur, Mexico, and specifically from the vicinity of Asoleadero and Carrizal de Bravo towns in north-eastern Guerrero, at around 2,600m asl. The limits of its distribution are not known.	eng
59387	habitat		It lives in moist oak-pine-fir cloud forest dominated by large bromeliad-covered oaks. It apparently needs the presence of fallen logs as daytime refuges. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
59387	population		There is very little information; it is known from a few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it.	eng
59387	threats		Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place in its range, which could represent a threat to it. There is also pressure on its habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture, and in particular from fruit orchards.	eng
59388	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of forested areas near Ayutla. This species is listed as "threatened" (Amenazada) by Mexican law.	eng
59388	distribution		This species is known only from near Ayutla, east-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100m asl.	eng
59388	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitat of pine-oak forest and madroño (arbutus forest). It can tolerate some habitat disturbance, as evidenced by the fact that a handful of small populations survive in several tiny fragments of remaining habitat. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59388	population		It is an uncommon species.	eng
59388	threats		The major threat to this species is the extensive loss of habitat that has taken place due to agriculture, logging and human settlement, and only small fragments of original habitat remain.	eng
59389	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the forested areas that still remain in the Cofre de Perote area is a priority. Further survey work is also required to determine the current population status of the species, and whether or not it survives in the wild.	eng
59389	distribution		This species is known only from the Cofre de Perote and Cerro Volcancillo, two mountains located in the Sierra Madre Oriental, central Veracruz, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is from 2,500-3,000m asl.	eng
59389	habitat		It lives in pine-oak forests with abundant bunch grass. Its remaining habitat is very degraded, which might explain why it can no longer be found. The species is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59389	population		There is very little information on population status. It is known from five specimens, and has not been seen for 20 years, despite searches (including very thorough surveys in 2003 and 2004), such that the species might already be extinct.	eng
59389	threats		Much of the original habitat of this species has been lost due to extensive logging, farming (especially potatoes), and expanding human settlements.	eng
59390	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and protection of the remaining habitat at the two known sites is urgently needed. Survey work is also needed to ascertain whether or not the species survives in the wild at either site. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59390	distribution		This species occurs in two sites in southern Veracruz, Mexico: the peak of Cerro Chicahuaxtla, Cuatlalpan, at 1,600m asl; and at 1,200-1,300m asl on Volcán San Martín. It is likely that the taxon consists of two separate species, one in each site.	eng
59390	habitat		It is arboreal in montane tropical forest (cloud forest) living in bromeliads, an unusual habitat for a salamander in this genus. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59390	population		Once relatively common, it is now very rare; a single specimen was recorded at Cerro Chicahuaxtla in 2007 after not having been seen since the mid-1980s.	eng
59390	threats		Most of the habitat of this species has disappeared or has been severely degraded as a result of logging, agriculture, and expanding human settlements.	eng
59391	conservation	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2009	It is not known from any protected area. Urgent fieldwork is needed in the vicinity of Córdoba to locate any habitats where this species might survive. It is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59391	distribution	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2009	This species is known from Hacienda El Potrero, near the city of Córdoba, west-central Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
59391	habitat	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2009	The holotype was collected in tropical humid forest, and it is not known whether or not it can adapt to secondary habitats. It is terrestrial and presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59391	population	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2009	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
59391	threats	Gabriela Parra-Olea, David Wake, 2009	It is doubtful that any suitable habitat for this species survives. In the last 50 years since it was discovered, Córdoba has undergone massive development and there has also been extensive agricultural expansion.	eng
59392	conservation		Its range includes the proposed Cuchumatanes National Park and several protected areas on the Pacific slope volcanoes. It has been previously recorded from the Volcán Chicabal Reserve in Guatemala, but was not found on a recent visit (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). The species is in need of close population monitoring, and research is urgently needed into the population decline. There is a need to establish insurance colonies for this and similar salamander species that have undergone dramatic recent population declines. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59392	distribution		This species occurs in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the southwestern highlands of Guatemala, including the higher volcanoes. On Volcán Tacana, it also occurs on the Mexican side of the Guatemalan-Mexican border. Its altitudinal range is 2,450 to above 4,000m asl; it is usually found above 2,800m asl.	eng
59392	habitat		It occurs in the temperate forest zone (pine, fir and cypress forest), par-like forest, and above tree line in open bunchgrass communities. It also survives in degraded forest. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59392	population		This was previously an extremely abundant species, occurring at higher densities than any other salamander in Guatemala. It is now extremely rare, with very few specimens recorded during recent surveys (2005 and 2006) (Carlos Vásquez and Sean Rovito pers. comm. 2007). The declines in population do not seem to be linked to habitat modification. A small population was recently found high in the mountains of the San Marcos transect (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007); however no animals were encountered at a site in the Cuchumatanes where about 100 had been collecetd in a single day in the 1970s (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007). Gustavo Ruanco recently located a population of this salamander in the Cuchumatanes at 3,400m asl (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm. October 2007).	eng
59392	threats		The drastic decline in the population of this species is enigmatic, with further research needed to determine the cause. The species is additionally threatened by habitat loss due to overgrazing by livestock, clear-cutting of forest, and human settlement.	eng
59393	conservation		It occurs in the Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
59393	distribution		This species is known only from a small area in Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca, near Toluca, Mexico, at 3,200-3,500m asl.	eng
59393	habitat		It lives in pine-fir forest, where it is terrestrial. It is not found in severely disturbed habitats, and can tolerate only very slight selective logging. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59393	population		It is relatively common, but has probably undergone declines.	eng
59393	threats		The main threat to this species in the past has been logging. Although now confined to Parque Nacional Nevado de Toluca, this protected area is not well managed, and is subject to negative impacts from tourism.	eng
59394	conservation		It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Further field work is needed to better determine the possible range of this species, and to understand if there are any threats to the species.	eng
59394	distribution		This recently described species is known from two general localities in the western portion of the Sierra Mazateca, Oaxaca, Mexico, although the limits of its distribution are not known. It has been collected at altitudes of between 2,235 and 2,290m asl. The Sierra Mazateca mountain range lies within the Sierra Madre Oriental, north of the Río Grande.	eng
59394	habitat		This is generally an arboreal species of high-altitude, moist, mixed pine and oak forest. Animals have been collected under the bark of logs, in epiphytes, and in stone crevices. This is presumed to be a direct developing species.	eng
59394	population		The population status of this species is not known.	eng
59394	threats		Its habitat is under threat from small-scale farming and wood extraction.	eng
59395	conservation		The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59395	distribution		This species occurs on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, above Vista Hermosa, Oaxaca, Mexico. Its altitudinal range is 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
59395	habitat		It inhabits evergreen cloud forests, and, although an arboreal bromeliad dweller, it is sometimes possible to find this species on the ground or under logs and bark. It is not found in degraded habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59395	population		It is uncommon but still can be observed.	eng
59395	threats		The major threat is habitat loss as a result of expanding agriculture (including livestock farming) and logging.	eng
59396	conservation		It occurs in the Reserve de la Biósfera Rancho El Cielo which is quite well protected. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59396	distribution		This species is known only from caves in the Reserve de la Biósfera El Cielo in Tamaulipas in north-eastern Mexico, at about 1,050-1,800m asl.	eng
59396	habitat		It is a cave-dwelling species. It breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59396	population		It was formerly fairly common. It was last seen in the mid-1980s, and one search in the late 1990s did not locate it. It is not known whether or not it has declined, or whether or not the lack of records is a reflection of the lack of observer effort.	eng
59396	threats		This species would be at risk if there is disturbance of its cave micro-habitat, where it presumably relies on high humidity levels. However, the area where it occurs is currently well protected.	eng
59397	conservation		The species is known to occur in the Parque Nacional Benito Juarez. While continued and strengthened protection of the species' remaining habitat is required, additional research is required into the reasons for its dramatic decline. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59397	distribution		This species occurs only on the Sierra de Juarez at Cerro San Felipe and Llanos de las Flores, north-western Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,500-3,000m asl. It may also occur in Sierra de Cuatro Venados, but the specimens have not be validated. Species may be extinct at the type locality; however, it was found at Llanos de las Flores in 1999 (the last known record).	eng
59397	habitat		It inhabits pine forests, living under the bark of logs, and is able to persist in somewhat disturbed habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59397	population		It used to be very abundant, but is now extremely rare suggesting that a massive decline has taken place.	eng
59397	threats		The cause for declines remain a mystery. It is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.	eng
59398	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the population declines of this species.	eng
59398	distribution		This species is known only from Filo de Caballos, in the Cerro Teotepec area of the Sierra Madre del Sur in north-eastern Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,650m asl.	eng
59398	habitat		It lives in pine-oak forests, and is terrestrial, hiding in logs and other debris. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
59398	population		There is little information; it is known from very few collecting events. Last recorded in 2000 (T. Papenfuss, M. García-París, G. Parra-Olea, pers. comm., 2007). There is suspected to have been a significant decline in this species.	eng
59398	threats		Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.	eng
59399	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
59399	distribution		This species is known only from south-east of Puerto del Gallo town, on the slopes of Cerro Teotepec in south-central Guerrero, Mexico, at 3,425m asl.	eng
59399	habitat		It lives in moist areas with abundant moss in pine-fir forests. Reproduction is by direct development.	eng
59399	population		There is very little information; it is known from few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it. It appears to have undergone population declines.	eng
59399	threats		Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.	eng
59400	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. Further field surveys are urgently needed to locate remaining populations of this species, and to better understand the causes of the presumed dramatic population decline.	eng
59400	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern approaches to Cerro Teotepec, in the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico, at about 3,000m asl.	eng
59400	habitat		It is known only from wet oak-pine-fir forests, where it is usually found under the bark of logs in moist areas. It is terrestrial, and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59400	population		There is very little information; it is known from a few specimens. The species has not been recorded since its discovery in the 1960s despite repeated attempts to locate it.	eng
59400	threats		Although it lives in a remote area, logging has apparently been taking place on Cerro Teotepec, and this might constitute a threat to it. There is also pressure on this species' habitat from expanding small-scale agriculture.	eng
59401	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Benito Juarez. There is a need for further research to establish the cause of the declines observed in this species in suitable habitat. This species is listed as "Threatened" (Amenazada) by the Mexican government.	eng
59401	distribution		This species occurs in Cerro San Felipe / Cerro San Luis (the type locality) in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Elevation 2,600-2,800m asl. Taxonomic status of specimens provisionally assigned to this species found in Llano de las Flores and Cerro Machin remain to be validated.	eng
59401	habitat		This is a semi-arboreal species that inhabits pine-oak and fir forests, and has commonly been found under logs. It can live in somewhat disturbed forest. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59401	population		Formerly common, this species was not found in the 1960s and the early 1970s, and, although it was recorded briefly, there have been no records since 1976 at the type locality.	eng
59401	threats		The cause for declines remain a mystery. It is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places. Possible explanations include climate change, and disease (such as chytridiomycosis).	eng
59402	conservation		It occurs in the San Martin and Santa Marta National Parks. Further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59402	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Cerro Cangrejo, and from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez in the vicinity of Vista Hermosa, northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs up to 1,500m asl.	eng
59402	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits tropical rainforest and cloud forest habitats, and lives in moss mats. It can survive in somewhat disturbed forest, provided there is plenty of shade. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59402	population		There is no information on its population status, possibly because it is very hard to find.	eng
59402	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement.	eng
59403	conservation		Population monitoring is needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59403	distribution		This species occurs in the USA on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont of eastern Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, and in the Coastal Plain only of Maryland and southern New Jersey; west of the Appalachians, occurs in eastern Tennessee, Kentucky, western West Virginia, western Virginia, and southern Ohio; isolated populations in east-central Mississippi and south-central Pennsylvania (Petranka 1998).	eng
59403	habitat		It can be found in muddy springs, slow floodplain streams, and swamps along slow streams; backwater ponds and marshes created by beaver activity. Non-larval forms usually occur beneath logs and rocks, in decaying vegetation, and in muddy stream-bank burrows. Occasionally disperses from wet muddy areas. It is secretive and sometimes difficult to detect. Eggs are attached separately to objects in water (e.g., undersides of leaves in quiet pool, Green and Pauley 1987).	eng
59403	population		There are many occurrences, probably stable distribution and abundance but few data are available.	eng
59403	threats		It is not threatened. Can probably tolerate habitat disturbance (e.g., siltation) better than can many eastern salamanders (Petranka 1998). However, clear-cutting and urbanization can no doubt impact local populations.	eng
59404	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas,	eng
59404	distribution		This species can be found from the eastern United States from southern New York to southern Indiana and south to the Gulf Coast; absent from most of Atlantic coastal plain south of Virginia and from peninsular Florida (Petranka 1998).	eng
59404	habitat		It can be found in cold, clear, rocky streams and springs in wooded or open areas. Adults occur in or near water in leaf-litter and under rocks, and in crevices and burrows near water. Adults sometimes disperse into woods. Eggs are attached to underside of rocks in water. Larvae occur in still pools.	eng
59404	population		It is widespread and secure.	eng
59404	threats		Deforestation, acid drainage from coalmines, and stream siltation and pollution undoubtedly has resulted in the loss of many populations (Petranka 1998). However, the species is secure on a global scale.	eng
59405	conservation	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is present in some protected areas. Prior to being considered a separate species <em>Speleomantes strinatii</em> was listed on both Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, under <em>S. italicus</em>. Although this species is not considered to be declining in Italy, further information is needed on the status of the populations in France.	eng
59405	distribution	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to south-eastern France and north-western Italy, from 80 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
59405	habitat	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in the vicinity of streams and seepages, and amongst rocky outcrops and caves in mountainous areas. It reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs.	eng
59405	population	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Although there is little available information on the population status of this species, it is not considered to be declining in Italy. In some parts of its range it is a common species.	eng
59405	threats	Franco Andreone, Paul Edgar, Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There are no major threats identified other than localized loss of habitat and illegal collection.	eng
59406	conservation		Research on population status and trends needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59406	distribution		This species can be found from the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to Georgia and extreme northeastern Florida, USA (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
59406	habitat		It can be found in the cypress and gum swamps, small ponds in pine forests, large drainage ditches, and sluggish streams. Adults occur in moss or under leaf debris in water, or under objects at water's edge. It is primarily aquatic. Eggs are laid in or under logs or attached to plants in or near water.	eng
59406	population		It occurs in scattered populations throughout the historical range (Petranka 1998). Not much is known about the conservation status of this species (Petranka 1998), but it appears to be secure throughout most of the range.	eng
59406	threats		Local populations likely have been eliminated or reduced as a result of drainage of wetlands (Petranka 1998), especially for agriculture, urbanization and other forms of infrastructure development.	eng
59407	conservation		The type locality falls within a local conservation management area administered by the town of Santiago Comaltepec.	eng
59407	distribution		This species is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez above Vista Hermosa, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,500-2,200m asl.	eng
59407	habitat		It is confined to cloud forests, where it is arboreal, typically found in the leaf axils of bromeliads. It can tolerate a small amount of habitat disturbance provided that there is plenty of shade. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59407	population		This has always been a rare species.	eng
59407	threats		The main threats to the species are the encroachment of agriculture (particularly livestock farming) and logging.	eng
59408	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas. While protection of the species' remaining habitat is obviously required, research is also needed into the reasons for its dramatic decline.	eng
59408	distribution		This species is known from the highest peak of Cerro Pelón, and surrounding areas on the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,600-3,000m asl.	eng
59408	habitat		It is restricted to terrestrial situations in montane pine-oak-fir forests and upper cloud forest habitat, living under stones and logs; it does not adapt to secondary habitats. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59408	population		It used to be common, but now seems to have largely disappeared, despite several attempts to locate a population (there has been just one observation in the last few years).	eng
59408	threats		The reasons for the dramatic decline of this species remains a mystery. The species is probably being negatively impacted by logging, which is taking place within its range. However, this threat is not sufficient to explain the level of decline that has been observed.	eng
59409	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, making the protection of the remaining habitat within the range of this species an urgent priority. There is also a need for further research to investigate the reasons for the decline of the species in good habitat.	eng
59409	distribution		This species is known only from Cerro Pelon and Llano de las Flores in the Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,800-3,000m asl.	eng
59409	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitant of pine-oak and fir forests often at forest edges. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59409	population		It used to be moderately common, but has undergone declines, especially on Cerro Pelon.	eng
59409	threats		The reason for the dramatic decline in the species remains a mystery. Although logging is certainly taking place, this is not sufficient to explain the extent of the declines that have taken place.	eng
59410	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco (but this requires confirmation). Protection of habitat around the type locality is an urgent priority. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59410	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality near Puerto del Aire, which is around 3km west of the village of Acultzingo, in central Veracruz, adjacent to the border with Puebla, Mexico, at 2,475-2,800m asl; it is also found east along the escarpment 2300-2500 m asl to the town of Huitzila in Puebla (2003).	eng
59410	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak cloud forest, being found under wood chips, under and inside logs, under the bark of logs, and under rocks. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59410	population		It has never been common, and appears to have undergone declines.	eng
59410	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, due to the impacts of logging, livestock, and subsistence agriculture.	eng
59411	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for forest protection along the Milpillas-Atoyac transect.	eng
59411	distribution		This species is known only from Puerto del Gallo, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, north-east of Atoyac de Alvarez, central Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,800-3,000m asl.	eng
59411	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-fir and pine-oak-fir forests, and is usually found under logs or under the bark of fallen rotting logs. It can live in somewhat degraded forest. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59411	population		Recent observations show that the species still exists.	eng
59411	threats		The main threat is habitat loss as a result of logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
59412	conservation		It has not been found in any protected area, and forest conservation along the Milpillas-Atoyac transect is urgently needed. Further survey work is required to determine whether or not this species survives in the wild.	eng
59412	distribution		This species is known only from a single site near Atoyac, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, central Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,400m asl.	eng
59412	habitat		The only known specimens were found in riparian vegetation along hillsides, presumably in forest. The species seems to be terrestrial, living under logs and bark. It is not known whether or not it can withstand habitat degradation. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59412	population		Only two specimens are known, and it was probably never common. It has not been seen since the early 1980s, despite searches.	eng
59412	threats		Most of the potential habitat is now under coffee cultivation, and the remaining forest is under severe pressure from expanding agriculture and human settlements.	eng
59413	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, threats and conservation status of this little-known species.	eng
59413	distribution		This species is currently known only from a single site near Vista Hermosa, in the Sierra de Juarez in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 1,500m asl.	eng
59413	habitat		The single specimen was collected under a log in forest. This species presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59413	population		The only known specimen was collected in 1961. The species is considered to be very rare.	eng
59413	threats		The main threat to it is most likely the loss of its original forest habitat as a result of logging and expanding agricultural development.	eng
59414	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Volcán Pico de Orizaba.	eng
59414	distribution		This species is known only from a few localities on the southern and south-eastern flanks of the Volcán Pico de Orizaba, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,800-3,200m asl.	eng
59414	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forest, living under the bark of stumps and fallen logs, in leaf-litter and in piles of wood chips. Specimens from Texmola were collected from within a small patch of pine-oak forest that was surrounded by cleared agricultural fields. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59414	population		It was formerly very abundant, but has undergone massive declines and is now very rare.	eng
59414	threats		The main threat is habitat loss as a result of logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
59415	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need for the protection of pine-oak forest habitat in the Sierra de Juarez. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59415	distribution		This species has a relatively wide distribution in the Sierra de Juarez and the mountains above Totontepec, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,300-3,000m asl.	eng
59415	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forests. It also occurs in degraded habitats. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59415	population		It was formerly very abundant, but underwent major declines since the 1970s, and is now uncommon.	eng
59415	threats		There is some forest loss in its range due to clear-cutting and livestock grazing.	eng
59416	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection and maintenance is an urgent priority.	eng
59416	distribution		This species occurs above Acultzingo, in central Veracruz, adjacent to the border with Puebla, Mexico, at 2,450-2,800m asl.	eng
59416	habitat		It inhabits pine-oak forest, living in bromeliads, having been found in leaf axils and on the ground, under rocks and leaf-litter, and inside piles of wood chips. It is not found in degraded habitats. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59416	population		It has always been rare, but seems to have declined further. Six individuals were collected in 2003 after not having been seen for 20 years, despite repeated searches (J. Hanken pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59416	threats		The main threat is alteration of the original forest habitat, due to logging, livestock, and subsistence agriculture.	eng
59417	conservation		Habitat protection is the most urgently needed conservation action for this species, since it is not known from any protected areas. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59417	distribution		This species is known only from one site near Santo Tomás Tecpan, in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Oaxaca, south-eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,458m asl.	eng
59417	habitat		It lives terrestrially in pine-oak forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59417	population		Observed only twice in 60 years. Recently rediscovered (two specimens found at the type locality in 2001); this species is extremely rare, and very few specimens are known (Hanken and Wake pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59417	threats		The forests where it is found have been severely altered as a result of logging, agriculture, and human settlement, and very little good habitat remains.	eng
59418	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection for this species is urgently needed.	eng
59418	distribution		This species is known only from the mountains north and west of Jalapa City, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,100-2,300m asl.	eng
59418	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and pine-oak forest, with an abundance of bromeliads (especially in the oaks). It is terrestrial and can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59418	population		It has apparently always been rare, although a very small number of specimens were found recently at Cerro Loma Alta (c. 1999) after intensive searching. A visit to the known locality of Cerro Loma Alta in 2003 yielded no salamanders, and researchers noted serious habitat degradation had taken place since the previous visit.	eng
59418	threats		The main threat is deforestation and alteration of the original forest habitats as a result of logging, mining, agriculture, livestock ranching, and human settlement. One of the known localities, Cerro Loma Alta, was visited in 2003 and was found to be virtually destroyed as a result of logging and invasive plants. Similarly, all areas surrounding La Joya are highly disturbed by extensive logging and mining. Between 2003 and 2004, the area of forest habitat available at this locality was halved due to the expansion of mining activities; the remaining available habitat was only about 15ha in 2004.	eng
59419	conservation		It has not been recorded in any protected areas, though it may be present in Parque Nacional Cofre de Perote (this requires confirmation). Certainly, remaining habitat in the range of this species is in urgent need of protection.	eng
59419	distribution		This species is known from a single location consisting of a few sites above Las Vigas, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,400-2,600m asl.	eng
59419	habitat		It is a terrestrial species and inhabits pine-oak and pine forest, woodlands, and madrone (arbutus forest) with abundant shrubby and ericaceous plants. It is generally found under bark and fallen logs, and in leaf-litter. It reproduces by direct development.	eng
59419	population		The population of this species has declined, it was abundant in the past but has not been seen since 1997. Surveys in 2003, 2004, and 2006 by multiple researchers were unsuccessful in finding any animals in suitable habitat.	eng
59419	threats		The main threat is severe habitat loss and degradation as a result of logging, agriculture (including livestock farming), and human settlement.	eng
59420	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional San Martín and may be present in the Parque Nacional Santa Marta. While continued protection and maintenance of the species' remaining habitat is obviously required, research is also needed into the reasons for its dramatic decline.	eng
59420	distribution		This species is known only with certainty from Volcán San Martín in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, southern Veracruz, Mexico, at 500-1,200m asl. It may be present on the adjacent Santa Marta, however this requires confirmation.	eng
59420	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits lowland and intermediate tropical forest, being found under rotten logs and among leaf-litter, and especially under fallen bromeliads. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59420	population		This species appears to have undergone a population collapse. It was never common, and was last seen in the 1980s despite repeated attempts to find it.	eng
59420	threats		Serious habitat loss is taking place in the range of this species due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement. However, this might not be sufficient to explain its apparent disappearance.	eng
59421	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Benito Suarez, but there is still an urgent need to conserve the cloud forest remnants that remain in the Sierra de Juarez. Research is also needed to establish the reasons for the dramatic population decline; especially to see if this is related to a disease event. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59421	distribution		This species appears to have the largest geographic range of any species in the genus. It is known from Cerro San Felipe and adjacent upland areas in the Sierra Alaopaneca, from the Sierra de Cuatro Venados, and from the Sierra de Coicoyán, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,590-3,185m asl.	eng
59421	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and mixed forests, living under bark or under fallen trees. It does not adapt well to significant degradation of its habitat. It is terrestrial and reproduces by direct development.	eng
59421	population		The species was once common on Cerro San Felipe (the type locality), but it is now only found in small numbers there. It is consistently observed at two sites in the Sierra de Cuatro Venados, but again at small numbers.	eng
59421	threats		The reasons for the dramatic and enigmatic decline of this species is not known. The species is also being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, human settlements, and logging, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, since the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.	eng
59422	conservation		The Parque Ecológico Estatal Omiltemi, where this species occurs, has been degazetted leaving the species unprotected throughout its range. Protection of remaining pine-oak forest habitat in the Filo de Caballos is needed.	eng
59422	distribution		This species is known from Filo de Caballos and the former Parque Ecológico Estatal Omiltemi in the Sierra Madre del Sur de Guerrero, Guerrero, Mexico, at 2,500-2,950m asl.	eng
59422	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak-fir cloud forest and pine-oak forest, living under the bark of fallen logs. It can survive in slightly degraded habitats, but has disappeared where the forest has been lost. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59422	population		The species was relatively common as of 2006 (MesoAmerican Salamander Workshop 2007).	eng
59422	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture, logging, and human settlement. All suitable habitat below 2,800m asl is now gone.	eng
59423	conservation		The species has not been found in any protected areas. There remains a large area of unsurveyed potential habitat where this species is likely to occur, and so it is possibly not as threatened as other members of this genus. Further survey work is needed to better ascertain the limits of its distribution and its current population status.	eng
59423	distribution		This species is known only from Concepción Papalo in the northern Sierra de Juarez, north-central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,500m asl.	eng
59423	habitat		The species is terrestrial and inhabits pine forest and cloud forest, living under logs and stones, and in leaf-litter. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59423	population		It is a rare species.	eng
59423	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to logging, human settlement, and cultivation of crops.	eng
59424	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, and habitat protection and maintenance is urgently required; suitable closed habitat could be maintained through, for example, the use of more biodiversity-friendly agricultural practices, such as shade-grown coffee. Research is also needed to establish the reasons for the population decline. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59424	distribution		This species is known only from central western Veracruz, Mexico; from near the town of Progreso in the south to Teocel in the north, generally 1,000-1,200m asl (although it is known from as high as 2,000m asl).	eng
59424	habitat		<em>Thorius pennatulus</em> inhabits cloud forest and forest at lower altitudes. It requires moist situations such as crevices, and has been found under rocks, in leaf-litter and in and under rotting logs. The species also occurs in shade coffee plantations where humidity is maintained. It is a terrestrial species that reproduces by direct development.	eng
59424	population		Once very common, the species appears to have undergone a massive decline by the mid 1970s (it was perhaps the first <em>Thorius</em> to undergo large, inexplicable declines). There was one individual recorded in the late 1990s, one again in 2004, and another in 2006.	eng
59424	threats		The reasons for the dramatic decline in this species remains a mystery. This species is probably being negatively impacted by agricultural expansion, shifting agricultural practices, human settlements, all of which are taking place extensively within its range. However, these threats do not explain the level of decline that has been observed, because the habitat is still in quite good condition in some places.	eng
59425	conservation		It might occur in Parque Nacional Benito Juarez, but there are, as yet, no confirmed records from this protected area. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59425	distribution		This species is only known with certainty from the Cerro San Felipe region, central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 2,100-2,500m asl.	eng
59425	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits deciduous forest, including forest with some pines, living on the ground where it is usually found beneath leaves and bark. The species can survive in degraded forest (in fact, this is all that remains within its known range). It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59425	population		It used to be relatively common, but it appears to have undergone declines and is now quite rare.	eng
59425	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture (including livestock farming), logging, and human settlement. The remaining habitat in its range is already severely degraded.	eng
59426	conservation		The species has not been found in any protected areas, and the remaining pristine forests in southern Puebla are in urgent need of protection. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59426	distribution		This species occurs on the mountains surrounding the village of Zoquitlán, southern Puebla, Mexico, at 2,560-2,760m asl.	eng
59426	habitat		It is a terrestrial inhabitant of dense pine-oak forest, and occurs in leaf-litter. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59426	population		It is a relatively uncommon species.	eng
59426	threats		The forests near Zoquitlán are at risk from expanding agriculture and human settlements, as well as from logging.	eng
59427	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas.	eng
59427	distribution		This species is known only from south-west of Vista Hermosa and Metates towns, in the Sierra de Juarez in north central Oaxaca, Mexico, at 800-1,500m asl. It might occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
59427	habitat		It inhabits cloud forest and tropical forest at moderate altitudes, where it lives on the ground under rocks and logs. Reproduction is presumably by direct development.	eng
59427	population		The is very rare, having only been recorded twice at two different locations despite numerous attempts to find it.	eng
59427	threats		The main threat to this species is presumably the loss of its original forest habitat as a result of logging and expanding agricultural development.	eng
59428	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Pico de Orizaba. There is a need for further survey work to establish the current population status of this species.	eng
59428	distribution		This species is known from near the villages of El Berro and Xometla, south and south-east to the Volcán Pico de Orizaba, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,500-2,725m asl. Additionally, a single specimen has been provisionally assigned to this species from Puerto del Aire.	eng
59428	habitat		It is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine-oak forest, living under the bark of stumps or fallen logs, or within piles of wood chips and shavings. At Xometla, individuals were found in partially cut-over pine forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59428	population		This species was very common in the past, but has undergone massive declines. After some 15 years without a record, a single specimen was collected in 2000 near Coiyachapa Veracruz, en route to Pico de Orizaba; surveys undertaken at the same time at other known localities (such as El Berro) failed to locate the species.	eng
59428	threats		The main threat to the species is habitat loss as a result of logging, expanding agriculture, and increasing tourist development.	eng
59429	conservation		It has not been found in any protected areas, though it may occur in Parque Nacional Canon del Río Blanco (but this requires confirmation). Improved protection of the remaining pine-oak forest habitat of this species is needed. It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59429	distribution		This species is known only from mountains near the village of Acultzingo, central Veracruz, Mexico, at 2,380-3,000m asl.	eng
59429	habitat		It is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest living under bark, logs, in wood chips, and under rocks. The species can survive in somewhat degraded forest. It presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
59429	population		It was formerly extremely common, but has recently undergone declines.	eng
59429	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss, due to logging, livestock farming, and subsistence agriculture.	eng
59430	conservation		The state of Alabama provides no protection for the species (J. Godwin, Alabama Natural Heritage Program pers. comm. 1999). The Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 and the Clean Water Act of 1972 have been ineffective in preventing the continued decline of species in the Black Warrior basin (Dodd, Enge and Stuart 1986; Mettee <em>et al.</em> 1989; Hartfield 1990; Bailey and Guyer 1998; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998).	eng
59430	distribution		This species can be found in the upper (Appalachian) portions of the Black Warrior River drainage, Alabama, USA (Bart <em>et al.</em> 1997). Populations are known to occur in the Sipsey Fork and Brushy Creek, Winston County; Mulberry Fork, Blackwater Creek, and Lost Creek in Walker County; North River and Yellow Creek, Tuscaloosa County; and Locust Fork and Blackburn Fork in Blount County (Bailey 2005). This species can be expected to potentially inhabit the same streams as the threatened flattened musk turtle (<em>Sternotherus depressus</em>), which is also restricted to permanent streams above the fall line in the Black Warrior River basin (Mount 1975). More than 120 sites have been sampled for waterdogs since 1990 (Guyer 1997), and the species has been reported from only ten sites (equal to an eight per cent success rate) in four counties, despite surveys in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, and 1998 (Bailey 1995; Guyer 1997, 1998). Sites surveyed included all stream localities within the range of the species that approached or intersected roads and had appropriate habitat. Guyer (1997) did a statistical analysis of all waterdog field survey data. He concluded that waterdogs were unlikely to have been missed if they were present, especially at sites visited more than once. The data indicated that 200 additional surveys would be needed to discover a single new locality for the species.	eng
59430	habitat		It can be found in medium to large streams that have logs, submerged ledges, rocks, and other hiding places on the bottom (Ashton and Peavy 1986). Their historical range is thought to have included streams 10m wide or greater, with moderate flows and alternating pools and rapids (Ashton and Peavy 1986; Bailey 1992). Semi-permanent leaf beds (where they exist) are likely to be visited frequently (Ashton and Peavy 1986). Guyer (1997) analysed habitat to distinguish sites with waterdogs from those lacking the species. He found waterdogs to be associated with: clay substrates lacking silt, wide and/or shallow stream morphology; increased snail and <em>Desmognathus</em> (dusky salamander) abundance; and decreased <em>Corbicula</em> (Asiatic mussel) occurrence. Eggs are attached to the underside of objects in water.	eng
59430	population		It is rare with sporadic occurrences within the presumed geographic range (Guyer 1997). A 1990-1992 survey found only a few individuals in four localities. Collections included six adults and one larva in the Sipsey Fork, one adult in Lost Creek, one larva in North River, and one sub-adult in Yellow Creek (Bailey 1992). During a 1996-1997 survey a total of 18 individuals were collected from Sipsey Fork and 11 individuals from Brushy Creek (Guyer 1997). Even though it was extensively surveyed from 1990-1997, numbers collected are too low to determine population trends. Bailey (1992) stated that habitat degradation might have resulted in reductions or extirpations over much of the historical range.	eng
59430	threats		Water quality degradation due to industrial, mining, agricultural, and urban pollution are probably the primary reasons for the extirpation of this species over much of its historic range in the upper Black Warrior River system. The remaining Black Warrior waterdog populations are isolated from each other by unsuitable habitat created by impoundments, pollution, or other factors. The fragmentation of habitat renders populations vulnerable to catastrophic events such as flood, drought, or chemical spills. In addition, if stream quality improves within areas of the basin, impoundments and polluted reaches will act as barriers to the re-establishment of waterdog populations. Direct take for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes are not currently considered to be a threat. Disease and predation are not known to be factors in the decline. This information is based on a 1999 "Candidate and Listing Priority Assignment Form" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Bailey (1995).	eng
59431	conservation		Research on threats and population status are needed.	eng
59431	distribution		This species can be found in Lower Coastal Plain from Texas eastward to the Mobile Bay drainage in Alabama, USA (Bart <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
59431	habitat		It can be found in spring-fed streams with sandy bottom. It is a bottom dweller. In Louisiana, it is closely associated with leaf-litter deposits in streams, and animals may burrow into bottom during warm season (Bart and Holzenthal 1985). Probably attaches eggs to objects in water.	eng
59431	population		Populations in the core of the range are apparently secure.	eng
59431	threats		It is possibly threatened by stream siltation and pollution, but the important of this factor is unknown (Petranka 1998).	eng
59432	conservation		There are no specifically protected populations of this species. It is state-listed as a species of special concern in North Carolina. State water quality designations and permitting systems do address stream conditions (the 'Outstanding Resource Water' designation for Swift Creek in the Tar River basin is the best example of this).	eng
59432	distribution		This species is found in the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico River basins of the piedmont and Coastal Plain, North Carolina, USA (Petranka 1998). It is known from over 140 locations (Braswell and Ashton 1985), but these are not necessarily all distinct populations (H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). It occurs from near sea level to about 116m asl.	eng
59432	habitat		It occupies most clean, moderate to swift-flowing streams within its range. It is more common in streams greater than 15m wide and 1m deep (Braswell and Ashton 1985). It requires relatively high oxygen levels and water quality (Ashton 1985). Breeding and non-breeding habitats are the same except for late fall and winter when it exploits large accumulations of submerged leaves in eddies, or backwaters of streams. It more frequently occupies burrows and spaces under rocks (Ashton 1985; Braswell and Ashton 1985). Eggs are attached to the underside of objects in low silt moderate-flow areas of streams. No migrations have been documented. Home ranges reported by Ashton (1985) are relatively small (mean 17m² for females and 73m² for males). It is not found in reservoirs and areas below large municipal waste outfalls (Braswell and Ashton 1985).	eng
59432	population		It can be locally common. The healthiest populations in the Neuse system appear to be in the Little River and Trent River. The Tar River system populations appear healthy except for areas impacted by reservoirs and municipal effluents (Braswell and Ashton 1985). It might be declining due to declining water quality, but data are inadequate for quantitative trend estimatation.	eng
59432	threats		The major threats to this species arise from water development projects (such as construction of impoundments and stream channelization), pollution from agricultural runoff (including pig farm wastes and pesticides), and industrial and urban development (Bury, Dodd and Fellers 1980; Braswell and Ashton 1985; Braswell 1989; H.E. LeGrand pers. comm.). These activities all cause loss of in-stream habitat (for example, due to siltation) and loss of water quality. A significant portion of the habitat in the upper Neuse drainage has been destroyed or degraded (Braswell 1989), and continued development threatens additional habitat.	eng
59433	conservation		Despite widespread pollution and siltation of streams in eastern North America, this species appears to be in minimal need of protection (Petranka 1998).	eng
59433	distribution		This species can be found in North America from southern Manitoba to southern Quebec, south to Oklahoma, northern Louisiana, northern Mississippi, northern Alabama, and northern Georgia (Conant and Collins 1991). It is absent from Coastal Plain. Introduced in New England Rivers. See Cochran (1991) for information on distribution in the north-central U.S. in relation to postglacial events.	eng
59433	habitat		It can be found in permanent lakes, ponds, impoundments, streams, and rivers of all sorts. It is a bottom dweller that is often under rock, debris, bank overhang, etc., during daylight. Animals may move into slack water shallows in late fall and early winter. Eggs are attached to undersides of objects in water. Animals may move upstream to spawn (Green and Pauley 1987). It apparently tolerates some water pollution and siltation.	eng
59433	population		Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. It is still abundant in many northern lakes and rivers (Petranka 1998).	eng
59433	threats		There are no major threats.	eng
59434	conservation		None needed. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59434	distribution		This species can be found in the USA on the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to at least central Georgia, and Fall Line and Piedmont from North Carolina to Georgia; populations westward to Mobile appear to be related to N. beyeri or possibly represent an undescribed species (see Dundee 1998).	eng
59434	habitat		It is found in the bottoms of slow, sand- or mud-bottomed streams and connected ditches, cypress swamps; also stream-fed rice fields and mill ponds. It favours bottoms with leaf-litter and detritus. Juveniles burrow into bottom while adults congregate in leaf beds in winter. Eggs probably are attached to undersides of objects in water.	eng
59434	population		Viable populations occur in most areas of the range (see Petranka 1998).	eng
59434	threats		The major threats are unknown.	eng
59435	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas. Its conservation needs include retention of old-growth forest buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998).	eng
59435	distribution		This species can be found on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains from just north of Mount Saint Helens, Skamania County, Washington, south to north-eastern Lane County, Oregon, USA (Good and Wake 1992).	eng
59435	habitat		It can be found in coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or the streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in the splash zone. This species is found primarily in older forest sites since the required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices, and the eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
59435	population		McAllister (1995) mapped approximately 53 collections or verified sighting locations in Washington. It is fairly common in appropriate habitat (Leonard <em>et al.</em> 1993), and its population is stable in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).	eng
59435	threats		This species is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation, such as may result from logging or road construction for logging access. Timber harvesting negatively affects <em>Rhyacotriton</em> salamanders more than it does other amphibians in the same area (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat, and these are then vulnerable to extirpation through natural processes exacerbated by timber harvest (especially of old growth stands on north-facing slopes). This species is moderately threatened in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).	eng
59436	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas. Its conservation needs include retention of old-growth forest buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998).	eng
59436	distribution		This species can be found in the Coast Ranges of the western USA from the vicinity of the Chehalis River in Grays Harbor County, Washington, south to the zone of contact with <em>Rhyacotriton variegatus</em> along the Little Nestucca River and the Grande Ronde Valley in Polk, Tillamook, and Yamhill Counties, Oregon (Good and Wake 1992).	eng
59436	habitat		It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in the splash zone. This species is found primarily in older forest sites since the required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices, and the eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).	eng
59436	population		McAllister (1995) mapped approximately 43 collections or verified sighting locations in Washington, and this species is apparently stable in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm.).	eng
59436	threats		Torrent salamanders in general are sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation, such as may result from logging or road construction for logging access (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989). However, preliminary data suggest that <em>R. kezeri</em> tolerates habitat alteration better than do other torrent salamander species, and that increases in sedimentation that might be particularly problematic for other <em>Rhyacotriton</em> species might be less problematic for this species (Hallock and McAllister 2002).	eng
59437	conservation		They are protected in Olympic National Park. Conservation needs include retention of old-growth buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998). Population trends data are needed.	eng
59437	distribution		This species can be found in the Olympic Peninsula in Clallam, Grays Harbor, Jefferson, and Mason counties, Washington, United States (Good and Wake 1992).	eng
59437	habitat		It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold mountain streams and spring seepages. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in splash zone. Primarily in older forest sites, required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990). Two <em>Rhyacotriton</em> were found in deep, narrow rock crevices; eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum, Brodie and Storm 1983).	eng
59437	population		Recent surveys of Olympic National Park (Bury and Adams 2000) showed the species to be widespread, occurring in 41% of 168 streams and 47% of 235 seeps surveyed. They were more abundant in streams with northerly aspects and steep gradients.	eng
59437	threats		It is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation. Timber harvest negatively affects <em>Rhyacotriton</em> salamanders more than any other sympatric amphibians (Bury and Corn 1988b; Corn and Bury 1989); however, lower-gradient, higher-order streams, which might intrinsically provide poor habitat for this species are more often disturbed by timber harvest. Hence, the effects of timber harvest <em>per se</em> on torrent salamanders has probably been confounded with natural variation in habitat quality (Hayes and Jones 2005). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat.	eng
59438	conservation		Conservation needs include retention of old-growth buffers around headwater streams (Petranka 1998). See USFWS (2000) for information on federal and state regulations that provide protection for torrent salamander habitat.	eng
59438	distribution		This species can be found in the western USA. It occurs from southern Mendocino County, California, north through the Coast Ranges to the Little Nestucca River and the Grande Ronde Valley in Polk, Tillamook, and Yamhill counties, Oregon, where the range abuts that of R. kezeri; an apparently isolated population exists on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains in the vicinity of Steamboat, Douglas County, Oregon (south of the range of Rhyacotriton cascadae) (Good and Wake 1992). It has patchy distribution in headwaters and low order tributaries (Welsh and Lind 1996).	eng
59438	habitat		It can be found in coastal coniferous forests in small, cold (usually 5.8-12.0 C), clear, high-gradient mountain streams and spring seepages, especially in gravel-dominated riffles with low sedimentation. Larvae often occur under stones in shaded streams. Adults also inhabit these streams or streamsides in saturated moss-covered talus, or under rocks in splash zone. Typically occurs in older forest sites with large conifers, abundant moss, and > 80% canopy closure; required microclimatic and microhabitat conditions generally exist only in older forests (Welsh 1990, Welsh and Lind 1996). Young, managed forests may be occupied as long as the required microhabitats are present (Diller and Wallace 1996). Two Rhyacotriton nests were found in deep, narrow rock crevices; eggs were lying in cold, slow-moving water (Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
59438	population		There is little historical information. It is widespread in many headwater streams in north-coastal California (Diller and Wallace 1996). Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped 65 verified records in California. Forty documented sites in Oregon (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997). It is still present throughout historical range, but localized extirpations and reductions in abundance are evident, due to past forest management activities (USFWS, Federal Register, 29 June 1995; USFWS 2000). Habitat declining, recent estimates place the amount of remaining coastal old-growth redwood forest in California, which comprises a significant portion of California coastal old-growth forest, at 12% (see Jennings and Hayes 1994). But the trend of habitat loss is lessening across much of the range with a reduction in clear cutting and with some increased awareness and protection of headwater habitats (USFWS 2000). In Oregon, believed declining (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997); state species of special concern.	eng
59438	threats		It is sensitive to increased temperature and sedimentation. Timber harvest negatively affects Rhyacotriton salamanders more than any other amphibian in the Oregon Coast Range (Bury and Corn 1988, Corn and Bury 1989). Logging activities may destroy habitat and increase siltation; the Oregon range coincides with areas of intense logging practices (E. Gaines pers. comm., 1997). However, the species can persist in habitats after habitat alteration, including logging (see USFWS 2000). Some populations are isolated by intervening areas of unsuitable habitat; these are vulnerable to extirpation through natural processes exacerbated by timber harvest (especially old growth stands on north-facing slopes). Much of the range has undergone large-scale timber harvesting or is harvestable, and there is concern that adequate protection of habitat is lacking (Federal Register, 29 June 1995). However, current timber harvest regulations provide more protection for habitat than did those of the unregulated past (Diller and Wallace 1996). USFWS (2000) concluded that current regulatory practices do not constitute a threat. USFWS (2000) determined that the species currently is not threatened by logging or other habitat alterations but noted that the most vulnerable populations are those at the southern and eastern edges of the range.	eng
59439	conservation		It is not present in any protected areas.	eng
59439	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Shuitan in Chenggong County, Yunnan Province, China, although the limits of its distribution are not known. It was collected at 1,940m asl.	eng
59439	habitat		It is found in small ponds or rice fields, and its larvae develop in water.	eng
59439	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
59439	threats		This species is threatened by the loss of its wetland habitats (presumably by drainage) and water pollution from the use of agrochemicals.	eng
59440	conservation		It occurs in Kunming Lake National Reserve, and possibly in other protected areas.	eng
59440	distribution		This species is known from Guizhou and Yunnan in southwest China, from 1,790-2,400m asl.	eng
59440	habitat		It inhabits pools in mixed forest and paddy fields. It breeds in irrigated rice paddies and in ponds in the forest, including artificial ponds close to Kunming. Larvae develop in the water.	eng
59440	population		It is a very common and easy to find species on the Yunnan Plateau, although it is uncommon elsewhere.	eng
59440	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation, water pollution, chemicals and pesticides are all major threats to this species. Small numbers have been seen in the international pet trade in recent years.	eng
59441	conservation		It probably occurs in some protected areas, but this requires confirmation. It is necessary to ensure that trade in this species is closely monitored and regulated.	eng
59441	distribution		This species is restricted to twelve islands in the Amami and Okinawa island groups, in the Ryukyus, Japan.	eng
59441	habitat		It occurs on wet forest floors and in grassland, and breeds in pools and streams, where the larvae also develop.	eng
59441	population		Its population is decreasing. In a site in southern Okinawajima, the number of animals recorded in the breeding season has decreased by 75% in 15 years.	eng
59441	threats		The major threat to the species is habitat degradation and loss, due mainly to clear-cutting and human settlement. Other threats include reclamation of ponds, and construction of artificial concrete ditches. The species is also in the pet trade in Japan and is used for medicinal purposes in Taiwan, Province of China. It has further been affected by the introduction of invasive fish species.	eng
59442	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with many protected areas in the region.	eng
59442	distribution		This species is found in the south of China, from 30-1,000m asl.	eng
59442	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in pools, ponds, seepages and paddy fields in hilly areas, in both forest and degraded habitats. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59442	population		It is a common species.	eng
59442	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species. It is also being traded in the domestic and international pet markets.	eng
59443	conservation		There are no known protected areas within the species' range, making habitat protection for this species an urgent priority.	eng
59443	distribution		This species is known only from Jiexi County in north-eastern Guangdong Province, China, above 600m asl.	eng
59443	habitat		It inhabits and breeds in pools and small lakes, with the larvae developing in water. During hibernation it lives in terrestrial habitats, including forest and lightly degraded areas.	eng
59443	population		It is a rare species, and appears to be in decline.	eng
59443	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation, particularly due to infrastructure development for tourist activities.	eng
59444	conservation		Its range includes several protected areas. It is known to breed in captivity in zoos in Australia.	eng
59444	distribution		This species is endemic to Japan. It is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and other small islands.	eng
59444	habitat		It is a grassland and forest species. It occurs in paddy fields, ponds, pools, brooks and streams where it breeds and larvae develop.	eng
59444	population		It is a common and reasonably adaptable species.	eng
59444	threats		It is affected by the conversion from small to large-scale paddy fields. It is also affected by the abandonment of paddy fields. Roadside gutters kill the animals, working as a trap. It is collected and exported to Europe as a pet, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59445	conservation		There are no conservation measures needed; this species is extinct.	eng
59445	distribution		This species was restricted to Kunming Lake and the surrounding areas in Yunnan, China.	eng
59445	habitat		The species formerly inhabited shallow lake waters and the adjacent irrigation channels, ponds and marshes. Breeding and larval development took place in these aquatic habitats.	eng
59445	population		No animals can now be found and this species is considered to be extinct.	eng
59445	threats		The extinction of this species was related to habitat destruction and degradation resulting from general pollution, land reclamation, domestic duck farming and the introduction of exotic fish and frog species.	eng
59446	conservation		It is designated as a natural monument by Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures.	eng
59446	distribution		This species is distributed on six Japanese islands: Amamioshima, Tokuonoshima, Yorojima, Okinawajima, Sesokojima and Tokasikijima. There are old records (three museum specimens) from Mount Kuanyinshan, just north of Taipei, in Taiwan, Province of China (Zhao and Adler 1993), where the species is presumed to be extinct (Zhao 1998).	eng
59446	habitat		This species occurs in broad-leaved evergreen forest, secondary forest, grassland and swamps. It inhabits vegetated areas with constantly humid substrates, and breeds in shaded still waters such as ponds and temporary pools in forests. On Tokunoshima the species occurs in and near sugar cane fields, at altitudes of 100-200m asl (Utsonomiya, Utsonomiya and Kawachi 1978). It is terrestrial, and while eggs are laid on land in one or several clutches, the larvae develop in water.	eng
59446	population		This is an uncommon species, and it is difficult to observe outside the breeding season. It is considered to be rare on Okinawa (Hayashi <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
59446	threats		Recent deforestation and other forms of land development, as well as road and drainage ditch construction, have been causing population declines on each island. It is also collected illegally for the pet trade.	eng
59447	conservation		This species is listed as a Class II state major protected wildlife since 1988. The largest subpopulation is within the Ruiyansi Forest Park, which does not yet constitute an effective protected area for the species, but which has been relatively well monitored. There is a small captive-breeding programme, and some young individuals have been reintroduced to the wild.	eng
59447	distribution		This species is only found in the Beilun area, east of Ningbo City in Zhejiang Province, China, from 100-200m asl. It is known from only three subpopulations, one of which has been extirpated already.	eng
59447	habitat		This species inhabits forests in low hills. They lay small clumps of eggs on land close to small, sheltered pools and ponds. When hatched, larvae travel over land into water. They move onto land after metamorphosis, and never return to water again (courtship behaviour and fertilization all taking place on land). The species is very long-lived and slow breeding. Preliminary information from captive animals suggests that they do not become mature until they are at least 10 years old, and they are likely to live for at least 20 years, or probably even longer.	eng
59447	population		The population consists of about 300 mature individuals.	eng
59447	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats to this species, especially as a result of forestry activities and human settlement, and pollution of the breeding habitat is a serious threat. An additional potential threat is the over-collection of individuals for scientific collections.	eng
59448	conservation	Bosch, J., Tejedo, M., Lecis, R., Miaud, C., Lizana, M., Edgar, P., Martínez-Solano, I., Salvador, A., García-París, M., Recuero Gil, E., Marquez, R. & Geniez, P., 2008	It has been recorded from Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido and Parque Nacional de Aigües Tortes y Lago San Mauricio, Spain, and presumably occurs in several other protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and it is protected by national legislation in Spain.	eng
59448	distribution	Bosch, J., Tejedo, M., Lecis, R., Miaud, C., Lizana, M., Edgar, P., Martínez-Solano, I., Salvador, A., García-París, M., Recuero Gil, E., Marquez, R. & Geniez, P., 2008	This species is found throughout much of the Pyrenean mountain range of France and Spain, where it occurs at a wide range of altitudes from 175m to over 3,000m asl (on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees), although the average range is 700-2,500m asl. It has recently been found in the Corbieres Mountains, 20km south-east of Carcassonne, in south-eastern France, which represents a range extension northwards.	eng
59448	habitat	Bosch, J., Tejedo, M., Lecis, R., Miaud, C., Lizana, M., Edgar, P., Martínez-Solano, I., Salvador, A., García-París, M., Recuero Gil, E., Marquez, R. & Geniez, P., 2008	It is a largely aquatic montane species that inhabits cold mountain lakes, torrents, streams, and occasionally cave systems, that are ice-free for at least four months of the year (Griffiths 1996). The eggs are deposited individually under rocks and stones in well-oxygenated, cold streams with rocky bottoms, and the larvae then develop in these streams. This species has a small clutch size of 20-40 eggs (Griffiths 1996).	eng
59448	population	Bosch, J., Tejedo, M., Lecis, R., Miaud, C., Lizana, M., Edgar, P., Martínez-Solano, I., Salvador, A., García-París, M., Recuero Gil, E., Marquez, R. & Geniez, P., 2008	It is abundant or common in parts of its restricted range, although several peripheral populations have disappeared largely through loss of habitat. It is more common in the west of its range.	eng
59448	threats	Bosch, J., Tejedo, M., Lecis, R., Miaud, C., Lizana, M., Edgar, P., Martínez-Solano, I., Salvador, A., García-París, M., Recuero Gil, E., Marquez, R. & Geniez, P., 2008	The main threats to this species are loss and damage of its aquatic habitats. Infrastructure development and tourism lead to over-exploitation of water resources, including from skiing facilities. The introduction of predatory trout (salmonids) and other fish is also a threat, leading to population extinctions, especially in mountain lakes. Pesticides are readily accumulated in the body tissues of this largely insectivorous species, and several populations demonstrate contamination by these chemicals (Gasc <em>et al.</em> (eds.) 1997). It is considered likely to be vulnerable to climate change.	eng
59449	conservation	Claude Miaud, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Marc Cheylan, Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is also protected by national legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas (Natura 2000 sites).	eng
59449	distribution	Claude Miaud, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Marc Cheylan, Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Corsica, France. It ranges from the tip of Capo Corso in the north to Montagne de Cagna in the south, and from San Guillano in the east to Golfe de Girolata in the west. It occurs from near sea level to 2,260m asl.	eng
59449	habitat	Claude Miaud, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Marc Cheylan, Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	The aquatic habitats of this species are exclusively unpolluted small rivers, mountain rivers and lakes; it is most often found in calm sections where there is a high-water level. The terrestrial habitats of the species are generally open riverine macchia or woodland. It breeds in water, with approximately 70 eggs laid in groups under rocks. It is not considered to be very adaptable to changes in habitat.	eng
59449	population	Claude Miaud, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Marc Cheylan, Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is very common in suitable habitat, mostly between 600 and 1,500m asl.	eng
59449	threats	Claude Miaud, Roberta Lecis, Paul Edgar, Marc Cheylan, Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	Threats to this species include habitat fragmentation, the introduction of predatory fishes (e.g.. trout) to streams, water pollution and the over extraction of water for both agriculture and tourism. However, it is not believed to be significantly threatened at present.	eng
59450	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, 2008	The species is protected by Iranian national legislation. The area that the species is known from is close to the Zagros Oak Forest protected area. Actions need to be taken immediately to prevent the illegal export of this species for the international pet trade (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). This species was recently added to Appendix I of CITES. A captive-breeding programme almost certainly needs to be established.	eng
59450	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, 2008	This species is endemic to four streams (in a single catchment area) within a restricted area of the southern Zagros Mountains of Lorestan (Shahbazan region), Iran (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008). It has an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,000m asl.	eng
59450	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, 2008	The species leaves water outside the breeding season, and is found in oak-pistachio open woodlands dominated by <em>Quercus brantti</em> and <em>Pistachio</em> spp. The streams are mostly surrounded by open patches of woodland with rock outcrops.	eng
59450	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, 2008	This is now a relatively rare species, with a dramatic decline within the previous ten years (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). The population is estimated to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
59450	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin, 2008	Of great concern is the current growing trade in the species for the pet trade. At present it appears that individuals caught in the wild are being illegally exported out of Iran. Some of the individuals in the trade are reportedly captive-bred but this requires confirmation. A few animals have been observed for sale in the Tehran market, presumably for local use in aquaria (T. Papenfuss pers. comm.). Habitat loss as a result of firewood collection for small-scale subsistence use, coupled with the effects of recent severe droughts, are also major threats to the species (N. Rastegar-Pouyani pers. comm.). Damming of the few known inhabited streams is a serious potential threat to the species. Non-native cyrpinid are additionally spreading into the streams from lower elevations and present a threat to the larvae and eggs of this species (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
59451	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin & Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, 2008	It occurs within the Zagrosian Oak Forest, which is generally protected. It is protected by national legislation in Iran, but this requires better enforcement. Actions need to be taken immediately to prevent the illegal export of this species for the pet trade. Captive breeding may have an important role to play in the conservation of this species. It has been successfully bred in captivity (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008). The establishment of reintroduction programmes for captive-bred stock would be desirable (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). It would be useful to determine if this species is susceptible to infection with the chytrid fungus (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It is recommended that the possible inclusion of this species on CITES should be considered (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
59451	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin & Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, 2008	This species is restricted to the Avroman Mountains on the Iraq-Iran-Turkey border, however it has currently only been recorded from Iran (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992; Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008) where it was known from five streams, but is now restricted to only four (now extinct at the type locality of Ghorighaleh). Many of the known localities are easy to access by people. Within Iran it is found in Kermenshah Province; it has not been confirmed from Turkey or Iraq. It has an altitudinal range of 1,300-1,400m asl.	eng
59451	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin & Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, 2008	It is known only from small streams and its terrestrial habitat is unknown. The area surrounding the streams is a dry canyon, with open oak forest and grassland. The mass migration of animals has been observed only as far as river banks to streams. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, in streams. It is considered to be susceptible to habitat disturbance.	eng
59451	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin & Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, 2008	It is a reasonably common species in suitable habitat. A number of populations have become extirpated, presumably through recent severe drought or illegal harvesting for the pet trade.	eng
59451	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, Sergius Kuzmin & Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, 2008	The breeding habitat of this species in the Zagros Mountains has recently been impacted by severe droughts which has led to the extirpation of some populations. Extraction of stream water into nearby orchards and some areas of wheat is a major threat to this species. Water contamination close to villages and small townships (largely by agrochemicals) (for example at Ghorighaleh) is leading to a decline in nearby populations. It is regularly seen in the illegal pet trade, both nationally (it has been regularly recorded in the pet shops of Kermanshah [Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008] and Kerman [Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008]) and internationally (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008), and this is considered to be an increasing threat to the species.	eng
59452	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas in Mexico, but these are needed where the species is still found to survive. The species has been reported from the Laguna Atascosa and Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuges, and from the Audubon Sabal Palm Grove Sanctuary in Texas, and may occur in other protected areas. This species is listed as threatened by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and endangered by the Mexican government. Research is needed on its demography, the water quality requirements of aquatic stages, what its terrestrial habitat requirements are, and its diet. Potential habitat needs to be surveyed for specimens at optimal times of the year (early spring or after rains).	eng
59452	distribution		This species ranges from the Gulf Coastal Plain, from south of the San Antonio River in Texas, USA, southward along the Atlantic versant to Tamaulipas, northern Veracruz and south-eastern San Luis Potosi, Mexico. It has never been found more than 130km inland. It occurs from sea level up to 800m asl. Many historical occurrences are no longer extant. The USFWS survey in the mid-1980s reported five localities, two in Texas and three in Mexico, of 221 surveyed. The localities in Mexico are few and far between, and it now seems to be absent from two of the three known localities in Mexico. It still exists in Siberia in northern Veracruz.	eng
59452	habitat		Adults, juveniles, and larvae inhabit permanent and temporary ponds, roadside ditches, and quiet stream pools, habitats that are relatively uncommon in at least the northern part of the range. It is usually found among submerged vegetation, and it is found under rocks and other shelter when ponds dry up. The eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in shallow water (Garrett and Barker 1987). The species is generally intolerant of habitat disturbance except that it has been found in ditches along railroad rights-of-way.	eng
59452	population		The species has never been found to be abundant at any locality. A maximum of 25 individuals has been found at one site. It was once rather common in Texas, but is now seldom seen (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is apparently still declining in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), but much of the range includes private land where herpetological surveys have not been conducted. The populations of this species in Mexico also seem to be very small and declining, but more fieldwork is needed to verify the status of the species in the country.	eng
59452	threats		Extensive habitat alteration for agriculture and infrastructure development in Texas and north-eastern Mexico has had a severe impact on this newt. It has also become endangered in Texas due to insecticide and herbicide use (Dixon 1987), and water pollution is also a major problem in Mexico.	eng
59453	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59453	distribution		This species can be found throughout the eastern USA and adjacent southern Canada; west to Minnesota, eastern Kansas, and eastern Texas (Petranka 1998). There are thousands of occurrences.	eng
59453	habitat		Adults and larvae inhabit ponds, swamps, and quiet stream pools. Animals may burrow into mud if pond dries. Efts and sometimes adults (i.e., over wintering ones) inhabit wooded areas (terrestrial eft stage lasts 2-7 years). The adults are generally permanently aquatic in northeastern USA, but may leave pond in summer or fall in some areas (e.g., montane Virginia). Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.	eng
59453	population		It is widespread and abundant. It might have increased as creation of farm ponds augmented available habitat (Petranka 1998). Could be increasing with increasing beaver populations (Petranka 1998).	eng
59453	threats		Roads negatively impact salamander abundance in roadside habitat and might serve as partial barriers to movement (deMaynadier and Hunter 2000). Introduced bluegill sunfish might cause declines in larval abundance (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1999). However, the species is unthreatened overall.	eng
59454	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species. Captive breeding is occurring in Europe.	eng
59454	distribution		This species is found in central and southern China in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hunan Provinces, from 600-1,900m asl.	eng
59454	habitat		It lives and breeds in streams of varying sizes, where the larvae also develop. In winter it hibernates on land.	eng
59454	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
59454	threats		It is collected for human consumption in certain parts of its range. It is also exported for the international pet trade. Habitat destruction and degradation are also an ongoing threat.	eng
59455	conservation		A number of protected areas in the region support this species. Captive breeding is occurring in Europe.	eng
59455	distribution		This species is found in central and southern China in Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces, from 50-1,800m asl.	eng
59455	habitat		It inhabits low-gradient, hill streams of varying sizes. It breeds in the same habitats and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
59455	population		It is a relatively common species.	eng
59455	threats		Over-exploitation for use as traditional Chinese medicine and for the international pet trade is a major threat to this species. It is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
59456	conservation		Several protected areas in the region fall within the species' range.	eng
59456	distribution		This species is known from south-eastern Chongqing, south-western Hunan, eastern Guizhou, and Fuchuan in eastern Guangxi in central China, from 500-1,800m asl. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest.	eng
59456	habitat		It inhabits hill streams of varying sizes and the surrounding habitats in forested areas, and sometimes also occurs in streamside pools. It breeds in streams where the larvae also develop.	eng
59456	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59456	threats		This species is affected by habitat destruction and degradation for dam construction and subsistence wood collecting, and also by harvesting for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Small numbers are exported for the international pet trade, though probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59457	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region. It is bred in captivity in Europe.	eng
59457	distribution		This species is known from central China in Chongqing, Hunan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, from 200-1,200m asl.	eng
59457	habitat		It inhabits large streams and creeks and nearby habitat in the foothills. It breeds in streams and creeks where the larvae also develop.	eng
59457	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59457	threats		It is susceptible to habitat destruction and degradation. Small numbers of this species are exported for the international pet trade, but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59458	conservation		A few protected areas are present within the range of this species. Some European herpetologists have successfully bred the species in captivity.	eng
59458	distribution		This species is only known from north-eastern Guangxi Province (Zhongshan, Fuchuan and Gongchen Counties) in China, from 400-1,200m asl.	eng
59458	habitat		It inhabits low-gradient streams in broadleaf forests. Breeding and larval development take place in streams.	eng
59458	population		It is a rare species.	eng
59458	threats		The major threats to this species include habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection, and over-harvesting for the pet trade.	eng
59459	conservation		The range of this species does not include any protected areas, and habitat protection for this species is urgently needed.	eng
59459	distribution		This species is only known from Paiyangshan, Ningming County, in Guangxi Province, China, at around 470m asl.	eng
59459	habitat		It inhabits low-gradient streams and surrounding habitats. It probably breeds in streams.	eng
59459	population		It is known from only a handful of localities.	eng
59459	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture.	eng
59460	conservation		Its main distribution range falls within protected areas, and the Hong Kong population is protected by local legislation. This species has been widely bred in captivity.	eng
59460	distribution		This species is known from coastal Guangdong, including Hong Kong, in China, from 30-940m asl.	eng
59460	habitat		It inhabits low- to medium-gradient hill streams and the surrounding forests. Breeding takes place in slow-flowing stream pools where the larvae also develop.	eng
59460	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59460	threats		A particular threat to this species is the collection of significant numbers for the pet trade.	eng
59461	conservation		Addressing the lack of data would be the first step towards ensuring the species' conservation.	eng
59461	distribution		This species is currently known from the type locality in the Saysomboun Special Zone, as well as from Phoukhout District in Xiangkhouang Province, in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Stuart 2002). There is some evidence that it might occur more widely than this.	eng
59461	habitat		This is an aquatic species found in streams in dry shrubland, and that presumably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
59461	population		The information regarding its population status is still very incomplete, but it seems to be relatively common where it is known.	eng
59461	threats		The main threat is local harvesting of it for medicine and food. It will potentially be collected for the pet trade in the future.	eng
59462	conservation		It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas. This species is in urgent need of further survey work to establish its current population status.	eng
59462	distribution		This poorly known species is recorded only from Edough Peninsula in northern Algeria. Its altitudinal range is not known.	eng
59462	habitat		It is presumed to be largely aquatic and dependent upon cisterns, ponds, swamps and other wetlands. It is not clear if this salamander uses terrestrial habitats. It presumably has a similar breeding strategy to <em>P. nebulosus</em>, depositing its eggs, and completing larval development, within water.	eng
59462	population		There is no information on its current population status.	eng
59462	threats		There is no direct information on threats to the species. However, if the threats are similar to those facing <em>P. nebulosus</em>, then it is probably threatened by pollution of natural breeding ponds (dayas), as a result of the expansion and intensification of agriculture (livestock farming).	eng
59463	conservation	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2009	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Iberia, but there is a need to monitor vulnerable populations in northern and eastern Spain and Portugal. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain, where captive breeding of the species and habitat restoration projects are in place in some regions.	eng
59463	conservation	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas in Iberia, but there is a need to monitor vulnerable populations in northern and eastern Spain and Portugal. It is listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain, where captive breeding of the species and habitat restoration projects are in place in some regions.	eng
59463	distribution	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2008	This species is distributed in central and southern Iberia, and in the coastal plain of northern Morocco. It is essentially a lowland species becoming rare above 900m asl, although it might be found at 1,565m asl in the Sierra de Loja, Granada, Spain.	eng
59463	distribution	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2009	This species is distributed in central and southern Iberia, and in the coastal plain of northern Morocco. It is essentially a lowland species becoming rare above 900m asl, although it might be found at 1,565m asl in the Sierra de Loja, Granada, Spain.	eng
59463	habitat	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2008	This is a highly aquatic species of Mediterranean-type habitats including scrub, open woodland and cultivated land. It is generally found in ponds, dayas, wadis, lakes, ditches and slow-moving streams (often temporary in nature) with plenty of vegetation cover. The adults are mostly found under stones or in mud in their aquatic habitats, or sheltering under cover on land if the wetland dries up. It may be present in slightly modified aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The female deposits around 800-1,500 eggs on plants and stones in ponds.	eng
59463	habitat	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2009	This is a highly aquatic species of Mediterranean-type habitats including scrub, open woodland and cultivated land. It is generally found in ponds, dayas, wadis, lakes, ditches and slow-moving streams (often temporary in nature) with plenty of vegetation cover. The adults are mostly found under stones or in mud in their aquatic habitats, or sheltering under cover on land if the wetland dries up. It may be present in slightly modified aquatic and terrestrial habitats. The female deposits around 800-1,500 eggs on plants and stones in ponds.	eng
59463	population	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2008	It is not abundant over most of its distribution, with populations being more scattered and fragmented in the east and north of the Iberian Peninsula. Some population declines in this species have been observed, especially in eastern Spain. It appears to be in decline in Morocco (although it is common in the north), and the southernmost populations in Morocco might be extinct (T. Slimani and El Hassan El Mouden pers. comm.).	eng
59463	population	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2009	It is not abundant over most of its distribution, with populations being more scattered and fragmented in the east and north of the Iberian Peninsula. Some population declines in this species have been observed, especially in eastern Spain. It appears to be in decline in Morocco (although it is common in the north), and the southernmost populations in Morocco might be extinct (T. Slimani and El Hassan El Mouden pers. comm.).	eng
59463	threats	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2008	This species is generally threatened through loss of aquatic habitats through drainage, agrochemical pollution, the impacts of livestock (in North African dayas), eutrophication, domestic and industrial contamination, and infrastructure development. It has largely disappeared from coastal areas in Iberia and Morocco close to concentrations of tourism and highly populated areas (such as Madrid). Introduced fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) are known to prey on the eggs and larvae of this species, and are implicated in its decline. Mortality on roads has been reported to be a serious threat to some populations.	eng
59463	threats	Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Paul Edgar, David Donaire-Barroso, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, 2009	This species is generally threatened through loss of aquatic habitats through drainage, agrochemical pollution, the impacts of livestock (in North African dayas), eutrophication, domestic and industrial contamination, and infrastructure development. It has largely disappeared from coastal areas in Iberia and Morocco close to concentrations of tourism and highly populated areas (such as Madrid). Introduced fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) are known to prey on the eggs and larvae of this species, and are implicated in its decline. Mortality on roads has been reported to be a serious threat to some populations.	eng
59464	conservation	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Jose Mateo, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in Spain. It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
59464	distribution	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Jose Mateo, 2008	This species is restricted to north-west Africa, with a fragmented range in parts of northern Morocco (Rif and Moyen Atlas), Ceuta (Spain), and northern Algeria (coastal mountain ranges). There is an uncertain record (based on a museum voucher specimen) of this species from northern Tunisia; the presence of <em>Salamandra algira</em> in Tunisia requires further verification. The species has an altitudinal range of approximately 80-2,450m asl.	eng
59464	habitat	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Jose Mateo, 2008	It is generally restricted to humid montane forests where it is found under stones and beneath roots in Cedar (<em>Cedrus</em>) and Oak (<em>Quercus</em>) woodland. It has also been observed in caves in parts of its range. This salamander appears to be ovoviviparous over most of its distribution (8-50 eggs are produced), but viviparous in the Tangitana region of Morocco. In general, the females produce 15-16 larvae; the larvae may be deposited in either cisterns or small streams.	eng
59464	population	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Jose Mateo, 2008	This is generally a very rare species, especially in Algeria. However, it is locally common in the central and western Rif Mountains in Morocco. It is possibly extinct on Beni Snassen Mountain in north-eastern Morocco.	eng
59464	threats	David Donaire-Barroso, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Tahar Slimani , El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, Jose Mateo, 2008	The species occurs in small relict populations that are heavily threatened by deforestation, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and channelization of water sources for irrigation. The species is locally threatened by mortality on roads, and there is some collection of this species in small numbers for the international pet trade; further investigations are needed to determine the impact of trade on populations.	eng
59465	conservation	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59465	distribution	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Corsica, France, where it is found throughout the island. It is found at altitudes of 50-1,750m, but is commonest from 500-1,300m asl.	eng
59465	habitat	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in a wide variety of habitats particularly mixed and deciduous woodland (Beech, Sweet Chestnut and Pine). This species gives birth to well developed larvae that complete metamorphosis in streams, ponds and other waters; fully metamorphosed young are occasionally produced.	eng
59465	population	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
59465	threats	Claude Miaud, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threats to this species are loss of woodland habitat (especially as a result of forest fires). However, it is not believed to be significantly at risk.	eng
59466	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Ahmad Disi, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	Further fieldwork into its biology, habitat and distribution over much of its range is needed. It is unclear which species of <em>Salamandra</em> have been recorded from western Anatolia, and further investigation to identify these populations (which are not included here) is needed.  In Turkey, this species is found in a few protected areas.  It is present in the Mount Hermon, Mount Carmel and Tel Dan Natur protected areas in Israel and has been recorded in the Arz El-Shouf, Horj Ehden and Ammiq Marshes protected areas of Lebanon. The active creation of breeding habitat is taking place in the nature reserve within Mount Carmel, Israel. This species is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
59466	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Ahmad Disi, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is present in south-eastern and eastern parts of Anatolia, Turkey; a small area north-western Iran; northern Iraq; Lebanon; and northern Israel (Tel Dan, upper and western Galilee, and Mount Carmel). There is little information available on the distribution of this species in Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq. The altitudinal range in the south of this species' range is known to be approximately 180-2,000m asl (in the Taurus Mountains).	eng
59466	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Ahmad Disi, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	The terrestrial habitat of this species varies across its range. In Iran it is known from an area of arid sparse cork forest. In Turkey and Lebanon it has been found to inhabit damp forests and groves in mountainous or hilly regions, and to shelter under leaves, roots or stones not far from water. This species may persist in formerly forested habitats, although further studies are needed. Isolated populations of this salamander are found around pools (often temporary in nature) and slow-flowing spring-fed streams which the adults inhabit during the breeding season (winter through to early spring). It forages nocturnally, but may be seen in the daytime during wet weather. It produces live young (larvae with gills that undergo metamorphosis; Degani 1996).	eng
59466	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Ahmad Disi, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	In Iran this species is considered to be rare, and populations in Israel are small but generally stable. In Lebanon it is considered to be widespread, but localized and probably not abundant. In Turkey this species is rare.	eng
59466	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Ahmad Disi, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Tuba Kiliç, Engin Gem, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is threatened in parts of its range, such as Israel and Lebanon (and possibly Syrian Arab Republic), by infrastructure development and aquatic pollution by pesticides. In Lebanon introduced fish are also a problem. In Israel and eastern Turkey, large numbers of this salamander are killed on roads. This species is probably in decline in Turkey (as in other parts of the Middle East) as a result of damming of breeding streams, aquatic pollution, and an increase in ground water extraction resulting from the rapid expansion of irrigation schemes for agriculture, particularly in the eastern part of its range.  Its habitat is being fragmented by habitat conversion throughout its range.  This species may be subjected to collection for the pet trade.	eng
59467	conservation	Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation over much of its range. It occurs in many protected areas, and is listed in a number of national and sub national Red Data Books and Lists. Some populations of this salamander are being monitored (e.g., central Spain; Zlote Mountains [southwestern Poland, East Sudety Mountains]). Further research into the impacts of chytridiomycosis on this salamander is urgently needed.	eng
59467	distribution	Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, 2008	This species is present across much of central, eastern and southern Europe. In the former Soviet Union, it is known only from the mountains and foothills of the Ukrainian Carpathians. The populations of this species in Iberia are very fragmented (there is a small Area of Occupancy within the wider Extent of Occurrence). The populations of <em>Salamandra</em> species reported from western Anatolia, Turkey, require further investigation into the species involved and are not evaluated in this account. It occurs from lowland areas up to 2,500m asl (in central Spain).	eng
59467	habitat	Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, 2008	It is associated with wet cool deciduous, mixed, or rarely, coniferous forests with well shaded brooks and small rivers. Within the mountain forest belt, the species can be found in woodlands, glades and forest edges, rocky slopes, dense bush, and herbaceous vegetation. It is possible, that the occurrence of <em>S. salamandra</em> on woodless mountain pastures and within hayfields indicates the past existence of forests. In the Iberian Peninsula the species may be found in upland Mediterranean type forest and associated habitats. The species prefers microhabitats covered with dense leaf-litter and moss. In general, the female gives birth to well-developed larvae, that complete metamorphosis in streams, ponds and still waters. However, the subspecies, <em>S.s. bernardezi</em> and <em>S.s. fastusa</em> may give birth to two to eight fully metamorphosed young on land. The species does tolerate some habitat modification, and has even been found in gardens.	eng
59467	population	Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, 2008	A number of large, stable populations of this salamander exist in Central Europe. Some local populations declines have been observed over parts of its range (e.g., through habitat loss, introduced predatory fish, and increased aridity in Spain). A severe decline has been reported in the Netherlands. Some local populations have disappeared, and its population density has also been reduced in parts of Spain.	eng
59467	threats	Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Mathieu Denoël, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, 2008	The principal threats include localized general habitat destruction, unsympathetic forest management, and pollution of breeding sites by agrochemicals, collection for commercial purposes (i.e., the pet trade), introduction of predatory species (salmonids and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>)) and population fragmentation. The mortality of adults on roads is a localized threat in some parts of its range. The presence of chytridiomycosis has been reported in some Spanish populations.	eng
59468	conservation	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is protected by law in several provinces in Italy, and it is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Pollino National Park.	eng
59468	distribution	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is endemic to southern peninsular Italy in the Apennine Mountains (where it is widespread) and other hilly areas, south of Caserta province (Campania region). North of this it is replaced by <em>Salamandrina perspicillata</em>. It is usually found at elevations between 200 and 900m asl, but can occur between 50m and 1,500m asl.	eng
59468	habitat	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is mainly found in forests with dense undergrowth in hilly and mountainous areas. Only females of this species are aquatic during the short oviposition phase, for which well-oxygenated waters, slow-running streams (usually with rocky beds), drinking troughs and ponds are used. It appears to avoid seriously modified habitats. Little information is available on the ecology and reproductive biology of this species.	eng
59468	population	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
59468	threats	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	In parts of the species range there are some localized declines through habitat loss and aquatic pollution. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.	eng
59469	conservation		Undeveloped buffers should be maintained around breeding sites. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59469	distribution		This species occurs from the Pacific coast of North America from southeastern Alaska to Santa Cruz County, California (Stebbins 1985, Petranka 1998). Records from the Rocky Mountains, including populations in Latah County, Idaho, could represent introductions, though Monello and Wright (1997) recorded three small populations in Latah County in 1997. It can be found at sea level to about 2,800m asl (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59469	habitat		It can be found in forests, woodlands, grasslands, open valleys, and ranch land. Found on land (in open or under rocks, logs, etc.) or in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and slow-moving streams. It is the most aquatic western newt. It breeds in ponds, lakes, reservoirs and slow-moving streams. Lays eggs singly on aquatic plants or submerged twigs (Behler and King 1979).	eng
59469	population		It is widespread and common. Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000.	eng
59469	threats		None known.	eng
59470	conservation		None needed. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
59470	distribution		This species can be found from the Coast from Honeydew, Humboldt County, south to the Russian River area, Sonoma County, California, United States (Stebbins 1985).	eng
59470	habitat		It can be found in mountain streams and rivers in coastal woodlands and redwood forest. When inactive, occurs under rocks, logs, other forest debris, and in rodent burrows and subterranean crevices. Usually breeds in flowing water. Lays eggs on undersides or rocks in foothill/mountain streams.	eng
59470	population		It is common in many streams (Petranka 1998). Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000; Twitty (1966) marked 20,000+ in one study area.	eng
59470	threats		None known. Local populations might be impacted by deforestation, but it is not significantly threatened.	eng
59471	conservation		None needed. Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
59471	distribution		Range includes the coast ranges of California, from Mendocino County southward to Los Angeles County and disjunctly south to the Cayumaca Mountains in San Diego County; also the southern Sierra Nevada from Tulare County to Kern County (Kuchta and Tan 2006). Taricha sierrae hybridizes with T. torosa in the southern Sierra Nevada (Kaweah River area) (Kuchta 2007).	eng
59471	habitat		Breeding occurs in ponds, reservoirs, and streams, and terrestrial individuals occupy various adjacent upland habitats such as grassland, woodland, and forest (Storer 1925, Petranka 1998, Stebbins 2003, Kuchta 2005). Eggs are attached to sticks, undersides of stones, or vegetation in flowing or nonflowing water; fast-moving streams and rivers are used more often in Sierra Nevada foothills and in southern California mountains than elsewhere in the range.	eng
59471	population		This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range. Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This species is common in many parts of its range. Over the long term, likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Many historical occurrences in San Diego County appear to be extirpated. Currently relatively stable in extent of occurrence; probably relatively stable to slowly declining in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences.	eng
59471	threats		Under natural conditions, solar UV-B radiation reduces embryo survival; effects at the population level remain to be determined (Anzalone et al. 1998). <br/><br/>Introduced crayfish and mosquitofish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gambusia</span>) prey on eggs and larvae and have caused local population declines in southern California (Gamradt and Kats 1996). Introduced fishes likely have a negative impact in some bodies of water.<br/><br/>Locally, population have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat degradation or loss caused by conversion of habitat to human uses and to a much lesser degree by large-scale commercial exploitation (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Increased stream sedimentation resulting from erosion caused by human activities and wildlfires (Gamradt and Kats 1997, Kerby and Kats 1998) has degraded breeding habitat in some areas (Jennings and Hayes 1994).<br/><br/>Many are killed on roads as they move between uplands and aquatic breeding sites.	eng
59472	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Robert Jehle, Per Nyström, Claude Miaud, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Milan Vogrin, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas, and protected by national legislation over much of its range. The species is recorded in a number of many national and sub national Red Data Books and Lists. New breeding sites for the species have been created in parts of its range (e.g., Hungary). Conservation measures needed include the removal of predatory fishes in mountain lakes, reduction of overgrazing in mountain pastures, and the restoration of traditional livestock troughs as breeding sites. There is an urgent need to conserve the unique paedomorphic mountain isolates of <em>M. alpestris</em>. In parts of the species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
59472	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Robert Jehle, Per Nyström, Claude Miaud, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Milan Vogrin, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	This species is found throughout much of Europe, ranging from the French Atlantic coastline north to Denmark and eastwards to the Ukrainian Carpathians, Romania, and Bulgaria. It is widely distributed in the Balkans. Isolated populations are present in southern Italy and northern Spain (not present in Portugal). The distribution map is based largely on Denoël <em>et al.</em> (2001). It has been successfully introduced in the United Kingdom [distribution not mapped here], and in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid Province, central Spain). The species occurs from sea level to around 2,500m asl (Switzerland and French Alps).	eng
59472	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Robert Jehle, Per Nyström, Claude Miaud, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Milan Vogrin, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	This is a very aquatic species generally found close to water. It is widespread in both alpine and lowland habitats including wet, shaded coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, sub alpine meadows and pastureland. The species breeds, and larval development takes place, in all stagnant waters including shallow ponds, temporary pools, lakes, and ditches, drinking troughs, ruts and sometimes slow-moving streams. The generation time is between 2 and 10 years depending on the locality. The species life expectancy might be more than 20 years, but is usually around 7 years. Several dozens to hundreds of eggs are deposited per female each year. Neotenous populations occur in some areas, for example mountain lakes of Slovenia, Bosnia and Montenegro. The species can be found in slightly modified habitats, although it is less common in large cultivated fields.	eng
59472	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Robert Jehle, Per Nyström, Claude Miaud, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Milan Vogrin, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	It is generally common in suitable habitat. The species is considered to be rare in Hungary and Bulgaria; threatened in Austria and Denmark; vulnerable in Spain (<em>M.a. cyreni</em>) and endangered in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Greece (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997; Denoël pers. comm.).	eng
59472	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Sergius Kuzmin, Vladimir Ishchenko, Pedro Beja, Franco Andreone, Robert Jehle, Per Nyström, Claude Miaud, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Jaime Bosch, Milan Vogrin, Miguel Tejedo, 2008	This species is vulnerable to fish introduction and breeding habitat destruction (drainage of wetlands and aquatic pollution) throughout its range. Following fish introductions, most populations rapidly become extinct (particularly alternative paedomorphic populations); some taxa (if taxonomy justified) have disappeared following fish introductions (e.g., <em>M.a. lacustris</em>: M. Denoël pers. comm.). In some areas there is over collection of the species for use in education and science (this has led to the extinction of the species from some Ukrainian localities). It is also collected in small numbers for the commercial pet trade (especially <em>M.a. inexpectatus</em> of Calabria). Populations in the Pelopenese and southeastern continental Greece are facing severe habitat loss. At least one of the introduced populations in the UK harbours chytridiomycosis, threatening native amphibian populations in the area.	eng
59473	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in Spain. It is present in Parque Nacional de las Islas Atlánticas de Galicia, Parque Nacional de Doñana and Parque Nacional de Cabañeros in Spain. In Portugal, it has been recorded from Peneda-Gerês National Park.	eng
59473	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species is restricted to the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs from sea level to elevations approaching 1,870m asl, but is mostly present between 400 and 1,000m asl.	eng
59473	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This is a largely aquatic species, with vegetated shallow ponds and streams being the preferred habitat. It may also be found in cattle troughs, lagoons, streams and deep still waters, and is frequently found in temporary ponds. Animals have also been recorded from irrigation channels and other human-made ephemeral or permanent structures (C. Ayres, pers. comm.). The species occupies a diverse range of terrestrial habitats including eucalyptus plantations, pine groves, open Oak (<em>Quercus</em>) woodland, scrub and sandy coastal areas. The species may be found in traditionally farmed areas.	eng
59473	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is relatively common in suitable habitat, although populations in a small part of central Spain (especially in the Province of Madrid) are reported to be rapidly decreasing. It is more common towards the west of its range.	eng
59473	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	The species is mostly threatened by the loss of breeding pools caused by drainage for agriculture and urbanization. Some mortality in this species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. This disease might be non-native and is thought to have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by introduced fish and other introduced species (such as crayfish [<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>] and mink [<em>Mustela vison</em>]) is also a threat to <em>L. boscai</em>. However, in much of its range, the species is resistant and its populations are stable.	eng
59474	conservation	Antonio Romano, Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Robert Jehle, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Wiesiek Babik, Robert Schabetsberger, Milan Vogrin, Miklós Puky, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	Listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Protected by national legislation in several countries. It is present in a number of protected areas over its range.	eng
59474	distribution	Antonio Romano, Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Robert Jehle, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Wiesiek Babik, Robert Schabetsberger, Milan Vogrin, Miklós Puky, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species occurs through most of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia, northern Croatia, and northern Bosnia-Herzegovina, with an apparently disjunct population on the Adriatic side of the Balkan Peninsula in eastern Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, south to central Greece. There are populations north of the Alps in Austria, southeast Bavaria (Germany), western Hungary, and southern Czech Republic. There are a number of introduced populations in western Switzerland (Geneva), Germany (not mapped), Portugal (São Miguel Island in the Azores), the Netherlands (not mapped) and the UK (not mapped). Recorded from sea level to elevations approaching 2,000m asl (Greece).	eng
59474	habitat	Antonio Romano, Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Robert Jehle, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Wiesiek Babik, Robert Schabetsberger, Milan Vogrin, Miklós Puky, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	There are a wide variety of terrestrial habitats from beech woodlands to arid Mediterranean climates. Its breeding and larval development take place in various stagnant permanent and temporary aquatic habitats. This species can be found in modified habitats such as quarries and artificial water bodies such as stony wells, tanks and drinking troughs. In central and southern Italy, artificial water bodies can be the commonest breeding sites (e.g. Romano <em>et al</em>. 2007; Corsetti and Romano 2007)	eng
59474	population	Antonio Romano, Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Robert Jehle, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Wiesiek Babik, Robert Schabetsberger, Milan Vogrin, Miklós Puky, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	There are large populations in the south of its range, with the species becoming less abundant in the north. It is still locally very abundant in Italy, but several populations on the River Po plain are known to have become extinct. It is known to be dramatically decreasing through habitat loss in Montenegro (Kalezic and Dzukic, 2001), and populations are declining generally in the Balkans.	eng
59474	threats	Antonio Romano, Jan Willem Arntzen, Mathieu Denoël, Robert Jehle, Franco Andreone, Brandon Anthony, Benedikt Schmidt, Wiesiek Babik, Robert Schabetsberger, Milan Vogrin, Miklós Puky, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is sensitive to changes in water quality. The principal threats to the species are loss of aquatic habitats, especially breeding sites, through agricultural intensification and agrochemical pollution, and introduction of predatory fishes. In the Balkans, there has been loss of breeding habitats in recent years due to decreased spring rains, perhaps as a result of global climate change, and presumed mortality of individuals because of predation by introduced fishes.	eng
59475	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Trevor Beebee, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in most parts of its range. The species is listed in a number of national and sub-national Red Data Books and Lists, and is present in many protected areas.	eng
59475	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Trevor Beebee, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Philippe Geniez, 2008	This species is restricted to western Europe. It occurs in northern Spain and Portugal (where populations are often very fragmented), much of the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg, also the extreme western Czech Republic and northern Switzerland. The subspecies <em>L. h. punctillatus</em> is known from a single locality, Pozo Negro, in Burgos province, Spain; the validity of this subspecies is disputed. An isolated population in extreme southeastern France is extinct. This species has an altitudinal range from sea level up to at least 2,400m asl (Pyrenees Mountains).	eng
59475	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Trevor Beebee, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Philippe Geniez, 2008	It is present in a variety of habitats including marshes, heathlands, moorlands, forests (where it may be very common), pastures and agricultural land. Breeding and larval development takes place in a wide variety of small stagnant waters (including very small and acidic ponds, ditches and ruts), or (rarely) slow-moving waters. The species is generally less abundant in cultivated areas, but it can survive in some anthropogenic habitats such as gardens. Its habitat preferences vary in different parts of its range.	eng
59475	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Trevor Beebee, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Philippe Geniez, 2008	The species is very common in suitable habitats over much of its range. It is endangered in the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg (Gasc <em>et al.</em> 1997), and uncommon (with a fragmented range) in northern Portugal and declining in parts of Spain (especially the southern populations of Aragón and Castilla-León Provinces and the Ebro River populations of Zaragoza and Tarragona Provinces).	eng
59475	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Trevor Beebee, Robert Jehle, Mathieu Denoël, Benedikt Schmidt, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Philippe Geniez, 2008	The species is locally threatened by general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding pools, abandonment of traditional farming practices and the introduction of predatory fishes and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) (and possibly non-native vegetation). Desertification is a threat in southern parts of the range. However, through most of its range, populations are stable and abundant.	eng
59476	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive, and on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. This species is present in several protected areas.	eng
59476	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found through most of central and southern Italy, with higher concentrations at lower altitudes. It has been recorded up to 2,000m asl.	eng
59476	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is often associated with woodland and agricultural habitats. It breeds in a variety of temporary ponds, ditches, slow-moving streams and lakes. It is also found in modified habitats such as wells and water tanks.	eng
59476	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is locally abundant. It is more common in southern areas, and it is somewhat rarer at the northern edge of its range in central Italy, especially around the Italian Apennines. Some local declines have been observed in Calabria, and Abruzzo Mountains.	eng
59476	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threat to the species is localized drainage of wetlands. Pollution and eutrophication of aquatic habitats (especially breeding ponds), and the introduction of predatory fishes, may also be a problem. However, the species is not considered seriously threatened at present.	eng
59477	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	Protected by national legislation throughout its range (Gasc <em>et al.</em>, 1997). Listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. Present in a number of protected areas. In Portugal it is present in Peneda-Gerês National Park where the population of Carris Lake has been severely impacted by disease. Further research into the impacts of disease on this species is needed. Re-introductions and/or translocations of this species have been made in the area of Madrid, Spain.	eng
59477	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	This species can be found in much of northern Iberia, and central, southern and western France. This species was introduced to the area of Turin, Italy but is now presumed to be extinct here (J.W. Arntzen pers. comm.). Present from sea level to elevations approaching 2,100m asl.	eng
59477	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	Aquatic habitats include well-vegetated ponds, pools, ditches and streams generally within dry woodlands, heath land, fields and rough grassland. Breeding and larval development take place in many different types of permanent and temporary water sources, usually with aquatic vegetation for reproduction. It can occur in slightly modified habitats such as traditional farmland.	eng
59477	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	It is locally abundant in suitable habitat. It is locally endangered in central France, less threatened in southern France, and not particularly threatened in Spain and Portugal.	eng
59477	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Robert Jehle, Jaime Bosch, Claude Miaud, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, 2008	Major threats are agricultural intensification, drainage, pollution, and eutrophication of aquatic habitats through intensive agricultural. Mass mortality of the species through disease (iridovirus) has been recorded in Carris Lake, Peneda-Gerês National Park, Portugal. The disease might be non-native and have been transferred to the lake by an introduced predatory fish (<em>Lepomis gibbosus</em>). Predation by <em>L. gibbosus</em> and other introduced predatory fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) species is also a threat to <em>T. marmoratus</em> in parts of its range. There is some illegal collection of the species for the pet trade.	eng
59478	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Dan Cogalniceanu, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. Protected by national legislation in Poland. Listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Ukraine. It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
59478	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Dan Cogalniceanu, 2008	This species is endemic to the east Carpathian and easternmost Sudetes Mountains. Introduced into the Bayrischen Wald, Bavaria, Germany. It has an altitudinal range from 120 to a maximum of 2,000m asl.	eng
59478	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Dan Cogalniceanu, 2008	It can be found in wet and shaded coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (consisting of beech, alder, pine, oak etc.), their edges and meadow glades; also sub alpine areas. Reproduction and larval development in almost all temporary and permanent water sources in the Carpathians including lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, puddles, ditches, overgrown stream pools and even wheel ruts in country roads. It may be present in modified habitats, even polluted waters (Arnold 2002).	eng
59478	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Dan Cogalniceanu, 2008	It is generally common and locally abundant in the Carpathian Mountains. However, it is declining throughout its range.	eng
59478	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, Agnieszka Ogrodowczyk, Maria Ogielska, Wiesiek Babik, Dan Cogalniceanu, 2008	Some populations have declined due to habitat destruction (logging and infrastructure development), introduction of predatory fish species and pollution of habitats by domestic sewage. Collection of newts for education, science and the pet trade has negatively impacted some populations. It is affected by hybridization with <em>L. vulgaris</em>, as the range of <em>L. vulgaris</em> is generally spreading in the region with ongoing deforestation.	eng
59479	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Robert Jehle, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	It is present in Parque Nacional de Cabañeros and Parque Nacional de Doñana, Spain, and is presumed to occur in some Portuguese protected areas. Re-introductions and/or translocations of this species have been made in the area of Madrid, Spain. This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national and sub-national legislation in Spain. It is considered Vulnerable on the Spanish Red List.	eng
59479	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Robert Jehle, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula where it is distributed in central and southern Portugal and the southern half of Spain, from sea level to 1,450m asl.	eng
59479	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Robert Jehle, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	This species inhabits broadleaf (<em>Quercus</em> oak) woodland in meso-Mediterranean and thermo-Mediterranean climates. Aquatic habitats used for breeding and larval development include temporary or permanent ponds, lagoons, abandoned quarries and wells, drinking troughs, irrigation ponds, ditches and other areas of stagnant or slow-moving water. It is found in traditional farmland areas and other slightly modified habitats.	eng
59479	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Robert Jehle, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	It is common in areas where suitable siliceous substrate habitat exists. There has been a significant decline in the populations of southern and eastern Spain (those found on a calcareous substrate).	eng
59479	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Pedro Beja, Jaime Bosch, Miguel Tejedo, Miguel Lizana, Robert Jehle, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Alfredo Salvador, Mario García-París, Ernesto Recuero Gil, Rafael Marquez, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Carmen Diaz Paniagua, 2008	The most significant threat to this species overall is habitat loss, especially the loss of temporary ponds. In the west of Spain and southern Portugal populations are affected by predation by non-native crayfish and predatory fish. Increasing urbanization surrounding Madrid has also led to the elimination of many populations. In southern and eastern Spain, over-exploitation of groundwater resources, agrochemical pollution, loss of traditional breeding sites and the introduction of predatory non-native fish and crayfish (<em>Procambarus clarkii</em>) has led to a serious population decline. In Portugal this species is also affected by the drainage of temporary ponds, associated with the intensification of agriculture.	eng
59480	conservation	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Ahmad Disi, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Yehudah Werner, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is listed in the Red Data Book of Israel, and is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is present in some protected areas in Turkey, and might be present (marginally) in a protected areas in Israel.	eng
59480	distribution	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Ahmad Disi, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Yehudah Werner, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	This species is found in southeastern Turkey, western Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanon, northwestern Jordan, Israel (the southern limit being the southern Coastal Plain [Ashkelon]) and parts of the Palestine Territories. It has been recorded from 200m below sea level (Tabbaria Lake) to around 2,750m asl (in Turkey). Records from northern Iraq require confirmation.	eng
59480	habitat	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Ahmad Disi, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Yehudah Werner, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of birch, oaks, eastern hornbeams, alders, chestnuts, beach and rhododendrons) up to sub alpine meadows. Reproduction occurs in lakes, ponds (including temporary pools), large puddles, drainage canals, roadside ditches in meadows, slow-flowing streams and stream pools in open areas near or within forests. The number of eggs varies between 50 and 100. It can occur in some slightly modified habitats, but is rather sensitive to habitat change in the southernmost parts of its range.	eng
59480	population	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Ahmad Disi, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Yehudah Werner, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	The species is sporadically distributed over much of its range (although common in suitable habitats). It is generally more rare in the south because of restricted habitat availability.	eng
59480	threats	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail Ugurtas, Ahmad Disi, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Avital Gasith, Eldad Elron, Sarig Gafny, Yehudah Werner, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	Throughout its range this species is very sensitive to habitat loss through forest destruction, destruction of wetlands, overgrazing by cattle, urbanization, industrial and agrochemical pollution. In Israel it is threatened by collection for the pet trade. The southern population is more threatened by the loss of suitable breeding habitats. In Israel it is additionally threatened by spraying of pesticides to combat mosquitoes.	eng
59481	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It is listed in a number of Red Data Books and Lists and is both listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and protected by national legislation in parts of its range. In parts of this species range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. Several of the recognized subspecies may qualify for a higher threat listing and should be assessed in the future following taxonomic clarification.	eng
59481	conservation	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	It is presumed to occur in numerous protected areas. It is listed in a number of Red Data Books and Lists and is both listed on Appendix III of the Berne Convention and protected by national legislation in parts of its range. In parts of this species range mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established. Several of the recognized subspecies may qualify for a higher threat listing and should be assessed in the future following taxonomic clarification.	eng
59481	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	This species is widespread through most of Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula from which it is absent). It ranges from Ireland and Great Britain, through west and central Europe and Scandinavia, south to Italy, the Balkans and northern and western Turkey, and east through much of the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. There is an isolated population in the Caucasus. The species occurs at elevations from sea level up to 2,150m asl (Austria).	eng
59481	distribution	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	This species is widespread through most of Europe (with the exception of the Iberian Peninsula from which it is absent). It ranges from Ireland and Great Britain, through west and central Europe and Scandinavia, south to Italy, the Balkans and northern and western Turkey, and east through much of the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. There is an isolated population in the Caucasus. The species occurs at elevations from sea level up to 2,150m asl (Austria).	eng
59481	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	It is generally associated with woodland habitats, including deciduous, coniferous, mixed forests and dry forests and woodlands. This is an adaptable species also present in meadows, bushlands, parks, fruit gardens, many damp habitats and rural and urban areas. The species breeds in still and slow moving shallow waters and irrigation ditches; females lay 200-300 eggs. It is often recorded from modified habitats. Several hybrids with <em>L. helveticus</em> have been reported while hybridization with<em> L. montandoni</em> is quite common in syntopic populations	eng
59481	habitat	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It is generally associated with woodland habitats, including deciduous, coniferous, mixed forests and dry forests and woodlands. This is an adaptable species also present in meadows, bushlands, parks, fruit gardens, many damp habitats and rural and urban areas. The species breeds in still and slow moving shallow waters and irrigation ditches; females lay 200-300 eggs. It is often recorded from modified habitats. Several hybrids with <em>L. helveticus</em> have been reported while hybridization with<em> L. montandoni</em> is quite common in syntopic populations	eng
59481	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	It is very common or numerous over much of its range.	eng
59481	population	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It is very common or numerous over much of its range.	eng
59481	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats to the species include general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding sites, logging of forest surrounding breeding pools and the introduction of predatory fishes. In the former Soviet Union there is mass commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Within Turkey, construction and building along the Black Sea coastline might be impacting northern Turkish populations.	eng
59481	threats	Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Trevor Beebee, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Steven Anderson, Brandon Anthony, Franco Andreone, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats to the species include general drainage, pollution and eutrophication of breeding sites, logging of forest surrounding breeding pools and the introduction of predatory fishes. In the former Soviet Union there is mass commercial collecting of this species for the pet trade. Within Turkey, construction and building along the Black Sea coastline might be impacting northern Turkish populations.	eng
59482	conservation		In China the range of this species overlaps with several protected areas. It is listed as a class II protected species under China's wild animal protection law. Determination of the occurrence, distribution and population status of this species in Viet Nam is required, as well as the effective protection of the remaining forest habitat.	eng
59482	distribution		This species ranges mainly in central and southern China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hunan and Anhui Provinces), from about 400-1,700m asl. There are also records from Lao Cai and Ha Giang Provinces in northern Viet Nam (these are still considered to belong to <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em>, though it is possible that they might refer to an undescribed species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Other Vietnamese records (i.e., Fleck, 2003; Nguyen and Ho, 1996; Nguyen <em>et al</em>, 2005) from Bac Giang and Cao Bang Provinces, and probably also those from Tam Dao National Park in Vinh Phu Province, in Viet Nam, refer to <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005; Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).	eng
59482	habitat		It inhabits small temporary shallow pools in bamboo and primary forest in hilly areas. Eggs are found in leaf-litter beside the pools, and the larvae develop in the water.	eng
59482	population		This was formerly a common species, but it is now in decline.	eng
59482	threats		The major threat to this species in China is harvesting for its use in traditional medicine (it is a substitute for <em>Gecko gecko</em>, which is a widely used medicine). Habitat loss and degradation, arising from small holder agriculture and subsistence wood collecting, is also a threat to this species.	eng
59483	conservation		All three known locations of this species are within protected areas: Wuzhishan, Jiangfenling and Diaoluoshan National Nature Reserves.	eng
59483	distribution		This species is only known from Wuzhishan, Diaoluoshan, and Jianfengling in Hainan Province, China, from 770-950m asl. However, it is possible that some previous records of <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> from Vietnam (i.e., Nguyen and Ho, 1996) refer to this species (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005), but this requires verification.	eng
59483	habitat		It inhabits forests and breeds in pools and seepage pools. The larvae develop in water.	eng
59483	population		It is uncommon.	eng
59483	threats		The major threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, clear-cutting and infrastructure development for tourist activities.	eng
59484	conservation		This species is a Class II State Major Protected Wildlife in China. Its range overlaps with a few small protected areas. It is bred in captivity in both China and Europe.	eng
59484	distribution		This species is found in western Guizhou and north-eastern Yunnan provinces, China, from 1,500-2,400m asl.	eng
59484	habitat		It inhabits low shrub and grass covered hills. Breeding and larval development take place in pools and ponds.	eng
59484	population		There is little information on the population of this species, but it is probably common in its known localities. However, it is believed to be in decline.	eng
59484	threats		Habitat destruction and degradation caused by industry (brick factories) and mining are major threats to this species. It is also collected for use in traditional Chinese medicine. A small number of individuals are also traded in the international pet markets.	eng
59485	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a number of protected areas in the region, and it is bred in captivity in Europe and North America.	eng
59485	distribution		This species is known from central, western and southern Yunnan, China, from 1,000-2,500m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Tylototriton verrucosus</em> is not clear, and it is possible that <em>T. shanjing</em> occurs in Myanmar.	eng
59485	habitat		It inhabits hill forests and secondary forest, where it breeds by larval development in pools, ponds and ditches, including some artificial waterbodies.	eng
59485	population		It is very common in central, western and southern Yunnan, but is less common in the northern part of its range.	eng
59485	threats		The major threat to this species is over-collecting for traditional medicine. Small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade, and its habitats are also being threatened by infrastructure development for human settlement.	eng
59486	conservation		The range of this species overlaps with a small number of protected areas in the region. It is listed as a class II protected species under China's wild animal protection law. Captive breeding is currently being undertaken in Germany and the Netherlands.	eng
59486	distribution		This species is endemic to southern Sichuan, China, from 1,300-2,700m asl.	eng
59486	habitat		It inhabits densely vegetated forested valleys, where it breeds by larval development in pools, ponds and paddy fields.	eng
59486	population		It is a common species within its narrow range.	eng
59486	threats		A major threat to this species is over-collection for traditional Chinese medicine as a substitute for the Sichuan salamander (<em>Batrachuperus pinchonii</em>). Small numbers are also exported to supply the international pet trade.	eng
59487	conservation	Peter Paul van Dijk, Guinevere Wogan, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Tej Kumar Shrestha, Debjani Roy & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	It is protected by legislation in Nepal, India, China and Thailand. Its range overlaps at least five protected areas in Thailand, one in China, one in India (Namttingpokkdi Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal) and one (Kanchanjanga Conservation Area) in Nepal. It has been bred in captivity in Europe.	eng
59487	distribution	Peter Paul van Dijk, Guinevere Wogan, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Tej Kumar Shrestha, Debjani Roy & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	This species ranges from India (West Bengal and Sikkim and smaller, isolated populations in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh) and eastern Nepal through the Kachin and Shan Hills of Myanmar to western Yunnan (Longchuan county and its vicinity), China and scattered mountains in northern Thailand. It has recently been recorded from Lai Chau and Lao Cai Provinces in northwestern Viet Nam. It most likely also occurs in Lao People's Democratic Republic and Bhutan, although at present there are no known records. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. The boundary between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylototriton shanjing</span> is not clear. In the southern part of its range it is generally an upland species occurring at elevations between 1,000-3,000 m asl. In the northern part of its range it is reported from low hills below 1,000 m asl.	eng
59487	habitat	Peter Paul van Dijk, Guinevere Wogan, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Tej Kumar Shrestha, Debjani Roy & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	Its terrestrial habitat is largely moist forest, with the animals generally remaining close to water. Aquatic habitats include various freshwater sources, including permanent pools, forest streams and even small waterbodies. Breeding occurs in the shallow areas of these waterbodies; there is little information on egg deposition although the larval stage is known to be relatively short. During the dry summer period animals may go into aestivation.	eng
59487	population	Peter Paul van Dijk, Guinevere Wogan, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Tej Kumar Shrestha, Debjani Roy & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	It is an uncommon species through most of its range, although it was reported locally common in Myanmar (Gyi 1969). Reports from different sites in northern West Bengal varied from less than 10 salamanders to hundreds of individuals per site (Hedge and Deuti 2007). It might be extinct in Viet Nam.	eng
59487	threats	Peter Paul van Dijk, Guinevere Wogan, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Tej Kumar Shrestha, Debjani Roy & Nguyen Quang Truong, 2004	Habitat loss from infrastructure development and regular human-induced forest fires (in Southeast Asia) are a threat to this species. Water pollution from agrochemicals and domestic detergents, and the extraction of water for irrigation are also degrading its habitat. The species is considered a bad omen and thus killed in Myanmar in certain areas (Gyi 1969). It is used as bait for fishing in Myanmar and is in demand in the domestic and international pet trade. It is also harvested for use as a traditional medicine in India. In northern West Bengal, the flatlands in the Darjeeling Hills are being converted to housing and tourist complexes, while the slopes are being converted to tea estates. This region also suffers from livestock grazing, siltation and pollution (from pesticide runoff and domestic waste) of waterbodies and introduced carp (Hedge and Deuti 2007).	eng
59488	conservation		Much of the range of this species is within protected areas.	eng
59488	distribution		This species is found in Wenxian in southern Gansu, Pingwu and Qingchuan in northern Sichuan, Leishan in eastern Guizhou, Zhongxian, Yunyang, Fengjie counties of Chongqing municipality and Shangzhi county of Hunan Province, China, from 650-2,500m asl.	eng
59488	habitat		It inhabits forests near streams and pools in hilly areas. It probably breeds in pools.	eng
59488	population		It is not a common species, and is known from only four locations.	eng
59488	threats		The major threat is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming activities and subsistence wood collection.	eng
59489	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59489	distribution		This species is widespread in peninsular Florida, USA; Moler and Kezer (1993) did not encounter it north of the St. Johns River drainage in Alachua and Putnam counties, though they stated that it might follow the St. Johns River north along the east coast. Reported occurrence in the Okefenokee Swamp requires confirmation (Moler and Kezer 1993).	eng
59489	habitat		It can be found in open marsh and open prairie ponds; low gradient streams and lake tributaries; most easily collected from mats of floating water hyacinths (Moler and Kezer 1993). Eggs are attached to or scattered among submerged vegetation.	eng
59489	population		It is often locally abundant where suitable habitat remains (Petranka 1998).	eng
59489	threats		It is not threatened overall but many local populations undoubtedly have been eliminated by destruction of wetlands (Petranka 1998), especially due to urbanization.	eng
59490	conservation		None needed. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59490	distribution		This species can be found in the Coastal Plain in southern South Carolina, southern Georgia, and the northern half of Florida, USA (Moler and Kezer 1993).	eng
59490	habitat		It inhabits cypress domes, cypress strands, marshes, lime-sink ponds, ditches, Carolina bays, and other shallow freshwater habitats, including both permanent and temporary waters. In the area of sympatry with <em>P. axanthus</em>, <em>P. striatus</em> occurs in cypress ponds in areas of acid pine flatwoods (Moler and Kezer 1993). It is usually found in thick vegetation (e.g., floating mats of frog's bit, <em>Linobium spongia</em>) or in bottom mud and debris. It burrows into and estivates in the mud bottom when ponds dry up. The subspecies <em>lustricolus</em> may be essentially restricted to wetlands within the narrow strip of hydric hardwood hammock along the Gulf Coast (Moler 1992); stagnant ponds associated with cypress and flat wood ponds, drainage ditches, and smaller floodplain lakes (Neill 1951). Eggs are attached to or scattered among submerged vegetation.	eng
59490	population		It is widespread with apparently stable populations	eng
59490	threats		It is not threatened range wide, but many local populations are no doubt affected by urbanization and other infrastructure development.	eng
59491	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59491	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal plain from Virginia to central Florida and eastern Texas in the USA, and adjacent Mexico in northern Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, and northward in the Mississippi Valley to southern Michigan in the USA.	eng
59491	habitat		It inhabits shallow, warm, quiet, sometimes turbid waters with abundant vegetation: swamps, sloughs, ponds, lakes, ditches, and to a lesser degree rivers and streams. It hides among plants and debris by day and burrows into bottom mud if water dries up. The eggs are laid in water in a small pocket or debris-covered cavity in bottom mud.	eng
59491	population		Field studies are needed to assess the status of this species in Mexico and confirm its existence in northern Veracruz, from where there have been only a few records. It is a common and secure species in many areas in the USA.	eng
59491	threats		It is unthreatened overall, but many local populations have been reduced or extirpated by loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998). The extent to which flood control has reduced opportunities for dispersal among local populations is unknown (Petranka 1998). Disturbance and alteration of the original habitat is a consequence of the industrial activities and urbanization also a threat to local populations.	eng
59492	conservation		Protection of the species' aquatic habitats is needed. It occurs in several protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59492	distribution		This species occurs in the coastal plain from the District of Columbia through Florida and southern Alabama, USA (Conant and Collins 1991). Large sirens occurring in the Rio Grande Valley (from Upson, Maverick county to Brownsville, Texas, and Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico) were tentatively assigned to this species by Flores-Villela and Brandon (1992).	eng
59492	habitat		It lives in shallow, muddy, weed-choked water: swamps, ponds, lakes, streams, ditches. It is found among thick vegetation, under rocks and logs, or burrowed in bottom mud by day. It burrows into bottom mud if water dries up. The eggs are laid in water in small clusters on bottom.	eng
59492	population		It is common in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), Georgia, and South Carolina; its status elsewhere is not well known (Petranka 1998). There is no information on its abundance in Mexico.	eng
59492	threats		It is unthreatened overall, but many local populations have been reduced or extirpated by loss of wetlands (Petranka 1998). The extent to which flood control has reduced opportunities for dispersal among local populations is unknown (Petranka 1998). Disturbance and alteration of the original habitat is a consequence of the industrial activities and urbanization also a threat to local populations.	eng
59493	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59493	distribution		This species is extremely poorly known. One specimen comes from an unspecified location in South America, and a second specimen comes from an unspecified location in Brazil.	eng
59493	habitat		This is an aquatic, presumably viviparous species, possibly associated with cold, fast-flowing, well-oxygenated streams. It is the only lungless caecilian.	eng
59493	population		It is known only from two specimens.	eng
59493	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59494	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve and in the Mazumbai Natural Forest Reserve.	eng
59494	distribution		This species is known only from the Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania. Within the Usambaras, it occurs on both the West and East Usambaras, and on the Magrotto ridge. It occurs down to 300m asl in the Usambara foothills, up to 1,200m asl in East Usambaras, and up to at least 1,500m asl in West Usambaras.	eng
59494	habitat		It lives primarily in montane, submontane and lowland forests, but also survives well in secondary habitats, including cultivated land, perhaps avoiding eucalyptus and tea plantations. It is subterranean, and has even been found in dry earth. It is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59494	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
59494	threats		In view of its adaptability, no threats are known, despite its small range. However, it is possible that eucalyptus and tea cultivation might be a threat.	eng
59495	conservation		This species probably occurs in Shimba Hills National Park.	eng
59495	distribution		This species is known only from coastal Kenya (at Changamwe and the Shimba Hills), and from southern Malawi (where one specimen has been recorded from either the Shire Highlands or Mount Mulanje, and so both localities have been used when mapping its range since it is likely to occur in both). It occurs below 300m asl in Kenya, but presumably occurs at higher altitudes in Malawi. If this is one species, it is likely that populations will be found in intervening areas in Tanzania, although records from this country have not yet been confirmed.	eng
59495	habitat		This is a subterranean species of lowland dry forest in Kenya, and of montane forest in Malawi. It has also been found in cultivated land at Changamwe (Kenya). On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.	eng
59495	population		It is known from only a few specimens, and until recently had not been reported for 20 years, and from the type locality for seventy years (from where it was last recorded in 1933-34). However in January 2004, another specimen was collected in the vicinity of the type locality (Malonza and Müller 2004).	eng
59495	threats		In Kenya, it might be threatened by the spread of large-scale cattle ranching. The forest around the type locality (Changamwe) has been cleared, and the area is threatened by expanding light industry.	eng
59496	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
59496	distribution		This species is known only from the Tana River area in Kenya. Specific details of the only locality in which it was collected are not known, and so it is not possible to map its range.	eng
59496	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences. Like other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it probably lives mainly in the soil, and might be adaptable to secondary habitats. On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.	eng
59496	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen, collected prior to 1912.	eng
59496	threats		It might be threatened by ongoing forest loss in the Tana River area, but more information is needed before this can be confirmed.	eng
59497	conservation		It might occur in Nyungwe Forest Reserve, but it has not been found there yet.	eng
59497	distribution		This species is known only from a single specimen from Cyangugu Prefecture, Rwanda, at 2,000m asl. The location of the type locality is known only very approximately, and the range of this species is very unclear.	eng
59497	habitat		This species was said to be collected in a five hectare patch of primary montane forest that is an outlying fragment from the large Nyungwe Forest, which is 20km to the north-east. No other information is available concerning this species' habitat and ecological requirements, although it is presumably a subterranean species. On the assumption that its breeding biology is similar to that of other species of <em>Boulengerula</em>, it is oviparous with direct development.	eng
59497	population		There is no information on its population status, and only one specimen is known.	eng
59497	threats		No information is available.	eng
59498	conservation	Loader, S. & Measey, J., 2004	The forest fragments on the Taita Hills are protected by the Kenya Forest Department.	eng
59498	distribution	Loader, S. & Measey, J., 2004	This species is endemic to the Taita Hills region, including Mount Kasigau, in southeastern Kenya. It certainly occurs between 1,430 and 1,910 m asl, and probably occurs as low as 1,000 m asl, perhaps even lower in river valleys.	eng
59498	habitat	Loader, S. & Measey, J., 2004	It is subterranean, living in montane forest and in secondary habitats, including cultivated land. It is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water. Developing offspring actively feed on their mother's skin (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It perhaps does not occur in eucalyptus plantations.	eng
59498	population	Loader, S. & Measey, J., 2004	It is a very common species within its small range, and is able to thrive in land cleared of forest.	eng
59498	threats	Loader, S. & Measey, J., 2004	Deforestation is a threat in the vicinity of the type locality. There are also inherent risks associated with a small distribution. It is in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59499	conservation		It occurs in several forest reserves, though the primary purposes of these are not for biodiversity conservation.	eng
59499	distribution		This species is known only from the Nguu, Nguru and Uluguru Mountains, in eastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but most, if not all, records are probably from above 400m asl.	eng
59499	habitat		It is subterranean, living in submontane and montane forest, and also in secondary habitats, including cultivated land. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to other species of Boulengerula, it is oviparous with direct development, and is not dependent upon water.	eng
59499	population		It appears to be abundant.	eng
59499	threats		There are no known threats to this species, but the possible impact of the spread of bracken in the Ulugurus might need to be investigated.	eng
59500	conservation		It occurs in several national parks and indigenous reserves.	eng
59500	distribution		This species is known to exist in Amazonian Brazil in Amazonas, Roraima, Para and Amapá states.	eng
59500	habitat		It is a subterranean species living in rainforest. The extent to which it can adapt to secondary habitats is not known. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59500	population		There is very little; the species was last seen in 1997, but very little work is being carried out within the range.	eng
59500	threats		The threats to this species are not known, but it is possibly threatened by clear-cutting of forest for timber.	eng
59501	conservation		The type locality of this species is in Parque Nacional Llanganates, and it also occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59501	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in the Ecuadorian Andes: Abitagua, near Banos, on the slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, at around 1,400-1,600m asl (this is the type locality); and from the Cordillera del Condór in Morona Santiago Province.	eng
59501	habitat		It is subterranean and lives in primary and secondary forest, where it makes nests under tree trunks or rocks, where the conditions are humid. It probably lays eggs that develop directly, without a larval stage.	eng
59501	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59501	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59502	conservation		It is a poorly circumscribed species in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59502	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Surinam" (Daudin 1803). Specimens recently collected in French Guiana might prove to be this species, but further taxonomic work is needed to confirm their identification.	eng
59502	habitat		This is presumably a subterranean inhabitant of rainforest, and possibly also secondary habitats.	eng
59502	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59502	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59503	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59503	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, on the northern Cordillera Central, at Valdivia, in Antioquia Department, Colombia, at around 1,100m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
59503	habitat		It is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.	eng
59503	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from a few specimens.	eng
59503	threats		Deforestation is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59504	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59504	distribution		This species is known only from an unspecified type locality, presumed to be in Brazil.	eng
59504	habitat		It is presumably subterranean, like other members of its genus.	eng
59504	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59504	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59505	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59505	distribution		This species was described from the non-specific type locality of "Peru", but its presence in Loreto Department, Peru, requires further investigation and has not been confirmed. It is believed to occur at Santa Rosa, Napo, Ecuador, where it might have been collected at 200-1,000m asl.	eng
59505	habitat		This is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.	eng
59505	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59505	threats		Deforestation is a potential threat to it in Ecuador, although not enough is known to confirm this.	eng
59506	conservation		The Colombian locality is in Parque Nacional Natural Amacayacu. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59506	distribution		This species is known only from two localities: Chirota in Amazonian Ecuador; and Amacayacu in Amazonian Colombia. Both localities are below 200m asl. It probably occurs more widely, especially in suitable habitats between these two confirmed localities.	eng
59506	habitat		This is a subterranean species of primary lowland tropical forest.	eng
59506	population		There is no information regarding this species' conservation status; it is not regularly encountered.	eng
59506	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it, but it occurs in an area of low human impact, and so is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59507	conservation		This species' range might include a private reserve. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59507	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, around the southern part of Samana River, in the municipality of Pensilvania, Caldas Department, Colombia, from 600-1,000m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
59507	habitat		This is a subterranean species, occurring in humid tropical forest.	eng
59507	population		It is known only from four specimens, so its overall population status is not known.	eng
59507	threats		It is potentially threatened by deforestation as a result of cattle grazing and smallholder farming, but not enough is known to confirm this.	eng
59508	conservation		It occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59508	distribution		This species is known from three localities on the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia: Garagoa, in Boyacá Department; Virolín, in the municipality of Charalá, Santander Department; and Fómenque, in Cundinamarca Department. It has been recorded at 1,750m asl, but it presumably has a broader altitudinal range than this.	eng
59508	habitat		It is a subterranean species in montane forest, and it was also found once near a swamp.	eng
59508	population		There is no information regarding its population status; it is known from only a few specimens.	eng
59508	threats		Deforestation as a result of smallholder farming is a potential threat, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59509	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sangay. Further research is required to resolve its taxonomic status (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59509	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, "Normandia, Zunia, Rio Upana" (Taylor 1968), at 1,400-1,800m asl on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador.	eng
59509	habitat		This is a subterranean species in montane forest.	eng
59509	population		It is known only from the type specimen.	eng
59509	threats		Deforestation as a result of smallholder farming is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59510	conservation		This species occurs in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá Alto Río Fonce. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.), and the conspecificity of the populations on the two slopes of the Cordillera Oriental needs to be examined.	eng
59510	distribution		This species occurs on both the western and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental in the Colombian Andes, in the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Santander, at 800-2,100m asl.	eng
59510	habitat		It is a subterranean species in montane forest. Although its breeding biology is unknown, it is thought likely to breed by direct development.	eng
59510	population		It is apparently common in parts of its range.	eng
59510	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59511	conservation		It is believed to be present within a number of protected areas in Ecuador. In Peru it might be protected within the Santiago Comaina Reserved Zone.	eng
59511	distribution		This species occurs in Amazonian Peru and Ecuador, and ranges from the mouth of the Río Santiago, Peru, through the Cordillera del Cóndor to the Napo River in Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is incompletely known; it has been recorded from lowland areas around 300m asl.	eng
59511	habitat		It is a subterranean species in primary tropical rainforest and in cleared habitats (Duellman, 1978), sometimes being found in clearings after heavy rains. There is no information on its breeding.	eng
59511	population		There is no information on the population of this species.	eng
59511	threats		It occurs in an area of low human impact, and has been found in cleared areas, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59512	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59512	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in Ecuador: from 800-1,100m asl between Archidona and Tena in Napo Province; and from Shell, in Pastaza Province. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
59512	habitat		It is a subterranean species in submontane forests.	eng
59512	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59512	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to this species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59513	conservation		This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59513	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Albarico, below 1,000m asl in Yaracuy State in northern Venezuela.	eng
59513	habitat		It is believed to be a subterranean inhabitant in tropical forest.	eng
59513	population		There is no information on the population of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.	eng
59513	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59514	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59514	distribution		This species has been recorded from northern French Guiana, Suriname; the State of Pará in Brazil and northeastern Peru. It presumably occurs between these areas.	eng
59514	habitat		It is subterranean species, occurring in old growth forest and savannah (in Suriname). It is likely to be reasonably adaptable to secondary habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59514	population		Its population status is unclear.	eng
59514	threats		It occurs in an area of low human impact, and has been found in open areas, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59515	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Reserva Natural La Planada in Colombia, and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas in Ecuador. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59515	distribution		This species occurs on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental in Colombia and northern Ecuador. Its altitudinal range is 1,200-1,800m asl. It is likely to be more continuously distributed between the known localities	eng
59515	habitat		This is a subterranean species, found in old growth and disturbed evergreen submontane forest and cloud forest.	eng
59515	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
59515	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59516	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59516	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Fundo Sinchona, in Loreto Department in Amazonian Peru. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
59516	habitat		This is a subterranean species recorded from lowland moist tropical forest.	eng
59516	population		There is no information regarding its population status; it is known only from the type specimen.	eng
59516	threats		The area around the type locality has probably been degraded by agricultural activities and urbanization in the vicinity of Iquitos.	eng
59517	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it is likely to occur in some. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59517	distribution		This species ranges from San Blas on the eastern side of the isthmus of Darién in Panama, south through the Pacific lowlands of western Colombia, probably at least as far as northern Valle del Cauca Department. It certainly occurs at low altitudes, and probably ranges up to medium altitudes, although details on its altitudinal range are lacking.	eng
59517	habitat		There is no information concerning its habitat and ecological preferences, though it is presumably subterranean, living in primary forest and probably also secondary forest.	eng
59517	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59517	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threa to this species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59518	conservation		It presumably occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and is probably present in the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador. In Panama it has been recorded from Parque Nacional Darien.	eng
59518	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to northwestern Ecuador. A record from "Central Brasil" is erroneous, and the specimen with this locality data is probably from a locality on the Pacific drainage of Colombia. It is apparently a low-altitude species.	eng
59518	habitat		It is a subterranean species, also occurring within the moist leaf-litter, in humid tropical lowland and foothill forests. It has also been collected in secondary forest, but is not known whether or not it occurs in more open areas. There is no information available on reproduction or breeding habitats.	eng
59518	population		It appears to be a rarely encountered species.	eng
59518	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59519	conservation		It occurs in Carrasco, Madidi and Amboro National Parks.	eng
59519	distribution		This species occurs in the Andean foothills in the southwestern portion of the Amazon basin, in Bolivia. It is known from Yacuma, Beni, Cochabamba, Chapara and Santa Cruz, and is likely to occur more widely. It has been recorded from below 400m asl.	eng
59519	habitat		It is a subterranean species in lowland tropical rainforest. It is adaptable to secondary habitats, and its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59519	population		It was once thought to be extinct (Wake, 1993), but there have been some records from forests since then confirming its continued survival.	eng
59519	threats		The type locality has been converted to agricultural fields, but elsewhere in its range the habitat remains relatively undisturbed.	eng
59520	conservation		It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
59520	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, but the location of the type locality is not clear. This species was presumably collected in South America.	eng
59520	habitat		Its habitat and ecological preferences are not known, although it probably lays eggs that develop directly.	eng
59520	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59520	threats		The threats to this species are not known.	eng
59521	conservation	John Lynch, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Colombia, and is known from Parque Nacional Darien in Panama.	eng
59521	distribution	John Lynch, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	This species ranges only from the eastern lowlands of southeastern Darien Province, Panama, through the Pacific lowlands of Colombia to extreme northwestern Ecuador. It has also been reported from Gorgona Island, Colombia (Dunn, 1942; Urbina-C. and Londoño-M., 2003). It is known to occur up to 923m asl.	eng
59521	habitat	John Lynch, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	It is a subterranean species, also living in the moist leaf-litter, in humid tropical lowland and foothill forests. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. There is no information on its breeding habitats.	eng
59521	population	John Lynch, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	It is a common species in Colombia, but is rare in Ecuador. There is no information from Panama, where it is known only from a single locality.	eng
59521	threats	John Lynch, Juan Manuel Renjifo, Diego Cisneros-Heredia, Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Querube Fuenmayor, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59522	conservation		Some populations are known from areas of Parque Nacional Natural Farallones de Cali. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59522	distribution		This species occurs in the Colombian Andes, being found mainly along the Cordillera Central, and also in the Cordillera Occidental in the Puracé area (Cauca Department), with an isolated record from south-western Cali (Valle Department). It has been recorded from 1,500-1,800m asl.	eng
59522	habitat		It is a subterranean inhabitant of cloud forests and lower montane forests. It has also been recorded within the city limits of Popayán, and so is perhaps tolerant of some habitat disturbance.	eng
59522	population		There is very little information regarding the population status of this species.	eng
59522	threats		At present the major threats to this species are unknown. Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture, and urbanisation are potential threats, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59523	conservation	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe Coca and some other protected areas. It is not confirmed from any protected areas in Colombia.	eng
59523	distribution	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Andes in Colombia (Putumayo department) and Ecuador (Sucumbios and Napo provinces). It can be found between 600-2,410m asl. Specimens from another two localities in the Western and Central Cordilleras of Colombia have also been assigned to this species.	eng
59523	habitat	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	It lives in foothill and cloud forests, and also in secondary habitats and pastures near the edge of cloud forest. During the rainy season it can be found in very humid places and under stones in unflooded areas (Mueses-Cisneros, 2005). It lays eggs in holes in the ground in very humid areas. The adults guard the eggs, and the larvae move into water to complete their development.	eng
59523	population	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	The abundance of this species is poorly known.	eng
59523	threats	Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Nogales, Mario Yánez-Muñoz, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, 2008	Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this, especially since it has been recorded from secondary habitats.	eng
59524	conservation		In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas and the Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas.	eng
59524	distribution		This species occurs on the Pacific versant of the Andes in Ecuador (from Imbabura south to Eloro), at 1,500-1,800m asl. Specimens from the northern part of the Cordillera Central in Colombia are currently assigned to this species, but almost certainly belong to an undescribed species.	eng
59524	habitat		It is a subterranean species, living in old growth and disturbed forests. It has been found along roads, streams and rivers, but it is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas.	eng
59524	population		This species is common in Colombia and uncommon in Ecuador.	eng
59524	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59525	conservation		It occurs in the Utria National Natural Park. A number of conservation projects are operating in the Colombian Choco, which could benefit this species.	eng
59525	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of northwestern Colombia in the drainages of the Atrato and San Juan rivers at 70-300m asl.	eng
59525	habitat		It is a subterranean species in lowland tropical forests, also living in secondary growth forest, but it has not so far been found outside forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding is unknown.	eng
59525	population		It appears to be a common species.	eng
59525	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59526	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59526	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, the Marudi Mountains, in Rupununi, Guyana, and it might occur more widely. The type locality is at 250m asl.	eng
59526	habitat		The habitat at the type locality is primary forest, and this is presumably a subterranean species.	eng
59526	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. There have been no recent records, presumably due to lack of fieldwork within its range.	eng
59526	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it, although it is known to occur in an area of very limited human impact.	eng
59527	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Farallones National Natural Park.	eng
59527	distribution		This species is known from several areas in the Western and Central Cordilleras of the Colombian Andes at 1,290-2,320m asl.	eng
59527	habitat		It is a subterranean species, and is adaptable, living in both forests and open areas. There is no information on its breeding.	eng
59527	population		It is a common species.	eng
59527	threats		It appears to be an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
59528	conservation		It probably occurs in some protected areas in Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
59528	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific coast of western Colombia in the Choco region, from close to the Ecuador border, north to the lower Magdalena River basin in Colombia, east to the Maracaibo Lake basin in Venezuela, and from Barinas and Táchira States in Venezuela. It occurs below 1,040m asl.	eng
59528	habitat		It is found in seasonal and moist tropical lowland forests, and has not so far been found outside forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding system is unknown.	eng
59528	population		No information is available on its abundance.	eng
59528	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat, but there is not enough information to confirm this.	eng
59529	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59529	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Ecuador" (Taylor 1968).	eng
59529	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences, although it is presumably a subterranean species.	eng
59529	population		There is no information on the population of this species.	eng
59529	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59530	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59530	distribution		This species occurs very widely through the Amazon basin of South America. It is known from below 1,000m asl in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. There have been no records from Guyana, though it presumably occurs in this country, and it might also occur in northern Bolivia.	eng
59530	habitat		It is a subterranean species, and specimens have been found in primary forest and secondary forest. It is not known whether or not it can survive in degraded, open areas. Its breeding system is unknown.	eng
59530	population		It is said to be uncommon throughout its range, but there is little information on its abundance.	eng
59530	threats		It occurs widely in an area of very limited human impact, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
59531	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59531	distribution		This species is known only from two localities: Guayaquil in western Ecuador, and extreme south-western coastal Colombia. It occurs at very low altitudes, close to sea level, and presumably occurs more widely than has been so far recorded, in particular between the known localities.	eng
59531	habitat		This is a subterranean species living in lowland tropical forest.	eng
59531	population		There is no information on its current population status, and it is known only from two specimens.	eng
59531	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59532	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59532	distribution		This species is known only from the Middle Magdalena Valley in Colombia, in the departments of Tolima, Cauca, Cundinamarca, and Boyacá, at 300-1,300m asl.	eng
59532	habitat		It is a subterranean species, living in forested areas and in open areas inside the forest.	eng
59532	population		There is little information available regarding its population status, as it is a very difficult species to collect.	eng
59532	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture and intensive livestock farming is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59533	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Altos de Campana, Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Reserva Forestal Fortuna. Further research is needed into the declines of this species at Fortuna, Panama.	eng
59533	distribution		This species is endemic to the western cordilleras and Atlantic lowlands of Panama, where its altitudinal range is 550-1,180m asl.	eng
59533	habitat		It is a subterranean species, also occurring within the moist leaf-litter of humid tropical forest.	eng
59533	population		At Fortuna, Panama, this may be one of the most abundant but unrecognised or unsurveyed species; with 10 to 15 animals seen dead on road in a mornings drive (Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007). Further studies are needed to confirm whether there has been a recent decline in this speices at Fortuna and Cope (Karen Lips pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59533	threats		Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture is a potential threat to it, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
59534	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59534	distribution		This species is known so far only from the type locality, Limoeiro do Norte, at 250m asl in the state of Ceará in north-eastern Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely within the river systems of the Caatinga vegetation system.	eng
59534	habitat		The only records of this species are from shallow water where there is a muddy bottom and much aquatic vegetation, in temporary pools, lagoons and rivers, in dry Caatinga savannah areas. It might well be that this is a semi-aquatic species. It is presumed to be viviparous.	eng
59534	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59534	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59535	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59535	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "Brazil" (Taylor 1968).	eng
59535	habitat		There is no information available in the literature about its biology or ecology, although it might be similar to <em>Chthonerpeton indistinctum</em>, and be viviparous, with breeding taking place in water.	eng
59535	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the holotype.	eng
59535	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59536	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59536	distribution		This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil.	eng
59536	habitat		This species is presumably subterranean, and possibly occurs in lowland moist forest. It might be similar in ecology to <em>Chthonerpeton indistinctum</em>, and be viviparous, with breeding taking place in water.	eng
59536	population		There is no information on its population status; only one specimen is known.	eng
59536	threats		No information is available.	eng
59537	conservation		It possibly occurs in Itapuá State Park.	eng
59537	distribution		This species occurs in Uruguay (Canelones, Colonia, Durazno, Maldonado, Montevideo, Rocha and San Jose Departments), Paraguay (Itapua Department), east-central Argentina (principally along the Parana River system), and southern Brazil (Santa Catarina State). It occurs from 20-1,000m asl. It is suspected to be more widespread within its general mapped range.	eng
59537	habitat		It is an aquatic species of lentic habitats that also lives terrestrially, probably undergoing annual migrations between these habitats. It is often found at the interface of soil water, and can also be found in pastures far from water. Animals get washed down the Rio de la Plata and other rivers in floating mats of vegetation, and are frequently washed out to sea. Some of these animals have been found in pools around the estuary of the Rio de la Plata, where they probably do not breed. In terms of breeding habits, it is a viviparous species giving birth to three to eleven young at a time.	eng
59537	population		It is a common species, and very large populations have been found. It might experience strong population fluctuations. It is thought to have declined or perhaps even become locally extinct in Arroyo Carrasco in Uruguay.	eng
59537	threats		One of the threats is probably water pollution from agricultural and industrial sources, but this is probably a local threat. Drainage, hydroelectric development and urbanization are also local threats, but some forms of drainage might be beneficial. Overall, this is probably not a significantly threatened species.	eng
59538	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59538	distribution		This newly described species is known only from the type locality, Sitio, at sea level in the municipality of Conde, in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
59538	habitat		It is known only from a large marsh, fed by the Itapicuru River, almost 10km from the river mouth. The marsh includes a permanent swamp and seasonally flooded pastureland. This species is possibly like other members of the genus, being subterranean and aquatic, and it is assumed to be viviparous with breeding taking place in water.	eng
59538	population		It was common when it was discovered in 1989.	eng
59538	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59539	conservation		The type locality is in the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca.	eng
59539	distribution		This species is known only from El Reventador, on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador, above 1,000m asl. It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
59539	habitat		It is possibly like other members of the genus, in which case it is a subterranean and aquatic species, which would also presumably be viviparous with breeding taking place in water.	eng
59539	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.	eng
59539	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59540	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59540	distribution		This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of Rio Pandeiros, in north-west Minas Gerais State, Brazil.	eng
59540	habitat		The locality where the specimens were collected is unknown, and no information about the species' habitat is available. It is presumed to be an aquatic species, and to be viviparous.	eng
59540	population		There is no information on its population status, and only three specimens are known.	eng
59540	threats		Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59541	conservation		It is not confirmed as occurring in any protected areas, although it might occur in some. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59541	distribution		This species occurs in the vicinity of Joinville in eastern Santa Catarina State, Brazil, from approximately 0-400m asl. It probably occurs more widely than is currently known.	eng
59541	habitat		This is an aquatic species in lentic habitats that is known to be viviparous.	eng
59541	population		There is no information regarding its population status, and there have been few recent specimens collected.	eng
59541	threats		There is very little information on threats to it, although water pollution from agricultural and industrial sources is possibly a threat.	eng
59542	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo and Parque Nacional Tapantí in Costa Rica, and it is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59542	distribution		This species occurs on the premontane Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica at altitudes of 1,000-1,300m asl. It is known from the Tilarán, Central and Talamanca Cordilleras.	eng
59542	habitat		It is subterranean, and is usually found under logs and surface debris in premontane rainforest. This is a viviparous species.	eng
59542	population		There are no data on its population status. Due to its subterranean habits, this species is rarely seen.	eng
59542	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.	eng
59543	conservation		It occurs in Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama), Parque Nacional Darién (Panama), and the Estación Biológica Las Cruces (Costa Rica). It is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59543	distribution		This species occurs in Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. In Costa Rica, it is known from the southern Pacific versant. In Panama, this species is found in the western part of the Cordillera Central, adjacent to Costa Rica, and in the eastern cordilleras in the south-east in Darién Province, adjacent to Colombia. It has also been recorded from two localities in Antioquia Department in north-western Colombia. It occurs in both lowland and montane areas.	eng
59543	habitat		This species inhabits humid montane and lowland forest, where it is mainly subterranean, but is sometimes also found under logs and in leaf-litter. It is presumed to be a terrestrial viviparous species, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.	eng
59543	population		Its population status is unknown. Only a few specimens are known. A specimen of this species was collected in 2005 at Uvita (at 10m) close to the Pacific coast in Costa Rica (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.)	eng
59543	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.	eng
59544	conservation		It has been found at the Estación Biológica Las Cruces (Costa Rica) and in Parque Internacional La Amistad (Panama).	eng
59544	distribution		This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Panama and Costa Rica at altitudes of 404-2,000m asl, and has also been recorded from the central Pacific area of Costa Rica (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
59544	habitat		This is a subterranean species that inhabits humid lowland, premontane and montane forest. It is presumed to be viviparous, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.	eng
59544	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from three specimens.	eng
59544	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to this species is unknown, although some general habitat loss is known to be occurring in parts of its range.	eng
59545	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr).	eng
59545	distribution		This species is found on the Atlantic slope of southeastern Mexico and disjunctive in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. It also occurs patchily on the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras to central Nicaragua. It ranges from near sea level to 1200m asl.	eng
59545	habitat		This species lives in humid to dry soils beneath leaf-litter, logs, banana or coffee leaves and hulls or similar ground cover. In El Salvador it is present in dry forest and savanna between sea level and 900m asl (Köhler et al., 2006). It is adaptable to secondary habitats. It is a viviparous species.	eng
59545	population		This species was once common in parts of its range, it is now much diminished in areas of previous abundance (such as near San Marcos, Guatemala) (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It is possible that this species may have declined considereably more than 30% over the past ten years or three generation, this is likley to be a conservative estimate (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). There have been no new records for in Veracruz and Tabasco since around the 1950s, although there has been limited collecting in these areas (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59545	threats		It is an adaptable species but threatened by habitat loss, and changes in agricultural methods (such as the transformation of shaded coffee plantations to open plantations). It is confused with snakes in some areas, and so it persecuted locally. It sometimes appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59546	conservation		It is protected by Mexican law under the "Special Protection" category (Pr). Research is needed into the population, range and ecological requirements of this little-known species.	eng
59546	distribution		This species occurs along the southern coast of Mexico from Michoacán and Jalisco to Chiapas. There is a new state record from the municipality of Ixtlahuacan in Colima (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59546	habitat		This is a subterranean species found in semi-deciduous tropical forest. It is presumed to be a viviparous species, like other species of <em>Dermophis</em>.	eng
59546	population		Its population status is not known. It has only been collected a few times. The recent record from Colima is the first record in 30 years (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007).	eng
59546	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.	eng
59547	conservation		Its range includes Parque Nacional Corcovado and other national parks. It is in need of taxonomic review (Mark Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59547	distribution		This species is found from the lowlands and premontane slopes of south-western Costa Rica extending to the western portion of the Meseta Central (the central valley), at altitudes of 365-970m asl.	eng
59547	habitat		It is a subterranean species, found under logs and in leaf-litter in lowland and submontane rainforest. This is a viviparous species that is not dependent on water.	eng
59547	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59547	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.	eng
59548	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas of Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
59548	distribution		This species is endemic to both the Atlantic slopes and lowlands of Costa Rica and Panama, and also occurs in parts of central Panama. It is present on Isla Popa, in the Bocas del Toro, Panama. It has an altitudinal range of 40-1,200m asl.	eng
59548	habitat		It is a subterranean species that inhabits humid montane and lowland forest, and it can sometimes be found under logs or in leaf-litter. It is present in saturated, but not flooded areas (Brian Kubicki pers. comm.). Its adaptability to secondary habitats is unknown. It is presumed to be a viviparous species that is not dependent on water.	eng
59548	population		The population status of this species is poorly known. It has been found at reasonably high densities in some localities; six individuals were found when digging a small pond within sedge peat (Eric Berlin pers. comm. 2007).	eng
59548	threats		The extent to which deforestation is a threat to the species is unknown.	eng
59549	conservation	Gower, D., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O.V., Measey, J., Dutta,  S., Bhatta, G., Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	It was recently reported from Cariappa Biodiversity Park (Malathesh <em>et al.</em> 2002), though this requires confirmation. Further specimens attributed to this species have been recorded from Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka. It is in need of taxonomic review (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59549	distribution	Gower, D., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O.V., Measey, J., Dutta,  S., Bhatta, G., Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	This species is known from the type locality, Periya Peak, at 800 m asl in Wynad District, Kerala State, India. More recently, the species has been reported from estate plantations at about 1,525 m asl near Mercera town, Karnataka State, India (Venu and Venkatachalaiah 2006). Records from southern Kerala are erroneous, and refer to <em>Gegeneophis ramaswamii</em>.	eng
59549	habitat	Gower, D., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O.V., Measey, J., Dutta,  S., Bhatta, G., Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	This is a subterranean species that lives in humid evergreen forest, within which it may be found under rocks in porous, moist soil, and is also found in areas of low and moderate intensity agriculture. It has been found in mixed plantations of arecanut, coffee, pepper, banana and cardamom (Venu and Venkatachalaiah 2006). It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59549	population	Gower, D., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O.V., Measey, J., Dutta,  S., Bhatta, G., Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59549	threats	Gower, D., Wilkinson, M., Oommen, O.V., Measey, J., Dutta,  S., Bhatta, G., Ravichandran, M.S., 2004	The threats to this species are unknown. It has been suggested that it is threatened by a decrease in habitat availability and quality through conversion of land to agricultural use, harvesting of timber and wood for subsistence use, mining, and collection of non-woody forest materials. However, in view of its adaptability to secondary habitats, it is not clear that these threats are significant.	eng
59550	conservation		Further work is required to further establish the characterisation of both this species and <em>Gegeneophis nadkarni</em> (Gower pers. comm.).	eng
59550	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, which is near Amboli, in Sinhurug District in the Western Ghats of southern Maharashtra, India, at approximately 850m asl.	eng
59550	habitat		The only known specimen was found under a rock in an open patch of grassland within semi-evergreen forest, suggesting that it might be at least somewhat adaptable to habitat modification. This is presumably a subterranean species, which is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.	eng
59550	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype, collected in June 2002.	eng
59550	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59551	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59551	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality (Kuttal) in north-east India, six miles south-west of Silchar in Cachar, Assam. It was collected at an altitude of approximately 100m asl.	eng
59551	habitat		This is presumably a subterranean species in evergreen or semi-evergreen tropical forest. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59551	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype, which was collected in or before 1904.	eng
59551	threats		The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that the development of infrastructure, particularly urbanization, is threatening its type locality.	eng
59552	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59552	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, Krishna Farms, Gurpur, near Mangalore, in Karnataka State, India. It is known only from altitudes below 100m asl.	eng
59552	habitat		It is a subterranean species in loose, humus-rich soil, that is known only from anthropogenic habitats, and its original habitat is unknown. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59552	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59552	threats		The threats to this species are not known at present.	eng
59553	conservation		It has been recorded from protected forests of Ponmudi and Tenmalai, and it probably occurs in some other protected areas.	eng
59553	distribution		This species is known from a number of locations in the southern portion of the Western Ghats in India: in the Thiruvanathapuram and Kollam Districts of Kerala, and the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. It probably occurs more widely than has been mapped. This species has been recorded at elevations from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
59553	habitat		It is a largely subterranean species found in soil. Specimens have been recorded in wet evergreen forest, plantations (including rubber, tea and coconut), in low intensity agricultural land, at forest fringes and along streams and rivers. It is an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and it does not have a larval stage.	eng
59553	population		This species is highly abundant at some localities (Oommen <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
59553	threats		The species is adaptable to cultivated areas, does not seem to be dependent on forested areas and appears not to have any known major threats (Oommen et al, 2000).	eng
59554	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59554	distribution		This species is known only from Dorle Village in Ratnagiri District, in the state of Maharashtra in the Western Ghats of India.	eng
59554	habitat		This is presumably a subterranean species. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59554	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the holotype, collected in 1967.	eng
59554	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59555	conservation		No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59555	distribution		This species is known from only three localities: Labe (the type locality) and Beyla, Guinea, and the Tingi Hills, Sierra Leone. There has been very little herpetological work carried out within its range, and it is probably more widespread. The exact location of Labe, the type locality, is uncertain, since more than one place in Guinea has this name. The northernmost locality on attempts to map its range in this assessment marks the most likely location of the type locality.	eng
59555	habitat		It presumably lives underground, probably in forest. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to <em>Geotrypetes seraphini</em>, it is viviparous, and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59555	population		No information is available on its population status.	eng
59555	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
59556	conservation		No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59556	distribution		This species is known from just two localities: Sanokwelle near Ganta in Liberia, and Beyla in Guinea. There has been very little herpetological work carried out within its range, and it is probably more widespread.	eng
59556	habitat		It presumably lives underground, probably in forest. On the assumption that its breeding habits are similar to <em>Geotrypetes seraphini</em>, it is viviparous, and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59556	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59556	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
59557	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Taï National Park and Haute Dodo Classified Forest in Côte d?Ivoire, Korup National Park in Cameroon, and Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59557	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Sierra Leone, Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, Gabon and western Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also known from Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). There do not appear to be records from Congo and the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but it is likely to occur in these countries. The eastern limit of its distribution is unknown, and it could extend further east.	eng
59557	habitat		It is a species of lowland forest, living mainly underground. It also lives in heavily degraded habitats, including in villages, and close to rice fields. It is viviparous, giving birth to young on land, and is not dependent upon water for breeding.	eng
59557	population		It is likely to be common in at least some parts of its range. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako.	eng
59557	threats		It is clearly adaptable to habitat modification, and so is unlikely to be very seriously threatened. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but this is unlikely to constitute a threat.	eng
59558	conservation		It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park and the Praslin National Park.	eng
59558	distribution		This species is broadly distributed in seven granitic islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Frégate, Félicité, and Ste. Anne. It occurs from sea level up to at least 400m asl.	eng
59558	habitat		It lives in rainforest, coconut plantations, and other anthropogenically disturbed sites. It burrows in wet soil, litter, and trash heaps. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.	eng
59558	population		It is locally common, even in anthropogenically disturbed sites.	eng
59558	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
59559	conservation		It occurs in one protected area on Mahé and at the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.	eng
59559	distribution		This species from the Seychelles occurs in a few scattered localities on Mahé Island, where it seems to be restricted to higher elevations (above 400m asl), and on Silhouette Island (where it is widespread above 100m asl).	eng
59559	habitat		It lives in rainforest, where it burrows in moist soil and leaf-litter. It is not encountered in highly disturbed sites, so appears not to be very adaptable to habitat change. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
59559	population		It appears to be uncommon, and is only rarely collected.	eng
59559	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species.	eng
59560	conservation		It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.	eng
59560	distribution		This species is widespread, occurring on six islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Félitité, Sainte Anne, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue. It occurs from sea level (in disturbed sites) well up into the rainforest.	eng
59560	habitat		It lives in disturbed sites on the coastal plateaux and more pristine rainforest in the hills. It burrows in soil, leaf-litter, and trash piles. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.	eng
59560	population		It is a locally common species.	eng
59560	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
59561	conservation		It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.	eng
59561	distribution		This species occurs on three islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette.	eng
59561	habitat		It lives in coastal plateaux (disturbed sites with plantations and buildings), in degraded forest at higher elevations (along streams), and in relatively undisturbed forest. It burrows in wet soil, litter, and trash piles. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this is not confirmed.	eng
59561	population		It is common in both anthropogenically modified and undisturbed areas.	eng
59561	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
59562	conservation	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Sierra el Caral in Guatemala. There is a particular need to conserve remaining areas of lowland tropical forest for this species. There is a need for further research into the population dynamics of this species.	eng
59562	distribution	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This species from Central America is found in the western cordilleras and western Atlantic lowlands from eastern Guatemala to northwestern Panama, and on the Pacific versant on premontane slopes and in the lowlands in northwestern Costa Rica and on the lowlands of southwestern Costa Rica and adjacent Panama. In Panama it has been recorded from Isla Cristóbal, Isla Escudo de Veraguas and Isla Colon (Marvalee Wake pers. comm.) in the Bocas del Toro. In Costa Rica it has been recorded from Isla del Caño. Its altitudinal range is from sea level up to 1,400m asl.	eng
59562	habitat	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Javier Sunyer, 2008	It is a subterranean species of humid lowland and montane forest, lowland dry forest, gallery forest, meadows, pastures, saturated sedge peat, and secondary habitats. It is a viviparous species, and development of young takes place in the female oviduct.	eng
59562	population	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Javier Sunyer, 2008	This is a low density, fairly common species.	eng
59562	threats	Frank Solís, Roberto Ibáñez, César Jaramillo, Gerardo Chaves, Federico Bolaños, Jay Savage, Gustavo Cruz, Larry David Wilson, Gunther Köhler, Mark Wilkinson, Marvalee Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Although the species can be found in modified areas, it persists at considerably reduced densities than in primary and secondary tropical forest. Suitable forest within the species range is being extensively converted to agricultural use including banana and coffee plantations.	eng
59563	conservation		This species' range might includes the Sierra Santa Cruz and may include the Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra de las Minas. Its range also includes reserves of the Mayan Mountains in Belize.	eng
59563	distribution		This species is found at low and moderate altitudes (from 440-1,000m asl) in central Guatemala, and in the Mayan Mountains of southern Belize. It might occur more widely.	eng
59563	habitat		It lives below ground in tropical wet forest, and may also occur in secondary forest, although very little is known about the persistance of this species in disturbed habitats. It is a viviparous species that does not require water for breeding.	eng
59563	population		It is rarely seen due to its subterranean habits, although many were seen at a site in Chichipate in the Sierra de Santa Cruz, Guatemala, where a bulldozer was working; these specimens are deposited at the University of Texas (Manuel Acevedo pers. comm., 2007). This species' overall population status is not known.	eng
59563	threats		There is little information on specific threats to it. A hydroelectric project might inundate substantial habitat in the upper reaches of the Raspacula Macal River complex in Belize.	eng
59564	conservation		No information is available; it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59564	distribution		This species' distribution is traditionally given as Limbe and Ndikinimeki, Cameroon, but this has been shown to be erroneous (LeBreton 1999). It is known only from its type locality, Mundame am Mungo, north-east of Mount Cameroon in south-western Cameroon.	eng
59564	habitat		It presumably lives in the soil in lowland rainforest, but no specific details are known regarding its habitat and ecological preferences.	eng
59564	population		There is no information on this species' population status. It is known only from the type specimen, which has been lost, and it has not been recorded since 1912 or before.	eng
59564	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
59565	conservation		It presumably occurs in many protected areas, and has definitely been recorded from Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
59565	distribution		This species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria, Cameroon, southwestern Central African Republic, mainland Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, western Democratic Republic of Congo, and Bioko Island (in Equatorial Guinea). It has not been recorded from the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, but presumably occurs there. The eastern limit of its distribution is unknown, and it could occur further east.	eng
59565	habitat		It is a species of lowland forest, presumably generally living underground. There is no information on its adaptability to secondary habitats. It seems to be associated with sandy soils adjacent to watercourses. Its breeding is unknown.	eng
59565	population		There is no information on the population status of this species. It was recorded as rare at Mount Nlonako.	eng
59565	threats		No information is available, especially on its adaptability to habitat change. It occurs in small numbers in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59566	conservation		It occurs in Morne Seychellois National Park, Praslin National Park, Curieuse National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette.	eng
59566	distribution		This species occurs on ten islands in the Seychelles: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, La Digue, Félicité, Frégate, Sainte Anne, Cerf, Curieuse, and Grand Soeur islands. It ranges from sea level to the highest mountains.	eng
59566	habitat		It lives in all habitats, including disturbed coastal plateaux (anthropogenic sites), disturbed rainforest, and relatively undisturbed forest. It burrows in soil, leaf-litter, and trash piles. It breeds by larval development in streams and pools.	eng
59566	population		It is very common at many localities.	eng
59566	threats		It is probably not affected by deforestation, and is adaptable and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
59567	conservation		Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether or not the specimens from the two known localities refer to the same species.	eng
59567	distribution		This species is known only from two localities in south-western Cameroon: Makamunu Assumbo in Mamfe Division, and Ndikinimeki. It presumably occurs between these two localities, and also more widely.	eng
59567	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecological preferences. It presumably lives in the soil in lowland rainforest. It is oviparous, probably with direct development of its eggs.	eng
59567	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59567	threats		No information is available; especially since its adaptability to habitat change is unknown.	eng
59568	conservation		It is known to occur in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, and has been reported from Konya Wild Life Sanctuary and Phansad Wild Life Sanctuary (Maharashtra). It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59568	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the vicinity of the type locality, Khandala, in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, India, and from localities near Mumbai. Records from further south in Maharashtra, and from Okha in southern Gujarat, require confirmation. It has an altitudinal range of 300-1,300m asl.	eng
59568	habitat		This is a subterranean species in humus-rich soil and leaf-litter. Specimens have been collected under rocks on grassy hillsides and also in cultivated areas, and possibly in associated dry forest. Although its reproductive mode is not known, that of its closest suspected relatives (<em>Gegeneophis</em> spp.) is oviparity with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.	eng
59568	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59568	threats		The threats to this species are unknown and require further investigation, especially as this species has been recorded from agricultural areas. Potential threats include the conversion of forest to agricultural land, harvesting of wood and timber by local people for subsistence purposes, road construction, agrochemical soil pollution and fires.	eng
59569	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas. A review of its taxonomy is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59569	distribution		This species is found in southern Brazil from Sao Paulo State east to Missiones Province in Argentina, and south to Rio Grande do Sul State (Brazil), at altitudes of 0-500m asl.	eng
59569	habitat		This is a terrestrial species with poorly known habitat preferences, though it probably occurs in forest. It has been found in urban gardens, suggesting that it is adaptable to some degree of habitat modification.	eng
59569	population		Its population status is unknown. It was last collected in Brazil in 2001, and it is known in Argentina only from one collection in 1947.	eng
59569	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59570	conservation		In Colombia the species is not known from any protected areas. In Ecuador the species has been recorded from Jatun Sachure Nature Reserve.	eng
59570	distribution		This species is known from the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador (in Napo Province) and Colombia (Departments of Caquetá and Meta). It occurs between 300 and 800m asl.	eng
59570	habitat		Individuals have been found underground in primary forest. At Lago Agrio, in Ecuador, most specimens were obtained by following bulldozers clearing primary forest (Duellman, 1978). It has also been recorded from degraded forest but it is not known whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats. Its breeding is unknown.	eng
59570	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59570	threats		The threats are unknown, since it is not known whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats. Agriculture and livestock are most likely localized threats to the habitat of this species, but it occurs in a region of relatively low human impact.	eng
59571	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas in Suriname, Guyana and Venezuela. The conspecificity of the specimens from Venezuela and Suriname needs to be evaluated.	eng
59571	distribution		This species ranges from eastern Venezuela (in Bolívar State), east to central Suriname. It is presumed to occur in Guyana, but this has not been confirmed. It has been recorded from 100-400m asl.	eng
59571	habitat		This is a subterranean species in tropical moist environments, especially lowland rainforest. It has also been found in secondary habitats.	eng
59571	population		There is no information on the population status of this species; it is known only from isolated records.	eng
59571	threats		It occurs in an area of low human impact, and since it is also somewhat adaptable it is unlikely to be facing any significant threats. Mining and associated water pollution might be local threats.	eng
59572	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59572	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of São Paulo State, Brazil.	eng
59572	habitat		All that is known about its biology and ecological preferences is that it is a subterranean species.	eng
59572	population		There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.	eng
59572	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59573	conservation		Its range includes Sipaliwini Nature Reserve.	eng
59573	distribution		This species is known from southwestern Suriname. It has been recorded around 300m asl.	eng
59573	habitat		This is a subterranean species that can also be found under logs in primary tropical rainforest. It has also been found in naturally occurring forest islands in the savannah in the southern parts of its range. Its adaptability to secondary habitats, and its breeding habits, are unknown.	eng
59573	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59573	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. It occurs in an area of low human impact, and is somewhat adaptable, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59574	conservation		It occurs in a few protected areas in French Guiana.	eng
59574	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from French Guiana, including Ilet le Père and llet La Mère. Records from Suriname and Guyana are misidentified (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.). A dot-map of the distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). This species occurs up to 500m asl.	eng
59574	habitat		This species inhabits primary forest. It has also been found in urban areas and rural gardens. Its breeding is unknown.	eng
59574	population		This caecilian can be quite easy to find suggesting that it is a common species in French Guiana.	eng
59574	threats		There are no known threats to this species, since it is adaptable to habitat change.	eng
59575	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59575	distribution		This species is known only from the holotype, collected in 1878 from "Brasilia". This locality almost certainly does not refer to the modern city of Brasilia (which did not exist in 1878), but rather more generally to Brazil. The range of this species is therefore unknown, though it is assumed to occur in eastern Brazil.	eng
59575	habitat		Its life history and habitat preferences might be similar to those of <em>Siphonops annulatus</em>, and so it might be oviparous with direct development.	eng
59575	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from one specimen.	eng
59575	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59576	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59576	distribution		There are only confirmed records of this species from Teresópolis, in Rio de Janeiro State in southern Brazil, at around 800m asl. It can be expected to occur more widely.	eng
59576	habitat		This is a subterranean species that has been found under bark, logs and stones in moist forest. It is likely to be oviparous, with eggs that develop directly.	eng
59576	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, but it is a very difficult species to find.	eng
59576	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59577	conservation		It occurs in the Neblina National Park, Venezuela.	eng
59577	distribution		This species is currently known only from the general vicinity of Cerro Yapacana at around 100m asl in Amazonas state, southern Venezuela. The type specimen comes from the non-specific location of "Upper Amazon". It presumably occurs in adjacent Colombia and Brazil, and is likely to occur much more widely.	eng
59577	habitat		It is a large, semi-aquatic species of tropical lowland rainforests. It lives at edge of rivers, where it burrows. It is a viviparous species, probably in water. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, but there is very little human impact within its range.	eng
59577	population		It is very common in certain localities within its Venezuelan distribution.	eng
59577	threats		It is unlikely to be significantly threatened, but mining activities in the Yapacana area might affect population there.	eng
59578	conservation		In Ecuador this species has been recorded from Yasuni National Park, and it possibly also occurs in Limoncocha Reserva Biológica.	eng
59578	distribution		This species occurs in the western Amazon basin and on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Andes at 100-800m asl. It has been recorded from Ecuador (Napo and Pastaza States) and eastern Peru (Departaments of Amazonas and Madre de Dios). It possibly occurs in the Putumayo and Amazonas Departments of Colombia (Lynch, 1999; Acosta-Galvis, 2000) and it is suspected to occur in Bolivia (De la Riva <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
59578	habitat		It is a subterranean species of primary tropical rainforest. At Lago Agrio, Ecuador, specimens were obtained during clearing of primary forest by bulldozers (Duellman, 1978). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to modified habitats. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59578	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59578	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. It occurs in an area of low human impact, and so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59579	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
59579	distribution		This species is known only with certainty from the type locality within the area of Yaviza (a town that has grown significantly since the initial collection), in Darién Province, Panama. It presumably occurs more widely. The known locality is at approximately 50m asl.	eng
59579	habitat		This is presumably a subterranean species, also sometimes occurring within the moist leaf-litter of humid tropical lowland forest.	eng
59579	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens.	eng
59579	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59580	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
59580	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of Pichincha Province, in north-western Ecuador, where it was found below 800m asl.	eng
59580	habitat		This is probably a subterranean species in moist rainforest.	eng
59580	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59580	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59581	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59581	distribution		This species is known for certain only from the type locality, Joinville, in Santa Catarina Province in southern Brazil, at approximately 300m asl. Taylor (1968) had some doubt as to whether or not the type specimen had actually come from the stated type locality. A second specimen, also from an unknown locality, was reported by Taylor (1970).	eng
59581	habitat		This species is presumably subterranean, given the ecological preferences of other members of the genus, and occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
59581	population		It is known only from two specimens collected before 1968, so its overall population status is not known.	eng
59581	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it, although the rainforest where it was collected has been converted to an industrial zone.	eng
59582	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59582	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at Quistococha, an oxbow of the Río Itaya, 15km south-west of Iquitos, in Loreto Department, Amazonian Peru, at an altitude of approximately 200m asl. It presumably occurs much more widely.	eng
59582	habitat		This species is presumably subterranean, given the ecological preferences of other members of the genus, and occurs in lowland rainforest.	eng
59582	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59582	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it, although it is known that the rainforest where it was collected has been cleared to make way for a tourist lodge.	eng
59583	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Colombia. In Panama the species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Parque Nacional Altos de Campana and Parque Nacional Soberania, and also from Barro Colorado Island.	eng
59583	distribution		This species occurs in Panama and northwestern Colombia. In Panama it has been recorded from central Pacific lowlands, Isla Saboga in the Archipelago de las Perlas, and cordilleras in the southeast of Darien Province. In Colombia it is known from only one specimen from Turbo in Antioquia Department. It is thought to be mainly a lowland species.	eng
59583	habitat		It is a subterranean species, also sometimes occurring in moist leaf-litter in humid tropical montane and lowland forest. It appears to be tolerant of some anthropogenic habitats, and has been encountered on a number of occasions in urban areas (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It has beenn collected as deep as 10m down during building construction (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59583	population		In Panama, it is a widely distributed species existing at low densities (Marvalee Wake pers. comm., 2007). It has not been recorded from Colombia since the 1940s.	eng
59583	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, since its susceptibility to habitat alteration is not known.	eng
59584	conservation		It is found in Parque Nacional Corcovado.	eng
59584	distribution		This species is known only from the Península de Osa in south-western Costa Rica, at an altitude of sea level-240m asl (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
59584	habitat		It is a subterranean species that occurs in lowland rainforest (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). An animal has been observed in forest vegetation at the edge of a beach; the animal was washed onto the beach by a wave (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
59584	population		It was formerly known from only a few specimens, however more have been collected recently (as of 2006) (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.).	eng
59584	threats		There appear to be no threats to this species which is currently known only from within a well-protected area.	eng
59585	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Natural Los Katios.	eng
59585	distribution		This species occurs in the Pacific lowlands of north-western Colombia in the departments of Antioquia and Choco, between 0 and 50m asl.	eng
59585	habitat		This species is subterranean, living in lowland tropical forest.	eng
59585	population		There is little information regarding its population status, but there are recent records of it.	eng
59585	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59586	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59586	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of "a small creek tributary to Río Mazaruni" (Taylor 1968) in Guyana, but the precise locality is not known. Another specimen without precise locality data also exists from Cayenne City, French Guiana (Lescure and Marty 2001). Due to these uncertainties a map of this species' distribution has not been drawn for this assessment.	eng
59586	habitat		This is presumably a subterranean species, living in lowland tropical forest.	eng
59586	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59586	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59587	conservation		There are no protected areas within its known distribution.	eng
59587	distribution		This species is known from the central part of the Magdalena River Valley, between Honda (Tolima), Girardot (Cundinamarca), Santander, and northeast Antioquia at 225-400m asl.	eng
59587	habitat		It is a subterranean species found in humid soils, especially in disturbed forests. It is even found in areas heavily impacted by agriculture. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59587	population		It appears to be a common species and quite easy to find, even in disturbed habitats.	eng
59587	threats		There are no major threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
59588	conservation		Its range probably overlaps a few protected areas.	eng
59588	distribution		This species is endemic to Colombia and is known from the high part of the Cauca River Valley, in the Department of Quindio, from the eastern part of the Department of Antioquia (Río Claro), and also from the Department of Santander (El Centro). It occurs at 200-2,000m asl.	eng
59588	habitat		The subterranean species is known from open areas and pastures. It also occurs in forest. It seems to be adaptable to disturbed areas such as pastureland. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
59588	population		There is very little information.	eng
59588	threats		There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
59589	conservation	Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59589	distribution	Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, 2008	This species is found in the Amazon and Orinoco drainage systems of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, below 500m asl. The southern limit of the distribution is poorly known, and it probably ranges further south than is mapped here.	eng
59589	habitat	Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is a predominately, if not completely, aquatic species that lives in rivers, streams, large and small lakes, and flooded plains. It is viviparous in water.	eng
59589	population	Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, 2008	It is poorly known but it is occasionally seen in good numbers.	eng
59589	threats	Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, Enrique La Marca, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, Fernando Castro, 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59590	conservation		It occurs in the Morne Seychellois National Park, and in the site of a conservation project on Silhouette. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species given its very limited range.	eng
59590	distribution		This species from the granitic Seychelles occurs on Mahé and Silhouette Islands. An old record for Praslin might be erroneous, and is not mapped. On Mahé and Silhouette, it has been found only above 280m asl and usually higher in areas that are relatively undisturbed. It is known from only ten localities (excluding Praslin). The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 20km².	eng
59590	habitat		It lives in relatively undisturbed, usually forested, sites. It burrows in damp soil and leaf-litter. It is not recorded from near urban areas or houses. It probably breeds by larval development in streams and pools, but this is not confirmed.	eng
59590	population		It is not a common species and it is rarely found.	eng
59590	threats		The main threat is habitat degradation, mainly due to fire and invasive species.	eng
59591	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59591	distribution		This species is known from coastal Kenya and Tanzania. In Kenya it is known only from the Tana River area. In Tanzania it is known from Bagamoyo, south of the Rufiji River. It is not known whether or not it occurs between the Tana River and Bagamoyo, but attempts to locate it in this area have not been successful.	eng
59591	habitat		It has been recorded from open areas and deciduous and strongly seasonal scrub and woodland. It was found in black mud in an open area near the Ruvu River at Bagamoyo, and is perhaps dependent on estuarine muddy areas, but it is clearly not a forest-dependent species. It is probably a viviparous species, not dependent on water for breeding. It has also been reported as abundant in agricultural habitats with suitable crops that provide shade and maintain the top soil.	eng
59591	population		There is little information, but it was found to be very common in Bagamoyo in 2002. It has not been collected in Kenya since 1934. It has been reported as abundant in agricultural cropland.	eng
59591	threats		Large-scale mechanical rice farming is a possible future threat.	eng
59592	conservation		It occurs in Obo National Park.	eng
59592	distribution		This species is known only from São Tomé and Rolas Island, in São Tomé and Príncipe. It occurs from sea level to at least 1,300m asl. It appears to be absent from the drier northern part of the island. There is an unconfirmed report of this species from "Upper Zire", which is likely to refer to another species.	eng
59592	habitat		It lives in soil in all habitats on São Tomé (except dry areas in the north), including coconut plantations, forests, trash piles, sugar cane, degraded areas, rocky areas, and totally denuded land coastal. It is a viviparous species, and is not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59592	population		Recent information suggests that it is an abundant species.	eng
59592	threats		It appears not to be a threatened species. It has appeared in the pet trade in the 1990s, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59593	conservation	Esteban Lavilla, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, Diego Baldo, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59593	distribution	Esteban Lavilla, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, Diego Baldo, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	This species is widely distributed through tropical South America east of the Andes from northern Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela (Barinas and Portuguesa states) and the Guianas, south through most of Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina. In Argentina, this species is found in the southern part of Misiones. In Bolivia, it is found in Beni, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz. It is generally found below 800m asl.	eng
59593	habitat	Esteban Lavilla, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, Diego Baldo, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It is a subterranean species and can be found in humid soils in forested and open environments (including dry Caatinga savannah). It also occurs in rural gardens, plantations and other anthropogenic habitats. Reproduction is probably on the ground with parental care. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59593	population	Esteban Lavilla, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, Diego Baldo, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It appears to be common in some parts of its range.	eng
59593	threats	Esteban Lavilla, Marinus Hoogmoed, Steffen Reichle, Diego Baldo, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	There are no significant threats to this species.	eng
59594	conservation		The range of the species in Espírito Santo State overlaps with the Parque Nacional da Jijuca and Parque Estadual da Pedra Branca. In Rio de Janeiro State it overlaps with the Reserva Biólogica Augusto Ruschi, Estacão Biólogica Santa Lucia and Parque Nacional Serra de Orgãos-Teresópolis.	eng
59594	distribution		This species is known from two areas in southeastern Brazil, from the vicinity of the city of Rio de Janeiro and Teresópolis in Rio de Janeiro State, and from the general vicinity of Santa Teresa (in Espírito Santo State) in southeastern Brazil. It is presumably more widespread, at least in the intervening regions. It occurs from near sea level up to at least 800m asl, perhaps higher.	eng
59594	habitat		This species is found in soil, or under the forest leaf-litter or under stones in primary forest, and also in plantations and rural gardens. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59594	population		This species is frequently encountered and is relatively easy to find.	eng
59594	threats		Infrastructure development might be a localized threat, but it is adaptable is not generally at risk.	eng
59595	conservation		This species' range includes a few protected areas. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59595	distribution		This species is known from three localities in São Paulo State, Brazil: Victoria, São Sebastião Island, and Ubatuba Municipality. The extent of its occurrence on the mainland is not clear.	eng
59595	habitat		It is presumably a subterranean species, living in soil in forest. It is also assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59595	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59595	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59596	conservation		A taxonomic review is needed for this species (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59596	distribution		This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in the state of Bahia in eastern Brazil. It has been suggested that the type locality is at the city of Salvador, but this is not certain.	eng
59596	habitat		It is likely to be subterranean, possibly in lowland moist forest. It is also assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59596	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.	eng
59596	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59597	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59597	distribution		This species is found in eastern, central, western and southern Brazil, northern Argentina (only in southern Misiones and northeastern Corrientes), northeastern Paraguay and southeastern Bolivia. It might be present in southern Tarija, Bolivia and adjacent Salta, Argentina and this requires further investigation. It is found at elevations of 0-450m asl.	eng
59597	habitat		It is a subterranean species living in forest, savannahs, shrublands and grassland. It adapts well to anthropogenic disturbance, and has even been found in urban gardens. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and direct development, and not dependent on water for breeding.	eng
59597	population		It is known to be common in parts of Brazil, but there are few records from Paraguay and Argentina (where it has not been collected since 1993).	eng
59597	threats		There are no known threats to this adaptable species.	eng
59598	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
59598	distribution		This species is endemic to the forests of south-western Ethiopia, where it is known from four sites in the provinces of Willega, Kaffa, and Illubabor, spanning an altitudinal range of 1,500-2,150m asl.	eng
59598	habitat		It is known only from tropical deciduous forest. The adults live beneath leaf-litter and humus on the forest floor, breeding in small springs and streamlets where the larvae can burrow in soft, water-saturated mud.	eng
59598	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59598	threats		There is ongoing degradation and destruction of its forest habitat as a result of human settlement, agricultural encroachment and commercial exploitation. However, it is not known whether or not this constitutes a threat.	eng
59599	conservation	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59599	distribution	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	This species is known from Amazon basin of Colombia, Venezuela and Peru, east to the eastern coast of Brazil, and also in the rivers of the Guyana Shield region of Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana. It ranges from 0-200m asl. It is presumed to occur in Suriname, but there are no records.	eng
59599	habitat	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It is an aquatic species, inhabiting permanent rivers and marshes, mainly in the lowland forest zone. It is a viviparous species, giving birth in water.	eng
59599	population	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
59599	threats	Enrique La Marca, Claudia Azevedo-Ramos, Marinus Hoogmoed, Mark Wilkinson, John Measey, 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
59600	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59600	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near Manaus, in the state of Amazonas, Brazil.	eng
59600	habitat		This is an aquatic species, probably occurring in rivers and lakes, like <em>Typhlonectes compressicauda</em>. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is presumably viviparous in water.	eng
59600	population		There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.	eng
59600	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59601	conservation		It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
59601	distribution		This species ranges from the drainage systems of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers in western and northern Colombia to the general vicinity of Lake Maracaibo Basin in Venezuela. It occurs up to 1,000m asl. Suggestions of its occurrence in the Orinoco River, and from Trinidad require confirmation, and are not included here.	eng
59601	habitat		It is an aquatic species, living in rivers, marshes and lakes, usually in open areas, and is only rarely found on land. It is thrives in polluted water, and is resilient to major degradation of water quality. It is oviviparous, giving birth to young in water.	eng
59601	population		It is a very common species.	eng
59601	threats		It is extremely resilient to habitat and degradation and pollution, both of which are extensive within its range. It is popular in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59602	conservation		Matang Hunting Reserve is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
59602	distribution		This species is known with certainly only from Boven, on the Mahakam River, and from Matang Hunting Reserve, both in Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo. Records from southern Thailand (collected in Laboo mine in Yala Province) and Peninsular Malaysia require verification. Attempts to map this species' distribution for this assessment only show Matang Hunting Reserve, since the type locality is too unspecific to map and the records from Thailand require verification.	eng
59602	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, and the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59602	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59602	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59603	conservation		The specimen from Thailand was collected in the Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary. This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59603	distribution		This species is known from two 19th century records and one recent record in the border area of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, from the following localities: Bukit Larut, near Taiping, Perak State, Malaysia; Maxwell's Hill, Perak State, Malaysia; and in 2001 from Narathiwat, Sukhirin, Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> in press). Its altitudinal range is from 500-over 1,000m asl.	eng
59603	habitat		This species has been recorded from lowland evergreen forest, and the most recently recorded specimen was collected close to a forest stream. Adults of this species are likely to be subterranean. It is assumed to reproduce by ovipary with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59603	population		This species' population status is unknown. The most recent record (from Thailand) concerned the collection of a single specimen.	eng
59603	threats		The specific threats to this species are unknown, although the type locality is known to now be a tourist resort.	eng
59604	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59604	distribution		This species is known with certainly only from the non-specific type locality near Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia. Scattered records from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo (from Boven, on the Mahakam River in Sarawak, and from Brunei) are of uncertain validity due to misidentifications.	eng
59604	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59604	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59604	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59605	conservation		Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
59605	distribution		This species is known only from Kepahiang, in Bengkulu Province, Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
59605	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59605	population		It is known only from the type specimen and there are no recent records of it.	eng
59605	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. Illegal logging is taking place at the only known locality, as is gold mining, leading to water pollution. However, the adaptability of this species to disturbed habitats is very unclear, and so the significance of these potential threats is not known.	eng
59606	conservation		It probably occurs in some of the remaining lowland forest protected areas on Palawan, but this has not been confirmed. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59606	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the Malatgang (also known as the Malatgao) River in Iwahig, on Palawan Island in the Philippines. It has thus far been found only in one or two localities on Palawan but it is assumed to be more widespread.	eng
59606	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59606	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
59606	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, although the type locality is generally well protected.	eng
59607	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59607	distribution		This species is known only from the Mae Wang Valley in Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand.	eng
59607	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is known to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59607	population		It is known only from the type series.	eng
59607	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, although the type locality has been deforested (but it is not known if this has had any impact on the species).	eng
59608	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59608	distribution		This species is known only from a non-specific type locality in Borneo: Boven, on the Mahakam River in Sarawak, Malaysia.	eng
59608	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59608	population		There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.	eng
59608	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59609	conservation		Several protected areas in the region support this species including the Xishuangbanna National Reserve.	eng
59609	distribution		This species ranges widely in southern China, with populations recorded from Yunnan, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces. A number of new populations have been found in recent years, suggesting that the species occurs more widely than has been mapped, especially in intervening areas between known populations. It has been recorded at 100-600m asl.	eng
59609	habitat		It inhabits forests, secondary habitats, streams, creeks and the nearby-cultivated fields. The adults are subterranean. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59609	population		It is more common than was once thought, and it has been found to be common in certain localities, for example the Xishuangbanna National Reserve.	eng
59609	threats		It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be significantly threatened.	eng
59610	conservation		It probably occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59610	distribution		This species is endemic to the southern Western Ghats in India. The range map shows the distribution of specimens currently identified as Ichthyophis beddomei; further investigation of these specimens is required to determine the range of this species more accurately. In particular, records south of the Palghat Gap (which are not mapped) need to be confirmed. It is present at elevations up to 1,000m asl.	eng
59610	habitat		It is a subterranean species, and is naturally associated with leaf-litter, humus and soil substrates of wet evergreen tropical forest. It also occurs in low-intensity agricultural areas, and plantations. It is an oviparous species with an aquatic larval stage in streams and mud.	eng
59610	population		At places within its range it appears to be locally abundant.	eng
59610	threats		Severe habitat destruction is said to be a potential threat to local populations, but this species appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not significantly threatened. Many additional potential threats have been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, change in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people; all these require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed at present.	eng
59611	conservation		Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
59611	distribution		This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, from an unspecified type locality.	eng
59611	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59611	population		There is no information regarding its population status, and it is known only from the type specimen.	eng
59611	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59612	conservation		A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59612	distribution		This species is known only from one locality on the island of Borneo: Matang, in Sarawak, Malaysia, although it presumably occurs more widely.	eng
59612	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59612	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from the holotype.	eng
59612	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59613	conservation		Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
59613	distribution		This species is known only from Belitung Island, Indonesia.	eng
59613	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59613	population		It is known only from the holotype, and there have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
59613	threats		There has been severe habitat conversion on Belitung Island due to opencast tin mining, although it is not known to what extent this is threatening this species.	eng
59615	conservation		A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59615	distribution		This species from Borneo is known only from Mount Dulit in Sarawak, Malaysia.	eng
59615	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59615	population		The population status of this species is unknown. It has not recently been collected, presumably because of lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
59615	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59616	conservation		It has been found in Lumbah Anai Natural Reserve. A taxonomic review of this species is required (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59616	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from West Sumatra Province in Indonesia on the mainland of Sumatra. Specimens from Pagai, Siberut, Pini and Tanah Masa, in the Mentawai Islands, might belong to this species (and these records have been mapped in this assessment), but this has not yet been confirmed (Iskandar pers. comm.). Recent records from the mainland are from 500-600m asl.	eng
59616	habitat		Two of the most recently collected specimens were found in lowland forest and a third was found in an open area in a very wet location in a ravine near degraded forest. It therefore seems that this species can tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59616	population		The population status of this species is not known. The most recent records concern three specimens collected in the late 1990s.	eng
59616	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. The main potential threat is habitat conversion for subsistence farming and commercial logging, but given this species' apparent degree of adaptability it is not clear to what extent it is impacted by these pressures.	eng
59617	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59617	distribution		This recently described species is endemic to north-east India in the states of Assam and Meghalaya. It is known with certainty from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya (at Anogiri Lake and Tura), and specimens have also been reported from Assam at around 100m asl.	eng
59617	habitat		This subterranean caecilian lives in the moist leaf-litter substrate of tropical forests, and has been found close to streams and other waterbodies. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59617	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two recently collected specimens and a few other recent reports.	eng
59617	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59618	conservation		It has been recorded from the well-protected areas of Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Dellawa Forest Reserve, Knuckles Range Forest Reserve and the Udawattakele Forest Reserve.	eng
59618	distribution		This species is endemic to central and southwestern Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of 50-1,355m asl. A record from northeastern India has been disputed, and is highly improbable.	eng
59618	habitat		It is a subterranean species present in evergreen forests, paddy fields, rubber plantations, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy areas), and cattle pastureland. Adults are often found in humus, dung and rotten vegetation; the eggs are laid on land and the larvae live in flowing water.	eng
59618	population		At places within its range it appears to be locally abundant.	eng
59618	threats		The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss and agro-chemical pollution (both land and water based). However, overall it is a very adaptable species that is not significantly threatened.	eng
59619	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59619	distribution		This species' geographic range is unknown. The type locality is unspecified, but is presumably in tropical Asia.	eng
59619	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59619	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from a single larva.	eng
59619	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59620	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59620	distribution		This species is known only from the Garo Hills in the state of Meghalaya, north-eastern India, where it has been recorded at altitudes of 500-800m asl.	eng
59620	habitat		This subterranean caecilian lives in the moist leaf-litter substrate of tropical forests, and is generally found close to streams and other waterbodies. It has also been recorded in coffee plantations, indicating that it is at least somewhat adaptable to habitat modification. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59620	population		It is known with certainty only from the type specimen, although there have been other reported observations.	eng
59620	threats		No specific threats to this species are known.	eng
59621	conservation	Mumpuni, Iskandar, D., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	All known localities are close to protected areas, and so this species might occur in Ranca Danau and Dieng Plateau National Reserves, as well as in Mount Gede Pangrango National Park. It is in need of taxonomic review (M. Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59621	distribution	Mumpuni, Iskandar, D., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	This species is known from three sites on Java, Indonesia. The type locality is Banten in West Java Province, from where there are no recent records. In 2000 the species was rediscovered, this time in a second locality in Pekalongan, in Central Java Province, at 600 m asl. It was recently reported from Bodogol (703-814 m asl), on the outskirts of Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, West Java Province (Kusrini 2007).	eng
59621	habitat	Mumpuni, Iskandar, D., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	Some recent specimens attributed to this species were from cultivated areas, but another recent record comes from lowland forest edge (Kusrini 2007). It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59621	population	Mumpuni, Iskandar, D., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	There is very little information regarding this species' current population status. For a long time it was known only from the type specimen, and it was only recently rediscovered.	eng
59621	threats	Mumpuni, Iskandar, D., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	Although it can survive in transformed habitats it might be at risk from chemical pollutants from agriculture.	eng
59622	conservation		Further studies are needed to determine whether or not or not it is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
59622	distribution		This species is known only from Java, Indonesia, from a non-specific type locality.	eng
59622	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59622	population		It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
59622	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59623	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
59623	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	This species is known with certainty only from Kohtao Island, Thailand. However, the tradition has become to assign most striped caecilians from mainland Southeast Asia to this name, as mapped. The attributed range of this species is Peninsular and Mainland Thailand, southeastern Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Viet Nam. However, this requires further examination, and the taxonomy might be faulty. Specimens from Yunnan in China are attributed here to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ichthyophis bannanicus</span>.	eng
59623	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	It is known to inhabit evergreen forest and streamside gallery forest, as well as agricultural lands and urban areas. A population of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ichthyophis</span> cf. <span style="font-style: italic;">kohtaoensis</span> from the Mekong valley, northeastern Thailand, was found in various terrestrial macrohabitats including open scrubs, gallery forests and open secondary forests. In the dry season, individuals of this population were found mainly in soil but in the rainy season they were also detected in leaf litter or rotten vegetation (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). This is an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae in forest streams and pools. The clutch size for the population from the Mekong Valley ranges from 32-58 eggs (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is considered to be an adaptable species.	eng
59623	population	van Dijk, P.P., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	There are places within its range where it appears to be locally abundant. In the Mekong Valley, Thailand, individuals have been recorded at low densities (median 0.08 individuals/m²) (Kupfer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
59623	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Wilkinson, M., Gower, D. & Kupfer, A., 2004	It is an adaptable species that is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
59624	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59624	distribution		This species is known from the non-specific type locality of "Upper Laos [Lao People's Democratic Republic]" (Taylor 1969).	eng
59624	habitat		This species is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59624	population		It is known only from a single specimen	eng
59624	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59625	conservation		This species is known from Silent Valley National Park (Kerala) and has been reported (but not yet confirmed) as occurring in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu). It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59625	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Silent Valley in Kerala, north of the Palghat Gap, in the Western Ghats of India. Records from elsewhere in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra, between 400 and 1,000m asl, require verification.	eng
59625	habitat		This is a subterranean species associated with humus, decaying leaf-litter and moist soil in wet evergreen forest, and possibly also in plantations. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59625	population		Its population status is unknown.	eng
59625	threats		Severe habitat destruction is said to be a potential threat to this species, but there are no data on its adaptability to habitat change, and since many other species of <em>Ichthyophis</em> have been shown to be very adaptable, habitat destruction might not be a significant threat to this species. Many additional potential threats have been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, collection of humus by local people, and mortality on roads. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being significant threats at present.	eng
59627	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59627	distribution		This species is known only from three localities on Borneo: Lawas in north-eastern Sarawak, Malaysia; Kota Samarahan in western Sarawak, Malaysia; and Sinkawang in western Kalimantan, Indonesia.	eng
59627	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59627	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens. There have been no recent records, presumably due to a lack of herpetological work within its range.	eng
59627	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59628	conservation		It has been recorded from the Namunakula Reserve Forest and Horton Plains National Park.	eng
59628	distribution		This species is endemic to the mountains of south-central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations between 460 and 1,800m asl.	eng
59628	habitat		It is a subterranean species present in evergreen forests, rubber plantations, tea plantations, paddy fields, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy areas), and cattle pastureland. However, it appears to be less adaptable than <em>Ichthyophis glutinosus</em>. The adults are often found in humus. It is assumed to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59628	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, but it does not appear to be common.	eng
59628	threats		The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss, due to agroindustry and clear cutting, and agro-chemical pollution (land and water-based).	eng
59629	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas in Indonesia, but the unconfirmed record from Singapore is from a protected area. It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.)	eng
59629	distribution		This species has been found in two localities in northern Sumatra, and it has also been found in the southern part of Aceh, also in Sumatra, Indonesia. There are also records from Nias Island, but a record from Singapore needs to be verified.	eng
59629	habitat		The recent records of this species have been from lowland selectively logged rainforest and swamp forest. It is presumably a subterranean species, with terrestrial eggs and larvae that live in streams.	eng
59629	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species. A very small number of specimens have been collected since 2000, and there have been records from Sumatra in 2000 and 2001 (Iskandar pers. comm.).	eng
59629	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59631	conservation		It has been recorded from Peak Wilderness Forest Reserve and Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which is a World Heritage Site.	eng
59631	distribution		This species is endemic to south-western Sri Lanka. It has been recorded at elevations of 20-1,525m asl.	eng
59631	habitat		It is a subterranean species present in forests, rubber plantation areas, paddy fields, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy and muddy areas), and pastureland. Adults are often found in humus and other rotten vegetation. It is oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae in streams.	eng
59631	population		It appears to be less common that <em>Ichthyophis glutinosus</em>. It is not known from many specimens.	eng
59631	threats		The species might be threatened locally by extreme habitat loss, due to agroindustry, and agro-chemical pollution (land and water based).	eng
59632	conservation		It is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59632	distribution		This caecilian occurs in northern India (in the states of Sikkim and West Bengal), and also in extreme eastern Nepal in Dabugaun, in Ilam District. It has been recorded at altitudes of 1,000-1,550m asl. Reports from the Western Ghats in southern India are in need of verification and have not been used in this assessment when mapping its range.	eng
59632	habitat		It is a subterranean species believed to inhabit tropical, semi-evergreen forest, and also rural gardens and probably other secondary habitats. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59632	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59632	threats		The threats to this species are unknown, but given that it seems to be somewhat adaptable to altered habitats, it might not be significantly threatened.	eng
59633	conservation		This species is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59633	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from a single specimen collected in Singapore. Specimens assigned to this species from Peninsular Malaysia need to be re-evaluated.	eng
59633	habitat		The type specimen was collected in a rural garden, and adults of this species are generally likely to be subterranean in forest and various degraded habitats. The eggs are probably laid on land, and the larvae presumably develop in stream habitats.	eng
59633	population		Its populations status is unknown, and it is known with certainty only from a single specimen, though a few <em>Ichthyophis</em> larvae have been found on Singapore that might refer to this species.	eng
59633	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
59635	conservation		Further taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether or not or not this is is a valid species (Iskandar pers. comm.; Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59635	distribution		This species is known only from the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, with records from western Sumatra (Iskandar pers. comm.), including old records from the following west Sumatran localities: Kepahiang, Bengkulu Province; Padang, West Sumatra Province; and Kaba Wetan (although the exact locality here is not known).	eng
59635	habitat		It is presumed to occur in tropical moist forest, where the adults are likely to be subterranean. It is also presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59635	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59635	threats		The main threat to this species is likely to be the illegal logging that is taking place at its only known locality. There is also gold mining taking place, leading to water pollution.	eng
59636	conservation		It was recently reported from Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, and it is in need of taxonomic review (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59636	distribution		This species has been reported from several areas in southern Peninsular Thailand, where it might occur more widely than is currently known. It is generally found at low altitudes.	eng
59636	habitat		It is a subterranean species known only from montane and lowland evergreen forests, where recently recorded specimens were found moving over ground following heavy rain. The larvae inhabit forest streams.	eng
59636	population		There is little information on its population status, but recent surveys found this species easily.	eng
59636	threats		The major threat to this species is urbanization of its known localities.	eng
59637	conservation		It has been recorded in the following protected areas: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala); Idukki Wild Life Sanctuary (Kerala), Indira Gandhi National Park (Tamil Nadu).	eng
59637	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats region of southern India, south of the Palghat Gap, in the States of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It has been recorded from a wide elevational range from near sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
59637	habitat		It is a subterranean species associated with soil in wet semi-evergreen tropical forest, also occurring agricultural areas and rubber plantations (Oommen <em>et al.</em>, 2002). It is known to be oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59637	population		At places within its range it appears not to be uncommon.	eng
59637	threats		It is an adaptable species that does not appear to be facing any significant threats.	eng
59638	conservation		A taxonomic review of this species is needed (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59638	distribution		This species is known only from Doi Suthep Mountain, near Chiang Mai, in northern Thailand, at 1,000-1,200m asl.	eng
59638	habitat		There is no information regarding its habitat and ecological preferences, other than that it occurs in evergreen hill forest. The adults are likely to be subterranean, and it is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59638	population		There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from the type series.	eng
59638	threats		Specific threats to this species are unknown.	eng
59639	conservation	Javier Icochea, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Mark Wilkinson, 2008	In Ecuador, its geographic range overlaps with Reserva Ecológica Los Illinizas and Reserva Biológica Tapichalaca. In Peru, it is present in the montane region of Parque Nacional Manu.	eng
59639	distribution	Javier Icochea, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Mark Wilkinson, 2008	This species is found on the Pacific slopes of the Andes in Colombia (department of Valle del Cauca) and Ecuador (provinces of Cotopaxi and El Oro), and the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador (Zamora Chinchipe province) and southern Perú (regions of Junín and Cusco). It has been found at elevations of 1,750-2,000m asl in Colombia.	eng
59639	habitat	Javier Icochea, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Mark Wilkinson, 2008	It is a subterranean species in cloud forests, submontane forest and foothill forests. It is associated with streams. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known. It is presumed to lay eggs on land, with the larvae developing in streams.	eng
59639	population	Javier Icochea, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Mark Wilkinson, 2008	There is very little information, but large collections have been made on a few occasions.	eng
59639	threats	Javier Icochea, Luis A. Coloma, Santiago Ron, John Lynch, Mark Wilkinson, 2008	There is no information on threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of the species to adapt to change.	eng
59640	conservation		Neither of the two known localities is in a protected area. However, there are several national parks between the two localities, in which the species might occur.	eng
59640	distribution		This species is known from two localities in the Cordillera Occidental of the Colombian Andes: the municipality of El Tambo in Cauca Department; and Alto del Oso in Choco Department. It has been recorded at 1,000-1,550m asl. It probably occurs in suitable areas in between the known localities.	eng
59640	habitat		This species occurs underground or among fallen leaves within montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.	eng
59640	population		There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from one specimen from each locality.	eng
59640	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to changed habitats.	eng
59641	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59641	distribution		This species is known only from the non-specific type locality of "eastern Peru" (Taylor 1968).	eng
59641	habitat		It is presumably associated with forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.	eng
59641	population		It is known only from the holotype.	eng
59641	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59642	conservation		The taxonomic status of this species needs to be reviewed. It occurs in the protected area formed by the Mindo-Nambillo Protected Forest.	eng
59642	distribution		This species is known from Santo Domingo de los Colorados (the type locality), and from near to Mindo, in Pichincha Province in north-western Ecuador. It occurs at around 1,500m asl.	eng
59642	habitat		It is known to be associated with montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.	eng
59642	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59642	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.	eng
59643	conservation		It occurs in the Canaima National Park, Venezuela.	eng
59643	distribution		This species is known from western Guyana and south-eastern Venezuela at between 100 and 1,700m asl. It probably ranges more widely than is currently known.	eng
59643	habitat		It inhabits cloud forests, seasonally dry forests, and marshland areas. The females guard the eggs, which are laid terrestrially under cover, such as rocks. The larvae presumably develop in streams. Its ability to adapt to secondary habitats is not known.	eng
59643	population		The population status of this species is unknown. It is currently known only from four specimens (Marvalee Wake pers. comm.).	eng
59643	threats		It occurs in an area of very limited human impact, and it is therefore unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59644	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59644	distribution		This species is known from two localities on the northern part of the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes in Antioquia Department: Medellin, and Vereda El Jardin in the municipality of Amalfi. It has been recorded from around 1,000m asl.	eng
59644	habitat		It is presumably associated with montane cloud forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development. A larva was collected recently.	eng
59644	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens, one from each locality.	eng
59644	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.	eng
59645	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59645	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Marcapata Valley, in Cusco Department in south-eastern Peru. Its altitudinal range is approximately 2,000-2,500m asl.	eng
59645	habitat		This is a montane, subterranean species, for which little further information is available. It is presumed to live in montane forests. The eggs are presumably laid on land, with the hatching larvae falling into streams to complete their development.	eng
59645	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59645	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock rearing, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of this species to adapt to habitat change.	eng
59646	conservation		In Ecuador the species occurs in, or might occur in, the Parque Nacional Sumaco Napo Galeras, Reserva Ecológica Cayambe Coca, Parque Nacional Llanganates, and Parque Nacional Sangay. It has also been collected in the buffer zone of the Reserva Ecológica Antisana. In Peru it might occur in the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park.	eng
59646	distribution		This species has been recorded from several localities on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, and it has also been found on the Amazonian slopes in Perú in the Departments of Loreto and Puno. It has been collected up to 2,000m asl.	eng
59646	habitat		It is a subterranean species of montane cloud forest and tropical moist forest. It has aquatic larvae in streams and presumably has terrestrial eggs. Specimens have been collected in remnants of primary forest, but it is not known whether or not they can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
59646	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59646	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. Possible threats include loss of mountain forest for livestock, agricultural activities and water pollution, but the significance of these depends on the ability of the species to adapt to change.	eng
59647	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59647	distribution		This species occurs in northern French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana and Brazil. A dot-map of distribution in French Guiana is provided in Lescure and Marty (2001). It occurs up to 150m asl.	eng
59647	habitat		It is a subterranean species in lowland rainforest. It is presumed that courtship, mating and fertilisation take place on land and following brooding by the female, the larvae hatch and drop into streams, like other members of its family. It is not known if this species can occur in degraded habitats.	eng
59647	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59647	threats		It occurs in an area of very limited human impact, and it is therefore unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
59648	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59648	distribution		This species is known only from Limbe in south-western Cameroon. It has been suggested that it is a high-altitude species, perhaps occurring on the slopes of Mount Cameroon above Limbe.	eng
59648	habitat		There is no information on the habitat or ecological preferences of this species, and its breeding biology is also unknown (although it is suspected to be oviparous with direct development).	eng
59648	population		There is no information on its population status, and it is known only from a single specimen collected in 1893.	eng
59648	threats		There is no information on specific threats to it. There has been extensive forest loss in its only known locality, but it is likely to occur more widely, and, if it is like some other African caecilians, it might be adaptable to habitat change, making it less threatened than it would otherwise be.	eng
59649	conservation		A conservation project has been conducted on Mount Oku for several years by BirdLife International, involving the local villages in community management of the area. This project needs to also take into account the conservation needs of this species.	eng
59649	distribution		This species is known from western Cameroon on Mount Oku, in the Bamenda Highlands, at 2,300m asl.	eng
59649	habitat		It is presumed to live in the soil in montane forest. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it has been speculated that it is oviparous with direct development.	eng
59649	population		There is no information regarding its population status, and only four specimens are known.	eng
59649	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species. If it is being adversely affected by habitat loss and is endemic to Mount Oku, it could be seriously threatened.	eng
59650	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, though one has been recommended for Tchabal Mbabo.	eng
59650	distribution		This recently discovered species is known only from the northern face of Mount Tchabal Mbabo, at 1,950-2,000m asl, in Adamawa Province in western Cameroon.	eng
59650	habitat		The only known specimens were found on steep forested slopes. The only other habitat in the area is heavily grazed pastureland, the suitability of which is unknown for this species.	eng
59650	population		The three known specimens were all collected in about an hour from the same location, and despite a week's work in the area, no others were encountered.	eng
59650	threats		It could be threatened by habitat loss as the remaining forest habitat on Tchabal Mbabo is confined to galleries and steep slopes because of clearing for pasture land. However, most of the habitat that can be removed has now been cleared, although the forest is also threatened by fire.	eng
59651	conservation		It occurs in the Udzungwa National Park, Tanzania.	eng
59651	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of southern Malawi east of the Shire Valley (with no records yet from Mount Mulanje, although it is likely to occur there), and in Tanzania from the Nguru, Rubeho, Uluguru, Mahenge and Udzungwa Mountains, and the Southern Highland (Ubena). There has been a recent possible record (not mapped) from northern Mozambique, close to known Malawian sites. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, though it is generally montane, but occurs at lower elevations in some places (down to around 500m asl).	eng
59651	habitat		It is a species that lives in the soil in montane, submontane and lowland forest, but which also survives in cultivated areas and villages. There are records from Iringa town in the Udzungwa Mountains. If its breeding is similar to that of other species of Scolecomorphus, it is a viviparous species, not dependent on water.	eng
59651	population		There is no direct information.	eng
59651	threats		It appears not to be a threatened species. It appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
59652	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59652	distribution		This species is known only from the Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, though it seems to occur at higher elevations than the other caecilians occurring in the Uluguru Mountains.	eng
59652	habitat		It lives in the soil in montane forest. It probably also survives in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species that is not dependent upon water for breeding.	eng
59652	population		There is no information, but it has been recently recorded.	eng
59652	threats		There are no specific threats to this species at the higher elevations of the Ulugurus, where there is very limited human impact.	eng
59653	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains, and in the University of Dar es Salaam Forest Reserve at Mazumbai in the West Usambara Mountains.	eng
59653	distribution		This species is recorded from North and South Pare Mountains, the East and West Usambara Mountains, and the Nguu, Nguru, Ukaguru and Uluguru Mountains in eastern and northeastern Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is from at least 400-1,500m asl.	eng
59653	habitat		It lives in the soil as well as often being found above soil, in montane, submontane and lowland forest, and in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species that is not dependent upon water.	eng
59653	population		It appears to be common, at least in some localities, but it is uncommon in other places.	eng
59653	threats		It appears not to be a threatened species.	eng
59654	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
59654	distribution		This recently discovered species is known only from a single locality, Chengalam Village, at around 400m asl in the state of Keralasa in southern India.	eng
59654	habitat		This is a subterranean species associated with loose soil. The type series was collected in a rubber plantation, although this species' natural habitat is presumably moist evergreen forest. It is probably an oviparous species with an aquatic larval stage in streams.	eng
59654	population		There is no information on its population status; it is known only from the type series.	eng
59654	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, although it is clearly somewhat adaptable to habitat change and so might not be facing any significant threats.	eng
59655	conservation		The taxonomy of this species needs to be reviewed (Gower pers. comm.). It has been recorded from Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu.	eng
59655	distribution		This is a poorly known species endemic to the Western Ghats in southern India. It is known with certainty only from the vicinity of Ooty in the state of Tamil Nadu. All other records are from the non-specific locality of "Malabar", and so attempts to draw a map of its distribution for this assessment should be considered provisional. It has been recorded between 600 and 1,200m asl.	eng
59655	habitat		This species' habitat and ecological preferences are not well known, but it has been collected in evergreen tropical forest. The adults are presumably subterranean, and it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59655	population		There is very little information on the population status of this species.	eng
59655	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
59656	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
59656	distribution		This species has been reported throughout much of the Western Ghats of India in the state of Kerala, but in the absence of verified voucher specimens its distribution is uncertain, and attempts to map its range for this assessment should be considered approximate and preliminary. It has been recorded below 500m asl.	eng
59656	habitat		This is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil. It has been reported from both tropical moist forest and agricultural land, and it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59656	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59656	threats		Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.	eng
59657	conservation		It has been reported from Kudremukh National Park in the state of Karnataka, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
59657	distribution		This species is endemic to southern India, where it is known with certainty only from the Western Ghats in central Kerala State, north of the Palghat Gap. It has been recorded at altitudes of 100-700m asl. Reported specimens of this species from the state of Karnataka are unverified (Wilkinson pers. comm.).	eng
59657	habitat		It is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil, and it has been reported from moist evergreen forest, agricultural land and rural gardens. It is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59657	population		There is little information on the population status of this species, but it is not uncommon at some localities.	eng
59657	threats		Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.	eng
59658	conservation		This species possibly occurs in Wynad Wildife Sanctuary in the state of Kerala.	eng
59658	distribution		This species is endemic to the Western Ghats of southern India, apparently south of the Palghat Gap. The non-specific type locality is "[the] Malabar coast" (probably in the state of Kerala). Other reports come from the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka, but have not been verified, partly because of great taxonomic confusion. Populations that might be of this species occur from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
59658	habitat		This is a subterranean species associated with humus-rich, loose, moist soil, and it has been reported from moist evergreen forest, agricultural land and rural gardens. It is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae.	eng
59658	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
59658	threats		Severe habitat destruction has been said to be a potential threat to local populations, but it appears to be reasonably adaptable and is probably not severely threatened. Many additional potential threats have also been suggested, including the use of agrochemicals, changes in soil chemistry, and collection of humus by local people. These all require further investigation, and cannot be confirmed as being serious threats at present.	eng
59659	conservation		There are several protected areas within the species' range.	eng
59659	distribution		This species is known to be from the Guianan region, from Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana to north central Brazil, (Rondonia, Amapa, Para, Amazonas, North Matto Grosso and Roraima). It can occur up to 300m asl.	eng
59659	habitat		It is associated with ponds, creeks and rivers, although it prefers forests that are not too dense. It is mostly terrestrial, and has been found in terrestrial bromeliads and on vegetation 1-3m above the ground or water. It is an explosive breeder, and lays its eggs in temporary ponds in the forest. It appears to be restricted to primary forest.	eng
59659	population		It is a common species, but can be difficult to find because of its explosive breeding habits.	eng
59659	threats		There is some localized habitat loss occurring in the species' range, but it is found in an area of relatively low human impacts, and hence its habitat is not currently significantly threatened.	eng
59660	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
59660	distribution		This species is known to be from the forests of southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. It probably occurs more widely in, and is likely to occur in, southwestern central African Republic and northern Congo. It is present on the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). The southern and eastern limits of the distribution are unclear.	eng
59660	habitat		It lives in leaf-litter on the floor of lowland forest, avoiding marshy areas. It requires tall forest with a closed canopy. Eggs are laid on the forest floor. It breeds by direct development and there is no free-swimming tadpole.	eng
59660	population		It is generally a common species.	eng
59660	threats		It is probably adversely affected by forest loss for agriculture, wood and human settlement.	eng
59662	conservation	Hamer, M., 2006	Occurs within a protected area.	eng
59662	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Known from a single locality, Ngome Forest. The species has a patchy distribution in Ngome Forest, with area of occupancy less than 20 km².	eng
59662	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	A forest species. Based on studies of other large-bodied African spirostreptids, maturation can take a minimum of two years to reach.	eng
59662	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Habitat or population not fragmented. There are no data on population size or trends.	eng
59662	threats	Hamer, M., 2006	The forest may have declined in area and quality, but not severely.	eng
59663	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: Mpumalanga (Mariepskop, and between Nelspruit and Machadadorp); Limpopo province (Soutpansberg, Ratambo forest). Forest distribution patchy, and known populations are disjunct.	eng
59663	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	The Mariepskop and Ratambo localities are Afromontane forest habitat, and it is likely that the third locality is also a forest patch. This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59663	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population densities are unknown, and a single species was recorded from each locality. A recent invertebrate survey of the Soutpansberg and the northern most part of the Drakensberg mountains (the Magoebaskloof) only yielded one specimen from Ratambo, and no additional localities (Swaye 2003).	eng
59663	threats	Hamer, M., 2006	Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are likely to have declined through the loss and degradation of suitable habitats, particularly in areas not protected.	eng
59664	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa. Mpumalanga. This species is known only from a small part of Mpumalanga, covering an area of considerably less than 5,000 km². Most recently it was collected from a small patch of Afromontane forest near Badplaas, and it was previously collected from the same area in 1939, but the habitat and exact location were not recorded. Area of occupancy is likley to be small. Since this species is associated with forests which have a patchy distribution, the distribution is fragmented. Dispersal ability poor.	eng
59664	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	The growth and maturation rates are likely to be slow, with at least two years required to reach maturity.	eng
59664	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population densities are unknown but both collections have only provided a single specimen, suggesting low densities.	eng
59665	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: Limpopo province. This species is confined to Afromontane forests in the Phiphidi Waterfall area, the Soutpansberg (Woodbush)  and the Magoebaskloof / Drakensberg (Swartbos, Baccarat and Forest Glens forests). Area of occurrence estimated to be a maximum of 10 000 km², and the area of occupancy less than 1,000 km². These have probably decreased over the past 50 years as smaller forest patches have disappeared, and the quality of the habitats has decreased.	eng
59665	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Likely to require two years to reach maturity.	eng
59665	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Surveys revealed few specimens: population densities cannot be considered to be high. The population is highly fragmented – the forests in the Soutpansberg are almost 100 km away from the Magoebaskloof forests. Within each area, although the forests are less than 20 km apart, the matrix is generally transformed by plantations or other forms of agriculture.	eng
59666	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa. KwaZulu-Natal. Known only from scarp forest near Hilltops Camp, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, and Ngome Forest. This species has not been collected from other forests in the area between Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and Ngome. It is unlikely that individuals are able to disperse between the two localities where this species has been collected. In total, the area of occupancy is less than 20 km².	eng
59666	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Found at the edge of Afromontane forest, in bracken dominated grassland. It is likely that this species takes at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59666	population	Hamer, M., 2006	No population data are available, but within Hluhluwe-Umfolozi individuals are easily found in the forest.	eng
59667	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. This species is known only from Gwaliweni Forest in northern KwaZulu-Natal. These are the same/similar since it is presumed that the population is spread throughout the forest. The forest area is 11 km².	eng
59667	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59667	population	Hamer, M., 2006	The population density is likely to be low, considering the small number of specimens collected even though R.F. Lawrence visited Gwaliweni on several occasions. This species is especially large-bodied and conspicuous, and is unlikely to be easily overlooked.	eng
59668	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Southern KwaZulu-Natal, from the Mkomazi River area in the north, to Mzimkulwana River in the south: Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve; Richmond, Hella Hella area; road from Umzinto to Ixopo, Farm Glen Rosa. The area of occupancy is unknown, since the region between the known localities is not well sampled. The estimated maximum area of occurrence is 3,250 km², which covers the entire area between the known localities.	eng
59668	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	This species requires at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59668	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Degree of fragmentation is unknown, but the population is suspected to be fragmented through the loss of habitat. There are no population data available.	eng
59669	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Drakensberg. Known from Royal Natal National Park; Cathkin Peak and Injasuti. Extent of occurrence estimated to be 1,100 km². Area of occupancy unknown. At Royal Natal National Park and Cathkin Peak this species was collected from Afromontane forest, but the habitat at Injasuthi is unknown. If this species is associated with forest, the area of occupancy is likely to be less than 500 km².	eng
59669	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	This species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59669	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population size is unknown, but appears relatively low. Single specimens were collected from all sites (but there was repeated collecting at two of the sites). The population is unlikely to be severely fragmented, apart from within the communal land outside of the protected area, where forest patches and grassland may have been lost at the altitudes where this species has been collected.	eng
59670	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Along the road between Vryheid and Newcastle in north-western KwaZulu-Natal. The habitat in this part of KwaZulu-Natal is poorly sampled, but measurements of the area of similar habitat to where <em>D. minor</em> was collected indicate that the area of occurrence is likely to be less than 3,000 km².	eng
59670	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Likely to take two years to reach maturity.	eng
59670	population	Hamer, M., 2006	This species is likely to occur at low population densities, since only a single specimen has been collected. Degree of fragmentation is unknown. The grassland species of the genus <em>Doratogonus</em> may disperse more easily than the forest species, but they may still be confined in distribution by appropriate habitat. Intensive agriculture may have resulted in the fragmentation of natural grasslands.	eng
59671	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Howick area, Karkloof Forest; Kranzkop; Ngoye Forest. Extent of occurrence is approximately 8–12,000 km², and the area of occurrence 2,000–5,000 km².	eng
59671	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Likely to take two years to reach maturity.	eng
59671	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population densities are likely to be low based on unquantified sampling in Ngoye and the Karkloof, which produced small numbers of specimens. There are at least three subpopulations that are widely separated. In addition, the Karkloof forest is fragmented.	eng
59672	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal; Mpumalnaga. Wakkerstroom (southern Mpumalanga); Pongola Bush Nature Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal). May occur more widely than just two localities, and modelling of habitat suggests a maximum area of occurrence less than 20,000 km², and an area of occupancy less than 500 km².	eng
59672	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Adults occur in grassland, but it is likely that the juveniles are restricted to Afromontane forest patches. As in other species of the genus <em>Doraogonus</em>, this species is likely to take at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59672	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population densities are likely to be low, since few specimens were collected at the two localities. Most likely dependent on forest – which is a fragmented habitat. Dispersal ability limited.	eng
59673	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Kloof area; Kranzkloof Nature Reserve; Eston area. Extent of occurrence is approximately 3,000 km², and area of occupancy is less than 200 km². The three known localities are separated by highly developed and transformed land.	eng
59673	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Likely to take over two years to reach maturation.	eng
59673	population	Hamer, M., 2006	The population density at the Mcintosh Falls locality was relatively high, with approximately one individual per 25 m² being counted.	eng
59674	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Northern part of the Drakensberg mountain range, with localities at Van Reenen, Normandien and Ncandu Nature Reserve. Uncertain, but even if additional localities are found, the maximum area of occurrence is certain to be less than 5,000 km², and the area of occurrence less than 500 km². The forests have a naturally patchy distribution, but the grassland habitat between them is still relatively undisturbed in most areas.	eng
59674	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Occurs in small patches of Afromontane forest. Maturation probably takes at least two years to reach.	eng
59674	population	Hamer, M., 2006	The density of juveniles in the two Normandien forests sampled was exceptionally high, with approximately 50 individuals per m² being counted.	eng
59675	distribution	Hamer, M., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal. Coastal dune forests along the Maputaland coast of KwaZulu-Natal, from just north of Empangeni (Kwambonambi, Richards Bay area, and Mapelane) in the south to Cape Vidal in the north. The extent of the coastal dune forest inside the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park where <em>D. zuluensis</em> occurs is approximately 11 km². When habitats outside are also added this area increases to a maximum of 100 km². The extent of occurrence will be similar since it is thought that the population is spread throughout the dune forest.	eng
59675	habitat	Hamer, M., 2006	Coastal dune forest. Probably takes at least two years to reach maturity.	eng
59675	population	Hamer, M., 2006	Population densities have not been measured, but appear to be fairly low. The habitat is relatively unfragmented north of Richards Bay mining area.	eng
59693	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.	eng
59693	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known only from single locality in the Democratic Republic of Congo and northwest Zambia (Dijkstra 2007), and the synonym from Brazzaville, Congo (and single locality outside the region in Zambia).	eng
59693	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information, probably occurs in swamp forests.	eng
59693	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59693	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59694	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59694	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	To date, this species has been recorded from only two sites in the Chimanimani Mountains, Zimbabwe. It may also occur in Mozambique, however more data are required to confirm this. It has not been recorded since 1966 (Pinhey 1969). The area has been revisited since then (most recently in 1999), however not for targeted surveys.	eng
59694	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	A montane species (Pinhey 1969). Specific habitat details are unknown, even to Pinhey who described the species. However it is inferred to be a forest species based on the habitat in the collection area.	eng
59694	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
59694	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Potential threats to the species are deforestation, alien invasive trees, and alien invasive fish (e.g., trout). Deforestation is inferred to be a threat to the species, based on general deforestation occurring in the region. Since this is a montane species, the main threat may be fragmentation and, potentially, small populations.	eng
59695	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Protection of forest areas is required.	eng
59695	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from south the Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga Province, Mitwaba Escarpment) and Libuli (possibly within the protected area of Upemba). Its area of occupancy is likely to be of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is probably constrained to higher altitudes.	eng
59695	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams and rivers.	eng
59695	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59695	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is the main threat to the taxon.	eng
59696	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines, no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59696	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka. The species is known only from the type locality (Rambukpath Oya, Hatton, Central Province).	eng
59696	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Habitat is described as stream in deep ravine between tea and rubber estates.	eng
59696	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Current population size is unknown, although it is suspected that the species may already be Extinct.	eng
59696	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The habitat type is under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threats for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna on the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59697	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Protection and re-plantation of forest, and conservation of the watershed are required.	eng
59697	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is endemic to Ethiopia. Occurs between 1,300 and 2,400 m asl in the highlands south of Addis Ababa. There is little available habitat left in the known range area, and much of this is fragmented.	eng
59697	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	This species requires clear montane streams and rivers with forest. There is not much forest left in Ethiopia, and the remaining fragments are being exploited rapidly (pers. obs., Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 2001)	eng
59697	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59697	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction, water pollution and habitat degradation are the main threats to the species.	eng
59698	distribution	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Known only from the type locality in North East Queensland, Australia (near Tinaroo Dam).	eng
59698	habitat	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Streams.	eng
59698	population	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59698	threats	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59699	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59699	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is endemic to central Africa, being present in Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Zambia.	eng
59699	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably swamps or streams in forest.	eng
59699	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59699	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None known at present.	eng
59700	conservation	Jović. M., 2007	Current conservation actions in place are not known. A strong population was recorded in a protected area in Israel, but recent records have not been checked.	eng
59700	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The exact locality and status of the European populations are unknown and information on the habitat requirements of the species is scant. Habitat destruction can therefore easily cause the extinction of this species on any of the three islands where it occurs. The foremost conservation measure is therefore identifying the current locations and disclosing this information to the local authorities and conservation officers. Based on more adequate habitat information it must be seen if local conservation measures are possible to counterbalance the impact of climate change.<br/><br/>Several records of unidentified specimens of <em>Ceriagrion</em> are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece. These localities should be revisited and the identity of the species should be confirmed.<br/><br/>This species could easily become extinct in Europe in the next decade. Immediate action is needed.	eng
59700	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> has a relatively small range and occurs along a narrow coastal strip in the northern half of Israel, West Syria, southern Turkey and three Greek islands. Records of <em>Ceriagrion</em> from Lesvos and from continental Greece published as <em>C. tenellum</em> may refer to <em>C. georgifrey</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>. No voucher specimens are available for these records and new fieldwork needs to be undertaken to establish the identity of these populations. A record of <em>C. georgifreyi</em> from Niksar in north Turkey was reported by Schneider (1986) based on a series from the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. This population belongs to the northern limit of the species and may tentatively be recognized as valid, although a label error or a problem of homonymy in the locality name cannot be ruled out. In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands. From each of these islands only a single record is available:  Kerkyra (1971), Thasos (1997) and Zakynthos (1998) (Kalkman 2005).	eng
59700	distribution	Jović. M., 2007	<em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> occurs in the Greek islands (Thásos, Zákintos and Corfu), southern Turkey and Israel (occurring in a narrow strip along the Mediterranean coast). It has not yet been found in Lebanon, but is almost certain to occur there.	eng
59700	habitat	Jović. M., 2007	Seepages and small streams. This species is also recorded in swamp and marsh habitats.	eng
59700	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is poorly known and there are no detailed accounts on the habitats where the species is found. The habitat is described as small and shallow, both standing and slowly running waters (Kalkman <em><em>et al.</em> </em>2004). The habitat where breeding is assumed is heavily vegetated with spike-rush (<em>Eleocharis</em>) and lesser water-parsnip (<em>Berula erecta</em>). In Hope (2007) it is stated that 'It is found in small muddy brooks and larger brooks'. Based on the above and unpublished records the habitat can best be described as brooks, small runnels and seepages with rich aquatic vegetation.	eng
59700	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Europe the species is only known from three Greek islands were only a small number of specimens were collected. Information on the actual size of these populations is lacking. In Turkey the species is generally found in low densities in relatively small habitats. It is therefore likely that the European populations are small to very small.	eng
59700	population	Jović. M., 2007	Population size is not known. It is very scarce (after Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In the Middle East part of its range the population is known to have declined (W. Schneider pers. comm.).	eng
59700	threats	Jović. M., 2007	Habitat destruction is the main threat to the species. Potentially increased drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is a future threat. <em>Ceriagrion georgifreyi</em> is extremely localized, therefore increasing drought conditions can be a serious threat.	eng
59700	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The reproduction sites occupied by the species are generally small and easily destroyed by agricultural practises and building activities. Climate change resulting in the desiccation of the habitats is the main present and future threat, which will affect the species over its whole range. Presently only three European localities are known for this species. Information on these sites is very poor but probably all of them are very small. All of these sites can probably be destroyed by a single small event such as the construction of a house, increased intake of water or a very dry year. In order to prevent this species from becoming extinct immediate action is needed.	eng
59701	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Endemic to Mauritius.	eng
59701	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59702	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.	eng
59702	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Found along the Caspian coast in Azerbaijan and Iran (Dumont 2004, Dumont and Heidari 1996). Extension of range ill-known.	eng
59702	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Habitat includes shallow stagnant lakes and wetlands, as well as streamlets with abundant littoral vegetation.	eng
59702	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59702	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Only a small number of localities are known and might be threatened by developments of wetland along the Caspian coast.	eng
59703	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.	eng
59703	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Lohmann (1993) described this species from specimens from Iran (Istgah-e-Ezna, some 100 km east of Khorramabad). The western part of Iran has hardly been investigated odonatologically and it is likely that it is far more widespread than known. Might occur in East-Turkey and North-Iraq.	eng
59703	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Habitat is largely unknown. At the type location a larva was caught in standing, well-vegetated water.	eng
59703	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59703	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59704	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2004	Taxonomic status should be clarified. No direct conservation measures seem needed at present. Fieldwork is needed to establish the range of the species.	eng
59704	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2004	<em>Coenagrion vanbrinkae</em> was described on the basis of specimens from Turkey and Iran and was recently published for Armenia and Syria (Heideri and Dumont 2002, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Lohmann 1993, Schneider 2004, Tailly <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
59704	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2004	Well-vegetated seepages and small streams.	eng
59704	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2004	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59704	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2004	Probably declining due to habitat destruction.	eng
59705	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59705	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59705	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, may be expected in south east Nigeria as record of Porpacithemis sp. from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) pertains to this species.	eng
59705	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, may be expected in south east Nigeria as record of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porpacithemis </span>sp. from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon) pertains to this species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu); Eala; Flandria (Boteka); Kabongo; Bambesa; Busu Moto; Kisantu.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest (Cameroon). Record requires confirmation.	eng
59705	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Unknown but&#160; possibly present in swamp forest.	eng
59705	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown — possibly swamp forest.	eng
59705	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
59705	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59705	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
59705	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59706	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Forest preservation and control of water use are needed. At Delphi, a good understanding of the water pathway in karst-type mountain is required. The area of the Kastalian spring and brook should be efficiently closed. Any cleaning-out of the spring/brook should be discarded.	eng
59706	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Cordulegaster helladica</em> is endemic to southernmost parts of northern Greece, Peloponnesus Peninsula and Cyclades islands. Three weakly differentiated subspecies have been described, namely <em>Cordulegaster helladica helladica</em> from the Peloponnesus to Euboea island (an additional locality at Mount Olympus is doubtful), <em>C. h. buccholzi</em> from Naxos, Tinos and Andros islands, and <em>C. h. kastalia</em> from the Delphi archeological site. The area of occupancy is thought to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
59706	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Mountain brooks and spring areas.	eng
59706	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	A number of populations are still flourishing but some of the Cycades islands populations seem to now be extinct due to springs drying up. The population is severely fragmented.	eng
59706	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water harnessing for human use as well as forest fires. Cleaning-out of the sacred Kastalian spring at Delphi, the single known locality of the most yellow form. Over collection by Odonatologists in Delphi and the Cycades.	eng
59707	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Most known sites are publicly owned. In Florida, the species occurs in two state parks, a state preserve, two state forests, and a military base. In Georgia occurs in a state park and a military reservation.	eng
59707	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from 20 populations in Florida and southeastern Georgia comprising a total of 14 county counties.	eng
59707	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Silt-bottomed trickles in hardwood forest with weedy fields nearby (Dunkle and Westfall 1982).	eng
59707	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59707	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Housing and urban development.	eng
59708	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. There are currently no conservation measures targeting this species, but there is a need to preserve forests and control the water use.	eng
59708	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster trinacriae</em> is endemic to Sicily and southern Italy (Campania, Calabria and Basilicata); its northern limit is in Lazio where the species contacts or overlaps with <em>C. b. boltonii</em>. The northern limit of the species is still unclear (Boudot 2001, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005).	eng
59708	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is found in running waters from mountain brooks to large rivers.	eng
59708	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	About 60 localities have been reported for this species, some of which have been published under the closely related <em>C. boltonii</em>. Within its area of distribution it seems to be common and sometimes abundant on mainland Italy but it seems scarce on Sicily. However, some ancient localities have been obviously destroyed due to urbanization and water caption for human needs.	eng
59708	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species has been extirpated from some of its localities due to habitat destruction through deforestation and water extraction for human use. Global warming may lead to a strong reduction of the species in the future. The species occurs often in larger brooks and rivers. This fact decreases its vulnerability to desiccation due to climate change compared to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordulegaster</span> species from southeast Europe. .	eng
59709	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	A true knowledge of this species in the field is urgently needed.	eng
59709	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	South Caspian mountains (Elburz range) in Iran.	eng
59709	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Mountain brooks.	eng
59709	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	A single specimen in the NHMB collection is known (1971). No living animal is known.	eng
59709	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59710	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research required into population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.	eng
59710	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is only present in the highlands of north-east Ethiopia.	eng
59710	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but wetlands assumed.	eng
59710	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59710	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Declining water quality and habitat degradation are threats to the species.	eng
59711	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known. Research required into the population numbers and range of this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.	eng
59711	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is only present in the highlands of north-east Ethiopia.	eng
59711	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Not currently known.	eng
59711	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59711	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Declining water quality and habitat degradation are threats to the species.	eng
59712	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies needed to confirm range of distribution, establish population trends and possible threats to the species.	eng
59712	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Endemic to Jamaica.	eng
59712	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Areas with bromeliads. Larvae breed in water of bromeliad leaf axils and tolerate a wide range of physico-chemical conditions (Laessle 1961). Commonest in moist upland areas (Westfall and May 1996).	eng
59712	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59713	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	La Vega and Monseñor Nouel provinces in Dominican Republic.	eng
59713	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Larvae breed in water of bromeliad leaf axils. Commonest at middle-elevation areas (Westfall and May 1996), e.g., 1,000 m (Garrison 1986). Adults perch on bromeliads growing high on steep cliffs (Daigle 1993).	eng
59713	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59713	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Forest clearing.	eng
59714	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Further surveying away from the river is much needed all along the known extent of its occurrence to establish habitat preference and population status.	eng
59714	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Along lower Amazon River, Brazil. Much more restricted in distribution than the widespread <em>Heliocharis amazona</em>, the other species in this small and unusual family.	eng
59714	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Presumably rain-forest streams (more likely than Amazon itself).	eng
59714	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59714	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59715	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Conservation of the watershed is needed.	eng
59715	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is endemic to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, between 1,630 and 1,650 m asl. It is only known from three sites. It was previously only known  from three specimens collected at the “cascate del Piccolo Ghibiè  [waterfall of the small Gibe]” east of Jima. It was recently found by  Clausnitzer and Dijkstra (2005) in the Baro River (a broad, shallow and  clear river with a rocky bottom, some grassy and reedy borders and dense  gallery forest) and at a small muddy river in open farmland near  Bulbul. <em></em>	eng
59715	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams and rivers with grassy banks. <em>Elattoneura pasquinii</em> does not appear to have a narrow  ecological niche: it seems to avoid rocky streams, and may require some  grassy banks, but does not need forest cover. The altitude of all three  sites lies between 1,630 and 1,650 m asl.	eng
59715	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59715	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Water pollution, degradation of rivers and streams are threats to the species.	eng
59716	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	More data are required to be able to assess the conservation status of this species.	eng
59716	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Known only from the islands of Mahlos and Hulule (Maldives).	eng
59716	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Specific habitat is unknown.	eng
59716	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59716	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Threats to the species are unknown.	eng
59717	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been documented in any protected reserves and studies are needed in all aspects of its life history.	eng
59717	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Cuba (Isla de Juventud, Oriente, Pinar del Rio) and Jamaica (Manchester, St. Thomas, Trelawney); the following locations include collection notes:<br/>Jamaica: St. Thomas Parish, Bath (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: Trelawney Parish, Windsor Estate, "ca 12 mi S Falmouth" (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: Manchester Parish, Christiana, "1 mi S Villa Bella" (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Jamaica: St. Thomas Parish, Corn Puss Gap (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Pinar del Rio Province, San Diego de los Baños (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Pinar del Rio Province, Las Animas (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Isla de Pinos, Nueva Gerona (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000)<br/>Cuba: Oriente, Santiago de Cuba (D. R. Paulson collection, ex University Michigan Museum of Zoology)	eng
59717	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. bromeliicola</em> occurs in tropical forest although the size of forest stand is really not known. Breeds in standing water in bromeliads.	eng
59717	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size of <em>E. bromeliicola</em> is unknown but suspected to be small and scattered. Bormeliad breeders are always quite rare in comparison with species that have their larval stage in open water. On the other hand, they may be more generally distributed if in habitats with abundant bromeliads.	eng
59717	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Due to the nature of <em>E. bromeliicola</em> breeding requirements (standing water in bromeliads), deforestation of this special habitat is always going to be a threat but it is unknown as to what level this threat is affecting the species.	eng
59718	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	United States (two counties in Texas), and Mexico (south to San Luis Potosi).	eng
59718	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Muddy canal-like channels and clear, spring fed deep rivers.	eng
59718	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59719	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Fieldwork is needed in order to establish the exact limits of its range and the status within its range.	eng
59719	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	The holotype of this species is a male collected at Khanagin, Alwand River, Iraq. The only other known record is a male from about 50 km South East of Khoramabad, Iran (Lohmann 1992). The accessory genitalia of a male <em>G. davidi</em> from Dohok, N Iraq, as reported by Asahina (1973), are similar to those of <em>G. kinzelbachi</em>, which led Schneider (1984) to conclude that this specimen in fact pertains to this species. If this is true, <em>G. kinzelbachi</em> is likely also to occur in the mountainous area of South East Turkey (Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
59719	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Found at large rivers.	eng
59719	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Known only from two records.	eng
59719	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Range could be fairly limited and species could be threatened by activities such as grind mining or damming projects (Kalkman 2004).	eng
59720	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The type locality is protected in the frame of Horton Plains National Park but  no exhaustive faunistic surveys have been made in order to evaluate the species' conservation status. <br/> <br/>General guidelines for protection of endemic dragonfly fauna in mountain regions of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas; and (3) renaturation/conversion of alochthonous forests in the wider surroundings of streams. <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka montane rain forests (IM0155)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59720	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Sri Lanka.	eng
59720	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The type specimen originates from wet and dense low forest. The species most probably inhabits small streams in dense montane forests.	eng
59720	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Only known from the type locality (Horton Plains, Nuwara Eliya District). The species may already be extinct.	eng
59720	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat is under great pressure due to water extraction, pollution and destruction of natural montane forest. The appropriate natural habitats in Nuwara Eliya region were heavily damaged and fragmented recent decades. <br/> <br/>Destruction of primary montane forests, planting of alochthonous tree species forest plantations, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution, water extraction and other pressures on streams and upper courses of rivers in the montane central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for endemic dragonfly fauna of the region.	eng
59721	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart of general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59721	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Sri Lanka. Known only from the type locality (Madugoda near Urugalla, Kandy District).	eng
59721	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.	eng
59721	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species may already be extinct.	eng
59721	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are major threats for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59722	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential area of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in  WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59722	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only known from the type locality (Passara, Uva Province).	eng
59722	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species inhabits small streams and springs in primary rainforest.	eng
59722	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species may already be extinct.	eng
59722	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Even at the time of its description the appropriate habitats in the wider surroundings of Passara were very scarce and fragmented. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threat for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59723	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59723	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Sri Lanka. Known from type locality (Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District) and Balangoda (Ratnapura District).	eng
59723	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	As the rest of the congeners the species inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.  Larval form unknown.	eng
59723	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct. Only two males and one female are known.	eng
59723	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. The wider area of type locality was completely changed in last century, but the species is also known from Ratnapura District so its original area of occurrence has obviously not been so small.<br/>Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).	eng
59724	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in  WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59724	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
59724	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	As for the genus, the species probably inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.	eng
59724	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The type locality is unknown (described only as "Ceylon"), however it has been recorded from Haputale, Uva Province. The species has not been recorded for over 70 years and may already be extinct.	eng
59724	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. <br/> <br/>Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59725	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines, no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59725	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
59725	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	As for the genus, the species probably inhabits small streams and springs in dense jungle.	eng
59725	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Known only from the type locality (Kandy, Kandy District). The species may already be extinct.	eng
59725	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59726	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	General guidelines for protection of endemic dragonfly fauna in mountain regions of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors, (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas and (3) renaturation/conversion of alochthonous (foreign) forests in the wider surroundings of streams (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka montane rain forests (IM0155)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59726	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only type locality known (Nuwara Eliya, Nuwara Eliya District). Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA), Lund University (Sweden) and University of Vienna (Austria)) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
59726	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits small streams in dense montane forests.  Larval form unknown.	eng
59726	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct.	eng
59726	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure due to water extraction, pollution and destruction of natural montane forest. The appropriate natural habitats in Nuwara Eliya region were heavily damaged and fragmented in the last decades.&#160; Destruction of primary montane forests, planting of alochthonous (foreign) tree species for forest plantations, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution, water extraction and other pressures on streams and upper courses of rivers in mountainous central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for endemic dragonfly fauna of the region.	eng
59727	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	United States (known from two counties in New Mexico and Texas) and Mexico (Chihuahua).	eng
59727	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Rivers with mixed rock and sand substrate, generally at elevations above 1,000 m (Needham <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59727	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59727	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59728	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is listed on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Control of water quality throughout the species' range and the establishment of reserves is needed.	eng
59728	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is endemic from the southwest of Europe, where it occurs in France, Spain and Portugal. This species is known from an area of about 140,000 km² in France and is scattered over 372,000 km² in Iberia (and mostly over 172,000 km², the other 200,000 km² bearing only two localities). In Iberia, the species remains rare despite its recent discovery at several sites in Portugal (Malkmus 2002, Lohr 2005) and Valencia in 2006 (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
59728	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The preferred habitat of this species are slow-flowing streams.	eng
59728	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is endemic to Spain, Portugal and France. In south and west France, the species is rather common in eight departments only, rare in 12, and extinct in four. It is scattered and very rare in Spain and Portugal. The species is rather common only over 51,000 km² in France, from the lower Rhone river to the Charente-Maritime department via the southern edge of the Massif Central.  It is rare to extinct elsewhere in France and in the west of central France it is much more scarce than one century ago, due to pollution and river management. In these areas the species is threatened with extinction or already extinct. Strong variations in densities are noticed from year to year.	eng
59728	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Its main problems with respect to its survival lies in water pollution and stream structure changes, and also in summer drought, which occurred more and more frequently and durably in recent years, with drying of many rivers and relative increase in pollution. Good populations in France occur in three riverine systems. In Iberia there are no records of large populations.	eng
59729	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously, the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59729	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Sri Lanka; only the type locality is known (Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District). The species might be already extinct. Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle, Switzerland, National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution, USA Lund University, Sweden and University of Vienna, Austria - museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
59729	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Exact habitat unknown, as for the genus it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).  Male and larval form undescribed.	eng
59729	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct. Described from a single female, 130 years ago.	eng
59729	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The wider area of the type locality was completely changed in last century. Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under treat.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
59730	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59730	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known only from the type locality (Haldummulla).	eng
59730	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Exact habitat is unknown, but, as for the genus, it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).	eng
59730	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species may already be extinct.	eng
59730	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59731	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to  work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59731	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka. The type locality is unknown (described only as "Ceylon").	eng
59731	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Exact habitat is unknown, but, as for the genus, it probably inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest (known habitat of related <em>H. walli</em>).	eng
59731	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species may already be extinct.	eng
59731	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central parts of Sri Lanka are the major threats for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59732	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Efforts should be made to relocate this species, which was collected in 1957, and to determine its preferred habitat. Presumably it also occurs in adjacent Colombia, but this must be confirmed.	eng
59732	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Southern Venezuela.	eng
59732	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Unknown, but probably lowland rain forest.	eng
59732	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59732	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Unknown. Perhaps deforestation, but much forest remains intact in this region.	eng
59733	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Studies needed to establish area of distribution, habitat, biology, population trends and possible threats	eng
59733	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Amazonas state in Venezuela (Rácenis 1968, de Marmels 1997).	eng
59733	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes small rivers and backwater creeks in lowland forest (Rácenis 1968). Larva unknown.	eng
59733	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	No data is available on this species due to lack of sampling effort.	eng
59733	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
59734	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, biology, trends, and analyse threats.	eng
59734	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Valle del Cauca department in Colombia (Ris 1918, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
59734	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Type collected on 'rushing mountain brook' (Ris 1918), no further information on habitat available; female and larva unknown.	eng
59734	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
59734	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
59735	conservation	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
59735	distribution	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Endemic to Australia.	eng
59735	habitat	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Rainforest.	eng
59735	population	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Known only from one specimen collected from Mount Lewis, North East Queensland.	eng
59735	threats	Hawking, J. & Theischinger, G., 2006	Forest clearing.	eng
59736	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several preserves in south Texas although the status of the Mexican populations are unknown; research regarding population numbers and range are needed.	eng
59736	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in two provinces in Mexico and one state in the United States of America.<br/>More detail on locations as follows:<br/>Texas: Kleberg County, King Ranch, Santa Gertrudis Creek (Abbott 2004)<br/>Texas: Hidalgo County, Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge (M. Reid, pers. comm. 2005)<br/>Texas: Hidalgo County, McAllen Nature Center (M. Reid, pers. comm., 2005)<br/>Mexico: Jalisco, Estación Biología Chamela (Gonzalez-Soriano 2002)<br/>Mexico: Oaxaca, N of La Soledad (Gonzalez-Soriano 2002)<br/>Records lie on both sides of the Mexican cordillera.	eng
59736	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in shaded pools in slow-flowing streams or forested ponds, all with herbaceous vegetation, especially tall grasses. Not obviously present when these areas dry up but presumably adapted to seasonal wetlands as are its congeners.	eng
59736	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Small populations of <em>L. melinogaster</em> are found in Texas and it probably occurs at more locations than are known. Thought to occurs at more locations than the two in Oaxaca and Jalisco in Mexico.	eng
59736	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Drought could be the biggest threat, yet its breeding habitats dried completely one year and it did not disappear from its known location at the King Ranch in Texas. Another breeding habitat dried out in Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge, yet a population was found the following season when the pond refilled. The adults are likely a relatively long-lived dispersal stage.	eng
59737	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat protection is required through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, and trends and monitoring of the species would also be valuable.	eng
59737	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Lestes numidicus</em> is a recently described species from eastern Algeria (Samraoui and Corbet 2000a). It is possible that it may be found in Tunisia, but it has not been recorded there so far.	eng
59737	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	The species aestivates at high altitude refuge sites (cork oak forests) before moving down to breed in October (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).	eng
59737	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant but with an apparent restricted range.	eng
59737	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Forest fires, and degradation and drainage of wetland areas are known threats to the species.	eng
59738	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future, special attention should be devoted to work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out.  <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59738	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
59738	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	As for the genus the species probably inhabits rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.	eng
59738	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Known only from the type locality (Uggalkaltota, Ratnapura District). The species may already be extinct.	eng
59738	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Type of habitat under threat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59739	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to establish population trends and evaluate threats.	eng
59739	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states in Brazil.	eng
59739	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Atlantic rain forest. The species breeds in small pools of water in tree holes (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
59739	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59739	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59740	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forest by state and federal management.	eng
59740	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Endemic to the island of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
59740	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Upland ridges and wet forest.	eng
59740	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Feral ungulates, ants.	eng
59741	conservation	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Protection of forest by state management.	eng
59741	distribution	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Known from the islands of Maui and Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.	eng
59741	habitat	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Upland ridges and wet forest.	eng
59741	threats	Polhemus, D.A., 2006	Feral ungulates; ants; drought.	eng
59742	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59742	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The species is known from western Angola and Mwinilunga district of northwest Zambia. In Zambia, only two females have been recorded (Pinhey 1984a) but these have been re-identified as <em>Aethiothemis basilewskyi</em> (Dijkstra and Vick 2006).	eng
59742	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The species is known from wooded plateaus in Angola but no exact description of the aquatic habitat is available.	eng
59742	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59742	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59743	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Some populations are presumably protected in the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park in the northeast, but no formal protection is given in the Cockpit Country to the west, where an isolated population occurs. Search for the species in all mountainous areas are urgent, as well as estimates of population size and trends; also extent of appropriate habitat needs to be established. Finally, possibility of occurrence on Hispaniola needs to be confirmed or refuted. All single-island endemics in West Indies are considered at risk.	eng
59743	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species was previously found in the Blue Mountains in Jamaica but has since been found in the Blake Mountains after an investigation through museum collections.  Range now includes: Portland, St. Andrew, St. Mary, St. Thomas, Trelawney.<br/>From the collection notes on a 1960s specimen in D. Paulson collection: "Trelawney Par., Windsor Estate, 12 mi S Falmouth".	eng
59743	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Known habitat is lowland to mid-elevation forest for this species.	eng
59743	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available for <em>H. clara</em>.	eng
59743	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Continued threats include deforestation and ground-water extraction, both very likely to negatively impact <em>H. clara</em> on a relatively small island with a high population density, plus much of known range has already been deforested. However, threats may be alleviated recently by establishment of a national park protecting essential watershed for lowland communities including around Kingston, Jamaica.	eng
59744	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for the species in other parts of Cuba and estimates of population size and trends are urgent. Also, the extent of appropriate habitat needs to be established. Extensive distribution in Sierra Maestra probably affords protection at this time. Finally, the possibility of occurrence on Hispaniola needs to be confirmed. All single-island endemics in West Indies probably at risk.	eng
59744	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Central and eastern Cuba, but perhaps also occurs in Hispaniola.	eng
59744	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Forested streams of mountains and adjacent lowlands (50–1,250 m).	eng
59744	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59744	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59745	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
59745	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Neoneura carnatica</em> has been found in the following locations in Cuba:<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Sora (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Rangel (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Habana, Güines (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Habana, Marianao (Westfall 1964)	eng
59745	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found at small forest streams with pools and clean water (Alayo 1968).	eng
59745	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Population numbers and trend are unknown for <em>N. carnatica</em>.	eng
59745	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a serious environmental threat throughout the West Indies and is affecting this species also. Extent of recent deforestation on Cuba remains unknown but is thought to be substantial. The Cuban environment has been severely altered in the almost 50 years of the present regime (http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/enviromental.crisis.html).<br/><br/>There is an indication that no primary forest remains but there is much modified natural forest (presumably selectively logged; http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Cuba.htm)	eng
59746	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Estimates of population size and trends are urgent. Extent of appropriate habitat also needs to be established.	eng
59746	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Endemic to Cuba.	eng
59746	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
59746	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59746	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59747	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to estimate population density and trends, and to confirm the species' presence in protected areas and establish category of threat.	eng
59747	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Metropolitana, Bío-Bío, Araucanía and De Los Lagos Regions in Chile, and western strip of Neuquen province in Argentina.	eng
59747	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Spring seeps, silt-bottomed pools of small forest streams and seepage areas.	eng
59747	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59747	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Habitat modification through introduced deforestation, dams, water pollution, for livestock and domestic use.	eng
59748	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Mwali (Comoro Islands).	eng
59748	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59748	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59749	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59749	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Nesolestes pauliani</em> is known from Mwali, Comoro Archipelago.	eng
59749	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
59749	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59749	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59750	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Canada (New Brunswick, and three occurrences in Ontario), and the United States (Maine).	eng
59750	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Clean medium to large forested rivers (Dunkle 2000).	eng
59750	population	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Current population size is unknown. It is a widespread species and appears to be abundant in Maine and New Brunswick (P.M. Brunelle, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
59750	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59751	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	East coastal region of Suriname.	eng
59751	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Gallery forests, adults occasionally flying down to low bank vegetation of sand-bottomed streams.	eng
59751	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59751	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59752	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59752	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The species is occurs in north west Zambia and neighbouring regions of Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola are likely.<br/><br/>No current records from within the central Africa assessment region are available. Neighbouring regions of Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola are poorly explored. Therefore the species may prove to be more widespread than currently known. More data are needed to be able to assess the true status of the species.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known only from five records in two localities from Mwinilunga district, north-west Zambia, at fast streams of the upper Zambezi catchment (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59752	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Fast streams or waterfalls.	eng
59752	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59752	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No information available.	eng
59753	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Since the species appears to be a specialist of rapids and cataracts, these habitats should be protected from destruction. More data should also be gathered on range and current population status.	eng
59753	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is known from the Zambezi River, from Katima Mulilo (Namibia) to the rapids downstream Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe, Zambia), and one Zambezi River tributary (Pinhey 1984, Suhling <em>et al</em>. in press). Also from the Okavango River at Popa Falls in Namibia, and from the Kunene River at Epupa Falls in Namibia (Suhling <em>et al</em>. in press), and therefore is most likely also occur in Angola. The majority of the global range falls within the southern Africa region, however there is also one locality recorded from the Congo River basin in northern Zambia (Pinhey 1984a). All known localities are from rapids or waterfalls.	eng
59753	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Large river cataracts and rapids. The larval stage occurs in sandy patches in rapids.	eng
59753	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown, but records are only of single specimens at one time and place, therefore the species may be rare.	eng
59753	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Human-induced habitat loss is the main inferred threat. Plans for dam construction for hydroelectric power plans at cataracts are a potential threat (e.g., at Epupa Falls and Popa Falls).	eng
59754	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable	eng
59754	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is known only from two localities from the middle Zambezi River, Zambia: Victoria Falls and Chirundu Bridge. The only known records are both old, with the species last being seen in 1962. At least one record is below Lake Kariba.	eng
59754	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Found in and around rivers.	eng
59754	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59754	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available but the species may be threatened by the impoundment of large parts of the Zambezi River system (Lake Kariba).	eng
59755	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59755	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59755	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59755	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59755	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available.	eng
59755	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Uganda and Malawi no precise locality is known.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to western Africa.	eng
59755	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi to South Africa and Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon; for Equatorial Guinea and Zambia is assumed.	eng
59755	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to Senegal.	eng
59755	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia; the record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation, and for Equatorial Guinea presence is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi; for Uganda and Malawi no precise locality is known. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in the tropical north and not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. So far it has not been recorded from Angola or Mozambique. This is most probably due to the species' crepuscular behaviour. In South Africa it is a highly localised species known only from Richards Bay (Pinhey 1985) and Sodwana Bay, but it is also likely to occur at Kosi Bay (Samways pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
59755	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species occurs in the tropical north and not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. So far it has not been recorded from Angola or Mozambique. This is most probably due to the species' crepuscular behaviour. In South Africa it is a highly localised species known only from Richards Bay (Pinhey 1985) and Sodwana Bay, but it is also likely to also occur at Kosi Bay (Samways 2006). Globally, the species has been recorded from Uganda, Malawi and north Botswana to West Africa.	eng
59755	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Standing water in or near forest.	eng
59755	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Standing water in or near forest.	eng
59755	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Standing water in or near forest. In South Africa the species is confined to coastal swap (Samways 2006).	eng
59755	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Standing water in or near trees, often forest.	eng
59755	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is know from standing waters in or near forest. In South Africa it is confined to coastal swamp (Samways pers. comm.).	eng
59755	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
59755	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59755	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59755	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59755	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59755	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59755	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59755	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the species' range. Tree removal through urbanisation at Richards Bay and from small-farmer agriculture at Sodwana Bay threaten the population in South Africa (Samways 2006).	eng
59755	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59755	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the to the population in South Africa are forest destruction in central and eastern Africa, and tree removal through urbanisation at Richards Bay and from small-farmer agriculture at Sodwana Bay&#160; (Samways pers. comm.). No information is available about threats outside this region.	eng
59756	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Urgent studies are needed to evaluate the threats and determine the species' biology and population trends.	eng
59756	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Central Chile, in the Metropolitana Region.	eng
59756	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Streams, springs, and steep-sloped and spring seeps where females oviposit.	eng
59756	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59756	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Destruction of habitat by diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, mining, grazing, and recreational development.	eng
59757	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Urgent studies are needed to evaluate the threats, determine distribution area, presence in protected areas, biology, and population densities and trends.	eng
59757	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Endemic to central Chile, in the Metropolitana and Maule Regions.	eng
59757	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Streams, springs, and steep-sloped and spring seeps where females oviposit.	eng
59757	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59757	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Destruction of habitat by diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, mining, grazing, and recreational development.	eng
59758	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Populations in northern and western parts of range very likely threatened by human activity; eastern and southern populations protected by presence in natural parks (i.e. Parques Nacionales Tolhuaca, Lanín, Nahuel Huapi, Los Alerces; Muzón and von Ellenrieder 1999).	eng
59758	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in central third of Chile, in Metropolitana, Bío-Bío, Araucania, and De Los Lagos regions, and western portion of Neuquen, Rio Negro and Chubut provinces in Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
59758	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Upper end of small forested stream valleys. Carle (1996) indicated that larvae are typically found in streams less than 50 cm wide, under rocks and logs, wet or submerged. Larvae remain undescribed. Carle (1996) also reported that the majority of specimens of this species were collected while flying in a slightly undulating fashion at 0.3-1.5 m along forest paths near the upper end of small forested stream valleys. According to G. Fleck (pers. comm. 2004) the species flies only while the sun is shining; he observed male flight as linear, somewhat undulating vertically, rather fast and unidirectional over small rapid mountain streams, and one female flying rather fast, with some zigzags, 2-2.5 m above the stream, in a circular path returning to the same point after a few seconds. Known flight period extends from November to February (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
59758	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species appears to be common as it is found in over 20 locations.	eng
59758	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Mining, grazing, recreational development, diversion of streams and springs for irrigation, and deforestation (Carle 2005).	eng
59759	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Likely present in at least one natural protected area (Parque Nacional Chiloé); surveys necessary to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and confirm presence within protected areas.	eng
59759	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in central third of Chile, from Valparaiso Region south through Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucania to De Los Lagos Region (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
59759	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Small forest streams; flight recorded as slow and close to water surface, following narrow streams within forest (Jurzitza 1989); feeding flight observed during late afternoon over pasture lands (Dunkle 1985). Flight period extends from October to February based on collection data. The description of the larva by Schmidt (1941), so far the only one known for the genus, was based on specimens collected at "Comudes", and was presumed to belong to that species by association with adults collected at the same locality. I was unable to find out the exact location of Comudes in Chile, but I still consider the identity of the described larvae as tentative, since <em>Phyllopetalia apollo</em>, <em>P. pudu</em> and <em>P. stictica</em> are sympatric and the described larvae could belong to any of these three species (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
59759	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Although known from ten locations, the habitat of this species is fragmented and further research is needed to understand the global population.	eng
59759	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat alteration by fish introduction, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use (Carle 1996).	eng
59760	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
59760	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59760	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from 2 localities in north west  Zambia (near Ikelenge, Isombo River in Mwinilunga province; both outside the central Africa region) and 1 locality from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59760	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species is known only from three specimens from two localities in the Upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia, and one from one locality from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga).	eng
59760	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, probably riverine.	eng
59760	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown, probably riverine.	eng
59760	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59760	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59760	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59760	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown but deforestation may be a potential threat.	eng
59761	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Confirmation of population size and trends is needed. Also, the stability of available habitat should be monitored.	eng
59761	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Hispaniola.	eng
59761	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Open rocky streams and rivers.	eng
59761	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59761	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Diversion of water for human use.	eng
59762	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Confirmation of population size and trends is needed. Also, the stability of habitat should be monitored and more subpopulations should be sought.	eng
59762	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Hispaniola.	eng
59762	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Streams, perhaps restricted to higher elevations (680 m).	eng
59762	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59762	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Diversion of water for human uses.	eng
59763	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to rediscover species, to establish its distribution range, habitat preferences, describe its biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
59763	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from male holotype, from Loreto department, Peru (Selys 1889).	eng
59763	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; habitat, female and larva are unknown.	eng
59763	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
59763	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
59764	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
59764	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Protoneura capillaris</em> has been recorded from Cuba:<br/>- Oriente, Maffo (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Santiago de Cuba, Cuabitas (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Santiago de Cuba, Puerto de Boniato (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Pinar del Rio, Sora (Alayo 1968)<br/>- Las Villas, near Cienfuegos (Westfall 1964)	eng
59764	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preferences are ponds and pools in woodland stream (Westfall 1964)	eng
59764	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. capillaris</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
59764	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation, a serious environmental threat throughout the West Indies, is a continuing threat; the extent of recent deforestation on Cuba is unknown but is thought to be substantial. The Cuban environment has been severely altered in the almost 50 years of the present regime (http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/enviromental.crisis.html).  There is an indication that no primary forest remaining but the majority is modified natural forest, presumably selectively logged (http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Cuba.htm).	eng
59765	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. sanguinipes</em> is not known to occur in any protected area. Further monitoring of known populations and the search for new ones is advised.	eng
59765	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Dominican Republic and has been recorded from Dajabón, Distrito Nacional and Maria Trinidad Sánchez.	eng
59765	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been found on one lowland stream, details not known. It is known to have a habit of ovipositing in sedges, rather than floating detritus (Westfall 1987), which is very unusual behaviour for <em>Protoneura</em>.	eng
59765	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. sanguinipes</em> has been found in numbers in at least one location.	eng
59765	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Continued threats include deforestation in all of its forms and crop farming, including wood plantations.  There is no evidence in the literature to indicate whether forest is an essential habitat to this species, but it seems to be for most protoneurids.	eng
59766	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality running waters.	eng
59766	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Endemic of southwestern Arabia in the high costal mountains of the Red Sea, and in western Yemen.	eng
59766	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	High mountain streams.	eng
59766	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59766	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (e.g., drainage, over irrigation, pollution).	eng
59767	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
59767	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59767	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from two localities in east Angola (Lutchigena River, east of Caianda) and southwest Zambia (Luapala River at Kasomeno), both in the Zambezi River catchment.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Gabon, and Kasomeno on the Middle Luapula River in Democratic Republic of Congo, close to the border with Zambia. Potentially present within the central Africa part of Angola.	eng
59767	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Kasomeno, on the Middle Luapula River, in Zambia close to the border with the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from records from two widely spread localities in east Angola (Lutchigena River, east of Caianda) and southwest Zambia (Luapala River at Kasomeno), both in the Zambezi River catchment. It may have a wider distribution, but there are no data available to confirm this at present. It is a species that is easily overlooked.	eng
59767	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Both records are from forested swamps.	eng
59767	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Both records are from forested swamps.	eng
59767	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59767	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59767	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59767	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown.	eng
59768	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection is needed, as well as research into the species population numbers and range.	eng
59768	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southern highlands, from former Kaffa province to the Bale Mountains, ranging between 1,700 and 2,600 m asl.	eng
59768	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forested, rocky streams with some open stretches.	eng
59768	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59768	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction is a threat to this species.	eng
59769	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Protection of forest habitat is needed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59769	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is restricted to the Vumba Mountains, eastern Zimbabwe. It has been recorded only from two sites (cf. Pinhey 1984a). It has not been collected again since 1957 (Pinhey 1984a). However, at least the Vumba mountains have been surveyed since then by Odonata specialists (most recently in 1997 by Paulson) and it has not been recorded.	eng
59769	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in montane bush or forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59769	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59769	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Potential threats are deforestation, alien invasive trees, and alien invasive predatory fish (e.g., trout). Deforestation is inferred to be a threat to the species, based on general deforestation occurring in the region.	eng
59770	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no national conservation effort directed to species at this time. A local group is currently engaged in the conservation of the species’ habitat. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that the species is still present at the site where it was originally discovered. It is extremely important to protect the remaining habitat at the only other site where this species occurs (Kawasan River) and to monitor the population there.	eng
59770	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Risiocnemis seidenschwarzi</span> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Cebu Island. Previously the species was known only from a small section of a woody stream in Tabunan Forest, central Cebu, but that population may now be extinct. However, another population has been identified in the southern part of Cebu island (Kawasan  River), on a very small rivulet beside Kawasan  River, in a maximum area of 30x30 m on this 12 km river (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009). Searches of other areas on the island have not revealed this species, despite the presence of suitable habitat (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).	eng
59770	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species has been recorded from a stream and a small rivulet, both in forested areas.	eng
59770	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species was last recorded in Tabunan Forest in March 2001, and since then no further sighting has been noted there. The population beside Kawasan  River appears to be stable (although further population studies are required to confirm this), with a usual count of 5–15 individuals per day for five days observation during November 2007, March 2009, and August 2009 (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).	eng
59770	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Forest clearance occurred at the Tabunan Forest site in 2000 and since then the only known habitat for the species in this area has deteriorated. Habitat deterioration is also occurring in Kawasan area. Almost all the forests on Cebu have been cleared and many brooks are now degraded. Human settlement is the main factor that has resulted in at least one population of <em>Risiocnemis seidenschwarzi</em> becoming extinct.	eng
59771	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Central coastal cordillera in Venezuela.	eng
59771	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Rocky, dark canyons in cloud forest. Found on steep rocks, with dense cover of <em>Dicranopygium</em> species (Cyclanthaceae), kept wet by seeping water.	eng
59771	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Current population trend is unknown.	eng
59771	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Habitat retreat by clearing of forest for coffee and citrus plantations, forest fires, seeps and small streams disappearing (De Marmels 1999).	eng
59772	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known localities situated in a protected area (Parque Nacional Peninsula de Paria). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.	eng
59772	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in eastern coastal cordillera in the Paria Peninsula of Venezuela (de Marmels 1994).	eng
59772	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes sombre, steep slopes which border rocky streams in cloud forest, larvae between rocks and leaf litter (de Marmels 1994).	eng
59772	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species occurs in a very small area and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
59772	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat is retreating by clearing of forest for coffee and citrus plantations; forest fires; seeps and small streams disappearing (de Marmels 1999).	eng
59773	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59773	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Only type locality is known: Rambode, Nuwara Eliya District.&#160; The species might be already extinct. Not present in any of the large odonatological collections from the island made by entomologist (not odonatologists!) in last 50 years (Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA), Lund University (Sweden) and University of Vienna (Austria)) Museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009. Also not found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
59773	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Habitat unknown.  Only type male and female are known, larval form unknown.	eng
59773	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, possibly extinct.	eng
59773	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The wider area of type locality was completely changed in last century. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).	eng
59774	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Necessary conservation actions are the control of water pollution, removal of conifer plantations and restoration of deciduous forests combined with the creation or maintenance of non-wooded sunny areas, particularly in the bottom of valleys. Conservation of clear riparian forests, traditionally induced by extensive rearing of goats and sheep, is required, as well as conservation of riverine trees. Two rivers inhabited by this species are included in the Greek national Dadia Protected Area buffer zone.	eng
59774	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora borisi</em> is a recently discovered species. Based on current knowledge of the species (Marinov 2001, Grebe <em>et al</em>. 2005, Boudot <em>et al</em>. 2004, Lopau 2005, Fleck <em>et al</em>. 2007) it is a strict endemic of the eastern Balkans occurring in the area that crosses the borders of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey. All 17 known inhabited stream systems fall within a 13,750 km² area within both the Eastern Rhodopes and the northern and southern foot-slopes of the Istranca range, the latter being an eastern continuity of the Rhodopes range. This area has a hot and humid climate and has much forest cover, which is used both for wood production and traditional extensive rearing of goats and sheep. A number of valleys, when not planted with conifers, are well preserved and have a great entomological and botanical richness.	eng
59774	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main habitat are forest rivers at places with low current and below 300 m above sea level. Larvae are able to survive the drought summer period in disconnected residual pools in river beds. However, the species does not reproduce in standing water.	eng
59774	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Seventeen stream systems are presently known to be inhabited by this species. Based on exuviae collections, counting and extrapolation during and after emergence of adults, the species seems relatively abundant in some places (100-500), and relatively reduced in others (less than 50). A rough extrapolation estimates less than 10,000 adults per year.	eng
59774	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Most of the forest areas where this species occurs are currently extensively used for traditional rearing of goats and sheep, which result in a number of clearing areas. However, intensive conifer plantations have been grown in the past and such monospecific forest areas seem to be unfavourable for <em>S. borisi</em>. Monospecific plantations of <em>Robinia pseudacacia</em> are now developed on abandoned agricultural fields, which may reduce the availability of maturation and foraging areas. Additional conifer plantations, water pollution and stream drying in relation to global warming and abnormal summer drought may be a threat for this species in the future. As early as end July 2008, Greek localities visited showed only disconnected residual pools with no flowing water at all. With drought periods increasing in intensity, length and frequency, the species is at risk of extinction.	eng
59775	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution area, habitat preferences, biology and trends, and to determine threats.	eng
59775	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Andean forest in Napo Pastaza province in Ecuador and Junin department in Peru (Kennedy 1940).	eng
59775	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in forest; habitat requirements and larva unknown.	eng
59775	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
59775	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
59776	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	More research into taxonomy of this species would be valuable.	eng
59776	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59776	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
59776	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59776	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
59777	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, threats, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59777	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo only, listing for Nigeria must pertain to <em>P. serrulatum</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Bambesa (Uele).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species has only been recorded from Nigeria but this record is thought to belong to <em>P. serrulatum</em>.	eng
59777	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
59777	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Current population size is unknown.	eng
59777	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	None known at present.	eng
59778	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart from general conservation guidelines no site specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor. In future, special attention should be devoted to work on taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding habitat and potential extent of occurrence, the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
59778	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Sri Lanka. Rare species. Recently known from only few localities in southwestern and central part of the island.	eng
59778	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	It inhabits small jungle pools along rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.	eng
59778	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Population size is unknown, but believed to be small and fragmented.	eng
59778	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Available habitat is under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threats for the exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
59779	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59779	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59779	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59779	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available. Further searches for the species would help to confirm its range.	eng
59779	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59779	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	At global level, the species is present from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and West Africa; though has not been recorded yet, it is assumed to occur in Tanzania as well.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is recorded from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, there are records in Kenya, Tanzania (assumed), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay, Lake Malawi (Malawi); Budongo Forest or Murchinson National Park and Mabamba Bay, Lake Victoria (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it is known from the north-east (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). <br/><br/>In western Africa, it was recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. It was listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003).	eng
59779	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay, L. Malawi (Malawi); Budongo Forest or Murchinson National Park and  Mabamba Bay, L. Victoria (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and western Africa; though not recorded yet, it is assumed to occur in Tanzania as well.	eng
59779	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau. Listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003). Although not recorded there yet, it is assumed that the species also occurs in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia.	eng
59779	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. Listed for Senegal by Legrand (2003).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59779	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, the species is known from the northeast (Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique). Globally, it is recorded from Zimbabwe and Mozambique to Uganda and West Africa. It is assumed to occur in Tanzania.	eng
59779	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It lives in swampy streams and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59779	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy or grassy swamp, or swampy  pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59779	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy streams and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59779	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy streams and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59779	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy streams and pools in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59779	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Its population size is unknown.	eng
59779	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Like most <em>Aciagrion</em>, this species seems to be very local.	eng
59779	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59779	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59779	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59779	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59779	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59779	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59779	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available from much of its range.	eng
59779	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59781	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59781	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59781	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59781	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59781	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population and range is required.	eng
59781	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Burundi, and various records from Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique, likely to occur in Kenya as well.	eng
59781	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique), but from western Africa (west to Guinea) as well: confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> There are no records from Central Africa, but occurrence in appropriate habitats likely.	eng
59781	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mocambique), but from western Africa (west to Gambia) as well: confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.	eng
59781	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique, likely to occur in Kenya as well. Most records are from eastern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, Burundi), but a few are from western Africa (west to Guinea) as well. Confusion with <em>A. hamoni</em> must be resolved.<br/><br/>Within southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north. It may occur in the Caprivi, but it has not yet been recorded here. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present from Gambia, Cote D'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br/><br/>It has not been found in central Africa, but occurrence in appropriate habitats likely.	eng
59781	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north. It may occur in the Caprivi, but it has not yet been recorded here. Globally, it has been recorded from north Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique. It is likely to also occur in Kenya.	eng
59781	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy streams and pools.	eng
59781	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy streams and pools.	eng
59781	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy streams and pools.	eng
59781	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy streams and pools.	eng
59781	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy streams and pools.	eng
59781	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size or trends are unknown.	eng
59781	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59781	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59781	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59781	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59781	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown, although drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are potential threats.	eng
59781	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59781	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59781	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59781	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59782	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59782	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59782	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59782	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59782	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and L. Nabugabo (both Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to Ivory Coast.	eng
59782	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from a female holotype from western Cote d'Ivoire and its association with a male from north-east Congo-Kinshasa is dubious. western African records of this and the similar <em>A. gracile</em> must be reviewed as they may pertain to the same species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The records for Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo need confirmation.	eng
59782	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cote d'Ivoire, Benin and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The holotype from Cote d'Ivoire is associated with male from north east Democratic Republic of Congo: similar males seen by assessor from Benin. It is also reported from Ghana.	eng
59782	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Recorded from western Africa (Benin and Cote d'Ivoire) and Uganda. Record from Ghana likely. Records for Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo need confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is described from a female holotype from western Cote d'Ivoire and its association with a male from north-east Congo-Kinshasa is dubious.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Lake Nabugabo (both Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cote d'Ivoire, Benin and Ghana. However, western African records of this and the similar <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracile</span> must be reviewed as they may pertain to the  same species.	eng
59782	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
59782	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
59782	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps.	eng
59782	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59782	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59782	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59782	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59782	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59782	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59782	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59782	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Threats identified are agriculture, wood extraction, groundwater abstraction and destruction of swampy habitats, and water pollution.	eng
59782	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59783	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59783	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59783	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in at least one protected area (Kafue National Park). More research is required to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
59783	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species inhabits some protected areas and information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59783	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	For unknown reasons, most species of the genus <em>Aciagrion</em> are rarely recorded. <em>A. heterostica</em> is known from only very few records in southern Africa; from northwest Zambia, with one single specimen recorded from Namibia (Zambezi River). Globally, it is recorded from Zambia, Namibia, south the Democratic Republic of Congo (most in the Zambezi River Basin) and Uganda. Outside of the southern Africa region, the species is also irregularly recorded.	eng
59783	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Labwor Hills (Aremo, Karamoja District, north Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.	eng
59783	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> A wider distribution in appropriate habitats are assumed, currently recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in between and in Zambia and Angola most likely.	eng
59783	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, a wider distribution in appropriate habitats is assumed. It has been currently recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Uganda, and it is likely to occur in between and in Angola.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Labwor Hills (Aremo, Karamoja District, north Uganda).<br/><br/>For unknown reasons, most species of the genus <em>Aciagrion</em> are rarely recorded in southern Africa. <em>A. heterostica</em> is known from only very few records in Southern Africa; from northwest Zambia, with one single specimen recorded from Namibia (Zambezi River).	eng
59783	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
59783	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
59783	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps.	eng
59783	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps (Pinhey 1984). Other than this, specific habitat is unknown.	eng
59783	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59783	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59783	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59783	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59783	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current specific threats are unknown.	eng
59783	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59783	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59783	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Threats identified are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59784	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59784	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59784	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59784	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59784	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kande, south of Nkathe Bay (Malawi), assumed to occur in Tanzania (Pinhey 1972).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.	eng
59784	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has  been recorded from Zambia, Botswana, Angola, Malawi, it is assumed to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania as well.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; record southern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely, but needs confirmation. Probably also present in Angola.	eng
59784	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi, and Tanzania assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in northern Zambia and north Angola, record from southern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely, but needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kande, south of Nkathe Bay (Malawi), and it is assumed to occur in Tanzania (Pinhey 1972).<br/><br/>Within southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Botswana (Okavango Delta).	eng
59784	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Botswana (Okavango Delta). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, DRC, Botswana, Angola, and Malawi.	eng
59784	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and reedy pools.	eng
59784	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, reedy pools.	eng
59784	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, reedy pools.	eng
59784	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps, reedy pools.	eng
59784	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59784	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59784	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59784	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59784	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59784	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59784	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59784	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59785	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Communication and education of awareness and capacity-building/training should be developed. Research required into the population numbers and range, and conservation measures for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.	eng
59785	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Conservation of the existing habitat for this species within North Africa is required.	eng
59785	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures in place but policy-based actions, such as management plans, legislation on development and livelihood alternatives, would be valuable. Communication and education would be useful to increase awareness and research into population ecology and habitat maintenance is also needed.	eng
59785	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59785	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59785	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59785	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59785	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Awareness raising and capacity building is needed. Further research into the species population range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends and habitat conservation measures.	eng
59785	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Acisoma panorpoides</em> is widespread in Africa (except dense rain forest),  southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
59785	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Acisoma paorpoides</em> has a wide global range (sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands). In northern Africa it is an Afrotropical relict restricted to a few coastal wetlands in northeastern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menaï 1999). It is probably now extinct in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and there are no available data on populations in Egypt.	eng
59785	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rainforest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
59785	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rain forest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Uganda and Somalia assumed.	eng
59785	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong></strong>The species is widespread in Africa (except dense rainforest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon; reported from Angola and Zambia, and expected in appropriate habitats in the Central African Republic and Gabon as well.	eng
59785	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Cameroon, Central Africa and Chad<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (except deep in rainforest and desert) and Asia; isolated presence in north east Algeria.	eng
59785	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species is widespread in Africa (except from dense rainforests), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia, and it is expected to occur in appropriate habitats in Congo, Central African Republic and Gabon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where the species is considered common and widespread (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, this Afrotropical relict is restricted to a few coastal wetlands in northeastern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menaï 1999). It is probably now extinct in Libya, and there are no available data on populations in Egypt.<br/><br/>In the northeastern Africa region, the species has been recorded from Egypt and Ethiopia, and its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread. It is very rare in the arid southwest, and does not occur in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad.	eng
59785	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread. It is very rare in the arid southwest, and does not occur in the Cape. Globally, the species has a very wide range in Africa (except dense rain forest), southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands. In Africa, only the subspecies <em>Acisoma panorpoides ascalaphoides</em> Rambur, 1842 occurs.	eng
59785	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Found in freshwater marshes and dune slacks (Samraoui and Corbet 2000a).	eng
59785	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy and well-vegetated open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy open habitats.	eng
59785	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy open habitats.	eng
59785	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known. However, this species is very widespread and is not believed to be threatened.	eng
59785	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	In northern Africa, this species has never been abundant and has a restricted range.	eng
59785	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59785	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59785	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59785	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59785	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59785	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59785	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59785	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a cause of threat to the species.	eng
59785	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a potential threat in some parts of its range.	eng
59785	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat	eng
59785	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat.	eng
59785	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats may be a threat in parts of its range. However, this is not a serious threat across its whole range.	eng
59785	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59785	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Water extraction and habitat modifications: pollution, fish introduction, overgrazing (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Belair and Samraoui 1994).	eng
59786	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59786	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59786	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59786	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59786	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59786	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango and Zambia basins in south Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Uganda to West Africa. Records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not yet confirmed.	eng
59786	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread and common in Uganda, occurrence in Burundi assumed, west Tanzania (records not confirmed), and likely in west Kenya (records not confirmed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Uganda to western Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.	eng
59786	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Zambia, Uganda to western Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire region and all countries.	eng
59786	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Gambia; records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.	eng
59786	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Uganda to West Africa, records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species has been recorded from all the countries.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is widespread and common in Uganda, and its occurrence in Burundi is assumed. Records from west Tanzania and west Kenya are not confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango and Zambia basins in south Angola and northwest Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it was found in Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
59786	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamp areas in bush and forest.	eng
59786	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps in bush and forest.	eng
59786	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps in bush, forest.	eng
59786	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps in bush, forest.	eng
59786	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps in bush, forest.	eng
59786	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59786	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59786	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59786	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59786	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59786	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59786	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59786	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59786	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59786	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Threats to the species are agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59787	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59787	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available from most of the range. In South Africa, more searches are need for this species (Samways 2006 in press). No specific measures are in place or currently planned, but the construction of farm dams adjacent to natural forest appears to benefit this species (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59787	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place, but some highlands have National Park status. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.	eng
59787	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No specific measures in place, but some highlands have National Park status.	eng
59787	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Only the subspecies <em>usambarica</em> occurs in southern Africa: South Africa (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002) and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984), and inferred to also occur in Mozambique (Pinhey 1981). In South Africa, the species is known from only a few specimens at scattered localities in the northern Drakenberg and from Kaapsehoop, near Nelspruit (Samways 2006 in press). At the global level, the nominate subspecies is recorded from north-west Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia; with subspecies <em>usambarica</em> from South Africa through Zimbabwe to Eastern Arc forests in east Kenya.	eng
59787	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common in highlands in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Nominate species in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia. Its subspecies <em>usambarica</em> is present in Transvaal, Zimbabwe and Eastern Arc forests in Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
59787	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia. It is widespread and common in Kenyan highlands, likely to be common in Ethiopia as well (lack of surveys do not allow any statement). Occurrence in southern Sudan highlands likely.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The nominate species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia. It is assumed that it also occurs in Burundi. The species is common in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the East African countries. The subspecies <em>usambarica</em> is known from the Eastern Arc forests in Kenya and Tanzania, from Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe.	eng
59787	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The nominate species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia. It is assumed that it also occurs in Burundi. The species is common in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and the east African countries. The subspecies <em>usambarica</em> is known from the Eastern Arc forests in Kenya and Tanzania, from Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from the eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo (material from Democratic Republic of Congo in The Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common in highlands of Kenya, Tanzania, Ugandaand Malawi. It is also assumed to be common in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia. Widespread and common in Kenyan highlands, likely to be common in Ethiopia as well, although the lack of surveys do not allow any statement. Its is likely to occur in southern Sudan highlands as well.<br/><br/>The only the subspecies <em>usambarica</em> occurs in southern Africa; South Africa (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002) and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984), and inferred to also occur in Mozambique (Pinhey 1981). In South Africa, the species is known from only a few specimens at scattered localities in the northern Drakenberg and from Kaapsehoop, near Nelspruit (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59787	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane forest streams and pools.	eng
59787	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane forest streams and pools.	eng
59787	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Montane forest streams and pools.	eng
59787	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Montane forest streams and pools.	eng
59787	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59787	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59787	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59787	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59787	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest degradation is inferred as a potential threat. In South Africa, threats are listed as afforestation, invasive alien trees and possibly alien fish (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59787	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59787	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59787	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are forest destruction and water pollution.	eng
59788	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59788	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59788	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
59788	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59788	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, the species is recorded from Zimbabwe and Angola to Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59788	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda.	eng
59788	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa: Uganda and Kenya southwards (Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Tanzania) to South Africa (occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba province) and expected in eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo because of records from Bwindi National Park in western Uganda. (Also present within Angola and Zambia).	eng
59788	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda and Kenya southwards (Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Tanzania) to South Africa (occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed). It has also been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba province) and expected to be present in eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo due to records from Bwindi National Park in western Uganda.	eng
59788	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Highland streams, often in forest.	eng
59788	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Highland streams, often in forest.	eng
59788	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Highland streams, often in forest.	eng
59788	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Recorded from highland streams, often in forest.	eng
59788	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59788	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
59788	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59788	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59788	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and river pollution.	eng
59788	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction and river pollution are inferred threats.	eng
59788	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction, river pollution.	eng
59788	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are forest destruction, dams and river pollution.	eng
59789	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59789	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59789	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
59789	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59789	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	The species is not known from protected areas. More data are required on range, population status and specific threats.	eng
59789	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is known from two collections in northwest Zambia. Globally, the species occurs in Uganda and north-west Zambia to south-east Nigeria.	eng
59789	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest and forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Nigeria.	eng
59789	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda west to Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (e.g., as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. wittei</span> from Mwene Ditu and Elisabethville) and Cameroon.	eng
59789	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from mount Kupe in Cameroon and south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, western Tanzania, north Zambia, Katanga, Cameroon and south-east Nigeria (Vick 1996; Chelmick 2001; Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
59789	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda and north Zambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (e.g., as <em>A. wittei</em> from Mwene Ditu and Elisabethville) and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest and forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known from two collections in north-west Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is only known from mount Kupe in Cameroon and south east Nigeria.	eng
59789	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation.	eng
59789	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation.	eng
59789	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation.	eng
59789	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams and rivers bordered by dense vegetation (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59789	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest streams deeply shaded by dense vegetation.	eng
59789	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59789	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59789	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59789	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59789	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59789	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Deforestation and water pollution.	eng
59789	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation and water pollution.	eng
59789	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Deforestation is a potential threat. Water pollution is not considered a threat within the known range in southern Africa at present.	eng
59789	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59789	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are deforestation and water pollution.	eng
59790	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59790	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59790	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and potential threats.	eng
59790	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and potential threats.	eng
59790	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status and potential threats, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59790	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi (lack of confirmed records, nevertheless, the species seems to be common).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and likely in Mozambique.	eng
59790	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is recorded from Zambia (upper Zambezi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and may also occur in Mozambique (to be confirmed here). The record from Nigeria (Medler 1980) requires confirmation too.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Angola, northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59790	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from unknown location in Nigeria, probably Jos Plateau (Dijkstra pers comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola, Malawi and Katanga; isolated records from Nigeria.	eng
59790	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia (upper Zambezi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and may also occur in Mozambique, where is occurrence needs to be confirmed. It is widespread in eastern and southern Africa. The record from Nigeria (Medler 1980) requires confirmation too.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in northern Zambia, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it known from records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is relatively widespread. It is known from Zambia (upper and middle Zambezi catchment) and Angola (upper Zambezi). It may also occur in Mozambique, although this has to be confirmed. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported from an unknown location in Nigeria, probably Jos Plateau (Dijkstra pers. Comm.).	eng
59790	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is known from Zambia (upper and middle Zambesi catchment) and Angola (upper Zambesi). It may also occur in Mozambique, but this has to be confirmed. Globally, it is recorded from Zambia (upper Zambesi and Congo basin), Angola, Malawi, DRC, and may also occur in Mozambique.	eng
59790	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably open swamps on the savannah.	eng
59790	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and reedy pools (Pinhey 1984).	eng
59790	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps and reedy pools (Pinhey 1984).	eng
59790	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and reedy pools (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59790	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, reedy pools.	eng
59790	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59790	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59790	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown, but noted as locally common (Pinhey 1984).	eng
59790	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown, but noted as locally common (Pinhey 1984).	eng
59790	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown, but noted as locally common (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59790	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59790	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59790	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown but water pollution is an inferred threat.	eng
59790	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The area of the plateau has a lot of vegetable farming with the use of agrochemicals. However the impacts of this upon the species is unknown.	eng
59790	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations as well as human settlement and water pollution.	eng
59791	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59791	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59791	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59791	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59791	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from  Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record for Uganda (see Pinhey 1961), the systematics of the genus <em>Aethiothemis</em> are yet to be solved.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is belived to be in Uganda, Nigeria and westwards.	eng
59791	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria, also recorded from Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record in Congo. Since the northern areas of Cameroon and the Central African Republic have hardly been surveyed, this species is likely to occur in the area as well.	eng
59791	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria, possibly further east.	eng
59791	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from the Savannah belt from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria and Uganda, also recorded from Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, since the northern areas of Cameroon and Central African Republic have hardly been surveyed, this species is likely to occur in the area as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record for Uganda (see Pinhey 1961), the systematics of the genus <em>Aethiothemis</em> are yet to be solved.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from an old record from Ethiopia is uncertain. Listed NA until presence or absence is confirmed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.	eng
59791	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59791	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably open swamps, e.g. in savannah.	eng
59791	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably open swamps, e.g., in savannah.	eng
59791	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably open swamps, e.g., in savannah.	eng
59791	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59791	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59791	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59791	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59791	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59791	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59791	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59791	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59792	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59792	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59792	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59792	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59792	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research actions in place and needed.	eng
59792	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River basins in Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola (Congo and Zambezi Rivers), Botswana, Namibia, Zambia (Congo and Zambezi Rivers), DRC, and Uganda. It may also occur in Tanzania and Malawi.	eng
59792	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: confirmed record only from Ajai (nw Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Angola, Zambia, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, and likely in Tanzania and Malawi.	eng
59792	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Angola (Congo and Zambezi),  Botswana, Namibia,  Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River), Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Uganda<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and northern Zambia.	eng
59792	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Uganda and Botswana.	eng
59792	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola (Congo and Zambezi River), Botswana, Namibia, Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River), Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Malawi and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (confirmed record only from Ajai in north west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River basins in Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Chad.	eng
59792	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swamps.	eng
59792	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Reedy swamps.	eng
59792	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy swamps often along rivers.	eng
59792	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Reedy swamps often along rivers.	eng
59792	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy swamps often found along rivers.	eng
59792	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59792	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59792	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59792	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59792	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59792	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
59792	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59792	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59792	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59792	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown.	eng
59793	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Communication and education about this species is needed, as is research into trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also required.	eng
59793	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59793	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59793	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59793	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59793	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59793	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas, and Madagascar. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59793	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region southwards to coastal Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa (except in rain forest areas) and in Madagascar.	eng
59793	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas, Madagascar.	eng
59793	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, and Zambia.	eng
59793	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from one locality in Kenya in the region. A wider occurrence in the region is likely.	eng
59793	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Benin and possibly to Cameroon and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.	eng
59793	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rainforest areas. Also present on Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia, and expected to be present in Congo and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (Burundi presence needs to be confirmed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is expected to have a wider occurrence.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region southwards to coastal Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Benin, and possibly also present in Cameroon and Chad.	eng
59793	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, slow streams and rivers, lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy pools, slow streams and rivers, and lake shores with dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
59793	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59793	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59793	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59793	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59793	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59793	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59793	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
59793	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59793	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59793	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59793	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59793	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, and water pollution.	eng
59794	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59794	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59794	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, and population range, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59794	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.	eng
59794	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola through Zimbabwe and Zambia to Mozambique and eastern South Africa. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, this is a common and widespread in eastern and southern Africa.	eng
59794	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda is assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to <em>A. fractum</em>, which was erroneously synonymized earlier (Dijkstra and May, unpublished): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Mozambiqe, Malawi, Angola. <br/><br/>There is wide distribution in the given range and there is also confusion with <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> (see also May 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; likely to be present in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59794	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Somalia, though the latter needs confirmation. For southern Sudan presence is assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to A. Fractum, which was erroneously synonymised earlier (Dijkstra and May, unpublished): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern southern Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, Angola.	eng
59794	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The Slender Bluet (<em>Africallagma elongatum</em>) is common and widespread in Uganda, northern Tanzania, Ethiopia and Kenya; its occurrence in Burundi, Somalia and Rwanda is assumed. The southern records are assumed to belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fractum</span>, which previously was erroneously synonymised (Dijkstra and May unpub. data): Zambia, Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, and Angola. There is wide distribution in the given range and there is also confusion with <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> (see also May 1997).	eng
59794	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, reedy streams, pools and lake shores, often in highlands.	eng
59794	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, reedy streams, pools and lake shores, often in highlands.	eng
59794	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The Slender Bluet occurs in swamps, reedy streams, pools and lake shores, often in highlands.	eng
59794	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59794	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59794	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59794	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59794	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59794	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59794	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and groundwater extractions, and water pollution.	eng
59795	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59795	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into population range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59795	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place and none are recommended at present.	eng
59795	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Not applicable.	eng
59795	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Not applicable.	eng
59795	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species population trends and range, and habitat status.	eng
59795	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but is not yet recorded from Angola. Globally, it is widespread in Africa.	eng
59795	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59795	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This is one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In western Africa only recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria. The species has not been recorded yet from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo, but occurrence likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records of Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in Angola and other central Africa countries is likely.	eng
59795	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Mt. Kenya in the northeastern Africa assessment region, and a wider distribution in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is likely.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In West Africa only recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria. Not yet recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo, but occurrence likely.	eng
59795	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria, but this must be confirmed. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is one of the commonest Odonata species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa.	eng
59795	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is one of the commonest species in southern Africa, becoming progressively scarcer in the north and especially westwards in Africa. In western Africa, it has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed in Nigeria. It has not been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo yet, but it is likely to occur there too.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is recorded from Zambia, and assumed in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Ghana and Liberia need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Mount Kenya in the northeastern Africa assessment region, and a wider distribution in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is suspected, hence the species is listed as Data Deficient until more surveys are available.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in southern Africa, however, it has not been recorded from Angola yet.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it has only been recorded from the north of Ghana and listed for Nigeria, although this information must be confirmed.	eng
59795	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and streams in bush in open and often arid country.	eng
59795	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and streams in bush in open and often arid country.	eng
59795	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and streams in bush in open and often arid country.	eng
59795	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and streams in bush in open and often arid country.	eng
59795	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, marsh and streams in open country.	eng
59795	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
59795	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Not applicable.	eng
59795	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Not applicable.	eng
59795	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59795	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59795	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No current threats are known to be affecting the species.	eng
59795	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59795	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59795	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59795	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Not applicable.	eng
59795	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, groundwater extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59796	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59796	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59796	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	<em>Africallagma pseudelongatum</em> is a common and widespread in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda. Its occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed. Records in Tanzania need confirmation due to erroneously treating <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> as a synonym of <em>A. elongatum</em> for a long time.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from central and north-eastern Africa yet, but it is likely to occur in the eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo and the northern slopes of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares in Kenya.	eng
59796	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda. Its occurrence in Burundi and Rwanda is assumed. Records in Tanzania need confirmation due to erroneously treating <em>A. pseudelongatum</em> as a synonym of <em>A. elongatum</em> for a long time.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the eastern highlands of Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59796	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy areas, often in forest and highlands.	eng
59796	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Swampy areas, often in forest and highlands.	eng
59796	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59796	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59796	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59796	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59797	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59797	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59797	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59797	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population, range and threats is required.	eng
59797	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in Zambia and Zimbabwe. There are few records from South Africa. Globally, it is known from South Africa through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Tanzania and south DRC.	eng
59797	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Ufipa Plateau (s.Tanzania), Malawi. Malawi specimen, described as Africallagma sinuatum f. fugax (Pinhey, 1962) differ significantly from A. sinuatum (Ris, 1921) and will become a good species (May and Dijkstra in prep.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59797	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo, also recorded from Ethiopia, occurrence in Kenya and Mozambique likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.	eng
59797	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Tanzania and south Democratic Republic of Congo, also recorded from Ethiopia. It is likely to occurs in Kenya and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was found in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Ufipa Plateau (south Tanzania).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia by Dumont (1983), but later specimens were re-identified as <em>A. elongatum</em>. <br/><br/>There are few records from South Africa, where this species is widespread in Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
59797	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy streams, rivers, and pools.	eng
59797	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy streams, rivers, pools.	eng
59797	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy streams, rivers, pools.	eng
59797	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy streams, rivers, pools. A highland/upland species.	eng
59797	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59797	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size and trends.	eng
59797	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59797	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59797	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59797	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59797	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to agriculture, groundwater extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59797	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There is no information available on current threats to the species.	eng
59798	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59798	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59798	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59798	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59798	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, population, range and threats is required.	eng
59798	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.	eng
59798	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern tropical parts of the region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is very likely to be there since the Namibian records are from the Angolan border. Globally, this species has been recorded from Botswana and Namibia through Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.	eng
59798	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (occurrence in Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.	eng
59798	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal. Occurrence in Angola likely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia. Occurrence in Angola and Congo likely.	eng
59798	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal. Occurrence in Angola likely.	eng
59798	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known west to Senegal. Probably the only widespread Africallagma in the west (numerous species in eastern Africa).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia and west to Senegal.	eng
59798	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe and Zambia to Ethiopia, west to Senegal and east to Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known to be widespread and common in Kenya, Tanzania, Ugandaand Malawi. Occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern tropical parts of the region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is very likely to be there since the Namibian records are from the Angolan border.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from West to Senegal.	eng
59798	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, pools (including temporary), and swampy rivers.	eng
59798	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, pools, swampy rivers.	eng
59798	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, pools, swampy rivers.	eng
59798	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, pools, swampy rivers.	eng
59798	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, pools, swampy rivers, but absent from dense rainforest areas such as the Congo Basin.	eng
59798	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
59798	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59798	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59798	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59798	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59798	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59798	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59798	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59798	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59798	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, dam construction, and water pollution.	eng
59799	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59799	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not known from any protected areas. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59799	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59799	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Not known from any protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59799	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is known only from one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). The percentage of the global population occurring within southern Africa is not known, but is estimated to be below 5% of the global range based on current knowledge. Globally, the species is known from Zambia, DRC, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.	eng
59799	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forest localities in Uganda, west Kenya, reocord form Tanzania only from literature (Pinhey 1984), occurrence in Burundi assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.	eng
59799	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> northwest Zambia, occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Only known from northwest Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.	eng
59799	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from the upper Zambesi catchment, and its occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forest localities in Uganda, west Kenya; record form Tanzania only from literature (Pinhey 1984). Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). The percentage of the global population occurring within southern Africa is not known, but is estimated to be below 5% of the global range based on current knowledge.	eng
59799	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	?forest.	eng
59799	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59799	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Grassy verges of streams, lakes or pools (Pinhey 1984).	eng
59799	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species is likely to inhabit forested areas.	eng
59799	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59799	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59799	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59799	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size or trends are unknown.	eng
59799	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current specific threats are unknown.	eng
59799	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59799	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59799	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The known threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59800	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	If new records of this species appear, the corresponding localities should be put under integral protection.	eng
59800	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat maintenance and the establishment of protected areas is also required.	eng
59800	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59800	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59800	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59800	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place, and none are recommended at present.	eng
59800	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Agriocnemis exilis</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, with its northernmost range recorded in northern Africa. It has been recorded only once in northern Egypt in 1911-1912 (Port-Said, Martin, 1915). If this record is valid, the occurrence of this Afrotropical species, of which the nearest published localities are in the upper Nile system in southern Sudan, underline once more the well known role of the Nile in the penetration of Afrotropical aquatic animals in the Palearctic up to the African Mediterranean coast. On the other hand, either a label error or a confusion with the Levantine species <em>Agriocnemis sania</em> Nielsen, 1959 cannot be excluded.	eng
59800	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but is not found in the Cape, western parts of South Africa and southernmost parts of Namibia. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest regions.	eng
59800	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Regional distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except in rainforest regions.	eng
59800	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa widespread except rainforest regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia. In respect of the overall wide distribution in Africa, its occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.	eng
59800	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence for Sudan assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in sub-Saharan Africa widespread except rainforest regions.	eng
59800	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from senegal to Nigeria and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except deep in rainforest or desert, known throughout west Africa.	eng
59800	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from sub-Saharan Africa, where it is widespread except from rainforest regions.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia. In respect of the overall wide distribution in Africa, its occurrence in other central African countries assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its distribution in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/><em>Agriocnemis exilis</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, with its northernmost range recorded in northern Africa. It has been recorded only once in northern Egypt in 1911-1912 (Port-Said, Martin, 1915). If this record is valid, the occurrence of this Afrotropical species, of which the nearest published localities are in the upper Nile system in southern Sudan, underline once more the well known role of the Nile in the penetration of Afrotropical aquatic animals in the Palearctic up to the African Mediterranean coast. On the other hand, either a label error or a confusion with the Levantine species <em>Agriocnemis sania</em> Nielsen, 1959 cannot be excluded.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. Its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in all countries of southern Africa, but it is not found in the Cape, western parts of South Africa and southernmost parts of Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Chad.	eng
59800	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Grassy pools and swamps.	eng
59800	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, swampy pools and rivers.	eng
59800	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, swampy pools and rivers.	eng
59800	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps, swampy pools and rivers.	eng
59800	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, swampy pools and rivers.	eng
59800	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Swampy areas, grassy fringes of ponds, pools, and backwaters of slow-flowing streams.	eng
59800	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59800	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59800	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59800	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Only a single record is known from the Palearctic, on the eastern side of the Nile delta. This record was never renewed nor confirmed. If it existed in northern Africa, it is possibly now extinct there.	eng
59800	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59800	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59800	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Agriculture expansion and intensification in the Nile delta, with increase in pollution and habitat destruction.	eng
59800	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59800	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59800	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59800	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59800	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no known threats affecting this species.	eng
59801	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into threats and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59801	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59801	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 208	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59801	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known at present.	eng
59801	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 208	Research required into the trends/monitoring for this species.	eng
59801	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Angola and Natal.	eng
59801	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 208	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, the species is recorded from Kenya to Namibia and South Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; presence in Angola is assumed.	eng
59801	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 208	<strong>Global Distribution:</strong> The species is recorded from Kenya to Namibia and South Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya, the record from Sudan (Tsuda) needs verification. Also assumed occurrence in Uganda.	eng
59801	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Angola, Natal. Namibia, South Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it was found in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, presence in Angola assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is considered common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from northern Kenya, and a record from Sudan (Tsuda) that needs verification. It is likely to be present in southern Sudan and Uganda. <br/><br/>This species occurs in humid tropical parts of the southern Africa region. Recorded from northwestern Angola and eastern coastal South Africa. In South Africa, it currently is known only from two populations: Mtunzini and Umbogavango, in coastal Kwazulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59801	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	This species occurs in humid tropical parts of the southern Africa region. It has not yet been recorded from Angola, but is likely to be there. In South Africa, it currently is known only from two populations: Mtunzini and Umbogavango, in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species is recorded from Kenya to Namibia and South Africa, and Madagascar.	eng
59801	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats.	eng
59801	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 208	Swampy habitats.	eng
59801	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats.	eng
59801	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy habitats, particularly fringes of rivers and in river floodplains.	eng
59801	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59801	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information is available on current population size or trends. In South Africa (its southernmost range) the only two known populations are both small (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59801	population	Clausnitzer, V., 208	Population size is unknown.	eng
59801	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59801	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Current threats are unknown. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59801	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59801	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 208	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59801	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are main threats to the species.	eng
59802	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but population trend monitoring would be valuable.	eng
59802	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59802	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59802	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research needed for trends/monitoring for this species.	eng
59802	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in west Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan.	eng
59802	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo only.	eng
59802	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, listed for Djibouti by Tsuda (needs verification) and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.	eng
59802	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan. Recorded from eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Djibouti to Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, and Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in west Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, listed for Djibouti by Tsuda (needs verification) and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.	eng
59802	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, swampy lakes and rivers	eng
59802	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, swampy lakes and rivers.	eng
59802	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, swampy lakes and rivers.	eng
59802	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59802	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59802	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59802	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59802	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59802	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are main threats to the species.	eng
59803	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59803	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59803	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available. Further information on the species ecology, habitats, distribution and threats are required.	eng
59803	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59803	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59803	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the forested parts of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59803	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known West to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in forested part of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal.	eng
59803	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in forested parts of Africa, from Uganda to Senegal. In central Africa, recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. Recorded from a number of forest localities in Uganda, and present in western Africa west to Senegal.	eng
59803	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy forests.	eng
59803	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy forests.	eng
59803	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy forests.	eng
59803	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy spots in forests.	eng
59803	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59803	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59803	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59803	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The population size is unknown.	eng
59803	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Deforestation, but is thought to be tolerant to disturbance.	eng
59803	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59803	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats, and deforestation.	eng
59803	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The known threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood plantations, water pollution, and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59804	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, range and population is required.	eng
59804	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Bwindi, western Uganda (Papyrus swamps in Victoria basin). It has not been recorded from the central Africa region, but it is likely to be found in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59804	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	A specialist of papyrus swamps.	eng
59804	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59804	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	At present the habitat is not threatened. However, drainage (e.g., for agriculture or industry), urbanization and fire are potential threats to the habitat and therefore could affect the species. Water pollution is known to be a threat to the species.	eng
59805	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59805	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59805	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59805	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59805	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the eastern part of the region, from Natal to Zambia and Mozambique. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Tanzania. It has not been recorded in Malawi.	eng
59805	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy highlands around Sao Hill (Tanzania), (occurrence assumed in Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi.	eng
59805	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is present in northern Zambia and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59805	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Tanzania, not recorded in Malawi but assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia and south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Records in eastern Africa are in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy highlands around Sao Hill (Tanzania), although occurrence assumed in Malawi.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the eastern part of the southern African region, from Natal to Zambia and Mozambique.	eng
59805	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
59805	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
59805	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps.	eng
59805	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59805	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59805	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59805	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59805	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59805	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59805	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59805	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats through agriculture and wood plantations. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
59805	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59806	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	If new records of this species reappears in northern Africa, the corresponding localities should be put under integral protection.	eng
59806	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable, as well as sited management.	eng
59806	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59806	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also required.	eng
59806	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Agriocnemis sania</em> has a global range that extends from East Africa to the Levant and southwest Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. In Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, the species is regarded as an early holocene pluvial relict.	eng
59806	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East. In east Africa the species has been recorded from the shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria (both in Kenya).	eng
59806	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: shores of L. Turkana and springs at L. Bogoria (both Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East.	eng
59806	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Ethiopia and middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from the shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria (both in Kenya), from Ethiopia and Egypt.	eng
59806	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Ethiopia and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is found in Kenya (shores of Lake Turkana and springs at Lake Bogoria),Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In the northern African region in Libya, the species is regarded as an early holocene pluvial relict; regarded as extinct from former range in Libya (Boudot pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was also recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt.<br/><br/>The species is not currently known from western Africa, but it may be present in oases of north of Chad and Niger.	eng
59806	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Lake shores and pools in arid areas.	eng
59806	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Lake shores and pools in arid areas.	eng
59806	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Lake shores and pools in arid areas.	eng
59806	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Lake shores and pools in arid areas.	eng
59806	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Oases, pools and streams	eng
59806	population	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59806	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59806	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59806	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59806	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The single population from Palearctic Africa was recorded in the Ghat Oasis (southwest Libyan Arab Jamahiriya); this is the type locality for the species. It is now extinct in this region due to the introduction of American mosquitofish <em>Gambusia</em> species as a tool against paludism (the fish predates on the larvae of the <em>Anopheles</em> mosquitoes).	eng
59806	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage.	eng
59806	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Drainage.	eng
59806	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage.	eng
59806	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The primary threat that cause the extinction of <em>A. affinis</em> in the region was the introduction of the predatory <em>Gambusia</em> fish. Pollution and destruction of habitat also contributed to population declines.	eng
59806	threats	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is threatened due to drainage of its habitat.	eng
59807	conservation	Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59807	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59807	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59807	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59807	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59807	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Botswana though the Caprivi to eastern Angola and northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda to Botswana and West Africa.	eng
59807	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various records from swampy habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Botswana and west Africa.	eng
59807	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is present in Angola, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia.	eng
59807	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.	eng
59807	distribution	Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Botswana and west Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is know from Uganda to Botswana and Senegal.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been reported from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (various records from swampy habitats), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>The record by Tsuda for Sudan (northeastern Africa) needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Botswana though the Caprivi to eastern Angola and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present from Cameroon to Senegal.	eng
59807	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
59807	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
59807	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59807	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59807	habitat	Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Swamps.	eng
59807	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59807	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59807	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59807	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59807	population	Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59807	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59807	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59807	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59807	threats	Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is threatened by drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and infrastructure development. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
59807	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59808	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59808	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59808	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59808	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59808	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation also required.	eng
59808	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Murchinson National Park and near Laropi Ferry, Albert Nile (both northern Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Uganda and Sudan to Senegal.	eng
59808	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other African Agriocnemis. Record from Angola unlikely.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species was listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation. May also occur in Kenya as well.	eng
59808	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in north-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>. Record from Angola unlikely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species has only recorded from the northern arid areas in central Africa (Cameroon and the Central African Republic); occurrence in northern Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.	eng
59808	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Niger to Mauritania: a larger Sahelian range, i.e., in more arid zone than other western African <em>Agriocnemis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North-west Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia.	eng
59808	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northwest Uganda and Sudan, through Niger to Mauritania and Liberia: a larger Sahelian range, i.e., in more arid zone than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>. Record from Angola unlikely. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from the northern arid areas in central Africa, occurrence in northern Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Murchinson National Park and near Laropi Ferry, Albert Nile (both northern Uganda)<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation and the species is listed NA for the time being. Might occur in Kenya as well.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Niger to Mauritania: a larger Sahelian range, i.e. in more arid zone than other western African <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis</span>.	eng
59808	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps and pools in arid country.	eng
59808	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and pools in arid country.	eng
59808	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps and pools in arid country.	eng
59808	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps and pools in open, often dry, country.	eng
59808	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59808	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59808	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59808	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59808	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage.	eng
59808	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage.	eng
59808	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59808	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, urban development and drainage, as well as water pollution.	eng
59809	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59809	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59809	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59809	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available, but research and site management are needed.	eng
59809	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
59809	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
59809	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Its inferred occurrence in Angola is currently unproven (no localities are known). Globally, the species is recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and Madagascar.	eng
59809	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread but uncommon in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar.	eng
59809	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the Afrotropical realm: South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common and likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species present in Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59809	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in the afrotropical realm: South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common and likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.	eng
59809	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Presence in west Africa uncertain, with uncertain listings for Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar.	eng
59809	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa and Angola to Ethiopia and Madagascar, and west to Sierra Leone and Nigeria. Never common but likely to occur in all countries in between the mentioned countries.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is widespread but uncommon in Kenya, Tanzania (Rufiji Delta in Tanzania, according to Clausnitzer pers. comm.), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (distribution assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is known from Ethiopia and Kenya. Its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Its inferred occurrence in Angola is currently unproven (no localities are known). <br/><br/>Its presence in western Africa (listed for Sierra Leona and Nigeria) is uncertain.	eng
59809	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Adults are encountered in savannah, bush or forest. Nothing is known about the larval habitat, perhaps streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.	eng
59809	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Nothing is known about the larval habitat. Either streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.	eng
59809	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Nothing is known about the larval habitat, most likely streams and rivers.	eng
59809	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Nothing is known about the larval habitat, most likely streams and rivers.	eng
59809	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Nothing is known about the larval habitat. Occurs in either streams and rivers and/or swamps in woodland or forest.	eng
59809	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59809	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59809	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59809	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59809	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59809	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59809	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
59809	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
59809	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59809	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59809	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59810	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59810	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59810	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59810	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
59810	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
59810	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is known only from two records from central Mozambique. It is expected to be more widespread in the region than currently known. Globally, it is known from Mozambique, Malawi, northern Zambia (outside the southern Africa region), Uganda, westwards to Sierra Leone.	eng
59810	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkatha Bay (Malawi), unknown locality in Uganda (assumed from Kampala area), occurrence in Tanzania assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda to Sierra Leone.	eng
59810	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda to Sierra Leone. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59810	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong>  The species is only reported for Sierra Leone (Green 1979; specimen identified by Gambles), Cote d'Ivoire (Lindley 1974) and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records throughout Africa (Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria).	eng
59810	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and from Uganda to Sierra Leone. Records are extremely scattered from southwestern Africa to Mozambique, including the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (unknown locally, assumed from Kampala area), Malawi (Nkatha Bay) and Burundi. Its occurrence in Tanzania is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known only from two records from central Mozambique. It is expected to be more widespread in the region than currently known. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it has only been reported for Sierra Leone (Green 1979; specimen identified by Gambles), Cote d'Ivoire (Lindley 1974) and Nigeria.	eng
59810	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Not much is known about larval habitats: possibly rivers and lakes.	eng
59810	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not much is known on larval habitats. Possibly rivers and lakes.	eng
59810	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Not much is known on larval habitats. Possibly rivers and lakes.	eng
59810	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Not much is known on larval habitats, ?rivers and ?lakes.	eng
59810	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably swamps.	eng
59810	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59810	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59810	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59810	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59810	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59810	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Agriculture, logging and pollution.	eng
59810	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
59810	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59810	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59810	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59811	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Managing and conserving seasonal ponds which are somewhat neglected in North Africa. The temporary ponds house a rich fauna (zooplankton, large branchiopods, insects, amphibians, etc.) adapted to dessication periods of several months o even years.	eng
59811	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
59811	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59811	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59811	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place and none are needed at present.	eng
59811	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not needed.	eng
59811	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This common widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
59811	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is relatively save and probably will benefit from climate change. Preventing development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is of importance to this species.	eng
59811	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Anax ephippiger</em> has a very wide range, including large parts of Africa extending eastwards to India. Occasionally the species reaches southern and even western and central Europe (Dumont 1991). It has been recorded as far north as Iceland.	eng
59811	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Anax ephippiger</em> has a very wide range, including large parts of Africa extending over Arabia eastwards to India where it typically occurs in arid and semiarid areas. It shows very strong migratory behaviour and is sometimes found migrating in enormous numbers and huge distances. The species reproduces in fluctuating numbers in southern Europe. Yearly these migration waves from Africa and Arabia reach Europe but the numbers of individuals arriving vary strongly from year to year. This migration rarely reached central and north Europe and in these years it can turn up anywhere in Europe even reaching as far as Iceland (Tuxen 1976). The most notable of these influxes took place in 1995 when the species was found all over the continent (Burbach and Winterholler 1998). In Central Europe specimens arriving in spring might successfully reproduce resulting in emergence in late summer of the same year. The most northern cases of reproduction are from the south of Germany and western Poland (Burbach and Winterholler 1997, Bernard and Musiał 1995). Larvae are however not capable of surviving the winter in Central Europe.	eng
59811	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, occurring in all countries. Globally, it is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.	eng
59811	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.	eng
59811	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia; occurrence in Central African Republic, Gabon and Congo is assumed. Common except in dense forest	eng
59811	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt and Somalia, occurrence in is Djibouti assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.	eng
59811	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species must occur in all west African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.	eng
59811	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia and eastwards to India, but it is absent from the southern parts of South Africa. Occasionally, the species reaches southern and even western and central Europe (Dumont 1991). It has been recorded as far north as Iceland.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia. Its occurrence in Central African Republic, Gabon and Congo is assumed. It is common except in dense forests.<br/><br/>Records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi are common and widespread in eastern Africa. common and widespread. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern African region, it was recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, Sudan, and Somalia, and its occurrence in is Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>It is thought to occur in all western African states	eng
59811	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species has a very wide geographic distribution in Africa, southern Europe, central and south Asia.	eng
59811	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	In northern Africa, the species breeds at the end of winter in seasonal wetlands where its rapid development allows it to emerge in late spring. Extensive details of its life history is provided by Corbet (1999).	eng
59811	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes.	eng
59811	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes.	eng
59811	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g. up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
59811	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g. up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
59811	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. Migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g., up to Iceland. Regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
59811	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open, shallow or temporary pools and lakes. The species migrates in large aggregations and often over vast distances, e.g., up to Iceland. It regularly enters deserts and breeds in temporary pools (Corbet 1999, Suhling <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
59811	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The biology of the species is strongly adapted to breeding in seasonal habitats. In its main range migrating individuals travel with rain bearing winds which lead them to areas with rain. Here the species lays eggs, often at the end of the winter, in standing waters created by the rainfall (Corbet 1999, Dumont and Desmet 1990, Dumont 1977). The larvae have a rapid growth completing their development in two to three months allowing them to emerge before the habitat dries out. Like in its main range the European breeding sites also consist mainly of standing, shallow and often seasonal waters. Due to the seasonality of the water the amount of vegetation is often very limited. The low water table and the lack of vegetation make that the temperature of the water is high allowing a rapid growth of the larvae. As can be expected for a species living mainly in seasonal waters the larvae tolerate high salinity. Most reproduction sites in Europe are found in coastal wetlands.	eng
59811	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in ponds and lakes covered with weeds.	eng
59811	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	A common species, though population information is available.	eng
59811	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	A very abundant species that undergoes extensive migrations (Corbet 2000).	eng
59811	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known. However, it is widespread and the population both within and outside the region is expected to be large.	eng
59811	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In its main range, from Africa to India, it is one of the most common and widespread species present. In southern Europe, the species is scarce although it can be found in large numbers. In the remainder of Europe, it is rare and in many countries it is only known from migrants (only one or two individuals). The numbers of emerging individuals can be however large at reproduction sites (Corbet 2000).	eng
59811	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59811	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59811	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59811	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59811	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59811	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Drainage of wetland habitat.	eng
59811	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Large scale development of coastal Mediterranean wetlands is a threat for this species.	eng
59811	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No major threats to the species are known.	eng
59811	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59811	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No threats.	eng
59811	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No threats known.	eng
59811	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, dam construction, urban development, water extraction and water pollution. An increasing impact of droughts is expected to be affecting the species in the future.	eng
59811	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no know current threats to the species.	eng
59812	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No conservation measures are currently in place or are recommended.	eng
59812	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59812	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59812	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
59812	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None, common in and outside protected areas.	eng
59812	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	None, common in and outside protected areas.	eng
59812	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None; common in and outside protected areas.	eng
59812	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None needed.	eng
59812	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
59812	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Anax imperator</em> is common in large parts of Africa and western Eurasia. In Europe, it is only absent from the northern areas. The species has considerably expanded its range northwards in recent decades.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya(where it is generally rare in the desert areas and is possibly now extinct), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. It is also present in Egypt, Syria, Israel and Palestine.	eng
59812	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Anax imperator</em> is common in large parts of Africa and western Eurasia. In Europe, it is only absent from the northern parts Finland, Norway and Sweden. The species has considerably expanded its range northwards in recent decades. It is common and widespread across the Mediterranean region.	eng
59812	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Eurasia.	eng
59812	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Eurasia.	eng
59812	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and western Eurasia. Has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome, Zambia; occurrence in Central African Republic and Congo is assumed. Common in various habitats.	eng
59812	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Somalia and Kenya, assumed for Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and western Eurasia. Has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
59812	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known must occur in all west African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout Africa and deep into Eurasia.	eng
59812	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa and Eurasia. It is present in the whole of Africa. Its distribution has expanded northwards considerably in the last decades (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome, Zambia. Its occurrence in Central African Republic and Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>It is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the northern Africa assessment region, the species is present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (where it is generally rare in the desert areas and possibly extinct now), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Outside the African region, it is also present in Egypt, Syria, Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territory.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia, and assumed for Djibouti.	eng
59812	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is known from the British Isles to Europe to central Asia, southwards to central and North Africa, in North Moracco. Within India it is present in West Bengal (Kolkata district), Uttarakhand, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.	eng
59812	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swamps, lakes and pools.	eng
59812	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Standing or slightly running waters, often large and well-vegetated. Adults are strong fliers and can frequently be seen away from waterbodies.	eng
59812	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Standing waters, often large and well-vegetated (swamps, lakes and pools), but also slow flowing waters.	eng
59812	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Standing waters, often large and well-vegetated (swamps, lakes and pools), but also slow flowing waters.	eng
59812	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, lakes and pools.	eng
59812	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found at standing or slightly running waters, often large and well-vegetated. Adults are strong fliers and can frequently be seen away from waterbodies.	eng
59812	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	This is a very adaptable species, occurring in all kinds of freshwater habitats.	eng
59812	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This species breeds in small weedy pools and lakes. They are familiar insects on all open waters. These are restless species hawking round the border of pools. Male accompany the female during oviposition.	eng
59812	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Abundant.	eng
59812	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Common accross its range, has expanded northwards over the last decades. Actual population size is unknown.	eng
59812	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Common across its range, has expanded northwards over the last decades. Actual population size is unknown.	eng
59812	population	Mitra, A., 2009	Common across its range, has expanded northwards over the last decades. Actual population size is unknown.	eng
59812	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known. However, it is widespread and the population both within and outside the region is expected to be large.	eng
59812	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59812	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59812	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
59812	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is widespread and abundant.	eng
59812	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Its habitat, large standing waters, is not under any specific threat.	eng
59812	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59812	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59812	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59812	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
59812	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	None identified at present.	eng
59812	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59812	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No threats are currently known.	eng
59812	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	The main threat to the species is water pollution.	eng
59813	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable, as well as site management.	eng
59813	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59813	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59813	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59813	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59813	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59813	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and West Africa. In East Africa there are records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is a common and widespread species in all five countries (its occurrence in Burundi is assumed).	eng
59813	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the escarpment areas and in mountain regions. It does not occur in the Kalahari sands. Confirmed occurrence in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. Globally, the species is widespread from South Africa to southern Arabia and western Africa.	eng
59813	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and western Africa.	eng
59813	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in South Africa to southern Arabia and central Africa (west to Nigeria and Ghana).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.	eng
59813	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; the record from Somalia (Tsuda) needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread South Africa to southern Arabia and central Africa (west to Nigeria and Ghana).	eng
59813	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce in western Africa, probably only regular in (open, higher) parts of Nigeria. No recent records further west, perhaps present in Togo hills, Loma mts, Fouta Djallon and similar more open hill areas.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and southern Arabia, especially in highlands of east and south.	eng
59813	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in South Africa, western Africa and southern Arabia . In Africa it is found all the way to the Cape.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia. Its occurrence in other central Africa countries is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan; the record from Somalia needs confirmation.<br/><br/>This species is widespread along the escarpment areas and in mountain regions of southern Africa. It does not occur in the Kalahari sands. Its presence has been confirmed in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. <br/><br/>Records are scarce in western Africa, probably only regular in (open, higher) parts of Nigeria. No recent records further west are known, perhaps present in Togo hills, Loma Mts., Fouta Djallon and similar more open hill areas.	eng
59813	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams and rivers, often in hills or mountains.	eng
59813	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers.	eng
59813	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams and rivers.	eng
59813	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
59813	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers.	eng
59813	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers.	eng
59813	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59813	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59813	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59813	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59813	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59813	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59813	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to groundwater extraction and water pollution are major threats to the species.	eng
59813	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
59813	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59813	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59813	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Water extraction from stream habitats occurs.	eng
59813	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Water pollution.	eng
59814	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59814	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59814	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59814	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59814	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59814	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None.	eng
59814	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is common and widespread in the tropical parts of all countries. There are no records from southern parts of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. Globally, it is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.	eng
59814	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.	eng
59814	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, likely to occur in the other central Africa countries as well.	eng
59814	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Chad and Sudan, assumed in Ethiopia as well (common in northern Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.	eng
59814	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species should be present in all western African nations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.	eng
59814	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Zambia, Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, likely to occur in the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is present in Kenya, Chad and Sudan, and assumed from Ethiopia as well.<br/><br/>This species is common and widespread in the tropical parts of all southern African countries. There are no records from the southern parts of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. There is a single record from western Cape, but it is likely to belong to a vagrant specimen.	eng
59814	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open pools and swamps.	eng
59814	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Open pools and swamps.	eng
59814	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open pools and swamps.	eng
59814	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open pools and swamps.	eng
59814	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open pools and swamps.	eng
59814	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open pools and swamps. Often found in temporary rainpools.	eng
59814	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59814	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59814	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59814	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59814	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59814	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59814	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59814	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59814	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59814	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats through agriculture and wood plantations are, together with water pollution, major threats to the species.	eng
59814	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59814	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no current threats known or expected.	eng
59815	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59815	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59815	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59815	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59815	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from montane streams in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from southern Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe	eng
59815	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded fromKenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Taita Hills (south east Kenya), various localities from Mountains and highlands in Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe.	eng
59815	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The first Kenyan record is from the Taita Hills, ranges further from Mt Kilimanjaro and the Usambara Mts in Tanzania to Katanga (Democratic Republic of Congo), Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Pinhey’s (1984) Zambian records probably all pertain to <em>A. pseudeudoxia.</em> An old and poorly labelled male, already examined by Ris (1912), may indicate an isolated presence of<em> A. biordinata</em> in the Cameroon highlands. However, it is the only specimen seen from the region, and clusters with males from Zimbabwe<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; possibly present within Cameroon.	eng
59815	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Kenya to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe. The first Kenyan record is from the Taita Hills, ranges further from Mt Kilimanjaro and the Usambara Mts in Tanzania to Katanga (Democratic Republic of Congo), Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Pinhey’s (1984) Zambian records probably all pertain to <em>A. pseudeudoxia</em>. An old and poorly labelled male, already examined by Ris (1912), may indicate an isolated presence of <em>A. biordinata</em> in the Cameroon highlands. However, it is the only specimen seen from the region, and clusters with males from Zimbabwe. This is a highland species absent from lowland and coast areas. The southern Zambian records are likely to belong to <em>A. eudoxia</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and assumed from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it was recorded from Kenya (Taita Hills in south east Kenya), Uganda, Burundi, and various localities from Mountains and highlands in Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>This species is known from montane streams in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, in southern Africa.	eng
59815	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane and highland forest streams.	eng
59815	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane and highland forest streams.	eng
59815	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Montane and highland forest streams.	eng
59815	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Montane and highland forest streams.	eng
59815	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59815	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59815	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59815	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59815	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59815	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59815	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats are unknown, although forest degradation is an inferred threat.	eng
59815	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59816	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species. Habitat based management is also required.	eng
59816	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Most records for <em>Atoconeura eudoxia</em> are from South and West Uganda at 1,400 to 2,600 m asl, (e.g., Ruwenzori Mts and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park). The Burundi record also lies within the Albertine Rift and suggests the species' presence in Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa). Rather isolated populations occur in Mabira Forest near Kampala at 1,100 to 1,300 m and Kakamega Forest, West Kenya.	eng
59816	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Sluggish rainforest streams.	eng
59816	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59816	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are forest destruction due to wood extraction and agriculture, and water pollution.	eng
59817	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures are proposed but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59817	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into the species' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation and restoration is also needed.	eng
59817	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kilimanjaro (north Tanzania), central Mountains and Mt. Elgon (Kenya), Mt. Elgon, Bwindi National Park and Ruwenzori Mts (Uganda) and Imatong Mts (Sudan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan and Kenya. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.	eng
59817	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been found in Kilimanjaro (north Tanzania), Central Mountains and Mount Elgon (Kenya), Mount Elgon, Bwindi National Park and Ruwenzori Mts. (Uganda) and Imatong Mts. (Sudan). It was recorded also from the Sudd in Sudan (Bailey and Litterick 1993, not confirmed) and Kenya. Its presence in Uganda is confirmed (Mount Elgin).	eng
59817	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Montane forest streams.	eng
59817	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane forest streams.	eng
59817	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59817	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59817	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Forest destruction and water pollution.	eng
59817	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, dam construction, and water pollution.	eng
59818	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59818	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59818	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from south and west Uganda, from where it extends into east Congo-Kinshasa and through Katanga to north Zambia, occurring at 700-2300 m.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from east and south Democratic Republic of Congo; records for north Zambia are outside the region, but presence might be expected.	eng
59818	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been described from South and West Uganda (Bwindi National Park, Ruwenzori Mts.), from where it extends into east Congo-Kinshasa and through Katanga to north Zambia , occurring at 700-2300 m.	eng
59818	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane forest streams.	eng
59818	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane forest streams.	eng
59818	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59818	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59818	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction, water pollution, agriculture and dams construction are known threats to the species.	eng
59818	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution and habitat loss due to agriculture, wood extraction, human settlement and dam construction.	eng
59819	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59819	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59819	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59819	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59819	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59819	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries. It is common in the tropical north, but not in the arid southwest or the Cape. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and to Cameroon.	eng
59819	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in appropriate habitats in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and to Cameroon.	eng
59819	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Uganda. western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to A. vansomereni (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly pertains to that species).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, though the latter record needs confirmation.	eng
59819	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Ethiopia and Uganda. western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to <em>A. vansomereni</em> (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly pertains to that species).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.	eng
59819	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, Cameroon and Uganda. Western African records (Niger, Mali, Guinea-Bissau) most likely to pertain to <em>A. vansomereni</em> (Bissau record is illustrated and clearly belong to that species). Likely to be under-recorded in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, though the latter record needs confirmation<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is common in the tropical north, but not in the arid southwest. Also present in the Cape (Samways, pers. comm.).	eng
59819	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps in arid country.	eng
59819	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps in arid country.	eng
59819	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, pools and rivers in arid country.	eng
59819	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy or reedy verges of pools, lakes or slow streams	eng
59819	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59819	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59819	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59819	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59819	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59819	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59819	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture.	eng
59819	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59820	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59820	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59820	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59820	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59820	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: North Uganda to Senegal and Arabia. In East Africa the species has been recorded from northern Uganda. No detailed locality data are available.	eng
59820	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: northern Uganda, no detailed locality data.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Uganda to Senegal and Arabia.	eng
59820	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a sahelian distribution range, from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Cameroon, likely to be found in northern Central African Republic and northern Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.	eng
59820	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a sahelian range, from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan (the latter needs confirmation), occurrence in northern Kenya and Egypt assumed.	eng
59820	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sahelian range west to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from sahelian range, from north Uganda across to The species is known from senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia.	eng
59820	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from north Uganda to Senegal and Arabia. Its sahelian range goes from north Uganda across to Senegal and possibly Egypt and Arabia. It is also present in a broad band from western Africa to the east, to Red Sea Coast.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Cameroon, likely to be found in northern Central African Republic and northern Congo and north Democratic Republic of Congo as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, northern Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan (the latter needs confirmation).Its occurrence in northern Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from its sahelian range west to Senegal.	eng
59820	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and swamps in dry country.	eng
59820	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swamps in open, often dry, country.	eng
59820	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, swamps in dry country.	eng
59820	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools, swamps in dry country.	eng
59820	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swamps in dry country.	eng
59820	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59820	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59820	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59820	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59820	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59820	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage.	eng
59820	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage.	eng
59820	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage.	eng
59820	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59820	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and habitat loss due to agriculture and groundwater extraction.	eng
59821	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59821	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59821	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59821	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored and habitat conservation may be required.	eng
59821	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59821	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required for trends/monitoring this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.	eng
59821	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is common along perennial river systems in the tropical north. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.	eng
59821	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.	eng
59821	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; expected in appropriate habitats in Angola and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59821	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Sudan. No Somalia or Ugandan records fall within the region ofnortheastern Africa, but occurrence there is assumed.	eng
59821	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.	eng
59821	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except from rainforest areas.<br/><br/>IN central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Equatorial Guinea, and expected to be present in appropriate habitats in Central African Republic, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Its occurrence in Uganda and Somalia is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is common along perennial river systems in the tropical north of southern Africa. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.	eng
59821	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open rivers and streams.	eng
59821	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rivers and streams in savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
59821	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and streams in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59821	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers and streams in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59821	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and streams in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59821	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally very high population densities.	eng
59821	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59821	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59821	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59821	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59821	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59821	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59821	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59821	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59821	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and dam construction. It is also threatened by water pollution.	eng
59821	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59822	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
59822	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	No conservation measures needed.	eng
59822	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59822	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59822	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59822	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not needed.	eng
59822	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not needed.	eng
59822	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Not needed although research into population trends would be valuable.	eng
59822	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into trends/monitoring required.	eng
59822	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is abundant all over tropical Africa. In Northern Africa it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Outside of Africa it is known from western Saudi Arabia and the Levant, Israel, Jordan, and Syria. There are only four records from Turkey. Records from Europe, where the species has expanded northwards in recent decades, are from Portugal, Spain, and Italy (Sicily, Sardinia). All literature used for this assessment are listed in the bibliography section.	eng
59822	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is one of the most abundant and widespread species of tropical Africa. The species is fairly common in the Maghreb, along the Nile in Egypt and in the Levant. The species seems to be increasing in Turkey were it is still uncommon and limited to the south. In Europe, it is found in Cyprus (first recorded in 2006, Cottle 2007), Sicily, Sardinia and the south of Portugal and Spain. It has been expanding its European range in the last two decades (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is likely that an increase of temperature in the next decade will enable the species to extend its range further north to mainland Italy, for instance.	eng
59822	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Brachythemis leucosticta</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas), southern Europe, and the Middle East.	eng
59822	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, particularly along rivers. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest), southern Europe, the Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
59822	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, south Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
59822	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Extends to southern Europe and Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, Zambia and the Central African Republic; assumed in appropriate habitats within the region as well.	eng
59822	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Extends to  southern Europe and Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Eritrea and Djibouti is assumed.	eng
59822	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from every country in western Africa except Sierra Leone and Liberia, where likely to be scarce be probably present.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert, extending to southern Europe and Middle East.	eng
59822	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa except from forests, south Europe, Middle East, southern Asia and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and assumed in appropriate habitats within the region as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread  in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. It is assumed to be present also in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Its occurrence in Eritrea and Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern African region, particularly along rivers, but not present in the Cape in South Africa (Samways pers. comm.)	eng
59822	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Lakes, pools and rivers. The species is usually found in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lakes, pools, and rivers. The species usually occurs in swarms above thinly vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually in swarms above thin vegetated shorelines.	eng
59822	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Lakes, pools, rivers, usually with bare shores.	eng
59822	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Readily breeds in any type of stagnant water body, from larger lakes to small pools, where it flies low over bare and open ground. Occurs often in large numbers, perching close to one another on the ground. The species has migratory tendencies.	eng
59822	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species breeds in a wide range of stagnant water bodies, from larger lakes to small pools, where it flies low over bare and open ground. It occurs often in large numbers, perching close to one another on the ground. It shows migratory tendencies and easily occupies newly created waters.	eng
59822	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally very high population densities.	eng
59822	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Locally very high population densities.	eng
59822	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Locally very high population density	eng
59822	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Locally very high population density.	eng
59822	population	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Locally very high population density.	eng
59822	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59822	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59822	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No information is available for this species.	eng
59822	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is often common when found and is probably increasing in most of its European range due to climate change.	eng
59822	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59822	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59822	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59822	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	No major threats known.	eng
59822	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known.	eng
59822	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No threats are known at present.	eng
59822	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
59822	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range.	eng
59822	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is not under any specific threat.	eng
59823	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59823	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59823	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Three records are from within wildlife management areas, but outside National Park areas. Only one record falls outside the management area. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status, and threats.	eng
59823	conservation	Kipping, J., 2006	Three records are from within wildlife management areas, but outside National Park areas. Only one record falls outside the management area. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status, and threats.	eng
59823	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Three records are from within wildlife management areas, but outside National Park areas. Only one record falls outside the management area. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population status and threats, as well as monitorin gof population trends.	eng
59823	distribution	Kipping, J., 2006	In southern Africa this species is only known from the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This population is far from other populations outside the region and there may be some taxonomic investigation required to determine whether this is a separate species. Globally, it has a disjunct distribution, occurring in Sudan to Nigeria, and in Botswana.	eng
59823	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Laropi, West Nile (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sudan to Botswana and Nigeria.	eng
59823	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is much scarcer than other <em>Brachythemis</em>. Principally in savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Isolated but confirmed presence in Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, for Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Congo is assumed.	eng
59823	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is much scarcer than other Brachythemis. Principally in savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan and Uganda. Isolated but confirmed presence in Botswana.	eng
59823	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Sudan to Botswana and Nigeria. It is much scarcer than other <em>Brachythemis</em>. Principally, it is found in the savannah belt, with records from Bukina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Its presence in Botswana is isolated but confirmed. Also known from a narrow band across the southern Sahel, with an isolated population in the Okavango, which requires further investigation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is recorded from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and assumed from Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Laropi, West Nile), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya is likely to be valid too.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is only known from the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This population is far from other populations outside the region and there may be some taxonomic investigation required to determine whether this is a separate species.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Togo and Nigeria.	eng
59823	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Ponds and shallow muddy or sandy streams in open country.	eng
59823	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy streams and rivers in bush (Pinhey 1976, J. Kipping, pers. comm).	eng
59823	habitat	Kipping, J., 2006	Swampy streams and rivers in bush (Pinhey 1976, J. Kipping, pers. comm).	eng
59823	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy streams and rivers in bush (Pinhey 1976; Kipping, pers. comm.).	eng
59823	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy streams in bush.	eng
59823	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59823	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59823	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59823	population	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59823	population	Kipping, J., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59823	threats	Kipping, J., 2006	Current specific threats are unknown, but drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are potential threats.	eng
59823	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59823	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information.	eng
59823	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Potentially drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59823	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Potentially drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are major threats to the species.	eng
59824	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59824	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59824	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not needed.	eng
59824	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population trends would be valuable.	eng
59824	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into trends/monitoring this species is recommended.	eng
59824	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in appropriate habitats in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59824	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and Uganda; occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia likely.	eng
59824	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59824	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it was recorded from northern Kenya. Its is likely to occur also in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern Africa region.	eng
59824	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59824	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59824	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59824	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59824	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59824	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59824	population	Suhling, F., 2006	It is probably common but likely often overseen due to camouflage colours.	eng
59824	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59824	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59824	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59824	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59824	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59824	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59824	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known.	eng
59824	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No serious threats are known at present.	eng
59824	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threat to the species is water pollution.	eng
59825	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59825	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59825	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59825	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59825	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda and Kenya, not further specified record from Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to western Africa, one unconfirmed record from Tanzania.	eng
59825	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59825	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across the western Africa region, known from Guinea to Benin, probably from Gambia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.	eng
59825	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Guinea and Mali and probably to Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda and Kenya, not further specified record from Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda from Sudan, record requires verification. Historic record lists "Abyssinia", which might be Ethiopia, but is too imprecise.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across the western Africa region, known from Guinea to Benin, probably from Gambia to Cameroon.	eng
59825	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rock pools and similar small, hard-bottomed water bodies (e.g. tanks) in open habitats.	eng
59825	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59825	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59825	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rock pools in open habitats.	eng
59825	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59825	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59825	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59825	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59825	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59825	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59825	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59825	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pollution.	eng
59826	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59826	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59826	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59826	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59826	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59826	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River). It has also been mentioned for Angola (Pinhey 1984a) but there are no confirmed records there to date. Globally, it is known from Uganda to Nigeria, and Zambia.	eng
59826	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: localities in the arid north as far south as Murchinson National Park (Uganda), unconirmed records from north Kenya (likely).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria and Angola.	eng
59826	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present from Uganda to Liberia and north west  Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and northwest Zambia. Occurrence in northwestern Angola, Congo and Cameroon most likely.	eng
59826	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from west to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Liberia and north west Zambia	eng
59826	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Nigeria and Angola, south western Africa to Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, north-west Zambia, occurrence in northwestern Angola, Congo and Cameroon most likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: localities in the arid north as far south as Murchinson National Park (Uganda), unconfirmed records from north Kenya (likely).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from north west Zambia (upper Zambezi River). It has also been mentioned for Angola (Pinhey 1984a) but there are no confirmed records there to date.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present west to Liberia.	eng
59826	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	In gallery forest.	eng
59826	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rock pools in arid country.	eng
59826	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rock pools in arid country.	eng
59826	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Standing waters, often in gallery forest.	eng
59826	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is found in pools in forest areas.	eng
59826	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59826	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59826	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59826	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59826	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59826	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59826	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
59826	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage.	eng
59826	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and water abstraction, and deforestation.	eng
59826	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by drainage for agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59827	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59827	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59827	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59827	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59827	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59827	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region, mainly in the Zambezi River catchment (eastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Caprivi) and Botswana. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, south Sudan and northern Botswana to West Africa.	eng
59827	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nabamba Bay, Nabugabo Wetlands, Lake Bisina (Uganda) - occurrence assumed for most appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, south Sudan and northern Botswana to western Africa.	eng
59827	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present Uganda, southern Sudan west to Guinea-Bissau and south to Namibia. Generally in forest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, north Angola, Gabon and Cameroon; presence in Congo is assumed.	eng
59827	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from West to Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea-Bissau. Generally in forest areas, records from south Sudan and northern Botswana thus require confirmation.	eng
59827	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, southern Sudan west to Guinea-Bissau and south to Namibia. Generally in forest areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, northern Angola, Gabon, Cameroon, Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nabamba Bay, Nabugabo Wetlands, Lake Bisina (Uganda) - occurrence assumed for most appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the region, mainly in the Zambezi River catchment (eastern Angola, northwestern Zambia, Caprivi) and Botswana. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species was found west to Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59827	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps in or near forest.	eng
59827	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps in or near forest.	eng
59827	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps in or near forest.	eng
59827	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps in or near forest.	eng
59827	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps located in or near forest.	eng
59827	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59827	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59827	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59827	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59827	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59827	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59827	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59827	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59827	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, and water pollution.	eng
59827	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59828	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Conservation of good quality water bodies and streams.	eng
59828	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59828	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No current conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59828	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59828	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59828	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59828	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59828	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em> is widespread over nearly all of Afrotropical Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula. It as been recorded once in Mediterranean Egypt, near Cairo (El Ma'adi), as well as further south (Kharga Oasis) (Andres 1928).	eng
59828	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but so far not in the Orange system. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Arabia.	eng
59828	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Arabia.	eng
59828	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.	eng
59828	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59828	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread, commonest damselfly in western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, including oceanic islands	eng
59828	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	The Common Pond Damsel (<em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em>) is widespread in Africa and Arabia.	eng
59828	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia and Sao Tome. Occurrence in central Africa is assumed<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi (where it is common and widespread), and assumed to be present in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it has been recorded once in Mediterranean Egypt, near Cairo (El Ma'adi), as well as further south (Kharga Oasis) (Andres 1928).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, and assumed to occur in Djibouti and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries, but so far not in the Orange system.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread and considered to be the commonest damselfly within the region.	eng
59828	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Any standing or slow-flowing water with some vegetation.	eng
59828	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Any standing water.	eng
59828	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Any standing water.	eng
59828	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Any standing water; absent from drier areas such as the Kalahari.	eng
59828	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Most types of freshwater habitats.	eng
59828	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Streams, springs, oases, pools, swampy areas.	eng
59828	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	This species occupies most types of freshwater habitats.	eng
59828	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59828	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59828	population	Suhling, F., 2008	No information is available on population size and trends.	eng
59828	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread and adaptable species.	eng
59828	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	No information is available regarding the population of this species in Egypt. It is likely to now be extinct in Cairo.	eng
59828	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59828	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59828	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No current threats.	eng
59828	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59828	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59828	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59828	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59828	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Pollution, drought, over-irrigation, destruction of habitat	eng
59828	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	The Common Pond Damsel is not under any serious threats across its global range.	eng
59828	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and ground water extraction, water pollution, and drought.	eng
59829	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59829	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59829	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59829	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59829	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and Mozambique. Globally, it is recorded from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.	eng
59829	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.	eng
59829	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from north-west Zambia; occurrence in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is likely.	eng
59829	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia. This is an easily overlooked species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north west Zambia and from western Uganda, occurrence in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan. This record needs confirmation and the species is listed NA for the time being.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and Mozambique. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sudan to Mozambique and Zambia, may occur in southern Chad but there are no records to confirm this.	eng
59829	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats, preferably with floating water plants.	eng
59829	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats, preferably with floating water plants.	eng
59829	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats, preferably with floating water plants.	eng
59829	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats, preferrably with floating water plants.	eng
59829	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59829	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59829	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59829	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59829	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59829	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59829	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture, and water pollution.	eng
59829	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59830	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59830	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Kenya to western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, (exact distribution unclear due to confusion with <em>C. suave</em>).	eng
59830	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools and streams in open savannah and bush.	eng
59830	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59830	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, and water pollution.	eng
59832	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59832	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59832	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59832	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59832	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59832	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwestern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). It is known from only three records here and it is estimated that <5% of the global range falls within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola (Congo Basin) to western Kenya and southern Nigeria.	eng
59832	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: near Kisumu (west Kenya), several forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia and western Kenya to western Africa.	eng
59832	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zambia and western Kenya to southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Further records from western Africa dubious due to taxonomic mix-ups and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Angola. Probably present in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
59832	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong>  The species has been recorded from south Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Further records from western Africa dubious due to taxonomic mix-ups and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and west Kenya to south Nigeria.	eng
59832	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola (Congo Basin) to western Kenya and southern Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia and western Kenya to southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon. In western Africa, it is found in south Nigeria and south west Cameroon, however further records are dubious due to taxonomic uncertainty and possible mislabelling.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwestern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). It is known from only three records here and it is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, this species has been recorded (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion platystigma</span>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: near Kisumu (west Kenya), several forests in Uganda.	eng
59832	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forested swamp (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59832	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy forests.	eng
59832	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy forests.	eng
59832	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy forests.	eng
59832	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy forests.	eng
59832	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59832	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59832	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59832	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59832	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59832	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59832	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59832	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59832	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59832	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59833	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59833	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information at present.	eng
59833	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59833	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59833	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59833	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and threats/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.	eng
59833	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed),  (exact distribution difficult, since records often mixed up with <em>moorei</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and Ghana.	eng
59833	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species was listed for Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.	eng
59833	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Ethiopia to South Africa and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo - assumed in Angola and other countries as well.	eng
59833	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and Senegal.	eng
59833	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. It is assumed to be in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed), (exact distribution difficult, since records often mixed up with <span style="font-style: italic;">moorei</span>).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, southwards to northern Natal. It does not occur in the arid areas and southern parts of South Africa (where it has not been seen since 1951 despite ongoing intensive searches in recent years), Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across western Africa.	eng
59833	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread in the tropical north, southwards to northern Natal. It does not occur in the arid areas and southern parts of South Africa (where it has not been seen since 1951 despite ongoing intensive searches in recent years), Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>Globally, the species is recorded from South Africa, north to Ethiopia and Gambia.	eng
59833	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and streams in open and arid savanna and bush.	eng
59833	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and streams in open and arid savannah and bush.	eng
59833	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and streams in open and arid savannah and bush.	eng
59833	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and streams in open savannah and bush, may be found in drier areas than most other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion</span>.	eng
59833	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools (including rainpools) and streams in open and arid savanna and bush. Pools with grassy margins, and marshes (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59833	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59833	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59833	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size and trends. Considered Regionally Extinct in South Africa.	eng
59833	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59833	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59833	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information	eng
59833	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59833	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59833	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59833	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	None known at present. Although the species is Regionally Extinct in South Africa, this is attributed to natural (particularly vulnerability to drought) rather than anthropogenic reasons (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59833	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture, and water pollution.	eng
59834	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59834	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59834	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59834	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59834	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59834	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya to Sierra Leone, north to Tanzania, and Botswana.	eng
59834	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce but seems widespread, scattered records from appropiate habitats in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and also assumed to occur in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Sierra Leone, north to Tanzania and Botswana.	eng
59834	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to Sierra Leone and Guinea, south to Botswana, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Possibly present in the Central African Republic.	eng
59834	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Sierra Leone, Guinea and northern Botswana.	eng
59834	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Sierra Leone and Guinea, south to Botswana, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: scarce but seems widespread, scattered records from appropriate habitats in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, also assumed to occur in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
59834	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats.	eng
59834	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats.	eng
59834	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats.	eng
59834	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy habitats.	eng
59834	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats.	eng
59834	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59834	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59834	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59834	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59834	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59834	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59834	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59834	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59834	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59834	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59835	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59835	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59835	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59835	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59835	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known. Research required into trends/monitoring of this species, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.	eng
59835	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species should be monitored, and habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.	eng
59835	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid, tropical north of the region, south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59835	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59835	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, and Congo.	eng
59835	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan, occurrence in Kenya assumed.	eng
59835	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59835	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, in Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid, tropical north of the region, south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
59835	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats in savanna and bush.	eng
59835	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
59835	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
59835	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
59835	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and forest.	eng
59835	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59835	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59835	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59835	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59835	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59835	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown, although drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59835	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59835	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59835	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59835	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture.	eng
59836	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59836	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Known only from the Taita Hills (Kenya), Eastern Arc and Pare Mts, Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania).	eng
59836	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane forest streams, spring sources.	eng
59836	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59836	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The main threats to the species are forest destruction caused by agriculture, human settlement, and wood extraction.	eng
59837	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59837	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59837	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59837	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as conservation measures and monitoring.	eng
59837	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, it has been recorded from north Botswana and Mozambique to Angola (Congo Basin) and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in perennial tropical rivers. It has not been found in South Africa or in the western part of the region.	eng
59837	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in perennial tropical rivers. It is not found in South Africa or in the western part of the region so far. Globally, it has been recorded from north Botswana and Mozambique to Angola (Congo Basin) and Tanzania.	eng
59837	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded (as <em>Elattoneura tropicalis</em>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Botswana to Mozambique.	eng
59837	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia	eng
59837	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	It occurs in perennial tropical rivers and probably forest streams.	eng
59837	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Perennial tropical rivers.	eng
59837	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probable forest streams.	eng
59837	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady streams in bush and woodland.	eng
59837	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59837	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59837	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59837	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59837	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59837	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59837	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59837	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59839	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation and the development of management plans are also required.	eng
59839	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59839	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. This species would also benefit from targeted management plans and habitat restoration and conservation.	eng
59839	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	The species occurs within protected areas (e.g., Inyanga National Park, Chimanimani National Park, Chirinda Forest Reserve). <br/><br/>Riparian forest habitat should be protected. Alien invasive plants should be removed from the species' habitat.	eng
59839	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km². Global distribution: Malawi,  Zimbabwe,  Mozambique and Zambia.	eng
59839	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Zomba Plateau, Mkuwadzi Forest (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi,  Zimbabwe,  Zambia.	eng
59839	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km². <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Record from Democratic Republic of Congo (Tsuda) needs confirmation.	eng
59839	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Area of occupancy is unknown, but is not likely to be less than 2,000 km².<br/><br/>In central Africa, the known record from Democratic Republic of Congo by Tsuda needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In Malawi, it is known from the Zomba Plateau, Mkuwadzi Forest.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi River catchment in Zambia, Mozambique and in Zimbabwe. Most records are from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.	eng
59839	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest or thick bush.	eng
59839	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest or thick bush.	eng
59839	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams in forest or thick bush.	eng
59839	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in forest or thick bush. Appears to be partly montane; it is most widespread in montane areas.	eng
59839	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59839	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Nothing is known about population size or trends. There are a number of records in the eastern Zimbabwe mountains.	eng
59839	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59839	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59839	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Deforestation and invasive alien trees (e.g., pine) and alien predatory fish (e.g., trout) are current threats, but are not thought to be seriously affecting the population at present.	eng
59839	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59839	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction, particularly for agriculture. This species also shows limited dispersal and has a restricted range.	eng
59839	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threat to the species is drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.Invasive species are also a threat.	eng
59840	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59840	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Mughese Forest in Misuku Hills, (north Malawi), Matengo Highlands (southern Tanzania).	eng
59840	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane forest streams.	eng
59840	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59840	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The major threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59841	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59841	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59841	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59841	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. This species would also benefit from targeted management plans and habitat restoration and conservation.	eng
59841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to south-east Nigeria.	eng
59841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to south-east Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon	eng
59841	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to south-east Nigeria.	eng
59841	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to south east Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (appropriate habitats), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
59841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest trickles, dense swamp forest.	eng
59841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest trickles, dense swamp forest.	eng
59841	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest trickles, dense swamp forest.	eng
59841	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Very small streams and seepages in rainforest and dense swamp forest.	eng
59841	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59841	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59841	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59841	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59841	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59841	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59841	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59841	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threat to the species is drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59842	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59842	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population numbers and range, as well as potential conservation measures and monitoring is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59842	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in west Kenya, Uganda, and east Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
59842	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Kenya (Kakamega Forest), all rainforests in Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59842	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rain forest streams.	eng
59842	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Small rainforest streams.	eng
59842	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59842	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59842	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59842	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The major threats to the species are destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59843	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59843	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, and east Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also present in Kenya, Malawi and Burundi. There are appropriate habitats in west and south-central Uganda (Bwindi, Kibale, Mabira) and Zambia (Ntale River).	eng
59843	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Small forest streams.	eng
59843	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59843	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The major threats to the species are destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59844	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59844	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59844	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59844	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59844	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwindi National Park, Semliki National Park (both west Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
59844	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59844	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is listed for Nigeria but this needs confirmation. Species may also be expected to occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to Cameroon and west Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59844	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Nigeria. Population disjunct because of unsuitable habitat in between the two collection areas; not expected from the unsuitable lowland area between the coastal and the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwindi National Park, Semliki National Park (both west Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria but this needs confirmation. Species may also be expected to occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon.	eng
59844	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest streams.	eng
59844	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
59844	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
59844	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
59844	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59844	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59844	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59844	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59844	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
59844	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
59844	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59844	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species is destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59845	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59845	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59845	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59845	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation actions are known to be in place at present. In South Africa, searches for further localities are needed (Samways 2006).	eng
59845	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, west Tanzania (lack of detailed localities).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa, records to Nigeria doubtful.	eng
59845	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa; records to Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Zambia.	eng
59845	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Tanzania to Angola and north South Africa. The records from Nigeria are doubtful.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, west Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded from Mozambique, South Africa, north-west Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It may occur in eastern Angola in the upper Zambezi River catchment. In South Africa, it is known from only one specimen caught in northern KwaZulu-Natal prior to 1952 (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59845	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded from Mozambique, South Africa, northwest Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It may occur in eastern Angola in the upper Zambezi River catchment. In South Africa, it is known from only one specimen caught in northern KwaZulu-Natal prior to 1952 (Pinhey 1984a). Globally, the species occurs from west Tanzania to Angola and northern South Africa; records from Nigeria are doubtful.	eng
59845	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest and bush.	eng
59845	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest and bush.	eng
59845	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams in forest and bush.	eng
59845	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in forest and bush. In South Africa the species was recorded from clear, rocky, montane streams (Pinhey 1984b).	eng
59845	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59845	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59845	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59845	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59845	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation, especially from mining activities.	eng
59845	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59845	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information on current threats is available across most of its range, however it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across the whole range. In South Africa, stream disturbance and shading of habitat from invasive alien trees are the main threats (Samways 2006).	eng
59845	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threat to the species is deforestation due to agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59846	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59846	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59846	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59846	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59846	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into the species population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is required.	eng
59846	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), appropriate habitats (forests) in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya, Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59846	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya, Uganda to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59846	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has only been recorded from one locality in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from West Kenya, Uganda to Liberia.	eng
59846	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Not confined to forest and therefore more widespread than other <em>Chlorocypha</em> species, e.g., should occur in Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59846	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Kenya, Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), appropriate habitats (forests) in Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from one confirmed locality in Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Not confined to forest and therefore more widespread than other Chlorocypha species, e.g. should occur in Senegal.	eng
59846	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open or half-open streams and rivers. Unlike other <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorocypha</span> seldom in forest.	eng
59846	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59846	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59846	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59846	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59846	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59846	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59846	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59846	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams, drainage and destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution are known threats to this species.	eng
59846	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
59846	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
59846	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59847	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59847	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	All the records are around the Mahale Mountains along the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/>It is not found in the central Africa region, but this might be due to sampling deficiency around Lake Tanzania. More sampling is also needed to check, whether<em> C. tenuis</em> and <em>C. hasta </em>are two species or synonyms (see Dijkstra 2007).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from "Lumbugwe River, Kasangazi", eastern shores of Lake Tanganyica (Tanzania).	eng
59847	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Perhaps lacustrine and/or in forest streams.	eng
59847	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59847	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but most likely to be affected by deforestation.	eng
59848	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59848	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59848	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	<em>Chlorocypha jacksoni</em> has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi (Bwindi) and South-west Uganda (Bwindi and Rutenga Forests), east Democratic Republic of Congo: Haut Kambekulo (2,450 m Leleup) and Kivu, south side of Mount Kahuzi (2,200 m) (Ross and Leech 1957). This montane species has a restricted range.	eng
59848	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Uganda (Bwindi and Rutenga Forests), east Democratic Republic of Congo (Haut Kambekulo (2450m, leg. Leleup); Kivu, south side of Mt Kahuzi, 2200 m (Ross and Leech, ix-5-1957, History Museum of Zimbabwe)). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kivu, south side of Mt. Kahuzi and Haut Kamekulo).	eng
59848	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane forest streams.	eng
59848	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane forest streams.	eng
59848	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59848	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59848	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of montane forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in southwest Uganda and neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo are densely populated and have intense agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines in appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.	eng
59848	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The major threat to the species is destruction of montane forests due to clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in south-west Uganda and neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo is densely populated and have intense agriculture. Human population is growing drastically and further declines in appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.	eng
59849	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59849	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59849	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south-west Uganda (e.g., Mafuga Forest) and Molindi River, Democratic Republic of Congo. Burundi (unconfirmed), Rwanda listed, Pinhey (1967). An Albertine Rift endemic. Its global EOO c.3500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> In the central Africa region, the species is known from northeast Democratic Republic of Congo (Beni and Irangi). Available habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented.	eng
59849	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Burundi and Rwanda (though both uncertain), south-west Uganda, north-east Democratic Republic of Congo (though again some records are uncertain in Kakinga and Iringi))<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Molindi River, Democratic Republic of Congo. In the central Africa region, the species is known from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo (Beni and Irangi). Available habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented. An Albertine Rift endemic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from South-west Uganda (three sites, including the Mafuga Forest), Burundi and Rwanda.	eng
59849	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
59849	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
59849	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59849	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59849	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams. The area in southwest Uganda and neighbouring areas in Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi are densely populated and have an intense agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines of appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.	eng
59849	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are destruction of rainforests due to clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams. South-west Uganda and neighbouring areas in Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi are densely populated and hence are intensely impacted due to agriculture. The human population is growing drastically and further declines of appropriate habitat and populations is inferred.	eng
59850	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59850	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, east Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Kivu), Congo (Bunia; "Urwald" Beni, "Urwald" Morea and Irangi, Ituri), Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi and north-west Tanzania. The record from Tanzania is a misinterpretation by Pinhey of Schmidt's side description: “Urwald (Primeval forest) behind the bordering mountains of north-west Tanganyaka[sic]-Sees” (Dijkstra 2007; Dijkstra, pers. comm.). Though not to be present in eastern Africa.	eng
59850	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59850	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59850	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The main threats to the species are destruction of rainforests, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59851	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59851	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59851	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Tanzania, if <em>C. hastata</em> proves to be a synonym (Dijkstra, 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.	eng
59851	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Tanzania, if <em>C. hastata</em> proves to be a synonym (Dijkstra 2007). In Uganda, it is found in Kakamega Forest (Uganda). There are appropriate forests for the species' presence in Uganda and Burundi.	eng
59851	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rain forest streams.	eng
59851	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
59851	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59851	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59851	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.	eng
59851	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59852	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59852	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59852	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, east Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly in south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> It is common in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (east of Lokutu).	eng
59852	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, east Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly in south Sudan. All records west of Ubangi (Democratic Republic of Congo) should be ignored; (probably a confusion with <em>C. cyanifrons</em>).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is common in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (east of Lokutu).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Uganda.	eng
59852	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59852	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
59852	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59852	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59852	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.	eng
59852	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59853	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59853	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59853	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59853	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
59853	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in western and central Uganda and eastern and north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records of <em>C. victoriae</em> from Cameroon and the Central African Republic by Carletti and Terzani (1998), and D'Andrea and Carfì (1997) may follow confusion and could pertain to another species, perhaps <em>C. cyanifrons.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northeastern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present within Angola.	eng
59853	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This species is common in western and central Uganda and eastern and north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Records of <em>C. victoriae</em> from Cameroon and the Central African Republic by (Carletti and Terzani 1998, D'Andrea and Carfì 1997) may follow foregoing confusion and could pertain to another species, perhaps <em>C. cyanifrons</em>. Southern Democratic Republic of Congo records are probably mis-identifications.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north eastern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and western Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.	eng
59853	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest streams.	eng
59853	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
59853	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
59853	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59853	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59853	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59853	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
59853	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams, and intensive agriculture.	eng
59853	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution, destruction and clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59854	conservation	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J. & V. Clausnitzer, 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59854	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59854	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mt Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, north Mozambique.	eng
59854	distribution	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J. & V. Clausnitzer, 2009	The species has been recorded from north South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi (Mt Mulanje), northern Mozambique. It is a southern African endemic.<br/><br/>Less than a 5% of its range occurs within Malawi, in the eastern Africa region	eng
59854	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane forest streams.	eng
59854	habitat	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J. & V. Clausnitzer, 2009	Montane forest streams.	eng
59854	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59854	population	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J. & V. Clausnitzer, 2009	No information available.	eng
59854	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59854	threats	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J. & V. Clausnitzer, 2009	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59855	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59855	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from coastal forests and lower slopes of Eastern Arc mountains in Kenya and Tanzania, for exact location of remaining coastal forests, refer to Burgess and Clarke (2000).	eng
59855	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	It inhabits coastal forests, depends on phytotelmata for breeding and needs dense forest understory.	eng
59855	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59855	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Destruction of coastal forest and coastal thicket caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species. It is though to be affected by drought due to climate change too.	eng
59856	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59856	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59856	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59856	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59856	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59856	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, its range extends from South Africa to DRC and Kenya.	eng
59856	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.	eng
59856	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>: The species is known from Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; probably present within Angola.	eng
59856	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.	eng
59856	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania (probably present from throughout the country), Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species has to be listed as Data Deficient for the region, as it is only recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
59856	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush.	eng
59856	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush.	eng
59856	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush.	eng
59856	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Lakes, pools, rivers and streams in savannah and thornbush. Easy to find, but very seasonal.	eng
59856	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59856	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59856	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59856	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59856	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59856	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59856	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats within the region, but it is thought that pollution is degrading the habitat.	eng
59856	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59856	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is affected by water pollution.	eng
59857	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59857	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59857	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59857	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59857	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, occurrence in Malawi assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-saharan central Africa except forest.	eng
59857	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda except forest and to west Africa, where scarce records are from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali. Occurrence in Malawi is assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo, though the latter needs confirmation. Occurrence in Central African Republic is assumed.	eng
59857	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scarce records from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda to west Africa.	eng
59857	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Lake Victoria. Widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda except forest and to west Africa, where scarce records are from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali. Occurrence in Malawi is assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo, though the latter needs confirmation. Occurrence in Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, occurrence in Malawi assumed, but not confirmed.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from the northeastern Africa region, but occurrence in northern Kenya and southern Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from scarce records from savannah belt of Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali.	eng
59857	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Lakes and open rivers.	eng
59857	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Lakes and slow rivers in savanna and thornbush.	eng
59857	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lakes and slow rivers in savanna and thornbush.	eng
59857	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Lakes and slow rivers in savannah and thornbush.	eng
59857	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59857	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59857	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59857	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59857	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59857	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59857	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59857	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is threatened by water and land pollution.	eng
59858	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59858	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59858	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59858	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59858	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59858	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north. There is only one record in Namibia and South Africa respectively. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59858	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59858	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; expected in the Central African Republic.	eng
59858	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria, possibly to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in more open parts of tropical Africa.	eng
59858	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, in Central African Republic expected.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, this record needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely as well. Listed Not Applicable for the region for the time being.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north. There is only one record in Namibia (on high mountain) and South Africa respectively.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria, possibly to Cameroon.	eng
59858	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59858	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59858	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59858	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59858	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59858	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59858	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59858	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59858	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59858	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59858	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59858	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59858	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59858	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in the region. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59858	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat loss due to agriculture.	eng
59859	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59859	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59859	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None needed	eng
59859	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None needed.	eng
59859	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ferreira, S., 2009	None needed.	eng
59859	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59859	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
59859	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
59859	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Crocothemis erythraea</em> is common and widespread in the whole of Africa, western Asia and southern Europe (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa, it is common and widespread.	eng
59859	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Crocothemis erythraea</em> is one of the most common and widespread species of Africa, western Asia and southern Europe. It is common and widespread in the southern half of Europe (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009) and in the south of Ukraine (Dyatlova 2006). In the last two decades it has been strongly expanding its range in the north being now indigenous to many areas were it previously did not occur (Ott 2007).	eng
59859	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59859	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, souther Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Australia.	eng
59859	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia; expected for Congo.	eng
59859	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Eritrea, and Chad assumed.	eng
59859	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Europe, Middle East and extends to Nepal in Asia.	eng
59859	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ferreira, S., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Australia. Currently expanding northwards in Europe. Present across the entire continent of Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,Centra African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia, Expected for Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is common and widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Eritrea, Chad and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over southern Africa. It is probably the most widespread species in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in Senegal and Gambia to Chad.	eng
59859	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread all over southern Africa. It is probably the most widespread species in the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and southern Asia.	eng
59859	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Almost any open stagnant water, including brackish lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
59859	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	It uses a wide variety of habitats except dense forest. The species prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species occurs at a wide range of running and standing, unshaded waters including rice paddies and brackish lagoons. In the north part of its range it is mostly found at not too shallow, well vegetated waters.	eng
59859	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ferreira, S., 2009	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Various habitats except dense forest, prefers stagnant water.	eng
59859	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59859	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59859	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59859	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59859	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ferreira, S., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59859	population	Suhling, F., 2006	The species has large populations all across its range.	eng
59859	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common in most of its range and is steadily expanding its range northwards.	eng
59859	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	The species is widespread and very common within the region.	eng
59859	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59859	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59859	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No known threats.	eng
59859	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59859	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59859	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not known at present.	eng
59859	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ferreira, S., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution.	eng
59859	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific threat.	eng
59860	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59860	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59860	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59860	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59860	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59860	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59860	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Unknown. More research is required to confirm the existence of this species in northern Africa, and the status of the population if it occurs there.	eng
59860	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Crocothemis sanguinolenta</em> is very common in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar (e.g., Suhling and Martens 2007) and is also found in Arabia (Al-Safadi 1990, Dumont and Al-Safadi 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997, Schneider and Parr 1998, Waterston 1985, Waterston and Pittaway 1991). In Northern Africa, there is only one record from Libyan Arab Jamahiriya(Neilsen 1935), and this record is difficult to confirm.	eng
59860	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread all over Africa, Middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59860	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. It is less common in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread all over Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia.	eng
59860	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread all over Africa, Middle East, southern Asia.	eng
59860	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been reported from Angola, Cameroon, Zambia Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic; expected to be present in Gabon.	eng
59860	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia. A Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, occurrence in Egypt, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59860	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated presence in Near East and Arabia.	eng
59860	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread all over Africa south of the Sahel, Middle East and southern Asia. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Zambia, Expected for Congo, Centra African Republic, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa,there is only one record from Libya (Neilsen 1935), and this record is difficult to confirm.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. It is less common in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Chad.	eng
59860	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59860	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Small, swift running waters, often with waterfalls. Often found sitting on rocks near the water.	eng
59860	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Suhling and Martens (2007) describe the species' typical habitat in Namibia as permanent springs in arid parts of mountain ranges, characterized by small, rocky and swift-flowing waters. In the Levant the species is found in exactly the same type of habitat. Larval development is said to take about 60 days which excludes the species to breed in temporary waters (Suhling and Martens 2007).	eng
59860	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59860	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59860	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59860	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Various habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59860	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59860	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59860	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends, however the species is widespread throughout the region.	eng
59860	population	Schneider, W., 2007	Only one record is known from northern Africa; there is no population information for the species in this region.	eng
59860	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59860	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59860	population	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59860	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	In the arid parts it is threatened by water extraction from springsbrooks. Elsewhere in its range there are no serious threats known.	eng
59860	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59860	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59860	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59860	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59860	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Nothing is known about the population or specific threats to the species in northern Africa. In general, <em>Crocothemis sanguinolenta</em> is a species occupying tropical freshwater habitats with relict populations in an arid region. Poor water management (irrigation, tourism, human consumption) and drought are therefore always possible threats.	eng
59860	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59861	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59861	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59861	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59861	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Mozambique to Zambia. There is a record from Liberia, but this is doubtful.	eng
59861	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique; Sierra Leonian records are erroneous and the Liberian ones unverified.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from nw Zambia; presence in northern Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.	eng
59861	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique; Sierra Leonian records are erroneous and the Liberian ones unverified. Only present in the eastern countries.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from north west Zambia, presence in northern Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.	eng
59861	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rocky pools and streams.	eng
59861	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rocky pools, streams.	eng
59861	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rocky pools, streams.	eng
59861	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59861	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59861	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59861	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
59861	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Intensive agriculture, drainage and pollution.	eng
59861	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and pollution resulting from habitat destruction due to agriculture.	eng
59863	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59863	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59863	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59863	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No widespread measures are known or recommended at present. Research on the full effects of insecticide spraying in the Botswana part of the would be useful. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59863	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No widespread measures known or recommended at present. Research on the full effects of insecticide spraying in the Botswana part of the would be useful.	eng
59863	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in swamps in the Okavango and Zambezi River catchments. May also occur in Angola, but taxonomic identification of the records here is unclear. Due to these uncertainties it is difficult to draw a complete range map for the species. Confirmed records within the region are widespread. Globally, it is known from Botswana, Zambia, Namibia to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.	eng
59863	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy habitats in Tanzanian and Malawian highlands (confusion of records with <em>D. okavangoensis</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Zambia, Tanzania.	eng
59863	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Botswana to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda; isolated records (confirmed) from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Albertville (also known as Kalemie); Bambesa; Bomboma; Eala; Garamba National Park; Lubumbashi), and Zambia; also reported from Angola.	eng
59863	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from 2 locations in Nigeria (Lagos and Jos Plateau).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana to north Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda; isolated records (confirmed) from Nigeria.	eng
59863	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Zambia and to extreme western Tanzania. Southern records are likely to belong to another species and there are also new records from Nigeria. It is now merged with <em>D. okavangoensis</em> as these are the same species (Dijkstra 2007). It has a very patchy distribution in most areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo (Albertville-Kalemie; Bambesa; Bomboma; Eala; Garamba National Park; Lubumbashi) and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy habitats in Tanzanian and Malawian highlands.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in swamps in the Okavango and Zambezi River catchments. It may also occur in Angola, but taxonomic identification of the records here is unclear. Confirmed records within the region are widespread. <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is only known from two locations in Nigeria (Lagos and Jos Plateau).	eng
59863	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
59863	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
59863	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps.	eng
59863	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59863	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59863	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59863	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59863	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known, but it is locally common.	eng
59863	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59863	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59863	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59863	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are known threats to the species. Insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana is also affecting to the species.	eng
59863	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59863	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Potentially, destruction of swampy habitats and insecticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana. Otherwise, threats are unknown.	eng
59863	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59864	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
59864	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59864	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59864	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59864	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Samraoui, B., 2009	None in place but policy-based actions, communication and education, and research into habitat status and population trends would all be valuable.	eng
59864	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59864	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	None required for this widespread species.	eng
59864	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59864	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not theatened and its conservation does not have priority. However information on its distribution and habitat is scant.	eng
59864	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is a very widespread and common species in Africa, accross the Indian Ocean and into Eurasia and Europe. In Africa it is found nearly everywhere outside forest areas. It is found from the  Indian subcontinent to southwest Asia and Arabia. In the Mediterranean  it is fairly common on the south and east coast. Its European range is  confined to Cyprus, the Greek island of Rhodes and the southern half of  the Iberian Peninsula.	eng
59864	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is a very widespread and common species in especially the non-forested parts of Africa. It is found from the Indian subcontinent to southwest Asia and Arabia. In the Mediterranean it is fairly common on the south and east coast. Its European range is confined to Cyprus, the Greek island of Rhodes and the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. Its range in Europe seems limited by climatological circumstances and the species might benefit from climate change.	eng
59864	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Diplacodes lefebvrii</em> is common throughout Africa, and extends across the Indian Ocean into Eurasia. In North Africa, the species has a scattered distribution across the whole of the region.	eng
59864	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.	eng
59864	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.	eng
59864	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Gabon, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; presence is assumed from the Central African Republic.	eng
59864	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59864	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and the Middle East, extending to Turkey and Iberia.	eng
59864	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, including Madagascar, and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, in Centra African Republic and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species has a scattered distribution across the whole of the region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad to Senegal and Gambia	eng
59864	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Almost all kinds of well-vegetated freshwater habitats, including  seasonal.	eng
59864	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Almost all kinds of well-vegetated freshwater habitats, including seasonal.	eng
59864	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Freshwater marshes and dunary slacks. The species is an ecologically flexible and resilient species.	eng
59864	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open swampy habitats.	eng
59864	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open swampy habitats.	eng
59864	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swampy habitats.	eng
59864	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Open swampy habitats, freshwater marshes and dunary slacks. The species is an ecologically flexible and resilient species.	eng
59864	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species inhabits standing, unshaded waters. In Europe it is always found at low altitudes often in coastal waters in dunes or coastal wetlands at the marshy edges of pools and lakes. In Cyprus, it was found at a dam lake with a vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha</span> spp. (Lopau and Adena 2002).	eng
59864	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
59864	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59864	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59864	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59864	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59864	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Population size is unknown, although it is known to be locally abundant in northern Africa.	eng
59864	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p>  Population size is unknown.</p>	eng
59864	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Within its distribution area the species can be locally common.	eng
59864	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59864	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59864	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59864	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture, ground water extraction, human settlement and pollution.	eng
59864	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications.	eng
59864	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59864	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None at present.	eng
59864	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No serious threats are currently known to be affecting the species.	eng
59866	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59866	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59866	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59866	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59866	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59866	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	<br/>The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Burundi.  <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from a record from Tsuda in Somalia but this requires confirmation. It is assumed to be present in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in perennial rivers in most of the region.	eng
59866	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in perennial rivers in most of the region. Globally, it is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.	eng
59866	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.	eng
59866	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern and Southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.	eng
59866	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Eastern and Southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia; a record from Somalia record (Tsuda) requires confirmation. Uganda assumed.	eng
59866	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady rivers and streams, occasionally shorelines of lakes.	eng
59866	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady rivers and streams, occasionally shorelines of lakes.	eng
59866	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Shady rivers and streams, occasionally shorelines of lakes.	eng
59866	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Shady rivers and streams, occasionally shorelines of lakes.	eng
59866	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59866	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59866	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59866	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59866	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59866	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Destruction of gallery forest due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59866	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59866	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59866	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. There may be no threats seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
59867	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59867	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59867	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59867	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, and monitoring is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and the creation of corridors.	eng
59867	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Mali and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Central African Republic. Its presence in Congo is assumed.	eng
59867	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59867	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Mali and Gambia.	eng
59867	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Mali and Gambia<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic It is assumed to be also present in Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
59867	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It is known from woodland streams, open streams and rivers.	eng
59867	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams and rivers.	eng
59867	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Woodland streams and rivers.	eng
59867	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Woodland streams and rivers.	eng
59867	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59867	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59867	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59867	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59867	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59867	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59867	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution are threats to this species.	eng
59867	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59869	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59869	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59869	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59869	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59869	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59869	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from streams in Angola (Congo Basin and coastal rivers), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Zambezi System). It is also very likely to occur in Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda to West Africa. The subspecies <em>quadrigutta</em> occurs in Zimbabwe.	eng
59869	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Turiani Forest (Tanzania), Uganda record (Bwamba Forest) not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to western Africa, subspecies quadrigutta from Zimbabwe.	eng
59869	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to western Africa, subspecies <em>quadrigutta</em> from Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon and Zambia; it is assumed for Equatorial Guinea and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59869	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe and Tanzania to Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59869	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda west to West Africa, subspecies quadrigutta from Zimbabwe. Likely to be present within the Eastern Arcs in Tanzania (based on a siblge record from Turiani, Tanzania).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Turiani Forest (Tanzania), Uganda record (Bwamba Forest) not confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from streams in Angola (Congo Basin and coastal rivers), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Zambezi System). It is also very likely to occur in Mozambique.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria	eng
59869	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and streams with shade.	eng
59869	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers and streams with shade.	eng
59869	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and streams with shade.	eng
59869	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rivers and streams with shade. Mostly a lowland forest species.	eng
59869	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rivers and streams with shade, usually in forest.	eng
59869	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59869	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59869	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59869	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59869	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59869	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59869	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59869	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution are inferred threats.	eng
59869	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution is a major threat.	eng
59869	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59870	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59870	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59870	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59870	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59870	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59870	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.	eng
59870	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from savannah in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59870	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Uganda across to northern Cote d'Ivoire and also into the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, record from Angola needs confirmation. Dundo (Angola) record dubious; uncertain locality. If the latter proves to be true, a wider distribution in the Congo Basin can be anticipated.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species was only recorded from savannah in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. Most likely extends to Sierra Leone (Dijkstra, pers. comm.).	eng
59870	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest rivers.	eng
59870	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest rivers in Congo Basin, but probably only savannah in western Africa.	eng
59870	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest rivers in Congo Basin, but probably only savannah in western Africa.	eng
59870	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams and rivers, in forest in Congo Basin, but probably only savannah in western Africa.	eng
59870	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59870	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59870	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59870	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unkown.	eng
59870	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59870	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction, pollution and intensive agriculture.	eng
59870	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59870	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
59871	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59871	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59871	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. No conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present.	eng
59871	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. No conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59871	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in central and western Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo,  north east Angola.	eng
59871	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, the species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Republic of Congo, Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in Zambia reported.	eng
59871	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.	eng
59871	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in central and western Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species has to be listed as Data Deficient for the region, as it is only recorded from northern Kenya. Nevertheless, the species is assumed to occur in southern Ethiopia and southern Sudan as well and is most likely more common in northern Kenya than currently known.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. In South Africa, only three specimens are known, from Skukuza, Kruger National Park (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59871	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is known from all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. In South Africa, only three specimens are known, from Skukuza, Kruger National Park (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, DRC, Angola, Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa.	eng
59871	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	In central, eastern and northeastern Africa, the species is present in streams and rivers in forest and woodlands.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it occurs in streams and rivers in forest and woodland as well as in wet savannah regions. Locally abundant along the Kwando River in Namibia, where it flows through high reeds.	eng
59871	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
59871	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
59871	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland as well as in wet savanna regions. Locally abundant along the Kwando River in Namibia, where it flows through high reeds.	eng
59871	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
59871	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59871	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59871	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59871	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unkown.	eng
59871	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59871	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59871	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Destruction of gallery forest and water pollution due to agriculture are major threats to the species. In southern Africa, there are no threats known across most of its range.	eng
59871	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known across most of its range.	eng
59872	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59872	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59872	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed.	eng
59872	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59872	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59872	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from central Africa, west Uganda to Nigeria, and Angola to the Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.	eng
59872	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to central and western Africa.	eng
59872	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from central Africa, west Uganda to Nigeria, and Angola to Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, forests around Kampala (Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
59872	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59872	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest, probably in temporary pools.	eng
59872	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy rainforest.	eng
59872	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy rainforest.	eng
59872	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59872	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59872	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59872	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59872	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59872	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59872	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59872	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59873	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59873	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59873	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59873	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Research into trends, population and habitat requirments is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59873	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in appropriate habitats except coastal areas.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> West Kenya to north Malawi and to western Africa.	eng
59873	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to north Malawi and to Nigeria and Togo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Angola and Zambia.	eng
59873	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is present in all forested areas in the region. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to north Malawi and to western Africa.	eng
59873	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to north Malawi and to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in appropriate habitats except coastal areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in all forested areas in the region.	eng
59873	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59873	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59873	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest in temporary pools.	eng
59873	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59873	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59873	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59873	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59873	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59873	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59873	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59873	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59873	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59874	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59874	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59874	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59874	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is also needed.	eng
59874	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59874	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59874	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is probably present in all forested areas in the region. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59874	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Somalia by Carfi (1974) citing Nielsen (1935). This record must be erroneous, as this tropical species is unlikely to occur in Somalia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is probably present in all forested areas in the region	eng
59874	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest in temporary pools.	eng
59874	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59874	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59874	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59874	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59874	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59874	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59874	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59874	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59874	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59874	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59874	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59875	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59875	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
59875	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kichi Hills, Tongwe Forest (both coastal forests of Tanzania), Nkatha Bay (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Democratic Republic of Congo, east Tanzania, Malawi.	eng
59875	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Tanzania, and Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kichi Hills, Tongwe Forest (both coastal forests of Tanzania), Nkatha Bay (Malawi).	eng
59875	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Dense forest.	eng
59875	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59875	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59875	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59875	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59875	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction.	eng
59876	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59876	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59876	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59876	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59876	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59876	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is needed.	eng
59876	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. Globally, it is known from South Africa to Sudan and West Africa.	eng
59876	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Sudan and western Africa.	eng
59876	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and western Africa (Benin). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is has only been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.	eng
59876	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Somalia within the region, occurrence in northern Kenya, southern Ethiopia and Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and West Africa (Benin).	eng
59876	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Sudan and Guinea-Bissau, probably present wherever there is open forest or thick bush.	eng
59876	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from eastern coast of South Africa, then northwards and west to Sudan and West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has only been recorded from southern, eastern, and northwestern (these specimens are a dark form) Democratic Republic of Congo (absent from central Congo basin), and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia within the region, occurrence in northern Kenya, southern Ethiopia and Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is inferred to also occur in Botswana. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.	eng
59876	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Bush and open woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species.	eng
59876	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Bush- and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span> species.	eng
59876	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species.	eng
59876	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <em>Gynacantha</em> species. Along swampy rivers. A crepuscular species.	eng
59876	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest and woodland, in drier habitats than other African <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha </span>species.	eng
59876	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59876	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59876	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
59876	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59876	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59876	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59876	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59876	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59876	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59876	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59877	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed.	eng
59877	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59877	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59877	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59877	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59877	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59877	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is known from only eight collections in two localities in northwest Zambia (as <em>G. sevastopuli</em>) (Pinhey 1984). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, the species is recorded from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.	eng
59877	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, Mabira Forest, Kyambura Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.	eng
59877	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Ethiopia to Benin and Sierra Leone in western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Congo, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, but most likely found in the Central African Republic and Gabon as well.	eng
59877	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Ethiopia to Benin and Sierra Leone in West Africa.	eng
59877	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria; probably occurs in all forested countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It ranges from Ethiopia, Uganda and north Zambia into western Africa.	eng
59877	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has only been recorded from Congo, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, but most likely found in Central African Republic and Gabon as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park, Mabira Forest, Kyambura Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (remnant from earlier connection to the western populations; Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from only eight collections in two localities in northwest Zambia (as <em>G. sevastopuli</em>) (Pinhey 1984). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin and Nigeria; probably occurs in all forested countries.	eng
59877	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	A crepuscular species that occurs in forest habitat.	eng
59877	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59877	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59877	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
59877	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This crepuscular species is found in forested habitat.	eng
59877	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59877	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59877	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available on population size or trends.	eng
59877	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59877	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59877	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59877	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59877	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59877	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59877	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. It is inferred that forest destruction may be a threat.	eng
59878	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59878	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59878	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59878	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59878	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into trends, population and habitat requirements is needed. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59878	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is recorded from Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally it occurs in northwest Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59878	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59878	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.	eng
59878	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria; may occur in all forested countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-west Zambia and west Uganda to western Africa,	eng
59878	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northwest Zambia and west Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is recorded from Angola and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is scarcer than most other Gynacantha species. Now known from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria; may occur in all forested countries.	eng
59878	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59878	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59878	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
59878	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in forest habitats. A crepuscular species.	eng
59878	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59878	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
59878	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59878	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59878	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59878	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59878	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59878	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59878	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59878	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59878	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59879	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59879	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Occurs in some protected areas. Protection of coastal forest habitat and conservation education of communities would be of some benefit to the species. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59879	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in some protected areas. Protection of coastal forest habitat would be of some benefit to the species. More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59879	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, it occurs in coastal forest areas of eastern and southern Africa (Kenya to South Africa, Malawi).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests and Eastern Arc forests of Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique and South Africa (as <em>Gynacantha zuluensis</em>) (Pinhey 1981, Tarboton and Tarboton 2002). It may have a much wider range than currently known because it is difficult to record due its habits.	eng
59879	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique and South Africa (as <em>Gynacantha zuluensis</em>) (Pinhey 1981, Tarbotaon and Tarboton 2002). It may have a much wider range than currently known because it is difficult to record because of its habits. Globally, it occurs in coastal forest areas of eastern and southern Africa (Kenya to South Africa, Malawi).	eng
59879	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests and Eastern Arc forests of Kenya,Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa, Malawi.	eng
59879	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Mainly coastal forests.	eng
59879	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Mainly coastal forests.	eng
59879	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Mainly coastal forests (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).	eng
59879	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59879	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59879	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59879	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of coastal forest and coastal thicket.	eng
59879	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Destruction of coastal forest and coastal thicket.	eng
59879	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Destruction of coastal forest and thicket due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.	eng
59880	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59880	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59880	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59880	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59880	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Research is needed to determine the range (particularly within Angola).	eng
59880	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into the species taxonomy and population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is required.	eng
59880	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa the species occurs in Mozambique and Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It is also recorded in Angola, but may often be confused with <em>G. villosa</em> here therefore its range in this area is uncertain. It also occurs outside the southern Africa region in Zambia. Globally, it is recorded from Ethiopia, north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59880	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in area of occurrence, often confused with G. villosa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from North Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59880	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. villosa</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.	eng
59880	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. Villosa</em>.	eng
59880	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone.	eng
59880	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from north Malawi, west Tanzania and west Uganda to Sierra Leone. The species has often been confused with <em>G. villosa</em>. Eastern Tanzania, Mozambican records erroneous; southern Democratic Republic of Congo records require checking. Ethiopian record identification is correct; isolated population.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in area of occurrence, often confused with <em>G. villosa</em>.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in Mozambique and Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). It is also recorded in Angola, but may often be confused with <em>G. villosa</em> here therefore its range in this area is uncertain. It also occurs outside the southern Africa region in Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in Cameroon to Sierra Leone.	eng
59880	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59880	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59880	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest (possibly in temporary pools).	eng
59880	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest. This is a crepuscular species.	eng
59880	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59880	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59880	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59880	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59880	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59880	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59880	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59880	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59880	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59880	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59880	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but forest destruction is inferred.	eng
59881	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59881	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59881	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59881	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on conservation measures in place throughout most of the species' range.  In South Africa, no specific measures are in place and none are envisaged. However, it is important to continue to monitor overall conservation of coastal swamp forest (Samways 2006).	eng
59881	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into the species' taxonomy and population trends, and conservation of the species' habitat is needed.	eng
59881	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Northeastern Africa region:</em> Recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done.<br/><br/><em>Global distribution:</em> Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern	eng
59881	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from east Kenya to Uganda, Natal and north Botswana.	eng
59881	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Central African Republic.	eng
59881	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, south to Natal and northern Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from southern Ethiopia (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), might occur in southern Sudan and northern Kenya as well, where hardly any surveys have been done. Currently not applicable for the region, because less than 5% of the populations occurs in the assessment region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded from Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Namibia (east Caprivi). It is found only in the tropical parts of these countries. In South Africa, it is known only from swamp forest in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). <br/><br/>All previous records from western Africa are considered erroneous (Dijkstra 2005) as it is not present within the region.	eng
59881	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is recorded from Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Namibia (East Caprivi). It is found only in the tropical parts of these countries. In South Africa, it is known only from swamp forest in coastal KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species occurs from eastern Kenya to Uganda, Natal (South Africa) and northern Botswana.	eng
59881	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest and thick bush. Streams in swamp forest (Samways 2006). This is a crepuscular species.	eng
59881	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest, thick bush.	eng
59881	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest, thick bush.	eng
59881	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest, thick bush.	eng
59881	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59881	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59881	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59881	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59881	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59881	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59881	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction is a threat to the species. Loss of habitat through tree removal, agriculture and the construction of infrastructures for ecotourism (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59881	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction. Loss of habitat through tree removal and the construction of infrastructures for ecotourism (Samways 2006).	eng
59882	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59882	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59882	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59882	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59882	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59882	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Angola and western Africa.	eng
59882	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Angola and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia.	eng
59882	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species' range extends from Congo Basin to western Kenya, north Zambia and Guinea.	eng
59882	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	There has so far been only one record of this species known in the southern Africa region; in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. Its occurrence in east Angola is very likely, but not yet confirmed. It is estimated that the region holds less than 5% of the global population. Globally, it has been recorded from west Kenya to Angola (Congo River basin) and West Africa.	eng
59882	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to Angola and West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, in Congo and Angola assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is only know from one record in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. Its occurrence in east Angola is very likely, but not yet confirmed. It is estimated that the region holds less than 5% of the global population.	eng
59882	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest, breeds in phytothelmata (tree-holes etc.).	eng
59882	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59882	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59882	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59882	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59882	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59882	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59882	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends unknown.	eng
59882	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59882	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59882	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59882	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59882	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59882	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59882	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.	eng
59883	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59883	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59883	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59883	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59883	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rainforests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59883	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea; Angola record unlikely, needs confirmation.	eng
59883	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea.	eng
59883	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (southern records (southwestern Democratic Republic of Congo, Elizabethville) are unlikely), Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; Angola record unlikely, needs confirmation<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rainforests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
59883	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest pools and puddles.	eng
59883	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest pools and puddles.	eng
59883	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest pools and puddles.	eng
59883	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and puddles in rainforest.	eng
59883	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59883	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59883	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59883	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59883	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59883	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59883	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59883	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59884	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.	eng
59884	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.	eng
59884	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59884	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59884	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59884	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from five records from two localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It is likely to also be found in east Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, Angola (Congo basin), and Zambia to West Africa.	eng
59884	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi, and swampy forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia to western Africa.	eng
59884	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia and Gabon.	eng
59884	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59884	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed in Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swampy forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from five records from two localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It is likely to also be found in east Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.	eng
59884	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59884	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59884	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59884	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest.	eng
59884	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest pools.	eng
59884	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59884	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59884	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Nothing known about population size or trends.	eng
59884	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59884	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59884	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59884	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59884	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59884	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59884	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.	eng
59885	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59885	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59885	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59885	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59885	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59885	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon	eng
59885	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
59885	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa. Northern and western Kenya records are erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.	eng
59885	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools in rainforest.	eng
59885	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools in rainforest.	eng
59885	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools in rainforest.	eng
59885	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools in rainforest.	eng
59885	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59885	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59885	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59885	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59885	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59885	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59885	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59885	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59886	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.	eng
59886	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59886	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59886	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is needed into possible conservation measures, and monitoring of this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridors are also required.	eng
59886	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from seven records from six localities in the region; in Mozambique, eastern border of Zimbabwe and upper Zambezi rapids in northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya to Mozambique, and Malawi.	eng
59886	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi.	eng
59886	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi; Kapanga).	eng
59886	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Mozambique, Malawi, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbash and Kapanga)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal forests in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from seven records from six localities in the region; in Mozambique, eastern border of Zimbabwe and upper Zambezi rapids in north west Zambia.	eng
59886	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Coastal and other forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59886	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Coastal forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59886	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Coastal forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59886	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Coastal forests, reproduction in phytothelmata.	eng
59886	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59886	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59886	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59886	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59886	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59886	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59886	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59886	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.	eng
59887	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats.	eng
59887	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, specific habitat requirements and threats. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59887	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59887	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59887	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59887	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from ten records in four localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It possibly also occurs in east Angola and DRC. Globally, it  has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa and Zambia.	eng
59887	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: 1 record labelled:  "north west shore Lake Victoria, Uganda".<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59887	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Zambia and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia	eng
59887	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Zambia and Guinea.	eng
59887	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to West Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: one record labelled: "north west shore Lake Victoria, Uganda".<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from ten records in four localities in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It possibly also occurs in east Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria	eng
59887	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59887	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59887	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59887	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest.	eng
59887	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest pools.	eng
59887	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59887	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59887	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Nothing is known about population size or trend.	eng
59887	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59887	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59887	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59887	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59887	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59887	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59887	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Very likely to be threatened by forest destruction.	eng
59888	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population, threats and ecology.	eng
59888	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59888	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59888	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59888	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59888	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, only three collections are known, all from the same locality in the upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, and north Zambia to Cameroon.	eng
59888	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon.	eng
59888	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia	eng
59888	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species may occur in the Cameroon section of the western Africa region. Possible record from Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and north Zambia to Cameroon.	eng
59888	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, north Zambia to Cameroon, and along the southern coast of western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species occurs in the Cameroon section of the Western Africa region, and found westwards along the coast.	eng
59888	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	A forest species.	eng
59888	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59888	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59888	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
59888	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59888	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59888	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59888	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59888	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59888	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59888	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59888	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59888	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction is likely to be the main threat.	eng
59888	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59888	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59889	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59889	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59889	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59889	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon	eng
59889	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> all <em>Heliaeschna</em> records are considered to pertain to this species. Probably present in all forested areas, Gambia record therefore deserves confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to western Africa,	eng
59889	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Western Africa to Uganda, and south to southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>All <em>Heliaeschna</em> records in western Africa are considered to belong to this species. It is probably present in all forested areas.	eng
59889	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59889	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
59889	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59889	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59889	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
59889	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59889	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation and intensive agriculture.	eng
59889	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.	eng
59889	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59890	conservation	Kipping, J., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59890	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59890	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59890	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59890	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59890	distribution	Kipping, J., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from one collection in Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Mozambique on the east coast of Lake Malawi. It is estimated that less than 5% of the known global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, possibly to Nigeria.	eng
59890	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda, west Tanzania and north Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, possibly to Nigeria.	eng
59890	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, north Malawi and north-west Zambia, and possibly to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.	eng
59890	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Nigeria (in the national list) where the identification of the specimens is questioned (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia, listed for Nigeria but this is doubtful.	eng
59890	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to north Malawi and north-west Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda, west Tanzania and north Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from one collection in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Mozambique on the east coast of Lake Malawi. It is estimated that less than 5% of the known global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from Nigeria (in the national list) where the identification of the specimens is questioned (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Highly unlikely from western Africa.	eng
59890	habitat	Kipping, J., 2006	A forest species.	eng
59890	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59890	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59890	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
59890	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59890	population	Kipping, J., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59890	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59890	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59890	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59890	population	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59890	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59890	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59890	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59890	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59890	threats	Kipping, J., 2006	Unknown, but it is potentially affected by destruction of forest.	eng
59891	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59891	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59891	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59891	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in  Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
59891	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
59891	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.	eng
59891	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59891	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59891	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59891	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59891	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59891	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59891	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59891	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59891	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59892	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Research into biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59892	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	At global level, it is only known from eastern Africa, where it has been in forests of Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Burundi.	eng
59892	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Found in forested habitats.	eng
59892	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59892	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59893	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59893	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59893	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59893	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59893	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59893	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59893	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical parts of the region, ranging south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59893	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59893	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Gabon and Congo.	eng
59893	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded Ethiopia, Uganda and Sudan within the region; for northern Kenya assumed in appropriate habitats.	eng
59893	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59893	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa to northern southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Gabon and Congo assumed<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Ethiopia within the region, for northern Kenya and Uganda and southern Sudan assumed in appropriate habitats. Listed as Data Deficient, since scarcity of records mirror most likely the lack of surveys.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical parts of the region, ranging south to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Chad.	eng
59893	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swampy habitats.	eng
59893	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59893	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59893	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59893	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59893	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59893	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59893	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59893	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59893	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59893	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59893	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution, are threats to the species.<br/>In southern Africa, locally introduced sticky grasses (<em>Setaria</em>) may affect the population.	eng
59893	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59893	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No major threats; locally introduced sticky grasses (<em>Setaria</em>) may affect the population.	eng
59893	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59893	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59894	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59894	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59894	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59894	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59894	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59894	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59894	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in all countries except for Swaziland and Lesotho. Globally, the species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59894	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59894	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic. Assumed in appropriate habitats in the entire region, including Angola.	eng
59894	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia, for Sudan and Ethiopia assumed.	eng
59894	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Guinea<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.	eng
59894	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Central African Republic. Assumed in appropriate habitats in the entire region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is widespread in tropical Africa, yet many country records are suspect and require confirmation. Present in Ethiopia, but probably only from a single record.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in all countries except for Swaziland and Lesotho.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Guinea	eng
59894	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Any open stagnant or slow-flowing water.	eng
59894	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush and forest.	eng
59894	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush, forest.	eng
59894	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush, forest.	eng
59894	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Various habitats, lakes, rivers, stream in savannah, bush, forest.	eng
59894	population	Suhling, F., 2006	A fairly common species that is not in decline.	eng
59894	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59894	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59894	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59894	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a fairly common species that is not in decline.	eng
59894	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59894	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution in the vicinity of cities.	eng
59894	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
59894	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.	eng
59894	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.	eng
59895	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59895	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59895	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59895	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Angola to west Uganda and north east Democratic Republic of Congo(?).	eng
59895	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia, west Uganda (Semliki) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and the Central African Republic.	eng
59895	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from north-east Angola to west Uganda and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>Central Africa: it is a Congo Basin species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia, west Uganda (Semliki) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu). There is also a sight record from Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>So far, this species has not been recorded within the southern Africa region. It is a Congo species, recorded from Angola and north Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from north-east Angola (Congo Basin) and north Zambia, to west Uganda and possibly north-east Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59895	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59895	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59895	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
59895	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59895	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59895	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59895	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59895	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59895	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.	eng
59896	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends are needed. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59896	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	At global level, the species is only known from Bwindi National Park in Uganda.	eng
59896	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59896	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59896	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59897	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
59897	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59897	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59897	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59897	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59897	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59897	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	None needed in the Mediterranean as a whole. More data are required on the species' range and population status in northern Africa.	eng
59897	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59897	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> has an enormous distribution area ranging from Japan, southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, and the Indian Ocean Islands (including Madagascar and Soqotra) to Africa. In Africa it is very common south of the Sahara, reaching the north of the continent only in Egypt (Nile valley) (Andres 1928, Geene 1994) and via the Sinai the southern Levant (Schneider 1986, Dumont 1991). Within the Northern Africa region, <em>I. senegalensis</em> is known only from Egypt and one unconfirmed record from Mauritania.	eng
59897	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread across the whole region. Globally, this is a very widespread species in warm regions of the Old World, but is absent from densely forested areas.	eng
59897	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura senegalensis</span> is extremely widespread in tropical and subtropical parts of the old world, extending from Africa to Japan and south to western New Guinea, but is absent from areas with intact forest cover.<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
59897	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.	eng
59897	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
59897	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan, for Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti assumed.	eng
59897	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is the most widespread damselfly in western Africa, although probably beaten by Ceriagrion glabrum in abundance.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is very widespread in warm regions of the Old World, but absent from densely forested areas.	eng
59897	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is very widespread in warm regions of Old World, but absent from densely forested areas and the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Principe. Assumed in the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is known only from Egypt and one unconfirmed record from Mauritania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its presence in Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread across the entire region. <br/><br/>It is one of the most widespread damselfly species in western Africa, although probably less abundant than <em>Ceriagrion glabrum</em>.	eng
59897	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Prefers stagnant water bodies like dams, pools, lakes and slow flowing rivers with emergent riparian vegetation (grass, reeds, sedges). As <em>Ischnura evansi</em> it tolerates saline/brackish waters (Schneider 1981b). According to Suhling and Martens (2007) the adults are vagrants that may colonize even very isolated habitats.	eng
59897	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species occupies a variety of stagnant and slowly flowing waterbodies, and is salt and pollution tolerant.	eng
59897	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Various habitats, especially open stagnant waters, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).	eng
59897	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g. near hot springs).	eng
59897	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).	eng
59897	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).	eng
59897	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).	eng
59897	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Various habitats, especially open stagnant water, tolerant to saline and polluted water (e.g., near hotsprings).	eng
59897	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59897	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59897	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No information is available for this species. Where it occurs it is common.	eng
59897	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However this is a very widespread and adaptable species and population size is expected to be high.	eng
59897	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59897	population	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59897	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is an extremely common species over much of its range.	eng
59897	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59897	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59897	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59897	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No current threats.	eng
59897	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	No known threats to this species in the Mediterranean as a whole. More data are required from the Northern Africa region.	eng
59897	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59897	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
59898	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59898	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59898	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59898	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59898	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is recorded from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola to Mozambique, southern Tanzania, Malawi, and possibly also Congo and DRC.	eng
59898	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi and southern Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to southernTanzania and Angola.	eng
59898	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to southern Tanzania and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59898	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to southern Tanzania and Angola. In central Africa recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi in eastern Africa (Malawi and southern Tanzania, not all records with locality); in southern Africa this species is recorded from Angola, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
59898	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, pools in forest and bush.	eng
59898	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, pools in forest and bush.	eng
59898	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams, pools in forest and bush.	eng
59898	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, pools in forest and bush.	eng
59898	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59898	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59898	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59898	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59898	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59898	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59898	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59898	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats within the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59899	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In southern Africa, the species occurs within protected areas across its range.	eng
59899	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59899	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59899	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59899	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59899	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	The species occurs within protected areas across its range.	eng
59899	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to South Africa and western Africa.	eng
59899	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia; is assumed to be present in Angola.	eng
59899	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from two sites in the region (L. Baringo, Kenya, and Uganda). A wider distribution is assumed.	eng
59899	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad (record from Chad must be confirmed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north-east South Africa and Senegal.	eng
59899	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to northeastern South Africa and Senegal; record from Chad and Senegal must be confirmed.<br/> <br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In all five is considered common and widespread (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from one site in the region (L. Baringo, Kenya). A wider distribution is assumed.<br/><br/>Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in all countries except Angola. In South Africa, the species is very rare (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad (record from both must be confirmed)	eng
59899	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in all countries except Angola (so far). In South Africa, the species is very rare (Samways 2006). Globally, the species occurs from Kenya to South Africa and West Africa.	eng
59899	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Recorded from swamps, grassy pools, and quiet streams.	eng
59899	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, grassy pools.	eng
59899	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, grassy pools, quiet streams.	eng
59899	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, grassy pools, quiet streams.	eng
59899	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, grassy pools, quiet streams.	eng
59899	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59899	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59899	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59899	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59899	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59899	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59899	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are the main plausible threats to the species. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range	eng
59899	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are the main plausible threats to the species. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.	eng
59899	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59899	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59899	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59900	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Some of the species distribution occurs in protected areas.	eng
59900	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59900	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59900	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59900	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs within protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
59900	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59900	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to north east South Africa and Cote d'Ivoire and probably to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan in the region, but assumed for northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia as well.	eng
59900	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Cote d'Ivoire and probably Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to north east South Africa and probably to Senegal.	eng
59900	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to northeast South Africa and Cote d'Ivoire and probably to Senegal.<br/><br/>The species has not yet recorded from central Africa, but occurrence likely in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan in the region, but assumed for northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia as well.<br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa (from a limited area in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006)), Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Cote d'Ivoire and probably Senegal	eng
59900	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is known from Mozambique, South Africa (from a limited area in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006)), Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it occurs in West Africa, east to Kenya and south to South Africa.	eng
59900	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Seasonal pools.	eng
59900	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Seasonal pools.	eng
59900	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Seasonal pools.	eng
59900	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Seasonal pools.	eng
59900	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Seasonal pools in savannah areas; not found within forested areas.	eng
59900	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59900	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59900	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or threats.	eng
59900	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59900	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59900	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59900	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are the main plausible threats. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.	eng
59900	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are the main plausible threats. However, this species is unlikely to be threatened across its whole range.	eng
59900	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59900	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59901	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59901	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59901	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59901	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59901	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59901	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from West Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.	eng
59901	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.	eng
59901	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Kenya and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in the Central African Republic and Congo.	eng
59901	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Kenya and Zimbabwe.	eng
59901	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Africa to Kenya and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, in northern Democratic Republic of Congo; assumed present in Central African Republic and Congo. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. <br/><br/>The species is known from South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe in southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Gambia. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, which needs confirmation; considered not present in northeastern Africa for the region until more surveys confirm presence (or absence) in the region.<br/><br/>Records require careful scrutiny as often confused with other <em>Lestes</em> species.	eng
59901	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open pools and slow streams.	eng
59901	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open pools, slow streams.	eng
59901	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open pools, slow streams.	eng
59901	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open pools, slow streams.	eng
59901	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open pools, slow streams in open and savannah areas; avoids forested areas.	eng
59901	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59901	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59901	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59901	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59901	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59901	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59901	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred potential threats. However, it is thought unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59901	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred potential threats. However, it is thought unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59901	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59901	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59902	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population trends would be valuable.	eng
59902	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59902	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59902	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59902	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Research required into trends/monitoring.	eng
59902	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59902	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa and Arabia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59902	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread. It has been recorded from all countries in the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and Arabia.	eng
59902	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia.	eng
59902	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Zambia; assumed in the northern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic.	eng
59902	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The species is common and widespread.	eng
59902	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread across the region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).	eng
59902	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa and Arabia, appears to be the only Lestes extending deep into the Sahel (Mauritania, Niger).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it assumed in the northern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Centra African Republic<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Common and widespread.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread. It has been recorded from all countries in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread across the region.	eng
59902	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open, often temporary, pools; may occur in very arid areas.	eng
59902	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.	eng
59902	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.	eng
59902	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.	eng
59902	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.	eng
59902	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open pools and streams, often in seasonal habitats.	eng
59902	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59902	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59902	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59902	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59902	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59902	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59902	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59902	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59902	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species..	eng
59902	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59902	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59902	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59902	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59903	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59903	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59903	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59903	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59903	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59903	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It most likely also occurs in Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Tanzania to Botswana, and also Nigeria.	eng
59903	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi, southern Tanzania (see also Pinhey 1980), no precise locality for the Uganda record (in NMK, Nairobi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana and Angola, also Nigeria.	eng
59903	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia. Expected from northern Angola, northern Congo and northern the Central African Republic as well.	eng
59903	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been reported for Nigeria, and recently found in northern Ghana (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Tanzania to Botswana and Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.	eng
59903	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Tanzania to Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Nigeria and Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, expected from northern Democratic Republic of Congo, n. Congo and north Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Malawi, southern Tanzania (see also Pinhey 1980), no precise locality for the Uganda record (in NMK, Nairobi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It most likely also occurs in Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported for Nigeria, and recently found in northern Ghana (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
59903	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and swamps.	eng
59903	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and swamps.	eng
59903	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and swamps.	eng
59903	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swamps.	eng
59903	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps, often along perennial rivers.	eng
59903	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59903	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59903	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59903	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59903	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59903	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59903	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59903	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59903	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59903	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
59904	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59904	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59904	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59904	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59904	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59904	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59904	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59904	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Southern  Democratic Republic of Congo; presence within Zambia and Angola is likely.	eng
59904	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59904	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, which needs confirmation. Listed NA for the region, until more surveys confirm presence (or absence) in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria	eng
59904	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Slow streams, pools and swamps. The species favours streams more than other <em>Lestes</em> species.	eng
59904	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Slow streams, pools, swamps (favours streams more than other <em>Lestes</em> species).	eng
59904	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Slow streams, pools, swamps (favours streams more than other <em>Lestes</em> species).	eng
59904	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Slow streams, pools, swamps (favours streams more than other Lestes species).	eng
59904	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and associated pools and swamps (favours streams more than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes</span> species).	eng
59904	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59904	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59904	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59904	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59904	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59904	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59904	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59904	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59904	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59904	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59905	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59905	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59905	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59905	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59905	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59905	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59905	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59905	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59905	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kundelengu Plateau), Angola, Zambia, Gabon and Congo.	eng
59905	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution</strong>: The species is present in Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia, for Kenya and Sudan assumed.	eng
59905	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/>Globa distribution: The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.	eng
59905	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kundelengu Plateau)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, for Sudan assumed<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Togo presence in Guinea and Senegal requires confirmation.	eng
59905	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and lake shores.	eng
59905	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, lake shores.	eng
59905	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, lake shores.	eng
59905	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, lake shores.	eng
59905	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, lake shores.	eng
59905	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59905	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59905	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59905	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59905	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59905	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59905	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59905	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59905	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59905	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59905	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59906	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59906	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59906	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59906	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59906	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available. Further information on the species ecology, habitats, distribution and threats are required.	eng
59906	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59906	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59906	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59906	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; occurrence in northern the Central African Republic and northern Congo is assumed	eng
59906	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from one locality in Somalia. A wider distribution (northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia) is assumed.	eng
59906	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.	eng
59906	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Kenya and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in northern Central African Republic and n. Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only known from one locality in Somalia, thus listed NA for the region. A wider distribution (northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia) is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria	eng
59906	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and slow streams.	eng
59906	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, slow streams.	eng
59906	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, slow streams.	eng
59906	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, slow streams.	eng
59906	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, slow streams; found in forested areas in Botswana.	eng
59906	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59906	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59906	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59906	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59906	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59906	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59906	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, it is unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59906	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are the inferred threats. However, it is unlikely that this species is seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59906	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59906	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59906	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59907	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59907	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59907	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59907	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59907	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59907	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59907	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.	eng
59907	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.	eng
59907	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, occurrence in Congo, Angola and the Central African Republic is assumed.	eng
59907	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia in the region, but assumed in appropriate habitats in southern Sudan as well.	eng
59907	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ethiopia and South Africa.	eng
59907	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and South Africa. Possibly present further west to highland areas in Nigeria and Cameroon, but not known.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, occurrence in Congo and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Ethiopia in the region, but assumed in appropriate habitats in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries, except for Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Ethiopia and southern Africa.	eng
59907	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	A highly seasonal species (Clausnitzer pers. comm.). Pools, swamps in forest or woodland. Mainly a highland species.	eng
59907	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps in forest or woodland.	eng
59907	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, swamps in forest or woodland.	eng
59907	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swamps in forest or woodland.	eng
59907	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swamps in forest or woodland.	eng
59907	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59907	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59907	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59907	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59907	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59907	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59907	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59907	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction. Water pollution is also a threat to this species. However, this species is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range	eng
59907	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59907	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59907	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59908	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	In South Africa, further searches for this species are needed, especially in the Waterberg and in KwaZulu-Natal, where it has not been recorded since 1960 (Samways 2006 in press). Monitoring of the Sabie River population is also required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available on conservation measures in place or planned elsewhere in its range.	eng
59908	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59908	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
59908	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available.<br/><br/>In South Africa, further searches for this species are needed, especially in the Waterberg and in KwaZulu-Natal, where it has not been recorded since 1960 (Samways 2006 in press). Monitoring of the Sabie River population is also required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available on conservation measures in place or planned elsewhere in its range.	eng
59908	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya.	eng
59908	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.	eng
59908	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Type record likely from Kenya. Records from Mali and Cameroon considered dubious and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from northeastern Africa region, but likely from northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in rivers, except for in the arid south-west (Kalahari and Namibia) and the Cape. In South Africa, the species is known from less than ten, widespread, locations; it has been recorded from the southern Kruger National Park, coastal, northern KwaZula-Natal, Gauteng, and the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>The only record from western Africa, from Cote d'Ivoire, probably originates from confusion with other species. Therefore does not occur within the region.	eng
59908	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread at rivers, except for in the arid southwest (Kalahari and Namibia) and the Cape. In South Africa, the species is known from less than ten, widespread, locations; it has been recorded from the southern Kruger National Park, coastal, northern KwaZula-Natal, Gauteng, and the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006). Globally, the species occurs from South Africa to Kenya.	eng
59908	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59908	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59908	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest. The adults usually perch and mate in the shade of trees. Only the female comes to the river for oviposition.	eng
59908	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, woodland and forest. The adults usually perch and mate in the shade of trees. Only the female comes to the river for oviposition.	eng
59908	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Few records in South Africa. No information is available from elsewhere in its range.	eng
59908	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59908	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59908	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59908	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59908	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59908	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution. In South Africa, natural catastrophes appear synergistic with urbanisation in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and invasive alien trees may also be a threat alongside water extraction for agricultural purposes (Samways 2006).	eng
59908	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Destruction of gallery forest, groundwater abstraction and pollution are threats to the species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, natural catastrophes appear synergistic with urbanisation in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and invasive alien trees may also be a threat alongside water extraction for agricultural purposes (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59909	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59909	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59909	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> This unnamed species appears to range from northern Uganda through the savannah belt to Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
59909	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	There are records of this species from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed. Distribution is uncertain because the taxonomy of this species is not yet solved.	eng
59909	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably open streams and rivers.	eng
59909	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
59909	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59909	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59909	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Destruction of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59909	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59910	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59910	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, distribution, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59910	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	<em>Lokia coryndoni</em> is known only from Zika Forest and Budongo Forest (both in Uganda), Bambesa (northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo). An unconfirmed record from Inga (Lower Congo, Marconi and Terzani 2008) is unlikely.	eng
59910	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Zika Forest and Budongo Forest (both in Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from 2 locations in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59910	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59910	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59910	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59910	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59910	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59910	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59911	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59911	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59911	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59911	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59911	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59911	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from two localities nearby each other in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Angola, but this has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is recorded from DRC to Uganda, and Zambia.	eng
59911	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Budongo Forest (both Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Zambia.	eng
59911	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda, and west to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; Equatorial Guinea is assumed.	eng
59911	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from south east Guinea, east Liberia and south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Uganda and north Zambia.	eng
59911	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira Forest and Budongo Forest (both Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from two localities nearby each other in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Angola, but this has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from south east Guinea, east Liberia and south east Nigeria.	eng
59911	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59911	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59911	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59911	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest.	eng
59911	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
59911	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59911	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59911	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population and trends are unknown.	eng
59911	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population and trends are unknown.	eng
59911	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population and trends are unknown.	eng
59911	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59911	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59911	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available. Potential threats to the species are forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59911	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction.	eng
59911	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59912	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59912	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59912	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59912	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59912	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59912	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None. Monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59912	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in large perennial rivers in the region. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59912	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59912	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from sub-Saharan Africa widespread<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records in the Central African Republic, Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Zambia; for Equatorial Guinea is assumed	eng
59912	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> No confirmed record from the region. Records from Sudan (Tsuda) and Ethiopia need confirmation, and possibly present in Uganda.	eng
59912	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59912	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. The record from Gambia is unlikely, and that for Ethiopia is probably a georeference error.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zambia, for Equatorial Guinea and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>    <p>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi.<br/></p>Records from the northeastern Africa region (Tsuda from Sudan and Ethiopia) have not been confirmed. For the time being, it is listed as Data Deficient in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in large perennial rivers in the region, through the Orange River basin to the Western Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.	eng
59912	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savanna, bush or forest.	eng
59912	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savanna, bush or forest.	eng
59912	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savannah, bush or forest.	eng
59912	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers, streams and large lakes in savannah, bush or forest.	eng
59912	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Sunny rivers and streams in savanna, bush or forest, preferably with large rocks. Also inhabits rocky shores of large lakes.	eng
59912	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Sunny rivers and streams in savannah, bush or forest, preferably with large rocks. Also inhabits rocky shores of large lakes.	eng
59912	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59912	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59912	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59912	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59912	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59912	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
59912	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59912	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59912	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59912	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pollution.	eng
59912	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and agriculture are considered to be potential threat to the species.	eng
59913	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59913	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59913	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59913	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers and streams in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus </em>is easily overlooked. Only recently, an exuviae found in Natal in the 1980s has been identified as <em>Microgomphus</em> (Martens and Suhling 2005). Globally, its range extends from Kenya to South Africa.	eng
59913	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rivers and streams in coastal Kenya and Tanzania, a wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus</em> is easily overlooked.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya to Zimbabwe and north Zambia.	eng
59913	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Zimbabwe and north Zambia. Records in the database from southern Africa are likely to be another species<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: rivers and streams in coastal Kenya and Tanzania, a wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicu</em>s is easily overlooked.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers and streams in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A wider distribution is assumed, as <em>M. nyassicus </em>is easily overlooked. Only recently, an <em>exuviae</em> found in Natal in the 1980s has been identified as <em>Microgomphus</em> (Martens and Suhling 2005).	eng
59913	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, thicket and forest.	eng
59913	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, thicket and forest.	eng
59913	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in bush, thicket and forest.	eng
59913	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59913	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59913	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59913	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59913	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Destruction of gallery forest and pollution are inferred threats.	eng
59913	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and destruction of gallery forest and pollution due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59914	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59914	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59914	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59914	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59914	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya (Kakamega Forest), Uganda (various forests) to Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa); because the species is easily overlooked a wider distribution is anticipated.	eng
59914	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo. Likely to be merged with <em>M. nyassicus</em>, which will become the nominate species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kapanga, Bambesa); because the species is easily overlooked a wider distribution is anticipated.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.	eng
59914	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59914	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59914	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59914	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59914	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59914	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59914	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59914	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59914	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59915	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59915	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59915	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59915	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59915	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and various forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> West Kenya to western Africa.	eng
59915	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon	eng
59915	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria and Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia.	eng
59915	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to Nigeria, and also in Liberia, but other west African records must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, for Congo assumed	eng
59915	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
59915	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59915	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
59915	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
59915	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59915	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59915	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59915	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59915	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59915	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59915	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59915	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59916	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59916	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is known only from two, fragmented localities in the Amani Forest in the east Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, with extent of occurrence far below 100 km² and area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
59916	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams in dense forest of the Eastern Arc Mountains.	eng
59916	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59916	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59917	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59917	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59917	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59917	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon, presence in Nigeria needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and the Central African Republic.	eng
59917	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Presence in south east Nigeria must be confirmed: at least a similar but unnamed species is present in the south east of that country.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
59917	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Uganda to Cameroon. Record from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Elizabethville) requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, its presence in south east Nigeria must be confirmed: at least a similar but unnamed species is present in the south east of that country. It is present within Cameroon.	eng
59917	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59917	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams and seepage.	eng
59917	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams and seepage.	eng
59917	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59917	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59917	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59917	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59917	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59917	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59918	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59918	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59918	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwindi National Park and Semliki National Park (west Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria and Uganda.	eng
59918	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Nigeria, Uganda. In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Semliki National Park), Malawi and Burundi (Bwindi National Park).	eng
59918	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59918	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in forested habitat.	eng
59918	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59918	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59918	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59918	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59919	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59919	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59919	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59919	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59919	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59919	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (Ikelenge Province). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Nigeria.	eng
59919	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwamba Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.	eng
59919	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Zambia.	eng
59919	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Uganda and Nigeria.	eng
59919	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Bwamba Forest (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from northwest Zambia (Ikelenge Province).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
59919	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
59919	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59919	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
59919	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
59919	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
59919	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59919	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59919	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59919	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59919	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59919	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59919	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59919	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59919	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction is an inferred threat. Otherwise, specific threats are unknown.	eng
59919	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59920	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59920	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59920	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Eastern Arc Mts (eastern Tanzania), Mt Mulanje and Mt. Thyolo (both south Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique.	eng
59920	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique.<br/><br/>Records in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Eastern Arc Mountains (eastern Tanzania), Mt. Mulanje and Mount Thyolo (both in south Malawi).	eng
59920	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
59920	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
59920	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59920	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59920	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Further destruction of Eastern Arc forests.	eng
59920	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Further destruction of Eastern Arc forests caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59921	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59921	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59921	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59921	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. More research is needed into trends/monitoring of this species.	eng
59921	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59921	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.	eng
59921	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions. More research is needed into trends/monitoring of this species.	eng
59921	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Nesciothemis farinosa</em> is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59921	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Nesciothemis farinosa</em> ranges from southern and eastern afrotropical Africa to southern Arabia and deltaic Egypt. Its occurrence in West Africa is uncertain as there is possible confusion with <em>Nesciothemis pujoli</em> (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
59921	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59921	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59921	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, but assumed from appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.	eng
59921	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Egypt, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59921	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in eastern continental sub-Saharan Africa from northern Egypt to South Africa (present along the Ornage River basin, but absent from the Kalahari and other drier areas). A record from Mali is considered unlikely. Also found in southern Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, but assumed from appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species ranges from southern and eastern Afrotropical Africa to southern Arabia and deltaic Egypt.  In northern Africa seven localities have been recorded for this species in middle and lower Egypt, among which two are relatively recent (1990). All the others are dated before 1929. The nearest populations outside the region are on the Nile river 1,500 km further South, in Sudan.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread, except for the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, all records of <span style="font-style: italic;">farinosa </span>that have been checked from the region have been reidentified as <em>N. pujoli.</em> All unspecified records of '<span style="font-style: italic;">farinosa</span>' in western Africa are listed as possible under <span style="font-style: italic;">pujoli</span>.	eng
59921	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savanna, and woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, and woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, rivers in forest, bush, savannah, woodland.	eng
59921	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The species reproduce in lakes, pool and stretch with low current in rivers as well as in small brooks.	eng
59921	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59921	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Generally unknown.	eng
59921	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59921	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59921	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Seven localities have been recorded for this species in middle and lower Egypt, among which two are relatively recent (1990). All the others are dated before 1929. The nearest populations outside the region are on the Nile river 1,500 km further South, in Sudan.	eng
59921	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59921	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
59921	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown. However, it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range	eng
59921	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59921	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59921	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59921	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59921	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation.	eng
59921	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation, wood extraction and agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59922	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy (Okavango record), range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59922	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59922	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mt. Mulanje (southern Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi (subspecies malawiensis on Mt. Mulanje).	eng
59922	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi (subspecies malawiensis on Mount Mulanje).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mount Mulanje (southern Malawi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the Zambezi River in Zimbabwe and Zambia, and subspecies <em>malawiensis</em> on Mount Mulanje, Malawi (the Malawi record falls within the southern Africa region as defined by river basin areas for the purpose of this project). There is also a record of larvae of the subgenus (genus) <em>Mastigogomphus</em> from the Okavango River. These may belong to <em>dissimilis</em> (or be a new species).	eng
59922	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in woodland.	eng
59922	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Rivers in woodland.	eng
59922	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59922	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
59922	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59922	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to water abstraction for agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59923	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59923	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59923	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59923	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Migori (western Kenya), Uganda (no detailed records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to western Africa (along guinea-savanna zone).	eng
59923	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya though to Gambia	eng
59923	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has a Sahelian distribution. west Kenya through Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.<br/><br/>Not recorded in central Africa, but likely to occur in the northern parts of Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo. In eastern Africa there are records from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Migori (western Kenya), and Uganda. Present in western Africa from Chad and Nigeria to Gambia: probably throughout the Guinea savannah zone.	eng
59923	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably open rivers.	eng
59923	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Woodland, savanna, bush.	eng
59923	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Woodland, savannah and bush.	eng
59923	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59923	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59923	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59923	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59923	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59923	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available, but probably none.	eng
59924	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59924	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Known only from Kakamega Forest in western Kenya.	eng
59924	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Found in and around rivers in forested areas.	eng
59924	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59924	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59925	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In South Africa, further searches for the species are required (Samways 2006). No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present.	eng
59925	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59925	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record from southern Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Transvaal to Mozambique, Zambia, and likely in Tanzania.	eng
59925	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Transvaal to Mozambique, Zambia, and probably Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: unconfirmed record from southern Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species may be endemic to the southern Africa region. It occurs in the river catchments of the Zambezi and the Limpopo (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa (Transvaal), Zambia, and Zimbabwe). However, there is also an unconfirmed record from Tanzania. In South Africa, there are only two records: Pafuri, Kruger National Park, and Ndumo, KwaZulu-Natal (Samways 2006).	eng
59925	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers in bush, woodland, savanna. Tall grass and other low vegetation near wide, meandering rivers (Samways 2006).	eng
59925	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rrivers in bush, woodland, savanna.	eng
59925	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59925	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information is available on overall population size or trends. It appears to be a localised species throughout its range (Samways 2006).	eng
59925	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In South Africa, major changes to the river systems of the Kruger National Park as a result of the floods of February 2000 may have altered its habitat, particularly that of the larvae (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.	eng
59925	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59926	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species distribution is needed, as well as trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration, and corridors are required.	eng
59926	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59926	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59926	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known. Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required, and habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and creation of corridors is needed.	eng
59926	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required, and habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and creation of corridors is needed.	eng
59926	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It does not occur in the arid southwest. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59926	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59926	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from one record from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation. It is assumed for Democratic Republic of Congo because of occurrence in western Uganda and northern Zambia.	eng
59926	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Kenya and Uganda<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has only been recorded from northern Kenya (Mt. Marsabit) in the region. A wider distribution (southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan and more localities in northern Kenya and Uganda) assumed.	eng
59926	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the record from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo needs confirmation, assumed for Democratic Republic of Congo because of occurrence in western Uganda and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from northern Kenya (Mount Marsabit) in the region. A wider distribution (southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan and more localities in northern Kenya and Uganda) assumed. Until more surveys have confirmed this, it has to be listed Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It does not occur in the arid south west.	eng
59926	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest pools and swamps.	eng
59926	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest pools and swamps.	eng
59926	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest pools and swamps.	eng
59926	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest pools and swamps; not found in lowland areas.	eng
59926	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59926	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59926	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59926	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59926	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59926	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59926	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction is an inferred threat.	eng
59926	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59927	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59927	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59927	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59927	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59927	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59927	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia. Globally, this species occurs from west Kenya to Nigeria.	eng
59927	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.	eng
59927	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, occurrence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed.	eng
59927	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.	eng
59927	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Kenya and northern Zambia to Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, occurrence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia.	eng
59927	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and swamps in rainforest.	eng
59927	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and swamps in rainforest.	eng
59927	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and swamps in rainforest.	eng
59927	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swamps in rainforest.	eng
59927	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps in rainforest.	eng
59927	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59927	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59927	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59927	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59927	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59927	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59927	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59927	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59927	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
59927	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59928	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59928	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
59928	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59928	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from three records in two localities the mountain regions in the eastern escarpment along the borders between Zimbabwe and Mozambique and Malawi and Mozambique, respectively. Globally, it is  known from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique.	eng
59928	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast forest streams in Tanzania (east Usambara, Uluguru Mts and Turiani) and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi.	eng
59928	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from fast forest streams in Tanzania (east Usambara, Uluguru Mts. and Turiani) and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from three records in two localities the mountain regions in the eastern escarpment along the borders between Zimbabwe and Mozambique and Malawi and Mozambique, respectively.	eng
59928	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Broad montane forest streams (Pinhey 1981). Fast flowing streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59928	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	It is known to occur in streams in broad montane forest streams (Pinhey 1981) and fast flowing streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59928	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest.	eng
59928	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59928	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59928	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59928	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59928	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59928	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Forest destruction is a potential threat, as well as potential invasive alien plants and invasive predatory fish species (e.g., trout).	eng
59929	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59929	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59929	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59929	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya, forests in Uganda, Arusha (northern Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59929	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi, Iswa).	eng
59929	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, assumed in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.	eng
59929	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from eastern Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and assumed in southern Sudan.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi, Iswa).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya, forests in Uganda, Arusha (northern Tanzania).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, assumed in northern Kenya and southern Sudan as well.	eng
59929	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in woodland and forest.	eng
59929	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in woodland and forest.	eng
59929	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams and rivers in woodland and forest.	eng
59929	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59929	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59929	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59929	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59929	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59929	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pollution.	eng
59929	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and habitat destruction caused by agriculture are main threats to the species.	eng
59930	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59930	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is present in few localities in forests of south-west Uganda and possibly Democratic Republic of Congo (DCR). Previous records from Kenya refer to <em>N. maathaiae</em>.	eng
59930	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
59930	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59930	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59931	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59931	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Notogomphus kilimandjaricus</em> occurs in northern Tanzania and central Kenya.	eng
59931	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers and streams in woodland.	eng
59931	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59931	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range. However, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution are affecting its population.	eng
59933	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59933	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59933	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None in place. Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridors are also needed.	eng
59933	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Ethiopia, west Kenya.	eng
59933	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ethiopia and western Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya.	eng
59933	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Kenya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya	eng
59933	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush- or woodland.	eng
59933	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Streams and rivers in bush- or woodland.	eng
59933	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush- or woodland.	eng
59933	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59933	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59933	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59933	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59933	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
59933	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59934	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59934	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59934	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59934	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania (no detailed locality info) and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59934	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence possible in Congo.	eng
59934	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya, west Tanzania to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania and Uganda.	eng
59934	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59934	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59934	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers in rainforest.	eng
59934	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59934	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59934	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59934	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59934	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59934	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59935	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59935	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59935	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59935	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania (no detailed locality info) and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.	eng
59935	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence in Congo is possible.	eng
59935	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, west Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Kenya, west Tanzania and Uganda.	eng
59935	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59935	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59935	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams and rivers in rainforest.	eng
59935	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59935	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59935	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59935	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59935	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59935	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59937	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59937	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59937	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59937	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59937	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in almost all countries except for Botswana. There is one old and unproven record from southern Namibia, otherwise there are no records from the arid southwest of the region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south DRC, and Malawi.	eng
59937	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, no precise records.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo and Malawi.	eng
59937	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; a record from Congo needs confirmation.	eng
59937	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, south Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, no precise records.	eng
59937	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Grassy streams or rivers in open or bush country.	eng
59937	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Grassy streams or rivers in open or bush country.	eng
59937	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Grassy streams or rivers in open or bush country.	eng
59937	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Grassy streams or rivers in wooded or bush country.	eng
59937	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59937	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59937	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59937	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59937	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59937	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59937	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	The species is not threatened at present.	eng
59937	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59938	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection are needed.	eng
59938	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Kenya, Mt. Elgon forest, Katamayu Forest, Marioshoni Forest.	eng
59938	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane forested streams.	eng
59938	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59938	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59939	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	More research is urgently needed on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends.	eng
59939	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is urgently needed to gather data on range, population status, threats, etc.	eng
59939	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59939	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is mainly found in the mountains in Zimbabwe. There are no records from Mozambique so far but it is very likely to occur there. Most records are from within the southern Africa region (Zimbabwe), with some occurring just outside the region. Globally, it has been recorded from east Zimbabwe, Malawi and south Tanzania.	eng
59939	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: southern Tanzania, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe to south Tanzania.	eng
59939	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from east Zimbabwe, Malawi and south Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: southern Tanzania, Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is mainly found in the mountains in Zimbabwe. There are no records from Mozambique so far but it is very likely to occur there. Most records are from within the southern Africa region (Zimbabwe), with some occurring just outside the region.	eng
59939	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane streams in bush country.	eng
59939	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane streams in bush country.	eng
59939	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Montane streams in bush country (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59939	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59939	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59939	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59939	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Deforestation, alien trees, and alien predatory fish (e.g., trout) occur in the main part of the known range (Zimbabwe), but the effects of these on the population are not known at present.	eng
59939	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Deforestation due to agriculture, alien trees, and alien predatory fish (e.g. trout) occur in the main part of the known range (Zimbabwe), but the effects of these on the population are not known at present.	eng
59939	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59940	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59940	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59940	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Aswa River (north Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda, Ghana.	eng
59940	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from north Uganda (Aswa River in north Uganda), Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi.	eng
59940	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in bush and savanna.	eng
59940	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
59940	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59940	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59940	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59940	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59941	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59941	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59941	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59941	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59941	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except far west.	eng
59941	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except the far west<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from two sites in northern Kenya within the region, and listed by Tsuda for Sudan. Nevertheless a wider occurrence in northern Kenya and the occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia is assumed.	eng
59941	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except the far west.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has only been recorded from an especimen listed by Tsuda for Sudan. Nevertheless a wider occurrence in southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia are assumed. For the time being, the species is listed Data Deficient for the northern Africa region.<br/><br/>It is widespread along large rivers in the southern Africa region.	eng
59941	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread along large rivers in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in West Africa.	eng
59941	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Large rivers with swift flow.	eng
59941	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers, streams and large lakes.	eng
59941	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers, streams and large lakes.	eng
59941	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species inhabits rivers, streams and large lakes.	eng
59941	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59941	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59941	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59941	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
59941	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59941	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59941	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59941	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59942	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59942	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59942	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59942	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available from much of its range.	eng
59942	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59942	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59942	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59942	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.	eng
59942	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. For southern Ethiopia the occurrence is assumed, the Sudan record needs confirmation.	eng
59942	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and possibly Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59942	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. For southern Ethiopia the occurrence is assumed, the Sudan record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread along perennial tropical rivers, occasional vicariant in arid Namibia. It does not occur in the Cape or indeed in most of South Africa (known only from three specimens from the Kruger National Park and one recent record from the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and possibly Chad.	eng
59942	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread along perennial tropical rivers, occasional vicariant in arid Namibia. It does not occur in the Cape or indeed in most of South Africa (known only from three specimens from the Kruger National Park and one recent record from the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006). Globally, the species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59942	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.	eng
59942	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.	eng
59942	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.	eng
59942	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.	eng
59942	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open rivers, but also streams and lakes.	eng
59942	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59942	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59942	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59942	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59942	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59942	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59942	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59942	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59942	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available from much of its range.	eng
59942	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59942	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and destruction of habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59944	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59944	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The only record of this species is from an undefined type locality in Tanzania.	eng
59944	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59944	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Population size is unknown.	eng
59944	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59945	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
59945	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya (Kakamega Forest), forests in Uganda (Semliki) and western Tanzania, and occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.	eng
59945	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
59945	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59945	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59946	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59946	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59946	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Some taxonomic work is required to determine the true extent of this species' range.	eng
59946	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Kenya, Kilimanjaro area (Tanzania), unconfirmed records from Uganda and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania, and likely in Malawi, ?Uganda.	eng
59946	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <em>Onychogomphus</em> similar to <em>O. supinus</em> have been found in Senegal (holotype <em>O. s. xerophilus</em>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is similar forms are known from throughout tropical Africa. True <em>O. supinus</em> if from southern Africa.	eng
59946	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Onychogomphus </span>similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. supinus</span> have been found throughout Africa, e.g., Senegal (holotype <em>O. s. xerophilus</em>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003). True <em>O. supinus</em> is known from southern Africa only. Records from Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, and possibly also Malawi and Uganda need confirmation.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa yet, though likely to occur, if all records mentioned above do really belong to one species.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Kenya, Kilimanjaro area (Tanzania), unconfirmed records from Uganda and Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the range of this species is unclear due to taxonomic problems. It may only occur in South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and hence be endemic to the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, <em>Onychogomphus</em> similar to <em>O. supinus</em> have been found in Senegal (holotype <span style="font-style: italic;">O. s. xerophilus</span>), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994) and Guinea (Legrand 2003).	eng
59946	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams or rivers in bush or woodland.	eng
59946	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams or rivers in bush or woodland.	eng
59946	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams or rivers in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59946	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59946	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59946	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59946	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59946	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59946	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to this species.	eng
59947	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Enforcement of habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59947	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	This species is endemic to Mount Mulanje, 1 ,800 to 2,200 m asl,&#160; in south Malawi.	eng
59947	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane streams (1,800 to 2,200 m asl).	eng
59947	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59947	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats. Mt Mulanje was gazetted as a  forest reserve in 1927. However, serious cases of encroachment and  overexploitation of forest resources have become a problem and available  resources are currently inadequate for its protection. Mining is also considered a threat.	eng
59948	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59948	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59948	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59948	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59948	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59948	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59948	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread except for in the Cape and the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in continental Africa except in dense forest.	eng
59948	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.	eng
59948	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon, and Zambia; expected in the other countries as well in appropriate habitats.	eng
59948	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Uganda, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Kenya, Egypt, Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59948	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa; isolated population in Near East.	eng
59948	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, expected in the other countries as well in appropriate habitats.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread except for in the Cape and the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
59948	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and pools in bush and savanna.	eng
59948	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps and pools in bush and savannah.	eng
59948	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and pools in bush and savannah.	eng
59948	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps and pools in bush and savannah.	eng
59948	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and pools in bush and savannah.	eng
59948	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps and pools in bush, savannah and disturbed forest.	eng
59948	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59948	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59948	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends	eng
59948	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59948	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59948	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59948	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are inferred threats.	eng
59948	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59948	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59948	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59948	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59949	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59949	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59949	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59949	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59949	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59949	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to Uganda and West Africa.	eng
59949	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, unconfirmed records from Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in  Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa, and likely in Tanzania.	eng
59949	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo; a wider distribution is assumed, including Congo and the Central African Republic.	eng
59949	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sehnegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Senegal and Zambia.	eng
59949	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa. Western Tanzanian and southern Democratic Republic of Congo/Zambia records are erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kenya, Uganda, unconfirmed records from Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, this record needs confirmation. Listed Not Applicable for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northwest Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
59949	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	It occurs in woodlands and gallery forest, as well as swampy pools in savannah and woodlands.	eng
59949	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy pools in savannah, woodlands.	eng
59949	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Woodlands, gallery forest.	eng
59949	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Woodlands, gallery forest.	eng
59949	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Woodlands, gallery forest.	eng
59949	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59949	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59949	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59949	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59949	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59949	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
59949	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59949	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59949	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59949	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59950	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
59950	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59950	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59950	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59950	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
59950	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from Angola and northwest Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to Uganda and West Africa.	eng
59950	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: various localities in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.	eng
59950	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; the Central African Republic is assumed.	eng
59950	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Uganda and Guinea.	eng
59950	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Its presence in Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (various localities), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from Angola and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
59950	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest.	eng
59950	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
59950	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest.	eng
59950	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Large ponds, swamp or slow sections of streams, often near forest.	eng
59950	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
59950	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59950	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59950	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59950	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59950	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59950	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59950	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59950	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.	eng
59950	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59950	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats are not known. Forest destruction is an inferred threat.	eng
59951	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59951	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59951	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59951	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59951	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59951	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research into trends/monitoring needed.	eng
59951	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, but not in southern Namibia or southern Botswana. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, except in dense rain forest.	eng
59951	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rainforest.	eng
59951	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rainforest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire area (all countries), only record from Sao Tome/Pincipe needs confirmation.	eng
59951	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except dense rain forest.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Chad, Egypt, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59951	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. It is probably present in all western African nations, but many records must be confirmed after confusion with <em>O. stemmale</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
59951	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa except&#160; from dense rainforest. However, there are no records known from southern Africa and the Egyptian records should  be ignored.<br/><br/>It is known from the entire central Africa (all countries), and the only  record from Sao Tome/Principe needs confirmation. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is known to be common and widespread (Burundi assumed). Eastern African coastal records most likely pertain to <em>O.  stemmale</em>.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Chad, Uganda, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, but not in southern Namibia or southern Botswana.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. Probably present in all West African nations, but many records must be confirmed after confusion with <em>O. stemmale</em>.	eng
59951	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Any permanent or temporary pools and streams in savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Lentic and lotic waters in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Still and moving waters in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59951	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59951	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59951	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59951	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59951	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59951	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59951	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59951	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59951	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59951	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59951	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
59951	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No threats are known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
59952	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59952	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59952	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59952	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research into the population and range of this species is required, and should be monitored.	eng
59952	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Research required into the species population numbers and range, as well as trends/monitoring.	eng
59952	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available. Research required into the species population numbers and range, as well as trends/monitoring.	eng
59952	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Orthetrum caffrum</em> has a range that extends from the Cape to southern Arabia.	eng
59952	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for in major parts of Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Cape) to south Arabia.	eng
59952	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to south Arabia.	eng
59952	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to South Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, and Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in Zambia.	eng
59952	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape to south Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan.	eng
59952	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from the Cape to South Arabia. The central Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo) records are valid, but likely to be isolated; those records from further north and west are likely to be either mis-identifications or erroneous georeferences.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, except for in major parts of Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, records are scattered and old. This is largely a eastern highland species and therefore most of these records are very dubious, although the species may penetrate into Chad from Sudan.	eng
59952	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Highland swamps.	eng
59952	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps.	eng
59952	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy habitats	eng
59952	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats.	eng
59952	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy habitats.	eng
59952	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats.	eng
59952	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59952	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59952	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59952	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59952	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59952	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59952	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59952	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59952	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59952	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59952	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known.	eng
59952	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	There are no serious threats affecting this species across its global range.	eng
59953	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59953	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59953	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59953	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59953	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Kenya and Uganda, unconfirmed record from Tanzania, often confused with <em>O. caffrum</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.	eng
59953	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, unconfirmed record from the Central African Republic (Tsuda), in Congo is assumed.	eng
59953	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south-east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania.	eng
59953	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Kenya to south-east Nigeria, unconfirmed record from Tanzania. There is an isolated population in the Cameroonian highlands; and a second larger range to the east from Uganda to southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, unconfirmed record from Central African Republic (Tsuda), in Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Kenya and Uganda, unconfirmed record from Tanzania, often confused with <em>O. caffrum</em>.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southeast Nigeria.	eng
59953	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Highland swamps.	eng
59953	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane and highland streams.	eng
59953	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane and highland streams.	eng
59953	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Montane and highland streams and swamps.	eng
59953	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59953	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59953	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59953	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59953	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Destruction of habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59953	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59953	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59953	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59954	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation actions are required.	eng
59954	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59954	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59954	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59954	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59954	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	None required	eng
59954	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59954	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59954	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthertrum chrysostigma</em> is a very widespread and common species on the African continent and in Arabia. It is common in the Levant and from there reaches the southern coast of Turkey, Cyprus and the Greek Islands of Rhodes, Lesbos and Crete (two records only). In West Europe it is found in parts of Portugal and Spain where it reaches north as far as the Ebro delta. The species is likely to benefit from climate change and should be expected to colonise the south of France, Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
59954	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Orthertrum chrysostigma</em> occurs across all of Africa and the Middle East. It also occurs in southern Spain and on some Mediterranean islands. In northern Africa, it is present in the whole of the region.	eng
59954	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59954	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in continental Africa (except in dense forest), southern Europe, the middle East, and southern Asia.	eng
59954	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, middle East, southern Asia.	eng
59954	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia. Assumed in Gabon.	eng
59954	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Chad and Egypt assumed.	eng
59954	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except in dense forest, extends to southern Europe and the Middle East.	eng
59954	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in continental Africa except dense forest, southern Europe, Middle East and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed in Congo and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species occurs across all of Africa and the Middle East. It also occurs in southern Spain and on some Mediterranean islands. In northern Africa, it is present in the whole of the region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence in Djibouti, Chad and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in all countries. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all western African countries.	eng
59954	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Any open water.	eng
59954	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Occurs in a wide range of lentic and lotic habitats.	eng
59954	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools, swampy habitats in savanna, bush, woodlands.	eng
59954	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swampy habitats in savanna, bush, woodlands.	eng
59954	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, bush, woodlands.	eng
59954	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, bush, woodlands.	eng
59954	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, bush, woodlands, but not likely within dense rainforest areas (such as the Congo Basin).	eng
59954	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, swampy habitats in savannah, temporary waters, bush and woodlands.	eng
59954	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found at both running and standing waters with a strong preference for those which are sunny and shallow.	eng
59954	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Abundant and always occurs in large numbers.	eng
59954	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Large populations all over the species' range. No declines are expected.	eng
59954	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Large populations all over the species' range. No declines are expected.	eng
59954	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59954	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59954	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59954	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59954	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a limited range in Europe but is often common when found.	eng
59954	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59954	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59954	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59954	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None at present.	eng
59954	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	None at present.	eng
59954	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59954	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction due to agriculture.	eng
59954	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
59955	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59955	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59955	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Research into trends/monitoring this species is needed.	eng
59955	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59955	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest, Botswana or at the Cape. There is only one historic record in northern Namibia. Globally, it is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59955	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59955	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia	eng
59955	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia within the region. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation. Occurrence in northern Kenya, Uganda and Somalia assumed.	eng
59955	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59955	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread sub-Saharan Africa. Records from eastern coastal South Africa and Mozambique are unlikely, as are two records from southern Angola/northern Namibia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia within the region and assumed from Somalia.. Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest, Botswana or at the Cape. There is only one historic record in northern Namibia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
59955	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open streams.	eng
59955	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Open streams.	eng
59955	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams.	eng
59955	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Open streams.	eng
59955	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams.	eng
59955	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open streams.	eng
59955	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59955	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59955	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59955	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59955	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59955	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59955	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59955	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threat to the species is destruction of its habitat due to agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
59956	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59956	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59956	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59956	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59956	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59956	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59956	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but there have been no records in the arid southwest, Botswana or the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59956	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59956	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
59956	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, northern Kenya and Uganda; southern Sudan assumed.	eng
59956	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59956	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Cameroon and Gabon assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda, and southern Sudan assumed.	eng
59956	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59956	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59956	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59956	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest.	eng
59956	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams, pools in bush, woodland or forest. Often found at altitude.	eng
59956	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59956	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59956	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59956	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59956	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59956	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59956	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59956	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59956	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59956	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59956	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction due to agriculture.	eng
59957	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59957	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59957	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59957	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59957	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59957	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into trends and monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59957	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, and Madagascar.	eng
59957	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar.	eng
59957	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon and Zambia; also reported from Angola, record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation. Presence in the Central African Republic is assumed.	eng
59957	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from two sites in Sudan.	eng
59957	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59957	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, record from Cameroon (Tsuda) needs confirmation, for Congo and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed from Tsuda as present in the region. This record is likely, but needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Senegal.	eng
59957	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps and floodplains in woodland or bush.	eng
59957	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, streams, floodplains in woodland or bush.	eng
59957	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, streams, floodplains in woodland or bush.	eng
59957	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps, streams, floodplains in woodland or bush.	eng
59957	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, streams, floodplains in woodland or bush.	eng
59957	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59957	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59957	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59957	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59957	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59957	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59957	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59957	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59957	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59957	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59957	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59958	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59958	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59958	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59958	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59958	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59958	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place across the region or are recommended at present.	eng
59958	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59958	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal, etc.)<br/>unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; for Somalia and Uganda assumed.	eng
59958	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal etc.) unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries within the Central African region.	eng
59958	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. It is thought to be extending further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal etc.) but this information is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59958	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending west to Guinea, but presence further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal) is unconfirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries within the central African region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya and Sudan; for Somalia and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria. Extending further north-west (Burkina Faso, Senegal, etc.) is unconfirmed.	eng
59958	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59958	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest and dense woodland.	eng
59958	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest and dense woodland.	eng
59958	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams in forest and dense woodland.	eng
59958	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams in forest and dense woodland. In the arid southwest of southern Africa the species is limited to perennial springs.	eng
59958	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in forest and dense woodland. In the arid southwest the species is limited to perennial springs.	eng
59958	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59958	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59958	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59958	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59958	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59958	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	In parts of the region destruction of springs is a local threat. However it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59958	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	In parts of the southern Africa region the destruction of springs is a local threat. It is know to be affected by wood extraction, agriculture and water pollution. However it is unlikely to be seriously threatened across its whole range.	eng
59958	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59958	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59958	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59958	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59959	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59959	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59959	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59959	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Monitoring of the population is required.	eng
59959	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59959	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid parts of the region, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59959	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59959	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.	eng
59959	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya. For Sudan and Uganda, assumed.	eng
59959	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in continental sub-Saharan Africa. The Cameroonian records are erroneous. South African record left isolated.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, and assumed for Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the humid parts of the region, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from western Africa aside from mention of specimens from Sierra Leone and Ghana (most likely misidentifications) in the original description.	eng
59959	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59959	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59959	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59959	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59959	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, streams in bush or woodland.	eng
59959	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59959	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59959	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59959	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59959	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59959	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59959	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59959	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59959	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are major threats to this species.	eng
59959	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	The main threats to the species are unknown. Furthermore, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59960	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59960	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59960	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59960	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59960	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: specimen in London labeled "Kambole, Tanganyika", the locality is unclear (Kambole was only found in Zambia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59960	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo; a record assigned for Tanzania was wrongly labelled and a Zambia record instead.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo; also reported from Angola and Congo.	eng
59960	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo; a record assigned for Tanzania was wrongly labelled and a Zambia record instead.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: specimen in London labelled "Kambole, Tanganyika" is unclear.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northern part of the southern Africa region in Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>Records from western Africa are incorrect.	eng
59960	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in the northern part of the southern Africa region: Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and DCR.	eng
59960	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59960	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59960	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59960	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and pools in bush and woodland.	eng
59960	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59960	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59960	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59960	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59960	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59960	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59960	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are major threats to this species.	eng
59960	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59961	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59961	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59961	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59961	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59961	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59961	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Angola to Kenya, and west to Mali.	eng
59961	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Angola to Kenya, west to Mali.	eng
59961	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries in the region except for Sao Tome and Principe.	eng
59961	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59961	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola to Kenya and west to Mali.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from all countries in the central African region except for Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In addition, appropriate habitats are known in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation. No other records are available from region, thus listed Not Applicable.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.	eng
59961	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swamp or slow streams, often near forest.	eng
59961	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Strongly associated with forest, including swamp forest.	eng
59961	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamp forest.	eng
59961	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamp forest.	eng
59961	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamp forest.	eng
59961	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59961	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59961	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59961	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59961	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59961	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats within the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59961	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59961	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59961	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59961	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59962	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59962	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59962	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59962	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59962	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59962	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59962	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Kenya and Guinea Bissau.	eng
59962	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate habitats in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya and Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59962	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Zambia; presence is assumed from Congo and Cameroon.	eng
59962	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> So far the species is only recorded from Ethiopia within the region, for northern Kenya and southern Sudan assumed as well.	eng
59962	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59962	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia to Kenya, Gambia and Guinea Bissau.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo and Zambia.	eng
59962	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamp forest.	eng
59962	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamp forest.	eng
59962	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamp forest.	eng
59962	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy areas within savannah and woodland.	eng
59962	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Temporary marshes and pools in savannah.	eng
59962	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59962	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59962	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59962	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59962	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown, but&#160; populations are potentially disjunct.	eng
59962	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59962	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59962	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59962	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59962	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59962	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59963	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59963	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59963	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59963	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59963	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59963	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is known from only one record in northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Gambia, Togo and Zambia)	eng
59963	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamp forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59963	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Ghana, Togo, Zambia).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia; likely to be present in Cameroon and the Central African Republic.	eng
59963	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recently recorded from Atewa in Ghana and reports from Gambia and Togo highly questionable (only females recorded and in Gambia there is no suitable habitat).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Cameroon.	eng
59963	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Ghana, Togo, Zambia).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Burundi and swamp forests of central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is known from only one record in northwest Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is recently recorded from Atewa in Ghana and reports from Gambia and Togo highly questionable (only females recorded and in Gambia there is no suitable habitat).	eng
59963	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamp forest.	eng
59963	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamp forest.	eng
59963	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamp forest.	eng
59963	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy forest.	eng
59963	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy spots in forest, these areas may be associated with streams.	eng
59963	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59963	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59963	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59963	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59963	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59963	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59963	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction is a potential threat.	eng
59963	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Habitat loss through drainage and destruction of swampy habitats is a potential threat.	eng
59963	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59963	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. Habitat loss through drainage and destruction of swampy habitats is a potential threat.	eng
59964	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59964	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59964	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59964	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59964	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59964	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Research of trends/monitoring this species needed.	eng
59964	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the humid north. It also ranges south into South Africa. Globally, it is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59964	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59964	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Zambia.	eng
59964	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The species was for Sudan by Tsuda - this record need confirmation.	eng
59964	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
59964	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical Africa. All the records need to be checked as are often confused with <em>O. brachiale</em> and the ones from Somalia are known to be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome, Principe and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known to be common and widespread in all five countries (assumed in Burundi).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Sudan by Tsuda, although this record needs confirmation. It is also likely to occur in southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the humid north. It also ranges south into South Africa.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
59964	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps in forest, bush and bushland.	eng
59964	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59964	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59964	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59964	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59964	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59964	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59964	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59964	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59964	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59964	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture is a threat.	eng
59964	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59964	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59965	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation is needed.	eng
59965	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59965	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59965	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59965	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59965	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific action for this species is needed.	eng
59965	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59965	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Policy-based actions and communication/education to increase awareness are needed. Research into habitat status, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.  Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59965	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum trinacria</em> is a common and widespread Afrotropical species which extends north up to the Ebro Valley in Spain and to the Middle East (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Records from Turkey have never been confirmed and are considered doubtful. In Europe, the species is known from the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and the Italian island of Pantelleria. Although now not uncommon in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula the first record only dates back to 1983 (Belle 1984). This makes it likely that the species has shown an increase in the last decades. The only European record in the east of the Mediterranean is old (prior to 1929) and comes from Rhodos. The species is likely to benefit from climate change.	eng
59965	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Orthetrum trinacria</em> occurs in Africa and the Middle East, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia. In northern Africa, the species is present across the entire region.	eng
59965	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59965	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, Middle East.	eng
59965	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed for Angola, Congo and the Central African Republic.	eng
59965	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded for Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Egypt and Uganda assumed.	eng
59965	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Niger and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe and the Middle East.	eng
59965	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest areas such as the Congo Basin), south Europe and Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, at least for Congo and Centra African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present across the entire region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded for Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Sudan and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common all over the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Niger and Nigeria.	eng
59965	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread and common all over the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, south Europe, and the Middle East.	eng
59965	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in standing waters such as large lakes.	eng
59965	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	The species is found in standing waters, such as large lakes and dunary slacks.	eng
59965	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Uses a wide variety of habitats, including lakes and large rivers.	eng
59965	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats, also lakes and large rivers.	eng
59965	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats, also lakes and large rivers.	eng
59965	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats, also lakes and large rivers.	eng
59965	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Various habitats, also lakes and large rivers.	eng
59965	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Various habitats, espcially larger lakes and swamps.	eng
59965	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Never abundant but widespread.	eng
59965	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59965	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59965	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread throughout the region.	eng
59965	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59965	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59965	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59965	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Within its European range the species is fairly common but seldom abundant.	eng
59965	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications.	eng
59965	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59965	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59965	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59965	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59965	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat modification caused by agriculture and water pollution.	eng
59965	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats currently known to be affecting the species.	eng
59965	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific threat.	eng
59966	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59966	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59966	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59966	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59966	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Ivory Coast.	eng
59966	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo; presence in Equatorial Guinea is assumed	eng
59966	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.	eng
59966	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Ivory Coast.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, records from Congo and Gabon need confirmation, but are likely, for Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: appropriate forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
59966	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swampy spots and calm stream sections in forest.	eng
59966	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest pools, floodplains and swamps.	eng
59966	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest pools, floodplains and swamps.	eng
59966	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest pools, floodplains and swamps.	eng
59966	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59966	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59966	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59966	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59966	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59966	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59966	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
59966	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59967	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59967	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59967	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59967	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59967	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59967	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59967	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
59967	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, and in south-west Arabia.	eng
59967	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, also in south-west Arabia.	eng
59967	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and the Central African Republic; is assumed for Congo and Angola.	eng
59967	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and also in south-west Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Uganda, Somalia and Ethiopia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is most likely correct.	eng
59967	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, also in south-west Arabia.	eng
59967	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, also in south-west Arabia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed for Congo, Angola and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is most likely correct. Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread, but not in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and Chad.	eng
59967	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Temporary swamps and pools.	eng
59967	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59967	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59967	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59967	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
59967	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59967	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59967	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59967	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59967	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59967	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59967	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59967	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59967	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No threats are known to be seriously affecting the species across its whole range.	eng
59968	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59968	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59968	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59968	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59968	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59968	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59968	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and locally common all over the region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.	eng
59968	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.	eng
59968	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia; presence is assumed from Angola, Congo, Cameroon and the Central African Republic.	eng
59968	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan. Somalia and Djibouti assumed.	eng
59968	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone so far.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa outside forest areas.	eng
59968	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except from rainforest areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, from Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan, and assumed to be present also in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and locally common all over the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone so far.	eng
59968	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swampy habitats.	eng
59968	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats.	eng
59968	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats.	eng
59968	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy habitats.	eng
59968	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats, well-vegetated perennial streams.	eng
59968	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally common all across the southern Africa region.	eng
59968	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59968	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59968	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59968	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown. The species is locally common all across the southern Africa region.	eng
59968	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59968	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.	eng
59968	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59968	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59968	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59968	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the population at present.	eng
59969	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59969	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59969	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59969	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59969	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59969	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59969	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.	eng
59969	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P.portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, and Congo.	eng
59969	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rain forest, Madagascar. <em> P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of<em> P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia. Chad and Sudan assumed.	eng
59969	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. <em>P. portia</em> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest or desert.	eng
59969	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as a form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled. It is assessed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, expected for Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. Chad and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region and locally common, not in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria. <span style="font-style: italic;">P. portia</span> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.	eng
59969	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region and locally common, not in the arid southwest and at the Cape. Globally, this species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (except in dense rain forest) and Madagascar.	eng
59969	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swampy habitats in bush, savannah, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats in bush, woodland and forest.	eng
59969	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59969	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59969	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59969	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59969	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59969	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread in the region.	eng
59969	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59969	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59969	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59969	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known.	eng
59969	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
59969	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59970	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59970	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59970	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59970	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed.	eng
59970	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59970	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59970	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. <em>P. portia </em>was formerly regarded as a form of <em>P. lucia</em>. As a result, distribution information for the two is sometimes pooled together. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (except in dense rain forest) and Madagascar.	eng
59970	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.	eng
59970	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rain forest, Madagascar.  <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Sudan and Somalia assumed.	eng
59970	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar.<em> P.portia </em>has formerly been regarded as form of P. lucia. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, Congo and Cameroon.	eng
59970	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and probably Chad. <em>P. portia</em> has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest or desert.	eng
59970	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest, Madagascar. <em>P. portia</em> has formerly been regarded as form of <em>P. lucia</em>. Therefore the distribution information of the two is sometimes pooled.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, For Congo and Cameroon expected.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record is from Tsuda and needs confirmation, but seems likely. Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria and probably Chad. P. portia has not always been separated in the past, and therefore the presence of both species must be verified in some countries, although it is most likely that both occur in each case.	eng
59970	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swampy habitats in bush, savannah, woodland and forest.	eng
59970	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59970	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59970	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59970	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59970	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59970	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59970	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59970	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59970	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59970	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59970	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, the species is widespread in the region.	eng
59970	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
59970	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59970	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59970	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None.	eng
59970	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59970	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no current threats known to be seriously affecting the species.	eng
59971	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures are in place or are needed for this species at present.	eng
59971	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59971	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59971	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
59971	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None needed.	eng
59971	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None needed.	eng
59971	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None needed.	eng
59971	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59971	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Not applicable.	eng
59971	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a well-known circumtropical migrant which is common in Australia, Asia, Africa and North and South America. The species is remarkably rare in North Africa and Europe. It probably reproduces regularly in the Levant and maybe also in Cyprus and Turkey. Within Europe, records have been published from Montenegro (Ober 2008), the Greek island Rhodos (Laister 2005) the European part of Turkey (Hacet and Aktaç 2004, 2006) and mainland Greece. The species has been mentioned from France and Spain; which is probably based on a misinterpretation of French literature by Jurzitza (1967). Records from Britain are either dubious or refer to ship-assisted specimens. There are presently no indications that it reproduces within Europe but it is not unlikely that it will increase in the next decades and will become indigenous for the European fauna.	eng
59971	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a widespread and common migrant occurring worldwide  in all tropical and subtropical regions.	eng
59971	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	Globally, <em>Pantala flavescens</em> is a very widespread species, with a circumtropical in distribution. In northern Africa it is a vagrant species.	eng
59971	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.	eng
59971	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries of the region.	eng
59971	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence for Chad, Egypt, Eritrea and Djibouti assumed.	eng
59971	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African states.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions as well as North America.	eng
59971	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread and common migrant worldwide in all tropical and subtropical regions.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from all countries of the cental Africa region except for Congo, but expected there as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>It is a vagrant species in northern Africa.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Occurrence for Chad, Uganda, Eritrea and Djibouti assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is very widespread and common all over the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all West African states.	eng
59971	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is very widespread and common all over the southern Africa region. Globally, it is a widespread and common migrant worldwide, occurring in all tropical and subtropical regions.	eng
59971	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
59971	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Occupies a variety of habitats, especially temporary pools. It also occurs deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainsfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).	eng
59971	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in all kinds of standing waters.	eng
59971	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species occurs in a variety of habitats, especially temporary pools. It is also found deep into arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).	eng
59971	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Various habitats, especially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. Strong migrant.	eng
59971	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas, migrant.	eng
59971	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rainfronts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).	eng
59971	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rain fronts of the ITCZ.	eng
59971	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats, specially temporary pools, also deep in arid areas. The species is an obligatory seasonal migrant that follows the rains fronts of the ITCZ.	eng
59971	population	Suhling, F., 2006	A very widespread and common species.	eng
59971	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No data are available, however this is a very widespread species and the population size certainly exceeds the IUCN Red List criteria thresholds. The global population trend is unknown.	eng
59971	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59971	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59971	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59971	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59971	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
59971	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Only a handfull of individuals have been recorded in Europe. The species is however common and extremely abundant in most of its range outside of Europe.	eng
59971	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is very widespread and common in southern Africa.	eng
59971	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
59971	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	None.	eng
59971	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
59971	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None present threats known.	eng
59971	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Not applicable.	eng
59971	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Not threatened.	eng
59971	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not threatened.	eng
59971	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no know threats affecting this species at present.	eng
59971	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	There are no major threats affecting this species.	eng
59972	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed as well as research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59972	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed, as well as research into the population and range of this species.	eng
59972	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Taxonomic revision is urgently needed, as well as research into the population numbers and range.	eng
59972	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Nevertheless the entire "cognatus"-group of <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragomphus </span>is in urgent need of revision, hence a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Dundo, Angola; also reported from Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59972	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. com.). Nevertheless the entire "cognatus"-group of Paragomphus is in urgent need of revision, therefore a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, for northern Kenya and southern Sudan assumed.	eng
59972	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, northern Kenya and Tanzania; it is listed by Tsuda for Angola (needs confirmation) and there are records from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra pers. comm.) and assumed in southern Sudan. Nevertheless the entire "<em>cognatus</em>"-group of <em>Paragomphus</em> is in urgent need of revision, hence a clear statement of the real distribution cannot be made.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from streams in the Rift Valley region of the Kenya-Tanzania border (L. Natron, Nguruman escarpment), Nairobi area (often confusion with other <em>Paragomphus</em> species).	eng
59972	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in bush country	eng
59972	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in bush country.	eng
59972	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams in shrublands.	eng
59972	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59972	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59972	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59972	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.	eng
59972	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
59972	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59973	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59973	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The type locality of <em>Paragomphus bredoi</em> is Bambesa in northeast Democratic Republic of Congo. Males from the Mughese Forest, northern Malawi (RM, 14 Nov 2001) and Lake Albert, Uganda (Hale Carpenter, 10 Dec 1929, BMNH) do not belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bredoi</span> (Dijkstra unpub. data). As <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bredoi</span> is most likely a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. serrulatus</span> (Dijkstra unpub.), the species is likely to be common in western Africa.	eng
59973	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species occurs around forest streams.	eng
59973	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59973	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage, destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
59974	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59974	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Taxonomic revision is needed.	eng
59974	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present. Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
59974	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are planned at present. Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. Research into the taxonomy of this group is urgently needed.	eng
59974	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread, Cape to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.	eng
59974	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Cape to Ethiopia; Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence in west Africa (where listed for Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone) is doubted, probably referring to confusion with similar species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded for Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi), Cameroon, Zambia, and the Central African Republic. Likely to be present in northern Angola.	eng
59974	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread from the Cape in South Africa to Ethiopia; Kenya, and Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is not present in western Africa (where it has been confused with other species). <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Kasenyi) and northern Angola. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread; assumed to be present in Burundi. <br/><br/>No northeastern Africa confirmed records. Undetermined larvae may pertain to the species. The taxonomy of the <em>P. cognatur</em> group is difficult and surveys and taxonomic work are urgently needed. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has records from rivers in all countries except Botswana.	eng
59974	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species has records from rivers in all countries except Botswana. Globally, it is a widespread African species, occurring from the Cape region (South Africa) to Ethiopia, and west to Nigeria.	eng
59974	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59974	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59974	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59974	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59974	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
59974	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59974	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59974	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59974	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59974	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59974	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No major threats are known at present.	eng
59974	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59975	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information.	eng
59975	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59975	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59975	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59975	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59975	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the tropical rivers in all countries except Lesotho (its occurrence in Angola is assumed). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.	eng
59975	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59975	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present in Angola and Zambia.	eng
59975	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya, occurrence in Somalia, southern Ethiopia and Sudan assumed.	eng
59975	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Kenya, occurrence in Somalia, southern Ethiopia and Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread along the tropical rivers in all countries except Lesotho (its occurrence in Angola is assumed).	eng
59975	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	It is  widespread and common occurs in streams, rivers, rarely pools in savannah or woodland, widespread and common.	eng
59975	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams, rivers or pools, continental.	eng
59975	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers, in savanna or woodland, widespread and common.	eng
59975	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers, rarely pools in savanna or woodland, widespread and common.	eng
59975	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59975	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59975	population	Suhling, F., 2006	The species seems to have stable populations at most rivers.	eng
59975	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species seems to have stable populations at most south African rivers.	eng
59975	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59975	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59975	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59975	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known at present.	eng
59975	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are known to be affecting to the species.	eng
59976	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Halting habitat degradation.	eng
59976	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59976	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59976	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59976	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59976	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None needed.	eng
59976	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59976	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Policy-based actions needed as well as formal education and the raising of awareness. Research into taxonomy, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the speices would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59976	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Recommended conservation measures are the preservation of water quality and control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas. The maintenance of cattle ponds even if they are not used for agricultural purposes anymore, would benefit the species.	eng
59976	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Paragomphus genei</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas and western Africa) and adjacent Eurasia.	eng
59976	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Paragomphus genei</em> occurs in the whole of Africa and parts of the Middle East. There are scattered localities in southern Europe and scattered localities in the whole of the northern Africa region. There are no records for Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, but it is likely to be present there.	eng
59976	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in all countries. Globally, it is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia.	eng
59976	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia.	eng
59976	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and Zambia, but occurrence in appropriate forests is assumed for at least Congo as well.	eng
59976	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
59976	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It probably occurs in all western African states, although records from many are still wanting. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa and adjacent Eurasia	eng
59976	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The African <em>Paragomphus genei</em> shows only scattered localities in southern Europe and its European records are limited to southwest Iberia, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily and the south of Calabria in mainland Italy.	eng
59976	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa (except dense forest) and adjacent Eurasia, probably occurs in most African states, although records from many are still wanting. Occurs in the whole of Africa and parts of the Middle East. There are scattered localities in southern Europe and scattered localities in the whole of the northern Africa region. There are no records for Libya, but it is likely to be present there.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia, but occurrence in appropriate forests assumed for at least Central African Republic and Congo as well. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (assumed); common and widespread.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia; occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in all countries of southern Africa. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species probably occurs in all western African states, although records from many are still wanting.	eng
59976	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Mainly residual pools in large, seasonal rivers.	eng
59976	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams, and rivers or pools. The species is even found in temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months). It is assumed to be multivoltine.	eng
59976	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open streams, and rivers or pools. The species is even found in temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months). It is assumed to be multivoltine.	eng
59976	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Open streams, and rivers or pools. The species is even found in temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months). It is assumed to be multivoltine.	eng
59976	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open streams, rivers or pools, continental.	eng
59976	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams, rivers or pools; even temporary waters. This is one of the few Gomphidae that is able to complete larval development in less than a year (about two months); assumed to be multivoltine (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2004)	eng
59976	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams, rivers or pools; unlike other gomphids can probably breed in temporary water.	eng
59976	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is found at standing waters, both small (e.g. cattle ponds) and large lakes, and running waters like permanent rivers and intermittent rivers with residual pools.	eng
59976	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In central, eastern and southern Africa, the species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square metre in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is locally abundant but uncommon in parts of its range.	eng
59976	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant but uncommon in parts of its range.	eng
59976	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59976	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59976	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Often there are enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square metre in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers. But there are also large populations in, for example, the lower Orange and lower Kunene Rivers.	eng
59976	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The African species is restricted to south Europe, where it can be locally common.	eng
59976	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square m in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers.	eng
59976	population	Suhling, F., 2006	The species often has enormous larval populations of up to 100 individuals per square m in perennial sections of ephemeral rivers. But also large populations e.g., in lower Orange and lower Kunene River.	eng
59976	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Habitat destruction due to pollution and desiccation due to water extraction are the main threats.	eng
59976	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications (pollution, dams, water extraction).	eng
59976	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59976	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59976	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59976	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59976	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No threats.	eng
59976	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications (pollution, dams, water extraction, agriculture) and water pollution.	eng
59976	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats currently affecting this species.	eng
59977	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
59977	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
59977	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Tanzania (lake shores of L. Tanganyika) and two localities in the Congo Basin (Bambesa and Kapanga), and an unconfirmed record from Uganda (uncertain).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species was recoded only from 2 locations in Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa and Kapanga).	eng
59977	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known only from various forests in Malawi, the shores of Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, as well as from two localities in the Congo Basin (Bambesa and Kapanga).	eng
59977	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lake shores.	eng
59977	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Lake shores.	eng
59977	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59977	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59977	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59977	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59978	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59978	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59978	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59978	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, at low elevations. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Tanzania.	eng
59978	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast streams of coastal Tanzania (lower East Usambara Mts and Rufiji floodplain) and southern Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania.	eng
59978	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is present in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: fast streams of coastal Tanzania (lower East Usambara Mts. and Rufiji floodplain) and southern Kenya. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique at low elevations.	eng
59978	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and streams in bush country at low elevations.	eng
59978	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and streams in bush country, low elevations.	eng
59978	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers and streams in bush country, low elevations.	eng
59978	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59978	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59978	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59978	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59978	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on current threats in the region.	eng
59978	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59979	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
59979	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is known only from the shores of Lake Malawi.	eng
59979	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Margins of Lake Malawi.	eng
59979	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
59979	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Water pollution is a major threat to this species and aquaculture may threat it in the future.	eng
59980	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	No conservation measures needed.	eng
59980	conservation	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring is required.	eng
59980	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring.	eng
59980	distribution	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	<em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> has been recorded from Kenya to Egypt with unconfirmed records in Algeria and Ethiopia. In fact, this little known gomphid seems to be a true Nilotic species (Dumont and Martens 1984).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is known from the shores of Lake Turkana (north Kenya).<br/><br/>The type locality of <em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> is Egypt. The only known country in the northern Africa region, where its presence is confirmed (Andres 1928, Dumont 1980, Ober unpub. data). Records from Algeria (e.g., Pinhey 1962) are very doubtful and even records for Ethiopia are now questioned (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), but there are old records for Kenya (Buxton 1936) and Sudan (Ris 1912, 1924). <br/><br/>In north-eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Egypt and Sudan. The record from Ethiopia needs confirmation, but is most likely.	eng
59980	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt. In East Africa, the species is known only from the shores of Lake Turkana (north Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Egypt and Sudan. The record from Ethiopia needs confirmation, but is most likely.	eng
59980	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	Terra typica of <em>Paragomphus pumilio</em> is Egypt, the only known country in the Northern Africa region where its presence is confirmed (Andres 1928, Dumont 1980, Ober unpub. data). Records from Algeria (e.g., Pinhey 1962) are very doubtful and even records for Ethiopia are now questioned (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005), but there are old records for Kenya (Buxton 1936) and Sudan (Ris 1912, 1924). In fact this little known gomphid seems to be a true Nilotic species (Dumont and Martens 1984).	eng
59980	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	According to Dumont and Martens (1984) <em>P. pumilio</em> occurs in riverine conditions as well as in stagnant waters (Wadi Halfa, Lake Nubia, both Sudan).	eng
59980	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Arid country, lakes and rivers.	eng
59980	habitat	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In eastern and northeastern Africa, it inhabits lakes and rivers. According to Dumont and Martens (1984),  in northern Africa <em>P. pumilio</em> occurs in riverine conditions as well as in stagnant waters (Wadi Halfa, Lake Nubia, both Sudan).	eng
59980	population	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In northern Africa, there is no exact information available, but the species is considered to be common wherever it occurs. According to Dumont and Martens (1984), it was the species they collected in greatest numbers, both as adults and larvae. They counted an average of one exuvium per meter of shore in Wadi Halfa (Sudan). Information on populations for this species for eastern and northeastern Africa is not available.	eng
59980	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No exact information available, but the species is said to be common wherever it occurs. According to Dumont and Martens (1984) it was the species they collected in greatest numbers, both as adults and larvae. They counted an average of one exuvium per meter shore in Wadi Halfa (Sudan).	eng
59980	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59980	threats	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59980	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	None.	eng
59980	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
59981	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59981	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59981	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available. Research required into the population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of population.	eng
59981	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None. Research required into the population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of population.	eng
59981	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from the large tropical rivers: Zambezi, Okavango and Limpopo Rivers. Globally, it is recorded from Namibia and Botswana, to Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
59981	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mt. Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania.	eng
59981	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. In East Africa the species is known from Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mt. Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from one locality in Kenya (Morun River) in the region. Since the species is very seasonal and large parts of northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia have not been surveyed at all, the species is assumed to be wider distributed in the region than currently known.	eng
59981	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from Zambia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi (Nkatha Bay and near Mount Mulanje). <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Rufiji Delta (Tanzania), Shimba Hills and Ewaso Nyiro River and tributaries (Kenya), Nkatha Bay and near Mount Mulanje (Malawi).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from one locality in Kenya (Morun River) in the northeastern Africa region. The species is very seasonal and large parts of northern Kenya, southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia have not been surveyed at all, hence the species is assumed to be wider distributed in the region than currently known. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the larger tropical rivers: Zambezi, Okavango and Limpopo Rivers.	eng
59981	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers or large streams, woodland.	eng
59981	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Rivers or large streams, woodland.	eng
59981	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers or large streams, woodland. Larvae burrow in sandy patches of the river bottom.	eng
59981	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers or large streams, woodland. Larvae burrow in sandy patches of the riverground	eng
59981	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In southern Africa, locally common with large populations, as typical for most <em>Paragomphus</em> species.	eng
59981	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally common with large populations, as typical for most <em>Paragomphus</em> species.	eng
59981	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59981	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59981	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59981	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats within the region.	eng
59981	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
59981	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
59982	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59982	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research required into the population numbers and range, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration and corridor creation are also needed.	eng
59982	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from forests in western Kenya, Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia).	eng
59982	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from forests in western Kenya, Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia). Listed by Tsuda for Sudan; his record needs confirmation. Not otherwise present within northeastern Africa.	eng
59982	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
59982	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
59982	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59982	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59982	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59982	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59983	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59983	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59983	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59983	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59983	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into habitat status and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59983	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None.	eng
59983	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, except Lesotho. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in rain forest regions.	eng
59983	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except rainforest regions.	eng
59983	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest regions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from entire region except Sao Tome/Principe.	eng
59983	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia; occurrence in Sudan likely.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest regions.	eng
59983	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal and Guinea eastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest and (semi-) desert, wherever there is flowing water.	eng
59983	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest regions.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from the entire central African region except Sao Tome and Principe. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, where it is considered common and widespread. It is assumed to be present in Burundi. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia; occurrence in Sudan is likely. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in most countries in southern Africa except Lesotho.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal and Guinea eastwards in western Africa.	eng
59983	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and rivers, usually with gallery forest, in savanna, bush- and woodland.	eng
59983	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savanna, bush- and woodland.	eng
59983	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59983	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59983	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
59983	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers with gallery forest in savannah, bush- and woodland.	eng
59983	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59983	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59983	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59983	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59983	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59983	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59983	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59983	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59983	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59983	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Destruction of gallery forest and pollution.	eng
59983	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59983	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and destruction of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59985	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59985	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59985	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Lokutu).	eng
59985	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This species has been reported from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri, Lokutu) and Angola.	eng
59985	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
59985	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
59985	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59985	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59985	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59985	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The major threat to the species is forest destruction.	eng
59986	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
59986	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59986	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59986	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59986	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is recorded as <em>P. brunneus</em>. It is known from rivers in all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. There are only a few records from South Africa. Zambezi, Okavango, Limpopo and Kunene River basins. Globally, it occurs along large rivers from Kenya to DRC, Angola, Namibia and South Africa.	eng
59986	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.	eng
59986	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Gabon, and Angola.	eng
59986	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Angola, Malawi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo in central Africa. <br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi (assumed): common and widespread. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded as <em>P. brunneus</em>. It is known from rivers in all countries except for Lesotho and Swaziland. There are only a few records from South Africa. Zambezi, Okavango, Limpopo and Kunene River basins.	eng
59986	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Savannah streams and rivers with gallery forest. Larvae bury in muddy sediments. Adults are rarely recorded, but exuviae are conspicuous and allow easy recording of the species.	eng
59986	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is known from woodland or forest streams and rivers. In southern Africa it is found in savannah streams and rivers with gallery forest. Larvae bury in muddy sediments. Adults are rarely recorded, but exuviae are conspicuous and allow easy recording of the species.	eng
59986	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Woodland or forest streams and rivers.	eng
59986	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Woodland or forest streams and rivers.	eng
59986	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59986	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
59986	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59986	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59986	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59986	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59986	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in the region.	eng
59986	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.	eng
59987	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59987	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59987	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species.	eng
59987	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known. Research required into the population numbers and range for this species.	eng
59987	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59987	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda, unconfirmed record in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Sudan to western Africa.	eng
59987	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; presence reported in Republic of Congo as well.	eng
59987	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>All records from the region (Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia) need confirmation.	eng
59987	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ghana and possibly also Senegal and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, and Ghana and possibly Senegal.	eng
59987	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Sudan and possibly Egypt, Ghana and Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania,  forests in Uganda, Burundi and an unconfirmed record in Malawi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, all records from the region (Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia) need confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ghana and possibly also Senegal and Nigeria.	eng
59987	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in rivers in forest and woodland and savannah.	eng
59987	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
59987	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
59987	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Savannah and woodland.	eng
59987	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59987	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59987	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59987	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59987	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59987	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59987	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59987	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59987	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.	eng
59988	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59988	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59988	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required.	eng
59988	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would&#160; be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59988	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, DRC, Congo and Zambia.	eng
59988	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	It has been recorded from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region.	eng
59988	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.	eng
59988	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo.	eng
59988	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in forest.	eng
59988	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers in forest.	eng
59988	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Rivers in forest.	eng
59988	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers in forest.	eng
59988	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59988	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59988	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59988	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59988	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59988	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59988	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potential threat from forest destruction is inferred.	eng
59988	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59989	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59989	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59989	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59989	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. So far it is only known from one record here. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region. Globally, it has been recorded from Uganda, Zambia, DRC and Congo.	eng
59989	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Burundi; Congo record needs clarification.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia; likely to be present in Republic of Congo.	eng
59989	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Burundi. Its record from Congo needs clarification.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Semliki in the west), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs marginally, in the upper Zambezi River catchment, northwest Zambia. So far it is only known from one record here. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region.	eng
59989	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest streams/ rivers.	eng
59989	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams/rivers.	eng
59989	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and streams in forest.	eng
59989	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59989	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59989	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59989	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59989	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Forest destruction is inferred to be a potential threat.	eng
59989	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59990	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59990	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
59990	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59990	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species.	eng
59990	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only in the Zambezi River system so far, at Victoria Falls and a tributary below the falls (Zimbabwe). It is expected that this species is more widespread in the region than currently known. Globally it has been recorded from Zimbabwe, Malawi and DRC.	eng
59990	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nkhorongo, Chimaliro Forest (both Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe, Malawi to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59990	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species ranges from Zimbabwe and Malawi to Katanga, occurrence in Zambia is assumed, Guinean record must be erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; occurrence in Zambia is assumed.	eng
59990	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species ranges from Zimbabwe and Malawi to Katanga. Guinean record must be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and its occurrence in Zambia is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi (Nkhorongo, Chimaliro Forest) and Burundi<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only in the Zambezi River system so far, at Victoria Falls and a tributary below the falls (Zimbabwe). It is expected that this species is more widespread in the region than currently known.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea but this record is erroneous due to probable misidentification (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
59990	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Bush country.	eng
59990	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Bush country, streams/rivers.	eng
59990	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Dense forest or riverine forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
59990	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	It occurs in dense forest or riverine forest (Pinhey 1984a), bush country, streams/rivers and woodland.	eng
59990	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59990	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
59990	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59990	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59990	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59990	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59990	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
59990	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
59991	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59991	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59991	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59991	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: "Aswa River" Uganda, no detailed locality data.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59991	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo, Schmidt (1951) illustrated a male from 'Neu-Kamerun' under the name <em>P. picta.</em> Apparently not in west Africa. Records from Central African Republic and Congo (Tsuda) need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic. Records from Congo and Cameroon need confirmation.	eng
59991	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been reported from north Uganda and east Democratic Republic of Congo, Schmidt (1951) illustrated a male from 'Neu-Kamerun' under the name <em>P. picta</em>. Records in Central African Republic and Congo need confirmation. Apparently, it is not present in western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In is though to be present in the "Aswa River" in Uganda but no detailed locality data is available.	eng
59991	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
59991	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest.	eng
59991	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
59991	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59991	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59991	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59991	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59991	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
59991	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59993	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
59993	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59993	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59993	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
59993	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59993	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from the upper Zambezi River catchment (last recorded here in 1960) and Okavango Delta (last recorded in the delta in 1975). It may be more widespread e.g., in the swamps along the Zambezi River and in the Caprivi, but it has not yet recorded. Globally, it is recorded from Uganda, Kenya, Zambia and Botswana.	eng
59993	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) Madi Opei, Tororo (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda, Kenya to western Africa.	eng
59993	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from cattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Zambia (upper Zambesi catchement) and the Central African Republic; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Cameroon is assumed.	eng
59993	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.	eng
59993	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is known from scattered records from Sierra Leone to Kenya and Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchement) and Uganda (Madi Obei). Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from Kakamega Forest (west Kenya) and Madi Opei, Tororo (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Upper Zambezi River catchment (last recorded here in 1960) and Okavango Delta (last recorded in the delta in 1975). It may be more widespread e.g., in the swamps along the Zambezi River and in the Caprivi, but it has not yet recorded.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
59993	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably rivers in in savannah and woodland.	eng
59993	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Probably rivers in savannah and woodland.	eng
59993	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably savannah and woodland.	eng
59993	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59993	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers in bush and forest.	eng
59993	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59993	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59993	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
59993	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59993	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59993	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59993	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59993	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59993	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Potential threats in the Okavango may be pesticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.	eng
59993	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potential threats in the Okavango may be pesticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.	eng
59994	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59994	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59994	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59994	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
59994	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
59994	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
59994	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa (Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. Likely to be present within Zambia.	eng
59994	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa (Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. com.).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from an unconfirmed record from Sudan, and may be present in Kenya and Uganda.	eng
59994	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa.	eng
59994	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from west Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in western Tanzania and Uganda to western Africa. It is known from Cameroon and probably present in Nigeria. The records from Guinea and Liberia are most likely to be correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. Its distribution in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, It has been recorded from Cameroon and probably Nigeria; records from Guinea and Liberia are probably correct, but there are several confusingly similar species. Recent specimens collected in Ghana may pertain to be this species (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
59994	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest rivers and lakes.	eng
59994	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest rivers and lakes.	eng
59994	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest rivers and lakes.	eng
59994	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
59994	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59994	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59994	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59994	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59994	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
59994	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59994	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
59994	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
59995	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59995	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59995	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available from much of its range. In South Africa, no specific measures are in place or are planned at present. However, conservation of catchments in general, removal of alien trees, and cessation of trout introductions are all beneficial to the species (Samways 2006).	eng
59995	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into taxonomy, populations, population size and trends, threats, ecology and taxonomy are proposed. Site management would be also valuable. In South Africa, no specific measures are in place or are planned at present. However, conservation of catchments in general, removal of alien trees, and cessation of trout introductions are all beneficial to the species (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59995	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: recorded from Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (occurrence in Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Transvaal to Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59995	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Zambia.	eng
59995	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has a wide distribution from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi. It is assumed to be also present in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Somalia, the record is most likely erroneous (see Carfi 1974). Thus listed as Not Applicable in this region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in river systems in the eastern part of the southern Africa region (Zambezi and Limpopo catchments). It has recently been rediscovered in South Africa.	eng
59995	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in river systems in the eastern part of the southern Africa region (Zambezi and Limpopo catchments). It has recently been rediscovered in South Africa. Globally it has a wide distribution from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.	eng
59995	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Bush and forest, often in montane areas. Montane streams and rivers in hot, bushy savanna (Samways 2006).	eng
59995	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Bush and forest, often montane.	eng
59995	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Bush and forest, often montane.	eng
59995	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Bush and forest, often montane. Montane streams and rivers in hot, bushy savannah (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59995	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
59995	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59995	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59995	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59995	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59995	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59995	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available for its entire range, although habitat loss due to agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution, are known to be affecting to the species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, threats include invasive alien vegetation, mine effluent and possibly agricultural run-off and alien fish (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
59995	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available from much of its range. In South Africa, threats include invasive alien vegetation, mine effluent and possibly agricultural run-off and alien fish (Samways 2006).	eng
59996	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59996	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into trends/monitoring for this species and habitat maintenance/conservation are needed.	eng
59996	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into trends/monitoring for this species. Habitat maintenance/conservation also needed.	eng
59996	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia, the record for Somalia (Tsuda) is a misinterpretation of Förster's locality by Pinhey (see Carfi 1974). Nevertheless, an occurrence in Somalia and southern Sudan is likely.	eng
59996	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from several localities in Kenya, Ethiopia.	eng
59996	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from several localities in Kenya and Ethiopia. The record for Somalia (Tsuda) is a misinterpretation of Förster's locality by Pinhey (see Carfi 1974). Nevertheless, an occurrence in Somalia and southern Sudan is likely.	eng
59996	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in bush.	eng
59996	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Rivers in bush.	eng
59996	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rivers in bush. It has only been recorded above 1000 m, but in a limited number of localities.	eng
59996	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59996	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
59996	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
59996	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
59996	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
59996	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59997	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59997	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59997	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
59997	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None. Research into trends and monitoring for this species required.	eng
59997	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
59997	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.	eng
59997	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions and increasing awareness are proposed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59997	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Phyllomacrmia picta</em> is a widespread species from southern and tropical Africa to southern Sahel and the whole Nile system.	eng
59997	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even occurring in the arid southwest (lower Orange River). Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in forest.	eng
59997	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-saharan Africa except forest.	eng
59997	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in western Africa (a report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Angola.	eng
59997	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread Phyllomacromia species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in West Africa (a report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya. Occurrence in Sudan assumed.	eng
59997	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria. The report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa, especially outside forest, but present only in Nigeria in western Africa.	eng
59997	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The most widespread <em>Phyllomacromia</em> species in eastern and southern Africa (especially outside forest), but present only in Nigeria in western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Burundi.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is widespread from southern and tropical Africa to southern Sahel and the whole Nile system.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and its occurrence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even occurring in the arid southwest (lower Orange River).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria. The report from Chad relies on larvae, which cannot be identified to species as yet.	eng
59997	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush and even desert, common and widespread.	eng
59997	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush, common and widespread.	eng
59997	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush, common and widespread.	eng
59997	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in savannah and even desert. Also found in large impoundments.	eng
59997	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, rivers and lakes in forest, savannah and woodland.	eng
59997	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Streamwater.	eng
59997	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, only two old records (1928) are known, both in Egypt on the Nile (Cairo and Luxor). The nearest current locality outside of the region is more than 1,100 km south in Sudan, near Khartoum (dated 1984).	eng
59997	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59997	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59997	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59997	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, only two old records (1928) are known, both in Egypt on the Nile (Cairo and Luxor). The nearest current locality outside of the region is more than 1,100 km south in Sudan, near Khartoum (dated 1984).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species seems to have stable populations and is common and widespread.	eng
59997	population	Suhling, F., 2006	The species seems to have stable populations. It is common and widespread.	eng
59997	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59997	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
59997	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59997	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
59997	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known.	eng
59997	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, drought, stream management, over-irrigation.	eng
59997	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, groundwater abstraction, stream management, over-irrigation, dam construction, and urbanization are threats to the species. Drought is an inferred future threat.	eng
59998	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59998	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59998	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59998	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Aswa River (northern Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Nigeria.	eng
59998	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau (latter published as <em>P. africana</em> by Schmidt (1951).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species occurs in savannah belt from northern Uganda, through Nigeria to Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59998	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is occurs in savannah belt from northern Uganda, through Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau (latter published as <em>P. africana</em> by Schmidt in 1951).<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa, but it is most likely to occur in northern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Central African Republic .<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (Aswa River), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali to Guinea-Bissau.	eng
59998	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in bush.	eng
59998	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.	eng
59998	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rivers in savannah and woodland.	eng
59998	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59998	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59998	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59998	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
59998	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
59998	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
59999	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
59999	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
59999	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	At global level, this species is present in west Kenya ( Kakamega Forest), Tanzania, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59999	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from west Kenya, west Tanzania, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record from Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
59999	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in rainforest streams and this species hunts along forest margins.	eng
59999	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams, hunts along forest margins.	eng
59999	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
59999	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
59999	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
59999	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60000	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60000	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60000	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon.	eng
60000	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60000	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in dense rainforest.	eng
60000	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams in dense rainforest.	eng
60000	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60000	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60000	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60000	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
60001	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60001	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60001	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60001	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60001	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Uganda, locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. xanthopus</em>) is probably wrong.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
60001	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic; likely present in Congo and Cameroon as well.	eng
60001	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Gambia.	eng
60001	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Gambia in western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic,and&#160; likely to be present in northern Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. The records from the locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. xanthopus</em>) are probably wrong.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
60001	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open rivers, often with some forest.	eng
60001	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open rivers, often with some forest.	eng
60001	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open rivers, often with some forest.	eng
60001	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Open rivers with forest.	eng
60001	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60001	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60001	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60001	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60001	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60001	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60001	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60001	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60002	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The Ngezi Forest attained Forest Reserve status in 1959; today’s gazetted area is about 1,500 ha (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
60002	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Known only from Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island (Tanzania). Ngezi Forest is the only remaining large patch of tropical moist forest that once covered most of Pemba (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
60002	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Sluggish stream in dense forest. Ngezi is coastal swamp forest; a rare forest type in the coastal forest belt that is very distinct from other vegetation types (Clarke and Robertson 2000). The small sluggish stream that supported <em>P. pembipes</em> is the only permanent one in the area (Dijkstra <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
60002	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
60002	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Destruction of the Ngezi forest. This is not thought to be an immediate threat since the forest is gazetted and looked good during a visit in 2001. Until recently Pemba was entirely covered with forest; clearing for cash crop plantations (cloves, cardamom) began in 1830 (Clarke and Karoma 2000). Now just a few square kilometres of forest are left and endemic forest species are already thought to be extinct (Clarke <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60003	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species requires better protection of it's habitat, especially within protected areas, and the development of a management plan.	eng
60003	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species requires better protection of its habitat, especially within protected areas, and the development of a management plan, as well as research on the streams draining north from the Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya need to be surveyed since the species might occur there.	eng
60003	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has not been recorded from the area, but streams draining north from the Aberdare Mts and Mt. Kenya need to be surveyed first, since the species might occur there.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is endemic to montane forest streams of Aberdare Mts and Mt. Kenya (central Kenya). Extent of occurrence is far below 100 km² and the area of occupancy less than 10 km². The population is severely fragmented as a result of hardly any forest remaining in the known range area.	eng
60003	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is endemic to montane forest streams of Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya (central Kenya). Its extent of occurrence is far below 100 km² and the area of occupancy less than 10 km². The population is severely fragmented as a result of hardly any forest remaining in the known range area. It has not been recorded from northeastern Africa, but streams draining north from the Aberdare Mounts and Mount Kenya need to be surveyed first, since the species might occur there.	eng
60003	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane forest streams, 1,600–2,000 asl.	eng
60003	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Montane forest streams, 1,600 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
60003	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60003	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60003	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of montane forests, hardly any forest is left in the altitude range inhabited by this species. Though the remaining forests are gazetted, illegal charcoal burning and logging continues to a large extent.	eng
60003	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Destruction of montane forests is a major threat. Hardly any forest is left in the altitude range inhabited by this species, though the remaining forests are gazetted, illegal charcoal burning and logging continues to a large extent.	eng
60004	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available but research into conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60004	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Endemic to the Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains (eastern Arc Mountains) in Tanzania. Remaining forest habitat (and hence the population) is fragmented across the known range area.	eng
60004	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
60004	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60004	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction, as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, in the Eastern Arc Mountains means that often only forests on hill-tops remain, where no suitable breeding habitats exist.	eng
60005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60005	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60005	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries, but not in the southwestern (arid) parts of the region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rain forest.	eng
60005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> In sub-Saharan Africa, the species is widespread except in dense rainforest.	eng
60005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> In eastern sub-Saharan Africa widespread except dense rainforest. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijkstra <em>pers. comm.</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia.	eng
60005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan likely.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from eastern sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforests. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
60005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa except in dense rainforest, from Ethiopia to Angola and South Africa. Old reference from Guinea must be erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, occurrence in Sudan likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from all countries, but not in the southwestern (arid) parts of the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from an old reference from Guinea must be erroneous (Dijlkstra pers. comm.).	eng
60005	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, and shorelines of large lakes	eng
60005	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, shorelines of large lakes	eng
60005	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, shorelines of large lakes.	eng
60005	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Shady streams and rivers in forest, woodland, bush and savannah, shorelines of large lakes.	eng
60005	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60005	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60005	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60005	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60005	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.	eng
60005	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities.	eng
60005	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution in the vicinity of cities and habitat loss due to agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60005	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Water pollution is likely to be the main threat in parts of the range falling within the vicinity of cities.	eng
60006	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In northeastern and southern Africa, research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60006	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed on range, population status, etc.	eng
60006	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60006	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60006	conservation	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	Research is required into the species population trends, distribution and conservation requirements.	eng
60006	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	At global level, the species has been recorded from Uganda, western Kenya (Kakamega Forest) , eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment), South West Cameroon (isolated) and may be found in South east Nigeria. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.	eng
60006	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it is known from west Kenya to north Zambia and Cameroon.	eng
60006	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, western Kenya, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Tanzania, south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon.	eng
60006	distribution	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>The species is not known to be present within the northeastern Africa assessment region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda (no detailed map given).	eng
60006	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species occurs within the western Africa region in the south west Cameroon and may be found in south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya through Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda to north Zambia. It is solated in Cameroon and may be found in south east Nigeria.	eng
60006	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
60006	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
60006	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
60006	habitat	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
60006	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
60006	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60006	population	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	No information available.	eng
60006	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60006	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60006	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60006	threats	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	Destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
60006	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Intensive agriculture and destruction of rain forests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
60006	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60006	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main known threats to the species are water pollution, destruction of rainforests caused by agriculture and wood extraction, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
60006	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potential forest destruction is inferred.	eng
60007	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60007	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from northern shores of Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania/Democratic Republic of Congo). As all species of the genus <em>Platycypha</em> are very showy and difficult to be missed, it cannot have a much wider distribution than currently known, otherwise it is likely to have appeared in material from general collection expeditions in the Congo and/or Tanzania. Endemic to eastern Africa region.<br/><br/>Only seven male specimens of <em>P. pinheyi </em>appear to be known, all from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania/Democratic Republic of Congo); Pinhey (1966a) reported a male from “15 miles S. of Uvira, 800 m, Congo, 21 August, 1957 (Ross)”, which is in NMBZ, Pinhey (1967) referred to a specimen in MRAC labelled “Makobola, Lac Tanganyika, ii-1953, G. Marlier”, two males, with two females, in NMBZ from “Pondogoro, Mpanda, Mpanda District, Lake Tanganyika” were collected by J. Kielland.	eng
60007	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Likely to breed in streams or rivers, and perhaps endemic to the mountains around Lake Tanganyika; likely to be a forest species rather than a lake species, but there is limited information.	eng
60007	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60007	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The whole border region of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo has been subject to extreme population pressure. The environment and wildlife in that area has suffered tremendously. Though dragonflies are not directly exploited by locals, the effects of deforestation and water pollution are immense and can be inferred for the range area of this species.	eng
60008	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60008	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60008	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60008	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the population and range of this species, and trends should be monitored.	eng
60008	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi.	eng
60008	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nyika Plateau (north Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Mozambique.	eng
60008	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo; reported from Angola.	eng
60008	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Nyika Plateau (north Malawi).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.	eng
60008	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Found in swamps.	eng
60008	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
60008	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
60008	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps.	eng
60008	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60008	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60008	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60008	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60008	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60008	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60008	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60008	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
60009	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	In South Africa, further searches for the species are required. No conservation measures are known to be in place at present.	eng
60009	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60009	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60009	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60009	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60009	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into trends/monitoring of this species is required.	eng
60009	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.	eng
60009	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 1955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded for Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.	eng
60009	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; presence expected in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.	eng
60009	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.	eng
60009	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, west to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon, expected in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, occurrence in Sudan assumed<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly in Zimbabwe, with a localised distribution in South Africa and Zambia. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa (Samways 2006 in press). <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria	eng
60009	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is widespread mainly in Zimbabwe, with a localised distribution in South Africa and Zambia. In South Africa, it was last recorded at Zeekoevlei, Cape Town in 1950 (Brinck 955); there are some doubts regarding the South African records as the elevations and habitats do not match those recorded elsewhere in Africa (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, the species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia, and west to Nigeria.	eng
60009	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Highlands swamps and pools.	eng
60009	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps and reedy streams in montane forest.	eng
60009	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and reedy streams in montane forest.	eng
60009	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps and reedy streams in montane forest.  In South Africa, the species was also recorded from grass-fringed pools and streams in bush or forest (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60009	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps and reedy streams in montane regions. In South Africa, the species was recorded from grass-fringed pools and streams in bush or forest (Samways).	eng
60009	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
60009	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60009	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60009	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60009	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60009	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are not known. However, it is unlikely that the species is threatened across the whole of its range.	eng
60009	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60009	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60009	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats due to agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60009	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60010	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60010	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60010	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60010	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60010	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, ranging southwards to Natal. It is not found in the Cape or the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, and DRC.	eng
60010	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60010	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola, likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.	eng
60010	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread from Natal to Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species has been recorded from Zambia and Angola, and likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, It was found in Kenya, Uganda and Burundi. It is common and widespread in Malawi and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, this species was [previously confused with <em>P. niloticum</em>, which is the reason why this species is listed for Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia erroneously.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, this species is widespread in the tropical north, ranging southwards to Natal. It is not found in the Cape or the arid south-west.	eng
60010	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and floodplains.	eng
60010	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers and floodplains.	eng
60010	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Rivers and floodplains.	eng
60010	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and floodplains.	eng
60010	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60010	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60010	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60010	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60010	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Currently no threats.	eng
60010	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60010	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60010	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to the species are water pollution, habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture.	eng
60011	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60011	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required, along with monitoring of population trends.	eng
60011	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available at present.	eng
60011	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia; might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60011	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in northern Zambia, might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Lake Opeta (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs from northern Zambia via the Caprivi, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the Waterberg Plateau in South Africa.	eng
60011	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, the species occurs from northern Zambia via the Caprivi, Botswana and Zimbabwe to the Waterberg Plateau in South Africa. Globally, the species occurs in South Africa and north Botswana to Zambia, and has also been recorded from Uganda.	eng
60011	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and pools.	eng
60011	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps and pools. Grassy-fringed pools with lilies and partial shade (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60011	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, pools, and oxbows. Grassy-fringed pools with lilies and partial shade (Samways 2006).	eng
60011	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. In South Africa, the species is rare (Samways 2006).	eng
60011	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60011	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60011	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture.	eng
60011	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Destruction of habitats caused by agriculture and groundwater extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60011	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	In South Africa, overextraction of water from its habitat is a problem (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.	eng
60012	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available. Research needed into trends/monitoring for this species.	eng
60012	conservation	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	No information available. Research needed into trends/monitoring for this species.	eng
60012	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	At global level, the species has been recorded from montane areas above 2,000 m asl in Kenya (Mount Kenya, Aberdare Mounts, Mau Range, Mount Elgon), Uganda (Mount Elgon) and Tanzania (Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru). The subspecies <em>P. bicoerulans</em> occurs in central Kenya, <em>P. elgonensi</em> in western Kenya and eastern Uganda, and <em>P. kilimanjaricus</em> in northern Tanzania.	eng
60012	distribution	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	<strong>Global distribution</strong>: The species is known from Mt. Kenya, Aberdare Mts, Mau Range, Mt. Elgon (Kenya), Mt. Elgon (Uganda), Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru (Tanzania) montane areas above 2,000 m asl.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong> The species is known from the northern slopes of Mt. Kenya.	eng
60012	habitat	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	Montane forest streams in forest, heather and afroalpine moorlands, above 2,000 m asl.	eng
60012	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane forest streams in forest, heather and afroalpine moorlands, above 2000 m asl.	eng
60012	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
60012	population	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	No information available.	eng
60012	threats	Viola Clausnitzer, 2009	Pollution and drainage of montane streams.	eng
60012	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Pollution and drainage of montane streams caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60013	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures are necessary for the species as a whole. However, further sites need to be located and some protection of known habitat would be beneficial (Samways 2006).	eng
60013	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures are necessary for the species as a whole. However, further sites need to be located and some protection of known habitat would be beneficial (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60013	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60013	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60013	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is a common species along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers, with only very few records occurring southwards in South Africa (where the southern form, subspecies <em>umsingaziense</em>, is endemic). It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and possibly Tanzania (but this record needs to be confirmed).	eng
60013	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Malawi (no detailed records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and likely in Tanzania.	eng
60013	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and possibly Tanzania, southern Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique. A record from Chad is dubious.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia. Likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60013	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been reported from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and probably Tanzania. Only west African record (Chad) is dubious.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from northern Zambia, Angola. Likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: swamps in Malawi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a common species along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers, with only very few records occurring southwards in South Africa (where the southern form, subspecies <em>umsingaziense</em>, is endemic). It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique.<br/><br/>The only west African record from Chad is considered dubious (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
60013	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Found in swamps.	eng
60013	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
60013	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
60013	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy river courses.	eng
60013	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally common.	eng
60013	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60013	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60013	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown, but it is considered locally common en southern Africa.	eng
60013	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60013	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60013	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the taxon. The South African subspecies (<em>P. c. umsingaziense</em>) is threatened by urban development.	eng
60013	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No serious threats to the species are known at present. The South African subspecies (<em>P. c. umsingaziense</em>) is threatened by urban development.	eng
60014	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60014	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60014	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60014	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available.	eng
60014	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs along perennial rivers in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it is recorded from Zimbabwe to Kenya.	eng
60014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Zimbabwe to Kenya.	eng
60014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record in southern Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly also present in Zambia and Angola.	eng
60014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species was listed by Tsuda for Somalia - this record needs verification. The species was by Förster (1902) for Eritrea, which needs confirmation as well. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely but unconfirmed.	eng
60014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia to Kenya, likely in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has not been recorded from the area, but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Somalia - this record needs verification. Listed by Förster (1902) for Eritrea, which needs confirmation as well. Occurrence in northern Kenya likely. More surveys are needed, for the time being the species is listed as NA for the region<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs along perennial rivers in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It is not found in the arid south-west or at the Cape.	eng
60014	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers in savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
60014	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers in savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
60014	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60014	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams, rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60014	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60014	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60014	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60014	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60014	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60014	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60014	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60014	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and destruction/deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60015	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60015	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60015	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60015	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60015	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60015	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Natal through Zimbabwe, to northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Kenya.	eng
60015	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya.	eng
60015	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia. The Angola record needs confirmation, but is likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.	eng
60015	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.	eng
60015	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Natal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, the Angola record needs confirmation, likely to be found in southern Democratic Republic of Congo as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia, occurrence in Sudan assumed.	eng
60015	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Reedy streams and rivers.	eng
60015	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy streams and rivers.	eng
60015	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Reedy streams and rivers.	eng
60015	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy verges of fast streams and rivers.	eng
60015	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60015	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60015	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60015	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60015	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
60015	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60015	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60015	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60015	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60016	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60016	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60016	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60016	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60016	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60016	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the tropical north. It does not occur in South Africa or in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>Globally, it has been recorded from Botswana to Mozambique, Kenya, and Uganda.	eng
60016	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana to Mozambique, Kenya, Uganda.	eng
60016	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Angola, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia. Assumed in Central African Republic.	eng
60016	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in west Africa, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal.	eng
60016	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Senegal, presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from Angola and Cameroon, but assumed in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the tropical north. It does not occur in South Africa or in the arid south-west.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread, although its presence in Burkina Faso and Chad unconfirmed.	eng
60016	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swamps and calm section of streams and rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60016	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60016	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60016	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60016	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush and savannah, pools, swamps and calm section of streams and rivers.	eng
60016	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60016	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60016	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60016	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60016	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60016	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
60016	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60016	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60016	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60016	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60017	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60017	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60017	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60017	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
60017	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to western Africa.	eng
60017	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; occurrence in Cameroon is assumed.	eng
60017	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda to Liberia.	eng
60017	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, occurrence in Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Liberia.	eng
60017	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest rivers.	eng
60017	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest rivers.	eng
60017	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open, standing or slow-flowing waters in or near forest.	eng
60017	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open, standing or slow-flowing waters in or near forest.	eng
60017	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60017	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60017	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60017	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60017	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60017	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60017	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
60017	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60018	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60018	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60018	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60018	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60018	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs from Angola through Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and along the Indian Ocean coast to the Cape. It is not found in Namibia or in the Kalahari. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
60018	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
60018	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from South Africa to Kenya and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, likely to occur in southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and in Angola.	eng
60018	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread from South Africa to Kenya and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, likely to occur in southern and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs from Angola through Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and along the Indian Ocean coast to the Cape. It is not found in Namibia or in the Kalahari.	eng
60018	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady streams in forest, thicket and bush.	eng
60018	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady streams in forest, thicket and bush.	eng
60018	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Shady streams in forest, thicket and bush.	eng
60018	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Shady streams in forest, thicket and bush.	eng
60018	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60018	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60018	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60018	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60018	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60018	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60018	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in the region.	eng
60018	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, as well as water pollution.	eng
60019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60019	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60019	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60019	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60019	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The area is poorly inhabited since the middle of the Holocene and the present aridity and exhaustion of water resources is a natural climatic event.	eng
60019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The area is poorly inhabited since the middle of the Holocene and the present aridity and exhaustion of water resources is a natural climatic event. Policy-based actions are needed as well as increasing awareness. Research into biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, uses and harvest levels, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions such as the identification, establishment and management of protected areas are also needed.	eng
60019	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion hamoni</em> is an Afrotropical species that is widespread from western to southern Africa and to the southwestern Arabian peninsula. A string of relictual localities dating from the Early Holocene pluvial period survive in Mauritania, southeastern Algeria and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.	eng
60019	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion hamoni</em> occurs from South Africa and Namibia, north to Sudan, and west to Senegal, except in forest areas.	eng
60019	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the northern part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, is has been recorded from South Africa and Namibia, north to Sudan, and west to Senegal (except in forest).	eng
60019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique north to Sudan, west to Senegal except forest.	eng
60019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara: recorded from most countries in sub-Saharan Africa and likely to occur in the others as well (e.g.,  Guinea-Bissau: records of<em> P. sjoestedti </em>from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Records are confirmed for Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.	eng
60019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara: recorded from most countries in subsaharan Africa and likely to occur in the others as well (e.g.  Guinea-Bissau: records of <em>P. sjoestedti</em> from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya and Sudan, occurrence in Ethiopia assumed.	eng
60019	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries in western Africa except Liberia (rainforest) and Guinea-Bissau (but records of P. sjoestedti from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known throughout tropical Africa except in dense rainforest, also isolated at permanent water in the Sahara.	eng
60019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, north to Sudan and west to Senegal (except forest).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi, where it is common and widespread. Its presence in Burundi is assumed.<br/><br/>This Afrotropical species is widespread from western to southern Africa and to the southwestern Arabian peninsula. A string of relictual localities dating from the Early Holocene pluvial period survive in Mauritania, southeastern Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan, and assumed to occur in Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species in the northern part of the region. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all countries except Liberia (rainforest) and Guinea-Bissau (but records of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sjoestedti</span> from this country by Schmidt 1951 may pertain to it).	eng
60019	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, the species occurs in wadis and gueltas in the Sahara.	eng
60019	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, rivers and ponds in savannah, bush or even desert.	eng
60019	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in savanna and bush.	eng
60019	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60019	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60019	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60019	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, rivers in savannah and bush. In northern Africa, the species occurs in wadis and gueltas in the Sahara.	eng
60019	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In the northern African region, seven relictual localities of unspecified importance have been published from Mauritania to southeastern Algeria and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. There is no information available on population size or trends.	eng
60019	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60019	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60019	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60019	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60019	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60019	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	There is no information available on population size or trends. In the northern African region, seven relictual localities of unspecified importance have been published from Mauritania to southeastern Algeria and Libya.	eng
60019	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Drought and drying up of the relictual wadis in the Saharian belt.	eng
60019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drought and drying up of the relictual wadis in the Saharian belt, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture and groundwater extraction and water pollution are threat to the species.	eng
60019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat degradation.	eng
60019	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No current threats are known.	eng
60019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60019	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60019	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60020	conservation	Kipping, J. & Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
60020	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60020	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is needed, and should be monitored.	eng
60020	distribution	Kipping, J. & Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from the Okavango Delta, Botswana and the upper Zambesi catchment in Zambia. Its distribution in the region appears to be disjunct, however it may be more widespread than currently known. Globally, it is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambesi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).	eng
60020	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambezi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia. Democratic Republic of Congo most likely.	eng
60020	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is known from northern Zambia (Congo and Zambezi catchments), Malawi and Botswana (Okavango Delta).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo most likely<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from the Okavango Delta, Botswana and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia. Its distribution in the region appears to be disjunct, however it may be more widespread than currently known.	eng
60020	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
60020	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps.	eng
60020	habitat	Kipping, J. & Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60020	population	Kipping, J. & Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60020	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60020	population	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60020	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Kipping, J., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for tsetse fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.	eng
60020	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats, particularly for agriculture.	eng
60020	threats	Kipping, J. & Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.	eng
60021	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60021	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60021	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60021	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60021	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south DRC. Records from South Africa belong to <em>P. draconis</em> (see <em>P. draconis</em> species account).	eng
60021	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: montane swamps (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Malawi, Angola and south Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa, and likely in Tanzania.	eng
60021	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly Tanzania. Records from South Africa belong to <em>P. draconis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, north Angola, and southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60021	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Malawi, Angola, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from South Africa belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. draconis</span>. Possibly also occurs in Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, n. Angola, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: montane swamps (Malawi).	eng
60021	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane swamps, shady streams and rivers.	eng
60021	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane swamps, shady streams and rivers.	eng
60021	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Montane swamps, shady streams and rivers.	eng
60021	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Montane swamps, shady streams and rivers.	eng
60021	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60021	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60021	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60021	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60021	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60021	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60021	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60021	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats within the region.	eng
60022	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60022	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60022	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60022	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60022	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60022	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60022	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the region, but is very scattered in the arid areas. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except dense rain forest.	eng
60022	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except dense rainforest.	eng
60022	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy,<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia.	eng
60022	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia.	eng
60022	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and probably common in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy, e.g., not recorded from sufficiently researched countries like Gambia and Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. It is often common in eastern in southern Africa.	eng
60022	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except in dense rainforest. Often common in eastern in southern Africa and probably so in open parts of western Africa, but is distribution patchy.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the region, but is very scattered in the arid areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread and probably common in open parts of western Africa, but distribution patchy, e.g., not recorded from sufficiently researched countries like Gambia and Liberia.	eng
60022	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Almost any open or half-open stream or river.	eng
60022	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m asl.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it occurs in almost any open or half-open stream or river.	eng
60022	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m a.s.l.	eng
60022	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m a.s.l.	eng
60022	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m asl.	eng
60022	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady streams and rivers in various habitats, below 1,800 m asl.	eng
60022	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60022	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60022	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60022	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60022	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60022	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	In Namibia, the widely isolated populations are threatened by intrinsic factors (i.e., small subpopulation size and isolation). Threats elsewhere in the region are unknown.	eng
60022	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60022	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60022	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60022	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60022	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Threats to the species are unknown in the region.	eng
60023	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60023	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60023	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60023	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60023	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi River Basin) and western Angola (coastal rivers). Globally, it has been recorded from DRC to western Kenya, eastern Angola (Congo Basin) and northern Zambia.	eng
60023	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), various forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya and north Zimbabwe.	eng
60023	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya, north Zimbabwe, northwest Zambia and western Angola (coastal rivers).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northern Angola, northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon (record needs confirmation).	eng
60023	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to west Kenya and Uganda, north Zimbabwe, north-west Zambia and western Angola (coastal rivers).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Angola, northern Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon (record needs confirmation)<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), various forests in Uganda.	eng
60023	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60023	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60023	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
60023	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
60023	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60023	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60023	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60023	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60023	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60023	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60023	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Land pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60023	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Threats within the region are unknown, although forest destruction is an inferred threat.	eng
60024	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
60024	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60024	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60024	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required on trends/monitoring this species.	eng
60024	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is known only from one collection (in 1969) from Mozambique. It should be more widespread then currently known, but Mozambique is not well surveyed. Globally, it is recorded from Somalia to Mozambique, in coastal areas.	eng
60024	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from  Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas.	eng
60024	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas. In East Africa the species has been recorded from coastal plains of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia.	eng
60024	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Somalia and Kenya to Mozambique, coastal areas.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: coastal plain of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Kenya and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known only from one collection (in 1969) from Mozambique. It should be more widespread then currently known, but Mozambique is not well surveyed.	eng
60024	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Often inhabits swampy areas, especially floodplains, but also found along streams and rivers.	eng
60024	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats, especially floodplains, but also along streams and rivers.	eng
60024	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy, often habitats, specially floodplains, but also along streams and rivers.	eng
60024	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Swampy, often habitats, specially floodplains, but also along streams and rivers.	eng
60024	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60024	population	Clausnitzer, V.Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No precise information available.	eng
60024	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
60024	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
60024	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60024	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60024	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
60024	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There is no information available on current threats.	eng
60025	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60025	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60025	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60025	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60025	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are needed at present.	eng
60025	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Cape), north to Somalia, and west to Ghana.	eng
60025	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cape north to Somalia, west to Ghana.	eng
60025	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g., Guinea) seem erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, northern Zambia - occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo is possible.	eng
60025	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g. Guinea) seem erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, common and widespread.	eng
60025	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Ethiopia, records from west and central Africa (e.g. Guinea) seem erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, northern Zambia, west Uganda - occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo possible.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, common and widespread.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread all over the region. <br/><br/>The records from western Africa are considered dubious (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
60025	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in savanna and bush.	eng
60025	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60025	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60025	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in savannah and bush.	eng
60025	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams,  rivers and pools in savannah and bush.	eng
60025	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Its specific population size is unknown but the species is locally common in southern Africa.	eng
60025	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally common.	eng
60025	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60025	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60025	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No current threats are known to be affecting the species.	eng
60025	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60025	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60025	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60025	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60026	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60026	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60026	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60026	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60026	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60026	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Senegal.	eng
60026	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, west to Senegal.	eng
60026	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal. Often the dominant <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion </span>in forests.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the entire region except Sao Tome and Principe and Gabon, though it likely occurs in the latter.	eng
60026	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from north Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal. Often the dominant <em>Pseudagrion</em> in forests.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from western Sudan (forests in the Jebel Marra Mts) by Dumont (1988). Occurrence in forest habitats in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia possible - more surveys are needed.	eng
60026	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal. The dominant Pseudagrion in somewhat forested parts of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> north Zambia to west Kenya, west to Senegal.	eng
60026	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia to western Kenya, and west to Senegal. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the entire region except São Tomé and Principe and Gabon, though it likely occurs in the latter.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from western Sudan (forests in the Jebel Marra Mts) by Dumont (1988). Occurrence in forest habitats in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia possible - more surveys are needed. Currently listed as NA for the region as less than 5% of the global population occur in the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northern Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.	eng
60026	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Fairly open forest streams and rivers.	eng
60026	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60026	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60026	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
60026	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams. Often the dominant <em>Pseudagrion</em> species in forests.	eng
60026	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60026	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60026	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60026	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60026	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60026	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown, although forest destruction is inferred.	eng
60026	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60026	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60026	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
60026	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60027	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of urbanization as well as of water consumption and pollution.	eng
60027	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Control of urbanization as well as of water consumption and pollution through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60027	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60027	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into the population and range of this species, and trends/monitoring.	eng
60027	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Globally, <em>Pseudagrion niloticum</em> has a range that extends from East Africa, and Somalia to the Nile delta in Egypt via the whole Nile system, through Ethiopia and Sudan. In Northern Africa, it is known only from Egypt.	eng
60027	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is widespread and common in streams and rivers in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia.	eng
60027	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
60027	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has a range that extends from eastern Africa, and Somalia to the Nile delta in Egypt via the whole Nile system, through Ethiopia and Sudan.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread and common in streams and rivers in Kenya.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is known only from Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
60027	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In eastern and northeastern Africa, it is present in rivers and streams in savannah and bush.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species occurs in stream waters, from large rivers to small brooks in desert to semi-desert environment.	eng
60027	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and streams in savannah and bush.	eng
60027	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Rivers and streams in savannah and bush.	eng
60027	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Stream waters, from large rivers to small brooks in desert to semi-desert environment	eng
60027	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Although the species was said to be common in Egypt (Dumont 1973), only eight old records have been traced in this country (the last one was published in 1936). Five of these localities are near Cairo and are probably now lost due to urbanization and water pollution. The three other localities are in irrigated agricultural area and no indication of their survival is available. The species was not recorded during a recent short study on the Nile system (Dumont and Fossati 1990). Sudan records are more recent (1982) (Dumont and Martens 1984).	eng
60027	population	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In northern Africa, although the species was said to be common in Egypt (Dumont 1973), only eight old records have been traced in this country (the last one was published in 1936). Five of these localities are near Cairo and are probably now lost due to urbanization and water pollution. The three other localities are in irrigated agricultural area and no indication of their survival is available. The species was not recorded during a recent short study on the Nile system (Dumont and Fossati 1990). Sudan records are more recent (1982) (Dumont and Martens 1984).	eng
60027	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60027	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
60027	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60027	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	None known.	eng
60027	threats	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Urbanization, water pollution, over-irrigation, drought and desiccation of rivers are the main threats to the species.	eng
60027	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Urbanization, water pollution, over-irrigation, drought and drying up of rivers	eng
60028	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
60028	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60028	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60028	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60028	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60028	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60028	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60028	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion nubicum</em> occurs in tropical and equatorial Africa, reaching the Mediterranean coast in Egypt via to the Nile system.	eng
60028	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known mainly from Zambia and Zimbabwe, with scattered occurrences in Botswana and Namibia (even in desert areas). Globally, it has been recorded from Zimbabwe, north to Egypt, and west to Sierra Leone.	eng
60028	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.	eng
60028	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely in appropriate habitats in other countries of the region as well.	eng
60028	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Sudan, west to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. The Sudan record needs confirmation (Tsuda listing only).	eng
60028	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in open parts of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zimbabwe north to Egypt, west to Senegal.	eng
60028	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zimbabwe north to Sudan and Egypt, west to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely in appropriate habitats in other countries of the region as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, occurs in tropical and equatorial Africa, reaching the Mediterranean coast in Egypt via to the Nile system.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. The Sudan record needs confirmation (Tsuda listing only).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known mainly from Zambia and Zimbabwe, with scattered occurrences in Botswana and Namibia (even in desert areas)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is widespread in open parts of West Africa.	eng
60028	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Brooks, rivers and oases.	eng
60028	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It inhabits swampy and reedy lakes and rivers, brooks and oases.	eng
60028	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy lake, streams and rivers.	eng
60028	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy and grassy shores of lakes and rivers.	eng
60028	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy and reedy lakes and rivers.	eng
60028	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy and reedy lakes and rivers.	eng
60028	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Although the species is believed to be common or rather common in Egypt, only eight localities are available in this country, mostly in the delta area. The four most recent localities date from 1988; nine older localities were recorded in the Nile system in Sudan, all dated before 1924.	eng
60028	population	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In northern Africa,  although the species is believed to be common or rather common in Egypt, only eight localities are available in this country, mostly in the delta area. The four most recent localities date from 1988; nine older localities were recorded in the Nile system in Sudan, all dated before 1924.	eng
60028	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60028	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60028	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size and trends.	eng
60028	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60028	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60028	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60028	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60028	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in the region.	eng
60028	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60028	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, over-irrigation, water harnessing, drought, urbanization.	eng
60028	threats	Boudot, J.-P., Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, over-irrigation, water management, drought and urbanization are the main threats to the species.	eng
60029	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60029	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60029	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60029	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira, Bwindi (Uganda), Kambisa (Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60029	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from a single location in Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60029	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Ituri Forest in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Mabira, Bwindi (Uganda), Kambisa (Tanzania).	eng
60029	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60029	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60029	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
60029	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60029	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60029	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60029	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60029	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60029	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Intensive agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
60030	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60030	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60030	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60030	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60030	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60030	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is generally widespread in the region. It is not found at the Cape or in northern Namibia. Globally, it is recorded from South Africa (Cape) to Ethiopia.	eng
60030	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Cape to Ethiopia.	eng
60030	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and southern Democratic Republic of Congo; presence within Zambia is possible.	eng
60030	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and listed by Tsuda for Somalia. The latter needs confirmation and an old record from Ethiopia remains uncertain as well.	eng
60030	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa (Cape) and Namibia to Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo possible.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Kenya and listed by Tsuda for Somalia. The latter needs confirmation and an old record from Ethiopia remains uncertain as well. The species is assumed to occur in southern Sudan as well. For the time being it is listed Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is generally widespread in the region. It is not found at the Cape or in northern Namibia.	eng
60030	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60030	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60030	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams, rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60030	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers in bush and savannah.	eng
60030	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60030	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species in the region.	eng
60030	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60030	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown but it is very widespread in South Africa.	eng
60030	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60030	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60030	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
60030	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats within the region.	eng
60030	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60031	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60031	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60031	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60031	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information from most of the range is available at present. In South Africa, further surveys for subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> are required and monitoring to determine whether the species re-establishes (Samways 2006).	eng
60031	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Species occurs in some protected areas but no other conservation measures known so research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60031	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Kenya, west to Liberia.	eng
60031	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa and Botswana to Kenya, west to Liberia. Common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, it is assumed from the other central African countries as well.	eng
60031	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique and Botsana to Kenya, west to Liberia.	eng
60031	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern South Africa and Botswana to Kenya, and west to Liberia. Common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo; Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, assumed from the other central African countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded from in the tropical north, but does not occur in the arid south-west or in the Cape. There is only one record of subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> from South Africa; in lower reaches of the Sabie River in the Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994) and it has not been recorded at that site after the floods of February 2000 (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is common in more forested parts of western Africa, records from Mali and Gambia deserve closer examination.	eng
60031	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species is recorded from in the tropical north, but does not occur in the arid southwest or in the Cape. There is only one record of subspecies <em>pseudosjoestedti</em> from South Africa; in lower reaches of the Sabie River in the Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994) and it has not been recorded at that site after the floods of February 2000 (Samways 2006 in press). The species' global distribution is from South Africa to Kenya, and west to Liberia.	eng
60031	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Half open streams, rivers often in forest but also in savannah.	eng
60031	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, streams, and rivers in bush and forest. Tree-covered pools of savannah rivers (Samways 2006).	eng
60031	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, streams, rivers in bush and forest.	eng
60031	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, streams, rivers in bush and forest.	eng
60031	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools, streams, rivers in bush and forest. Tree-covered pools of savannah rivers (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60031	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60031	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60031	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60031	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60031	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60031	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In South Africa, the species appears to be principally natural, although these may be exacerbated by unknown human impacts (Samways 2006 in press). Habitat destruction caused by agriculture and water pollution may threaten the species. No information is available from elsewhere in the range, however it is unlikely to be facing more serious threats across its entire range.	eng
60031	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	In South Africa, threats appear to be principally natural, although these may be exacerbated by unknown human impacts (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in the range, however it is unlikely that there are serious threats across the entire range.	eng
60031	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60031	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60031	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60032	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60032	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60032	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60032	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60032	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60032	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, except for Botswana and Namibia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zimbabwe to Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia.	eng
60032	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Zimbabwe to Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia.	eng
60032	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Angola and northern Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60032	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya, assumed from Sudan.	eng
60032	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa and Angola to Uganda and Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Angola and northern Zambia and from western Uganda. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya, assumed from Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, except for Botswana and Namibia.	eng
60032	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Montane streams or rivers.	eng
60032	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane streams or rivers.	eng
60032	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Montane streams or rivers.	eng
60032	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Montane streams or rivers.	eng
60032	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60032	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60032	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60032	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60032	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60032	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60032	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in the region.	eng
60032	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60032	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution and drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60033	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60033	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60033	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60033	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60033	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.	eng
60033	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion sublacteum</em> has a range that extends from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and the Middle East.	eng
60033	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion sublacteum</em> is an Afrotropical species that is widespread over tropical Africa and south of the Arabian Peninsula. Its range includes two distinct, isolated relictual areas in the Palearctic: one in northern Morocco and one in the Middle East (Israel and Jordan). These are both separated from the main part of the species' range by a gap of 1,800 to 2,200 km, in which the species is believed to be absent.<br/><br/>Both isolates may be regarded as relicts from the Early Holocene pluvial epoch (8,000-10,000 years ago), during which the Saharan belt was more humid than it is now and had gallery forests growing around streams and savanna areas. Although the Moroccan isolate cannot be reliably distinguished from the nominal subspecies, the Levantine isolate shows a slight differentiation in colour (but not in structure) and is regarded as a distinct subspecies, <em>Pseudagrion sublacteum mortoni</em> Ris and Schmidt, 1936.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even in the arid parts, but is not found at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and in the Middle East.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Transvaal to Somalia, west to Togo.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to West and North Africa, and in the Middle East (there also subspecies <em>P. S. mortoni</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, assumed for Eritrea and Djibouti.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to west and northern Africa, and in the Middle East (there also subspecies<em> P.s.mortoni</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon; occurrence in the other countries of the central Africa region is assumed.	eng
60033	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north South Africa to Senegal and Ethiopia, isolated populations in Morocco, Arabia and Near East.	eng
60033	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern South Africa to western and northern Africa, and in the Middle East (there is also subspecies <em>P.s.morton</em>i).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Cameroon, occurrence in the other countries of the central Africa region assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, its range includes two distinct, isolated relictual areas in the Palearctic: one in northern Morocco and one in the Middle East (Israel and Jordan). These are both separated from the main part of the species' range by a gap of 1,800 to 2,200 km, in which the species is believed to be absent. Both isolates may be regarded as relicts from the Early Holocene pluvial epoch (8,000-10,000 years ago), during which the Saharan belt was more humid than it is now and had gallery forests growing around streams and savannah areas. Although the Moroccan isolate cannot be reliably distinguished from the nominal subspecies, the Levantine isolate shows a slight differentiation in colour (but not in structure) and is regarded as a distinct subspecies, <em>Pseudagrion sublacteum mortoni</em> Ris and Schmidt, 1936.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia, assumed for Eritrea and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the region, even in the arid parts, but is not found at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Senegal.	eng
60033	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Large and small rivers.	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open streams and rivers, sometimes found in lakes.	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams and rivers, sometimes lakes	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams and rivers, sometimes lakes.	eng
60033	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams and rivers, sometimes lakes.	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers.	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
60033	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers.	eng
60033	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Five subpopulations have been found in Morocco. All are relatively recent findings but were small subpopulations.	eng
60033	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Five subpopulations have been found in Morocco. All are relatively recent findings but were small subpopulations.	eng
60033	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60033	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60033	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60033	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60033	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60033	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	All dragonflies, particularly Zygoptera, are threatened in the Maghreb, due to periodic drought events, over consumption of water resources and pollution, as well as urbanization and agriculture expansion in the lowlands and the lower reaches of streams.	eng
60033	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Althought this is a widespread species, all dragonflies, particularly Zygoptera, are threatened in the Maghreb due to periodic drought events, over consumption of water resources and pollution, as well as urbanization and agriculture expansion in the lowlands and the lower reaches of streams.	eng
60033	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60033	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60033	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60033	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information is available on threats within the region. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60033	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60034	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60034	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60034	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60034	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. In South Africa, monitoring of its range area is required (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.	eng
60034	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in protected areas in parts of its range. In South Africa, monitoring of its range area is required (Samways 2006). No information is available from elsewhere in its range.	eng
60034	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: arid areas in north Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north Uganda and Sudan to western Africa.	eng
60034	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga); likely to occur in northern Central African Republic as well.	eng
60034	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan in the region (type locality Bhar el Ghaza, southern Sudan and from Khartoum area (El Rayah, El Zubeir, 1984). Though the records are sparse, the records cover a great distance and mirror the missing surveys in Sudan, thus the species is listed LC, since a wider distribution is assumed.	eng
60034	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa and Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.	eng
60034	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread but scarce in open marsh of tropical Africa, from Sudan to South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga) and Angola, northern Uganda, Gambia, Ghana and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Katanga), likely to occur in northern Central African Republic as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (arid areas in the north of the country), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan in the region (type locality Bhar el Ghaza, southern Sudan and from Khartoum area (El Rayah, El Zubeir, 1984). Though the records are sparse, the records cover a great distance and mirror the missing surveys in Sudan, thus the species is listed Least Concern, since a wider distribution is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. In South Africa, it currently is known only from the Kruger National Park (Shingwedzi and Lower Sabie areas and the northwestern region of the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia.	eng
60034	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species occurs in the tropical north, southwards to Natal. It does not occur in the arid southwest or at the Cape. In South Africa, it currently is known only from the Kruger National Park (Shingwedzi and Lower Sabie areas and the northwestern region of the Limpopo Province (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it has been recorded from Natal and Namibia to northern Uganda and Sudan, and to West Africa.	eng
60034	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Arid areas.	eng
60034	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Fast flowing rivers or streams. In South Africa, it has been recorded from tall reeds and grasses fringing sluggish reaches of savannah rivers (Samways 2006).	eng
60034	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open marsh in dry areas	eng
60034	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open marsh in dry areas.	eng
60034	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Open marsh in dry areas. In southern Africa, the species is present in fast flowing rivers or streams. In South Africa, it has been recorded from tall reeds and grasses fringing sluggish reaches of savannah rivers (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60034	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open swamps.	eng
60034	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60034	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60034	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, it is unlikely to be declining at a fast rate across its whole range.	eng
60034	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60034	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown. However, it is unlikely to be declining at a fast rate across its whole range.	eng
60034	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information	eng
60034	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60034	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60034	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on threats in most parts of its range. In South Africa, poor catchment management which exacerbates floods is the most important threat (Samways 2006).	eng
60034	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60034	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information is available on threats in most parts of its range. In South Africa, poor catchment management, which exacerbates floods, is the most important threat (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
60035	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60035	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60035	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60035	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	The species is widely distributed with strong populations in its African range and no conservation measures are needed there at present.	eng
60035	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widely distributed with strong populations in its African range and no conservation measures are needed there at present. But research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60035	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion torridum</em> is distributed in Africa south of the Sahara, the whole Nile Valley with relict populations in a few oases in the Sinai Peninsula and in the upper Jordan Valley between Lake Hula and Lake Tiberias (Andres 1928; De Marmels 1995; Dumont 1974, 1991; Schneider 1986, 1987). Within the Northern Africa assessment area the species is recorded only from Egypt.	eng
60035	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Kenya west to Senegal, south to Zambia. In East Africa the species has been recorded from lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.	eng
60035	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Kenya west to Senegal, south to Zambia.	eng
60035	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel. Records from Zambia and Tanzania not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt, Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan. For Eritrea and Somalia assumed.	eng
60035	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad to Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel.	eng
60035	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya and Uganda west to Senegal, north to Egypt and Israel. Records from Zambia and Tanzania not confirmed.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from the central Africa region, but likely in northern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: lakes in Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is recorded only from Egypt.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. For Eritrea and Somalia assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad to Senegal.	eng
60035	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Reedy lake shores.	eng
60035	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Reedy lake shores.	eng
60035	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy lake shores.	eng
60035	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, pools, lakeshores in open (often arid) areas.	eng
60035	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species occurs in reedy lake shores.In northern Africa, it prefers still water bodies like lakes, ponds and slow-running rivers with rich aquatic vegetation for endophytic oviposition (Andres 1928, Dumont 1974).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it was found in swamps, pools, and lakeshores in open (often arid) areas.	eng
60035	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	The species prefers still water bodies like lakes, ponds and slow-running rivers with rich aquatic vegetation for endophytic oviposition (Andres 1928, Dumont 1974).	eng
60035	population	Schneider, W., 2007	Locally very abundant; it is one of the most common damselflies along the Nile River in Egypt.	eng
60035	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60035	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60035	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60035	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60035	population	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is locally very abundant in northern Africa; it is one of the most common damselflies along the Nile River in Egypt.	eng
60035	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Schneider, W. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Habitat degradation due to water extraction or water pollution are major threats to the species.	eng
60035	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Habitat degradation like water extraction or water pollution are major threats.	eng
60035	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60035	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60035	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60036	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60036	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60036	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60036	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60036	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60036	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in the tropical north and southwards to the Okavango delta. Globally, it is widespread in Africa.	eng
60036	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
60036	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Its precise range in western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate R. fenestrina from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
60036	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa and it is not facing mayor threats. It is therefore assessed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Zambia, assumed for Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in the tropical north and southwards to the Okavango Delta.<br/><br/>Precise range for western Africa is poor, as most references do not separate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fenestrina</span> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria and Ghana, and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.	eng
60036	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is widespread in Africa, precise range in western Africa poorly known, as most references do not separate R. fenestrina from <em>R. notata</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Zambia, and reported in Angola and Congo; assumed for Equatorial Guinea.	eng
60036	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats.	eng
60036	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats.	eng
60036	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy habitats.	eng
60036	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy habitats, including well-vegetated lentic waters in the  floodplain.	eng
60036	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats, including well-vegetated lentic waters of floodplains.	eng
60036	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60036	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60036	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60036	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60036	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60036	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60036	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60036	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60036	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60036	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats are inferred threats.	eng
60037	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Formal educations, increasing awareness, capacity-building and training would be beneficial. Species-based actions such as re-introductions are also needed.	eng
60037	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60037	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60037	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60037	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
60037	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60037	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60037	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60037	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	In the northern Africa region, <em>Rhyothemis semihyalina</em> was restricted to one locality in northeasern Algeria, in the 19th century.	eng
60037	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60037	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and N Israel now deemed extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda and Egypt assumed.	eng
60037	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and northIsrael now deemed extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; presence is assumed from Angola.	eng
60037	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Indian Ocean Islands. Isolated populations in north east Algeria and north Israel now deemed extinct.	eng
60037	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is restricted to one locality in northeastern Algeria, in the 19th century.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda and Sudan assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest (except for few single records). <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
60037	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest (except for few single records). Globally, it has a widespread range in Africa, the Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60037	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. It is a migrant species with strong dispersal.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species prefers large clearings in forested areas.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is present in well-vegetated habitats, including pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. The species seems to be migratory at least in parts of its range.	eng
60037	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats, migrant.	eng
60037	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats, migrant.	eng
60037	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats, migrant.	eng
60037	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. Strong dispersal.	eng
60037	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	The species was found in Lac Oubeira. It preferred large clearings in forested areas.	eng
60037	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Well-vegetated habitats, including pools, river margins, swampy and often seasonal habitats. The species seems to be migratory at least in parts of its range.	eng
60037	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60037	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60037	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60037	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60037	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60037	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown but it is a widespread species.	eng
60037	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Unknown. It is believed to now be exticnt in the region.	eng
60037	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60037	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60037	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.	eng
60037	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60037	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
60037	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60037	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60037	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
60038	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Communication and education through increasing awareness is needed as well as research into trends/monitoring of the species.	eng
60038	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60038	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60038	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60038	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60038	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60038	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	Not needed.	eng
60038	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Not needed.	eng
60038	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not required at present.	eng
60038	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	<em></em><em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is a widespread and common species found  throughout Africa, southern Europe and eastwards to the Middle East, the Indian  Subcontinent and the Indian Ocean Islands. The species becomes scarcer towards the north but has expanded its range considerably in the last two decades and is now common in most of Central Europe. The species shows a strong tendency to migrate and has been found northwards as for as Scotland, the Swedish island of Öland and Latvia. It is likely that climate change will facilitate a further northwards expansion in the next years.	eng
60038	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is a widespread and common species found throughout Africa, southern Europe and eastwards to the Indian Subcontinent. The species is common and widespread in the southern half of Europe. The species becomes scarcer towards the north but has expanded its range considerably in the last two decades and is now common in most of Central Europe. The species shows a strong tendency to migrate and has been found northwards as for as Scotland, the Swedish island of Öland and Latvia. It is likely that climate change will facilitate a further northwards expansion in the next years.	eng
60038	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii</em> is resident and is often common throughout the Mediterranean region (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is widespread in Africa, large parts of Europe and southwest Asia.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is fairly common and widespread. The species is migratory and can be found in the whole North Africa region.	eng
60038	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species is widespread in Africa except forest, southern Europe, southern Asia, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60038	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and reported from Zambia, might be found in other areas as well.	eng
60038	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia. Kenya, Chad and Uganda assumed.	eng
60038	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from Northern Chad, Northern Niger<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread migrant of open parts of Africa and Eurasia.	eng
60038	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa except forest. Also occurs in southern Europe, southern Asia, Middle East, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Zambia, might be found in other areas as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is fairly common and widespread in northern Africa. It is migratory and can be found in the whole northern Africa region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia. Chad and Uganda assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only recorded from northern Chad, northern Niger.	eng
60038	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest), southern Europe, southern Asia, the Middle East, and Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60038	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Breeds in a large variety of habitats with a preference to  temporary pools. The species is an obligate seasonal migrant to the deserts.	eng
60038	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii </em>is found mostly at sunny, often shallow, standing waters (including man-made barrage lakes), it also occurs in running water. The species is in the Mediterranean especially abundant at coastal wetlands and rice fields. Especially in the north of its range it is mostly found at bare, warm and shallow habitats such as quarry lakes, sand pits and newly created ponds.	eng
60038	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	<em>Sympetrum fonscolombii </em>is found mostly at sunny, often shallow, standing waters (including man-made barrage lakes, tanks and ponds), it also occurs in running water.	eng
60038	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in swampy pools in bush, savannah.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in warm, still waters, often open, bare and shallow, such as quarry lakes, sand pits, newly created ponds and coastal lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species breeds in a large variety of habitats with a preference to  temporary pools. The species is an obligate seasonal migrant to the deserts.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in open shallow waters.	eng
60038	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open shallow waters.	eng
60038	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy pools in bush, savannah.	eng
60038	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy pools in bush, savannah.	eng
60038	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Warm, still waters, often open, bare and shallow, such as quarry lakes, sand pits, newly created ponds and coastal lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
60038	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60038	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60038	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60038	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60038	population	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown but it is a very abundant and widespread species.	eng
60038	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	The species is common and widespread throughout most of its range.	eng
60038	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and widespread throughout most of its range and is among the most common dragonflies of southern Europe. It can occur in high densities.	eng
60038	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	This species is abundant and widespread.	eng
60038	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60038	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60038	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60038	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	None at present.	eng
60038	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60038	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
60038	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	The species is not threatened.	eng
60038	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened.	eng
60038	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60039	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60039	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60039	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60039	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More information is needed on the range and population of this species, which should be monitored. Habitat conservation is also required.	eng
60039	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60039	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north (Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe). It is expected to also occur in Angola and Mozambique. Globally, the species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and West Africa.	eng
60039	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: widespread in Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, occurrence in Tanzania and Burundi assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, the species is present in Botswana, Malawi, Kenya to western Africa.	eng
60039	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and western Africa<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has not been recorded yet from Democratic Republic of Congo, but likely; recorded from northern Zambia (Congo Basin) wider distribution in the area is assumed.	eng
60039	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Botswana, Malawi and Kenya to Gambia.	eng
60039	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread from Botswana in the south to Uganda and western Africa.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from northern Zambia (Congo Basin) and a wider distribution in the area is assumed, likely to be present in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60039	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Grassy verges of rivers and ponds.	eng
60039	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy backwaters of large rivers.	eng
60039	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Reedy backwaters of large rivers.	eng
60039	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy backwaters of large rivers.	eng
60039	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy habitats.	eng
60039	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60039	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60039	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
60039	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60039	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60039	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
60039	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60039	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
60039	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60039	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60041	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60041	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60041	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60041	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60041	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: Outside of the eastern Africa assessment region, it is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60041	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon; for Congo is assumed.	eng
60041	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Uganda.	eng
60041	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Gambia to Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and assumed from Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (forest), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
60041	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested pools and slow streams.	eng
60041	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.	eng
60041	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.	eng
60041	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.	eng
60041	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60041	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60041	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60041	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60041	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60041	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60041	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
60041	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60042	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60042	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into habitat conservation measures for this species is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60042	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into conservation measures is needed as well as habitat and site-based actions.	eng
60042	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), rainforests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: Outside of the eastern Africa assessment region, it is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60042	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Rutshuru).	eng
60042	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Burundi and Uganda.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from&#160; Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi, the Kakamega Forest in west Kenya and rainforests in Uganda.	eng
60042	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.	eng
60042	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.	eng
60042	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.	eng
60042	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60042	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60042	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60042	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60042	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60042	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and non-woody vegetation collection are threats to the species..	eng
60043	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60043	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into the species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats. Conservation measures and threats/monitoring are also needed, along with habitat maintenance/conservation and restoration.	eng
60043	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	<em>Tetrathemis denticauda</em> is only known from two records: the type locality in Uganda (Fort Portal) and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa). It is expected to be more common in appropriate habitats in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60043	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Uganda (Fort Portal) and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa), and expected to be more common in appropriate habitats in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60043	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and slow streams in rain forest.	eng
60043	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and slow streams in rainforest.	eng
60043	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60043	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60043	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and intensive agriculture.	eng
60043	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60044	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	&#160;No information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat maintenance/conservation is also needed.	eng
60044	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60044	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60044	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60044	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Monitoring of this species is needed, as is habitat maintenance/conservation.	eng
60044	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance/conservation is required.	eng
60044	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside the eastern Africa assessment region, it is found from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.	eng
60044	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo; it is assumed in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well, including Congo and Zambia.	eng
60044	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence for southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia assumed.	eng
60044	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from few records in western Africa, recently found in Gambia (Parr pers. comm.) and Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Somalia.	eng
60044	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Zambia, and assumed in appropriate habitats in the other countries as well.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia. Occurrence for southern Sudan and southern Ethiopia is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs in forested areas in the north and east of the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from few records in western Africa, recently found in Gambia (Parr pers. comm.) and Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
60044	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in forested areas in the north and east of the southern Africa region. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Somalia and Nigeria.	eng
60044	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Shady pools, streams or swamps in various habitats except dense rainforest.	eng
60044	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60044	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60044	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60044	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60044	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60044	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60044	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60044	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60044	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60044	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60044	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on current threats within the region.	eng
60044	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	None known.	eng
60045	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60045	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	This species has been recorded from Mutwanga Forest in the Ruwenzori Mts., Democratic Republic of Congo. The type locality of <em>T. ruwensoriensis</em> is unspecified, but the Natural History Museum in London has a male from Mutwanga and a damaged male from the “Bwamba Valley near Kidongo”. More populations may occur on the western slopes of the Ruwenzori Mounts.	eng
60045	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Thought to occur near montane forest streams.	eng
60045	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60045	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60046	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
60046	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60046	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60046	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60046	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60046	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia (upper Zambesi). It may also occur in Angola and Mozambique, but this is not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is known from Mozambique to Zambia and Malawi, Uganda to West Africa, and possibly Tanzania.	eng
60046	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forest sites in Malawi and Uganda, unconfirmed record in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and likely in Tanzania.	eng
60046	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and possibly Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.	eng
60046	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
60046	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Mozambique, Malawi, Uganda to western Africa, and possibly Tanzania.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forest sites in Malawi and Uganda, unconfirmed record in Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is recorded only from Zambia (upper Zambezi). It may also occur in Angola and Mozambique, but this is not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
60046	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest and woodland, with breeding habitats unknown.	eng
60046	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest, woodland.	eng
60046	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest, woodland.	eng
60046	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest, woodland and swamp forests.	eng
60046	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Inundated areas in forest.	eng
60046	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60046	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60046	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60046	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60046	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60046	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
60046	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60046	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60046	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60046	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	The is no information available on current threats.	eng
60047	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species biology, ecology, population and range is required, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60047	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60047	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	At global level, the species is present in Tanzania and Kenya (coastal). Previously, it was known only from Burundi, the Buda Forest (south-east Kenya), Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island, Turiani and Rufiji Delta (Tanzania). However, records from Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and western Tanzania previously recorded under <em>T. equivocata</em> actually refer to <em>T. jeanneli</em>.	eng
60047	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Previously, the species was known only from Buda Forest (south-east Kenya), Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island, Turiani and Rufiji Delta (Tanzania). However, records from Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and western Tanzania previously recorded under <em>T. equivocata</em> actually refer to <em>T. jeanneli</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; also reported from Zambia.	eng
60047	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamp forest.	eng
60047	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamp forest, coastal areas.	eng
60047	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60047	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60047	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of swamp forest. On the African mainland coastal areas most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.	eng
60047	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is destruction of swamp forest. On the African mainland coastal areas most of these forests are already cleared and turned into rice fields.	eng
60048	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60048	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60048	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60048	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60048	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60048	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60048	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: widespread in Africa, Asian, Australia, and Indian Ocean Islands. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60048	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread. There are no records from Angola so far but it is very likely to occur there. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60048	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asian, Australia, Indian Ocean Islands	eng
60048	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Angola, where presence is assumed.	eng
60048	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is likely. Uganda assumed.	eng
60048	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa and Australasia, including Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60048	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, Asian, Australia and the Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except Angola and Congo, from where it is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation, but is likely. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread. There are no records from Angola so far but it is very likely to occur there.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.	eng
60048	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland and forest. This seems to be a migratory species, entering desert areas.	eng
60048	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest.	eng
60048	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest.	eng
60048	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest.	eng
60048	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest.	eng
60048	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools and swamps in bush, woodland, forest. This seems to be a migratory species, entering desert areas.	eng
60048	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally very common, but the species is sometimes overseen due to its crepuscular behaviour.	eng
60048	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60048	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60048	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60048	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60048	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown. The species is locally very common in southern Africa, although it is sometimes overlooked due to its crepuscular behaviour.	eng
60048	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60048	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60048	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60048	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60048	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
60048	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
60049	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Beyond the need for monitoring, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this widespread species.	eng
60049	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60049	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60049	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60049	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60049	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60049	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60049	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Tramea basilaris</em> is an extremely widespread species, occurring throughout Africa, and extending into Iran, India and Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar and Thailand.	eng
60049	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from widespread in Africa, Middle East southern Asia.	eng
60049	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from all countries within the region.	eng
60049	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Chad, Uganda, Sudan and Egypt assumed.	eng
60049	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.	eng
60049	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending to Arabia and India.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries within the region.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Chad, Uganda, Sudan and Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape or in the arid southwest. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.	eng
60049	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape or in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, the Middle East, and southern Asia.	eng
60049	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Occurs in pools, swamps, and lake margins. This is a migrant species .	eng
60049	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, swamps and lake margins. An obligatory seasonal migrant.	eng
60049	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, swamps, lake margins, migrant.	eng
60049	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swamps, lake margins, migrant.	eng
60049	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swamps, lake margins. Strong dispersal.	eng
60049	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is known to breed in ponds and marshes.	eng
60049	population	Suhling, F., 2006	A common species.	eng
60049	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60049	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60049	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60049	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60049	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a common species over much of its large range.	eng
60049	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60049	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60049	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60049	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60049	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60049	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	There appear to be no significant global threats to this species at present although it may be under threat from habitat loss in the future.	eng
60049	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
60050	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60050	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60050	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60050	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60050	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	None required for this species.	eng
60050	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60050	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60050	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the eastern parts along the coast and, in part, down to the Cape. It is scattered in the arid regions. To date, it has not been recorded in Angola. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, and common along the East African coast. It also occurs in the Middle East and Asia.	eng
60050	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, Asia.	eng
60050	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, and Asia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Kenya, Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan, Uganda and Egypt assumed.	eng
60050	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, common along east African coast, Middle East, Asia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; also present in Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome/Principe, and Zambia, and likely to be found in the other countries as well.	eng
60050	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa, extending into Asia.	eng
60050	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, common along eastern African coast, in the Middle East, and Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome/Principe, Zambia, likely to be found in the other countries as well<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and Somalia. Occurrence in Eritrea, Djibouti, Sudan, Uganda and Egypt is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the eastern parts along the coast and, in part, down to the Cape. It is scattered in the arid regions. To date, it has not been recorded in Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia and Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
60050	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	Widespread in Africa, common along East African coast, Middle East, and much of Asia.	eng
60050	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Found in pools and swamps.	eng
60050	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools and swamps. This is a migratory species.	eng
60050	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, swamps.	eng
60050	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, swamps.	eng
60050	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	Pools, swamps.	eng
60050	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, swamps. Strong dispersal.	eng
60050	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60050	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60050	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known. However, this is a very widespread species.	eng
60050	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60050	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	Population size is unknown.	eng
60050	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60050	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60050	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60050	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60050	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60050	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60050	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
60050	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2010	This species has no widespread threats.	eng
60051	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Monitoring of the species, and habitat conservation is required.	eng
60051	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60051	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60051	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60051	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available. Monitoring of the species, and habitat conservation is required.	eng
60051	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60051	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs at perennial rivers in the humid north and northeast. It is expected to also occur in Angola. It is not present in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Kenya, and west to the Ivory Coast.	eng
60051	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.	eng
60051	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, the Central African Republic and Congo; it is assumed for Angola.	eng
60051	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Kenya, west to Ivory Coast.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from two sites in Ethiopia within the region. For northern Kenya and Uganda, and southern Sudan assumed in appropriate habitats.	eng
60051	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Ethiopia, Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
60051	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Natal to Kenya,and west to Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, assumed for central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all five countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from two sites in Ethiopia within the region. It is assumed to be present in appropriate habitats of southern Sudan. For the time being, it is listed as Data Deficient for the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs at perennial rivers in the humid north and north east. It is expected to also occur in Angola. It is not present in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
60051	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Found near streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
60051	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Half-open streams and rivers in forest, woodland and savannah.	eng
60051	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
60051	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
60051	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
60051	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in forest and woodland.	eng
60051	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60051	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60051	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60051	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60051	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60051	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60051	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and degradation of gallery forest.	eng
60051	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Degradation of gallery forest.	eng
60051	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60051	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60051	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Degradation of gallery forest is the most likely threat.	eng
60051	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and degradation of gallery forest caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60052	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60052	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60052	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60052	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60052	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60052	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None needed.	eng
60052	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place at present or are recommended at present.	eng
60052	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
60052	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Trithemis annulata</em> is a wide ranging Afrotropical species that has expanded its range in southwestern Europe rapidly in recent decades. It expanded over the whole of the Iberian Peninsula from 1978 onwards and was found in southwestern France for the first time in 1994 (Ferreras Romero 1981, Grand 1994). It is now regularly recorded from the Garonne estuary to the Rhône delta (Grand and Boudot 2006). The same expansion has been noted in Italy and to a lesser extent in the Balkan Peninsula. Recently the species was found at Fuerteventura, Canary Islands (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Climate change seems to be the main driver of this expansion.	eng
60052	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Trithemis annulata</em> is one of the most abundant dragonflies of tropical Africa. It extends into Europe along the Mediterranean, where it is expanding its range. The first records of the species in Spain date from late 1970s, Corsica in the late 1980s, and the French and Italian mainland in the early 1990s (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is fairly widespread, but is lacking some parts of Egypt and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.	eng
60052	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60052	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60052	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed in all other countries in the region	eng
60052	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad and Djibouti, assumed.	eng
60052	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western African countries except Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60052	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia, and Indian Ocean Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed in all other countries in the region<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is fairly widespread in northern Africa, but is lacking in some parts of Egypt and Libya.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. Its presence is assumed for Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all western African countries except Mauritania.	eng
60052	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, southern Asia, and the Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
60052	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Any sunny water in Africa, favouring warm spots in the periphery of its range, such as shallow gravel pits, open lakes or lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
60052	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Most standing or slow-flowing waters in an open landscape.	eng
60052	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Occupies a variety of habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current. This is among the most common species at larger perennial rivers.	eng
60052	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species inhabits a wide range of mostly standing and unshaded waters. It favours warm conditions and is often found in ditches, gravel pits and small lakes.	eng
60052	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is found in various habitats: in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,  any sunny water in Africa, favouring warm spots in the periphery of its range, such as shallow gravel pits, open lakes or lagoons (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in standing or slow-flowing waters in open landscapes.	eng
60052	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60052	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60052	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats in bush and woodland, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60052	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60052	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60052	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60052	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60052	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common within its range and is often abundant. Its populations are increasing all over its European range.	eng
60052	population	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread and very abundant in northern Africa, where suitable habitat exists.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this is a widespread species and among the most common species found at larger perennial rivers.	eng
60052	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	The species is widespread and very abundant where suitable habitat exists.	eng
60052	population	Suhling, F., 2006	This is a widespread species and is among the most common species found at larger perennial rivers.	eng
60052	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60052	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60052	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60052	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60052	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not known at present.	eng
60052	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Ferreira, S., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
60052	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
60052	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is not under any specific threat.	eng
60053	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Habitat and site-based actions are required.	eng
60053	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
60053	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60053	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60053	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60053	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60053	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60053	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Not applicable in Europe.	eng
60053	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Trithemis arteriosa</em> is an Afrotropical species that is found across much of North Africa (Morocco to Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and the Middle East, as well as the southern parts of Turkey. Present in all parts of the northern African region.	eng
60053	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60053	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe and Middle East.	eng
60053	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all central Africa countries, except Sao Tome/Principe, from where it is assumed.	eng
60053	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Uganda, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad and Djibouti, assumed.	eng
60053	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western Africa nations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands.	eng
60053	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical Africa (probably the most abundant anisopteran there), extends to Turkey, the Middle East and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries, except Congo and Sao Tome/Principe, from where it is assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>This Afrotropical species is found across much of northern Africa (Morocco to Libya) and the Middle East.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad, Uganda and Djibouti, assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from  all western African nations.	eng
60053	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread and common in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread and common in Africa, southern Europe, and the Middle East.	eng
60053	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species occurs mainly in North Africa, the Levant and Asia. In Europe, this species is only present in Cyprus. A single female  of <em>Trithemis arteriosa</em> has been recorded from Malta in 2002 (Ejeber <em>et al.</em> 2008). This record was subsequently questioned (Sciberras 2008), then proved to be erroneous from photographies and not validated (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). There was also one old record from Rhodos which needs to be confirmed.	eng
60053	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Almost any habitat outside rainforest, often with a slight water current.	eng
60053	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	At the moment we have no indication that the species is reproducing in Europe, therefore the exact habitat where it is reproducing in Europe is not known.	eng
60053	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Freshwater ponds and lakes. May also be found near large rivers.	eng
60053	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species occurs in freshwater ponds and lakes. May also be found near large rivers.	eng
60053	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60053	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60053	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current.	eng
60053	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Various habitats except rain forest, usually with at least a little water current, often with higher reeds at the water.	eng
60053	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60053	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60053	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60053	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Often evident in large parts of its African range, but less abundant in its North African distribution countries.	eng
60053	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60053	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60053	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The only known populations for Europe are in Cyprus.	eng
60053	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is often evident in large parts of its African range, but less abundant in its northern African distribution countries.	eng
60053	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Habitat loss due to agriculture and water pollution are known to be affecting to the species.	eng
60053	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications.	eng
60053	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60053	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60053	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60053	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60053	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Not applicable in Europe.	eng
60053	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
60054	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60054	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60054	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60054	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60054	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: confirmed records only from Shimba Hills (south-east Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
60054	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> <em>T. bifida</em> is known from the type locality in north west  Zambia, Upemba National Park in adjacent Katanga Democratic Republic of Congo, Shimba Hills of S Kenya, Turiani in north east Tanzania, Fume in south east Ghana and Dindefello near Kedougou in south east Senegal. <em>T. bifida</em> reported from Côte d’Ivoire by Pinhey (1978) needs verification.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from north west  Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon; it is assumed from Angola, Congo, the Central African Republic and Cameroon as well, due to records from west Africa.	eng
60054	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone pertains to be <em>T. aconita</em> and listing for Cote d'Ivoire (Tsuda 2000) not traced by assessor. However, assessor has seen specimens that may pertain to be this species from Senegal in Paris museum. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, northern Zambia, Katanga and possibly Tanzania.	eng
60054	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya, Zambia and south Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northwest Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo, but assumed from Angola, Congo, Central African Republic and Cameroon as well, due to records from western Africa.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, and confirmed records only from Shimba Hills (southeast Kenya).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Zambia and Zimbabwe (Chimanimani Mountains).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone pertains to be <em>T. aconita</em> and listing for Cote d'Ivoire (Tsuda 2000) not traced by assessor. However, assessor has seen specimens that may pertain to be this species from Senegal in the Museum of Natural History of Paris.	eng
60054	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest or dense bush.	eng
60054	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest or dense bush.	eng
60054	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams in forest or dense bush.	eng
60054	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams in forest or dense bush.	eng
60054	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60054	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60054	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60054	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60054	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60054	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60054	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60054	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
60055	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60055	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60055	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60055	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
60055	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60055	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60055	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the most northern parts; east Angola and north Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia, Uganda, and Sudan to West Africa.	eng
60055	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, Uganda Sudan to western Africa	eng
60055	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and Congo; Gabon is assumed.	eng
60055	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from Sudan (Karranga, Kurra, Killing in West Dafur), a wider distribution assumed.	eng
60055	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Mali to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.	eng
60055	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Uganda to Sierra Leone, Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, for Gabon and Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and west Uganda.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is only recorded from Sudan (Karranga, Kurra, Killing in West Dafur), a wider distribution assumed, hence listed as Least Concern.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the most northern parts of east Angola and north Zambia.	eng
60055	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and pools in forest or bush.	eng
60055	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and pools in forest or bush.	eng
60055	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and pools in forest or bush.	eng
60055	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and pools in forest or bush.	eng
60055	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and pools in forest or bush.	eng
60055	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60055	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60055	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60055	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60055	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60055	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information	eng
60055	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60055	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60055	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60055	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60055	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
60056	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60056	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60056	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60056	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Research needed on the population numbers and range, and monitoring of this species.	eng
60056	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research needed on the population numbers and range, and monitoring of this species.	eng
60056	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the northern parts of the region. In Namibia it colonises some artificial lakes, otherwise it is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape. Globally, it has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa.	eng
60056	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, no confirmed records from Malawi and Burundi, but occurrence there assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa.	eng
60056	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60056	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia (type locality), and Eritrea in the region. A record for Sudan (Tsuda) needs confirmation. The occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda is assumed.	eng
60056	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia to South Africa and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola and western Rwanda, occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia (type locality), Eritrea and Sudan in the region. The Sudan record (Tsuda) needs confirmation. The occurrence in northern Kenya and Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs mainly in the northern parts of the region. In Namibia it colonises some artificial lakes, otherwise it is not found in the arid southwest or at the Cape.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all west African records are now listed under <em>T. dejoux</em><span style="font-style: italic;">i</span>.	eng
60056	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It is present in rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodlands, and sometimes also in reservoirs.	eng
60056	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland.	eng
60056	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland, and sometimes reservoirs.	eng
60056	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers and streams in bush, savannah or woodland; sometimes reservoirs.	eng
60056	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60056	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60056	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60056	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60056	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60056	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60056	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60056	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
60057	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60057	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60057	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60057	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60057	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the north and northeast of the region, as well as at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest (Namibia and Botswana). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and DRC.	eng
60057	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, no confirmed records from Malawi and Burundi, but occurrence there assumed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
60057	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; it is assumed from Angola.	eng
60057	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,  Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to  occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the north and northeast of the region, as well as at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest (Namibia and Botswana).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea are considered erroneous.	eng
60057	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers and pools in bush or savannah.	eng
60057	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers and pools in bush or savannah.	eng
60057	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, rivers and pools in bush or savannah.	eng
60057	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers and pools in bush or savannah.	eng
60057	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60057	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60057	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60057	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60057	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60057	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60057	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60057	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60058	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures are known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60058	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60058	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60058	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60058	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. The taxonomy of this species is in need of revision.	eng
60058	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
60058	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas	eng
60058	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia, Records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, it is assumed for Congo.	eng
60058	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia. Records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia. Chad, Djibouti and Uganda, assumed.	eng
60058	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia,	eng
60058	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from South Africa to Ethiopia, records from Nigeria and possibly Chad may be correct, but presence further west (from Guinea) must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and assumed to be present in Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia, and assumed from Chad and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria and possibly Chad, although presence further west (from Guinea) need to be confirmed.	eng
60058	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.	eng
60058	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams or rivers in savannah, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savanna, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savannah, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savannah, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savannah, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers or reedy pools in savannah, bush or woodland.	eng
60058	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60058	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60058	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60058	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60058	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60058	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60058	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60058	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60058	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60058	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60058	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60059	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats.	eng
60059	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats.	eng
60059	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats. Habitat conservation is also required.	eng
60059	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60059	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60059	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambesi catchment). The last records of the species date back to 1960. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the southern Africa region. Globally, it is more widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon; and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.	eng
60059	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon, nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo.	eng
60059	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is more widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon; and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, records from Angola and Congo are likely but need confirmation.	eng
60059	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Gambia.	eng
60059	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is very widespread, with subspecies <em>atra</em> in Uganda and Zambia to Gabon, and the nominate subspecies in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, records from Angola and Congo are likely but need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda (forest), Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is recorded from northwest Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment). The last records of the species date back to 1960. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
60059	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60059	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984).	eng
60059	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984).	eng
60059	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60059	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and pools often in or near forest.	eng
60059	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60059	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60059	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
60059	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
60059	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
60059	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60059	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60059	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, but forest destruction is inferred.	eng
60059	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but forest destruction is inferred.	eng
60059	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution is a major threat. Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are inferred.	eng
60060	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60060	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60060	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60060	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60060	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.	eng
60060	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly along the northern perennial rivers. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in forest areas.	eng
60060	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except forest areas.	eng
60060	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa outside forest areas, but records in western Africa few and scattered, requiring confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia; it is assumed for Angola.	eng
60060	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been records in western Africa few and scattered, requiring confirmation. Recorded from Senegal and Mali to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It appears widespread in tropical Africa outside forest areas.	eng
60060	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa outside forest areas, but records in western Africa are few and scattered, requiring confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread mainly along the northern perennial rivers.<br/><br/>Records from west Africa are few and scattered, requiring confirmation. Recorded from Senegal and Mali to Liberia.	eng
60060	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
60060	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
60060	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
60060	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
60060	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps, slow streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
60060	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60060	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60060	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60060	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60060	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60060	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60060	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60060	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60060	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60060	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60061	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable	eng
60061	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60061	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: L. Opeta (eastern Uganda), Tororo and Busia (Kenya-Uganda border).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
60061	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Lake Opeta in eastern Uganda, Tororo and Busia, in the Kenya-Uganda border, Malawi and Burundi.	eng
60061	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in swamps.	eng
60061	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamps.	eng
60061	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60061	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
60061	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60061	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60062	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation measures are needed at the moment.	eng
60062	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60062	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60062	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60062	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60062	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60062	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	None.	eng
60062	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
60062	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Trithemis kirbyi</em> is a wide ranging African species, also occuring in the Arabian Peninsular and Indian Peninsular. In northern Africa, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad and Egypt. It is likely also to be present in Niger, Mauritania, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mali and Sudan.	eng
60062	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Trithemis kirbyi </em>is widespread in Africa and the Indian Subcontinent and reaches the southern Mediterranean coast. Recently the species has been found in Sardinia in 2003 (Holuša 2008) and in southern Spain in 2008 (Chelmick and Pickess 2008). In the province of Malaga, it was found breeding in 2008 (Cano-Villegas and Conesa Garcia 2009). It is not unlikely that this is a prelude to an expansion of its range to southern Europe as it has happened with other African species like <em>Trithemis annulata</em> and <em>Brachytremis leucosticta</em>.	eng
60062	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: widespread in Africa except rain forest areas, southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60062	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except rainforest areas, southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, southern Asia.	eng
60062	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo. Assumed present in Angola, Zambia, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic.	eng
60062	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. For Chad, Uganda and Djibouti, assumed.	eng
60062	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except deep in rainforest areas, extends to Middle East and India.	eng
60062	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa (except rainforest areas), southern Europe, Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, expected at least in Cameroon, Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad and Egypt. It is likely also to be present in Niger, Mauritania, Libya, Mali and Sudan.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. It is assumed to be present in Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread and common in most of the region. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Chad.	eng
60062	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread and common in most of the region. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in rain forest areas), southern Europe, the Middle East, Indian Ocean Islands, and southern Asia.	eng
60062	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush. This is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwaters.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in small hard-bottomed water bodies, rocky stream beds, irrigation canals and water tanks.	eng
60062	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rocky streams, rivers and associated pools in open landscapes.	eng
60062	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Small hard-bottomed water bodies, rocky stream beds, irrigation canals, water tanks etc.	eng
60062	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush.	eng
60062	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush.	eng
60062	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams, rivers and pools in savannah, woodland or bush. This is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwaters.	eng
60062	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams, rivers and pools in savanna, woodland or bush.	eng
60062	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, rivers and pools in savanna, woodland or bush.	eng
60062	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has only recently been found reproducing within Europe. Outside Europe, the species breeds in open, largely unshaded streams and runnels with a bare, stony or rocky bottom. The species is often found in open, arid landscapes but is also often present near settlements where it breeds in concrete ditches, and drink water basins for cattle and fountains.	eng
60062	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Common.	eng
60062	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Common in large parts of its African range, less so in northern Africa.	eng
60062	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60062	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60062	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60062	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60062	population	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is common in large parts of its African range, less so in northern Africa.	eng
60062	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not uncommon within its range in the Maghreb and often fairly abundant when found. It is likely that the same will be true for Europe if the species proofs to become a stable part of the European fauna.	eng
60062	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60062	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60062	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No major threats are known.	eng
60062	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60062	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	None at present.	eng
60062	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60062	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No serious threats are known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
60062	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Samraoui, B., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60063	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60063	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60063	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60063	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60063	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology and habitat status. Monitoring of this species is also needed.	eng
60063	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and monitoring.	eng
60063	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries along larger rivers, except for South Africa and the arid southwest. Globally, it has been recorded from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and DRC.	eng
60063	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Marich Pass (western Kenya),  Nkhata Bay (Malawi).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from  Mozambique to Angola.	eng
60063	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Zambia, Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
60063	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia (as <em>T. imitata</em>), Sudan, and Kenya; Uganda assumed.	eng
60063	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Botswana and Mozambique to Kenya and Gambia.	eng
60063	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Mozambique to Angola, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia, records from Cameroon and Gabon need confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. In western Kenya, it is known from Marich Pass and in Malawi from Nkhata Bay.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia (as <em>T. imitata</em>) and Kenya. It is assumed to be present in Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in all countries along larger rivers, except for South Africa and the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
60063	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.	eng
60063	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.	eng
60063	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.	eng
60063	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.	eng
60063	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy pools and rivers in bush and woodland.	eng
60063	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60063	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60063	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60063	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60063	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60063	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60063	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60063	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60063	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60063	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60064	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
60064	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60064	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60064	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Taxonomic revision of this species is required.	eng
60064	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60064	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia and Angola. It is a marginal species, with an estimated less than 5% of the global range within the region. Its global distribution is Zambia to Uganda, to Cameroon and Nigeria.	eng
60064	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia to Uganda, to Cameroon and Nigeria	eng
60064	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from western Africa probably follow confusion with <em>T. grout</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except for Sao Tome and Principe.	eng
60064	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required).Records from further west probably follow confusion with <em>T. grouti</em> (confirmed by assessor for Sierra Leonian records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
60064	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Uganda to Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from western Africa probably follow confusion with <em>T. grout</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from all countries except for Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia and Angola. It is a marginal species, with an estimated less than 5% of the global range within the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south western Cameroon and probably Nigeria (confirmation required). Records from further west probably follow confusion with <em>T. grouti</em> (confirmed by assessor for Sierra Leonian records).	eng
60064	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60064	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60064	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams in or near forest.	eng
60064	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from forest streams. In southern Africa, it was found in thick bush and riparian forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60064	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Thick bush and riparian forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60064	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60064	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60064	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60064	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60064	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60064	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60064	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60064	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60064	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but forest degradation is inferred.	eng
60064	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60065	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60065	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60065	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60065	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60065	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the more humid north and northeast, and also at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or in Botswana. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya.	eng
60065	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Malawi, widespread along forest streams in the coastal region of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in South Africa and Kenya.	eng
60065	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Kenya and west to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia; it is assumed for Congo, the Central African Republic and Cameroon.	eng
60065	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Kenya and west to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, and assumed to be present in the Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is considered widespread along forest streamsMalawi and in the coastal region of Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread in the more humid north and northeast, and also at the Cape. It is not found in the arid southwest or in Botswana.	eng
60065	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in forest or bush.	eng
60065	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest or bush.	eng
60065	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams in forest or bush.	eng
60065	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in forest or bush.	eng
60065	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60065	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60065	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60065	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60065	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60065	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60065	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60065	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60066	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is available on range, population status, and threats.	eng
60066	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60066	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60066	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60066	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60066	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known only from the upper Zambesi River catchment, northwest Zambia. It may also occur in east Angola, but his has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region: only four records are known from two localities (last recorded in 1962). Globally, the species is known from Zambia to Uganda, and west to Guinea.	eng
60066	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: local species, records from western Kenya, northern Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zambia, to Uganda, west to Guinea	eng
60066	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from nothern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea and probably Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Congo, Zambia; for Angola and Equatorial Guinea expected	eng
60066	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and probably Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from nothern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea.	eng
60066	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and western Uganda to Guinea and probably Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon (although this record needs confirmation), Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia. It is expected to be also present in Angola, Congo and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: local species, records from western Kenya, northern Uganda and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from the upper Zambezi River catchment, north west Zambia. It may also occur in east Angola, but his has to be confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range occurs within the region, and only four records are known from two localities, the last recorded in 1962.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and probably Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
60066	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush or forest.	eng
60066	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush or forest.	eng
60066	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush or forest.	eng
60066	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush or forest.	eng
60066	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush or forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60066	population	Suhling, F., 2006	According to Pinhey (1984a) this is a rare species.	eng
60066	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60066	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60066	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60066	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown. According to Pinhey (1984a) this is a rare species.	eng
60066	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction can be inferred as a potential threat.	eng
60066	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60066	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60066	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60066	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on current threats. Forest destruction can be inferred as a potential threat.	eng
60067	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
60067	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in the Okavango and Kwando River catchments in Botswana, Namibia and most likely also in Angola. Its range to the east is unknown because it has only recently been identified as separate species, historic records of <em>Trithemis stictica</em> from Zambia or even Zimbabwe may well belong to this species.	eng
60067	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Found in and around rivers with swampy fringes, Okavango Delta and Linyanti swamps.	eng
60067	population	Suhling, F., 2006	The species has locally large populations, particularly in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle.	eng
60067	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60068	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60068	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60068	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60068	conservation		No information available.	eng
60068	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60068	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60068	distribution		In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, particularly in regions with mountain streams. Its range in the central part of the region is not clear because populations in the Okavango Basin and at the Kwando River have been identified as separate species, which may also occur more to the east (cf. <em>Trithemis </em>sp. n). Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa (Natal) to Ethiopia, and west to the Ivory Coast.	eng
60068	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Natal to Ethiopia, west to Ivory Coast	eng
60068	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Cameroon (record (Tsuda) needs confirmation); reported from Angola, and possibly also in the other countries.	eng
60068	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. Uganda assumed.	eng
60068	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.	eng
60068	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from South Africa to Ethiopia and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon, although this record from Tsuda needs confirmation. It is assumed to be present in Congo, and possibly also in the other countries.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in most countries, particularly in regions with mountain streams. Its range in the central part of the region is not clear because populations in the Okavango Basin and at the Kwando River have been identified as separate species, which may also occur more to the east (cf. <em>Trithemis </em>sp. nov.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.	eng
60068	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, swamps and pools in bush or forest.	eng
60068	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, swamps, and pools in bush or forest.	eng
60068	habitat		Streams, swamps, and pools in bush or forest.	eng
60068	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams, swamps, pools in bush or forest.	eng
60068	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, swamps, pools in bush or forest.	eng
60068	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60068	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60068	population		No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60068	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60068	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60068	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60068	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60068	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60068	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60068	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
60068	threats		The species is not threatened in most of its range.  A local relict subpopulation occurs in the central Namibian Naukluft and Tsaris Mountains (Suhling <em>et al</em>. 2006), which is separated from all other subpopulations. This subpopulation may be threatened and it should be monitored.	eng
60069	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60069	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60069	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60069	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60069	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60069	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya and south Sudan south to Transvaal and Angola.	eng
60069	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from a single record fron Democratic Republic of Congo, but also reported from Angola, Congo, Zambia, and assumed from the Central African Republic.	eng
60069	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from northern Kenya and Sudan in the region. Assumed for southern Ethiopia and northern Uganda.	eng
60069	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Kenya, south Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, south to Transvaal and Angola, record from Nigeria doubtful.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, Central African Republic assumed.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from northern Sudan assumed to be present in southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species occurs along perennial rivers in the north of the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is reported from Nigeria (unknown location). Its presence in Nigeria is doubtful.	eng
60069	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in the north of the southern Africa region, along perennial rivers. Globally, it has been recorded from Kenya and south Sudan, south to South Africa (Transvaal) and Namibia.	eng
60069	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rivers in bush or savannah.	eng
60069	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers in bush or savannah.	eng
60069	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rivers in bush or savannah.	eng
60069	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers in bush or savannah.	eng
60069	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60069	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60069	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60069	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60069	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60069	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60069	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60069	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60069	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60070	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60070	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Malawi, Eastern Arc Mts and southwards continuing mountain chains. In East Africa, the species occurs in east Usambara, Uluguru und Udzungwa Mts, Kimboza, Turiani, possibly Kilosa (all in Tanzania), and the Chisarsira Forest (Malawi). The extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy well below 2,000 km².	eng
60070	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
60070	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60070	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction in the Eastern Arc Mountains, often only forests on hill-tops remain, where no suitable breeding habitats exist.	eng
60071	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60071	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60071	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60071	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60071	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Nigeria.	eng
60071	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic - records from Cameroon unclear due to confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.	eng
60071	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is possibly found in Cameroon and east Nigeria but there is potential confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo and possibly Cameroon and east Nigeria.	eng
60071	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Kenya to Democratic Republic of Congo, possibly Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic - records from Cameroon unclear due to confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Kakamega Forest (west Kenya), forests in Uganda.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is possibly found in Cameroon and east Nigeria but there is potential confusion with <em>U. mesostigma</em>.	eng
60071	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest streams	eng
60071	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
60071	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
60071	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
60071	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60071	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60071	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60071	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60071	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Destruction of rainforests as a consequence of agriculture and wood extraction, clearing of forest areas along rivers and streams and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
60071	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
60071	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Destruction of rainforests, opening up of forest areas along rivers and streams.	eng
60071	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60072	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60072	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60072	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60072	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60072	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60072	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into threats and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60072	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, except forest.	eng
60072	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia; it is assumed from the Central African Republic and Gabon.	eng
60072	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. For Uganda assumed.	eng
60072	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Niger.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except in deep in forest or desert.	eng
60072	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa except in forested areas.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, and assumed from Central African Republic, Congo and Gabon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopiavand Somalia, and its presence in Sudan is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region. There are scattered occurrences in the arid southwest, and it is not found at the Cape. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Nigeria and Niger.	eng
60072	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in most of the southern Africa region. There are scattered occurrences in the arid southwest, and it is not found at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, except in forest areas.	eng
60072	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60072	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60072	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60072	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60072	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, lakes or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60072	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60072	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60072	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
60072	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60072	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60072	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60072	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60072	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60072	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60072	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60072	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60073	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60073	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60073	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60073	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Suhling, F., Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2009	Unless urgent, immediate and effective measures are taken to protect Lac Bleu from human impact (pollution, drainage), the last known (topotypical) population of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> will probably cease to exist (Samraoui and Corbet 2000).	eng
60073	conservation	Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2007	Unless urgent, immediate and effective measures are taken to protect Lac Bleu from human impact (pollution, drainage), the last known (topotypical) population of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> will probably cease to exist (Samraoui and Corbet 2000).	eng
60073	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> is widespread in Africa (except in forest) and the Middle East.	eng
60073	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.	eng
60073	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,Congo, Gabon and Zambia; it is assumed from Central African Republic.	eng
60073	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda; from Egypt, Eritrea, Chad, Somalia and Djibouti assumed.	eng
60073	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from all western Afican nations except Togo, where certainly present.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa. Isolated populations in north east Algeria (threatened) and north Israel (extinct).	eng
60073	distribution	Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2007	The main range of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> lies south of the Sahara, encompassing most of tropical Africa (Dijkstra 2006, Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993). Regional records for Northern Africa are restricted to three localities in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993), and one sighting in Tunisia (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000). Of the three Algerian populations, two became extinct within the last two decades; the last one, Lac Bleu (a lake of only 2 ha size) had not more than forty (40) individuals restricted to a small sector of the lake.<br/><br/>Type locality Algeria.	eng
60073	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Suhling, F., Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa except forest, Middle East.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, assumed in Central African Republic, Congo<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the main range of <em>Urothemis edwardsii</em> lies south of the Sahara, encompassing most of tropical Africa (Dijkstra 2006, Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993). Regional records for northern Africa are restricted to three localities in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993), and one sighting in Tunisia (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000). Of the three Algerian populations, two became extinct within the last two decades; the last one, Lac Bleu (a lake of only 2 ha size) had not more than forty (40) individuals restricted to a small sector of the lake. Type locality in Algeria.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Sudan and Somalia. Its presence is assumed for Ethiopia, Eritrea, Chad, Uganda and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from all west African nations except Togo, where certainly present.	eng
60073	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, but is not found at the Cape or in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in Africa (except in forest areas) and the Middle East.	eng
60073	habitat	Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2007	Marshy verges of lakes and nearly stagnant sections of rivers and wadis.	eng
60073	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savanna, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Suhling, F., Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2009	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools, lakes, floodplains or slow streams and rivers in savannah, bush and woodland.	eng
60073	population	Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2007	In 1992 not more than forty (40) individuals were counted from the last known regional population at Lac Bleu in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000). It is extinct in Israel.	eng
60073	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60073	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60073	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60073	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60073	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Suhling, F., Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2009	This is a widespread species.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, in 1992 not more than forty individuals were counted from the last known regional population at Lac Bleu in northern Algeria (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1993, Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000).	eng
60073	threats	Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2007	Eutrophication, destruction of riparian vegetation, and water extraction. Fire is also a threat.	eng
60073	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Suhling, F., Samraoui, B. & Schneider, W., 2009	Eutrophication, destruction of riparian vegetation, water extraction and fire are threats to the species.	eng
60073	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60073	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60073	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60073	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60073	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60075	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60075	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60075	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60075	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, ecology, population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60075	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60075	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: western Uganda, (taxonomic confusion with <em>Zygonys fallax</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is though to be present from Uganda to Sierra Leone.	eng
60075	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia; it is assumed for the Central African Republic and Congo.	eng
60075	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.	eng
60075	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from western Uganda and northern Zambia to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia, assumed for Central African Republic and Congo.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the northern parts of the southern Africa region (Angola and Zambia).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
60075	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species occurs in northern parts of the southern Africa region (Angola and Zambia). Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia to Angola and Zaire, across to Sierra Leone. It may also occur in Uganda.	eng
60075	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Fast running streams in rain forest.	eng
60075	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested rivers and streams.	eng
60075	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in streams in rainforests.	eng
60075	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in rain forest.	eng
60075	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in rainforest.	eng
60075	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60075	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60075	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60075	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60075	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60075	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60075	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60075	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60075	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Forest degradation is a potential threat.	eng
60075	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60076	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60076	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60076	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60076	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60076	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60076	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
60076	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
60076	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and the Central African Republic; presence is assumed for Angola, Congo and Cameroon.	eng
60076	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia and Kenya; for Sudan and Uganda assumed.	eng
60076	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is fairly local in western Africa, Nigeria west to Guinea and Mali.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa west to Guinea and Mali.	eng
60076	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia,&#160; and assumed to be present in Central African Republic and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi, where it is common and widespread. It is assumed to occur also in Malawi and Burundi. <br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Ethiopia and assumed to be present in Sudan.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, along perennial running waters. It is not found in the arid southwest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species fairly local, present in Nigeria west to Guinea and Mali.	eng
60076	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, along perennial running waters. It is not found in the arid southwest. Globally, it is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
60076	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.	eng
60076	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.	eng
60076	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.	eng
60076	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland.	eng
60076	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah and woodland; especially near rapids and waterfalls.	eng
60076	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60076	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60076	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60076	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60076	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60076	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60076	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60076	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60076	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60076	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
60076	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Water pollution, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture are threats to the species.	eng
60077	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60077	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research and monitoring of the population and range of this species is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60077	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60077	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in western Uganda, Tanzania (no precise locality for is known).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60077	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.	eng
60077	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Cong. A record from Congo by Tsuda needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, forest in western Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi.	eng
60077	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60077	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60077	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found near forest streams.	eng
60077	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60077	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60077	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60077	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60077	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60077	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Water pollution and forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
60078	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A regulation of water use and pollution levels in its distribution range is needed and the present breeding habitats should be preserved.	eng
60078	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Control of water pollution, and conservation of habitats.	eng
60078	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60078	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60078	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60078	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60078	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
60078	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Ferreira, S. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Control of water pollution, and conservation of habitats are also needed.	eng
60078	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Zygonyx torridus</em> is a regular and widespread inhabitant of the Palaearctic. Its known distribution shows a patchy belt with records stretching from the Atlantic islands, along the Mediterranean Sea, to western Asia, with Iran as the easternmost record within the Palaearctic. All localities are situated within a range characterized by a subtropical or Mediterranean climate. There are four centres of settlements: the Canary Islands, the northwestern Africa (Morocco and Tunisia), the southern Iberian Peninsula and the Jordan Valley, plus single records from southern Tunisia, Sicily, southern Turkey and southern Iran (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large population on the Canaries, including Madeira, but these are outside the Mediterranean region. It is potentially present in southern countries of the north African region (Mauritania and Mali), but, to date, there are no records for these countries.	eng
60078	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Zygonyx torridus</em> is a widespread African and oriental species with a range extending in the northwest to the Canary Islands, South Iberia, and Turkey and Iran in the east (Bemmerle 2005, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its distribution in Europe shows a patchy belt with either aggregated or isolated localities stretching from the Canary Islands to South Spain and Sicily (Italy).	eng
60078	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Global distribution: Widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, and southern Asia. In East Africa the species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Its occurrence in Burundi is assumed.	eng
60078	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, southern Asia.	eng
60078	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.<br/><br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan. Uganda and Egypt assumed.	eng
60078	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, and Zambia.	eng
60078	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa, extending to southern Europe, the Middle East and India.	eng
60078	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Ferreira, S. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, Middle East and southern Asia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Zambia.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: common and widespread in all 5 countries (Burundi assumed).<br/><br/>The species is potentially present in the southern countries of the northern African region (Mauritania and Mali), but, to date, there are no records for these countries.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its presence in Uganda is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is widespread in the southern Africa region, except for in the Kalahari.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from  Nigeria to Gambia.	eng
60078	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, except for in the Kalahari. Globally, it is widespread in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, and southern Asia.	eng
60078	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Ferreira, S. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It is found in streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,typical habitats of the species are waterfalls and rapids of permanent rivers and brooks in the steppe and arid regions. Suitable sites are frequently successfully settled, even if they are extremely isolated, as in tropical rainforest or in desert (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
60078	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.	eng
60078	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.	eng
60078	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.	eng
60078	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Streams and rivers in bush, savanna, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.	eng
60078	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams and rivers in desert, bush, savannah, woodland and thin forest, often above or near rapids.	eng
60078	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Typical habitats of <em>Z. torridus</em> in Europe are waterfalls and rapid stretches of permanent rivers and brooks which are partly shaded in the warmer parts of Europe. This is a very mobile species which may be met as groups of vagrant adults elsewhere than in their true reproducing habitats. This species has a good dispersal ability.	eng
60078	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Typical habitats of the species are waterfalls and rapids of permanent rivers and brooks in the steppe and arid regions. Suitable sites are frequently successfully settled, even if there are extremely isolated, as in tropical rainforest or in desert (Kunz <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
60078	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, the species is rare, localised and sometimes incidental, though occasionally it is locally common. Although there is only one record in Sicily and in Portugal, the species is much more common and well established in the Canary Islands and in some Spanish localities.	eng
60078	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	In Morocco this is a vagrant species with several potential and recorded breeding sites. There is probably an exchange between populations in Iberian and those in central, western and northern Africa. Very small numbers of exuvia have been collected, to a maximum of 50 adults and 11 exuvia at one location.<br/><br/>The species forms migrant clouds that may move from location to location.	eng
60078	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60078	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60078	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends. However, this is a widespread species.	eng
60078	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60078	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60078	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Ferreira, S. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a widespread species. In northern Africa, the species is a vagrant with several potential and recorded breeding sites in Morocco. There is probably an exchange between populations in Iberian and those in central, western and northern Africa. Very small numbers of exuvia have been collected, to a maximum of 50 adults and 11 exuvia at one location. The species forms migrant clouds that may move from location to location.	eng
60078	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Iberia and the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). The destruction of Mediterranean running water systems as a result of human consumption for agriculture, urbanization and tourism increase rapidly. Water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water-table and stream drying up, river damming and spring capture are also key threats. Together with climate change with increased drought periods this may result in the loss of breeding habitat.	eng
60078	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	In the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In northwestern Africa, there is no information available on specific threats; the available data give no indication of a decline of the species in this region (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). In northern Africa, water pollution, abstraction and river damming are the key threats.<br/><br/>In southern Europe, the extensive destruction of Mediterranean running water systems as a result of human consumption for agriculture and tourism are the main threats (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In southwestern Asia, although there are some recent records of the species from Jordan, the water supply in the whole region dramatically decreased due to agricultural consumption. Sections with permanent running water become continuously more restricted (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
60078	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60078	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
60078	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
60078	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
60078	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	There are no known threats seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
60078	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F., Ferreira, S. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	There is no much information available on specific threats and the available data give no indication of a decline of the species in this region (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006). Water pollution, abstraction and river damming are the key threats. In the Canary Islands, human impacts on the natural freshwater resources are the main threat to the species (Kunz <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
60079	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60079	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60079	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
60079	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60079	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as conservation measures and monitoring. Habitat maintenance/conservation, restoration, and corridors are needed.	eng
60079	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs along the Indian Ocean Coast in South Africa and Mozambique. Globally, it has been recorded from South Africa and Mozambique to Uganda and to Cameroon.	eng
60079	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Budongo Forest, Zika Forest, Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
60079	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Uganda, Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon	eng
60079	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east South Africa to Uganda and Liberia.	eng
60079	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northeastern South Africa to Uganda, Liberia and possibly Senegal.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from the Budongo Forest, Zika Forest, Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs along the Indian Ocean coast in South Africa and Mozambique.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Liberia and possibly Senegal.	eng
60079	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swamp forest.	eng
60079	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamp forest.	eng
60079	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swamp forest.	eng
60079	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamp forest.	eng
60079	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamp forest, ponds and swamps in forest.	eng
60079	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60079	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60079	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
60079	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60079	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60079	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60079	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
60079	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60079	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
60079	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Forest destruction is a potential threat.	eng
60080	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	Relationships between the three shovelnose stingaree species first need to be defined before conservation measures can be determined.<br/><br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60080	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	As presently defined, restricted to a narrow area off Western Australia, Abrolhos Islands to Shark Bay (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60080	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	Found at about 200 m depth at the edge of the continental shelf (Last and Stevens 1994). Biology unknown.	eng
60080	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	No details available.	eng
60080	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	The area and depth from which <em>Trygonoptera galba</em> is presently known receives little fishing effort, being too deep for inshore prawn trawl fisheries and at the edge of the small-scale Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery.	eng
60081	conservation	Last, P.R., Marshall, L.J. & Trinnie, F.I., 2006	Victoria has a recently declared system of small Marine Protected Areas and these together with commercial fishing restrictions on the inshore environment will provide the species? with a level of protection. A lack of trawling in Bass Strait provides reasonable protection for the species across a large portion of its range.  <br/> <br/>Further information is required on habitat requirements given the patchy nature of the species? occurrence. The level of catches by recreational fishers also needs to be determined. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60081	distribution	Last, P.R., Marshall, L.J. & Trinnie, F.I., 2006	Endemic to the Bass Strait Province and adjacent transition zones of southeastern Australia: from Beachport (SA) through Victoria to Bermagui (NSW), excluding Tasmania. Primary distribution off Victoria.	eng
60081	habitat	Last, P.R., Marshall, L.J. & Trinnie, F.I., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera</em> sp. B is an inshore demersal species of sheltered coastal areas over soft substrates but is also recorded to depths of at least 120 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Females reach a larger maximum size than males. Ageing studies using whole and sectioned vertebrae indicate that females and males reach at least 12 years and 10 years, respectively (Trinnie 2003). The species exhibits aplacental viviparity but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary, with embryos developing from both internal and external yolk sacs. Litter size varies 1 to 5, though abortion of pups can occur at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear. Size at which 50% are mature was ~46.1 cm TL for females and ~49.1 cm TL for males. The maximum size of <em>in utero</em> embryos was 25.0 cm TL for males and 24.0 cm TL for females. Their diet mainly consists of polycheate worms. Life history information from Trinnie (2003) unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  ~ 4.5 years at 50% maturity (female); ~ 5.0 years at 50% maturity (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  ~ 50% mature at 46.1 cm TL  based on ovarian development (female); ~ 50% mature at 49.1 cm TL based on seminal vesicle development (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  12+ years (females); 10+ years (males) based on sectioned vertebrae ageing technique. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  80 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Largest <em>in utero</em> embryo 25.0 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown maternity pattern. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 5 pups per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60081	population	Last, P.R., Marshall, L.J. & Trinnie, F.I., 2006	Common in Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Bay, Victoria. Patchy in more exposed areas throughout its range. Aggregates in some locations.	eng
60081	threats	Last, P.R., Marshall, L.J. & Trinnie, F.I., 2006	Main threats are inshore commercial fishing, specifically beach and Danish seine and inshore trawl, particularly in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), which operates off southeastern Australia. Taken as bycatch and usually discarded. Reasonably robust after discard as usually caught in shallow water in small catches. Mechanical damage problematic in some locations using heavy trawl gear where catches become more substantial. Partial protection offered in the inshore extremities of embayments where fishing activities are not permitted. Rapid assessment of the species? ?catch susceptability? defined from ?availability?, ?selectivity?, ?encounterability? and ?post-capture mortality?, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the SESSF (Walker 2004). However, both its ?availability? and ?encounterability? to otter trawl gear are high. Of animals caught and released, the high rate of abortion in pregnant urolophids when caught and handled is of concern. <br/> <br/>In Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, long-term assessments of the abundance of <em>Trygonoptera</em> sp. B indicate that there has been a steady decline over a 10 year period (Hobday and Parry 1999). The species is possibly subject to environmental degradation in areas of main human habitation and the increasing level of recreational water use and development in shallow embayments around southern Australia may represent a threat to the suitable habitat of this species. <br/> <br/>A substantial number of introduced marine organisms are well established in many estuaries in southern Australia (for example, Port Phillip Bay in Victoria) and these are altering the natural structure of these ecosystems. The exact impact upon benthic predators (through habitat alteration and changes to prey abundance and distribution) is not well documented.	eng
60082	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch in southwestern Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60082	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Endemic to the Eastern Indian across southwestern Australia: from Glenelg, South Australia (138°30?E) west to at least Dongara, Western Australia (29°15?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60082	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera mucosa</em> is a common species found over sand and seagrass habitats in depths of 1 to 35 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).  <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in June and parturition occurring 12 months later, i.e., June (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 25 and 22 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 36.9 and 28.3 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Females and males are mature by the end of their fifth and second years of life, respectively, and reach maximum ages of 17 and 13 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>., 2002). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 30.8 cm (F) and 26.1 cm (M), t<sub>0</sub> = -2.52 (F) and -1.36 (M) years, k = 0.24 (F) and 0.49 (M).  <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of polychaete worms (errant and sedentary) (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> (from White <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  5 years (female); 2 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  25 cm DW (female); 22 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  17 years (females); 12 years (males).  <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  37 cm DW (females); 28 cm DW (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  11.3 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum.  <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60082	population	White, W.T., 2006	Common in shallow water over sandy substrates or near seagrass.	eng
60082	threats	White, W.T., 2006	This species forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah (northernmost part of their range). A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>T. mucosa</em> constituted 4.9% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). The South Australian Prawn Fisheries operate at the eastern extremity of the species? range and possibly take this species as bycatch, although it was not reported in a preliminary survey of bycatch in the Spencer Gulf component of the fishery by Carrick (1997). <br/> <br/>Overall, only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and large parts of its distribution are unfished or have extremely low fishing pressure, particularly inshore areas of the Great Australian Bight. <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (12 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is generally not caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.	eng
60083	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60083	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off southwestern Australia: found only off the southwestern coast of Australia from Eucla (128°53?E) to the Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia (28°43?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60083	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera ovalis</em> is a common species found over rocky and reefy areas and some seagrass beds in depths of 1 to 43 m (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White pers. obs). Aplacental viviparous species. Attains 61 cm TL and males mature at 35 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).  <br/> <br/>Dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life History Parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 35 cm TL (male) (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  61 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60083	population	White, W.T., 2006	Common over shallow rocky and reefy areas within its range.	eng
60083	threats	White, W.T., 2006	Very few threats. Only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch, for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery. Not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range. Preference of this species for rocky and reefy areas provides refuge from trawling activities.	eng
60084	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch off the central and lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60084	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off Western Australia: found off the lower west coast of Western Australia from Geographe Bay (34°10?S) north to Shark Bay (25°S) (Last and Stevens 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
60084	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera personata</em> is a relatively common species found over sand and seagrass habitats on the upper continental shelf in depths to 70 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in July and parturition occurring 10 months later, i.e., April/May (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 23 and 22 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 31 and 27 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Females and males are mature by the end of their fourth year of life and reach maximum ages of 16 and 10 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2002). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 30.3 cm (F) and 26.9 cm (M), t0 = -3.9 (F) and -3.1 (M) years, k = 0.14 (F) and 0.20 (M). Diet consists primarily of polychaetes (errant and sedentary) and crustaceans (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> (from White <em>et al</em>. 2002) <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  23 cm DW (female); 22 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  16 years (females); 10 years (males). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  31 cm DW (females); 27 cm DW (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.8 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown	eng
60084	population	White, W.T., 2006	Relatively common over scallop and prawn trawl grounds on the upper continental shelf off the central and lower west coast of Australia. Appears to be more common in the southern part of its range.	eng
60084	threats	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera personata</em> forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah. A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>T. personata</em> constituted 2.6% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Only a small number of trawlers operate in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah, and while some small-scale trawl operations exist in the northern part of the species range (i.e., Abrolhos Islands and Shark Bay) which may potentially take the species as bycatch, the overall trawl fishing pressure across the species? range is low. <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are typically returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (10 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is generally not caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.	eng
60085	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Life history studies are ongoing and bycatch monitoring is recommended into the future. However, the abundant nature of this species means that conservation measures are not a priority for this species when compared with other inshore elasmobranchs in the region. <br/> <br/>The species is afforded protection in numerous, mostly small, inshore marine protected areas in southern Queensland (i.e., Green Zones of Moreton Bay Marine Park) and NSW (various small marine parks and reserves). <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60085	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Restricted geographic range off eastern Australia: from southern Queensland to Cape Howe, New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60085	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	<em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is found inshore on the continental shelf from the intertidal zone to 135 m (more commonly to 60 m) (Last and Stevens 1994). Prefers soft substrates and is often associated with rocky reefs, the surf zone, as well as estuaries. Relatively little known of its biology, but has a small litter size (12 young) (P. Kyne unpublished data) and probably shares other reproductive characteristics with similar urolophids, such as a gestation period of or approaching, one year (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2002), which would results in an annual fecundity of 1 to 2 young. <br/> <br/>Diet of adult <em>T. testacea</em> consists primarily of polychaete worms with an ontogenetic shift in diet from primarily carid decapods in smaller size classes (Marshall <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters </u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  Unknown (female); 31 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994), 21 to 26 cm TL (P. Kyne unpublished data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  47 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60085	population	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Abundant across range, but with the main part of the population north of Jervis Bay, NSW. This is the dominant inshore ray in terms of abundance where it occurs along the east coast of Australia.	eng
60085	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	The geographic and bathymetric range of <em>T. testacea</em> is under relatively significant pressure from inshore trawling activities from both beam (estuarine) and otter (estuarine, inshore and offshore) trawlers. In southern Queensland, the northern extent of the species? range, it is taken as bycatch in the Eastern King Prawn (EKP) and Moreton Bay sectors of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). This is one of the most common elasmobranch bycatch species in the EKP sector of the fishery and catch data indicates that the species aggregates with nursery areas overlapping with trawling grounds (P. Kyne unpublished data). In NSW the species is a bycatch of the NSW Ocean Prawn Trawl Fishery as well as a minor bycatch in inshore and estuarine trawl fisheries (Gray <em>et al</em>. 1990) and estuarine prawn seine fishing (Gray <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is also a minor bycatch in beach seine fisheries. In the Lake Macquarie beach seine fishery in NSW <em>T. testacea</em> was amongst the top 25 most numerically abundant species captured and all were discarded (Gray and Kennelly 2003). Survivorship <em>should</em> be high if individuals are removed without persecution (the practice of ?spiking? is undertaken in some Australian fisheries whereby unwanted rays are removed from fishing nets using a metal spike through the cranium). <br/> <br/>This species is often taken by recreational beach fishers in southern Queensland and northern NSW (P. Kyne pers. obs.). Utilization is unknown, but the species is often discarded on the beach and not returned to the sea (P. Kyne pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Trygonoptera testacea</em> is considered to have a low catch susceptibility to all gear types (Walker 2004). Catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality? (Walker 2004). When these parameters are considered separately it is shown that ?availability? results in the assignment of a low catch susceptibility for otter trawl gear. The SESSF operates at the southern end of the distribution of <em>T. testacea</em> and the species is considered to be sparse in the fishery?s area of operation. The stingaree is thus not available to the majority of the fishery as activities are centred further to the south and west. <br/> <br/>Of concern to this species, and all urolophids, is the high rate of abortion by gravid females upon capture and handling. For <em>T. testacea</em>, this not only relates to trawl capture specimens, but also to line captured individuals (P. Kyne unpublished data). In effect, even if these individuals are returned to the water, annual individual reproductive output may be lost for that year. <br/> <br/>The effects of inshore and coastal habitat degradation on this species are unknown but it may be less affected through habitat modification than other species (for example, the estuary stingray <em>Dasyatis fluviorum</em>) as it is still common in relatively degraded areas (i.e., areas around Sydney).	eng
60086	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Urgent need to evaluate habitat requirements and distribution to establish accurate levels of threat. Given the morphological uniqueness of this species there is a need to establish its phylogenetic position within the family.	eng
60086	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known only from New Ireland in the Bismark Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. Possibly has discrete habitat requirements within a very narrow geographic range. Surveys adjacent to the region have failed to locate additional material.	eng
60086	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Nothing known of habitat, depth distribution or biology. Known only from one specimen, a 17.4 cm TL immature male, caught in New Ireland (Bismark Archipelago, PNG) (Séret and Last 2003). Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>The type locality is amongst one of the most poorly surveyed regions on earth and this species may be an indicator of restricted evolutionary processes and the existence of a discrete faunal unit in this area. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60086	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown. Biodiversity surveys are needed in this region to evaluate habitat requirements and population size. Potentially at risk by its restricted nature.	eng
60086	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Limited based on the lack of fishing activity in this region. The absence of information on habitat requirements makes it difficult to predict where threats may come from, however oil and gold exploration in the general region could result in degraded habitat, the effects of which (for example, chemicals used in processing and potentially released in the environment) would need to be evaluated.	eng
60087	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Research into habitat requirements and life history together with bycatch and market monitoring, is necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60087	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam (Kuiter and Debelius 1997), and possibly Korea. Range is not well defined. Possibly disjunct. Sporadic distribution in Japan, only found in suitable habitat (i.e., rocky areas).	eng
60087	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Found in rocky habitat over the continental shelf. Kuiter and Debelius (1997) report that the species is found at depths of 10 to 200 m and Nakaya and Shirai (1992) report it at 155 to 205 m in the Okinawa trough off Japan. Biology is little known. Michael (1993) reports a litter size of up to four and a gestation period of about one year. Urolophids generally have low fecundity and a gestation period around or approaching a year, so Michael?s observations seem consistent with published reports (see White <em>et al</em>. 2001, White <em>et al</em>. 2002), although fecundity is probably generally lower (i.e., 1 to 2 pups/litter). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  40 cm TL (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~8 cm TL (Michael 1993). <br/><>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~12 months (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (Michael 1993) (probably generally less, i.e., 1 to 2). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60087	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Common but not abundant. Only found in small numbers where it occurs.	eng
60087	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Its preference for rocky habitat limits its susceptibility to trawling, however gillnet, set net and longline fishing activities in parts of its range are likely to take this species as bycatch. No information is available on such bycatch. Longline fisheries in areas such as Taiwan often employ gear that would regularly take this species (similar sized demersal batoids taken on bottom set lines are a commonly marketed product). Fisheries in the Asian region are generally unmanaged and unregulated and pressure on the continental shelf is intense. <br/> <br/>This species? occurrence in deeper water was shown by Nakaya and Shirai (1992) in the Okinawa Trough, south of Japan. Bycatch through any expansion of deepwater demersal fishing activities will likely increase pressure on deeper subpopulations in those areas.  <br/> <br/>Habitat alteration in inshore areas may indirectly impact the species.	eng
60088	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Research is required on the species? biology and habitat preferences given that its distribution appears to be patchy. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australian fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Reduced trawling pressure in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania minimize threats in those areas. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60088	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Southeastern Australian warm temperate endemic: from Beachport (South Australia) to Stradbroke Island (Queensland), including Victoria and NSW, and south to the Hippolyte Rocks (Tasmania). Replacement species for <em>U. flavomosaicus</em> in temperate Australia.	eng
60088	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 100 to 230 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Most common on the outer continental shelf presumably mainly on soft substrates. No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Large size relative to other urolophids suggests slower growth rates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>: Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>: All mature above 60cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (female); 40cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  80 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60088	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Captured in small quantities only, suggesting that it does not occur in large aggregations and that its distribution is patchy.	eng
60088	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. When broken down by individual survey grounds, reductions in urolophid catch rates were 45.0% off Sydney, 81.2% off Ulladulla and 90.5% off Eden. <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> was taken on all survey grounds (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. bucculentus</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Deepwater Sector). <br/> <br/>Bycatch is not appreciated by fishers because of its size and capacity to inflict painful wounds/difficult to handle. This may result in the persecution of bycatch. Of further concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.	eng
60089	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Further research on life history parameters is required. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60089	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Restricted geographic range, endemic to southwestern Australia: southwestern Australia from Rottnest Island (32°00’S) to Esperance (121°53’E), Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60089	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Found over rocky and reefy areas and amongst kelp inshore to 120 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species, presumably with reproductive characters similar to other <em>Urolophus</em> species, for example <>U. lobatus</em> which has a low fecundity of 1 to 2 young per year with a gestation period of 10 months (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Attains 60 cm TL. Maturity has not been documented, but the smallest mature male so far examined was 53 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Dietary composition has not yet been examined for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length cm)</strong>:  Unknown (female); Unknown but <53 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  60 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth (cm)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60089	population	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Reported to be uncommon (Last and Stevens 1994) and is rarely recorded in fishing operations (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
60089	threats	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	There are no perceivable threats to this species. Only a negligible component of prawn and scallop trawl bycatch (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999), for which there is only a small number of boats operating within this fishery. Not known to be caught by other fisheries within its range. The preference of this species for rocky, reefy and kelp areas provides refuge from trawling activities.	eng
60090	conservation	Treloar , M.A., 2006	Continued monitoring of bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery. No information seems to be available on bycatch in Tasmanian State fisheries (for example the Tasmanian Commercial Scalefish Fishery) and an effort needs to be made to investigate bycatch levels of this and all chondrichthyan species in these fisheries. Similarly, the level of interaction with recreational fishers around Tasmania needs to be determined, although this is probably limited. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60090	distribution	Treloar , M.A., 2006	Endemic to southeastern Australia: from Tathra (New South Wales) to Beachport (South Australia), including Victoria, Bass Strait and Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994). Large estuaries, such as the Derwent River are important for pupping in Tasmania (Last 2002).	eng
60090	habitat	Treloar , M.A., 2006	Found on the continental shelf on soft bottoms but exhibiting different habitat preferences in the north and the south of its range. In Tasmania found on shallow muddy bottoms in very shallow waters and in Victoria rarely seen in waters less than 25 m, probably more common >100 m depth. Recorded to 160 m by Last and Stevens (1994), but also occurs onto the upper continental slope as documented by Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001). Little is known of the species? biology, but is aplacental viviparous and likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Both sexes mature at 6 years of age and maximum age is at least 11 years (Treloar and Laurenson in press). <br/> <br/>Diet is dominated by isopods and polychaetes (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Life history parameters from Treloar and Laurenson (in press), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity </strong>:  6 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  30 cm TL (Trinnie 2003), 32 cm TL (female); 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994), 24 cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>: At least 9 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  50 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10 to 11cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60090	population	Treloar , M.A., 2006	No information is available, although this is an abundant urolophid.	eng
60090	threats	Treloar , M.A., 2006	This species is taken as a bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) by otter trawl and gillnet. However, its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling, gillnet and indeed all gear types used in the fishery is considered to be low (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). The species actually has a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? and a medium ?post-capture mortality? to otter trawl gear in the fishery, however its ?availability? is low as it is mostly distributed outside trawling effort. In contrast its ?availability? to gillnet is high, but ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? are low (Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/><em>Urolophus cruciatus</em> was documented in fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. <em>Urolophus cruciatus</em> was taken off Ulladulla and Eden trawl grounds where the urolophid catch rate declined by 81.2% and 90.5%, respectively (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). These areas represent only the northern most part of the species? range and the species remains common across the majority of its range.  <br/> <br/>The lack of trawling in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania benefits this species. <br/> <br/>Survivorship is likely to be low if taken at depth in the northern part of the species? range. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.	eng
60091	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.	eng
60091	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Narrow ranging endemic: known only from New Caledonia, adjacent to the Chesterfield Islands.	eng
60091	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Continental slope at 203 to 330 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology largely unknown, probably on soft substrate. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity (total length)</strong>:  Unknown (female); 28.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size (total length)</strong>:  34.2 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age (years)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time (months)</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60091	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Population size unknown but taken in reasonable quantities in some trawl stations suggesting it is locally abundant and probably aggregates.	eng
60091	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species, which appears to be reasonably range restricted.	eng
60092	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2006	Continued monitoring of bycatch to species-specific level in both the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector and the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60092	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2006	Endemic to the Eastern Indian off southern Australia: southwestern Australia and the Great Australian Bight, from Perth (Western Australia) to Port Lincoln (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60092	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2006	Found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope on sandy bottoms in depths of 140 to 420 m, but mainly 200 to 300 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Little is known of the species? biology, but is aplacental viviparous and likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White et al. 2001). Males mature at seven years of age and live to at least 11 years (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Age data are not available for females. <br/> <br/>Its preferred prey is isopods and polychaetes (Treloar and Laurenson in press). Life history parameters from Treloar and Laurenson (in press), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Unknown (female); 7 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  All mature above 40 cm TL (Trinnie 2003) (female); 50% maturity: 37.5 cm TL (Trinnie 2003), 36 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  At least 11 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 47.6cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60092	population	Treloar, M.A., 2006	May be some segregation by sex and ontogeny (Treloar and Laurenson in press).	eng
60092	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2006	This species is taken as a frequent bycatch in the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) by otter trawl. Its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling in the fishery is considered to be medium (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). This is a result of high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? and medium ?availability? and post-capture mortality?. Catch susceptibility to SESSF gillnet fishing is low as the species is mostly distributed to the west of gillnet effort. Large parts of the Great Australian Bight receive little or no fishing effort and so otter trawling activities affect only portions of the species? range across the Bight. <br/> <br/>The western most range of the species is subject to demersal trawling from the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) (part of the Commonwealth-managed Western Trawl Fisheries). This is small-scale limited entry seasonal fishery with 11 fishing permits currently issued (AFMA 2003). The geographical area of the fishery is extensive and the area of occurrence of U. expansus off southwestern Australia represents only a small portion of this. It is unlikely that fishing effort in the Western Trawl Fisheries will significantly increase in the future as the fisheries are presently considered to be ?economically marginal? as a result of low product value, high operating costs and weather conditions (Edwards 2004). <br/> <br/>Any urolopids taken from such depths as that of <em>U. expansus</em> are likely to have low survivorship. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.	eng
60093	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Careful monitoring of population needed over longer time scale including monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60093	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known from two disjunct localities off tropical Australia, one off Western Australia (Abrolhos Islands to Port Hedland) and the other off Queensland (Caloundra to Townsville). Replacement species for <em>U. bucculatus</em> in tropical Australia.	eng
60093	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Tropical, at 60 to 300 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Most common on the outer continental shelf, presumably mainly on soft substrates. No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 38 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  59 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60093	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Captured in small quantities only, suggesting it does not occur in large aggregations and that its distribution is patchy.	eng
60093	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	This species? area of occurrence receives only small amounts of trawling, generally being too deep for inshore prawn and scallop trawling, while deeper water trawl fisheries off Queensland (Coral Sea Fishery; CSF) and off Western Australia (Western Trawl Fisheries; WTF) are small-scale. The WTF is managed by limited entry with only 18 fishing permits issued on a five yearly basis, operating over a large geographical area. Bycatch ?is composed of small volumes of a diverse range of species? (AFMA 2003a) and it is likely that <em>U. flavomosaicus</em> forms only a negligible bycatch in this fishery. This fishery fishes from 200 m depth and so over half of the patchwork stingaree?s depth range would not be affected. There are only two operators in the trawl sector of the Coral Sea Fishery, exerting a very low effort (AFMA 2003b). These would have little impact on <em>U. flavomosaicus</em>. <br/> <br/>Of concern is the common practice of gravid female urolophids often aborting embryos upon handling and capture. Any expansion of trawling activities in the area could impact detrimentally on the population; however expansion in the WTF and CSF seems unlikely at this time.	eng
60094	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Given the apparent patchiness of the species, close monitoring of catches is required. Research should aim to document specific habitat requirements and life history characteristics. <br/> <br/>The extensive network of (small) Marine Protected Areas in southern Australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60094	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Relatively widespread across southern Australia: from Albany (Western Australia) to Lakes Entrance (eastern Victoria), including South Australia and the northern coast of Tasmania.	eng
60094	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Continental shelf in depths to 50 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Most regularly encountered in the vicinity of seagrass and on shallow rocky reefs. Biology unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 55 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  70 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60094	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Patchy and not aggregating. Clustering across a relatively broad geographical area, possibly due to the existence of suitable habitat. Appears to be naturally uncommon.	eng
60094	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Sometimes caught in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery which operates off southeastern Australia by otter trawl and gillnet, however its ?catch susceptibility? to trawling, gillnet and indeed all gear types used in the fishery is considered to be low (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). Overall, catches by trawl and gillnet are likely to be small. There is a lack of trawling in Bass Strait and occurrence around rocky reefs will also provide refuge from trawling. <br/> <br/>There is very little demersal fishing activity in habitat through the Great Australian Bight and in the west of the species? range. There is little effort in the South Australian Prawn Trawl Fisheries outside of Spencer Gulf and Gulf Saint Vincent and the species was not recorded in a preliminary study of the bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery (Carrick 1997). <br/> <br/>Coastal degradation can impact on shallow inshore habitats, particularity seagrass beds. <br/> <br/>Catches by recreational fishers are a possibility given the species? inshore nature.	eng
60095	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	There are ongoing market surveys around Java and there is an urgent need to re-survey the region to define population remnants and introduce appropriate management where possible. Given locality of species, management and enforcement of any regulations will be difficult.	eng
60095	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known only from off Java (probably near Jakarta), Indonesia. Actual range is unspecified but certainly very restricted and has possibly reduced due to intensive fishing pressure.	eng
60095	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Biology unknown. The holotype is a 33.3 cm TL female. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  At least 33 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60095	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown but as known only from the type specimen in an area that is heavily fished and despite survey work, has not been recognized in 150 years, this species is likely very rare.	eng
60095	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Not recognized since its discovery over 150 years ago and possibly extinct, on the verge of extinction or at least has suffered extreme range restriction and/or population decline. Extensive fishing, particularity in the form of trawling, in the region is of major concern regarding the conservation of the species. Similarly the type locality is near major human population centres and has suffered high levels of degradation over the last century. May have been captured in the past but without being recognised. If the population of this species remained healthy it should have resurfaced particularly given the various surveys conducted in the region.	eng
60096	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Patterns of exploitation in Indonesia will need to be closely monitored and the conservation status of this species will need to be reassessed regularly as fisheries develop in deeper water in eastern Indonesia. Fisheries-independent surveys are also urgently required to investigate the fauna of the area surrounding the type locality and to compare with observations made during the <em>Challenger</em> surveys of the 1870s from which the only known specimens of this species were collected.	eng
60096	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Occurs off the Kai islands, eastern Indonesia. Range unspecified, but possibly restricted as only known from type locality in deepwater off eastern Indonesia.	eng
60096	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	A deepwater stingaree species recorded at a depth of 236 m on a blue mud bottom. Largest of the two known specimens is a 23 cm TL immature male. Maximum size of the species is thus unknown. Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); >23 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60096	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown but this appears to be an extremely rare species given that is it known only from the type specimens.	eng
60096	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	At present there is little fishing pressure at the depth where the type specimens of the species were collected. There is currently no trawling at depths >200 m around Indonesia. However, it is only a matter of time until fishing activities move into these depths in a region where fishing pressure on the marine environment is generally intense and unregulated. As inshore resources are depleted and as gear advancements allow, fishers will relocate effort to the potential habitat of this species and this raises concern for a batoid species which may have both a restricted geographical distribution and a narrow bathymetrical occurrence. <br/> <br/>When fishing pressure moves into its depth range, and if the population is confirmed to be limited, the species may rapidly fall into a threatened category. Indeed, the species may already be threatened, but there is no information to support this ascertain.	eng
60097	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of this species and other elasmobranchs caught as bycatch in southwestern Australia should be conducted to establish whether the population sizes are stable or declining. A follow-up trawl survey, identical to that conducted in the early 1990s, on the lower west coast of Australia should be conducted to determine any trends in population sizes of such species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60097	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Found only on the continental shelf off southern Western Australia between Esperance (121°53?E) and Rottnest Island (32°00?S) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60097	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Urolophus lobatus</em> is a common species found over sand and seagrass habitats on the upper continental shelf in depths of 1 to 30 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Aplacental viviparous species with ovulation and conception occurring in January and parturition occurring 10 months later, i.e., October/November (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Litter size ranges from one to two and females reproduce each year. Females and males are mature at 20 cm DW and 16 cm DW, respectively, and attain maximum sizes of 27.7 cm DW and 23.7 cm DW, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Females and males are mature by the end of their third and second years of life, respectively, and reach maximum ages of 14 and 12 years, respectively (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for both sexes were: DWinf = 24.9 cm (F) and 21.1 cm (M), t<sub>0</sub> = -1.35 (F) and -1.18 (M) years, k = 0.37 (F) and 0.51 (M).  <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of crustaceans, in particular mysids, carid decapods and amphipods (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). Life history parameters from White <em>et al</em>. (2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  3 years (female); 2 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  20 cm DW (female); 16 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  14 years (females); 12 years (males). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  27.7 cm DW females; 23.7 cm DW males. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10.5 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 young per annum. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60097	population	White, W.T., 2006	Very common over scallop and prawn trawl grounds on the upper continental shelf off the lower west coast of Australia.	eng
60097	threats	White, W.T., 2006	This species forms a considerable component of the biomass of bycatch in the scallop and prawn trawl fisheries that operate off Perth and Mandurah (northernmost part of their range). A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>U. lobatus</em> constituted 4.8% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids.  <br/> <br/>This species is of no commercial value and all those caught by trawlers are returned alive. The only real concern for this species and other urolophids is that a large percentage of pregnant females landed abort their young before they are returned (White <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since the fecundity of this species is so low (one to two) and gestation is relatively long (10 months), any additional fishing pressure could have a significant effect on populations of this species. <br/> <br/>This species is not generally caught by recreational fisherman. There are no real threats from pollution within the range of this species.	eng
60098	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Observer programs within the NWSTF need to be made aware of this species and bycatch data from the fishery needs to be analysed to examine if <em>U. mitosis</em> is being taken in the shallower areas of the fishery.  <br/> <br/>Any changes to current fishing practices need to ensure that they do not detrimentally affect the population of <em>U. mitosis</em>. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60098	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known only from off Port Hedland, Western Australia. Further data has not extended the range from the original description suggesting that it is extremely restricted.	eng
60098	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Occurs in depths of about 200 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Probably restricted to bathymetric range near the shelf break on soft substrates. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 25 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  29 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60098	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Reasonably abundant through known range, but population size unknown.	eng
60098	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	The range of this species overlaps with the management area of the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (part of the Commonwealth-managed Western Trawl Fisheries). This is a limited entry fishery with seven fishing permits granted on a five-yearly basis with fishing occurring from 200 m and deeper over a wide geographical area (AFMA 2003). Fishing is undertaken mainly on a part-time or opportunistic basis by trawlers from the Northern Prawn Fishery during closures in that fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2005). Although the area of the fishery is large, fishing for the main target species is confined to relatively small areas, principally centred around the Rowley Shoals and Scott and Ashmore Reefs (Lynch and Garvey 2005). The Rowley Shoals are close to the known area of occurrence of <em>U. mitsis</em>, but the shoals lie further to the east. The NWSTF targets three main species of deepwater scampi (Metanephropidae), which are distributed at depths of 260?500 m (Fowler and McLoughlin 1996). Of these three species, Metanephrops boschmai is taken at the shallowest depths (300?380 m) but represents the lowest volume of the three main scampi species (Lynch and Garvey 2005). <em>Metanephrops velutinus</em> is taken at 370?440 m and <em>M. australiensis</em> at 430?500 m (Lynch and Garvey 2005). Deepwater penaeid and carid prawns are an important byproduct of the NWSTF. Six species constitute 70% of the deepwater prawn catch in the fishery and these are caught at depths of 300?600 m (AFMA 2003). <br/> <br/>It is therefore evident, that despite the range of <em>U. mitosis</em> overlapping with the area of the NWSTF there is little fishing activity on the shelf edge where the species has been recorded. Some fishing is likely to occur at potential depths of <em>U. mitosis</em>, but the vast majority of effort takes place in deeper waters and outside the geographical range of the species.  <br/> <br/>It is unlikely that fishing effort in the Western Trawl Fisheries will significantly increase in the future as the fisheries are presently considered to be ?economically marginal? as a result of low product value, high operating costs and weather conditions (Edwards 2004). <br/> <br/>Any urolopids taken from such depths as that of <em>U. mitosis</em> are likely to have low survivorship. Furthermore, gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon handling and capture.	eng
60099	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.	eng
60099	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	A narrow ranging endemic: Chesterfield Islands, New Caledonia and the northern part of the Norfolk Ridge.	eng
60099	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Continental slope at 229 to 428 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 30.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.5 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60099	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60099	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species which appears to be reasonably range restricted.	eng
60100	conservation	Last, P.R., Kyne, P.M. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Better iteration of population size, habitat requirements and distribution. Monitoring of habitat change and bycatch in all trawl fisheries within the species range. <br/> <br/>South Australian prawn trawl fisheries are managed by traditional measures such as limited entry, vessel and gear restrictions as well as seasonal closures and rotation of trawling grounds. Other measures have also been implemented in order to reduce effects on non-target species such as gear modifications and improvements aimed at bycatch reduction and reduced sorting times. These measures need to be monitored to assess their effectiveness (Baker in prep). <br/> <br/>An assessment of the conservation status of <em>Urolophus orarius</em> is underway for the South Australian Government (Baker in prep). <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60100	distribution	Last, P.R., Kyne, P.M. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known only from the eastern Great Australian Bight, between Ceduna and Beachport (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994). Narrow ranging endemic and key indicator of the Gulfs Province of southern Australia. Not known in waters less than 20 m deep, however, further surveys of South Australian waters <20m deep is required. Extent of occurrence estimated to be <5,000 km².	eng
60100	habitat	Last, P.R., Kyne, P.M. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Inner continental shelf in depths of 20 to 50 m (narrow habitat band) (Last and Stevens 1994). Presumably on soft substrates. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female; 23 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  31 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60100	population	Last, P.R., Kyne, P.M. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Abundance is ?sparse? (Walker 2004). Population size is likely to be small based on low abundance within the narrow range.	eng
60100	threats	Last, P.R., Kyne, P.M. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Urolophus oroarius</em> is considered to have a low catch susceptibility to all gear types (Walker 2004). Catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality? (Walker 2004). When these parameters are considered separately it is shown that ?availability? results in the assignment of a low catch susceptibility for otter trawl gear. The species is restricted to SA waters and given this range is thus not available to the majority of the fishery as activities are centred further to the east. <em>Urolophus orarius</em> has a high encounterability, a high selectivity and a medium post-capture mortality to otter trawl gear.  <br/> <br/>The South Australian Prawn Fisheries operate over the remainder of the range of <em>U. orarius</em>. There are presently 10 licences for the Gulf St. Vincent Prawn Fishery, 39 in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery and three in the West Coast Prawn Fishery (PIRSA 2004). Data on bycatch of this species in SA Prawn Fisheries is not available, but given the species area of occurrence it is certainly interacting with this fishery. Carrick (1997) did not report <em>U. orarius</em> as bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn Fishery in 219 trawls (mostly of 30 minutes duration) possibly indicating the apparent rarity of the species. Historically, fishing pressure has been intense in parts of this fishery, particularly in the Spencer Gulf. <br/> <br/>The species? reliance on invertebrate-rich benthic habitats is unknown, and so there is a potential risk of habitat alteration through trawling activities. Prawn trawling in Gulf St. Vincent has been shown to have a considerable impact on epifaunal assemblages (Tanner 2003), although changes in infauna consistent with the effects of trawling were not detected (Drabsch <em>et al</em>. 2001). These authors concluded that prawn trawling in South Australia does not have consistent effects on infaunal assemblages given the high amount of spatial and temporal variability they observed (Drabsch <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Gravid female urolophids are renowned for aborting embryos upon capture and handling, so even it bycatch is returned alive to the water, reproductive output can be lost.	eng
60101	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of future fishing activities to ensure changes do not adversely affect this species.	eng
60101	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Narrow ranging endemic. Known only from New Caledonia, adjacent to the Chesterfield Islands.	eng
60101	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Known from the continental slope at 330 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Biology unknown but likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 31.3 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >40.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~14.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60101	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60101	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Limited as no commercial trawling in this region. However, any major increase in fishing effort could result in rapid decline of this species, which appears to be range restricted.	eng
60102	conservation	Trinnie, F.I., White, W.T. & Walker, T.I, 2006	Current monitoring of several areas in SE Australia is being conducted to better understand its population dynamics and to determine its life history characteristics. Research is required to determine if eastern and western populations are distinct.  <br/> <br/>The extensive network of (small) Marine Protected Areas in southern Australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species.  <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60102	distribution	Trinnie, F.I., White, W.T. & Walker, T.I, 2006	<em>Urolophus paucimaculatus</em> is known to inhabit most southern Australian continental waters where it is distributed widely across a variety of soft substrates, from shallow bays and inlets to the open continental shelf: from northern New South Wales (31°50?S) to Lancelin in Western Australia (31°00?S) including Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). The species has undergone a southward range expansion in recent decades.	eng
60102	habitat	Trinnie, F.I., White, W.T. & Walker, T.I, 2006	This species is demersal on the inner continental shelf over sandy and seagrass substrates from the shore to 150 m depth or more, including shallow bays and inlets (Last and Stevens 1994). In SE Australia it is generally found <80 m depth and occurs deeper in the Great Australian Bight. The species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine trophonemata and histotroph but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary and uterus. Ovulation occurs between spring and early summer in SE Australia. Litter size 1 to 2 in SW Australia and varies 1 to 6 in SE Australia, with larger mothers carrying more young than smaller mothers. Spontaneous abortion occurs at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear. The sex ratio of embryos in SE Australia is 1:1. <br/> <br/>Diet consists primarily of crustaceans, in particular mysids, carid decapods and amphipods (Platell <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>Life history parameters for both SE Australia (Trinnie 2003) and SW Australia (White and Potter in prep) are given in the table below. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  SE Aust: ~3 years at 50% maturity, SW Aust: 5 years (female); SE Aust: ~2.5 years at 50% maturity, SW Aust: 3 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length/dic width):  SE Aust: 50% mature at 27 cm TL, SW Aust: 50% mature at 22.3 cm DW (female); SE Aust: 50% mature at 27.8 cm TL, SW Aust: 50% mature at 20.7 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  SE Aust: 9+ years (females); 8+ years (males); SW Aust: 14 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  SE Aust: 50 cm TL (females); 42 cm TL (males); SW Aust: 27.2 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  SE Aust: ~15.0 to 15.5 cm TL; SW Aust: 12.6 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  SE Aust: ~1 year; SW Aust: 10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  1 litter per annum. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  SE Aust: 1?6 dependant on maternal size; SW Aust: 1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60102	population	Trinnie, F.I., White, W.T. & Walker, T.I, 2006	This species is one of the most abundant and widely distributed benthic chondrichthyans found in southern Australian waters, but little is not known about whether subpopulations or fragmentation occur. However, the southwestern population and the southeastern populations appear to be separated. <br/> <br/>In Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, local abundances can be correlated with the catch of recreational and commercial benthic fish species and increases in the abundance of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> were recorded from 1970 to 1991, probably due to a reduction in the abundance of competitors (Hobday <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
60102	threats	Trinnie, F.I., White, W.T. & Walker, T.I, 2006	SE Australia: <em>Urolophus paucimaculatus</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in Danish and inshore beach seines in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF). The demersal monofilament gillnets and longlines of the shark fishery in southern Australia catch only small numbers and have no effect on the abundance of this species (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2002). Rapid risk assessment of the catch susceptibility defined from ?availability?, ?selectivity?, ?encounterability? and ?post-capture mortality?, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the SESSF (T.I. Walker, unpublished data). Of animals caught and released, there would be some loss of aborting embryos in pregnant animals from the effects of capture and handling. Although encounterability and selectivity are high for demersal trawl, availability is low because most of the population is distributed outside the range of this fishery. <br/> <br/>SW Australia: A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of SW Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> constituted 5.2% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids in the SW portion of its range. Although females often abort embryos after capture, the low level of fishing pressure in SW Australia appears to be sustainable with respect to this species. <br/> <br/>South Australia/Great Australian Bight: The species was reported as a negligible component of bycatch in the Spencer Gulf Prawn fishery by Carrick (1997). This fishery is part of the South Australian Prawn Fisheries and effort outside of Spencer Gulf and Gulf Saint Vincent is low. Indeed, a large portion of the range of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em> receives little fishing, i.e. large parts of inshore areas of the Great Australian Bight. The Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector of the SESSF operates at depths exceeding that of <em>U. paucimaculatus</em>.	eng
60103	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Monitoring of fishing effort in the region and research into the life history of the species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) should help facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in Australia.	eng
60103	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Narrow ranging, northeastern Australian endemic: Northern Queensland from Mackay to Cairns, including the Saumarez and Marion Reefs (Last and Stevens 1994, Séret and Last 2003).	eng
60103	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Occurs on the continental shelf edge and upper slope at 171 to 370 m depth (Séret and Last 2003). Nothing known of its biology. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  <27.0 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (female); 22.6 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  48.4 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  12.1 cm TL (Séret and Last 2003). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60103	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60103	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Area of occurrence receives very little fishing pressure from the Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (CSF). There are only two operators in the trawl sector of the CSF, which fish a maximum of 20 days per year, thereby exerting a very low effort (AFMA 2003). If fisheries expanded in the Coral Sea, <em>U. piperatus</em> could be potentially threatened given its narrow range.	eng
60104	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Research is required on the species? biology and habitat preferences. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australia fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Areas of habitat closed to trawling activities will be necessary to conserve the species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60104	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	New South Wales near-endemic, only marginally entering southern Queensland waters. Broadly distributed throughout its geographic range.	eng
60104	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Occurs on soft substrates on the continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 45 to 300 m (mainly on the outer continental shelf in 100 to 160 m) (Last and Stevens 1994). No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); 23 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  42 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60104	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Once very common and abundant, the species appears to have suffered depletion from fishing activities.	eng
60104	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996-97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. <em>Urolophus sufflavus</em> was taken off Sydney survey grounds where the urolophid catch rate declined by 45.0% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear and a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? to otter trawl gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. sufflavus</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Sector). <br/> <br/>Of concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.	eng
60105	conservation	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Research is required on the species? biology. Bycatch monitoring is required in all fisheries within the species? range. Effort reduction and/or bycatch minimization in southeastern Australia fisheries is required to allow recovery and this and other depleted chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Reduced trawling pressure in Bass Strait and off the west coast of Tasmania minimize threats in those areas. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60105	distribution	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Southeastern Australian warm temperate endemic: from Portland (Victoria) to Stradbroke Island (Queensland), including NSW and Tasmania.	eng
60105	habitat	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Demersal on soft substrates on the continental shelf. Recorded in depths of 20 to 200 m (mainly 80 to 180 m) by Last and Stevens (1994), but also occurs onto the upper continental slope as documented by Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001). No specific studies so biology largely unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female; 27 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  44 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60105	population	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Formerly common throughout its range but impacted at least off NSW.	eng
60105	threats	Last, P.R. & Marshall, L.J., 2006	Fishery-independent trawl surveys comparing the bycatch of chondrichthyans between 1976?77 and 1996?97 off the New South Wales upper slope documented an overall decline in the catch rate of urolophids of 65.6% (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Urolophus bucculentus</em> and <em>U. viridis</em> were the commonly caught species, while <em>U. sufflavus</em> and <em>U. cruciatus</em> were taken in smaller quantities. When broken down by individual survey grounds, reductions in urolophid catch rates were 45.0% off Sydney, 81.2% off Ulladulla and 90.5% off Eden. <em>Urolophus viridis</em> was taken on all survey grounds (Graham et al. 2001). Fishing pressure on these trawl grounds as part of the Commonwealth-managed Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) remains high. <br/> <br/>This species has a high ?availability? to shark gillnet gear and a high ?encounterability? and ?selectivity? to otter trawl gear in the SESSF. However, the species has a low ?catch susceptibility? to all gear types (including shark gillnet and otter trawl) used in the fishery (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004).  <br/> <br/>State-managed fisheries also operate in the area of occurrence and depth range of <em>U. viridis</em>, for example the NSW Oceanic Prawn Trawl Fishery and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (Eastern King Prawn Sector). <br/> <br/>Of concern is the high rate of abortion amongst urolophids when caught and handled, particularly given their low fecundity.	eng
60106	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2006	Life history data is required. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA–Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60106	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2006	Restricted area of distribution off northwestern Australia: between Dampier and Buccaneer Archipelago, Western Australia.	eng
60106	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2006	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 60 to 210 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Biology is essentially unknown. Likely to have low fecundity (1 to 2 young/year) as with other urolophid species (for example, see White <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown (female); <24 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  36 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  10 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60106	population	Kyne, P.M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60106	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2006	Bathymetric range of species is too deep for Western Australian inshore trawl fisheries and is at the very edge of the North West Slope Trawl Fishery (NWSTF). The NWSTF (part of the Western Trawl Fisheries) is a limited entry fishery with seven fishing permits granted on a five-yearly basis with fishing occurring from 200 m and deeper (AFMA 2003). <br/> <br/>The effect of historical trawl pressure from foreign fleets operating from 1959 to 1990 on the Northwest Shelf upon this species is unknown. Trawl effort was high at times during that period and is known to have caused a shift in community structure (Sainsbury <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
60107	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Mexico. At the time of writing, Mexico had developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA) but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).	eng
60107	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Restricted to Mexico from Islas Cedros and off Rocas Chester (27°53'N, 115°04'W), central Baja California, through the Gulf of California and to Bahia Huatulco, Oaxaca, southern Mexico (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995, Amezcua-Linares 1996, M. Love, pers. comm.).	eng
60107	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species, if it is indeed valid. It occurs benthically in coastal waters, bays, lagoons, and estuaries and also on sand bottoms near reefs. Maximum size is 28.3 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length cm):  28.3 cm DW, 47.5 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60107	population	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from anywhere within its range.	eng
60107	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No directed commercial or artisanal fisheries. Artisanal or commercial fisheries in Mexico do not typically utilize urotrygonid rays as their small size generally precludes their use as a viable food item for market purposes.  <em>Urobatis concentricus</em> is reportedly taken in nets and with spears, but this practice is not common, except as bycatch in bottomset gillnet fisheries (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Bizzarro, pers. obs.).  When it is captured in gillnets, the tail is severed before it is returned to the sea, which may result in high mortality of discards (Bizzarro, pers. obs.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.	eng
60108	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2006	None in place. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>U. halleri</em>.	eng
60108	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2006	The species ranges from Humboldt Bay in northern California to Panama in Central America, but appears to be most common between southern California and Baja California. Individuals identified as this species from Central America should be examined carefully as the genus is poorly known in this region.	eng
60108	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2006	<em>Urobatis halleri</em> is a benthic warm-temperate to tropical round stingray usually found in nearshore waters less than 15 m deep, but may occur down to 91 m depth (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995, Ebert 2003). These stingrays prefer soft bottoms composed of mud or sand, often in areas where eelgrass, used for camouflage, is quite abundant. Water temperature plays an important role in the distribution of these stingrays since they prefer temperatures above a minimum of 10°C (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Has a biannual reproductive cycle with two litters of 1 to 6 pups (on average 2 to 3) following a short gestation period of three months (Babel 1967, Ebert 2003). Life history parameters taken from Babel (1967), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  2.6 years (both male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  14.5 cm DW (female); 14.6 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  31 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  6 to 8 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  3 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size: range 1 to 6, but average 2 to 3 (Ebert 2003). Two cycles per year. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60108	population	Ebert, D.A., 2006	Nothing is known about the population status of this species, although it is quite abundant in those areas where it occurs.	eng
60108	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2006	This species is not fished commercially, but is occasionally taken by recreational fishers and by artisanal gillnet fisheries. When caught in artisanal fisheries it is generally discarded. Before being returned to the sea, its tail is commonly severed, which may lead to increased levels of mortality (J. Bizzarro, pers. comm.). Its small size and large tail spine make it an undesirable target species. <br/> <br/>In Mexico, artisanal or commercial fisheries do not typically utilize urobatid rays as their small size generally precludes their sale as a viable food item for market purposes (J. Bizzarro, pers comm.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.   <br/> <br/>Little information is available concerning bycatch levels in the southern portion of the species? range, although the situation is likely similar to that in Mexico, where the species is not targeted and discarded when caught.	eng
60109	conservation	Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	None in place at present. The extent of the trade in this species for the aquarium requires examination. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>U. jamaicensis</em>.	eng
60109	distribution	Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Western Atlantic: from Cape Lookout, North Carolina around Florida into and throughout the Gulf of Mexico and throughout the Caribbean (including the Greater and Lesser Antilles), Central America and the northern coast of South America.	eng
60109	habitat	Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Habitats include bays and estuaries and low-energy surf zones, especially in hard, live-bottom insular habitats, also sandy, muddy and grassy bottoms (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Snelson pers. obs.). Reported in a salinity range of 26 to 40 ppt in Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996). Parturition takes place in seagrass beds (<em>Thallassis testudinum</em>) June through August in the Bahamas (Grubbs unpublished data). Aplacental viviparous with litters of 2 to 5 (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  20 cm TL (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979) (female); 15 to 16 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), 20 cm TL (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36 cm DW; 70 cm TL (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  6 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Range 2 to 5 (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60109	population	Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	This ray is common in the Florida Keys (Snelson, pers. obs.) and parts of the Antilles but in not thought to be abundant in most of its range (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). It is reported that Terminos Lagoon, Bahía de Campeche, Mexico is a breeding and nursery area (Yáñez-Aranciba and Amezcua-Linares 1979).	eng
60109	threats	Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	The yellow stingray is not targeted by commercial fisheries, but is likely taken as bycatch in nearshore fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing in some parts of its southern range may be intensive, but the extent of bycatch of this species is not known. It is, however, targeted for the aquarium trade. The extent of this fishery requires examination. Given their inshore occurrence, habitat loss may become an issue in the future for this species. This issue will become particularly relevant if seagrass habitats became degraded or lost, due to their importance for parturition.	eng
60110	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Mexico. At the time of writing, Mexico had developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA) but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).	eng
60110	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Restricted to the Mexican Pacific, ranging from Lagunas Ojo de Liebre-Guerrero Negro, central Baja California (de la Cruz Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1996), through the Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995).	eng
60110	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species, if it is indeed valid. It occurs benthically in coastal waters, especially in sheltered areas near islands and in bays, lagoons, and estuaries. Maximum size is 25.7 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length):  25.7 cm DW, 42 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60110	population	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.	eng
60110	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No directed commercial or artisanal fisheries. Artisanal or commercial fisheries in Mexico do not typically utilize urotrygonid rays as their small size generally precludes their sale as a viable food item for market purposes.  <em>Urobatis maculates</em> is reportedly taken in bottomset nets and with spears (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995), but spearing is extremely uncommon (Bizzarro pers. obs.). It is captured in bottomset gillnets but not typically retained. When it is caught, the tail is usually severed before it is returned to the sea, which may result in high mortality of discards (Bizzarro pers. obs.). This species is also likely taken incidentally by shrimp trawlers, but the extent of this practice is not well known and no species-specific information is documented.	eng
60111	conservation	White, W.T., Kyne, P.M. & Holtzhausen, H., 2006	Further information is required from catches of this species in order to better define its distribution and obtain life history data. Bycatch in globally expanding deepwater fisheries needs to be documented and monitored. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>P. daviesi</em>.	eng
60111	distribution	White, W.T., Kyne, P.M. & Holtzhausen, H., 2006	Sporadic distribution in the Indo-Pacific. The species has mainly been collected from tropical Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60111	habitat	White, W.T., Kyne, P.M. & Holtzhausen, H., 2006	The largest and most widespread stingaree which lives in deeper water than any of its relatives in the family Urolophidae (Last and Stevens 1994). An upper continental slope species on soft substrates, generally at depths of 275 to 680 m (350 to 680 m in Australia), however there is a single record from 44 m on the continental shelf off Mozambique (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>Like most other deepwater batoids, the biology of <em>Plesiobatis daviesi</em> is poorly known. Probably viviparous but details of reproduction unknown. Its large size and deepwater occurrence suggests a probable small litter size and long gestation period, resulting in a slow biology (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). Ebert <em>et al</em>. (2002) report a juvenile female at 189 cm TL and an adolescent female at 201 cm TL. Smallest examined mature male was 130 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum size at least 200 cm TL in Australia and elsewhere reported to 270 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Consistent with geographic variability in maximum size, size at maturity probably also varies regionally. Size at birth is unknown, however Compagno and Last (1999) report that a 50 cm TL freeliving individual had an umbilical scar. <br/> <br/>Diet consists of fishes (including mesopelagic species suggesting that this species may migrate into the water column to feed), crustaceans (crabs, penaeid prawns, lobsters) and cephalopods (Compagno and Last 1999, Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length/disc width):  201 cm TL (116 cm DW) or more (Southern Africa; Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2002) (female); 130 cm TL or less (Australia; Last and Stevens 1994) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 200 cm TL (Australia); 270 cm TL elsewhere (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Less than 50 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60111	population	White, W.T., Kyne, P.M. & Holtzhausen, H., 2006	It is reported to be locally common (Compagno and Last 1999), which may be the case off tropical Australia, however the generally low numbers of records elsewhere may indicate rarity.	eng
60111	threats	White, W.T., Kyne, P.M. & Holtzhausen, H., 2006	Available specific data are lacking, the species is known to be taken in deepwater benthic trawls and on deepset longlines. Not targeted and not known to be taken in any considerable numbers in any one region within its range, although it can be taken regularly by longliners off KwaZulu-Natal (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). In Indonesia, only a small deepwater longline fishery operates between 300?600 m and the species is thus not taken in any great quantities compared to other elasmobranch species (W. White, pers. obs). Similarly the deepwater fishery in Taiwan only catches low numbers of this species (D Ebert pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In Australian waters, there is minimal fishing pressure on the species? range off Western Australia and Queensland. The Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fisheries (continental slope off Western Australia) is comprised of two small-scale demersal trawl fisheries managed by limited entry with a total of 18 permits (over a wide geographical area) (AFMA 2003a). The Commonwealth managed Coral Sea Fishery (off the Queensland continental shelf) is a small-scale fishery with a demersal line sector (nine permits) and a trawl sector (two permits). The fishery is managed by limited entry and catch and effort by these sectors is very low (most operators fish a maximum of 20 days per year) (AFMA 2003b).	eng
60112	conservation	Carlisle, A.B. & Garayzar, C.V., 2006	None currently in place. This ray is common in some areas but very little is known about it, so basic research still needs to be conducted in order to learn more about its biology, ecology, and population dynamics.  The population in Mexico needs to be monitored for its importance in fisheries.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).	eng
60112	distribution	Carlisle, A.B. & Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Endemic to southern USA and northern Mexico in the Eastern Central Pacific: Tomales Bay, California, U.S.A. to Bahía Magdalena/Bahía Las Almejas, Baja California, with isolated populations in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Miller and Lea 1972, Plant 1989, Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1994, McEachran 1995, Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996).	eng
60112	habitat	Carlisle, A.B. & Garayzar, C.V., 2006	An inshore species usually found in water less than 6 m deep, but which have been recorded to 137 m depth. Primarily found on the mud and sand bottoms of bays and sloughs, lagoons, coastal beaches, and in and around kelp forests. They are known to concentrate in large numbers in certain coastal bays and sloughs (Limbaugh 1955, Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Larson and DeMartini 1984, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous. Litter sizes range from one to 15 pups that are produced in an annual reproductive cycle. Mating occurs in summer with birthing the following summer (usually in August). Maximum size is 91 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Diet consists of polychaetes, crabs, shrimp, squid, and small teleosts such as anchovies, gobies, sardines, sculpins, and surfperch (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Van Blaricom 1982, Love 1996, Ebert 2003). Life history parameters taken from Ebert (2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  48 cm TL (female); 37 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  91 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  11 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 15. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60112	population	Carlisle, A.B. & Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Uncommon north of Monterey Bay, California, U.S.A. (Ebert 2003). The species is very common in some bays and sloughs in California including Elkhorn Slough (D. Ebert, pers comm. 15/9/04). Reported to occur in isolated populations in the Gulf of California (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996) and is not as common there as in other parts of its range (J. Bizzarro pers. comm.). Miller and Lea (1972) report the species as common off Baja California, but this would relate to cooler northern waters. Its southern extent of occurrence off Baja California is Bahía Magdalena/Bahía Las Almejas (Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
60112	threats	Carlisle, A.B. & Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Thornbacks are not targeted but are known to be occasionally caught in commercial and recreational fisheries in US waters. Little information available on catches in Mexico, but likely to be taken by inshore fisheries in lagoons on the Baja Pacific coast and probably by shrimp trawls in the Gulf of California. Further information is urgently required given the species restricted range in Mexico.	eng
60113	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Careful monitoring of catches of this species throughout its range need to be carried out into the future due to this high level of exploitation that occurs in its known range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. zonura</em>.	eng
60113	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Disjunct distribution in the Eastern Indian and Western Central Pacific: off the coasts of India, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
60113	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	An inshore gymnurid occurring to depths of about 40 m over soft substrates. <em>A. zonura</em> is aplacental viviparous, attaining a maximum size of 95 cm DW and males mature at about 48 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data). One pregnant female possessed four embryos, size at birth not known. <br/> <br/>Age and growth and diets have not been determined for this species. Gut samples from several specimens caught off Bali in Indonesia had mostly benthic crustaceans and unidentified teleosts in their guts (W. White unpubl. data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); 48 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  65 cm TL, 85 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999), 95 cm DW (W. White. unpubl. data). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 in one pregnant female (W. White unpubl. data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60113	population	White, W.T., 2006	Caught in relatively high numbers in the demersal gillnet fisheries in Indonesia, particularly off central Java and southern Bali. Reported as locally common (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
60113	threats	White, W.T., 2006	This species is susceptible to a variety of gear types and is commonly caught by demersal gillnet, trawl and trammel net fisheries throughout its range.  <br/> <br/>In Indonesia, large numbers of juveniles are caught in the demersal gillnet, trawl and trammel net fisheries, particularly around Java. Larger specimens are also caught in the tangle net fisheries that target rhynchobatids in the region. In southern Bali, small batoids are targeted by inshore gillnets and this species forms a substantial component to the catch of this fishery (W. White, unpubl. data). All caught are retained. Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999) and fishing is intense in the coastal waters of Thailand. There is a very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.	eng
60114	conservation	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	In México, a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>G. marmorata</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>G. marmorata</em> and other chondrichthyans. To that end, the development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. marmorata</em>. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. Large sharks are typically grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while all batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Although easily identified, these rays are not currently documented on a species-specific basis. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays.  <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific landings and bycatch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range is required. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass.	eng
60114	distribution	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Reported from Point Conception, southern California, US to Point Lobos de Afuera, Peru (Beebe and Teevan 1941, Miller and Lea 1972).	eng
60114	habitat	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Gymnura marmorata</em> is a common nearshore species that has been reported to occur in intertidal zones and to depths of at least 22 m (Breder 1928, Roedel and Ripley 1950). Warm temperate to tropical in distribution, it is associated with sandy bays and beaches as well as silty or muddy tidal channels and estuaries (Beltrán-Félix <em>et al</em>. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Along the Pacific coast of Mexico?s Baja peninsula, the abundance of these rays in shallow bays increases notably during April and May (Beltrán-Félix <em>et al</em>. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). In Báhia Almejas, gravid females enter these areas in April followed by greater numbers of adult males in May (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Davila-Ortiz, 2002). By late August, these rays are less common in shallow embayments (Beltrán-Félix et al. 1986, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). <br/> <br/>Members of the family Gymnuridae bear live young but lack placental attachments to their embryos. Instead, embryos are nourished by means of small yolk-sacs and protein-rich uterine secretions delivered by specialized villi (Wourms 1977). Unlike many myliobatoid rays, both ovaries of <em>G. marmorata</em> are functional (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Courtship and fertilization is thought to occur from May through August in Báhia Almejas and females with near-term embryos have been observed from April through September in Báhia Almejas (Davila-Ortiz 2002, W.D. Smith personal observation). Reported litter sizes range from 4?16 pups per female with the observed sex ratio slightly favoring males at birth (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Davila-Ortiz, 2002). Size at birth ranges from 21 to 26 cm DW (Davila-Ortiz 2002). The observed size at first maturity is 62 cm DW in females and 41 cm DW in males (Davila-Ortiz 2002). Females attain greater sizes than males, with the maximum reported size for the species 150 cm DW (Castro-Aguire 1965). <br/> <br/>These rays prey almost exclusively on teleost fishes and, to a far lesser extent, cephalopods (Teuthoidea), with juveniles occasionally taking gastropods. In Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, Mexico, <em>G. marmorata</em> preys primarily on mugilids (especially <em>Mugil cephalus</em>), haemulids (especially <em>Xenistius californiensis</em>), and gerreids (Bizzarro 2005). <br/> <br/>The limited information available on the biology of this species has been derived primarily from the Báhia Magdalena lagoon complex on the Pacific coast of México. Life history traits, habitat utilization, and diet may vary significantly for this species within Mexican waters and other portions of its range. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  First maturity: 62 cm DW (Davila-Ortiz 2002) (female); First maturity: 41 cm DW (Davila-Ortiz 2002) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (Castro-Aguire 1965). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  21.0 to 25.5 cm DW (Davila-Ortiz 2002). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size range: 4 to 16 (Davila-Ortiz 2002). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60114	population	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Preliminary genetic information suggests that butterfly ray populations from the Gulf of California may be isolated from those of the Pacific coast of Baja, México (Smith <em>et al</em>. in preparation). Additional research should be conducted to determine the extent of exchange between the Gulf of California and Pacific coast of Baja populations. No other information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.	eng
60114	threats	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Gymnurids are susceptible to a variety of fishing gear and are commonly taken in inshore fisheries. Heavy fishing pressure appears to be impacting populations of some Indo-West Pacific gymnurids (i.e., <em>G. poecilura</em> and <em>Aetoplatea zonura</em>). <em>Gymnura marmorata</em> is indirectly landed by demersal trawls (especially shrimp trawlers in México), longlines, and gillnets throughout the species? range. Furthermore, it is subjected to directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in México where it is a primary component of artisanal elasmobranch fishery catches of the Pacific coast of México and the Gulf of California (Villavicenico-Garayazar 1995, Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. in preparation, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). In northern Gulf of California artisanal elasmobranch fisheries, <em>G. marmorata</em> is landed throughout the year, but catches are highest in the summer and early fall (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). These rays are most often landed in bottom set gillnets but are targeted using beach seines in some locations. In the Bahía Almejas summer batoid fishery, this species is the second most abundant in August (~21% of catch, CPUE (#/vessel/day)=4.6 landings and third most abundant in June (~10%, CPUE=4.2) landings. In Sonora, Mexico, it is the third most abundant batoid landed (~15%) in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data, Márquez-Farías 2002). <br/> <br/>No information is available on the species? contribution to bycatch in other artisanal or trawl fisheries, however it is probable that it is regularly captured incidentally. Although detailed records of elasmobranch landings are extremely rare from the eastern tropical Pacific, it is likely that this common nearshore ray is targeted or frequently taken in multi-species elasmobranch fisheries throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Occasionally taken by commercial and recreational fishers in California, but is of no commercial importance in the USA (Ebert 2003).	eng
60115	conservation	Grubbs, R.D. & Ha, D.S., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. Catches in artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its Central and South American and West African distributions need to be documented. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. micrura</em>.	eng
60115	distribution	Grubbs, R.D. & Ha, D.S., 2006	Reasonably widespread in the Eastern (Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Western Atlantic (from Chesapeake Bay, US through the Gulf of Mexico to Brazil; not recorded from the Greater or Lesser Antilles).	eng
60115	habitat	Grubbs, R.D. & Ha, D.S., 2006	Prefers neritic waters of the continental shelf to 40m depth and usually found on soft bottoms. Enters brackish estuaries or hyper-saline lagoons. Aplacental viviparous, but little information available on its biology. Reported litter sizes of 6 to 8 pups. Parturition is known to occur in Chesapeake Bay and seaside lagoons along Virginia?s eastern shore (Grubbs, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Food consists of bivalve molluscs, crustaceans including mysids, shrimps, crabs, and ray-finned fishes (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Schmid <em>et al</em>. 1988). Also feeds on sedentary polychaetes in soft sediments (Grubbs, unpubl. data). Life history parameters taken from McEachran and de Carvalho (2002), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50 cm DW (female); 42 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  120 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  16 to 22 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  6 to 8 per litter based on 4 females (Grubbs, unpubl data). <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60115	population	Grubbs, R.D. & Ha, D.S., 2006	No estimates of population size exits. Can be locally common in estuaries and nearshore waters along the Atlantic coast of the US and in the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
60115	threats	Grubbs, R.D. & Ha, D.S., 2006	There are no directed fisheries for this species in the USA. However, <em>G. micrura</em> is commonly taken as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. It is also likely taken as bycatch in various inshore fisheries throughout its Central and South American and West African ranges. Gymnurids are susceptible to a variety of fishing gear and are commonly taken in inshore fisheries, although no specific data is available on catches of <em>G. micrura</em> in the region. Heavy fishing pressure appears to be impacting populations of some Indo-West Pacific gymnurids (i.e., <em>G. poecilura</em> and <em>Aetoplatea zonura</em>) and so this raises concerns for <em>G. micrura</em> in parts of its Central and South American and West African ranges where inshore fishing can be intensive. <br/> <br/>Individuals taken by shrimp trawl in the USA are typically released and post-release survivorship is probably high.	eng
60116	conservation	Wintner, S.P., 2006	No specific conservation measures in place. These rays are released if alive when caught in the NSB nets, and are generally released alive when taken by anglers (but not all the time, so this should be encouraged further). Effort reduction in the NSB nets is a conservation action recommended for KZN marine species in general. <br/> <br/>Bycatch in all fisheries which interact with this species should be monitored, and the situation outside of South Africa examined (Namibia and Mozambique). The species? occurrence and distribution in Kenya and Tanzania requires examination. Effort has decreased in the Tugela Bank prawn trawl fishery and a 4 month closed season has been put in place. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>G. natalensis</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. natalensis</em>.	eng
60116	distribution	Wintner, S.P., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa from Southern Namibia through South Africa to southern Mozambique (Wallace 1967, van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Fisher <em>et al</em>. 1990, Smith 1991, Lamberth <em>et al</em>. 1994, Heemstra 1995, Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Gymnura</em> occurs in Tanzania but there is uncertainty regarding which species (Bianchi 1985). Species presence in Kenya is also uncertain.	eng
60116	habitat	Wintner, S.P., 2006	<u>Habitat </u> <br/>This species occurs close inshore, especially off sandy beaches as well as on offshore banks down to 75 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). Fennessy (1994) found that the species occurs more frequently in the deeper trawls (33 to 45 m) on the Tugela Bank. He observed no diel pattern for this species. <em>Gymnura natalensis</em> is also found in river estuaries (Wallace 1967, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991) and lagoons (Wallace 1967). <br/> <br/><u>Behaviour</u> <br/>Although normally solitary, large shoals have been spotted, often comprising animals of one sex (van der Elst 1988). Single rays tend to be found on the seabed, whereas shoals are often found in the midwater region (van der Elst 1988). Young (2001) found, between 1981 and 2001, 37 occurrences of three or more diamond rays caught in the same Natal Sharks Board (NSB) net installation in one or two days. The majority was of mixed sex and 19 groups were caught off Durban. Most of these multiple catches took place in October and November. <br/> <br/><u>Seasonality</u> <br/><em>Gymnura natalensis</em> occurs year round (common in Natal throughout the whole year; Wallace 1967) with a peak abundance in December/January (van der Elst 1988). Fennessy (1994) also found that in trawl catches diamond rays occurred more frequently during summer. This differs from the findings of Young (2001), who examined NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000. She found that catches occurred throughout the year, but peaked in October and November (40.5% of total catch) and declined sharply in December. Despite a slight increase during June and July, catches remained low for the rest of the year. Females outnumbered males during warmer months (December to May), while males were more numerous during the cooler period. However, overall both sexes were more common in catches during the cooler months and this association was significant (Young 2001). The sex ratio of NSB catches between 1981 and 2000 was 1:0.92 (m:f) (Young 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Reproduction and Maturity</u> <br/>Wallace (1967) examined a shoal of 28 male specimens caught in Durban nets October 1964. Animals ranged between 109.7and 131.4 cm DW and appeared to be sexually mature. Gravid females (146.2 and 188.0 cm DW) with 5 to 9 embryos were recorded in Durban Bay during January, February, March, June and August. The largest embryo was 38.2 cm DW/453.6 g. A number of the glandular villi, which clothe the uterine walls of the mother, are always found inserted into the spiracular openings of the embryos, suggesting that some of the uterine ?milk? is absorbed this way (Wallace 1967). Van der Elst (1988) states gestation period is one year. The smallest mature male dissected at the NSB was 96.4 cm DW and the smallest mature female was 166.9 cm DW (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>According to the length-age curve of van der Elst (1988), diamond rays are ~24 years old at ~250 cm DW /120 kg. Using the above maturity lengths from Wallace (1967), males mature at approximately two years (~100 cm DW/10 kg) and females at approximately six years (~150 cm DW/25 kg). <br/> <br/>Smallest free-swimming specimen: 46.8 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 37 to 39 cm field length (NSB unpubl. data). <br/>Largest embryo: 38.2 cm DW (Wallace 1967). <br/>Maximum reported size: 250 cm DW (Smith 1991). <br/>Largest observed animal: 182 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 250 cm DW, 200 cm field length (dubious!) (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/>South Africa angling record: 89.8 kg (Wallace 1967, van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/>Tagged by NSB between 1996 and 2002: 25 animals, no recaptures to date (NSB, unpubl. data). Tagged by shore anglers between 1984 and 2002: 1,766 animals, 10 recaptures (0.57% recapture rate), which includes washed-up tags. Maximum distance moved: 151 km, maximum time at liberty: 330 days (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Diet:  flat-fish, sardine, gurnard, mole crabs, worms, crabs and squid (van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991, Smale <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
60116	population	Wintner, S.P., 2006	Population size and number and size of subpopulations (if any) are unknown. The species was regarded as common in the 1940?60?s (Wallace 1967, Smith 1991), but this needs to be re-examined.	eng
60116	threats	Wintner, S.P., 2006	<strong>South Africa</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Prawn Trawl Bycatch</u> <br/>According to Fennessy (1994), <em>G. natalensis</em> is a significant bycatch of prawn trawlers. In 169 prawn trawls, 12.9% of the elasmobranch bycatch consisted of this species (= 118 specimens). He stated that the Tugela Bank may be a nursery area due to the small size of the specimens caught. The species showed 46.4% mortality. Assuming this mortality rate and using the derived estimates of catches of <em>G. natalensis</em> from Tugela Bank commercial prawn trawlers for the years 1989 to 1992 given by Fennessy (1994), the number of individuals killed by this fishery was 870 in 1989, 560 in 1990, 548 in 1991 and 461 in 1992. This could be considered low. The mean catch rate for 1989?1992 from Tugela Bank commercial prawn trawlers was 0.15±0.02 individuals/hour. In September 2002, during 46 surveyed trawls a total of 139 specimens were caught and in April/May 2003 a total of 44 animals were caught (46 trawls) (MCM unpubl. data). Effort in the Tugela Bank fishery has been decreasing and as of May 2004, only three operators remain in the fishery. <br/> <br/><u>Beach Seine Bycatch</u> <br/>A small number are caught in the beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape, e.g., between January 1991 and December 1992 (311 beach seine hauls) 18 immature diamond rays (0.002% of total catch) were caught and retained (Lamberth <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/><u>Recreational Angling</u> <br/>The species is also caught by anglers, mainly shore-based. Based on shore angling competition data (all areas in South Africa) only, catches (metric tons) and effort (mt/1,000 hours) fluctuated between 1.42?38.4 and 0.29?0.58, respectively (1990?1994) (Smale 1997). Pradervand and Govender (2003) report the capture of 132 animals (0.7% of total catch) in the border region based on competitive shore angling catches between 1982 and 1998. For the Transkei region Pradervand (2004) reports 121 animals (0.7% of total catch) based on Natal Coast Anglers Union competition data between 1977 and 2000. In KwaZulu-Natal, Pradervand (1999) gives a total of 1,197 diamond rays caught between 1995 and 1998, based on catch cards, competitions and inspections of shore, skiboat and estuarine anglers. In the KwaZulu-Natal shore-based competition fishery between 1977 and 2000, 2% of the total catch by number and 19% by mass was <em>G. natalensis</em> (Pradervand 2003). CPUE varied between 0.0012?0.011 diamond rays per angler per hour. There was a significant increase in CPUE over the time period (Pradervand 2003). This is likely to be the result of increased catch card returns and inspection frequency over the time period. CPUE by mass followed the same pattern as above with a significant increase (Pradervand 2003). With the above data one has to keep in mind that this does not represent total angling catch, but only reported catch. In addition, anglers only report when they have caught fish, thus CPUE is always slightly exaggerated. This affects mainly the catch card portion of the data. <br/> <br/>Although the majority of angling catches is released, release mortality is unknown and could be substantial due to the angling practices of gaffing, weighing etc. (Wintner pers. obs.). It is interesting to note that the recapture rate of <em>G. natalensis</em> tagged in the South African National Tagging program is only 0.57% (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><u>NSB Shark Nets</u> <br/>According to Young (2001) diamond rays (mainly juveniles) were caught on a regular basis between 1981 and 2000 in the NSB nets. During this period, <em>G. natalensis</em> catches represented the second highest batoid catch (12.6% of total batoid catch, 890 animals). The mean annual catch was 44.5 individuals; the mean catch rate (no. animals/km net/yr) was 1.08. No significant trend in catch was found for this species. There was, however, a significant increasing trend in size caught during the period. Mortality levels were low (21.6%, mean = 9.6 animals per year). <br/> <br/>Begg (1993) considered diamond ray catches in the NSB nets at a level too high relative to stock size to be sustainable, as this species is also caught by anglers and by prawn trawlers (Fennessey 1994). His annual mortality estimates, however, seem to be an overestimate when compared to the results of Young (2001) and Fennessy?s data (1994). <br/> <br/><strong>Outside South Africa</strong> <br/> <br/>Information on threats is required from the other countries in this species? range: Namibia, Mozambique, possibly also Tanzania and Kenya where the species may occur. It is likely that, where it occurs, the species would be taken by artisanal fisheries in the East African countries.	eng
60117	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J. & White, W.T., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species throughout its range. Direct and indirect catches in artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its distribution need to be documented. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. poecilura</em>.	eng
60117	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Found in shallow, inshore waters of the Red Sea, Somalia and Oman and from Pakistan through the eastern Indian Ocean and north from Indonesia to southern Japan in the western Pacific, as well as an isolated population in French Polynesia (Compagno and Last 1999). May occur between Oman and Pakistan as well, but not reported.	eng
60117	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Extremely limited biological or life history information is available for this species. It is known to occur in shallow, inshore waters throughout its range (to ~30 m depth), typically on sand or mud substrate (James 1966, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/>James (1966) published all the available reproductive information on <em>G. poecilura</em> from fishery-derived specimens taken in India. This species is aplacental viviparous, with two functional ovaries. Maximum fecundity was determined to be seven and there is no apparent relationship between fecundity and size of gravid females. Spontaneous abortion is, however, common in this species upon capture, which may confound these determinations. It is thought to breed nearly year-round, with a peak in parturition between April and October (James 1966).  <br/> <br/>Maximum size reported as either 91.5 cm DW or 98.5 cm DW. This confusion is a result of conflicting information listed in James (1966). Since a later publication (James 1973) referred to the former value, it is considered to be the valid maximum size. No age and growth studies have been conducted. Based on limited observations in India, the diet includes fishes (especially <em>Leiognathus</em> spp.), molluscs and crustaceans (James 1966). No other published literature is available for this species throughout its range. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  41.0 cm DW (assumed first maturity), 66.0 cm DW (smallest gravid female recorded) (James 1966) (female); Unknown (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  91.5 cm DW (verified: James 1966, 1973), 98.5 cm DW (questionable; James 1966). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  23.7 to 25.6 cm DW (James 1966). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Year-round or nearly year-round (James 1966). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Fecundity reported to seven, but females may pup more than once per year and fecundity is likely underestimated as a result of spontaneous abortion (James 1966).. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60117	population	Bizzarro, J.J. & White, W.T., 2006	No other information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.	eng
60117	threats	Bizzarro, J.J. & White, W.T., 2006	Considerable parts of this species? range are subject to intensive inshore fisheries (for example Indonesia and Thailand both with high pressure on their marine resources, which is only likely to increase in the future). Directed artisanal and commercial trawl and bottomset gillnet fisheries have been historically reported in Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, India, but no recent published literature is available to document current fishing trends (James 1966). Based on historic information, G. poecilura occurred in landings year-round, with a peak of abundance between January and May. The dominant size range in this fishery ranged from 35 to 70 cm DW (James 1966). It is also currently targeted in Thailand and Indonesia for human consumption by artisanal fisheries and is also caught as bycatch in other artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range (Compagno and Last 1999, W. White unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Although no specific information is available, habitat loss and degradation may also be affecting this species given its inshore coastal occurrence.	eng
60118	conservation	Brash, J.M., Séret, B. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Recommendation: further research required to determine the species? distribution and gain information on population size and life history. The careful monitoring of regional fishing activities is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Madagascar. At the time of writing Madagascar had not taken any action towards implementing a National Plan of Action (Anonymous 2004).	eng
60118	distribution	Brash, J.M., Séret, B. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	At present, known from a restricted area in the Western Indian Ocean, Madagascar: off Nosy Be, northwestern coast and off Tulear, southwestern coast (Séret 1989).	eng
60118	habitat	Brash, J.M., Séret, B. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Benthic on the continental slope at depths of 300 to 850 m. A relatively small <em>Dipturus</em> species, with the largest known specimen a 61 cm TL female. Largest immature male was 48.1 cm TL and males 55.4 to 59.7 cm TL were mature. Largest immature female examined was 41.4 cm TL and two females 57.5 and 61.0 cm TL were mature (Séret 1989). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but nothing else known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  <57 cm TL (Séret 1989) (female); <55 cm TL (Séret 1989) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  to at least 61 cm TL (Séret 1989). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60118	population	Brash, J.M., Séret, B. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	No specific information available. A rare species, presently known only from the type series.	eng
60118	threats	Brash, J.M., Séret, B. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Although its depth range precludes it from capture in most of the industrial trawl fleet targeting shrimp off the west coast of Madagascar, there are presently two boats targeting deepwater shrimp (<em>Heterocarpus</em> spp.) operating out of Nosy Be in NW Madagascar. Although bycatch data are not available, this fishery is likely capturing this species. With no market value this small skate is likely discarded with survivorship from capture at such depths being extremely low. Deepsea demersal resources off Madagascar are considered under utilised at present (Anon. 1999) and as such there is a high likelihood that deepwater fisheries will develop and expand in the Mozambique Channel, following the global trend in expanding deepwater fisheries, particularly as inshore resources are depleted. The collapse of upper slope chondrichthyan populations after exploitation of these habitats for valuable finfish and/or crustacean resources is well documented (for example off New South Wales, Australia; Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Habitat damage from heavy trawling gear may also indirectly impact upon the species. <br/> <br/>The future development of deepsea fishing activities in the area poses a considerable threat to <em>D. crosnieri</em> given its restricted range, limited available habitat and rarity.	eng
60119	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None at present. Careful monitoring of catches of this species throughout its range need to be carried out into the future due to this high level of exploitation that occurs in its known range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. flagellum</em>.	eng
60119	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Disjunct distribution in the Western and Eastern Indian, Western Central and Northwest Pacific.	eng
60119	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	Occurs primarily inshore on the inner continental shelf. Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  126 cm TL; 47 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based on similar species) <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60119	population	White, W.T., 2006	Appears to be naturally uncommon. Little known species.	eng
60119	threats	White, W.T., 2006	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets. All individuals caught are retained in most areas. Irregularly landed in the fish markets of Jakarta by trawlers (W. White, unpublished data). This species is recorded off Indian coastal waters in the intensive demersal fisheries that occur in that region (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.	eng
60120	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Market surveys are currently being conducted for elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. maculates</em>.	eng
60120	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Sporadic distribution in the Eastern Indian, Western Central Pacific and Northwest Pacific.	eng
60120	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	A little known species. Occurs on the inner continental shelf to depths of about 60 m over soft sandy substrate (Compagno and Last 1999). Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); 55 cm DW not yet mature (mature by 71 cm DW) (W. White, unpubl. data) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  78 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based in similar species). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60120	population	White, W.T., 2006	Appears to be naturally uncommon, observed in low numbers in fish markets in SE Asia.	eng
60120	threats	White, W.T., 2006	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets which operate intensively throughout its range (e.g., India, Thailand, Taiwan and Indonesia). All caught are retained in most areas. Local eagle ray species are marketed in considerable numbers in Thailand and Malaysia (Compagno and Last 1999) and <em>A. maculates</em> is regularly landed in low numbers in the fish markets of Jakarta (Indonesia) by trawlers (W. White, unpublished data). Even though once common, eagle rays are now rare in the Gulf of Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999), where <em>A. maculates</em> has been locally extirpated (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its entire range.	eng
60121	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None in place. Market surveys are currently being conducted for elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>A. vespertilio</em>.	eng
60121	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Sporadic distribution in the Western and Eastern Indian, Western Central and Northwest Pacific.	eng
60121	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	Little known species. Occurs on the inner continental shelf to depths of 110 m over soft sandy substrate (Compagno and Last 1999). Reproductive biology, age and growth and dietary compositions are unknown for this species. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length/disc width):  240 cm DW (W. White, unpubl. data) 160 cm DW, 385 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 4 (based on similar species). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60121	population	White, W.T., 2006	Appears to be naturally uncommon, rarely observed.	eng
60121	threats	White, W.T., 2006	Highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls, gillnets and trammel nets which operate intensively throughout its range (e.g., India, Thailand, Taiwan and Indonesia). All individuals caught are retained in most areas. Local eagle ray species are marketed in considerable numbers in Thailand and Malaysia (Compagno and Last 1999). <em>A. maculates</em> is occasionally landed in low numbers in the fish markets of Jakarta (Indonesia) by trawlers and is occasionally caught by the rhynchobatid gillnet fishery that operates in SE Asia (W. White, unpublished data). Even though once common, eagle rays are now rare in the Gulf of Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999). Intensive demersal fisheries occur in India, in the species? known distribution (Hanfee 1999). There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range.	eng
60122	conservation	White, W.T., Jones, A. & Phillips, D.M., 2006	There are currently no management or conservation measures specifically in place for this species. Monitoring of marketed catches will be necessary to ensure any increase in landings in the future does not adversely affect the species. <br/> <br/>The Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60122	distribution	White, W.T., Jones, A. & Phillips, D.M., 2006	<em>Myliobatus australis</em> is an abundant species endemic to Australia?s temperate waters (Last and Stevens 1994). The distribution ranges from Moreton Bay (Queensland) to Jurien Bay (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
60122	habitat	White, W.T., Jones, A. & Phillips, D.M., 2006	<em>Myliobatis australis</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf, typically in shallow water regions, and is commonly observed in shallow seagrass embayments and over sandflats at depths of 0 to 85 m (Last and Stevens 1994, Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002). Individuals of this species are often observed in very shallow waters around dusk where they appear to move in to feed, including large embayments such as Geographe Bay (WA) and Swan Bay (Vic) and rivers such as the Barwon River (Vic) (W. White pers. obs., D. Phillips pers. obs.). <br/> <br/>In Victoria, <em>M. australis</em> appears to move into shallow waters of bays and inlets over spring/summer, possibly for mating and/or parturition (D. Phillips unpublished data). <em>M. australis</em> is a matrotrophic vivparous species with 2 to 15 (average six) young produced per breeding cycle. Full term embryos and free-swimming neonates have been observed in February in Port Phillip Bay and Corner Inlet (Vic). This species attains maturity at disc widths of 65 cm (males) and 80 cm (females), although pregnant females have not been observed below 100 cm DW. Attains a maximum size of at least 160 cm DW. Size at birth is 20?30 cm DW. (Life history data: A. Jones unpublished data, D. Phillips unpublished data). Reproductive periodicity is unknown, but may range from one to three years (current research will answer this question in the near future). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species consists primarily of crustaceans (hermit and swimmer crabs, shrimp) molluscs, echiurid worms and polychaetes (D. Phillips unpublished data). Life history parameters taken from Jones (unpublished data) and Phillips (unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width/length):  ~80 cm DW, 45 cm DL (female); ~65 cm DW, ~40 cm DL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  ~160 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~20 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average 6 per litter; range 2 to 15. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60122	population	White, W.T., Jones, A. & Phillips, D.M., 2006	Although population numbers are not presently known, the southern eagle ray is widespread across southern Australia and appears to be common throughout most of its range. It is uncommon in Moreton Bay, Queensland, the northern extent of its range on the Australian east coast (Johnson 1999) and is similarly uncommon off northern NSW.	eng
60122	threats	White, W.T., Jones, A. & Phillips, D.M., 2006	<em>Myliobatis australis</em> is not currently directly targeted by commercial fisherman. It is, however, a regular bycatch of commercial demersal gillnet, setline, longline, beach and danish seine fishers, and commercial prawn and scallop trawlers that operate within its range. A trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of southwestern Australia in the early 1990s reported that <em>M. australis</em> constituted 6.5% of the total biomass of fish caught (Laurenson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Incidentally captured <em>M. australis</em> are increasingly being retained and marketed as ?skate wings?, ?ray flaps? or ?eagle ray flaps?. In WA retention is a recent occurrence within the last five years, while previously animals were returned to the water. It is generally only larger individuals that are retained while the smallest individuals are returned alive (A. Jones pers. obs., W. White pers. obs). Survivability of the returned catch has not yet been documented, although research is in progress. <br/> <br/>The total commercial landings of ?skate wings? from Victorian state waters was ~16t in 2003 (Anon. 2003), most of which is likely to be <em>M. australis</em>. The catch of ?skate wings? from gillnets and longlines from the Southern Shark Fishery (now the Gillnet Hook and Trap Fishery) rose from 1?2t in the mid 1990s, to 16t by 2002 (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2003). Catch Per Unit Effort data from trawlers off the coast of New South Wales suggest that numbers of <em>M. australis</em> may have been declining since 1999, although this fishery occurs only on the fringe of the species range and data is relatively deficient (T.I. Walker pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>In general, eagle ray is becoming a more popular marketable seafood product and landings are only likely to increase in the future. This raises concern for <em>M. australis</em> as any easily accessible inshore batoid. Constant monitoring of catches/landings will be required to ensure that any change in current practices does not adversely affect populations of this species. <br/> <br/>The increasing level of recreational water use and development in shallow embayments around southern Australia may represent a threat to the suitable habitat of this species. Recreational fishers often catch this species but it is rarely retained and normally returned alive. Tail removal does occur often when they are caught, but they appear to survive without any obvious ill-effects (W. White pers. obs., A. Jones pers. obs., D. Phillips pers. obs.). Large individuals of <em>M. australis</em> often linger around boat moorings scavenging for food. <br/> <br/>A substantial number of introduced marine organisms are well established in many estuaries in southern Australia (for example Port Phillip Bay in Victoria) and these are altering the natural structure of these ecosystems. The exact impact upon higher level predators (through habitat alteration and changes to prey abundance and distribution) is not well documented.	eng
60123	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2006	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is an examination of catches in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries occurring in its range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans are required (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks).	eng
60123	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2006	Restricted to the Southeast Pacific from Callao (Peru) to Valdivia (Chile).	eng
60123	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2006	Inshore on the continental shelf. A benthic feeder, but also swims in midwater. Depth distribution not clear (although reported to depths of 100 m) and essentially nothing known of its biology. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  200 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60123	population	Lamilla, J., 2006	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.	eng
60123	threats	Lamilla, J., 2006	Myliobatids are generally highly susceptible to a variety of fishing gear. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although local subsistence fisheries for the species probably exist in Peru and northern Chile. Furthermore, it is almost certainly taken as bycatch in various fisheries (including artisanal, line and seine net fisheries) throughout its range, although shrimp trawl fisheries operate outside the area of occurrence of this species. In northern Chile carcasses frequently appear on beaches from discards.	eng
60124	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Any captures of this rare species need to be documented. In the first instance State fisheries authorities and fishers need to be made aware of this species and its precarious situation. Education for safe release of the species after recording of basic information (location, depth, size, sex, maturity) is a priority. <br/> <br/>The use of Turtle Exclusion Devices in the Queensland ECTF may assist in limiting catches in that part of the species? range. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60124	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Restricted to eastern Australia. References to the species off Western Australia represent a separate species. Available habitat may be small, as its presently known area of occurrence on the outer shelf and upper slope is not a broad area.	eng
60124	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Benthopelagic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope, recorded from depths of 117 to 330 m (museum records and K. Graham, pers. comm.). Attains at least 48 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). Swains Reef specimen is 44 cm DW and was taken at a depth of 210 to 220 m (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nothing known of its biology, however, it is suspected to have low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 48 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60124	population	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Known from only a handful of specimens (15 individuals). Population sizes unknown but this species appears to be extremely rare. If it was more common it would certainly have been taken more regularly as much of its area or occurrence is heavily fished. Given the high levels of fishing on the NSW outer shelf and upper slope and off southern Queensland it is possible that this species was affected early on by fishing activities and now we are seeing only a depleted population. This is however, speculation but in any instance this is a naturally rare species. Of 13 specimens taken by the NSW Fisheries research vessel <em>Kapala</em>, nine were collected at the beginning of surveying (1976 to 79) while four were collected in the later years of surveying (up until 1997) (K. Graham pers. comm). <br/> <br/><em>Myliobatis australis</em> (and other congeners) are aggregating species, where multiple individuals are taken in single trawls. This is not the case with <em>M. hamlyni</em>, so it appears that it is individually dispersed and not an aggregating species.	eng
60124	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Last, P.R., 2006	Appears to be an extremely rare species. Area off Cape Moreton where holotype found receives relatively significant levels of trawling for eastern king prawn by the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). Second Queensland specimen (Swains Reef, Coral Sea) collected from champagne lobster trawl bycatch. This area is subject to only very low fishing pressure. Area of occurrence off NSW is subject to heavy trawling activity and has been for a considerable number of years. <br/> <br/>Despite many decades of survey work along the east coast of Australia, <em>M. hamlyni</em> has rarely been observed. This suggests a low population size and that the species is naturally rare or that it is somewhat avoiding fishing gear. Given experience from inshore congeneric species, <em>Myliobatis</em> species are susceptible to trawling and so it can be inferred that the first option is likely.	eng
60125	conservation	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Myliobatis longirostris</em> fisheries and bycatch are unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has yet been implemented. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management and this should be implemented as a matter of urgency. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Some countries in the potential range of this species (e.g., Costa Rica, El Salvador and Ecuador) were working towards their NPOA?Sharks development and implementation at the time of writing (Anonymous 2004), action is required throughout the region without further delay. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly reported and generally lack species-specific details. Typically batoids are grouped as ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential and lacking basis for detecting fishery trends. Improved monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México is necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and expand our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. Improved catch records from Central America are necessary to confirm the assumption that this species indeed ranges throughout the tropical eastern Pacific. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, biological information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, diet, habitat use, and further reproductive studies are necessary. Additional information on the range of the species is also necessary.	eng
60125	distribution	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Ranges from Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino, central Baja California (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Peréz 1996) through the Gulf of California, México (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995b) and likely south to Sechura, Peru (Chirichigno and Vélez 1998, M. Love pers. comm).	eng
60125	habitat	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Myliobatis longirostris</em> is a distinctive eagle ray reported from the surface to depths of at least 64m (Fitch and Schultz 1978). It is often landed in areas with sand or soft bottoms (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). Information on the biology and distribution of this ray is sparse. As in other myliobatid rays, the reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity, and fecundities are generally low. Reaches a maximum size of 95 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). Villavicencio-Garyazar (1996) estimated the size at maturity to be ~74 cm DW and ~54 cm DW for males and females, respectively. These observations are based on a sample size of less than 70 individuals and no other details on the ecology of this ray are available. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  ~74 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1996 (female); ~54 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1996) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  95 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60125	population	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60125	threats	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	This species is a minor component of directed artisanal elasmobranch fishery landings in Bahía Almejas (Bizzarro 2005) and Sonora (Márquez-Farías unpub. data), México. <br/> <br/>Myliobatids are highly susceptible to capture by a variety of fishing gear and as such <em>M. longirostris</em> is taken as incidental catch among trawl and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets and longlines. Mexican shrimp trawlers have long been known to take this species, among others (Fitch and Schultz 1978). <br/> <br/>Although <em>M. longirostris</em> are not directly targeted, they are landed in artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout their Mexican range and likely in other areas. Fishery surveys conducted in the Gulf of California (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987, Hueter et al. unpubl. data) and Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex (Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith unpubl. data) indicate that this species is not a common component of artisanal landings. Fitch and Schultz (1978) reported <em>M. longirostris</em> taken annually by shrimp trawlers, the majority of which were discarded. When landed, the meat is sold fresh, or dried and salted for local or regional resale or subsistence use.	eng
60126	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2006	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is an examination of catches in subsistence, artisanal and commercial fisheries occurring in its range.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans are required (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks).	eng
60126	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2006	Restricted to the Southeast Pacific from Paita (Peru) to Curiñanco, Valdivia (Chile).	eng
60126	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2006	Presently only recorded in the open ocean over the continental shelf and slope, and not yet recorded on the benthos. It is, however, likely to be a benthic feeder. Its depth distribution not clear and essentially nothing known of its biology. Suspected low fecundity as with other myliobatids, for example <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Aetomylaeus nichofii</em>, which bear litters of up to four offspring (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Last 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 131 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60126	population	Lamilla, J., 2006	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.	eng
60126	threats	Lamilla, J., 2006	Myliobatids are generally highly susceptible to a variety of fishing gear. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken by subsistence fisheries in the north of Chile (and probably Peru) and as bycatch in various fisheries (including artisanal, line and seine net fisheries) throughout its range. Probably also taken as bycatch in pelagic (purse seine) fisheries for mackerel and anchovies, although shrimp trawl fisheries operate outside the area of occurrence of this species.	eng
60127	conservation	Wintner, S.P., 2006	Artisanal fisheries operating in west and east Africa are generally unregulated and attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, further ecological information (including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, reproductive studies) is required. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>P. bovines</em>. Effort in the Tugela Bank fishery has been decreasing and as of May 2004, only three operators remain in the fishery. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>P. bovines</em>.	eng
60127	distribution	Wintner, S.P., 2006	The exact distribution of this species is uncertain and may be disjunct in the eastern Atlantic. While Fishbase.org lists the species as occurring in all countries of West Africa, its occurrence in many of these has not be conclusively verified and its complete distribution needs to be determined. It is however, confirmed from Morocco, Western Sahara, Senegal, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, Mauritania, Gambia, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 06.09.03) and probably others. <br/> <br/>In southern Africa, <em>P. bovines</em> is found from the southwestern Cape to Zanzibar and is apparently absent from cold waters off the western Cape coast and Namibia (Smith 1991). In Namibia it is possibly present only along the northern coast (absent in the cold upwelling waters) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). Van der Elst (1988) provides the range as north of Saldhana Bay along the whole South African coast into Mozambique (as far as Maputo Bay Wallace (1967)). The species is also caught in Kenya (Ochumba 1988).	eng
60127	habitat	Wintner, S.P., 2006	Little information on habitat and ecology is available from outside South Africa and most of the following comes from that country (excepting some data from Senegal and Kenya): <br/> <br/>This tropical to warm-temperate species (Smith 1991) frequents coastal waters between the surf zone and 30 m (Van der Elst 1988) and down to 65m in the eastern Cape (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). It tolerates greatly reduced salinities (Van der Elst 1988) and frequently enters estuaries and lagoons (Wallace 1967). It was regarded as common in the 1940 to 1960s (Wallace 1967, Smith 1991), but this needs to be re-examined. <br/> <br/><em>P. bovines</em> is not confined to the bottom, and is often seen on the surface (Van der Elst 1988), sometimes leaping from the water (Van der Elst 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). It is sometimes found in small groups (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Between 1981 and 2001, Young (2001) found 26 occurrences of three or more bullrays caught in the same Natal Sharks Board (NSB) net installation in one or two days. Of those 10 were of mixed sex, seven comprised females only, five males only, and the rest were unknown. There was no distinct seasonal pattern, but most occurred in December, March and April. <br/> <br/>The species is recorded throughout the year and is most common during summer months (Wallace 1967). Examining NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000, Young (2001) found that bullrays were caught throughout the year with peaks in November and December. Catch declined sharply in January then rose again in February and April. Minimum catches were observed in August and catches were generally lowest between July and September, with only 15.9% of the catch occurring during this period of the year. Significantly more males were caught during December-May, whereas the opposite was the case for females, which dominated catches in June-November. Bullray catch displayed a distinct pattern geographically related to the difference in water temperature with main catches in Richards Bay and Zinkwazi, as well as Winkelspruit and Park Rynie. Catches dropped dramatically south of Park Rynie. The sex ratio of NSB catches between 1981 and 2000 was 1:1.03 (m:f) (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002 found that in catches in Senegal, males were significantly more numerous than females and that females were significantly heavier than males. In their sample, both adult males and females were more abundant than juveniles. In KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Young (2001) examined NSB net captures between 1981 and 2000 and found that when using field length (FL, disc width), females were significantly bigger than males (median male: 81 cm FL, median female: 90 cm FL). The median for sexes combined was 83.4 cm (mode 70.1 to 80 cm FL, mean 87.7 cm FL). Lengths measured in the laboratory were generally larger than FL. The laboratory length mode was larger than FL at 100.1 to 110.0 cm. Female bullrays were larger than males, but not significantly so when using laboratory length (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Wallace (1967) examined 38 animals caught in the NSB nets ranging from 71.1  to 149.5 cm DW (2.72 to 56.2 kg) and three embryos (22 to 22.5 cm DW). He reported that males mature at 95 cm DW/13.6 kg and examined a gravid female of 119.4 cm DW/28.35 kg that contained three embryos (22 to 22.5 cm DW) in advanced development. Van der Elst (1988) gives a gestation period of one year after which 3 to 4 young are born, each at 50 cm DW. The smallest mature male dissected at the NSB was 104 cm DW and the smallest mature female was 105.5 cm DW (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Off Senegal, Capapé <em>et al</em>. (1995) reports sexual maturity as 90 to 100 cm DW for females and 83 to 100 cm DW for males. Also off Senegal, Seck <em>et al</em>. (2002) found that adult males and females were over 82 cm DW and 90 cm DW, respectively. Eight fully developed fetuses ranged from 25 to 27 cm DW / 310 to 345 g. The smallest free-living specimen was 35.5 cm DW/460 g. Gestation lasted between five and six months. A block of oocytes appeared at the beginning of gestation and there was an inability to ovulate soon after parturition. Vitellogenesis recommenced when the embryos were practically at the end of their development. The reproductive cycle lasted one year at least. <em>P. bovines</em> is a pure matrotrophic species. Ovarian fecundity (6 to 8) is higher than uterine fecundity (3 to 4) and there was no relationship between size and both categories of fecundity. <br/> <br/>According to the length-age curve of Van der Elst (1988), bullrays are ~14 years old at ~180 cm DW/100 kg. Using above local maturity lengths, both sexes mature at ~100 cm DW/10 kg, just over one year of age. <br/> <br/>Smallest free-swimming individual: 71.1 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 35.5 cm DW/460 g (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002); 30 cm NSB field length (25 cm dubious) (NSB, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Largest observed embryos: 22.5 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 27 cm DW (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Maximum reported size: 175 cm DW (Smith 1991); 152 cm DW (Wallace 1976). <br/> <br/>Largest observed animal: 149.5 cm DW (Wallace 1967); 115 cm DW/29.8 kg male, 148 cm DW/47.9 kg female (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002); 190 cm DW (Ochumba 1988) (dubious?); 350 cm, 220 cm, 194 cm NSB field length (all dubious), 185 cm FL, 170 cm FL, 165 cm FL (78 kg) (NSB unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>South Africa angling record: 100.2 kg. <br/> <br/>Tagged by NSB between 1996 and 2002: 13 animals, no recaptures to date (NSB unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Tagged by shore anglers between 1984 and 2002: 594 animals, nine recaptures (1.01% recapture rate), which include washed up tags. Maximum distance moved: 34 km, maximum time at liberty: 1,427 days (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Diet: crabs, hermit crabs, gastropod molluscs, mussels, bivalves, squid and prawns (Wallace 1967, Ochumba 1988, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Smith 1991). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  ~1.2 years (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  100 cm DW (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  175 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~35 cm DW? <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months (Senegal); 12 months (Southern Africa). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size: 3 to 4. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60127	population	Wintner, S.P., 2006	The population size and number, and the size of subpopulations, if any, are unknown.	eng
60127	threats	Wintner, S.P., 2006	<strong>South Africa:</strong> <br/>Wallace (1967) reported that this species is seine netted in Durban and Richards Bay, South Africa. Fennessy (1994) reported that a small number (just six in a three year period) are taken by prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank. The species is also sometimes caught by offshore trawlers (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and more recent data from prawn trawlers operating on the Tugela Bank again showed low levels of bycatch in that fishery: one animal in 46 trawls in September 2002 and six animals in 46 trawls in April/May 2003 (MCM, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is caught by shore anglers (Van der Elst 1988, Smith 1991) but due to identification problems (species often confused with <em>M. aquila</em>) it is difficult to obtain accurate angling catch figures. Pradervand and Govender (2003) examined the competitive shore angling catch in the border region (Great Fish river ? Kei river) between 1982 and 1998 and combined <em>P. bovines</em> and <em>M. aquila</em>. They found that during the study period 531 animals (2.7% of the total catch, total mass 4,020.8 kg) were caught. Pradervand (2004), again combining the two species, reported 58 animals (0.3% of total catch, 419.5 kg) being caught between 1977 and 2000 during Natal Coast Anglers Union?s angling competitions in the former Transkei. Although most anglers prefer to return bullrays to the water alive (Van der Elst 1988, S. Wintner pers. obs.), release mortality is unknown and could be substantial due to the angling practices of gaffing, weighing etc. (S. Wintner pers. obs.). It is interesting to note that the recapture rate of <em>P. bovines</em> tagged in the South African National Tagging program is only 0.57% (Bullen <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Between 1981 and 2000, 798 animals (11.31% of total batoid catch), consisting mainly of juveniles, were caught in the NSB nets (Young 2001). Mean annual catch was 39.9 and mean catch rate was 0.98 (no animals/km net/yr). During the study period there was considerable variation in catch rate (0.47-1.78) and no significant trend was apparent. There was, however, a significant increasing trend in size caught. Mortality levels were moderate (44.2%, mean = 17.65 animals per year) and there was no significant trend in mortality over the time period. The highest catches occurred at Richards Bay, Zinkwazi and Durban, the highest catch rates were observed at Zinkwazi, Winkelspruit and Park Rynie. Overall, it is difficult to determine the impact of NSB nets on the population, but it is likely to be localized, as this species is not exploited anywhere else to a great extend (Young 2001). <br/> <br/><strong>Elsewhere:</strong> <br/>Little information is available on catches outside of South Africa, but given the species? inshore occurrence it is likely taken in coastal artisanal fisheries across much of its range. It is known to be caught in small numbers in Kenya. Nine specimens (71?190 cm DW, 4.0?20.5 kg) were taken from commercial trawlers and local fishermen during a two year survey period (Ochumba 1988). The species is also commonly caught off the coast of Senegal (Seck <em>et al</em>. 2002), and as mentioned above, likely in other parts of its distribution. <br/> <br/>Habitat degradation where human pressure on the coastal zone is high (i.e., through development, pollution etc.) is another threat likely affecting this species. Activities on the coastal zone and adjacent waterfront may impact upon important nursery area habitat.	eng
60128	conservation	Barker, A.S., 2006	There is no existing legislation involving this species. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. bonasus</em> and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch in Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Due to the transient nature of this schooling ray, coordinated national and international efforts are necessary to adequately assess movements, abundance, and fishery impacts. <br/> <br/>Further research required includes an extensive tracking study to better estimate population size and movement patterns, and a focus on obtaining improved life history data from across the species? range, and the characterization of habitat use and potential nursery areas. Furthermore, direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. bonasus</em>.	eng
60128	distribution	Barker, A.S., 2006	This species is found along continental shelves in warm temperate and tropical waters of the western Atlantic, from southern New England, USA to southern Brazil, including coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico and parts of the Caribbean (whilst recorded from Cuba, apparently not confirmed from Jamaica, Hispaniola or the Lesser Antilles). It is known to frequent bays and estuaries of these areas, and has been reported as especially abundant in the Chesapeake Bay during summer months (Schwartz 1965, Smith and Merriner 1987). The exact southern limit of range in Brazil is uncertain due to confusion with the very similar <em>R. brasiliensis</em>.	eng
60128	habitat	Barker, A.S., 2006	These rays occur in marine and brackish waters, often swimming into estuaries and bays. They have been reported in river portions of estuaries, at salinities as low as eight parts per thousand (Smith and Merriner 1987, A. Barker unpublished data). They are assumed to make mass schooling migrations, triggered at least in part by water temperature (Smith and Merriner 1985). <br/> <br/>They are pelagic swimmers, benthic feeders, and are found at depths between 0 to 22 m (Fishbase.org). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with mature females giving birth usually to only one pup (although up to six embryos have been reported) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Smith and Merriner 1986, Neer and Thompson 2005). There is confusion as to whether there are one or two annual reproductive events (Smith and Merriner 1986), although Neer and Thompson (2005) support a single annual reproductive event. <br/> <br/>Primary prey includes benthic invertebrates, especially bivalve molluscs (Smith and Merriner 1985). Feeding activities by schooling rays have been implicated in extensive damage to seagrass (Orth 1975) and commercial shellfish beds (Smith and Merriner 1985, Peterson 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  7 to 8 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987), 4 to 5 years (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (female); 5 to 6 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987), 4 to 5 years (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  85 to 90 cm DW (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1986), 65 to 70 cm DW (Gulf of Mexico; A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005) (female); 75 to 85 cm DW (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1986), 64 to 70 cm DW (Gulf of Mexico, A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  ~13 years (Chesapeake Bay; Smith and Merriner 1987); 18+ years (females), 16+ years (males) (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  107 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  25 to 40 cm DW (Smith and Merriner 1986, A. Barker unpublished data, Neer and Thompson 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  There is still speculation regarding gestation time, but it is 11 to 12 months if there is a single annual reproductive event, or 5 to 6 months if there are two (Chesapeake Bay, Smith and Merriner 1986). 11 to 12 months (N. Gulf of Mexico; Neer and Thompson 2005) (supporting a single annual reproductive event). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Females ovulate immediately after parturition, so periodicity is annual or biannual, depending on the resolution of the above issue.. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Typically gravid females have only 1 embryo, but there have been reports of up to 6 embryos within one female. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60128	population	Barker, A.S., 2006	There are no existing population size estimates for this species, but they are common in parts of their range at certain times of the year. During suspected seasonal migrations, they often occur in groups of thousands of individuals (Clark 1963, Schwartz 1965, Smith and Merriner 1985, 1986, 1987, Rogers 1990). According to Schwartz (1990), the populations in the Western Atlantic (Southern New England to Brazil) and the Gulf of Mexico (Florida to the Yucatan Peninsula) are separate, but insufficient data exist to support this idea.	eng
60128	threats	Barker, A.S., 2006	There is currently no commercial fishery for this species in the Northwestern Atlantic, but there have been suggestions to establish one (Blankenship 1998) because of the damage that large feeding schools can do to shellfish and seagrass beds. <br/> <br/>In the USA, present commercial fisheries for other species can pose a threat to cownose rays, which are caught as bycatch within pound nets, haul seines and shrimp trawls (J. Musick personal communication, G. Burgess personal communication). This species is quite hardy and is likely to survive netting and short amounts of time on the deck of fishing vessels. However, a venomous spine makes handling difficult and their reputation as a nuisance species may encourage persecution. <br/> <br/>Although no information is currently available on its presence or contribution to artisanal fisheries throughout the species? Central and South American range, given its inshore habitat and the occurrence of fishing activities in coastal zones throughout its range it is most certainly commonly taken. In many regions of the species? southern range inshore fishing is intense and generally unregulated. For example, in parts of Brazil there is intensive fishing pressure by beach seine and benthic pair trawl fisheries and in southern Brazil these have had detrimental effects on the population of the congener <em>R. brasiliensis</em> which appears to be been extirpated from some areas. <br/> <br/>Its inshore habitat, schooling behaviour and low productivity makes <em>R. bonasus</em> highly susceptible to overexploitation. Heavy (generally) fishing pressure on the inshore environment throughout large parts of Central and South America will most certainly be having an effect on <em>R. bonasus</em>, thus resulting in its global Near Threatened assessment. <br/> <br/>Specific information on directed and/or bycatch levels are not available from Central and South America and the attainment of such data, as well as investigation into the current population status is of priority.	eng
60129	conservation	Dudley, S.F.J, Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	There is no existing legislation specifically for this species. Fisheries taking <em>R. javanica</em> (directed or bycatch) are generally unmanaged throughout the species? range. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of this and other chondrichthyans. Monitoring (including species-specific catch details) of any directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch across the Indo-West Pacific are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>R. javanica</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range, as well as the resolution of its phylogenetic relationship to other <em>Rhinoptera</em> spp. <br/> <br/>A recent reduction in the number of protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa will help to limit catches in that region. The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. javanica</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. javanica</em>.	eng
60129	distribution	Dudley, S.F.J, Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Complete geographic range is not well defined, but the species is widespread throughout the Indo-West Pacific from South Africa to Japan.	eng
60129	habitat	Dudley, S.F.J, Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Inshore over continental and insular shelves. Recorded in muddy areas and shallow estuaries (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), and in coastal bays and mangroves (Hennemann 2001). A schooling species; reportedly forms large schools of as many as 500 individuals (Michael 1993). Aplacental viviparous with breeding reported in Japan in late summer and autumn (Michael 1993). Attains 150 cm DW with the largest recorded embryo 63 cm DW (W. White unpubl. data). Although rhinopterids are documented as having 1 to 6 young, this species most likely has 1 to 2 young per litter due to the large size at birth. Rhinopterids are generally highly migratory. <br/> <br/>Catches taken in the protective shark nets off the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, peak from March to June (65% of the total annual catch), although the species is caught throughout the year (Young 2001). Overall sex ratio 1:0.39 (M:F) (which differs from unity), modal size 70.1 to 80 cm DW, median male size 75 cm DW and female 70 cm DW (Young 2001). Catches are rare in the southern part of the netted region, which is probably a consequence of lower water temperatures (Young 2001). <br/> <br/>Thought to make daily inshore migrations to feed (Last 1997) and food includes clams, oysters and crustaceans (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); >100 cm DW, males at 97 cm DW not yet fully mature (W. White, unpubl. data) (Indonesia). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (Compagno 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  one late term embryo was 63 cm DW (W. White, unpubl. data) (Indonesia). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 6 pups/litter (Last 1997), but probably mostly 1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60129	population	Dudley, S.F.J, Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	There is no information available on abundance or population structure.	eng
60129	threats	Dudley, S.F.J, Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Details of catches of this species throughout its range are scant. Nevertheless its small litter size, its tendency to form large schools, its inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl etc.), its marketability and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across most of the species? range warrant a global listing of Vulnerable. <br/> <br/>This species occurs in coastal inshore waters in depths of less than 30 m where fishing pressure is typically very heavy, especially in SE Asian waters. The strong swimming nature of this species makes it quite susceptible to a range of fisheries, especially inshore gill net fisheries which are extremely intensive in some regions (for example, Kalimantan in Indonesia). Rhinopterids are also known to inhabit estuarine areas where fishing pressure is also extremely high and where (in SE Asia at least) pollution is also a major factor for all marine life. <br/> <br/>The species is likely to contribute substantially to numerous inshore artisanal fisheries across its range. Rhinopterids are regularly landed where they are taken. In Southeast Asia, <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> is known to be landed in Indonesia (W. White unpublished data), Thailand (Vidthayanon 2002), the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (P. Kyne pers. obs.) and Sabah, Malaysia (Manjaji 2002), all of which are countries where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is intense and generally unregulated. The species is probably widely utilized across its range (Compagno and Last 1999) due to its availability to fisheries. Fishing pressure on the inshore environment across most of the species? range is only likely to increase in the future. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> contributed 8.9% to the total batoid catch taken between 1981 and 2000 in the protective shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Young 2001). Of the mean annual catch of 31 animals, 59% were released alive. Catches peaked between 1988 and 1990 but there was no overall trend in catch or catch rate. <em>Rhinoptera javanica</em> is taken as bycatch in the shallow-water trawls (20?30 m) of a prawn trawl fishery that operates off central KwaZulu-Natal (Marine and Coastal Management, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>The species is not common in Tanzanian fisheries but is caught in artisanal beach seines, bottom set gillnets and demersal trawls (Bianchi 1985). It has not been recorded in Madagascan fisheries (Andrew Cooke, Madagascar Sharks Group, Antananarivo and Lyn Robinson, WWF Madagascar, Antsiranana, pers. comm., September 2003).	eng
60130	conservation	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in the eastern tropical Pacific would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. steindachneri</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings reported from México and Central America typically lack species specific details. Most often, all batoids are often simply termed ?manta raya? collectively.  Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are much needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch landings and bycatch in México, Central, and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. Due to the transient nature of this schooling ray, coordinated national and international efforts are necessary to adequately assess movements, abundance, and fishery impacts. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, potential nursery areas, diet, and further reproductive studies are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>R. steindachneri</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing fisheries impacts on a particular species. Tagging, tracking, and genetic studies are essential for determining the population structure, movement patterns, and possible subpopulations throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. steindachneri</em>.	eng
60130	distribution	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	The range of <em>R. steindachneri</em> has been reported from Bahía de Sebastian Vizcaino, central Baja California, México, (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa-Peréz 1996), through the Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo di Sciara 1995), and south to Peru (Chirichigno 1974) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
60130	habitat	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> is widely distributed throughout shallow inshore waters of the eastern subtropical and tropical Pacific. It is typically found in waters ranging from intertidal depths to 25 m, but has been recorded to 65 m (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). It is usually associated with sandy bottoms but also occurs near rock or coral reefs, often near the reef dropoffs (Michael 1993). A transient, highly mobile species it often forms large schools or moves in loose aggregations. Its movements may be related to water temperature, as it tends to migrate northward in the Gulf of California during the spring and south in the autumn (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). The reproductive mode of this species is aplacental viviparity. Females nourish young initially by means of a yolksac and later supplement this energy source with protein-rich uterine excretions termed hisotrophe. Only a single ovary is functional. In the northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of México?s Baja peninsula males and females reach maturity at similar sizes. Median size at 50% maturity is estimated as 70.0 cm disc width (DW) in females and 69.9 cm DW in males (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). The smallest female reported as mature was 65cm DW and the largest immature specimen measured 72 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Maturity among males ranges 64 to 78 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Females give birth to a single pup during late June and July following an estimated gestation period of 10 to 12 months (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). Courtship and fertilization follows shortly after parturition (Bizzarro et al. submitted). <em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> possess plate-like teeth that are highly specialized for crushing and grinding hard-bodied prey items such as molluscs. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Median size at 50% maturity: 70.0 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted) (female); Median size at 50% maturity: 69.9 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  104 cm DW (female); 96 cm DW (male) (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 12 (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60130	population	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	No information on population estimates, subpopulations, degree of fragmentation, or general abundance are available for this transient species.	eng
60130	threats	Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries. <em>Rhinoptera steindachneri</em> is one of the most common batoid species landed in both the northern Gulf of California (GOC) and Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, México, where it is taken almost exclusively with bottom set gillnets, but may be landed in nearshore surface gillnets and longlines as well (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted, Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987). In the northern GOC from 1998?1999, <em>R. steindachneri</em> was most frequently observed in summer landings (11.4% of catch, CPUE=8.0 individuals/vessel/trip) and was rarely noted in winter (0.1%, CPUE=0.1). In Bahía Almejas from 1998?2000, it was more abundant in August (5.15%) than in June landings (0.30%), a trend also evident in CPUE (August=1.13, June=0.13). The mean size of female <em>R. steindachneri</em> captured in the GOC was 64.4 + 11.8 cm DW (mean and SD) whereas males averaged 64.2 + 14.0 cm DW (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. submitted). <br/> <br/>Also taken as incidental catch among trawl (especially shrimp trawlers) and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets and longlines in México. No information is currently available on its presence or contribution to artisanal fisheries throughout the rest of its range, however, given its inshore habitat and the occurrence of fishing activities in coastal zones throughout its range it is most certainly commonly taken. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in north-west Pacific México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.	eng
60131	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required, as is an analysis of the threat from shrimp trawling. Regulation of shrimp trawling, particularly closed areas may be a necessary conservation measure given its likely endemism. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in Yemen.	eng
60131	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	<em>Torpedo adenensis</em> has been collected from three distinct but adjacent localities from the eastern Gulf of Aden, close to the Yemen coastline (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). The distribution is thought to be limited and <em>T. adenensis</em> may possibly be endemic to the eastern Gulf of Aden.	eng
60131	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	<em>Torpedo adenensis</em> has been found in depths of 26 to 140 m. Little known of its biology. Reaches sexual maturity between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL in both males and females. A subadult male was recorded at 27.7 cm TL and a mature male was recorded at 39.7 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002) (female); Between 28.0 and 39.5 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  41 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60131	population	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Unknown, but the limited distribution may indicate that population numbers are low.	eng
60131	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Commercial shrimp trawling occurs across the known range of this species. If this species is endemic to the Gulf of Aden, it may be at high risk due to being taken as bycatch in these fisheries. Its benthic nature makes this species, as with other sluggish torpedo rays, susceptible to capture in trawl gear. It is extremely unlikely that shrimp trawl fisheries in that area will decrease or cease in the future, and the population is likely to become depleted through bycatch mortality (indeed declines may have already occurred but there are no data to consider this possibility). Presumably discarded when taken as bycatch, but survivorship is not known (although thought to be low).	eng
60132	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place for this species. Its occurrence and distribution needs to be better defined, as does interactions with any fisheries in the area. <br/> <br/>Coral reef habitat around Grand Cayman is managed under a Marine Protected Area zoning plan (Burke and Maidens 2004). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.	eng
60132	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Known from only two isolated locations in the Western Central Atlantic (Grand Bahama Bank and Grand Cayman Island).	eng
60132	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Demersal species with one individual observed at 11 m around coral in Grand Cayman and two specimens (16 and 22 cm TL) taken from the upper slope on the western edge of the Grand Bahama Bank at a depth of 229 m (Bullis 1962, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); 22 cm TL (Bullis 1962) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  31 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60132	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown (presently known only from two specimens and a photographic record). Apparently rare.	eng
60132	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No information available, but may be a limited bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries.  <br/> <br/>Heavy development and tourism pressure exists on coral reef habitats around Grand Cayman Island (Burke and Maidens 2004).	eng
60133	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2006	There are currently no management measures in place for this species. Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority, as is monitoring of potential bycatch in the orange roughy fishery.	eng
60133	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2006	Recorded only in its original description from the junction of the Nazca and Sala y Gomes Ridges west of Chile in the Southeast Pacific.	eng
60133	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2006	Open ocean on seamounts. Holotype (male, 28.4 cm TL) was taken by bottom trawl at a depth of 180 to 280 m; paratype (male, 36.6 cm TL) was taken by midwater trawl. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 36.6 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60133	population	Lamilla, J., 2006	Number and size of subpopulations unknown.	eng
60133	threats	Lamilla, J., 2006	There is no information on the catch of this species throughout its range. Chilean orange roughy fisheries probably operate in the species? area of occurrence, although no specific details are available. Given the species narrow known distribution, bycatch in these fisheries may be of concern, particularly if their operations increase.	eng
60134	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required. Of priority is an analysis of the threat from shrimp trawling. Subsequent regulation of shrimp trawling may be necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. panthera</em>.	eng
60134	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	As presently known, a patchily known range in the Western Indian Ocean. The species probably occurs from the Red Sea through the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, and the Gulf of Oman to the Bay of Bengal. <br/> <br/>Reports from Eastern Africa (south of Somalia) and from the Persian Gulf are missidentifications (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
60134	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Recorded on muddy and sandy bottoms of the continental shelf to depths of ~110 m. Very little known of the habitat and biology of this species. Reaches ~110 cm TL. Male <em>T. panthera</em> reaches sexual maturity before 28.1 cm TL when its claspers become completely calcified. No information is known from female <em>T. panthera</em> (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Unknown (female); at least before 28.1 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~110 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60134	population	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	As presently documented the range is disjunct, but it may be continuous from the Red Sea to the Bay of Bengal.	eng
60134	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Parts of the species? known distribution are under severe fishing pressure, particularly from shrimp trawls. Its benthic nature makes this species, as with other sluggish torpedo rays, susceptible to capture in trawl gear. It is extremely unlikely that shrimp trawl fisheries in that area will decrease or cease in the future, and populations are likely to become depleted through bycatch mortality (indeed declines may have already occurred but there are no data to consider this possibility). Presumably discarded when taken as bycatch, but survivorship is not known (although is probably low).	eng
60135	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W, San Martin, J. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Surveying to determine population status and distribution is required, as is an analysis of the catch from trawl fisheries. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. puelcha</em>.	eng
60135	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W, San Martin, J. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Patchy distribution from 35°S off northern Argentina to southeastern Brazil, although the exact northern limit is unclear. This seems to be predominately a Brazilian species, occurring more commonly north of Argentina.	eng
60135	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W, San Martin, J. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Benthic in continental shelf and slope waters. Reported inshore to 600 m depth, apparently generally in deeper water in Argentina than in Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000). A moderately large species (to at least 104 cm TL), viviparous like other electric rays, but nothing else known of its biology.  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  From ~65 cm TL (female); From ~60 cm TL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 104 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60135	population	Stehmann, M.F.W, San Martin, J. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Known from only a very few published records and considered moderately rare. Eventual subpopulations to be clarified.	eng
60135	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W, San Martin, J. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Taken as bycatch in shelf trawl fisheries where it is commonly caught and discarded at sea. However, specific catch data is lacking. It is considered a menace by fishers and post-capture survivorship is probably low.	eng
60136	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2006	Review when taxonomic status known, but catches will need to be monitored in fisheries when taken. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. sinuspersici</em>.	eng
60136	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2006	Currently understood to be a single species distributed along the east coast of southern Africa from the Eastern Cape of South Africa to Mozambique, Madagascar, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and India. However, work in progress may reveal that this is a species complex of highly localized endemic species.	eng
60136	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2006	Found in shallow waters on sandy areas and near reefs and also well offshore to 200 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Little known of the species? biology or ecology. Viviparous, like other electric rays, and reported to have litters of 9 to 22 young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Reaches ~130 cm TL, but mostly less than 100 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~130 cm TL (if single species). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  9 to 22 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60136	population	Smale, M.J., 2006	Distribution is at present patchy and fragmented, however, this may represent the distributions of several localized endemic species.	eng
60136	threats	Smale, M.J., 2006	Impacts from fisheries will need review if this species turns out to represent a species complex of restricted endemics. Sluggish electric rays are susceptible to capture in trawl fisheries where they are a discarded bycatch. Trawl fisheries operate across parts of the species? present range. Post-capture survivorship is thought to be low. <br/> <br/>Habitat degradation may be affecting this species, where development pressure is high or where coral reef systems are being impacted upon through pollution, destructive fishing practices or other human activities.	eng
60137	conservation	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2006	There are currently no management measures in place for this species.  Research into its distribution and life history is of high priority. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. tremens</em>.	eng
60137	distribution	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2006	As presently known, range is disjunct in the Eastern Pacific, however, the species? distribution needs to be better defined.	eng
60137	habitat	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2006	FishBase (Froese and Pauly 2004) reports this species occurring on the continental shelf, usually in very shallow waters. In Peru, however, it is reported to 700 m depth. In Chile it is reported from 20 to 60 m depth. This species is viviparous and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. Nothing else is known of its biology. To a maximum size of 80 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  80 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60137	population	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60137	threats	Lamilla, J. & Romero, M., 2006	There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken as bycatch in various fisheries throughout its range.	eng
60138	conservation	Pheeha, S. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	In South Africa, gillnets used in the St. Joseph fishery are permitted as ?shark nets? and are comprised of 178 mm stretched mesh with a fall of 3 m and length not exceeding 150 m. No person may hold more than four net permits. Nets are set in daylight for a period of about 30 minutes and may not be set within 500 m of the high-water mark (Freer and Griffiths 1993a). Continued management and monitoring practices should remain in place for this species to prevent overfishing. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>C. capensis</em>. <br/> <br/>There is no specific management in place for this species in Namibia (H. Holtzhausen, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia adopted its National Plan of Action (NPOA) in 2004. South Africa?s NPOA is drafted and at the time of writing is still awaiting government approval: it is a matter of urgency to adopt and implement this NPOA.	eng
60138	distribution	Pheeha, S. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	<em>C. capensis</em> is abundant off the west and south coasts of South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991) but rare off KwaZulu-Natal. Range may extend north of Namibia, but there are no confirmed records from Angola or more northerly regions.	eng
60138	habitat	Pheeha, S. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Demersal and found close inshore to a depth of 374 m, although rarely caught in depths greater than 150 m and only females have been collected below 250 m. <br/> <br/><em>C. capensis</em> appears to have a relatively high fecundity and early onset of sexual maturity compared to other chondrichthyan fishes. Sexual maturity is calculated at about 4.2 years for females and 3.3 years for males (Freer and Griffiths 1993a, 1993b). <em>C. capensis</em> is oviparous producing one egg per oviduct. Their eggcases are large, spindle-shaped with broad lateral flanges. Embryos probably take 9 to 12 months to hatch. Breeding occurs throughout the year with distinct peaks in summer. During the breeding season, females move closer to shore to lay eggs and juveniles remain inshore for a period of 3 to 4 years. The majority of <em>C. capensis</em> caught by fishermen are in depths less than 100 m. Maximum size is 120 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Most life history data are from Freer and Griffiths (1993a, 1993b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  4.2 years (female); 3.3 years (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (fork length):  50% maturity: 49.6 cm FL (female); 50% maturity: 43.5 cm FL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  10+ years (females); 7+ years (males) (from graphs in Freer and Griffiths 1993b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  120 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~13 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Incubation time of 9 to 12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Active throughout the year but with a distinctive peak in summer. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60138	population	Pheeha, S. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Population size and structure is poorly understood.	eng
60138	threats	Pheeha, S. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Caught primarily via a directed gillnet fishery off the south and west coasts of South Africa. Also commonly caught by bottom trawlers, and line-fishing boats, as well as sports anglers. The species occurs in shallow waters and very close inshore where fishing activities are often very intensive. <br/> <br/>The St Joseph fishery in South Africa is based primarily on the west coast in the St Helena Bay area, where approximately 650 tons are caught annually using bottom set gillnets. Fishing effort is regulated by the number of nets a permit holder can have. Overall, the annual catch (directed gillnet fishery and demersal trawl byproduct) appears to have stabilised at 700?900 tons. <br/> <br/>In Namibia, the species is not commercially targeted but is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fishing, although not in large numbers. It is also irregularly taken by shore anglers (H. Holtzhausen, pers. comm.).	eng
60139	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that additional information on this species be collected. In particular, careful reporting of all captures will aid in understanding the geographic distribution of this species, and deposition of specimens in museum collections will enable further biological and molecular studies of the species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. haeckeli</em>.	eng
60139	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Currently known from the Northwest Atlantic off Greenland, the Eastern Central Atlantic off the Canary Islands, and the Southwest Pacific from New Zealand. Capture records from the Atlantic are rare, but recent deepwater trawling around New Zealand has revealed a number of specimens from that region. Capture records indicate this species occurs at depths greater than 1,000 m and may be more abundant in deeper waters where surveys are presently more limited.  In particular, it is possible the range of this species is more continuous throughout the North Atlantic but has not been captured due to the dearth of fishery operations in waters deeper than 1,000 m. <br/> <br/>This species has also been reported from the Northwest Atlantic off New York (Krefft 1990) however, this report has not been confirmed.	eng
60139	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Benthic, on deepwater slopes and troughs, at depths of 1,114 to 2,002 m around New Zealand and 1,970 to 2,603 m in the Atlantic. <br/> <br/>Like all chimaeroids this species is oviparous, however no egg capsules or embryos have been collected for this species. It is assumed reproductive biology in this species is similar to that of other chimaeroids. Diet is unknown, but likely consists primarily of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total body length):  ~60 cm TL; ~25 cm BDL (female); ~45 cm TL; ~20 cm BDL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~72 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60139	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population size or structure. May occur more widely in the North Atlantic than presently known, particularly at depths near the deeper part of their range (2,000 m or greater). <br/> <br/>It is likely that <em>H. haeckeli</em> in the North Atlantic is a single subpopulation with a separate subpopulation in the Southwest Pacific off New Zealand.	eng
60139	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be commercially fished but may be caught in deepwater bottom trawls. Current evidence suggests this is a rare species and populations may be threatened by deepwater fishing operations, particularly if they continue to expand globally.	eng
60140	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. Data from specimens collected incidentally would be helpful in understanding population structure and life history of this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. raleighana</em>.	eng
60140	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Range appears to be widespread and worldwide (although not widely recorded in the Indian Ocean at present), with the largest numbers recorded from the western Pacific and northern Atlantic. Nothing is known of population structure, although molecular evidence may support regional populations. Other species of chimaeroids appear to have wide ranges (e.g., <em>R. atlantica</em> and <em>R. pacifica</em>), but <em>H. raleighana</em> is the only chimaeroid that may be global in its distribution.  <br/> <br/><em>Harriotta raleighana</em> has been recorded from the Canary Islands, however it should be noted that references to the species from that location by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) may in fact be referred to as <em>H. haeckeli</em>.	eng
60140	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Occur primarily in deep waters of continental slopes at depths at 380 to 2,600 m. <br/> <br/>Oviparous but nothing is known of spawning and reproduction and very few juveniles have been collected. As with many other chimaeroids adults and juveniles may occupy different habitats. Diet may consist of a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~35 cm BDL (estimate) (female); ~25 to 30 cm BDL (estimate) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  120 cm TL (females larger than males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60140	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Appears to be fairly abundant in areas where they are known to occur.	eng
60140	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be targeted in any commercial fishery but caught as bycatch in commercial deepwater bottom trawls, although the only such data on bycatch available is from the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand. <em>Harriotta raleighana</em> was a negligible component of bycatch with an estimated catch of 0.31t in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (<0.1 of total catch) of which 8% was retained (Anderson and Clark 2003). <br/> <br/>Seem to be relatively common in deepwater survey trawls. Increased deepwater trawl fisheries could pose a potential threat to habitats and populations in the future and monitoring would be required.	eng
60141	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservations measures are known to be in place. It is recommended that information including depth, size and sex, be obtained from all incidental captures of this species in an effort to obtain a better indication of population structure and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60141	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Upper and mid continental slopes in the Southern Caribbean.	eng
60141	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Occupies the upper and mid continental slopes, generally occurring at depths of 240 to 600 m, probably on rocky or rubble bottoms. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproduction and spawning. Maximum size reported for this species is 80 cm TL, but may be slightly greater than that (up to 90 or 95 cm TL, but probably less than 100 cm TL). Size at sexual maturity for males is unknown but probably occurs at 60 cm TL or greater (a male just shy of 60 cm TL was near sexual maturity; Bullis and Carpenter 1966). Size at sexual maturity for females is probably similar to males and is estimated at 65 cm TL or greater. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  65 cm TL (estimated) (female); >60 cm TL (estimated) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  80 cm TL, but estimated up to 95 cm TL but <100 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60141	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population structure. Most captures reported thus far consist primarily of juveniles and it is possible sexually mature adults occupy deeper waters, or exist outside of the known range (Didier and Stehmann 1996, Didier 2002).	eng
60141	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be commercially fished but may on rare occasions be caught as bycatch, probably in deepwater trawls and possibly also deepwater longlines, although this species may occur at or below the current limit of deepwater fisheries in the region. Currently known from a relatively small number of specimens, <em>N. carri</em> may be restricted to a relatively limited range in the Southern Caribbean. Possible threats in the future include habitat degradation due to deepwater trawling and decline in population if increased deepwater fishing in the region results in increased capture as bycatch.	eng
60142	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	None are known to be in place. Further study of this species is recommended, in particular, data collection (locality, size, sex, reproductive state) from each capture. Additional specimens are also needed for further biological and molecular studies. <br/> <br/>The effect of deepsea fishing vessels operating off West Africa on this species in unknown, but is a cause of potential concern. Information on the bycatch of this species (and other chondrichthyans) by these vessels is urgently required and the conservation status of this species should be reassessed without delay when such information is obtained.	eng
60142	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Range appears to be restricted to the eastern Atlantic off the western coast of Africa from Spanish Sahara to Namibia.	eng
60142	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Very poorly known species. Occupies a relatively shallower shelf and slope habitat than other rhinochimaerids at depths of 200 to 470 m. Few adult specimens have been collected, but males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at about 50 to 60 cm body length (BDL), as all specimens greater than 60 cm BDL are sexually mature. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, likely exhibiting similar reproductive patterns to other chimaeroids. Diet is unknown but probably consists primarily of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  50 or 60 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  127 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60142	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Does not appear to be common. Nothing is known of population structure, although it is likely that the species is represented by a single continuous population off western Africa.	eng
60142	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be targeted in any commercial fishery but is probably collected at bycatch in deep water trawling operations in the region. Faces the potential threat of capture and habitat destruction due to increased deep water fishing in the region.	eng
60143	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	None are in place at present. More specimens are needed in order to conduct additional research and collect much needed data on biology, ecology and distribution of this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>N. pumila</em>.	eng
60143	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Presently known only from the northwestern Indian Ocean. Known range is restricted to the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden off Somalia and Socotra Island (Yemen). This species may also occur off southwest India and may have a wider distribution in the Indian Ocean, particularly at depths of 1,000 m or more.	eng
60143	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Benthic slope dweller, probably preferring rocky, muddy or silty bottoms of the shelf edge and upper to middle slope at depths of 100 to 1,120 m. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproduction or spawning. Diet probably consists primarily of benthic invertebrates, particularly bivalves and polychaetes. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  Probably 50 to 55 cm TL; 20 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~65 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60143	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	At present this species is known only from a single population with a range restricted to the northwest Indian Ocean. Very few specimens have been collected and no other data with regard to population structure are available.	eng
60143	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	There is no evidence to suggest immediate threats at present; however there is the potential threat of habitat degradation and/or increased capture due to alterations of the local environment and in particular increased fishing effort in deeper water which may result in capture of this species primarily as bycatch but also possibly as a target fishery. <br/> <br/>Current capture records indicate this may be a rare species with only a small, localised population, and as such any potential threats could have a severe impact.	eng
60144	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	None known to exist. Study of this species is recommended, particularly with regard to geographic distribution, biology, and population structure. In particular, accurate reporting of all captures will aid in understanding the species range and distribution. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. Africana</em>.	eng
60144	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	The known distribution is spotty with confirmed reports from the southwestern Indian Ocean off Southern Africa and the Mozambique Channel. Also known from the East China Sea from Taiwan to Hokkaido, Japan including the Okinawa Trough.	eng
60144	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Deepwater and benthic, generally occurring on deepwater slopes and seamounts at depths of 500 to 1,500 m. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~50 cm BDL (female); ~40 to 50 cm BDL (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/ body length):  ~150 cm TL (65 cm BDL; females generally larger than males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60144	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population structure although populations from the northwestern Pacific and Indian ocean may be separate. It is also possible that this species forms a continuous widespread population throughout the Indian Ocean and northwestern Pacific.	eng
60144	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	In Taiwan, this species is taken as bycatch when encountered, and is landed in fish markets (W. White, pers. comm.). Not known to be taken elsewhere, but likely forms a component of bycatch where deepwater trawling overlaps with its range. Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. As such, there is a potential threat to populations and habitats due to deepwater trawl fishery operations as well as increased attention toward new deepwater target species as more lucrative species are overfished.	eng
60145	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	No management or conservation measures are in place. Increased data collection from any and all captures is recommended in order to obtain additional information on population size and structure and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. atlantica</em>.	eng
60145	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Based on capture records this species appears to be widespread in deep waters throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Almost all specimens known are adults or subadult juveniles, rarely if ever are small juveniles captured. This may be due to fishing methods or more likely the aggregation of adults and juveniles in separate habitats and/or depths.	eng
60145	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Occurs on deep slopes, probably widely distributed throughout the Atlantic at recorded depths of ~500 to 1,500 m. This species may be more abundant in even deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, a few egg capsules and at least one hatchling have been collected; however nothing is known of reproduction in this species. It is likely this species occurs on muddy or rubble/rock bottoms and eats a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  130 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60145	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	No data exists at the present time with regard to possible bycatch of this species, although known to be occasionally caught in deepwater research trawls. In South Africa this species may occur in the deepwater hake trawl fishery but is primarily known from research trawl catches. It is likely the species mostly occurs beyond the maximum depth range of the fishery. Potentially threatened by the extension of deepwater demersal trawl fisheries into the habitat of this species. As fishing pressure increases in deepwater environments, bycatch of this species may increase as well as the possible destruction of habitat due to trawling methods.	eng
60146	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. It is recommended that at least minimal data on size, sex, and distribution be collected on all incidental catches of this species in an effort to obtain baseline population and life history information. Monitoring of any bycatch is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. pacifica</em>.	eng
60146	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Most commonly known from the north and southwestern Pacific, primarily from the Japanese Archipelago and the East China Sea, and off southern New Zealand and Southern Australia (Inada and Garrick 1979, Last and Stevens 1994, Didier and Nakaya 1999). Reported only from Peru in the eastern Pacific but may occur more widely in deepwater troughs and plateaus throughout the entire Pacific Ocean.	eng
60146	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Habitat appears to be primarily deepwater troughs and plateaus at depths of 191 to 1,290 m, although most commonly found below 700 m. Off southern Australia reported from 760 to 1,290 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Maximum size is about 130 cm TL (62 cm BDL) with females generally larger than males. It appears that sexual maturity in males and females is reached at ~50 cm BDL. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. Probably shares similar life history traits with <em>R. atlantica</em> and diet may consist of a variety of invertebrates and fish. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~50 cm BDL (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  130 cm TL; 62 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60146	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population structure, but capture records consist only of adults or subadult juveniles indicating possible aggregation of adults and juveniles in different habitats.	eng
60146	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be commercially targeted. Occasionally captured in deepwater surveys and may also be caught as bycatch in deepwater commercial trawls but bycatch data are unavailable. Off southern Australia mostly recorded deeper than the depth range of most fisheries. As such, a study of the bycatch of the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF) did not record this species in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (Anderson and Clark 2003). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand and operates in the known area of occurrence of <em>R. pacifica</em>. <br/> <br/>Potential threat to habitat and populations due to increased deepwater trawling throughout the species range.	eng
60147	conservation	Huveneers, C., 2006	Catch levels need to be documented and careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. Information on the species? biology is required to inform management decisions. <br/> <br/>Effective implementation of the Japanese National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (under the FAO International Plan of Action: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Japan.	eng
60147	distribution	Huveneers, C., 2006	Limited known distribution in the East China Sea and southern Japanese waters (Nishida and Nakaya 1988).	eng
60147	habitat	Huveneers, C., 2006	Known from only a few specimens collected from the East China Sea and southern Japanese waters. Holotype was caught by trawl net at a depth of 53 to 142 m. <br/> <br/>Biology is virtually unknown. However, one 72.5 cm DW male was found mature whilst a 35.4 cm DW male was still immature with soft and small claspers. <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Unknown (female); unknown, immature at 35.4 cm DW, mature at 72.5 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  72.5 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60147	population	Huveneers, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60147	threats	Huveneers, C., 2006	Most likely taken as bycatch in the Japanese coastal bottom trawl fishery and to a lesser extent by set nets (H. Ishihara pers. com.). Care should be taken as any fishing impact on this species might have greater effects due to its narrow geographical distribution. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this narrow ranging species. <br/> <br/>Stingrays are amongst the dominant ray components of landings in Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia and elsewhere in Asia. However, the relative importance of species on a regional basis is poorly known and species-specific landing data are virtually non-existent.	eng
60148	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Ishihara, H., 2006	Data need to be collected in order to accurately assess the population status and to document catch levels. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. akajei</em>.	eng
60148	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Ishihara, H., 2006	Probable Northwest Pacific endemic. In Japan, commonly distributed in shallow coastal waters and bays from Hokkaido to Okinawa (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993).	eng
60148	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Ishihara, H., 2006	<em>Dasyatis akajei</em> plays an important role as an apex predator in the demersal food network of coastal areas (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). However, very little is known of its life-history traits. It is found in coastal areas and on the continental shelf. <br/> <br/>Males attain maturity at ~35 cm DW and almost all the males become mature at >40 cm DW.  Females attain first maturity between 50 and 55 cm DW and most females >60 cm DW may be mature (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). <br/> <br/><em>D. akajei</em> feeds predominantly on crustaceans and osteichthyes. Annelida was also reported in their stomachs whilst Bivalvia and Cephalopoda were seldom found (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993). <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods, which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). <em>Dasyatis akajei</em> appears to have a lower fecundity with gravid females bearing one pup/litter (H. Ishihara, unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50?55 cm DW (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993) (female); 35?40 cm DW (Taniuchi and Shimizu 1993) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 66 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (H. Ishihara, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60148	population	Huveneers, C. & Ishihara, H., 2006	Declines have reported to have occurred where the species is fished.	eng
60148	threats	Huveneers, C. & Ishihara, H., 2006	<em>Dasyatis akajei</em> is caught in commercial quantities in coastal and even brackish waters. It is taken as bycatch in the bottom trawl fishery, gillnet, set net and hook and line fishery targeting demersal bottom fishes such as flounders, and this bycatch is utilized. Landings are reported to be declining. Population is therefore strongly affected by present level of fishing.	eng
60149	conservation	Grubbs, D.R., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2006	None. The impact of increased harvests on populations in Brazil and Venezuela should be monitored and population studies undertaken. Protection of breeding and nursery areas in parts of South America may be necessary for the long-term survival of the species. The species has been considered Vulnerable in Rio de Janeiro Municipality, Brazil (Buckup <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. Americana</em>.	eng
60149	distribution	Grubbs, D.R., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2006	A coastal species that is widely distributed from New Jersey to Florida (USA), throughout the Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and bordering the northern coast of South America to southeastern Brazil. It is abundant in nearshore waters in the northeast Gulf of Mexico, especially along the west coast of Florida and is common during summer months in estuaries and coastal areas along the east coast of the U.S. It is common throughout most of the Greater and Lesser Antilles. <br/> <br/>In Brazil known from Santos, São Paulo, Bahia, northward from Paraíba, Ceará, and Pará and Amapá (Figueiredo 1977, Rosa 1987, Cunningham 1989, Gadig and Rosa 1993, Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993a, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000, Menni and Stehmann 2000). Also reported from the Brazilian oceanic islands of Atol das Rocas (Rosa and Moura 1997) and Fernando de Noronha (Mendes and Moura 1999), and from the reefs of Parcel Manuel Luiz in Maranhão (Rocha and Rosa 2001).	eng
60149	habitat	Grubbs, D.R., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2006	A coastal marine and estuarine benthic species associated with sand flats, seagrass beds, and coral reefs at depths of 0 to 53 m. Commonly buries in soft sediments. <br/> <br/>Litters of 2 to 10 pups are born at 17 to 34 cm disc width (DW), after a gestation of 4.5 to 7.5 months, and maturity is reached at 51 and 75 to 80 cm DW (males and females, respectively). Reproduction is biannual in captivity, annual in the wild. Maximum size is 150 cm DW (Henningsen 2000, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species has been studied in the Bahamas (Randall 1967, Gilliam and Sullivan 1993), Brazil (Queiroz <em>et al</em>. 1993) and the eastern USA (D. Grubbs, unpublished data) and consists of benthic and infaunal invertebrates and demersal teleosts. The most common prey are decapod crustaceans such as alphaeid, penaeid and callianasid shrimp and brachyuran crabs. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  75 to 80 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) (female); 51 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  17 to 19 cm DW (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data); mean 23.8 cm DW, range 20 to 34 cm DW (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Mean 5.8 months; range 4.5 to 7.5 months (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000); Annual (Florida and Virginia, USA) (D. Grubbs unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?7 (D. Grubbs and J. Musick unpublished data); mean 4.2, maximum 10 (in captivity) (Henningsen 2000). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60149	population	Grubbs, D.R., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2006	The species is taken occasionally in the VIMS (Virginia Institute of Marine Science) longline survey off the USA, near the northern edge of its range, but no population trends are evident from 1996 to 2003 (J. Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).	eng
60149	threats	Grubbs, D.R., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2006	Caught as incidental bycatch with trammel nets, bottom trawls, and bottom longlines along the east coast of the USA. Most are released and mortality is probably low. Southern stingrays are harvested in parts of South America and fisheries exist in Venezuela, Colombia, and Brazil. Increased artisanal fishing pressure in some regions of Brazil may warrant concern, including in the states of Ceará and Bahia (Buckup 2000, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2000). In recent years, tours allowing tourists to swim with this species in shallow water have increased in popularity throughout the Caribbean. The impacts these operations may have (behavioral, ecological, etc.) are largely unknown. Indirect threats from impacts on reef areas.	eng
60150	conservation	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	There is a need to monitor changes in pressure on this species (particularly if there is an increased fishing effort etc). No take zones need to be implemented on Northwest Shelf, which would benefit this and other species. A shift from discarding to retention through increased landings (as the market for ray products increases) could alter the present situation and would need monitoring. <br/> <br/>Further investigation is needed into the life history traits of this species, particularly reproductive biology. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60150	distribution	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Northern Australia, from the Gulf of Carpentaria (Queensland) through the Northern Territory to at least the Bonaparte Archipelago, Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Possibly also off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea, although not yet verified. Primary part of range is the Northwest Shelf, Western Australia. There appears to be no obvious depth partitioning between the <em>D. kuhlii</em> species complex members, although <em>D. annotata</em> is rarely taken in the coastal zone, generally occurring further offshore.	eng
60150	habitat	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Continental shelf on soft substrates in depths of 12 to 62 m (generally not regular at the shallower end of this range). Reaches a maximum size of 45 cm DW (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002), though more commonly at smaller sizes. Fecundity is low at 1 to 2 pups per litter (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). Life history parameters taken from Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  First maturity: 23.3 cm DW (female); First maturity: 20.0 cm DW (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  45.2 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown	eng
60150	population	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Less abundant than other members of the <em>D. kuhlii</em> species-complex (<em>D. kuhlii</em> and <em>D. leylandi</em>).	eng
60150	threats	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	As with other stingrays, <em>D. annotata</em> is highly susceptible to capture due to its bottom-dwelling nature. The geographic distribution and limited depth range of this species occurs within the area of the vast Northern Prawn Fishery where it is a discarded bycatch species. Also, the effect of fishing on the macrobenthos, which is the primary habitat of this species, is another concern. <br/> <br/>Survivorship after capture of this species is thought to be low. This is a finer body species than other members of the <em>D. kuhlii</em> complex (<em>D. kuhlii</em> and <em>D. leylandi</em>) and as such its robustness to capture by trawl gear appears limited. <br/> <br/>The Northwest Shelf and the Timor Sea (centre of abundance of this species) has been the focus of a number of demersal trawl fisheries since 1959, including by Japanese, Taiwanese and Chinese fleets. Intensive trawling on the NW shelf, particularly by Taiwanese pair trawlers during the 1970s and up until 1990 is likely to have impacted on the batoid community in the area, although no data are available. <br/> <br/>Foreign vessels (Indonesian) operate illegally in northern Australian waters.	eng
60151	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	Research actions are urgently needed for this species. Preliminary baseline studies have just started and are in progress to obtain further data on the biology, ecology, habitat status, uses and fishery data of this species. Studies are also needed to better define the distribution of <em>D. colarensis</em>. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be quantified and closely monitored. An effective management plan would also help manage the industrial fishery/exportation of this species. In the future a catch or export quota system may be required. <br/> <br/>Habitat conservation, including the future creation of protected areas, is recommended since within its area of occurrence the industrial fishery is increasing. <br/> <br/>Education and public awareness could also contribute to the understanding that fisheries must be carried out within sustainable yield levels. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Brazil. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anonymous 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.	eng
60151	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species has a relatively restricted geographical range and is found mainly in the region of influence of the Amazon River discharge. During the dry season it is commonly found in the Marajó Bay region. It is probably present in a few other neighboring areas but further observations and documentation are required.	eng
60151	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	Very limited information is available concerning the habitat and ecology of this estuarine species that seems to inhabit shallow costal waters. <br/> <br/>Little known of the species? biology. Reaches at least 165 cm DW. Examined females have had only 1 to 4 pups per litter and the species is thought to produce only a single litter per year. <br/> <br/>This species presents annual movements (migration?) that are influenced by seasonal salinity variations. It moves closer to the coast and enters bays during the dry season and during the rainy season it is not present in bays and moves farther from the coast. These movements seem to be somehow related to the reproductive cycle since most females caught closer to the coast and in bays had embryos in early stages of development. This movement pattern is similar to what has been observed for the freshwater stingray <em>Plesiotrygon iwamae</em> (Charvet-Almeida 2001), however, pregnancy development stages differ between those two species when they are caught closer to the coast and inside bays (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 165 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown but preliminary information indicates once a year. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Observed litters of 1 to 4 pups. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown	eng
60151	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species in common in the Marajó Bay region during the dry season of the year (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.). Other population trends and dynamics are completely unknown for this species.	eng
60151	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This stingray is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear and is caught mainly as bycatch (hooking, netting and entanglement) in both artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the Amazon estuary. However, recently a directed fishery has commenced and the local industrial fleet started capturing this species to be exported. It is now being currently exported to European countries by a few fishing industries located in the State of Pará (Brazil). <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
60152	conservation	Smith, W.D., Bizzarro, J.J. & Lamilla, J., 2006	<em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> fisheries and bycatch are unmanaged throughout the species range. In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central and South America. Attempts to monitor and regulate fisheries in the eastern tropical Pacific would greatly improve conservation of <em>D. dipterura</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings reported from México and Central America typically lack species-specific details. Large sharks are generally grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while batoids are often simply termed ?manta raya? collectively. Mexican federal fisheries agencies recently began providing slightly more taxonomic resolution of ray landings by listing several new categories. Landings of <em>D. dipterura</em>, however, may still be unknown as they are grouped in the modified category of ?manta raya? that may include dasyatid as well as urotrygonid and mobulid species. Additional monitoring of artisanal elasmobranch fisheries and commercial trawl bycatch on a species-specific basis is critical for detecting trends in effort, abundance, and catch of elasmobranchs. Concise guides to species identification for both fishermen and fisheries biologists would be a valuable aid for improving the monitoring of these landings. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, diet, and further reproductive studies from other portions of the species range are necessary to develop effective conservation actions for <em>D. dipterura</em>. Direct estimates of fishing and natural mortality are critical for assessing the impact of fisheries on a species and would greatly improve population models of this vulnerable species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. dipterura</em>.	eng
60152	distribution	Smith, W.D., Bizzarro, J.J. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Reports of this stingray from British Columbia, Canada (Hart 1973) are questionable and have not been verified. If accurate, they represent anomalies, as <em>D. dipterura</em> is typically a subtropical to tropical species. The confirmed range is from southern California, USA to Chile (where it is occasional only); including the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
60152	habitat	Smith, W.D., Bizzarro, J.J. & Lamilla, J., 2006	<em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> is a demersal stingray known primarily from relatively shallow, inshore waters over sand and mud bottoms or near rocky outcrops and kelp beds (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Off southern California, the species has been reported to occupy shallow waters (intertidal to 7 m) in the summer and moves to depths of 13 to 17.7 m during the late fall and winter months (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974). In Chile the species has been reported at depths of 3 to 30 m. However, Chave and Mundy (1994) reported <em>D. dipterura</em> from depths of 52 to 150 m over sand bottoms in the Hawaiian archipelago. The Hawaiian records may represent a misidentification or indicate that a much broader depth range may be potentially utilized by this species. <br/> <br/>The limited biological information available for <em>D. dipterura</em> is derived primarily from the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México. These parameters may differ markedly throughout the species? range. In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, courtship and insemination is thought to occur in the late summer during July and August (Mariano-Melendez 1997). Sperm storage or diapause may contribute to delayed development of embryos and gestation is suggested to occur over 2 to 2.5 months with pupping taking place the following summer (July-September) in shallow estuaries (Mariano-Melendez 1997). Reproduction appears to be annual and litter sizes range from one to four pups (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). Reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity in which embryos are nourished by a combination of a small yolk-sac and histotrophe secreted from the uterus (as with all myliobatoid rays). Only a single ovary is functional. Maximum size is ~100 cm disc width (DW) (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) and size at birth ranges 18 to 23 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). The median size at maturity is estimated to be 58.5 cm DW (males) and 43.4 cm DW (females). Growth estimates based on vertebral ageing indicate that these sizes correspond to ages of 10 years in females and seven years in males (see life history parameters below for other maturity estimates). Age analysis indicates slow growth rates and maximum observed ages up to 28 years. Von Bertalanffy models estimate growth coefficients of 0.55 y<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.10 y<sup>-1</sup> for males (Smith 2004). Females attain greater sizes and ages than males.  Catch records suggest that the species may segregate by size and sex (Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez 1975, Smith 2004). <br/> <br/>Diet is comprised primarily of infaunal organisms and large feeding pits are excavated by jetting water and through movements of the pectoral fins. Some epibenthic species are also taken. In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, pea crabs (Pinnotheridae), razor clams (<em>Solyema valvulus</em>) and polychaetes are the primary prey items, in order of decreasing importance (Bizzarro 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  10 years (50% maturity) (Smith 2004) (female); 7 years (50% maturity) (Smith 2004) (male). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  50% Maturity: 58.5 cm DW (Smith 2004), 65.5 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997), 1st Maturity: 57 cm DW (Smith 2004) (female); 50% Maturity: 43.3 cm DW (Smith 2004), 45.5 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997), 1st Maturity: 47 cm DW (Smith 2004) (male). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  at least 28 years (maximum observed) (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  ~100 cm DW (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  18 to 23 cm DW (Mariano-Melendez 1997, Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  14.6 years (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~2.5 to 3 months (Mariano-Melendez 1997). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Mariano-Melendez 1997). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Maximum observed: 4 (Mariano-Melendez 1997); Mean litter size: 2.7 (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Mean ? = 1.06 per year (Smith 2004). <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  General indirect estimates: 0.07 to 0.15 per year (range; multiple methods of estimation) (Smith 2004); Age-specific indirect estimates: 0.03?0.35 per year (range; Peterson and Wroblewski and Chen and Watanabe approaches) (Smith 2004).	eng
60152	population	Smith, W.D., Bizzarro, J.J. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Rough estimates of <em>D. dipterura</em> abundance were calculated by Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez (1975) from the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México based on trawl surveys. These authors noted a distinct seasonal trend in abundance within the lagoon complex and estimated 112,000 individuals present in February, increasing to 378,000 in August. Species identifications were problematic and these estimates may include <em>D. longa</em> or urotrygonid rays. In the Gulf of California, exploratory trawl surveys indicated that <em>D. dipterura</em> comprised 26% of the total demersal catch weight (Flores <em>et al</em>. 1995). No details on the abundance of this species outside of México are available. <br/> <br/>In Chile, the southern extent of the species? distribution, and southern California, the northern extent of its distribution, this species is rare.  In Chile, it is known only from three specimens taken in the north (Antofagasta). Its occurrence in these extremities of its range appears to be linked to suitable climatic conditions due to El Niño (Lamilla, <em>et al</em>. 1995, Ebert, 2003). <br/> <br/>No information on subpopulations or fragmentation is available.	eng
60152	threats	Smith, W.D., Bizzarro, J.J. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Directed artisanal fisheries and incidental catch among trawl fisheries and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets, longlines, or traps. <br/> <br/><em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> represents a primary component of artisanal elasmobranch fishery catches of the Pacific coast of México and the Gulf of California (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Smith 2004, Bizzarro 2005). Its contribution to the fishery is likely underestimated due to the lack of species-specific landing information and potential misidentification. Although present in artisanal landings throughout the year, catches of this stingray are highest during the summer and fall (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1987; Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000). <em>Dasyatis dipterura</em> is the second most abundant batoid landed in coastal waters of Sonora, México, comprising ~19% of all batoid landings in seasonal surveys conducted in 1998 and 1999 (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>., unpublished data, Márquez-Farías 2002). This species is targeted during primarily summer months in Bahía Almejas, located in the southern portion of the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex, Baja California Sur, México. In this embayment, it is most abundant batoid species landed in August (~43%) and the fourth most abundant batoid in June landings (~8%) (Bizzarro 2005). Individuals are primarily captured in demersal gillnets in which their tail spines are entangled. This method of entanglement allows a wide range of mesh sizes to be effective for capturing juveniles as well as adults. Juveniles comprised the majority of individuals landed in the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex artisanal elasmobranch fishery during 1998?2000 (Smith 2004, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro and Smith in preparation). <br/> <br/>Based on records from exploratory fishing surveys, it is likely that this species represents a significant component of trawl bycatch fisheries (especially shrimp trawl bycatch) in the Mexican Pacific (Mathews and Druck-Gonzalez 1975, Flores <em>et al</em>. 1995). No information is available on the species? actual contribution to bycatch in other artisanal or trawl fisheries in México, or through its Central and South American range. <br/> <br/>Many coastal embayments and mangrove lagoons in north Pacific México, which serve as habitat for <em>D. dipterura</em>, are being altered for the purpose of shrimp farming. Although these activities are presently limited, their expected increase could detrimentally alter suitable habitat for this species (Bizzarro pers. obs.).	eng
60153	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	Research actions are required for this species. Preliminary base-line studies are in progress to obtain further data on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range and to verify if there are tendencies of increase. Industries that recently began processing minced fish products are very likely to show an interest for this species as for other dasyatids. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation are desired for most coastal species that are likely to be susceptible to environmental changes. <br/> <br/>Education and public awareness could also contribute to the understanding that future increases in catches should be carefully studied and monitored. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. geijskesi</em>.	eng
60153	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species has a relatively restricted geographic range (northern Atlantic coast of South America), ranging from northern Brazil to the Venezuelan coast, including French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992, Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is found mainly in the region of influence of the Amazon River discharge. During the dry season it is found closer to the shore and is present in the Marajó Bay region (authors? observations).	eng
60153	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	It is considered a shallow water species (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992) but Uyeno <em>et al</em>. (1983) have reported that it was found at greater depths (810 m). The authors have observed it at depths of 8 to 20 m. <br/> <br/>Very little data is available about the habitat and ecology of this marine/estuarine species that seems to inhabit mainly shallow costal waters. <br/> <br/>As for other dasyatids found in the North region of South America, this species exhibits movements (migrations?) associated with seasonal salinity variations. It moves closer to the coast and enters bays during the dry season and during the rainy season it moves farther from the coast. These movements might be related to the reproductive cycle, since most females caught close to the coast and in bays had embryos in early stages of development as observed in <em>Dasyatis colarensis</em>. This movement pattern is also similar to that observed for the freshwater stingray <em>Plesiotrygon iwamae</em> (Charvet-Almeida 2001), however, pregnancy development stages differ between <em>D. geijskesi</em> and <em>P. iwamae</em> when these two species are found close to the coast (authors? information). <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of this species is currently under study. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  At least 150 cm DW (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Preliminary data indicates once a year (authors? observation). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Observed litters of 1 to 3 pups (authors? observation). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60153	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species is not very common as other dasyatid species throughout its distribution range. Population size, trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species.	eng
60153	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This stingray is caught as a bycatch (hooking, netting and entanglement) in artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the Amazon estuary. This species is also taken regionally as a secondary option subsistence food source. Fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products, implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998), particularly given this species? large size and low fecundity.	eng
60154	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Base-line research actions are required to obtain further life history data about this species including population data and trends. There are already studies in progress on some biological aspects. <br/> <br/>Monitoring of the bycatch is needed to verify if this activity is sustainable or if it represents a significant threat for <em>D. hypostigma</em>. Management plans are also recommended for this species, particularly given its inshore occurrence in fished areas. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also ensure coastal protected areas. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Brazil. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.	eng
60154	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Presently recognised from the southeastern and southern coasts of Brazil. Both the northern and southernmost limits of the species? range are not well defined and it may occur through Uruguay to Argentina as far as Mar del Plata (Santos and Carvalho 2004).	eng
60154	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	This coastal species has been captured in shallow waters, in depths that range from 5 to 80 m but commonly within 5 to 40 m (Santos and Carvalho 2004). It is also found in estuaries. <br/> <br/>Since this species has been misidentified with at least one other dasyatid species, it is uncertain if any of the ecology data available truly corresponds to <em>D. hypostigma</em> or not. Life history parameters must be collected considering now the correct identification of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  58 cm is the maximum DW indicated in the original description (Santos and Carvalho 2004). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60154	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	This is a very common species in southern and southeastern Brazil.	eng
60154	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Carvalho, M.R., 2006	Bottom trawl nets used in the artisanal and industrial shrimp fisheries are probably the biggest threat for this species. It is taken as bycatch in fisheries that take place mainly in the States of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). <br/> <br/>This species is also subject to threats caused by habitat loss/degradation and infrastructure development (mainly industry and human settlement) in regions near or around the bigger coastal cities where mangroves areas are being removed. Water pollution may also represent a threat for this species in some areas. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, at present, little information is available on the biology of this species, partly due to misidentifications in the past.	eng
60155	conservation	Huveneers, C., 2006	Catch levels need to be documented and careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. Information on the species? biology is required to inform management decisions. <br/> <br/>Effective implementation of the Japanese National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (under the FAO International Plan of Action: IPOA?Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Japan.	eng
60155	distribution	Huveneers, C., 2006	Found only from shallow coastal waters of the Izu Peninsula, Pacific coast of Japan (Nishida and Nakaya 1990).	eng
60155	habitat	Huveneers, C., 2006	Known from less than 10 specimens. Limited depth range on the continental shelf at 10 to 20 m. Biology is virtually unknown. It is a relatively small stingray maturing at ~37 cm DW and reaching at least 42 cm DW (Nishida and Nakaya 1988). <br/> <br/>Dasyatidae are mostly demersal in inshore waters, although several species range offshore and a few large species occur along the upper continental slopes as deep as 480 m. Several species are euryhaline while some others are confined to freshwater. All are aplacental viviparous. Litter varies between two to six young with gestation periods, which may take as long as 12 months (Last and Compagno 1999). Life history parameters taken from Nishida and Nakaya (1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  ~37 cm DW (male and female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  41.8 cm DW (holotype). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60155	population	Huveneers, C., 2006	Population size possibly small given limited range.	eng
60155	threats	Huveneers, C., 2006	<em>Dasyatis izuensis</em> can be collected by gillnets in shallow coastal waters in Japan (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). Probably taken as bycatch by the Japanese coastal bottom trawl fishery and to a lesser extent by set nets (H. Ishihara pers. com.). Care should be taken as any fishing impact on this species might have greater effects due to its narrow geographical and bathymetrical distribution. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this endemic species.	eng
60156	conservation	Barratt, P.J., Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	There is a need to define forms and stocks of this species and monitor changes in pressure on these (particularly if there is an increased fishing effort etc). <br/> <br/>Green Zones in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia provide some refuge for the species. No take zones need to be implemented on Northwest Shelf, which would benefit this and other species. <br/> <br/><em>Dasyatis leylandi</em> could be a potential indicator of fish down (common enough to begin with; acts as a surrogate species for other elasmobranchs which are less common). A shift from discarding to retention through increased landings (as the market for ray products increases) could alter the present situation and would need monitoring. <br/> <br/>Mandatory use of Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices in the Queensland ECTF and NPF have had little impact on reducing catches because of the small size of the species (P. Kyne unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Further investigation is needed into the life history traits of this species, particularly reproductive biology, as well as the extent of population differences. These differences may have ramifications for management, especially for areas subject to heavy fishing pressure such as the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Queensland east coast.	eng
60156	distribution	Barratt, P.J., Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	The geographic range of the two forms (east and west) needs better evaluation. Failure to capture <em>D. leylandi</em> in the northern range of the East Coast Trawl Fishery suggests that the range may be restricted somehow, possibly by habitat type (P. Kyne pers. obs). This may create a natural barrier to migration and intermixing between the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria/western populations, resulting in two distinct populations (P. Last pers. obs.).	eng
60156	habitat	Barratt, P.J., Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Unless otherwise referenced, information below drawn from Barratt (2003). <br/> <br/>A small stingray found in coastal waters. Specimens have been recorded in shallow waters (<5m) on the east and west coasts, and up to 75 m on the west coast (Last and Stevens 1994, W. White pers. comm.). Specimens from the East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF) were captured in depths 18 to 53.5 m, and in depths 13.4 to 52.8 m from the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF). Little is known of its biology and habits. <br/> <br/>Data on reproductive biology is limited, particularly for reproductive periodicity and seasonality, and gestation period. Its reproductive strategy is aplacental yolksac viviparity with trophonemata. Fecundity is 1 to 2 embryos, which is low, even for dasyatids. The range of maximum ovum diameters and presence of neonates and near neonates throughout a number of months of the year for the Gulf of Carpentaria population suggests that the females of this population do not display a seasonal reproductive cycle. Reproduction may be asynchronous, in the Gulf of Carpentaria population at least, with breeding, gestation and parturition occurring throughout the year. It is not known whether this species has restricted pupping grounds, however pups were caught as bycatch at assumed birth size, suggesting that pupping may occur within the areas of the ECTF and NPF. Assumed birth size is 11 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). Juveniles of 11 cm DW were recorded for the east coast population, while juveniles measuring 11, 10 and 9 cm DW were recorded for Gulf of Carpentaria population, however these may have been aborted. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been given as 18cm DW for females and 18.5 cm DW for males (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). A study of two populations found that maturity of females occurs between 16.5 to 18.2 cm DW for the Gulf of Carpentaria population and 18.5 cm DW for the east coast population; maturity of males occurs at between 16.7 to 17.7 cm DW for the Gulf of Carpentaria population and 18.0 cm DW for the east coast population. Earlier maturation in the Gulf population may be a result of higher temperatures promoting higher productivity. Calculation of 50% maturity may provide a more reliable estimate of maturity. <br/> <br/>Age at maturity (years) has not been validated, but the number of bands counted on vertebral samples supports earlier maturation of animals in the Gulf of Carpentaria compared with the east coast populations. Females of the east coast population form 3 to 4 bands by maturity, compared with only 1 to 2 bands for the Gulf of Carpentaria population, and males of the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations form 2 to 3 bands by maturity. <br/> <br/>Longevity (years) has not been validated, but a maximum of 12 and 9 bands were recorded for females, and 7 and 6 bands recorded for males, of the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations, respectively. <br/> <br/>Size sexual dimorphism is present in this species, with females generally being larger at maturity and reaching a larger maximal size than males. Maximum size of females was recorded as 31.7 cm DW and 28.1 cm DW from the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations, respectively; maximum size for males was 26.7 cm DW and 24.7 cm DW from the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations, respectively. Female to male sex ratio was found to be higher for both east coast (1.18:1) and Gulf of Carpentaria (1.31:1) populations. <br/> <br/><em>D. leylandi</em> is a demersal feeder, eating predominantly crustaceans, and some annelids, teleosts and molluscs. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Female: Unknown. Age has not been validated, but females of the east coast population form 3 to 4 bands by maturity, compared with only 1 to 2 bands for the Gulf of Carpentaria population. Male: Unknown. Age has not been validated, but males of the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations form 2 to 3 bands by maturity. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 18 cm DW (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). 16.5 to 18.2 cm DW Gulf of Carpentaria population; 18.5 cm DW east coast population. Male: 18.5 cm DW (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). 16.7 to 17.7 cm DW Gulf of Carpentaria population; 18.0 cm DW east coast population. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. Age has not been validated, but a maximum of 12 and 9 bands were recorded for females, and 7 and 6 bands recorded for males, of the east coast and Gulf of Carpentaria populations, respectively. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  Females: 31.7 cm DW (east coast population); 28.1 cm DW (Gulf of Carpentaria). Males: 26.7 cm DW (east coast population); 24.7 cm DW (Gulf of Carpentaria population). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  11 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994). 11 cm DW east coast; juveniles of 9.1 and 10 cm DW were recorded for Gulf of Carpentaria population, though these may have been aborted. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. Range of maximum ovum diameters and the presence of neonates and near neonates in females from the Gulf of Carpentaria population for a number of months throughout the year suggests that this population at least do not display a seasonal reproductive cycle. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 2 (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60156	population	Barratt, P.J., Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Highly abundant species within some parts of its distribution; commonly caught as trawl bycatch within its range. Species can form large aggregations (not schools, but aggregations). Common on Queensland scallop trawling grounds between Yeppoon and Hervey Bay (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005), but not commonly encountered on prawn trawl grounds north of Cairns (P. Kyne pers. obs). Populations east and west of Torres Straight are considered to be geographically distinct. <br/> <br/>It is difficult to determine population trends as <em>D. leylandi, D. kuhlii</em> and <em>D. annotata</em> were previously all considered to be variations of <em>D. kuhlii</em>.	eng
60156	threats	Barratt, P.J., Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	As with other stingrays <em>D. leylandi</em> is highly susceptible to capture due to its bottom-dwelling nature. It is a common component of trawl bycatch (which is discarded) within its Australian range. Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported that this susceptibility is a threat to the sustainability of a species. Also, the effect of fishing on the macrobenthos, which is the primary habitat of this species, is another concern. <br/> <br/>There is particularly high pressure on this species in the Gulf of Carpentaria. In the area of the NPF it is caught in about 15% of trawls and accounts for about 4.5% of the total catch (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Scallop sector of the QLD ECTF fishery-independent surveys between Yeppoon and Hervey Bay revealed that <em>D. leylandi</em> was the third most common elasmobranch species by number in the bycatch (15.6% of elasmobranch bycatch) (P. Kyne unpublished data). While this represents reasonable pressure, Green Zones in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park provide partial protection for the east coast population. <em>Dasyatis leylandi</em> is also recorded as irregular bycatch in the Exmouth Gulf Prawn Trawl Fishery, and is presumably caught as bycatch in the Shark Bay/Carnavon area Prawn Trawl Fishery, though data is unavailable. <br/> <br/>Indonesian fisheries operate to the PNG border and would certainly be taking this species. There is an increasing effort of Australian operators on the coast off PNG. Large pair trawlers operate out of Merauke, West Papua.  This fishery consists of some 650 vessels and pressure is intense where the vessels operate in the Arafura Sea. These vessels also operate illegally into northern Australian waters. <br/> <br/>The effect of historical trawl pressure from foreign fleets operating from 1959 to 1991 on the Northwest Shelf upon this species is unknown. Trawl effort was high at times during that period and is known to have caused a shift in community structure (Sainsbury <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Survivorship is generally unknown, and probably dependent on the method of capture. Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. (2002) reports that 27% of females and 95% of males (57% total) captured in the NPF died within the trawl net. This species does not appear to be robust in heavy trawl gear with scallop catch, where it is often crushed, resulting in reasonable mortality (P. Kyne unpublished data).	eng
60157	conservation	Smith, W.D., 2006	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>D. longa</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>D. longa</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. Large sharks are typically grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while all batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Mexican federal fisheries agencies began providing slightly more taxonomic resolution of ray landings by recently listing several new categories. Landings of <em>D. longa</em>, however, may still not be determined as they are grouped as ?manta raya? which may include dasyatid as well as urotrygonid and mobulid species.  Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends.  Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. longa</em>.	eng
60157	distribution	Smith, W.D., 2006	Reported from the central Pacific coast of Baja California, México to Colombia including the Galapágos Islands, and possibly north to San Diego, California, USA (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Acero and Franke 1995, Villavicencio-Garyazar 1995). Limited records of the species occurrence are available.	eng
60157	habitat	Smith, W.D., 2006	<em>Dasyatis longa</em> occurs to depths of at least 90 m over sandy bottoms or near reefs (Michael 1993, Acero and Franke 1995). Biological information on the species is sparse. Villavicencio-Garayzar <em>et al</em>. (1994) provided details on the reproductive biology of the species based on 23 female and 28 male specimens from Bahía Alemejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur, México. Males greater than 82 cm disc width (DW) were determined to be mature and females were found to be mature at ~110 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). As in other myliobatoid rays, females possess a single functional ovary. The number of offspring per litter ranges from one to five and size at birth is approximately 40 cm DW (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Gravid females have been captured containing near term embryos in shallow estuaries and tidal creeks in the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex during late summer months. It is possible that these areas are used as pupping or nursery grounds with females returning to deeper water following parturition (W. Smith personal observation). Mating may occur in the summer shortly after pupping. The gestation period is estimated 10 to 11 months (Villavicencio-Garayazar <em>et al</em>. 1994). Diet is reported to consist primarily of crustaceans (Beebe and TeeVan 1941). Life history parameters below are taken from Villavicencio-Garayzar <em>et al</em>. (1994). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: ~110 cm DW; Male: ~80 cm DW. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  at least 156 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 11 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 5 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60157	population	Smith, W.D., 2006	No information is available on the abundance, population structure, or population dynamics of this species.	eng
60157	threats	Smith, W.D., 2006	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries and indirect landings by unregulated demersal trawl, longline, and gillnet fisheries throughout the species? range. <br/> <br/>The species is highly vulnerable to demersal gillnets. Tail spines are the source of entanglement in netting, making a wide range of mesh sizes effective for capturing juveniles as well as adults. <br/> <br/>In addition to landings reported from the Gulf of California and the Mexican Pacific, the species is described as a component of the artisanal fisheries of Isla Gorgona, Colombia (Acero and Franke 1995). It is likely to contribute to artisanal fisheries throughout Central America, but no specific information is available.	eng
60158	conservation	Piercy, A., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anonymous 2004).	eng
60158	distribution	Piercy, A., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	This Atlantic coast species ranges from the Chesapeake Bay (U.S.A.) through the Gulf of Mexico to Campeche, Mexico (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Thornson 1983).	eng
60158	habitat	Piercy, A., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	This species is typically found in coastal and estuarine waters as well as freshwater lakes in central Florida. This ray is also found in the Mississippi river (USA) and Lake Pontchartran (Louisiana, USA) (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). Coastal populations of <em>D. Sabina</em> seem to prefer sandy substrates (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and are not typically seen at depths greater than 25 m (Funicelli 1975). Aplacental viviparous with mean range of litter size of 2.3 to 2.6 and a gestation period of four months (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988, Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: Coastal Florida: 23?25 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988), St. Johns River: 22 cm DW (Johnson and Snelson 1996); Male: Coastal Florida: 20 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988), St. Johns River: 21 cm DW (Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  Female: 45 cm DW (Lewis 1982); Male: 33 cm DW (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Coastal Florida: 10 to 13 cm DW; St. Johns River: 10 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  4 months (Snelson <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Mean range 2.3 to 2.6 (Johnson and Snelson 1996). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60158	population	Piercy, A., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	<em>Dasyatis Sabina</em> is common in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida (U.S.A.) (Snelson and Williams 1981). Anecdotal evidence indicates that <em>D. Sabina</em> populations are high in Florida coastal waters. These rays are also common in the freshwater St. Johns River and associated lakes in central Florida (McLane 1955, Tagatz 1968, Johnson and Snelson 1996). Data from Texas Parks and Wildlife Department show a decline in catch per unit effort in one of three Texas bays from 1975 to 2001. However, these data are not judged to be significant (R2 <0.20).	eng
60158	threats	Piercy, A., Snelson Jr., F.F. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Taken as bycatch in nearshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. Incidental bycatch of <em>D. Sabina</em> in the shark drift net fishery is low (Trent <em>et al</em>. 1997) and considered insignificant. Thorpe <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported large numbers of Atlantic stingrays caught as bycatch in the commercial gillnet fishery targeting flounder and a small number as bycatch in small-meshed, recreational gillnets and commercial gillnets targeting trout in North Carolina. Most are released, however, and mortality is probably low. No information on catches or population trends in Mexico, where it is probably retained when taken.	eng
60159	conservation	Snelson, F., Piercy, A. & Grubbs, D., 2006	Collection of data on bycatch of the species and use in southern parts of its range is required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. say</em>.	eng
60159	distribution	Snelson, F., Piercy, A. & Grubbs, D., 2006	Western Atlantic. Recorded from Massachusetts and New Jersey in the north (rare) to Florida Keys, eastern, northern and western Gulf of Mexico west to Texas and south to Mexico (rare), Greater and Lesser Antilles, eastern Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago. It has not been recorded from the southern Gulf of Mexico or the Caribbean coast of Central America. Records from Brazil and northern Argentina probably based on misidentifications of the recently described species <em>Dasyatis hypostigma</em> (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996, McEachran and Fechhelm 1998, McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Santos and de Carvalho 2004).	eng
60159	habitat	Snelson, F., Piercy, A. & Grubbs, D., 2006	Benthic in bays, estuaries, lagoons and coastal waters, usually at depths <10 m, and rarely to 20 m. No permanent freshwater populations known. <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 78 cm DW. Viviparous with litters of 1 to 6 annually after a gestation period of 10 to 11 months (including a period of embryonic diapause). <br/> <br/>Diet consists of benthic and infaunal invertebrates and demersal teleosts. Stomachs of three bluntnose stingrays in Chesapeake Bay contained the stomatopod <em>Squilla empusa</em> and the paralichthid flounder <em>Etropus crossotus</em> (D. Grubbs unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 50 to 54 cm DW; Male: 30 to 36cm DW. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  78 cm DW. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  15 to 17 cm DW. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 to 11 months (including a period of embryonic diapause). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 6, mean 3.5, mode 3 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60159	population	Snelson, F., Piercy, A. & Grubbs, D., 2006	Centre of distribution and abundance is the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Species becomes rare and patchy further south. <br/> <br/>The species is common in Delaware Bay (Hess 1959), Chesapeake Bay (Murdy <em>et al</em>. 1997), the Indian River Lagoon system on the east coast of Florida (Snelson and Williams 1981), and the northern Gulf of Mexico (Funicelli 1975). Snelson <em>et al</em>. (1989) give tangle net CPUE data for the Indian River Lagoon system in Florida. CPUE varied seasonally and regionally with salinity, but no population trends were evident over three years. The species is taken occasionally in the VIMS (Virginia Institute of Marine Science) longline survey, but no population trends are evident from 1996?2003 (J. Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).	eng
60159	threats	Snelson, F., Piercy, A. & Grubbs, D., 2006	Taken as bycatch in nearshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. In US waters, most are released, however, and mortality is probably low. Thorpe <em>et al</em>. (2001) reported bluntnose stingrays as minor bycatch in small-meshed, recreational gillnets and commercial gillnets targeting flounder in North Carolina. <br/> <br/>Little information available on catches and utilization in the Caribbean and southern parts of the species? range. Probably taken as bycatch in these areas, however the species becomes rare and patchy further south and so any directed or incidental catches would pose little threat to the species as a whole, although may affect local populations.	eng
60160	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	Collection of catch data required across range. Harvest management needed in near future. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>D. zugei</em>.	eng
60160	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Reasonably wide Indo-West Pacific range.	eng
60160	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Dasyatis zugei</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf in depths of typically less than 100 m and usually shallower, over flat, sandy substratum.  <br/> <br/>Attains maturity at ~19 cm DW (females) and ~18 cm DW (males) and attains maximum sizes of 29 cm DW, but more frequently to 24 cm DW (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White unpublished data). This species is aplacental viviparous, giving birth to 1 to 3 young after an unknown gestation period at a size of approximately 8 to 10 cm DW. In Indonesia this species does not appear to follow an annual reproductive cycle with embryos of varying sizes observed in most months sampled (W. White unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Diet not well known but preliminary examination reveals they prey predominantly on small crustaceans (mostly prawns) (W. White unpublished data). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 19.1 cm DW (W. White unpublished data); Male: 17.8 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width/total length):  29 cm DW; 75 cm TL (Last and Compagno 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  8 to 10 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 3 young/litter (?? Litters/year) (W. White unpublished data) . <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60160	population	White, W.T., 2006	Nothing known of population structure or size, although taken in large numbers by fisheries in some parts of its range (i.e., Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea).	eng
60160	threats	White, W.T., 2006	<em>Dasyatis zugei</em> is a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers operating within its range, for example in the Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs.). This species is also commonly caught off Indian coastal waters in intensive demersal fisheries that occur in that region (Hanfee 1999). There are very high levels of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range and since it is caught in such large numbers (in all size ranges) by trawlers, it is under a severe level of threat within most of its range. <br/> <br/>Typically all are retained and survivability of any discards would presumably be low due to their morphology.	eng
60161	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	Research actions are urgently needed for this species. Preliminary base-line studies are required to obtain data on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species, and in the first instance taxonomic status. <br/> <br/>Captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range. <br/> <br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered as conservation actions for this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>H. schmardae</em>.	eng
60161	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This tropical species is reportedly found on sandy bottoms and occasionally near coral reefs (Michael 1983) in the Gulf of Campeche (Mexico) to Brazil including the Lesser and Greater Antilles (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 1978, Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1992, Claro 1994, Almeida <em>et al</em>. in press). It has rarely been observed in the Amazon estuary region (Almeida et al. in press).	eng
60161	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	No information was found on the habitat and ecology of this species. Most citations refer only to its presence in species lists. Probably occurs inshore including estuarine areas. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  200 cm DW (Cervigón <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60161	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species is not very common within its range. Population size, trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species.	eng
60161	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & de Almeida, M.P., 2006	This species is reportedly caught as bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries (hooking and netting). This species is also taken as a subsistence food source. <br/> <br/>Intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species (Camhi <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
60162	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	<em>Taeniura meyeni</em> is afforded protection in some regions in marine protected areas. These include the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia and in marine reserves created around diving sites in the Maldives in recognition of the high value of sharks and rays to tourism (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The Maldives banned the export of rays on 1995 and the export of ray skins in 1996. Again, this was to protect the tourism resource (Anderson and Waheed 2001). <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one/species/person/day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>T. meyeni</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>T. meyeni</em>.	eng
60162	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Wide Indo-West Pacific distribution.	eng
60162	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Benthic around coral reef habitats and on sand substrates from the surf zone offshore to 439 m depth (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Last and Compagno 1999). Very little is known of its biology. Aplacental viviparous with reported litter sizes of up to seven young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Feeds on bivalves, crabs, shrimp and benthic fishes (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: unknown; Male: 100 to 110 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW; ~330 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~35 cm DW; 67 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994); 33 cm DW (W. White unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter sizes up to 7 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60162	population	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	Relationships between populations across its wide distribution not known.	eng
60162	threats	Kyne, P.M. & White, W.T., 2006	The species is caught by line gear and trawl throughout its range. Throughout Southeast Asia there is significant fishing pressure on large batoids, and whether targeted or taken as bycatch, all are landed and utilised. For example, in Indonesia <em>Taeniura meyeni</em> is regularly taken in low numbers by tangle netters operating out of Jakarta (Java), Bali and Merauke (West Papua), while demersal longliners that operate out of Lombok and large pair trawlers operating out of Merauke irregularly take adults. The latter fishery consists of some 650 vessels and pressure is intense where the vessels operate in the Arafura Sea. Low numbers of juveniles are also taken by prawn and fish trawlers around Indonesia, particularly in the Java Sea. <br/> <br/>Overall, fishing pressure is significant over most of the species? range throughout Asia and across its Indian Ocean range (India, East Africa etc.). Additional pressure exists on its habitat in that region due to destructive fishing practices (dynamite fishing) and run-off impacting coral reef systems, the main habitat of the species. <br/> <br/>In Australia, the species is a discarded bycatch in demersal prawn trawl fisheries. In the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), <em>Taeniura meyeni</em> had a mean catch rate of 0.4 individuals/km2 and was classified as amongst the least sustainable elasmobranch bycatch species in the fishery (this assessment combines the species? susceptibility to capture and mortality due to trawling and the capacity of the species to recover after depletion by trawling) (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002). The mandatory use of Turtle Exclusions Devices in prawn trawl fisheries operating off northern Australia (including the NPF and the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery) should limit the catch of this species in these fisheries. <br/> <br/>Taken by recreational surf and skiboat anglers off South Africa, but is apparently released unharmed (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Also a bycatch of offshore trawlers off southern Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
60163	conservation	Burgess, G.H., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2006	Monitoring of bycatch levels in various fisheries (recreational, commercial beach seine, gillnet and trawl) in all parts of the species? range is required. Investigation into potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities warrants consideration. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, the species? habitat is afforded some protection in a number of smaller Marine Protected Areas (MPA) including the West Coast National Park which encompasses Laangebaan Lagoon, Pondoland MPA, Table Mountain National Park and others. The declaration of the proposed Namaqualand MPA, which would protect 9,700 km² between the Spoeg and Groen Rivers, would provide further protection for the habitat of this and other species occurring off southwestern Africa. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. annulatus</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency. At the time of writing Angola had expressed its intention to begin to develop an NPOA (Anon. 2004).	eng
60163	distribution	Burgess, G.H., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa from southern Angola to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
60163	habitat	Burgess, G.H., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2006	Found in inshore waters from the shoreline to 50 to 100 m depth, including estuaries, the surf zone and enclosed bays, where it burrows beneath the sand. Sandy areas are used as nursery areas (Rossouw 1983). Possible offshore migration during winter and longshore migration of juveniles is also an unverified possibility (Rossouw 1983, Buxton <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>Copulation occurs in shallow inshore waters off sandy beaches. Aplacental viviparous, with females bearing litters of 2 to 10 young (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), which in South Africa, are born in the late summer (March-April). Offspring remain in shallows for at least one year. Maximum documented age is seven years and reaches 140 cm TL (Rossouw 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). <br/> <br/>Consumes infaunal invertebrates such as swimming crabs, mole crabs, small fishes, polychaete annelid worms, amphipods, and isopods. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  50% maturity: 3 years (male and female). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 50% maturity: 61.5 to 65 cm TL; Male: 50% maturity: 58 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  7 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  140 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  23 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  2 to 3 years. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 10 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60163	population	Burgess, G.H., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2006	A common species, the most abundant rhinobatid in southern African waters. Stocks of the species are not characterized, but there are possibly two separate stocks, one in the Western Cape area, South Africa and northward into southern Angolan waters, and the other along the southeastern African coast.	eng
60163	threats	Burgess, G.H., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2006	This guitarfish is subject to fishing mortality from recreational beach anglers and commercial fisheries, being commonly caught during shore angling tournaments, and being taken as bycatch in commercial gillnet, beach seine and trawl fisheries in South Africa and Namibia. No information is available on catches in Angola. <br/> <br/>Gillnet and beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape of South Africa report bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em>, but overall these catches are not significant (Freer and Griffiths 1993, Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Some beach seine fishers have reported substantial landings of <em>R. annulatus</em> (up to 10t per year, likely also including <em>R. blochii</em> due to identification issues), but surveying suggests that this is uncommon and overall effort from this fishery is small (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em> in the gillnet fishery appears to be negligible (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) with Freer and Griffiths (1993) reporting that <em>R. annulatus</em> are returned live to the water. <em>Rhinobatos annulatus</em> forms an irregular component of the bycatch of commercial prawn trawlers on the Tugela Bank, KwaZulu-Natal, occurring in 2.4% of trawls surveyed (Fennessy 1994). Those recorded in that fishery were primarily immature (Fennessy 1994). <br/> <br/>Potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities also warrants consideration.	eng
60164	conservation	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Monitoring of catch records from local fisheries is required and investigation into potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities warrants consideration. <br/> <br/>In South Africa, the species? habitat is afforded some protection in the small West Coast National Park, which encompasses Laangebaan Lagoon. Fishing is prohibited in two management zones of the park. The declaration of the proposed Namaqualand Marine Protected Area (MPA), which would protect 9,700 km² between the Spoeg and Groen Rivers, would greatly benefit this and other species occurring off southwestern Africa. Given the fiddlefish?s apparent rarity and endemism this MPA would be of high conservation value for this species. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes <em>R. blochii</em>. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency.	eng
60164	distribution	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Narrow range limited to ~1,000 km of the western coast of Southern Africa in Namibia and South Africa.	eng
60164	habitat	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	A little known species, <em>R. blochii</em> occurs in shallow bays and off sandy beaches. Aplacental viviparous, but its biology is unknown. Maximum recorded size 96 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  96 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60164	population	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Reported to be a rare species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), however there is no knowledge of the species? population size or structure. Approximately 15?20% of rhinobatid species caught in light tackle ski boat competitions in Laangebaan Lagoon were <em>R. blochii</em> (D. Ebert, pers. comm.).	eng
60164	threats	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Restricted range, apparent rarity, unknown population size, and occurrence in relatively shallow depths make this species potentially vulnerable to fishing activities. There is however minimal fishing pressure in the species area of occurrence and it is not being taken in any local fisheries with any regularity. Gillnet and beach seine fisheries in the Western Cape report bycatch of <em>R. annulatus</em> (Freer and Griffiths 1993, Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) and it is most likely that <em>R. blochii</em> forms a small component of this bycatch, but overall catches of <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. are not significant. Some beach seine fishers have reported substantial landing of <em>R. annulatus</em> (up to 10t per year, likely including <em>R. blochii</em> due to identification issues), but surveying suggests that this is uncommon and overall effort from this fishery is small (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002). Bycatch of <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. in the gillnet fishery appears to be negligible (Hutchings and Lamberth 2002) with Freer and Griffiths (1993) reporting that <em>R. annulatus</em> are returned live to the water. <br/> <br/>Recreational fishermen along the Namibia coast catch this species but they are not targeted nor are they used, with most individuals being released. The inaccessibility of parts of this species range due both to remoteness and diamond mine leases puts areas of the coast beyond recreational fishers. However, catch records from local fisheries should continue to be monitored. <br/> <br/>Potential habitat degradation from local diamond mining activities also warrants consideration.	eng
60165	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries where this species is taken and landed around Taiwan. The species? occurrence in the Philippines requires validation. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. At the time of writing, Taiwan had not made progress towards implementing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004).	eng
60165	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Restricted distribution in the Western Pacific off Taiwan and possibly a small area of the Philippines, off the mouth of Manila Bay, Luzon, although this occurrence is uncertain (Compagno and Last 1999, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
60165	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Inshore (from the intertidal zone to unknown depth) in warm temperate to tropical waters. Unconfirmed occurrence off northern Philippines is in 119 m depth, so also possibly an offshore species. <br/> <br/>Little known of biology. Aplacental viviparous. Examination of a single gravid female <em>R. formosensis</em> at Makung fish market in the Penghu Islands, Taiwan in late May 2005 revealed a litter of 14 near-term pups ranging in size 196 to 207 mm TL (average: 201 mm TL). Sex ratio of embryos was 1:0.75 (F:M). Large follicles of ~25 mm diameter were present in the ovaries, indicating that ovulation may occur soon after parturition (P. Kyne pers. comm.). Reproductive periodicity is annual in examined <em>Rhinobatos</em> species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 99.7 cm TL (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~20 to 21 cm TL (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Probably annual (based on other <em>Rhinobatos</em> species). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  14 pups/litter (based on one female) (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60165	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Suspected to be decreasing throughout its narrow range where it is fished both directly and indirectly.	eng
60165	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	The restricted range, biology and inshore habitat of this species make it highly susceptible to population depletion. This rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. <br/> <br/>The entire known area of occurrence of <em>R. formosensis</em> is impacted by intense and generally unregulated and unmonitored fisheries. In the Penghu Islands in the Taiwan Strait, the species appears to be a regular part of elasmobranch landings and observed catches of gravid females with near-term embryos, suggesting that the species is actively being fished in potential nursery areas is of concern (P. Kyne pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Although exact catch data are not available, declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred given the intensity of pressure on the inshore marine environment around Taiwan. Furthermore, fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.	eng
60166	conservation	Marshall, A.D. & Last, P.R., 2006	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution and to confirm presence in certain areas where it might have been previously been misidentified. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. granulosus</em>.	eng
60166	distribution	Marshall, A.D. & Last, P.R., 2006	Indo-West Pacific but range not accurately defined. Occurrence in the Western Indian needs better documentation. Possibly occurs off China, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Australia, but confusion with <em>Rhinobatos typus</em> confounds accurate mapping of range, particularly in the Western Pacific.	eng
60166	habitat	Marshall, A.D. & Last, P.R., 2006	Inshore and offshore to mid-continental shelf down to 119 m. Benthic on soft substrates. <br/> <br/>Little known of biology. Aplacental viviparous. Prasad (1951) documented litter sizes of 6 to 10 pups. Reproductive periodicity is annual in examined <em>Rhinobatos</em> species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  215 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Probably annual (based on other <em>Rhinobatos</em> species). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  6 to 10 pups/litter (Prasad 1951). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60166	population	Marshall, A.D. & Last, P.R., 2006	Was most abundant off India and Sri Lanka. Once moderately abundant but now irregularly caught in fisheries.	eng
60166	threats	Marshall, A.D. & Last, P.R., 2006	<em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> is fished throughout its range, both directly and indirectly. It was once moderately abundant but is now irregularly caught in local fisheries. <br/> <br/>This large rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. <br/> <br/>The entire known area of occurrence of <em>R. granulatus</em> is impacted by often intense and generally unregulated and unmonitored fisheries. The centre of abundance for this species, off India and Sri Lanka, is impacted upon by a high level of resource utilisation, as is most of the Southeast Asian region. Fishing pressure is consistently increasing in these areas and the demand for fins for the international fin trade is helping drive landings of large guitarfish. Although exact catch data are not available this species is seen less regularly than it was previously and declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred, while fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.	eng
60167	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. hynnicephalus</em>.	eng
60167	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Tropical and warm temperate waters in the Northwest Pacific.	eng
60167	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Inshore over the continental shelf. Benthic. Aplacental viviparous. Reproductive biology was studied off Xiamen, Fujian Province, China by Wenbin and Shuyuan (1993). Parturition of 2 to 9 pups takes place in June/July after a gestation period of 12 months with ovulation occurring soon after parturition (Wenbin and Shuyuan 1993). Number of embryos was related to maternal size with larger females more fecund (Wenbin and Shuyuan 1993). Life history parameters taken from Wenbin and Shuyuan (1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 39 to 44 cm TL; Male: 38 to 40 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  62.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  16 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months . <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 9 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60167	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60167	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	This species? biology and inshore habitat make it highly susceptible to population depletion. This rhinobatid is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and its occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. <em>Rhinobatos hynnicephalus</em> is known to be taken by year-round commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries off Fujian, China and net and line fisheries operate over much of the coastal range of this species. The species is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. Pressure along the Chinese coast is only likely to increase and this species will continue to be impacted upon. This is, however, a small species of rhinobatid (to 62.2 cm TL) and so may be slightly more resilient than larger, slower growing species. That said, it is still unlikely to withstand the present level of fishing pressure across its range and habitat. <br/> <br/>Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos</em> species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution.	eng
60168	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends. Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much-needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. leucorhynchus</em>.	eng
60168	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Ranges from Lagunas Ojo de Liebre-Guerrero Negro, central Baja California (Arellano Martinez et al. 1997), to Ecuador (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) including Gulf of California (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Peréz 1996, Robertson and Allen 2002, Bizzarro, pers. obs.) Also reported from Galapagos Islands and to Peru, but source unverified (Robertson and Allen 2002). Rare in northern Gulf of California and Baja Pacific (Bizzarro pers. obs., Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). Because it can be confused with other rhinobatid species in this region, it is possible that reports of this species off the Baja Pacific coast and perhaps in the northern Gulf of California are misidenfications or else this species likely only reaches these areas during periods of elevated water temperatures.  Most common south of Mazatlan, México (Bizzarro pers. obs).	eng
60168	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Demersal, benthic in shallow marine coastal waters and embayments, especially on sandy substrates (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). Reported in intertidal waters and (questionably) to 50 m (Robertson and Allen 2002), verified to only 8 m (Arrellano Martinez <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Biology is unknown. Aplacental viviparous like other rhinobatids. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  62.5 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60168	population	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Population structure unknown.	eng
60168	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	The species is taken in directed artisanal elasmobranch landings. Taken in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery in México with bottomset gillnets, especially off Sinaloa and south of Mazatlan (R. Hueter et al. unpublished data, A. Torres pers. comm.). Likely landed in southern portion of range as well, but can?t be verified as no information is available for this region. <br/> <br/>Indirect landings by commercial trawl and gillnets. Reported as common bycatch in shrimp trawling operations in the southern Gulf of California and southern Mexican Pacific (L. Castillo-Geniz pers. comm., A. Torres pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming.  Since <em>R. leucorhynchus</em> is thought to frequent these areas, this activity could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas. This practice may also be occurring in the southern portion of its range, but no data is available.	eng
60169	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Further specimens are required to document the species? range and biology. The Russian collected specimen needs to be compared to the holotype of <em>R. nudidorsalis</em> to see if it represents a second specimen of the species (M. Stehmann pers. comm.). Further survey work should focus on the Saya de Malha Bank as well as other banks along the Mascarene Ridge (Seychelles Bank, Nazareth Bank and Mauritius Bank). <br/> <br/>High seas benthic trawling activities are impacting poorly known oceanic environments on a global basis (Gianni 2004). High seas fishing activities require international regulation to ensure endemic fauna is not adversely impacted when taken in directed fisheries or as bycatch.	eng
60169	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Possibly endemic to the Mascarene Ridge (central Indian Ocean) and as presently known has a very restricted range. Available habitat on the entire Saya de Malha Bank is calculated to be 22,000 km² based on the area between the 50 and 200 m isobaths (L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data). Further survey work may show that the species has a wider distribution, for example on the other banks of the Mascarene Ridge (Seychelles Bank, Nazareth Bank and Mauritius Bank), and these areas are where survey work should attempt to locate the species.	eng
60169	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Single known specimen (the holotype) is a 50.1 cm TL mature male taken at a depth of 125 m on an oceanic ridge (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). Likely to be a small to moderate sized species of rhinobatid given that the holotype was mature at 50 cm TL (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). Nothing known of the species? biology, but <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are aplacental viviparous with litter sizes ranging 2 to 16 and an annual reproductive cycle. <br/> <br/>A second <em>Rhinobatos</em> specimen collected by Russian surveys from the Saya de Malha Bank in 1989 is likely to be this species, although this has not been confirmed. This specimen was taken in similar depths as the holotype (87 to 110 m) (M. Stehmann pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: holotype mature at 50.1 cm TL (Last <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 50 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60169	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Population is inferred to be small based on potentially limited area of available habitat.	eng
60169	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	There is no specific information available neither on fishing activities in the species? area of occurrence nor on catches of this ray. However, Saya de Malha Bank is a large, relatively shallow, easily accessible oceanic feature likely to be presently targeted by high seas fishing vessels. <br/> <br/>There is an increasing trend for fishing vessels operating out of African ports to target such oceanic features for high value teleosts including wreck bass and toothfish. The fact that this bank is remote and beyond any national Economic Exclusion Zone, and therefore is not governed by fishing regulations or subject to fisheries patrols makes it an appealing fishing zone. High seas fishing is likely to continue to grow in the future as resources within national jurisdiction are depleted and/or as restrictions are placed on resources/fisheries under national jurisdiction (Gianni 2004). <br/> <br/>Even despite any available catch data, unregulated and unmonitored fishing activities pose a real threat to <em>R. nudidorsalis</em> whose available habitat on the Saya de Malha Bank (calculated as the area between the 50 and 200 m isobaths) is limited to just over 20,000 km². This is an unusual rhinobatid as most other species have a coastal occurrence. The central Western Indian Ocean is not well surveyed and further survey work is required. <br/> <br/>A precautionary approach is taken to this assessment, factoring in present trends of unregulated and unmonitored fisheries on the high seas targeting high value teleost products, the accessibility of the type locality, the low reproductive potential of rhinobatids and the small area of available habitat (inferring a low population size).	eng
60170	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of <em>R. obtusus</em>.	eng
60170	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Primarily an Eastern Indian species.	eng
60170	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Inshore and offshore distribution along coastal shelves. Benthic. Nothing known of the species? biology, but <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are aplacental viviparous with litter sizes ranging 2 to 16 and an annual reproductive cycle. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  93 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60170	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Population trends not clear but <em>Rhinobatos obtusus</em> was once moderately abundant throughout its relatively wide range but is now only irregularly caught in local fisheries.	eng
60170	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	<em>Rhinobatos obtusus</em> was once moderately abundant throughout its relatively wide range but is now only irregularly caught in local fisheries. Coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific (including Malaysia and Indonesia) and declines in some species have been documented. For example, <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> has been significantly impacted by heavy inshore fishing pressure where it occurs in Brazil. Similarly declines are now been observed in species in Southeast Asia, for example <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> and others. Species are impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. Reproductive biology of rhinobatids is reasonably well studied compared with other batoid groups. <em>Rhinobatos</em> species tend to have an annual reproductive cycle producing a single litter per year of between two and 16 pups. Landings of aggregations of gravid females which was a factor in the decline of <em>R. horkelii</em> in Brazil and which has been observed for <em>R. formosensis</em> in Taiwan is cause for great concern. These observations likely mirror trends elsewhere where inshore rhinobatids are fished. <br/> <br/>The entire range of <em>R. obtusus</em> is subject to generally unregulated, unmonitored and often intense inshore fisheries and fishing pressure is consistently increasing in these areas. Although exact catch data are not available this species is seen less regularly than it was previously and declines of greater than 30% are expected to have already occurred, while fishing pressure continues unabated over this species? range and habitat.	eng
60171	conservation	Márquez, F., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	There are currently no specific conservation measures in place for this species in US or Mexican waters. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>R. productus</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are also necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the USA and Mexico. At the time of writing, the USA has developed a National Plan of Action (NPOA), while Mexico had developed a NPOA but implementation has been blocked by industry (Anon. 2004).	eng
60171	distribution	Márquez, F., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	This species is reported from San Francisco Bay, California to the southern Gulf of California, Mexico (Miller and Lea 1972, Eschmeyer 1983). Occurrence of this species north of Point Conception, CA, has become rare in recent years, however, and the current range does not extend beyond Elkhorn Slough, central CA. This is likely a result of changing oceanic conditions and not overfishing.	eng
60171	habitat	Márquez, F., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	The shovelnose commonly inhabits sandy or muddy shallow waters of bays, sloughs, and estuaries, typically in waters shallower than 12 m, but also to depths of 91.5 m (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Love 1996). <br/> <br/>Considerable information on reproductive biology and age-growth has been gathered for this species from both the west coast of Baja California Sur (BCS) in Mexico (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, González-García 1998, Downton-Hoffmann 2001, Márquez-Farías unpublished data) and from US Californian waters (Miller and Lea 1972, Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983, Timmons and Bray 1997). This species is aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/>Fecundity has been reported as 1 to 10 pups/litter (average five) (Márquez-Farías unpublished data) and 6 to 16 pups/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). Gestation takes 4 to 5 months (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). The species has a continuous reproductive cycle. Pregnant females may contain uterine capsules and large ripe ova in both ovaries at the same time, but the reproductive cycle is annual with a single litter per year (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates (i.e., molluscs, crustaceans, worms) and fishes (Ferguson and Cailliet 1990). In Bahía Almejas, its diet consists primarily of crustaceans, including pea crabs, benthic shrimp and swimming crabs and occasional takes small razor clams and fishes (Bizzarro 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 7 years (Timmons and Bray 1997); Male: 7 to 8.4 years (Timmons and Bray 1997). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 99 cm TL (Timmons and Bray 1997), 66 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 87 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman, 1996); Male: 91 to 100 cm TL (Timmons and Bray 1997), <63 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 80 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman 1996), 92 cm TL (Dubois 1981), 110 cm TL (Talent 1985). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  11 years (Timmons and Bray 1997). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Females: 156 cm TL (Baxter 1966); Males: 114 cm TL (Dowton-Hoffman 1996). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>):  20 to 24 cm TL in San Quintin Bay, Baja California, Mexico (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993), 15 cm TL in Almejas Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Eschmeyer et al. 1983), 17.5 cm TL in Sonora, Mexico (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  4 to 5 months in Sonora, Mexico (Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Annual (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993, Márquez-Farías unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 to 10 pups/litter (average 5) (Márquez-Farías unpublished data), 6?16 pups/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1993). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60171	population	Márquez, F., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	In the northwest of Mexico, the shovelnose guitarfish is abundant in spring and summer close to the shore. <br/> <br/>No other information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from its range.	eng
60171	threats	Márquez, F., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Taken in directed artisanal fisheries in Mexico. Pregnant females are frequently caught in the artisanal gillnet fishery on the west coast of Baja California (Salazar-Hermoso and Villavicencio 1999, Bizzarro 2005) and the coast of Sonora, Gulf of California, Mexico (Márquez-Farias 2002). Gillnet selectivity analysis reveled a tendency to catch mature individuals by the fishery (Márquez-Farias in press). Neonates and small juveniles are not present in the directed fishery. Also taken as indirect landings by demersal trawls (especially shrimp trawlers), and gillnets in Mexican waters. The impact of high catches of mature individuals either by the directed artisanal fishery or in indirect landings is unknown. In the Bahía Almejas summer batoid fishery, this species is the most abundant in June landings (ca. 51% of catch, CPUE (#/vessel/day)=21.8) landings and third most abundant in August landings (ca. 13%, CPUE=2.8). The fishery in Bahía Almejas, Baja California has severely declined after greatly increased effort in the mid to late 1990?s and its abundance has almost surely declined in this region as a result of fishing pressure. In Sonora, Mexico, it is the most abundant batoid landed in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Márquez-Farías 2002). <br/> <br/>Taken by anglers to a limited extent in US waters and occasionally sold in Asian markets in southern California. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in northwest Pacific Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.	eng
60172	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	In the first instance there is a requirement to obtain further specimens of this species in order to accurately document its distribution and occurrence in local fisheries. Information is also required on the species? biology. A better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is also required. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. At the time of writing, Oman had shown an intention to develop a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004).	eng
60172	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Coastal shelf of Oman ? Arabian Sea.	eng
60172	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Presumably bottom dwelling like other similar species of guitarfish. Nothing known of the species? biology but rhinobatids are aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 54 cm TL (Randall and Compagno 1995). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60172	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Only known from a single specimen collected at a fish market in Salalah, western Oman. Extent of range is unknown but may be very restricted in the Arabian Sea.	eng
60172	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Threats to this species are unknown because of the lack of information on distribution and fisheries data. However, coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific and declines in some species have been documented. For example, <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em> has been significantly impacted by heavy inshore fishing pressure where it occurs in Brazil. Similarly declines are now been observed in species in Southeast Asia, for example <em>Rhinobatos granulatus</em> and others. Species are impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure where the flesh is utilised and the demand for fins for the international fin trade could be a factor in the switch from subsistence fisheries to more directed, commercial export fisheries of especially the larger guitarfish in areas such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution. Reproductive biology of rhinobatids is reasonably well studied compared with other batoid groups. <em>Rhinobatos</em> species tend to have an annual reproductive cycle producing a single litter per year of between 2?16 pups. While catch numbers are not readily available, regional populations are expected to be decreasing in areas where these susceptible species are fished. <br/> <br/>Further fish market surveys in Oman failed to produce any other specimens of this species, so it is not known to what extent the species is being landed in Oman.	eng
60175	conservation	White, W.T. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of <em>Rhinobatos thouin</em> is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, particularly in relation to finning, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>R. thouin</em>. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve difficult decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.	eng
60175	distribution	White, W.T. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Widespread Indo-West Pacific distribution. Possibly Suriname and the Mediterranean (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
60175	habitat	White, W.T. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Benthic ray found in inshore waters, typically less than 60 m depth over soft sandy substrate. <br/> <br/>Aplacental viviparous, attaining at least 300 cm TL but nothing known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >300 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60175	population	White, W.T. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
60175	threats	White, W.T. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Taken by multiple artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout its range as a target species and as bycatch. Fished using nets, line and hook, and trawls throughout its range. Large species, extremely powerful but still vulnerable to gillnets and to a lesser extent inshore trawl fisheries and lines. The fins from <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. are widely considered as being amongst the most valuable of elasmobranchs (i.e., white-fin) and there is a significant incentive for fishers to remove the fins from large individuals when they are taken as either target catch or bycatch. <em>R. thouin</em> is commonly landed as bycatch in fisheries in Indonesia (Chen 1996, White unpublished data). Fisheries targeting the rhynchobatids in eastern Indonesia, e.g., Aru Islands and Merauke (Papua), often catch this species but generally in low numbers. Also recorded as trawl bycatch in Sabah and Sarawak (R. Cavanagh, pers.com). <br/> <br/>Since juveniles of this species inhabit shallow sand flats and mangrove estuaries (White, unpubl. data), intensive fishing pressures, e.g., gill, trap and seine nets, in such inshore areas throughout Indonesia (e.g., Merauke, Papua) are most likely having a high level of impact on this species. <br/> <br/>Not known to have specific habitat requirements but young may require specific inshore nursery areas that have been affected by human activities resulting in habitat degradation, as destructive fishing practices and pollution are significant factors affecting marine resources in parts of this species? range. <br/> <br/>Local population depletion can be inferred from Indonesia where the target gillnet fishery fleet declined from a maximum of 500 boats in 1987 to 100 in 1996 due to declining catch rates (Chen 1996).	eng
60176	conservation	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Further research (including continued market and fishing surveys) is required to document habitat, distribution and to locate any remnant populations. Elasmobranch catches in Zanzibar artisanal fisheries need documenting, including the degree of finning. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Tanzania. At the time of writing, Tanzania had not made progress towards developing a National Plan of Action.	eng
60176	distribution	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Extremely limited range in the Western Indian, only reported off Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. Narrow range supported by the fact that efforts to find additional specimens in fish markets and in underwater surveys in other areas have failed to produce any other individuals.	eng
60176	habitat	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	A rare, little known coastal species. A large species, Norman (1926) reporting a female of 205 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Like other rhinobatids, aplacental viviparous, but biology is unknown. Studied <em>Rhinobatos</em> species have an annual reproductive cycle with litter sizes of 2 to 16 pups. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  205 cm TL (Norman 1926). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60176	population	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	As presently known, an extremely rare species, known only from a few specimens. Survey work has failed to locate other individuals in and around Zanzibar, the adjacent Tanzanian coast and the wider East African region. There is no knowledge of population size or structure.	eng
60176	threats	Burgess, G.H. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Coastal rhinobatids are susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, line and seine net and their occurrence along inshore areas of the continental shelf makes these rays an easy target for such fisheries. Target fisheries for guitarfish currently exist in several countries particularly in the Indo-West Pacific and declines in some species have been documented. When taken flesh is utilized and the fins of larger species enter the international fin trade for the Asian market. It is probable that the fins of <em>R. zanzibarensis</em> enter the international market, as the large wedgefish <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> is commercially exploited for its fins in Tanzanian waters in bottom-set gillnets, when taken in prawn trawls and possibly also by spearfishermen (Barnett 1997), suggesting that <em>R. zanzibarensis</em>, as a large guitarfish, is also a desirable catch. <br/> <br/>Coastal waters of Zanzibar are consistently fished by artisanal fishers mostly using traditional vessels (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). A wide variety of gear is employed including drag nets, spear, handline, seine nets and fish traps (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). Rays are known to be caught and retained and shark fin is marketed (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). If <em>R. zanzibarensis</em> is restricted to the inshore continental shelf around Zanzibar, the majority of its available habitat would be fished by a variety of gear. Various regulations govern gear use in Zanzibar, but there are issues with enforcement and so illegal and sometimes destructive fishing activities still occur (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002). The present level of fishing in coastal areas of Zanzibar is of concern for this large, rare and limited range guitarfish. If however, the species is found to have a wider range into deeper waters, it may presently persist due to the limited range of traditional fishing vessels. Fishing pressure outside coastal areas is minimal at present in Tanzania (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002).	eng
60177	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Z. exasperate</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans in México. Legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management, but progress has been seriously delayed. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>Z. exasperata</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. All batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends. Expanded monitoring of elasmobranch catches in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable species- and sex-specific information and improve our limited knowledge of the extent of these fisheries. <br/> <br/>In addition to the much-needed species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, movement patterns, habitat use, and further reproductive studies throughout its range.  Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>Z. exasperata</em>.	eng
60177	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Southern extent of range is not well defined. Known to occur at least to Mazatlán, México with records further south (through Central and South America to Peru) probably the closely-related <em>Z. xyster</em>. May therefore have a relatively restricted range.	eng
60177	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Inhabits rocky reefs, shallow, sandy lagoons and nearshore waters, from the intertidal zone down to 200 m depth, but mostly at depths of 2.5 to 10 m (Feder <em>et al</em>. 1974, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, de la Cruz-Aguero <em>et al</em>. 1997, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Reaches a maximum size of 97 cm TL (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). Very little information is available for this species outside of its breeding grounds. Aplacental yolksac viviparous with litter sizes of 4 to 11 young produced annually. Gestation is 3 to 4 months and birthing occurs during July and August after mating at the end of March and beginning of April (Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, México). Other than during the mating period, sexes may be segregated (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). Females congregate in shallow bays and lagoons (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Ebert 2003). In Bahía Almeja, México, females are resident from January to August, after which they migrate, likely to deeper waters. However, almost no information exists on this species outside its breeding/pupping cycle and its whereabouts and possible sexual segregation during these times is purely speculative. Males are present in embayments and probably nearshore waters during early spring for copulation, then emigrate while females remain until parturition during July or August (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). No specific age and growth or feeding studies have been conducted and only limited reproductive information is available. Larger females may produce larger litters (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995). <br/> <br/>Benthic invertebrates, including crabs and shrimp, have been noted among stomach contents (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 57 to 77 cm TL (Ebert 2003); Male: 64 to 70 cm TL (Ebert 2003). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  97 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  15 to 18 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  3 to 4 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4 to 11 young per litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60177	population	Bizzarro, J.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	There are several lagoons along the Pacific coast of Baja California, which likely serve as important nursery grounds (Ebert 2003). Neonates were recorded at San Ignacio Lagoon, Baja California Sur, but only gravid females have been noted in other embayments (though their function as nursery grounds is almost assured) (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995).  Near-term embryos were spontaneously aborted from landings taken in shallow, nearshore waters off central Sonora during late May (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>The population size is completely unknown and it is not known if this is a relatively uncommon species, as landings would suggest, or (other than during breeding aggregations) it simply occupies areas that are not heavily fished.	eng
60177	threats	Bizzarro, J.J. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	This species is taken in artisanal fisheries in the Gulf of California and Bahia Almejas, Baja California, México. In the directed batoid fishery in Bahía Almejas, Baja California fishermen target aggregations of primarily gravid females during late spring and early summer months in nearshore and inshore nursery grounds (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1995, Bizzarro and Smith in press, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). Within the Gulf of California (GOC), landings information is scarce outside of Sonora (Marquez-Farias 2002). It is not a primary fishery target, however, and is rarely taken in the GOC. Exceptions may be during reproductive aggregations and possible large catches by shrimp trawlers. Information on indirect landings by commercial trawls and gillnets is lacking. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, México are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. This practice may also be occurring in the southern portion of its range, but no data is available.	eng
60178	conservation	Casper, B.M., Ebert, D.A. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Research required to identify its importance in fisheries and to provide information on life-history.	eng
60178	distribution	Casper, B.M., Ebert, D.A. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: poorly-defined distribution; known from Mazatlán, México southwards to at least Panama and Columbia, and probably Ecuador and Perú.<br/><br/>Examination of specimens previously identified as <em>Z. exasperata</em> from Colombia has shown these to be <em>Z. xyster </em>(D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). References to the occurrence of the closely-related <em>Z. exasperata</em> south to Caleta la Cruz, Perú (i.e. Chirichigno and Vélez (1998) for Perú, and Béarez (1996) for Ecuador) may in fact represent records of <em>Z. xyster</em>. Indeed, Ebert (2003) questions the occurrence of <em>Z. exasperata</em> south of Mazatlán, México (23.15°N), noting possible confusion with <em>Z. xyster</em>, which is a more tropically distributed species. The Mazatlán area is a major faunal break region, and to date, <em>Zapteryx</em> specimens examined from north of Mazatlán have been attributable to <em>Z. exasperata</em> and those from south of Mazatlán (to Colombia) to <em>Z. xyster</em> (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). As such, <em>Z. exasperata</em> is not treated in this report.	eng
60178	habitat	Casper, B.M., Ebert, D.A. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	The habitat, biology and ecology of this tropical species are very poorly known. Occurs inshore to depths of at least 90m (considerably deeper than the closely-related <em>Z. exasperata</em>) (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). It is possibly associated with reefs. Males are adult at 50.5cm TL and the smallest free-swimming specimens have measured 17.5–17.8cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data). Like other rhinobatids is apacental yolksac viviparous, but details of reproduction are lacking.	eng
60178	threats	Casper, B.M., Ebert, D.A. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Probable bycatch from bottom trawls and gillnet fisheries, but no data available. The benthic nature and usual inshore occurrence of rhinobatid rays make them susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear (trawl net, line, seine net, gillnet etc.) and these rays often form a large component of catches. Rhinobatids are consistently landed in México, where they are the most important component of directed artisanal elasmobranch landings.	eng
60179	conservation	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Surveys in the Timor and Arafura Seas need to be continued in order to record any future records of the species, and therefore, better document the species? distribution, to determine the extent of occurrence (and any degree of patchiness in the range) and the population size. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60179	distribution	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Presently limited in the Timor Sea off northern Australia. Presumably restricted to the east of its presently known location as ridges would stop the spread of the species to the west.	eng
60179	habitat	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Single known specimen (58.2 cm TL female) was recorded from the continental shelf at 124 m. Nothing known of the life history characteristics of the species. Presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous and feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates like other members of the genus. Recorded litter sizes of congeneric species are 14 to 16 for <em>A. vincentiana</em> (Haake 1885) and 4 to 18 for <em>A. rostrata</em> (Kyne and Bennett 2002). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 58 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60179	population	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Known only from a single specimen. Population size is estimated to be very small as considerable survey work has failed to find any other specimens.	eng
60179	threats	Last, P.R. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	The potential area of occurrence of this species faces unregulated fishing and this is of particular concern due to its apparent rarity, inferred small population size and limited distribution. <br/> <br/>The area where the only known specimen was collected is near the edge of the Australian fishing zone. The area adjacent is a ?free for all? for fishing vessels operating out of eastern Indonesia and there appears to be more activity in this area than was previously thought. About 650 large Thai pair trawlers operate in the Arafura Sea from the port of Merauke in West Papua. This fishery is unregulated and batoids compose a substantial portion of the catch, all of which is retained and marketed. <br/> <br/>The species may also enter the bycatch of northern Australian prawn trawl fisheries, but this is likely to be negligible based on the depth at which the type specimen was taken.	eng
60180	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	No direct conservation actions in place although Marine Reserves in part of its range might provide some relief from fishing pressures in that immediate area. In December 2003, an agreement was signed halting all forms of target fisheries for sharks and rays in the Banc d?Arguin National Park (PNBA) in Mauritania. The future management of the sciaenid fishery will tend to reduce the elasmobranch bycatch by identifying and closing the fishery during those periods and in those zones where the highest levels of such bycatch occurs. The sub-regional plan of action for the conservation and the management of sharks (Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands) proposes that all their MPAs should become non-fishing zones for elasmobranchs in future years. Indeed, shark fishing is already prohibited in some small sub-regional MPAs: João-Vieira Poilão Marine Turtles National Park (NP), Orango NP, Cacheu Mangal NP and Urok Islands Community Management Area in Guinea-Bissau; Sine Saloum NP, Bamboung Bolon Marine Reserve and Madeleine Islands NP in Senegal (Ducrocq 2004). <br/> <br/>Monitoring and documentation of direct and indirect artisanal and commercial catches is required where the species is being fished. Harvest and trade management is needed, including monitoring and control of fin trading activities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Members of the west African Commission Sous-Regionale des Peches (CSRP) (Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands) have produced a sub-regional shark plan, endorsed by the Sub-Region?s Fisheries Ministers and has since proceeded to encourage its Member States to develop their own National Plans in cooperation within the group and progress with this is underway (Anon. 2004).	eng
60180	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	West coast of Africa from Mauritania through the Gulf of Guinea south to Angola.	eng
60180	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Restricted inshore coastal habitat. Benthic on soft mud or sand from the intertidal zone to 70 m, but generally not deeper than 35 m. Aplacental viviparous, but no details available of its biology. Given their size, rhynchobatids are suspected to have low fecundity and slow growth rates characteristic of large elasmobranchs. <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> from the Western Indian Ocean is reported to bear litters of four pups (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  300 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  52 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60180	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	This species was historically moderately abundant in the 1960?s but populations are declining markedly in areas throughout its range that are heavily fished.	eng
60180	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	The restricted coastal habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. <br/> <br/>Target fisheries for guitarfish and indirect fisheries catching guitarfish as bycatch currently exist in several countries, and given their inshore habitat and large size they are an easily accessible resource. Actual exploitation levels of the marine environment are intense in some parts of coastal West Africa, and there is the potential for increased exploitation as the human population continues to rise in the region, and as the demand for the international fin trade only increases. <em>Rhynchobatus luebberti</em> was once moderately abundant in some areas of its distribution but is now taken much less frequently. Observed declines have included those from specialized guitarfish fisheries in Gambia in the 1980?s, marked declines in guitarfish populations in Guinnea-Bissau since the 1990?s, and dramatic declines in Mauritania. These regional declines have resulted from often intensive direct and indirect fishing pressure, from coastal commercial and artisanal fisheries including benthic trawling, trammel netting, gill netting, longlining, and hook and line fishing. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) may be affecting this species given its inshore range.	eng
60181	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	No direct conservation actions in place, although the banning of trawling around the island and territorial waters of Singapore is affording this species a limited amount of protection within this immediate area from this type of fishing. It is still, however heavily fished with other methods in that region. <br/> <br/>Needs better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities. Livelihood alternatives may need to be sought for fishing communities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for progress made by Indonesia towards a National Plan of Action and towards a regional plan of action involving both Indonesia and Singapore.	eng
60181	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Narrow geographic range with a fragmented distribution off northwestern Java (Indonesia) and Singapore in the Western Central Pacific.	eng
60181	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	An inshore species, benthic in coastal waters. This is a ?dwarf? species of <em>Rhynchobatus</em>, reaching 82 cm TL (whereas other members of the genus reach 300 cm TL). Aplacental viviparous, but little is known of the species? biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >69 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999); Male: Adolescent 65 cm TL, adult 71 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  82 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  21 to 24cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60181	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	An uncommon species (Compagno and Last 1999). Observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines. Additional catch data and observations need to be made.	eng
60181	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	The restricted inshore habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. The situation is heightened with respect to <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. A which has a restricted and fragmented distribution. <br/> <br/>This species is irregularly caught as bycatch in local fisheries throughout its range but there are also reportedly directed fisheries for this species in both Indonesia and Singapore. Coastal rhynchobatid species, including <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. A are highly susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including inshore trawl nets, gill nets and line gear. Its flesh is highly sought after as are its fins, which are sold into the international fin trade. Fishing is intense and generally unregulated throughout the species? range and direct observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines of this naturally uncommon species. In particular, Indonesia has an extremely high level of exploitation on its marine resources, and this is only likely to increase into the future. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore range, particularly off Java, where human pressure on the coastal and marine environment is high.	eng
60182	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	No direct conservation actions in place, although the banning of trawling around the island and territorial waters of Singapore is affording this species a limited amount of protection within this immediate area from this type of fishing. It is still, however heavily fished with other methods in that region. <br/> <br/>There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution and confirm presence in certain areas where it might have been previously been misidentified as other <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species. Needs better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats to establish best amelioration processes. <br/> <br/>Harvest and trade management is needed, including control of fin trading activities. Livelihood alternatives may need to be sought for fishing communities. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for progress made countries in the range of <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B towards National Plans of Action and towards a regional plan of action involving Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and other nations.	eng
60182	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	Narrow geographic range with a fragmented distribution off northwestern Java (Indonesia), peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines in the Western Central Pacific.	eng
60182	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	An inshore species, benthic in coastal waters. One of the larger species of <em>Rhynchobatus</em>, probably reaching 250 to 300 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). Aplacental viviparous, but little is known of the species? biology. Given their size, rhynchobatids are suspected to have low fecundity and slow growth rates characteristic of large elasmobranchs. <em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em> from the Western Indian Ocean is reported to bear litters of four pups (van der Elst 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 125 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Verified to 213 cm TL, but probably up to 250 to 300 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  <37 cm (L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60182	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	A historically moderately abundant species. Observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines. Additional catch data and observations need to be made.	eng
60182	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, A.D., 2006	The restricted inshore habitat, limited life history characteristics, susceptibility to capture in various gear types, and ever growing demand place coastal rhynchobatids amongst the most vulnerable chondrichthyan fishes. The situation is heightened with respect to <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B which has a fragmented distribution and a relatively small distribution. <br/> <br/>This species is irregularly caught as bycatch in local fisheries throughout its range but there are also reportedly directed fisheries for this species in Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. They are generally retained and utilized when taken as bycatch. Coastal rhynchobatid species, including <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B are highly susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including inshore trawl nets, gill nets and line gear. Its flesh is highly sought after as are its fins, which are sold into the international fin trade. Fishing is intense and generally unregulated throughout the species? range and direct observations of bycatch numbers have indicated population declines of this naturally uncommon species (it was once moderately abundant but is now only irregularly taken). In particular, Indonesia has an extremely high level of exploitation on its marine resources, and this is only likely to increase into the future. Local extirpations of elasmobranch species (for example some eagle ray species; L.J.V. Compagno unpublished data) have occurred in the Gulf of Thailand and this raises immediate concern for <em>Rhynchobatus</em> sp. nov. B, a large coastal batoid with a significant proportion of its historical range in and around the Gulf of Thailand. <br/> <br/>Habitat modification/degradation, including to inshore nursery areas, from human activities (fisheries, pollution, coastal impacts) are likely affecting this species given its inshore range, particularly off Java and in the Gulf of Thailand, where human pressure on the coastal and marine environment is high.	eng
60183	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	Not currently managed in any part of the range. Currently any incidental bycatch is released and not reported. A record of all captures including basic data on sex, size, and depth is recommended in order to obtain initial basic data on population and life history trends. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60183	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	May be more widespread in deep waters throughout the Caribbean and recent captures from Columbia seem to support the hypothesis that this species may be more widespread off northern South America. Based on the current known range it is also possible this species occurs off Central America; however, no captures have been reported. May occur in deeper waters but as very little deepwater fishing occurs in this region at present there is no information available on possible distribution of this species below the known depth range.	eng
60183	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	A deepwater species, known to occur at depths of 270 to 450 m (including at 234 to 360 m off Colombia). May be more abundant at greater depths (Didier 2002). Off Columbia this species is collected from steep rocky slopes indicating this may be a unique habitat for aggregation of this species (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep). <br/> <br/>Maximum length ~80 cm TL. Sexual maturity in males and females probably reached at ~40 cm body length (BDL). Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~40 cm BDL (estimate) (both male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~80 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60183	population	Dagit, D.D. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Adult males are rarely captured indicating that they may occur in deeper waters or outside the currently known range. The recent collection of several specimens from Quitasueño Bank off Columbia indicates that this species may occur in large aggregations in specific habitats (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep).	eng
60183	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	Not currently known to be commercially fished, but is caught as bycatch in the bottom longline snapper/grouper fishery off Columbia. Deepsea fishing by longline poses a potential threat throughout its range due to capture of this species as bycatch; however at present this species occurs at the limit or just beyond the depth range of most deepwater fisheries in the area. At present benthic trawling does not appear to pose a large threat as it is not a common fishing method in the region; however, in the future habitat destruction and threats to the population may occur due to benthic trawling in some parts of the Caribbean if effort increases. Other steep rocky slopes may be untrawlable and thus serve as refugia for the species.	eng
60184	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	No conservation or management measures are in place. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60184	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Known reliably from only a very few specimens collected off eastern Honshu, Japan and off Madagascar and Mozambique. Range needs to be better defined.	eng
60184	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	The few specimens collected indicate a deepwater habitat on continental and insular slopes from 383 to at least 1,600 m. It is possible this species is more widespread in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, but nothing else is known of reproductive biology. Of the roughly six specimens known all are adults or near mature subadults. No other information on biology of this species is known. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  76 cm TL (estimated) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  To 93 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60184	population	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Nothing is known of population size and structure and this appears to be one of the rarest chimaeroid species.	eng
60184	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2006	Not currently known to be collected by any commercial or research fishery method. Potentially threatened by expansion of deepwater trawl and longline fisheries in areas where this species is known to occur. <br/> <br/>In subequatorial Africa the species reported as <em>C. jordani</em> is mostly below the operating depths of the demersal hake trawl and other fisheries although this could change with development of deepwater trawl fisheries for orange roughies, oreo dories, macrourids, and other valuable teleosts.	eng
60185	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be subject to any management or conservation measures. More information from commercial fisheries with regard to bycatch of this species is needed. It is recommended that this species be monitored with regard to emergence of deepwater fisheries in the future that might target this large species for human consumption.	eng
60185	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Currently known only from around New Zealand and Tasmania. It is unknown if this species is restricted to specific deepwater slopes or if it?s possible the species is widespread in deep waters throughout the Southern Ocean.	eng
60185	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Benthic on deepwater slopes and plateaus at depths of 400 to 1,800 m, but most commonly found at depths greater than 800 m (Didier 2002). Nothing is known of the biology of this species, but given its large size it may be slow-growing with low fecundity. Maximum size 142 cm TL (may be around 150 cm TL). Males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at about 60 to 70cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  60 to 70 cm BDL (estimate) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  142 to 150 cm TL (estimate). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60185	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	A significant number of adults and some juveniles have been collected from deepwater research and commercial trawls indicating a diverse population in the areas where these fish are known to occur, but otherwise nothing is known of population size or structure.	eng
60185	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not currently known to be commercially fished, the major threat to this species is as bycatch in benthic deepwater trawls targeting teleost species on the fishing grounds around New Zealand and Tasmania where <em>C. lignaria</em> is most commonly found. Bycatch details are not available and a study of the bycatch of the South Tasman Rise Trawl Fishery (STRF) did not record this species in 545 tows between November 1998 and September 2000 (Anderson and Clark 2003). The STRF targets orange roughy and other deepwater teleost species south of Tasmania as a straddling stock between Australia and New Zealand and operates in the known area of occurrence and depth of <em>C. lignaria</em>.  <br/> <br/>Anderson and Clark (2003) did however report negligible bycatch of ?<em>Chimaera</em> spp.?, which would probably have included <em>Chimaera lignaria</em> together with the southern chimaera <em>Chimaera</em> sp. A [Last & Stevens, 1994], both of which are known from the area of the fishery. The estimated catch of ?<em>Chimaera</em> spp.? in 545 tows was 0.1t, representing <0.1% of the total catch (Anderson and Clark 2003).	eng
60186	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures are known. More specimens are needed in order to obtain any additional information on this species. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the country. Japan?s National Plan Of Action was available in 2001.	eng
60186	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Range appears to be restricted to the eastern coast of Honshu, Japan (Tanaka 1905, Didier 1998). It may, however, be more widespread throughout the Japanese archipelago, particularly in deeper waters.	eng
60186	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Recorded at depths of 500 to 1,200 m (Tanaka 1905, Didier 1998). Oviparous but nothing is known of its reproductive biology. No small juveniles or hatchlings have ever been observed. Maximum size is ~80 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~80 cm TL (estimated). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60186	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Appears to be uncommon, but may be more abundant at greater depths.	eng
60186	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not reported to be targeted or caught as bycatch. This may be because the species is more abundant in deeper waters, which are at the limit or beyond the range of the local commercial fishery. This appears to be a rare species with a restricted range so any increased effort in longline or deepwater trawl fisheries within the species range could potentially have a great impact on the known population.	eng
60187	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures are in place. At present the fishery for this species does not appear to be collecting large numbers of specimens or impacting the population; however, monitoring and reporting of local small-scale fishery landings throughout the Northwest Pacific is recommended. More data on this species from New Caledonia and the Eastern Indian is needed. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the regions where this species occurs.	eng
60187	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Most common and widespread throughout the Northwest Pacific where it appears to be fairly abundant and mostly occurs at depths less than 500 m. Rare off New Caledonia, where it is captured in deeper waters. The species may be more common in deeper waters in the southern parts of its range.	eng
60187	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Relatively shallow water shelf and upper slope dweller, reported from depths of 20 to 550 m in the Northwest Pacific. Occurs in deeper slope waters (486 to 962 m) off New Caledonia and at depths of 440 to 520 m off Western Australia. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, nothing is known of reproduction or spawning, but may spawn in relatively shallow water in the Northwest Pacific. Maximum length, including tail filament, is 110 cm TL; sexual maturity in males and females is reached at ~50 cm body length (BDL) (generally >65 cm TL). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  >50 cm BDL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  110 cm TL (includes long tail filament). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60187	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population structure and size; however, collections of this species from the Northwest Pacific consist of large numbers of hatchlings, small juveniles and adults which seems to indicate that all ontogenetic stages of this species are widespread and fairly abundant throughout this portion of the species? range. Only adults and subadult juveniles have been captured from off New Caledonia, and it is reported as being abundant off Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
60187	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	<em>Chimaera phantasma</em> is taken in local small scale and subsistence trawl fisheries as well as commercial fisheries in parts of Asia. It is commonly landed and utilised for human consumption in Taiwan and, given the intensity of fishing operations in large parts of its Asian range, likely other parts of the NW Pacific. The effects of fishing practices throughout the NW Pacific are unknown for this species although its abundance in some regions may suggest that current fishing practices may not be significantly impacting the population at this time. Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. <br/> <br/>It is not known to be commercially fished or collected as bycatch in trawl fisheries off New Caledonia, perhaps due to its depth range which may be at or below the limit of many, if not most, trawl fishery operations in that region. <br/> <br/>The species? occurrence off WA overlaps with the area of operation of the Australian Commonwealth managed Western Trawl Fisheries, which are small-scale, limited permit demersal fish and crustacean trawl fisheries (AFMA 2003). The species is likely taken as bycatch by these fisheries, but overall, effort is low and any impact upon this species would be minimal. <br/> <br/>Any expansion of commercial trawling may pose a threat to the species in the future and data is required on abundance and catches/landings, particularly in the NW Pacific, to be able to accurately assess the species? conservation status.	eng
60188	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that more data on catch and life history characteristics be collected. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of national management plans (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia adopted its National Plan of Action (NPOA) in 2004. South Africa?s NPOA is drafted and at the time of writing is still awaiting government approval: it is a matter of urgency to adopt and implement this NPOA. NPOAs have not yet been developed for Mozambique or Kenya.	eng
60188	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Southern Africa regional endemic known from the Western Indian off Mozambique, Kenya and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and most probably also the Southeast Atlantic off South Africa and Namibia.	eng
60188	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Little known, soft bottom dweller on the continental slope, reported from depths of 303 to 1,300 m but most commonly found at depths of 421 to 750 m. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body/total length):  Probably sexually mature at ~35 to 40 cm BDL; ~50 to 55 cm TL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  To at least 98 cm TL (including tail filament); 47 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60188	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Appears to be relatively uncommon, but further examination of catch records from research trawls may help in understanding relative abundance of this species. It is possible there may be separate populations in the Western Indian and Southeast Atlantic.	eng
60188	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be commercially targeted; however, the depth range of this species broadly overlaps with the operating depths of the demersal hake trawl and other fisheries off the Western Cape coast of South Africa, and <em>H. africanus</em> is presumably taken as discarded bycatch. This species could be threatened by expansion of the South Africa deepwater hake trawl fishery and any extension of other fisheries into the deepwater range of <em>Hydrolagus africanus</em>.	eng
60189	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. It is recommended that data on sex, size, and depth be recorded for all incidental catches in an effort to increase knowledge of population structure, size and life history. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60189	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Occurs throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean (range is roughly 29° to 07°N and 54° to 92°W). Reported as far south as Suriname, but these records need to be confirmed (Bigelow and Schroeder 1951, 1953, McEachran and Fechelm 1989, Krefft 1990, Didier 2002). Museum specimens and accompanying capture records of this species from the Northwest Shelf, Western Australia (Indian Ocean) are most probably a misidentification.	eng
60189	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Found in deep waters of the continental slopes at depths of 348 to 1,100 m. Oviparous, but nothing is known of reproductive biology. Maximum recorded size 96 cm TL (42 cm BDL); both males and females appear to reach sexual maturity at ~35 cm BDL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~35 cm BDL (estimate) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  96 cm TL; 42 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60189	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No information exists on population structure; however, most collections are of juveniles indicating that adults may aggregate separately from juveniles in different habitats or deeper waters.	eng
60189	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Not known to be targeted in any fishery but is occasionally caught in research trawls and is likely to be caught as bycatch in commercial fisheries on some occasions. At present this species does not appear to be commonly caught probably due to its habitat outside the range of most fisheries in the region. However, it may face the threat of capture in the future as bycatch in longline and trawl fisheries, if effort is increased in deeper waters within the region.	eng
60190	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures known to be in place. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of a national management plan (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the country. Japan?s National Plan Of Action was available in 2001.	eng
60190	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Known only from the eastern coast of Japan from Hokkaido to Tokyo. This species appears to be a regional endemic, most abundant in the northern and southern areas off Tohoku.	eng
60190	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Deepwater edge of shelf and upper slope dweller reported from depths of 250 to 1,100 m, but seems to be most common at 600 to 800 m. Size range 18 to 86 cm TL; 8 to 48 cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/>Oviparous. A recent study of the distribution and reproductive biology indicates that this species appears to produce eggs all year round with no detectable spawning season. Populations appear to be partly segregated (Kokohu <em>et al</em>. 2003).  <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (precaudal length):  Female: 55 cm PCL; Male: 48 cm PCL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  86 cm TL; 48 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~18 cm TL; 8 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60190	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Very little is known of population size and structure although the species appears to be somewhat abundant with captures including a wide range of juveniles and adults.	eng
60190	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Known to occur in fair numbers in deepwater research trawls. Not known to be targeted, but may be utilized when caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries, although probably not often caught as this species is most abundant in the deeper part of its range and may be at, or beyond the usual depths of the local trawl fishery. Potentially threatened as bycatch and possibly as a target species if local commercial trawl fishing effort increases in this region in the future.	eng
60191	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	No management or conservation measures are currently known to be in place, except in Oregon where trawlers utilize gear to avoid ratfish and other unwanted bycatch. This species is generally avoided as much as possible as the spiny frontal tenaculum and dorsal spine tangles in nets. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60191	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Widespread off the western coast of North America from Southwestern Alaska to Baja and the Gulf of California, being most abundant between British Columbia, Canada and southern California, USA.	eng
60191	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Prefers muddy, soft bottoms. One of the few chimaeroids that occurs in nearshore waters and has been observed at the surface, but generally occurs at depths of 100 to 913 m. The species also occurs into the intertidal zone in the northern parts of its range. In southern California it has been reported as common on some reef slopes, particularly off Malibu and Redondo Beach below depths of 30 m. In the Gulf of California they are rare in water less than 183 m deep. Prefers water temperatures of 45 to 48°F (Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>Oviparous with peak spawning seasons in the spring and fall. Eggs are laid in pairs every 10 to 14 days over a period of several months. The incubation period within the eggcase is about 12 months, with newborns emerging at about 14 cm TL (Didier and Rosenberger 2002). The spine is known to be venomous in this species (Halstead and Bunker 1952). Johnson and Horton (1972) reported that attempts at age determination based on length-frequency distributions were inconclusive and that the use of hard body parts for ageing was unsuccessful. Diet consists of a wide range of bottom dwelling invertebrates and fishes. They are known to be cannibalistic, feeding on both free-swimming individuals and on their own eggcases (Johnson and Horton 1972). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  Female: 24 to 25 cm BDL; Male: 18.5?20.0 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  60 cm TL; 36 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  14 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60191	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Very little is known about their movement patterns other than they seem to be seasonally abundant in some areas. Populations appear to segregate by sex and size with larger fish moving into shallower waters while juveniles aggregate in deeper waters (Mathews 1975, Quinn <em>et al</em>. 1980).	eng
60191	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Potentially threatened by inshore commercial trawling activities. A fishery for this species has been suggested, but has never proven commercially viable; however, there is the potential this ?trash? species may become targeted as other more valuable species are depleted. <br/> <br/>Available fishery data from the Northeast Pacific indicates this species comprises a large proportion of the vertebrate biomass in Puget Sound (Quinnell and Schmitt 1991), although reported catches from California, Oregon and Washington are very small. For example, State of Washington Department of Fisheries reported only 8 round pounds for 1992?1993 (Keith Wolf, pers. comm.) and Oregon landings in 1992 and 1993 were 250 pounds and 98 pounds, respectively (John Griffith, pers. comm.). This species is not a targeted species and appears to be collected and utilized only locally in the Northeast Pacific and is taken as a bycatch in commercial trawl fisheries. This species is rarely landed from the Gulf of California and appears to inhabit waters at depths greater than 180 m. Evidence does not suggest that the small local fishery and/or bycatch are impacting the population in the Gulf of California.	eng
60192	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	None are known. More data are required to determine levels of bycatch of this species.  Additional data on life history and biology are also needed. Reevaluation of this species is recommended pending outcome of ongoing taxonomic study. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60192	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Widespread on the Australian continental slope, with nearly continuous distribution from Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia, but excluding Tasmania and Bass Strait. Not known from off the northern coasts of Australia, but reported from off Darwin.	eng
60192	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Continental shelf and upper slope dweller, occurring at or near the bottom. Reported from depths of 190 to 825 m, but apparently most common at 200?510 m. Little else is known of biology and habits, although probably shares similar biology and life history traits with other smaller-bodied shelf and upper slope dwellers such as <em>Hydrolagus colliei</em>. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  Female: ~55 to 60 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL); Male: ~50 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  ~90 to 100 cm TL (~40 cm BDL) with filament; 58 cm TL without filament. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60192	population	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Apparently relatively common throughout its range. Nothing is known of population size or structure, but this species is likely represented by a single population from Australia.	eng
60192	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	A number of demersal fisheries operate in this species? area of occurrence and this species is likely taken as bycatch in these fisheries, however little information is available on bycatch levels. Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Hydrolagus lemurs</em> is considered to have a high catch susceptibility to otter trawl, a medium catch susceptibility to auto hook gear and a low susceptibility to shark gillnet, shark hook and trap/pot gear (Walker 2004) (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). Both the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) and the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) of the SESSF have relatively low effort. The WDWTF is managed by limited entry with only 11 fishing permits issued on a five yearly basis. Bycatch ?is composed of small volumes of a diverse range of species? (AFMA 2003) and it is likely that <em>H. lemurs</em> forms a negligible bycatch in this fishery. The GABTS operates over a large geographical area and is also managed by limited entry with 10 fishing concessions and while overall effort is low, there is a trend of increasing effort (Lynch and Garvey 2003). Holocephalans are not reported in the top 40 species/species groups recorded in the fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2003), but are likely to form negligible bycatch. Observer and Fisheries-Independent surveys have shown the species to be a very rare discarded bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector). This fishery does not operate beyond 200 m depth and so is at the upper limit of the depth range of <em>H. lemurs</em> (P. Kyne, unpublished data). There is very little fishing pressure over the species? geographical and bathymetrical depth range off Queensland. <br/> <br/>Significant declines in the catch of ?silver ghostsharks? from 1976?77 to 1996?97 from the upper slope trawl fishery off NSW have been documented by fishery-independent surveys (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) stated that ?silver ghostsharks? were identified as <em>H. ogilbyi</em>. Sampling for this study occurred in 200?605 m and so it is likely both <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (which occurs at 40?524 m) and <em>H. lemurs</em> (which occurs at 190?825 m) were captured, however the bulk of catches did appear to be <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (K. Graham pers. comm.). The aggregated data does not allow species-specific declines to be elucidated, however, overall ?silver ghostshark? declined from a mean catch rate of 8.3 kg/hour to 0.3 kg/hour in the twenty year period, equating to a decline of 96.4%. Reductions are even more striking when data are broken down into region, with the mean catch rate off Eden-Gabo Island (northern NSW/southern Victoria) declining from 17.4 kg/hour in 1976?77 to <0.1 kg/hour in 1996?97, equating to a decline of greater than 99.4%. Even if these catches are mostly <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, these data do indicate the vulnerability of <em>Hydrolagus</em> species, including <em>H. lemurs</em>, to trawl operations, showing that large declines from heavy fishing pressure are possible. The relatively narrow continental slope off northern/central NSW, including most of the depth range of <em>H. lemurs</em>, is intensively fished and there would be continued pressure on <em>Hydrolagus</em> species in this area. <br/> <br/>A continued effort should be made to gain bycatch information in fisheries within the range of this species.	eng
60193	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Further specimens are required to define the species? range, biology and potential fisheries impacts. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60193	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Southeast Pacific: known only from the preabyssal zone off Valparaiso, Central Chile (Type locality). Probably occurs as far south as Valdivia and might occur north to the Galapagos and Central America (e.g., Nicaragua and Guatemala) and as such could be more widespread than presently known.	eng
60193	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known. No data are available on depth range. Probably a deepwater species with a life history similar to other members of the genus <em>Hydrolagus</em>. The only two known specimens (the type specimens) were 63 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):   <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  At least 63 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown	eng
60193	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known, the only two specimens that have ever been reported are the types.	eng
60193	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	There are no other reports of capture of this species other than the types; however it is possible this species is potentially threatened by commercial deepwater fishing operations, which may catch this species as bycatch. However, information is presently unavailable	eng
60194	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Additional specimens, particularly from parts of the range outside Japan are needed for research. In addition, it is recommended that life history data be collected from all captured specimens. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60194	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Known primarily from Japan, off Honshu from Sagami and Suruga Bays, also reported from the Philippines, Taiwan, Korea and the East China Sea. Probably also occurs in the South China Sea and off Indonesia and may be relatively widespread throughout the Northwest and North Central Pacific.	eng
60194	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	A benthopelagic species occurring in deepwater bays and troughs and on upper to middle slopes. Recorded depth range is 325 to 710 m, but probably occurs in deeper waters. This is a small-bodied species, similar to <em>Hydrolagus mirabilis</em>. Oviparous, very little is known of reproductive biology although a few eggs and small juveniles have been collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  ~65 to 70 cm TL (~30 to 35 cm BDL) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  79 cm TL (37 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60194	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Apparently a relatively rare species based on capture records; however, this may be due to the fact that most fishing in the region occurs at depths shallower than the preferred depth for this species; hence it is rarely collected rather than actually being rare in terms of actual numbers. Further data will be needed to verify actual abundance of the species. Likely a single population occurring throughout its range.	eng
60194	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Overall, the species is presently considered rare, but more information is needed with regard to capture levels as well as geographic range of this species. <br/> <br/>Fairly commonly landed in some fish markets in Taiwan (W. White, pers. comm.) and probably caught as bycatch in deepwater trawls elsewhere (for example in Suruga Bay, Japan). Landing of this species in Taiwan appears to be a more recent occurrence, suggesting that fishers are moving into deeper waters, probably as a result of the depletion of shallower water resources. <br/> <br/>Potentially faces threat of habitat destruction and/or capture as bycatch should deepwater fishing efforts increase in the region.	eng
60195	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	None are known. Detailed comparative study of <em>H. ogilbyi</em> and <em>H. lemurs</em> is recommended to verify the distinction between these two species. Additional study of life history characteristics as well as geographic and depth range parameters is also recommended. Additional data on bycatch levels and landings is needed. <br/> <br/>The effective implementation of the Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark Advisory Group and Lack 2004) (under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Australia.	eng
60195	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Last and Stevens (1994) reported <em>H. ogilbyi</em> as apparently restricted to New South Wales, Tasmania and eastern South Australia, but it appears to be more widespread based on surveys and data from voucher specimens in museum collections. To the west these indicate a much wider range extending into the Great Australian Bight and parts of Western Australia. Along the east coast it has been recorded north of Coffs Harbour to the Queensland border (K. Graham pers. comm.).	eng
60195	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	Continental shelf and upper slope dweller occurring in depths of 40 to 524 m on or near the bottom. May share similar ecology and life history characteristics of other shelf and upper slope dwellers such as <em>H. lemurs</em> and <em>H. colliei</em>. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  ~40 cm BDL (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  ~102 cm TL (with filament); 85 cm (without filament); ~55 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60195	population	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	A single endemic population restricted to southeastern Australia. Reported to be fairly common and relatively abundant, particularly off Tasmania.	eng
60195	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Kyne, P.M., 2006	A large proportion of the known range of <em>H. ogilbyi</em> has been subject to considerable trawling pressure. Within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), <em>Hydrolagus ogilbyi</em> is considered to have a high catch susceptibility to otter trawl, a medium catch susceptibility to auto hook gear and a low susceptibility to shark gillnet, shark hook and trap/pot gear (Walker 2004) (catch susceptibility is defined as ?availability? x ?encounterability? x ?selectivity? x ?post-capture mortality?; Walker 2004). If the species is found to occur into the Great Australian Bight it is likely taken as bycatch in the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector (GABTS) of the SESSF. The GABTS operates over a large geographical area and is managed by limited entry with 10 fishing concessions and while overall effort is low, there is a trend of increasing effort (Lynch and Garvey 2003). Holocephalans are not reported in the top 40 species/species groups recorded in the fishery (Lynch and Garvey 2003), but are likely to form negligible bycatch. <br/> <br/>Significant declines in the catch of ?silver ghostsharks? from 1976?77 to 1996?97 from the upper slope trawl fishery off NSW have been documented by fishery-independent surveys (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Graham <em>et al</em>. (2001) stated that ?silver ghostsharks? were identified as <em>H. ogilbyi</em>. Sampling for this study occurred in 200?605 m and so it is likely both <em>H. ogilbyi</em> (which occurs at 40?524 m) and <em>H. lemurs</em> (which occurs at 190?825 m) were captured, however the bulk of catches did appear to be H. ogilbyi (K. Graham pers. comm.). The aggregated data does not allow species-specific declines to be elucidated, however, overall ?silver ghostshark? declined from a mean catch rate of 8.3 kg/hour to 0.3 kg/hour in the twenty year period, equating to a decline of 96.4%. Reductions are even more striking when data are broken down into region, with the mean catch rate off Eden-Gabo Island (northern NSW/southern Victoria) declining from 17.4 kg/hour in 1976?77 to <0.1 kg/hour in 1996?97, equating to a decline of greater than 99.4%. If, as it appears, the majority of the catch was <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, this represents significant local declines of the species and indicates the vulnerability of <em>Hydrolagus</em> species off eastern and southeastern Australia to population reduction. The relatively narrow continental slope off central/southern NSW, including most of the depth range of <em>H. ogilbyi</em>, is intensively fished and there would be continued pressure on <em>Hydrolagus</em> species in this area. <br/> <br/>There are regions of the species? range, however, that receive little fishing pressure. If the species extends into southern Queensland, fishing is not as intense on the slope there and off northern NSW. Indeed, there is little outer shelf/upper slope trawling north of Port Stephens, NSW (K. Graham pers. comm.). Furthermore, there are significant areas of the outer shelf off western Victoria, which may serve as a refuge from trawling due to rough bottoms. Some areas off Tasmania also receive little fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>A continued effort should be made to gain bycatch information in fisheries within the range of this species.	eng
60196	conservation	Dagit, D.D., 2006	None are known to be in place. It is recommended that data on life history characteristics be collected from all specimens captured. Collection of voucher specimens from the Davison Seamount, as well as collection and study of specimens of all large purple and purple-black <em>Hydrolagus</em> from the Pacific will be important for determining if the known range of <em>Hydrolagus purpurescens</em> does extend throughout the Pacific. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the regions where this species occurs.	eng
60196	distribution	Dagit, D.D., 2006	At present known from deep seamounts and troughs off Japan from Hokkaido and the Okhotsk Sea to the Okinawa Trough, although may be more widespread in deep waters throughout the Pacific. The type specimen from Hawaii is the only record of <em>H. purpurescens</em> outside of Japan. <br/> <br/>Recent submersible observations of a large purplish species from the eastern Pacific (Davison Seamount) have not conclusively been referred to this species; however, it is possible that <em>H. purpurescens</em> is more widespread throughout the Pacific.	eng
60196	habitat	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Benthopelagic species that lives on the upper to middle slope and deep seamounts and troughs. Occurs at depths of 920 to 1,130 m off Japan, with the type specimen collected from 1,750 to 1,951 m off Hawaii. May be more widespread in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Oviparous, although nothing is known of reproductive biology. Eggs, hatchlings and small juveniles are rarely if ever collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates.  Like other large chimaeroids, this may be a slow-growing species with low fecundity. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total/body length):  ~100 cm TL (~55 to 60 cm BDL). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  138 cm TL; 89 cm BDL (probably reaches ~150 cm TL). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60196	population	Dagit, D.D., 2006	May be widespread throughout the Pacific and represented by more than one distinct population. Nothing is known of population structure.	eng
60196	threats	Dagit, D.D., 2006	Possible threat due to bycatch in deepwater commercial trawl and longline fisheries. Not known to be targeted or caught in any numbers at present, but there is the possibility this large species may be targeted in deepwater fisheries as nearshore fisheries are depleted and deepwater fisheries expand.	eng
60197	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	More information is required of bycatch levels from the teleost fisheries impacting this species. More specimens, particularly juveniles are needed, as is life history data. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60197	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Originally described from deep waters off New Zealand and New Caledonia. More recently, there have been infrequent captures of this species from deepwater seamounts in the Southern Ocean. This species is apparently wide ranging throughout the Southern Ocean and probably has a circumglobal distribution.	eng
60197	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	A large chimaera of the deep continental and insular slopes, in depths of 750 to 1,719 m off South Africa and 650 to 1,707 m off New Zealand and New Caledonia, but mostly collected below 1,000 m depth. <br/> <br/>Oviparous. No eggs, embryos or small juveniles are known to have been collected. Nothing is known of reproductive biology. Diet likely consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates, with dominant prey species varying based on habitat. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (body length):  Female: ~55 cm BDL; Male: ~60 to 65 cm BDL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total/body length):  Recorded at 111 cm TL (91 cm BDL); maximum probably ~120 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60197	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Appears to be more common around New Zealand and rarer in other parts of its range, but this may only be a reflection of fishing effort. Future research may provide evidence that separate populations exist across the range of this species.	eng
60197	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Dagit, D.D., 2006	Common from deepwater fishing grounds off New Zealand where it is threatened by deepwater benthic trawls. Off South Africa <em>H. trolli</em> is threatened by capture as bycatch in deep-slope longline and trawl fisheries for valuable bony fishes including toothfish, roughies and dories. Illegal fishing activities, particularly for Patagonian toothfish, are likely taking this species, and given the scope of these practices may be impacting upon its population. <br/> <br/>A re-evaluation of the species? conservation status is recommended after additional bycatch information is obtained, which is a priority.	eng
60198	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., Smith, W.D. & Clark, T.B., 2006	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Most current information is derived from the Gulf of California, México, but this represents a very small portion of the overall range of <em>M. munkiana</em>. Because of its moderate to large size, schooling and migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula munkiana</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate fisheries in Central America would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. munkiana</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America lack species-specific details with batoids broadly grouped as ?manta raya?. Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in Central America. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing demand/catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
60198	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., Smith, W.D. & Clark, T.B., 2006	Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California, México to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands (Robertson and Allen 2002).	eng
60198	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., Smith, W.D. & Clark, T.B., 2006	<em>Mobula munkiana</em> is a recently described schooling species typically of shallow coastal waters, known to form large, highly mobile aggregations (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987, 1988). Specifics of its migratory patterns are largely unknown or speculative (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). <br/> <br/>Most of the fragmentary information available on the species is derived from the work of Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1987, 1988) in the southern Gulf of California, México, though this species has been recently observed during artisanal fishing camp surveys throughout the Gulf of California (R. Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, Bizzarro 2001). Migrations are likely driven by temporal changes in water temperature with local movements presumed to be associated with the distribution and abundance of planktonic crustaceans, especially mysid shrimp (<em>Mysidium</em> spp.). Mysids are believed to be the dominant prey item of this species, at least during winter months. However, these conclusions are drawn from a very limited sample size (n=3) and through inference with a closely related, similar-sized mobulid from Africa (<em>M. rochebrunei</em>) and as such should be considered speculative (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, J. Bizzarro pers. obs).  Gastropod shells and coral fragments have been found in stomach contents (presumed taken incidentally), indicating that unlike other eastern Pacific mobulids, benthic foraging may be common (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This species may live in large aggregations consisting of several schools that move locally or regionally between prey patches. Occurrence of large schools in the northern Gulf of California are likely confined to summer months, though it has been reported in low numbers throughout the year in the southern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Bizzarro 2001, J. Bizzarro unpublished data). <em>Mobula munkiana</em> is not thought to segregate by gender, but may segregate by size (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Observations and catches of the species often occur in pulses as it may be abundant in an area for only a few days and then not be observed locally for weeks or months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991, J. Bizzarro pers. obs). These movements have likely influenced the contrasting conclusions of <em>M. munkiana</em> abundance in the southern Gulf of California (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988, Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Frequent benthic association of this species would also account for its irregularity in pelagic gillnet landings. <br/> <br/>Location of copulation is unknown, but partruition has been reported in Bahía de La Paz during May and June (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Although data is limited, sexual maturity of males is thought to occur at ~87cm DW based on an increase in clasper size and hardening of the clasper cartilage (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988), with females maturing at 97cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). The reproductive mode is aplacental viviparity and embryos feed initially on yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and reports indicate that a maximum of one pup is estimated to be produced (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). Reproductive periodicity is unknown and there is no information on age and growth for this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 97 cm DW (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991); Male: ~87 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  110 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  35 to 36 cm DW (estimated from related species by Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988), verified by Villavicencio-Garayzar (1991). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Villavicencio-Garayzar 1991). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60198	population	Bizzarro, J.J., Smith, W.D. & Clark, T.B., 2006	No information is available on its population biology.	eng
60198	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., Smith, W.D. & Clark, T.B., 2006	<em>Mobula munkiana</em> is highly susceptible to demersal and pelagic gillnets due to its consistent schooling nature and benthic feeding ability. Juveniles could also be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. The species is landed in directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries in the Gulf of California and it is possibly taken as bycatch in many nearshore gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout its range. The relatively recent description of this species and similarity of morphology among mobulids may account for common misidentifications of this ray making it underrepresented among available records. <br/> <br/>In northern Gulf of California artisanal fishery surveys during 1998 and 1999, <em>M. munkiana</em> were observed to be landed in large numbers at several camps. As catches in the more southerly camps decreased, those in the north increased, suggesting that large portions of the schools may be taken during the unknown movement patterns of this highly mobile species. The species was directly targeted during these times and dominated the elasmobranch landings (J. Bizzarro and W. Smith unpublished data, Bizzarro 2001). However, although catches consist of hundreds of individuals per day when the species is present, artisanal fishermen indicate that the presence of the ray is somewhat unpredictable. <br/> <br/>Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) described an active mobulid fishery operating from several artisanal fishing camps in and around Bahía la Ventana, Baja California Sur, México. <em>Mobula munkiana</em>, though taken, was not an abundant species in landings (9% of observed mobulid catches). Recent fieldwork in this region (June 2001), however, showed that this fishery is still active and that <em>M. munkiana</em> was the dominant mobulid landed, at least at the time of surveys (J. Bizzarro unpublished data). This species was landed with gillnets of 10?12?, typically set at the surface, but also throughout the water column. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula munkiana</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing demand for mobulid products in Asia, which may result in increased targeting in Central America, is of great concern.	eng
60199	conservation	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species and to determine if they pose a serious threat to the species. Available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula taracapana</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. taracapana</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
60199	distribution	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Probably circumglobal in temperate and tropical waters but at present known from scattered locations in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Compagno and Last 1999). Mostly oceanic, but occasionally in coastal waters.	eng
60199	habitat	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Mostly oceanic, but occasionally in coastal waters. Extremely limited information is available for this broadly distributed ray. Mode of reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Embryos feed initially on yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and litter size is one pup (Wourms 1977, Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Females of 270 cm DW were found to be transitional or mature in the southern Gulf of California, México (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). It is observed only in the summer and fall months in this region and is usually solitary, but sometimes seen in small groups (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>Limited evidence pertaining to the feeding ecology is available, but it has been suggested that the species may be a more general feeder than other mobulids or possibly ichthyophagous (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). This possibility is supported by occasional catches of this species on pelagic longlines. <br/> <br/>There is no published information on the age and growth of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  Female: 270?280 cm DW (Gulf of California; Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988); Male: 240 to 250 cm DW (Indonesia; W. White pers. comm.), 240 to 250cm DW (Gulf of California; Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  370 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >105 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60199	population	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
60199	threats	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	The threat from coastal fisheries in México, Indonesia, the Philippines and elsewhere where mobulids are captured is more limited for this species given its apparent offshore habitat. <em>Mobula taracapana</em> is however, susceptible to pelagic gillnets together with purse seines and longline. It has been shown to be only minor components of catches in the Gulf of California and the Philippines, but is more regularly taken in Indonesia. Although information is lacking it is likely taken elsewhere in its Asian range (for example Taiwan) and probably in West Africa. Its pelagic occurrence and apparent ichthyophagous diet, raises concern for its capture on longlines and this requires investigation. The affect of the long-term use of high-seas gillnet and longline fisheries is not known for this species. The deleterious impacts of such fishing practices on populations of other large elasmobranchs are well known. <br/> <br/>The species is landed in Indonesia where the catch of mobulids is increasing due to the high value of gill rakers for the Asian medicinal market. Apart from being taken as bycatch of the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries and purse seine fisheries in Indonesia, mobulids are increasingly being targeted. During the shark fishing off-season (December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. comm.). Apart from gill rakers which are dried and exported, the flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>During a study on the mobulid catch in the Gulf of California by artisanal fisheries, <em>M. taracapana</em> was the rarest species observed, comprising 3% of the observed mobulid catch (seven individuals captured over a four-month period) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. <br/> <br/>In a study of the mixed <em>Manta</em>/<em>Mobula</em> fishery in the Philippines, <em>M. tarapacana</em> comprised 2% of the total catch in 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study). There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula taracapana</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.	eng
60200	conservation	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Because of its large size, migratory behavior, extremely low fecundity and large size at maturity, this species is likely highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. However, available life history information is limited and more research is required to make a more accurate assessment of the threat posed by fisheries. Current landings in the Gulf of California need to be documented and compared with catch rates observed in the 1980?s (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>In México, a moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>Mobula thurstoni</em> specifically or most other chondrichthyans. However, legislation is currently being developed in México to establish national elasmobranch fishery management. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch landings in most parts of the world generally lack species-specific details (for example in México, batoids are broadly grouped as ?manta raya?). Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. <br/> <br/>In the Philippines, fishing for mobulids was banned in 1998, however it was lifted in 1999 to study the fishery. The ban was put back in place in 2002, and currently it is illegal to fish for any <em>Manta</em> or <em>Mobula</em> in Philippine waters. However, enforcement is insufficient and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America and Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. thurstoni</em> and other chondrichthyans. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs. <br/> <br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
60200	distribution	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Probably circumglobal in tropical and subtropical waters, but thus far confirmed from scattered locations in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.	eng
60200	habitat	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	The species is usually pelagic in shallow, neritic waters (<100 m) (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>The mode of reproduction in the species is aplacental viviparity. Embryos obtain nutrients initially by yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and litter size is one pup (Wourms 1977, Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Size at birth is estimated at 65?85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Both females and males from the Gulf of California, México are estimated to mature at 150 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). Mating, parturition, and early life history are reported to take place in the shallow water during summer and perhaps early fall (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). The southern Gulf of California is apparently an important feeding and mating ground. Segregation by size and sex is seasonal, with all size classes and sexes appearing together during the summer months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). Observed either solitarily or in small groups (2?6); not a schooling species (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/>Diet is highly specialized with the euphausid <em>Nyctiphanes simplex</em> accounting for the vast majority of observed prey items but mysids (<em>Mysidium</em> spp.) are also common. Diet varied with season with mysids dominant from December through March and euphausids during the warmer months (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (disc width):  150 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988) (male & female). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (disc width):  180 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  65 to 85 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months (estimated) (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  1 pup/litter (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1988). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60200	population	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
60200	threats	Clark, T.B., Smith, W.D. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	<em>Mobula thurstoni</em> is vulnerable to pelagic and demersal gillnets together with purse seines and juveniles could be incidentally captured in trawl fisheries. It is taken, either as bycatch or as a target species in Indonesia, México and the Philippines. Catches have also been reported from Brazil (Gadig <em>et al</em>. 2003). While information is available on these areas it is likely to be landed in other countries also, such as in West Africa and particularly in Southeast Asia where pressure on the marine environment is considerable and where mobulid gill rakers are a high value product. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thustoni</em> is a caught in the inshore pelagic tuna gillnet fisheries of Indonesia and is also taken by purse seine in that country. The high value of gill rakers in some areas, e.g., Pelabuhanratu in West Java (W. White pers. comm.), is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia where some fishers are now targeting devil rays. When shark catches are lower (off-season, December to March) fishers are landing more mobulids as an alternative (W. White pers. comm.). The flesh is also utilized both for human consumption and as bait and chum for longlines. <br/> <br/>The species is caught in artisanal drift and demersal gillnet fisheries and directly targeted using harpoons in the Gulf of California.  Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1988) reported fishery data from a mixed mobulid fishery with M. thurstoni making up 58% of the catch. Mean daily capture of <em>M. thurstoni</em> from 20 fishing vessels (?pangas?) in Bahia de la Ventana from March to July, 1983 was: March: 0.38, April: 0.69, May: 5.00, June: 5.10, July: 0.56. One <em>M. thrustoni</em> was observed among 129 mobulids landed at Punta Arena de la Ventana, Baja California Sur, México in June 2001 (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.). There is still an active mobulid fishery in the southwest Gulf of California, south of La Paz and devil rays are also landed in nearshore artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California. Although available published research is centered around the southern Gulf of California, these rays are landed by artisanal fisheries throughout the region. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thurstoni</em> comprised 54% of the Philippine mobulid fishery from March 2001 to March 2002 (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, unpublished study), which may reflect its relative importance in other target fisheries in the Southeast Asia region. There is currently a ban on fishing for manta rays in the Philippines, but the effectiveness of this ban is questionable due to limited enforcement ability and mobulids are still being taken illegally. <br/> <br/>Gadig <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported <em>M. thurstoni</em> taken by artisanal fishers employing gillnets on the southern coast of São Paulo of Brazil, noting that the small size of artisanal fishing boats precludes the landing of large mobulids and individuals are usually discarded. <br/> <br/><em>Mobula thurstoni</em> is not likely to be able to tolerate high catch levels, given its low reproductive potential. Increasing catches of mobulids in Indonesia, which may mirror increases elsewhere, is of great concern.	eng
60201	conservation	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	An investigation into the extent the species is captured and marketed, as well as information on its ecology and life history are required.	eng
60201	distribution	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Central and northern South America in both the Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic (including the southern Caribbean Sea).	eng
60201	habitat	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Occurs on the continental shelf. Viviparous reproductive pattern but little is known of the general biology of <em>S. media</em>. Reaches a maximum size of ~150 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 100 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b); Male: 90 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~150 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ?34 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60201	population	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Eastern Pacific and Western Atlantic populations likely distinct.	eng
60201	threats	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Presumably taken with bottom longlines, gillnets and hook and line throughout its coastal range, but no information is available as to the extent of capture and fishing practices. It is however known to be a common bycatch in the mackerel gillnet fishery off Trinidad.	eng
60202	conservation	Mycock, S.G., Lessa, R. & Almeida, Z., 2006	None currently in place. <br/> <br/>It is recommended that collection of quantitative artisanal catch data on this little known species is initiated. This should be combined with an investigation into the commercial value and utilization of its flesh and fins to enable a strategy for protection and management to be developed. Protection of shallow inshore habitat is certainly necessary for this and many other marine species.	eng
60202	distribution	Mycock, S.G., Lessa, R. & Almeida, Z., 2006	Original records from the Mediterranean by Valenciennes (1822) may be incorrect and may be based on <em>Sphyrna couardi</em> (Cadenat and Blache 1981, Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Observations that the species has been recorded off the western Florida, USA, Mexico and Panama require verification (records off Mississippi, USA probably incorrect; Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Key inshore muddy beach habitats along the north east coast of South America, Trinidad and Tobago and Northern Brazilian Coast to the State of Maranhão, are identified as pupping and nursery grounds for this species and adults are known from the continental shelf over its range from the southern Gulf of Mexico to Uruguay.	eng
60202	habitat	Mycock, S.G., Lessa, R. & Almeida, Z., 2006	<em>Sphyrna tudes</em> is a small, inshore hammerhead shark. Newborn and juveniles occupy inshore muddy beach nursery areas, and adults to a maximum size of 150 cm TL are found in depths of 5 to 40 m over muddy substrates. <br/> <br/>Geographic variation in maturity and aspects of reproductive biology are apparent: <br/> <br/>Off Trinidad, males mature at ~80 cm TL; females at ~98 cm TL and are reported to ovulate and mate during August. Following a ten month gestation the young are born in shallow water from late May to June. Size at birth is ~30 cm TL. The annual reproductive cycle of this species results from gestation running concurrently with the ovarian cycle, and females are fertilized soon after parturition. Litter size 5 to 12 pups (Castro 1989). <br/> <br/>Off northern Brazil (Maranhão state) the smallest pregnant female observed was 101 cm TL, however, the estimated size at 50% maturity for females was 114 cm TL. The estimated size of first maturity for males in northern Brazil was 92.1 cm TL, considerably higher than off Trinidad. Pregnant females are observed from June to October and also from January to April. The highest gonadal indices where observed in males from May to November and in March. Uterine eggs and embryos measuring 34 mm TL were observed in June. Embryos measuring 90, 150, 190 and 237 mm TL were observed in January. The number of embryos in females 101 to 132 cm TL ranged between 5?19. There is a strong relationship between the fecundity and the size of females (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>The characteristic golden colour of live specimens results from a pigment present in their penaeid shrimp and ariid catfish diet.	eng
60202	threats	Mycock, S.G., Lessa, R. & Almeida, Z., 2006	In experimental fisheries using gillnets with different meshes (1990/91/92) the species was the second most important in shallow waters off northern Brazil (Maranhao State), yielding a maximal CPUE in May of 20 kg/km/hr. In other periods of the year the CPUE was below 5 kg/km/hr. Using 20?25 cm mesh size gillnets, the species represented 25% of the total catch in 1991 and 15% in 1992 (Stride <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Multi-species gillnet fisheries over this species? range are reported to catch individuals of all sizes from newborns to adults. In Brazil, the species is reported to be of interest only to artisanal fisheries. A marked decline in such artisanal catches around Trinidad reported anecdotally between observations in 1985?86 and 1995?96 suggests the population has been impacted significantly in that region (Castro and Woodley 1998, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). The same decreasing trend in catches has been observed in recent years in northern Brazil (Almeida, unpublished data). Inshore coastal fishing is intense (and increasing in many areas) across this species? range and there is every reason to suspect that declines have occurred across its entire distribution.	eng
60203	conservation	Massa, A., Hozbor, N., Chiaramonte, G.E., Balestra, A.D. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	There are no conservation measures at present for the species, except the Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. Although the MPC was reduced annually for the last four years, landings of <em>M. schmitti</em> have continued to decline. Understanding the migrations of the populations of the species is necessary for conservation. The migratory populations should be conserved through international management of the fishery involving Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. The local population in south Brazil (if it still remains) should be conserved through marine protected areas in the shallow coastal zone. Marine protected areas in nursery areas throughout its range are necessary to protect breeding females and juveniles.	eng
60203	distribution	Massa, A., Hozbor, N., Chiaramonte, G.E., Balestra, A.D. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic, from southwest Brazil to the coast of central Argentina, between latitudes 22°S (Rio de Janeiro) and 48°S (Patagonia) according to Figueiredo (1977) and Chiaramonte and Pettovello (1998).	eng
60203	habitat	Massa, A., Hozbor, N., Chiaramonte, G.E., Balestra, A.D. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	In south Brazil, the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 140 m, at bottom temperatures of 12 to 20°C on the wintering grounds from April to November (Vooren 1997, Haimovici <em>et al</em>. 1996). Winter migrants include juveniles, adult males and gravid adult females. Winter migrants arrive in large numbers in April and stay until November, then presumably migrate southward to Uruguay and/or Argentina. A small population was known to give birth in south Brazil in November and remain during January and February, but this population appears to have been extirpated (Vooren unpublished data). The species feeds mostly on crabs (Capitoli <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Argentina, the species occurs from coastal waters to 120 m, at temperatures of 5.5 to 11.0°C (Menni 1985). <br/> <br/>Population parameters of the Brazilian winter migrants (Souto 1986, Batista 1988) and from Argentinean waters (Menni <em>et al</em>. 1986, Menni 1985, Diaz de Astarloa <em>et al</em>. 1997, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000) are as follows: <br/> <br/><strong>Maximum Total Length</strong>:  Argentina: 90 cm (males), 108.5 cm (females); Brazil: 78.0 cm (males), 96.0 cm (females). <br/><strong>Modal Total Length</strong>:  Brazil: 60.0 cm (males), 72.0 cm (females). <br/><strong>Maximum age</strong>:  Brazil: 9 years (males), 16 years (females). <br/><strong>Total Length at first breeding</strong>:  Brazil (50% maturity): 57.0 cm (females), 55.0 cm (males). North Argentina: 54.9 to 60.0 cm (males), 60.5 to 62.6 cm (females). Patagonia: 70.8 to 75.9 cm (males), 79.1 to 79.5 cm (females). <br/><strong>Age at first breeding</strong>:  Brazil: 4 years (females), 3 years (males) (from growth curve with observed TL); Argentina (age of first maturity, preliminary): 6.5 years (females), 5.7 years (males) (Massa and Hozbor, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Total Length at birth</strong>:  Brazil: 24 to 28 cm, modal size 24 cm. <br/><strong>Gestation period</strong>:  11 months. <br/><strong>Duration of female breeding cycle</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Litter size</strong>:  2 to 14, modal value 8. <br/><strong>Individual annual fecundity</strong>:  Average 8. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Brazil: 1.058 in the years 1980 to 1994.	eng
60203	population	Massa, A., Hozbor, N., Chiaramonte, G.E., Balestra, A.D. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Pupping occurs inshore in spring throughout the range from south Brazil to Patagonia, and body size of the adults increases with latitude in Argentina (Cousseau 1982, 1986, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 1998, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data, Domingo unpublished data). This is evidence of the existence of several populations of the species. One large population migrates to south Brazil in autumn and leaves that area in spring, presumably in a southward migration with unknown route. A locally breeding smaller population existed in south Brazil but may have been extirpated by the fishery. Important nursery areas exist in Argentina off Buenos Aires Province in Cabo San Antonioand El Rincón (Cousseau 1986). Another two nursery areas probably of lesser importance occur in north (Bahía Engaño, 43°20´S) and south (Puerto Deseado, 48°S) Patagonia (Van der Molen <em>et al</em>. 1998, Chiaramonte and Pettovello 2000).	eng
60203	threats	Massa, A., Hozbor, N., Chiaramonte, G.E., Balestra, A.D. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	The species is subject to intensive fishing in its entire area of distribution, including its nursery grounds. <br/> <br/>From the observed decline in abundance under intensive fishing, it is concluded that in Brazil the fishery causes recruitment overfishing. In winter, the species is fished in south Brazil as a component of a mixed-species fishery and also by directed fishing. Bottom trawl fishery CPUE in south Brazil are evidence that since intensive fishing has occurred from 1985 onwards, the abundance of the winter migrant population of the species had decreased by 85% by 1997, and the fishery continues without restraint (Miranda and Vooren 2003). In south Brazil a small local population reproduced in spring, and remained during the summer. Neonates used to be commonly caught by beach seine and bottom trawl in the 1980s. In a recent summer shore fishery survey (2003) the species was not recorded. This population seems to have disappeared and this is attributed to fishing in its inshore pupping and nursery areas (Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). <br/> <br/>In Argentina, this species has been an important fishery resource since 1988 (Chiaramonte 1998) and market demands have increased over the last eight years. Intensive fishing in coastal nursery areas threatens recruitment while fishing for adults is increasing. In the main fishing area off Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and Uruguay (the Bonaerensean region), biomass has decreased by 22%, while national landings in Argentina decreased by 30% between 1998 and 2002 (Massa and Hozbor unpublished data). Fisheries statistics may underestimate the actual volume landed, however reductions in landings are an indication that the resource cannot withstand the current level of exploitation. The most recent data (2003) indicate a continuing decline in the stock. This area appears to have the greatest abundance of the species. <br/> <br/>In industrial and artisanal fisheries in Uruguay this species is not targeted but taken as bycatch. Together with <em>M. fasciatus</em>, estimated capture for the period 2000?2002 was 900t per year (<em>M. schmitti</em> was the main species taken).	eng
60204	conservation	Faria, V. & Furtado, M., 2006	Required: Monitoring of fisheries and community-based initiatives regarding habitat management. Data are specifically required from outside of Brazil, however, catch monitoring should also be undertaken in that country.	eng
60204	distribution	Faria, V. & Furtado, M., 2006	Western Atlantic: Northern Gulf of Mexico between Florida and the Mississippi River Delta (USA). Venezuela (Curaçao), Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and south to southern Brazil (Sao Paulo State). In Brazil, occurs off Cabo Orange, near Cabo Norte, Mucuripe, Fortaleza, Recife, Maceio, Salvador, Vitoria, Santos, Espirito Santo and Sao Paulo (Compagno in prep. b)	eng
60204	habitat	Faria, V. & Furtado, M., 2006	Found on the continental shelf on muddy, sandy and calcareous bottoms. Also occurs in shallow brackish water, and estuarine areas. In northern Brazil, caught in depths of 47 to 78 m (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gadig 1994). Compagno (in preparation b) reports occurrence from close inshore to 130 m depth. However, has also been recorded at depths of at least 1,281 m on the continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Compagno (in prep. b) reports a maximum size of 64 cm TL (does not specify locality). Maximum length (northern Rio de Janeiro State): female 61.3 cm TL; male 58 cm TL. Females attain maturity around 42.5 cm TL in Brazil (Gadig 1994, Faria 2001) and males mature at 4 cm TL in northern Brazil (Gadig 1994) and at 47.5 cm TL in Rio de Janeiro State (southern Brazil) (Faria 2001). Size at birth: in Rio de Janeiro State, the largest embryo was 22.9 cm TL, and the smallest captured individual was 21.6 cm TL. Viviparous (with yolksac placenta), with 1 to 7 young per litter, with an average of four in southern Rio de Janeiro State (Faria 2001), and most commonly 3 to 5 (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Feeds mainly on crustaceans and occasionally on bony fishes, squids, and coelenterates.	eng
60204	population	Faria, V. & Furtado, M., 2006	This species is locally common to abundant where it occurs (Compagno in preparation b). <br/> <br/><strong>Brazil</strong>:  <br/>Described as very abundant off the northern coast of Brazil (Amapá State) based on samples in 1987 (Bezerra 1993) although there is no information available for this area today. At the present time it is known to be abundant off northern Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil (possibly the largest population is at its southern range limit) (Faria and Di Beneditto 2000, Faria 2001). The distribution of this species along the northeastern coast of Brazil is unclear. <br/> <br/>Possible nursery area in northern Rio de Janeiro in shallow estuarine waters (5?9 m). Birth occurs in summer months (December to February) and juveniles are present year-round (Faria 2001). <br/> <br/>Season of abundance: off the northern Rio de Janeiro coast this species peaks in abundance (both males and females) in summer (December to February). Adult females have been sampled in shallow estuarine waters only in summer months, suggesting a seasonal reproductive and/or feeding migration (Faria 2001).	eng
60204	threats	Faria, V. & Furtado, M., 2006	Shrimp trawl fisheries in northern Brazil (Amapá State) (Bezerra <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gadig 1994) and southern Brazil: northern Rio de Janeiro (bycatch). Caught in gillnets in northern Rio de Janeiro (more selective for adults) (Faria and Di Beneditto 2000, Faria 2001). Species-specific catch data are not available for these fisheries. <br/> <br/>There is no information available on catches in other parts of the species? range. <br/> <br/><strong>UTILISATION</strong>: <br/>In Amapá State, the bycatch is discarded. In northern Rio de Janeiro State it is retained, but has low value.	eng
60205	conservation	Leandro, L. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is required. This area supports an extraordinary richness of species, including several southern Caribbean endemics.  Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope must incorporate environmental assessments and conservation actions (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
60205	distribution	Leandro, L. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	Endemic to a small region of the Western Central Atlantic where it is known only from Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
60205	habitat	Leandro, L. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	This species has been found offshore at depths of 71 to 183 m on the outer continental shelf. Known only from nine specimens therefore little known of its biology. Reaches a maximum size of 57 cm TL; near term fetuses 21 to 22 cm TL; males mature at 47 cm TL with the largest collected male 48 cm TL; a pregnant female was 57 cm TL and had five fetuses (Heemstra 1997, Compagno in prep b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 47 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  57 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  21 to 22 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  one pregnant female had a litter size of 5. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60205	population	Leandro, L. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	According to Compagno (in prep b) this species is possibly rare or uncommon as it is known from only nine specimens in a limited area of distribution.	eng
60205	threats	Leandro, L. & Caldas, J.P., 2006	Medina (2002) conducted a study on bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery in the La Guajira area (Colombia) with an evaluation of 20 sets in Cape La Vela but had limited species records. The only record of a <em>Mustelus</em> species was for <em>M. norrisi</em> with low abundance (eight specimens), biomass (10 kg) and occurrence (3.9%). However, it is likely that <em>M. minicanis</em> is taken (irregularly) by this fishery and also by longline fisheries in the area.	eng
60206	conservation	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	None currently in place. This is a newly described species and as a result virtually nothing is known about it. It is important to conduct basic research on it in order to learn more about its biology, ecology, and population dynamics.	eng
60206	distribution	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Panama City, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas, USA, also Bay of Campeche, Mexico (Compagno in prep b).	eng
60206	habitat	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Found in offshore continental shelf and uppermost slope at depths of 36 to 229 m, with most records between 42 to 91 m. Very little known about its biology and ecology. Apparently it is viviparous (placental viviparous), and has a litter size of eight. Maximum total length is about 140 cm, and size at birth is about 39 to 43 cm.  Males are immature at 70 cm and mature at about 80 cm, with an 83 cm male being mature; females at 118 to 140 cm were mature (Compagno in prep b). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: female specimens of 118 to 140 cm were mature (Compagno in prep b); Male: ~80 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  140 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  39 to 43 cm (Heemstra 1997). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  8 (Compagno in prep b). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60206	population	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60206	threats	Carlisle, A.B., 2006	Interest to fisheries limited. Probably a bycatch of offshore line and trawl fisheries for sharks, bony fishes, and crustaceans, but utilization uncertain (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
60207	conservation	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No conservation actions are currently in place. <br/> <br/>Deepwater squaloids are highly susceptible to population depletion from localized fishing activities. This situation has been well documented with <em>Centrophorus</em> species off the east coast of Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). There is thus an urgent need for appraisal of catches of this species where it is landed in Japan and Taiwan, and the development of appropriate management given the apparent limited life-history characteristics of the species.	eng
60207	distribution	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Known from the Northwest and Western Central Pacific. Nominal from the Western Central Atlantic.	eng
60207	habitat	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 150 to 950 m, mostly below 200 m and possibly found as deep as 1,786 m in the Philippines. Nominal <em>C. acus</em> in the Western Central Atlantic have been recorded at 630 to 915 m (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Little known of this species biology as few adults have been collected. This is a large species of Centrophorus reaching at least 161 cm TL. Yano and Tanaka (1986) described a 161 cm TL mature specimen with five enlarged (5.5 cm diameter) (ovarian) eggs and enlarged uteri. While exact litter sizes are unknown, the small number of eggs in this specimen suggests a small litter size (Compagno in prep a). This species appears to mature late with females maturing at possibly >20 years (Tanaka 1990). Estimated sizes and ages at maturity are given in the life history parameters (below). <br/> <br/>Based on stomach fullness, <em>C. acus</em> appears to feed more actively at night (Compagno in prep a). A tracking study in Suruga Bay, Japan showed that tagged sharks exhibited little horizontal movements in the short term and remained mostly at 10 to 50 m above the seabed with peaks in swimming depths at 300 to 400 m and 580 to 620 m (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: possibly >20 yrs. Females still immature at 17 to 18 yrs (Tanaka 1990); Male: ~10 yrs (Tanaka 1990) <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: Females immature to 154 cm TL, mature at 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986); Male: 50% maturity: 100 to 105 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Females: >20 yrs; Male: Males: 17 yrs (dorsal spine rings), possibly up to 20 yrs (extrapolated from growth curve) (Tanaka 1990). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60207	population	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Locally common in several locations in the western Pacific, including in Suruga Bay, southeastern Honshu, Japan.	eng
60207	threats	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	The vulnerability of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to population depletion from localized fishing has been well documented off the east coast of Australia where trawl fishing has depleted the stocks of several species (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus acus</em> may be highly susceptible to overfishing as with other deepwater dogfish with similar life-history strategies. In the waters off Honshu, Japan, <em>C. acus</em> is caught in localized bottom longline, dropline, and gillnet fisheries and trawls that target deepwater sharks for squalene (liver) oil. This species is also caught off Taiwan, as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, and probably in targeted fisheries for deepwater squaloids (Yano and Tanaka 1983, Compagno, in prep a). <br/> <br/>Part of the species' known depth range is beyond that of present fisheries. Presently unexploited depths may serve as a refuge for the species, although the extent of this is unknown given the lack of information on any difference in movement patterns, habitat use and depth segregation between sexes/maturity stages, etc. <br/> <br/>Threats in the Western Central Atlantic are unknown, but may include bycatch in demersal longline fisheries.	eng
60208	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Taxonomic resolution of the species and associated nominal records is the highest priority.	eng
60208	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Uncertain. Type locality is southeastern Japan in the Northwest Pacific, but other records are considered to be provisional only: Western Central Atlantic: Gulf of Mexico; Western Indian: Southern Madagascar Ridge, Comoro Islands, Error seamount off the Gulf of Aden, east of Somalia; Southwest Pacific: New Zealand (Wanganella Bank); Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands (Compagno in prep. a).  <br/>  <br/>May be a wide-ranging species or alternatively, consist of one or more other nominal species.	eng
60208	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Records as known at present are associated with insular slopes at depths of 260 to 732 m (Compagno in prep. a). Biology is unknown. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  89 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60208	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown but apparently a rare species (if valid) (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60208	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Uncertain. <em>Centrophorus</em> species are often taken as bycatch in the deepwater fisheries and are susceptible to population decline given their presumed ?slow? life-history, a characteristic of many deepwater elasmobranchs. For example, intensive trawl fishing on the slope off New South Wales, Australia, rapidly depleted stocks of similar species there (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). The resolution of the true distribution of <em>C. tessellatus</em> will elucidate its level of interaction with deepwater fisheries, which are expanding globally.	eng
60209	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
60209	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	May be more widespread than presently documented. As well as those localities it has been documented from, Myagkov and Kondyurin (1986) suggested that it is also found off the east and west coasts of India and on ridges and seamounts in the Indian and South Atlantic. However, without exact locality data these records are not properly documented (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60209	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Associated with outer continental shelves and upper continental and insular slopes of warm temperate to tropical seas. Wide bathymetric range from 73 to 600 m, which includes records from off bays and river mouths in South Africa. Biology is poorly known, although it is reported as being aplacental yolksac viviparous with a litter size of 18 to 22 young (Compagno in prep. a), but probably has a long gestation period like that of other squalid and deepwater sharks. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 89 to 118 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a); Male: 85 to 90 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Female: 118 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  25 to 28 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  18 to 22 pups (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60209	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Relatively common where it occurs off the Atlantic coast of the USA, but reported as rare to uncommon elsewhere (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1991, Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60209	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Compagno (in prep. a) reports that this species is probably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and deepwater longline fisheries in some parts of its range, including in the Western Atlantic and Western Indian Oceans. Though, like the bycatch of most other deepwater chondrichthyans, specific data is not available. Also reported to be occasionally caught by inshore line fisheries in the Eastern Cape, South Africa (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60210	conservation	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess its status and any future conservation needs.	eng
60210	distribution	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Widespread in central ocean basins of warm-temperate and subtropical oceans, including those off Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa, Madagascar, Brazil, and Island nations in the north and south central Pacific.	eng
60210	habitat	Burgess, G.H., 2006	A meso- and epipelagic (depths of capture: surface to 300 m) oceanic (over 1,829 to 9,938 m depth) species. A bioluminescent vertical migratory species that ascends to or near the water surface by night, descending into midwater (and possibly all the way to the bottom) by day. Reproduction aplacental viviparous, but no details of biology available. One of the smallest shark species, reaching a maximum size of 26.5 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep a). Consumes fishes, bathypelagic squid, and crustaceans. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 22 to 23 cm TL; Male: 17–19 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  26.5 cm TL (females), 22.0 cm TL (males). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >6.0 cm TL, <9.9 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  8. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60210	population	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No information on stock size or structure.	eng
60210	threats	Burgess, G.H., 2006	None apparent. Small size and epipelagic/mesopelagic nature may preclude it from capture in most fisheries.	eng
60211	conservation	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess its status and any future conservation needs.	eng
60211	distribution	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Possibly circumglobal in cold Sub-Antarctic waters of the Southern Hemisphere: Southeast Atlantic near Walvis Ridge; Western Indian, off the east coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; and Southeast Pacific off Chile.	eng
60211	habitat	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Oceanic, pelagic in depths of 45 to 502 m over 830 to 4,000 m. Little known of its life history or ecology. Presumably aplacental viviparous. Known only from six specimens, the largest of which was 36.5 cm TL. A 12.8 cm TL specimen had an umbilical scar, suggesting recent birth. An adult female recorded at 33.3 cm TL and two adult males measured at 36.0 and 36.5 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 33.3 cm TL; Male: 36.0 to 36.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  36.5 cm or longer. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~12.8 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60211	population	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No knowledge of population size or structure.	eng
60211	threats	Burgess, G.H., 2006	None apparent. Small size and pelagic nature may preclude it from capture in most fisheries.	eng
60212	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Gerber, L. & Sherrill-Mix, S.A., 2006	Further specimens are required to better define distribution and obtain information on biology.	eng
60212	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Gerber, L. & Sherrill-Mix, S.A., 2006	Possibly circumglobal, but at present known from scattered locations in the Pacific and Atlantic (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a.).	eng
60212	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Gerber, L. & Sherrill-Mix, S.A., 2006	Little information available on the species? biology as it is presently known only from 10 specimens. Epibenthic (~100 m depth over the continental shelf) and epipelagic (depths of 60 to 120 m over continental slopes with bottom depths of 815-2,060m; and, 200m over the Riu-Kyu Trench with bottom depth of 6,440 m) with all known specimens collected close to land (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Suggested to be a weaker, less active swimmer than <em>I. brasiliensis</em> (Compagno in prep. a). This species is a facultative ectoparasite, like <em>I. brasiliensis</em>, but with a probable different biting/cutting action (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 42 cm TL (Garrick and Springer 1964, Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004, Compagno in prep. a.).. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60212	population	Kyne, P.M., Gerber, L. & Sherrill-Mix, S.A., 2006	This species is rarely encountered compared to <em>Isistius brasiliensis</em> (the cookiecutter shark). Compagno (in prep. a.) suggests that this may be due to more localized or limited distribution of <em>I. plutodus</em>, its occurrence in deeper water or its lower abundance.	eng
60212	threats	Kyne, P.M., Gerber, L. & Sherrill-Mix, S.A., 2006	Rarely caught in trawl (pelagic and benthic) and longline fisheries. The Australian specimen was probably taken by otter trawl targeting prawns (not known if taken on/near the bottom or in midwater) (McGrouther 2001). The Azores specimen was taken by pelagic trawl (Zidowitz <em>et al</em>. 2004) and the Brazilian specimens were collected from longline fisheries operating out of Santos in the south of the country. One specimen was retrieved attached to a hooked blue shark <em>Prionace glauca</em> (Sadowsky <em>et al</em>. 1988, Amorin <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
60213	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	There is a need to research the historical catch data if available, to determine any population declines as a result of the fisheries. Bycatch rates in various fisheries around the Artic and north Atlantic need to be determined and monitored.	eng
60213	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Restricted to Northern Atlantic and Artic regions. Reports of <em>S. microcephalus</em> from the Southern Hemisphere are <em>S. antarcticus</em>.	eng
60213	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Littoral and epibenthic, ranging from river mouths and bays to continental shelf and slope waters. Usually found in depths of 0 to 1,200 m, but one shark was observed at 2,200 m off North Carolina (Herdendorf and Berra 1995, Compagno in prep. a). During winter months in the Arctic and boreal Atlantic, the species occurs in the intertidal zone and at the surface in shallow bays and river mouths, moving into depths of 180 to 550 m during warmer months. At lower latitudes (Gulf of Maine and North Sea) the species occurs on the continental shelves with possible movements into shallower water during spring and summer (Compagno in prep. a). Short term tracking studies of the Greenland sharks under ice off Baffin Island during late Spring suggest that individuals remained at deeper depths during the morning, gradually moving into shallower depths in the afternoon and at night (Skomal and Benz 2004). The species has been recorded in water temperatures of 0.6 to 12°C (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Maximum size is uncertain, but is at least 640 cm TL, possibly to 730 cm TL, however most adults are between 244 and 427 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). Aplacental viviparous with one observed female carrying 10 young (Compagno in prep. a). Tagging studies have shown the species to be very slow growing with medium size sharks appearing to grow at a rate of 1 cm per year (Hansen 1957, Castro 1983, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Although reportedly sluggish, feeds on a variety of prey including invertebrates, fish, seabirds, seals as well as offal (see Compagno in prep. a for more details). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  640?730 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~37 to 38 cm TL (Bjerkan and Koefoed 1957, Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  10. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60213	population	Kyne, P.M., Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60213	threats	Kyne, P.M., Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	The Greenland shark was historically targeted by shark liver fisheries in Norway, Iceland, and Greenland waters. These fisheries may have had a significant impact on this species. The Greenland fishery commenced in the very early nineteenth century. In 1857 the estimated catch was 2,000?3,000 sharks/year, but in the 1910s this had grown to 32,000 sharks/year (Jensen 1914). Commercial fishing of the Greenland shark for liver oil ceased in 1960 (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). During the 1970s the species was perceived as a problem for other fisheries in western Norway and the government subsidized a fishery in order to reduce the stock of the species (Catro <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Currently the species is taken as bycatch in Greenland halibut and shrimp trawl fisheries (D. Kulka, pers. comm.) and fish traps and gillnets. It is also caught by artisanal fisheries in the Arctic (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60214	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No specific conservation requirements, although distribution needs to be better defined with the collection and documentation of further specimens during oceanic survey work. Research into life history is also required.	eng
60214	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	A widespread oceanic species recorded from many warm-temperate and tropical regions. Range will likely increase as further specimens are recognized. Not recorded from Australian waters, but given its nearly circumtropical distribution, may be recorded there in the future (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
60214	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	An oceanic species, occurring near landmasses and apparently avoiding central ocean basins. Primarily found over the continental slope at 200–500 m, but can also occur over continental shelves. Avoids the surface. Vertically migrates on a diel cycle from depth during the day to about 200 m at night, probably related to prey movement (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Little known of its biology, although it is suspected to be yolksac viviparous. Litter size unknown but 12 well-developed eggs have been found in the ovary of a mature female (ovarian fecundity does not always accurately represent actual fecundity and <em>Squaliolus</em> spp. probably have a small litter size) (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>This is one of the world’s smallest shark species, reaching a maximum size of 27.5 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 17–20 cm TL; Male: 15 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  27.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  <9 cm TL (smallest specimen reported by Sasaki and Uyeno 1987).. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60214	population	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No knowledge of stock structure or population size. Compagno (in prep. a) reports that <em>Squaliolus</em> species may occur in aggregations as well as single individuals.	eng
60214	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	This species is generally too small to be captured in fisheries and there are no identifiable threats to the species. Specimens have been irregularly taken as bycatch in commercial trawl fisheries, i.e., deepwater shrimp in Suruga Bay, Japan (Abe 1962).	eng
60215	conservation	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	No current conservation actions are in place. <br/> <br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs.	eng
60215	distribution	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Widespread and sporadic in most oceans, but not yet recorded from the Eastern Pacific (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60215	habitat	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Continental and insular slopes at depths of 550 to 1,450 m. Generally on or near the bottom, but also epipelagic and oceanic off Brazil at depths of 0 to 580 m in waters 2,000 m deep (Compagno in prep. a). Little known of its biology. Probably aplacental viviparous. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 59 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a); Male: 49 cm TL (Compagno in prep a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~69 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60215	population	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Probably rare in its deepwater habitat. Less commonly encountered in the Western North Atlantic than other areas.	eng
60215	threats	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Taken as bycatch by deepwater benthic trawl, longline and set net gear (Compagno in prep. a). Specific information is not available.	eng
60216	conservation	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No conservation actions are currently in place. <br/> <br/>Deepwater squaloids are highly susceptible to population depletion from localized fishing activities. This situation has been well documented with <em>Centrophorus</em> species off the east coast of Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997). There is thus an urgent need for appraisal of catches of this species where it is landed in Japan and Taiwan, and the development of appropriate management given the apparent limited life-history characteristics of the species.	eng
60216	distribution	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Nominal from the Western Central Atlantic.	eng
60216	habitat	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 150 to 950 m, mostly below 200 m . Nominal <em>C. acus</em> in the Western Central Atlantic have been recorded at 630 to 915 m (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Little known of this species biology as few adults have been collected. This is a large species of <em>Centrophorus</em> reaching at least 161 cm TL. Yano and Tanaka (1986) described a 161 cm TL mature specimen with five enlarged (5.5 cm diameter) (ovarian) eggs and enlarged uteri. While exact litter sizes are unknown, the small number of eggs in this specimen suggests a small litter size (Compagno in prep a). This species appears to mature late with females maturing at possibly >20 years (Tanaka 1990). Estimated sizes and ages at maturity are given in the life history parameters (below). <br/> <br/>Based on stomach fullness, <em>C. acus</em> appears to feed more actively at night (Compagno in prep a). A tracking study in Suruga Bay, Japan showed that tagged sharks exhibited little horizontal movements in the short term and remained mostly at 10 to 50 m above the seabed with peaks in swimming depths at 300 to 400 m and 580 to 620 m (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: possibly >20 yrs. Females still immature at 17 to 18 yrs (Tanaka 1990); Male: ~10 yrs (Tanaka 1990) <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: Females immature to 154 cm TL, mature at 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986); Male: 50% maturity: 100 to 105 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Females: >20 yrs; Male: Males: 17 yrs (dorsal spine rings), possibly up to 20 yrs (extrapolated from growth curve) (Tanaka 1990). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 161 cm TL (Yano and Tanaka 1986). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60216	population	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60216	threats	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	The vulnerability of <em>Centrophorus</em> species to population depletion from localized fishing has been well documented off the east coast of Australia where trawl fishing has depleted the stocks of several species (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus acus</em> may be highly susceptible to overfishing as with other deepwater dogfish with similar life-history strategies.  <br/> <br/>Threats in the Western Central Atlantic are unknown, but may include bycatch in demersal longline fisheries.	eng
60217	conservation	Rosa, R.S., Mancini, P., Caldas, J.P. & Graham, R.T., 2006	Although this species is protected in a number of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Brazil (see Range and Population section) increased law enforcement against illegal fishing in protected areas is required. Establishment of additional protected areas (no fishing zones) on the outer banks off northern coast of Brazil is also recommended, as are MPAs in other parts of its range to protect this and other species. Shark fishing is illegal in Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina Marine Reserve and local guides have noted an increase in sightings of many species of reef-associated sharks including <em>C. perezi</em> since 1997 when the reserve was declared and enforcement of fishing regulations began. There are currently no conservation measures protecting sharks throughout Belize territorial waters. Despite no-take restrictions in marine reserves, illegal fishing continues to take place and reef sharks are known to be caught. As such, increased enforcement is required in Belize?s 13 marine reserves to specifically protect shark species against illegal fishing. Most sharks caught as bycatch in the hook and line fisheries could be released live but are usually landed.	eng
60217	distribution	Rosa, R.S., Mancini, P., Caldas, J.P. & Graham, R.T., 2006	Caribbean reef sharks range throughout the tropical western Atlantic and Caribbean from North Carolina to Brazil and are the most common reef shark in the Caribbean. They are found near reefs in southern Florida, however surveys using longline gear off the east coast of Florida reveal that <em>C. perezi</em> are extremely rare north of the Florida Keys (<a href="www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/CReefShark/CReefShark.htm">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>). <br/> <br/>In Belize, recorded throughout the Belize Barrier Reef including the marine reserves of Half Moon Caye and Blue Hole (Lighthouse Reef Atoll) (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep), Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) and Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted). Neonate, juvenile and adult reef sharks are found at several sites throughout the Barrier Reef (Glover?s Reef Atoll, Lighthouse Reef Atoll, Gladden Spit). <br/> <br/>In Cuba, recorded in the Jardines de la Reina Archipelago and marine reserve (Graham and Pina 2004). Neonate, juvenile and adult reef sharks are commonly encountered in the Jardines de la Reina Archipelago. All sites studied in Belize and Cuba are partially or entirely encompassed in marine protected areas. However only Jardines de la Reina bans shark fishing within its borders. <br/> <br/>In Venezuela it is one of the most frequent and abundant shark species at oceanic islands such as Los Roques (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). It is also one of the most abundant sharks around the Bahamas and the Antilles. <br/> <br/>In Colombia, recorded from Rosario islands, Tayrona park, La Guajira and San Andrés Archipelago (Acero and Santos-Martínez 1992, Caldas 2002, Rey and Acero in press). <br/> <br/>In Brazil, recorded from the States of Amapá, Pará, Maranhão, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Paraná and Santa Catarina, and from the oceanic islands of Atol das Rocas, Fernando de Noronha and Trindade, and from the reef formations of Parcel Manuel Luiz and Abrolhos (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sampaio et al. 2000, Garla and Amorim 2000, Rocha and Rosa 2001, Soto 2001). This species is protected at the Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve, at Fernando de Noronha and Abrolhos national marine parks, and at the Parcel Manuel Luiz state marine park. <br/> <br/>Glover?s Reef (Belize), Gladden Spit (Belize), Jardines de la Reina (Cuba), Atol das Rocas (Brazil) and Fernando de Noronha (Brazil) archipelagos all appear to encompass breeding, pupping  and nursery grounds, based on catches of neonate, juvenile and adult sharks. Parcel Manoel Luiz, Abrolhos and Trindade are possibly other nursery areas in Brazil (Garla <em>et al</em>., in prep).	eng
60217	habitat	Rosa, R.S., Mancini, P., Caldas, J.P. & Graham, R.T., 2006	The Caribbean reef shark is the most common shark on or near coral reefs in the Caribbean, often found close to drop-offs on the outer edges of the reefs. It is a tropical inshore, bottom-dwelling species of the continental and insular shelves. While generally reported from depths to at least 30 m (Compagno in prep. b), in San Andrés Archipelago, Colombia it is reported from depths of 45 to 22 5m (Caldas 2002) and through satellite telemetry is now known to dive to 378 m (E. Pikitch and D. Chapman, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Caribbean reef sharks are caught mostly in forereef and deeper lagoonal areas and rarely in the shallow lagoons in Belizes Glover?s Reef (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Lighthouse Reef (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep) and Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina (Graham and Pina in prep). Although intraspecific variation in reef use exists between juveniles and adults at Glover?s Reef (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), and between males and females at Jardines de la Reina (Graham and Pina in prep), neonate, juvenile and adult habitat overlap at Belize?s Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) and in Cuba?s Jardines de la Reina Archipelago (Graham and Pina in prep) where all three size classes have been caught in forereef sites. Although adults are rarely found in shallow lagoons and juveniles are found in both lagoons and forereef areas, acoustic taqging supports overall species preference for forereef areas at Glover?s Reef (Chapman <em>et al</em>. submitted). In Jardines de la Reina, preliminary results further suggest sexual segregation between adults along two forereef sites located within <10 km of of each other and separated by a broad reef pass (Graham and Pina in prep). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 60 to 75 cm TL (Castro 1983). Maximum size about 295 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Reproduction is placental viviparous. Difference in the size at maturity exist with 150 to 170 cm TL at Glover?s Reef (Belize) recorded by Pikitch et al. (submitted) and 170 cm TL (males) and ~200 cm TL (females) noted by Compagno (in prep b). Litter size is 3 to 6 pups and gestation period is ~1 year (Compagno in prep. b). Reproductive periodicity is biennial (Castro et al. 1999). Sex ratios from 102 sharks captured at Glover?s Reef Atoll were even from May to July (2000?2004). <br/> <br/>Diet appears to include a wide range of reef fishes and some elasmobranchs. Stomach contents analysis in several sites reveals consumption of bony fishes (scarids, carangids and serranids) and elasmobranchs such as <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> and <em>Urobatis jamaicensis</em> (D. Chapman pers. comm.). In Fernando de Noronha archipelago, Brazil, specimens of the teleosts <em>Caranx latus</em>, <em>Sparisoma</em> spp. and <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> were observed in stomach contents (R. Garla pers. comm). In Manoel Luis reefs, remains of Scaridae and cephalopods were found in stomach contents (Motta <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>Movement is more extensive than previously thought on both the horizontal and vertical planes. Using acoustic telemetry, Chapman <em>et al</em>. (submitted) determined that one animal traveled 30 km over deep (>400 m) waters from Glover?s Reef Atoll to neighboring Lighthouse Reef Atoll. Within 30 hours the same individual returned to a site at Glover?s at least 50 km from the Lighthouse receiver site. On the other hand, 14 sharks fitted with acoustic transmitters in Fernando de Noronha archipelago (Brazil) showed little movement and high site fidelity, half of them remaining within areas of 0.7 km² and the other half traveling less than 3.3 km, mainly during the night (Garla <em>et al</em>. submitted for publication).	eng
60217	population	Rosa, R.S., Mancini, P., Caldas, J.P. & Graham, R.T., 2006	Population studies are underway using tag and recapture methods at three sites in Belize: Glover?s Reef Atoll (Pikitch <em>et al</em>. 2001, Pikitch <em>et al</em>. submitted), Lighthouse Reef (Graham <em>et al</em>. in prep.) and Gladden Spit (Graham and Burgess 2004) as well as the Jardines de la Reina Marine Reserve in Cuba (Graham and Pina, in prep.) and Fernando de Noronha in Brazil (Garla <em>et al</em>., in prep). No population size estimates are currently available.	eng
60217	threats	Rosa, R.S., Mancini, P., Caldas, J.P. & Graham, R.T., 2006	While specific information is unavailable, it is most certainly taken as bycatch in artisanal and commercial longline and gillnet fisheries (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). In some regions (i.e., parts of Brazil and the Caribbean) fishing pressure in its area of occurrence is potentially significant. For example, in parts of its range off Brazil it is known to be captured in longline and gillnet fisheries (Sadowsky and Amorim 1977, Gadig <em>et al</em>. 1989, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998), although there is no information available on its population status. The species is protected in a number of marine protected areas in Brazil, but enforcement to prevent illegal fishing is required. <br/> <br/>In Belize, reef sharks are caught on hook and line primarily as bycatch in the artisanal snapper or grouper fisheries. Pressure is maintained on these populations through local, national and international trade: Asian buyers purchase dried fins for up to USD 37.5/lb and meat is sold in Belize and adjoining Mexico and Guatemala for USD 1.25?1.75/lb to make ?panades? (tortilla-like confection). A dedicated shark fishery operated from several points throughout Belize (San Pedro, Sarteneja, Punta Gorda, Placencia, Dangriga) existed from the mid-1900s to the early 1990s. Dramatic declines in catches of all shark species including reef sharks led many dedicated shark fishers to switch effort to other species, change occupation or retire (Graham, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>In Cuba, shark landings peaked in 1981 at 3,076t and have declined since. Although landings of Caribbean reef sharks are not disaggregated from all shark landings, catches of coastal shark species including reef-associated sharks predominated between 1986?1990 (1,187t or 54.2% of landings). Despite a decrease in the total landings for all species between 1981?2003, coastal shark species accounted for 82% of all captures between 1994?2003. <br/> <br/>In Colombia, it is frequently captured in the bottom longline fishery of San Andrés Archipelago where it is the most common shark species, representing 39% of the catch by occurrence. Sizes of ~90?180 cm TL are taken in this fishery (Caldas 2002). <br/> <br/>Additionally, coral reef ecosystems in the Caribbean are suffering damage from bleaching, disease and physical impacts (see for example, Garzón-Ferreira and Rodriguez-Ramírez 2001), which may affect <em>Carcharhinus perezi</em> through habitat degradation and loss. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Utilized for human consumption, leather (skin), oil (livers) and fishmeal (from carcasses) (Compagno in prep. b). In the San Andrés Archipelago bottom longline fishery in Colombia the fins, jaws (for ornamental purposes) and liver (for oil) are utilized, while the meat is only occasionally used as it is not easily marketed. A gallon of liver oil is sold for USD 40?50, jaws for USD 50?60 (specimen >150 cm TL) and a pound of fins for US$45?55 (Caldas 2002). In Belize dried fins are sold to Asian buyers for USD 37.50/lb and meat if sold to Belizeans, Mexicans, Guatemalans and Hondurans for ~USD 1.25-1.75/lb (Graham, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>This species forms the basis of several shark feeding tour operations throughout the Caribbean including Belize, Bahamas and Cuba. Although known to be lucrative ? prompting the activity and strong opposition to feeding bans - the Caribbean reef shark feeding industry has not yet been quantitatively valued.	eng
60218	conservation	Lessa, R., Charvet-Almeida, P., Santana, F.M. & Almeida, Z., 2006	The following measures are recommended for this species: <br/> <br/>It is suggested that the conservation area of Reentrâncias Maranhenses (Brazil) and adjacent regions is extended to encompass marine areas and seamounts where this species spends part of its life cycle. <br/> <br/>Monitoring of the fishing efforts of vessels that use gillnets in the area of occurrence is also recommended. Encourage the release of live specimens landed. <br/> <br/>Inclusion of this species in the Brazilian National list of Endangered Species (IBAMA). Creation and enforcement of specific laws/restrictions in the number of landings with the aim of conserving the species. <br/> <br/>Studies and monitoring of this species in the other countries in its range outside Brazil.	eng
60218	distribution	Lessa, R., Charvet-Almeida, P., Santana, F.M. & Almeida, Z., 2006	Compagno (1984) mentions the occurrence of the Daggernose Shark off the eastern (central) Brazilian coast (Valenca, Bahia, 13°S). However, this species has never been collected in fishery surveys and, is unknown to local fishermen in this area. In surveys carried out from 1998 to 2000 by the REVIZEE Program (Brazilian national program for the assessment of living resources of the exclusive economic zone) this species was also not recorded.	eng
60218	habitat	Lessa, R., Charvet-Almeida, P., Santana, F.M. & Almeida, Z., 2006	The whole area where the Daggernose Shark occurs is characterized by a humid, tropical climate, coasts covered by extensive mangrove systems, wide continental shelves, intense draining by numerous rivers (including the Amazon), muddy bottoms and highly turbid waters. This species is found mainly in a deeply indented coastline with a large number of rivers, islands, estuaries and some beaches. Tidal amplitude in this region reaches up to 7 m and salinity ranges from 20 to 34 ppt (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Depth is shallow waters to 40 m (Lessa 1986, Lessa and Menni 1994). <br/> <br/>The elasmobranch fish fauna in the area is made up of two dominant-resident species, <em>Carcharhinus porosus</em> and <em>Sphyrna tiburo</em> and 11 other common species. The daggernose shark spends most of its life cycle within the same area and no long distance movements have been recorded, however some local seasonal movements possibly occur (Lessa and Menni 1994). <br/> <br/>Off the northern Brazilian coast, females mature at an age of 6 to 7 years (115 cm TL) and males at 5 to 6 years (103 cm TL) (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000). Placental viviparous with the litter size varying between two and eight pups. The gestation period is 12 months and reproductive periodicity is possibly biennial (Lessa 1987, Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stride <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>This species recruits to fisheries at 8.6 years (Marcante and Lessa 2002). Von Bertalanffy parameters obtained from vertebral analysis are: L? = 171.4 cm TL; k = 0.12 yr <sup>-1</sup>; t<sub>0</sub> = -2.61. The oldest female specimen that had vertebrae analyzed was 12 years and the oldest male was seven years old. In the length frequency sample, the maximum size of 160 cm TL would correspond to a 20 year-old female and the maximum size of 144 cm TL would correspond to a 12 year-old male. Size at birth ~42 cm TL (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 6?7 years; Male: 5?6 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 115 cm TL; Male: 103 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Female: 20 years; Male: 12 years. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Female: 160 cm TL; Male: 144 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~42 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  12 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Possibly biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?8 pups/litter, therefore average annual fecundity may equal 1?4 young if reproductive periodicity is biennial. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60218	population	Lessa, R., Charvet-Almeida, P., Santana, F.M. & Almeida, Z., 2006	Nursery areas have been observed in shallow areas such as estuaries and shallow coastal areas. Pregnant females were caught during the Amazonian summer (July-December) (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
60218	threats	Lessa, R., Charvet-Almeida, P., Santana, F.M. & Almeida, Z., 2006	The Daggernose Shark is caught incidentally in artisanal floating gillnets targeting both Spanish mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis</em> and King Weakfish <em>Cynoscium acoupa</em> inside or near estuary mouths mainly during the dry season, representing about 10% of the catch in the State of Maranhao, Brazil (Lessa 1986, Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Stride <em>et al</em>. (1992) recorded a CPUE of 71 kg/km/h for the Daggernose Shark, however, fishing efforts for target bony fish have increased in recent years due to the increase of the price of byproducts, mainly swim bladders. Observations have indicated that a commercial fishery targeting sharks is also presently taking place in this area (P. Charvet-Almeida, personal observation). Recent demographic analyses suggest that the population has been decreasing at 18.4% per year and very large population declines (>90%) have been observed over the past 10 years (Santana and Lessa 2002). <br/> <br/>This species does not compensate for the high natural and fishing mortality due to its limited biological characteristics, including intrinsic population growth rate. The high mortality rates for such a biologically limited species are resulting in it not being able to support sustained fishing pressure (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Santana and Lessa 2002). This entire situation indicates a high risk of extinction for this species particularly given that it is an endemic species with a restricted range, and that fishing pressure is still increasing. <br/> <br/>Data are lacking for the other countries in its range, but because the species is taken primarily in artisanal fisheries, which are intense throughout its range there is no reason to believe that a similar decline has not occurred there as well. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The Daggernose Shark is commercialised as human food but fins have a low price.	eng
60219	conservation	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	<strong>Brazil</strong>: There are controls on the number of vessels in the fishery and the use of drift nets is prohibited, but there needs to be enforcement of existing laws that ban the transport of shark fins without corresponding carcasses, better monitoring of landings, and declaration of closed fishing areas over some of the seamounts off northeastern Brazil. The Brazilian National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) is in urgent need of implementation under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks). <br/> <br/><strong>US</strong>: In US waters, under the Fishery Management Plan of the Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (NMFS 1999), the Night Shark, <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>, is currently listed as a Prohibited Species but was originally petitioned and added to the Candidate Species List under the Endangered Species Act in 1997.  Recent time/area closures off the Florida Straits and the Charleston Bump should help to reduce any further increases in bycatch (L. Beerkircher, NOAA Fisheries, pers. comm).	eng
60219	distribution	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Studies on the species have been carried out at several localities along the Brazilian coast during the past five years. Whether or not specimens examined from the different localities belong to the same population or whether there is exchange between the animals off Brazil with those in other parts of its range is unknown. Pregnant females are observed in northeastern Brazil, although full-term embryos and new-born specimens are never caught, perhaps due to size-selectivity of gear used. On the shelf break in the southern region of its distribution (latitude ~34° South) (Hellebrandt and Vooren 2000) the animals are predominantly juveniles, and the area is thought to be an important nursery area. <br/> <br/>The night shark makes up 90% of elasmobranchs caught by longline over seamounts off northeastern Brazil (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). About 89% of individuals in landings are below age-at-50%-maturity. Recruitment to the seamount longline fisheries occurs at five years. Demographic analysis carried out using data collected over seamounts off northeastern Brazil indicates declines due to a high fishing mortality rate (F=0.117) and early recruitment causing an annual loss of 4.4% (Santana da Silva 2001). Fishing mortality is double that required to maintain population equilibrium (Z?=0.287). Estimates of total mortality (Z), natural mortality (M), initial natural mortality (Z0) and equilibrium fishing mortality (F?) are 0.355, 0.238, 0.362 and 0.049, respectively. Further, the reproductive net rate (R0) is estimated to be 0.59 and generation time (G) 11.71. Average fecundity is 9.5 embryos and the sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Santana da Silva 2001).	eng
60219	habitat	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Castro (1983) reports that this species is usually found at depths between 275 and 366 m during the day and <183 m at night. Compagno (in prep b) reports that the species prefers waters 50 to 100 m deep, but that it ranges from the surface to at least 600 m depth. In northeastern Brazil <em>C. signatus</em> is caught in commercial landings on deep (Aracati, Dois Irmaos Fundo, Sirius) and shallow (Pequeno, Leste and Sueste) seamounts at depths of 38 to 370 m on the summits. In these areas mating occurs throughout the austral summer; embryos measuring 10 to 40 cm TL were collected in February, whereas 31 to 37 cm TL embryos were found in June. Parturition occurs during several months in a protracted birthing season. Size-at-birth is estimated to be 66.8 cm TL. The gestation period is assumed to be about one year. Whether or not there is a resting break between two reproductive seasons is unclear. Gravid females have between 4 and 15 pups. Peak gonadosomatic index (GSI) occurs in spring and ovulation occurs shortly after that. Copulation is assumed to occur in summer. Average fecundity is 9.5 embryos and the sex ratio of embryos is 1:1 (Santana da Silva 2001). <br/> <br/>As mentioned above, about 89% of individuals in landings in the seamount fishery are below age-at-50%-maturity (eight years for males and 10 years for females). Recruitment to the seamount longline fisheries occurs at five years (157 cm TL for males and 202 cm TL for females). Maximum size in the area is 260 cm TL, and size-at-50%-maturity is 185 cm TL for males and 202 cm TL for females. Maximum age in this area is 17 years (Santana and Lessa 2004). <br/> <br/>Age and growth were determined for the northeastern Brazil region from vertebral sections from 317 animals. Von Bertalanffy growth functions showed no significant differences between sexes. Growth parameter estimates were L<sub>?</sub> = 270 cm TL, k = 0.11 yr<sup>?1</sup>; t<sub>0</sub> = -2.71 yr (Santana and Lessa 2004).	eng
60219	population	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Formerly common in Caribbean fisheries, this species is now apparently rare (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
60219	threats	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	<em>Carcharhinus signatus</em> is a target species and is regularly caught in commercial landings on deep (Aracati, Dois Irmaos Fundo, Sirius) and shallow (Pequeno, Leste and Sueste) seamounts off northeastern Brazil (Ceara and Rio Grande do Norte), at depths of 38?370 m on the summits. Exploitation started in 1991 for the highly prized fins, the increasing value of shark meat in the local market, and the species? accessibility to fisheries. <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em> is the most abundant elasmobranch species in the seamount fisheries where it makes up 90% of catches in number over shallow banks (CPUE, in number 2.94/100 hooks) but only 15% of catches on the surrounding deep areas (CPUE 0.04/100 hooks) using the traditional Japanese-style multifilament longline (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). Estimates of age composition for the whole sample indicated that 89.2% of individuals were below age-at-50%-maturity (eight years for males and 10 years for females). Recruitment to the fisheries is at five years of age. The population is highly aggregated over the seamounts and shelf break and, thus, highly ?available? to fisheries. It is likely that there are no natural refuges for the species and that there is little or no exchange with other populations of <em>C. signatus</em>. One possible respite for the population is re-targeting away from <em>C. signatus</em> to Swordfish <em>Xiphias gladius</em> and Bigeye Tuna <em>Thunnus obesus</em>. <br/> <br/>Historically, Night Sharks comprised a significant proportion of the artisanal Cuban shark fishery, making up to 60?75% of the catch from 1937?1941 (Martinez 1947).  However, beginning in the 1970?s with the development of the swordfish fishery, anecdotal evidence has demonstrated a substantial decline in the abundance of this species. Guitart-Manday (1975) documented a decline in the mean weight per unit of effort for night sharks from 53.4 kg in 1971 to 21.1 kg in 1973. <br/> <br/>Night sharks comprised 26.1% of the shark catch in the pelagic U.S. longline fishery from 1981-1983 (Berkeley and Campos 1988), but this declined to 0.3% and 3.3% of the shark catch in 1993 and 1994 based on observer data (L. Beerkircher, unpublished data). Further, photographic evidence from marlin tournaments in south Florida in the 1970?s shows that large night sharks were caught daily but today they are rarely captured (J.I. Castro, personal observation).  However, recent trends in catch rates from the pelagic logbook data indicate that the trend has stabilized since 1992 (Brown and Cramer 2002). Night sharks are still caught incidentally as bycatch in the US Longline Fishery although the species currently makes up only 2% of the shark catch. Recent time/area closures off the Florida Straits and the Charleston Bump should help to reduce any further increases in bycatch because most night shark catches occur in these areas (L. Beerkircher, NOAA Fisheries, pers. comm.).	eng
60220	conservation	Lessa, R., Almeida, Z., Santana, F.M., Siu, S. & Perez, M., 2006	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: No effective measures in place at the present. The species was assessed as Vulnerable and included in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil (published 26/05/2004); according to this status no captures are allowed. There have been recommendations from the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) to the Brazilian Ministry of Environment to expand conservation areas along the Maranhão State in order to include coastal areas.  <br/> <br/><strong>CENTRAL AMERICA</strong>: Other than steps being taken to ban finning in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, there are no regulations for shark species in particular, and where they are in place the monitoring, control and surveillance system is deficient. Studies are required to investigate population size and threats. <br/> <br/><strong>GENERAL</strong>: Development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
60220	distribution	Lessa, R., Almeida, Z., Santana, F.M., Siu, S. & Perez, M., 2006	Not known to occur in high numbers elsewhere throughout its range, Northern Brazil is in fact considered to be the centre of abundance for this species, with the highest abundance occurring in shallow waters off the Maranhão Coast, between Tubarão and Turiacu Bays (44° to 45°W) in gillnet fisheries targeting Spanish Mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis </em> (in 8 to 32 m). Overall salinity in the area ranges from 13.96 ppm during the rainy season to 33.6 ppm during the dry season; temperature ranges from 25.1?31.5°C. The most important feature in this area is the tidal range that reaches up to 7 m bringing about tidal currents that attain speeds of 7.5 knots (Lessa 1997). The abundance of the species apparently decreases gradually easterly to this area. However, some specimens are still taken in gillnet fisheries targeting Spanish mackerel off Ceara (4°S) and Pernambuco States (8°S). The species is considered rare in the southern part of its Brazilian range. <br/> <br/>Pregnant females, adult males and new-born sharks of this species have been observed in studies off northern Brazil (Lessa and Menni 1994). Of 1,128 Smalltail Sharks collected from June 1984 to November 1987 in gillnets from coastal waters, about 78% of females and 82% of males were immature in catches (Lessa and Santana 1998, Lessa <em>et al</em>.1999). Neonate males and females are commonly caught (30 to 35 cm TL /150 to 235 g). The coastline has mangroves and is deeply indented because of the large number of islands, rivers, estuaries, sandy beaches and cliffs, called ?Reentrancias?, which encompasses the coast of Para and Maranhão States. The area is considered a nursery area for this species as well as for other elasmobranchs, providing shelter and abundant food for initial phases of development.	eng
60220	habitat	Lessa, R., Almeida, Z., Santana, F.M., Siu, S. & Perez, M., 2006	Common in waters over continental shelves, the Smalltail Shark prefers muddy bottoms in estuarine habitats. It swims along the bottom to depths of 36 m. <br/> <br/><strong>BRAZIL</strong>: The largest specimen ever caught in northern Brazil was a 128.5 cm TL female. However, the largest specimen analyzed in the literature cited here was a female measuring 120.5 cm TL and the smallest a 29.4 cm TL male (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). The modal class in samples was 50 to 60 cm TL for both sexes. Age ranged from zero (newborns) to 12 years for individuals between 30 and 101 cm TL. Developed embryos of 28.5 cm TL were observed in the area; the average size at birth is 30 cm TL. The average fecundity is six embryos per female (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). A resting break is suggested between successive pregnancies, implying a biennial cycle. The length- weight relationship did not differ significantly between the sexes. Diameter of ovarian follicles, presence of eggs/embryos and nidamental gland traits in female point to a major physiological change toward maturity at about 70.0 cm. Vitellogenesis was first observed at 63.0 cm, and the smallest of the six pregnant females was 70.0 cm; there was a significant relationship between the number of embryos and female size (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999) The size at 50% of maturity is 71 cm TL (males) and 70 cm TL (females) (Lessa <em>et al</em>.1999). Age and growth were estimated from vertebral analysis for individuals ranging from zero to twelve years. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters were: L<sub>?</sub> = 136.4 cm TL, K= 0.077 year<sup>-1</sup> and t<sub>0</sub> = -3.27 year. <br/> <br/>The Smalltail Shark is an opportunistic predator, feeding primarily on small fishes including sea catfish, croakers, jacks and grunts, it also consumes aquatic invertebrates including crabs and shrimps. Adults may prey upon elasmobranchs, whereas juveniles show a wider food spectrum. Ontogenetic differences in diet were observed for both males and females. There is evidence of size selection of prey related to predator size (Lessa and Almeida 1997). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Male & Female: 6 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 70 cm (Lessa and Santana 1988), 72 to 78 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005); Male: 71 cm (Lessa and Santana 1998), 84 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  12 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  128.5 cm (Maranhão - Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999); 134 cm (São Paulo - Sadowsky 1967); <150 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  30 cm (observed) and 31.1 cm (back-calculated) (Lessa and Santana 1998); 31-40 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong>:  6 years (Lessa and Santana 1998). <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  ~12 months (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biannual cycle (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average 6 embryos; maximum 9 (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stride <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  0.20 (Hoening´s Model); 0.23 (Pauly´s Model) (Santana da Silva 2001)..	eng
60220	population	Lessa, R., Almeida, Z., Santana, F.M., Siu, S. & Perez, M., 2006	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: Analyses of the catch in northern Brazil indicate that the age of recruitment to the fisheries is two years (45 cm TL for males and 50 cm TL for females). Maturity length (50%) corresponds to six year-old individuals. The estimated mortality rate (Z) is 0.41; natural mortality is 0.217 and fishing mortality 0.193. Although the exploitation rate is 0.47, there are a high number of juveniles (88%, both sexes) and the estimated equilibrium fishing mortality (F?) is 0.051.	eng
60220	threats	Lessa, R., Almeida, Z., Santana, F.M., Siu, S. & Perez, M., 2006	<strong>BRAZIL</strong>: The species is a bycatch in gillnet fisheries directed at Spanish Mackerel <em>Scomberomorus brasiliensis</em>. Declines in populations have been observed in Maranhão Coast (northern Brazil ? the centre of abundance for this species) from comparing the species abundance in catches in the 1980?s to the present. The species represented about 43% of elasmobranch catches in the 1980?s. These catches were mainly composed of juveniles (88%). The proportion of the species in catches today using the same gear (recent National Research Program on EEZ Living Resources, REVIZEE Program) is about 17% of the total elasmobranch catch in numbers (Almeida 1998, Santana da Silva 2001). Ongoing research is being undertaken by Zafira Almeida. <br/> <br/><strong>PERU</strong>: Information on <em>C. porosus</em> in Peru is extremely scarce, other than reports of its presence off the north coast (to Chimbote, 09° 04.4´S) and occasionally rare off the south coast (Callao 12° 00´S and Ilo 17° 38.4´S). Landings of this species are not specifically reported in Peru (M. Romero, Unidad de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad, Instituto del Mar del Peru (IMARPE) pers.comm.). <br/> <br/>No information for the rest of its range, for example, although a known bycatch component of artisanal gillnet fisheries in Central America, there is no data on catch or effort for this species. Information on <em>C. porosus</em> in the Gulf of Mexico is also scarce. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/><strong>CENTRAL AMERICA</strong>: in general, sharks are utilized for human consumption (fillets), medicine (cartilages, liver oil) and dried fins are exported. <br/> <br/>The Smalltail Shark is of little commercial importance, primarily caught as incidental bycatch in the gillnets of other fisheries. The flesh is marketed fresh for human consumption while the fins are valuable for use in soup fin soup. This shark is also processed into fishmeal and the oil is extracted from the liver (<a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu">http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu</a>).	eng
60221	conservation	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Further research and enquiries in this region are needed.	eng
60221	distribution	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	From Senegal to Ivory Coast, from Ghana to Cameroon, and off Zaire and Angola.	eng
60221	habitat	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	See species-level account for <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>.	eng
60221	population	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Population size and trends for this subpopulation are unknown.	eng
60221	threats	Santana, F.M., Lessa, R. & Carlson, J., 2006	Threats in the Eastern Atlantic are unknown. For threats elsewhere in the range, see species-level account for <em>Carcharhinus signatus</em>.	eng
60222	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Harvest and trade management is required where this species is taken and marketed. The extent to which the species is exploited from the wild for the marine aquarium trade needs to be investigated and the industry should be encouraged to be self-regulated, ensuring stock is drawn from sustainable sources. <em>Chiloscyllium</em> species breed well in captivity and captive reared individuals rather than wild animals should be used to supply the expanding market. <br/> <br/>Any measures to protect, maintain and restore coral reef habitats in Asia will benefit this and other species of reef-dwelling elasmobranchs. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. At the time of writing, development of a regional Plan of Action (under the IPOA-Sharks) was underway by Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. In addition, Malaysia has a separate draft National Plan of Action (NPOA) available, and the Philippines and Indonesia are also taking steps towards developing their separate NPOAs. India stated its intention to prepare a NPOA in the near future; China stated it was working towards development and implementation; and Taiwan and Sri Lanka had not yet stated any intention to develop NPOAs. In developing these management plans, it is vital for countries not to overlook the main aims of the IPOA-Sharks: to improve species-specific catch and landings data collection, and the monitoring and management of shark fisheries. This will not be achieved if the plans do not include adequate data collection, monitoring and management measures. Improved management of shark fisheries will not occur if even the most detailed of the management plans are simply not implemented once prepared (Anon. 2004).	eng
60222	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Indo-West Pacific: India to southern Japan. Has not been confirmed between India and Thailand (e.g., Bangladesh and Myanmar).	eng
60222	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	A shallow water tropical reef-dwelling species. Biology is poorly known. A nocturnal feeder, resting by day in reef crevices (Compagno 2001). Reaches a maximum size of 95 cm TL; adolescent males to 64 cm TL and adult males 50 to 83 cm TL; smallest free-living individuals 9.8 to 12.5 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Oviparous. Information on reproduction and growth is only available from captivity (Masuda and Teshima 1994, Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). Females deposit two egg capsules at a time, on average every 6 to 7 days from spring to summer (Masuda 1998), or about every six days from winter to spring (Miki 1994). Hatching period: range 110 to 135 days (Miki 1994); average 128.2 days (Masuda 1998); and, average 126 ± 9.2 days, range 116 to 144 days (Tullis and Peterson 2000). Average length at birth was 16.6 cm TL (Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). The maximum laying season reported by Miki (1994) of 87 days yielded 26 eggs from an individual, 11 of which failed to develop. <br/> <br/>In captivity, some variation in growth rates have been reported. Masuda (1998) reported individuals reaching 30 cm TL after one year, while Miki (1994) reported 42.1 cm TL after five months! The species has been reported to live in captivity for 25 years (Michael 1993). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 50 to 64 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  Uncertain, but reported to 25 years in captivity (Michael 1993). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  95 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  9.8 cm TL or smaller (Compagno 2001); 16.6 cm TL (average in captivity; Miki 1994, Masuda 1998). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Hatching period (in captivity): range 110 to 135 days (Miki 1994); average 128.2 days (Masuda 1998); and, average 126 ± 9.2 days, range 116 to 144 days (Tullis and Peterson 2000). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  In captivity: maximum of 26 eggs per laying season (Miki 1994). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60222	population	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	No knowledge of population size or structure.	eng
60222	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	The majority of the distribution of the Whitespotted Bamboo Shark is under substantial, generally unregulated and unmanaged fishing pressure. The species is landed and utilised for human consumption in nearly all countries within its range. The species is known to be taken regularly in India, Thailand and China (Compagno 2001) and is landed in Borneo (Manjaji 2002), Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), Taiwan (both on the mainland and the Penghu Islands) (P. Kyne pers. obs., D. Ebert pers. comm.) and irregularly in Indonesia (W. White pers. comm.). It is also prized for the aquarium trade as it is hardy in captivity and known to survive for long periods in aquaria (Michael 1993, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Pressure on coral reef systems is high over much of the species? range with the amount of available habitat being reduced in recent history due to the degradation/destruction of coral reefs through such practices as dynamite fishing (e.g., Indonesia and elsewhere) and terrestrial runoff (e.g., through logging in Philippines). <br/> <br/>Given human population increases in the Asian region and continued and increasing exploitation of marine resources the conservation status of this coral reef species is of concern.	eng
60223	conservation	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Nurse Sharks are managed as part of the Large Coastal Species complex in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters of the United States. <br/> <br/>The Colombian government is considering a ban on the <em>G. cirratum</em> fishery together with an extensive habitat protection campaign (Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The species was listed as Vulnerable in São Paulo State (Brazil) by participants at a workshop organized by the State Secretary of the Environment (SEMA/SP) using IUCN criteria. (São Paulo 1998), and later assessed as Vulnerable in Brazil by a commission of the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) in 2002, also using IUCN Red List criteria. Its inclusion in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil as a Vulnerable species was recommended to the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment in 2003. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures should include: <br/> <br/>Establishment of no fishing marine conservation units, encompassing reef formations, which include mating and breeding grounds; regulation of spear-fishing activity, both commercial and sporting, with restriction of capture; regulation of the marine ornamental fish trade, with restriction of capture; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals; and, development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. cirratum</em>.	eng
60223	distribution	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	<strong>Western Atlantic</strong>: Rhode Island, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and the Antilles.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Cape Verde to Gabon; accidental to France.  <br/> <br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong>: Gulf of California and southern Baja California, Mexico to Peru. <br/> <br/>Extreme population reduction (and in some cases localized extinction) of the species from the southern portion of its range in the Western Atlantic has been reported (Rosa 2002). The species is no longer found in the southern portion of its Brazilian range, being declared locally extinct in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Rio de Janeiro 2000).	eng
60223	habitat	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	A coastal shark found in tropical and subtropical waters of continental and insular shelves, often near patch reefs, both coralline and rocky, where it hides and rests during day hours (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, Compagno 2001). Found from depths of 1m or less down to 130 m (Compagno 2001). Activity is more intense at night (Compagno 2001), but strong swimming in adults also occurs during the day (R. Rosa pers. obs. in Atol das Rocas). Fidelity to day resting sites such as caves and crevices, has been reported in the literature, as well as an aggregation behavior in such sites (Castro 2000a, Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Group behavior related to sexual activity is also reported in the literature (Carrier <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 27 to 30 cm TL. Females attain maturity at 223 to 231 cm TL (Castro 2000b) or 230 to 240 cm TL (Compagno 2001) and males mature at 210 cm TL (Compagno 2001) or 214 cm TL (Castro 2000b). Maximum cited total lengths exceeding 450 cm TL are possibly greatly exaggerated (Castro 2000b). The largest reliably reported specimen was 308 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, the retained eggs possessing a large amount of yolk (Compagno 2001). Number of intrauterine eggs 20 to 30, gestation period from five to six months, and reproduction occurs every other year (Compagno 2001). Brood sizes up to 50 young were reported by Castro (2000b), with a mean number of 34. Age at maturity estimated to be 10 to 15 years (males) and 15 to 20 years (females) (Carrier 1991, Carrier and Luer 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet studies based on examination of stomach contents indicate small teleosts, cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, sea urchins and crustaceans as the main prey items. Pieces of coral debris and algae occasionally occur in the stomachs (Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Such data indicate that the nurse shark is an opportunistic benthic predator. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 15 to 20 years; Male: 10 to 15 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 223 to 231 cm TL or 230 to 240 cm TL; Male: 210 to 214 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  450 cm TL? Reliably 308 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average: 34 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60223	population	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Population size in Atol das Rocas, Brazil was estimated in 368 individuals (SD = 68), with Petersen-Bailey estimator, and 339 individuals (SD = 95) with Jolly-Seber estimator (Castro 2000a, Castro and Rosa 2005). This population is protected in a biological reserve. Other protected populations in Brazil include those of Marine State Park of Parcel Manuel Luiz (Maranhão State), Marine State Park of Risca do Meio (Ceará State), National Marine Park of Fernando de Noronha (Pernambuco State) and National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Bahia State). <br/> <br/>Glover?s Atol, Belize:  Nurse Sharks are the most common elasmobranch on this offshore atol.  They made up 68% of the elasmobranch catch in a fishery independent shark survey conducted in 2000 (Grubbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60223	threats	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Although edible, the nurse shark is not usually prized as market food. In Brazil the Nurse Shark is consumed locally by fishermen, who incidentally or actively capture the species. In Venezuela it is marketed salt dried (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Major threats include incidental and deliberate capture in coastal fisheries, spear fishing and capture for the ornamental fish trade, and indirectly, the impacts on the coastal zone, particularly on reef areas which constitute its preferred habitat. Human impacts (including pollution), increases in nutrient loading as a result of run-off after deforestation, and disturbance from tourism are all detrimental to this species' shallow reef habitat. Actively targeted by Panamanian artisanal fishers with lines and gillnets. Fished by artisanal fishers along the Colombian coast with nets and lines. Nurse sharks are also harvested in parts of the Caribbean for their skin. <br/> <br/>In the United States, they are occasionally captured in the bottom longline fishery, however, nearly all are released and post-release survivorship is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Nurse Sharks are fished in Panama for their fins and meat (US$ 0.75 per Lb) (Monzini 2004). In Colombia nurse sharks are mostly targetted for the skin while meat is usually transformed into animal food (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Panama, juveniles are also collected for public and private aquarium (Monzini 2004). <br/> <br/>Information on trade and utilization is lacking from other parts of the species? range.	eng
60224	conservation	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Nurse Sharks are managed as part of the Large Coastal Species complex in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters of the United States. <br/> <br/>The Colombian government is considering a ban on the <em>G. cirratum</em> fishery together with an extensive habitat protection campaign (Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The species was listed as Vulnerable in São Paulo State (Brazil) by participants at a workshop organized by the State Secretary of the Environment (SEMA/SP) using IUCN criteria. (São Paulo 1998), and later assessed as Vulnerable in Brazil by a commission of the Brazilian Society for the Study of Elasmobranchs (SBEEL) in 2002, also using IUCN Red List criteria. Its inclusion in the Official List of Endangered Animals in Brazil as a Vulnerable species was recommended to the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment in 2003. <br/> <br/>Conservation measures should include: <br/> <br/>Establishment of no fishing marine conservation units, encompassing reef formations, which include mating and breeding grounds; regulation of spear-fishing activity, both commercial and sporting, with restriction of capture; regulation of the marine ornamental fish trade, with restriction of capture; bycatch control, with mandatory release of live by-caught individuals; and, development and effective implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) in order to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of <em>G. cirratum</em>.	eng
60224	distribution	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Rhode Island, USA to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and the Antilles. <br/> <br/>Extreme population reduction (and in some cases localized extinction) of the species from the southern portion of its range in the Western Atlantic has been reported (Rosa 2002). The species is no longer found in the southern portion of its Brazilian range, being declared locally extinct in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Rio de Janeiro 2000).	eng
60224	habitat	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	A coastal shark found in tropical and subtropical waters of continental and insular shelves, often near patch reefs, both coralline and rocky, where it hides and rests during day hours (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999, Compagno 2001). Found from depths of 1m or less down to 130 m (Compagno 2001). Activity is more intense at night (Compagno 2001), but strong swimming in adults also occurs during the day (R. Rosa pers. obs. in Atol das Rocas). Fidelity to day resting sites such as caves and crevices, has been reported in the literature, as well as an aggregation behavior in such sites (Castro 2000a, Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Group behavior related to sexual activity is also reported in the literature (Carrier <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is from 27 to 30 cm TL. Females attain maturity at 223 to 231 cm TL (Castro 2000b) or 230 to 240 cm TL (Compagno 2001) and males mature at 210 cm TL (Compagno 2001) or 214 cm TL (Castro 2000b). Maximum cited total lengths exceeding 450 cm TL are possibly greatly exaggerated (Castro 2000b). The largest reliably reported specimen was 308 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, the retained eggs possessing a large amount of yolk (Compagno 2001). Number of intrauterine eggs 20 to 30, gestation period from five to six months, and reproduction occurs every other year (Compagno 2001). Brood sizes up to 50 young were reported by Castro (2000b), with a mean number of 34. Age at maturity estimated to be 10 to 15 years (males) and 15 to 20 years (females) (Carrier 1991, Carrier and Luer 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>Diet studies based on examination of stomach contents indicate small teleosts, cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, sea urchins and crustaceans as the main prey items. Pieces of coral debris and algae occasionally occur in the stomachs (Castro 2000b, Compagno 2001). Such data indicate that the nurse shark is an opportunistic benthic predator. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: 15 to 20 years; Male: 10 to 15 years. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 223 to 231 cm TL or 230 to 240 cm TL; Male: 210 to 214 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  450 cm TL? Reliably 308 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  5 to 6 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Biennial. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Average: 34 pups/litter. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60224	population	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Population size in Atol das Rocas, Brazil was estimated in 368 individuals (SD = 68), with Petersen-Bailey estimator, and 339 individuals (SD = 95) with Jolly-Seber estimator (Castro 2000a, Castro and Rosa 2005). This population is protected in a biological reserve. Other protected populations in Brazil include those of Marine State Park of Parcel Manuel Luiz (Maranhão State), Marine State Park of Risca do Meio (Ceará State), National Marine Park of Fernando de Noronha (Pernambuco State) and National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Bahia State). <br/> <br/>Glover’s Atol, Belize:  Nurse Sharks are the most common elasmobranch on this offshore atol.  They made up 68% of the elasmobranch catch in a fishery independent shark survey conducted in 2000 (Grubbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60224	threats	Rosa, R.S., Castro, A.L.F., Furtado, M., Monzini, J. & Grubbs, R.D., 2006	Although edible, the nurse shark is not usually prized as market food. In Brazil the Nurse Shark is consumed locally by fishermen, who incidentally or actively capture the species. In Venezuela it is marketed salt dried (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999). Major threats include incidental and deliberate capture in coastal fisheries, spear fishing and capture for the ornamental fish trade, and indirectly, the impacts on the coastal zone, particularly on reef areas which constitute its preferred habitat. Actively targeted by Panamanian artisanal fishers with lines and gillnets. Fished by artisanal fishers along the Colombian coast with nets and lines. Nurse sharks are also harvested in parts of the Caribbean for their skin. <br/> <br/>In the United States, they are occasionally captured in the bottom longline fishery, however, nearly all are released and post-release survivorship is high. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/>Nurse sharks are fished in Panama for their fins and meat (US$ 0.75 per Lb) (Monzini 2004). In Colombia nurse sharks are mostly targetted for the skin while meat is usually transformed into animal food (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Panama, juveniles are also collected for public and private aquarium (Monzini 2004).	eng
60225	conservation	Reardon, M.B., Gerber, L. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species yet these are much needed. Specifically, fishing pressure on this species must be considerably decreased through reduction in fishing effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture and possibly also through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Effective conservation of this species will require international cooperation. <br/> <br/>The Longfin Mako is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard (see <a href="http://www.unclos.com">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> for further details). Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA?Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>I. paucus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines (R. Cavanagh, pers.comm). <br/> <br/>The recent ICCAT shark stock assessment workshop (ICCAT 2005) reported that the current situation on submission of shark statistics indicates that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of these sharks and the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the overall catch of sharks and other by-catch species. Therefore, the workshop group recommended that larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties. Above and beyond this main recommendation, the group identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species, if implemented. See ICCAT (2005) for further details. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to apply internationally for fisheries that capture pelagic sharks such as <em>I. paucus</em>.	eng
60225	distribution	Reardon, M.B., Gerber, L. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	This species appears to be cosmopolitan in tropical and warm temperate waters. However, at present records are sporadic and the complete distribution remains unclear. This is in part due to confusion with the more common Shortfin Mako <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em> (Compagno 2001).	eng
60225	habitat	Reardon, M.B., Gerber, L. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	A little-known epipelagic, tropical and warm-temperate shark. The species is apparently a deep-dwelling shark, although both sightings on the ocean surface and the species? diet suggest a much greater depth range (Compagno 2001, Castro in prep). <br/> <br/>Very little is known of the biology of <em>I. paucus</em>. It is aplacental viviparous with oophagy and uterine cannibalism, and a pregnant female may have 2 to 8 embryos at one time. Parturition size is recorded at 97 to 120 cm TL; females males have been reported as mature at >245 cm TL; the smallest mature male observed has been 229 cm TL; maximum size is around 425 cm TL (Gilmore 1993, Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999, Compagno 2001, Castro in prep). It has been suggested that females may approach land to pup (Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >245 cm TL (Compagno 2001); Male: Smallest reported mature male: 229 cm TL (Castro in prep). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. . <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 426.7 cm TL (Castro in prep.). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  97 to 120 cm (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2 to 8 young in a litter (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999, Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60225	population	Reardon, M.B., Gerber, L. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Seasonally common off central and southern Florida and occurs off of the Bahamas throughout the year (Castro in prep). Common in the Western Atlantic and possibly the Central Pacific, but apparently reported to be rare elsewhere (Compagno 2001). In some areas of its range its occurrence is very poorly known, for example in Australian waters (Stevens and Scott 1995). <br/> <br/>Subpopulation structure is unknown but it is possible that Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations may be isolated.	eng
60225	threats	Reardon, M.B., Gerber, L. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	<em>Isurus paucus</em> is of conservation concern due to its apparent rarity or uncommonness, large maximum size, low fecundity (shown to be 2?8 pups/litter), and bycatch in intensive oceanic fisheries (Compagno 2001), (including retention of fins for the international fin trade (Clarke et al. in press). It is probably taken regularly as bycatch in tropical pelagic longline fisheries for tuna, swordfish and shark and in other oceanic fisheries which operate throughout its range, for example, it is also known to be caught with hook and line and anchored gillnets (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>The Longfin Mako is often caught in the same fishing gear as that of the Shortfin Mako, but in much lower ratios (L.J.V. Compagno, pers. comm.). Baum <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported that Shortfin Makos had declined approximately 40% in the Northwest Atlantic over the past 15 years. A recent ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for North Atlantic Shortfin Mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more.  Model results varied widely suggesting, according to one model, that stock size lies between the carrying capacity and the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) threshold, and in another model, that biomass has declined approximately 50% since 1950s levels.  In the South Atlantic the magnitude of decline appears less than in the North Atlantic, and the stock size appears to lie above MSY. However, for both stocks, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available data, indicate that further analysis is necessary.  If in fact historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). Longfin Makos have not been identified correctly in the past and could be a component of these trends. They are less abundant, less fecund and therefore more vulnerable to fisheries than Shortfin Mako and thus may have been similarly depleted by longline fisheries. <br/> <br/>Analysis of longline data from the EEZ of Mexico?s Pacific coast (1986?2001) shows that <em>I. paucus</em> was recorded at a low frequency in the catches (F. Marquez pers. comm.). Similarly, this species is caught in low numbers by longliners in Indonesian waters, and given the high level of exploitation in this area, if Longfin Makos were abundant here, this would likely be reflected in the fisheries catch (W. White pers.comm.). Between 1971?1972 it accounted for about six percent of the total number of sharks caught off the north coast of Cuba (Castro in prep), but was infrequently caught between 1974?1997 by longliners off southern Brazil, with only a few samples taken. Similarly, sampling of Spanish fishing ports showed only 0.1% of makos were <em>I. paucus</em> (Moreno and Morón 1992 reported in Compagno 2001). <br/> <br/>For the period of 1989?1994 the US reported catch statistics to FAO ranging from 2?12 t per year, but landings do not accurately reflect the numbers of Longfin Mako that are discarded because of poor markets for the meat (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). The meat is of low quality and these animals are often finned and discarded at sea. <br/> <br/>Overall, the severity and extent of threats to this species need urgent appraisal because of the extent of current oceanic fishing practices, the rarity and biology of the species, and because the more resilient member of the genus is known to have undergone significant declines. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>: <br/>There is no commercial market for this species in the U.S. The meat is not usually landed in the eastern US because it is of poor quality (Castro in prep.). When taken the species is usually finned and discarded at sea. Longfin Mako fins are not of the highest value (for example if compared with hammerheads, guitarfish, etc), however, they are still of high relative value compared to the carcass, and are known to enter the international fin trade (Clarke <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
60226	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Surveys are required to better determine the species? distribution and to provide information on biology. A management plan is required to ensure that any future deepwater fisheries exploration and exploitation are carefully monitored and regulated.	eng
60226	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Western Central Atlantic: Bahamas territorial waters, between Cuba, Florida and the Bahamas. This is a deepwater, tropical endemic species of the Bahamas region, known from a few specimens collected from the slope of the Say Cal Bank and an isolated specimen on the northern Bahamas slope. Area of occupancy is a relatively narrow 200 m depth band (~440 to 640 m) estimated in the region of 2,000 km² (Compagno in prep. a, L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm).	eng
60226	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Recorded on the insular slope, on or near the bottom, at depths of 438 to ~641 m. The biology of this species is virtually unknown and it is only recorded from a limited number of specimens. Probably aplacental yolksac viviparous with young measuring 30 cm TL at birth (Castro 1983). Adults to at least 81 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 81 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60226	population	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Unknown. Unrecorded and presumed absent from adjacent North American continental slope. Population (or possibly two subpopulations) likely isolated by unsuitable deeper water habitat.	eng
60226	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2006	There are no known fisheries presently operating at the species? known depth of occurrence (J. Castro, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.	eng
60227	conservation	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	General life history information and catch data (the latter particularly for the Chile subpopulation) are required. The extent to which the species enters the marine aquaria trade needs to be determined.	eng
60227	distribution	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	An Eastern Pacific species with a disjunct range. Known from California, USA to southern Mexico including the Gulf of California and off central Chile. The absence of records from between these regions, that is, the tropical Eastern Pacific suggests that this species is not suited to tropical waters or that there has been a lack of surveys in the area (Ebert 2003).	eng
60227	habitat	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Benthic and epibenthic on the continental shelf and upper slope inshore to 457m, but is most common at 5 to 40 m (Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep b). The Swell Shark ?prefers rocky, algal-covered areas of kelp beds, but also occurs on algal-covered bottom without kelp (Compagno in prep. b). Primarily nocturnal, resting in caves and crevices during the day, often in aggregations. <br/> <br/>Oviparous with eggs hatching after 7.5 to 10 months, depending on water temperature (Compagno in prep b). One eggcase per oviduct at a time (Ebert 2003), however, egg-laying rates and seasonality and therefore annual egg production is not known. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 70 cm TL (Grover 1972b); Male: 73 cm TL (Grover 1972b) adult males 82 to 85 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  110 cm TL (Castro 1983). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  13 to 15 cm TL (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  7.5 to 10 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60227	population	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Californian, Gulf of California and Chilean populations could be isolated populations. Ebert (2003) notes that the species is very common in Californian waters south of Point Conception. <br/> <br/>The Swell Shark population at Catalina Island, California decreased over a 20 year period, attributed to an increase in the surface water temperatures (Ebert 2003).	eng
60227	threats	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	This species is not targeted commercially. It may be taken as a minor bycatch in gillnets and trawls, however, its habitat is generally unsuitable for trawling and so the species is afforded protection in its rocky reef and kelp habitat. <br/> <br/>Occasionally taken by recreational anglers and spearfishers (Compagno in prep. b), but this will not be significant. <br/> <br/>Captured for the marine aquaria trade, although the extent of this fishery is not known at present (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Possibly used for fishmeal when taken as bycatch (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
60228	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2006	None.	eng
60228	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Restricted geographical range in the northern Gulf of California. North of the city of Guaymas, Sonora (Mathews 1975, Compagno 1984) and deeper waters of the vicinity of Isla Tiburon (F. Marquez, unpublished data).	eng
60228	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2006	<em>Galeus piperatus</em> is a deepwater species recorded from depths of 130 to 1,326m, with specimens most commonly caught at 170 to 420 m (Mathews 1975). It is primarily a demersal species but has been taken up to 100 m off the bottom at night (Mathews 1975). <br/> <br/>Little is known about the biology of this species. Development is reported to be oviparous with females producing eggcases of ~35 mm in length. Sexual maturity in females is reached at ~18 cm TL with a maximum size of 37 cm TL. Pups hatch at a size of ~7 to 8 cm TL (Mathews 1975). Data on its size/sex structure and maturity is currently being processed (F. Marquez, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>It is thought to undergo seasonal migrations related to breeding and although details are not known these may involve movements into deeper waters during winter, which would also involve geographical movement out of the extreme northern Gulf of California (Mathews 1975). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 18 cm TL (Mathews 1975); Male: unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  37 cm TL (O. Sosa, unpublished data). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~7 to 8 cm TL (Hubbs and Taylor 1969, Compagno 1984). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60228	population	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Unknown, but reported to be abundant within the Gulf of California. Appears to be more abundant in summer months (June to August) compared to sampling in winter months (February to March) (Mathews 1975).	eng
60228	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2006	Its deepwater habitat generally precludes it from capture in fisheries operating in the Gulf of California. Future expansion of deepwater demersal trawling in the northern Gulf of California would require monitoring. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.	eng
60229	conservation	Human, B., 2006	None. Its restricted range, as is currently known, dictates that if deepwater fisheries are developed, the situation regarding this species must be monitored.	eng
60229	distribution	Human, B., 2006	Tanzania (including Zanzibar) and Kenya, found at depths of 607 to 658 m.	eng
60229	habitat	Human, B., 2006	Virtually unknown. Known to attain at least 38.4 cm TL. Males are immature at 26.7 cm TL, adolescent at 33.0 cm TL and 33.5 cm TL, and mature at 38.4 cm TL Other members of this genus have a single egg case per uterus, which is assumed to be the case for this species. There are currently no female specimens (Human 2003). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: At least 38.4 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 38.4 cm. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Eggs presumably laid in pairs, annual fecundity unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60229	population	Human, B., 2006	Unknown. Likely to be a single population.	eng
60229	threats	Human, B., 2006	Unknown. Not utilised.	eng
60230	conservation	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Further specimens are required.	eng
60230	distribution	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Known only from the holotype, collected in the northwestern Bay of Campeche, Gulf of Mexico, 21°33’N, 96°48’W (Springer 1979).	eng
60230	habitat	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Little is known about this species, type specimen was a 15.7 cm TL immature female collected at 1,097 m depth (Springer 1979). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  >16 cm TL (from immature holotype). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60230	population	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	At present only a single specimen known.	eng
60230	threats	Burgess, G.H. & Chin, A., 2006	Depth of capture of the single specimen beyond that of current and probably future fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Unlikely to be of interest to fisheries.	eng
60231	conservation	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2006	None. There is a need for species-specific recording of bycatch data from the fisheries, which capture this species, (although catsharks are notoriously difficult to identify and misidentification is common). However, the viability of this in the near future is doubtful due to limitations with observers and resources.	eng
60231	distribution	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2006	Endemic to the Eastern Pacific from the USA and Northern Mexico. No known geographic areas of importance.	eng
60231	habitat	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2006	Adults are epibenthic and usually found near areas of rocky vertical relief over soft mud bottoms on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 91 to 1,251 m; juveniles (<32 cm TL) are mesopelagic, found up to around 500 m off the bottom in waters over 1,000 m deep (Lee 1969, Ebeling <em>et al</em>. 1970, Cross 1988, Ebert 2003). <br/> <br/>This is an oviparous species, producing one egg case per oviduct at a time. Females deposit egg cases throughout the year with the greatest oviposition occurring July through September (Cross 1988, Flammang 2005), thus indicating relatively high fecundity, although gestation may take up to 24 months. These sharks show site-fidelity in their egg case deposition sites, and these sites are in different locations than where the adults are typically found. The egg case nursery areas are areas of rocky vertical relief in 300 to 400 m depth. <br/> <br/>Males mature between 37.5 to 42.5 cm TL and females at 42.5 to 47.5 cm TL (Cross 1988). Hatchlings are 7 to 9 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Reaches a maximum of 61 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 42.5 to 47.5 cm TL (Cross 1988); Male: 37.5 to 42.5 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  61 cm TL (Cross 1988). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  7 to 10 cm TL (Cross 1988, Flammang 2005). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Unknown, although may be up to 24 months. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Mating: April through June, Egg case deposition year-round, with greatest oviposition July through September. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60231	population	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2006	Nothing is known on the abundance or population structure of this species, but it is reported to be fairly common (Ebert 2003).	eng
60231	threats	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2006	This species is not presently targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for human consumption, but is caught as incidental catch in sablefish trap, longline and bottom trawl fisheries. Specific catch data are not available. The adults primarily inhabit areas of rocky vertical relief, mostly in depths of 300?600 m. Trawl fisheries do not catch this species in large numbers, because of the rocky habitat in which they are found. Longlines, which are laid over the rocky areas, are far more likely to catch adults of this species on a regular basis. The longline fisheries in this area generally operate anywhere from 50?550 m, and trawls have been conducted between 20?2,000 m depth. Juveniles occur mostly midwater, using this area as a nursery ground. The only fishery that may be of any impact is that for the market squid <em>Loligo opalescens</em>, which seines in a midwater environment, however, there are no reports of <em>P. xaniurus</em> bycatch in this fishery. Egg cases are susceptible to predation by Thornyhead Rockfishes (<em>Sebastolobus</em> spp.), sea stars, and boring gastropods, however, it is very rare that egg cases are caught by trawl fishing activity, because of the rocky areas in which they are deposited. <br/> <br/>Increased fishing pressure in US waters is thought to be unlikely in the near future. Most of the trawling operations are being limited and heavily restricted. As long as there are limits on rockfish fisheries, there will be limited ground fishing in these waters. The situation in Mexico needs to be monitored. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not utilised.	eng
60232	conservation	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.M., 2006	Specimens are scarce and further information is required to better define the species? distribution, habitat and life history.	eng
60232	distribution	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.M., 2006	Restricted to the Western Central Atlantic: North Carolina to Florida (USA) and south to Santaren Channel between Cuba and Bahamas Bank (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b), Cayman Trench, off northern Jamaica (McLaughlin and Morrissey 2004), Mexico (Gulf of Mexico and northern Yucatan Peninsula) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
60232	habitat	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.M., 2006	Known from the upper continental slope at depths of 329 to 548 m (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b). Biology is very poorly known. Believed to be oviparous based on enlarged oviducal glands although no egg cases have been observed (Compagno in prep. b). Largest observed specimen is a 49 cm TL immature male and Springer (1979) predicts a relatively large size for this <em>Scyliorhinus</em> species. <br/> <br/>Stomach contents include cephalopods, shrimp and bony fishes (Parsons 1985). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: >43 cm TL (Parsons 1985); Male: >49 cm TL (Springer 1979, Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60232	population	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.M., 2006	Reported to be rare (Parsons 1985, Compagno in prep. b).	eng
60232	threats	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.M., 2006	May be taken as bycatch in demersal deepwater trawl fisheries, but this species is very rarely caught (J. Castro, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None.	eng
60233	conservation	Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Myers, R.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None.	eng
60233	distribution	Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Myers, R.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Northwest and Western Central Atlantic: Atlantic coast of the USA (Georges Bank to Florida and Texas) and the northern Gulf of Mexico to Nicaragua (including Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras), Barbados, area between Jamaica and Honduras (Gilhen <em>et al</em>. 2003, Compagno in prep. b, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>Relatively high concentrations of young near Cape Hatteras (North Carolina, USA) suggest a possible nursery area (Compagno in prep. b).	eng
60233	habitat	Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Myers, R.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Benthic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 73 to 754 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, there is geographic variation in its bathymetric distribution: in the north it occurs on the outer continental shelf, but in its southern range it is generally found below 450 m on the continental slope. Adults prefer rough rocky bottom habitats (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Able and Flescher 1991, Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>This shark is sluggish and only occasionally leaves the bottom. Development is oviparous. Reproduction and development in captivity were studied by Castro <em>et al</em>. (1988) and data are summarised here. Eggs are deposited in pairs with an interval of a few minutes to eight days between the laying of successive eggcases. Three females were used to study the interval between laying of successive pairs of eggcases. The results were: female one, 70 pairs in 991 days at an average of one pair per 14.1 days; female two, 60 pairs in 991 days at an average of one pair per 16.7 days; female three, 40 pairs in 626 days at an average of one pair per 15.2 days. Egg laying can continue in isolation from males with sperm storage documented for periods of up to 843 days (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/> <br/>Stomach contents include polychaetes, squid, bony fish and crustaceans (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 35 cm TL (Mid-Atlantic Bight) (Compagno in prep. b), 52 cm TL (South Carolina & Florida) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988); Male: 38 cm TL (Mid-Atlantic Bight) (Compagno in prep. b), 50 cm TL (South Carolina & Florida) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong>:  9+ years (captivity; unknown in wild) (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  59 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  10 to 11 cm TL (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong>:  Young hatch from laid eggcases after 7?12 months (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  44 to 52 eggs/year (in captivity) (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Compagno in prep. b). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  5% (northern part of range) (R.A. Myers, unpublished data).. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60233	population	Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Myers, R.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	The NMFS Northeast Trawl Survey covers the northern range of this species. After standardizing for depth and strata, a negative binomial generalized linear model suggests an average annual increase of five percent number per year for the last 30 years (R.A. Myers, unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Distribution appears patchy and irregular ?with areas where it is common being interspersed with those where it is rare or absent? (Compagno in prep. b). <br/> <br/>Juveniles are caught more frequently than adults suggesting age segregation where adults prefer rough habitat that is difficult to trawl (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
60233	threats	Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Myers, R.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	This catshark is caught occasionally in bottom longline grouper/snapper fisheries and deep-water trawls. Juvenile <em>S. retifer</em> are caught as bycatch off the Mid-Atlantic Bight by trawls in waters deeper than 73 m. Adults are sometimes caught by trap and longline off South Carolina and Florida (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1988, Compagno, in prep. b). Individuals are collected for the aquarium trade. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Collected for the aquarium trade, not utilized for consumption.	eng
60234	conservation	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Need to obtain and monitor trawl fisheries bycatch data in the species? range.	eng
60234	distribution	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Endemic to waters of the southeastern Atlantic Ocean from Mauritania to Angola.	eng
60234	habitat	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Inhabits outer continental shelf and upper continental slope in depths of 45 to 500 m, on or near bottom.  Little life history information currently available. Consumes bony fishes.  Likely oviparous, egg cases thought to be of this species measured 7 to 8 cm x 3 cm.  Maximum size at least 76 cm, smallest mature male ~65 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: ~65 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 76 cm. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60234	population	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No knowledge of population size or structure.	eng
60234	threats	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Some trawl fishing mortality is likely.	eng
60235	conservation	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Like other hornsharks, <em>Heterodontus mexicanus</em> is a hardy species and can survive capture in drift and trawl nets. Individuals should be returned to the water if alive after capture and education is required to end the practice of leaving large numbers to die on the beach. <br/> <br/>Further information on distribution, population structure (to determine if separate subpopulations exist across the species? disjunct range) and biology is required. <br/> <br/>The development and/or implementation of National Shark Plans under the FAO IPOA-Sharks, where necessary.	eng
60235	distribution	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Eastern Pacific from Mexico to Colombia and probably also Ecuador and Peru (Compagno 2001). Known to be a common species in Magdalena Bay (Mexican Pacific), and also in the upper part of the Gulf of California.	eng
60235	habitat	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	Found on the continental shelf from close inshore to 50 m depth, in rocky habitats including reefs and seamounts, as well as coral reefs, and sandy areas (Compagno 2001). Eggs are laid in rocky areas that would unlikely be impacted by fisheries (W. Smith pers. comm). <br/> <br/>No detailed information on the species? biology, but like other hornsharks, is oviparous. <br/> <br/>Feeds on demersal crabs and fishes. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 40 to 50 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~70 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~14 cm TL (Compagno 2001). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60235	population	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	The species? distribution is disjunct and there may be several populations within its Mexican and Central American range. The southern America population could also be distinct. <br/> <br/>No other information available on population sizes or structure.	eng
60235	threats	Garayzar, C.V., 2006	The Mexican Hornshark is not of commercial value, but is taken as bycatch in bottom gillnets and shrimp trawling operations in the Gulf of California and Mexican coastal lagoons (artisanal and larger scale industrial fisheries). Márquez-Farías (2002) documents <em>H. mexicanus</em> as comprising 1.53% of the catch of Sonora artisanal shark fishery in the northern Gulf of California. Large numbers (up to a thousand individuals) may be caught in a single gillnet set and are often left to die on the beach (Villavicencio Garayzar pers. obs). It should be noted that the species is hard to identify and some of these may be <em>H. francisci</em> given that the two species co-occur (W. Smith pers.comm.). Catches are discarded or sometimes used for human consumption, fishmeal or for their skins. No information is available on catches in other parts of the species? range, but it may be affected by artisanal and commercial fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The meat is sometimes used for human consumption, fishmeal and the skin is also sometimes utilized.	eng
60236	conservation	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Deepwater fisheries need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60236	distribution	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Widespread distribution throughout various localities in the Eastern and Western Atlantic, Eastern and Western Indian, and Eastern, Western and Northern Pacific Oceans. Probably occurs at more locations than presently recorded.	eng
60236	habitat	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Distributed in diverse habitats, being found on the continental shelves and slopes, island slopes, and submarine ridges and seamounts, at depths of 163 to 1,000 m+. Also partially epipelagic, occurring near the surface in open waters of 110 to 700 m depth (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/>Presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous, but biology is virtually unknown. Reaches at least 67 cm TL (Compagno in prep a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong>:  Female: probably immature at 19 to 50 cm TL and adult at 50 to 65 cm TL; Male: Immature at 16 to 40 cm TL and adult at 40 to 67 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 67 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  Uncertain, probably below 16 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60236	population	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60236	threats	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	This species is not targeted, but is probably a discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal and pelagic fisheries, particularly trawls (Compagno in prep a). Specific information is not available. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60237	conservation	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None at present. <br/> <br/>Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60237	distribution	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	<em>Etmopterus bullisi</em> has been collected in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic Ocean, including along the East Coast of the US (North Carolina, south to Florida including the Florida Straits); the north and south coasts of Cuba; and in locations within the Caribbean Sea (between Jamaica, Nicaragua and Honduras; Colombia; and, the lesser Antilles east of the Virgin Islands) (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60237	habitat	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Continental slopes at depths of 275 to 824 m (mostly below 350 m) (Compagno in prep a). Reaches at least 27 cm TL, however, adult specimens have not been collected. Very little is known of the biology or life history of this species. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: immature females 15.4 to 26.0 cm TL, adults have not been collected; Male: immature males 16.2 to 26.2 cm TL, adults have not been collected. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  At least 27 cm TL (immature, adults have not been collected). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~15 cm TL. Free-living young with open umbilical scars 15.4 to 16.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60237	population	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60237	threats	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Taken irregularly as discarded bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60238	conservation	Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60238	distribution	Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	As presently known, restricted to a small area of the Caribbean Sea off Colombia. More research is required to better define geographic range, but probably a naturally restricted species.	eng
60238	habitat	Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	A poorly known small deepwater shark recorded from the upper continental slopes at depths of 283 to 356 m (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno in prep a). It is possibly also epipelagic. Essentially nothing known of its biology. Development is probably ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparous) (Compagno in prep a). Maximum known size 21.2 cm total length (TL). Size at birth is unknown. Adults of both sexes recorded at sizes 18 to 21 cm TL (Springer and Burgess 1985). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Adults known from 18 to 21 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  21.2 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60238	population	Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Not known, but apparently a rare deepwater species. Substantial exploratory trawling in the southern Caribbean Sea has revealed only a limited number of specimens (Springer and Burgess 1985).	eng
60238	threats	Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	None known. Of no importance for fisheries because of its extremely small size. Probably encountered only very infrequently by fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60239	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60239	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Relatively narrow geographic range in the Western Central Atlantic (only recorded in the southern most part of the Northwest Atlantic).	eng
60239	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Associated with the benthos and found on the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 311 to 695 m (Compagno in prep. a). Found on sandy bottoms (Claro 1994). <br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous with litters of 4 to 5 (Compagno in prep. a), but generally little known of its biology. Reported maximum sizes to 50 cm TL probably due to confusion with <em>E. robinsi</em>, otherwise known to ~28 cm TL. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: ~20 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  Uncertain but possibility ~28 cm TL as reports of 50 cm TL are probably confusions with <em>E. robinsi</em> (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  ~9 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  4?5 (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60239	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60239	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Not targeted and no threats apparent. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries, including some Cuban hook and line fisheries (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/> None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60240	conservation	Leandro, L., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60240	distribution	Leandro, L., 2006	As presently known, restricted to a small area of the Caribbean Sea off Colombia and Venezuela. More research is required to better define geographic range, but probably a naturally restricted species.	eng
60240	habitat	Leandro, L., 2006	Recorded from the upper continental slope at depths of 283 to 439 m (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno, in prep. a). Ovoviviparous. Maximum size is about 21 cm total length (TL). Males maturing at about 16 to 17.5 cm TL, adult females from 15.5 cm TL and gravid females observed at 19 to 20 cm TL. Fetuses 5.5 to 6.0 cm TL (possibly near term) (Springer and Burgess 1985, Compagno, in preparation a). Springer and Burgess (1985) report gravid females with 2 to 3 eggs or embryos. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: from 15.5 cm TL; Male: ~16.0 to 17.5 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  21.2  cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >6.0 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter sizes of 2 to 3 embryos observed. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60240	population	Leandro, L., 2006	Not known, but apparently a rare deepwater species.	eng
60240	threats	Leandro, L., 2006	None known. Of no importance for fisheries because of its extremely small size. Probably encountered only very infrequently by fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60241	conservation	Burgess, G.H. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more  information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are  required. Deepwater fisheries in the region need to be carefully  monitored and managed.	eng
60241	distribution	Burgess, G.H. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Endemic to upper continental slope waters of the southeastern Atlantic Ocean off Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Angola. No knowledge of population size or structure.	eng
60241	habitat	Burgess, G.H. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Deepwater trawling down to 2,000 m occurs throughout most of the west African range of this species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60241	population	Burgess, G.H. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Inhabits upper continental slope in depths of 300 to 1,000 m (most commonly 350 to 380 m), on or near bottom. Little life history information currently available. Consumes cephalopods, fishes and decapod crustaceans. Ovoviviparous, with 2 to 4 embryos in each uterus. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  24.1 cm females, 22.9 cm males. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  2?4. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60241	threats	Burgess, G.H. & Cavanagh, R.D., 2006	Deepwater trawling down to 2,000 m occurs throughout most of the west  African range of this species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm.). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong>  <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60242	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Deepwater fisheries in the region need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60242	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	There have been unconfirmed reports from the Western Pacific, however, best available evidence indicates that this is an Atlantic endemic.	eng
60242	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Associated with the continental slope on or near the bottom generally at depths of 350 to 2,213 m, but also found on the Lower Rise of the Northeast Atlantic at 3,750 to 4,500 m (Compagno in preparation a). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 55 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  75 cm TL (Compagno in prep. a). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60242	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60242	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Deepwater trawling in much of range is expanding and there is some concern about the effect on this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60243	conservation	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60243	distribution	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Endemic to areas of the Western Central Atlantic: Florida (USA), Florida Straits, northern Cuba, south from Cuba to Nicaragua, Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), northern Lesser Antilles and San Andres archipelago (Columbia).	eng
60243	habitat	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Associated with continental and insular slopes at depths of 412 to 787 m, but mostly below 549 m (Compagno in prep. a). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: unknown; Male: 26 cm TL (Schofield and Burgess 1997). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  33.8 cm TL (Schofield and Burgess 1997). <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60243	population	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60243	threats	Herndon, A.P. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Not targeted. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60244	conservation	Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60244	distribution	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Endemic to southwestern Indian Ocean: east coast of Natal, Mozambique, Madagascar, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been reported as relatively common off Mozambique.	eng
60244	habitat	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Inhabits upper continental slope in depths of 200 to 500 m, on or near bottom. Little life history information currently available. Maximum length unknown. Size at birth unknown but a near term fetus reported 5.7 cm. Immature males recorded at 22 to 27 cm and adults at 22 to 27 cm. Immature females recorded at 22 to 26 cm and adult at 25 to 27 cm. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 25 to 27 cm; Male: 22 to 27 cm. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  27 cm or longer. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  >5.7 cm. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60244	population	Burgess, G.H., 2006	No knowledge of population size or structure; limited range suggests single population (no subpopulations).	eng
60244	threats	Burgess, G.H., 2006	Of no importance for fisheries because of its small size. No apparent threats, some deepwater fishing mortality from bycatch but this is known to be limited off South Africa and the situation is assumed to be similar throughout the rest of its range although further study is required. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60245	conservation	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60245	distribution	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	<em>Etmopterus virens</em> is endemic to the Western Central Atlantic.	eng
60245	habitat	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Bathydemersal species, occupying waters of the upper continental slope at depths of 196 to 915 m, mostly below 350 m (Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/>Fairly little is known of the biology/life history of this species. Reaches ~26 cm TL. May occur in aggregations or schools as the species is occasionally caught in considerable numbers. Pieces of large cephalopods in the stomach contents of this species indicates that the species may feed communally, with a school attacking prey normally too large for a single individual (Springer 1967,Compagno in prep. a). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: immature females 17.9 to 21.4 cm TL; adult females 22.0 to 25.7 cm TL; Male: adult males 18.3 to 23.6 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~ 26 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60245	population	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Reported to be a relatively common species (Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60245	threats	Horodysky, A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Not targeted. Is irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60246	conservation	Herndon, A.P., Horodysky , A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	None in place. Like many deepwater chondrichthyan species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Any expanding deepwater fisheries in the region (which could impact its habitat and population) need to be carefully monitored and managed.	eng
60246	distribution	Herndon, A.P., Horodysky , A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Relatively widespread (compared to many other <em>Etmopterus</em> species) in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea.	eng
60246	habitat	Herndon, A.P., Horodysky , A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	This species is most commonly found below 350 m, with a depth range of 220 to 915 m, on or near the bottom of the upper continental slopes (Compagno in prep. a). Appears primarily over mud bottom (G. Burgess, personal observation). Like other etmopterids, little known of its biology. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 28 to 30 cm TL; Male: 27cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  ~30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong> (cm):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60246	population	Herndon, A.P., Horodysky , A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Most common <em>Etmopterus</em> species in the Northern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
60246	threats	Herndon, A.P., Horodysky , A.Z. & Burgess, G.H., 2006	Not targeted. It is known to be irregularly taken as discarded bycatch in some deepwater demersal fisheries. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>None known, probably discarded (probably too small to be utilised).	eng
60247	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2006	There is a lack of species-specific data (identification is problematic) and catches should be monitored, preferably by onboard observers. Information is also required on its biological productivity. <br/> <br/>The recreational line fishery in South Africa is managed by a bag limit of one per species per person per day for unspecified chondrichthyans, which includes this species. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Namibia?s National Plan of Action for Sharks (NPOA-Sharks) has been approved by the government, South Africa?s is stalled, still awaiting government approval and this process should occur as a matter of urgency. At the time of writing Mozambique had not yet begun to develop an NPOA (Anon 2004).	eng
60247	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2006	Off South Africa this species is taken mainly from Agulhas Banks to west of Cape Town.	eng
60247	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2006	Occurs from shallow subtidal sandy beaches to 611 m. Most records from trawls at 25 to 286 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991, Compagno pers.comm.) This species is found over sandy bottoms. It is also found near reefs, but seems mainly a soft-substrate species. Viviparous with a litter size of 3 to 15 (average 6.9). <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 80 to 100 cm TL; Male: 75 to 85 cm TL. <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  113 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  27.5 to 31cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Litter size 3 to 15, average 6.9. <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60247	population	Smale, M.J., 2006	Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) describe this species as common offshore.	eng
60247	threats	Smale, M.J., 2006	Caught rarely by shore-based line fishers in shallow subtidal areas and usually discarded. Caught in trawl fisheries on both the south and west coasts of South Africa. Quantities taken by trawl are unknown and unrecorded. It is not being monitored in detail: this species is grouped together with <em>M. mustelus</em>, and data are very limited. However, recent data from South Africa suggests that trawl catches of <em>Mustelus</em> spp. taken by demersal fish biomass assessment cruises are declining. It should also be noted that although there are large areas of its range which are untrawlable (such as the Agulhas Bank, South Africa), there are changes occurring in fishing methods now being used in areas that used not to be trawled - i.e., hake longlining, and, together with demersal targeted shark fishing (mainly for <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>), <em>M. palumbes</em> are likely to also be taken but probably not recorded. Indeed much of its habitat is the subject of various fisheries including demersal trawlers, shark longliners and recreational anglers.	eng
60248	conservation	Heupel, M.R. & Carlson, J.K., 2006	In Atlantic US waters, angel sharks are currently listed as prohibited under the Federal Management for Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks, as a precautionary management measure.	eng
60248	distribution	Heupel, M.R. & Carlson, J.K., 2006	Found along the Atlantic coast of the United States from southern New England to Florida (Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, south to the Florida Keys) and the Gulf of Mexico (Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas and the Mexican coast). Reported but unconfirmed from Cuba, Nicaragua, Jamaica and Venezuela (Castro 1983, Compagno in prep. a).	eng
60248	habitat	Heupel, M.R. & Carlson, J.K., 2006	Little is known about this species. It is found seasonally in shallower water. Off the eastern United States it appears to move inshore in the spring and summer, and disappears, apparently into deeper water in other seasons. <br/> <br/>Maturity is probably reached around 90 to 107 cm TL. Reproductive mode is aplacental viviparous with only the left ovary functional. Pupping occurs in June or July with pups measuring 28 to 30 cm TL at birth. Litters contain up to 25 pups. Birth usually occurs at depth (~20 to 30 m). <br/> <br/>Eats small bottom fishes (flounders, skates and other bottom fishes), crustaceans and bivalves. <br/> <br/><u>Life history parameters</u> <br/><strong>Age at maturity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Size at maturity</strong> (total length):  Female: 90 to 105 cm TL, median length 83.5 cm FL (Baremore and Carlson 2004); Male: 92 to 107 cm TL, median length 88.7 cm FL (Baremore and Carlson 2004). <br/><strong>Longevity</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Maximum size</strong> (total length):  152 cm TL. <br/><strong>Size at birth</strong>:  28 to 30 cm TL. <br/><strong>Average reproductive age</strong> (years):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Gestation time</strong> (months):  Unknown. <br/><strong>Reproductive periodicity</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Average annual fecundity or litter size</strong>:  Up to 25/litter (Compagno in prep. a); 8 (+/- 1.82) pups (Baremore and Carlson 2004). <br/><strong>Annual rate of population increase</strong>:  Unknown. <br/><strong>Natural mortality</strong>:  Unknown.	eng
60248	population	Heupel, M.R. & Carlson, J.K., 2006	An apparently common but largely unknown species of temperate and subtropical waters of the Western North Atlantic continental shelf and slope. Typically found on or near the bottom from close inshore down to depths of 1,290 m, however, most records are from 40 to 250 m.	eng
60248	threats	Heupel, M.R. & Carlson, J.K., 2006	Accidental bycatch in trawl fisheries. In the Gulf of Mexico, Angel Sharks occur with relative frequency as bycatch in trawl fisheries targeting butterfish (Carlson, pers obs.) and it is possible they occur as bycatch in other fisheries. Note that <em>S. dumeril</em> is often found in deeper waters where shrimp trawling effort is low. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>Not known to be utilised.	eng
60249	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Species present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Canaima, Bolivar state, and Duida Marahuaca, Amazonas state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1988, 1990).	eng
60249	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in the Guyana shield in Bolivar state, Venezuela (Rácenis 1968; de Marmels 1988, 1990).	eng
60249	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Small rivers and backwater creeks in forest and tepuian (table-top mountain) shrubbery; larvae, described by de Marmels (1988), found under stones in fast running portions of streams.	eng
60249	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is common and also present in protected areas.	eng
60249	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
60250	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	All single-island endemics in West Indies probably are at risk. It is important that searches be carried out for this species in other parts of Cuba, along with estimates of population size and trends. Extent of appropriate habitat available needs to be established. Cienega de Zapata nominally protected as part of the Cuban National System of Protected Areas, also a protected wetland under the Ramsar Convention, but effects of widespread illegal logging in this “protected area” on the wetlands that are important to Odonata need to be understood. The recent discovery of this species far away from Ciénaga de Zapata (Trapero and Naranjo 2003) may be an indicator of how poorly the Cuban fauna has been surveyed.	eng
60250	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from central and eastern Cuba.	eng
60250	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lentic wetlands, often associated with water lilies.	eng
60250	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60250	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Drainage for agriculture and other uses, and possibly drought from global warming.	eng
60251	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with confirming the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
60251	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica.	eng
60251	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland rainforest streams (60 m).	eng
60251	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60251	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60252	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determining the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
60252	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
60252	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Lowland rain-forest streams.	eng
60252	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60252	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60253	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Two known populations of <em>E. echeverrii</em> lie within protected areas in Guanacaste National Park and Reserva Forestal El Rodeo. Searches for other populations are needed, along with a study of its biology.	eng
60253	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Costa Rica in the following places (with collection notes):<br/>Guanacaste: "Volcán Cacao, Estación Mengo, 1,100 m" (Brooks 1989)<br/>Guanacaste: "Volcán Orosi, Estación Maritza, 600 m" (Brooks 1989, Ramírez 1996)                                                                     <br/>San José: Colón, El Rodeo (R. W. Garrison personal collection 1989)<br/>Alajuela:  "8 km E Monteverde, 850 m" (W. Haber collection)<br/>Guanacaste: "16 km NNE Liberia on road to Rincón de la Vieja" (W. Haber personal collection after 2000)<br/>Guanacaste: "7 km NNE Monteverde, 1,150 m"	eng
60253	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes small, shallow, semi-shaded rocky streams in primary or secondary forest with an elevation range of 600 - 1,150 m.	eng
60253	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size and trend for <em>E. echeverrii</em> is not known. Where it is found, it is usually in small numbers.	eng
60253	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Although there are no known threats at present to <em>E. echeverrii</em>, there is a possibility of deforestation occurring in the future.	eng
60254	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.	eng
60254	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in one state in Mexico; "8 km South Valle Nacional" (Donnelly 1989).	eng
60254	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat is assumed to be like other <em>Erpetogomphus</em>; a dweller in rocky streams. Found in cloud-forest belt, so probably associated with forest.	eng
60254	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to assess <em>E. flinti</em> population size or trend.	eng
60254	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presumably deforestation is a continuing threat to this species, constricting its assumed limited habitat preferences.	eng
60255	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	No protection or conservation actions are known and further research is needed.	eng
60255	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Guanacaste, Costa Rica.	eng
60255	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat for <em>E. houghtoni</em> is not clearly known but it is thought to be affected by deforestation; therefore woodland type water ways are presumed.	eng
60255	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to assess <em>E. houghtoni</em> population size or trend.	eng
60255	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Since it is only known from the type specimen it is hard to record the threats to <em>E. houghtoni</em>, but much of the area that is was found in has already been cleared through deforestation.	eng
60256	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determination of the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
60256	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Mountain Pine Ridge of Belize.	eng
60256	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Clear streams in pine forest (500–600 m).	eng
60256	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60256	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60257	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with determining the extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored.	eng
60257	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Tuxtlas in Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
60257	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Streams in lowland rain forest.	eng
60257	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60257	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60258	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.	eng
60258	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Nicaragua in the following places: <br/>Matagalpa: 10 km SE San Ramón, 700 m (Donnelly 1986) and Hotel Selva Negra, near Matagalpa, 1,000 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/>Jinotega: Cerro Kilambé, 1,250 m (Abbott <em>et al</em>. 2002)	eng
60258	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. westfalli</em> is found at rain forest streams; known from both large forest tracts and forest remnants, elevation range 700 - 1,250 m.	eng
60258	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to assess <em>E. westfalli</em> population size or trend; however it is known from three locations.	eng
60258	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation at all levels (local collection and large-scale logging), mostly at lower altitudes, continues to be a severe threat.  There is also the concern of possible overgrazing of the watershed.	eng
60259	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Studies are needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, along with confirmation of the species' presence in protected areas.	eng
60259	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Central third of Chile, from Metropolitana region south through Maule, Bío-Bío, and Araucanía to De Los Lagos regions.	eng
60259	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Rivers in forested valleys at 600–800 m, and foothill streams at 1,328–1,402 m.	eng
60259	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown. However, the species is common.	eng
60259	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use.	eng
60260	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for the species in other parts of Cuba are urgent, along with estimating population size and trends. The extent of appropriate habitat available also needs to be established. Phylogenetic analysis is needed to understand relationship to other protoneurid genera.	eng
60260	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	West-central Cuba.	eng
60260	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
60260	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60260	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60261	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for other subpopulations are urgently needed, along with extent of habitat (forested streams) available in the general area. Population size and trends need to be monitored. The species possibly is present in Parque Nacional Guanacaste.	eng
60261	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Pacific slope of Costa Rica.	eng
60261	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Streams in mid-elevation rain forest (1,100 m).	eng
60261	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60261	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60262	conservation	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Searches for additional subpopulations are needed, along with an assessment of the stability of preferred habitat.	eng
60262	distribution	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Currently known from four locations in the Dominican Republic. The species may be more widespread than currently known.	eng
60262	habitat	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Headwaters of small, forested montane streams (Daigle 1993a)	eng
60262	population	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60262	threats	Paulson, D. & von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Diversion of water for human use.	eng
60263	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. dunklei</em> is not known to occur in any protected area. Further monitoring of known populations and the search for new ones is advised.	eng
60263	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Protoneura dunklei</em> is found in Dominican Republic and has been recorded from Azua, Dajabón and La Vega.	eng
60263	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers seepage headwaters of small, forested montane streams (Daigle 1990).	eng
60263	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. dunklei</em> has been found to be common at a few locations.	eng
60263	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and crop farming in all its forms (small to large scale) are having a continued affect on the viable habitat for this species.	eng
60264	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname.	eng
60264	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Mountain streams above 800 m.	eng
60264	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Population size and trends are unkown. However it is common.	eng
60264	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	None known at present.	eng
60265	conservation	Bernard, R. & Wildermuth, H., 2006	<strong>Policy-based actions:</strong> Legislation – necessary classifying to the FFH-Directive and the Bern Convention. <br/> <br/><strong>Research actions:</strong> range, number and size of local populations, monitoring and assessment of trends. <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat and site-based actions:</strong> full protection of primary habitats; no deforestation, establishment of wide buffer zones directly around localities, best of forest type; management of overgrowing secondary habitats (creation of new habitats in vicinity of existing populations); bog regeneration <br/> <br/><strong>Species-based actions</strong> local reintroductions.	eng
60265	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a very specific habitat choice and a limited dispersal ability. Many of the remaining European localities are isolated and local extinction at these places will be definite. Actions to be undertaken for this species are:<br/>- Mapping the distribution of the remaining populations by checking all suitable locations. <br/>- Eliminating direct local threats like impact by livestock and tourism.<br/>- Downgrading the local impact of pollution by nitrate and desiccation. This can be done by creating forest surrounding the locality, which will shield areas from pollution by nitrate from adjacent farmland (but mind the impact on the hydrology).<br/><br/>There is little experience with creating suitable habitat for this species. Given the specific habitat choice this is probably not easy. However a recent experiment with this in Niedersachsen in 2005 resulted in successful reproduction in 2008 (Clausnitzer 2009) showing that it is possible to create new habitats for the species. In areas where there are only small and isolated populations left, experiments like the one mentioned for Niedersachsen are needed in order to find ways to secure populations in the long term.<br/><br/>This species is severely threatened in large parts of its northern European range and should be legally protected at European and national level where not in place already.	eng
60265	distribution	Bernard, R. & Wildermuth, H., 2006	A Eurasian species. Distribution is severely fragmented from west Germany to Japan in a narrow latitudinal zone of a few to 14 degrees. In Europe, the species currently occurs between south Germany, Austria, southeast Poland, northern Ukraine in the South, and southern Sweden and southern Finland in the north. In Asia, it currently occurs in southwest Siberia, from the Southern Ural Mountains and the Konda River up to the north Altai Mountains, and in the Far East (Russia (Amurskaia oblast, Khabarovskii Krai and Primorskii Krai), northern and central Japan, north Korea).	eng
60265	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Nehalennia speciosa</em> has a wide, partly fragmented, range from west Europe over northern Asia to Japan. The westernmost records are from Belgium and the Netherlands while in the north the species occurs to the southern parts of Sweden and Finland. Its southern limits are found in north Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, northern Romania and western and northern Ukraine. There are two old records known from the south of Ukraine: Crimea and Kherson (the latter seems to be doubtful) (Bernard and Wildermut 2005). The species has severely declined and went extinct in the Netherlands (last record 1912), Belgium (1960), Luxembourg (1960), Romania (1953), Slovakia (1960), and France (19th century). In most of the countries with recent records the species has declined and in several countries only isolated populations remain, e.g. Italy with five populations (T. Fiorenza and I. Pecile pers comm.) and Denmark with two populations.	eng
60265	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Nehalennia speciosa </em>occurs in pools, bogs, fens and marshes and is most often found in shallow borders of acidic, nutrient-poor water bodies and wet depressions of bogs and fens. The habitat is largely unshaded but almost always lies in woodland of, in most cases, Pine (<em>Pinus</em>) or Spruce (<em>Picea</em>). The species is confined to specifically structured vegetation with uniform growth of narrow-leaved plants spaced densely enough to provide protection, but loosely enough to allow free movement. Slender Sedge (<em>Carex lasiocarpa</em>) and Bog-sedge (<em>C. limosa</em>) form at most European locations the dominant vegetation. Other plants, which can form a dominant part of the vegetation, include Beaked Sedge (<em>C. rostrata</em>), Tufted Sedge (<em>C. elata</em>), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinia caerulea</em>) and Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>). A crucial factor for the species microhabitat is the low depth of the water. This allows the water to warm up fast, favouring a fast development of the larvae, and makes the habitat unsuitable for predators like fish. <em>N. speciosa</em> is one of the few European dragonfly species that still mainly occur at primary (not altered by humans) habitats.	eng
60265	habitat	Bernard, R. & Wildermuth, H., 2006	Primary habitat: small mire lakes and pools bordered by Sphagnum, transition-mires, fens. <br/> <br/>Secondary habitat: peat excavations, rarely wet meadows. <br/> <br/>Microhabitat: border zones of small lakes and <em>Sphagnum</em> mats, flooded depressions in <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and fens. Generally stagnant, permanent, shallow, mostly acid waters of low trophy, overgrown with specific vegetation predominated by narrow-leaved helophytes, especially <em>Carex limosa</em> and <em>C. lasiocarpa</em>. Stenotopic species.	eng
60265	population	Bernard, R. & Wildermuth, H., 2006	As a rule, localities are rare, scattered or in small, local concentrations. The number of current localities is slightly higher only locally: e.g., in the Bavarian Prealpine region, northern Poland, the Baltic States, and the Russian Far East. The number of large populations at individual localities is low: at most 25–30 are currently known in Europe.	eng
60265	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	At many localities suitable habitat is often of limited size and less than a few hectars large. The species however occurs often in high numbers and many populations count several hundreds to several thousand individuals.	eng
60265	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	At many European localities the species went extinct due to habitat destruction caused by drainage and land reclamation. From the 1960s onwards pollution by nitrate became a dominant factor in the decline of the species. This resulted in the alteration of the vegetation due to which the needed vegetation structure disappeared. Pollution by nitrate is still an important factor but seems to have become less intensive. A relatively new factor is prolonged spells of hot and dry weather resulting in the desiccation of the habitats. Local threats are degradation of habitats by livestock and tourism.	eng
60265	threats	Bernard, R. & Wildermuth, H., 2006	Drying out of habitats as result of drainage, extreme weather events and climatic changes (global warming). Changes in the species composition and structure of vegetation caused by an increased load of nutrients from deforested or agriculturally used surroundings, aerial influx and recreational activities (e.g., angling). Overgrowth of habitats, especially secondary ones.	eng
60266	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Conservation of the watershed is needed, as well as research into the population numbers and range.	eng
60266	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Highlands (2,000 m asl) in north east (Lake Alemaya) and in central (highland meadow near, Adis Alem) Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is endemic to the Ethiopian highlands.	eng
60266	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Grassy lake shores and stream-pools in highlands.	eng
60266	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60266	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Water pollution and degradation of lakes, rivers and streams are main threats to the species.	eng
60267	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, watershed protection are all needed.	eng
60267	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southwestern highlands (recorded altitude range between 1,800 and 1,850 m).	eng
60267	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Clear, rocky forest streams.	eng
60267	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60267	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction is a major threat.	eng
60268	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest conservation, reforestation with indigenous trees, and watershed protection are needed.	eng
60268	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is known from Ethiopia, where it has been recorded at an altitude range from 2,300 to 2,400 m.	eng
60268	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Found in and around montane forested streams.	eng
60268	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60268	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest destruction is a major threat.	eng
60269	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Protection of wetlands. Research into the habitat status, and trends/monitoring for this species.	eng
60269	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species is only known from the central Ethiopian highlands, between 1,700 and 3,200 metres of altitude.	eng
60269	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Swampy areas and slow open grassy streams.	eng
60269	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60269	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pollution and destruction of wetlands are major threats to this species.	eng
60270	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
60270	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Platycnemis agrioides</em> is known from Mayotte, Comoro Archipelago.	eng
60270	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60270	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60270	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Pollution from detergents, tree removal and replacement growth.	eng
60271	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Wetland conservation is needed, as well as research into the species population numbers and range.	eng
60271	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Ethiopia, southwestern highlands (recorded at an altitude range between 1,600 and 1,800 m).	eng
60271	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Small streams to wide rivers, slow–flowing waters in open country with muddy and grassy verges.	eng
60271	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown. It is described as numerous in at least three known sites.	eng
60271	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Water pollution is a threat to this species.	eng
60272	conservation	Schneider, W. & Kalkman, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place. Fieldwork should be carried out to confirm whether the species still occurs west of the Adana delta. The species occurs in several areas that have been denoted as Turkish Key Biodiversity Areas (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
60272	distribution	Schneider, W. & Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Coenagrion syriacum</em> occurs in a small fringe along the Mediterranean. It is distributed in the western Levant: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, and coastal areas of southern Turkey. It has been found as far west as Antalya (1959, 1972) but has not been found since then west of the Adana delta; it may now have become extinct in the western part of its range.	eng
60272	habitat	Schneider, W. & Kalkman, V., 2007	Stagnant (lakes, ponds, swamps) and slow-flowing waters with rich aquatic vegetation (Dijkstra 2006). This species easily occupies man-made water systems.	eng
60272	population	Schneider, W. & Kalkman, V., 2007	No information on population size is available for this species. It is locally common, often occurring in high densities.	eng
60272	threats	Schneider, W. & Kalkman, V., 2007	Most of its range area lies along the Mediterranean where pressures from building activity and agricultural practices are high. Water extraction for agriculture and human consumption is a major threat. Potentially drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change.	eng
60273	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Inclusion of at least some populations in protected areas is highly desirable.	eng
60273	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Sparsely distributed in Turkey, Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordania, Syria and Kirgizistan. In all countries only known from a small number of sites (Dumont 1992, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2003, Kalkman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Schneider 1986, Schneider 2004, Schoorl 2000).	eng
60273	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Mainly found in slowly flowing, well-vegetated waters often with extensive vegetation of reed or large rushes.	eng
60273	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	No detailed information present.	eng
60273	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2006	Vulnerable to local extinction as the species is scarce and localised across large areas of its distribution. Suitable habitat is uncommon and will often coincide with agricultural areas and is therefore vulnerable to eutrophication and pollution.	eng
60274	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This is one of the most threatened European dragonflies and conservation actions are needed immediately. First action to be undertaken is to visit all known localities to establish if the species survives, to gather detailed information on its habitat and to map local threats. Based on this information locations can be selected where the species might occur for further fieldwork. For the known populations a species action plan needs to be created. This needs to be done on population level and in close co-operation with local authorities and landowners. It is mandatory that several of the locations should be included in nature reserves.	eng
60274	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Pyrrhosoma elisabethae</em> is endemic to the southern Balkans. It is known from eight localities from Peloponnese, Kérkira and southern Albania (Kalkman and Lopau 2006) and from one record in northwest Greece (Muranyi 2007).	eng
60274	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Information on habitat requirements is poor. The following notes on the habitat are available:<br/>- Corfu: a ditch and along a slow flowing river in the coastal plains<br/>- Peloponnese: brooklets with clear, cool water and rich vegetation and a well-vegetated brook  <br/><br/>Based on this and on some pictures of the habitat it can be concluded that the species mainly occurs in brooks and sometimes in rivers with abundant aquatic vegetation. It is likely that the species cannot survive in habitats that fall dry during hot summers.  It is not clear if the species can reproduce in standing waters.	eng
60274	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Most localities have been visited only once or twice and information on the size of the populations is scarce. The limited information suggest that the species occurs in low to very low densities and some of the known populations might have less than a hundred adult individuals per year.	eng
60274	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The management of brooks in Albania and Greece is very poor. The natural situation of brooks is, in many cases, destroyed for irrigation purposes and concrete channels often replace brooks. Further threats are water pollution and too intensive management (e.g. the clearing of all riparian vegetation). In recent years climate change has become one of the main threats and during recent hot and dry summers several brooks in Greece where found to be dry. Information on this for the sites where the species occurs is lacking, it is however likely that at least some of its populations were affected by the dry periods. Two known populations were visited in 2007: one population was found extinct and at the other site the habitat was degraded and only one male was found.	eng
60275	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No precise information available but research into habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions such as the protection of wetlands are also needed.	eng
60275	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	The species has been recorded from Ethiopian highlands (1,600 to 2,600 m asl) and recorded for Eritrea as well.	eng
60275	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Open, slow–flowing waters (small streams to broad rivers) with muddy and grassy banks.	eng
60275	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60275	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Pollution and destruction of wetlands threaten the species.	eng
60276	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Forest conservation is needed.	eng
60276	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Endemic to Mauritius.	eng
60276	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Rocky mountain forest streams and rivers.	eng
60276	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Population size is unkonwn. Inferred to be declining.	eng
60276	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Deforestation for tea and sugar plantations.	eng
60277	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Apart of general conservation guidelines no site-specific “single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include: (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the Wet zone; (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the Wet zone; and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanič 2004). <br/> <br/>Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should urgently be focused on still preserved and protected areas. Research on biology and ecology of selected endangered species should also be carried out. <br/> <br/>Regarding species habitat and potential area of occurrence, the South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregion is judged as vulnerable (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60277	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Sri Lanka. Recently known from only few localities in central and southwestern part of the island.	eng
60277	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2006	The species inhabits rivers in lowlands and mid-hills, occasionaly also artificial lakes and irrigation channels.	eng
60277	population	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Unknown, small and fragmented. A rare species.	eng
60277	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2006	Primary habitat is under threat, but apparently the species inhabits broader spectrum of habitats. <br/> <br/>Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionaly rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanič 2004).	eng
60278	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Additional exhaustive faunistic survey made by odonatologists and covering appropriate localities in different seasons is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60278	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	A rare species that is endemic to Sri Lanka.  Known from more than twelve localities in southwestern and central part of the island (Ratnapura, Matara, Badulla, Kandy, Colombo and Nuwara Eliya Districts).&#160; Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland), National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) and Lund University (Sweden) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
60278	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits small streams and springs in primary rainforest.  Female and larval form undescribed.	eng
60278	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.	eng
60278	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forest. Many potential habitats in southwestern and central part of the island were completely destroyed in last decades.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).	eng
60279	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60279	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka and seems to be rare. Found on only few localities during recent fieldwork and seems to be limited to the southwestern and central part of the island.	eng
60279	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits pools of moderately fast to slow flowing streams and rivers in the mid-hill primary rainforest.  Female and larval form undescribed.	eng
60279	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Detailed population numbers and trends are unknown although they are known to be small and fragmented.	eng
60279	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Type of habitat under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
60280	conservation	Dow, R., 2007	Apart of general conservation guidelines, no site specific ?single-species-oriented? conservation measures can be proposed for the moment. General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/><br/>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.&#160; As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF?s global 200 list of the earth?s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
60280	distribution	Dow, R., 2007	Rare Sri Lankan endemic species. Known only from type locality (Belihul Oya) and Sinharaja Forest Biosphere Reserve in south-western part of the island.	eng
60280	habitat	Dow, R., 2007	The species breeds in seepages from marshes along the banks of streams in sub-montane areas.&#160; Larval form unknown.	eng
60280	population	Dow, R., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.	eng
60280	threats	Dow, R., 2007	Type of habitat under treat from logging. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
60281	conservation	Bedjani?, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented? conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).</p>	eng
60281	distribution	Bedjani?, M., 2007	Sri Lanka. Apparently quite rare species. Known from only few localities, but in different parts of the island. Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2007-2009). Not found during the author?s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
60281	habitat	Bedjani?, M., 2007	The species inhabits rivers, bigger streams and occasionally also irrigation channels in lowlands and mid-hills.  Larval form undescribed.	eng
60281	population	Bedjani?, M., 2007	Unknown size and trend; apparently small and fragmented.	eng
60281	threats	Bedjani?, M., 2007	Type of habitat seems not to be especially threatened.  Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for the exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
60282	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60282	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species is found in Sri Lanka and is a rare endemic species. Recently known from only few localities in southwestern and central part of the island. <br/>Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland) and National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (2001, 2003).	eng
60282	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills.	eng
60282	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Detailed population numbers and trend are unknown but thought to be small and fragmented.	eng
60282	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Rivers and streams with rich surrounding vegetation in mid-hills are the type of habitat under treat. Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
60283	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.	eng
60283	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Endemic to southwest Yemen in SW Arabia.	eng
60283	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	High mountains streams (> 2,000 m).	eng
60283	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60283	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, watertable pumping, pollution). Drought.	eng
60284	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.	eng
60284	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Southern Arabia, in Yemen, northeast Oman and the north of the United Arab Emirates.	eng
60284	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Irrigation ditches in agricultural landscapes and oases, wadis, in shallow and slow-flowing sections with aquatic vegetation.	eng
60284	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60284	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.	eng
60285	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Perennial management of good quality running waters is needed.	eng
60285	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Southeast Arabia, in northern Oman and the United Arab Emirates.	eng
60285	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Fast-running waters with aquatic vegetation.	eng
60285	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60285	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2006	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Drought.	eng
60286	conservation	Boudot, J.-P. & Wranik, W., 2006	Perennial management of good quality waters is needed.	eng
60286	distribution	Boudot, J.-P. & Wranik, W., 2006	Endemic to Soqotra Island (Yemen) (3,580 km²).	eng
60286	habitat	Boudot, J.-P. & Wranik, W., 2006	Running and standing waters.	eng
60286	population	Boudot, J.-P. & Wranik, W., 2006	Seems fairly common. In many places in great numbers.	eng
60286	threats	Boudot, J.-P. & Wranik, W., 2006	Use of water by humans (drainage, over irrigation, pollution). Wood cutting. Unplanned infrastructural development on Socotra. Increase in population of goats (and cattle). Drought.	eng
60287	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60287	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Calopteryx exul</em> is a north Maghrebian endemic.	eng
60287	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Fast-flowing mountain streams.	eng
60287	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	At least 32 subpopulations are known. Seven of these occur in Algeria, are based on old records, and are most probably extinct. However, new subpopulations were discovered in Algeria in 2007.	eng
60287	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, drying up of streams due to water extraction for irrigation, overgrazing and drought are major threats to the species.	eng
60288	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Maintenance of habitat and action-based conservation are needed to protect the habitat.	eng
60288	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Occurs along the eastern Black sea coast and extents east to Armenia and Azerbaijan.	eng
60288	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Coenagrion ponticum</em> prefers mountain lakes (especially with <em>Equisetum</em>) and slow running waters in the lowlands.	eng
60288	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Coenagrion ponticum</em> is not seldom found in high densities.	eng
60288	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Pollution of water-ways through agricultural farming is likely to have a negative impact on this species.  Also the projected extensive water usage (in the form of groundwater extraction and small-scale fisheries) is likely going to cause unknown levels of habitat degradation and loss in the future.	eng
60289	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation and restoration of forests, spring and brooks; preservation of water quality; control of irrigation through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60289	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Cordulegaster principes</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco, occurring from the High to the Middle Atlas Mountains.	eng
60289	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Mountain brooks from 700 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
60289	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Apparently rather small populations are known from only 17 locations.	eng
60289	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Forest destruction, water pollution and water management are threats to the species. Overgrazing and drought are also potential threats to this species.	eng
60290	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60290	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Gomphus lucasii</em> is a Maghrebian endemic, occurring in the Tell Atlas in Algeria and Tunisia. Records from Morocco are uncertain.	eng
60290	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Streams in hilly and low mountainous areas, with up to 2.8 g of natural sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).	eng
60290	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Thirty localities have been reported to be inhabited by this species, of which 11 records (from western and central Algeria) are very old and perhaps are now extinct.	eng
60290	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water management for human use, water pollution, desiccation of streams due water extraction for irrigation, deforestation, overgrazing, and drought.	eng
60291	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, control of pollution, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, are necessary conservation measures.	eng
60291	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Perennial management of running waters and control of pollution are needed.	eng
60291	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Perennial management of running waters and control of pollution through policy-based actions and increasing awareness are needed.  Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
60291	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Perennial management of running waters; control of pollution.	eng
60291	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus costae</em> is an endemic Ibero-Maghrebian species. In Europe its EOO extends presently over 250,000km<sup>2</sup> although its AOO is much smaller as it is known from only 23 localities in Spain and south Portugal. Eight populations are presently considered extinct.	eng
60291	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus costae</em> occurs in the Maghreb region and the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula.	eng
60291	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus costae</em> occurs in the Maghreb region and the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula.	eng
60291	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Its preferred habitat are larger, slowly flowing waters in a hot environment. In North Africa, it is found in naturally salted waters up to 4g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).	eng
60291	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Running waters, even naturally salted up to 4 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4).	eng
60291	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Running waters, even naturally salted up to 4 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium sulphate (CaSO<sub>4</sub>).	eng
60291	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is most often found in low numers but can be locally abundant.	eng
60291	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The species is not rare in some localities, but is extinct in others.	eng
60291	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not rare in some localities, but is extinct in others.	eng
60291	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats are use of water by humans (drainage, over-irrigation, pollution, etc.), stream management, dam construction, and drought due to ongoing climate change.	eng
60291	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Use of water by humans (drainage, over-irrigation, pollution, etc.), overgrazing, and drought.	eng
60291	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water use by locals (drainage, over-irrigation, and pollution), overgrazing, and drought are major threats to the species.	eng
60292	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
60292	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is endemic to the Canary Islands and to Madeira.	eng
60292	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	It is found mostly in running waters but also occurs in standing waters.	eng
60292	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The populations are widespread and flourishing on some of those island (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
60292	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The populations do not seem to be in decline at the moment. Water use for tourism is the main possible threat to this species.	eng
60293	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Jalisco and Oaxaca in Mexico.	eng
60293	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Larvae found among rough gravel in sites of rapid water flow of small, shallow creeks running through mountain cloud forest in Oaxaca.	eng
60293	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60293	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
60294	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Andes in Colombia (in Antioquía, Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Meta departments).	eng
60294	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Forest streams: Williamson (1918) found it on a rock face with water dripping from a mountain stream.	eng
60294	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60294	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2006	Although not yet confirmed at present, ongoing forest clearing may be a potential threat to the species.	eng
60295	conservation	Kipping, J., 2006	Known from protected areas (Mahangu Game Reserve and West Caprivi National Park). More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and specific threats.	eng
60295	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
60295	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Kipping, J., 2009	Use of aerial spraying with pesticides for Tsetse fly, with short-term impacts on larvae. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.	eng
60295	distribution	Kipping, J., 2006	In southern Africa it is known from 10 records: Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango delta). From current knowledge it has a disjunct distribution, and it is difficult to assess the extent of occurrence from these data. Globally, it occurs in northeastern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu), Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango swamps) (four records from outside of southern Africa).	eng
60295	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in Zambia: Lake Bangweulu, Botswana: Okavango swamps.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Congo basin within the central Africa region (Bangweulu). Seen at the site (Cotterill pers. comm.).	eng
60295	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Kipping, J., 2009	The species occurs in northeastern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu; Cotterill, pers. comm.), Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango swamps). Four records in total from outside of southern Africa. In southern Africa it is known from 10 records in Namibia (Okavango panhandle), and northern Botswana (Okavango delta). From current knowledge, it has a disjunct distribution, and it is difficult to assess the extent of occurrence from the available data.	eng
60295	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps along large rivers and lakes.	eng
60295	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Kipping, J., 2009	Swamps along large rivers and lakes.	eng
60295	habitat	Kipping, J., 2006	Swampy channels and rivers (Kipping, pers. comm.).	eng
60295	population	Kipping, J., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60295	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60295	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Kipping, J., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60295	threats	Kipping, J., 2006	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, water extraction is a potential future threat.	eng
60295	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Kipping, J., 2009	No information available. Impacts to the habitat of this species could arise due to swamp drainage for agriculture and groundwater extraction.	eng
60295	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Use of aeiral spraying with pesticides for Tstse fly, with short-term impacts on larvae.	eng
60296	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Protection of montane forests is needed.	eng
60296	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Southwest Angola: Serra da Chela.	eng
60296	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Running waters.	eng
60296	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
60296	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60297	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
60297	conservation	Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60297	distribution	Suhling, F., 2009	This species is known only from Lake Bangweulu (Zambia), the Okavango Delta and panhandle (Botswana - last record from 1993), and a short stretch of the Okavango River (Namibia). Most, but not all, of the known range falls within the southern Africa region. It is likely that the species also occurs in Zambia, but there are no records from there yet.<br/><br/>There are new records from the Okavango Delta (although from a small area within a protected area), and the total number sites is estimated at three. The distribution is considered fragmented. It is present at Quando (Namibia) (Kipping pers. comm.), the distribution seems to be fragmented. Presence between the two sites is expected but not confirmed.	eng
60297	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is known only from Lake Bangweulu (Zambia), the Okavango Delta and panhandle (Botswana - last record from 1993, from the panhandle), and a short stretch of the Okavango River (Namibia). Most, but not all, of the known range falls within the southern Africa region.	eng
60297	habitat	Suhling, F., 2009	Only information of the adult habitat (savannah) is known. It may breed in large swamps and rivers. The two records from rivers in Namibia are sites with diverse habitat types, including river with rapids and swampy areas. Sites in the Okavango are swampy river with woodland and grassland.	eng
60297	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Only information of the adult habitat (savannah) is known. It may breed in swamps and rivers. The two records from rivers in Namibia are sites with diverse habitat types, including river with rapids and swampy areas. Sites in the Okavango are swampy river with woodland and grassland.	eng
60297	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60297	population	Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60297	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are not known. In the Okavango Delta, potential threats are wetland habitat degradation, and pesticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.	eng
60297	threats	Suhling, F., 2009	Current threats are not known. In the Okavango Delta, potential threats are wetland habitat degradation, and pesticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.	eng
60298	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population size and threats.	eng
60298	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
60298	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
60298	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Only two localities are known so far: a 1969 records from Kasama, northern Zambia (outside the southern Africa region), and four records recorded in 1975 (from Four Rivers) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. It may be more widespread than currently known. It is likely to occur in swamps in Zambia (one sight record is known), but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
60298	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is only two localities are known so far: Kasama, northern Zambia and Four Rivers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. An unconfirmed sight-record exists from Lake Bangweulu, Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The record from L. Bangweulu would be within the region.The Kasama record is also within the region. Possibly present within Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60298	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is currently known from two localities within Zambia and found in Botswana, but further populations can be expected in suitable swamp habitat. <br/><br/>In southern Africa, the only two localities are known so far are Kasama, northern Zambia and Four Rivers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. An unconfirmed sight-record exists from Lake Bangweulu, Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the record from Lake Bangweulu would be within the region. The Kasama record is also within the region.	eng
60298	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Bush-fringed streams or pools in forests.	eng
60298	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Bush-fringed streams or pools in forests.	eng
60298	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Bush-fringed streams or pools in forests.	eng
60298	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
60298	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
60298	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
60298	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Potential threats in the Okavango Delta are wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in Botswana.	eng
60298	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
60298	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potential threats in the Okavango Delta are wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana.	eng
60299	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2007	Protection of montane forests is needed. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
60299	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2007	The species has been recorded only from three collections in south and central Angola (Longfield (1947). Collections from 1932 and 1933; and Pinhey (1975); collection year unknown. The species has not been recorded since, however the area is under-surveyed.	eng
60299	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2007	Shady mountain streams, inferred from the general ecology of the genus.	eng
60299	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2007	No information available.	eng
60299	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2007	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred to be threatened by deforestation.<br/><br/>In Angola, the area of the only known collections has seen the fastest human population growth, and clear cutting is evident here.	eng
60300	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	No special or specific measures needed.	eng
60300	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	Although <em>Gomphus davidi</em> has a very restricted range, confined to Turkey (around Gulf of Iskenderun), Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and Palestine, the number of localities and number of records suggests that it is locally common.	eng
60300	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Frequents slow flowing rivers and also nearly stagnant irrigation canals/ditches. The flight period starts as early as March (Schmidt 1938, Schneider 1984b), but most data are from April/May. There are records for Turkey until August (Dumont 1977). The larva was described by Schneider (1984b).	eng
60300	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No exact data on population structure and size are available for this species. But the frequency of records (especially in the northern Jordan Valley and along the Orontes) suggest that the population is stable.	eng
60300	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	No major threats are known for this species at global level. In Turkey, mining may be a threat to populations there.	eng
60301	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60301	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Rukwa drainage and possibly the Malagarasi (Seegers 1996).	eng
60301	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Found in a wide range of habitats including flowing water to stagnant pools (Seegers 1996). Thought to migrate up the rivers to spawn when water levels rise in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).	eng
60301	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Uncommon (Seegers 1996).	eng
60301	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60302	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	Research into the species population and ecological habits are needed, as are habitat protection actions if the species current decreasing trend is going to be reversed.	eng
60302	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Mangrove Skipper (<em>Orthetrum poecilops</em>) is known from China and Japan. The type locality is in Guangdong (China). Asahina (1970) recorded the nominate subspecies from Foochow, Fujian (China), and Wilson (2001) recorded it from four sites in northeast Hong Kong representing two locations: one at Starling Inlet, including Nam Chung, Ho Pui Leng, Yin Tso Ha, and the second Shuen Wan. A population was discovered on a small isolated island at Wong Wan during 2002, at a site reported in Wilson (2003) as 'Double Haven'. The subspecies <em>O. p. miyajimanense</em> is known from a handful of sites at Miyajima Island, near Hiroshima (Japan). Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2001) described the distribution for <em>O. p. miyajimanense</em> as Itsukushima (= Miyajima) in the Seto Sea.	eng
60302	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Mangrove Skipper can be found on inter-tidal mudflats amongst <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves in northeast Hong Kong. It must be considered as a marine dragonfly. It is only found in Hong Kong at sites below the high water mark. Although these sites are influenced by small freshwater trickles and seepages at low tide, at high tide, all the Hong Kong sites are fully covered by seawater. During the wet season salinities of surface seawater at Starling Inlet drop to as low as 18 g/L (0/00), or less, but during the winter dry season, surface water salinities are typically fully saline at 33 g/L (0/00). Very little is known of the Mangrove Skipper's biology apart from its preference for intertidal mudflats amongst <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves. In Japan the only known sites are coastal marshes. In Hong Kong males can be found holding territories throughout the day; typically perching on <em>Kandelia</em> mangroves or <em>Phragmites australis</em> reed stems. Females appear at the breeding sites during the early morning and late afternoon. The larvae have been described by Sawano (1966) who discovered the species in coastal marsh habitat in Miyajima.	eng
60302	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The population is known to be decreasing due to housing developments around its specific habitat preferences.	eng
60302	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	All sites in Hong Kong, with the exception of Wong Wan ('Double Haven'), are located in unprotected, coastal sites. One site at Shuen Wan, east Hong Kong, has already been compromised by housing development and several others at Starling Inlet are vulnerable to housing development. In Guangdong much of the coastal environment, including reed marsh and mangrove habitats, have been damaged by development of aquaculture industries and only a fraction of the original mangrove community remains.	eng
60303	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2004	None.	eng
60303	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2004	Widespread throughout Lakes Malawi and Malombe.	eng
60303	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2004	Mainly a zooplankton feeder. Breeds throughout the year. Constructs a cave crater nest in steeper sloping areas. In the northern part of the southwestern arm of Lake Malawi it is one of the most abundant species in the shallow water mainly (comprised 10–30 % in weight of demersal trawl catches).	eng
60303	population	Kazembe, J., 2004	Unknown but an abundant species.	eng
60303	threats	Kazembe, J., 2004	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60304	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60304	conservation	Ntakimazi, G.& Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60304	distribution	Ntakimazi, G.& Twongo, T.K., 2006	Stream and rivers affluent to Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi basins. Also present in the Lake Edward basin.	eng
60304	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus pellegrini</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward and their effluents. It has also been recorded from the Kivu region, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
60304	habitat	Ntakimazi, G.& Twongo, T.K., 2006	Prefers stream and river conditions (Poll 1953). Feeds mainly on insects.	eng
60304	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
60304	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60304	population	Ntakimazi, G.& Twongo, T.K., 2006	Not known, but very common in the upper Malagarasi.	eng
60304	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60304	threats	Ntakimazi, G.& Twongo, T.K., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60305	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60305	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lower Rufiji, Ruvu, Mbezi and Wami river drainages (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60305	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Small rivers, brooks and swamps in the forested savannah of eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60305	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60305	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60306	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None known.	eng
60306	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika basin where it is found in shallow waters in the lake and in its affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi.	eng
60306	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	In the lake found in shallow inshore waters down to 25 m deep. Very common in rivers where it migrates in the rainy season for reproduction. Feeds on varied food items collected on the bottom including crustaceans, sponges, insects, plant debris, etc. (Poll 1953).	eng
60306	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Very common in fisheries catches in inshore shallow waters of the lake and deltas of major affluent rivers.	eng
60306	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Fishing pressure and water turbidity due to watershed erosion and agriculture.	eng
60307	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use and preservation of gallery forest are required. The extractions of water from springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration is clearly increasing throughout Greece as a response to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 21 from 1980 onwards). The establishment of protected areas is necessary.	eng
60307	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Boyeria cretensis</em> is endemic to the island of Crete (Greece). Most individuals are found in small subpopulations isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas: a first aggregate of five river systems is known west of the Lefka Ori mountains in the westernmost part of Crete, another of 11 river systems lies between the Lefka Ori and the Psiloritis (Mount Idi) mountains and north of the latter in Central Crete, whereas one single isolated locality was found east of the Dikti mountains in the easternmost part of Crete (Battin 1989, Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Lopau 2000, Schneider and Müller 2006).	eng
60307	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is highly specific in its habitat, being associated with the upper courses of permanent shady brooks with moderate current and rock pools. The distribution of this endemic dragonfly is restricted to rivulets with permanent water and pronounced gallery vegetation in a narrow belt between 50 and 600 m above sea level belonging to the thermo-Mediterranean and meso-Mediterranean zone of Crete.	eng
60307	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species occurs generally in small populations, but a population of more than 110 adults has been recorded in one place. It is known that the species is extinct in the type locality and it is believed to be extinct in four other localities.	eng
60307	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>B. cretensis</em> has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. <em>B. cretensis</em> is threatened due to its very restricted distribution, its low number of known localities (26 places on 17 streamlets) and its high level of stenotopy (adapted to a specific environment). The current agricultural policy favours the decrease of <em>B. cretensis</em> by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of their gallery vegetation. Many populations are small and relatively isolated. Climatic change alone will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.	eng
60308	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60308	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Mafia Island, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60308	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to pools, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60308	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60308	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60309	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60309	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Upper Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana River systems (Upper and middle courses) and the northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). A record by Copley (1941) of <em>B. gregorii</em> (non Boulenger) from the Tana River is a misidentification for </em>'B.' oxyrhynchus</em> (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60309	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Can be found in any part of the river, but moves upstream in April to the fast-running waters to spawn. The eggs are large and are deposited in and about stony gravel where they lodge in the crevices between the stones. After spawning the fish keep in the fast water to clean themselves and then moving downstream spread all over the river (Copley 1958). The limit of upward movement in the river is 5,000 feet where the cooler water temperature acts as a deterrent (Copley 1958). It is found in shoals in the big pools and runs (Copley 1952). It is onmivorous. Max. size: 40.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60309	population	Vreven, E., 2006	The most abundant species of large <em>Barbus</em> within both rivers (Copley 1952).	eng
60309	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60310	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	More research on population numbers and range and the biology and ecology as well as possible threats is needed. Appropriate conservation measures should be applied thereafter.	eng
60310	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	None taken.	eng
60310	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	A holarctic species.	eng
60310	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> is a northern holarctic species, distributed from the extreme north of Norway, Sweden, and Finland to the Russian Far East, including Kamchatka, and to Alaska. More to the south, the species is known from five disjunct localities within a mountain area (800 - 2,000 m) ranging from the Altaï Mountains to the southwest of east Siberia. Most localities fall within the so-called "treeline area": tundra and mountain birch or dwarf pine forest above the Taiga.	eng
60310	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Bog pools and small tarns at or above the arctic tree-line.	eng
60310	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, <em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> reproduces north of 67° N only. It favours both peaty pools with emergent vegetation of sedges, <em>Myrica gale</em>, and pools in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs, within the tundra and the open stunted subarctic mountain birch forest belt (<em>Betula pubescens tortuosa</em>). It is often found in areas with permafrost. Little is otherwise known about its ecology.	eng
60310	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, <em>Somatochlora sahlbergi</em> is one of the most elusive Odonata, as its range corresponds to the most cloudy and rainy area of Fennoscandia and northwest Russia. It has been scarcely observed, less than 25 records of single specimens or small populations are available. Larvae have been found in the Kevo area in several peaty pools showing more than 50 cm water depth and bordered with sedges according to Butler (1992). This kind of habitat is omnipresent in the subarctic birch belt and the tundra, so that the species is probably more widespread than believed, although not common.	eng
60310	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Large, but little is known of its status.	eng
60310	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A part of the European area of the species is under the influence of the atmospheric pollution issued from Russian industry at the north Kola Peninsula (acid deposition and heavy metals). As not much information is available about this species, it is not sure whether this poses a threat. It is also not clear how climate change would affect the species.	eng
60310	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	No known threats, but it is likely to decline from the effects of global warming.	eng
60312	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Additional fieldwork is needed in Lithuania and Latvia in order to find additional populations. The range of the species in the European part of Russia is very poorly known. Fieldwork in the whole northern part of Russia is needed. Based on this an assessment should be made of the conservation status of this species in these countries. It should be determined whether or not this species is sufficiently present in protected areas. If not then newly protected areas should be identified.	eng
60312	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	None.	eng
60312	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna crenata</em> occurs from northeast Europe east to Kamchatka, Sakhalin and North Korea. The majority of its range lies in Russia. It occurs mostly in areas with a temperate climate but is locally present north of the Polar Circle. In Europe it is known from scattered localities in the southern quarter of Finland (10 to 15 localities), from c. ten localities in Northeast Lithuania, one locality in southeast Latvia, one locality in northern Belarus and it is not rare in northern Russia (e.g., Bernard 2002, 2003; Buczyński <em>et al.</em> 2006; Mauersberger 2000; Valtonen 1988; Peter 1997). The area of distribution bends south in the Ural and the species is reasonably common in the southern parts of this mountain range (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). From the Ural on the species range continues into temperate Asia. Over 90% of its European range lies in Russia, an area for which only poor data is available.	eng
60312	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	Siberia, northern Russia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus.	eng
60312	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Finland and the Baltic states <em>Aeshna crenata</em> is mostly found at pools and small to medium sized forest lakes which are acid and poor in nutrients. In most cases the banks are covered with a vegetation of peat moss (<em>Sphagnum</em>) and sedges (<em>Carex</em>) and mature forest is found in the direct vicinity. In the northern and eastern parts of European Russia, the habitat spectrum is larger comprising also river valleys, larger lakes and dead river arms with vegetation of Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>) and sedges (<em>Carex</em>).	eng
60312	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Oligotrophic lakes in forested areas.	eng
60312	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species seems to be common in large parts of temperate Asia. In the European part of its range it seems to be scarce in the west. Most of its European range lies in Russia and for this area poor information on its presence and abundance is available but it seems to be common in northern Russia. Based on limited information it seems that densities in suitable habitat normally vary from tens to several hundreds of specimens.	eng
60312	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Unknown, but probably very large in Russia and Siberia.	eng
60312	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	Habitat disturbance/change.	eng
60312	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Most European populations are found in areas with relatively little human pressure. The most important threat is probably large scale logging of forest.	eng
60313	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	Protection/conservation schemes have been implemented in some West European countries.	eng
60313	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water quality should be preserved, fish farming restricted and the natural vegetation maintained, restored or managed in the most favourable places.	eng
60313	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	North, Central and East Europe and Siberia. In Western Europe only rare populations occur. In July 2006, the species was recorded for the first time in Armenia (M. Tailly pers. comm.).	eng
60313	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species has a wide range from west Europe to Kamchatka in the east. The species has isolated populations in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and Denmark, and a more continuous range in northeast Europe including the south of Scandinavia and Finland, eastern Poland and northern Ukraine. By far the largest number of populations is found in southern Fennoscandia and northeast Europe. The species is absent from the south of the Ukraine and the south of Russia although populations are known from the southern Caucasus countries (Georgia, Armenia). It is extinct in the United Kingdom.	eng
60313	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Many different kinds of waters, often with abundant emergent vegetation.	eng
60313	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species has a very specialized habitat and is mainly met in fields of sedges (<em>Carex</em>), Water Horsetail (<em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>) and reeds bordering shallow mesotrophic and weakly eutrophic pools and lakes. The density of the vegetation should be moderate, neither too low nor too high a density, in order to provide both shelter and space to move.	eng
60313	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In the west of its range, the species is very local and has been extirpated from large parts of its initial range. It is presently very rare to rare in the Netherlands, north Germany, Poland (probably extinct in most of the country), uncommon in southern Scandinavia but fairly common in parts of Finland and Russia.	eng
60313	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	Very large.	eng
60313	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	Habitat change/disturbance.	eng
60313	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution and significant eutrophication, fish farming, natural succession of the vegetation leading to the closure of the habitat are the main threat for this species. Dessication due to climate change is a present and future threat to this boreal species.	eng
60314	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information	eng
60314	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60314	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Previously known only from the Juba system in Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).	eng
60314	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Previously only known from the Juba system in Somalia, this species was recently rediscovered in the Lower Tana (De Vos 2001).	eng
60314	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Max. size: 640 mm TL (Risch in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60314	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60314	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information	eng
60314	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60314	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information	eng
60314	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60315	conservation	Sahlén, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60315	distribution	Sahlén, G., 2006	Estonia, Finland and Sweden, with a possible sighting in Norway. This is a trans-Baltic Sea endemic.	eng
60315	habitat	Sahlén, G., 2006	Most subpoulations are found in saline, brackish or alkaline pools. In Sweden, the species is found in lakes and feshwater marshes/pools.	eng
60315	population	Sahlén, G., 2006	>100,000 (at least very large if all subpopulations are taken together).	eng
60315	threats	Sahlén, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60316	conservation	Bousso, T., 2006	None known.	eng
60316	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60316	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Victoria basin, Lake Kanyaboli, Amboseli swamps, Athi River system (including Mzima springs, Tsavo drainage) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Lake Kivu and Rusizi drainage; Upper and Middle Akagera system; Malagarasi river; Lake Rukwa system; and various localities in the coastal region near Dares salaam. Lakes Edward, George and Albert systems. Lake Nabugabo and the Aswa River (Upper Nile)	eng
60316	distribution	Bousso, T., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, the species is known from Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:  </strong></strong>Widely distributed in Uganda (Lakes Victoria and Edward), in the neighbouring areas.	eng
60316	habitat	Bousso, T., 2006	A benthopelagic species that feeds mainly on animals. Occurs in pools near papyrus vegetation .	eng
60316	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabit inshore waters of lakes and rivers, including fast-flowing waters. Varied food, including aquatic vegetation, mollusc and fishes (Welcomme 1969). Common in temporary and permanent streams. It occurs in water lily swamps on the edge of lakes (Okedi 1971).	eng
60316	population	Bousso, T., 2006	No available data.	eng
60316	population	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but very common is streams and rivers.	eng
60316	threats	Bousso, T., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution	eng
60316	threats	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.	eng
60317	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
60317	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60317	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60317	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
60317	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available. More research is needed.	eng
60317	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia (as <em>D. selysii</em>), upper Zambesi catchment. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa; only seven records are known, all from one locality. Globally, it has been recorded from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea. It is also inferred to occur in the Congo.	eng
60317	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded (as <em>Diastatomma selysi</em>) from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (west Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea.	eng
60317	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from west Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola, Equatorial Guinea. In western Africa from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a single record from Dundo, Angola, but has also been reported from Cameroon, and presence elsewhere within the region is suspected, including Equatorial Guinea.	eng
60317	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was described from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in the forest in this area.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
60317	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Uganda, north Zambia, north-east Angola, Equatorial Guinea. In West Africa from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south west Cameroon. Only two records; that from Angola the locality is uncertain, and that for eastern Democratic Republic of Congo is erroneous identification.<br/><br/>It is inferred to be more widespread in central Africa.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia (as <em>D. selysii</em>), upper Zambezi catchment. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within southern Africa; only seven records are known, all from one locality.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from Old Calabar (south east Nigeria) and has also been recorded from south-west Cameroon. It is inferred that is more widespread in the forest in this area.	eng
60317	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
60317	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
60317	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
60317	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
60317	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forest streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
60317	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
60317	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60317	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size and trends.	eng
60317	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
60317	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
60317	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
60317	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be affecting to the species.	eng
60317	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60317	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
60317	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. It is inferred that forest destruction may be a threat.	eng
60318	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Usually, bays and gulfs with affluent rivers are legislated as closed areas for fishing from 1st January to 30th June each year in order to protect spawners and juveniles.	eng
60318	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004) where, since the introduction of the Nile Perch (<em>Lates niloticus</em>) extent of occurrence (EOO) has decreased from a 20 m depth range observed during the 1969–71 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974) to a 10 m range during the 1997–99 surveys (Okaranon <em>et al</em>. 1999, Getabu and Nyaundi 1999, Mkumbo and Ezekiel 1999). It is now very rare being occasionally encountered in the shallow inshore close to affluent rivers and streams. Its estimated EOO in Lake Victoria is 12,580 km². The species is also distributed in Lake Katwe (EOO=2.5 km²), Lake Kubigena (EOO <1 km²), and Lake Kyoga. Also distributed throughout the upper and middle Akagera system and the Victoria Nile.	eng
60318	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Occurs in shallow inshore waters and influent rivers (Witte and Winter 1995). Spends most of its life span in lakes, but spawns in flooded grassland beside both permanent and temporary streams. Feeds on detritus and algae (Fermon 1997) and rotifers growing on the bodies of other fishes (Witte and Winter 1995) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).Max. size: 41.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60318	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	During the pre-Nile Perch era the species supported semi-commercial/artisanal fisheries. During 1969/71 surveys catch rates of up to 0.4 kg/haul/hour were observed. In recent surveys the catch rate has slightly increased to 0.7 kg/haul/hour. Increase in the population size was reported by Bayona <em>et al</em>. (2001) and Chande and Mhitu (2001). Common in commercial fish catches in upper and middle Akagera lakes. Wide extent of occurrence but very rarely encountered;	eng
60318	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Fishing with small meshed nets across rivers or river mouths during the spawning migration; predation impact by the Nile perch; silting and destruction of spawning/nursery grounds; competitive displacement by introduced fish species; and loss of marginal vegetation around lakes and rivers due to agriculture extension.	eng
60319	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60319	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the lake Natron basin where it inhabits some southern and southeastern springs and affluents of the southern Lagoon. In addition, it was collected from one of two springs and the adjacent relatively wide stream between the Moinik River and the southwestern lagoon (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
60319	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	IT has been collected in springs and the effluent streams which flow to Lake Natron (Seegers and Tichy 1999). An omnivorous species but is mainly herbivorous living on the bluegreen algae covering the substrate (Seegers and Tichy 1999). It is a maternal mouthbrooder (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
60319	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60319	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60320	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60320	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Athi River system (Seeges <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
60320	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 19.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60320	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60320	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60321	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60321	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).	eng
60321	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	The collection sites were small rivers with fast flowing water and a rock and pebble substrate. The water is soft, cool and rich in oxygen with a pH of about 7.0 to 7.2 (Seegers 1996).	eng
60321	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60321	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60322	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60322	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Probably endemic to the Upper Pangani drainage: N'joro Springs, Lumi River system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60322	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60322	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60322	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60323	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60323	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).	eng
60323	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Collected from a stretch of river with a gravely substrate and fast flowing current. The water temperature was below 20°C, soft, neutral and with a low content of salts (Seegers 1996).	eng
60323	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60323	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60325	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Baringo drainage (possibly endemic).	eng
60326	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60326	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Ruvu and Rufiji Rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
60326	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60326	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60326	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60327	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60327	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Northern Ewaso Nyiro and Tana River systems (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60327	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 5.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60327	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60327	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60328	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60328	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Lower Rufiji drainage (Wildekemp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60328	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Temporary pools and swamps (Wildekemp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60328	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60328	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60329	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
60329	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is occurs in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Records of <em>Neodythemis scalarum</em> from Guinea by Legrand (2003) may pertain to this species (Dijkstra and Vick 2006).	eng
60329	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around small rivers in rainforest.	eng
60329	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
60329	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction is a major threat.	eng
60330	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60330	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Kingani River (Ruvu System), the Rufiji-Great Ruaha Basin (including Kilombero), and the Wami River (De Vos 1995)	eng
60330	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60330	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60330	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60331	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60331	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996). Recorded from the northeastern shore of the lake, the Luika River, above and below the falls. It is probably spread throughout the whole lake (Seegers 1996).	eng
60331	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60331	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60331	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60332	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60332	conservation	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
60332	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Pangani River (Gosse 1986).	eng
60332	distribution	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Tanzania, though is likely to also be found in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Pangani River (Gosse 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia. Also recorded in a second locality, Uebi Shebeli (Somalia).	eng
60332	habitat	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60332	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60332	population	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60332	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60332	threats	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60332	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60333	conservation	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known to be in place. Surveys are required to examine habitat and determine whether this species still exists or not.	eng
60333	distribution	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Known from the River Quwaiq only. This is a very small river.	eng
60333	habitat	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
60333	population	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	No data available on population size or trends. The species is known only from a few specimens.	eng
60333	threats	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Drought is the main threat. Possibly also extraction and pollution.	eng
60334	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60334	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Vardar (Axios) River in the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Potentially it may also be present in the lower reaches of the river in Greece.	eng
60334	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers. Nothing else known, but based on the habits of other species in the genus, it requires turbulent water.	eng
60334	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data. It is only known from a few museum specimens. The last specimen was collected in 1986 but no real efforts have been made to collect it since then.	eng
60334	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Any modification to river morphology may have a potential negative impact.	eng
60335	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60335	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to springs and widyan in the southern Dead Sea area in Jordan and Israel (south of Mujib River to Wadi Fifa).	eng
60335	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This fish inhabits shallow fast and clear waters with stony beds. It is small size fish (<120 mm total length).	eng
60335	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Small population. Almost extinct in Israel. Population in Jordan declining.	eng
60335	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Construction of dams, changes to water courses, water extraction for domestic uses and irrigation for agriculture. Another potential threat is the introduction of invasive alien fish species, such as <em>Oreochromis aureus</em> in Jordan and mosquito fish, <em>Gambusia affinis</em> is probably the cause of its extinction in most sites located in Israel. Pollution is also a problem.	eng
60336	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60336	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the Mbezi River, under the rood bridge to Kibiti, about 40 km south of Dar es Salaam (Seegers 1984).	eng
60336	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Temporary pools (Seegers 1984).	eng
60336	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60336	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60337	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60337	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Louros, Acheron and Arachthos river basins in western Greece. Also known from Kalamas, Corfu, and Butrino Lagoon in southern Albania .	eng
60337	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in slow flowing rivers, marshes, and swamps.	eng
60337	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60337	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water abstraction and pollution.	eng
60338	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60338	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Wami River.	eng
60338	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60338	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60338	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60339	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Lakes that are wholly or partly within National Parks are protected from exploitation of fishery resources. In Lake Manyara, both the southern and eastern portions of the lake, which remain outside the National Park, are over-exploited. The section of the lake within the park might act as a potential seed stock for replenishing the heavily exploited unprotected areas.	eng
60339	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Distributed throughout the waters of Lake Natron (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 855 km²), Lake Manyara (EOO = 413 km²) and Lake Eyas (EOO = 1,160 km²). The total estimated EOO is less than 5,000 km².	eng
60339	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species flourishes well in highly alkaline rift-lakes. Beadle (1981) observed that the species developed tolerance to 30–40 ppt salinity and pH 8–9. The species is distributed in the entire waters of the lakes but information on maturity and mature spawners is not known. These are a small species, hardly growing beyond 9 cm.	eng
60339	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	In Lake Manyara the annual fish catches for all species declined from 1,800 tons in 1970 to about 0.5 tons in 1990 (Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the other rift lakes, a similar rate of decline has been observed.	eng
60339	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Over-exploitation due to use of small meshed nets for fishing, beach-seines in particular and intensive fishing effort; environmental disasters like draught, leading to a decrease in water level; and sedimentation, which is a major problem.	eng
60340	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but more information is needed on the range, biology and threats to this species, and the population trend should continue to be monitored.	eng
60340	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya.	eng
60340	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60340	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No data available.	eng
60340	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60341	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60341	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Lake Kinneret (Tiberias) in Israel.	eng
60341	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This pelagic, lacustrine species is small (less than 250 total length). Its spawning season last six months and peak in winter (January-February). It spawns in the shallow littoral zone on algae-free stones. Breeding success depends on the extent of rise of water level in winter. It is a zooplankton feeder. It is a fishery species.	eng
60341	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A very abundant species.	eng
60341	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No serious threats known at present.	eng
60342	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60342	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Introduced to Lake Chala (Pangani drainage). Probably originates from Lake Bahati, Tanzania.	eng
60342	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60342	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60342	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60343	conservation	Carmona, J. & Elvira, B., 2006	None.	eng
60343	distribution	Carmona, J. & Elvira, B., 2006	Restricted to the Robledillo and Fresnada rivers (both are small tributaries of the Jandula river in the Guadalquivir basin).	eng
60343	habitat	Carmona, J. & Elvira, B., 2006	Inhabits clear waters with sandy to rocky bottoms and prefers slow flowing stretches with abundant macrophyte and riparian cover.	eng
60343	population	Carmona, J. & Elvira, B., 2006	Small and declining. Drastically reduced.	eng
60343	threats	Carmona, J. & Elvira, B., 2006	A dam has been built having serious impacts on the Robledillo river. Two small reservoirs contain introduced fish, which have affected the rivers. Industrial pollution.	eng
60344	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	Glass eel fishing is banned in most northern Africa. In Morocco, glass eel fishing is not banned but, the fishing of glass eels is permitted only to institutions that have made infrastructure rearing. However the price is very high and this stage is still fished (Spain, Morocco and south France).	eng
60344	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The majority of conservation actions historically in place for the European Eel were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels and sustainable income for fishing communities and not to increase recruitment. <br/><br/>However, in 2007 two major multi-lateral bodies recognized the state of the European Eel and have acted upon it.<br/><br/>The European Council (EC) Regulation No 1100/2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eel was published in September 2007. The Regulation required, by 1 July 2009, all member states that contain natural habitats of the European Eel to establish eel management plans at a river basin scale. The objective of these plans was to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences], through various measures including reducing commercial and recreational fisheries, restocking, measures to improve habitats and make rivers passable, transportation of silver eels to the sea and monitor eel status in each basin. The Regulation also requires that by 31 July 2013, 60% of eels less than 12 cm in length caught annually should be reserved for restocking [and not aquaculture], also that over a 5 year period starting from 1 July 2009 catches or fishing effort of eels in coastal and sea waters [i.e. beyond river basin plan] should be reduced by at least 50% [of average between 2004-2006], and that a control and monitoring system be set up by each member state.<br/><br/>The European Eel was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007. The listing came into effect on 13 March 2009, after which time all Parties to the Convention will be required to issue permits for all exports of the species. An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. In the European Union, which includes 24 eel range States, CITES is implemented through Council Regulation 338/97 and Commission Regulation 865/2006 which require both import and export permits to be issued for species listed in Annex B of the Regulation (Annex B contains most CITES Appendix II species). In the case of specimens introduced from the sea, a certificate has to be issued by the Management Authority of the State into which the specimens are being brought, for species listed in Appendix I or II.	eng
60344	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically in place for the eel were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels and sustainable income for fishing communities and not increase recruitment. <br/><br/>In 2007 two major multi-lateral bodies recognised the state of the European eel and acted upon it.<br/><br/>The European Council (EC) Regulation No 1100/2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eel was published in September 2007. This requires, by 1 July 2009, all member states that contain natural habitats of the European Eel to establish eel management plans at a river basin scale. The objective of these plans is to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences], through various measures including reducing commercial and recreational fisheries, restocking, measures to improve habitats and make rivers passable, transportation of silver eels to the sea and monitor eel status in each basin. The regulations also require that by 31 July 2013 60% of eels less than 12cm in length caught annually should be reserved for restocking [and not aquaculture etc], over a 5 year period starting from 1 July 2009 catches or fishing effort of eels in coastal and sea waters [i.e. beyond river basin plan] should be reduced by at least 50% [of average between 2004-2006], and a control and monitoring system be set up by each member state.<br/><br/>The European Eel was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007. The listing will come into effect on 13 March 2009, after which time all Parties to the Convention will be required to issue permits for all exports of the species. An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. In the European Union, which includes 24 eel range States, CITES is implemented through Council Regulation 338/97 and Commission Regulation 865/2006 which require both import and export permits to be issued for species listed in Annex B of the Regulation (Annex B contains most CITES Appendix II species). In the case of specimens introduced from the sea, a certificate has to be issued by the Management Authority of the State into which the specimens are being brought, for species listed in Appendix I or II.	eng
60344	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	All European rivers draining to Mediterranean, North and Baltic Seas, in the Atlantic south to Canary Islands and parts of Mediterranean Northern Africa and Asia. Very rarely entering White and Barents Seas, recorded eastward to Pechora. Low abundance in Black Sea (migrating east to Kuban drainage), northern Scandinavia and eastern Europe, though trap-and-transport stocking has interfered. Occasional individuals reach Volga drainage through canals. Stocked in most inland waters (in addition to natural recruitement). Large parts of the population remain at sea (northwestern Atlantic and Mediterranean).	eng
60344	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Anguilla anguilla</em> is present in Morocco (especially Oum Er-Biâ, Sebou, Loukkos and Moulouya Rivers, Merja Zerga lagoon), Algeria, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Tunisia and Egypt (along the River Nile especially the Delta region and coastal lagoons).<br/><br/>At global level, it is present at the Atlantic coasts of Europe; northwards to British coasts, Ireland and Norway, and also entering in the Mediterranean and Black seas and Sea of Azov; southwards to Canaries Islands and African coast at about 25°N.	eng
60344	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<p><em>Anguilla anguilla</em> is found in all European rivers draining to the Mediterranean, North and Baltic seas, in the Atlantic south to Canary Islands and parts of Mediterranean north Africa and Asia. It very rarely enters the White and Barents seas, but is recorded eastward to the Pechora River in northwest Russia. The species occurs in low abundance in the Black Sea where it migrates east to the Kuban drainage (occasional individuals reach the Volga drainage through canals), in northern Scandinavia and eastern Europe, but 'trap-and-transport' stocking is interfering with natural population numbers (W. Dekker pers. comm. 2007). Large parts of the population remain at sea particularly in the north western Atlantic and Mediterranean. It is also widely stocked in most inland waters of Europe.&#160;</p><p>The species is thought to breed in the Sargasso Sea in the West Central Atlantic, migrating across the Atlantic from Europe.</p>	eng
60344	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Females of this catadromous species deposit eggs in Sargasso Sea. The larvae migrate into rivers Sebou, Loukkos, Mpilpita and Nile, and mature silver eels begin downstream spawning migration usually from late springs to winter and mainly in dark, moonless stormy nights. At this stage eyes become enlarged, and the snout becomes narrower and more pointed. It feeds on crustaceans (decapods, amphipods), insect larvae and fish. It ceases feeding on spawning migration. In relation to its size, it reaches to over 58 cm (females) and 38 cm (males); silver or yellowish white a white belly.	eng
60344	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Habitat: <br/>All types of benthic habitats from small streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. Naturally only in water bodies connected to sea, stocked elsewhere. Assumed to spawn only in Sargasso Sea, in western subtropical Atlantic (about 26°N 60°W). Spawning area is elliptic, about 2,000 km wide. <br/><br/>Biology: <br/>Catadromous. Spawning peaks at beginning of March, continuing until July. No concrete data about spawning sites. Adults probably die after spawning. The mechanisms by which leptocephali reach European coasts are not well understood. Leptocephali reach the continental slope at about 70 mm and metamorphose into glass-eels (almost adult appearance, but transparent body), which enter estuaries. Glass-eels are observed in autumn on Portuguese coasts, in winter in North Sea and in spring. The generation length of the species ranges from 2 to 50 years, with a typical mean of 20 (Dekker pers comm.). Females are twice the size and age of males).	eng
60344	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Habitat: </span><br/>The species is found in all types of benthic habitats from small streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. Naturally it only occurs in water bodies that are connected to the sea; it is stocked elsewhere. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Biology: </span><br/>The species is catadromous, living in fresh water but migrating to marine waters to breed. While its life in freshwaters are well understood, relatively little is known about its life history at sea. The spawning peaks at the beginning of March continuing until July, and the adults probably die after spawning. There are no concrete data about specific spawning, however, it is assumed that spawning takes place only in an elliptic zone, about 2,000  km wide in the Sargasso Sea, in the West Central  Atlantic (about 26°N 60°W). The mechanisms by which leptocephali reach the European coasts are not also well understood. By the time the leptocephali reach the continental slope they are about 70 mm in size and metamorphose into glass-eels which are almost adult in appearance, but have a transparent body, and enter estuaries. These glass-eels are observed in the autumn on Portuguese coasts, and in winter and spring in the North Sea. The generation length of the species varies greatly and ranges from 2 to 50 years, and having a typical mean of 20 years with females being twice the size and age of males (W. Dekker pers. comm. 2007).	eng
60344	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Glass eels</span>:<br/>Since the early 1980s, a steady and almost continent wide decline of 90% has been observed in the recruitment of glass (juvenile) eels (Dekker 2003). According to an ICES and FAO report (2006) European Eel recruitment levels reached an historical low in 2001 of 1 to 2% of the pre-1980 level, this has not improved and is an indication that the reproduction is seriously impaired and that the stock is severely depleted. In recent years, no substantial recovery in recruitment has been observed (Dekker 2007). This recent decline in recruitment will translate into a future decline in adult stock, at least for the coming two decades (ICES 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Yellow/silver eels</span>:<br/>Even though there is no analytical assessment of the state of the [continental] European Eel stock, all available information indicates that the stock is at an historical minimum in most of the distribution area and continues to decline (ICES and FAO 2006). Unfortunately, a total continental stock assessment cannot be made as it is hard to monitor, being scattered over millions of rivers, lakes, estuaries, etc. (Dekker 2000). However, even though catch effort can be variable and under reporting of landings is a serious problem in most European countries, trends in the reported catch data will to some extent reflect true changes in fishing yields. According to FAO global capture statistics (exploited at all stages of their freshwater life), capture peaked in 1968 with 20,278 tonnes, in 1975 this had dropped to 16,110 tonnes, in 1985 it was 12,665 tonnes, 1995 8,706 tonnes and the most recent available figure in 2005 was 5,059 tonnes a decline of 76% since the peak in 1968. This is supported by the possibly only long-term scientific data [from Lake Ijsselmeer in the Netherlands] where there has been a gradual decline since 1960 (Dekker 2004a). However, there is also evidence that in Norway catches seem to be stable over this period (ICES 2002).&#160;<br/><br/>The overall population is continuing to decline as the older eels disappear from the stock and recruitment rate is so low and declining. Noting the longevity of the species, and the extremely depleted state, restoration of the stock is expected to take several generations from 60 to 200 years depending on the protection level (Astrom and Dekker 2007). Temporary increases (over 10-15 years) in abundance following the implementation of protective measures thus do not guarantee ultimate recovery, if not severely protecting the stock (W. Dekker pers. comm.).	eng
60344	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Glass eels</span>:<br/>Since the early 1980's, a steady and almost continent wide decline of 90% has been observed in the recruitment of glass (juvenile) eels (Dekker 2003), and according to ICES and FAO (2006) recruitment reached an historical low in 2001 of 1 to 2% of the pre-1980 level, it has not improved since and is an indication that the reproduction is seriously impaired and that the stock is severely depleted. In most recent years, no substantial recovery in recruitment has been observed (Dekker 2007). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Yellow/silver eels</span>:<br/>ICES and FAO (2006) states that even though there is no analytical assessment of the state of [continental] European eel stock, all available information indicates that the stock is at a historical minimum in most of the distribution area and continues to decline. A total continental stock assessment cannot be made as it is harder to monitor, being scattered over millions of rivers, lakes, estuaries, etc. (Dekker 2000). However, even though catch effort can be variable and underreporting of landings is a serious problem in most European countries, trends in the reported catch data will to some extent reflect true changes in fishing yields. According to FAO global capture statistics (exploited at all stages of their freshwater life), capture peaked in 1968 with 20,278 tonnes, in 1975 this had dropped to 16,110 tonnes, in 1985 it was 12,665 tonnes, 1995 8,706 tonnes and the most recent available figure in 2005 was 5,059 tonnes a decline of 76% since the peak in 1968. This is supported by the possibly only long-term scientific data [from Lake Ijsselmeer in the Netherlands] where there has been a gradual decline since 1960 (Dekker 2004a). All European catches have decreased, possibly because the eel fishery was developed over this period. In Norway the catches seem to be stable. (ICES 2002). <br/><br/>As the recruitment rate is so low and declining the population is continuing to decline as older eels dissapear from the stock.	eng
60344	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	Total northern African catches have declined by an estimated 10% to 25% per year since 1980, but recruitment has declined by an estimated 50% in the past 10 years (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.). The decline in northern Africa is probably less than in Europe.<br/><br/><em>Anguilla anguilla</em> has an estimated generation length of 15 years. Figures for a decline over the past 45 years (3 generations) are not available. Catches have decreased severely from just before 1980. Even though recorded catches increased between the 1960s and 1970s, this is a reflection on increased effort and technology and not on real population increase.<br/><br/>For example, Egypt catches for eel in 1996 were 193 tonnes and in 2004 this had declined to about 80 tonnes (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.)	eng
60344	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Over-exploitation  of glass eels and pollution of estuaries have contributed to the decline, Hydraulic managements (construction of dams, embankment, pumping and derivation of rivers, extraction of gravel), Groundwater extraction, Drought, Pollution (domestic), apparition in the continental waters of Morocco, since 1990, of the hematophagy parasite, <em>Anguillicola crassus</em>: The infestation rates varied from 12.79% to 83% and showed seasonal variations (Chetto <em>et al</em>. 2001; El-Hilali <em>et al</em>. 2004-2005).<br/><br/>The main threats to this species are dams, water management (canalisation), pollution, water abstraction and drought. Overfishing of glass eels started in the 1960s and 1970s, but the impacts of the threats weren't reflected in recruitment until the 1980s. Overfishing occurs on glass eels in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean (Spanish) and also in the south of France. Overfishing also occurs on silver eels in deltas, estuaries and lagoons within northern Africa (live eels are often exported to Japan and Europe).	eng
60344	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The causes of the declining recruitment rates are still unclear (Dekker 2007), but there are many hypotheses:<br/><br/>The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may have reduced larval survival and/or growth rate (Castonguay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). However, Dekker (2004b) shows that the NAO index correlation is strong for growth rate but weak for glass eel numbers as in 2000 the NAO index returned to normal but recruitment still declined.<br/><br/>Overfishing for glass eels (mainly in France, Spain, Portugal and UK) and downstream migrating eels (silver eels) across Europe (W. Dekker pers. comm.) is also a threat to the species. The demand from Asia and Europe for glass eels is huge and the price is increasing (750 Euro per kilo in 2006 from around 100 Euro in 1990.). According to ICES (2006) <em>Anguilla anguilla</em> fisheries are currently not sustainable, and a recovery plan urgently needs to be developed for the whole stock. <br/><br/>There is also a parasite nematode <em>(Anguillicola crassus</em>), from introduced eels from Japan which is suspected to impact the ability of the European Eels to reach their spawning grounds. <br/><br/>Dams (for hydropower and water management) are also a threat to the species by blocking migration routes and also through causing high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by turbines. <br/><br/>Climate change may be having an impact on the suspected breeding grounds (Sargasso Sea). <br/><br/>Increasing numbers of predators, in particular cormorants, across Europe may also have a negative impact on this species.	eng
60344	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The causes of the declining recruitment rates are still unclear (Dekker 2007). There are many hypotheses:<br/><br/>The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may have reduced larval survival and/or growth rate (Castonguay et al. 1994). However, Dekker (2004b) shows that the NAO index correlation is strong for growth rate but weak for glass eel numbers (in 2000 the NAO index returned to normal but recruitment still declined).<br/><br/>Overfishing for glass eels (mainly in France, Spain, Portugal and UK) and downstream migrating eels (silver eels) across Europe (Dekker pers comm.). The demand from Asia and Europe for glass eels is huge and the price is increasing (750 Euro per kilo 2006 from around 100 Euro in 1990.). According the ICES stock advice for <em>Anguilla anguilla</em> (2005) the current fishery is not sustainable, and recommend that a recovery plan be developed for the whole stock on an urgent basis. <br/><br/>Also there is an introduced parasite (nematode <em>Anguillicola crassus</em>) species, from introduced eels from Japan which is suspected to impact the ability of the eels to reach the spawning grounds. <br/><br/>Dam construction (for hydropower and water management) is also a threat, blocking migration routes but also causes high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by the turbines. <br/><br/>Climate change may have an impact upon the breeding grounds (Sargasso Sea). <br/><br/>Also the increasing number of predators in particular cormorants across Europe may have an impact.	eng
60345	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60345	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.), the Middle and lower Akagera, Kyoga and smaller associated Lakes. Also in Lake Nabugabo and the Victoria Nile (Greenwood 1966). Originally abundant in or near water-lily swamps of Lake Kyoga (Greenwood 1966). Also in Lake Tanganyika (Gosse 1984) and the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
60345	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters over both sandy and rocky habitats and appearing seasonally over muddy bottoms adjacent to extensive Papyrus swamps. Also found in deep water near rocky islands. Feeds on large libellulid nymphs and other large prey (Okedi 1971) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Originally common in shallow inshore waters over both sand and rock (Lake Victoria), and in or near water lilies (Lake Kyoga), before introduction of Nile perch and Nile tilapia became fully established in the two lakes. Now rarely encountered. Max. size: 36.0 cm SL.	eng
60345	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but common in fisheries catches in middle Akagera. Large extent of occurrence but rarely encountered. Nowhere considered common (Greenwood 1966).	eng
60345	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Competitive displacement by introduced fishes. The species has become rare since the introduction of <em>Lates niloticus</em>.	eng
60346	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60346	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the Mbezi River under the bridge of the road to Kibiti, about 40 km south of Dar es Salaam (Seegers 1986).	eng
60346	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Collected at the edge of rice fields and in the Mbezi River (Seegers 1986).	eng
60346	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60346	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60347	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60347	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Arrago river basin within the Tagus river basin in western Spain.	eng
60347	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60347	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60347	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, drought. Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60348	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60348	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Upper Ruvu, Mpiji and lower Rufiji drainage, Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60348	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Probably temporary pools (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60348	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60348	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Its restricted distribution makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60349	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60349	conservation	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60349	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is widely distributed in Lakes Tanganyika and Basuto (Kenya, Uganda), Rwanda, Lake Victoria and its tributaries and Semliki River (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Records have been made from the Muwe River, terr. de Kasongo (Lualaba system) and from the Luila and Kiilwe Rivers (Lukuga basin).	eng
60349	distribution	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is known from DRC to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is widely distributed in Lakes Tanganyika and Basuto (Kenya, Uganda), Lake Victoria and its tributaries and Semliki River (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Widely distributed in Kenya and Tanzania. Recorded from the Northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro drainge, Athi and Tana River systems, Lake Victoria basin Lake Turkana system. Also recorded from affluents of Lake Bogoria drainage (Mann, 1971) (see Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished), the Rusizi system, Lakes Bulera and Luhondo (This species is known from upper Akagera drainage), Lakes Albert and Edward and affluent streams, affluents streams of the Semliki River. Recorded from the affluent streams and rivers to lakes Tanganyika and Kivu.	eng
60349	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds principally on insect larvae and aquatic plants.	eng
60349	habitat	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Barbus neumayeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds principally on insect larvae and aquatic plants. It is found in permanent and seasonal fast flowing streams (Greenwood 1966), and probably also occurs in shallow zones of the lakes.	eng
60349	population	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60349	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60349	threats	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	No major threats are known, though water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could cause localised problems.	eng
60349	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60350	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60350	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.); Lakes Nabugabo and Kyoga; the Kiruni River (Semuliki valley); upper and middle Akagera. Malagarasi drainage.	eng
60350	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Favours shallow soft bottom habitats near fringing vegetation such as papyrus and <em>Vossia</em> (Okedi 1971). Feeds on insects, particularly chironomid larvae, caridina and caenid larvae (Okedi 1971). A male/female ratio of 1:10.5 has been noted in this species (Okedi 1969). Max. size: 10.0 cm SL.	eng
60350	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Rarely encountered but may be locally very abundant.	eng
60350	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Introduced fish species have possibly contributed to the decline of the species; loss of <em>Papyrus</em> swamps and other vegetated wetlands around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension.	eng
60351	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60351	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus urostigma</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika effluents and Lualaba River system.	eng
60351	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species, known from stream and riverine habitats.	eng
60351	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60351	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No major threats are known, however water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could be threatening localised populations.	eng
60352	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60352	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Known only from a few small affluents of the Luiche River (western tanzania) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60352	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in small and moderately swift running waters (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Intestines of a few specimens contained mud and plant debris suggesting a benthic feeding habit (De Vos and Seegers 1998). It is a mouthbrooder (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60352	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60352	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60353	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60353	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60353	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	7.1 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60353	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown	eng
60353	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown	eng
60354	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60354	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Orontes and Nahr al-Kabir river basins in Turkey and Syria. In the systems of Orontes including Amik Golu and its tributary Karasu and Quwaiq. Krupp (1985) reported this species also from coastal rivers in Northern Syria and the Upper Ceyhan at Elbistan in Turkey (Bogutskaya 1997).	eng
60354	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60354	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60354	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60355	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60355	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Malagarasi River, Rusizi basin, Upper and middle Akagera. Also found in Ruwenzori streams (Nile basin).	eng
60355	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Restricted to mountain stream ecosystems. Inhabits the headwaters of rivers at high altitudes (Eccles 1992).	eng
60355	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but rare.	eng
60355	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	1. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60356	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60356	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species occurs in the lower reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline. It is known from the Lower Sabaki-Galana, but it is also found in Madagascar.	eng
60356	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This fish occurs in shallow coastal waters entering the brackish to freshwater regions of rivers (Nakabo 2002). Spawning takes place in larger aggregations at sea (Nakabo 2002). It feeds on small algae, diatoms, benthic polychaets, crustaceans, molluscs, organic matter and detritus (Nakabo 2002).	eng
60356	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60356	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
60357	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None known.	eng
60357	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.) and its affluent rivers, including the Akagera (up to middle Akagera), Lake Kyoga and associated rivers, and the Victoria Nile system.	eng
60357	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in shallow coastal waters over sand/plant habitats. Originally common in areas overgrown with water lilies in Lake Kyoga. Feeds on a wide range of prey, including the larvae of <em>Chaoborus</em>, and chironomid larvae (Okedi 1971). Max. size: 25.0 cm SL.	eng
60357	population	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but fairly common (Greenwood 1966).	eng
60357	threats	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Minor commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003) (see also Mahy 1977); regression of wetlands due to agriculture extension; and competitive displacement by introduced species.	eng
60358	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60358	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the Kenyan part of Lake Victoria (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60358	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Apparently confined to streams and rivers. There are probably two breeding seasons coinciding with the rains, as ripe females have been recorded during December, January and February and again in April and May. Spent fishes were caught at the Luambwa fishing barrier in February. The presence of small juveniles in the floodwater pools of the middle and lower reaches, and also in shallow pools in lake-side streams, suggests that these are the spawning grounds (Whitehead 1960) (see Greenwood 1966). Maz Size: 5.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60358	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60358	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60359	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60359	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and possible threats.	eng
60359	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60359	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Clarotes laticeps</em> is a wide ranging species with a distribution spreading form Senegal to Somalia, and throughout the Nile basin and as far south as Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is known in Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Dawa River (Juba system) and Tsavo drainage, Lower Tana. Maybe more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Its type locality is near Cairo, but it is now only found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba, Somalia, and the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and the Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from all Nilo-Sudanese basins (Chad, Benue, Niger, Senegal, Volta).	eng
60359	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, its type locality is near Cairo, and it is now only found in Lake Nasser in Egypt (outside the region). <br/><br/>At global level, it is present in the White and Blue Niles, Niger, Senegal, Lake Chad, Tanzania, Kenya, East Africa: tama River, Tsavo River, Ghana: Lake Volta (Bishai and Khalil, 1997).	eng
60359	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from all Nilo-Sudanese basins (Chad, Benue, Niger, Senegal, Volta). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile River basin.	eng
60359	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Found in shallow water. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, insects and plant material. Spawning season extends from April to November. Its maximum length is 80 cm.	eng
60359	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	It inhabits shallow water of rivers and lakes (Risch in Daget <em>et al.</em> 1986) where it feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, plant material and fish (Bailey1994). Spawning season extends from April to November.	eng
60359	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish that inhabits rivers. Feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs and fish.	eng
60359	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
60359	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60359	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
60359	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
60359	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
60359	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the specieas are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
60360	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60360	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60360	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Inhabits shallow waters or sandy banks (Copley 1958) and marginal water-lily swamps (Greenwood 1962). During the biannual floods specimens are found some distance up lakeside streams. This migration may be connected with breeding (Greenwood 1962).	eng
60360	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Nowhere common (Greenwood 1962).	eng
60360	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60361	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60361	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Upper Great Ruaha drainage on the southern Usangu flats (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60361	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits swamps, pools and small streams (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60361	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60361	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60362	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60362	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin in Syria and Turkey.	eng
60362	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
60362	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60362	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60363	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60363	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Tana River drainage (Middle and Lower courses) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60363	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	No information.	eng
60363	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60363	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60364	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60364	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Oum Er Rbia river in Morocco. Specimens have been found in this river in surveys over the last 10 years (Doadrio, I. pers com).	eng
60364	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60364	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60364	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Agricultural pollution is affecting the species in the lower reaches of the river (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).	eng
60365	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., Twongo, T.K. & Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60365	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., Twongo, T.K. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004) where it is restricted to bays associated with rivers (e.g., Rubafu/Kagera; Mori bay/river; and Mara bay/river). Also found in Lake Katwe, a satellite lake in Lake Victoria basin, the middle and lower Akagera, Lake Kyoga, Lake Nabugabo and associated smaller lakes. Present in the Victoria Nile.	eng
60365	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., Twongo, T.K. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Found in shallow inshore waters near river mouths on both soft and rocky bottoms, in or near marginal plants. Originally abundant near water lily swamps in Lake Kyoga. Feeds on aquatic insect larvae (especially Chironomidae, Polymitrarcidae and Odonata), crustaceans, gastropods, fish eggs and detritus (Okedi 1971).	eng
60365	population	Bayona, J.D.R., Twongo, T.K. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Information on relative abundance is scanty. It has a large extent of occurrence but the population size in lakes has been reduced by competition from introduced fish species (Ogutu-Ohwayo 1990, Ogutu-Ohwayo 1995, Twongo, pers. comm.). It is common in fisheries catches in Akagera associated lakes.	eng
60365	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., Twongo, T.K. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Domestic pollution; illegal fishing methods; fisheries pressure; loss of wetland habitats due to agricultural expansion; and competitive displacement by introduced species.	eng
60366	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60366	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Kalambo River drainage.	eng
60366	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Collected in swift waterflows over rocks and boulders (Seegers 1996). Probably omnivorous (Seegers 1996).	eng
60366	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60366	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60367	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60367	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
60367	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives at depths of 60 to 80 m within the lake. Spawning season is in January-February and spawns in tributaries around the lakes.	eng
60367	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Rare.	eng
60367	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Destruction of spawning areas, water pollution, overfishing.	eng
60368	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60368	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Floodplains of the Ruvu and Rufiji Rivers, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60368	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Small pools and swamps in the floodplains, living near the water surface (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60368	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60368	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60369	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60369	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the upper Rufugu river system (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60369	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Collected among vegetation, roots and wood at the edge of a small brook with a relatively gentle waterflow crossing a woodland area (De Vos and Seegers 1998). No data were obtained on diet or reproduction (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60369	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60369	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60370	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60370	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Morocco, however its distribution is unknown.	eng
60370	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60370	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
60370	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60371	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60371	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Mukungwa River (upper Akagera, Rwanda)	eng
60371	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fast-flowing rivers. Feeds on varied food items including invertebrates and plant debris.	eng
60371	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Thought to be declining.	eng
60371	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension	eng
60372	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60372	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available. Research should be conducted into population trends, and habitat maintenance in localised areas may be required.	eng
60372	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus oligogrammus</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika and effluents, the Ruzizi, the Lualaba and the Lukuga system.	eng
60372	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is distributed in Lake Tanganyika and surrounding rivers, in Tanzania, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus oligogrammus</em> is known from Lake Tanganyika and affluents, the Ruzizi, the Lualaba and the Lukuga system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, incuding the Malagarasi river and Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996). Its distribution also includes Burundi.	eng
60372	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
60372	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species found in fast-flowing streams and rivers habitats. In the Lake Rukwa drainage it seems to prefer the smaller rivers and creeks with clear flowing water (Seegers 1996). It feeds on invertebrates, mostly insects.	eng
60372	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60372	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available.	eng
60372	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60372	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information on major threats is known. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension may cause localised problems in eastern Africa.	eng
60373	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60373	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake Rukwa Drainage and Kalambo River (Seegers 1996).	eng
60373	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Prefers or is confined to the cooler waters of 15°C or lower. Not present in Lake Rukwa itself (Seegers 1996).	eng
60373	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60373	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60374	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60374	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	<em>B. samantica</em> is found only in the Zamanti Stream of the Seyhan River, Turkey.	eng
60374	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species.	eng
60374	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.	eng
60374	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (Canli <em>et al</em>. 1998), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.	eng
60375	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
60375	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Guadalquivir river basin in Spain. It includes the river Guadalquivir and tributaries Rumblar and Jandula.	eng
60375	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in mountainous and middle reaches of rivers with moderate flow and abundant submerged plants.	eng
60375	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It has not been collected by surveys in the past ten years.	eng
60375	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water pollution and introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60376	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60376	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., Jim Cambray, 2006	The species is protected in several reserves over its wide distribution range.	eng
60376	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	The species is protected in several reserves over its wide distribution range. More research is required into this species taxonomy, biology and ecology, and population trends.	eng
60376	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The distribution of <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> ranges from Ethiopia in the north, through eastern and Central Africa, extending westwards into Angola and reaching the southern-most limits of its distribution in Natal.	eng
60376	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	The distribution of <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> ranges from Ethiopia in the north, through East and Central Africa, extending westwards into Angola and reaching the southern-most limits of its distribution in Natal.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the headwaters of the Lualaba and Sankuru Rivers in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Victoria basin, Athi and Tana River systems, northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro basins, This species is known from upper Pangani system, Amboseli swamps, Lake Naivasha and affluents (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also reported from the affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi River, and the Middle Akagera system. Widespread in Lake Malawi and its affluents, the Shire River and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Awash basin and rift lakes, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Widespread in east coastal rivers from East Africa south to KwaZulu-Natal and from southern Congo tributaries and the Quanza in Angola to the Orange (Skelton 2001).	eng
60376	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., Jim Cambray, 2006	This species is widespread in east coastal rivers from East Africa south to KwaZulu-Natal and from southern Congo tributaries and the Quanza in Angola to the Orange (Skelton 2001).	eng
60376	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occupies a wide range of habitats, including large rivers, both vegetated and rocky, lagoons both connected to and isolated from main river channels, and small and large streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), and impoundments both large and small. The species does not occur in the more densely-vegetated swamps, preferring larger open pools and pools with relatively high plant diversity. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> feeds on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, small snails and crustaceans, algae, diatoms, and detritus. It is preyed upon by the sharptooth catfish, tigerfish, largemouth breams (<em>Serranochromis</em> species) and birds. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> spawns amongst vegetation during summer (Skelton 1993). Spawning takes place up the influent rivers during the rainy season (January-February). Migration appears to correspond to periods of heavy rainfall or flushing. They are multiple spawners laying from 250 to 2,500 eggs.	eng
60376	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers quiet, well-vegetated waters in lakes, swamps, and marshes or marginal areas of larger rivers and slow-flowing streams. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> feeds on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, small snails and crustaceans, algae, diatoms, and detritus. It is preyed upon by the sharptooth catfish, tigerfish, largemouth breams (<em>Serranochromis</em> species) and birds. <em>Barbus paludinosus</em> spawns amongst vegetation during summer (Skelton 1993).	eng
60376	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., Jim Cambray, 2006	Occupies a wide range of habitats, including large rivers, both vegetated and rocky, lagoons both connected to and isolated from main river channels, and small and large streams (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004), and impoundments both large and small. The species does not occur in the more densely-vegetated swamps, preferring larger open pools and pools with relatively high plant diversity. A hardy species, feeding on a wide variety of small organisms including insects, snails, crustaceans, algae, diatoms and detritus (Skelton 2001). Spawns amongst vegetation in summer. Multiple spawners laying from 250 to 2,500 eggs.	eng
60376	population	Moelants, T., 2009	It is assumed that this taxon has multiple spawning per year.	eng
60376	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	The species is abundant and widespread.	eng
60376	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., Jim Cambray, 2006	The species is abundant and widespread.	eng
60376	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is commercially used for food.	eng
60376	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paludinosus</em> is commercially used for food. In eastern Africa it is also threatened by fishing across rivers and in lakes using under-sized nets and illegal fishing methods, siltation of the spawning substrate and pollution.	eng
60376	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., Jim Cambray, 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
60377	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60377	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Migori River (endemic to Lake Victoria drainage).	eng
60377	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Migori River.	eng
60377	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60377	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60378	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
60378	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Ohrid Lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and to Skadar lake basin in Montenegro.	eng
60378	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a lacustrine species.	eng
60378	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60378	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60379	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60379	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake Kibiti in the Luhute River drainage and the Mbezi River system (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60379	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Bodies of water with dense bordering vegetation (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60379	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60379	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences make the species more vulnerable to habitat degradation.	eng
60380	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60380	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Victoria drainage. Goudswaard and Witte (1997) report that this species may have become extinct due to predation by Nile perch and other recent ecological impacts.	eng
60380	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits deeper water, 12–20 m (Eccles 1992). Max. size: 200 mm SL (Teugels in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60380	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Possibly extinct.	eng
60380	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Intense predation by the Nile Perch (<em>Lates niloticus</em>); increased eutrophication of the lake; and possibly Over-fishing.	eng
60381	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60381	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Malagarasi River, Tanzania (Taverne and De Vos 1997).	eng
60381	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in well-aerated open flowing water where it feeds on planktonic crustacea and surface insects.	eng
60381	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown, but it is rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60381	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Sedimentation due to agricultural extension.	eng
60382	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60382	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Ruvu River drainage, Mgeta River and pools near Kwaraza, Tanzania (Wildekamp, Watters and Sainthouse 1998).	eng
60382	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Seasonal pools (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
60382	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60382	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	A restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
60383	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60383	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60383	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Confined to deeper waters below 10 m. Feeds chiefly on benthic invertebrates including ostracods, caradina, naucorids, chironomid larvae and gastropods. Matures at about 3 cm FL and spawns within the lake (Hopson 1982).	eng
60383	population	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	No estimates available.	eng
60383	threats	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Little information but not fished commercially.	eng
60384	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive.	eng
60384	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to western Greece from the Peloponnese (Pinios River) to Epirus.	eng
60384	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Found in streams and is pretty ubiquitous throughout its habitat.	eng
60384	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
60384	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution.	eng
60385	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60385	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60385	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60385	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
60385	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is moderately common in whole River Nile in Egypt From Nile Delta to Lake Nasser.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Lake Nubia, Senegal, Congo, Lake Victoria, eastern rivers, inland drainage, water of Tanzania, Chad basin, Congo and Zambia.	eng
60385	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is known from the Cross, Wouri and Sanaga basins. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile,and Zambezi system, Lake Albert and the Semliki River, and from throughout western Africa in the Tchad, Senegal, Corubal, Geba, Scarcies Great, Mano, Loffa, Moa, St. Paul, Volta, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Niger Rivers.	eng
60385	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe mystus </span>is largely widespread in Africa found in the Chad, of Senegal, of Corubal, Geba, Great Scarcies, the mano, Loffa, Moa, the St-Paul, of Volta, of Mono, of Ouémé, Ogun, of Niger, and Cross-country race (Paugy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Africa: including the Nile and the Zambesi River system.	eng
60385	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a widespread species, from Senegal to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is known from the Cross Wouri and Sanaga basins. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Semliki River, Lake Albert and Albert Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is moderately common in whole River Nile in Egypt From Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia, as well as Lake Roseires on the Blue Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Senegal, Corubal, Geba, Great Scarcies, the mano, Loffa, Moa, the St-Paul, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, and Cross-country race (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60385	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal, potamodromous species. Occasionally in sandy streams, occasionally on rocky streams, common in standing deep water, abundant in shallow swamps, and occasionally in shallow flood plains. Essentially a carnivore and very voracious, feeding on other fish and invertebrates. Reproduces during the period of high waters. Species adapts to running and stagnant waters.	eng
60385	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It shoals in standing or slowly flowing open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It feeds from mid-water and surface waters on a wide variety of foods including fish, insects, shrimps, snails, plant seeds, and fruit. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). <em>Schilbe mystus</em> breeds during the rainy season and may be either a single or multiple spawner in different localities, laying eggs on vegetation.  May live up to 6-7 years (Skelton 1993). Its preferred habitats are streams, lakes and mangroves,	eng
60385	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It shoals in standing or slowly flowing open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. Occasionally in sandy streams, occasionally on rocky streams, common in standing deep water, abundant in shallow swamps, and occasionally in shallow flood plains. The species adapts to running and stagnant waters. <em>Schilbe mystus</em> is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It feeds from mid-water and surface waters on a wide variety of foods including fish, insects, shrimps, snails, plant seeds, and fruit. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966). <em>Schilbe mystus</em> migrates into the tributaries of rivers and streams during the rainy season to breed and may be either a single or multiple spawner in different localities, laying eggs on vegetation. Spawning occurs during September and October. May live up to 6-7 years (Skelton 1993).	eng
60385	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Found mainly is shallow inshore waters. It feeds on diatoms, arthropods, insects and small fish including bottom-living and planktonic organisms. Mature gonads are seen in summer. Male and females reach maturity at the length of 14 and 16.5 cm respectively. Spawning occurs during September and October. It is generally more active at night or in subdued light. It lives for 6 to 7 years, and grows to a length of 34 cm.	eng
60385	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
60385	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60385	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60385	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60385	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is an important food fish. It is also used as an aquarium fish.	eng
60385	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe mystus</em> is an important food fish. It is also used as an aquarium fish. In eastern Africa in particular there is potential decline through overfishing and exploitation. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
60385	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing and exploitation	eng
60385	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
60386	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60386	conservation	Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
60386	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is known from shore regions of lake Edward and inflowing rivers, from the Semliki River above the Semliki falls and from the upper Ituri River system at its closest point to the Semliki River, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.	eng
60386	distribution	Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is known from shore regions of Lake Edward and inflowing rivers, from the Semliki River above the Semliki falls and from the upper Ituri River system at its closest point to the Semliki River.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in rivers flowing into Lakes Edward and George.	eng
60386	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in the shore regions of lakes and inflowing rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
60386	habitat	Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax modestus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in the shore regions of lakes and inflowing rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
60386	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60386	population	Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60386	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60386	threats	Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60387	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60387	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60387	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Rocky zones in coastal waters. Nothing is known about their predatory behaviour or cycle of activity. Poll (1953) mentioned the rocky shores of the Lake up to a depth of 10 m as the habitat of <em>M. albomaculatus</em>. Subsequent authors suggest the following as suitable habitats: rocky shores (Brichard 1978) of the inshore waters (Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992) gravels, rubbles, boulders and rock (larger than 1 m diameter) (Kuwamura and Hori 1985); inshore rocky bottom or rock and sand intermingled or transitional (Kuwamura 1987). <em>Mastacembelus albomaculatus</em> was recorded from 5?15 m depth by Kuwamura and Hori (1985) and Kuwamura (1987).	eng
60387	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	According to Poll (1953) <em>M. albomaculatus</em> is quite common. Brichard (1978) on the contrary reported it as rare at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia). Brichard (1989) also referred to <em>M. albomaculatus</em> as rare in general. However, according to Kuwamura (1987) it is a common species at Myako (Tanzania).	eng
60387	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60388	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60388	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>Mastacembelus cunningtoni</em> is especially plentiful around the Rusizi river delta.	eng
60388	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Inhabits the littoral zones in lake Tanganyika with rocky, sandy or muddy substrates. Diet: omnivorous, the diet includes insects, molluscs and fish. Spawning has not been observed, but it is thought to spawn in rivers. Reproduction seems to involve large congregations of adults. Pearce (1985b) reports huge spawning schools of <em>Mastacembelus cunningtoni</em> in a deep rocky area of the southeast arm of the lake. This species is caught at greater depth than other mastacembelids (Coulter 1991). Poll (1953) collected specimens from 6 to 100 m depth, nevertheless most of them were collected above 20 m depth and on muddy bottoms. Coulter (1966) collected specimens from 20 to 119 m depth and Lowe-Mc Connell (1975) mentioned the presence of <em>M. cunningtoni</em> down to 50 m. Although found in inshore habitats it is most abundant offshore (Coulter 1991). A typical sand-dweller (Brichard 1989) it is also reported as a benthic species sometimes encountered in swamp habitats (Phiri 1993).	eng
60388	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	A common species (Poll 1953), especially plentiful around the Ruzizi delta (Brichard 1989).	eng
60388	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60389	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60389	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60389	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Inhabits coastal waters (Poll 1953, Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992) over sandy, rocky (Brichard 1978) or muddy habitats (Travers <em>et al</em>. 1986, Eccles 1992). Recorded to depths of up to 50 m (Poll 1953).	eng
60389	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	The population size is unknown but it is rarely collected (Poll 1953, Brichard 1978).	eng
60389	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60390	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60390	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60390	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Found in the rocky littoral to depths of 1–6 m (Eccles 1992, Matthes 1962).	eng
60390	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	<em>Mastacembelus flavidus</em> was reported as very rare by Matthes (1962).	eng
60390	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60391	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60391	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60391	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Shallow coastal waters with rocky bottom. <em>Mastacembelus micropectus</em>, the third dwarf species, has involved along entirely different lines than the seahorse eel. The swimming ability of <em>Mastacembelus micropectus</em> is thus very poor, contrary to <em>Mastacembelus platysoma</em>, and the fish probably is more used to crawling around the rocks in the obscurity of it dwelling deep in the labyrinths, than to swimming. Its colour pattern reflects the habitat pale purple with pinkish underparts. The depigmentation of the skin is reminiscent of the similar colour of several spiny eels living under the sandstone slabs of the kinshasa rapids. Apparently <em>Mastacembelus micropectis</em> has gone a long way from the standard <em>Mastacembelus</em> anatomy to adapt to a very constraining ecological niche. Because of these specializations the fish does very poorly in captivity and usually dies after a few days. It inhabits the rocky littoral at depths of 0.5 to 4 m with preference for the zones with rocky slides and crevices (Matthes 1962). Coulter (1991) and Eccles (1992) recorded the species in shallow inshore waters with rocky bottoms. Brichard (1978, 1989) also describes <em>M. micropectus</em> as a rock dweller.	eng
60391	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown, but their density of occupation of the rocky recesses can be phenomenal (there are on average approximately 30 to 50 spiny eels, all species and size put together, per 100 m² of substrate). In other habitats, however, it is said to be rare (Matthes 1962) or "present without being common" at Cape Chipimbi (Zambia) (Brichard 1978).	eng
60391	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, over exploitation and other human activities around the lake.	eng
60392	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60392	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60392	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Inhabits sandy shores Abe (1997). <em>Mastacembelus ophidium</em> is one of the spiny eels in the lake with a very peculiar shape. It looks very much like a snake. It reaches a maximum size of 60 cm. Its slender pale grey or pale beige body with faint markings provides excellent camouflage. This is the only spiny eel in the lake for which concentrations of thousands of young fry a few cm long have been observed in quiet bays during some months of the year. It appears that the spiny eels might migrate and have synchronous spawns, but as yet this observation applies only to <em>Mastacembelus ophidium</em> and not to the other species. It is well known that sand-dwelling fluviatile species of spiny eels bury themselves in the sand to lay in ambush waiting for prey to pass by, or to do so as a protection against predators. The sand-dwelling species in the lake have not been reported to have the same behaviour, but it seems likely that they also bury themselves in the sand.	eng
60392	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Reported as rare by Poll (1953). Otherwise there is little information on population status although vast numbers of fry have been noted periodically near the shore at the north of the lake indicating mass spawning.	eng
60392	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60393	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60393	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika	eng
60393	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Found in shallow coastal waters with a rocky bottom at depths of 1 to 4 m (Coulter 1991, Eccles 1992), with preference for rocky pebbles near sandy areas (Matthes 1962).	eng
60393	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Matthes (1962) mentioned <em>M. plagiostomus</em> as a very rare species. However, according to Brichard (1978) it is widespread although not common. Uncommon in museum collections (Vreven, pers. obs.).	eng
60393	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60394	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60394	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60394	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Inhabits coastal regions with a rocky bottom to a depth of 30 m (Ave 1998, Brichard 1989, Eccles 1992, Coulter 1991). Its diet consists mainly of microorganisms and probably fish fry. Also feeds on small shrimp (Poll and Matthes 1962). Max. size 15 cm.	eng
60394	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	According to Poll and Matthes (1962) and Brichard (1989) <em>M. platysoma</em> is a very rare species. Brichard (1978) mentioned it to be present without being common at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia).	eng
60394	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60395	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60395	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60395	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	<em>M. tanganicae</em> is found on rocky coasts (Poll 1953, Matthes 1962, Brichard 1989, Eccles 1992) with debris, flag stones, pebbles and sand, of small depth, 0.20 to 0.30 m. It is rarely encountered below 5 m depth (Brichard 1989). It remains close to the shore (Brichard 1989) and prefers coasts with weak slopes with good plant cover (Matthes 1962). Its diet mainly includes crustaceans, insect larvae, and fish fry. In the surf zone of the shoreline they are the main predators on fry from rock-grazers.	eng
60395	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Recorded by Matthes (1962) as a rather common species. According to Brichard (1978) it is common if not abundant at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia). Further, Brichard (1989) mentioned that <em>M. tanganicae</em> is probably the most common spiny eel along the rocky shores of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60395	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration and sedimentation, and over-exploitation.	eng
60396	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60396	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60396	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Shallow coastal waters of the lake.	eng
60396	population	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60396	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Vreven, E., 2006	Water pollution, habitat deterioration, and over-exploitation.	eng
60397	conservation	Celestin, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	The southern part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
60397	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The southern part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
60397	distribution	Celestin, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus taeniopleuro</em> is known from Tanzania, Zambia, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo, in waterways around Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and from Kanonga and the Kufira River. The data of these two latter locations are identified by Poll, M. but have never been published.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the tributaries of Lake Tanganyika but never recorded from the lake itself.	eng
60397	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus taeniopleuro</em> is known from tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and from Kanonga and the Kufira River. The data of these two latter locations are identified by Poll, M. but have never been published.	eng
60397	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus taeniopleura</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
60397	habitat	Celestin, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus taeniopleura</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers. Its diet consists of weed and algae (Worthington and Ricardo 1936), larvae and insects (Poll 1953).	eng
60397	population	Celestin, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60397	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60397	threats	Celestin, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60397	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60398	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60398	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60398	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Chelaethiops minutus</em> is the only one of the 34 cyprinids known from the Tanganyika basin which can be said to live in deep water. Its juvenile stages (up to a length of about 75 mm) occupy the littoral zone. Poll found that adults live in the pelagic zone and reach 106 mm. Adults are commonly caught together with clupeids and under fishing lamps they are readily distinguishable from each other by their behaviour. The clupeids form dense schools a metre or so below the surface whereas <em>Chelaethiops minutus</em> swim as individuals just below the surface and do not school. <em>C. minutus</em> is specialized in surface feeding on insects that have been carried offshore by wind. Although many cyprinid species occur within the basin, and 10 are endemic, only <em>C. minutus</em> has entered the lake proper from the littoral habitat. All the other cyprinids in the basin have retained the riverine habitats although nine of them have also been recorded in the lake littoral. It seems a reasonable hypothesis that <em>C. minutus</em>, having developed the ability to exploit insect at the surface as its major food, has then extended its range into the open lake as the only specialist in that trophic niche.	eng
60398	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60398	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60399	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60399	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to western Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
60399	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in relatively cool running waters.	eng
60399	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60399	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction.	eng
60400	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60400	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the southwest of the Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain.	eng
60400	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in all river sections, but mainly middle reaches.	eng
60400	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60400	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduced species (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, <em>Esox lucius</em>, <em>Sander lucioperca</em>), dam construction and agriculture water extraction.	eng
60401	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
60401	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Prespa lakes in northern Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
60401	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large lacustrine species that completes its full life cycle within the lakes.	eng
60401	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Increasing.	eng
60401	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Overfishing, water extraction and pollution. Water levels are vulnerable to decline due to the karstic nature of these lakes.	eng
60403	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60403	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to southwestern Anatolia in Turkey. It includes the upper part of Menderes River, and neighbouring lakes and their tributaries: Lakes Sogût, Salda, Burdur and Bahceözû.	eng
60403	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in rivers and lakes.	eng
60403	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60403	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams, water pollution, and water extraction are the main threats.	eng
60404	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60404	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Restricted to the affluent streams of Lake Malawi and tributaries of Middle and Lower Shire River.	eng
60404	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Found in clear fast flowing waters in rocky reaches over clean sand. Mature sexually ripe individuals have been collected in October and November. It is therefore assumed that this species breeds from early summer following onset of rains (Skelton 1993). It feeds on insects and other invertebrates.	eng
60404	population	Vreven, E., 2006	It is widespread in the lower reaches of the Lake Malawi affluent rivers but not within the lake itself. The population is thought to be declining.	eng
60404	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Deterioration of riverine habitat due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers); and fish poisoning of riverine habitats.	eng
60405	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60405	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to streams and lakes of the Jordan watershed in Israel, Syria and Jordan. A species recorded in the Orontes river basin area (Turkey) may be <em>B. longiceps</em>, but this needs further investigation (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).	eng
60405	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size barbel (<700 mm). It feeds on invertebrates and molluscs. It migrates upstream in winter (January–March) to spawn in small streams.	eng
60405	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing	eng
60405	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Reclamation of rivers and rivulets which once flowed into Lake Kinneret and were previously used as spawning grounds. Drought and pollution are also threats.	eng
60406	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60406	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is present in northern Algeria.	eng
60406	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers, reservoirs and in irrigation systems. It is a large size barbel (<700–800 mm total length).	eng
60406	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60406	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60407	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60407	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
60407	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60407	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60407	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60408	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60408	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species is restricted to the Orontes River watershed and to coastal rivers of Syria and Lebanon, north of the southern Nahr al-Kabir.	eng
60408	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in rivers.	eng
60408	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Currently stable in Turkey. Population status in Syria and Lebanon currently are unknown.	eng
60408	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In Turkey, water extraction, drought, dams and pollution are future threats to the species. Threats in Syria and Lebanon are not currently known.	eng
60409	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60409	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi basin (Banister and Clarck 1980).	eng
60409	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Within the lake, adults form shoals in open waters, moving about in search of food (Banister and Clarke 1980). Young fishes concentrate over sandy areas (Banister and Clarke 1980). <em>Barbus litamba</em> is a predatory, fish-eating minnow . It feeds on insects in addition to fishes (see Jackson 1961, Konings 1990). It can be found all round the lake though seldom very far from shore as well as in the lower reaches of rivers (Jackson 1961). Large recorded length is 44 cm, usually smaller (Jackson 1961). It is presumed to migrate up feeder streams to spawn (Banister and Clarke 1980).	eng
60409	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Not uncommon but of insufficient abundance to be of economic importance (Jackson 1961).	eng
60409	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Possibly Over-fishing.	eng
60410	conservation	Vreven, E., Kasembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60410	distribution	Vreven, E., Kasembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and large affluent rivers (where in some areas it occurs even in headwater reaches). Also known to occur in Shire river and its tributaries (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
60410	habitat	Vreven, E., Kasembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Occurs in all habitat types, usually found in small groups (Konings 1990). Omnivorous species. Predatory when adult, taking small fish. Migratory swimming up rivers to spawn during the rainy season (Eccles 1992) (it can stay in the river for several weeks into the dry season while breeding). <em>Barbus johnstonii</em> attains at least 32 cm SL and may weight in excess of 4.5 kg (10 pounds) ( up to 4 kg; see Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
60410	population	Vreven, E., Kasembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60410	threats	Vreven, E., Kasembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Over-fishing of adults causes extremely high mortalities during spawning runs. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Suspected to be decreasing due to Over-fishing. Fisheries commercial Froese and Pauly 2003). Also collection for the commercial aquarium trade (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60411	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in Azraq Wetland Reserve. Some research is going on.	eng
60411	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Azraq Oasis in Jordan.	eng
60411	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species still lives in pools of the Azraq Wetland Reserve.	eng
60411	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60411	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction for irrigation. The water level dropped to 12 m below ground from surface level and in 1992 the marshland dried up totally, because water pumping from the Azraq oasis in the last 30 years.According to Bianco (pers. obs.), who visited the Oasis in 2000 and observed the species, the water area in the Oasis Reserve is very scarce, about less than one hectare, and maintained by artificially spilling of water. The species is nearly disappeared mainly as result of introduced tilapia, <em>Sarotherodon galileus</em>, which dominate in the Oasis. The species was maintained in the Reserve by captive breeding and tentatively reintroduced in the wild. It is now probably extinct in the wild, and for a success restocking, aliens species should be previously eradicated.	eng
60412	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
60412	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe).	eng
60412	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information.	eng
60412	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information.	eng
60412	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
60413	conservation	Vreven, E. Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	In the Mwabvi river, the pool where this species occurs is well within the boundaries of Mwabvi game reserve.	eng
60413	distribution	Vreven, E. Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to the tributaries of the Lower Shire River, Lower Zambezi system, Malawi (Skelton 1993). Mwabvi River, Ruo River (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Nswadzi river (eastern side of Thyolo escarpment). It is quite common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls, but has not been found below the falls, which constitute a major environmental and ecological barrier between the Upper Ruo and the Shire system (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
60413	habitat	Vreven, E. Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Prefers running water and rocky habitats (Skelton 1993).	eng
60413	population	Vreven, E. Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60413	threats	Vreven, E. Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	The species may be exposed to Over-fishing, and may be susceptible to fish poisoning in rivers, and deterioration of riverine habitat due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers).	eng
60414	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
60414	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60414	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
60414	conservation	Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
60414	distribution	Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, (never recorded in the Lake Malawi itself). It has not been recorded south of Nkhotakota streams. It is also known from the Lufubu basin, Lake Tanganyika. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal. (Skelton 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi, including several northern tributaries of the Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Also widespread in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems and northern Lake Malawi streams (Skelton 2001).	eng
60414	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo system. Elsewhere, it is widespread over northern parts of southern Africa including the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Kafue and Limpopo systems. It is also known from the Lufubu basin, Lake Tanganyika. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal. (Skelton 1993). In Malawi, the species occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, it has never been recorded in the lake itself. It may be confused with the bowstriped barb, <em>Barbus viviparous</em>.	eng
60414	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the catchment of Lake Malawi, (never recorded in the L. Malawi itself). It has not been recorded south of Nkhotakota streams.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Upper Zambezi River, through the Okavango, Kafue, and Zambian Congo, to the Cunene River on the Atlantic coast. It also occurs, however, in several disjunct eastern populations, some of which are in Malawi. It is widespread over northern parts of southern Africa including the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems. Isolated populations occur in Malawi and on the eastern shores of Lake St. Lucia in Natal (Froese and Pauly 2003)..	eng
60414	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi, including several northern tributaries of the Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).  Also widespread in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, Zambian Congo and Limpopo systems and northern Lake Malawi streams (Skelton 2001).	eng
60414	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation. <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 1993) and aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
60414	habitat	Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation (Skelton 1993) and not in strongly flowing rivers. <em>Barbus bifrenatus</em> feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 1993) and aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It breeds in summer, breeding pairs lay eggs on submerged roots and vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 2001).	eng
60414	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	This species is found in floodplains, pools and shallow streams with vegetation (Skelton 1993) and not in strongly flowing rivers.  It is common in the lower reaches of rivers particularly in Nkhata bay and Songwe river delta.  It seems to prefer clear running water.  It feeds on detritus, algae, seeds, small invertebrates (Skelton 2001) as well as aquatic insect larvae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  It migrates upriver to breed after heavy rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
60414	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	Vegetated pools and banks of flowing streams and rivers, primarily in small, flowing tributaries and less common in the main river channel or on floodplains. Feeds on aquatic insects and other small organisms. Breeds in summer, breeding pairs lay eggs on submerged roots and vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 2001).	eng
60414	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	Common to abundant in most streams where it is found.	eng
60414	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60414	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
60414	population	Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	Thought to be common to abundant in most streams where it is found.	eng
60414	threats	Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	Although this is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993), given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
60414	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
60414	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	Human disturbance.	eng
60414	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60415	conservation	Bills, R., Vreven, E. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in terrestrial reserves.	eng
60415	conservation	Tweddle, D., Bills, R., 2006	The species has some protection in terrestrial reserves.	eng
60415	distribution	Bills, R., Vreven, E. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus atkinsonii</em> is found in a region encompassing parts of Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the streams around Lake Malawi but does not occur in the lake itself. Also occurs in the Middle Shire River as well as Lakes Chiuta and streams of Lake Chilwa (Skelton 1994). Also found in the Rufiji system and Ruaha tributary (Lévêque and Daget, 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is found in the Rovuma system (R. Bills, unpublished), including Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa on the Mozambique/Malawi border (Tweddle 1979, 1983), also lower reaches of Lake Malawi inflowing streams and the outflowing Shire River (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 1979). In the Lower Zambezi system, recorded in tributaries of the Lower Shire tributary in Malawi (Tweddle unpublished).	eng
60415	distribution	Tweddle, D., Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Rovuma system (Bills unpublished), including Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa on the Mozambique/Malawi border (Tweddle 1979; 1983), also lower reaches of Lake Malawi inflowing streams and the outflowing Shire River (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>1979). In the Lower Zambezi system, recorded in tributaries of the Lower Shire tributary in Malawi (Tweddle, unpublished).	eng
60415	habitat	Tweddle, D., Bills, R., 2006	Occurs in vegetated fringes of streams and rivers.	eng
60415	habitat	Bills, R., Vreven, E. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This is a small species, not exceeding 5 cm in length. It occurs in sheltered weedy areas of streams and pools on the lakeshore plain. In Lake Chiuta it prefers weedy sheltered areas bordering fast flowing clear well oxygenated waters. This species is known especially in the northern streams of the lake (not recorded south of Linthipe river in Lake Malawi catchment).	eng
60415	population	Tweddle, D., Bills, R., 2006	Fairly common with a wide distribution.	eng
60415	population	Bills, R., Vreven, E. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Population information is unknown but the species is very common in the Lake Malawi affluent streams (Tweddle 1983).	eng
60415	threats	Tweddle, D., Bills, R., 2006	None known.	eng
60415	threats	Bills, R., Vreven, E. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Sedimentation that is taking place in many streams in Malawi which may negatively affect this species. Overfishing (using small meshed seines in shallow waters) may also pose a threat.	eng
60416	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60416	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi (Lévêque and Daget 1984) and its catchment.	eng
60416	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Occurs in the lake itself along the entire lakeshore as well as in streams and rivers. It is found in the shallows on sandy beaches as well as rocky shores in sheltered areas. In streams it is found in flowing stretches as well as exposed sandy banks.  This species reaches 7 cm in length.	eng
60416	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60416	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60417	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	Fully enclosed with Tsavo National Park.	eng
60417	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Tsavo basin (Mzima springs).	eng
60417	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information.	eng
60417	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information.	eng
60417	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60418	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60418	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Nyasa (see Eccles 1992), upper Shire River (Froese and Pauly 2003) and Lake Malombe.	eng
60418	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	A pelagic species that occurs in shoals both near the shore and far out in the lake. It feeds on zooplankton. It reproduces throughout the year. Its larvae have been caught in the open lake near the surface. It is a very important fish in the lake being highly valued both for food and for bait. It also forms one of the chief food sources for other open water predatory species, such as <em>Phamphochromis</em> spp. Populations fluctuate greatly in tune with the supply of zooplankton. The spawning site of this species is still not known but is no longer believed to be in the offshore pelagic zone due to the absence of early stage eggs in the pelagic zone.Max. size: total length of 13.0 cm (Eccles 1992), though it rarely exceeds 10 cm.	eng
60418	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60418	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J., 2006	Potential introduction of competing species. In the past it was hypothesised that this species is an inefficient planktivore compared with clupeids occupying similar niches in Lake Tanganyika (i.e., "kapenta"), It was therefore suggested that "kapenta" be introduced into Lake Malawi to utilise this food resource in the lake. This hypothesis has however been rejected by the majority of the scientific community working on African fishes.	eng
60419	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
60419	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lornae</em> is only known from the Chambezi River, upper Congo River basin, Zambia.	eng
60419	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No specific information available.	eng
60419	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60419	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60420	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60420	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Malagarasi River, Tanzania.	eng
60420	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Occurs in streams and rivers where it feeds on insects.	eng
60420	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown, but rare.	eng
60420	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Sedimentation due to land clearance for agriculture.	eng
60421	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60421	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2010	None known to be in place.	eng
60421	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2006	This species is restricted to streams and rivers of south-western Anatolia, Turkey. In Turkey, it is known for certain from only two localities: Izmir and Gulluk. Recently discovered also occurring on Lesbos, Greece (Kottelat and Barbieri 2004).	eng
60421	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2010	This species is restricted to streams and rivers of south-western Anatolia, Turkey. Recently discovered also occurring on Lesbos, Greece (Kottelat and Barbieri 2004).	eng
60421	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2006	No data available.	eng
60421	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2010	No data available.	eng
60421	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Described as rare (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). However, on Lesbos it is described as quite abundant.	eng
60421	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2010	Described as rare (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). However, on Lesbos it is described as quite abundant.	eng
60421	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2010	Water pollution is the main current threat to the species. Drought caused by water extraction and climate change are also a future threat to the species.	eng
60421	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Water pollution is the main threat to the species.	eng
60422	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60422	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Middle Akagera river and associated lakes, Malagarasi drainage, Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996).	eng
60422	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits flooded woodlands, shallow pools with many reeds, papyrus and ceratophyllum, also found in the open water (Seegers 1996).	eng
60422	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but never abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
60422	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension.	eng
60423	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information.	eng
60423	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lake Rukwa drainage (Wildekamp 1995). Also Malagarasi drainage, Ugalla and Wembere system, possibly reached Victoria system (Seegers 1996). Lakes Victoria and Kyoga systems. The taxonomic status of subpopulations in Kenya is, however, uncertain.	eng
60423	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Shallow and swampy parts of Lake Rukwa and inflowing rivers, usually near or amongst bordering vegetation (Wildekamp 1995). Small ditches in the surface layer of the water, prefer smaller and quieter waters, but can be found in fast flowing water as well (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small insects that fall into the water, on water insects and their larvae and other small animals like crustaceans and others (Seegers 1996). Breeds the whole year round, deposit eggs between plants and roots (Seegers 1996).	eng
60423	population	Ntakimazi, G., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Abundant in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), otherwise little information.	eng
60423	threats	Ntakimazi, G., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Loss of marginal vegetation in wetlands around streams and rivers. Water turbidity due to agriculture extension.	eng
60424	conservation	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60424	distribution	Vreven, E., 2004	Possibly endemic to the Lower Tana system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60424	habitat	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60424	population	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60424	threats	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60425	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	None in place.	eng
60425	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Lake Turkana.	eng
60425	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Occurs in shallow, quiet and weedy parts around the lake. Matures at app. 2.5 cm TL. Spawns in the littoral region and feeds on zooplankton and insects (Hopson 1982).	eng
60425	population	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	No estimates available.	eng
60425	threats	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Not targeted by commercial fisheries. No noticeable threats identified.	eng
60426	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information.	eng
60426	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lakes Edward, George and Victoria systems, and the Upper Semliki River. An isolated population occurs in the Mbuga creek near the Niansimbi (or Buranga) hot springs at the western edge of the Ruwenzori Mountains. A population showing affinities with this species is also present in the Lake Kyoga drainage systems (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60426	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No specific information but probably occurs in marginal pools of lakes, and in permanent and temporary streams.	eng
60426	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60426	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No major threat identified.	eng
60427	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No specific conservation measures in place.	eng
60427	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Shallow parts of papyrus swamps around Lake Victoria. Also found in river mouths, rice fields and ditches connected to Lake Victoria, in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. In Uganda this species also occupies similar habitat as associated with Lake Kyoga, Lake George, Lake Edward, Lake Albert, Lake Nakavali and Lake Mamala, and the adjacent river systems. Also found in the Victoria Nile, and the Kafu and Katonga rivers (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60427	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Shallow parts of papyrus swamps, river mouths, rice fields, ditches. Distributed in swampy areas or stagnant waters of ponds or Lakes (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
60427	population	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Widely distributed but likely to be declining due to agricultural encroachment of wetlands.	eng
60427	threats	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Encroachment of wetlands for agriculture; deforestation, erosion and silting; and landbased pollution.	eng
60428	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	None known	eng
60428	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake Edward.	eng
60428	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Surface waters of the central part of the lake.	eng
60428	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60428	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60429	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known	eng
60429	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters the delta of Malagarasi River.	eng
60429	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Shallow rocky and mixed substrates in littoral zone of the lake. Feeds on insects and crustaceans.	eng
60429	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but sometimes significant numbers are caught in nets.	eng
60429	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fishing; sedimentation; and pollution.	eng
60430	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60430	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Seasonal ponds and waters of the southeastern coastal area of Kenya, from the Umba northwards to the Ramisi drainage. Reported from the Lower Pangani and Umba river drainages in eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60430	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in temporary pools in floodplains, swamps and temporary ditches (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a bottom spawner and the eggs have a 2–4 months incubation period.Max. size: 50 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60430	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60430	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60431	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60431	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the northern Ewaso Nyiro drainage where it is found in seasonal waters of the Boji Plains northeast of Merti in Kenya.	eng
60431	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits temporary waterholes in a flat, rather dry savannah area (Wildekamp and Haas 1992). Max. size: 48.2 mm SL (Wildekamp and Haas 1992).	eng
60431	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60431	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60432	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60432	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Only known from seasonal pools and waters of the southeastern coastal drainage near Kikambala, about 15 km north of Mombasa, Kenya.	eng
60432	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in swamps and temporary pools in the floodplains (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is a bottom spawner with a 2–4 months incubation period (Froese and Pauly 2003). Max. size: 56.8 mm SL (Wildekamp and Berkenkamp 1979).	eng
60432	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60432	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60433	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60433	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Seasonal pools in the Sio River floodplain near Busia and the Lake Victoria, Kyoga and Albert systems.	eng
60433	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits swamps, roadside and drainage ditches, pools and depressions downstream of culverts. It is always found in temporary water bodies that only contain water during the wet season and for a short period afterwards. The water is usually turbid to very turbid and usually lacks any aquatic vegetation (Wildekamp 1994). Max. size: 50 mm SL (Wildekamp 1994).	eng
60433	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60433	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60434	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60434	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Known from seasonal pools of the Lake Victoria drainage near Ahero, and in the Sio River floodplain near Busia, Uganda and Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It appears to be widespread but more information is needed to determine the full distribution.	eng
60434	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Frequently found in more permanent waters such as horseshoe lake, and in flowing creeks in papyrus swamps or forest streams. It usually inhabits the shallower, quiet areas amongst the bordering vegetation. Occasionally it is also found in temporary pools, often close to, or connected to, streams (Wildekamp 1994). Aquarium observations have demonstrated that it has an annual mode of reproduction and that the eggs undergo diapause (Wildekamp 1994). Max. size: 40 mm SL (Wildekamp 1994).	eng
60434	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60434	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60435	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60435	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Seasonal ponds and waters of the southeastern coastal area of Kenya at Umba and northwards to the Ramisi drainage including the Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Ruhoi and Rufiji rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60435	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in temporary pools and floodplains, ricefields, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>., 1986). It is a bottom spawner with a four-month incubation period.Max. size: 70 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986)	eng
60435	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60435	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60436	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60436	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Widely distributed in temporary pools, floodplains and swamps in the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kyoga and Aswa River drainages in southern Uganda, and the Malagarasi and Bubu River drainages in central Tanzania. It has been introduced to several localities in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania for mosquito control (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60436	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Temporary pools, floodplains and swamps where it thought to feed on insect larvae and crustaceans.	eng
60436	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60436	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Biotope changes in streams and rivers due to agricultural pressure.	eng
60437	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60437	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The full distribution of the species remains unknown. It was originally only known from holotype (Bubu (Buhu) River drainage, Central Tanzania) (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). More recent records have extened the know range to include pools along the Babati-Arusha road, Tanzania, and the Malagarasi basin (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
60437	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Permanent and seasonal, pools, streams and rivers. Probably feeds on insect larvae and crustaceans.	eng
60437	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60437	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Biotope changes in streams and rivers due to agricultural pressure.	eng
60438	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60438	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in seasonal pools of the lower to middle Tana drainage, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Dekta, Warfa, Hogay, Kaisany and Durbane of Somalia, and the Wabishebelle system, Ethiopia.	eng
60438	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	It is a typical annual fish, inhabiting temporary bodies of water. The eggs are deposited in the bottom substrate where they survive the dry season with diapauses of varying length. Their diet mainly consists of small plankton crustaceans (Copepoda) and naupili and less frequently also of larvae of mosquitoes (Culicines, Anophelines) (Wildekamp and Haas 1992)	eng
60438	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
60438	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
60439	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60439	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa</strong> It is found in seasonal pools northwards of Malindi and in the lower Tana drainage, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa</strong> It occurs near Dur e Kalin, Whar near Kaisany, near Shalanbod, Somalia, as well as the Wabishebelle system, Ethiopia	eng
60439	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species occurs in pools and swamps and rivulets (Radda 1981).	eng
60439	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
60439	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
60440	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
60440	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in seasonal pools in the Lower Tana, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Wabishebelle system, in Somalia and Ethiopia.	eng
60440	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in running water.	eng
60440	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
60440	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
60441	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60441	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Only known from the Lower Tana River system in the coastal plains of eastern Kenya.	eng
60441	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits ephemeral water bodies in the floodplain or connected streams located in open as well as in forested savannah. The water is usually turbid and lacking vegetation (Wildekamp 1992). Max. size: 27.2 mm SL (Wildekamp 1992).	eng
60441	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60441	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60442	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60442	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Seasonal waters of the southeastern coastal drainage to the northwest of Mombasa near Kaloleni, Kenya.	eng
60442	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in swamps and temporary pools in the floodplains (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is a bottom spawner with a 2–4 months incubation period (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60442	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60442	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60443	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60443	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Lower reaches of rivers and brooks of the east coast drainage close to the sea, including salt pans.	eng
60443	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Prefered habitat not known (Wildekamp 1995). Max. size: 18 mm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60443	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60443	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60445	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60445	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Recorded from the Kidatu dam, Mtera dam and rivers Wami, Malagarasi, Ruaha, and Rufiji.	eng
60445	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits shallow lakes with long riverine systems. The species is the biggest of the genus. It is highly migratory, spawning upstream around December–January (ALWM 1981). It is highly vulnerable due to its extended migration route. Feeds mainly on insects.	eng
60445	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	CPUE has declined significantly in the Mtera dam but the information is not species specific. Otherwise little information.	eng
60445	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Heavy fishing pressure with small meshed nets, especially across rivers; silt loading; and land based pollution, water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60446	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60446	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to one karstic spring (Modro Oko) in the Krbavsko Polje in Croatia. It has disappeared from karstic streams.	eng
60446	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers, springs and caves. It prefers slow current and clear water.	eng
60446	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60446	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought, alien species and water extraction and road construction. Also there is a possibility that war in the region has damaged the karstic system. (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).	eng
60447	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Vreven, E., 2009	A better understanding of this species ecological range and population numbers is required. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine if Malawi and Rovuma populations are in fact the same species. Levels of exploitation and the impacts of this needs to be studied.	eng
60447	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	A better understanding of this species ecological range and population numbers is required. Taxonomic studies are needed to determine if Malawi and Rovuma populations are in fact the same species. Levels of exploitation and the impacts of this needs to be studied.	eng
60447	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Lake Malawi and the Rovuma River system, where it is not particularly common.	eng
60447	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is known from Tanzania, Malawi, and northern Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed in Kidatu dam, Mtera dam, and the Great Ruaha, Rufiji, Wami and Ruvuma rivers. It occurs throughout Lake Malawi and its catchment, the Middle Shire and the affluent streams of Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Rovuma River system.	eng
60447	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	In the Rovuma system it occurs in main river channels, in Lake Malawi it is present in both the lake and affluent rivers. Habitats are not well known.	eng
60447	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found in shallow quiet waters in rivers, swamps, lagoons and sheltered estuaries, usually moving upstream in floodplains to spawn (Eccles 1992). A nocturnal feeder, feeding on invertebrates and weeds. It has been observed under the shelter of floating islands, a possible vector for dispersal, in Lake Malawi.	eng
60447	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Vreven, E., 2009	Catch compositions in Kidatu and Mtera dams have declined from 1.5% in 1987 to 0.01% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1987,1996, Tamatamah 1996).	eng
60447	population	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60447	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Vreven, E., 2009	The Rovuma system is heavily fished by artisanal gill net fishermen. Braids and pools in the Rovuma system are also poisoned with traditional plant poisons. Elsewhere, this species is suffering negative impacts from commercial and illegal overfishing, pollution and siltation of the waterways, and habitat degradation from deforestation and agricultural encroachment.	eng
60447	threats	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The Rovuma system is heavily fishes by artisanal gill net fishermen. Braids and pools in the Rovuma system are also poisoned with traditional plant poisons.	eng
60448	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information.	eng
60448	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Lake Kivu systems linked by the Rusizi. It is found in the streams and rivers flowing into these lakes, including the Malagarasi. Also found in Lake Rukwa.	eng
60448	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Found in sandy bays of lakes and rivers (Eccles 1992) where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects. In the Rukwa drainage it is found in lake itself and in the rivers entering the lake, but prefers the latter habitat (Seegers 1996). It migrates up the rivers to spawn (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small fish fry and, in the rivers, probably also on insects and other small animals (Seegers 1996).	eng
60448	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This species contribution to the fisheries catch compositions in Lake Rukwa declined from 1.77% in 1977 (Bernacsek 1980) to less than 0.3% by 1994 (Fish. Div. 1994). Similarly CPUE has declined from 0.2 tons/vessel in 1977 to less than 0.1 tons/vessel in 1994 (Fish. Div. 1994, 1977). The Lake Rukwa population has therefore declined by about 50%. It is still common in fishery catches in inshore waters of lakes Tanganyika and Kivu and in the lower parts of rivers Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60448	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Land based pollution; illegal fishing practice; and erosion and siltation.	eng
60449	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information.	eng
60449	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Rufiji River system, Tanzania.	eng
60449	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Prefers flowing water (Eccles 1992).	eng
60449	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60449	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Environmental stress/disasters; land based pollution; siltation; and illegal fishing methods.	eng
60450	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	None known.	eng
60450	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to Lake Rukwa.	eng
60450	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Pelagic species supporting a lucrative fishery (Eccles 1992).	eng
60450	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Assumed to be declining.	eng
60450	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Silt loading is a serious problem. Fishing with illegal gears; environmental changes; and water pollution.	eng
60451	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None known.	eng
60451	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The species is distributed in Lake Rukwa and its tributaries, Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi.	eng
60451	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	A deep water species. It migrates upstream to spawn during the rainy season (Eccles 1992). In the rivers it is found in deep waters and rapids where it grazes algae on firm surfaces.	eng
60451	population	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The species is being exploited commercially. Catch compositions in Lake Tanganyika were 11.89% in 1977 (Bernascek 1980) declining significantly to 1.24% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1996). The index of abundance declined from 1.3 tons/vessel in 1977 to 0.1 tons/vessel in 1996. The decline is close to 90% over a 20 yr period.	eng
60451	threats	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Spawning substrate and habitats are being degraded due to silting and pollution (water turbidity due to erosion on river basins). Illegal fishing methods with small meshed nets, especially across rivers during the spawning migration.	eng
60452	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	None in place.	eng
60452	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Lake Natron drainage and Shombole swamps (Seegers andTichy 1999). Also in Lake Magardi.	eng
60452	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Found in springs and spring-fed streams, rarely observed in the open water of some lagoons of the lake (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Inhabits waters rich in sodium and chlorides and temperature ranges between 16–40°C (Reite <em>et al</em>. 1974). Omnivorous. They take algae from stones as well as live food. The basic natural diet is blue-green algae. Sometimes insects are gulped from the water surface. Bacteria are also taken from the water surface (Seegers and Tichy 1999). The juveniles are carnivores feeding on invertebrates, eggs and larvae. There seems to be no distinct breeding period, although there may be a breeding maximum in December/January, which coincides with the hottest period of the year. Male builds nests (pits), which are not aggregated nor grouped in large numbers (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Max. size: 115.7 mm TL (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
60452	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Not certain but thought to be declining.	eng
60452	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Sedimentation. Reduction in lake level.	eng
60453	conservation	Bayona, J. & Akinyi, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60453	distribution	Bayona, J. & Akinyi, E., 2006	Lake Magadi. Introduced in Lake Nakuru in 1953, 1959 and 1962 (Vareschi 1979). Possibly also introduced in Lake Elmenteita. Lake Natron in Tanzania (Lever 1996).	eng
60453	habitat	Bayona, J. & Akinyi, E., 2006	Lives in springs and lagoons around the edge of the lake. Occurs in generally unfavourable environmental conditions for fishes (water temperature, chemical composition) (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Primary food sources are blue-green algae (90%), Crustacea (Copepods) and dipteran larvae. Has no marked breeding season. The male has a breeding territory and constructs a pit of about 15 cm in diameter where he tries to attract females to spawn. No firm pair bond relationship. Female is a mouthbrooder, brooding period two weeks (Seegers and Tichy 1999). Max. size: 69.0 mm SL (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
60453	population	Bayona, J. & Akinyi, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60453	threats	Bayona, J. & Akinyi, E., 2006	Not certain but population thought to be declining.	eng
60454	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There is no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60454	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread in the lake.	eng
60454	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This is the one of the specialized species, being strictly specialised to a given type of rocky habitat, namely rubble with very few patches of sand. This is borne out by the fact that <em>Altolamprologus compressiceps</em> is not found on isolated rock outposts that it could have reached by crossing sand barriers that other rock-dwelling fishes could pass. This is also supported by the fact that is often absent from areas where the rocks are smooth and support only a sparse biocover is covered by slit. In fact, <em>Altolamprologus</em> is among the first to disappear when the conditions are not up its requirements. Although common in its habitat, it is never found in large quantities, and when an area has been fished for this species it takes several months, perhaps a year, before they make their comeback. This is probably due to a low fertility rate. The spawns, very difficult to discover in the recesses, never appear to involve more than a few dozen eggs. Feeding on crustaceans hidden among the narrow cracks and tiny gullies of the rubble surface, this fish has a very narrow and pointed mouth that can be inserted between the anfractuosities of the rock walls. Their highest density, once adult, is found below 10 meters. Young fish though, are found in quiet covers in water about 1 m deep.	eng
60454	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is widespread but rare.	eng
60454	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; disturbance of habitat, landslide, and sedimentation.	eng
60455	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No conservation measures currently in place.	eng
60455	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to the southern part of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60455	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It lives in the southern part of Lake Tanganyika where it is a specialist feeder on zoobiocover.	eng
60455	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60455	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Degradation of habitat; water pollution; landslide, sedimentation; and collection for the aquarium trade	eng
60456	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60456	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be widely distributed along all shores of the lake.	eng
60456	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	They usually hang head down on the sides of rocks. They also appear to move up from deeper water when breeding to provide increased oxygen for their broods. This species is a rocky grazer.	eng
60456	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60456	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
60457	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60457	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known from Lake Victoria. It is also found in other lakes than Lake Victoria; for instance Lake George, Lake Edward, Lake Nakavali, Lake Rugwiro, Lake Mugeresa, Lake Ihema, Lake Nabugabo, Lake Kachira, Lake Cyohoha, Lake Kivu and rivers and streams associated with these lakes.	eng
60457	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
60457	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
60457	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).	eng
60458	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	No conservation measures in place for the species.	eng
60458	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	Distributed throughout the affluent rivers of the Lake Tanganyika catchment , in particular the Malagarazi river and swamps and the Lukuga and Rusizi rivers.	eng
60458	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	Riverine species. Thought to be a carnivore.	eng
60458	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	Little information but rarely found in fishery catches.	eng
60458	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion following agricultural extension.	eng
60459	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60459	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Lukuga and Ruzizi Rivers of lake Tanganyika (van Oijen and Snoeks 1991).	eng
60459	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Riverine habitat. The short gut suggests it is a carnivorous species.	eng
60459	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but rarely encountered in fisheries catches.	eng
60459	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60460	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Recommend extension of the Malagarasi Ramsar site to include the delta.	eng
60460	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
60460	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in slow-flowing streams, rivers and deltas. Feeds on varied food items including insect larvae, plant debris, etc.	eng
60460	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60460	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
60462	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information.	eng
60462	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Reported to be restricted to Lake Tanganyika and associated rivers; however, it is currently very common in upper and middle Akagera river and associated lakes, where most likely it has been introduced.	eng
60462	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in slow-flowing stream and rivers, deltas, ponds, lagoons, and shallow inshore waters in lakes. Feeds on varied food item including small fishes, insect larvae, diatoms, algae, and plant debris.	eng
60462	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60462	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No threats identified.	eng
60463	conservation	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60463	distribution	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika (van Oijen <em>et al</em>. 1991), but not recorded in the Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
60463	habitat	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in slow-flowing stream and rivers, and swampy areas. Feeds mainly on insect larvae.	eng
60463	population	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60463	threats	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Loss of wetland habitats adjacent to rivers and streams.	eng
60464	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60464	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed. It is also found in the associated Rusizi and the Rukuga Rivers.	eng
60464	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Aulonocranus dewindti</em> is not a deep-water fish and is always found over sand, even if only sandy patches between rocks, or sandy shallows. Schools of <em>Aulonocranus dewindti</em> occur in coastal and offshore waters over sandy bottoms. The species is omnivorous, feeding on drifting mater. Reproduction: mouthbrooder.	eng
60464	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is very common along the lakeshore.	eng
60464	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and habitat loss/ deterioration.	eng
60465	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information	eng
60465	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is rare but widespread in the southern part of the lake. Possibly present in the northern part of the lake.	eng
60465	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60465	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60465	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60466	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None in place.	eng
60466	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60466	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Mainly caught in the pelagic zone. Little available information but it seems to be quite rare. Usually found in the deep water during daytime and inshore at night.	eng
60466	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Quite rare in commercial fish catches.	eng
60466	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Habitat disturbance and alteration; water pollution; and commercial over exploitation.	eng
60467	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None in place.	eng
60467	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread and abundant.	eng
60467	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Benthic species mainly preying on the large variety of small benthic cichlids. It is thought to prefer a shallow inshore habitat (<70 m).	eng
60467	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size of the species is not known but is very abundant throughout its habitat.	eng
60467	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; over exploitation; and habitat disturbance.	eng
60468	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60468	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and very widespread and abundant.	eng
60468	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Benthic species.	eng
60468	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Widespread and very abundant.	eng
60468	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; over exploitation; and habitat disturbance.	eng
60469	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No known, targeted conservation measures in place.	eng
60469	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is very widespread.	eng
60469	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic fish, feeding mainly on clupeids. Also reported to be pelagic.	eng
60469	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but this species is rare.	eng
60469	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and habitat deterioration.	eng
60470	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60470	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic species to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the deltas of major slow affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi.	eng
60470	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Bentho-pelagic species caught between 3–100 m of depth but mostly between 10–30 m. Feeds on small fishes, predominantly <em>Stolothrissa tanganicae</em>.	eng
60470	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common in fisheries catches in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60470	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing and inshore pollution.	eng
60471	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60471	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60471	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is probably pelagic feeding mainly on clupeids.	eng
60471	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Population size unknown.	eng
60471	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Habitat disturbance and alteration; water pollution; and commercial over-exploitation.	eng
60472	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60472	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60472	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is bathypelagic.	eng
60472	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known but few <em>Bathybates vittatus</em> are observed in fishing catches.	eng
60472	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60473	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60473	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60473	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Deep-water species living below 40 m.	eng
60473	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60473	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60474	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60474	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60474	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in varied habitats, often rock substrates. Known to occur down to 100 m depth.	eng
60474	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60474	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and disturbance of habitat.	eng
60475	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None.	eng
60475	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>B. microlepis</em> is a prominent species, well known to the lake shore people on account of its large size and desirability as food.	eng
60475	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A large predatory species that appears to live in small schools, probably only a few hundred strong, that roam the coastal areas down to depths of 100 m or more. Adults reproduce in the littoral zone. Maturity is reached usually around 400 mm length or 2.5 years. Juveniles are omnivorous and adults mainly piscivorous. This species is one of this most powerful and ubiquitous piscivore in the sublittoral and littoral zones.	eng
60475	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is thought to be common throughout its habitat.	eng
60475	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation and potential Over-fishing.	eng
60476	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60476	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found all around the lake. Enters the delta of the Malagarasi River.	eng
60476	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters, mainly over sandy bottoms. Feeds on varied food items collected on sandy bottoms including small molluscs, ostracods, insect larvae, fish larvae, etc.	eng
60476	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common and may be abundant in inshore fisheries catches.	eng
60476	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly beach seining.	eng
60477	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in places for this species.	eng
60477	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is distributed in the northern part of Nyanza-lac and in the south of the Ubwari.	eng
60477	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found over sand bottoms near rocks in the littoral zone where they feed on invertebrates.	eng
60477	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is thought to be very common in its habitat.	eng
60477	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; over exploitation.	eng
60478	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60478	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Found all around the lake. Enters the delta of the Malagarasi River.	eng
60478	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters, mainly over sandy bottoms. Feeds on varied food items collected on sandy bottoms including small molloscs, ostracods, insect larvae, etc.	eng
60478	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common and abundant in inshore fisheries catches.	eng
60478	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly by beach seining, and inshore siltation.	eng
60479	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60479	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60479	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sandy shore species.	eng
60479	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60479	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown: potentially sedimentation.	eng
60480	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60480	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60480	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It lives in the littoral zone at 3–15 m depth over sand and mud substrates. It is semi-pelagic roaming in schools of several hundred individuals and feeds on plankton such as copepods.	eng
60480	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishery statistics show that species is very abundant.	eng
60480	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation.	eng
60481	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in places for this species.	eng
60481	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60481	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Chalinochromis brichardi</em> lives among rubble in which they nest and feed on invertebrates. A substrate breeder producing 200–300 eggs. A popular fish for the aquarium trade.	eng
60481	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60481	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; over-exploitation (subsistence and aquarium trade).	eng
60482	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60482	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and its slow-flowing affluent streams and rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60482	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Ubiquitous species found over both rock and sand substrates, but is most frequently observed over soft bottoms habitats covered with aquatic grass. It is a shallow water species found along the lakeshore and in the lower reaches of the inflowing rivers. Omnivourous, but adults feed predominantly on fish.	eng
60482	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Very common in fisheries catches.	eng
60482	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity and siltation in shallows; and over-fishing by beach seines.	eng
60483	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None.	eng
60483	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is mainly distributed in the northern part of the lake.	eng
60483	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Little information but is known to be a deep-water species.	eng
60483	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60483	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60484	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None in place.	eng
60484	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is mainly restricted to the southern part of the lake.	eng
60484	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A gregarious species found on both rock and sand habitats along the lakeshore.	eng
60484	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but the species is relatively rare in its preferred habitat.	eng
60484	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation (a popular fish for the aquarium trade).	eng
60485	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60485	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is very widespread.	eng
60485	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives in schools near the rocky slopes down to 20–25 m. It eats plankton and is gregarious. There are several geographic races of this species.	eng
60485	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A very common and abundant species.	eng
60485	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; and over-exploitation (a popular species in the aquarium trade).	eng
60486	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is not protected by any specific legislation.	eng
60486	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60486	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Cyphotilapia frontosa</em> prefers a rocky bottom habitat extending into deep water. It is a generalized predator on fish and macro-invertbrates. Fragments of mollusc shells have also been found in the gut. Gill net catches show that <em>Cyphotilapia frontosa</em> is most abundant between 60–120 m (Pearce 1958). However, large schools of up to about 1,000 individuals have been observed underwater by Brichard (1978) at 30 to 40 m depth. Individual size seems to increase with depth, ranging commonly between 250 and 300 mm, making this species one of the larger rock dwellers.	eng
60486	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60486	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation, and over-exploitation for the aquarium trade. A specific threat in Burundi is the road construction from Bujumbura to Rumonge, which results in increased sedimentation, deforestation, water pollution, and risk of landslides.	eng
60487	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservations measures in place.	eng
60487	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is localised to the northern part of the lake. Specimens have also been observed along the Tanzanian coast.	eng
60487	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A pelagic species. A pelagic or bathypelagic species feeding on copepods. Their presence in fairly shallow water seems related to inshore breeding migrations. It has been observed in shallow rocky habitats, but is thought to normally occur at a much greater depth. <em>Cyprichromis microlepidotus</em> and the other members of the genus are rarely are seen shallower than 10 m depth.	eng
60487	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known but the species is very rarely captured.	eng
60487	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.	eng
60488	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is not protected by any specific legislation.	eng
60488	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and known only from the southern end.	eng
60488	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives in relatively deep water having been caught at 80 m. It is known to be a mouthbrooder and is adapted to life at considerable depths off rocky slopes. Possibly localised to the southern end of lake. A protrusable mouth forms a suction tube as an adaptation for feeding on pelagic zooplankton. Spawns on a rocky surface.	eng
60488	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60488	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.	eng
60489	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60489	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Ectodus descampsi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60489	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found over coarse sandy substrates. A semi-pelagic diatom feeder. Little is known about the ecology and behaviour of this gregarious species.	eng
60489	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is very abundant throughout its preferred habitat.	eng
60489	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation; over-exploitation by the aquarium trade; and water pollution.	eng
60490	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60490	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60490	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A sand dwelling species of the littoral zone.	eng
60490	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60490	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and over-exploitation.	eng
60491	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60491	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Two races are present. The first is restricted to the southern part of the lake. Its range covers the coastlines between Kalemie and the Ubwari. A second race exist on the Ubwari Peninsula and might eventually be considered a subspecies.	eng
60491	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in very shallow turbulent, highly oxygenated waters of the surf zone, amid rubble and large pebbles down to a maximum of 5–6 m. Their heavy body and small swim bladder provide the negative buoyancy required in such habitats. Their ecology in the lake and their breeding behaviour are poorly documented. They are solitary and somewhat territorial.	eng
60491	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A fairly common species.	eng
60491	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; land agriculture; and sedimentation.	eng
60492	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60492	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and its slow-flowing affluent streams and rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60492	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found most frequently over soft bottoms covered with aquatic grass, in shallow waters of the Lake or in the lower reaches of rivers. Feeds mainly on invertebrates and plant debris.	eng
60492	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Very common.	eng
60492	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing in shallow waters, mostly by beach seines.	eng
60493	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60493	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60493	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Gnathochromis permaxillaris</em> is caught in deep water, is a zooplankton feeder and has developed a strikingly protractile mouth apparatus. Moreover, it possesses quite strong conical teeth on the outer tooth row of both jaws, which is unusual in a zooplanktivore. On account of its copepod diet, it may be supposed that <em>G. permaxillaris</em> lives to a large extent above the bottom and can be classified as bathypelagic. The depth of its habitat is linked to the availability of plankton, which varies according to the time of day. Unlike many zooplankton feeders this species does not appear to school.	eng
60493	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but the species is rare.	eng
60493	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution, organic pollution and other contamination from industrial. Sedimentation.	eng
60494	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60494	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to, and widespread in, Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60494	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Semi-pelagic roamer over sand. Observed down to at least 30 m.	eng
60494	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but the species is very common and abundant.	eng
60494	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.	eng
60495	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60495	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is distributed in the southern part of lake.	eng
60495	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the open waters, Semi-pelagic, rather deep.	eng
60495	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known. But this species is very rare.	eng
60495	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.	eng
60496	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60496	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is largely restricted to the southern part of the lake.	eng
60496	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This is an open-water, semi-pelagic species. It has relatively few large eggs (100 to 200).	eng
60496	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown. This species is rare, only a few gill-netted specimens are known from deep water in the south-east arm.	eng
60496	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.	eng
60497	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60497	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60497	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Mostly observed in inshore habitats over sand and mud substrates. Little is known about its distribution in Lake George. Virtually nothing is known about the biology of the species.	eng
60497	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60497	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60498	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60498	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60498	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Common near papyrus fringes but is rare elsewhere in the inshore zone. Apparently never occurs offshore. A maternal mouth brooder.	eng
60498	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60498	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known but the species has a restricted range.	eng
60499	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60499	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60499	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Apparently confined to offshore areas. Appears to feed mainly on phytoplankton. This information is based on only a few specimens.	eng
60499	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60499	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threat known.	eng
60500	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60500	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60500	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake shore species.	eng
60500	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60500	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60501	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60501	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to lake Kivu.	eng
60501	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake shore species.	eng
60501	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60501	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60502	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60502	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60502	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake shore species.	eng
60502	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60502	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60503	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60503	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Apparently endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60503	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	An inshore species found near papyrus fringes or where the bottom is sandy. Rarely encountered in the open lake or in shallow waters where the substrate is muddy. Food: predominantly chironomids and emerging aquatic diptera when available. A maternal mouth-brooder.	eng
60503	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60503	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No clear threats known.	eng
60504	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60504	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	<em>P. vittatus</em> is endemic to Lake Kivu on the border of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is present throughout the lake.	eng
60504	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	<em>P. vittatus</em> is piscivorous. A lake shore species.	eng
60504	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60504	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60505	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None.	eng
60505	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60505	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60505	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60505	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60506	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60506	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana.	eng
60506	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Feeds on ostracods (Greenwood 1981). Breeds within the lake (Hopson 1982). Max. size: 86.0 mm SL (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60506	population	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60506	threats	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60507	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60507	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George.	eng
60507	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Information not available.	eng
60507	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60507	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No serious current threats identified. Potential for future pollution from mining activities.	eng
60508	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60508	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60508	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Probably offshore, confined to the upper waters (few species recovered).	eng
60508	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Rather restricted extent of occurrence.	eng
60508	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threat identified.	eng
60509	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60509	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from Lakes Bulera and Luhondo and the Mukungwa River (Upper Akagera system in North Rwanda) where it may have been introduced along with young <em>Tilapias</em> from Lake Bunyoni, Edward or George.	eng
60509	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Shallow water in riverine and lacustrine habitat. Feeds mainly on aquatic insects.	eng
60509	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Declining, but common where found.	eng
60509	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed, and over-fishing.	eng
60510	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60510	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel where it is widely distributed.	eng
60510	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	An offshore species that occurs mainly over sandy substrates and less commonly over mud/silt habitats. Feed on plankton and benthic invertebrates. Sexually dimorphic, at least in Lake George.	eng
60510	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60510	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60511	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60511	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60511	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Inhabits near-shore mud, mud/sand substrates. Feeds mainly on gastropods, particularly <em>Melanoides tuberculata</em>.	eng
60511	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60511	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60512	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60512	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George.	eng
60512	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Inhabits lake areas with emergent rooted vegetation and areas suitable for the growth of aufwuch. Feeds on aufwuch and bottom deposits. A maternal mouth brooder	eng
60512	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60512	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Potential for water pollution from mining activities, and over-fishing.	eng
60513	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60513	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Recorded from Lake George and the Kazinga Channel. Probably also occurs in Lake Edward but this is not confirmed.	eng
60513	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Little information. Maternal mouth brooder.	eng
60513	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60513	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60514	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60514	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60514	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Shoreline of the lake.	eng
60514	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60514	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60515	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60515	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60515	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lakeshore species.	eng
60515	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60515	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60516	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None.	eng
60516	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60516	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information	eng
60516	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60516	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60517	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None.	eng
60517	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Turkana (endemic).	eng
60517	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Apparently confined to the shallow and protected inshore areas of the lake. One sub-population inhabits a crater lake on the central island (Greenwood 1981). Feeds on zooplankton, ostracods and insects. Spawns in sheltered marginal areas of the lake (Hopson 1982). Max. size: 58.0 mm SL (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60517	population	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60517	threats	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not fished commercially – no threats are known.	eng
60518	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60518	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60518	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lakeshore species.	eng
60518	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60518	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60519	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60519	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60519	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Predominantly an offshore species found in the central zone of the open water. Feeds primarily on pelagic algae. Maternal mouth brooder.	eng
60519	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60519	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60520	conservation	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60520	distribution	Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60520	habitat	Snoeks, J., 2006	Lakeshore species.	eng
60520	population	Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60520	threats	Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60521	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60521	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake George and the Kazinga Channel. Probably occurs in Lake Edward but this is not confirmed.	eng
60521	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Widely distributed in Lake George where it is particularly common in muddy bays and near papyrus fringes. It is rarely encountered in the open water of the mid-lake region. There is little information on food and feeding habits but it thought to be a bottom substrate feeder. No data were available on reproductive biology.	eng
60521	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60521	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60522	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None.	eng
60522	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana.	eng
60522	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Is confined to water more than 20 m deep and is probably most abundant in deeper water (i.e., at depths of 50–70 m) (Greenwood 1981). Feeds on prawns, insects, gastropods and small fish. Spawns in deep waters of the main lake. Females mature at about 5 cm. (Hopson 1982)	eng
60522	population	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
60522	threats	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The fish is not commercially important and therefore is not over-fished.	eng
60523	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60523	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60523	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Apparently confined to the inshore zones of the lake along papyrus fringes and over sandy substrates. The highly extensible mouth is specialised for a diet of fish embryos and larvae (cf. similar species from Lake Victoria).	eng
60523	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60523	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No particular threats are known.	eng
60524	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60524	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60524	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	A predominantly inshore species found over mud and sand sediments in both sheltered and exposed environments.	eng
60524	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60524	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No serious threats are known.	eng
60525	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60525	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake George.	eng
60525	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Almost entirely restricted to rocky bays in the vicinity of the fishing village of Kashaka. Occasionally caught over a mud bottom along papyrus fringes or over a sandy substrate inshore along exposed shores. Feeds on larval and adult aquatic insects (information was from a small sample of 20 fishes)	eng
60525	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60525	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Confinement to a single lake ecosystem.	eng
60526	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60526	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Edward and George, and the Kazinga Channel.	eng
60526	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Adults occur in all the lakes' habitats, but are especially common in the offshore open water areas. Juveniles may, however, be restricted to the inshore zones of the lake. Insects contribute to the diet of small fishes whereas adults are predominantly piscivorous, preying mainly on other haplochromines. The species is a female mouth brooder.	eng
60526	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60526	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No serious threats have been identified.	eng
60527	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None in place	eng
60527	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60527	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Shoreline of Lake Kivu.	eng
60527	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60527	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60528	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60528	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu.	eng
60528	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inshore species.	eng
60528	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60528	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60529	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None.	eng
60529	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Kivu and the Rusizi River.	eng
60529	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60529	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60529	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60530	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
60530	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This freshwater species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60530	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	An offshore, gregarous roamer. Occasionally found schooling in coastal waters along rocky coast. Exported only sporadically. Ecology still very poorly documented. Females are mouthbrooders that come to coastal areas to release their fry, if not for mating purposes.	eng
60530	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but thought to be common.	eng
60530	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; and fishing activities. Other gears, such as gill nets, which target the larger species, also impact sandy shore fish communities.	eng
60531	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60531	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60531	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60531	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60531	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60532	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60532	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60532	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60532	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95.	eng
60532	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60533	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60533	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60533	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60533	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60533	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).	eng
60534	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60534	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is found only in Lake Victoria. It has been found in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania (see Greenwood 1962). It has been found by the <em>Haplochromis</em> Ecology Survey Team in the Speke Gulf, Maisome Channel (near Maisome Island) and Kome Channel.	eng
60534	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60534	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60534	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60535	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60535	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
60535	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone. <em>H. howesi</em> is the only species in the lake known to feed regularly on crabs.	eng
60535	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 3/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
60535	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60536	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60536	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60536	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60536	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been seen since 1985.	eng
60536	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60537	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60537	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60537	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60537	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60537	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60538	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60538	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60538	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60538	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 46% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
60538	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60539	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60539	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60539	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60539	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60539	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60540	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60540	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60540	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic deepwater species occurring over mud/silt and rocky shelf substrates. It feeds mainly upon fish and shrimps. It is one of the three most abundant benthic species on the southern shelves of the lake, the others being <em>Lates mariae</em> and <em>Chrysichcthys stappersii</em>. Pearce, in 1985, found that <em>Hemibates stenosoma</em> is the most common fish on the deep bottom, perhaps because <em>Lates mariae</em> had by then reduced by commercial fishing. He obtained peak catches at about 120 m, whereas the earlier survey results showed it to be most numerous at 180–200 m depth. He makes the point that the majority of the population may be more deep-dwelling than its extensive range indicates because many are caught during seasonal inshore migrations. Lack of oxygen in deep water may dictate the lower depth range of the species.	eng
60540	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60540	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
60541	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	In order for this species to survive, it is necessary to rehabilitate some of the natural landscapes in this area and regularly manage and monitor them. The impact of groundwater pumping on the flow of Enot Zuqim, Enot Samar and Enot Qaneh should be monitored.	eng
60541	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Occurs in the Dead Sea region. The species inhabits streams and springs west and south of the lake, from Enot Zuqim (En Fashkha) in the north to Ne'ot Ha'Kikar in the south. Also found in some streams in the Jordanian side.	eng
60541	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	Streams and pools on a variety of foundations.	eng
60541	population	Goren, M., 2006	In the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region, the population is in the thousands, but is given to extreme fluctuations due to human activity. At Enot Zuqim, population is also in the thousands. In other sites, dozens are present. Population size has decreased drastically in Israel in the past 50 years. There is no connection between populations of the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar springs close to those in the northern Dead Sea area springs. There is no continuous link between the Enot Zuqim population and that of Enot Qaneh and Enot Samar, but there is a possibility that at times of strong floods, a temporary layer of fresh water is formed in the Dead Sea that allows fish passage between populations via the Dead Sea.	eng
60541	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Exploitation of spring waters. In the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region where natural habitats were destroyed, the species only survives in the drainage channels of cultivated areas and in the Dead Sea Works collecting channel. Increased water exploitation may lead to complete extinction of this fish in the Ne'ot Ha'Kikar region. The situation in the area of Enot Zuqim is unclear. Intensified water pumping from the aquifer could be detrimental to the springs and the fish inhabiting them. Introduction of invasive species such as <em>Gambusia</em>, Cichlids and other exotic species also pose a threat to the species.	eng
60542	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60542	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60542	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the open and often ventures over sand in the shallows.	eng
60542	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size of this species is not known.	eng
60542	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Siltation.	eng
60543	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60543	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in south west, north of Sumbu National Park in Zambia.	eng
60543	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found on rocks and rubble, often on sandstone slabs along sand beaches. It can occur down to 35 m, perhaps more. A very sedentary and territorial species. Mainly feeds upon crustaceans.	eng
60543	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60543	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; fishing activities; and over-exploitation for aquarium trade.	eng
60544	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60544	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika along the north west shore between Luhanga and Makabola.	eng
60544	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on rocky substrate.	eng
60544	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60544	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; over-exploitation for the aquarium fishes.	eng
60545	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60545	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of lake. A second geographic race occurs in the southern part of the lake near Mpulungu. It is also distributed from Lunangwa Bay to Mpala.	eng
60545	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Julidochromis ornatus</em> lives on rocky substrate. Very popular species for the aquarium trade.	eng
60545	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size and extent of occurrence is not known.	eng
60545	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; insecticides; and over-exploitation for aquarium trade.	eng
60546	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60546	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Distributed in the northwestern part of lake. Has three races, one is found below the shallow habitat of <em>Julidochromis dickfeldi</em> around cape Chipimbi, also in the south, and posses a much more elongate body than the usual type of <em>marlieri</em> found in the north. Another geographic race has been found on the western shores.	eng
60546	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>J. merlieri</em> do venture into the open, but never far from the rock cover. Breed in crevices and caves. The behaviour of the fry is not standardized. Sometimes they are spread outside of the cave as soon as they are 15 mm long. When threatened, they do not hide in the nearby breeding cave but flee along the boulder wall. At other times the fry remain inside of the cave and apparently do not venture out until they are much larger.	eng
60546	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, thought to be rare.	eng
60546	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; sedimentation; land agriculture around the lake; fishing activities; over exploitation for aquarium trade – since its first exportation in 1971 it has reached worldwide popularity among aquarists.	eng
60547	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60547	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. <em>Lamprologus ocellatus</em> is found on appropriate grounds all around the lake and as yet no distinct geographic races have been found.	eng
60547	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shells or at least breeds in them. It has only been observed in small schools and is often mixed with <em>Lamprologus brevis</em> with which perhaps the species competes for possession of the shell piles. It is a microfeeder on invertebrates like so many <em>Lamprologus</em> species. It is exported sporadically and has been successfully spawned in captivity.	eng
60547	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known but it is considered very rare.	eng
60547	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
60548	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60548	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is known in Uvira, Lake Tanganyika. It is only known by its holotype.	eng
60548	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information.	eng
60548	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60548	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation	eng
60549	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60549	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is very common and widely spread. Also found in the Malagarasi river delta.	eng
60549	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Ubiquitous around the Lake, over hard and soft bottoms, including in snail shells, from 0–50 m deep (average depth 7 m). It is a predator mostly feeding on crustaceans and other invertebrates.	eng
60549	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60549	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed and beach seining.	eng
60550	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60550	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. where it is distributed in Kungwe bay, on the north-eastern shore of the lake.	eng
60550	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is shell dweller. More probably than not the fish uses its tweezer-like teeth to grab drifting zooplankton, but not much is known about the habitat, behaviour, and ecological niche of this rare species.	eng
60550	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but this species is very are.	eng
60550	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60551	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60551	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60551	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is carnivorous feeding exclusively on fish. It is an ambush predator very often seen near rocks, sometimes lying on the lakebed in the open, motionless. They are highly solitary, and pairs are seldom seen. The female lays its eggs in rock recesses and the fry are taken care of by the female only.	eng
60551	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Population size is not known, this species is very widespread but is not abundant.	eng
60551	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; habitat deterioration; and over-exploitation.	eng
60552	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60552	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread in inshore habitats.	eng
60552	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is not definitely a shell dweller because of its size (8–9 cm ). It is found swimming off the sand bottom and sometimes over rock. It spawns in rock crevices. <em>L. ornatipinnis</em> is usually found in deep water, which explains why the fish is seldom exported.	eng
60552	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but is not commonly in their habitat.	eng
60552	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation and other human activities around the lake.	eng
60553	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60553	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the central shores of the lake.	eng
60553	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The habitat is reported to be deep water on soft, mud substrates. Feeds on small shrimp. The maximum size of collected specimens was 53 mm at which size the fish were mature. Nothing else is known of this species other than it belongs to the shell-dweller group.	eng
60553	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is very rare.	eng
60553	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The deterioration of their habitat and sedimentation.	eng
60554	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60554	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. A ubiquitous species throughout the lake littoral zone.	eng
60554	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Its lives among rocks in the littoral zone down to 20 m depth.	eng
60554	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available but it is extremely common throughout it's preferred habitat. It is considered the most common of the six species of <em>Lepidiolamprologus</em> in the lake.	eng
60554	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60555	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60555	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed only in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60555	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Prefers rocky substrates and does not roam the wide open sandy bottoms. It breeds in rubble, but the fry do not remain hidden for long, and as soon as they become free swimming they emerge from the hole in which they were born. By that time they are between 3–4 mm long.	eng
60555	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60555	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60556	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60556	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern end of the lake.	eng
60556	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives inshore.	eng
60556	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60556	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60557	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60557	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60557	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in deep water (>40 m) and is seldom found near the surface. It lives on rocks in the sub-littoral zone. Thought to be a rare species.	eng
60557	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60557	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60558	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60558	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to, and widely distributed throughout, Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60558	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The habitat preferences are variable including sand, mud or rocky substrates in the littoral zone.	eng
60558	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but it is very common in its preferred habitat.	eng
60558	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60559	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60559	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread throughout the littoral zone.	eng
60559	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is littoral or sub-littoral in sand habitats.	eng
60559	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but is very common in their habitat.	eng
60559	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation and heavy fishing pressure.	eng
60560	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60560	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the northern part of the lake.	eng
60560	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in shallow water over sand substrates where it feeds upon microorganisms. It is a mouthbreeder providing buccal incubation for more than 20 eggs about 2 mm in diameter.	eng
60560	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is very common in its preferred habitat.	eng
60560	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60561	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60561	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
60561	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species live in shallow water, over a sandy bottom where it feeds on microorganisms.	eng
60561	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is very common in its preferred habitat.	eng
60561	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60562	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60562	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is a rare with a limited distribution in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60562	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species lives in mud/silt habitats in deeper water.	eng
60562	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known, but the species is very rare.	eng
60562	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There is no threat known to this species.	eng
60563	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60563	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the Malagarasi river delta. It has a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60563	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found over soft bottoms, from 2–125 m deep (average: 36 m) where it feeds on molluscs, worms, crustaceans and other invertebrates.	eng
60563	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common all around the lake, but never abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
60563	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing (mostly beach seining), and siltation.	eng
60564	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60564	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60564	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It lives on mud at between 20–100 meters depth.	eng
60564	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60564	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
60565	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60565	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also found in the Malagarasi river delta.	eng
60565	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters (max. depth: 30 m; average depth: 6 m), over rocky or sandy substrates. Grazes on filamentous algae, aquatic plants, and occasionally on worms and fish eggs.	eng
60565	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common all around the lake and locally abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
60565	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing (mostly beach seining); and sedimentation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed.	eng
60566	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60566	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60566	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
60566	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 60% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 72% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
60566	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60567	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60567	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
60567	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate and between rocks in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
60567	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as less than 10% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 1/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
60567	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60568	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60568	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60568	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral and sub-littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
60568	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60568	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60569	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60569	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to the Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant at all rocky outcrops between Marumbi Island in the south and Shadi Rocks in the North. It is less abundant at Python Islands and Ngoma Point at the northern distribution limit of the species, and poorly studied in the Smith Sound, the south-western extension of the Mwanza Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60569	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It lives inshore, on gentle, as well as on steep slopes. It has hardly ever been collected at depths beyond 4 m. It feeds on benthic invertebrates (insect larvae, tiny snails).	eng
60569	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 10/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is locally abundant.	eng
60569	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60570	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
60570	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to the steeply sloping eastern side of the northern Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant there at all rocky outcrops between the Gabalema Islands in the north and Butimba Point in the south. It is less abundant at the Nyegezi Rocks at the southern distribution limit of the species (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60570	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. The species is restricted to places with large, very steeply sloping boulders, where it inhabits the immediately inshore slope between 0.5 and at least 5 m water depth, and lives in crevices between the boulders, including rock pools within emerged rocky reefs. It is an insectivore/zooplanktivore, and its diet consists of benthic invertebrates, periphyton and fish.	eng
60570	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, increasing to more than 50% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however reported at 9/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be locally abundant.	eng
60570	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60571	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60571	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to the Mwanza Gulf in southern Lake Victoria. It is abundant at all rocky outcrops between Marumbi Island in the South and Python Island in the North (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60571	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates. It is one of the least cryptically living mbipi species, and is only very exceptionally found in crevices between rocks. The species lives between 1 (rarely) and at least 8 m depth, (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It is an insectivore/zooplanktivore.	eng
60571	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 10/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be abundant where found.	eng
60571	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60572	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60572	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the Malagarasi river delta.	eng
60572	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters (max dept: 40 m; average depth: 3.5 m), over rocky substrates. It isomnivorous feeding mostly on varied invertebrates, insect larvae, crabs, diatoms, molluscs, and plant debris.	eng
60572	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common all around the lake, although not abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
60572	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing; sedimentation in the inshore zone due to erosion on the watershed.	eng
60573	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60573	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known from most of south-eastern Lake Victoria: islands in the open lake, Sengerema region, Mwanza Gulf north of Python Island, Speke Gulf, southern Ukerewe shore (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). Similar populations from the southern Mwanza Gulf could not yet be unambiguously identified. It is probably distributed more widely. Similar fishes have been collected in Kenya and Uganda (Seehausen 1996; L. Kaufman, pers. comm.; Kaufman and Seehausen 1995).	eng
60573	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	<em>Mbipia mbipi</em> inhabits various stony and rocky habitats , including stone-sand mixed substrates, and was found at  almost all localities sampled. It lives between 0 and 6 m (littoral zone) (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). <em>M. mbipi</em> is an epilithic omnivore, its diet consists of periphhyton, detritus and benthic invertebrates.	eng
60573	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 13/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be reasonably common within its range.	eng
60573	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60574	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
60574	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known only from the western Speke Gulf and the Sengerema region of Lake Victoria (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60574	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores. It inhabits exclusively the shallow waters (0-2 m, littoral zone) of gently sloping small rock boulder shores, in particular somewhat surf protected habitats like small bays. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60574	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Usually rare; collected at six localities in the western Speke Gulf and the Sengerema region (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998), but then only 1/22 catch localities within the Mwanze and Speke Gulfs between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
60574	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60575	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	None known.	eng
60575	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the western shores of the Republic of Democratic of Congo.	eng
60575	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	This species is found in the littoral zone.	eng
60575	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60575	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Habitat deterioration, particularly sedimentation.	eng
60576	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60576	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known from clear water areas in south-eastern Lake Victoria: islands in the open lake along the western shores of Ukerewe Island, the Sengerema region, and in the western half of the Speke Gulf. It is likely that the species is more widely distributed (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60576	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it lives at depths ranging from 1 to 6 m (littoral zone) and inhabits steeply sloping large boulder shores. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60576	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 3/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but is thought to be relatively common within its range.	eng
60576	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60577	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60577	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known with certainty only from the Mwanza Gulf, Speke Gulf and Sengerema Region. However, fishes have been collected by Greenwood at Godziba Island in the central part of Lake Victoria (Greenwood 1956), that in scale and squamination characters resemble <em>Neochromis rufocaudalis</em> closely. Similar fishes have also Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998: been reported from Uganda and Kenya (L. Kaufman, pers. comm.) (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60577	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores. It inhabits the shallow waters of most rocky areas within its geographical range but can be absent from large steeply sloping rocks and islands dominated by such rocks. Maximum population densities are found between 1 and 2 m depth (littoral zone). The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60577	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 13/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.	eng
60577	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60578	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60578	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	With certainty only known from the type locality (Entebbe, Uganda). The specimens from other localities that Greenwood (1956) assigned to <em>N. nigricans</em> need to be re-examined (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60578	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species is most likely restricted to rocky shores (Greenwood 1956) in the littoral zone. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60578	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60578	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60579	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60579	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Lake Victoria where it is restricted to mainland shores and inshore islands. It is replaced by the ecologically similar <em>N. omnicaeruleus</em> at islands in the open lake and in the western half of the Speke Gulf, and along the western shore of Ukerewe Island. It is very likely that the species is more widely distributed (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60579	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it lives at depth from 0 to 4 m (littoral zone) and inhabits predominantly steeply sloping large boulder shores but is found also on gently sloping shores if the boulder size is large enough to provide interstices. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60579	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 15/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.	eng
60579	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60580	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60580	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known with certainty only from the Speke Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). However, a similar <em>Neochromis</em> that was common in the Mwanza Gulf (<em>Haplochromis 'kruising'</em>; Witte <em>et al.</em>, 1992, Seehausen 1994) and has strongly declined in the last ten years may be conspecific with <em>N. gigas</em>. A population with large black males resembling the black <em>N. gigas</em> from the steep slopes in the Southern Speke Gulf, is known from Bihiru Island in the Sengerema region (Seehausen 1996).	eng
60580	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores where it is more abundant at gently sloping shores than at steeply sloping shores. Absent from very steep slopes. The species is found to 4 m depth (littoral zone). The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60580	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
60580	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60581	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60581	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is known from the type locality (Kakindu) and from Ripon Falls, both at the Victoria Nile near Jinja (Uganda). However, the material from Ripon Falls should, hence, be considered with caution as a record for <em>N. simotes</em> until all material in the BMNH is examined (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60581	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. The species is an epilithic algae grazer.	eng
60581	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60581	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60582	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60582	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.	eng
60582	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A cave-dweller. This is a highly prized fish in the aquarium trade. It is one of the very few species that have adapted to life in darkness and deep caves.	eng
60582	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but this species is very rare.	eng
60582	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60583	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60583	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60583	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A shell-dweller probably spawning in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shells. Otherwise it roams the empty sand habitat in schools. Its breeding behaviour is entirely unknown. Max. size: relatively small (80 mm maximum).	eng
60583	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Very common.	eng
60583	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60584	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60584	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread along the northern and eastern shores of the lake.	eng
60584	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Neolamprologus falcicula</em> lives in pairs at the interface between rock and sand habitats and chooses a piece of rock under which to dig a nest. They tend to shoal above the bottom as <em>Neolamprologus brichardi</em> does. They are territorial and vigorously defend their offspring.	eng
60584	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60584	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60585	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60585	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed throughout the southwestern sector of the lake, in particular, in and around the Bay of Ruhanga on the western coast of the lake.	eng
60585	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives over a rocky substrate and is sympatric with <em>Neolamprologus olivaceous</em>. It is usually lives in pairs.	eng
60585	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60585	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Small-scale fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
60586	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60586	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where is widely recorded throughout the Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia sectors of the lake. It is possibly also present in the DCR sector, which has been less thoroughly surveyed.	eng
60586	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	According to Poll (1956) this fish lives on sand in the littoral zone. Little is known about its behaviour but it is thought to be spawn in empty shells.	eng
60586	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60586	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60587	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60587	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded throughout the northern basin and along a small section of coastline south of Mahale.	eng
60587	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rock-dweller feeding on shells and aquatic insect larvae. It is also reported to eat bivalves. It is a popular aquarium species, which is now farmed commercially.	eng
60587	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but it is not abundant.	eng
60587	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60588	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60588	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the area around Cape Kapampa on the west coast and from the coastal strip below the Mahale Mountains on the east coast.	eng
60588	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on rocky substrates, singly or in small groups, and is relatively large, reaching 8 to 9 cm in total length.	eng
60588	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is unknown.	eng
60588	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60589	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60589	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread along the northern and central parts of the lakeshore.	eng
60589	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available. The collection sites tend be rocky shore habitats.	eng
60589	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60589	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60590	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60590	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern shores of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Bulu Point in Tanzania.	eng
60590	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Its lives in rocky shores, where it can be very abundant. In these areas several other rubble-dwellers are also abundant. It appears to share the same ecological niche as <em>Neolamprologus leleupi</em>.	eng
60590	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but this species is very rare.	eng
60590	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation and other human impact along the coast of the lake appear to have altered community structure and reduced biodiversity in adjacent sub-littoral areas.	eng
60591	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60591	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where is occurs along the Zambian shores of the lake. It has not been found in the northern half of the lake.	eng
60591	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	A moderately gregarious species found over rocky substrates.	eng
60591	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60591	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60592	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60592	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the coastline below the Mahali Mountains (East Coast) and on a few occasions has been recorded on the south western shores in DCR.	eng
60592	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The ecology and ethology are unknown.	eng
60592	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but this species is very rare in its preferred habitat	eng
60592	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60593	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60593	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Widely distributed throughout the lake where it is most common in the south and much more rare in the northern basin. It has not been observed on the northeastern coast in Burundi.	eng
60593	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species lives above a rocky substrate.	eng
60593	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60593	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60594	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60594	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.	eng
60594	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	This is one of the least specialized forms of <em>Neolamprologus</em>. It is ubiquitous over sand habitats all around the lake. It shows very little geographic variation. An omnivore.	eng
60594	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	A common species.	eng
60594	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60595	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60595	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from an area on the western shores in DCR, near Kalemie.	eng
60595	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is a shell-dweller, and is a dwarf species.	eng
60595	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information.	eng
60595	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60596	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60596	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the northern parts of the lake.	eng
60596	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Prefers soft bottom sand/mud habitats.	eng
60596	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60596	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60597	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60597	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the southern parts of the lake.	eng
60597	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is rock-dweller, often seen in the open. It feeds predominantly on snails for which the pharyngeal bone and teeth are specifically adapted to allow it to break open the thick shells of some of the more heavily protected species.	eng
60597	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60597	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60598	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60598	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southwestern shores of the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
60598	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The name <em>petricola</em> means "living on the rocks" so presumably this is its preferred habitat.	eng
60598	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60598	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60599	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60599	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed in the southwestern parts of lake.	eng
60599	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Neolamprologus obscurus</em> is a cave-dweller that seldom leaves the shelter of the rubble. In many ways it has a similar ecology to <em>Neolamprologus niger</em>.	eng
60599	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60599	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60600	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60600	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Tanganyika with a lake wide distribution.	eng
60600	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is the rock-dweller, living in open water near the shore. There are commercial farms for this species, which is popular in the aquarium trade.	eng
60600	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60600	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60601	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60601	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded in and around Ruhanga Bay on the western coast of the lake.	eng
60601	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60601	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60601	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60602	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60602	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.	eng
60602	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A shell dweller. Its lives in <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> shell piles at the foot of rocky slopes. It is always found in rather deep water were the shell piles are not rolled about by the surf.	eng
60602	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is rare.	eng
60602	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation is the greatest threat because this species lives on, and eats the algae, which are found on, the rocky slopes.	eng
60603	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60603	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the southern part of the lake in the Zambian sector.	eng
60603	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Lives in a rubble substrate in caves. The fish does not appear to be very prolific.	eng
60603	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
60603	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60604	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60604	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution throughout the southern part of the lake.	eng
60604	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rock-dweller and is probably microphagous. Little else is known about its ecology.	eng
60604	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60604	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60605	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60605	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60605	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The fry and the adults hide in the rocky rubble and are rarely seen in the open. Spawns in deep, dark recesses with a few fry being hatched in each spawn. This species is not prolific and doesn't normally produce more than a dozen fry in a single batch.	eng
60605	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60605	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60606	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60606	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the lake, except in the south where the niche is occupied by <em>Neolamprologus modestus</em>.	eng
60606	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	One of the most common and ubiquitous fish in the lake. It is seen over sand as well as on rocks, but usually near the surface and near the shore.	eng
60606	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60606	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60607	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60607	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of the lake along the Tanzanian coast (north of Kigoma).	eng
60607	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives on the rocky substrate in the littoral zone.	eng
60607	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60607	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60608	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60608	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60608	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	One of the most common and ubiquitous fish in the lake. It is seen over sand as well as on rocks, but usually near the surface and near the shore.	eng
60608	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but this species is very common.	eng
60608	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60609	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60609	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This is a relatively new species discovered by Mr. Buscher during a trip to the southern shores of the lake in August, 1982, and in February of 1984 by Brichard's son on the Ubwari Peninsula.	eng
60609	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A bentho-pelagic species living close to the lake bed, at between 15–25 m.	eng
60609	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60609	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60610	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60610	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of the lake.	eng
60610	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	At least in the northern part of the lake its depth range extends from 3 meters below the surface to 25 or 30 m. It is a popular species for the aquarium trade but is protected from over-collection in the deeper waters due to problems of decompression associated with bringing fish to the surface from depth.	eng
60610	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60610	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60611	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60611	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known on the southern shores of the lake, especially in Cameron bay.	eng
60611	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A typical rubble-dweller. It is not rare in its preferred habitat around Cape Chipimbi. Like the other species in this group, the fish has been exported for the aquarium trade and has been bred in captivity. The ethology of this species is poorly documented.	eng
60611	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60611	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation and other human impact along the coast of the lake appear to have altered community structure and reduced biodiversity in adjacent sub-littoral areas.	eng
60612	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60612	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it has been recorded throughout the entire east coast.	eng
60612	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is normally found at around 40 meters depth where it is relatively abundant.	eng
60612	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Abundant at approximately 40 m depth.	eng
60612	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60613	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60613	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed in the southern half of lake. It has not been recorded in the northern part of the lake.	eng
60613	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A ubiquitous fish. Little is known about its ecology or ethology.	eng
60613	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is very rare.	eng
60613	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60614	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60614	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the eastern shores of Burundi.	eng
60614	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Neolamprologus schreyeni</em> lives inside deep rock crevices and is rarely, if ever, seen in the open. It produces about 20 fry in each batch and they are watched over by both parents. The nests appear to be very narrow slit in the rocks, out of reach of any other fish except young mastacembelid eels or <em>Telmatochromis bifrenatus</em>.	eng
60614	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60614	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60615	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60615	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the area around Cape Kongwe on the western shores in DCR.	eng
60615	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A cave-dweller found near Cape Kongwe. It is gregarious and often seen in small schools.	eng
60615	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60615	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60616	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60616	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from a strip along the central eastern Tanzanian shoreline.	eng
60616	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Little is known about the ecology, or the behaviour of this elusive species.	eng
60616	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60616	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60617	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60617	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is widespread within the lake but its full lakewide distribution range is unclear.	eng
60617	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A schooling species that is known to live in dead <em><em>Neothauma</em></em> snails shells in shallow waters. If <em>Neothauma</em> shells are not available, Burgundy snail shells provide an acceptable substitute. It feeds on microorganisms.	eng
60617	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Quite abundant at those locations where it has been observed.	eng
60617	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Shoreline sedimentation.	eng
60618	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60618	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the northern end of lake.	eng
60618	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Normally encountered in 2–10 m of water, a little way off the lakebed, feeding on microorganisms drifting by in plankton clouds. It is a mouthbrooder brooding an estimated 20–25 eggs of 4 mm in diameter in each batch. Fry are released close to shore near the surface. The male build a crater nest on sand, most often between the rocks. It is gregarious.	eng
60618	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60618	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60619	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60619	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60619	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Encountered in the water column above the bottom along rocky slopes. This is a strongly sexually dimorphic species.	eng
60619	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60619	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60620	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60620	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed along the southern shores of the lake.	eng
60620	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Prefers a rocky habitat (occasionally sand) in the littoral zone.	eng
60620	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available but it is thought to be a rare species.	eng
60620	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Deterioration of the habitat; water pollution and other human activities along coastline of the lake.	eng
60621	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60621	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be restricted to the southern end of lake.	eng
60621	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives on the rocky substrate in the littoral zone and is not thought to go below 5 m depth.	eng
60621	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is very common in its preferred habitat.	eng
60621	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution.	eng
60622	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60622	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Zigi and Pangani rivers in Tanzania. It might also be present in the Kenyan part of the Pangani system. It is possibly also introduced in Lake Chala, but this needs confirmation.	eng
60622	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Lives in rivers and lakes where it feeds on insects and algae (Lowe 1955).  Max. size: 161 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).	eng
60622	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information.	eng
60622	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known.	eng
60623	conservation	D. Tweddle & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Nile tilapia should be urgently removed from ponds in the Upper Zambezi system in northern Zambia and replaced by <em>O. andersonii</em>. Attempts should be made to prevent the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> and establish refuges for <em>O. andersonii</em> and other species.	eng
60623	distribution	D. Tweddle & Marshall, B.E., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Zambezi, as well as the Kafue, Okavango and Cunene Rivers. Occasionally also recorded from the Middle Zambezi (Skelton 2001). <br/> <br/>In East Africa, the species was introduced in Kenya in 1980 from Botswana (Motiti Pan, Okavango drainage) by I. Parker for aquaculture purposes. It was introduced to a dam near Nairobi and it is possible that some specimens found their way into the Nairobi River system.	eng
60623	habitat	D. Tweddle & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Adults are found mainly in deeper pools and main river channels. Juveniles and sub-adults are found in a variety of habitats in rivers and floodplain lagoons, large open swamps, and, more rarely small tributaries of the rivers. Feeds on detritus, diatoms and zooplankton. Males excavate large, saucer-shaped nests, females mouthbrood the eggs and fry. Multiple broods are raised during the warmer months. Lives for up to 11 years.	eng
60623	population	D. Tweddle & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Fairly common and widespread in the Okavango and Upper Zambezi Rivers, although depleted by fishing in some areas such as the Barotse floodplain.	eng
60623	threats	D. Tweddle & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The spread of alien <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> (L.) as a result of aquaculture introductions in the Kafue and Upper Zambezi catchments is a major threat to the survival of <em>O. andersonii</em> throughout its range (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> has caused the extinction of <em>O. esculentus</em> (Graham) and <em>O. variabilis</em> (Boulenger) in Lake Victoria. It has also replaced <em>O. mortimeri</em> (Trewavas) in Lake Kariba, has spread throughout the Kafue Flats in Zambia and  is rapidly replacing <em>O. mossambicus</em> (Peters) in the Limpopo system in southern Africa. <br/> <br/>Increasing fishing effort and increasingly widespread use of small-meshed fishing nets has depleted stocks in many areas, such as the heavily-populated areas of the Barotse Floodplain on the Upper Zambezi River in Zambia. Floodplain lagoons no longer provide refugia as they are all intensively seine netted. <br/> <br/>A commercial gillnet fishery in the Panhandle area of the Okavango Delta also targets this species.	eng
60624	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required.	eng
60624	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the swamps and saline lakes in Mweru-wa-Ntipa, and from the Lower Luapula River system and possibly from the Lufira River. It has also been recorded from Lake Kivu. Part of the distribution area of <em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> caused by introduction could be <em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> due to wrong identifications. Its distribution could thus be larger than currently known.	eng
60624	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. Young of <em>O. mweruensis</em> feed on epiphytic filamentous algae in swampy areas. This species is found in quiet waters along river margins and backwaters, in floodplain habitat and impoundments. This species spawns along the banks of lakes/rivers at an average depth of 12 to 13 m. The mating territory is largely occupied by a low mound with 6-12 grooves or crests radiating from the small central concave area (star-shaped nest). Males build the star-shaped nests on a sandy substrates. In any fisheries where <em>O. macrochir</em> is reported, its might be a combination of the 2 species.	eng
60624	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60624	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em> is used for aquaculture in an experimental stage in central Africa. It is also threatened by the regression of wetland habitats around rivers, lakes and floodplains.	eng
60625	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60625	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also enters the deltas and lower reaches of its major affluent rivers, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60625	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in the coastal areas around lake Tanganyika (max depth: 10 m) over sand habitats, and in river mouths and lagoons. Feeds on diatoms, filamentous blue-green algae and detritus grazed from submerged surfaces.	eng
60625	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	This species represent one of the most common inshore species found in the markets in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. There has been a reported decline in the catches over the last 10 years.	eng
60625	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation; and over-fishing, mostly at the northern end of the lake.	eng
60626	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60626	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to Lake Chungruru, a crater lake north of Lake Malawi, which has no water outlet (extent of occurrence <100 km²).	eng
60626	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Crater lake waters.	eng
60626	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Declining due to human intervention and environmental perturbation.	eng
60626	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Fluctuation in water level and siltation.	eng
60627	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No specific information.	eng
60627	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Native to: Lakes Albert, Edward and George. Introduced to: Lakes Kyoga, Victoria, Naivasha, and the Lower Ruzizi Basin and upper/middle parts of the Kagera river system (Welcomme 1967, 1988).	eng
60627	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This is essentially a species of lagoons, especially closed or nearly closed lagoons. It is tolerant to the fluctuating physical conditions in these shallow lagoons and tolerates low oxygen conditions and high temperatures up to 38°C (Trewavas 1983). It prefers shallow channels and lagoons on a vegetated lake-shore (Eccles 1992). Its preferred depth range is 0-10 m, mainly in lagoons and near the papyrus fringe, in shallow muddy bays and inlets of lakes (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds mainly on phytoplankton, filimentous algae and has sometimes been reported to feed from bottom deposits (Trewavas 1983; Witte and de Winter 1995). It is a maternal mouth brooder with no evidence of a restricted breeding season or a peak in the reproductive period. However, gonadal development seems to be favoured by periods of high temperatures and sunshine, actual spawning probably being triggered by the onset of rains following such periods (Hyder 1970).  Max. size: 232 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).	eng
60627	population	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60627	threats	Ntakimazi, G., Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No serious threats identified.	eng
60628	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The lake fishery was closed in 1960 to allow recovery and only very few artisanal fishermen exploit Lake Jipe. On the Kenyan side of the lake there is no exploitation because the lake falls within Tsavo National Park.	eng
60628	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Jipe, which is approximately 16 km², in the Pangani drainage (Mugisha <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has since managed to colonise Nyumba ya Mungu (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 56 km²) via the river Ruvu. The total estimated EOO is therefore 72 km² (i.e., less than 100 km²).	eng
60628	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This species prefers riverine habitats or inshore areas of the reservoir for grazing and refuge (Bailey <em>et al</em>.1999). It feeds mainly on microscopic algae, mostly periphyton, although the presence of inorganic particles and organic debris in the stomach indicates that food is also taken from the bottom (Trewavas 1983). There is no peak breeding season (Trewavas 1983). Max. size: 345 mm SL (Trewavas 1983).	eng
60628	population	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	In Lake Jipe the fishery for this species declined towards 1958, following the introduction of <em>O. esculentus</em>. Combined with the problems of infestation by <em>Typha dominingensis</em> and <em>Cyperus papyrus</em>, the fishery was closed in 1960. Samples collected by De Vos in the Kenyan waters of the lake (about 5% by area) in 1998 indicated the existence of the species but at very low abundance. Observations by Bwathondi (2000) indicate that the species declined to less than 9% of the community. In the Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir the population was reported to decline to less than 10% of the community in 2000 as compared to 1974 when the species made up approximately 46.2% of the catch (Denny and Bailey 1976). The mean catch within the reservoir 1973 and 1978 was 3,412 tons for a fishing effort of 755 canoes (Nhwani 1988). By 2000, the annual reported catch had declined to 521 tons with 534 canoes (Horril 2000). The population decline is estimated at 95.5% in 28 yrs.	eng
60628	threats	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Over-fishing of juveniles and destruction of habitats by use of small meshed nets e.g., beach-seines of 49 mm in mesh size. Infestation by <em>Typha dominingensis, Cyperus papyrus</em> and <em>Phragmites mauritianus</em>. High levels of siltation. Competition for space/habitat between this species and <em>O. esculentus</em>. Increased salinity due to reduction in lake level.	eng
60629	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Parts of Lake Manyara and Tarangire fall within the National Park where exploitation is prohibited. Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported that fish populations from the protected park areas of Lake Manyara and Tarangire river form an important seed stock for the replenishment of the heavily fished populations in the two areas.	eng
60629	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species is endemic to the alkaline Rift Valley Lakes (Trewavas 1983). It is distributed in Lake Manyara (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 413 km²), Lake Eyas, the Yaeda basin (EOO = 1,160 km²), Lake Kitangiri (115 km²) and Lake Singida (EOO = 105 km²). The estimated EOO is 1,800 km².	eng
60629	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species is distributed throughout the waters of the occupied lakes. It grows to about 13 cm maximum size and size at first maturity varies with sites. Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported 9.5 cm and 10.5 cm for size at maturity in Oltukai and Parkside of Lake Manyara, respectively.	eng
60629	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species is reported as declining in all alkaline rift valley lakes. In Lake Manyara, catch records for all fishes show a decline from 1,800 tons in 1970 to about 0.5 tons in 1990. The drought of 1982 almost wiped-out the population of <em>O. amphimelas</em> (Mugisha <em>et al</em>.1993). Latest sampling, however, indicates that the species still exists in the lake at a much lower level (Bwathondi <em>et al</em>. 2000). The current status of fish populations in Lakes Kitangiri, Singida and Eyas is not available.	eng
60629	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Drought: severe drought has often killed large numbers of fish in these shallow lakes (5–6 m deep). Over-fishing: fishing with small meshed nets captures all fish including the juveniles, leading to problems of growth over-fishing.	eng
60630	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60630	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic in the River Pangani, the outflow of Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir, which has also been colonized. The current estimated surface area of Nyumba ya Mungu is 56 km² (Bwathondi and Ngatunga2001), hence the estimated EOO is less than 100 km², including the Pangani River.	eng
60630	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species prefers riverine habitats and the inshore areas of the reservoir (Bailey <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
60630	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	The species supported a lucrative fishery between 1969–1971 (Bailey <em>et al</em>. 1999), but later declined to low levels due to pest infection reported by Horril (2000). For example, in 1974 the species composed 32.2% of the catches in the reservoir (Denny and Bailey 1976) but Nhwani (1988) and Bailey <em>et al</em>. (1999) failed to catch any individuals in their subsequent surveys even though it was still occasionally observed in some local markets. Currently (2003) it makes up less than 5% of the total catch. In terms of total production in the early seventies reservoir production was 3,412 tons for a fishing effort of 755 canoes which declining to a current production of less than 510 tons caught by 534 vessels. This equates to a population decline of 96.7% during the last 30 yrs.	eng
60630	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Clearing of macrophytes, which provide essential refuges and feeding areas. Disease outbreaks as reported in 1969 when the population was almost lost. Over-fishing and use of illegal fishing gears and methods. Increased siltation and pollution from domestic and agricultural effluents.	eng
60631	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60631	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa catchment	eng
60631	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Found in both lakes and rivers.	eng
60631	population	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	The species is commercially exploited and composed 34.17% of the total annual catch in 1977 (Bernascek 1980) rising to 70% in 1996 (Fish. Div. 1996). Catch per vessel as a measure of relative abundance declined slightly: 3.7 tons per vessel was landed in 1997 compared to 3.2 tons per vessel in 1996. The decline is only 13.5%.	eng
60631	threats	Bayona, J.D.R. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Over-fishing: exploitation by small meshed nets (illegal fishing gears). Siltation and land based pollution.	eng
60632	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60632	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the lower Malagarasi River and its delta.	eng
60632	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in shallow standing or slow-flowing waters, mainly in marginal vegetation and swamps around the main river, lagoons, ponds and its delta. Mostly planktivorous.	eng
60632	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60632	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing and agriculture extension into the wetlands around the main river and the delta. Common in fisheries catches - this species is of economic importance.	eng
60633	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place. Monitoring and control of pollution levels is needed to help protect this species.	eng
60633	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.	eng
60633	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A benthic, riverine species feeding and spawning in slow-moving rivers.	eng
60633	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data are available on population trends or decline rates. The species is believed to be declining as a result of habitat loss and degradation (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).	eng
60633	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The main threats to the species are changes in water level caused by natural drying out of rivers as a result of drought, and water extraction during dry seasons. Domestic and sewage pollution of waterways also threaten the species. <em>Acanthobrama</em> species are highly sensitive to ammonia concentrations therefore are highly sensitive to pollution (Elron <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
60634	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60634	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Chala (extent of occurrence < 2 km²) on the eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.	eng
60634	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lives in Lake Chala, which is a deep, clear lake (Trewavas 1983). Young feed on algae and debris from the bottom between the rocks near the shore. No information was obtained on the food preference of adults (Trewavas 1983).  Max. size: 253 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).	eng
60634	population	Bayona, J.D.R., Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Declining.	eng
60634	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Siltation and erosion; Seasonal drought; and weed-infestation.	eng
60635	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60635	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the catchment rivers for Lakes Yliki and Paralimni [now totally drained] and the rivers Assopos and Kifissos in Greece.	eng
60635	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in running water with aquatic plants.	eng
60635	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Local declines are reported but the sub-population is stable within Livadia city (a large system of springs).	eng
60635	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, and drought.	eng
60636	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60636	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from the upper Ruchugu drainage near Kasulu, in the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
60636	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Slow running water of the Mgandazi and Ruchugu rivers. In the Mgandazi it was found in a section bordered with dense vegetation (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Most likely a detritus eater (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60636	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Never abundant.	eng
60636	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity as a consequence of erosion on watershed due to agriculture extension.	eng
60637	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60637	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from the type locality at Uvinza (Middle Malagarasi River drainage, Tanzania) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60637	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rheophilic species, confined to swift running waters (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Stomach contents included numerous algae species (De Vos and Seegers 1998). A mouthbrooding species (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60637	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A low-density species.	eng
60637	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Habitat loss.	eng
60638	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60638	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Known from the upper and middle courses of the Malagarasi drainage (Burundi and Tanzania).	eng
60638	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in the main river where it lives near the reeds and vegetation fringing the river in places with a moderate current. It is also common in several small and moderate flowing affluents sometimes with stronger currents (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Stomach contents contained very small eggs, plant and insect debris and small crustaceans. The gut of a larger specimen (75 mm SL) contained a few slender parasitic nematodes about 10 mm long (De Vos and Seegers 1998). It is probably a female mouthbrooder with rather large eggs (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60638	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60638	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Habitat loss.	eng
60639	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60639	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from the Mazimero and Nanganga Rivers (Upper Malagarasi River, Burundi) (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60639	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in two clear water rivulets with sandy and stony bottoms, draining their fast running waters from the hilly area of the Kumoso region to the Upper Malagarasi (De Vos and Seegers 1998). In several specimens the gut was filled with sand, plant debris and algae (De Vos and Seegers 1998).It is a mouthbrooder (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60639	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60639	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity as a consequence of erosion on watershed due to agriculture extension.	eng
60640	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60640	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from the Majamazi River (= Milowesi River), a western tributary of the Ugalla River (Malagarasi System, Tanzania).	eng
60640	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rocky habitats in relatively clear, swift and shallow water (De Vos and Seegers 1998). No data were obtained on its diet in natural conditions (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Reproduction has not been studied but it is probably a mouthbrooding species (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60640	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found at low densities.	eng
60640	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Increased water turbidity due to land erosion.	eng
60641	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60641	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Only known from the Upper Malagarasi river drainage in Burundi (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60641	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Often found in swift running waters, but occasionally also in quiet rivulets (De Vos and Seegers 1998). Numerous algae were found in the gut (De Vos and Seegers 1998). A mouthbrooder with low fecundity (De Vos and Seegers 1998).	eng
60641	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found at low densities.	eng
60641	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to land degradation.	eng
60642	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60642	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika (north of Ubwari).	eng
60642	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Occurs down to 40 m depth, and maybe deeper, above rocky habitats where they appear to prefer towering rock pinnacles held together by calcite landmarks around which the school swims. It is a mouth brooder and a popular aquarium species.	eng
60642	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population status is not known.	eng
60642	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution and over-exploitation.	eng
60643	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60643	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is confined to the extreme north (north of Ubwari).	eng
60643	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on rocky substrates in the littoral zone.	eng
60643	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60643	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution. Over exploitation for the aquarium trade and other human activities.	eng
60644	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60644	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is widely distributed in clear water areas of south eastern Lake Victoria. The most widely distributed species of the 'rockpicker' lineage. Abundance is very variable between localities. At most places this is a rare species but at the geographically isolated island complexes Mabibi Islands and Vesi Archipelago it is abundant or even one of the numerically dominant species in appropriate habitats (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60644	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It feeds on a diet consisting of benthic invertebrates, periphyton and macrophytes.	eng
60644	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
60644	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60645	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60645	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Distributed across three islands in south eastern Lake Victoria: Chamagati (Sengerema Region), Makobe (South Western Speke gulf), and Nansio (Ukerewe). Thought to be absent from other areas of the lake.	eng
60645	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Restricted to rocky substrates. It lives and feeds exclusively on the surface of rocky substrates (Seehausen <em>et al</em>. 1998). It feeds on Chironomid larvae with filamentous algae, diatoms and insects. It is a mouth brooder with parental care.	eng
60645	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Declining but with no recent data to quantify the rate of population decline	eng
60645	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Predation by Nile perch and other predators; illegal fishing practice; and water turbidity/pollution.	eng
60646	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60646	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60646	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60646	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, dropping to less than 10% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 8/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, and is assumed to be still relatively common (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
60646	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60647	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60647	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60647	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60647	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 63% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.	eng
60647	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60648	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60648	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60648	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
60648	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decrease from less than 2 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, but increases again to 0.9 for 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased to more than 2, especially as the habitat has considerably extended.	eng
60648	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60649	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60649	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60649	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species belongs to the deep benthic community. It feed upon the scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periodsof reproduction. Young <em>P. microlepis</em> have been only been seen close to the shore. Its diet shifts from a variety of micro-organisms and algae when young to an adult diet of mainly fish scales. Little is known about its reproduction although it is known to reproduce inshore among rocks and is remarkable for showing features both of mouth-brooding and substrate-guarding, the two major patterns of parental shown in cichlids	eng
60649	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but large schools of thousands of juvenile <em>P. microlepis</em> are often seen at sites not far from brooding pairs. This species is very common throughout its habitat, but is never abundant.	eng
60649	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No known.	eng
60650	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60650	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from Zambia at Musende Bay, Chituta and off Mwela.	eng
60650	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Perissodus eccentricus</em> has only been caught at depths of between 60 and 100 m and it is thought to belong to the deepwater benthic community. They feed upon scales of a variety of benthic fish species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction.	eng
60650	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60650	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No known.	eng
60651	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60651	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is restricted to the area around Cape Chipimbi and northwards near to Kapamba.	eng
60651	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Always found over rocks. Feeds on rock biocover.	eng
60651	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60651	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.	eng
60652	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60652	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a number of geographic races.	eng
60652	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is only found on rocks in the littoral zone in a few meters of water over rocks.	eng
60652	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60652	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.	eng
60653	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60653	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60653	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is only found on rocks in the littoral zone in a few meters of water.	eng
60653	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60653	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.	eng
60654	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60654	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread.	eng
60654	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It only found on rocky substrate, upon which it grazes, in the littoral zone.	eng
60654	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is common but its distribution is very sporadic.	eng
60654	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.	eng
60655	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60655	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60655	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60655	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
60655	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60656	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60656	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60656	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is one of the main members of the rocky-shore grazers in the lake. Their brush-like pads of tricuspid teeth on a long stem hinged at their base scrape algae from the rocks.	eng
60656	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60656	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Fishing activities provide a potential threat. Siltation.	eng
60657	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60657	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60657	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species belong to the deep-water benthic community where it feeds upon the scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction. It seems to be confined to rocky habitats.	eng
60657	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rare species.	eng
60657	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration due to agricultural development and deforestation around the lake.	eng
60658	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60658	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60658	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species belong to the deepwater benthic community. They feed upon scales of a variety of benthic species, chiefly cichlids. They are probably solitary except during periods of reproduction.	eng
60658	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60658	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration due to agricultural development and deforestation.	eng
60659	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60659	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60659	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rare benthic predominantly deepwater species.	eng
60659	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60659	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; and habitat deterioration through agricultural development and deforestation around the lake.	eng
60660	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60660	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in Malagarasi River delta. It is common throughout the lake.	eng
60660	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found at a wide range of depths (5 to 100 m deep) where it tends to be in schools off the bottom. Feeds on scales and skin grazed off other fish.	eng
60660	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rare in the fisheries catches.	eng
60660	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Potential over-fishing; and pollution and increased water turbidity in the inshore zone.	eng
60661	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species only rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
60661	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60661	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60661	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60661	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60662	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has not been reported since the 1980s. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.	eng
60662	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60662	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral and sub-littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60662	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No data are available, however the species appears to have declined since the 1970s, and has not been reported since 1985.	eng
60662	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60663	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60663	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60663	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is restricted to areas in the littoral zone where the substrate is firm (sand, rock). It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.	eng
60663	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 63% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.	eng
60663	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat).	eng
60664	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60664	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lakes Albert, Victoria, Kyoga, George, Nabugabo, and the swamp lakes Kachira, Kijanebola and Nakavali which lie between Lakes Edward and Victoria (Skelton in Daget <em>et. al</em>. 1991).	eng
60664	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Probably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps.	eng
60664	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information.	eng
60664	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Conversion of swamps for various purposes might endanger members of the species in those habitats. Agriculture may lead to erosion and increase water turbidity. No serous threats identified in the lake habitats.	eng
60665	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60665	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed but is largely absent in the north.	eng
60665	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives exclusively in rocky areas near the shore.	eng
60665	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60665	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Deterioration of the habitat through sedimentation and water pollution.	eng
60666	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known.	eng
60666	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60666	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found in the littoral zone, the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
60666	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species appears to be increasing in numbers. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes increase from zero in 1979/80 and 1987/88, to 0.7 in 1993/95 and more than four for 2006/08.	eng
60666	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60667	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60667	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60667	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
60667	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as less than 10% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and less than 10% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 17/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008) but the population is thought to have decreased since the 1970s.	eng
60667	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60668	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60668	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
60668	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores in the littoral zone, where it feeds on insects and zooplankton.	eng
60668	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded greater than 50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, and within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was reported at 11/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be common within its range.	eng
60668	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60669	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60669	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known from the Mwanza Gulf, Speke Gulf, Ukerewe and Sengerema. Geographically isolated places such as the Miandere Island northeast of Kome Island (Tanzania), are inhabited by morphologically aberrant populations that are probably derived from this species (Seehausen 1996a). Populations similar to <em>P. pundamilia</em> have also been reported from Kenyan shores (L. Kaufman, pers. comm.) and the species may have a circumlacustrine distribution (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60669	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates (littoral zone). It is one of the most cryptically living mbipi species. It inhabits moderately steep  and steep shores  with medium to large boulders, where it lives in large crevices  between rocks, predominantly in shallow waters, and in rockpools within emerged rocky reefs. It is an insectivore, and its diet consists of benthic invertebrates.	eng
60669	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 11/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), and is thought to be abundant where found.	eng
60669	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60670	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60670	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known only from three localities at the south-western shores of the Speke Gulf (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). <em>Pundamilia</em> with similar male coloration are known also from the shores of Ukerewe Island and from the Sengerema region where they live in habitats very similar to those of <em>P. igneopinnis</em>. They differ morpholmetrically considerably from <em>P. igneopinnis</em>, differ also in their vertical bar patterns, and in details of male coloration, and are likely belonging to separate species (Seehausen 1996a: 114-118).	eng
60670	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates (littoral zone). It inhabits moderately steep and steep rocky shores with medium sized to very big boulders. On moderately steep slopes, it is confined to slightly offshore areas beyond 2 m depth. On steep slopes it inhabits already  immediately inshore waters where it lives in deep and wide gaps between big boulders, sharing this habitat with <em>P. pundamilia</em>. Phytoplanktivore/detritivore.	eng
60670	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Although sampling within its known range, recent surveys in the Speke Gulf did not record this species (Mizoiri <em>et al</em>. 2008)	eng
60670	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
60671	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
60671	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known mainly from the Mwanza Gulf, where Python Islands harbour the most southern population. It is also known from three islands in the Speke Gulf, while it is almost certainly absent from the many other islands and mainland rock shores in the Speke Gulf region (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
60671	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky shores at depths between 2 and at least 10 m (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It appears that it does, however, not occur in inshore rock crevices and pools where these are inhabited by <em>P. pundamilia</em> (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). Insectivore/Zooplanktivore. Diet consists of benthic invertebrates and zooplankton.	eng
60671	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 13/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but appears to be rare.	eng
60671	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60672	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60672	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika it is widely distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60672	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species favouring sand habitats.	eng
60672	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60672	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution	eng
60673	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60673	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Malagarasi river.	eng
60673	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in marginal vegetation of the main river, lagoons and floodplain channels. Preys mainly on insects and small fish.	eng
60673	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but never abundant in fisheries catches	eng
60673	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Regression of the swamps in the wetlands around the main river due to agriculture and human settlement.	eng
60674	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60674	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it thought to be restricted to the Ubwari Peninsula.	eng
60674	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the rocky inshore areas.	eng
60674	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown	eng
60674	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.	eng
60675	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60675	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Distributed in the southwestern part of the lake.	eng
60675	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found in the rocky inshore habitats. Seldom found below 5 m.	eng
60675	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60675	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.	eng
60676	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60676	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widely distributed in the lake.	eng
60676	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species lives in the rocky substrate inshore. Not often encountered below 5 meters.	eng
60676	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60676	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation following deforestation, erosion, etc.	eng
60677	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60677	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread.	eng
60677	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on rocky substrates in 2–3 m of water.	eng
60677	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown but very rare.	eng
60677	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The greatest threats to the species are water pollution and habitat deterioration, and agricultural development.	eng
60678	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60678	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River delta. Common throughout the lake.	eng
60678	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Prefers inshore waters (0–10 m) over rocky or mixed substrates where it feeds on filamentous algae, diatoms and bacteria.	eng
60678	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown though not abundant in fisheries catches	eng
60678	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries, and water turbidity and siltation in the inshore zone	eng
60679	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60679	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Only known from the Kigoma area	eng
60679	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in rubble habitats in shallow water not exceeding 5 m and never exceeding 10 m. Feeds on biocover.	eng
60679	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60679	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.	eng
60680	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60680	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It has a wide distribution but is not known from the southern parts of the lake.	eng
60680	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the very shallow pebble shore surf zones.	eng
60680	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rare species.	eng
60680	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.	eng
60681	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60681	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in northern the part of lake.	eng
60681	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the very shallow pebble shore surf zones.	eng
60681	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60681	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Agriculture development leading to increased siltation, turbidity, and pollution.	eng
60682	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60682	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60682	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species found on mud/silt habitats at variable depths down to 70 m.	eng
60682	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Rare throughout its area of distribution.	eng
60682	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60683	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60683	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the northern part of lake.	eng
60683	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found in shallow water over rocky substrates.	eng
60683	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The species is rare throughout its area of distribution.	eng
60683	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation. Agricultural developments, dams, the construction of the Bujumbura-Rumonge road in Burundi and deforestation have transformed the environment. This has led to increasing siltation and loss of habitat.	eng
60684	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60684	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60684	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the littoral zone in rocky substrate.	eng
60684	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown but the species is rare.	eng
60684	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.	eng
60685	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60685	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60685	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the rocky substrate of the littoral zone.	eng
60685	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Rare.	eng
60685	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60686	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60686	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tangnyika with a widespread distribution.	eng
60686	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Known from many types of rock substrate even in very turbid waters. It is among the most common and ubiquitous fishes of the lake. It is also among the first fish to be exported from the lake.	eng
60686	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Very common species.	eng
60686	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat following forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
60687	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60687	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60687	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60687	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60687	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60688	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60688	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60688	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the rocky substrate in the littoral zone.	eng
60688	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60688	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.	eng
60689	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60689	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is thought to be restricted to the southern half of the lake.	eng
60689	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60689	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rare species.	eng
60689	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat.	eng
60690	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60690	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60690	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60690	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Occurs in many reserves over its wide range.	eng
60690	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species occurs in many reserves over its wide range.	eng
60690	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Senegal and Niger River, Congo River system, Zambezi River system, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarazi. Also known from Shaba, upper Kasaï, Lualaba system, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene.	eng
60690	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia rendalli</span> is known from the Senegal and Niger Rivers, the Congo to Kenya, and much of southern Africa. It has been introduced elsewhere, usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong><em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is naturally known from the Katanga region and in the Lualaba River up to Kisangani (Stanleyville) – Isangi in the Democratic Republic of Congo. . <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has been introduced as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, for aquacultural purposes, in 1949, from Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), who observed a few specimens of <em>T. rendalli</em> at the fisheries station of Melen near Yaoundé, the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. Its use for aquaculture in Cameroon has been abandoned.  It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to the fisheries station of Djoumouna, Congo, Congo River basin. According to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) its use in aquaculture was abandoned, but the species probably established in the country. The introduction of <em>T. rendalli</em> into the Lower Guinean part of Congo is confirmed by a museum record originating from a pond at the station of Dimonika. <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has also been introduced as <em>T. melanopleura</em>, around 1950, from Katanga but originating from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. Its presence in Gabon is confirmed by museum records from the Ogowe River basin.<br/><br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is native to the Lake Tanganyika and Malawi Basins and Lakes Chilwa, Chuita and the Shire River (Malawi). It has been introduced in Lake Victoria and many dams and water systems all over the region, e.g. Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe), Lake Chala and Athi/Sabaki drainage. Also introduced in the Tana River system (Mann, 1966; 1968) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). According to Welcomme (1988) and Lever (1996) it was introduced from an unrecorded source into Kenya in 1955 for stocking (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has also been introduced and is now well settled in This species is known from upper and middle Akagera system.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system including Lake Malawi, and east coastal rivers south to the Phongolo and coastal lakes to Lake Sibaya (Skelton 2001), as well as estuaries in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. It is found in all Zimbabwean rivers although it was probably absent originally from the upper Save-Runde and scarce on the highveld (Junor 1969). Its distribution has been extended by translocations, especially into small farm dams, in an attempt to control plant growth.	eng
60690	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Tilapia rendalli is known from the Senegal and Niger rivers, the Congo (upper Kasai and from the Yangambi region upstream to the Zambian Congo system) and Zambezi River systems, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarasi.  It is  also known from Shaba, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1991). It has been introduced elsewhere  usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.<br/><br/><em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is naturally known from the Katanga region and in the Lualaba River up to Kisangani (Stanleyville) – Isangi in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi, the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi River basins, and the coastal rivers and lakes in eastern Africa from the Zambezi delta south to the Pongolo River basin. <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has been introduced as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, for aquacultural purposes, in 1949, from Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), who observed a few specimens of <em>T. rendalli</em> at the fisheries station of Melen (3°52’N-11°29’E) near Yaoundé, the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. Its use for aquaculture in Cameroon has been abandoned. FAO (2005) reported the species not to be established in the country. However, according to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) it acclimatized in the Djerem (5°20’N-13°24’E) and Noum (Noun?) Rivers (4°55’N-11°06’E), part of the Sanaga River basin. Its presence in Cameroon is confirmed by museum records. It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to the fisheries station of Djoumouna (4°23’S-15°10’E), Congo-Brazzaville, Congo River basin. According to Moreau <em>et al.</em> (1988) its use in aquaculture was abandoned, but the species probably established in the country. The introduction of <em>T. rendalli</em> into the Lower Guinean part of Congo-Brazzaville is confirmed by a museum record originating from a pond at the station of Dimonika (4°14’S-12°25’E). <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> has also been introduced as <em>T. melanopleura</em>, around 1950, from Katanga but originating from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. Its presence in Gabon is confirmed by museum records from the Ogowe River basin.	eng
60690	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia rendalli</span> is known from Senegal and Niger River.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from Congo River system, Zambezi River system, Lake Tanganyika and Malagarazi,  Shaba, upper Kasaï, Lualaba system, Lake Malawi, Natal, Okavango and Cunene.  Introduced elsewhere usually for weed control and aquaculture. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.	eng
60690	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system including Lake Malawi, and east coastal rivers south to the Phongolo and coastal lakes to Lake Sibaya (Skelton 2001). Estuaries in Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal. Eastern Congo (Lualaba) system, including Lake Tanganyika. It has been introduced to various places north of its range in West and East Africa, including Lake Victoria. It is found in all Zimbabwean rivers although it was probably absent originally from the upper Save-Runde and scarce on the highveld (Junor 1969). Its distribution has been extended by translocations, especially into small farm dams, in an attempt to control plant growth.	eng
60690	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters,  floodplains and swamps. It is has a wide range of temperature tolerance (8-41°C) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982) and salinity to 19  ppt (Skelton 1993). It forms schools and is mainly diurnal. The juveniles feed on plankton, while adults mainly feed on higher  plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans. This species prefers a sloping spawning ground near the marginal fringe of  vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). It builds nest in shallow water where both parents guard the eggs and young.	eng
60690	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Tilapia rendalli</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps. It is has a wide range of temperature tolerance (8-41°C) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982) and salinity to 19 ppt (Skelton 1993). It forms schools and is mainly diurnal. The juveniles feed on plankton, while adults mainly feed on higher  plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans. This species prefers a sloping spawning ground near the marginal fringe of  vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). It builds nest in shallow water where both parents guard the eggs and young.	eng
60690	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic fish. It prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps.  Tolerant of a wide range of temperature (8-41°C) and salinity to 19 ppt.  Forms schools; is mainly diurnal.  Juveniles feed on plankton.  Adults feed mainly on higher plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans.	eng
60690	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river littorals or backwaters, floodplains and swamps. Tolerant of a wide range of temperature (8-41°C) and salinity to 19 ppt. Form schools and is mainly diurnal. Juveniles feed on plankton. Adults feed mainly on higher plants and also algae, insects and crustaceans.	eng
60690	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Tolerant of a wide range of temperatures (11-37 C) and salinity to 19 parts per thousand. Prefers quiet, well-vegetated water along river edges, backwaters, floodplains and swamps. Feeds mainly on waterplants and algae, but also takes aquatic invertebrates and small fish. Breeding pairs clear the vegetation in shallow water to form a nest 0.5-1.2 m across and excavate several tunnel-like brood chambers in which the eggs and larvae are protected. Juveniles remain within the brood chambers. Several broods are raised each summer.	eng
60690	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
60690	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60690	population	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.	eng
60690	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is thought to be widespread and abundant.	eng
60690	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and abundant.	eng
60690	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60690	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
60690	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
60690	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threats to the species are fisheries, aquaculture, gamefish and its capture for aquariums.	eng
60690	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The major threats to this species are increased fishing pressure, and loss of vegetated margins and floodplains around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension.	eng
60691	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	The population occurs within a small nature reserve.	eng
60691	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Restricted to the Jordan river basin. Only known from one location: Bet Sh'an Valley.	eng
60691	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A riverine species occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.	eng
60691	population	Goren, M., 2006	Very small population.	eng
60691	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Small population size and restricted range.	eng
60692	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60692	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60692	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A pelagic species.	eng
60692	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but rare when compared to other <em>Trematocara</em> spp.	eng
60692	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60693	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60693	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60693	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species.	eng
60693	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but common in its habitat.	eng
60693	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60694	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60694	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika	eng
60694	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species.	eng
60694	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known but the species is very abundant in its habitat.	eng
60694	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60695	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60695	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60695	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	A benthic species.	eng
60695	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Unknown but very abundant.	eng
60695	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60696	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60696	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60696	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species.	eng
60696	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Very abundant in some parts of its known habitat.	eng
60696	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60697	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60697	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to lLke Tanganyika.	eng
60697	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic species.	eng
60697	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Abundant in some localities.	eng
60697	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60698	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60698	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Trematocara zebra</em> is a newly described cichlid from the north west coast of Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from the sublittoral and benthic zone of the rocky shore at Luhanga and Pemba between 12 and 26 km South of Uvira (Congo).	eng
60698	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sublittoral and benthic zone of the rocky shore.	eng
60698	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60698	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60699	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60699	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika, with a widespread distribution, and the lower reaches of Malagarasi River.	eng
60699	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	<em>Trematocar variabile</em> inhabits the shallowest habitat of all the <em>Trematocara</em> species where it feeds on crustaceans and insect larvae.	eng
60699	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A common species.	eng
60699	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Beach seining. Siltation and water turbidity in the inshore zone.	eng
60700	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60700	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.	eng
60700	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Triglachromis otostigma</em> live mainly over mud bottoms but can also be found over sand near the shore from 2 m to greater than 50 m. A well-established species within the aquarium trade. It may have tactile sensors for use in a turbid environment where visibility is perhaps poor.	eng
60700	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is unknown but this species is commonly observed when diving.	eng
60700	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60701	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60701	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed in the central east coast of the lake (around Bulu Point). A single distinct race of this species has been found along the Kungwe Mountain range.	eng
60701	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.	eng
60701	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60701	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation. Over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
60702	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60702	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to, and widespread in, Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60702	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species live in the littoral zone on rocky shores.	eng
60702	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information but is rare and difficult to catch.	eng
60702	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation. Over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
60703	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60703	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is only known from the south end of lake. The southernmost shorelines of the lake, between the borders of Zambia with Congo and Tanzania have yielded a set of local <em>Tropheus</em> races that have been described by Nelissen as the subspecies <em>Tropheus moori</em> Kasabae.	eng
60703	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It lives on rocky substrate in the littoral zone	eng
60703	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60703	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The aquarium trade heavily exploits this species. Sedimentation.	eng
60704	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60704	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is recorded from the northern part of lake where only three subpopulations have been found, namely: 1) "Bemba" which cohabits with the orange morph of <em>Tropheus moorii morii</em> on a very narrow stretch of coastline, less than 1 km long, around Cape Munene (the village of Bemba no longer exists). This relict population, more than 160 km from the next one in Tanzania on the east coast, involves a few thousand fish at most; 2) "Kigoma": This is the largest known population of <em>T. duboisi</em>, stretching from the border between Tanzania and Burundi, south of Nyanza Lac, to the Malagarazi River. Distributed along nearly 100 km of coastline, this population involves tens of thousands of fish. It shares its habitat with <em>Tropheus brichardi</em>. Broad yellow band. 3) "Malagarazi duboisi": The broad-banded <em>T. duboisi</em> has been found around the Malagarazi River delta but its full range is as yet unknown. By the mid-1983 a new very broad-banded yellow variety, whose whereabouts have not been identified, has been exported from Tanzania. It doesn't appear to be significantly different from the specimens previously exported.	eng
60704	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.	eng
60704	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population is thought to be no more than a few thousand individuals but no accurate count has been made.	eng
60704	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Heavily exploited by the aquarium trade. Sedimentation.	eng
60705	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60705	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the central parts of the lake but is absent in the far north and south. There are several varieties/races of this species. The main distribution appears to be north of Kigoma to the south of Rumonge. The northernmost habitat appears to be "corniche" of Nyanza Lac from which the first "shoko" were identified and exported.	eng
60705	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The habitat of <em>Tropheus</em> is solid rock, either anchored and part of the hard core of the coast interlocking rubble, or even the sandstone slabs lining a sand beach. Loose pebbles rolling about in the surf and silted-over habitats are avoided. The vertical depth range depends on the depth to which the epiphytic algae are growing and this varies from one species to another and from one part of the lake to another.	eng
60705	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60705	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Heavily exploited by the aquarium trade. Their habitat has also been impacted by deforestation which results in erosion, sedimentation, etc.	eng
60706	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60706	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is distributed along the west central coast of the lake mainly along the rocky coast south of the Ubwari peninsula. On the northwestern coastline there are three different species of <em>Tropheus</em> sharing the same habitat. As the Ubwari Peninsula was once an island separated from the mainland by a stretch of shallow water it has been proposed that <em>Tropheus annectens</em> might have migrated to the north before the shallow water link between Ubwari Island (or Muzimu Island as it was called 100 years ago) and mainland dried up. The populations of both <em>Tropheus duboisi</em> and <em>Tropheus annectens</em> north of the Ubwari could thus well be relics from a past occupation now facing strong competition from <em>Tropeus moorii</em>.	eng
60706	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on the shallow rocky shore.	eng
60706	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information obtained.	eng
60706	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.	eng
60707	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60707	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also the lower reaches of major inflowing rivers, including The Malagarasi and Rusizi.	eng
60707	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in very shallow inshore waters (0–1 m deep) on soft bottoms along the lakeshore and in river deltas and lagoons. Feeds mostly on plant debris.	eng
60707	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common in fisheries catches, although not abundant.	eng
60707	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Beach seining. Siltation and water turbidity in the inshore zone.	eng
60708	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60708	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60708	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic fish living on mud/silt.	eng
60708	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A rare species with a very fragmented population.	eng
60708	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	None known.	eng
60709	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60709	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a widespread distribution.	eng
60709	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A pelagic species found in relatively deep water.	eng
60709	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but abundant.	eng
60709	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No known threats.	eng
60710	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60710	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is known from the northern part of the lake in Burundi and Congo.	eng
60710	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found in sandy inshore habitats.	eng
60710	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60710	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60711	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60711	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60711	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is always found over sand in shallow water.	eng
60711	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
60711	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; habitat deterioration; and over-exploitation.	eng
60712	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60712	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60712	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in the littoral zone on the sandy bottom down to 20 m.	eng
60712	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known but the species seems to be very common.	eng
60712	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Over exploitation. Sedimentation, erosion. etc.	eng
60713	conservation	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60713	distribution	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60713	habitat	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	This species lives on sand.	eng
60713	population	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	A very common species.	eng
60713	threats	Bigirimana, C. & Nzeyimana, L., 2006	Sedimentation, erosion. etc.	eng
60714	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60714	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60714	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	It is occasionally seen over sand patches near the rocky slopes.	eng
60714	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	The population size is not known.	eng
60714	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60715	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60715	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60715	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives in mud/silt habitats.	eng
60715	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but the species is common.	eng
60715	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No known threats.	eng
60716	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60716	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Burton Bay in Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60716	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on mud/silt substrates.	eng
60716	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Considered as fairly rare.	eng
60716	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution; over-exploitation; and habitat disturbance.	eng
60717	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60717	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widely distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60717	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	A benthic fish, living near the shore.	eng
60717	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Considered a rare species.	eng
60717	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Siltation.	eng
60718	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60718	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and is widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60718	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Lives on sand or mud and occasionally in the rocks.	eng
60718	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Very abundant.	eng
60718	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Siltation of the near shore rocky habitat.	eng
60719	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60719	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also found in the Malagarasi River delta.	eng
60719	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found on sandy and muddy bottoms from the surface down to more than 100 m. It feeds on copepods, ostracods and insects larvae.	eng
60719	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known but it is one of the most common small fish in the sandy shore habitats around the lake.	eng
60719	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Beach seining; and siltation and increased water turbidity in the inshore zone.	eng
60720	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
60720	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60720	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	<em>Xenotilapia sima</em> lives at the bottom, preferring mud or sand habitats where it is extremely well camouflaged.	eng
60720	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Unknown, but is very abundant.	eng
60720	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Water pollution. Habitat deterioration.	eng
60721	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60721	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60721	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. This species is thought to be a plant-eater.	eng
60721	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60721	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60722	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
60722	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
60722	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
60722	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
60722	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
60723	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
60723	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
60723	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral and off shore zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
60723	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species appears to be increasing in abundance. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 30 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, but then increased again to 20 in 1993/95 and more than 200 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a decrease from a mean of 16,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0.6 in 1987. However, between 1999 - 2008, although exact figures are not given, it was reported to be an abundant species.	eng
60723	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60724	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60724	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to Lake Victoria. Recovering from a previous decline in most bays and gulfs, including Mwanza gulf, Mori Bay, Emin pasha and Speke Gulf (Bayona <em>et al</em>. submitted, Witte <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
60724	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	It is a deep water zooplanktivore which has moved to shallow waters due to the upsurge of Nile perch (Witte and Witte-Maas 1987).	eng
60724	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Observed to be increasing in some locations.	eng
60724	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Predation by Nile perch and others; illegal fishing practice; over-fishing; and turbidity and water pollution.	eng
60725	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has not been reported since 1985. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.	eng
60725	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
60725	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
60725	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 27 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 218,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0.1 in 1987. Between 1999 - 2008, no specimens were collected by the large trawl.	eng
60725	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60726	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60726	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2003	None known.	eng
60726	conservation	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2006	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
60726	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus caschive</em> is rare in Egyptian Upper Nile. It has been recorded in Lake Nubia, which is part of High Dam Lake.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the Lower Nile and Bahr-el-Jebel, Lakes Edward, George and Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles near the delta and Lake Nesser.	eng
60726	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2003	The species has a widespread distribution including Lakes Edward, George and  Albert, the Albert and Albert Nile and the Aswa River (Upper Nile system).	eng
60726	distribution	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2006	This species is found the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has a widespread distribution including Lakes Edward, George and  Albert, the Albert and Albert Nile and the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile system).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Egyptian This species is known from upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and Blue Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia	eng
60726	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2003	Expected to be similar to that of Mormyrus kannume which prefers both inshore and offshore waters of lakes. Feeds on insects, particularly Chironomid larvae (Bailey 1994).	eng
60726	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	The food consists mainly of aquatic insects, particularly chironomid larvae and small shrimps, worms and vegetation. It is active mainly at night, and favoured by quite deep water with a soft muddy bottom. It breeds in summer. It reaches a maximum length of 75 cm.	eng
60726	habitat	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2006	This species is expected to be similar to that of <em>Mormyrus kannume</em> which prefers both inshore and offshore waters of lakes. Its diet consists mainly of aquatic insects, particularly chironomid larvae and small shrimps, worms and vegetation. It is active mainly at night, and favours quite deep water with a soft muddy bottom. It breeds in summer.	eng
60726	population	Twongo, T.K., 2003	A rare species.	eng
60726	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60726	population	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2006	This species is believed to be rare in eastern and northern Africa, however in north eastern Africa it is relatively common.	eng
60726	threats	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2006	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
60726	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2003	No particular threats identified.	eng
60726	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
60727	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	None known.	eng
60727	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Only known only from Lakes Kyoga and Kwania (Uganda) and the Victoria Nile and Aswa River (Worthington 1928a). Present in and above dams in the Teso District.	eng
60727	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available	eng
60727	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Widespread but rarely encountered.	eng
60727	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No specific threat identified.	eng
60728	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
60728	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Greece, from Kalamas to Mornos (except Acheron) and Pinios drainages (Peloponnese), including Lakes Trichonis, Amvrakia and Pamvotis.	eng
60728	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes and lower course of rivers, with mud to sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, lives up to 14 years. Spawns in May-July. Fractional spawner. Spawns in both lakes and their tributaries. Individual females spawn with 3-7 males on sandy beaches, especially near estuaries of tributaries. Eggs are non-adhesive. Larvae and juveniles form small monospecific schools in bays and harbours. Feeds on algae, plant material, insect larvae and detritus.	eng
60728	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
60728	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
60729	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60729	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Streams of the eastern flank of the Ruwenzori mountain. Ruimi, Mubuku and Sibwe rivers. Very limited extent of occurrence.	eng
60729	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60729	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60729	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No particular threat identified.	eng
60730	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60730	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	East Africa: known only from the type locality (Zega on the Vuda River, Lake Albert/Lake Mobutu Sese Seko) (see Froese and Pauly 2003). Restricted to a single lake ecosystem.	eng
60730	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Information not available.	eng
60730	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60730	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Information not available.	eng
60731	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60731	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the artesian well of the Chott el Djerid in southern Tunisia, and is extinct from the type locality. However 14 individuals collected at Fatnassa en Nefaoua a few metres from the type locality in 1989 now in the Natural History Museum of Madrid (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
60731	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lived in artesian wells in Chotts.	eng
60731	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Last specimens recorded in 1989.	eng
60731	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction.	eng
60732	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The Lake Beysehir area is a national park.	eng
60732	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to Lake Beysehir basin in Central Anatolia. It may also occur in Aksehir lake, but this is to be confirmed (the record may be referring to a different species) (Erk'akan and Tatlidil 2003).	eng
60732	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is lacustrine species and also riverine. Active predator, feeding on fish. Spawns in rivers.	eng
60732	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Found in one location for certain (possibly two, but this has to be confirmed). The population in Lake Beysehir is reported as abundant.	eng
60732	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted however, there are introduced zander <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in the lake and associated tributaries. There is likely to be competition between these two predatory species.	eng
60733	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60733	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Ruwenzori area in the Mubuku and Sibwe River Systems (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60733	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Occurs in fast turbulent water with many boulders behind which the fishes take shelter (Banister 1972, Lévêque and Daget 1984). Max. size: 23.1 cm TL (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
60733	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60733	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60734	conservation	Erk’akan, F. & Karatash, A., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60734	distribution	Erk’akan, F. & Karatash, A., 2006	<em>C. kurui</em> is restricted to western Anatolia streams and rivers down to the Menderes river, Turkey.	eng
60734	habitat	Erk’akan, F. & Karatash, A., 2006	A riverine species	eng
60734	population	Erk’akan, F. & Karatash, A., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60734	threats	Erk’akan, F. & Karatash, A., 2006	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species (Cyprinids, e.g., <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>).	eng
60736	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Annex III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. polylepis</em>.	eng
60736	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the northwestern Iberian peninsula. The main rivers basins include: Eo, Masma, Oro, Eume, Allones, Donas, Tambre, Ulla, Umia, Minho, Limia, Ave and Douro rivers.	eng
60736	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in rivers with strong current.	eng
60736	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60736	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, dam construction, and canal building of rivers have recently begun and there are plans to do more (Carmona, J. pers. comm). Introduced predators are also a potential threat.	eng
60737	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60737	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Lower Tana drainage.	eng
60737	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
60737	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
60737	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60738	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60738	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Evrotas River in south-eastern Peloponnese in Greece. The Evrotas is inclined to become a seasonal stream.	eng
60738	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a strongly rheophilic species, confined to open sites within rivers with a fast flow and relatively cool waters. It has a maximum length of 150 mm. It spawns in May.	eng
60738	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60738	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution (agriculture), and drought.	eng
60739	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2004	No information available.	eng
60739	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2004	Lakes Victoria and Kyoga systems.	eng
60739	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2004	No information available.	eng
60739	population	Twongo, T.K., 2004	No information available.	eng
60739	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2004	No information available.	eng
60740	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No information	eng
60740	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60740	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Management plans for this species are also needed.	eng
60740	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60740	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Bagrus bajad</em> is common in the whole River Nile. In Egypt, it is found also in Wadi El Rayan Lake in addition to Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Lake Nasser, Sudan (Blue and White Niles), Chad basin, Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, West Africa, Niger River, East Africa, Uganda (Lakes Albert and Rudolf) and Ghana (Lake and River Volta).	eng
60740	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lakes Albert and Turkana, Nile River, L. Chad, Niger and Senegal River	eng
60740	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Nile River, Lakes Mobutu (Lake Albert) and Turkana. Reported from Sanaga River basin.	eng
60740	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This demersal species is found in lakes, swamps and rivers across much of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River, Lake Chad, and Niger and Senegal Rivers<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common in the whole River Nile. In Egypt, it is found also in Wadi El Rayan Lake in addition to Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea and the Nile in Sudan. It is also present in Baro, Blue Nile and Tekeze basins, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins.	eng
60740	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Bagrus bajad</em> is found in lakes, swamps and rivers. It spends nearly the whole of the daylight hours in crevices of rocks and is therefore seldom seen. Lives and feeds on or near the bottom. Adults are piscivorous and also feed on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter. There is some indication that the species comes to shallower water to breed. Spawning season extends from April to July. Parents build and guard the nest, which is like a flat disc with a central hole where is located the eggs area. Males live up to 7 years old, and females 8 years. It is reputed to reach 100000 g.	eng
60740	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Occurs in water less than 12 m deep. Preys on small fish, but also on insects, crustacea, molluscs, vegetable matter and detritus. Breeding ecology unknown	eng
60740	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in streams. It is a demersal fish that occurs in water less than 12 m depth. Preys on small fish, particularly <em>Alestes </em>spp, also feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, vegetable matter. An important food fish. Reputed to reach 100,000 g.	eng
60740	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a demersal species found in lakes, swamps and rivers in water less than 12 m deep. Preys on small fish, but also on insects, crustacea, molluscs, vegetable matter and detritus. It spends nearly the whole of the daylight hours in crevices of rocks and is therefore seldom seen. Lives and feeds on or near the bottom. Adults are piscivorous, particularly <em>Alestes</em> spp, and also feed on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter. There is some indication that the species comes to shallower water to breed. Spawning season extends from April to July. Parents build and guard the nest, which is like a flat disc with a central hole where the eggs area. Males live up to 7 years old, females 8 years. Reputed to reach 100,000 g.	eng
60740	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Although there is no population estimate, Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana. In Egypt, the catch gradually increased from 840 tonnes in 1995 to 19,026 tonnes in 2002 and then decreased to 10,228 tones in 2004. For the rest of this species range there is no data on population trends.	eng
60740	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Egypt, the catch has gradually increased from 840 tones in 1995 to 19026 tones in 2002 and then decreased to 10228 tones in 2004.	eng
60740	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
60740	population	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
60740	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
60740	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
60740	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure in L. Albert; not in L. Turkana	eng
60740	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is under heavy fishing pressure in Lake Albert. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species. Throughout the rest of its range there are no major threats known.	eng
60741	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
60741	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Only known from a single locality on the Soroti–Moroto road (North-eastern Uganda).	eng
60741	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2004	No specific information on habitat type and ecology available.	eng
60741	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
60741	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Restricted extent of occurrence (only known from one location so far).	eng
60742	conservation	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Kazembe, J., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Sustainable management of riverine fisheries is also needed.	eng
60742	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Sustainable management of riverine fisheries in needed.	eng
60742	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River system, Mozambique-Tanzanian border north to the Pangani system in Tanzania. Also present in Lake Chiuta, Malawi which is tenuously linked to the Rovuma system.	eng
60742	distribution	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Kazembe, J., 2009	This species is found in southeastern Africa: <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within Tanzania, this species is distributed in Mtera dam , Kidatu dam, Rivers Pangani, Ruvuma and Rufiji.  In Malawi, it is reported to occur in Lake Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is present in the Rovuma River system, from the Mozambique-Tanzanian border north to the Pangani system in Tanzania. Also present in Lake Chiuta, Malawi which is tenuously linked to the Rovuma system.	eng
60742	habitat	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Kazembe, J., 2009	It is distributed in deep waters of large rivers and lakes. It is a predator, that feeds sometimes on shrimp.	eng
60742	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Main channels of larger rivers.	eng
60742	population	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Kazembe, J., 2009	Little information is known on the population trends of this species, however it is reported to be declining in Tanzania.	eng
60742	population	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60742	threats	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species is possibly impacted by unregulated gill-net fishermen.	eng
60742	threats	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Kazembe, J., 2009	Threats to this species include:<br/><ul><li>­Mass kills due to asphyxiation. A serious event was observed in Tanzania in 1984.</li><li>­Illegal fishing practice, especially by use of under meshed gill-nets and other illegal techniques.</li><li>­Weed infestation and high turbidity.</li></ul>	eng
60743	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60743	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the deltas of its major affluent rivers including the. Malagarasi and Rusizi Rivers.	eng
60743	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters down to depths of 120 m in the lake on soft substrates. Feeds on detritus, insect larvae and small fishes.	eng
60743	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but very common in fisheries catches.	eng
60743	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fishing pressure.	eng
60744	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60744	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Zambian part of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60744	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Depth range is from 10 to 80 m and it appears most abundant between 40–80 m. Little is known of its ecology. Max. size: The species is small (maximum length known 138 mm).	eng
60744	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60744	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation. Over-fishing.	eng
60745	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60745	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Distributed in Ruaha-Rufiji system: Kidatu dam (extent of occurrence (EOO) = 10 km²), Mtera dam (EOO = 585 km²), Mindu dam (EOO = 4 km²) and rivers Ruaha, Pangani, Wami, and Rufiji. Total EOO <20,000 km².	eng
60745	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	The species occupies open waters or the pelagic environment. It migrates up the rivers for spawning during the rainy season. It is carnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, especially zooplankton, snails and insect larvae.	eng
60745	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Observed declining in Mtera dam (Chale and Mwaya 1984, Tamatamah 1996). Similarly a decline in population was reported for Mindu dam (Bwathondi and Kulekana 1986). The species composed less than 0.14% of fishery catches in the systems where present (Fish. Div. 1994, 1996).	eng
60745	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Fishing across rivers during the migration using illegal small mesh nets and other methods. Siltation. Land based pollution.	eng
60746	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2006	None	eng
60746	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
60746	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2006	Occurs in the mid and open water but spawns in the open water. Feeds on prawns, zooplankton, insects and small fish (Hopson 1982). Matures at 6?8 cm FL.	eng
60746	population	Akinyi, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60746	threats	Akinyi, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60747	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in a protected area.	eng
60747	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Lake Beysehir, in Central Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
60747	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A lacustrine species, but currently mainly occurs in springs rather than in the lake itself.	eng
60747	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available on population size. However, predation from introduced Zander is a problem and if the species does still occur in the lake the population is likely to be small and declining.	eng
60747	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted. However, there are introduced <em>Sander lucioperca</em> in the lake and associated tributaries. Zander is a predatory fish.	eng
60748	conservation	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60748	distribution	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lake Victoria system and associated smaller lakes, including middle Akagera, Lake Nabugabo, Lake Katwe and Victoria Nile (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Notable absence in Lake Kyoga. Reported from Lake Victoria as <em>A. nurse</em> by Copley (1941), a misidentification (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
60748	habitat	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Found in shallow inshore areas of lakes and quiet parts of rivers. Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates including snails and chironomid pupae and plants. Breeding biology not well known. Max. size: 27 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003)	eng
60748	population	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Suffered a significant decline in Lake Victoria after invasion of the Nile Perch. Now very rare being restricted to small populations in the gulfs and bays along the lakeshore.	eng
60748	threats	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds. In Lake Victoria: Competitive displacement and predation by Nile perch. Illegal fishing practices such as undersized nets.	eng
60749	conservation	Kazambe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
60749	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60749	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic revision is required.	eng
60749	conservation	Marshall, B.E, Tweddle, D., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has protection in some reserves.	eng
60749	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is widely distributed from Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  This species is present in the Kasai system and the upper reaches of the upper Congo River basin, as well as Cubango and Luapula River (Congo system) (Skelton 2001)<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Zambezi system,  Okavango,  Cunene and Kafue Rivers, also lower Buzi in Mozambique and the St Lucia catchment in Kwazulu-Natal. It is apparently absent from northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi in northern Zambia, but was found in the headwaters of the Kafue system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
60749	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is known from the Kasai system and from the upper reaches of the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper to Lower Zambezi, Kafue, Cubango, Okovango, Lake Kariba of the Zambezi basin; north of Tugela to south of Pongola, Natal.	eng
60749	distribution	Kazambe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In the Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Zambezi and Okavango systems, Cunene and Busi rivers, St Lucia catchment in Natal (RSA).	eng
60749	distribution	Marshall, B.E, Tweddle, D., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system,  Okavango,  Cunene and KafueRivers, also Lower Buzi in Mozambique and the St Lucia catchment in Kwazulu-Natal. It also occurs in the Luapula River (Congo system) (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern tributaries of the Upper Zambezi in northern Zambia, but was found in the headwaters of the Kafue system (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>	eng
60749	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits shallow, sandy or marshy areas (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Shoals are formed in clear, slow-flowing or quiet, well-vegetated waters. <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is often found together with the dashtail and the threespot barb and the close similarity of these species suggests mimicry between them. It feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms and is preyed upon by tigerfish and observed to be eaten by a small crocodile during an upriver migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> moves upstream during rains, possibly to breed. Ovarian egg counts from a large ripe female reach up to 12,000 eggs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Used as bait for tigerfish and largemouth bream (Skelton 1993). It prefers tropical mangroves in tropical climate	eng
60749	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits shallow, sandy or marshy areas (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Shoals are formed in clear, slow-flowing or quiet, well-vegetated waters. It is most commonly found in the main stream of rivers but moves onto floodplains during flood periods (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> is often found together with the dashtail and the threespot barb and the close similarity of these species suggests mimicry between them. It feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms and is preyed upon by tigerfish and observed to be eaten by a small crocodile during an upriver migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Brycinus lateralis</em> moves upstream during rains, possibly to breed. Ovarian egg counts from a large ripe female reach up to 12,000 eggs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Used as bait for tigerfish and largemouth bream (Skelton 1993).	eng
60749	habitat	Marshall, B.E, Tweddle, D., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	Rivers and inshore waters of large impoundments. Most commonly found in the main stream of rivers but moves onto floodplains during flood periods (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). A shoaling species that feeds on small aquatic and terrestrial organisms (Skelton 2001). Moves upstream or laterally on to floodplains to breed when waters are rising.	eng
60749	habitat	Kazambe, J., 2003	Shoals in clear well vegetated waters. Feeds on small aquatic organisms. Migrates upstream during the rainy season probably to breed.	eng
60749	population	Marshall, B.E, Tweddle, D., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	Abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range. It was once the most numerous inshore species in Lake Kariba (Balon 1971) although numbers decreased after the introduction of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Limnothrissa miodon</span> from Lake Tanganyika (Huddart 1994).	eng
60749	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60749	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Thought to be abundant in suitable habitats throughout its range. It was once the most numerous inshore species in Lake Kariba (Balon 1971) although numbers decreased after the introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Limnothrissa miodon</span> from Lake Tanganyika (Huddart 1994).	eng
60749	population	Kazambe, J., 2003	Unknown	eng
60749	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	For the majority of its distribution there are no known threats to this species, however sedimentation in rivers poses a threat to populations in Lower Shire River in Malawi.	eng
60749	threats	Marshall, B.E, Tweddle, D., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60749	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60749	threats	Kazambe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is sedimentation in rivers.	eng
60750	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information.	eng
60750	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic and widespread throughout the Lake Victoria basin, and Lake Kanyaboli. Introduced into the Upper Athi and Upper Tana systems.	eng
60750	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in swamps and small rivulets, often beneath overhanging grass along the shore. Avoids open water, and remains close to the bottom (Seegers, 1990). Max Size: 130.5 mm SL (Seegers, 1990).	eng
60750	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information.	eng
60750	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60751	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60751	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in tributaries of Lake Tuz, to the region of Aksaray and Nigde in Central Anatolia, in Turkey. Also in Insuyu stream, Cihanbeyli and Saz Lake, Haymana.	eng
60751	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in streams and lakes.	eng
60751	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60751	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, drought, and overfishing are the main threats.	eng
60752	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60752	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganika with a widespread distribution in the pelagic zone.	eng
60752	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Adults are strictly pelagic, but the larvae are found in shallow calm inshore waters. It is a zooplanctivore and forms the most important commercial fish in Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60752	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60752	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing. Pollution in the northern end of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60753	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60753	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin in Syria and Turkey.	eng
60753	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species. Feeds on algae from rock surfaces. The species need well-oxygenated water for spawning (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). Separate feeding and spawning areas (migratory, but not to a great extent).	eng
60753	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data on population size, but a survey of the river found the species in only three locations.	eng
60753	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution are the main threats. The species is sensitive to chemical (ammonia) pollution. Drought is also a problem, particularly in Amik Lake. The range is fragmented due to dam construction.	eng
60754	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60754	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is also found in the lower Malagarasi. It has been introduced to Lake Kivu and the man-made lakes Kariba and Cabora Bassa.	eng
60754	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Adults inhabit the pelagic zone, but reproducing populations and juveniles are found in bays and inshore waters and even in river deltas. It is a major commercial fish in Lake Tanganyika (the second after <em>Stolothrissa tanganicae</em>), Lake Kivu and Lake Kariba.	eng
60754	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60754	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing in pelagic zone (on adults) and in inshore (on larvae).	eng
60755	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available. Habitat maintenance is required to protect this species.	eng
60755	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60755	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The <em>Amphilius cf. jacksonii</em> is the name used for the populations of the Chambezi, Luongo, Luapula and near Lubumbashi. The "real" <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> occurs along the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. It has also been found in an affluent river of the Lake Victoria drainage, Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
60755	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	This species is endemic to eastern Africa. It is found in the Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Rugufu River, Lake Tanganyika drainage, Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996), Ruaha and Wami drainages (Seegers 1996). It has also been recorded in the Lake Victoria drainage.	eng
60755	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius jacksonii</em> is a demersal that occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated waters Skelton 1993). It feeds predominantly on benthic aquatic insects (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is iteroparous, with asynchronous ovarian development (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
60755	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	This species prefers fast flowing streams and brooks, mostly in the upper drainages of rivers, in water that is clear and well-aerated with a high content of oxygen (Seegers 1996). It is carnivorous, mainly feeding on insect larvae, worms and other small invertebrates (Seegers 1996). Nothing is known about breeding behaviour, and it can only be speculated that the fish migrate up the rivers to spawn during the rainy season (Seegers 1996).	eng
60755	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60755	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60755	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity which affects to this species. Fishing with grenades and sabotage have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand are other threats to the species.	eng
60755	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension threaten the habitat of this species.	eng
60756	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2006	None.	eng
60756	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
60756	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2006	Occurs in the mid and open water but spawns in the open water. Breeds at 2.5–3.0 cm FL. Feeds on zooplankton and occasionally small insects	eng
60756	population	Akinyi, E., 2006	No population estimates	eng
60756	threats	Akinyi, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
60757	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60757	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters deltas of streams and rivers, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.	eng
60757	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in shallow coastal areas of the lake and deltas of rivers. Feed mainly on small fishes, and also on invertebrates and plants.	eng
60757	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common, although never abundant	eng
60757	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries pressure. Pollution in the littoral zones and rivers deltas.	eng
60758	conservation	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60758	distribution	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Lake Victoria and associated rivers including middle Akagera River, Victoria Nile, Aswa River (Upper Nile system) and associated lakes, Kyoga and Nabugabo.	eng
60758	habitat	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Found in inshore waters of lakes (less than 4 m deep) and amongst the marginal vegetation. Feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae. Max. size: 13.8 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
60758	population	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Used to be abundant in the shallow inshore waters of Lake Victoria but the population is reported to be declining since the Nile perch has been established.	eng
60758	threats	Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Twongo, T.K., 2006	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.  In Lake Victoria: Competitive displacement and predation by Nile perch, use of illegal fishing practices.	eng
60759	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
60759	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the endoreihic Jadova river in Croatia.	eng
60759	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in reaches with slow current and clear water.	eng
60759	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining. In 1997, 1998 and 1999 the species was collected at only two sites, and in 2003 it was not collected at either site but was found to exist at another site.	eng
60759	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Primarily invasive species <em>Lepomis</em> spp and <em>Squalius cephalus</em> (Bogutskaya pers comm). Pollution, droughts.	eng
60760	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	No information available.	eng
60760	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. Also found in Lake Malombe and the Shire River as far down as the Lower Shire.	eng
60760	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies. It feeds on algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season is in the rainy season running from December to April. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em>, they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning pits in the sand at depths of 2–20 m.  Max. size: 36 cm TL.	eng
60760	population	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.	eng
60760	threats	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	The chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.	eng
60761	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
60761	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the upper reaches of the Krka river basin in the Vrba Creek on the Cikola tributary in Croatia.	eng
60761	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Only caught in places with slow and stagnant waters.	eng
60761	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not abundant (Mrakovcic, M. pers com).	eng
60761	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, droughts and domestic pollution (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm)	eng
60762	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60762	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to northern Tunisia (not present in the cap Bon) and to northern Algeria.	eng
60762	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers and lakes. It is small size fish (<100 mm total length).	eng
60762	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60762	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60763	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to southeastern Turkey, and was known to live in Lake Amik, presently drained.	eng
60763	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lakes and rivers.	eng
60763	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No current data, possibly extinct.	eng
60763	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drainage of Lake Amik in the 1960s may have resulted in some endemic species being extirpated, including <em>H. caudomaculata</em>.	eng
60764	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60764	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60764	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60764	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	In northern Africa, <em>Salaria fluviatilis</em> is present in Morocoo and Algeria. It is present in several lakes either naturally or introduced.	eng
60764	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is present from drainages around northern Mediterranean from Israel to Portugal, and in Morocoo and Algeria . It is present in several lakes either naturally or introduced. Present in Corsica, Sardinia and CretE islands. Present also within the Jordan river basin.	eng
60764	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	<p><span style="background-color: white;">The species occurs across the Mediterranean basin in Europe, Turkey, Israel, Morocco and Algeria. In the Iberian Peninsula it is found in the Fluvia, Ebro, Jucar, Segura, Guadiana and Guadalquivir drainages. In France in the Aude, Rhône (including Lake Bourget; introduced to Lake Annecy around 1980) and Var drainages (presence in Garonne drainage possibly due to invasion through Canal du Midi), Corsica. In Italy it is present in most streams with stone bottom, Lakes Garda, Maggiore, Lugano and Mergozzo, Sicily, Sardinia. It is present also in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania and Greece where it occurs in the Kalamas, Acheron, Acheloos and Aliakmon drainages, in Crete in most drainages of Peloponnese, Lakes Doiran, Koronia, Volvi and Vistonis. Sometimes listed as a recent invader of subalpine lakes of Apennine Peninsula, but in fact recorded from Lake Maggiore as early as 1836.</span></p>	eng
60764	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	It is mainly a riverine species that can be found also in lakes. It likes rubble and gravel substrate with moderate to high current velocity and stay in the deepest part. The male makes a nest under large stones. Larvae are pelagic. It is a short-lived species.	eng
60764	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is mainly a riverine species that can be found also in lakes. It likes rubble and gravel substrate with moderate to high current velocity and stay in the deepest part. The male makes a nest under large stones. Larvae are pelagic. It is a short-lived species.	eng
60764	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	<p>Lakes and streams with moderate current and stone bottom. In streams, the deepest and fastest microhabitats are preferred; sometimes in coastal lagoons with low salinity. It is Territorial and lives under stones. Lives up to 5 years. Spawns for first time at end of first yea and spawns up to 3 years, but most females die at end of first spawning year. Reproduces in May – August in France, April – July in Spain and Italy, at temperatures above 18°C. Female spawns up to 1200 eggs (usually 200–300) in a single layer under a large stone; spawns several egg portions during a spawning season. Male cleans, fans and defends eggs until hatching. Several females may spawn with one male, which may guard eggs at different stages of development. Eggs hatch in about a week. Larvae are planktonic until about 15 mm, are drifted to and remain in quite pools or side arms of rivers. Larvae are capable to exist under full marine conditions and might spread through the sea. Feeds on insects, crustaceans and fry.</p>	eng
60764	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Few data to no data. In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The population is very fragmented.	eng
60764	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Few data to no data. In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The populations are very fragmented.	eng
60764	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	In some places populations are small, but in others can be very large. The population is very fragmented.	eng
60764	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization that fragment rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction.	eng
60764	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization that fragment rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction. Most riverine populations have declined in recent years because of habitat alteration (especially siltation and alteration of stream morphology) and predation by exotic species. The presence of habitat suitable for the larval 'pelagic' stage downstream of spawning sites is a limiting factor. Lacustrine populations are apparently safer.	eng
60764	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2004	Threats to this species are gravel extraction, eutrophication and habitat destruction. Dams and river channelization have fragmented rivers. Water extraction and drought may hamper reproduction.	eng
60765	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60765	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the lower courses of the Ksih Tensift river in Morocco. (Doadrio, I. pers com).	eng
60765	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60765	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60765	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and domestic pollution.	eng
60766	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60766	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60766	conservation	Bousso, T., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the ecology of this species, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
60766	distribution	Bousso, T., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, reaching into Burundi, Tanzania and northern Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Tanganyika's affluent streams and rivers, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.	eng
60766	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also present in Lake Tanganyika (Eccles 1992), the Ruzizi River and the Malagarasi River.	eng
60766	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad. More information is needed on the exact distribution of the species.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Congo basin, Chad, Ituri. Also present in Tanzania.	eng
60766	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes (Eccles 1992).	eng
60766	habitat	Bousso, T., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes stormsi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes (Eccles 1992) but is most often found in the lower reaches of streams and rivers.	eng
60766	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic species.	eng
60766	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
60766	population	Bousso, T., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60766	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60766	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally threatened by agricultural development.	eng
60766	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
60766	threats	Bousso, T., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by water turbidity due to erosion on river basins - a consequence of agriculture extension.	eng
60767	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60767	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Nyumba ya Mungu and its outlet to the Pangani River. The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².	eng
60767	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Recorded in both inshore and off-shore open waters. Juveniles can only be collected in shallow waters along the shoreline.	eng
60767	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Prior to 1974 the species was of secondary importance in the fishery. The reported composition of this species in the fishery catches was 48.2% in 1974 (2,200 tons for assorted species). By 1994, however, the population had declined to alarming levels such that Alestiids composed only 0.6% of the total catch.	eng
60767	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Over-fishing accompanied by use of illegal gears and methods. Increased siltation due to deforestation and agricultural practice. Land-based pollution especially from domestic and agricultural activities.	eng
60768	conservation	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60768	distribution	Vreven, E., 2004	Turkwell River (Turkana drainage) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished).	eng
60768	habitat	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60768	population	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60768	threats	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60769	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60769	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Om Er Rbia basin in central Morocco.	eng
60769	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60769	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Considered to be declining (>30% over the past 10 years) based upon fishing surveys over the last 15 years done by Doadrio (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
60769	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Urban, agricultural and industrial pollution.	eng
60770	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60770	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Malagarasi River.	eng
60770	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in marginal water reeds and swamps and slow flowing and standing shallow waters.Omnivorous, but mainly a predator of small fishes, molluscs and other invertebrates.	eng
60770	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60770	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries. Extension of agriculture in wetlands around rivers.	eng
60771	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available. Monitoring of population trends is needed, as is habitat maintenance and conservation.	eng
60771	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is found in eastern African lakes from Sudan to Tanzania<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward, George, and their affluent streams, rivers and associated satellite lakes (Kachira, Nakivali, Kijanebalora, Katwe, Kirumi). Also in the Victoria Nile, Malagarasi River and the Lake Tanzania and Rukwa systems (Seegers 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> A rare and small species reported from Sudan by Bianco (1981 cited by Bailey 1994).	eng
60771	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species inhabits areas with marginal macrophytes, water lilies and papyrus. Common in smaller streams or swamps in basins outside Lake Rukwa (Seegers, 1996). No information was available on feeding and breeding biology. Max Size: 350 mm TL (Teugels in Daget <em>et al.</em> 1986)	eng
60771	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Information on population structure and abundance is lacking, but it has a fragmented distribution and is rarely found in artisanal fish catches.	eng
60771	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Threats to this species include: <br/>- Regression of swamps and other wetlands around lakes and rivers due to agriculture extension.<br/>- Illegal fishing practice.<br/>- Bait fishery where juveniles are used as bait.	eng
60772	conservation	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60772	distribution	Vreven, E., 2004	Only known from the Mzima springs (Tsavo River system) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
60772	habitat	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60772	population	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60772	threats	Vreven, E., 2004	No information available.	eng
60773	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None	eng
60773	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Lake Ohrid and Drim river system in Albania and the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (FYROM), and the Moraca river and Lake Skadar system in Serbia-Montenegro.	eng
60773	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Found in the lower part of the Moraca river where the water current is low, and there is a sandy substrate with submerged vegetation. It is also found in the lakeshore.	eng
60773	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Very abundant.	eng
60773	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Gravel extraction, water pollution, habitat destruction	eng
60774	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60774	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Northern Ewaso Nyiro (below Chandler Falls).	eng
60774	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
60774	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
60774	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
60775	conservation	Vreven, E., 2004	None known.	eng
60775	distribution	Vreven, E., 2004	Sabaki River drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
60775	habitat	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60775	population	Vreven, E., 2004	No information.	eng
60775	threats	Vreven, E., 2004	Unknown.	eng
60776	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60776	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted northern Algeria. Not collected since 1990 (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
60776	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60776	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60776	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60777	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60777	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Neretva river drainage area (Lakes: Matica, Norin, Bacina, Tributaries: Tihaljina, Trebizat, Jasenica, Bregava, Buna, Hutovo blato.- both left and right-hand tributaries of Neretva.). It seems it is not very common in the Neretva itself. Prolosko and Ricice lakes, Vrljika drainage, Imotsko Polje in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (N. Bogutskaya and P. Zupancic pers comm.).	eng
60777	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in lakes and rivers.	eng
60777	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60777	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60778	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available. Population trends need monitoring, and habitat maintenance and conservation my be required.	eng
60778	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is found from Sudan to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and George. It is also present in Victoria Nile and their affluent streams and rivers such as Nabugabo, Kachera, Nakivali and Kijanebarola. Also in Malagarasi river (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and Rusizi River.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Bahr el Jebel, Sudan	eng
60778	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species inhabits lakes and rivers (Teugels 1986), marginal swamps marginal grass areas and papyrus swamps (Eccles 1992). It is mainly insectivorous (larval and adult aquatic Coleptera, terrestrial insects, Povilla, chironomid larvae). Other food items included ostracoda, gastropods, plants, copepoda and Hydracarina (Teugels 1986).	eng
60778	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Population not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60778	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Loss of swamps and other wetlands around lakes and rivers due to farming extension is a threat to this species in eastern Africa. Further threats are unknown.	eng
60779	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None.	eng
60779	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika	eng
60779	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives on sub-littoral zones with rocky habitat between 10–120 m. Omnivorous, with a preference for fish. Migrates from the bottom at night to feed on clupeids near the surface. Nothing known about reproduction, but reproduction probably occurs in coastal rather than deep water.	eng
60779	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Population size not known. Common in fisheries catches although never abundant.	eng
60779	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Very heavily exploited by the fishermen.	eng
60780	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60780	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60780	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A rock dwelling clariid living deep in the crevices. Probably omnivorous but mainly piscivorous like other clariids. Biology not known.	eng
60780	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60780	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
60781	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60781	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60781	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Lives in the littoral zone in lake Tanganyika among rock, sand or silt substrates. Not found below 30 m.	eng
60781	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Population size not known, but common in fisheries catches.	eng
60781	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Fishing pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.	eng
60782	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60782	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60782	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lacustrine and benthic. Found over mud/silt substrates at between 20–50 m depth but has been recorded down to 100 m.	eng
60782	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Population size not known, but rare in fisheries catches	eng
60782	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.	eng
60783	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60783	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is more abundant in the northern than the southern end of the Lake.	eng
60783	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lacustrine benthic species. Lives in mud/silt habitats at between 30–60 m deep. Seems to co-habit with <em>Chrysichthys sianenna</em>. Is a voracious scale-eater but feeds mostly on shrimps.	eng
60783	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Population size not known.	eng
60783	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.	eng
60784	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60784	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60784	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	A benthic species mainly restricted to the coastal shallow rocky areas.	eng
60784	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Population size not known, but it is very rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60784	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.	eng
60785	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60785	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is the most abundant benthic fish in the south. It does not appear to be equally distributed around the lake.	eng
60785	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	A lacustrine benthic species found on muddy substrates between 20–50 m but it has been recorded at depths of up to 100 m.	eng
60785	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Population size not known.	eng
60785	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Fisheries pressure and siltation in lake's littoral zone.	eng
60786	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60786	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60786	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives on rocky substrates. Its biology is not known	eng
60786	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Largely unknown but it is too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches	eng
60786	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60787	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60787	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60787	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives on rocky substrates.	eng
60787	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Largely unknown. It is too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches.	eng
60787	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60788	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60788	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60788	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	It lives on rocky zones in coastal water to the lake and is a voracious predator.	eng
60788	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be seen in fisheries catches.	eng
60788	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60789	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60789	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60789	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives on the rocky slopes where it hides in crevices only coming out at night. Biology poorly documented.	eng
60789	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be noted in fisheries catches.	eng
60789	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60790	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60790	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60790	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives on the rocky shore littoral where it hides in crevices only coming out at night. Biology poorly documented.	eng
60790	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown. Too rare and too small to be noted in fisheries catches.	eng
60790	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60791	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60791	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the western tributaries of the Tejo basin, and in some small occidental (Sado and Samarra rivers) and southern (Mira and Arade rivers) Portuguese basins.	eng
60791	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in shallow streams of medium flow, with vegetation on the banks.	eng
60791	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60791	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and habitat destruction (dams). Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60792	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60792	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	This species was endemic to Lake Hula.	eng
60792	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A lacustrine species.	eng
60792	population	Goren, M., 2006	Now extinct.	eng
60792	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Lake Hula has now been drained.	eng
60793	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	None.	eng
60793	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Ruaha-Rufiji system, Ruvu and Ruvuma Rivers.	eng
60793	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Usually riverine, but may colonize dams. They are highly migratory, often going to the upper reaches of Great Ruaha to spawn around January/February. Tend to feed on epiphytic algae, coarse vegetation/detritus and aquatic invertebrates.	eng
60793	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Composition of <em>Distichodus</em> in the catches was 1.5% in 1987, gradually declining to less than 0.9% in 1996. CPUE as an index of relative abundance has declined at the same time.	eng
60793	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Silt loading, chocking substrate for spawning. Over-fishing especially using illegal gears and methods. Land based pollution. High BOD in Mtera during windy periods, leading to fish kills.	eng
60794	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60794	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Zrmanja river basin and Krka river basin in Dalmatia, Croatia. It is introduced into the Ricica Polje in Croatia.	eng
60794	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine.	eng
60794	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant and stable (Freyhof, J. & Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).	eng
60794	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	There is one dam on the Zrmanja but this does not seem to have adversely affected the species (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).	eng
60795	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	None.	eng
60795	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Distributed in Kidatu Dam, Mtera Dam and the Wami, Rufiji-Ruaha and Ruvuma Rivers.	eng
60795	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Mostly found in rivers but may colonize dams. Migrates upstream to spawn.	eng
60795	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	In Mtera dam the index of relative abundance (CPUE) declined from 0.008 m tons/vessel in 1994 to 0.002 m tons/vessel in 1996 (Fish. Div. Stat. 1994, 1996). Catches in Kidatu dam are comparatively small.	eng
60795	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Illegal fishing across rivers. Siltation and choking the spawning substrate. Land based pollution.	eng
60796	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60796	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species may be restricted to the Jordan and Litani river systems in Lebanon, Israel, Syria and Jordan.	eng
60796	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60796	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60796	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60797	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60797	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to western Anatolia, Turkey including Menderes, Karadere, Kocaçay, Mürvetler river basins (stream flows into Lake Manyas), Bakir stream and lake Manyas.	eng
60797	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in rivers, lakes and lake tributaries.	eng
60797	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60797	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction. Introduction of exotic fish species in Manyas Lake. Sand extraction.	eng
60798	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annexes II and V of the European Union Habitats Directive, and in Appendix III and II of the Bern Convention. In Slovenia the species has been effectively protected since the mid-1990s.	eng
60798	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the upper adriatic river drainages, including those in Switzerland, northern Italy, the Adriatic basin of Slovenia and Croatia (Neretva and Matica rivers). Two sub-populations have been found also in Central Italy in the Esino and Potenza river basins.	eng
60798	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in cold-water brooks near springs. It is a non-parasitic lamprey as adult does not feed. It requires a gravel substrate. The larvae remain hidden in the gravel for 3–5 years then the adult emerges and spawns over a one-month period in summer. It is important to conduct surveys at times when the adults have emerged in the summer.	eng
60798	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Extensive survey in Italy has found many sub-populations in restricted areas.	eng
60798	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution and drought.	eng
60799	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60799	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rusizi River and Luiche River (close to Malagarasi River).	eng
60799	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Inhabits rocky fast- flowing rivers and streams. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
60799	population	Hanssens, M. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60799	threats	Hanssens, M. & Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed, and agricultural expansion.	eng
60800	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60800	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Mtera dam, Kidatu dam, Lake Jipe and the Pangani and Rufiji-Ruaha Rivers.	eng
60800	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Usually prefers rapidly flowing waters.	eng
60800	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60800	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Illegal fishing practice. Land based pollution. Erosion and silting.	eng
60801	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	This species occurs within Upemba National Park.	eng
60801	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> is only known from the Muye river, affluent of the Lufira River, Upemba National Park, This species is known from upper Congo River basin (type locality, Eschemeyer 1998).	eng
60801	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1996).	eng
60801	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60801	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no major threat for <em>Chiloglanis lufirae</em> because it is known from the Upemba National Park.	eng
60802	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place at present.	eng
60802	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species is restricted to the Jordan River basin, where it is widely distributed in lakes and most tributaries of the Jordan River (Israel, Jordan). In the coastal plain of Israel, it occurs only in the Qishon River.	eng
60802	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in lakes and rivers. A small species (less than 140 mm). Spawns from February to April.	eng
60802	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population within the Lake Kinneret is stable at present. Populations in the riverine part of the species' range are declining.	eng
60802	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats, but are not believed to be threatening the whole population.	eng
60803	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60803	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it only known from around Likoma Island.	eng
60803	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60803	population	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60803	threats	Kazembe, J., 2006	Restricted range and localised overfishing.	eng
60804	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60804	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Rusizi River.	eng
60804	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in rapidly flowing rocky streams and rivers. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
60804	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60804	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension.	eng
60805	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A special Greek law protects it, but this is not enforced.	eng
60805	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Sperchios river basin and to the Lake Yliki in eastern Greece. Previously present in Lake Paralimni, which has since been drained. Also in the Kifisos river.	eng
60805	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size, predominantly lacustrine, barbel (<700 mm). Reproduction is in June on sandy substrate.	eng
60805	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60805	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted range, overfishing, water extraction, water pollution and agriculture.	eng
60806	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60806	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Lakes Victoria, Nabubabo, and Kyoga, the Victoria Nile and affluent rivers. Rivers Akagera, Pangani and associated small lakes; Lakes Karumi, Nyumba ya Mungu and the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001). Dubious records of <em>Synodontis afrofischeri</em> from the Tana and Athi Rivers are thought to be based on misidentifications of <em>S. serpentis</em>.	eng
60806	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	A benthic dweller in lakes and major rivers in and marginal vegetation down to70m but most common at depths of less than 30 m (Witte and de Winter 1995). Feeds on insects and molluscs, (Witte and de Winter 1995). At any one time an estimated 65 % of the stock is ready to spawn (Witte and de Winter 1995). Max. size: 177 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60806	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but the sub-population in Lake Victoria has shown a 67% decline in population due to shrinkage in extent of occurrence between 1969 and 1999.	eng
60806	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Illegal undersize nets for fishing. Land-based pollution and siltation.	eng
60807	conservation	Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
60807	distribution	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Endemic to, and widespread throughout, Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60807	habitat	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Found mainly on coastal rocky habitats where it feeds mainly on invertebrates.	eng
60807	population	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Population size not known.	eng
60807	threats	Bigirimana, C., 2006	Siltation in the lake's littoral zone.	eng
60808	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60808	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the wadi Sous and Massa basins in Morocco.	eng
60808	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60808	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
60808	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Ground water extraction. Water pollution from agricultural sources.	eng
60809	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60809	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60809	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lives in areas of shells, sand and mud/silt, over a wide depth range, but more often between 20–40 m. Thought to feed on invertebrates.	eng
60809	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Very rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60809	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Siltation and fisheries.	eng
60810	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60810	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	This species was restricted to the Lakes Beysehir and Akgöl basins in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Now extinct in Lake Beysehir. However, it has recently been discovered as occurring in Eregli marshes and in Saz Lake and associated tributaries (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).	eng
60810	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	It is a pelagic lacustrine species. Grows to 220 mm.	eng
60810	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60810	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Erk’akan, F., 2006	Water pollution, fishing pressure, drought, restricted water levels (Ergili marsh), and restricted range are the main threats to the species.	eng
60811	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60811	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60811	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Caught over a wide depth range but is most common between 20–40 m. It has been recorded down to 130 m. Feeds on invertebrates and molluscs.	eng
60811	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No population estimates, but is very rare in fisheries catches.	eng
60811	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries and siltation in the lake's littotal zone.	eng
60812	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60812	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to the Upper Nile system (Aswa River drainage). Known only from a tributary of a single river in the Teso District.	eng
60812	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Riverine species. No other information was found.	eng
60812	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No quantitative information but it is thought to be highly restricted in a single location.	eng
60812	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60813	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60813	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa basin, Mtera dam, Kidatu dam, and the rivers Rufiji and Wami.	eng
60813	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	A demersal species occupying both shallow and deep water parts of the lake. Their breeding behaviour is not well known.	eng
60813	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	In Mtera dam, this species contribution to the catch composition has been increasing from 0.9% in 1987 to 9.6% in 1996. In Lake Rukwa it is among the four most important commercial species/groups.	eng
60813	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Illegal fishing, across rivers; siltation; and land based pollution.	eng
60814	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60814	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Ruaha-Rufiji river system and the associated reservoirs at Mtera dam, Kidatu dam.	eng
60814	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Demersal riverine habitat most often feeding on molluscs and insects.	eng
60814	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	In the Mtera and Kidatu dams the population is reported to be increasing as determined from fishery catch records.	eng
60814	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Illegal fishing. Land based pollution.	eng
60815	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60815	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60815	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Caught over a wide depth range but is most common between 10 to 30 m. Feeds on invertebrates and molluscs.	eng
60815	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No population estimates, but common in fisheries catches.	eng
60815	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries and siltation.	eng
60816	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60816	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60816	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
60816	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
60816	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991)<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in Chad, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Geba, Kolente and Volta basins; coastal rivers from Ghana to Nigeria, Nile basin, including the Bénoué.	eng
60816	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis nigrita</span> is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, Ouémé and Casamance. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside our area, it occurs in the Nile River.	eng
60816	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is known from the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, and Casamance. This species has also been reported from Lake Nokoué in Southern Benin. Outside our area, it occurs in the Nile. It has been recorded from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin as well.	eng
60816	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a wide ranging species from Senegal to Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert. Additional record of this species from Lake Kyoga by Copley in 1958 are not confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991) but this record is doubtful and needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Géba, Ouémé and Casamance.	eng
60816	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic, freshwater, potamodromous species that lives in tropical climate.	eng
60816	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
60816	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
60816	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigrita</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
60816	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
60816	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60816	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60816	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60816	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60816	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
60816	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
60816	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
60817	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is included on Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Annex III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.	eng
60817	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Ebro, Llobregat, Nervias, Butron, Oca, Artibay, Deba, Uro - la, Bidasoa, Urumea and Oria river basins in Spain.	eng
60817	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in all river sections.	eng
60817	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant.	eng
60817	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60818	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60818	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60818	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found exclusively on rocky bottoms where it feeds on invertebrates.	eng
60818	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	The population size not known but it is common in fisheries catches.	eng
60818	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries, and siltation in coastal zones.	eng
60819	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60819	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
60819	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found exclusively on rocky bottoms where it feeds on invertebrates.	eng
60819	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	The population size is not known but it is common in fisheries catches.	eng
60819	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries, and siltation in coastal zones.	eng
60820	conservation	Ntakimaza, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
60820	distribution	Ntakimaza, G., 2006	Endemic to upper and middle Akagera.	eng
60820	habitat	Ntakimaza, G., 2006	Shallow waters and marginal vegetation in rivers where it feeds on mainly on molluscs and insect larvae.	eng
60820	population	Ntakimaza, G., 2006	Not known, but common in fisheries catches though not very abundant.	eng
60820	threats	Ntakimaza, G., 2006	Fisheries. Loss of marginal reeds along rivers due to agriculture extension.	eng
60821	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60821	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to the Lower Malagarasi (Ugalla), Lake Rukwa drainage, and rivers Wami, Ruvu, and Rufiji-Ruaha (Seegers 1996).	eng
60821	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	Little is known about this species ecology. In the Lake Rukwa drainage it prefers the lake to rivers where it is very numerous (Seegers 1996). It lives in shallow waters in the marginal vegetation feeding on a wide range of food items including plant matter, odonata larvae, chironomid larvae, terrestrial insects, gastropod molluscs, fish scales, zooplankton, and phytoplankton (Seegers 1996). In the Ruvu River the species seems to spawn in the rainy season when they migrate into smaller steams (Seegers 1996).	eng
60821	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60821	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	Regression of marginal reeds around lakes and rivers due to farming extension.	eng
60822	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60822	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to streams and lakes of the Jordan watershed in Israel, Syria and Jordan. Introduced in the Azraq Oasis.	eng
60822	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size barbel (<660 mm total length). Spawns in summer on gravel. Feeds on invertebrates and fish. In Lake Kinneret it is a commercial species.	eng
60822	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Very common in Lake Kinneret, less common in associated rivers.	eng
60822	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No serious threats in the lake, but the riverine part of the population is threatened by pollution, water extraction, drought and fragmentation (through dam construction).	eng
60823	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60823	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Endemic to Lake Victoria and the Victoria Nile and associated rivers and smaller lakes. Also known from the Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al</em>. 2001).Records of <em>Synodontis victoriae</em> from the Tana River (Copley 1941, Mann 1966, 1968) are probably misidentifications and probably refer to <em>S. zanzibaricus</em>.	eng
60823	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Found in shallow waters of lakes and rivers, most often at around 20 m, although it has been recorded down to 80 m. It occurs over both hard and soft substrates, but is more common over soft bottoms (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds mainly on small gastropod molluscs, as it is able to extract the flesh of the snails without crushing their shells. It also feeds on insects, among which chironomid larvae predominate (Witte and de Winter 1995). About 45 % of the stock is in spawning state at any one time (Witte and de Winter 1995). Max. size: 290 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
60823	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Population not known, but a decline in abundance and extent of occurrence is reported in Lake Victoria.	eng
60823	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Regression of marginal reeds around rivers and lakes due to extension of agriculture; undersized fishing nets; siltation and water pollution; and predation and competition in Lake Victoria.	eng
60824	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60824	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to Lake Marmara in western Anatolia.	eng
60824	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the shallow lake of Marmara (3,400 ha).	eng
60824	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60824	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water extraction and pollution.	eng
60825	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	None known.	eng
60825	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Part of the population is within the Lake Chilwa Ramsar sites. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
60825	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River, in Mozambique north to the Pangani River in Tanzania.	eng
60825	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is known from Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa in Malawi and the Ruvuma river system in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Mozambique its range extends south to Rovuma River.	eng
60825	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Collected in non-flowing pools in upper catchment stream beds through to eddies in the main Rovuma channel. Appears to be associated with calmer flows at the edges of flowing waters and where present marginal vegetation. Abundant where encountered.	eng
60825	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in standing or slowly moving open water with emergent or submerged vegetation. Collected in non-flowing pools in upper catchment stream beds through to eddies in the main Rovuma channel. Appears to be associated with calmer flows at the edges of flowing waters and where present marginal vegetation. Abundant where encountered. Feeds in the mid- and surface waters on a wide variety of food.	eng
60825	population	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
60825	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Occurs in small numbers in fisheries catches.	eng
60825	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Snoeks, J., 2009	None known.	eng
60825	threats	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	None known.	eng
60826	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is thought that a nature reserve may have been established in this area (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).	eng
60826	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to a single stream 10 km long in the Mostarsko blato (Freyhof, J. pers com), an extensive wetland adjacent to Mostar in Bosnia-Hercegovina. The species is probably spread more widely in the Neretva basin.	eng
60826	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in streams with current and clear water.	eng
60826	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60826	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No obvious threats (Freyhof, J. pers. comm).	eng
60827	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed on Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Berne Convention as <em>C. toxostoma</em>.	eng
60827	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Turia and Mijares river basins in Spain.	eng
60827	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the middle reaches of rivers, rich in submerged vegetation.	eng
60827	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60827	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, extraction and drought. Introduction of exotic fish predators.	eng
60828	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
60828	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Tuscany-Latium district of Italy where it is present in the Tibern, Arno, Ombrone and Serchio river basins with 10–12 subpopulations.	eng
60828	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a warm-water obligate riverine species living mainly in small brooks.	eng
60828	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining.	eng
60828	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, and competition with introduced <em>Chondrostoma genei</em>.	eng
60829	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60829	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Cetina River basin in Croatia	eng
60829	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Rivers, streams, and lakes.	eng
60829	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60829	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction. Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60831	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60831	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to Central Anatolia wetlands in Turkey.	eng
60831	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in marshes, lakes and rivers.	eng
60831	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population is split into five separate locations. Total population size not known.	eng
60831	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought and water pollution are the main threats. Invasive species are a problem in Egridir (<em>Sander lucioperca</em>).	eng
60832	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2002	None known.	eng
60832	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	None known.	eng
60832	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert and Edward systems.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>no information obtained.	eng
60832	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	This species is only known from the Lakes Albert and Edward systems.	eng
60832	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2002	Apparently more common in rivers and in the vicinity of river mouths	eng
60832	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	This species is apparently more common in rivers and in the vicinity of river mouths.	eng
60832	population	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No population estimates	eng
60832	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No population estimates available.	eng
60832	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No specific threats known	eng
60832	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No specific threats known.	eng
60833	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60833	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and also enters the deltas of its major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60833	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Adults inhabit the bentho-pelagic and littoral zones of the lake whereas juveniles are only found in the littoral zone, marginal macrophyte beds and river deltas. Piscivorous.	eng
60833	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.	eng
60833	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fisheries pressure in pelagic and littoral zones.	eng
60834	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60834	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana.	eng
60834	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2006	Occurs both in mid-waters and in deep waters. Feeds chiefly on prawns and small characins. Spawns in the open lake. Eggs and embryos probably pelagic. Matures at 25–30 cm FL.	eng
60834	population	Akinyi, E., 2006	No population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
60834	threats	Akinyi, E., 2006	No serious threats identified.	eng
60835	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2006	None known.	eng
60835	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Endemic to Lake Albert.	eng
60835	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Said to be confined to waters deeper than 60 feet deep. No precise data on feeding habits and breeding behaviour available. Probably takes macro-invertebrates while young and converts to a fish diet at juvenile and adult stages.	eng
60835	population	Twongo, T.K., 2006	No information available.	eng
60835	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2006	Eutrophication and anoxia in the deep-water habitat. Heavy fishing pressure.	eng
60836	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60836	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it also enters the deltas of major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60836	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Adults found in bentho-pelagic and littoral zones in the lake. Juveniles are found in lake's littoral zone, marginal macrophytes beds and lower parts of rivers.	eng
60836	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.	eng
60836	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Heavy fishing in pelagic and littoral zones.	eng
60837	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60837	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Juveniles enter the deltas of major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
60837	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Adults strictly pelagic. Juveniles found in lake's littoral zone among marginal macrophyte beds and river deltas. Piscivorous.	eng
60837	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Common, but fisheries catches have declined dramatically in the last 15 years.	eng
60837	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Heavy fishing in pelagic and littoral zones.	eng
60838	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60838	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Aggitis stream, a tributary of the Strymon river basin in northern Greece.	eng
60838	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Streams, channels and springs with stagnant to moderately flowing waters. Appears quite resilient to pollution.	eng
60838	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60838	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat degradation, channelisation of creeks, water pollution and extraction.	eng
60839	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	None known.	eng
60839	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika where it is widespread in the pelagic zone.	eng
60839	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A deep-water fish, which migrates into nearshore regions in its second year. Juveniles are zooplanctivorous whereas the adults and subadults are piscivorous.	eng
60839	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Abundant in its habitat and very common in fisheries catches.	eng
60839	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Fishing. Water turbidity due to erosion from the watershed.	eng
60840	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60840	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Orontes river basin (Syria and Turkey), to the Litani river (Lebanon) and in the central and northern part of the Jordan river basin (Israel, Jordan).	eng
60840	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in slow-flowing water among stone and vegetation. Also found in littoral zone of Lake Kinneret (although rare). It spawns from February to April. Small species (no more than 8 cm).	eng
60840	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not abundant, but not rare. The population has been stable over the last 10 years in Israel. No population size information is available from Turkey, Syria, or Lebanon. It may be absent from Turkey, but this needs to be confirmed (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.).	eng
60840	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, drought and pollution are the main threats throughout the range.	eng
60841	conservation	Schraml, E., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>H. desfontaini</em>i.	eng
60841	distribution	Schraml, E., 2006	The type locality of <em>H. desfontainii</em> is Gafsa in central Tunisia north of Chott El Jerid. In Gafsa it has been recorded from the interconnected ground water fed ponds used to irrigate nearby palm plantations (10 in 1953 (Kirchshofer 1953) and 3 in 1964, the rest had been converted to concrete wells (Weish 1964)), and a Roman swimming pool. In 1979 the species was only found in one small irrigation channel and the Roman swimming pool (Eggers 1980) and in the 1980s the species could only be found here after exhaustive surveys (Schmidt 1982). However, Van der Zee and Vonk (1992) stated the species was very common in Gafsa. A survey in 2006 in Gafsa found the Roman pools to be totally devoid of any fish and the remaining natural ponds and irrigation channels could not be found (possibly drained) (Schraml pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>H. desfontaini</em>i has also been recorded from other sites around Chott El Jerid; near Tozeur (Van der Zee and Vonk 1992, Schöpfel 1997, Schraml pers. comm.) and Nefta oasis (Schmidt 1982), at the oasis En Nemlet (Eggers 1980) and from Algeria (Paulo 1983). Unfortunately the specific details of the sites in Algeria were not identified but Fishbase lists Biskra. In 2006 in Tozeur, where Schraml previously recorded the species in 1996, the water channels/creeks had been concreted and most were drained. Schraml found <em>H. desfontainii</em> in one of these channels, which had very low levels of water (1 or 2 cm), very little suitable substrate and high levels of waste. At one location in this channel, the only individuals of the species that could be seen were almost paralysed by the low temperatures due to the low levels of water and cool air temperature, which made them easy prey for herons and cats. Schraml's 2006 survey also covered many potential sites including near Nefta, El Hamma, le Nefzaoua, Douz, El Faouar, Nouil and Blidet and no <em>H. desfontainii</em> were found.<br/><br/>There are also museum collections of <em>H. desfontainii</em> from Lalla (south of Gafsa), El Hamma and a questionable record from the coastal town of Sfax (Schraml pers. comm., Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/><br/>More survey work is required as not all of the previously recorded sites or potential sites (e.g. Algeria or South of Chott el Jerid) for<em>H. desfontainii</em> were fully surveyed by Schraml in his 2006 survey.	eng
60841	habitat	Schraml, E., 2006	Its natural habitats are freshwater springs, irrigated lands, and canals and ditches. It prefers warm water. Van der Zee and Vonk (1992) found <em>H. desfontainii</em> particularly numerous in waters which were fed by a water source of 60 degrees Celsius. It is a small size fish (smaller than 200 mm total length).	eng
60841	population	Schraml, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60841	threats	Schraml, E., 2006	The major threats to the species are groundwater extraction for date plantations, habitat loss due to channelization of natural and artificial water courses and drought.	eng
60842	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60842	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Restricted to the Jordan river basin. Only known from one area: Golan and upper Galilee.	eng
60842	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A riverine species occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.	eng
60842	population	Goren, M., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
60842	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Pollution, water extraction, and habitat destruction are the main threats.	eng
60843	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60843	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Malawi. Widely spread and abundant throughout the lake. Also occurs in the larger rivers flowing into the lake, such as the Bua.	eng
60843	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Mostly found among rocks and it hides in crevices during the daytime. It can also be found off sandy shores down to the limits of dissolved oxygen (as deep as 220 m). It is reported to be more abundant in the northern part of the lake but is common throughout. It migrates up the larger ephemeral rivers to spawn when they are in spate. It is thought to breed in during October to December. During this time most individuals are caught over sandy and muddy bottoms in shallow water. It is not known whether this species breeds in the main lake. It is an omnivorous scavenger, mainly feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, and other invertebrates. Few individuals less than 10 cm are caught from the offshore water. Average size at first maturity is estimated at 11 cm TL and by 14 cm TL. This species shows a distinct upwards, vertical movement that may be dependent upon the phase of the moon. It has been observed that on nights without moonlight this species is distributed equally between the surface and deep-water layers whereas on moonlit nights almost all individuals were caught in the surface waters.	eng
60843	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	No quantitative information but it is very abundant in demersal trawl catches and bottom set gillnets.	eng
60843	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	None known.	eng
60844	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	One major river where this species breeds is the Bua river, which runs through the Nkhota Kota game reserve (Central Malawi). This is the only river where the spawning grounds are protected (as the surrounding woodlands are protected from deforestation). The headwaters of the North Rukuru river are also protected within the Nyika National Park — there is however increasing land clearance between the park and the spawning grounds. The Linthipe river, a major spawning river, is unprotected, receiving untreated effluent from Lilongwe. The status of 'mpasa' rivers in Tanzania and Mozambique is Unknown.	eng
60844	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its affluent streams.	eng
60844	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	A lacustrine species, living in the pelagic zone of the lake. Juveniles remain close inshore and near the river mouths. The adults are piscivourous, feeding on small pelagic fishes. Young fish feed on plankton, insects and other small organic matter. It migrates up rivers from the lake to spawn during the rainy season. Spawning mainly takes place at night and requires well-oxygenated flowing waters and silt free gravel. Spawning takes place in very shallow water and occurs over an extended period during and after the rains.	eng
60844	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Declining due to overfishing and habitat degradation.	eng
60844	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Over-fishing: extremely high mortalities of adults during spawning runs due to total blocking of rivers with gill nets and weirs as well as drifting gillnets. This prevents upstream migration in low rainfall years. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Deterioration of spawning grounds due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers). Water abstraction for irrigation purposes during dry season hampers downstream movement of young fish.	eng
60845	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	None at present.	eng
60845	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment area	eng
60845	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Adults are found in shallow water in the lake over sand habitats. Juveniles occur in streams and near river outlets in the lake. It feeds on small zooplanktivorous fish, which move in shoals along the shoreline. It migrates upstream into large rivers to spawn in the cool waters of mountain streams. It spawns in a gravel substratum, often in very shallow water.	eng
60845	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Declining due to overfishing and habitat degradation.	eng
60845	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Over-fishing of adults causes extremely high mortalities during spawning runs. Fish poisoning is widely practised although illegal. Deterioration of spawning grounds due to siltation from soil erosion (bad land practise as well as deforestation along rivers).	eng
60846	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	None.	eng
60846	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire river and its streams.	eng
60846	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	A benthic species, which lives in shoals over sandy bottoms in relatively sheltered shallow waters. In some area (e.g., off Nkotakota) large shoals were reported to be seen a mile or more offshore). It feeds from the sediment and biocover on the sand. The species migrates upstream in rivers to spawn with the first flood, and after spawning returns quickly to the lake. This species breeds only once when the rivers are in full spate and very turbid. Both the adults and juveniles spend an extremely short time in the rivers where spawning occurs. The young fish can survive being carried downstream at an early age.A maximum size of about 40 cm is reported from Lake Malawi for this species. This species was formerly very abundant in Malawi, but now rare.	eng
60846	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Declined by at least 50% over the past 20 years.	eng
60846	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Khawa, D. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Over-exploitation: in the past decades, <em>L. mesops</em> was abundant in Lake Malawi, however due to over-fishing of adults, a population decline occurred. It was formerly one of the most important commercial species in Lake Malawi but is now rarely caught. Basket traps, fish weirs, seine nets and gill nets are used to catch this fish. The fishery collapsed despite mesh size regulations for gill nets. Fish poisoning in some of the rivers is also a threat.	eng
60847	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60847	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Endemic to Malawi and Mozambique. Occurs in Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa and associated rivers (i.e., Likangala river).	eng
60847	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Inhabits swampy vegetated water, with sandy substrate overlain with decaying plant material at depths not more than 3 metres. Feeds on detritus and insects.	eng
60847	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
60847	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z. & Kaunda, E., 2006	Over-fishing. Drought - for example Lake Chilwa sometimes dries out completely.	eng
60848	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60848	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish occurs in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. Reports from Ghana and Tanzania need confirmation. It is also known from the Senegal, Niger, Gambia, Corubal, Konkouré and Little Scarcies Rivers.	eng
60848	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is common in fast flowing, rocky stretches of streams, in water of low conductivity. It is a carnivore, that lays eggs under stones.	eng
60848	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
60848	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
60849	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60849	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
60849	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It feeds on zooplankton (larger fish) as well as fish (smaller fish). The smaller fishes occur inshore. This species is frequently caught at depths of up to 250 m but also occurs in shallow water (from 8 m). Sexual maturity is reached at about 50 cm total length and spawning occurs in November. It is the most abundant and economically important species in the endemic clariid flock in Lake Malawi. It is usually caught in gill nets. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of 107 cm.	eng
60849	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60849	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing in the southern arms of the lake.	eng
60850	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60850	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60850	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Frequently caught in deep water (of more than 50 m). Piscivorous.	eng
60850	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60850	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60851	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60851	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake	eng
60851	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Mostly abundant in deep water (more than 50 m). It occurs in the intermediate zone (rocky with sand patches). Piscivorous.	eng
60851	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60851	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing in the southern arm of the Lake.	eng
60852	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60852	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Types collected from Nkhata bay and Nkhotakota. Also occurs in the southeast and southwest arms of the lake.	eng
60852	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Uncommon catfish. Occurs in relatively deep water (over 50 m). Piscivorous.	eng
60852	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60852	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60853	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60853	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nkhata Bay and the southeast and southwest arms of the lake.	eng
60853	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Caught in deep water (more than 50 m). This species may frequent shallow water (unlike other <em>Bathyclarias</em> species). Feeds on fishes and crustaceans.	eng
60853	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Very rare species.	eng
60853	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60854	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60854	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread with records from Nkhata bay, Likoma Island and elsewhere. Also recorded in the southeastern and western arms of the lake.	eng
60854	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits rocky areas in shallow water (less than 50 m). It feeds mainly on crabs.	eng
60854	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Reported to be numerous and widespread at Nkhata bay and Likoma Island.	eng
60854	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing in southern arms of the lake.	eng
60855	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60855	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected three miles north of Monkey Bay and in the south-east & south west arms of the lake.	eng
60855	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Common in deep water (more than 50 m). Large individuals were mostly caught in waters more than 100 m deep. Predatory mainly feeding on fish and oligochaete worms.	eng
60855	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Never caught in large quantities.	eng
60855	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60856	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No targeted conservation.	eng
60856	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe	eng
60856	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	One of the most common and widely distributed species in lake Malawi. Mainly found in rocky habitats in shallow and deep water. It is a member of the demersal fish community and it appears to be confined to the region of the lake that has an oxygenated benthic zone. It is a piscivore that mainly hunts cichlids at night. It breeds throughout the year with a breeding peak from December to March. It migrates for breeding from deep to shallow water. Eggs are deposited in shallow depressions among large rocks. The young are guarded and feed on invertebrates and unfertilised ova. The young remain in the nest and are guarded until they reach about 12 cm in length. This species has developed a mutualistic relationship with some cichlid fishes in defence of the young from predators. The parental catfish guards its young as well as the young of the cichlids, which have been deposited into the nest. The adult cichilds that deposit their young into the catfish nest defend the outer perimeter from predators. This species matures at three years of age (others estimate four years of age). Max. size: 100 cm in total length.	eng
60856	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Declining in the southern part of Lake Malawi.	eng
60856	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Capture by gill nets and longlines. Declining catfish catch rates from gill nets and longlines have also been reported in the southern part of the lake. Demersal trawling in the southern part of the lake. Diminishing catches have been reported in the demersal trawl catches of the southern part of the lake (due to catching immature fish as well as heavy fishing by artisanal fishers).	eng
60857	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60857	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to one river basin in southern Portugal, the Mira river basin.	eng
60857	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
60857	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not very abundant.	eng
60857	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, drought and introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
60858	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
60858	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Volturno river basin in Central Italy. Also present in Lake Fondi (possibly introduced) and possibly in a number of other associated lagoons (also likely to have been introduced).	eng
60858	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Rivers, lakes and canals where it prefers sand/mud substrates near vegetation.	eng
60858	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing in the Volturno river but it is also abundant in the lake and canal systems. In surveys on 2004 carried on Volturno river, loaches were very seldom, and the few collected fish were <em>C. bilineata</em> (Bianco, P.G. pers comm).	eng
60858	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (in the river), water extraction, alien species (predation).Introduction of congeneric <em>Cobitis bilineata</em> and <em>Pseudorasbora parva</em>, <em>Ictalurus melas</em>, <em>Lepomis gibbosus</em> and others, all found during a survey in 2004 (P.G. Bianco, pers. obs).	eng
60859	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60859	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake. Observed at Mbenje island, Nkhomo reef, Chimwalani reef and around the Malari islands.	eng
60859	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This species prefers sandy parts of intermediate habitats. Occurs at depths below 10m. Females and non-breeding males gather in small foraging groups while feeding on plankton. Males have been seen feeding on detritus on the bottom. Breeding occurs throughout the year and slows during the rainy season. Males build caves in the intermediate habitat at depths greater than 17 m. Very popular among aquarists. Aquarium trade name - (<em>Haplochromis crysonotus</em>).	eng
60859	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60859	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Restricted range; aquarium trade collection; and sedimentation following land clearance.	eng
60860	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60860	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A widespread species reportedly seen at nearly every rocky shore habitat except Likoma and Chizumulu Islands.	eng
60860	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Usually found at an average depth of 10 m in small numbers. Prefers moderately widespread, near-shore rocky habitats (sedentary behaviour). Breeding males are seen all year round. Territorial males defend spawning sites alongside large boulders and spawning usually occurs against the vertical surface. Sometimes spawning occurs upside down under an overhanging rock.	eng
60860	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60860	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Near shore sedimentation	eng
60861	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60861	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.	eng
60861	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A shoaling species, which mainly feeds on zooplankton. Found in rocky areas but prefers open water. Large schools of breeding males congregate near rocks, or floating objects i.e. logs and boats. Widespread but confined to near shore waters. Courtship and mating occurs in the water column (unlike other species within this genus). Juveniles are found inshore over sandy substrates. Breeding ceases during the rainy season. Popular species in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm SL.	eng
60861	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60861	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially, aquarium collection.	eng
60862	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
60862	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nankhumba Peninsula (southern part of the lake). May be more widespread.	eng
60862	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Forages in the water column where it feeds primarily on zooplankton. Spawns throughout the year with two peaks in January to March and August to September. Males build cone shaped bowers in breeding arenas over sand at depths of 3–7 m.	eng
60862	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60862	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Over-fishing, and inshore sedimentation.	eng
60863	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60863	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species with lake-wide distribution along the inshore littoral zone.	eng
60863	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A zooplanktivorous feeder. Common over white washed sandy beaches close to the shore. Territorial males found throughout the year. Mainly taken in beach seines and chilimira nets.Populations can be very dense with males building nests in large arena.	eng
60863	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60863	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
60864	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
60864	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Thumbi West Island	eng
60864	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	<em>Copadichromis atripinnis</em> breeding males build sand bowers with a stone in it.	eng
60864	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60864	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Fishing.	eng
60865	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60865	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found along the eastern coast of Lake Malawi between Nsinje river and the rocky shore north of Gome village. Also observed at Thundu much further north in Mozambique. Not yet observed in the areas between these two localities	eng
60865	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in intermediate habitats at depths ranging between 25–50 m. Rarely found in shallower waters. Females sometimes observed foraging in groups in the open water and single individuals can be found in between males' territories. Feeds on particulate matter taken from the water column. Males build cave crater nests in the intermediate habitat at depths greater than 25 m. Mouthbrooding females swim to shallow water where they release their offspring among the schools of juvenile utaka commonly found above nests of kampango (<em>Bagrus meridionalis</em>). Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. 'Virginalis Blotch' in the aquarium trade.	eng
60865	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60865	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
60866	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60866	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Observed at Gome, Likoma Island, Mbowe Island, Cape Maclear (Malawi), Nkanda, Kirondo, Makonde and Cape Kaizer (Tanzania).	eng
60866	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths between 10–30 m. Males build spawning sites at depths of approximately 25 m or deeper. The nest is constructed under and against a rock or small groups of rocks. Feeds on particulate matter from the water column. Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. "Virginalis Kajose" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60866	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60866	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60867	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60867	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from two museum specimens (cotypes) with TL of 9.5 cm (could be juveniles). The collection site is unknown and it is therefore unlikely to be recognised in the field. If it is a valid species it probably has a very limited occurrence.	eng
60867	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60867	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60867	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60868	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60868	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake wide distribution.	eng
60868	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	An inshore rock associated species. Its breeding grounds are found in clear water along steep rocky shores. Breeding probably occurs all year round. Males defend their territories above large boulders protruding from the rocky bottom. Occasionally appears above rocky outcrops in shoals. Usually recorded in gill net catches.	eng
60868	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60868	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60869	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60869	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from one location at Mbenji Island.	eng
60869	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at a depth range of 8–30 m. Females and non-breeding males forage in mid-water for plankton. Breeding occurs throughout the year (low activity during the rainy season). Mature males build cave crater nests in the intermediate habitat. Known as "Quads" or "<em>Haplochromis quadrimaculatus</em>" in the aquarium trade (previously thought to be a form of <em>Copadichromis quadrimaculatus</em>).	eng
60869	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60869	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60870	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60870	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed at Nkhata bay and Senga Point and caught in trawls in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60870	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This species is considered a truly pelagic utaka as it can be found far out in the lake. However, it has also been observed over sandy habitat and has been recorded from both beach seine catches and offshore trawling surveys.	eng
60870	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A rare species.	eng
60870	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60871	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60871	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It has a lake-wide distribution (initially it was thought to occur only in the northern part of the lake). Observed at: Chilumba, Chiwanga Bay (Mozambique), Khande, northern end of the south east and south western arm, Domira bay, Maleri (46 m) and Namiasi, Chembe and Chintheche (Malawi).	eng
60871	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Feeds on zooplankton although the pharyngeal jaws and dentition suggests it feeds on algae.Found over sandy and intermediate habitats. It appears that it does not guard its offspring after release. Mouth brooding females have been observed releasing their fry among small schools of other utaka (<em>Copadichromis</em> spp) juveniles found above kampango (<em>Bagrus meridionalis</em>) nests.	eng
60871	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information.	eng
60871	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60872	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60872	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution. Described from Nkhata bay but also observed at Metangula and Masimbwe Islands (Mozambique) and from the southern part of the lake (from trawl catches).	eng
60872	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	An inshore dwelling species that occurs in both rocky and sandy areas. Breeds from April to August. Males defend spawning sites on top of flat rocks at depths between 20–40 m in sediment rich intermediate habitats.	eng
60872	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60872	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60873	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60873	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from the northwestern coast but also observed on the east coast near Masinje.	eng
60873	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	It prefers shallow water and is rarely seen in large numbers at depths of more than 10 m. Breeds from August to December. It constructs sand castle nests on the sand. A zooplanktivorous feeder.	eng
60873	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Little information but it is known to be common at some sites.	eng
60873	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60874	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60874	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake wide distribution.	eng
60874	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Mainly a rock dwelling species, found at depths down to 75 m. Common in shallower water of about 18 m. Breeding adults are caught inshore close to rocks. Breeding males hold territories on rocks at depths varying between 20–50 m. It is mainly zooplanktivorous although it is reported to sometimes feed on small fishes. Females spawn only once during the breeding season gathering in separate schools after spawning and moving closer inshore in rocky habitat. The fry are released in very shallow water. This species has been recorded in the middle of the lake off Nkhata Bay. It is the only utaka that is a true open water species for part of its life history. The adults, when at least three years old, are reported to leave the pelagic school in May and breed inshore until August. It is one of the most economically important 'utaka' in the lake. In the northern part of the lake it is the basis of a seasonal fishery from April to July. Caught in chilimira nets, gill nets and in trawls.	eng
60874	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This is the most abundant 'utaka' in the lake.	eng
60874	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None known.	eng
60875	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60875	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found along the rocky shores of Likoma Island and Chizumulu Island. May also occur between Msisi and Manda (Tanzania). A small subpopulation is found at Cobwe (Mozambique). The shoreline between Cobwe and Manda, a stretch of more than 200 km, does not seem to harbour this species.	eng
60875	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths of 10–30 m. Frequently found in sediment rich areas with muddy deposits covering the substrate. Feeds on particulate matter from the water column. This species constructs a cave crater nest under and against a small rock. This species is known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. "Mloto Likoma" in the aquarium trade and is very popular among aquarists.	eng
60875	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60875	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60876	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60876	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60876	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A shallow water species mainly found over rocky habitats. Some individuals have been observed over sandy areas. Trawls rarely catch this species. Mainly feeds on phytoplankton but also ingests zooplankton. Males defend spawning sites over/near large boulders at an average depth of 30 m. Males in breeding colour sometimes join females in the open water feeding on plankton. Caught in chilimira nets and gillnets and occasionally in bottom trawls. Known as "<em>Haplochromis</em> Borleyi Large" in the aquarium trade (exported from Mbenji Island).	eng
60876	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60876	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60877	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60877	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the east coast at Fort Maguire, north of Makanjila Point (Malawi). Also occurs on the coast between the Nsinje River outlet and the Mozambican border. May have wider distribution along the Mozambican coast.	eng
60877	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Common in rocky and intermediate habitats at depths between 7–40 m. North of Nsinje river most individuals are found at an average depth of 15 m. Females and breeding males are found in large schools feeding on plankton in the mid-water. This species also feeds from rocky and sandy substrates. Males do not construct a nest but rather defend territories over rock and sand. Breeding occurs throughout the year. Known as "<em>Haplochromis</em> Borleyi Eastern" in the aquarium trade (exported regularly from Ntekete and Masinje in Malawi).	eng
60877	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60877	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60878	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
60878	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed and collected from Nankhumba Peninsula.	eng
60878	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Feeds on zooplankton. Spawning occurs sporadically throughout the year with peaks between January and March. Males build cone shaped bowers in breeding areas in intermediate habitat at water depths of 15–25 m.	eng
60878	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60878	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60879	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60879	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Lake wide distributions.	eng
60879	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Mainly a zooplankton feeder. Breeds throughout the year. Constructs a cave crater nest in steeper sloping areas. In the northern part of the southwestern arm of Lake Malawi it is one of the most abundant species in the shallow water (it comprised 10–30 % in weight of the trawl catches). Known as <em>Copadichromis</em> sp. 'Fire Crest Mloto' in the aquarium trade	eng
60879	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A common species.	eng
60879	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing.	eng
60880	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None known.	eng
60880	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Found in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60880	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in deep water at between 60 to 128 m. The breeding season is from November to May, with increased activity in January-February. Fecundity ranges have recorded as 38–181 eggs for females weighing between 7–44 g. Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
60880	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60880	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None known although there is potential for future over-fishing by the commercial trawling fleet in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60881	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60881	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare, deep-water species, observed in the north of the south east arm of the lake.	eng
60881	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Inhabits deep waters, about 75 m. Mainly found in areas with muddy bottoms covered with layers of diatoms. Probably feeds on the diatoms. Attains about 15 cm TL	eng
60881	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60881	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60882	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60882	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Reported from depths of 35–125 m in the south of the lake, common from 90–128 m.	eng
60882	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Deep-water species (70 m) living over muddy habitats. A benthic invertebrate feeder, taking insect larvae, insects, diatoms and small fish. The breeding season may be between March to September and spawning may occur at great depths i.e., 100 m. Fecundity for this species in the south western arm ranged from 96–304 for females weighing between 26–76 g. Reaches maximum size of 18 cm TL.	eng
60882	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60882	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Over-exploitation by demersal trawl fishery.	eng
60883	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60883	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare, deep-water species. Found in the southern part of the lake as well as Nkhotakota.	eng
60883	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Found in deep water at 55–125 m. It has been recorded from 159 m from Nkhotakota). Max. Size: 15 cm TL	eng
60883	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60883	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60884	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60884	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed in the lake.	eng
60884	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common in the intermediate habitat and over sand. Mainly occurs in the shallow waters, not deeper than 8 m. It has fleshy lips that it uses to seal crevices between rocks when it sucks out small organisms hiding within the rock. Males in breeding colouration observed in the rocky areas of the intermediate habitat. Mouthbrooding females hide among rocks and stay solitary. Known as "Haplochromis Euchilus" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60884	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60884	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60885	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60885	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60885	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Found over mud/silt substrates normally in water deeper than 5 m but can penetrate to up to 100 m depth. Specimens caught at great depths are very large (with a maximum total length of 30 cm) occurring singly or in small groups. Feeds mainly on snails. It occurs in schools (a school may contain more than 100 fish) where there is only one male in breeding colouration. Each group has a large feeding territory. Spawning occurs at any site within the foraging territory of the school. This species may become territorial when more than one breeding male is present in a small area. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
60885	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60885	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing	eng
60886	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60886	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi (lake-wide distribution), the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.	eng
60886	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common at small rocky areas bordering large sandy coasts. Occasionally also observed over sand. Breeding occurs near rocks in the intermediate habitat. Prefers shallow water but has been caught in trawls at 22–60 m depths. Feeds on small scales from the fins and caudal peduncle of sand dwelling haplochromines. Breeding males are seen throughout the year and they aggressively defend territories on top of rocks. Mouth brooding females gather in small groups. Known as "Haplochromis Jacksoni" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60886	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60886	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60887	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60887	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed throughout the lake but more common to the south.	eng
60887	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in very shallow waters that are densely vegetated (like its prey <em>Oreochromis shiranus</em>). It may also occur over sandy areas or near rocks or in the open water. Specialised feeder biting small scales from tail fins of all <em>Oreochromis</em> species. Breeding males observed defending sand castle nests. Max. size: 20 cm TL	eng
60887	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60887	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60888	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60888	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the rocky shore habitat.	eng
60888	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Found mainly in rocky places, though it can sometimes be seen in the intermediate habitats. An ambush predator that feeds on small rock dwelling cichlids hiding under rocks. When feeding it has been observed to remain motionless upright resting on top of a rock before striking downwards under the rock. It has also been reported that individuals play dead by lying on the bottom waiting for unsuspecting prey.	eng
60888	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60888	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60889	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60889	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.	eng
60889	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Prefers the intermediate habitat but is also frequently found in vegetated areas no deeper than 15 m. It is a predator feeding on small fishes. Territorial males only defend territories when spawning. Females guard the fry. Known as '<em>Haplochromis fusco'</em> in the aquarium trade.	eng
60889	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60889	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60890	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60890	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60890	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Most common in intermediate habitats or in vegetated habitats. A piscivore that may hunt as an individual or as part of a group. Territorial males defend spawning sites among the rocks of the intermediate habitat They may spawn on rock or sand substrates. Females guard the fry. Known as '<em>Haplochromis polystigma</em>’ in the aquarium trade.	eng
60890	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60890	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60891	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60891	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe where it is widely distributed over sand habitats in both lakes.	eng
60891	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Observed over sandy substrates at depths of 15–20 m although the juveniles are found in shallow waters near rocks. Individuals can also be seen among macrophyte beds in shallow water. Breeding occurs on the sand. It is an ambush predator feeding on other fish and invertebrates. Known as ‘<em>Haplochromis venustus</em>’ in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 22.5 cm TL.	eng
60891	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60891	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60892	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60892	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Malawi and Malombe.	eng
60892	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Frequently found in shallow water. A predator feeding on small fish. Breeding individuals have been observed in both sandy and rocky habitats. Mouthbrooding females stay in mid-water and release the fry there.	eng
60892	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60892	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60893	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60893	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.	eng
60893	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in vegetated areas in shallow water. Sometimes also observed in rocky habitats. It is an ambush predator feeding on other small fishes. Known as "Haplochromis Compressiceps" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60893	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60893	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing: Over-collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60894	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60894	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution but more common in the north.	eng
60894	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in shallow water in sandy or vegetated habitats. A predator, feeding on small fishes and invertebrates. May be confined to inshore waters. Max. size: 20 cm.	eng
60894	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60894	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60895	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60895	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper and Middle Shire River, and Lake Malombe as well as the surrounding lagoons and mouths of associated large rivers.	eng
60895	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Frequently observed in shallow water in vegetated sand habitats. A predator feeding on small fishes as well as invertebrates. Territorial males defend a small nest among the vegetation or in the open sand. Known as "Haplochromis Sunset" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60895	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60895	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60896	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60896	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60896	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in sediment rich areas of both rock and sand substrates. Also occurs in the open water. Feeds on plankton. Territorial males build shallow sand nests in the sand or on top of a rock.	eng
60896	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60896	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60897	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60897	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60897	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Prefers shallow areas of sandy shores or habitats with a mud/silt substrate. It can also be found below 30 m. Feeds on plankton. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Known as "Haplochromis Nitidus" in the aquarium trade	eng
60897	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60897	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
60898	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60898	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60898	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in sediment rich, rocky habitats at depths between 7–30 m. Feeds on small invertebrates found in the sediment. Known as "Haplochromis Pictus" or "Haplochromis Nitidus" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60898	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60898	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60899	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60899	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60899	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common over sand and mud substrates. Larger individuals found to depths of 20 m whereas the juveniles and sub adults are encountered in shallow water. Piscivore. Substrate spawner. Known as "Haplochromis Mbwanae" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60899	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60899	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60900	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60900	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed along the coast of lake Malawi.	eng
60900	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters in the intermediate zone of 1–2 m. Seldom occurs at depths more than 5 m. Frequently found in vegetation rich waters. Males are aggressively territorial and dig pits among the vegetation or under rocks. Females are solitary or in small groups. Feeds on algae from the surface of rocks and macrophytes. Also feeds on small invertebrates as well as plankton. Exported in the aquarium trade under its scientific name. Max. size: reaches a maximum total length of 13 cm.	eng
60900	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60900	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60901	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60901	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.	eng
60901	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat as well as over sandy bottoms. It stays frequently in mid water. A paedophage, steals broods from females by ramming the head from below. May also feed on external parasites. Males build sand castle nests.	eng
60901	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60901	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
60902	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60902	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.	eng
60902	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Most of the individuals observed occurred over sandy beaches at about 15 m depth. Can also occur over rocks and the intermediate habitat. A specialised predator: a paedophage, which steals broods from females by ramming the head from below.	eng
60902	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60902	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60903	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60903	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is known from the southern part of the lake up to Domira Bay.	eng
60903	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the open water down to 65 m A piscivore feeding mainly on "usipa" (<em>E. sardinella</em>) or on plankton.	eng
60903	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60903	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown	eng
60904	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60904	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread.	eng
60904	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species has been recorded throughout the pelagic zone from the surface to 220 m. In the southwestern arm it was mostly abundant between 75 and 100 m. Males in breeding colouration were caught throughout the year and ripe females are also known to occur throughout the year thus indicating that this species may breed all year round. Females mouthbrood young of large sizes (up to 2.3 cm SL). Its size at maturity for females was 10.5 cm SL. It has an average fecundity of 15 eggs for females of 14-18 cm TL. It feeds on plankton and crustaceans occasionally taking insect larvae, cichlid fry as well as diatoms and other algae. It mainly occurs in the mid-water trawl catches as well as the catches of deep water bottom trawls and pair trawls. It also occurs in catches of chilimira nets. It has been reported that in the offshore waters most individuals caught were either larger than 11 cm or small fry while intermediate sizes occurred in the trawl catches in the south eastern arm of the lake. This species is probably the most important commercial species in the southeast arm of the lake. It probably has the highest biomass of any cichlid in the lake (with an estimated total biomass of 87,000 tons in the pelagic zone).	eng
60904	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60904	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60905	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60905	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is most common in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60905	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at depths of 50–200 m. Most of the ripe individuals occur at depths of 75 m or more. Fecundity ranges from 9–34 for females weighing between 16–39 g. Average size at maturity for females is 8.8 cm SL.	eng
60905	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60905	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60906	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60906	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It occurs in the central and northern parts of the lake where it is considered to be rare. Also known at Domira Bay further south.	eng
60906	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Found between 25–160 m depth.	eng
60906	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60906	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60907	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60907	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is common in the southern part of the lake although found throughout.	eng
60907	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species occurs in trawl catches from 34–114 m throughout the southeastern arm of the lake and from 50-125m in the southwestern arm of the lake. It may be a mid-water spawner, in the south western arm 60% of breeding males were caught at 75 m while ripe females were caught between 75-125 m. In the southwestern arm fecundity for this species ranged from 25–53 for females weighing between 55–139 g and the average size at maturity was 14 cm SL. It occurs as bycatch in the mid water trawl catches and also occurs in the catches of deep-water demersal trawls as well as chilimira nets and handlines. Max. size: 20 cm TL.	eng
60907	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60907	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60908	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60908	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It is widely distributed in the southern part of the lake and has been reported near Nkhata bay and at Chizumulu.	eng
60908	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It occurs in the open water and can be found in some areas as down to 150 m but has been mostly captured in trawls in small numbers at around 50 m. It was thought to be a paedophage, which steals eggs and fry from the mouths of brooding females but is a piscivore. It occurs in catches of deep-water demersal trawls and is also exploited by the artisanal fishery using hand lines as well as deep-set gill nets. Max. size: 30 cm TL.	eng
60908	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60908	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60909	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60909	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Upper Shire River.	eng
60909	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over sandy and muddy bottoms. Feeds on the fins of clariid catfishes. Ripe males have been caught from a depth of 18 m in the southeastern arm. Also recorded in trawls up to 46 m in the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi.	eng
60909	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Uncommon species.	eng
60909	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60910	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60910	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.It is distributed throughout lake Malawi but is most common in the southern half.	eng
60910	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in all kinds of habitats but is most often seen in the intermediate habitat. It has been recorded from a wide range of depths from the shallow lakeshore to 114 m. Males in breeding colouration usually defend a territory at the edge of the rocky habitat. It is an ambush predator of small fish. It lies on its side partly buried on the sand or muddy bottom shamming death waiting for its prey. Known as "<em>Haplochromis livingstoni</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60910	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60910	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60911	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60911	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed. Regularly seen at Chizumila Island, on the coast near Chewe and in the eastern coast near Masinje.	eng
60911	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Normally occurs in the intermediate or rocky habitats. Feeds on cichlid fry or larvae. A male has been observed building a sand castle nest under an overhanging rock on top of a pile of rubble. It has been caught as deep as 92 m off Monkey Bay as well as being caught in shallower water in seine nets. Known as "Haplochromis Jack Dempsey" in the aquarium trade	eng
60911	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available	eng
60911	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available	eng
60912	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60912	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed along the rocky shore.	eng
60912	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs frequently over rocks, but can also be observed over the intermediate habitat. Rarely observed over sandy habitats. Occurs in depths of 5–50 m. A predator that hunts other cichlids by catching them with a sideways strike. This species may not be territorial as the males even hunt in breeding colouration. Known as "Haplochromis Pholidophorus" or "Haplochromis Torpedo Three Spot" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60912	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60912	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60913	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60913	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe where it is uncommon but widespread.	eng
60913	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Shallow species of the intermediate habitat or sheltered soft bottom areas. A predator feeding on invertebrates and small cichlids. Territorial males usually occur in small groups and defend a cave between the rocks. Known as 'Haplochromis Flavimanus' or 'Haplochromis Maleri Thicklip' in the aquarium trade.	eng
60913	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60913	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing. and collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60914	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60914	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60914	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs along rocky shores and occasionally in the intermediate sand/rock zone. Prefers depths of 5–15 m. Feeds on insects and their larvae and other invertebrates that hide in the biocover. Breeding males defend a cave in the rocky habitat. Females guard fry after they have been released. Known as 'Haplochromis Hertae' in the aquarium trade.	eng
60914	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60914	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60915	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60915	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread.	eng
60915	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Most often occurs in the rocky habitat, but can also be found in the intermediate habitat. Found in the extreme shallows to depths of 42 m. Juveniles feed on parasites and fungus. Adults feed on pieces of skin from catfish as well as scales from larger fishes.	eng
60915	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60915	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60916	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60916	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe, Upper and Middle Shire River. Common throughout the Lake Malawi.	eng
60916	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common in sandy shallow habitats where it prefers quiet water and sheltered bays. Sometimes also observed in rocky shore habitats. Feeds on invertebrates and has also been observed hunting cichlids. Males do not construct nests. Usually occurs in small foraging groups. This species is known to burrow into the sand and hide in order to avoid being caught especially by seine nets. Juveniles use this same behaviour to escape predators. Known as ' Haplochromis Rostratus' in the aquarium trade.	eng
60916	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60916	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60917	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60917	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60917	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Observed to be numerous in deep water rocky reefs surrounded by sand. It has been recorded as deep as 22–26 m. It is a piscivore feeding on small cichlids. Territorial males construct sand castle nests near rocks. Females guard juveniles in the rocky habitats at depths of 6–11 m. Known as "Haplochromis Gaisi" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60917	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60917	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None identified.	eng
60918	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60918	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe with a widespread distribution throughout Lake Malawi but it is less common in Lake Malombe.	eng
60918	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Prefers shallow vegetated regions of sheltered bays. Always found in association with higher plants. Feeds from loose algae that grow on leaves of plants. Males clear a circular area of 15 cm diameter among the weeds. Mouth brooding females hide among the vegetation and are rarely seen. They also guard free-swimming fry. Known by its species name in the aquarium trade.	eng
60918	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60918	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Seine nets with small meshes	eng
60919	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60919	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs throughout the lake.	eng
60919	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers the intermediate habitat and mostly occurs in shallow water not deeper than 10 m. It is a rare predatory species feeding on small fishes and soft invertebrates. It searches for hiding prey by inserting its narrow snout between rocks. Known as "Malawi Gar" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60919	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60919	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; over-fishing; and collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60920	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60920	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widespread throughout Lake Malawi where it is particularly common in the south.	eng
60920	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Lives over sandy areas in shallow water (prefers depths ranging from 3–15 m). Feeds on small benthic invertebrates disturbed by other large sand dwelling species (e.g., <em>Taeniolethrinops</em> spp.) with which it is normally associated. Reproduction occurs whenever ripe females and males meet as the males do not build nests nor defend territories. Known as '<em>Haplochromis moorii</em>' in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm total length (TL).	eng
60920	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60920	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60921	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60921	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi	eng
60921	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This species can be found in the intermediate or sandy habitat. Adults are caught at depths ranging from 10–40 m. Predator, hunts small sand dwelling haplochromines. Breeding males build sand castle nests on steeply sloping sandy shores. Breeding males are seen in colonies at depths of about 30 m. Known as <em>Haplochromis mbowe</em> in the aquarium trade.	eng
60921	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60921	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Fisheries.	eng
60922	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60922	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60922	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs near shallow rocky areas. A predator (piscivorous) hunting in packs. Breeding males have been observed below 10 m. Breeding males defend their territories on rocks. Mouth brooding females ascend to shallower waters where they release the fry. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
60922	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60922	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
60923	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60923	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Occurs throughout these lakes.	eng
60923	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A shallow water species preferring sandy habitats. Juveniles are common in shallow water close to the shore. Adults occur at deeper levels and have been observed at 20–30 m. It is piscivorous. In the southwestern arm of the lake, ripe individuals were caught at 10 m depth suggesting a rather shallow spawning. Sexual maturity for females in this species was reached at 16 cm standard length and fecundity ranged from 267–627 for females weighing between 294-588 g. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus Green" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60923	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60923	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60924	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60924	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60924	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Inhabits sandy and swampy shores. Can be caught at depths of 18 m.	eng
60924	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60924	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60925	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
60925	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Widely distributed in Lake Malawi.	eng
60925	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Regularly found over muddy bottoms in shallow sheltered bays. Can also be found over sandy areas off beaches. Juveniles inhabit very shallow sandy shores. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus" in the aquarium trade	eng
60925	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60925	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60926	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60926	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
60926	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in shallow water near sandy shores. Adults can be caught in water less than 18 m.	eng
60926	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Widespread in the north, rare in the south.	eng
60926	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential localised over-fishing.	eng
60927	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60927	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe.	eng
60927	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occur in offshore sandy beaches at an average depth of about 10 m. Can occur as deep as 50 m. In the south western arm of Lake Malawi it is frequently encountered at 30 m. Fecundity ranges from 100–315 for females weighing between 40–250 g. Known as "Haplochromis Lepturus Line" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60927	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60927	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Commercial trawling in the southern arms of Lake Malawi (South of Boadzulu island and in Lake Malombe).	eng
60928	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60928	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River and Lake Malombe.	eng
60928	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Inhabits the open water over rocky and sandy habitats. It has not been recorded in the pelagic zone surveys. Piscivorous, hunting small pelagic fish preferring <em>Engraulicypris sardella</em>. Territorial males clear the spawning site by circling over the sand. Juveniles stay in small schools in shallow water. Known as "Trout Cichlid” or “Haplochromis Thola" in the aquarim trade.	eng
60928	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common in the southwest arm of Lake Malawi at depths of 15–55 m. Found less often in the shallow water in the southeastern arm.	eng
60928	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60929	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60929	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is fairly uncommon and is mainly distributed in the southern part of the lake. More survey is required to determine the full lake-wide distribution.	eng
60929	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at great depths (50–125 m) and is most common at 125 m. Females attain an average size at maturity of 13.5 cm. It is a piscivore feeding on other small cichlids.	eng
60929	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60929	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60930	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Part of range within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
60930	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Possibly restricted to the southern arms of the lake.	eng
60930	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Most frequently observed over sand, but also occurs in the intermediate and sometimes rocky habitats. Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates by scooping its prey from the sand. Breeding males defend spawning sites of either a shallow sand castle nest or a cleared site in intermediate habitat. Breeding males have been observed at a depth of about 20 m in small colonies. Known as "Haplochromis Yellow Black Line" in the aquarium trade	eng
60930	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60930	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60931	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60931	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the lake, although rare.	eng
60931	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat over sand and rock between 10-20 m depth. A piscivore that hunts juvenile cichlids but also feeds on invertebrates. Males construct shallow spawning sites in the sand usually close to or underneath a rock. Common in the catches of shallow water trawls of down to 64 m in the southeast arm. Has been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.	eng
60931	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60931	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60932	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60932	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
60932	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed over rocky areas as well as in vegetated intermediate habitats. Occurs from surface waters down to 20 m depths. Feeds on fish fry as well as plant material. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
60932	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Uncommon to rare species, with lake wide distribution.	eng
60932	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60933	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60933	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution.	eng
60933	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Commonly inhabits rocky areas and intermediate biotopes. This species is most numerous over large rocks and boulders. Occurs in the extreme shallows to at least 40 m depths but is most common at 3–12 m. It is well known for its fin biting as well as scale eating habits (an opportunistic lepidophage). It is mainly attracted to displaying males in the rocky habitat and strikes them when they are preoccupied in defending their territories. It has been observed mimicking another species (<em>P. longior</em>) in Mbamba Bay so that it is able to approach its prey (<em>P. longior</em>) much closer for attack. It is likely that it mimics other species in other areas of the lake for the same purpose. It can also feed on plankton and aufwuchs. It is rarely observed over open sand. It is not territorial, and individuals are normally solitary. It can, however, be aggressive when it meets conspecifics. Due to its aggressive nature, this species is rarely exported for the aquarium trade. It is a polymorphic cichlid.	eng
60933	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60933	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
60934	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60934	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Observed at Senga Bay, from Monkey Bay to Zimbawe rocks, Maleri Island, Domira bay, Ngara, South rukuru river as well as Ruarwe.	eng
60934	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in intermediate habitats from 6–25 m deep. Feeds on loose sediment. Males do not have fixed territories but chase other males from their feeding places. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade	eng
60934	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60934	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60935	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60935	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the northwestern coast from Ngara to Nkhata bay. Also observed at Liuli & Mbamba Bay.	eng
60935	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in sediment rich intermediate zones (at Nkhata bay occurs at 8–25 m and at Chitimba bay 4–5 m). Occurs on the outer fringe of the rocky shore. Population density is low in deeper water. Feeds mainly on loose aufwuchs. Males are weakly territorial, chasing away intruders, and females are solitary.	eng
60935	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60935	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60936	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park	eng
60936	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60936	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky shore zone. It is rarely encountered at greater depths. Feeds primarily on aufwuchs scraped off the rock surface. Males are territorial; females are solitary. It is a polymorphic cichlid. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
60936	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60936	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade; sedimentation; and potential over-fishing.	eng
60937	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60937	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs along most coastal sections of the lake.	eng
60937	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky shore habitats. Females and sub adults are solitary. Males are mostly territorial but not very aggressive. Feeds on aufwuchs. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. It is a polymorphic cichlid.	eng
60937	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information but it is a common species.	eng
60937	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and potential over-fishing.	eng
60938	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
60938	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widely distributed in the northern part of the lake, North of Chilumba, Likoma and Chisumulu Islands, Usisya, Chitande, Mara Point, Ikombe to Hai Reef (Mozambique border), Cobue, Wikihi (Mozambique), Undu Reef (Tanzania), Ikombe to Hai Reef (Mozambique border).	eng
60938	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over rocky and stony substrates in shallow water to a depth of 40 m. Most abundant between 5 and 20 m. Feeds primarily on plankton although territorial males feed on aufwuchs. Males hold their territories in front of rocks or between stones. Females are solitary or live in groups. Known as 'Redtop Afra' or ' Whitetop Afra' in the aquarium trade.	eng
60938	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60938	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60939	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None.	eng
60939	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from Mundola Point, south of Nkhata Bay, Chilombo Bay and Lions Cove.	eng
60939	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over a sand substrate but may also occur in the intermediate zone. Most numerous in 4–10 m depth but can occur as deep as 20 m. Feeds on plankton as well as from sandy and rocky substrata. Males dig saucer shaped spawning sites where they aggressively defend their territories. Non-territorial individuals of both sexes form schools numbering between 20–150 members, which usually remain in the water column 1–2 m above the sand substratum. Known as " Pseudotropheus Kingsizei" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60939	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60939	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
60940	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None in place.	eng
60940	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at a single location, Likoma Island.	eng
60940	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in rocky habitats in shallow water. It excavates tunnels in the substratum and carries pebbles to guard the entrance of these tunnels. Known as "Mini-zebra" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60940	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
60940	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60941	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60941	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lakewide distribution.	eng
60941	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers rocky habitats in sediment rich areas. Adults are more common below 10 m. A piscivore that primarily hunts "mbuna" (rocky shore cichlids). Breeding males are observed throughout the year and defend a temporary spawning site between rocks. Females carrying fry can be seen amongst the rocks in shallower water. The fry are abandoned when they reach about 3 cm in size. Known as "Haplochromis Macrostoma" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60941	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Relatively uncommon.	eng
60941	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No known threats.	eng
60942	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60942	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a widespread distribution.	eng
60942	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs among mixed rock/sand habitats in shallow water to a depth of 30 m. It is a piscivore and ambushes its prey. Solitary. Breeding males sometimes construct crater shaped spawning pits and control territories during the breeding season. Females guard their fry (for as long as five or six weeks after first release) while staying close to male's territory and the fry are released among the rocks. Known as "Haplochromis Macrostoma" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60942	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60942	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No known threats.	eng
60943	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60943	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the rocky reefs in the southeast arm of the lake at Boadzulu Island and Makokola reef.	eng
60943	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Known from rocky reef habitats and is most abundant below 10 m.	eng
60943	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60943	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.	eng
60944	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60944	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at Boadzulu Island, Chinyamwezi Island, Chinyankhwazi Island and Makokola reef.	eng
60944	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Found over large rocks and slabs where detritus and organic matter accumulate in pockets among rocks. Most numerous between 3–15 m depth but can occur from the surface to at least 40 m. Feeds on aufwuchs, insect larvae, benthic crustaceans and macrophytes. Spawning occurs at any location in the rocky habitat. Known as "Rusty Cichlid”, “Petrotilapia Tridentiger” and “<em>Lodotropheus prengerae</em>”" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60944	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60944	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing. Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
60945	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
60945	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at the Nsinje River border on the eastern coast of Lake Malawi.	eng
60945	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky and intermediate habitat, mostly in the upper 5 m. Feeds predominantly on aufwuchs. Males defend territories and spawning takes place at any site in the habitat. Known as "Labidochromis Pearl Type" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60945	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60945	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Sedimentation. Potential Over-fishing.	eng
60946	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60946	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe. It has a lake-wide distribution in Lakes Malawi and Malombe.	eng
60946	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Thought to inhabit shallow water over sand habitats where it primarily feeds on plankton. The shape and structure of its mouth suggest that it may also be a paedophage (stealing larvae out of the mouths of brooding females).  Max. size: 23 cm TL.	eng
60946	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60946	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60947	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60947	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60947	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow and muddy bays and vegetated areas between 4–20 m where it feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and small snails. It is regularly caught in beach seine nets in the southern part of the lake. Known as "Haplochromis Placodon Pointed Head". Max. size: 25 cm.	eng
60947	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60947	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
60948	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60948	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe as well as the Shire River. It has a wide distribution in both lakes and extends downstream in the Shire River as far as the Majete rapids.	eng
60948	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Most common at around 5 m, often amongst Vallisneria beds, but also recorded down to 31 m. Feeds on small snails. Males defend large crater nests and the breeding season is from July to September. This species may be useful in controlling snails, which act as vectors for human schistosomiasis (bilharzia). Caught in seines, gill nets and trawls. Known as "Hpalochromis placodon" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm TL.	eng
60948	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60948	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Localised over-fishing.	eng
60949	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60949	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species widespread throughout the lake.	eng
60949	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat. Pisivorous, ambushing its prey. It breeds throughout the year, spawning in the rocky habitats where territorial males congregate in small groups each defending a spawning site, either a cave or beneath an overhanging rock. Known as "Haplochromis Modestus" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
60949	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60949	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60950	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60950	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Widespread, especially along the eastern shore.	eng
60950	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat over sand at an average depth of about 7 m. A predator, mainly feeding on small fish close to the surface of the sand. At around April the breeding males are seen at a depth of about 20 m. Known as "Haplochromis Tropedo and Haplochromis Torpedo Kambiri" in the aquarium trade where it has been exported infrequently. Max. size: 18 cm.	eng
60950	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60950	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60951	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60951	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake wide distribution.	eng
60951	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Mainly occurs in the intermediate habitat and sandy shores near rocks. It is a piscivoroe, hunting its prey over the sand. Breeding males are observed throughout the year preferring sandy regions at depths of 20-40 m. Territorial males dig sand castle nests on the sand floor. Mouthbrooding females ascend to shallower intermediate habitats where they release their fry. Known as "<em>Haplochromis woodi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25 cm TL.	eng
60951	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60951	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60952	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60952	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread along the littoral zone. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
60952	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Breeding groups occur over sand or mixed intermediate habitats at a depth of about 15 m. Otherwise it prefers mud/silt habitats from where it feeds on worms and other soft invertebrates. Breeding occurs all year round and males construct cave crater nests. Females move in small groups or alone. Known as "<em>Lethrinops variabilis</em>” and “<em>Lethrinops chizumulu</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 14 cm TL.	eng
60952	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60952	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60953	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60953	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60953	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Commonly occurs at 20–30 m depth either singly or in small groups foraging in shallow water over sediment covered sand. The diet consists of insect larvae or other soft invertebrates. Breeding males defend territories consisting of small pits in the sand or mud. Max. size: 14 cm.	eng
60953	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60953	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60954	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60954	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake where it has been observed at Mdoka. May have a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60954	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at 7–15 m depths where it feeds on insect larvae and other invertebrates. Territorial males construct a cave crater nest.	eng
60954	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60954	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential threat of localised over-fishing.	eng
60955	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60955	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from the southern part of the lake.	eng
60955	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the shallow water over sand at a depth of 7 m where it feeds on invertebrates by sifting sand through its gills.	eng
60955	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60955	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60956	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60956	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60956	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat where it takes soft invertebrates from the sand by sifting the sand through its gills. Females are found in groups or alone. A breeding colony has been observed at a depth of about 10 m. Males construct shallow nests in the intermediate habitat. Max. size: 18 cm TL.	eng
60956	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60956	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60957	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60957	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60957	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60957	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60957	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60958	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60958	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake. It is thought that it may have a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60958	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over open sandy areas between 5–40 m. Benthic feeder, preying on chironomid larvae and copepods along with sand detritus and some algal material from the sand. Often found in demersal trawl catches but it is also caught in gill nets and occasionally by seines. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Known as "<em>Lethrinops furcifer</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60958	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60958	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing by the demersal trawl fleet in the southeast arm of the lake.	eng
60959	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60959	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is confined to the eastern coast north of Chapola Shoal south to the area from Nkhudzi to the Nankhumba Peninsula. Also found at Domira Bay.	eng
60959	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sandy habitats where it feeds on chironomid larvae, detritus and algal remains. A female guarding fry has been observed off Thumbi East Island. Often caught in pair trawls, gill nets and seine nets.	eng
60959	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60959	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60960	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60960	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire River. Widespread throughout Lake Malawi.	eng
60960	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in open sandy areas in shallow water as well as in intermediate areas at depths of 5–40 m. Feeds on benthic invertebrates by digging deep into the sand with its snout and sifting material through its opercula. Males construct huge sand castle nests. Adults usually occur singly and are frequently followed by other cichlids or juvenile <em>Taeniolethrinops</em> that shift through and feed from the sediment that has been disturbed by the digging behaviour of this fish. Common in trawl catches from 9-37 m. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling. Known as "<em>Lethrinops furcifer</em>”, “<em>Lethrinops furcicauda</em>” or “<em>Haplochromis lateristriga</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 30 cm TL.	eng
60960	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60960	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Localised impacts of demersal trawling.	eng
60961	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60961	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded from the southern part of the lake at Monkey Bay, Domwe Island, Otter Point and Thumbi West Island.	eng
60961	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers the rocky habitat where it has been observed in the extreme shallows down to 35 m depth. Males are common between 6-10 m while females are more numerous in the extreme shallows. Feeds on aufwuchs and benthic invertebrates as well as plankton. Reported not yet to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
60961	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60961	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential localised over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
60962	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60962	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution occurring mainly on the western shores of the lake.	eng
60962	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Most common in the wavewashed rocky habitat preferring areas with medium sized to large rocks in water less than 8 m deep, but it has been recorded down to 18 m at Boadzulu Island. Males defend territories against conspecific males. Females and non-territorial males are usually solitary. Feeds on epilithic algae as well as plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
60962	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60962	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation.	eng
60963	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60963	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake at Chinyamwezi and Chinyankhwazi Islands	eng
60963	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat and forages in the water column feeding on plankton. Territorial males occur below 3 m depth whereas the non-territorial males are observed in shallower water. Exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
60963	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60963	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potentially, localised over-fishing.	eng
60964	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60964	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Common in shallow water on most rocky shores south of Ruarwe on the western side of the lake and as far as Makanjila on the eastern side.	eng
60964	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky areas preferring habitats with medium to large sized rocks. Usually occurs in shallow water and does not usually go below 8 m, although it has been recorded at 20 m depth at Boadzulu Island. Females are more abundant in the extreme shallows while males are most abundant at about 3 m depth. Adults feed on aufwuchs on rock surfaces whereas the juveniles primarily feed on plankton. Males defend territories against conspecifics. Females and non-territorial males may be solitary or hover in the water column in groups of up to 200 individuals. Exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
60964	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60964	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potentially, localised over-fishing.	eng
60965	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60965	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
60965	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Found in intermediate or rocky habitat. Breeding males are seen throughout the year. A piscivore usually found singly in caves and cracks of the rocky habitat. Known as "Haplochromis Electra Blue" or " Haplochromis Jackson" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 20 cm TL.	eng
60965	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60965	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60966	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60966	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.	eng
60966	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A deep-water species that also breeds in the deep water. Recorded in trawl catches of semi pelagic trawls as well as deep-water trawls. Commonly caught at 44–100 m in the southeastern arm. Max. size: 15 cm TL	eng
60966	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60966	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60967	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60967	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. This is a rare cichlid found throughout the lake.	eng
60967	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat or along rocky coasts including remote islets and reefs at water depths of up to 25 m. Spawning occurs usually beneath rocks. Max. size: 11.5 cm SL	eng
60967	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60967	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60968	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60968	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
60968	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Observed over sandy habitats where it feeds on small fishes and invertebrates. Known as "Haplochromis Torpedo Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 22 cm TL.	eng
60968	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60968	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60969	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60969	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. An uncommon cichlid, observed around the central western part of the lake (Kande Island) as well as Likoma Island, Masinje, Senga Bay and Mdoka, also occurs in the south eastern arm.	eng
60969	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs over sandy habitats at depths of between 5–30 m. It is a solitary hunter, taking small cichlids and invertebrates. Breeding males are territorial defending nests excavated in sand/rock areas. Max. size: 11.6 cm SL.	eng
60969	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60969	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60970	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60970	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern arm of the lake particularly around the Nankhumba Peninsula.	eng
60970	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs over sandy substrate at a depth of between 18–70 m. A piscivore.	eng
60970	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60970	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60971	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60971	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake and is thought to be abundant in deep water.	eng
60971	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Piscivore. An important food fish.	eng
60971	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60971	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	The trawls operating in shallow sandy areas are a threat as this species uses such areas as nursery grounds.	eng
60972	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60972	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is never found in large numbers but is widely distributed.	eng
60972	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Widely distributed in the shelf and rocky reef zones in 2-65 m depth. Juvenile fish are found in the littoral zone, in swampy, sandy and rocky habitats. A major piscivor of the pelagic zone. Length at maturity (minimum) males 20.4 cm and females 18.7 cm SL. Fecundity of 117-680 eggs. It is mostly caught using hand lines, gill nets and sometimes chirimila nets. Occasionally it is caught in demersal and mid water trawls. Juveniles are often caught in beach seines. Max. size: 42 cm SL.	eng
60972	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60972	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is the use of small meshed seines operating in the shallow sandy areas, which this species uses as nursery grounds.	eng
60973	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60973	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is very abundant and widely distributed throughout the lake.	eng
60973	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Found in all habitats from inshore reef, shelf and littoral zones to offshore pelagic. It has been recorded at depths of 3–74 m. Breeding grounds have been found in the south east as well as south western arms of the lake, Salima, Nkhotakota, Nkhata bay, Ruarwe, Chisumulu and Karonga. Juveniles are found inshore near the surface in the shelf and littoral zones. It has a fecundity of 27–68 eggs, and the minimum length at maturity for males is: 13.8 cm, and for females 14.3 cm. It is a piscivore. It is caught in large numbers by trawl fisheries and to a lesser degree by the gillnets, seines, chirimila nets and hand lines. Max. size: 42 cm SL.	eng
60973	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60973	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.	eng
60974	conservation	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60974	distribution	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution	eng
60974	habitat	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Adults regularly frequent the shallows near sandy beaches. Appears to be abundant in very deep water. Piscivorous.	eng
60974	population	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60974	threats	Kazembe, J., Magombo, Z., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.	eng
60975	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60975	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lakes Malawi and Malombe where it is abundant and widely distributed.	eng
60975	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Observed in shallow water down to 148 m and a range of habitats such as swamps, lagoons, and open sandy beaches throughout the shelf and reef zones and in the open water right into the middle of the lake. Juveniles are found inshore in the surface waters in the shelf and littoral zones. Small fish feed on mainly crustaceans whereas the adults are piscivorous, feeding on usipa larvae and juveniles. It produces 52-76 eggs and the length at maturity for males is 10.9 cm SL and for females 13.0 cm SL. Often caught in mid-water, pair and bottom trawls and to a lesser extent by gill nets, hand lines and chirimila nets off rocky coasts, and by seines in shallow waters. Max. size: 19.5 cm.	eng
60975	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60975	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is the small meshed seines operating in the shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.	eng
60976	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60976	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widespread throughout the pelagic zone of the lake.	eng
60976	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	An open water species abundant in deep waters. A piscivore. Max. size: 40 cm.	eng
60976	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60976	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60977	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60977	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A widespread species.	eng
60977	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This species is most common on shelf zone at 50–100 m, but can also be found between 30–110 m. It can also be found off submerged reefs. Juveniles are found in the same habitats as adults. It has a fecundity of 154–202 eggs. The length of maturity is 19.9 cm for males and 18.6 cm for females. It is commonly caught in bottom and semi pelagic trawl catches in the south as well as by hand line and gillnet catches in the north. Sometimes exported by the aquarium trade and is known as "<em>Rhamphochromis</em>". Max. size: 29.8 cm SL.	eng
60977	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60977	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is Over-fishing by the commercial trawlers in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60978	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60978	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution in both offshore and inshore habitats.	eng
60978	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Piscivorous. The adults feed mainly on <em>Diplotaxodon</em> spp. and "usipa" while the smaller fishes feed mainly on "usipa". Recorded from depths of 8 to 121 m. Length at maturity for males is 16.4 cm SL and females 19.8 cm SL. This species has a fecundity of up to 546 eggs. Juveniles are found in the inshore shelf regions as well as the benthic zone of the southeastern arm of the lake. Max. size: 40.2 cm.Mid water and bottom trawls in the southern part of the lake catch many juveniles and some adults. Also caught by gill nets and hand lines especially in the northern area of the lake.	eng
60978	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
60978	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A potential threat is the trawl fishery operating in the shallow sandy areas used by this species as nursery grounds.	eng
60979	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60979	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the northern part of the lake and has been observed at Mdoka, Chisese, Chirwa Island and between Selewa and Kasinda and along the eastern coast at Msisi and Lupingu.	eng
60979	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate sand/rock habitat as well as in sandy areas. It has been observed feeding from sediment particles that have been expelled through the gills of larger sand digging species. Not exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
60979	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60979	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60980	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60980	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Common at most locations around the lake.	eng
60980	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sandy habitat where it feeds on invertebrates including snails from the bottom. It prefers depths of about 15 m. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and they construct shallow sand castle nests. They form small breeding colonies in the shallow intermediate habitats. Females and non-breeding males live in small groups or are solitary. Known as "Maravichromis Fort Maguire" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60980	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available	eng
60980	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available	eng
60981	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60981	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island as well as Nkhata Bay and on the Mozambican shore from Chiwindi to Lumbauco at Mara Point, and from Lumessi to the Malawi border and further south to Ntekete in Malawi.	eng
60981	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sand and is sometimes observed in the intermediate habitat. It is most common at 7 m but can occur at a depth of 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and algae from the debris that is stirred up by larger digging cichlids such as <em>Lethrinops praeorbitalis</em>. A nest is not constructed as spawning occurs on the sand or rock. Eggs are fertilised inside the female’s mouth. Known as "Deep Water Hap, Haplochromis Jahni" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.	eng
60981	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60981	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential localised over-fishing.	eng
60982	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60982	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known between Cape Maclear and Chipoka in the southwestern arm of the lake and also known in southeastern arm.	eng
60982	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at depths ranging from 75–100 m. Occurs in soft bottom mud/silt habitats with a thick layer of sedimentary diatoms. Feeds on invertebrates and diatoms sifted from the bottom sediments. Max. size: 7 cm TL.	eng
60982	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rare species.	eng
60982	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing by the commercial demersal trawlers.	eng
60983	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60983	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution. Also occurs in the Upper Shire River.	eng
60983	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow sheltered areas with patches of vegetation but can also occur over soft bottom mud/silt habitats and over sand in the intermediate habitats. Feeds on small fishes as well as invertebrates from the bottom sediments. It can be observed foraging in mixed species groups or in groups of its own kind. In such groups only a single male exhibits breeding colouration. Mouth brooding females stay together. Known as "Haplochromis Johnstoni or Kachimanga" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
60983	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60983	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60984	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60984	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Shire River and Lake Malombe. In Lake Malawi it occurs in the southern part of the lake.	eng
60984	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in vegetated habitats most commonly at depths of 5–18 m. Its long gut indicates a herbivorous diet. Not been exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
60984	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60984	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No known threats.	eng
60985	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60985	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60985	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers deep rocky habitats at depths of 4–35 m where the rocks usually are covered with a thin layer of sediment. Normally solitary. Feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and mbuna fry. Males exhibit territoriality, defending a spawning site when another breeding male is in sight. Females guard their offspring. Known as "Haplochromis Super VC 10, Haplochromis Labrosus or Brown White Labrosus" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 20 cm TL.	eng
60985	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60985	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
60986	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60986	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southeast and southwestern arm of the lake.	eng
60986	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in deep waters, with mud or sand substrate with sediment layer. It has been trawled from depths ranging between 55–80 m. Feeds on small invertebrates from the sediment. This species has not been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 6 cm (TL).	eng
60986	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60986	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Fishing.	eng
60987	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60987	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the neighbourhood of the town of Elmali in southern Anatolia. Known from a small lake in the area.	eng
60987	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No specific data, but found in area 1,500 m asl.	eng
60987	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Only known from three specimens caught in 1957.	eng
60987	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60988	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
60988	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to southern Anatolia near Antalya in Turkey.	eng
60988	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A riverine species.	eng
60988	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60988	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
60989	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60989	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is thought to be restricted to the north western coast of the lake.	eng
60989	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over gradually sloping sandy bottoms where males build sand castle nests on the open sand. Females and immature males occur in groups in mid-water feeding on plankton.  Max. size: 18 cm.	eng
60989	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60989	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60990	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60990	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60990	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Commonly occurring in shallow waters along steeply sloping sandy shores, sometimes in macrophyte beds. Thought to be confined to shallow waters of less than 15 m where it forms small schools in mid-water feeding on plankton. It is thought to breed throughout the year. Territorial males build sand turret nests in the open sand habitat in shallow water at 1–2 m depth. Its nest is characterised by a slanted spawning dish on top. Reported not to be exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 14 cm.	eng
60990	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60990	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60991	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60991	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A rare species from the southern end of the lake. It has also been observed at Nkhomo reef near Benga.	eng
60991	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers sandy habitats and feeds on plankton, mainly phytoplankton. Males construct their nests beside a rock where the nest is dug forming a cave. Females live in schools in the open water. This species breeds from August to December. It has been observed to a depth of 16 m. Max. size: 14 cm.	eng
60991	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60991	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60992	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60992	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is thought to be restricted to the southern part of the lake.	eng
60992	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers exposed shores and has been observed on the open sand in Senga bay at a depth of about 15 m. It feeds on zooplankton in the mid-water. Breeding males construct sand castle nests on the lake floor and attract females from schools in the open water. Has been sporadically exported, without a trade name. Max. size: 22 cm.	eng
60992	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60992	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60993	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60993	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60993	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow sand habitats at a depth of about 10 m. It occurs in more sheltered areas which are not too exposed to wave action and lives among rubble and small stones on the sand. Breeding males are observed all year round and they defend territories on the sand and rubble bottom. It feeds on small soft benthic invertebrates as well as plankton. Mouth brooding females congregate into groups. Known as "Small Green Utaka" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.	eng
60993	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60993	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
60994	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60994	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been observed along the north western shore of the lake extending as far south as Nkhata Bay. It has also been observed at Mbenji and Likoma Islands.	eng
60994	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat and over open sand living close to the bottom. It feeds on plankton. Breeding males construct shallow sand castle nest. Max. size: 21 cm (TL – males).	eng
60994	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60994	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60995	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60995	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire River. It has a lake wide distribution.	eng
60995	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sand in both shallow and deeper waters. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans sifted from the sand. Territorial males construct sand castle nests on the open sand. Non-breeding individuals congregate in large schools. Mouth brooding schools move in groups to deeper waters. Known as "<em>Haplochromis eucinostomus, Haplochromis longimanus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 15 cm TL.	eng
60995	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60995	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60996	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60996	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire river. It has a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60996	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species occurs in the sandy habitat at 10 m depth on average. It feeds from the sediment overlying the sand. Territorial males construct large sand castle nests (approximately one metre in diameter) at water depths of between 10–25 m. Mouth brooding females group together and release their offspring in the shallow water. Known as "Haplochromis Margarette Blotch and Haplochromis Big Blotch" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25cm TL.	eng
60996	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60996	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60997	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60997	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from the southern part of the lake.	eng
60997	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed over sandy areas near rocks. Feeds on small fishes. Breeding males seen in the intermediate habitat at a depth of about 30 m. Can occur at depths varying between 30–100 m and has been caught in demersal trawls at 60–100 m depths. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
60997	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60997	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potentially, localised over-fishing.	eng
60998	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60998	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is uncommon but occurs throughout the lake.	eng
60998	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs primarily over the open sandy bottom of the lake. Juveniles have been observed at Namalenje Island at an average depth of 6 m. Its diet mainly consists of invertebrates sifted from the bottom sediment. It occurs singly or in small groups of around six individuals. Max. size: 18 cm TL.	eng
60998	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60998	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60999	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60999	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
60999	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat, in rocky areas, and the sediment rich deeper regions. It is an opportunistic feeder attracted to stirred-up sediments. Spawning occurs in the sand between rocks or small stones. The male is rarely territorial. Known as "Haplochromis Royal Blue" in the aquarium trade.	eng
60999	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
60999	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61000	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61000	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake around the Nankhumba Peninsula and its Islands as well as at Chinyamwezi Island.	eng
61000	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Dwells in caves and has been observed down to 30 m. Breeding males are seen throughout the year. Females are observed near caves foraging on the outside of the rocky habitat. Spawning occurs inside the caves. It is a scavenger feeding on material from the rocky substrate including droppings of other fishes. Known as "Haplochromis Lombardo and Aristochromis Lombardoi" in the aquarium trade, it is no longer exported. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
61000	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61000	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61001	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61001	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61001	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It is commonly seen in large arenas of breeding cichlids along sandy shores or among rocks where it feeds on the eggs as they are being laid (it is an egg robbing cichlid). It usually steals the eggs soon after the females release them before they are collected into the mouth. Breeding males defend their spawning sites near rocks.	eng
61001	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61001	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61002	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61002	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61002	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sandy substrates at depths of between 3–20 m. It feeds from the bottom and is attracted to stirred-up sediments (mainly caused by the digging of larger sand dwelling cichlids). Males do not construct nests and spawning takes place on the sand. Known as "Haplochromis Nussae" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61002	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	A fairly rare species.	eng
61002	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61003	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61003	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widepread and common throughout the lake.	eng
61003	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Commonly occurs over sand most common between 35–55 m depth although it can sometimes be found in water as shallow as 18 m and as deep as 100 m. A piscivore. Max. size: 25 cm TL.	eng
61003	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61003	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61004	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61004	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Malombe and Shire River. Only known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
61004	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow water of sheltered vegetated bays. Diet consists of algae, pieces of plants and small crustaceans. Caught between 5–18 m depth. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
61004	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61004	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61005	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61005	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River. It occurs throughout Lake Malawi but is most common to the south and in Lake Malombe and the Shire River.	eng
61005	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow vegetated swampy areas at a depth of between 1–7 m. Feeds on invertebrates such as insect larvae and crustaceans from the bottom sediment and sometimes on zooplankton. Breeding mainly occurs in December but the season can be extended over a longer period. Breeding males defend a cleared patch among the vegetation. Max. size: 14 cm TL.	eng
61005	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61005	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61006	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61006	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Nakatenga Island and the southern part of Maleri Island.	eng
61006	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A cave dwelling cichlid occurring in the rocky habitat at levels below 10 meters. Feeds on invertebrates but has also been observed hunting small fishes. Breeds throughout the year. Known as "Aristochromis Deep or Stigmatochromis sp. Aristochromis Deep"in the aquarium trade.	eng
61006	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61006	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Localised over-fishing. Restricted range.	eng
61007	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61007	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from two localities, Ngara (in the north) and southeast of Mbenji Island, near Domira Bay (central part of the lake). Although the distribution and abundance of <em>O. pachycheilus</em> in the central and northern parts of Lake Malawi is unknown due to inadequate sampling, it appears to be an uncommon species of little commercial importance where it has been collected. Because it is a very distinctive species, and the fact that it has not been recorded from the relatively shallow southern arms of the lake where most of the mechanized trawling activities and taxonomic efforts have been directed, it is thought to be rare or absent in these regions.	eng
61007	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It is a deep-water demersal species occurring over a hard bottom substrate containing loose cobbles and coarse sand recorded at depths of 78–135 m. It mainly feeds on invertebrates.	eng
61007	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61007	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Localised over-fishing. Restricted range.	eng
61008	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61008	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern and western part of the lake. Particularly common in the southeastern arm.	eng
61008	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sand dwelling species occurring on sandy coasts, commonly found below 10 m depth. A molluscivore, feeding on snails from the silty bottom. Territorial males build their nests on the sand (shallow depressions). Females and non-territorial individuals occur in small groups or occur with other sand dwelling fishes. Max. size: 23 cm (males) and females may reach 15 cm in size. Known as "Maravichromis Anaphyrmus" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61008	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Relatively common in demersal trawl catches.	eng
61008	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61009	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61009	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur mainly in the northern region of the lake, but also observed in some southern parts of the lake.	eng
61009	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sand dwelling species, mainly living in shallow water. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand by digging and sifting the sand through its gills. It occurs in small groups or solitary. Reported to be common in beach seine catches in Karonga (northern part of the lake). Reported not to have been exported for the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: Attains a maximum length of 16.4 cm.	eng
61009	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61009	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61010	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61010	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake where it is rare at most locations. Reported to be common at Mbenji Island.	eng
61010	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate as well as rocky habitats from the shallows to as deep as 30 m. Feeds from the sediment on rocks, has been observed feeding on crabs. Males in breeding colouration are observed throughout the year, they are territorial defending sites between rocks. Known as "Haplochromis Amadi" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: males attain a maximum size of 25 cm and females of 20 cm.	eng
61010	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61010	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61011	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61011	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It occurs throughout the lake in shallow waters. It is rare in most areas except at Hai reef (Tanzania) and Chiwindi (Mozambique).	eng
61011	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sandy substrate, sometimes in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand. Exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Maximum recorded size 20 cm total length (male).	eng
61011	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available	eng
61011	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None identified.	eng
61012	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61012	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
61012	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters of sandy or intermediate habitats. Occurs in waters not deeper than 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. Normally found solitary. This species has been exported irregularly, known as "Haplochromis Mbawanae Type" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of about 15 cm.	eng
61012	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61012	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None identified.	eng
61013	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61013	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake but is nowhere common.	eng
61013	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sand dwelling cichlid, sometimes occurring in the intermediate habitat. This species feeds from the sediment layer on sand and rocks in the intermediate habitat. Reported not to have been exported (1990). Max. size: Attains a maximum size of 20 cm (male), females are smaller.	eng
61013	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61013	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None identified.	eng
61014	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61014	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
61014	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs mainly in the intermediate or vegetated (Vallisernia) habitats in shallow water. It occurs in groups. Feeds on insects and crustaceans from plants. Males exhibiting breeding colouration have been observed foraging with females. Known as "Haplochromis Golden Mola" from the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains an average size of 15 cm.	eng
61014	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61014	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None identified.	eng
61015	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61015	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe with lake-wide distributions.	eng
61015	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat and in shallow sand areas where the lakebed is partly covered with small rocks. It has been observed down to 20 m. It feeds by turning over rocks or pebbles (which it grabs with its mouth) to check for invertebrates underneath. Usually solitary. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males attain a maximum size of 18 cm and females with an average size of about 11 cm.	eng
61015	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61015	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61016	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park at Cape MaClear. Otherwise none.	eng
61016	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to the southern shore of the lake.	eng
61016	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow sandy and vegetated areas, mostly in sheltered bays. Territorial males have been observed in the intermediate habitat. It feeds by digging into the sand with its long snout and filtering food items such as crustaceans and insects. Males build shallow saucer-shaped nests dug in the sand or it may use a flat stone. It often occurs in groups with <em>Hemitilapia oxyrynchus</em>. Known as "Giant Flame <em>Oxyrynchus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a total length of about 22 cm.	eng
61016	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61016	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61017	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Part of range is within the Lake Malawi National Park, otherwise no conservation measures in place.	eng
61017	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it may be restricted to the southern part of the lake.	eng
61017	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs on sandy shores or vegetated areas. Reported not to have been exported (1990).Max. size: Attains a maximum size of 18 cm.	eng
61017	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61017	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61018	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61018	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. A common species that occurs all around the lake.	eng
61018	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sandy or intermediate habitat at an average depth of about 10 m. It feeds on molluscs from the sand. Males in breeding colouration occur throughout the year. Territorial males defend a small area in the intermediate habitat among some rocks (it does not construct a nest). Known as "<em>Haplochromis trianodon</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.	eng
61018	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61018	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61019	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61019	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake and is common in the northern half.	eng
61019	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow water mainly in sediment rich rocky habitats, can also occur in the sandy habitat. Occurs at an average depth of about 10 m. Feeds by scooping sediments from the rocks or sand and sifting it through its gills, retaining any food items found (mainly invertebrates). Territorial males observed throughout the year, they defend a site between some small rocks (males do not construct a nest). Known as "Haplochromis Margrette Diagonal Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum size of about 17 cm. Females are smaller growing to a length of approximately 13 cm.	eng
61019	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61019	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61020	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Distribution range incorporates the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61020	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded in the southern part of Lake Malawi (south eastern arm). Possibly more widespread.	eng
61020	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sand dwelling cichlid, occurring along sandy shores. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
61020	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61020	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61021	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Distribution range incorporates the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61021	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern arms of the lake.	eng
61021	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs frequently in vegetated habitats of sheltered bays. Feeds on invertebrates. Breeding fish have been seen at 3 m depths. Territorial males build nests by clearing a small area within plant beds exposing the sand underneath. Courting males usually occur in colonies. This species has only been sporadically exported. Max. size: Attains a maximum total length of about 12 cm.	eng
61021	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61021	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61022	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61022	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi	eng
61022	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information	eng
61022	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61022	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information.	eng
61023	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61023	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.	eng
61023	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters along sandy shores from 5–20 m depth. It feeds on snails and crustaceans. Known as "<em>Haplochromis triaenodon</em> Sandy Shore" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: attains a maximum length of about 20 cm.	eng
61023	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61023	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61024	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61024	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Abundant in the southern part of the lake at depths between 37–130 m. Also known to occur in the northern part of the lake.	eng
61024	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Prefers sandy and muddy bottoms in relatively deep waters. Piscivorous. At night it may forage in shallow regions. May also feed on invertebrates as well as algae. It breeds throughout the year, with a peak in November and another in January–February. Reported to spawn at depths between 75–125 m. Sexual maturity for females in the south western arm of the lake is reached at an average size of 16 cm for females and the fecundity ranged from 92–356 for females weighing between 49–307 g. Present in demersal trawl catches. Max. size: 20 cm standard length.	eng
61024	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No decline detected by fishery research trawls.	eng
61024	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Over-fishing. Its large size at maturity means puts it at risk from over-fishing fishing should demersal trawling be extended to deeper water.	eng
61025	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61025	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur at Nkhata Bay, Likoma Island & the southeast & southwest arms of the Lake.	eng
61025	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It only occurs in deep water (never shallower than 30 m) where it skulks among the rocks and mud at great depths. It is caught in the bottom few meshes of deep-set gill nets. Max. size: it is reported to grows to 70 cm or more.	eng
61025	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61025	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-exploitation.	eng
61026	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61026	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake. Observed at Mbenje island, Nkhomo reef, Eccles reef and around the Malere islands.	eng
61026	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	This species prefers sandy parts of intermediate habitats. Occurs at depth below 10 m. Females and non-breeding males gather in small foraging groups while feeding on plankton. Males have been seen feeding on detritus on the bottom. Breeding occurs throughout the year and slows during the rainy season. Males build caves in the intermediate habitat at levels deeper than 17 m. Very popular among aquarists. Aquarium trade name – <em>Haplochromis crysonotus</em>.	eng
61026	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61026	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Fishing. Aquarium trade.	eng
61027	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
61027	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Nankumba penninsula.	eng
61027	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A plankton feeder, foraging in the water column. Spawning occurs throughout the year but peaks from January to March and August to September. Males build cone-shaped bowers (nests) in large breeding arenas off sand beaches in water 3–10 m deep.	eng
61027	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61027	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Restricted range. Inshore sedimentation.	eng
61028	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61028	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is found all around the lakeshore including Likoma and Chizumulu Islands (not seen at Taiwan reef).	eng
61028	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A planktivorous species preferring clean clear water over sediment free rocks. Females and non -breeding males congregate in the open water in small foraging schools. Males defend sites on large boulders but they neither mark them nor defend them aggressively. Juveniles are released in shallow parts of the rocky habitat. Known as '<em>Haplochromis munnae'</em> in the aquarium trade.	eng
61028	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61028	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61029	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	None.	eng
61029	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.	eng
61029	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	A zooplankton feeder. Remains in shore all year round. Caught most often in rocky habitats. It breeds in the intermediate habitat where males build large sand castles (they do not use any rocks in the construction). Fry are released in very shallow water among rocks and plants.	eng
61029	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61029	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61030	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61030	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded only from the Nkhatabay area.	eng
61030	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in both rocky and sandy areas. Feeds mainly on zooplanton but also ingests phytoplankton. Regularly caught on sandy shores by beach seines (July to September).	eng
61030	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61030	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Beach seines - use of small meshes.	eng
61031	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61031	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been observed at Kande, but is thought likely to have a much wider distribution. The Type specimens were collected at an unknown location.	eng
61031	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat where it feeds by sifting silt from the sandy bottom through its gills, mainly finding invertebrates. Territorial males defend a spawning site in the habitat close to rocks (they do not construct nests). Breeding has been observed in May and June. Reported not to have been exported (1990). Max. size: 13 cm.	eng
61031	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61031	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61032	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61032	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake but it may have a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61032	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs commonly over sandy habitats at depths between 20–60 meters. It has also been observed in the intermediate habitat at depths of 12 m. It feeds on soft invertebrates from the sandy bottom by scooping the material. Reported to be caught in trawl catches. Reported never to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
61032	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61032	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61033	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61033	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southern part of the lake.	eng
61033	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sand and mud bottoms at depths of between 20–40 m. Small pharyngeal teeth indicate that it may feed on soft material such as insect larvae and plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm SL.	eng
61033	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61033	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61034	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61034	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61034	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs commonly in open sandy habitats in shallow water at depths of 7 m. It feeds by sifting silt from the bottom through its gills, taking invertebrates mainly insect larvae. Also feeds on plankton. Breeding males construct sand castle-nests on the sand bottom. Breeding occurs from May to August. This species is regularly caught in beach seines. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Green Face or <em>Lethrinops</em> Rounded Head" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males can grow to a maximum total length of about 20 cm.	eng
61034	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61034	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61035	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61035	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southern part of the lake.	eng
61035	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Commonly occurs in habitats with muddy bottoms, at depths between 90–130 m. It may feed on zooplankton and soft invertebrates. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
61035	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61035	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61036	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61036	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Lake-wide distribution.	eng
61036	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow (sometimes vegetated) water preferring waters near river outlets and occurs a little upstream in rivers. It feeds by sifting sand and mud in search of food items. Feeds on crustaceans and insect larvae. This species is regularly caught in beach seines. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade or "<em>Haplochromis similis</em> Type". Max. size: 16 cm SL.	eng
61036	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61036	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61037	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61037	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs in the northern part of the lake (may have a lake-wide distribution).	eng
61037	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans and zooplankton. Breeding may occur at the beginning of the rainy season. This species is caught regularly in beach seines. This species has been exported sporadically for the aquarium trade, unknown trade name. Max. size: 18 cm TL.	eng
61037	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61037	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61038	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	None.	eng
61038	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur throughout the southern part of the lake as well as Bandawe (northern region).	eng
61038	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	It occurs over sandy regions at depths from 15–45 m and feeds on diatoms and other food items found on the substrate as well as on zooplankton. This species is not known in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 13 cm TL.	eng
61038	population	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61038	threats	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61039	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61039	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
61039	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sand and muddy bottoms at depths between 36–75 m. Occurs in trawl catches in the deeper parts of the southern parts of the lake. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
61039	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61039	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61040	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61040	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61040	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It occurs in the shallow sandy areas, between 9–63 m depth. It is more abundant in the shallower parts of its range. It feeds on insect larvae and small crustaceans. Occurs in demersal trawl catches. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Red Flush" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
61040	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61040	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61041	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61041	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the Senga Bay area.	eng
61041	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Known from sandy habitats where it is regularly caught in beach seines. Has been exported in the aquarium trade but the trade name is unknown. Max. size: 18 cm.	eng
61041	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61041	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing, especially by beach seines.	eng
61042	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61042	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61042	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It occurs in shallow sandy and intermediate habitats mostly in sheltered bays when it is breeding. After breeding season (August to November) it is no longer seen in such areas indicating that this species may migrate to deeper levels when not breeding. Territorial males build large sand castle nests on the sand. Breeding males congregate into colonies (sometimes more than 50 individuals). It feeds by filtering sand through its gills looking for food items (invertebrates). It also feeds on zooplankton from the open water. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Yellow-Black Dorsal or <em>Lethrinops auritus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm TL.	eng
61042	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61042	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61043	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61043	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known to occur in the southeastern arm of the lake.	eng
61043	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Occurs over soft bottoms that have a thick layer of sedimentary diatoms at depths of 35–100 m. Its preferred depth is 50 m where it is reported to be abundant. It feeds on the diatoms by scooping them from the substrate. Also feeds in the open water on plankton when available. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 15 cm TL.	eng
61043	population	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Declining.	eng
61043	threats	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61044	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61044	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. It has been caught mainly in the south of the lake, but it has also been observed at Bandawe (northern region).	eng
61044	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over soft bottoms. It feeds on diatoms, which it scoops from the substrate. Also feeds in the open water on plankton when available. The presence of this species in a particular area may be dependant on the availability of the diatoms. Breeding males occur from November to February. These males are territorial, defending a small and shallow nest in the sand close to rocks. Females occur in small groups close to where the males have their territories. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). It attains a length of about 15 cm.	eng
61044	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Declining (fishery research trawl data).	eng
61044	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61045	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61045	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Type locality was from the northwestern end of the lake. Thought to be widespread.	eng
61045	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sandy habitat in shallow waters. It is frequently caught in beach seines. It feeds on soft invertebrates by sifting the sand in search of food items. Breeding males have been observed in August. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Rounded Head" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 16 cm.	eng
61045	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61045	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61046	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61046	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur in Nkhotakota area.	eng
61046	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sandy as well as intermediate habitat. It inhabits sheltered shallow water with vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>). In the intermediate habitat it was observed at about 15 m. Feeds on invertebrates and diatoms (by filtering the bottom sediment) as well as plant roots. It has also been observed feeding on plankton. Few individuals are regularly caught in beach seines off sandy shores in quiet bays. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: Total length of 11 cm (males) and about 10 cm (females).	eng
61046	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61046	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61047	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61047	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur in the southern part of the lake.	eng
61047	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow water over sandy bottoms. It is common at depths between 10–40 m. Feeds mainly on insect larvae as well as crustaceans and plankton. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 12 cm SL.	eng
61047	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61047	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61048	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61048	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known mainly from the southern part of the lake, also known from Nkhata Bay. May have a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61048	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	Occurs in habitats with sandy bottoms in waters of 35–65 m deep. Feeds on invertebrates as well as diatoms. In the 1970s this species was reported to have declined in demersal trawl catches but by the early 1990s it was observed that it may have become locally extinct in the south eastern arm south of Boadzulu Island due to over exploitation. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 23 cm TL.	eng
61048	population	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61048	threats	Kazembe, J. & Darwall, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
61049	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61049	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
61049	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow areas off sandy beaches. Sometimes occurs in beach seine catches. May feed on soft invertebrates. Exported in the aquarium trade, trade name unknown. Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
61049	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61049	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61050	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61050	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from the southern part of the lake.	eng
61050	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in open sandy areas or areas with soft substrates such as mud and diatomaceous substances at depths between 30–140 m. Feeds on invertebrates. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 16 cm TL.	eng
61050	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61050	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61051	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61051	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Lake-wide distribution.	eng
61051	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	It occurs in habitats with pure sandy bottoms at depths between 50–70 m. It is abundant at these depths in many parts of the lake. It feeds on insect larvae. It is reported to have declined substantially in abundance in the southeastern arm of the lake south of Boadzulu Island due to the impact of demersal trawling in the area. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 15 cm TL.	eng
61051	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61051	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61052	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61052	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from the southern part of the lake but it may have a wider distribution.	eng
61052	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow water with muddy bottoms in sheltered bays where it feeds by filtering sediment and mud from the bottom looking for small invertebrates. It also feeds on zooplankton and sometimes diatoms. At Chembe beach males have been observed building nests in the muddy bottom. These nests consist of a circle of 5–10 mud cones, with another cone (made usually out of sand) in the middle and alongside it a spawning pit is dug. Reported to be commonly caught in seine catches in southern part of the lake. Known as "<em>Lethrinops</em> Small Green and <em>Lethrinops macrophthalmus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8 cm TL.	eng
61052	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61052	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61053	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61053	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61053	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 18.5 cm standard length.	eng
61053	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61053	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61054	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61054	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Collected from Lake Malombe and from the southern part of Lake Malawi in the South East and South West Arms and Domira Bay. Abundant in Lake Malombe.	eng
61054	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Usually caught at caught at shallow depths (2–15 m), however it has been caught in a trawl between 20–28 m in the South East Arm. Its size at maturity can sometimes be less than 6 cm total length. Females produce approximately 30 eggs per batch. A generalist feeder taking chironomids, copepods, chaoborus larvae, ostracods, nematodes and diatoms. Algal remains, detritus and sand have also been found in the stomachs along with odonata and cladocerans. Max. size: 12 cm TL.	eng
61054	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	It is the most important food fish in Lake Malombe and it has been estimated that more than 2,500 tonnes of the species were taken by seines in 1990 in the lake with an estimated annual catch from Lake Malombe alone in 1991–92 to be approximately 850 million fish.	eng
61054	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61055	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61055	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to Mdokas in the northern part of the lake.	eng
61055	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs at depths of approximately 20 m. Foraging females and non territorial males congregate in large schools on the sand between or near rocks at depths varying from 12–25 m. Territorial males defend a small patch of sand against conspecific males only. Abundant at the rock sand interfaces near Mdoka in November and December. It has been exported as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Auditor" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61055	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61055	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potentially the aquarium trade.	eng
61056	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61056	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from a single location at Vua.	eng
61056	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Sand dwelling cichlid.	eng
61056	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61056	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61057	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61057	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common at Usisya, Chipoka, Maleri Islands, Nkhomo and Benga (south of Chia lagoon).	eng
61057	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over sand and rocks from 4-6 m deep although it has also been observed in 10-16 m of water. It is a sand sifting species. Breeding males occur over rocks whereas females move over sand in groups. Known in the aquarium trade as: "New Yellow Regal, <em>Aulonocara</em> Benga, Nkhomo-Benga Peacock"	eng
61057	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61057	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing.	eng
61058	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61058	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Restricted to the east coast of the lake where it has been observed at Masinje, Lupingu and Manda (Tanzania), Wikihi Mara Point & Chiloelo (Mozambique).	eng
61058	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs at depths of about 20 m. Males are territorial and defend shallow spawning pits or sometimes a sandy patch between small stones.	eng
61058	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61058	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	None known.	eng
61059	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61059	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. The species is only known from its type specimens. Type locality "Bar House", near the bar of the Shire river at the tip of the south eastern arm of the lake.	eng
61059	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Two type specimens were collected: Lectotype and Paralectotype. These types were collected in an area of sandy/silt substrate.	eng
61059	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61059	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None identified.	eng
61060	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61060	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, where it has only been recorded from Chitande Island	eng
61060	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over rocks and sand. Females and immature males found in schools at 3 m depth. Females can also occur in small groups. Breeding males occur 6–7 m deep. Feeds from the rock and sand substrates. Known as "Northern <em>Alonocara</em> or Chitande <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade	eng
61060	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61060	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potentially the aquarium trade.	eng
61061	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61061	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Wide distribution. Occurs on both the western as well as eastern shores of the lake. Most northerly populations occur at Ikombe (Tanzania), most southerly populations occur at Masinje (Malawi) Also observed along entire eastern shoreline of Tanzania and at Mdoka, Msuli and Cape Manulo (Malawi) and also at Lumessi and Mara Point (Mozambique).	eng
61061	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	A non-sedentary sand dwelling cichlid. Forages in muddy sediment on sandy bottoms near river outlets. Usually found at depths of more than 15 m. Territorial males dig crater nests in the sand or defend a rocky cave. Females forage in small groups ear territorial males.Known as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Mulitspot" or "<em>Aulonocara</em> Jumbo Blue" in the aquarium trade	eng
61061	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61061	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing.	eng
61062	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61062	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Common in the southeastern arm occurring at Monkey Bay, Makanjila Point and Kadango. Also observed at Senga bay.	eng
61062	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Common in shallow sandy habitats, normally forages in small groups of about 10 individuals. Observed in waters as shallow as 1.5 m. In Senga Bay, can occur at 10 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61062	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61062	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing.	eng
61063	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Partly enclosed within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61063	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Masinje, Fort Maguire, Mara Point and Thumbi West Island.	eng
61063	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat at 4–6 m where it prefers to dwell near holes and crevices formed in the rocks. Spawning occurs in the caves. Feeds on small invertebrates in the sand.	eng
61063	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61063	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Restricted Range. Potential localised over-fishing.	eng
61064	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61064	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Likoma Island.	eng
61064	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Lives over sand in intermediate habitats. Average depth where it is abundant is 8 m. Females usually occur in groups of up to 100 individuals. Males defend their territories consisting of caves between rocks on the sand. Known as "Night <em>Aulonocara</em>, <em>Aulonocara</em> White Top, <em>Trematocranus</em> Auditor" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61064	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61064	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Aquarium trade.	eng
61065	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61065	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Common at the southern end of the lake where it has been recorded at Cape Maclear (including Mumbo and Domwe Islands) to Makokola reef, and at Chinyankhwazi and Chinyamwezi rocks. Also seen at Mpanga rocks, Namalenje Island and Mpandikuchsa Island.	eng
61065	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Southern populations occur in intermediate habitats while northern populations inhabit rocky habitats. Breeding males have territories inside caves, which they defend. A nest is not constructed so breeding takes place on a rock or sand. Large caves can hold several breeding males. Females forage on the sandy cave bottoms. Known as "Malawi Butterfly, <em>Trematocranus trevori</em>, <em>Trematocranus jacobfreigbergi</em> and <em>Trematocranus regina</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61065	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61065	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61066	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61066	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded at Chisumulu Island.	eng
61066	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over rocky habitat but it forages over sand where it feeds on invertebrates. It prefers water of 10 m depth. Females congregate in foraging schools that usually number more than 20 individuals. Males defend territories at the edge of sand and rocks. Territories are central around a cave among rocks or at a horizontal space between a suspended rock and the sand. Known as "Blue Orchard <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61066	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61066	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61067	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61067	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded at West Reef and Eccles Reef.	eng
61067	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occur above submerged rocks. Numerous at 10 m depth. A benthic feeder, feeding on molluscs. Females occur in groups over the sand whilst breeding males select small territories in the rocks and sand. Known as "Sulphur Head <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61067	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61067	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61068	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61068	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Kande Island.	eng
61068	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid. Females forage some distance away from rocks. Broods consist of numerous (sometimes over 100) small fry. Feeds on molluscs. Females known as "Blue Orchid <em>Aulonocara</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61068	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61068	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Potentially the aquarium trade. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61069	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61069	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at Boadzulu Island and Manzinzi Bay	eng
61069	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs over sandy habitat at depths of more than 20 m. Small groups forage from the substrate. These small groups usually contain one male exhibiting breeding colouration.	eng
61069	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61069	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing.	eng
61070	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61070	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution. Observed in its natural habitat at Mdoka, Msuli Point, Kande Island and West reef (Malawi); Hongi Island (Tanzania). Also observed at Nkope and collected from Vua.	eng
61070	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occus over sandy substrate at depths varying from 15-30 m. Breeding males group into various breeding colonies where each male digs a breeding (spawning) crater in the sand and defends it against all intruders. This species is a non-seasonal breeder. Females normally forage in separate groups or are solitary. Has been found in waters deeper than 64m in Monkey bay. Known by its scientific name as well as by the name "<em>Aulonocara macrochir</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61070	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61070	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61071	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61071	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Eastern shores of the lake as well as observed at Tsano rocks (Nankhumba peninsula), Likoma Island (Malawi) Undu and Hai reefs (Tanzania).	eng
61071	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat at depths varying from 7–40 m. Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates (sand dwelling). Does not seem to have a permanent breeding territory therefore spawning may occur wherever a ripe female meets a male. Known as "<em>Aulonocara</em> Special", "<em>Aulonocara</em> Greenface " and "<em>Aulonocara</em> Green Metalic" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61071	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61071	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61072	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61072	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only recorded from Kande Island.	eng
61072	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Occurs at about 10 m depth occurring at the same locations where <em>A. meylandi</em> dwell. Males are territorial while females are solitary, or occur in groups close to male territories. Feeds on small invertebrates from the substrate. Known as "Blue Neon or "Blue Dorsal Flavescent" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61072	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61072	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing; aquarium trade.	eng
61073	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61073	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the entire northwestern coast between Kande and Ngara and on the eastern shores south of the Ruhuhu River to Ntekete.	eng
61073	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Frequents the rock sand interface feeding from the substrate. Generally occurs at a depth of 8–15 m. Few individuals have been observed in water as shallow as 3 m but others can occur up to 25 m deep. Females occur in groups, males hold territories in caves made of rocks scattered over the sand. Known as " Usisya <em>Aulonocara</em>, Flavascent Peacock, Ngara <em>Aulonocara</em> and Chilumba <em>Aulonocara</em>, <em>Aulonocara</em> Yellow Tanzania, or <em>Aulonocara</em> Blue Neon" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61073	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
61073	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	Fishing.	eng
61074	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61074	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
61074	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species is only known from its holotype (ripe male, 72 mm standard length) whose locality was erroneously recorded as from the "north end of Lake Tanganyika" and described as <em>Tilapia trematocephala</em>. It was suggested later, that it belongs to the Malawi cichlid group and was initially included in the genus <em>Trematocranus</em> (Konings 1995). Currently it is not known whether this is a valid species or whether it is conspecific to an already known species.	eng
61074	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61074	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information.	eng
61075	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61075	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61075	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits sandy habitats (rarely intermediate habitats) preferring shallow water. It is an opportunistic feeder being attracted to anything that stirs up the sediments. Eggs are fertilised outside the female’s mouth and are subsequently mouth brooded by the female, which stays in the open sand habitat. It is usually observed as solitary as adults but the juveniles occur in small groups. Known as "<em>Haplochromis annectens</em>" in the aquarium trade.Max. size: 20 cm.	eng
61075	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rare species.	eng
61075	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No known threats.	eng
61076	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61076	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is restricted to Chinyakhwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands in the southeastern arm of the lake.	eng
61076	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed feeding on plankton and algae. Males establish breeding territories over rocks. Females guard young in the mouth. It has been collected at depths of 2–10 m.	eng
61076	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61076	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Potentially, over-fishing.	eng
61077	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61077	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61077	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sediment rich rocky habitats where it feeds by blowing into the sediment to reveal its prey of insect larvae and crustaceans hiding in the biocover. Territorial males build shallow nests between small stones and rocks. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis steveni</em> Thick Bars and <em>Haplochromis steveni</em> eastern" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 18 cm.	eng
61077	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61077	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61078	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61078	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake=wide distribution.	eng
61078	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky sediment free habitats in the open water 2–3 m above the rocks. It feeds on eggs that it steals from other spawning cichlids. Territorial males have nests alongside or on top of rocks. Known as "Haplochromis One and a Half Stripe" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 18 cm.	eng
61078	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61078	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61079	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61079	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River as far as the Kapachira Falls.	eng
61079	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Abundant in shallow sandy shores and shallow sheltered vegetated areas. Feeds primarily on invertebrates and small molluscs. Forages in groups. Breeding occurs in July to September in shallow water (about 2 m depth) where breeding males construct shallow sand castle nests in colonies. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61079	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61079	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Small meshed seines operating along shallow sandy shores that destroy nesting areas.	eng
61080	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61080	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Upper Shire and Lake Malombe. It has lake wide distributions in Malawi and Malombe lakes.	eng
61080	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in relatively shallow, vegetated (<em>Vallisneria</em> spp.) water at an average depth of 4 m. Territorial males clear the vegetation on the bottom in preparing the spawning site. Feeds on invertebrates, including small snails from the base of the vegetation. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61080	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61080	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61081	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61081	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from two type specimens, one from Nkhotakota (the paratype). The other specimen (holotype) previously included in <em>P. pleurotaenia</em> was erroneously labelled together with all other <em>P. pleurotaenia</em> specimens from "Lake Tanganyika".	eng
61081	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	The specimen from Nkhotakota was collected in shallow water with vegetation. Probably feeds on snails that occur among the vegetation.	eng
61081	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61081	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61082	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61082	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs in the southern end of the lake and also at Vua and Chlumba on the north west coast.	eng
61082	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the shallow sheltered sandy shores or vegetated areas. Feeds on algae and plant debris. Breeding behaviour unknown.	eng
61082	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61082	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61083	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61083	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the lake.	eng
61083	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate and vegetated habitats ranging in depth from the surface water to about 10 m although it has, on occasion, been reported to occur as deep as 20 m. Males construct saucer shaped nests against a rock in shallow water. Feeds on invertebrates from the sand or mud by blowing into the upper sediment to expose them (especially around the roots of plants). Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 14 cm.	eng
61083	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61083	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61084	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61084	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to, and widespread throughout, Lakes Malawi and Malombe.	eng
61084	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow vegetated (<em>Vallisernia</em>) areas where mouth brooding females hide among the weeds. Herbivorous, feeding on plant material (leaves of higher plants). Territorial males clear a circular area among the weeds exposing the sand below, making a spawning site. Known as "<em>Haplochromis similis</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 17 cm.	eng
61084	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61084	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61085	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61085	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Most commonly collected at Mbenji Island. The type locality is at Chilumba and Ruarwe. It also occurs north of Monkey Bay and at Nakatenga Island, Eccles Reef, Nkhungu Reef, Nkhungu Point, Lumessi (Mozambique), and Magunga Reef (Tanzania).	eng
61085	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs mainly in sediment free rocky habitats usually in mid water just below the surface, rarely deeper than 5 m. Feeds on invertebrates from the water column. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and spawning occurs among the rocks. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis ovatus</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 25 cm TL.	eng
61085	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61085	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of near shore rocky areas.	eng
61086	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61086	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61086	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Mostly occurs in intermediate habitat at an average depth of about 10 m. It is a predator, possibly a paedophage (egg stealer). Territorial males build a semicircular nest against a rock or a circular nest among the rubble in the intermediate habitat. Females guard their offspring after they have been released. Known as "<em>Haplochromis gaisi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 23 cm.	eng
61086	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61086	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61087	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61087	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common and widely distributed.	eng
61087	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sediment free rocky habitat in shallow water less than 10 m deep. Herbivorous, mainly feeding on algae sucked from the rock surfaces. Also feeds on plankton when available. Males are territorial throughout the year. They occupy a spawning site on top of rocks. Mouth brooding females hide among the rocks. Known as "<em>Haplochromis steveni, Haplochromis fenestratus, Haplochromis hinderi, Haplochromis boadzulu, Haplochromis</em> Red empress and <em>Haplochromis</em> Fire Blue" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males can attain a length of 19 cm.	eng
61087	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61087	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential sedimentation of near shore rocky areas.	eng
61088	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61088	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi, the Upper Shire River, and Lake Malombe. In Lake Malawi it is a common species in the southern part of the lake as far north as Senga bay on the west coast and Fort Maguire on the east coast.	eng
61088	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Has been caught over sand habitats at depths of between 10 and 18 m. Its diet and reproductive behaviour are unknown. Has been exported in the aquarium trade.Max. size: 18 cm TL.	eng
61088	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61088	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61089	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Part of the population is enclosed with the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61089	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Monkey Bay and Nkhomo Reef (near Benga). May also occur at Makanjila point (this needs to be verified).	eng
61089	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	At Nkhomo reef it occurs over a sand habitat at a depth of about 16 m. Feeds on plankton, insects and crustaceans. Males in breeding colouration are seen throughout the year. Is not exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
61089	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61089	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61090	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61090	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is observed along the coast between Chirombo Point and Charo. On the western side of the lake it occurs between Cape Kaizer (Tanzania) to Londo (Mozambique).	eng
61090	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid occurring at the greatest depth of all other species in the genus (average depth occurrence of 25 m). It is rarely found in waters less than 10 m. Feeds on other fishes, invertebrates, small crustaceans as well as small snails. Known as "<em>Labidochromis tanganicae, Labidochromis</em> Yellow, <em>Labidochromis</em> White" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm.	eng
61090	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61090	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.	eng
61091	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61091	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at at Chizumulu Island.	eng
61091	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species occurs in the sediment rich intermediate habitats in depths ranging from 3–20 m. Its diet consists of invertebrates. Spawning occurs at any site in the habitat. Known as "<em>Labidochromis zebroides</em> and <em>Labidochromis chisumulae</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Males attain a maximum length of about 8 cm and females approximately 6 cm.	eng
61091	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61091	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.	eng
61092	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61092	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is recorded from Chizumulu Island. It has been introduced at Likoma Island.	eng
61092	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat in shallow water. Territorial males dig spawning nests underneath small rocks heaping sand in front of the entrance. Females and juveniles move around in small foraging groups or singly. This species feeds on algae from the rock surface. Known as "<em>Labidochromis samueli, Labidochromis textilis, Labidochromis exasperatus</em> and <em>Chisumulae</em> Pearl" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8 cm.	eng
61092	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61092	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.	eng
61093	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61093	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island and has been introduced at Thumbi West Island.	eng
61093	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat, in turbulent waters at depths of between 2–10 m. Feeds on aufwuchs attached to rocks by using its slender long teeth to graze algae. Territorial males occur all year round defending small caves in the rocky habitat. Females and immature males move through the biotope feeding on the aufwuchs from different localities. Known as "<em>Labidochromis ewarti</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 7 cm.	eng
61093	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61093	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade; and, potentially, over-fishing.	eng
61094	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61094	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma and Chizumulu Islands. Introduced at Thumbi West Island.	eng
61094	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Common in the sediment free rocky habitat preferring depths of 5-20 m. It can, however, occur to depths of 30 m. Feeds from the biocover on algae. Males are territorial, defending small caves among rocks and feeding within their territories. Has been exported, trade name not known.	eng
61094	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61094	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61095	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61095	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only occurs at Boadzulu Island.	eng
61095	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs commonly in shallow water in the rocky habitat. Also observed in macrophyte beds at 3 m depth. Feeds on aufwuchs as well as on plant leaves. Males have been observed to defend spawning sites. Non-breeding individuals occur in foraging groups. In 1990 it was reportedly not exported for the aquarium trade.	eng
61095	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61095	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Fishing.	eng
61096	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61096	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbenji Island as well as at Nkhoma reef.	eng
61096	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Common in the shallow waters. Occurs in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on invertebrates and from the substrate. Males are not territorial but chase conspecific males from their feeding place. Spawning occurs at any site in the habitat. Reported to be exported sporadically for the aquarium trade but the trade name unknown.	eng
61096	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61096	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; aquarium collection; and fishing.	eng
61097	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61097	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island	eng
61097	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the shallow water in the intermediate habitat. A secretive species that feeds on algae from the biocover. Territorial males have been observed throughout the year defending caves among the rocky habitat. Reported not to have been exported for the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
61097	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61097	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Fishing.	eng
61098	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61098	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs on the northwestern coast north of Kande Island and at all rocky shores north of Mbamba bay on the eastern shore.	eng
61098	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs among rocky habitats as well as the intermediate habitats. Occurs in the shallow water being most numerous between 2–7 m. Feeds on invertebrates. Reported to be exported only sporadically, trade name unknown. Grows to a maximum length of about 7.5 cm.	eng
61098	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61098	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61099	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61099	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is common in the southern arms of the lake.	eng
61099	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species is restricted to shallow depths. Large shoals are commonly seen swimming over rocks in less than 1m deep.	eng
61099	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61099	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Fishing.	eng
61100	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61100	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where is only known from Mbenji Island.	eng
61100	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the sediment free rocky habitat mainly in shallow water. Feeds on algae from the rock surface as well as plankton. Males are not territorial. They sometimes move in small groups searching for food. Spawning occurs in caves and mouth brooding females hide among the rocks. Reported not to have been exported (1990).	eng
61100	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61100	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Fishing.	eng
61101	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61101	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from Mumbo Island.	eng
61101	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs among small rocks in shallow water, it is common at 5 m and not more than 15 m. Can also be found among <em>Vallisneria</em> beds. Feeds on crustaceans and small snails. Known as "<em>Labidochromis fryeri</em>" in the aquarium trade	eng
61101	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61101	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61102	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61102	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs at the Maleri Islands as well as Thumbi west Island.	eng
61102	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs frequently in the shallow water in rocky areas in sediment free habitat as well as the intermediate habitat. It feeds on aufwuchs and arthropods. This species is not territorial but males chase conspecific males from feeding sites. They court females and coax them to into depositing eggs at a nearby sheltered site. Also known as "<em>Labidochromis fryeri</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61102	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61102	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61103	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61103	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Malawi where it occurs in the Upper Shire river and in Lake Malawi along the western coast of the south eastern arm up to Mpandi Island as well as along the eastern coast up to Makanjila Point.	eng
61103	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow water, this species is associated with rocks and pebbles. It can also occur in very turbid and sediment rich waters. Feeds on invertebrates and loose aufwuchs. Spawns on the open sand or in seclusion. It is not territorial but males chase conspecific males from their feeding site. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61103	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61103	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61104	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61104	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs at Likoma and Chisumulu Islands. It was originally endemic to Chizululu Island and was introduced to Likoma Island.	eng
61104	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid found in shallow turbulent waters. It displays territorial behaviour and is herbivorous. Aquarium trade name unknown.	eng
61104	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61104	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61105	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61105	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire river. Within the lake it has a wide distribution extending from Undu reef (Tanzania) to Metangula (Mozambique).	eng
61105	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the shallow intermediate habitat. Feeds on insects and crustaceans. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade as well as "<em>Labidochromis marineatus, Labidochromis samueli</em> and <em>Labicochromis exasperatus</em>".	eng
61105	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61105	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61106	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61106	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is widely distributed throughout the southern part of the lake.	eng
61106	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters, sediment free rocky zones. Occurs singly or in pairs or small groups of not more than five individuals. Feeds on aufwuchs, benthic invertebrates and planktons. Spawning occurs at any place in the habitat. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61106	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61106	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; collection for the aquarium trade; and fishing.	eng
61107	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61107	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from a very small population at Masimbwe Islet, Likoma Island.	eng
61107	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sediment free habitat, especially the wave beaten upper part. Masimbwe Islet is very exposed to the southerly "mwera" winds. Occurs at a depth of 3 m. Feeds on algae and insects. Males are territorial and defend sites inside caves or cracks. Females are rarely seen: they remain between rocks. Reported not to have been exported (1990).	eng
61107	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61107	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation; Fishing.	eng
61108	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61108	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Mainly occurs in the southern part of the lake from Jalo reef along the entire western coast down to Crocodile rocks, including all Islands and reefs.	eng
61108	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs mainly in rocky habitat. It is most numerous among medium sized rocks but can also occur in intermediate habitat. Recorded from the surface to a depth of at least 40 m (more numerous in the upper 10 m). Males are weakly territorial and seldom stay to defend a particular site for more than a few hours. Spawning occurs inside a cave or alongside a rock. Females and non-territorial males occur singly or in small groups of about 8–10 individuals. Feeds on aufwuchs as well as plankton. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Attains a maximum length of 10 cm for males and 9 cm for females.	eng
61108	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61108	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61109	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61109	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Membe Point, south of Chisumulu Island.	eng
61109	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at the intermediate depths over the rock sand interface. An opportunistic feeder, eating fishes as well as fish eggs.	eng
61109	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61109	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61110	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61110	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island as well as along the northwestern coast between Nkhata bay and Chilumba.	eng
61110	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Typically occurs over the rock sand interface, an opportunistic feeder, mainly feeds on small fishes.	eng
61110	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61110	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing.	eng
61111	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61111	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake at Monkey Bay and along the coast further south as well as at Mumbo, Chinyamwezi and Chinyamwazi islands.	eng
61111	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species is specially adapted to turbulent water, it is reported to come out from its shelter when the wave action is rough. Shows a very sedentary behaviour. Lives among medium to large rocks in water not deeper than 4 m. Males are territorial, excluding only conspecific males from these territories. During calm weather the males retreat into gaps or caves. They feed on plankton, loose aufwuchs and insects.	eng
61111	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61111	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61112	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Partially included in the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61112	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chindunga rocks (near Chipoka), Mumbo, Thumbi West, Mbenji and Nakatenga Islands.	eng
61112	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat. A predator feeding on fish as well as invertebrates. Territorial males have been observed at Chindunga rocks (where this species commonly occurs). The males dig nests between rocks on the sand. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61112	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61112	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61113	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61113	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island.	eng
61113	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed over small to medium sized rocks at between 5–10 m depth. Feeds on zooplankton and epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
61113	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61113	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61114	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61114	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known to occur at Masinje.	eng
61114	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over the rocky habitat as well as the intermediate zone. Feeds primarily on loose algae.	eng
61114	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61114	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing.	eng
61115	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61115	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chisumulu Island and has been introduced to Madimba bay and Thumbi West Island	eng
61115	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	The species occurs over large rocks and slabs at depths ranging from 5–12 m. Feeds on filamentous algae.	eng
61115	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61115	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61116	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61116	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyamwezi and Chinyankhwazi islands as well as Mitande rocks, Thumbi West and Domwe Islands.	eng
61116	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky habitat, rare in intermediate habitat. Males are territorial and highly aggressive. Feeds on plankton in the water column as well as seeks food among gaps in the rocks (invertebrates).	eng
61116	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61116	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competitors translocated by the aquarium collectors.	eng
61117	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61117	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chizumulu (south western part) where it is common. Also occurs at Likoma Island (Mbuzi Island) and at Nkhata bay (at the tip of the peninsula). Exporters for the aquarium trade probably introduced these two subpopulations.	eng
61117	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs on rocky habitats. Seen feeding from the surface of rocks.	eng
61117	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61117	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Sedimentation.	eng
61118	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61118	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Originally endemic to Likoma Island but was introduced at Thumbi West Island where it is now common.	eng
61118	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits rocky biotopes preferring the upper 4 m of the rocky habitat. It feeds on invertebrates from the biocover as well as algae. Breeding males occur all year round. The males possess a foraging territory of about 3 m in diameter. Known by its scientific name or by the names: "Pearl of Likoma, <em>Melanochromis exasperatus</em> or <em>Melanochromis textilis</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61118	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61118	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61119	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61119	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Masinje as well as Makanjila Point. Its distribution may, however, extend north beyond the Mozambican border.	eng
61119	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Found in the intermediate habitat mostly near rocks at about 5 m depth. Feeds from both rocky and sand substrate as well as on suspended matter in the water column. Breeding may occur in the coll season (May–July). Males do not show territoriality but chase conspecific males in breeding colouration from the foraging ground. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61119	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61119	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61120	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61120	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs all around the lake, but is a rare cichlid.	eng
61120	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs among small and medium sized rocks in water less than 8m deep. Remains hidden among the rocks and appears to be rare. It moves from rock to rock, sucking benthic invertebrates and loose aufwuchs with its large lips in cracks and grooves. It occurs frequently at islands and along the northeastern shores of the lake. Known as "<em>Haplochromis labrosus</em>" or by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61120	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61120	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61121	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61121	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known to occur naturally only at Makanjila Point	eng
61121	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow intermediate zone. Feeds in packs, primarily on the scales of other fishes.	eng
61121	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61121	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61122	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61122	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs off Chipoka Island (Chidunga rocks).	eng
61122	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61122	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61122	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61123	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61123	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake wide distribution apart from a few islands where it does not occur such as Chinyankwazi and Chinyamwezi islands.	eng
61123	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat, but sometimes observed in the intermediate zone. Its dark colouration blends well with the dark caves and recesses in which it lives. It is an omnivore feeding on fish, invertebrates as well as aufwuchs and plankton. Adults usually are solitary but sub-adults can occur in small groups of about six individuals. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61123	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61123	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61124	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61124	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs naturally only at Mumbo Island.	eng
61124	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat. It is a rare cichlid.	eng
61124	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61124	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61125	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61125	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma and Chizumulu Islands as well as the northwestern coast of the lake. Known to be introduced at Thumbi West Island.	eng
61125	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky habitats ranging from 3–50 m but common between 5–20 m. Males exhibit territoriality when other males in breeding colouration are in the vicinity. Spawning occurs on the rocks or inside caves. Breeding males are rarely seen but they occur throughout the year. This species feeds mainly on invertebrates as well as aufwuchs or plankton from the water column. It has also been observed to pick off fungus from the bodies of wounded fishes. Known as "<em>Melanochrmis</em> White Auratus" or by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61125	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61125	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61126	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61126	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs naturally at Likoma Island. Introduced to Thumbi West Island and Otter point.	eng
61126	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky habitats as well as the intermediate habitat. Feeds on algae growing on substrate as well as on plankton.	eng
61126	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61126	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species. Sedimentation.	eng
61127	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61127	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the northern half of the lake at Likoma Island and on the coast between Nkhata Bay and Mdoka (Malawi) as well as between Lupingu and Ikombe in Tanzania.	eng
61127	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	An omnivore, found in rocky habitats usually occurring at depths of more than 20 m.	eng
61127	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61127	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61128	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61128	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the coast from Makanjila Point and the Mozambican border. It also occurs further north along the shores of Mozambique up to Nkhungu.	eng
61128	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat in shallow water of about 10 m. It has also been observed occasionally in water of 20 m. Observed feeding from the biocover. This species is non-territorial and the males are usually found solitary, although small groups of females have been observed among rocks. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade	eng
61128	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61128	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species.	eng
61129	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61129	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake between Mbenji Island and Monkey Bay (including Maleri Island, Chidunga rocks, Nankhumba peninsula area) as well as Chinyamwezi, Chinyankwazi, Eccles reef and West reef.	eng
61129	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs at all sediment free rocky habitats in shallow water. It is numerous among medium sized rocks but sometimes occurs in the intermediate habitat. Males are territorial at locations where this species is abundant. At locations with low population densities, the males behave aggressively against conspecific males but are hardly territorial. It feeds from the biocover on the rocks as well as from the open water. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61129	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61129	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade. Competition from translocated species. Sedimentation.	eng
61130	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61130	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to lake Malawi. Occurs only at Masinje.	eng
61130	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits in crevices and caves at depths of around 20 m. It is an opportunistic feeder.	eng
61130	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61130	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing. Competition from translocated species	eng
61131	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61131	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Likoma Island (Malawi) and Mara Point, Mbweca and Tumbi point (Mozambique). Introduced at Thumbi West Island and now occurs at several places around Cape Maclear (e.g., Otter Point, Illala gap and Domwe Island).	eng
61131	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate zone in shallow water and is common along the sand interface. Occasionally found in purely rocky habitat. This species is numerous between 2–5 m depth and has not been recorded below 8 m depth. Males are territorial throughout the year. Male territories consist of a site on the sand near a rock where they dig tunnel nests beneath the rocks where spawning occurs. Females and non-breeding males occur singly or in foraging groups. Diet includes loose algae from the substrata as well as plankton. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus pengoldi</em> and <em>Pseudotropheus lucerna</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max recorded size: 11 cm (TL).	eng
61131	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61131	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade, subsistence fishing, and sedimentation.	eng
61132	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Distribution range is included within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61132	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs in the southern part of the lake at Mbenji Island, Maleri Island, Chidunga rocks (Chipoka), around the Nakhumba Peninsula, Thumbi West Island as well as at Eccles and West Reef.	eng
61132	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species occurs in the sediment rich, intermediate habitat, primarily at depths of about 10 m. It feeds on plankton, invertebrates from the sediment rich substrata, as well as algae. Males are territorial and remain close to the rocks, females occur higher in the water column feeding on the plankton. Territorial males are found throughout the year, their territory consists of a tunnel dug beneath a rock on the sand, where spawning takes place. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus fusco</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max recorded length: 10 cm (TL).	eng
61132	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61132	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Over-fishing. Collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
61133	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61133	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it occurs only at Mazinzi reef in the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi.	eng
61133	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid also found in the intermediate habitat. Feeds on plankton as well as aufwuchs from the rock surface and also feeds from the sand stratum. Max. size: 8.1 cm (SL).	eng
61133	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61133	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61134	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61134	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Nkhata bay, introduced at Likoma, Namalenje and Thumbi West Islands.	eng
61134	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs along the rocky shores and rock outcroppings. Feeds on loose algae, which it scrapes from the rocks. It is a polymorphic cichlid known as "Cobalt Zebra" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8.01 cm (SL).	eng
61134	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61134	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61135	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61135	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Mumbo Island.	eng
61135	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid. The largest recorded individual is 8.96 cm in standard length.	eng
61135	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61135	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61136	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61136	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a wide distribution (although rare at most locations), but it does not occur north of Hongi Island on the eastern side or north of Mara rocks on the western side.	eng
61136	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in all habitat types but most frequently in large caves or near large boulders. It usually occurs in places where the catfish <em>Bagrus meridionalis</em> (locally known as kampango) occurs. It feeds on aufwuchs and plankton but is specialised in cleaning parasites only from kampango. It has also been observed stealing eggs from beneath guarding kampango pairs. Females and non-breeding males school in the open water. It is known as "<em>Pseudotropheus chameleo</em> and <em>Melanochromis crabro</em>" in the aquarium trade. It has been given the name <em>Pseudotropheus chameleo</em> due to its ability to quickly change its characteristic colour pattern of yellow with brown bars to a uniform dull brown. Max. size: 12 cm (TL).	eng
61136	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61136	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61137	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61137	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has only been recorded from Nkhotakota.	eng
61137	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.04 cm (SL).	eng
61137	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61137	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61138	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61138	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs almost throughout the lake although it has not been observed north of Hai reef on the eastern shore.	eng
61138	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Adult males occur in the open sandy areas usually in small groups at depth below 10 m. Females and juveniles remain near rocks or plants. Some juveniles have been observed hiding in empty shells of <em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>. It feeds from the upper silty layer that covers the sand, picking benthic invertebrates. Also known to feed on plankton and algae. Occurs in shallow water trawl catches in the southern part of Lake Malawi and also occurs in seine catches the south eastern arm of Lake Malawi as well as in Lake Malombe. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus elegan</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: males attain a maximum total length of 16 cm.	eng
61138	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61138	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Over-fishing.	eng
61139	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61139	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mpanga rocks (Chilumba).	eng
61139	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.42 cm (SL).	eng
61139	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61139	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61140	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61140	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs on the eastern coast of Lake Malawi at Minos reef, Chilucha reef and also the southern tip of Metangula as well as at Nkhungu (Mozambique) and Masinje (Malawi).	eng
61140	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sediment free rocky habitats, with the highest population density in water less than 10 m deep. Males are territorial and defend areas about 1 m in diameter. Feeds on algae from the rock surface at an angle of 90 degrees with the substrate. It is a polymorphic cichlid known as "Red Zebra" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: Largest recorded individual is 9.77 cm in total length.	eng
61140	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61140	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61141	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None	eng
61141	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the eastern coast of the lake covering the entire Tanzanian shore, into Mozambique as far south as Lumbaulo. On the western coast it occurs between Chirwa Island and Usisya and at Mpanga rocks and Nakatenga Island.	eng
61141	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Frequently occurs over rocky habitats in sediment rich areas. Males are territorial and defend territories of about 1 m in diameter. Females occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on aufwuchs. It is a polymorphic cichlid.	eng
61141	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61141	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Subsistence fishing.	eng
61142	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61142	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at two reefs south of Boadzulu Island: Makokola reef and Crocodile reef (in the south eastern arm of the lake).	eng
61142	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits rocky habitats at reefs where the rocks are covered with a layer of sediment. Occurs at 15–35 m depth. Females and non-breeding males occur singly or in groups, feeding on plankton in the open water. Territorial males also feed on the biocover on the rocks. Male territories consist of caves between rocks. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus</em> Ice Blue" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: It attains a length of about 10 cm.	eng
61142	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61142	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61143	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61143	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chizumulu Island.	eng
61143	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the littoral zone of Chizumulu Island inhabiting the deepest part. Occurs mainly in waters with a sediment rich bottom at depths of 10–30 m. Feeds on plankton and algae. Territorial males defend a small cave among the rocks close to the sand floor. Females occur singly or may form into foraging groups. Known by its scientific name or as "<em>Pseudotropheus greeberi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12 cm (TL).	eng
61143	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61143	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61144	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61144	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Observed at Chizumulu Island.	eng
61144	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate habitat, in sediment free clear water. Females are common in the upper 5–10 m of the intermediate habitat. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus newsi</em>" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61144	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61144	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61145	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61145	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe. Occurs throughout both lakes.	eng
61145	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs over sand, intermediate and rocky habitats. It occurs over the open sand only if shelter is provided by empty shells (<em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>). Male (and probably females) regard the shells as their territory and defend them. When found away from shells it may be solitary or occur in groups. It has been recorded from 5–60 m depths, but is most commonly found at 25 m depth. It has been caught in trawl catches at 18–35 m and was occasionally recorded as deep as 60 m. It feeds from the sediment by filtering the silt through its gills in search of food (invertebrates or diatoms). Breeding occurs in the rocky habitat. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus livingstonii</em>" or "<em>Pseudotropheus lanisticola</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: It attains a total length of 14 cm. The largest individuals occur in Lake Malombe and the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi. Most populations attain maximum total length of 6 cm.	eng
61145	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61145	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No major threats.	eng
61146	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61146	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbenji Island and Nkhomo reef.	eng
61146	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sediment rich areas, numerous at the sand rock interface. Occurs from 6–20 m depth, more numerous in waters of about 10 m deep. Males are strongly aggressive against conspecific males. Their territories consist of excavated nests beneath rocks over sand in the intermediate zone. Females, juveniles and non-territorial adults occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on loose algae from the rocky surface as well as on plankton in the open water. Known as " Golden Zebra, <em>Pseudotropheus lilancinius</em> and <em>Pseudotropheus kenyi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 10 cm (TL).	eng
61146	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61146	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61147	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61147	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Mbenji Island.	eng
61147	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid, common at sites exposed to wave action. It feeds on loose algae from the substrate. Large schools can also be found foraging in the open water feeding on plankton. Males defend territories against conspecific males. Spawning sites consist of caves among boulders. Known as "Red Top Cobalt" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm (TL).	eng
61147	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61147	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61148	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Partly included within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61148	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mitande rocks (Thumbi West Island), Domwe Island, Mumbo Island, Zimbawe rocks and Namalenje Island.	eng
61148	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rock dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.76 cm SL.	eng
61148	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61148	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61149	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61149	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Cobue (Mozambique) but may have a more extensive distribution along the Mozambique coastline.	eng
61149	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 8.65 cm in standard length.	eng
61149	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61149	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61150	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Partly within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61150	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the eastern side of Nankhumba Peninsula.	eng
61150	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits both sand and intermediate habitats. Males are territorial but females occur singly or in small groups. Feeds on periphyton. It is also a facultative cleaner fish, feeding on parasites found on the fins and skin of other haplochromine cichlids.	eng
61150	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61150	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Potential localised over-fishing.	eng
61151	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61151	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Nakatenga island. It was originally restricted to Nakatenga Island but has since been introduced to Maleri Island.	eng
61151	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rock dwelling cichlid, occurring in 2–27 m of water over small to medium sized rocks. Territorial males defend their territories against conspecific males only. Feeds mainly on loose aufwuchs and plankton. Max. size: 7.66 cm (SL).	eng
61151	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61151	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61152	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61152	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Kanjedza Island and Chirombo bay as well as Mpanda Island and Nkhudzi bay.	eng
61152	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 7.31 cm in standard length.	eng
61152	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61152	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61153	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61153	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs only at Eccles reef.	eng
61153	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Rock dwelling cichlid. Largest recorded individual is 8.64 cm in standard length.	eng
61153	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61153	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61154	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Partly included within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61154	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Maleri Islands and Kanjedza Island.	eng
61154	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow sediment free rocky habitats usually in exposed sites. Feeds on loose algae from rock surfaces. Males are territorial, defending caves as spawning sites. Females occur in small groups or are solitary. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus</em> Yellow chin" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 12.5 cm (TL).	eng
61154	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61154	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation. Collection for the aquarium trade. Subsistence fishing.	eng
61155	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61155	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61155	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in rocky habitats (can be either sediment free or sediment rich). Feeds at right angles with the substrate combing loose material from the rock surface. It is often observed feeding on plankton from the open water. Male territories consist of caves which they defend and where spawning occurs. Females are found in groups foraging in the water column. It is a polymorphic cichlid. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 13.5 cm (TL).	eng
61155	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61155	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No major threats identified.	eng
61156	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Much of the range is within the Lake Malawi National Park	eng
61156	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded at the Nankhumba peninsula from Otter point to Nkudzi, and also at Thumbi West and Domwe Island.	eng
61156	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers the sediment rich part of the rocky habitat but is sometimes found in the intermediate zone as well. Its normal depth distribution is between 10–25 m but it may be found in shallower waters. Breeding males are territorial and defend a cave against intruders. Feeds on algae or invertebrates. Exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
61156	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61156	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat. Potential for localised over-fishing (even within the National Park). Restricted range.	eng
61157	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61157	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is distributed along the entire Mozambican and Tanzanian coastline of the lake. On the western shore the distribution is restricted to the northwestern coast between Mdoka and Chirwa Island (may also be in Chitimba bay).	eng
61157	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the upper layers of the rocky habitat, preferring the upper 10 m.	eng
61157	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61157	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat.	eng
61158	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Much of the population is within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61158	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Records from Monkey Bay to Otter point, Domwe Island, Mumbo and Thumbi West Island.	eng
61158	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the intermediate zone at various depths in both sediment rich and sediment free areas. It prefers the calm waters of sheltered bays. At Chembe beach juveniles are observed over the open sand where they hide in empty shells of <em>Lanistes nyassanus</em>. Its diet consists of algae from rock surfaces as well as invertebrates. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade.	eng
61158	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61158	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted Range. Potential localised over-fishing.	eng
61159	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61159	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it has been recorded from the coast between Monkey Bay and Nkopola, Usisya and Ngara (Malawi), Lundo Island (Tanzania), and Cobue (Mozambique).	eng
61159	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers the upper 4 m in shallow waters in sheltered bays close to small rocks and vegetation. Feeds on loose algae grazed from plant leaves (similar to <em>Cyathochromis obliquidens</em>). Breeding males are territorial and they construct shallow saucer shaped nests in the muddy bottom. Females and non-breeding males form foraging groups moving from one plant bed to another.	eng
61159	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61159	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61160	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61160	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Known from Maleri Island, Chemwezi rocks, Chinyankhwazi Island and Chinyamwezi Island.	eng
61160	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs throughout the rocky habitat but mainly in the sediment free upper areas. Feeds on algae as well as plankton when available. Breeding males are seen throughout the year and they defend their territories against intruders. It is a polymorphic cichlid exported in the aquarium trade.	eng
61160	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61160	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted Range. Localized over-fishing.	eng
61161	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61161	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyankwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands.	eng
61161	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Found in rocky habitats inhabiting caves in a sediment free environment at depths of between 3-15 m. Feeds on loose aufwuchs from the rock surface. Also feeds on plankton. Territorial males are observed throughout the year. Females have also been observed defending territories. Spawning occurs inside the male's caves. Not exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm TL.	eng
61161	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61161	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Potential over-fishing.	eng
61162	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61162	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known at Chinyamwezi Island.	eng
61162	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat (frequently near small rocks) at depths of about 40 m. Territorial males are seen all year round, their territory consists of a cave among the rocks. Feeds on algae from the rock surface as well as plankton in the open water. Not exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 9 cm TL.	eng
61162	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61162	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Potential over-fishing.	eng
61163	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61163	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Pombo and Ndumbi reefs in Tanzania (south of the Ruhuhu River delta).	eng
61163	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits intermediate, stony and rocky substrates in shallow water mainly in the upper 3-4 m. Does not defend territories and is not aggressive to conspecific males. It feeds on aufwuchs.	eng
61163	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61163	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range.	eng
61164	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61164	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Mbamba Bay (Tanzania) where it was first described.	eng
61164	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the rocky habitat, preferring areas of rocks mixed with sandy bottoms. It occurs in the shallow water (0.5–6 m depth) but has on occasions been observed at 20 m or more. This species remains very close to the substrate, trying to keep in close contact with the rock surface with its belly (in trying to do so, it sometimes swims upside down). This species leads a reserved, secretive life and it seems to be weakly territorial.	eng
61164	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61164	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range.	eng
61165	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61165	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chinyankhwazi and Chinyamwezi Islands.	eng
61165	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers the rocky habitat near small to medium sized rocks, usually between 7-20 m depth. It occurs in schools that have been observed roaming through the habitat. Feeds mainly on plankton from the open water but territorial males also feed from rock surfaces within their territory. These territorial males aggressively defend their territory, which is normally a cave. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus dinghani</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 8.5 cm TL.	eng
61165	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61165	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range.	eng
61166	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61166	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Nkhata Bay.	eng
61166	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits the rocky habitat. Reported to feed on insect larvae.	eng
61166	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61166	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the inshore rocky habitat.	eng
61167	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61167	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the northwestern coast between Kande Island and Chilumba.	eng
61167	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Mainly seen in shallow water among rocks in sediment free habitat and occasionally in the intermediate habitat close to rocks. Most numerous in water less than 3 m deep and is not seen below 6 m. Adults are aggressive and both sexes hold feeding territories. They feed on algae on the rock surface. Male territories consist of caves. Not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm TL.	eng
61167	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61167	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.	eng
61168	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61168	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Only known from Mbenji Island.	eng
61168	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rocky shore dwelling cichlid. Max. size: 8.74 cm SL.	eng
61168	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61168	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat. Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61169	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61169	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Mbamba Bay, Tanzania	eng
61169	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A rocky shore dwelling cichlid, most commonly occurring at depths of between 1–8 m. Males are strongly territorial and aggressively defend territories against other fishes. Females seem are also territorial. Territories are most often situated on the horizontal surfaces of large rocks or boulders. It feeds on the small invertebrates living within the aufwuchs.	eng
61169	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61169	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Near shore sedimentation of rocky habitats. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61170	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61170	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Reported to have a wide distribution along the northwestern shore of the lake where it has been observed at Nkhata bay, Lions Cove and Ruarwe. May also occur at Londo in Mozambique.	eng
61170	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the shallow intermediate habitat, restricted to the upper 2–4 m in sheltered bays along rocky shores. Forages from the available substrate such as rocks, sand and plant leaves, feeding on algae. Breeding males are territorial, aggressively defending their territories against conspecific males. Females occur in small groups or solitary. Not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990). Max. size: 11 cm.	eng
61170	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61170	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61171	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61171	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Most common in Nkhata Bay, but also known from northern locations such as Chitande Island and between Chilumba and Mara Rocks.	eng
61171	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Inhabits rocky shore areas. Males aggressively defend their territories consisting of caves. Feeds on loose aufwuchs and is able to feed on the small pockets of algae that are inaccessible to most other species. Females are largely solitary but congregate over the areas occupied by territorial males. Rarely been exported, trade name unknown. Max. size: It is one of the smallest "mbuna" with a maximum recorded total length of 6.6 cm.	eng
61171	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61171	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of inshore rocky habitats.	eng
61172	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61172	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Recorded at the Maleri Islands.	eng
61172	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sediment rich rocky habitats where it feeds on algae, which it combs from the rock surfaces. Territorial males are seen throughout the year and they defend their territories vigorously. In shallow waters solitary females may also defend a feeding territory. Spawning occurs inside the male's cave. It has not been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
61172	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61172	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitats.	eng
61173	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61173	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the northwestern coast between Ngara and Cape Manulo.	eng
61173	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Commonly occurs in the shallow habitat staying close to the substrate. They have been observed as deep as 10 m but are most common at 3 m depth. They feed on algae on the rock surfaces within a feeding territory, which males and females aggressively defend. This species has rarely been exported. Max. size: 11 cm TL.	eng
61173	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61173	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.	eng
61174	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	Within the Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61174	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Maleri, Nankhoma and Thumbi West Islands as well as on the shores of Nankhumba Peninsula north of Monkey Bay.	eng
61174	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in shallow rocky habitats where it feeds on algae on the rock surfaces. Males are aggressive towards other fishes when courting. Males and females defend feeding territories throughout the year. Spawning occurs inside the male's cave. It remains close to the substrate.	eng
61174	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61174	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Sedimentation of the rocky shore habitat. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61175	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61175	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Taiwan Reef (north of Chizumulu Island).	eng
61175	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in the surf zone of the sediment free rocky shore habitat. Females are often seen in large feeding groups consisting of more than 50 individuals. Feeds on algae, which it nibbles from the rock surface. Males are aggressive in defending their territories against conspecific males. Not yet exported in the aquarium trade (1990).	eng
61175	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61175	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61176	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61176	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs along the eastern shore of the lake from Tumbi Point to Cobue (Mozambique). Introduced at Thumbi West Island and Otter Point (although the introduced populations failed to thrive and may even have become extinct).	eng
61176	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Prefers shallow intermediate habitat between 4-10 m. Feeds on algae from the rock surface. Males are weakly territorial wandering through the habitat like females. This species lacks sexual dichromatism. Known as "<em>Pseudotropheus pindani</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: in the wild it attains a total length of about 7 cm (in captivity it can grow up to 16 cm).	eng
61176	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61176	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Sedimentation of the near shore rocky habitat.	eng
61177	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61177	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs at Chisumulu Island.	eng
61177	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed in the upper part of the sediment free rocky shore habitat on the more exposed shores at a mean depth of 5 m. Feeds in a horizontal position biting off loose algae from the rock surface. Its pointed snout allows it to penetrate narrow spaces and cracks inaccessible to other fishes. Territorial males are seen throughout the year defending their territories aggressively against all intruders. Some females are solitary while others are territorial. Spawning occurs inside the male's nest, which consists of a shelter between some rocks. Known by its scientific name in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 11 cm.	eng
61177	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61177	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Restricted range. Localised over-fishing.	eng
61178	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61178	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Occurs throughout the southern half of the lake and at Chizumulu and Likoma Islands. Its range extends along the western shore from Nkhata Bay to Boadzulu Island, and on the eastern shore from Hai reef (Tanzania) to Makanjila Point (Malawi).	eng
61178	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Observed in very shallow rocky habitat sometimes close to large rocks and usually at exposed turbulent sites. Most individuals are seen in the upper 2 m of water. Feeds predominantly on insects and insect larvae taken from the water column, but also feeds on aufwuchs. Territorial males defend large territories only from conspecific males. Females and non breeding males wander through the habitat searching for food. Known as "Red Top <em>Brevis</em> and Red Top <em>Williamsi</em>" in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 15 cm TL.	eng
61178	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61178	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61179	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61179	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	None known to be in place.	eng
61179	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	The species has recently been discovered in the lower Matiza/Evros river in Greece and Turkey. Outside Europe the species is known from   Karadere stream (Kocacay River) at the outlets of Manyas Lake and   also in the outlet of Apolyont Lake, Turkey.	eng
61179	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to Karadere stream (Kocacay River) at the outlet of Manyas Lake, Turkey.	eng
61179	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in a rather cold and well-oxygenated stream with muddy bottom with abundant submerged vegetation.	eng
61179	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	It lives in a rather well-oxygenated streams with muddy bottom and abundant submerged vegetation.	eng
61179	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	Apparently not rare in appropriate habitats.	eng
61179	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Apparently rare. A visit to the site in 2004 failed to collect any specimens (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm).	eng
61179	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Flow regulation due to water extraction. Heavy industrial and agricultural pollution.	eng
61179	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2010	The Matitza/Evros river is impacted by pollution from agriculture and industry and salt water intrusion when flow is reduced.	eng
61180	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
61180	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Probably endemic to Nzoia River system (Lake Victoria basin, Kenya) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished).	eng
61180	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
61180	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
61180	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Not known.	eng
61181	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
61181	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
61181	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
61181	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has little protection other than reserves in the Okavango Delta.	eng
61181	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has little protection other than reserves in the Okavango Delta. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
61181	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys hutereaui</em> is known from the upper Kwango and Kasai systems, from the Ubangui and Uele River systems and from the Upper Lualaba and Luapula systems. Elsewhere, it is known from lakes and river drainages in Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and from the lower Shiré River in Malawi. It is also known from the Okavango and Pungwe-Buzi systems (Skelton 1993).	eng
61181	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>restricted to the Lower Shire river, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Widespread elsewhere in Africa, including the Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Pungwe-Busi systems(Mozambique).  Also recorded in Luapula ( Zambian Zaire system) and the northern savanna belt in the Zaire system.	eng
61181	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is only known from lakes and river drainages in Chad and northern Central African Republic.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, the species is widespread in Central African Republic, Sudan, northern and southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and lower Shiré River in Malawi. Okavango and Pungwe-Buzi systems. Zimbabwe, South Africa.	eng
61181	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi (Lower Shire) and Pungwe-Buzi systems near the coast (Skelton 2001). Also in the Zambian Congo and Luapula. In Zimbabwe, it has been also collected in the Middle Zambezi at the head of Lake Kariba (Minshull personal communication).	eng
61181	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from lakes and river drainages in Chad, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, the Congo, northern and western Zambia, southeastern Angola, northeastern Namibia, northwestern Botswana and from the lower Shiré River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys hutereaui</em> is found in the upper Kwango and Kasai systems, from the Ubangui and Uele River systems and from the upper Lualaba and Luapula systems. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In eastern Africa it is restricted to the Lower Shire river, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the White Nile and one or more affluent subsystems.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Okavango, This species is known from upper and Lower Zambezi (lower Shire) and Pungwe-Buzi systems near the coast (Skelton 2001). Also in the Zambian Congo and Luapula. In Zimbabwe, it has been also collected in the Middle Zambezi at the head of Lake Kariba (J.L. Minshull pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, this species is only known from lakes and river drainages in Chad and northern Central African Republic.	eng
61181	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species, non-migratory. Found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas. Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species. Not a seasonal killifish. Is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
61181	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Mainly found in quiet habitats, particularly vegetated tributaries and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001; Tweddle and Willoughby 1979; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2003). Rarely found in the main Zambezi channel, although it occurred in flooded habitats along the riverbank at high water. Also found in small forested streams in northern Zambia (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
61181	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Occurs in floodplains as well as marshes.  In the Lower Shire River this species is abundant in the marshes at the end of the rains.	eng
61181	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).  Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
61181	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It is found in small rivers, brooks, swamps and shallow lake parts among vegetated areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). Strictly a floodplain or marsh-loving species (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996). It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
61181	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
61181	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
61181	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
61181	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
61181	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and common.	eng
61181	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	It is commercially targeted as an aquarium fish. In western Africa, there is possible declining habitat quality due to agricultural pollution and drought.	eng
61181	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
61181	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	Overfishing.	eng
61181	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Possible declining habitat quality due to agricultural pollution and drought.	eng
61181	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
61182	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Damage to pans and wetlands should be avoided by road builders. Aerial spraying for tsetse and mosquitos should where possible be replaced with more targeted methods e.g. traps or spraying of insect sources. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
61182	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The distribution of this species extends from Malawi and Mozambiaque, south to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In this region it is only known from the Lower Shire River in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the central Mozambique coastal plain from the Zambezi River south to the lower Mkuze in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It is present in a few pans in the Kruger National Park, South Africa (lower Limpopo system), and extends into the Gona-re-Zhou National Park region of south-eastern Zimbabwe and southern Malawi (Lower Shire River).	eng
61182	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species inhabits temporary water pools where it feeds on insects and aquatic invertebrates. It may be present in swamps intermittently connected to floodplains but the species seems to be predated upon or out-competed by riverine species. It lays its eggs in the bottom sediments. Soon after the water in the pool dries up, and the adult fish die. The eggs hatch during the following rainy season when the pan or pool re-fills. The fish grows to maturity in a few weeks followed by spawning for an extended period.	eng
61182	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
61182	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species has been impacted by insecticide spraying and road building activities, as well as drainage of wetlands for agriculture, however, these impacts are localised.	eng
61184	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61184	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Zamanti Stream in the Seyhan River watershed in southern Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
61184	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species.	eng
61184	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.	eng
61184	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (Canli <em>et al</em>. 1998), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.	eng
61185	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61185	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Sous and Massa basins in Morocco.	eng
61185	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in wadi with sandy substrate with a moderate current.	eng
61185	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant (Diadrio, I. & Azeroual, A. pers comm).	eng
61185	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Climate change is thought to be causing drought in all rivers south of the Oum Er Rbia (Azeroual, A. pers. comm). Intensive groundwater extraction, and pollution from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources are also threat to the species.	eng
61186	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61186	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	May be restricted to southern Turkey, but no data are available on its full range.	eng
61186	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61186	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61186	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61187	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
61187	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and its catchment, the upper and lower Shire and Lake Malombe.	eng
61187	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2006	Mainly occurs in shallow water. Observed in rocky habitats but most individuals are caught in sandy areas. Also occurs among macrophytes in lower courses of rivers. Probably feeds on invertebrates and small fishes. This species has also been observed under the shelter of floating islands in Lake Malawi. These islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in the lake.	eng
61187	population	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2006	A common species.	eng
61187	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61188	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61188	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Prespa lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61188	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a lacustrine species.	eng
61188	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable or increasing.	eng
61188	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction. Decreased water level due to karstic nature of these lakes. Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61189	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored. Habitat restoration is required to protect the species from further degradation.	eng
61189	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
61189	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has been found over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
61189	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 122 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88 and 1993/95, and about 0.1 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 7,600 caught per hour in 1978 to 0 in 1987. Although there is no information from recent large trawls, it is not expected that this species has been wiped out completely.	eng
61189	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
61190	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61190	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It was restricted to Lake (Aguelmam) Sidi Ali, located at 2,230 m altitude in the Atlas mountains in northern Morocco.	eng
61190	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61190	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species disappeared in the late 1930s, probably due to the introduction of common carp. Only two specimens of this species exist in a Museum.	eng
61190	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduction of common carp.	eng
61191	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61191	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Menderes river basin in western Anatolia, Turkey. Not confirmed if it occurs in Lake Bafa. Several dams throughout the range have fragmented the population.	eng
61191	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species. Detritus feeder. Feeds on algae from rock surfaces. Need well-oxygenated water for spawning. Separate feeding and spawning areas (migratory, but not to a great extent).	eng
61191	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available on population size. May be declining as a result of pollution.	eng
61191	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, dams.	eng
61192	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61192	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Duero river in Portugal and to Ulla, Umia, Marin, Mino, Duero, Tajo rivers (Atlantic drainage) and to Francoli, Ebro, Mijares, Palancia, Jucar and Serpis rivers (Mediterranean drainage).	eng
61192	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a riverine species with contrasting life histories between streams.	eng
61192	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining.	eng
61192	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat loss due to canal building and construction of dams. Introduced predators and water pollution. (J. Carmona pers. comm).	eng
61193	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61193	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Lake Ohrid basin in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61193	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Swampy areas (Kottelat, M. pers. comm).	eng
61193	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Specimens not found in Ohrid Lake in 2002 during a survey by Kottelat. (Kottelat pers. comm). The last specimens were collected in 1973.	eng
61193	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61194	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61194	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a lake-wide distribution.	eng
61194	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species is thought to be the largest member of the genus. It is reported to occur in both rocky and intermediate habitats. During the daytime it hides in small caves or sand-scrape nests beneath rocks. It feeds on sleeping cichlids and other fishes during the night. Max. size: 150 cm.	eng
61194	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61194	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61195	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61195	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where the only records obtained were from Nkhata Bay, but it may be more widespread.	eng
61195	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	This species has been caught as deep as 70 m. It is a piscivore feeding mainly on cichlids.	eng
61195	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61195	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing by the commercial bottom trawlers.	eng
61196	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61196	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is only known from the holoytpe collected at Nkhata Bay.	eng
61196	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61196	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61196	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61197	conservation	Darwall, W., 2006	None known.	eng
61197	distribution	Darwall, W., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known from Nkhata Bay (holotype) and the two southern arms of the lake.	eng
61197	habitat	Darwall, W., 2006	This species is said to live in the deep waters of the central lake where it forages in groups feeding on plankton and insect larvae. It is not abundant, taken in both benthic and pelagic trawls.	eng
61197	population	Darwall, W., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61197	threats	Darwall, W., 2006	Potential over-fishing by the commercial trawl fishery.	eng
61198	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in Annex II of European Union Habitat Directive and in Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Protected by a special national law in Greece (not enforced).	eng
61198	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Only known from the Strymon and Louros basins in Greece. In the Strymon basin, it is located only in two brooks (Ayannis spring and Mylopotamos Kefalari). More recent, extensive survey has, however, failed to find the species in the Louros basin.	eng
61198	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in cold water springs and spring-fed streams. Reproduction takes place in December and January. It is a non-parasitic lamprey and it does not feed as an adult.	eng
61198	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61198	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water extraction.	eng
61199	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61199	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.	eng
61199	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A pelagic species, dependent on zooplankton.	eng
61199	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No information is available on population density.	eng
61199	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water-level changes (both due to natural drying out of rivers during droughts and water extraction by humans during dry seasons), and domestic and sewage pollution. The species is sensitive to oxygen levels in the water (N. Bogutskaya, pers. comm).	eng
61200	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information.	eng
61200	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Collected from Monkey Bay, in the southeastern arm.	eng
61200	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Only known from a single specimen: the holotype.	eng
61200	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61200	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61201	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None.	eng
61201	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi with a widespread distribution.	eng
61201	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	A deep-water species occurring at depths of 75–125 m. Feeds mainly on zooplankton and occasional benthic invertebrates. Ripe individuals occur throughout the year most occurring between 100–125 m suggesting that spawning occurs at these depths. The average size at maturity for females was about 9.8 cm.	eng
61201	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61201	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	Potential over-fishing.	eng
61202	conservation	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Lake Malawi National Park.	eng
61202	distribution	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi. Described from Nkhata bay (on the north western coast of the lake) but also recorded from Chembe beach (south western arm).	eng
61202	habitat	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Occurs in inshore waters associated with sandy habitats. It is a plankton feeder. Max. size: Total length of 12 cm.	eng
61202	population	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61202	threats	Kazembe, J., Makocho, P. & Mailosi, A., 2006	Potentially over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
61203	conservation	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61203	distribution	Kasembe, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi and Lake Malombe with a widespread distribution in both lakes.	eng
61203	habitat	Kasembe, J., 2006	Occurs in sand habitats where it feeds on invertebrates including snails. It is most common at around 15 m depth. Breeding males are observed throughout the year and they construct shallow sand castle nests and form small breeding colonies in the shallow intermediate habitats. Known as "<em>Maravichromis</em> Fort Maguire" in the aquarium trade.	eng
61203	population	Kasembe, J., 2006	A common species.	eng
61203	threats	Kasembe, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61204	conservation	Darwall, W., 2006	None known.	eng
61204	distribution	Darwall, W., 2006	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is distributed throughout the southeast and southwestern arm of the lake.	eng
61204	habitat	Darwall, W., 2006	Occurs in deep waters over mud/silt or sand substrates with sediment layers. It has been trawled from depths ranging between 55–80 m. Feeds on small invertebrates from the sediment. This species has not been exported in the aquarium trade. Max. size: 6 cm TL.	eng
61204	population	Darwall, W., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61204	threats	Darwall, W., 2006	Potential over-fishing by demersal trawlers.	eng
61205	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
61205	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
61205	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	North, Baltic, northern Black, White, Barents and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France), Great Britain north to 56°N, Scandinavia: southern Finland, Sweden north to about Stockholm. Mediterranean basin from Var to Hérault (possibly Aude) (France) drainages. Introduced elsewhere. Naturally absent from Italy and Adriatic basin.	eng
61205	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	North, Baltic, northern Black, White, Barents and Caspian Sea basins, Atlantic basin southward to Adour drainage (France), Great Britain north to 56°N, Scandinavia: southern Finland, Sweden north to about Stockholm. Mediterranean basin from Var to Hérault (possibly Aude) (France) drainages. Introduced elsewhere. Naturally absent from Italy and Adriatic basin.	eng
61205	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small rivers and large streams of barbel zone with riffles and pools. Also along shores of slow-flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams. Spawns in fast-flowing water above gravel bottom, rarely among submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles are gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years, females longer than males. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years, females at 4-6. Maturity is influenced by environmental factors and individuals may mature much later. Spawns in May-August, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females deposit the sticky eggs into the gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Alburnus alburnus</em>.	eng
61205	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small rivers and large streams of barbel zone with riffles and pools. Also along shores of slow-flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams. Spawns in fast-flowing water above gravel bottom, rarely among submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles are gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years, females longer than males. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-4 years, females at 4-6. Maturity is influenced by environmental factors and individuals may mature much later. Spawns in May-August, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females deposit the sticky eggs into the gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Alburnus alburnus</em>.	eng
61205	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
61205	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
61205	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
61205	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
61206	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61206	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Rufiji Basin (Gosse 1986).	eng
61206	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61206	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61206	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61208	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61208	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Known from a pool on inundated ground near Tanga (Lévêque and Daget 1984). Also reported from Soni and Pangani Rivers, Wami Drainage, Kilombero and Rufiji River systems (Bailey 1969).	eng
61208	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61208	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61208	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61209	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
61209	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Western and northern affluent streams and rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi river	eng
61209	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Inhabits stream and river habitats. Little else is known on its biology.	eng
61209	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61209	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
61210	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	Its distribution is partly included within the Amboseli National Park.	eng
61210	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Endemic to the Amboseli swamps, Kenya.	eng
61210	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Swamps. Little other information was available.	eng
61210	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
61210	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	Loss of habitat due to lowered water levels and restricted range.	eng
61212	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61212	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Ruvu, Great Ruaha, Kilombero and Rufiji rivers (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
61212	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits small rivers, brooks, pools and shallow parts of larger streams in the coastal lowlands of eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
61212	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61212	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61213	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61213	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is widespread from Africa to Indonesia and the western Pacific. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This is predominantly a marine species which enters the lower reaches of rivers along the Eastern Africa marine coast. It is known from the Lower Sabaki drainage. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its African distribution extends southwards to Natal, South Africa.	eng
61213	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This is an inshore marine species which enters lagoons, muddy estuaries and coastal bays and the lower reaches of freshwater rivers. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61213	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61213	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61214	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61214	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Acheloos river system, mainly in the lakes Trichonis, Lyssimachia, Ozeros, and Amvrakia in Greece.	eng
61214	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives mainly in lakes.	eng
61214	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
61214	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Overfishing, water extraction and pollution.	eng
61215	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61215	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage where it is restricted to the system of the Katuma River in the northen part of the basin (Seegers 1996).	eng
61215	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in small brooks as well as in the large Katuma River. Seems to prefer cooler and swift flowing water, but is also adapted to a large range of ecological conditions (Seegers 1996). Maternal mouthbrooder (Seegers 1996).	eng
61215	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61215	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61217	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61217	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Only survives in Lake Scano and nowhere else. This location is outside its original natural range. It was introduced to Scano around 100–150 years ago from Lake Fucino. The population in Lake Scano has been confirmed as genetically identical to that from the original type specimens from Lake Fucino.	eng
61217	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in lakes and the lower reaches of rivers rich in aquatic vegetation.	eng
61217	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Extinct throughout its native range. It now only remains in Lake Scano (outside the native range) where it is well established.	eng
61217	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Potential introduction of <em>Scardinius erythropthalmus</em> (as planned by the local authority) which has already been responsible for its extinction throughout its former range.	eng
61218	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61218	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Known from a series of pools along the west side of the main road between the ferry on the Rufiji River from Ndundu to Kitonga, in the direction of Nyamwage (Watters, Wildekamp and Cooper 1998).	eng
61218	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61218	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61218	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61219	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61219	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996).	eng
61219	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in both the rivers and lake, but only close to the shore. It is probably not present in the open water (Seegers 1996). Spawns in the lake itself. It is uncertain if a part of the population ascends the rivers to undertake regular spawning migrations. Thought to spawn in April or May (Seegers 1996).	eng
61219	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61219	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61220	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61220	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Recorded in pools alongside the road to Malinyi in the floodplain of the Kilombero River, between Ifakara village and the Kilombero ferry, south of the Kilombero Rivers (Wildekamp, Watters and Sainthouse 2002).	eng
61220	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	In turbid waters of seasonal pools, many of them were the result of the excavations for road building or due to erosion by water passing through the culverts (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>.  2002).	eng
61220	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61220	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61221	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61221	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the Upper Wami River drainage, Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61221	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Temporary pools, swamps and ricefields (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61221	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61221	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61222	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
61222	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is known from Kenya and Somalia, possibly extending into Ethiopia, but the full extent of its ditribution is not yet understood.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It can be found in the Lower Tana system. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Juba system, Somalia.	eng
61222	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61222	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61222	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
61223	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61223	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.	eng
61223	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers, lakes, and marshes.	eng
61223	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Apparently abundant.	eng
61223	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction. Introduction of exotic fish species. Agriculture.	eng
61224	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61224	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	So far, known only in upper Akagera system.	eng
61224	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Inshore waters in lakes and rivers (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Little is known on its ecology.	eng
61224	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches	eng
61224	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion in the watershed.	eng
61225	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61225	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Lake Naivasha. Apparently extinct since the 1970s or 1980s due to competition or predation by introduced fishes.	eng
61225	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61225	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available	eng
61225	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	Competition and predation by introduced species may have led to the extinction of this species.	eng
61226	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61226	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Tanzania, Wami River (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
61226	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61226	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61226	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to habitat degradation.	eng
61227	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61227	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61227	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61227	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61227	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61228	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61228	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lake Rukwa drainage.	eng
61228	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Seegers (1996) collected this species in a small stream bordered by reeds and bushes.	eng
61228	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61228	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Ecological conditions changed through ongoing road works and local agricultural practices (Seegers 1996).	eng
61229	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61229	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Athi and Tana River systems (upper courses) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61229	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Found all over the river but prefers to congregate, especially the big ones, in large pools below waterfalls or rapids (Copley 1958). There is a very distinct up-river spawning migration as soon as the first floods come down river. They move downstream after spawning, in about July, a fact very well known to native fisherman who set the mouths of their basket traps in the fish weirs accordingly (Copley 1958). Max. size: 34.2 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61229	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61229	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Gamefish (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Fishing during migration.	eng
61230	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known.	eng
61230	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to eastern Greece, FYROM, Bulgaria and Turkey. It inhabits the following river basins: Aoos, Pinios, Aliakmon, Axios (Vardar), Strymon, Nestos and Evros.	eng
61230	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in all sized rivers in fast to strong currents.	eng
61230	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Widespread but not abundant within its range.	eng
61230	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, dam construction, water pollution, and drought.	eng
61231	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Angling is regulated according to the National law. Part of the species range is covered by a National Park.	eng
61231	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Agios Germanos stream in the Prespa Lakes region, north-western Greece. It might be also present in one or two streams in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) part of Lake Megali Prespa.	eng
61231	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Its lives in a mountain stream. The population is present in 24.5 km out of 34.5 km. Habitat is fragmented by some impassable waterfalls.	eng
61231	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Its population in Agios Germanos stream has been estimated between 3,300 and 6,700 individuals (Crivelli, A. unpublished data).	eng
61231	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction (although it is downstream), erosion within the catchment due to overgrazing, poaching with nets and chlorine, and organic pollution. Small electro-power stations.	eng
61232	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information.	eng
61232	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Mukungwa River (tributary of the Upper Akagera in Rwanda).	eng
61232	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in fast flowing major rivers where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.	eng
61232	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Rare in fisheries catches.	eng
61232	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins and farming extension.	eng
61233	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61233	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Occurs in Lake Rukwa and the Wami and Mkata Rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003). Also found in the Malagarasi River and other tributaries of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
61233	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits inshore waters and riverine conditions where it is found in shallow, sandy and vegetated areas. Little is known on its biology. Feeds on insect, weeds and vegetable debris (Konings 1990).	eng
61233	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known but rare (see Tweddle 1983).	eng
61233	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.	eng
61234	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information.	eng
61234	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Athi River system (including the Tsavo drainage and Mzima Springs) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
61234	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61234	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61234	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61235	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Included in Regional Andalucian Law 8/2003 of conservation of flora and fauna.	eng
61235	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the lower Guadalquivir region and in streams located on the southern Atlantic slope of Spain, including Coto Donana National Park.	eng
61235	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in freshwater and hypersaline lagoons, tidal channel, and in small streams. It is characterized by a short life span and large fluctuations in population size, as adaptations to a highly variable environment.	eng
61235	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing, only 7–8 fragmented populations are known.	eng
61235	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and water pollution (mine spill in 1998 in Coto Donana), repeated drought, and introduction of exotic fish species <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em> and <em>Fundulus heteroclitus</em> as well as the swamp crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>.	eng
61236	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61236	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Wami River.	eng
61236	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits small fast streams (Eccles 1992).	eng
61236	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61236	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61238	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61238	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the delta and marshes of the Kucuk Menderes River in western Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
61238	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in a delta (estuarine system) and marshes. Enters brackish water.	eng
61238	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61238	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution, and habitat destruction are common in the Menderes Delta.	eng
61239	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61239	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61239	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 5.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61239	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61239	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61240	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	No information available.	eng
61240	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61240	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	Bathopelagic. Spawns in the open lake. Matures at about 2.2 cm FL. Post-larvae prefer the superficial layer while adults prefer the demersal zone up to 60m. Max. size: 2.3 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61240	population	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	No available estimates.	eng
61240	threats	Odhiambo, E.A., 2006	No information available	eng
61241	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61241	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the western drainage of the Lake Rukwa system and the upper Kalambo drainage, and Tanganyika basin (Seegers 1995).	eng
61241	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61241	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61241	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61242	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61242	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	This species is endemic to eastern Africa. It is found in Kingani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji and Kilombero Rivers (Paugy 1984).	eng
61242	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61242	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61242	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61243	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61243	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Also reported from Lake Victoria under several synonymous names: <em>Labeo rueppellii</em> Pfeffer, 1896; <em>Barbus radcliffii</em> Boulenger, 1903; <em>B. lobogenys</em> Boulenger, 1906; <em>B. bayoni</em> Boulenger, 1911; <em>B. pietschmanni</em> Lohberger, 1929; <em>B. hollyi</em> Lohberger, 1929; and <em>B. altianalis radcliffii</em> Boulenger, 1903. Records from the latter species from the Tana (see Mann 1966, 1967) are based on misidentifications (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Also recorded in Lakes Edward, George and Kyoga and in Lake Kivu and the Rusizi River down to the delta with L. Tanganyika, and the upper and middle Akagera.	eng
61243	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Inhabits inshore waters of lakes and rivers, including fast-flowing waters; generalist diet including aquatic vegetation, molluscs and fishes (Eccles 1992). A food fish for humans (Robins <em>et al</em>. 1991). Max. size: 90.0 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61243	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Not known, but common in fisheries catches in upper and middle Akagera.	eng
61243	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Sport fishing (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Water turbidity due to erosion on water basins. Fisheries pressure.	eng
61244	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61244	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Akgol-Eregli marshes in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Extent of occurrence is estimated as less than 100 km².	eng
61244	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Known from Akgol-Eregli marshes. No other data are available at present.	eng
61244	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data on population size or trend. However it is believed to be declining as a result of anthropogenic factors.	eng
61244	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat loss as a result of the water supply to the marsh being restricted by the construction of a dam across the stream inlet. The marsh has been partly drained and water is extracted from the marsh for agricultural purposes. The marshes are also sometimes burned.	eng
61246	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61246	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Wami and Ruvu drainages (Seegers 1995).	eng
61246	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in quieter and deeper stretches of water, in the middle of the water column, and not on the bottom as other <em>Parakneria</em> species (Seegers 1995). Omnivorous taking algae as well as small insect larvae and crustaceans (Seegers 1995).	eng
61246	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61246	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61247	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61247	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Lake Luhondo (Upper Akagera).	eng
61247	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Probably inhabited both lakes and rivers. Little is known on its biology.	eng
61247	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61247	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Mortality as a bycatch in fisheries. Introduction of <em>Tilapia</em> and <em>Haplochromis</em> species may have been the reason for extinction of the species in Lake Luhondo (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990).	eng
61249	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No conservation measures in place in the wild. Captive population is held in an artificial situation (laboratory) based on stock taken from two rivers (M. Goren, pers. comm).	eng
61249	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the coastal rivers of Israel, excluding Kishon.	eng
61249	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A coastal river species.	eng
61249	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Fifty years ago, the species was very abundant. There was a sharp decline between 1950 and 1970. Then the population was stable until 1999. In 1999 the population declined almost to extinction. A captive population was bred from individuals taken from two sites. Two populations have since been released back into the wild but it is not confirmed if at least one of these is successfully breeding.	eng
61249	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought, water extraction and pollution are main threats.	eng
61251	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61251	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the northern and central part of Tunisia and to the Kebir River in Algeria.	eng
61251	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. It is a small size barbel (<250mm)	eng
61251	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Common.	eng
61251	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61252	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2010	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. The taxonomy of some possible populations of this species need to be verified.	eng
61252	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2010	This species is restricted to the Middle and Lower Zambezi system and the Buzi River to the south. It possibly also occurs in Lake Malawi, but the identity of these specimens needs to be re-examined.	eng
61252	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2010	<em>M. macrolepidotus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous (migrates within fresh water only) species which prefers well-vegetated, muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains.  This species moves inshore after dark, and has been recorded to move up tributaries in shoals during flood season.	eng
61252	population	Tweddle, D., 2010	This species is very common in suitable habitats.	eng
61252	threats	Tweddle, D., 2010	There are no major threats for this species. The river systems are large and generally healthy apart from perturbations in flow caused by hydroelectricity generation.	eng
61253	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61253	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the north western Africa, type locality in Algeria.	eng
61253	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61253	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61253	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Hybridisation with introduced trout.	eng
61254	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61254	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lake baringo drainage, Lake Bogoria system (affluent rivers), Lake Turkana basin (Turkwell River system, Kerio River system), Suguta drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Records of <em>B. gregori</em> (a junior synonym of <em>B. intermedius</em>) from the Tana system (Boulenger 1911) are based on wrong collection localities (see Mann 1971 and Banister 1973) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). For records in the Mara River and Lake Victoria system De Vos <em>et al</em>. (work in progress) pointed out that <em>B. procatopus</em> is a junior synonym of <em>'B.' altianalis</em> (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61254	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 48.9 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61254	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61254	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61255	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61255	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Pangani drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61255	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 35 mm TL (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
61255	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61255	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61256	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61256	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Lake Pamvotis in Epiros District in Western Greece. Its presence in the Louros river is very doubtful.	eng
61256	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a lacustrine species.	eng
61256	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population has been dramatically crashing since the early 1990s.	eng
61256	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, overfishing (bycatch), and the introduction of alien species (main cause of decline).	eng
61257	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	No information available.	eng
61257	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
61257	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Lake-wide pelagic distribution both inshore and offshore (Van Ojien 1995). Mostly observed in the 0-20m depth range but eggs and fry may be found down to 68m (Graham1929, Wannink 1998). Juvenile fish migrate away from the shore after spending their larval stage in shallow waters (Wanink 1999). Adults stay near the bottom during the day and rise to the surface at night (Witte and Winter 1995). Feeds on zooplankton (Fermon 1997) and surface insects (Witte and Winter, 1995). It is believed to spawn inshore (Wanink 1998) with an estimated fecundity of >1,000 eggs. Max. size: 9.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61257	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Fishing yields indicate a rapid increase in population size. For example, Wanink (1998) reported an increase in yield from 1,000 metric tons in 1968 to over 80,000 metric tons in 1989 and acoustic surveys (1999–2001) have also indicated an increasing biomass (Ogutu Ohwayo <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
61257	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Fishery exploitation pressure is increasing, leading to reduction in size at first maturity (heavy fishing pressure). The pressure has been intensified by reduction in mesh size from 10 mm to 5 mm seines. Parasite infestation by a cestode <em>Ligula intestenalis</em>.	eng
61258	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
61258	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	Northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lower Tana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61258	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information	eng
61258	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
61258	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
61259	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61259	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Prespa Lakes in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61259	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a small lacustrine species living in the littoral zone.	eng
61259	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
61259	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction (water level decreases are a problem due to karstic nature of these lakes), and introduction of exotic fish species. Disease and parasites are also reported as a significant threat (Kottelat pers comm).	eng
61261	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61261	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to river basins in Spain and Portugal: Lerez, Mino, Limia, Duero, Umia, Tajo and Mondego basins.	eng
61261	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is particularly common in medium size reaches although it can be found in a wide variety of habitats both upstream and downstream. During summer drought this species is well adapted to live in marginal pools with low levels of dissolved oxygen.	eng
61261	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
61261	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, canal construction and introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61262	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
61262	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to upper and middle Akagera River.	eng
61262	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Inshore waters and the main channels of rivers.	eng
61262	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Known to have declined by >50% or more (Ntakimazi 1985)	eng
61262	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins. Over-fishing.	eng
61263	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61263	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Streams of the Kilimanjaro region (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
61263	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Max. size: 315 mm (Lévêque and Daget, 1984).	eng
61263	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61263	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61264	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61264	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the area between Iringa and a point 15 km southwest of Igunda on the northwestern slopes of the Southern Highlands, southwestern Tanzania. This region includes the upper drainages of the Ndembera and Idodi rivers and the middle and lower reaches of the Little Ruaha River (Seegers 1995).	eng
61264	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in the headwaters of the streams of the northwestern slopes of the Southern Highlands, indicating that it prefers a cooler climate (Seegers, 1995). Detritivore (Seegers 1995). Probably a single spawning period (Seegers 1995). Common throughout its distribution area (Seegers 1995). Max. size: 10–20 mm TL.	eng
61264	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61264	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61266	conservation	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61266	distribution	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	This species is restricted to south-west Anatolia in Turkey. Only known in three localities from Bergama (Gediz River system) to Dalaman River.	eng
61266	habitat	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	No data available.	eng
61266	population	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	No data available.	eng
61266	threats	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known.	eng
61267	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61267	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Currently only known from two tributaries of the upper Ruaha. Most specimens have been collected in the Kimani River, which is the type locality (Seegers 1995).	eng
61267	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61267	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61267	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61268	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61268	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from two pools along the Dar es Salaam–Ikwiriri road, Tanzania (Watters, Wildekamp & Cooper 1998).	eng
61268	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61268	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61268	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61269	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Conservation of critical marginal lagoons by environmental education and law enforcement.	eng
61269	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	Conservation of critical marginal lagoons by environmental education and law enforcement is needed.	eng
61269	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from low-veld rivers of the eastern Africa coast from the Ruaha River in Tanzania south the the Mkuze River in South Africa.	eng
61269	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found in low-veld rivers of the east Africa coast from Kenya to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Lower Tana and Sabaki drainages, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa and the Lower Shire River in Malawi. Also in Ruaha, Tanzania (Skelton 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found from Mozambique to the Mkuze River in South Africa.	eng
61269	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is usually found in vegetated, non- or slow flowing sections of rivers and river margins. Also found in marginal lagoons, isolated pans in floodplains. It feeds on small aquatic organisms, and food consists of diatoms, algae and invertebrates (Polling <em>et al.</em> 1992). It breeds in summer, possibly migrating to spawning sites (Skelton 1993).	eng
61269	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Usually found in vegetated, non- or slow flowing sections of rivers and river margins. Also found in marginal lagoons, isolated pans in floodplains.	eng
61269	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Abundant where encountered.	eng
61269	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	It is common in quiet streams (Tweddle 1983). Otherwise rare (Bell-Cross 1976).	eng
61269	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	Fisheries pose a possible future threat, although reported to be of no importance in Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). Marginal pools in the Niassa Reserve, Mozambique are routinely poisoned by local fishermen. These pools act as innocula for the main river system and are critical habitats for many species not suited to open water of main river channels.	eng
61269	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Marginal pools in the Niassa Reserve, Mozambique are routinely poisoned by local fishermen. These pools act as innocula for the main river system and are critical habitats for many species not suited to open water of main river channels.	eng
61270	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
61270	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Enters the lower reaches of major affluent rivers, including the Malagarasi river.	eng
61270	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Most commonly found in the littoral zone in rocky and mixed substrates (Eccles 1992, Brichard 1978, Kuwamura and Hori 1985) ). Feeds on fish, molluscs and insects.	eng
61270	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Common but not abundant in fisheries catches Poll (1953). Recorded as common if not abundant at Cap Chipimbi (Zambia) and very abundant, with high densities, at Pointe de Rubiza (Burundi) with one individual recorded for every three meters of substrate (Brichard 1978).	eng
61270	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Over-fishing. Sedimentation.	eng
61271	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
61271	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the northern end of lake Tanganyika and the Rusizi River.	eng
61271	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in both deep and flowing waters where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.	eng
61271	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A rare species.	eng
61271	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.	eng
61272	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	None.	eng
61272	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Malagarasi and Ruaha rivers and Lake Rukwa system (Seegers 1996).	eng
61272	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Prefers well-aerated open flowing water but can also be collected in pools of stagnant water, usually these pools are remnant parts of rivers which are dried out in the dry season (Seegers 1996). Probably feeds on zooplankton and small insects and crustaceans (Seegers 1996). Probably migrates for spawning (Seegers 1996).	eng
61272	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.	eng
61272	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion in river basins.	eng
61273	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61273	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). This species was described from the "Amala River, entering the east side of Lake Baringo" (Boulenger 1916: 245), a doubtful locality probably referring to a tributary of the Mara River in western Kenya, Lake Victoria system (Seegers and De Vos, work in progress) (see Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61273	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 6.6 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61273	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61273	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61274	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61274	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	Seasonal pools near Lake Victoria between Ahero and Kisumu.	eng
61274	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61274	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61274	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
61276	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	No information available.	eng
61276	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Shire River.	eng
61276	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies.  <em>Oreochromis lidole</em> is believed to be the chambo species most adapted to deep water and feeding in the water column. It feeds on algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season runs from September to March, peaking from October to February. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em>, they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning pits at depths of 17 m (50 feet) or more. These spawning pits can be up to 3 m in diameter, with central platforms as much as 75 cm wide. Breeding starts at about 28 cm TL at three years old. The spawning areas are located in deeper water than for the other two species, off clean sandy or rocky shores. Max. size: 38 cm TL.	eng
61276	population	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.	eng
61276	threats	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	Over-fishing: the chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.	eng
61277	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61277	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	This species is known only from two freshwater lakes in the Jordan River basin: Lake Hula in Israel and Lake Muzairib in Syria (this may be a misidentification). Its occurrence was also recorded in Lake Kinneret, but this may also be a misidentification (M. Goren, pers. comm.). It is considered as extinct in Israel. Population status in Syria (if it occurred here) is not known.	eng
61277	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A lacustrine species.	eng
61277	population	Goren, M., 2006	Extinct in Israel; not known in Syria.	eng
61277	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Drainage of Lake Hula resulted in the loss of the species from Israel.	eng
61279	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61279	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Galana-Sabaki Rivers, Lower Tana (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.). Might become an important component of communities above dam (Eccles, 1992).	eng
61279	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 7.5 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61279	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61279	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Fisheries.	eng
61280	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61280	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61280	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61280	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61280	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61281	conservation	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61281	distribution	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	This species is restricted to the Litani river basin in Lebanon.	eng
61281	habitat	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Occurs in rivers, but in slow moving or still water.	eng
61281	population	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	In the late 1980s, the population appeared to be stable.	eng
61281	threats	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Water extraction, and the introduction of exotic fish species (<em>Gambusia</em> and <em>Tilapia</em>) are the main threats. Habitat destruction (canalization). The area is urbanized and the river water is utilised by the human population.	eng
61282	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61282	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Probably endemic to Nzoia River system (Lake Victoria basin, Kenya) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61282	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61282	population	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61282	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61283	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61283	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to wadi of south-eastern Morocco and in eastern Algeria.	eng
61283	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61283	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant. (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).	eng
61283	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No threats.	eng
61284	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61284	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Zanzibar (Wildekamp 1981).	eng
61284	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Temporary pools, swamps, ditches and small streams (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61284	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61284	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61285	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61285	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Source of the Little Ruaha River, a tributary of the Great Ruaha River (situated in the range of hills between Mbeya and Iringa) (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
61285	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits a swampy area with out flowing creeks (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
61285	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61285	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it vulnerable to habitat degradation.	eng
61286	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61286	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61286	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61286	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61286	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61287	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Management of fisheries is needed at least within protected areas such as the Niassa Reserve.	eng
61287	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Management of fisheries is needed at least within protected areas such as the Niassa Reserve. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, as well as population range and numbers, biology and ecology, and monitoring of populations.	eng
61287	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Barbus zanzibaricus is found along the east coast of Africa, from Somalia south to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in small numbers in coastal rivers, including Sabaki and Lower Tana, northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). It is also present in Lake Chilwa streams.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is present in the River Juba, Somalia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Rovuma River system on the Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzanian border.	eng
61287	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Rovuma River system on the Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzanian border.	eng
61287	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Main river and stream channels and also in pools in the river beds of seasonal streams. Reasonably common where encountered.	eng
61287	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species inhabits main river and stream channels and also in pools in the river beds of seasonal streams.	eng
61287	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	It is reasonably common where encountered.	eng
61287	population	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
61287	threats	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Fishing of isolated pools by rural fishermen was identified as a problem in the Niassa Reserve by Bills (2003). Pools are easily fished out and they are' innocula' for the main river system when flows return. In some instances pools are poisoned which is an undesirable and illegal activity.	eng
61287	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Potentially overfishing could be a threat but this has been reported to have no commercial importance in Lake Chiuta, Malawi (Tweddle 1983). Fishing of isolated pools by rural fishermen was identified as a problem in the Niassa Reserve by Bills (2003). Pools are easily fished out and they are' innocula' for the main river system when flows return. In some instances pools are poisoned which is an undesirable and illegal activity.	eng
61288	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61288	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the floodplain of the Ruvu River, eastern Tanzania (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61288	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Temporary pools in the Ruvu River floodplain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61288	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61288	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61289	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61289	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Lower Tana River (possibly an endemic).	eng
61289	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits the main part of the river where it is most abundant in deeper waters near large logs and stranded trees (De Vos, 2001). It may undergo a seasonal breeding migration during the rainy season (De Vos, 2001). Mainly feeds on benthic invertebrates: its tooth patch is probably used as a hoe for grazing invertebrates in the river bed (De Vos, 2001). Max. size: 202 mm SL (De Vos, 2001).	eng
61289	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61289	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61290	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61290	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Arachthos river basin in western Greece. The river system is, however, now linked in its lowland to the adjacent Louros river basin through canals.	eng
61290	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species preferring sand or mud substrate.	eng
61290	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61290	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction. Water pollution and extraction. Potential hybridisation with <em>C. helenica</em> living in the Louros river system since canals now link, in the lowland, the two river basins.	eng
61291	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61291	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from the Southern Lagoon of Lake Natron, where it inhabits the springs and effluent stream at Olomotony and some spring-fed creeks entering this lagoon from the southeast and east (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
61291	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Springs and creeks near the southern and southeastern shores of Lake Natron. The water of these springs is usually clean, but the creeks near the main lake carry turbid water and many of the inhabited creeks are also polluted by cattle or game (Seegers and Tichy 1999). They graze stones and gravel, probably taking mainly algae for food but are clearly omnivorous taking insects from the water surface as well (Seegers and Tichy 1999). They are maternal mouthbrooders (Seegers and Tichy 1999).	eng
61291	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61291	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61292	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	None known.	eng
61292	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Athi River, Kenya (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61292	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 12.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61292	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61292	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61293	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	No information available.	eng
61293	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	Endemic to Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe and the Upper and Middle Shire river.	eng
61293	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	This is one of the three 'Chambo' species endemic to Lake Malawi. Like other species of the subgenus <em>Nyasalapia</em>, males of <em>O. karongae</em> develop long branched genital 'tassels' that serve as egg dummies. Territorial male <em>O. karongae</em> are jet black, with a white dorsal fin margin. <em>O. karongae</em> can be seen in loose shoals in many areas of the lake. They feed by rasping the surfaces of rocks and weeds and by sifting sediment and also feeding in the water column. They eat mainly algae, detritus and zooplankton. The breeding season runs from July to March, peaking around September and again in February. In Lake Malombe there is just a single peak around July to October. Like other <em>Oreochromis</em> they are maternal mouthbrooders. Males dig large spawning platforms in waters ranging from the shallows down to depths of at least 28 m. Like other chambo, they construct a slightly raised bowl-shaped central spawning cone inside the larger pit. Max. size: 37 cm TL.	eng
61293	population	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	During the 1950s over 3,000 tonnes of Chambo per year (chiefly <em>O. squamipinnis</em>) were being taken from Lake Malawi's southeast arm alone. However, the total catch for chambo in this part of the lake has shown a steady decline since early 1990s. CPUE in the main harvesting fisheries has also declined dramatically due to over-fishing.In Lake Malombe chambo catches were around 4,000 tons in the late 1970s, increasing to over 6,000 tons in the early 1980s. In the late 1980s a drastic decline was observed with catches falling to less than 600 tons per year by the early 1990’s and to less than 200 tons in the late 1990’s. This decline in total catch in Lake Malombe is directly matched by severe declines in CPUE in the two main fisheries harvesting the stock, namely gill nets and chambo seines. The Chambo stocks in Lake Malombe are considered to have been in a state of collapse or near collapse since the early 1990s.	eng
61293	threats	Kazembe, J. & Makocho, P., 2004	Over-fishing: the chambo are the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s as a result of over-fishing.	eng
61296	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61296	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Only known from pools alongside the road to Malinyi in the floodplain of the Kilombero River, between Ifakara village and the Kilombero ferry, south of the Kilombero Rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
61296	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Turbid water in seasonal pools, many of them were the result of the excavations for road building or due to erosion by water passing trough the culverts (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>.  2002).	eng
61296	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61296	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	A restricted distribution makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61297	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61297	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Orangi River (itself a tributary of the Grumeti River) and some of its tributaries: the Pololeti, Seronera, Ngarenanyuki, and Nyabogati Rivers, all in the center of Serengeti NP (Farm 2000).	eng
61297	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Found in shallow streams and rivers having gravel or sand bottoms. The streams are in open woodland or wooded savannah areas having pronounced wet and dry seasons. Streams were generally highly turbid (Farm 2000).	eng
61297	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61297	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61298	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61298	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the Tanga (Paugy 1984) and Pangani River drainages, including Lake Jipe (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Records from of species from the Tana basin are dubious and based on misidentifications (Seegers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
61298	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Forms shoals in the shallow margins of streams (Copley 1958). Also inhabits rivers and lagoons (Eccles 1992). Max. size: 6.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61298	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61298	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61299	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
61299	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Kerio River system (Lake Turkana drainage).	eng
61299	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
61299	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information.	eng
61299	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
61300	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61300	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to the streams and rivers of the upper Ruvu drainage descending from the Uluguru mountains (Seegers 1995).	eng
61300	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Present in stretches with fast current but more numerous in the quieter stretches. It's preferred water conditions are 26.8°C and pH of 7.2 (Seegers 1995). Feeds mainly on algae and aufwuchs which is rasped from stones (Seegers 1995).	eng
61300	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61300	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Its restricted distribution and narrow habitat preferences makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
61301	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61301	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Eastern drainage of the Lake Rukwa basin and Malagarasi River (Seegers 1996)	eng
61301	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Inhabits streams and rivers where the current is not very fast and there is dense vegetation near the banks. In the lake it is found between dense grasses at the shore (Seegers 1996). Feeds on small water animals (Seegers 1996). No marked spawning period (Seegers 1996).Max. size: 55.7 mm TL (Seegers 1996).	eng
61301	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches.	eng
61301	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
61302	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61302	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Eastern Africa: Pangani drainage, Galana-Sabaki, Lower Tana River, Northern Ewaso Nyiro.Also reported by Whitehead (1959, 1962) and Mann (1966, 1968) from the Tana and Northern Ewaso Nyiro as S. zambezensis Peters, 1852, a misidentification. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa is yet to be obtained.	eng
61302	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Max. size: 131 mm TL (Gosse in Daget <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
61302	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61302	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61303	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61303	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Pangani drainage (including Lake Jipe) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61303	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	In Lake Jipe inhanbits shallow water among open stands of the emergent grass paspalidium geminatum (Bailey 1980). Feeds on cladocerans, insect fragments (including mayfly nymphs and chironomid midge larvae), and plant material. The number of eggs, < 0.8 mm diameter, carried by two ripe females, (27.6 and 30.2 mm SL) were 190 and 170, respectively (Bailey 1980).	eng
61303	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No estimates available.	eng
61303	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	Not fished commercially. No known threats.	eng
61304	conservation	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61304	distribution	Vreven, E., 2006	Endemic to the Athi River system (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.).	eng
61304	habitat	Vreven, E., 2006	Max. size: 49.0 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61304	population	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61304	threats	Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61305	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	None known.	eng
61305	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika basin.	eng
61305	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	Inhabits rivers and lagoons (Eccles 1992).	eng
61305	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61305	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
61306	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
61306	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Mukungwa river (Upper Akagera in Rwanda)	eng
61306	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Found in fast flowing major rivers where it feeds on varied benthic food items including insects, ostracods and worms.	eng
61306	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches	eng
61306	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Vreven, E., 2006	Predation and competition from introduced <em>Tilapia</em> and Haplochromines (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins and farming extension.	eng
61307	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
61307	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lineatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
61307	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes and larger rivers (Eccles 1992). <em>Labeo lineatus</em> is lives over mud bottoms close to sand banks. The adults are often captured over sandy bottoms in deep water (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
61307	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
61307	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
61308	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
61308	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to Lake Tanganyika and the Rusizi River.	eng
61308	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found in inshore waters of the lake over rocky substrates and in major fast flowing rivers (Eccles 1992). Feeds on varied food items collected on rocky and other firm bottoms: insects, ostracods, diatoms, worms, etc. Also feeds on aufwuchs (Eccles 1992).	eng
61308	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	A very common species that sometimes is significant in inshore fisheries catches from Lake Tanganyika.	eng
61308	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Over-fishing. Water turbidity in rivers and lake's inshore waters due to erosion following deforestation in the associated river catchments.	eng
61309	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
61309	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
61309	conservation	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
61309	distribution	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the upper Pangani drainage (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), as well as Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers, including Rusizi and Malagarasi drainage. It also occurs in the upland rivers and streams of northern areas of Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In southern Africa, it occurs throughout the Zambezi system, and in the Cunene, Okavango and Limpopo rivers (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi system, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be common in many northern tributaries but absent from the main river and floodplains, although there are old accurate records from Katombora rapids near Victoria Falls. Similarly, it does not occur in the Okavango Delta system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003) and is scarce in Caprivi (van der Waal 1976). Also recorded in the Buzi River (R. Bills, unpublished).	eng
61309	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and Limpopo systems, common in Zimbabwe, Zambia and South Africa (Skelton 2001). It is also widespread in eastern Africa (Skelton 2001).	eng
61309	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widespread in central and eastern Africa (Skelton 2001). In southern Africa, occurs throughout the Zambezi system, and in the Cunene, Okavango and Limpopo rivers (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi system, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be common in many northern tributaries but absent from the main river and floodplains, although there are old accurate records from Katombora rapids near Victoria Falls. Similarly, it does not occur in the Okavango Delta system (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) and is scarce in Caprivi (van der Waal 1976). Also recorded in the Buzi River (Bills unpublished).	eng
61309	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	A wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers, moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 2001).	eng
61309	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits a wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers. <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 1993).	eng
61309	habitat	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits a wide range of habitats from small streams to large rivers. <em>Barbus lineomaculatus</em> moves upstream to spawn in flooded grassy areas (Skelton 1993). Feeds mainly on insects.	eng
61309	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
61309	population	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is generally common and widespread although patchily distributed.	eng
61309	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is generally common and widespread although patchily distributed.	eng
61309	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
61309	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
61309	threats	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species in central and southern Africa. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension could pose a threat to some populations in eastern Africa.	eng
61310	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61310	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the wadi Zousfana, Ziz down to Beni-Abbès. It is also present in Timimoun in Algeria.	eng
61310	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives mainly in subterranean habitats.	eng
61310	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).	eng
61310	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Climate change and ground water extraction, creating droughts (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).	eng
61311	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
61311	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Lake Victoria basin, Athi River system, Rukwa system, Malawa river (Uganda), Bubu river (flowing into lake Manyara), Pangani and Ruaha Rivers.	eng
61311	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Found in permanent and even in temporary streams. Feeds on insect larvae and bottom debris (Greenwood 1966).	eng
61311	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61311	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
61312	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61312	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to one karstic spring (Modro Oko) in Krbavsko Polje in Croatia. It disappaered from Krbavsko Polje streams.	eng
61312	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the springs and pools of the karst region. It enters subterranean waters during winter or summer drought.	eng
61312	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61312	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought, water pollution and extraction. Construction of road close to the site. Introduction of exotic fish species. Also there is a possibility that war in the region has damaged the karstic system (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).	eng
61313	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	No information available.	eng
61313	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Endemic to the Lake Victoria basin (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpub.), including the middle and lower Akagera river.	eng
61313	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Found both in streams, rivers and lake. Fishes migrate upstream to spawn. The principal spawning grounds appear to be the floodwater pools. Half-grown fishes migrate into the river and down to the lake at the next flood (Whitehead 1960). Feed predominantly on insect larvae. Max. size: 7.0 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
61313	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Unknown, but rare.	eng
61313	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2006	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension.	eng
61314	conservation	Kendrick, A.J. & Morgan, S., 2006	1. No legislation has been enacted to specifically protect this species. <br/>2. No Australian Society for Fish Biology listing. <br/>3. This species may occur in the Marmion and Shoalwater Islands Marine Parks, which are located some kilometers from Carnac Island in Western Australia.	eng
61314	distribution	Kendrick, A.J. & Morgan, S., 2006	Currently known only from few (i.e., <10) specimens collected from several localities in southern Australian marine waters. Records exist from Cape Jervis and St Vincent’s Gulf in South Australia, and in the vicinity of Carnac Island in south-western Western Australia. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for map of the known range of <em>I. australe</em>.	eng
61314	habitat	Kendrick, A.J. & Morgan, S., 2006	<em>Acentronura australe</em>, is thought to camouflage itself against algae and seagrass, like many of its closest relatives (Kuiter 2000). Surveys in the vicinity of Carnac Island in Western Australia found that the abundance of this species was qualitatively low, and near Freemantle WA, Kendrick and Hyndes (2003) found densities of ca. 1.25x10<sup>-4</sup> individuals m<sup>-2</sup> on unvegetated bottom, and densities of 2.5x10<sup>-5</sup> individuals m<sup>-2</sup> in the overall survey area that was largely dominated by seagrasses. These densities are very low, even relative to other syngnathids. In the same study area, densities of another prevalent syngnathid, <em>S. nigra</em>, ranged from 1.3–15 individuals per m² in the various seagrass habitats surveyed (Kendrick and Hyndes 2003). Other syngnathids such as seahorses are known to be rare, but are still found at densities 1–5 orders of magnitude greater than <em>A. australe</em> (from 0.006–1.1 individuals per m² (Foster and Vincent 2004)).  With the exception that it is known to be a pouch brooder, nothing is known of the reproductive biology or diet of <em>A. australe</em>. <br/> <br/>A similar species from eastern Australia, <em>Idiotropiscis lumnitzeri</em> (Syndney’s Pygmy Pipehorse), is known to occupy semi-exposed rocky reefs from 6–30 m, sparsely covered with clumps of Rhodophytes which provide good camouflage for the species (Kuiter 2004). Individual animals have been observed to occupy the same small sections of reef for up to eight months at a time (Kuiter 2004), suggesting that <em>I. lumnitzeri</em>, and perhaps also <em>A. australe</em>, may be site faithful.	eng
61314	population	Kendrick, A.J. & Morgan, S., 2006	The current limited knowledge of the species suggests that it naturally occurs in low abundances in specific habitats. The distribution, size, connectivity and number of populations remain unknown.	eng
61314	threats	Kendrick, A.J. & Morgan, S., 2006	Not known to be fished. The only known Western Australian locality of <em>A. australe</em>, in the vicinity of Carnac Island, is adjacent to a major coastal residential and industrial area, which includes heavy port and naval infrastructure. Coastal waters in this area are currently subject to channel dredging and marine shell-sand mining, while marine pollution represents a significant potential threat.	eng
61315	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measures.	eng
61315	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is restricted to the departments of Hérault and Gard, where it is widespread in suitable habitats. The records from departments of  Bouche-de-Rhone are currently under review, as they are only based on dry shells.	eng
61315	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater subterranean habitats.	eng
61315	population	Prie, V., 2009	The populations are believed to be stable at most sites.	eng
61315	threats	Prie, V., 2009	<p>The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water source through extraction of groundwater.&#160; There are a variety of purposes in the region, use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.</p>	eng
61316	conservation	Marler, T., Haynes, J. & Lindstrom, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
61316	distribution	Marler, T., Haynes, J. & Lindstrom, A., 2009	This species occurs in Micronesia, the Marianas Group and the western Caroline Islands (but there is some uncertainty about its precise indigenous range). This species does not extend west into the Philippines.  Plants occur on Palau Island and on Guam and Rota Islands of the Marianas group and on Yap Island of  the Caroline Islands group.	eng
61316	habitat	Marler, T., Haynes, J. & Lindstrom, A., 2009	<em>C. micronesica</em> is an arborescent species that occurs in closed forest on coral limestone or coral sand, or occasionally on volcanic soils on islands where these occur.	eng
61316	population	Marler, T., Haynes, J. & Lindstrom, A., 2009	This species was relatively abundant in the 1990s and recorded as locally common. However, populations on Guam have been devastated by the invasive <em>Aulacaspis</em> scale (CAS). A reference population in northwest Guam has declined from 686 individuals in early 2004 (before CAS reached this habitat) to 87 individuals in January 2007.	eng
61316	threats	Marler, T., Haynes, J. & Lindstrom, A., 2009	All plants were removed from the islands of Saipan and Tinian (Northern Mariana islands) by the Japanese during World War II. There has also been habitat loss on both Guam and Rota (Northern Mariana Islands).<br/><br/>The Cycad <span style="font-style: italic;">Aulacaspis</span> scale (an invasive from SE Asia) has caused substantial mortality. Current mortality is not necessarily a direct result of CAS. The Cycad Blue Butterfly arrived in 2005, and it spread throughout Guam within months. Moreover, several pre-existing arthropod pests that were causing minor damage to the <span style="font-style: italic;">C. micronesica</span> plants have ramped up their damage now that the cycad population is in such poor health. Many of the deaths that are occurring today are a result of epidemic longhorn beetle (<em>Dihammus marianarum</em>) stem damage. Moreover, there is an alien invasive snail (<em>Satsuma mercatorius</em>) that has begun feeding on young leaflets and is now a new threat. This newly learned feeding behaviour by a herbivore may be the result of the compromised ability of the unhealthy cycad plants to adequately synthesize the chemicals that deter herbivory.	eng
61333	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2006	We feel the following measures need to be taken to stem further losses and allow recovery for the species: <br/> <br/>1. We recommend expanding and/or modifying the network of conservation rivers designated by the government in Hokkaido to provide protection to Sakhalin taimen.  The existing network was established originally for protection of commercial species (e.g. <em>Oncorhynchus masu</em> cherry salmon and <em>O. keta</em> chum salmon), and has been expanded in recent years to protect rare salmonids.  However, a recent effort to identify prime habitat for Sakhalin taimen based on habitat modeling suggests the existing protected area network provides little protection for this species (Fukushima and Kameyama 2006).  We strongly encourage the Hokkaido government to consider extending conservation river protection to the rivers identified by Fukushima and Kameyama (2006), particularly those in the Soya peninsula that still support healthy taimen populations. <br/> <br/>2. We recommend new regulations on recreational fishing, particularly during the spawning season.  While the species has been recognized as endangered (“red book species”) in several regions (Primorye, Sakhalin and Hokkaido), the regulations triggered by these listings are not always sufficient or properly enforced (see #3).  While establishing a ban on fishing is clearly needed in some circumstances, we think establishing exemptions in certain basins would be prudent if there is sufficient evidence that the exploited populations are stable or increasing.  A key virtue of these exemptions is that the presence of recreational fishers, particularly in rivers in remote regions in the Russian part of the species range, could help deter illegal fishing practices.  Where recreational fishing is allowed, we feel there should be a set of regulations enforced, including explicit creel limits and gear restrictions to reduce release mortality.  These fish tend to become aggregated and vulnerable to heavy fishing pressure during the spring spawning season, so we feel it is especially important to enact regulations during this critical period in their life history. <br/> <br/>3. We recommend increased enforcement of existing fishing regulations in the Russian part of the species range.  Recent observations by research scientists have revealed illegal fishing operations, and much of the take, beginning in the 1980s and continuing to present, have gone unreported.  Our observations have indicated that fisheries officers that are hired to enforce existing regulations have been ineffectual, largely due to a lack of presence on the rivers, particularly during the critical spawning period.  We recommend increased vigilance to enforce fishing regulations intended to protect the species. <br/> <br/>4. We recommend investigating the role of habitat and population fragmentation, particularly in Japan.  Habitat fragmentation has been most widespread in Hokkaido, and we encourage actions that reduce and minimize further habitat loss, and restore habitat where possible.  We are aware of ten individual, local efforts in Hokkaido to raise awareness of lost and degraded taimen habitat (e.g., Obirame Restoration Group), but we feel much more can be done through a broader scale assessment of salmonid species diversity, threats, and cumulative aquatic habitat loss across Hokkaido.  A formal investigation by key public agencies into how to better balance flood plain development with conservation of rare species is critically important.  A key step has recently been taken to form the Committee of Critically Endangered Species (CCES) by the Hokkaido government, and we encourage this group to focus on habitat related issues involving conservation of Sakhalin taimen. <br/> <br/>5. We recommend formulating and enforcing best practices for infrastructure development, particularly related to resource extractive industries.  While much of the habitat for Sakhalin taimen in Russia is intact, there are a number of threats that exist.  Logging, road construction and pipeline development present threats to spawning habitat, in the form of increased bank instability, leading to accelerated erosion and sedimentation.  Road construction also leads to increased illegal fishing activities by providing easier access to rivers.  Sound best practices (e.g., riparian buffers, pipeline river crossings, culvert designs) need to be established and enforced to reduce erosion and allow unimpeded movement of fish throughout the watershed. <br/> <br/>6. While there has been some preliminary efforts in both Japan and Russia at captive breeding for the species, we feel these activities should proceed with great caution.  Inter-basin transplants could contribute to loss of locally adapted gene complexes.  We encourage basic research on the degree of geneflow that exists between river populations to understand phylogeographic patterns that could help guide future reintroductions.  Although there is some evidence that captive propagation can help reduce short-term extinction risk for critically endangered species, there is virtually no empirical evidence to indicate whether propagation can promote long-term sustainability.  Therefore, captive propagation efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. <br/> <br/>7. Finally, given the myriad threats to the species, it's dramatic rate of decline, and it's cross border, limited distribution,  we feel it is important to establish an intergovernmental working group to consider formally our proposed conservation actions and draft an implementation plan to conserve the species.	eng
61333	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2006	Russia and Japan (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF). Current distribution of Sakhalin taimen extends from approximately 43° N to 53° N latitude and 135° W and 145° W longitude.  The Sakhalin taimen is restricted to the Russian Far East region including Primorye, Khabarovsk, and Sakhalin and Kuril Islands, and in Hokkaido, Japan. <br/> <br/>We conducted a thorough investigation of the natural range of the species through contacts with experts familiar with Sakhalin taimen distribution.  We would particularly like to identify the following individuals for providing input into this process: Dr. Sergei Zolotukhin (TINRO), Dr. Anatoly Semenchenko (TINRO), Mr. Sergei Makeev (Sakhalin Wild Nature Fund), Dr. S. N. Safranov (Sakhalin State University), and Dr. Michio Fukushima (JMOE). <br/> <br/>We relied on the stream network developed in ArcGIS based on the Digital Chart of the World, based on a resolution of 1:1,000,000 (ESRI 1992). We generated a convex polygon that contained all the rivers known to support the species currently.  The estimate of area delineated by this polygon is 332,153 km², excluding marine waters greater than 1 km offshore. We estimated the area of occupancy based on the sum of the individual basin areas that support the species, and marine waters extending 1 km offshore. Our estimate for the area of occupancy is 233,498 km². We assumed in both cases that the area is continuing to decline, but the species does not exhibit extreme fluctuations.	eng
61333	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2006	Preferred habitat for juvenile Sakhalin taimen is low gradient, coastal rivers (Fukushima 2000), and habitat for maturing and mature adults can extend into first and second order tributaries for spawning and lake and estuarine waters for feeding (Kawamura <em>et al</em>. 1983, Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000, Arai <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Females construct redds (i.e. nests) at the lower ends of pools, where eggs are deposited into discrete egg pockets in benthic gravel (Fukushima 1994, Edo <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Data suggests that the density of Sakhalin taimen redds is positively correlated with channel sinuosity (Fukushima 2000).  Some populations on Hokkaido are thought to be restricted to freshwater, possibly related to their position near the southern limit of their range, as has been observed for <em>Salvelinus</em> spp. (e.g., Maekawa and Nakano 2002, Morita <em>et al</em>. 2005).  The species is known to exhibit both freshwater and anadromous life histories.  The species is long lived, slow growing and exhibits delayed age at maturity relative to other salmonids.  The species is iteroparous (i.e. repeat spawns), and reaches sexual maturity at ages 6–8, and achieves peak fecundity at approximately age 15 (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  The species spawns during the spring to early summer, depending on location within their natural range.  Peak spawning occurs during May-June along the Sea of Japan coast (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000), late June in Sakhalin (Gritsenko <em>et al</em>. 1974), and mid-March to late April in eastern to northern Hokkaido (Kimura 1966, Fukushima 1994).  Anadromous life history forms are thought to reside in estuarine waters during the summer growing season, and overwinter in lower reaches of rivers beginning in mid-September to late October (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Diet is dominated by benthic invertebrates during years 1–2, followed by a transition to finfish and crustaceans as they mature.  We fit a von Bertalanffy growth model to size at age data for taimen sampled in the following rivers: Kievka and Samarga in Primorye, Russia, Koppi in Khabarovsk, Russia, and several rivers in eastern Hokkaido, Japan.  Data for Kievka and Samarga are obtained from Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. (2000), data from eastern Hokkaido populations are from Yamashiro (1965), and data for the Koppi was obtained from field collections during 2000-2002 (N = 131 individuals, ranging in age from 1 to 16 yr, S. Zolotukhin, TINRO, unpubl. data).  We fit the equation with Microsoft Excel Solver and estimated best fit parameters for the model (see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).  The parameters fit to the Koppi data set, representing our most comprehensive data set on size at age, are as follows: Linf (asymptotic length) = 227 cm TL (TL = total length), K (growth coefficient) = 0.07.  Data in Figure 2 are plotted as FL (fork length, also known as AC in Russia), and values were converted to TL for model fitting using a length conversion equation of TL = 1.032*FL, Froese and Pauly 2005).  Parameters for the other Russian populations were similar to the results for the Koppi.  Growth for taimen in eastern Hokkaido appeared markedly lower than the Russian populations, and may be related to colder water temperatures characteristic of this region (M. Fukushima, pers. comm., see Figure 2 in the attached PDF).  Growth rates observed for Sakhalin taimen inhabiting a brackish lagoon near the mouth of the Bekanbeushi River in eastern Hokkaido by Kawamura <em>et al</em>. (1983) is relatively low compared to the Russian populations, and is consistent with rates measured by Yamashiro (1965) within the same region.  We compared these growth trajectories qualitatively to size at age based on scale back-calculations for 5 adults from Hokkaido's Shiribetsu River in western Hokkaido (H. Kawamura, Hokkaido Fish Hatchery, unpubl. data).  Although the method used to generate this growth curve is not directly comparable to the methods applied to the other river populations, the general trajectory of growth for Shiribetsu taimen closely approximates growth for the faster growing, Russian populations.  We decided to use the data from the Koppi River as the model for growth dynamics for the species given it is the largest set of data available, while acknowledging that it may not fully represent growth dynamics across the natural range of the species (particularly in eastern Hokkaido, as described above).  Based on the parameter values derived for the Koppi River taimen, and assuming an average annual water temperature in the lower Koppi River of 10° C, we used the model of Pauly (1980) to estimate a rate of natural mortality (M) for the species of 0.11.  We used this estimate of natural mortality to estimate L<sub>opt</sub> (144 cm TL, the length class with the highest biomass for an unfished population) using the model of Beverton (1992).  We then used the estimate of Lopt  and the parameters from the von Bertalanffy growth model in the following formula to estimate generation time: -1.45 - ln(1- L<sub>opt</sub>/L<subinf</sub>)/K.  The resulting estimate for generation time was 14 yr.	eng
61333	population	Rand, P.S., 2006	Very little data exists on absolute population sizes for this species.  Redd surveys have been conducted in a number of river systems in Hokkaido.  This method is prone to error (see Dunham <em>et al</em>. 2001); however, it is the most commonly used method for enumerating adult abundance in this region.  Estimates of total abundance generated from a redd survey by Edo (2001) for a number of Hokkaido rivers are as follows: Sorachi, 211; Uryu, 264; Bekanbeushi, 306; Toikanbetsu, 422; Kushiro, 21; Tokachi, 21; Shiribetsu, 0.  We used data in Fukushima (1994) to estimate total spawner abundance of 153 individuals within two tributaries (Nino and Jyugo Creeks) of the Sarufutsu River in northwestern Hokkaido (assuming 2 redds per female and a 50:50 sex ratio) based on sampling conducted during 1992.  To generate a Hokkaido-wide population estimate, we divided these population estimates by the total river km for each sampled river segment based on our ArcGIS stream coverage.  This generated an average of 2.7 adult taimen km<sup>-1</sup> (see Table 1 in the attached PDF).  This density was used to estimate spawning abundance in river basins where we lack data.  We excluded those rivers whose populations have been extirpated (Kubo 1990; Harako 1991).  We estimated abundance of the regional population by adding the abundance of taimen in those basins where we have quantitative data to the estimated values of  abundance predicted across the rest of the range by multiplying total river km in each basin by the density estimate of 2.7 taimen km<sup>-1</sup>.  This resulted in a value of 5,068 adults for the Hokkaido population (see Table 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/>We relied on best expert judgment, and consideration of the magnitude of bycatch of taimen in the commercial salmon fishery, to gauge levels of abundance for taimen in the Russian portion of the species range.  Ranges of abundance were provided for 10 rivers along the Sea of Japan coast (1-100,101-1000,1001-10000 adults per basin), and 61 rivers on Sakhalin (1-50, 51-100, 101-1000 adults per basin).  Because ranges were provided in this case, we estimated densities by basin (2.9-29.6 taimen km<sup>-1</sup>, see Table 1 in the attached PDF) using the low and high value in each abundance strata.  We assumed the density range estimated for Sakhalin applied to the Kuril Islands portion of the species range.  Populations in five basins on Sakhalin Island are presently considered extirpated.  To arrive at a total population for each region, we summed the population estimates (both low and high values in each strata) for the rivers where we had estimates, and extrapolated abundances based on total stream km in basins where we lack data.  Our estimates for total population by region are as follows: Primorye: 2,796-28,323 adults, Khabarovsk: 3,351-33,520 adults, and Sakhalin (including Kuril Islands): 1,591-12,024 (see Table 1).  The historic peaks of bycatch landings in the time series (Khabarovsk at ~ 4,000 adults yr<sup>-1</sup> and Sakhalin at ~3,000 adults yr<sup>-1</sup>, estimated by converting landed biomass to adult numbers assuming average weight of landed adult at ~ 5kg) fall within the range of abundances estimated here.	eng
61333	threats	Rand, P.S., 2006	Overfishing by various sectors (commercial, recreational, and illegal take) is one of the most important threats to this species.  Although Sakhalin taimen are no longer commercially harvested in Russia, they are still targets of legal and illegal subsistence fishing as they are prized for their large size and good flavor (Zolotukhin <em>et al</em>. 2000).  While reporting of taimen bycatch in the commercial pink salmon fishery in Russia has declined in recent years, we feel this is a result of under-reporting and a general decline in region-wide abundance of the species in recent years.  These populations are also under threat from dramatic changes to their habitat expected from planned logging operations.  An expanded logging lease in the Samarga River basin, for example, extends now to 85% of the total watershed area, with construction of roads that could greatly impact many key tributaries.  Rapidly expanding oil and gas development on Sakhalin Island, in particular the laying of pipelines across more than 24 rivers known to support Sakhalin taimen, is posing a growing threat to the species.  In Japan, land development (including river channelization, dam construction, agricultural and urban expansion) represents an important threat to critical habitat for the species.  The threat from poaching in Russia, while hard to quantify, may currently be one of the most significant threats to the species.  During a research trip in 2005, two active poaching camps were discovered, and five dead, adult taimen were recovered that had been captured using illegal fishing gear.  Four of these individuals were mature females carrying as many as 15,000 eggs each (P.S. Rand, WSC unpubl. data).  During spring peak flows, spawners tend to aggregate in side channels off the main stem of the river, and become vulnerable to capture by large mesh gill nets.  Our estimate of fishing mortality in the river, although uncertain given the lack of data, suggests a relatively high rate of exploitation (~ two times the rate of natural mortality).  Sustainable fishing rates on wild fish populations rarely exceed the rate of natural mortality.  FAO (1999) recommends a precautionary approach in data poor fisheries by restricting fishing mortality to below the rate of natural mortality.	eng
61334	conservation	Ng Wai Chuen & Cheung, W., 2006	There are no known regulations for this species. <br/> <br/>This species was listed as a Grade II State Protected Species in the Peoples Republic of China since 1989. Thus it is protected and its exploitation should be limited and regulated by Chinese authorities under the legislations in China. In 2005, the Chinese government designated a protected area in the Pearl River estuary to help protect this species.	eng
61334	distribution	Ng Wai Chuen & Cheung, W., 2006	The species occurs only within China from the Yangtze River southwards to Hong Kong (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Fowler 1972, Trevwavas 1977, Cheng 1989, Wu 1991). Catches are reported from the mouths of major estuaries that the species enters seasonally to spawn in large aggregations; the Yangtze River, Zhoushan Is., Min River, and the Pearl River from Hong Kong up to Taiping. (For a distribution map see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).	eng
61334	habitat	Ng Wai Chuen & Cheung, W., 2006	The Chinese bahaba is one of the largest of all croakers (Sciaenidae) and has a limited geographical distribution. It can attain 2 m and exceed 100 kg (Lin 1939, Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Anderson 1972, Trewavas 1977). Based on catch information, the fish are reported from mouths of major estuaries along its distribution that it enters seasonally to spawn in large aggregations. Greatest catches were taken in the weeks prior to full and new moons with up to 300 fish taken in a season in Hong Kong in the past; now only the occasional small fish is taken. <br/> <br/>The fish feed on shrimp, crab and other crustaceans. Feeding habit has been suggested to be seasonal, with mainly shrimp from December to May, mudskipper from June to August and lizard fish from September to November (Lu and Ye 2002). Sexual maturation occurs at about 13 kg and 35–40 cm total length (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963, Wu 1991). Seasonally, the ovary develops from early December with <0.5% body weight, through late December (0– 5%), and become ripe in April (3–11%) when spawning takes place (Lu and Ye 2002).  After spawning, adults move out to deeper waters and juveniles may be found in estuarine and coastal areas. <br/> <br/>In the Pearl River estuary, the Chinese bahaba is suggested to still spawn around Xiqiyang, Dongguan (Lu and Ye 2002). This view is based on the perception of the fishermen, the high rate of spawned individuals and the believed suitable environment around the area (Le and Ye 2002).	eng
61334	population	Ng Wai Chuen & Cheung, W., 2006	No abundance, population or official catch data are available or collected. <br/> <br/>Catches were highly seasonal, during summer and autumn to north, and November-April to the south in Guangdong Province especially around rocky islands (Chu <em>et al</em>. 1963). In Hong Kong, estimated annual landing was 50 tonnes in late 1930s. The catch dropped dramatically to approximately 10 tonnes by the 1950s and 1960s, with most fish relatively small (12 to 40 kg) and rare large individuals (>80 kg) were found (Lin 1939). By the 1990s, only small fish (<30 kg) were taken sporadically, and large individuals (>50 kg) had become rare (Sadovy and Cheung 2003). <br/> <br/>In waters around Dongguan at the Pearl River delta, landings in 1950–1960s were estimated around 180–210 tons [<strong>note - this appears to be very high compared to other estimates and trends</strong>] (Lu and Ye 2002). In the 1980s, there is no estimate of landing data available. A trawl fishing survey, however, was conducted in 1981–1982. The Chinese bahaba represented 9% weight of the total catch, and 0.7% in terms of abundance. Size of the catch ranged from 55 to 617 mm (TL), mean 187 mm, showed that the smaller individuals dominated the catch. While in 2000s, the catch was estimated to be around 2.5 tons, based on the survey on illegal fishing and trading. <br/> <br/>Similar patterns were noted in other parts of its geographic distribution after the 1960s; prior to 1980s, total PRC (mainland China) landings (not including Hong Kong) did not exceed 10–20 tonnes annually (Hui 1987), with 5–6 tonnes in Zhejiang Province (Wu 2001) in 1950s and 1960s. Early catch data for Min River were not available but 80 large fish a year were not uncommon (Sadovy and Cheung 2003): this information comes from a review of the Chinese literature and interviews with fishermen.	eng
61334	threats	Ng Wai Chuen & Cheung, W., 2006	The species was threatened by heavy fishing pressure due to its vulnerable biological characters, large size, restricted geographic range and aggregating behaviour in and around estuaries often involving sound production that makes individuals particularly easy to find. It was also heavily targeted due to its high value which increased as it became rarer. <br/> <br/>Although listed under Grade II State Protection, the Chinese bahaba is caught and sold illegally. It is estimated that there are about 30 fleets operating around the Pearl River estuary targeting on the species (Lu and Ye 2002), annual catch is over 2,500 kg. Because of the high value of a single fish, fishing continues even though population numbers are very low.	eng
61335	conservation	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	No known action has been taken.	eng
61335	distribution	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	Recorded from the Western Pacific: southern Japan, Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, and the China seas (Fishbase 2005, Academia Sinica Institute of Zoology 1962). In Taiwan, the fish is abundant in northern and eastern waters (Shao 2005). <br/> <br/>In the Sea of Japan known from Pusan, Toyama Bay, Sado Island, and the Sanin area. On the Pacific coast of Japan from Tokyo southward China seas. (Lindberg and Orlans 1967). <br/> <br/>See Figure 1 in attached PDF for range map.	eng
61335	habitat	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>C. azurio</em> generally inhabitats coral or rocky reef areas. The fish has been observed foraging over rocky reefs to depth of 17 m in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In China and Japan, the fish was reported to hide in reef crevices, and may inhabit fairly deep coastal waters around the rocky area (Chu 1984, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1980, Shen 1984). <br/> <br/>Depth range was reported to be minimum 20 m and more common in 35 to 50 m rocky or coral reef in Taiwan (Li 1995), while 10 to 50 m was reported in Japan (Masuda 1994). <br/> <br/>The maximum size of <em>C. azurio</em> is TL 40 cm (Shao <em>et al</em>. 1996), with fork length under 250 mm were all females; but over 250 mm, males became dominant (Shung 1995). The common size is TL 20-30cm (Chu 1984). Age determination was made by means of scale reading. Judging from the deduction of the monthly change of marginal increment, the annulus is formed once a year during the period of October–December. Age length and age growth equation can be found in Shung (1995). <br/> <br/><em>C. azurio</em> is protogynous, i.e. changes sex from female to male when they attain a certain size. Study in Japan showed that fish of 285 mm (SL) and larger were males and those smaller were females (Nakazono and Kusen 1991). Spawning was reported to take place around Jung (Masuda<em> et al</em>. 1980, Lindberg and Orlans 1967). <br/> <br/>It is a carnivore and preys on benthic crustaceans, small fishes and invertebrates, especially small gastropods (Shao <em>et al</em>. 1996, Chu 1984). During feeding, it swallows the whole gastropod, then digests its soft parts and excretes an undamaged shell (Li 1995). <br/> <br/>In Taiwan, <em>C. azurio</em> does not exhibit seasonal dimorphism. There are two different phenotypes, pink is more common while dark red is rear (Li 1995).	eng
61335	population	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	An otter trawl survey was conducted by Dr Kwang-Tsao Shao (Kwang-Tsao Shao pers comm. 2004.) in which only one specimen of <em>C. azurio</em> was caught from the depth of 30 m off the Miaoli County, northwestern Taiwan. This provided an estimate of density of 0.18 kg per square kilometer, and the specimen was 11.87 gram weight. The above statistics are under estimated because bottom trawl could not harvest in reef areas where these species prefer to stay. <br/> <br/>Records in markets and restaurant are occasional in both Hong Kong and Taiwan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kwang-Tsao Shao pers. comm. 2004). <br/> <br/>Reasonably abundant in some areas of the Lamma islands (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>As there is no abundance, trend or fisheries data available hence the population status and abundance cannot be inferred from the insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time 1.4 – 4.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).	eng
61335	threats	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	Most probably threatened by overfishing and habitat destruction. This species is a popular target of spearfishers and an excellent food fish (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
61336	conservation	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>E. awoara</em> occurs in the Cape d’Aguilar Marine Reserve (southeast Hong Kong island), and on no-take artificial reefs in Hong Kong, but these areas are likely to be too small to support viable reproductive populations (A. Cornish pers. comm. 2005), and the artificial reefs are still fished. <br/> <br/>No species-specific management or conservation action has been taken. <br/> <br/>From 1985/6, <em>E. awoara</em> seed was increasingly used and it has become the major species. However, in the last couple of years, less <em>E. awoara</em> is reported and traders suggest that this might be due to enforced closures of the South China Sea fishery (Sadovy 2000). During June and July each year, no trawling is permitted inshore in mainland Chinese waters (these do not include Hong Kong waters). <br/> <br/>Large scale culture (grow out) of captured fry is taking place in South China, including Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang provinces, Hainan and Hong Kong, occasionally in Quang Ninh province, and in Viet Nam. It is an important species of wild seed caught in southern China (mainly Fujian and Xiamen). Some <em>E. awoara</em> seeds are/were also collected in Hong Kong in limited amounts (Sadovy 2000). <br/> <br/>A hatchery in Zhejiang province reported production of <em>E. awoara</em> of at least 80,000 seeds per year and at a Daya Bay facility, NE of Hong Kong, there is active research on <em>E. awoara</em> with natural spawning in 1998. It is not known how much of the seed production comes from hatchery production or from the wild (grow out of wild-caught fish does not count as true mariculture since the juveniles still come form the wild and are, therefore, part of a juvenile fishery) (Sadovy and Lau 2002).	eng
61336	distribution	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus awoara</span> is a marine species that occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, including North and South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Viet Nam, and islands in the South China Sea (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and Indian Ocean (Chen 1997, Zhu 1998).<br/><br/>In China, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. awoara</span> can be found in the South China Sea only, along the Guangdong coastline and Daya Bay (Institute of Oceanology Academia Sinica 1991).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. awoara</span> is rare in the coastal waters of the Pacific but very common in the Sea of Japan (Masuda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980), and south of Toyko (Nakabo 2000). In the sea of Japan it is known from Pusan, Toyama Bay, Niigata, and in the Sanin area. On the Pacific coast of Japan it occurs from Tokyo to Nagasaki and also around Ryukyu Island. It can be found all around Taiwan (Lindberg and Orlans 1967, Shao 2005).<br/><br/>The species is caught occasionally in Ha Long Bay and Me Island of Thanh Hoa province (central Viet Nam) (Sadovy 2000).	eng
61336	habitat	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>E. awoara</em> can be found in rocky areas and sandy-mud bottoms. Juveniles are common in tide pools and adults are caught in depths of 10–50 m. In captivity, <em>E. awoara</em> is an aggressive fish, spending much of its time chasing and biting other fishes, especially conspecifics (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is very common in rocky areas and coral reefs in littoral or sublittoral area of Taiwan (Shen 1984). <br/> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> feeds on shrimp and other fishes (Zhu 1998). Massive <em>E. awoara</em> can be caught in Fujian annually between April and November and live fishes are sold to Hong Kong and Macau. <em>E. awoara</em> has the highest yield among Fujian groupers with high commercial value (Chu 1984). It is also a common commercial fish in Guangdong (China), Taiwan, and  Japan. <br/> <br/>In Hong Kong, <em>E. awoara</em> is categorized as moderately abundant (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The fish is one of the four most common inter-tidal groupers in eastern Hong Kong waters, but in the field it is evidently not frequently seen (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/> <br/>The fish is cultured in both Hong Kong and Taiwan (Shao <em>et al</em>., 1996). Eggs of <em>E. awoara</em> have been artificially fertilized by Zhang and Li (1988) (as cited by Cheung 1998), and the longest survival time for the larvae was 15 days (Randall and Heemstra 1991). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction:</strong> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> is protogynous, i.e. changes sex from female to male when they grow to certain size. Spawning season lasts from March to May in Hong Kong (Liu 1971) and June to July in Taiwan (Shao 2005). Size of sexual maturation is attained at 160 mm (TL), size at sex change 220–320 mm (TL), maximum size 610 mm (TL), while the mean market size is 155 mm (Y. Sadovy pers. comm. 1999). <br/> <br/>Optimum water temperature for mature individuals to spawn is 23.2 to 23.4° C at salinity 20–34 ppt. <em>E. awoara</em> spawn in Taiwan from June to July during evening 6–8 pm. Fertilized eggs hatch after around 27 hours (Shao 2005). <br/> <br/><em>E. awoara</em> is a determinate spawner with a group-synchronous type of ovarian development pattern. Total annual potential fecundity was estimated to range from 55,200 to 1,146,400 oocytes for a fish of standard length from 161 to 315 mm. Relative fecundity was estimated to range from 432 oocytes to 1,017 oocytes, with body weight ranging from 136 g to 1,479 g. The minimum annual spawning frequency was two. Early yolked oocytes formed would probably be reabsorbed after spawning (Cheung 1998). <br/> <br/>Potential annual fecundity of <em>E. awoara</em> exhibited a logarithmic relationship with standard length: F=22.95L<sup>2.84</sup> where F is potential annual fecundity and L is standard length of <em>E. awoara</em>. A straight-line relationship was also found between potential annual fecundity and fish body weight. The regression equation of this relationship was found to be F= 733.14 W-37260 where F is potential annual fecundity and W is fresh body weight of <em>E. awoara</em>. There was no relationship between relative fecundity and either standard length or body weight (Cheung 1998). <br/> <br/>Local market survey in Hong Kong (2004–2005) showed that live individuals of <em>E. awoara</em> sold in the market ranged from <99.5 mm to >400 mm, with the most common (70%) sizes from 150–250: most of the fish were reported caught from local waters (A. To pers. comm. 2005), although sources could not be determined and wet market data suggest that many <em>E. awoara</em> are not from local Hong Kong waters (Situ and Sadovy 1004). Of the 19 or so groupers sampled in the market, the Yellow Grouper was in the top third in terms of frequency of observation. <br/> <br/>Data on size and age of sexual maturity and on fisheries landings outside Hong Kong, or from non-Hong Kong waters, are not available.	eng
61336	population	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	An otter trawl survey conducted by Dr. Kwang-Tsao Shao around Taiwan (K.-T. Shao pers comm. 2004) showed that <em>E. awoara</em> was distributed from the 10 to 50 m depth off the Miaoli County, northwestern Taiwan. The density was 1.32 kg per square kilometer in this area. Nine of ten specimens were smaller than 100 g. The above density is an under estimate because the bottom trawl could not harvest in the reef areas which this species prefers to inhabit. <br/> <br/>In Hong Kong, catch data were collected by a questionnaire survey with local fishermen in 1996/97; annual catch of <em>E. awoara</em> by weight was estimated to be 9 metric tons for all fishermen in all Hong Kong waters (AFD 1998); the survey was repeated in 2001/2002 and the annual catch was about 10.5 metric tons (AFCD 2004). About 30% of the local fishermen were interviewed and the total annual catch calculated by factoring up their responses. <br/> <br/>The population status or abundance cannot be inferred from insufficient data. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time 4.5 to 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).	eng
61336	threats	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<em>E. awoara</em> is a valuable food fish, which is caught with trawl or hook-and-line (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1980). <br/> <br/>Overfishing of grouper adults and juveniles, habitat damage and loss from bottom trawling, pollution, high demand for food are the main threats to <em>E. awoara</em>.	eng
61337	conservation	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<strong>Protection measures taken:</strong> <br/>1). Totally Protected Species in NSW waters (since 1983) (Australia). <br/>2). Listed as a Vulnerable Species in NSW under the NSW Fisheries Management Act 1994 since 1999 (Australia). <br/>3). Listed under section 15 of the Commonwealth Fisheries Management Act 1991, making its take in fishing operations under that Act illegal unless covered by a scientific permit (Australia). <br/>4). Totally Protected Species in the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve (New Zealand). <br/>5). Australian Society for Fish Biology Threatened Fishes Committee Listings: 1988–1989 - Requiring investigation of its status;1990–1999 - Potentially Threatened (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Australian and New Zealand Marine Protected Areas in Which the Species Occurs (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002):</strong> <br/>Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (southern section Qld, Australia) <br/>Cook Island Aquatic Reserve (off Tweed Heads, northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve (off Byron Bay, northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park (northern NSW, Australia) <br/>Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve (Tasman Sea, Australia) <br/>Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Tasman Sea, Australia) <br/>Kermadec Islands and Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserves (New Zealand) <br/> <br/><strong>Reserves within its range where <em>E. daemelii</em> probably occurs:</strong> <br/>Norfolk Island Marine Reserve/Park (Tasman Sea) (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
61337	distribution	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	Black Cod are known to occur in warm temperate and subtropical waters of the South-western Pacific Ocean. In Australia, the species' range extends from south Queensland to Kangaroo Island off South Australia (however, the South Australian record probably represents only a straggler or expatriate fish from the east coast). The species has been reported from northern Bass Strait waters but has not been sighted along the coast of Tasmania. Black Cod are found along the entire New South Wales coast and are most common in waters off northern New South Wales. A few individuals have been recorded from southern Queensland waters (e.g., off Flinders Reed), however, they are considered to be uncommon in the waters of Queensland (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Black Cod were found to be common around Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs (near Lord Howe Island), two offshore reefs in Australian Commonwealth waters in the northern Tasman Sea (Leadbitter 1992, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004; Oxley <em>et al</em>. 2004). Black Cod are also found in the northern parts of New Zealand, and Francis (1993) noted this species to be particularly common around Kermadec Island and also common at Three Kings Island, though it is generally rare elsewhere in New Zealand (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Juvenile specimens have been collected as far south as Hawka Bay in Australia, at 0 to10 or 30 m depth. Although immature specimens occasionally range as far south as Cook Strait and one has been recorded from off Westland, they are rare south of East Cape. Juveniles are also known from New South Wales in Australia and Norfolk, Lord Howe and the Kermadec Islands (Paulin and Roberts 1992).	eng
61337	habitat	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	<strong>Behaviour</strong> <br/>Black Cod are known to occur in caves, gutters and on rocky reefs from near shore to depths of as least 50 metres. In 2003, a commercial fisher incidentally caught a Black Cod at a depth of 100+ metres. Smaller individuals are encountered in estuaries (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004), and recently settled juveniles can be commonly found in coastal rock pools along the NSW coastline (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004; Griffiths 2003). The Black Cod is considered to be a territorial species because each adult individual generally has its own 'hole' (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its cave usually has several alternative exits and the grouper hovers just off the bottom at the entrance, often just the snout and eyes protruding. Usually it shares its quarters with several other reef fishes like Red Moki (Doak 1978). <br/> <br/>Observations by fishermen and divers suggest that this species is slow growing and slow moving (Leadbitter 1992). Ayling and Cox (1982) noted <em>E. daemelii</em> in New Zealand "a single fish can change from one extreme of colour to the other in just a few seconds, depending on its mood and the colour of the background" (McCulloch 1922). <br/> <br/>It is hypothesized that habitat complexity may play a role in habitat selection, presenting a wide variety of structure in which Black Cod both seek refuge from danger and utilize for seeking and ambushing prey. Larger Black Cod were sighted further offshore, with smaller fish appearing to prefer the shallower waters of inshore reefs and islands (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Life history and ecology</strong> <br/>Kuiter (1993) suggested that the species is most active at dusk and during the night, and moves out of its shelter to hunt for prey. Observations by spearfishers and divers suggest that it is an opportunistic carnivore. It is generally considered to be an aggressive territorial species that may occupy a particular cave for life (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Black Cod has maximum 200 cm (TL) and the maximum published weight is 68.0 kg  (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Reproduction</strong> <br/>Protogynous hermaphrodite, changing sex from female to male as it gets older (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Female change sex to become males at around 100–110 cm total length (Paulin and Roberts 1992). Very little research has been conducted on the reproductive biology of the Black Cod in Australian waters (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>E. daemelii</em> is not known to form breeding aggregations in the North Island waters of New Zealand (Stewart 1999). Observations of up to twelve fish, with reproductive status unknown in one location at a time could suggest that the Black Cod may be a relatively social fish at particular times of the year. However, it is not known whether it forms spawning aggregations at any point in its range (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Age, Growth and Longevity</strong> <br/>In Australia large adults are known to attain at least 1.5 m in total length and 81 kg (Hutchins and Swainston 1986, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). They have been recorded as large as 1.8 m in New Zealand, but are more usually seen there at lengths of between 40–80 cm At the Kermadec Islands, north of New Zealand, where the population has not been fished commercially, <em>E. daemelii</em> may reach 2 m in length (Paulin and Roberts 1992). There is no information available on the growth rate or longevity of the Black Cod, though it is thought to be a slow growing species typical of groupers of its size (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Diet</strong> <br/><em>E. daemelii</em> is an opportunistic carnivore (Leadbitter 1992). It is believed that adult black cod probably prey on fishes and crustaceans (McCullich 1922, cited in Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004), whilst juveniles feed on smaller crabs and smaller fish species (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Black Cod have been known to take live bait such as small scombrids and carangids where fishers are fishing in their habitats (Harasti <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
61337	population	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	Black Cod abundance at Elizabeth Reef was estimated at 4 cod/hectare, with no evidence of an increase or decrease in population size between surveys in 1987 and 2003, but mean size of fish showed an increase, possibly due to reduced catch effort since the 1980s. Maximum size recorded in 2003 was 150 cm. <br/> <br/>Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that Black Cod is rarely encountered. <br/> <br/>Minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005). <br/> <br/>The population status cannot be inferred from the data currently available.The species is a target of both sport and commercial fishing. But how the population is affected is not clear and natural abundance, fishing effort and catch data are lacking. Biological studies are also needed.	eng
61337	threats	Shuk Man, C. & Ng Wai Chuen, 2006	The main threat to this species appears to be that of illegal fishing activities. Additionally, the Black Cod is likely to be taken in small numbers as a bycatch of commercial and recreational fishing activities in rocky shore and island habitats along the southern Qld, NSW and northern Victorian coastlines (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Impacts on juvenile Black Cod may occur due to the loss or degradation of estuarine nursery habitats (Fishnote 2002). <br/> <br/>There is some evidence that <em>E. daemelii</em> caught in deeper (50–100 m) waters of northern NSW by commercial fishers do not survive after being released at the surface, suffering severely from swim-bladder decompression or "bloat" (Pogonoski <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Grant (1982) stated that fishermen in Australia regard this grouper as "top-grade table-fish" (cited in Randall and Heemstra 1991).	eng
61338	conservation	Cornish, A., 2006	Under Queensland Fisheries Service (QFS) regulations the current size limits for the Greasy Grouper (<em>E. tauvina</em>) are 38 cm minimum and 100 cm maximum, whilst the current recreational in-possession limit is 5 for any <em>Epinephelus</em> species. In practice, this regulation may also apply to <em>E. malabaricus</em> since it looks similar. (See http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/11379.html for new regulations in Queensland). <br/> <br/>While many marine parks have been introduced in areas within the range of <em>E. malabaricus</em> e.g., Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines, most of these are considered to be 'paper parks' and are poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced. Only 8% of the 100,000 km² of coral reefs in SE Asia is included in marine protected areas (MPAs) and only 14% of the 646 MPAs are considered effective, hence the majority of these MPAs probably provide little protection to the species they house (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/><em>E. malabaricus</em> can be maricultured and is considered as the easiest for culturing among the main species in the market in the Philippines (Anonymous 1998). Larval rearing of this species has been achieved in Thailand (Tookwinas 1989). Hatchery production of this species occurs in Taiwan. However, it is not known how much of the marketed fish in SE Asia comes from the wild (as adult or as juvenile for grow-out) and how much from hatchery-based culture.	eng
61338	distribution	Cornish, A., 2006	<em>Epinephelus malabaricus</em> is found in the Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and East Africa to Tonga, north to Japan, south to Australia. It is not known from the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>A spawning aggregation is known from Prony Bay, New Caledonia (M. Kulbiki pers. comm. 2004).<br/><br/>Area of occupancy equals that of spawning aggregations although the actual area is unknown as there are undoubtedly many spawning aggregations for this species that are presently unknown.	eng
61338	habitat	Cornish, A., 2006	A common species found in a variety of habitats: coral and rocky reefs, tidepools, estuaries, mangrove swamps and sandy/mud bottom from the shore to depths of 150 m. Juveniles are found nearshore and in estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/><em>E. malabaricus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite with sex change from female to male occurring. Sexual maturity in males does not occur until they are 114 cm length (Lau and Li 2000). This species has a very low resilience to fishing, with a minimum population doubling time more than 14 years (Froese and Pauly 2005).	eng
61338	population	Cornish, A., 2006	All available information on population has been covered above under the Red List justification.	eng
61338	threats	Cornish, A., 2006	<strong>Fishing pressure</strong> <br/>Fishing threats include commercial and recreational line fishing, and the live reef fish trade, involving the removal of many juveniles for mariculture grow-out. <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat loss</strong> <br/>Significant decreases in mangrove area are known to have occurred in SE Asia. In Malaysia, 12% was lost from 1980 to 1990, in the Philippines mangroves have decreased by 60% (4,000 km² originally to 1,600 km² in 1997), in Viet Nam mangroves decreased by 38% (4,000 km² to 2,525 km² in 1997) while in Thailand the loss has been 54% (5,500 km² in 1961 to 2,470 km² in 1997) (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). These figures represent a loss of some 7,445 km² of mangrove, or about 9% of the SE Asian total. Other countries like Indonesia, which has the most mangroves in the world (42, 550 km²) are also known to have suffered losses (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>The primary area of occurrence is SE Asia where an estimated 56% of all reefs are at high risk due to a variety of human activities. In other areas where <em>E. malabaricus</em> occurs, the risk is not as high but still considerable, 15% in the Middle East and 25% in the Indian Ocean, also 10% in the Pacific where <em>E. malabaricus</em> is only known from a few locations (all figures from Bryant <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
61339	conservation	Russell, B., Situ, A. & Cornish, A., 2006	Pohnpei (Micronesia): <br/>From the 1980s, the Pohnpei State Government began implementing measures to reduce fishing effort on groupers, including a partial sales ban during spawning season (March to April), but subsistence fishing on aggregations continued during the closed season, with fish being frozen until the end of the ban. Also the ban may have little overall effect since aggregation sites in close proximity to population centers can be targeted outside the ban period. In 1995, the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary was established, but the northwest boundary fell short of covering Camouflage Grouper or Brown-marbled Grouper aggregation, so fishing continued. No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and there are entry restrictions for divers at one site, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef Fish Spawning Aggregations Working Group 2002). <br/> <br/>Palau: <br/>The Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> from April 1 through July 31 each year, which is intended to protect spawning aggregations. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purposes in the closed period (Johannes 1999). A four-month 'bul' (traditional taboo) is enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but this is not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregations, which are said by fishermen to be much smaller than they were 10 years ago (Johannes 1999). No foreign fishing vessels are allowed and entry restriction is in place for divers at one site. The species is probably still in fair condition, but aggregations extend at least one month beyond protection (Reef Fish Spawning Aggregations Working Group 2002). <br/> <br/>Australia: <br/>A slot size of 50–100 cm has been in place since December 2003 – see website below for Coral Reef Fin Fish Management Plan in Queensland; minimum size limits proposed for coral reef fin fish are set at a point which allows at least half of the fish in a population to reach reproductive maturity and spawn before they are available for harvest (Queensland Government 2003). <br/> <br/>Solomon Islands: <br/>A management plan for the live reef fish trade was drafted in Honiara, seeking to totally protect the spawning aggregations of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> by placing a ban on aggregation fishing for five days either side of the new moon during the three months of the year when aggregations are known to form (Donnelly 2001). The LRFFT (live reef food-fish trade) interim licence conditions were revised in 2002 (E. Oreihaka pers. comm. 2003), and a recent article in the SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin (Samoilys 2002) stated that the management plan drafted in 2001 was yet to be implemented. The most recent update is that many of the main recommendatoins of the draft plan were incorporated into a 2002 revised version of the LRFFT interim licence conditions (E. Oreihaka pers. comm. 2003): Article 22 of Law – fishing of spawning aggregations is not permitted under the licence to buy and export live fish. <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia has succeeded in cross breeding two species of groupers, with good grow-out potential for aquaculture: <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion x E.fuscoguttatus</em> (James <em>et al</em>. 1998). <br/> <br/>New Caledonia has restricted fishing during the spawning months in the area of the known spawning aggregation. This measure aims more <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> than <em>E. polyphekadion</em> which is not at present a target species for most fishermen due to its local toxicity (M. Kulbicki pers. comm). <br/> <br/>The species has been spawned in captivity in Palau (Tamaru <em>et al</em>. 1996) but there has been no published follow-up work.	eng
61339	distribution	Russell, B., Situ, A. & Cornish, A., 2006	Found in the Indo-Pacific: Red Sea and east coast of Africa to French Polynesia. In the western Pacific it ranges from southern Japan to southern Queensland and Lord Howe Island (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/> <br/>Spawning aggregations are known from Palau, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Mauritius, Cook Islands, Solomon Islands, Seychelles, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and also outside Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia). Aggregations probably also occur off Malaysia. <br/> <br/>For this species, which aggregates to spawn, area of occupancy could be taken as the area of all aggregation sites. This area, which will occupy < 10% extent of occurrence, is not known.	eng
61339	habitat	Russell, B., Situ, A. & Cornish, A., 2006	Usually found in coral-rich areas of lagoon and outer reefs. Most abundant around islands, particularly atolls. Usually in small schools (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It occurs at depths of 2 to 46 m (Myers 1999). <br/> <br/><strong>Biology</strong> <br/>In one study in Palau, mature females were between 301 and 470 mm fork length, mature males between 340 and 500 mm and immature fish between 239 and 286 mm, indicating sexual maturation occurred between about 290 and 300 mm fork length in Palau (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Tamaru <em>et al</em>. (1996) reported a female to male (f:m) sex ratio of 1:4 in Palau, while the female to male ratio was 2.9 in a New Caledonia lagoon (Loubens 1980). Spawning occurs between June and August. <br/> <br/>A study based in Pohnpei on reproductive biology, spawning and genetic structure of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> showed that spawning occurred at night, for several nights during the full moon period during each of several months between February and April (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a, b). Males entered spawning sites before females and a significant proportion of the fish can be removed during one aggregation period (despite some protection, not all aggregation months are protected). Sexual maturation in 50% of females was about 270 mm SL in Pohnpei and there was no evidence for sex change in the species (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a, b). It is possible that, in Pohnpei, there is population sub-structuring of this species (Rhodes <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia has succeeded in cross breeding two species of groupers, with good grow-out potential for aquaculture: <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion x E. fuscoguttatus</em> (James <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
61339	population	Russell, B., Situ, A. & Cornish, A., 2006	<strong>Regional Status</strong> <br/> <br/>Pohnpei, Micronesia <br/>Camouflage Grouper has been targeted annually during aggregation periods since pre-recorded history. In 1999, local fishermen were observed to remove an estimated 4,000 pre-spawning Camouflage Grouper from the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, Pohnpei, site within 7 days, about 20–30% of the estimated size of the total number of aggregated fish (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002a and b). Three years of monitoring <em>E. polyphekadion</em> at one aggregation site in Pohnpei revealed a decrease from about 20,000 fish in 1998 and 1999 to only about 1,000 fish in 2001. Gonadosomatic index of Camouflage grouper showed that the spawning season in 1998 included the months February, March and April, whereas in 1999 the season was a little different, extending from January to March, inclusive: this indicates that temporal closure for commercial catches of grouper from March 1 to April 30 will not necessarily cover the full aggregating period of this species. A total of 620 individuals were recorded during monitoring in three days of March 2001 at the full moon at that site (Pet <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Palau <br/><em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, <em>Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</em> and <em>E. polyphekadion</em> dominate the commercial catch of groupers in Palau (Kitalong and Dalzell 1994). At least five grouper spawning aggregations have possibly disappeared since the 1970s in Palau according to Noah Idechong, maybe due to overfishing: one of these is mostly of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>, lost in the 1990s. <em>P. areolatus</em>, <em>E. polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> used to aggregate on either side of Ebiil (Johannes <em>et al</em>. 1999). Aggregations of this species were also identified during fisher surveys by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations with indications from fishers of declines (see newsletters on www.scrfa.org) from surveys taken in early 2000s. <br/> <br/>Indonesia <br/>Of the eight spawning aggregations identified during fishery surveys by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA), one is stable and the rest in decline according to falling CPUE (see SCRFA database on www.scrfa.org). <br/> <br/>Australia <br/>The species has been assessed using IUCN criteria as 'Lower Risk' in Australia. It is caught with hook-and-line, spears and traps. There are size restrictions on this species in Queensland waters (Queensland Government 2003). It comprises 0.4% of the inspected catch of traditional Indonesian fishing vessels fishing around Scott and Ashmore Reefs in West Australia (Russell and Vail 1988; also see report by Nowara and Newman (2001) at http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/docs/frr/frr125/frr125.pdf). <br/> <br/>British Indian Ocean Territory <br/>Recorded to form spawning aggregations in Peros Banhos. In a nine day fishing program during the aggregation period in 2000, a total of 24,751 kg of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> was taken, during which the highest catch rate was observed in a trip returning with 747 kg of fish (consisting of 85% <em>E. polyphekadion</em>) with a CPUE of 36.4 kg/man hour. Sex ratio in spawning aggregations changes in different locations, sometimes suggesting a dramatic decrease in the number of males caught, maybe due to depletion of aggregating males (MRAG [Marine Resource and Fisheries Consultants – office London UK] observer, pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Seychelles <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> aggregates in reef passes with <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> in southern Seychelles (see <em>Marine Conservation News</em> Volume 2 no. 2, July 2004). <br/> <br/>Maldives <br/>One of most important species in the Maldivean live fish trade (Johannes and Riepen 1995); heavily targeted in Maldives (Sluka 2001). At least one spawning aggregation site exists but its current status is unknown (Sluka 2000). <br/> <br/>Solomon Islands <br/>Aggregates to spawn. Historical live reef fish trade operations have predominantly been pulse fishing events that target seasonal spawning aggregations of serranids. Existing interviews reveal that historical fishing pressure on reef fish resources has been light, catch rates of <em>Epinephelus</em> show no decline or only slight decline over the past few decades (Hamilton 2003). See also www.scrfa.org fisher survey for PNG and Solomon Is. (For the volume of exports in 1997 see Table 1 in the attached PDF). <br/> <br/>Papua New Guinea <br/>Targeted in Papua New Guinea. Taken by hook and line, spears, traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993). In coral reefs of Milne Bay Province, occasionally recorded at depth 2–45m (Werner and Allen 1998). See also www.scrfa.org fisher survey for PNG and Solomon Is. in early 2000s. <br/> <br/>Malaysia <br/>The one spawning aggregation reported is in decline according to declining CPUE noted in fisher surveys in the early 2000s (see SCRFA database and Malaysia report on www.scrfa.org). <br/> <br/>Fiji <br/>Groupers are among the most intensively fished taxa around Kavadu Island in Fiji, in two of the fishing grounds studied, groupers accounted for 66% and 55% of yield from three families: groupers, snappers and parrotfishes, but its contribution to the biomass was 21% and 23%, indicating that groupers were heavily fished. Abundance of Camouflage Grouper (mean biomass gm<sup>-2</sup>) recorded ranged from 0.15 to 1.84 in 10 fishing grounds around Kavadu Island (Jennings <em>et al</em>. 1999). A recent survey by Secretariat for the Pacific Community indicates very low densities (0.0004 fish/m²) for this species over six locations. The average size was 33 cm FL. Of the nine aggregations for this species identified, seven are in decline judging by declining CPUE in SCRFA fisher interviews (see database www.scrfa.org, and newsletter). When one aggregation was first fished in 1985, four fishers got about 300 kg and by mid 1990s, four fishers got about 100 kg and by 2002–3, four fishers got about 12–20 fish between them from the aggregations, as their best catches (this CPUE is catch per trip). <br/> <br/>Tonga <br/>Density of <em>E. polyphekadion</em> was recorded as 0.0006 per m² and biomass of 0.1795 gm<sup>-2</sup> in UVC counts of shallow water reef fishes in Tongatapu Reefs in 1996 (the Secretariat of Pacific Community, pers. comm. 2003). A larger survey in 2002–2003 on Haapai, Vavau and Tongatapu indicated average sizes of 32 cm FL and densities approximatively ten times lower (0.000063 fish/m²) than in 1996. <br/> <br/>Cook Islands <br/>Fishermen target an annual spawning aggregation, with females dominating. About 15 aluminum skiffs regularly fish Taruia Passage in Cook Islands, catch rates are usually in the vicinity of 10 to 12 fish per man hour, fish average around 1.5 kg, and generally range from 1 to 2 kg. Fishermen in general only fish for local consumption, with some minor exports from national urban centers. Anecdotal information does not suggest significant reduction in stocks caused by these fisheries to date (Passfield 1996). <br/> <br/>Tuvalu <br/>Reported to form spawning aggregation on some atolls. Fishermen in general only fish for local consumption, with some minor exports from national urban centers. Anecdotal information does not reveal any perceived significant reduction in stocks caused by these fisheries to date (Passfield 1996). <br/> <br/>American Samoa <br/>Extensive visual census of transects throughout American Samoa in 2002 recorded no <em>E. polyphekadion</em> (Rob Schroeder, Coral Reef Ecosystem Investigation, pers. comm), although the species has been reported to occur here. <br/> <br/>New Caledonia <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> is usually not kept by fishermen because it is too often ciguatoxic, but it is often found on the Noumea fish market despite this (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2003). Surveys (2,000 transects) indicate that this species is not common in the 0–10 m depth range (0.00009 fish/m²), but that sizes are large (41 cm FL). This species is known to aggregate for spawning in Dumbea Pass (November–December), mixed with other species of groupers, in particular <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> (M. Kulbicki, pers. comm.). This species is known to spawn just before full moon with several other grouper species in reef passages; at the end of the spawning period, fish (particularly males) can be quite skinny and weak from not eating (Claude Chauvet pers. comm. 2005). Numbers of fish have dropped from around 4,500 in 1992 to 2,000 in 2002 at the Dumbea Pass site (C. Chauvet and E. Clua unpublished manuscript). <br/> <br/>French Polynesia <br/>A survey (510 transects) in 1996 of 10 atolls indicate that this species had a density of 0.02fish/m² and a biomass of 1.6 g/m² and an average size of 34 cm FL. However, a recent survey of Tikehau atoll (350 km²) shows that this species, which was a major component of the commercial catch in the 1980s, could no longer be observed. The fish used to group for spawning at the entrance of the pass of this atoll. The fish were caught using traditional fishing fences ("parc à poissons"; "aua" in Tahitian) (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). <br/> <br/>Saudi Arabia <br/>One of the commercially important species frequently occurring along the nearest coral reef area on the southern part of the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia (Rasem <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
61339	threats	Russell, B., Situ, A. & Cornish, A., 2006	Commercial and recreational fishing, including the life reef fish trade, and also habitat degradation of coral reefs. <br/> <br/>Trade statistics <br/><em>E. polyphekadion</em> is one of the most commonly consumed live reef food fish in Hong Kong, the main countries of origin were the Philippines and Indonesia. A survey of the imports of 39 of the 114 companies that trade live fish with Hong Kong (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999), revealed that <em>E. polyphekadion</em> made up 5% (approx. 1,200 t) of the total annual volume of fish imported into Hong Kong for this trade. Sold in the Hong Kong live reef fish food market, the highest proportion at 35–45 cm length (Lee and Sadovy 1998). In Hong Kong, maturity size range is 31–35cm TL, and common consuming size is 33.57–52.41 cm TL (Lau and Parry- Jones 1999). The amount imported between 1999–2002 into Hong Kong is shown in Table 2 in the attached PDF.	eng
61340	conservation	Cornish, A. & Dormeier, M., 2006	Of the 19 nearshore species managed under the Nearshore Fishery Management Plan (NFMP), 16 (13 species of nearshore rockfish, California Scorpionfish, Cabezon, and Kelp Greenling) are designated as groundfish and fall under the management authority by the Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC). California Sheephead, Monkeyface Prickleback, and Rock Greenling do not have ‘groundfish’ designation, and thus are not managed by the PFMC (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). This lack of PFMC management led to State of California regulations for California Sheephead and few other species (CDFG 2002). Regulations for California Sheephead tend to fall under the general nearshore fishery regulations. The commercial fishery for both trap and hook and line gear is a restricted access fishery. Permits for the live-fish trap fishery began in 1996 in southern California and a statewide Nearshore Fishery Permit began in 1999. These permits are limited to individuals who have participated in the fishery the previous year as well as meeting historical catch criteria. <br/> <br/>The Sheephead trap and hook and line fisheries reached optimal yield (OY) levels and closed early for all years beginning in 2001. According to the NFMP, "Optimum Yield" (OY) is defined in FGC section 97 (see Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004. p. 3) as the amount of fish taken in a fishery that does all of the following: (a) provides the greatest overall benefit to the people of California, particularly with respect to food production and recreational opportunities, and takes into account the protection of marine ecosystems, and (b) is the MSY of the fishery, reduced by relevant economic, social, or ecological factors, and (c) in the case of an overfished fishery, provides for rebuilding to a level consistent with producing MSY in the fishery (CDFG 2002). The 2002 OY was set to half that of total recent catches, and allocated almost 22,727 kgs more to the recreational fishery than the commercial fishery (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Size restrictions on Sheephead were fairly minimal before 1999 for both the recreational and commercial fisheries. In 1999, CDFG set the minimum catch size for the commercial fishery to 12 inches (total length) and followed with the same size limit for the recreational fishery in 2001. To further decrease commercial harvest, the minimum commercial harvest size was increased to 13 inches in 2001. Also in 2001, the 10 fish recreational bag limit was reduced to five (CDFG 2002). <br/> <br/>In 2002, the Sheephead fishery was aligned with the nearshore rockfish fishery for both the commercial and recreational fisheries (CDFG 2002). Sheephead are not to be taken commercially north of Point Conception, Santa Barbara County during March and April, and south of Point Conception during January and February. This essentially represents a seasonal closure because the bulk of landings occur south of Point Conception (CDFG 2002). Other season and area closures affecting the Sheephead fishery result from management of the nearshore fishery. In 2001, taking Sheephead deeper than 20 fathoms in a Cowcod Conservation Area was banned.	eng
61340	distribution	Cornish, A. & Dormeier, M., 2006	Occurs in the eastern Pacific. Ranges from Point Conception in California, to Guadalupe Island (off northern central Baja California) and the Gulf of California, Mexico. However, the species is rare south of Punta Abreojos, apart from a small population at Isla Santa Margarita, near Bahia Magdalena (Cowen 1985). Water current anomalies may occasionally result in larvae of this species recruiting to reefs as far north as Monterey Bay (Cowen 1985). <br/> <br/>Sheephead are found from Monterey Bay to the Gulf of California (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004) but are uncommon north of Point Conception and are much less common in the Gulf of California than along the Pacific Coast (Miller and Lea 1972). In the Channel Islands, densities of 1,475–1,525 individuals of all sizes per hectare have been observed (Davis and Anderson 1989) while another survey, which covered much of the geographic range of the species (Point Conception to Isla Santa Margarita) (Cowen 1985) reported density range between 16–290 adult fish per hectare. <br/> <br/><strong>Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy Notes</strong>: <br/>Although this species is found from Point Conception (north of Santa Barbara) to Baja California and the Gulf of California, it is rare from Punta Abreojos south with the exception of Isla Santa Margarita (Cowen 1985). Suitable rocky reef area is assumed to extend 1 km offshore from land. The extent of occurrence is assumed to be the rocky reef area from Point Conception to Mazatlan at the mouth of the Gulf of California, and was calculated as 4,770–5,800 km² (5,300 +/- 10% to allow for inaccuracies in the calculations). <br/> <br/>The area of occupancy is assumed to be the rocky reef area from Point Conception to Punta Abreojos (including Isla Santa Margarita) and was calculated as 1,692–2,070 km² (1,880 km²  +/- 10% to allow for inaccuracies in the calculations). <br/> <br/>Decline in extent of occurrence or area of occupancy has not been reported for the species. The California Sheephead inhabits rocky reefs, which are assumed not to fluctuate in size or quality, or be in decline. There is also no evidence of any habitat bottlenecks that could increase the vulnerability of this species although there is a suggestion that kelp beds could be important to part of their life history (Stephens 1992).	eng
61340	habitat	Cornish, A. & Dormeier, M., 2006	Inhabits rocky reefs, especially where there are kelp beds. It occurs from 0–55 m depth (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983) although around Cabo San Lucas (southern tip of Baja California) it occurs only in deeper water, 60–100 m (Cowen 1985). The fish tend to stay in the same reef and do not move around a lot, as shown by tag-recapture research (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Maximum age is at least 50 years (Fitch and Lavenberg 1971); such old individuals are likely to be very rare, however. The oldest fish of 276 collected from 4 unexploited populations throughout the range of the California sheephead was 21 years (Cowen 1990). Furthermore, the oldest individual of 470 fish taken off California and Mexico in the early 1970s was 20 years (Warner 1975). <br/> <br/>Growth parameters vary among populations and studies (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). The value of k ranged from 0.007 to 0.068, while estimated Lsub>inf</sub> ranged from 45.46 to 464.16 (cm fork length). The k = 0.068 and L<sub>inf</sub> = 83.86 cm (maximum length) were the best fit to the observed size and age data (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The age of sexual maturity and age of sex changeover (from female to male) shows great variation depending on location (Cowen 1990). For instance, at Santa Nicholas Island off California, the species becomes sexually mature (as females) at 5–6 years. Males did not predominate until ages 13–14. At the offshore Guadalupe Island, sexual maturity took place at 3–4 years with sexual transformation to males taking place at 5–6 years. Other locations in Mexico to the south of Guadalupe Island have populations that show ages of sexual maturity and changeover intermediate to the 2 aforementioned islands (Cowen 1990). Size of first sexual maturation varied from 12–18 cm SL in females and 18–28 cm SL in males, depending on location (Cowen 1990). <br/> <br/>Size of 50% sexual maturation is approximately 20–30 cm, and sex change occurs roughly between 25 and 35 cm (Warner 1975, Cowen 1990). <br/> <br/>In the area of Catalina Island, California, the Sheephead wrasse spawns from August to October, while sex change occurs during the winter months (Warner 1975, Cowen 1990). Individuals may spawn more than once a season. It has been estimated that females spawn approximately 86 times per year (about once every 1.3 days), batch fecundity of females is 5,755 eggs per spawning event, and there is no significant relationship between the number of eggs released per kilogram of body weight and total female body weight (average 15,000 eggs per kg) (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Generation time was calculated from samples of 4 relatively unexploited populations taken throughout the main area of distribution off California and Baja California (Cowen 1985). This species is protogynous, changing sex from female to male. Observed adult sex ratios in California Sheephead vary from 3:1 mature females to males to 0.8:1 (Cowen 1990). In unexploited populations, it seems likely that the females are limiting, although in exploited populations where males (as the larger animals) are targeted, males may ultimately become the limiting sex. The generation time for each location was calculated using the length frequency data for the females of the 4 populations (Figure 4 in Cowen 1990) and converting this to age frequency using the length-age relationship data (Figure 2 in Cowen 1990). Generation time, as the mean age of mature females varied from 4.1 to 8.5 years across the 4 populations, these are therefore set as the plausible limits of generation time. The mean of the 4 generation times calculated, 6.8, is assumed to be representative of the entire population and was, therefore, used as the point estimate. <br/> <br/>The species is a generalist carnivore (Cowen 1983), feeding on mussels and red sea-urchins and may play an important role in regulating prey density (see citations in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Natural mortality is likely to be in the order of M=0.2 (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Data needed:</strong> <br/>How effectively protected is this species in designated marine reserves since MPAs are probably an important management measure for this species? <br/> <br/>It would be very useful to have recent fisheries independent data on California Sheephead stocks. At present, landings would have to decrease over a number of years with a constant or increasing fishing effort in order to recognise falling stocks. The obvious way to achieve fisheries independent data and quickly assess the state of fish stocks would be to repeat the underwater visual census work of Cowen (1985, 1990) and compare the data with his pre-intensive exploitation figures. In the meantime, changes in CPUE are likely to offer the best indications of changes in abundance. <br/> <br/>There seems to have been little work on the ecology of this species. It would be important to know if populations of Sheephead were affected by changes in environment, or habitat, such as changes in the extent and quality of kelp beds. <br/> <br/>Data from Mexico on landings and CPUE from 1976 onwards are needed.	eng
61340	population	Cornish, A. & Dormeier, M., 2006	The recreational catch for 1999 was estimated at 77,226 fish with an estimated mean weight of 2.36 pounds (personal communication from the database of the National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division, Silver Spring, MD, 2001). If it is assumed that the average weight of commercially caught fish is the same, then 54,190 (129/767 pounds / 2.36) fish were caught in 1999 giving a total of 132,136 fish caught in commercial and recreational fisheries in 1999. Since 1999 both commercial and recreational catches have fluctuated although by 2003 the combined (total) catch had declined by 20%. <br/> <br/>The maximum number of fishes in the population was calculated by the highest density of this species recorded for a site by underwater visual census (from Cowen 1985), multiplied by the area of occupancy. This seems reasonable as (1) densities were observed in the early 1980s prior to the recent increase in exploitation and (2) California Sheephead are reportedly rare outside the area of occupancy (see Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy Notes above). <br/> <br/>The highest density recorded was 8.5 mature individuals (calculated from Table 2 in Cowen 1990) per 250 sq. m. The upper estimate for the area of occupancy is 2,070 sq.km. This gives an upper population size of 70,380,000. <br/> <br/>Landings data from Mexico appear to have become severely reduced between 1950 and 1976 – no further data are available. No CPUE data are available so it is not known whether effort changed over this time period. <br/> <br/><strong>Reduction Notes:</strong> <br/>The commercial fishery for California Sheephead has shown distinct phases in fishing effort and only really became a significantly commercially targeted species in the 1980s/90s (Stephens 1992, Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004) as follows: <br/> <br/>1960s: 2,150 - 12,708 kgs per year <br/>1970s: 1,393 - 5,055 kgs per year <br/>1980s: 4,130 - 110,547 kgs per year <br/>1990s: 56,031 - 166,217 kgs per year <br/>2000:  78,680 kgs per year <br/>2001:  68,130 kgs per year <br/>2002:  54,710 kgs per year <br/>2003:  48,000 kgs per year <br/> <br/>Sources: Leet <em>et al</em>. 1992; personal communication from the National Marine Fisheries Service, Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division, Silver Spring, MD, 2001; and Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004. <br/> <br/>Recreational landings data, which can equal or exceed commercial landings (Stephens 1992), are only available in numbers of fish as follows: <br/> <br/>Mean numbers of fish caught per year in recent decades were <br/>1960s: 11,541 - 52,967 fish per year <br/>1970s: 28,512 - 46,234 <br/>1980s: 21,072 - 68,972 <br/>1990s: 18,363 - 43,150 <br/> <br/>Below, recreational landings from Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004 <br/>1960s: 22,500 – 89,490 kgs per year <br/>1970s: 49,940 – 78,600 kgs per year <br/>1980s: 64,640 – 223,300 kgs per year <br/>1990s: 45,500 – 121,120 kgs per year <br/>2000:  100,090 kgs per year <br/>2001:  58,850 kgs per year <br/>2002:  60,260 kgs per year <br/>2003:  68,510 kgs per year <br/> <br/>Note that the above are landings data – there are no indications of fishing effort. <br/> <br/><strong>Population Reduction:</strong> <br/>Although variability in catches could be due to natural recruitment variation and also to changes in fishing effort; indications are that effort is likely to be increasing for commercial use and data from logbooks suggest that CPUE has declined approximately 3-fold since the 1980s (Figure 4.4.d in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). Exploitation rate is estimated to have increased in recent history regardless of the estimate of natural mortality used (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Given that there is a fishery catching approximately 100,000 individuals of a large reef fish species that occupies a small geographic range, it seems very unlikely that the Sheephead population is expanding. At one extreme then, the population is assumed not to have changed in size (0% reduction). At the other extreme, it seems unlikely the population could have declined more than 50% overall without a marked decrease in landings in the US, something which is not apparent. The value of 50% is intuitive and is intended as an outside estimate.	eng
61340	threats	Cornish, A. & Dormeier, M., 2006	The fishery for this species, which began in at least the late 1800s (for salted fish), peaked in 1928 with landings of 370,000 pounds. This may have been as the species was easily available close to port, and the species has maintained a presence in the California nearshore fishery (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). From the 1940s to 1980s there was little interest in the Sheephead and catches were usually under 10,000 pounds. Fish are taken by trap, set net, speargun and hook and line (Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The fishery greatly increased from the late 1980s to the present. At least some of the new demand is for small and live fish, usually pre-reproductive females kept live in tanks in Asian seafood restaurants, prior to being eaten (Stephens 1992). While the Sheephead population was considered stable up until the early 1990s, the targetting of these juvenile animals gives some cause for concern (Stephens 1992) as some fish, mostly females, are being taken before they have had a chance to reproduce. Such fish will be up to 12–18 cm SL, depending on where they were caught (see size of sexual maturity in Cowen 1990), and are desired as they are small enough for the restaurant tanks. The live fish fishery resulted in considerably increased landing, reaching a peak of 166,364 kgs in 1997. During this time period, the prices (adjusted for the effects of inflation) increased from 0.10US$/lb in the 1940s to over $9.00/lb in the 1990s for live fish (Stephens 2001). <br/> <br/>Recreational fish landings were higher than commercial landings in the 1980s and in 2002, the Sheephead was 13th in the recreational fishery in southern California. Large and old individuals are vulnerable to depletion by spearing since they are readily speared (CDFG 2003). <br/> <br/>As an example of growth of the high value live fish (trap and hook and line) fishery for this species, between 1989 and 1992, increased from 2–27 boats landing over 23,636 kgs of live fish (Palmer-Zwahlen <em>et al</em>. 1993 cited in Alonzo <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Sheephead accounted for more than 88% of live fish landing in the developing live-fish fishery. <br/> <br/>Recruitment in southern regions of the California Sheephead geographic range appears to be primarily from northern regions as this is the primary direction of current flow (Cowen 1985). If fishing were to reduce the numbers of breeding adults in the north (i.e., the US), this could result in decreased recruitment, and therefore numbers of mature adults, in the south (i.e., Mexico).	eng
61341	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61341	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	This species is restricted to the northern part of the Jordan river drainage area (Golan Heights and Jebel Druse) in Israel and Syria.	eng
61341	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	It lives in slow-flowing streams and among stones and vegetation in streams and stream pools. Spawns from April to June.	eng
61341	population	Goren, M., 2006	Abundant.	eng
61341	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, dams, and the introduction of exotic fish species (<em>Gambusia</em> and carp).	eng
61342	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61342	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to three river basins in Portugal: Arade, Algibre and Bordeira basins.	eng
61342	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61342	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Quite abundant.	eng
61342	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, drought and introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61343	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61343	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Po river basin and coastal rivers in northern Italy. Introduced into the Arno and Ombrone river basins. It is also present in the Isonzo and Reka river basins in Slovenia. It has disappeared from several basins where it has been replaced by <em>Gobio gobio</em>. Among surveyed basins, the species is still present in few localities as in the Tagliamento river and Ombrone River where is not native, and in the Adriatic watershed of Slovenia (M. Povz pers. comm.).	eng
61343	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in running clear waters with gravel or sand substrates. Adults sometimes enter lakes. The type locality is Lake Garda.	eng
61343	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing due to probable competition with the introduced <em>Gobio gobio</em>.	eng
61343	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, and introduction of alien species, especially <em>Gobio gobio</em>.	eng
61344	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61344	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species was initially described as being restricted to the Jordan-Dead Sea basins in Israel, Syria and Jordan. However, it may actually only occur in Damascus: the other parts of the range are likely to refer to <em>N. jordanicus</em>, <em>N. dori</em>, <em>N. pantheroides</em> and <em>N. sp.</em> (previously referred to as <em>N. tigris</em> by Banarescu (1982)).	eng
61344	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61344	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61344	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61345	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not relevant.	eng
61345	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Formerly restricted to the Lake Skadar basin in Albania and Montenegro.	eng
61345	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lacustrine.	eng
61345	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Extinct. Recent surveys in Montenegro by Bianco (1999) and Freyhof (2003) have failed to find it.	eng
61345	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Not clear.	eng
61346	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61346	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is found in the Neretva and Trebisnjica drainage in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia (Mrakovcic, M. pers comm).	eng
61346	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in river systems of the karst region.	eng
61346	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61346	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution. Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61347	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61347	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The species is restricted to the Simav stream, a tributary of the Gediz River in western Anatolia, Turkey.	eng
61347	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in streams.	eng
61347	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published data on trends, but the population is believed to be declining as a result of habitat degradation.	eng
61347	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (Bakac 2000) and water extraction are the main threats to the species.	eng
61348	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Research is going on at present. No other conservation measures in place at present.	eng
61348	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Jordan river basin where it occurs in the vicinity of Lake Kinneret, the Baisan valley and Lake Muzairib in Israel and Syria.	eng
61348	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in the shallow zone of lakes and in springs and streams where it may be found among stones or vegetation. It reproduces several times between April and July. The species is a maternal mouth-brooder.	eng
61348	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The riverine part of the population is declining. The lake population fluctuates, depending on water levels in the lake (dependent on climatic conditions).	eng
61348	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lake Kinneret has no serious threats at present. The species occurs in the littoral zone in stony areas and extreme drought conditions may pose a problem because these stony areas would be uncovered. Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats to the riverine part of the population and these are thought to be causing population decline in this part of the species' range.	eng
61349	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61349	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the upper part of Menderes River and to the Hotamis Lake area in Turkey. The range of this species is poorly known. Currently known from three localities, including Buyuk Menderes. Specimens are known from Hotamis-golu, marshy areas between Aksarah and Nigde.	eng
61349	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data. This may not be a riverine species, but more information is needed. Area is marshy, with small rivers/streams, pools. Total length up to 10 cm.	eng
61349	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data on population size, trends, etc.	eng
61349	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution, and destruction of habitat are affecting the area, but it is not known if these are affecting the species itself. More information needed.	eng
61350	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None in place.	eng
61350	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to the karst area of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina where it is known from the Zrmanja, Krka and Cetina rivers. It can also establish itself in lakes and has been introduced to Lakes Blidin and Busko Blato. It has also been recorded in some small rivers in Livanjsko Polje. Its presence in Zrmanja has not been confirmed recently (M. Povz pers. comm.).	eng
61350	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is suspected to move into the subterranean waters of karst caves in winter. Spawning lasts a month or more when temperatures reaches 20°C.	eng
61350	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Little data but is locally abundant.	eng
61350	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Dams, degradation of the habitat, water pollution and water extraction.	eng
61351	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61351	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Cikola River with extremely limited distribution. The Cikola is a tributary of the Krka river in Croatia.	eng
61351	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Slow and stagnant water (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).	eng
61351	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data. The species was thought to be extinct but has recently been found in May 2002 (Freyhof, J. and Bogutskaya, N. pers comm).	eng
61351	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Drought, water extraction and pollution. (Bogutskaya, N. pers. comm).	eng
61352	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61352	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to the Caysuyu stream, a tributary of Ceyhan river near Kayseri, Turkey.	eng
61352	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Riverine species.	eng
61352	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data	eng
61352	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (Yilmazar and Yaman 1999), water extraction, drought and the construction of a fuel pipeline are the main threats to the species.	eng
61353	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Natura 2000 site.	eng
61353	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Lake Trichonis within the Acheloos River basin in western Greece.	eng
61353	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Prefers sand and gravel substrates with submerged vegetation and large stones. Reproduction occurs in May–July. The maximum size for females is 50 mm and for males 61 mm.	eng
61353	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Distributed throughout the lake.	eng
61353	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction through land reclamation, water abstraction, water pollution, and sewage.	eng
61354	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61354	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to streams and lakes of western Peloponnese, Greece. In Stymphalia lake the species is referred as the subspecies <em>moreoticus</em> (Barbieri pers comm).	eng
61354	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in streams (preference) and in Lake Stymphalia. It is a small size chub (< 220mm).	eng
61354	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Stable.	eng
61354	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, and drought.	eng
61355	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
61355	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Pseudophoxinus punicus</em> is restricted to the Wadi Kessab, Ghezala, Lendjas and El Amor in the west-northern mountainous part of Tunisia. It is found also in Algeria in the up stream areas of the Mejerdah River near Souk Ahras near the Tunisian border.	eng
61355	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a small size fish (less than 100 mm total length) that lives in freshwater, cold streams.	eng
61355	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	The species was known to be rare in the 1980s. Only two individuals were caught in the 1990s by Doadrio. (Doadrio, I. pers. comm.). In Algeria it has become scarce also since the 1980s and is now practically absent, it is estimated that the population has declined by an estimated 80%.	eng
61355	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to this species are dams, groundwater extraction, drought leaving some rivers dry and agricultural pollution.	eng
61356	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61356	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the wadi in the mountainous Atlas in Morocco.	eng
61356	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61356	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).	eng
61356	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Pollution from domestic and agricultural sources.	eng
61357	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61357	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Damascus and Jordan river basins, and Qishon River.	eng
61357	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	Found in a variety of habitats such as rivers, lakes, and small ponds. Hides among stones and vegetation. Bottom dweller. Feeds on awfuchs (everything).	eng
61357	population	Goren, M., 2006	Decreasing. The lake part of the population is stable, declining in the riverine areas.	eng
61357	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Habitat destruction, drought, pollution, and introduced alien invasive species are the main threats.	eng
61358	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Further survey work is required to confirm current population size. Lake Beysehir area is a national park.	eng
61358	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to one stream leading to Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. The fish doesn't occur the lake itself anymore because the route is blocked by a waterfall. The stream is small: extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are both less than 10 km²	eng
61358	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in one stream. An unusually large <em>Cobitis</em> species. Prefers mud and sand substrate.	eng
61358	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population is very small. In 1997 and 1998, Erk'akan visited the stream and the population was small. There were estimated to be fewer than 50 mature fish in 1998 (F. Erk'akan, pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to confirm current population size.	eng
61358	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted. There are introduced Zander in the lake and associated tributaries, but these do not enter the stream occupied by <em>C. bilseli</em>. The species is fished locally and this may be causing declines.	eng
61359	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61359	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to Morocco, found recently in wadi Tinsift and Oum er-Rbia. It has disappeared from the lower reaches and is now very restricted to the upper area in the Atlas mountains. (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
61359	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61359	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61359	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Domestic pollution.	eng
61360	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61360	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Kirkpunar (Körpinar) stream near Tefenni in south-western Turkey.	eng
61360	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A small stream species.	eng
61360	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61360	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Pollution is the main threat. Also, water extraction.	eng
61361	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61361	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the upper Vardar river basin in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61361	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data	eng
61361	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Probably decreasing but there is no hard data.	eng
61361	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Future habitat loss, water abstraction, and water pollution.	eng
61362	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61362	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Kinneret (Tiberias) Lake in Israel. The species may be also in Muzairib, a tributary of the Jordan river in Syria.	eng
61362	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in lakes and rivers. Spawns from March to August. It feeds on phytoplankton. It is a female mouth-brooder.	eng
61362	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Apparently stable.	eng
61362	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known at present.	eng
61363	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61363	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Jucar river basin in eastern Spain.	eng
61363	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in all river sections, but mainly in the middle reaches.	eng
61363	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	A recent 3-month study found only 10 individuals at one location in the Jucar river basin (Doadrio, I. pers. comm).	eng
61363	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and extraction, introduction of fish exotic predators. And <em>Chondrostoma polylepis</em>, a competitor, has been introduced.	eng
61364	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None except in Slovenia where it is strictly forbidden to catch this species.	eng
61364	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The natural range includes northern Italy and the Slovenian Adriatic basin. It is also present in the Zrmanja river basin in Croatia and is native to southern Switzerland (Po/Ticino drainage). It has been accidentally introduced to peninsular and insular Italy and to an area north of the Alps.	eng
61364	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in both standing and running waters in the lowland and hill zones with sand or mud substrates rich in vegetation.	eng
61364	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing in Slovenia (totallly protected) but increasing in other parts of its range.	eng
61364	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction. Water pollution. Predation by alien species.	eng
61365	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61365	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Known only from Damascus.	eng
61365	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	Not known.	eng
61365	population	Goren, M., 2006	This fish is likely to now be extinct (M. Goren, pers. comm).	eng
61365	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Drought, pollution and water extraction may have resulted in destroying available habitat for this species.	eng
61366	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Further survey work is required to confirm current population size. Lake Beysehir area is a national park.	eng
61366	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	This species is restricted to one stream leading to Lake Beysehir in Central Anatolia, Turkey. The fish doesn't enter the lake itself because the route is blocked by a waterfall. The stream is small: extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are both less than 10 km².	eng
61366	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Occurs in one stream. A detritus feeder, reaching 250 mm in length. It is migratory to an extent (feeds in one area of the stream and migrates upstream to spawn in a spring).	eng
61366	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population is very small. In 1997 and 1998, F. Erk'akan visited the stream and the population was small. No data on actual population size, but there may have been fewer than 250 mature fish in 1998.	eng
61366	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	In Beysehir Lake, the water is not polluted.	eng
61367	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61367	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the lower course of the Orontes river in Syria and Turkey. Extinct in the Amik lake. The main lower courses of the Orontes River (River Asi in Turkey) was poisoined and nearly dried up in 1989. This left the area, once very abundant with fish, completely fishless (personal communication from local fisherman). The fish communities are localised in the tributaries where this species probably still survives (Bianco pers. comm.).	eng
61367	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data	eng
61367	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61367	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data	eng
61368	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61368	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Restricted to the Jordan river basin.	eng
61368	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A riverine species, occurring on stony and soft bed substrates.	eng
61368	population	Goren, M., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
61368	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Pollution, water extraction, and habitat destruction are the main threats.	eng
61369	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61369	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Endemic to the Orontes River basin in Syria and Turkey.	eng
61369	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is large size barbel (>500 mm)	eng
61369	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No published information on population size and trends. However, the population is thought to be declining as a result of pollution, water extraction, dam construction and drought.	eng
61369	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, pollution and drought are the main threats.	eng
61370	conservation	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	None known to be in place. Further research is needed on range, biology, etc.	eng
61370	distribution	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Endemic to one small river (Nahr al Hawaiz) in Syria in the Mediterranean coastal drainage.	eng
61370	habitat	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	A riverine species, dependent on zooplankton.	eng
61370	population	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	No data available on population size or trends.	eng
61370	threats	Bogutskaya, N., 2006	Pollution and water extraction are the main plausible threats to the species.	eng
61371	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61371	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Wadi Ksob in Morocco.	eng
61371	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61371	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Azeroual, A. pers comm).	eng
61371	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Climate change is thought to be leading to drought to all rivers south of Oum Er Rbia in Morocco (Azeroual, A. pers. comm). Urbanisation and ground water extraction. (Diadrio, I. pers. comm)	eng
61372	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61372	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	This species is restricted to the Kinneret (Tiberias) Lake in Israel. The genus is endemic to the Levant.	eng
61372	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A lacustrine species. Reproduction occurs in spring (April-July): it is a paternal mouth brooder. The species feeds on zooplankton and small fish.	eng
61372	population	Goren, M., 2006	This species may be extinct. It was last seen in 1989/90. Since then, it has not been found (either in the lake or in local markets) in spite of attempts to find it.	eng
61372	threats	Goren, M., 2006	Destruction of breeding habitat (marsh area in north part of the lake) may be the reason for its apparent disappearance. The marsh area was dry in 1991, then again in mid 1990s, as a result of droughts.	eng
61373	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61373	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the upper part of the rivers of Morocco.	eng
61373	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61373	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
61373	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61374	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61374	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the River Evrotas and the upper part of River Alphios in the Peloponnese in Greece.	eng
61374	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in springs and spring-fed creeks and in the mainstream and headwaters of rivers. It reproduces from mid-March to June	eng
61374	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Decreasing.	eng
61374	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction and pollution, and habitat destruction.	eng
61375	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61375	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Ohrid lake in Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61375	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61375	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61375	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61376	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61376	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Draa river system in the Sub-Saharan zone in Morocco.	eng
61376	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61376	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Found to be locally abundant (Azeroual, A. & Doadrio, I. pers. comm).	eng
61376	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Climate change is causing drought in all rivers south of the Oum Er Rbia (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).	eng
61377	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61377	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Moraca and Bijeli Drim river basins in Montenegro. It is also described in Skada lake in Albania (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).	eng
61377	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It survives in rivers and lakes.	eng
61377	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Apparently safe.	eng
61377	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduced species. Water extraction and pollution.	eng
61378	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
61378	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	From Vardar to Pinios drainages (Greece, Macedonia).	eng
61378	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Main course of large rivers and main tributaries, in relatively deep water, with sand bottom and near riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June, sometimes as late as August.	eng
61378	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
61378	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution, water abstraction, dam construction (reduced flow, reduced current and sedimentation).	eng
61379	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61379	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is only found at a very small karstic stream, Stanicka Jaruga in Croatia (Cikola River). There are historical records from Zagorska Dreznica, Dobra and Mreznica drainages (not confirmed) (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).	eng
61379	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in karstic streams.	eng
61379	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61379	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water extraction, introduced species (trout).	eng
61380	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None apart from the general Greek fishing law which is not enforced.	eng
61380	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to the Axios and Pinios river basins in Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and the Loudias and Aliakmon river basins in Greece.	eng
61380	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is a large size, riverine, barbel (<800 mm).	eng
61380	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61380	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water pollution, and overfishing.	eng
61381	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention. Part of range is included in a National Park.	eng
61381	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Cetina and Krka River basins in Croatia.	eng
61381	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lives in karstic river. A robust species able to withstand impacts of invasive species (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm).	eng
61381	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Hasn't declined in the past 10 years (M. Mrakovcic, pers comm).	eng
61381	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction (dams), potential introduction of exotic fish species and water pollution.	eng
61382	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61382	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to north-western Morocco, on the Atlantic coast.	eng
61382	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in rivers.	eng
61382	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundent (Diadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
61382	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution from industry, domestic and agriculture and dam construction (Azeroual, A. pers. comm).	eng
61383	conservation	Goren, M., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61383	distribution	Goren, M., 2006	Restricted to Lake Kinneret.	eng
61383	habitat	Goren, M., 2006	A lacustrine species occurring on stony substrate around the lake's littoral zone.	eng
61383	population	Goren, M., 2006	Population size fluctuates, depending on the water level in the lake.	eng
61383	threats	Goren, M., 2006	The species is sensitive to low water levels.	eng
61384	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61384	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to south-west Anatolia in Turkey.	eng
61384	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61384	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data available.	eng
61384	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known.	eng
61385	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61385	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Ohrid basin in Albania and FYROM and to Skadar lake basin in Montenegro.	eng
61385	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Lacustrine and riverine species.	eng
61385	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61385	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Invasive species and pollution affect some of the range of this species.	eng
61386	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61386	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Moulouya River basin in northern Morocco.	eng
61386	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61386	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Locally abundant (Doadrio, I. pers comm).	eng
61386	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution and dam construction.	eng
61388	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Kottelat, M., 2006	None.	eng
61388	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Kottelat, M., 2006	It is restricted to the Aoos river basin in Epirus, Greece, and is possibly also present in Albania.	eng
61388	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Kottelat, M., 2006	It has been found in small creeks, streams, and rivers.	eng
61388	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Kottelat, M., 2006	No data	eng
61388	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Kottelat, M., 2006	Water abstraction, pollution, and agriculture.	eng
61389	conservation	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	None.	eng
61389	distribution	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	It is restricted to northern and Central Italy, to the southern part of Switzerland and to the Bevera stream in south-eastern France. It has been introduced in Liguria.	eng
61389	habitat	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Moderately cold-water adapted; obligate riverine; residential; single spawner; reproduction from February-March to June in southern Italy.	eng
61389	population	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Abundant. The congeneric <em>Telestes agassizi</em> was introduced in the Soce River (upper course of River Isonzo in Italy), which caused the extinction of <em>T. muticellus</em> in this river. In rivers Volturno and Sele, southern boundary of this species in Campania, only two or three very localised populations exists: main threats to this possibly new species are introduction of trout, heavy pollution and water extraction.	eng
61389	threats	Crivelli, A.J. & Bianco, P.G., 2006	Water pollution and extraction.	eng
61390	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None known to be in place.	eng
61390	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Litani river basin in Lebanon and to the Orontes (Asi in Turkey) river basin in Syria and Turkey. Not known to occur in mountainous areas.	eng
61390	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in lowland river and small irrigation canals with silty bottom and few submerged vegetation.	eng
61390	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The population density in Syria and Lebanon is low (Krupp and Mouyabed 1992). The population across the range is declining.	eng
61390	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution (much pollution from Syria) and extraction. Drought. Changes in water level. For instance in 1990, the water level at a sampling location recorded by State Hydraulic works in February as 119 cm, whereas there was no flow in June (Erk'akan and Ekmekci 2000).	eng
61391	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	None.	eng
61391	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Restricted to Lakes Megali and Mikri Prespa in north-western Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).	eng
61391	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lives in lakes and reproduces in May-June. It is pelagic visiting the littoral zone only for spawning. In Megali Prespa, it can also spawn in the tributaries of the lake. It is short-lived and is heavily predated upon by fish-eating birds nesting there.	eng
61391	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Abundant, stable.	eng
61391	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Water pollution, overfishing, and water extraction resulting in a reduction in water levels due to karstic nature of these lakes. Formerly, it was commercial exploited but the fishery has now ceased. There is also a potential threat of introduced species.	eng
61392	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61392	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to the Neretva river basin in Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. Karstic streams in livanjsko polje, Buska and Mandecko lakes near Livno. Introduced (possibly) to the Blidinje lake more than 100 years ago, and Prolosko & Ricice lakes near Imotski, Matica drainage near Vrgorac (Croatia), Tihaljina and possibly Trebizat (a neretva tributary) drainages (Bosnia-Hertzagovina).	eng
61392	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
61392	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Declining. The subpopulation in the small stream is very restricted; the main population is in three lakes (two native and one introduced) (Mrakovcic, M. and Freyhof, J. pers. comm).	eng
61392	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction, water pollution and extraction, introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61393	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	On paper Greek laws on fishery management protect it, but they are rarely enforced.	eng
61393	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to coastal Lake Vistonis in northern Greece.	eng
61393	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It mainly occupies the upper part of Lake Vistonis where the water is exclusively fresh. It is probably a non-migratory shad. Reproduction occurs in the spring.	eng
61393	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	According to the available information the species is possibly extinct. A small population is hypothesized to survive in some channels or streams outflow into the lake (Bobori <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
61393	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Habitat destruction and pollution (organic and industrial). Sewage enters the lake from the nearby town of Xanthi. Water extraction from the inflowing streams is also a serious threat as it may lead to increasing salinity within the lake.	eng
61394	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61394	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It was restricted to the Cetina River basin in Dalmatia, Croatia.	eng
61394	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It lived in a river system in the karst region.	eng
61394	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	The last specimen was recorded in 1988. This area has been surveyed since and the species has not been found again (M. Mrakovcic pers. comm.).	eng
61394	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	Introduction of exotic fish species.	eng
61395	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
61395	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
61395	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western, northern and eastern Black Sea and Sea of Azov basins, from Bulgaria clockwise to Kizil Irmak drainage in northern-central Turkey (missing in Don); Aegean Sea basin, from Struma drainage eastward in Europe; northwestern Turkey. In lower reaches of rivers and coastal lakes, but in Dniepr up to Seim and Desna systems.	eng
61395	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Western, northern and eastern Black Sea and Sea of Azov basins, from Bulgaria clockwise to Kizil Irmak drainage in northern-central Turkey (missing in Don); Aegean Sea basin, from Struma drainage eastward in Europe; northwestern Turkey. In lower reaches of rivers and coastal lakes, but in Dniepr up to Seim and Desna systems.	eng
61395	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers, lower reaches of montane rivers, limans, lakes, deltas, backwaters with moderate to no current. Prefers warm water with temperatures up to 30-32°C. Quite resistant to low oxygen concentrations, sometimes in marshes and water bodies with dense vegetation. A freshwater species, but tolerant of the brackish waters of limans. Prefers sand, sand-mud or mud bottom. Prefers shallow places with slow current along banks, in backwaters, in small lakes and similar calm-water sites. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, males may spawn at one year. Forms spawning groups of up to 150 individuals. Spawns in April-June at 12-28°C, in 0.1-1.0 m deep clear water, over sandy or slightly muddy bottom. Females lay 2-3 portions of adhesive eggs on and amidst aquatic plants each spawning period. Usually stays in groups of 5-30 individuals in vegetation at bottom but sometimes near water surface, under floating leaves or other objects. Does not migrate but moves in winter to deeper places. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, also plankton, benthic invertebrates and algae.	eng
61395	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland rivers, lower reaches of montane rivers, limans, lakes, deltas, backwaters with moderate to no current. Prefers warm water with temperatures up to 30-32°C. Quite resistant to low oxygen concentrations, sometimes in marshes and water bodies with dense vegetation. A freshwater species, but tolerant of the brackish waters of limans. Prefers sand, sand-mud or mud bottom. Prefers shallow places with slow current along banks, in backwaters, in small lakes and similar calm-water sites. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to eight years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, males may spawn at one year. Forms spawning groups of up to 150 individuals. Spawns in April-June at 12-28°C, in 0.1-1.0 m deep clear water, over sandy or slightly muddy bottom. Females lay 2-3 portions of adhesive eggs on and amidst aquatic plants each spawning period. Usually stays in groups of 5-30 individuals in vegetation at bottom but sometimes near water surface, under floating leaves or other objects. Does not migrate but moves in winter to deeper places. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, also plankton, benthic invertebrates and algae.	eng
61395	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant, but locally declining.	eng
61395	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant, but locally declining.	eng
61395	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by drainage of flood-plains and channelization of river beds.	eng
61395	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened by drainage of flood-plains and channelization of river beds.	eng
61397	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
61397	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Mediterranean basin, from Aude to Var drainages (France, Switzerland; literature records from Tarn system [Garonne drainage] in fact refers to Hérault [each has a tributary named Dourbie]); Soca drainage (Italy, Slovenia); Cetina drainage (Croatia); uppermost Rhine drainage in Germany and Switzerland; Danube drainage: western tributaries in Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and part of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and upper Tisza system (Romania, Ukraine). Record from Aegean basin in Bulgaria based on misidentification of a possibly unnamed species. Introgression zone with <em>T. muticellus</em> in Var drainage (France).	eng
61397	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Middle reaches of streams and rivers with clear water, moderately swift current and gravel bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in March-May when temperature rises above 12°C, only once in each season. Feeds on insect larvae and algae.	eng
61397	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
61397	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by damming of rivers.	eng
61398	conservation	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the only management strategy for skates is an annual total catch for skates distributed in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires. For 2003 this was 4,000 t. Continued monitoring and species-specific catch data are needed across the species? range.	eng
61398	distribution	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Endemic to southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina on the continental shelf to 300 m.	eng
61398	habitat	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Found on the continental shelf between shallow waters (50 m in Brazil) and 300 m depth (Vooren 1997, Cousseau and Perrotta 2000). Maximum size in Argentina 68.2 cm TL (male) and 69.5 cm TL (female), in Brazil 64 cm TL (male) and 65 cm TL (female) (Cousseau and Perrotta 2000, Oddone 2003). In Brazil, size at first maturity is 47 cm TL (male) and 53 cm TL (female). Female breeding occurs all year round and is not synchronized throughout the population (Oddone 2003). Eggs and small juveniles are not caught in the Brazilian trawl fishery and are evidently not vulnerable to the types of trawl used (Oddone 2003). <br/> <br/>The diet of this species consists of crustaceans (stiletto shrimp, amphipods, crabs), polychaete worms and teleost fish (mainly <em>Engraulis anchoita</em>).	eng
61398	population	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Biomass in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) was estimated as 697 tons for Spring 1999 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2000). It remains apparently quite common in its usual depth range in Brazil (Vooren, pers. obs).	eng
61398	threats	Massa, A., Hozbor, N. & Vooren, C.M., 2006	Many aspects of the life-history of <em>A. cyclophora</em> that are important for management (e.g., fecundity and natural mortality) are still unknown. <br/> <br/>Trawl fishing along the distribution and in the habitat of this species is intense, while demand for skates is increasing in the international market. In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay this has resulted in rising fishing pressure on all skate species. <em>A. cyclophora</em> is taken mainly as bycatch in fisheries for coastal demersal species (multi-species fisheries) and in Argentina the species has been known to be landed since 1994. Since 2000, however, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates. For these fishing activities, species-specific landing statistics are generally unavailable as all species of batoids are recorded as ?unidentified rays and skates?. In the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34°?41°S), biomass estimates fell more than 50% from 1994 to 1999 (Hozbor and Massa unpublished data). In an observer program of the Puerto Quequen coastal benthic trawl fishery in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, A. cyclophora was found to constitute 3.7% by number and 4.0% by mass of the batoids captured, and occurred in 34.2% of trawls (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006). Within this fishery, <em>A. cyclophora</em> is either retained and landed for commercial purposes or discarded, depending on size. The majority of specimens captured were immature (Tamini <em>et a</em>l. 2006). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense across the species? range in southern Brazil, where demersal trawl fisheries operate and skates are landed as part of multi-species fisheries. Species-specific data are required from southern Brazil.	eng
61399	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2006	Further surveys to better define the species? range and careful monitoring of any fishing activities are required.	eng
61399	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2006	Known only from the type locality off Peru in the Southeast Pacific. Further surveys are required to better define the species? range.	eng
61399	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2006	A very poorly known skate, known only from a single specimen collected at a depth of 980 m, a 480 mm TL immature female. Oviparous like other skates, but the biology of this species is virtually unknown.	eng
61399	population	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61399	threats	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2006	Known specimen was taken in an area presently thought to be outside commercial fishing operations. However, as deepwater fisheries worldwide continue to expand, and given the species? potential narrow distribution, any fisheries which operate in the species? area of occurrence in the future will need to be monitored carefully to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
61400	conservation	Acuña, E. & Lamilla, J., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of bycatch in Chilean fisheries and information on catches in Peru are a priority.	eng
61400	distribution	Acuña, E. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Endemic to the Pacific South American continental shelf and upper slope.	eng
61400	habitat	Acuña, E. & Lamilla, J., 2006	A temperate deepwater catshark of the continental shelf and upper slope of Pacific South America, primarily on mud, but also on rocky bottoms at 200 to 700 m depth. Oviparous, lays two egg capsules at a time, one per oviduct (Acuña <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Feeds on crustaceans (including deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em>) and small fishes (Acuña <em>et al</em>., unpublished data). Maximum size 124 cm TL, males mature at 52 to 55 cm TL, females at 59 cm TL (J. Lamilla, unpublished data).	eng
61400	population	Acuña, E. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Southeast Pacific endemic. No information available on populations.	eng
61400	threats	Acuña, E. & Lamilla, J., 2006	Bycatch in the deep sea crustacean fishery for the red squat lobster <em>Pleuroncodes monodon</em>, the yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and especially the deep sea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> off Northern and Central Chile (from 25°05? to 35°12? S and 200?498 m) (González 2001, Acuña and Villaroel 2002). Bycatch in the ling <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> deepsea fisheries off southern Chile (Lamilla, unpublished data). The species is discarded and there is no data available on trends in bycatch. There is no information on bycatch of this species in Peruvian fisheries.	eng
61401	conservation	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	<em>Diplobatis colombiensis</em> occurs in the Tayrona National Natural Park area, a Colombian nature reserve. This area is closed to fishing with trawl nets and only an artisanal fishery exists. However, there are no known documents records of this species from fishermen at Tayrona Park. <br/> <br/>An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is needed. This area supports extraordinary species richness, including several southern Caribbean endemics. Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope during the 21<sup>st</sup> century must consider this fact (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
61401	distribution	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Known only from the coast of northern Colombia, in the Caribbean Sea.	eng
61401	habitat	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	This species is benthic on the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 100 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).The region inhabited by <em>D. colombiensis</em> is characterized by hard sand with zones of soft mud and areas with coral reef development. The area has limited fluctuations in salinity.  <br/> <br/>Very little known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of 17 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and maturity in males is estimated to be 10 cm TL (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
61401	population	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	This species has a limited distribution. Caldas <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) show evidence of intra-populational variation in coloration patterns and geographical range for specimens collected throughout the northern coast from Colombia. There are shared regions (Tayrona National Natural Park-La Guajira) between <em>D. colombiensis</em> and <em>D. guamachensis</em>, where individuals show color patterns that are intermediate between the characteristics of each species. This intermediate coloration suggests that populations of this species are genetically mixed in some areas, resulting in interactions between individuals with specific characteristics that combine in this region.	eng
61401	threats	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Demersal trawl fisheries operate over the species? limited area of occurrence. Medina (2002) reports <em>Diplobatis pictus</em> as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries. These catch surveys were in the geographic range of both <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em>, and so specific information on <em>D. colombiensis</em> is not available (<em>D. pictus</em> does not occur in Colombia, being known from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil). <br/> <br/>Because of identification problems, the species may be more frequently caught than suspected.	eng
61402	conservation	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	An adequate conservation program for the Colombian Guajira peninsula is needed. This area supports extraordinary species richness, including several southern Caribbean endemics. Plans for developing and exploiting mineral resources in the Guajira continental shelf and slope during the 21<sup>st</sup> century must consider this fact (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
61402	distribution	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Recorded from the Gulf of Venezuela, western Trinidad, and northeastern Colombia.	eng
61402	habitat	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	This species is benthic on the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 183 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). The region inhabited by <em>D. guamachensis</em> is characterized by hard sand with extensive coral reef development in some areas. This is contrary to reports by Cervigón and Alcalá (1999), who stated that it is very rare to find this species in coral reef areas. The substrate in the region appears to determine the development of the various color patterns (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984).   <br/> <br/>Very little known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of ~20 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and maturity in males is estimated to be 12 cm TL (Caldas <em>et al</em>. in prep.).	eng
61402	population	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Cervigón and Alcalá (1999) described this species as common in its distribution area. McEachran (1984) reported the highest abundance from the western area of its distribution, where Valdez and Aguilera (1987) reported that it was always captured in research surveys.   <br/> <br/>Caldas <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) show evidence of intra-populational variation in coloration patterns and geographic range for specimens collected throughout the northern coast of Colombia. There are shared areas (Tayrona National Natural Park-La Guajira) for <em>D. colombiensis</em> and <em>D. guamachensis</em>, where individuals show a particular color pattern that is intermediate between its own characteristics and that of the related species. It is important to note the presence of a morph of <em>D. guamachensis</em> in the area of Tayrona National Natural Park, a zone where only <em>D. colombiensis</em> had been previously reported. This supports the idea that populations of this species may be genetically mixed in some areas, resulting in interaction between specimens with specific characteristics that are combined. Similar situations may be possible in other regions shared by <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em> (e.g., Trinidad).	eng
61402	threats	Caldas, J.P., de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Demersal trawl fisheries operate over the species? limited area of occurrence. Medina (2002) reports <em>Diplobatis pictus</em> as bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries in Colombia. These catch surveys were in the geographic range of both <em>D. guamachensis</em> and <em>D. colombiensis</em>, and so specific information on <em>D. guamachensis</em> is not available (<em>D. pictus</em> does not occur in Colombia, being known from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil). <br/> <br/>Because of identification problems, the species may be more frequently caught than suspected.	eng
61403	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R., McCord, M.E. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Improved monitoring of bycatch and other fishery impacts required in order to develop appropriate conservation and management strategies for this and other affected bycatch species.   <br/> <br/>Further research is one of the most pressing issues, in order to learn more about this species? biology and quantify its contribution to shrimp bycatch.  This will require species-specific identification or independent sampling. At present there is not enough known to substantiate an estimate on this species population status and quantify the actual impact of perceived threats (Bizzarro pers. comm. Feb 2006).	eng
61403	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R., McCord, M.E. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Eastern Central Pacific, from Baja California to the mid-Colombian coast.  Countries of occurrence include: Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, USA (Baja, California) (Love <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>From Bahia San Juanico (26°13?N, 112°28W), southern Baja California (de La Cruz  Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1994), to Ecuador (Bearez 1996), including the Gulf of California (McEachran 1995).	eng
61403	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R., McCord, M.E. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	This species is common over sandy substrates, but also over rocky bottoms, in bays and on rock reefs (De la Cruz Agüero <em>et al</em>. 1997, Allen and Robertson 1994 and Michael 1993).  It reportedly lies partially buried in the sand, near rock reefs (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/>Love <em>et al</em>. (2005) lists 3 m as the shallowest occurrence from an LA County Museum specimen (LACM 49744.002), while Beebe and Tee-Van (1941) report it from 1 fathom (ca. 2 m). The deepest occurrence was 94 m, as reported by A. Linares (1996 cited in Love <em>et al</em>. 2005).  <br/> <br/>This guitarfish is typically a solitary species, which is inactive during the day and commonly occurs in shallower water at night, utilizing it?s pelvic fins for benthic locomotion (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Michael 1993). <br/> <br/>The maximum reported size for this species, is 25 TL (McEachran 1995), with the first size at maturity for females <18.5 cm (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).  The size at first maturity for males is unknown.   <br/> <br/>Based on a small sample size, it is known to prey on crustaceans [Amphipoda, Decapoda (small shrimp)] and polychaetes (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).	eng
61403	population	de Carvalho, M.R., McCord, M.E. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61403	threats	de Carvalho, M.R., McCord, M.E. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2006	Within Mexican waters, this species is not commonly taken by artisanal fisheries, however it is taken as bycatch by shrimp trawlers (Bizzarro pers. comm. Feb 2006).   This species itself is not of commercial interest; however its restricted range coincides with that of intense trawling pressure for shrimp.  This considerable pressure from large commercial fishing fleets is likely to go unrecorded as this species caught as unused bycatch.	eng
61404	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Conservation and management strategies should be developed and implemented in order to reduce the impact of shrimp trawl bycatch in this region.	eng
61404	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Recorded from southeastern Venezuela to the mouth of the Amazon.	eng
61404	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Common over soft substrates on the continental shelf between 2 to 130 m in depth (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984). <br/> <br/>The maximum size known for this species is 18 cm TL (Fechhelm and McEachran 1984).	eng
61404	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Bycatch in shrimp trawls is the main threat to this species, although habitat degradation may also be a problem.	eng
61405	conservation	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & participants of SSC Shark SG Mediterranean workshop, 2006	Avoid as much is possible fishery activities below 500 m depths (Ungaro pers. comm). Given the low commercial value of skate and the full retention in the cod-end of the currently used gears, that remain unchanged up to unproposeable (for the Mediterranean fisheries) mesh size >60 mm opening (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2001), the only management measure aimed at their sustainable use may be to define the suitable not-trawlable areas and enlarge these ?closed? spots in order to protect a fraction of the population and likely the eggs (often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The global increase of fishing effort and the ensuing depletion of population have been the subject of the debate by the international bodies charged with the management and conservation of marine resources. Relevant is the formulation by FAO of the ?International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of cartilaginous fishes? (IPOA-Sharks). According to the Plan, all the states that capture sharks, rays or chimaeras, either as target species or as bycatch, shall implement a national action plans to ensure suitable use, conservation and recovery of threatened species (Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). In this context the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem proposed a recommendation to activate the necessary tools and regional agreements towards the formulation of a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of Cartilaginous Fishes. A project for record data proceeding from all Mediterranean basin and regarding large elasmobranchs (MEDLEM) has been discussed and adopted at the last SAC meeting held in Rome (FAO 2005). Also the EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action that encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). Italy must act urgently to establish a plan of action for the conservation and management of its chondrichthyan fauna, in tight coordination with other Mediterranean riparian countries. The Italian National Action Plan (PAN-SHARKS) draft was formulated by a scientific committee coordinated by ICRAM (Central Institute for the Marine Research) and was conceived in order to provide Italy with the necessary tools for the ratification of the SPA protocol, in the respect of the guidelines formulated within the EC Draft Action Plan and the FAO IPOA-Sharks recommendation (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000).	eng
61405	distribution	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & participants of SSC Shark SG Mediterranean workshop, 2006	This species main range now appears to be restricted to the Sicilian channel, as discussed in the threats section below.	eng
61405	habitat	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & participants of SSC Shark SG Mediterranean workshop, 2006	This benthic skate is endemic to the Mediterranean and can now only be found within the Strait of Sicily, distributed over sandy and sandy-muddy bottoms from a few meters to over 800 m in depth.  It has been recorded at depths of 60 to 800 m, but is more commonly found between 400 to 800 m. The size range of the specimens caught in this area from 1985 to 2001 was 9 to 42 cm (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). The species was reported for this area also by Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2000, Cannavò <em>et al</em>. 1999, Relini 1995, Pipitone <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/> <br/>Breeding occurs throughout the year; however, ovulating females were observed mainly in spring and autumn (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005) and produce 10 to 56 eggs/year (Bauchot 1987). Both males and females have an average size at maturity of 40 cm (Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998), the maximum reported size is ~50 cm (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, fecundity, rate of population increase and mortality are not known.	eng
61405	population	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & participants of SSC Shark SG Mediterranean workshop, 2006	No information available.	eng
61405	threats	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & participants of SSC Shark SG Mediterranean workshop, 2006	This species (one of only four skate species endemic to the Mediterranean) has undergone a serious decline throughout its geographic range. <em>Leucoraja melitensis</em> was previously found over a relatively narrow area (about ¼ of the total area of the Mediterranean) in the depth range where trawl fisheries routinely operate. Historically, this species was moderately common off Tunisia, common around Malta but rare off Algeria and Italy (where it was recorded once) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). However, it is now considered to be quite rare off Malta (Schembri <em>et al</em>. 2003) and rare or absent off Tunisia (Bradai 2000). This species was rarely recorded (in only 20 out of 6,336 hauls) in the Western Central Mediterranean (Thyrrenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicilian coasts, with the easternmost record in the Aegean Sea) during the International MEDITS trawl surveys from 1994?1999 (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bertrand <em>et al</em>. 2000). In this area, the standing stock biomass of this species was 705 t.  If we assume the average weight of an individual is 2 kg, then the estimated population size in the MEDITS survey area was approximately 35,200 individuals (note: that this does not include any remaining population around Malta and North Africa). <br/> <br/>Its main range now appears to be restricted to the Sicilian channel, in the national GRUND (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation) trawl survey covering all Italian Seas from 1985 to 2000 this species was recorded only in the Sicilian channel (in 59% of hauls operating in this area (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000)). In this area the species was caught with a frequency of 87% referred to 23 surveys performed from 1985 to 2001 by IRMA-CNR (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>The species was historically reported to be present in the Gulf of Lions (northwestern Mediterranean, France) in the years 1957?60 (shelf) and 1980?84 (slope), but the species was not found in further comparable surveys carried out in 1992?95 (Aldebert 1997). However, caution should be taken with this latter statement because the species could be confused with <em>L. naevus</em> which is widespread in the western part of the Mediterranean.   <br/> <br/>Within the Mediterranean, benthic trawling effort over the continental shelf and slope area has increased both with respect to numerical (effort) and technological advances over the last 50 years. This species is only rarely present in fish markets, however it is believed that while it is only the large individuals that are landed for consumption, most size classes for this species are likely to be taken as bycatch in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean region is approximately 20 mm. Along the Tunisian coast, this species was caught as bycatch in the following gear types; bottom trawl, gillnet and bottom long line (Bauchot 1987), however it now extremely rare or considered absent off the coasts of Tunisia. In the remainder of this species range within the Mediterranean (the Sicilian channel around Malta), it?s depth distribution coincides with that of intensive trawling activity.  The strait of Sicily is the highest exploited region of the Italian coast. It ranks first, with respect to the number of trawl boats and the total number of fishing vessels of all kind, compared to other sectors of the basin. Most of the fleet is composed by multipurpose artisanal vessels using bottom long liners, gill-netters and trammel netters, gear types likely to catch this species. Trawl fishing vessels constitute 11% of the fleet (Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999). For these fisheries skates are bycatch and are in large part discarded (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). The Tunisian and Maltese fisheries operating in the strait use the same gear types as those employed by the Italian fishing fleet. However, their fishing pressure, given by the number of operating fishing vessels, is smaller than the Italian fishery. The Tunisian fisheries are coastal and likely to operate outwith the area of occupancy of the Maltese skate, which in the Gulf of Gabes occurs in grounds deeper than 200 meters (Samira 2002). Bottom long line and bottom trawl fishing can affect the Maltese skate in Malta since these are the only two fishing gear that can go deeper than 200 meters (de Leiva <em>et al</em>. 1998). The other fisheries operating in the Sicilian channel are coastal, thus have little effect of the population of Maltese skate.	eng
61406	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Improved monitoring of bycatch and other fishery impacts are required in order to develop appropriate conservation and management strategies for this species.   <br/> <br/>Further research is one of the most pressing issues with regard to this species, in order to learn more about this species? biology and quantify the contribution of this species to shrimp bycatch.	eng
61406	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	<em>N. brevilabiata</em> is found in depths ranging from 41 to 70 m in offshore continental shelf waters. <br/> <br/>Male size at maturity appears to vary with locality. A male from the Gulf of Thailand possessed firm claspers at 23 cm TL while a male from Viet Nam possessed proportionally longer flexible claspers at 25.7 mm TL. smaller size at maturity. Female size at maturity is not known (Carvalho 1999a).	eng
61406	population	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	No information is available.	eng
61406	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2006	Intense fishing pressure occurs throughout its distribution, where it is taken in large numbers by shrimp trawling vessels.	eng
61407	conservation	Lessa, R., Quijano, S.M., Santana, F.M. & Monzini, J., 2006	No specific conservation measures in place. Monitoring of catches and landings are a necessity, particularly given that pressure from coastal fisheries is increasing within the species? range. Stock assessments should be undertaken where the species is fished, thus requiring biological information from outside Brazil.  <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of a national management plan (e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) is required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. At the time of writing, Brazil was in the progress of preparing a National Plan of Action (Anon. 2004), which is in urgent need of implementation.	eng
61407	distribution	Lessa, R., Quijano, S.M., Santana, F.M. & Monzini, J., 2006	Wide geographic range from Honduras through Central America, the Caribbean and south to Uruguay in South America.	eng
61407	habitat	Lessa, R., Quijano, S.M., Santana, F.M. & Monzini, J., 2006	The species is abundant on shallow sandy bottoms mostly in coastal areas and around islands, but has also been recorded in deeper areas. Compagno (in preparation b) noted that it has been found in offshore waters down to 500 m, with one exceptional record far offshore near the surface in water 6,036 m deep. Most studies on this species have been carried out in different areas of Brazil, mainly the northeastern region. Along the Brazilian Coast the species is more abundant in the northern and northeastern coasts, in shallow waters.  <br/> <br/>The following biological information on the species from Brazil is drawn from Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2001), Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Montealegre (2002), amongst other references cited in the literature list. Information was obtained from catches taken in shallow coastal waters. <br/> <br/>The species is reported to reach a maximum size of ~110 cm TL (Compagno in preparation b). Sexual maturity is attained for females at 65 cm TL and males at 65?70 cm TL which corresponds to ~2 year-old individuals. Growth analyses based on vertebrae indicated that there is a significant difference between sexes with females growing older and larger than males, but males growing faster. Maximum observed age was five years for males and 8eightyears for females, but Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2002) suggest that the species probably reaches ~10 years longevity. Catches obtained off Pernambuco displayed the following population dynamics: natural mortality, M = 0.499; fishing mortality, F = 0.712; total mortality, Z = 1.211; Z0=1.203; Z? = 0.837. Age at maturity and age of recruitment to fisheries coincide. Productivity, estimated according to the methods of Smith <em>et al</em>. (1998) is 0.141, which represents a high resilience to depletion.  <br/> <br/>Reproduction occurs annually with females ready to copulate immediately after parturition. Many females are ready for mating at any time throughout the year, although there is a peak detected from late winter to early summer. Fecundity is 1?8 embryos, increasing with maternal size. Size at birth is 33 to 37 cm TL. Sex ratio of embryos is significantly biased towards females (1:1.79). The overall post partum catch ratio found by Mattos <em>et al</em>. (2001) was also significantly biased towards females (1:1.57), however, significantly greater male than female immature and maturing individuals indicated sexual and size segregation. Segregation, movements and migrations in this species are not well known and require further study, but Mattos et al (2001) note that females may undergo reproductive migrations into coastal areas in their study area (northern Brazil), while Menni and Lessa (1998) suggest that adults migrate to deeper water in summer and gravid female return to coastal areas in autumn.  <br/> <br/>Feeds mainly on small teleost fishes and also squid, crabs and prawns (da Silva and da Silva de Almeida (2001).	eng
61407	population	Lessa, R., Quijano, S.M., Santana, F.M. & Monzini, J., 2006	Abundant. Described as ?one of the commonest, if not the most common, inshore shark where it occurs? (Compagno in preparation b). At the southern end of its distribution in Uruguay, it is more rarely captured (A. Domingo pers. comm).	eng
61407	threats	Lessa, R., Quijano, S.M., Santana, F.M. & Monzini, J., 2006	This species is a common component of landings in directed and incidental fisheries throughout its range, both commercial and artisanal. It is caught with a wide variety of gear including longlines, benthic trawls, trammelnets, gillnets and hook and line. <br/> <br/>In northern Brazil captures include bycatch in coastal fisheries aimed at more economically valuable teleost fishes including <em>Scomberomorus</em> spp., <em>Lutjanus</em> spp., <em>Cynoscion</em> spp. and <em>Mycteroperca</em> spp. (Dias Neto and Dornelles 1996 in Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2001). The species has become the more abundant shark in artisanal landings in this region after the decline in catches of other coastal elasmobranchs (i.e., <em>Carcharhinus porosus</em>). Furthermore, fishing effort is increasing in coastal areas of northern Brazil and with declines in the main target species, coastal elasmobranchs (including <em>R. porosus</em>) have been increasingly targeted directly (Dias Neto and Dornelles 1996 in Mattos <em>et al</em>. 2001). Declines in the sympatric <em>R. lalandii</em> in Brazil demonstrate, even for small relatively productive inshore shark species, the susceptibility to intensive coastal fishing pressure (Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>In Panama the species is landed from targeting and the bycatch of coastal commercial and artisanal fisheries using line and gillnets. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay the species is more rarely landed in fisheries, given that it is the southern extent of the species? distribution (A. Domingo, pers. comm). <br/> <br/>No other country specific landing information is available, but it is likely the species is facing increasing fishing pressure in the coastal zone over the majority of its distribution. Furthermore, many coastal fishing activities in the region are generally unregulated and unmonitored.	eng
61408	conservation	Dulvy, N.K., Pasolini, P., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. Serena, F., Tinti, F., Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J.E., 2006	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of various parts of England and Wales, as implemented by Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a total allowable catch (TAC) for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction). Given the low abundance of this species, species-specific management measures may also be warranted. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: <br/>For the conservation of chondrichthyans within the Mediterranean region, the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem recommended that all fishing states implement a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of chondrichthyans, in line with IPOA sharks (International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of chondrichthyans). <br/> <br/>The MEDLEM project was adopted at the last SAC meeting (FAO, Rome 2005) for data collection within the Mediterranean basin on large elasmobranches.  The Bern Convention encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of chondrichthyans in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Italy a national action plan (PAN-SHARKS) was co-ordinated by ICCRAM (Central Institute for Marine Research) within the guidelines of the Bern Convention and FAO IPOA-Sharks (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000).   <br/> <br/>The species is listed in the Appendix 3 of the Bern convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats), Appendix 3 of this convention requires ?regulation of species populations to keep them out of danger?. This species is also listed by the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea, this convention concerns specially protected areas and biological diversity within the Mediterranean Sea and lists the white skate on the Annex III, whose exploitation is regulated.	eng
61408	distribution	Dulvy, N.K., Pasolini, P., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. Serena, F., Tinti, F., Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J.E., 2006	The overall geographical range of Rostroraja alba covers the Eastern Atlantic coasts from the southern British Isles south to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea, and extending into the southwestern parts of Indian Ocean.  <br/> <br/>This species is listed as occurring in the Northwestern European seas, however no valid records exist in northern areas of the Northeast Atlantic.   <br/>The geographic range of this species is further discussed in the following section, with reference to its decrease in abundance coupled with a decrease in geographic range.	eng
61408	habitat	Dulvy, N.K., Pasolini, P., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. Serena, F., Tinti, F., Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J.E., 2006	This is a benthic species of sandy and detrital bottoms from coastal waters to the upper slope region between about 40 to 400 m and exceptionally down to 500 m (Capape 1976, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Du Buit 1974 reports this species to be more prevalent in rocky habitats.  Little is known of this species? life history and ecology. <br/> <br/>Estimates of size at maturity are 130 cm (males) and 120 cm (females) (Capape 1976).  Maximum recorded size is 200 cm, even if is common between 60 and 150 cm of total length (Bauchot 1987). Gestation period is 15 months and females produce between 55 to 156 ova per year, egg cases are 160 to 200 cm in length and 130 to 150 cm in width (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, average reproductive age, reproductive periodicity, annual rate of population growth and natural mortality are all unknown for this skate.  <br/> <br/>The white skate feeds on all kinds of bottom dwelling animals (Stehmann and Burkel 1984), especially fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Bauchot 1987).	eng
61408	population	Dulvy, N.K., Pasolini, P., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. Serena, F., Tinti, F., Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J.E., 2006	Little information is available on the population size of the white skate.  The data does indicate that this species has undergone a reduction in abundance and is now considered rare in the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean.  <br/> <br/>Historically, within the Mediterranean this species was captured frequently off northern coasts of Tunisia in the mid-1970s and the coast of Morocco in the early 1970s (Capape 1976). It was described as being more or less frequent in the Northwestern Mediterranean (1965) and the French coast (1950 to 1960s) and Italian Seas (1972) (Capape 1976).  However, a time series of comparative trawl surveys running from 1957 to 1995 in the Gulf of Lions, in the Eastern basin of the Mediterranean failed to catch any white skate specimens. This consisted of eight separate surveys, conducted by four survey vessels. A total of 1,359 tows were carried out on shelf and slope areas extending from the coast to 800 m in depth (which includes the known depth range of this species) (Aldebert 1997).   <br/> <br/>In the eastern Mediterranean, it was captured in the Adriatic (1963) and the limit of its eastern distribution is Greece (Capape 1976). This species was regularly captured by fisheries in Tunisian waters and was common in all Tunisian coastal waters but captures were more frequent in the north part of the Tunisian coast (Capape 1976). This species is now rare along the Tunisian coast (Bradai 2000).   <br/> <br/>In the Adriatic Sea, comparative trawl surveys indicate that Rostroraja alba was present in 4% of hauls of the ?Hvar? 1948 survey (based on 138 valid hauls in depths of up to 400 m). Since then, two time series of trawl surveys have occurred in the Adriatic Sea. The Italian national trawl survey National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND) began in 1982, and the MEDITS survey began in 1985, both surveys are still ongoing. <em>Rostroraja alba</em> was captured sporadically and infrequently in both of these surveys, typically in <2.6% of hauls in any year. Of the GRUND surveys, it was captured in approximately 1.7% of hauls in the central, northern and southern Adriatic Sea (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>In addition to the Adriatic Sea, the MEDITS survey actually operates on the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m. This species was not recorded in the central and northern MEDITS surveys, but was captured in the southern MEDITS survey in 1998 and 1999, in 1.4% of the hauls. However, uncertainty exists as to the validity of the identification of this species. It is suspected that earlier surveys may have confused this species with Leucoraja circularis and or Dipturus oxyrhinchus (F. Tinti and N. Ungaro pers. comm. 2003). The white skate was recorded in only nine hauls in the western central area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/>  <br/>From other regions within the Mediterranean, only one specimen was caught with a bottom trawl net by a commercial vessel in Livorno (the Ligurian Sea) in 2003 (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2003). Also in the Northwestern Ionian sea, only a single individual of this species was reportedly caught in 1997 (Sion <em>et al</em>. 2003).   <br/> <br/>From the data presented it can be inferred that this species is now very rare and also the MEDITS survey suggests a substantial reduction in geographic range. In fact, this species was only recorded from the western area of this survey (Morocco, Spain, France). Evidence from the Gulf of Lions survey suggests its presence along French coast may be in doubt. As described above, Aldebert (1997) reported that the white skate was historically absent from the Gulf of Lions, however the MEDITS survey data casts doubt over the occurrence of this species across the length of the French coast. The current distribution of occurrence for this species represents a small fraction of its former range. From the former frequency of capture of this species in the western Mediterranean it can be inferred that this species has undergone a substantial but currently unquantifiable decline in abundance and extent.	eng
61408	threats	Dulvy, N.K., Pasolini, P., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. Serena, F., Tinti, F., Ungaro, N., Mancusi, C. & Ellis, J.E., 2006	Northeast Atlantic: Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic (Holden 1977) and <em>R. alba</em> would be landed and sold if caught. Targeted fisheries have existed in certain areas, though these fisheries ceased after localised depletion. It may still be taken as by-catch in demersal fisheries off the Iberian Peninsula. Anecdotal information suggests that this species, including localized populations, have declined severely. In 2002, the ICES Study Group on Elasmobranch Fishes was asked to comment on the status of white skate and  ?considered that there was a high probability of population decline, both in the Bay of Biscay and Iberian coast, and in the Celtic Seas. For example, there was a directed long-line fishery in Douarnanez (Brittany) in the 1960s that collapsed (white skate are no longer listed on French fishery statistics), and a similar decline is thought to have occurred in the Irish Sea? (ICES 2002). As discussed in the population section, historical data (early 1900?s) from English surveys suggest that they occurred in UK waters, though no recent records exist (Rogers and Ellis 2000). Their status further south is unclear, though they may be landed around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006), accounting for about 0.3% of skate and ray landings in Portugal. It is also noted that this species may be confused with shagreen ray <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> and sandy ray <em>L. circularis</em>, and improved market sampling is required to fully ascertain the status of this species in fisheries. Dulvy <em>et al</em>. (2000) also report this species to have undergone a decline and even disappearance from other shelf areas, notably the Irish Sea.   <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/><em>R. alba</em> is captured as bycatch to the multi-species trawl fisheries operating within it?s range. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years.  <br/> <br/>As discussed in the population section, the historical occurrence of the white skate within the Gulf of Lions is unclear, however the change in characteristics of the fisheries operating in this area can provide an insight into the change in Mediterranean fishing effort over time. The Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), since then effort increased to a total nominal horsepower of 19,940 hp (between 1974 and 1987). Aldebert (1997) reported that half of the fishing effort within the Adriatic Sea to have been displaced to target small pelagic fish, however this Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). The large body size, slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets, including the eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003), as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm.	eng
61416	conservation	Monzini, J., 2006	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
61416	distribution	Monzini, J., 2006	Schools probably present below 100 m in the Portobelo area (Panama, Caribbean Coast, Colon Province) and in the San. Andres archipelago area.	eng
61416	habitat	Monzini, J., 2006	This warm-temperate and tropical shark inhabits continental shelves and uppermost slopes. Found on or near the bottom in large, dense schools at depths between 60 and 380 m, never found in surface waters. Probably feeds on bottom fishes and invertebrates Ovoviviparous, with about 10 young per litter (Compagno 1984).  Nothing else is known of its biology or life history.	eng
61416	population	Monzini, J., 2006	Separate catch statistics are not reported for this species and therefore nothing is known of the population.	eng
61416	threats	Monzini, J., 2006	Mainly caught in the northern Gulf of Mexico (FAO 2002, Rodriguez 1996 ) although separate statistics are not reported for this species. Taken as by-catch in the San Andres Archipelago industrial fishery (Caldas 2002) and Panamanian artisanal fishery (Monzini 2004).  Possible threat from a potential increase of deep sea fishery.	eng
61417	conservation	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within six Balearic Island marine reserves, where fishing for these species is forbidden and accidental captures must be released. There are no known specific conservation measures for this species throughout the rest of its range.	eng
61417	distribution	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong>: Morocco and western Sahara coasts, Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea to Nigeria, Gabon to southern Angola and Namibia (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: western and central basins, Ionian Sea and Egyptian coasts. Its occurrence in the Adriatic has not been reported (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998).	eng
61417	habitat	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	<em>Squatina aculeata </em>is an offshore angel shark of the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope of the warm-temperate and tropical eastern Atlantic. It lives on or near the seabed at depths of 30 to 500 m. It apparently prefers muddy bottoms. <br/> <br/>The biology of <em>S. aculeata</em> is sketchily known. The estimated average length of this shark at maturity is 124 cm (Compagno in prep). Maximum sizes are estimated at around 188 cm (Compagno in prep). Its size at birth, longevity, age at maturity, rate of population increase and mortality are unknown. It is ovoviviparous, but the reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity and the rate of population increase are also all unknown. <br/> <br/>Diet in the Mediterranean includes small sharks, herring (Clupeidae), jacks (<em>Trachurus</em>, Carangidae), picarels (Centracanthidae), flatfish (<em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae) sole (<em>Solea solea</em>, Soleidae), cuttlefish (<em>Sepia officinalis</em>), and crustaceans including shrimp, manis shrimp, and crabs (<em>Alpheus dentipes</em>, <em>A. ruber</em>, <em>Peneus keraturus</em>, <em>Squilla mantis</em>, <em>Parapeneus longirostris</em>, <em>Dorippe lanata</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em>, <em>Liocarcinus</em> sp., <em>Atelecyclus</em> sp.) (Compagno in prep).	eng
61417	population	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	This species is known to be caught off Tunisia and is possibly a component of catches off other countries throughout the Mediterranean including those that report angel sharks to FAO: Albania, France, Malta, Turkey (Compagno in prep.). <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898-1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922. This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity. <br/>  <br/>Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina</em> spp. were historically documented in checklists (Barceló y Combis 1868, Fage 1907). Captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), trawls and bottom longline fisheries. For example, records from a Balearic lobster gillnet fishery show that it was common to capture angel sharks on a daily basis until the mid 1980s (presumably of <em>S. aculeata</em> or <em>S. oculata</em>, judging by the depth and substratum where this fishery operates). But since the mid 1990s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (G. Morey pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> ssp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46-1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics. <br/>  <br/>Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000), did not report any captures of <em>S. aculeata</em> from 9,281 hauls during 22 trawl surveys from 1985-1998 as part of the Italian National Project in the northern Mediterranean. During the MEDITS program (1995-1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline, spanning from W. Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10 to 800 m, <em>S. aculeata</em> appeared in only one of a total of 9,095 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, it appears that angel sharks are now absent from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>The species may be more common off the North Africa coastline than in the northern Mediterranean, for example, as reported for the Tunisia (Gulf of Gabès) coast (Quignard and Ben Othaman 1978). However, more recently, Bradai (2000) considered <em>S. aculeata</em> to be a very rare species off Tunisia. <br/> <br/>There are little species specific data from the West African coasts, however, this species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Although reported in Turkish waters (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2002), the species is considered very rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and absent in the Black Sea (Serena 2005).	eng
61417	threats	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat. <br/> <br/>There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 from 1914 to 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations makes them prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. <br/> <br/><em>Squatina aculeata</em> has virtually disappeared from most of its former Mediterranean range where its habitat over the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope (30 to 500 m depth), is subject to intense demersal fisheries, especially off the northern coasts. Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously common, may now be absent. A type of fishing net for capturing Angel sharks previously existed in the Balearics called ?escatera' (?escat'  meaning angel shark in Catalan), suggesting that the species used to be common in the area.  Anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen in the Balearics indicates that in the last 20 years all species of Squatina have diminished drastically (G. Morey pers. comm.). There are only very few records from the Island of Menorca, where an intensive lobster gillnet fishery exists. Demersal fishing pressure is very high in this area, with bottom trawls operating from very shallow waters to about 800 m for shrimp (G. Morey pers comm). <br/> <br/>Despite the scarcity of ancient numerical data, the species seems to have experienced a dramatic decline in most of its range of distribution, becoming extremely rare in the northern part of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>Along the West African coasts, there are no directed fisheries for this species but it is taken as bycatch of major international industrial demersal trawl fisheries and inshore bottom set gillnets. <br/> <br/>Portuguese landings data from the fleet operating off Morocco and Mauritania, aggregated for <em>S. aculeata</em>, <em>S. oculata</em> and <em>S. squatina</em> combined indicates a 95% decline in CPUE from 1990-1998, but nothing is known of the level of fishing effort associated with these landings. Landings increased to a peak of 35 t in 1990 and when the fishery was closed in 1998 the total landings were 1.7 t. This represents a decline of 95% in landings in 8 years, however nothing is known of the pattern of effort associated with these landings. <br/> <br/>This species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>In Sierra Leone, Squatina species were periodically caught by demersal trawlers in the 1980s, but are now caught very infrequently in Sierra Leone (M. Seisay pers comm. 2006). Few individuals (19) have been caught in FIAS research surveys (FIAS unpub. data), and none have been captured since 1998. Only one specimen was caught in Guinea (year unknown) and one individual caught in Gambia in 1998. In Senegal at total of 13 individuals were caught from 1970 to 1998 and none have been seen in recent FIAS surveys (FIAS unpub. data). In Mauritania four were caught between 1988 and 1989, and none have been caught since.	eng
61418	conservation	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	The genus <em>Squatina</em> is protected within six marine reserves of the Balearic Islands, where fishing for these species is forbidden and they must be released if they were captured. There are no known specific conservation measures for this species throughout the rest of its range.	eng
61418	distribution	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	Historically occurred throughout the Mediterranean, nowadays may be more frequent in the southern regions of the Mediterranean, e.g., off the coast of Tunisia (although it is considered rare in the Gulf of Gabes) (Bradaï 2000). Within the Mediterranean, Fredj and Maurin (1987) and Fischer <em>et al</em>. (1987) stated its occurrence both in the eastern and western basins, whereas Ondrias (1971) and Roux (1986) limited its distribution to the western basin, the Adriatic and the Greek coasts. Nevertheless, Golani (1996) confirmed the occurrence of <em>S. oculata</em> in the Levantine basin, as done for Turkish waters by Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. (2002, and cites therein). Lamboeuf <em>et al</em>. (1995) reported it from Lybia. <br/> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic the species has been reported off the Iberian Peninsula western coast, and it does not occur northwards. <br/> <br/>Eastern Atlantic: Southern Portugal and Spain to Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sao Tome, Gabon, Congo, Republic of Congo, Angola and Namibia (Compagno in prep).	eng
61418	habitat	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	A warm-temperate and tropical angelshark of the eastern Atlantic continental shelves and upper slopes from >20 to 500 m, mostly between 50 and 100 m, deeper in the tropics than in temperate seas. Surveys off the West African coast indicate that the species may form aggregations in December (Litvinov 1993). <br/> <br/>Age at maturity, longevity and reproductive age are all unknown. Females are reported to mature at 100 cm TL from Tunisian waters (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990) and 89 cm from Senegal (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2002), males at 71 cm from Tunisia (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990) and 82 cm from Senegal (Capapé 2002). Reaches a maximum size of 160 cm (Compagno in prep.), which is slightly smaller than that reported for other species of angel shark. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous, with both ovaries functional. Gives birth in February-April (after a minimum one month gestation period) to about 3 to 8 young (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1990), ranging from 22.6 cm to 27 cm in length. The gestation time, reproductive periodicity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown. <br/> <br/>Eats small fishes, including argentines (<em>Argentina sphyraena</em>), horse mackerel (<em>Trachurus</em>, Carangidae), codlets (<em>Gadiculus</em> spp., Gadidae), goatfishes (Mullidae), flatfish (<em>Citharus linguatula</em>, Citharidae), squid (<em>Loligo vulgaris</em>, Loliginidae), octopus (<em>Eledone</em> spp., Octopodidae), and crustaceans including mud shrimp and crabs (<em>Upogebia</em> spp., <em>Dorippe lanata</em>, and <em>Liocarcinus depurator</em>) (Compagno in prep).	eng
61418	population	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	This species is known to be caught off Tunisia and is possibly a component of catches off other countries throughout the Mediterranean including those that report angel sharks to FAO: Albania, France, Malta, Turkey (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/>Vacchi <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported the dramatic decline in the elasmobranch catch of a tuna trap operating in Baratti (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea) between 1898 and 1922. For the genus <em>Squatina</em>, catches decreased from an average of 134 specimens from the period 1898 to 1905, to 95 between 1906 and 1913, and down to 15 between 1914 and 1922. This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity. <br/> <br/>Off the Balearic Islands <em>Squatina</em> spp. were historically documented in checklists (Barceló I Combis 1868, Fage 1907). Captures of <em>Squatina</em> spp. were relatively frequent until the 1970s, becoming increasingly sporadic during the 1980s in coastal artisanal fisheries (trammel nets and gillnets), trawls and bottom longline fisheries. For example, records from a Balearic lobster gillnet fishery show that it was common to capture angel sharks on a daily basis until the mid 1980s (presumably of <em>S. aculeata</em> or <em>S. oculata</em>, judging by the depth and substratum where this fishery operates). But since the mid 1990s no reports of <em>Squatina</em> spp. have been reported in the area (G. Morey pers. comm). Recently, Massutí and Moranta (2003) reported no captures of <em>Squatina</em> ssp. from four bottom trawl fishing surveys (131 hauls, at a depth range of 46 to 1,800 m) carried out between 1996 and 2001 around the Balearic Islands. In addition, the likely low interaction with stocks from other areas further affects the already low recovery capacity of isolated populations such as those around the Balearics. <br/> <br/>Relini <em>et al</em>. (2000) did not report captures of <em>S. oculata</em> in any of 9,281 hauls during 22 trawl surveys from 1985-1998 as part of the Italian National Project. During the MEDITS program (1995-1999), a broad scale survey of the north Mediterranean coastline, spanning from west Morocco to the Aegean Sea in depths of 10-800 m, <em>S. oculata</em> did not appear in any of a total of 9,095 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, it appears that angel sharks are now absent from most of the northern Mediterranean coastline. <br/> <br/>The species may be more common off the North Africa coastline than in the northern Mediterranean, for example, as reported for the Tunisia (Gulf of Gabès) coast (Quignard and Ben Othaman 1978). However, more recently, Bradai (2000) considered <em>S. oculata</em> to be a very rare species off Tunisia. <br/> <br/>Data from Southern Portugal also suggest the scarcity of the species in the area, where no specimen of the genus <em>Squatina</em> was recorded from experimental fishery surveys using semi-pelagic longlines and trammel nets (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nevertheless, the genus <em>Squatina</em> is reported in Portuguese fishery statistics, showing a clear decline in the last 20 years (R. Coelho pers. comm). <br/> <br/>There are little species specific data from the West African coasts, however, this species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006).	eng
61418	threats	Morey, G., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Coelho, R., Seisay, M., Litvinov, F. & Dulvy, N., 2007	Angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch in trawls as they lie on the bottom. Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency on the shelf and slope area Mediterranean over the last 50 years. The species is also bycaught in trammel nets and bottom longlines throughout its range. Human disturbance by habitat degradation and tourism are also possible threats to its preferred sandy nearshore habitat. <br/> <br/>There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area, to which angel sharks are highly susceptible. A low rate of exchange between <em>Squatina</em> populations makes them prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. <br/> <br/>Mediterranean countries that report 'angelsharks' to FAO with this species as part of the catch include Albania, Turkey, Malta and France. <br/> <br/>Lozano Rey (1928) reported <em>Squatina oculata</em> as a common species in southern and eastern Iberian coasts. Since then <em>S. oculata</em> has virtually disappeared from most of its former range in the Mediterranean. All species of angel sharks are highly susceptible to bycatch from benthic trawling as they lay on the bottom. They are also caught as bycatch in fixed bottom nets, on line gear, and occasionally even in pelagic trawls. The habitat of the species over the outer continental shelf and uppermost slope (20-500 m depth) is subject to intense demersal fisheries, especially off the northern coasts of the Mediterranean. There is evidence for dramatic declines from historic data from a tuna trap operating in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea with catches of the genus <em>Squatina</em> reported at an average of 134 specimens from 1898 to 1905, down to 15 between 1914 and 1922 (Vacchi <em>et al</em>. 2002). This early decline probably marks the beginning of trawling activity in the area. Declines have also been reported from studies off the Balearic Islands where this species, previously common, may now be absent. Catch data for this species in the north Mediterranean exist for the period from 1985 to 1999. Two major trawl surveys were carried out (the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) and the Italian National Project (National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND)). Out of a combined total of 18,376 tows, <em>S. oculata </em>was not caught in any (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001, Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000). Due to increasing fishing effort and capacity throughout the Mediterranean during the last few decades, the absence of the species in any recently recorded catches and its likely limiting life history characteristics, this species is considered Critically Endangered in the Mediterranean. It is possibly extinct from waters off the northern coasts where its former known habitat and area of occurrence continue to face fishing pressure, and although it may be in a less critical situation in southern Mediterranean waters the situation there needs to be established as a matter of great urgency before this species declines beyond recovery. <br/> <br/>Despite the scarcity of historic numerical data, the species seems to have experienced a dramatic decline in most of its range of distribution, becoming extremely rare in the northern part of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>Along the West African coasts, there are no directed fisheries for this species but it is taken as bycatch of major international industrial demersal trawl fisheries and inshore bottom set gillnets. <br/>   <br/>Portuguese landings data from the fleet operating off Morocco and Mauritania, aggregated for <em>S. aculeata</em>, <em>S. oculata</em> and <em>S. squatina</em> combined indicates a 95% decline in CPUE from 1990-1998, but nothing is known of the level of fishing effort associated with these landings. Landings increased to a peak of 35 t in 1990 and when the fishery was closed in 1998 the total landings were 1.7 t. This represents a decline of 95% in landings in eight years, however nothing is known of the pattern of effort associated with these landings. <br/> <br/>This species was previously reported as common in Russian surveys in this region during the 1970s and 1980s (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006). Artisanal Senegalese fishermen also remember this species as common and frequently caught by lines and gillnet 30 years ago; however it is appears to have been strongly depleted to the point where it has almost disappeared, now occurring very rarely (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Catches are now very rare according to both artisanal fishermen and observers of the industrial demersal trawl fleets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>In Sierra Leone, <em>Squatina</em> species were periodically caught by demersal trawlers in the 1980s, but are now caught very infrequently in Sierra Leone (M. Seisay pers comm. 2006). Only few (62) individuals have been caught in the research surveys held in FIAS database, and none have been captured since 2002. It is suspected that most of these records are of juveniles, based on the weight of the captures.  Only five individuals weighing a total of 7 kg were caught in Guinea between 1986 and 2002 and none were caught in Mauritania. In Senegal at total of 51 individuals weighing 56 kg were caught from 1971 to 2000 and none have been recorded in recent surveys. In Gambia six individuals weighing 6 kg were caught from 1986 to 2000, and none have been caught since (FIAS unpub. data).	eng
61419	conservation	Vooren, C.M., Lamónaca, A.F., Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2006	There are no legal restrictions of the fishery for <em>Z. brevirostris</em>. The species survives capture by trawl and can be discarded alive (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). A ban on landings would protect the species.	eng
61419	distribution	Vooren, C.M., Lamónaca, A.F., Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2006	<em>Z. brevirostris</em> has been reliably recorded from the coasts of the Southwest Atlantic in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina, between Rio de Janeiro at lat. 22°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Batista 1987) and Mar del Plata at lat. 38°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Castello 1971, Sadowsky 1973, Batista 1987, Vooren 1997). As the species appears to be an inhabitant of temperate to subtropical waters, an older record from Bahia (lat. 14°S) from the year 1907, cited by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) requires confirmation.	eng
61419	habitat	Vooren, C.M., Lamónaca, A.F., Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2006	Off Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) the species occurs on the inner shelf at depths of 10?50m, where it feeds on polychaetes and bottom-dwelling crustaceans. Maximum size of females is 55 cm TL off Rio de Janeiro, 53 cm TL (total weight of 970 g) off São Paulo and 64 cm TL (total weight 1,500 g) off Rio Grande do Sul. Maximum size of males is 52 cm TL off Rio de Janeiro and 63 cm TL off Rio Grande do Sul. The size of 10 specimens (three females and seven males) from Mar del Plata, Argentina measured 42 to 66cm TL. Off Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, size at first breeding is 42 to 48 cm TL (female) and 43 to 45 cm TL (male). Off Rio Grande do Sul, females less than 47 cm TL are sexually immature. Size of full-term embryos is 13 cm TL off São Paulo and 16 cm TL off Rio Grande do Sul. Body size varies with latitude, being smaller near the northern limit of the area of distribution. Birth occurs in autumn, from April to June. The species is aplacental viviparous with uterine fecundities of 4 to 8 (average six) neonates per breeding cycle which is synchronized in the population and which probably has a duration of two years (Nani 1964, Castello 1971, Batista 1987, Louro 1995, Vooren 1997, Gonzalez and Reis 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Vooren unpublished data).	eng
61419	population	Vooren, C.M., Lamónaca, A.F., Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2006	<em>Z. brevirostris</em> has been reliably recorded from the coasts of the Southwest Atlantic between Rio de Janeiro at lat. 22°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Batista 1987) and Mar del Plata at lat. 38°S (Müller and Henle 1841, Castello 1971, Sadowsky 1973, Batista 1987, Vooren 1997). On the continental shelf off Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (lat. 29°S to 34°S) the species is common all year round at depths of 10 to 40 m (Vooren 1997). Since the year 1988 there are records of commercial trawl catches of the species from this area, with landings of 1 to 3 ton per fishing trip (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). This relatively small area, which extends along 700 km of coastline and measures about 50 km in width, appears to be the stronghold of the species in terms of population density and abundance. Nowhere else is <em>Z. brevirostris</em> an important fishery resource. This species is rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm).	eng
61419	threats	Vooren, C.M., Lamónaca, A.F., Massa, A. & Hozbor, N., 2006	On the continental shelf of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (lat. 29°S to 34°S) there are records of commercial trawl catches of <em>Z. brevirostris</em> since 1988, with landings of 1?3 ton per fishing trip (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, unpublished data). In south Brazil the species is not listed separately in the fisheries statistics but included in the categories ?unidentified rays and skates? and/or ?guitarfish? which refers mostly to <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em>. Therefore there are no data on CPUE of <em>Z. brevirostris</em>. In view of the  low reproductive potential of the species (on average three neonates per year per adult female), recruitment overfishing will easily occur, and directed fishing will drive the population soon to extinction on the continental shelf of south Brazil which is the centre of the distribution of the species.  <br/> <br/>In Argentina on the fishing grounds off Buenos Aires province, biomass of the species decreased by 86% from the year 1994 to 1999. Although the species has no commercial value and is discarded in Argentina, fishing mortality is reducing the abundance of the species. The species is rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo, pers. comm.).	eng
61420	conservation	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The species is listed on Annex III, ‘Species whose exploitation is regulated’ of the Barcelona Convention Protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the Mediterranean, signed in 1995 but not yet ratified. The Mediterranean population of this species was also added in 1997 to Appendix III of the Bern Convention (the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) as a species whose exploitation must be regulated in order to keep its population out of danger. No management action has yet followed these listings. The draft action plan for the conservation of cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea (Anonymous 2002) has identified porbeagle as a species that urgently needs development of a management programme for sustainable fisheries.	eng
61420	distribution	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	The porbeagle shark is a wide-ranging coastal and oceanic species found in temperate and cold-temperate waters worldwide (1° to 18°C, 0 to 370 m), more common on continental shelves. Coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate, with centres of distribution in the North Atlantic and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean, southern Pacific and Antarctic Ocean (Compagno 2001). In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean it is found below 26°S (A. Domingo, pers. comm.), in the Southeastern Pacific, between 23 to 37°S (E. Acuña, pers. comm.). Tagging studies in the Northwest Atlantic have shown mainly short to moderate distances of up to 1,500 km along continental shelves (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Distances traveled by 143 porbeagle tagged in a US study ranged 4 to 1,005 nm, with a mean distance of 234 nm, with over 90% moving less than 500 nm from their original tagging location (Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002).  Porbeagles tagged off southern England have been recaptured off Spain, Denmark and Norway (2,370 km away), and a porbeagle tagged in Ireland travelled 4,260 km Kohler and Turner 2001), suggesting mixing throughout their range in the Northeast Atlantic (Stevens 1976, 1990). According to the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO 2001a), mature porbeagle sharks are rarely seen in winter and spring, with monthly catches exhibiting a seasonal and sex-specific migration of mature sharks towards the southern Newfoundland mating grounds in spring. The birthing grounds for the porbeagle shark in the Northwest Atlantic remain unknown (DFO 2001a). There is little known about the porbeagle shark in subequatorial Africa. No information on mating or nursery grounds is available. Porbeagles in the Northwest Atlantic make annual migrations along the coast between the Gulf of Maine and Newfoundland (Campana <em>et al</em>. 1999, Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
61420	habitat	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	This section is taken mainly from Stevens (in press) species assessment for Lamna nasus (in Fowler <em>et al</em>. in press).  <br/> <br/>The porbeagle reaches a maximum reported size of 355 cm TL (Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Males mature at about 165 cm TL in the South Pacific and 195 cm TL in the North Atlantic. Females mature at about 195 cm TL in the South Pacific and 245 cm TL in the North Atlantic (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002, Francis and Duffy 2005, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/> <br/>Reproduction is oophagous with litters of 1 to 5 pups (average four) produced, which are 68 to 78 cm TL at birth (Compagno 1984a, Gauld 1989, DFO 2001a, Francis and Stevens 2000, Francis <em>et al</em>. in press). Aasen (1963) estimated that the gestation period was about eight months in the North Atlantic and that individual females breed each year. However, Shann (1923) found two distinct size groups of embryos present in the December-February period and suggested that gestation may last 18 to 24 months. Gauld (1989) noted that a resting period may be present between parturition and fertilisation. Francis and Stevens (2000), Jensen <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Francis <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate an 8 to 9 month gestation period. Birth occurs in spring off Europe, spring-summer off North America and winter in Australasia (Aasen 1963, Francis and Stevens 2000, Jensen et al. 2002) and the Eastern Pacific off Chile (Acuña <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). <br/> <br/>Natanson <em>et al</em>. (2002) and Campana <em>et al</em>. (2002) examined age and growth in the North West Atlantic population and reported a maximum age of 26 years. However they estimated longevity might be as high as 46 years in an unfished population. Ages at 50% maturity for North Atlantic males and females are 8 and 13 years respectively (Jensen <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Porbeagles feed mostly on teleost fish, both pelagic and demersal species, and on cephalopods (Compagno 1984a). In the North West Atlantic, pelagic fish and squid are the main diet in deep water, and pelagic and demersal fish are important in their diet in shallow water (Joyce <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>Like other mackerel sharks, the porbeagle is endothermic, maintaining its muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater. It prefers temperatures below 18°C and has been caught in water temperatures as low as 2°C on the bottom (3°C on the surface) at high latitudes (Svetlov 1978). The preferred temperature range in the Northwest Atlantic is 5 to 10°C (Campana and Joyce 2004).	eng
61420	population	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	North Atlantic tagging studies (DFO 1999, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevens 1990) indicate only one trans-Atlantic movement (Kohler and Turner 2001), implying that the two north Atlantic populations are distinct. There is no evidence of genetic exchange between the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere population(s), which are separated by warm water. The number of sub-populations in the southern oceans is unknown.  <br/> <br/>Biomass of the Northwest Atlantic porbeagle population was estimated at 4,409 t (11% of virgin biomass) and female spawners estimated at 6,075 (10% of the virgin abundance) (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/>Populations studied in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean segregate by size and sex. Although adults are very rare in the Mediterranean, it appears to be a nursery ground.	eng
61420	threats	Stevens, J., Fowler, S.L., Soldo, A., McCord, M., Baum, J., Acuña, E. & Domingo, A., 2006	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species has virtually disappeared from Mediterranean records. In the North Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Sea Serena and Vacchi (1997) reported only 15 specimens of porbeagle during a few decades of observation. Soldo and Jardas reported only nine records of this species in the Eastern Adriatic since the end of 19<sup>th</sup> century until 2000. Recently two new records were reported (A. Soldo unpublished data). Orsi Relini and Garibaldi (2002) reported two newborn porbeagles were caught as bycatch of the swordfish longline fishery in the Western Ligurian Sea. A young porbeagle, considered to be very recently born was reported in the central Adriatic Sea (Orsi Relini and Garibaldi 2002). A young specimen was also caught in the central Adriatic during big-game fishing. On the basis of its length, it is suggested to be of an age 1–17 months (Marconi and De Maddalena 2001). These records indicate a possible nursery area in Central Mediterranean. During research of bycatch in the western Mediterranean swordfish longline fishery no porbeagles were caught (De La Serna <em>et al</em>. 2002). Only 15 specimens were caught during research conducted in 1998–1999 on bycatch of sharks in large pelagic fisheries: catches were reported only in the southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea, mainly by driftnets (Megalofonou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Official statistics for Mediterranean area show that the only landings in the Mediterranean were reported in 1996 by Malta – 1 t (FAO 2002). Porbeagles are also popular as recreational species (big game fishing) in some areas of Mediterranean.	eng
61421	conservation	Enssle, J., 2006	There is not yet any <em>in-situ </em>conservation activity in place. The habitat of the palm is not covered by any kind of protected area. <br/> <br/><em>Ex-situ</em> conservation is provided by the Bolivian NGO “FAN-Bolivia” who has made efforts for <em>in vitro</em> propagation. Furthermore, seeds of the palm can be purchased on the internet from various ornamental palm dealers. This kind of trade, however, is not legally approved by international and Bolivian national legislation article 15 of the CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) and the Decision 391 of the treaty of Cartagena  (in Bolivia: Decreto supremo 24676, Art. 3). <br/> <br/>Project proposals for <em>in situ</em> conservation are ready (FAN-Bolivia 2003), but lack of financing and the implementation of national legislation are hindering the proceedings. <br/> <br/>In 2008, a second inventory will be carried out in order to re-asses the status of conservation of the species	eng
61421	distribution	Enssle, J., 2006	<em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> is endemic to only a few inter-Andean valleys in the province of Vallegrande, in the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Vargas 1994). <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figure 3: extent of occurrence (EOO) for <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em>, and figure 4: area of occupancy (AOO) for <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em>. <br/> <br/>The most important sites for the species are around the villages of “Mataralcito” and “El Palmar”. At these two sites there is to be found a population of up to 17,000 mature individual. On other sites, however, populations are very small (1–100 mature individuals). <br/> <br/>Extent of occurrence: 287,625 km² <br/>Area of occupancy: 56 km²	eng
61421	habitat	Enssle, J., 2006	<em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> is a montane palm species which grows at an altitude from 1,700 to 2,500 m above sea level. It is endemic to only a few inter-Andean valleys (Vargas 1994). Mean annual precipitation in this region is about 550 mm with a marked dry season of five months between June and October, in some years it lasts even longer. In the wet season frosts can occur at night. This makes the palm suitable for Mediterranean localities with similar climates (Vargas 1994). Loving shadow in the youth and bare sun as an adult it out-competes the accompanying vegetation when closing the canopy. In the dark <em>Parajubaea</em> understorey, a humid and template microclimate can be observed and rotten leaves form a humic topsoil which is ideal for the germination of the palm seeds. After pollination, the fruit ripens for about 20 months. When fallen to ground, the seed is distributed by rodents who feed on the fruit. It is estimated that rodents do not disperse the seed over a larger distance than 100 m from one mother tree. Under natural conditions, the seeds need another 17 months for germination (Vargas 1994), but with the help of in vitro cultivation the germination time of <em>P. sunkha</em> and <em>P. torallyi</em> can be brought down to only several weeks (Ibisch 2004).	eng
61421	population	Enssle, J., 2006	According to Vargas (1994) (follow the link below for figure 2: location of the <em>Parajubaea sunkha</em> subpopulations according to Vargas (1994)): <br/> <br/>There are 14 locations recorded, most of which show only a few individuals (1–100). The only significant populations are to be found in locations number 11 (Mataralcito) and 12 (El Palmar) with an estimate of up to 17,000 mature individuals.  <br/> <br/>Degree of fragmentation is high. Approximately the half of the populations are fragmented and are estimated to be only little viable.	eng
61421	threats	Enssle, J., 2006	If the palm remains undisturbed it shows an abundant regeneration in its natural habitat, but overgrazing, land clearing, fires and human use of the palm’s fibres have a strong impact on the regeneration dynamics of this rare species (Vargas 1994). <br/> <br/>On many sites the palm is a direct competitor to agriculture. The custom of felling the tallest trees when their productivity ceases, shows clearly that the palm will not be conserved unless it provides important socio-economic benefits to the farmers. This means that there is a dilemma between the usefulness and the subsequent overexploitation of the species, and the uselessness and clear cutting of the remaining populations. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for figure 1: population structure of four representative palm stands. <br/> <br/>A first inventory was carried out in January 2001. The diagrams of the forest inventory (fig. 1) depict the population structure of four representative palm stands of 1ha in size that belong to four different farmers. The diagrams show clearly that the population structure is unbalanced: while 2–5 years old palm plants are very abundant in all populations, the generation of 0.5 m tall palm trees is missing completely in populations P1 and P2   and is underrepresented in populations P3 and P4. <br/> <br/>The absence of palms around 0.5 m of height (+/-20 years old) can be traced back to the construction of a road that connects the rural area with the town. Before the road was built, farmers transported the fibre with donkeys and on their backs to the local market. This limited them in terms of the quantity they could transport and secured the fructification of adult palms to ensure regeneration. Since the road was build in 1984, it is possible to harvest and transport much larger quantities of palm fibre. Farmers confirm that in this time almost all palms were under exploitation. As a result, regeneration almost came to a halt. This is shown by the absence of the 0.5 m tall palms in the populations 1 and 2 (fig. 1). These palm stands are directly linked to the road and as consequence were exploited heavily.  <br/> <br/>The populations 3 and 4 belong to farmers that live within about an hour walk from the road. As a result, exploitation in these palm stands was not as intensive and regeneration could occur to some degree. This is testified by the presence of more young palms between 0.5–1 m of height compared to population 1 and 2 (fig.1). <br/> <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> <br/>The palm produces a fibre, which grows in its leaf axils and is locally used to make mattresses, ropes and saddle pillows. Apart from subsistence use these products are sporadically sold on local markets. <br/> <br/>The leaves are used to manufacture hats, baskets and fans (Vargas 1994). Leafs and fruits serve as fodder for livestock. Furthermore, the species is internationally traded as ornamental plant.	eng
61422	conservation	Shuk Man, C., 2006	<em>X. trivittatus</em> is not known from any marine protected areas in the countries from which it has been recorded.	eng
61422	distribution	Shuk Man, C., 2006	Only known from a small number of records from Hong Kong, Taiwan and Viet Nam (Randall and Cornish 2000). Records from Indonesia and Mauritius are questionable (Froese and Pauly 2005)	eng
61422	habitat	Shuk Man, C., 2006	As far as is known, this species has never been seen in the wild, at least not by a scientist. In general razorfishes (<em>Xyrichtys</em> spp.) live over open stretches of sand which they dive into when threatened (Randall and Cornish 2000).	eng
61422	population	Shuk Man, C., 2006	Apparently rare. At present this species is only known from four specimens, one preserved specimen from Taiwan, another from Viet Nam, and two purchased live from Hong Kong (Randall and Cornish 2000). Within Hong Kong the species is certainly rare as in ten years of intensive diving and visits to local fish markets, only two have been seen (and none since 1999) (A. Cornish pers. obs.). It may be more abundant in other localities than is realized due to taxonomic confusion, e.g. the specimen from Taiwan had been mis-identified as <em>Xyrichtys pavo</em>.	eng
61422	threats	Shuk Man, C., 2006	The waters around Hong Kong, and in general in the South China Sea, are intensively bottom-trawled, as well as being fished with other gears such as gill-nets. The soft-bottom benthos inhabited by <em>X. trivittatus</em> is, therefore, subject to great fishing pressure, and this is almost certainly the greatest threat to the species.	eng
61423	distribution	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Found on islands of Maui and Oahu and extirpated on Hawaii.	eng
61423	habitat	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	This species grows only along streams in wet forests, on streambanks or next to waterfalls.	eng
61423	population	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Three populations totaling 350–410 individuals.	eng
61423	threats	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Threats include feral pigs, goats, weeds and flooding.	eng
61424	distribution	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Found on island of Kauai.	eng
61424	habitat	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Sheer rock faces at the margins of waterfalls in the spray zone in wet forest regions.	eng
61424	population	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	2–4 populations totaling 500 individuals.	eng
61424	threats	Caraway, V. & Bruegmann, M.M., 2006	Threats include drought, weeds and flooding.	eng
61425	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychelles and Praslin National Parks. Forested areas where the main population occurs on Silhouette island should receive legal protection. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
61425	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin. A historical record from Zanzibar (Tanzania) is erroneous. It occurs from sea level to 550 m.	eng
61425	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an arboreal species in tropical forest, being present in both primary forest and upland rural gardens. It also occurs in secondary forest but only if there is a high plant diversity. Its reproduction on Mahé is associated with introduced pineapple plants as it lays its eggs in these. These pineapples are not used on Silhouette or Praslin. Its natural nesting sites remain unknown but are assumed to be in the endemic <em>Pandanus</em> and palms.	eng
61425	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is not a common species, occurring at low densities. Its population was estimated at 2,055 ± 620 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61425	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The main threat is habitat degradation as a result of the invasion by alien plants species, especially <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>, principally on Mahé and Praslin.	eng
61426	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. The populations on Silhouette and Fregate islands should be included in new protected areas.	eng
61426	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, and Frégate, where it occurs at elevations from sea-level up to 430 m.	eng
61426	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is apparently a forest species. It is a predator of small mammals (introduced rats) and birds. It occurs in a wide range of forest habitats but is most freqently encountered in primary and diverse secondary forest. The species is rarely encountered in degraded habitats. Secondary habitats are suitable if plant diversity is high and regeneration of native trees occurring, but abandoned plantations and severely degraded habitat appear to be unsuitable. Details of reproductive biology are unknown.	eng
61426	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a nocturnal species and correspondingly poorly known; there is no information on its population size.	eng
61426	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Ongoing invasion of forests (especially on Mahé and Praslin) by <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> are degrading all forest habitats, and this represents a threat to the species. The species is occasionally killed by humans, but as a nocturnal species it is rarely encountered and this is not a substantial threat.	eng
61427	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride Special Reserve. There is a record from the Cousine Special Reserve but it is not known if this represents an established population. The major populaiton on Silhouette island should be included with a protected area.	eng
61427	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, La Digue and Frégate, where it occurs from sea-level up to 914 m.	eng
61427	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a diurnal predator of geckos and skinks, found in forest. It occurs in secondary habitats but is principally found in native vegetation (especially high forest). Secondary habitat is suitable if plant diversity is high and regeneration of native trees occurring, but abandoned plantations and severely degraded habitat appear to be unsuitable. Details of its reproductive biology are largely unknown.	eng
61427	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Its population was estimated at 10,038 ± 2,449 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61427	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is impacted by predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) on Mahé and Praslin. Ongoing invasion of forests (especially on Mahé and Praslin) by <em>Cinnamomum verum</em> is degrading all forest habitats, and this represents a threat to the species.	eng
61428	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.	eng
61428	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is widespread on the granitic islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, La Digue, Frégate, Cousin and Cousine. It ranges from sea level up to 500 m.	eng
61428	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an arboreal species found in wooded areas. It is particularly abundant in coastal forests on sea-bird islands, palm forest and high forest on Silhouette island. It occurs at lower densities in secondary habitats and coconut plantations. It glues its eggs to trees and rock overhangs, tending to use regular sites which may be used by multiple generations of geckos.	eng
61428	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a low-density species. Its population was estimated at 9,124 ± 670 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61428	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no known threats; it does occur in disturbed habitats although at reduced densities. It is occassionally found in buildings, although it is vulnerable to domestic cats.	eng
61429	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in Praslin National Park.	eng
61429	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin and La Digue. It is found from sea level to 350 m.	eng
61429	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an arboreal species found in low growing vegetation in woodland. It is usually associated with palms, occurring at high densities in native palm forest but also in coconut plantations. As such it is highly adaptable, and it will also live in buildings. It glues its eggs to palm leaves.	eng
61429	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Its population was estimated at 22,795 ± 1,220 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61429	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an adaptable species, with no known threats.	eng
61430	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in Praslin National Park. Forest habitats on Silhouette island should be included in a new protected area.	eng
61430	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Silhouette and Praslin. Although the type specimen is labeled 'Madagascar' this is believed to be erroneous. It occurs from 150–250 m.	eng
61430	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a canopy-dwelling arboreal species found in tropical forest with a canopy over 15 m. It does not occur in degraded habitats. On Praslin island it feeds largely on nectar and pollen from <em>Lodoicea maldivica</em> palms. Its reproductive biology is unknown.	eng
61430	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a low density species, with an estimated population of 3,389 ± 205 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61430	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The species has a very restricted range and it will be vulnerable to any degradation of its habitat, for example through the spread of invasive species.	eng
61431	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The subspecies P.a. abbotti is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. The species is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
61431	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to northern Madagascar and the southern Seychelles (on Aldabra atoll and Assumption). Three subspecies are known: <em>P.a. abbotti</em> (on Aldabra atoll, Seychelles); <em>P.a. sumptio</em> (Assumption, Seychelles); and <em>P.a. chekei</em> (northern Madagascar). In Madagascar it occurs widely in the northern and northwestern parts of the countries. Known localities include: Ambatoloaka, Ambilobe, Ampasindava Peninsula, Antsalova, Antsiranana, Befotaka, Kongony, Mahajanga, Nosy Be, Nosy Mamoko, and Soalala. A record from Sambava (in eastern Madagascar) is probably incorrect and is mistaken for <em>Phelsuma masohoala</em>.	eng
61431	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is usually found in scrub and woodland on Aldabra and Assumption, generally foraging on vegetation (including coconut trees), but it can also occur on the ground. On Madagascar it is mainly found on large sun-exposed tree trunks outside and at the edge of primary forest patches. On Nosy Be and on the Ampasindava Peninsula the species is also found in the coastal mangroves and mangrove trees along swamps and rivers. In western Madagascar, in the seasonal dry forests near Antsalova, the animals are found in the larger deciduous trees. In urban areas like Antsiranana and southern Nosy Be, they can be found on houses and in gardens. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61431	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The population of <em>Phelsuma a. abbotti</em> on Aldabra was estimated at 269,100 individulas in 2005; and of <em>P.a. sumptio</em> on Assumption at 2,928 in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61431	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Sea level rise is a threat to the Aldabra and Assumption subspecies: both Aldabra and Assumption are under 8 m in altitude and all <em>P. abbotti</em> habitat is less than 2 m above sea level. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species. No other threats are known.	eng
61432	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
61432	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles. The subspecies <em>P. a. astriata</em> occurs on the Mahé group (including Mahé itself, Silhouette, St Anne, Cerf and other nearby islands). The subspecies <em>P. a. semicarinata</em> occurs on the Praslin group (including Praslin itself, and also Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse, Grande Soeur and La Digue). Animals from Silhouette and Frégate have not been assigned to subspecies. It occurs from sea-level up to 500 m.	eng
61432	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an arboreal species found in all vegetated habitats. It is highly adaptable, and is found in plantations, gardens and houses. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61432	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The total population was estimated at 51,703 ± 5,705 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep). The population estimates of the subspecies were as follows: <em>P. a. astrata</em> - 22,697 ± 1,114 animals; <em>P.a. semicarinata</em> - 26,816 ± 3,862 animals; and the Frégate population (unidentifed) - 2,190 ± 729 animals.	eng
61432	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species.	eng
61433	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It presumably occurs in some protected areas in Madagascar. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
61433	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is indigenous to northern and northwestern Madagascar, to the Comoro Islands (Anjouan and Mayotte (to France)), and southern Seychelles (Farquhar atoll and Providence). It is introduced on Hawaii. On Madagascar the nominate subspecies has been recorded from Ambanja, Ambatoloaka, Ambilobe, Andrakata, Anjouan, Antalaha, Benavony, Farquhar, Hawaii, Marojezey, Nosy Be, Nosy Faly, Nosy Komba, Mayotte, Nosy Iranja, Kongony, and Sambava. The subspecies <em>P.l. angularis</em> occurs along the northwestern coastal plain of Madagascar.	eng
61433	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It can be found in a variety of habitats except in denser forest regions. Palms and banana trees are the preferred vegetation, but they can also be found on <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>, smaller deciduous trees and often in gardens and on houses. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61433	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is abundant in the Sambirano domain on northern Madagascar. There is no recent information on its abundance in the Seychelles.	eng
61433	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species.	eng
61434	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois (<em>P. s. longinsulae</em>) and Praslin (<em>P. s. sundbergi</em>) National Parks. It is included on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
61434	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is widespread on several islands. The nominate subspecies occurs on Praslin, Curieuse, Chauve Souris, Round, Denis, and Platte (its presence on Desroches, Marie-Louise and Poivre in the Amirantes Islands is probably due to introductions). The subspecies <em>P. s. longinsulae</em> occurs on Mahé (including St Anne, Cerf, Long Island and several other surrounding islands), Silhouette, North and Frégate Island (with presumably introduced populations on Menai Island within the Cosmoledo atoll and Remire Island in the Amirantes). The subspecies <em>P. s. ladiguensis</em> occurs on La Digue, Curieuse, Félicité, Coco, Petite Soeur, Grande Soeur and Marianne Islands. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 500 m.	eng
61434	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is an arboreal species found in all wooded habitats, but it is also adaptable and occurs in gardens and houses. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61434	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The global population was estimated at 36,310 ± 4,347 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep.). The population estimates of the subspecies were as follows: <em>P. s. sundbergi</em> - 3,663 ± 264 animals; <em>P. s. longinsulae</em> - 19,896 ± 1,703 animals; and <em>P. s. ladiguensis</em> - 12,751 ± 1,002 animals.	eng
61434	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no threats to this very adaptable species. There has been a small international pet trade, but this probably does not constitute a threat to the species.	eng
61435	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Present in the Morne Seychellois National Park and the  Aride Special Reserve.	eng
61435	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands, where it has been recorded on Mahé, Silhouette, North, Praslin, Cousin, Cousine,  Aride, Booby, Curieuse, Félicité, Grande Soeur, Cocos and Frégate  islands. It is found from sea level to at least 300 m.	eng
61435	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a cryptic species found under bark, in coconut palm axils and in rock crevices. It is occasionally found in buildings (behind batons or in window frames). Recorded locations are in or near coconut plantions, lowland forest and secondary forest. Most details of its ecology are unknown.	eng
61435	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	No population estimates have been made. It appears to be uncommon but is a cryptic species and its occasional presence in buildings suggests that it may be more abundant than has been assumed.	eng
61435	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no known threats. It appears to be adaptable to habitat change.	eng
61436	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It presumably occurs in several protected areas in Madagascar.	eng
61436	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is widely distributed in Madagascar, occurring in most parts of the country (even if only as isolated populations), and on the nearby islands of Nosy Be, Nosy Komba, Nosy Sakatia, and Nosy Tanikely. The subspecies <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is restricted to Cosmoledo atoll in the southern Seychelles, and to Grande Glorieuse in the Iles Glorieuse (France).	eng
61436	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It occurs in dry, open landscapes such as open forests, tree savannas, thornscrub, sand dunes, cultivated land (where they prefer the edges of fields), and gardens. It is predominantly a ground-dweller that can occasionally be found climbing on cliffs and tree trunks. On Cosmoledo, <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is found in open shrubland. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61436	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is generally a common species on Madagascar. The Cosmoledo population was estimated at approximately 4,260 ± 154 individuals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61436	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Overall there are no threats to this adaptable species. The subspecies <em>Z. m. insulanus</em> is restricted to low coral islands and is threatened by sea-level rise. These islands reach a maximum altitude of 8 m, but suitable habitat is restricted to a maximum altitude of only 1 m.	eng
61437	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois National Parks. The largest population (84% of the total) is on Silhouette island which is not  protected at present, and should be included in a new protected area.	eng
61437	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, where it occurs from mid-elevations (about 200 m) up to 800 m. In recent times on Mahé it has only been located at Mont Sebert, though it must once have been more widespread.	eng
61437	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a burrowing species found in tropical forest. It appears to be intolerant of disturbance to its forest habitat. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61437	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The global population was estimated at 36,042 ± 1,513 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61437	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) on Mahé island might be a threat that perhaps accounts for its very restricted distribution on this island. It is dependant on forest habitats so it is probably vulnerable to habitat loss or degradation resulting from the spread of alien plants.	eng
61438	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is probably present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. The largest population (42% of the total) is on Silhouette island which is not  protected at present, and should be included in a new protected area.	eng
61438	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is recorded from the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Curieuse, Félicité, La Digue and Frégate. It is a lowland species occurring up to 400 m. On Mahé the only recent record is from Mont Sebert, though it must once have been more widespread.	eng
61438	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a leaf-litter burrowing species that is found in lowland forest habitats. It appears to be intolerant of disturbance to its forest habitat. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61438	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The global population was estimated at 36,042 ± 1,513 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in press).	eng
61438	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>) are probably predators of this species on Mahé, accounting for the rarity of the species on that island (and possibly its absence from Praslin where it might once have occurred). It is dependant on forest habitats so it is probably vulnerable to habitat loss or degradation resulting from the spread of alien plants.	eng
61439	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.	eng
61439	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to the granitic Seychelles islands of: Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse and La Digue. It is found from sea level up to 500 m.	eng
61439	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a burrowing species found in leaf-litter in woodland.  It is mainly restricted to primary and regenerating native forest habitats. It does occur in secondary forest but at reduced densities.	eng
61439	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Its population was estimated at 170,895 ± 22,059 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in press). It is abundant in most areas.	eng
61439	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Populations on Mahé and Praslin are probably at reduced levels as a result of predation by introduced tenrecs (<em>Tenrec ecaudatus</em>), although these populations appear to be stable now. It is tolerant of current levels of habitat deterioration.	eng
61440	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks, and in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.	eng
61440	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it is naturally restricted to the granitic islands of Mahé (including St Anne, Cerf and other surrounding islands), Silhouette, Praslin, North, Aride, Cousin, Cousine, Curieuse, La Digue, Grande Soeur, Petite Soeur, Félicité, Frégate, and others. It has also introduced to the Amirantes Islands (Remire, D'Arros, St. Joseph, Farquhar) in the southern Seychelles. It occurs up to 550 m.	eng
61440	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is a widespread and highly adaptable species, being most abundant in lowland habitats. It is common in forest, shrubland, gardens, plantations, urban areas and degraded habitats, and also occurs in mangroves. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61440	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	The global population was estimated at 357,566 ± 105,010 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61440	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
61441	conservation	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is present in the Aride, Cousin and Cousine Special Reserves.	eng
61441	distribution	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	This species is endemic to Seychelles, where it occurs only on islands with seabird colonies: Aride, Cousin, Cousine, St. Pierre, Mammelles, Recifs and Frégate. There are records from Bird Island, but it is no longer present at this site (J. Gerlach pers. comm).	eng
61441	habitat	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	It is found only in seabird colonies in dry forest and shrubland, where it is a generalist scavenger and predator, living both terrestrially and arboreally. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61441	population	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	Although restricted to a tiny area, the population was estimated at 376,205 ± 5,409 animals in 2005 (Gerlach in prep).	eng
61441	threats	Gerlach, J. & Ineich, I., 2006	There are no direct threats, but the species is susceptible to the loss of the seabird colonies on which it depends; these are at risk from human disturbance.	eng
61442	conservation	Lowry, L., O?Corry-Crowe, G. & Goodman, D., 2006	Belugas, like all marine mammals, are protected in the United States by the MMPA which prohibits all taking.  Exemptions to the taking prohibition are allowed for subsistence hunting by Alaska Natives, scientific research, incidental take in commercial fisheries, and a few other activities.  In February 1999, the Alaska Region of NMFS recommended that the sale of Cook Inlet Beluga products (e.g., skin or muktuk as it is known locally) under the subsistence provisions of the MMPA should be prohibited or that a moratorium on the hunting of Cook Inlet belugas should be imposed.  In May 1999, the U.S. Congress passed legislation that prohibited the taking of Cook Inlet belugas for subsistence unless such taking was authorized by a cooperative agreement between NMFS and the affected Alaska Native organization(s), and as a result there was no legal harvest that year.  In 2000 a harvest of one whale was authorized by a cooperative agreement, but the hunt did not occur (Mahoney and Shelden 2000).  In May 2000, NMFS, having determined that the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation was below its optimum sustainable population level, designated it as depleted under the MMPA (U.S. Federal Register 65:34590).  The depleted listing provided NMFS with the regulatory authority to limit the Alaska Native subsistence harvest.  An interim harvest regime was agreed upon through an Administrative Law Judge hearing, whereby the harvest during 2001?2004 would be limited to six strikes.  Other provisions limited the hunting season, protected calves and adults with calves, prohibited sales of beluga parts and products, and provided for an emergency suspension of the hunt if an unusual number of non-hunting mortalities occurred (NMFS 2003).  Hunting would only be allowed through cooperative agreements between NMFS and Alaska Native organizations. <br/> <br/>In June 1991, NMFS added the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation to the list of taxa considered candidates for listing as threatened or endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) (U.S. Federal Register 56:26797).  An ESA status review was initiated in November 1998 (U.S. Federal Register 63:64228).  NMFS received two petitions in March 1999 requesting that Cook Inlet belugas be listed as endangered under the ESA.  In June 2000, NMFS published a determination that listing the Cook Inlet subpopulation under the ESA was not warranted because they believed that no factor other than harvest had been identified at that time as having a significant adverse effect on the population (U.S. Federal Register 65:38778), and that harvest had been dealt with through the ongoing regulation of subsistence hunting.	eng
61442	distribution	Lowry, L., O?Corry-Crowe, G. & Goodman, D., 2006	Resident in Cook Inlet (near Anchorage, Alaska; see Figure 2 in the attached PDF) throughout the year with few sightings in the Gulf of Alaska outside of the Inlet (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000).  During the 1970s, the summer distribution included the upper, central, and parts of the lower regions of the inlet, and both coastal and offshore waters (Harrison and Hall 1978, Murray and Fay 1979).  The current summer distribution is restricted to shallow coastal and estuarine areas in the upper inlet (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000, Speckman and Piatt 2000).  Although winter sightings have been rare historically, belugas were presumed to move to the lower (i.e., southern) regions of Cook Inlet in winter to avoid heavy ice conditions in the upper Inlet (Calkins 1986).  However, recent results from aerial surveys (Hansen and Hubbard 1999, Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2004) and satellite-linked tagging studies (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005) indicate that many if not all belugas remain in the upper Inlet throughout the winter.  During 2000?2003 some tagged belugas used Knik and Turnagain  arms during all months of the year, and the tagged animals rarely ranged south of the Forelands.  The area of upper Cook Inlet now most used by belugas (stippled region in Figure 2) covers approximately 3,800 km², and this figure provides an estimate of the minimum size of the area of occupancy.  The portion of central Cook Inlet from the Forelands to Iniskin and Kachemak bays where occasional sightings have been made in recent years (see Figure 2) includes an additional area of approximately 7,500 km².  The current extent of occurrence is therefore on the order of 11,000 km².  A comparison of distributional information across the records of summer surveys in different years revealed a decrease in sightings of whales in both the offshore areas and the lower regions of the inlet, indicating a reduction in the area of occupancy during this season since the mid-1970s (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Population Identity:</strong> <br/>Based on studies of mitochondrial DNA, Cook Inlet belugas are genetically distinct from the other four Beluga subpopulations that occur in western and northern Alaska (O?Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997, G. O?Corry-Crowe pers. comm.).  There have been only two Beluga sightings recorded in the region between Cook Inlet and the nearest Beluga subpopulation in Bristol Bay (Frost and Lowry 1990, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000), suggesting that the 900 km long Alaska Peninsula is an effective barrier to movement and that the Cook Inlet subpopulation is geographically and reproductively isolated from Beluga subpopulations to the west (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF).  A thorough review of survey effort in the Gulf of Alaska (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) produced regular sightings of belugas in only two regions, Cook Inlet and Yakutat Bay.  The Beluga group in Yakutat Bay is very small, probably numbering only 10?20 individuals (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000, O'Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 2006).  The demographic and genetic relationships between belugas in Cook Inlet and Yakutat Bay are currently poorly known, but since animals are seen in both areas year round (Hubbard <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) and there have been very few sightings in the intervening 700 km long region (Laidre <em>et al</em>. 2000) it is possible that the Cook Inlet subpopulation is also isolated from the whales in Yakutat Bay.  The occurrence of belugas in Yakutat Bay will not be considered further in this evaluation. <br/> <br/>Dedicated aerial surveys for belugas have been conducted mostly in the summer concentration areas, Yakutat Bay and Cook Inlet.  However, the adjacent and intervening areas of the Gulf of Alaska are frequently surveyed by marine mammal researchers studying other species, and are regularly traversed by fishermen and other coastal residents who commonly report unusual marine mammal sightings.  We consider the lack of reported sightings in these regions to be a reliable indication that the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation is geographically isolated.	eng
61442	habitat	Lowry, L., O?Corry-Crowe, G. & Goodman, D., 2006	Cook Inlet is a very dynamic environment with large tides, strong currents, and seasonal sea ice cover (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  During aerial surveys flown in June and July 1993?2000 Beluga whales were seen exclusively in shallow, nearshore, low-salinity waters of upper Cook Inlet, especially off the mouths of large rivers and in Knik and Turnagain arms (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Belugas are believed to concentrate in those areas to feed on out-migrating salmon smolt and spawning runs of anadromous fishes (Calkins 1984, 1986; Rugh <em>et al</em>. 2000; Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Also, the shallow waters of the upper Inlet and coastal zone may provide refuge from predators and suitable habitat for calving and nursing (Rugh <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Satellite-linked telemetry studies showed a tendency for belugas to spend more time in deeper offshore waters of the upper Inlet during winter months, although they continued to use Knik and Turnagain arms (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
61442	population	Lowry, L., O?Corry-Crowe, G. & Goodman, D., 2006	Aerial counts of belugas in Cook Inlet date to the early 1960s (Klinkhart 1966) but those efforts generally produced only minimum counts and/or rough estimates of abundance.  The best available estimate of historical population size is based on an aerial survey count of 479 whales made in August 1979 (Calkins 1989), and a correction factor for missed animals of 2.7 that was derived from studies of radiotagged belugas in Bristol Bay, Alaska (Frost <em>et al</em>. 1985).  Using those figures NMFS (2003) calculated a minimum abundance estimate of 1,293 whales.  Annual systematic surveys to estimate total abundance began in 1993, and the protocols used have been consistent since 1994. Annual estimates of abundance declined from 653 (CV = 0.43) in 1993 to 435 (CV = 0.23) in 2000 and Monte Carlo simulations indicated a 47% probability that there was a decline of at least 50% over the period 1994?1998 (Hobbs <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Subsequent abundance estimates have been 386 (CV = 0.09) in 2001, 313 (CV = 0.12) in 2002, 357 (CV = 0.11) in 2003, 366 (CV=0.20) in 2004, and 278 (CV=0.18) in 2005 (D. Rugh and R. Hobbs pers. comm.).  <br/> <br/>Differences in survey design and analytical techniques prior to 1994 rule out a precise statistical assessment of trends using the first available population estimate.  Simply comparing the estimate of 1,293 in 1979 to 278 in 2005 indicates a 78% decline in 26 years, but with unspecified confidence.   <br/> <br/>The 1994?2005 surveys were statistically defined, and allow rigorous evaluation of the decline and the underlying population dynamics during the more recent period.  A Bayesian inference was conducted on the underlying rate of increase, R<sub><em>max</em></sub>, and the true 1994 population size, using the Taylor and DeMaster (1993) model for density dependent population growth with the conventional shape parameter value <em>z</em>=2.3898, an assumed value of <em>K</em>=1,300 (based roughly on the earliest survey estimate), fitting to the 1994 through 2005 time series of population estimates, reported coefficients of variation of the respective estimates, and the harvest estimates (D. Goodman unpublished).  The results of annual estimates of population size from the model are shown in Figure 3 (see the attached PDF).  Comparing the mode of the Bayesian distribution for the 2005 population size (329) to the 1979 estimate indicates a decline of 75% over the 26-year period. <br/> <br/>In the present model, R<sub><em>max</em></sub> represents the growth rate that the population would exhibit in the absence of crowding and the absence of harvest, all other things (including favorability of the environmental state) being equal, as revealed from observed growth in the given data set.  Thus, R<sub><em>max</em></sub> does not necessarily indicate the potential growth rate under optimal conditions.  The Bayesian analysis used broad independent uniform priors for the two unknown parameters, and a normal likelihood for the observation error in the census.  The Bayesian analysis yielded a posterior distribution for Rmax  that is abnormally low (see Figure 4 in attached PDF) compared to the expectation that a small cetacean population should have a value of R<sub><em>max</em></sub> in the range from 2% to 6%, with the average expected to be around 4% (Wade 1999).  Based on this analysis the probability is 99% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> for the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation is less than the expected average normal value, and the probability is 93% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> is lower than the expected normal range.  The probability is 71% that R<sub><em>max</em></sub> is actually negative for this population over the period covered by the data (1994?2005). The modal estimate of R<sub><em>max</em></sub> from the Bayesian inference is -1.2, indicating a population that is declining by about 1% per year.  If these underlying dynamics continue, and the future harvest is zero, there is a 22% probability that the population will be further halved from its 2005 abundance within 30 years.   <br/> <br/>To evaluate taxa based on Red List Criteria, IUCN defines population size as the number of mature individuals.  There are no data available on the sex and age composition of the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation or on the age at which animals attain sexual maturity.  Such information is available from other harvested Beluga subpopulations, and although the data may be subject to biases from non-random distribution of sex/age classes and harvest selectivity it can be used to estimate the number of animals that are mature.  Critical to this determination is the ability to accurately determine the age of individuals, which for Beluga whales and other toothed cetaceans is typically done by counting growth layer groups (GLGs) in their teeth.  For Beluga whales it has generally been assumed that two GLGs are deposited each year (Burns and Seaman 1986, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994, Suydam 1999).  Hohn and Lockyer (1999) questioned that assumption, citing what they regarded as convincing evidence of a one GLG/yr deposition rate.  However, examination of teeth from two known age captive animals has confirmed the two GLG/yr assumption (Goren <em>et al</em>. 1987, Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994) and we will assume that is the true situation.  For the eastern Bering and eastern Chukchi seas, Burns and Seaman (1986) estimated the first age of sexual maturity to be 4?7 years old for females.  Heide-Jørgensen and Teilmann (1994) produced estimates of 4?7 years old for first age of maturity for females and 6?7 years old for males for West Greenland belugas.  Based on the life table in Burns and Seaman (1986), 63% of belugas in western Alaska would be 6 years old and older.  However, the proportion capable of reproduction may be somewhat less if reproductive senescence occurs in older females (Burns and Seaman 1986, Suydam 1999).  The Bayesian inference procedure described above delivered a posterior distribution for the 2005 population size (see Figure 5 in the attached PDF).  This shows a 95% probability that the population is in the interval 278?388.  Using the mode of the Bayesian distribution of population sizes (329) and the estimate of 63% mature gives an estimate of 207 mature individuals in the population. <br/> <br/><strong>Generation Time:</strong> <br/>Generation time, estimated as the average age of parents of the current cohort, cannot be calculated directly for Cook Inlet belugas because data on reproductive characteristics and age distribution are lacking for that population.  Elsewhere in Alaska, the age of first parenthood for female belugas is 5-8 years (Burns and Seaman 1986).  Males probably are physiologically capable of breeding at about the same age (Heide-Jørgensen and Teilmann 1994). Maximum ages recorded by Burns and Seaman (1986) were 35 years for females and 38 years for males.  These estimates may be biased low due to tooth wear (Heide-Jørgensen <em>et al</em>. 1994).  Based on the life table in Burns and Seaman (1986), the average age of belugas 6 years and older was 16.1 years.  We have no way to determine if these vital parameters are similar for Cook Inlet belugas.  Nonetheless, we consider 16 years to be the best available estimate of the average age of parents in the Cook Inlet subpopulation, and the generation time.	eng
61442	threats	Lowry, L., O?Corry-Crowe, G. & Goodman, D., 2006	Moore <em>et al</em>. (2000) reviewed potential threats to Cook Inlet belugas from natural catastrophes (fires, earthquakes, and vulcanism) and found no reported negative effects on belugas or their habitat.  Availability of prey likely has a strong influence on the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Few data are available on prey abundance except for the commercially harvested salmon species.  Speckman and Piatt (2000) speculated that availability of Beluga prey species may have changed in the lower Inlet as part of a general regime shift in the Gulf of Alaska.  Local residents perceive that there has been a general decline in the abundance of fish in Cook Inlet in recent years (Huntington 2000).  It is also possible, if not likely, that climatic warming may change characteristics of the Cook Inlet environment and fauna in ways that will effect Beluga whales, but currently there are no data that can be used to evaluate this possibility. <br/> <br/>Shelden <em>et al</em>. (2003) reviewed data on Killer Whale predation in Cook Inlet, and although they accounted for 21 belugas killed by killer whales between 1985 and 2002 they concluded that predation was a small contribution to overall mortality.  However, because this population is currently at a very low size, normal fluctuations in prey availability and predation may affect its ability to recover. <br/> <br/>Prior to 1972 there were periodic commercial and sport hunts for Beluga in Cook Inlet (Mahoney and Shelden 2000, NMFS 2003), but those activities ceased with passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA).  Native Alaskans have hunted belugas in Cook Inlet from earliest times (Huntington 2000, Mahoney and Shelden 2000).  During much of the last century, subsistence removals appear to have been modest.  A number of factors, including rapid human population growth and improvements in equipment, resulted in an increase in subsistence hunting in Cook Inlet during the 1980s.  By the mid to late 1990s, the harvest was unsustainable.  It has been estimated that an average of 67 whales were removed each year from 1994-1998, and that level was considered sufficiently high to account for most of the decline in abundance observed during that period (NMFS 2003).  There was no legal harvest allowed in 1999.  Since 2000, NMFS has entered into annual co-management agreements with Alaska Native organizations to allow a limited hunt, and five whales total were harvested during 2000-2005 (Angliss and Lodge 2004, B. Mahoney pers. comm.).  Other factors must be invoked to account for the abnormally low underlying growth rate (R<sub><em>max</em></sub>) exhibited by the population, or to account for the failure to show signs of recovery since the reduction of the harvest to very low levels.  <br/> <br/>Other factors that could have an adverse effect on Cook Inlet belugas include fishery interactions, contaminants and noise associated with oil and gas exploration and production, vessel traffic, and municipal activities such as waste management and urban runoff (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, NMFS 2003).  In the course of a review of subsistence harvest management, NMFS concluded that the available evidence could not persuasively attribute much past influence to these non-harvest factors and further asserted that they were unlikely to affect the Cook Inlet Beluga subpopulation in the foreseeable future (NMFS 2003). The NMFS analysis did not recognize that the subpopulation was failing to recover as expected or that the evident R<sub><em>max</em></sub> was abnormally low.  The quality and quantity of data for describing impacts or predicting effects of such factors on belugas vary greatly.  Levels of heavy metals, PCBs, and chlorinated pesticides are much lower in Cook Inlet belugas than in other Beluga stocks in Alaska (Becker <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Observer programs and other reports indicate that current incidental take in commercial fisheries is very low (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000, Angliss and Lodge 2004).  However, evaluating the effects of noise is complicated, determining the impact of municipal discharges may not be possible, and no data are available to describe or predict the effects of an oil spill on belugas.  Nonetheless, the fact remains that Cook Inlet is no longer a remote, pristine area.  Over 350,000 people live in the municipality of Anchorage and the two adjacent boroughs, and there are two large military bases in the area (NMFS 2003).  The analysis by NMFS concluded that: "A significant part of the habitat for this species has been modified by municipal, industrial, and recreational activities in Upper Cook Inlet" (NMFS 2003, p. 88).  A number of other significant habitat modifications are likely to occur in the near future. <br/> <br/>Random demographic, environmental, and genetic factors can accelerate or even cause the extinction of small populations.  Catastrophic events such as mass die-offs due to stranding, disease, or acute exposure to toxic substances (e.g., oil spills) could push depleted populations of belugas to extinction (O?Corry-Crowe and Lowry 1997).  Mass strandings of belugas are relatively common in the shallow tidal areas of upper Cook Inlet.  Although most stranded individuals manage to swim away on the rising tide, some are known to die (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2000).  The viability of small populations is further compromised by the increased risk of inbreeding and the loss of genetic variability through drift, which reduces their ability to cope with disease and environmental change (Lacy 1997, O?Corry-Crowe and Lowry 1997).  Estimates of genetic variation do not, at present, suggest that Cook Inlet belugas are highly inbred or that a critical amount of genetic variation has been lost through drift (O?Corry-Crowe <em>et al</em>. 1997, G. O?Corry-Crowe unpublished data), but this subpopulation is already in a size range where eventual loss of genetic variability is expected.	eng
61443	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	Much of its range is within a State Forest protected area. There is some public education through a local snake park.	eng
61443	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This species is limited to the Troodos massif and foothills of western Cyprus. There are very few known localities. It ranges from around 500 to 1,400m asl.	eng
61443	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This snake can be found in humid areas with dense bushes, close to water or within forests. Irregularly feeds on amphibians, and may be found close to dams and similar areas where prey are often more abundant.	eng
61443	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	It is an uncommon species.	eng
61443	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	It is generally threatened by persecution by local people and tourists, and through ongoing logging of forest habitat in the Troodos Mountains.	eng
61444	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumluta?, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive as a priority species. This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
61444	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumlutaş, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive as a priority species. This species is present in many protected areas.	eng
61444	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumluta?, 2009	This species is present in southern Italy (only in Apulia, adjoining Basilicata and Sicily) and Malta, and also ranges from southern Croatia (including the Adriatic islands), through southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, Albania (littoral zone), Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean parts of Macedonia, southern Bulgaria and most Greece (including a number of Ionian and Aegean islands), east to Turkey (western Anatolia) and the Crimea of Ukraine. It has been recorded from Cyprus, but the record requires verification. This species is found from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61444	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumlutaş, 2008	This species is present in southern Italy (only in Apulia, adjoining Basilicata and Sicily) and Malta, and also ranges from southern Croatia (including the Adriatic islands), through southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, Albania (littoral zone), Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean parts of Macedonia, southern Bulgaria and most Greece (including a number of Ionian and Aegean islands), east to Turkey (western Anatolia) and the Crimea of Ukraine. It has been recorded from Cyprus, but the record requires verification. This species is found from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61444	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumluta?, 2009	This species is often found in scrubland, macchia, karst habitats, field edges, marshes, stream edges, vineyards, olive groves, on stone walls, and in rural gardens and buildings.  It can be very common in small villages or other modified rural areas. The females lay about two to eight eggs in a clutch.	eng
61444	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumlutaş, 2008	This species is often found in scrubland, macchia, karst habitats, field edges, marshes, stream edges, vineyards, olive groves, on stone walls, and in rural gardens and buildings.  It can be very common in small villages or other modified rural areas. The females lay about two to eight eggs in a clutch.	eng
61444	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumluta?, 2009	This species is generally common. In the Balkans it is a common to uncommon species. In Italy it is usually rare, but locally it can be a common species. It is said to be declining in Albania. In Turkey, it is generally common.	eng
61444	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumlutaş, 2008	This species is generally common. In the Balkans it is a common to uncommon species. In Italy it is usually rare, but locally it can be a common species. It is said to be declining in Albania. In Turkey, it is generally common.	eng
61444	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumluta?, 2009	This species is popular for the pet trade which is a major threat in some areas. It is threatened in some parts of its range (e.g., Albania) by habitat loss through the intensification of agriculture.	eng
61444	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Claudia Corti, Idriz Haxhiu, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Yusuf Kumlutaş, 2008	This species is popular for the pet trade which is a major threat in some areas. It is threatened in some parts of its range (e.g., Albania) by habitat loss through the intensification of agriculture.	eng
61445	conservation	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species is found in the protected areas of Arz Al-Shouf and Horj Ehden in Lebanon, and in the Hermon Reserve in Israeli-occupied Syria.	eng
61445	distribution	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species has been recorded from high mountain regions in Lebanon and Syria from about 1,000 to around 2,200 m asl. It is present on the Mount Lebanon Range, the Anti-Lebanon Range and Mount Hermon (in Israeli-occupied Syria), and is also present on Jabel Al Arab (Druz), Syria.	eng
61445	habitat	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	It is found in cedar forests, alpine grasslands and amongst cushion-type vegetation and rocks. This species gives birth to between two and 18 young.	eng
61445	population	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	It can be common in suitable habitat.	eng
61445	threats	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This is a restricted range species that is threatened in Lebanon by overgrazing of habitat by sheep and goats, and also through degradation of suitable habitat through the use of off-road vehicles. On Mount Hermon it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the skiing industry.	eng
61446	conservation	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in Port-Cros National Park, Parc National Corse (Corsica), Reserve Naturelle Scandola (Corsica), RN Lavezzi (Corsica), and RN Iles Marseilles (all in France) and in Parco Naturale dell' Uccelline in Tuscany (Italy). On Pianosa Island (Tuscany), an eradication programme has been carried out against feral cats.	eng
61446	conservation	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in Port-Cros National Park, Parc National Corse (Corsica), Reserve Naturelle Scandola (Corsica), RN Lavezzi (Corsica), and RN Iles Marseilles (all in France) and in Parco Naturale dell' Uccelline in Tuscany (Italy). On Pianosa Island (Tuscany), an eradication programme has been carried out against feral cats.	eng
61446	distribution	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) and most of the surrounding satellite islets of both Corsica and Sardinia. It is also found on a number of smaller offshore islands of France (Port-Cros and Le Levant in the Iles d'Hyeres, and nine small islands near Marseilles), and Italy (Elba, Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, and Giglio). There are also a few coastal mainland colonies in Tuscany and Liguria (Italy) (including at Monte Argentario, Piombino and Genoa), and in extreme southeastern France. It is also present on Cani Island and Galita Island, Tunisia. It can be found up to 1,500m asl, but is less common at high altitudes.	eng
61446	distribution	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) and most of the surrounding satellite islets of both Corsica and Sardinia. It is also found on a number of smaller offshore islands of France (Port-Cros and Le Levant in the Iles d'Hyeres, and nine small islands near Marseilles), and Italy (Elba, Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, and Giglio). There are also a few coastal mainland colonies in Tuscany and Liguria (Italy) (including at Monte Argentario, Piombino and Genoa), and in extreme southeastern France. It is also present on Cani Island and Galita Island, Tunisia. It can be found up to 1,500m asl, but is less common at high altitudes.	eng
61446	habitat	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This strictly nocturnal species is generally found in rocky areas, such as cliffs, boulders and stone walls in agricultural land. It largely avoids areas of maquis vegetation, woodland and urban environments (although it may be encountered in abandoned houses). The females lay two to three clutches of two eggs annually.	eng
61446	habitat	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This strictly nocturnal species is generally found in rocky areas, such as cliffs, boulders and stone walls in agricultural land. It largely avoids areas of maquis vegetation, woodland and urban environments (although it may be encountered in abandoned houses). The females lay two to three clutches of two eggs annually.	eng
61446	population	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species can be relatively abundant within suitable habitat. Mainland populations and those on larger islands are more threatened, but the species tends to be more secure on small islands. It might be more common than is expected because it is easily overlooked.	eng
61446	population	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	The species can be relatively abundant within suitable habitat. Mainland populations and those on larger islands are more threatened, but the species tends to be more secure on small islands. It might be more common than is expected because it is easily overlooked.	eng
61446	threats	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	On Corsica and Sardinia it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from fires and urbanization. The threats to populations on the offshore islands of Tunisia are not known. The mainland Italian population at Genoa, and French mainland populations, are probably threatened. On small islands, populations can be threatened by the introduction of predators (e.g. domestic cats).	eng
61446	threats	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	On Corsica and Sardinia it is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from fires and urbanization. The threats to populations on the offshore islands of Tunisia are not known. The mainland Italian population at Genoa, and French mainland populations, are probably threatened. On small islands, populations can be threatened by the introduction of predators (e.g. domestic cats).	eng
61447	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. In Spain it is present in the National Parks of Ordesa-Monte Perdido and Aigüestortes-Estany de Sant Maurici, the Biosphere Reserve of Ordesa-Viñamala, the Natural Park of Posets-Maladeta and a number of other protected areas.	eng
61447	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present in the central Pyrenees Mountains of France and Spain. It ranges from 1,580 to 3,060 m asl.	eng
61447	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in subalpine and alpine habitats and is most commonly found in rocky slopes, outcrops and similar areas, sometimes close to alpine meadows. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61447	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It may be locally common in suitable habitat, being more abundant in subalpine habitats. The populations are fragmented by unsuitable habitat, but are probably stable.	eng
61447	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is also possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.	eng
61448	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and it occurs in a number of protected areas in the Cantabrian Mountains. It occurs in the Serra da Estrela Natural Park in Portugal. The development of an action plan has begun in Portugal.	eng
61448	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present in the Cantabrian Mountains and in Galicia in northwestern Spain, and in the Serra da Estrela in central Portugal. Its populations are severely fragmented. It ranges from sea-level in Galicia to 2,000m asl.	eng
61448	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In most places, this is a mountainous species often found close to the tree-line in damp habitats, where it can be found in areas of scrub and boulders. In Galicia it also occurs in lowland forest close to the sea, sometimes close to streams. The females lay three to ten eggs in a clutch and may have one to three clutches annually.	eng
61448	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can occur at high densities where the habitat is suitable, but it is very localized. Some populations are in decline.	eng
61448	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The populations of this species are highly fragmented and threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, silviculture and tourism. Populations in Galicia have been declining through the habitat loss to fire, and the loss of suitable rocky areas.	eng
61449	conservation	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Andreas Meyer, Benedikt Schmidt, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005) and is protected by national legislation.	eng
61449	distribution	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Andreas Meyer, Benedikt Schmidt, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges from northeastern Spain; western, southern, eastern and northeastern France; and southern Switzerland, through most of Italy, to southwestern Slovenia and northern Croatia. It is present on the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France), Sardinia, Sicily and most other Italian islands, Krk (Croatia), and Malta. The species may occur in Luxembourg, but this requires verification. The species is absent from Austria. It has also been translocated to the island of Gyaros (Greece) in the Aegean Sea where it was previously recognized as a distinct species <em>Hierophis gyarosensis</em>. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
61449	habitat	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Andreas Meyer, Benedikt Schmidt, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in dry, open, well vegetated habitats. It occurs in scrubland, macchia, open woodland (deciduous and mixed), heathland, cultivated areas, dry river beds, rural gardens, road verges, stone walls and ruins. The species lays four to 15 eggs.	eng
61449	population	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Andreas Meyer, Benedikt Schmidt, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be a very common species.	eng
61449	threats	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Andreas Meyer, Benedikt Schmidt, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is locally threatened by high accidental mortality on roads, especially close to urban or tourist areas, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species overall.  It is also persecuted throughout its range because people mistakenly believe it to be venomous.  It is not known to be collected in significant numbers. It is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to intensive agricultural use in Switzerland (Andreas Meyer pers. comm.).	eng
61450	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	In Lebanon it is present in two protected areas, and it is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Cyprus.  More research is needed in to understand the taxonomic diversity of this genus, particularly in southern Turkey.	eng
61450	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	In Lebanon it is present in two protected areas, and it is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Cyprus.  More research is needed in to understand the taxonomic diversity of this genus, particularly in southern Turkey.	eng
61450	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species occurs in southern Turkey (from eastern part of the Taurus Mountains, the Amanos Mountains and the Mediterraenan coast), in Syria (west of the Orontes River), and throughout Lebanon and Cyprus.	eng
61450	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species occurs in southern Turkey (from eastern part of the Taurus Mountains, the Amanos Mountains and the Mediterraenan coast), in Syria (west of the Orontes River), and throughout Lebanon and Cyprus.	eng
61450	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in the leaf litter of woodland, forested and shrubby humid areas. It can be found in rural gardens. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61450	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is found in the leaf litter of woodland, forested and shrubby humid areas. It can be found in rural gardens. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61450	population	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
61450	population	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is a common species.	eng
61450	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey. There appear to be no threats to this species in Cyprus. It is possible that deforestation is a threat to this species in Lebanon.	eng
61450	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is threatened by forest fires in Turkey. There appear to be no threats to this species in Cyprus. It is possible that deforestation is a threat to this species in Lebanon.	eng
61451	conservation	Werner, Y., Disi, M., Mousa Disi, A.M., Crochet, P-A. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is present in protected areas in Jordan, Israel and Egypt. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need for further research into the distribution range and taxonomy of this species (there may be two species present in Jordan).	eng
61451	distribution	Werner, Y., Disi, M., Mousa Disi, A.M., Crochet, P-A. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species occurs in northern and central Israel, northern and western Jordan, and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt (population in the southern Sinai Peninsula, and a single record from northeastern Sinai). There is an unconfirmed record from southern Lebanon (not mapped here). There are currently no records from Syria, although it is possible that the species is present in this country. It is found up to around 1,600 m asl (Sinai).	eng
61451	habitat	Werner, Y., Disi, M., Mousa Disi, A.M., Crochet, P-A. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is found in the leaf litter of woodland, forested and shrubby humid areas. It is highly localised at specific sites with dense vegetation. In Egypt, it is found in vegetation surrounding oasis and similar microhabitats. It can be found in rural gardens and traditionally cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61451	population	Werner, Y., Disi, M., Mousa Disi, A.M., Crochet, P-A. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a locally uncommon species.	eng
61451	threats	Werner, Y., Disi, M., Mousa Disi, A.M., Crochet, P-A. & El Din, S.B., 2006	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some localised habitat loss through general deforestation. On Sinai, the loss of traditionally farmed orchards could have a negative impact.	eng
61452	conservation	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	It is not believed to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61452	distribution	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	This is a recently described species from central Jordan. It is believed to have a relatively small range and is thought to be restricted to a specific habitat type.	eng
61452	habitat	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	It is found on hard clay soils, with small shrubs, in semi-desert. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61452	population	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	It is relatively common within suitable habitat. There are substantial fluctuations in population size related to rainfall.	eng
61452	threats	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	Much of the habitat of this species (in particular the hard crust substrate) is threatened, or has been destroyed, by intensive agriculture, urbanisation and trampling by grazing animals.	eng
61453	conservation	Geniez, P. & Miras, J.A.M., 2006	This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61453	distribution	Geniez, P. & Miras, J.A.M., 2006	This species is endemic to northern Algeria where it has a localised and fragmented distribution in the Hauts Plateaux and on the Aureus-Kabili mountains. It is found up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
61453	habitat	Geniez, P. & Miras, J.A.M., 2006	This species is found in open, stony ground with sparse plant cover. It is not usually found in dune areas. Its reproduction is largely unknown, but it is presumably an oviparous species.	eng
61453	population	Geniez, P. & Miras, J.A.M., 2006	It is locally common on Aureus-Kabili, but it is rare in its western range of the Sersou Plateau. Its population is stable in the Aureus mountains, but its status is unknown elsewhere.	eng
61453	threats	Geniez, P. & Miras, J.A.M., 2006	This species has a restricted range with a fragmented habitat.	eng
61454	conservation	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	A small portion of the former range of this species is within protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61454	distribution	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	This species is endemic to the Irano-Turanian region of south-central Israel. The map shows the extent of the historic distribution, within which very few fragmented populations remain.	eng
61454	habitat	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	The species inhabits loess plains with sparse shrub cover. The females may have between three and seven eggs. It is not found in agricultural areas. Animals hide under stones and in holes in the ground, and the species digs burrows under the 'green crust' substrate.	eng
61454	population	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	It used to be common species, but is now very rare because of habitat loss.	eng
61454	threats	Werner, Y., Disi, M. & Mousa Disi, A.M., 2006	Much of the habitat of this species (especially the 'green crust') has been destroyed by intensive agriculture, urbanisation, and trampling by grazing animals. It is relatively easily caught by birds, such as falcons, egrets and shrikes, and the abundance of these predatory birds in the area is increasing with ongoing tree planting.	eng
61455	conservation	Nouira, M.S. & Joger, U., 2006	The species is not known to be present in any protected areas.	eng
61455	distribution	Nouira, M.S. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is known from coastal, and some inland, regions of northwestern and northeastern Tunisia, and adjacent northern Algeria. It occurs from sea level up to 900 m asl.	eng
61455	habitat	Nouira, M.S. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is found in semi-arid habitats with open vegetation, at coastal sites, in dunes with plant growth, and in areas of clay substrate with shrubs or sparse <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. It has also been recorded from pine forests. The species generally avoids rocky locations. It is an oviparous species.	eng
61455	population	Nouira, M.S. & Joger, U., 2006	It is rare throughout most of its range.	eng
61455	threats	Nouira, M.S. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat loss from agriculture, urbanization and coastal tourism. It may also be adversely impacted by competition with a more aggressive lizard species, <em>Acanthodactylus boskianus</em>.	eng
61456	conservation	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61456	conservation	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is protected by international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61456	distribution	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges from eastern Portugal to central and southern Spain, and from central and northern Morocco through northern Algeria, almost as far as the Tunisian border. There are isolated populations in western and southern Portugal. It may occur up to 1,750m asl in the Sierra Nevada of Spain, and up to 2,800m asl in Morocco, but it is more usually found below 400m asl.	eng
61456	distribution	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species ranges from eastern Portugal to central and southern Spain, and from central and northern Morocco through northern Algeria, almost as far as the Tunisian border. There are isolated populations in western and southern Portugal. It may occur up to 1,750m asl in the Sierra Nevada of Spain, and up to 2,800m asl in Morocco, but it is more usually found below 400m asl.	eng
61456	habitat	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally found in open, loose sandy areas, with some sparse vegetation. It can also occur in rockier habitats, open woodland, coastal areas and in traditionally cultivated fields. The females lay one or two clutches of one to eight eggs annually.	eng
61456	habitat	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is generally found in open, loose sandy areas, with some sparse vegetation. It can also occur in rockier habitats, open woodland, coastal areas and in traditionally cultivated fields. The females lay one or two clutches of one to eight eggs annually.	eng
61456	population	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
61456	population	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is a common species.	eng
61456	threats	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In view of its wide range with large amounts of suitable habitat, there appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from intensive agriculture (often by irrigation of formerly dry areas), increased urbanization and habitat fragmentation, particularly in northeastern Spain.	eng
61456	threats	Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In view of its wide range with large amounts of suitable habitat, there appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by habitat loss resulting from intensive agriculture (often by irrigation of formerly dry areas), increased urbanization and habitat fragmentation, particularly in northeastern Spain.	eng
61458	conservation	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., El Hassan, M., Tahar, S. & Nouira, S., 2006	While it is not currently known to occur in any protected areas, it is suspected to be present in some.	eng
61458	distribution	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., El Hassan, M., Tahar, S. & Nouira, S., 2006	This species ranges from western Morocco, through northern Algeria and much of Tunisia (including Kerkennah Island), to northwestern Libya. The population near Marrakesh in western Morocco is isolated from the main range. It occurs at elevations close to sea level up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
61458	habitat	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., El Hassan, M., Tahar, S. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is found on solid sandy substrate in arid or semi-arid regions, including dry river beds. The females lay between two and four eggs.	eng
61458	population	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., El Hassan, M., Tahar, S. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is a common species.	eng
61458	threats	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., El Hassan, M., Tahar, S. & Nouira, S., 2006	There are no major threats to this species at present. The isolated population in the Marrakech region inhabits dry river beds where sand is being removed for housing construction.	eng
61459	conservation	Nouira, S. & Geniez, P., 2006	There are no protected areas within the species' range. There is a need to establish a protected area for this species and other localised endemics in the area of the Sidi Mechig beaches.	eng
61459	distribution	Nouira, S. & Geniez, P., 2006	This recently described species is known only from four localities on the Sidi Mechig beaches of northern Tunisia. It occurs only at sea level.	eng
61459	habitat	Nouira, S. & Geniez, P., 2006	It lives in the dune systems with shrub and small dry river beds. The habitat of the species includes the only area of peat bog in Tunisia. The female lays a clutch of four to five eggs.	eng
61459	population	Nouira, S. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a locally uncommon species. The two largest populations have declined significantly in the past ten years.	eng
61459	threats	Nouira, S. & Geniez, P., 2006	Local people regularly visit and disturb the beaches where this species is found. There is a new port under construction within the range of the species and the population in Sidi Mechig has already considerably decreased. The development of greenhouse cultivation in the region and the building of a dam has also affected some populations.	eng
61460	conservation	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It may be present in the El Omayed protected area of Egypt, although this needs to be confirmed. National and possibly international legislation is needed to protect the species. Protected areas are needed to conserve the specific habitat-type in which this species exists.	eng
61460	distribution	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean coastal region of northern Egypt and northeastern Libya (Moravec <em>et al</em>. 1999, S. Baha El Din pers. comm). This is a lowland species.	eng
61460	habitat	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is restricted to semi-arid regions, in steppe with hard clay soils, adjacent to saline coastal areas. The females lay between three and seven eggs.	eng
61460	population	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It has decreased significantly in recent years due to loss of its habitat (W. Böhme pers. comm). It is now rare and localised (S. Baha El Din pers. comm).	eng
61460	threats	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is threatened over much of its range by habitat loss resulting from the intensification of agricultural practices, overgrazing by livestock, development of tourism, quarrying, collection of firewood and use of off-road vehicles. It is now restricted to a few fragments of suitable habitat. This species is commercially collected for the international pet trade (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
61461	conservation	Slimani, T., Miras, J.A.M., Geniez, P. & Joger, U., 2006	It has been recorded from the Chrea National Park in Algeria	eng
61461	distribution	Slimani, T., Miras, J.A.M., Geniez, P. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is currently considered to be restricted to coastal areas of northern Algeria, although it may possibly also occur in northeastern Morocco. It occurs from sea level up to 500 m asl.	eng
61461	habitat	Slimani, T., Miras, J.A.M., Geniez, P. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is found in sandy coastal areas and other low elevation Mediterranean habitats. The female lays between four and six eggs.	eng
61461	population	Slimani, T., Miras, J.A.M., Geniez, P. & Joger, U., 2006	It is very poorly known and has only been collected in a few sites.	eng
61461	threats	Slimani, T., Miras, J.A.M., Geniez, P. & Joger, U., 2006	This species is likely to be threatened by the urbanization and coastal tourism.	eng
61462	conservation	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is present in the Tyr Beach protected area in southern Lebanon (although it is disturbed by tourism at this site), and it is present in a number of protected areas in Cyprus and two protected areas in Israel. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is not found in any protected areas in Turkey. There is a need to further research the range of this species and to prevent additional habitat loss. There is also a need to investigate the possibilities of habitat restoration in coastal dune areas.	eng
61462	conservation	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is present in the Tyr Beach protected area in southern Lebanon (although it is disturbed by tourism at this site), and it is present in a number of protected areas in Cyprus and two protected areas in Israel. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is not found in any protected areas in Turkey. There is a need to further research the range of this species and to prevent additional habitat loss. There is also a need to investigate the possibilities of habitat restoration in coastal dune areas.	eng
61462	distribution	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is known from certain coastal areas in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is found in the following places: in coastal areas and riverbeds, but not high mountains in Cyprus; southern Turkey (two coastal records from one site in the Hatay Province); is fragmented range in coastal southern Lebanon (near Sidon and Tyrosin) and was also known from Beirut (although it is possibly extirpated from this site); and a narrow, fragmented coastal strip in Israel. The species might also occur in in Egypt, although this requires confirmation.	eng
61462	distribution	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is known from certain coastal areas in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is found in the following places: in coastal areas and riverbeds, but not high mountains in Cyprus; southern Turkey (two coastal records from one site in the Hatay Province); is fragmented range in coastal southern Lebanon (near Sidon and Tyrosin) and was also known from Beirut (although it is possibly extirpated from this site); and a narrow, fragmented coastal strip in Israel. The species might also occur in in Egypt, although this requires confirmation.	eng
61462	habitat	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found on coastal sand dunes (where there are no competing Acanthodactylus) or light soil close to the dunes. It can be found in newly created cultivated areas with sandy soil close to sand dune habitat.  In many areas, it cannot tolerate disturbance.  In Israel it can be found in open orchards with a suitable substrate. The females have a maximum clutch of four eggs.	eng
61462	habitat	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is found on coastal sand dunes (where there are no competing Acanthodactylus) or light soil close to the dunes. It can be found in newly created cultivated areas with sandy soil close to sand dune habitat.  In many areas, it cannot tolerate disturbance.  In Israel it can be found in open orchards with a suitable substrate. The females have a maximum clutch of four eggs.	eng
61462	population	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It can be fairly common in suitable fragments of habitat in Cyprus.  In Turkey, it is very rare.	eng
61462	population	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It can be fairly common in suitable fragments of habitat in Cyprus.  In Turkey, it is very rare.	eng
61462	threats	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is threatened by coastal urbanization, including the development of tourism facilities. It is also threatened by the extraction of sand from beaches for building, and human disturbance through the high numbers of tourists visiting sites. The population close to Beirut is believed to have been extirpated through loss of habitat through the construction of refugee camps. In Turkey, there is a major petrol pipeline project and industrial activities in its habitat and pollution from petrol and other industries threatens its restricted range.	eng
61462	threats	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is threatened by coastal urbanization, including the development of tourism facilities. It is also threatened by the extraction of sand from beaches for building, and human disturbance through the high numbers of tourists visiting sites. The population close to Beirut is believed to have been extirpated through loss of habitat through the construction of refugee camps. In Turkey, there is a major petrol pipeline project and industrial activities in its habitat and pollution from petrol and other industries threatens its restricted range.	eng
61463	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
61463	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is restricted to the Algerian Sahara Atlas Mountains and is only known from the oases Arba Tahtani and El Abiod-Sidi-Cheikh. It occurs up to 200 m asl.	eng
61463	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in open stony and flat sandy places (e.g., not sand dunes). The females lay a clutch of around eight eggs.	eng
61463	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is extremely localised and quite rare within this area. The last collections were made in 1901.	eng
61463	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The extent and quality of the species habitat is believed to be declining due to known development pressure within the region.	eng
61464	conservation	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is protected by international legislation and it occurs in several protected areas.	eng
61464	distribution	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) and some surrounding islets. It has been recorded from sea level to elevations of 1,800m asl on Corsica.	eng
61464	habitat	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in a range of Mediterranean-type habitats. The species can be found in forested areas, places with rich vegetation, scrubland and degraded vegetation, areas of sparse grass and rocky habitats. It may occur in cultivated land, and on dry stone walls. The species generally prefers semi-shaded sites and is often found close to water. Females lay clutches of two to four eggs.	eng
61464	population	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is widespread and rather common in Sardinia, localized and less abundant in Corsica. It might be more common than suspected because it can easily be overlooked.	eng
61464	threats	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threat to the species is forest and macchia fires. This species may be locally threatened by agricultural intensification (mainly on Sardinia) including the increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals.	eng
61465	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is protected by international and national legislation. The species range includes a few protected areas.	eng
61465	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to southern mainland Greece (the Peloponnese), the Ionian islands (Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zakynthos) and the Strofades islands. It is found from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
61465	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is generally found in shaded to semi-shaded areas of open woodland, hedges and on the edges of cultivated land. It is generally associated with damp areas. It hides in ground cover such as brushwood and leaf litter. The females have only a few eggs in each clutch.	eng
61465	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is not a common species. It has not been surveyed since the severe fires in the Peloponnese in 2007; this species inhabits leaf litter and may have been affected.	eng
61465	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It may be threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from fires, general deforestation, agricultural intensification and the development of tourism facilities. It is also locally persecuted in some places.	eng
61466	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is protected by international and national legislation (Appendix II of Bern Convention, Annex IV of EU Habitats Directive, national legislation e.g. in Greece). It is present in many protected areas. No immediate conservation actions are needed.	eng
61466	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species ranges along the eastern Adriatic coastal region from extreme northeastern Italy and southern Slovenia, southwards into coastal Croatia and a few river valleys in Bosnia-Herzegovina, through southern Serbia, Montenegro, Albania (where it is widespread except in the east), Macedonia (two isolated populations in the north and southwest) to western Greece. It is present on some Croatian Adriatic islands and on the Ionian islands of Greece (except Zakinthos). It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl (in Albania).	eng
61466	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in open woodlands, scrubland, hedges, bushes, on walls and in olive groves. In river valleys it can be found close to water on rocks and cliffs. The species can be found in urban areas. It is most often found in shaded or semi-shaded areas, although animals can be observed basking on rocks and tree trunks. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61466	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
61466	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Idriz Haxhiu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, although it appears to be a somewhat adaptable species. It may be locally threatened by habitat loss through fires, deforestation, agricultural intensification and the development of tourism facilities.	eng
61467	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The species range includes a few protected areas.	eng
61467	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is restricted to southern mainland Greece (the Peloponnese) and the Ionian islands of Lefkas, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. It has been recorded from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
61467	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It occurs in humid areas within meadows, scrubland, open forests (both deciduous and coniferous), hedgerows and wooded stream sides. It also occurs in rural gardens and traditionally farmed agricultural areas.	eng
61467	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is not a very common species. The species has not been surveyed since the severe Peloponnese fires in 2007, so the impact of this event is not known.	eng
61467	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It appears to be a reasonably adaptable species, but is generally killed when it is encountered. Human-caused fires (such as those in the Peloponnese in 2007) may be a threat.	eng
61468	conservation	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Patrick Haffner, 2008	Populations in Sardinia may be more sensitive to the threats and populations are strictly protected. This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive, and is protected by national and regional legislation in both countries. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
61468	distribution	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species occurs in rocky areas on the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy) where it has a very fragmented range. In Sardinia it has a very fragmented range. On these two large islands it occurs mainly from 550 to 2,550 m asl, but there are a few coastal populations, including in northern Sardinia and western and southern Corsica. It occurs on several smaller islands, including Foloca Island (France), the Maddalena Archipelago and the Isola Rossa di Trinita' d'Agulto (Italy). On smaller islands it occurs down to sea-level.	eng
61468	habitat	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This is typically a rock dwelling lizard, living on cliffs and open rocky areas (e.g. sparsely vegetated islets). It is also found in open woodland and scrubland. It can occur in semi-shaded areas close to streams. The females lay three to six eggs.	eng
61468	population	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species can be common at higher altitudes, especially in Corsica. At lower elevations and in Sardinia it occurs in very small areas, although large populations can be found locally.	eng
61468	threats	Claudia Corti, Marc Cheylan, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Patrick Haffner, 2008	Populations in the lowlands of Corsica are vulnerable because of the genetic isolation of many populations. Populations on both islands are threatened by the development of the tourist industry. Sardinian subspecies are vulnerable because they are severely fragmented and have an extremely small area of occupancy.	eng
61469	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by national legislation. It occurs in many protected areas. Further studies are needed into the threats, distribution and abundance for this species.	eng
61469	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It is found throughout Portugal and through most of central and southern Spain. It occurs from sea level up to 1,800m asl (in the Sierra Nevada).	eng
61469	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a subterranean species found in a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to burrow in and have a high level of humus. It occurs in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay a single egg.	eng
61469	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is difficult to determine the abundance of this species, but it appears to be most common in areas of sandy and moist soil.	eng
61469	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known; it might be locally threatened by urbanization. It is known to be eaten by wild boar <em>Sus scrofa</em>, which are expanding their distribution in Spain and Portugal, but the extent to which this constitutes a threat is unclear.	eng
61470	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It is known from certain protected areas in Morocco, including the Dunes d’Essaouira, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba.	eng
61470	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is endemic to Morocco where it is found on the Atlantic plains north of the Souss Valley, and on the north slope of the Moyen and Haut Atlas. It occurs up to 2,092 m asl.	eng
61470	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is generally found in moist, sandy soil under stones. It occurs in woodland, shrubland and in traditionally cultivated land. The females lay a single egg, possibly every year.	eng
61470	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It is not found often, but it is thought to be common to abundant where it is found.	eng
61470	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	The threats to this species are not well known. It may be threatened by intensification of agricultural practices in parts of its range. It is eaten by Wild boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>), but this is unlikely to constitute a serious threat.	eng
61471	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, 2008	It is known to exist in some Moroccan protected areas, notably Jbel Moussa, Tidighine, Marais Larache, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Jbel Tizirène, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, Bou Iblane, and Bou Naceur.	eng
61471	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, 2008	This species is endemic to Morocco and Ceuta (Spain). It is restricted to the Tingitana Peninsula, the Zebú River basin and the western half of the Rif. It is thought to extend to the edge of the Middle Atlas Mountains. It reaches an altitude of 1,500 m asl.	eng
61471	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, 2008	This is a fossorial species that is found in relatively humid soils containing humus. It can be found in woodland, scrub and traditionally cultivated areas.  It is an egg laying species, but the size of the clutch is not known.	eng
61471	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, 2008	The species is locally abundant in parts of its range.	eng
61471	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, 2008	It is threatened in local situations by habitat loss through intensification of agriculture, urbanization and soil erosion. It might be disturbed locally by wild boar, although this is unlikely to constitute a serious threat.	eng
61472	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation and it occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61472	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs widely in Spain (except the north) and Portugal, but is extremely patchy in its distribution, and is absent from many areas. It is found on the Atlantic islands of Islas Cíes, Ilha do Pessegueiro, Isla de Ons, and Isla de Sancti Petri, and is present on the Mediterranean islands of islas del Mar Menor and Isla de Nueva Tabarca. It is found from sea level to 1,750m asl.	eng
61472	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This diurnal species is associated with open, sandy areas with sparse vegetation. The species can also be found in scrubland and areas of open woodland, and can burrow into loose soil. It can live in lightly modified areas. The females give birth to one to four fully formed young.	eng
61472	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be quite abundant in areas of good ground cover, but is believed to be in significant decline, and most of its populations are highly fragmented. Some island populations have undergone significant decline.	eng
61472	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Modification of habitat, especially in coastal regions, has led to localized declines in this species. Some of the insular populations are considered to be threatened. Some populations are threatened through intensive afforestation of their habitat with pine trees (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). It is also probably affected by the impact of increasing Wild Boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>) populations.	eng
61473	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61473	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61473	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	In Europe this species occurs in Italy (where it is widespread south of the Po river), including the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Elba and on a number of smaller islands. In North Africa it is found in northeastern Algeria, northern Tunisia and northwestern Libya. It can be found from sea level up to 1,270m asl.	eng
61473	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	In Europe this species occurs in Italy (where it is widespread south of the Po river), including the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Elba and on a number of smaller islands. In North Africa it is found in northeastern Algeria, northern Tunisia and northwestern Libya. It can be found from sea level up to 1,270m asl.	eng
61473	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found in sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork-oak forest and the edges of cultivated areas. It can also be found in arid and degraded areas. The females give birth to three to thirteen fully formed young.	eng
61473	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is found in sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork-oak forest and the edges of cultivated areas. It can also be found in arid and degraded areas. The females give birth to three to thirteen fully formed young.	eng
61473	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is common in suitable habitats.	eng
61473	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is common in suitable habitats.	eng
61473	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species is not considered to be threatened over much of its range, but habitat loss through intensification of agriculture may be the main threat to the species in some areas. It is considered to be threatened in the freshwater/coastal zones of its range, especially as a result of habitat loss due to urbanization and tourism development.	eng
61473	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	The species is not considered to be threatened over much of its range, but habitat loss through intensification of agriculture may be the main threat to the species in some areas. It is considered to be threatened in the freshwater/coastal zones of its range, especially as a result of habitat loss due to urbanization and tourism development.	eng
61474	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is known to exist in protected areas such as Jbel Moussa, Parc National Talassemtane, Trois fourches, Marais Larache, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Brikcha, Jbel Tizirène, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, and Azrou Achekar	eng
61474	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic in the Maghreb area of North Africa. It is found northern Morocco in the Rif Mountains from Tangier to Melilla. It is also present in Spanish territories of Ceuta, Melilla and on the island Peñón de Tierra (close to the Peñón de Alhucemas). It is found from around 5 up to 1,600m asl.	eng
61474	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in semi-arid, sub-humid and humid scrubland and woodland, piles of stones, in old walls and areas with some grassland. The female gives birth to fully formed young.	eng
61474	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The general abundance of this species is poorly known. It is not considered to be very common in the eastern parts of its range.	eng
61474	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species has a small geographical distribution and may be impacted by agricultural development (including cannabis crops [Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008]) and the development of tourism in the region. However, it is not believed to be very seriously threatened.	eng
61475	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	There is a need to survey more widely for this species. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61475	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is restricted to northern Morocco, where it is known from only two locations: between Fez and Djbel Zalagh; and Karia be Mohamed. It has previously been reported from Rafsaï, but this was a confusion with <em>Chalcides colosii</em>.	eng
61475	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is presumably found in stony areas, in walls, among grassy ground cover and in traditionally managed fields. It is also presumably a viviparous species.	eng
61475	population	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It is a very rare species that has not been seen since 1970.	eng
61475	threats	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species has a restricted range, and is highly threatened by habitat loss principally through intensification of agricultural practices.	eng
61476	conservation	Werner, Y., Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species is present in the Mount Hermon and Mount Meron protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61476	distribution	Werner, Y., Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species occurs in northwestern Jordan, southwestern Syria, southern Lebanon (a few sites) and northern and central Israel. It ranges up to 1,500 m asl (on Mount Hermon).	eng
61476	habitat	Werner, Y., Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species is restricted to the Mediterranean ecozone. It is typically found in oak woodland or shrubland glades, but can also be found in grassland outside of woods. It does not live in modified habitats. The adults may be found burrowing in grasses, not in sand or soil. The females give birth to an average of three young.	eng
61476	population	Werner, Y., Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	It is not rare in suitable habitat.	eng
61476	threats	Werner, Y., Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species is suffering serious habitat loss within its generally restricted range. Much of this habitat loss results from the area occupied being very suitable for agriculture (vegetable farming and plantations).	eng
61477	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & Sindaco, R., 2006	It is known from the following protected areas: Jbel Tichoukt; and Jaaba.	eng
61477	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & Sindaco, R., 2006	This species is restricted to the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco, where it occurs up to 2,100 m asl.	eng
61477	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & Sindaco, R., 2006	This species is found in cedar forest, fields, meadows and damp areas close to streams. It is a viviparous species.	eng
61477	population	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & Sindaco, R., 2006	It is considered to be a locally common species.	eng
61477	threats	Miras, J.A.M., El Mouden, H., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & Sindaco, R., 2006	This species is locally affected by habitat degradation as a result of overgrazing by livestock, but overall it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
61478	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It occurs in Souss-Massa National Park.	eng
61478	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is restricted to western Morocco where it is known from a few sites at the foot of the western slopes of the High Atlas Mountains and the Anti Atlas from Dar Mzoudi to Essaouira and the Sousss Valley and extending south until Sidi Ifni. It is known to occur up to 256 m asl.	eng
61478	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is known from the coastal sandy or stony plains with endemic Argan Forest (<em>Argania spinosa</em>) and Dahrmouss species (<em>Euphorbia echinus</em> and <em>E. beaumierana</em>). It is viviparous but it is not known how many offspring it bears or how often.	eng
61478	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is only known from a few sites (approximately 12 collections, but limited to about six sites), and it is thought to be quite rare within its narrow range.	eng
61478	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is affected by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing, desertification and forest clearance due to human encroachment.	eng
61479	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Further surveys are needed to better determine the range of this species. It is known to exist in the following protected areas: Embouchure Moulouya; Sebkha Bou Areg; and Sebkha Bou Areg.	eng
61479	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in a narrow coastal zone of northwestern Algeria, Melilla (Spain) and northeastern coastal Morocco. It appears to have a restricted range. It is mainly a coastal, lowland species that is known up to at least 140m asl (Roberto Sindaco, October 2008).	eng
61479	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This is a coastal species occurring in sandy areas, and in plantations of eucalyptus, acacia and pine. It is not known to exist in severely degraded habitats. It is presumed that the females give birth to fully formed young.	eng
61479	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is reported to be common at the mouth of the Moulouya River. However, it is apparently extinct in Melilla (Spain). It is difficult to find because of the removal of driftwood and other ground cover by local people.	eng
61479	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Development of coastal areas for tourism and military purposes are major threats to this species. It is possibly threatened by loss of ground cover habitat, such as the collection of driftwood by local people for firewood.	eng
61480	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It occurs in protected areas in Algeria (Djurdjura National Park). It is not present in any protected areas in Tunisia.	eng
61480	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species occurs in the Mediterranean regions of northern Tunisia and northern Algeria. It is known from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
61480	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It lives in forested areas in northern Algeria, and in semi-arid Mediterranean habitats in Algeria and Tunisia. It is found in damp, sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork oak forest, and the edges of cultivated areas. It is also known from grassland prairies with a high cover of herbaceous grasses. The females give birth to formed young.	eng
61480	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is rare in Tunisia, but possibly more common in Algeria. However, not much is known about this species.	eng
61480	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is threatened by habitat loss from overgrazing by livestock, and through conversion of land to agricultural and urban use.	eng
61481	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is currently known to exist in several Moroccan protected areas: Embouchure Moulouya, Sebkha Bou Areg, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Trois fourches, Gourougou, Lalla Outka, Bou Iblane, Jbel Tichoukt, Jaaba. It is also found on Beni Snassen Mountain in Morocco that will soon be classified as a Biological Station.	eng
61481	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This poorly known species occurs in northeastern Morocco, northwestern Algeria and in Melilla (Spain). It is known from the Riff Mountains, northeastern parts of the Middle Atlas Mountains and the Montes de Tlemcén.  It occurs in two isolated areas that are separated by the Moulouya River.	eng
61481	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in damp, sunny areas with dense vegetation. Habitats include, grassland, meadows, areas close to streams, hedges, open cork oak forest and the edges of cultivated land. It can also be found in arid and degraded areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
61481	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is thought to be locally common.	eng
61481	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss from overgrazing by livestock, and conversion of land to agricultural and urban use.	eng
61482	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It occurs in Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco	eng
61482	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is largely found on the Atlantic coastal area of Morocco. It is a lowland species that is known to occur up to 700 m asl.	eng
61482	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in open areas of loose, slightly moist sand and soil, where it may be found under rocks and at the base of sparse vegetation. It can be found at the margins of fields, and in courtyards, gardens and parks. It is also known from the Argan Forest. This is an ovoviparous species with litters of three to four young.	eng
61482	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a locally abundant species.	eng
61482	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is affected by agricultural intensification, and it might be threatened by coastal development. However, overall it is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
61483	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It has been recorded from the Toubkral National Park.	eng
61483	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is found between 2,300 and 2,830 m asl.	eng
61483	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in cool montane cedar plantations, juniper forest, bushland, fields, meadows and damp areas close to streams. It hibernates in the winter. It is a viviparous species.	eng
61483	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a rare species that is not thought to be abundant within its narrow range.	eng
61483	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	Although the species is not believed to be significantly threatened, habitat destruction through removal of firewood is thought to be a local threat to this species in parts of its range.	eng
61484	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in Chafarine Hunting Reserve in Spain and in the Sebkha Bou Areg and Embouchure Moulouya protected areas in Morocco.	eng
61484	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It occurs in Chafarine Hunting Reserve in Spain and in the Sebkha Bou Areg and Embouchure Moulouya protected areas in Morocco.	eng
61484	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs along a narrow coastal strip of approximately 250km between Nador in northeastern Morocco and Cape Carbón in northwestern Algeria. It is also present on the Chafarinas Archipelago (Spain). It is found from sea level to 30m asl.	eng
61484	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species occurs along a narrow coastal strip of approximately 250km between Nador in northeastern Morocco and Cape Carbón in northwestern Algeria. It is also present on the Chafarinas Archipelago (Spain). It is found from sea level to 30m asl.	eng
61484	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This coastal species occurs in sandy areas, overgrown dunes with Mediterranean vegetation and pine and Eucalyptus plantations. This species can be found among and under stones. It is not known to exist in modified habitats. Females give birth to fully formed young.	eng
61484	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This coastal species occurs in sandy areas, overgrown dunes with Mediterranean vegetation and pine and Eucalyptus plantations. This species can be found among and under stones. It is not known to exist in modified habitats. Females give birth to fully formed young.	eng
61484	population	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is not an abundant species and is thought to be rare along its narrow coastal range.	eng
61484	population	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is not an abundant species and is thought to be rare along its narrow coastal range.	eng
61484	threats	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Development of coastal areas for tourism and military purposes are major threats to this species. It is possibly threatened by loss of ground cover habitat, such as the collection of driftwood by local people for firewood.	eng
61484	threats	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	Development of coastal areas for tourism and military purposes are major threats to this species. It is possibly threatened by loss of ground cover habitat, such as the collection of driftwood by local people for firewood.	eng
61485	conservation	Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It occurs in several protected areas in Morocco, including Souss-Massa National Park, Marais Larache, Dunes d’Essaouira, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba.	eng
61485	distribution	Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This species occurs in northern, western and southern Morocco, and has also been recorded from one or two localities in northwestern Western Sahara. It occurs from sea level to 1,950 m asl.	eng
61485	habitat	Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species. It is found under rocks and stones and in thickets of dense vegetation (but it is absent from dense woodland). It is also found in Argan forests and in pasture lands. The females give birth to four to seven fully formed young. Montane populations are known to have a period of hibernation.	eng
61485	population	Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This species is locally abundant.	eng
61485	threats	Geniez, P., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from ongoing agricultural expansion and urbanization. In coastal areas it is threatened by habitat loss caused by the development of tourism facilities.	eng
61486	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It has been recorded from the protected areas of Moulay Bousselham Special Reserve, Jbel Moussa, Marais Larache, Merja Zerga, Perdicaris, Jbel Tizirène, and Koudiat Tidighine.	eng
61486	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in the Middle Atlas Mountains, and also present along the northern Atlantic coast of Morocco, the Zebú river basin and western part of the Rif mountain range, including the Tingitana Peninsula. It is also present in the Spanish enclave of Ceuta. It was previously found in the High Atlas Mountains.	eng
61486	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in moist, grassy areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
61486	population	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is becoming increasingly uncommon, but it is still locally common in some localities.	eng
61486	threats	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss caused by overgrazing of livestock, agricultural expansion, conversion of land to Eucalyptus plantations and urbanization.	eng
61487	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by national and international (Bern Convention) legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61487	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. It is also present on the small islet of Gando. This species is found from sea level up to elevations approaching 1,950m asl.	eng
61487	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in a wide variety of habitats including, humid meadows and valleys, arid gullies and sandy areas, woodland and plantations (the species is rarer in these habitats), cultivated land, especially stony areas or sites with stone walls. The females give birth to between two and seven fully formed young.	eng
61487	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is abundant, but easily overlooked, over most of the island.	eng
61487	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There is some collection of this species for the pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species. There is also predation of the species by cats, but this is also unlikely to be a significant threat.	eng
61488	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
61488	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Fuerteventura (the central area with an isolated population in the south), Lanzarote (in the north only) and Lobos in the Canary Islands, Spain.	eng
61488	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It lives in fields, orchards, gardens and in rocky areas. It is usually found in areas with well-formed soil. The females give birth to fully-formed young.	eng
61488	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
61488	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threat is fragmentation of populations due to climatic changes (increasing aridity), loss of soil due to erosion. The main population was probably lost in a volcanic eruption in the 18th century. Feral and domestic cats are also a threat.	eng
61489	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on the Bern Convention and it occurs in many protected areas.	eng
61489	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found in fragmented populations in Portugal and Spain (it appears to be absent from much of eastern Spain), southern France and extreme northwestern Italy (Liguria). It occurs on several islands in northwestern Spain. There is an isolated population near Bordeaux in western France. It can be found from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
61489	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found in sunny meadows, grassland, pastureland, open shrubland, hedges and open abandoned cultivated land. It western parts of its range it is also present in drier scrubby and coastal areas. The females give birth to one to twelve fully formed young.	eng
61489	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is a very common species in some places. Extremely isolated, and hence threatened, populations occurs in southeastern Spain and Liguria (Italy).	eng
61489	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is threatened by intensification of agriculture, afforestation with pine trees and the abandonment of traditional meadows (resulting in scrub encroachment). Global warming is considered to be a threat for the southernmost populations (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).This species is persecuted in parts of its range as it is mistakenly believed to be poisonous. Populations of this species are often fragmented by unsuitable habitat.	eng
61490	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61490	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is restricted to the islands of Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canary Islands (Spain). It also occurs on the small islets of Roque de Anaga de Fuera and on Roque de Garachico. It has been introduced to the island of La Palma where two individuals have found in the Llanos de Aridane. Records of this species from Madeira (Portugal) and Morocco are believed to be misidentifications. It occurs from sea level to 2,800m asl.	eng
61490	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in most coastal, arid and moist habitats, being only largely absent from densely wooded areas. It can be found in urban areas on Tenerife. The females give birth to one to six fully formed young.	eng
61490	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a common species that is easily overlooked.	eng
61490	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is locally threatened by predation by cats.	eng
61491	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is present in many protected areas.	eng
61491	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is present in many protected areas.	eng
61491	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain, through southern France (avoiding parts of the southwest), Monaco and parts of western and central Italy (it is considered to be extinct in northeastern Italy, and is not present in Calabria or Sicily; there is in isolated record in Apulia [Gargano]). In North Africa it ranges from the Rif and Atlas Mountains of Morocco, through the northern parts of Algeria to extreme northwestern Tunisia. It can be found from the lowlands close to sea level up to 2,900m asl (High Atlas, Morocco); it is not present in the Pyrenees and the Alps (with the exception of some dry valleys in northwestern Italy).	eng
61491	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain, through southern France (avoiding parts of the southwest), Monaco and parts of western and central Italy (it is considered to be extinct in northeastern Italy, and is not present in Calabria or Sicily; there is in isolated record in Apulia [Gargano]). In North Africa it ranges from the Rif and Atlas Mountains of Morocco, through the northern parts of Algeria to extreme northwestern Tunisia. It can be found from the lowlands close to sea level up to 2,900m asl (High Atlas, Morocco); it is not present in the Pyrenees and the Alps (with the exception of some dry valleys in northwestern Italy).	eng
61491	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in a variety of scrubland, open woodlands, dry hedgerows, grassland, rocky areas, orchards and plantations. The females lay between one and sixteen eggs (mean of 4.8 eggs). This species is a specialist predator of small lizards.	eng
61491	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is found in a variety of scrubland, open woodlands, dry hedgerows, grassland, rocky areas, orchards and plantations. The females lay between one and sixteen eggs (mean of 4.8 eggs). This species is a specialist predator of small lizards.	eng
61491	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In Europe and mountains of the Maghreb it can be common in good habitat, but in general it is not abundant. It is a rather crepuscular and mainly nocturnal species so it is often overlooked.	eng
61491	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In Europe and mountains of the Maghreb it can be common in good habitat, but in general it is not abundant. It is a rather crepuscular and mainly nocturnal species so it is often overlooked.	eng
61491	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In Spain it is locally threatened by habitat loss through fire and perhaps disturbance by wild boars (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>). It is also threatened by habitat loss through ongoing agricultural intensification and by accidental mortality of animals on roads. It is considered to be threatened in France and is approaching extinction in Monaco; however in Italy it is not considered to be particularly threatened.	eng
61491	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In Spain it is locally threatened by habitat loss through fire and perhaps disturbance by wild boars (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sus scrofa</span>). It is also threatened by habitat loss through ongoing agricultural intensification and by accidental mortality of animals on roads. It is considered to be threatened in France and is approaching extinction in Monaco; however in Italy it is not considered to be particularly threatened.	eng
61492	conservation	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., &Werner, Y., 2006	It is present in the Mount Hermon Nature Reserve. In Lebanon it was collected close to the Arz Al-Shouf protected area, although its presence within the protected area requires confirmation. Further field research is needed to determine whether the species ranges between Mount Hermon and the Mount Lebanon Range. Much of this area is difficult to access, or is covered by minefields. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61492	distribution	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., &Werner, Y., 2006	This species appears to be restricted to Mount Hermon in southwestern Syria, and from the Mount Lebanon Range in central Lebanon (known from a single, recently collected specimen). It is found above 1,300 m asl on Mount Hermon and up to 2,000 m asl in Lebanon.	eng
61492	habitat	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., &Werner, Y., 2006	It is found on rocky areas, but not cliffs, with low boulders and small stones in montane areas. The clutch size is most usually a single rather than two eggs.	eng
61492	population	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., &Werner, Y., 2006	It appears to be quite common on Mount Hermon, but it seems to be a rare species in Lebanon.	eng
61492	threats	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., &Werner, Y., 2006	On Mount Hermon it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the ski industry. The threats to the species in Lebanon are not known.	eng
61493	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It exists in national parks in Tunisia (e.g., Buhedma National Park).	eng
61493	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This North African species ranges in a narrow band from northwestern Algeria, through central Tunisia to northwestern Libya. The distribution is incompletely known and the species may also occur in Morocco. It is found up to 700 m asl.	eng
61493	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is generally found on rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. It can also be found in semi-desert, steppe and caves. The female lays up to 20 eggs.	eng
61493	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It is a rare species that is not known to be common in its range.	eng
61493	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	There is major international trade in this species for medicinal use (both traditional and international). It is directly persecuted in parts of its range and is commonly used by venom researchers and snake charmers.	eng
61494	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	There is a need to develop education programmes for the conservation of this species throughout its range.  It is known from several protected areas in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
61494	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This North African species ranges from northern Western Sahara, through most of Morocco and northern Algeria to northern Tunisia. It is found up to 2,300 m asl.	eng
61494	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is found in rocky slopes and other areas in semi-arid and subhumid zones. It can be found in steppes, wadis, hedges and open woodlands. The females lay clutches of up to 21 eggs.	eng
61494	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It used to be relatively abundant, but it is now declining.	eng
61494	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is accidentally killed on roads and is persecuted when it is encountered. Animals may be sold as curios to tourists, and are displayed in animal exhibitions and used for snake charming.	eng
61495	conservation	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61495	distribution	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	This species ranges from western Syria, through Lebanon and northern and central Israel to northwestern Jordan. This species is not found in Turkey. It can be found up to 1,500m asl.	eng
61495	habitat	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	This species is present in most types of Mediterranean habitats and may be found in agricultural land and farm buildings. Animals can be found up trees.	eng
61495	population	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	It can be a common species.	eng
61495	threats	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species; it is generally persecuted as are most snake species. Animals are caught for venom milking for anti-venom production, but this is not a major threat to the species.	eng
61496	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas, but there are protected areas within its range in Turkey. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range would be desirable.	eng
61496	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to a relatively small are in southern Turkey, mainly in Adana and Osmaniye provinces, and has also been recorded from northwestern Syria (Moravec 1998 and Schmidtler and Bischoff 1999).  It has been recorded between sea level and 1,700m asl.	eng
61496	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found in dry, stony, upland areas with Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, and Anatolian steppe habitats.  These areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61496	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a common species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61496	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There are no significant threats to the species or its habitat at present.	eng
61497	conservation	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It occurs in protected areas in Turkey, Lebanon, and Israel. It is protected by national legislation in Israel where it is considered to be threatened.	eng
61497	distribution	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species ranges from southern Turkey (in Mersin, Hatay, Adana, and Osmaniye provinces), through western Syria and Lebanon, to northern Israel. This species is found from sea level up to 1,800m asl.	eng
61497	habitat	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in areas of Mediterranean-type habitat such as oak woodland and scrub. It can also be found amongst stones where there are no trees. It can be found in orchards and rural gardens.  Little is known about its about reproductive biology, but it probably lays eggs like other species in the Eirenis genus.	eng
61497	population	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is generally a common species.	eng
61497	threats	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Turkey. The species is threatened in Israel by habitat loss. It is threatened in Lebanon, and presumably other parts of the range, by local persecution.	eng
61498	conservation	Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, 2008	It is found in protected areas in Jordan, Lebanon and Israel. There are protected areas within its range Turkey, but there are no records from these sites. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. More research is needed to better understand its distribution in Turkey. It is threatened at the periphery of its range in both Turkey and Jordan.	eng
61498	distribution	Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, 2008	This species ranges from southern Turkey, western Syria, throughout Lebanon, to northern Israel and northwestern Jordan. Its range in Syria is poorly known. It is found from 400m asl up to 1,300m asl.	eng
61498	habitat	Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, 2008	This species is found in rocky or stony areas within wooded landscapes (pine and oak). In Turkey and Jordan it has been found in rural gardens. Little is known about its about reproductive biology, but it probably lays eggs like other species in the <em>Eirenis</em> genus. This species is small (20-30cm in length) and secretive, making it challenging to find and study in the wild.	eng
61498	population	Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, 2008	It is common in Lebanon. It is rare in Turkey, and it appears to be declining in Israel and Jordan.	eng
61498	threats	Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Israel and Lebanon. In Turkey it is threatened in areas of intensive cultivation and in Jordan it is threatened by deforestation, largely because of urbanization.	eng
61499	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is known from Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco and in several other Moroccan protected areas: Saghro, Grouz, Trois fourches, Gourougou, and Béni Snassen.	eng
61499	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It ranges from the major part of Mediterranean Morocco, reaching northwestern Algeria. It has been recorded from Melilla (Spain). It is found up to 1,850m asl.	eng
61499	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be found in dry grassland, open woodland, coastal areas, forest, and agricultural land with ground cover. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61499	population	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is common in Morocco, and in some places it is very abundant. In Melilla it is rare.	eng
61499	threats	Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes locally harvested for traditional medicine and there also appears to be a trade for this species for the pet industry. It is also frequently killed by accidental mortality on roads.	eng
61500	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by national legislation, and it is present in a number of protected areas. Subspecies <em>laurae</em> is considered vulnerable in the Spanish national Red List.	eng
61500	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain). It has been recorded from the islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Lobos, La Graciosa, Montana Clara and Roque del Este. There is an introduced population (from Lanzarote) in the vicinity of Arinaga in eastern Gran Canaria Island. It is present from sea level to 670m asl on Lanzarote and to 800m asl on Fuerteventura.	eng
61500	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in a wide range of dry, open habitats. It has been recorded from coastal sandy areas with sparse vegetation, scrubland, open dry forest, cultivated and urban areas. The species is generally only absent from barren lava fields resulting from relatively recent volcanic activity. The females annually lay two to three clutches of one to five eggs.	eng
61500	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally an abundant species.	eng
61500	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In general there are no major threats to this species as a whole. The introduced population of Gran Canaria is declining due to habitat loss through urbanization.. The population on the Roque del Este is very rare but still survives. Populations of this species on small islands and in fragments of habitat remaining in recent lava fields, are considered to be especially vulnerable to habitat loss and introduced predators.	eng
61501	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to verify the identity of animals recently observed; if these are not individual of <em>Gallotia auaritae</em>, it remains probable that these populations will still be of very high conservation concern. There is an urgent need to secure any remaining populations of giant <em>Gallotia</em> lizards on La Palma, including strict protect of areas of suitable habitat and prevention of collection of animals for non-research purposes.	eng
61501	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This possibly extinct species once ranged from sea-level up to 800m asl in the littoral zone of La Palma in the Canary Islands (Spain). Its decline started 2,000 years ago with the arrival of humans on La Palma. Although it was believed to have become extinct in the last 500 years, there are recent sightings and photographs of giant <em>Gallotia</em> lizards from northern La Palma (Mínguez <em>et al</em>. 2007; (Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008). While the identity of these lizards needs to be verified through the capture of an individual, it is probable that there has only ever been a single species of large <em>Gallotia</em> on La Palma (Barahona <em>et al</em>. 2000; Mateo <em>et al</em>. 2003; Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008). Recent observations have been between 40 and 200m asl.	eng
61501	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It apparently previously occurred through the littoral zone of La Palma, living in xerophytic vegetation. It is presumably an egg-laying species.	eng
61501	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	While this species is possibly extinct, recent observations suggest that a small remnant population of these lizards is present in northern La Palma (Mínguez <em>et al</em>. 2007; Jose Antonio Mateo Miras pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61501	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The causes of extinction over much of this species range appear to have been introduced cats, consumption by people, and conversion of land to agricultural use. The current threats to any remaining populations need further investigation.	eng
61502	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is present in the Parque Rural de Valle Gran Rey. The species is protected by international legislation. A captive breeding programme has been established on La Gomera, and a species recovery plan is in place. There is a need to control cat populations in the vicinity of the remaining animals. Further surveys are needed on La Gomera within other isolated areas to determine if any more remnant populations of this species persist. The implementation of education programmes for local people has been recommended.	eng
61502	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species, thought to be long extinct, was rediscovered as a living animal in 1999, and is known only from two separate inaccessible cliffs 2 km apart, close to the Valle Gran Rey, in the west of the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands (Spain). The species is thought to have once ranged throughout much of La Gomera, and the present range is less than one hectare.	eng
61502	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is once widespread in many habitat types on La Gomera. It is now restricted to dry cliffs with sparse vegetation. The species is generally diurnal and mostly herbivorous. The females lay a single clutch annually of three to seven eggs on average.	eng
61502	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The population of this species consists of only 90 wild individuals remaining in the wild. There is a captive population of about 44 animals (in 2004).	eng
61502	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threats to this species are predation by feral cats, and rock falls within its restricted range. The species historically declined through overgrazing, hunting, and predation by feral cats and rats.	eng
61503	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation, and occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61503	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands of Spain. It is present on the islands of El Hierro, La Gomera, Roque Grande de Salmor, and Roquillo (a small island north of La Gomera). It has been introduced to Los Cristianos in the south of Tenerife Island and may have been introduced to Funchal Botanic Garden the island of Madeira, Portugal. It is found from sea level to 1,500m asl.	eng
61503	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is present in a wide variety of habitats, including open areas, shrubland, cultivated and urban areas. It is less common in native laurel and canary pine forest habitats. Females may annually lay three clutches of one to five eggs.	eng
61503	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
61503	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
61504	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation and is present in a number of protected areas. The subspecies <em>insulanagae</em> is considered Near Threatened on the Spanish Red List.	eng
61504	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands (Spain). It is native to Tenerife, La Palma, and the smaller islands of Roque de Anaga de Dentro, Roque de Anaga de Fuera, Roque de Fasnia and Roque de Garachico. The species has recently been introduced to the island of El Hierro (only one individual known) and also at Morro Jable (large population) on Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands. Reports of this species from the island of Madeira, Portugal, are believed to be erroneous. It occurs from sea level up to 3,000m asl (Tenerife).	eng
61504	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is common in various open, rocky and shrubland habitats. It is commonly associated with stone walls in cultivated areas. The species is rarer in forested areas, where it may be confined to pathways and other open areas. Females annually lay one or two clutches of two to nine eggs.	eng
61504	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
61504	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes controlled as a pest in agricultural areas.	eng
61505	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Measures to control access by cats to some of the remaining populations, such as fencing, have been implemented. A recovery action plan has been developed for this species. The species may still exist in other inaccessible parts of Tenerife, more field surveys are urgently needed. It occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
61505	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species was discovered in 1996 in the Macizo de Teno in the extreme northwest of Tenerife island, in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is now know from a small area of coastline in the extreme west of the island, and also from Montana de Guaza in the extreme south. It is believed that the species was once widespread throughout much of Tenerife.	eng
61505	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species inhabits rugged terrain, with rocks and boulders, often found on small rock ledges with sparse vegetation. The species is presumed to have once occurred in a variety of habitats across Tenerife. The species is largely herbivorous. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61505	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There are 40 isolated populations along 9 km of coastline, totaling 500 animals. The population at Montana de Guaza is around 100 animals. It is increasing as a result of the control of introduced mammals.	eng
61505	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threat to this species is predation by feral cats and, to a lesser degree, by rats. It is presumed that the historical decline in this species was largely due to predation by cats. Several of the smaller populations, consisting of a few individuals, may be threatened by the effects of inbreeding.	eng
61506	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by international legislation. It is occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61506	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. There are additional introduced populations of the species on Fuerteventura. There are also records of introduced animals from Gomera and La Palma, but it is not clear that these represent established populations, and so they are not mapped. It is present from sea level to over 1,850m asl.	eng
61506	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present in a wide variety of habitats. It occurs in open areas, shrubland, rocky humid gorges. The species is absent from forested areas. In Fuerteventura it is found in agricultural areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61506	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
61506	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although this species is generally still abundant, it is impacted by predation by feral cats and rats.	eng
61507	conservation	El Din, S.B., 2006	It is present within the Elba protected area of southeastern Egypt. Further studies are needed into the range of this species, especially to the south of Gebel Elba in Sudan.	eng
61507	distribution	El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is known from the Gebel Elba region of southeast Egypt, and is believed to also be present further south in Sudan (Baha El Din, 2005). It is found up to an elevation of around 450 m asl.	eng
61507	habitat	El Din, S.B., 2006	It has been recorded from dry Acacia woodlands in semi-arid mountainous regions. It is found in <em>Acacia-Euphorbia</em> scrubland with scattered rocks on mountain slopes. It is not present in any cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61507	population	El Din, S.B., 2006	It appears to be a rare species at Gebel Elba.	eng
61507	threats	El Din, S.B., 2006	While there are no threats currently known to the species, it is possible that overgrazing by livestock and charcoal production could potentially lead to habitat loss within its currently known limited range.	eng
61508	conservation	El Din, S.B., 2006	The majority of this species known range is within the Saint Katherine protected area. There are no specific conservation measures needed other than further studies on the range, population, ecology and biology of this species.	eng
61508	distribution	El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is restricted to the mountains of south Sinai, Egypt, where it has been recorded within a radius of 50 km from the highest peak of Gebel Katerine (2,641 m asl). Animals have also been observed at Wadi Gebal and the "Blue Valley" (Baha El Din 2005). The species has been recorded between 600 and around 2,000 m asl.	eng
61508	habitat	El Din, S.B., 2006	It is present on steep rocky mountains with boulders, cliffs and caves. These sites often with a mountain scrub and oasis-type vegetation. Animals retreat into narrow cracks and crevices when disturbed. The species is generally found close to humid habitats, but may also occur in human habitations. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61508	population	El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a generally uncommon species, with locally dense populations in some areas. It seems likely that the species is expanding its range as more buildings are constructed.	eng
61508	threats	El Din, S.B., 2006	There are no major threats to this species at present. Potential future threats include habitat loss through overgrazing of vegetation by livestock and also through quarrying operations.	eng
61509	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
61509	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas.	eng
61509	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	In Europe, this species is present in central and southern Portugal, southern, central and eastern Spain, southern Sardinia (Italy) and on Pantelleria Island (Italy). In North Africa it is found from Morocco, eastwards through northern Algeria to northern Tunisia. It is found from sea level up to 2,660 m asl. The populations of the Italian islands of Sardinia and Pantellaria are probably introduced in historical times, but this requires verification.	eng
61509	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	In Europe, this species is present in central and southern Portugal, southern, central and eastern Spain, southern Sardinia (Italy) and on Pantelleria Island (Italy). In North Africa it is found from Morocco, eastwards through northern Algeria to northern Tunisia. It is found from sea level up to 2,660 m asl. The populations of the Italian islands of Sardinia and Pantellaria are probably introduced in historical times, but this requires verification.	eng
61509	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This slender bodies colubrid snake is adapted to vertical substrates, and occurs in a wide variety of arid, dry and rocky habitats. It is very adaptable to modified habitats, commonly found in scrubland, coastal plains, arable land, pastures, vineyards, almond and olive groves, rural gardens, villages and cities in and around buildings. The females lay clutches of up to 11 eggs.	eng
61509	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This slender bodies colubrid snake is adapted to vertical substrates, and occurs in a wide variety of arid, dry and rocky habitats. It is very adaptable to modified habitats, commonly found in scrubland, coastal plains, arable land, pastures, vineyards, almond and olive groves, rural gardens, villages and cities in and around buildings. The females lay clutches of up to 11 eggs.	eng
61509	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat. In Sardinia this species seems rare.	eng
61509	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It can be common in suitable habitat. In Sardinia this species seems rare.	eng
61509	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is also locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads, occasional persecution, and also by accidental poisoning through the use of agrochemicals. In North Africa, it is increasingly captured for use by snake charmers in local markets.	eng
61509	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is also locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads, occasional persecution, and also by accidental poisoning through the use of agrochemicals. In North Africa, it is increasingly captured for use by snake charmers in local markets.	eng
61510	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is present in many protected areas. No further conservation measures are immediately needed for this species.	eng
61510	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, 2008	This species ranges from Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania (mostly lowlands) and western and southern Greece. It is present on a number of islands in the Adriatic Sea, and is present on both the Ionian Islands and the islands of Euboa, Kythera, Crete (and adjacent islets) and Karpathos of Greece. The species may be present in extreme northeastern Italy, although records from this area need to be confirmed (Claudia Corti pers. comm.). This species ranges from sea level to 1,400 m asl.	eng
61510	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, 2008	This species occurs in dry, stony areas, scrubland, macchia, open woodland, vineyards, olive groves, generally overgrown areas, rural gardens and ruins. The females lay clutches of four to 10 eggs.	eng
61510	population	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, 2008	It can be very common. It is considered to be declining in Albania.	eng
61510	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, 2008	It is locally threatened in parts of it range by habitat loss to agricultural intensification, fire and pollution. However, in general there appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
61511	conservation	Geniez, P., 2006	It is known from the Parc National Toubkral.	eng
61511	distribution	Geniez, P., 2006	This species ranges from west-central Morocco, through the Atlas Mountains to northwestern Algeria. It is found up to 2,200 m asl in the High Atlas.	eng
61511	habitat	Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in humid or damp habitats with vegetation cover. It can be found in grassland, deciduous and coniferous woodland and traditionally managed agricultural land. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61511	population	Geniez, P., 2006	At Ifrane in Morocco, the population was estimated at 20 individuals per hectare. It is thought to abundant in suitable forest habitat.	eng
61511	threats	Geniez, P., 2006	This species is affected by habitat loss resulting from general deforestation including the collection of firewood and timber for house construction.	eng
61512	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It does not occur in any protected areas. A recovery plan is in place in Cataluña for <em>I. aranica</em>.	eng
61512	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species is found in the Central Pyrenean Mountains of France and Spain. It was previously thought to be restricted to an area of about 25 km2 of the Mauberme massif, between the Arán and Ariége valleys, but in 2006 a new population was discovered in Mont Valier (France). It occurs from 1,640 to 2,668 m asl.	eng
61512	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species is found in rocky alpine habitats, such as stony meadows, rock outcrops and gravelly slopes. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61512	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Patrick Haffner, 2008	It is common within its restricted range. The species occurs in fragmented populations associated with rocky and stony habitats.	eng
61512	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Patrick Haffner, 2008	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, collection of specimens, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all-terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is also possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.	eng
61513	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
61513	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in the Pyrenees Mountains. It is restricted a small part of the border area of Andorra, France and Spain with the majority of the population found in Spain. It is found from 2,100 to 2,940 m asl.	eng
61513	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in rocky areas in alpine regions. It is generally associated with south-facing, glaciated valleys. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61513	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Most populations are small and consist of tens or a few hundreds of individuals.	eng
61513	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by cattle, collection of specimens, and is inferred to be threatened by future habitat loss through the development of ski resorts, lodges and hotels, the construction of roads and tracks, and the use of all terrain vehicles. It is additionally threatened by the possible development of hydroelectric projects and mining. It is possible that this species will be significantly impacted by climate change.	eng
61514	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in the Sierra de Gredos Natural Park.	eng
61514	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the central mountain system of Spain in the Sierra de Bejar, Sierra de Gredos, La Serrota and Sierra del Guadarrama. It occurs from 1,300 to 2,500m.	eng
61514	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a montane species found close to the tree line in damp, rocky habitats. The females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs once or twice a year.	eng
61514	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a reasonably common species in several areas.	eng
61514	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Its populations are highly fragmented and are threatened by habitat loss, especially due to the construction of ski resorts and roads. It might also be adversely affected in future by climate change.	eng
61515	conservation	Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as Lacerta horvathi) and is protected by national legislation in a number of its range states. Further general research is needed into the ecology and range of this species. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
61515	distribution	Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species has a very fragmented and relictual range in mountainous areas of southern Austria, northeastern Italy, western Slovenia, and western Croatia. It has been recorded from 200 to 2,000 m asl (Italy) (Lapini <em>et al</em>., 2004). The range of this species is probably underestimated because of the similarity of this species to the widespread and syntopic <em>Podarcis muralis</em>.	eng
61515	habitat	Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is most often found in cliffs and rocky areas such as boulder fields that are generally poor in vegetation. It can also be found in open beech and coniferous forests or above the tree-line in alpine scrubland. It is often found in sheltered places. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61515	population	Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is locally abundant.	eng
61515	threats	Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threat is the vulnerability of the many isolated populations of this species. There appear to be no active threats to this species at present over the majority of its range, but further studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
61516	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in the Parque Natural de las Batuecas y Sierra de Francia, but specific management for the recovery of this species is required. A full-scale recovery programme should be developed, which should probably include captive breeding as part of the overall strategy.	eng
61516	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to Sierra de Francia, Salamanca in Spain at between 800 (Batuecas) and 1,723m asl (Peña deFrancia). The main population is at the peak of the mountain, with some observations from nearby at lower elevations.	eng
61516	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It lives in rocky habitats at high altitudes in temperate forest. If its breeding is similar to that of <em>Iberolacerta cyreni</em>, the females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs once or twice a year.	eng
61516	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a very rare species that is in decline. Its population is probably less than 100 mature individuals. Probably 90% of the population is at the peak of the mountain.	eng
61516	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is threatened by the collection of specimens, the construction of roads, the use of all-terrain vehicles and the effects of seasonal tourism. It might be affected in the future by climate change.	eng
61517	conservation	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C., Akarsu, F. & Lymberakis, P., 2008	Its range includes several protected areas in Turkey and probably occurs in protected areas in Greece.	eng
61517	conservation	Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	Its range includes several protected areas in Turkey and probably occurs in protected areas in Greece.	eng
61517	distribution	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C., Akarsu, F. & Lymberakis, P., 2008	This species is present in western Anatolia in the region north of the Büyük Menderes River in Turkey and the island of Samos in Greece. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61517	distribution	Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	This species is present in western Anatolia in the region north of the Büyük Menderes River in Turkey and the island of Samos in Greece. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61517	habitat	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C., Akarsu, F. & Lymberakis, P., 2008	It is associated with rocky areas in open woodland and Mediterranean forest. It can also occur in degraded forest that has been grazed by cattle. It lays three to eight eggs.	eng
61517	habitat	Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	It is associated with rocky areas in open woodland and Mediterranean forest. It can also occur in degraded forest that has been grazed by cattle. It lays three to eight eggs.	eng
61517	population	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C., Akarsu, F. & Lymberakis, P., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
61517	population	Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	It is a common species.	eng
61517	threats	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C., Akarsu, F. & Lymberakis, P., 2008	It threatened by forest fires in parts of Turkey.	eng
61517	threats	Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	It threatened by forest fires in parts of Turkey.	eng
61518	conservation	Geniez, P., 2006	It is known to exist in Toubkal National Park.	eng
61518	distribution	Geniez, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Morocco where it is restricted to High Atlas Mountain range. It is found from 2,400 up to 3,800 m asl.	eng
61518	habitat	Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in alpine meadows, in scree and amongst boulders, and in areas of thorn cushion vegetation and thickets. It has a long hibernation period. The female lays three clutches of between one and three eggs per year.	eng
61518	population	Geniez, P., 2006	Although the species is generally considered to be rare, animals are often well hidden in vegetation and may occur at higher densities than was first assumed. The species can be very common in favourable conditions.	eng
61518	threats	Geniez, P., 2006	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species, but it does occur in areas that are readily accessible, most especially by hikers.	eng
61519	conservation	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as <em>L. viridis</em>) and is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in all range states. This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005)	eng
61519	distribution	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to southwestern Germany (where its populations are isolated from the main range), southwestern and southern Switzerland, most of France (except parts of the northeast), Monaco, most of Italy, western Slovenia, western Croatia, southern Austria, and northern Spain. It has been introduced to Kansas in the United States. It is present on the islands of Elba and Sicily (Italy) and Jersey in the Channel Islands (United Kingdom) (and is introduced on Guernsey). It is present from sea level up to 2,160m asl.	eng
61519	habitat	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in grassy areas with scattered trees and shrubs and damp areas with dense vegetation within scrubland and forests (deciduous and mixed). It is also found at woodland edges, and close to fences and hedges in traditionally cultivated land (including vineyards). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61519	population	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It can be a common species. Populations may be locally declining, especially in the north of the species range and in intensively cultivated areas.	eng
61519	threats	Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is locally threatened by habitat loss through the loss of suitable habitat to intensive cultivation, overstocking of cattle, burning of scrubland and groves, and pesticide contamination. The conversion of traditional agricultural habitats (e.g. vineyards) to intensive methods is a threat to populations.	eng
61520	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is not present in any protected areas in Turkey, it is not known if it occurs in any protected areas in Syria.	eng
61520	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found to the east of the Syrian Rift Valley in northwest Syria and in adjacent southeastern Turkey (Schmidtler and Bischoff, 1999; P.-A. Crochet pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 800 to 1,050m asl.	eng
61520	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is associated with rocky habitats with Mediterranean-type shrub vegetation. It can be found in lightly grazed or cultivated areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61520	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It has a restricted range, but it is common within this area.	eng
61520	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species; the habitat is generally not under pressure.	eng
61521	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention.	eng
61521	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is endemic to Portuguese islands of La Gartixa de Madeira, the Desertas Islands, Porto Santo Island and the Selvagens Islands. It was introduced to the Azores Islands (where it is widespread) before 1860, and more recently to the harbour area of Lisbon (where it is localised). It is found from sea level up to 1,850m asl.	eng
61521	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is generally found in arid areas with sparse vegetation. It may also occur in open woodland, rocky and cultivated areas. The females lay two to three clutches of eggs annually. Animals have been observed being accidentally transported on ships.	eng
61521	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
61521	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. It is often considered to be a pest species, and is controlled in vineyards as it eats grapes.	eng
61522	conservation	Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species is not present in any protected areas.	eng
61522	distribution	Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species is endemic to the Mount Lebanon Range and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in Lebanon, and is believed to occur in adjacent Syria. It is found at between and 1,800 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
61522	habitat	Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	It is found in open alpine habitats with sparse, cushion-type, vegetation. These areas are dry in summer and covered with snow in the winter (Odierna <em>et al</em>. 1995). The species is not found on steep slopes. It can be found in some modified areas, as long as there is some cover for the species to hide in. There are generally few habitations within the range of the species. This species lays a clutch of three to four eggs.	eng
61522	population	Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
61522	threats	Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	The species has a restricted range and is potentially threatened by habitat loss through overgrazing by sheep and goats, by expansion and development of the ski industry and by climate change.	eng
61523	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
61523	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to the Peloponnese region of southern Greece. It ranges from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
61523	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is generally found close to water sources, or humid areas, in upland and coastal regions.  Animals may be found in shaded parts of rocky areas, scree and light, open woodland. It can also be found on the tree-lined edges of pastureland. The females lay a single clutch of one to six eggs annually.	eng
61523	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It can be a locally common species in appropriate high humidity habitats, although the populations are usually small. This species has not been surveyed since the Peloponnese fires in 2007 but it may have been affected.	eng
61523	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Wildfire and human-caused fires can be a threat to the species' habitat. It is not known to be in the pet trade. Planting of eucalyptus trees is affecting the species' habitat.	eng
61524	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	In Lebanon it is present in the Arz-Al Shouf and Horj Ehden protected areas; in Jordan it is found in the Dana Wildlife Reserve; it is also present in the Mount Hermon protected area. It is protected by Israeli national legislation.	eng
61524	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species has a fragmented range in the Levant region. It is known from Mount Hermon (on the border of Lebanon and Israeli-occupied Syria), from the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains (in Lebanon, crossing into Syria on the Anti-Lebanon), from Jabal Al Arab (Druz) in southern Syria, and from western Jordan (from Al Karak in the north to Petra in the south). It is found from 1,350 up to at least 2,000 m asl. On Mount Hermon it occurs above 1,500 m. The total area of occupancy of this species is estimated to be below 500 km².	eng
61524	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species is very restricted to the fragmented rocky areas in cedar and oak forests. Animals are found on boulders and amongst rocks, and can be found on abandoned buildings and similar modified habitats (although there is generally little human habitation in the range). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61524	population	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	It is a common species.	eng
61524	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species has a fragmented recital range. It is threatened by habitat loss through tourism development in southern Jordan. On Mount Hermon, it is threatened by the development of its habitat for use by the military, and is potentially threatened by the development of the ski industry. It is threatened by overgrazing of suitable habitat in parts of its range and is potentially threatened by climate change.	eng
61526	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in some range countries. It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
61526	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	This species is found in the southwestern Dinaric mountain range of southern coastal Croatia, southern Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro. It may be present in northern Albania but further surveys are needed to confirm this. It occurs from 450 to 1,900m asl.	eng
61526	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is largely found in humid, rocky, montane areas of exposed karst. The species inhabits open woodland and sites with a rich vegetation cover. The females lay a single clutch of four to eight eggs.	eng
61526	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is not a common species and has a patchy distribution.	eng
61526	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is threatened by the loss of suitable habitat due to logging, including within protected areas. Collection of animals for the pet-trade was a threat in the past. It is likely that some small-scale illegal trade continues.	eng
61527	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Greece.	eng
61527	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	It is present in protected areas in both Turkey and Greece.	eng
61527	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is present in western and southern Anatolia, Turkey and on the Greek islands of Ikaria, Nisyros, Symi and Rhodes. This species is not present on the island of Nisyros (Petros Lymberakis, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61527	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	This species is present in western and southern Anatolia, Turkey and on the Greek islands of Ikaria, Nisyros, Symi and Rhodes. This species is not present on the island of Nisyros (Petros Lymberakis, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61527	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is found in Mediterranean-type habitats, rocky areas (including coastal sites), traditionally cultivated areas and orchards. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61527	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	This species is found in Mediterranean-type habitats, rocky areas (including coastal sites), traditionally cultivated areas and orchards. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61527	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is common in Turkey. It is declining on the island of Rhodes, but remains common on the surrounding islets.	eng
61527	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	It is common in Turkey. It is declining on the island of Rhodes, but remains common on the surrounding islets.	eng
61527	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is threatened by forest fires in parts of its range. It is declining on Rhodes, although the reasons for this decline are currently unknown.	eng
61527	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2009	This species is threatened by forest fires in parts of its range. It is declining on Rhodes, although the reasons for this decline are currently unknown.	eng
61528	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is protected in some countries by national legislation. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
61528	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	This species is present in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean habitats in southern Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Montenegro. It possibly also occurs in Albania but this requires confirmation. It has an elevational range of sea level to around 1,600m asl.	eng
61528	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It is a sun-loving species generally found in rocky areas, on cliffs and also on buildings in towns and villages. The females lay clutches of two to four eggs. It is quite an adaptable species.	eng
61528	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It can occur at high densities in suitable habitat.	eng
61528	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, 2008	It might have been traded in the past, but this is not occurring much anymore. A dam might be built that would affect the northern population of the species. Otherwise it is a relatively unthreatened species at present.	eng
61529	conservation	Böhme, W., Lymberakis, P., Ajtic, R., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Haxhiu, I., Nettmann, H.K., Sterijovski, B., Kumlutaş, Y. & Üzüm, N., 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. In general there appear to be no conservation measures needed for this species. However, there is a need to ensure the survival of distinct isolated populations and to further research threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
61529	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Yusuf Kumluta?, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. In general there appear to be no conservation measures needed for this species. However, there is a need to ensure the survival of distinct isolated populations and to further research threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
61529	distribution	Böhme, W., Lymberakis, P., Ajtic, R., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Haxhiu, I., Nettmann, H.K., Sterijovski, B., Kumlutaş, Y. & Üzüm, N., 2008	This species is present from coastal Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, east to Bulgaria, southeastern Romania, Albania, Macedonia, Greece (including the Ionian Islands and many Aegean Islands including Crete, Lesvos and Rhodes), and western and central Turkey. It ranges from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.	eng
61529	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Yusuf Kumluta?, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	This species is present from coastal Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, east to Bulgaria, southeastern Romania, Albania, Macedonia, Greece (including the Ionian Islands and many Aegean Islands including Crete, Lesvos and Rhodes), and western and central Turkey. It ranges from sea level to at least 1,600 m asl.	eng
61529	habitat	Böhme, W., Lymberakis, P., Ajtic, R., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Haxhiu, I., Nettmann, H.K., Sterijovski, B., Kumlutaş, Y. & Üzüm, N., 2008	This species is found in dry areas with a Mediterranean climate. It is found on or in bushy areas, sand dunes, boundary walls, orchards, and abandoned cultivated land. It can also be found close to streams and ditches. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61529	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Yusuf Kumluta?, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	This species is found in dry areas with a Mediterranean climate. It is found on or in bushy areas, sand dunes, boundary walls, orchards, and abandoned cultivated land. It can also be found close to streams and ditches. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61529	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Yusuf Kumluta?, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	It can be a common species (Kumluta? pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61529	population	Böhme, W., Lymberakis, P., Ajtic, R., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Haxhiu, I., Nettmann, H.K., Sterijovski, B., Kumlutaş, Y. & Üzüm, N., 2008	It can be a common species (Kumlutaş pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61529	threats	Böhme, W., Lymberakis, P., Ajtic, R., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I.H., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Haxhiu, I., Nettmann, H.K., Sterijovski, B., Kumlutaş, Y. & Üzüm, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Romania are threatened through by loss of steppe habitat largely due to agricultural intensification (CoE, 2003). A number of distinct island populations are threatened, such as <em>L. t. citrovittata</em> of Tinos Island, Greece. In Turkey, this species is threatened by forest fires.	eng
61529	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Yusuf Kumluta?, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Romania are threatened through by loss of steppe habitat largely due to agricultural intensification (CoE, 2003). A number of distinct island populations are threatened, such as <em>L. t. citrovittata</em> of Tinos Island, Greece. In Turkey, this species is threatened by forest fires.	eng
61530	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to conserve genetically isolated populations especially in the north of the species range.  In Germany, this species is listed on the national red data list as Critically Endangered.	eng
61530	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to conserve genetically isolated populations especially in the north of the species range.  In Germany, this species is listed on the national red data list as Critically Endangered.	eng
61530	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species ranges from extreme north-east Italy, eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, eastern Austria, and Slovenia, east to Romania, Moldova and southern Ukraine, southwards into the Balkan Peninsula in Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including some Aegean islands, and excluding the Peloponnese). It is also present in Turkey, where it is largely distributed in the area of Marmara and along the Black Sea coastal region. The species is now extinct in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). It has been introduced to Kansas in the United States. It is found from sea level up to 2,130m asl.	eng
61530	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species ranges from extreme north-east Italy, eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, eastern Austria, and Slovenia, east to Romania, Moldova and southern Ukraine, southwards into the Balkan Peninsula in Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including some Aegean islands, and excluding the Peloponnese). It is also present in Turkey, where it is largely distributed in the area of Marmara and along the Black Sea coastal region. The species is now extinct in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). It has been introduced to Kansas in the United States. It is found from sea level up to 2,130m asl.	eng
61530	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is found in bushy vegetation at woodland and field edges, within open woodlands, forested areas and shrubland, hedgerows, and in overgrown areas and cultivated land including orchards. It takes refuge in bushes and burrows. In north-east Germany the species is confined to areas with a mosaic habitats of coniferous forest and sandy open heathlands. The females lay five to 23 eggs in a clutch.	eng
61530	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is found in bushy vegetation at woodland and field edges, within open woodlands, forested areas and shrubland, hedgerows, and in overgrown areas and cultivated land including orchards. It takes refuge in bushes and burrows. In north-east Germany the species is confined to areas with a mosaic habitats of coniferous forest and sandy open heathlands. The females lay five to 23 eggs in a clutch.	eng
61530	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	It can be a common species. Populations at the north-west edge of the species range may be declining, and the populations are fragmented in that area.	eng
61530	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	It can be a common species. Populations at the north-west edge of the species range may be declining, and the populations are fragmented in that area.	eng
61530	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this wide ranging species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range, especially in the north, by general habitat loss, afforestation of suitable sites and predation by cats. In the northern parts of Turkey, this species is locally threatened by the pesticide use causing the absence of prey and ingestion of pesticide tainted prey.	eng
61530	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this wide ranging species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range, especially in the north, by general habitat loss, afforestation of suitable sites and predation by cats. In the northern parts of Turkey, this species is locally threatened by the pesticide use causing the absence of prey and ingestion of pesticide tainted prey.	eng
61531	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is known from the following protected areas in Morocco: Chekhar, Embouchure Moulouya, and Béni Snassen.	eng
61531	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is known from northwestern Algeria and northeastern Morocco. It also occurs on Habibas Islands (Algeria). The presence in Spain needs to be confirmed, as it is unclear if the specimen cited for Melilla pertained to this species (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61531	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It apparently lives in semi-arid and sub-humid Mediterranean habitats, and it is thought to lay eggs every two years like <em>Macroprotodon brevis</em>.	eng
61531	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There is very little recent information on this species.	eng
61531	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is probably threatened by habitat loss for agriculture and increasing urbanization throughout its range; but the boundaries of the species distribution are still unknown. Two intrinsic threats to the species are its overall small distribution range and poor recruitment capacity (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). It is eaten by wild boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>), although this is unlikely to constitute a significant threat.	eng
61532	conservation	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61532	conservation	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
61532	distribution	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present in northern and eastern Morocco, southern and central Portugal and Spain, with very isolated populations in the northern half of these two countries. It occurs from sea level to 2080 msm.	eng
61532	distribution	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is present in northern and eastern Morocco, southern and central Portugal and Spain, with very isolated populations in the northern half of these two countries. It occurs from sea level to 2080 msm.	eng
61532	habitat	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is only found in relatively undisturbed habitats such as evergreen temperate forests and scrublands. It lays 3-5 eggs every two years. This species is a specialist predator of amphisbaenians (<em>Blanus</em> sp.) and skinks.	eng
61532	habitat	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is only found in relatively undisturbed habitats such as evergreen temperate forests and scrublands. It lays 3-5 eggs every two years. This species is a specialist predator of amphisbaenians (<em>Blanus</em> sp.) and skinks.	eng
61532	population	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species is only common in some localities of the western and rainy parts of its distribution, both in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco, however it is a semifosorial, cryptic species that is sometimes difficult to find (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61532	population	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	The species is only common in some localities of the western and rainy parts of its distribution, both in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco, however it is a semifosorial, cryptic species that is sometimes difficult to find (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61532	threats	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through the intensification of agricultural methods, afforestation with pine plantations and abandonment of traditional pastures, throughout much of its range. It is additionally threatened in Iberia by the ongoing spread of the predatory Wild Boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>).	eng
61532	threats	Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is threatened by habitat loss, largely through the intensification of agricultural methods, afforestation with pine plantations and abandonment of traditional pastures, throughout much of its range. It is additionally threatened in Iberia by the ongoing spread of the predatory Wild Boar (<em>Sus scrofa</em>).	eng
61533	conservation	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is present in a few protected areas. On Lampedusa, populations of this species require some protection. In Egypt, there is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species and to create new protected areas; this species is significantly threatened and is considered to be Vulnerable (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). The isolated populations of the Hoggar (Algeria) and Western Sahara, are probably threatened (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Further studies to resolve the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
61533	conservation	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is present in a few protected areas. On Lampedusa, populations of this species require some protection. In Egypt, there is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species and to create new protected areas; this species is significantly threatened and is considered to be Vulnerable (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). The isolated populations of the Hoggar (Algeria) and Western Sahara, are probably threatened (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Further studies to resolve the taxonomy of this species are needed.	eng
61533	distribution	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species ranges through northern Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt to southern Israel, with quite isolated populations in southern Algeria (Hoggar mountains) [not mapped here] and Western Sahara. In Europe, it is present only on the island of Lampedusa (possibly introduced), Italy, although it also occurs in Menorca and Majorca where the species has been introduced (probably around 200 B.C.). It is mainly a lowland species.	eng
61533	distribution	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species ranges through northern Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt to southern Israel, with quite isolated populations in southern Algeria (Hoggar mountains) [not mapped here] and Western Sahara. In Europe, it is present only on the island of Lampedusa (possibly introduced), Italy, although it also occurs in Menorca and Majorca where the species has been introduced (probably around 200 B.C.). It is mainly a lowland species.	eng
61533	habitat	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in open, sandy deciduous and evergreen woodland, scrubland, sandy areas, oasis, meadows, plantations, cultivated land and on stone walls and ruins. The females lay two to six eggs and breed every two years.	eng
61533	habitat	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It is found in open, sandy deciduous and evergreen woodland, scrubland, sandy areas, oasis, meadows, plantations, cultivated land and on stone walls and ruins. The females lay two to six eggs and breed every two years.	eng
61533	population	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It can be a common species in suitable habitat. In Egypt it is a rare and declining species. The Lampedusa population seems to be in decline.	eng
61533	population	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	It can be a common species in suitable habitat. In Egypt it is a rare and declining species. The Lampedusa population seems to be in decline.	eng
61533	threats	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Although the species does not appear to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat degradation, including changes in agricultural practices (general intensification). Habitat degradation on the island of Lampedusa is a major threat, as is the expansion of tourism and accidental mortality on roads, and the same seems to occur in the Balearic Islands (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). In Egypt it is threatened by commercial collection for the international pet trade, urbanization and development of tourism, overgrazing, collection of firewood and quarrying.	eng
61533	threats	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	Although the species does not appear to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat degradation, including changes in agricultural practices (general intensification). Habitat degradation on the island of Lampedusa is a major threat, as is the expansion of tourism and accidental mortality on roads, and the same seems to occur in the Balearic Islands (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). In Egypt it is threatened by commercial collection for the international pet trade, urbanization and development of tourism, overgrazing, collection of firewood and quarrying.	eng
61534	conservation	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is present in at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
61534	distribution	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This recently described species is known only from Mount Sinai on the southern Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It occurs from 600 to almost 2,000 m asl.	eng
61534	habitat	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is found in mountainous rocky habitats with sparse vegetation. It can be found in slightly modified areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61534	population	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a common species.	eng
61534	threats	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is threatened in parts of its range by habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing by livestock, firewood collection, development of tourism and quarrying.	eng
61535	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is present in some protected areas.	eng
61535	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is restricted to the Atlantic region of Morocco, where it is found from the Western Haut Atlas to the coastal plains. It is found from the lowlands to over 1,000 m asl.	eng
61535	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in semi-arid rocky plateaus with sparse vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61535	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is relatively common throughout its range.	eng
61535	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.	eng
61536	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y. &Crochet, P-A., 2006	It is present in protected areas in Lebanon (Bentael protected area) and is believed to be present in protected areas in Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61536	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y. &Crochet, P-A., 2006	This species is restricted to the Levant region where it has been recorded from western Syria, much of Lebanon (except the northeast), the northern half of Israel and northwestern Jordan	eng
61536	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y. &Crochet, P-A., 2006	This is a fossorial snake that is associated with terra rosa soils in the Mediterranean biotope (scrub and pine and oak woods). Animals have been collected in suitable habitat within villages. It is an egg laying species.	eng
61536	population	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y. &Crochet, P-A., 2006	It is difficult to determine the population abundance of this species.	eng
61536	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y. &Crochet, P-A., 2006	Although it has a relatively restricted range, there appear to be no immediate major threats to this species.	eng
61537	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.  It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.  It is present in many protected areas in southeast Anatolia, Turkey and in Greece as well.	eng
61537	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention.  It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.  It is present in many protected areas in southeast Anatolia, Turkey and in Greece as well.	eng
61537	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is found in northeastern Greece and in Turkey (western, southern and central Anatolia). In Greece it is also present on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Patmos, Leipsoi, Leros, Kalymnos, Kos, Symi, Chalki and Oenousses. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
61537	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in northeastern Greece and in Turkey (western, southern and central Anatolia). In Greece it is also present on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Patmos, Leipsoi, Leros, Kalymnos, Kos, Symi, Chalki and Oenousses. It ranges from sea level up to 2,000m asl.	eng
61537	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is found in Mediterranean scrubland and mountain steppe habitats. It can be found in rural gardens, cultivated land, olive groves and among ruins. The females give birth to between two and 15 young.	eng
61537	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in Mediterranean scrubland and mountain steppe habitats. It can be found in rural gardens, cultivated land, olive groves and among ruins. The females give birth to between two and 15 young.	eng
61537	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It can be common in upland areas and on islands.	eng
61537	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It can be common in upland areas and on islands.	eng
61537	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	A number populations in western Anatolia, Turkey, appear to be threatened by overcollection for the pet trade. There is some illegal export of this species from Turkey. There is some localized persecution of this species.	eng
61537	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	A number populations in western Anatolia, Turkey, appear to be threatened by overcollection for the pet trade. There is some illegal export of this species from Turkey. There is some localized persecution of this species.	eng
61538	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in Switzerland. It is present in many protected areas. This species is categorized as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61538	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and is protected by national legislation in Switzerland. It is present in many protected areas. This species is categorized as Critically Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61538	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain through much of France, to extreme southwestern Switzerland and northwestern Italy. In North Africa it is present in most of Morocco, northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia and northwestern Libya. This species is also present (probably allochtonous) on the Mediterranean islands of Sardinia (Italy), Corsica (one single record) [not mapped]; natural populations are present on Iles d'Hyéres (France) and La Galite (Tunisia). It has been introduced to the islands of Menorca and Mallorca in the Balearic Islands of Spain. The species can be found from sea level up to 2,600  m asl.	eng
61538	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In Europe, this species ranges from Portugal and Spain through much of France, to extreme southwestern Switzerland and northwestern Italy. In North Africa it is present in most of Morocco, northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia and northwestern Libya. This species is also present (probably allochtonous) on the Mediterranean islands of Sardinia (Italy), Corsica (one single record) [not mapped]; natural populations are present on Iles d'Hyéres (France) and La Galite (Tunisia). It has been introduced to the islands of Menorca and Mallorca in the Balearic Islands of Spain. The species can be found from sea level up to 2,600  m asl.	eng
61538	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is generally found close to, or within, waterbodies such as streams and ponds. Often these habitats are in meadows and open woodlands. It has also been recorded from areas of brackish water. The species lays between three and 20 eggs.	eng
61538	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is generally found close to, or within, waterbodies such as streams and ponds. Often these habitats are in meadows and open woodlands. It has also been recorded from areas of brackish water. The species lays between three and 20 eggs.	eng
61538	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In most of its range it is an extremely common species, but perhaps declining locally in some parts of North Africa.	eng
61538	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	In most of its range it is an extremely common species, but perhaps declining locally in some parts of North Africa.	eng
61538	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is threatened in parts of its range by aquatic pollution, especially through the loss of prey species (e.g.. fishes). It is threatened in Switzerland, and presumably other parts of the species range, by channelization of rivers and other waterbodies. As with many snake species, individual animals are occasionally killed by people, as they are often confused with venomous vipers. In Tunisia, desiccated specimens are sold as souvenirs to tourists (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61538	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is threatened in parts of its range by aquatic pollution, especially through the loss of prey species (e.g.. fishes). It is threatened in Switzerland, and presumably other parts of the species range, by channelization of rivers and other waterbodies. As with many snake species, individual animals are occasionally killed by people, as they are often confused with venomous vipers. In Tunisia, desiccated specimens are sold as souvenirs to tourists (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61539	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y., Crochet, P-A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species has been recorded from the Wadi Al Mawjib Protected area in Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61539	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y., Crochet, P-A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	This species occurs in central and northern Israel, southwestern Syria and western Jordan. It has not been recorded from Lebanon but might occur there. In Israel it is suspected that the species possibly occurs as isolated populations, although further field studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
61539	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y., Crochet, P-A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	It is a fossorial species that occurs in sandy areas, with high humidity, where it can burrow into the substrate and under stones. It is not known if the species can be found in modified habitats.	eng
61539	population	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y., Crochet, P-A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	The abundance of this fossorial species is difficult to determine. It is very poorly known.	eng
61539	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y., Crochet, P-A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S. & Sadek, R., 2006	The threats to this species are not well known. It is locally threatened in northern Jordan by agricultural intensification.	eng
61540	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It is listed under Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from a few protected areas in Greece and in Turkey. Further enforcement of protected areas in which this species occurs in Greece is needed. There is a need for more taxonomic studies for both the Greek and Turkish populations. More research is needed to better understand the biology of this species.	eng
61540	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It is listed under Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It has been recorded from a few protected areas in Greece and in Turkey. Further enforcement of protected areas in which this species occurs in Greece is needed. There is a need for more taxonomic studies for both the Greek and Turkish populations. More research is needed to better understand the biology of this species.	eng
61540	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species occurs in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula and on the Greek islands of Kythira in the Aegean Sea and the island of Kastelorizo off of the southwestern Turkish coast, and in parts of southwestern Turkey.  One record from southeastern Greece is doubtful and requires verification. This is a lowland species occurring up to 600m asl.	eng
61540	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species occurs in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula and on the Greek islands of Kythira in the Aegean Sea and the island of Kastelorizo off of the southwestern Turkish coast, and in parts of southwestern Turkey.  One record from southeastern Greece is doubtful and requires verification. This is a lowland species occurring up to 600m asl.	eng
61540	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species burrows in soil and can be found hiding under stones. It occurs in open areas of grassland, scrubland, and low vegetation with loose soil. It can be found in olive groves.	eng
61540	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species burrows in soil and can be found hiding under stones. It occurs in open areas of grassland, scrubland, and low vegetation with loose soil. It can be found in olive groves.	eng
61540	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is rare in Turkey and Greece.	eng
61540	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is rare in Turkey and Greece.	eng
61540	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. It is unlikely that there are major threats given its habitat preferences, but more research is needed.	eng
61540	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	The threats to this species are not well known. It is unlikely that there are major threats given its habitat preferences, but more research is needed.	eng
61541	conservation	Nouira, M.S., Geniez, P. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is known from protected areas in Tunisia and may be present in other protected areas in its range. In Egypt, it is present in the proposed Salum protected area on the Libyan border. Further research is needed to clarify the distribution of this species (eg. in Libya), and to establish the relationship between this species and O. elegans (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
61541	distribution	Nouira, M.S., Geniez, P. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This North African species ranges from extreme northeastern Morocco, through northern Algeria and northern and central Tunisia, to northern Libya to northwestern Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is found up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
61541	habitat	Nouira, M.S., Geniez, P. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is found in areas of open, solid ground with a covering of grasses, and also in scrubland and in steppe. It can be found in traditionally managed fields. It is not found on rock faces or in areas of mobile sands. In Egypt, it is confined to a very narrow habitat along lightly vegetated calcareous ridges extending parallel to the Mediterranean coast (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). The females lay three or four eggs.	eng
61541	population	Nouira, M.S., Geniez, P. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a common species in most parts of its range. It is very rare on the edge of its range in Morocco. In Egypt it is a rare and declining species.	eng
61541	threats	Nouira, M.S., Geniez, P. & El Din, S.B., 2006	In the western part of its range there are no known threats to this species; it could perhaps be threatened by expanding agriculture, but this is considered to be unlikely. In Egypt, it is highly threatened by limestone quarrying, tourism resort expansion, agricultural expansion, overgrazing and collection of firewood. In Egypt, as much as 50% of suitable habitat has been lost in the last ten years.	eng
61542	conservation	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is not present in any protected areas. Research is urgently needed into the taxonomy, range, ecology and biology of this species. This species could benefit from ex-situ conservation measures to prevent the extinction of the species while in-situ conservation measures are developed (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There is a need to create protected areas to protect the species and to develop community based action to conserve the species habitat.	eng
61542	distribution	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This relictory species is present in Libya where it is known only from two localities, the Oasis of Elbarkat (Al Barkat) 8km south of Ghat, Fezzan and from near to Ajedabia, in western Cyrenaica, and in Egypt where it is known from Wadi El Natrun (S. Baha El Din pers. comm). Animals in Egypt have previously been misidentified as belonging to <em>P. intermedius</em> (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It is found at sea level and below.	eng
61542	habitat	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is found in semi-desert on the edge of oasis, where it is confined to areas with Halfa grasses on sandy soil. The species is not believed to be adaptable to cultivated land. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61542	population	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a very rare species occurring in small populations.	eng
61542	threats	Böhme, W. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a highly localised relict species. In Egypt it is highly endangered if not extinct, the area of occurrence is a less than 5 km2. It is threatened by habitat loss through land reclamation for agriculture and overgrazing. There is some collection for the pet trade or for scientific research.	eng
61543	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	It is present in many protected areas. There are no direct conservation actions currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
61543	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is present in many protected areas. There are no direct conservation actions currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
61543	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This species ranges from coastal southeastern Bulgaria through parts of Turkey crossing the Bosferous. There are no records from the coast of the Dardanelles, but it is possibly present. It is found in western and southern Anatolia and western Syria to Lebanon, northern Israel, and western Jordan. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
61543	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species ranges from coastal southeastern Bulgaria through parts of Turkey crossing the Bosferous. There are no records from the coast of the Dardanelles, but it is possibly present. It is found in western and southern Anatolia and western Syria to Lebanon, northern Israel, and western Jordan. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
61543	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This species is found in dry, rocky and bushy places. It is generally restricted to the Mediterranean biotope. It sometimes occurs in gardens and cultivated fields. The female lays between three and five eggs in a clutch.	eng
61543	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in dry, rocky and bushy places. It is generally restricted to the Mediterranean biotope. It sometimes occurs in gardens and cultivated fields. The female lays between three and five eggs in a clutch.	eng
61543	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	In Turkey, this species is uncommon.  In other areas, it is generally a common species. It is uncommon in Bulgaria at the edge of its range.	eng
61543	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	In Turkey, this species is uncommon.  In other areas, it is generally a common species. It is uncommon in Bulgaria at the edge of its range.	eng
61543	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. As with many snakes, it is locally persecuted.	eng
61543	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Riyad Sadek, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. As with many snakes, it is locally persecuted.	eng
61544	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
61544	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found from northwestern Spain and northern Portugal, south to the River Douro. It occurs from sea level to 1,900m asl.	eng
61544	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in open deciduous woodland and Atlantic scrubland (<em>Taxus</em> or <em>Erica</em>), on coastal sand dunes and in rural areas including villages. The females may lay two to four clutches of two to nine eggs annually.	eng
61544	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat.	eng
61544	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although the species is not significantly threatened overall, some populations may be threatened by forest fires, conifer agroforestry, degradation of coastal dune habitats, and the development of tourism facilities.	eng
61545	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Many of the southern populations are protected (including in the Coto Doñana National Park). In central Portugal and Spain, some populations are in natural parks.	eng
61545	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs only in highly fragmented populations in western and central Portugal, occurring more contiguously in Aveiro in central Portugal. In western Portugal it occurs down to sea-level in many fragmented sites, while in central Portugal it occurs in hilly sites above 500m. In Spain it is known from two areas in on the northern slopes of the central mountain system at 500-1,200m. It also occurs at Coto Doñana in southwestern Spain at sea-level, and on the Berlenga Islands in Portugal (as a separate subspecies, <em>P.c. berlengensis</em>).	eng
61545	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In Spain and central Portugal it occurs in oak forest. At sea-level it lives only in sand dunes. It lays one to three egg clutches a year, with one to five eggs in each.	eng
61545	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat. The southern populations are generally very small, but can be abundant in tiny areas. However, many populations are probably in decline, especially in the south of its range.	eng
61545	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The southern populations are almost certainly at risk from climate change. Loss of habitat due to touristic developments in the south, and wood plantations (pine) in central Portugal are also serious threats. Fires are an additional threat.	eng
61546	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation over a number of its range countries, but this legislation requires better enforcement. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
61546	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, 2008	This species is endemic to the Balkans, and ranges from southern Bulgaria, extreme southern Serbia, Macedonia, Albania, and much of mainland Greece (excluding most of the Peloponnese). It is also present on many of the Aegean Islands (including the Cyclades, Sporades and Astypalaia in the Dodecanese). It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl. In many places it is known from isolated localities, rather than a continuous range.	eng
61546	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, 2008	It is found in rocky areas of Mediterranean type scrubland. Island populations can occur in more open areas such as sand dune systems. The females lay one to five eggs in a clutch.	eng
61546	population	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat.	eng
61546	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Wolfgang Böhme, 2008	There have been some localized declines of populations caused by habitat loss for tourism developments, but there are no threats to the species overall at present.	eng
61547	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Its range is effectively protected on Piperi island, as there is a Mediterranean Monk Seal (<em>Monachus monachus</em>) population present, and access to the island is restricted.	eng
61547	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to Greece where it occurs in the Skyros archipelago and on Piperi Island in the northern Sporades Islands of the Aegean Sea. It is a lowland species.	eng
61547	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is found in bushy vegetation or bare areas on some of the smaller islands. It is an egg-laying species. On some small islands cases of gigantism in this species have been recorded.	eng
61547	population	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
61547	threats	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Although the species has a restricted range there appear to be no major threats at present. It is possible that the potential introduction of predators could threaten populations on some of the smaller islands. Human-caused fires (and wildfires) are an additional threat.	eng
61548	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and it is presumed to be present in several protected areas.	eng
61548	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is present throughout most of Portugal and much of Spain (excluding parts of the south and the northwest, but including the Columbretes Islands and the Charfarinas Islands), ranging into southern France as far as the Rhone River. The species occurs from sea level up to  3,481m asl.	eng
61548	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is generally found in climbing over rocks, in overgrown areas, on stone walls, on rock outcrops in alpine meadows, in bushy vegetation and in rural buildings. The females lay one to five eggs, with several clutches produced in a season.	eng
61548	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
61548	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Habitat loss and the introduction of competitors or predators are potential threats to the subspecies <em>Podarcis hispanica atrata</em>, the populations of which are confined to islands.	eng
61549	conservation	Rastko Ajtic, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EC Habitats Directive. It is known from the Skadar Lake Protected Area in Montenegro. There are no further conservation actions currently needed.	eng
61549	distribution	Rastko Ajtic, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species occurs in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean zones from extreme northeastern Italy through southwestern Slovenia, Croatia, southern Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro to northwestern Albania. It is present on many Adriatic islands. The species ranges from sea level up to 1,400 m asl.	eng
61549	habitat	Rastko Ajtic, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is found in dry open woodland, scrub, pastures and overgrown areas. It can be found on cliffs, rocks and stone walls. The females lays two to eight eggs per clutch.	eng
61549	population	Rastko Ajtic, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is a relatively common species.	eng
61549	threats	Rastko Ajtic, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall. Some distinct island populations may be threatened by the introduction of cats and other predators (such as the Indian mongoose on some Adriatic islands [Roberto Sindaco pers. comm., October, 2008]).	eng
61550	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries (e.g.. Switzerland), and occurs in a number of protected areas. The subspecies <em>P. m. rasquinetti</em> is listed as DD on the Spanish National Red List. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61550	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries (e.g.. Switzerland), and occurs in a number of protected areas. The subspecies <em>P. m. rasquinetti</em> is listed as DD on the Spanish National Red List. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61550	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is widely distributed in Europe. It ranges from northern Spain, northwards to northern France, southern Belgium, Luxembourg, west-central Germany, much of Austria, southwestern Czech Republic, central Slovakia and central Hungary, and eastwards to central Romania, Bulgaria, most of the Balkans (excluding most of the Aegean islands) and northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It occurs on Jersey in the Channel Islands (United Kingdom). It is largely absent from Northern Europe (it occurs as small patchy, isolated populations in the north of its range), southern Iberia (though there are fragmented, isolated populations in central Spain), and parts of southern Italy and its larger islands (Sardinia, Sicily, and Apulia). It has been introduced to the United States. Many southern subspecies of <em>P. muralis</em> have been introduced to Switzerland, where they are mostly found along railway lines (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.	eng
61550	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species is widely distributed in Europe. It ranges from northern Spain, northwards to northern France, southern Belgium, Luxembourg, west-central Germany, much of Austria, southwestern Czech Republic, central Slovakia and central Hungary, and eastwards to central Romania, Bulgaria, most of the Balkans (excluding most of the Aegean islands) and northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It occurs on Jersey in the Channel Islands (United Kingdom). It is largely absent from Northern Europe (it occurs as small patchy, isolated populations in the north of its range), southern Iberia (though there are fragmented, isolated populations in central Spain), and parts of southern Italy and its larger islands (Sardinia, Sicily, and Apulia). It has been introduced to the United States. Many southern subspecies of <em>P. muralis</em> have been introduced to Switzerland, where they are mostly found along railway lines (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.	eng
61550	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2008	In dry areas, the species is largely found in humid or semi-humid habitats. It the more northern parts of its range it is mostly found in the driest areas. It can be occur in rocky and scree areas, scrubland, deciduous and coniferous woodland, orchards, vineyards, fields, stone walls, and on buildings. It is often found in human settlements including large cities and villages and railway lines which may be a possible method of dispersal. The females lay two to three clutches of two to six eggs per year. This species has been introduced in many places in Germany and the United Kingdom, often presumably by hobbyists (e.g. terrarium owners).	eng
61550	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2009	In dry areas, the species is largely found in humid or semi-humid habitats. It the more northern parts of its range it is mostly found in the driest areas. It can be occur in rocky and scree areas, scrubland, deciduous and coniferous woodland, orchards, vineyards, fields, stone walls, and on buildings. It is often found in human settlements including large cities and villages and railway lines which may be a possible method of dispersal. The females lay two to three clutches of two to six eggs per year. This species has been introduced in many places in Germany and the United Kingdom, often presumably by hobbyists (e.g. terrarium owners).	eng
61550	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is generally an abundant species in suitable habitat.	eng
61550	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is generally an abundant species in suitable habitat.	eng
61550	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2008	There generally appear to be no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species. Populations are locally threatened in parts of its range, including those on islands or in mountains (for example through the development of alpine tourism in the Central Mountains of Spain). Several populations, principally in Northern Europe, are threatened by the loss of suitable habitat to agricultural intensification and overuse of pesticides. This species is frequently encountered in the pet trade, however the overall impact of this is not considered to constitute a major threat. The introduction of non-native subspecies may represent a threat to some localized populations.	eng
61550	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Marc Cheylan, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Petros Lymberakis, Richard Podloucky, Roberto Sindaco, Aziz Avci, 2009	There generally appear to be no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species. Populations are locally threatened in parts of its range, including those on islands or in mountains (for example through the development of alpine tourism in the Central Mountains of Spain). Several populations, principally in Northern Europe, are threatened by the loss of suitable habitat to agricultural intensification and overuse of pesticides. This species is frequently encountered in the pet trade, however the overall impact of this is not considered to constitute a major threat. The introduction of non-native subspecies may represent a threat to some localized populations.	eng
61551	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
61551	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is restricted to the Peloponnese region of southern Greece. It is also present on the island of Psili in the Gulf of Argolis, Greece. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600m asl.	eng
61551	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It occurs in dry scrubland, rocky areas, olive groves and vineyards, in traditionally cultivated areas and in old buildings. The females lay two clutches of one to six eggs annually.	eng
61551	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is a relatively common species. It has not been surveyed since the Peloponnese fires in 2007, which may have caused a decline in this species.	eng
61551	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is locally threatened by habitat loss through fire, and by urbanization.	eng
61552	conservation	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is not in any protected areas, though the area is an unprotected World Heritage Site. A recovery programme is urgently needed, probably including captive breeding as a component.	eng
61552	distribution	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is restricted to the Aeolian Islands (Italy) where it inhabits a very few isolated places on Vulcano Island, and in tiny areas of three very small rocky islets: Strombolicchio, La Canna and Scoglio Faraglione.	eng
61552	habitat	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The species lives in suitable habitats present on the volcanic islands: rocks, macchia, shrublands. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61552	population	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The populations are very small; the estimates are: Strombolicchio and Scoglio Faraglione: 200-400 individuals; La Canna: 20-30 individuals; on Vulcano Island the species is close to extinction (Capula and Lo Cascio 2006).	eng
61552	threats	Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threats are the introduction of alien species (mostly the competitor <em>P. siculus</em>), stochastic events due to the extremely small areas inhabited by the species and its small population size (less than 1,000 individuals overall). Collecting may also be a threat.	eng
61553	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in a number of its range states. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
61553	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Appendix IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in a number of its range states. It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
61553	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species ranges throughout Italy south of the Alps, including on Sicily, Sardinia, and many other islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in extrem southern Switzerland, Corsica (France), and along the Adriatic coastal area from southwestern Slovenia, through western and southern Croatia and extreme southern Bosnia-Herzegovina to Kotor, Montenegro. It also occurs as isolated introduced populations in southern France, the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal), Menorca in the Balearic Islands (Spain), on both sides of the Bosphorus in Turkey, Ile La Galite (Tunisia), and Isola di Lampedusa (Italy). It has been introduced to a number of sites in the United States, and might have been introduced to Libya and Tunisia. It ranges from sea level up to 2,200m asl.	eng
61553	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species ranges throughout Italy south of the Alps, including on Sicily, Sardinia, and many other islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, in extrem southern Switzerland, Corsica (France), and along the Adriatic coastal area from southwestern Slovenia, through western and southern Croatia and extreme southern Bosnia-Herzegovina to Kotor, Montenegro. It also occurs as isolated introduced populations in southern France, the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal), Menorca in the Balearic Islands (Spain), on both sides of the Bosphorus in Turkey, Ile La Galite (Tunisia), and Isola di Lampedusa (Italy). It has been introduced to a number of sites in the United States, and might have been introduced to Libya and Tunisia. It ranges from sea level up to 2,200m asl.	eng
61553	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is found in grassy areas, roadside verges, hedgerows, scrubland, woodland edges, inside pine plantations, vineyards, orchards, meadows, coastal dunes, parkland, urban areas, and on stone walls and buildings. In the northern part of its range, it mainly lives in riparian or coastal areas. It thrives in habitats disturbed by human activities in the southern part of its range. It is an egg-laying species (Sindaco and Romano, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61553	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is found in grassy areas, roadside verges, hedgerows, scrubland, woodland edges, inside pine plantations, vineyards, orchards, meadows, coastal dunes, parkland, urban areas, and on stone walls and buildings. In the northern part of its range, it mainly lives in riparian or coastal areas. It thrives in habitats disturbed by human activities in the southern part of its range. It is an egg-laying species (Sindaco and Romano, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
61553	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is a very common species except in the northern part of its range. There are many isolated populations, and in some places it is an aggressive invasive species. Overall, its population is probably increasing.	eng
61553	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is a very common species except in the northern part of its range. There are many isolated populations, and in some places it is an aggressive invasive species. Overall, its population is probably increasing.	eng
61553	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.  In the northern part of its range, it is threatened by small scale agricultural conversion of its riverine habitats.  Localized or insular populations may be vulnerable by predation by cats, but generally it is an invasive that can displace native populations of other species in its invasive range (the southern part of its range and in the areas where it has been introduced).  Because it is locally common, this species is collected for use as food for pet snakes.	eng
61553	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Aziz Avci, 2009	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.  In the northern part of its range, it is threatened by small scale agricultural conversion of its riverine habitats.  Localized or insular populations may be vulnerable by predation by cats, but generally it is an invasive that can displace native populations of other species in its invasive range (the southern part of its range and in the areas where it has been introduced).  Because it is locally common, this species is collected for use as food for pet snakes.	eng
61554	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive, and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas. No further conservation actions are needed.	eng
61554	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitats Directive, and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It occurs in a number of protected areas. No further conservation actions are needed.	eng
61554	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species ranges from southern Ukraine (including the Crimean Peninsula), through southern Moldova, and eastern and southern Romania (excluding the Danube Delta), to Bulgaria, Macedonia, eastern and southern Serbia, Albania, mainland Greece and the Ionian Islands, and northwestern Turkey (on both sides of the Bosphorus). There is an isolated population in eastern and central Hungary, ranging into northern Serbia. This mostly lowland species occurs from sea level up to 2,350m asl.	eng
61554	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species ranges from southern Ukraine (including the Crimean Peninsula), through southern Moldova, and eastern and southern Romania (excluding the Danube Delta), to Bulgaria, Macedonia, eastern and southern Serbia, Albania, mainland Greece and the Ionian Islands, and northwestern Turkey (on both sides of the Bosphorus). There is an isolated population in eastern and central Hungary, ranging into northern Serbia. This mostly lowland species occurs from sea level up to 2,350m asl.	eng
61554	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is a largely terrestrial species found in open areas of steppe, grassland, meadows, field edges, olive groves, traditionally cultivated land, rural gardens, sparsely vegetated sandy dunes and sometimes in open scrub. The females lay two clutches annually containing between two and ten eggs.	eng
61554	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is a largely terrestrial species found in open areas of steppe, grassland, meadows, field edges, olive groves, traditionally cultivated land, rural gardens, sparsely vegetated sandy dunes and sometimes in open scrub. The females lay two clutches annually containing between two and ten eggs.	eng
61554	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
61554	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
61554	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through agricultural intensification and pollution (largely from the use of agrochemicals), but overall it is not at significant risk.	eng
61554	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, László Krecsák, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Lymberakis, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Podloucky, Dan Cogalniceanu, Aziz Avci, 2009	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss through agricultural intensification and pollution (largely from the use of agrochemicals), but overall it is not at significant risk.	eng
61556	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Its listing on the Bern convention is unknown. It is known to exist in several protected areas.	eng
61556	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	Its listing on the Bern convention is unknown. It is known to exist in several protected areas.	eng
61556	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in southern Spain, central and northern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl.	eng
61556	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species occurs in southern Spain, central and northern Morocco, northern Algeria and northern Tunisia. It occurs from sea level up to 3,100 m asl.	eng
61556	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally found climbing over rocks, in overgrown areas, on stone walls, on rock outcrops in alpine meadows, in bushy vegetation and in rural buildings. The females lay one to five eggs, with several clutches produced in a season.	eng
61556	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is generally found climbing over rocks, in overgrown areas, on stone walls, on rock outcrops in alpine meadows, in bushy vegetation and in rural buildings. The females lay one to five eggs, with several clutches produced in a season.	eng
61556	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
61556	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
61556	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Local populations might be affected by habitat loss for agriculture, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
61556	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	Local populations might be affected by habitat loss for agriculture, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
61557	conservation	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It presumably occurs in some protected areas. The subspecies <em>P.w. marettimensis</em> is probably seriously threatened.	eng
61557	distribution	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to Italy, occurring on the island of Sicily, where it is absent from the northeastern part of the island, the Egadian Islands (Favignana, Levanzo and Marettimo), and on Isola Grande dello Stagnone and Maraone. It occurs up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61557	habitat	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This is a largely terrestrial species found in areas of scrubland, woodland edges, pasture, cultivated land and rural gardens. The females lay clutches of four to six eggs.	eng
61557	population	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is a relatively common species, and generally has stable populations, except perhaps some populations on smaller islands.	eng
61557	threats	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The populations on Sicily appear to be stable, although on small islands it could be threatened by competition and hybridization with <em>P. sicula</em>. A number of insular populations (e.g., that of Marettimo Island) might be threatened or declining, possibly due to invasive predators.	eng
61558	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61558	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species occurs in northern Tunisia, northern Algeria and northern and central Morocco, Conigli islet near Lampedusa island (Italy), and the Spanish North African territories of Ceuta and Melilla. It occurs from sea level up to 2,600m asl.	eng
61558	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in dense bushes and shrubland, in open or degraded woodland areas, pine forests and eucalyptus plantations, coastal dunes and beaches. It also occurs in rural gardens and in some agricultural areas. Females lay between eight and 11 eggs.	eng
61558	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is an abundant species in most of its range. The only European locality (Conigli islet near Lampedusa) is inhabited by a small population, threatened by the degradation of vegetation due to a large colony of gulls.	eng
61558	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This main threat to this species appears to be the clearance of ground cover for conversion to agricultural use and urbanization, leading to the fragmentation of local populations, but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
61559	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Martínez-Solano, I. & Geniez, P., 2008	It occurs in Djurdjura National Park in Algeria.	eng
61559	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Martínez-Solano, I. & Geniez, P., 2008	This species occurs on humid, isolated plateaus and mountain areas of northeastern Morocco (with an isolated population in the Alhucemas region [Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008]), northern Algeria and northwestern Tunisia. This species may occur in the Spanish North African enclave of Melilla (old unconfirmed records). It generally occurs from 1,000 m to 1,200 m asl.	eng
61559	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Martínez-Solano, I. & Geniez, P., 2008	This species is found in areas of broad-leaved and pine woodland, scrubland, thorn-cushion vegetation, meadows, pastures, open areas and steppes.  The female lays four or five clutches of between two and four eggs per year.	eng
61559	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Martínez-Solano, I. & Geniez, P., 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat in Algeria, but it is very rare in Morocco and Tunisia, where it is at the edge of its range.	eng
61559	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Martínez-Solano, I. & Geniez, P., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but any change of habitat can favour other species. It is presumably threatened by forest loss for agricultural purposes.	eng
61560	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It has been successfully re-introduced at some former sites in Spain.	eng
61560	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in much of Portugal and Spain (it is largely absent from the north of Iberian Peninsula), and in the south of France. It may be found up to 1,700m asl.	eng
61560	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in areas of open, loose soil, especially those with a sparse Mediterranean-type scrub. It can be found in coastal dunes and grassland. The females lay two clutches of two to six eggs.	eng
61560	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be a common species. There are strong interannual fluctuations in population size.	eng
61560	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is locally threatened by the loss of scrubland to intensive agriculture and fires, and the urbanization of coastal areas, but overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
61561	conservation	Geniez, P., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It is not known if this species is present in protected areas.	eng
61561	distribution	Geniez, P., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This species is known from relictary isolated populations in the mountains of the Rif, the Moyen and Haut Atlas of northern and central Morocco. It occurs up to 2,250m asl.	eng
61561	habitat	Geniez, P., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It is found in montane areas where it has been recorded from closely cropped, dense grassland, and areas of dwarf palm in open country. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61561	population	Geniez, P., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This is a very rare species with few records.	eng
61561	threats	Geniez, P., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This species appears to have undergone a significant decline, possibly related to the abandonment of grazing regimes leading to overgrown, unsuitable habitat.	eng
61562	conservation	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	It is not known to exist in any protected areas anywhere in its range.	eng
61562	distribution	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	This species ranges from southwestern Morocco to northeastern Algeria in the Anti-Atlas and the Atlas Saharien Mountains, and in the regions to the south of the mountains. It occurs up to 2,600 m asl.	eng
61562	habitat	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	It is found on steep, smooth rock faces, and amongst boulders and rocks in semi-desert. The female lays six clutches of one or two eggs per year.	eng
61562	population	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	It is a locally common species, and its populations are believed to be stable.	eng
61562	threats	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	There are no known threats to this species	eng
61563	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It has been recorded from several National Parks.	eng
61563	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in western Morocco throughout the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas mountains, Djbel Sagho and Djbel Ouarkziz. It may be present in Western Sahara but its presence here needs to be confirmed. The species ranges up to 4,000 m asl.	eng
61563	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is associated with montane rock faces and boulders, often close to water sources. The female lays two to three clutches of a single egg, which are deposited in rock crevices.	eng
61563	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is quite a common species through most of its range.	eng
61563	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The species is not known to be facing any threats.	eng
61564	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It has been recorded from a few protected areas in Morocco.	eng
61564	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is endemic to southwestern Morocco where it is generally found in the Toubkal massif and surrounding mountainous areas. It is found at elevations of around 1,200 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
61564	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is associated with montane rock faces and boulders, often close to water sources. The female lays two to three clutches of a single egg, which are deposited in rock crevices.	eng
61564	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It can be a very common species within its limited range.	eng
61564	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
61565	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and it is present in many protected areas.	eng
61565	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found through much of Portugal and Spain (it is absent from much of northernmost Spain) and southern France. There is a record from northwestern Italy, but there is no recent confirmation of its occurrence in this country. It is present on the islands of Ons and Arousa in Galicia (Spain), Minorca (an old introduction) in the Balearic Islands (Spain), and Iles d'Hyères, France. The species ranges from sea level to 2,200 m asl.	eng
61565	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This mainly crepuscular and nocturnal species can be found in sunny and stony Mediterranean-type habitats with good vegetation cover, including riparian habitats. It can also be found in open woodlands and shrubland, at field edges, hedges, vineyards, olive groves, overgrown areas, stone walls and ruins. The females lay between four and 15 eggs that are deposited under ground cover.	eng
61565	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally an abundant species.	eng
61565	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although there appear to be no overall major threats to this species, it is locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads and loss of vegetation cover due to intensive agricultural methods. Because of the species nocturnal habits, many individuals uses roads, because of the heat retention of the road surface, and are frequently traffic casualties (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
61566	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	It is found in protected areas in both Israel and Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
61566	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This species is present in Israel, southwestern Syria and western northwestern Jordan. It has not yet been recorded from Lebanon.	eng
61566	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	This fossorial species can be found on both terra rosa soil and sandy soil substrates, often with high humidity, and may be found in areas of marqui woodland vegetation. It is associated with ant and termite nests, and appears on the surface only occasionally.	eng
61566	population	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	The species is rarely encountered, possibly because of its burrowing habits. It is possible that it might be more common than is generally supposed.	eng
61566	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R. & Werner, Y., 2006	There are no specific threats to this species.	eng
61567	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It has been recorded from some protected areas in Morocco (including Sous Massa National Park).	eng
61567	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species ranges from northern coast of Western Sahara, along the southwestern coast of Morocco, extending inland in Morocco to the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the Dra Valley as far east as Zagora. There are some isolated inland population in northeastern Western Sahara and also north of the Atlas Mountains in Morocco. It might occur in extreme western Algeria although its presence here needs to be confirmed. It occurs from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.	eng
61567	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The species is found in various stony or rocky areas, including degraded agricultural lands (where it can be found under stones). It has also been recorded from semi-forested areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61567	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a locally common species in suitable habitat.	eng
61567	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The species is potentially threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification and urbanisation.	eng
61568	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The species is currently unprotected, and there is a need to establish protected areas to conserve important populations.	eng
61568	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is endemic to a small area of northern Morocco between the Middle Atlas Mountains, the Rif Mountains and the coast. It appears to have a fragmented distribution	eng
61568	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is found on a semi-arid plateau that reaches the coast at one point, the foothills of the Middle Atlas Mountains and Rif Mountains, and has also been recorded from forested areas. Females have three clutches per year with two eggs each.	eng
61568	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a rare species.	eng
61568	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	The habitat of this species is being lost through ongoing agricultural intensification and urbanisation in the region.	eng
61569	conservation	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is present in Bades Reserve in Morocco.	eng
61569	conservation	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is present in Bades Reserve in Morocco.	eng
61569	distribution	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in northeastern Morocco, northwestern Algeria, and the Spanish territories of Melilla, the Isla de Alborán and the Charfarinas Archipelago. It can range from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
61569	distribution	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is found in northeastern Morocco, northwestern Algeria, and the Spanish territories of Melilla, the Isla de Alborán and the Charfarinas Archipelago. It can range from sea level up to 1,200m asl.	eng
61569	habitat	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in semi-arid and arid rocky areas, with a sloping gradient. Animals can be found in piles of stones and sheltering in ground vegetation. The females lay up to eight clutches of a single egg per year in captivity. The egg is deposited in a self-dug tunnel on the ground.	eng
61569	habitat	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is found in semi-arid and arid rocky areas, with a sloping gradient. Animals can be found in piles of stones and sheltering in ground vegetation. The females lay up to eight clutches of a single egg per year in captivity. The egg is deposited in a self-dug tunnel on the ground.	eng
61569	population	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is not a widely distributed species, but is locally abundant.	eng
61569	population	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is not a widely distributed species, but is locally abundant.	eng
61569	threats	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although the species is not believed to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat loss caused by ongoing urbanization and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
61569	threats	Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	Although the species is not believed to be globally threatened, it is locally threatened by habitat loss caused by ongoing urbanization and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
61570	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It is currently not known from any protected areas. It is present in the soon to be designated Neura Reserve in Morocco.	eng
61570	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is present in pre-Saharan and arid zones of southwestern, southern and eastern Morocco, north-central Algeria and western Tunisia. It may also occur in Western Sahara, however there is a need to confirm its presence here. It is found up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
61570	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	This species is found in dry and arid, stony or boulder strewn regions, including to some extent areas with low intensity traditional agriculture. It is often found hiding in piles of stones or in burrows. Its breeding biology is unknown, but it is probably similar to the related Spalerosophis diadema.	eng
61570	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	It seems to be a very rare species with highly fragmented populations.	eng
61570	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J. & Slimani, T., 2006	The threats to this rare species are poorly known. It may be locally threatened by accidental mortality on roads, and animals are caught both for the international pet trade and by local snake charmers.	eng
61571	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It occurs in some protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
61571	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species ranges from Libya and Egypt (including northern Sinai) east to coastal Israel and the western Negev. There is an isolated population in the Wadi Arabah of southeastern Israel and southwestern Jordan. It is a lowland species.	eng
61571	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is found in sandy areas and dunes. It can be found in open steppe habitat and bushland with sandy soil, and has been observed close to oases. It swims in the sand below the surface. It is a viviparous species. It is nocturnal in the summer and diurnal in the winter.	eng
61571	population	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is a common species.	eng
61571	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	In general there appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In Egypt it is threatened by commercial collection, overgrazing of vegetation by livestock and conversion of habitat to agricultural land.	eng
61572	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by international legislation and occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
61572	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Lobos, Graciosa, Montaña Clara, Alegranza and the Roque del Este in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is found up to 800m asl.	eng
61572	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in most habitats within its range. It lives in stony and rocky areas, lava fields, stone walls, dunes, salt flats with vegetation, scrubland, cultivated areas and human habitations. The females lay clutches of one or two eggs.	eng
61572	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
61572	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
61573	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas.	eng
61573	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is present in southwestern Morocco where it is found in Tazzarine, the south Anti-Atlas, the Draa Valley (from Ouarzazate) and Djebel Bani. It is also recently recorded from extreme northern Western Sahara (not mapped here) and is suspected to occur in Algeria.	eng
61573	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species is found in rocky and built-up areas such as cliffs, low walls, ruined buildings, towns and villages.	eng
61573	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is locally abundant within its relatively restricted range.	eng
61573	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It appears to be adaptable to some habitat modification.	eng
61574	conservation	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation and occurs in several protected areas, including the Ilhas Selvagens Nature Reserve in the Selvages Archipelago.	eng
61574	distribution	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of El Hierro and Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. It is generally found throughout both islands, but it is rare above 750m asl and absent over 1,000m asl. The subspecies <em>Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi</em> is endemic to the uninhabited Selvages Archipelago where it is present on the islands of Selvagem Grande, Selvagem Pequena and Ilheu de Fora, Madeira, Portugal.	eng
61574	habitat	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in rocky areas, often near to the coast. It is also sometimes found in houses. This species is absent from areas of Canary Pine forest. The subspecies <em>Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi</em> is found in rocky and coastal areas, where it uses the burrows of petrels and other seabirds. The females lay a (presumably repeated) clutch of a single egg.	eng
61574	population	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a very common species in both the Canary Islands and the Selvages Archipelago.	eng
61574	threats	Paulo Sá-Sousa, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is preyed upon by introduced mammal species such as cats and hedgehogs <em>Erinaceus europaeus</em>, but this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
61575	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is protected by international legislation. It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
61575	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Tenerife (including the Roques de Anaga and Roque de Garachico) and La Palma, in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is present from sea level to 2,300m asl, although it is rare above 1,800m asl.	eng
61575	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It is present in rocky areas, scrubland, stone walls in agricultural areas and it is common in urban environments. The species can be found in forested areas, although it occurs here at lower densities. It is an oviparous species, the eggs have been found deposited under stones.	eng
61575	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
61575	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some habitat loss has occurred through the development of tourism, but the species adapts well to urban environments.	eng
61576	conservation	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is thought to be present in some National Parks in Tunisia, and perhaps elsewhere within its range.	eng
61576	distribution	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This species ranges from eastern and southeastern Morocco, through Algeria to central and southern Tunisia. It is suspected to occur in northwestern Libya although its presence here has not been confirmed. It is found up to 1,300 m asl.	eng
61576	habitat	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	This is an adaptable species that is found in rocky areas, deserts with firm ground (regs), drains under roads, palm oasis, ruins, buildings and is also found close to sandy deserts (ergs) with trees. Animals are found in crevices and fissures. The female lays between four and six clutches of two eggs per year.	eng
61576	population	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	It is a rare species with a relatively small population.	eng
61576	threats	Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H. & Geniez, P., 2006	There are presumed to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
61577	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation and in some of protected areas. It is listed on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
61577	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands (Spain). It is present from sea level to 850m asl on the northern slope of the island and up to 1,150m asl on the southern slope.	eng
61577	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in rocky areas, stone walls, disturbed habitats, plantations and urban areas. It is not found in areas of forest. The females lay repeated clutches of one to two eggs.	eng
61577	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
61577	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
61578	conservation	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is protected by international legislation over parts of its range, and it occurs in many protected areas. Further studies into the impact of commercial trade on this species in Egypt is needed. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species.	eng
61578	conservation	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is protected by international legislation over parts of its range, and it occurs in many protected areas. Further studies into the impact of commercial trade on this species in Egypt is needed. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species.	eng
61578	distribution	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges throughout much of the Mediterranean region. Mainland European populations are distributed from Portugal (except the northwest), Spain (absent from most of the north), and southern France, throughout mainly coastal areas of Italy, southern Slovenia, northern coastal Croatia and southwestern parts of Greece. In northern Africa the species ranges from northern Egypt, through northern Libya, northern and central Tunisia, and northern Algeria to most of Morocco and northwestern Western Sahara. There is an isolated introduced population in southern Western Sahara. It is present on many Mediterranean islands including Corsica (France), Sardinia, Sicily, Pantellaria and Lampedusa (all in Italy), the Ionian Islands and Crete (all in Greece). Many of the populations in the northern Mediterranean are likely to have been introduced in ancient times. It has been introduced to a number of areas including the Balearic Islands and Tenerife (Spain), the island of Madeira (Portugal),  Montevideo (Uruguay), Buenos Aires (Argentina) and California (United States). It is found from sea level up to as high as 2,300m asl (in Spain).	eng
61578	distribution	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species ranges throughout much of the Mediterranean region. Mainland European populations are distributed from Portugal (except the northwest), Spain (absent from most of the north), and southern France, throughout mainly coastal areas of Italy, southern Slovenia, northern coastal Croatia and southwestern parts of Greece. In northern Africa the species ranges from northern Egypt, through northern Libya, northern and central Tunisia, and northern Algeria to most of Morocco and northwestern Western Sahara. There is an isolated introduced population in southern Western Sahara. It is present on many Mediterranean islands including Corsica (France), Sardinia, Sicily, Pantellaria and Lampedusa (all in Italy), the Ionian Islands and Crete (all in Greece). Many of the populations in the northern Mediterranean are likely to have been introduced in ancient times. It has been introduced to a number of areas including the Balearic Islands and Tenerife (Spain), the island of Madeira (Portugal),  Montevideo (Uruguay), Buenos Aires (Argentina) and California (United States). It is found from sea level up to as high as 2,300m asl (in Spain).	eng
61578	habitat	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is found in a variety of habitats, and it has been recorded from rocky areas, cliffs, stone walls, ruins, building walls and inside houses. It is generally not present in forested areas although animals can often be found climbing in trees. The females lay clutches of one to two eggs. These may be laid communally, typically under stones, in cracks and in hollow trees.	eng
61578	habitat	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is found in a variety of habitats, and it has been recorded from rocky areas, cliffs, stone walls, ruins, building walls and inside houses. It is generally not present in forested areas although animals can often be found climbing in trees. The females lay clutches of one to two eggs. These may be laid communally, typically under stones, in cracks and in hollow trees.	eng
61578	population	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is sometimes a very common species. Populations may be expanding with increasing urbanization.	eng
61578	population	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is sometimes a very common species. Populations may be expanding with increasing urbanization.	eng
61578	threats	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Egypt are threatened by overcollection for the pet trade and by habitat degradation.	eng
61578	threats	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Populations in Egypt are threatened by overcollection for the pet trade and by habitat degradation.	eng
61579	conservation	El Din, S.B., 2006	It is present in the Siwa protected area of Egypt. Further studies are needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.	eng
61579	distribution	El Din, S.B., 2006	This recently described species is found in the periphery of the Quattara Depression and Siwa Oasis of northwestern Egypt and it is has also been recorded from eastern Libya (Jialo Oasis) (S. Baha El Din pers. comm). Further surveys are needed to determine whether the species has a wider range. It has been collected at sea level and slightly below sea level.	eng
61579	habitat	El Din, S.B., 2006	It inhabits vegetated areas in otherwise flat and barren sandy desert. It is largely associated with the microhabitats of bark and wood of Acacia and other trees. It may be able to adapt to cultivated areas.	eng
61579	population	El Din, S.B., 2006	It is uncommon and localised, but found at high densities at specific localities.	eng
61579	threats	El Din, S.B., 2006	Although there appear to be no major threats to the species at present, it is potentially susceptible to habitat loss (especially at Siwa), as the species is restricted to very sparse vegetation (often a few trees). It is not in the pet trade.	eng
61580	conservation	Joger, U., Miras, J.A.M. & Nouira, S., 2006	There are a few protected areas within the range of the species.	eng
61580	distribution	Joger, U., Miras, J.A.M. & Nouira, S., 2006	This species is found over much of central Algeria and southern Tunisia, and is also possibly present in parts of northwestern Libya, but this requires confirmation.  It has been recorded from sea level up to 300 m asl.	eng
61580	habitat	Joger, U., Miras, J.A.M. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is generally associated with trees and bushes in arid areas such as desert, dry river beds and surrounding oases. It can be found in abandoned buildings but has not been recorded from inhabited houses. It is an oviparous species.	eng
61580	population	Joger, U., Miras, J.A.M. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is a locally common species.	eng
61580	threats	Joger, U., Miras, J.A.M. & Nouira, S., 2006	There are no major threats to this species at present. Wood collection can be a localised threat to some populations. It is not collected commercially.	eng
61581	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in Toubkral National Park in Morocco.	eng
61581	conservation	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It occurs in Toubkral National Park in Morocco.	eng
61581	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in the humid parts of the Atlas Mountains and coastal areas of central and northern Morocco and northwestern Algeria. It has been introduced to the island of Menorca, in the Balearic Islands of Spain and to the Habibas Islands of Algeria. It occurs up to 2,800 m asl.	eng
61581	distribution	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species occurs in the humid parts of the Atlas Mountains and coastal areas of central and northern Morocco and northwestern Algeria. It has been introduced to the island of Menorca, in the Balearic Islands of Spain and to the Habibas Islands of Algeria. It occurs up to 2,800 m asl.	eng
61581	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in climbing rocky areas such as mountains and cliffs, in scrubland, on stone walls and in other rural habitats. The females lay one to three eggs.	eng
61581	habitat	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is found in climbing rocky areas such as mountains and cliffs, in scrubland, on stone walls and in other rural habitats. The females lay one to three eggs.	eng
61581	population	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is common in parts of its range in North Africa, and is abundant in parts of Menorca.	eng
61581	population	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is common in parts of its range in North Africa, and is abundant in parts of Menorca.	eng
61581	threats	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is not believed to be significantly threatened. In Menorca, it is locally threatened by predation by cats and by isolation of populations.	eng
61581	threats	Philippe Geniez, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is not believed to be significantly threatened. In Menorca, it is locally threatened by predation by cats and by isolation of populations.	eng
61582	conservation	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It occurs in Dana Wildlife Reserve in Jordan, and in a reserve in the Santa Catarina area of Sinai in Egypt.	eng
61582	distribution	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species has been recorded from only four areas: part of the northern Negev Desert (Israel), the area of Petra (Jordan), the Santa Catarina area of the southern Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), and the Gebel Maghara in northern Sinai (Egypt). It occurs at least up to 1,500 m (Sinai).	eng
61582	habitat	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	The species is found in desert steppe areas, with between 100 and 150 mm annual precipitation. It generally inhabits rocky hills and sandstone cliffs. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61582	population	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is rare and localised species, and it is not frequently recorded.	eng
61582	threats	Disi, M., A.M., Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	Overall, the species is presumably intrinsically at risk because of its fragmented distribution. In Egypt it is threatened by overgrazing, quarrying, collection of firewood, accidental mortality on roads and overcollection for scientific purposes. The threats to this species in Israel are not known.	eng
61583	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Further studies are needed in order to understand the recent population declines of this species better. It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is present in a number of protected areas, though it has nearly disappeared from a number of these.	eng
61583	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is widely found in Portugal and Spain; it is found as isolated populations in southern, south-central and western France (north to Oleron Island), and in extreme northwestern Italy. It also occurs on some Atlantic islands along the Spanish and Portuguese coasts. It is present on a few Mediterranean islands. It ranges from sea level up to 2,500m asl. The subspecies <em>T.l. oteroi </em>is endemic to Salvora Island in northwestern Spain.	eng
61583	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in open and dry areas of woodland, scrubland, olive groves, vineyards, meadows, arable areas and sandy or rocky sites. It is generally present in areas that have refuges such as bushes, stone walls, rabbit burrows and other holes. The females lay clutches of five to twenty two eggs.	eng
61583	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Although it has been recorded at densities of up to 50 individuals per hectare, populations appear to be strongly declining in many parts of its range. Some insular populations as well as Italian ones are close to extinction. The subspecies <em>T.l. oteroi </em>numbers fewer than 10,000 individuals.	eng
61583	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally declining because of ongoing habitat loss, pesticide pollution and poisoning. Predators might also be eating this species more, due to the decline of rabbits. Also reduced livestock grazing might be reducing open areas suitable for this species. Current attempts to revive the former tradition of eating this species would also be very detrimental.	eng
61584	conservation	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	It is known from protected areas in both Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
61584	distribution	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	This North Africa species ranges through northern Algeria and northern Tunisia, and is present on Galita Island off the Tunisian coast. It is found up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
61584	habitat	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	This species is found in Mediterranean forests, open areas, meadows, scrubland, deciduous woodland, coastal areas, rocky sites, on stone walls and in old olive groves. The females lay two to three clutches of between two and twenty eggs.	eng
61584	population	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	It is a reasonably common species.	eng
61584	threats	Böhme, W., Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Mouden, H., Geniez, P. & Nouira, M.S., 2006	This species might be impacted by loss of stone walls and intensification of agricultural methods and general fragmentation because of habitat destruction. It is also threatened by accidental mortality on roads.	eng
61585	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, El Hassan El Mouden, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It has been recorded in the Reserve de Grouka in Morocco.	eng
61585	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, El Hassan El Mouden, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in much of Morocco (except the southwest, based on current records) and in northwestern Algeria. There is an apparently isolated population in northern Western Sahara, however recent surveys have failed to locate any specimens and it is possible that this population is now extirpated (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). This species may occur in the Spanish North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla (old unconfirmed records). It occurs up to 2,500m asl.	eng
61585	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, El Hassan El Mouden, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in Mediterranean scrubby habitats and middle-elevation mountain forests. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61585	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, El Hassan El Mouden, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a relatively common species, except in Western Sahara.	eng
61585	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, El Hassan El Mouden, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction as a result of wood extraction. It is also harvested for local use for traditional medicinal use. In general, these threats are localized and the species is not believed to be significantly threatened.	eng
61586	conservation	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Hassan El Mouden, Geniez, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Saïd Nouira, M., Baha El Din, S., Lymberakis, P., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range. Research into the range and collection of this species in Egypt is needed.	eng
61586	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, M. Saïd Nouira, Sherif Baha El Din, Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range. Research into the range and collection of this species in Egypt is needed.	eng
61586	distribution	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Hassan El Mouden, Geniez, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Saïd Nouira, M., Baha El Din, S., Lymberakis, P., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species ranges through North Africa from north-central and northeastern Algeria and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt, central and northern Israel, western Jordan (with an isolated locality in the east), Lebanon, much of Syria, and central and southern Turkey. It also occurs on Cyprus. This species is found from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.  In Turkey, it is found from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
61586	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, M. Saïd Nouira, Sherif Baha El Din, Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species ranges through North Africa from north-central and northeastern Algeria and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt, central and northern Israel, western Jordan (with an isolated locality in the east), Lebanon, much of Syria, and central and southern Turkey. It also occurs on Cyprus. This species is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.  In Turkey, it is found from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
61586	habitat	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Hassan El Mouden, Geniez, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Saïd Nouira, M., Baha El Din, S., Lymberakis, P., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It occurs in open areas of sandy or stony soil with sparse grass or bushy vegetation. Animals may also be found at the edge of fields, on the banks of irrigation canals, or in rural gardens. In Egypt is found near to wetlands and in coastal areas. In Tunisia the species is largely restricted to areas of oasis. It is an ovoviviparous species, the females give birth to between three and six young.	eng
61586	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, M. Saïd Nouira, Sherif Baha El Din, Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species is found in a wide variety of habitats. It occurs in open areas of sandy or stony soil with sparse grass or bushy vegetation. Animals may also be found at the edge of fields, on the banks of irrigation canals, or in rural gardens. In Egypt is found near to wetlands and in coastal areas. In Tunisia the species is largely restricted to areas of oasis. It is an ovoviviparous species, the females give birth to between three and six young.	eng
61586	population	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Hassan El Mouden, Geniez, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Saïd Nouira, M., Baha El Din, S., Lymberakis, P., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It can be a common species, particularly in Lebanon, southern Turkey, and Cyprus. In Egypt, it is uncommon to rare.	eng
61586	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, M. Saïd Nouira, Sherif Baha El Din, Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It can be a common species, particularly in Lebanon, southern Turkey, and Cyprus. In Egypt, it is uncommon to rare.	eng
61586	threats	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Slimani, T., El Hassan El Mouden, Geniez, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Saïd Nouira, M., Baha El Din, S., Lymberakis, P., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. Populations may be locally impacted by conversion of land to agriculture or habitat loss to tourism development. There is some commercial collection of this species in Egypt.	eng
61586	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Tahar Slimani, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, M. Saïd Nouira, Sherif Baha El Din, Petros Lymberakis, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. Populations may be locally impacted by conversion of land to agriculture or habitat loss to tourism development. There is some commercial collection of this species in Egypt.	eng
61587	conservation	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	In Israel it occurs in a few reserves, including Nizzana Sands. In Egypt it is present in the Zaranik protected area. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species in Egypt, and possibly it should be protected by international legislation. Protected areas should be established at important localities for the species. Awareness raising and community conservation measures are needed for the conservation of this species.	eng
61587	distribution	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	This species is restricted to the western Negev sands of Israel and the Gaza Strip, extending westwards across north Sinai to the eastern margins of the Nile Delta. Populations between the Suez Canal and the Nile Delta are highly fragmented and have almost been extirpated, with an estimate of 80% habitat loss in this region. Populations south of Tel Aviv in Israel are believed to be extinct. It is a lowland species possibly occurring up to 200 m asl.	eng
61587	habitat	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is found in sandy and gravel desert and desert edge habitats, often in small, stabilised valleys between dunes. It can be encountered in open steppe-like areas with a good vegetation cover. It is not present in rocky or stony terrain and is generally not present in cultivated land. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
61587	population	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	It is moderately common in Israel, but its range is diminishing due to habitat loss. This species was reported to be numerous in Egypt by Flower (1933), it has since declined overall, but it is still locally common in some localities in Sinai (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.)	eng
61587	threats	Werner, Y. & El Din, S.B., 2006	The threats to this species include a general loss of habitat due to human settlement, overgrazing, large-scale agricultural expansion, land reclamation, quarrying, solid waste dumping and off-road vehicles. The species is also collected for the international pet trade.	eng
61588	conservation	Joger, U., Geniez, P. & Nouira, S., 2006	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
61588	distribution	Joger, U., Geniez, P. & Nouira, S., 2006	This species is found in two separate parts of central Algeria, and is also present in southern Tunisia where it is found in the Erg er Raoui, Grand Erg Occidental and Grand Erg Oriental (Schleich <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
61588	habitat	Joger, U., Geniez, P. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is found in sandy desert habitats and is generally present in vegetation at the base of dunes. The females lay one clutch of five to seven eggs per year.	eng
61588	population	Joger, U., Geniez, P. & Nouira, S., 2006	It is locally common in areas with rich plant growth.	eng
61588	threats	Joger, U., Geniez, P. & Nouira, S., 2006	The species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from both the harvesting of vegetation to feed livestock or for use as fuel, and from overgrazing of vegetation by nomadic herders in some areas.	eng
61589	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani & Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is known to exist in several national parks throughout its range.	eng
61589	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani & Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges from western Morocco (including Ceuta, Melilla and the Chafarinas Islands [Spain]), eastwards through northern Algeria into northwestern Tunisia. It can be found from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.	eng
61589	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani & Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is generally, though not always found in moist soil that is covered by stones, rocks and other ground cover. It can be found close to roadsides, in traditionally cultivated areas, grassland, in oak forest and oak-juniper forests, in steppe habitat and in sandy patches without vegetation. This species is ovoviviparous, the female gives birth to between two and five young.	eng
61589	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani & Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
61589	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, Juan Pleguezuelos, Tahar Slimani & Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumed to be impacted in parts of its range by conversion of steppe lands to agricultural land.  It is commonly found under stones, and removal of suitable stones for house construction is thought to be a threat to this species.	eng
61590	conservation	Joger, U. & Böhme, W., 2006	It is listed on appendix II of CITES.  Its range includes Tassili National Park in Algeria.	eng
61590	distribution	Joger, U. & Böhme, W., 2006	This recently described species is restricted to southern Algeria and western Libya. It occurs between 500 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
61590	habitat	Joger, U. & Böhme, W., 2006	It is a herbivorous species, that is associated with rocky habitats in arid and semi-desert habitats.  It is an oviparous species.	eng
61590	population	Joger, U. & Böhme, W., 2006	It is not a common species.	eng
61590	threats	Joger, U. & Böhme, W., 2006	The species is threatened to some degree by overharvesting of animals for food and medicinal use. It is also partly threatened by overgrazing of habitat by livestock.	eng
61591	conservation	Claudia Corti, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Ulrich Joger, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range (e.g.. Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas. The subspecies <em>V. a. aspis</em> is categorized as Critically Endangered in Switzerland; <em>V. a. atra</em> is categorized as Vulnerable; and <em>V. a. francisciredi </em>is categorized as Endangered (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61591	distribution	Claudia Corti, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Ulrich Joger, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges from north-central and northeastern Spain , through much of France (where it is absent from the north and the Mediterranean coastal area), southwestern Germany (where it is known only from a single locality in the Black Forest), western and central Switzerland, throughout Italy (including the islands of Sicily, Elba and Montecristo; in the latter is very probably introduced), and western Slovenia. The species has not been recorded from Croatia ((Dušan Jelić pers. comm., October 2008). Records of this species outside of the current range need to be confirmed. It can be found up to 3,000 m asl.	eng
61591	habitat	Claudia Corti, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Ulrich Joger, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in dry, rocky areas, open scrubland, open woodlands, closed forest, hedges, pastures and stone walls. It often occurs on the edge of natural habitats, and is characteristic of chestnut woods in Italy. The species is common in mesic habitats. It is rare in suburban areas and arable land. The females give birth to between five and 22 young.	eng
61591	population	Claudia Corti, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Ulrich Joger, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a common species in much of its range. The species appears to be expanding its range geographically and altitudinally in France, however the extent of this change needs to be determined.	eng
61591	threats	Claudia Corti, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Ulrich Joger, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is threatened by loss of habitat through agricultural intensification, and to a lesser degree loss of habitat resulting from the development of tourist facilities and urbanization. The species is often found in open areas and overgrowth of these sites is an additional threat (for example in the Jura Mountains) (Jaggi and Baur, 1999). The species is persecuted by people, and illegally collected for the pet trade. Some populations are threatened through mortality on roads.	eng
61592	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. The species does occur in protected areas in the Iberian peninsula and Morocco.	eng
61592	conservation	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. The species does occur in protected areas in the Iberian peninsula and Morocco.	eng
61592	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges from northern Morocco to northern Algeria, and extreme northwestern Tunisia in North Africa, and it is also present on the Iberian Peninsula where it has a fragmented population in both Portugal and Spain (being absent from the north of Spain). The species has been not recorded in Tunisia during the last 55 years, despite targeted and intensive searches (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Populations of vipers from the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco formerly allocated to <em>V. monticola</em> are now recognized as belonging to <em>V. latastei</em> (Brito <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs from sea level up to almost 3,000 m asl.	eng
61592	distribution	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species ranges from northern Morocco to northern Algeria, and extreme northwestern Tunisia in North Africa, and it is also present on the Iberian Peninsula where it has a fragmented population in both Portugal and Spain (being absent from the north of Spain). The species has been not recorded in Tunisia during the last 55 years, despite targeted and intensive searches (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Populations of vipers from the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco formerly allocated to <em>V. monticola</em> are now recognized as belonging to <em>V. latastei</em> (Brito <em>et al</em>. 2006). It occurs from sea level up to almost 3,000 m asl.	eng
61592	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in generally moist, rocky areas, in dry scrubland and woodland, hedgerows, stone walls and sometimes in coastal dunes. The females give birth to between two and 13 young. On average, females give birth only once every three years.	eng
61592	habitat	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species is found in generally moist, rocky areas, in dry scrubland and woodland, hedgerows, stone walls and sometimes in coastal dunes. The females give birth to between two and 13 young. On average, females give birth only once every three years.	eng
61592	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is a species that is increasingly rare and fragmented throughout its range.	eng
61592	population	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	It is a species that is increasingly rare and fragmented throughout its range.	eng
61592	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species has declined throughout much of the lowlands and even in the montane areas of Iberia. Threats identified include direct persecution when encountered, coastal urbanization, afforestation with coniferous trees, burning of suitable habitat, intensification of agricultural practices, and accidental mortality (particularly of males) on roads.	eng
61592	threats	Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Marc Cheylan, M. Saïd Nouira, Ulrich Joger, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2009	This species has declined throughout much of the lowlands and even in the montane areas of Iberia. Threats identified include direct persecution when encountered, coastal urbanization, afforestation with coniferous trees, burning of suitable habitat, intensification of agricultural practices, and accidental mortality (particularly of males) on roads.	eng
61593	conservation	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It has been recorded from the Parc National de Toubkal, Morocco.	eng
61593	distribution	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	This relictual species is endemic to the High and Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco where is restricted to a few mountain valleys. It is found at elevations of between 1,200 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
61593	habitat	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It inhabits semi-humid montane areas, and can be found in screes, and areas with stones and cushion-like thorny plants.	eng
61593	population	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	It is thought to be a rare species.	eng
61593	threats	Miras, J.A.M., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, H., 2006	Habitat destruction resulting from removal of firewood is a major threat to this species.	eng
61594	conservation	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
61594	distribution	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is restricted to extreme northern Portugal, northwestern and north-central Spain and extreme southwestern France. It occurs from sea level up to 1,900 m asl.	eng
61594	habitat	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is found in areas of low scrubland, woodland edges and open areas. It known also to occur in pastoral and agricultural land. The females give birth to three to 10 young every two years.	eng
61594	population	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It can be a common species.	eng
61594	threats	Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Rafael Marquez, Marc Cheylan, Philippe Geniez, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is threatened by direct persecution when encountered, loss of habitat through fire, and the intensification of agricultural methods, in particular the destruction of hedges in pastureland.	eng
61595	conservation	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, and it is known to occur in some protected areas.	eng
61595	distribution	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species occurs from central Italy (southern Latium [Corsetti and Romano, in press]) to southernmost Italy including Sicily (but excluding southern Apulia). It ranges from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
61595	habitat	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is found in dry, open woodlands and shrubland, field edges, traditionally cultivated land, stone walls and old buildings. It is an oviparous species.	eng
61595	population	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There is little recent information on its abundance.	eng
61595	threats	Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is threatened by accidental mortality on roads, especially in areas where the species is relatively common. It is also threatened by fragmentation of habitat through intensification of agricultural practices. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people.	eng
61596	conservation	Marrero Rodríguez, A., Carqué Álamo, E., Ojeda Land, E., Bañares Baudet, A. & Acevedo Rodríguez, A., 2006	There are 16 subpopulations included in different National Parks. A large number of the individuals are found in SCI (Sites of Community Interest). Seeds are stored in  genebanks. In the National Park of Garajonay a recovery plan has been undertaken, which includes monitoring research and re-introductions of the species. The Government of the Canaries has developed a LIFE project which includes various activities of investigation and conservation. It is also listed under government legislation in 1991.	eng
61596	distribution	Marrero Rodríguez, A., Carqué Álamo, E., Ojeda Land, E., Bañares Baudet, A. & Acevedo Rodríguez, A., 2006	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands and occurs on the islands of Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma and Gran Canaria.	eng
61596	habitat	Marrero Rodríguez, A., Carqué Álamo, E., Ojeda Land, E., Bañares Baudet, A. & Acevedo Rodríguez, A., 2006	This dioecious species occurs at altitudes between 600 and 1,000 m. It grows in well conserved sectors of sub-humid montane forest (monteverde), also called 'cloud forest'. It is found in humid river-beds. However, a great part of the populations develop in marginal areas relatively disturbed by humans or included in enclaves profoundly altered and near cultivable irrigated lands.	eng
61596	population	Marrero Rodríguez, A., Carqué Álamo, E., Ojeda Land, E., Bañares Baudet, A. & Acevedo Rodríguez, A., 2006	There are 23 confirmed subpopulations on the four islands: <br/>11 subpopulations on Tenerife Island: 69 individuals. <br/>9 subpopulations on La Gomera Island: 214 individuals. <br/>2 subpopulations on La Palma Island: 55 individuals. <br/>1 subpopulation on Gran Canaria Island: 2 individuals.	eng
61596	threats	Marrero Rodríguez, A., Carqué Álamo, E., Ojeda Land, E., Bañares Baudet, A. & Acevedo Rodríguez, A., 2006	The major threat is due to the poor reproductive strategy of the species. Hybridization and the loss of habitat by agricultural activities, fire, grazing and overexploitation of the medicinal bark are additional threats.	eng
61597	conservation	Venturella, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently, local regulations in the Madonie Park as well as a regional law do not exist. Draft rules have been prepared and submitted for the approval of the Government of Sicily. When approved, the collection of <em>P. nebrodensis</em> will be totally forbidden in zone A of the Park which is an integral reserve area. In other zones the collection of unripe mushrooms (i.e., those under 3 cm in diameter) will also be forbidden. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: This species grows in Madonie Park which is a protected area. Experimental tests demonstrate that it is possible to inoculate the roots of the host plant <em>Cachrys ferulacea</em> with the mushroom, thereby increasing mushroom production in the wild. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>:  This species has started to be cultivated in order to reduce collection pressures on the species in the wild. The mushroom is grown in a tunnel made of metal arches varying in length between 20-30m, and covered by a black net that provides 90% shade, and can be grown at various altitudes. Fortunately cultivated <em>Pleurotus</em> mushrooms retain the same characteristic aroma and flavour of the wild varieties, which is not the case with other species such as oyster mushrooms. The <em>ex situ</em> cultivation also provides additional income for local farmers, who can offer a cheaper product than that collected from the wild which reduces the pressure on the wild population. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Legal action and enforcement is needed to stop over-collection and collection of unripe individuals of <em>P. nebrodensis</em> in the wild. At the same time the species needs to be cultivated <em>ex situ</em> to remove pressure on the wild populations. Reinforcement measures by inoculating the roots of its host plant and boosting wild production would also help, provided wild collection is carefully managed.	eng
61597	distribution	Venturella, G., 2006	This mushroom only occurs in northern Sicily, growing in scattered localities in the Madonie mountains from 1,200-2,000m in altitude.	eng
61597	habitat	Venturella, G., 2006	It grows on limestone substrates, in pastures containing "Basiliscu" <em> Cachrys ferulacea</em>, a member of the Umbelliferae or celery family.	eng
61597	population	Venturella, G., 2006	It is estimated that less than 250 individuals reach maturity each year.	eng
61597	threats	Venturella, G., 2006	<em>P. nebrodensis</em> was first described as <em>Agaricus nebrodensis</em> by Giuseppe Inzenga in 1863 and he called it "the most delicious mushroom of the Sicilian mycological flora". It has been a sought-after species since ancient times, and today remains a prized species. Given its rarity, it is sold in northern Sicily at a price fluctuating between 50-70 Euros per kg. However, as the species is so rare there is no formal market and the species is used in only a few restaurants where it is prepared using a number of traditional recipes. <br/> <br/>The population declines are due to the increasing number of mushroom gatherers, both professional and amateur, who are encouraged by the high price this mushroom commands. In addition to this increasing human pressure on the remaining natural populations, unripe fungi are usually collected.	eng
61598	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: There are no current measures in places. In fact, no species research or monitoring has taken place since the original postgraduate project in 1981. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>A. calamarophilon</em> has been cultivated at the Experimental Botanical Garden of the University of Patras as part of a genetics research project, although due to recent financial constraints the project has stopped and the species is no longer cultivated. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Monitoring is urgently needed to determine if this species still occurs in the wild. If so, its distribution and conservation status should be assessed and a management plan developed.	eng
61598	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	This plant is an endemic to Greek islands, specifically to the island of Euboea (or Evia), one of the largest islands in the Aegean Sea.  The only known population was found in the centre of the island north-east of the small town of Kimi, in 1981.	eng
61598	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	A geophyte that grows at an altitude of 20-30 m on limestone cliffs that rise almost vertically from the sea.	eng
61598	population	Latroú, G., 2006	The only known population, comprises just a few individuals. But the inaccessibility of its natural habitat has meant that little is known about its true population size and distribution.	eng
61598	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	One potential threat to this species is a recent plan to build an access road near the seashore. This illustrates the great importance of undertaking environmental impact assessments before building roads or making other modifications to the environment, as road construction could inadvertently destroy the last remaining habitat of this species.	eng
61599	conservation	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latore, A.V., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Fil, Y., 2006	Some populations are protected by the Natural Site of the mountain range of Bermeja. Its habitat is included in the EC Habitats Directive. A recovery plan has been undertaken in Andalusia. Seeds from one population are stored in the genebank of Andalusia.	eng
61599	distribution	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latore, A.V., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Fil, Y., 2006	This species is endemic to Andalusia in the Bermejense sector (Bética province). It occurs on the south slope of the mountain range of Estepona (Málaga).	eng
61599	habitat	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latore, A.V., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Fil, Y., 2006	A geohphyte that grows on poorly developed soils composed of peridotite rocks at altitudes between 200 and 400 m. More precisely it grows in cracks and fissures in depth gorges. It is found in Mediterranean shrubland areas with a subhumid to humid climate.	eng
61599	population	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latore, A.V., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Fil, Y., 2006	There are five confirmed subpopulations: <br/>Stream of  Acedías: 10 individuals <br/>Stream of Infierno: 159 individuals <br/>Path of Acedía: 7 individuals <br/>Stream of Polvito: 36 individuals <br/>Stream of  Mina: 23 individuals	eng
61599	threats	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latore, A.V., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Fil, Y., 2006	The species is threatened by intensive pasture expansion, the reduction of water supply to the habitat by pumping, herbivory, disappearance of the vegetation coverage, construction of communication roads, inappropriate forest management and fires.	eng
61600	conservation	Martínez Lirola, M.J., 2006	The majority of the population occurs in a Natural Reserve. The species is cultivated <em>ex situ</em> at the University of Castilla-La Mancha.	eng
61600	distribution	Martínez Lirola, M.J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Mountain range of Alcaraz (Albacete). Two known subpopulations exist. It is possible that the species distribution corresponds to that  of <em>Narcissus longispathus</em> and that it may occur in other localities along Alcaraz.	eng
61600	habitat	Martínez Lirola, M.J., 2006	This geophyte grows in dense marshes dominated by <em>Carex hispida</em> situated in somewhat inclined areas, near streams with low current or shallow lakes, on a substrate of rich vegetal organic matter. Sometimes, it penetrates the reeds near to water.	eng
61600	population	Martínez Lirola, M.J., 2006	The two known subpopulations occur in an area of 19,000 m²: <br/>Peñascosa I: 413 individuals <br/>Peñascosa II: 18,150 individuals	eng
61600	threats	Martínez Lirola, M.J., 2006	The major threats to this species are the expansion of intensive pasture and other agricultural activities. The fields are burned to improve grazing and to nitrify the soil. Agricultural activities reduce the habitat of the species because of fragmentation. The pumping of water and water contamination also degrade the habitat. This plant is attractive and its collection can be a threat.	eng
61601	conservation	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J. & Herrera-Molina, F., 2006	The subpopulations are encountered in the Natural Zones of the Mountain Ranges of Sub Andalusia and Nieves. The species is also included in the conservation project for the vegetation of the Cordovan Province undertaken by the Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía. Seeds are stocked in the genebank of Vegetal Andaluz.	eng
61601	distribution	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J. & Herrera-Molina, F., 2006	This species is endemic to Iberian Andalusia. It is known from three subpopulations in the Sub Andalusia Cordovan and from one subpopulation in the Nieves mountain range (Málaga).	eng
61601	habitat	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J. & Herrera-Molina, F., 2006	This geophyte grows on calcareous soils. It is found in small cleared woods that form part of the meadows associated with water courses and enclosed irrigated land. The species is observed in areas where the herbaceous stratum dominates with some dispersed trees on a rocky substrate.	eng
61601	population	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J. & Herrera-Molina, F., 2006	Four confirmed subpopulations: <br/>3 subpopulations in Sub Andalusia: 5,180 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Nieves mountain range: 632 individuals	eng
61601	threats	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J. & Herrera-Molina, F., 2006	The major threats to this species are grazing and trampling by livestock. The change in agricultural activity is crucial for the survival of the species.	eng
61602	conservation	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J., Benavente, A., Díaz, A., Herrera-Molina, F., Garrido, A. & Luque, P., 2006	This species is included in various National Parks. Seeds from some populations are stocked at the genebank of Vegetal Andaluz and at the Botanical Garden of Torre del Vinagre (Cazorla, Jaén). The species is cultivated and propagated. A recovery plan for the species has been implemented.	eng
61602	distribution	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J., Benavente, A., Díaz, A., Herrera-Molina, F., Garrido, A. & Luque, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Andalusia and is widely distributed in the mountain ranges of Cazorla, Segura and las Villas. Its known range has diminished because some subpopulations are now considered to be separate species. There are 10 subpopulations, but two of them have not been refound. Also found in the mountain ranges of Castril (Granada), Mágina (Jaén) and in the Jaén Mountains. In this last one the individuals have different characters and may represent a different species.	eng
61602	habitat	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J., Benavente, A., Díaz, A., Herrera-Molina, F., Garrido, A. & Luque, P., 2006	This geophyte occurs in permanent waters and fountains. It is found in association with <em>Scirpus holoschoenus, Holcus mollis, Piptatherum veriaean</em>, and <em>Eleocharis nigricans</em>.	eng
61602	population	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J., Benavente, A., Díaz, A., Herrera-Molina, F., Garrido, A. & Luque, P., 2006	The populations fluctuate in size from one year to another. <br/> <br/>8 confirmed subpopulations: <br/>2 subpopulations in Sa de Mágina: 5,157 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Sontes de Jaén: 2,300 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in mountain range of Castri: not estimated <br/>5 subpopulations in mountain range of Cazorl: 12,579 individuals	eng
61602	threats	Hernández-Bermejo, E., Prados, J., Benavente, A., Díaz, A., Herrera-Molina, F., Garrido, A. & Luque, P., 2006	This species is vulnerable to modifications of the water regime induced by natural or artificial causes. Trampling and  grazing by herbivores poses a threat to some subpopulations. There is also some removal of plants by collectors.	eng
61603	conservation	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Fernández Jiménez, S., 2006	This subspecies is included in the Regional Catalogue for the Protected Silvestre Flora of the Murcia Region, under the endangered category. It is listed in the Annex II of the Habitats Directive of the CE and in the National Catalogue of  threatened species. Genetic studies have been undertaken.	eng
61603	distribution	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Fernández Jiménez, S., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to Villafuerte mountain range of (Moratalla, Murcia). Two subpopulations were known but one disappeared recently.	eng
61603	habitat	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Fernández Jiménez, S., 2006	This geophyte grows in damp zones, in  Mediterranean shrubland, dominated by reeds and near water courses.	eng
61603	population	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Fernández Jiménez, S., 2006	In 1998, two subpopulations were found containing 300 individuals. In 1999, one subpopulation (50 individuals) disappeared. A torrential rain storm affected the other one in the autumn of 1999. <br/> <br/>In 2001, the remaining subpopulation on Villafuerte mountain range was estimated to number 120 individuals. Since this subspecies was described, the size of its population has declined about 60%, because of the low reproductive capacity.	eng
61603	threats	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Fernández Jiménez, S., 2006	The major threats to this subspecies are the restricted range and the small size of the population.Collection and trampling by tourists and botanists are also a threat. Others potential threats are the changes to the habitat caused by the extraction of water for irrigation and grazing by domestic livestock or wild goats.	eng
61604	conservation	Gutiérrez, L., Lorite, J., Ruiz, M., López, M. & Donaire, F., 2006	The subpopulations of this subspecies are included in National Parks that presumably afford some degree of protection. A recovery plan has been developed. Some propagation experiments have been achieved. Seeds are stored in the genebanks of the National Park of the Nevada Mountain Range and of Vegetal Andaluz.  Monitoring data exists.	eng
61604	distribution	Gutiérrez, L., Lorite, J., Ruiz, M., López, M. & Donaire, F., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the mountain ranges of Nevada and Baza (Granada).	eng
61604	habitat	Gutiérrez, L., Lorite, J., Ruiz, M., López, M. & Donaire, F., 2006	This geophyte grows on permanently damp siliceous soils that are seasonally covered with water. It is found beside small streams and springs, preferably on south facing slopes.	eng
61604	population	Gutiérrez, L., Lorite, J., Ruiz, M., López, M. & Donaire, F., 2006	12 confirmed subpopulations grouped in 4 meta-populations: <br/>Nevada mountain range I: 1,793 individuals <br/>Nevada mountain range II and Vacares-Maitena: 13,420 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Baza: 6 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Baza-Filabres: 8,379 individuals	eng
61604	threats	Gutiérrez, L., Lorite, J., Ruiz, M., López, M. & Donaire, F., 2006	The threats to this subspecies are the climatic variations and the alterations to the water regime because of its specific and fragile habitat.  Trampling and grazing by livestock threaten this subspecies because it prevents plants from setting seed. Competition from others plants can also be a threat.	eng
61605	conservation	Fabregat Llueca, C. & López Udias, S., 2006	The species is present in the LIC of Muela de Cortes and Caroc” and Valle de Ayora and Sierra del Boqueró”. Three subpopulations have been designated as Flora Micro Reserves. Seeds are stored in the genebank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia and it is also under cultivation.	eng
61605	distribution	Fabregat Llueca, C. & López Udias, S., 2006	This species is endemic to the Province of Valencia. Its principal area of occurence is in the mountains of Palomera and Macizo del Caroch in the south west of Valencia. It has been cited as occurring in adjoining areas of the Province of Albacete but its presence there has not been confirmed.	eng
61605	habitat	Fabregat Llueca, C. & López Udias, S., 2006	This geophyte grows in damp irrigation ditches, at the bottom of gorges and in damp zones dominated by herbaceous vegetation on a basic substrate. It is found in a mountainous environment more or less characterized by a sub-humid climate. Frequently grows in association with <em>Erica erigena</em>.	eng
61605	population	Fabregat Llueca, C. & López Udias, S., 2006	It has been estimated that the 5 known subpopulations contain 18,514 individuals. <br/> <br/>5 confirmed subpopulations: <br/>Alto de Tona, Caroch: 87 individuals <br/>Umbría del Caroch: 641 individuals <br/>Fuente del Puntalejo: 1,521 individuals <br/>La Unde: 16,257 individuals <br/>Mountain range Palomera: 8 individuals	eng
61605	threats	Fabregat Llueca, C. & López Udias, S., 2006	This species is dependent on maintained humidity and is vulnerable to prolonged drought, and drainage works or water course canalizations that reduce water supply in the habitat. The collection of this plant is also a threat for the subpopulations near human habitation. The enlargement of roads could threaten some subpopulations.	eng
61606	conservation	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>1). Legally: On a regional level, the habitat is protected as a Natural Site of Special Interest by law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands. The species itself is listed in the Catalogue of Endangered Species of the Balearic Islands. <br/> <br/>2).<em> In situ</em>: No measures taken yet. <br/> <br/>3).<em> Ex situ</em>: No measures taken yet. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is necessary to undertake a careful search for other subpopulations of <em>B. duvigneaudii</em>, which may be easily overlooked due to its minute size. A substantial increase in monitoring is needed to understand the population dynamics and reproductive behaviour of this species. Agricultural fires that are set to provide grazing for sheep should not be allowed in the area where <em>Brimeura</em> grows. Cultivation of this species in a botanical garden would be useful.	eng
61606	distribution	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	Endemic to Majorca in the Balearic islands, this species only occurs in very small numbers at three localities.	eng
61606	habitat	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	This geophyte grows in limestone rock crevices and slopes near the sea at an altitude of approximately 150-250 m. It thrives in sunny, hot places. The above-ground parts of the plant die back in summer when it is hottest and driest. Only one subpopulation has so far been observed producing seeds; all others seem to reproduce asexually by bulb division. <em>B. duvigneaudii</em> is considered to be a relict species, a remainder from a once larger group that, in the course of climatic change, has nearly disappeared over the millennia. These remnant populations may have difficulties coping with today's climate.	eng
61606	population	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	The population size is <150 mature individuals.	eng
61606	threats	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	This species is vulnerable to extreme natural events, such as fires. The species also faces recruitment problems, possibly due to climate change.	eng
61607	conservation	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention (ratified by the Government of Cyprus in 1988), where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a LIFE Third Countries Project, the species is also listed in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, it is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, which will be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. The EU adhesion has clearly had a positive effect on species protection as management plans are now rapidly harmonized with European law and strictly enforced. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The two sites where this species is found have been proposed by the LIFE Third Countries Project as Special Protection Areas (SPA) by the Natura 2000 Network. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Small numbers of seeds have been collected from the wild and stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Government of Cyprus should inform landowners of the presence of this rare taxon on their property, and prohibit any action that could threaten these populations. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds representative of the genotype of this species need to be collected and stored in several seedbanks. This species should also be grown in botanical gardens.	eng
61607	distribution	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This plant is found only in the north-western part of Cyprus in three locations. Two of them are near the village of Panagia (Vouni and Aghia Moni monastery) and the third is near the Aghios Neophytos monastery.	eng
61607	habitat	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This geophyte grows at an altitude of 250-900 m in moist, shaded crevices and banks, often under a closed canopy of old oak trees (<em>Quercus infectoria</em> subsp. <em>veneris</em>) and shrubs (<em>Pistacia terebinthus</em>). This plant is a perennial which overwinters as a bulb, in which nutrients are stored for the next spring. All species in the <em>Scilla</em> genus are known for their toxic properties, which may cause serious digestive disorders.	eng
61607	population	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	Less than 600 individuals exist in three known subpopulations.	eng
61607	threats	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	The survival of this species depends on the conservation of the remaining oak forests.These have been considerably reduced by logging for timber, road construction and expansion of farmland. Large old oak trees have become rare and scattered where there used to be a closed forest cover. While <em>S. morrisii</em> does not seem to be declining in numbers of individuals, the extent of its habitat is decreasing due to road construction and increased agricultural land use.	eng
61608	conservation	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990 which grants it protection in its natural site. Internationally, <em>A. bermejoi</em> is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive, where it is listed as a priority species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Since 2003, the University of the Balearic Islands has started a rehabilitation programme for <em>A. bermejoi</em> in its natural habitat with financial support from the MAVA foundation. A programme to eradicate all species of the introduced and invasive <em>Carpobrotus</em> has been undertaken since 1996 in natural areas of the Balearic Islands, with mixed success. Since 2002, the eradication programme has focussed on sites with rare species such as <em>A. bermejoi</em>. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are stored in the Sóller Botanical Garden seedbank, located on Majorca, where the plant is also under cultivation. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is essential that the small area where this species grows be protected from trampling and motorbikes. To make conservation actions more effective, studies on population dynamics (recruitment and mortality) and reproductive biology of this species are needed. (Re-)introduction of this species to suitable habitats to increase its number of populations and its survival chances is needed.	eng
61608	distribution	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Balearic Islands, and occurs in the north-east part of the island of Minorca. Here it is only found in two small areas separated by a rocky zone about 200 m wide.	eng
61608	habitat	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<em>A. bermejoi</em> is a herb that grows in stream beds that dry out in summer and occasionally during dry winters. It grows on acidic soil which accumulates in small rock depressions, and requires only moderate sun exposure. <br/> <br/>This perennial plant reproduces from seeds but can also reproduce vegetatively from stolons, which are horizontal stems creeping just above the ground having the capacity to take root and form new plants. There is evidence that the two subpopulations on either side of the rocky zone are genetically different, but the importance of this for the long-term maintenance of the entire population has yet to be assessed. This species benefits from nitrogen provided in seabird droppings.	eng
61608	population	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	The total population numbers less than 100 individuals in an area of just a few dozen square metres.	eng
61608	threats	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	The species is threatened both directly and indirectly. Its habitat is extremely unstable with available water and nutrients varying greatly from year to year. <em>A. bermejoi</em> does not support competition from other species very well, including competition from native carpet-forming species as well as introduced alien species such as <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>. It is directly threatened with trampling by fishermen and hikers, as well as motorbikes on the beach. <br/> <br/>Climate change may cause changes in its habitat. For example, several consecutive dry years will weaken this species and favour the development of opportunistic, more competitive species. Any wild collection of <em>A. bermejoi</em> represents a potential threat.	eng
61609	conservation	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention (ratified by Italy in 1997).  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The whole area of Marettimo Island is included within the SIC (Site of Community Importance) of Isola di Marettimo (ITA010002) and within the proposed Marettimo Nature Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo University. Plants are cultivated in the botanic gardens of Florence and Palermo. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The species would benefit from the entire island being designated as a nature reserve, which would help grazing and fire management. Its collection should be prohibited.	eng
61609	distribution	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This small shrub is endemic to the island of Marettimo (part of the Egadi archipelago, just west of Sicily). It grows in only a few locations on the northern side of the island in an area of approximately 5 km².	eng
61609	habitat	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This small, cushion-shaped perennial shrub grows on calcareous cliffs at an altitude of 20-600 m, preferring north-facing slopes and growing in the cracks of limestone rock faces. <br/> <br/>This species is considered to be a paleoendemic, which means that it was once much more widely distributed than today, and probably grew throughout the mountains of the Mediterranean when the region had a tropical climate. The plant reproduces from seeds only, a common characteristic of plants growing in such habitats. Mist is probably its main source of water.	eng
61609	population	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	It is estimated that approximately 300-500 individuals remain..	eng
61609	threats	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	Despite growing on largely inaccessible cliffs, it is threatened by grazing wild animals and fire. Given the tiny population and extent of habitat, just one catastrophic event could decimate the remaining population.	eng
61610	conservation	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Although this species is included in regional, national and international Red Lists, it is not protected by any law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The area of occurrence is included entirely in zone A of the Madonie Regional Park. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Botanical Science Department of Palermo University, but no known attempts at cultivation have been made. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research and fieldwork is needed to better understand the distribution and reproductive capacity of this species. Cultivation in botanical gardens will allow researchers to better understand the reasons for its decline in the wild. Collection should be prohibited.	eng
61610	distribution	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This small shrub is endemic to the Madonie Mountains in the north-central part of Sicily. According to the literature it is found in at least two sites, although only one has been confirmed. The inaccessibility of its habitat makes it difficult to estimate the species true distribution, but it is thought to cover about half a square kilometre.	eng
61610	habitat	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	The small perennial shrub grows on calcareous inland cliffs in two or three deep valleys at an altitude between 700 and 900 m. It prefers north-facing, shady slopes exposed to cold, wet winds, growing on small amounts of soil in rocky cracks. <br/> <br/><em>B. elatum</em> is considered a relict species that once had a much wider distribution. It reproduces only from seeds. Flowering and fruiting have rarely been observed. As is typical of plants growing in such habitats, exposure to mists is likely to be the main source of water.	eng
61610	population	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	The confirmed supopulation has an estimated size of about 400-600 individuals.	eng
61610	threats	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	Although the threats to this species are not sufficiently understood due to its inaccessible habitat, wildfire may represent a serious threat. Given the small and restricted population size, one fire could destroy the remaining population.	eng
61611	conservation	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: <em>B. kakiskalae</em> is included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. It is also protected by the Greek Presidential Decree 67/81. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4340008, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: So far, no special conservation measures have been taken at the site. However, this site occurs within the National Park of the Gorges of Samaria, which provides the species some protection.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: A few specimens are cultivated, and seeds are stored at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania on Crete. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Studies on the biology and ecology of this species must be continued to properly define the conservation measures needed. Additional fieldwork is required to determine whether any other populations exist, and to identify cliffs with similar properties to those of Kakiskalo as areas where potential introductions might be undertaken. Regular collection of seeds should be made in order to conserve the widest possible spectrum of genetic material. The site must not only be protected from goats, which have access to certain individuals, but also from botanists who may remove individuals for collections.	eng
61611	distribution	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	Endemic to the island of Crete, at Kakoskalo in the mountain range of Levka Ori, above the gorges of Samaria at an altitude of 1,450m.	eng
61611	habitat	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	This perennial herb occurs only on a single limestone cliff. Given that only a small number of individuals remain (about 100) and the fact that the plant flowers only once during its lifetime, there are very few individuals which flower at the same time (between 0 and 20, depending on the year). Seed production and the establishment of seedlings is therefore extremely variable. It seems to have very strict ecological requirements as it is only found on a single cliff of a specific type of metamorphous limestone.	eng
61611	population	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	Approximately 100 individuals are known in the wild in one single subpopulation.	eng
61611	threats	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	The main threats facing <em>B. kakiskalae</em> are the low probability of genetic exchange within the population due to the small number of individuals flowering at the same time, and cliff instability, as the substrate on which it grows collapses periodically. Goats may also graze any accessible plant.	eng
61612	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The species is classified as Critically Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). It is listed as Vulnerable in the list of protected species of Murcia.  One of the Algerian localities is located in a Ramsar site (Chott ech Chergui). There are no conservation measures in place in Morocco.<br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the size and the population dynamics. Habitat conservation is needed and therefore the creation of micro-reserves for endangered plants, including this species' sites, is proposed.	eng
61612	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	<em>Carum foetidum</em> is a species endemic to the west of the Mediterranean basin. It is found in Spain, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence exceeds 30,000 km², the area of occupancy is below 500 km<sup>2</sup> and it is present in 19 locations.	eng
61612	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	<p>It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) of about 60 cm height that inhabits slightly saline marsh prairies that dry in summer, often dominated by <em>Juncus maritimus, J. gerardii </em>or<em> Eleocharis palustris</em>. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.<em></em></p>	eng
61612	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The species is quite rare in the Mediterranean region, occurring at only 19 locations. The trend of the populations is not known.<br/>In Morocco, it is rare and is found at four locations on the plains of oriental Morocco. In Algeria, it is also rare and known from seven locations distributed between the high plains of Algérois and Oranais, the Constantinois plains, the Saharan Oranais Atlas, the Algérois Atlas and the Constantinois Atlas. In Spain, it is only found at eight locations in the southeast (provinces of Alicante, Granada and Murcia). The Spanish populations are very fragmented and many known populations disappeared as a result of changes in land use.<span lang="EN-GB">	eng
61612	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The transformation of the surrounding territory, the expansion of irrigation agriculture, grazing, droughts and the abundance of high vegetation, namely rushes, pose a threat to this species   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
61613	conservation	Latroú, G. & Fournaraki, C., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4330005, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em>: A replanting programme, supported by the MAVA foundation, has been undertaken by the University of Patras and the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (Crete). This institute stores seeds of <em>H. dolinicola</em> in seed banks, but germination has proven to be difficult due to parasites. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is essential to understand this species' ecology better, especially the role of sheep grazing in order to identify the best steps to take for its conservation <em>in situ</em>. It would be reasonable to attempt (re-)introductions of <em>H. dolinicola</em> in other nearby limestone sinks, and to bring this species into cultivation in botanical gardens, as well as store seeds. Finally legal measures for the conservation of this species and its habitat are needed, as well as an awareness campaign for the land-owners and users of this site.	eng
61613	distribution	Latroú, G. & Fournaraki, C., 2006	This species is only found in the Mt. Ida (Psiloritis) mountain range of central Crete at about 1500 m altitude in an area of about 3,000 km².	eng
61613	habitat	Latroú, G. & Fournaraki, C., 2006	A perennial herb which grows in a few limestone sinks in a region where many sheep graze during the summer. This species was first described in 1990. It is the only species belonging to the genus <em>Horstrissea</em>, which is closely related to the genus <em>Scaligeria</em>. This means that if this species disappears, the entire genus will disappear as well. <br/> <br/>A great number of species endemic to the mountains of Crete grow in these limestone sinks. All the plants are very small and hug the ground, a strategy which allows them to sustain the grazing pressure of numerous herds of sheep. In the spring, these limestone sinks serve as outlets for melting snow and rain, and are periodically flooded.	eng
61613	population	Latroú, G. & Fournaraki, C., 2006	Its total population numbers just a few dozen individuals.	eng
61613	threats	Latroú, G. & Fournaraki, C., 2006	<em>H. dolinicola</em> is mainly threatened by over-grazing and nutrient addition by sheep, as well as the possible use of fertilizers. It is also threatened by road construction. At the same time, it seems possible that the sheep may also control other plant species that might compete with <em>H. dolinicola</em>.	eng
61614	conservation	Mayol, J. & Bibiloni, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: At a regional level, Ligusticum huteri is included as a species sensitive to habitat changes in the Catalogue of Threatened Species of the Balearic Islands, which grants it protection in its natural habitat. Its habitat is protected as a Natural Site of Special Interest by Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands, and the species occurs in a military zone with limited access. At a national level this species is listed in the Atlas of the Threatened Flora of Spain, and at an international level the site is listed as an Important Bird Area in the EU Birds Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In 1998 a five-year plan was put into action by the Botanical Garden of Sóller to re-establish the plant in its natural habitat, some aspects of which are still in the process of development. The Government of the Balearic Islands protects part of its population with fencing. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are stored in a seed bank at the Botanical Garden of Sóller and some plants are maintained in culture. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is imperative to control the goat population on the site and ensure that there is no botanical collection. Sheep breeders should be prevented from setting bush fires. Possibilities of introducing this species to other mountainous regions of the island should be investigated.	eng
61614	distribution	Mayol, J. & Bibiloni, G., 2006	Endemic to the Balearic Islands, this species occurs locally in northern Majorca in the Tramuntana mountain range between 1,300-1,400 m altitude. The species is found over an area of less than 0.5 km².	eng
61614	habitat	Mayol, J. & Bibiloni, G., 2006	<em>L. huteri</em> is a perennial herb found growing on limestone cliffs in shaded, slightly moist rock crevices and on rocky ridges. <br/> <br/>The biology of this plant is not well known. The parts above ground disappear during winter and grow up from the base between April and June. The plant only flowers abundantly after several years of favourable conditions. This initial period is probably necessary for the accumulation of energy reserves. <em>L. huteri</em> reproduces from seed only.	eng
61614	population	Mayol, J. & Bibiloni, G., 2006	No more than 100 individuals exist in one locality.	eng
61614	threats	Mayol, J. & Bibiloni, G., 2006	At least 50% of the population has disappeared over the past ten years due to drought and increased grazing pressure from wild goats. Bush fires started by sheep-breeders also pose a threat.	eng
61615	conservation	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990, which grants it protection in its natural habitat. Internationally <em>N. balearica</em> is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive as a priority species.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In 1997 within the framework of an EU LIFE project entitled "Conservation of natural habitats and plant species in Corsica", several projects were undertaken which included habitat protection, land acquisition, and restoration work for this species. A reintroduction attempt on Corsica using material from the Geneva Botanic Garden was unsuccessful. On the Balearic Islands, a conservation programme undertaken by the Universitat de les Iles Balears and financed by the MAVA foundation has been launched in 2003.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Material collected from the Balearic Islands is being cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Sóller on Majorca (Spain). Corsican material (all of the same provenance) has been cultivated in the botanic gardens of Geneva, Brest and Porquerolles since 1981, the year when the population on Corsica was discovered. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Research is needed to understand the reproductive biology and environmental constraints for this species in order to undertake better management. Permanent plots are needed to monitor population numbers over time and the effect of climate change. Research will also help guide re-introduction attempts to Corsica, where ideally Corsican material should be used. In addition, the management and ownership issues of the sites where it either grows or once grew need to be resolved to guarantee the long-term survival of this species.	eng
61615	distribution	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<em>Naufraga balearica</em> occurs only on the island of Majorca in the Balearic Islands (Spain). Another subpopulation of what is believed to be the same species was discovered in 1981 on the western coast of Corsica (France), between Cargèse and Piana, but this had disappeared by 1983.	eng
61615	habitat	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	This herbaceous species is found at the base of coastal cliffs to the north of the island. It usually grows in shady cracks in boulders where a little calcareous soil or clay has accumulated, and needs humid conditions. <br/> <br/>This species is the only representative of the genus <em>Naufraga</em>. While the plant can reproduce from seed, it can also form new individuals vegetatively from its lateral shoots. The flowers have been shown to be pollinated by ants, which is very rare in the plant kingdom. By having tiny flowers grouped close together and near the ground means that ants can quickly visit them to seek nectar, and thus transfer pollen from one flower to another.	eng
61615	population	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	The population is fragmented.	eng
61615	threats	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<em>N. balearica</em> is sensitive to droughts, mainly in spring. Repeated droughts over the last 20 years have resulted in a continuous decline in the numbers of individuals. With climate change, a scenario of a warmer, drier regime puts this species at risk. Some other species living in association with <em>N. balearica</em> are more drought-resistant, thus have benefited from drier conditions and provide increased competition. <br/> <br/><em>N. balearica</em> is also threatened by intensive trampling by goats, although grazing may also reduce the competitive pressure from other species. In the 1980s plants were removed by collectors, which may explain the decline in the original population.	eng
61616	conservation	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/><em>Legally</em>: Internationally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention (ratified by Italy in 1997) and in Appendix II of the Habitats Directive. In the UNEP list of rare Mediterranean species it is listed as vulnerable, both regionally and globally. In all three documents, the species is listed under its synonym <em>Petagnia saniculifolia</em> Guss. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The known populations are mainly found in protected areas, including the Nebrodi Regional Park; the "Vallone Calagna sopra Tortorici" Nature Reserve; Sites of Community Importance (Torrente Fiumetto e Pizzo D’Ucina - ITA030002, Stretta di Longi - ITA030001); and Special Protection Zones (Serra del Re, Monte Soro e Biviere di Cesarò - ITA030038). <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in a germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo. The species is cultivated in the botanic gardens of Palermo, Catania and Messina on Sicily and at the English Gardens ("Giardini inglesi") of the Caserta Royal Palace ("Reggia di Caserta") on the Italian mainland just north of Naples. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research is needed to identify all of this species' sites. Mountain water levels should be protected by prohibiting excessive use of mountain spring water. The area of occupancy should be expanded by reintroducing the species in suitable sites within the area of occurrence, following IUCN SSC Guidelines for Re-introductions.	eng
61616	distribution	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<em>Petagnaea gussonei</em> grows in the Nebrodi Mts. in the northeastern part of Sicily at an altitude of 240-1,500 m.	eng
61616	habitat	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This perennial herbaceous species grows on the lower edge of moisture-loving vegetation belts bordering shaded woodland mountain streams or rivulets which do not dry out in summer. The plant prefers sites where the current is calm and the substrate is soaked with water. <br/> <br/>This species usually reproduces asexually through stolons; these horizontal branches grow out from the base of the plant and produce new plants from buds at their tips. This mechanism allows the plant to colonize the wet edges of streams. Seed production occurs occasionally, but the germination rate is very low.	eng
61616	population	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	There are only a few subpopulations.	eng
61616	threats	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	The main threat identified was the reduction of water supply to the habitat by pumping and other human uses. Therefore, despite the fact that it grows in protected areas, if the water is removed this species will decline.	eng
61617	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, this species is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive of the European Union, where it is listed as a priority species. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4340001, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Some seeds have been deposited in the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania in Crete. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Given the number of species endemic to Agria Gramvousa, the islet should be designated as a nature reserve, and a management plan put in place to prevent the introduction of herbivores and invasive plants. Seeds of <em>A. glaberrima</em> should also be stored in seedbanks and specimens cultivated in botanical gardens.	eng
61617	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	<em>Anthemis glaberrima</em> is endemic to the islets of Agria Gramvousa and Imeri Gramvousa, situated at the extreme northwest tip of the island of Crete. The total area where this plant is found covers less than one square kilometre. Today this plant is only known from Agria Gramvousa. Its continued presence on Imeri Gramvousa needs to be checked.	eng
61617	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	An annual species that grows on littoral rocks. <br/> <br/>Rich in endemics, the islet of Agria Gramvousa is one of the few islets that have never been inhabited by domestic or wild ungulates such as goats or sheep. Any introduction of herbivores could threaten the natural balance of this island's vegetation and lead to the extinction of some plant species. <em>A. glaberrima</em> belongs to the taxonomic group <em>Ammanthus</em> which includes several species (such as <em>Anthemis ammanthus</em>, <em>A. filicaulis</em> and <em>A. tomentella</em>) endemic to the southern islands in the Aegean Sea.	eng
61617	population	Latroú, G., 2006	There are approximately 1,000 individuals in the population.	eng
61617	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	The main threats to this species include accidental or deliberate introductions of herbivores or invasive plant species to the islets.	eng
61618	conservation	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures have been taken to protect the species itself. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Part of the area where this species occurs is situated in the Nature Reserves "Saline di Trapani e Paceco" and "Isole dello Stagnone di Marsala". Here, it is forbidden to collect seeds or any vegetative parts of the plant. These areas are effectively managed (by WWF and the Province of Trapani, respectively), guarded by rangers, and have been subject to scientific monitoring. Construction of roads or houses inside the reserves requires permission. These species-rich reserves are sustainably managed and economic activities such as salt extraction take place within them. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is included in the GENMEDOC project (an inter-regional network of Mediterranean seedbanks), and seeds are being collected in order to propagate this species. It should not be difficult to germinate seeds in cultivation, but may be more difficult to meet the peculiar habitat requirements (nitrogen-rich, sandy and salty soil) of this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species should be added to Appendix I of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EC Habitats Directive to give it protection by international law. A campaign to eradicate the invasive species <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> in the region needs to be initiated. <em>C. maritima</em>'s classical site needs to be protected by finding alternatives to the planned harbour expansion, limiting access to the site, and careful planning of any construction of new roads and buildings. Inventories need to be made over several years to monitor population trends.	eng
61618	distribution	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	Endemic to Sicily and some surrounding islets, on the mainland <em>Calendula maritima</em> is only found in the Trapani region in a few coastal sites between Marsala and Mt. Cofano. Elsewhere small subpopulations also occur on two or three islets near the Sicilian coast: Isola Grande dello Stagnone, La Formica, and Favignana (although a recent survey noted that it seems to have disappeared from this site).	eng
61618	habitat	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	The herbaceous species colonizes open nitrogen-rich areas near the sea, and typically grows on decaying remnants of sea grass (<em>Posidonia oceanica</em>) washed ashore. <br/> <br/>This plant is a perennial, but most individuals (possibly due to drought stress) have an annual life cycle. Like annual plants from colder climatic zones, these individuals die back after flowering and setting seed. The seeds then germinate around October. The hot and dry summer marks the end of this species flowering period rather than a cold winter. Other species from the genus <em>Calendula</em> are often grown as garden plants. This species has the potential to be developed for horticulture if the optimal culture conditions can be found.	eng
61618	population	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61618	threats	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	On the main island of Sicily, its natural habitat is under increasing pressure from urban development. The subpopulation growing in the well-managed nature reserve "Saline di Trapani e Paceco" is threatened by plans to expand the nearby harbour. The loss of this subpopulation would not only diminish the species' gene pool; it would also represent a great loss to science as this locality is where this species was described (its <em>locus classicus</em>). <br/> <br/>In addition, the species is very attractive and may be collected for its beautiful flowers. It is also threatened by competition with an alien invasive species, the iceplant or hottentot fig (<em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>), which grows in part of <em>C. maritima</em>’s habitat and competes aggressively with it.	eng
61619	conservation	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, S., 2006	Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. It is also listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published in 2005 by the Government of Cyprus. The EU adhesion has had a positive effect on species protection, as management plans are now harmonized with European law. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Forestry Department is responsible for the site where Centaurea akamantis grows and has published a plan aimed at protecting the area. Several other strategies to protect the Akamas peninsula have been proposed, including its designation as a Site of Community Interest (SCI) by the Natura 2000 Network and the establishment of a National Park. In 2002 a detailed <strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>EU/World Bank Action Plan was produced for the proposed park. However, it has not been established due to resistance from local communities. This situation demonstrates the difficulty of reconciling the needs of nature conservation and tourist-based economies, especially in the Mediterranean region. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Small numbers of seeds have been collected from the Avakas Gorge and stored in the seed bank at the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. The species has been successfully cultivated at the Cyprus Agricultural Research Institute. However more studies are needed, particularly because it has the potential to be cultivated as an ornamental. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The National Park project should be approved by the Cyprus Council of Ministers. The species' habitat should be nominated as a Nature Reserve, which according to the Forest Law, will provide complete and permanent protection to this site and reduce grazing pressure. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Wild seeds of a sufficient genetic range need to be collected and stored in the University of Athens seedbank or other seedbanks. The species would also benefit from cultivation in botanical gardens.	eng
61619	distribution	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, S., 2006	This plant is only found on the Akamas peninsula in the northwestern part of Cyprus.	eng
61619	habitat	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, S., 2006	This semi-woody herbaceous plant colonizes steep and humid limestone cliffs in the Avakas and Argaki ton Koufon ("Stream of Snakes") Gorges. <em>C. akamantis</em> is characterized by an extremely long flowering and fruiting period.	eng
61619	population	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, S., 2006	One subpopulation has only 50 individuals and the other approximately 500 individuals.	eng
61619	threats	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, S., 2006	Increasing visitor numbers to the Akamas peninsula is contributing to a decline in habitat quality, although the number of mature individuals has remained stable since 1993, when the species was first described. Grazing poses a serious threat, even though it is not permitted in these areas and fines are imposed by the Forestry Department.	eng
61620	conservation	Foggi, B., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the law 56/2000, which is a law guiding biodiversity conservation in the Tuscan region, and is quite similar to the EC Habitats Directive. Under this law, it is forbidden to collect any species in this genus. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Four of the eight known subpopulations occur in the Tuscan Archipelago National Park. The Park includes a protected terrestrial area of just under 18,000 ha, and a marine protected area of approximately 60,000 ha (making it the largest European marine park). The objective of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park is to protect this fragile natural environment, which is very rich in cultural and scientific values.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The species is cultivated in the Botanical Garden of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Monitoring of all subpopulations is needed, and a programme to remove invasive alien plants which threaten one of the subpopulations needs to be undertaken. Efforts to ensure that these alien species do not start growing in the other areas where this species is found are also very important. Once the alien species have been eradicated, a re-introduction programme will be planned, using specimens propagated from the threatened population.	eng
61620	distribution	Foggi, B., 2006	<em>Centaurea gymnocarpa</em> is endemic to the Italian island of Capraia, a small island which is part of the Tuscan Archipelago.	eng
61620	habitat	Foggi, B., 2006	It is a herbaceous species that colonizes cracks and fissures of rock faces, growing on acid rocks. It is found in association with <em>Linaria capraia</em> and other endemic species such as <em>Silene badaroi</em> and <em>Galium caprarium</em>. <br/> <br/><em>C. gymnocarpa</em> belongs to the group known as the "<em>cineraria</em>" group. This group probably was once a single species when the land masses were united, but as islands were formed, new species evolved on each island. This means that today there are a number of closely related species of <em>Centaurea</em> in the Mediterranean growing on rocky seaward cliffs, all probably related to a common ancestor.	eng
61620	population	Foggi, B., 2006	The population size is estimated to be less than 250 individuals. Eight subpopulations have been identified. The one threatened subpopulation is composed of less than 20 individuals, while the seven others include more then 20 individuals.	eng
61620	threats	Foggi, B., 2006	The subpopulation, situated between Paese and Porto, is severely threatened by competition from two invasive plants: <em>Carpobrotus acinaciformis</em> and <em>Senecio angulatus</em>. These two species in the last years have been expanding in Capraia, but do not yet grow in the other areas where <em>C. gymnocarpa</em> occurs, which are for the most part far away from areas of human habitation.	eng
61621	conservation	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, this species is listed in Annex II of the Habitats Directive since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004. Nationally, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993 and the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations of 2003. <br/> <br/>All cliffs of the island of Malta and some cliffs of Gozo are protected locally, either as Sites of Scientific Importance, Areas of Ecological Importance, or Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock (il-Gebla tal_General) is a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden except for valid scientific reasons. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Management plans are being drafted for a number of sites, including the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation (western Gozo).  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>C. crassifolius</em> has been extensively cultivated, especially since its designation as the Maltese National Plant in 1971. It is now frequently encountered in parks and along the centre-strips of main roads. (Note that even if the plant is under cultivation, this does not change its conservation status as the Red List Criteria only apply to wild natural populations). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The most effective conservation measures needed are protection and management of the habitat, which means to better control quarrying, prevent illegal dumping (fly-tipping), avoid the introduction of new invasive alien species, and manage the invasives that exist. More cliffs on Gozo need to be protected by law because of their extreme ecological importance. Law enforcement regarding the protection of this species and its habitat needs to be strengthened. Finally, more research is needed to identify the reasons for this species' apparent population decline and habitat fragmentation.	eng
61621	distribution	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	<em>Cheirolophus crassifolius</em> has a patchy distribution along the northwestern and southern cliffs of the islands of Malta, southern Gozo and Fungus Rock.	eng
61621	habitat	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	This perennial shrub is confined to coralline limestone seaside cliffs and scree, growing in full sun. <br/> <br/>The Maltese Rock-centaury is the National Plant of Malta. This species displays some ancient traits in its habitat preference and flower morphology, and is considered to be a paleoendemic, meaning that it speciated in the distant past and may have been much more widely distributed than today. Previously this species had been placed in a genus of its own (<em>Palaeocyanus</em>), but was then grouped with species of the genus <em>Cheirolophus</em>. To fully understand the taxonomy of this species, it is important to study its relationship with species of the similar-looking genera <em>Centaurea</em> and <em>Serratula</em>.	eng
61621	population	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	The total wild population is estimated at a thousand individuals, but has not been counted.	eng
61621	threats	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	The species is threatened by a number of factors. First, it is rare to find juvenile plants of this long-lived species, possibly due to the larvae of an unidentified moth observed attacking the developing fruits. Second, the habitat is under threat from quarrying, as fragile boulder cliffs collapse from the pressure wave of nearby dynamite explosions. Dust pollution from quarrying seems to be a minor problem. Third, a number of sites have been affected by human disturbance, especially those most easily accessible. Finally the species, even at inaccessible sites, is threatened by introduced alien plant species, particularly <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>, <em>Agave americana</em> and <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>. These species were originally planted on the plateau but now invade the cliffs.	eng
61622	conservation	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of the Spanish royal decree 439/1990 that guarantees it protection in its natural habitat. Internationally, Femeniasia balearica is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive (in both cases under the name Centaurea balearica). In the context of the Birds Directive, the European Union protects the habitat of this species as an Important Bird Area.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: A re-establishment plan for <em>F. balearica</em> is currently being drafted at the University of the Balearic Islands. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are being stored and individuals are cultivated at the Botanical Garden of Sóller (Majorca). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Research is needed to understand this species' population dynamics (births and deaths per year or per generation) and the effect of competition and herbivory on young plant survival. The re-establishment plan that is being drafted needs to be completed and implemented. It is extremely important that motorized vehicles be prohibited from driving in the area containing this species.	eng
61622	distribution	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	Endemic to the Balearic Islands, <em>Femeniasia balearica</em> now occurs only in six sites in the north of the island of Minorca.	eng
61622	habitat	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	This woody perennial shrub or small tree is a typical seashore species that grows in dry sunny places on sandy soils. <br/> <br/>This woody perennial reproduces from seed. Its spines protect it from herbivores and trampling, but unfortunately not from motor vehicles. In some specialist literature the genus <em>Femeniasia</em> is considered to be synonymous with <em>Centaurea</em>. This means that some lists of protected species cite this plant under the name of <em>C. balearica</em>, demonstrating both the practical as well as legal problems that changes of nomenclature can cause.	eng
61622	population	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	Less than 2,200 individuals are found in six subpopulations.	eng
61622	threats	Mus, M. & Rita Larrucea, J., 2006	It is threatened by building and road construction, although these activities may also create opportunities for colonization. This species is often removed from beach paths because of its spines. Several individuals disappeared when a land owner planted pines (<em>Pinus halepensis</em>) in one of its subpopulations. It has been observed that in someyears the activities of wood-eating beetles (<em>Oxythrea funesta</em> and <em>Tropinota hirta</em>) seem to reduce seed germination..	eng
61623	conservation	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004. On the national level, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993. Part of the cliffs of Gozo is protected locally as Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock ((il-Gebla tal-General) is a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden, valid scientific reasons excepted. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: An action plan for this species has been drafted by the Environment Protection Directorate of Malta. The species as well as parts of its habitat are locally protected by Malta’s Environment Protection Act and Development Planning Act, which for instance restricts planting of certain alien species in certain zones. A management plan is being drafted for a key site for this species, namely the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation on western Gozo. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Some cuttings collected from Dwejra (western Gozo) were planted at the University of Malta’s botanical garden for <em>ex situ</em> conservation and ornamental purposes. <em>H. melitense</em> has been propagated at the Plant Biotechnology Centre, using micropropagation techniques as part of a joint research programme with the Department of Biology of the University of Malta. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Legal protection of all those parts of the cliffs on Gozo supporting the species is desirable. Legal protection (e.g. against illegal dumping) must be strengthened to protect this species and its habitat. A management plan for the western cliffs on Gozo is needed and it should include the requirements of Natura 2000, to attain sustainable tourism in the area. Efforts should be made to re-introduce the species on the main island of Malta, and <em>ex situ</em> propagation for ornamental purposes should be encouraged. More studies are needed to monitor the decline of the specimens on the plateau.	eng
61623	distribution	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	This species is restricted to the western cliffs of the island of Gozo and Fungus Rock Nature Reserve. It is probably extinct on the island of Malta.	eng
61623	habitat	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	<em>H. melitense</em> has a patchy distribution and mainly grows on intact limestone coastal cliffs and scree, preferring full sun. Occasionally it may also be found along the more accessible plateau on top of the cliffs. <br/> <br/>This low shrub is very ornamental and could be cultivated. Several other <em>Helichrysum</em> species are used to cure asthma and rheumatism, but there is no evidence of this species being used for medicinal purposes.	eng
61623	population	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	Only one subpopulation of a few thousand individuals remains.	eng
61623	threats	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	Cliff habitats are endangered or have already collapsed due to pressure waves from the explosions of nearby limestone quarrying. To a lesser extent, dust from the quarries may also pose a threat. Regeneration of this species is low, possibly due to insects eating the seeds, which jeopardizes the re-establishment of this species where it was once found. Introduced alien plant species pose serious problems, especially <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>, <em>Agave americana</em> and <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em>, which are colonizing the cliffs. <br/> <br/>Urbanization and tourism are dramatically increasing in this species' habitat on the plateau. Other threats include wild collection for ornamental purposes as well as the recent construction of kiosks and boat-houses near the shore.	eng
61624	conservation	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Though this species is included in the regional and national Red Lists, it is not protected by any particular law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The population occurs in the "Capo Gallo" Nature Reserve and SIC (Site of Community Importance) of "Capo Gall" (ITA020006). This implies that collection of wild specimens is prohibited, grazing is regulated, and no quarrying is allowed. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science of Palermo University, and plants are cultivated in the botanic gardens of Palermo and Catania. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Fire management is key to the survival of this species and the preservation of the landscape of the nature reserve. Whilst fire is essential for some Mediterranean species which have co-evolved with fire and require it to survive, the increased frequency of human-made fire may pose a problem even to these plants and emphasises the importance of a carefully designed fire management scheme for the area.	eng
61624	distribution	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This plant grows exclusively on Mt. Gallo near Palermo, in northwestern Sicily. It is found in only three locations representing just one subpopulation in a tiny area.	eng
61624	habitat	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This perennial herb grows on northern slopes of calcareous maritime cliffs exposed to humid winds. These sites are rich in nitrates from sea bird droppings. <br/> <br/><em>H. lucidum</em> only reproduces from seeds. It is a typical example of a plant which grows in rock crevices and on rock faces. It belongs to a genus containing many very similar-looking species, which presents identification difficulties to the non-botanist (and even many botanists)! The species is very similar to <em>Hieracium cophanense</em>.	eng
61624	population	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	It is not easy to estimate the number of individuals because of the inaccessibility of its habitat.  There might be 400-500 individuals in the population.	eng
61624	threats	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	The threats to this species are not sufficiently understood, although in theory its inaccessibility should provide protection. However as the population occurs close to an inhabited area, its close proximity to human activities increases the risk of extinction and fire may also pose a threat.	eng
61625	conservation	Camarda, I., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: The species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Nationally there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>L. microcephala</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may also increase collecting interest in the species listed. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No action for the moment. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The species is not under cultivation. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>A management plan to conserve <em>L. microcephala</em> is urgently needed, with habitat restoration a priority. The little-used ski run should be removed, and the local population sensitized to the plight of this rare species.	eng
61625	distribution	Camarda, I., 2006	<em>Lamyropsis microcephala</em> is endemic to Sardinia, and is found only in the Gennargentu mountains on the slopes of Mount Bruncu Spina.	eng
61625	habitat	Camarda, I., 2006	This perennial herb grows on eroded rock at 1,500-1,700 m altitude, in a band of montane dwarf shrub and steppe vegetation. <br/> <br/>This species has a highly complex branched rhizome system producing many stems, so it is very difficult to distinguish separate individuals. Previously it had been considered possibly Extinct, but was rediscovered shortly before publication of the Italian Red List in 1992.	eng
61625	population	Camarda, I., 2006	The whole population probably consists of eight to ten colonies.	eng
61625	threats	Camarda, I., 2006	Just to the east of the small area where this species occurs a ski run has been built, which is a serious threat. This species is also threatened by rooting of wild pigs, soil erosion, landslides and further development of tourist infrastructure, where agricultural land development has already destroyed its natural habitat. Moreover, this plant has a limited reproductive capacity. The few seeds produced have a very low germination rate, and vegetative growth is very slow.	eng
61626	conservation	Moreno Saiz, J.C., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Alborán Island is a Natural Park, a Maritime Reserve and an Important area for the Mediterranean and is especially protected by the Barcelona Convention. This species is listed in Appendix I of Bern Convention.   <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds had been stocked in the seedbank of Andalusia.	eng
61626	distribution	Moreno Saiz, J.C., 2006	This species is endemic to the Spanish island of Alborán (of 7.1 hectares) situated between Spain and Morocco.	eng
61626	habitat	Moreno Saiz, J.C., 2006	This small shrub colonizes areas that are not yet stabilized. Occurs in sites where there is an accumulation of volcanic ashes and shelly sand or sites perturbed by natural events or human activities.	eng
61626	population	Moreno Saiz, J.C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
61626	threats	Moreno Saiz, J.C., 2006	It is particularly vulnerable to changes because of the restricted size of the island and the rarity of its habitat. This species depends on particular climatic conditions (quantity and distribution of rain, soil salinity, etc.) and human activities, hence there is considerable fluctuation in the numbers of individuals each year. These fluctuations affect not only the number of individuals but also their size and the number of flowers. The decline of this species could be caused by alterations generated by human (military occupancy, artificial environments, etc.) in addition to events like natural changes or biotic threats (competition, parasitism, diseases, etc.).	eng
61627	conservation	Fabregat Llueca, C., Aparicio Rojo, J.M. & López Udias, S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in the SCI (Site of Community Interest) of "Penyagolosa" and "Serra d’en Garcerán". Two subpopulations have been proposed for flora micro reserves.  Seeds are stocked in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia. The Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias has applied a micro propagation protocol, but the plants obtained present rooting problems.	eng
61627	distribution	Fabregat Llueca, C., Aparicio Rojo, J.M. & López Udias, S., 2006	This species is endemic to the province of Castellón in Spain. It is found in the districts of L’Alcalatén, Alt Maestrat and Alto Mijares. Four of the seven known subpopulations have been discovered recently and indicates that the area may not be that well known.	eng
61627	habitat	Fabregat Llueca, C., Aparicio Rojo, J.M. & López Udias, S., 2006	This perennial herb grows in rocky places on calcareous or dolomite northwest facing walls. More rarely, it can be found on relatively flat soils on rocky outcrops where the plant grows in thickets of <em>Rosmarinion officinalis</em>.	eng
61627	population	Fabregat Llueca, C., Aparicio Rojo, J.M. & López Udias, S., 2006	There are seven known subpopulations (fourhave been discovered recently): <br/> <br/>Macizo de Peña Saganta : 0 individual (3 in 2000) <br/>Desfiladero del río Villahermosa: 57 individuals <br/>Salto del Caballo: 324 individuals <br/>Sierra de Espaneguera: 2,307 individuals <br/>3 populations in Vertientes del río Monleón: 110 individuals	eng
61627	threats	Fabregat Llueca, C., Aparicio Rojo, J.M. & López Udias, S., 2006	Natural or human induced events represent a major threat to the species, because the fragmentation of the area and the limited ecological plasticity make the recovery of the species difficult. An example can be rock landslides or severe droughts. Fire is also a threat for the species. Some subpopulations are found in sites proposed for the installation of eolian parks which may affect the species.	eng
61628	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. Due to bureaucratic problems, it has not even been included in the list of Greek species in the “Natura 2000” list. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: The Botanic Gardens of Copenhagen (Denmark) and of Lund University (Sweden) have some specimens of this plant in cultivation. However, these by no means represent this species' entire gene pool as seeds have only been collected from very few plants. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/> The priority should be to protect the species from grazing. The areas where it grows should be fenced and managed to keep grazing animals out. Both the large northeast facing cliffs of Mt. Kochilas and the north facing cliffs of the island of Skiropoula should be designated as reserves. Stone quarrying in the species habitat and wild collection of this plant should be prohibited. <em>A. retsina</em> is easy to cultivate and has a high potential as an ornamental plant. It should be propagated and planted in other suitable shaded rocky sites, following IUCN SSC re-introduction guidelines which include guidance on benign introductions.	eng
61628	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	This species is only known to occur on two Greek islands (the island of Skiros, and the northern part of the much smaller island of Skiropoula, situated just southwest of Skiros). Three subpopulations are known, most notably on the northeast facing cliffs of Mt. Kochilas and some cliffs at Cape Korakia.	eng
61628	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	The shrubby perennial is normally found within half a kilometre of the seashore on vertical limestone, 10-200 m above sea level, preferring small crevices and shady habitats. <br/> <br/>This species was not discovered until 1969 and officially described in 1973. It is typical of the specialist plant community adapted to grow in the rocky cracks of seashore cliffs. The plant is fleshy, which is an ecological adaptation to salt spray and common in many seashore plants. Scientists have been undertaking crossbreeding experiments with <em>A. retsina</em> and other members of the same family, including plants of enormous agricultural importance such as cabbage, canola and mustard. Scientists are particularly interested in this species' chromosome set and how it relates to that of the cultivated species. One future application could be to genetically improve closely related cultivated species with properties (e.g., salt tolerance and drought resistance) found in <em>A. retsina</em>.	eng
61628	population	Latroú, G., 2006	Three subpopulations are known.	eng
61628	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	There is severe grazing pressure from increasing flocks of goats especially during the flowering and fruiting stages. <br/> <br/>Due to the small size of the islands, shepherds do not need to fence the territory to keep their herds together, and goats have free access to all parts of the islands. All plants without any efficient grazing protection (e.g., spines, etc.) are under pressure. <em>A. retsina</em> is selectively eaten by goats because of its high nutritional value. Another potential threat is limestone quarrying which is very common in the region. This species might easily become extinct at any of the sites where it occurs if stone quarrying starts.	eng
61629	conservation	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Arabis kennedyae has also been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, it is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The entire population of this species occurs in Troodos National Forest Park and Pafos State Forest, which have been proposed by the Life Third Countries project as Sites of Community Interest (SCI) and Special Protection Areas (SPA) in the Natura 2000 Network. Any future construction projects or military exercises will have to consider the presence of this species. Tripylos Mountain, where one subpopulation occurs, is already a Nature Reserve where species protection laws are enforced. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds were collected from cultivated plants at the University of Athens in 1994. They are stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Although the entire population occurs within the Troodos National Forest Park, only one subpopulation grows in a Nature Reserve. The areas where the two other subpopulations occur need to be declared as Nature Reserves by the Cyprus Council of Ministers. According to Cyprus Forest Law, flora and fauna is totally protected within a Nature Reserve. Complementing the current legal protection of this species by Forest Law would help because <em>A. kennedyae</em> would then be prioritized in forest management plans.	eng
61629	distribution	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This plant grows from 900-1,350 m altitude on the island of Cyprus on the Tripylos Mountain in the Troodos range.	eng
61629	habitat	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This annual or biennial herb colonizes rocky slopes. The species is found in semi-shaded, rocky streamside areas dominated by Golden Oak (<em>Quercus alnifolia</em>) and Calabrian Pine (<em>Pinus brutia</em>). <br/> <br/>It probably depends on the weather conditions whether this plant lives one or two years. In wetter years the plant can survive the summer drought period. The seeds are dispersed either by wind or by floating along water currents. Since this species is annual or sometimes biennial, the number of individuals fluctuates widely from year to year depending on environmental and climatic conditions. These fluctuations make population monitoring difficult.	eng
61629	population	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	The three known subpopulations only encompass about 100 individuals.	eng
61629	threats	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	One of the subpopulations is subject to human pressures resulting in habitat destruction. A picnic site is located near this site and military exercises often take place within and around this area. <br/> <br/><em>A. kennedyae</em> is potentially threatened by road construction or widening. Forest fires are also a threat. Contrary to other annual species in this habitat, its seeds are neither hard-shelled nor heat resistant, so fire could negatively affect the soil seedbank.	eng
61630	conservation	Gamisans, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is legally protected on Corsica and included in the French Red Book of threatened species. Internationally it is not protected by any conventions. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: <em>B. rotgesii</em> is indirectly protected because most specimens grow within the Défilé de l’Inzecca, which is a Natura 2000 site. A management plan for this site is being developed by the Direction régionale de l’environnement. A conservation programme for this species is being undertaken by the Parc naturel régional de Corse, supported by the MAVA Foundation. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species has been cultivated at the botanic garden of Porquerolles (France) where seeds are also being stored. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/> Land managers need to be made aware of the importance of saving this species. A management plan for the Natura 2000 site "Défilé de l'Inzecca" needs to be drafted and implemented. It is also necessary to reinforce the population at Ponte Leccia by ex situ propagation from seeds collected on-site. This species should also be cultivated and seeds stored at other botanical gardens. Finally, land should be acquired by nature conservation managers in order to protect areas most at threat due to human activity.	eng
61630	distribution	Gamisans, J., 2006	Endemic to Corsica. Only two subpopulations growing at altitudes of between 150 and 250 m remain, one near Ponte Leccia, and the other in the narrow gorge of Inzecca.	eng
61630	habitat	Gamisans, J., 2006	This perennial herb colonizes rocky grasslands and scree on serpentine substrates. Like most species growing on serpentine rock, <em>B. rotgesii</em> can tolerate high concentrations of heavy metals in the soil as well as a limited water supply, conditions which limit competition from other species.	eng
61630	population	Gamisans, J., 2006	Only two subpopulations consisting of at most several hundred individuals exist.	eng
61630	threats	Gamisans, J., 2006	In addition to such small populations vulnerable to catastrophic effects, road construction, urbanization and fires pose major threats to this species. For example, the fire in 1993 destroyed most of the Ponte Leccia subpopulation, that may now even have disappeared. <em>B. rotgesii</em> is also potentially threatened by dam construction and the flooding of gorges in the region.	eng
61631	conservation	Moreno Saiz, J.C., Mota Poveda, J.F. & Gomez-Campo, C., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected at the regional and European level. It is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The islet has been declared a Maritime-Terrestrial Reserve and Natural Place Paraje Natural) by the Andalusian government, and nominated for the European Natura 2000 Network. Various reintroduction and re-enforcement campaigns were carried out in 1988 and 1999 to present.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Fortunately, before its extinction, some seeds had been collected and multiplied at the seed bank of the Agronomists’ College (Escuela de Agrónomos) of Madrid. When cultivated in botanic gardens (Jardín Botánico de Córdoba, Conservatoire Botanique de Brest), high germination rates can be achieved. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species should be added to the Spanish National Catalogue of Threatened Species, listed in the highest category (Endangered). Ideally the island should be designated as a strict Nature Reserve. If this is impossible, habitat restoration and on-going management still needs to be carried out indefinitely, including alien species eradication, monitoring, and no new construction of infrastructure. Periodic reinforcement campaigns in order to maintain the population might be necessary. The fact that <em>D. siettian</em>a seems to prefer semi-disturbed habitat and competes poorly with dominant species must always be taken into account.	eng
61631	distribution	Moreno Saiz, J.C., Mota Poveda, J.F. & Gomez-Campo, C., 2006	Endemic to the Spanish island of Alborán, this species was last seen in 1974, when seeds were fortunately collected before the species disappeared from the island. A re-introduction in 1999 appears successful, although given extreme population fluctuations each year, more time is needed to ensure that the re-introduced population is self-sustaining. <br/> <br/>Alborán is the top of a volcanic platform situated between Spain and Morocco, around 50 km from the nearest continent. This small island (600 m x 200 m) resembles an aircraft carrier due to its flat surface, reaching 10 m above sea level and surrounded by steep, almost vertical cliffs. The island has a lighthouse and is now used as a military base. In 1974 the plant was found growing in a tiny area around the helicopter platform.	eng
61631	habitat	Moreno Saiz, J.C., Mota Poveda, J.F. & Gomez-Campo, C., 2006	The weedy nature of <em>D. siettiana</em> (it is an annual herb) makes it fairly tolerant to human disturbance. In fact it does not grow in the more stable vegetation dominated by <em>Frankenia pulverulenta</em> and <em>Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum</em>, both apparently tolerant to high concentrations of salt and/or nitrogen. Rainfall is very low, with less than 100 mm per year. <br/> <br/>This species is the only representative of the mustard family in the poor flora of Alborán (10 species). The island has long been inhabited, first by lighthouse keepers and later by the military which built the helicopter platform, widened the former small harbour, and constructed some temporary dwellings near the lighthouse. <br/> <br/>The island is also of global importance as one of the few breeding sites for the threatened Audouin's Gull.	eng
61631	population	Moreno Saiz, J.C., Mota Poveda, J.F. & Gomez-Campo, C., 2006	Only 150 were recorded in 1974 and none seen afterwards. In 1999, 48 plants were re-introduced but scientists are not sure that the population is self-sustaining.	eng
61631	threats	Moreno Saiz, J.C., Mota Poveda, J.F. & Gomez-Campo, C., 2006	The island's very fragile habitat has been completely modified by humans, who introduced domestic cattle to the island, causing soil erosion and nitrification, and even irrigated the area in which the plant was found with salt water to reduce dust to facilitate the landing of helicopters (which may have been a direct cause for the extinction of this species).	eng
61632	conservation	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S. & Hadjikyriakou, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: The species’ population lies within the Paphos State Forest. Therefore, it is protected from any private interference. Moreover, the species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005.   <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Paphos State Forest which encompasses the <em>E. kykkoticum</em> population, has been proposed as a Site of Community Importance (SCI) and a Special Protection Area (SPA) for the Natura 2000 Network, of the Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measure taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>More research is needed to monitor the population dynamics of this species including its biology and ecology, so that better management plans can be drawn up. In addition, the plant should be brought into cultivation into botanical gardens, and seeds collected and stored in seedbanks.	eng
61632	distribution	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S. & Hadjikyriakou, G., 2006	<em>Erysimum kykkoticum</em> is one of the rarest endemics of Cyprus. It is found in the valley of the Xeros River in the western part of the Troodos Mountain range, in a locality called "Argakin tou Pissokremmou" (the stream of Pissokremmos). It grows	eng
61632	habitat	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S. & Hadjikyriakou, G., 2006	A woody perennial found growing in fissures of igneous rocks or sometimes on vertical banks of abandoned forest tracks, usually facing east or north, at an altitude of 350-470 m. It is found in association with Calabrian Pine (<em>Pinus brutia</em>), Golden Oak (<em>Quercus alnifolia</em>) and other shrubs, in habitats characterized by steep slopes and vertical cliffs. <br/> <br/>This species is an evolutionarily ancient member of the <em>Erysimum</em> genus, most closely related to the <em>Erysimum cheiri</em> group. It is a large plant that can be confused with some species of <em>Euphorbia</em> or <em>Matthiola</em> which also grow on rock faces. However in comparison its leaves are relatively large and clearly spoon-shaped.	eng
61632	population	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S. & Hadjikyriakou, G., 2006	Approximately 800 individuals exist in one subpopulation.	eng
61632	threats	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S. & Hadjikyriakou, G., 2006	Continuous forest fires are the major threat. The species is also potentially threatened by prolonged drought, forestry operations and road construction.	eng
61633	conservation	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This plant’s habitat is protected by Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands as a Natural Site of Special Interest. It is listed as Critically Endangered in the "Lista Roja de la Flora Vascular Española" (Red List of the Spanish Vascular Flora), although this does not confer any specific legal protection.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No particular measures have been taken. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this plant are stored in the seed bank of the Botanic Garden of Sóller, but it is possible that these are hybrids with <em>Arenaria grandiflora</em> subsp. <em>glabrescens</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species merits increased legal protection, such as inclusion in the Annexes of the Bern Convention and the EC Habitats Directive. Public access to the site must be controlled. Urgent conservation measures must be taken which include reinforcing the number of plants that remain at this last site and reintroducing the species into other areas where it was previously known. <br/> <br/>If the seeds stored in seedbanks are found to be hybrids, any re-introduction campaign using this material will be detrimental to conservation. Genetic studies are therefore needed, and seeds should be collected only when it has been established that they belong to this species.	eng
61633	distribution	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	This species is only known from a single site on the island of Majorca in the central part of the Tramuntana mountain range.	eng
61633	habitat	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	This herbaceous perennial is very sensitive to competition from other species and therefore grows in open areas with little soil cover. It is found above an altitude of 900 m on north-facing slopes.	eng
61633	population	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	Less than 200 individuals grow in one single site covering approximately one hectare.	eng
61633	threats	Bibiloni, G. & Mus, M., 2006	Plant collectors seeking botanical rarities directly threaten this species. In addition, it seems to hybridize with a closely related species, <em>Arenaria grandiflora</em> subsp. <em>glabrescens</em>. Other threats include hikers who trampling the plant, fires, and habitat modification as more people use the area for hiking and camping.	eng
61634	conservation	Gutiérrez, L. & Blanca, G., 2006	The area is included in the Natural Park of the Nevada mountain range (proposed as a LIC). A recovery plan has been instituted with propagation activities. Seeds are stored in the seedbank of the Nevada mountain range.	eng
61634	distribution	Gutiérrez, L. & Blanca, G., 2006	This species is endemic to the Nevada mountain range.	eng
61634	habitat	Gutiérrez, L. & Blanca, G., 2006	This annual herb grows at the most elevated summits, at altitudes between 2,950 and 3,300 m. It grows on earthy sites between pebbles with certain mobility and in sandy level stretch with oligotrophic water supply from melting of the permanent snow of the most elevated summits.	eng
61634	population	Gutiérrez, L. & Blanca, G., 2006	There is only one subpopulation comprising 2,533 individuals.	eng
61634	threats	Gutiérrez, L. & Blanca, G., 2006	The principal threats are of natural origin. The fragility of the habitat, the fluctuations of the population due to the climate conditions are threatening this species. Its strict requirements of water supply make it sensitive to climate changes. Another threat is the displacement of the soil and the burial of the plants by forest herbivores or livestock.	eng
61635	conservation	Mesa Coello, R., Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Hernández Luís, A., Marrero Gómez, M.V. & Carqué Álamo, E., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>All the main subpopulatiuons are included in various natural protected sites (LIC). Seeds are stored in the seedbanks of E.T.S. de Ingenieros Agrónomos and of the Botanical Garden of Viera and Clavijo.	eng
61635	distribution	Mesa Coello, R., Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Hernández Luís, A., Marrero Gómez, M.V. & Carqué Álamo, E., 2006	The species is endemic to the Canary Islands. The subpopulations are found on the  islands of Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro.	eng
61635	habitat	Mesa Coello, R., Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Hernández Luís, A., Marrero Gómez, M.V. & Carqué Álamo, E., 2006	This perennial herb grows on flat areas, mostly on the summits, in moist and shady fissures. It also colonizes moist talus in the fayal-brezal and monteverde forests.	eng
61635	population	Mesa Coello, R., Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Hernández Luís, A., Marrero Gómez, M.V. & Carqué Álamo, E., 2006	There are 12 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>2 subpopulations on the summits of Tenerife: 136 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations on the summits of Hierro: 151 individuals <br/>7 subpopulations on the summits of La Palma: 1,057 individuals	eng
61635	threats	Mesa Coello, R., Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Hernández Luís, A., Marrero Gómez, M.V. & Carqué Álamo, E., 2006	Traditionally, the major threat was grazing from introduced herbivores. Despite attempts to control the herbivores they are still threatening the species. Competition from other plants and the presence of alien species are also threatening this species.	eng
61636	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: One or two specimens are currently cultivated at the University of Patras. These however do not represent the gene pool of the whole population. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>This species needs to be protected from grazing. Its habitat should be fenced and managed to keep grazing animals out. <em>M. dirphya</em> should be monitored over a longer period of time to assess population changes and stability. It would benefit from <em>ex situ</em> cultivation and its seeds should be collected and stored in seedbanks.	eng
61636	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	<em>Minuartia dirphya</em> grows on the northern slopes of the 1,745 m high Mt. Dirphys in the centre of the Greek island of Euboea (Evia). This species has a narrow geographical range, growing between 900 and 1,000 m altitude.	eng
61636	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	This perennial herb grows on serpentine substrates, preferring a thin, infertile soil layer with a high content of rock and gravel and open vegetation coverage (20-40%). <em>M. dirphya</em> was first described in 2000, growing together with <em>Juniperus oxycedrus</em> subsp. <em>oxycedrus</em> and <em>Genista acanthoclada</em>.	eng
61636	population	Latroú, G., 2006	It is only known from a single subpopulation of less than 250 individuals.	eng
61636	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	The small number of mature individuals, its limited habitat, and the threats from grazing all indicate that the population will decline. The species is severely threatened by grazing from goats and sheep, and from fires made by shepherds.	eng
61637	conservation	Peñas, J. & Lorite, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The distribution area is included in the Biosphere Reserve and in the National and Natural Park on the Nevada mountain range (proposed as a LIC). Seeds are stored in seedbanks.	eng
61637	distribution	Peñas, J. & Lorite, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Nevada mountain range in Almeria. It is found mainly on the north slopes, but sometimes, it occurs in the Gorge of Ohanes on the south slopes.	eng
61637	habitat	Peñas, J. & Lorite, J., 2006	This herbaceous grows in sheer areas in fissures of vertical and siliceous rocky walls. It  avoids growing in direct sun preferring semi-shade.	eng
61637	population	Peñas, J. & Lorite, J., 2006	The population is severely fragmented into 71 subpopulations comprising a total of 115,000 individuals.	eng
61637	threats	Peñas, J. & Lorite, J., 2006	There are no direct threats to the species. But the extreme fluctuations of the population, and the restricted habitat make the species vulnerable to accidental events like fires, diseases etc.  Human activities don't threaten  the species directly at present, but some subpopulations are potentially threatened by stock-breeders, roads and trails and reforestation activities.	eng
61638	conservation	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Navas, P., Gil, Y. & Navas, D., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in the Natural Park of Tejeda, Alhama and Almijara (proposed as a LIC). Seeds are stored in the seedbank of Vegetal Andaluz. A conservation plan has been prepared by the "Junta de Andalucía".	eng
61638	distribution	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Navas, P., Gil, Y. & Navas, D., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to Andalusia. It is found exclusively on the north slope of the Tejeda mountain range, Granada.	eng
61638	habitat	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Navas, P., Gil, Y. & Navas, D., 2006	This perennial herb grows in fissures of calcareous rocks. It is found on dolomite vertical walls at an altitude between 1,750 and 1,850 m.	eng
61638	population	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Navas, P., Gil, Y. & Navas, D., 2006	There is 1 confirmed subpopulation comprising 723 individuals.	eng
61638	threats	Cabezudo, B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Navas, P., Gil, Y. & Navas, D., 2006	The species is threatened by grazing from domestic and forest herbivores. The habitat is altered by nitrification from domestic livestock. Collection and fires are other threats.	eng
61639	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 2540002, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is being cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Bochum University, Germany. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Since it is probably not feasible to prevent tourists from accessing the beach, cars at least should be forbidden. Ideally, its habitat should not be accessible during the plant's germination from seeds to the completion of the fruit set, which is from early May to early June. It is also essential to conserve this species <em>ex situ</em> by cultivating it in botanical gardens and by storing its seeds in a seedbank.	eng
61639	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	<em>Saponaria jagelii</em> grows in the western part of the Greek island of Elafonisos, which is a small island covering about 25 km², located 600 m off the southern coast of the Peloponnese.	eng
61639	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	This annual is only known to occur on this island where it grows in two scattered, very restricted localities directly on the sandy sea-shore. <br/> <br/>This species is part of the characteristic plant community growing in disturbed conditions along sandy beaches, together with <em>Ammophila arenaria</em>,<em> Euphorbia paralias</em>, <em>Medicago marina</em>, and <em>Silene sedoides</em>. It is related to <em>Saponaria calabrica</em>, but differs from the latter in a number of characters.	eng
61639	population	Latroú, G., 2006	Locally common.	eng
61639	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	Tourism is rapidly developing on the island and human activities on the beach, such as driving motor vehicles and trampling, represent a major threat, especially during <em>S. jagelii</em>'s flowering period. This increase in tourism could result in a decline of the population or even its extinction within a short time. However, the species should be able to tolerate a moderate number of tourists during the main vacation season after the end of May when its seed capsules are already ripe. At that time, some exposure to trampling could even be beneficial for seed dispersal.	eng
61640	conservation	Montesinos, D. &  Güemes, J., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Some subpopulations are included in the micro reserves of "Serra del Castell de Xàtiva" and "Plà de Mora". The populations have been monitored since 1986. Seeds are stored in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Valencia. The species is also cultivated.	eng
61640	distribution	Montesinos, D. &  Güemes, J., 2006	This species is a Levantine Iberian endemic. It is found on the south littoral of Valencia.	eng
61640	habitat	Montesinos, D. &  Güemes, J., 2006	This perennial herb grows in zones dominated by herbaceous plants, on disturbed grounds and in the altered margins of cultivated dry lands. It grows on siliceous and calcareous substrates.	eng
61640	population	Montesinos, D. &  Güemes, J., 2006	There are 5 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Castell de Xàtiva: 102 individuals <br/>Plà de la Mora: 921 individuals <br/>Plà de Suros: 85 individuals <br/>Santa Ana: 62 individuals <br/>Simat de Valldigna: 125 individuals	eng
61640	threats	Montesinos, D. &  Güemes, J., 2006	The major threats are related to the changes in the utilization of the dry lands.  The transformation of the dry lands into irrigated lands and the abandonment of the dry-land culture are not favourable to this species. This species is not competitive and could be replaced by species of the acid Mediterranean thicket . It is also threatened, to a lesser extent, by fires and other changes to its habitat.	eng
61641	conservation	Cabezudo, B., Gil, Y., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Pérez Latorre, A.V., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Some subpopulations are included in various natural protected Sites. The species is listed in the Habitats Directive of the CE. A conservation plan has been prepared by "la Junta de Andalucía".	eng
61641	distribution	Cabezudo, B., Gil, Y., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Pérez Latorre, A.V., 2006	This species is endemic to the peridotite mountain range of Malagueñas in Bética province.	eng
61641	habitat	Cabezudo, B., Gil, Y., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Pérez Latorre, A.V., 2006	This perennial herb (suffrutex) grows on rocky talus, in fissures and rocky walls of serpentine nature.	eng
61641	population	Cabezudo, B., Gil, Y., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Pérez Latorre, A.V., 2006	There are 13 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Alpujata mountain range: 171 individuals <br/>6 populations in the "Serranía de Ronda": 215 individuals <br/>6 populations in the Bermeja mountain range: 408 individuals	eng
61641	threats	Cabezudo, B., Gil, Y., Navas, D., Navas, P. & Pérez Latorre, A.V., 2006	The species is threatened by severe pressure from herbivores. Other threats include the opening of roads, droughts and  fires. Some individuals are eliminated by the action of the foresters during the eradication of thicket.	eng
61642	conservation	De Vega, C., Ángeles Ortiz, M. & Talavera, S., 2006	No measures taken yet.	eng
61642	distribution	De Vega, C., Ángeles Ortiz, M. & Talavera, S., 2006	This species is endemic to the province of Cádiz in the southwest of Spain..	eng
61642	habitat	De Vega, C., Ángeles Ortiz, M. & Talavera, S., 2006	This perennial herb grows on north and northwest facing rocky places, in fissures of calcareous rocks of Jurassic origin.	eng
61642	population	De Vega, C., Ángeles Ortiz, M. & Talavera, S., 2006	There ais one confirmed subpopulation comprising 63 individuals.	eng
61642	threats	De Vega, C., Ángeles Ortiz, M. & Talavera, S., 2006	The species is threatened by intense pasture from livestock. The population has been confined to higher places, where it is inaccessible. Competition from other plants is also a threat.	eng
61643	conservation	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the European Union 92/43/EEC Habitats Directive. The islets of Alicudi and Panarea are nature reserves at the regional level, where the collection of <em>S. hicesiae</em> is strictly forbidden. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> and <em>ex situ</em>: A number of conservation measures have been implemented in the context of the EU LIFE project Conservation of priority species of the Eolian Islands' flora  EOLIFE99: improvement of knowledge on the biology and ecology of <em>S. hicesiae</em>, reinforcement of wild populations with plants propagated <em>ex situ</em>, cultivation in botanic gardens and seed banks, and informing and sensitizing decision makers and the general public. This plant is also included in the GENMEDOC project (an inter-regional network of Mediterranean seedbanks), and seeds are being collected in order to propagate this species. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>All populations of the Tree of Heaven <em>Ailanthus altissima</em> near to where <em>S. hicesiae</em> grows need to be eliminated. The conservation programme initiated by EOLIFE99 also needs to be continued.	eng
61643	distribution	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	This species is endemic to the Aeolian Islands: Panarea and Alicudi, near Sicily. The population covers an area of 3-4 hectares . The two subpopulations are situated about 60 km apart.	eng
61643	habitat	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	A perennial herb which grows on the rocky slopes of small volcanic islets. <br/> <br/><em>S. hicesiae</em> belongs to the "<em>Silene mollissima</em> group", which comprises seven species endemic to the coastal cliffs of the western Mediterranean basin. These different species may have evolved when the Mediterranean became drier during the late Miocene period, about 5 million years ago, and the ancestral species became isolated into several different populations. This is one of numerous examples demonstrating how geographic separation of populations belonging to the same species, for example on islands, can contribute to the formation of new species.	eng
61643	population	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	The subpopulation of the islet of Alicudi comprises less than 50 individuals, and the one of the islet Panarea comprises 300 individuals.	eng
61643	threats	Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2006	The main threats that this species faces include wildfires; grazing by herbivores (e.g. rabbits); invasive alien plants (e.g. Tree of Heaven <em>Ailanthus altissima</em>); and incorrect management of protected areas. Any of these threats could wipe out either of the two populations.	eng
61644	conservation	Font Garcia, J., Gesti Perich, J. & Sáenz Goñalons. L., 2006	No measures taken yet.	eng
61644	distribution	Font Garcia, J., Gesti Perich, J. & Sáenz Goñalons. L., 2006	This species is endemic to the zone near Figueres, Alto Ampurdán, and north of the Girona province.	eng
61644	habitat	Font Garcia, J., Gesti Perich, J. & Sáenz Goñalons. L., 2006	This perennial herb generally grows in primary or secondary habitats dominated by <em>Brachypodietum phoenicoidis</em>.	eng
61644	population	Font Garcia, J., Gesti Perich, J. & Sáenz Goñalons. L., 2006	They are three confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Figueres: 3,209 individuals <br/>El Far: 467 individuals <br/>Siurana: 1,124 individuals	eng
61644	threats	Font Garcia, J., Gesti Perich, J. & Sáenz Goñalons. L., 2006	The species is threatened by human activities (e.g., urbanization, road construction, transformation of modes of agricultural cultivation, and use of herbicides) and biotic factors (e.g., predation, and competition).	eng
61645	conservation	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and since Malta’s EU adhesion in May 2004 in Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. On the national level, it is protected by the Flora and Fauna Protection Regulations of 1993 and the Flora, Fauna and Natural Habitats Protection Regulations of 2003. <br/> <br/>All cliffs of the island of Malta and several of Gozo are locally protected, either as Sites of Scientific Importance, Areas of Ecological Importance or Special Areas of Conservation. Fungus Rock ((il-Gebla tal-General), which is located slightly off-shore of the western cliffs of Gozo, is also a Strict Nature Reserve. Access is forbidden, valid scientific reasons excepted. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Management plans are being drafted for a number of sites, including the Qawra-Dwejra Special Area of Conservation (western Gozo).  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species has been propagated by laboratory methods with great success and is available to nurseries and gardeners. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is particularly important to protect more cliffs on Gozo because of their ecological importance. The most efficient conservation action needed is habitat protection and management. Law enforcement should be strengthened, especially, over illegal dumping, collection of wild specimens and the introduction of alien species on the easily accessible plateau. More research is needed to identify the factors responsible for this species' population decline and habitat fragmentation.	eng
61645	distribution	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	This species is restricted to the islands of Malta and Gozo (including Fungus Rock). It is rarer than <em>Cheirolophus crassifolius</em> (another listed species) and has a similar, but patchier distribution.	eng
61645	habitat	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	This woody shrub grows on sheer seaside cliffs along the northwestern and southern cliffs of the islands of Malta and Gozo, including Fungus Rock. <br/> <br/>This species has several traits considered ancient in an evolutionary sense, such as an unusual chromosome number (10), and an ecological preference for rock crevice habitats. Like other Maltese endemics, it probably represents a relict element of the old Tertiary flora. <em>C. lanfrancoi</em> was described in 1987 and is the only species in this genus. It had long been confused with <em>Halimione portulacoides</em>, a plant of saline marshlands and dunes (not cliffs) also found on Malta.	eng
61645	population	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	The total wild population is estimated at several thousands, but has not been counted. Some subpopulations have probably disappeared, such as those along the cliffs of the San Pawl il-Bahar-Mistra area on north-eastern Malta.	eng
61645	threats	Stevens, D. & Lanfranco, E., 2006	Very low regeneration has been observed, probably due to an insect (<em>Eurytoma</em> sp.) that feeds on the seeds. All wild plants tested were infected by an as yet unidentified fungus that apparently limits reproductive capacity (note that laboratory plants free of the fungus are easy to propagate by cuttings). In its natural habitat, the species is also gradually being replaced by invasive alien plants, particularly <em>Agave americana</em>, <em>Carpobrotus edulis</em> and <em>Opuntia ficus-indica</em>. <br/> <br/>Cliff habitats are endangered or have already collapsed due to pressure waves from the explosions of nearby limestone quarrying. Dust pollution from quarrying seems to be a minor problem. A number of subpopulations are directly threatened by dumping of tar and wastes, a crime difficult to control.	eng
61646	conservation	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Vera Pérez, J.B., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in a Natural Park and in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It is listed in the Threatened species Regional Catalogue of  Castilla-La Mancha.	eng
61646	distribution	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Vera Pérez, J.B., 2006	This species is endemic to the eastern Andalusia mountain ranges. It is found in the mountain ranges of Segura de Jaén (Hornos y Siles), Albacete (Mesones and Riópar) and North Granada (Huéscar).	eng
61646	habitat	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Vera Pérez, J.B., 2006	This perennial herb grows in juncaceous and herbaceous habitats along the margins of streams and mountain springs. The plant grows in light soils composed of organic matter and who are permanently moist.	eng
61646	population	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Vera Pérez, J.B., 2006	They are 4 confirmed subpopulations with a total of 430 individuals but it is probable that other subpopulations will be found in the Andalusia mountain ranges: <br/> <br/>Padroncillo stream: 75 individuals <br/>Cortijo de la Fuente del Charco: 85 individuals <br/>La Canalica: 95 individuals <br/>Huéscar River: 365 individuals	eng
61646	threats	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Vera Pérez, J.B., 2006	Grazing pressures from livestock represent a major threat. This species' survival is also dependent on the annual quantity of rain.	eng
61647	conservation	Fridlender, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>This species is under cultivation in the Brest National Botanical Garden, and seeds have been sent to the National Botanic Garden at Porquerolles. No  legal or <em>in situ</em> measures have yet been taken since this species was described in 1998.	eng
61647	distribution	Fridlender, A., 2006	<em>Centranthus amazonum</em> is a Sardinian endemic found on Mount Oliena, at about 1,200 m altitude.	eng
61647	habitat	Fridlender, A., 2006	A herbaceous species that grows in gorges in shady crevices in limestone rock.	eng
61647	population	Fridlender, A., 2006	Only a single subpopulation of less than 50 individuals remains.	eng
61647	threats	Fridlender, A., 2006	The small population size makes this species very vulnerable, particularly to grazing by goats, collectors and possibly landslides. Its low genetic diversity may also limit the species' capacity to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Potential tourist development would also lead to road construction that will favour the dispersal of invasive alien species, especially <em>Centranthus ruber</em> which could hybridize with <em>C. amazonum</em>.	eng
61648	conservation	Fridlender, A. & Jeanmonod, D., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is legally protected in Corsica and listed in the Red List of France. Internationally, it is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Since this species’ habitat is included in the Natura 2000 network, it should be managed in a way that favours the conservation of this species. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are preserved in several seed banks (e.g. Porquerolles), and cultivated in the botanical gardens of Brest and Porquerolles (France) and Geneva (Switzerland). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most urgently, the unique site where this species is found needs to be managed to allow the population to increase. It is essential that the habitat be kept open by clearing competing species such as <em>Smilax aspera</em>, and by eliminating the cultivation of <em>Centranthus ruber</em> and other invasive species grown in the area. Climbing should also be forbidden on the north-east slope of the Trinité mountain. Climbing associations as well as the general public need to be made aware about the conservation status of rare plant species in the region. <br/> <br/>Second, more field studies and regular monitoring are needed to understand the effect of vegetation cover and density, fires and storms on this species. A replanting programme from seeds collected <em>in situ</em> and plants grown in botanical gardens should be launched.	eng
61648	distribution	Fridlender, A. & Jeanmonod, D., 2006	Endemic to Corsica, <em>Centranthus trinervis</em> is only known from a single subpopulation on the granitic boulders of Trinité near Bonifacio in the southwest of the island.	eng
61648	habitat	Fridlender, A. & Jeanmonod, D., 2006	This herbaceous species grows in the shade of rock crevices and along cliff terraces. Only the woody base of this plant persists throughout the entire year, as other above-ground parts dry up at the beginning of summer or are broken by autumn storms. The single subpopulation grows facing the sea in a wind-swept site, but plants are not exposed to sea spray. After a fire, partially burned individuals may regenerate from small suckers at the base. The fruits are dispersed by wind, although regeneration has not been observed outside its present location.	eng
61648	population	Fridlender, A. & Jeanmonod, D., 2006	Only one single population of less than 200 individuals remains.	eng
61648	threats	Fridlender, A. & Jeanmonod, D., 2006	Since this species is very light-demanding, rapid overgrowth of the site by lianas such as Sarsaparilla (<em>Smilax aspera</em>) pose a threat. Fires may kill some individuals, but at the same time the gaps created may provide a positive short-term effect. <br/> <br/>Some plants have been destroyed in several places by rock climbers. The development of a tourist complex and a housing estate at the foot of the cliff, combined with the planting of invasive  ornamental plants such as Red Valerian <em>Centranthus ruber</em> and Pampas Grass <em>Cortaderia jubata</em> may pose other threats to this species. Although <em>C. ruber</em> has not yet shown signs of being particularly invasive on Corsica, it could hybridize with <em>C. trinervis</em>.	eng
61649	conservation	Vicens Fandos, J. & Mus, M., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Annex II of the Ministerial decree 22112 (1984) as a species of special national interest to be protected in the Balearic Islands. It is illegal to undertake any activity that could damage this plant. <em>E. margalidiana</em> is listed in Annex I (in danger of extinction) of decree 439/90, which guarantees it protection in its native habitat. It is also listed in the Atlas of the Threatened Flora of Spain. Internationally, it is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is in cultivation in several places including the botanic gardens of Sóller (Majorca) and Marimurtra (Barcelona) in Spain. In addition seeds are conserved in seedbanks. Currently studies on the genetic variability of material held <em>ex situ</em> are being undertaken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Access to the site where <em>E. margalidiana</em> grows should be prohibited. The Government of the Balearic Islands is currently conducting a feasibility study to introduce this species to another islet, but to date there is insufficient data to make recommendations for benign introductions to other sites.	eng
61649	distribution	Vicens Fandos, J. & Mus, M., 2006	This species is known only from a single site, along the rocky shore of the islet of Ses Maragalides, close to the northwestern coast of Ibiza in the Balearic islands.	eng
61649	habitat	Vicens Fandos, J. & Mus, M., 2006	A succulent shrub or small tree that grows in the cracks of friable limestone cliffs and boulders. <br/> <br/><em>E. margalidiana</em> is a perennial plant that requires good light and high temperatures. Two other species of <em>Euphorbia</em> are endemic to the Balearic Islands: <em>E. maresii</em> (which is divided into two subspecies, <em>maresii</em> and <em>balearica</em>) is not threatened; however <em>E. fontqueriana</em> is Critically Endangered and only found on the island of Majorca. (Note these additional species are not yet included on the IUCN Red List).	eng
61649	population	Vicens Fandos, J. & Mus, M., 2006	Some 200 individuals grow in one single site.	eng
61649	threats	Vicens Fandos, J. & Mus, M., 2006	An increasingly dry environment and the risk of the collapse of the cliffs where this plant occurs present a threat. Monitoring this species is difficult because the cliffs are unstable and dangerous.	eng
61650	conservation	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á & Hernández González, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is included in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It has been proposed to be listed in the Regional Catalogues of Murcia and Castilla-La Mancha.	eng
61650	distribution	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á & Hernández González, A., 2006	This species is endemic to the mountain ranges of Andalusia. It is known from the areas of La Sagra (Granada), north of Almería, Nerpio (Albacete) and the Moratalla mountain ranges (Murcia).	eng
61650	habitat	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á & Hernández González, A., 2006	This perennial herb grows in thicket  in pine/fir forest gaps on calcareous soils.	eng
61650	population	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á & Hernández González, A., 2006	There are two confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Moratalla: 20 individuals <br/>Las Bojadillas: 50 individuals	eng
61650	threats	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á & Hernández González, A., 2006	Intensive pasture activities are a threat to the species. The proximity of roads related to potential logging of the area is also a threat to the species. The small size of the population makes this taxon more vulnerable to any threats.	eng
61651	conservation	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This subspecies is protected by the Bern Convention, where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a LIFE Third Countries Project, it is listed in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: In the context of the above project, three sites with populations of this taxon have been nominated as Sites of Community Importance (SCI) by the Natura 2000 Network.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: A small number of seeds collected from the Lefkara and Asgata populations are stored in the seed bank of the Department of Botany at the University of Athens. Cultivation attempts are urgently needed. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The reproductive success of this taxon must be increased by reducing seed predators through biological control. Moreover, the Government of Cyprus needs to inform landholders about the presence of this rare taxon on their property and encourage its protection. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Since the plants have a very low reproductive capacity, collecting large numbers of seeds from the wild and storing them in a seedbank could affect the recruitment of natural populations. Therefore, any collection for <em>ex situ</em> conservation needs to be carried out carefully and documented in order to conserve the maximum genetic diversity in the collections and create the least damage to the wild populations. Cultivation attempts are urgently needed.	eng
61651	distribution	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This subspecies only occurs in Cyprus where there are just four subpopulations found near the villages of Lefkara (after which the subspecies has been named), Asgata, Alaminos and Kelokedara.	eng
61651	habitat	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	This small shrub grows on mountain slopes in the garrigue, which is a low-growing, secondary vegetation derived from the original evergreen mixed forest. It colonizes sunny, dry, calcareous soil. The plant is drought-resistant due to its thick grey-white hairs. The seeds are dispersed when the ripe beans fall off the plant and then roll due to their heavy weight and elliptical shape. No mechanisms for the seeds to be transported uphill are known, but propagation from rhizomes probably prevents the population from gradually being shifted downwards.	eng
61651	population	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	There are four subpopulations but the number of individuals is unknown.	eng
61651	threats	Kadis, C. & Christodoulou, C.S., 2006	Since this subspecies produces a very small quantity of seeds, reproduction is mostly vegetative resulting in a very low genetic variability in the four small remaining subpopulations. This may limit its capacity to adapt to environmental changes. <br/> <br/>During springtime, an insect species from the Burchidae family lays its eggs onto the flowers. The larvae hatch in the seeds and feed on their nutritive reserves, consuming 50-75% of the seeds. Seed consumption along with fruit and seed abortion are the main reasons for the low reproductive success of this species. <br/> <br/>Expansion of tourism around Lefkara brings new threats to the subspecies, including urban development and collectors. A tourist website even notes the occurrence and location of <em>A. macrocarpus</em> subsp. <em>lefkarensis</em> along a popular hiking trail.	eng
61652	conservation	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Galicia Herbada, D., 2006	Attempts are required to search for this species near Cartagena, especially in the military zone.	eng
61652	distribution	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Galicia Herbada, D., 2006	This species is only known from the type specimen and is endemic to Cartagena (Murcia). It was discovered in 1909 by Francisco de Paula Jiménez. This species may possibly occur in the military zone near Cartagena, which is closed to the public.	eng
61652	habitat	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Galicia Herbada, D., 2006	This perennial herb grew in herbaceous habitats and thicket gaps between 0 and 200 m above sea level.	eng
61652	population	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Galicia Herbada, D., 2006	As far as is know the species is Extinct.	eng
61652	threats	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Galicia Herbada, D., 2006	The causes of its extinction are unknown.	eng
61653	conservation	Crespo, M.B. & Mus, M., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: The species is presently listed in Annex I of the Spanish Royal Decree 439/1990, in the category ‘sensible to the disturbance of its habitat’, which guarantees protection of its natural habitat. Since 1985, it is strictly protected within the region of Valencia by a regional government decree. <br/> <br/><em>In situ </em>on the Columbretes: Here <em>M. citrina</em> occurs within a federally-owned nature reserve. Access to populations on the islands Ferrara and Foradada is strictly prohibited apart from scientific expeditions. These two islands have now been designated as micro-reserves by the regional government, and a management plan was developed in 1993. The species has been reintroduced to the island of Grossa where it was eradicated by rabbits brought to the island in the 18th and 19th centuries. The rabbits were eliminated by 1987. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> 'Illot de la Mona': The plant micro-reserve, itself within the boundaries of the El Montago Nature Park and established by the regional government of Valencia, now fully protects this small population of approximately 25 plants. An action plan for the micro-reserve has recently been approved. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em> on the Balearic Islands: Most of the subpopulations occur within the National Park of Cabrera. The botanical garden of Sóller has put in place a conservation plan on the islets around Cabrera, which includes reintroduction and monitoring of the populations. It is intended that these measures will also be applied to the islets of Ibiza. All the small Balearic islands are protected as Natural Areas of Special Interest under the Parliament of the Balearic Islands law 1/1991. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This plant is cultivated and seeds stored in the botanic garden of Valencia. It is also under cultivation in the botanical garden of Sóller and IMIDA (Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agropecuario) of Murcia. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The priority is to control attacks by the scale insect. It has been noted that the scale insect is a problem in citrus farms on the Spanish mainland, since farmers spray their citrus trees to kill a leaf miner, and in doing so kill a ladybird which is the main predator of the scale insect. If correct, measures are needed to maintain ladybirds in the areas where <em>Medicago</em> grows. A method of controlling <em>Cuscuta</em> also needs to be identified, and invasive alien species (e.g. Opuntia maxima) need to be managed. In general, conservation efforts require more information about the population trends of <em>M. citrina</em> over a prolonged period. Re-introduction work needs to be continued.	eng
61653	distribution	Crespo, M.B. & Mus, M., 2006	This species only grows in small, fragmented subpopulations on the rocky slopes of some Balearic Islands, the Columbretes archipelago (province of Castellón), and on one small islet (the 'Illot de la Mona' or 'Escull del Cap de Sant Antoni') situated just off the coast of the Cape of St Antoni (province of Alicante). There are no known populations on the large Balearic Islands (Ibiza, Cabrera and Majorca) themselves, only on the islets surrounding Ibiza and Cabrera. Plants have been introduced onto one islet of Majorca.	eng
61653	habitat	Crespo, M.B. & Mus, M., 2006	This shrub or small tree grows on rocky slopes. The plant grows on several small islands, and is thought to be dispersed by seabirds or other animals. It seems that seed germination improves after passing through an animal's digestive tract.	eng
61653	population	Crespo, M.B. & Mus, M., 2006	The global population is very fragmented.	eng
61653	threats	Crespo, M.B. & Mus, M., 2006	In 1997, the subpopulation on the Columbretes decreased by 40% due to an attack of scale insects (<em>Icerya purchasi</em>) introduced from Australia, The same insects were detected on the Balearic islands in 2001. Other threats include introduced rabbits, alien species such as <em>Opuntia maxima</em> which has invaded parts of its habitat (e.g. on the ‘Illot de la Mona’), and periodic, severe attacks of the parasitic plant <em>Cuscuta</em>. Invasive species may be more tolerant than <em>M. citrina</em> of drought, which has considerably reduced fruit set under dry conditions.	eng
61654	conservation	Gamisans, J., Selvi, F. & Paradis, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: In France, Anchusa crispa is legally protected in Corsica and included in the national Red List of France. In the Red List of Italy, it is listed as Vulnerable. Internationally, it is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention, and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Several conservation projects have started through an EU LIFE project entitled "Conservation of natural habitats and plant species in Corsica", including habitat protection, land acquisition, and restoration work. <br/> <br/>Within the framework of the EU Habitats Directive, several sites containing <em>A. crispa</em> are now included in the Natura 2000 network, a measure likely to strengthen conservation efforts. Certain sites on Corsica are in the process of being restored by l’Antenne Corse du Conservatoire Botanique National Méditerranéen de Porquerolles and the Conservatoire Régional des Sites de Corse, which includes management and replanting. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species have been conserved in several seed banks, e.g. at Porquerolles (France), and plants have been cultivated in several botanic gardens, including Sóller (Majorca, Spain), Porquerolles, and Geneva (Switzerland). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Beach managers as well as the public need to learn about the importance of protecting native coastal species. Barriers should be erected to keep vehicles off the beach. Sites hosting important populations of <em>A. crispa</em> need to be acquired by nature conservation­managers	eng
61654	distribution	Gamisans, J., Selvi, F. & Paradis, G., 2006	This species is only found on the upper part of beaches on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia.	eng
61654	habitat	Gamisans, J., Selvi, F. & Paradis, G., 2006	An annual or short-lived perennial herb that grows on highly saline, sandy soils.  <br/> <br/><em>A. crispa</em> depends on the substrate on which it grows (depth, richness and humidity) in order to accumulate sufficient energy reserves to flower and fruit. Ants disperse its tiny seeds over short distances, and they may be dispersed over longer distances by water. <em>A. crispa</em> is usually found growing on fairly firm sandy substrates at the upper edge of the beach, sometimes associated with Sand Couch Grass (<em>Agropyron junceum</em>) and Marram Grass (<em>Ammophila arenaria</em>). Although <em>A. crispa</em> tolerates occasional trampling, it will disappear if the pressure becomes too severe.	eng
61654	population	Gamisans, J., Selvi, F. & Paradis, G., 2006	20 subpopulations exist on Sardinia and Corsica.	eng
61654	threats	Gamisans, J., Selvi, F. & Paradis, G., 2006	The threats to this species can be divided into two groups: those posed by people, and those by natural events. Currently this species is badly affected by human activities, in particular intense trampling, motorbikes, four-wheel drive vehicles and quad bikes, camping, the construction of tracks and roads, mechanical beach cleaning, and the removal of sand. The construction of ditches upstream to the beaches also poses a threat by modifying the amount of water available to the plants. <br/> <br/>On Corsica, strong storms have repeatedly swept large amounts of sand over the area where <em>Anchusa</em> grows. In 1999 and 2002 such events caused substantial declines in several subpopulations of this species.	eng
61655	conservation	Marrero Gómez, M.V., Carqué Álamo, E. & Bañares Baudet, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is found in the National Parks of Majona and Garajonay. It’s also included in a Site of Community Interest (SCI). Seeds are stored in various seedbanks. A recovery plan exists for the subpopulation found in the Garanojay National Park.	eng
61655	distribution	Marrero Gómez, M.V., Carqué Álamo, E. & Bañares Baudet, A., 2006	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands. Three isolated subpopulations are known from the central sector of the island. In the last 15 years, the disappearance of some small subpopulations  has been observed.	eng
61655	habitat	Marrero Gómez, M.V., Carqué Álamo, E. & Bañares Baudet, A., 2006	This large shrub grows in thicket dominated by various legume species. It colonizes platforms, enclaves or overhangs.	eng
61655	population	Marrero Gómez, M.V., Carqué Álamo, E. & Bañares Baudet, A., 2006	There are three confirmed subpopulations: <br/>El Rejo: 145 individuals <br/>Agando: 300 individuals <br/>Encherada: 65 individuals	eng
61655	threats	Marrero Gómez, M.V., Carqué Álamo, E. & Bañares Baudet, A., 2006	This species is threatened by trampling and grazing pressures from domestic livestock, especially during the juvenile phase. Pressure from alien species is another threat. In addition hybridization with <em>Echium aculeatum</em> and <em>E. strictum</em> has been observed.	eng
61656	conservation	Mora Vicente, S., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species occurs in a range of natural protected sites and LIC. Some of their habitats are listed in the Habitats Directive of the CE. The species is cultivated in the Botanical Gardens of Viera and Calvijo and seeds are stored in the seedbank at Calvijo. A project to investigate the ecology and reproduction of this species has been undertaken.	eng
61656	distribution	Mora Vicente, S., 2006	This species is endemic to the Canary Islands being found only on Gran Canaria. It is distributed in diverse localities in the north and the northwest of the island, in the area influenced by the trade winds. It is considered to be a relict species of what was once a larger and more continuous distribution.	eng
61656	habitat	Mora Vicente, S., 2006	This large shrub grows in damp and sunny areas, on rocky slopes. It can also be found in abandoned agricultural lands and between volcanic cones.	eng
61656	population	Mora Vicente, S., 2006	This species is represented by 14 subpopulations containing more than 70,000 individuals. But the majority of  individuals are found in three subpopulations (at Tenteniguada, Fagagesto and Antona).	eng
61656	threats	Mora Vicente, S., 2006	The major threat is the rapid and intense colonization of the habitat by various alien invasive species (<em>Arundo donax</em>, <em>Rubus</em> sp.).	eng
61657	conservation	Jaén Molina, R., Perdomo, A. & Scholtz, S., 2006	The subspecies occurs in the Natural Parks of Jandía, in the Chinijo Archipelago and in the Natural Monument of Cardones Mountain. Its habitat is of Community Interest. This subspecies is cultivated in nurseries of the Cabildos Insulares and at the Botanical Gardens of Viera and Clavijo.  Seeds are stored in the seedbank of the Botanical Garden of Clavijo and at the E.T.S. of Agronomic Engineers of Madrid.	eng
61657	distribution	Jaén Molina, R., Perdomo, A. & Scholtz, S., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the Canary Islands. It is found in three subpopulations on Fuerteventura Island. The majority of the individuals grow on the Northwest slopes of Jandíam mountain range. A small relict subpopulation occurs on the Cardones mountain. There are five subpopulations on the island of Lanzarote,  and it is considered rare in the Gorge of Poceta.	eng
61657	habitat	Jaén Molina, R., Perdomo, A. & Scholtz, S., 2006	This shrub has a tendency to grow on inaccessible cliffs and steep slopes. Also occurs in secondary habitats, where it colonizes disturbed soils of river beds in gorges, the bottom of cliffs and the borders between croplands and roads.	eng
61657	population	Jaén Molina, R., Perdomo, A. & Scholtz, S., 2006	There are 9 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Altos de Cofete: 1,000 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations in the Gorges of Mal Nombre and of Vinamar: 54 individuals <br/>Cardones Mountain: 31 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations El Castillejo, El Bosquecillo, Gorge of Poceta: 39, 116, and 3 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations Mirador del Río, Playa de Famara, Pie del Macizo: 48, and 8 individuals	eng
61657	threats	Jaén Molina, R., Perdomo, A. & Scholtz, S., 2006	In Fuerteventura, the major threats are grazing of the habitat by domestic livestocks. Others threats include soil erosion and landslides during the rainy period. There are an increasing number of tourists to the El Bosquecillo area which leads to habitat disturbance and destruction by motor vehicles, trampling, and human waste. Hybridization also occurs.	eng
61658	conservation	Sholz, S., 2006	The species occurs in the Natural Park of Jandía (LIC). Seeds are stored in the seedbanks of the Botanical Gardens of Clavijo and Viera and at the E.T.S. of Agronomic Engineers of Madrid.	eng
61658	distribution	Sholz, S., 2006	This species is endemic to Fuerteventura in the Canary islands.  It is found in a very small area approximately one kilometre from the summit of Jandía mountain range, between the peaks of La Zarza (west) and of El Mocán (east). The peak of La Zarza is the type locality for the species.	eng
61658	habitat	Sholz, S., 2006	This small to medium shrub grows in thicket vegetation on north facing cliffs.These areas are influenced by trade winds. Communities of mosses and lichens also exist.	eng
61658	population	Sholz, S., 2006	There is only one subpopulation comprising 145 individuals.	eng
61658	threats	Sholz, S., 2006	Grazing by free live-stock (goats and sheep) and other herbivores (e.g. rabbits) are a threat to this species. Due to its very small distribution the species is  vulnerable to catastrophic natural events like prolonged drought, landslides and the introduction of competitors and diseases.	eng
61659	conservation	Mora Vicente, S,. Urdiales Perales, N. & Tapia, F., 2006	The subspecies is found in the Special Natural Reserve of Güi-Güi and the Rural Park of El Nublo (LIC). It is in cultivation at the Botanical Garden of Viera and Clavijo and seeds (representing the four subpopulations) are stored in the seedbank at the same botanical garden. A project to investigate the ecology and reproduction of the subspecies has been undertaken.	eng
61659	distribution	Mora Vicente, S,. Urdiales Perales, N. & Tapia, F., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands. It occurs along the El Cedro-Horgazales massif on the west coast of the island.	eng
61659	habitat	Mora Vicente, S,. Urdiales Perales, N. & Tapia, F., 2006	This large shrub grows on banks at the bottom of steep rocky slopes in damp areas where fog accumulates.The vegetation is a mixed succulent thicket characterized by <em>Euphorbia regis-jubae</em>, <em>Sonchus acaulis</em>, <em>Salvia canariensis</em> and <em>Kleinia neriifolia</em>.	eng
61659	population	Mora Vicente, S,. Urdiales Perales, N. & Tapia, F., 2006	There are 4 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Mountain of Amurgar: 237 individuals <br/>Mountain of El Cedro: 223 individuals <br/>Aguas Sabinas: 100 individuals <br/>Tasartico: 976 individuals	eng
61659	threats	Mora Vicente, S,. Urdiales Perales, N. & Tapia, F., 2006	The main threat to this species is the intense colonization of its habitat by various alien invasive species (<em>Arundo donax</em>, <em>Rubus</em> sp. and <em>Opuntia</em> sp.). The impacts of these invasives has certainly lead to a decline in the subspecies. There are also increasing grazing pressures by domestic livestock.	eng
61660	conservation	Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., 2006	All the subpopulations are found in Sites of Community Interest (Sierra de la Safor, Sierras del Mondúber i la Marxuquera, Muela de Cortés i Cardoch). The species is present in established micro reserves for the flora. Seeds are stored in the seedbanks of the Botanical Garden of Valencia and at the "Conselleria de Medio Ambiente". Germination protocols exist.	eng
61660	distribution	Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., 2006	This species is endemic to the Province of Valencia. It is found in the Caroch mountains in the southwest and the la For mountain range in the south of the province.	eng
61660	habitat	Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., 2006	This biennial herb grows on calcareous soils, in  montane grassland. It can be found on the margins of croplands or roads. This species has an affinity for disturbed soils, and avoid areas with compact substrates and areas with high density of trees.	eng
61660	population	Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., 2006	There are 5 confirmed subpopulations with a total of between 1,300 and 1,400 mature individuals: <br/> <br/>Simat de Valldigna: 11 individuals <br/>Caroch Peak: 176 individuals <br/>Peñón de los Machos: 163 individuals <br/>Fuente de la Rosa: 33 individuals <br/>Circo de La Safor: 960 individuals	eng
61660	threats	Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., 2006	The subpopulation at Mondúber is the only one suffering a severe decline because of the pressure from urbanization and its proximity to a road. The others subpopulations may all be threatened by the changes in the use of soils and fires, that diminish the quality of the habitat.	eng
61661	conservation	López Jiménez, N. & Martínez Rodríguez, J., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
61661	distribution	López Jiménez, N. & Martínez Rodríguez, J., 2006	This species is an Iberian endemic. The species was described from Sevilla in 1982. Today, the species is only found in León (Ponferrada).	eng
61661	habitat	López Jiménez, N. & Martínez Rodríguez, J., 2006	This annual herb grows in disturbed herbaceous habitats with a few dispersed trees. It can also be found on the edge of pine forests, in thicket and in forest on free granitic or slate soils with a sandy texture on moderate slopes.	eng
61661	population	López Jiménez, N. & Martínez Rodríguez, J., 2006	Three subpopulations were known, one in Sevilla, one in León and one in Madrid, but today only the subpopulation at León still survives. This comprises only 100 individuals.	eng
61661	threats	López Jiménez, N. & Martínez Rodríguez, J., 2006	The species has a poor reproductive strategy. The development of infrastructure, particularly forestry roads and the construction of railways are major threats to this species. Trampling by humans and the introduction of competitive alien species are additonal threats. Collection for botanical and scientific purposes may also pose a threat.	eng
61662	conservation	Blanca, G., Gutiérrez, L., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Luque Moreno, P. & Hierro, M.J., 2006	The mountain range of Mágina is a Natural Park, and the mountain ranges of Horconera and Rute are included in the Natural Park of "Sierras Subbéticas". A recovery plan has been proposed by the "Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía". Some parts of the subpopulation at Mágina are fenced.	eng
61662	distribution	Blanca, G., Gutiérrez, L., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Luque Moreno, P. & Hierro, M.J., 2006	This species is endemic to the mountains ranges of Mágina, Pandera, Horconera and Rute. It probably also occurs in the mountain range of Almijara, but its presence there has not been confirmed.	eng
61662	habitat	Blanca, G., Gutiérrez, L., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Luque Moreno, P. & Hierro, M.J., 2006	This small suffrutescent shrub grows in thicket vegetation on poorly developed rocky or sandy soils, on a dolomite substrate. It grows between spiny cushions and in fissures of rock faces.	eng
61662	population	Blanca, G., Gutiérrez, L., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Luque Moreno, P. & Hierro, M.J., 2006	There are five known subpopulations: <br/> <br/>Mountain range of Mágina I: 51 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Mágina II: 251 individuals <br/>Mountain range of the Pandera: 571 individuals <br/>Horconera mountain range: 38 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Rute: 11 individuals	eng
61662	threats	Blanca, G., Gutiérrez, L., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Luque Moreno, P. & Hierro, M.J., 2006	The species is threatened by grazing from domestic livestock and forest herbivores. It has a poor reproductive strategy. Other threats are the planting of conifer plantations,  fires and the accessibility of the plant.	eng
61663	conservation	Serrano, M. & Carbajal, R., 2006	Some subpopulations are included in LIC sites: Costa Ártabra, Costa da Morte and Complexo húmido de Corrubedo.	eng
61663	distribution	Serrano, M. & Carbajal, R., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the province of Coruña in Spain. Subpopulations are found in the north of Ferrol, the North West Coast of Morte and in the Barbanza peninsula.	eng
61663	habitat	Serrano, M. & Carbajal, R., 2006	This annual grows on pristine dunes. Sometimes it can be found in exposed areas, where a sandy layer covers a rocky substrate.	eng
61663	population	Serrano, M. & Carbajal, R., 2006	There are 10 confirmed subpopulations: <br/> <br/>3 subpopulations in Ferrol: 43,349 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in North Coast of Morte: 34,465 individuals <br/>2 subpopulations in the Central Coast of Morte: 43,451 individuals <br/>3 subpopulations in South Coast of Morte: 15,304 individuals <br/>1 subpopulation in Barbanza: 740 individuals	eng
61663	threats	Serrano, M. & Carbajal, R., 2006	The transformation of beaches for tourism and other human activities (hiking trails, parking areas, etc.) is a major threat to the taxon. In some localities, the dunes are being degraded as a result of sand extraction, trampling and motorized sports. The subpopulation in the Baldaio area is being fragmented by urban expansion.	eng
61664	conservation	Gutiérrez, L., Blanca, G., Luque Moreno, P. & Benavente, A., 2006	The mountain range of Cabrilla is included in the Natural Park of Cazorla, Segura and Villas. A recovery plan has been developed. The subpopulation is monitored periodically. Seeds are stored in the seedbank of Vegetal Andaluz.	eng
61664	distribution	Gutiérrez, L., Blanca, G., Luque Moreno, P. & Benavente, A., 2006	This species is confined to the Cabrilla mountain range (Jaén). Reported occurrence in the Sagra mountain range (Granada) has been discounted.	eng
61664	habitat	Gutiérrez, L., Blanca, G., Luque Moreno, P. & Benavente, A., 2006	This perennial herb grows in  mountain thickets,ususally in gaps between pines and on calcareous soils.	eng
61664	population	Gutiérrez, L., Blanca, G., Luque Moreno, P. & Benavente, A., 2006	There is only one known subpopulation comprising 62 individuals.	eng
61664	threats	Gutiérrez, L., Blanca, G., Luque Moreno, P. & Benavente, A., 2006	This species is threatened by intense domestic livestock farming, which results in over grazing, trampling and increased nitrification of the soils.	eng
61665	conservation	Viney, D.E., Christofides, Y. & Kadis, C., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Part of the area in which this species grows lies within the "Lakkovounara State Forest", which is protected by Forest Law from any private interference, while the rest of the area is private or government land. The species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix 1. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, Salvia veneris has been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The species is included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet.  <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most importantly, the habitat (particularly that outside the State Forest), as well as the species itself deserves legal protection at the local level. The site should be managed in a way that the species is not endangered by the expansion of the nearby village of Kythrea. Though well-adapted to grazing by goats (and probably not able to compete with faster-growing competitors in the absence of grazing), the site should be managed so that it is not over-grazed. Storage of seeds in seedbanks and <em>ex situ</em> cultivation in botanical gardens	eng
61665	distribution	Viney, D.E., Christofides, Y. & Kadis, C., 2006	Endemic to northern Cyprus, this species has an extremely local distribution just west of Kythrea. Although previously it was believed to be restricted to two small sites at the summit of limestone hills, more recent fieldwork in Spring 2004 found it growing in a continuous area of 12 km², mostly on a particular soil type called Kythrea Flysch. A small part of the population also grows on lava intrusions.	eng
61665	habitat	Viney, D.E., Christofides, Y. & Kadis, C., 2006	A perennial herb found on the summit of limestone hills or in sites composed of alternating beds of greywacke, marl, sandstone and basal conglomerate. <br/> <br/>The arrangement of leaves in a basal rosette is unusual for plants in this family, which normally have leaves in pairs on opposite sides of the stem. The unusual leaf arrangement is thought to be an adaptation to the strong grazing pressure by goats.	eng
61665	population	Viney, D.E., Christofides, Y. & Kadis, C., 2006	It is estimated that there are approximately 4,000 individuals.	eng
61665	threats	Viney, D.E., Christofides, Y. & Kadis, C., 2006	This species is potentially threatened by any northward or eastward expansion of the nearby village of Kythrea, which could wipe out the last remaining population. It is also potentially threatened by reafforestation schemes, road construction, military installations and exercises, grazing, burning from the nearby rubbish dump, and dust from nearby limestone quarries.	eng
61666	conservation	Cabello, J., Alcaraz, D., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 2006	This species occurs in Sites of Community Interest (SIC) and the habitat is listed under the Habitats Directive.	eng
61666	distribution	Cabello, J., Alcaraz, D., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the south east of Iberia. It is distributed from the Lisbona to the Almagro mountain ranges in the province of Almería. It is found also in the province of Murcia from the Enmedio (Puerto Lumbreras) to the Oro (Cieza) mountain ranges.	eng
61666	habitat	Cabello, J., Alcaraz, D., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 2006	This small shrub grows in thicket vegetation on gypsum outcrops.	eng
61666	population	Cabello, J., Alcaraz, D., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 2006	There are 14 subpopulations that together contain over 11 million individuals.	eng
61666	threats	Cabello, J., Alcaraz, D., Carrión Vilches, M.Á. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 2006	Some populations are threatened by the opening of illegal gypsum quarries. In the past some subpopulations in Murcia have been affected by pine plantations that transformed the habitat.	eng
61667	conservation	Paradis, G. & Arrigoni, P.V., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is included in the French Red Book of threatened flora. Internationally, it is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive as a priority species.  <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Sardinian subpopulation on the island of Capera should be protected as it is found within the Park of the Archipelago of Maddalenna. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: From August 2004 onwards, seeds will be stored at the Conservatoire botanique de Porquerolles (France). <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</b <br/>The administrators responsible for managing beach areas need to be made aware of the urgency of conservation issues for this species. The land on which this species grows should be acquired or managed by nature conservation authorities.	eng
61667	distribution	Paradis, G. & Arrigoni, P.V., 2006	Endemic to Corsica and Sardinia. In the northern part of Sardinia this species is only found on the granitic rocks of Punta Rossa on the island of Caprera (in the Maddalena Archipelago).	eng
61667	habitat	Paradis, G. & Arrigoni, P.V., 2006	This perennial species grows near the sea on a variety of substrates: on sand of various coarseness, as well as on granitic or limestone boulders. This species is capable of producing seeds without the flowers ever being pollinated, which is known as apomixis. This may be one reason why so many <em>Limonium</em> species have evolved. <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Limonium</em> has been split into a large number of species which are often very difficult to distinguish; around 300 species have been described from Mediterranean shores. <em>Limonium strictissimum</em> belongs to the group related to <em>Limonium articulatum</em>.	eng
61667	population	Paradis, G. & Arrigoni, P.V., 2006	On the island of Caprera  only a few dozen individuals are known. On Corsica some 1,200 individuals are known from five sites, forming three subpopulations.	eng
61667	threats	Paradis, G. & Arrigoni, P.V., 2006	This species is threatened by natural factors such as drought and landslides, both along the cliffs and along the little strips of beach where it grows. Various human activities also pose a threat: trampling by tourists threaten all the sites where this species is found, as does the construction of more resorts, especially on the beach of Maora.	eng
61668	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is not included in any international conventions or national legislation. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Cultivation from seeds and attempts to transplant this species from the wild into the Botanic Garden of the University of Patras have both failed. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Given that to date <em>ex situ</em> conservation efforts have been unsuccessful, it would seem that the best option to conserve this species is to protect and manage the area where it is known to occur. More fieldwork on Kithira is also needed to see if this species might occur in other areas.	eng
61668	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	This species is endemic to Kithira, a small Greek island of 284 km² which lies opposite the eastern tip of the Peloponnese, Cape Malea, in the Ionian Sea. The taxon is known from a population near Kalamos, but it may also occur in other sites on the island. It is difficult to find not only because it is rare, but also because it is rather inconspicuous.	eng
61668	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	This perennial herb grows on sandy soil and rarely occurs in open areas. Usually its slender branches can be seen protruding from spiny cushions composed of other plant species growing in the same vegetation type. <br/> <br/><em>P. helenae</em> has a narrow ecological range. It usually grows in association with Spiny Broom (<em>Genista acanthoclada</em>) and Thorny Burnet (<em>Sarcopoterium spinosum</em>) which typically characterize "phrygana" vegetation. This vegetation type is composed largely of spiny or aromatic dwarf shrubs, growing in lowland areas on dry soils. In Greece there are several types of phrygana, depending upon grazing pressure, the incidence of fires, exposure, soils and geology. A purple tulip, the Greek endemic <em>Tulipa goulimyi</em>, may also be found growing in the same areas as <em>P. helena</em>e. Related species are <em>Polygala venulosa</em> and <em>P. supina</em>, which are Balkan endemics.	eng
61668	population	Latroú, G., 2006	Known with certainty only from a single subpopulation.	eng
61668	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	The natural habitat of <em>P. helenae</em> was once cultivated. While the area is no longer used for agriculture, there is an increasing risk that it may be needed for agricultural purposes again. Should this happen then the species would probably disappear. Increased tourism also poses a threat to this plant.	eng
61669	conservation	Camarda, I., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>P. sinisica</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: Although the Italian Red List of 1992 proposed to set up a nature reserve at Capo Mannu and along the coast of the Sinis peninsula, the site is still threatened by deforestation and receives no legal protection. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The conservation measures suggested in the Italian Red List of 1992 need to be implemented. Full habitat protection, <em>ex situ</em> cultivation, and fieldwork to determine the exact size of the population are needed.	eng
61669	distribution	Camarda, I., 2006	<em>Polygala sinisica</em> occurs only in Sardinia along the coast at Capo Mannu, situated just north of Tharros in the Sinis region. Its entire population is spread over just a few hectares.	eng
61669	habitat	Camarda, I., 2006	A perennial herb that  grows in a hot and dry region on a stony or sandy limestone hillside in vegetation dominated by spiny or aromatic evergreen dwarf shrubs. <br/> <br/>This species was first described in 1983. It grows in the same community with other Sardinian endemics such as <em>Arum pictum</em>, <em>Genista corsica</em>, <em>Ornithogalum biflorum</em>, <em>Bellium bellidioides</em> and <em>Romulea requienii</em>. It is found with species of great phytogeographic interest which are also very rare throughout Italy, such as <em>Helianthemum caput-felis</em>, V<em>iola arborescens</em>, and <em>Coris monspeliensis</em>.	eng
61669	population	Camarda, I., 2006	The exact number of individuals is not known.	eng
61669	threats	Camarda, I., 2006	While the exact number of individuals is not known, the native habitat in which this plant grows has been reduced due to current agricultural practices and changes in land use. The land all the way down to the coastline is now farmed, and the hillsides where this species is found are sometimes over-grazed. Other threats include the development of coastal and access roads to the beach and the construction of secondary homes.	eng
61670	conservation	Galicia Herbada, D. & Fraga Arguimbau, P., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and listed in the National Catalogue of Threatened Species (Catálogo Nacional de Especies Amenazadas, CNEA). The natural area where it was known from and to where re-introduction attempts have been made (Son Bou i Barranc de Sa Vall) is designated as a Site of Special Natural Interest by the Law 1/1991 of the Parliament of the Balearic Islands. It is also included in the European Natura 2000 network. <br/>  <br/><em>In situ</em>: Attempts to re-introduce the species into its native habitat have been undertaken since 1959 but have been unsuccessful. The most recent attempts have re-introduced this species with mycorrhizal fungi in the gorges of Sa Vall, Trebaluger, and Algendar. However, the seeds from these individuals have failed to germinate, thus this species is still considered to be Extinct in the Wild. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds of this species are conserved in numerous seedbanks. It is also cultivated in several botanical gardens using seeds produced by the original specimens. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Most urgently, it is important to understand the reproductive biology of this species, especially the factors that inhibit the germination of seeds in the wild. Second, re-introduction attempts need to be continued. Finally a management plan needs to be developed for the areas where the species has been re-introduced so that the re-introduced populations become self-sustaining.	eng
61670	distribution	Galicia Herbada, D. & Fraga Arguimbau, P., 2006	Endemic to Minorca in the Balearic Islands, <em>Lysimachia minoricensis</em> was only known from a single location (Barranc de Sa Vall), where it disappeared between 1926 and 1950.	eng
61670	habitat	Galicia Herbada, D. & Fraga Arguimbau, P., 2006	The only notes made by its discoverer recorded that this herbaceous biennial grew in cool, shady places. This species seems able to produce seeds without pollinators. The number of seeds produced per individual is very high, with up to 3,300 counted for some plants, with an average number of 1,100. Experiments have shown that germination rates are very high, and germination can occur over a wide range of temperature, light, and soil salinity conditions. The leaves emit a strong odour that may be an adaptation to protect the plant from herbivores.	eng
61670	population	Galicia Herbada, D. & Fraga Arguimbau, P., 2006	Only found in cultivation.	eng
61670	threats	Galicia Herbada, D. & Fraga Arguimbau, P., 2006	The reasons for its disappearance in the wild are unknown. It is possible that over-collection and the impact of human activities (such as fire and changes in agricultural practices) may have caused its extinction. On the other hand, it is possible that this species might have benefited from agricultural activities practiced in the past, and that the cessation of these practices may have caused the disappearance of habitat favourable to this species. The most successful re-introduction attempts, where plants survived for up to five years, were in areas previously disturbed by fire, cattle or goats.	eng
61671	conservation	Camarda, I., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>A. barbaricina</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species listed. <br/>  <br/><em>In situ</em>: None for the moment. <br/>  <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No known cultivation attempts have been made. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The areas in which this species occurs naturally should be protected, and all collection should be prohibited. The species also needs to be cultivated in botanical gardens and seeds stored in seedbanks. Better understanding of its reproductive biology and ecology is needed in order to undertake conservation actions including reinforcement or reintroduction.	eng
61671	distribution	Camarda, I., 2006	<em>Aquilegia barbaricina</em> grows between 1,300-1,400 m altitude and is found only in Sardinia. The 1992 Italian Red List recorded it as growing in a few localities in the central part of Sardinia on Monte Spada, situated north in the Gennargentu area, and in two other localities near Orgosolo. It is now thought to occur only in a few places in a deep wooded valley, which is an exceptional wetland site, on Monte Spada.	eng
61671	habitat	Camarda, I., 2006	This perennial herb grows in alder scrub along water courses. <br/> <br/>First described in 1977, this species is called a "neoendemic", meaning that it is a species that has evolved relatively recently due to geographic isolation. Its close relative, the Common Columbine <em>Aquilegia vulgaris</em> (with pink or purple flowers), is much more widely distributed, but not present in Sardinia.	eng
61671	population	Camarda, I., 2006	There are less than 50 individuals.	eng
61671	threats	Camarda, I., 2006	Its rarity and the beauty of its flowers make <em>A. barbaricina</em> attractive for collectors, who can easily access the site. Potential habitat destruction is another threat. Grazing does not seem to be a problem since the plant is toxic.	eng
61672	conservation	Camarda, I., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and that <em>A. nuragica</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The site is situated in the Gennargentu National Park, but due to the lack of a management committee, no protective measures are in place. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The species is mentioned on several tourist websites, which might attract collectors. Detailed information concerning the exact location of the species should be removed in order to keep people away from the site. An action plan urgently needs to be developed and implemented. Cultivation in botanical gardens is recommended.	eng
61672	distribution	Camarda, I., 2006	<em>Aquilegia nuragica</em> is endemic to Sardinia and only found in one area of about 50 m² at Gorropu, near Dorgali.	eng
61672	habitat	Camarda, I., 2006	This perennial herb grows in a gorge along the seasonal Flumineddu river on the nearly vertical limestone cliffs. Occasionally it occurs in the dry, sandy pebble substrate of the riverbed as a result of seeds dispersed from the overhanging cliff. However only a few individuals grow here, because they are regularly washed away during floods. <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Aquilegia</em> has about 70 species worldwide. Three of these (<em>A. barbaricina, A. nuragica</em> and <em>A. nugorensis</em>) are endemic to Sardinia. These and two more (<em>A. champagnatii</em> and <em>A. magellensis</em>) are on the Italian Red List. <em>A. nuragica</em> was first described in 1978. It is clearly genetically isolated from the other Sardinian <em>Aquilegia</em> species as well as from the Common Columbine,<em> A. vulgaris</em>, which occurs all over Europe but not on Sardinia.	eng
61672	population	Camarda, I., 2006	Only 10-15 individuals are believed to exist in the this unique population.	eng
61672	threats	Camarda, I., 2006	The species is certainly facing a high extinction risk due to natural factors rather than human impact. Grazing does not seem to be a problem since the plant is toxic.	eng
61673	conservation	Latroú, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is listed in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4120003, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>Field studies are necessary to update current knowledge of the plant's distribution and threats. Studies should include research into its reproduction biology that has not yet been undertaken. Conservation action should be carefully planned based on the results of this research. Expansion of the existing Mt. Kerkis Reserve to include the scree fields would provide further protection and can be easily justified by the presence of other local endemic and endangered plants. The area is also home to rare cliff plant communities, pastures and forests. This species would also benefit from ex situ cultivation in botanical gardens.	eng
61673	distribution	Latroú, G., 2006	<em>Consolida samia</em> is a Greek endemic that has been reduced to only one remaining subpopulation, restricted to the Island of Samos. It grows on the steep limestone scree of Mt. Kerkis at an altitude of 800 m.	eng
61673	habitat	Latroú, G., 2006	This annual species grows in a very specialized habitat: on a gravel-like substrate, with the largest pebbles measuring about 2 cm in diameter. It has never been found in adjacent rocky areas or neighbouring fields with larger stones. The scree on which it grows has no closed vegetation cover, yet despite growing in the open, this plant is easy to overlook because of its very small size. <br/> <br/>This species is closely related to <em>Consolida hellespontica</em>, but the two species live in distinct habitats and have different ecological requirements. The habitat of <em>C. samia</em> supports only a few species, most of which are endemic to the Aegean Islands, making it of high scientific interest. The presence of this species indicates that environmental conditions on Mt. Kerkis have remained unchanged for a long period of time.	eng
61673	population	Latroú, G., 2006	In 1975, there were 20 plants at this unique locality and in 1996 their number had reached 100. Now, however, this species cannot be found anywhere.	eng
61673	threats	Latroú, G., 2006	Re-establishment of this species will become increasingly unlikely over time. Only living specimens are able to disperse their minute seeds uphill by wind. Any potential soil seed bank risks being transported downhill by erosion or stone avalanches, into fields of larger stones which is an unsuitable habitat for this species. Its restricted area of occurrence makes this species sensitive to any habitat modification. If the plant is not extinct, it is potentially threatened by collectors and genetic isolation due to its small population size.	eng
61674	conservation	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S., Christofides, Y. & Makris, C., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is protected by the Bern Convention where it is listed in Appendix I. Based on the results of a Life Third Countries Project, <em>D. caseyi</em> has been included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is also included in the Red Data Book for the threatened plants of Cyprus, to be published by the Government of Cyprus in 2005. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The Pentadaktylos mountain range, which encompasses both existing <em>D. caseyi</em> subpopulations, has been proposed by the aforementioned project as a Site of Community Importance (SCI) for the Natura 2000 Network. In addition, one of the subpopulations exists within the Karmi State Forest, which is protected by the Forest Law from any private interference. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: No measure taken. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/><em>In situ</em>: It is important to undertake research projects to monitor the population dynamics of this species and assess its biology and ecology. Either a re-introduction or benign introduction project in protected areas is needed. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds should be collected and stored in seedbanks. Additionally, the species should be conserved in selected botanical gardens.	eng
61674	distribution	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S., Christofides, Y. & Makris, C., 2006	<em>Delphinium caseyi</em> is only found in northern Cyprus where it has been recorded at two sites in the northern Pentadaktylos range, one near the St. Hilarion Peak, and the other at the Kyparissovouno Peak. A recent expedition in May 2004 located about 15 individuals on a peak close to St. Hilarion, most of which had been affected by grazing.	eng
61674	habitat	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S., Christofides, Y. & Makris, C., 2006	This perennial shrub prefers full sun and grows at the base of rocky cliffs or in the cracks of limestone boulders. <br/> <br/>The plants may be propagated by seeds or by subdivisions of the rootstock. All species of <em>Delphinium</em> are toxic, like the majority of the buttercup family. The long spur on the flower resembles the beak of a dolphin, the feature that inspired botanists to name the genus <em>Delphinium</em>.	eng
61674	population	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S., Christofides, Y. & Makris, C., 2006	Less than 500 individuals exist in the two known subpopulations.	eng
61674	threats	Kadis, C., Christodoulou, C.S., Christofides, Y. & Makris, C., 2006	Whilst grazing is the major threat to this species, its violet flowers make this species very attractive for wild collecting. There is also a potential threat to the subpopulations from nearby military activities and the construction of an antenna in the area.	eng
61675	conservation	Camarda, I., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species, despite the fact that the regional council of Sardinia proposed a draft law in 2001 concerning protection of plant species on the island, and <em>R. sardoum</em> is listed in the Annex as an endemic species. However this law is controversial as it may increase collecting interest in the species listed. The United Kingdom has included this species in its national legislation [Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 2677. The Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act 1976 (Amendment) Order 1996]. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The local population is now committed to protect the site from fire and grazing. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: <em>R. sardoum</em> has been cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The survival of this species in the wild requires developing serious management plans to protect the species from over-grazing, fire, and plant collection. The species should also be cultivated <em>ex situ</em> with the goal of eventually reinforcing the existing population, and perhaps undertaking introductions into similar habitats.	eng
61675	distribution	Camarda, I., 2006	<em>Ribes sardoum</em> has been recorded from just one site in Sardinia, occurring in a small southeast facing valley at about 900 m altitude.	eng
61675	habitat	Camarda, I., 2006	This small woody shrub grows on limestone substrates. <br/> <br/>This species was probably originally distributed throughout the boreal zone, and moved to warmer areas as the climate changed. It is now considered a relict species as it is no longer found anywhere else. Its closest relatives occur in China, Japan, and North America. <br/> <br/>Some scientists consider this species part of a larger family, the Saxifragaceae, in which saxifrage- and currant-like species are grouped together. Others prefer to split such large groups up, preferring to work with more clearly defined smaller families (e.g. the currant family Grossulariaceae).	eng
61675	population	Camarda, I., 2006	The total number of individuals is about 100, in one subpopulation.	eng
61675	threats	Camarda, I., 2006	This decline is due to low seed viability and grazing by goats and sheep. However, despite the grazing pressure, the extent of occurrence seems not to have significantly decreased since <em>R. sardoum</em> was first recorded at the end of the eighteenth century. However, the lack of historical reference data makes it difficult to evaluate the present population dynamics. Nevertheless the species is seriously endangered by extinction, mainly due to the low seed vitality for reasons not yet clearly understood.	eng
61676	conservation	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.A. & Jiménez Martínez, J.F., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species occurs in Sites of Community Interest (SIC). It is listed in the Regional Catalogues of Murcia and Castilla-La Mancha. Seeds are stored in various seedbanks (ETSA and Valencia). Germination experiments have also been undertaken.	eng
61676	distribution	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.A. & Jiménez Martínez, J.F., 2006	This species is endemic to the eastern Andalusia mountain ranges. It is located in the province of Albacete, in canyons of the Mundo and Bogarra rivers, in the province of Murcia in Benizar and in the stream of Hondares (Moratalla).	eng
61676	habitat	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.A. & Jiménez Martínez, J.F., 2006	This perennial herb grows in calcareous vertical rock fissures, in moderately shady conditions.	eng
61676	population	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.A. & Jiménez Martínez, J.F., 2006	They are 4 known subpopulations and two of them contain less than 50 individuals: <br/> <br/>Bogarra: 41 individuals <br/>Potiche: 500 individuals <br/>Benizar: 37 individuals <br/>Hondares: 124 individuals	eng
61676	threats	Sánchez Gómez, P., Carrión Vilches, M.A. & Jiménez Martínez, J.F., 2006	Collection by botanists and the influence of tourism are threats to the species. The intensive pasture by mountain goats is also a threat. Prolonged droughts and  parasitism by some insects may also pose threats to this species.	eng
61677	conservation	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: Internationally, <em>C. argyrothamnos</em>  is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention (on strictly protected plant species) and as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. The plant is included in Natura 2000 site GR 4340002, which gives it indirect protection. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: No measures taken as of yet. <br/>  <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Two plants, propagated by cuttings, are currently being cultivated at the Technological Education Institute of Heraklion (Crete). Although they flower, they do not produce fruit. A programme of seed collection and storage at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (Crete) has also been launched. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>The survival of this species is unlikely unless it can be rapidly propagated <em>ex situ</em> by botanical gardens, followed by reinforcement of the current site(s) <em>in situ</em>. It is equally important to protect the site(s) legally, and to undertake effective conservation and management measures.	eng
61677	distribution	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	<em>Convolvulus argyrothamnos</em> is endemic to Crete, in the region of Ierápetra at an altitude of 450 m.	eng
61677	habitat	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	The shrubby plants at the confirmed location were growing on a limestone cliff. It is a perennial shrub. <br/> <br/><em>C. argyrothamnos</em> is one of the numerous species endemic to Crete that currently grow only on cliffs. These species, most of which are evolutionarily ancient, use cliffs as their last refuge. Here they are protected not only from more widespread plants better adapted to current conditions, but also from the voracious appetite of the ever-present goats.	eng
61677	population	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	Currently fewer than five individuals are known (there were eight in 1984, six in 1993 and only four in 1996). A second site with approximately 30 plants may recently have been discovered in western Crete, but its status has not yet been confirmed.	eng
61677	threats	Latroú, G. & Kypriotakis, Z., 2006	The extremely small number of individuals at the site near Ierápetra puts this species at a very high risk of extinction. The final blow may be a bush fire, rare plant collectors, or the great difficulty these plants have reproducing from seed.	eng
61678	conservation	Garfì, G., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: No measures taken. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The distribution area of this species is fenced in order to prevent grazing. It is entirely situated within an SCI (Site of Community Importance) area, which is part of the Natura 2000 network. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: This species is cultivated at the Botanical Conservatory of Brest, at the Botanical Garden of the University of Catania, and in the Arboretum "Monna Giovannella" of the University of Florence. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>A restoration plan including both <em>ex situ</em> and <em>in situ</em> activities needs to be established. In order to determine the degree of affiliation between all the individuals in the population, a broader genetic study needs to be undertaken.	eng
61678	distribution	Garfì, G., 2006	This single remote population extends 200 m along the banks of a stream on the northern slopes of the Iblei Mts in southeastern Sicily.	eng
61678	habitat	Garfì, G., 2006	This small tree grows along the banks of a stream on north facing slopes in a very old Cork Oak (<em>Quercus suber</em>) forest. <br/> <br/>The genus <em>Zelkova</em> only has a few species, of which a few grow in Western and Eastern Asia, plus two in the Mediterranean basin (this species in Sicily and another, <em>Z. abelicea</em>, which is a threatened endemic from Crete). These two species represent relicts that have persisted over a long period of time and may have been more widespread in the past. Both are threatened by habitat change.	eng
61678	population	Garfì, G., 2006	One subpopulation of 200-250 individuals exists.	eng
61678	threats	Garfì, G., 2006	The ancient oak forest hosting this species is rather degraded due to overexploitation (logging, grazing, and removal of cork) for several centuries. In addition, over the last few years several major droughts have caused the death of several trees. <em>Z. sicula</em> requires relatively moist conditions. Therefore, if rainfall remains low, this species is almost certain to become extinct. <br/> <br/>Few flowering individuals have been seen in recent years and the fruit produced appears to be sterile. Reproduction is largely vegetative.	eng
61679	conservation	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The subspecies is listed in the National Catalogue of Threatened Species and in the Catalogue of the Protected Flora of Murcia. The subspecies occurs in the Regional Parks of Calblanque, Monte de la Cenizas and Peña del Águila. Monitoring of the subpopulations has been undertaken since 1998. Seeds are stored in seedbanks. There are protocols for germination, production and <em>in vitro</em> culture. Attempts to produce seeds to enhance the subpopulation in Valencia from individuals from he subpopulation in Murcia is in process.	eng
61679	distribution	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	This subspecies is an Iberian-Levantine endemic. It is found in the mountain ranges of Cartagena (Murcia) and of Calderona (Valencia).	eng
61679	habitat	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	This shrub grows in degraded thicket, in dry and sunny areas. It is also found in areas of herbaceous vegetation dominated by <em>Brachypodium retusum</em>.	eng
61679	population	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	The subspecies was described at the beginning of the20th century. As it was not seen for a long time after its initial description it was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered again in 1986.  Today, is is known from two subpopulations:  the Cartagena mountain range (26 individuals) and the Calderona mountain range (only 1 individual).	eng
61679	threats	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	The Calderona subpopulation comprises just one individual so that cannot reproduce. The subspecies is threatened by fires, hikers and expanding urban development. The Cartagena subpopulation is also threatened by fire and other human disurbance. The species  hybridizes with <em>Cistus albidus</em>.	eng
61680	conservation	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>The species is protected in most parts of its distribution area. It is listed in the Protection Catalogue of Castilla-La Mancha and Murcia. The majority of the subpopulations are included in Sites of Community Interest and micro reserves. There are plans to establish other micro reserves in the province of Albacete.	eng
61680	distribution	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	This species is endemic to the southeast Iberia, where it is found in the provinces of Albacete, Alicante and Murcia.	eng
61680	habitat	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	This small shrub grows in thicket characterized by a sandy soil, and on dunes. It is often a pioneer species in abandoned fields or in thicket areas after fire, and on bare sandy soils. It stabilizes the soil and fix it for furthers species that need a better substrate.	eng
61680	population	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	They are 7 known subpopulations with a total of 3,545 individuals: <br/> <br/>Arenales de Petrer: 80 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Fraile: 500 individuals <br/>Casa de Valentín (Albacete): 500 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Cuchillo: 15 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Enmedio: 1,000 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Molino: 450 individuals <br/>Mountain range of Serral: 1,000 individuals	eng
61680	threats	Güemes, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Carrión Vilches, M.Á., 2006	The habitat of the species is very limited and is decreasing due o human activities. The subpopulation located in the Cuchillomountain range is threatened by grazing and trampling from domestic livestock.	eng
61681	conservation	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	<strong>Actions in Place</strong> <br/>Legally: This species is included in Red Lists at different levels (regional, national and international), either as part of the taxon Viola nebrodensis or as a variety of the latter. However, it is not protected by any particular law or convention. <br/> <br/><em>In situ</em>: The entire area of occurrence is included in the "Monte Pizzuta, Costa del Carpineto, Moarda" SIC (Site of Community Importance). However only the Mt. Pizzuta site is part of ?Serre della Pizzuta? Nature Reserve. <br/> <br/><em>Ex situ</em>: Seeds are conserved in the germplasm bank of the Department of Botanical Science, Palermo University, and cultivated in the botanic garden of Palermo. <br/> <br/><strong>Actions Needed</strong> <br/>It is important to immediately stop forestry plantations in the species' habitat to limit the ecological transformation of the area. A protection scheme against fire is needed for the relevant sites. Ideally the entire population should be included in the Nature Reserve.	eng
61681	distribution	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This perennial plant is only found on Mt. Pizzuta, near Palermo in northwestern Sicily, growing at an altitude of 800-1,300 m. The only known population extends over two localities (Mt. Pizzuta and Mt. Fratantoni), covering a total area of 0.2 km².	eng
61681	habitat	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	This little herbaceous violet grows on eroded, sunny calcareous mountain slopes where rock outcrops or gravel substrates are sometimes covered by a garrigue vegetation characterized by the heath <em>Erica multiflora</em>, or more steppic vegetation dominated by the tall grass "Diss" (<em>Ampelodesmos mauritanicus</em>). <br/> <br/>This species only reproduces by seed. There are over 400 species of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) in the world, with more than 90 found in Europe. Taxonomic opinion on the species in Sicily has been divided, with some botanists "lumping" this species into the more common species <em>Viola nebrodensis</em>. However it is now generally recognised that <em>V. nebrodensis</em> is divided into three separate species with localized distribution: <em>V. ucriana</em> Erben & Raimondo (Pizzuta Mt.), <em>V. tineorum</em> Erben & Raimondo (Rocca Busambra), and<em> V. nebrodensis</em> Presl (Madonie Mts.).	eng
61681	population	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	One known subpopulation, but the exact number of individuals is not yet known.	eng
61681	threats	Gianguzzi, L. & La Mantia, A., 2006	The area where <em>V. ucriana</em> persists is often subject to fire due to human activities, and these periodic sumer fires pose a major threat to the conservation of this species. Forestry plantations of exotic conifers and other species are changing the ecological conditions of its habitat, and any human action could exterminate the one remaining subpopulation.	eng
61690	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.  The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61690	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was only found from three closely-spaced localities. Gannaruwa Forest, Peradeniya and Hantane Forest in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka. Presently it is assumed that the range of this species is 10 km². Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy both <10 km².	eng
61690	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species was found in wet soil (<5 cm deep), under rocks on stream margins, and on moist soil adjacent to streams. The streams were mostly slow-flowing and in heavy shade. It is found in montane habitat.	eng
61690	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61690	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61691	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.  The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61691	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: endemic to Sri Lanka, beside Kandy Road. Extent of occurrence 20 km²; area of occupancy <10 km². Known from only two locations.	eng
61691	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Was collected from beneath stones around wet areas and wet soil at a small stream. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61691	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61691	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61692	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K., Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
61692	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K., Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Mousakanda, near Gammuduwa, Knuckles Range, Mahaweili Range. Extent of occurrence and area of occupancy both <10 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61692	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K., Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was collected and observed on wet boulders on the margins of a slow-flowing stream. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61692	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K., Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
61692	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K., Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Site not protected, area subject to degradation because of direct human impacts	eng
61693	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area.	eng
61693	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Knuckles Mountains (Pathanegala near Puwakpitea, 07.33°N, 80.44°E, 10 km²) (Bahir 1998, Ng and Tay 2001). Conservation assessment of Bahir <em>et al. (2005) indicates that it is present in three localities, other two locations not given.</em>	eng
61693	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under moist stones and wet soil about 40 cm beneath ground level, at a small waterfall	eng
61693	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Abundance of the species at site of occurrence: rare	eng
61693	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Found in a protected area administered by Forest Department, but this PA is subject to degradation because of direct human impacts.	eng
61694	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation Measures:  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61694	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was recorded from two localities in the northern part of the Knuckles Mountains: Rangini Estate, near Gammaduwa, and near Midlands Estate (Bahir and Ng, 2005). Its range is about 10 km².	eng
61694	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was collected from under stones in wet soil (<5 cm deep) next to a stream which runs through a small marshy area. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61694	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is locally abundant.	eng
61694	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61695	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61695	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species is known only from its type locality (Corbett's Gap 07°22'N, 080°50'E) in the Knuckles range of mountains. Extent of occurrence 1 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61695	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka in very shallow (<15 cm deep), slow-flowing water in a stream flowing through montane cloud forest and under rocks on stream margins, as well as in wet soil adjacent to a stream or among wet leaf litter in and adjacent to water, always in shaded areas.	eng
61695	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not abundant (rare), known only from a single locality.	eng
61695	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61696	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61696	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 1,750 km². Area of occupancy <100 km². Known from five locations.<br/>Near Pituwala waterfall at Elpitiya; Galle District; Matara District; Udugama; Kurutara District (see Bahir 1999).	eng
61696	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Species appears to be entirely aquatic, and restricted to areas above and around 80m above mean sea level. It was observed in shallow water and at the bottom of pools 1-2 m deep, in both well-lit and shaded areas.	eng
61696	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Abundance of species at each site of occurrence is locally common.	eng
61696	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61697	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.<br/><br/>Currently the range area for this species occurs within a protected area, however the area is subject to degradation because of human impacts.	eng
61697	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61697	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61697	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from the type locality, not abundant (very rare).	eng
61697	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61698	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No measures in place.<br/><br/>The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61698	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Panagula (06°52'N, 80°10'E).	eng
61698	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known	eng
61698	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
61698	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Site not protected and subject to degradation because of direct human impacts. Current and future threats include human development.<br/><br/>Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61699	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61699	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61699	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61699	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not abundant (very rare), known only from a single locality.	eng
61699	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61700	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61700	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.This species is found throughtout the country except in the south-western wet zone, both on the lowlands and in the highlands of Sri Lanka.	eng
61700	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in rocky-sandy streams.	eng
61700	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61700	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61701	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61701	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. This species has only been recorded from the type locality, Morningside Estate (06°24'N, 080°38'E) at 1,060 m altitude.	eng
61701	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species occurs under boulders in flowing streams <1 m deep. The diversity of freshwater crabs at the lower montane cloud-forest reserve is higher than any other site in Sri Lanka (six species have been recorded from this locality - Eastern Sinharaja).	eng
61701	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is common and abundant but is known only from a single locality.	eng
61701	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61702	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61702	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Galle District (see Bahir 1999).	eng
61702	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The species inhabits shallow water within streams, and moist parts of stream margins, both in shaded and sunlit places.	eng
61702	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61702	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61703	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61703	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location in the Knuckles Range, Mahaweli Basin.	eng
61703	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found under rocks and boulders near small streams and waterfalls, but does not normally occur in the water per se. The substrate was sand or soil. The type locality is basically montane forest and is often very misty.	eng
61703	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Abundance of the species at each site is rare.	eng
61703	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61704	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61704	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
61704	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species is the first (and only) tree-climbing terrestrial crab known from Sri Lanka.  Specimens originally collected from rainwater-filled tree holes above ground. They have been found dwelling in crevices of a cave wall, up to 3m above ground. Therefore the climbing ability is not restricted to the scaling of trees.	eng
61704	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common.	eng
61704	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61705	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61705	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 250 km². Known from three locations.	eng
61705	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Specimens found under stones of a shallow, rocky (water <10 cm) stream	eng
61705	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61705	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61706	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61706	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This is a lowland species found near a city. Extent of occurrence 100 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61706	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Collected from under wet boulders at a waterfall.	eng
61706	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not abundant (rare).	eng
61706	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61707	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Forest Department (although this is subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts).	eng
61707	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Mahaweli Basin, Knuckles, Moneragala. The original description of this species lists six different localities (Ng and Tay 2001).	eng
61707	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found within burrows along paddy field embankments, specimens also obtained from shallow muddy streams. Therefore it may be responding positively to habitat changes that have already been made, such as disturbance from agricultural practices.	eng
61707	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency at sites: common	eng
61707	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts. However it may not be affected by these.	eng
61708	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61708	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. This species has only been found along the margins of a roadside stream at Kalupahana, on the Colombo - Haputale road, Sri Lanka. Its range is about 5 km².	eng
61708	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species was found only in shallow burrows (<20 cm deep) along the margins of a road side stream.	eng
61708	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is locally common and population levels appear to be high in the sites where it is found.	eng
61708	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61709	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61709	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 100 km². Known from only one location near Dunhinda Falls.	eng
61709	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Small, steep, sandy stream with little water and numerous large boulders.	eng
61709	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not abundant (rare).	eng
61709	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61710	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61710	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. This species is only known from the type locality (Galle 06°02'N, 080°23'E) at 30 m altitude and may have a very narrow distributional range.	eng
61710	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The type series was obtained from a deep burrow in a muddy bank of a small pool.	eng
61710	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not abundant (very rare).  Three attempts to recollect this species between 2000 to 2003 proved to be unsuccessful.	eng
61710	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61711	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Protected sites, administered by the Forest Department.	eng
61711	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Batadomba Cave, Deerwood Tea Estate, Peak Wilderness, Galle, Kanneliya Forest - Galle, Bulutota Pass, Knuckles.	eng
61711	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Non-type specimens obtained from wet sandy-rocky substrate, at or near small streams on a steep and heavily-wooded hill.	eng
61711	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common.	eng
61711	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	unknown	eng
61712	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61712	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species was only found at the type locality (near Pundaluoya 07°01'19.04"N, 080°39'59.4"E).	eng
61712	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species lives in deep burrows in moist areas beside streams	eng
61712	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is locally abundant (common) but is known from only one locality.	eng
61712	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61713	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department and the Department of wildlife Conservation, but the habitat is nevertheless subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.	eng
61713	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: This species is known from nine localities in the north-western dry zone and the central wet zone around the Kandy Hills.	eng
61713	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commonly occurs in rice-field embankments. Crabs have been observed from burrows in the margins of streams, irrigation canals, reservoirs and rivers.	eng
61713	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: common	eng
61713	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.  Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.	eng
61714	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation Measures:  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61714	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 1,000 km². Known from two locations. Only known from the type locality (Godakawela, 06°30'N 80°38'E, Walawe River Basin) in the southern foothills of the central highlands of Sri Lanka.	eng
61714	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins.	eng
61714	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61714	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61715	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61715	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. This species is known from the vicinity of Galle (district), in the south western wet zone of Sri Lanka, in the Gin River basin.	eng
61715	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in deep-burrows in rice-field embankments, adjacent stream margins and the banks of canals.	eng
61715	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61715	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61716	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in Kumana and Wilpattu National Parks where its habitat is protected. The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61716	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence >220,000 km². Known from five localities (Bahir and Yeo 2005). This species is restricted to the eastern, north-western, north-central and northern lowland dry zone of Sri Lanka, including the Kumana and Wilpattu National Parks, and it is endemic to Sri Lanka. Apart from the type locality also found in Nachchiyama near Wilpattu National Park in North Central Sri Lanka; near Mundel, NW Sri Lanka; Panama, near Kumana National Park, SE Sri Lanka; Jaffna, northern Sri Lanka.	eng
61716	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Semiterrestrial species living in burrows in sandy soil adjacent to rice-fields.	eng
61716	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61716	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61717	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61717	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location. Only known from its type locality, close to Kurunegala.	eng
61717	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins, and in the banks of the irrigation canals. Fast flowing stream, semi-forested, gravel bottom, grass banks to water edge.	eng
61717	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61717	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61718	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61718	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known from two localities both in north-central Sri Lanka, Minneriya (near Polonnaruwa) and Anuradhapura.	eng
61718	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species commonly lives in rice-field embankments and margins of streams and irrigation canals.	eng
61718	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61718	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation, invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo lankae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61719	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is found in a protected area administered by Department of Wildlife Conservation and subject to degradation (direct human impacts).	eng
61719	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Only known from Ritigala and Mundel, in the north central dry zone of Sri Lanka.	eng
61719	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins and in the banks of the canals and streams.	eng
61719	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: common.	eng
61719	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
61720	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area administered by the Department of Wildlife Conservation that is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impact.	eng
61720	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Found in Bibile; Ruhunu National Park; Monaragala; Puwakpitiya, Knuckles Mountains; Tissa; and Badulla in the south and south-eastern dry zone. These localities range from about sea level up to 600m altitude.	eng
61720	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives in deep burrows in rice-field embankments and adjacent stream margins, and in the banks of reservoirs and rivers.	eng
61720	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: common	eng
61720	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Threatened by future human induced habitat loss/degradation due to human population increases and industrial and agrarian development	eng
61721	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61721	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 350 km². Known from three locations. Southern Sri Lanka, Ruhuna Province, Galle District.	eng
61721	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The holotype was collected <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 0.5 m above ground level, on a tree root, <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 2 m from a small stream with muddy banks, at an elevation of 50 m above mean sea level.	eng
61721	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61721	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90% of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation, invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup>yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo lankae</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus aral</span>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61722	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61722	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Adams Peak.	eng
61722	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in hill streams.	eng
61722	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61722	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61723	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61723	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location near Avisawella.	eng
61723	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Under rocks and in moist soil beside streams. This species is not montane as others of this genus.	eng
61723	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61723	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61724	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Forest Department.	eng
61724	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Only known from the vicinity of Batadomba cave, near Kuruwita (06 47'N, 080 23'E) in Sri Lanka. Range probably 5km².	eng
61724	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was found mainly among leaf litter beside small streams, although specimens were found under stones in moist soil as well, up to 5 m from the stream margin.	eng
61724	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: rare	eng
61724	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. This cave is visited by tourists so there is a threat of accidental pollution and disturbance.	eng
61725	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61725	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one location.	eng
61725	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61725	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Very rare.	eng
61725	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61726	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by Department of Wildlife.	eng
61726	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Only found at type locality on a footpath to Adam's Peak, Peak Wilderness (06 24'N, 080 38'E) in Sri Lanka. Range is approx. 1 km². Several attempts to find this species since 1996 have failed.	eng
61726	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in wet soil under stones in small streams.	eng
61726	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: rare	eng
61726	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution; its habitat is subjected to degradation by direct human impact. There is evidence that there is a decline in the extent and quality of its habitat.	eng
61727	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area administered by Dept. of Wildlife.	eng
61727	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Horton Plains, Walawe Basin.	eng
61727	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected under rocks and boulders near small, shallow streams. Specimens were mostly obtained from outside the water <em>per se</em>. Substrate varied from clay to peaty.	eng
61727	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: common	eng
61727	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
61728	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administer by the Forest Department and the Department for Wildlife Conservation, which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.	eng
61728	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Peak Wilderness between Heramitipana and Linihela.	eng
61728	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from streams (1,650 m a.s.l.) from under stones in shallow water (<10 cm deep).	eng
61728	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Frequency of species at sites: common	eng
61728	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
61729	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61729	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Moray Estate (06 48'N, 80 31'E).	eng
61729	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61729	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Very rare.	eng
61729	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61730	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61730	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from three localities in southwestern Sri Lanka in the Bentota and Gin River basins (Bahir, 1999, original description). Found at Pituwala (06°15'N 80°12'E) near Elpitiya and Amugoda near Elpitiya (06°19'N 80°13'30'E); at a streamlet in Kottawa Proposed Forest Reserve, Galle District, southwestern Sri Lanka, in the Bentota and Gin River basins.	eng
61730	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Under moist stones and leaf litter in a small stream. Occurs in very shallow (<5 cm deep) water in small, rainforest streams, under rocks on stream margins, and among wet, fallen leaves among boulders in the stream.	eng
61730	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Very rare.	eng
61730	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61731	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61731	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 50 km². Known from only one location, Horton Plains, Agara Oya Basin.	eng
61731	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Found in shallow shaded stream with sand and gravel substrate and swampy adjacent areas.	eng
61731	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
61731	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61732	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61732	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. Morningside (06 24'N, 80 38'E).	eng
61732	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Specimens found under stones and wet soil in and around a small streamlet	eng
61732	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61732	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61733	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61733	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 5 km². Known from only one location. Known only from the type locality (Morningside, Eastern Sinharaja 06 24'N, 080 38'E at 1,060 m altitude.	eng
61733	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. This species is found under stones in wet soil (<15 cm deep) in shade within a cardamom plantation.	eng
61733	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61733	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61734	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The conservation value of the Sinharaja lowland rainforest is very significant, with a high diversity and endemicity.  The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61734	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Ratnapura District, Kalu River Basin and Walawe Basin, southern Sri Lanka.	eng
61734	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Some specimen found in rainwater filled tree hollow, about 1m above ground. Others under fallen log. It seems likely that this species is predominantly terrestrial with arboreal tendencies, using phytotelms as a source of fresh water, and perhaps to feed on the animals living inside.	eng
61734	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rare.	eng
61734	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61735	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not found in a protected area.	eng
61735	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka: Mahaweli Basin. The two localities are close together: Deltota, 7°10'14”N, 80°41'55”E, 1,071 m asl and Talawakelle (6.57N, 80.38E, 1,160 m asl, type locality).	eng
61735	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A waterfall species.	eng
61735	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not abundant (rare).	eng
61735	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The habitat is subjected to degradation from directed human activities. The flow from St. Clair waterfall may be shut off as the result of a proposed Hydropower Development Project, which would mean a dam across the river just upstream of the type locality.	eng
61737	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61737	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
61737	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka.	eng
61737	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61737	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61738	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61738	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka.	eng
61738	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka	eng
61738	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally Common.	eng
61738	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61739	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61739	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 10 km². Known from only one locaton. Only recorded from its type locality, Kodagoda, in Galle district, southern Sri Lanka.	eng
61739	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. Lives in burrows in rice-field embankments and the banks of canals leading to rice-fields.	eng
61739	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common.	eng
61739	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61740	conservation	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The long-term security of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective land-use planning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forest sites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data, implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms. Planning on such a scale is not imminent in Sri Lanka, and in the mean time, it is best that conservation activities be aimed primarily at preserving the integrity of sites and habitats while at the same time closely monitoring key populations.<br/><br/>The conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preserving patches of natural forest large enough to maintain the good water quality of the original streams. Many parathelphusids are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters, and will not survive when exposed to these factors.	eng
61740	distribution	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Extent of occurrence 2,000 km². Known from only two locations. The species is restricted to the western lowlands of Sri Lanka. Known only from around Colombo.	eng
61740	habitat	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in freshwater aquatic habitats in the wet zone area of Sri Lanka. The type locality is a small waterway <5 cm deep in the Colombo University garden. Other localities include rice field embankments.	eng
61740	population	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common.	eng
61740	threats	Bahir, M.M., Ng, P.K.L., Crandall, K.,  Pethiyagoda, R. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species (>90 percent of the freshwater-fish biomass comprises exotics: Pethiyagoda 1994) and pollution, while its forests are threatened by encroachment and illegal produce extraction. The greater threats to the island’s remaining wet zone habitats are perceived to be from indirect sources exacerbated by ‘island effects’ resulting from fragmentation— invasive species, pesticide influx, edge effects, local climate change and rainwater acidification.<br/><br/>Pesticides are a serious concern given that these substances are freely and widely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and not impacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon. 1980). Given that 24 of Sri Lanka’s 49 freshwater crab species are restricted to montane and sub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in the highlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam <em>et al</em>. 2003). An estimated 292 MT ha<sup>-1</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasing silt loads in streams and rivers (ADB 2003).<br/><br/>Even species with wide ranges and apparent tolerance of land-use changes could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changes, for example, in land developments, hydrology or pesticide-use regimes. For example, the populations of two species of widely-distributed freshwater fishes (<em>Labeo lankae</em> and <em>Macrognathus aral</em>) assessed in 1980 as "common" (Senanayake 1980) crashed within a decade, without warning, for reasons still unknown— they are now presumed extinct (Pethiyagoda 1994).	eng
61741	conservation	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, C., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Böhme, W., Nettmann, H.K., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Joger, U., Cheylan, M., Pérez-Mellado, V., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B., Westerström, A. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries (e.g., Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
61741	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Ulrich Joger, Marc Cheylan, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in some range countries (e.g.. Switzerland). It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
61741	distribution	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, C., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Böhme, W., Nettmann, H.K., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Joger, U., Cheylan, M., Pérez-Mellado, V., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B., Westerström, A. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This extremely widespread species ranges from much of northern, western, central and eastern Europe, across most of northern Asia to China and Japan (Hokkaido Island). In Europe it occurs as scattered populations throughout Britain and Ireland, and through most of Scandinavia, the southern limit of its main distribution running through central France, southeastern Austria, northern Italy, along the Dinaric Alps (in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania), western Hungary , southern and central Romania, northern Moldova, and central Ukraine. Isolated populations occur in northern Spain and southwestern France, and also in Serbia, western Bulgaria and extreme northeastern and northwestern Macedonia. It can be found from sea level up to 2,900 m asl (Bulgaria).	eng
61741	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Ulrich Joger, Marc Cheylan, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This extremely widespread species ranges from much of northern, western, central and eastern Europe, across most of northern Asia to China and Japan (Hokkaido Island). In Europe it ranges as scattered populations throughout Britain and Ireland, and through most of Scandinavia, the southern limit of its main distribution running through central France, southeastern Austria, northern Italy, along the Dinaric Alps (in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania), western Hungary , southern and central Romania, northern Moldova, and central Ukraine. Isolated populations occur in northern Spain and southwestern France, and also in Serbia, western Bulgaria and extreme northeastern and northwestern Macedonia. It can be found from sea level up to 2,900m asl (Bulgaria).	eng
61741	habitat	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, C., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Böhme, W., Nettmann, H.K., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Joger, U., Cheylan, M., Pérez-Mellado, V., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B., Westerström, A. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including grassland, meadows, humid scrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, woodland edges, peat bogs, stream edges, coastal areas (sea cliffs and sand dunes) and rural gardens. <br/><br/>In most areas the female gives birth to between three and 11 fully formed young. In northern Spain, adjacent France, Austria, Italy and Slovenia, the female lays between one and 13 eggs in a single clutch. In the northern portion of the range and at high altitude it is viviparous, in the southern portion it is oviparous.	eng
61741	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Ulrich Joger, Marc Cheylan, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including grassland, meadows, humid scrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, woodland edges, peat bogs, stream edges, coastal areas (sea cliffs and sand dunes) and rural gardens. In most areas the female gives birth to between three and 11 fully formed young. In northern Spain, adjacent France, Austria, Italy and Slovenia, the female lays between one and 13 eggs in a single clutch. In the northern portion of the range and at high altitude it is viviparous, in the southern portion it is oviparous.	eng
61741	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Ulrich Joger, Marc Cheylan, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It can be a locally abundant species. Populations have locally declined in parts of its range (e.g., in the Netherlands) (Council of Europe, 2003). The lowland populations in Italy (Po plain) are almost extinct.	eng
61741	population	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, C., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Böhme, W., Nettmann, H.K., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Joger, U., Cheylan, M., Pérez-Mellado, V., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B., Westerström, A. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This can be a locally abundant species. Populations have locally declined in parts of its range (e.g., in the Netherlands) (Council of Europe 2003). The lowland populations in Italy (Po plain) are almost extinct.	eng
61741	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Ulrich Joger, Marc Cheylan, Valentin Pérez-Mellado, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Alexander Westerström, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification, urbanization and development of tourism facilities (for example in alpine regions). It is suspected that populations have declined in the UK (John Wilkinson, pers. comm.). Some populations of this species that could be specifically distinct might prove to be threatened. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
61741	threats	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, C., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Böhme, W., Nettmann, H.K., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Joger, U., Cheylan, M., Pérez-Mellado, V., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B., Westerström, A. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss resulting from agricultural intensification, urbanization and development of tourism facilities (for example in alpine regions). It is suspected that populations have declined in the U.K. (J. Wilkinson pers. comm.). Some populations of this species that could be specifically distinct might prove to be threatened. This species is categorized as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).	eng
61743	conservation	McDougall, P.T., Ploss, J. & Tuthill, J., 2006	There are currently a number of conservation actions underway on behalf of the pinto abalone. A summary of these initiatives is presented below, separated into initiatives underway in British Columbia, and those underway in the other regions of abalone distribution.  <br/> <br/><strong>Conservation Action in British Columbia</strong> <br/>The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) assessed the pinto abalone as a “threatened” species in 1999. All such designations in Canada require the drafting of a National Recovery Strategy (NRS), followed by the creation of a National Recovery Action Plan (NRAP) (SARA 2002). The recovery strategy was completed in 2002 (Toole <em>et al.</em> 2002), and the latest draft of the action plan was released in August 2003 (NRAP 2003). The NRAP set forth a number of initiatives grouped under four main categories: a proactive protection plan, a communications campaign, proposed research, and a population-rebuilding plan. The actions are aimed at protecting the remaining wild stock of pinto abalone, increasing public support, augmenting the wild population, conducting research, and monitoring the status of the pinto population. Support for the initiatives comes from federal, provincial, private sector, and community partnerships. <br/> <br/>The measures included under the proactive protection plan revolve around the challenge of curtailing illegal harvest; poaching represents one of the largest threats to the species. Efforts involved with increasing the enforcement of current laws include augmenting the number of fishery officers, adding a canine unit to improve detection of illegally harvested abalone at key locations such as ferries and airports, and developing methods for genetically sampling the commercially traded abalone (NRAP 2003). In addition, the NRAP calls for instituting a market analysis to determine the full extent of the illegal pinto abalone trade. Developing a “Coast Watch” program under the lead of First Nations and coastal communities is a further effort to improve monitoring efforts in more remote areas. <br/> <br/>The communications campaign is aimed at increasing public awareness of the decline of the pinto abalone, and the ongoing efforts to engineer its recovery. The NRAP called for the creation of a dedicated abalone home page to act as a clearinghouse for news and knowledge and the production of an anti-poaching poster (both completed as of 2004). Materials and education kits are intended for use in school education sessions, while a whole media relations campaign is designed to support the Coast Watch initiatives, and provide positive feedback for the enhanced enforcement actions (NRAP 2003). <br/> <br/>Research and population rebuilding efforts are closely related parts of the NRAP. The research portion involves feasibility studies aimed at determining the best methods for abalone rebuilding projects, the specifics of pinto abalone recruitment, the actual risks posed by disease as well as the best means of prevention and control, and many other aspects of the biology, physiology and ecology of the pinto abalone that remain unknown or uncertain (NRAP 2003). The population rebuilding efforts are directed at three fronts in British Columbia: the aggregation of reproductive-aged wild adult pinto abalone, the out-planting of hatchery-reared juvenile abalone, and the small scale enhancement of abalone habitat with the aim of improving survivability of juveniles. To date, aggregation experiments have been performed in several locations; however, the results of these studies have yet to be published. Two organizations, the Bamfield Huu-y-aht Community Abalone Project (BHCAP) and the Malcolm Island Shellfish Cooperative (MISC) have both begun rearing pinto abalone. The BHCAP performed Canada’s first out-planting in November of 2003, although to date, any results remain unpublished. MISC intended to perform out-plantings in November of 2003 as well, but the progress of the project remains unknown. <br/> <br/>Monitoring projects are a vital component of any rebuilding effort. Along with continuing to survey the index sites in the Queen Charlotte Islands and the central coast of British Columbia, new baseline sites are proposed in regions across the provincial coastline to determine the effects any and all rebuilding efforts in the future. <br/> <br/><strong>Conservation Action in the other regions</strong> <br/>In 1994, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife closed the pinto abalone fishery but did not initiate any conservation efforts. In 2004, the National Marine Fisheries Service listed the pinto abalone as a “Candidate Species” in the state of Washington for protection under the Endangered Species Act (NMFS 2004a). This designation, however, does not confer any procedural protections under the Endangered Species Act. <br/> <br/>In California, after a series of closures of the various targeted abalone fisheries (of which pinto abalone did not play a significant role), fisheries managers enforced a moratorium on the taking, possessing and landing of all abalone species for commercial or recreational purposes south of San Francisco (CDFG 2003). The same bill, AB 663, mandated the creation of an Abalone Recovery Management Plan (ARMP). Pinto abalone are included in the ARMP only indirectly, as they are insufficient in numbers to support any form of targeted management or harvest (CDFG 2003). The recovery plan calls for a 7-year timeline starting in 2003 for implemented various activities and programs that focus on research, assessment and enforcement of regulations (CDFG 2003) that are similar in focus to those outlined in the British Columbia management and recovery plan. <br/> <br/><strong>Analysis of Current Conservation Efforts and Suggestions for New Efforts</strong> <br/>Supplementation of abalone populations holds promise for accelerating the recovery of pinto abalone numbers. Reintroduction of hatchery-raised juveniles, however, has proved costly and ineffective in the past despite much effort and research (Davis <em>et al</em>. 1998, Tegner 2000). Additionally, there have been numerous examples of juvenile supplementation programs introducing pathogens into wild populations (reviewed in Tegner 2000). In consideration of these two issues, the current enthusiasm for hatchery-based supplementation in the British Columbian plan does not seem to be warranted. In contrast, experiments with transplantation of wild adult brood stock have had some success (Jamieson and Caddy 1986, Tegner 2000), and we recommend that resources be shifted towards this approach. <br/> <br/>In the interests of providing sustainable incomes to the areas most affected by the decline of the pinto abalone, and in the interests of mitigating the impact of poaching upon remaining wild stocks, economic development alternatives should be sponsored in targeted regions. This activity should also be partnered with initiatives to promote community stewardship of remaining wild abalone as the distributed nature of the stock necessitates local support for any rebuilding projects. For this reason, “Coast Watch” and other initiatives that raise stakeholder awareness and participation are a step in the right direction. <br/> <br/><strong>Future Research</strong> <br/>The collection of fisheries independent data for Alaska could provide a much clearer picture of the status of the pinto abalone. The creation of a number of index monitoring sites throughout the Alaskan range would provide a more realistic outlook of the abalone’s status than merely relying on the data available from British Columbia. Furthermore, index sites could provide information as to how the Alaskan abalone populations were coping with the stresses of sea otter expansion, and the overall recovery of the south central Alaskan coast after the crisis of the Exxon Valdez in 1990. <br/> <br/>Further investigations of stock-recruitment relationships are needed to identify a healthy and viable population composition as well as a better understanding of the specific pinto abalone age-length relationship. Many of these research topics, including research into the genetics of the pinto abalone are called for in the various recovery and management plans (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002, CDFG 2003, NRAP 2003). This information would be useful for scientists to estimate if a local cluster can sustain itself, and if not, to promote further action. This research would also aid fishery managers in setting reliable size quotas if the fishery re-opens. In addition, these studies could gather data about the ability of abalone to re-aggregate after exploitation. <br/> <br/>Finally, the capability of Withering Syndrome to infect and spread in pinto abalone populations requires further investigation. Pinto abalone culturing and adult transplantation projects would be efficient vectors to spread the disease into wild populations; such was the case in black abalone populations (Petrovic <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
61743	distribution	McDougall, P.T., Ploss, J. & Tuthill, J., 2006	Follow the link below for Figure 1: map of pinto abalone distribution. <br/> <br/>The range of the pinto abalone extends from Sitka Island, Alaska in the north (Geiger 2000, ABMAP 2003) to Turtle Bay, Baja California in the south (McLean 1966) (Figure 1). In central California, the form merges into the subspecies <em>H. kamtschatkana assimilis</em> (threaded abalone), which occupies the southern part of the range (Cox 1962, McLean 1966, Geiger 2000). The current assessment restricts the discussion to the pinto abalone due to the relative lack of overlap in abundance and to the anecdotally low presence of threaded abalone relative to other abalone species of the south (Cox 1962).	eng
61743	habitat	McDougall, P.T., Ploss, J. & Tuthill, J., 2006	Pinto abalone are sessile gastropods that exist in patchy distributions (Sloan and Breen 1988). Their preferred habitat is categorized as rocky-shore coastline. At its northern range limit, pinto abalone occur from the intertidal zone to at least 10–20 m depth (Cripps and Campbell 1998), although there are some reports of abalone found at 100 m. In its southern range limit, McLean (1966) described pinto abalone as strictly subtidal, but Cox (1962) claimed that large populations could be found in deeper waters. <br/> <br/>Pinto abalone are herbivores of the intertidal zone, and are prey to a diverse range of predators. Early pinto abalone diet consists of phytoplankton, but at 5 mm (SL) they switch to macro-algae that ranges from minute forms to giant bull kelp (Kawamura <em>et al</em>. 1998). Abalone predators differ depending on the water depth in which they occur. In subtidal waters, their predators include asteroids (<em>Pycnopodia</em> and <em>Astrometis</em>), crabs, fish (<em>Scorpaenichthys</em>, <em>Anarrhichthys</em>, <em>Myliobatis</em>, and <em>Semicossyphus</em>), octopi, and sea otters (<em>Enhydra lutris</em>) (Sloan and Breen 1988, Hobday and Tegner 2000). In intertidal waters, birds, sea otters, and mink are the major predators (Day and Shepherd 1995). The eradication of the sea otter during the 19<sup>th</sup> century led to the increased co-occurrence of sea urchins and abalone. Sea urchins out compete pinto abalone for food resources, which has resulted in "sea urchin barrens"—large areas with high sea urchin populations, no macroalgae and little or no abalone (Jamieson 2001). Nevertheless, sea urchins may provide some enhancement by maintaining encrusting coralline algae cover (Tegner and Levin 1982, McShane 1992) and by affording shelter under their spine canopy to small abalone (Tegner and Dayton 1987).	eng
61743	population	McDougall, P.T., Ploss, J. & Tuthill, J., 2006	Follow the link below for Tables 1 & 2, and Figures 2, 3 & 4. <br/> <br/>Alaska and British Columbia are the only two regions where targeted commercial fisheries for pinto abalone ever existed. Data from these area consist of catch totals and CPUE values for both regions as well as index site densities from the coast of British Columbia. The percentage of the global population of pinto abalone present in British Columbia and Alaska is not known (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002), however, NMFS (2004b) reported that the pinto distribution predominantly occurs in Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. Nevertheless, significant populations of pinto abalone are absent south of San Juan, Orcas and Lopez Islands in Washington State (B. Sizemore, Department of Fish and Game, Olympia, WA, pers. comm). Furthermore, Rogers-Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2002) reported that pinto abalone are very rare in Northern California, accounting for only <1% of the total abalone population in that region. Due to the scarcity of pinto abalone south of Washington, and since the reported densities in Washington were below the suggested minimum viable density for abalone recruitment in 1996 (Table 1), we made the assumption that Alaska and British Columbia represent the core of the species distribution. <br/> <br/>We estimated the generation time for pinto abalone at about 10 years. This estimate is potentially subjective due to the difficulties in aging and the uncertainties of the stock-recruitment relationships. Breen (1986) speculated that individual pinto abalone could live up to 50 years, but this was an estimate based on a single individual that measured 164 mm (SL). Growth curves suggest that the largest abalone live to be at least 13–15 years of age (Quayle 1971, Sloan and Breen 1988, Shepherd <em>et al</em>. 2000). Furthermore, due to the relationship of increased fecundity with increased size (see Campbell 1997), older abalone contribute more to the total reproductive output of the population than do younger abalone. Considering that reproductive age ranges from approximately 3–4 years old to 13–15 years old, we reached an estimate of 10 years of age for the purpose of this assessment. In order to satisfy the IUCN stipulation for declines observed “over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer” (IUCN 2001), this assessment would require data that extended back 30 years, to about 1974. This is approximately the time period that we used for the assessment, with some limitations due to the data. <br/> <br/><strong>Population in Alaska</strong> <br/>Alaskan fishery CPUE data for the pinto abalone extend back to 1971. A sharp initial increase in both catch as well as CPUE in the early seventies (Fig. 2) was likely an artifact of a developing fishery (Breen 1986). We therefore decided to consider the decline in CPUE from the peak in 1979 to the close of the fishery in 1996. We analyzed the CPUE values against calendar year using a linear regression. The slope of the regression line indicates an observed decline in CPUE of 89.7% between 1979 and 1996 (Table 2). <br/> <br/>The 89.7% decline in CPUE is the only measure of pinto abalone numbers in Alaska, since the region has no abalone index sites. Without index sites, and with the closure of the fishery in 1996, there is no way to determine the current status of Alaskan stocks of pinto abalone. We assume that the patterns in British Columbia reflect the post-closure Alaskan abalone populations as well. <br/> <br/><strong>Population in British Columbia</strong> <br/>There are two types of data from the British Columbia portion of the range: fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent. The fisheries-dependent data consist of catch and CPUE values that extending back to 1977. Complementing this are fisheries-independent data that consist of densities measured at survey sites throughout the central coast (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1998) and the southeast region of the Queen Charlotte Islands (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2000). Since the fisheries-independent data extend past the 1990 closure of the fishery, they provide a view of the current status of pinto abalone in British Columbia. <br/> <br/>The decline observed in the CPUE data from the British Columbian fishery is less steep that that observed in the Alaskan fishery (Fig. 3). The CPUE values were analyzed against calendar year using a linear regression (Table 2), which demonstrated a 41.4% decline in CPUE between 1977 and 1990. The difference in the percentage decline in CPUE between Alaska and British Columbia is likely a result of different approaches in fisheries management. The initial response to the 1977 expansion in the British Columbia abalone fishery was to establish a limited entry fishery, where managers sought to limited effort (Muse 1998). Limiting the entry, and thus the number of divers in the fishery, served to offset the decreasing catch totals. This reduced the observed decline in CPUE; the opposite of what occurred in the Alaskan fishery where the rapid increase in diver participation in the early 1990s accelerated the decline in CPUE. <br/> <br/>The site index surveys in the southeast Queen Charlotte Islands and in the central coast region demonstrate a much steeper decline in population numbers than do the CPUE data. There was an 88.6% decline between the 1979–80 density of 2.37 abalone/m² and the 2001 density of 0.27 abalone/m² in the central coast of British Columbia (Fig. 4, panel A). Furthermore, there was an 85.5% decline between the 1978 density of 2.75 abalone/m² and the average density of 0.40 abalone/m² in 1990, 1994, 1998, and 2002 in the Queen Charlotte Islands (Fig. 4, panel B). We averaged the densities in the last four surveys of the Queen Charlotte Islands because they represent an apparent levelling out of the decline. There has been no significant increase or decrease in densities observed in that area since the closing of the fishery in 1990 (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The Queen Charlotte Islands index sites are considered accurate estimates of density levels in that region of the pinto abalone distribution. Campbell <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported no significant difference between the density recorded at index sites (0.49 abalone/m²) and the density recorded at other random sites (0.54 abalone/m²) in 1998. Furthermore, these density values are comparable to densities observed in other regions of British Columbia. In a study on Dallain Point and Higgins Pass (central coast of British Columbia), total densities were observed at 0.43 and 0.52 abalone/m², respectively (Cripps and Campbell 1998). Similarly, a survey of abalone populations at Stryker Island, Tribal Group Islands and Simonds Group Islands (also within the central coast of British Columbia) reported densities of 0.71, 0.55 and 0.59 abalone/m², respectively (Campbell and Cripps 1998). Although there are no data that allow for a temporal comparison, the general similarities in observed densities reinforce the findings from the two major studies charting the abalone decline. <br/> <br/>It is important to note that although the above declines are steepest prior to the close of the fishery, and that the index sites indicate very little change over the past decade, there is a great deal of uncertainty involved. So much of pinto abalone biology remains unknown, and despite a number of possible suspects, the reason for the lack of recovery remains a mystery. With densities dangerously close to suggested recruitment thresholds, it is quite possible that the decline, although lessened by the closure of the fishery, may not be recoverable. <br/> <br/><strong>CPUE versus Site Index Densities</strong> <br/>Abalone are vulnerable to serial depletion because they are sessile invertebrates with a moderate ability to aggregate (McShane 1998, Karpov <em>et al</em>. 2000). This characteristic of abalone ecology results in a potential bias when using CPUE data to demonstrate trends in abundance (McShane 1998). CPUE can remain relatively steady despite declining abundance. Due to this bias, the decline in CPUE observed in the Alaskan fishery is possibly an underestimate of the actual drop in abalone numbers—although management decision to leave effort in the fishery unrestricted certainly contributed to increasing the slope of declining CPUE. On the other hand, British Columbian managers successfully limited entry into the latter portion of the fishery, which possibly resulted in the slower observed decline in CPUE. Nonetheless, the British Columbia fishery CPUE trend is also likely an underestimate of the actual decline due to the same bias from harvesting techniques. With the uncertainty attached to both CPUE measures, the best estimate is likely to be the most direct measure available. Since the index sites in British Columbia are direct measurements of abalone density, they likely offer the clearest view of pinto abalone numbers. This view is of a species reduced to dangerously low levels, although levels that appear to be sufficient for persistence given the current conditions.	eng
61743	threats	McDougall, P.T., Ploss, J. & Tuthill, J., 2006	Follow the link below for figure 5. <br/> <br/><strong>Human Exploitation</strong> <br/>Poaching of pinto abalone is a lucrative enterprise and is likely placing continued stress on the remaining abalone populations (Campbell 1997, Muse 1998, Wallace 1999, Jamieson 2001). This is unsurprising given that the value per diver hour in the British Columbia fishery was over CAD 600 prior to its closure, and continued upwards due to an ever-expanding market demand in Asia (Muse 1998). Wallace (1999) reported that pinto abalone meat could fetch up to CAD 100/kg on the black market in southern British Columbia. Furthermore, recreational divers and First Nations harvesters may also be responsible for a significant amount of illegal abalone collection (Tegner 2000). The combination of this high black-market value and the enforcement problems resulting from a large and uninhabited coastline suggest a major threat to abalone recovery (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>In support of the aforementioned threats, sample data on the size distribution of a seizure of more than 6,700 pinto abalone in British Columbia suggests that poachers are collecting mature abalone with no regard for the legal size limit (Campbell 2000). So in effect, poachers are taking everything that they can find. Maintaining a viable density of reproductive individuals is crucial for recruitment levels and for the survivability of the stock. Extensive poaching effort risks extirpating abalone from local areas, thereby jeopardizing the recovery of the entire population. <br/> <br/>Illegal harvest of pinto abalone is likely to continue to pose a threat to the recovery of the species. The large and mostly uninhabited coastline is a serious hindrance to enforcement efforts (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Furthermore, the extraordinarily high unit value of pinto abalone makes poaching a very lucrative enterprise (Campbell 2000). The removal of large numbers of mature individuals drastically threatens the reproductive potential of an already depressed population (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Poachers also represent a major concern to the establishment of protected areas and no-take zones. Such areas are easily flagged as targets for illegal exploitation, which compromises their value as refugia (Tegner 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Recruitment failure</strong> <br/>There is both empirical and theoretical evidence to suggest that abalone are susceptible to recruitment failure at reduced densities (Prince <em>et al</em>. 1988, Shepherd and Partington 1995, Woodby <em>et al</em>. 2000, Jamieson 2001). Shepherd and Partington (1995) reported a minimum recruitment density of 0.15 recruits/m², which renders the population highly susceptible to recruitment over-fishing. Furthermore, there is considerable intra- and inter-annual variation in recruitment and in the production of gametes in individuals (McShane 1998). Reproductive success is also dependent upon the distance between spawners, the number of eggs and sperm released, the speed of water currents as well as other factors (Babcock and Keesing 1999). Because harvesters of abalone tended and still tend to remove all available individuals from each site that they visit, it is expected that the resulting smaller local populations have been, and are currently, at risk of experiencing recruitment failure. <br/> <br/><strong>Predation by Sea Otters</strong> <br/>Sea otters are effective predators of abalone (Wendell 1994, Watson 2000). They currently overlap with pinto abalone in only the northernmost reaches of the pinto distribution (Fig. 5, panel B) (Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Due to this partial overlap, it is doubtful that sea otters are responsible for the observed decline in abalone populations over the last few decades. Nevertheless, sea otter numbers are increasing as a result of strong conservation efforts (Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Where pinto abalone and sea otters coexist, sea otters are thought to consume abalone in significant numbers (Watson 2000). A study investigating the impact of sea otters on <em>H. rufescens</em> (red abalone) in California reported that the effects of predators on abalone abundance were greater than the effects of recreational harvesting (Fanshawe <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The range of the sea otter historically encompassed the entire range of the pinto abalone (Fig. 5, panel A). Over-exploitation throughout the Western Pacific rim at the end of the 18<sup>th</sup> century led to the extirpation of the sea otter in British Columbia, Washington, most of California, and much of Alaska (Wendell 1994, Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). Following translocations in California, and reintroductions in the 1970s in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Southeast Alaska, the sea otter is rapidly re-establishing itself (Fig. 5, panel B) (Watson 2000, Estes <em>et al</em>. 2001). This expansion will likely result in a decrease in pinto abalone populations (Watson 2000). In one location along the California coast, the reintroduction of sea otters to the region resulted in a 93% decline in local red abalone populations (Wendell 1994). Another study reported sea otter predation on red abalone had a larger effect on abalone densities than did recreational harvesting (Fanshawe <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>Habitat and Ecological Shifts</strong> <br/>With the localized nature of the abalone stock recruitment relations, pinto populations are very susceptible to development and habitat destruction (Toole <em>et al</em>. 2002). Furthermore, ecological shifts due to increased urchin densities may also play a factor in current pinto abalone recovery. Abalone growth may be restricted by the presence of sea urchins when food supplies are limited (Tegner and Levin 1982). Researchers in British Columbia monitoring the decline of pinto abalone at index sites, however, have not indicated that urchins are an immediate threat (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1998, Cripps and Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/><strong>Disease</strong> <br/>The large and continuing decline of <em>H. cracherodii</em> (black abalone) in California (Petrovic <em>et al</em>. 2001) is partly a result of Withering Syndrome, and has raised concerns that other species of abalone may also be in danger from contagious pathogens. Laboratory studies of the bacterium responsible for Withering Syndrome, <em>Candidatus xenohaliotis californiensis</em>, indicate that it is capable of infecting other species of abalone (Lafferty and Kuris 1993). Furthermore, the bacterium could be viable in the cooler waters found in Washington and British Columbia (Lafferty and Kuris 1993), especially with the potential for rising sea temperatures due to global warming. Nonetheless, it is important to note that to date there have been no recorded instances of Withering Syndrome in pinto abalone. Furthermore, Tegner (2000) implicated abalone culturing enterprises in the spread of pathogens in some cases. The potential for acting as a vector warrants attention in the event that pinto abalone transplantations are attempted in the core distribution.	eng
61745	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, though one has been recommended for Tchabal Mbabo.    More information is needed on this species'&#160; population status and natural history.	eng
61745	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the southern slopes of Mount Tchabal Mbabo at 1,700-2,100m asl on the Adamawa Plateau in western Cameroon. It is unlikely to occur on the northern slopes, at least not at the altitude of the type locality, because the forest habitat on the northern slopes at this altitude is very different from the gallery forest on the southern slopes.	eng
61745	habitat		It lives in montane gallery forest, and is associated with streams, in which it presumably breeds by larval development. Individuals have been found under large stones around shallow pools adjacent to a creek. They were calling at night during the dry season.	eng
61745	population		There is little information, although it is likely to be common within its small range, since 73 specimens were collected close together, suggesting a high concentration of animals.	eng
61745	threats		The remaining forest habitat on Tchabal Mbabo is now confined to galleries and steep inaccessible slopes, as a result of the clearing of forest for pasture. However, much of the forested habitat that can be easily removed has now been cleared. The forest is also threatened by fire.	eng
61746	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61746	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 1,300-1,600m asl on Pico Caratuva, in Campina Grande do Sul Municipality, Paraná State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.	eng
61746	habitat		This species is found in thick leaf-litter in Atlantic forest. It is active by day, and has been observed from November to April (though it is active mainly from December to February). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61746	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
61746	threats		This species is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation that the Atlantic forest has been subject to due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61747	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61747	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at around 1,300m asl on Pico Torre da Prata, between the municipalities of Guaratuba and Paranaguá in Paraná State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution are not yet known.	eng
61747	habitat		This species is found in thick leaf-litter in Atlantic forest, where it is active by day, with the males calling from exposed positions in the leaf-litter. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61747	population		It is locally abundant.	eng
61747	threats		This species is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation that the Atlantic forest has been subject to due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61748	conservation		The species is known from some protected areas (Flavio Baldissera in litt. 2005).	eng
61748	distribution		This species is found at altitudes of less than 1,000 m in the southern Atlantic Forest of Brazil; through eastern Santa Catarina and Paraná States, to northern Rio Grande do Sul State.	eng
61748	habitat		This species is restricted to lowland Atlantic Forest. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
61748	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61748	threats		The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.	eng
61749	conservation		The only known localities for this species are within the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba, and Parque Nacional Madidi.	eng
61749	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 2,820m asl, at Laitique on the banks of the river Pelechuco, around five hours walk downstream from the village of Pelechuco towards Apolo, in Franz Tamayo Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia. It is also likely to occur in other areas of the Cordillera de Apolobamba, including nearby Peru.	eng
61749	habitat		It is known from a steep area in the upper reaches of the cloud forest. Active individuals were found during the day and night on the forest floor and paths. This species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61749	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61749	threats		It is threatened by heavy subsistence agriculture, cattle grazing, and timber collection for house construction and firewood, which has reduced much nearby habitat to secondary forest.	eng
61750	conservation		The species is known from Corcovado, Braulio Carrillo, and Carara National Parks in Costa Rica.	eng
61750	distribution		This species is known from 25-500m asl in far north-western Panama and western Costa Rica, from the Golfo Dulce area, north to the Rio Baru near Dominical.	eng
61750	habitat		Adults seem to be restricted to forested habitats from tree plantations to primary forest, but reproduction can occur in highly degraded habitats (Federico Bolaños pers. comm.). They breed in streams and rivers during the dry season (Mid-December to March), being uncommon but still reproductive at the end of the dry period (April) (Savage 2002; O'Neill and Mendelson 2004; Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). The breeding stream requirements appear to be a wide, low-gradient, gravel or rocky stream with small isolated pools with sun exposure.	eng
61750	population		It is a very abundant species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm. 2007).	eng
61750	threats		There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.)	eng
61751	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in the lower reaches of the Omilterne Reserve. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further research is required to investigate the potential threat posed by chytridiomycosis.	eng
61751	distribution		This species occurs in a relatively narrow altitudinal band around 750-1,000m asl on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and Oaxaca states, Mexico. Most specimens have been collected around the private hacienda of Agua del Obispo, along the old highway between Tierra Colorada and Chilpancingo, Guerrero. One other series is known from Putla de Guerrero, about 150km east on the same slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Oaxaca. The distribution is presumed to be continuous between these two localities at mid elevations, and might well continue further east or west as this region is undersampled for amphibians.	eng
61751	habitat		This species is known from the ecotone of scattered small pines and brush between lower altitude tropical deciduous forest and higher altitude pine-oak forest. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61751	population		Field notes and collections by E.H. Taylor, H.M. Smith, and W.E. Duellman in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s indicate that this species was common in the Agua del Obispo area. Approximately five weeks of fieldwork there during 2000 and 2003 resulted in the discovery of just a single individual, indicating a probable serious decline.	eng
61751	threats		Although this species is believed to be tolerant of some degree of habitat alteration, such as selective logging, large-scale agricultural clearance and agrochemicals are likely to cause significant impacts. There is no direct evidence that chytridiomycosis is a threat to this species, but chytrid is known from this locality (Lips <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the drastic population decline is consistent with such an impact.	eng
61752	conservation		The species is known from some protected areas (F. Baldissera in litt. 2005).	eng
61752	distribution		This species is found at altitudes of under 1,000 m in the southern Atlantic Forest of Brazil; in Rio Grande do Sul State and southern Santa Catarina State, north to the west side of the Serra Geral mountains.	eng
61752	habitat		This species is restricted to the Atlantic Forest. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
61752	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61752	threats		The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.	eng
61753	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61753	distribution		This species is known from 2,600-3,000m asl in Paucartambo de Pasco Valley in Pasco Department, in the Cordillera Oriental of central Peru. The limits of its distributional range are unknown.	eng
61753	habitat		This species is known from cloud forests, and it is presumed to have a larval development breeding strategy.	eng
61753	population		No information is currently available on its population status.	eng
61753	threats		The main threats to it are intensive agriculture and uncontrolled deforestation.	eng
61754	conservation	Flavio Baldissera, 2008	This species is known in Brazil from Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos, Tinguá and Poço das Antas Biological Reserves, Reserva Florestal de Morro Grande and Parque Estadual do Desengano, and possibly Iguazú National Park in Argentina.	eng
61754	distribution	Flavio Baldissera, 2008	This species is found in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil; from southern Espírito Santo State, through Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States, to northern Paraná State. It is also possibly found in northeast Argentina, in Misiones and Corrientes Provinces. It can be found from sea level to close to 1,000m asl.	eng
61754	habitat	Flavio Baldissera, 2008	This species is restricted to lowland Atlantic Forest. Reproduction involves eggs and exotrophic tadpoles in lentic water (Abrunhosa et al., 2006). It is found near and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
61754	population	Flavio Baldissera, 2008	It is the most abundantly collected species in Reserva Biológica do Morro Grande (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).	eng
61754	threats	Flavio Baldissera, 2008	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.	eng
61755	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61755	distribution		This species is known only from around 335m asl in Tepalcatepec Valley (the western extension of the Balsas Basin) in Michoacán State, Mexico. However, although it does not occur along the Michoacán coast, it is likely to be widespread in the Balsas Basin (Duellman 1961; Mendelson <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
61755	habitat		It is known from grassy areas with areas of mesquite shrub, numerous reddish rocks and barren areas. Breeding choruses were noted in muddy ditches and flooded grass fields after heavy rains in June and August (Duellman 1961). This species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61755	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
61755	threats		Although it is believed likely to be quite tolerant of disturbance such as cattle ranching, severe habitat alteration and agricultural chemicals could be detrimental to it.	eng
61756	conservation	Flavio Baldisseri, 2008	This species is known from Caparaó National Park, Peti Biological Reserve and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Santuário do Caraça.	eng
61756	distribution	Flavio Baldisseri, 2008	This species is known only from c. 700-1,500 m altitude Minas Gerais State in eastern Brazil, from the Atlantic Forest west to areas of transition with the Cerrado.	eng
61756	habitat	Flavio Baldisseri, 2008	This species is restricted to the Atlantic Forest and areas of transition between this and Cerrado habitats. It presumably reproduces by larval development in backwaters of streams and in temporary pools. The species is believed to be fairly tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
61756	population	Flavio Baldisseri, 2008	No information is currently available.	eng
61756	threats	Flavio Baldisseri, 2008	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Clearance of forest for coastal development is another threat within the range of this species.	eng
61757	conservation		It is known from at least one protected area: Parque Nacional La Tigra.	eng
61757	distribution		This species is known from at least 1,584-2,100m asl in the Montañas de Comayagua region in the departments of Comayagua, Francisco Morazán, and La Paz, in Honduras. Accurate knowledge of the range is hindered by the close resemblance of this species to <em>Bufo ibarrai</em>.	eng
61757	habitat		The habitat within the range of this species is moist forest.	eng
61757	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
61757	threats		It is likely to be a candidate for impacts from chytridiomycosis and habitat loss (given the drastic declines of the presumed sister species, <em>B. ibarrai</em>, in Guatemala).	eng
61758	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61758	distribution		This species occurs along the Pacific Coast of Panama; in the vicinity of the city of David, and then from the Province of Veraguas eastward towards the Canal Zone.	eng
61758	habitat		The areas that this species is found in correspond to the tropical dry forests of the Pacific coast of Panama. Males have been found calling in a weedy, shallow, muddy roadside pool. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61758	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61758	threats		Although the species is believed likely to be quite tolerant of disturbance such as cattle ranching, severe habitat alteration and agricultural chemicals could be detrimental.	eng
61759	conservation		It is known from Parque Provincial Fachinal and the Reserva Privada Puerto San Juan.	eng
61759	distribution		This species is known from five localities in the south of Misiones Province, Argentina, at around 165m asl. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61759	habitat		This diurnal species is found in wet grasslands with rush communities, and in scattered forests. Breeding occurs from March to May, and August to September, in small, shallow, temporary streams running over basaltic beds. Egg masses are attached to submerged rocks or vegetation in the streams.	eng
61759	population		No information is available on its population status.	eng
61759	threats		No information is available on threats that it faces.	eng
61760	conservation		On the Brazilian side, the tepui it was found on is protected within Parque Nacional de Monte Roraima.	eng
61760	distribution		This species is known from one specimen collected at 2,280m asl on Wei-Assipu tepui, Sima de los Guácharos, on the Guyana-Brazil border.	eng
61760	habitat		It was found on moss in a wet forest at the bottom of a large chasm. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61760	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
61760	threats		There are no known threats to this species, as a result of its remote location.	eng
61761	conservation		Mount Iboundji has been proposed as a Biodiversity Sanctuary, due to its botanical and herpetological values, but no protection status has been granted to date.	eng
61761	distribution		This species is known only from two specimens from the type locality at 560m asl on the east flank of Mount Iboundji, Massif du Chaillu, Offoué-Onoy Department, Ogooué-Lolo Province, Gabon. Searches at a second waterfall on Mount Iboundji and at many other waterfalls in Gabon, revealed no further records of this species. However, it is possible that it occurs at other waterfalls, particularly in the Chaillu Massif, although it must be localized.	eng
61761	habitat		This species is known only from among rocks at the edge of a plunge pool at the base of a large waterfall in lowland forest. It is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61761	population		Unlike most congeners, which are often locally very abundant, this species appears to be very rare; only two individuals could be located in 20 person-hours of searching.	eng
61761	threats		The main threat to the species is logging, which is ongoing, but has not yet reached the waterfall basin where the species occurs. Even if logging occurs nearby, it is likely to modify temperature, humidity, and available food, and so have serious consequences for this species which, like its congeners, is dependent on high humidity.	eng
61762	conservation		An ecotourism project has been established at Mount Kupe for some time, and aims to reduce hunting and agricultural expansion. In addition, a Strict Nature Reserve (Réserve Écologique Intégrale) has been proposed for the area. A management plan has been in preparation with the aim of designating most of the Bakossi Mountains as Protection Forest (55,000ha).	eng
61762	distribution		This species is known from Nyasoso on the south-west side of Mount Kupe at 910m asl, and from 800-1,200m asl in the Bakossi Mountains (including the Mwendelengo Mountains), Cameroon. A specimen collected in the vicinity of Nkongsamba (Maholé, 10km north-west of Tombel, Bakossi Forest Reserve, at 300-350m asl), may also belong to this species, as may specimens from Mofako in the Rumpi Hills. However, it is not believed likely to occur much more widely, given its specific habitat preferences and lack of habitat in the general area.	eng
61762	habitat		On Mount Kupe, this species was found in a transition zone between good quality secondary forest and undisturbed primary forest. The species has been found during the day along a stream, under rocks in a partly dried-up river basin, and on stony ground between wet, very low vegetation in the spray zone of a small, artificial waterfall. It is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61762	population		This species is often locally abundant.	eng
61762	threats		The habitat of this species is being steadily deforested for cultivation (particularly since human populations in the area are growing quickly) and several logging companies hope to start large-scale logging operations soon in the Bakossi/Mwendelengo Mountains. Even if deforestation does not eliminate the habitat of this species, it is likely to significantly alter temperature, humidity, and available food, and so have serious consequences for this species which, like its congeners, is dependent on high humidity. Near Nyassosso, the household use of detergents in rivers is also a potential threat.	eng
61763	conservation		The sole known locality for this species is within a protected area: Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado.	eng
61763	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 300m asl at the north-east base of the Serranía de Huanchaca, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, in Velasco Province, Santa Cruz State, Bolivia. It might occur more widely, and it probably also occurs in adjacent Brazil.	eng
61763	habitat		This frog probably requires pristine aquatic habitats and closed-canopy, primary rainforest. Individuals have been found perched on vegetation along a sandy stream bed, which was seasonally reduced to pools. It is presumed to be a stream breeder with fossorial larvae.	eng
61763	population		This species appears to be rare, as numerous subsequent visits failed to find any individuals after its original description.	eng
61763	threats		The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
61764	conservation	Guayasamin, J., 2006	This species is known to occur within the 2,500 ha Reserva Biológica Bilsa, managed by Fundación Jatun Sacha, which, in turn, is located within the Mache Chindul Ecological Reserve, and also within Canandé Biological Reserve.	eng
61764	distribution	Guayasamin, J., 2006	The species is known from the Cordillera Mache-Chindul, and is endemic to the seasonal evergreen forest of the West Ecuadorian Region, Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It is found from 100-510 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
61764	habitat	Guayasamin, J., 2006	It is known from seasonal evergreen foothill forest, and individuals have been found at night on vegetation 1-1.6 m above the ground near streams in primary and old secondary forests. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61764	population	Guayasamin, J., 2006	It appears to be rare, although this may be due to the fact that the species generally inhabits the forest canopy and may be hard to locate.	eng
61764	threats	Guayasamin, J., 2006	The Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve represents the last sizeable block of forest in the northern coastal hills of northwestern Ecuador. Unfortunately, the area is under significant pressure from logging.	eng
61765	conservation		This species is known from Henri Pittier, Yacambú, San Esteban, and Morrocoy National Parks, and might occur in others.	eng
61765	distribution		This species is known from 150-1,700 m altitude in the Coastal Cordillera in Aragua and Carabobo States, the northern portion of the Cordillera de Mérida (Lara State), and the east coast of Falcon State, northwestern Venezuela.	eng
61765	habitat		The species is found in lowland to lower montane humid forest, usually very near rivers and streams where it breeds. The reproductive season probably corresponds to the beginning of the rainy season (locally usually from May to June). The species' diet seems to comprise solely arthropods.	eng
61765	population		The species is common in riverine forest but rare in semi-deciduous forest.	eng
61765	threats		The main threat in the Cordillera de Mérida is deforestation for small-scale agriculture, including coffee. This is also a threat lower down (though including cacao, rather than coffee), and in both cases pesticide pollution is increasingly exacerbating habitat degradation. Near coastal parts of its range, threats come more from fire and substantial uncontrolled tourist development in and near protected areas.	eng
61766	conservation		Its known range is protected as all Venezuelan tepuis are designated as national monument protected areas.	eng
61766	distribution		This species is known from 350-685m asl on the slopes and summit of Cerro Santa Rosa, in the Serranía del Supamo, Bolívar State, Venezuela.	eng
61766	habitat		It is known from tall evergeen forest, where it occurs both in forest floor litter along creeks and at quiet pools along small streams. It has only been found in streams that do not have large fish, and that originate from the summit of Cerro Santa Rosa. It is presumed to be a larval developing species.	eng
61766	population		There is no information currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61766	threats		No information is currently available regarding its major threats.	eng
61767	conservation		It is not currently known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61767	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 150-200m asl at the base of Cerro Sipapo, on the banks of Tobogán del Cuao, Amazonas State, Venezuela. The limits to its range remain unknown.	eng
61767	habitat		This diurnal species is known from medium to tall evergreen forest, where individuals were found on large rocks on the bank of a stream. Larvae were collected from the back of a male, and from a small pool beside a stream.	eng
61767	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61767	threats		No information is currently available regarding threats to this species.	eng
61768	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61768	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality, around 5km west of Porto Walter on the Rio Juruá, Acre State, Brazil. The limits of its range remain unknown.	eng
61768	habitat		It is known from primary lowland forest, often in treefall gaps, where individuals were found on logs 5-70cm above the ground, and also in wood shavings on the ground. One was also located resting on a leaf at night. Larvae were found in a pool formed in the trunk of a large fallen tree, and also being transported on the back of an adult male.	eng
61768	population		This species is not common.	eng
61768	threats		This species was presumably greatly impacted by the conversion of the area from which the species was found into cattle pasture.	eng
61769	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
61769	distribution		This species is known only from a single specimen, collected at around 7m asl near Rockstone along the Essequibo River, upper Demerara-Berbice (formerly Mazaruni Potaro) District, Guyana. There does not appear to be any reason why this species should not occur more widely, but apparently the species has not been searched for since the original specimen was collected.	eng
61769	habitat		The habitat around the type locality is flooded riparian tall evergreen forest, and this species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61769	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
61769	threats		There are no known threats to this species.	eng
61770	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas, and improved habitat protection is clearly needed.	eng
61770	distribution		This species is known from sea level to 300m asl along the coasts of north-eastern São Paulo and south-western Rio de Janeiro States, south-east Brazil.	eng
61770	habitat		This species occurs near very straight, flowing streams inside lowland Atlantic forest. During the day, adults can be found in bromeliads in high trees or in coiled leaves of Musaceae and Marantaceae vegetation. Males call at night from similar locations, and bushes or banana trees. Breeding is concentrated from August to January. The larvae are lotic-benthic, hiding between stones and pebbles on the sandy substrate of narrow canopied forest streams.	eng
61770	population		No information is currently available on its population status.	eng
61770	threats		The Atlantic forest in which this species occurs has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Forest is increasingly being cleared for coastal development projects.	eng
61771	conservation		This species has not been confirmed from any protected areas.	eng
61771	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 510m asl at Campo de Fruticultura da Bocaina, São José do Barreiro Municipality, in the Serro do Mar of São Paulo State, Brazil. It is believed that it might also occur through the Serra do Mar range from Rio de Janeiro almost to Santa Catarina State.	eng
61771	habitat		It presumably occurs in montane forest and is thought to be a larval developing species. However, it has only been described from preserved specimens, so there is no direct information available regarding its habitat and ecology.	eng
61771	population		This species does not appear to be rare.	eng
61771	threats		This species is thought to be threatened due to changing land use practices in the Atlantic forest where it occurs. This region has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale forest clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61772	conservation		This species is known from Parque Municipal Pico do Goiapaba-Açu in Espíritu Santo, and Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Mata do Sossego and Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, Minas Gerais. It is likely to also occur in a number of other protected areas.	eng
61772	distribution		This species is known from 655-850 m altitude and higher in the northern sector of the Serra da Mantiqueira range in Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais States, south-east Brazil. It is ecologically separated from other members of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyla circumdata</span> group by surrounding low-lying rift valleys.	eng
61772	habitat		This species is known from the Atlantic Forest, with individuals most often found near streams, at least sometimes perching at up to 1.8 m above the ground. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61772	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61772	threats		The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. The habitat within the range of this species is likely not severely fragmented yet.	eng
61773	conservation		The type locality is in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, a state protected area.	eng
61773	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 1,180m asl on the Serra do Ibitipoca, in Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca, Conceição do Ibitipoca, Lima Duarte Municipality, in the southern part of the Serra da Mantiqueira in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. It is not clear whether or not it occurs more widely in Minas Gerais and Espíritu Santo States.	eng
61773	habitat		This species occurs in gallery forests along creeks surrounded by rocky mountain fields. Individuals were most often found on bushes along the creeks, perched 20-200cm above the ground. Larvae were observed to be nocturnal, and were found in creeks with rocky bottoms and riffles and pools in gallery forest.	eng
61773	population		It is quite common at the type locality.	eng
61773	threats		This species is threatened by substantial deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest in which it is found. This has arisen due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and for crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. The habitat within the likely range of this species is severely fragmented.	eng
61774	conservation		This species is not known from any protected area, but probably occurs in Parque Nacional Madidi at least.	eng
61774	distribution		This species is known only from two localities at 550-800 m altitude close to the village of Sapecho on the eastern edge of the Andes in La Paz Departament, Bolivia. It is likely that the species is distributed more widely within the South-West Amazonian ecoregion, and might thus also occur in adjacent Peru.	eng
61774	habitat		This species is known from sub-Andean rainforest. Males were found calling from coffee plants as well as bushes at forest edges and within larger clearings, and the species seems very tolerant to habitat disturbance. The species is presumed to be a larval developer, and to breed in small permanent ponds.	eng
61774	population		At least in some localities, this species is very common during the rainy season.	eng
61774	threats		Much forest in the vicinity of the type locality is being cleared for agriculture. However, as noted above, the species appears to be very tolerant to habitat degradation.	eng
61775	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61775	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 1,200m asl in the Poços de Caldas region of Minas Gerais State, eastern Brazil.	eng
61775	habitat		It is known from montane Atlantic forest. It is presumed to be a larval developer, and to use streams for breeding.	eng
61775	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61775	threats		Its habitat in the Atlantic forest in which it occurs is threatened by substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61776	conservation		It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61776	distribution		This species is found in Córdoba and San Luis Provinces, in the highlands of central Argentina.	eng
61776	habitat		There is very little information on its habitat requirements or ecology, although it is presumed to be a larval developing species.	eng
61776	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
61776	threats		There is no direct information on the threats to this species.	eng
61777	conservation	Simon Stuart, 2008	This species' type locality is in the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Frei Caneca, a private forest reserve managed by the sugarcane farm and distillation plant Usina Frei Caneca. Given the presence of the chytrid fungus, long-term monitoring of this population is desirable, as are surveys for other populations.	eng
61777	distribution	Simon Stuart, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, at 700m asl in the Serra do Quengo in Jaqueira Municipality, Pernambuco State, north-east Brazil. However, surveys in Pernambuco have been limited to date and this species might occur more widely.	eng
61777	habitat	Simon Stuart, 2008	The type locality of this species is in forest near a small, shallow stream that is about 1m wide and 0.5m deep. Individuals were found on branches 0.5-1m above the ground. Larvae were found in slow-moving parts of the same stream, and a spherical mass of around 30 eggs was found attached to a fallen plant stem under the water.	eng
61777	population	Simon Stuart, 2008	No information on its population status is currently available.	eng
61777	threats	Simon Stuart, 2008	It is not known whether or not this species is impacted by habitat loss. However, most of the larvae collected exhibited oral disk abnormalities, which have been associated with chytrid fungus infection in some stream-dwelling amphibian species. The species in fact tested positive for <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> (Carnaval et al., 2006).	eng
61778	conservation		One of the two locations from which this species is known is inside Parque Nacional do Itatiaia.	eng
61778	distribution		This species is known from two localities in Minas Gerais State in eastern Brazil: from the vicinity of Itatiaia National Park in the Serra da Mantiqueira at around 2,160m asl, and from Marmelópolis Municipality at around 1,200m asl.	eng
61778	habitat		It is known from montane Atlantic forest, where it is presumed to be a larval developing species, and to use streams for breeding.	eng
61778	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61778	threats		It is threatened by the substantial deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest in which it occurs. This has arisen due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61779	conservation		This species is known from a number of protected areas, including Parque Nacional Descobrimento, Parque Estadual Serra do Conduru, Reserva Biológica de Sooretama, Reserva Biológica de Una, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) Ecoparque de Una, RPPN Estação Veracruz, and Reserva Sapiranga.	eng
61779	distribution		This species occurs at c. 142 m altitude along the eastern Brazilian coast, from northern Espírito Santo and northeastern Minas Gerais through eastern Bahia to southern Sergipe States.	eng
61779	habitat		This species is known from primary and secondary forest, including forest borders, gallery forest and even some open habitats, within the Atlantic Forest, and appears able to tolerate a degree of habitat degradation. Individuals are usually found on vegetation around temporary ponds or stream pools. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61779	population		This species is common within its range.	eng
61779	threats		The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61780	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61780	distribution		This species is known from La Rioja and Catamarca Provinces in north-west Argentina.	eng
61780	habitat		It is presumed to be a larval developer and to breed in water, but there is very little other information on its habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
61780	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61780	threats		There is no information currently available concerning the threats to this species.	eng
61781	conservation		It has not yet been recorded from any protected areas, however there are protected areas to the west of the species' current known range which it might occur in.	eng
61781	distribution		This species is widespread in the Gulf and Western Provinces of Papua New Guinea between the Purari and the Fly rivers, and including Daru Island, off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea. It is found from sea level up to 1,100m asl. Its range might extend further to the west and east, but this requires confirmation.	eng
61781	habitat		Some specimens collected from mainland New Guinea were found in a sago swamp. Specimens on Daru Island were found calling beside roadside ditches on the outskirts of town suggesting that it might be able to tolerate significant levels of habitat disturbance. It is a pond-breeding species with larval development. Further information is needed regards the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
61781	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
61781	threats		There are no known threats to the species at present.	eng
61782	conservation		Much of the species' range falls within the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area, and it is also found in Cape Tribulation National Park. Further work is needed to sustainably manage rainforest habitats outside this World Heritage Area.	eng
61782	distribution		This species is found on the east coast of Australia in north-east Queensland, from the Barron River drainage and river drainages flowing east from the Atherton Tablelands, south to the Murray River (around 20km south of Tully), and from an apparently isolated population in the Broken River catchment.	eng
61782	habitat		It is restricted to rainforest where it usually occurs near streams, and it appears to construct water-filled basins for oviposition (Richards and Alford 1992; Richards 1993b).	eng
61782	population		No information is currently available on its population status.	eng
61782	threats		Where this species occurs outside protected areas in the Queensland wet tropics it is threatened by severe deforestation for cattle pastures and cultivation of sugar cane, as well as by logging and infrastructure development.	eng
61783	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
61783	distribution		This species is known from a limited area of the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea, above 1,500m asl.	eng
61783	habitat		Specimens were collected from vegetation 2-3m above the ground around fishpools. It seems that this species is able to breed anywhere where there are ponds, and it has been found in forest as well as in inhabited areas such as rural gardens.	eng
61783	population		It is a common species.	eng
61783	threats		There are no known threats to it at present.	eng
61784	conservation		Although it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, which might be presumed to afford its habitat some degree of protection, this area is not in fact secure from logging.	eng
61784	distribution		This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far only known from the main ridge of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, about 10km west of the Umar Bay coast, at about 950m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
61784	habitat		It was discovered in undisturbed, mossy rainforest, where it lives on shrubs and trees (in particular <em>Pandanus</em> spp.) at heights of 2-6m above the ground, around a swamp. All animals were within 50m of stagnant water, in which they are presumed to breed. It appears not to be associated with streams.	eng
61784	population		It appears to be reasonably common in its type locality.	eng
61784	threats		The area in which this species occurs is scheduled for logging.	eng
61785	conservation		Nearby, a tree kangaroo-focused conservation project is working with local communities to try to establish a network of conservation areas, which would also safeguard other species such as this frog.	eng
61785	distribution		This species was collected on a ridge above Surim Camp at around 1,280m asl in the eastern Finisterre Mountains of the Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
61785	habitat		It was collected in lower montane mossy rainforest. Individuals were found during the day, well camouflaged against the bark of large tree trunks that had been felled to create a small agricultural garden. No free-standing water occurred anywhere on this ridge or in the near vicinity. Its breeding habits are unknown.	eng
61785	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species, which is known only from three specimens.	eng
61785	threats		The most likely threat to this species in this region is clearance of forest for smallholder agricultural gardens.	eng
61786	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61786	distribution		This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far only known from two populations near the south-western coast of Umar Bay at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, at 5-10m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
61786	habitat		Both known populations are in periodically flooded forest swamps, one within 500m of the sea, and the other within 2,000m of the sea. It has been found in selectively logged forest with a closed canopy, in dense secondary-growth shrubs near a newly built road, and on the forest margin. Animals have been found 1-2.5m above ground on leaves of bushes in boggy areas, including on <em>Pandanus</em> spp. It probably has larval development, but the embryo might develop in eggs outside water.	eng
61786	population		There is little information on its population status, but it appears to be reasonably common at its only known localities.	eng
61786	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, which is at least somewhat adaptable.	eng
61787	conservation		Although it is found in the Wandamen Peninsula Nature Reserve, which might be presumed to afford its habitat some degree of protection, this area is not in fact secure from logging.	eng
61787	distribution		This newly discovered species from Papua, in Indonesian New Guinea, is so far known only from the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, about 7km west of the Umar Bay coast, at about 650m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
61787	habitat		It is known only from primary rainforest, where a pair in amplexus was found in water 40cm deep in a small, temporary swamp, close to an intermittent stream. Calling males were perching on trees and shrubs 2-5m above ground in and around the swamp.	eng
61787	population		There is very little information on its population status. Only four specimens are known.	eng
61787	threats		The area in which it occurs is scheduled for logging.	eng
61788	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
61788	distribution		This species occurs along the east coast of Australia, from the Hawkesbury-Nepean River system of the State of New South Wales to the headwaters of the Mitchell River, western tributaries of the Barron River drainage, and east-flowing streams of the Paluma Range in the State of Queensland.	eng
61788	habitat		This species is found in a wide range of habitats, usually along rocky streams, including pastoral lands. Males are often found some distance from water. Eggs are laid in streams at the edge of areas of slow water or partly under small rocks on the bottom of the stream. Egg masses adhere to rocks, sedges, or bottom sediment.	eng
61788	population		This species is locally abundant. However, declines have been noted in some areas, including in high-altitude forests of northeastern New South Wales.	eng
61788	threats		This species is fairly resilient to habitat alteration.	eng
61789	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61789	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at Fazenda Gravatá, Santo Amaro das Brotas Municipality, Sergipe State, north-east Brazil.	eng
61789	habitat		It is known from an area of white sandy soil with patches of shrubby vegetation, where individuals were collected in bromeliads (in which this species is presumed to breed by larval development).	eng
61789	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
61789	threats		Its threats are unknown.	eng
61790	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, although it might occur within the Reserva Biológica de Una.	eng
61790	distribution		This species is known from just three localities from sea level up to 400m asl in coastal Bahia State, north-eastern Brazil.	eng
61790	habitat		At São José da Vitória, this species was found in a hilly region of primary forest that had been selectively logged to be underplanted with cacao. Individuals were found in bromeliads grouped on trunks of large trees, at 6-8m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by larval development in bromeliads, and is thus unlikely to be tolerant of habitat alteration.	eng
61790	population		There is no information available on its population status.	eng
61790	threats		It is probably threatened by the pressures on the Atlantic forest in which it occurs. This region has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and for crops such as sugar cane, coffee, cacao and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61791	conservation		The species is not known from any protected areas, and protection and maintenance of remaining habitat in the region is urgently required. It is a very high priority to conduct surveys to relocate this species and determine its current population status and whether or not it is still extant; in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis, any surviving individuals would need to form the basis for a captive-breeding programme.	eng
61791	distribution		This species is known from 1,100-1,220m asl on Cerro Las Flores, a semi-isolated uplifted area that is part of the fragmented Sierra Mixe, in south-central Oaxaca, Mexico. Many hylids in this region have been found to be localized endemics.	eng
61791	habitat		This species is recorded from cloud forest. One individual was found on vegetation 1.8m above a small stream. Tadpoles were found in pools in this stream, which contained little flowing water at the time, and coursed through large boulders at the bottom of a deep ravine. Tadpoles were found in several similar streams nearby.	eng
61791	population		No information is currently available on the species' population status, but it is possible that is has undergone a serious decline due to chytridiomycosis, and the only known population might already be extinct.	eng
61791	threats		The primary threat to the species is habitat loss, and large expanses of forest are being cleared in this region. In addition, many of the tadpoles found at Cerro Las Flores possessed deformed or missing mouthparts, which might indicate infection with chytridiomycosis. Indeed, the specific name of this species is derived from the Greek ephemeros, meaning shortlived, referring to the ominous observation that chytridiomycosis might be present.	eng
61792	conservation		This species is known from at least one protected area: Parque Provincial Piñalito.	eng
61792	distribution		This species is known from three localities in Misiones Province, Argentina: Campo Anexo INTA "Cuartel Rio Victoria", at 1,272km along Ruta Nacional 14, San Vicente, in Guarany Department; Parque Provincial Piñalito in San Pedro Department; and Villa Cabureí in Iguazu Department. Specimens treated as <em>Scinax cf. berthae</em> by Kwet and Di-Bernardo (1999) and by Kwet (2001) could instead be <em>S. aromothyella</em>, in which case this species is also distributed in some areas of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, but the limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61792	habitat		Although two individuals were collected along a stream in forest, this species is found most commonly in open areas around permanent or semi-permanent water bodies, particularly during or immediately after heavy rains in the months of December, January, and February. Males usually call from emergent vegetation just above the water surface. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61792	population		There is no information currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61792	threats		There is no information currently available on threats to it.	eng
61793	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61793	distribution		This species has a wide distribution within Goiás State, Brazil. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61793	habitat		This species occurs in Cerrado habitat. Reproductive activity was observed between December and March, in permanent ponds in open areas.	eng
61793	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61793	threats		The Cerrado has historically been altered through shifting agriculture, but is now being heavily impacted by large-scale cattle ranching, soy, corn, and irrigated rice.	eng
61794	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
61794	distribution		This species is known only from 1,314m asl at Alto Palácio (the type locality), and the nearby Serra do Caraça, both in Santana do Riacho Municipality, Minas Gerais State, south-east Brazil.	eng
61794	habitat		Individuals were found during the day in rocky grasslands sheltered under rocks, moss, fallen logs, arum leaves, and within bromeliad rosettes, close to temporary puddles, ponds and swamps, as well as in backwaters of temporary streams surrounded by vegetation. These varied aquatic habitats comprise the breeding habitat. Males call at night, from shrubby vegetation and occasionally on the ground, throughout the rainy season (October-March), and also during the dry season if there is water available for larval development. Clutches of about 400 eggs are placed on the bottom of water bodies, usually on submerged vegetation. The larvae are diurnal and live in aquatic habitats with abundant aquatic vegetation.	eng
61794	population		Its population status is not known.	eng
61794	threats		No information is currently available on the threats to this species.	eng
61795	conservation		It presumably occurs in some protected areas.	eng
61795	distribution		This species ranges from western and southern Cameroon (where it avoids the coastal plain) south through Gabon and Congo to the Cabinda Enclave of Angola, and western Democratic Republic of Congo. In Cameroon is occurs at 500-800m, but it occurs close to sea-level in Congo. The western limits of its distribution are unknown, and the boundary between this species and Hyperolius nasutus in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo are also unknown. It presumably occurs in Equatorial Guinea, but there do not appear to be any records from this country yet.	eng
61795	habitat		It is a species of open secondary habitats in the forest zone that does not occur in closed-canopy forest. It breeds in marshes and pools (often human-made). It is able to colonise open habitats inside undisturbed forest, presumably travelling through unsuitable habitat to do so.	eng
61795	population		There is little information, but it appears to be a common species.	eng
61795	threats		No threats are known, and it is presumably increasing with forest clearance.	eng
61796	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61796	distribution		This species is endemic to western and southwestern Cameroon, where it occurs between 450 and 1,200m in the foothills and slower slopes of the "Dorsale Camerounaise", in the Mbam River valley, east to the Bamileke and Bamoun Platueas, extending as far as Makouopnsap. It might extend further north and east than current records suggest, but it is unlikely to occur much further west.	eng
61796	habitat		It is a species of secondary "farmbush" habitats resulting from the degradation on forest, occurring in degraded gallery forests in the east of its range. It is usually found close to streams, and it is probable that it breeds in small pools along streams.	eng
61796	population		It appears to be an uncommon species.	eng
61796	threats		Since it is an adaptable species, it is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
61797	conservation		It does not occur in any protected areas, and its habitat in the Bakossi Mountains should be protected. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
61797	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the Edib Hills in the Bakossi Mountains in south-western Cameroon at an altitude of 1,100-1,250m asl. Surveys in nearby areas, such as Mount Kupe and Mount Nlonako, have not located this species, and it is probably endemic to the Bakossi Mountains.	eng
61797	habitat		All specimens have been found on the outer margins of patches of primary forest. Most specimens were found sitting at night in grassy vegetation in areas with ferns, less than one metre above the ground. It is presumed to breed in water by larval development.	eng
61797	population		There is little information on its current population status.	eng
61797	threats		Although it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance (since it has been found on the edges of forest), it occurs in an area where extensive forest clearance for smallholder farming is taking place and it is unlikely to persist in the face of such rampant habitat loss.	eng
61798	conservation		It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
61798	distribution		This species ranges from central Côte d’Ivoire, through Ghana and Nigeria, to north-central Cameroon. It presumably ranges further east, at least into Central African Republic and souther Chad, but the limits between this species and Hyperolius acuticeps (or another member of the Hyperolius nasutus complex) are not yet clear. It is presumed to occur in Benin and Togo, but there do not appear to be any records yet from these countries.	eng
61798	habitat		It is a species of savannas and grassy habitats, avoiding drier areas. In Cameroon it is absent from areas with less than 1,200mm of annual rainfall, or with a dry season of longer than seven months. It breeds around pools and grassy flooded areas, and also uses ditches. The males call from grasses above water.	eng
61798	population		It is probably a common species, but there are few records in many parts of its range, probably because of lack of survey effort. The males sometimes gather in hundreds at breeding sites.	eng
61798	threats		There is little information, but there are unlikely to be significant threats to this species, except locally.	eng
61799	conservation		Its sole known locality is within the recently declared Monts de Cristal National Park.	eng
61799	distribution		This species is known from one specimen collected at 560m asl near the Barrage de Tchimbélé in the Monts de Cristal, Estuaire Province, north-western Gabon. It is believed that this species might be endemic to the Monts de Cristal, and its range probably extends into Equatorial Guinea.	eng
61799	habitat		It was found in altered but good condition standing forest, away from open water sources, where it was observed to be active during the night at 1-3 m above the ground. If it is closely related to <em>Leptopelis brevirostris</em>, it might breed by direct development.	eng
61799	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61799	threats		There are no significant known threats to this species.	eng
61800	conservation		The type locality is just inside Parque Nacional Tolhuaca.	eng
61800	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality on the western slopes of the Andes, at the border of Malleco Lake in Parque Nacional Tolhuaca, around 66km north-east of Victoria City in Malleco Province, southern Chile. The type locality is at 920m asl.	eng
61800	habitat		Adults of this species were found at the edge of a small stream in <em>Nothofagus</em> woodland. Larvae were found among rocks within the stream. The area is covered by snow between July and September.	eng
61800	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61800	threats		The threats to this species are not well known, but a major forest fire was averted from the type locality in the summer of 2000.	eng
61801	conservation		The known range of this species is encompassed by the Reserva Nacional Lago Jeinimeni. Studies are urgently needed prior to the approval of the planned road to assess further the ecology and, in particular, the dispersal patterns of this species. At this time, unsupervised public access to the breeding pond should be restricted, in order to remove any potential disturbance.	eng
61801	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of one small pond in the Reserva Nacional Lago Jeinimeni, southern Chile.	eng
61801	habitat		The small pond which forms the only area where this species is known from measures 68.8m by 80m, and around 50cm deep at the deepest point. Most other ponds in the area dry out in summer. In the vicinity are pine plantations and degraded <em>Nothofagus pumilio</em> forest. This species presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
61801	population		It appears to be fairly common within its extremely limited range.	eng
61801	threats		A major threat to this species is a plan to construct a paved road crossing the reserve to improve an existing road that is currently impassable in winter. Unfortunately, the planned route passes close to the only known breeding pond, which will probably cause direct mortality and pollution, and would also isolate it from the Jeinimeni River and lake.	eng
61802	conservation		It is known from the Reserva Protectora de Manantiales Cerro San Gil.	eng
61802	distribution		This species is known from 260-962m asl in the Montañas del Mico, Izabal Department, south-eastern Guatemala.	eng
61802	habitat		It is known from moist tropical forest. Individuals have usually been found at night perched on leaves 0.25-2m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61802	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61802	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61803	conservation		Its known range is encompassed by the Área de Protección Especial de Sierra Caral.	eng
61803	distribution		This species is known from 800-1,000m asl in the Sierra de Caral, Izabal Department, south-eastern Guatemala, and might also occur in neighbouring Honduras. It appears to be restricted within a very narrow altitudinal band.	eng
61803	habitat		It is known from moist tropical forest, where individuals were found at night perched on vegetation 0.3-2m above the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61803	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61803	threats		There is no current information available on threats to species.	eng
61804	conservation		Further survey work is required to determine the population status and, given the threat of chytridiomycosis, some surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an <em>ex-situ</em> captive breeding programme. This species is known from two national parks: G. D. Omar Torríjos H. and Chagres.	eng
61804	distribution		This species is known from Coclé Province, west-central Panama (at 600-800 m asl in the Serranía de Tabasará above El Copé), and Colón and Panama Provinces, east-central Panama (730-910 m asl) near Cerro Bruja in the Parque Nacional G. D. Omar Torríjos H. and the Serranía Piedras-Pacora in the Parque Nacional Chagres, respectively.	eng
61804	habitat		It has been recorded from premontane forest, and is not likely to be tolerant of significant habitat alteration. Most individuals have been found at night up to 2m above the ground on vegetation overhanging or near streams, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61804	population		There is little information available on population status, but it is quite rare. A population crash took place at El Copé in 2004, and it might now be extinct there.	eng
61804	threats		Selective logging has occurred in the Serranía de Tabasará. It appears that chytrid fungus has caused the loss of this species from El Copé, and it is likely to be similarly lost from other sites as the fungus continues to spread (K. Lips in litt. 2005). The long-term survival of the species in the wild is, therefore, very much in doubt.	eng
61805	conservation	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	It is known from Parque Estadual Intervales and Reservas Biológica de Paranapiacaba and Morro Grande.	eng
61805	distribution	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	This species is known from Cotia, Ibiúna, Juquitiba, Piedade, Pilar do Sul, Ribeirão Grande, and São Bernardo do Campo Municipalities, Reserva Biológica de Paranapiacaba, Santo André municipality, and Parque Estadual Intervales, in São Paulo State, south-east Brazil. It is likely to occur throughout the Serra de Paranapiacaba.	eng
61805	habitat	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	This species is found in Atlantic Forest remnants. Individuals are usually found on the forest floor, far from water bodies. Breeding takes place by larval development, with terrestrial larvae. It seems to prefer pristine areas, but is also present in forest fragments (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).	eng
61805	population	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	This species is common in suitable habitat, being the second most abundantly collected species in Reserva Biológica do Morro Grande (Dixo and Verdade, 2006).	eng
61805	threats	Vanessa Verdade, 2008	The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture.	eng
61806	conservation		This species is known from Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén.	eng
61806	distribution		This species is known from 2,300-2,600m asl near Oxapampa and Cumbre de Ollón on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.	eng
61806	habitat		It is known from cloud forest, where individuals were found under moss on tree trunks and under moss on the ground. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61806	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61806	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61807	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but it presumably occurs in Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén, near the type locality.	eng
61807	distribution		This species is known from two localities at 2,060-2,120m asl on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Pasco Department, central Peru. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61807	habitat		Individuals were found under logs along trails. This species breeds by direct development.	eng
61807	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61807	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61808	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected areas, and effective habitat conservation is needed.	eng
61808	distribution		This species is known from 3,229-3,700m asl near El Playón de San Francisco, Sucumbíos Province, and a nearby locality in Carchi Province, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in northern Ecuador. The proximity of these localities to the Colombian border suggests that it is likely to be known from here also, although the limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61808	habitat		This species is known from montane evergreen forest and, less commonly, from páramo dominated by <em>Espeletia pycnophylla ssp. angelensis</em>. Extensive fieldwork suggests that it does not occur in degraded habitats. Individuals are mainly found at night on terrestrial and epiphytic bromeliads, on branches, and on vegetation 30-230cm above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61808	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61808	threats		The major threat to this species is deforestation due to smallholder farming, rearing of livestock, and wood extraction.	eng
61809	conservation		It occurs in Parque Zoológico y Jardín Botánico Nacional Simón Bolívar and Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada. Monitoring of this species started in mid 2005, and there are plans to survey the known localities for at least a year or more (E. La Marca pers. comm.)	eng
61809	distribution		This species is known only from the Venezuelan Andes in the state of Mérida from the region of Mucubají, from 2,500-3,395m asl.	eng
61809	habitat		It is a species of sub-páramo bushland and páramo grassland, and presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
61809	population		It appears to be reasonably common within its small range, given the number of specimens that have been collected.	eng
61809	threats		There are no significant threats to this species.	eng
61810	conservation		No information is currently available.	eng
61810	distribution		This species is known from five localities at 1,800-2,760m asl in the Cordillera Oriental of Pasco and Puacartambo Departments, central Peru. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61810	habitat		It is known from the evergreen forests of the Peruvian Yungas, where all the known individuals were found on the ground in open vegetation. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61810	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61810	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61811	conservation	Ignacio De La Riva, Jose Padial, 2006	The known range of this species is encompassed by the Parque Nacional Madidi and Pilón-Lajas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
61811	distribution	Ignacio De La Riva, Jose Padial, 2006	This species is known from two localities separated by 150km, at 900-1,500 m altitude on the Andean slopes of La Paz Departament in northern Bolivia. It probably occurs in most montane forests of La Paz Department.	eng
61811	habitat	Ignacio De La Riva, Jose Padial, 2006	This species occurs in humid montane forests. It is a terrestrial species that calls around dusk from natural cavities in the ground. It is thus difficult to find. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61811	population	Ignacio De La Riva, Jose Padial, 2006	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61811	threats	Ignacio De La Riva, Jose Padial, 2006	There are no significant threats known to this species.	eng
61812	conservation		Much of its known range falls within Paque Nacional La Bayamesa.	eng
61812	distribution		This species is known from 900-1,640m asl in the Sierra Maestra of eastern Cuba. The limits of its range remain unknown.	eng
61812	habitat		It has been found in montane rainforest and patches of pines. Most individuals were found under leaf-litter, although a single frog was caught under a small stone close to the margins of a river. Stomachs that were examined were found to contain a few large prey items including cockroaches, pillbugs and a fire-fly larva. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61812	population		Eleutherodactylus luscombeiNo information is currently available.	eng
61812	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61813	conservation		The only known locality for this species is within the Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca. It is in need of close population monitoring given that it has such a restricted distribution.	eng
61813	distribution		This species is known only from around 2,450m asl on the summit of Cerro Marahuaca, central Amazonas State, Venezuela. It is likely to be confined to the summit of this tepui.	eng
61813	habitat		It is known from tepui shrubland. Individuals were found in the mossy bases of <em>Heliamphora sarraceniaceae</em> plants. Breeding is presumed to be by direct development.	eng
61813	population		The species appears to be common or abundant within its small range.	eng
61813	threats		There are no known threats at present. However, given its small range, it is most likely susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
61814	conservation		Nueva América is near the Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, and it seems likely that this species occurs within this protected area.	eng
61814	distribution		This species is known from 3,264-3,420m asl near El Chamizo in Carchi Province, and from Nueva América in Imbabura Province, in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in northern Ecuador. The limits to its distribution remain unknown, and it is likely to be found in adjacent Colombia.	eng
61814	habitat		It is known from montane evergreen forest and herbaceous páramo, as well as páramo dominated by <em>Espeletia pycnophylla ssp. angelensis</em>. Some individuals were found in secondary montane forest and agricultural land, suggesting at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Individuals are mainly found at night in terrestrial bromeliads, or on other plants or on the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61814	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61814	threats		Habitat alteration might be a threat to it, but this species does appear to be tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
61815	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Chorro del Indio and Parque Nacional Yacambú, and potentially a number of other protected areas within its range.	eng
61815	distribution		This species occurs at 980-1,700m asl in the Cordillera de Mérida, in Táchira, Barinas, Portuguesa, and Lara (and also presumably Mérida and Trujillo) States in western Venezuela.	eng
61815	habitat		It is known from lower montane cloud forest. Individuals were collected at night on rocks, on the ground, or on leaves of shrubby vegetation at the edge of streams, and on sand under a trunk by a spring. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61815	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61815	threats		The main threat in this region is deforestation for smallholder agriculture, including incursions into protected areas.	eng
61816	conservation		Its entire known range falls within Parque Nacional Darién.	eng
61816	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality, at 1,250-1,550m asl around the headwaters of the Cana River, in the Serranía de Pirre, Darién Province, Panama.	eng
61816	habitat		It is known from upper premontane rainforest and from cloud forest, where it has been found at night perched 1-3m above the ground on vegetation or small tree trunks. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61816	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
61816	threats		There are unlikely to be any significant threats to it.	eng
61817	conservation		The Permanent Commision on National Parks (of the Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales) has recommended to the Colombian Government that the Parque Nacional Natural Las Orquideas be expanded in size so as to incorporate the Paramo de Frontino, down to a lower altitudinal limit of 2,400m asl. If the government approves the enlargement, <em>Eleutherodactylus polemistes</em> will benefit by the inclusion of its localities within the expanded park. This species is in need of close population monitoring given its small range.	eng
61817	distribution		This species is endemic to Colombia, and is known from four specimens collected at 2,300-2,320m asl in the Municipio de Urrao, vereda La Clara, quebrada Cañahonda, and from from quebrada La Penca, very nearby. Both localities are on the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental in western Antioquia Department, Colombia. It is unlikely to occur more widely due to the presence of a sister species, <em>Eleutherodactylus bellona</em>, in adjacent regions.	eng
61817	habitat		This species is known from patches of primary forest, and is closely associated with streams. It is suspected to be intolerant of habitat disturbance. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.	eng
61817	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
61817	threats		No information is currently available on threats, but the presence of armed groups in the area is probably providing additional protection for the species. Nonetheless, its small range renders it susceptible to stochastic threatening processes.	eng
61818	conservation		It is known from Parque Nacional de Yanachaga-Chemillén.	eng
61818	distribution		This species is known from 2,600-2,900m asl near Oxapampa and Cillapata on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.	eng
61818	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest, where individuals were found perched on leaves at around 0.3m above the ground along a trail. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61818	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61818	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61819	conservation		The sole known locality for this species is within Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillén.	eng
61819	distribution		This species is known only from one specimen collected at 2,600m asl near Oxapampa, on the western slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in Oxapampa Province, Pasco Department, central Peru.	eng
61819	habitat		The only known specimen was collected under moss on the ground, in cloud forest. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61819	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61819	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61820	conservation		It occurs in Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada.	eng
61820	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the Mérida cable car at 3,400-3,500m asl in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, in western Venezuela. It might occur more widely.	eng
61820	habitat		It is a terrestrial species found in grassy páramo, which presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
61820	population		There is very little information regarding its population status. It is known from about 20 specimens from a very small area. Recent surveys (conducted in 2005) have failed to detect any specimens at former known localities, but more surveys are needed to confirm whether or not there has been a decline.	eng
61820	threats		There is very little information on threats to this species, but its habitat is probably not significantly threatened since it occurs in a protected area. A noticeable retreat of the glaciers in the nearby Bolivar´s Peak area might reflect some changes in climate parameters, especially a warmer trend in temperatures, and more pronounced and extended dry seasons. Both factors might lead to environmental changes that might negatively affect this species.	eng
61821	conservation		This species occurs in Parque Nacional Yacambú, and potentially a number of other protected areas within its range.	eng
61821	distribution		This species occurs at 800-1,600m asl in the Cordillera de Mérida, in Táchira, Apure, and Barinas (and also presumably Mérida, Portuguesa and Trujillo) States of western Venezuela. The limits to its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61821	habitat		It is known from lower montane cloud forest, where individuals were found at night, perched on vegetation 50-150cm above the ground near small and large streams, and on a branch 20cm above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61821	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61821	threats		The main threat in this region is deforestation for smallholder agricultural development, including incursions into protected areas.	eng
61822	conservation		Its range is in a locally protected area.	eng
61822	distribution		This species is known from Pampa Hermosa, at 1,540m asl in Tarma Provincia, Junín Department, in the Río Chanchamayo Valley in the Cordillera Oriental of Peru. It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.	eng
61822	habitat		It was collected in dense, humid montane forest, on the branch of a tree 1.2m above the ground. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61822	population		It is known only from the holotype, collected in 2003.	eng
61822	threats		There is no information.	eng
61823	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61823	distribution		This species is known from two nearby localities at 3,000-3,100m asl in the vicinity of Lago de Los Cóndores in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Huallaga Province, San Martín Department, northern Peru. The limits to its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61823	habitat		It is known from Yungas forest. Individuals were found at night in forest on low bushes and in a spiny terrestrial bromeliad, and by day in a pasture, the latter suggesting at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. This species is believed to breed by direct development.	eng
61823	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61823	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61824	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61824	distribution		This species is known from the type locality at 3,435m asl in the vicinity of Lago de Los Cóndores in the northern part of the Cordillera Central, in Huallaga Province, San Martín Department, northern Peru.	eng
61824	habitat		It occurs in Yungas forest, where individuals were found during the day in areas of bunch grass and <em>Baccharis</em> species, associated with spiny terrestrial bromeliads and scattered shrubs. Several larvae were found in a small muddy-bottomed pool 40cm deep.	eng
61824	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61824	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61825	conservation		This species is found in Carrasco and Amboró National Parks.	eng
61825	distribution		This species is found at 1,850-2,800 m altitude along the eastern Andean slopes of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz Departments, Bolivia.	eng
61825	habitat		This species is found in perhumid upper montane forests and cloud forests. It appears to tolerate significant habitat degradation, occurring even in cattle ranching areas where a few trees still stand. Individuals are usually found at night perched on vegetation up to 1.5 m above the ground, but calling males have been heard calling from the canopy of small trees. Females brood tadpoles from eggs and, in the rainy season, release tadpoles into small puddles and roadside ditches.	eng
61825	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61825	threats		There are not believed to be any significant current threats to this species, other than complete habitat destruction for cattle pasture. However, it should be noted that the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">G. marsupiata</span> seems to be declining. Chytrid fungus is potentially a threat.	eng
61826	conservation		There are currently no protected areas in place, making habitat protection and management an urgently needed conservation action. Further survey work is required to determine the biology and current population status of this species.	eng
61826	distribution		This species is known only from the Cordillera de Carpish, at 2,920m asl, in the Provincia de Huánuco, an outlier of the Cordillera Oriental of the Peruvian Andes. It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.	eng
61826	habitat		The only known specimens were found under leaves and under a piece of wood in cloud forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61826	population		There is no information on the population status of the species, and it is known from only two specimens.	eng
61826	threats		The main threat to the species is deforestation due to agricultural expansion and firewood collection.	eng
61827	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, but the type locality is near Parque Nacional Madidi and the Reserva de la Biósfera y Terretorio Indígena de Pilón Lajas, in which it might be expected to occur.	eng
61827	distribution		This species is known from around 1,000m asl in the Serranía de Bella Vista, Caranavi Province, La Paz Department, Bolivia. It is likely to occur patchily in suitable habitat more widely along the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia and Peru.	eng
61827	habitat		It is known from deep in rainforest, where individuals were found on the ground near rocky seeps along a densely forested hillside parallel to a large river. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61827	population		It appears to be rare.	eng
61827	threats		Habitat loss from smallholder agriculture is likely to be its main threat.	eng
61828	conservation		The species is known from Parque Nacional Madidi.	eng
61828	distribution		This species is known from 1,300-2,000 m altitude in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes; from several scattered localities in the Yungas of La Paz Department, northwestern Bolivia. The species is likely to also occur in nearby Peru.	eng
61828	habitat		This species occurs in humid montane forest and cloud forest, and has been recorded in quite small fragments (c. 3km in length), so appears able to tolerate a degree of habitat fragmentation at least in the short-term, although perhaps not major habitat degradation. Individuals have been found on forest litter or the ground near streams. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61828	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61828	threats		Habitat loss, most likely due to smallholder agriculture, is considered the main threat to this species.	eng
61829	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas, although the Reserva Nacional de Junín is near La Victoria.	eng
61829	distribution		This species is known from 3,850-4,100m asl at La Victoria and Laguna Manchay in Pasco Department, Peru.	eng
61829	habitat		It inhabits high-altitude puna grassland, where individuals have been found on moist ground beneath stones. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61829	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61829	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61830	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61830	distribution		This species is known from 3,600m asl at Bellavista, in Pasco Department, Peru.	eng
61830	habitat		It inhabits high-altitude puna grassland, where it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61830	population		It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
61830	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61831	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61831	distribution		This species is known from 4,280-4,390m asl on the southern slopes of the Huaguruncho and Tarata peaks, in Huachon District, Pasco Province, Pasco Department, Peru.	eng
61831	habitat		It is known from high-altitude puna grassland, where individuals were found under stones near small ponds. Stomachs that were examined contained beetles and a spider. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61831	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61831	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61832	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61832	distribution		This species is currently known only from southern Bahia, southeastern Brazil. It is also expected to occur in northeastern Minas Gerais and northern Espírito Santo States, due to the proximity and similarity of vegetation types between southern Bahia and these areas.	eng
61832	habitat		This species is known from temporary ponds in cow pastures at the edges of Atlantic Rain Forest fragments, natural forest clearings, and cacao plantations. Males were found calling from the edges of ponds, or floating in shallow water. Females were found near ponds or on forest leaf-litter. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61832	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61832	threats		The Atlantic Forest has been subject to substantial deforestation and fragmentation due to historical logging and ongoing large-scale clearance for cattle pasture, and crops such as sugar cane, coffee, and exotic trees, as well as for smallholder agriculture. Complete loss of forest habitat is likely to adversely affect this species, but some degree of degradation and opening of the forest canopy appears likely to actually benefit it.	eng
61833	conservation	Simon Stuart, 2008	The type locality at Cerro Masvale is a private, protected reserve adjacent to the Reserva Ecológica Manglares Churute.	eng
61833	distribution	Simon Stuart, 2008	This species is known from 32-92m asl in eastern Guayas Province, western Ecuador.	eng
61833	habitat	Simon Stuart, 2008	It occurs in dry lowland deciduous and semideciduous coastal forest, where the trees are usually under 20m in height and there can be a dense understorey of herbaceous plants. All the individuals were found in open areas where the natural vegetation had been partly or completely removed by humans. Males were found calling from ditches and small ponds (even as small as 10cm in diameter) in pasture, and in a flooded rice field. After mating, floating foam egg masses are deposited at these same sites.	eng
61833	population	Simon Stuart, 2008	It can be locally abundant.	eng
61833	threats	Simon Stuart, 2008	More than half of the land cover in this region has been converted to agriculture or cattle pasture, but this species does appear to be reasonably adaptable.	eng
61834	conservation		No information is currently available.	eng
61834	distribution		This species was found at 1,250m asl near the north dome of the summit of Cerro Autana (Wahari Kuaway), an isolated tepui 85km south of Puerto Ayacucho in Atures Municipality, north-west Amazonas State, Venezuela. It might also occur on the nearby Cuao-Sipapo massif (Serranía de Paraque), of which Cerro Autana seems to be a remnant.	eng
61834	habitat		The summit of Cerro Autana is predominantly an open swamp with submesothermic herbaceous vegetation, dominated by <em>Brocchinia hechtioides</em> and <em>Kunhardtia rhodantha</em> (Steyermark 1974). On the northern part of the summit, there is a central dome that rises 55m above the swampy grassland. Around this, and along crevices that channel water towards the northern and southern cliffs, is a humid dwarf forest of <em>Clusia</em> and many epiphytes. The single known <em>Stefania breweri</em> specimen to date was found in the rolled leaves of a <em>Brocchinia</em> plant here. This frog species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61834	population		It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
61834	threats		There is no information currently available on direct threats to this species, but its habitat is very unlikely to be at risk.	eng
61835	conservation		This species is known from the Área Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional Apolobamba in Bolivia.	eng
61835	distribution		This species is known from three localities at 3,450-3,750m asl: Valle de Tojoloque, Franz Tamayo Province, La Paz Departament, western Bolivia; and two localities close to one another on the north slope of Abra Acanacú pass, 27km north-north-east (by road) of Paucartambo, in Cusco Departament, south-east Peru. The Bolivian and Peruvian localities are some 300km apart.	eng
61835	habitat		This species is known from humid páramo, but it is also suspected to occur in the upper limits of cloud forest. Individuals were found at night in a small pool, 50cm deep, and on rocks in a river, and in páramo on rocks, in crevices, on the ground, and in moss adjacent to streams. Reproduction is presumed to be by larval development in the streams.	eng
61835	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61835	threats		Chytridiomycosis has devastated <em>Telmatobius</em> populations in Ecuador, and has been detected in <em>T. marmoratus</em> near Cusco in Peru (Seimon <em>et al.</em> 2005). Chytridiomycosis is therefore considered a very severe threat to this species, to the extent that such concerns have directed the etymology of its specific name, which means 'frightened', 'scared', or 'alarmed'.	eng
61836	conservation		It occurs in the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo and the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
61836	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Réserve Spéciale de Manongarivo in north-western Madagascar at 280m asl, and from forests further east in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du Tsaratanana at 1,300m asl (at the Antsahamanara campsite - M. Vences pers. comm.). It might occur more widely in northern Madagascar, but other records of frogs from the Boophis mandraka group within its general range refer to other, undescribed species (M. Vences pers. comm.). It apparently does not occur further east than Tsaratanana, and so its range is genuinely restricted.	eng
61836	habitat		It has been found in a degraded area near a small human settlement not far from areas of relatively undisturbed rainforest. Animals were calling 5-20m from water, along a fast-flowing stream, sitting 2-4m above the ground on shrubs and trees. This species presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
61836	population		It appears to be locally common at its type locality.	eng
61836	threats		There is very little information. Animals have been found at forest edges, but probably depend on nearby unaltered rainforest. Although all records are currently from protected areas, any unprotected populations, which probably exist between the known loactions, could be at risk from forest loss.	eng
61837	conservation		Populations of this frog have been recorded from Manombo Special Reserve and Betampona Strict Nature Reserve (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this somewhat adaptable species as a whole.	eng
61837	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in the eastern lowlands of Madagascar, as well as from the eastern offshore island of Nosy Boraha (Ile Sainte Marie).	eng
61837	habitat		An arboreal species usually found on leaves 1-3 metres above the ground. It has mainly been recorded from secondary vegetation and heavily degraded forest, often far from primary forest, and appears tolerant of a high degree of habitat disturbance. It attaches transparent jelly egg clutches with green eggs to leaves over temporary or permanent pools of water.	eng
61837	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
61837	threats		There are not believed to be any major threats to this species.	eng
61838	conservation		The sole known locality for this species is within the Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
61838	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, from 920-1,250m asl, at Ban Sepian, Paksong District, in the Bolaven Highlands, Champasak Province, in Lao People’s Democratic Republic.	eng
61838	habitat		It has been found under stones in a disturbed area of moist evergreen forest. Although some individuals have also been found in coffee plantations near forest during heavy rain, this species is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It is presumed to be a larval developing species.	eng
61838	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61838	threats		The major threat is agricultural development: much of the forest on the plateau where this species has been found is being converted to coffee plantations.	eng
61839	conservation		This species is likely to be found in Juheyinyongshuiyuan Nature Reserve, and possibly other protected areas.	eng
61839	distribution		This species is widely distributed at around 2,000m altitude in the west of Yunnan Province, China.; at Jingdong, Tengchong , Luchun, Menglian, Mengyang, and Mengla. It is likely to also be found in neighbouring Myanmar and Lao PDR.	eng
61839	habitat		This species is known from forest and breeds in streams.	eng
61839	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61839	threats		Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to this species.	eng
61840	conservation		Pulau Tioman is designated as a wildlife reserve. There is a need for close monitoring of the population of this species, given its apparently extremely restricted range, and further research is needed to determine whether or not there are any major threats to this species.	eng
61840	distribution		This species is only known with certainty from Gua Tengkuk Air cave at the top (1,000m asl) of Gunung Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang, West Malaysia. Larvae matching the morphology, but not coloration, of this species have also been found at 400m asl on this mountain, so either <em>L. kajangensis</em> is not restricted to its highest elevations, or an additional species of <em>Leptolalax</em> might occur lower down. At most, it seems likely that the species is restricted to this island, so has a very small range.	eng
61840	habitat		The species occurs in a subterranean, obliquely oriented cavern, formed from the overhang of a pile of large boulders. The cave contains a small pond (3m by 4m) drained by a small subterranean stream (1-3m in width by 2-4cm in depth) that runs for 3-4m along the cave floor. Tadpoles of this species are found in the pond. Adults have been found sitting on large rocks next to the stream, 10m from the cave entrance and 10m below the external ground level.	eng
61840	population		There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
61840	threats		There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
61841	conservation		Its sole known locality is within Huangshanziranhewenhuayichan Nature Reserve.	eng
61841	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 500-1,600m asl on Mount Huangshan, Anhui Province, China.	eng
61841	habitat		It is known from streams in forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61841	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61841	threats		Habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming is the main threat to this species.	eng
61842	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas, but the type locality is only 4km from Kerinci Seblat National Park, in which this species is likely to occur.	eng
61842	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 1,289-1,320m asl, at Batang Sarasah, Lubuk Selasih, near Solok, West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is likely to have similar habits to <em>Megophrys aceras</em> from the Malay Peninsula, so it could be expected to have a wide distribution in montane forest along Sumatra's west coast.	eng
61842	habitat		One individual was found in primary forest, and the others in secondary forest, indicating that this species has at least a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation. Individuals were found on dead leaves, and on a small log on the bank of a small stream. This species is presumed to breed by larval development in streams.	eng
61842	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61842	threats		The major threats in this region are logging and deforestation for small-scale agriculture or tea plantations. Not only are these a direct threat through loss of habitat, but habitat degradation through loss of humid shaded leaf-litter is also likely to be a problem. Deforestation and agrochemicals will also reduce the number of clear-flowing unpolluted streams available to the larvae.	eng
61843	conservation		It is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
61843	distribution		This species is currently known only from two localities: from the vicinity of the type locality on the north-western slopes of Mount Shungol, and from Wagau about 15km east of the type locality on the eastern slope of Mount Shungol, in the Herzog Mountains at the north end of the Owen Stanley Range in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded between 750 and 1,100m asl. It might occur more widely than is<br/>currently known, and there is no reason to believe that it is a restricted range species.	eng
61843	habitat		This inhabitant of lowland hill forest is usually found on the upper surface of leaves between 1 and 3m above the ground. Males call only at night. This is presumably a direct developing species, like other species in the genus.	eng
61843	population		It is moderately common.	eng
61843	threats		There are no known threats to its habitat at present	eng
61844	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
61844	distribution		This species is currently known only from the vicinity of the type locality, the northern slope of Mount Simpson in the Owen Stanley Range in Milne Bay Province, south-eastern Papua New Guinea., where it has been recorded from 1,400-1,540m asl. It might occur more widely, in particular throughout the lower montane forest of Mount Simpson. However, it is not known whether or not it will range as far as the montane forests of Mount Dayman or Mount Suckling to the north, as there is intervening grassland between these localities.	eng
61844	habitat		It is found perching on leaves and stems 1-3m above the ground in primary lower montane forest. It particularly prefers forest clearings, forest edges and river edge habitat where it can often be seen in abundance. The males call at night. This is presumably a direct developing species, like other species in the genus.	eng
61844	population		This species is abundant at the type locality, but is patchily distributed.	eng
61844	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
61845	conservation		No information is currently available.	eng
61845	distribution		This species is known from above 1,500 m altitude in the central highlands of Tanzania, at sites east of Iringa town, and from Njombe. Northern Tanzanian specimens previously classified as Breviceps mossambicus might possibly be assigned to this species, pending confirmation of calls, namely from: 1,500 m altitude at Nkinto, near Isansu (Issansu-Land); between Njarasa-See (= Lake Eyasi) and Issansu-Land; and the Iramba Plateau.	eng
61845	habitat		This species occurs in high-altitude grasslands, and calls during the day from shallow burrows at the base of dense grass. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61845	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61845	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61846	conservation		Taman Negara National Park is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
61846	distribution		This species is known only from three specimens from the north-west of Taman Negara National Park in Pahang State, Peninsular Malaysia. Two of these were collected at 167m asl.	eng
61846	habitat		It occurs in lowland dipterocarp forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development. Large black ants have been found in the stomachs of this species.	eng
61846	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61846	threats		There are no significant known threats to it, given that it occurs in a protected area.	eng
61847	conservation		Three of four known sites for this species are within forest reserves, but even these are subject to threats and there is a need for improved management of all of them.	eng
61847	distribution		This species is known from remnant forest patches in the West Usambara Mountains of Tanzania, namely: Mazumbai Forest Reserve; Ambangula Forest Reserve; Shume-Mugambo Forest Reserve; and Lushoto (=Philipshof). It is likely to occur widely in the West Usambaras, wherever forest remains.	eng
61847	habitat		It is found within forest habitats, and is presumed to be intolerant of habitat degradation. Males call at 0.5-2m above the ground from low bushes and other vegetation during the rainy season. One specimen was found to have relatively large arthropods (Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Diplopoda) in its gut. Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.	eng
61847	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
61847	threats		Habitat loss due to smallholder agriculture is likely to be a threat to unprotected forests within the range of this species. Habitat degradation may be a threat as a result of both logging activities and extraction of firewood, even in protected areas.	eng
61848	conservation		Most of the known current range of this species is within the Reserva Biológica de Una, where ongoing conservation efforts around the reserve aim to re-establish connectivity through linking of remaining forest patches and promotion of shade cacao as preferable to cattle ranching. These conservation activities are likely to benefit this species. The cabrucas around the reserve have a higher degree of disturbance and lower floristic diversity than primary forests, but they do at least provide some shelter and humidity for this species. Further investigation is needed to assess whether or not this species can persist in cabrucas, or even in secondary forest.	eng
61848	distribution		This species is known only from the Reserva Biológica de Una and nearby surrounding areas in the municipality of Una, in Bahia State in north-eastern Brazil.	eng
61848	habitat		It is most common in primary forest with tall trees (up to 40m high), with abundant palms and deep leaf-litter. It is less common in secondary forest, and is present but very uncommon in shaded cacao plantations, locally known as "cabrucas". These are cacao groves in which large emergent trees have been preserved to shade the understory cacao. In these cabrucas, leaf-litter is abundant although formed predominantly of cacao leaves. It is not known if this species can persist in these cabrucas, or even in secondary forest. This species is presumed to be a larval developer, using temporary pools.	eng
61848	population		It appears to be fairly common within suitable habitat.	eng
61848	threats		It may be threatened by the conversion of most of the forest surrounding the Reserva Biológica de Una to cacao plantations and other crops, and the clearance of most of the rest of it for cattle ranching. Only a few fragments of primary forest now remain.	eng
61849	conservation		The peninsula and coastal waters surrounding the type locality of this species have recently been designated as the Réserve de la Biosphère du Sahamalaza-Iles Radama.	eng
61849	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 170 m asl at Berara, within the Anabohazo forest, Sahamalaza Peninsula, north-western Madagascar. Survey work at other sites in northwestern Madagascar (e.g., Manongarivo, Tsaratanana, Benavony) did not locate this species, despite having a distinctive call. It is probably, therefore, restricted to Sahamalaza.	eng
61849	habitat		It occurs in primary transitional forest, where it is arboreal, calling at night from leaves of bushes or trees at heights of 1-2m above the ground. It is believed to breed in tree holes and similar water-filled cavities.	eng
61849	population		It is very common at its only known site.	eng
61849	threats		This species might be threatened by habitat destruction, and it is highly specialised and restricted to ecologically sensitive transitional forest. Some other cophyline species are quite sensitive to habitat alteration. Although a biosphere reserve has recently been designated in the area, the forest was, at least until recently, limited and under strong pressure from slash-and-burn (tavy) and small-holder agriculture.	eng
61850	conservation	Ahmed, F., Sengupta, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is found in Nameri National Park, Orang National Park, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and Chilapata Range.	eng
61850	distribution	Ahmed, F., Sengupta, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from several localities in the state of Assam, one in the state of Arunachal Pradesh and one in West Bengal, India. In Assam, it was found at: Majbat; Nameri National Park; in Orang National Park; near Orang National Park (all in Sonitpur District); and in Bongaigaon, western Assam. In Arunachal Pradesh, it was found in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in Kamlang District, and in West Bengal it was found near Bong Basti village, Chilapata Range. Given the availability of its habitat, this species seems likely to occur much more widely, and has probably been under-recorded due to its secretive, burrowing nature outside the breeding season. It is found between 48-141 m asl.	eng
61850	habitat	Ahmed, F., Sengupta, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is mostly known from the understorey of tropical evergreen forest and alluvial grassland, but has also been found in a field of mustard (<em>Brassica juncea</em>) and near a forest village (Paul <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and so it might be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It is often found perched up to 1 m above the ground on grasses, ferns, and herbaceous vegetation, but it is also found underground. It is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61850	population	Ahmed, F., Sengupta, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61850	threats	Ahmed, F., Sengupta, S. & Angulo, A., 2009	There are no significant threats known to this species.	eng
61851	conservation		This species is known from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and and Ke Go Nature Reserve in Viet Nam, and Nakai-Nam Theun Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao People's Democratic Republic. It has also been recorded from the Green Corridor Project area in Viet Nam (which is a proposed corridor linking Bach Ma National Park with Phong Dien Nature Reserve). Given that threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite current management, there is a need for improved protected area management and law enforcement.	eng
61851	distribution		This species has a very poorly known range in Viet Nam and Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic. In Viet Nam it is known from: Mount Ngoc Linh, Quang Nam Province; the extreme southwest of Thua Thien-Hue Province; and the Northern Truong Son Range (Annamite Highlands) (Ha Tinh and Quang Binh Provinces). In the Lao Peoples' Democratic Republic it is known from Khammouane and Boli Khamxai Provinces. Specific localities include: Po-mu Mountain, Huong Son Reserve (now known as Huong Son Forestry and Service Company), Huong Son District, Rao An Region, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam; Ky Anh-Ke Go, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam; Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh Province, Viet Nam; Mount Ngoc Linh, Tra Don Commune, Tra My District, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam; Navang, Khammouane Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic; Phou Vang Mountain, Nakai-Nam Theun Biodiversity Conservation Area, Nakai District, Khammouane Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic; and Nape border area, Khamkeut District, Boli Khamxai Province, Lao People's Democratic Republic. The species has been found from 170-1,300 m altitude. The overall limits of its distribution remain unknown, but it presumably occurs more widely, in particular in regions between currently known localities.	eng
61851	habitat		All records of this species has been found from lowland or lower montane broad-leaved evergreen forest. The species has most often been found at night close to very slow-flowing streams or still pools. The species is presumed to be a larval developer. At least some individuals were found in fragments of forest that remained in ravines, within areas otherwise heavily disturbed. However, its adaptability to secondary habitats remains unknown.	eng
61851	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61851	threats		Some of the sites at which this species is known to occur have undergone heavy disturbance due to small-scale timber and firewood extraction, and it is not known whether or not the species can persist long-term in the fragmented forest remaining in ravines. It is possibly under threat, therefore, from forest loss, but the small size of the species presumably allows it to thrive in smaller fragments of forest than is often the case larger species of amphibians.	eng
61852	conservation		Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve was decreed on the Kon Tum side of the mountain by the government in 1986, but there is a need to decree a nature reserve on the Quang Nam side and to put in place a management board (Tordoff 2002).	eng
61852	distribution		This species is known from 1,480m asl on Mount Ngoc Linh, in Tra My District, Tra Don Commune, Quang Nam Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61852	habitat		This species was found in montane broad-leaved evergreen forest with small mixed coniferous areas. Streams in the area had beds comprising rock, gravel, sand and mud. Breeding in this species is presumably by larval development.	eng
61852	population		It is known from only a single specimen.	eng
61852	threats		Up to approximately 900m asl on this mountain the potential habitat of this species is heavily disturbed due to clearance of forest for agriculture and timber extraction, with forests persisting only in ravines and steeper slopes. Disturbance is likely to increase if plans go ahead for building a road to Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh communes (Tordoff 2002). At the higher altitudes where this species was actually found, disturbance levels are lower.	eng
61853	conservation		The persistence of this species at or near the type locality needs to be verified, and suitable actions taken to safeguard remaining habitat containing a population of this species.	eng
61853	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 700-750m asl on the Tay Nguyen Plateau, from near Buon Luoi village, 20km north-west of Kannack, in An Khe District, Gia Lai Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61853	habitat		It has been found only in an area of lowland humid evergreen tropical forest, with a closed canopy around 20-30m in height and with some emergent trees above 40m tall. Most individuals were found at night along silty banks of forest ponds and slow-moving streams, or in leaf-litter near such banks. This species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61853	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61853	threats		The area from which it is known has been subject to intensive deforestation and conversion to coffee plantations since specimens were collected in 1995. It is possibly under threat, therefore, from forest loss.	eng
61854	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61854	distribution		This species is known from 3,500-3,900m asl at two nearby localities in the central highlands of eastern Papua, Indonesia.	eng
61854	habitat		It is known from subalpine grassland, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61854	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61854	threats		No significant threats to this species are known.	eng
61855	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61855	distribution		This species is known from 3,400-3,500m asl at two widely separated localities, Gunung Mandala (Mount Juliana) and Mount Elit, in the central highlands of eastern Papua, Indonesia.	eng
61855	habitat		It is known from montane grassland, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61855	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61855	threats		There are no significant threats known to it.	eng
61856	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61856	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 3,080m asl in Dokfuma Meadow south of Mount Capella, in the Star Mountains of West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
61856	habitat		The type locality is a subalpine meadow in karst terrain that has moss forest at higher altitudes. Many valleys and lower slopes are covered in open herb fields or fern fields of ferns, mosses, and scattered tussock grasses. Stands of tree ferns (<em>Cyathea</em> sp.) dominate the open areas, and large moss mounds (around 1m high and 1-2m wide) are scattered across the landscape, particularly near forest edges. The area also holds many small streams, often disappearing into sinkholes in the limestone rock. Males of this species usually call from the moss mounds or other elevated sites. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61856	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61856	threats		There are no significant known threats to it.	eng
61857	conservation		The sole known locality for this species is within Peta Usulan Batas (Gunung Lorentz) National Park.	eng
61857	distribution		This species is known from 3,000-3,500m asl at Lake Habbema, around 4km south and 32km west of Wamena, in eastern Papua, Indonesia. A specimen from around 30km south and 65km east of Angguruk, at 3,500m asl, also in Papua, might potentially also relate to this species.	eng
61857	habitat		Grassland was the habitat at the type locality, which was probably in a valley surrounded by forested ridges. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61857	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61857	threats		It could be threatened by uncontrolled tourism, which is also likely to increase the incidence of fires (which are a constant threat to the area).	eng
61858	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61858	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality at 3,080m asl in Dokfuma Meadow south of Mount Capella, in the Star Mountains of West Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea.	eng
61858	habitat		The type locality is a subalpine meadow in karst terrain that has moss forest at higher altitudes. Many valleys and lower slopes are covered in open herb fields or fern fields of ferns, mosses, and scattered tussock grasses. Stands of tree ferns (<em>Cyathea</em> sp.) dominate the open areas, and large moss mounds (around 1m high and 1-2m wide) are scattered across the landscape, particularly near forest edges. The area also holds many small streams, often disappearing into sinkholes in the limestone rock. Males of this species usually call from the ground, rather than from elevated sites. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61858	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61858	threats		There are no significant known threats to it.	eng
61859	conservation	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is known from the privately protected Kirindy Forest Centre de Formation Professionelle Forestière (Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea), which falls within the scope of an ongoing effort in the Menabe region to establish integrated conservation and development activities with local communities. It also occurs in Parc National de Isalo and the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha (which is relatively well protected by its remoteness), and might occur in the Parc National de Namoroka.	eng
61859	distribution	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is known from western Madagascar at 0-600 m asl. There are records from: the Kirindy Forest Centre de Formation Professionelle Forestière (Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea), in Toliara Province, Morondava District; the Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha; and the Isalo Massif. It might also occur in the Parc National de Namoroka about 200 km further north, but confirmation of its distribution in this area requires further genetic data and it is not mapped here.	eng
61859	habitat	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	It occurs in dry deciduous forest. Males call at night while floating in forest ponds, and this species breeds explosively after heavy rains, a few times each season. It seems to be specifically restricted while breeding to medium-sized shallow ephemeral pools with very low coverage of aquatic vegetation, inside closed forest.	eng
61859	population	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is rare wherever it has been found. The number of animals is presumably declining with ongoing habitat degradation.	eng
61859	threats	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	The major threats to this species are destruction and degradation of its habitat due to legal and illegal logging, as well as slash-and-burn (tavy) agriculture, which is increasing due to expanding human populations. Although it is widely distributed, it is rare, and its habitat is under serious threat.	eng
61860	conservation		Most of the known range of this species falls within a protected area: the Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area. A monitoring programme is being set up to monitor the population near human habitation.	eng
61860	distribution		This species is currently known only from three isolated populations in the mountains of the Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area, Western Cape Province, South Africa. The known extent of occurrence is about 5.5km2 (Turner pers. comm.). It has been recorded at altitudes above 900m asl.	eng
61860	habitat		This species is known from thickly vegetated seeps dominated by restioid vegetation, on gentle mountain slopes within montane fynbos. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
61860	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61860	threats		The main potential threat to this species is water abstraction for agricultural areas surrounding the Groot Winterhoek Mountains. Water contamination from residential areas, and fires, are also potential threats, and invasive alien trees might become a threat in the future.	eng
61861	conservation		The two localities for this species are in the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon (although this does not protect against mining) and Parc National du Haut Niger, although a recent survey here did not record this species (Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
61861	distribution		This species is currently known from two localities in the Simandou Range of south-eastern Guinea: from the type locality close to the village of Morigbadougou, on Dofa River on the north-eastern flank of the Pic de Fon mountain peak; and from Tiyeko near Traorela, a village to the north-west of Pic de Fon, in Parc National du Haut Niger.	eng
61861	habitat		It has been recorded close to rivers in gallery forests at the type locality. There is no habitat information known from the second locality, but it presumably lives in the forest habitats within the park. This species is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It is presumably a larval developing species, like other members of the genus.	eng
61861	population		There is no detailed information available about the population status of this species, but it appears to be rare or restricted to specific primary habitats.	eng
61861	threats		There are various threats to this species. In the Simandou Range, remaining habitat is fragmented into small patches, and logging to clear land for agriculture as well as for commercial purposes is a major threat, as are bushfires. The type locality is heavily threatened by open cast mining.	eng
61862	conservation		Its sole known locality is within Yaluzangbudaxiagu National Nature Reserve.	eng
61862	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Aniqiao, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 1,066m asl.	eng
61862	habitat		It is known from a large stream and the surrounding rocks. Breeding presumably takes place by larval development.	eng
61862	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61862	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming.	eng
61863	conservation		Its sole known locality is within Yaluzangbudaxiagu National Nature Reserve.	eng
61863	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, Yarang, in Medog County, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, at 767m asl.	eng
61863	habitat		It is known from a large stream and the surrounding rocks, and is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61863	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61863	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation due to smallholder farming.	eng
61864	conservation		Its only known localities all fall within Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
61864	distribution		This species is known only from five specimens from 920-1,300m asl in the Annamite Mountains of southern Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Specimens were collected both within Xe Kong Province in Kaleum District and within Saravane Province, Samoy District (the latter near Ban Bee Hi Village). The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61864	habitat		This species is known from wet, hilly, evergreen forest. Individuals have been found both near small, rocky, streams and in forest away from permanent water bodies. It was usually found perching at up to 1m above the ground, on small tree branches or herbaceous vegetation. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61864	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61864	threats		No information is currently available.	eng
61865	conservation		The only known localities for this species are all within protected areas: Tham Tarn Lot (Chalerm Rattanakosin) National Park, Kaeng Krachan National Park, and Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. Given that the threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite, or in some cases even because of, current management practices, there is a need for significantly improved protected area management and law enforcement.	eng
61865	distribution		This species is known from around 600m asl at three widely separated localities in western and northern Thailand: Tham Tarn Lot (Chalerm Rattanakosin) National Park in Kanchanaburi Province; Pa-la-u Waterfall in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Hua Hin District, Prachuap Kirikhan Province; and Doi Chiang Dao Mountain, Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chiang Mai Province. The limits of its distributon remain unknown.	eng
61865	habitat		This species is known from near streams and waterfalls in moist lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, where it is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61865	population		No information is currently available.	eng
61865	threats		At Doi Chiang Dao, the main threats to it include encroachment by both permanent and shifting agriculture, and also fire and unsustainable tourism development (including plans for construction of a cable car) leading to habitat degradation. The threats at Kaeng Krachan are similar, but also include illegal logging (Bird Conservation Society of Thailand and BirdLife International 2004).	eng
61866	conservation		This species is known from Dandeli and Bheemgadh Wildlife Sanctuaries, and might occur in others.	eng
61866	distribution		This species is known from 75-300 m altitude in the central Western Ghats of Goa and Karnataka States, southwest India, mainly in the Castle Rock-Dudhsagar tract (Kunte 2004).	eng
61866	habitat		This species is known from steep, rocky watercourses with abundant overhanging vegetation and a largely closed canopy, in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest in hilly areas (Kunte 2004). Although the species occurs in secondary forest, it does not appear tolerant of canopy thinning. Individuals were collected in the evening. Males were calling in late September and tadpoles were present, indicating that the species breeds during the southeast monsoon (June to November).	eng
61866	population		The species is common in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
61866	threats		The natural extent of the forests of the Western Ghats has been devastated historically. This loss continues today, primarily due to conversion to cultivated lands, Eucalyptus plantations, and coffee and tea plantations.	eng
61867	conservation		This species does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
61867	distribution		This species is known from the vicinity of the type locality at 1,500-1,700m asl in the central Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. It is presumed to occur in suitable habitat above 1,200m asl throughout this mountain range, and might possibly also occur in the Whiteman and Baining Mountains.	eng
61867	habitat		It occurs in primary rainforest characterized by epiphyte-covered <em>Nothofagus</em> stands with a relatively open canopy and dense climbing bamboo thickets covering tree fall gaps. At higher altitudes, this species is found in forest with a thick (5-10cm deep) humus and leaf-litter layer, and lots of decaying branches and fallen logs, all covered with thick moss. It is able to climb and prefers perches less than 1m above the ground. It is most often found on shoots and leaves in bamboo thickets in treefall gaps, indicating at least some tolerance to habitat degradation.There is no standing surface water in the known habitat of this species, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61867	population		Within its range, it appears to be very common, although it is difficult to locate.	eng
61867	threats		The most likely threats to it are habitat loss coupled with the effects of invasive species, particularly chytrid fungus and other pathogens. Habitat loss, and opening of the habitat to invasive species, are most likely to occur if high altitudes in the Nakanai Mountains are opened up to logging.	eng
61868	conservation		Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area is the only protected area from which it is currently known.	eng
61868	distribution		This species is known from two nearby localities at 1,000-1,200m asl on the Bolaven plateau, in Dong Hua Sao National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Pakxong District, Champasak Province, southern Lao People's Democratic Republic. The limits of its distribution remain unknown, and it might occur more widely.	eng
61868	habitat		This species is known from wet evergreen forest, where individuals were found at night on rocks and vegetation along rocky streams, or occasionally on leaf-litter or tree branches away from streams. Breeding is presumed to be by larval development.	eng
61868	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61868	threats		The main threat to this species is that much of the forest on the plateau is being converted to coffee cultivation.	eng
61870	conservation		The area where this species occurs is within a proposed nature reserve.	eng
61870	distribution		This species is known only from 1,400-1,700m asl on Mount Tay Con Linh II, Cao Bo Commune, Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province, in extreme northern Viet Nam. It is likely to occur more widely than currently reported.	eng
61870	habitat		This species was found in disturbed, primary broad-leaved evergreen forest (with <em>Camellia</em> and <em>Litsea</em> species dominating), on wet mossy rocks or small branches overhanging streams, or in small, rocky-bottomed forest pools. Its adaptability to secondary habitats is not known, but it is unlikely to thrive in heavily altered landscapes. It is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61870	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61870	threats		The major threats to this species include clearance of forest for shifting agriculture and rice cultivation (Tordoff 2002). Local people within its range hunt other species of amphibians for food, and so this might be a threat, although this species is not large and so might not actually be targeted for food, unlike the larger but otherwise similar <em>Rana chloronota</em>.	eng
61871	conservation		All records of it to date have been from protected areas, namely Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Bach Ma National Park and Ba Na National Park.	eng
61871	distribution		This species is known from southern Lao People's Democratic Republic in Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Xe Kong and Saravane Provinces, and also from central Viet Nam in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien-Hue Province, and Ba Na National Park, Danang Province. It has been recorded at 1,100-1,600m asl. The limits of its distribution have not been established.	eng
61871	habitat		This species is known from small, steep, rocky streams in hilly wet evergreen forest. Individuals were found at night on the ground or perched on rocks, tree roots, and herbaceous plants, within 7m of streams. Calling males have been found perched on rocks and branches of bushes above or near streams. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61871	population		No information is currently available regarding its population status.	eng
61871	threats		No information is currently available regarding threats to this species.	eng
61872	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
61872	distribution		This species is known only from two localities at 1,900m and 2,313m asl in the Sierra Madre Oriental in the south-west of Chihuahua State, northern Mexico.	eng
61872	habitat		It is found in pine-oak forests, and is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61872	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61872	threats		The most significant threats to this species are probably logging, followed by deforestation for agriculture, and the intentional lighting of fires to improve cattle pastures.	eng
61873	conservation		Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area is the only protected area from which this species is currently known.	eng
61873	distribution		This species has been found from 200-700m asl in Lao People's Democratic Republic and neighbouring Viet Nam: in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Nakai District, Khammouan Province, and the Nape border area, Khamkeut District, Bolikhamxay Province, in Lao People's Democratic Republic; and from a tributary of the Rao An River, Rao An Region, Huong Son Reserve, Huong Son District, Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61873	habitat		It is found in evergreen forest, where individuals were located at night on leaf-litter, rocks, logs, and vegetation near to rocky streams. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61873	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61873	threats		The major threat to the habitat in this region is clearance of forest for shifting cultivation.	eng
61874	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Göran Nilson, 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, although there are several protected areas within the species range in which it may occur.	eng
61874	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is found in Mazandaran, Golestan and Gillan Provinces, Iran, at the southern edge of the Caspian Sea (Veith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
61874	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Göran Nilson, 2008	It presumably occurs in both densely wooded and open woodland areas. The breeding habitat is not well known, but it possibly breeds in forest ponds (Theodore Papenfuss and Göran Nilson pers. comm. September, 2008).	eng
61874	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Göran Nilson, 2008	This appears to be a common to abundant species (Theodore Papenfuss and Göran Nilson pers. comm. September, 2008).	eng
61874	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss arising from urban sprawl along the Caspian coast and foothills, agricultural development (rice cultivation), and logging. Some populations might also be affected by extended periods of drought.	eng
61875	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
61875	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Aziz Avci, 2008	This Turkish endemic species is known only from the area of Akdağ (near Tavas in Vilayet Denizli) and Giredev Gölü and its close vicinity west of Elmali (Max Kasparek pers. comm. November 2008; Franzen <em>et al</em>. 2008). At the Akdağ location, it has been found in streams near the town of Kizilcabölük (Kaska, pers. comm.).	eng
61875	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Aziz Avci, 2008	It occurs close to streams in wooded areas of cedar and pine trees (Kaska, pers. comm.).	eng
61875	population	Yakup Kaska, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is rare (Kaska, pers. comm.). The population is estimated to have a maximum of 500 mature individuals (Kaska and Avci, pers. comm.)	eng
61875	threats	Yakup Kaska, Aziz Avci, 2008	This species is threatened by the destruction of its forest habitat for small scale commercial harvest within its restricted range. It is also threatened by the general pollution and drainage of breeding sites and wetlands.	eng
61876	conservation		The type locality is within Kilimanjaro National Park.	eng
61876	distribution		This recently described species was collected from Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania, at 3,230m asl.	eng
61876	habitat		This species is presumably associated with cold mountain streams in alpine African moorland, and is assumed to breed by larval development in the streams.	eng
61876	population		It is known only from three specimens collected in 1936. The lack of recent records is probably a reflection of very limited survey effort in the area since then.	eng
61876	threats		It occurs in well-protected habitat and is not currently threatened. However, it could be impacted by the local effects of climate change. For example, if it is cold-water adapted, it could be affected by the ongoing retreat of the ice fields on Mount Kilimanjaro.	eng
61877	conservation		The species is known from Usangu Game Reserve, Ruaha National Park, Tarangire National Park, Serengeti National Park, Ikorongo Game Reserve and Grumeti Game Reserve.	eng
61877	distribution		The species is widespread in central Tanzania from the Usangu Valley and the Udzungwa Plateau (where it occurs up to 1,500m), north to Dodoma, the central plateau of Tanzania and the Serengeti, and west to the Ruaha Valley, and from Kigwembimbi and Kibebe. The northern, eastern and western limits are not well known at present. It might occur in the vicinity of the Rukwa Valley, Lukwati-Muipa, Mlele Hills, Ugalla and Moyowosi Game Reserves and in the Katavi National Park areas, but there are no records yet. Very little collection or sound recording of frogs has taken place in Tanzania, so this species might eventually be found to be even more widespread. The habitat of the central highlands where it is found extends into Kenya, so this species might also occur there.	eng
61877	habitat		It is widespread in moist and drier savanna habitats. Males have been found calling along pool edges and from shallow running streams in a sand river. The species is presumed to be a larval developer.	eng
61877	population		It is a common and widespread species	eng
61877	threats		There have been a few exported from Tanzania for the pet trade but the numbers are too small to be of any impact on the species as a whole. It is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
61878	conservation		The sole known locality for this species is within Vu Quang Nature Reserve. Given that the threats to the habitat of this species are ongoing despite current management practices, there is a need for significantly improved protected area management and law enforcement.	eng
61878	distribution		This species is known from 1,500m asl in Rao Cua District, Ha Tinh Province, central Viet Nam.	eng
61878	habitat		It was found in montane forest, perching on the leaves of bushes at night. It is presumed to reproduce by larval development, and is likely to breed in forest pools.	eng
61878	population		There is no information.	eng
61878	threats		The major threats to the habitat of this species include clearance of forest for agricultural fields, livestock grazing, and timber extraction (both illegal logging and firewood collection). All of these threats might increase following construction of National Highway 2, the proposed route of which runs near to this reserve (Tordoff 2002).	eng
61879	conservation		Its range includes Horton Plains National Park. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
61879	distribution		This Sri Lankan endemic is restricted to the highest elevations of the Central Hills and is currently known only from Horton Plains National Park at 2,135m asl, and Namunukula Peak at 1,850-1,980m asl. It is separated from its sister species, <em>Philautus auratus</em>, by a 1,450m deep valley (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).	eng
61879	habitat		It lives in the sub-canopy of closed-canopy montane forests and cardamom plantations within the forest. Males call from their perches on leaves 1-3m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). Breeding is by direct development, and the species is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited. It is dependent on relatively undisturbed closed-canopy cloud forest.	eng
61879	population		The current population status is not known.	eng
61879	threats		The major threat is clearing of the species' forest habitat, due to subsistence agriculture and logging. Drought is also an important threat.	eng
61880	conservation		Its only known locality is within Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve.	eng
61880	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at 710m asl on Mount Diaoluo, in Lingshui County on Hainan Island, China.	eng
61880	habitat		It has been recorded from bushes and bamboo forests in mid-altitude forest, and might breed by direct development.	eng
61880	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
61880	threats		There is very little information on direct threats to this species, but it is likely to be affected by habitat degradation and deforestation arising from smallholder farming and subsistence-level wood extraction.	eng
61881	conservation		This species has been recorded from Hantane Forest Reserve and the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve near Kandy.	eng
61881	distribution		This Sri Lankan endemic is known from only from two localities: Hanthana range, Kandy (from 510-800m asl), and Tonacombe Estate, Namunukula (around 1,320m asl) (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).	eng
61881	habitat		An inhabitant of closed-canopy forest, where it is usually found on large boulders close to streams. It is unlikely to be tolerant of habitat degradation. It breeds by direct development, and is not dependent upon water. The female excavates a deep hole in the forest floor where the eggs are then deposited.	eng
61881	population		It can be common in suitable habitat.	eng
61881	threats		The main threat is likely to be water pollution due to agrochemicals.	eng
61882	conservation		Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but Corbett's Gap is not currently known to fall in any protected area, and is in need of urgent habitat protection. Further survey work is needed to better determine the distribution range of this species, and its current population status.	eng
61882	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region, in the Knuckles range of central Sri Lanka, at an altitude of 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.). It may occur in other cloud forests of the Knuckles Hills, but further survey work is needed to confirm this	eng
61882	habitat		It is found in shrubs in gaps within closed-canopy montane cloud forests, as well as cardamom plantations within the forest. However, it has only been observed in or very close to relatively undisturbed forest, though it seems to do well in forest gap areas such as those created by selective logging. Males usually call from vegetation 0.3-1m above the ground. The diurnal resting habitat of these frogs is under a leaf, or on a leaf axil, often in well-illuminated habitats (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is presumably a direct developer like other species in the genus.	eng
61882	population		It is found in low abundance.	eng
61882	threats		The major threat is clearing of the species' forest habitat, due to subsistence agriculture and logging. Drought is also an important threat.	eng
61883	conservation		It occurs in the Kottawa Forest Reserve and the Beraliya Forest Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine the population status of this species.	eng
61883	distribution		This lowland Sri Lankan endemic is only known from two localities: the type locality of Kottawa at 60m asl, and from Beraliya Forest, Elpitiya, at 150m asl, both in the south of the country (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).	eng
61883	habitat		It inhabits the shrub understorey of closed-canopy lowland rainforest. It is not believed to be tolerant of habitat degradation. Males are seen calling at night in chorus from leaves up to 1m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It presumably breeds by direct development like other species of the genus.	eng
61883	population		The current population status is not known.	eng
61883	threats		Some parts of its range are impacted by intensive land-use change, due to smallholder farming activities and logging. Drought is also a threat.	eng
61884	conservation		Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but the other localities from which it is known remain unprotected.	eng
61884	distribution		This species is currently known from two localities, Corbett's Gap, and from Hunnasgiriya, in the Knuckles Hills of central Sri Lanka. It has been recorded between 1,100 and 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).	eng
61884	habitat		It is an arboreal species found in the understorey and forest sub-canopy of closed-canopy cloud forest, but can also be found in areas with cardamom as the understorey. Males are usually seen calling from their perches on leaves around 1-3m above the ground. They are dependent on environments with high relative humidity for reproduction, and are seen in higher densities in marshy habitats (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). It is presumed to be a direct developer like other species of the genus. Its dependence on high humidity makes it particularly vulnerable to any modification of the habitat resulting in the opening up of the forest canopy.	eng
61884	population		It occurs in relatively low abundance.	eng
61884	threats		The major threat is clearance of the species' forest habitat due to logging and subsistence agriculture; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.	eng
61885	conservation		At least part of the range of this species seems to fall inside the Wayanad Sanctuary, but there remains a need for improved protection of remaining tropical forest habitat.	eng
61885	distribution		This species is known from the region between Sultanbathery, Kalpatta, and Mananthavady at an altitude of around 1,000m asl, Wayanad District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of India.	eng
61885	habitat		It occurs in the highest canopy layer (at around 10-20m above the ground) of tropical evergreen forest. Some specimens were collected from trees on the forest fringe and near a coffee plantation, so this species may be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation. However, populations appear to be declining in altered habitats.	eng
61885	population		It appears to be common within its limited range.	eng
61885	threats		The major threat is habitat loss due to conversion to cultivated lands, plantations (<em>Eucalyptus</em>, coffee, tea), and hydroelectric reservoirs.	eng
61886	conservation		Its sole known locality is within Phou Dendin (sometimes called Phou Dene Din) National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
61886	distribution		This species is known from 600m asl in Phongsaly District in eastern Phongsaly Province, in northern Lao People's Democratic Republic.	eng
61886	habitat		The only known specimen of this species was collected from a bamboo leaf one metre above the ground in hilly evergreen forest mixed with stands of natural bamboo, around 200m from the bank of Nam Ou River. This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61886	population		It is known only from a single specimen, so its population status cannot be assessed.	eng
61886	threats		There is no information.	eng
61887	conservation		Neither Morningside Forest nor Handapan Ella Plains is legally protected, although since 1989 they have enjoyed "administrative protection" as a result of government policy. However, more formal protection of these sites is an urgent priority. Periodic monitoring of this species is recommended.	eng
61887	distribution		This species is known from only two localities in Sri Lanka: the type locality, Handapan Ella Plains (near Suriyakanda) at 1,270m asl; and Morningside Forest, near Rakwana at 1,060m asl, 10km from the type locality (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005).	eng
61887	habitat		This is an arboreal species found only in closed-canopy cloud forest of the Rakwana Mountains in sub-canopy forest and shrubs. It can also be found in areas with cardamom as the understorey. Males are usually seen calling from their perches on leaves around 1-3m above the ground. They are dependent on environments with high relative humidity for reproduction, and are seen in higher densities in marshy habitats. It is presumed to be a direct developer like other species of the genus. Its dependence on high humidity makes it particularly vulnerable to any modification of the habitat resulting in the opening up of the forest canopy.	eng
61887	population		It occurs in relatively low abundance.	eng
61887	threats		The major threat is the clearance of the species' forest habitat due to smallholder farming activities and logging; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.	eng
61888	conservation		Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but there is still an urgent need for the protection of forest habitat in the Corbett's Gap region. Monitoring of the species' population is recommended.	eng
61888	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region, in the Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka at 1,245m asl. It is separated from <em>Philautus microtympanum</em> by the Mahaweli River valley, which descends to about 500m at Kandy (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak, although this record may represent a distinct species (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).	eng
61888	habitat		It is restricted to the highest elevations of the Knuckles Range, and is found in both open and closed-canopy habitats, in the leaf-litter, shrubs and trees in the sub-canopy. Males are seen calling from branches 0.3-3m above the ground (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). Breeding is presumed to take place by direct development.	eng
61888	population		It occurs at low abundance.	eng
61888	threats		The major threat is forest clearance due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging.	eng
61889	conservation		Bambarella Peak is part of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, but there is an urgent need for the protection of forest habitat in the Corbett's Gap region. Monitoring of the species' population is recommended.	eng
61889	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality in the Corbett's Gap region in the southern Knuckles Range of central Sri Lanka at 1,245m asl (Meegaskumbura and Manamendra-Arachchi 2005). There is also a recent record from the nearby Bambarella Peak (M. Meegaskumbura pers. comm.).	eng
61889	habitat		It inhabits the understorey of closed-canopy montane forests and cardamom plantations within the forest. Males are usually seen calling from leaves 2-3m above the ground. Breeding presumably takes place by direct development, as with other species of the genus.	eng
61889	population		It occurs in low abundance.	eng
61889	threats		The major threat is forest clearance due to smallholder farming activities and logging; drought, and the use of agrochemicals in cardamom cultivation, are additional threats.	eng
61890	conservation		It is known from two protected areas: Bach Ma and Ba Na National Parks.	eng
61890	distribution		This species is known from low altitudes (less than 100m asl) up to 1,300m asl in central Viet Nam. There are records from Bach Ma and Ba Na National Parks in the Hai Van mountain range, and also from localities further to the west closer to the Laotian border, all in Thua Thien-Hue Province. There are also records from further south, in Mang Canh Commune, Kon Plong District, Kon Tum Province. Given the distributions of other Rhacophoridae, Ranidae, and Megophryidae species, this species might also occur at over 1,000m asl in Quang Nam, Kon Tum, and Gia Lai Provinces of southern Viet Nam, and in adjacent regions of Lao People's Democratic Republic. Its distribution remains very poorly known.	eng
61890	habitat		All of the records of this species are from primary or old secondary forest, very close to small cascading forest springs falling from steep mountain slopes. It is usually found under the leaves and branches of trees and bushes at night. Jelly-like clutches of 2-10 eggs were found on the tips of large leaves on the bank of a stream in October, with larvae at different developmental stages and some clutches already deserted by the larvae. An adult male was noted to be guarding one clutch.	eng
61890	population		There is no information.	eng
61890	threats		There is no information on specific threats to this species, and it is very unlikely to be the specific target of harvesting for human consumption, since it is so small and cryptic.	eng
61891	conservation		Its known range is encompassed by Diaoluoshan, Jianfengling, and Bawangling Nature Reserves.	eng
61891	distribution		This species is known from 630-710m asl in three localities in Hainan Province, China: Mount Diaoluo in Lingshui County; Mount Jianfengling in Ledong County; and Bawangling in Changjiang County.	eng
61891	habitat		It is known from forest, and is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61891	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61891	threats		The main threats to this species are habitat loss and degradation arising from smallholder farming.	eng
61893	conservation		There is very little information. Improved habitat protection is likely needed throughout its range.	eng
61893	distribution		This species is said to be characteristic of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the state of Durango, western Mexico, at 2,438-2,469m asl. The limits of its distribution are not clear, but recorded localities include Navios, El Salto and Otinapa, and two new localities have recently been added. One of these is 9km east of Mimbres, while the other is north of Temosachic, and both are in east-central Chihuahua (Webb pers. comm.). This species is sympatric with <em>Ambystoma rosaceum</em>.	eng
61893	habitat		It is believed to be characteristic of the pine-oak forest highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Larvae have been found in man-made ponds, cattle tanks, and shallow lakes. Sexually mature adults have been found in the larval form, but also as fully metamorphosed individuals that occur on land.	eng
61893	population		There is little information on its population status.	eng
61893	threats		There is very little information on direct threats to this species. If the threats are similar to those of the sympatric <em>A. rosaceum</em>, it might be affected by introduced predatory fishes, and possibly by agricultural expansion. The species probably exists, however, without experiencing negative impacts in cattle areas provided that breeding habitat remains available.	eng
61894	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61894	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality, at Guabang Shan Tree Farm in Qiyang County, Hunan Province, China, where it has been found from 400-720m asl.	eng
61894	habitat		It is known from forest, and wetlands such as bogs, marshes, permanent pools and paddy lands. Eggs are laid in winter in standing ponds, bogs and rice fields. This species is presumed to breed by larval development.	eng
61894	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61894	threats		The main threat to it is habitat loss and degradation arising from smallholder farming.	eng
61895	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
61895	distribution		This species is known from 500-1,200m asl in montane regions of Chubu District in south-central Japan, and specifically from the north-west of Shizuoka Prefecture (Fujieda-shi, Shizuoka-shi, Misakubo-cho, Honkawane-cho) and the south-east of Nagano Prefecture (Minamishinana-mura), on the Akaishi Mountains and along Oi-gawa and Tenryu-gawa rivers. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61895	habitat		This species is found in an area where frequent landslides occur, suggesting large quantities of underground water. It is presumed to be a larval developer, and to breed in streams. Since its breeding locations have not been found, it is believed to breed in underground streams, as does a morphotype of <em>Hynobius naevius</em>.	eng
61895	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
61895	threats		The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
61896	conservation		The type locality of this species is within Parque Nacional General de División Omar Torrijos Herrera.	eng
61896	distribution		This species is known from a single specimen collected near the summit of Cerro Peña Blanca, in the Cordillera Central of central Panama, at an altitude of approximately 1,315m asl. It might occur more widely (since forested habitat has virtually not been sampled between the Fortuna dam region of western Panama and the type locality of this species), but since this is the highest mountain in the region, and given that many neotropical salamander species are known to have very narrow altitudinal ranges, it is possible that this species has a very restricted extent of occurrence.	eng
61896	habitat		The sole known specimen was found inside an earthen mound in forest. This species is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation, and is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61896	population		It appears to be very rare.	eng
61896	threats		Chytridiomycosis is a threat to this species, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west of its range. Logging is presumably also a threat to any populations occurring in unprotected areas.	eng
61897	conservation	Eli Greenbaum, David Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vasquez, Sean Rovito, 2009	Only the El Salvador side of the Cerro Montecristo in the Trifinio International Park is well protected, and so further protection of the remaining habitat in the surrounding areas is urgently needed. Additional survey work is needed to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
61897	distribution	Eli Greenbaum, David Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vasquez, Sean Rovito, 2009	This species is currently known only from Cerro Montecristo and Cerro Miramundo in the Trifinio International Park of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras; from El Mojanal in Honduras; and from a recent collection on Volcán Quetzaltepeque, in Guatemala (Sean Rovito, pers. comm. 2008). It has been recorded from 1,800-2,300m asl. Further analysis is required to determine whether or not a species recently found on an isolated peak in eastern Guatemala refers to this or another species (D. Wake, pers. comm. 2005).	eng
61897	habitat	Eli Greenbaum, David Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vasquez, Sean Rovito, 2009	It is known from humid montane pine-oak forest and cloud forest. Individuals were found on the ground, on fallen logs, under logs, on <em>Peperomia</em> sp. leaves, in water-filled leaf axils of <em>Heliconia</em> sp., and in bromeliads. Leenders and Watkins-Colwell (2004) suggested that this species might be arboreal at night, but use terrestrial hiding places during the day, however it has been recorded hiding in bromeliads during the day (Franklin Castañeda, pers. comm. 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61897	population	Eli Greenbaum, David Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vasquez, Sean Rovito, 2009	There is no information on the current population status of this species.	eng
61897	threats	Eli Greenbaum, David Wake, Franklin Castañeda, Carlos Vasquez, Sean Rovito, 2009	In Honduras the habitat of this species is being lost through conversion of land to coffee plantations and subsistence agriculture. The threats to this species in Guatemala are not known. The population within El Salvador is known from a well protected area.	eng
61898	conservation		Part of the known range of this species falls within Parque Nacional Volcán Barú. There is a need for further survey work to establish the current population status of this species, particularly given the threat of chytrid.	eng
61898	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in a small area near Volcán Barú on the Pacific slope of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca-Barú range, between Cerro Punta and Boquete, Chiriquí Province, Panama, at 1,250-2,450m asl. Like other species in this genus, the species is likely to have a small range.	eng
61898	habitat		The type series was collected in mossy oak forest with small bromeliads in the forest canopy. The species is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation. Individuals were found under logs and rough-hewn planks or inside rotting stumps, and under a small rock. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61898	population		It has not been collected or observed in over 30 years. It appears to be rare, and the lack of records is perhaps not indicative of a decline.	eng
61898	threats		Chytrid fungus is a threat, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west. Habitat loss, due to smallholder agricultural activities and logging, is presumably also a threat; the forest connecting Volcán Barú to La Amistad consists of a network of privately owned farm properties, and has been under sporadic threat from road development and fires.	eng
61899	conservation		Its sole known locality is within Parque Nacional Tapantí.	eng
61899	distribution		This species is known only from Quebrada Valverde, 8km south of Tapantí, in Cartago Province, Costa Rica, at 1,555m asl.	eng
61899	habitat		This species was found in tropical premontane rainforest, where it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61899	population		It is known only from the holotype, which was collected in 1969, so its population status is not known.	eng
61899	threats		There are no known threats to it.	eng
61900	conservation		The limited remaining habitat in the range of this species requires urgent protection. An attempt to enthuse local businessmen to purchase the land to safeguard the species was unsuccessful.	eng
61900	distribution		This species is known only from seven specimens collected at 1,880 m on the isolated mountaintop of Cerro El Zarciadero, in the northern part of the department of Comayagua, Honduras. There is approximately one hectare of habitat remaining. The species is presumed to be restricted to this mountain.	eng
61900	habitat		All three specimens were found in cloud forest, inside water-containing arboreal bromeliads before the rainy season had begun in earnest. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61900	population		There is little information on the population status of this species. Three individuals were recently collected (June 2006) from bromeliads, and two active animals were also found, in a single night (Franklin Castañeda pers. comm., 2007).	eng
61900	threats		Forest on the isolated mountaintop that comprises the only known range for this species has been reduced to less than 1ha in extent, due to forest removal for agricultural crop fields. Such habitat loss is not only a direct threat, but might also indirectly cause degradation of the environment in the species' remaining habitat by drying of the general environment (and the use of pesticides).	eng
61901	conservation		Much of its known range occurs within the Las Tablas Protected Area, which forms part of the adjoining Parque Internacional La Amistad (in the southern part of which this species is also found), in Costa Rica.	eng
61901	distribution		This species is known from a few adjacent localities from 1,500-2,300m asl on the Pacific slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica and far western Panama. It is confirmed as occurring from Cerro Frantzius to within Las Tablas Protected Area in Costa Rica, near the Panamanian border, and possibly also occurs near Santa Clara in nearby western Panama. However, the identity of the single specimen from Panama is uncertain.	eng
61901	habitat		This species is found in dense forest on moss-covered tree trunks, on stumps, on mossy tree butresses, and within the leaf axils of bromeliads, at heights of 0.6-1.5m above the ground. It is considered unlikely to be tolerant of much habitat degradation, and it is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61901	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61901	threats		Chytridiomycosis is a possible threat to this species, and has been associated with declines of other species to the north and west of its range. Logging is presumably also a threat to any populations that occur in unprotected areas. However, much of its habitat is well protected, and it appears not to be seriously at risk from habitat loss.	eng
61902	conservation		This species is found in two protected areas: Frozen Head State Natural Area Reserve and Obed National Scenic River.	eng
61902	distribution		This species is restricted to the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee, USA, at 400-700m asl, from just south of the Cumberland Mountains near Wartburg, Morgan County, south to near Tracy City, Grundy County.	eng
61902	habitat		It is found near streams on this forested plateau. Individuals are most often found on land but within a metre of water, or under rocks along small streams and under moss and debris on vertical rock faces behind cascades.	eng
61902	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61902	threats		A major threat in this area is habitat loss and degradation due to the building of second and retirement homes.	eng
61903	conservation		The species occurs in at least three National Parks.	eng
61903	distribution		This species is found at relatively low elevations in southern to midwestern Republic of Korea, where it has been found at more than 20 sites. The type locality is at 210m.	eng
61903	habitat		This species occurs in damp, mossy talus slopes and rockslides of limestone in 15-20 year-old forests of hardwoods and mixed hardwood/pine (dominated by Pinus densiflora and Quercus mongolica). It has even been found in a city park. Most of the forests in which it has been found are young, so it has clearly survived earlier large-scale extraction of timber for foresty. Most individuals were found under small rocks or rock flakes scattered among larger boulders on fine-grained soil. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61903	population		The species is locally common.	eng
61903	threats		There are no known significant threats.	eng
61904	conservation		The known range of this species is encompassed by the Klamath National Forest, and the Scott River is part of the Klamath Wild and Scenic River. A petition was put forward in 2004 that would safeguard this species under the Endangered Species Act, but this has not yet been processed. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
61904	distribution		This species is currently known only from 700-1,300m asl at Walker Gultch, and the Muck-a-Muck and Mill Creeks of the Scott River drainage, south of the Klamath River, Siskiyou County, California, USA. The species is not likely to be found much more widely.	eng
61904	habitat		This species is found in old-growth, temperate rainforest near streams. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61904	population		There is no information on its population status.	eng
61904	threats		The major threat to this species is logging of old-growth forest. While the species occurs within a National Forest, this allows logging under certain conditions. The range of this species has been proposed for logging in the past.	eng
61905	conservation		Most of its range is within the George Washington National Forest, but the management of this is not necessarily compatible with the conservation of this species, perhaps especially when logging is permitted. There is a need for continued close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
61905	distribution		This recently described species from the Blue Ridge Mountains of the eastern USA is known only from 15 sites in a small area in the vicinity of Big Levels, Augusta County, Virginia, at elevations ranging from 579m asl (Lake Sherando) to 1,091m asl (at the top of Bald Mountain). It overlaps very narrowly with Eastern Red-backed Salamander <em>Plethodon cinereus</em> on the edge of its range.	eng
61905	habitat		It occurs in forest and on rocky talus slopes. It breeds by direct development.	eng
61905	population		It is believed to be common within it small range.	eng
61905	threats		Very little is currently known on threats to this species. There is no information on its ability to adapt to logging of its forest habitat.	eng
61906	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine the reason for the apparent population declines in suitable habitat.	eng
61906	distribution		This species is known only from north-central Oaxaca, southern Mexico.	eng
61906	habitat		It is a species of pine and pine-oak forests at high elevations. It is terrestrial, found beneath logs and rocks. The species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
61906	population		It was known to be common to very common 30 years ago, but is now rarely found (D. Wake pers. comm., 2005).	eng
61906	threats		Habitat loss does not appear to be at a scale large enough to explain observed declines.	eng
61907	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61907	distribution		This species is known only from an area at around 750-1,030m asl just north and south of Putla de Guerrero in Oaxaca, Mexico. It is likely to be more widespread.	eng
61907	habitat		Individuals have been found in a banana field and a roadside bank, suggesting some degree of tolerance to habitat disturbance. The species is the largest tropical salamander and appears to live in permanent burrows (T. Papenfuss and D. Wake, pers. comm. 2007). Its minimum viable population size may require a larger area of occupancy. This species reproduces by direct development (D. Wake, pers. comm. 2007).	eng
61907	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species. It is known only from a few specimens found on several different collection trips to the region.	eng
61907	threats		Urbanization and changed agricultural practice away from shade grown coffee or increased tilling.	eng
61908	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61908	distribution		This species is known from five localities at 1,985-3,080 m altitude in the mountains of the Mixteca region of Oaxaca, southern Mexico, namely: San Pedro Jocotipac; San Juán Bautista Coixtlahuaca; Tlaxiaco; highway San Andrés Chicahuaxtla-Tlaxiaco; and c. 27-30km southeast of Tlaxiaco. It has recently been recorded from Tepanco de López in Puebla (Juan Carlos Windfield Pérez pers. comm., 2007).	eng
61908	habitat		This species is known from oak forest and pine forest, most commonly the former. Individuals have been found at the base of dead agave, in leaf-litter, under logs and in holes in tree trunks, as well as under bricks in the garden of a house. It has also been found under trash in a vacant lot in the city of Tlaxiaco. One individual had a small centipede and a staphylinid beetle in its mouth. The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61908	population		There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
61908	threats		Habitat loss is progressing fast in this area, but does not appear to be a significant threat due to the species' tolerance of degraded habitat.	eng
61909	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed to better determine the species range, and the threats to it.	eng
61909	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality at around 2,150m asl on the mountain pass of Plan de Guadalupe in the Sierra de Mazateca of northern Oaxaca, Mexico. Future work might prove it to be more widespread than current records suggest.	eng
61909	habitat		The natural habitat of this species may be cloud forest, consisting mainly of oaks, but the area around the type locality has almost completely been deforested. The fact that individuals were found in such altered habitat might indicate that it has a great tolerance of habitat degradation, but it is unclear for how long it can tolerate such degradation. Individuals were found under small rocks and schist slabs in roadside talus. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
61909	population		It is only known from a total of five individuals collected on two separate trips at two adjacent localities (within 5km of each other).	eng
61909	threats		It is threatened by the significant deforestation caused by uncontrolled logging around the type locality.	eng
61910	conservation		It is known from the Reserva de la Biósfera Tehuacán-Cuicatlán. Further taxonomic work is necessary to resolve the identity of populations found at lower altitudes.	eng
61910	distribution		This species is known from the Sierra de Juárez, from the vicinity of Cerro Pelón and Cerro Humo to Cerro Peña Verde and the Pápalo region, northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded only from 2,800-2,900m asl, and possibly as low as 2,650m asl (exact identification is pending on these records). The species is believed to be endemic to the Sierra de Juárez.	eng
61910	habitat		The species has been found in pine forest and barren rocky slopes at or above the upper limit of cloud forest. It is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
61910	population		There is no clear information available on the population status of the species, although it appears never to have been common.	eng
61910	threats		There has been significant deforestation by uncontrolled logging in this area, but the habitat is now recovering and the species is still present.	eng
61911	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the severity of threats to this species.	eng
61911	distribution		This species is known only from a narrow altitudinal band of 905-1,400m asl in the Sierra Madre Oriental, in the municipality of Cuetzalan del Progreso in Puebla State, Mexico.	eng
61911	habitat		It occurs in cloud forest, under a canopy of <em>Liquidambar</em> plants, oaks, and arborescent ferns, as well as in coffee groves. Individuals have been found under moss in rock walls, inside and under rotten logs, under stones, and in leaf axils. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
61911	population		There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
61911	threats		It might be at threat from the intense pressure its habitat is under for development of human settlements and tourist development.	eng
61912	conservation		It is known from Parque Nacional Miguel Hidalgo (Lagunas de Cempoala), Parque Nacional Desierto de los Leones, and Parque Nacional Iztaccíhuatl-Popocatépetl. The validity of this taxon needs to be investigated (Wake pers. comm.).	eng
61912	distribution		This species is known from 2,700-3,500m asl in Mexico in the central section of Eje Neovolcánico Transversal in Mexico and Morelos States (and also probably in adjacent Puebla State), the Federal District of central Mexico, and in the Ocuilan, Ajusco, Las Cruces, and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges.	eng
61912	habitat		It seems to prefer open and somewhat dry pine forests with understorey bunchgrass. It is also known from humid fir (<em>Abies religiosa</em>) forests and mixed temperate forests of pine (<em>Pinus hartwegii</em> and <em>Pinus leiophylla</em>), fir (<em>Abies religiosa</em>),<em> Arbutus glandulosa</em>, <em>Alnus jorullensis</em>, and oak species. Individuals were often found under logs during the day, although others were found under a soil mound and under an extrusive volcanic rock. This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
61912	population		This is an uncommon species that is much less common than <em>Pseudoeurycea leprosa</em>.	eng
61912	threats		There is no information on threats.	eng
61913	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok; Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is found within Termessos National Park.	eng
61913	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok; Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is endemic to Turkey where it is restricted to a small area in south-western Anatolia. It has an altitudinal range of 100-650m asl.	eng
61913	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok; Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is found in rocky areas in pine woodland and marquis scrub habitat. Animals have been found hiding under rock piles on hillsides. It is not present in modified habitats. The species is viviparous, the female giving birth to one or two fully metamorphosed young after a gestation period of around one year.	eng
61913	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok; Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is locally abundant. There are a total of six adjacent populations (Veith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
61913	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok; Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe. Further development within this species' restricted range would lead to declines because it does not tolerate habitat modification.	eng
61914	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. The creation of a protected area for this species could help protect its restricted range from development.	eng
61914	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is endemic to southern Anatolia, Turkey, where it has been recorded from Serik, Turbelinaz, Fersin, Dikmen, Manavgat, Gayi, Gollepe and Selge. It is present at altitudes of 190-1,500m asl	eng
61914	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is found under stones in humid areas of pine forest. Animals are found in areas of limestone and also close to rivers. It has been recorded close to villages, but does not occur in modified habitats (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008). The species is viviparous, the female giving birth to one or two fully metamorphosed young after a gestation period of around one year.	eng
61914	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is common within its limited range (Ǒz, pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
61914	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.	eng
61915	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Çaliticak Protected Area.	eng
61915	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is restricted to the east slope of the Saricinar Daglari, south-west of Antalya, Turkey. It ranges from sea level to 200m asl.	eng
61915	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in maqui or pine woodlands. The species is live-bearing producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year. The species does not occur in modified habitats.	eng
61915	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is common in its restricted range.	eng
61915	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	There is generally a low human population density and little tourism in the area where it is found, and limited habitat loss is taking place. However, a potential future threat is the loss of habitat due to ongoing development in the region and forest fires, as well as overcollection for scientific purposes.	eng
61916	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is present in Fethiye gocek Special Protected Area.	eng
61916	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is restricted to the southern Anatolian coast, Turkey, where it is found from north-west of Fethiye to the eastern shore of Koycegiz Golu.  It is also found on the islands of Tersane and Domuz. It ranges from sea level up to 1,000m asl.	eng
61916	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is usually found in marquis scrub or pine woodland (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.	eng
61916	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is very common within its restricted range (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
61916	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found, but with ongoing development in the region habitat loss could become more severe.	eng
61917	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu,  Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is present in Gokova Special Protected Area.	eng
61917	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu,  Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species ranges between Marmaris and Ula along the south-west Anatolian coast, Turkey, from sea level up to 600m asl.	eng
61917	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu,  Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is associated with rocky limestone outcrops, and is often found in marquis scrub or pine woodlands (and not in modified habitats). The species is viviparous, producing one or two fully metamorphosed young; the gestation period is about one year.	eng
61917	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu,  Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It appears to be a rare species (Avci, pers. comm., September 2008)	eng
61917	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu,  Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	Within its naturally restricted range, the major potential threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forest fires, and overcollection for scientific purposes. Currently, there is only limited habitat loss taking place, since the human population in its range is generally low, and there is little tourism in the area where it is found.	eng
61918	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It occurs in some protected areas, but currently there is no management or monitoring of these protected areas. There is a need for close monitoring of the population status of this species.	eng
61918	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	This species is endemic to Greece, where it occurs only on the islands of Karpathos, Kasos and Saria in the south-east Aegean Sea.	eng
61918	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It lives in Mediterranean rocky shrubby vegetation. It is viviparous, giving birth to fully developed young on land, and it is not associated with water.	eng
61918	population	Petros Lymberakis, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	It is a fairly common species within its restricted range.	eng
61918	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Theodore Papenfuss, Max Sparreboom, Sergius Kuzmin, Steven Anderson, Mathieu Denoël, 2008	No major threats are known, though local populations might be impacted by loss of habitat. Harvesting for the international pet trade takes place, but not at a level sufficient to threaten the species.	eng
61919	conservation		It is not known whether or not the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
61919	distribution		This species ranges from northern Algeria, east to western Tunisia, but is absent from the Edough Peninsula in northern Algeria. The distribution map for this species largely follows the map presented in Veith <em>et al.</em> (2004), but its occurrence within this range is very limited due to fragmented habitat. The altitudinal range of the species is not known.	eng
61919	habitat		This is presumed to be a largely aquatic species dependent upon cisterns, ponds, swamps, and other wetlands. It is not clear if this salamander uses terrestrial habitats. This species has a similar breeding strategy to <em>Pleurodeles waltl</em>, depositing its eggs and completing larval development within water.	eng
61919	population		It is a rare and declining species.	eng
61919	threats		The species is threatened by pollution of natural breeding ponds (dayas), through expansion and intensification of agriculture (livestock) in the region (Schleich, Kästle and Kabisch 1996). There is only limited suitable habitat within its range, suggesting that its populations could be small and severely fragmented.	eng
61920	conservation		This species is not known from any protected areas. It is an urgent priority to restore the vegetation along stream banks in order to minimize erosion and loss of soil. Plans to remove the eucalyptus plantations in the area might be beneficial for the species, providing that this is done carefully, and does not result in even more widespread soil erosion.	eng
61920	distribution		This species is known only from c. 1,080 m on Sagala Hill, in the Taita Hills, south-eastern Kenya. This mountain block is isolated from other similar habitat by the arid Tsavo plains, and so the range of this species is believed to be restricted to the c. 29km² within this block that are above 1,000 m asl.	eng
61920	habitat		Presumably originally a montane forest species, all specimens found were dug up from shambas (smallholder farms), usually in soil underneath banana plants or under decomposing organic debris. The species thus seems tolerant of small-scale farming activities. However, the density of animals is much higher near streams than in shambas away from streams, so the area of optimal habitat is very small. The species appears to be completely absent from eucalyptus plantations (which cover much of the Sagala Hill area), and is also missing from the small remaining area of natural forest on the ridge of Sagala Hill (perhaps because it is above the elevation level of this species, or because of the absence of suitable streamside habitat). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
61920	population		The species is considered to be common in suitable habitats within its small range. At one site, 16 specimens were dug up in one hour in an area of 30m².	eng
61920	threats		Very little natural forest remains on Sagalla Hill, but it is not clear whether or not these caecilians might sometimes benefit from anthropogenically disturbed habitat. Although tolerant of small-scale farming activities, the continued expansion of these has in recent years lead to the removal of streamside vegetation. This has resulted in severe flooding, and an increase in the erosion of river banks (with serious loss of soil) where this species is known to breed, and occur at its highest densities. Pesticides might also pose a threat.	eng
61921	conservation		This species is likely to occur in Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, which is adjacent to the type locality. It appears to be taxonomically distinct, but very few specimens are available and further work is required to fully characterise it (Gower pers. comm.).	eng
61921	distribution		This species is known from 80m asl at Mudur Village (adjacent to Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary), Kundapura Taluk, in Udupi District, southern Karnataka State, in the Western Ghats of India.	eng
61921	habitat		It was first found in rotting vegetation at the base of saplings at a distance of around 5m from a stream in a betel nut orchard, indicating at least a degree of tolerance to habitat disturbance. It is presumably originally a forest species. Its reproductive biology is unknown, although where known other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
61921	population		It is known only from two specimens and its population status is not known. In two subsequent visits to the type locality, following its discovery, this species could not be relocated.	eng
61921	threats		There is no information on threats.	eng
61922	conservation		The only known locality for this species falls inside Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, potentially affording it some degree of protection. Further work is required to further establish the characterisation of this species and <em>Gegeneophis danieli</em> (Gower pers. comm.).	eng
61922	distribution		This species is known from Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary in Goa State, at about 200m asl, in the Western Ghats of India. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61922	habitat		It was collected in a heap of rotting elephant grass at a distance of around 5m from a cement-walled stream inside a mini zoo. The general habitat of the sanctuary is moist deciduous forest. This species' reproductive biology is unknown. Other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that undergo direct development.	eng
61922	population		There is no information on the population status of this species, which is known only from two specimens.	eng
61922	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
61923	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
61923	distribution		This species is known from 12 specimens found at 1,042m asl near Dhanagarwada, at Humbarli village, near Koyna in Satara District, Maharashtra State, in the northern Western Ghats of India. The limits of its distribution remain unknown.	eng
61923	habitat		It was found on a shallow-soiled plateau, under rocks in an open area of grassland surrounded by semi-evergreen forest. The grassland is strongly seasonal, with very dry periods. Small pieces of earthworm were found in the guts of two of the specimens. Although this species' reproductive mode is not known, that of its closest suspected relatives (<em>Gegeneophis</em> spp.) is oviparity with terrestrial eggs that develop directly.	eng
61923	population		It appears to be fairly common at the type locality.	eng
61923	threats		There is no information on threats.	eng
61924	conservation	Vizcaíno, S. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi </span>has been registered in Parque Nacional Calilegua (76,000 ha) and Parque Nacional El Rey (44,000 ha).	eng
61924	distribution	Vizcaíno, S. & Abba, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi</span> is currently known only from Jujuy and Salta provinces, Argentina (Vizcaíno 1995). Its range may extend into Bolivia or Paraguay.	eng
61924	habitat	Vizcaíno, S. & Abba, A.M., 2009	This armadillo species appears to be tolerant of a variety of ecological conditions from xeric habitats to humid montane forest (Vizcaíno 1995, Vizcaíno and Giallombardo 2001, Aguiar and Fonseca 2008).	eng
61924	population	Vizcaíno, S. & Abba, A.M., 2009	There is no information on the population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. yepesi.</span>	eng
61924	threats	Vizcaíno, S. & Abba, A.M., 2009	The threats to this species are not known, but it can be assumed that it is used as a protein source and that habitat destruction is affecting it negatively.	eng
61925	conservation	Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	The island is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the Comarca Indigenous Reserve. There is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area, which currently receives no attention from wildlife authorities. Conservation of the species could be improved through local awareness programmes, specifically those promoting sloths as conservation flagship species.	eng
61925	distribution	Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species is known only from Isla Escudo de Veraguas, in the islands of Bocas del Toro, Panamá. Sloths on the younger islands of the Bocas del Toro archipelago are conspecific with <em>Bradypus variegatus</em>. Isla Escudo de Veraguas has an area of approximately 4.3 km² and is about 17.6 km from the mainland of Panamá.	eng
61925	habitat	Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	This species has only been recorded in the red mangrove forests surrounding the island, currently estimated at 1.3-1.5 km². It has not been recorded from forest patches within the island. As far as is known, it primarily if not exclusively feeds on mangrove leaves.	eng
61925	population	Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species. The population is likely to be relatively small and is presumably in the low thousands at most.	eng
61925	threats	Samudio, R. & Members of the IUCN SSC Edentate Specialist Group, 2008	Although the island is uninhabited, there are seasonal visitors (fishermen, campesinos, lobster divers and local people) who opportunistically are known to hunt the sloths. The species is potentially threatened by the development of the island for tourism, which has degraded the habitat.	eng
61926	conservation	Moreira Fernandes, F., 2006	A project entitled "Conservation and Management of <em>Dimophandra wilsonii</em>" was started in 2003 by the Botanic Garden of the Fundação Zoo-Botânica de Belo Horizonte. Through this project ,extensive surveys for the species have been conducted. The project also includes monitoring in the field; studies on the biological, ecological and genetic apsects of the plant; methods of providing physical protection; and cultivation aspects. The project stimulated the City Mayors of the two municipalities and the State Government to create specific protection laws for <em>D. wilsonii</em>. These  laws were passed in 2004. <br/> <br/>In December 2005 and January 2006, the first reintroduction of the species was carried out: 110 individuals were planted. Another 100 plants are being grown <em>ex situ</em>.  <br/> <br/>The species is in the Red List of Minas Gerais State (Mendonça and Lins 2000) but not in the last Brazilian Red List, because of insufficient data. But the Minas Gerais list in now under revision and the species will most probably be listed as Critically Endangered as there is now enough information available about its conservation status. <br/> <br/>To help the survey work started late in 2004, a leaflet and posters were produced to explain the project to the wider community and to encourage their participation, especially in reporting additional plants or helping to conserve the species. The response has been very good so far. It is hoped that sufficient funds will be raised to continue the conservation work on this species especially the ongoing surveys, monitoring and reintroduction work required.	eng
61926	distribution	Moreira Fernandes, F., 2006	Found only in Minas Gerais State in southeast Brazil: Paraopeba and Caetanópolis municipalities. Occurs in a small range between the coordinates 44°25'25,7"W – 19°19'49,2"S and 44°28'23,2"W – 19°12'25,8"S.	eng
61926	habitat	Moreira Fernandes, F., 2006	Native to the "Cerradão", the most dense and high physiognomy (typology) of the Cerrado Biome (the Brazilian Savanna), one of the worlds Hot Spots of biodiversity.	eng
61926	population	Moreira Fernandes, F., 2006	There are only 10 adults (mature individuals) and six juveniles living in nature in the middle of pastures of <em>Brachiaria</em>, in a very deforested and fragmented region. The species was described in 1969 and was always very rare. The population is decreasing: in 1984, 18 individuals were observed in the wild (Rizzini and Matos 1986); in 2003, 11 adult individuals were observed (F. Fernandes, pers. obs.); in 2004, one adult died (unknown reason). Only 10 mature plants now remain (F.M. Fernandes, pers. obs). <br/> <br/>After months of surveys searching for new individuals or subpopulations,  <br/>only one new mature plant was found (in August 2005). In 2005, one of the previously known individuals died (F.M. Fernandes, pers. comm).	eng
61926	threats	Moreira Fernandes, F., 2006	Threatened by deforestation for charcoal production; this is the most important threat to the Cerrado Biome. There is also deforestation for pasture establishment and any seedlings face competition from <em>Brachiaria</em> an alien invasive grass. This species is also deliberately erradicated by people because the seeds of the species can be harmful to pregnant cattle. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/><em>D. wilsonii</em> contains the flavonoid 'rutina' in its fruits. Rutina is widely used to produce medicines for human circulatory diseases and is usually extracted industrially in Brazil from the related species <em>D. mollis</em> and <em>D. gardneriana</em>. <em>D. wilsonii</em> has good exploitation potential but was never used because of its small population size and because the species was so poorly known. Rutina from <em>D. wilsonii</em> does not appear to have been used by the local population. However, the wood of the species has been recorded as being used to make furniture, but this appears to be uncommon.	eng
62004	conservation	Miller, A., 2004	None in place.	eng
62004	distribution	Miller, A., 2004	Subspecies <em>smithii</em> is found in the central and eastern parts of Soqotra at 400–650 m, whereas the typical subspecies is restricted to a small area at the far western end of Soqotra near Qalansiya at 200–300 m.	eng
62004	habitat	Miller, A., 2004	Grows in drought-deciduous woodland on limestone.	eng
62004	population	Miller, A., 2004	A common species.	eng
62004	threats	Miller, A., 2004	No major threats to the species as a whole (but see the typical subspecies account).	eng
62005	conservation	Miller, A., 2006	None in place.	eng
62005	distribution	Miller, A., 2006	Known only from two colections from northwestern Soqotra at 200 - 300 m.	eng
62005	habitat	Miller, A., 2006	Restricted to drought-deciduous woodland on the limestone escarpments. There are several other local endemics and plants of note on the escarpment above Qaysoh near Qalansiyah escarpment including <em>Boswellia bullata</em>, <em>Dorstenia gigas</em>, <em>Prenanthes amabilis</em>, <em>Aloe squarrosa</em>, and <em>Gaillonia thymoides</em>.	eng
62005	population	Miller, A., 2006	Apparently small given its highly restricted range and the low number of collections.	eng
62005	threats	Miller, A., 2006	Threatened by climate change which is drying out the habitat.	eng
62006	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	No species-specific conservation actions are necessary. <em>A. c. corriae</em> occurs in protected areas, including Wilderness National Park, Tsitsikamma National Park, Diepwalle Forest Reserve, Keurboomsrivier Nature Reserve, Kluitjieskraal Nature Reserve, Ruitersbos State Forest, Saasveld State Forest and the Bergplaas Nature Reserve. <em>A. c. devilliersi</em> recorded from the Jonkershoek Conservation Area (Stellenbosch), Hawequas State Forest (Worcester) and the Boosmansbos Wilderness Area (Swellendam), Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve (Heidelberg) and Garcia State Forest (Riversdale). It probably occurs more widely in other conservation areas proclaimed for the preservation of Fynbos.	eng
62006	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is found from western Cape Province, from Hawequas Forest (near Worcester) in the north, westwards through Paarl and Stellenbosch to the coastal plain and slopes of the Langeberg mountains in the Riversdale district, then northeastwards along the coastal plain and slopes of the Outeniqua, Kouga and Baviaanskloof mountain ranges from the vicinity of George to Humansdorp (Eastern Cape). Does not cross the Cape Flats, where the Cape Golden Mole (<em>Chrysochloris asiatica</em>) is common.	eng
62006	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Sandy soils and soft loams in lowland and montane Fynbos and forests, possibly with a marginal intrusion into savanna (in the southern parts of the Eastern Cape). Thrives in gardens, cultivated lands, golf courses and livestock paddocks. Present also in exotic plantations, but apparently at lower densities.	eng
62006	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Common throughout its range, but restricted to specific soils; less common in rocky mountainous habitats.	eng
62006	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The major threat is habitat alteration/degradation/loss in areas along the eastern coast of Western Cape owing to tourism developments and increasingly intensive agricultural practices, which could lead to fragmentation and isolation of some populations. More localized threats include: poisoning and persecution by gardeners, greenkeepers, nurserymen and specialized (small-scale) agricultural concerns; and predation by domestic dogs and cats.	eng
62007	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Known to occur in only the Pongola Wilderness Area. Research is needed to search for other populations in intermediate areas, and to quantify threats faced by this species.	eng
62007	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa. Known from only two isolated localities (Ubombo and Ingwavuma) on the eastern slopes of Lebombo Mountains in KwaZulu-Natal. Owl pellet remains from Weenen, about 250 km southwest, appear to represent this species, suggesting that it may be more widespread than currently recognized. Possibly extends into southeastern Swaziland along Lebombo Mountains.	eng
62007	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Moist grasslands and indigenous forests in Natal Lowveld Bushveld and Lebombo Arid-Mountain Bushveld of Savanna biome. Does not range below the mountains on the Mozambique plain, where it is replaced by the Yellow Golden Mole (<em>Calcochloris obtusirostris</em>). Also occurs in gardens.	eng
62007	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common, but no quantitative data.	eng
62007	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The single major threat is likely to be habitat degradation, either through overgrazing by cattle, the destruction of vegetation for firewood by local subsistence communities, and urbanization (in the Ubombo district). Predation by domestic pets, and possible pesticide contamination in areas adjoining agricultural estates, are more localized threats.	eng
62008	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Recorded from the provincial Verloren-Vallei Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga. Research needed to accurately determine distribution limits of this species, document its basic ecology and reproductive parameters, and to confirm its distinctness from <em>A. hottentotus</em> and <em>A. septentrionalis</em> (possibly using molecular data).	eng
62008	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	The species is endemic to South Africa. Known only from the Steenkamps mountains in the Belfast and Dullstroom districts of eastern Mpumalanga, possibly extending southwards to the Ermelo district where <em>A. septentrionalis</em> instead occurs.	eng
62008	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Montane grasslands and marshes in Moist Sandy Highveld Grassland in Eastern Mpumalanga, South Africa. Prefers friable soils, from sands to quite heavy clays. Avoid shallow substrates along rocky ridges (which may act as dispersal barriers) and waterlogged areas. Occurs in gardens and farmyards.	eng
62008	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Common in suitable natural habitats, also in gardens, orchards and cultivated lands; no quantitative data on population sizes or trends.	eng
62008	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The highveld grasslands favoured by this species have, and continues to be, altered and degraded by mining of shallow coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations in the region. Although these activities are not currently occurring at the four known localities, the species may nevertheless be impacted if it is more widespread than current records indicate, which seems likely. <br/><br/>Agricultural activities, the development of numerous tourism resorts, and agroforestry have, and continue, to transform the habitat of this species, but it appears to survive (perhaps at lower densities) in such disturbed areas, suggesting that the nature and intensity of this alterations does not yet pose a major threat. Otherwise, predation by domestic pets, and persecution by gardeners in urban areas, likely represent more localized threats.	eng
62009	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Not recorded from any provincial or national nature reserves. Gelderblom <em>et al</em>. (1995) identified the southeastern Mpumalanga highveld as a hotspot of chrysochlorid endemicity, and recommended that urgent action be taken to augment the national protected areas network in this region. Research needed to confirm distinctness from <em>A. h. meesteri, A. robustus</em> and <em>A. h. longiceps</em>, and to determine distributional limits of these taxa.	eng
62009	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	The species occurs in South Africa and Swaziland, ranging in the Mpumalanga highveld from Wakkerstroom northwards to Ermelo and Barberton, and westwards through Standerton district to northeastern Free State (Heilbron/Parys) and eastwards to Swaziland (Piggs Peak/Mbabane). A population from the Harrismith area is also provisionally attributed to this form.	eng
62009	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Meadows and edges of marshes in high-altitude grasslands of eastern Mpumalanga. Restricted to friable soils in valleys and on mountainsides, where individuals may co-exist with the Rough-haired Golden mole, <em>Chrysospalax villosus</em>. Common in farmyards, gardens, golf courses, and present also in exotic plantations, though seemingly at lower densities. In the Wakkerstroom district it is found in thickets of Oldwood trees (<em>Leucosidea sericea</em>) on the banks of streams in valleys, but avoid scrubby vegetation in kloofs and along rocky ridges, where it is replaced by Sclater’s Golden Mole <em>Chlorotalpa sclateri</em>.	eng
62009	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common; trapping data suggest densities of 3 ha<sup>-1</sup> at one locality in the Wakkerstroom district. Based current estimate extent of occurrence, the global population is well over 10,000 individuals.	eng
62009	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	The major threat to this species is likely to be habitat alteration/degradation associated with mining of coal deposits to fuel numerous power stations in the region. Habitat alteration owing to agriculture could be a more minor threat, but this species thrives in such landscapes and thus is probably not severely impacted; predation by domestic pets, and persecution by gardeners and greenkeepers, could represent a more localized threat.	eng
62010	conservation	Bronner, G., 2008	Legislation and political will are urgently needed to conserve the Tshwane (Pretoria) population. GDACEL (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Land Affairs) commissioned a Strategic Environmental Assessment to assist in formulating a policy to regulate development and activities in this area (See Pfab 2002). Despite these actions, and a separate EIA tabled by EcoAssessments C.C. on behalf of local landowners, the Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs has re-issued a mining permit to allow mining to continue into the forseeable future. Sustained and concerted efforts, including legal actions, are needed to support GDACEL in implementing their policy and to convince relevant provincial and national regulatory bodies of the dire threat faced by this population. Ongoing public education efforts should be sustained and expanded. Current research on the genetic and systematics status of the Pretoria population should be expanded to incorporate conservation genetics data, and a thorough risk assessment should be done.	eng
62010	distribution	Bronner, G., 2008	This topotypical population is known from only The Willows (type locality), Shere and Tierpoort on the northern slopes of the Bronberg Ridge in Tshwane (Pretoria), Gauteng.	eng
62010	habitat	Bronner, G., 2008	Confined to sandy soils, often pockets of weathered sandstone associated with rocky ridges with Rocky Highveld Grassland and Mixed Bushveld vegetation. Also occurs in gardens. Habitat fragmented and altered by urbanization and mining activities.	eng
62010	population	Bronner, G., 2008	Locally common in remaining patches of suitable habitat, but no quantitative data on population size or trends.	eng
62010	threats	Bronner, G., 2008	Inferred major threat - habitat alteration and fragmentation. In the former Transvaal Province, this species was given the highest regional priority score for mammals (Freitag and van Jaarsveld 1997). Much of the habitat of this species has been dramatically altered and degraded as a result of urbanization and high-density housing developments along the Bronberg Ridge in Tshwane (Pretoria). Quartzite mining operations threaten to destroy the sole remaining dispersal corridor between eastern and western subpopulations, which could lead to genetic erosion and a reduced population viability. Inferred minor threats - predation by domestic pets, persecution by gardeners.	eng
62011	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is known from two protected areas, including Andringitra National Park.	eng
62011	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It occurs on the eastern edge of the central highlands in eastern Madagascar. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,200 and 2,350 m asl.	eng
62011	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in moist primary and secondary forest primarily on the central plateau. It often occurs in agricultural land and gardens. It has been recorded from villages and moderately large towns at a considerable distance from forests (S. M. Goodman pers. comm).	eng
62011	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
62011	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species adapts to anthropogenic environments. It is sometimes hunted for food.	eng
62012	conservation	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	Found in several protected areas such as Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Manongarivo, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena National Park, Mantadia National Park, Andringitra National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, and Ivohibe Special Reserve. Further studies are needed into the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
62012	distribution	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands south to Andohahela. The altitudinal range of this species is between 350 and 2,350 m asl.	eng
62012	habitat	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a terrestrial species of humid forest. It has been recorded in marshlands close to the forest edge. It is not found in heavily modified habitats.	eng
62012	population	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is abundant in certain suitable habitats (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
62012	threats	Rakotondravony, D. & Goodman, S., 2008	In the lower elevations of its range it is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation by conversion to cultivated land, logging and fire. There appear to be no major threats to the species at higher altitudes.	eng
62013	conservation	Raherisehena, M., Jenkins, P. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including the Ranomafana National Park, Andohahela National Park, Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Manongarivo Special Reserve, Marojejy National Park, Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Zahamena RNI and Andringitra National Park. Further studies into the taxonomy, population numbers, biology and ecology and range of this species.	eng
62013	distribution	Raherisehena, M., Jenkins, P. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is known from a range of localities spanning the eastern lowland forests of Madagascar. It occurs between  440 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
62013	habitat	Raherisehena, M., Jenkins, P. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It is a terrestrial, forest dependent species that occurs in the eastern humid forests.	eng
62013	population	Raherisehena, M., Jenkins, P. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	On the basis of standard trapping techniques with pitfall traps, this species is relatively common.	eng
62013	threats	Raherisehena, M., Jenkins, P. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It is generally threatened by deforestation and degradation of the forest understorey by cattle (at all elevations), and by fires (largely in the lower elevations of its range).	eng
62014	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is known from several protected areas including Andringitra National Park, Ranomafana National Park, Andohahela National Park, Marojejy National Park, Anjanaharibe-sud Special Reserve, Ambohitantely Special Reserve, and Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve. Further research is needed into population abundance, distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
62014	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species ranges through eastern Madagascar where it is associated with humid forest formations. It ranges between 970 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
62014	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is found in mid to high altitude eastern humid forests. It has not been recorded from degraded forests. Little is known about its ecology, but similar adaptations to <em>Microgale gracilis</em> suggest that it is a semi-fossorial species.	eng
62014	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	The population abundance is not known. It may be difficult to trap.	eng
62014	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	At lower elevations in its range it is threatened by pastoral grazing, deforestation and fire.	eng
62015	conservation	Goodman, S. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is not currently within a protected area, however, the Mikea Forest is in the process of becoming a protected area. Further research is needed into the population, biology, ecology, range and adaptation to disturbance.	eng
62015	distribution	Goodman, S. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Mikea Forest in south-western Madagascar. It has not been found at an additional four sites with suitable habitat surveyed in the region during 2002, and it is believed to be geographically restricted. It was collected at 80 m asl.	eng
62015	habitat	Goodman, S. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is presumed to be a terrestrial species. It is known from transitional, dry deciduous spiny-bush forest. It has been recorded in slightly disturbed forest.	eng
62015	population	Goodman, S. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is known only from two specimens from the type locality.	eng
62015	threats	Goodman, S. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is threatened by clearance of forest for agricultural land and by fires.	eng
62016	conservation	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found in several protected areas including the Manongarivo, Ambohitantely, and Ambohijanahary Special Reserves; the exterior northern limit of Ivohibe Special Reserve; Andringitra National Park; and Parcel 1 of Andohahela National Park. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. A further review of known specimens of <em>M. majori</em>, <em>M. longicaudata</em> and <em>M. principula</em> is needed to elucidate the range of these three species.	eng
62016	distribution	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is widespread and ranges from Manongarivo Special Reserve south to Andohahela National Park in the eastern humid forest, with two potentially disjunct populations occurring in Ambohijanahary Special Reserve and the Analavelona Forest. The known elevational range extends from 785 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
62016	habitat	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found over the entire latitudinal length of the eastern humid forests and some forests in the west. May be semi-arboreal or scansorial. The occurrence of this species in small, isolated forest blocks suggests that it is an adept disperser (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
62016	population	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a relatively common species.	eng
62016	threats	Olson, L. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
62017	conservation	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It has been recorded from the Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park, the well-protected sacred forest at Analavelona, and the Kirindy CFPF area. Further research is needed into the population numbers, range, habitat and biology and threats to this species. Further information on distribution may suggest the expansion of protected areas (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
62017	distribution	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species, described in 1999, was originally only known from two sites in south-west Madagascar: Analavelona Massif and Vohibasia, about 70 km apart, and at elevations between 780 and 1,050 m asl. No other records were known until 2006, when two additional specimens were taken in the Menabe region at a notable distance from the sites of the type series and in a different habitat (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007). One specimen was taken in Foret d’Amboropotsy (Kirindy CFPF) and another in the Foret de Lambokely. In February and March 2007, three different sites in the Kirindy-Mitea National Park were surveyed and 198 pit-fall trap days were accrued at each site and no individual of M. nasoloi was captured; further, no sign of this species was found during extensive small mammal surveys in the zone north of the Tsiribihina River (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).	eng
62017	habitat	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a scansorial species that is apparently restricted to transitional dry deciduous forests (Vohibasia) and dry sclerophyllous montane forest (Analavelona) (Jenkins and Goodman 1999). The forest habitat where <em>M. nasoloi</em> was captured in the Menabe region is a seasonally dry deciduous habitat and distinctly more mesic than the Zombitse-Vohibasia zone (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).	eng
62017	population	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is known only from four specimens (Soarimalala and Goodman 2007).	eng
62017	threats	Jenkins, P. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation through pastoral use and fires.	eng
62018	conservation	Rakotondravony, D. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is found in the protected areas of Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve; Manongarivo Special Reserve; Marojejy National Park; Andringitra National Park; Pic d’Ivohibe Special Reserve; Ranomafana National Park; Mantadia National Park; Andohahela National Park and Kalambatritra Special Reserve. Further studies into the population abundance and distribution of this species are needed.	eng
62018	distribution	Rakotondravony, D. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar where it ranges from the northern highlands, south through the eastern humid forest to Andohahela. It ranges between approximately 750 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
62018	habitat	Rakotondravony, D. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is an eastern humid forest species that ranges from lowland to sclerophyllous montane forest. It prefers montane forest areas. It is a forest dependent species.	eng
62018	population	Rakotondravony, D. & Jenkins, P., 2008	Based on standard trapping techniques this species can be moderately common.	eng
62018	threats	Rakotondravony, D. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is threatened by deforestation (through conversion to agricultural use and logging) and habitat fragmentation at the lower altitudinal part of its range.	eng
62019	conservation	Ramiarinjanahary, H., Andrianjakavelo, V. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is found in several protectesd areas including the Analamazaotra Special Reserve; Mantadia National Park; Ranomafana National Park; Andringitra National Park and Marojejy National Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
62019	distribution	Ramiarinjanahary, H., Andrianjakavelo, V. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is known across the eastern humid forest of Madagascar with the exception of the central section. It has an altitudinal range of between 645 and 1,990 m asl.	eng
62019	habitat	Ramiarinjanahary, H., Andrianjakavelo, V. & Goodman, S., 2008	This species is present in a range of humid lowland and montane forest habitats. It is generally not found in secondary or degraded forest.	eng
62019	population	Ramiarinjanahary, H., Andrianjakavelo, V. & Goodman, S., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
62019	threats	Ramiarinjanahary, H., Andrianjakavelo, V. & Goodman, S., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of forest to agricultural land, logging activities and fire may threaten the species in the long-term.	eng
62025	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
62025	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is distributed in Jackson and Madison Counties, Alabama, northward on the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau, Fentress County, Tennessee (Hobbs, Hobbs and Daniel 1977, Buhay and Crandall 2008), and extends west into Morgan County (North Carolina State Museum 2009). In addition, it is the<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> most widespread of the Cumberlandian cave crayfish assemblage (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
62025	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in subterranean streams and pools.&#160; It is known to occur in open water in caves, and up on the pool banks and cave walls, and does not appear to hide itself away under rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
62025	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;this species.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
62025	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	Urbanization occurs within the sourtherly portion of this species' range, though there is no information on the impact this is having on this species. Furthermore, in the more northerly reaches of its range on the eastern edge of the Cumberland Plateau, there are no known threats as development in this region is not rapid   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
62026	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes inermis inermis</span>   has been given the heritage rank of G5T4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes inermis testii</span> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>  has been given the heritage rank of G5T3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em> <em>et al.</em> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>2007).<br/><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
62026	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from Hart County, Kentucky, northwestward to Crawford, Monroe and Harrison Counties, Indiana (Hobbs 1974, Simon 2001). However, Simon and Thoma (2003) consider the range of this species, particularly the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">O. inermis inermis</span>, to be more restricted than previously thought in the Indiana area. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 7,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
62026	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Both subspecies of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species inhabit subterranean streams (Hobbs 1974).	eng
62026	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	A mark-recapture study of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in a single cave in Indiana gave an estimated population size of 66 ± 9 individuals for the 300 m stretch of river where it was found (Hobbs 1981). Due to the specialized habitat these species inhabit, they are not considered to be particularly common (Simon 2001).	eng
62026	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	While there maybe localized threats to this species due to the specialized nature of its habitat requirements, due to the sheer number of locations this species is found in, it is difficult to conceive a widespread threat that would impact populations of this species.	eng
62027	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4T4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by AFS (Taylor et al. 2007). Contrary to this, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes meeki brevis</span>, has  been given the heritage rank of G4T3, imperiled, by NatureServe    (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Threatened by the  American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<em><br/></em>	eng
62027	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in the tributaries of the Illinois River and the White River in eastern Oklahoma, and the Arkansas River drainage system in Arkansas (Fetzner 2008, Williams 1954, Williams 1952). The northern most range of one subspecies of this species just reaches into tributaries  of the White River in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).	eng
62027	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found under rocks in rocky streams and is usually asociated with rapids. This species is additionally found under debris or in burrows under  rocks (Fetzner 2008, Williams 1954)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
62027	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is known to be common in suitable habitat<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span></p>	eng
62027	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>inhabiting a rural area with no known invasive species present<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
62028	conservation	Crandall, K.A., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus</span>   has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'threatened' based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua</span> has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and habitat modification (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is needed on the population status at each cave and the main threats to each site. In addition further taxonomic clarification is required to distinguish this species from its congeners occupying similar habitats (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/></p>	eng
62028	distribution	Crandall, K.A., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua</span> is found in southwestern Alachua, western Gilchrist, and northern and eastern Levy counties, Florida; intergrading with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lucifugus lucifugus</span> in Marion County (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994), and is known to occur in 13 caves (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus </span>is found in Citrus and Hernanso counties northward to Marion County, Florida, where it intergrades with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. lucifugus alachua </span>(Franz,&#160;Bauer and Morris&#160;1994), and is known to occur in two caves (Franz, Bauer and Morris&#160;1994).<br/><br/>This species has a severely fragmented distribution as it is found in cave habitats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,508 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>        <p>This species is known from 20-25 occurrences (likely more) in an arc of caves 80 km long in 6 Florida counties (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
62028	habitat	Crandall, K.A., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Both <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lucifugus alachua </span>are found in subterranean waters (Franz, Bauer and Morris 1994).	eng
62028	population	Crandall, K.A., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
62028	threats	Crandall, K.A., Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major widespread threats to this species, though it is likely locally threatened by habitat degradation. There is no evidence of impact on this species (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010). Genetic work indicates that there are reasonable levels of gene flow in the population, and the population appears to be stable (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).	eng
62030	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However the species complex has been awarded the following assessments:<br/></p>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi campestris </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T2T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi expletus </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T1 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi rogersi </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4T1T2 by NatureServe and Endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Tyalor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/><br/>    <p>Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
62030	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi campestris </span>is known from Leon and Wakulla Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi expletus</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is only oknown from a seepage slope, Calhoun County, Florida (Hobbs and Hart 1959). <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis</span> is found in the Ochlockonee River basin in Gadsden and Liberty Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus rogersi rogersi</span> is found in eastern Calhoun County, Florida (Hobbs 1942).<br/><br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 8400 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
62030	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in flatwoods and seepage areas (Hobbs 1942), and is also known from<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> ponds and streams (Herrig and Shute 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
62030	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
62030	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, it may be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but these are unlikely to have an impact at a global level.	eng
62162	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
62162	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Southern Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece (including on several Greek islands). 0-1250 m. It is also found in Transcaucasia, Kopet-Dagh, Syria to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
62162	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Krueper’s Small White occurs in warm, dry places on calcareous, rocky slopes with scattered low, herbaceous vegetation. Eggs are laid on the sepals of Golden Alyssum (<em>Alyssum saxatile</em>) and <em>A. montanum</em>. The caterpillars feed on the ovaries. It hibernates as a pupa and has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).	eng
62162	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
62162	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
62173	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	This species has been reported from several protected areas (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000).	eng
62173	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Planaeschna risi</em> includes two subspecies: <em>P. r. risi</em>, from Taiwan; and <em>P. r. sakishimana</em> recorded from Ishigaki and Iromote Islands in the Yaeyama Islands of the Ryukyus, Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>The type locality of <em>P. r. risi</em> is listed in Steinman (1997) as occurring in Hong Kong, but this is an error promulgated in Hua (2000). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the nominate subspecies as widespread throughout the island of Taiwan up to 500 m and lists records from Fengshan, Kiaopanshan, Nanshansi, Shenshan, Taipingshan, Wulai and Yangmingshan within Tawian. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) also reported several specimens in the Leiden Museum of <em>P. r. risi</em> occurring in Fujian. Wilson (2005) recorded <em>Planaeschna risi</em> from Guangxi but recently Wilson and Xu (i2008) have shown that the Guangxi specimens are in fact a new species of <em>Planaeschna</em>, which does not belong to <em>risi</em>.	eng
62173	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	Congeners frequent forested mountain streams.	eng
62173	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The species is widespread in Taiwan.	eng
62173	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no threats currently known affecting this species.	eng
62174	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further distributional data, and for the resolution of taxonomic issues. Beyond this <em>M. basilaris</em> does not appear to need specific conservation measures across most of its range, apart from monitoring of populations to check for any decline.	eng
62174	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	As currently recognised <em>Matrona basilaris basilaris</em> occurs at least in north Viet Nam and China (Hämäläinen 2004), where there are records from Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Guandong, Guangxi, Hainan and Yunnan. The exact distribution of the species is not entirely clear due to taxonomic problems. <em>M. b. japonica</em> occurs in the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
62174	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Matrona basilaris</em> breeds in forest streams.	eng
62174	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a common species in suitable habitat in much of China at least.	eng
62174	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss; this species is threatened by deforestation. However <em>M. b. basilaris</em> is still a common species in much of its range, capable of surviving in secondary forest and well represented in protected areas.	eng
62175	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Precautionary conservation measures are needed such as control of water pollution and water regime, and restoration of some water bodies as well as restricted capture by entomologists, except for true scientific research, with control of localities by officers. <em>Coenagrion hylas</em> (ssp. <em>C. hylas freyi</em>) is listed in Annex II of the EC Habitats Directive and is included in Annex II of the Bern Convention. The Austrian localities are included in a Natura 2000 area and in the subsequent "Tiroler Lech" Naturpark.	eng
62175	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A species with a disjunct area. A very large and continuous population occurs in Siberia up to Japan, a first disjunct population occurs in the surroundings of the north Ural (Ob river delta) and a second one is located more to the west in the Austrian Tirol (valley of the Lech river) (Kosterin 2005, Landmann <em>et al.</em> 2005, Müller 2000, Raab <em>et al.</em> 2006). The single German population (lake Zwingsee near Inzell, Bavaria) is now extinct due to habitat management and fish farming. The fragmented area of the species is attributed to post-glacial climate oscillations, the species having immigrated towards the west of Europe during the Atlantic period - post-glacial climatic optimum. Subsequent climate cooling coupled to high habitat specialization led to the fragmentation of the primary range of the species over large areas.	eng
62175	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, the species is confined to shallow and more or less peaty pools and small lakes with clear oligotrophic water and zones of slow shallow running and seepage water.	eng
62175	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is known from 14 reproducing localities in Austria, but populations show very contrasting density from a place to another and from year to year. Some localities show about 800 to 5,000 exuviae per year, depending on the year. This species is assuredly one of the rarest Odonata in Europe.	eng
62175	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	At the moment, the populations are stable and the species is not threatened. Potential future threats include water pollution, changes of habitat structure and water regime, eutrophication, introduction of fishes, climate change and collection even at low rate by entomologists. In the west Palearctic, this species is very sensitive to capture by humans. Drought periods in relation to climate change may lead to a serious decrease of the species in Europe.	eng
62178	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species.	eng
62178	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	This species is endemic to Taiwan, occurring mainly on the eastern side. According to Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) it is rare but probably widespread in central and southern parts up to about 500 m. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) list Peipu as the type-locality and also list three other record localities from Chihpen, Miaoli and Tuchang. Wang (2000) records this species as endemic to Taiwan with rare populations in the east.	eng
62178	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents forested brooks (Wang 2000).	eng
62178	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
62178	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species due to its protection within protected areas.	eng
62181	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
62181	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread and a reasonably common species.  It is known presently from Kyushu, Tanegashima Island, Nakanoshima Island, and Ishigaki Island (each in a different island group south of Japan), South Taiwan, Mindanao and Basilan in the Philippines, and Guam.	eng
62181	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on the habitat preference are available for this species, although based on its distribution it is likely to be partly dependent on forest habitats.	eng
62181	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the population size of this species.	eng
62181	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is likely to be affected by human induced degradation and loss of habitat.	eng
62183	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.	eng
62183	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan. Subspecies <em>Asiagomphus amamiensis amamiensis</em> is restricted to the middle and the southern part of Amami island. Subspecies <em>A. amamiensis okinawanus</em> is restricted to the northern part of Okinawa island.	eng
62183	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits hill and mountain streams.	eng
62183	population	Karube, H., 2007	The global population is thought to be decreasing in the small number of locations the species is found in.	eng
62183	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Threats to the species include the logging of suitable habitat for the development of roads, artificial shore protection and water pollution.  The populations have been reduced, especially the Okinawa island population.  If the situation continues, the population will carry on declining.	eng
62188	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P. , 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at this time.	eng
62188	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P. , 2009	<em>Coeliccia flavicauda</em> is known from Taiwan and Japan. According to Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) <em>C. f. flavicauda</em> is endemic to Taiwan, occurring in the plains and hill region in central and southern Taiwan up to 500 m. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) list records from Fengshan, Hengchun, Kangkow, Kenting, Kiasien, Kwantzeling, Nanwan, Shuisheliao, Taichung, Tainan and Yangmingshan. Wang (2000) records <em>C. flavicauda</em> from central and southern parts up to 1,000 m. Hua (2000) lists <em>C. flavicauda</em> from Guangdong (China) but this record requires confirmation. Asahina (1951) described the subspecies <em>C. f. masakii</em> from Ishigaki-shima, southwestern Ryukyus Islands, Japan.	eng
62188	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P. , 2009	According to Wang (2000) this species frequents forest brooks, mountain ditches and pools under small waterfalls.	eng
62188	population	Wilson, K. D. P. , 2009	There is no detailed population information available although it is thought to be stable having been found in a variety of locations.	eng
62188	threats	Wilson, K. D. P. , 2009	There are no threat currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
62206	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
62206	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. atremius</em> is found in northern Kyushu Island and the Okayama Plain, Japan.  The species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 13,814 km².	eng
62206	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A benthopelagic fish,<em> R. atremius</em> inhabits small rivers and streams.	eng
62206	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
62206	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Development of irrigation systems are causing a decline in habitat quality and threatens populations of <em>R. atremius</em>.<br/><br/>The sub-species <em>R. a. suigensis</em> is further threatened by water pollution and collection for the aquarium trade (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).	eng
62223	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
62223	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
62223	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes and lower course of large rivers of Arctic Ocean basin, from Pechora drainage to eastern Siberia; North America eastward to Bathurst (Canada). <em>C</em>. '<em>albula</em>' from Lakes Mjosa and Osensjoen (Norway) might also belong to this species.	eng
62223	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Lakes and lower course of large rivers of Arctic Ocean basin, from Pechora drainage to eastern Siberia; North America eastward to Bathurst (Canada). <em>C</em>. '<em>albula</em>' from Lakes Mjosa and Osensjoen (Norway) might also belong to this species.	eng
62223	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes, estuaries and large rivers. Semi-anadromous populations forage in estuaries, lower courses of rivers, backwaters and lakes. Spawns on sand and gravel, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and semi-anadromous populations. Lives up to 10 years, exceptional records up to 22 years in Norway. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Semi-anadromous populations migrate upstream in June-September; in Pechora up to 800-1000 km from sea. In Kara, spawns in estuary. In Kara and some Siberian rivers, two spawning runs are known. First run enters rivers in August and spawns in September; second run starts in September and spawns in October soon before or after appearance of ice. Eggs hatch in spring and juveniles remain near spawning site until first autumn, then move downriver. In tundra lakes, spawns under first ice in October. Feeds on zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish. Adults do not feed during spawning migration. An isolated, dwarf stock growing to about 100 mm SL is known from Vashutkiny lakes, in upper Usa drainage, a Pechora tributary. The Pechora population may at least partly result of hybridization between <em>C. albula</em> and <em>C. sardinella</em>.	eng
62223	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lakes, estuaries and large rivers. Semi-anadromous populations forage in estuaries, lower courses of rivers, backwaters and lakes. Spawns on sand and gravel, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and semi-anadromous populations. Lives up to 10 years, exceptional records up to 22 years in Norway. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Semi-anadromous populations migrate upstream in June-September; in Pechora up to 800-1000 km from sea. In Kara, spawns in estuary. In Kara and some Siberian rivers, two spawning runs are known. First run enters rivers in August and spawns in September; second run starts in September and spawns in October soon before or after appearance of ice. Eggs hatch in spring and juveniles remain near spawning site until first autumn, then move downriver. In tundra lakes, spawns under first ice in October. Feeds on zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish. Adults do not feed during spawning migration. An isolated, dwarf stock growing to about 100 mm SL is known from Vashutkiny lakes, in upper Usa drainage, a Pechora tributary. The Pechora population may at least partly result of hybridization between <em>C. albula</em> and <em>C. sardinella</em>.	eng
62223	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
62223	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
62223	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
62223	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
62227	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Protected habitats exist in California in Asilomar State Beach, Carrizo Plain Preserve, Morro Bay State Park, Point Dume State Park (Jennings and Hayes 1994). The species also receives some protection on Pendleton Marine Corps Base and Vandenberg Air Force Base. In general, its coastal sand dune habitat is now better conserved in the United States.	eng
62227	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard has a spotty distribution in California (United States) and northwestern Baja California (Mexico), extending from near Antioch, California, south in the Coast Ranges, Transverse Mountains, and Peninsular Ranges, and along the coast of southern California, to Arroyo Pabellon, northwestern Baja California (Stebbins 2003), and inland in Baja California to at least La Rumarosa north of the Sierra Juarez (Hunt 1983, Grismer 2002). Scattered occurrences exist elsewhere in California, including the following: San Joaquin Valley; southern Sierra Nevada; Walker Basin; Ninemile Canyon; Paiute, Scodie, and Tehachapi mountains; desert-edge localities at the eastern end of Walker Pass in Kern County, Morongo Valley in San Bernardino County, Little San Bernardino Mountains at Whitewater in Riverside County, and the eastern slope of the Peninsular Ranges; and the Antelope Valley in the extreme western Mojave Desert (Stebbins 2003). The species also occurs on Los Coronados (Norte and Sur) and Todos Santos islands in Baja California. There are old records from Marin County and Palo Alto in the San Francisco Bay Area, California (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 5,100 feet (1,550 m) (Stebbins 1985). See spot map in Hunt (1983).	eng
62227	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This legless lizard burrows in loose soil, especially in semi-stabilized sand dunes and in other areas with sandy soil, including habitats vegetated with oak or pine-oak woodland, or chaparral; it also occurs along wooded stream edges, and occasionally in desert-scrub (Hunt 1983, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Bush lupine and mock heather often are present in suitable dune habitats (Stebbins 2003). The species is often found in leaf litter or under rocks, logs, or driftwood.	eng
62227	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped several dozen localities in California with extant populations; probably this translates to fewer than 100 distinct occurrences, plus a lesser number in northwestern Baja California. The total adult population size is uncertain but is probably at least 10,000. The species has been eliminated from probably about 20% of its historical range in California  (Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
62227	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species has been exterminated from much of southern California as a result of urbanization and agricultural development (Jennings and Hayes 1994). These factors have fragmented the habitat. Excessive human recreational use and invasive alien plants (e.g., ice plant) may degrade the habitat of coastal dune populations. Other activities that have detrimentally affected populations include sand mining, golf course construction, and off-road vehicle use (Stebbins 2003). In parts of California there is now better conservation of the remaining dunes. In Baja California, the population is being negatively impacted by urbanization between Tijuana and Ensenada.	eng
62228	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in national and state parks and other protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
62228	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in the west of the United States and in southwestern Canada. Its range extends from southern British Columbia south to west-central California, montane southern California (San Bernardino Mountains, San Jacinto Mountains, Tehachapi Mountains, Mt. Pinos, Mt. Abel), central Nevada and southern Utah, from the Pacific coast east to north-central Wyoming and western Montana, from near sea level to about 3,050 m (10,000 feet) (Stewart 1977, Stebbins 2003). Its distribution is spotty in many areas, particularly at the southern and eastern fringes of the range. Disjunct populations in the mountains of southern California have been proposed as a distinct species, <em>C. umbratica</em> (Rodriguez-Robles <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
62228	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes woodlands, forest clearings, patchy chaparral, meadows, and grassy savannas, generally not far from water; also riparian zones in arid canyons and sagebrush in some areas (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Generally this snake is found in or under rotting logs or stumps, under rocks or in crevices, or under the bark of dead fallen trees.	eng
62228	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Stewart (1977) mapped over 200 collection sites rangewide. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive, but under appropriate temperature and moisture conditions it becomes evident that it is locally quite common (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The populations in southern California may be declining but few reliable data are available.	eng
62228	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is not threatened in most of the range. The subspecies <em>C. b. umbratica</em> of southern California is reportedly declining due to habitat loss and degradation (resort development, smog, logging, wood gathering) (California Department of Fish and Game 1990).	eng
62232	conservation	Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	Legislative protection exists for this species in the Australian Capital Territory, Western Australia, and New South Wales (Grigg <em>et al.</em> 1985). This species is also listed on Appendix II of CITES. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized declines do not become more widespread.	eng
62232	distribution	Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is the most widespread Australian python species (Torr 2000). It occurs over the majority of the mainland (except southern Victoria and the central and western desert regions) and many offshore islands. It also has a large distribution in southern New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago and the northern Solomon Islands.	eng
62232	habitat	Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species has very flexible habitat preferences. It is found in dense moist lowland forest, shrubland, grassland, rocky areas, and in highly altered environments including agricultural and urban areas.	eng
62232	population	Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This python is known to be common in many areas, but there have been localized declines (Bush <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
62232	threats	Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	Habitat loss has caused a decline in localized populations of this species, but cannot be considered a major threat to the global population. Habitat loss prevents this species from finding suitable hiding places to ambush prey and suitable shelter to brood their eggs (Pearson <em>et al.</em> 2005). Possible reasons for habitat loss include overgrazing by livestock and agricultural expansion (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1993). This species is also part of the pet trade, but collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant declines.	eng
62235	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There are many occurrences of this species in protected areas.	eng
62235	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species' large range extends from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast of the United States; northern California, Nevada, southwestern Utah, eastern Colorado, southwestern Nebraska, Missouri, Kentucky (formerly), and North Carolina, south to southern Baja California, Sinaloa, Queretaro in Mexico, and the Gulf Coast of United States, and southern Florida (Wilson 1973).	eng
62235	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This snake occurs in a wide range of habitats: desert, prairie, scrubland, juniper-grassland, woodland, thornforest, farmland, creek valleys, and sometimes swamps; usually in relatively dry open terrain. It is terrestrial but also climbs into vegetation. It seeks cover in burrows, among rocks, or in vegetation. <br/> <br/>Its diet includes a variety of prey; small vertebrates, mammals, birds and their eggs, and many different reptiles such as small lizards, snakes and turtles, in addition to carrion and invertebrates (Hammerson 1999, Reams <em>et al</em>. 2000, Reams and Aucone 2001, Stebbins 2003, Pough <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is oviparous and lays a clutch of four to 20 eggs, which hatch after a period of six to 11 weeks (Behler and King 1979, Stebbins 2003).	eng
62235	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by very many occurrences or subpopulations. Wilson (1973) mapped hundreds of collection sites over a vast area. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. It is common in Mexico and in many areas of the southern United States. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of much less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
62235	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats to this species are known. It occurs in semi-agricultural areas but generally not in areas with extensive, intensive cultivation (Hammerson 1999).	eng
62236	conservation	Hollingsworth, B., Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
62236	distribution	Hollingsworth, B., Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species' range extends in the United States from north-central California southward along the coast and the western slope of the Sierra Nevada south through southwestern California to Baja California, Mexico (Jennings 1983, Grismer and Mahrdt 1996, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, it ranges widely and continuously south to Sierra San Pedro Martir, but in disjunct populations south of this as far as Cañon de los Reyes. Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,250 m asl (7,400 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
62236	habitat	Hollingsworth, B., Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Habitats of this species include chaparral foothills, shrublands with scattered grassy patches, rocky canyons and watercourses, oases in drier regions, mixed deciduous and pine woodlands in the mountains, and semi-desert (in Baja California) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake retreats underground or under cover when inactive. It lays eggs probably most often in abandoned rodent burrows, perhaps also in other protected sites underground or under imbedded objects.	eng
62236	population	Hollingsworth, B., Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Jennings 1983). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is locally common in suitable habitat in the United States. In Mexico it is common north of Sierra San Pedro Martir, but is less often encountered south of here. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are relatively stable.	eng
62236	threats	Hollingsworth, B., Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present. Some local populations are likely to be declining as a result of habitat loss due to urbanization, and the smaller populations in the southernmost part of its range are probably more sensitive to habitat alteration.	eng
62237	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
62237	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida, and west to Texas, and extends north in the Mississippi Valley to southeastern Missouri and (at least formerly) southern Illinois (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Introduced and established in southern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000) and in Sacramento County, California (Balfour and Stitt 2002).	eng
62237	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists primarily of vegetated freshwater ponds, lakes, marshes, wet prairies, sluggish streams and rivers, drainage ditches, and swamps, extending in some areas seawards to the edge of salt water meadows and marshes and mangrove swamps (Barbour 1971; Tennant 1997, 1998; Johnson 2000; Werler and Dixon 2000; Ernst and Ernst 2003; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake basks on banks and in edge vegetation. It shelters in bank-side burrows or under vegetative debris.	eng
62237	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. It is ubiquitous in suitable habitat throughout most of its range (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 200 collection sites in Texas alone; hundreds of additional collection sites in Louisiana, North Carolina, and Arkansas were mapped by Dundee and Rossman (1989), Palmer and Braswell (1995), and Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally abundant or common in much of eastern North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and it is the most common watersnake in peninsular Florida (Tennant 1997). It is common to uncommon in different parts of its range in Texas (Tennant 1998). It is relatively scarce at the northern periphery of the range in Illinois (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999) and Kentucky (Barbour 1971). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
62237	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of drainage of wetlands or removal of aquatic vegetation (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Many are killed each year by people (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), but this does not constitute a major threat.	eng
62238	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least some of the habitat appears to be adequately protected.	eng
62238	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range is limited to the Brazos River drainage in north-central Texas in the south of the United States (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). See Scott <em>et al</em>. (1989) for a detailed distribution map. See Dorcas and Mendelson (1991) for new records from Palo Pinto and Parker counties (Moffitt Bend and Littlefield Bend areas). This snake occupies about 303 km of stream plus about 70 km of two reservoirs (Possum Kingdom Lake and Lake Granbury) (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
62238	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists of fast-flowing rocky streams free of dense vegetation next to the water's edge (Werler and Dixon 2000); also the shorelines of impoundments (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake takes cover under rocks in water or in vegetation along shore (Conant 1975, Tennant 1984). Juveniles use medium to large, flat rocks on unshaded shores for hiding, rocky shallows for feeding (species may be absent where juvenile habitat lacking); adults inhabit rocky riffles as well as a wider range of habitats in pools and lakes (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
62238	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Scott <em>et al</em>. (1989) mapped about 20 observation sites, some which represented multiple sites in which the species was found. These might represent several distinct occurrences (subpopulations) or they could be regarded as parts of one or a few large occurrences. The adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand. This snake is locally abundant in many localities within the small range (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1989). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
62238	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Dams have inundated some of the former stream habitat, but this species has survived for decades along the shorelines of reservoirs (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It appears not to be significantly threatened at present.	eng
62239	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
62239	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The large range of this species encompasses most of the eastern United States and a relatively small portion of adjacent southeastern Canada, from Maine, southern Quebec, and southern Ontario to Minnesota, extreme southern South Dakota, and eastern Colorado, and south to extreme northern Texas, southern Louisiana, the Florida panhandle, western South Carolina, and North Carolina, at elevations from sea level to around 1,675 m (5,500 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
62239	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include creeks, rivers, canals, lakes, oxbows, ponds, reservoirs, marshes, bogs, and swamps; this snake usually inhabits freshwater but also occurs in brackish and saltwater habitats in some areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It frequents sunny areas, especially piles of flood-deposited debris, logs, or rocks, at the water's edge. Hibernation sites often are in burrows, among rocks, or in deep crevices, at the water's edge or in uplands near water.	eng
62239	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is abundant in most areas of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
62239	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This snake tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration.	eng
62240	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in areas that afford adequate protection.	eng
62240	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' wide range includes much of North America, from southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, southern Northwest Territories, northern Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, Ontario, central Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces of Canada, to southern California, central Utah, northeastern Colorado, New Mexico, and Chihuahua (Mexico) (disjunct), Texas, Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). There is a very small population in northwestern Chihuaha, Mexico.	eng
62240	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Throughout the range, this species inhabits a very wide range of aquatic, wetland, and upland habitats; habitat preference exhibits rather pronounced regional differences (e.g., east vs. west). When inactive, it occurs underground, in or under surface cover, or in other secluded sites.	eng
62240	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Fitch 1980). Many occurrences have good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. Long-term extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably been relatively stable. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a low rate.	eng
62240	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified. The Mexican population is vulnerable to changes in hydrology.	eng
62253	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
62253	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south in the Sierra Madre Occidental through north-central and northeastern Sonora to western Chihuahua and (possibly disjunctly) to southern Durango and western Zacatecas, Mexico, at elevations of about 1,460 to 2,750 m (4,790 to 9,020 feet) (Campbell and Lamar 2004).  <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>obscurus</em> occurs locally in the Animas Mountains (New Mexico), Peloncillo Mountains (Arizona and New Mexico), and Sierra de San Luis (Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico) (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1989, Holycross and Smith 1997, Campbell and Lamar 2004). <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>willardi</em> occurs in the Huachuca, Patagonia, Santa Rita, and Whetstone mountains of Arizona and southward into the Sierra de los Ojos, Sierra de Cananea, and Sierra Azul in north-central Sonora (Thirkhill and Starrett, 1992, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
62253	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' habitat includes montane areas of pine-oak, oak scrub, oak-juniper, and pine-fir woodland, foothill canyons in pinyon-juniper woodland, and relatively humid canyon bottoms with canopies of sycamore, alder, box elder, and maple, often along stream courses, in areas with rock outcrops or talus, or among downed logs (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). At the southern end of the range, habitats include pine-covered plateaus with scattered open meadows, hillsides with scattered pines, oaks, madrones, and rocks, and brushy hilltops (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This snake is basically terrestrial but may climb into low vegetation (Rossi and Feldner, 1993). It seeks cover in crevices, among or under rocks, wood, or other debris, in old stumps, or in similar sites.	eng
62253	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 43 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This snake appears not to be abundant in most areas in the United States (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), but it is regarded as fairly common in Mexico. In New Mexico, a population that appeared to be declining in the 1970s was well-protected and stable in the 1990s (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Currently, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
62253	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	On a range-wide basis, no major threats are known. As of the early 1980s, populations in Arizona were not threatened (Johnson cited by Ernst 1992). Threats in Arizona include illegal collecting, mining, recreational development, and wood cutting (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
62255	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomović, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It is present in many protected areas. There is a need for further taxonomic studies into the relationship between <em>Vipera ammondytes</em> and <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>.	eng
62255	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomovi?, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It is present in many protected areas. There is a need for further taxonomic studies into the relationship between <em>Vipera ammondytes</em> and <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>.	eng
62255	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomović, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species ranges eastwards from southern Austria and northeastern Italy into the Balkan region and southern and southwestern Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including a number of the Cyclades Islands). It Turkey it ranges to the west of the Bosphorus (east of the Bosphorus is <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>). The species ranges from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
62255	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomovi?, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This species ranges eastwards from southern Austria and northeastern Italy into the Balkan region and southern and southwestern Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including a number of the Cyclades Islands). It Turkey it ranges to the west of the Bosphorus (east of the Bosphorus is <em>V. transcaucasiana</em>). The species ranges from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
62255	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomović, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is associated with rocky areas but can be opportunistic in other habitats. It can be found in dry, often rocky habitats, including open woodland and scrub, sand dunes, hillsides, screes, stone walls, traditionally cultivated land, gardens and vineyards. The species is ovoviviparous; females give birth to between four and 15 young.	eng
62255	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomovi?, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This species is associated with rocky areas but can be opportunistic in other habitats. It can be found in dry, often rocky habitats, including open woodland and scrub, sand dunes, hillsides, screes, stone walls, traditionally cultivated land, gardens and vineyards. The species is ovoviviparous; females give birth to between four and 15 young.	eng
62255	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomović, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is very common in much of its range.	eng
62255	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomovi?, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2009	It is very common in much of its range.	eng
62255	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomović, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is  locally threatened by overcollection in parts of its range (e.g., in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania and isolated populations in the Alps) by collection of animals for venom extraction. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people.	eng
62255	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ljiljana Tomovi?, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Ulrich Joger, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Dušan Jelić, 2009	It is  locally threatened by overcollection in parts of its range (e.g., in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania and isolated populations in the Alps) by collection of animals for venom extraction. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people.	eng
62256	conservation		The taxon is included in CITES Appendix III, pertaining to the population of Ghana. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Population status and trend data from across the range of the species would be desirable. Awareness of the species' ecology may help counteract wanton kiling by fishermen. In Turkey there is an urgent need to protect this species. In Israel the species is artificially maintained in the wild. In Egypt it has been recorded from at least three protected areas (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
62256	distribution		This species ranges widely in Africa, north along the Nile to the Eastern Mediterranean. It formerly occurred more widely in the coastal regions of southern Turkey, western Lebanon and in the Mediterranean coastal area of Israel from Tel Aviv northwards. It has not been reported from Syria, although vagrants might occur here. It has been introduced into the Jordan River system in the north including Hula Lake. It occurs in the Nile River basin from Egypt, and in river basins in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, and in coastal and inland river systems from the Senegal (Mauritania-Senegal) river to the Cunene (Namibia) (Iverson 1992; Branch 1988; Boycott and Bourquin 2000; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). It ranges from below sea-level to possibly over 1,500m (in Africa).	eng
62256	habitat		It inhabits fairly deep water in permanent lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal lagoons. It is tolerant of full seawater conditions for some time (Branch 1988; Baran and Atatur 1998). In Israel the quality of the habitat, and availability of nesting sites, varies with river fluctuations. It feeds on a variety of animal prey (molluscs, insects, crustaceans, frogs, fish), carrion, and vegetarian items (palm nuts, fruits) (Branch 1988; Gramentz 1993; Boycott and Bourquin 2000). The females produce clutches of 25-100 eggs in exposed sandbanks and banks with heavier soil (in Israel for example) along rivers (Branch 1988; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002); its age at maturity and clutch frequency are unreported. Captive animals have reached over 42 years of age (Branch 1988).	eng
62256	population		Limited data are available through most of its range, but in the Mediterranean region its populations are now very small and scattered, with some wandering individuals. Turkey is the only country in the Mediterranean that holds a significant population. In Turkey it now occurs only in two main areas: the Çukurova delta (Seyhan River mouth) in the south and the Dalaman delta in the southwest. In addition, reproduction occurs at eight more sites (Dalyan, Aksu/Acisu, Anamur, Göksu, Berdan River, Tuzla Drainage Channel, Karatas Drainage Channel, Ceyhan River), and recent records may indicate small populations exist from at least five more sites (Patara, Fethiye, Köprü Çayi/Acisu, Bozyazi, Orontes (Asi) River). All populations are under serious threat. In Israel it is known from seven rivers in the Hula Basin, with reproduction only taking place in two of these. A good population existed until the early 1990s at Nahal Alexander in coastal Israel, but it declined due to drastic habitat changes after heavy storms and the subsequent intrusion of salt water from the sea. Now the population is much scattered, with mostly single individuals appearing at isolated places along the coast, without having a safe area for reproduction. In Egypt, there are few recent records from north of the Aswan high dam on the Nile, and a survey of the Nile Delta and its lagoons suggests that it might now be extirpated there (with the possible exception of Bardawill Lake) (Nada 2002). South of the dam it is fairly common in Lake Nasser with large specimens frequently caught (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). There is a recent record from Lebanon suggesting that nesting still occurs (Demirayak et al., 2002) and one from Greece (where it certainly does not breed). The entire Mediterranean population is thought to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
62256	threats		It is widely collected for consumption, mainly at local subsistence level (Branch 1988; Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is not clearly recorded in the West African bushmeat trade. Animals caught by fishermen may be killed, and nests destroyed, as perceived competitors (e.g., in Turkey - Gramentz (1990); Baran and Atatur (1998)). Although construction of dams have been detrimental to this species in parts of its range (eg. Turkey), dam construction has been beneficial to the species in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). In the Mediterranean, the chief threats are: habitat destruction (in particular for touristic developments): accidental mortality in fishing nets (killing hundreds of animals annually off the shore of the Çukurova delta (Seyhan, Ceyhan and Berdan rivers) in Turkey; and human disturbance.	eng
62333	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There is no information available.	eng
62333	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is uncommon and its distribution range is unclear although it seems it is widespread in Eastern Africa. It is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Angola and South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
62333	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Swamp grassland, upland grassland with shrubs.	eng
62333	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Apparently not very common in Eastern Africa.	eng
62333	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threats to this species are unclear.	eng
62341	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Shagayu Forest Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Mkusus Forest Reserve, North Maniwa Kisara Forest Reserve, Pangwe East Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve and Uluguru South Forest Reserve.	eng
62341	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are three collections from Ngangao in the Taita Hills in southern Kenya; the last collection from here was in 1953 and it has not been recorded again despite intensive surveys of the area. In Tanzania it is found on the South Pare, East Usambara, Uluguru and Nguru mountain ranges.	eng
62341	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded in montane rain forest on rugged escarpment of Basement Complex rocks. Grows in humic ferralitic/humic ferrasol soils. Appears to survive in secondary forest.	eng
62341	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but given the number of collections in Tanzania seems to be locally common.	eng
62341	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agricultural activities, logging, etc. across most of its range. The subpopulation in the Taita Hills appears to have been lost.	eng
62361	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
62361	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to the Mexican state of Durango. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cuencamensis </span>is known only from a single locality near Cuencame whereas the typical subspecies occurs more widely.	eng
62361	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry shrubland on the rocky slopes of volcanic hills. Plants branch and form small clumps.	eng
62361	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	&#160;Has a generation length of about ten years.The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">cuencamensis </span>has a small population of about 3,000 mature individuals, however, the typical subspecies is much more abundant. However, the population is fragmented because the region is highly industrialized. But many of the subpopulations are large, with some of them containing thousands of plants.	eng
62361	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The area is highly industrialized, hence some subpopulations have been impacted by habitat loss due to urban expansion, agricultural activities, etc.	eng
62362	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species occurs in Huautla Biosphere Reserve.   The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).&#160; This species needs further research on taxonomy and population dynamics.	eng
62362	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species is endemic to Mexico known from the states of Aguascalientes, Guerrero, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Veracruz and Zacatecas (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Hunt 2006). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. e. greenwoodii</span> has a restricted range near Piedras Blancas, Veracruz. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">bumamma </span>is recorded from the states of Oaxaca and Michoacán.	eng
62362	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species is found in grasslands and xerophyllous scrub (H. Hernández pers. comm. 2009). Grows on deep volcanic soils. Has been recorded in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cereus</span>-forests.<br/><br/>Plants are solitary or may form large clumps.	eng
62362	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The subpopulations are usually disjunct, occurring within the area of one state or between one or two contiguous states (Hernández and Godínez 1994). It is relatively common where found. In the Huautla Biosphere Reserve, Morelos, populations of&#160; individuals were recorded in conserved areas, while in disturbed areas a total of 68 individuals were found (Arias-Medellín and Martínez-Garza 2007).	eng
62362	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	<p>This species is threatened by habitat clearance for small-holder agriculture and cattle ranching. Some subpopulations have also been impacted by expanding urban development and associated infrastructure. There has also been increased use of fire in grasslands to create grazing.<br/></p>	eng
62364	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
62364	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species occurs in the USA in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, and in Mexico in the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas.	eng
62364	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species grows in semi desert among calcareous rock.	eng
62364	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is frequent in the Northern Chihuahuan desert and it tends to occur at high densities.	eng
62364	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and encroachment of agriculture continue, these are a major threats for some subspecies.	eng
62367	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
62367	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas at elevations of 1,400 to 1,800 m. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>	eng
62367	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species grows on volcanic rock in semi desert.	eng
62367	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The estimated population size is over 1 million individuals.	eng
62367	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.</p>	eng
62373	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.   The species appears over a more than 40,000 km<sup>2</sup>, at ca 1,800 m.	eng
62373	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On calcareous rock in semi desert.	eng
62373	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Estimated population of more than 500,000 individuals	eng
62373	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.	eng
62582	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in a large number of forest reserves and other protected areas.	eng
62582	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very widespread on the Kenyan and Tanzanian coastal plain and also occurs on the island of Zanzibar. May well be more extensive in Tanzania. The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">triangularis </span>appears to be more restricted being confined to the East Usambara Mts.	eng
62582	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found predominantly in coastal dry forest and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.	eng
62582	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A common species, but very patchy in its occurrence (does not occur throughout the forest patches where it is found).	eng
62582	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by forest loss due to agriculture, mining, tourist infrastructure, etc.	eng
62584	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This species is probably present in a large number of protected areas across its wide range.	eng
62584	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Widespread in West and Central Africa being recorded from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola (note the list of countries of occurrence is incomplete).	eng
62584	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in tropical rain-forest and lowland forest.	eng
62584	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is presumably common given its wide range.	eng
62584	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Given the wide range is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by forest clearance through logging for timber, clearance for agriculture, expansion of urban areas. But none of these is considered to be major.	eng
62588	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas, for example Pugu Forest Reserve (almost destroyed), Kimboza Forest Reserve (has very poor protection), Marenji Forest Reserve, several Kaya forests, and Selous Game Reserve.	eng
62588	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from coastal areas of southern Kenya and Tanzania, but in Tanzania the range extends inland towards the lower slopes of the Eastern Arc mountains.	eng
62588	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A small tree or large shrub found in dry evergreen forest on limestone or coral-rag with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyrocarpus</span>, in swamp forest, in riverine forest, and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span>-<span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span> woodland.	eng
62588	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
62588	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by forest loss and disturbance (e.g., the habitat at Pugu Hills Forest Reserve has been almost completely destroyed), plus exploitation for poles (it is widely used and very popular).	eng
63099	conservation	Loureiro, M., D’Anatro, A., Teixeira de Mello, F. & Cardozo, V., 2007	Enforced legal protection of this species' habitat is needed; control mechanisms such as protection laws and their true enforcement are lacking in Uruguay and are urgently needed. Nowadays, aquarists from neighbouring countries and Europe freely collect this species without any legal controls. Due to their extremely limited range and few known localities, the assessors recommend that, with the exception of justified scientific sampling, the collection of this species should be prohibited.	eng
63099	distribution	Loureiro, M., D’Anatro, A., Teixeira de Mello, F. & Cardozo, V., 2007	<em>A. cinereus</em> is known from a temporary pond in the lower Rio Uruguay basin (Department of Colonia). Its total range area is approximately 10,000 m².	eng
63099	habitat	Loureiro, M., D’Anatro, A., Teixeira de Mello, F. & Cardozo, V., 2007	<em>A. cinereus</em> is an annual fish. It has a characteristic annual life cycle with diapausing embryos developed inside drought resistant eggs that inhabit temporary ponds.	eng
63099	population	Loureiro, M., D’Anatro, A., Teixeira de Mello, F. & Cardozo, V., 2007	The total population occurs in one small, temporary freshwater pond. Population size is unknown.	eng
63099	threats	Loureiro, M., D’Anatro, A., Teixeira de Mello, F. & Cardozo, V., 2007	The main known threat to this species is habitat degradation from local industry development (e.g., meat processing plant, golf field), and being located in an area that has high urban pressures. The location is a site for tourist developments, which may cause environmental modification in the near future. Non-regulated collection by aquarists may also be a potential threat to the remaining population.	eng
63100	conservation	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K.D., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G & Ellis, J.E., 2007	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Ungaro (pers. comm.) recommends the avoidance of fishery activities below the depths of 500 m. Potential management efforts to protect this species are hampered by the low commercial value of skate in general and its full retention within the cod end of the gear types currently in use, employing a mesh size with 20 mm opening within the Mediterranean. Baring this in mind, at present the only management measure which could promote the sustainability of the <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> population within the Mediterranean would be to define suitable non-trawling zones and to enlarge these closed areas to encompass a proportion of the <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> population, including this ray's eggs (which are often found in the trawl net cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/> <br/>The global increase of fishing effort and the ensuing depletion of populations have been the subject of the debate by the international bodies charged with the management and conservation of marine resources. Relevant is the formulation by FAO of the ?International Plan of Action on the management and conservation of cartilaginous fishes? (IPOA-Sharks). According to the Plan, all the states that capture sharks, rays or chimaeras, either as target species or as bycatch, shall implement a national action plans to ensure suitable use, conservation and recovery of threatened species (Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). In this context the FAO SAC Subcommittee on the Environment and Ecosystem proposed a recommendation to activate the necessary tools and regional agreements towards the formulation of a Mediterranean Action Plan for the Management and Conservation of Cartilaginous Fishes. A project for record data proceeding from all Mediterranean basin and regarding large elasmobranchs (MEDLEM) has been discussed and adopted at the last SAC meeting held in Rome (FAO 2005). Also the EC prepared a draft proposal for the European Community Plan of Action that encourages research programs aimed at the assessment of the conservation status of cartilaginous fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002). Italy must act urgently to establish a plan of action for the conservation and management of its chondrichthyan fauna, in tight coordination with other Mediterranean riparian countries. The Italian National Action Plan (PAN-SHARKS) draft was formulated by a scientific committee coordinated by ICRAM (Central Institute for the Marine Research) and was conceived in order to provide Italy with the necessary tools for the ratification of the SPA protocol, in the respect of the guidelines formulated within the EC Draft Action Plan and the FAO IPOA-Sharks recommendation (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2002, Vacchi and Notarbartolo 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In England and Wales waters this species has been proposed for protection under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. If this species was scheduled this would prohibit a wide range of activities and practices including the intentional killing, injuring or taking, the possession and the trade in wild animals. At the time of writing the status of this proposal is pending.	eng
63100	distribution	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K.D., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G & Ellis, J.E., 2007	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species may have been found on continental shelf areas including the Irish Sea and Northern North Sea and shelf edge habitats in this area from central Norway southwards (Hientz 1962). Long-nose skate was recorded occasionally in the northern North Sea and Celtic sea in waters of 111 to 159 m in the UK groundfish surveys between the late 1960s and 2002. Catch rates of the long-nose skate over this time period were very low ranging between 0.01 and 0.11 individuals captured per hour of trawling (an encounter rate of one individual per 9-100 hours of survey (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The long-nose skate is inferred to be locally extinct from the Irish Sea (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). This is based on knowledge of the presence of this species in catches of a long-line fishery based in the Isle of Man in the central Irish Sea in the 1880s, and its current absence from recent trawl surveys of the area. There are no further corroborating evidence supporting its former presence in the Irish Sea and the question of uncertain species identification remains.  <br/> <br/>Nothing is known of the status of these species in Iceland and the Faroe islands and the French waters and Iberian waters. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>This species was previously found throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). However, it now appears to be absent from the Gulf of Lions, Eastern Mediterranean. Comparative trawl surveys indicate <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys and is now absent from comparable surveys. <em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> was captured in 10% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys, occurring between 1959 and 1972 (coast to 150 m depth) and was also present in a survey between 1980-1984. This species was not subsequently recorded from 628 hauls from four trawl surveys spanning 1985-1995 (Aldebert 1997).	eng
63100	habitat	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K.D., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G & Ellis, J.E., 2007	<em>Dipturus oxyrinchus </em>is benthic and found on sandy or muddy bottoms at depths of 90 to 900 m, mainly around 200 m (Stehmann and Burkel 1984), and was most frequently captured at depths of 200 to 500 m in the MEDITS surveys (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>Females mature at >90 cm and males between 70 and 80 cm in total length (TL) (N. Ungaro pers. comm). However, in the north Thyrrenian sea, a female and male measuring 83 and 77.5 cm TL respectively, were recorded as immature 77.5 cm in TL were reported (C. Mancusi and F. Serena pers. comm). Within the Italian Seas, the size range recorded was 17 to 112 cm TL in the south Ligurian Sea and north Thyrrenian sea, while in the south part of Italy (Sicily strait) it was 105 to 115 cm (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2003). In the northern part of the Thyrrenian sea the disc width (DW) range was 10.5 to 53 cm. From these data it seems that the TL is approximately 1.5 times the DW. Consequently, we inferred that specimens with maximum TLs recorded in the Italian seas, with the maximum total lengths of 112 to 115 cm, had a DW of 74 to 76 cm (C. Mancusi pers. comm). Stehmann and Burkel (1984) recorded a maximum size of 150 cm, therefore as above a DW of 100 cm is inferred (C. Mancusi pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Further details on the size at birth, age at maturity and longevity are unknown for this species. It has a spawning period from February to April (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), however Serena (2005) reported spawning to occur between February and May, with egg cases measuring between 100 and 150 cm in length. The reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, litter size, rate of population increase and natural mortality are also unknown. <br/> <br/>A study on the feeding habits of rays in the south Ligurian and North Thyrrenian Seas show this species feeds mainly on crustaceans and cephalopods, in particular <em>Cephalopoda decapoda</em> (<em>Sepietta owenian</em> was the only specimen identified to a species level). Crustaceans included in this ray's diet belonged to the Amphida (Gammaridea n.d.), Euphasiacea (<em>Meganyctiphanes norvegica</em>), Isopoda (Isopoda n.d.) Mysidiacea (<em>Lophogaster typicus</em>) and Decapoda (<em>Pasiphea sivado, Pontocaris lacazei, Pontophilus pinosus, Solenocera membranacea, Plesionika</em> spp.) orders. Due to the small number of specimens analysed (n = 14) it was not possible to undergo a more accurate analysis to determine whether there was any difference between the feeding habits of different size classes of this skate. The only difference observed was that females seemed to prefer cephalopods and the males that feed mainly on crustaceans, in particular <em>L. typicus</em> (Vannucci 2005).	eng
63100	population	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K.D., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G & Ellis, J.E., 2007	This is one of the largest-bodied species of skate and it has been found to have undergone declines from other shelf seas, notably the Irish Sea (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000). The large body size (150 cm), and presumably slow growth and later maturation and likely low intrinsic rate of population increase of this species render it especially vulnerable to exploitation such as trawling and at risk of local extinction (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:  <br/>Nothing is known of the population status or trends in its abundance from this area.  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>:  <br/>The MEDITS International trawl surveys cover the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Trawl surveys are carried out each year during the summer period in the coastal areas of four arbitrary, geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m, including much of the known distribution of this species. The sharpnose skate is the second most abundant skate in the Mediterranean and was recorded in 301 (3%) hauls in this area. The total standing stock biomass has been estimated as 1,899 t using a swept area method, assuming full catchability (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Assuming an average individual weight of either 10 or 5 kg this would represent approximately 189,900 to 379,800 individuals. This species was found between 50 and 800 m, but was caught most frequently between 200 and 500 m and it was most commonly captured in the western central area and in the Aegean Sea (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the Adriatic Sea, historical trawl survey results from the ?Hvar? survey in 1948 showed <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> present in 3.2% of hauls carried out in the shelf bottoms, while in the comparable (MEDITS) survey in 1998 it did not appear in any shelf hauls (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). The MEDITS surveys of the area began in 1994 while another study of the Adriatic Sea began in 1985: the National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation (GRUND). During this time <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> has been captured with occurrence lower than 0.1% in the MEDITS surveys in the Adriatic and has been captured in only 1% of hauls in 1994 in the central and northern Adriatic and in 2.6% of hauls in 1995 in the southern Adriatic during GRUND surveys (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, it should be noted that the MEDITS net is thought to have a low sampling efficiency of truly benthic species (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/> <br/>In the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian sea this species is distributed across a relatively narrow range (164 to 580 m depth), mostly concentrated on the outside margin of the slope (300 to 400 m). The trend of the relative biomass and density indexes shows some fluctuations characterized by not abundant but constant captures. In the last period the trend for the biomass decrease while the abundance one is nearly stable. This fact suggests a change in the population structure with predominant presence of young individuals. Moreover the ecological aspects and the distribution pattern of this species are very different from the other skate species and there is no competition or overlapping geographical distribution and is supposed to exist from the moment it is confined only in the bathyal area (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
63100	threats	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K.D., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G & Ellis, J.E., 2007	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/><em>Dipturus oxyrinchus</em> is captured as bycatch by trawl nets and offshore bottom long lines. Catches are occasional and specimens are sometimes discarded at sea (N. Ungaro pers. comm). Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of Northwest Europe (Holden 1977) and skates have traditionally been landed due to their large size. The situation appears similar in the Mediterranean, where <em>D. oxyrinchus</em> is probably captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries. Over the last 50 years, benthic trawl effort has increased numerically and technologically in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries composed of 27 small, low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horsepower of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced into targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001).  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>There is no data available on threats, however it is inferred that, similar to other large-bodied skates, this species may be captured and retained as bycatch of demersal trawl and long-line fisheries, particularly in deeper water. <br/> <br/>The large body size in combination with the presumably slow growth rate, low fecundity and large size of juveniles of this species makes it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation when compared to other rajids (Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm (knot to knot). <br/> <br/>The potential threat of development of deepwater fisheries within this species range is a possible cause for concern in the future. Although the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean, has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m, this species occurs mostly from 200-500 m and down to 900 m. For more information, see: <a href="iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf">Mediterranean Conservationists and Fishermen Work Together to Protect Deep Seas</a>.	eng
63101	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	There is an urgent need to assess the impacts of fishing on this poorly known species. In Argentina, skate landings are managed by a quota system, but this is not species-specific.	eng
63101	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic off Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.	eng
63101	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Inhabits the continental shelf at depths of 37 to 100 m (McEachran 1983). Like other skates it is oviparous, but this is a poorly known species with little information available on biology and ecology. The maximum size recorded for the species is 30.3 cm total length (TL), with the smallest individual measuring 10.0 cm TL, giving an approximation for size at birth (McEachran 1983).	eng
63101	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63101	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	There is no specific information available on catches of this species, however, increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Skates are taken and landed by multispecies coastal bottom trawlers and by a target skate fishery. Other fisheries, such as those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries also take skate as bycatch. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t in Argentina, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil. While species-specific information for <em>P. rutrum</em> is not available, demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multispecies fisheries. <br/> <br/><em>Psammobatis</em> spp. may be less susceptible to population depletion than other skates, given their small size (implying lower age at maturity and faster growth rates), however, both the increase in fishing pressure across much of the range of <em>P. rutrum</em>, and habitat disturbance and degradation (including possible damage to reproductive habitat) due to trawling activities could be placing unsustainable pressure on the species. <br/> <br/>Where the species is discarded, survival rates are unknown, however Mabragaña and Cousseau (2004) note that for <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. (referring specifically to <em>P. normani</em> and <em>P. rudis</em>) they are often dead when discarded at sea.	eng
63102	conservation	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In Argentina, species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew<em> et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S Each year, there is a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season of <em>Dipturus trachydermus</em>. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of <em>B. albomaculata</em>.	eng
63102	distribution	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Distributed in the Southwest Atlantic over the southern Patagonian shelf between 52°S and 54°S, around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the Burdwood Bank (Menni and Stehmann 2000). North of 52°S, it occurs on the outer shelf and upper slope as far north as 41°S, with its northern most record off Uruguay (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the south it is present both in shallower shelf areas and in deeper water, but in the north it is restricted to deeper water, following the Malvinas Current (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Southeast Pacific off Chile from Taltal (26°10?S) (Lamilla unpubl. data) to the Strait of Magellan (56°S) (Pequeño 2000) and off Guamblin Island (45°04?S, 75°27?W) (Lamilla 1986).	eng
63102	habitat	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Recorded from a wide depth range from 55 m to 861 m (J. Pompert pers. comm.) in bottom temperatures ranging from 2.8 to 6.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>In the Southwest Atlantic, Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) found the depth distribution of the species differed latitudinally. In the north (north of 41°S), the species was found from 65 to 310 m, with higher densities from 250 to 310 m. In the central area of its Southwest Atlantic distribution (41°S and 48°S), the species was found in shallower water from 70 to 140 m with high densities from 100 to 130 m. In the south (south of 48°S), <em>B. albomaculata</em> was found over a broader depth range from 70 to 310 m, with higher densities from 160 to 190 m. <br/> <br/>Age and length at maturity have been estimated at 10 years for females and 11 years for males (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) found sizes at maturity off Argentina of 65.3 cm total length (TL) and 62.8 cm TL for females and males, respectively, whereas the estimates of Henderson<em> et al</em>. (2004) from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands were smaller (around 57.2 cm TL and 59.4 cm TL for females and males, respectively). These studies used the same methods to assess age at maturity and Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggested that different populations might occur within the species range. <br/> <br/>The oldest specimen reported was 17 years and the maximum length has been estimated at 96 cm TL (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/>Like other skates, <em>B. albomaculata</em> is oviparous. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2004) found ovarian fecundity ranged from four to 32 with a mean of 14 and size at hatching was estimated at 9.8 cm and 10.5 cm DW for females and males, respectively. Gravid and post-partum females were observed all year-round and throughout the species? depth range but there was an increase in the proportion of gravid and post-partum females during autumn and winter (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) also found females carrying eggs in April, September and October suggesting that year-round egg laying may occur. <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>A highly specific feeder on benthopelagic gammarid and polychaetes (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and to a lesser extent on isopods.	eng
63102	population	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	The population size of this species is unknown, however, it is the second most common skate caught in the skate fishery north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggesting that it is abundant, at least in those waters. <br/> <br/>Specimens from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands have been found to mature at a smaller size than those off Argentina despite using the same methods for assessing length at maturity (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). Ruocco <em>et al</em>. (2006) suggested that there may be separate populations within the species' range, however further research on larger sample sizes is required to test this hypothesis.   <br/> <br/>Ruocco <em>et al.</em> (2006) found that <em>B. albomaculata</em> was most abundant on the outer continental shelf and slope between 36°30? and 45°S. In contrast, it was generally absent between 48°S and 52°S, a region where it was formerly reported as abundant. This could be related to the recent higher fishing pressure around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Ruocco<em> et al</em>. 2006).  <br/> <br/>There have also been reports that the biomass of <em>B. albomaculata</em> south of 45°S declined by 83% between 1998 and 1999 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000), however the second phase of investigations employed gear which likely reduced the capture of rays.	eng
63102	threats	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004).     <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa<em> et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 83% decline in the biomass of <em>B. albomaculata</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised from around 5 to 10% of <em>B. albomaculata</em> (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Although approximately 11 skate species are regularly taken, commercial catches are dominated by four species including <em>B. albomaculata</em>. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000) found that between 1993 and 1997 <em>B. albomaculata</em> replaced <em>B. griseocauda</em> as the dominant species in the catch in the northern fishery area. According to Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000) <em>B. albomaculata</em> (and also <em>B. brachyurops</em>) should be able to sustain higher fishing pressures than <em>B. griseocauda</em> and <em>D. chilensis </em>because it matures earlier and grows faster relative to these other species. However, Henderson <em>et al</em>. (2006) noted that <em>B. albomaculata</em> displays quite a low fecundity compared to other rajid species and combined with its slow growth and late maturity, this species could be susceptible to overfishing if not closely monitored. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown little indication of an increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Bathyraja albomaculata is currently the second most important species, comprising 28% of the catch (Ruocco <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure, such as <em>B. albomaculata</em>. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers targeting <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis</em> around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile </strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em> is also a regular bycatch of the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> longline fishery off Chile. Landings for the fishery comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii </em>(Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. There is also an artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery operating at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) off Chile (Lamilla 2003). This species exists within the area and at the depth range fished and could potentially be caught as bycatch in the fishery.	eng
63103	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	None are known. It is recommended that more specimens be collected for research, and in particular, additional life history data needs to be collected.	eng
63103	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Originally described from the Northeast Atlantic from deep slopes and troughs, primarily off Iceland, Greenland and Rockall Trough, but also reported from the Mid-Atlantic ridge and recently reported from the Canary Islands (Brito <em>et al.</em> 2003, D.A. Didier unpub. data). Probably widespread throughout the North Atlantic including the Northwest Atlantic (one confirmed specimen collected by U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) held at The Academy of Natural Sciences (ANS), Philadelphia, USA, Didier unpublished data).	eng
63103	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Benthic, deepwater inhabitant of deepwater slopes and troughs, found at depths of 1,200 to 2,075 m in the Northeast Atlantic and depths of 1,352 to 1,912 m from the Canary Islands. May occur to depths of 2,500 m or greater and may be more common below 2,000 m. <br/> <br/>It is suspected that this is a slow-growing species with low fecundity and likely shares similar habitat and ecology with <em>H. affinis</em>. Oviparous, but no eggs, hatchlings, or small juveniles have been collected. Diet probably consists of a variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
63103	population	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Appears to be most common in the Northeast Atlantic, rare from the Canary Islands and the Northwest Atlantic; however, this may be due in part to differences in fishery effort throughout the region, including gear used and depth fished. This species may be more abundant at depths greater than 2,000 m. Further research will be needed to determine if northwestern and northeastern populations differ.	eng
63103	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	This species may be taken as bycatch in commercial deepsea trawling and longlining operations. Not known to be targeted at present and it is not considered a likely future target due to its low abundance. It is most often caught by deepwater longline, rather than trawls, and could face a potential threat in the future should deepwater longline efforts increase. However, at present <em>H. pallidus</em> is considered to occur deeper than the main fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic. Furthermore, it may be distributed at greater depths than currently reported offering a deep refuge from fishing pressure. As this species is thought to be slow growing with low fecundity, like its congener <em>H. affinis</em>, even incidental catch could affect populations if fisheries expand throughout more of its depth range.  Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic. Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 to 2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al.</em> 2003). The lower depth limit fished in this region may be about 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm). About 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm).	eng
63104	conservation	Dagit, D.D., Compagno, L.J.V. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Not known to be managed or regulated in any way throughout its range. A record of all incidental captures including basic data on sex, size and depth is recommended in order to obtain initial basic data on population size, structure and life history trends.	eng
63104	distribution	Dagit, D.D., Compagno, L.J.V. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Known from deepwater banks of the Northeast Atlantic off Iceland, Ireland, Scotland and the Hebrides (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984) as well as the eastern central Atlantic off Morocco, Sahara Republic, Senegal, and Mauritania (Quero <em>et al.</em> 1990). Examination of two specimens recently collected off Namibia appear to be <em>H. mirabilis</em> (Krefft 1990). The species is likely more widespread throughout the Atlantic than previously reported. However, more specimens are needed to confirm species identification and range off western Africa. Also reported from the Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechelm 1998) and off Surinam. It is rare in this region and currently known only known from a few specimens caught at depths from 450 m to over 1,000 m (Didier 2002). Based on these widespread capture records and the observation of a single individual in the Straits of Florida this species is probably widespread throughout the Northern and Central Atlantic.	eng
63104	habitat	Dagit, D.D., Compagno, L.J.V. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	A deep-slope species, with a known depth range of 450 to 1,933 m generally occurring at depths greater than 800 m. Reported off Namibia at 545 to 717 m (Krefft 1990). <br/> <br/>Oviparous, although nothing else is known of reproduction or spawning. Probably occupies rock, rubble, or muddy bottoms and feeds on a variety of benthic invertebrates and fish and shares similar life history traits with other <em>Hydrolagus</em> such as <em>H. colliei</em>.	eng
63104	population	Dagit, D.D., Compagno, L.J.V. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	No information is available on population size and structure, but based on historical capture records and the apparent wide distribution of the species it is probably relatively common in the northeast Atlantic and less common in the western and southern Atlantic.	eng
63104	threats	Dagit, D.D., Compagno, L.J.V. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 and 2,000 m (throughout the sampled depth range of this species) (Kjerstad <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater chimaeroids, like other deepsea chondrichthyans, are potentially at risk from these activities, although little species-specific information is available. Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that North Atlantic chimaeroid species are not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>This species may be impacted by deepwater bottom fisheries, particularly in the Northeast Atlantic, where it may be caught as bycatch in trawls. Rihan <em>et al</em>. (2005) have also reported this species as a bycatch from bottom gillnets retrieved from 648 nets recovered during a gill net retrieval survey of Rockall and Porcupine Bank at depths of 400 to 1,300 m during August-September 2005. Evidence of significant quantities of lost and abandoned gear in these areas and of excessive discarding in these fisheries due to long soak times lead to serious concerns about the impact of ghost fishing. There is a need for the immediate introduction of effective management measures in these fisheries to control the quantities of gear being fished and soak time (Rihan <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Potentially threatened in the future if increased fishing effort in deepwater results in an increase of bycatch of this species. In the East central Atlantic, this species may also be taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries operating along the West African coasts. About 20 to 25 trawl vessels are currently targeting the deepwater crab <em>Geryon maritae</em> along the Mauritanian coast at depths of 500 to 1,200 m and occasionally down to 1,400 m (L. Camara pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Rarely, if ever captured in the Western Central Atlantic, probably due to the lack of deepwater fisheries in this region, which may afford it some protection, although potentially at risk if deepwater fishing effort increases in this area.	eng
63105	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Protection of pristine river sections in nature reserves or protected areas, mainly along the Litani and Orontes rivers.	eng
63105	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Calopteryx hyalina</em> is an endemic of the Levant with a restricted distribution along the middle and upper course of the Orontes, Litani, Barada and some coastal rivers in Syria and Lebanon (e.g., Nahr al-Abrash, Nahr al-Kabir). An isolated subpopulation (voucher specimens: two males and one female in the Natural History Museum, London) at Lake Hula is now extinct and is the only existing record for the Jordan River drainage.	eng
63105	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	The species occurs on lakes, larger ponds and perennial rivers, where it prefers (in contrast to <em>C. syriaca</em>) lotic conditions.	eng
63105	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No exact information is available for this species. It is not common within its range.	eng
63105	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	The major threat is water extraction for agriculture and human use. The species lost at least a third of its distribution area due to the drying up of the Barada River in Syria (within the last ten years). Potentially drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change.	eng
63106	conservation	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi </em>fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are now hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw. This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions (J. Pompert pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.	eng
63106	distribution	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Southwest Atlantic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004).	eng
63106	habitat	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Distributed in deep temperate waters of the Southwest Atlantic on the outer continental shelf and upper slope (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004) at depths of 119 to 397 m off Argentina (Diaz de Astarloa and Mabragaña 2004) and 121 to 1,011 m around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been estimated at 97 cm TL for males (Stehmann, et al. unpubl. data) and the maximum size reported is 120 cm TL (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). The smallest known specimen was reported at 12 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Little else is known about the biology of the species. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63106	population	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
63106	threats	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	The term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobtaidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004).     <br/> <br/>Skates are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner off Argentina. This longliner targets primarily <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> but also takes <em>Bathyraja</em> species (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific catch data for <em>B. cousseauae</em> are however, unavailable. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja cousseauae</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 89% decline in the biomass of <em>B. cousseauae </em>(reported as <em>Bathyraja</em> spp.) captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>This species is taken in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies directed skate fishery which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Mean disc width of this species decreased from 39.04 cm in 1994 to 31.17 in 1997; however the data were often sparse (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Following declines in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004) showed that this species has declined in CPUE over the period from 1992 to 2001. This species made up 7.2% of catches from the northern region of the fishery between 1993 and 2002 (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja cousseauae</em> is also occasionally caught as bycatch in the <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> longline fishery in a small area northwest of the Burdwood Bank. Fishers are not required to record species-specific bycatch data and catch estimates are fairly restricted. Only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries? impact on the species.	eng
63107	conservation	Dagit, D.D., Chiaramonte,G.E., Romero, M., Di Giácomo, E. & Acuña, E., 2007	Very little information is currently available with regard to specific regulations and conservation measures although as part of a bycatch fishery <em>C. callorhynchus</em> may not be subject to rigorous regulations. Any regulations and conservation measures will likely vary by country and region. <br/> <br/>Note that management (continued monitoring of CPUE and responding by altering TAC's) of another <em>Callorhinchus</em> species (<em>C. milli</em>) in New Zealand and Australia have resulted in a sustainable fishery.	eng
63107	distribution	Dagit, D.D., Chiaramonte,G.E., Romero, M., Di Giácomo, E. & Acuña, E., 2007	Ranges from Southern Brazil to Southern Patagonia in the southwest Atlantic and from Peru and Chile in the southeast Pacific. It has also been reported from the Argentine section of the Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego (López <em>et. al</em>. 2000).	eng
63107	habitat	Dagit, D.D., Chiaramonte,G.E., Romero, M., Di Giácomo, E. & Acuña, E., 2007	Depth range is generally from nearshore to about 170 m, however there are reported captures of this species from 481 m off Chile. This may indicate that the species occupies and/or migrates to deeper waters than currently reported, or may occupy different depth ranges in different parts of its range. A coastal and continental shelf dweller that likely occupies a variety of rocky, sandy and/or muddy bottoms throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size for females is 102 cm total length (TL) and 85 cm TL for males. Like the related species <em>C. millii</em> and <em>C. capensis</em>, <em>C. callorhynchus</em> probably has an early onset of sexual maturity and relatively high fecundity. <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is oviparous with spawning and reproductive behaviors similar to those described for <em>C. milii</em> and <em>C. capensis</em>. Mating and spawning occurs in spring and early summer with a primary spawning season from July to November. In the Gulf of San Mathías, Argentina, where most work on this species has been conducted, spawning migrations into shallow waters have been observed with eggs collected at depths of 20 to 40 m, but also as deep as 104 m (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). <br/> <br/>The diet (Di Giácomo <em>et al</em>. 1994) consists primarily of shelled invertebrate prey, particularly bivalve molluscs, gastropods and polychaetes. Differences in the diet of males and females and between juveniles and adults are attributed to prey availability and morphology and behavior of predators (e.g., tooth plates of juveniles are not as large or strong as those of adults). <br/> <br/>The following morphometric details are given as standard length (SL) measurements, which refers to the distance from the tip of the snout to the origin of the upper caudal lobe. Females mature at 49 cm SL and males at 40 cm SL (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). The maximum recorded size for <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is 102 cm total length (TL) (Di Giácomo and Perier 1994). Size at birth is 13 cm TL and gestation time is probably in the region of 6 to 12 months.	eng
63107	population	Dagit, D.D., Chiaramonte,G.E., Romero, M., Di Giácomo, E. & Acuña, E., 2007	Very little is known with regard to population size and structure of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> throughout its range. Studies of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> off the coast of Argentina indicate that there may be separate populations which appear to be related to food abundance and availability. Aggregations by sex and size have also been observed. Data are not available for regions outside of the Gulf of San Matías.	eng
63107	threats	Dagit, D.D., Chiaramonte,G.E., Romero, M., Di Giácomo, E. & Acuña, E., 2007	<em>C. callorhynchus</em> is exploited locally throughout its range primarily as a component of bottom trawl fisheries, typically fished at depths of 90 to 130 m. Although captured year-round, there does appear to be seasonal migrations to shallower waters in the spring and autumn for spawning with a return to deeper waters during the winter. May be targeted more specifically in some regions. Also caught recreationally using lines. In Argentina this species is primarily caught as bycatch in the hake (<em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>) fishery.  <br/> <br/>Overfishing may potentially threaten this species based on recent declines in numbers landed in Argentina (landings increased from 479 mt in 1992 to a peak in 1999 of 1,979 mt followed by an abrupt fall in the 2000-2002 periods, followed by another increase to 1,712 mt in 2003 followed by a slight decline to 1,554 mt in 2004) (Di Giácomo and Perier 2005). This ?boom and bust' cycle has been observed in other <em>Callorhinchus</em> species that have been sustainably fished (D. Didier pers. obs.) however it should be noted that this was under strict management thus caution must be applied in any such comparisons. Additional data, particularly from other parts of the range, are needed to verify if this is a singular localized event or indicative of a trend in declining numbers of this species throughout its range.  <br/> <br/>In Chile, total landings increased from ~1,000 t to between ~3,000 t and ~4,500 t between 1990 and 1992, followed by a sharp decline to ~1,000 t again in 1995. However, it is thought that this is the result of a shift in effort to targeting Hake. Landings of <em>C. callorhynchus</em> have fluctuated ~1,500 t to ~500 t since 1995. <br/> <br/>In Peru <em>C. callorhynchus</em> is also caught by beach seine in a multi-species fishery. This species is of minor importance to fisheries in Peru and data from landings were not recorded prior to 1996. An average catch of 7.81 mt per year was taken off Peru between 1996 and 2003, ranging from 11.87 mt in 1998 to 4.54 mt in 2000. The landings are unsteady but a slight decline is observed.	eng
63108	conservation	Burgess, G.H., Amorim, A.F., Mancini, P. & Gonzalez, P., 2007	None in place. Any future expansion of deepwater fisheries in the area should be closely-monitored.	eng
63108	distribution	Burgess, G.H., Amorim, A.F., Mancini, P. & Gonzalez, P., 2007	<em>E. gracilispinis</em> has a widespread but disjunct distribution off North and South America and southern Africa.  Widespread in temperate and subtropical western Atlantic Ocean waters and off South Africa.	eng
63108	habitat	Burgess, G.H., Amorim, A.F., Mancini, P. & Gonzalez, P., 2007	Benthic or epibenthic on the outer continental shelf and upper to middle slopes at depths of 100 to 1,000 m, but with captures in midwater trawls at depths of 70 to 480 m over waters of 2,240 m off Argentina and off South Africa also indicating an epipelagic and mesopelagic existence (Compagno in prep. a, G.H. Burgess unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Like most other lanternsharks, biology and ecology is poorly known, but presumed to be aplacental viviparous (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
63108	population	Burgess, G.H., Amorim, A.F., Mancini, P. & Gonzalez, P., 2007	Large disjunctions between northern and southern Atlantic and southern African distributions may suggest distinct subpopulations.	eng
63108	threats	Burgess, G.H., Amorim, A.F., Mancini, P. & Gonzalez, P., 2007	Some mortality from pelagic and deepwater fisheries is likely to occur across the species range. For example, the species has been recorded as rare (very few specimens, representing a little more than 0% of the catch of elasmobranchs) in the bycatch longliners operating out of Santos City, São Paulo, southern Brazil (Amorin <em>et al</em>. 1998). Also, only limited bycatch off the USA. As such, this mortality is of no immediate threat to the viability of the species given the limited catches in these fisheries, and the widespread benthic, epibenthic, epipelagic and mesopelagic occurrence of the species.	eng
63109	conservation	Kyne, P.M., San Martín, J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	In Argentina, the species is included in the annual maximum permitted catch (MPC) of the fishery for coastal skates, established by the Argentine fisheries authorities. In recent years the landings were higher than the quotas, and at present this is not an adequate management measure. Species-specific catch data are required as at present all species of batoids are registered in the fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Specific catch information is also required from southern Brazil.	eng
63109	distribution	Kyne, P.M., San Martín, J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic, between ~30° and 43°S (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Its absence in Patagonian waters has been confirmed (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
63109	habitat	Kyne, P.M., San Martín, J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	A coastal and shelf skate, occurring at depths of 10 to 130 m (Figueiredo 1977). Reaches a maximum size of ~71 cm TL (Cousseau <em>et al</em>. 2000) and has an annual reproductive period, with egg-laying from November to July, but with a peak in January and February in south Brazilian waters (Peres and Vooren 1993). There are apparent nearshore movements of adults for reproductive activities during the summer.	eng
63109	population	Kyne, P.M., San Martín, J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	One of the most abundant skates on the continental shelf off Uruguay-Buenos Aires, Province, Argentina (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
63109	threats	Kyne, P.M., San Martín, J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	The majority of the species' geographic and bathymetric distribution is subjected to fairly intensive trawl fishing. <br/> <br/>Off Argentina and Uruguay, <em>Rioraja agassizi</em> is taken by the multi-species fleet that exploits the coastal demersal fish assemblage (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2004). Furthermore, since 2000, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates off Argentina. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). While this data is not species-specific, it highlights the pressure placed on the coastal skate assemblage, of which <em>R. agassizi</em> is a dominant component. Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., the similarly sized <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and the smaller <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>In an observer program of the Puerto Quequén coastal benthic trawl fishery in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, <em>R. agassizi</em> was found to constitute only a small component of batoids captured (0.3% by number, 0.1% by mass, 2.7% frequency of occurrence) (Tamini <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil and demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multi-species fisheries. This species is taken as by-catch in artisanal and industrial fisheries in southern Brazil, and composes 5 to 20% of captures (Lessa <em>et al</em>. 1999). Lessa <em>et al</em>. (1999) reported that the proportion of this species has declined in captures and there is a risk of a population decline.	eng
63110	conservation	San Martín, J.M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	No conservation measures exist in Brazil. In Argentina, the only management strategy for skates is an annual total catch for skates distributed in the coastal waters of Buenos Aires Province. For 2003 this was 4,000 MT. Continued monitoring, improved fisheries data collection and species-specific catch data are needed across the species' range. Given the increasing international demand for skate products, and increased exploitation in the Southwest Atlantic, trade management measures are also essential (Perez and Wahrlich 2005).	eng
63110	distribution	San Martín, J.M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	A Southwest Atlantic endemic species, distributed from 23°S to 45°S.	eng
63110	habitat	San Martín, J.M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Benthic on clay, mud and sand substrates on the continental shelf at depths of 19 to 181 m (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Females mature at 45 to 50 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 47 to 53 cm TL (M.F.W. Stehmann pers. obs., unpubl. ISH records ?W. Herwig' expeditions). The maximum recorded size for <em>A. platana</em> is 73.4 cm TL (Zaro 1979). <br/> <br/>Like other skates, this species is oviparous. It has an annual reproductive cycle, with an egg-laying season from January to September, with a peak in January (Peres and Vooren 1993). Food includes fish, penaeid crustaceans and cephalopods (Peres and Vooren 1993).	eng
63110	population	San Martín, J.M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Moderately rare skate (M.F.W. Stehmann pers. obs.) with patchy occurrence across its range. It is rare north of 26°S.	eng
63110	threats	San Martín, J.M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Trawl fishing along the distribution and in the habitat of this species is intense, while demand for skates is increasing in the international market. In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay this has resulted in rising fishing pressure on all skate species. <em>A. platana</em> is taken mainly as bycatch in fisheries for coastal demersal species (multi-species fisheries) and in Argentina the <em>Atlantoraja</em> species has been known to be landed since 1994. There are only seven records of <em>A. plantana</em> from 1993 to 2005 on the Argentine shelf (A. Massa pers. comm.) however species specific data were not previously recorded. Since 2000, however, one vessel has been specifically targeting skates. For these fishing activities, species-specific landing statistics are generally unavailable as all species of batoids are recorded as ?unidentified rays and skates?. In Argentina, declared landings of skates and rays increased significantly during the 1990s from 910 MT in 1993 to 5,701.2 MT in 1994 and to 12,443.7 MT in 1996 (Chiaramonte 1998). Landings continue to rise and were 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense across the species'  range in southern Brazil, where demersal trawl fisheries operate and skates are landed as part of multi-species fisheries. While species-specific data are required from southern Brazil, Amorim <em>et al</em>. (1997) stated that in the pink shrimp fishery off São Paulo, Brazil the catch per unit effort of discarded batoids (4.6 kg per hour) is approximately three times higher than that of the target species (1.4 kg per hour).    <br/> <br/>Perez and Wahrlich (2005) noted an overall discard rate of 69% for skates taken in the deepwater monkfish gillnet fishery off southern Brazil (between 22°´44 and 34°21´S). While, <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> and <em>A. cyclophora</em> were identified amongst these skates, <em>A. platana</em> was not. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed between depths of 132 to 607 m and so the interaction of <em>A. platana</em> with this fishery is likely minimal. <br/> <br/>Menni and Stehmann (2000) note that the species was historically recorded from Punta Lara, near La Plata in Argentina but that its more recent absence from this locality is likely due to pollution.	eng
63111	conservation	McCormack, C., San Martin, M.J., Stehmann, M. & Lamilla, J., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licences are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of <em>B. griseocauda</em>.	eng
63111	distribution	McCormack, C., San Martin, M.J., Stehmann, M. & Lamilla, J., 2007	<em>B. brachyurops</em> is widely distributed off Argentina from 40°30?S, including the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and occasionally at the coasts of the Buenos Aires Province and southern Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000). It is also found off Chile south of Valdivia (40°S) to the Strait of Magellan (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Colonello and Massa (2004) reported that the distribution of <em>B. brachyurops</em> was not uniform, at least over the area surveyed (from 45° to 41°S), with two areas of higher density identified north of 44°S below the 100 m isobath and south of 44°S at around 200 m.	eng
63111	habitat	McCormack, C., San Martin, M.J., Stehmann, M. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Reported to depths of 28 to 604 m in a range of bottom temperatures from 3.0°C to 12.5°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Age at maturity has been estimated at approximately eight years (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Size at maturity is estimated at around 64 cm TL for females and 58 cm TL for males (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data) with maximum and minimum lengths of 125 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data) and 13 cm TL (Norman 1937) respectively. Like all skates, it is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Smaller individuals feed opportunistically on benthic gammarid amphipods and polychaetes and larger specimens are active predators feeding primarily on fish (e.g., <em>Patagonotothen ramsayi</em>) and cephalopods (e.g., <em>Loligo gahi</em>) (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63111	population	McCormack, C., San Martin, M.J., Stehmann, M. & Lamilla, J., 2007	The population size is unknown, however, this species is the third most important in the rajid trawl fishery north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands forming around 20% of the catch (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).  <br/> <br/>This fishery initially operated in two areas, one to the north and one to the south of the islands. Following heavy fishing pressure during the early 1990s, Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000), found that the species composition of the catch had changed so that the larger, late-maturing <em>B. griseocauda</em> had been replaced as the dominant species in the catch <em>B. brachyurops</em> to the south of the Islands. The southern area has since been closed to the rajid fishery and there have been no studies on the status of <em>B. brachyurops</em> in this area since. A recent assessment of the ray population in the northern area which is still open to the rajid fleet, showed no significant trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63111	threats	McCormack, C., San Martin, M.J., Stehmann, M. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Among the species of rays exploited commercially is <em>B. brachyurops</em> (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland Islands</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja brachyurops</em> is one of the dominant species in the multi-species skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following heavy fishing pressure during the early 1990s, Agnew <em>et al</em>. (2000), found that the species composition of the catch had changed so that the larger, late-maturing <em>B. griseocauda</em> had been replaced as the dominant species in the catch by <em>B. albomaculata</em> to the north and <em>B. brachyurops</em> to the south. Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggested that <em>B. brachyurops</em> should be able to sustain higher fishing pressure than the larger and late-maturing species in the fishery. <br/> <br/>In 1996, following these declines, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to the fleet and the fishery now operates north of the Islands. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004) indicated that there was no significant increasing or decreasing trend in the CPUE for <em>B. brachyurops</em> over the period from 1992 to 2001. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure, targeting <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis</em> (Brickle<em> et al</em>. 2003). While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed and rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja brachyurops</em> is also a regular bycatch of the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> longlining fishery off Chile (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002) which operates mainly at depths from 30 to 300m. Landings for the fishery comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. There may be some refuge for <em>B. brachyurops</em> at greater depths where fishing does not occur. However, there is also an artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery operating at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) off Chile (Lamilla 2003). This species could potentially be caught as bycatch in the fishery.	eng
63112	conservation	McCormack, C., Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, M.J. & Pompert, J., 2007	The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored (FIG 2006) and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/>Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). <br/> <br/>Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are not hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions.	eng
63112	distribution	McCormack, C., Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, M.J. & Pompert, J., 2007	Southwest Atlantic off Argentina and the Falkland Islands.	eng
63112	habitat	McCormack, C., Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, M.J. & Pompert, J., 2007	Benthic, and at times benthopelagic, on slopes and submarine rises in deepwater off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Reported from depths of 637 m to 2,000 m (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Matures at 122 cm total length (TL) and 130 cm TL in females and males, respectively (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data) and reaches at least 150 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Like other skates, <em>B. papilionifera</em> is oviparous. Little else known of the biology of the species.	eng
63112	population	McCormack, C., Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, M.J. & Pompert, J., 2007	Reported to be relatively abundant (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
63112	threats	McCormack, C., Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, M.J. & Pompert, J., 2007	This species is a regular bycatch in the Patagonian toothfish longline fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands where there are currently two licensed operators fishing at depths from 600 m but mainly below 800 m (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Based on observer data, the catches of <em>B. papilionifera</em> in the fishery appear to be stable; however the consistency of this data is fairly restricted. This is mainly due to the fact that only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Furthermore, fishers are not required (and lack the expertise) to report species-specific bycatch figures. Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries? impact on the species. <br/> <br/>The species has also been recorded in catches for the multispecies skate fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands but only very rarely (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). This is largely due to the species occurring outside the depth range of the majority of trawling activities. There may be some refuge offered to the species at depths where fishing does not extend, however if fishing pressure expands into greater depths in the future, close monitoring will be required.	eng
63113	conservation	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30?S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, since 2005, there has been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. caught south of 41°28?S. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. It is unknown whether this measure also protects the reproductive season of this <em>B. griseocauda</em>.	eng
63113	distribution	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	This species occurs in the Southwest Atlantic south of 37°S on the slope and south of 41°S on the shelf off Argentina and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the range of Atlantic Antarctic convergence. The species also occurs in the Southeast Pacific off Chile south of 41°S.	eng
63113	habitat	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Marine, benthic species reported from depths of 82 to 941 m in the Southwest Atlantic in bottom temperatures ranging from 3.0°C to 8.0°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) and at depths of 137 to 595 m off Chile (J. Lamilla pers. comm. 2006). This species shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour, in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al</em>. 1999). <br/> <br/>During research trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, <em>B. griseocauda</em> were more abundant in deeper trawls (200 and 350 m) and formed only a small part of the catch in shallow trawls (150 m) (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Length frequency data for individuals captured around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands showed that all sizes of <em>B. griseocauda</em> were present, with smaller individuals found in deeper water (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Unlike some other species, there is no evidence for large spatial or temporal movements and the species may complete its entire life cycle within Falkland Island waters (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Known to be a slow growing, long-lived species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Individuals mature at around 15 years (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Size at maturity has been estimated at around 120cm TL in male specimens (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Individuals have been reported from a minimum of 13 cm (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data.) to a maximum of 157 cm (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>Small individuals feed opportunistically on benthic isopods and larger specimens are predominantly piscivorous on <em>Patagonotothen ramsayi</em>. This species is considered to be an active predator (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.  <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006).	eng
63113	population	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	The population size is unknown. Declines have been detected around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000, Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Length frequency data around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands show <em>B. griseocauda</em> of all sizes to be present (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). Unlike some other species, there is no evidence for large spatial or temporal movements and the species may complete its entire life cycle within Falkland Island waters (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63113	threats	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja griseocauda</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 59% decline in the biomass of <em>B. griseaocauda</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised up to around 18% of <em>B. griseocauda</em> (Colonello <em>et al</em>.  2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>This species is taken in the multispecies skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. <br/> <br/>In 1993 (the first year where observer data is available), this species was the dominant species of skate caught by finfish and ray-licensed vessels, especially in a ray ?hot spot? to the south of the Islands where it comprised around 70% of the catch (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). By 1993, however, the proportion of the catch comprising <em>B. griseocauda</em> in this south had fallen to around 5% (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). The proportion of this species in catches north of the islands also fell and <em>B. griseocauda</em> was replaced as the dominant species in the catch by <em>B. albomaculata</em> in the north and <em>B. brachyurops</em> in the south (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Total catches of the species fell from around 1,500 t to around 100 t in 1993 to 1995 in the south and from over 1,000 t to around 250 t in the northern areas between 1993 and 1997 (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/>The mean disc width of <em>B. griseocauda</em> also decreased from 52.18 cm in 1993 to 38.08 cm in 1997. Following declines in the early 1990s, the southern fishing area (south of 52°S) was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery. A recent assessment of the northern ray population indicated that the CPUE of this species continued to decline from 1992 to 2001 from almost 100 kg/hr to <50 kg/hr (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, the quality of the data was relatively poor and the data had to be grouped into discrete time periods rather than as a continuous variable. This low level of precision should be taken into consideration (D. Wakeford pers. comm. 2006).There have been no studies to determine the abundance of <em>B. griseocauda</em> in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure; however, it is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers that operate around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the closure area. Observer data has indicated that fishing occurs throughout the depth range of the species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). The smallest specimens of <em>B. griseocauda</em> are found in deeper water, beyond the normal fishing depths of the ray fleet, but present as occasional bycatch for these other fleets (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Although no studies have been conducted to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers. These trawlers target <em>Micromesistius australis, Macruronus magellanicus, Merluccius hubbsi, M. australis</em> and <em>Salilota australis </em>around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Brickle <em>et al. </em>2003) and within the southern rajid closure. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, however a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species is also taken in the directed skate fishery off Chile which primarily targets <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> but also lands other skate species. Landings comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em> and 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em> with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata, B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskii </em>(Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2001, 2002). Overall biomass of the target species (<em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>) has declined by 51% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005) and declines are thus also likely to have occurred for bycatch species. <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja griseocauda</em> is also taken as bycatch in the artisanal Patagonian toothfish longline fishery which operates at depths of 300 to 2,500 m between Iquique (20°S) to Ladrillero Gulf (49°S) (Lamilla 2003).	eng
63114	conservation	Dagit,D.D., Hareide, N. & Clò, S., 2007	The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean. This measure was adopted by all members of the GFCM and came into force in September 2005. <br/> <br/>Continued monitoring of capture and collection of this species is recommended as well as data collection on locality, size, sex, reproductive condition and depth in order to better understand population structure and trends. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
63114	distribution	Dagit,D.D., Hareide, N. & Clò, S., 2007	Widespread throughout the northeastern Atlantic from the southern Arctic to Morocco (about 80°N to 30°N latitude) including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Mediterranean. Common in the western and central Mediterranean, rare in the Eastern Mediterranean, and absent from the North and central Adriatic.	eng
63114	habitat	Dagit,D.D., Hareide, N. & Clò, S., 2007	<em>Chimaera monstrosa</em> is a benthopelagic species that prefers upper to middle continental slope habitats at depths of 300 m to 500 m with a reported maximum depth of 1,663 m. Detailed bathymetrical distribution follows: <br/> <br/>Depth distribution according to (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984) is 50 m to 1,000 m and most abundant between 300 and 500 m. Ehrich (1983) however reports that this species is caught at depths of 173 m to 1,663 m to the west of the British Isles. Highest densities were found between 500 m and 700 m. Hareide <em>et al.</em> (1997) reports collection of this species between 630 m and 825 m from the western slope of the Porcupine Bank. No specimens were found between 825 m and 1,400 m. In the Mediterranean Sea this species is abundant in all areas, from 100 m depth, but it is most abundant between 500 m and 800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, MEDITS Program). Sion <em>et al</em>. (2004) have also reported several specimens from Balearic Sea at depths of 650 m and from Eastern Ionian Sea at depth of 800 m. <br/> <br/>Information from Norwegian exploratory surveys to Hatton Bank (1998-2000) shows a depth distribution of 590 m to 1,230 m in temperatures between 4.7 and 8°C. Additional information on distribution by depth and area, length distributions and CPUE data can be found from Irish and Norwegian trawl and longline survey data to the west of the British Isles and Hatton Bank. Summer inshore migrations to 40-100 m have been observed in some areas. <br/> <br/>Provisional and unvalidated, age and growth characteristics determined by Calis <em>et al.</em> (2005), suggest that <em>C. monstrosa</em> is a typical "K-selected" species characterized by a slow growth rate, a long life expectancy, low fecundity, and a high age-at-maturity. In this study, the von Bertalanffy growth parameters were: L? = 78.87 (cm), K = 0.0673 per year and t<sub>0</sub> = -0.513 (yr). The maximum age estimates observed were 30 years for male and 26 years for female <em>Chimaera monstrosa</em>. However, these ages probably underestimate the true maximum age of this species, owing to the limited sample size examined. Estimated age at first maturity was 13.4 years for males and 11.2 years for females. <br/> <br/>Oviparous with an apparent spawning season in spring and summer. Nothing is known of early development. Diet consists mainly of bottom-dwelling invertebrates.	eng
63114	population	Dagit,D.D., Hareide, N. & Clò, S., 2007	Appears to aggregate in groups and, like other species of chimaeroids, may be segregated by age and sex. Nothing is known of population structure, but this species may be represented by two or more separate subpopulations (e.g., the Mediterranean population may be separate from that found in the North Sea).	eng
63114	threats	Dagit,D.D., Hareide, N. & Clò, S., 2007	<em>Chimaera montrosa</em> is taken in deepwater trawl fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic and is either landed as byproduct or is a component of discarded bycatch (Crozier in prep.). In a study of discards of the French bottom trawl fleet from the South Rockall Bank to the northerly slopes of the Wyville-Thomson Ridge, <em>C. montrosa</em> had the largest discard biomass of all chondrichthyans (Crozier in prep.). It constitutes 13 to 15% of the discards in deepwater trawlers operating off the West Coast of Ireland (Calis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Survival rates of discards are likely low given the depths of capture, the fact that many discards are undersized individuals or are unmarketable individuals (suggesting damage). There is increasing interest in the production of dietary supplements for human consumption derived from the liver oil of this species, and a directed fishery has the potential to develop in areas of occurrence (Calis <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>In ICES Subareas VI and VII the <em>Argentina silus</em> and blue ling landings from directed fisheries increased until 2002, but then declined in 2003. Bycatch species in these areas include bluemouth (<em>Helicolenus actylopterus</em>), greater forkbeard (<em>Phycis blennoides</em>), argentine (<em>Argentina silus</em>), deepwater cardinal fish (<em>Epigonus telescopus</em>), and chimaerids, of which <em>Chimaera monstrosa</em> is the most important (ICES 2005).  <br/> <br/>Rihan <em>et al</em>. (2005) have also reported this species as a bycatch from bottom gillnets retrieved from 648 nets recovered during a gill net retrieval survey of Rockall and Porcupine Bank at depths of 400 to 1,300 m during August-September 2005. Evidence of significant quantities of lost and abandoned gear in these areas and of excessive discarding in these fisheries due to long soak times lead to serious concerns about the impact of ghost fishing. There is a need for the immediate introduction of effective management measures in these fisheries to control the quantities of gear being fished and soak time (Rihan <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the North Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater chimaeroids, like other deepsea chondrichthyans, are potentially at risk from these activities, although little species-specific information is available. Monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that North Atlantic chimaeroid species are not adversely affected. Crozier (in prep.) has shown that high catches of <em>C. montrosa</em> occur between the Rockall Bank to the Wyville-Thomson Ridge, and this likely mirrors catches elsewhere. Further information is required on deepwater fishing activities (including catch and bycatch levels, effort and trend monitoring) in the North Atlantic and the conservation status of this species should be reassessed without delay when such information is available. Both present and future fishing pressure may be shown to be unsustainable for <em>C. montrosa</em>, particularly given its preferred depth range.	eng
63115	conservation	Orlov, A., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research on biology is required as is monitoring of catches.	eng
63115	distribution	Orlov, A., 2007	Known from occasional captures in the Northeast Atlantic from Mid-Atlantic ridge to northern Bay of Biscay and Rockall Trough (Forster 1967, 1968; Gordon and Duncan 1987; Clarke 2000; A. Orlov unpubl. data).	eng
63115	habitat	Orlov, A., 2007	Known from depths 1,879 to 2,952 m (average 2,523 m). Maximum recorded size is 162 cm TL (Clarke 2000). Egg capsule dimensions are 50 cm in length including horns, 30 cm without horns, 15 to 12 cm maximum width (Stehmann and Merrett 2001). Juveniles feed on polychaete worms, amphipods, isopods and copepods (Gordon and Duncan 1989).	eng
63115	population	Orlov, A., 2007	Nothing is known of the population details for this species.	eng
63115	threats	Orlov, A., 2007	Potential bycatch in deepwater longline and gillnet fisheries. This species has been recorded in the Rockall Trough (Clarke 2000), where Spanish and UK longline fleets target <em>Merluccius merluccius</em> and Norwegian fleets target <em>Molva molva</em>, <em>M. dyptergia</em> and <em>Brosme brosme</em> (Gordon 2003). The lower depth limit of fisheries in this area may be 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>The range of this species is beyond current deepwater fisheries. This is a large skate which may have unproductive life-history characteristics that would make it vulnerable to fishing pressure.	eng
63116	conservation	Lamilla, J. & Massa, A., 2007	In Chile, catches are regulated by annual total quota. Following Lamilla <em>et al</em>. (2001, 2002), in the fishing grounds between 39°15' and 41°28.6' S, quotas were set at 600 t for 2002, 500 t for 2003. Afterwards, quotas have been 425 t for 2004, 400 t for 2005 and 370 t for 2006. Since 2005, there has also been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. south of 41°28.6' S of 2,000 t for that year and 1,430 t for 2006. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect its reproductive season. <br/> <br/>Regulations and management tools utilised also need to be species-specific, due to differing life histories and abundance patterns of <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>. <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority.	eng
63116	distribution	Lamilla, J. & Massa, A., 2007	Occurs in the Southwest Atlantic off Argentina. Occurrence off Uruguay and southern Brazil uncertain; previous references to the species off southern Brazil such as those summarised in Menni and Stehmann (2000) probably refer to the recently described <em>D. mennii</em> (Gomes and Paragó 2001). Also occurs in the Southeast Pacific off Chile. Lloris and Rucabado (1991) also recorded the species from the Beagle Channel (54°51' S), and Leible and Stehmann (1987) presumed that it is continuously distributed south through Patagonia in the Atlantic.	eng
63116	habitat	Lamilla, J. & Massa, A., 2007	Distributed in deep temperate waters of the continental shelf and upper slope, between 93 m (Menni and Gosztonyi 1977) and 450 m (Leible 1984) depth, but also recorded in 20 to 22 m in the Beagle Channel (Lloris and Rucabado 1991). Inhabits sandy and muddy bottom sediments. <br/> <br/>The following life history data from Chile is drawn from Lamilla <em>et al.</em> (2001, 2002), unless otherwise stated. <br/> <br/>From examined longline catches off Chile, females were observed between 98.5 and 225 cm TL, and males between 82 and 235 cm TL, with 35.8% of specimens in the size class 160 to 180 cm TL. Sex ratio was 1:1. Maximum size is estimated at 250 cm TL. <br/> <br/>There are no reproductive or aging studies for this species, but ages up to 20 years for males and 21 years for females have been suggested (Gili <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, these may have been derived from a mix of two species (<em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>) and these figures should thus be viewed with caution (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>The feeding habits are mainly piscivorous (<em>Macrouronus magellanicus</em>, <em>Helicolenus lengerichi</em>, <em>Merluccius australis</em> and <em>Merluccius gayi</em>), but also crustaceans (mainly <em>Pterygosquilla armata</em>) in shallower depths. <br/> <br/>An age at maturity for the species was estimated at 12.6 years if A<sub>mat</sub> (age at maturity) is 60% of A<sub>max</sub> (maximum age) based on ages for <em>D. laevis</em> (Gedamke <em>et al.</em> 2005). Average reproductive age for <em>D. trachydermus </em>was estimated using the following calculation: (((21-12.6)/2)+12.6) = 16.8 years. <br/> <br/>No information is available on the biology of the species from Argentina.	eng
63116	population	Lamilla, J. & Massa, A., 2007	While the species is documented south to 51°6.8' S in the Atlantic, south to 41°30' S in the Pacific, and in the Beagle Channel (54°51' S) (Lloris and Rucabado 1991), this assessment follows the presumption of Leible and Stehmann (1987) that it is continuously distributed south through Patagonia in the Atlantic and up to Central Chile in the Southeast Pacific. Thus the assessments here are treated as regional assessments and not subpopulation assessments.   <br/> <br/>There are no abundance estimates but the species is apparently not abundant in Argentinean waters.	eng
63116	threats	Lamilla, J. & Massa, A., 2007	The vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). The three generation period for the species is 50.4 years (3 x 16.8 years), calculated with published estimated maximum age for females (Gili <em>et al</em>. 1999) and estimated female age at maturity (60% of maximum age based on ages for <em>Dipturus laevis</em> in Gedamke <em>et al</em>. (2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species faces both directed and bycatch fishing pressure in Chile. Since 1979 there have been industrial and artisanal landings in Chile of up to >4,000 t/year of<em> D. trachydermus</em> combined with <em>D. chilensis</em>. These two species are not separated in catch landing statistics (Roa and Ernest 1999, 2000). Between 1999 and 2000 there was an important increase in mainly artisanal landings, with a maximum landing of 4,151 t during 2000, which then dropped to 3,000 t in 2001 (SERNAPESCA 1989-2003). In Chile, overall biomass has decreased by 51% and spawning biomass has decreased by 34% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005). <br/> <br/>In the artisanal multi-species longline fishery off Central and Southern Chile (39°15?-41°28.6?S) the catch is regulated by quota for <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em>. Since 2000, 30% of artisanal landings within this fishery (between IX and X Regions) have been monitored (Lamilla et al. 2001, 2002). Landings comprise 85% <em>D. chilensis</em>, 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em>, with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em>, <em>B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskyii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Anecdotal evidence suggests that larger individuals of <em>D. trachydermus</em> were more abundant in previous years. However, research in 2002 recorded mostly immature specimens, suggesting that larger mature specimens may occur in deeper depths beyond the reach of the artisanal fishery (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/> <br/>South of the above-mentioned fishing grounds, both <em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>D. chilensis</em> are taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries for southern hake (<em>Merluccius australis</em>) and in artisanal fisheries for golden kingclip (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>). Captures were of ~2,000 t for both <em>Dipturus</em> species combined in 2002 and since 2005 there have been quotas put in place in these southern fishing grounds. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina, fishing pressure on all skate species is rising due to increasing demand on the international market. Subsequently, catches have been rising since 1994. Skates, particularly <em>D. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>, are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner off Argentina. Species-specific catch data are however, unavailable. <br/> <br/>Similarly, species-specific catch data from multi-species demersal fisheries which operate within the range of <em>D. trachyderma</em> and likely take the species as bycatch are unavailable. Cedrola <em>et al</em>. (2005), however, recorded <em>D. trachydermus</em> as bycatch in the Patagonian red shrimp (<em>Pleoticus muelleri</em>) fishery. This industrial fishery has been operating since 1979, with target catches rising since 1998, and reaching a peak of 79,000 mt in 2001 (Cedrola <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
63117	conservation	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006).  Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. <br/> <br/>Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.	eng
63117	distribution	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M., 2007	Widely distributed species within the Magellanic Province from 36°10? to 54°30?S and also in the Southeast Pacific off southern Chile (51°S).	eng
63117	habitat	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M., 2007	Benthic species reported from 53 m to 514 m (J. Pompert pers. comm.) depth in a bottom temperature range of 3.5 to 7.3°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been estimated at 54.9 cm Total Length (TL) and 53 cm TL for females and males, respectively (Scenna 2003). Maximum size has been estimated at 77cm TL (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). The smallest known specimen was 13 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja macloviana</em> is a specialist feeder on polychaetes and a small proportion of amphipods, isopods and decapods (Brickle <em>et al</em>. 2003). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. <br/> <br/>Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63117	population	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M., 2007	Population size unknown.	eng
63117	threats	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja macloviana</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 67% decline in the biomass of <em>B. macloviana</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000). <br/> <br/>The species is also landed very rarely in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50m of depth and along the 100 m isobath (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific bycatch data remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in the early 1990?s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area (north of 52°S). A recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, indicated no increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). There have been no assessments of the population south of the area since the closure however; this species may also be caught as bycatch by trawlers operating in the area.	eng
63118	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Lamilla, J.M., 2007	None in place. Any future expansion of deepwater fisheries in the area should be closely-monitored.	eng
63118	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Lamilla, J.M., 2007	Endemic to southern South America off Argentina and Chile. Given its slope occurrence, its available habitat and hence range is relatively restricted.	eng
63118	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Lamilla, J.M., 2007	Occupies the outermost continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 220 to 637 m. Nothing known of the ecology or biology or the species apart from its size at birth (18 cm TL) and minimum size of male maturity (41 cm TL) (Lamilla 2003). Presumably aplacental viviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
63118	population	Kyne, P.M. & Lamilla, J.M., 2007	The species is recorded in the Strait of Magellan and thus appears to have a continuous distribution between the Southwest Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific, pointing to the existence of a single population between these regions.	eng
63118	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Lamilla, J.M., 2007	This species is taken in minor amounts as bycatch in small-scale artisanal deepwater longline fisheries off Valdivia, Chile, which target pink cusk-eel <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> (Lamilla 2003), in the Chilean deep sea shrimp fishery, which operates down to depths of 500 m (Acuña and Villaroel 2002), and in the orange roughy <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> industrial benthic trawl fishery on the Juan Fernandez Seamounts (33 to 34°S and 77 to 78°W) at depths of 300 to 500 m (Lamilla unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Other fisheries in the region generally operate outside the depth range of <em>E. granulosus</em>. The Patagonian red shrimp fishery fishes shallower than the species occurs (30 to 100 m: A. Pettovello pers. comm). Around the Falkland Islands, trawl fishing occurs in waters down to ~350 to 400 m, but generally less than 325 m, while longlining is restricted to depths greater than 600 m, with the majority occurring at depths greater than 800 m (J. Pompert pers. comm). The species has not been recorded as bycatch in observer programs on commercial vessels operating around the Falkland Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm).	eng
63119	conservation	Kulka, D.W.,  Barker, A.S., Pasolini, P. & Orlov, A., 2007	Research to collect information on the biology, ecology, uses and fishery data of this species should be a priority. <br/> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
63119	distribution	Kulka, D.W.,  Barker, A.S., Pasolini, P. & Orlov, A., 2007	Widespread along lower continental slopes. In the Northeast Atlantic, this species is found from the southeastern part of the Barents Sea (Novaya Zemliya Isl.) and Spitsbergen to the Greenland-Iceland-Faroe-Shetland Ridge to northern Norway) and the Svalbard archipelago (Paz 2003) (East Greenland Shelf, Faroe Plateau, Barents Sea). In the Northwest Atlantic, it occurs in Davis Strait between southwestern Greenland and Canada. Recently a small number of records were reported as far south as the Grand Banks in Canadian waters. However, some of these records may be confused with <em>A. jenseni</em>. Also reported from the Davis Strait (D. Kulka pers. comm). In the Southeast Atlantic, it is found along the southern tip of South Africa. In the Eastern Indian Ocean, it is found off southern Australia. In the Southwest Pacific it occurs in New Zealand and in the Eastern Pacific it is found in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.	eng
63119	habitat	Kulka, D.W.,  Barker, A.S., Pasolini, P. & Orlov, A., 2007	This species is found in deep water (260 to 2,500 m). In Canadian waters, average depth observed was 1,200 m (rarely greater than 900 m) where the deepest survey sets occurred only as deep as 1,550 m. Oviparous, depositing eggs (81 to 125 mm long and 50 to 80 mm wide) on the bottom. Length on hatching is 16 to 18 (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).  Maximum size is reported as 106 cm (Last and Stevens 1994), although the maximum recorded size off Canada is smaller (63 cm TL: D. Kulka pers. obs). <br/> <br/>In Norwegian waters the highest frequency of catches observed was at depths between 1,050 to 1,250 m. In the deepest areas sampled 2,000 to 2,050 m no catches were made, suggesting a lower limit to its depth range (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001). This species appears to live almost exclusively at temperatures below 4ºC (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). There, they were associated with bottom temperatures of about 3.5°C (D. Kulka pers. comm). In the Barents Sea Arctic skate prefers bottom temperatures about 0°C (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005a). They are benthic feeders with a diet consisting primarily of teleost fish, but also including a variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
63119	population	Kulka, D.W.,  Barker, A.S., Pasolini, P. & Orlov, A., 2007	Bottom trawl surveys in the Barents Sea from October to December 1998-2001 reported annual mean catches of this species of 0.1 to 1.0 fish per hour, and maximum catch of 83 fish per hour (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005a).  It was caught commonly during research cruises conducted on the slope of the eastern Norwegian Sea from 1984 to 1987 and in 1995 (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001). In the Spanish bottom trawl survey carried out on the Svalbard archipelago in 2003 at a depth range of 500 to 1,464 m <em>A. hyperborea</em> is recorded as one of the main species (Paz 2003).	eng
63119	threats	Kulka, D.W.,  Barker, A.S., Pasolini, P. & Orlov, A., 2007	Taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. <br/>   <br/>In the Barents Sea it is taken in trawl fisheries targeting Cod and Haddock at depths <300 m and Redfish and Greenland Halibut at depths >300 m, and longline fisheries targeting mainly Blue Catfish (<em>Anarhichas denticulatus</em>) and cod at depths <300 m and Greenland Halibut at depths >300 m (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b). These long-lines fisheries operate at depths from 130 to 847 m. Average bycatch rates in the longline fishery were 10 to 25 fish (or 35 to 75 kg) per 1,000 hooks, and this species was estimated to constitute approximately 20% of total long-line catches (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b). However, it should be noted that the uncertainty of the estimates from this method is high (approximately ±45%).   <br/> <br/>Preliminary estimates indicate that total annual skate by-catch in these fisheries is 723 to 1,891 tons, and thorny skate composes the great majority of catches (90 to 95% of the total skate catch). Skate catches are mainly discarded in the Barents Sea, although in 2000, about 200 tons of thorny and arctic skate was landed (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005b) and future trends should be monitored.   <br/> <br/>This is a deepwater species (260 to 2,500 m) that is distributed largely outside of the depth range of current fisheries, offering it refuge. Given the wide depth range this species is currently considered Least Concern. However, continued monitoring of catches and expanding fisheries should be a priority. <br/> <br/>Also reported by fisheries observers have recorded them as an occasional bycatch in the Greenland halibut and shrimp fisheries in the Davis Strait (D. Kulka pers. comm).	eng
63120	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Tinti, F., 2007	The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. <br/> <br/>Further research and monitoring of the population where it is fished is required to prevent declines in the future.	eng
63120	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Tinti, F., 2007	The species can probably be considered endemic in the Mediterranean sea (Serena 2005).	eng
63120	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Tinti, F., 2007	<em>R. asterias</em> is found predominantly on the Italian and Corsica continental shelves between shallow waters and 150 m depth (Baino and Serena 2000). In the eastern Ionian sea, the species is found down to depths of 343 m (Mytilineou <em>et al</em>. 2005). Prefers muddy and sandy bottoms, characterised by <em>Crangon crangon</em>, <em>Goneplax rhomboides</em> and <em>Liocarcinus</em> spp. (Vannucci 2005). <br/> <br/>Juvenile <em>R. asterias</em> move quickly into shallow waters (5 to 7 m depth) soon after birth and then move into deeper waters progressively with growth. Tag and release studies (Catalano <em>et al</em>. 2003) suggest that hatching probably occurs close to the bottom, at about 30 to 40 m depth. The sex-ratio confirms equal presence of both sexes. <br/> <br/>Maximum size is estimated at 72 cm TL for males and of 76 cm TL for females (Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005, Serena and Abella 1999). The growth parameter data obtained using the Von Bertalanffy model were L? = 67.45, K = 0.454, t<sub>0</sub> = -0.23 (Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005). Barone <em>et al</em>. (in press.) and Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimate length at maturity at 51.7 cm TL for males and 56.1 cm TL for females, and Serena and Abella (1999) and Bauchot (1987) reported length at maturity at 45 to 54 cm for males and 60 cm for females. Age at maturity is reported at 3 to 4 years for both males and females (Serena and Abella 1999, Bono <em>et al</em>. 2005). Oviparous, the number of egg cases layed (34 to 112) depends on individual size, and egg cases can reach 45 mm in length and 30 mm width (Bauchot 1987). Juveniles are about 8 cm TL when they emerge from the egg cases in January. The sex ratio is about equal (Minervini <em>et al</em>. 1985, Abella <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/> <br/>Recent preliminary tagging experiments (Catalano <em>et al</em>. 2003) suggest a faster growth rate than described in previous literature (Serena and Abella 1999). As this species reaches maturity relatively early (~3 years) and has a short lifespan (~10 years) it is considered to be relatively productive, even though it is only moderately fecund.  Therefore it is likely to be resilient to fishing pressure.  <br/> <br/>Feeds almost exclusively on benthic species, including decapods crustaceans and teleost fishes of the Gobidi family (<em>Gobidae</em> sp., <em>Leserigobius</em> sp., <em>Leserigobius fresii</em>, <em>Gobius niger</em>), Clupeiformes (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em> and other species) and Pleuronectiformes (<em>Citharus linguattola</em>, <em>Arnoglossus laterna</em> and others), but occasionally on pelagic species such as the anchovy <em>Engraulis encrasicolus</em>. Juveniles feed mainly on amphipods, and teleost fish become more important in the diet with growth (Cuoco <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>Average reproductive age, the annual rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.	eng
63120	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Tinti, F., 2007	This species was captured in both the GRUND (Italian waters) and MEDITS (Mediterranean basin) trawl surveys (Relini 1998, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 1997), which began in 1985 and 1994 respectively. In the south Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian sea this species was captured over muddy bottoms, in restricted coastal areas from 9 to 190 m depth, but mainly concentrated at 100 to 150 m depth. From 1999 to 2004 the Biomass Index is lower than the Density Iindex, which probably indicates a change in the population structure with a predominance of smaller specimens (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species has a higher relative abundance on the Italian and Corsica continental shelves (Baino and Serena 2000, Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005). Nursery areas are located very close to the coast (at 2 to 15 m depth) (Abella and Serena 2005).	eng
63120	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Tinti, F., 2007	Starry rays are mainly caught by bottom trawl nets and trammel and gill nets. Near the Corsican coast, in particular, fishing pressure is low because only a few Corsican trawlers, as well as a few Italian vessels, operate in this area (Abella and Serena 2002). A reduced number of trawlers belonging to the La Spezia fleet operate on the same grounds northwards to Viareggio harbour (the most important fishing port of the Northern Tyrrhenian- south Ligurian Sea). The Livorno fleet operating in the same area is also relatively small. Trawlers concentrate their effort mainly on the grounds at depths between 100 and 400 m and therefore there is a little overlap with areas in which the Viareggio fleet operate. <br/> <br/>Off Tuscany (Viareggio, Italy) this species is mainly landed as by-catch of beam trawlers, targeting common sole and turbots.  It is the most common species caught by a variant of the beam trawl called a <em>rapido</em>, however very few of these operate in this area (Abella and Serena 2002). Most small individuals of <em>R. asterias</em> caught near shore with trammel and gill nets by these artisanal fisheries are landed. However the ban on trawling within three miles of the coast in this area of the Mediterranean affords protection to this species'  shallow nursery areas (2 to 15 m) (Abella and Serena 2002). Moreover, a general reduction in fishing effort on the grounds traditionally exploited by the Viareggio fleet occurred during the last 15 years because the number of vessels in operation reduced from 107 in 1985, to 78 in 2000 (Abella and Serena 2002). <br/> <br/>Current levels of catch appear to be sustainable among studied stocks (Abella and Serena 2002), however it should be noted that data are lacking throughout the rest of this species'  range in the Mediterranean. Further study is needed to accurately assess the status of populations in the rest of its range. <br/> <br/>Little information is available on the probability of survival of discarded juveniles. Preliminary experiments performed with individuals caught and successively put into pools of marine water have demonstrated high rates of survival for released individuals of <em>R. asterias</em> caught with bottom trawl nets (Catalano <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Although <em>R. asterias</em> is one of the more exploited species in the Ligurian sea, it is apparently relatively resilient to fishing pressure as a result of its life history characteristics. It is relatively productive due to its early age of first maturity (about three years) and relatively short lifespan (about 10 years), even if it is only moderately fecund (Abella and Serena 2002).	eng
63121	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	There is an urgent need to assess the impacts of fishing on this poorly known species. In Argentina, skate landings are managed by a quota system, but this is not species-specific.	eng
63121	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic off Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.	eng
63121	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Inhabits the continental shelf at depths of 30 to 60 m (McEachran 1983, Menni and Stehmann 2000). Off southern Brazil, found at depths of 30 to 70 m on sandy-muddy bottoms (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Like other skates it is oviparous, but this is a poorly known species with little information available on biology and ecology. <em>P. lentiginosa</em> reaches a maximum size of 43.5 cm total length (TL) and the smallest known individual measured 11.9 cm TL, giving an approximation for size at birth (McEachran 1983).	eng
63121	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63121	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	There is no specific information available on catches of this species, however, increasing international demand for skates has resulted in growing fishing pressure on skate species along the coastal and shelf waters of Argentina and Uruguay. Skates are taken and landed by multispecies coastal bottom trawlers and by a target skate fishery. Other fisheries, such as those for hake and shrimp, and Patagonian bottom trawl fisheries also take skate as bycatch. There are no data on specific catches as all species of batoids are registered in fishery statistics as ?unidentified rays and skates?. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t in Argentina, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). There has been a 31% reduction in overall coastal skate biomass estimates from 1994 (when active exploitation commenced) to 1999/2003 (Massa <em>et al</em>. 2004). Considerable declines in the biomass of other coastal and shelf skate species have been documented off Buenos Aires Province, Argentina and Uruguay (34° to 41°S) (i.e., <em>Atlantoraja cyclophora</em> and <em>Sympterygia acuta</em>) (Massa and Hozbor 2004, Massa <em>et al</em>. 2006), an area where trawl fishing is intensive. <br/> <br/>Fishing pressure is also known to be intense where the species occurs off southern Brazil. While species-specific information for <em>P. lentiginosa</em> is not available, demersal trawlers in that region land skates as part of multispecies fisheries. <br/> <br/><em>Psammobatis</em> spp. may be less susceptible to population depletion than other skates, given their small size (implying lower age at maturity and faster growth rates), however, both the increase in fishing pressure across much of the range of <em>P. lentinginosa</em>, and habitat disturbance and degradation (including possible damage to reproductive habitat) due to trawling activities could be placing unsustainable pressure on the species. <br/> <br/>Where the species is discarded, survival rates are unknown, however Mabragaña and Cousseau (2004) note that for <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. (referring specifically to <em>P. normani</em> and <em>P. rudis</em>) they are often dead when discarded at sea.	eng
63122	conservation	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Lamilla, J., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/> <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species.  <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now resticted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from <em>Loligo gahi</em> fishing grounds.  <br/> <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species.	eng
63122	distribution	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Off Argentina from 37°S including the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the Burdwood Bank, mainly on the shelf edge and slope (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Has also been recorded once off Chile (Bigelow and Schroeder 1965).	eng
63122	habitat	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Medium-sized benthic species distributed in deep temperate waters of the continental shelf and slope. Reported at depths from 51 to 642 m in bottom temperatures ranging from 2.5°C to 6.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000), and off Punta Arenas, Chile at 185 m depth. Size at birth has been estimated from 9cm TL and the species has been reported to reach a maximum size of 69 cm TL (FIFD unpubl. data).	eng
63122	population	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Rather common species in Magellanic waters (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
63122	threats	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J., Stehmann, M.F.W. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/> <br/><em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). There are no species-specific estimates of bycatch for these trawl fisheries and the quantity of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> taken is unknown.  <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100m isobath (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002). The processed catch composition varied between trips and usually comprised only a few percent of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> but one haul was comprised around 8% by the species (Colonello <em>et al</em>. 2002). Species-specific data on the discarded portion of the catch was not collected and remains a priority for this and the trawl fisheries.   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. <br/> <br/>Observer data for the species showed no significant trends in abundance between 1993 and 1997 (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000). Mean disc width gradually decreased from 1993 to 1997 although the data were often sparse (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, based on observer data, has indicated that the CPUE of <em>A. doellojuradoi</em> has increased from 1992 to 2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi </em>comprised 2.4% of the catch from the northern area of the fishery between 1993 and 2002 (Wakeford <em>et al</em>. 2004). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al. </em>2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering.  <br/> <br/>There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed, therefore rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure.	eng
63123	conservation	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	No management or conservation measures are known to be in place. Study of population size, and age and growth of this species is recommended prior to initiating any target fishery as this may be a slow-growing species that would be highly threatened by overfishing. Management and monitoring of captures of this species should be a priority.	eng
63123	distribution	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Primarily occurring in the central and eastern north Atlantic, but also captured in the western Atlantic. Probably widespread throughout the northern Atlantic with greatest abundance at depths greater than 1,000 m.	eng
63123	habitat	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Occurs on deepwater slopes, seamounts, and seaplains of the north Atlantic at depths of 300 to 2,410 m, generally occurring in waters near or below 1,000 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Krefft 1990). Size range 32 to 147 cm total length (TL); 14 to 96 cm body length (BDL). <br/> <br/>Nothing is known of biology and ecology of this species. Diet probably consists of a variety of bottom dwelling invertebrates and other fish. Oviparous but nothing is known of reproduction, spawning or growth. It is likely that this is a slow-growing species with low fecundity.	eng
63123	population	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Nothing is known of population size or structure. Almost all captures are large adults or subadult juveniles at or >100 cm TL. Very few small juveniles have ever been collected indicating that juveniles and adults may aggregate separately and occupy different habitats. <br/> <br/><em>H. affinis</em> is only rarely encountered in Canadian waters, in 70 of about 42,000 survey sets most of which occurred at >1,000 m (87% of captures were at >1,000 m) (D. Kulka pers comm).	eng
63123	threats	Dagit, D.D. & Clarke, M.W., 2007	Not commonly captured except when collected in deepwater research trawls and possibly as a bycatch in some deep water trawls. Not known to be targeted at present and it is not considered a likely future target due to its low abundance. Could face a potential threat in the future if emerging deep water commercial trawl fisheries capture this large species in large numbers, however <em>H. affinis</em> is considered to occur deeper than the main fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic, offering a deep refuge from fishing pressure. As this species is thought to be slow growing with low fecundity, monitoring of deepwater fishing activities, including landings and discards will be essential to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. <br/> <br/>Areas of the Northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area (ICES VIb and XII) at depths between 600 to 2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, the lower depth limit of fisheries in this region may be about 1,500 m. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm.). About 10-20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm). <br/> <br/>This species' wide depth distribution and they are more commonly caught at depths greater than 1,000 m offer refuge from fishing pressure. Not commonly captured except when collected in deepwater research trawls and possibly as a bycatch in some deep water trawls. Could face a potential threat in the future if emerging deep water commercial trawl fisheries capture this large species in large numbers as a target or bycatch fisher.	eng
63124	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area and range of <em>D. mennii</em> (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Perez pers. comm). The conservation status of this species will rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels should provide accurate monitoring of trends in the future. <br/> <br/>The restriction of the southern Brazilian deepwater longline fishery to depths of >600 m places it outside the known bathymetric distribution of <em>D. mennii</em>.	eng
63124	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Dipturus mennii is endemic to southern Brazil, between the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro. These states are bounded by latitudes ~22°S to ~34°S. As such, the species is restricted to ~12° of latitude, and given its occurrence on the outer shelf and upper slope, it is restricted to a relatively narrow band of available habitat. Previous references to <em>D. trachydermus</em> off southern Brazil such as those summarised in Menni and Stehmann (2000) probably refer to <em>D. mennii</em> (Gomes and Paragó 2001). Following then, it is likely that references to <em>D. trachydermus</em> in the Brazilian monkfish fishery by Perez and Wahrlich (2005) also refer to <em>D. mennii</em>.	eng
63124	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	<em>Dipturus mennii</em> has been found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 133 to 500 m, but is primarily distributed on the upper continental slope. Nothing is known of its ecology and reproductive biology, except that it is oviparous like other skates. Given its large size (maximum ~160 cm total length (TL), 120 cm disk width (DW)) it is likely to exhibit life history characteristics of large chondrichthyans (including large skates) such as slow growth, late size and age at maturity, low fecundity and long lifespan. Ebert (2005) showed that some skates may be restricted to a very small number of spawning seasons, as low as one. The acquisition of such biological data for <em>D. mennii</em> is required. <em>Dipturus mennii</em> has been found on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in depths of 133 to 500 m, but is primarily distributed on the upper continental slope. Nothing is known of its ecology and reproductive biology, except that it is oviparous like other skates. Given its large size, it is likely to exhibit life history characteristics of large chondrichthyans (including large skates) such as slow growth, late size and age at maturity, low fecundity and long lifespan. Ebert (2005) showed that some skates may be restricted to a very small number of spawning seasons, as low as one. The acquisition of such biological data for <em>D. mennii</em> is required.	eng
63124	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Nothing known about population structure.	eng
63124	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Demand for skates is increasing on the international market, with recent increased exploitation in the southwest Atlantic, resulting in the retention and marketing of skates taken as non-target bycatch in Brazilian deepwater fisheries (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Perez and Wahrlich 2005). In addition, the vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). <br/> <br/>In 1998 the Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in order to remove some pressure from the shelf environment and explore unexploited resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Fishing activities employing chartered foreign vessels began in 2000 using demersal gear, specifically longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at depths of <200 to 900 m. Longlining was later (2001) restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003) and as such is outside the depth of <em>D. mennii</em>. The gillnet fishery for monkfish Lophius gastrophysus which was developed as part of this deepwater fishing program, operated over the entire geographical and bathymetrical distribution of <em>Dipturus mennii</em>. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed bycatch in this fishery between 22°44´S and 34°21´S and at depths of 132-607 m, recording <em>D. mennii</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em> (see note in Geographic Range section) as the abundant elasmobranch bycatch species. Skates are also taken and retained in the deepwater trawl fishery which operates in the same region (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Perez <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported trawlers operating down to depths of 460 m. Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should greatly reduce the level of impact on the species, but it will continue to be taken as bycatch.	eng
63125	conservation	Stehmann, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Deepwater fisheries need to be monitored and managed. Information on the life-history parameters is needed.	eng
63125	distribution	Stehmann, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Only four specimens have been caught so far from inner and outer slopes of Rockall Trough west of Scotland and Ireland at 1,000 to 1,500 m depth, and off Southwest Iceland at 1,100 m (Stehmann 1977, 1993). Probably wider range into Bay of Biscay and to Mid-Atlantic-Ridge (M. Stehmann pers. obs.) although recent expeditions to the mid-Atlantic ridge did not reveal the presence of this species (A. Orlov pers. obs.). The species probably has a wider range to the Bay of Biscay and the mid-Atlantic-Ridge (M. Stehmann pers. obs.), although recent expeditions to the mid-Atlantic ridge failed to record it (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2006).	eng
63125	habitat	Stehmann, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Benthic at 1,000 to 1,500 m depth on deep continental slopes and submarine rises. <em>M. kreffti</em> is only known from four individuals. <em>M. kreffti</em> is only known from four individuals so limited information is available about life history parameters. The only female currently known measured 48.8 cm total length (TL) and was thought to be probably mature (Stehmann 1993) and the smallest mature male measured 51.5 cm TL (Stehmann 1977). The largest known individual of the species measured 57 cm TL (Stehmann 1993), although the species probably grows to about 70 cm TL (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). No further data on the species'  ecology and biology are currently available.	eng
63125	population	Stehmann, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Very rare deep-water species. No data on population size are available.	eng
63125	threats	Stehmann, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Caught occasionally as by-catch in deep-water fisheries only but locally and seasonally.  Very occasionally landed in France by deep-water trawlers from Rockall Trough area (M.H. DuBuit pers. comm.), but considered to exist mainly outside the range of current fisheries (all records >1,000 m). Caught occasionally as bycatch in deepwater fisheries. Potential threat if there is deeper water trawling in the future, but it is not considered threatened by current activities.	eng
63126	conservation	Smale, M.J. & Kulka, D.W., 2007	No conservation measures are underway at present. It is recommended that there is further investigation of the life history characteristics of <em>M. spinacidermis</em> (some work on this species off Canada has commenced) and further catch composition data is required for the species. Estimates of bycatches off Canada (Observer Program) indicate small numbers of removals (D. Kulka pers. obs).	eng
63126	distribution	Smale, M.J. & Kulka, D.W., 2007	A rare deepwater skate that has an amphitemperate distribution on the North Atlantic slope from the Georges Bank, Grand Banks, Labrador Shelf to the Iceland-Faroes Ridge and off north-central Namibia and Cape Town, South Africa. Occurs in southern African waters off Port Nolloth, south-west of Lambert's Bay, north-west of Cape Town, and south-west of Cape Point at 800 m and deeper (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
63126	habitat	Smale, M.J. & Kulka, D.W., 2007	<em>M. spinacidermis</em> is a poorly known species found on the continental slope at depths of over 800 m to 1,550 m. Twenty two records off Canada indicated a depth range of 450 to 1,550 m (max depth fished) and a narrow range of temperatures, 3 to 4.5°C (D. Kulka pers. obs). Occurs at 100 to 1,350 m (max depth fished) off north-central Namibia and Cape Town, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). <br/> <br/>Size at maturity for males is currently unknown, although a fully mature female found off the coast of Canada measured 52 cm total length (TL) (D. Kulka pers. obs.). <em>M. spinacidermis</em> attains a maximum size of 64 cm TL, with a disk width (DW) of 45 cm (Hulley 1986). Size at birth is unknown, although the smallest known specimen, recorded off the coast of Canada, measured 10 cm TL (D. Kulka pers. obs).	eng
63126	population	Smale, M.J. & Kulka, D.W., 2007	A widely distributed species, but apparently not common.	eng
63126	threats	Smale, M.J. & Kulka, D.W., 2007	Most records occur at >800 m suggesting that this species occurs primarily deeper than is normally surveyed or fished.  Potential threat if there is deeper water trawling in the future, but it is not considered threatened by current activity. <br/> <br/>In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. obs). Deepwater fishing effort has diminished considerably compared to the 1960s-1980s in the Northwest Atlantic, and presently about 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. obs). Estimates of bycatches off Canada (Observer Program) indicate small numbers of removals (D. Kulka pers. obs).	eng
63127	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2007	No regulations exist for this species. To prevent this species from moving out of the Least Concern category deepwater fisheries operating close to its range should be monitored.	eng
63127	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2007	Likely cosmopolitan. In the northwest Atlantic, records of this species occur from the southern Labrador Shelf, Canada to the mid-Atlantic Bight. The first northwest Atlantic records, taken on survey longlines between 1965 and 1967, comprised 18 mature specimens taken at depths between 1,370 and 2,360 m (Scott and Scott 1988). These constituted the only northwest Atlantic records until 2003 when a mature male and a mature female were collected from the slope fishery north of the Grand Banks (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). In the northeast Atlantic, it has been recorded from the northwestern Bay of Biscay to northern Ireland (Stehmann and Merrett 2001). Recently this skate was found off the Azores and in the Mid-Atlantic ridge area (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2006). In the southwest Pacific, there is only a single record known (holotype) off New Zealand (Garrick 1961).	eng
63127	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2007	This marine species is bathydemersal, with records in deep water (1,219 to 2,992 m) on continental slopes, submarine rises and deepsea plains (Ayling and Cox 1982) with a diet consisting primarily of teleost fishes and crustaceans (Templeman 1973). <br/> <br/><em>B. richardsoni </em>reaches a maximum size of 174 cm total length (TL) (Tempelman 1973) and size at birth is 18.2 to 24.5 cm TL. The species is oviparous with egg capsules having a length measurement of 34 to 45.2 cm (including egg horns) or 20 to 20.8 cm (excluding egg horns), and a maximum width of 11.2 to 12 cm (Stehmann and Merrett 2001).	eng
63127	population	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2007	Population size and parameters are unknown.	eng
63127	threats	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2007	The main human threat to this species is deepwater fisheries. However, much of the range of this species occurs well beyond most deepwater fisheries. <br/> <br/>Potentially a bycatch in deepwater longline and gillnet fisheries in areas of the North Atlantic, where deepwater fishing activities have increased since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm). About 10 to 20% of the Northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm). However this species is rarely captured, and the majority of its range is considered outside the range of fishing pressure. <br/> <br/>This species' wide depth distribution, relatively wide geographic range and that they are rarely caught at depths less than 800 m (D. Kulka pers. comm.) may offer refuge from fishing pressure. Deepwater fisheries should be monitored and managed.	eng
63128	conservation	Romero, M., Leandro, L. & Lamilla, J, 2007	A Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and are a priority, as is adequate enforcement.	eng
63128	distribution	Romero, M., Leandro, L. & Lamilla, J, 2007	<em>Mustelus mento</em> is found in the Southeast Pacific from the Isla Lobos de Tierra (Peru) south to the austral tip of Chile, and the Galapagos and Juan Fernández Islands (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001, Compagno in prep).	eng
63128	habitat	Romero, M., Leandro, L. & Lamilla, J, 2007	This temperate demersal shark is found on the continental and insular shelves at depths of 16 to 50 m. Ovoviviparous, with seven young per litter (Compagno in prep). In Talcahuano (Chile) number of young is also seven per litter (J. Lamilla unpub. data). <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size 130 cm TL. Males maturing at 65 to 76 cm TL, females maturing at 86 to 90 cm TL. Size at birth about 30 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
63128	population	Romero, M., Leandro, L. & Lamilla, J, 2007	Unknown.	eng
63128	threats	Romero, M., Leandro, L. & Lamilla, J, 2007	In Peru, this species is grouped with <em>M. whitneyi</em> and probably also with <em>Triakis maculata</em> under the name of ?tollo''. However, the abundance of <em>M. mento</em> increases towards the south and Peruvian catches of this species are probably small. <br/> <br/>In Chile, highest catches of tollo are taken in the south (Region X) mainly by artisanal gill net fisheries (Lamilla <em>et al</em>. 2005a, 2005b; J. Lamilla unpub. data). Chilean catch statistics for tollo, reported to FAO as ?smoothhound nei?, are probably mainly <em>M. mento</em>, but may include smaller amounts of <em>M. whitneyi</em> and even Triakis maculata in the north. Tollo landings in Chile peaked at about 1,300 t in 1989 and have since declined steadily to 200 t or less since 1995. Effort in the tollo gillnet fishery may have increased during the late 1980s because of transfer of effort from the hake fishery, and declined during the early 1990s as effort shifted to the ray fishery (E. Acuña pers. comm. 2006). Therefore fluctuations in tollo landings are largely explained by variation in fishing effort, and landings do not provide a good index of population size.	eng
63129	conservation	Romero, M., 2007	In order to guarantee chondrichthyan resources in the long term, a Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and this is now a priority, as is adequate enforcement. <br/> <br/>The lack of accurate species-specific information on this species not only in Peru, but elsewhere in its range reinforces the need for further research with a focus on <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> and other tollo species.	eng
63129	distribution	Romero, M., 2007	<em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> is found in the Southeast Pacific from Peru to southern Chile (39°52' S). Chirichigno and Cornejo (2001) also report the species from Costa Rica, but this is probably erroneous.	eng
63129	habitat	Romero, M., 2007	An offshore bottom-dwelling shark found on the continental shelf. Recorded in depths of 16 to 211 m, but is more common at 70 to 100 m. Prefers rocky bottom around islands. Feeds on crabs, mantis shrimp, and small bony fishes. Viviparous, with 5 to 10 young per litter and a size at birth of 25 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep). Size at maturity is 74 to 87 cm TL for females and the smallest adult male recorded measured 68 cm TL (Compagno in prep). <em>M. whitneyi</em> reaches at least 87 cm TL (Compagno in prep.), with a recorded maximum size of 95 cm TL (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).	eng
63129	population	Romero, M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63129	threats	Romero, M., 2007	In Peru this species is probably grouped with <em>M. mento</em> and maybe <em>Triakis maculata</em> under the local name ?tollo''. The Peruvian tollo fishery probably consists mainly of <em>M. whitneyi</em>. The abundance of <em>M. whitneyi</em> decreases towards the south, and consequently the Chilean tollo fishery probably catches mainly <em>M. mento</em>, which has a more southern distribution. Thus the Peruvian fishery constitutes the main threat to <em>M. whitneyi</em>. <br/> <br/>In Peru, landings of tollo were high for a 24-year period between 1966 and 1989, averaging 11,276 t per year and reaching a peak of 25,000 t in 1984 (FAO 2006). From 1990 to 2004, there was a substantial drop in landings to an average of 4,806 t. The sharp decline in 1990 between two periods of relative stability is not a typical response to overfishing, indicating that landings may not be a good index of abundance. However, it is thought that the population did decline by an unknown extent during the 1990s, leading to a shift of fishing effort away from tollo. Furthermore, the implementation of a new minimum size regulation in 2001 may have also reduced catches. The effects of the new regulations are not yet known. <br/> <br/>The Peruvian tollo fishery has shown remarkable productivity over a period of more than 30 years, but is probably now somewhat depleted.	eng
63130	conservation	Romero, M. & Leandro, L., 2007	In order to guarantee chondrichthyan resources in the long term, a Peruvian legal regulation was put into force in 2001, establishing minimum catch sizes of 160 cm TL for <em>Prionace glauca</em>, 170 cm TL for <em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>, 150 cm TL for <em>Carcharhinus</em> spp., and 60 cm TL for <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em>, <em>Mustelus mento</em> and <em>Triakis maculata</em>. These species are the main commercial sharks caught off Peru. Improved awareness and education regarding these regulations is lacking and are a priority, as is adequate enforcement. <br/> <br/>The lack of accurate species-specific information on this species not only in Peru, but elsewhere in its range reinforces the need for further research with a focus on <em>Triakis maculata</em> and other tollo species.	eng
63130	distribution	Romero, M. & Leandro, L., 2007	<em>Triakis maculata </em>is found in the Southeast Pacific from Peru, northern Chile and the Galapagos Islands. Mexican records for this species are erroneous (Compagno in prep).	eng
63130	habitat	Romero, M. & Leandro, L., 2007	A temperate inshore species found on the continental shelf. Very little known of its biology but it is probably ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><em>Triakis maculata </em>reaches a maximum size of 180 to 240 cm total length (TL), although a confirmed size at maturity is unknown (Compagno in prep). The size at birth for this species is 30 to 40 cm TL and one female was found to have a litter of 14 pups (Compagno in prep).	eng
63130	population	Romero, M. & Leandro, L., 2007	Possibly uncommon (Compagno in prep).	eng
63130	threats	Romero, M. & Leandro, L., 2007	Taken in fisheries off Peru and possibly also off northern Chile. Species-specific catch information is lacking. <em>Triakis maculata</em> is taken in artisanal gill nets, and to a lesser extent in trawls, along with <em>Mustelus whitneyi</em> and <em>M. mento</em>. These three species are collectively known as ?tollo?, which in the geographic range of <em>T. maculata</em> (Peru and northern Chile), consists mainly of <em>M. whitneyi</em>. Tollo has been heavily fished off Peru for over 30 years, but Chilean fisheries have been less intensive. The Peruvian fishery has now shifted away from tollo due to declines of the main species (<em>M. whitneyi</em>) and at present few are captured. The three species are now also subject to minimum size restrictions, however these size limits are low compared with size at sexual maturity and awareness of these regulations is limited, as is enforcement. Populations trends are unknown for <em>T. maculata</em>, and its contribution to tollo landings is unknown; however this is probably the least common of the three species in this mix. <em>Triakis maculata</em> is large and desirable as food. Its naturally low abundance and ongoing fishing pressure, albeit at a lower level than previously, may be causing continuing declines in its abundance. This species should be closely monitored and given high research priority to determine the current status of its population.	eng
63131	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Marshall, A.D., Compagno, L.J.V., Mouni, A., Hicham, M., Bucal, D., Dulvy, N., Heenan, A. & Rui Coelho., 2007	There are no species specific measures currently in place. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The Mediterranean Action Plan for the conservation of chondrichthyan fishes recognises the urgent need to assess the status of <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, as a species that may be at high risk of threat in the region (Anonymous 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong> <br/><em>Mauritania</em> <br/>This species is protected as part of a ban on directly targeted elasmobranch fishing in the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, which was implemented in December 2003. In this national park, management measures specific to <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> were also introduced (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). The fishery was closed from February to September, to avoid the parturition period and therefore the capture of pregnant females. After negotiations with local fishermen, gear restrictions were introduced (to stop fishing with bottom gillnets of 1 to 2 m height and 11 to 16 cm (one side) square mesh). <br/> <br/><em>Sierra Leone</em> <br/>There are no species specific regulations for the management of shark and shark fisheries in the Sierra Leone. However, a licensing system for artisanal fishing canoes, both foreign and Sierra Leone owned is payable to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources and the Local Government Administration (Seisay 2005). A National Action Plan for the conservation and management of sharks is being proposed. Highlights of the recommended management measures include: area and seasonal closure to shark fisheries; effort limitation of shark fishery; return of immature and/or juvenile shark and ray species. <br/> <br/><em>Guinea-Bissau</em> <br/>There are marine protected areas inside the Bijagos archipelago (the Formosa Islands UROK marine reserve), the PNO marine reserve (Orango Islands) and the PNMJVO marine reserve (Joao Vieira and Poilao Islands). Within these areas, trawling and the use of nets is forbidden, the only gear type allowed is fishing with longlines. Furthermore, fishing is only allowed for subsistence purposes, commercial fishing is disallowed (Bucal 2006). <br/> <br/>Recommended measures: <br/><em>Mediterranean</em> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Fishing effort within the region should be monitored and species specific landings should be recorded. Further study on the range of the species and the use of specific critical coastal habitats, in particular reference to the negative impact of trawling.  <br/> <br/><em>East Atlantic</em> <br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species (A. Mendy pers. comm. 2006). Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure on this species.	eng
63131	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Marshall, A.D., Compagno, L.J.V., Mouni, A., Hicham, M., Bucal, D., Dulvy, N., Heenan, A. & Rui Coelho., 2007	<strong>Global</strong>: the common guitarfish distribution extends between 44°N to 17°S, 19°W to 36°E from the southern Bay of Biscay southwards to Angola (including the Mediterranean), this guitarfish appears to prefer warmer waters (Fredj and Maurin 1987).  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: occurs throughout the Mediterranean coasts, but appears more prevalent in the southern and eastern regions (Capapé 1989, Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984), in particular around the Gulf of Gabes, on the East coast of Tunisia (Quignard and Capapé 1971).  <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong>: Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau southwards possibly to Namibia.	eng
63131	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Marshall, A.D., Compagno, L.J.V., Mouni, A., Hicham, M., Bucal, D., Dulvy, N., Heenan, A. & Rui Coelho., 2007	The common guitarfish is a bottom dwelling species with an aplacental viviparous mode of reproduction mode (the maternal adult gives birth to live young which do not have a yolk sac placenta). It can be found over sandy, muddy, shell and occasionally macro-algal covered substrates (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, De Buen 1935). It inhabits shallow waters in the intertidal zone to waters of up to 180 m in depth. This guitarfish tends to swim slowly along the sea bottom or partially buries itself under the substrate, feeding upon benthic invertebrates and fish (Patokina and Litvinov 2005). Scientific trawl surveys in Moroccan waters recorded the depth range of the common guitarfish as 17 to 80 m in depth (M. Hicham and A. Mouni pers. comm. 2006). Bottom trawl surveys carried out off the coast of Sierra Leone indicate that this is a sublittoral species which occurs between 10 and 100 m in depth. It was only found in waters deeper than 50 m during the summer and autumnal months and during the winter-spring seasons this guitarfish moves northwards (Litvinov 1993). <br/> <br/>Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the maximum size of the common guitarfish as approximately 100 cm in total length (TL). However, within the Southern Mediterranean (the Gabés Gulf), the maximum reported sizes were slightly larger with 140 cm TL for males and 162 cm TL for females (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996). Males reach maturity at 75 cm in TL, females at 85 cm TL. The age at maturity is not known for either sex, nor the longevity of this species. The females have between one and two litters per year, with the gestation period spanning four months. Between 4 and 6 pups are produced per litter, measuring 30 cm at birth. <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the natural rate of mortality that this species population experiences, or any further details on its population and reproductive biology.	eng
63131	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Marshall, A.D., Compagno, L.J.V., Mouni, A., Hicham, M., Bucal, D., Dulvy, N., Heenan, A. & Rui Coelho., 2007	Due to widespread and unregulated fishing throughout the range the population is expected to be declining. <br/> <br/>Little is known of the population sizes of the common guitarfish. However, there has been a marked decline in the abundance of this guitarfish in the Northern regions of the Mediterranean, based on a combination of fisherman' s knowledge and data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS). These experimental trawl surveys carried out in the North of the Mediterranean (from the Alboran to the Aegean Sea) between 1994 and 1999 failed to catch any common guitarfish, indicating that they have disappeared from this area (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Indeed, Relini and Piccinetti (1991) reported the common guitarfish species extinct within the northern regions of the Mediterranean. Observations from the 1970s and 1980s indicate that the common guitarfish was prevalent within the south and eastern basins of Mediterranean (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, Quignard and Capapé 1971, M.N. Bradai pers. comm.), however the demersal nature of this species and the localized decline within the northern Mediterranean indicate that there are low levels of interconnectivity between the geographical sub-populations. <br/> <br/>No information is available on the population size of this species along the west African coasts.	eng
63131	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Marshall, A.D., Compagno, L.J.V., Mouni, A., Hicham, M., Bucal, D., Dulvy, N., Heenan, A. & Rui Coelho., 2007	This species' biology and inshore habitat make it highly susceptible to population depletion. The distribution of this species is fairly wide but it would be subjected to fishing pressures throughout most of its range, as its coastal habitat make this rhinobatid easy target for artisanal fisheries and it is likely to be caught as bycatch of commercial fisheries of all kinds, operating along the majority of the Mediterranean coastline, for example the Egyptian commercial trawl fishery off the coast of Alexandria. <br/> <br/>Guitarfish are vulnerable to fisheries given their life history. There is also little known about their biology or habitat requirements but it is likely that habitat requirements especially for young (nursery grounds) is being influenced by humans causing habitat degradation in many of these areas. <br/> <br/>Other species of guitarfish are now regularly caught as by-catch in local fisheries in the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean, including much of Africa. They are used for their flesh or fins but often are discarded. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Based on anecdotal evidence, the common guitarfish, along with the blackchin guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> is a species which was historically common throughout the Northern Mediterranean. In the late 19<sup>th</sup> century Doderlain (1884) commented on the daily presence of this species in the Palmero fish market, while in the early 20<sup>th</sup> Century it was considered a typical resident over sandy substrates around the Baleric Islands (De Buen 1935). Furthermore, the perception of older fishermen operating this region was that of a relatively high frequency of occurrence in the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, compared to the present apparent local extinction in this area (G. Morey pers. comm. 2003). The absence of this species from MEDITS bottom trawl survey further consolidates the apparent disappearance of this species from the northern regions of the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>In portions of the southern shore (e.g., Gulf of Gabés and potentially elsewhere along the Mediterranean African coast which has be subject to less intensive fishing pressure) both species are still present in the catch, but with a large proportion of immature juveniles. <br/> <br/>The sizes of <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos</em> individuals fished by bottom trawls vary from 300 to 1,200 mm TL with an average of 736 mm LT. The most common size of individuals landed in the gulf of Gabès is between 500 to 1,000 mm (females) and 600 to 900 mm (males). Of the landing 54.46% of specimens landed were females and 46.72% were immature males (M.N. Bradai and Ennajar pers. comm. 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong> <br/>Rhinobatids are caught as bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries operating in shallow inshore waters. They are also caught in artisanal bottom setnet fisheries and dried for export to Ghana where used for human consumption.  <br/> <br/>In Senegal the landings of guitarfish species have decreased dramatically. Landings peaked in 1997 at 4,218 t and have since gradually decreased to an estimated 821 t in 2005 (Ministry of Maritime Economy and International Marine Transport of Senegal unpub. data).   <br/> <br/>In Guinea-Bissau this species is one of the main targets of specialised shark fishing teams. Preliminary surveys from the IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations of the common guitarfish and the blackchin guitarfish have diminished substantially (cited in Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). These fisheries use gillnets to target Rhinobatos spp. (mainly <em>Rhinobatus rhinobatus</em> and <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em>), fishing between 1 and 40 m in depth (Bucal 2006). There has been a shift in mesh net size, 15 years ago the gillnet mesh size was reported to be 230 to 280 mm, at present it is 180 to 160 mm. This will increase the number of juveniles caught by this fishery. Also caught as bycatch for fisheries targeting Mujillidae (mullet) also using gillnets.  They are caught by hooks catching Lutjanidae and <em>Dentex</em> (Sparidae, sea breams). Captures have decreased over the last 15 years and the size of specimens landed have decreased (D. Bucal pers. comm. 2006), however it is important to note the change in mesh size. <br/> <br/>No target fishery is in operation off Morocco, however it is caught as bycatch by bottom trawlers (targeting octopus and cephalopods) at 20 to 150 m depth (A. Moumni and M. Hicham pers. comm. 2006). No information is available on the rate of catch or bycatch landings or discard survival rates. <br/> <br/>Reportedly common in Sierra Leone. Caught as bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries operating in shallow inshore waters 14 to 26 m. The bulk (80%) of the international fleet consists of shrimp trawlers (Seisay 2005). The catch rate of a recent discards survey programme indicates a bycatch rate of >1 specimen per two hour tow. The shrimp fishery catches individuals of up to 220 cm (female) and 178 cm (male) in total length. It is also caught in artisanal bottom set net fishery where individuals measuring from 199- ~175 cm are caught (male and female). Specimens are dried and exported to Ghana (M. Seisay pers. comm. 2006). Rhinobatids are the most dominant batoids landed within artisanal fisheries. The common guitarfish accounts for 16.58% of the number of batoids landed and 28.15% of the total batoids landed, by weight (Seisay 2005). On a less specific level, rays are also captured as bycatch to industrial shrimp and finfish fisheries, in Sierre Leone shark and rays bycatch landings make up an estimated 0.8-1.0% of the total reported catch (Seisay 2005) (see figure 1). <br/> <br/>Follow link below for Figure 1: Industrial fishery production (mt) of rays in Sierra Leone waters. Original data (Seisay 2005). <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the fishing effort, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this data, however in the absence of further information, it can be used to provide a preliminary indication for the national bycatch shark landings of Sierra Leone. It is likely that the actual number of sharks landed as bycatch by industrial fisheries is far greater, as this represents only the reported landings of legal fisheries. Although this data is not species specific, it gives an indication of the quantity of sharks landed in this country. Similar fisheries operate throughout the rest of the region.   <br/> <br/>Frequently captured in Gambia (A. Mendy pers. comm. 2006). Along the Mauritanian coast, however it is more abundant within the Banc d'Arguin national park where it is afforded some protection, and where in 2004 it composed 2% of the shark catch. Flesh retained and fins dried and exported to Ghana (L. Camara pers. comm. 2006). Prior to the December 2003 Banc d'Arguin ban on elasmobranch targeted fisheries it was fished for its highly prized fins and caught with specialised nets. Today, it is still caught incidentally as bycatch in teleost gillnet fisheries. It is also bycatch of industrial demersal trawl fisheries targeting cephalops and crustaceans and coastal teleosts (K. Brahim pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63132	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Brahim, K., Camara L., Litvinov, F., Dulvy, N. Doumbouya, F., Ducroqc, M., Heenan, A. & Sidi, N., 2007	<strong>Mediterranian</strong> <br/>The Mediterranean Action Plan for the conservation of chondirchthyan fishes recognises the urgent need to assess the status of <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, as a species that may be at high risk of threat in the region (Anonymous 2003). <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Measures in place: <br/><em>Mauritania</em> <br/>This species is protected as part of a ban on directly targeted elasmobranch fishing in the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, which was implemented in December 2003. In this national park, management measures specific to this species were also introduced (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). The fishery was closed from February to September, to avoid the partuition period and therefore the capture of pregnant females. After negogiations with local fishermen, gear restrictions were introduced (to stop fishing with bottom gillnets of 1 to 2 m height and 11 to 16 cm (one side) square mesh). Increased abundance have been observed in and around the bank, suggesting the protection was effective (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006).        <br/> <br/><em>Sierra Leone</em> <br/>There are no species specific regulations for the management of shark and shark fisheries in the Sierra Leone. However, a licensing system for artisanal fishing canoes, both foreign and Sierra Leone owned is payable to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources and the Local Government Administration (Seisay 2005). A National Action Plan for the conservation and management of sharks is being proposed.  Some of the recommended management measures include: Area and seasonal closure to shark fisheries, effort limitation of the shark fishery and discarding of immature and/or juvenile shark and ray species. <br/> <br/><em>Giunea-Bissau</em> <br/>There are marine protected areas inside the Bijagos archipelago (the Formosa Islands UROK marine reserve), the PNO marine reserve (Orango Islands) and the PNMJVO marine reserve (Joao Vieira and Poilao Islands). Within these areas, trawling and the use of nets is forbidden, the only gear type allowed is fishing with longlines. Furthermore, fishing is only allowed for subsistence purposes, commercial fishing is not permitted (Bucal 2006). <br/> <br/>Measures required: <br/><em>East Atlantic</em> <br/>A seasonal ban on the targetted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure on this species. <br/> <br/><em>Mediterranean</em> <br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Fishing effort within the region should be monitored and species specific landings should be recorded. Further study on the range of the species and the use of specific critical coastal habitats, in particular reference to the negative impact of trawling.  <br/> <br/>There are no species specific management measures currently in place for this species.	eng
63132	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Brahim, K., Camara L., Litvinov, F., Dulvy, N. Doumbouya, F., Ducroqc, M., Heenan, A. & Sidi, N., 2007	<strong>Global</strong>: The blackchin guitarfish distribution extends between 42°N to 17°S, 19°W to 36°E. From the Northern coast of Portugal, down the west African coast and including the Mediterranean Sea. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong>: Throughout the Mediterranean coasts, but it appears more prevalent in the southern and eastern regions (Capapé 1989). Countries of occurrence include; Algeria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Corsica, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Sardinia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Turkey and Tunisia. <br/> <br/><strong>East Atlantic</strong>: From the Northern coast of Portugal, southwards to Angola.	eng
63132	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Brahim, K., Camara L., Litvinov, F., Dulvy, N. Doumbouya, F., Ducroqc, M., Heenan, A. & Sidi, N., 2007	The blackchin guitarfish inhabits marine and brackish waters in subtropical areas. It is a demersal species, living over sandy or muddy substrates, with a depth range that spans from shallow waters to approximately 100 m. This fish tends to swim slowly over the bottom or partially buries itself under the substrate. Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported the maximum total length (TL) of this species as 180 cm, however within the Gabés Gulf in the south of the Mediterranean the maximum reported TL is slightly larger with 192 cm for males and 230 cm for females. The size at maturity is 110 and 100 cm TL for females and males, respectively. <br/> <br/>The blackchin guitarfish is ovoviviparous. Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported that this species produces between 4 to 6 pups per litter, however in the Gabés Gulf an estimated 9 to 16 pups are produced (Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996, M. Bradai and Ennajar pers. comm). The gestation period takes between four to six months, and reproductive females are believed to produce one or two litters per year. <br/> <br/>In Mauritania, IMROP trawl surveys in Aug 2005 to May 2006 recorded a sex ratio of 1:2 females to males and a litter size of seven pups per litter. The size range captured was 84 to 197 cm (IMROP unpub. data). Main prey items were fish (<em>Sardinella</em>) cephalopods, crabs, shrimps, gastropods especially <em>Cybium</em> sp. (IMROP unpub. data). In Guinea-Conakry the maximum reported size was 238 cm TL (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Analysis of gut contents indicate that the blackfin guitarfishes' diet is composed of primarily of prawn (two thirds), crab, other crustacean and fish (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63132	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Brahim, K., Camara L., Litvinov, F., Dulvy, N. Doumbouya, F., Ducroqc, M., Heenan, A. & Sidi, N., 2007	Was regarded as common within the southern Mediterranean (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984), in particular around the Gulf of Gabes, on the East coast of Tunisia (Quignard and Capapé 1971). <br/> <br/>Preliminary surveys from IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations have diminished substantially (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). Nothing of the population of this species is known from Senegal and Gambia. <br/> <br/>Bottom trawl surveys performed at depths ranging from 10 to 900 m at regular intervals off the coast of Sierra Leone between 1976 and 1983 (Litvinov 1993) reported only nine individuals, all in a single trawl. A similar trawl campaign in Morocco, (totaling four surveys over 150 trawl station between 1972 and 1980) failed to capture any specimens (Litvinov 1993).	eng
63132	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Bradai, M.N., Morey, G., Brahim, K., Camara L., Litvinov, F., Dulvy, N. Doumbouya, F., Ducroqc, M., Heenan, A. & Sidi, N., 2007	Based on anecdotal evidence, the blackchin guitarfish was historically common throughout the Northern Mediterranean. In the late 19<sup>th</sup> century Doderlain (1884), commented on the daily presence of this species on the Palmero fish market, while in the early 20<sup>th</sup> Century it was considered a typical resident over sandy substrates around the Balearic Islands (De Buen 1935). Furthermore, the perception of older fishermen operating this region was that of a relatively high frequency of occurrence in the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, compared to the present apparent local extinction in this area (G. Morey pers. comm). <br/> <br/>In the northern Mediterranean, where both the blackchin and common guitarfishes used to be quite common (see, for example, Doderlein (1884) concerning their daily presence on the Palermo fish market); both disappeared from bottom trawl surveys, from the Alboran to Aegean sea within the MEDITS international program; both disappeared from the landings in Mazzara del Vallo, (M. Vacchi pers. comm.) and they appear to have been extirpated from this area (Relini and Piccinetti 1991). In the Balearic Islands both species were considered as typical inhabitants of unvegetated sandy bottoms (De Buen 1935). Old fishermen reported their relative frequency during the first half of the 20th century, but nowadays they seem to be extinct in the area (G. Morey pers. obs). Given that the two species are demersal, occurring over shelf bottoms at maximum depths of about 100 m, their connection with extra-Balearic populations seems to be very low, so they seem to be extinct in the area. In areas of the southern Mediterranean (e.g., Gulf of Gabés, but perhaps elsewhere along the still underfished Mediterranean African coast) both species are still present in the catch, but with a large fraction of immature individuals. <br/> <br/>In western Africa, the fins of the blackchin guitarfish are highly prized (they can fetch an estimated 100 Euro/kg), and as a result it is a major target species of artisanal fisheries operating along all coasts in this region (M. DuCrocq pers. comm. 2006). A reduction in the size of individuals and a strong decline in this species has been observed throughout its range in West Africa, for example the Ministry of Maritime Economy and International Marine Transport of Senegal indicate that landings have decreased from 4,050 t in 1998 to 821 t in 2005 (unpub. data). This species gives birth between September and October off sandy coastlines, muddy sandy banks and mangrove coastlines. During this period there is an increase in the relative abundance of both pregnant females and mature reproductively active males as mating takes place immediately after females have given birth. The tendency for reproductively active individuals of this species to aggregate around the coastline renders it especially vulnerable to fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Rhinobatids are caught as bycatch of the shrimp trawl fishery operating in shallow inshore waters. <br/> <br/>A theme common throughout countries in the West Africa region is a paucity of data on reported fish landings.  Without an indication of fishing effort and species specific landings, it is very difficult to quantitatively assess the true threat that fishing poses to a variety of Chondrichythan fish populations in West Africa.  FAO data indicates that elasmobranch landings steadily increased since the mid 1990s. In the late 1990s this decreased and  since appears to have stabilized (see Figure 1). <br/>  <br/>Figure 1. Volume of sharks, rays and chimaeras landed in the West Africa region between 1980 and 2004. (URL: http://www.fao.org/figis. Last accessed on 22nd June 2006). <br/> <br/>Considering the lack of reporting in artisanal fishing and the number of foreign vessels fishing, legally and illegally within this region, the actual landings are likely to be much higher. Laurens <em>et al</em>. (2004) analysed the trophic structure of demersal fish communities in Senegal and Guinea and found the abundance of sharks, skates and rays had decreased in large proportions. The high trophic level which these species characteristically occupy renders them very vulnerable to fisheries exploitation (Roger and Ellis 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Artisanal fisheries</strong> <br/>In Guinea-Bissau it is one of the main targets of specialised fishing teams. During the early 1990s there was an influx of fishermen from Senegal, Guinea-Conakry and the Gambia into Guinea-Bissau, specifically to fish the blackchin guitarfish using bottom set nets. Preliminary surveys from the IUCN Guinea-Bissau programme in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Research indicate that populations have diminished substantially (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). Between 1998-2003 this species was heavily targeted within the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania. Catches of approximately 400 t per year were caught with specialised nets (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). During this period of targeted capture, size reduction became apparent. At the beginning of the fishery adults were caught, however now the catch is primarily composed of immature individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Valadou (2003) studied the affect of conservation measures which have been implemented in the Banc d'Arguin. Net size limitations and seasonal limits were introduced in 1998. The fishery was closed from mid-September to the end of January, when the birth and mating events take place along the coastline. This seasonal closure increased in length up until 2003, after which a complete ban on elasmobranch fisheries within the area came into force. Subsequent to enforcement of the management measures in the Banc d'Arguin, the size reduction of specimens was reversed (Valadou 2003). This was in contrast to the southern regions outside of the National Park, where, in the absence of management measures the size reduction continues (Valadou 2003). Today, this species is found along the length of the Mauritanian coast, however it is more abundant in the Banc d'Arguin (K. Brahim pers. comm. 2006). Since the ban it is still caught as incidental bycatch of teleost gillnet fisheries. <br/> <br/>Artisanal landing site surveys in Guinea-Conakry were performed from October 2001 and May 2002. Similar to Guinea-Bissau, the fishermen in Guinea-Conakry were from Ghana and Senegal. The following information was collected from specialised artisanal gillnet fishermen; bottom set and drift gillnets gear types were employed to target sharks and batoids, respectively. The mesh size of gillnets ranged from 120 to 200 mm. During the study period, the number of <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> captured were recorded, size of which in total length ranged from 60-238 cm and 0.5-58.5 kg in weight. This species was previously fished during a six month season from November to April. However, in October 2002 the fishing season increased to eight months, from October to May. Now, the fishing season has increased to all year round. From February to June 2001, 127 specimens were landed at the sites under survey, and from October 2001 to June 2002, 946 individuals were landed (which coincides with the birthing and mating season of this species. During the months of November and December fishermen were landing gravid females, which are specifically targeted for the large size of their fins (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). Embryos (34 cm TL) were discarded, however finning of embryos has been reported (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/>Within Sierra Leonese waters, <em>Rhinobatos cemiculus</em> is the most dominant batoid landed within artisanal fisheries. This guitarfish accounts for 40.47% of the number of batoids landed and 39.51% total batoids landed, by weight (Seisay 2005). On a less specific level, rays are also captured as bycatch to industrial shrimp and finfish fisheries, in Sierre Leone shark and rays bycatch landings make up an estimated 0.8 to 1.0% of the total reported catch (Seisay 2005) (see figure 2). <br/>  <br/>Figure 2. Industrial fishery production (mt) of rays in Sierra Leone waters. Original data (Seisay 2005).  <br/> <br/>There is no information available on the fishing effort, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this data, however in the absence of further information, it can be used to provide a preliminary indication for the national bycatch shark landings of Sierra Leone. It is likely that the actual number of sharks landed as bycatch by industrial fisheries is far greater, as this represents only the reported landings of legal fisheries. Although this data is not species specific, it gives an indication of the quantity of sharks landed in this country. Similar fisheries operate throughout the rest of the region.   <br/> <br/>It is also caught as bycatch to industrial demersal trawl fisheries targeting cephalops and crustaceans and coastal teleosts.	eng
63133	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage and logbooks. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Perez pers. comm). Given the restricted known distribution of M. obscura and increasing international demand for skate products, the conservation status of this species may rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels provide an opportunity to accurately monitor catch levels and trends in the future.	eng
63133	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Only known from five specimens collected from two localities on the southeastern Brazilian continental slope off the states of Espírito Santo (19°40?S, 38°38?W) and Rio de Janeiro (21°46?S, 39°53?W) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
63133	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	This deepwater skate is recorded from depths of 808 to 1,105 m on the continental slope. Maximum recorded size is 68 cm TL and 43.6 cm DW (female) (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2006). Like other skates, is oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology.	eng
63133	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Presently known in the literature from only five specimens as specified in the original description (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
63133	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	The Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in 1998 to reduce some of the fishing effort exerted on the shelf environment and exploit so far unutilized resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Deepwater demersal fishing operations off southern Brazil (20°S to 34°S) have increased in recent years in response to decreasing catch rates of shelf resources and expanding international markets for traditionally discarded or poorly known species (Perez and Wahrlich 2005). Chartered foreign vessels began fishing in 2000 using demersal longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at <200 to 900 m depth, before longlining was later restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is a potential bycatch of these deepwater fisheries operating in the region. No data are available on catches of this species, as it is only known from a few specimens and recent bycatch studies (e.g., Perez and Wahrlich 2005) have been conducted outside its known range. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) did however document considerable bycatch of other skate species where they sampled. <br/> <br/>Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should limit the level of impact on the species, but it may continue to be taken as bycatch. Given the restricted range and possible low reproductive potential of this deepwater species, together with increasing international demand for skate products, any bycatch is of concern and bycatch levels should be monitored. Part of the species? present known range is deeper than current fishing pressure, which may afford it some refuge, but any expansion of fishing activity to greater depths may increase the risk to this species.	eng
63134	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	A collaborative research project has been instigated to examine the identification and occurrence of <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. comm). This will better determine which species occur in the region and their distributions. Following the results of this research, it is suggested that Red List assessments for those <em>Psammobatis</em> spp. occurring around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands are revisited, particularly in light of results indicating which species are found to interact with fishing activities in the region.	eng
63134	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Known only from the type locality to the north of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the Southwest Atlantic.	eng
63134	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Holotype (a 34.7 cm TL female) was collected at a depth of 120 m (McEachran 1983).	eng
63134	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63134	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	No specific information available on threats. A multispecies skate fishery operates around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, consisting of Korean trawl vessels (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>Psammobatis</em> species are recorded in the fishery, but their identification in that region remains problematic and at present they are recorded under a generic code (tentatively, at least <em>P. rudis</em> and <em>P. normani</em> occur) (J. Pompert pers. comm). It is possible that McEachran' s (1983) <em>P. parvacauda</em> is being taken in this fishery, but details are not available.	eng
63135	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Surveys of abundance and distribution are required, as are details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence.	eng
63135	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Known only from Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes, northern Peru.	eng
63135	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Type specimens taken in very shallow (1 to 2 m) estuarine waters (Chirichingo and McEachran 1979), with a further, more recent (2006), specimen taken in shallow waters near mangroves (M. Romero pers. comm). No details available on the biology of the species. Holotype is a 40.4 cm TL male, paratype a 15.7 cm TL male (Chirichingo and McEachran 1979).	eng
63135	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63135	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	About 180 fishing vessels were known to be operating in the coastal fishery off Peru in 2003. Most catches are utilized for human consumption and about 750,000 tonnes were taken in 2001 in this fishery (FAO 2003). Given the restricted known range of the species and its occurrence in shallow estuarine waters, details are urgently required on any fishing activities within the area which may be taking this species, including as bycatch.	eng
63136	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Surveys needs to better document the distribution and abundance of the species. Any catches (including as bycatch) of the species in local fisheries needs to be examined.	eng
63136	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Presently known only from the type locality in Ecuador, Southeast Pacific (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941).	eng
63136	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	No habitat or depth information can be ascertained for the species. Specimens referred to be Tortonese (1939, cited in Beebe and Tee-Van 1941) are 38.8 and 39.3 cm total length (TL). Like other skates, oviparous, but no other specific details are available.	eng
63136	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	No details.	eng
63136	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Exact occurrence of the species is not well defined and as such inferences on fishing activities which may take this species (including as bycatch) can not be made.	eng
63137	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, J. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Nothing known.	eng
63137	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, J. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Deep slope off Uruguay and Brazil between 35°S and 23°S (Serét and Andreata 1992, Krefft 1968), and one specimen recorded off Talcahuano, Chile (Pequeño 1997).	eng
63137	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, J. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Benthic on deep slope and deep sea plains at 800 to 2,380 m depth off Uruguay and Brazil (Serét and Andreata 1992, Krefft 1968) and at 1,000 to 1,500 m off Chile (Pequeño 1997). Oviparous.	eng
63137	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, J. & Lamilla, J., 2007	A rare deep-water skate.	eng
63137	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., San Martin, J. & Lamilla, J., 2007	Potentially a bycatch in deep-water trawl and line fisheries, however generally outside the depth range of present fishing activities.	eng
63138	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Creation of protected areas/sites.	eng
63138	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	Middle East: Israel, Jordan, Syria.	eng
63138	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Slow to fast running rivers and perennial wadis.	eng
63138	population	Schneider, W., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
63138	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Drainage and irrigation, habitat destruction.	eng
63139	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Creation of protected areas.	eng
63139	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	Middle East: upper Jordan Valley only.	eng
63139	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Lacustrine waters and slow-flowing section of rivers.	eng
63139	population	Schneider, W., 2007	Only two populations are known.	eng
63139	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Irrigation and drainage.	eng
63140	conservation	Lamilla, J., 2007	Like many other South American skates, further research is required to ascertain the species' biology, ecology and levels of bycatch.	eng
63140	distribution	Lamilla, J., 2007	Presently known only from the Southeast Pacific off Chile. It possible occurrence in the western part of the Falkland Islands requires examination (J. Pompert pers. comm).	eng
63140	habitat	Lamilla, J., 2007	A poorly known sandskate recorded from the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 40 to 450 m (McEachran 1983). Little information available on the biology or ecology of the species. Reaches 49 cm TL (McEachran 1983) and like other skates is oviparous.	eng
63140	population	Lamilla, J., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63140	threats	Lamilla, J., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch in benthic trawl fisheries for kingclipfish <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> and southern hake <em>Merluccius australis</em>. In a benthic trawl fishery cruise off Guafo Island, Chile, approximately 10% of total skates captured were <em>Psammobatis</em> species (<em>P. normani, P. rudis</em> and <em>P. scobina</em>). These were all discarded (J. Lamilla unpub. data). <em>Psammobatis scobina</em> is also taken as negligible component of bycatch in deepsea crustacean trawl fisheries for yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and deepsea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).	eng
63141	conservation	Bradaï, M.N., Serena, F., Bianchi, I. (Mediterranean) and Ebert, D.A. (South Africa), 2007	There is an urgent need for the monitoring of landings and bycatch of this species and the collection of distribution and life history data in order to better understand the population structure and trends. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
63141	distribution	Bradaï, M.N., Serena, F., Bianchi, I. (Mediterranean) and Ebert, D.A. (South Africa), 2007	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (entire coast from Straits of Gibraltar to Israel, but absent from the Black Sea), down to South Africa. Possibly off Mozambique in the Indian Ocean (Compagno in prep).	eng
63141	habitat	Bradaï, M.N., Serena, F., Bianchi, I. (Mediterranean) and Ebert, D.A. (South Africa), 2007	This species is found from 60 to 660 m depth (Serena 2005), but mostly below 100 m. Sion <em>et al.</em> (2004) stated a record of one specimen caught at 800m of depth.  Found on coralline and muddy bottoms, mostly between 100 and 200 m depth in the northern Mediterranean sea. <br/> <br/>Size at maturity has been reported at between 50 and 70 cm (Serena 2005) and Capapé <em>et al. </em>(1999) reported that a larger size at maturity in females (66 cm) than in males (60 cm). The species reaches a maximum size of 150 cm TL (Serena 2005, Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005) although Compagno (in prep.) notes that most individuals are less than 100 cm. Indeed, Capapé <em>et al. </em>(1999) reported maximum lengths of 64 cm and 78 cm for males and females respectively. <br/> <br/>Ovoviviparous, producing litters of 10 to 12 pups once a year (Capapé <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at birth has been reported between from 21 to 24 cm [or <25 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)] with an average of 22.83 cm (Capapé<em> et al.</em>1999). <br/> <br/>Feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs (Compagno in prep).	eng
63141	population	Bradaï, M.N., Serena, F., Bianchi, I. (Mediterranean) and Ebert, D.A. (South Africa), 2007	Relatively wide ranging. Rare in some parts (e.g., Angola, Atlantic coast of South Africa) and uncommon in others (northern Namibia, Mediterranean Sea) (Compagno in prep). <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Catch data for <em>O. centrina</em> in the Mediterranean exists for the period from 1994 to 1999 (at depths from 10 to 800 m) as part of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS). During this period, <em>O. centrina</em> was recorded in only 0.6% of tows, with the majority of catches made at between 100 to 200 m depth (STECF 2004). Regional biomass indexes indicate that the species is more common in the western central Mediterranean (Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily) with a lower biomass index in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and eastern (Aegean) Mediterranean areas. During these surveys, it was found to be absent from the Eastern central Mediterranean (Adriatic, Ionian and Albania) (STECF 2004). <br/> <br/>Trawl surveys in 1948 indicated that the species was once present, though uncommon (0.21 % of hauls, 0.25% of surveys, estimated density of 1.15 kg km<sup>-2</sup>) in the Adriatic and the absence of the species in subsequent MEDITS surveys suggests that it may be locally extinct from the area (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, there have been recent records of juveniles caught in the central Adriatic (Lipej <em>et al.</em> 2004, A. Soldo pers. comm). Also, data collected during other (DESEAS) surveys of the Balearic Sea and Ionian Sea found one specimen in the western Ionian Sea at 800 m (Sion <em>et al.</em> 2004). Apparently then, <em>O. centrina</em> still exists in the Eastern central Mediterranean in unknown numbers. <br/> <br/>Between 1957 and 1960 <em>O. centrina</em> was captured in approximately 6% of hauls (n=27) in shelf surveys (coast to 150 m) and in approximately 6% of hauls (n=37) in slope surveys (150 to 800 m) in the Gulf of Lions, France (Aldebert 1997). Although it persisted in catches at low abundance up to 1992, it was subsequently absent in 139 hauls made during a trawl survey spanning 1994 to 1995 (Aldebert 1997), suggesting that the species is locally extinct from this area (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2003). MEDITS data for the period from 1994 to 1999 found lower abundances in the west than in other areas of the Mediterranean, although the species was present (STECF 2004).  <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species was absent in a recent and intensive study of the deepwater longline fishery for sharks off the Canary Islands, where it was previously present (Hernandez <em>et al.</em> 1997). There is no information on the abundance of this species elsewhere in the region.	eng
63141	threats	Bradaï, M.N., Serena, F., Bianchi, I. (Mediterranean) and Ebert, D.A. (South Africa), 2007	Primarily caught in the Mediterranean Sea and the Northeast Atlantic as a minor bycatch by large offshore bottom and pelagic trawl fleets (Compagno in prep). Mediterranean Benthic trawl effort has increased in both intensity and efficiency in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), and more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). In the southern Mediterranean and off the Tunisian coasts this species is fished at depths of 60 to 100 m, where it reproduces (Bradaï <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is considered rare in Tunisian waters and is taken as bycatch with no economic value (M.N. Bradaï pers. obs). Most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm. Considering the large size at maturity (around 60 cm total body length), the exploitation of juveniles and probability of capture before breeding is likely to be high. The depth range of this species (60 to 660 m) lies entirely within the range of deepwater fisheries in the Mediterranean. Therefore it will not be protected by the ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean, adopted by the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) in February 2005. According to Dulvy <em>et al. </em>(2003) the large spiny dorsal fins and relatively large body size, may make this species vulnerable to fishing exploitation, however Serena (pers. obs.) has commented that the species is of no commercial value in the Mediterranean and is usually discarded immediately because fishermen in the region believe that it brings bad luck. Discards have sometimes been observed alive (Serena pers. obs.), however, there are no data on the post release survival of the species and mortality is likely to be high given the depth at capture.  <br/> <br/>It is widely acknowledged that there has been a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities in the Northeast Atlantic with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Oxynotus centrina</em> is known from depths which are entirely within the range of several longline, trawl and gillnet fisheries operating throughout the Northeast Atlantic distribution of the species. The species has already been shown to be vulnerable to being taken as bycatch in the Mediterranean and is also likely to be subject to bycatch pressure in the Northeast Atlantic. There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the Northeast Atlantic, while regulation is often lagging. Deepwater sharks are potentially at risk from these activities although little species-specific information is available. <em>Oxynotus centrina</em> may also be caught occasionally as bycatch in trawl fisheries off South Africa but there are insufficient data to support this and the taxonomy of specimens caught there remains uncertain.	eng
63142	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Myers, R.A., 2007	There are no conservation measures directed at this species. While the implementation of Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices in shrimp trawl fisheries in the Northern Gulf of Mexico has lowed overall bycatch rates (for example see Steele <em>et al.</em> (2002), these mitigation measures are thought to be ineffective for this species due to it size and sluggish swimming ability. Details of bycatch in coastal fisheries throughout the rest of the species' range (i.e., outside of US waters) is required to determine the impact of fishing activities and allow for a more robust global assessment.	eng
63142	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Myers, R.A., 2007	Wide distribution in the western Atlantic from North Carolina through parts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean and along the northern coast of South America. Occurs to at least the state of Maranhão in Brazil, but may also occur off northeastern Brazil. The exact distribution of Narcine species off northeastern Brazil is presently unresolved as <em>N. bancroftii</em> in Brazil was previously referred to as the ?wide-ranging? <em>N. brasiliensis</em>. That species is a Southwest Atlantic endemic occurring off southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina and although its occurrence off northeastern Brazil is documented for the states of Paraíba and Pernambuco (R. Rosa pers. comm.) it is not certain whether records of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> from the State of Ceará truly represent that species or <em>N. bancroftii</em>. It is thought to exist in the Bahamas, however this is not confirmed.	eng
63142	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Myers, R.A., 2007	<em>Narcine bancroftii</em> is a shallow water species found on soft substrates from the intertidal zone to a depth of 35 m. Both oviducts appear to be synchronous in adult females. A 47 cm TL female caught in Maranhão, Brazil, contained embryos which were aborted on landing on the vessel. Oviducts are very thin-walled, transparent and puncture easily. The smallest female containing embryos (aborted) was 36.0 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).	eng
63142	population	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Myers, R.A., 2007	Although this species exhibits an extensive distribution, taxonomic revision may result in subdivision of the species in the future, thereby restricting its range (Carvalho 1999a). This will lead to a subsequent decrease in population size.	eng
63142	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Myers, R.A., 2007	Electric rays are sluggish swimmers, with small home ranges, highly localized within an area and concentrating in surf zones adjacent to barrier beaches and on offshore sand bars in warm months and moving offshore in winter (Rudloe 1989), making them susceptible to localized population depletion. The species is captured as bycatch by inshore shrimp trawl seining net fisheries. It does not appear to be utilized and is discarded, but survivorship rates are thought to be very low. Furthermore, gravid females of the species have been observed to abort embryos upon capture and so even if discarded individuals survive, reproductive output is reduced. While specific catch data are lacking over most of the species range, declines to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5 to 5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 have been demonstrated in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by shrimp trawling (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Shrimp trawl fishing is intense in that area, particularly in shallow waters (thus coinciding with the bathymetric range of <em>N. bancroftii</em>), with 4 to 5 million trawl hours annually (Shepherd and Myers 2005). While data in Shepherd and Myers (2005) compared the time period 1972 to 2002, the actual severity of declines may have been underestimated as shrimp trawling began in the region during 1912 to 1915 (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Similar high rates of decline are seen in the US coastal areas between Cape Canaveral (Florida) and Cape Hatterus (North Carolina) in US trawl surveys between 1989 and 2001 (a decline to 5% during this period). Furthermore, similar rates of decline are seen between 1994 and 2004 from diver surveys (data from <a href="www.reef.org">Reef Environmental Educational Foundation</a>) in eastern Florida and the Florida Keys. These declines may not be representative of the entire range, but these are the only regions with reliable survey data, and should be representative of regions with similar fishing impact. While specific data are lacking, fishing activities, both artisanal and commercial in nature are generally intense and most often unregulated in shallow inshore waters of the remainder of the species' range. See Fowler <em>et al.</em> (2005) for regional and country overviews. Given that large declines have been documented in US waters where data are available, there is no reason to suspect that similar declines have not also occurred elsewhere across the species' range where fishing activities are intense and unregulated. Pollution and oil exploration may also adversely affect the habitat of <em>N. bancroftii</em>, although no specific information is available.	eng
63143	conservation	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	<strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2006). Species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority.  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.	eng
63143	distribution	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Has a more restricted distribution than other Magellanic species (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Present off Argentina, the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and on the Burdwook bank in the Southwest Atlantic. Also reported in the Southwest Pacific off southern Chile.	eng
63143	habitat	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Benthic species known from off Argentina at depths of 51 to 600 m in bottom temperatures ranging from 3.5°C to 11.0°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, it is prevalent mainly in depths of <70 m (J. Pompert pers. comm). Size at maturity has been estimated around 58 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). This species has been reported from a minimum of 14 cm TL (Norman 1937) to a maximum of 105 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). Feeds primarily (around 75%) on crustaceans, but also polychaetes and fishes (Sánchez and Mabragaña 2002). Like other skate species, <em>B. magellanica</em> is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63143	population	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Population size unknown. In the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, the species is only caught very occasionally, and there has previously been uncertainty as to whether these were strays from the South America mainland, or actually breeding there. Since then, there has been one experimental fishing trip with longlines in depths of about 50 to 60 m, and during this trip quite a few adult specimens were caught, thereby showing that a population exists. Subsequently, since 1998 occasional fishing from a research vessel in shallower waters has found local 'hotspots' of this species (J. Pompert pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63143	threats	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landing have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al. </em>2004). <br/>   <br/><em>B. magellanica</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It was captured during fishing investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported a 41% decline in the biomass of <em>B. magellanica</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S on the off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised very few or up to around 8% of <em>B. magellanica</em> (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002). Species-specific bycatch data are not generally collected for this fishery, however, and remain a priority for this and the trawl fishery. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. <em>Bathyraja magellanica</em> comprises a very small proportion of the catch of in this fishery compared with other species of rays (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004) most likely because this species is prevalent mainly outside the main fishing areas (i.e., generally in depths <70 m), and hence biomass is largely unknown. There are no other fisheries operating at these shallow depths in the area (J. Pompert pers. comm.) and the species may be afforded some refuge there. The multispecies skate fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990's, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. An assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown little indication of an increasing or decreasing trend in CPUE for this species (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>There is no information on the bycatch of this species in Chilean fisheries.	eng
63144	conservation	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	<strong>Argentina </strong> <br/>In Argentina there are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. obs). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands </strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew<em> et al.</em> (1999 and 2000) unless otherwise specified. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30´S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands Patagonian toothfish fishery is managed through a licensing system with two longliners licensed to fish adult Patagonian toothfish around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Longlining activities and catches are monitored and a TAC of 1,500 Mt per annum has recently been set which should reduce effort by approximately 15% (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Early in 2006 there was some successful experimenting with potting for Patagonian toothfish. With this method, neither skates, nor any other elasmobranchs for that matter are caught. It is therefore likely that there will be a further reduction of fishing by longline in the long term (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Recent changes in legislation (2006) require fishermen to cut snoods and hooks from bycatch skates to reduce mortality. The animals are not hauled aboard and released with no hook lodged in their jaw (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). This is in line with the same practice in CCAMLR regions. In Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, the species-specific assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority.	eng
63144	distribution	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Reported from off Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000), Uruguay (Meneses 2003), southern Brazil (Rovedder and Vooren 2003) and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Has also been reported in the Southeast Pacific off southern Chile where its northern limit is 45°22'S, off the Darwin Channel (Pequeño 1997). Has a more restricted distribution than other regional <em>Bathyraja</em> species (Mennni and Stehmann 2000). Also shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
63144	habitat	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Known from depths of 82 to 285 m off Argentina in bottom temperatures between 4°C and 6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) but has also been captured at 536 m off southern Brazil (Rovedder and Vooren 2003) and at 740 m off the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Menni and Stehmann 2000). One report at 1,900 m off Uruguay (Meneses 2003) requires confirmation. Shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at maturity has been estimated at 93.4 cm TL in male specimens and the species has been reported to a maximum of 119 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). The smallest specimen was reported at 12.6 cm TL without tail filament (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). This species feeds on decapods (Sánchez and Mabragaña 2002) and like other skates is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm).	eng
63144	population	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Apparently rarer than other species (Menni and Stehmann 2000). The species was captured in four of six areas in the Argentine Sea considered by Menni and Lopez (1984), whereas <em>B. albomaculata</em>, <em>B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Amblyraja doellojuradoi</em>, for example, were captured in six areas and in a larger number of stations (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
63144	threats	McCormack, C., Lamilla, J., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Throughout this section the term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Brazil</strong> <br/>Although there are no data indicating the bycatch of this species from fisheries operating off Brazil, the <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> target fishery operates off southern Brazil (at depths of 132 to 607 m), where <em>B. multispinis</em> has been reported. Skate bycatch is often retained in this fishery (Perez and Wahrlich 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina/Uruguay</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja multispinis</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al. </em>(2000) reported a 77% decline in the biomass of <em>B. multispinis</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays. During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, rajids have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. <em>Bathyraja multispinis</em> comprise a smaller proportion of the catch in this fishery compared with other species of rays (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004).The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. From 1993 to 1997, Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) documented a decrease in the mean disc width of this species from 60.57 to 48.37 cm. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990's, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. An assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has indicated a declining trend in CPUE for the species from 1992 to 2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, the quality of the data was relatively poor and the data had to be grouped into discrete time periods rather than as a continuous variable (R. Wakeford pers. comm. 2006). Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure. This species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure. This species is also a bycatch in the <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> longline fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. There are currently two licensed operators fishing at depths from 600 m but mainly below 800 m (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). The consistency of bycatch data is fairly restricted due to the fact that only some experienced observers assess skate bycatch by species and catch estimates therefore have significant variance (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2006). Furthermore, fishers are not required (and lack the expertise) to report species-specific bycatch figures. Species-specific bycatch data is required to assess the extent of this fisheries' impact on the species. <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>Bathyraja multispinis has been reported in the bycatch of the <em>Genypterus blacodes</em> target fishery in the Strait of Magellan and the Chonos Archipelago off southern Chile (Lamilla and Pequeño 1999).	eng
63145	conservation	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	In Argentina, species-specific assessments of direct and indirect catches are a priority. <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al</em>. (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified. <br/>The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. <br/> <br/>Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (below 52°S) was closed to rajid fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30'S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds.  <br/>All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.	eng
63145	distribution	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Occurs in the Southwest Atlantic off Argentina and around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Reported from 45°30'S to 51°30'S and to 59°35'W (Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
63145	habitat	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Known from depths of 109 to 509 m at bottom temperatures ranging from 4.3 to 7.6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Most abundant about the centre of the shelf, from 104 to 159 m at bottom temperatures of 4.5 to 6°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Shows a strict stenothermic-stenohaline behaviour in relation to water masses (Figueroa <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at maturity has been estimated around 74.2 cm TL for male specimens and maximum size has been estimated at 111 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> unpubl. data). The smallest known specimen is 21 cm TL (Stehmann <em>et al. </em>unpubl. data). Like other skates, <em>B. scaphiops</em> is oviparous. Further information on the life history of the species may become available in the near future as the ECORAYA project is finalised (M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63145	population	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Moderately common species of the Magellanic fauna, but population size unknown.	eng
63145	threats	McCormack, C., San Martín, M.J. & Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	The term rajid refers to skates of both the families Rajidae and Arhynchobatidae. <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>Skate landings have been increasing considerably in Argentina due to international demand. Prior to 1994, skate captures were less than 1,000 t, however, since that year skate landings increased considerably, reaching >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004).     <br/> <br/><em>Bathyraja scaphiops</em> is a regular bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries for bony fishes. It has been captured during fishery-independent investigations for hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and other species (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported a 74% decline in the biomass of <em>B. scaphiops</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during the summer investigations of 1999 compared to 1998, however, it was acknowledged that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays (García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000). During 1999, there was a decrease in the captures of rays by the deep sea fishing fleet of around 15% with regard to 1998 (García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. 2000).  <br/> <br/>The species is also taken in the <em>Dipturus chilensis</em> directed skate fishery off Argentina which currently comprises a single vessel. Onboard observation of the fishing operation in 2000 and 2001 indicated that the vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath. At greater depths, the processed catch composition varied between trips and comprised low proportions of <em>B. scaphiops</em> (<5%) (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002).  <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/><em>Bathyraja scaphiops</em> is taken in the multi-species skate trawl fishery around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands which has been operating since 1989. The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. In 1996, following declines in CPUE, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to the fleet and the fishery now operates north of the Islands. An assessment of the northern ray population (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004) indicated that there was no significant increasing or decreasing trend in the CPUE for <em>B. scaphiops</em> over the period from 1992 to 2001. The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al</em>. 2000), what this means is that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the rajid fishery closure. However, this species may also be caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers operating around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern rajid closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting rajids, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed and rajids to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure.	eng
63146	conservation	Ellis, J., Ungaro,N., Serena,F., Dulvy,N.,Tinti,F., Bertozzi, M.,  Pasolini, P.,  Mancusi,C. &  Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2007	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm disc width for skates and rays caught in some of the inshore waters of England and Wales, through local Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., size restriction, effort reduction).	eng
63146	distribution	Ellis, J., Ungaro,N., Serena,F., Dulvy,N.,Tinti,F., Bertozzi, M.,  Pasolini, P.,  Mancusi,C. &  Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2007	Widely distributed in the Northeast Atlantic, ranging from Morocco in the south to the Shetland Isles and Skagerrak and Kattegat in the north, including the Mediterranean Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Bauchot 1987). Within the Northeastern Atlantic it tends to occur in inshore waters and shallow shelf seas, in depths of 8 to 283 m (Ellis <em>et al.</em>, 2005a), though it is most abundant in waters less than 100 m. Juveniles tend to occur closer inshore on sandy sediments, with adults also common further offshore on sand and coarse sand-gravel substrates.	eng
63146	habitat	Ellis, J., Ungaro,N., Serena,F., Dulvy,N.,Tinti,F., Bertozzi, M.,  Pasolini, P.,  Mancusi,C. &  Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2007	<em>Raja montagui</em> is most common on sandy sediments in coastal and shelf seas (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a), though may occur deeper in the southern parts of its range. <em>Raja montagui</em> is found at intermediate depths on the shallow shelf and was captured in the MEDITS surveys at depths between 28 to 530 m, but the bulk of the population appears to exist between 100 to 500 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Adults have an average total length of 60 cm (Bauchot 1987), and the maximum recorded length is 80 cm (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b). Maximum fecundity of approximately 60 to 70 (Holden <em>et al</em>. 1971, Walker 1999). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (amphipods, natantids), with larger individuals predating on larger crustaceans, and fishes. Basic information on their reproductive biology is available, though better data on fecundity are required.	eng
63146	population	Ellis, J., Ungaro,N., Serena,F., Dulvy,N.,Tinti,F., Bertozzi, M.,  Pasolini, P.,  Mancusi,C. &  Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2007	No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. <em>R. monatgui</em> is common in landings and trawl surveys throughout much of its range and although accurate species-specific landings data are not available catch rates in fishery-independent surveys indicate that catches are stable, possibly increasing in certain areas. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys in the English Channel and Irish Sea appear steady in recent times (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), and IBTS data in the North Sea are also relatively stable (ICES 2006). These catch rates refer to all individuals caught and not just mature fish. This species is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the eastern area (Aegean Sea) and the western central area (coasts of Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily). The overall biomass index assessed with the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) (0 to 800 m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 1.7kg/km² (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species has been captured in 107 out of 6,336 survey tows between 1994 and 1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the survey region is 882 t (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Historically this species was very rare in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001, Marano <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
63146	threats	Ellis, J., Ungaro,N., Serena,F., Dulvy,N.,Tinti,F., Bertozzi, M.,  Pasolini, P.,  Mancusi,C. &  Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2007	Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic and <em>R. montagui</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Holden 1977). As one of the smaller rays in the Northeast Atlantic, it is not targeted, though larger individuals are landed as by-catch in mixed trawl fisheries. The small body size of <em>R. montagui</em> is likely to mean they have greater resilience fishing impacts compared to larger-bodied skate species. The Mediterranean Sea is intensively trawled for commercial fishing at depths ranging from 50 to 700 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>R. montagui</em> is captured in Mediterranean trawl fisheries as bycatch and although temporal fluctuations of the abundance have occurred, populations appear to be stable in most parts of the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
63147	conservation	Kyne ,P.M., Lamilla, J., Licandeo, R.R., Jimena San Martín, M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & McCormack, C., 2007	<strong>Chile</strong> <br/>In Chile, catches are regulated by annual total quota. Following Lamilla <em>et al.</em> (2001, 2002), in the fishing grounds between 39°15' and 41°28.6'S, quotas were set at 600 t for 2002, 500 t for 2003. Afterwards, quotas have been 425 t for 2004, 400 t for 2005 and 370 t for 2006. Since 2005, there has also been an annual quota for <em>Dipturus</em> spp. south of 41°28.6'S of 2,000 t for that year and 1,430 t for 2006. Each year, there is also a seasonal fishery closure for the entire Chilean coast between December 1 and February 28 to protect the reproductive season. Regulations and management tools utilised need to be species-specific, due to differing life histories and abundance patterns of <em>Dipturus trachydermus</em> and <em>Zearaja chilensis.</em> <br/> <br/><strong>Argentina</strong> <br/>In Argentina, the assessment of direct and indirect catches is a priority. There are theoretically TACs, minimum sizes and overall annual quotas for quite a number of elasmobranch species in Argentina, however, little attention is paid to these and there is no regular monitoring by authorities (M. Stehmann pers. comm).   <br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong>  <br/>The following information is taken from Agnew <em>et al.</em> (1999, 2000) unless otherwise specified.  The Falkland/Malvinas Islands multispecies skate fishery is managed by limiting fishing effort. The effort that each vessel is likely to exert is calculated (based on size, duration of license and past fishing history) and since 1994 only a limited number of licenses are granted to ensure that the total allowable effort (determined from assessments of stock status) is not exceeded. Stock status assessments are not, however, species-specific and a sustainable total allowable effort for the entire stock may not translate to sustainable levels of effort for individual species. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, in 1996, the southern area (south of 52°S) was closed to skate fishing and the fishery is now restricted to the area north of the Islands. This closure is extended to 50°30' S (between 56°30W and 58°W) during the second season of each year to exclude the skate fishing fleet from Loligo gahi fishing grounds. All licensed vessels are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. There is, however, no requirement to report species-specific information. Scientific observers are deployed onboard skate vessels in order to quantify the catch composition by species and to obtain detailed biological data on individual species. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting skates, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.	eng
63147	distribution	Kyne ,P.M., Lamilla, J., Licandeo, R.R., Jimena San Martín, M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & McCormack, C., 2007	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong>: From southern Brazil (doubtful), Uruguay, Argentina and around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. The species occurs with certainty from at least 34°35´S (Uruguay), but occurrence to the north is unconfirmed and as such the reports for Southern Brazil are doubtful as they may correspond to a species complex which is still under study, mainly including <em>Dipturus leptocaudus</em> (Krefft and Stehmann 1975) (J. Soto pers. comm).   <br/> <br/><strong>Southeast Pacific</strong>: Chile from Coquimbo (30°S) to Punta Arenas (56°S).	eng
63147	habitat	Kyne ,P.M., Lamilla, J., Licandeo, R.R., Jimena San Martín, M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & McCormack, C., 2007	Found on the continental shelf and upper slope. In the Southwest Atlantic it has been recorded at depths of 28 to 435 m at temperatures of 3.5 to 18.8°C (Menni and Stehmann 2000) and in Chile, inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms at depths of 40 to 500 m (Quiroz 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, with a peak in reproductive activity in summer (Mariotti <em>et al</em>. 2003). From examined longline catches off Chile, females were observed between 47 and 126 cm TL, and males between 52 and 109 cm TL, with 42% of specimens in the size range 80 to 90 cm TL with a sex ratio of 1:2 (F:M) (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Maximum size estimated as 160 cm TL for the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000) and 210 cm TL for Chile (Quiroz 2005), but the species is usually observed much smaller than these reported sizes. For example, the largest individual reported by Licandeo <em>et al.</em> (2006) was 125 cm TL, and by (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002) was 126 cm TL. <br/> <br/>Various maximum ages have been estimated for&#160;<em>Zearaja chilensis</em> from Chile. Gili <em>et al.</em> (1999) provided estimates of maximum ages of 21 years for females and 20 years for males, but these may have been derived from a mix of two species (<em>D. trachydermus</em> and <em>Z. chilensis</em>) and these figures should thus be viewed with caution (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2002). Fuentealba (1989) estimated maximum ages of 25 years for females and 26 years for males, and Licandeo <em>et al</em>. (2006) 27 years for females and 23 years for males (these latter figures are taken as the most reliable). Age and size at 50% maturity were estimated by Licandeo <em>et al</em>. (2006) as 14 years and 106 cm TL for females and 11 years and 86 cm TL for males. Other estimates of age and size at maturity from Chile, Argentina and Uruguay are given in the life history table below. Differences in reported sizes at maturity may be attributed to geographical variation, different stocks, different sampling and analytical methodologies or levels of exploitation.	eng
63147	population	Kyne ,P.M., Lamilla, J., Licandeo, R.R., Jimena San Martín, M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & McCormack, C., 2007	Reportedly one of the most abundant skate species of the Southwest Atlantic, however exact details of population size are unknown. <br/> <br/>Wakeford <em>et al.</em> (2004) suggests that the species does not form a resident population in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, but has a broad distribution in the Southwest Atlantic. As such, exploitation off Patagonian Argentina may be impacting upon the abundance and population structure of the species around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). Few small individuals of <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> are found around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and the seasonal movement of the species westward out of the Falkland/Malvinas Islands region towards the end of the year is suggested by Wakeford <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
63147	threats	Kyne ,P.M., Lamilla, J., Licandeo, R.R., Jimena San Martín, M., Stehmann, M.F.W. & McCormack, C., 2007	The vulnerability of large skates to overexploitation and subsequent population depletion is well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). The three generation period for the species is 61.5 years (3 x 20.5 years), calculated with published estimated maximum age and age at maturity for females (Licandeo <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Chile</strong> <br/>This species faces both directed and bycatch fishing pressure in Chile. Since 1979 there have been industrial and artisanal landings in Chile of up to >4,000 t/year of <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> combined with <em>D. trachydermus</em>. These two species are not separated in catch landing statistics (Roa and Ernest 1999, 2000). Between 1999 and 2000 there was an important increase in mainly artisanal landings, with a maximum landing of 4,151 t during 2000, which then dropped to 3,000 t in 2001 (SERNAPESCA 1989-2003). In Chile, overall biomass has decreased by 51% and spawning biomass has decreased by 34% since fishing began in 1979 (Quiroz 2005). <br/> <br/>In the artisanal multispecies longline fishery off Central and Southern Chile (39°15' to 41°28.6'S) the catch is regulated by quota for <em>Z. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em>. Since 2000, 30% of artisanal landings within this fishery (between IX and X Regions) have been monitored (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). Landings comprise 85% <em>Z. chilensis</em>, 10% <em>D. trachydermus</em>, with the remaining 5% made up of <em>Bathyraja albomaculata</em>, <em>B. brachyurops, B. griseocauda</em> and <em>Rajella sadowskyii</em> (Lamilla <em>et al.</em> 2001, 2002). <br/> <br/>South of the above-mentioned fishing grounds (that is, south of 41°28.6'S), both <em>Z. chilensis</em> and <em>D. trachydermus</em> are taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries for southern hake <em>Merluccius australis</em> and in artisanal fisheries for golden kingclip <em>Genypterus blacodes</em>. Captures in 2002 were of ~2,000 t for both <em>Dipturus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">trachydermus</span> and <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> combined and since 2005 there have been quotas put in place in these southern fishing grounds.<br/> <br/>Off southern Chile, artisanal fishing activities generally only operate close to small towns such as Chiloé, Aysén and Punta Arenas and as such there may be some refuge for the species in the extensive coastline of southern Chile which consists of many fjords and canals where fishing activities are not operating at present.<br/> <br/><em>Zearaja chilensis</em> is also a minor bycatch of the Chilean deepsea crustacean fisheries for yellow squat lobster <em>Cervimunida johni</em> and deepsea shrimp <em>Heterocarpus reedi</em> (Acuña and Villarroel 2002).<br/> <br/><strong>Argentina and Uruguay</strong> <br/>In the coastal and continental shelf waters of Argentina, fishing pressure on all skate species is rising due to increasing demand on the international market. Subsequently, catches have been rising since 1994. Skates, principally <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em>, are directly targeted by a licensed Korean longliner on the continental shelf off Mar del Plata, Argentina (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002) and are also taken in coastal fisheries (Massa<em> et al.</em> 2004a, b). While, species-specific catch time-series for these fisheries are unavailable, skate landings for Argentina were <1,000 t prior to 1994, rising to >15,000 t in 2001 and 17,465 t in 2003 (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002, Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004a, b). Skates are exploited over much of the Argentinean continental shelf (i.e., see Figure 4 in García de la Rosa <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/> <br/>In the directed <em>Z. chilensis</em> fishery, onboard observation showed that in 2000 and 2001, the single longline vessel fished from 37° to 44°S off Argentina in two regions; around 50 m of depth and along the 100 m isobath (Colonello<em> et al.</em> 2002). <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> accounted for ~50%+ of the catch of skates both in the shallower and deeper fished areas (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/> <br/><em>Zearaja chilensis</em> is a bycatch (often retained) in several multispecies demersal fisheries which operate within its Southwest Atlantic range, however, species-specific catch data are generally unavailable. For example, it is a bycatch of benthic trawl fisheries for Argentine hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em>, flounder and white croaker (Cousseau <em>et al.</em> 2000, Koen Alonso <em>et al</em>. 2001, Buratti 2004), of the multispecies coastal benthic trawl fishery operating out of Puerto Quequén (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and of the Patagonian red shrimp <em>Pleoticus muelleri</em> fishery (Cedrola <em>et al.</em> 2005). The latter is an industrial fishery which has been operating since 1979, with target catches rising since 1998, and reaching a peak of 79,000 mt in 2001 (Cedrola <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/> <br/>During fishery-independent investigations, García de la Rosa <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported a 53% decline in the biomass of <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> captured from 45° to 55°S during summer surveying in 1999 compared to 1998. It was acknowledged, however, that during the second phase of the investigations, new gear was employed which likely reduced the capture of rays, and as such these estimates should be viewed with caution.<br/> <br/>Colonello <em>et al.</em> (2002) and García de la Rosa (1998) provide detailed accounts of size distributions and sex ratios of <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> in relation to latitude and depth taken in commercial operations (Colonello <em>et al.</em> 2002) and research cruises (García de la Rosa 1998) off Argentina.  <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, this species, along with <em>Sympterygia bonapartei, S. acuta</em> and <em>Atlantoraja castelnaui</em> are the main target species of a bottom longline fishery (Paesch and Domingo 2003). Species-specific catch data are not available, but captures of this group of skates for the period 1999 to 2002 are estimated at ~1,100 tons per year (A. Domingo pers. comm).<br/> <br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong> <br/>Since 1989, skates have been targeted by a Korean fleet utilizing demersal trawls around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands. Although approximately 11 skate species are regularly taken, commercial catches are dominated by four species including <em>Z. chilensis</em> (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000, Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). The fishery initially operated over two main areas, one located on the shelf edge to the north of the Islands, and the other to the south of the Islands. Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) found that between 1993 and 1996 there was some evidence that <em>Z. chilensis</em> declined in catches (as a proportion of the total catch weight, from 10% in 1993 to 6% in 1996), but in 1997 the proportion increased again. <em>Zearaja chilensis</em> did however, show the greatest decrease in mean and maximum size from 1993 to 1997 of any species. Mean size was 76.76 cm DW in 1993 and 58.49 cm DW in 1997 (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 2000). Agnew <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggests that this decline in size may not be the result of fishing pressure in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands alone, but a combination of exploitation there and in Argentina where the species is more abundant. Following declines in CPUE in the early 1990s, the southern area was closed to the ray fleet in 1996 and the fishery now concentrates in the northern area. A more recent assessment of the northern ray population, utilizing observer data, has shown an increasing trend in the relative abundance of <em>Z. chilensis</em> in catches, with an increasing trend in CPUE from 1992-1993 to 1999-2001 (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands have in place a precautionary management system for the skate fishery (see Conservation Actions below), and together with the recovery of biomass (Agnew <em>et al. </em>2000), this means that the fishery will continue into the future, because overall stocks are stable or recovering. As such, pressure will continue on all species, including those likely less able to sustain heavy fishing pressure, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Z</span><em>. chilensis</em> (inferred from its life history and documented declines in the Southeast Pacific). Furthermore, it should be noted that localised depletions may be masked by overall CPUE trends (Wakeford <em>et al.</em> 2004). There have been no studies to determine the abundance of this species in the southern area since the skate fishery closure. However, this species is also caught as bycatch by finfish trawlers targeting southern blue whiting <em>Micromesistius australis</em>, hoki <em>Macruronus magellanicus</em>, hake <em>Merluccius hubbsi</em> and <em>M. australis</em>, and Patagonian cod <em>Salilota australis</em> around the Falkland/Malvinas Islands and within the southern skate closure. While vessels fishing under general finfish licenses are prohibited from targeting skates, a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed so skates to the south of the Islands are continuing to face bycatch fishing pressure (J. Pompert pers. comm).	eng
63148	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Careful monitoring of fishing effort and bycatch levels in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected by any increase in fishing pressure.	eng
63148	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Southeast Pacific off Ecuador, Peru and Chile.	eng
63148	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	A large deepwater skate, <em>Bathyraja peruana </em>can be found in depths from 600 to 1,060 m and attains at least 110 cm TL. Its biology is virtually unknown as it is presently known from only a limited number of specimens.	eng
63148	population	Huveneers, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63148	threats	Huveneers, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	No details are available on captures in fisheries, but probably taken to some extent in deeper water trawl and longline activities in the region. This skate is large (to 110 cm TL) and the vulnerability of large skates has been well documented (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Any increase in deepwater fishing pressure across its range may prove detrimental to the species, particularly given its narrow depth distribution.	eng
63149	conservation	Coelho, R., Rey, J., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	None currently exist. Given the restricted range of this species and that the fact that all the population is currently suffering fishing pressure (by-catch), this species should start to be monitored. Fishery observers should start separating this species from the very similar <em>G. melastomus</em> and <em>G. polli</em>.	eng
63149	distribution	Coelho, R., Rey, J., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	This species has a very narrow distribution range in all the areas in which it occurs. Some identification problems and possible confusion with <em>G. melastomus</em> and <em>G. polli</em> might mean that the distribution of this species may be larger but unknown at this point. <br/> <br/>This species is presently calculated to have a total extent of occurrence of around 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>, from which 25,000 km<sup>2</sup> are in the Northeast Atlantic and 25,000 km<sup>2</sup> are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is only known from one specimen off west Africa at this time, so the area of occupancy in this region might be very restricted. <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>In the Northeast Atlantic this species is known from the Gibraltar Strait (J. Rey pers. comm.) to the Vicente Cape (Southwest coast of Portugal) (R. Coelho pers. comm.), where it is captured regularly. In this area, most of the records are adult specimens. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>In the Mediterranean it is known only in its western part, in Spanish waters, from Gibraltar Strait to Cape Gata, being especially abundant in the Alboran Sea and becoming gradually less abundant towards the East to the longitude of Cape Gata (Rey <em>et al.</em> in press). High numbers of juveniles have only been reported from the Alboran Sea (J. Rey pers. comm. 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Off West Africa this species is only confirmed from the type specimen captured off Cape Spartel (northwest coast of Morocco) and from one specimen capture off Mauritania (Castilho <em>et al.</em> submitted). There are unconfirmed reports of this species being captured off the coast of Morocco (F. Litvinov pers. comm. 2006).	eng
63149	habitat	Coelho, R., Rey, J., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	<em>Galeus atlanticus</em> is a demersal species with a reported to occur at depths of 400 to 600 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and extended to 330 to 710 m by Rey <em>et al.</em> (2005). There is one record at depths between 0 and 50 m reported from the MEDITS survey (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Bauchot (1987) measured a mature female of 39.8 cm and a male of 38.4 cm TL. Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) report female size at maturity between 40 and 45 cm TL and for males ~38 to 42 cm TL. Maximum size is ~45 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is oviparous, eggs are protected by an horny case 11 to 13 mm by 38 to 40 mm in size (Bauchot 1987), with apparent multiple ovipary (nine eggcases reported in one female) suggesting a short hatching period outside the mother (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). In the western Mediterranean, where this species is found in the Alboran Sea, it captured from 330 to 790 m depth, but mostly between 500 to 600 m depth, with sizes ranging from 18 to 42 cm TL in males and 20 to 45 cm TL in females (Rey <em>et al.</em> 2005). At present more information is required on its population dynamics parameters.	eng
63149	population	Coelho, R., Rey, J., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>Off the Southern Portuguese coast, this species has been regularly captured since 2003 (when it started to be separated from <em>G. melastomus</em>) by deep water commercial longliners, targeting wreck fish, <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and conger eels, <em>Conger conger</em>. Samplings aboard these commercial boats have shown that the species is captured in a fairly narrow depth range (470 to 580 m) with a CPUE of 1.83 specimens/1,000 hooks (s.d.=1.18) (Coelho unpublished data).  <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean. Six trawl surveys were carried out in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows were performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m.  Analysis of MEDITS data between 1994 and 1999 show a very low frequency of occurrence of <em>G. atlanticus</em>. Out of the total number of hauls in the Mediterranean this species was captured in only one (0.01%) in the Western area (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, it is likely that this species was still being confused for <em>G. melastomus</em> at this time. <br/> <br/>The Spanish Medits surveys that have annually covered the Spanish waters of the Mediterranean since 1994, up to depths of 800 m, have shown that this species only occurs in the western end of the Mediterranean, from the Straight of Gibraltar to Cape Gata, being abundant only in the Alboran Sea (western part of this range of occurrence) and decreasing gradually in abundance until off Cape Gata longitude (Rey <em>et al. </em>2005).  <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Presently this species in confirmed in this area only from the holotype specimen that was captured off cape Spartel (northwest Morocco) (Vaillant 1888) and from the specimen caught off Mauritania (Castilho <em>et al. </em>submitted). It is unknown if this species is very rare in this area or if is being misidentified with <em>Galeus melastomus</em> or <em>Galeus polli</em> that also occurs in the same area.	eng
63149	threats	Coelho, R., Rey, J., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	<strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/><em>G. atlanticus</em> is still recorded as <em>G. melastomus</em> for fishery data (due to its external similarity it is very difficult to separate the two species). The species is caught as bycatch by trawl nets and bottom longlines on slope bottoms. Accessory species in the semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries with trawl net, gillnet, longline (Bauchot 1987). Caught as bycatch by bottom trawls and artisanal fisheries (Serena 2005). <br/> <br/>Where this species is most frequent in the Mediterranean Sea (Alboran Sea) is very heavily fished by deep water trawlers targeting crustaceans such as Norway lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>) and red shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>). These trawlers operate throughout the depth range and area of occupancy of this species in this region. Therefore it is probably being captured as by-catch within all its narrow range of occurrence in this region.   <br/> <br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is only known to occur from the Straight of Gibraltar to the southwest coast of Portugal in this region. Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), it is captured as bycatch of the deep water longline fishery that targets wreck fish <em>Polyprion americanus</em> and conger eels <em>Conger conger</em> and by deep water trawlers targeting crustaceans such as Norway lobster <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>, red shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> and pink shrimp <em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>. Most of the specimens are discarded, although the larger specimens have some commercial value and can be sold for human consumption. Most of the discarded specimens are still alive when returned to sea, but usually have severe injuries that are likely to impair their survival (R. Coelho pers. comm. 2006).  In Portuguese fisheries statistics, marketed specimens of this species are mixed with <em>Galeus melastomus</em> and recorded as <em>Galeus melastomus</em>, making it impossible to discriminate trends of commercial captures through time. Currently, all the narrow area of occurrence in the Northeast Atlantic is being heavily fished either by deep water trawlers or deep water longliners, so the entire population in this region is likely suffering fishing mortality. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Off cape Spartel, in the area where the type specimen has been recorded, there has been a deep water longline fishery since 2001 targeting black scabbardfish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) that is operating in the depth range of this species. In this area, there is also a deep water trawl fishery targeting crustaceans, of around 55 boats that also fishes within this specie?s depth range (M. Hicham pers. comm. 2006). Both these fisheries may be taking this species as by-catch but these data are not recorded.	eng
63150	conservation	IUCN Shark Specialist Group, 2007	Since 1992 there has been a Maximum Permitted Catch (MPC) for angel shark in Argentina which was 6,000 MT in the years 1995 to 1999 and thereafter was reduced to 4,000 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Brazil there is no control of the shelf angel shark fishery, and although trawling in inshore waters is prohibited, enforcement of this regulation is difficult.    <br/>  <br/>Vooren and Klippel (2005) recommend the protection of the coastal nursery grounds in southern Brazil (waters south of 32°30?S) from fishing as an essential measure for the conservation of this species.	eng
63150	distribution	IUCN Shark Specialist Group, 2007	<em>Squatina punctata</em> is an endemic species of the Southwest Atlantic occurring from 24°S (Rio de Janeiro, southern Brazil) through Uruguay to 43°S (northern Patagonia, Argentina). Gosztonyi (1981) recorded specimens of <em>Squatina</em> spp. from 47°S, which may be this species, however this requires confirmation.	eng
63150	habitat	IUCN Shark Specialist Group, 2007	<em>Squatina punctata</em> is a relatively small, bottom-dwelling shark. In Brazil the species occurs mostly at depths of 10 to 80 m at bottom temperatures of 10 to 22°C (Compagno in prep). Cousseau (1973) refers to captures of <em>S. punctata</em> from the coast to 150 m in Argentinean waters, Gosztonyi (1981) at depths of 26 to 135 m, and Menni <em>et al.</em> (1981) at 22 to 121 m.<br/> <br/>Aplacental yolksac viviparous with one functional ovary. Reproduction begins in both males and females at about 70 to 80 cm TL (Cousseau 1973, Vooren and Silva 1991, Compagno in prep). Maximum size is 91 to 92 cm TL (Compagno in prep., Silva 1996). Number of embryos per litter is 3 to 8 (Vooren and Silva 1991, Compagno in prep). The breeding cycle of the female lasts at least two years. <em>S. punctata</em> migrates in spring to shallow coastal waters where the females give birth and where small juveniles occur all year round (Vooren and Silva 1991).	eng
63150	population	IUCN Shark Specialist Group, 2007	Although the species lives in a geographical continuum of about 20 degrees of latitude, the range is probably composed of local populations each with its own inshore-offshore migration pattern within their local temperature regime. One such population exists in southern Brazil. These local populations can be extirpated by fishing activities. Shallow inshore regions are important as nursery grounds throughout the geographical range of the species.	eng
63150	threats	IUCN Shark Specialist Group, 2007	The nocturnal habits of angel sharks render them vulnerable to bottom gillnets, and increases in captures during the 1990s are attributed to the introduction of this gear on the shelf and slope off southern Brazil at that time. Gillnets were reported as six times more effective at catching angel sharks than trawling alone (Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Gravid angel shark females have been observed to abort embryos easily upon capture, further reducing the reproductive capacity (Vooren and Klippel 2005). A low rate of dispersal between populations also makes them especially prone to local depletion and means that recolonisation will be extremely low. Furthermore, pupping and nursery areas in Brazil occur in shallow inshore waters at depths of <30 m. Intensive fishing by gillnet and trawl in these nursery areas results in additional pressure on gravid females and juveniles of the species (Silva 1996, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Fishery landing statistics of ?angel shark? in southern Brazil refer to <em>Squatina</em> species combined. Annual catches of angel shark from the continental shelf peaked at about 2,000 t in 1986 to 1989 and again in 1993, and then decreased to 900 t in 2003. Angel shark CPUE by otter trawl and pair trawl on the continental shelf decreased by about 85% from 1984 to 2002 (Miranda and Vooren 2003, CEPERG 2003, GEP/CTTMar 2003, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <br/> <br/>Additionally, an angel shark bottom gillnet fishery on the outer shelf commenced around 1990 and at present large amounts of angel shark are caught this way (Miranda and Vooren 2003). Research trawl surveys of the outer shelf in the years 1986/87 and 2001/02 confirmed that in southern Brazil the abundance of angel shark has decreased to 15% of its original level and this is attributed to recruitment overfishing primarily due to the bottom gillnet fishery (Vooren and Lamónaca 2002, Vooren and Klippel 2005).  <br/> <br/>In Argentina, the shark bycatch from gillnet and bottom trawl fleets targeting species such as school shark, croakers and flatfishes is poorly known. However, Cousseau (1973), based on Nani and Gonzalez Alberdi (1966), estimated Squatina as 6% of the total weight of the catches of the coastal bottom trawling fleet. The predominant size in these catches was about 70 to 80 cm TL; small sizes (25 to 45 cm TL) were uncommon. Cousseau (1973), based on García Cabrejos and Malaret (1969) calculated the total landings of angel shark in Mar del Plata harbour in 1964 to be 1,074 MT and 2,355 MT in 1965. Otero <em>et al.</em> (1982) considered the angel sharks to be species with a low concentration on the Buenos Aires coast, with an annual biomass for 1981/2 estimated at 4,050 tons. However, in 1991 as much as 4,167 MT were taken, and 4,281 MT in 1996. Chiaramonte (1998) stated that the angel sharks were the second most important fish landed by the gillnet fleet of Puerto Quequen. Total captures of angel sharks in Argentina oscillated around 1,000 MT between 1979 and 1984 then increased to maximums of over 4,000 MT in the 1990s. Catches consist almost entirely of <em>S. guggenheim</em>. Peaks were reached in 1997 and 1998, before landings dropped in 2002 to >2,000 MT, rising again in 2003 to 3,550 MT (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thus there has been an overall negative trend in landings during the period 1998 to 2003 (Massa <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, Vooren and Klippel (2005) (citing Massa and Hozbor 2003) suggested a 58% decline in the CPUE of angel shark in the coastal bottom trawl fleet. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay there is little direct fishing for angel sharks, but they are taken as bycatch in industrial and artisanal fisheries. The estimated capture has been 300 to 400 MT per year since 1997. There are no statistics by species, but largest captures probably correspond to <em>S. guggenheim</em> and <em>S. argentina</em> (A. Domingo pers. comm).	eng
63151	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	A management plan was developed for the gillnet monkfish fishery in 2002 and approved in June 2005. Foreign chartered fishing vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and an annual TAC of 1,500 t and an effort limitation of nine vessels implemented for the domestic fleet. Further management arrangements included a permanent VMS tracking system, 100% observer coverage, logbooks and a ban on fishing shallower than 250 m. Furthermore, two no-take zones were implemented, one in the southern and the other in the northern sections of the fishing area (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2002, Perez pers. comm). Given the restricted known distribution of <em>H. matallanasi</em>, the conservation status of this species may rely heavily upon the success of these management arrangements. Full observer coverage onboard domestic vessels provide an opportunity to accurately monitor catch levels and trends in the future.   <br/> <br/>The restriction of the southern Brazilian deepwater longline fishery to depths of >600 m places reduces its overlap with the known bathymetrical distribution of <em>H. matallanasi</em>.	eng
63151	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Endemic to the Southwest Atlantic to southern Brazil between Rio de Janeiro state (23°42'S) and Santa Catarina state (30°18'S) (Soto and Vooren 2004).	eng
63151	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Recorded from the upper continental shelf at depths of 416 to 736 m, apparently from deep-reefs (Soto and Vooren 2004). Maximum size 30.2 cm precaudal length (PCL) for males and 37.8 cm PCL for females. Males mature at ~29.6 cm PCL (Soto and Vooren 2004). Nothing else known of its biology.	eng
63151	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Presently known in the literature from only 21 specimens as specified in the original description (Soto and Vooren 2004).	eng
63151	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	In 1998 the Brazilian government initiated a deep-sea fishing program in order to remove some pressure from the shelf environment and explore unexploited resources on the slope (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2003). Fishing activities employing chartered foreign vessels began in 2000 using demersal gear, specifically longlines, otter trawls, gillnets and pots at depths of <200 to 900 m. Longlining was later (2001) restricted to depths >600 m (Perez <em>et al. </em>2003). The gillnet fishery for monkfish <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> which was developed as part of this deepwater fishing program, operated over the entire geographical, and much of the bathymetrical distribution of <em>Hydrolagus matallanasi</em>. Perez and Wahrlich (2005) surveyed bycatch in this fishery between 22°44´S and 34°21´S and at depths of 132 to 607 m, recording very low numbers (0.005 per 100 nets) of <em>Hydrolagus</em> sp. (likely <em>H. matallanasi</em>). This was a discarded species. A deepwater trawl fishery also operates in the same region, operating down to depths of 460 m (Perez <em>et al.</em> 2003). Foreign vessels were unauthorized to operate after October 2002 and a management plan implemented for the fishery (see Conservation Actions section below). These management arrangements should greatly reduce the level of impact on the species, but it will likely continue to be taken as bycatch.	eng
63152	conservation	Rosa, R.S., Furtado, M., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Grubbs, R.D., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	Given fishing pressure on inshore environments in the Southwest Atlantic, monitoring needs to document catches of this species, and appropriate management should be implemented if indeed the species has declined from historical levels.	eng
63152	distribution	Rosa, R.S., Furtado, M., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Grubbs, R.D., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	<strong>East Atlantic</strong>: Southern Bay of Biscay to Angola, including the Mediterranean Sea, Madeira, and Canary Islands. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>: Georges Bank and Cape Cod south to Florida and in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico (USA), and in the Bahamas. The species is not recorded from Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996). <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong>: From Isla Blanca and Cubagua, Venezuela (Cervigón and Alcalá 1999), from Barra de Guaratiba, Rio de Janeiro State (Buckup <em>et al.</em> 2000) and recently in Ceará State, Brazil, as well as locations off Uruguay and Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000). <br/> <br/>A single report from the Indian Ocean (off Quilon, India) is most probably a misidentification (Silas and Selvaraj 1985).	eng
63152	habitat	Rosa, R.S., Furtado, M., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Grubbs, R.D., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	This species is found over sandy and muddy bottoms, occasionally in brackish water; usually in waters less then 100 m deep, but recorded to 274 m in the Bahamas (McEachran and Fechhem 1998) and usually to 200 m deep in the Mediterranean (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984). <br/> <br/>One of the largest known stingrays, the largest maximum size thus far reported for the species range-wide is 260 cm DW and 290 kg from the southern Adriatic (Dulcic <em>et al</em>. 2003). Maximum size is also reported at 210 to 220 cm disc width (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002, Capapé and Desoutter 1990). Size at maturity varies with region, McEachran and de Carvalho (2002) reported size at maturity in males at 130 to 150 cm disc width, and 140 to 160 cm disc width for females, and Capapé (1993) reported 80 cm disc width for males and 66 to 100 cm for females in the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/>This species is ovoviviparous. Size at birth is reported as 34 to 37 cm (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002) and 8 to 13 cm (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Bini 1967). Capapé (1993) reported that gestation lasts for a minimum of four months and fecundity ranges from 2 to 6 pups per litter. <br/> <br/>The diet consists of fishes and invertebrates, including crabs, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Off Virginia (USA), stomachs from three adult males contained large numbers of a single prey species, the callianassid shrimp <em>Upogebia affinis</em> (Grubbs unpublished data).	eng
63152	population	Rosa, R.S., Furtado, M., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Grubbs, R.D., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species was reported as most common off Algeria, Sicily and Tunisia (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). In 6,336 scientific trawls conducted during the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) from 1994 to 1999 at depths of 10 to 800 m, only one record of this species was reported throughout the entire Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). From the 22 Italian GRUND surveys between 1985 and 1998 the percentage presence for this species was one of the lowest registered (0.83%) and it was caught only in the South Ligurian Seas and Sardinian waters (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000).  <br/> <br/>In the western north Atlantic, the species is common and widely distributed. It is taken in groundfish trawl surveys (Struhsaker 1969, J. Musick pers. comm., R. Myers pers. comm). VIMS longline survey data show no population trends in CPUE between 1996 and 2003 (Musick unpublished data). NMFS groundfish trawl survey data show no population trends (stable populations) since 1963 in the mid-Atlantic Bight (R. Myers pers. comm). It is less common in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and becomes increasingly rare in the northern Gulf of Mexico. <br/> <br/>Little information is available on the population in the Southwest Atlantic.	eng
63152	threats	Rosa, R.S., Furtado, M., Snelson, F., Piercy, A., Grubbs, R.D., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2007	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This stingray is taken by demersal trawl, gillnets, longlines, and hook and line (Stehmann 1981). Fishing pressure is intense throughout the range of this coastal ray and it is considered Vulnerable in Rio de Janeiro Municipality (Buckup <em>et al.</em> 2000). Brazil has reported among the highest capture production of elasmobranchs to FAO in recent years (Bonfil <em>et al. </em>2005). Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and fishing pressure is intense throughout much of the relatively shallow habitat of this species (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery in the Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined significantly since the early 1950s (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005). One female specimen was recorded in a year?s sampling of the landings of artisanal fleet at Caicara do Norte in northeastern Brazil (Yokota and Lessa 2006). Like many elasmobranch species, anecdotal evidence from interviews with fishermen (from Caiçara do Norte, Rio grande do Norte State, northeastern Brazil) indicate that the <em>D. centroura</em> is more rarely caught now than previously (L. Yokota pers. comm. 2006).   <br/> <br/>Coastal trawling effort is also intense in Argentina, where batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries (Tamini <em>et al. </em>2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates at Quequén (38°37S, 58°50) down to about 60 m depth, in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total capture (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species is apparently only rarely captured in Uruguay (A. Domingo pers. comm). <br/> <br/>Fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products, implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future. <br/> <br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>This species is not targeted in US waters of the Northwest Atlantic and the available data on population trends suggest stable populations off the east coast of the USA. Although there is some bycatch in shrimp and groundfish trawl and bottom longline fisheries (G. Burgess pers. comm.), the impact is considered to be minimal.     <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>In the Mediterranean this stingray is taken as bycatch of the artisanal fisheries, bottom set longline, gillnet and handline (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Benthic trawl effort has increased both effort and efficiency in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean Sea over the last 50 years. The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700-800 m (Colloca <em>et al. </em>2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003). As a result there has been increasing concern about changes in the abundance and diversity of elasmobranchs in this region, and decreases in the abundance and biomass of some species throughout the last decade have been reported in highly exploited areas such as the Gulf of Lions (Aldebert 1997, Massuti and Moranta 2003). Although no species specific data are available, the very large size of <em>D. centroura</em> makes it intrinsically vulnerable to population depletion. Given that this species is rarely captured in the Mediterranean, high exploitation of the continental shelf, its intrinsic vulnerability and evidence for declines where data are available in other elasmobranch species within this region, it is suspected to have declined.	eng
63153	conservation	Vooren, C.M., Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.S., Grubbs, R.D., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Serena, S., 2007	No species specific management or protection is currently in place for this species, except for in the Banc D?arguin National Park, Mauritania where it is protected.	eng
63153	distribution	Vooren, C.M., Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.S., Grubbs, R.D., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Serena, S., 2007	Patchily distributed in tropical and warm temperate continental shelf waters on the eastern (Portugal to Ambriz, Angola) and western (from Massachusetts State, USA (42°N) to Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (~38°S)) sides of the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea and the Madeira and Canary Islands (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998). Rarely reported from the Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It has a very patchy distribution in the Northwest and Western Atlantic, where it can be locally abundant and appears to be habitat dependent. Adults are common in the mouths of tidal creeks along the Virginia coast, USA (Musick <em>et al</em>. unpublished data). In the 1980?s <em>Gymnura altavela</em> was common and abundant throughout the year on the continental shelf of southern Brazil at depths of 10 to 150 m, being classified as a breeding resident species (Vooren 1997).	eng
63153	habitat	Vooren, C.M., Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.S., Grubbs, R.D., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Serena, S., 2007	A large, locally abundant, but overall unabundant, inshore batoid with a patchy and discontinuous distribution, found in shallow coastal waters over sand and mud generally to depths of 50 to 55 m (Bini 1967, McEachran and Felchman 1998), although it has been recorded from depths of 10 to 150 m off southern Brazil (Vooren 1997). <br/> <br/>Little is known of its biology. Maximum size is reported as 220 cm disc width (Musick <em>et al. </em>unpub. data) in the Northwest Atlantic; sizes exceeding 400 cm DW reported off the coast of West Africa (Bini 1967) may be erroneous. Size at maturity is reported as 155 cm DW in males and 102 cm DW in females (Daiber and Booth 1960). Aplacental yolksac viviparous reproduction with litter size varying from 2 to 8 depending on geographic location (four pups/litter reported by Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) and Bini (1967); 2-6 by Capapé <em>et al.</em> (1992) and 1-3 by Tortonese (1956) for the Mediterranean; up to five per litter in southern Brazil (Vooren unpub. data); and, up to eight by Musick <em>et. al.</em> (unpub. data) for the Northwest Atlantic). Reproduces annually and gestation time is reported as 4 to 9 months (Capapé <em>et al. </em>1992). <br/> <br/>Size at birth is reported as 38 to 44 cm DW (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Carvalho  2002). Age at maturity, longevity, average reproductive age, annual rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown.	eng
63153	population	Vooren, C.M., Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.S., Grubbs, R.D., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Serena, S., 2007	This species is taken annually in the VIMS longline survey at a single site during the summer months, but no population trends are evident from 1996 to 2003 (Musick <em>et al.</em> unpub. data). Historically, <em>Gymnura altavela</em> was not uncommon in the catch of demersal fisheries (trawl and set nets) throughout the Mediterranean and the southern shores in particular. However, it is absent from the whole of the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) records (i.e., since 1994) and it is only the occasional specimens that have been caught in demersal fisheries that testify the species is not extirpated from the region. In southern Brazil it disappeared from beach-seine catches in 2002 to 2003, where it had been historically observed in the 1980s. Also in southern Brazil at latitudes 29°20?S to 33°40?S and depths 10 to 20 m, trawl survey catch rates standardized for groundrope length, and frequency of occurrence, were 16.0 kg/h and 54% in January 1982 (20 trawl hauls), and 0.2 kg/h and 8% in February 2005 (62 trawl hauls). The catches in 2005 were of small juveniles, indicating that reproduction still takes place in that area (Naves and Vooren 2001, Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). The shallow waters of the Banc D?arguin in Mauritania may be a pupping ground (Camara <em>et. al.</em> in prep).	eng
63153	threats	Vooren, C.M., Piercy, A.N., Snelson Jr., F.S., Grubbs, R.D., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Serena, S., 2007	<strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong> <br/>Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and fishing pressure is intense throughout the relatively shallow habitat of <em>G. altavela</em> (Bonfil <em>et. al.</em> 2005). Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined dramatically since the early 1950s (Klippel <em>et. al.</em> 2005).   <br/> <br/>This species is taken by demersal multispecies trawl, beach-seine and recreational fisheries in southern Brazil (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is noted as a good food fish Figueiredo (1977) and has been landed commercially in southern Brazil from at least 1986 onwards (Araujo and Vooren 1989). The species was frequently observed in beach-seine catches in the 1980s, but had disappeared from these catches in 2002 and 2003 (Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data), and only occurred sporadically in trawl landings in 2002 and 2003. Also in southern Brazil at latitudes 29°20?S to 33°40?S and depths 10 to 20 m, trawl survey catch rates standardized for groundrope length, and frequency of occurrence, were 16.0 kg/h and 54% in January 1982 (20 trawl hauls), and 0.2 kg/h and 8% in February 2005 (62 trawl hauls) (Naves and Vooren 2001, Vooren<em> et al.</em> 2005). This strong decline in abundance is attributed to intense trawl fishing all year round in coastal waters. The catches in 2005 were of small juveniles, which is evidence that reproduction still takes place in that area (Klippel <em>et al. </em>2005, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Intense coastal fishing pressure is continuing throughout its coastal range and the threat is ongoing. The exposure of its coastal habitat to fisheries and its vulnerable life-history characteristics provide little capacity for recovery. <br/> <br/>Coastal fishing pressure is also known to be intense in Argentina, at the southern limit of this species? distribution. This species has occasionally been reported in catches along the coast of Argentina from Rio de la Plata to Quequén and has been reported as irregular in the demersal catches at Mar del Plata (Menni and Stehmann 2000). Batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries in Argentina (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates out off Quequén (38°37?S, 58°50?S), in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total catch (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not reported in a recent study of the bycatch of this fishery (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and a lack of historical information prevents a comparison of temporal trends. <br/> <br/>The disappearance of this species from beach-seine catches in southern Brazil 2002 to 2003, where it was previously captured, and the decline of 99% in abundance since 1982 observed in those coastal waters warrant an assessment of Critically Endangered. Fishing pressure is intense throughout its range and it is likely that similar declines have occurred in areas where data are lacking. <br/> <br/><strong>USA</strong> <br/>This species is rarely taken as bycatch and is not commercially targeted in U.S. waters. Data sets from the coastal bottom longline shark fishery, the drift gillnet fishery, and fishery independent sampling (longline) by Virginia Institute of Marine Biology (VIMS) all show very low catch rates and no population trends are evident (Burgess <em>et al. </em>unpublished data, Carlson pers. comm., Musick <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). The occurrence of <em>G. altavela</em> appears to be habitat dependent, with all of the VIMS specimens caught at one station. This may explain its low abundance. It has a relatively wide occurrence on the US eastern seaboard and is only a minimal capture in fisheries in this region. <br/> <br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong> <br/>Historically this species was not uncommon in the catch of demersal fisheries (trawl and set nets) throughout the Mediterranean and the southern shores in particular. In the 1980s it was quite frequently captured in the Sicilian Channel and landed in Mazzara del Vallo (Trapani, Sicily), but now it is absent from the local catch record (M. Vacchi pers. comm). There are no records of <em>G. altavela</em> from the whole of the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS), i.e., since 1994, indicating that it is perhaps absent from most of its former range in the Mediterranean. Occasional specimens turn up serendipitously in the catch of demersal fisheries, for example one adult male was captured in recent years near Anzio, Italy, now deposited in the collection of the University of Naples (Psomadakis <em>et al.</em> 2005) and one specimen captured in the Southern Adriatic in 2000 (Dul?i? <em>et al.</em> 2003) thus testifying that the species is not extirpated from the region. However, its occurrence today is so rare that it must have massively declined in the past 20 years. <br/> <br/>Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in terms of technology in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), but more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croation, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). Coastal development, pollution and anthropogenic disturbance through tourism activities are also a threat to its shallow coastal habitat in the Mediterranean. <br/> <br/><strong>West Africa</strong> <br/>Formerly common all along the west African coast, this species has suffered from fishing pressure, taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls and in artisanal fisheries. Targeted among other benthic sharks and rays, and caught in large mesh benthic gillnets targeting guitarfishes, shrimp trawls and various other benthic gear such as longlines and handlines. There is heavy fishing pressure throughout this species? inshore and shallow water habitat that is unlikely to be reduced in the coming years (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Although large individuals are still landed sometimes from Mauritania south to Guinea, artisanal fishers and other observers indicate that the abundance has dropped severely and that the median size has been dramatically reduced as most of the adults have been removed by fishing activities (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Even in the Banc d?Arguin National Park, Mauritania, where it is normally fully protected, the incidental captures consist of more than 90% juveniles and subadults while large individuals were common in the 1980s (M. Ducrocq pers. obs). Pregnant females have been observed in the landings of artisanal coastal fisheries in Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, suggesting that this species is giving birth in coastal shallow waters, where the fishing pressure is intense and is unlikely to reduce in the coming years (M. Ducrocq pers. obs).	eng
63154	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de., Navia, A.F., Mejia-Falla, P.A. & McCord, M.E., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species, and its range is entirely outside protected areas of the Colombian Pacific. Protected areas or special management areas should be developed as a priority. Bycatch levels should also be defined and monitored.	eng
63154	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de., Navia, A.F., Mejia-Falla, P.A. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Shallow coastal waters off southern Colombia from north of Valle del Cauca (5°N) to Nariño (1.8°N) (Mejía-Falla <em>et al.</em> in press). This species has a limited geographic range, with an extent of occurrence of approximately 166,000 km<sup>2</sup>. A lack of specimens means the degree of fragmentation of the population is unknown.	eng
63154	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de., Navia, A.F., Mejia-Falla, P.A. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Occurs in estuarine and coastal waters, sometimes in mangroves, at depths of 1 to 33 m.  Biology is little known.  Three well-developed embryos (two females and one male, each 4.2 to 4.8 cm) were observed in one female of (23.5 cm TL). Carvalho (2001) observed two small late-term pups (both female, >5.0 cm TL) in a female of 20.0 cm TL. Size at maturity in males has been suggested at around 14 cm TL and 18 cm TL (Carvalho 2001).	eng
63154	population	Carvalho, M.R. de., Navia, A.F., Mejia-Falla, P.A. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Very little information is available on the population dynamics of this species because it was only recently described in Colombia (Mejía-Falla <em>et al.</em> in press), and was confused with <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> or <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> until 2004.   <br/>   <br/>Direct observations indicate that it has a low abundance throughout its range when compared to other sympatric benthic elasmobranch species, such as <em>Urotrygon</em> spp., <em>Rhinobatos leucorhynchus</em>, <em>Zapteryx xyster </em>and <em>Narcine entemedor</em>.	eng
63154	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de., Navia, A.F., Mejia-Falla, P.A. & McCord, M.E., 2007	All of the below information refers to Fundación SQUALUS unpublished data, unless otherwise stated: <br/> <br/>The majority of the coastal range of this comparatively rare species has suffered intense fishing pressure for more than 20 years. <em>N. leoparda</em>?s nearshore coastal distribution coincides with what was the main area of shrimp trawling in the Colombian Pacific. The industrial shrimp trawl fishery now averages 15 days per month (18 hours per day) and has operated for 20 years at 9 to 60 m depth off the Pacific coast of Colombia. Fishing effort was extremely intense during the 1980s and 1990s, however the active fleet has decreased by up to 80% in the past five years because catches have now declined to such low levels that they no longer support the operation of the vessels. Despite this, artisanal fishing pressure remains intense.   <br/> <br/>This species was previously confused with <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> and <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> because it was only recently described and because no country specific species identification keys are available for Colombia, so keys from other nations, such as Peru and Mexico were used. However, neither of these species occurs off Colombia and therefore all records of <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> and/or <em>Discopyge tschudii</em> prior to 2004 can be assumed to refer to <em>N. leoparda</em>. There is some anecdotal evidence that the species may have decreased in abundance from the industrial fishery, however catches in this fishery have generally been very poorly reported. <br/> <br/>It is also taken by the artisanal coastal fishery, utilizing motor or manual propelled canoes and small nets. At least seven communities with 1,000 to 15,000 inhabitants rely on the artisanal fishery operating within the range of <em>N. leoparda</em>. No information is available yet concerning captures of this species in the artisanal fishery, but a monitoring programme has been initiated this year. <br/> <br/>This species has no commercial value and is usually discarded, although the mortality of discards is unknown.	eng
63155	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2007	Surveys of abundance and distribution are required, as are details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence. Bycatch levels in these fisheries need to be defined and monitored.	eng
63155	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2007	Limited distribution, recorded from northern South America in the west central Atlantic, from Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
63155	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2007	Found at depths of 37 to 174 m along the continental shelf. Maximum known size is 51 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) and males mature by at least 50 cm TL. Disc width has been estimated at 70% of total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Oviparous like other skates, but nothing else known of its biology or ecology.	eng
63155	population	Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63155	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2007	Trawling began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). The main trawling fleet predominantly operates on the continental shelf surrounding the Isla de Margarita and north of the Estado Sucre (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with between 250 to 650 Horse Power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500 to 97,500hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus spp.</em>) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/> <br/>Intensive trawling also occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 and the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Shing 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200-500% (Medoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/> <br/>Trawl fisheries are also known to operate off Guyana and Suriname, however details on the current effort and depths fished are not available at the present time.   <br/> <br/>Although there no specific data are available, this species is most probably taken as bycatch in these trawl fisheries, operating throughout much of its range. Given the relatively limited distribution of the species, and trawl fisheries operating throughout its range it is suspected current fishing pressure is unsustainable for <em>R. cervigoni</em>.	eng
63156	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Surveys of abundance and distribution are urgently required, as are further details on fisheries operating within the species' area of occurrence. This assessment will need to be revisited once further data are available, and this may show the species qualifying for a threatened category.	eng
63156	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Restricted range off western Venezuela in the Western Central Atlantic (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
63156	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	An inshore coastal species reaching 29 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Nothing else known concerning its biology and ecology.	eng
63156	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Reportedly not common (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
63156	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency in Venezuela; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with between 250 to 650 Horse Power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500 to 97,500 hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al. </em>2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/> <br/>Overall temporal trends in reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200 to 500% (Medoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The species is of great concern given its restricted known range and its occurrence in shallow inshore waters, where coastal artisanal fishing pressure is intense.	eng
63157	conservation	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2007	Research to resolve taxonomic issues and determine distribution, population size and life history is required. Monitoring of artisanal fisheries in which the species is taken as bycatch is also required.	eng
63157	distribution	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2007	Confusion concerning the geographic range of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> stems from the species being previously considered as a wide-ranging Western Atlantic species from North Carolina, USA to Argentina. Taxonomic revision (Carvalho 1999) has defined <em>N. bancroftii</em> as occurring from North Carolina south to northern Brazil and <em>N. brasiliensis</em> from Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. In spite of this, Gomes and Carvalho (2003) still cite <em>N. brasiliensis</em> as occurring from North Carolina to Argentina. At present, there remains some uncertainty as to the exact range of the two species in Brazil, particularly off northeastern Brazil (M. Carvalho pers. comm). References to <em>Narcine</em> from the northern states of Amapa, Pará and Maranhão are <em>N. bancroftii</em>, while references from Bahia, São Paulo, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul are <em>N. brasiliensis</em>. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> is also known from Paraíba and Pernambuco states (R. Rosa pers. obs.), however, it is uncertain to which species records from other parts of northeastern Brazil (including Ceará State) belong, but may represent records of <em>N. brasiliensis</em> (M. Carvalho pers. comm).	eng
63157	habitat	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2007	Little information available as previously reported data are for <em>Narcine bancroftii</em> (where reported from the Western Central Atlantic and from northern Brazil). A shallow water coastal species, benthic on soft substrates usually at depths less than 40 m. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous but nothing else is known of the biology.	eng
63157	population	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2007	Apparently uncommon in Argentina, the southern extent of its range (A. Massa pers. comm.).	eng
63157	threats	Rosa, R.S. & Furtado, M., 2007	Electric rays are sluggish swimmers, with small home ranges, highly localized within an area and concentrating in surf zones adjacent to barrier beaches and on offshore sand bars in warm months and moving offshore in winter (Rudloe 1989), making them susceptible to localized population depletion. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> is captured as bycatch in coastal trawl and beach seine fisheries. No quantitative data are available on the capture of this species in Brazil and it does not appear to be utilised for food and is discarded, but survivorship rates are unknown. Captures of <em>Narcine</em> spp. in artisanal beach seines appear to have declined during the past decade in Paraíba, northeastern Brazil (R. Rosa pers. obs.), however it is uncertain whether these are <em>N. brasiliensis</em> or <em>N. bancroftii</em>.   <br/> <br/>Skate and ray landings in the artisanal fishery of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined since the early 1950s (Vooren <em>et al. </em>2005). This species is still recorded in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil and a scientific trawl survey at 7 to 20 m depth between Torres and Chuí in February 2005 recorded <em>N. brasiliensis</em> at a CPUE of 6.48 number/hour (juveniles and adults) (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005), although the proportion of juveniles and adults is unknown. Further information is required on temporal variations in abundance (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/> <br/>Coastal fishing pressure is also known to be intense in Argentina. Batoids are an important resource in most demersal trawl fisheries in Argentina (Tamini <em>et al. </em>2006). A coastal multispecies demersal trawl fishery operates at Quequén, in which bycatch of batoids fluctuates seasonally between 44.5% and 67.5% of total capture (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not reported in a recent study of the bycatch of this fishery (Tamini <em>et al.</em> 2006), and a lack of historical information prevents a comparison of temporal trends. No information is available on the population of this species in Argentina, where it is uncommon (A. Massa pers. comm). Declines of 98% (95% Confidence Intervals 0.5 to 5%) since 1972 have been observed for <em>Narcine bancroftii</em> in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Shepherd and Myers 2005), as well as similar rates of decline in US coastal waters, between Florida and North Carolina. <em>Narcine brasiliensis</em> has a more limited distribution than <em>N. bancroftii</em>, however there is no data to make an accurate assessment of its status at this time. <br/> <br/>Pollution and human disturbance in the coastal zone may also be detrimental to <em>N. brasiliensis'</em> habitat, although no specific information is available.	eng
63158	conservation	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Surveys need to better document the distribution and abundance of the species. Any catches (including as bycatch) of the species in local fisheries, particularly shrimp trawl fisheries, need to be examined.  <br/> <br/>The species' occurrence in the Gorgona National Natural Park, Colombia, should afford it some protection.	eng
63158	distribution	Kyne, P.M., 2007	<strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific</strong>: Due to the lack of specimens, distribution is not well defined, but it has been recorded from northwestern Costa Rica (R. Robertson pers. comm.), Panama (Golfo de Chiriquí) (R. Robertson pers. comm., Béarez 2000), Colombia (type locality - Isla de Gorgona) (Acero and Franke 1995), Ecuador (Santa Rosa and Puerto Lopez) (Jimenez-Prado and Béarez 2004, P. Béarez pers. comm.), and northern Peru (Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes) (Béarez 2000).	eng
63158	habitat	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Holotype was collected from the Eastern Pacific continental shelf at a depth of 70 m (Acero and Franke 1995). No depth or habitat information provided by Béarez (2000) for the Peruvian specimen. Holotype an adult male of 81 cm TL, Peruvian specimen an adult male of 71 cm TL and Ecuadorian specimen a male of 60 cm TL. No information available on the biology or ecology of the species.	eng
63158	population	Kyne, P.M., 2007	Apparently not common (R. Robertson pers. comm).	eng
63158	threats	Kyne, P.M., 2007	No information is available on any catches (including bycatch) in local fisheries. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Panama, and throughout its range (R. Robertson pers. comm).	eng
63159	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	None in place. Like other poorly known deepwater chondrichthyans, further information is required on distribution, habitat and biology.	eng
63159	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Southeast Pacific: Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
63159	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Bathydemersal deepwater species of the continental slope and submarine ridges at depths of 630 to 1,100 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reaches at least 61 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous like other etmopterids. Size at birth is reported as <17 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but no other details are available concerning the ecology or biology of the species.	eng
63159	population	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
63159	threats	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Etmopterids are generally of no interest to fisheries due to their small size, and are usually discarded when caught. Chilean orange roughy fisheries probably operate in the species? area of occurrence, although at present fisheries are operating mostly outside the depth range of this shark. Given the species' very narrow known distribution, bycatch in any fisheries may be of concern, particularly if their operations increased into its depth range.	eng
63160	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	None in place. Like other poorly known deepwater chondrichthyans, further information is required on distribution, habitat and biology. Any bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries needs to be monitored.	eng
63160	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Southeast Pacific: Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
63160	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Bathydemersal deepwater species of the continental slope and submarine ridges at depths of 330 to 763 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reaches at least 45 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and is presumably aplacental yolksac viviparous like other etmopterids, but no other details are available concerning the ecology or biology of the species.	eng
63160	population	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Restricted known distribution in the Southeast Pacific on the Nazca and Sala y Gomez Submarine Ridges off Peru and Chile (Kotlyar 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Population size is unknown.	eng
63160	threats	Kyne, P.M. & McCormack, C., 2007	Etmopterids are generally of no interest to fisheries due to their small size, and are usually discarded when caught. There is no specific information available on bycatch of <em>E. pycnolepis</em>, but it is likely to be an incidental capture of Chilean orange roughy trawl fisheries. Given the species' very narrow known distribution and apparently limited depth range, bycatch levels need to be defined.	eng
63161	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Research required into the biology and ecology of the species. Further information on fisheries operating within this species? range is required to make a full assessment of its status.	eng
63161	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	A deepwater skate occurring in the Western Central and Southwest Atlantic from Nicaragua to northern Brazil (Hulley 1972, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
63161	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Occurs on the continental slope at depths of 247 to 960 m. Maximum known size 49 cm TL, males mature at 42 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Nothing else known of the species? biology, but like other skates it is oviparous.	eng
63161	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63161	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	While intense trawl fisheries are reported to operate on the continental shelf off the northern coasts of South America (for example, Venezuelan commercial trawl fleet of ~400 vessels in 2003; Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003), there is little information available on slope fisheries in the region. At present it is uncertain if this skate is being taken as bycatch in any deeper water trawl fisheries operating on the slope off northern South America.	eng
63162	conservation	McCormack, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the Galapagos Marine Reserve which includes protected areas. However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking. <br/> <br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles (Long and McCosker 1999) as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling). Further sampling would help to better define the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given the isolation of the Galapagos Islands, is likely endemic to the Archipelago.	eng
63162	distribution	McCormack, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Likely endemic to the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific where it has been documented from two sites as per the original species description (Long and McCosker 1999): off Cabo Rosa (01°04.74?S, 91°11.08?W), Isla Isabella and off James Bay (00°26.46?S, 90°19.04?W), Isla San Salvador, Santiago Island.	eng
63162	habitat	McCormack, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Recorded from steep slopes around the Galapagos Islands at depths of 757 and 907 m (Long and McCosker 1999). The holotype and largest known specimen was an immature male measuring 38.5 cm TL (Long and McCosker 1999). Like other skates is oviparous but nothing else is known of the species? biology.	eng
63162	population	McCormack, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Known only from two records as per the original species description (Long and McCosker 1999).	eng
63162	threats	McCormack, C. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Fishing activities around the Galapagos Archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. The habitat of this species (steep rocky volcanic slopes) is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.	eng
63163	conservation	Chiaramonte, G., Domingo, A. & Soto, J., 2007	Further studies of the biology and reproduction of this species in the Southwest Atlantic are needed. This species has been listed as a species threatened with over-exploitation on Annex II of the Brazilian federal law of Threatened and Overexploited Aquatic Species since 2004 (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Also the prohibition of trawl fishing within three nautical miles from the coast of southern Brazil is now being enforced satisfactorily. However, the species is still caught as bycatch in the legally permitted coastal gillnet fisheries and offshore trawl and gillnet fisheries. It is recommended that the species is protected throughout its inshore range along the Southwest Atlantic coast of South America, particularly in areas of critical habitat and areas where the adult population still exists. A management plan is being considered for development for this species in the Bahía San Blas Reserve (Anegada Bay, Argentina).	eng
63163	distribution	Chiaramonte, G., Domingo, A. & Soto, J., 2007	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> has a broad but disjunct distribution in littoral and sub-littoral waters, primarily in subtropical to warm temperate regions around the main continental landmasses, except in the eastern and central Pacific (Compagno 1984, 2001; Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is not known from deepwater, unlike <em>Odontaspis ferox</em>.  <br/> <br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic subpopulation</strong>: in the Southwest Atlantic <em>C. taurus</em> ranges from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (21°S) to San Matías Gulf, Argentina (41°30’S) (Menni 1986, Soto 2001).	eng
63163	habitat	Chiaramonte, G., Domingo, A. & Soto, J., 2007	<em>Carcharias taurus</em> generally occurs in warm-temperate and subtropical waters, ranging from the surf zone and shallow bays to approximately 200 m depth on the outer continental shelf. The species is most usually found on or near the bottom in reef areas but may occasionally occur in midwater or at the surface (Compagno 1984). Embryonic oviphagy and intra-uterine cannibalism occurs in this species and only two large pups are produced per litter every second year (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983, Goldman 2002, Goldman <em>et al</em>. in press). As a result, annual rates of population increase are very low, greatly reducing its ability to sustain fishing pressure. Size at birth is about 95 to 105 cm TL (Gilmore <em>et al</em>. 1983). <br/> <br/>Maximum size attained is 300 to 320 cm TL (females) and 220 to 270 cm TL (males) (Compagno 2001). Age and size at maturity varies regionally. Age at maturity is reported at 7.7 years (females) and 4.5 years (males) in the Southwest Atlantic by Lucifora (2003). Lucifora (2003) reports size at maturity in the Southwest Atlantic as 218 to 235 cm TL (females) and 193 cm TL (males). Longevity is estimated at 18.3 years in females and 12.8 years in males in the Southwest Atlantic (Lucifora 2003). <br/> <br/>Average reproductive age is 17.1 yrs from demographic analysis (Goldman 2002). Natural mortality is M<sub>Hoenig</sub> = 0.205, M<sub>Jensen</sub> = 0.211 and M<sub>Pauly</sub> = 0.198 from analyses from the Southwest Atlantic (Lucifora 2003).	eng
63163	population	Chiaramonte, G., Domingo, A. & Soto, J., 2007	Morphometric and meristic analysis indicate that the Southwest Atlantic subpopulation is a probable “closed group” with common characteristics, but not a distinct species (Sadowsky 1970, Compagno 2001). Although there is no information on the population size of <em>C. taurus</em> in the Southwest Atlantic, past and present fishing pressures have led to significant declines in catches (see Threats section below).	eng
63163	threats	Chiaramonte, G., Domingo, A. & Soto, J., 2007	Because this species typically inhabits shallow inshore areas it is rarely, if ever caught by large-scale industrial fisheries operating on the high seas. However, its nearshore distribution makes it susceptible to small-scale multi-species and artisanal fisheries as well as recreational fisherman, spearfishers and shark control programs. As a bycatch in other fisheries it is often reported as unidentified shark or not reported at all and as such the extent of the impact that these fisheries have had on <em>C. taurus</em> is unknown for most of its geographic range. Consequently this species could be at a high risk of unrecognized depletion in many countries. <br/> <br/>The sand tiger is not subjected to directed fishing in South America, but nevertheless does have commercial value (including the jaws) as a non target catch in benthic trawling and gillnet fisheries and is harvested throughout its regional range by commercial, artisanal and recreational (mainly in Argentina) fishing (Chiaramonte 1998, Nion 1999, Lucifora<em> et al.</em> 2002). Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic and coastal fishing pressure is intense in this region (Bonfil <em>et. al. </em>2005). The exposure of its coastal habitat to fisheries and its vulnerable life-history characteristics provide little capacity for recovery. <br/> <br/>Captures of <em>C. taurus</em> from Central-North Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil have declined dramatically throughout the 1980s and 1990s from a CPUE of 11.7 to 0.3 sharks per 1000 meters of net (Soto 2001) (a decline of approximately 97%). In Rio Grande do Sul <em>C. taurus</em> were fished with gillnets during the 1980s, at which time the species was considered abundant and could be captured in aggregations (Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). However there are no records of the species from monitoring of the shore based fishery during the summer of 2003, and the species occurred in only 3 of 43 fishing trips (11 individuals captured in total) by the Passo de Torres gillnet fishery monitored during November-March 2005 (Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Vooren <em>et al</em>. (2005) note that this species is now considered rare in this area and that the scarcity of recent records of neonates is of great concern. Adult <em>C. taurus</em> can still be found inshore along the coast between Tramandaí and Saint Simão (30 to 31°S) (Vooren <em>et al</em>. 2005). Although no information exists on the population size of <em>C. taurus</em>, fishing pressure is intense and continuing within its coastal habitat off southern Brazil. Large aggregations of <em>C. taurus</em> were also systematically wiped out in Santa Catarina state, Brazil, by spear fishermen in the 1970s and 1980s. <br/> <br/>In Uruguay, this species has been taken for over 50 years by the artisanal fleet. Captures increased in the late 1970s, mainly in summer, reaching a peak in the mid 1980s. Thereafter there was a continued decline, with catches decreasing from 784 kg per fishing day in 1985 to 32 kg per fishing day in 2001 (A. Domingo pers. obs). Only occasional captures are recorded from 2000 to the present. There are also occasional captures in the trawl net and longline fisheries. <br/> <br/>Lucifora (2003) estimated that 889 sharks (CI 95%=625 to 1,140) were captured by anglers during three consecutive summers (1999-2001) in Anegada Bay, Argentina. Out of 175 sharks observed, 153 suffered serious injuries of the internal organs caused by hooks. Crespo and Corcuera (1990) report extensive damage to shark catches in gillnets by marine mammals (sea lions bite out the belly of entangled sharks and eat the liver).	eng
63164	conservation	Kyne, P.M., Valenti, S.V. & Barnett, L.A.K., 2007	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galapagos Marine Reserve which prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisinal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking. <br/> <br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further sampling would assist in better defining the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given its shallow depth range (for a <em>Hydrolagus</em>) and the isolation of the Galapagos Islands, is likely endemic to the Archipelago (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
63164	distribution	Kyne, P.M., Valenti, S.V. & Barnett, L.A.K., 2007	Likely endemic to the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific where it has been documented from four sites as per the original species description (Barnett<em> et al.</em> 2006): Cabo Douglas, Fernandina Island (01°17.53'S, 91°38.85W), Isla Española (01°18.53'S, 89°45.40'W), Marchena Island (00°24.00'N, 90°26.50'W) and San Cristóbal Island (01°5.98'S, 89°12.24'W).	eng
63164	habitat	Kyne, P.M., Valenti, S.V. & Barnett, L.A.K., 2007	Observed within a few meters of the seafloor on steep slopes around the Galapagos Islands at depths of 396 to 506 m, "within a few meters of the seafloor" (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006). Barnett <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported habitat as igneous boulders, cobbles and pebbles. Largest of the type specimens was an immature female of 38.1 cm TL, 27.4 cm PCL and 21.1 cm body length (BDL) (Barnett <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
63164	population	Kyne, P.M., Valenti, S.V. & Barnett, L.A.K., 2007	Known only from nine records as per the original species description (Barnett <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
63164	threats	Kyne, P.M., Valenti, S.V. & Barnett, L.A.K., 2007	Fishing activities around the Galapagos Archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. rocky substrate inhabited by this species is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.	eng
63165	conservation	McAuley, R., 2003	The only known source of exploitation of <em>Mustelus</em> sp. A. is the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery. This is a limited entry fishery, where fishing effort is regulated by the use of unitized time-gear access.   <br/> <br/>Shark fishing was prohibited north of Steep Point (26º 30’S) in 1993. This is thought to offer a significant refuge for this species.	eng
63165	distribution	McAuley, R., 2003	Distribution known to be wider than previously reported (McAuley, unpublished data). Catches have been verified from Perth in Western Australia. The Townsville (Queensland) occurrence is questionable. Known to occur between 100 m and 300 m depth.	eng
63165	habitat	McAuley, R., 2003	Very little information about the life history characteristics of this species is available in the published literature. Unpublished research data show that females mature at 83 cm (FL) and grow to at least 101 cm (FL). These data indicate that this is likely to be a fairly productive species, with litter sizes of between 6 and 24 (mean=18).	eng
63165	threats	McAuley, R., 2003	Minor component of the bycatch in the Western Australian West Coast Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery (McAuley, unpublished data). Not targeted in Western Australia. This species has not been recorded from the Pilbara Fish Trawl (PFT) fishery despite extensive sampling (Stephenson, and Chidlow, draft report). An irregular bycatch species in the QLD East Coast Trawl Fishery (P. Kyne, pers. comm.).	eng
63166	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None currently in place. The implementation of the National Plan of Action under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks will assist in enacting measures for the conservation of this and other elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of this species is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve hard decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.	eng
63166	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Known only from Sumatra to at least Lombok in eastern Indonesia.	eng
63166	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	Caught in water depths of typically <60 m, on relatively soft sandy substratum (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Females attain a larger maximum size (93 cm TL) than males (84 cm TL) and males mature at about 71 cm TL compared to 74 to 76 cm TL for females. The litter size of a number of pregnant females ranged from 4 to 13 with the largest embryos 22 cm TL (W White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Age compositions, growth rates and diet not known. <br/> <br/>Age at maturity unknown. Size at maturity 74 to 76 cm total length (TL) (females), 71 cm TL (males) (White, unpubl. data). Longevity unknown. Maximum size 93 cm TL (female), 84 cm TL (male) (White, unpubl. data). Largest <em>in utero</em> embryos 22 cm TL with no external yolk sac (White, unpubl. data). Average reproductive age unknown. Gestation time unknown. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Average annual fecundity or litter size:  4 to 13 embryos per litter (White, unpubl. data). Annual rate of population increase unknown. Natural mortality unknown.	eng
63166	population	White, W.T., 2006	Largest quantities taken in southern Bali.	eng
63166	threats	White, W.T., 2006	This species is a common component of the small-scale demersal gillnet fishery for batoids operating out of Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali and also caught in low but regular numbers off Sumatra, Java and Lombok. Approximately 60% of the catches of this species consist of immature individuals, thus a large number of rays that have not had prior opportunity to reproduce are being landed on a regular basis at the landing site of Kedonganan in Jimbaran Bay (Bali) (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Although there are little or no trawling close inshore around Bali and Lombok, trawlers do operate in other parts of its range. The low numbers of this species observed in Java may be a result of overfishing from fishing methods such as trawling in the past, but without past baseline data on species and catch compositions of elasmobranchs in this region this cannot be confirmed. <br/> <br/>The limited extent of occurrence of this species, particularly in the context of the fact that this region has a very high level of exploitation of marine resources (which is only likely to increase), is a major concern for this species and future monitoring is extremely important. Destructive fishing practices and pollution are also significant factors affecting marine resources in the region.	eng
63167	conservation	White, W.T., 2006	None currently in place. The implementation of the <em>National Plan of Action</em> under the <em>FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks</em> will assist in enacting measures for the conservation of this and other elasmobranchs in Indonesia. <br/> <br/>Further research into the population structure, biology and ecology of this species is required to assess the extent to which fishing pressure, and habitat destruction is influencing this species within its range. Improved species composition data from all fisheries that take shovelnose rays and guitarfish is necessary. <br/> <br/>Future management may involve hard decisions affecting communities adjacent to these areas.	eng
63167	distribution	White, W.T., 2006	Known only from off Bali and Lombok in eastern Indonesia. Restricted extent of occurrence of <20,000 km². May occur further east into Nusa Tenggara and possibly west into Java with additional sampling.	eng
63167	habitat	White, W.T., 2006	Demersal on the upper continental shelf, <60 m depth on relatively sandy substratum (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Females attain a larger maximum size (93 cm TL) than males (82 cm TL) and males mature at about 70 cm TL. The litter size of four pregnant females ranged from 6 to 11 with the largest embryos 12.5 cm TL (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>Age compositions, growth rates and diets not known. Age at maturity unknown. Size at maturity ~70 cm total length (TL) (male). Longevity unknown. Maximum size 82 cm TL (males), 93 cm TL (female) (White, unpubl. data). Size at birth unknown. Average reproductive age unknown. Gestation time unknown. Reproductive periodicity unknown. Average annual fecundity or litter size:  four pregnant females had 6 to 11 embryos (White, unpubl. data). Annual rate of population increase unknown. Natural mortality unknown.	eng
63167	population	White, W.T., 2006	Common in gillnet catches off Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali. Only several observed in eastern Lombok (White, unpubl. data) and unknown elsewhere.	eng
63167	threats	White, W.T., 2006	This species is a common component of the small-scale demersal gillnet fishery for batoids operating out of Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali. Approximately 50% of the catches of this species consist of immature individuals, thus a large number of rays that have not had prior opportunity to reproduce are being landed on a regular basis at the landing site of Kedonganan in Jimbaran Bay (Bali) (White, unpubl. data). <br/> <br/>There is little or no trawling close inshore around Bali and Lombok, thus pressure from this fishing practice is not a factor for this species. However, since the actual extent of occurrence of this species is not fully understood, it may be under more severe fishing pressure in other areas with more heavily fished waters, e.g., east Java. <br/> <br/>The seemingly small geographic range of this species is of concern, particularly in the context of the fact that this region has a very high level of exploitation of marine resources. Destructive fishing practices and pollution are also significant factors affecting marine resources in the region.	eng
63168	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2008	Removal of invasive alien trees is benefiting this species. Avoidance of trout restocking also appears to benefit the species. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63168	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2008	This species is endemic to South Africa and confined to the Cape Fold mountains (Western Cape).	eng
63168	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2008	Clear mountain streams with deposition pools. High, rocky, montane streams partially fringed with trees (Samways 2006).	eng
63168	population	Samways, M.J., 2008	Population size is unknown, but the population is apparently stable at present.	eng
63168	threats	Samways, M.J., 2008	Probably the synergistic effects of invasive alien trees, agricultural activity around streams, and introduced trout  are threat to the species (Samways 2006).	eng
63169	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63169	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on population status, range, habitat and threats.	eng
63169	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on population status, range, habitat and threats.	eng
63169	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region. It has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. Known from nine collections from nine localities, five of these occurring within the region (upper Zambesi catchment).	eng
63169	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has a wide range within and outside the central Africa region.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia, but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola as well. It has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. The species is known from nine collections from nine localities, four of these occurring in the Congo catchment.	eng
63169	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Angola.<br/><br/>It has a wide range both within and outside the central Africa assessment region. It is present in Zambia but might occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species has a localised distribution (Pinhey 1984a). It is a conspicuous species and should have been recorded more than it has been so far. It is known from nine collections from nine localities, five of these occurring within the region (Upper Zambezi catchment).	eng
63169	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	At streams and pools, and in woodland on sandy loam (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63169	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	At streams and pools, and in woodland on sandy loam (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63169	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	At streams and pools, and in woodland on sandy loam (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63169	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63169	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63169	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63169	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
63169	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
63169	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
63170	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
63170	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The species is known only from the type specimen, collected in 1965 from Teixeira da Sousa (locality is uncertain) in the upper Congo catchment, eastern Angola. Endemic to central African region of Angola.	eng
63170	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Small streams and rivers, based on the biology of the genus.	eng
63170	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
63170	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No information available.	eng
63171	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
63171	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region, being present in South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
63171	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Clear montane streams with long grass and bushes on the banks (Samways 1999).	eng
63171	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
63171	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the species at present.	eng
63172	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
63172	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population size, habitats and threats.	eng
63172	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63172	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from the upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia. According to current collection data the entire range falls within the southern Africa region, but all collections are all from the border between Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo and it is inferred that the species also occurs there (outside the region). Therefore not recorded as endemic to southern Africa here. Its global range is Zambia and is also noted for the Shaba province, Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a), but the collection in Shaba is not confirmed.	eng
63172	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia and Katanga province, southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from two locations in Katanga Province in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63172	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia and is also noted for the Shaba province, Democratic Republic of Congo (Pinhey 1984a), but the collection in Shaba is not confirmed. There four new records from southwest Angola (near to Tundavala; Tarboton pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from north west Zambia, Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo, along both sides of the north west Zambia-Democratic Republic of Congo border.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the upper Zambezi catchment, north-west Zambia. According to current collection data the entire range falls within the southern Africa region, but all collections are all from the border between Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo and it is inferred that the species also occurs there (outside the region). Therefore not recorded as endemic to southern Africa here.	eng
63172	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63172	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63172	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Reedy streams (Pinhey 1984a); open swampy grasslands (Tarberton, pers. comm.).	eng
63172	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
63172	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
63172	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
63172	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
63172	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown.	eng
63172	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
63173	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. Currently there are no specific or envisaged conservation measures in place (Samways 2006).	eng
63173	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species has only been recorded from a few pans in Ndumo Game reserve, northern Zululand, South Africa (Samways 2006). It is highly likely to occur across the border in Mozambique; its occurrence there has still to be confirmed.	eng
63173	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Pools and pans with an abundance of grasses, reeds and lilies, and with fringing thick bush (Samways 2006).	eng
63173	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	At its only known sites, the species occurs in small numbers (Samways 2006).	eng
63173	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	Current threats to the species are natural threats, especially drought. Future threats may include agricultural disturbance (Samways 2006).	eng
63174	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63174	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63174	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
63174	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin) and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63174	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola. Also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, its range does not extend far outside the region.	eng
63174	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is known from northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu area, Congo Basin), Okavango and Kwando Rivers in Botswana and Namibia, and is likely to also occur in western Zambia and Angola. It is not endemic to the southern Africa region as defined for the freshwater species assessment (by basin areas), but its range does not extend far outside the region.	eng
63174	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy rivers with reeds.	eng
63174	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy rivers with reeds.	eng
63174	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy rivers with reeds.	eng
63174	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63174	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63174	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63174	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63174	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63174	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63175	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Continued searches for the species are essential.	eng
63175	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This is a South African endemic species known only from a few specimens from two localities in eastern South Africa. Only one female of the species has been rediscovered since 1968, collected from near its type locality (Badplaas, Mpumalanga) in 2002 (Samways 2006).	eng
63175	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Meandering open rivers and streams, with abundant marginal vegetation.	eng
63175	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Current population size is unknown (it is known from only a few specimens), but the population may be declining. It appears to have a very localised distribution, with subpopulations probably awaiting discovery (Samways 2006).	eng
63175	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	It is not clear why this species is so rare. It may be that alien trout species have played a role in this. It has not been rediscovered at the "Drakensberg" locality  since its collection there in 1948 and only one specimen (a female) was found at the type locality in 2002. It is possible that livestock farming, damming of streams, invasive alien trees, and trout together may impact on this species, potentially aggravating its susceptibility to drought and flood (Samways 2006).<br/>    <p> &#160;    </p>	eng
63176	conservation	Suhling, F., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
63176	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the Orange River Basin in South Africa, and most probably also Namibia (but it has not yet been recorded there).	eng
63176	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	Found at perennial rivers.	eng
63176	population	Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63176	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63177	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place at present. Taxonomic work and surveys to identify the extent of the species' range is needed also research into population numbers and range, threats, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
63177	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It has only been encountered along the middle Kavango River on Namibian territory so far, but surely exists also in Angola because the Kavango River is the border between the two countries (Suhling <em>et al</em>. submitted).	eng
63177	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Large river species. Found mainly at sections with reedy or open banks.	eng
63177	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Very abundant along the river. May have benefited from forest degradation along the banks of the Kavango River.	eng
63177	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	No major threats to the species are currently known.	eng
63178	conservation	Suhling, F., 2008	In South Africa, further searches for populations are required. Elsewhere in the species' range, no conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present. Taxonomic research is certainly needed as well as research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63178	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. Subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> has only been recorded from northern Natal, but it is likely to also occur in Mozambique. Subspecies <em>albifrons</em> occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle in Botswana and Namibia.	eng
63178	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	Found in swamps.	eng
63178	population	Suhling, F., 2008	Current population size or trends are not known.	eng
63178	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	Current threats are unknown. The subspecies <em>albifrons</em> seems to not be threatened at present, however the status of subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> is uncertain and the taxon may be threatened due to habitat loss as a result of urbanisation and drought.	eng
63179	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
63179	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa.	eng
63179	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	At well vegetated and shaded streams with pristine or near pristine banks (Samways 1999).	eng
63179	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
63179	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be seriously affecting the population at present.	eng
63180	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
63180	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This is a widespread South Africa endemic species.	eng
63180	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Found in riverine pools and sluggish reaches of rivers.	eng
63180	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
63180	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Currently there are no known threats to the species.	eng
63181	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not known from any protected areas. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.	eng
63181	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Not known from any protected areas. More research is urgently required to determine the taxonomy, range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.	eng
63181	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the upper Zambezi catchment (three records) in eastern Angola and northwest Zambia. Listed from Tsuda for Democratic Republic of Congo. More data are required to confirm whether this is more widespread than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Zambia, and an unconfirmed record for Democratic Republic of Congo by Tsuda. It may be endemic to this region.	eng
63181	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is only known from the upper Zambezi catchment (three records) in eastern Angola and north-west Zambia. More data are required to confirm whether this is more widespread than currently known. Presence in Democratic Republic of Congo is unlikely and requires confirmation.	eng
63181	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy forest or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984). No other information on specific habitat is known.	eng
63181	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy forest or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984). No other information on specific habitat is known.	eng
63181	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63181	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63181	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63181	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63182	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63182	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This is an South African endemic species, restricted to Kwazulu-Natal, eastern Cape and the Limpopo province.	eng
63182	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Pools and marshes with abundant reeds.	eng
63182	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63182	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63183	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
63183	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Not needed although research into population trends would be valuable.	eng
63183	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo only.	eng
63183	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Democratic Republic of Congo record needs confirmation.	eng
63183	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Edge of large pools and meandering streams. In Namibia mainly at large reservoirs. Benefits from the constructions of dams inoperennial rivers.	eng
63183	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Edge of large pools and meandering streams. In Namibia mainly at large reservoirs. Benefits from the constructions of dams in perennial rivers.	eng
63183	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
63183	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown.	eng
63183	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No known threats.	eng
63183	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No threats known.	eng
63184	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
63184	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to South African montane areas.	eng
63184	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Found in well vegetated, small, clear highland streams.	eng
63184	population	Suhling, F., 2007	This is a locally common species.	eng
63184	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available.	eng
63185	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No precise information is available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
63185	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the South African Cape.	eng
63185	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Well-vegetated stream, river and pool margins at low altitude.	eng
63185	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
63185	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63186	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on population size, range, threats, and habitat status.	eng
63186	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on population size, range, threats, and habitat status.	eng
63186	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
63186	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, it is recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, north-east Angola (Congo Basin), north west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Angola, and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from only one record from north-west Zambia, upper Zambezi catchment. However, most records are from outside the region.	eng
63186	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from only one record from northwest Zambia, upper Zambezi catchment. However, most records are from outside the region. Globally, it is recorded from northeast Angola (Congo Basin), northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin). It is also likely to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63186	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from northeast Angola (Congo Basin), northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and north Zambia (Congo Basin) and southern Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and likely to be present within northern Angola.	eng
63186	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps near streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63186	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps near streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63186	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps near streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63186	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63186	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63186	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63186	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are not known.	eng
63186	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63186	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63187	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Known from Popa Falls Reserve, and probably also Victoria Falls National Park. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
63187	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. Occurs at large rivers in the Zambezi and Okavango River Basins in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Known from 15 records in ten localities, most occurring close to each other.	eng
63187	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Rivers with gallery forest. Adults seen among shrubs and trees (F. Suhling and J. Kipping, pers. comm.)	eng
63187	population	Suhling, F., 2007	There are only few records of this species so far. It may be rare, but also may be overlooked.	eng
63187	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	The species may be affected by rainforest degradation, but more information is needed to confirm the effects of this threat on the population.	eng
63188	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
63188	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
63188	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> This species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kambowe) and northern Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Angola but more data are needed to confirm this.	eng
63188	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. May also occur in Angola but this needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kambowe) and northern Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in<br/>Angola but more data are needed to confirm this.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it is known only from north-west Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). It may also occur in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo but more data are needed to confirm this. The extent of occurrence is well below 20,000 km².	eng
63188	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
63188	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
63188	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63188	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63188	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
63188	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63189	conservation	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
63189	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63189	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
63189	distribution	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is known from the upper Zambezi River Basin (northwest Zambia and eastern Angola) and the Okavango Delta (Botswana). It occurs both within and outside the region. Globally, it is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola and Botswana. It may also occur in DRC, but this has to be confirmed.	eng
63189	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola (Okavango Delta) and Botswana. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Zambia, and it may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.	eng
63189	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola, Botswana. Presence in Democratic Republic of Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the species is known from northern Zambia, eastern Angola (Okavango Delta) and Botswana. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the upper Zambezi River Basin (north-west Zambia and eastern Angola) and the Okavango Delta (Botswana). Also possibly occurs in Namibia. It occurs both within and outside the region.	eng
63189	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Shaded, swampy streams or reedy channels.	eng
63189	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Shaded, swampy streams or reedy channels.	eng
63189	habitat	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Shaded, swampy streams or reedy channels.	eng
63189	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown. Although there have been intense searches, the species has not been seen in Botswana over the last 25 years.	eng
63189	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown. Although there have been intense searches, the species has not been seen in Botswana over the last 25 years.	eng
63189	population	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown. Although there have been intense searches, the species has not been seen in Botswana over the last 25 years.	eng
63189	threats	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for <em>Tetse</em> fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.	eng
63189	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Current threats are unknown. In the Okavango Delta, destruction of swampy habitats may be a problem, and spraying insecticides for tsetse fly control in Botswana may also affect the population.	eng
63189	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63190	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Known to occur within some protected areas (e.g., west Caprivi Park, Morami Game Reserve). Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63190	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Known to occur within some protected areas (e.g., west Caprivi Park, Morami Game Reserve). More research needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
63190	conservation	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Known to occur within some protected areas (e.g., west Caprivi Park, Morami Game Reserve). More research needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
63190	distribution	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	In southern Africa, it is known from the Okavango swamps and panhandle and Kwando River in Botswana and Namibia, and also northern Zambia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa. Globally, it is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo), Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia.	eng
63190	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo), southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Zambia; also reported  in northern Angola.	eng
63190	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	The species is known from the Congo Basin in Angola (Dundo; however, although this is the type locality, the actual locality is uncertain), southern Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Bangweulu Basin in Zambia, Botswana, and Namibia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Angola and northern Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species is known from the Okavango swamps and panhandle and Kwando River in Botswana and Namibia, and also northern Zambia. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known. The majority of the known range falls within southern Africa.	eng
63190	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers with swampy or reedy fringes.	eng
63190	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Rivers with swampy or reedy fringes.	eng
63190	habitat	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Rivers with swampy or reedy fringes.	eng
63190	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Locally abundant.	eng
63190	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Locally abundant.	eng
63190	population	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
63190	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current threats are unknown. Water extraction and wetland habitat loss may have some effect, but the effects on the population are not known.	eng
63190	threats	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Current threats are unknown. Water extraction and wetland habitat loss may have some effect, but the effects on the population are not known.	eng
63190	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Current threats are unknown. Water extraction and wetland habitat loss may have some effect on populations but these are not known.	eng
63191	conservation	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2008	The removal of invasive alien trees, especially <em>Acacia</em> species, is proving to be immensely beneficial and this work needs to continue (Samways 2006). Stopping further loss of natural forest is critical and further searches for the species are also required (Samways 2006). The species occurs in several reserves.	eng
63191	distribution	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2008	The species is endemic to South Africa. At present, it is known from isolated localities from Franschhoek (Western Cape) to Tsitsikamma Forest (western Cape and eastern Cape). The recent information (February 1999: Franschhoek) is encouraging and the small population there appears to have re-established as a result of removal of alien trees (Samways 2006).	eng
63191	habitat	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2008	Clear, forest streams with sunflecks and deposition zones. Indigenous bushes overhanging the water are essential to oviposition sites (Samways 2006).	eng
63191	population	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2008	Although its known area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km², the population appears to have stabilised (Samways 2006).	eng
63191	threats	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2008	Plantation forestry coupled with loss of natural forest appears, at least historically, to have been a major threat. Today, the impact of invasive alien trees shading out perching and oviposition sites appears to be the most major impact (Samways 2006).	eng
63192	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
63192	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	The species is known only from Tundavala, southwest Angola, from the type specimens, one male and one female collected in 1973. The area has never been surveyed (collection made opportunistically).	eng
63192	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	No information given. Possibly montane running waters.	eng
63192	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63192	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
63193	conservation	Suhling, F., 2008	Policy-based actions, increasing awareness and research into biology and ecology, conservation measures and trends/monitoring of the species would all be valuable. Habitat protection is also required for this species.	eng
63193	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It occurs in South Africa and Namibia (Samyways 1999, Tarboton and Tarboton 2002, Martens <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63193	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	Occurs in small mountain streams with pools. Larvae seem to live mainly in pools and in South Africa the species seems to profit from damming of small streams.	eng
63193	population	Suhling, F., 2008	The species seems to be split into three subpopulations, two in South Africa (several inhabited localities) and one small subpopulation in Namibia. It is most likely extinct at two out of the three known localities, as it has not been seen there for more than 80 years.	eng
63193	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	Habitat degradation is the major threat to the species. In Namibia, groundwater extraction was most likely the reason why two subpopulations were lost.	eng
63194	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No specific conservation measures are currently in place but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
63194	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It occurs in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.	eng
63194	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Swift montane streams and rivers with dense bank vegetation and bushes (Samways 1999).	eng
63194	population	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available.	eng
63194	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Currently, no threats to the species are known.	eng
63195	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
63195	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa. It occurs in the Highveld grasslands.	eng
63195	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Grassy verges of seeps, ponds and slow-flowing streams.	eng
63195	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63195	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available.	eng
63196	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat, and threats.	eng
63196	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	This species is known from five collections from two sites in northeastern Zambia (one of which is the type locality) and from one site in Democratic Republic of Congo. Localities are close to each other. It might occur in northern Angola as well.	eng
63196	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Remnant swamp forest or riparian bush (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63196	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63196	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63197	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63197	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
63197	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63197	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 records and eight localities (all very close together) in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur across the border in Angola. Globally, it is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa and Zambia.	eng
63197	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Globally, it is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63197	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is known from Angola (Congo Basin), Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 records and eight localities (all very close together) in the upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur across the border in Angola.	eng
63197	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams fringed by bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
63197	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams fringed by bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
63197	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams fringed by bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63197	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are not known. It seems to be locally abundant in the area where it has been recorded.	eng
63197	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are not known. It seems to be locally abundant in the area where it has been recorded.	eng
63197	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown. It seems to be locally abundant in the area where it has been recorded.	eng
63197	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown but it may be threatened by forest destruction although no data are available to confirm this.	eng
63197	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. May be threatened by forest destruction, but no data are available to confirm this.	eng
63197	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. May be threatened by forest destruction, but no data are available to confirm this.	eng
63198	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
63198	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	In central Africa, this species is endemic to northern Zambia, but occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola is assumed. It is probably just within central Africa.	eng
63198	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Streams and pools in grassland or scattered bush.	eng
63198	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63198	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
63199	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63199	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63199	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
63199	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	All records are from the upper Zambezi, north west Zambia and Angola and from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, northern Angola.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, all records are from the upper Zambezi River catchment in north-west Zambia. There are a few additional records from northern Angola (outside the region). It is expected to be more common in the Congo system.	eng
63199	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, all records are from the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. There are a few additional records from northern Angola (outside the region). It is expected to be more common in the Congo system. Globally, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola.	eng
63199	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> All records are from the upper Zambesi, north west  Zambia and Angola and from southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola; those for Zambia are outside the region, but presence within the region might be assumed.	eng
63199	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested streams or gallery forest.	eng
63199	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forested streams or gallery forest.	eng
63199	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forested streams or gallery forest.	eng
63199	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63199	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
63199	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Unknown.	eng
63199	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Major threats are unknown, but deforestation is a potential threat.	eng
63199	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
63199	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potentially deforestation.	eng
63200	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63200	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is known only from three records in two localities within the southern Africa region; the Upper Catumbela River and the upper Kunene River catchment in southern Angola. The locality of the species on which the original description is based is unknown; only given as "Angola". This species has often been confused with <em>P. hageni tropicanum</em>.	eng
63200	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Specific habitat is unknown. It is most likely to occur in streams.	eng
63200	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63200	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Threats to the species are unknown. Deforestation is inferred as a potential threat.	eng
63201	conservation	Suhling, F., 2008	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or recommended at present.	eng
63201	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	This species is endemic to South African, occurring at well-wooded or forest rivers.	eng
63201	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	Occurs at well-wooded or forested streams and rivers.	eng
63201	population	Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63201	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	No serious threats are known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
63202	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	No specific measures are in place or envisaged. However, conservation of catchments through the removal of alien invasive trees is clearly beneficial for this species and research into population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring would also be valuable.	eng
63202	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa. Two populations are known; one in the Western Cape, and one in the eastern Cape. It appears to have disappeared from Kwazulu-Natal, Drakensberg.	eng
63202	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Montane streams and rivers, with undisturbed fynbos margins. Clear, fast, hard-bottomed rivers in treeless river valleys (Samways 2006).	eng
63202	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is unknown, but the population appears to be stable at present.	eng
63202	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	Invasive alien trees are the most important threat. Agricultural activities that cause river siltation and pollution and alien fish may also be a threat.	eng
63203	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Although not threatened at present, removal of bank vegetation should be prevented (Samways 1999).	eng
63203	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa.	eng
63203	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Streams and rivers in open and wooded country (Tarboton and Tarboton 2005), with well-vegetated banks (Samways 1999).	eng
63203	population	Suhling, F., 2007	There is no information on population size or trends.	eng
63203	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	There are no major threats known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
63204	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
63204	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern Africa region. It mainly occurs in swampy areas in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia. It may also occur in Mozambique.	eng
63204	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	In reedy swamps and woodland close to such swamps.	eng
63204	population	Suhling, F., 2007	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
63204	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
63205	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
63205	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable..	eng
63205	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Research needed.	eng
63205	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. Current range information suggests it is endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region (as defined by river basin areas); most records fall outside the region. It is known from only four sites, one of which is within the southern Africa region. Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present. Globally, it is known only from north and northwest Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River basins).	eng
63205	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin and upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba). Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo are assumed presence in Angola.	eng
63205	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded only from north and northwest Zambia (Congo and Zambezi River basins). Katanga and Zambia only.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo Basin and upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia and from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba). Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the upper Zambezi River catchment in northwest Zambia. Current range information suggests it is endemic to Zambia, but not to the southern Africa region (as defined by river basin areas); most records fall outside the region. It is known from only four sites, one of which is within the southern Africa region. Potentially it may also occur in eastern Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but there are no data to support this at present.	eng
63205	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rivers fringed with bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63205	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Rivers fringed with bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63205	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rivers fringed with bush or gallery forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63205	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63205	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63205	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63205	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Major threats are unknown.	eng
63205	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Major threats are unknown. It is not known if deforestation would be a problem for this species.	eng
63205	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Major threats are unknown. It is not known if deforestation would be a problem for this species.	eng
63206	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Details have been relayed to the Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife who are employing conservation measures where possible, and interacting with Richard's Bay municipality. Further sites need to be located, and leaving the margin of Lake Umsingazi intact and avoiding mowing margins of nearby lakes at Richard's Bay would contribute greatly to the conservation of this subspecies (Samways 2006).	eng
63206	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to South Africa. The only known persistent populations are only in the Richard's Bay area, KwaZulu-Natal, with only individual specimens recorded at Cape Vidal and Sodwana Bay (Samways 2006). The record from the Limpopo Province (Pinhey 1984b) appears to be <em>P. coelestis coelestis</em> (Samways 2006).	eng
63206	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Swampy river courses and natural coastal lakes. This subspecies inhabits pools and seeks shade from the midday sun, while the nominate subspecies is present in more open, riverine habitats (Samways 2006).	eng
63206	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is unknown, however the population appears to now be stable.	eng
63206	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	<em>Pseuagrion coelestis umsingaziense</em> has been threatened by urban development, including building and drainage, and the mowing of lake margins. It is also subject to El Niño drought/wet cycles (Samways and Taylor 2004).	eng
63207	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	No conservation measures are currently in place, however further searches for strong populations are urgently needed. The taxon occurs in the Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park. Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63207	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	This subspecies has only been encountered in northern Kwazulu-Natal, but it may also occur in Mozambique. The other subspecies, <em>albifrons</em>, occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle in Botswana and Namibia. These may turn out to be separate species and further taxonomic work is required on these taxon.	eng
63207	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Found in swamps, marshes and pans.	eng
63207	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Population size is unknown, but the subspecies is declining.	eng
63207	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	The subspecies <em>ruberrima</em> is very susceptible to natural fluctuations in water levels. In addition, it is threatened due to industrial development in the Richard's Bay area. There is circumstantial evidence that it has also suffered from predation from a newcomer to its habitat, the damselfly <em>Aciagrion </em>cf.<em> zambiense</em>.	eng
63208	conservation	Suhling, F., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
63208	distribution	Suhling, F., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Africa, known only from South Africa and Zimbabwe.	eng
63208	habitat	Suhling, F., 2008	Found in and around wooded and forested streams (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002). Open, clear upland rivers  (Samways 1999).	eng
63208	population	Suhling, F., 2008	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63208	threats	Suhling, F., 2008	Threats to the species are unknown. Pollution and disturbance of rivers are potential threats.	eng
63209	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63209	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
63209	conservation	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, and threats.	eng
63209	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northeast and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> One location in northern Zambia within the central African region, and a single record for Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63209	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	The species is known from Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo (assumed) and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is only known from one location in northern Zambia within the central Africa region. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known only from Zambia, with three records within the southern Africa and one record from outside the region. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known.	eng
63209	distribution	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	This species is known only from Zambia, with three records within the southern Africa and one record from outside the region. It is expected to be more widespread than currently known.	eng
63209	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	In grassy swamps (Pinhey 1984).	eng
63209	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	In grassy swamps (Pinhey 1984).	eng
63209	habitat	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	In grassy swamps (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
63209	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Populations size and trends are unknown.	eng
63209	population	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Populations size and trends are unknown.	eng
63209	population	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Populations size and trends are unknown.	eng
63209	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current threats are not known. Wetland degradation may be affecting the species, but there are not enough data available to confirm this at present. Pesticide spraying to control <em>Tetse </em>fly occurs around every three years in the Botswana part of the Okavango and this may also affect the species, but again, more data are required to confirm this.	eng
63209	threats	Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2006	Current threats are not known. Wetland degradation may be affecting the species, but there are not enough data available to confirm this at present. Pesticide spraying to control <em>Tetse </em>fly occurs around every three years in the Botswana part of the Okavango and this may also affect the species, but again, more data are required to confirm this.	eng
63209	threats	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Kipping, J., 2009	Current threats are not known. Wetland degradation may be affecting the species, but there is not enough information available to confirm this at present. Pesticide spraying to control tsetse fly occurs around every three years in the Botswana part of the Okavango and may also affect the species.	eng
63210	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
63210	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species occurs in south and coastal Angola, northwestern Zambia (upper Zambezi River) and in the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.	eng
63210	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy fringes of streams and rivers.	eng
63210	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63210	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63211	conservation	Kipping, J., 2007	More research is needed to gather data on range, habitat status, population status, conservation measures, trends/monitoring, and threats.	eng
63211	distribution	Kipping, J., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa region. Most of the known population occurs In the Okavango Delta and Panhandle (most recently recorded in 2006). It also is recorded from one record from the Zambezi River area.	eng
63211	habitat	Kipping, J., 2007	Found in and around swamps.	eng
63211	population	Kipping, J., 2007	Can be locally common (Kipping pers. comm.).	eng
63211	threats	Kipping, J., 2007	Major threats to the species are unknown. Wetland degradation and insecticide spraying for tsetse fly control in the Okavango Delta are potential threats.	eng
63212	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place or planned at present.	eng
63212	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures are known to be in place or planned at present.	eng
63212	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs in Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa (Kruger National Park).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.	eng
63212	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa. Also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it occurs in Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with only one old record in South Africa (Kruger National Park).	eng
63212	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Mainly at larger rivers (e.g., Zambezi River, Limpopo River, Okavango River). Savannah rivers with marginal grassland (Samways 2006).	eng
63212	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Mainly at larger rivers (e.g., Zambezi River, Limpopo River, Okavango River). Savanna rivers with marginal grassland (Samways 2006).	eng
63212	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Locally common (e.g., at the Zambezi River).	eng
63212	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Locally common (e.g., at the Zambezi River).	eng
63212	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known at present.	eng
63212	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	None known at present.	eng
63213	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	Research is on taxonomy to confirm whether this is a valid species. If it is, then further research will be needed on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
63213	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality in the Upper Okavango catchment in Angola.	eng
63213	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Most likely rivers or streams. No detailed information is available.	eng
63213	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63213	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Specific current threats are unknown. Deforestation is quite extensive in the Upper Okavango catchment and this may be a threat.	eng
63214	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place or are planned at present. Taxonomic research is urgently required. Further research into the species population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is also needed.	eng
63214	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63214	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northwest Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.	eng
63214	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	This species is apparently endemic to the southern Africa region. It has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it has been recorded from west Angola (near the Democratic Republic of Congo border), through Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, and northern South Africa (Waterberg and Soutpansberg ranges).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is likely to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo but there is no data available.	eng
63214	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	At streams among rushes and long grasses. Grassy-fringed, slow rivers with partial canopy (Samways 2006).	eng
63214	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	At streams among rushes and long grasses. Grassy-fringed, slow rivers with partial canopy (Samways 2006).	eng
63214	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown. However, throughout its wide range it is unlikely to be declining at a rate that would qualify it for a threatened category.	eng
63214	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown. However, throughout its wide range it is unlikely to be declining at a rate that would qualify it for a threatened category.	eng
63214	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current threats are not known.	eng
63214	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	In South Africa, threats include poor forestry practice of planting into the riparian zone and allowing proliferation of invasive alien bushes and trees (Samways 2006). Elsewhere in the range, current threats are not known.	eng
63215	conservation	Kipping, J., 2007	None known to be in place. Research is required on taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63215	distribution	Kipping, J., 2007	The subspecies <em>albifrons</em> occurs in the Okavango Delta and Panhandle, and in Linyanti swamps in Botswana and Namibia. Its extent of occurrence is not much larger than 20,000 km².	eng
63215	habitat	Kipping, J., 2007	Found in swamps and marshes.	eng
63215	population	Kipping, J., 2007	Actual population size is unknown, but the species is uncommon. Trends are unknown.	eng
63215	threats	Kipping, J., 2007	Specific threats to this subspecies are unknown. However, potential future threats in the Okavango Delta may be water extraction and wetland habitat loss. More information is needed on specific current threats.	eng
63216	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Occurs within the protected areas of Hottentots-Holland Reserve, Kogelberg Nature Reserve, Cedarberg Nature Reserve and&#160; Table Mountain National Park. Alien invasive trees are being removed from parts of the species' range and this is proving effective. These activities should continue. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63216	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	South African western Cape endemic. A record of <em>E. frenulata</em> from southwest Angola belongs to a different, undescribed species (see <em>Elattoneura</em> sp.). Known only from the Hawequas Mountains in the Western Cape. Around half the range occurs outside protected areas and half within protected areas. The range area is restricted.	eng
63216	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Sluggish reaches of rivers with well-vegetated banks.	eng
63216	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Current population size and trends are unknown. This is a locally common species.	eng
63216	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	Alien predatory fish (e.g., trout, bass), alien invasive trees (e.g., <em>Acacia mearnsii</em>) and human encroachment on habitats outside of reserves through urbanization are known threats to the species.	eng
63217	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63217	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63217	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia; mainly Zambezi and Okavango River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.	eng
63217	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. Likely also to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. It mainly occurs in the Zambezi and Okavango River systems.	eng
63217	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps and swampy rivers	eng
63217	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps and swampy rivers.	eng
63217	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63217	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
63217	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
63217	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
63218	conservation	Suhling, F., 2007	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
63218	distribution	Suhling, F., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa, occurring in highveld grassland areas.	eng
63218	habitat	Suhling, F., 2007	Lentic waters with floating vegetation such as <em>Myriophyllum</em>, including reservoirs with trout.	eng
63218	population	Suhling, F., 2007	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
63218	threats	Suhling, F., 2007	Current threats are unknown.	eng
63219	conservation	Samways, M.J., 2007	Further searches are urgently required, but the chances of relocating it appear to be ever slimmer. The removal of alien invasive trees is very beneficial for this species and should continue. Research into habitat status, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
63219	distribution	Samways, M.J., 2007	Previously this species was known only from the type locality (Sevenweeks Port, Western Cape, South Africa), where it was collected between 1932 and 1936; and from one female, which was taken at Franschhoek in 1962 (Pinhey 1984b). Between 1962 and 2003, the species was not rediscovered despite intensive searches throughout the Western Cape between 1993 and 2000. A suggestion that it occurred in the Hermans area was not confirmed, and indeed streams in this area have undergone major disturbance in recent years. In November 2003, the species was rediscovered at a new site (on the Dutoitsriveier near Villiersdorp) where invasive alien trees have been removed.	eng
63219	habitat	Samways, M.J., 2007	Pools in braids of streams with abundance of sedges.	eng
63219	population	Samways, M.J., 2007	Few individuals have been recorded (Pinhey 1984b). The only known extant population has fewer than 50 individuals (Samways <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
63219	threats	Samways, M.J., 2007	This species appears to face multiple threats, including loss of habitat due to cattle farming and plantation forestry, overgrowth of riverbanks by alien invasive trees (Samways and Taylor 2004), groundwater abstraction and possibly canalization of streams and predation from an alien trout.	eng
63220	conservation	Kipping, J., 2007	More research is needed on taxonomy (underway), population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
63220	distribution	Kipping, J., 2007	This species is known from one collection (the type locality) in the Okavango panhandle (Kipping 2006), and one collection from Victoria Falls (material collected by Pinhey in the 1960s; Djikstra, pers. comm.).	eng
63220	habitat	Kipping, J., 2007	Large, forest fringed rivers.	eng
63220	population	Kipping, J., 2007	May be a rare species. It has not been found despite searches. More surveys are required.	eng
63220	threats	Kipping, J., 2007	Specific threats are unknown. Deforestation of riverine forest is a potential threat.	eng
63221	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States, where it is known from 32 counties in six states.	eng
63221	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Small, sandy-bottomed ponds with waterlillies.	eng
63221	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Current population size is unknown.	eng
63221	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Beaches and associated human activity along with withdrawal of ground water causing habitat to disappear.	eng
63222	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Two sites in the United States are in National Forest. One canyon probably is well protected, except for the impacts from established exotic species (NatureServe 2006).	eng
63222	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Santa Catalina Mountains of Arizona, United States and apparently Jalisco, Mexico. These areas are about 1,500 km apart and the Mexican specimens are a little different (NatureServe 2006).	eng
63222	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Splash pools with smooth rock linings and areas with large boulders near streams edge in isolated canyons in arid areas.	eng
63222	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Fluctuating (Westfall and May 1996). Previously only two known U.S. populations. New populations have been found in various areas of Cochise and Santa Cruz counties in Arizona (Garrison pers. comm.).	eng
63222	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Varying precipitation conditions (Westfall and May 1996). Substantial habitat has apparently been rendered useless, probably permanently, by exotic crayfish at the best known site and this probably has also happened, or soon will, rangewide. Apparent variation between two known populations in the Santa Catalinas suggests long isolation and possibly small size or severe genetic bottlenecks. Numbers noted as variable from year to year. Probably no gene flow between populations. <br/> <br/>Streams might go dry or be impacted by a tropical storm, etc. It is unclear how serious the ecological sink effect resulting from continued oviposition in formerly suitable downstream habitat is (NatureServe 2006). It is unclear whether habitats at one U.S. canyon site or in Mexico are similarly affected by exotic crayfish (NatureServe 2006).	eng
63223	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Searches for more <em>Ophiogomphus</em> populations in Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia are required (NatureServe 2006).	eng
63223	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States. Known from eastern Louisiana and western Mississippi (Mauffray 1997, Carle 1992).	eng
63223	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Small rivers with gravel substrate.	eng
63223	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Known from maybe 50 miles of stream, probably thousands in each of the three streams (NatureServe 2006).	eng
63223	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Limited range and susceptibility to pollution and perturbation of stream flow.  Gravel mining, siltation, pesticides, and clear cutting/deforestation.	eng
63224	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	United States (New Mexico, Texas) and Mexico (Nuevo Leon).	eng
63224	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Small streams and seepages.	eng
63225	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	All occurrences of <em>A. rhoadsi</em> in Texas are in protected areas; occurrences in such areas in Mexico have not been documented.	eng
63225	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in six states in Mexico and in Texas - McKinney County, Fort Clark Springs and Hidalgo County, McAllen - in the United States of America.	eng
63225	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found in dense herbaceous vegetation at border of slow streams, often associated with spring runs. Also found during rainy season in Mexico at isolated rain pools, unusual habitat for <em>Argia</em>.	eng
63225	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. rhoadsi</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.	eng
63225	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
63226	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Conservation actions on forest preservation and control of water use are needed.	eng
63226	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This subspecies is endemic to only three of the Cyclades Islands: Andros, Tinos and Naxos (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
63226	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is found in mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.	eng
63226	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Nineteen localities over 15 brooks have been reported from Naxos, Tinos and Andros Islands in Greece. Some of these have recently been found to be dry.	eng
63226	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats are drought periods in relation to climate change, water harnessing for human use and forest fires. Another threat posed might be over-collection.	eng
63227	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	At Delphi, a good understanding of the water pathway in the karst-type mountain is required. The area of the Kastalian spring is now efficiently closed and collecting is no longer a threat, but a water caption device has been installed in the downstream brook for olive tree irrigation, so that the brook was dry at mid elevation in July 2008. Any large scale cleaning-out of the spring and brook should be prohibited but giving restricted access for the purpose of monitoring is needed.	eng
63227	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This subspecies is known from only one locality; the sacred Kastalian spring in the ancient Delphi archaeological site (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
63227	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The subspecies reproduces in the structures of the ancient Kastalian spring, where females were seen during egg deposition and where exuviae (moulted skins) were collected, and possibly in the downstream brooklet, which has only few water.	eng
63227	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The population of this species is very low - about ten adults have been observed during single visits.	eng
63227	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threat is cleaning-out of the sacred Kastalian spring at Delphi, the single known locality of <em>C. h. kastalia</em>. The population is so small that collection could be a threat.	eng
63228	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Known populations occur within the Parque Nacional Canaima. Studies are needed to establish population density and trends and to confirm the species' distribution.	eng
63228	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela and Guyana.	eng
63228	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Streams at 1,000 to 2,400 m.	eng
63228	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
63229	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Present in several protected areas.	eng
63229	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Tepuis (Guyana shield) in Venezuela and Guyana.	eng
63229	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Streams at 300 to 1,300 m.	eng
63229	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63229	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	None at present.	eng
63230	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities are not present within protected areas. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats are necessary.	eng
63230	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Ecuador (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
63230	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes spring seeps and streams in Montane rainforest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
63230	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only two locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
63230	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
63231	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Studies are needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, as well as to confirm the presence of the species in protected areas.	eng
63231	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Valparaiso, Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucanía and De Los Lagos regions in Chile, and western strip of Neuquén Province in Argentina.	eng
63231	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Forest streams in canyons.	eng
63231	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63231	threats	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use.	eng
63232	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Likely present in protected areas (Parques Nacionales Nahuelbuta, Vicente Perez Rosales and Puyehue).	eng
63232	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Medial half of Chile: Atacama, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Metropolitan, Maule, Biobío, Araucania and O’ Higgins regions (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
63232	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	This seems to be the most common and widespread <em>Phyllopetalia</em> species in Chile, being very abundant in collections. Flight is recorded as close to water surface (Dunkle 1985, Jurzitza 1989), and linear at about 0.5-1 m above the water surface (G. Fleck pers. comm. 2004), following narrow streams within forest and along forest paths and streets. Flight period extends from September to February according to available collection data (von Ellenrieder 2005).	eng
63232	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	A common species found throughout its large range.	eng
63232	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat modification through introduced fish, grazing, deforestation, dams, water pollution, piping of streams for livestock and domestic use (Carle 1996).	eng
63233	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Studies needed to estimate population density, ecology and habitat preferences, as well as possible category of threat and to confirm presence in protected areas.	eng
63233	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Central third of Chile, from Valparaiso Region south through Metropolitana, Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucania to De Los Lagos Region.	eng
63233	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Forest streams and seeps in valleys.	eng
63233	population	von Ellenrieder, N. & Paulson, D., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63234	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63234	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola and known only from the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River and Lucala River).	eng
63234	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63234	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63234	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are unknown.	eng
63235	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63235	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Present in Kwanza, Kunene, Okavango river systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River and Kunene River (Caculovar River) systems.	eng
63235	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63235	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63235	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
63236	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63236	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Known only from the Kunene river system; the type locality is assumed to be in this system.	eng
63236	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63236	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63236	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63237	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63237	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has little protection.	eng
63237	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	<em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue river systems (Skelton 2001). Patchily distributed in the upper Zambezi; it is apparently absent from northern tributaries but present in headwaters of the Kafue at Mwekera (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63237	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. A similar, possibly identical species (<em>Rhadalestes rhodesiensis</em>) occurs in the Zambian Congo system (Lakes Bangweulu and Mweru, and Luapula River).	eng
63237	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rhabdalestes maunensis</em> is a pelagic species. It shoals in shallow, vegetated marginal and floodplain habitats.  It appears to prefer a swampy environment to open water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on small aquatic insects and other invertebrates. This species is a partial spawner, breeding during high-water periods (Skelton 1993). It is known to migrate up rivers and on to floodplains during flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Its preferred habitats are streams and mangroves.	eng
63237	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	This species is rarely found in the main channel of the upper Zambezi river, patchily distributed on the floodplain but more common in small streams (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). It feeds on small aquatic insects and other invertebrates. A partial spawner breeding at high water (Skelton 2001).	eng
63237	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63237	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	This species is patchily distributed but locally common.	eng
63237	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63237	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
63238	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
63238	conservation	Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63238	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The species is known from the Lake Malawi and its affluent rivers, the Shire River, Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta. also present in the Rufiji basin (Paugy 1984).	eng
63238	distribution	Bills, R., 2007	Widespread and common in the lower Zambezi, upper Shire and Lake Malawi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.	eng
63238	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Common in most affluent rivers as well as sheltered inshore weedy areas of the lakes.  Occurs in shoals in the marginal vegetation of rivers and lakes. Feeds on small insects and invertebrates.<br/>It is a small fish species, not exceeding 5 cm in length and ususlly less than 4 cm.	eng
63238	habitat	Bills, R., 2007	Margins of larger streams, rivers and lakes. Often associated with the fringes of marginal vegetation.	eng
63238	population	Bills, R., 2007	Locally common.	eng
63238	population	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
63238	threats	Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63238	threats	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is degradation of habitat due to increased sedimentation load.	eng
63239	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimasi, G., 2003	None	eng
63239	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63239	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Surveys to determine conservation status in the middle Zambezi and biological studies aimed at understanding declines are needed.	eng
63239	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Dundo, Luachimo River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Kariba, middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi rivers (Mozambique). The records of the Congo River basin need to be re-examined though.	eng
63239	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimasi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Lower Shire River and its tributary Ruo River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Middle and Lower Zambezi as well as Pungwe and Busi systems	eng
63239	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is known from Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River and its tributary Ruo River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi river systems.	eng
63239	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits swift flowing water, rapids or quiet, deep, sandy or rocky pools (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is only found in the mainstream of larger rivers and even in Lake Kariba prefers more riverine habitats.  Omnivorous, feeds on insects, snails, small fish, and aquatic plants.  Breeds in summer, moving upstream to suitable sites (Skelton 2001). It prefers rivers and lakes in tropical climate.	eng
63239	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Distichodus mossambicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits swift flowing water, rapids or quiet, deep, sandy or rocky pools (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is only found in the mainstream of larger rivers and even in Lake Kariba prefers more riverine habitats. Omnivorous, feeds on insects, snails, small fish, and aquatic plants. It breeds in summer, moving upstream to suitable sites (Skelton 2001). It is caught in gill nets in the Shire and Ruo rivers throughout the year in small quantities. Also recorded as a popular angling fish.	eng
63239	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimasi, G., 2003	Mainly occurs in the main river channels.  Feeds on a wide variety of food i.e. insects, snails, small fish and aquatic plants.  In the summer, it moves upstream to suitable sites to breed. Caught in gill nets in the Shire and Ruo rivers throughout the year in small quantities.  Also recorded as a popular angling fish.	eng
63239	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	In southern Africa, it is never as common as <em>D. schenga</em> and has declined in the middle Zambezi reaches since the two major dams were constructed.	eng
63239	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63239	population	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimasi, G., 2003	Unknown	eng
63239	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	It has minor importance as a commercial species, and is possibly threatened by overfishing. It has declined in parts of the middle Zambezi in Zimbabwe, probably through the effects of damming.	eng
63239	threats	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimasi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
63239	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has minor commercial importance.	eng
63240	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2002	No information available.	eng
63240	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Unknown. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
63240	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River and its tributaries Ruo River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Busi systems.	eng
63240	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is found in Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower Shire River and its tributaries Ruo River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi river systems.	eng
63240	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2002	Normally restricted to main river chanels.	eng
63240	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Normally restricted to main river channels over both rocky and sandy substrates. One of the most abundant species in the lower Zambezi.	eng
63240	population	Kazembe, J., 2002	Population size not known	eng
63240	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is abundant in the lower Zambezi - one of the major species in the artisanal fishery. It has declined in Lake Kariba since early impoundment.	eng
63240	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	In eastern Africa this species is threatened by overfishing, and siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.	eng
63240	threats	Kazembe, J., 2002	The main threats to the species are overfishing and siltation and regresion of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.	eng
63241	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has little protection.	eng
63241	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Known from the Upper Zambezi and Kafue river systems, as well as the Cunene and Okavango Rivers, and recently recorded from the Middle Zambezi above Lake Kariba (Skelton 2001). Absent from northern tributaries of the Zambezi in Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63241	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Occurs in a wide variety of shallow habitats including main river channels, flowing tributaries and drying pools, but absent from rocky stretches. In main river channels it is restricted to shallow sites out of the main current such as behind sand bars and in vegetated areas (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63241	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Fairly common and widely distributed.	eng
63241	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63242	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63242	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kunene River (Kuili River) and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems.	eng
63242	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63242	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63242	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63243	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63243	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Known only from its type locality in the Kunene River system in Angola.	eng
63243	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63243	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63243	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Presence of a dam on the main river limiting any migration/movement to upstream.	eng
63244	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63244	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Apparently restricted to the Kataba River and its tributary, the Sianda stream, a small tributary system of the Upper Zambezi, which it joins on the eastern side of the Barotse Floodplain. Thorough sampling in other streams in the area, including another site on the Kataba River and targeting the known habitat, did not yield any specimens.	eng
63244	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Inhabits small streams associated with seasonally flooded plains (dambos) bordered by open woodland. Occurs in and under dense floating mats of vegetation adjacent to the stream margin and in dense emergent vegetation. Feeds on tiny aquatic invertebrates.	eng
63244	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Apparently rare, no estimate of population size is available. The type series has six specimens, while only 19 specimens were caught at the type localities (only two from the Sianda stream) in three surveys in 2003/04 (Winemiller and Kelso-Winemiller 1993, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63244	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	The Sianda River is canalised, probably to aid drainage for agriculture on the floodplain. Two channels merge at the culvert through the road across the dambo, forming a stream only 1.5 m wide and up to 70 cm deep. The area is lightly inhabited at present but increasing human population, leading to intensification of agriculture, together with deforestation of the woodland bordering the dambos, and possible pollution by fertiliser and herbicides, is likely to threaten the habitat. The Kataba River is larger but is also canalised upstream of the type locality. No <em>N. lozii</em> were found in the canalised section. The river faces the same threats as the Sianda stream.  <br/> <br/>The Kataba flow is sustained by a large headwater swamp. Reduction in flow due to groundwater abstraction is a potential threat, although not in the foreseeable future. <br/> <br/>No alien invasive fish species currently occur in the system, but <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> (L.) is considered a major threat and likely to invade from the Zambezi, having been introduced to fish ponds in the catchment.	eng
63245	conservation	Bills, R., 2007	River health and water conservation programmes are needed to ensure healthy estuarine conditions.	eng
63245	distribution	Bills, R., 2007	South-west to south-east African coastal systems. Ranging from Namibia to at least Maputo, Mozambique.	eng
63245	habitat	Bills, R., 2007	Present in open and closed estuaries, lower reaches of some large rivers just above estuary heads and some permanent coastal, freshwater lakes.	eng
63245	threats	Bills, R., 2007	High salinities in estuarine systems have resulted in mass mortalities. Salinity increases are often due to over-extraction of water from upper catchments.	eng
63246	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
63246	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63246	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a common benthopelagic species restricted to central and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and the Luapula-Mweru system. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is widespread in the upper Zambezi river system and also in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue and Congo river systems (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63246	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and the Luapula-Mweru system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue Rivers.	eng
63246	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in a variety of habitats, including the main Zambezi River channel, swamps, lagoons, pools scoured out below road culverts, and in small tributaries distant from the floodplain. It occurs in quiet, well-vegetated waters where it feeds from the surface or on small invertebrates living on plant surfaces (Skelton 1993, 2001). <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> requires well oxygenated waters and is usually not found in small or headwater streams (Bell-cross and Minshull 1988). Rarer in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63246	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in quiet, well-vegetated waters where it feeds from the surface or on small invertebrates living on plant surfaces (Skelton 1993). <em>Barbus afrovernayi</em> requires well oxygenated waters and is usually not found in small or headwater streams (Bell-cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63246	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	A common species wherever it occurs. Total population size is not known.	eng
63246	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63246	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Although there are threats of overfishing in the Luapula-Mweru system and mining activities in the Katanga region, given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the Zambezi floodplains, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
63246	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63247	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	Needs study	eng
63247	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	Kei and Mbashe river systems, Eastern Cape.	eng
63247	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Little known.	eng
63247	population	Cambray, J., 2007	Not known.	eng
63247	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	Alien fish and habitat destruction	eng
63248	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	None.	eng
63248	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Low-veld regions of larger east-coast rivers from the Zambezi (Mozambique) south to Mkuze in Kwazulu-Natal (South Africa). Inland, the identity of specimens in the middle Zambezi (Zambia and Zimbabwe) and lower Shire (Malawi) needs to be studied.	eng
63248	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Prefers slower flowing, often vegetated sections of rivers and streams. Is also present in marginal, isolated lagoons in floodplains and artificial dams.	eng
63248	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	None.	eng
63249	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63249	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	The species complex has a wide distribution from highveld Limpopo to upland Kwa-Zulu Natal, Transkei, middle and upper Orange River. Also, large coastal rivers in Eastern and Western Cape such as Olifants, Gourits, Gamtoos, Sundays and Great Fish (Skelton 2001).	eng
63249	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Prefers cooler waters, occurring in a wide variety of habitats from small streams to large rivers and lakes. Associates with cover such as fallen logs, brushwood or marginal vegetation. Breeds in summer when rivers are swollen after rain. Lays adhesive eggs in vegetation. Larvae hatch in three days and begin to swim and feed after 6 to 7 days. Omnivorous, feeding on insects, zooplankton, seeds, green algae and diatoms. Preyed on by larger fish and birds (Skelton 2001).	eng
63249	population	Cambray, J., 2007	Widely distributed and common.	eng
63249	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	Alien fish and habitat changes.	eng
63250	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63250	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Present in the Kwanza River, Catumbela River (Cuiva River) and Kunene river systems of Angola.	eng
63250	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	It inhabits pools and riffles in clear rocky streams. Feeds on aquatic and adult flying insects and takes trout flies.	eng
63250	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63250	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
63251	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.	eng
63251	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Research into population numbers and range for this species is needed, as well as its biology and ecology. In Zambia, its known distribution falls partially within the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.	eng
63251	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a widespread benthopelagic species within central and southern Africa. <em></em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed but rare in the upper Zambezi floodplains (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), found only in one northern tributary system, the Mwombezhi. It also occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, and southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
63251	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from  the Cunene, Okavango, and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). <em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is closely related to, possibly the same as <em>Barbus annectens</em>.	eng
63251	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits shallow calm waters amongst vegetation, along the river edge (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Ripe adults were caught undertaking upstream migration on a possible spawning run in mid summer after the first rise in water level (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63251	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus barotseensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits shallow calm waters amongst vegetation, along the river edge (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Ripe adults were caught undertaking upstream migration on a possible spawning run in mid summer after the first rise in water level (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63251	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63251	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is rare in the main Zambezi channel and not found on the floodplains (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Abundance elsewhere is unrecorded.	eng
63251	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
63251	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63252	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63252	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Type locality is the Upper Zambezi River at Nyakesya, very close to the source of the river. A reported record from the Kabompo River is almost certainly the similar, undescribed species <em>Barbus</em> sp. 'bellcrossi cf.' Reports from other northern Zambezi tributaries need confirmation as museum specimens have been lost.	eng
63252	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	The Zambezi at the type locality is a strongly flowing forested stream about 10 m wide with clear, brown-tinged water.	eng
63252	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Given uncertainties in distribution, the population is unknown.	eng
63252	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	None at present.	eng
63253	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Present in Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in the Longa River and Kunene River systems. Reported from the Okavango River system (Skelton 2003).	eng
63254	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63254	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species described from Angola and occurring in the Upper Kwanza river system (Cuemba River).	eng
63254	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in small rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
63254	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63254	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63255	conservation	Enlbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Improved forestry industry and farming practices through conservancies and law enforcement. Improved water quality / substrate quality is needed for spawning beds.	eng
63255	distribution	Enlbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Upper catchments of the Blyde, Incomati, Mbuluzi and Phongolo Rivers in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Swaziland. There are many isolated populations.	eng
63255	habitat	Enlbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Cool water, perennial, rocky mountain streams. May spawn in gravel beds rather than vegetation.	eng
63255	threats	Enlbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Sedimentation from forestry plantations, effluent spills from paper mills and water extractions.	eng
63256	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63256	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species present in the Catumbela, Balombo, and Kunene River systems in Angola.	eng
63256	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but it prefers upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
63256	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63256	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known in the Catumbela River system.	eng
63257	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63257	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species native from Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Lucala River and Cunje River).	eng
63257	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63257	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known..	eng
63257	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63258	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63258	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Catumbela and Kwanza river systems.	eng
63258	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63258	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63258	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are unknown.	eng
63259	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63259	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species native from Angola where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucala River).	eng
63259	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology is not known.	eng
63259	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63259	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63260	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63260	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Known only from Angola, where it occurs in the Upper Kwanza river system (Cuemba River).	eng
63260	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
63260	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63260	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63261	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63261	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it is known from its type locality: Lower Kwanza river system.	eng
63261	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63261	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63261	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63262	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	The species has liitle protection. Alien fish monitoring and possible control is needed.	eng
63262	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	KwaZulu-Natal from Umtamvuna River northwards to the Amatikulu, north of the Tugela basin (Skelton 2001).	eng
63262	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in clear streams in the sandstone belt. Favours pools, where it is frequently the only fish species present apart from eels. Feeds on aquatic insects and other small invertebrates and falls prey to eels, birds and otters (Skelton 2001).	eng
63262	population	Cambray, J., 2007	A common species.	eng
63262	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	The species is vulnerable to alien fish predation.	eng
63263	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63263	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Described from the upper Pungwe River. Known only from the type locality. Various other records are considered as dubious identifications and need to be verified.	eng
63263	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Not known.	eng
63263	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63265	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Control of the use of fish poisons and mining activities are needed in Mozambique.	eng
63265	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Upper Buzi River system in central-western Mozambique and central-eastern Zimbabwe. Possibly in the adjacent Pungwe River. Surveys are needed to confirm this. Records from AMG and NMZB need to be verified.	eng
63265	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Upper catchment streams, usually rocky substrates with fast water flows.	eng
63265	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Poisoning of upper catchments by subsistence fishermen. Gold exploration resulting in high sedimentation and mercury pollution.	eng
63266	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of the populations.	eng
63266	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63266	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus mattazi</em> is known from Kando, the Nyundeulu River (tributary of the Lualaba) and from the Lualaba River, Upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Limpopo system in Zimbabwe and Transvaal and headwater reaches of the Gwai (Zambezi system) in Zimbabwe. It has been recorded once from the Kwando in Angola (upper Zambezi system) and from the Quanza and Cunene, Angola.	eng
63266	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known predominantly from the Congo river basin, extending south to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus mattazi</em> is known from Kando, the Nyundeulu River (tributary of the Lualaba) and from the Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River and Cunje River) and Kunene River (Cubangamua River) systems.	eng
63266	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mattazi</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Naturally it is occurring in large pools of cooler perennial rivers, it also thrives in man-made impoundments. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is an active predator which feeds initially on small planktonic crustaceans and insects; later it feeds on small fishes. It also feeds on water lily seeds. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is preyed upon by birds, otters, large catfish and large papermouths. It migrates upstream with the first summer flood to spawn. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> matures after three years (Skelton 1993).	eng
63266	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mattazi</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Naturally it is occurring in large pools of cooler perennial rivers; thrives in man-made impoundments. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is an active predator which feeds initially on small planktonic crustaceans and insects; later it feeds on small fishes when they are larger. It also feeds on water lily seeds. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> is preyed upon by birds, otters, large catfish and large papermouths. It  migrates upstream with the first summer flood to spawn. <em>Barbus mattazoi</em> matures after 3 years (Skelton 1993).	eng
63266	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63266	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Population size is not known.	eng
63266	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
63266	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Further threats are unknown.	eng
63267	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63267	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo River and Upper Kwanza river systems.	eng
63267	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
63267	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63267	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63268	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63268	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola: Kwanza River (at Cambambe) and Bengo River (at Cabiri and Lake Kilunda).	eng
63268	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology is not known.	eng
63268	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63268	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63269	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	The species has little protection at present although it occurs in some game reserves.	eng
63269	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	Coastal streams of the Eastern Cape from Great Fish River to the Krom (Skelton 2001). Also recorded from tributaries of the Vaal, although this population needs taxonomic review.	eng
63269	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in pools in clear rocky streams, often with emergent marginal vegetation. Feeds on aquatic insects. Breeds in summer, breeding pairs laying eggs in the vegetation.	eng
63269	population	Cambray, J., 2007	Widespread in the Eastern Cape but very patchily distributed as a result of alien fishes, particularly American bass species.	eng
63269	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	The species is threatened in some rivers by alien fishes.	eng
63270	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63270	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is protected in some reserves. More research is required into its biology and ecology.	eng
63270	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus poechii</em> is known from the upper Zambezi system and Kafue River; as well as the Cunene and Okavango systems. The taxonomic status of this species is uncertain (Skelton 2001). One record has been made from the Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, identified by Poll, M. in 1965. This record has to be checked though.	eng
63270	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known largely from southern Africa  - Angola, Zambia Botswana and Namibia, possibly extending into Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> One record has been made from the Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, identified by Poll, M. in 1965. This record has to be checked though.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus poechii</em> is known from the Cunene, Okavango and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001), with few records for Middle Zambezi (Balon 1974).	eng
63270	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in riverine and floodplain habitats, frequently in association with the striped robber (<em>Brycinus lateralis</em>), and also caught in gillnets in open waters of main river channels and open lagoons (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Barbus poechii</em> feeds on insects and small organisms. Used as bait for tigerfish (Skelton 1993).	eng
63270	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in riverine and floodplain habitats, frequently in association with the striped robber (<em>Brycinus lateralis</em>). <em>Barbus poechii</em> feeds on insects and small organisms.	eng
63270	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	It is very common and widespread.	eng
63270	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63270	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Although there are no known immediate threats to this species,<em> Barbus poechii</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.	eng
63270	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus poechii</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.	eng
63271	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Habitat improvement through rier health programmes and conservancies. Control of the movement and stocking of alien fishes.	eng
63271	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Upper and middle reaches of the Limpopo river system in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe.	eng
63271	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Broad ecological range - rocky substrates of rivers and pools, also does well in dams.	eng
63271	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Habitat degradation, water pollution and alien fishes (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) are the major threats.	eng
63272	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63272	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Lucala River - Lower Kwanza river system.	eng
63272	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63272	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63272	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63273	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63273	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63273	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is present in the Nyong River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Quanza and Luculla Rivers, Angola. The localities on the Quanza and Luculla are probably from only two (mainly one) expeditions. Additional locations have been recorded from mid Nyong (add 3°19'N,11°29'E).	eng
63273	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from Cameroon and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is found in the Nyong River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Angola where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucala River). However these are dubious accounts.	eng
63273	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (Brummett pers comm.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
63273	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
63273	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63273	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Fishermen have noted that <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is becoming rare (Brummett pers. comm.). It is threatened by siltation from deforestation. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (Mamonekene pers. comm.).	eng
63273	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Fishermen have noted that <em>Labeobarbus rocadasi</em> is becoming rare (pers. comm., Brummett, R.). It is threatened by siltation from deforestation. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
63274	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63274	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Lucala River (Lower Kwanza river system).	eng
63274	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63274	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63274	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63275	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63275	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Longa river system.	eng
63275	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63275	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63275	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63276	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63276	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Restricted to the Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern tributaries of the Upper Zambezi in Zambia and thus primarily restricted to floodplains and slower flowing streams in the system.	eng
63276	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Most abundant in small, flowing, well-vegetated tributaries and also fairly common in the vegetated margins of main river channels, from which it colonises floodplain habitats during the floods  (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).  Feeds on insects and periphyton. Breeds in summer, laying eggs on submerged vegetation, breeding males turning golden (Skelton 2001).	eng
63276	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Common throughout the extensive floodplains of the river systems and thus the populations are healthy.	eng
63276	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	There are no known immediate threats to this species.	eng
63277	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63277	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	None known. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.	eng
63277	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin upstream of the Lukuga system. Elsewhere, it is widespread in southern Africa from the Cunene, Okavango, and Zambezi south to the Phongolo. It is absent from lower Zambezi, Buzi, Pungwe, and Save systems. Specimens recently collected from the Inkisi River (AMNH) have tentatively been identified as this species but these need confirmation.	eng
63277	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is wide ranging from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is thought to be present in the upper Congo River basin upstream of the Lukuga system. Specimens recently collected from the Inkisi River (AMNH) have tentatively been identified as this species but these need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in southern Africa from the Zambian Congo and the Cunene, Okavango and This species is known from upper and middle Zambezi south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). Absent from the Lower Zambezi, but present in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.	eng
63277	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is mainly restricted to areas of medium to strong flow over sandy bottoms in the main river channels, including sandy back eddies bordering rapids. It does not normally occur in vegetated streams or still-water lagoons (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), but it does occur in open dams and lakes (Skelton 2001). <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grass seeds. It breeds after rains during summer months (Skelton 1993, 2001).	eng
63277	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in various habitats including flowing and standing waters; thrives in dams and lakes. <em>Barbus unitaenatus</em> feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grass seeds. It breeds after rains during summer months (Skelton 1993).	eng
63277	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	Common and widespread in southern Africa and thus the populations are healthy.	eng
63277	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63277	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	None known.	eng
63277	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63278	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63278	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo river system.	eng
63278	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
63278	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63278	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63279	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63279	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola the species occurs in Bengo River and Lake Kilunda, Kwanza River (Dongwenna swamp, Lucala River, Kwanza River), and Kunene River systems.	eng
63279	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	This species occurs in flowing water in rocky streams. Biology is not known.	eng
63279	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63279	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No known threats in the Kwanza and Bengo River systems. However, a dam exists in the Kunene River separating the upper reaches populations from the Lower Kunene population(s).	eng
63280	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Pollution from industrial centers and especially sewage overflow needs to be addressed through the South African river health program.	eng
63280	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Natural range is the Orange River system (Skelton 2001). It has been introduced into the Great Fish River system through the Orange-Fish tunnel and there may be other areas where this species have become established because of inter-basin transfer schemes.	eng
63280	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Prefers running water of large rivers, but also occurs in large impoundments. Breeds in summer over shallow rocky rapids where they aggregate in large numbers (Skelton 2001).	eng
63280	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No information is available on population trends.	eng
63280	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Pollution from major industrial centers such as Gauteng Province in South Africa is probably the biggest threat. Especially sewage overflow has caused major fish kills in the Vaal River in recent years.	eng
63281	conservation	Bayona, J. D.R., Kazembe, J., & Hanssens, M., 2003	None known.	eng
63281	conservation	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Fisheries management needs to be implemented in certain riverine fisheres in Mozambique. Fishways should be designed into weirs and dams.	eng
63281	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
63281	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo congoro</em> is known from Katanga and Lake Mweru. Elsewhere, it is known from the middle and lower Zambezi system and east coasal rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001). It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
63281	distribution	Bayona, J. D.R., Kazembe, J., & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>distributed throughout the Malagarasi, middle and lower Zambezi, and Rufiji/Ruaha river systems. Also found in the Lower Shire in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi systems as well as East Africa coastal rivers of the Phongolo system.	eng
63281	distribution	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo south to South Africa. Records from Tanzania are questionable, and could be a different species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo congoro</em> is known from Katanga and Lake Mweru. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout the Malagarasi, and Rufiji and Ruaha river systems. Also found in the Lower Shire in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread and fairly common in the middle and lower Zambezi south to the Phongolo River in South Africa.	eng
63281	habitat	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	<em>Labeo congoro</em> occurs in strong-flowing rocky stretches of larger perennial rivers. It grazes algae and 'aufwuchs' from rocks ad firm surfaces including the backs of hippos, leaving characteristic tracks. The species migrate upstream in swollen rivers to breed (Skelton 1993). It can occur as either sail-fin or normal varieties (Eccles 1992). This species is benthopelagic and potamodromous (Reide 2004).	eng
63281	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo congoro</em> occurs in strong-flowing rocky stretches of larger perennial rivers. It grazes algae and 'aufwuchs' from rocks ad firm surfaces including the backs of hippos, leaving characteristic tracks. The species migrate upstream in swollen rivers to breed (Skelton 1993). It can occur as either sail-fin or normal varieties (Eccles 1992). This species is benthopelagic and potamodromous (Reide 2004). The maximum published weight is 4,308 g (Skelton 1993).	eng
63281	habitat	Bayona, J. D.R., Kazembe, J., & Hanssens, M., 2003	Inhabits fast-flowing rocky streches of  large rivers where it grazes algae from rocks and firm surfaces. Also inhabits lake margins where it feeds on algae from rocks and firm surfaces (including the backs of hippos). Migrates up rivers during spawning.	eng
63281	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63281	population	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Not particularly common although widespread. Rare in the Malagarasi but otherwise population status is largely unknown. General information on <em>Labeo</em> spp.  in Mtera dam indicates a decline in catch composition from 8.5% in 1987 to 4.2% in 1991 (Tamatamah 1996) and in Lake Rukwa the catch composition has declined to about 1.2% (Fish Div.1996). The population is therefore thought likely to be in decline where fishing pressure is high.	eng
63281	population	Bayona, J. D.R., Kazembe, J., & Hanssens, M., 2003	Rare in the Malagarasi but otherwise population status is largely unknown. General information on Labeo spp.  in Mtera dam indicates a decline in catch composition from 8.5% in 1987 to 4.2% in 1991 (Tamatamah 1996) and in Lake Rukwa the catch composition has declined to about 1.2% (Fish Div.1996). The population is therefore thought likely to be in decline where fishing pressure is high.	eng
63281	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
63281	threats	Bayona, J. D.R., Kazembe, J., & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and sedimentation of spawning beds, and fishery over-exploitation (at particular risk when nets are set across river mouths during the spawning migrations).	eng
63281	threats	Bayona, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is heavily fished in all regions, and is at particular risk when nets are set across river mouths during the spawning migrations. Dams and weirs affect river flows, sediment fluxes and seasonal migrations. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. In eastern Africa populations are also threatened by water turbidity and sedimentation of spawning beds.	eng
63282	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63282	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The upper Zambezi and Okavango systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
63282	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	<em>Labeo lunatus</em> coexists with <em>L. cylindricus</em> in some quieter rocky habitats but was generally absent from rocky rapids. Its preferred habitat is the main river channel where it occurs throughout the floodplain system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Grazes algae and detritus. A shoaling species, breeding in summer, probably in flooded marginal habitats. Young fish are caught in large numbers in fish weirs set across waters draining from floodplains (Skelton 2001).	eng
63282	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	A common species but its abundance fluctuates extensively in relation to the extent of flooding (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63282	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Heavy fishing pressure may affect abundance.	eng
63283	conservation	Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	None.	eng
63283	distribution	Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Middle and lower Zambezi river system south to the Tugela River in southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
63283	habitat	Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Rocky habitats of main river channels. Seems to prefer deeper waters than the redeye labeo with which it co-occurs.	eng
63283	population	Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
63283	threats	Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	None.	eng
63284	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63284	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River and Lucala River).	eng
63284	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63284	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63284	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63285	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Fishways should be incorporated into weirs where possible. Management of riverine fisheries is needed in many areas. Improved land-use management aimed at reducing erosion.	eng
63285	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Most common in lowveld reaches of the Limpopo, Incomati and Phongolo systems in South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland. Described from the upper reaches of the Limpopo system in Botswana.	eng
63285	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Typically found in main river channels over sandy substrates. Does well in dams.	eng
63285	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
63285	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	A migratory species that is particularly susceptible to the impacts of weirs and net fishing. Susceptible to sedimentation.	eng
63286	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	The species has no protection. Fishways should be constructed around dams to maintain contiguity in populations.	eng
63286	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	Tugela system in KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).	eng
63286	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Inhabits deep pools and slow moving parts of rivers, but also occurs in rocky rapids. Feeds on algae, diatoms and detritus. Shoals migrate upstream to breed in spring and summer. Large numbers of small eggs are laid and young are found in shallow backwaters (Skelton 2001).	eng
63286	population	Cambray, J., 2007	Widespread and common in the Tugela system.	eng
63286	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	None known. Although dams impede upstream movement, the impact is only to fragment populations, and is not a major threat. <br/>Inter-basin water transfers may result in invasion of alien <em>Labeo</em> species and possible hybridisation.	eng
63287	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Land and water use conservation.	eng
63287	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Low-veld sections of the Limpopo and Incomati Rivers (South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique). A single record from the lower Mbuluzi River in Swaziland. A northern population is known from the Cunene River on the Angolan-Namibian border.	eng
63287	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Deeper waters in or associated with main river channels and off channel pools. Sand or mud substrates are typical. Particularly common in seasonal river e.g. the Shingwedzi River, Kruger Park, South Africa.	eng
63287	population	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Very little information available for this species. Said to be fairly common in the Umzingwane (Limpopo) River, Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). In most other regions it appears to be rare.	eng
63287	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Sedimentation and loss of pools in the Kruger Park, South Africa..	eng
63288	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Monitoring by the South African river health program may help to reduce pollution of the Vaal River.	eng
63288	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Gourits, Gamtoos, Sundays, Great Fish, Bushmans and Orange River systems in South Africa. Also occurs in the Orange River system in South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia. Has been translocated to the Keiskamma and Buffalo River systems in the Eastern Cape Province and to the Olifants catchment of the Limpopo River system in Mpumalange Province in South Africa (Skelton 2001). There may be other areas where this species has become established due to inter-basin transfer schemes.	eng
63288	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Prefers slow or gently flowing water and are abundant in shallow impoundments and farm dams. Feeds on soft sediments and detritus. Migratory species that breeds after rains in summer. Breeding grounds are flooded grassy banks or shallow rocky stretches (Skelton 2001).	eng
63288	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	There is no information about population trends.	eng
63288	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Hybridisation between potentially historically isolated lineages of this species may have already occurred due to inter-basin transfer schemes. Pollution due to industries and sewage overflow in the Gauteng Province probably lead to short term population fluctuations in sections of the Vaal River. Aliens (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) and habitat deterioration (weirs) threaten the population in the Bushmans River system. Alien fish in the Gourits is also a major problem and the effect of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> in the Gamtoos is not well understood.	eng
63289	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Flow regulation has to be evaluated based on the results of hybridisation investigations and the South African river health program can address pollution problems from Gauteng Province.	eng
63289	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Occurs naturally in the Orange River system. It has been translocated widely in South Africa to the Gourits, Great Fish, Kei and  Limpopo River systems and even to the Matirikwe Dam in Zimbabwe (Skelton 2001).	eng
63289	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	It prefers sandy and rocky substrates of clear and flowing water of large rivers, but also tolerates turbid rivers. It does well in large dams. It occurs in sympatry with <em>Labeobarbus kimberleyensis</em> but is more widespread, since it occurs at higher altitudes and in smaller tributary streams than the latter species. Migrates to suitable gravel beds and breeds in spring to midsummer after major summer rains. Omnivorous with benthic invertebrates, bivalve molluscs, vegetation, algae and detritus as major food sources (Skelton 2001).	eng
63289	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No information is available on population trends.	eng
63289	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Potential hybridisation between this species and <em>Labeobarbus kimberleyensis</em> must be investigated further, since it can be caused by river regulation and the destruction of different habitat types. Pollution, especially sewage overflow during floods  is a major threat near industrial centers such as Gauteng Province in South Africa. Major fish kills have occurred in recent years in the Vaal River due to sewage spillage, but there are many rivers where this species is abundant and secure from pollution.	eng
63290	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	<em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> has been listed as endangered by the provincial Nature Conservation Ordinance making catch and release compulsory. The upper reaches of several tributaries (e.g., Rondegat and Driehoeks Rivers) with good <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> populations are situated in the Cederberg Wilderness Area. The Greater Cederberg Biodiversity Corridor (GCBC), which encompasses the majority of the Olifants-Doring catchment, was established in 2004 to enable authorities and private land-owners to jointly manage valuable conservation areas. <br/> <br/>The most important tributaries and mainstem areas for indigenous fish conservation in the Olifants River system have been identified (Impson <em>et al</em>. 1999). The Clanwilliam Yellowfish Station was established in 1976 by the then Cape Department of Nature Conservation to culture <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em>, then regarded as the most threatened Cederberg fish species, for re-stocking purposes (CDNC 1978/79). The station was never effective because of water quality problems that contributed to regular losses of fish. The station was however instrumental in distributing thousands of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> to farm dams and to tributaries (CDNC 1981/82), some of which were outside the natural range of yellowfish. For example, in the mid 1980’s <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> was introduced above waterfall barriers on the Twee River, home to the Critically Endangered <em>Barbus erubescens</em>, in a misguided attempt to conserve the species. The station stopped producing fishes in the late 1990’s.   <br/> <br/>The advent of the Cape Action for People and the Environment (CAPE) in 1999, a collaborative programme to more effectively conserve the Cape Floristic Region, has culminated in a dedicated project to eradicate invasive alien fishes from its priority rivers. Included in the project are two rivers in the GCBC that have Clanwilliam yellowfishes (the Krom and Rondegat rivers). The national yellowfish working group, established in 1997, includes in its aims promoting awareness of threatened yellowfishes and increasing research and monitoring effort on such fishes.	eng
63290	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Olifants River System on the West Coast of South Africa (Skelton 2001). Seems to have gone extinct or is very rare in the mainstream areas of the Upper Olifants River above Clanwilliam Dam and below the Olifants Gorge where they were previously plentiful (Harrison 1938). They are still widespread in the Doring River (Paxton <em>et al</em>. 2002) and occurs in several tributaries of the Cederberg Mountains.	eng
63290	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	They are found in rivers of variable size, including mountain streams. Adults prefer relatively fast flowing water of variable depth (Gore <em>et al</em>. 1991). Sub-adults are frequently found in riffles, with juveniles smaller than 4 cm in backwaters and slow flowing shallow riffles. Deep permanent pools with good cover provided by rocky reefs or palmiet (<em>Prionium serratum</em>) beds are important refuges for the species in seasonal rivers during the hot dry summers. Adults are light brown, males becoming golden yellow during the breeding season. Juveniles are silvery with irregular dark blotches or vertical bars on the sides (Jubb 1965). Adults are omnivorous, feeding on aquatic macro-invertebrates and algae (van Rensburg 1966). Juveniles feed on zooplankton and small aquatic invertebrates. Breeds in late spring to summer when water temperatures exceed 20°C; then small schools of adults migrate to riffles and glides that are 0.2 to 0.5 m deep to spawn (King <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is a multiple spawner during the breeding season, laying non-adhesive eggs that develop into photophobic embryos (Cambray 1999). Like <em>Barbus andrewi</em>, it can spawn successfully in impoundments in shallow rocky bays.	eng
63290	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Anecdotal reports indicated very large numbers of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> were present in suitable habitat before the introduction of <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> into the system in the 1940’s (Harrison 1938, Wells 1949). Currently, healthy numbers of <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> are found only in areas free of alien fishes. These areas probably represent less than 10% of its original distribution range. However, as the system is large, the 10% still equates to a population size that could be large.	eng
63290	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The major threat to the species has been the predatory impact of invasive alien fish species, especially <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> (van Rensburg 1966, Gaigher 1973, Bills 1999) and to a lesser extent <em>Lepomis macrochirus, Micropterus salmoides</em> and <em>Micropterus punctalatus</em>. Juvenile <em>Labeobarbus capensis</em> also compete with <em>Tilapia sparrmanii, Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> for food. Habitat degradation is another substantial threat as the Olifants catchment and some tributaries are the focus for intensive citrus, deciduous fruit and vineyard development. Two large instream dams (Clanwilliam and Bulshoek) act as barriers to fish migration, and rivers are over-abstracted to fill hundreds of smaller farm dams. The lower reaches of many tributaries have been bulldozed and canalised for flood protection purposes. The excess use of fertilisers and pesticides (many copper based) also poses a substantial threat to indigenous fishes (Bills 1999).	eng
63291	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in the Zambezi National Park above Victoria Falls.	eng
63291	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper Zambezi and Okavango river systems, restricted entirely to rapids.	eng
63291	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Found only in rocky rapids (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Omnivorous.	eng
63291	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Common in rapids in the Upper Zambezi.	eng
63291	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63292	conservation	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	It is common in the Orange River in the Augrabies and Richtersveld National parks. Catch and release is mandatory in the Free State Province. This species is promoted as a flagship angling species in the Orange River system and most anglers practice catch and release. Appropriate dams (e.g., Sterkfontein Dam) in the distribution range have been stocked.	eng
63292	distribution	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Endemic to the Orange River system (Skelton 2001). It is widespread in both the Orange River and its largest tributary the Vaal River. The species is also common in many of the large tributaries of these rivers.	eng
63292	habitat	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	Favours deeper pools (deeper than 2 m) with an abundance of cover in the form of reefs, weed beds and over hanging vegetation. Primarily a predator with fishes above 30 cm being almost exclusively piscivorous. Breeds in summer in riffles. Fecundity is high with large females producing in excess of 60,000 eggs. Slow grower initially attaining 30 cm (Tail Length) after five years.	eng
63292	population	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	This species is reasonably common, especially in large deeper pools and in the middle and lower Vaal and Orange rivers respectively. Larger tributaries e.g., Riet River also have good numbers as do weirs and instream dams.	eng
63292	threats	Impson, D. & Swartz, E., 2007	The major threat is poor water quality in the Vaal River below Vaal Dam and from tributaries which receive treated effluent water. Instream dams and weirs are not a problem if suitable spawning habitat is present above the dam. River regulation and destruction of different habitat types may be causing hybridisation between this species and <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em>, but this possibility has to be investigated further.	eng
63293	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Support for river health programmes. Encourage increased use of fishays in weirs and dams.	eng
63293	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Middle and lower Zambezi systems in Zambia and Zimbabwe south to the Phongolo River in South Africa.	eng
63293	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Typically occurs in flowing waters of larger streams and rivers. It does occur in dams but is not common there. Preferred habitats of larger adults seems to be rocky rapids and deeper pools.	eng
63293	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Abundant in suitable rocky, fast flowing habitats.	eng
63293	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Affected by weirs and dams and habitat degradation.	eng
63294	conservation	Cambray, J., 2007	The species is not protected.	eng
63294	distribution	Cambray, J., 2007	KwaZulu-Natal, widespread from Mkuze to Umtamvuna rivers (Skelton 2001). Also translocated to the Save River in Zimbabwe.	eng
63294	habitat	Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from pools and rapids of clear streams to deep turbid waters of rivers and impoundments. Juveniles shoal in large schools in shallow marginal habitats. Moves upstream in summer and retreats downstream in winter. Feeds on algae, detritus, crabs and aquatic insect nymphs. Breeds in summer over gravel beds after migrating upstream.	eng
63294	population	Cambray, J., 2007	A common species widespread in KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
63294	threats	Cambray, J., 2007	Hybridisation following interbasin water transfers is a threat to some populations.	eng
63295	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Habitat conservation and control of alien fish movements is needed. A moratorium on yellowfish movements has been introduced - this should continue with education of angling groups. Fishways should be incorporated into dams and weir designs where possible. Strict control of aquaculture facilities to prevent hybridisation of Labeobarbus species. Enforcement of illegal gill netting activities.	eng
63295	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	The upper reaches of southern tributaries of the Limpopo River in South Africa south through Swaziland to the Phongolo River.	eng
63295	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	This species is restricted to high-veld regions (above 600 m altitude). Typically occurs in larger streams and rivers, with good flows and rocky substrates although it does occur in slower waters and in some dams. Food includes algae, aquatic invertebrates and small fish.	eng
63295	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Degradation of upper catchments, introduced predatory alien fishes e.g., trout. Potential movements of yellowfishes for angling purposes is a major threat; consequences would be hybridisation and homegenisation of stocks. Hybridisation has occurred with <em>Labeobarbus aeneus</em> in regional aquaculture facilities and through introductions into rivers. Populations have been lost through the impacts (migration and breeding) of weirs. Localised gill netting is a serious problem in parts of Mpumalanga.	eng
63296	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Lake Bangweulu is situated in the National Park Kasanka.	eng
63296	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Lake Bangweulu is situated in the National Park Kasanka. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring population trends.	eng
63296	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	None.	eng
63296	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Mozambique, south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lubumbashi River at Lubumbashi, from Lake Bangweulu and from the upper Chambezi River. It is expected to be more widespread in affluents. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and east coast rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern Kwazulu-Natal. An isolated population is found in the Orange River below the Augrabies Falls (Skelton 2001). Also found  in the Ruvuma system in Malawi (Lake Chiuta) and Mozambique (Tweddle 1983, Bills 2004). In the upper Zambezi, it has only been found immediately above Victoria Falls and extensive surveys in 2002/03 failed to find it further upstream (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). There is a need for taxonomic study of isolated populations, particularly of the Rovuma specimens.	eng
63296	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is known from the Lubumbashi River at Lubumbashi, from Lake Bangweulu and from the upper Chambezi River. It is expected to be more widespread in effluents. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi systems and east coastal rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern KwaZulu-Natal. An isolated population is found in the Orange River below the Augrabies Falls (Skelton 2001).	eng
63296	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene,Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems as well as the east coast rivers from the Limpopo to the Umfolozi in northern Natal.  An isolated population also occurs in the Orange River below the Augrabies falls.	eng
63296	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in shoals. It prefers well-aerated, open water of flowing rivers), although it also occurs in the still water of Lake Chiuta. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> feeds from the water column on planktonic crustaceans and insects such as midges and ants. It is attracted to light at night. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> breeds in early summer (Skelton 1993).	eng
63296	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in shoals. It prefers well-aerated, open water of flowing rivers. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> feeds from the water column on planktonic crustaceans and insects such as midges and ants. It is attracted to light at night. <em>Mesobola brevianalis</em> breeds in early summer (Skelton 1993).	eng
63296	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Occurs in shoals, it prefers the well aerated open water of flowing rivers.  Feeds on planktonic crustaceans as well as insects.  Breeds in early summer.	eng
63296	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information.	eng
63296	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63296	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available, but a widespread species.	eng
63296	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No major threats known. It is targeted for subsistence fishing in eastern Africa.	eng
63296	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63296	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is subsistence fishing.	eng
63297	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63297	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Kwanza River).	eng
63297	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63297	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63297	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63298	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63298	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it is only known from its type locality: Cunje River in the Upper Kwanza river system.	eng
63298	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63298	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63298	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63299	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63299	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	In Angola, the species occurs in the Lower and Upper Kwanza river system (Lucalla River and Cunje River, respectively).	eng
63299	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63299	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63299	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are unknown.	eng
63300	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63300	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species native from Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Lucala River).	eng
63300	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology is not known.	eng
63300	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63300	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63301	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Management of alien fish stocking and habitat improvement is needed for key populations.	eng
63301	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Headwaters of the Incomati and Phongolo Rivers in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Swaziland. Numerous isolated populations in upper catchments. Not recorded from the Mbuluzi in Swaziland.	eng
63301	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Larger escarpment streams where there are good water flows and rocky substrates.	eng
63301	population	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Where present, it is usually abundant.	eng
63301	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Degradation of upper catchments by poor farming activities and cool-water alien fishes e.g., trout. Illegal gill netting on the Sabie River.	eng
63302	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Conservation of aquatic habitats from degradation. Management of fishing activities by rural people.	eng
63302	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
63302	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Headwaters of the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.	eng
63302	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Ruo River (Lower Shire tributary), Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Pungwe and Busi rivers in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, below the Pungwe falls  (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
63302	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Clear water, rocky substrate streams and rivers in the headwaters of the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers.	eng
63302	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
63302	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
63302	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
63302	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Poisoning of streams by local fishermen and gold mining activities increasing sediment loads in Mozambique.	eng
63302	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	The main threat to the species are fisheries.	eng
63303	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63303	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Specimens of Inkisi (Lower Congo) have been identified as <em>Varicorhinus stenostoma</em> by Getahun, A. in 2000. These findings have never been published though. Further expeditions revealed more specimens identified as <em>V.stenostoma</em> from the Inkisi (Stiassny, pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs from the Lucala River to the Lower Kwanza river system.	eng
63303	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus stenostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
63303	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available	eng
63303	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63304	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63304	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Present in Angola where it occurs in the Lucala River - Lower Kwanza river system.	eng
63304	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63304	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63304	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63305	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Protection of key habitats, seasonal water bodies, is needed.	eng
63305	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Ghona-re-Zhou Game Reserve in Zimbabwe south east into the Banhine National Park in Mozambique. The exact limits are not known but they range outside of these two protected areas.	eng
63305	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Typically found in seasonal pans which they share with lungfishes (<em>Protopterus annectens</em>). Occasionally they are also found in pools in seasonal river beds together with a few hardy riverine species such as <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> and <em>Barbus paludinosus</em>. They lay drought resistant eggs. Apparently one of the shortest lived killifishes (4 to 5 months).	eng
63305	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	In Gon-re-Zhou there has been some insecticide spraying and some pans were damaged by road building activities. These threats are apparently not continuing and the species has recovered from the initial impacts.	eng
63306	conservation	Bills, R. & Engelbrecht, J., 2007	Education of local fishermen and if necessary law enforcement.	eng
63306	distribution	Bills, R. & Engelbrecht, J., 2007	Rovuma system in Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique. New records from north-eastern Zambia result in a major range extension, but these need to be verified.	eng
63306	habitat	Bills, R. & Engelbrecht, J., 2007	In the Rovuma in Mozambique this species was collected in pools within the channels of seasonal streams in upper catchments. They were often collected with various riverine minnows (<em>Barbus</em>), characns, catfishes and cichlids. Waters were typically turbid and shallow.	eng
63306	threats	Bills, R. & Engelbrecht, J., 2007	Poisoning of some isolated pools was noted within the Niassa Reserve. These pools act as 'innocula' for the river system when the rainy season starts and rivers start to flow.	eng
63307	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63307	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Coastal floodplains of the Pungwe River near Beira, central Mozambique. Probably extends south into the lower Buzi floodplains as the lower floodplains of the two rivers connect during peak flooding.	eng
63307	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Little is known about this species but if similar to the other floodplain killifishes found in marginal swamps and seasonal pools within the floodplain area.	eng
63307	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63308	distribution	Bills, R., 2007	Lower Zambezi floodplains, central Mozambique south to the Kruger Park region of South Africa.	eng
63308	habitat	Bills, R., 2007	Seasonal pans and swamps in riverine floodplains.	eng
63308	threats	Bills, R., 2007	Damage to pans by road builders has occurred and impacts from insecticide spraying has also occurred. Presently, there don't appear to be major impacts.	eng
63309	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63309	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63309	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is known from northern Angola, including the upper Kasai River drainage, Central Congo River basin. The record from the Congo basin in Angola is doubtful though. It has also been reported from Namibia.	eng
63309	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Angola, and one locality in Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is found in northern Angola, including the upper Kasai River drainage, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River, Kwanza River (Kwanza River, Lake Chipemba) and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems. Also reported from Namibia.	eng
63309	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers, brooks, shallow parts of larger water bodies and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
63309	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys macrurus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers, brooks, shallow parts of larger water bodies and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
63309	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63309	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63309	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63309	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63310	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2007	Conservation of aquatic habitats and species need to be considered when coastal develoments ae planned.	eng
63310	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2007	Coastal lakes and rivers of Maputaland from the Mhlatuze River near Richards Bay, northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to at least the south of the Rio Maputo (Phongolo River), Mozambique. An odd record from the Umgeni River needs verification.	eng
63310	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2007	Associated with marginal vegetation in rivers, marginal lagoons and coastal lakes of the Maputaland region.	eng
63310	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2007	In suitable habitats it is abundant.	eng
63310	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2007	Coastal dune mining, harbour developments and other tourist related coastal developments are potential threats.	eng
63311	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63311	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola and known from the Lower Kwanza river system (Lucula River).	eng
63311	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63311	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63311	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63312	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63312	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	The use of fish poisons in most central African countries is illegal and people are usually aware of the law. Education concerning the reasoning behind laws is probably desirable, local community conservation education programmes could be a way of achieving this. Law enforcement may be needed. Small scale mining for gold in very damaging to localised river habitats and should be stopped in all areas. Control of alien fish stocking.	eng
63312	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kneria auriculata</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi system. Elsewhere, it is known from upland streams of the lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi, and Save in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. A relict southern pocket occurs in the Crocodile (Incomati system), Mpumalanga. The identity of specimens from the Kafue and upper Zambezi requires confirmation.	eng
63312	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	The distribution of this species lies from southern DRC to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kneria auriculata</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Several isolated populations occur in This species is known from upper catchments of the African east coast. It is present in upper tributaries of the lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi and Save rivers.	eng
63312	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria auriculata</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Its shoals occur in pools of small, clear, silt-free, rocky streams. It has been reported to breathe air and to climb over damp rocks and up the sides of waterfalls during migrations. <em>Kneria auriculata</em> scrapes diatoms, algae, and detritus from rock surfaces and also takes small aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and midge larvae. It matures after a year. The species breeds in spring and summer, larger females bear up to 600 eggs (Skelton 1993). <em>Kneria auriculata</em> moves on to flooded grasslands during the rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63312	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria auriculata</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. Its shoals occur in pools of small, clear, silt-free, rocky streams. It has been reported to breathe air and to climb over damp rocks and up the sides of waterfalls during migrations. <em>Kneria auriculata</em> scrapes diatoms, algae, and detritus from rock surfaces and also takes small aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and midge larvae. It matures after a year. The species breeds in spring and summer, larger females bear up to 600 eggs (Skelton 1993). <em>Kneria auriculata</em> moves on to flooded grasslands during the rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63312	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63312	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63312	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Different isolated populations are exposed to different threats. In the Chimanimani Region of Mozambique some upper catchments are exposed to fish poisoning on a regular basis and the impacts of gold mining (sedimentation and the use of mercury). In Zimbabwe introduced trout (<em>O. mykiss</em>) and siltation also threaten populations.	eng
63312	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63313	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63313	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species only known from the Cunene River system in Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species is present at the Ruacana and Epupa falls.	eng
63313	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Habitat is not known, but specimens are collected from Epupa and Ruacana falls in the Kunene River system. Biology is not known.	eng
63313	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63313	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63314	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63314	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper reaches of the Cunene, Okavango and Upper Zambezi, and also headwaters of Angolan coastal rivers (Skelton 2001). Found in most northern Zambian Upper Zambezi tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63314	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Shoals in pools of clear, silt-free rocky streams. Reported to breathe air and climb over damp rocks and up sides of waterfalls in migrations. Scrapes diatoms, algae and detritus from rocks and also takes small aquatic insects (Skelton 2001).	eng
63314	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Common.	eng
63314	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	None at present.	eng
63315	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63315	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola and only known from the type locality: Cubal river system.	eng
63315	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of this genus occur in running waters and upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
63315	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63315	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
63316	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	No conservation done.	eng
63316	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Only known from the type locality, Cutato River, a tributary of the Okavango in southern Angola.	eng
63316	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat and biology not known.	eng
63316	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size not known.	eng
63316	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats not known.	eng
63317	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63317	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza river system (Cokema River).	eng
63317	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of this genus occur in running waters. Biology is not known.	eng
63317	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63317	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63318	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Environmental education aimed at rural peoples is needed to reduce undesirable actions. If this doesn't succeed enforcment of existing laws is needed.	eng
63318	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Medium sized streams in the Buzi and Pungwe river systems in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Nowhere is the species particularly common.	eng
63318	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Medium sized streams. Rocky habitats, riffles and runs.	eng
63318	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Fish poisoning and gold mining impact on certain populations.	eng
63319	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The Zambezi National park above Victoria Falls gives some protection.	eng
63319	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Okavango and Upper Zambezi system (Skelton 2001), with some records from the Middle Zambezi.	eng
63319	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Restricted to crevices in rocky rapids. Feeds on insects taken from rocks (Skelton, 2001).	eng
63319	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Common.	eng
63319	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None known. The species is well-protected because of its habitat.	eng
63320	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63320	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic form Angola and only known from its type locality: Bengo river system.	eng
63320	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63320	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63320	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63321	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63321	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Distributed in Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River) and Kunene River (Kunene River) systems.	eng
63321	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63321	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63321	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Presence of a dam preventing any movement to upstream.	eng
63322	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63322	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	<em>H. szaboi</em> is so far reported only from the Upper Zambezi River at Katimo Mulilo, Namibia. The <em>H. szaboi</em>/<em>H. ansorgii</em> complex is, however, widespread in the Upper Zambezi system and thus <em>H. szaboi</em> is likely to be more widespread.	eng
63322	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	<em>Hippopotamyrus szaboi</em> is so far reported from rocky habitat in the main Zambezi river channel. Feeds on small insects. The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
63322	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown as a result of the uncertainty regarding identity and distribution, and also the difficulties in assessing the size of rapid habitat and sampling therein.	eng
63322	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	The Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. There are no potential alien invasive fish species that could impact on the species’ habitat.	eng
63323	conservation	da Costa, L. & Tweddle, D., 2010	None known.	eng
63323	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63323	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus angolensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Central Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi in Angola.	eng
63323	distribution	da Costa, L. & Tweddle, D., 2010	This species is known from the lower reaches of Kwanza River in Angola. It is possibly also occuring in other neighbouring Atlantic coastal systems.	eng
63323	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus angolensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
63323	habitat	da Costa, L. & Tweddle, D., 2010	Not known but almost certainly found in marginal riverine and floodplain vegetation.	eng
63323	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63323	population	da Costa, L. & Tweddle, D., 2010	No infromation available.	eng
63323	threats	da Costa, L. & Tweddle, D., 2010	A series of hydroelectric dams planned for the Kwanza River is likely to disrupt migration patterns and may have impacts on stability of marginal vegetation, but is unlikely to seriously threaten the species.	eng
63323	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63324	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Management of landuse techniques and control of pollution.	eng
63324	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Limpopo River south to the Mhlatuze River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
63324	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Usually in main channels but in lower catchments this species does enter still lagoons and backwaters in the lower floodplains. Morphological variation suggests two species are present in the Phongolo River - an upper catchment main channel form and a lower catchment floodplain, still water form. Often associated with undercut banks, root stocks and vegetation beds.	eng
63324	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Upper catchments in Swaziland in particular are threatened by sedimentation caused by poor farming techniques and forestry operations. To the north in South Africa industrial pollution and forestry result in a mixture of chemical and sediment pollution.	eng
63325	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River.	eng
63325	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	<em>Mormyrus lacerda</em> occurs in the Upper Zambezi River system and also in the Kafue system.	eng
63325	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Prefers quiet stretches of river channels and deep pools and floodplain lagoons with aquatic vegetation (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) found it to be restricted to the main river channel and larger tributaries and backwaters, in deeper water than other mormyrids. <br/> <br/>Feeds on insect larvae, other small invertebrates and small fish. Spawns in summer during the rainy season.	eng
63325	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The populations are healthy, although the species is not as abundant as the other smaller mormyrids in the same area.	eng
63325	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The species has no immediate threats, although it is specifically targeted by fishermen using hook and line.	eng
63326	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	No protection.	eng
63326	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Longa River, tributary of the upper Zambezi in Angola (Poll 1967).	eng
63326	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	No information	eng
63326	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Only the single type specimen is known.	eng
63326	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63327	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63327	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic from Angola only known from its type locality, at Cunga, in the Lower Kwanza River (Kwanza River).	eng
63327	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63327	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63327	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63328	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Various river health/rehabilitation schemes are in place.	eng
63328	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Limpopo River south to the Phongolo River.	eng
63328	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	Margins of major rivers. A nocturnal species which takes refuge in root stocks, aquatic vegetation and rocky crevices during the day.	eng
63328	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B.E. & Cambray, J., 2007	In South Africa, eastern flowing rivers are generally threatened by over-extraction of water, sedimentation and pollution from varied agricultural and industrial sources.	eng
63329	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63329	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Upper Zambezi River system. Described from the lower part of the Upper Zambezi River, its overall range is uncertain. Photographs in Kramer <em>et al</em>. (2003) show a more slender species than <em>P. castelnaui</em> (Boulenger 1911), and Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) recognised both deep-bodied and slender <em>Pollimyrus</em> species throughout the Upper Zambezi system. Taxonomic study of their collection may help to clarify the distribution.	eng
63329	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	So far recorded only from the Upper Zambezi in an area of mixed habitat with rapids, runs and backwaters.	eng
63329	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Not known.	eng
63329	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None known.	eng
63330	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63330	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Described from the middle Buzi River in central Mozambique. Possibly also in the middle and lower Pungwe river as the two rivers connect in their lower floodplains during the summer floods.	eng
63330	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Margins of the main river and larger stream channels. Associated with bank structure and aquatic vegetation beds.	eng
63330	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Although captured in the subsistence fishery no major impacts identified.	eng
63331	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None.	eng
63331	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Parts of the Limpopo River system in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe. The species appears to be in certain upper tributaries and has a rather unusual fragmented distribution e.g., in the upper Umzingwane (Zimbabwe), Crocodile, Marico, Mogol, Magalakwena (South Africa). In several dams within these regions e.g., Hartebeespoort, Roodeplaat and Donkerpoort Dams.	eng
63331	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Prefers slow flowing sections and pools in rivers. More common in upper tributaries of perennial and some intermittent rivers, thrives in several dams.	eng
63331	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None.	eng
63332	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63332	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in Kunene River (Kuso River) and Okavango River (Cutato River) systems.	eng
63332	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63332	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63332	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63333	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63333	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic from Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) and Catumbela River systems.	eng
63333	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63333	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63333	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are unknown.	eng
63334	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63334	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic from Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.	eng
63334	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63334	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63334	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63335	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63335	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic from Angola where it occurs in the lower reaches of Bengo River (Bengo River, Lake Panguila) and Kwanza River (Kwanza River) systems.	eng
63335	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
63335	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63335	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63336	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Attempts should be made to establish protected areas from which <em>O. niloticus</em> can be excluded and perhaps captive breeding of pure stocks which could be used to restock areas from which this species has disappeared.	eng
63336	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63336	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> is naturally known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Ngami region, Cunene basin, Kafue River, Chambezi River and Bangweulu region. It has been introduced, in 1949, for aquaculture purposes, from Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966) the specimens from Yangambi originated from Katanga. In Cameroon they were stocked in fisheries stations at Yaoundé and also Loum and Noum. Rivers of the Sanaga River basin. Meanwhile, aquaculture abandoned and the species became rare in the rivers, but was reproducing. However, according to FAO (2005) the species is probably not established. The species has also been introduced, for aquaculture purposes, in 1953, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Congo-Brazzaville (Station of Djoumouna) (4°23’S-15°10’E), which is part of the Congo River basin. According to FAO (2005) the species is not established. It has also been introduced, around 1950, based on specimens originating from Katanga but coming from the fisheries station of Kinshasa (Leopoldville), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Libreville, Makokou, Lebamba, Franceville and maybe other places in Gabon. The species was observed in the wild in Libreville and Franceville. According to FAO (2005) species probably established. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.	eng
63336	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue Rivers, as well as the upper Kasai, Lake Bangweulu and the Chambeshi River. It has also been collected from the Revue River in Mozambique (Buzi system), far to the east of its natural distribution and it is possible that this is a relict population (Bell-Cross 1973b). In Zimbabwe, it has been widely distributed through introductions and translocations into many parts of the country. Its introduction into Lake Kariba in 1959 was not particularly successful (Jackson 2000) but it survives in small numbers. It may have colonised the Limpopo River after escaping from the Shashe Dam in Botswana and they have been collected from the Shashe River at Tuli (Minshull) and from a pool downstream of the Shashe/Limpopo confluence (Kleynhans and Hoffman 1992). Also introduced to Komati system in Swaziland (Bills <em>et al</em>. 2004) and spreading to South Africa.	eng
63336	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> is an engybenthic species. The mating territory has a central volcano-shaped mound with a flat or slightly concave top, surrounded by a ditch and vallum, in contrast to <em>Oreochromis mweruensis</em>. <em>Oreochromis macrochir</em> prefers quiet, deep water associated with aquatic vegetation, but has been collected in other habitats as well. It occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. This species feeds on detritus, (blue-green) algae and diatoms. Juveniles also accept small invertebrates and zooplankton, but lose this tendency with age. It is a maternal mouthbrooder.	eng
63336	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Found in quiet waters along river margins and backwaters, in floodplain habitats and impoundments (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds mainly on microscopic foods such as algae, especially diatoms, and detritus. Females mouth brood eggs and fry. Breeds in summer, nests grouped into arenas.	eng
63336	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
63336	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63336	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threats to the species are fisheries, aquaculture and gamefish.	eng
63336	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Threatened by the alien species <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> which is now widely distributed in the Zambezi, Kafue and Limpopo systems.	eng
63337	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Conservation measures are urgently needed and pure stocks should be sought and kept in semi-captivity in areas without <em>O. niloticus</em>.	eng
63337	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The middle Zambezi River and its tributaries from the Cahora Bassa Gorge to the Victoria Falls, the only endemic species in the middle Zambezi.	eng
63337	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	A wide range of fluvial environments and flourished in Lake Kariba and quiet waters of the large rivers until the introduction of <em>O. niloticus</em>. Feeds on algae, especially diatoms, and detritus, and plants, insects and zooplankton. Breeds practically all year (Skelton 2001).	eng
63337	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Rapidly declining because of the introduction of <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em>. Has disappeared completely from parts of Lake Kariba and is decreasing in the river below the Kariba Dam and is likely to disappear from Lake Cahora Bassa since <em>O. niloticus</em> has reached that lake.	eng
63337	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The major threat is the exotic species <em>O. niloticus</em> which is displacing it throughout its range, having been introduced by anglers and aquaculturists.	eng
63338	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
63338	conservation	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	River systems not yet invaded by Nile tilapia must be protected from deliberate and accidental introductions of that species.	eng
63338	distribution	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	Lower Zambezi, Lower Shire and coastal plains from Zambezi delta to Algoa Bay. Occurs southwards to the Bushmans River in the eastern Cape and in the Transvaal in the Limpopo system (Skelton 2001). Widely dispersed beyond this range to inland regions and to the south west and west coastal rivers including the lower Orange and rivers of Namibia. Introduced to tropical and warm temperate localities throughout the world.	eng
63338	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>East coast rivers from the Lower Zambezi system south to the Bushmans system, eastern Cape Province.  South of the Phongolo system.  IT is also widely dispersed throughout inland regions and to the south west and west coastal rivers including the lower Orange and rivers of Namibia.  It has been introduced to tropical and warm temperate localities throughout the world.	eng
63338	habitat	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	Occurs in all but fast-flowing waters; thrives in standing waters. Further south in its range it is most common in blind estuaries and coastal lakes where it tolerates brackish and marine environments. Feeds on algae, especially diatoms, and detritus, large individuals also take insects and other invertebrates. Breeds in summer, females raising multiple broods every 3 to 4 weeks during a season. Males construct a saucer-shaped nest on sandy bottoms: the female mouthbroods the eggs, larvae and small fry. Juveniles shoal in shallow water. Prone to stunting under adverse or crowded conditions (Skelton 2001).	eng
63338	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Tolerates a broad range of temperatures and salinity and is able to survive extreme drought conditions in the water body in which it finds itself during the dry season (Trewavas 1983). Occurs in all but fast-flowing waters and thrives in standing waters. Tolerant of fresh, brackish or marine waters and even higher salinities. Survives low temperatures (below about 15°C) in brackish or marine waters but prefers warmer temperatures (above 22°C). It can tolerate temperatures up to 42 °C (Skelton 1993). It is mainly a bottom feeder with bottom deposits and periphyton providing the bulk of the food (Trewavas 1983). Breeding is seasonal, although for introduced populations in tropical latitudes, breeding occurs throughout the year. Males build spawning pits reaching up to 184 cm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 3-4 days and the female broods the young until about the 22nd day (Trewavas 1983). It breeds in the summer when females may raise multiple broods every 3-4 weeks throughout the season (Skelton 1993).	eng
63338	population	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	Common and widespread through south eastern Africa.	eng
63338	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
63338	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
63338	threats	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	The Nile tilapia, <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em>, is invading its natural range in the Zambezi and Limpopo systems. Hybridisation is occurring in the Limpopo system and pure <em>O. mossambicus</em> are likely to become extirpated in those systems through competition and hybridisation.	eng
63339	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Possibly maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas. Control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>.	eng
63339	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to Lindi, southern Tanzania. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries e.g., the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63339	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of  main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. Has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.	eng
63339	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.	eng
63340	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Possibly maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas. Control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>.	eng
63340	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to Lindi, southern Tanzania. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries e.g., the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
63340	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of  main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. Has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.	eng
63340	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.	eng
63341	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63341	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species native from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene river systems (Kunene River).	eng
63341	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known. Mouth-brooding females.	eng
63341	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63341	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63342	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has little protection other than in Okavango Delta reserves.	eng
63342	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The Upper and Middle Zambezi system, including the Okavango, and in the upper Save-Runde system in Zimbabwe. Specimens from the Mwekera tributary of the Kafue may be a distinct species (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63342	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Occurs in a wide range of habitats, including fringes of rapids, lagoons and aquatic vegetation. Not generally found in small tributaries and is thus a species that prefers larger water bodies than other small cichlids in the Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63342	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Generally abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
63342	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	May possibly be impacted by competition with invading <em>Oreochromis niloticus</em> from fish farms in the catchments.	eng
63343	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The species has little protection other then Okavango Delta reserves.	eng
63343	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	The upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems, also in Lake Kariba and introduced to impoundments in the Middle Zambezi catchment (Skelton 2001).	eng
63343	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Deeper permanent floodplain channels and lagoons (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al</em>. found it mainly in vegetation such as reed thickets fringing main river channels in the Upper Zambezi, although Winemiller (1991) classified it as a lagoon-dwelling diurnal insectivore on the Barotse floodplain. It was scarce in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63343	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Widespread, though never abundant, in permanent floodplain channels.	eng
63343	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None known.	eng
63344	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in game reserves.	eng
63344	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Okavango, Kafue, Upper and Middle Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the Zambezi River and Lake Kariba but not in any of their plateau tributaries.	eng
63344	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Prefers deep, quiet water, slow-flowing channels and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001), and has adapted well to Lake Kariba. Winemiller (1991) classified it as a lagoon-dwelling omnivorous digger.	eng
63344	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Generally sparse in the Zambezi River but has adapted well to Lake Kariba and is one of the most numerous of the larger cichlid species. Uncommon in the Upper Zambezi (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63344	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63345	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63345	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	This species is only present in the Kunene River system.	eng
63345	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63345	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63345	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Major threats are not known.	eng
63346	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63346	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and Lake Kariba (Skelton 2001).	eng
63346	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Prefers deep main river channels and floodplain lagoons with sandy bottoms (Skelton 2001). Small individuals may be found  in floodplain habitats  (Winemiller 1991). Larger specimens inhabit deep pools in the main river channel (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds primarily on snails, bivalves and insect larva (Winemiller 1991, Skelton 2001).	eng
63346	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Widespread and apparently the commonest <em>Sargochromis</em> in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), but scarce in the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2003) and in Lake Kariba.	eng
63346	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63347	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has little protection, other than in some reserves in the Okavango Delta and Kafue National Park.	eng
63347	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). Not found in Upper Zambezi surveys by Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
63347	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Prefers still or slow-flowing water and dense vegetation. Feeds primarily on insects, small snails and other invertebrates (Skelton 2001).	eng
63347	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Not known.	eng
63347	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63348	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	The species is protected in some reserves.	eng
63348	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Headwater reaches of the upper Zambezi, Kafue and Lunagwa systems in Zambia (Skelton, 2001).	eng
63348	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Occurs in a variety of habitats and dams. Feeds on insects, snails and plants. Breeds in spring and early summer.	eng
63348	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Not known.	eng
63348	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63349	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in the Okavango Delta.	eng
63349	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems.	eng
63349	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Restricted almost entirely to the edges of main river channels and deep connected lagoons in fringing vegetation (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Winemiller (1991) classed the species as a river dwelling crepuscular piscivore.	eng
63349	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Fairly common, though never abundant.	eng
63349	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63350	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63350	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The Okavango Delta and the upper Zambezi floodplains (Skelton 2001).	eng
63350	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Rivers and floodplain habitats.	eng
63350	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	No data but apparently very scarce.	eng
63350	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63351	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63351	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.	eng
63351	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is known from the Upper Congo River basin, from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region, from the Chambishi River and from the Upemba basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River, the Okavango River and swamps, the upper Zambezi River, the  Kafue River and the Luangwa River. It is possibly present in coastal rivers near Mossamedes, Angola. The species has been introduced to the Shashi-Limpopo River.	eng
63351	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region, from the Chambishi River and from the Upemba basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi, Kafue,  Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi, it occurs only in the lower reaches below Sioma Falls down to Victoria Falls and is apparently absent from the extensive Barotse floodplains (Winemiller 1991, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004), although Winemiller assigned two juveniles from the Kabompo River to this species. It was introduced into the Shashe Dam in Botswana and has been collected downstream in the Shashe River in Zimbabwe (Minshull 1987) and it might therefore occur elsewhere in the Limpopo system.	eng
63351	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is a demersal species. The habitat preferences are strongly influenced by the presence or absence of the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em>:  if the tigerfish is absent, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is found in open waters and sometimes in fast-flowing rocky habitats; in areas where the tigerfish occurs, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is relegated to lagoons, backwaters and marshy shallow areas. It feeds on small fish, insects and snails (de Moor and Bruton 1988). This species constructs a sandscrape nest and incubates the eggs in the mouth.	eng
63351	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Serranochromis thumbergi</em> is a demersal species. The habitat preferences are strongly influenced by the presence or absence of the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em>: if the tigerfish is absent, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is found in open waters and sometimes in fast-flowing rocky habitats; in areas where the tigerfish occurs, <em>S. thumbergi</em> is relegated to lagoons, backwaters and marshy shallow areas. It feeds on small fish, insects, crabs and snails (de Moor and Bruton 1988). This species constructs a sandscrape nest and incubates the eggs in the mouth.	eng
63351	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63351	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species has a widespread though patchy distribution, but locally common in suitable habitats.	eng
63351	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
63351	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63352	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63352	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species only known from the Kunene river system.	eng
63352	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	It prefers rocky habitats. Biology is not known.	eng
63352	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63352	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63353	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63353	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species only known from the Kunene river system.	eng
63353	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	It prefers sandy habitats with vegetation. Biology is not known.	eng
63353	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63353	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63354	conservation	Bills, R., 2007	Control of ground water use by water management authorities is essential. The movement of fishes around Namibia in general and introductions into isolated sink holes specifically must be prevented by nature conservation authorities. Programmes for controlling alien fishes should be considered. Possibly additional benign introductions should be considered.	eng
63354	distribution	Bills, R., 2007	Naturally occurs only in Lake Guinas, central Namibia. Benign introductions to Lake Otjikoto and several nearby farm dams (Skelton 1987, 2001).	eng
63354	habitat	Bills, R., 2007	Sink hole lake, substrate is rocky ledges. Depth range is broad; observed breeding down to 67 m.	eng
63354	threats	Bills, R., 2007	Two major threats are extraction of groundwater for farming and the potential for introducing alien tilapiines. <em>Oreochromis mossambicus</em> is the largest threat as it is presently in Lake Otjikoto and, if introduced, it thought likely to directly compete for food and space and possibly act as a predator. There is also a potential threat of introgression from the introduction of <em>T. sparrmanii</em> which is known to interbreed with <em>T. guinasana</em> and produce fertile offspring.	eng
63355	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Coastal wetland conservation issues need to be considered when coastal developments are planned. The range of this species is protected in some reserves.	eng
63355	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	This species has been recorded from Réunion, Palau and the Ryukyu Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Within Africa it occurs in the Mzimkulu River, central KwaZulu-Natal north to Kosi Bay, northern, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
63355	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	This species is found in vegetated margins of small streams entering coastal lake systems and coastal lakes. It appears to be only found in freshwaters.	eng
63355	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	No information available.	eng
63355	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Any coastal developments and water abstraction affecting coastal wetlands would threaten this species.	eng
63356	conservation	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	The species has some protection in small reserves.	eng
63356	distribution	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	East Coast rivers from Malawi (Lower Shire tributary of the Lower Zambezi) and Mozambique south to the Swartvlei region of Western Cape (Skelton 2001).	eng
63356	habitat	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	Lives on the bottom of riverine pools amongst cover such as cobbles or vegetation. Feeds on bottom-living  insects  and small invertebrates. Breeds in early summer (Skelton 2001).	eng
63356	population	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	A common, widespread species.	eng
63356	threats	Cambray, J. & Swartz, E., 2007	The species is widespread and thus there are no major threats, although local populations can be affected by water abstraction, pollution or sedimentation.	eng
63357	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through enivironmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.	eng
63357	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Buzi River in central Mozambique, possibly in neighbouring Zimbabwe. May also be in the upper reaches of the adjacent Pungwe River.	eng
63357	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Rocky substrates and fast flows in both small headwater streams through to large rivers of the Buzi system.	eng
63357	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	There are fish poisoning and gold mining (sedimentation) impacts in localised areas of the Buzi system.	eng
63358	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63358	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species described from Angola ('Interior of Benguella') and also occurring in the Kwanza River (Lucala River).	eng
63358	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but occurs in small rivers with running water. Biology is not known in detail, but species of this genus are adapted to live in rapids.	eng
63358	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63358	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63359	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63359	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola, where the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River at Dondo) and Bengo River (at Cabiri) systems.	eng
63359	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology is not known.	eng
63359	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63359	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63360	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63360	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Lower Kwanza River (Kwanza River) system.	eng
63360	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63360	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63360	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63361	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63361	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	In Angola, the species is present at the Cabinda province and Kwanza river system.	eng
63361	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63361	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63361	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
63362	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection other than the inaccessibility of much of its habitat.	eng
63362	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Okavango and upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
63362	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Occurs in rocky rapids of large rivers, sampled by Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) at Sioma rapids and Katombora rapids above Victoria Falls. Feeds on fish (Skelton 2001).	eng
63362	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Common in its preferred habitat.	eng
63362	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63363	conservation	Bills, R., 2007	Control of water extraction. Collections of fishes regulated by permits.	eng
63363	distribution	Bills, R., 2007	Known only from the type locality: Aigamas Cave, Otavi, Namibia. The pool is 18 m by 2.5 m in area, and 30 to 52 m deep (Proudlove 2006).	eng
63363	habitat	Bills, R., 2007	Subterranean waters of the Aigamas cave system. Rocky substrates. Water temperature is around 25°C and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth (Proudlove 2006).	eng
63363	threats	Bills, R., 2007	Depletion of ground water; the cave lake has been used as a water supply in an otherwise very dry area (Proudlove 2006). Pumping of water has reduced the depth of the lake from 70 m to 50 m since 1921 (Skelton 1990, Bruton 1995). Potentially exploitation from aquarists.	eng
63364	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	None.	eng
63364	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Lower Buzi River, central Mozambique.	eng
63364	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Rocky areas in the lower Buzi system, associated with aquatic ferns.	eng
63364	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Unknown, possibly affected by subsistence fishermen (gill nets and hook and line)	eng
63365	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Conservation of upper catchments. Control of alien fish stocking and forstry operations where possible. Consideration of dam releases for perennial flows.	eng
63365	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Distributed from the Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, through Swaziland north to the Sabie River, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Unusual northern distribution absent from the Crocodile and Nkomati Rivers, present in the Mlumati and Malalotja Rivers. Interspersed with <em>C. pretoriae</em> but does not occur sympatrically with that species.	eng
63365	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Found in upper catchments in fast flows of rocky habitats. Typically in the fastest and often shallowest riffles. A few populations in Mpumalanga are known from low-veld sections of the Sabie and Incomati Rivers.	eng
63365	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Sedimentation of upper catchments from forestry and agriculture. Alien predators such as trout. In South Africa flow modification has impacted this species.	eng
63366	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Habitat improvement is needed over a broad area of Mpumalanga and Swaziland. Improved farming and forestry practices should be encouraged. Perhaps this could be achieved by conservancy agreements with riparian owners and conservation authorities.	eng
63366	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Listed in Skelton (2001) as occurring as two distinct populations. The southern population occurs in the Incomati and Phongolo Rivers in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. The northern population occurs around the Pungwe and lower Zambezi Rivers. These two populations are considered as two distinct species here. <em>Chiloglanis emarginatus</em> was described from the Incomati system near Carolina and so the Southern population is assessed as this species.	eng
63366	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Occurs in larger streams and rivers over cobbles and rocks in deeper water compared to <em>C. anoterus</em> and <em>C. pretoriae</em>.	eng
63366	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Habitat degradation from water extraction, regular flows from dams, sedimentation from agro-forestry activities. Extinct from its type locality, the Lekkerloop stream, due to excessive water extraction by farmers during the dry season.	eng
63367	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	Plans to develop HEP and dam schmes need to consider all species that require seasonal and strong flows.	eng
63367	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kwando rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
63367	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Skelton (2001) reports the species from rocky rapids and fringing vegetation in the mainstream current. In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported it from grounded vegetation mats in the main river channel, and along sandy cliff river banks when the river was overflowing onto the floodplain. Similarly, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported the species from over-topping banks of the Okavango River in the Panhandle area, while the species was not found in the delta region. In rocky southern rapids of the Upper Zambezi a more robust form was recognised that may be distinct, while in northern Zambezi tributaries at least two clearly distinct species were recognised (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004). Feeds on small invertebrates and algae from the surface of rocks and plants.	eng
63367	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Common in suitable habitats.	eng
63367	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	Regulation of water flows are likely to have major impacts on all <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Plans to develop dams and HEP schemes in the upper Okavango will thus threaten this species.	eng
63368	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	River health programmes aimed at improving the conservation of aquatic habitats should be supported. Widespread establishment of conservancies may also help in conserving aquatic habitats.	eng
63368	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Phongolo River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north into the Limpopo River in southern Zimbabwe.	eng
63368	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Cobble and mixed sand through to large rock habitats of larger streams and rivers. Have been found in non-flowing pools in the Limpopo; possibly the only southern <em>Chiloglanis</em> that does this.	eng
63368	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2007	Sedimentation of habitats from varied forestry and agricultural activities affect this and all other <em>Chiloglanis</em> species. Chemical pollution from industries, large towns and agriculture also locally affect <em>Chiloglanis</em>.	eng
63369	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Improved conservation of aquatic habitats through river health programmes and conservancies is perhaps the best way to improve the conservation of these species.	eng
63369	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Incomati River system in Swaziland north to the Limpopo system. Possibly present in the northern Limpopo tributaries in southern Zimbabwe. However, many northern museum records for this species appear to be incorrect.	eng
63369	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Typically occurs in riffle habitats, bases of water falls in fast flowing often shallow water.	eng
63369	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Degradation of habitats is the major threat and the species has disappeared from its type locality around Pretoria, South Africa. Threats are however, localised around major settlements and the species is widely distributed.	eng
63370	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63370	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species endemic to Angola and only known from the Longa River and Caimbambo River systems.	eng
63370	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63370	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63370	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63371	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63371	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Species endemic to Angola and only known from its type locality, Cokema River, in the Kwanza River system.	eng
63371	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63371	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63371	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63372	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63372	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.	eng
63372	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.	eng
63372	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
63372	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63373	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63373	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.	eng
63373	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.	eng
63373	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
63373	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63374	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63374	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene and Kafue systems.	eng
63374	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Favours fast-flowing rocky habitats and is the only <em>Synodontis</em> species found in rapids, where it lives in crevices (Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63374	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Fairly common in fast-flowing rocky stretches of river.	eng
63374	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63375	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63375	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.	eng
63375	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.	eng
63375	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
63375	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63376	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63376	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.	eng
63376	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.	eng
63376	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
63376	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63377	conservation	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
63377	distribution	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Distribution uncertain because of taxonomic difficulties.	eng
63377	habitat	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Uncertain because of taxonomic difficulty.	eng
63377	population	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	Unknown because of taxonomic uncertainty.	eng
63377	threats	Marshall, B.E. & Tweddle, D., 2007	None known.	eng
63378	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63378	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
63378	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Paraillia occidentalis</em> is known from Boma, lower Congo River basin. Elsewhere, is known from the Ogowe, Djoungou, Kouilou, Loeme, and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region. It is also known from the lower Cuanza (Angola).	eng
63378	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Paraillia occidentalis</em> is found in Boma, Lower Congo River basin, as well as in the Ogowe, Djoungou, Kouilou, Loeme, and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species is present in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River) and Chiloango River (Lukula River, Luali River) systems.	eng
63378	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
63378	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species, confined to large and moderate rivers. Sometimes specimens penetrate estuarine waters. Biology is not known.	eng
63378	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63378	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63378	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63378	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63379	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63379	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola, where it occurs in the Kwanza River system (Upper Kwanza).	eng
63379	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63379	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63379	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63380	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63380	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) and Bengo River systems.	eng
63380	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Biology and preferred habitat are not known.	eng
63380	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63380	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	Threats are not known.	eng
63381	conservation	Da Costa, L., 2007	The species has no protection.	eng
63381	distribution	Da Costa, L., 2007	Endemic to Angola and only known from the Kwanza River (Cokema River) system.	eng
63381	habitat	Da Costa, L., 2007	Preferred habitat is not known, but occurs in the upper reaches of the rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
63381	population	Da Costa, L., 2007	Population size is not known.	eng
63381	threats	Da Costa, L., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
63383	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
63383	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None.	eng
63383	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Low-veld sections of east coast rivers from southern KwaZulu-Natal to northern Mozambique. The identity of specimens from northern Mozambique border and inland up the middle Zambezi need to be verified.	eng
63383	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire River and Lake Chuita in Malawi. Also present in the Ruvuma River (Tanzania-Mozambique border). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>In southern Africa generally confined to coastal rivers and lakes in the lowveld and coastal plain regions (Skelton 1993).	eng
63383	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Occurs in vegetated pools of streams and rivers and lake margins (Skelton 1993).  Favours clear slow-flowing streams and rivers (Bruton <em>et al. 1982). Feeds on aquatic insects and other small organisms (Skelton 1993), and algae (Bruton <em>et al. 1982). Breeds in the summer and the eggs are laid on submerged vegetation. Reaches maturity within a year (Skelton 1993).<br/>Small species, max. size 70 mm (Skelton 1993).</em></em>	eng
63383	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	Quiet, usually vegetated sections of rivers and lakes in the low-veld, coastal plains. Usually abundant where encountered.	eng
63383	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Common in Lake Chiuta (Tweddle 1983). The species in general is rare in the marshes, but is found in small quantities in the main river channel and is common in tributaries (River Mwanza) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
63383	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B.E., 2007	None.	eng
63383	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	There is a potential impact of aquarium trade as the species is suitable for aquariums and garden ponds (Skelton 1993).This species has not commercial importance (Tweddle 1983)  at present.	eng
63384	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2007	Some known habitats are protected in Kafue National Park, others, e.g., in Caprivi Strip, are unprotected.	eng
63384	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2007	Temporary pools, swamps and ditches in the drainage systems and floodplains of the Kafue and Upper Zambezi rivers, Zambia and Namibia (Caprivi Strip) (Skelton 2001, Wildekamp 2004, Tweddle <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63384	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2007	Occupies temporary habitats that dry up annually. Eggs are laid in the mud and hatch when the pools refill in the next rainy season. The fish grow to maturity in a few weeks. Males display to attract females, pair off and spawn, grasping the female by folding over the large dorsal and anal fins. Spawning occurs daily for an extended period, a few eggs being laid at a time. The adults die when the water body dries out. Killifish are aggressive predators on insects and aquatic invertebrates.	eng
63384	population	Tweddle, D., 2007	Found in at least 12 sites (Wildekamp 2004) and common in the pools where it is found.	eng
63384	threats	Tweddle, D., 2007	Habitat destruction by human activities, including pollution, road construction, drainage for agriculture. Collection by aquarists is a threat to populations outside reserves.	eng
63385	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Management of the waters of Banhine National Park and adjacent areas needs to be undertaken so that not all islated pools are fished during the dry season. This will allow some pools to 'innoculate' new systems when the rains arrive in November.	eng
63385	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Only known from a few sites on the south-eastern edge of Banhine National Park, Mozambique. This is the northern-most catchment within the Limpopo River system.	eng
63385	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Found in isolated pools within a single non-flowing river channel. Collected in both vegetated clear water pools through to turbid muddy substrate pools. The river is seasonal and flows in the wet season into the main Banhine wetlands, a large swamp lake system.	eng
63385	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	The Banhine region is the driest part of Mozambique receiving under 400 mm of rain per year. Isolated pools are also fished by local residents and are extremely vulnerable.	eng
63386	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Only known from a few middle-order streams within the Mozambique section of the Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area.	eng
63386	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	The streams of this area are impacted by subsistence fishermen who use local fish poisons and there is gold mining activity. The latter causes increased sediment loads and potentially mercury poisoning from gold extraction methods.	eng
63386	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Vegetated margins of medium sized rocky streams.	eng
63386	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Both fish poisoning and gold mining are illegal activities within the Chimanimani TFCA. Enforcement of laws and education of rural people is needed.	eng
63387	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Improved aquatic habitat conservation is needed - perhaps through river health programmes and the establishment of conservancies.	eng
63387	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Waterberg Mountains (Magalakwena, Mogol, Palala Rivers) form the main range. Isolated records from the Molopo area need to be verified.	eng
63387	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Small streams but out of flows. Typically found associated with banks, root stocks and marginal vegetation.	eng
63387	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Not abundant where encountered.	eng
63387	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Water abstraction, habitat degradation and sedimentation.	eng
63388	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Education of rural fishermen and law enforcement.	eng
63388	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Rovma River system in Mozambique and Tanzania. Only collected in the mainstream of the Lugenda River (southern Rovuma system). Presence in Malawi is uncertain.	eng
63388	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Associated with marginal vegetation of main river channels.	eng
63388	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Rare where encountered.	eng
63388	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Uncertain. Possibly poisoning of isolated pools in the riverine floodplain.	eng
63389	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Surveys are needed urgently to assess the current status for this species. Areas suitable for conservation actions and possible sanctuary areas need to be identified. Possibly some streams need to have alien species removed to allow Kneria to either recover or for restocking with <em>Kneria</em> from adjacent stream populations. As part of this process an assessment of the genetic structuring of Kneria populations would be desirable. Use of water resources by riparian land users needs to be carefully controlled.	eng
63389	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Known only from a few tributary streams in the upper Crocodile (Incomati) system near Lydenburg, Mpumalanga South Africa.	eng
63389	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	<em>Kneria</em> occur in small streams, usually in rocky habitats. Associated with marginal vegetation and root stocks in slower flows.	eng
63389	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2007	Trout are present in most of the streams where <em>Kneria</em> occur. Some populations have already gone extinct due to predation from trout. Water extraction and weirs have resulted in some streams running dry.	eng
63394	conservation	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	No conservation plan is in place to assist in the recovery of this species.	eng
63394	distribution	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	This species only occurs in the Tradouw catchment of the Breede River system (Moeras River in Barrydale that continues into the Tradouw River in Tradouw's Pass) (Swartz 2005).	eng
63394	habitat	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Not much is known about the ecology of this species. They occur in pools and deep runs in water that is slightly peat stained. There are no other indigenous fish species that occur with them, but they have survived living with <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> thus far in most of its range.	eng
63394	population	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	The distribution of this taxon can be split into two populations, the one occurring above the town of Barrydale in the Moeras River and the other occurring in Tradouw's Pass. They seem to be isolated from each other at least in the summer months during low flow periods, due to excessive water extraction, the presence of alien fishes and pollution from the town Barrydale.	eng
63394	threats	Swartz, E. & Impson, D., 2007	Alien fish species is a major threat and <em>Lepomis macrochirus</em> and <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> occur throughout most of the range of this species. <em>Micropterus dolomieu</em> has eliminated this taxon from the middle and lower reaches of Tradou's Pass and they have been recorded from above Tradou's pass as well. This situation needs to be monitored and catchment-wide eradication of alien fishes is needed to secure this species. Pollution from the town Barrydale is contributing nutrient enrichment to Tradou's Pass and may have caused the extinction of this taxon just below the town. Just above the town, the Moeras River is being bulldozed and channelised, leaving only a very short section above this area that is relatively unspoilt. However, the town's water extraction point is above the distribution of this species, making their future survival in the Moeras River unsure.	eng
63400	conservation	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Two of streams more or less protected and populations thought to be healthy and stable (Daigle pers. comm 1995). Most populations are within a state forest so could be fairly well protected/managed.	eng
63400	distribution	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Endemic to the United States and known from only two counties in Florida.	eng
63400	habitat	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Clean acidic streams and small lakes of the Blackwater River drainage in northwestern Florida. Also, boggy streams and seepages with muck-bottomed pools (Dunkle 2000).	eng
63400	population	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63400	threats	Abbott, J.C., 2007	Excessive clear-cutting.	eng
63401	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	In Zambia, part of this species distribution falls within Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. Research into this species biology and ecology, and potential threats are needed, as well as monitoring of the populations. Environmental education of rural people and enforcement of laws is needed in certain areas, as well as maintenance of habitat.	eng
63401	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.	eng
63401	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
63401	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is known from lowveld reaches of tropical southeast coast rivers from the lower Zambezi to the Phongolo, and possibly into the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There are unconfirmed records from the upper Zambezi, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu) systems (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In Malawi, this species occurs in the Lower Shire river and its tributaries (Ruo and Thangadzi rivers). Also reported to occur in pools in the Thangadzi river (Lower Shire tributary - this river flows during the rains for a few days therefore this species may have ascended the river during this time) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Known from low-veld reaches of the larger east-coast rivers, from the Zambezi south to the Phongolo. Unverified records are known from several This species is known from upper Zambezi regions e.g. lower Kafue.	eng
63401	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is known from lowveld reaches of tropical east coast rivers from the lower Zambezi to the Phongolo. There are also unconfirmed records from the upper Zambezi, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu) systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
63401	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire river and its tributaries (Ruo and Thangadzi rivers). Also reported to occur in pools in  the Thangadzi river (lower Shire tributary - this river flows during the rains for a few days therefore this species may have ascended the river during this time) (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Low reaches of the tropical east coast rivers from Lower Zambezi to the Phongolo.  Unconfirmed reports from the Upper Zambezi system, Kafue, Nata and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
63401	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It favours placid waters such as pans and large pools. <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> feeds on insects. (Skelton 1993).	eng
63401	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is usually collected in still, vegetated waters associated with main river channels of large rivers, and favours marginal pools and lagoons which may be isolated from the main channel. <em>Barbus afrohamiltoni</em> feeds on insects. (Skelton 1993, 2001). This species is reported to be common in gill net catches in the Ruo and Shire rivers (Tweddle and Willoughby, 1979).	eng
63401	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Occurs in the main river and is uncommon in the marshes.  It prefers placid waters such as large pools. This species is reported to be common in gill net catches in the Ruo and Shire rivers (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).  Feeds on insects (see Skelton 1993; 2001).	eng
63401	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Appears to be numerous in certain areas for reasons not yet known (Bell-Cross 1976).	eng
63401	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	For the majority of this species range, no information is available on population trends. In eastern Africa, it appears to be numerous in certain areas for reasons not yet known (Bell-Cross 1976).	eng
63401	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
63401	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	In central and eastern Africa, no major threats are known. In southern Africa, poisoning and netting of isolated pools is practised in some regions.	eng
63401	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
63401	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Overfishing. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).	eng
63402	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Listed as a Category 1 National Protected Plant in China.	eng
63402	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The species has a very limited distribution in Kyrgyzstan and is known from only a very restricted area in China (Ge <em>et al.</em> 2005). It may occur in Russia (see species distribution map in Flora of China checklist, TROPICOS database http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html).	eng
63402	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The number of individuals in Kyrgyzstan is 3,000 to 4,000.	eng
63402	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include mining, fossil exploration, poor regeneration and natural hazards.	eng
63403	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to central Asia.	eng
63403	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The number of trees in Uzbekistan is in decline.	eng
63403	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Main threats are grazing, collection of fruit for almond oil and poor regeneration (intermittent fruiting).	eng
63404	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to east Kazakhstan: Altay Mt range: Kalba range, Narym and Tarbagatai Mts. The Extent of Occurrence is less than <sup>100km</sup>.	eng
63404	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Used for almond oil production.	eng
63404	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include cutting, habitat reduction, collection of fruit and flowers (particularly for international women’s day).	eng
63405	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The wild apricot is considered very rare in all four countries where it naturally occurs. In Kazakhstan it is only known from three localities; Talgar, Turgen and Torkulak.	eng
63405	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats to the species, the origin of all cultivated apricots, include construction, development of tourism resorts, cutting for fuel wood, harvesting of fruit and the collection of germplasm by both national and international plant breeding companies.	eng
63406	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The species has a very restricted range in central Asia (Tien Shan). In Kazakhstan it only occurs between the Kaskelen and Talgar gorges where individuals are sparsely distributed.	eng
63406	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In meadows, on hills, along streams. Shrub, typically 0.50 to 1.0m (sometimes to 1.8m) tall (see <a href="http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/russia/atraphaxis.shtml".</a>).	eng
63406	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Expanding tourism and recreational activities threaten the area.	eng
63407	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to the Ili river basin in Kazakhstan and China. Occurs from 600 to 2,000m in China.	eng
63407	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The sub-populations are small and fragmented.	eng
63407	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include water extraction, cutting and fire.	eng
63408	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
63408	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A narrow endemic restricted to central Kazakhstan in the Kent and Karkaraly mountains.	eng
63408	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A very scare and sporadic species.	eng
63408	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although it exists in protected areas it is still threatened by tourism, grazing and natural fires.	eng
63409	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A narrow relict endemic restricted to three river basins (Kokpa, Tekes, Bayantol and Narynkol) in one mountain range.	eng
63409	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Declines in the extent of habitat have been observed, primarily due to fire.	eng
63409	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Fire.	eng
63410	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although known from four localities, including the Siberian lowlands of Kustanai province and the Chingiz Tau mountains in eastern Kazakhstan, the species has a very restricted area of occupancy (<10 km²). The total population is less than 1,000 individual trees and displays poor regeneration.	eng
63410	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The total population is less than 1,000 individual trees and displays poor regeneration.	eng
63410	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Poor regeneration.	eng
63411	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63411	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Zoutpansberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa.	eng
63411	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63411	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63411	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63412	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63412	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Lakeside, Cape Peninsula, South Africa.&#160;It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63412	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygentated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63412	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63412	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63413	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63413	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at York, North-eastern Cape, South Africa. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63413	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63413	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63413	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat.	eng
63414	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63414	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Gordon Falls, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63414	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63414	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63414	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63415	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63415	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63415	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	<em>Burnupia mooiensis</em> is mainly a South African species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality at Mooi River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa.<br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63415	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Burnupia mooiensis</em> is mainly a South African species. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.	eng
63415	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits rivers.	eng
63415	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available.	eng
63415	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63415	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63415	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available.	eng
63415	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63416	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63416	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Karkloof stream northwest of Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout	eng
63416	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63416	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63416	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63417	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63417	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality, Bishopstowe Road, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63417	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63417	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63417	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63418	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63418	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Umgeni River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63418	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63418	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63418	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63419	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63419	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Ebb en Floed, Port Elizabeth, eastern Cape, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63419	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63419	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63419	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63420	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63420	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Mooi River, Potchefstroom area, Northwest Province, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63420	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63420	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63420	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63421	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63421	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	The type locality for this species is Botswana, subfossil at Witkop. Records by Connolly (1939) include Great Namaqualand (Northern Cape Province, South Africa), Kamanyab in Namibia and Ngamiland in Botswana (Brown 1994). <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63421	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63421	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63421	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat	eng
63422	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63422	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63422	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	<em>Burnupia verreauxi</em> is mainly a South African species.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality at Constance, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.	eng
63422	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Burnupia verreauxi</em> is mainly a South African species. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.	eng
63422	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits rivers.	eng
63422	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
63422	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63422	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63422	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available.	eng
63422	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63423	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63423	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Mooi River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa. <br/><br/>It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
63423	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	This genus is generally found in well-oxygenated water, especially on stones in streams and at lake edges (Brown 1994).	eng
63423	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63423	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available, but habitat loss and degradation could be a likely threat.	eng
63424	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63424	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
63424	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ferrissia burnupi</em> occurs in South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63424	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia burnupi</em> occurs in South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is confirmed only from the type locality at Equeefa River, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because the species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63424	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits rivers and streams.	eng
63424	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
63424	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63424	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63424	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63424	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
63425	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
63425	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia cawstoni</em> is known from South Africa, and possibly DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  There is a record of the species from DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Mooi River River at Potchefsroom, Northwest Province, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63425	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in rivers. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
63425	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63425	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
63426	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63426	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Umtwalumi near Port Shepstone, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63426	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63426	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63426	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63427	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63427	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Known only from the type locality: Black River at Maitland, Western Cape, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63427	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Genus found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63427	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information.	eng
63427	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known, but habitat degradation/loss is a likely threat.	eng
63428	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63428	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Brack Kloof River near Grahamstown, eastern Cape, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63428	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63428	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63428	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63429	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63429	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
63429	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ferrissia fontinalis</em> is recorded from South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo (at Katanga).	eng
63429	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia fontinalis</em> is recorded from South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Ranjesfontein, Pretoria district, Gauteng, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63429	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits rivers and streams.	eng
63429	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
63429	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63429	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63429	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63429	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
63430	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63430	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality near Rikatla, at the mouth of Komati (Incomati) River near present day Maputo, Mozambique. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63430	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63430	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63430	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63431	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63431	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Lake Chrissie, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63431	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. Lake Chrissie (type locality) is ephemeral.	eng
63431	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63431	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63432	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63432	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at South Coast Junction, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63432	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63432	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63432	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63433	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63433	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Zambezi River near Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63433	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63433	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63433	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63434	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63434	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality at Zambezi River near Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
63434	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels.	eng
63434	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63434	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known of, but habitat degradation and loss is a likely threat.	eng
63435	conservation	Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63435	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
63435	distribution	Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is known from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Tunduma in Tanzania (Brown 1994), and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Mazabuka (research station) near the Kafue river and near Mpika (town) in Zambia. The species distribution is very poorly known and more research is needed.	eng
63435	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. Detailed mapping of distribution not possible due to lack of data.	eng
63435	habitat	Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63435	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
63435	population	Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63435	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
63435	threats	Curtis, B., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63435	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
63436	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2007	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.	eng
63436	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from Angola north and south plateau, and Namibia: possibly present in the Cuvelai streams draining into Etosha Pan.	eng
63436	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2007	It is found in permanent and seasonal rivers/streams or pools in streambeds with aquatic vegetation.	eng
63436	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
63436	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2007	No information available.	eng
63437	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63437	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63437	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Bulinus depressus</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.	eng
63437	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Bulinus depressus</em> occurs in southeastern DRC, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Zambia (Lake Bengweulu region), South Africa (Limpopo Province westwards to the Orange (Gariep) and Vaal River basins. It is also known from Namibia and Botswana (Okavango River and Delta and East Caprivi).	eng
63437	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Inhabits rivers, pools and lakes, as well as temporary marshes, reservoirs and earth dams.	eng
63437	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species occurs in rivers, pools and lakes. Also found in temporary marshes, reservoirs and earth dams.	eng
63437	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread. This species is common in the Okavango delta.	eng
63437	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
63437	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63437	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
63438	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63438	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern and central highveld plateau, lower half of the Drakensberg escarpment and the eastern Cape, South Africa (Appleton 1996, Brown 1994). It is not found on the lowlands of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpulumanga Provinces.	eng
63438	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species occurs on vegetation and stones in rivers and streams (Brown 1994).	eng
63438	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63438	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63439	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63439	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63439	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
63439	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from DRC and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present near Kinshasa in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs on the coastal plain of Angola.	eng
63439	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found among aquatic vegetation in lakes, marshes and rivers.	eng
63439	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found among aquatic vegetation in lakes, marshes and rivers.	eng
63439	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63439	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63439	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63439	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63440	conservation	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kaunda, E., Kristensen, T.K., Mailosi, A. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63440	conservation	E. Kaunda & A. Mailosi. W. Darwall., 2003	No information available.	eng
63440	distribution	E. Kaunda & A. Mailosi. W. Darwall., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found from Mozambique to South East Transvaal.	eng
63440	distribution	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kaunda, E., Kristensen, T.K., Mailosi, A. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Malawi, South Africa and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Mozambique, southeastern Mpumalanga and the coastal region of north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (where critical separation from <em>Lake junodi</em> is neccessary).	eng
63440	habitat	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kaunda, E., Kristensen, T.K., Mailosi, A. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in slow flowing and standing water with abundant plant growth.	eng
63440	habitat	E. Kaunda & A. Mailosi. W. Darwall., 2003	No information available.	eng
63440	population	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kaunda, E., Kristensen, T.K., Mailosi, A. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63440	population	E. Kaunda & A. Mailosi. W. Darwall., 2003	No information available.	eng
63440	threats	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kaunda, E., Kristensen, T.K., Mailosi, A. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63440	threats	E. Kaunda & A. Mailosi. W. Darwall., 2003	No information available.	eng
63441	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63441	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63441	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in South Africa, Namibia. Democratic Republic of Congo at Katanga.	eng
63441	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is mostly known from South Africa, but has also been reported from DRC and Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in  DRC at Katanga.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the coastal areas of southern South Africa from Port St Johns (Eastern Cape) to Mtubatuba (KwaZulu-Natal) (Brown 1994). Outlying records from Ovamboland (Namibia) and Lake Albert (Uganda) are doubtful.	eng
63441	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in permanent water bodies.	eng
63441	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Only found in permanent water bodies.	eng
63441	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63441	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63441	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
63441	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
63442	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of.	eng
63442	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. The type locality for this species is Komati River estuary at Rikatla, Mozambique in 1922. It is not known whether this area has been properly sampled since so the species may still be extant. It may occur in coastal waters further up and down the coast (Appleton pers. comm.).	eng
63442	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Very little is known about the species. The genus is found in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
63442	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63442	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known. However, habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
63443	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63443	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63443	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in Zambia, Lundazi Tembwe near Chipata.	eng
63443	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2007	This species is reported only from the type locality (in early 1960's), Lundazi Tembwe, near Chipata in Zambia.	eng
63443	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
63443	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Unknown.	eng
63443	population	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63443	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63443	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
63443	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Only reported from the type locality.	eng
63444	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of.	eng
63444	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known from the original specimens collected near Kokstad in eastern Cape province (South Africa) (last seen in this area before 1939). Davis and Brown have surveyed the area and not found the species; one area of suitable habitat was found to be polluted with oil and the surrounding fields were heavily grazed and the habitat had been trampled (Davis 1981). It was collected again in 1999 in a stream near the coast of eastern Cape province (M. Bursey and D. Herbet, pers. comm.). This habitat is very different from those visited by Davis (1981) and may indicate a wider distribution for the species than is currently known.	eng
63444	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	It is found in saline, brackish and freshwaters.	eng
63444	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63444	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Oil pollution and trampling of suitable habitat by cattle threaten this species. Species of genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.	eng
63445	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and ecology would be valuable.	eng
63445	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	This species occurs in South Africa (Western Cape Province) at De Kelders and Stilbaai and possibly in-between (this needs to be confirmed).	eng
63445	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	This species is amphibious, associated with perennial freshwater streams and small rivers. It is tolerant of low salinity and brief desiccation.	eng
63445	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63445	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	Species of genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia </span>are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles. In the Stilbaai area there is a potential for pollution and habitat degradation from the the offshore gas-drilling operation. There is also intensive residential and recreational development in this region.	eng
63446	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of.	eng
63446	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The species is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Originally collected in the 1930s but was found again in 1978 between the towns of Empangeni and Gingindlovu in three separate rivers (Davis 1981), and also in Umkomaas River (1939 type locality) south of Durban. There is the possibility that the species may occur outside these recorded locations as the region has not been fully surveyed.	eng
63446	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is primarily amphibious on damp mud slopes shaded by vegetation and in fresh water streams.	eng
63446	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63446	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The Umkomaas River is threatened by a paper mill which is polluting the river. Empangeni is part of one of the fastest developing industrial and mining growth centres of South Africa which is destroying habitat.<br/>Species of genus <em>Tomichia</em> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.	eng
63447	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63447	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa; the type locality is from ‘Namaqualand' , northern Cape, South Africa. Davis (1981) found the species again at the type locality, a spring (seepage) at Stinkfontaine, and at a second small spring (23m long, 0.6m wide) at the town of Lekkersiung in 1978. Davis searched other similar springs in the same area and did not find the species anywhere else.	eng
63447	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	It is found in freshwater-aquatic with some tendency towards being amphibious.	eng
63447	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Numerous at the two locations cited by Davis (1981).	eng
63447	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	There are no known specific threats to the springs. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet sesonal cycles.	eng
63448	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of.	eng
63448	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to a limited area of the southern Cape coastal strip west of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. It has been found in two locations, Port Elizabeth (type locality) in 1889 and by Davis in 1978 at Aston Bay (Jeffreys Bay) (Davis 1981). The species may be found in other locations but no survey work has been undertaken since 1978. The species is also possibly extirpated from the type locality due to historical development of the city of Port Elizabeth.	eng
63448	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is amphibious and terrestrial, high on shore of saline lagoon.	eng
63448	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	At Aston Bay the species was patchy in distribution but numerous where present at hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).	eng
63448	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Jeffreys Bay is subject to significant residential and recreational development, which could impact the suitable habitat of the species.&#160;Species of the genus <em>Tomichia</em> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.	eng
63449	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63449	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern and southwestern coastal area of Western Cape Province, South Africa. It has been found in different locations between Cape Agulhas and Stompneuspunt with one record from Port Elizabeth (cited by Connolly, 1939) and one record from the Kowie River, Port Alfred in 1978 (Davis, 1981). The Kowie River population is now possibly extirpated as a marina has been built in the locality since the species was collected there. The Port Elizabeth record is also probably extirpated based on the development of the city since the record was made in the 1930s.	eng
63449	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species can survive periods of desiccation by burrowing below the surface to areas harbouring some moisture, and aestivate until the next rain fills the pans with freshwater. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. ventricosa</span> has adapted to a great range of environmental conditions (freshwater, brackish, hypersaline) (Davis 1981).<br/>The species occurs in rivers, coastal wetlands, estuaries and also in vleis (pans) that dry out seasonally.	eng
63449	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	A locally abundant species, seen at densities of hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).	eng
63449	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Coastal development is a threat to the species along the south-western Cape coast. The Kowie River population is now possibly extirpated as a marina has been built within the tidal lagoon and the estuary has been canalised. Port Elizabeth has undergone major development since the species was last recorded there by Connolly (1939).	eng
63450	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The eastern part of the species known range, De Hoop vleis, lies within a nature reserve.	eng
63450	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Agulhas area of Western Cape Province, South Africa. The eastern part of the species known range, De Hoopvlei, lies within the De Hoop Nature Reserve.	eng
63450	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is found in freshwater (tolerates low salinity) on sedge stems or bottom sediments of permanent lakes, ponds and vleis (pans).	eng
63450	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The species has been found to be abundant in vleis (pans) and has been recorded at hundreds per square metre (Davis 1981).	eng
63450	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The western part of the species distribution is threatened by potential recreational and residential development. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tomichia</span> are extremely sensitive to changes in their ecosystems relative to pollution of all types as well as interferences in the natural dry-wet seasonal cycles.	eng
63451	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
63451	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	The species is known from northern Zambia, where it is known from eight collection sites. These sites occur in three or four locations (the sampling sites are clumped together). However, it is likely to occur along the Luapula River It is known from Nchelenge to Lake Mweru. It may also occur in southeastern DRC. It has been recorded from tributaries of rivers near Lake Mweru (part of the Congo drainage) and in the south-east near Petauke.	eng
63451	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits riverine locations. This species probably prefers small streams.	eng
63451	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63451	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	The species occurs in a region which is subject to rapid development. It is likely to occur in tributaries around Lake Mweru rather than in the lake itself.	eng
63452	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63452	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
63452	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in north Angola, Dande River and Luanda region.	eng
63452	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from the Dande River and other localities in the Luanda Region of Angola where it has been collected since early 1960s.	eng
63452	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in rivers. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
63452	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
63452	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
63452	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
63452	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Not known, but it has a limited geographical range.	eng
63452	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species has a limited geographical range but no known major widespread threats.	eng
63453	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	None known.	eng
63453	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. This species is known from the lower Kunene ( possibly also in upper Kunene in Angola), Okavango River and Delta, middle Zambesi river (Brown 1994) probably excluding lake Kariba and the eastern parts (lowveld) of Limpopo and Mplumalanga provinces of South Africa including the Kruger National Park (Appleton 1996).	eng
63453	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	It is found in rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms in the east (Limpopo and Mplumalanga provinces, South Africa) (lowveld); rivers and floodplains in northeast Namibia (Brown 1994).	eng
63453	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	This species is locally abundant.	eng
63453	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Curtis, B., 2007	No known threats.	eng
63454	conservation	Smith, K., 2007	No information available.	eng
63454	distribution	Smith, K., 2007	It has only been recorded from the type locality, Cuanza River near Malanje, Angola in 1963.	eng
63454	habitat	Smith, K., 2007	No information available.	eng
63454	population	Smith, K., 2007	No information available.	eng
63454	threats	Smith, K., 2007	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
63455	conservation	Thomas K .Kristensen & Anne Sofie Stensgaard, 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
63455	distribution	Thomas K .Kristensen & Anne Sofie Stensgaard, 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is known from Zambesi River above Victoria Falls, and between Kariba and Chirundu (Mandahl-Barth 1988; Graf and Cummings 2006). It is also known from Kunene and Okavango systems and possibly from the Mpumalanga lowveld of South Africa (Appleton 1996, Appleton and Curtis, in press, Graf and Cummings 2006). It is unknown how far downstream the Zambesi the species occurs. The species has also been recorded from Lake Chivero (formally Lake MacIlwaine) (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
63455	habitat	Thomas K .Kristensen & Anne Sofie Stensgaard, 2007	This is a large species, recorded up to 122 mm long (Appleton pers. comm.). This species is found in sand and mud in rivers and artificial lakes. The species has parasitic larvae that need fish mostly cichlids (Kenmuir 1980).	eng
63455	population	Thomas K .Kristensen & Anne Sofie Stensgaard, 2007	This species is recorded at a relatively low density. This species is recorded at less than 1 per square metre. (0.8 per square metre in the Okavango  (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003) and 0.2 to 0.9 per square metre in Lake Chivero (Lake MacIlaine) and in Lake Kariba) (Kenmuir 1980).	eng
63455	threats	Thomas K .Kristensen & Anne Sofie Stensgaard, 2007	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g. mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
63456	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
63456	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. The type locality is the Kunene River. It is currently found in the Kunene river, Okavango river system and the upper Zambesi above Victoria falls extending into Angola. It is also found in the Kafue river, Zambia.	eng
63456	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This is a riverine species found in sand and mud and seems to favour fine sediments in the 125-180 µm range (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). The species has a parasitic larval stage that depends upon fish for development and distribution.	eng
63456	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The species is very common, probably the most common bivalve in the Kunene and Okavango systems (Appleton pers .comm.). It has been recorded at mean densities of up to 18 per square metre in the Okavango system (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
63456	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The species is thought to have no major threats. Even the proposed dams on the Kunene are believed to pose little threat. However, habitat disturbance, e.g. mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
63457	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
63457	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa (including Malawi). It is found in river systems across southern Africa apart from those in Angola, the Kunene and Okavango systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the Luapula system and Kafue River in Zambia. It also occurs in some of the coastal lakes of northern KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
63457	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	It is found in sand/mud substrate in rivers (both seasonal and perennial), but also known from dams and small lakes. Has a parasitic larval stage that depends upon fish for development and dispersal (little known about this).	eng
63457	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is locally common. However the population in the Western Cape is declining and its range there is decreasing.	eng
63457	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	The reason for the decrease in range and population is currently unknown, may be related to the fish host. Habitat disturbance e.g. In the form of mining is known to be a threat to bivalves in general.	eng
63458	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63458	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa. The species occurs widely across the country from the western Cape (Berg River) and highveld plateau of Free State Province (Rhenoster River) to northern KwaZulu-Natal and the Kruger National Park, Limpopo Province (Kuiper 1964, 1966; Appleton unpubl. data).	eng
63458	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is known from rivers.	eng
63458	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1,000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
63458	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
63459	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
63459	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Itis only known from the type locality, Vaal River at Amersfoort in Mpumalanga Province and in the same river at Vereeniging (Gauteng Province) (Kuiper 1964, 1966).	eng
63459	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
63459	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1,000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
63459	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Appleton, C., 2007	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
63460	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to the Pamir-Alay range in Tajikistan (possibly also Kyrgyzstan) at altitudes between 2500-3300 m.  Only known from five localities (Darvaz, Vanj, Rushan, Gunt and Shokhdara).	eng
63460	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The species is scarce and declining.	eng
63461	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to the Gorno-Badakhshan range in Tajikistan at altitudes between 2000-2500m. Restricted to four localities (Shabdara, Gunt, Rushan and Darvaz).	eng
63461	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The total population size is less than 250 and declining.	eng
63462	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Some protection is afforded to the Aksu sub-population, as it is located in a protected area.	eng
63462	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to two localities in Kazakhstan: the Aksu river basin and rivers in the Karatau mountain range.	eng
63462	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Declines have been observed in the Karatau range.	eng
63463	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in the river basins and valleys of western Tien Shan (Ugam, Pskem and Chatkal). Found from 1,300 to 2,500m in Xinjiang (China).	eng
63463	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Populations are fragmented and in decline.	eng
63463	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include livestock, avalanches and tourism.	eng
63464	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In Uzbekistan, it is restricted to a narrow ecological niche in the Bukhara province. The species was collected in 2001 in Turkmenistan (see <a href="http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast">TROPICOS</a> database).	eng
63464	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats are cutting and grazing.	eng
63465	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to the Bukhara province Uzbekistan.	eng
63465	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.	eng
63465	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats are cutting and grazing.	eng
63466	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to the Sokh river basin, southern Ferghana (Uzbekistan).	eng
63466	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.	eng
63466	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by cutting and grazing.	eng
63467	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to the Sokh river basin.	eng
63467	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Has a very narrow ecological niche (soil type).	eng
63467	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by overgrazing and cutting. Its timber is highly valued for tandoori cooking.	eng
63468	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Grows on the Uzbekistan/Turkmenistan border.	eng
63468	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to a narrow ecological niche.	eng
63468	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Populations are sparsely distributed.	eng
63468	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by grazing and collection for firewood.	eng
63469	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only found in one locality: Pri-Aral Moyunkum (Kazakhstan).	eng
63469	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A species of arid desert. Occurs on sandy soils.	eng
63469	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by drainage of Aral sea and salination of soils. Decline of habitat quality due to desertification.	eng
63471	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only found in south west Darvas (Tajikistan).	eng
63471	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A very rare species restricted to a very small area.	eng
63471	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In decline with threats including over grazing and cutting.	eng
63472	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only in the Darvas range and downstream of the Vange river (Tajikistan). May also occur in neighbouring Afghanistan.	eng
63472	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The area is declining.	eng
63472	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Cutting is the main threat (timber).	eng
63473	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Very limited distribution with only one locality; a ravine in Allay mountains (Kyrgyzstan).	eng
63473	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Human disturbance, overgrazing and cutting threaten the species.	eng
63475	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Considered to be extremely threatened in all the central Asian countries it occurs. Threats include cattle grazing and tourism.	eng
63476	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The populations occur in a protected area.	eng
63476	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only known from two localities in the Karkara gorge in Kazakhstan. A recent taxonomic revision in Kyrgyzstan described the Kyrgzystan populations as <em>L. sovetkinae</em>.	eng
63476	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The total population is between 6-700 individuals.	eng
63476	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although the populations occur in a protected area the species is still threatened by tourism development.	eng
63477	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Central Asia.	eng
63477	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A wild relative of domesticated cultivars and therefore an internationally important genetic resource.	eng
63477	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A very rare species, with individuals sporadically distributed in fragmented populations.	eng
63477	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include loss and degradation of habitat due to agricultural expansion and development, genetic erosion (grafting of commercial varieties and hybridization) and overgrazing.	eng
63478	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Very limited distribution with an area of occupancy <1km².	eng
63478	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Approximately 2,000 individuals.	eng
63478	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Close to a large settlement and threatened by overgrazing.	eng
63479	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only one locality in the Karatau (Syr-darya) Mountains (Kazakhstan).	eng
63479	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in mountain gorges and rocky slopes, 1000-1200m.	eng
63479	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A very narrow endemic with a total population of no more than 50 individuals.	eng
63479	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Little is known about rates of decline or threats.	eng
63480	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to western Pamir; the Alai and Gisar mountains ranges, between 1,800 and 2,000m.	eng
63480	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include cutting and agricultural expansion.	eng
63481	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A rare endemic of Gorno-Badakhshan province (Tajikistan).	eng
63481	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Agriculture expansion is the main threat.	eng
63482	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Known from only a few fragmented sub-populations.	eng
63482	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by overgrazing, fruit harvesting and collection of saplings for grafting.	eng
63483	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In Darvas between 1,300 and 1,600m.	eng
63483	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Populations are very small, fragmented and declining. There are only a small number of populations.	eng
63483	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In decline due to cutting.	eng
63484	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Very limited distribution with only two known localities.	eng
63484	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include fruit collection and livestock grazing.	eng
63485	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Limited and fragmented distribution.	eng
63485	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by overgrazing in some areas.	eng
63487	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Listed in the national Red Data books of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.	eng
63487	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The species has a very limited distribution and has not been collected for several years.	eng
63487	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include agricultural expansion, tourism and housing developments.	eng
63489	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In Kyrgyzstan the species has not been seen for several years. There are only three known localities for the species in Kazakhstan in the Betpak-Tala desert and the Syrdarga Kara-Tau.	eng
63489	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include habitat degradation and cutting.	eng
63490	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Grows on the border of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan with a limited ecological range.	eng
63490	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Severely threatened by over-grazing.	eng
63491	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to Gorno-Badakhshan, in the Dervas range and by Pange river (Tajikistan). Perhaps also in Afghanistan, but current status is not known.	eng
63491	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Very rare and in decline.	eng
63491	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In decline mostly from cutting.	eng
63492	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	The species has a limited distribution in central Asia.	eng
63492	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although this species has a small range, there are no immediate threats. It tends to grow on inaccessible cliffs and in both Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan the populations are located in protected areas.	eng
63493	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Restricted to high altitude areas in Kyrgyzstan and China. The extent of occurrence is <10 km².	eng
63493	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	There are no immediate threats.	eng
63494	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs throughout central Asia, also in China and probably Afghanistan.	eng
63494	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threats include harvesting for timber and changes in water regime.	eng
63495	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although the species is widely distributed its natural distribution is restricted to central Asia.	eng
63495	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	It is threatened by fruit collection, livestock grazing and cutting.	eng
63496	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	All desert areas in central Asia.	eng
63496	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	This species occupies a very specific ecological niche (river banks in arid areas).	eng
63496	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	It is threatened by changes in water regime (irrigation and hydroelectric power stations), cutting and agricultural conversion.	eng
63498	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Most of the populations in Uzbekistan are in a protected area.	eng
63498	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.	eng
63498	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	No immediate threats.	eng
63499	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only known from Kyrgyzstan.	eng
63500	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to Kazakhstan, where it has only been recorded in the Boguta Mountains in the Charyn river basin.	eng
63500	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	No collections of the species have been made in the past 100 years and it may no longer exist in the wild.	eng
63502	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Only occurs in Betpak-dala desert (central Kazakhstan). A very rare relict species, occurring amongst rocks, with a distribution of <100km².	eng
63502	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	There is no information on declines or threats.	eng
63503	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China, and possibly Uzbekistan. Elevational range in China (Xinjiang Province): 1,300 to 1,400 m.	eng
63505	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Endemic to southern Kazakhstan.	eng
63507	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Mongolia, China. Elevational range in China (Xinjiang): ca. 1,000 m	eng
63515	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Has a wide distribution across western Tien Shan.	eng
63516	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although rare in Kazakhstan with only one locality, the species is widespread and common in Kyrgyzstan.	eng
63517	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63517	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widely distributed in Europe, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Himalayas.	eng
63518	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in the Mediterranean and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63518	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A herbaceous parasite on <em>Juniperus</em>.	eng
63519	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Central Asia, the Caucasus and Crimea. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63520	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Central Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63521	conservation	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63521	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63522	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Also occurs in Uzbekistan.	eng
63523	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Central Asia, also occurs in the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63524	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread distribution: occurs in Central Asia (not Kazakhstan), the Caucasus, Iran, and the Mediterranean. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63525	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in west Tien Shan.	eng
63526	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Occurs in Tajikistan, Russia, Eastern Europe. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63527	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Central Asia, Iran, and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63528	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Central Asia and the Himalayas. The list of countries of occurrence may be incomplete.	eng
63530	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	A widespread species; distribution includes Europe and Central Asia. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63531	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in central Asia, the Caucasus, south-west Asia and the Mediterranean. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63531	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	In central Asia threatened by livestock grazing.	eng
63532	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Europe, Russia, and parts of central Asia (Kazakhstan). The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63533	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Central Asia.	eng
63533	population	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Although rare in Kazakhstan and the Gorno-Badakhshan province of Tajikistan the species is widespread in the other central Asian countries.	eng
63534	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in central Asia, south-west Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63535	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in Kyrgyzstan  and Kazakhstan. Also found in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.	eng
63537	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Originated in central Asia but now occurs in many countries and regions of the world as a result of cultivation. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63537	threats	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Threatened by fruit collection in central Asia.	eng
63538	distribution	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Widespread in central Asia and the Caucasus. The list of countries of occurrence is incomplete.	eng
63538	habitat	Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11-13 July 2006), 2007	Narrow ecological niche.	eng
63540	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous reserves, mostly small ones and it is considered to be of special concern in some states.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
63540	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Enallagma laterale</em> is found in seven states in the United States of America.	eng
63540	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. laterale</em> prefers acidic, sandy ponds (e.g., coastal plain ponds), bog-bordered ponds, and other ponds with emergent vegetation.	eng
63540	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. laterale</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.	eng
63540	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Preferred habitats subject to development for private housing and resorts.	eng
63541	conservation	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A., Amir, O.G. & Künzel, T., 2008	The only effectively protected population is one of about 200 in Awash National Park. There are well-managed captive populations. Overall distribution and numbers of this gazelle will continue to decline unless effective protection and management can be implemented in larger areas of its range than at present.	eng
63541	distribution	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A., Amir, O.G. & Künzel, T., 2008	Formerly widely distributed throughout most of Djibouti, northern Somalia and the central coastal plain; north-east and central Sudan; lowland areas of Eritrea, the Ogaden and other lowland areas of eastern Ethiopia (Schloeder and Jacobs in press). At one time, this gazelle may have occasionally ventured as far south as extreme north-east Kenya (East 1999) but there is no recent information on its occurrence in this area. The population on Dahlak Kebir Island was probably introduced over 100 years ago (Yalden <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Uncontrolled hunting and habitat destruction have most probably eliminated this species from its historic range in Sudan (East 1999). It still occupies substantial parts of its historical range in Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, and Ethiopia, but at lower densities and as isolated populations; numbers in the Ogaden are greatly reduced due to uncontrolled hunting (Wilhelmi <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
63541	habitat	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A., Amir, O.G. & Künzel, T., 2008	Occupies arid coastal plains and mudflats, arid and semi-arid <em>Acacia</em> savannas, and semi-arid grassland plains. Tends to prefer rough hilly country, but also found in open bush savannas, and thinly-wooded grasslands (Schloeder and Jacobs, in press).	eng
63541	population	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A., Amir, O.G. & Künzel, T., 2008	East (1999) estimated the total population at about 14,000. Numbers have declined in most areas since then, though security concerns have hindered detailed census work.<br/><br/>Current estimates are: <strong>Somalia</strong> <1,000?; <strong>Djibouti</strong> 1,000 to 1,500; <strong>Ethiopia</strong> <3,000; <strong>Eritrea</strong> <1,000?; <strong>Sudan</strong> probably extirpated; <strong>Kenya</strong> no longer occurs. These figures suggest a total current population of <6,000 to 6,500 individuals.<br/><br/>The population in Djibouti can probably be considered stable over recent years or may even be slightly increasing. However, for Ethiopia (Ogaden), Somalia and Sudan the decline must have been drastic over the past 50 years. Detailed estimates of numbers in Eritrea and other parts of Ethiopia are lacking, but there is no indication that they are common anywhere in Ethiopia, especially considering the turmoil in the past 20 years in this region.	eng
63541	threats	Heckel, J.-O., Wilhelmi, F., Kaariye, X.Y., Rayaleh, H.A., Amir, O.G. & Künzel, T., 2008	Uncontrolled hunting, political instability, civil and military conflicts, and degradation of rangeland by large numbers of livestock.	eng
63542	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
63542	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
63542	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. The species is an oral shelling/crushing molluscivore.	eng
63542	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
63542	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
63543	conservation	Hare, J., 2008	The 'Great Gobi Reserve A' was established in Mongolia in 1982 and in 2000, the 'Arjin Shan Lop Nur Nature Reserve'  was established in China. Although the first phase of Nature Reserve construction is now complete, much more work, including the opening of a second Nature Reserve in China is needed.<br/><br/>The establishment of a captive Wild Bactrian Camel breeding programme in Mongolia has been established by the Wild Camel Protection Foundation. This is an urgent conservation priority. Only fifteen wild Bactrian camels are currently in captivity in China and Mongolia. With so few captive animals, the whole species could be wiped out if their natural habitats in China and Mongolia are destroyed. It is therefore important to breed enough animals in captivity to insure against this possible disaster. As each female camel can have young at most once every two years, relying on natural methods would permit the numbers to rise only very slowly.	eng
63543	distribution	Hare, J., 2008	The Bactrian Camel is restricted to four subpopulations in China and Mongolia: Gashun Gobi, Gansu, China; Taklamakan Desert, Xinjiang, China (this population has declined and may now be extinct); the northern slopes of Arjin Shan mountains and adjacent areas in Lop Nur Wild Camel National Reserve, China; and the Great Gobi Section A Strictly Protected Area, Mongolia, and adjacent areas in China (Reading <em>et al</em>. 1999, Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002, Wang <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Mongolia, the species is found in the Trans Altai Govi Desert (Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002), including the foothills of the Edren Range to Shiveet Ulaan, and the Hükh Tömörtei Range to the state border (Mix <em>et al</em>. 2002, Adiya <em>et al</em>. 2004, Adiya and Dovchindorj 2005).<br/><br/>A domestic form, considered under a separate species name (<em>Camelus bactrianus</em>), exists in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China (Grubb 2005).<br/><br/>The range of the wild Bactrian camel in historic times extended from about the great bend of the Yellow River, across the deserts of southern Mongolia and northwestern China to central Kazakhstan. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the species had been extirpated from the western part of its range, and persisted only in remote areas of the Gobi and Taklimakan Deserts. These populations have become increasingly fragmented over the past 150 years (Schaller 1998).	eng
63543	habitat	Hare, J., 2008	This species is found in the Gobi and Gashun Gobi deserts of northwest China and Mongolia. While vegetation is sparse, the desert itself varies from rocky mountain massifs, to the flat pavement-like areas of the extremely arid desert; stony "gobi" desert plains; poplar fringed oases; vast washed-out plains and high sand dunes. In some areas, in the absence of fresh water, it has adapted to drinking salt water slush which the domestic camel will not touch.	eng
63543	population	Hare, J., 2008	In the year 2004, there were approximately 600 individuals surviving in China and 350 in Mongolia, with numbers continuing to decrease (J. Hare pers. comm.). In 1985 the Mongolian subpopulation numbered 650 animals.	eng
63543	threats	Hare, J., 2008	It is estimated from information received from the Protected Area staff and Mongolian scientists working in the 'Great Gobi Reserve A' that in Mongolia, 25 to 30 Wild Bactrian Camels are being killed annually when they migrate across the international border into China on the southernmost boundary of the protected area 'Great Gobi Reserve A'. The hunting is mainly for local subsistence use.<br/><br/>Due to the reduction in water points (oases) because of drought, wolves have increased their predation of Wild Bactrian Camels. This activity is concentrated at the remaining water points in the area. The remaining habitat in Mongolia is also being degraded by domestic livestock.<br/><br/>In China in the new Arjin Shan Lop Nur Nature Sanctuary, up to 20 Wild Bactrian Camels are killed annually by miners and hunters for subsistence use. Economic pressure to use the areas adjoining the Nature Reserve as grazing for domestic Bactrian camels has increased  hybridisation on the southern border and this poses a significant threat to the unique genetic strain of the Wild Bactrian Camel which current scientific DNA research suggests is a separate species.<br/><br/>For 45 years, this area of the Gashun Gobi was the nuclear test site area of China. In spite of this, the Wild Bactrian Camel survived and is apparently breeding naturally. Since the cessation of nuclear tests in China, the Wild Bactrian Camel now faces new threats including highly toxic illegal mining and hunting for food and sport. Parts of the Wild Bactrian Camel's designated habitat are likely to be designated for industrial use (gas pipe line laying, exploitation of minerals).  Domestic Bactrian camels and goats have also been introduced to the designated areas and hence compete for grazing and water.	eng
63544	conservation	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
63544	distribution	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
63544	habitat	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
63544	population	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
63544	threats	Ancrenaz, M., Marshall, A., Goossens, B., van Schaik, C., Sugardjito, J., Gumal, M. & Wich, S., 2008	See species-level assessment (<a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/17975/doc"><em>Pongo pygmaeus</em></a>).	eng
63545	distribution	Lim, T.W., 2007	This species is known only from collections made in 1886 and 1898 in one locality: Pulau Betong, Penang Island, Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
63545	habitat	Lim, T.W., 2007	Granite rocks at <em>ca</em>170 m altitude surrounded by dipterocarp forest; the original forest has been cleared for agricultural cultivation.	eng
63545	population	Lim, T.W., 2007	The area has been explored but no specimens of the little herb have been found in the last hundred years.	eng
63545	threats	Lim, T.W., 2007	The following activities probably contributed to the extinction of the species: small-holder farming, selective logging, and clear-cutting.	eng
63546	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This species is not known by its herbarium collections from protected areas, although some collections were made near the Three Parallel Rivers Protected Area in Yunnan and it may occur there, too.	eng
63546	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Probably confined to the higher parts of south-west China, true range may be poorly known due to difficulty of identification and relatively inconspicuous habit. EOO based on herbarium specimens calculated as 225,117 km² and AOO as 93,342 km² but probably larger.	eng
63546	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	An understorey shrub or small tree in mixed conifer forests (e.g. <em>Abies</em> spp.) and along mountain streams. Elevation (from G.I.S.) 885 to 2,554 m, from herbarium specimens 1,100 to 3,520 m. An ornamental shrub used in horticulture.	eng
63546	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Little is known of population sizes; this taxon is uncommon regionally as its known localities are disjunct. Last (western) collection date 1948, but there are more recent collections in Chinese herbaria.	eng
63546	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No threats are known.	eng
63547	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Not known to occur within a protected area.	eng
63547	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Mexico: Chihuahua, Sonora. Probably limited to a small area; a further search in the region may reveal other localities.	eng
63547	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Insufficiently known.	eng
63547	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Insufficiently known.	eng
63547	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Insufficiently known.	eng
63548	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety is recorded from Qingshui-shan, a protected area in Taiwan.	eng
63548	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Found in Taiwan and southern Japan (Yakushima); may also occur in China. The range of this species remains incompletely known.	eng
63548	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety has been found in a few localities in high mountains as a procumbent shrub but little else is known about its ecology. It is apparently a subalpine form of <em>J. chinensis</em>.	eng
63548	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.	eng
63549	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This variety is recorded from several protected areas, including Walnut Canyon, Chiricahua, Big Bend National Park, Coconino, Red Rock-Secret Mountain, Cookes Range and Papago Reserves.	eng
63549	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	U.S.A., Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, possibly into Mexico. The range map given by Adams (2004) does not agree with his own herbarium collections as it excludes specimens from south-west Texas (in that book considered to belong to var. <em>coahuilensis</em>) which have been seen for the Monograph to belong to var. <em>arizonica</em> as originally determined. Consequently, the EOO is calculated as 221,234 km² and the AOO as 122,710 km² which is probably an underestimate.	eng
63549	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In <em>Bouteloua</em> grassland and on adjacent rocky slopes. Capacity to coppice, considered ‘weedy’ in some areas by sheep and cattlemen. In Arizona it occurs with <em>Juniperus osteosperma</em> in some localities; other associated species are sometimes <em>Opuntia</em> spp. or <em>Yucca</em> spp. but commonly its only associates are grasses. Altitudinal range 980 to 1,600 (to 2200) m (from G.I.S. 396 to 2,616 m).	eng
63549	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This taxon is common in many localities with sizable populations.	eng
63549	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	There appear to be no threats to this species/variety. Junipers in the region were formerly used for fence posts, but metal has replaced this use.	eng
63550	conservation	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This variety is not recorded from any protected areas.	eng
63550	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	China: Xizang (Tibet), known only from a locality in the upper Zangbo River basin. The range of this variety remains incompletely known, but it is apparently rare.	eng
63550	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Found in juniper dwarf scrub patches in very open alpine steppe on the Tibetan Plateau in the rain/snow shadow of the main crest of the Himalayas.	eng
63550	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	There are no data on population sizes and/or abundance.	eng
63551	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Herbarium collections are recorded from Enarotali Nature Reserve, Gunung Sibela Reserve and Pegunungan Tamrau Utara Nature Reserve, all in New Guinea.	eng
63551	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Indonesia, New Guinea (Papua), Moluccas (Bacan Island and Obi Island). De Laubenfels (1988) mentions Ternate in the Moluccas, but no specimen has been cited or seen from that small and densely populated island. It is not impossible that it was planted there.	eng
63551	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	In primary forest on acid, peaty soils, into peaty heathland, vegetation prone to fire. Also in montane tropical rainforest mixed with angiosperms, but more abundant in mossy cloud forest. Utilization: Timber used for construction of houses in villages, trees are often planted in villages.	eng
63551	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Nothing is known about population size in the three major areas of its distribution. The latest herbarium collection seen was made in 1974.	eng
63551	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Exploitation for timber (local uses only), fire.	eng
63552	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	No collections were recorded from protected areas.	eng
63552	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Northeast Mexico: Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi. EOO calculated on the basis of recorded herbarium specimens is 6,710 km². The ranges of the two varieties are separated by a few hundred kilometres.	eng
63552	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This northern variety is mainly found on alkaline soils (pH 7-8) derived from limestone. It is most commonly found scattered in mixed pine-oak forest. Not specifically targeted for timber, but cut with other trees for general use. Rare in cultivation.	eng
63552	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The size of subpopulations of this variety is generally smaller than of the southern variety <em>australis.</em>	eng
63552	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Several populations are subject to wood extraction (general timber cutting), conversion of woodland to farmland, and grazing. Many subpopulations appear to have low regeneration levels.	eng
63553	conservation	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Some locations are within protected areas: eight herbarium collections were recorded from the Sierra Gorda, Los Marmoles and Cuenca Hidrografica del Rio Necaxa Reserves.	eng
63553	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	East central Mexico: Queretaro, Hidalgo, Puebla. EOO calculated at 21,155 km<sup>2</sup> based on the mapped distribution of herbarium collections.	eng
63553	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	This variety is generally growing on acid soils. It is a relatively rare pine that always grows sporadically among other species of pine, or in mixed pine-oak woodland. The serotinous cones indicate adaptation to fire, but no studies on how this affects seed dispersal and germination have been undertaken (or published).	eng
63553	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Subpopulations of this southern variety are reported to be larger on average than those of the northern variety (var. <em>greggii</em>). Genetic analysis suggests there is often little exchange between these subpopulations.	eng
63553	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	The main threats are deforestation and conversion of land use to arable fields. Grazing is negatively affecting regeneration from seeds. This small to medium sized tree is not targeted for timber but it may be used when cut for forest clearance with other trees. It is only present in cultivation in some arboreta.	eng
63554	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Northern Morocco, and on the Algerian – Tunisian border near the coast. In two very disjunct areas.	eng
63554	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	In Morocco it is reported to occur at elevations up to 2,000 m in the mountains, which is unusual for this species.	eng
63554	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Logging and possibly genetic introgression by pollen from other pines where these are planted near this taxon.	eng
63556	distribution	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	China: Jiangsu, Zhejiang. The range of this variety remains incompletely known.	eng
63556	habitat	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown.	eng
63556	population	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown.	eng
63556	threats	Bachman, S. (RBG Kew), Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), Gardner, M. (RBG Edinburgh), Thomas, P. (RBG Edinburgh), Luscombe, D. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury) & Reynolds, C. (Forestry Comm. Bedgebury), 2007	Unknown.	eng
63557	distribution	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Widespread in southern Africa.	eng
63557	habitat	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	Unlike other members of its genus, this species is capable of coppicing: it resprouts after fire. It is common in fire-prone heathlands.	eng
63557	population	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	This species is common in at least some parts of its range.	eng
63557	threats	Farjon, A. (RBG Kew), 2007	There are no known major threats.	eng
63558	conservation	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Giri, V., 2008	This species occurs in Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary and Borivali National Park, Maharashtra.	eng
63558	distribution	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Giri, V., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chilobrachys fimbriatus</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra, this species is found in Borivali in the north and Hosahali in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,200 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 35,000 km², while the area of occupancy is considerably less although it has not been estimated. In Maharashtra: Khandala in Pune district (Pocock 1899), Panchgani in Satara district (Gravely 1935), Jaoli in Satara district (Pocock 1900), Borivali National Park in Thane district (Varad Giri pers. comm.), Amboli (V. Gour-Broome, S. Thakur & S. Molur pers. comm.), Matheran in Ulhasnagar district (V. Giri pers. comm.); Karnataka: Hoshali in Shimoga district (Pocock 1900), Castle Rock in Uttar Kannada district (Gravely 1935, Varad Giri pers. comm.).	eng
63558	habitat	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Giri, V., 2008	The species occurs in a dry deciduous forest and moist evergreen forest, usually on flat ground, but also on roadside bunds. The biology of this species is assumed to be similar to <em>Thrigmopoeus</em>, but much work is needed. This species could be easily identified in the wild due to chevron marking on the abdomen. Females are brown in colour whereas males are metallic with bluish tinge.	eng
63558	population	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Giri, V., 2008	Population information is not available. The species shows patchy distribution due to lack of contiguous habitat. It is more common compared to <em>Thrigmopoeus</em> species, although the same patchy distribution is seen. It is found in about 10 locations with a severe degree of fragmentation.	eng
63558	threats	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Giri, V., 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation and collection of species for international pet trade are the major threats. These threats in tandem could result in the species’ extinction from known locations in the near future.	eng
63559	conservation	Molur, S., Biswas, B.K. & Siliwal, M., 2008	It has been not reported from any protected area so far.	eng
63559	distribution	Molur, S., Biswas, B.K. & Siliwal, M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chilobrachys hardwicki</span> is endemic to eastern India, this species is found in Shahjahanpur in the north and Bilaspur in the south at an altitude of less than 500 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 125,000 km², while the area of occupancy is more than 20,000 km².  In Bihar: Dharhara in Monghyr, Sahibgunge, Chakardharpur in Singbhum in Chota Nagpur, Gmatia in Birbhum (Gravely 1915); Chattisgarh: Bilaspur (Pocock 1900); Jharkhand: Hazaribagh (Gravely 1935); Uttar Pradesh: Shahjahanpur in Burdwan (Pocock 1900); West Bengal: Murshidabad (Gravely 1915)	eng
63559	habitat	Molur, S., Biswas, B.K. & Siliwal, M., 2008	The species was found in degraded dry deciduous and moist evergreen forests. There have been reports of its occurrence around coal mine areas (B.K. Biswas pers. comm.). Burrows are on flat ground. There is no information on breeding biology, behaviour and ecology of the spider. No local use is known for this species.  The species is in international pet trade.	eng
63559	population	Molur, S., Biswas, B.K. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Population information is not available. The species shows patchy distribution due to lack of contiguous habitat. This is less common compared to <em>Thrigmopoeus truculentus</em>, although the same patchy distribution is seen. It is found in around 10 locations with severe degree of fragmentation.	eng
63559	threats	Molur, S., Biswas, B.K. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Habitat loss, fragmentation and mining are primary threats. Due to this the spider have started entering human settlements and often there have been reports of spider bites by this species in some rural areas of West Bengal, hence an increase in persecution of these spiders. Other threats are not known for this species.	eng
63560	conservation	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	The species occurs in the Parambikulam and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary in southern India. Further surveys are required to know their presence in other protected areas in southern India. The species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act.  It is also important that this species is included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard it from unsustainable trade.	eng
63560	distribution	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Haploclastus kayi</span> is endemic to the Western Ghats of India, this species is found in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) in the north and Tenmala in the south at an altitude of 200 to 700 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In Kerala: Parambikulam WLS in Palakkad district (Gravely 1915, 1935; Manju Siliwal and Sanjay Molur pers. obs.), Tenmala in Thiruvananthapuram district (Binu Arthur and Manju Siliwal pers. obs., Molur and Siliwal 2004); in Tamil Nadu: Indira Gandhi WLS (10°26? 2.6?N, 76°50?13.7?E) in Polachi district (Sanjay Molur and Manju Siliwal pers. obs., Molur and Siliwal 2004).	eng
63560	habitat	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	The species was found in moist deciduous forest and evergreen rainforest. These spiders prepare burrows on roadside bunds and requires vegetation cover over the bund. Nothing is known of its breeding biology.	eng
63560	population	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Population information is not available. Its distribution is patchy as seen in the case of other ground theraphosids.  Further surveys are required to understand abundance and population size in various areas. It is found in less than five locations with severe degree of fragmentation.	eng
63560	threats	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. The recent records of the species are only from protected areas. Surveys outside Parambikulam and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuaries did not reveal the presence of this species, which implies its dependence on protection and preservation of habitat. An additional threat to the species is collection by international pet traders, which could have an impact on the population. The two threats in tandem could result in the species? extinction from the known location in the near future.	eng
63561	conservation	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	This species has not been reported from any protected area. The species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is also important that this species and all other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species from India and Sri Lanka are included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard them from trade.	eng
63561	distribution	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria formosa</span> is endemic to the southern Eastern Ghats between Salem and Tirupathi in southern India; reported only from three locations, altitude of less than 1,000 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 500 km² and could be even less than 100 km² due to extensive loss of habitat. In Andhra Pradesh: Renigunta station (Smith and Kirk 2001); in Tamil Nadu: Kadiampatti, Mullapuram in Salem District (Pocock 1900a,b)	eng
63561	habitat	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Forests in these areas are of dry deciduous type with few patches of moist forests. No information is available on this species from the wild in last hundred years except for information on trade.	eng
63561	population	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population information is not available. Although reported from three localities these reports are nearly a hundred years old. The locations are severely fragmented. No surveys have been conducted in these areas to establish the status, but considering the species to be closely related to other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species, their behaviours and ecology, we assume that the species has declined due to loss of habitat and degradation in quality of habitat in the Eastern Ghats.	eng
63561	threats	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats in the reported and inferred localities of the species. It is likely that in many localities the species would have gone locally extinct due to complete deforestation, logging of wood, forest fire and development activities. Given the habitat threats and restricted distribution, collection for international pet trade from the few remaining populations is an additional pressure on the extant populations.	eng
63562	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The spiders occur in private plantations only and are not subjected to any protection laws.	eng
63562	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica</span> is endemic to the Ramanthapuram district, southern India. It is reported from Rameshwaram Island and Mandapam area on mainland at an altitude of less than 50 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 100 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 10 km².	eng
63562	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species was found in plantations like tamarind, palm, coconut and casuarina. They are also frequently seen in human habitations, especially in thatch-roof houses and huts. Mature females have been observed nesting every year and the maximum number of spiderlings seen with a single mother is 52. Mortality rate amongst the spiderlings is high due to cannibalism and natural predation. The male survives for only one breeding season after maturity, rarely up to the second breeding season. Females show nest fidelity as they have been observed in the same tree holes over three years, unless they have been disturbed or physically removed.	eng
63562	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Eight subpopulations in 13 severely fragmented locations. Subpopulation size varies from four individuals to 78 individuals depending upon the size of the plantation (Manju Siliwal pers. obs.). The densities are high in some tamarind plantations compared to casuarina or palm plantations.	eng
63562	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Loss of plantations due to developmental activities, small size of the habitat fragments, small population size, persecution and fragmentation are major threats. Due to increased tourism, in the course of a single year (2006) two plantations were razed of which one was observed to have at least 70 individuals. All the spiders were killed by the loggers while razing the plantation. Due to their skewed sex ratio, and the difference in maturity rates between males and females, small populations with less than 5,000 individuals have a very high probability of extinction within the next three to four decades (S. Molur and B.A. Daniel, pers. comm. from running a simulation model (Vortex)). Although not found extensively in pet trade, a few adult males and females along with subadults and juveniles were taken out of the country.	eng
63563	conservation	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	It is not known whether the species occurs in the Gundla Brahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary, which is about 20 km from the known location. Surveys and the forest department’s cooperation are needed to establish this.	eng
63563	distribution	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	The species is found in a single location, which is severely fragmented. The extent of occurrence is less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. India: Andhra Pradesh: Reserve forest between Nandyal and Giddalur.  <br/> <br/>The type description stated the species as occurring in Gooty, which is wrong since although the animal was caught in the railway timber yard in Gooty, the specimen could have come from the Eastern Ghats, which is at least 100 km away. Molur <em>et al.</em> (in press) rediscovered the species after 102 years in 2001 in a highly disturbed forest between Nandyal and Giddalur. Other surveys have not indicated the presence of this easily-identifiable species in any other locality. However, traders have put up this spider on sale after collecting some adults from the said area or nearby. Since information on their collection area is not available, it is presumed that they could have collected only from the nearby location and not from the protected Gundlabrahmeshwaram Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
63563	habitat	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	The species was found in a degraded dry deciduous forest. Nothing is known of its breeding biology. The lone male in captivity lived for 2 years having matured after 18 months. This seems to be the normal among males of this genus. Longevity of the female is unknown, but if it is similar to other species, then they could survive for 10-12 years reaching maturity at the age of 5-7 years.	eng
63563	population	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Population information is not available. Since it has been recorded to date from a single location (despite surveys conducted in adjacent areas by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department ERM Laboratory in Srisailam), it is likely that the species has a very restricted extent of occurrence, is very rare and in a single location with declining habitat quality.	eng
63563	threats	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. From our understanding, if the habitat is under similar pressure of degradation, the species might be extirpated from the known location in the near future. An additional threat to the species is collection by international pet traders, which could have an impact on the population. The two threats in tandem could result in the species’ extinction from the known location in the near future. An incident of smuggling was recorded in 2002 when two Europeans took a few specimens out of the country and advertised them for sale on the internet. There are also reports available of other such incidents since then.	eng
63564	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	It is likely that this species occurs in Simlipal Tiger Reserve but further surveys are required to confirm its occurrence.	eng
63564	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilotheria miranda</span> is endemic to the Chhota Nagpur region of eastern India up to an altitude of 800 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In West Bengal: Kharagpur Hills (Gravely 1915); in Jharkhand: Near Chaibassa in  Singbhum  (Gravely 1915); Chota Nagpur (Pocock 1900).	eng
63564	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species is found in mixed deciduous forests.	eng
63564	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population information is not available. The species is rare, and is similar to other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species in its patchy distribution. Found in less than 10 locations, some of which are very severely fragmented.	eng
63564	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Collection for international pet trade in addition to the other threats is of concern for this species.	eng
63565	conservation	Siliwal, M. & Molur, S., 2008	It is reported from Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve. No national or international protection legislation is in place although such legislation is very urgently required for this and all the species of genus <em>Poecilotheria</em>.	eng
63565	distribution	Siliwal, M. & Molur, S., 2008	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats, India. This species is known only from the type locality in Andhra Pradesh: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Prakasam District, Nallamalai hills, Eastern Ghats (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2007). The extent of occurrence could be as big as the entire Tiger Reserve and its surrounding areas of about 8,000 km², but the area of occupancy is not known.	eng
63565	habitat	Siliwal, M. & Molur, S., 2008	The forest in this area is of dry deciduous with teak monoculture. Information on ecology and habitat is yet unknown.	eng
63565	population	Siliwal, M. & Molur, S., 2008	Population information is not available.	eng
63565	threats	Siliwal, M. & Molur, S., 2008	Although specific threat to the species is not known, the area where it occurs is under tremendous pressure from civil unrest (insurgents), habitat degradation, rebel army training camps, and being a pilgrimage and tourist centre. It is also understood that the species has already been smuggled out of the country for the pet market abroad.	eng
63566	conservation	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	It is reported from Nagarjuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
63566	distribution	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	This species is found widely distributed from Dahanee in the north (Western Ghats) and Cochin in the south at an altitude of less than 1,000 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is more than 50,000 km², while the area of occupancy is also likely to be more than 2,000 km². In Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala.	eng
63566	habitat	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	There is some information on breeding biology from captivity. Males mature between 12 and 18 months and die after the first breeding season or within 24 months (S. Molur, B.A. Daniel & M. Siliwal pers. obs.). Gabriel (2005) reports male maturity after 354 days and survival for up to 344 days after maturity. The Western Ghats males mature faster (12 months) than the Eastern Ghats males (about 18 months) in captivity (S. Molur, B.A. Daniel & M. Siliwal pers. obs.).  However, in the wild the maturity time would probably prolong due to environmental conditions and prey availability.  Females mature between 5-7 years and live up to 10-12 years and produce on an average two clutches per year of 35-70 hatchlings per clutch in the wild.	eng
63566	population	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Population information is not available. This species is the most common of all <em>Poecilotheria</em> species and is encountered frequently in different habitats. Its population is healthy in natural vegetation; some individuals have been observed in teak plantations and in some degraded areas. However, the individuals seen in degraded habitats are usually males that are migrating in search of females, hence this cannot be taken as a compatible habitat for this species. The populations are severely fragmented although the species has been found in more than 20 locations.	eng
63566	threats	Molur, S., Daniel, B.A. & Siliwal, M., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats, and collections for pet trade and persecution are additional threats to the species.	eng
63567	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	It is reported from in and around Agastyavanam Reserve. It is assumed that it occurs in reserve forest and private plantation near Trivandrum. Captive breeding is not very successful without continuous influx of wild individuals and thus pet trade will continue (Capannini 2003, Ezendam 2003). Therefore, the species requires protection at the national level by being included in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is also important that this species and all other <em>Poecilotheria</em> species from India and Sri Lanka are included under the CITES Appendix II to safeguard them from trade.	eng
63567	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Endemic to the southern Western Ghats, this species is found in the Trivandrum area in the south at an altitude of less than 500 m. The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less than 5,000 km², while the area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². In Kerala: Trivandrum (Pocock 1899, 1900), Ponmudi, Kallar, Peppara Dam (Smith and Kirk 2001); in Tamil Nadu: Agastyavanam Reserve (Smith and Kirk 2001).	eng
63567	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species was found in a degraded moist deciduous and evergreen forest. It has been reported from teak plantations and sometimes enters human settlements. Nothing is known of its breeding biology.	eng
63567	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population information is not available. The species shows more of the same trends in patch distribution like other species of the genera. Only six subpopulations have been reported from six locations.	eng
63567	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Major threats are habitat loss, degradation and pet trade. As the species is highly restricted to the Western Ghats, if the habitat loss continues then it is likely that this species could go extinct. Pet traders collect this spider from forested areas near Trivandrum.	eng
63568	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	It is recorded from Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, but is very likely to occur in the adjacent Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary which has similar vegetation and is contiguous with Parambikulam.	eng
63568	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species is found adjoining the Palghat gap of the Western Ghats at an altitude ranging between 500 and 1,000 m.  One report of the spider is from Trivandrum although the location is not known, and there are reports from Kannur and Calicut districts although the identity needs to be validated. The extent of occurrence from confirmed locations north and south of the Palghat gap is about 12,000 km², with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km² calculated from remaining relatively undisturbed forests. The spider is found in fewer than 10 locations, severely fragmented.	eng
63568	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species occurs in dry and moist deciduous forests. Although no specific studies have been conducted on the ecology of this species, it closely resembles that of <em>P. regalis</em>.  Both <em>P. striata</em> and <em>P. regalis</em> have been found in teak monocultures, but the densities are very low compared to that of old growth forests (S. Molur and B.A. Daniel pers. obs.).	eng
63568	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population information is not available. The species shows the same trends in patchy distribution like other species of the genus. It has been reported from fewer than 10 severely fragmented locations, the abundance varying depending on the habitat. From informal observations, densities in natural forests seem higher than in plantations, but actual studies have not been conducted to establish this. This species is the second most common species encountered after <em>P. regalis</em>. Two distinct populations exist north and south of the Palghat gap.	eng
63568	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation along with collection for international pet trade are major threats. This species is killed by locals when it enters human settlements situated in or close to its habitat. The impacts of each individual threat are not known, but combined the species faces a risk.	eng
63569	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	It has not been reported from any Wildlife Sanctuaries but it occurs in reserve forests or wooded areas near Visakhapatnam, Anantagiri, Araku, Jeypur, Rayagada and Jagdalpur. This species has been collected by more than one trader. It is expected to come into the market soon.	eng
63569	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Endemic to the Eastern Ghats, India, this species is found from Jagdalpur in the north and Visakhapatnam area in the south (exact location not known) at an altitude of less than 500 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is more than 20,000 km², while the area of occupancy is not known. In Andhra Pradesh: Jeypore highway between Anantagiri and Araku, Madugula Kondas range in Paderu, Visakhapatnam (Smith 2006); in Chattisgarh: Jagdalpur (Smith 2006); in Orissa: Jeypore, Rayagada (Smith 2006).	eng
63569	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The forest in this area is of dry deciduous type. Information on ecology and habitat needs to be gathered.	eng
63569	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population information is not available.	eng
63569	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Fragmentation in general is a threat on the Eastern Ghats. Recently, the Andhra Pradesh government has notified Anantagiri as a tourism area. This could be a threat to the habitat in the future.	eng
63570	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., 2007	A variety of conservation actions are needed from basic research on the species, local legislation and management, protected areas, etc.	eng
63570	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., 2007	Endemic to the southeast coast of Madagascar. The extent of occurrence is <5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is <500 km².	eng
63570	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., 2007	Juveniles occur in mangroves and estuaries. Adults are found off sandy beaches, in estuaries, and in shallow water.  This species might migrate and form spawning aggregations. <br/> <br/>It is a benthic carnivore feeding upon fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Both sexes have drumming muscles.	eng
63570	population	Heemstra, P.C., 2007	The population is estimated to possibly number less than 10,000 mature individuals which are all in a single subpopulation which is undergoing continuing decline (could qualify as Vulnerable under criterion C2a(ii) on the basis of this). Current declines are suspected to be about 10% over the last three generations. Generation length is not known, but similar large members of this family are distinguished by relatively long lifespans and long generation lengths.	eng
63570	threats	Heemstra, P.C., 2007	Fisheries data and fishery-independent data appears non-existent for this species, however, it is likely to be caught both deliberately and accidentally as bycatch. The species is eaten by local people (primarily subsistence consumption, but there is some trade). <br/> <br/>The inshore area and estuaries are also increasingly being impacted by various pollutants as a result of the expanding human population in the region. This species has a low capacity to tolerate impacts without irreversible change.	eng
63571	conservation	Chan, T., Sadovy, Y. & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	Two marine protected areas (MPAs) ["no-take" zones] were established in Baraulu Village and Nusa Hope Village, Solomon Islands in 2002 to protect <em>B. muricatum</em> and other lagoon species (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>There are no direct protective practices for <em>B. muricatum</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Fiji</strong> <br/>The Fisheries (Restrictions on Use of Breathing (Apparatus) Regulations, 1997 ban the use of underwater breathing apparatus to "collect, take, or dive for fish", except for those with appointment from the Permanent Secretary or any person appointed by him in writing.  And the Sixth Schedule of the Fisheries Regulation establishes minimum sizes for 21 tpes of fish, including many that are often caught by spearfishing (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Besides, traditional fisheries rules (e.g,. a ban on night diving, and a ban on the use of SCUBA for fishing) in most of the 410 traditional fishing areas in Fiji have their own local fishing rules and many of those are applicable to spearfishing (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Samoa</strong> <br/>The Fishing (Scuba Fishing) Regulations 2003 states no person shall scuba fish without a license (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Many different types of traditional rules (e.g., establishing small protected areas, minimun size limits, and restricting the use of underwater torches for spearfishing at night) governing fisheries exist in the 324 villages of Samoa (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/><strong>Solomon Islands</strong> <br/>Regulations 29 of the Fisheries Act, which enacted in January 2004, states "any person using under-water breathing apparatus for the purpose of harvesting any marine resource shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand dollars or six months imprisonment or both such fine and imprisonment" (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Many villages regulate spearfishing (e.g. bans on night diving) by themselves (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Although traditional leader's ability to manage marine resource was found to be effective in some of the tribes in Solomon Islands, the existence of non-member (e.g., institutional context) and enforcement of harvest restriction rules are crucial so as to enhance management and minimize the public contest over natural resources (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>Russ and Alcala (1998) suggested that the small size of most marine protected areas in heavily fished regions would show little positive effects on parrotfish abundances. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) suggested that the prohibition on spearfishing within passage habitats in Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands, would provide a measure of protection the remaining important spawning stocks of <em>B. muricatum</em> in the Indo Pacific region. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) recommended that any lunar ban on spearfishing should focus at late full moon quarter during which <em>B. muricatum</em> spawns.	eng
63571	distribution	Chan, T., Sadovy, Y. & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	Recorded from the Red Sea east to the Line Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), north to Taiwan, the Yaeyama Islands (Japan), and Wake Island (United States Minor Outlying Islands), south to northwest Australia, the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia (Randall <em>et al</em>. 1990, Myers 1999).	eng
63571	habitat	Chan, T., Sadovy, Y. & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	This species is gregarious and occurs in aggregations of up to several (> 75) individuals on seaward and clear outer lagoon reefs at depths of 1 to 30m; also enters outer reef flats at low tide to forage. Pelagic spawning on a lunar cycle; utilises resident spawning aggregations sites (Johannes 1981, Gladstone 1986).  Eggs and larvae are pelagic. Primarily a corallivore, but also feeds upon benthic algae; this species uses its large gibbus head to ram corals and break them into pieces that are more easily ingested. Aggregations of this species are important producers of coral sand on reefs and may be important in the maintenance of ecosystem resilience (Bellwood <em>et al</em>. 2003).  Reportedly wary on reefs near human settlement or use.  This species sleeps in large groups, thus rendering them highly vulnerable to exploitation by spearfishers (mainly in the Pacific region) and netters at night (Myers 1999). <br/> <br/>Additional notes, as follows: <br/> <br/>Exposed reef crests are the primary habitat of <em>B. muricatum</em> (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. on 4th Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>In unfished areas, <em>B. muricatum</em> may enter outer reef flats at depths of 1 to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). <br/> <br/>Lieske and Myers (1994) observed that juveniles can be found in lagoons, while adults are in clear outer lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of at least 30 m. <br/> <br/>Very small individuals are restricted to the shallow inner lagoon in Solomon Islands (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>At Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands, juveniles are limited to the shallow inner lagoon environment, while larger individuals occur predominantly in passages (Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/><em>B. muricatum</em> feeds substantially on live coral (Gladstone 1986, Myers 1991, Bellwood <em>et al</em>. 2003) and benthic algae (Randall <em>et al</em> 1990). <br/> <br/>Gladstone (1986) described <em>B. muricatum</em> as generally timid and difficult to approach. <br/> <br/>Bellwood et al (2003) reported that <em>B. muricatum</em> produces significant bioerosion in the Indo-Pacific.  Based on 132 timed transects (20-min long, 5 m wide) at 9 reefs in the Great Barrier Reef, schools of 30 to 50 huge (up to 120 cm TL) specimens with each individual removing 2.33 m³ or 5.69 tonnes of structural reef carbonate each year. <br/> <br/><strong>Spawning</strong> <br/>Spawning behaviour in a tightly packed school of about 100 individuals (pair spawning activities among this mobile group) was observed from the seafloor (15 m deep) to about 2 m below the surface on the morning of January 15, 1985 in Great Barrier Reef (Gladstone 1986).  None of the <em>B. muricatum</em> in the spawning school was smaller than about 60 cm TL (Gladstone 1986). Choat and Randall (1986) recorded a group spawning (40 to 50 fish) on the outer face of Yonge reef in Great Barrier Reef during December 1983. <br/> <br/><strong>Sexual Pattern</strong> <br/>Randall and Bruce (1983) had suggested sex inversion occurs in <em>B. muricatum</em>.  J.H. Choat, pers. comm., 18 September 2006) stated that this species does not appear to be diandric; there is an extended prereproductive period of sexual differentiation from which males are produced. <br/> <br/><strong>Fecundity and Recruitment</strong> <br/>Information not available	eng
63571	population	Chan, T., Sadovy, Y. & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	<em>B. muricatum</em> are locally patchily distributed, adults always found in small shoals (<= 40 individuals) (Donaldson and Dulvy 2004). <br/> <br/>Choat and Randall (1986) stated <em>B. muricatum</em> does not display sex-associated patterns of colour change, maintaining a uniform body colouration in adult females and males. Juvenile shows a distinct colour pattern. <br/> <br/>Hamilton (2003) described <em>B. muricatum</em> is the largest of all parrotfish, reaching over 50 kg and living to an age of at least 40 years. <br/> <br/>Gladstone (1986) revealed that <em>B. muricatum</em> individuals usually occur as part of schools containing 20 to almost 100 fish which often move into shallow waters during feeding around Lizard Island in Great Barrier Reef. <br/> <br/>Based on a histological analysis of gonad collected from 169 females in Solomon Islands in 2000-2001, the size of maturity was found to be 620 mm FL, in which some specimens as small as 610 mm FL showed significant gonad development (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>Hamilton and Adams (unpubl. data) showed that 100% female maturity occurs at 650 mm SL. <br/> <br/>FishBase 2006 (www.fishbase.org) estimates that the minimum population doubling time ranges from 4.5 to 14 years; this estimate is derived from a formula that utilizes length and infinity (Linf), length at maximum yield (Lopt), time at length "0" (t0) and K (= 0.10), and may need to be recalculated given the maximum age of this species (J.H. Choat, pers. comm., 18 September 2006).  FishBase (2006) calculates that the decline threshold equals 0.85; this species is vulnerable to extinction if this threshold value is exceeded over the longer of 10 years or three generations. <br/> <br/><strong>Sex composition</strong> <br/>Information not available <br/> <br/><strong>Length-age relationship</strong> <br/>Information not available.	eng
63571	threats	Chan, T., Sadovy, Y. & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	<em>B. muricatum</em> forms mixed sized schools and is extremely vulnerable to overfishing (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>Shoaling and group resting behaviour render <em>B. muricatum</em> highly vulnerable to spearfishing, particularly at night-time (Donaldson and Dulvy 2004) and mainly in the Pacific region (J.H. Choat pers. comm.). Spearfishing at night has reduced the numbers of <em>B. muricatum</em> (Gladstone 1986, D. Fenner pers. comm. on 27th July 2006). <br/> <br/>In Roviana Lagoon (Solomon Islands), artisanal spear fishers use their sophisticated indigenous knowledge of the spawning behaviour and ecology of <em>B. muricatum</em> to catch as many fish as possible in a night (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>The belief that <em>B. muricatum</em> predominantly aggregate at night around the new moon period and that catch rates are far greater during the new moon was not supported by field survey done in 2000-2001 (Aswani and Hamilton 2004). <br/> <br/>Dulvy and Polunin (2004) suggested that the decline of <em>B. muricatum</em> in the Lau Group in Fiji was mainly due its nocturnal aggregative behaviour in shallow lagoon water or in reef caves and the daytime foraging of shoals in depth accessible by spearfishermen. <br/> <br/><em>B. muricatum</em> was often captured for ceremonial events, indicating this species has a high cultural significant value in the Lau Island group, Fiji (Dulvy and Polunin 2004). <br/> <br/>Low priority to enforcing legislation related to spearfishing in Fiji (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>In 2001, the Samoa Fisheries Projected reported that SCUBA spearfishing activities at night had been increased rapidly in the past 12 months, in which <em>B. muricatum</em> was one of the target species (Gillett and Moy 2006). <br/> <br/>Gillett and Moy (2006) pointed out that sleeping <em>B. muricatum</em> was one of the three main types of fish to be targeted by spearfishing. <br/> <br/><strong>Utilization</strong> <br/>Consumed as food. <br/> <br/>Aswani and Hamilton (2004) reported that divers in Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands would selectively target the largest individuals among a school of resting <em>B. muricatum</em> so as to let the remaining fish to flee. <br/> <br/>By the mid 1990s, fillets of <em>B. muricatum</em> were bought at a higher price than any other fish in Solomon Islands (Hamilton 2003). <br/> <br/>With not much market interest for <em>B. muricatum</em> in Palau now (Y. Sadovy pers. comm.; source: unpublished interviews done by the Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations). <br/> <br/>Lieske and Myers (1994) described <em>B. muricatum</em> to be vulnerable to overfishing. The habit of sleeping in large groups making <em>B. muricatum</em> highly vulnerable to be caught by commercial spearfishermen (Myers 1991).	eng
63572	conservation	Allen, G.R & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	Soon after the Banggai Cardinalfish appeared in the aquarium trade, a breeding programme was developed at the New Jersey State Aquarium (Vagelli 1999). But apparently no concerted effort within the aquarium trade has been made to replace wild-caught fish with captive-bred fish (Vagelli 2002, 2004b). As this fish can be reared through its entire life cycle in captivity (Vagelli 1999), it is strongly recommended that efforts be developed to raise this species in captivity and in the field (it is highly recommended that such efforts be undertaken in partnerships with local communities, preferably in Indonesia, to avoid removing livelihoods from the area). Such initiatives would reduce the need to capture wild specimens to supply the trade and reduce impact on existing populations in the region. <br/> <br/>In order to obtain reliable estimates of trade volumes for this and other marine ornamental species it is recommended that Indonesian government (and other governments) disaggregate the ‘aquarium fish’ category so that trade statistics can be obtained at least for marine versus freshwater species; and ideally by species. <br/> <br/>It is further recommended that a trade monitoring system be established through direct collaboration with exporters. Targeting and inputting trade volumes of the Banggai Cardinalfish into GMAD could help spearhead such a monitoring initiative and allow better estimates of traded numbers to be derived (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Moreover, collectors and traders should be encouraged to gain MAC certification for the Banggai Cardinalfish. <br/> <br/>Additional improvements in the sustainability of the current trade through directed training programmes on holding, packing and shipping, to reduce mortality rates of the species, are also recommended (Lunn and Moreau 2004). The development of environmental education material and programmes to promote public awareness are strongly encouraged and the potential implementation of marine protected areas should also be investigated (Lunn and Moreau 2004). <br/> <br/>In summary, conservation actions required for this species include the development, implementation, and effective enforcement of regulations designed to significantly reduce and regulate the collection and export of this species for the aquarium trade (a proposal to include this species in CITES Appendix II was withdrawn (CoP 14 Prop. 19 ); and to protect and conserve critical habitat. Management actions that would benefit both this species and the fisher communities that harvest it at present could include artificial propagation at the local level with the intention of substituting completely captive-bred fish for wild-caught fish. In addition, a concerted and effective effort should be made to reduce post-capture mortality at all levels of the collection, marketing, and export chain.	eng
63572	distribution	Allen, G.R & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	<em>Pterapogon kauderni</em> is a rare example of a marine fish with an extremely limited geographic range. It is endemic to the Banggai Archipelago, which lies in the Banggai-Sula platform in eastern Indonesia. The Banggai Island group is thought to have been a geological entity during the Cenozoic, and is located within the region of Wallacea. The natural geographic range of <em>P. kauderni</em> extends from 01° 24' 57.6" of latitude South (Monsamat, east Peleng) as its northern most distribution point to 02° 0' 53.5" of latitude South (Loisa A), and from 123° 34' 11" of longitude East (Patipakaman, central Peleng) as its westernmost distribution to approximately 124° 23' 30" of longitude East (Kano) and the south-east tip of Taliabu. This distribution covers an area of approximately 5,500 km². However, within this range, the maximum potential available habitat is about 426 km of coastline extending from the shore to about 100 m off the coast, with a maximum available area of about 34 km² (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> was found in 74 sites in 30 islands. Four sites were located in the Lembeh Strait (three islands and Sulawesi) in north Sulawesi, where this species was introduced in 2000, and in one site in central Sulawesi (Luwuk). The rest of sites were located within its natural distribution, i.e., the Banggai Archipelago. Here, it was found in 17 of the 20 major islands and in 10 of the 27 minor islands. <br/> <br/>The most isolated subpopulation inhabiting a large island was located in the eastern coast of Tempaus, which is separated from the subpopulation inhabiting Masoni Island by 16 km, and towards the west the closest subpopulation is found in south Bokan, at about 30 km. The second most isolated subpopulations inhabit Bangkulu Island, with its north subpopulation separated by about 13.6 km from south Peleng, and by about 13.5 km from Labobo Kenecil. Then, the subpopulation inhabiting Masoni Island is separated by about 11 km from the subpopulation located in Limbo, and by 16 km from that inhabiting Tempaus. Finally, the subpopulation found in Labobo is separated by about 10 km from the subpopulation located in Bangko and by 13.6 km from the closet subpopulation inhabiting Bangkulu. All other large islands are inhabited by at least one subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> that is separated by no more than (and frequently less) 5 km from another subpopulation inhabiting a different large island. Despite that oceanographic and physiographic conditions, as well as availability of habitats and substrates were similar to those found on big islands inhabited by <em>P. kauderni</em>, no populations of <em>P. kauderni</em> were found in the other 17 minor islands, reefs and atolls located far from the big islands. Furthermore, some of these small islands were separated by very short distances from big islands inhabited by <em>P. kauderni</em>. Thus, no subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> was found in Tanalan (localized at only 3.7 km  from the subpopulation inhabiting Masepe),  Belangan (at 2 km from the population of Bokan), Bongko (at 3.7 km  from the subpopulation of north Bangkulu), Sidula (at 5 km from the subpopulation inhabiting center-east Bangkulu), Togonglantan (separated by 5 km from the subpopulation of Bangkulu and by 6 km from that in habiting Labobo), nor in Tabija, which lays at only 1.5 km from the <em>P. kauderni</em> subpopulation inhabiting the bay localized south of  Keya on the nor-occidental coast of Taliabu. <br/> <br/>The Luwuk subpopulation, whose origin is not clear, is restricted to a very small area inside the harbor and is exposed to high levels of pollution and contaminants. Despite thorough searching from the harbour mouth to as far north as Botok (68 km), and as far south as Luk (46.5 km), no populations of <em>P. kauderni</em> were found outside the harbour, despite that environmental conditions and substrate availability were much better than those inside the harbor. The closest subpopulation of <em>P. kauderni</em> to the one at Luwuk is located about 100 km southeast, in Patipakaman (Peleng Island). <br/> <br/>The Lembeh subpopulation is located about 400 km north of the natural range of <em>P. kauderni</em> natural range; it was first detected in the Lembeh Strait in September 2000 occupying an area of approximately 50 m along the coast of Sarina Kenecil Island. The establishment of this subpopulation is a consequence of accidental or intentional releases from an aquarium fish operation in the area. By November 2000 this subpopulation expanded to the "Police Pier" on the margin of Sulawesi, where by May 2001 about 650 individuals occupied an area of approximately 750 x 250 m. By April 2004, <em>P. kauderni</em> extended its range from the Police Pier to at least 200 m to the south, and at least 500 m to the north. In addition, it was found for the first time in Sarina Island, and in Lembeh Island, where it was introduced in 2002 (Erdmann and Vagelli 2001, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>See distribution map, and maps in the attached PDF.	eng
63572	habitat	Allen, G.R & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	<strong>Habitat:</strong> <br/>The Banggai Cardinalfish occurs primarily on shallow sheltered bays and harbors, mainly on silty reef flats with sandy bottoms and sea grass beds. Depth distribution is generally ranges between 0.5 and 6 m, but is most commonly found between 1.5 and 2.5 m. Some populations inhabit very clear waters in coral reef areas, while others inhabit still, murky bays, and some groups are found in sandy patches associates with anemones, and less commonly, in open habitats (low branching corals and rubble). This species inhabits a variety of shallow habitats, including coral reefs (51% of identified groups), seagrass beds (35%), and open areas of sand and rubble (14%). It is most common in calm habitats on the protected side of larger islands; isolated populations also occur in areas affected by strong surge and moderate currents Water temperatures in these habitats range from 28°C to 33°C (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). There is an ontogenetic shift in habitat and microhabitat use between juveniles and adults that occurs within the same area and depth; all size classes, including mating pairs and brooding males, overlap in their distribution; the shift in use is not the consequence of differential feeding habitats nor intraspecific competition (Vagelli 2004a). The processes governing this ontogenetic shift are not clear. No pre-settlement factor is involved, however, because this species lacks a pelagic larval phase and embryos released by brooding males settle into parental habitat directly (Vagelli 1999, 2002, 2004a; Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). <br/> <br/>Juveniles associate with sea grasses, sea urchins, sea stars, sea anemones, soft corals and corals. Adults shelter between the spines of sea urchins but also among anemones, corals, stony hydrozoans, rocks and artificial structures such as jetties (Allen 2000, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2004a). Sea anemones utilized include <em>Actinodendron</em> sp., <em>Entacmaea quadricolor</em>,  <em>Heteractis crispa</em>, <em>Macrodactyla doreensis</em>, <em>Stichodactyla haddoni</em>, and <em>S. merteensis</em>. Corals include <em>Acropora</em> sp., <em>Anacropora</em> sp., <em>Echinopora horrida</em>, <em>Goniopora</em> sp.,  <em>Heliofungia actiniformis</em>, <em>Montipora digitata</em> and <em>Seriotopora hystrix</em>. Soft corals utilized include <em>Nephthea</em> sp. and stony hydrozoans include <em>Millepora</em> sp.  Sea urchin species utilized include <em>Diadema setosum</em> and <em>Tripneustes</em> sp., while the sea star is <em>Proteaster nodosus</em>. Banggai Cardinalfishes also associate with the submerged roots of mangroves (<em>Rhizophora</em> sp.). Census work showed that 43.7% of the groups were associated with hard corals, 31.9% with urchins <em>Diadema setosum</em>, and 24.4% with anemones (Allen 2000; Vagelli and Erdmann 2002; Vagelli 2004a, 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Ecology:</strong> <br/>When sheltering in anemones and <em>Heliofungia</em> corals, <em>P. kauderni</em> often associates with various species of anemone fishes (<em>Amphiprion</em>) and anemone shrimps (<em>Periclimenes</em>), and with several species of Apogonidae (<em>Apogon, Archamia, Cheilodipterus</em> and <em>Sphaeramia</em> when living among spines of sea urchins. In seagrass beds (predominantly composed of <em>Enhalus acoroides</em>), <em>P. kauderni</em> is associated with anemones, isolated live corals, sea urchins or sea stars forming small fish assemblages, commonly with <em>Abudefduf sexfasciatus</em> and several species of <em>Pomacentrus</em>, <em>Chromis</em> and <em>Halichoeres</em>. <br/> <br/><strong>Diet:</strong> <br/>As opposed to other described apogonids, <em>P. kauderni</em> has diurnal trophic habits, and its feeding activity decreases with the day and ceases around sunset time. <em>P. kauderni</em> is a carnivore-planktivore that feeds principally upon copepods, but it is also a generalist opportunistic species that feed upon a variety of taxa, principally planktonic demersal and benthic organisms. Stomach content analysis found prey representing 29 taxa with a taxonomic level of suborder or higher belonging to 6 phyla: Rhyzopoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Chaetognatha, and Chordata. There were no significant differences in diet composition between size classes. Quantitative analysis showed that copepods make up about 79% of <em>P. kauderni</em> diet, and that other important components are decapods and isopods. There was an important variation in diet composition among the sites. Representative food items include ascidian larvae, chaetognaths, post-settled gastropod and bivalve juveniles, polychaetes, acarids, copepods, amphipods, stomatopods, cumaceans, isopods, euphausiids, ostracods, cirriped larvae, mysids, decapod larvae, tanaidaceans, and the larvae of teleost and chironomid insects (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><strong>Group Size:</strong> <br/>Within its natural geographic range <em>P. kauderni</em> formed groups with a mean of 9.5 individuals, although the majority of them were composed of fewer individuals. Group size varied with age class, habitat and microhabitat. The mean size of the 448 censed groups (3,672 individuals) was 8.2 individuals, and the group means per site ranged from 3.9 to 19.8 individuals. Most groups (73% of all groups) were composed by few individuals (1 to 6). The largest single group found was about 500 individuals (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005).  <br/> <br/><strong>Breeding Biology:</strong> <br/>Banggai Cardinalfish pairs defend territories jointly and for three likely reasons: 1) spawning site defense (viewed as unlikely because spawning sites do not seem to be limiting), 2) partner defense (females defending brooding males), and 3) to avoid spawning attempts by "sneaker male" (Kolm and Berglund 2004). Contrary to predictions for a sex role-reversed species, and all other apogonids studied to date, males assume the role of the principal aggressor towards intruders in their territories prior to brooding (Kolm and Berglund 2004). For both males and females, however, territorial aggression is greater towards intruders of the same sex. In experimental introductions of larger male intruders into territories held by male-female pairs, the intruding male was unable to replace the resident male even though the resident female may have courted the intruder; as well, males never courted intruding females. Because this species may have roles that are sexually equivalent, male and females likely play different roles in the defense of jointly-held territories (Kolm and Berglund 2004). <br/> <br/>As with other cardinalfishes, the Banggai Cardinalfish is an obligate paternal mouthbrooder (Hayashi 1999). Reproductive behavior was filmed <em>in situ</em> by Dr. Masayoshi Hayashi (Yokusuka City Museum, Yokusuka, Kanagawa, Japan) and the film was broadcast on Japanese television in 1998. Other details on reproductive behavior were obtained from additional laboratory and field studies. Under laboratory conditions, <em>P. kauderni</em> reproduces throughout the year. Single females in captivity can reproduce once per month, whereas males mouth-brood up to six clutches per year. Females, under laboratory conditions can be reproductively active at about 9 months of age and 35 mm SL. The smallest female with signs of advance gonadal maturation found in the wild was 41 mm SL (Vagelli 1999, Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Females initiate courtship and use a variety of different behavioral patterns during courtship interactions (Vagelli 1999, Kolm 2001). Between a few days and up to two weeks prior to courtship and spawning, a pair will separate from the main group of fishes, establish a spawning site, and commence territorial behavior (Vagelli 1999, Kolm and Berglund 2004). A secondary male may be allowed into the territory and be courted by the female although this male did not interfere with courtship of the primary male (Vagelli 1999). Spawning and juvenile release (settlement) in the wild appears to follow a lunar cycle, with a major spawning peak during full moon and a second, smaller peak during the last quarter, although in one geographically-distinct population major spawning activity occurs during the last quarter  (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Courtship occurs during daylight hours and, in laboratory conditions, concludes by mid-afternoon. At the time of spawning and egg transfer, the female exudes an egg mass from her genital papilla that is pulled, fertilized, and then gulped by the male. <em>P. kauderni</em> possesses low fecundity, females produce small egg clutches of up to about 75 eggs of 2.5–3-mm in diameter. The mean clutch size found being incubated by males in the wild was 41 eggs (range=12 to 73) (Vagelli 1999, Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). The male broods an egg clutch for about 20 days; after hatching, the eleutheroembryos (free embryos) remain within the mouth cavity for another 10 days before release. Under laboratory conditions, a female would also court and even spawn with a secondary male (Vagelli 1999).  Following spawning and egg transfer, females defend the brooding male from intruders while males manipulate egg masses within their oral cavities; occasionally, intruders attempt to take eggs from a male’s mouth. The fertility rate under laboratory conditions is about 40 to 60%. Besides normal loss due unfertilized eggs and embryos that do not finish developing, an important percentage of eggs are lost during the clutch transfer (Vagelli 1999). Males do not feed while incubating the eggs; upon hatching some 20 days after spawning, the embryos are held an additional 10 days until their yolk is consumed.  Then, the juveniles, about 5.0 to 6.0 mm SL, are released from the male's oral cavity. A major settlement peak appears to occur during the full moon and a second minor peak during the new moon (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Vagelli (1999, 2004b) and Kolm (2001, 2002) provide laboratory studies of the reproductive biology and early ontogeny of this species, while Vagelli (2004a), Vagelli and Volpedo (2004) and Vagelli, 2005 provide data from field studies. Principal characteristics of the reproductive biology include: 1) parental care of an advanced degree, 2) an elevated level of energy investment per offspring, 3) low fecundity, 4) direct development, 5) a lengthy oral incubation period that includes the retention of free embryos after the eggs hatch, 6) settlement of juveniles within the habitat of their parents (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). <br/> <br/>The sex ratio within groups is approximately equivalent (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004). Longevity in captivity can reach 4 to 5 years (although reproductive activity decreases substantially after 2 to 3 years). However, in the wild most adult specimens are significantly younger (about 2 years old or less). Growth studies in captivity and using wild specimens show <em>P. kauderni</em> follows von Bertalanffy equation L∞ = 69 ± 1.58 mm, k = 0.21 ± 0.016, t<sub>0</sub> = -0.72 ± 0.15 months (r²= 0.99). At 12 months of age <em>P. kauderni</em> reaches a SL of about 43.5mm (TL of 64.5mm), at 18 months 47mm (70 mm TL). The largest wild specimen encountered was about 58 mm SL (88.5 mm TL) (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007).  <br/> <br/><strong>Resilience:</strong> <br/>This species has a relatively short life span (ca. 2.4 years), matures at an average of 0.8 years (FishBase 2004) and has a generation time of 1.5 years (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007); these are all indications of reasonably good resilience. Unfortunately, this species' small population size, limited distribution, low fecundity, great parental investment, and rate of extraction lower this species resilience with corresponding severe negative effects. The combination of a lack of planktonic dispersal and particular oceanographic characteristics of the Banggai region (deep channels and strong currents) has likely contributed to the extreme philopatry of this species. In addition, its within-parental habitat recruitment, sedentary nature, and shallow habitat preference preclude <em>P. kauderni</em> from dispersing even to nearby islands and have led it to a high degree of genetic structure (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004). <em>P. kauderni</em> is especially susceptible to indiscriminate collecting, e.g., its association with shallow microhabitats greatly facilitates its capture, while the lack of dispersal mechanisms make it almost impossible for this species to re-colonize areas where they have been depleted (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007). <br/> <br/>This species is highly prized in the aquarium trade and thus highly vulnerable to over-fishing, post-capture mortality, and habitat destruction.	eng
63572	population	Allen, G.R & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	The earliest known population survey (2001) identified <em>P. kauderni</em> on 16 out of 37 islands searched. Average densities in suitable habitat at three sites within the Banggai Archipelago were approximately 0.03 fishes per m² (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Based on these census data and calculations of the total available habitat, the species was estimated to have a total population size of 1.7 million fish (Vagelli 2002). Additional surveys in 2002 and 2004 covering the entire Archipelago (50 islands, 159 sites) expanded the range to 27 (17 major and 10 minor) islands. Surveys done in 2004 found <em>P. kauderni</em> in most sites at densities of about 200 to 700 individuals/ha. The mean density based on census carried out in seven locations throughout its natural range in 2004 was 0.07 individuals per m², with a total population size estimated at 2.4 million individuals (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> exhibits the highest degree of population structure that has been documented for a marine fish (Hoffman <em>et al</em>. 2005). This is a unique case of genetic isolation in populations separated by extremely short distances. Studies utilizing both mt DNA and micro-satellites have already indicated that populations occurring on reefs of the same islands, separated by only a few kilometers, are genetically isolated from one another (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004).  For instance, assignment tests performed in 23 subpopulations from all over the Archipelago, showed that 20 had a significant self-reassignment. When considering all the Bangkulu populations, 94% of the individuals from this island were reassigned back to the island - range 80.0% to 100% (Vagelli <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The lack of suitable habitats between subpopulations coupled with lack of dispersal mechanisms, are the most likely reasons for this isolation. <br/> <br/>Banggai Cardinalfish populations are distinguished for having two monophyletically-distinct clades: a southwestern clade restricted to the southwest of Bangkulu Island, and northern and eastern clades distributed throughout the remainder of its range (Bernardi and Vagelli 2004).  Eleven polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellite loci have been isolated from male fishes; polymorphism ranges from 2 to 15 alleles and expected heterozygosities range from 0.107 to 0.928, thus allowing for genetic studies of this species with very high resolution (Hoffman <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/> <br/>Generation length is estimated at being 1.0 years (FishBase 2004), however more recent estimates place it at 1.5 years (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007).	eng
63572	threats	Allen, G.R & Donaldson, T.J., 2007	<strong>Threats to the Habitat:</strong> <br/>Although resident in naturally-silty harbors and bays, this species might experience negative impacts from harbour dredging and associated pollution, as well as sediment from coastal development and use. <br/> <br/>Juveniles may be vulnerable to local population dynamics of anemones and sea urchins that provide mutualistic microhabitat. Threats to these might be from harvest (aquarium trade or food trade) or coral bleaching (anemones).  Adults may be vulnerable to local population dynamics of sea grasses. <br/> <br/><strong>Threats to the Species:</strong> <br/> <br/><u>Exploitation</u> <br/>The Banggai Cardinalfish is highly-prized in the aquarium trade (Allen 2000, Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Kolm and Berglund 2003). It has been heavily exploited by the aquarium trade since its rediscovery in 1994. Despite claims that captive breeding has been successful, most aquarium specimens are still captured in the wild. Fishes are collected, mainly with nets, and held in floating nets until purchased by fish buyers who visit individual fishers at least 3 to 4 times a month. Collectors are paid a small sum (ca. US $0.01 to 0.025 in 2001) per fish by buyers who, in turn, sell to exporters for US $ 0.10 to 0.12 a fish (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Since 1999, the fishery has expanded from Banggai Island and Bandang Island to villages in the Bokan area, on Bangkulu Island, Labobo Island, and Peleng Island, with most collection occurring near their own villages. By 2001, at least 17 villages and 230 fishermen were involved in the <em>P. kauderni</em> trade (Lunn and Moreau 2004). An estimated minimum of 600,000 to 700,000 individuals were collected per year by local fishers prior to 2001 (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Lunn and Moreau 2002); current harvest rates are believed to exceed 700,000 to 900,000 fish/yr (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/><em>P. kauderni</em> are shipped primarily by boat from the Banggai Archipelago to national exporters via Tumbak and Manado and to a Bali exporter via Palu, and also direct to Bali exporters. An estimated 115,000 fish/month were transported on the Tumbak–Manado route, 3,000/month along the Palu to Bali route, and up to 10,000 fish/month were sent direct to Bali in 2001 (Lunn and Moreau 2004). These numbers are close to earlier estimates of 50,000 to 60,000 fish/month arriving in North Sulawesi for exportation, with total estimated trade for 2000 and 2001 of 700,000 fish (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Transhipment mortality is high because of lengthy travel times, usually 18 to 48 hours by boat (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002); no data on mortality from collecting or holding prior to transhipment appears to be available. The high mortality rate contributes to the disparity in prices paid to fishers and buyers (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). A minimum of four aquarium fish export companies operate in Bali; others exist in Kendary and Manado (Sulawesi).  he majority of <em>P. kauderni</em> captured in the Banggai Archipelago are destined for the international aquarium trade, with most exported to the United States, Europe and Asia. Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. (2003) and Lunn and Moreau (2004) further document the aquarium trade. <br/> <br/>In addition to the estimate of number of individuals collected and shipped reported in the assessment, trade surveys carried out by Lunn and Moreau (2004) suggest that a minimum of 118,000 Banggai Cardinalfish were sold each month by fishers in the Banggai Islands. Trade volumes are in all likelihood greater as this estimate only includes fish bought by Tumbak- and Palu-based buyers, not taking into consideration individuals collected and shipped from alternate locations, or lost to pre-sale mortalities in fishers’ holding cages (Lunn and Moreau 2004). <br/> <br/>A recent study showed that, despite the use of non-destructive fishing methods, the fishery had a negative effect on fish density when sites with high fishing pressure were compared to sites with low fishing levels (Kolm and Berglund 2003). Fishing also had a significant effect on group size (halving of average group size where sites with high and low fishing pressure were compared), which may lead to strong negative impacts on individual fitness in the future (referred to as the Allee effect in the scientific literature) (Stephens <em>et al</em>. 1999, Stephens and Sutherland 1999, Kolm and Berglund 2003). <br/> <br/>In addition to more detailed trade statistics to accurately reflect real trade volumes, regular monitoring of the fishery should be undertaken, particularly as studies seem to indicate that the expansion of the trade to new, previously unexploited areas is underway, moving outwards from Banggai Island to all of the major islands in the area. Lunn and Moreau (2003) also highlight that the pool of potential fishers could be large, particularly given that obstacles to entering the fishery appear to be minimal and alternative livelihood opportunities limited. <br/> <br/>Other Threats: <br/>This species is reportedly parasitised by four main parasite types. Three of them have been already identified, i.e., nematodes (6.6% of all individuals analyzed), digenetic trematodes (7.9%); and 4.8% of individuals were parasited by cestodes (plerocercoid larvae). The last type of parasites found consists of an undescribed isopod which was found encysted in the body cavity and on the external stomach wall of 7.2% of individuals analyzed. These endoparasites are currently being investigated and preliminary results indicate that they belong to a new family of epicaridean isopods with an unknown life cycle (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>Indirect evidence strongly suggests that the Crocodile-fish <em>Cymbacephalus beauforti</em> (Platycephalidae), several species of Lion-fish <em>Pterois</em> (Scorpaenidae) and the grouper <em>Epinephelus merra</em> (Serranidae) prey upon <em>P. kauderni</em>, particularly in areas inhabited by large groups. Other likely predators are the Stonefish <em>Synanceia horrida</em> (Scorpaenidae), several species of moray eels of the genus <em>Gymnothorax</em>, and <em>Echidna nebulosa</em> (Muraenidae) and the sea-snake <em>Laticauda colubrina</em> (Elapidae) (Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>The species is thought to suffer high mortality during the first days after settlement due to predation, including cannibalism (Vagelli 2002). For instance, despite that under laboratory conditions the average number of juveniles released was 40, and the average clutch size of brooding males in the wild was 18 embryos, out of 81 groups of new recruits found in the wild during 3 expeditions, most of them consisted of one or two individuals (mean: 2.3 individuals). The three largest groups found consisted of 15, 12, and nine individuals (Vagelli 2004a, Vagelli 2005). <br/> <br/>A newly emerging threat (a viral disease) has been documented in wild-harvested individuals maintained in captivity.  The origin of the iridovirus, as well as the prevalence in and impacts to wild populations, is currently under investigation (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007). <br/> <br/>Frequent earthquakes recently affected several zones within the Banggai Archipelago had a potential detrimental impact on localized <em>P. kauderni</em> subpopulations	eng
63573	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Included in one protected area: Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63573	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Caryophyllia solida</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; only reported from three locations, southeast of Fernandina Island; north of San Cristóbal (questioned location, see Cairns 1991), and north of Santiago Island (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63573	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	According to Cairns (1991) <em>C. solida</em> occurs at depths of 373 to 488 m (depth range from 488 to 1,160 is questioned in Cairns 1991). Little else is known.	eng
63573	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63573	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown. This species has a limited range and slow growth rates and therefore could be intrinsically at risk from future threats.	eng
63574	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Recorded from one protected area: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63574	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Concentrotheca vaughani</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; only reported from two locations: off Tagus Cove and Caleta Iguana at Isabela Island (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63574	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>C. vaughani</em> has been reported from a depth range of 313 to 316 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.	eng
63574	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63574	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown. This species has a limited range and slow growth rates and therefore could be intrinsically at risk from future threats.	eng
63575	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Present in one protected area: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63575	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Crispatotrochus galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago. Reported from the southwest side of Fernandina Island; off Tagus Cove, Isabela Island; north of Floreana Island; off Santa Cruz Island, and off Roca Redonda (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63575	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>C. galapagensis</em> occurs at depths of 84 to 806 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.	eng
63575	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63575	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63576	conservation	Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., Edgar, G., Banks, S. & Vera, M., 2007	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63576	distribution	Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., Edgar, G., Banks, S. & Vera, M., 2007	<em>Polycyathus isabela</em> is an endemic species for the ETP region, present only around the Galápagos Archipelago. Occurrence known from Punta Albemarle (14 m, holotype); Punta Vicente Roca (10 m), and Caleta Iguana (11 m) at Isabela Island (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005).	eng
63576	habitat	Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., Edgar, G., Banks, S. & Vera, M., 2007	In recesses or caves with subdued light (Hickman 2005), reported at depths of 10 to 23 m (Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005).	eng
63576	population	Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., Edgar, G., Banks, S. & Vera, M., 2007	<em>P. isabela</em> is an uncommon species (Hickman 2005), only recorded from three sites at Isabela Island (viz. Punta Albemarle, Punta Vicente Roca and Caleta Iguana). The population status of the type subpopulation from Punta Albemarle is unknown, although the species has not been sighted in recent searches in that region. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation from Punta Vicente Roca (sighted in 2003), has not been seen subsequently, despite this location having been surveyed seasonally since that time (Chiriboga, Hickamn and Edgar pers. comms.). In addition, another small colony was sighted in 2004 at Caleta Iguana, Isabela during underwater searches (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comms.).	eng
63576	threats	Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., Edgar, G., Banks, S. & Vera, M., 2007	Unknown. Presumably El Niño and climate change.	eng
63577	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63577	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Dendrophyllia johnsoni</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Archipelago, only recorded from two locations; off Santa Cruz Island and from a seamount to the north of Santiago Island (Cairns 1991).	eng
63577	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>D. johnsoni</em> has been reported from depth ranges of 373 to 462 m (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.	eng
63577	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63577	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63578	conservation	Edgar, G., 2007	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63578	distribution	Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Endopsammia pourtalesi</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago; known only from the type locality, west of Baltra; depth unknown (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63578	habitat	Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63578	population	Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63578	threats	Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63579	conservation	Hickman, C., Edgar, G., & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Inside one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63579	distribution	Hickman, C., Edgar, G., & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Rhizopsammia wellingtoni</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador; only known from Tagus Cove, Isabela; Cousins, Santiago; Daphne Islet and Gordons Rocks, Santa Cruz; Gardner Islet (near Floreana) and Devil's Crown, Floreana (Well 1983, Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005, P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).	eng
63579	habitat	Hickman, C., Edgar, G., & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>R. wellingtoni</em> occurs on under rock ledges, overhangs and ceilings of caves; at depths of 2 to 45 m (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005, P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).	eng
63579	population	Hickman, C., Edgar, G., & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Before the 1982-83 ENSO (El Niño) event, Glynn and Wellington (1983) reported <em>R. wellingtoni</em> was most abundant (approx. 13% of mean surface coverage) at 15 m depth at Tagus Cove, Isabela. After the 1982-83 El Niño event most <em>R. wellingtoni</em> colonies were destroyed, except for colonies at Cousins and Gordons Rocks (Hickman 2005). P. Humann (pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman) observed and photographed one colony at Cousins and another one at Gordons Rocks in 1993; and in the late 1990s he took a photograph at the Gordons Rocks' colony. Witman and Smith (2003) reported <em>R. wellingtoni</em> inside their permanent photo quadrats at Gordons Rocks in 1999 and in 2000. Since then, <em>R. wellingtoni</em> has not been observed at Gordons Rocks, Cousins or anywhere else, despite targeted searches.	eng
63579	threats	Hickman, C., Edgar, G., & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Despite no specific information on the thermal tolerance limits of <em>R. wellingtoni</em>, the dramatic reduction in its distributional range immediately after the 1982-83 El Niño event suggests that this species is particularly sensitive to thermal anomalies.	eng
63580	conservation	Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G., Guzmán, H. & Banks, S., 2007	Inside one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63580	distribution	Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G., Guzmán, H. & Banks, S., 2007	<em>Tubastraea floreana</em> is a rare endemic species to the Galápagos Archipelago, only known from a small number of sites: Playa Prieta, Floreana; Caleta Iguana, Isabela; Gardner Islet, near Floreana; Pinzón Island; Buccaneer Cove, Santiago, and Cousins, near Santiago (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005).	eng
63580	habitat	Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G., Guzmán, H. & Banks, S., 2007	<em>T. floreana</em> occurs in cryptic habitats; on ceilings of caves, ledges and rocks overhangs (Wells 1983, Hickman 2005). <em>T. floreana</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 2 to 46 m depth (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991, Hickman 2005, A. Chiriboga pers. comm., P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman).	eng
63580	population	Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G., Guzmán, H. & Banks, S., 2007	Before 1983 <em>T. floreana</em> was known from Caleta Iguana, Isabela; Buccaneer Cove, Santiago; Cousins near Santiago; Pinzón, Playa Prieta, Floreana, and Gardner Islet near Floreana (Wells 1983, Cairns 1991). However, after the 1982-83 ENSO (El Niño) event, <em>T. floreana</em> was not reported from any site until the early 1990s; when P. Humann observed and photographed three colonies at Cousins, near Santiago (P. Humann pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman). According to P. Humann (pers. comm. to C.P. Hickman), he observed these colonies yearly until 2001, but has not seen them since. Despite targeted searches throughout the Archipelago, the only colonies found during the past decade were located at Gardner Islet, near Floreana in 2004 (A. Chiriboga pers. comm.).	eng
63580	threats	Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G., Guzmán, H. & Banks, S., 2007	Despite a lack of information on the thermal tolerances of <em>T. floreana</em>, the dramatic reduction in its distribution immediately after the 1982-83 El Niño event suggests that this mortality resulted from the event. Presumably climate change is an additional threat.	eng
63581	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Present in one protected are in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included with corals in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63581	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Flabellum daphnense</em> is known only from one specimen, the holotype; collected at Daphne Mayor, near Santa Cruz, Galápagos, Ecuador (Cairns 1991, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63581	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>F. daphnense</em> was collected at 101 m depth (Cairns 1991). Little else is known.	eng
63581	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63581	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63582	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Present in one protected area in the ETP region: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO). Included in CITES Appendix II.	eng
63582	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>Pseudocyathoceras avis</em> is an endemic species within the ETP region; found only in the Galápagos Archipelago off Española and Floreana Islands (Cairns 1991, Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
63582	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	<em>P. avis</em> has been recorded from depths between 91 and 183 m. Little else is known.	eng
63582	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63582	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63583	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>E. perforans</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63583	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ectochaete perforans</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; known only from the type locality, Bahia Cartago, Isabela (Taylor 1945).	eng
63583	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>E. perforans</em> is a tiny, endozoic and filamentous species found on dead shells on the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945).	eng
63583	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>E. perforans</em> was abundant on dead shells when he collected it in 1934. Only known from the type locality. However, there have been no subsequent attempts to identify collections that may refer to this species and it could be more widespread.	eng
63583	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63584	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historic distribution, <em>R. robustum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63584	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>R. robustum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands only known from the type locality, Seymour Island (Setchell and Gardner 1937).	eng
63584	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>R. robustum</em> is only known from intertidal habitats, in association with <em>Bifurcaria galapagensis</em> (Setchell and Gardner 1937).	eng
63584	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
63584	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63585	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Historic records currently within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63585	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Desmarestia tropica</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from two locations: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Second locality: Collected in 1972, Caleta Tagus, Isabela. <br/> <br/>Acleto (1973) reported this species from Peru; however, this report is considered an error. [A. Peters annotated a specimen and indicated that the identification was incorrect, K.A. Miller pers. comm.]	eng
63585	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Collected by dredge from 14 to 60 m depth. Belongs to a cold water order of algae that is rare in the tropics (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). The cryptic gametophyte stage of this species may exist in cooler, deeper waters; however, no recent evidence indicates reproduction to produce the more conspicuous sporophyte stage, which may be seasonal (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63585	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown. No abundance estimates from type description. This is a conspicuous species that has not been observed since 1972, despite directed surveys in the type locality and other deep, cool locations around the archipelago. It inhabits cool water and has likely been affected by El Niño events in the last three decades, particularly the 1982-83 event, which greatly reduced macro-algal coverage across the archipelago. Since this species was found at two locations historically, and has not been found in recent decades, a 100% reduction in known populations is evident. A cryptic gametophyte stage may exist in deeper waters, but there is no evidence that it has been reproducing to produce the more conspicuous sporophyte stage.	eng
63585	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	El Niño warming events; the elevated (i.e., up to 5°C above long-term average) and persistent (i.e., >12 months) temperatures that characterize El Niño events are likely to negatively affect this cold water species (Edgar and Garske 2004).	eng
63586	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. diaphana</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63586	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Dictyopteris diaphana</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Santa Cruz: E. side of Caamaño (14 to 27 m) (1972, UC, KAM). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945), Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2001), and Punta Cormorant (Wellington 1975; with doubt). Isabela: Las Marielas (CDRS 2001 record). Fernandina: Cabo Hammond (CDRS 2001 record).	eng
63586	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. diaphana</em> has been recorded at 55 m depth at Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945), and specimens attributed to this species, but still to be confirmed, collected at 14 m at Las Cuevas on rock at the rock-sand interface (CDRS record 2001).	eng
63586	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. diaphana</em> is a rare species, for which there is no information on population trends (K A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63586	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63587	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>G. galapagensis</em> occurs inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63587	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Dictyota galapagensis</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Turtle Point (Farlow 1902: Type locality), Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (1972 UC K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945, Mead <em>et al</em>. 1972) and Champion Island (Wellington 1975). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Wellington 1975).	eng
63587	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. galapagensis</em> is a large (35 cm long), conspicuous and easy to identify seaweed (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). Found on rocky substrata in shallow waters, with records from the lower intertidal to 7 m depth (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63587	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Historically, <em>D. galapagensis</em> was classified as fairly common. Additionally, Wellington (1975) listed this species as being abundant in the western archipelago. Nevertheless, recent surveys have failed to find this species (K.A Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.), and there have been no other records since 1974.	eng
63587	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63588	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. major</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63588	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Dictyota major</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; recorded from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Black Beach (2004 NUC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: east side of Caamaño islet (1972 NUC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Punto Moreno (2001 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63588	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. major</em> was recorded in dredge samples at depths of 13 to 55 m, hence no specific depth records exist, other than one record listed at 33 m (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). <em>D. major</em> is a large species, up to 40 cm long.	eng
63588	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>D. major</em> is uncommon, known only from a few specimens. Taylor (1945) indicated that it was rare in dredge hauls at sites where collected.	eng
63588	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63589	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. concrescens</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63589	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	All known records indicate that <em>Padina concrescens</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; so far reported from: Floreana: Black Beach (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Post Office Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Santa Fé: two localities (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1973 CDS).	eng
63589	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. concrescens</em> occurs in a wide range of depths but most commonly in shallow water. It is a warm water species, occurring above the thermocline. Its prostrate habit makes it easy to graze, therefore it may be adversely affected by sea urchin grazing.	eng
63589	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. concrescens</em> is not a common species. Because it resembles other, more abundant <em>Padina</em> species, it is difficult to distinguish in the field; hence, its population has not been accurately assessed.	eng
63589	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63590	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. ecuadoreanum</em> occurs whitin the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63590	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Spatoglossum ecuadoreanum</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; first reported from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Taylor 1945: type locality; Wellington 1974). The species is also recorded from a number of other localities (Española: Gardner Bay; Floreana: Punta Cormorant; Fernandina: Punta Espinosa – all sites Wellington 1974) around the Archipelago (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS), however, these identifications need to be verified (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comm.).	eng
63590	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	On rocky substrata, presumably in shallow depths (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63590	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63590	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Possibly climate change.	eng
63591	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>S. schmittii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63591	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Spatoglossum schmittii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, and has been reported from: Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: mouth of Academy Bay and midway between Punta Estrada and Caamaño (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.; Wellington 1975). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Española (Taylor 1945). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Specimens have also been collected from Punta Espinosa, Fernandina, and from Floreana by J.N. Norris in 1977 and 1978 (US, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63591	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. schmittii</em> occurs on rocky substrata at depths of 0 to 37 m, and occasionally at 55 m (Taylor 1945, 1972 collections K.A. Miller pers. comm.). The thallus can exceed 45 cm in height (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63591	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. schmittii</em> is 'occasional to infrequent' in dredge collections. A large, conspicuous, historically-widespread species that has not been observed in recent times, despite extensive surveys. Its historical habitat is now widely impacted by ecosystem interactions involving herbivore overgrazing.	eng
63591	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63592	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63592	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Zosterocarpus abyssicolus</em> is an endemic species to Galápagos Islands, known only from its type locality; Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).	eng
63592	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Z. abyssicolus</em> is a small (1 to 2 cm long) and inconspicuous epiphytic species. The holotype was dredged from 55 m depth (Taylor 1945).	eng
63592	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown, not collected since type.	eng
63592	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown, but ocean warming and overgrazing by sea urchins is suspected.	eng
63593	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on the historical distribution, <em>B. galapagensis</em> was present insde the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63593	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Bifurcaria galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from numerous locations before 1983 (Taylor 1945, Hedgpeth 1969, Mead <em>et al</em>. 1972, Cinelli and Colantoni 1974, Wellington 1975, Hessler Expedition): off San Cristóbal (Wreck Bay), Floreana (Punta Cormorant, Black Beach), Pinzón, Rabida, Santa Cruz (opposite Gordon Rocks, Caamaño, Academy Bay), Fernandina (Punta Espinosa), Isabela (Puerto Villamil, Caleta Tagus), Plazas, Seymour, Santa Fé.	eng
63593	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>B. galapagensis</em> was reported to occur on intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky bottoms (Taylor 1945), and was very conspicuous with a high biomass. As with other fucoids, spore dispersal is probably local, with embryos tending to settle under the canopies of adults (which are now absent). Additionally, embryos are vulnerable to desiccation during release and settlement. The life cycle of this species does not have a cryptic stage.	eng
63593	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Prior to 1983, <em>B. galapagensis</em> was considered abundant and widespread throughout the central, south and western Archipelago. According to Taylor (1945), <em>B. galapagensis</em> was common on higher littoral rocks at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. Additionally, Cinelli and Colantoni (1974) report <em>B. galapagensis</em> at 5 of 8 sites surveyed in 1971-72; Mead <em>et al</em>. (1972) from 5 of 29 SCUBA sites in 1972. Wellington (1975) also emphasizes the species abundance around Santa Cruz and other central and western islands during the 1970s. During February 1983, specimens studied by Robinson (1985), looked unhealthy with thinning haptera, and by March 1983, <em>B. galapagensis</em> disappeared. Since 1984, no specimen has been found, and presumably no source populations exist.	eng
63593	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63594	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. albemarlense</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63594	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sargassum albermarlense</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: <br/>Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Taylor 1945, Wellington 1975). Isabela: Punta Albermarle (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santiago: Bartolome (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1972 CDS), Academy Bay (Wellington 1975). <br/> <br/>After 1983, reported from: <br/>Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (CDRS record 2002), Cabo Douglas, Punta Mangle (1995 CDS) and southern coast of Fernandina (CDRS record 2003). Isabela: Cabo Berkeley, Caleta Iguana (CDRS record 2004), Caleta Tagus (CDRS record 2002), Castles (CDRS record 2004). Floreana: Post Office Bay (CDRS record 2001). Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1994 CDS).	eng
63594	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. albemarlense</em> has been reported on rocky substrata from the low intertidal to 8 m depth (CDRS record 2001, CDRS record 2002 , Taylor 1945). Frond growth varies seasonally.	eng
63594	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to K.A. Miller (pers. comm.), <em>S. albemarlense</em> can be confused with other species (e.g., <em>S. zacae, S. howellii</em>); hence population size and distribution are uncertain. Taylor (1945) categorized this alga as rare at Bartolome, but Wellington (1975) reported it as one of the most abundant brown algal species at two of three sites (Punta Espinosa and Academy Bay). More recent studies indicated that its abundance ranged from abundant at Post Office Bay, Floreana (CDRS record in 2001) to common at Punta Espinosa, Fernandina (CDRS record in 2002). Populations around Academy Bay and the central archipelago are patchy and sparse at present (L. Garske, pers. comm.)	eng
63594	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63595	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. galapagense</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63595	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sargassum galapagense</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: <br/>Isabela: Bahia Banks (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Tagus (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975) and Cabo Douglas (Wellington 1975). Floreana: Champion (Wellington 1974). San Cristóbal. Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1974 CDS).  <br/> <br/>After 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (CDS record 2001), Cabo Douglas and southern coast of Fernandina (CDRS record 2003). Isabela: Cabo Berkely (1987 CDS), Punta Moreno (CDRS record 2001), Castles and Bahia de los Perros (CDRS record 2001). Floreana: Champion (2003 CDS). Santa Cruz: Punta Nuñez (CDRS record 2002) and Laguna de los Flamingos (1995 CDS).	eng
63595	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. galapagense</em> occurs from the low intertidal to shallow subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers comms.).	eng
63595	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Edgar and Garske (unpublished manuscript), populations of this species have declined from a band-forming species prior to 1982 to a few individuals sighted amongst other <em>Sargassum</em> plants in the western region in 2004.  However, abundance records are anecdotal and there is insufficient information to assess population trends in these species over the past three generations.	eng
63595	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63596	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. setifolium</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63596	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sargassum setifolium</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm; Wellington 1975). Isabela: Caleta Black (Taylor 1945) and Caleta Tagus (Taylor 1945; also many 1966 UC specimens from 0.5 mile NW of Caleta Tagus and 1 mile N of Caleta Tagus; K.A. Miller, pers. comm.). Floreana: Champion (Wellington 1975), Black Beach Anchorage (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm). San Cristóbal: (Albatros Espedition); Wreck Bay (1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm). Santiago: Bartolome (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz. After 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1995 CDS). Isabela: Las Marielas (CDRS record 2001).	eng
63596	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. setifolium</em> has been reported from the low intertidal to 7.2 m depth.	eng
63596	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	There is little information on population trends for <em>S. setifolium</em>, although Wellington (1975) reported it as one of the most prevalent brown algae at Punta Espinosa (along with <em>S. albemarlense</em>). At present, populations are almost exclusively restricted to the western archipelago. Recent surveys (2000 to 2004) have failed to find populations of <em>S. setifolium</em> from San Cristóbal, Bartolome, and Santa Cruz. This represents a contraction of available habitat from about 20,000 km² to one small area; estimated to be substantially less than 500 km² in area of occupancy, and less than 5,000 km² in extent of occurrence. Population trend: unknown over the past decade; declining over the past three decades.	eng
63596	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63597	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. templetonii</em> is reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63597	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sargassum templetonii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Isabela: Punta Albemarle (Taylor 1945) and Punta Cristopher (Taylor 1945); Floreana; San Cristóbal; Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Wellington 1975). After 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1989 CDS), Punta Carrion and Mosquera; Isabela: Caleta Tagus (CDRS record 2002), Punta Albemarle and Castles; Fernandina: Punta Española; Santa Fé: Roca Pinguina.	eng
63597	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. templetonii</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 4.5 to 7.5 m on saxicolous subtrata. However, at Santa Fé juveniles were reported at 24 m (UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and juveniles at Punta Albemarle were observed at >28 m.	eng
63597	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. templetonii</em> is uncommon throughout its distribution. No data are available on population trends.	eng
63597	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63598	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>E. galapagensis</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63598	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Eisenia galapagensis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality), Caamaño and opposite Gordon Rocks (Taylor 1945). Santa Fé. Marchena: North Bay (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa. Isabela: Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945) and Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945). After 1983, reported from: Fernandina: Cape Douglas (2004 record), several sites on the western coast (2007 records; Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2007; Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
63598	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>E. galapagensis</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 27 to 55 m (Taylor 1945). This species is easy to recognize, in part because it has a maximum size of at least 85 cm frond length and is the sole known member of the cold-water order Laminariales occurring in the Galápagos Islands. <em>E. galapagensis</em> typically grow in groups; juveniles through adults were observed at all sites recorded in 2007. Individuals have been found as shallow as 12 m but populations appear to increase in density and size with depth, to at least 60 m when suitable substrata are available (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The conspicuous sporophyte alternates with a microscopic phase.	eng
63598	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) reported <em>E. galapagensis</em> as rare and uncommon at Post Office Bay, Floreana, and common at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz. Additionally, Wellington (1975) reported <em>E. galapagensis</em> as especially abundant at depth around Caleta Iguana (Isabela). Since then, it has been collected from several sites off western Fernandina in 2004 and 2007, and at Caleta Iguana in 2007 (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
63598	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63599	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63599	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sporochnus rostratus</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality) Española (Taylor 1945). Marchena: North Bay (Taylor 1945). After 1983, reported from: <br/>Floreana: Champion (CDRS record 2001) and Post Office Bay (UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63599	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. rostratus</em> has been reported at depths of 12.5 to 37 m (Taylor 1945). It is often found at the sand-rock interface (Taylor 1945). <em>S. rostratus</em> is probably a short-lived species (K.A. Miller, pers. comm.).	eng
63599	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. rostratus</em> was rare at Post Office Bay. For non-experts, <em>S. rostratum</em> may be difficult to distinguish from <em>Carpomitra luxurians</em> and <em>Sporochnus bolleanus,</em> which are more abundant (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). There is no information on population trends.	eng
63599	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63600	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution <em>A. svedelii</em> occured inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63600	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Asparagopsis svedelii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type locality at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).	eng
63600	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Dredged from 55 m depth (Taylor 1945).	eng
63600	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. svedelii</em> was rare while dredged from 55 m depth at Post Office Bay, Floreana.	eng
63600	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63601	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>A. veleroae</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63601	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Antithamnion veleroae</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from: south of Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Punta Cristopher, Isabela (Taylor 1945).	eng
63601	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. veleroae</em> has been recorded from the intertidal, occurring on rocky subtrata (boulders-rocks) or as an epiphyte on <em>Prionitis</em> species (Taylor 1945). Mostly microscopic, but can reach 1 cm length (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63601	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. veleroae</em> was common at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. There is no current information on relative abundance or population trends.	eng
63601	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño (given that it is an intertidal species, and therefore disproportionately susceptible to anomalous warming events), climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63602	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63602	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Callithamnion ecuadoreanum</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, known from: Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945: type locality); Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945), and Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). Caleta Iguana, Elizabeth Bay, I. Isabela (2004, UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63602	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> was reported to occur at depths of 0 to 55 m on fine sand (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). This species reaches 1 to 2 cm thallus length (K.A  Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63602	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>C. ecuadoreanum</em> was rare at Post Office Bay. No current information is available on abundance or population trends.	eng
63602	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63603	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality is now is within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63603	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Callithamnion epiphyticum</em> is an endemic species for the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality: Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945).	eng
63603	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Reported to occur at depths of 35 to 55 m (dredge) as an epiphyte on larger algae (Taylor 1945).	eng
63603	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Current abundance and trend unknown.	eng
63603	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63604	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical locations <em>C. hoodii</em> was present inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63604	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ceramium hoodii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Island, known only from Gardner Bay, Española (Taylor 1945: type locality) and Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945). No positive records of this species exist since 1945 (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63604	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) collected <em>C. hoodii</em> at 27 m, entangled with coarse algae at Post Office Bay, Floreana, and between 37 and 55 m on fine sand at Gardner Bay, Española.	eng
63604	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) reported <em>C. hoodii</em> as common at Gardner Bay, Española. However, current information on abundance and population trends is lacking.	eng
63604	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63605	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. howellii</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63605	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ceramium howellii</em> is an endemic Galápagos species, recorded from the southeast side of Fernandina on two occasions; first (holotype) by Setchell and Gardner (1937) and then by Dawson (1957).	eng
63605	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. howellii</em> is known to be an epiphyte on <em>Padina</em> species; reported from the low intertidal and shallow subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63605	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. howellii</em> is a small inconspicuous species that is difficult to identify and collect except by specialists (K A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63605	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63606	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. prostratum</em> is present inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63606	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ceramium prostratum</em> is an endemic species for the Galápagos Islands; only known from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz, and Puerto Villamil, Isabela (Dawson 1963).	eng
63606	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a microscopic species (5 mm in height), which is epiphytic on other seaweeds. It has been reported from the intertidal rocky shore and intertidal turf. (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63606	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a very small epiphyte that is difficult to identify, except by specialists. So far, no information is available about its population size or trends.	eng
63606	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63607	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>C. templetonii</em> occurs inside the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63607	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ceramium templetonii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, having been reported from three locations: Post Office Bay, Floreana (Setchel and Gardener 1937); Tagus Cove, Isabela (Dawson 1957), and Punta Suarez, Española (Dawson 1963).	eng
63607	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. templetonii</em> has been reported from the intertidal on rocky substrata. It is a fine, filamentous creeping turf alga up to 5 to 10 mm high (Dawson 1957). A very small epiphyte.	eng
63607	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. prostratum</em> is a very small epiphyte that is difficult to identify, except by specialists. So far, no information is available about its population size or trends.	eng
63607	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63608	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. complanatum</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63608	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Pleonosporium complanatum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands. Prior to 1983, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality; 1972 UC, K.A. Miller, pers. comm.); Isabela (1975 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). After 1983, reported from: Floreana: Tres Cuevitas (CDRS record 2002) and Post Office Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63608	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. complanatum</em> is an epiphytic alga up to 3 to 5 cm in length. Compared to other epiphytic species, it is relatively conspicuous and easy to identify. Reported from depths of 14 to 30 m.	eng
63608	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. complanatum</em> was reported as uncommon at Tres Cuevitas, Floreana (CDRS record 2002). This species is more conspicuous than other local epiphytic algal species and is seen relatively frequently amongst macroalgal samples.	eng
63608	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63609	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical records, <em>A. papenfussii</em> was present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63609	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Acrosorium papenfussi</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type locality at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Taylor 1945).	eng
63609	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. papenfussii</em> is a subtidal species that was dredged in Academy, Santa Cruz, but with no specific depth record. It is a large species, up to 25 cm tall.	eng
63609	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. papenfussii</em> was infrequent in dredges from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz. However, this species has not been collected since the original description.	eng
63609	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63610	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. equatorianum </em>occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63610	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Austrofolium equatorianum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type location at Santa Cruz, intertidal, near Darwin lab, Academy Bay (as <em>Bartoniella ? equatoriana</em> Dawson 1963).	eng
63610	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known of habitat other that the species occurs in the intertidal zone.	eng
63610	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63610	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63611	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. howellii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63611	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Austrofolium howellii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Santa Cruz: Caamaño (1974 CDS, L. Garske and K.A. Miller, pers. comm.). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.)	eng
63611	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. howellii</em> has been reported from depths ranging from turfs on surf-beaten rocks in the low intertidal to 30 m (Taylor 1945, 1974 CDS, 2004 UC). <em>A. howellii</em> grows to approx. 6 cm (Taylor 1945).	eng
63611	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) reported <em>A. howellii</em> as occasional in turfs on surf-beaten rocks. However, there is no information on current abundance or trends.	eng
63611	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and loss of macroalgal habitat through ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions relate to the recent increase in sea urchins and other herbivores, and development of urchin barrens, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63612	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>M. kilinii</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63612	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Myriogramme kylinii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands; only known from four collections at two locations: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); 2.5 miles E. of Academy Bay by box dredge 40 to 45 m, and 4 miles SE of Academy Bay in 50 m (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63612	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>M. kylinii</em> occurs from 3 to 50 m depth  (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63612	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>M. kylinii</em> is considered a rare species, with no information available on population trends.	eng
63612	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63613	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Found within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63613	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Nithophyllum divaricatum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945); Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). No known further collections since type collections.	eng
63613	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>N. divaricatum</em> has been reported at depths of 27 to 36 m at Tagus Cove, Isabela; additionally, it was also reported at 55 m depth at Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945).	eng
63613	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	No population information is available for <em>N. divaricatum</em>.	eng
63613	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63614	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>P. elegans</em> occured within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63614	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Phycodrina elegans</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands: Prior to 1983, reported from: San Cristóbal: (Setchell and Gardner 1937); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1934 MICH Wynne 1985; 1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Caleta Tagus (1972 UC, 1977 US, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), Caleta Iguana (1977 US, K.A. Miller pers. comm., Wellington 1975), and Punta Christopher (1934 MICH Wynne 1985); San Cristóbal (A. Stewart 1905, Wynne 1988); Floreana: Post Office Bay (1934 MICH, Wynne 1985), and Devil's Crown (1975 MICH, Wynne 1985). <br/>There are no records of <em>P. elegans</em> after 1977.	eng
63614	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. elegans</em> is a conspicuous alga, growing to at least 20 cm long (Taylor 1945). This species occurs at depths of 14 to 45 m on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945).	eng
63614	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) reported <em>P. elegans</em> (as <em>Phycodrys pulcher</em>) as a rare species at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz, but common at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Wellington (1975) reports it from Caleta Iguana (as <em>Phycodrys elegans</em>) as especially abundant at depth. Prior to 1983, this species was recorded from seven locations in south, central and western Archipelago; nevertheless, <em>P. elegans</em> has not been reported since the last records in 1977 (i.e., Caleta Tagus and Caleta Iguana), despite recent targeted searches at its original locations and more widely through the Galápagos Islands. There is no information on current abundance or trends.	eng
63614	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63615	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI), but not in protected zones; Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63615	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Pseudolaingia hancockii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Santa Cruz (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.): 2.5 miles E. of Academy Bay (box dredge 40 to 45 m), Santa Cruz, E. side of Caamaño (14 to 27 m).	eng
63615	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	At Wreck Bay, San Cristóbal, <em>P. hancockii</em> was collected from 30 m depth on rocky substrata. This species grows to 85 cm long.	eng
63615	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Taylor (1945) reported <em>P. hancockii</em> as rare. However, current abundance and population trends are unknown.	eng
63615	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. All known collection sites are near human settlement areas, where they could be affected by catchment activities.	eng
63616	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. pusillum </em>occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63616	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Alsidium pusillum </em>is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands only known from Academy Bay, Santa Cruz (Dawson 1963).	eng
63616	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. pusillum </em>was collected in the low intertidal on algal turf.	eng
63616	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Al. pusillum</em> has not been collected since original description. <em>A. pusillum </em>is an inconspicuous species that is difficult to recognize except by specialists.  Additionally, not very much work has been done on turf algae in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
63616	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. In addition human settlements/port activity.	eng
63617	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63617	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Chondria flexicaulis</em> is an endemic species to the Galapagos Islands, reported from several islands. Prior to 1983: <br/>Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Baltra (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). San Cristobal: Wreck Bay (UC 1972, KAM). Isabela: Caleta Iguana, Tagus Cove (UC 1972, KAM). Floreana: Black Beach (UC 1972, KAM). <br/> <br/>Since 1983: Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and Tagus Cove (2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (2004 UC; K. A. Miller pers. comm.). San Cristobal: Wreck Bay (2004; K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63617	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. flexicaulis</em> occurs on stable sand areas (rocks embedded in sand), at depths of 20 to 55 m (Taylor 1945).	eng
63617	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. flexicaulis</em> is locally common in the central and western archipelago.  No information is available on population trends, although many fewer sites with living plants are known today compared with prior to the 1980s.  However, because this species is typically found in deep, sandy bottoms, it falls out of the range of most surveys and therefore there is no real evidence of population declines.	eng
63617	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63618	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63618	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia congesta</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). However, <em>Laurencia</em> is difficult to identify at the species level.	eng
63618	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. congesta</em> occurs on rocky substrata in the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945).	eng
63618	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63618	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, this alga is particularly susceptible to prolonged warming events.	eng
63619	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63619	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia densissima</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; reported from: Isabela, Fernandina and Floreana (Setchel and Gardner 1937). Additionally, there are two recent records; one confirmed at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana, and one possible record at Caleta Iguana, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63619	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. densissima</em> was described from the intertidal zone (Setchell and Gardner 1937) and recently collected in the shallow subtidal (3 to 6 m, UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63619	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This species is only known from a few locations. There is no information on population trends.	eng
63619	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63620	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. ligulata</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63620	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia ligulata</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality; one mile east of Darwin Station, Santa Cruz (Dawson 1963).	eng
63620	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. ligulata</em> is an inconspicuous intertidal species, up to 12 mm in length (Dawson 1963).	eng
63620	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia ligulata</em> is only known from the type locality. This is an inconspicuous species. There is no information on population size or trends.	eng
63620	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances	eng
63621	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution <em>L. mediocris</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63621	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia mediocris</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; so far, only known from its type locality, Isabela (Setchell and Gardner 1937).	eng
63621	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. mediocris</em> grows 4 to 7 cm high and occurs in the intertidal zone (Setchell and Gardner 1937).	eng
63621	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. mediocris</em> is only known from the type locality. There is no information on population sizes and trends.	eng
63621	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63622	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63622	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Laurencia oppositocladia</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, having been reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality), and Champion (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Isabela: Punta Christopher (Taylor 1945); Urvina Bay (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.), and Punta Moreno (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975 ).	eng
63622	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> occurs on rocky substrata at the intertidal zone and can attain 25 cm length (Taylor 1945). Wellington (1975) lists it as the second-most dominant red alga in the shallow subtidal at Punta Espinosa.	eng
63622	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. oppositocladia</em> was reported as infrequent at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945), as well as at the point west of Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63622	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, it is vulnerable to anomalous warming events.	eng
63623	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63623	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Pterosiphonia paucicorticata</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Española: Punta Suarez (Dawson 1963). Isabela: Caleta Iguana (1972 UC, 2004 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Fernandina: Islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC; K A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63623	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. paucicorticata</em> is a small epiphyte (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). According to Dawson (1963), this species occurs on seaward shelves with violent surf. It has also been collected at depth ranges of 20 to 30 m (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63623	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. paucicorticata</em> is a small filamentous alga that is difficult to identify except under the microscope by specialists (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). It is locally common  at Caleta Iguana (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). No reliable information is available on population numbers or trends.	eng
63623	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63624	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. compressa</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63624	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Amphiroa compressa</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945). San Cristóbal: Wreck Bay (Taylor 1945). Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Fernandina: Cape Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63624	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. compressa occurs</em> on stable rocky substrata at depths of 3.5 to 30 m (Taylor 1945).	eng
63624	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. compressa</em> was abundant at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Nevertheless, the species is currently uncommon (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). <em>A. compressa</em> is patchily distributed with scattered occurrence in the west. Coralline species in the Galápagos are in urgent need of reassessment (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63624	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances	eng
63625	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. crustiformis</em> is present within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63625	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Amphiroa crustiformis</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, only known from two locations: San Cristóbal (Dawson 1963), and Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (UC 2004, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63625	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. crustiformis</em> has been reported to occur at shallow water, from the intertidal zone to 5 m depth on rocky substrata (Dawson 1963). The specimens collected at Elizabeth Bay were present in an urchin barren, at 3 to 5 m depth (UC 2004, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63625	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. crustiformis</em> is a rare species, only known from two sites. There is no current information on population trends.	eng
63625	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63626	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. galapagensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63626	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Amphiroa galapagensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945), Caleta Iguana (Wellington 1975) and Cabo Berkeley (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (Wellington 1975).	eng
63626	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. galapagensis</em> is the smallest of all the <em>Amphiroa</em> species, growing to 4 cm thallus length (K.A. Miller pers. comm.). It has been reported from the intertidal zone (Taylor 1945) and from the subtidal at 9 m (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63626	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>A. galapagensis</em> was common on Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana and Wellington (1975) reported it as common at Punta Espinosa (Fernandina). However, there is no current information on population size or trends.	eng
63626	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63627	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type location within Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63627	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>A. crosslandii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from its type locality in Tagus Cove, Isabela (Lemoine 1930, Taylor 1945). No records since the type specimen was collected in 1924.	eng
63627	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63627	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown. No data are available on recent population size, trends or range.	eng
63627	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63628	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63628	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Goniolithon alternans</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from Santiago and Floreana Island (Lemoine 1930). No records since type collection in 1929.	eng
63628	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63628	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63628	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63629	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63629	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithophyllum amplostratum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from its type locality at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana (Taylor 1945). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63629	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>L. amplostratum</em> was reported to occur in intertidal pools, forming clumps of several centimeters diameter (Taylor 1945).	eng
63629	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>L. amplostratum</em> was occasionally present at Black Beach Anchorage, Floreana. However there is no recent information on distribution or trends for this species.	eng
63629	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63630	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63630	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithophyllum complexum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63630	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63630	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63630	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63631	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63631	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithophyllim mutabile</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63631	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63631	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63631	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63632	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63632	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithophyllum rileyi</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality in James Bay, Santiago, 9 to 11 m depth; (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63632	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63632	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63632	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63633	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63633	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithophyllum sancti-georgei</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality, Caleta Tagus, Isabela (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since type collection.	eng
63633	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63633	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63633	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63634	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>T. erecta</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63634	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Tenarea erecta</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, known from the non-specified type locality on Isabela (Taylor 1945) and: Isabela: Caleta Tagus, collected in 1957 (Dawson 1957); San Cristóbal: collected in 1886 by Piconne (Dawson 1957). There are no known records since 1957.	eng
63634	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>T. erecta</em> grows as an epiphyte on other algae.	eng
63634	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	No recent information for <em>T. erecta</em> is available on population size, trends or range.	eng
63634	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Loss of host species could occur through El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63635	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63635	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithothamnion cottonii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection in Tagus Cove, Isabela, Galapagos (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63635	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63635	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63635	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63636	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality somewhere within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63636	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Lithothamnion pocillum</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type collection listed as the Galápagos Islands; unfortunately its precise locality is unknown (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63636	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known	eng
63636	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63636	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63637	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63637	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Mesophyllum laxum</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, known only from type locality in James Bay, Santiago (Lemoine 1930). There are no records since the type collection.	eng
63637	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
63637	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63637	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63638	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. albemarlensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63638	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Chondrus albemarlensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Punta Christopher (Taylor 1945: type locality), Caleta Iguana (Wellington 195; 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and Urvina Bay (1995 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Floreana: Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2002).	eng
63638	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This red alga has been reported from the low intertidal (surf-beaten rocks) to 6 m depth on boulders and rocky substrata (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63638	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. albemarlensis</em> is not a common seaweed; however it is patchily distributed and can be locally common (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63638	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño.	eng
63639	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ch. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63639	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Chondrus hancockii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Achorage (Taylor 1945) and Loberia Chiquita (CDRS record 2002); Isabela: Urvina Bay (1974 CDS; 1995 CDS, L. Garke pers. comm.), Cabo Berkeley (1987 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.) and Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm., 2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).	eng
63639	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>O. hancockii</em> occurs from the mid-upper intertidal to the shallow subtidal (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63639	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>C. hancockii</em> can be locally common (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comm.).	eng
63639	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño event.	eng
63640	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>K. multiloba</em> has been reported to occur within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63640	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Kallymenia multiloba</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, known from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality). Isabela: Caleta Tagus (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Pinzón (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63640	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This red alga has been reported to occur at depths of 7.5 to 30.4 m, (Taylor 1945, 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63640	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63640	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63641	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>K. setchellii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63641	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Kallymenia setchellii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from Floreana at Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality).	eng
63641	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This red alga has been reported to occur at 27 m depth (Taylor 1945).	eng
63641	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	There is no information on population size, trend or range for this species.	eng
63641	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63642	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. latiloba</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63642	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Pugetia latiloba</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Isabela: Tagus Cove (Taylor 1945). Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (Taylor 1945). Española: Gardner Bay (Taylor 1945). Floreana: Devil's Crown (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.). Additionally, recent records (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.) include Pinzón, Isabela, Floreana, Fernandina and San Cristóbal.	eng
63642	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. latiloba</em> has been reported to occur in depths of 5.5 to 30.4 m.	eng
63642	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Poorly known but frequently collected and probably common.	eng
63642	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	No known serious threats at present.	eng
63643	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. smithii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63643	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Gymnogongrus smithii</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality), Punta Cormorant (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.), Las Cuevas (CDRS record 2002) and Los Barrancos (CDRS record 2002); Santa Cruz: Tortuga Bay (1994 CDS; 1995 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).	eng
63643	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. smithii</em> is an intertidal species, occurring from the high intertidal to low intertidal (Taylor 1945, CDRS record 2002).	eng
63643	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. smithii</em> has been reported as locally common, but more data are needed to adequately assess population abundance and trends.	eng
63643	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances. As an intertidal species, is likely to be vulnerable to anomalous prolonged warming events, such as El Niño event.	eng
63644	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>O. crockeri</em> occurs throughout the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63644	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Ochtodes crockeri</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It is one of the most widespread seaweed species; reported from many locations in the southern (Floreana), central (Santa Cruz, Baltra, Pinzón), western (Isabela, Fernandina) and northern (Darwin) Archipelago (Taylor 1945; CDRS record 2001, 2003).	eng
63644	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This red alga has been reported with a wide bathymetric range, from the rocky intertidal and tidepools to 15 m depth (Taylor 1945, CDRS records 2001-2003).	eng
63644	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	The relative abundance (both historic and recent) of <em>O. crockeri</em> has been categorized as common and abundant. Populations are apparently stable.	eng
63644	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	No major threats are currently known.	eng
63645	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality now within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63645	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Gracilaria ecuadoreanus</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality). Dawson (1949) noted that little needed to be added to Taylor's account of this species from the Galápagos Archipelago of which no additional material is available. No confirmed specimens since 1945.	eng
63645	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to the type collection, <em>G. ecuadoreanus</em> is apparently an intertidal seaweed that was collected from tufts on surf-beaten rocks (Taylor 1945).	eng
63645	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63645	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63646	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63646	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Gracilaria skottsbergii</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from the type locality at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).	eng
63646	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. skottsbergii</em> was dredged from 12 to 27 m depth (Taylor 1945).	eng
63646	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. skottsbergii</em> has not been collected since the original description.	eng
63646	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63647	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Type locality occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve, but outside fully protected zones.Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63647	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Halymenia santamariae</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands; only known from the type location at Post Office Bay, Floreana (Taylor 1945).	eng
63647	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	The type specimen was collected at 55 m depth, presumably on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945).	eng
63647	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>H. santamariae</em> has not been recorded since the type collection.	eng
63647	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63648	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. saxicola</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63648	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Pachymenia saxicola</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay, Darwin Station (lowest intertidal) (1964 UC, KAM), Los Corales (CDRS record 2001); Fernandina: Punta Martinez (CDRS record 2003), Cabo Hammond (CDRS record 2001), Central Western Fernandina (CDRS record 2001), islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, KAM).	eng
63648	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	It occurs at a wide range of depths, intertidal to subtidal (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63648	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. saxicola</em> is a distinctive seaweed, and can usually be identified by non-specialists. This species is widespread, found within a wide depth range, and relatively common. No information on population trend but persistent in collections.	eng
63648	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63649	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. galapagensis</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63649	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Prionitis galapagensis</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Elizabeth Bay (2004), Caleta Iguana (2004) and Punta Moreno (CDRS record 2001); Fernandina: western coast (CDRS record 2001).	eng
63649	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. galapagensis</em> has been reported to occur from the low tide level (Taylor 1945) to at least 12 m depth (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63649	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. galapagensis</em> is uncommon. No information is available on population trends.	eng
63649	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63650	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. hancockii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63650	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Prionitis hancockii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Santa Cruz: Academy Bay (1974 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.); Fernandina: Cabo Hammond (2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.) and western coast of Fernandina (2001 CDS, L. Garske pers. comm.).	eng
63650	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. hancockii</em> has been reported from the intertidal (Taylor 1945) and depths of 5 to 30 m, (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63650	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>P. hancockii</em> is uncommon with a patchy distribution. Population trends are unknown.	eng
63650	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63651	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Based on historical distribution, <em>G. barbata</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63651	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Galaxaura barbata</em> is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, only known from three collections: Floreana: Post Office Bay, collected in 1934 (Taylor 1945: type locality); Santa Cruz: no precise location reported in Taylor (1945); and Tortuga Bay collection from 1962 (Dawson 1963). There are no known records since 1963.	eng
63651	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. barbata</em> dredged from rocky substrata at depths of 13 to 18 m; plus another record at 37 m depth (Taylor 1945). Shallow water (Dawson 1963).	eng
63651	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Current population size and trends for <em>G. barbata</em> are not known, but substantial decline in extent of occurrence since 1963. Only known from three collections, with no records since 1963. This alga was historically found at three sites by two different research groups, so once was probably moderately common, but has not been seen since 1963. The historic sites are now unsuitable for survival of this species due to habitat transformation to sea urchin barrens, at least for the shallower zones (13 to 18 m) at which the species was collected.	eng
63651	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63652	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. intermedia</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63652	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Galaxaura intermedia</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (Taylor 1945; 2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (UC 2001; K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Fernandina: Central West Fernandina (2001 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.) and West Fernandina (2001 UC; K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63652	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>G. intermedia</em> has been reported to occur in the low littoral (Taylor 1945), and at depth ranges of 3 to 6 m (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). This red alga can grow to at least 25 cm length.	eng
63652	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>G. intermedia</em> occurred frequently in the lower littoral. However, current abundance and trends are unknown.	eng
63652	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63653	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. ecuadoreana</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63653	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Schizymenia ecuadoreana</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Fernandina: Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Isabela: Cartago Bay (Abbot 1967), Caleta Iguana (1974 CDS, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63653	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. ecuadoreana</em> was described from deep water specimens collected on rocky substrata in depths of 27 to 55 m, but was also collected at 6 to 10 m depth in 1974.	eng
63653	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	According to Taylor (1945), <em>S. ecuadoreana</em> was common at Post Office Bay, Floreana. Because this alga is difficult to identify, it may have been collected but not identified. A rare species (K.A. Miller pers. comm.) found so far in relatively deep water, and only from three locations historically. The species apparently no longer occurs at two of those locations.	eng
63653	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63654	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. rubra</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63654	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Sebdenia rubra</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Floreana: Post Office Bay (Taylor 1945: type locality); Isabela: Caleta Iguana (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.); Pinzon (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63654	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>S. rubra</em> is a deep water species, reported from depths of 24 to 30 m on rocky substrata, and sometimes on vertical walls (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.). This red alga can reach approximately 10 cm length (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63654	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	This alga occurs in deeper water, which is not often surveyed. More data are needed to adequately assess population trends (K.A. Miller and L. Garske pers. comms.).	eng
63654	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño, climate change and ecosystem interactions. Ecosystem interactions because of increase in sea urchins and other herbivore populations from overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63655	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>B. darwinii</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63655	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Botryocladia darwinii</em> is an endemic species from the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Española: Xarifa Islet, Gardner Bay (Schneider and Lane 2000: type locality). Floreana: Black Beach Anchorage (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63655	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>B. darwinii</em> was recorded at 20 to 26 m at the type locality (Schneider and Lane 2000) and 33 m at Floreana (K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63655	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	There are no data on the population size or trends. <em>B. darwinii</em> is only known from two collections.	eng
63655	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63656	conservation	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>R. decumbens</em> occurs within the Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galápagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galápagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
63656	distribution	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>Rhodymenia decumbens</em> is an endemic species to the Galápagos Islands, reported from: Baltra (Taylor 1945). Isla Rabida (dredge 55 to 63 m) (1972 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Fernandina: Punta Espinosa (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), and Islet south of Cabo Douglas (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.). Isabela: Cabo Berkeley (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.), and Elizabeth Bay, Isabela (2004 UC, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63656	habitat	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	<em>R. decumbens</em> has been reported from depths of 9 to 33 m on rocky substrata (Taylor 1945, K.A. Miller pers. comm.).	eng
63656	population	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Unknown.	eng
63656	threats	Miller, K.A., Garske, L. & Edgar, G., 2007	Presumably El Niño and climate change. Ecosystem interactions involving these two factors appear to have caused widespread decline in algal populations because of an increase in density of grazing sea urchins and other herbivores, following overexploitation of predators along with ENSO disturbances.	eng
63657	conservation	Samarawickrama, P., 2007	The species has not been recorded from any protected area. Further research is needed into the species ecological requirements, its behaviour and the threats. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for school students and communities about this species. Protection of areas of suitable habitat are needed, as is restoration of degraded areas (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).	eng
63657	distribution	Samarawickrama, P., 2007	This recently described snake is believed to range widely in Sri Lanka, although it is currently known only from Gannoruwa Forest and Morankanda in Kandy District, Central Province (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). In the area of the Gannoruwa Forest, specimens have been collected close to Bulawatha and Warathanna villages (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species has been recorded at elevations of 520 to 640 m asl.	eng
63657	habitat	Samarawickrama, P., 2007	Animals have been collected in patches of natural forest, coffee plantations and home gardens (Samarawickrama <em>et al</em>. 2005, P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).	eng
63657	population	Samarawickrama, P., 2007	Very few specimens are known, and presumably the species is naturally rare.	eng
63657	threats	Samarawickrama, P., 2007	The species is considered to be threatened by habitat disturbance resulting from the seasonal pruning of coffee plantations. It also is reported to be threatened by pesticide contamination within home gardens, and from purposefully set fires (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). It appears that as with many snakes, animals are generally killed when they are encountered.	eng
63658	conservation	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	All of its known range in Ambatorongorongo Forest is within a newly created protected area. All five of the fragments in Sainte Luce with <em>P. antanosy</em> are included within a community resource use agreement (dina) designed to sustainably use forest products, conserve biodiversity and protect livelihoods. Two of these fragments are also within a protected area that has been submitted to the Ministry of Environment for approval. One fragment will be lost to the proposed ilmenite mine. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
63658	distribution	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	<em>Phelsuma antanosy</em> is known from only two forests, one to the east and one to the west of Tolagnaro, approximately 80 km apart in southeastern Madagascar. Ambatotsirongorongo Forest is divided into three fragments totaling approximately 235 ha. At Sainte Luce, it is known from five fragments totaling 560 ha although this is a conservative estimate because its key plant species are rare in three of the five fragments. It used to occur in the west of the 597 ha Petriky Forest from where it was discovered but it has not been recorded from this site since 1994 despite regular searches. The extirpation at this site was caused by the removal of its <em>Pandanus</em> habitat for agriculture.	eng
63658	habitat	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	<em>P. antanosy</em> is only known from low altitude forests in the coastal forests of Tolagnaro, southeastern Madagascar. Its distribution within its extent of occurrence is discontinuous and it is absent from Mandena littoral forest, possibly because of the lack of suitable plant species. It is thought to have specific habitat requirements for egg-laying and usually uses a single species of <em>Pandanus</em> that is found at Ambatotsirongorongo and Sainte Luce. During the night and the day it uses <em>Dypsis</em> palms such as Sainte Luce Dypsis (<em>D. saintelucei</em> and sometimes <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em>. Therefore, within the two remaining forests where it occurs <em>P. antanosy</em> distribution is likely to be closely associated with the availability of certain broad-leaved plants.	eng
63658	population	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	Information on population density is currently unavailable.	eng
63658	threats	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	<em>P. antanosy</em> is threatened by the destruction of its remaining forest habitat and selective exploitation of <em>Pandanus</em>. spp. and <em>Dypsis</em> spp. by people. Although new protected areas have been created within its range, illegal forest degradation continues. One subpopulation will be lost when ilmenite mining commences at Sainte Luce, although this it not scheduled for at least 25 years (from 2006).	eng
63659	conservation	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	Of the five known locations for <em>P. kely</em>, only the subpopulation at Berenty Private Reserve is in an established protected area. Two other sites, at Mandena and Sainte Luce, are new protected areas. Part of the 597 ha forest at Petriky will be protected. The Marovony Forest is unprotected. As a species that appears to be naturally rare, or difficult to survey, the best conservation strategy is to protect its remaining habitats and also continue to survey the area, especially near the Marovony Forest, the Tsitongambarika Forest and along the Mandrare River, to search for new populations. Research action should consider radio tracking <em>P. kely</em> or other large species of the genus (e.g., <em>P. sokosoko</em>) to establish movement patterns and micro-habitat preferences.	eng
63659	distribution	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	This snake is endemic to southeastern Madagascar, where it is known only from the following five isolated forest sites, Berenty Private Reserve (256 ha), Petriky (597 ha), Mandena (236 ha), Sainte Luce (244 ha) and Marovony (2,127 ha). All of its known sites are less than 100 m a.s.l. A total of 18 sites have been surveyed with pitfall traps in the Anosy Region within or close to the extent of occurrence of <em>P. kely</em>. Whilst the species appears to be rare or difficult to trap, its known distribution is based on significant survey effort over a number of years. The species was also not found in other surveys conducted on Madagascar.	eng
63659	habitat	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	The habitat requirements of <em>P. kely</em> are poorly known to biologists but it has been recorded from gallery forest along the Mandrare River in the dry west of the Anosy Region, in dry littoral forest, in humid littoral forest and lowland humid forest.	eng
63659	population	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	It appears to be naturally rare, or at least difficult to survey.	eng
63659	threats	Jenkins, R., Randrianantoandro, C. & Ramanamanjato, J.B., 2007	At sites where the forest is protected, threats include on-going low intensity degradation through illegal exploitation of forest resources. Ilmenite mining will remove most of the forest cover from Petriky and one of the small occupied fragments in Mandena. The small fragments of littoral forest that constitute Petriky-Sainte Luce-Mandena are also vulnerable to natural catastrophes or sea-level rise. The Marovony Forest is already relatively degraded and expanding agriculture continues to replace the lowland forest. Pressure on the forest is greatest at lower altitudes.	eng
63660	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., J Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Vogt, R.C., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Guatemalan and Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/>Information on all aspects of the occurrence, status, biology and conservation of the Central American Snapping Turtle is needed. Confirmation of likely occurrence in San Roman Biological Reserve and Sierra de Lacandón N.P. in Guatemala, Cusuco N.P. in Honduras, and Los Tuxtlas and Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserves in Mexico, would be desirable. A conservation breeding programme exists at Nacajuca, Tabasco.	eng
63660	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., J Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Vogt, R.C., 2007	From Veracruz, Mexico, through southern Belize, central Guatemala to northwestern Honduras; not known from Yucatan (Iverson 1992). <br/> <br/>Smith and Smith (1979: 355) discussed records of <em>Chelydra serpentina serpentina</em> in northern Mexico and concluded that these are unfounded.	eng
63660	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., J Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Vogt, R.C., 2007	Almost no information specific to <em>C. rossignoni</em> is available. Because it was so recently removed from <em>C. serpentina</em>, much of the information presented in accounts of Central American herpetofauna is presented as <em>Chelydra serpentina</em>, and it is almost impossible to separate what facts pertain to Central American populations and what is extrapolated from the Snapping Turtle's well-studied biology in the US. <br/> <br/>In Guatemala, <em>C. rossignoni</em> prefers quiet oxbows and backwater sloughs, being frequently encountered in the small, slow-moving tributaries that run into large, more open waterbodies, but also occurring in large, deep rivers. It is rarely encountered in clear-water situations, hiding instead in debris or vegetation of rather murky water (Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/>In Central America, <em>Chelydra</em> is apparently predominantly nocturnal and completely aquatic, not emerging to bask (Campbell 1998). <br/> <br/><em>C. rossignoni</em> feeds on a wide variety of food items, including freshwater prawns and shrimp, crabs, clams, frogs, insects, fish, occasionally small vertebrates, algae, water plants, and fallen tree fruits. <br/> <br/>A single nesting female measured in northwestern Honduras in May by Medem (in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1997) was 37 cm CL, and weighed an estimated 12 kg. In Chiapas, Mexico, nesting occurs in April-June (Alvarez del Toro 1962 in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1997). Clutch size ranges from 20 to 30 eggs (Alvarez del Toro 1983 in Lee 1996, Vog, in litt. 30 Jan 2007).	eng
63660	population	van Dijk, P.P., J Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Vogt, R.C., 2007	No specific information is available. Few records are available, and concerted searches for the species have resulted in very few captures, indicating rareness (Vogt in litt. 30 Jan 2007). In southern Belize and Mexico they are not common, but they were thought to be more so in the past (Smith and Smith 1979). Overall the species appears rare and a decline of over 30% over the past 30 years was considered possible or probable by Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) workshop participants.	eng
63660	threats	van Dijk, P.P., J Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Vogt, R.C., 2007	Smith and Smith (1979) noted this taxon to be eaten for food, but its main cause of potential decline to be gradual habitat destruction. Subsequent observations indicate that exploitation for consumption has been a driving force of decline. It is being commercially farmed in small numbers for the pet trade in southern Veracruz.	eng
63661	conservation	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. Status, distribution and natural history studies are urgently required, as is taxonomic examination of the supposed Guerrero population (Legler 1990). Surveys of Meseta de Cacaxtla FFPA (509 sq. km, cat.VI) and other sites in coastal Sinaloa and Nayarit would be desirable, and if it proves not present, establishing a protected area containing a large viable population of this species would be a high priority.	eng
63661	distribution	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific coastal region of western Mexico from southern Sinaloa and northern Nayarit (Seidel 2002). A subpopulation in Guerrero attributed to this species by Iverson (1992) was left unassigned by Legler (1990) and Seidel (2002).	eng
63661	habitat	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Almost no information specific to <em>T. ornata</em> is available; most information in older literature under <em>T. ornata</em> pertains to <em>T. venusta</em>. By analogy with other MesoAmerican <em>Trachemys</em> species, this is likely an inhabitant of various standing and slow-moving waterbodies with abundant aquatic vegetation, feeding opportunistically, and producing several clutches of about 20 eggs after maturing at 4 to 8 years of age.	eng
63661	population	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No information is available.	eng
63661	threats	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No specific information available. It occurs in an area of heavy commercial agriculture, and falling water tables due to deep wells, so habitat loss and chemical pollution are likely.	eng
63662	conservation	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. <br/> <br/>The entire range of the species falls within the 843 sq. km Cuatro Cienegas Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN Category VI), established in 1994. Provided no further major engineering works impact the ecological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, and the protected area regulations are adhered to, the species and its habitat should be relatively secure; however, recent and ongoing developments as well as plans for further development involve broad-scale ecological processes (water extraction, agriculture, infrastructure development) that will continue to impact the habitat in the foreseeable future. Such development must be managed and their impacts minimized as much as possible. <br/> <br/>More information on the population status, natural history, of the species, and the general conservation situation of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, are urgently needed.  <br/>A study of the effects of intergradation/hybrisdization of <em>taylori</em> with <em>scripta elegans</em> is needed, and insurance colonies of <em>taylori</em> may be contemplated.	eng
63662	distribution	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Restricted to the Rio Nadadores and isolated ponds within the Cuatro Cienegas basin of Coahuila, Mexico (Smith and Smith 1979, Legler 1990, Iverson 1992, Seidel 2002).	eng
63662	habitat	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The Cuatro Cienegas basin is an hourglass-shaped intermontane basin of about 50 km long and 8 to 24 km wide (about 600 sq. km), its floor being at 720 m altitude. Much of the central part of the basin is marshy, with dry sandy slopes leading up the rocky valley slopes. A number of deep (up to several metres) ponds occur within the marshy area, and retain crystal-clear water throughout the year. About half the bottom is covered by dense submerged aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Chara</em>), the other half is bare sediment. Waterlilies grow in the shallow parts, and thick stands of cattails (<em>Typha</em>) and <em>Eleocharis</em> fringe the ponds. Water temp is about 27 to 29 degrees C. Ponds may be separated from dry nesting areas on the slopes by substantial distances (several 100 m) of flat marshy grassland. (Webb and Legler 1960). <br/> <br/>Within this basin, <em>T. taylori</em> has only been encountered in the river and clear deep pools, but not in the marshy areas (Legler 1960). <br/>  <br/><em>T. taylori</em> appears to be predominantly vegetarian (Legler 1960).  <br/>Apparently no information is available on reproduction. <br/> <br/><em>T. taylori</em> intertgrades or hybridizes with <em>T. scripta elegans</em> in the Rio Chiquito/Rio Nadadores from it flows out of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, to the degree that the entire population inhabiting the river for over 30 miles outside the basin is intermediate in characteristics (Legler 1960, 1963).	eng
63662	population	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	In 1960 this was the commonest turtle in the Cuatro Cienegas basin, outnumbering Apalone about five to one (Legler 1960, Webb and Legler 1960).	eng
63662	threats	van Dijk, P.P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	<em>T. taylori</em> intergrades or hybridizes with <em>T. scripta elegans</em> in the Rio Chiquito/Rio Nadadores from where it flows out of the Cuatro Cienegas basin, to the degree that the entire population inhabiting the river for over 30 miles outside the basin is intermediate in characteristics (Legler 1960, 1963). The advance of this hybridization zone into the Cuatro Cienegas basin could lead to the genetic pollution, dilution and eventual loss of the <em>taylori</em> genotype and taxon. The date of initial contact between the taxa and thus start of hybridization is uncertain, but was probably facilitated by human alteration of the basin’s hydrology before 1920 (Smith and Smith 1979). <br/> <br/>The survival of <em>T. taylori</em> is dependent on the ecological and hydrological integrity of the Cuatro Cienegas ecosystem. The Cuatro Cienegas basin has been extensively altered in its hydrology by digging canals and groundwater pumping for local and regional agricultural irrigation, and for drinking water (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007, Flores-Villela in litt. 25 Jan 2007, Hendrickson in litt. 27 Feb 2007). The western side of the basin is experiencing particularly rapid aquatic habitat loss; Laguna Grande was completely dry in 2006 for the first time in at least 50 years (Howeth in litt 24 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Roads, railroads, pipelines and other infrastructure for industrial, tourism and recreational purposes have impacted the ecosystem, and farming expansion continues at the expense of natural habitat (Reuters 2007), Roads have created direct-mortality impacts (Groombridge 1982 and references therein).	eng
63663	conservation	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation. There appear to be no major protected areas within the species' range. Information on population status, natural history and conservation status are urgently needed. Research is needed to determine whether or not recuitment is ongoing in this species, since recent records have tended to be of very large specimens.	eng
63663	distribution	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to northwestern Mexico. It is found in the Rio Mayo, Rio Yaquia and Rio Sonora basins of Sonora and possibly in adjoining Chihuahua (Iverson 1992, Seidel 2002). Historically it would have occurred down to the coast, but no longer does. Its continued occurrence in the upper parts of some of these river basins is in doubt.	eng
63663	habitat	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It inhabits a variety of permanent and temporary waterbodies (Legler and Webb 1970), especially in rivers and backwaters. It grows to 27 cm carapace length (males) and 31 cm (females). There is apparently no information on its breeding behaviour and requirements.	eng
63663	population	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	There is little recent information. The limited data available suggest that it might have benefited from hydrological engineering projects in the rivers it inhabits (Legler and Webb 1970). While large adults continue to be observed in reservoirs, no small turtles have been recorded in recent times, possibly indicating failure to recruit. Several basking animals were seen at the type locality during repeated visits in the early 1980s, but only a single large animal was seen there in 2002 (Buskirk in litt. 26 Dec 2006).	eng
63663	threats	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Populations have probably declined, especially on the coastal plain, because of expanding intensive agriculture. Dams have been constructed in many of the rivers inhabited by the species, leaving river areas below the dams dry for extended periods. Reservoirs might be suitable habitats for adult survival, but might also inhibit breeding due to fluctuating water levels. <br/> <br/>It is likely also harvested for food, as hoop nets have been found in shallow areas of the type locality (Buskirk in litt. 26 Dec 2006).	eng
63664	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O. &  Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Belizean, Guatemalan and Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed. <br/> <br/>Confirmed occurrence in Tikal NP, Guatemala; in Mexico it occurs in a few protected areas; <em>R. areolata</em> probably occurs in many other protected areas. <br/> <br/><em>R. areolata</em> is rarely kept and bred in captivity, but breed well once established. <br/> <br/>Occurrence and population status needs to be documented better, and monitoring of populations would be highly desirable. Data on exploitation, habitat loss and other threats, as well as basic natural history information, are needed.	eng
63664	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O. &  Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	From southern Veracruz, Mexico, through the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize and northern and central Guatemala to northwestern Honduras (Iverson 1992). Range includes Cozumel Island (to Mexico) and Turneffe Atoll (to Belize).	eng
63664	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O. &  Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Inhabits closed forest, forest edges and savanna areas, as well as cay littoral forest; the animals occur from near sea level to about 300 m altitude (Lee 1996, Campbell 1998, Platt <em>et al</em>. 1999). In Belize they reach their greatest abundance in pine forests and open pine savannas (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). The animals are mainly terrestrial and are rarely found in aquatic habitats, although sometimes found around the periphery of wetlands or in marshy or aquatic situations (Lee 1996, Campbell 1998, S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). <br/>Feeds predominantly on fruits and young plant shoots, and may also take some insects (Campbell 1998, Platt <em>et al</em>. 1999). Active mainly during the wet season (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). <br/> <br/>Maximum recorded size for females 20.7 cm CL (Platt <em>et al</em>. 2004), males 18.8 cm (Ernst in Smith and Smith 1979). Size and age at maturity have not been reported. Females produce single-egg clutches, rarely two eggs, three or four times during the nesting season of June to August in Guatemala (Campbell 1998). In captivity in Mexico, females produced clutches averaging 3.0 eggs (2 to 4, N=11) during May to July, which hatched after an average of 71 days incubation (range 62 to 78 days, N=11) (Escudero <em>et al</em>. 2006). Longevity has not been reported.	eng
63664	population	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O. &  Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Overall considered locally common by 1935, but rare by 1982 (Iverson in Groombridge 1982). In Guatemala, Campbell (1998) noted that the species was formerly quite abundant, but had become scarce by the late 1990s in many areas. He noted that the species was frequently encountered along the trails in Tikal NP until about the mid-1980s, but was much rarer by the late 90s. Considered seemingly rare in Mexico by Smith and Smith (1979). <em>R. areolata</em> was very common in northern Belize in the 1990s; at one study site (of about 100 ha) over 300 animals were marked and not many recaptures were made, indicating a much larger population (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006).	eng
63664	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Flores-Villela, O. &  Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species was consumed historically by the Mayas and their descendants, and is now heavily hunted for consumption in some areas. <br/> <br/>Campbell (1998) attributed the overall decline of the species in Guatemala to habitat loss due to farming, and to use of these turtles as food. The decline in Tikal National Park was possibly due to tourists taking animals with them, or increased predation rates by coatis whose populations expanded dramatically within the park due to protection. Dry season fires can be an additional impact on animal survival; many of these turtles spend much time below ground in armadillo burrows in the dry season; Platt <em>et al</em>. (2004) speculated that these burrows are important dry season refugia. Coastal and island populations (Cozumel, Turneffe Atoll) may be significantly impacted by habitat degradation and subsidized predators resulting from tourist resort and fishing camp developments (Platt et al., 1999). Natural predation rates appear low (S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006). <br/> <br/>Road mortality has been reported (Buskirk 1997, S. Platt in litt. 20 Dec. 2006) and is currently not considered a significant threat, but may increase in significance. <br/><em>R. areolata</em> is present in the local pet industry but is not traded very often internationally.	eng
63665	conservation	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement is probably needed. The species may benefit from cattle ranching through the construction of drinkwater ponds for cattle. <br/> <br/>No conservation measures specific to this species are known to be in place, and it is not known whether or not the species occurs within any protected areas. Sierra de Alamos-Rio Cuchujaqui FFPA (929 sq. km, IUCN Class VI) is located within the species’ range. Further surveys of the species' distribution, status, and conservation requirements, if any, are desirable.	eng
63665	distribution	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in the Pacific coastal lowlands of Mexico from the Rio Sonora southward to at least to Guasave, Sinaloa, from sea level up to slightly over 1,000 m in the Sierras de Alamos (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1992).	eng
63665	habitat	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	<em>K. alamosae</em> is known only from seasonal aquatic habitats such as wet season pools and reservoirs for cattle, and has not been found in permanent waterbodies (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). It is thought to be active only or mainly in the wet season (July-September) (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). Animals can occur in extreme conditions, such as ponds with only 10 cm water depth and water temperature up to 42ºC (Iverson 1989). <em>K. alamosae</em> might be microsympatric with <em>K. integrum</em> when the latter moves from its usual permanent waterbody habitats into seasonal pools during the wet season (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989). <br/> <br/><em>K. alamosae</em> is primarily carnivorous, while considerable plant material is also ingested (Iverson 1989). <br/>  <br/>Males are 9.0 to 13.5 cm carapace length, females 8.9 to 12.6 cm (Berry and Legler 1980). Females mature at about 10 cm carapace length and 5 to 7 years of age (Iverson 1989). Berry and Legler (1980) and Iverson (1989) hypothesized that at least some females lay more than one clutch per nesting season (July-August, late rainy season). Recorded sizes of 9 clutches are 3 to 5 eggs (Berry and Legler 1980, Iverson 1989).	eng
63665	population	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	<em>K. alamosae</em> is locally common in ephemeral pools (Iverson 1989).	eng
63665	threats	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No specific threats have been specifically recorded.	eng
63666	conservation	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement is probably needed. As an aquatic or semiaquatic species occurring in an extremely austere climatic zone, its persistence can only be considered tenuous. Full protection from all depredation except scientific study should be provided, and sanctuaries should be established where habitat destruction can be prevented (Smith and Smith 1979: 182). <br/> <br/>It occurs in Organ Pipe Natural Monument (IUCN Cat.III, 134 sq. km.) in Arizona, and perhaps in El Pinacante y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve in Sonora, and in Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (Cat.IV, 3480 sq. km) in Arizona, which are located within the range of the species. <br/> <br/>The species apparently benefits from humans constructing ponds within its range.  <br/>Status surveys and conservation assessments of this species are needed.	eng
63666	distribution	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, ranging into extreme southwestern United States of America. It ranges from central and northern Sonora, northwest to southern Arizona (Smith and Smith 1979, Berry and Berry 1984, Iverson 1992, Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its elevational range is 100 to 1,100m a.s.l. (Iverson 1989, Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994, Smith and Smith 1979: 181).	eng
63666	habitat	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	<em>K. arizonense</em> resides in temporary preseas, ponds, tanks and roadside ditches, as well as in some permanent lentic waters. Arizona Mud Turtles seem to avoid permanent streams and rivers (Iverson 1989). <br/> <br/>An activity period during the rains from early July to middle August was reported for the Sonora desert (Iverson 1989); in adverse years, aestivation grades into hibernation without an activity period at all (Schilde 2001). The animals are active mainly during daylight hours, basking when air temperatures approach 45ºC, and can undertake substantial travels on the desert floor (Iverson 1989).  <br/>The species is primarily a carnivorous feeder. <br/> <br/>Females appear to reach maturity at a body size of 12 to 13 cm and 6 to 10 years of age (Iverson 1989). Mating occurs in July, and nesting occurs in July and early August; clutches comprise on average 4.7 eggs (range 1 to 9), and females typically lay two or three clutches. Hatching probably takes place in the next year's rainy season, with an incubation period of about 11 months (Iverson 1989).	eng
63666	population	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It can occur locally at very high densities: 45 minutes of trapping in one 0.15 ha pond gathered 25 adult animals (translating to a biomass of 58 kg/ha), and additional trapping would probably have caught more turtles (Iverson 1989). It is locally extremely common, particularly between 200 and 800 m altitude, and human construction of ponds is considered to benefit populations of <em>K. arizonense</em> (Iverson 1989, and in litt. 28 Jan 2007).	eng
63666	threats	Frost, D., Hammerson, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The rarity of the species in scientific collections, combined with ongoing extensive modification of the Sonoran desert for ranching, agriculture and flood control, was in the past believed to indicate that the species may be threatened. As a species inhabiting wetlands in an arid region, it is susceptible to climatic impacts and habitat degradation; while adult animals may well be able to survive long periods of adverse conditions, recruitment might only occur in optimal years and as such would be extensively impacted even by minor changes. It is probably locally impacted by road kills. <br/> <br/>However, studies have shown the species to be extremely abundant in suitable habitat throughout a wide area, and the species apparently benefits from pond construction by humans (Iverson 1989). Hence overall it is not considered significantly at risk.	eng
63667	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Ponce Campos, P. & Garcia Aguayo, A., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven and in places better enforcement may be needed.  <br/> <br/>A status assessment of the species would be desirable, including an evaluation of existing and planned hydrological engineering projects. Better distribution data (specifically, clarifying occurrence near Puerto Vallarta) would be welcome. Two IUCN Class VI areas (Chamela-Cuixmala BR [131 sq. km] and Sierra de Manantlan BR [1,396 sq. km]) overlap with the distribution range of <em>K. chimalhuaca</em> and its presence has been confirmed in the lowlands of both these areas; more data on the extent of protection afforded would be desirable.	eng
63667	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Ponce Campos, P. & Garcia Aguayo, A., 2007	<em>Kinosternon chimalhuaca</em> occurs along the Pacific coast of southern Mexico, from the Rio Cihuatlan north and west to the Rio San Nicolas (and possibly to the Rio Tuito). A single record exists from 21 km south of Puerto Vallarta (Pritchard, in Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997, Iverson and Berry 1998). There are additional extralimital records from northern Nayarit (Acaponeta) and northern Jalisco (P. Ponce pers. comm.) that require confirmation.	eng
63667	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Ponce Campos, P. & Garcia Aguayo, A., 2007	Inhabits primarily ponds and pools, with clear or muddy water, with or without submerged and riparian vegetation, including pools in intermittent streams and possible spring-fed pools, but apparently avoiding flowing rivers (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). The geographic area inhabited by <em>K. chimalhuaca</em> is adjacent but separate from the area inhabited by <em>K. integrum</em>, and the species is broadly sympatric only with two <em>Rhinoclemmys</em> species. <br/> <br/>The species was suggested to be a primarily carnivorous, opportunistic feeder; molluscs, insects and crustaceans, as well as substantial quantities of decaying plant material and inorganic detritus, have been recorded in the diet (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <br/> <br/>Captive observations indicate that the species aestivates (Schilde 2001).  <br/> <br/>Females reach maturity at a CL between 99 and 107 mm, at an estimated age of 7 to 10 years. Males probably reach sexual maturity at CL of about 100 mm and an age of 5 to 7 years. (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997).  <br/> <br/>Females probably produce a single clutch, possibly two clutches, in July or August; three clutches laid in captivity [presumably by recently-collected females] comprised 2, 4 and 5 eggs (Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). Long-term captive animals produce 3 to 4 clutches of up to five eggs from August to January (Schilde 2001).	eng
63667	population	van Dijk, P.P., Ponce Campos, P. & Garcia Aguayo, A., 2007	Within suitable habitat, the species is apparently fairly abundant, at least seasonally: trapping in a 4,000 sq. m pond captured 81 individuals in 10 hours, trapping in a 1,200 sq. m pond gathered 26 animals, and a single pool in an intermittent stream course yielded 31 animals caught overnight with five baited traps (Berry <em>et al<</i>. 1997). These densities are likely peak densities as animals were concentrated in remnant waterbodies during the dry season.	eng
63667	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Ponce Campos, P. & Garcia Aguayo, A., 2007	No threats are known at present.	eng
63668	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/>The species is confirmed to inhabit several waterbodies in the Mapimi Biosphere Reserve (3,424 sq km, IUCN Cat. VI; core area [Cat.1a] 134 sq. km) (Iverson 1979, Aguirre Leon in litt. 10 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Status information and natural history data would be highly desirable.	eng
63668	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., 2007	Occurs in the lower Río Nazas and the Bolsón de Mapimí in the Chihuahuan Desert of southern Chihuahua, western Coahuila, and eastern Durango, Mexico (Berry and Berry 1984, Iverson 1992, Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001). The species has only been split out since 2001, and no research has been done on this former subspecies.	eng
63668	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., 2007	No information apparently available at present; while <em>K. flavescens</em> is relatively well-studied, the only available note on <em>K. durangoense</em> natural history is that its activity periods and reproductive cycles are different from those of <em>flavescens</em> and more similar to those of <em>arizonae</em> (Iverson 1989, Iverson unpubl. data in Serb <em>et al</em>. 2001: 155).	eng
63668	population	van Dijk, P.P., 2007	No information apparently available at present.	eng
63668	threats	van Dijk, P.P., 2007	No threats recorded apparently, though this does not mean an absence of threats; hydrological projects and climate change could impact this species quite severely.	eng
63669	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/>Sierra del Abra Tanchipa BR (IUCN Cat.VI; 214 sq. km) is located within the range of K. herrerai, as possibly is Playa de Rancho Nuevo Sanctuary (Cat. Ia, 30 ha.); confirming the presence of viable populations within these areas would be desirable. <br/> <br/>Smith and Smith (1979) suspected that accessible populations would have been severely depleted by exploitation, and called for regulation to be imposed.  <br/>Updated status surveys are urgently needed.	eng
63669	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Occurs in the Atlantic-Carribbean drainage basins of Mexico from southern Tamaulipas to central Veracruz, westward into the eastern lowlands of San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Puebla and possibly Queretaro (Iverson 1992). A 2004 record of the species from Mexico state is in error (Ramirez-Bautista 2004).	eng
63669	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	<em>K. herrerai</em> inhabits permanent waterbodies with soft substrate and dense vegetation.. Occurs from sea level up to at least 1,150 m altitude. (Smith and Smith 1979, Aguirre and Aquino 2004). <br/> <br/>These turtles are omnivorous and primarily carnivorous, ingesting a higher proportion of animal food items than plant food items (Aguirreand Aquino 2004). In other populations wild figs are the major plant component in diet; when available, they consume large amounts of <em>Ficus</em> fruits (Carr and Mast 1988). Captive animals may be entirely carnivorous (Poglayen in Schilde 2001). <br/> <br/>The smallest known mature female measured 115 mm (males up to 170 mm, females up to 150 mm). Several clutches of 2 to 4 eggs are produced annually (Carr and Mast 1988).	eng
63669	population	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Smith and Smith (1979) suspected that populations in accessible areas were severely depleted by exploitation, but no actual population data appears to be available. It is a very localized species, but common where it occurs.	eng
63669	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In the southern part of the range, the species is collected for food and is used for folk medicine. Smith and Smith (1979) reviewed earlier reports of extensive exploitation of this species near Tampico to supply food markets far and wide, and production of tacky souvenirs. <br/> <br/>In the northern part of the range, the main threat is diversion of water for sugarcane plantations. <br/> <br/>Road mortality is considered another source of excess mortality (J.L.Carr in litt. 11 Jan 2007).	eng
63670	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. hirtipes</em> occurs in at least in one Mexican protected area: Sierra de Santa Rosa state protected area. Subspecies <em>murrayi</em> probably occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations of the various subspecies in protected areas in Mexico would be desirable.	eng
63670	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Northern and central Mexico, from northern Chihuahua through the Sierra Madre Occidental to the valley of Mexico, Mexico, as well as the Big Bend region of Texas, USA (Iverson 1992).  <br/><em>K. h. hirtipes</em>: Valley of Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. chapalaense</em>: Lago de Chapala and Laguna de Zapotlan basins of Jalisco and Michoacan, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. magdalense</em>: Magdalena valley of Michoacan, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. megacephalum</em>: Extinct from the endorrheic basin near Viesca, in southwestern Coahuila, Mexico.  <br/><em>K. h. murrayi</em>: Chihuahua, Mexico, and adjacent Big Bend region of Texas, through the Sierra Madre Occidental to Mexico State.  <br/><em>K. h. tarascense</em>: Lago de Patzcuaro basin, Michoacan, Mexico. <br/> <br/>The subpopulation in San Luis Potosi, Mexico is introduced.	eng
63670	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Inhabits creeks, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, marshes and other permanent water bodies in mesquite grasslands in upland areas between 800 and 2,600 m (Iverson 1985 in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Animals are almost exclusively carnivorous, feeding on snails, aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms, fish and frogs (Iverson in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/> <br/>Sexual dimorphism varies geographically, males may average 95 mm to 152 mm in different populations, while females average from 82 mm to 140 mm; these average sizes are correlated only weakly between males and females (Iverson 1985). In Chihuahua, females mature at 6 to 8 years of age, at or above 9.7 cm CL  and produce multiple clutches (probably up to 4) during the May-September nesting period. Clutches comprise of 1 to 6 eggs. (Moll and Legler 1971, Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
63670	population	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Limited data available; observations and collections of substantial series of <em>murrayi</em> in Mexico suggests a locally common subspecies. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>megacephalum</em> is Extinct. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>hirtipes</em> has not been recorded from the Valley of Mexico in years (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>magdalense</em> and <em>tarascense</em> are rare where they occur. <br/> <br/>Subspecies <em>chapalaense</em> is apparently doing fine and is not consumed or collected. <br/> <br/>Texas populations are highly localised and common where they occur, yet the Texas population is rated Critically Imperiled (Clausen and Hammerson 1997). Uncommon (maybe threatened) in the southern portion of the species' range (separate subspecies) but more common in the northern part.	eng
63670	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Some populations, particularly those near metropolitan areas (ssp. <em>hirtipes</em>, maybe <em>chapalaense</em>, <em>tarascense</em>, and <em>magdalense</em> as well), are under severe pressure from water extraction and other hydrological alterations impacting clean water supplies, and from pollution of remaining waterbodies. Loss of habitat to irrigated agriculture is an ongoing threat. Permanent water bodies in the southern portion of the range have been drying up in recent years. In all of the range pollution has had a detrimental effect on the population as well as the drying of wetlands and human settlements encroaching on the water bodies. <br/> <br/>Incidental mortality from shooting and other destruction as a perceived pest. (Clausen and Hammerson 1997). <br/> <br/>The typical subspecies <em>K. h. hirtipes</em> has apparently disappeared from the Valley of Mexico, which may or may not be correlated with the introduction of <em>K. integrum</em> there which has become very common there; interactions between the two species are not understood (Iverson in litt 28 Jan 2007).	eng
63671	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven. <br/> <br/><em>K. integrum</em> occurs in a substantial number of protected areas throughout its range. <br/> <br/>Population assessments, basic natural history studies, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas would be desirable. <br/>Taxonomic studies including DNA or molecular markers to determine whether <em>K. integrum</em> represents a species complex is in progress (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007). <br/> <br/>Human transport of these turtles all over Mexico is undesirable (genetic pollution of the <em>integrum</em> complex, possible interactions with native <em>Kinosternon</em> species) and should stop (Iverson in litt. 28 Jan 2007).	eng
63671	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Mexican Plateau and pacific slopes from Sonora and western Tamaulipas south to Oaxaca, Mexico (Iverson 1992, Berry <em>et al</em>. 1997). Widespread human transport of the species is likely to confuse distribution patterns and lead to extralimital occurrence records.	eng
63671	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Records exist from sea level to 2,200 m altitude (Duellmann 1965 cited in Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1998), but generally this is understood to be a highland plateau species. <br/> <br/>Males are 11. to 18.3 cm CL, females 10.9 to 16.1 cm (Berry and Legler 1980: 2).  <br/>Females produce 1 to 3, exceptionally 4, clutches of on average 5.8 eggs (range 3 to 12) (Iverson 1999). This is a very adaptable species.	eng
63671	population	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Considered possibly the most commonly encountered turtle in Mexico (Iverson 1999).	eng
63671	threats	van Dijk, P.P., Hammerson, G.,  Vazquez Diaz, J., Quintero Diaz, G.E., Santos, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	<em>K. integrum</em> is locally consumed in the State of Mexico. No specific threats have been recorded form other parts of the range.	eng
63672	conservation	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species has been recorded in Kudremukh National Park (Molur and Siliwal 2004). More surveys are required in other protected and non-protected areas.	eng
63672	distribution	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka, this species is found in Castle Rock in the north to Kudremukh in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 800 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is less then 12,000 km², while the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km².  Recorded locations include: Castle Rock in Uttara Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900); Kanara Ghats in Dakshina Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900); Karwar (6.5miles from Castle Rock) in Uttara Kannada (Pocock 1899, 1900); and Kudremukh National Park in Chikmagalur and Dakshina Kannada districts (Molur and Siliwal 2004).	eng
63672	habitat	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	This ground spider is primarily found in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. In observing a closely related species, <em>Thrigmopoeus truculentus</em>, we understand that the species occurs very patchily, with burrows on soil bunds with adequate vegetation cover. Burrows occasionally occur on flat ground. In examining the burrow aggregations, we have found the composition to have one adult female with several juveniles and subadults from different clutches in individual burrows close to the adult female’s burrow. Observation of population dynamics indicates a very high mortality rate in juveniles/subadults, of more than 95 percent in the first two years. Dispersal rates are unknown. Healthy populations of spiders/burrows are usually found in areas with very little disturbance.	eng
63672	population	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population estimates are unknown. This species is relatively commonly found in some areas, but overall it is not so common in its distribution range. It has been recorded from fewer than 10 locations. The locations are severely fragmented due to human interference such as road widening, bund maintenance, fire, soil extraction, and related threats such as soil erosion.	eng
63672	threats	Siliwal, M., Molur, S. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Road widening is most common threat for these ground theraphosid spiders (S. Molur & M. Siliwal pers. obs.).  Many spiders get killed and their burrows get destroyed during this process.  Mud bund maintenance in forested areas along with man made fires and soil erosion are other threats. In more open areas, soil extraction and erosion are the reasons for disappearance of these spiders. An additional threat to the species is collection for the international pet trade market. Although the volume of trade is unknown, we have reports of some locals being involved and paid by European traders to collect and supply either personally, or through courier services. This species is advertised on certain internet sites.	eng
63673	conservation	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	The species has not been reported from protected areas.	eng
63673	distribution	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Endemic to the Western Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra, this species is found in Amboli in the north and Madikeri in the south at an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,000 m.  The extent of occurrence encompassing known and inferred distribution is around 25,000 km², while the area of occupancy has not been estimated. In Karnataka: Karwar in Uttara Kannada district (Pocock 1899, 1900), Agumbe in Chickamagalur district (B. Arthur and C. Shankar pers. comm.), Madikeri, Somwarpet, Virajpet and Bhagamandala in Coorg district (S. Molur pers. comm.); in Maharashtra: Amboli (15°57?37?N, 73°59'58?E) in Kolhapur district (V. Giri pers. comm.).	eng
63673	habitat	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	This ground spider is primarily found in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. The species occurs very patchily, with burrows on soil bunds with adequate vegetation cover. Burrows occasionally occur on flat ground. In examining the burrow aggregations, we have found the composition to have one adult female with several juveniles and sub adults from different clutches in individual burrows close to the adult female?s burrow. Observations on population indicates a very high mortality rate in juveniles/subadults, of more than 95% in the first two years. Dispersal rates are unknown. Healthy population of spiders/burrows are usually found in areas with very little disturbance.	eng
63673	population	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Population estimates are unknown. However, this species is relatively commonly found in some areas, but overall it is not so common in its distribution range.  It has been recorded from less than 10 locations. The locations are severely fragmented due to human interference such as road widening, bund maintenance, fire, soil extraction, and related threats such as soil erosion.	eng
63673	threats	Molur, S., Siliwal, M. & Daniel, B.A., 2008	Habitat loss and degradation are major threats. Road widening is most common threat for these ground theraphosid spiders. Many spiders get killed and their burrows get destroyed during this process. Mud bund maintenance in forested areas along with man made fires and soil erosion are other threats. In more open areas, soil extraction and erosion are the reasons for disappearance of these spiders. An additional threat to the species is collection for the international pet trade market. Although the volume of trade is unknown, we have reports of some locals being involved and paid by European traders to collect and supply either personally, or through courier services. This species is advertised on certain internet sites.	eng
63674	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to protect suitable habitat where it remains. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further research is needed into the range, ecology and threats to this little known species.	eng
63674	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type specimen collected "north of Niltepec, between Cerro Atravesado and Sierra Madre, Oaxaca" Mexico (Tihen 1954). It was probably collected between 762 and 1372 m asl ('2,500 and 4,500 feet'( (Tihen 1954).	eng
63674	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species appears to be a canopy species of lower montane forest. It is likely to be largely arboreal, and as such populations require forested areas to persist.	eng
63674	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species is known only from a single record collected more than 50 years ago.	eng
63674	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation and degradation of montane forests, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
63675	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Flores-Villela, O. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is present within the protected area of Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further studies are needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63675	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Flores-Villela, O. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is restricted to Santa Marta Volcano, on the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State, Mexico. It has an altitudinal range of 360 to 800 m asl.	eng
63675	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Flores-Villela, O. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is an arboreal species found in the canopy of both cloud forest and rainforest. These lizards are restricted to forest with tall, mature trees. Any loss of such trees will be significantly detrimental to the population. It is not believed to be able to persist in disturbed habitat.	eng
63675	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Flores-Villela, O. & Frost, D.R., 2007	While it is rarely seen, the species lives high in the canopy and may be more common than is generally thought. Only three specimens are currently known.	eng
63675	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Flores-Villela, O. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation, principally through the conversion of forested areas to agricultural use, and clear-cutting of forest for timber extraction.	eng
63676	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It occurs in a number of protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further general research is needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63676	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is known from several localities in the mountain ranges north of the balsas basin, from the Sierra de Chichinautzin, Morelos, to Temascaltepec-Real de Arriba. It has an elevational range of 1,850 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
63676	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This is an arboreal species that is found in pine-oak forests with epiphytic vegetation. It presumably does not persist in modified habitat. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63676	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This appears to be a naturally rare species. Although it is uncommon, it can still be found when directly looked for.	eng
63676	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is threatened by forest fragmentation and loss, generally resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use. Animals might be collected for the pet trade, although the impact of this collection on wild populations is unclear.	eng
63677	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	While this species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection), it is not known to occur within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable remaining areas of cloud forest within the species recorded range. Further studies into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
63677	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This Mexican species is known only from two specimens collected in the vicinity of the type locality on Cerro Zempoaltepec, three animals from close to Totontepec (including a recent, 2007, specimen), and a single animal from the Sierra Juarez (described as <em>Abronia kalaina</em>) (J. Campbell and D. Church pers. comms.). It was collected between 2,158 and 2,438 m asl.	eng
63677	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is an canopy species that needs mature trees in cloud forest habitat.	eng
63677	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	A rare species known only from five specimens, two of which were collected in 1985. A dead animal was recently collected about 5 km outside of Totontepec (D. Church pers. comm.).	eng
63677	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species is threatened through conversion of land to agricultural use. Subsequent to the 1985 collections, there has been substantial deforestation within the species range.	eng
63678	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It occurs in two protected areas, in el Cañon Rio Blanco and Pico de Orizaba National Park. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Further studies are needed for this little know species, including research into current levels of exploitation.	eng
63678	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the highlands of the States of Veracruz and adjacent Puebla, Mexico. It has an elevational range of 1,350 to 2,743 m asl.	eng
63678	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Animals inhabit bromeliads in the canopy of montane pine-oak and cloud forest. It seems unlikely that this species can be found in degraded habitat. This is a viviparous species.	eng
63678	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is considered to be moderately common and is regularly recorded.	eng
63678	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation and degradation of habitat, largely through the conversion of land to agricultural use. The pet trade is a potential threat to this species; current levels of exploitation are unclear.	eng
63679	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	While this species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection), it has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve and restore remaining areas of suitable cloud forest within the region. Further field surveys are needed to relocate and study this species.	eng
63679	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality in eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The map for this species shows the general area of collection. It was collected between 1,800 and 2,300 m asl.	eng
63679	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species found in cloud forest habitat. It seems unlikely that the species can occur in degraded habitat.	eng
63679	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is known from a single individual collected in the 1930s. There have been few directed surveys to relocate this species since the initial collection.	eng
63679	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	As in all the species of the genus <em>Abronia</em>, the principal threat is considered to be habitat loss through both timber and wood extraction, and the conversion of forest to agricultural use.	eng
63680	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has been recorded in the Lagos de Montebello National Park, and is possibly present in the Huitepec Private Nature Reserve (near San Cristobal, Chiapas) managed by the conservation organization Pronatura. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63680	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is found in the Meseta central of Chiapas, Mexico, from Nachig to Lagos de Montebello National Park. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
63680	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a species of montane pine-oak forest. It appears to be able to survive in areas that have been selectively logged, however it is absent from deforested sites.	eng
63680	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Occurs in a restricted range, although it is easily found in appropriate habitat. Many individuals were seen during surveys in 2005.	eng
63680	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is generally threatened by ongoing severe habitat loss, largely resulting from the conversion of forests to agricultural land and the extraction of timber and wood.	eng
63681	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species has been recorded from the Omiltemi Protected State Park. Further conservation related activities and research are urgently needed to preserve this species and its habitat.	eng
63681	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the vicinity of Omiltemi in the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero State, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,100 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
63681	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species of montane pine-oak forest. It is suspected that the species does not adapt well to significant levels of deforestation.	eng
63681	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is moderately abundant within its few known localities. It is easily found during surveys and does not appear to be a rare animal.	eng
63681	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is significantly threatened by the loss of pine-oak forest through logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural use. Additionally, populations are threatened by directly set forest fires.	eng
63682	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is known from within the protected areas of Volcan Tacana Biosphere Reserve. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection); it is not protected in Guatemala.	eng
63682	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is present in southwestern Guatemala and southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. In Guatemala, it is known only from two localities on the Pacific versant near San Marcos. In Mexico, this species is known only from Volcan Tacana. It is found at elevations between 1,950 to 2,630 m asl.	eng
63682	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is an arboreal species present within cloud forest and is also found close to the pine-cypress zone. It is an arboreal species, and populations need forest with mature, tall trees to persist. It is unlikely that this species can occur in heavily deforested habitat. The species is known to persist, where tall trees remain, in areas used for shade-grown coffee by indigenous peoples.	eng
63682	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Owing to the species arboreal habits, it is difficult to determine how common it is. The species was recorded in Mexico during 2004.	eng
63682	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There has been large-scale deforestation within the species range, generally through the conversion of land to agricultural use. Populations can however persist where large trees remain.	eng
63683	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The forest where the species was collected in Cerro Pelon is protecetd by the local Comaltepec community. Further research is needed into the geographic range and ecology of this species.	eng
63683	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from a single specimen collected on the Cerro Pelon, Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It was collected at 1,750 m asl. It possibly ranges more widely than is currently known.	eng
63683	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is an arboreal species present in the canopy of tropical cloud forest. Populations are expected to need areas with mature, tall trees to persist. It seems unlikely that the species can occur in heavily modified habitat.	eng
63683	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type collection; there are no recent records.	eng
63683	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The forest from which the type specimen was collected remains intact, and as such there are not considered to be any major threats to the species.	eng
63684	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Biosphere Reserve of Valle de Tehuacan-Cuicatlan. There is a need to conserve suitable forest areas for the species. Additionally, further studies are needed into the collection of this species for the pet trade.	eng
63684	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality near de Tecojotes and Mixteca Alta in Oaxaca, and from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero (a single specimen only). It has an elevational range of between 2,134 and 2,400 m asl.	eng
63684	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species, associated with bromeliads, found in montane pine-oak forest. It seems unlikely that this forest species would adapt well to severe deforestation.	eng
63684	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although animals were formerly abundant at Tecojotes, the population has severely declined through overcollection for the pet trade. It is considered to be relatively common in Mixteca Alta, and there is no data available on the population in Guerrero.	eng
63684	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Major threats to this species include habitat loss through from the conversion of land to agricultural use; deforestation resulting from charcoal production; overcollection for the international pet trade; and indirect persecution by local people who believe this harmless species to be venomous.	eng
63685	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain forested areas for this species.	eng
63685	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Variance highlands in central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,100 to 2,743 m asl.	eng
63685	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is an arboreal species found in primary pine-oak forest. It has been recorded from moderately disturbed areas.	eng
63685	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
63685	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is threatened by the conversion of forested areas to agricultural land.	eng
63686	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to study the species ecology, and to better determine the extent of its geographic range.	eng
63686	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the imprecise type locality of "Santa Rosa, Comitan" in eastern Chiapas, Mexico. The exact location of the collection site is not known. It is believed to have been collected between 1,800 and 2,300 m asl.	eng
63686	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species of tropical cloud forest. It is not thought to tolerate much habitat disturbance.	eng
63686	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from two animals collected in the 1930s. There have been no recent surveys within the area of collection.	eng
63686	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from the harvesting of timber and wood products, and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
63687	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas, although it may occur in Chimalapa National Park. Further field surveys are needed to determine the extent of the species geographic range.	eng
63687	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from vicinity of the type locality of Cerro Baul, Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded between 1,500 and 1,600 m asl. It seems possible that the species may be more widely distributed than is currently understood.	eng
63687	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is found in the canopy of cloud forest dominated by <em>Liquidambar</em> (Sweet Gum) trees. Populations need mature, large trees to persist. It seems likely that this species is unable to adapt to significantly modified habitat.	eng
63687	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from a few specimens, and was most recently collected around 1985. There have been no surveys to look for this species since the mid-1980s.	eng
63687	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	Deforestation and transformation of the land in agriculture areas are the main threats. Forest structure changed in some areas due to harvesting of a particular palm ("pacaya") species. The habitat near type locality has been severely altered, although healthy forest remains in nearby areas where this species may persist.	eng
63688	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of occurrence, to learn more of the species ecology and to identify and serious future threats to populations.	eng
63688	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, western Chiapas, Mexico. It was collected at 800 m asl. It seems possible that the species is more widely distributed than currently recognized.	eng
63688	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This arboreal species was collected in tropical dry forest. Although it is tolerant of some habitat disturbance, populations need large trees to persist.	eng
63688	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from a single specimen collected around 1993. There has been limited recent field surveys in the area of collection, with no new individuals have been found. It seems likely that it is difficult to find this species because of its arboreal habits.	eng
63688	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is general deforestation and transformation of land in areas of agriculture. However, much suitable habitat remains and this is not currently considered to be threatened.	eng
63689	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present within the protected area of Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat, and also to undertake additional field surveys to better determine the geographic range of this species.	eng
63689	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known from Volcan San Martín, Sierra de los Tuxtlas, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, at 1,637 m asl.	eng
63689	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	An arboreal species found high in cloud forest and rainforest canopy. Populations need tall trees to persist, hence any degradation of the forest resulting in the removal of these trees will be detrimental.	eng
63689	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is only known from a few specimens. This species occurs high in the forest canopy and is very difficult to find.	eng
63689	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Disturbance of the original forest habitat is a major threat, particularly from clear cutting of the forest for timber and clearance for agriculture. There is illegal logging within the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63690	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species has been recorded from the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve; this is considered to be a well managed protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
63690	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, in southeastern Chiapas State, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,800 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
63690	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species of montane tropical cloud forest. While animals need large trees to persist, populations appear to be able to tolerate some selective logging.	eng
63690	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is considered to be relatively uncommon and it is known from only a few localities. It is generally hard to census populations owing to the species arboreal habits.	eng
63690	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is generally threatened through deforestation, and transformation of land use in agriculture areas.	eng
63691	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Parque Nacional El Chico in Hildalgo, and Sierra Gorda, Queretaro and in Rancho El Cielo, Tamaulipas. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63691	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it ranges from southern Tamaulipas, north Queretaro southwards to south Hidalgo, northeast Veracruz and northern Puebla. It occurs at elevations of around 1,000 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
63691	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This is an arboreal species that occurs in primary humid montane forest, cloud forest and humid pine-oak forest and humid fir forest. It is not present in modified areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63691	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species in suitable habitat.	eng
63691	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use (corn fields and cattle ranches). It is also illegally collected for the international pet trade.	eng
63692	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species does not appear to be present in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat, especially in view of ongoing habitat loss within the species limited geographic range. As animals are mistakenly killed in the belief that they are venomous, a local public awareness campaign to dispel this myth is needed.	eng
63692	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This recently described species is endemic to central Mexico, where it has been recorded from a few localities in northern and extreme northeastern Morelos State and parts of Mexico State adjacent to northeastern Morelos (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002). The known localities lie at around 2,350 to 2,500 m asl on the southern slopes of the Transvolcanic Belt (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002).	eng
63692	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) record that the vegetation at the collection localities close to the city of Cuernavaca and at Tetela del Volcan is oak-pine forest. The vegetation at the type-locality of Ocuilan and the Sierra del Chichinautzin locality is cloud forest. Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) state that the holotype was collected on a branch of a fallen tree, with the remaining specimens found on the ground, usually hiding under logs and leaf litter, in relatively open areas of the forest. It is a viviparous species; captive females have given birth to five and seven young (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002).	eng
63692	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
63692	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002), report that the range of this species is small, and is threatened by ongoing commercial logging, conversion to agricultural use (pasture and crops) and increasing urbanization. The type locality is in close proximity to Chalma and Cuernavaca and is threatened by active deforestation and increasing human settlement (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002). In addition, individual animals are often killed on sight because of the mistaken belief that they are venomous (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2002).	eng
63693	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Santos-Barrera, G. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	<em>B. i .imbicata</em>, and presumably the species <em>B. imbricata</em>, is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in a number of protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> has been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this common and widespread animal. <br/> <br/>There are no direct conservation measures in place for <em>B. i. jonesi</em>. It is not known if it is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats. <br/> <br/>The forest in which <em>B. i. planifrons</em> has been recorded, and a portion of the Sierra Juarez, is protected by the local Comaltepec community. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology. <br/> <br/>It is clear that additional taxonomic research is needed to conclusively resolve the <em>B. imbricata</em> species complex.	eng
63693	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Santos-Barrera, G. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This widespread Mexican endemic is currently composed of four distinctive subspecies which may represent several distinct species (see: Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002, Flores-Villela and Canseco-Márquez 2003, Zaldivar-Riveron <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/> <br/>The nominate subspecies <em>B. i. imbricata</em>, is found along the Transvolcanic belt of central Mexico, including the States of Tlaxacala, Puebla, northern Oaxaca, Veracruz, Jalisco, Cuernovaca, Guanajuato, Distrito Federal, Mexico, Hidalgo and Queretaro. It is found from around 1,800 to 3,000 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> ranges from the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas; in the Pacific coast it is found with a disjunct distribution between Jalisco and Nayarit; from here to the centre of Mexico in Jalisco, Aguascalientes, northeastern Guanajuato, north of Querétaro to San Luis Potosí and through the Sierra Madre Oriental to southern Nuevo Leon (Taylor 1949, Taylor 1952, Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vázquez and Quintero 1997, McCranie and Wilson 2001, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). It occurs above 1,200 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. jonesi</em> is endemic to the Sierra de Coalcomán, in northern Michoacan State, Mexico. It is found from 1,500 to at least 2,200 m asl. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. planifrons</em> is known only from the northern slopes of the Sierra Juarez, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is found at elevations of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
63693	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Santos-Barrera, G. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	<em>B. i. imbricata</em> occurs in highland pine forest, being usually found in clearings and other more or less open areas (including leaf litter and bunchgrass habitats within the forest). It can be found in bunchgrass habitats outside of forest. It is viviparous. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> may be found under rocks or trunks of fallen trees. Vazquez and Quintero (2005) mention that also they use underground burrows. Animals live in high temperate pine-oak and oak forests, and grasslands from 1,200 m asl (Flores and Gerez 1994, Vázquez and Quintero 1997, McCranie and Wilson 200, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). It is largely insectivorous, although it may occasionally take small vertebrates. It is viviparous with litters of up to eleven young reported (Taylor 1949, Vazquez and Quintero 2005). <br/> <br/><em>B. i. jonesi</em> occurs in temperate forest habitat. It is a terrestrial animal found in leaf litter under rocks and logs, and in holes in the ground. The natural history is practically unknown, and it is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. planifrons</em> is a little-known animal of montane cloud forest. It is not known if it can adapt to habitat modification.	eng
63693	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Santos-Barrera, G. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	<em>B. i. imbricata</em>, <em>B. i. ciliaris</em> and <em>B. i. planifrons</em> are relatively common. <em>B. i. jonesi</em> is considered to be quite rare.	eng
63693	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Santos-Barrera, G. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	<em>B. i. imbricata</em> appears to be no overall major threats. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by conversion of forest to agricultural land. <br/> <br/><em>B. i. ciliaris</em> is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, largely through conversion of land to agricultural use. Animals are often killed when encountered by local people as it is mistakenly feared to be venomous. <br/> <br/>The threats to <em>B. i. jonesi</em> are poorly known. There is ongoing habitat loss through deforestation for agriculture in the area, and this is believed to be a threat. More research into actual and potential threats is needed. <br/> <br/>There appear to be no major threats to <em>B. i. planifrons</em>.	eng
63694	conservation	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
63694	distribution	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges at moderately high elevations in the Sierra Tarahumara and Sierra del Nido of western, northwestern and north central Chihuahua State.	eng
63694	habitat	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species occurs in highland temperate pine and pine-oak forests. Animals are terrestrial and are associated with general forest ground cover and holes. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
63694	population	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
63694	threats	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The threats to this poorly known species are not known.	eng
63695	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	As the record from Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, in Morelos is considered doubtful, the species is not believed to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of habitat, especially in view of ongoing habitat loss within the species limited geographic range. As animals are mistakenly killed in the belief that they are venomous, a local public awareness campaign to dispel this myth is needed.	eng
63695	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This Mexican endemic species is restricted to the volcanic transversal belt in the States of Mexico (at the localities of Hacienda La Gavia, Valle de Bravo, and 6 km north of Sultepec), Michoacán (El Pinal, Municipality of Tuxpan) and possibly from the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala, in Morelos (considered a doubtful record by Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca [2002] and not mapped here). It is a montane species found between 2,000 and 2,550 m asl (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002).	eng
63695	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This is a poorly known species, only found in montane cloud or oak-pine forest habitats (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). While previous reports have suggested the species may be arboreal, it is now considered to be a terrestrial species (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). Animals have been recorded by Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca (2002) from 'leaf litter, under pieces of loose bark or fallen trees, or walking on the ground, often in forest openings with piled logs and pieces of loose bark used for firewood'. The species may need pristine habitat, and is not known to occur in secondary habitat. It does not occur in agricultural or disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63695	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It appears to be a naturally rare species, and is not well represented in museum collections.	eng
63695	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species is threatened by increasing clearance of forest for conversion to agricultural land (pasture and vegetables), and loss of habitat through commercial logging operations (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). The Valle de Bravo region where this species has been recorded is rapidly turning into an important vacation spot (Zaldívar-Riverón and Nieto-Montes de Oca 2002). In addition, animals are sometimes killed by local people as they are mistakenly believed to be venomous.	eng
63696	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Canon del Rio Blanco in Veracruz.	eng
63696	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs in the Atlantic foothills of Mexico, from close to Jalapa and Orizaba in central Veracruz State, to Totontepec in northern Oaxaca State. There is also a single record for the species in southern Puebla. This species ranges from 1,000 m to as high as 1,830 m asl.	eng
63696	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits pine, pine-oak, oak and cloud forest habitats. It appears to be able to adapt to pastures and in secondary growth.	eng
63696	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
63696	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species.	eng
63697	conservation	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. Management of the forest habitat used by this species for sustainable use is ongoing for the Veracruz population. Further field research is needed to confirm that there are no populations present between the two known locations.	eng
63697	distribution	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. It is known from the area of the type locality, near Tepango of Rodríguez, Puebla State, and from a second site at Matiaquiahuitz Mountain, Ixhuatlán del Café, central-western Veracruz State. The species is not thought to occur between these two areas. It is known from 1,210 to 1,715 m asl.	eng
63697	habitat	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It has been recorded from montane cloud forest. Animals can be found in habitat disturbed for agricultural use; in these areas they are generally associated with litter and other ground cover. It is not present in large open-areas. This is a viviparous species.	eng
63697	population	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63697	threats	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are currently no known threats to this species. It may become threatened in the future if severe habitat loss occurs, although this is not taking place at present. Stochastic events such as wildfires could potentially impact the known populations.	eng
63698	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico. There is a need to further protect remaining areas of suitable habitat.	eng
63698	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec through the Yucatan Peninsula in northern Chiapas and southern Quinata Roo States in Mexico, through to El Petén in Guatemala and Belize. It occurs from near sea level up to 1,350 m asl.	eng
63698	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	All records of this species are from humid forests. It is arboreal, diurnal, and found sometimes at considerable heights, but also on tree trunks near the ground and in thatched roofs on houses in the forest. It is not very tolerant of forest disturbance.	eng
63698	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63698	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Commercial logging and conversion of forested areas to agricultural use, particularly in Guatemala, are considered to be major threats to this species,	eng
63699	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The range of this species falls within the Los Tuxlas Biosphere Reserve. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63699	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This recently described species is known only from near village of Santa Martha on the western slope of Volcan Santa Martha, Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, in the State of Veracruz, Mexico (Werler and Campbell 2004). It has been collected at 1,200 m asl.	eng
63699	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	Werler and Campbell (2004), record that this species was 'found near the ground or in trees. Most individuals were discovered under the loose bark of a large, felled tree; two were discovered on tree trunks three and five feet, respectively, above the ground. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
63699	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	There is little known about the population abundance of this species.	eng
63699	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
63700	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species has been recorded from the protected area at Valle de los Cirios. Further studies are needed into the ecological requirements of this species.	eng
63700	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is found along the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico, from 30 km south of El Rosario south to at least 0.8 km north of San Javier, inland as far as Nuevo Rosario. Populations are also present on the island of Isla Cedros. It has been recorded from sea level to 100 m asl.	eng
63700	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals are largely found under rocks and general debris in rocky areas. The species can also be found between agave leaves. Although further details are needed, it is suspected that this species is generally tolerant of a degree of habitat disturbance, but not of large-scale agriculture.	eng
63700	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered, but it is probably common in suitable habitat, like other members of its genus.	eng
63700	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, other than the expansion of large-scale agriculture (but much of its habitat is not suitable for this form of land-use).	eng
63701	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63701	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in the west of the United States and in southwestern Canada. It ranges from southern British Columbia (including Vancouver Island) southward through western Washington and western Oregon to west-central coastal California and the central Sierra Nevada (including the east side of Lake Tahoe basin) and Washoe County, Nevada (Vindum and Arnold 1997). It also ranges southward in the Rocky Mountains to northern Idaho and western Montana. Disjunct populations occurs in several areas in south-central Oregon, northeastern California, and northwestern Nevada (Stebbins 2003). The western edge of the distribution includes some small coastal islands (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,200 m (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63701	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes open areas in coniferous forest, grassy grown-over areas at margins of woodlands, clearcuts, and areas along streams; along coast this lizard sometimes occurs far from trees or major cover; it is associated with rock outcrops and talus in some areas (Lais 1976).	eng
63701	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped more than 200 locations where this species has been found. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The species is often fairly common in suitable habitat (St. John 2002). The overall population is probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance.	eng
63701	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The primary threat may be outright destruction of habitat. The species tolerates some habitat disturbances such as logging. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) stated that the introduction of the cinnabar moth for weed (tansy ragweed) control may have adverse effects on northern alligator lizards. The moths are reported to be highly poisonous to the lizards.	eng
63702	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it seems possible that it is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
63702	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The range extends from central and southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico southward in the Sierra Madre Occidental to Jalisco and Colima, Nayarit, southeast Zacatecas and southwest Aguascalientes, Mexico (Loeza-Corichi and Flores-Villela 1995, Stebbins 2003, Quintero-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 1999, Vázquez and Quintero 2005, Webb 1962, Webb 1970). In Arizona, the species occurs in the Huachuca, Santa Rita, Pajarito, and Chiricahua Mountains (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, it occurs throughout the Mogollon Plateau and in several isolated mountain ranges to the south, eastward to Socorro, Sierra, and Dona Ana counties (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The elevational range extends from 2,400 feet to about 9,000 feet (730 to 2,770 m asl) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63702	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Habitats include pine-oak woodlands, riparian areas of canyon floors in mountain ranges, juniper-grassland, chaparral, high dry grassland, oak woodland, open pine-fir forest, and talus; this is primarily a montane species, but it also occurs along major drainages in desert (e.g., creosote bush) and grassland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The lizards hide among logs, rocks, dense vegetation, and leaf litter.	eng
63702	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species is known from at least several dozen sites (Webb 1970). Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped approximately 40 locations in New Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 (assuming 100 or more populations of at least 100 adults). The species is common on talus slopes of the Animas Mountains in Hidalgo County, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is no evidence that a major decline has occurred or is underway.	eng
63702	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats have been identified, but habitat destruction does pose a threat in Mexico.	eng
63703	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	In view of the species wide range it is suspected to occur in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
63703	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The range of this species is primarily west of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada crest in the western United States from south-central Washington and north-central Oregon (mainly west of Cascade crest) south through western Oregon and California to northern Baja California in Mexico, including islands off southern California and northern Baja California (though not on the Coronados Islands where <em>Elgaria nana</em> occurs) (Stebbins 2003). Isolated populations exist east of the Sierra Nevada at Grant Lake, Mono County, California; Alabama Hills and Walker Pass, Kern County, California; Walker Creek near Olancha, Inyo County, California, and along the Mojave River, California; there is also an isolated occurrence at Sierra La Asamblea, Baja California (Stebbins 2003). The species was introduced at Las Vegas, Nevada (Stebbins 2003). Unconfirmed sight record at Boulder Beach Campground, Clark County, Nevada (Stebbins 2003). DNA data suggest that the population on San Nicolas Island, California, may have been recently transported there (Mahoney <em>et al</em>. 2003). Elevational range is from sea level to around 5,000 feet (1,524 m asl) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63703	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Habitats are diverse and include grassland, chaparral, oak woodland, and open pine forest; in drier regions, the species most often occurs along streams or in other moist, vegetated areas (Stebbins 2003). Microhabitats include logs, thickets, rocks, and old woodpiles and trash heaps around houses (Stebbins 2003). This is a basically terrestrial lizard that sometimes climbs bushes and trees. Egg-laying sites include burrows or stable talus (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983).	eng
63703	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This lizard is known from hundreds of locations. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped about 90 localities in Washington and Oregon, and Lais (1976) mapped hundreds of collection sites throughout much of California. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The trend in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance is probably relatively stable, with localized declines not posing a threat to the species.	eng
63703	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Commercial and residential development have caused localized declines, but many populations exist in remote areas, and the species is tolerant of a modest amount of habitat alteration.	eng
63704	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	Both islands are within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
63704	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific islands of Coronado Norte and Coronado Sur off the northern coast of Baja California, Mexico. It appears to be ubiquitous on these two islands.	eng
63704	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals have been recorded from a wide range of habitats on the islands. They are most regularly seen close to rocks or beneath <em>Opuntia</em> cacti.	eng
63704	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is common within its island range.	eng
63704	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the species generally has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats operating or anticipated. The islands where this species occurs are uninhabited and not particularly susceptible to natural disasters.	eng
63705	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Populations of this species are present within the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
63705	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is restricted to the southern Cape Region in the State of Baja California Sur, Mexico.	eng
63705	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is an apparently ubiquitous species inhabiting a wide range of habitats, from arid lands to forest soil with abundant leaf litter. Animals are commonly found under rocks and logs, and in tree hollows.	eng
63705	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a moderately common species within its limited range.	eng
63705	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
63706	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There might be populations of this species within the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, but this needs to be confirmed. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
63706	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Baja California State, Mexico. It occurs at the isolated localities of San Ignacio (at the base of the volcán Las Tres Vírgenes), Sierra Guadalupe, San Jose de Magdalena, San Jose Comondu, and Mision Dolores. The species probably ranges further north than San Ignacio. Because it is a secretive species, it is not known whether or not its distribution is continuous.	eng
63706	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a terrestrial and saxicolous species, with animals found beneath leaves, and under logs and rocks. It seems possible that the species would be adaptable to habitat modification (though not large-scale agriculture), but its remote localities are unlikely to suffer from significant human distrubance.	eng
63706	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There is little information available on the abundance or size of populations.	eng
63706	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63707	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The species occurs within several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
63707	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Central and southwestern Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico, south to San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo (Mendoza and Good, 1994), with isolated populations along the borders of Chihuahua-Durango and Coahuila-Durango (Good 1994). Other species of <em>Gerrhonotus</em>, formerly regarded as conspecific with Texan <em>G. infernalis</em>, occur farther west and south in Mexico (Good 1994).	eng
63707	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species occupies various habitats over a large elevational range, from semi-desert regions to pine forest (Good 1988). In Texas, it occurs in rocky, oak or oak-scrub habitats, especially wooded canyons and rocky slopes and rocky areas along streams and springs (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks, although it may be viviparous in parts of its range.	eng
63707	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Good (1994) mapped several dozen collection sites, well distributed throughout the range. The total adult population size is difficult to estimate, due to this lizard's secretive habits, but it likely is at least several thousand. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) described this species as "seemingly common nowhere...but rather generally distributed on rocky terrain" throughout the range in Texas. Population trends are uncertain but probably relatively stable in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy.	eng
63707	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	No major threats have been identified, aside from localized habitat degradation. Persecuted because people think they are venomous.	eng
63708	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations are present within the several protected areas including La Sepultura (Chiapas), Canon del Sumidero (Chiapas), Tehuacan (Puebla) and Cutzamala (Oaxaca). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63708	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it has been recorded from the States of Puebla, Oaxaca, Hidalgo and central Chiapas. There is a disjunct population in Aguascalientes (Ramírez-Bautista <em>et al</em>. 1998, Vázquez and Quintero 2005) and Jalisco States (Rodríguez and Vázquez 1976), but this may represent an undescribed species. It has been recorded between 200 and 2,450 m asl.	eng
63708	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is principally a terrestrial species, with animals recorded from a variety of habitats, ranging from semi-desert, through scrubland, to pine forest. It is now known if the species can persist well in disturbed habitat. The species has a largely insectivorous diet (Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It is an oviparous species.	eng
63708	population	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
63708	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is threatened by the conversion of land to small-holder type agricultural use.	eng
63709	conservation	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The Cuatro Cienegas basin within which this species occurs is a protected area. Further research is needed on population size, range, habitat status, biology, and threats.	eng
63709	distribution	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the type locality in the Cuatro Cienegas, central Coahuila. The total range is probably less than 1,000 km².	eng
63709	habitat	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This is a typical terrestrial, hot desert species found under rocks and bulks on the ground. Little information exists on its natural history, ecology and abundance.	eng
63709	population	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	In general, this is a rare species. It has been recently sighted within its limited range..	eng
63709	threats	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species appears to be restricted to the Cuatro Cienegas basin. As such, it is considered to occur within a well managed protected area and is not known to have any current threats.	eng
63710	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	It may be present in some protected areas within the region. Further research is needed on the ecology, threats and distribution of this species.	eng
63710	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern San Luis Potosi to Hidalgo, and from Queretaro to northern Puebla. The species may exist as small, distinct, populations but its range is poorly known. It is found from 1,700 m asl, the maximum elevation is not known.	eng
63710	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	The species occurs in montane cloud forest, tropical semi-deciduous forest, and sometimes in disturbed secondary forest and cropland (local varieties of corn). It is a viviparous species.	eng
63710	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63710	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	It is threatened by habitat fragmentation, through changes in land uses for agriculture and pasture lands. The species is commonly killed by local people because it is mistakenly believed to be venomous.	eng
63711	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Further field surveys are needed to locate additional populations of this species. Further research is needed into the ecology, natural history and to determine if captive-breeding is possible.	eng
63711	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is known only from the vicinity of Galeana in central Nuevo Leon State, Mexico. It appears to be a restricted range species. It occurs between 1,600 and 1,650 m asl.	eng
63711	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It has been recorded in dry forest with oaks, agaves, 'sotoles' vegetation and limestone rocks. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.	eng
63711	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63711	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is threatened by habitat loss caused by conversion of natural habitat to agricultural areas, and extraction of limestone for building material.	eng
63712	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to rediscover this species.	eng
63712	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species known only from an undefined locality on Mount Orizaba, Veracruz State, Mexico. There have been several attempts to collect the species since its description but it has not been rediscovered. The elevation of collection is not known.	eng
63712	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The exact distribution on the mountain is not known, and the habitat of the species is not known.	eng
63712	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There is very little information is available. It is known only from two specimens collected in the 1800s.	eng
63712	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
63713	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It have been recorded within Omiltemi State Park. No direct conservation actions are currently needed for this species.	eng
63713	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is restricted to the highlands of the Sierra Madre del Sur, including Sierra de Quatro Venados and the highlights about Tejocotes, in the States of Guerrero and Oaxaca, México. It is found between 2,000 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
63713	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from highland pine forest, fir forest, and cloud forest. It is usually found in clearings and other more or less open areas. The species does well in areas of secondary growth.	eng
63713	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is locally abundant within its restricted, disjunct range.	eng
63713	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
63714	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
63714	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the northern slopes of the Sierra de Juarez, in the State of Oaxaca, Mexico. Populations have been recorded at elevations from 2,000 to 2,800 m asl. It might occur a little more widely.	eng
63714	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species is generally associated with tropical montane cloud forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
63714	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It seems to be moderately common and is regularly recorded.	eng
63714	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, resulting from timber extraction and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
63715	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
63715	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico where it is distributed in central Oaxaca State, including both la Sierra Juarez and Sierra Mixe. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,500 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
63715	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from cloud forest and montane fir forest. Although further details are needed, it seems to be moderately adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
63715	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
63715	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species is threatened by the conversion of forest habitat to small-holder farming (largely crops).	eng
63716	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63716	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. The eastern segment of the range (subspecies <em>longicaudus</em>) encompasses the southeastern United States, from Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast and southern Florida, east of the Mississippi River; the western part of the range (subspecies <em>attentuatus</em>) extends from southeastern Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Indiana south to the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River in the south (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
63716	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include open grassland, prairie, woodland edge, open woodland, oak savannas, longleaf pine flatwoods, scrubby areas, fallow fields, and areas near streams and ponds, often in habitats with sandy soil. This species often appears on roads in spring. During inactivity, it occurs in underground burrows. In Kansas, slender glass lizards were scarce in heavily grazed pastures, increased as grass increased with removal of grazing, and declined as brush and trees replaced grass (Fitch 1989). Eggs are laid underground, under cover, or under grass clumps (Ashton and Ashton 1985); in cavities beneath flat rocks or in abandoned tunnels of small mammals (<em>Scalopus</em>, <em>Microtus</em>) (Fitch 1989).	eng
63716	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is represented by a large number of populations, and it is locally common in many areas. Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably declined, but the species remains widespread.	eng
63716	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Conversion of habitat to human uses, especially intensive agriculture, is probably the major threat, but the species is reasonably secure throughout most of its range.	eng
63717	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance. Habitat maintenance and conservation are urgently needed	eng
63717	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known only from a small area of coastal dunes, close to sea level, in central Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
63717	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This is a little-known, specialised species which has only been recorded burrowing in sand dunes. The breeding habits are not known.	eng
63717	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species was formerly considered to be common, although there are only a few specimens in collections, but it has probably declined recently as a result of ongoing coastal development which has damaged its specialised habitat.	eng
63717	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The ongoing expansion of the city of Veracruz is threatening the known habitat of the species.	eng
63718	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range includes the Okeefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and some barrier islands protected as national seashore (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998).	eng
63718	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. It inhabits sandy coastal areas and offshore islands of southeastern South Carolina, southeastern Georgia, and Florida, as well as scrub pine regions and adjacent flatwoods throughout much of peninsular Florida; most of the range is in Florida (Martoff <em>et al</em>. 1980, Ashton and Ashton 1985, Conant and Collins 1991, Stevenson and Crowe 1992, Enge 1994).	eng
63718	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes scrub vegetation on old coastal sand dunes (where the species often can be found under tidal wrack), sand pine scrub, longleaf pine-turkey oak, coastal hammocks, and dry pine flatwoods inland (Holman 1971, Ashton and Ashton 1985,  Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The species is most often encountered crossing roads in late afternoon or at dusk (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably in an underground nest.	eng
63718	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is easily overlooked (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), so there are probably many more populations than are now known. As of the late 1990s, the species was known from a few locations in South Carolina (M. Taylor pers. comm. 1998), approximately two dozen locations in about a dozen counties in Georgia (Williamson and Moulis 1994, J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998), and at least 21 counties in Florida (Ashton and Ashton 1985, Enge 1994, Stevenson and Crowe 1992). The total adult population size is uncertain but is probably at least several thousand. The species is considered rare in South Carolina (Martof <em>et al</em>. 1980) and very abundant on Little Saint Simmons Island, Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998). It is locally common but apparently uncommon overall in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably undergone a long-term decline in mainland areas. J. Jensen (pers. comm. 1998) is familiar with Georgia's barrier island populations and believes these populations are probably stable; in contrast, due to loss of habitat, the mainland populations are probably declining. A similar pattern is likely in Florida.	eng
63718	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The main threat is habitat loss (J. Blanchard and J. Jensen pers. comms. 1998). In Georgia, mainland populations are threatened by habitat loss due to fire suppression and silvicultural practices. J. Jensen (pers. comm. 1998) stated that most island populations are protected by limited use of the islands or as part of the national seashore system. Little Saint Simmons island is a private island with only a small portion used as a resort area. The remainder of the island is avoided by people because it is occupied by a large population of diamondback rattlesnakes (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1998).	eng
63719	conservation	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The known range does not fall within any protected areas, although the Sierra de Abra-Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve is approximately 30 km northeast from the only known location. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
63719	distribution	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This poorly-known species is known only southeastern San Luis Potosi State, Mexico. It has a total range area is less than 5,000 km², and fewer than five locations are currently known. However, it might occur more widely.	eng
63719	habitat	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This is a fossorial species, preferring sandy soil close to river banks often within tropical deciduous forest. The life history has not been studied, but closely related species are known to be oviparous.	eng
63719	population	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is only known from a few road kill specimens. The fossorial behaviour of this species means it is rarely encountered.	eng
63719	threats	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Most of the forest habitat of this species has been degraded or converted to sugar cane plantations. Animals are often killed when encountered as they are mistakenly identified as a venomous snakes. It is possible that accidental mortality on roads is a considerable threat to the species; there is a main highway close to the known range.	eng
63720	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Sites with adequate protection include about four in Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1997) and approximately five in North Carolina (H. LeGrand pers. comm. 1997).	eng
63720	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to the southeastern United States. It has a narrow, elongate distribution along the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of the southeastern United States, from southeastern North Carolina to northern Florida and westward through the Florida panhandle to Pearl River County, Mississippi (Palmer 1992). A questionable record exists for Lone Pine Key, Florida (Palmer 1987).	eng
63720	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat typically is dominated by pines and includes sandy flatwoods and hillsides with longleaf pine, scattered oaks, ericaceous shrubs, and wiregrass; longleaf pine savanna (Palmer 1987, P. Moler pers. comm. 1998); occasionally within seepage bogs (J. Godwin pers. comm. 1998). In areas of suitable habitat, this lizard can be found in early morning hours along roadways that have wide grassy berms (Ashton and Ashton 1991).	eng
63720	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Little information exists regarding the occurrences and abundance of this secretive, recently described lizard. Palmer (1987) mapped 35 collection sites across the entire range. Information on population size is not available. Population trend information is not available for most of the range. The species is probably declining in Alabama, as preferred habitat has declined (M. Bailey pers. comm. 1997). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably undergone a long-term decline.	eng
63720	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Threats include habitat loss to development, conversion of habitat to pine plantations, and road mortality (M. Bailey, J. Jensen, and H. LeGrand pers. comms. 1997). It is very threatened in Georgia (J. Jensen pers. comm. 1997), and moderately threatened in North Carolina and Alabama (M. Bailey and H. LeGrand pers. comms. 1997).	eng
63721	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63721	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to the southeastern United Statesa. Its range includes the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, and west to eastern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991). The species was once reported from Grand Cayman Island, Cayman Islands, where it is introduced and possibly established (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
63721	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include moist and dry areas (especially the former), including damp grassy areas, maritime forests, open and scrubby woods (mesic hammock, pine flatwoods), vacant lots in coastal towns (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This lizard can be found under debris in fields and vacant lots near ponds, marshes, and estuaries. It favours areas with sandy friable soils and abundant shelter on ground. It is regarded as semi-fossorial. Eggs are laid under or at base of grass clumps (Ashton and Ashton 1985) or under debris on ground (Mount 1975).	eng
63721	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many populations. Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 localities in North Carolina alone. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is the most abundant, least habitat specific, and most commonly encountered species of glass lizard in Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is locally common in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and is by far the most common glass lizard on the Coastal Plain of Alabama (Mount 1975). Its area of occupancy and abundance have probably declined somewhat over the long-term in regions with intensive urban or agricultural development, but the current rate of decline is probably small.	eng
63721	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The major threat is presumably intensive land development. The species is somewhat tolerant of moderate habitat disturbance.	eng
63722	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place; the species is not known from any protected areas. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Protected areas are urgently needed where the species can survive, away from the threats of expanding human activities and off-road vehicles.	eng
63722	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific side of the State of Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002). It ranges from approximately 6 km north of Colonia Guerrero, southwards to just south of Punta Baja at the northern edge of Bahia El Rosario (a narrow strip about 87 km long). It ranges only 4 km inland in the Arroyo Socorro where the inshore breezes have carried the sand inland, but otherwise it is restrcited to the coastal margins. It also occurs on Isla San Gerónimo.	eng
63722	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a burrowing species which is restricted to areas of fine-grained sand substrates in dunes the coastal region. It is commonly found at the base of brittlebush (<em>Encelia</em> sp.), bursag (<em>Ambrosia</em> sp.) and locoweed (<em>Astragulus</em> sp.) which grow on the dunes.	eng
63722	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive animal that is not often encountered, but is thought to be common in its habitat (Grismer 2002).	eng
63722	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Its sand dune habitat is highly threatened by general coastal development for touristic resorts, urbanization, road building, expansion of intensive agriculture, and the impacts of off-road vehicles.	eng
63723	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is present in the large Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, and in some other protected areas. It is protected by national legislation, with the NOM (2003) listing this species under the Pr category (special protection).	eng
63723	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Baja California peninsula of Mexico, where it ranges from extreme southwestern Baja California State through western Baja California Sur, to the Isthmus of La Paz and the western Cape Region.	eng
63723	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This fossorial species requires areas with sandy soils with abundant leaf litter; it is rarely seen on the surface. The general habitat in its area of distribution is dryland and desert, with xeric shrub vegetation. Animals are often collected close to fenceposts, and populations are believed to be able to survive in moderately disturbed landscapes. They construct an elaborate system of burrows just below the surface, usually centered on stands of vegetation.	eng
63723	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is probably a relatively abundant species, but it is secretive and is not often encountered. Papenfuss (1982) collected 2,719 specimens in an extensive study of the species.	eng
63723	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be few major threats to the species, but in some places it is probably negatively by expanding intensive agriculture. Animals may be killed when encountered because of misidentification as snakes, and a fear that they attack humans. There is some collecting of animals, possibly for the pet trade, but this is believed to have a minimal impact on populations.	eng
63724	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although populations of this species are not know to occur in any protected areas, <em>B. caniculatus</em> is protected by Mexican national legislation (listed under the Pr category (special protection). Further research is needed to determine the full extent of the species range.	eng
63724	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in the States of Guerrero and Michoacan in Mexico. While it has yet to be recorded from Puebla State or the northeastern limits of the Balsas basin, it is possible that the species occurs throughout the Rio Balsas Basin. The elevational limit is not recorded here.	eng
63724	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This fossorial species is associated with rocky soils and loose gravel, and may be found in rotten logs or under rocks. It seems to be a tropical dry forest species, but as with other members of the genus <em>Bipes</em> it may be present in disturbed areas used for agriculture.	eng
63724	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is believed to be reasonably common, although the fossorial habits of this species can make it difficult to find.	eng
63724	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
63725	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Protection of the dry forest habitat within the species limited range is needed, as is further general research into the range, ecology and threats to the species.	eng
63725	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species appears to be restricted to a small area close to the Rio Tecpan, in coastal Guerrero State, Mexico. It is a lowland species.	eng
63725	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a fossorial species that is present in tropical dry forest and floodplains. Animals have been recorded from disturbed areas of habitat.	eng
63725	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a locally abundant species, that is known from many specimens collected at only a few localities.	eng
63725	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although the species has a generally restricted range, there appear to be no major threats at present. It is possible that loss of the dry forests to agricultural expansion may threaten the species in the future.	eng
63726	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in several national parks and monuments, state parks, and other protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
63726	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from southern California and western and southern Arizona, south to the tip of Baja California and to southern Sonora, Mexico, including some islands along the Pacific Coast of Baja California (including Cedros) and in the Gulf of California (including Angel de la Guardia and Tiburón). It occurs at elevations from sea level to 2,070 m (Yingling 1982, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63726	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species' habitats are diverse and include desert, arid scrub, brushland, sandy plains, rocky slopes, and chaparral-covered foothills, particularly where moisture is available, as around springs, streams, and canyon floors (but these snakes are not dependent on permanent water). This is a mainly terrestrial species, but it sometimes climbs into shrubs.	eng
63726	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by well over 100 occurrences or subpopulations (Yingling (1982) mapped some of them). The total adult population size of this secretive snake is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. It is common along the western slopes of the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California (Welsh 1988). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. Local declines seem to have occurred in some sites that are readily accessible to collectors. For example, populations have been greatly reduced in the vicinity of Route 85 in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). However, this snake is still abundant in many remote areas of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument and presumably elsewhere within the range (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is less information available on its abundance in Mexico.	eng
63726	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Overall, this snake is not very threatened. It often occurs in inaccessible, rugged terrain that affords natural protection from grazing and development, and a great deal of suitable habitat is available. Some local populations are threatened by overcollecting and road mortality (Parizek <em>et al</em>. 1996). This is a popular species in the pet trade (but most are captive-bred), and collectors often target this snake; however, it is difficult to find and collect in quantity, and it is unlikely to be significantly threatened by over-collecting.	eng
63727	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs in Sierra Los Huicholles protected area. It is also protected by Mexican legislation under category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63727	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This snake has a patchy distribution in west-central Mexico, from western Jalisco to Michoacan, Guanajuato and Hidalgo, and reaching northern Morelos. It occurs from 1,200 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63727	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a semi-aquatic snake, living in highland areas in flooded areas, damp meadows and grassy swamps.	eng
63727	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a very rare species, and very few specimens are known.	eng
63727	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Major threats to this species include habitat destruction due to agriculture and urban development.	eng
63728	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is not to occur in any protected areas. Parts of the area have been reafforested with <em>Pinus durangoensis</em>, as part of forestry operations, but it is not known if the species can exist in these areas. Further research is needed into the distribution and ecology of this species, and to determine whether it is still extant.	eng
63728	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This poorly known species has only been recorded from the vicinity of the type locality of "4 km E cerca de la localidad Mil Diez, aproximadamente 3.2 km W El Salto", in southwestern Durango, Mexico. It was collected at 2,600 m asl.	eng
63728	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occurs in relictual areas of pine and pine-oak forests, more specifically it is found in areas containing <em>Pinus durangoensis</em>. It is not present in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63728	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is known only from a few specimens collected at the type locality. It has not been seen in more than thirty years.	eng
63728	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Pine forests in western Durango have been extensively logged and habitat has been severely disturbed; it is possible that this species is threatened by these activities, however, it may persist in reafforested areas.	eng
63729	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve and forests protected by the community of Los Chimalapas.	eng
63729	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the region of the Sierra de los Chimalapas and Cerro Baul in Oaxaca and extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,500 to 1,900 m asl.	eng
63729	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in the leaf-litter of pine and cloud forest, and has also been found in small agricultural areas near forest.  It is rarely seen due to its secretive habits. It is not known whether this species is able to adapt to disturbance of its habitat.	eng
63729	population	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is no population data available. It was last collected in 2004 in Chiapas.	eng
63729	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is threatened by forest fires and clear cutting of the forest.	eng
63730	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Lagunas de Montebello National Park, Mexico.	eng
63730	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico, from the vicinity of San Cristobal de las Casas southeastward almost to the Guatemalan border. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
63730	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is found in the leaf-litter and along the forest edge in cloud and pine-oak forests. It can also be found in coffee plantations. It is a burrowing snake.	eng
63730	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is a moderately common species.	eng
63730	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	Deforestation, and the extraction of fire wood from the forest is a major threat to this species.	eng
63731	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
63731	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known from low and moderate elevations in Mexico from Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, southwards to central Veracruz, and from another population also in Veracruz, as well as an isolated population in Belize.	eng
63731	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This snake is found in tropical and subtropical wet and moist forest. It is presumably an egg layer like other species in the group. It is not known whether it can tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
63731	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There is no information on the population of this species.	eng
63731	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63732	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas including La Sepultura, El Triunfo and El Tacana Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.	eng
63732	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs on the Pacific slopes of Chiapas, Mexico and in adjacent Guatemala. It is found at elevations from 500 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63732	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It inhabits tropical wet montane forest, and can also tolerate disturbance of its habitat.	eng
63732	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
63732	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species may be affected by pesticides from coffee plantations, but overall there are no major threats at present.	eng
63733	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Mendoza Qoijano, F., 2007	In Mexico, the range of this species includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Ocote Biosphere Reserve and one other reserve in Chiapas.	eng
63733	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Mendoza Qoijano, F., 2007	This species is known from disjunct populations in northern Oaxaca, southern Veracruz, western Chiapas, northern Chiapas and Tabasco, in Mexico, to El Petén in Guatemala in the Pacific Versant, and Honduras in the Atlantic versant.  It occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
63733	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Mendoza Qoijano, F., 2007	This species is known from moist tropical forest. It has fossorial habits and it can be found under the ground, under logs and rocks and in other animal burrows. It has also been recorded in disturbed areas such as plantations and pasturelands.	eng
63733	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Mendoza Qoijano, F., 2007	It is very common in Los Tuxtlas in Mexico.	eng
63733	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Mendoza Qoijano, F., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63734	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments, state parks, and other protected areas.	eng
63734	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, southwestern and eastern Colorado, and southern Nebraska south through southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas in the United States, to northern Baja California, south to Sinaloa, Aguascalientes and Tamaulipas in Mexico. It occurs at elevations from below sea level in desert sinks to around 2,200 m asl (7,220 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63734	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The varied habitats include barren to sparse shrubby desert, sagebrush flats, grassland, sandhills, coastal scrub, chaparral slopes, and sometimes oak-hickory woodland, generally in open areas with sandy or loamy soil, though rocks may be present (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake takes shelter and lays its eggs underground.	eng
63734	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Dixon and Fleet 1976, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. A perhaps substantial decline may have occurred during historical periods of large expansion of intensive cultivation (Hammerson 1999). Currently, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
63734	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Intensive agricultural development and urbanization probably have eliminated or reduced some populations, but in most areas this species does not appear to be very threatened at the present time.	eng
63735	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The range of this species includes the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve. However, there are no protected areas in the southern half of its range.	eng
63735	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake ranges along the Pacific coast of the southern two-thirds of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico, from at least the turnoff to Bahia de los Angeles, south to 20km north of La Paz.	eng
63735	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It occurs from the north cool Pacific desert of western Baja California southward, the preferred habitat being open vegetation with loose soil. It is found in the Vizcaíno Desert and Magdalena Plain.	eng
63735	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It seems to be an abundant species but the animal is secretive and is not often encountered. It is particularly abundant in the Vizcaíno Desert north of Guerrero Negro.	eng
63735	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Commercial agriculture is expanding in both the Vizcaíno Desert and the Magdalena Plain.	eng
63736	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species includes a few protected areas.	eng
63736	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species extends from about 3.8 km east of Mount Spring, Imperial County, California, United States, southward through (mostly eastern) Baja California, Mexico, to Cabo San Lucas, including the Gulf island of Danzante (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63736	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' habitat includes rocky hill slopes and arroyos (dry creeks), often near oases, springs, and streams, but also in dry areas of thorn scrub with rock. The species has been found in association with native fan palms, date palms, mesquite, palo verde, and creosote bush (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63736	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but is probably at least several dozen. The species occurs patchily in the northern part of its range, and it is possibly extinct in the United States. It is more common in the south of its range in Baja California Sur. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000, conservatively assuming at least one adult per sq. km over an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km. The species' extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63736	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species, but it is harvested for the international pet trade, though probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
63737	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs in Big Bend National Park and in other parks and protected areas. Some populations are protected due to their location in remote areas. It is found in at least two protected areas in Mexico	eng
63737	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southern New Mexico and southwestern Texas in the United States, south through Chihuahua and Coahuila to Durango and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Price 1990). The elevational range is from 450 to 1,600 m asl (1,475 to 5,250 feet) (Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63737	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats include dry, rocky terrain, including basins and valleys with mesquite, desert slopes with creosote bush, sotol, lechuguilla, agave, yucca, ocotillo, or acacia, and montane oak-juniper woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000). The type of rock may be granitic, limestone, or lava (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snakes spend daylight hours in crevices or other underground retreats.	eng
63737	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by at least several dozen (probably more than 100) occurrences or subpopulations. Doubtless many occurrences have not been documented because of difficult access to the habitat. Worthington (1980) mapped about 66 collection sites rangewide, including 16 in Mexico. The relatively small number in Mexico presumably reflects lesser collecting effort there relative to areas in the United States. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Texas, many clearly along roads through suitable habitat. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 15 collection sites in New Mexico (about twice as many as mapped in New Mexico by Worthington). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least in the 10,000s (conservatively assuming at least one adult per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). Tennant (1998) rated this species as uncommon but not rare in Texas. Local declines in population size are likely to have occurred along roads in areas targeted by collectors. Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. The population size may be declining slowly, mainly in localized areas along roads. <br/> <br/>It is a secretive, uncommon species to Mexico.	eng
63737	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The collection of gravid females for the pet trade along roads in Trans-Pecos Texas has led to a substantial decline in roadside populations; populations in undeveloped areas are probably little affected if at all (Price 1990).	eng
63738	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in parks and other protected areas.	eng
63738	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, southeastern New York, and Massachusetts south to Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina, west to the Mississippi River and a little west of the Mississippi in the vicinity of eastern Arkansas, and east to the Atlantic coast; old record from west-central Florida (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). Elevational range extends to at least 1,311 m (4,300 feet) in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995).	eng
63738	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The habitat consists of mesic, wooded or partially wooded areas (hardwood or pine), often along edges or ecotones, such as near wetlands or margins of farm fields, and often in hilly areas but sometimes in flatwoods (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake occurs in loose damp soil, under surface cover or leaf litter, or in rotted logs; it goes deep underground during cold or dry weather. Eggs are laid under rocks, in rotting logs, stumps, or sawdust piles (Mount 1975, Collins 1982).	eng
63738	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (100s) (e.g., see maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995 and Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 and may exceed 1,000,000. Theses snakes are common in many areas. Densities may exceed 200/ha (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63738	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have probably been reduced as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.	eng
63739	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63739	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range includes southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, western Illinois, eastern Kansas (Collins 1993), Missouri (Johnson 2000), eastern Oklahoma, Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), northern Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989), and northeastern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000), with an isolated population in southwestern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981); populations in northeastern Louisiana and adjacent southeastern Arkansas appear to be isolated from the main range (Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003). Range is west of the Mississippi River except in Illinois and Wisconsin.	eng
63739	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat generally consists of moist, rocky, wooded or partially wooded hillsides, forest or woodland edges, or wooded riparian corridors in prairies (Collins 1993, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). These snakes usually are hidden in leaf litter, under rocks, logs, or rotting stumps, or in damp soil (Johnson 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63739	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (100s) (e.g., see maps in Ernst <em>et al</em>. 2003 and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common to abundant in suitable habitat (densities of 60 to 120 individuals per ha were recorded in Kansas; Clark 1970). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over three generations or 10 years.	eng
63739	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) suggested that some populations in northern Arkansas may be detrimentally affected by alteration of forest floor habitat (removal of rocks for rock gardens), but they stated that the species is not endangered or threatened in Arkansas. Overall, this snake is not significantly threatened.	eng
63740	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63740	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southern New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, southern Indiana, southern Illinois, and Missouri, and eastern Oklahoma south to southern Texas, most of the Gulf Coast (except in Louisiana), and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
63740	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This secretive, semi-fossorial snake inhabits hardwood, mixed, or pine forest/woodland and adjacent open areas with sandy or loamy well-drained soils (Behler and King 1979, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specific habitats include pine flatwoods, dry or dry prairie, salt grass prairie, maritime hardwood hammock, bottomland forest, sandhills, margins of irrigation canals in sawgrass prairies, borders of swamps and ploughed fields, abandoned fields, and roadsides (Tennant 1984, 1997; Werler and Dixon 2000). Individuals are sometimes found under rocks or in or under logs. Eggs are laid under moist humus (Minton 1972) or in other underground sites.	eng
63740	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Williams 1985). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 collection sites in North Carolina. Mount (1975) mapped more than 50 localities in Alabama. Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped about 40 collection sites in Arkansas. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped 19 collection sites in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but likely is at least in the hundreds of thousands. This snake is common and locally abundant in Florida (Tennant 1997). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63740	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is not threatened in most of its range. Local declines likely have occurred as a result of habitat alteration.	eng
63741	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no populations known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
63741	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are currently three subpopulations of this species recognized, one in central-western Veracruz, and two in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has an elevational range of 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63741	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species dwells under logs and rocks in humid soil in cloud forest, pine-oak forest and tropical rainforest, however, some specimens have also been collected in altered areas such as coffee plantations and corn plantations.  It is probably an egg layer.	eng
63741	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a moderately abundant species locally.	eng
63741	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no major threats identified for this species.	eng
63742	conservation	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There is at least one record of this species from a Biosphere reserve (Sierra Gorda de Queretaro). More information is urgently needed about this species such as population size, range and habitat status.	eng
63742	distribution	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is known only from three specimens: one from southern San Luis Potosi, and two from adjacent northern Queretaro, Mexico. Its known extent of occurrence is less than 1,000 km², and its area of occupancy is likely to be less than 100 km². It has been collected from 1,650 m asl.	eng
63742	habitat	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is semi-fossorial and inhabits remnants of tropical montane cloud forest of the region.	eng
63742	population	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The population size is unknown, but is presumably rare. It is only known from three specimens, and it has not been recorded over the last 30 years (last recorded in the 1970s).	eng
63742	threats	Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown, however, there has recently been significant transformation of habitat in the area due to agricultural expansion which presumably has affected this species.	eng
63743	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in a protected area.	eng
63743	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Cerralvo island, in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where it is known from three localities in the south of the island (with the majority of specimens being collected from a beach area). It might occur more widely on the island (Grismer 2002).	eng
63743	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake prefers the sandy or dune areas of the island, as well as leaf litter in the arroyo (dry creek) bottoms. However, Grismer (2002) suggests that further exploration could show the species to occur in rocky areas, and hence more widely on the island.	eng
63743	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is little information on population status for this species. In some places they must be common as the tracks cover sand dunes in certain locations.	eng
63743	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although this species has a tiny distribution, there are no threats identified for this species. The island on which the species occurs is not thought to be inhabited by humans and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes or other natural disasters.	eng
63744	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.	eng
63744	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. Its range includes central and southwestern Arizona, western Sonora, and most of Baja California (except the far northern and northeastern part), including the Pacific islands of Cedros and Magdalena and several islands in the Gulf of California, including Tiburón (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 910 m (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63744	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	A fossorial species that generally inhabits sandy, sandy-gravelly, or loamy soils of flats, dunes, hummocks, arroyos (dry creeks), and wash borders, in deserts (e.g., mesquite-crosotebush), uplands with palo verde-saguaro, and thornscrub habitats (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). On dunes, tracks may extend among the bases of shrubs (Grismer 2002). It also occurs on rocky hillsides, including lava flows (Grismer 2002). Sometimes it can be found under rocks or vegetative debris. This species is a sand-swimmer.	eng
63744	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see Grismer <em>et al</em>. 2002). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63744	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified, though some local populations have declined, for example as a result of urbanization in the Phoenix area.	eng
63745	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in various types of parks and other protected areas.	eng
63745	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species' range includes the Mojave and Sonoran deserts from southwestern Nevada and southeastern California east to south-central Arizona, United States, and southward into northeastern Baja California (to near Bahia Santa Maria) and extreme northwestern Sonora, Mexico (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001). Its elevational range extends from below sea level to nearly 1,500 m (4,920 feet) (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
63745	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitat of this burrowing snake consists of sparsely vegetated (mesquite-creosote bush, desert grasses, cactus) desert; rocky slopes, dunes, washes, and sandy flats (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63745	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is common and is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive but locally common (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63745	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats to this species have been identified. Locally, some populations are likely to have declined as a result of conversion of its habitat to human uses, and expanding human settlements are likely to be a future threat.	eng
63746	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The population in the United States occurs almost entirely in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument; however, this affords little protection from the high automobile traffic mortality that occurs on Route 85.	eng
63746	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, extending into extreme southwestern United States. The known range extends from the vicinity of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, southwestern Arizona, into western Sonora (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), at elevations from sea level to about 760 m (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001, Stebbins 2003). Its known distribution in Sonora, Mexico, is spotty (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996), and the distribution in general reflects the location of roads that traverse suitable habitat (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), suggesting that the species is under-recorded.	eng
63746	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Its habitat includes gravelly middle bajadas and flat areas in rocky or sandy upland, openly vegetated desert (Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001); saguaro-paloverde dominated upland desert in Arizona; arid mesquite-creosote bush-bur sage terrain to the south (Behler and King 1979).	eng
63746	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Fifteen localities for this species have been documented in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997), essentially all along one road and constituting one elongate occurrence. It is a difficult species to survey due to its nocturnal and fossorial habits and limited seasonal activity pattern (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped 38 collection sites in Sonora, with many a part of a linear series of sites along roads. Based on the map in Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. (2001), there appear to be at least a dozen distinct known occurrences, but many more are likely to exist in the large areas of unsurveyed habitat in Sonora. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand and more likely more than 10,000. It is uncommon in Arizona, with a highly restricted known range. Most of the range is in northwestern Mexico (Rosen <em>et al</em>. 1996, Mahrdt <em>et al</em>. 2001), but much of the range there has not been adequately surveyed. Rangewide, over the long term, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. In the small, US portion of the range in Arizona, the species probably has declined in population size along the highway corridor where most occurrences of this snake have been documented. Away from this area, the distribution of the snake and its trends are unknown. In Mexico, the trend is not documented but is very probably not declining at a rate of more than 30% over three generations or 10 years. Most probably, populations have declined along major highways, but not elsewhere.	eng
63746	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The major threat in Arizona is highway mortality along State Route 85; 64% of observations during a 1987-1994 survey were of individuals found dead on the road; highway 85 cuts through the heart of prime US habitat. Due to proposed future development in Mexico, highway traffic is expected to increase substantially in volume and daily duration, significantly increasing the threat of highway mortality in the US and Mexico. However, most of the probably occupied habitat is remote from highways and hence not threatened.	eng
63747	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Several occurrences are in protected areas. Protection needs include the following: 1) identify and protect a large number (perhaps at least 20) of suitable sites throughout the range; 2) do whatever it takes to curtail pet trade exploitation (state legislation); and 3) educate the public about conservation needs.	eng
63747	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is restricted to the north-central Midwest of the United States. The present range includes disjunct populations in Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. Most recent records for the Great Lakes region are clustered near the southern end of Lake Michigan (Cook County, Illinois; northwestern Indiana; and southwestern Michigan) and in Lucas County, Ohio (Toledo area) (Harding 1997). The Kentucky distribution is along the Ohio River valley (Barbour 1971). Historically, the range included northeastern and central Illinois, most of Indiana and Ohio, north-central Kentucky, southern Michigan, western Pennsylvania, and extreme northeastern Missouri.  Records from southeastern Wisconsin and from eastern Pennsylvania have been regarded as erroneous (Conant 1943). The species was last recorded in Pennsylvania in 1965. Historically, Wisconsin and Missouri were at best extreme peripheral locations; known in Wisconsin from a single unsubstantiated report in 1883 (Hoy 1883, Vogt 1981); known in Missouri from a single record in 1964 (Jones 1967, Johnson 1987). The area of occupancy within its range is small.	eng
63747	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits relict Prairie Peninsula habitats: prairie fens, wet meadows, lakeplain wet prairies and associated open and wooded wetlands, seasonal marshes, open swamps, sparsely wooded hillsides, and the vicinity of ponds and sluggish creeks. In the more recently glaciated parts of the range, occurrences are on gently sloping pitted outwash, till plains, and former glacial lake plains; in the more highly dissected, recently unglaciated areas, the species occupied larger river valley drainages (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). In Illinois and west-central Indiana, it is most often found on mollisols, soils that develop under grasslands and have excellent water retaining abilities (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). <br/> <br/>The current distribution of this snake is centered in metropolitan areas, often in vacant lots associated with streams or wetlands; these are remnants of much larger populations that have been reduced by urbanization and may now be rapidly dying out (Minton <em>et al</em>. 1983). However, this species can be locally abundant in inner city situations (Minton 2001). There are few records of this species from relatively undisturbed habitats (Minton 2001). This species is most readily found in habitats with abundant debris on the ground surface; open grassy habitats may harbour populations that are relatively difficult to detect and document. Individuals are secretive and usually are found under debris, but in general these snakes are likely most often below ground (Harding 1993, pers. comm.). They commonly use Chimney Crayfish (<em>Cambarus diogenes</em>) burrows as cover and underground passageways; the burrows provide moisture, less severe temperature extremes, and food resources (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Fossorial habits allow survival of grassland fire. Hibernation occurs apparently underground, possibly in crayfish burrows, in or near the wetlands that are inhabited the remainder of the year. <br/> <br/>Mating has only been observed on the ground surface under cover in the spring (Sellers pers. comm. 1993).	eng
63747	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Between 1980 and 1987, 48 extant occurrences were documented in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and Michigan (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). In Illinois, the species is "known from only a few isolated populations" (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). This snake is difficult to detect and all occurrences have probably not been documented. Failure to locate this snake at historical sites does not mean that the populations are extirpated. The uncertainty of site survey results and the ability of this species to survive in small urban and agricultural sites makes it difficult to identify it as extirpated, except where habitat destruction or other disturbances are obvious (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Accordingly, there may be as many as 100 total occurrences in the range. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. Fairly dense local populations exist in scattered locations (Harding 1997). Minton (1972) mentioned that some colonies near suburbs might be quite dense. Minton (2001) reported that 44 individuals were removed from a threatened inner-city site in two days, yet the snakes subsequently remained common there. The species was easiest to find during 1980s rangewide surveys in suburban areas with much litter. The largest number reported recently at a site was 24 found along 20 feet of a state road in Washington County, Indiana (Sellers pers. comm. 1993). This suggests that some sites may have fairly large populations. In general, population size at a site is difficult to determine, even with a mark-and-recapture study, because these snakes are so secretive. In Kentucky, Barbour (1971) stated that this species "now seems nowhere common." Kirtland's snake was once known from more than 100 counties in eight states. Since 1980, it has been observed in only one quarter of those counties (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Many urban populations have disappeared in recent years (Harding 1997). Once common in northern Illinois, it declined before the turn of the century and is now rare in Illinois and most of its present range (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Most records for Illinois are pre-1980 (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species can be regarded as rare and declining across its entire historical range, despite fairly dense local populations (Harding 1997).	eng
63747	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Human activities, especially housing development and habitat alteration, are the major threats. Most of the former habitat has been lost to agriculture (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988). Grassy habitats are subject to succession when surrounding land use patterns change. Conversion of native prairie to agricultural uses is a threat. Many remnant populations inhabit small areas in urban or suburban areas where they are highly vulnerable to extirpation by development; colonies near housing developments may thrive for a time but eventually decline, according to Minton. Activities that negatively impact crayfishes and their burrows are detrimental. Other potential threats to this species are disease, predation, competition, pesticide use, road kills, long-term climatic changes and collecting for the pet trade. Collecting for the pet trade is a threat in urban populations (Harding 1997) where large amounts of litter and debris increase the chances of finding these snakes (Wilsmann and Sellers 1988).	eng
63748	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in national parks and other protected areas.	eng
63748	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs through most of the United States, and ranges into southern Canada and northern and eastern Mexico, discontinuously southwards to Guatemala and Belize. It extends from southern British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan, Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario, New York, and southern Maine southward in the United States to southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida, and southward through northeastern, central, and southern Mexico to Guatemala and Belize (Wilson 1978, Lee 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,550 m (8,300 feet). A record for Durango, Mexico, evidently is erroneous (Webb 2001).	eng
63748	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats encompass a wide range of lowland and montane areas, including deserts, prairies, sandhills, shrublands, woodlands, forests, canyons, streamsides, and semi-agricultural areas. This snake is absent from the driest deserts and highest mountains (subalpine zones and higher). It commonly climbs shrubs and small trees. When inactive, it hides underground, in crevices, or under surface cover. Adults often hibernate communally, sometimes partly submerged in water.  Eggs are laid in an underground tunnel or burrow, rotting stump, sawdust pile, or under a rock. Oviposition sites may be up to at least several hundred metres from the usual home range (Brown and Parker 1976; Iverson <em>et al</em>. 1995, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 26: 147-148).	eng
63748	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (at least several hundred). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is common in most of its very large range in the United States but appears to be rare at the southern extent of the range in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize (Lee 2000). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are very large and probably relatively stable.	eng
63748	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Historically, some populations undoubtedly experienced significant declines, particularly in major agricultural regions of intensive cultivation. Remaining populations are extensive and not threatened in most areas.	eng
63749	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63749	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,012 to 2,134 m asl.	eng
63749	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The highlands where this species occurs are covered by a temperate mesic pine-oak forest with abundant epiphytes. The species is found in the forest or on its edges.	eng
63749	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is very rare; very few specimens are known.	eng
63749	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Deforestation and small scale agriculture are major threats to this species.	eng
63750	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
63750	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	This species' range includes low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from southern Texas, United States, through eastern Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula, Belize, and northern and eastern Guatemala to Honduras, and locally on the Pacific slope in Oaxaca, Mexico (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). Its elevational range is from sea level to about 1,000 m asl (1,970 feet) (Campbell 1998).	eng
63750	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	The species' habitats include forests (e.g., tropical wet, moist, cloud and dry), savannas, agricultural landscapes, and edges of wet or marshy areas (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). At the northern end of the range in Texas, this snake inhabits the semi-arid coastal plain, where much of the native thorn-thicket habitat (particularly along arroyos and seasonally filled watercourses and resacas) has been destroyed by agriculture (Tennant 1998); it survives around buildings and in vacant lots in localized suburban areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This is a secretive snake that crawls in leaf-litter, burrows into soil, or hides under logs or other vegetative debris or trash when inactive. It is highly tolerant of habitat disturbance and can be found in villages.	eng
63750	population	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	The number of occurrences or subpopulations of this species is unknown but it is likely that there are many. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). This is a fairly common snake, at least in the southern part of the range. In southern Texas, Irwin (1995) found several individuals within a short time and concluded that the species is "moderately common and in no immediate danger of being extirpated". In Texas, this species was more widespread and common prior to 1945 (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63750	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	Declines have occurred at the northern end of its range in Texas, but this snake remains and is not uncommon in some areas. It is tolerant of a moderate degree of habitat alteration but not of conversion to intensive agricultural use.	eng
63751	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.	eng
63751	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is known from Sinaloa, Jalisco and Nayarit in Mexico. It may extend northward to southern Sonora and southwards in to Colima, but no specimens are known from there yet. It has been recorded between 16 and 1,589 m asl.	eng
63751	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There is no information available about the habitat of this species, but it is presumably terrestrial.	eng
63751	population	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a very poorly known species, and it is probably rare. There are 13 known specimens.	eng
63751	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
63752	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.	eng
63752	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it has only been recorded from Huajintlán, Morelos, 12 miles southwest of Puente de Ixtla (Smith and Taylor, 1945), and Matamoros, Puebla (Smith and Taylor 1950). The specimen collected from Morelos was originally designated as a neotype of <em>Coniophanes lateritius</em>, but was later shown to be <em>C. melanocephalus</em> (Wellman 1959).	eng
63752	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There is no information known about the habitats of this species.	eng
63752	population	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is known only from the two specimens, and the type specimen is lost. It is thought to be a very rare species.	eng
63752	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
63753	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes a couple of protected areas.	eng
63753	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the northern end of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, where it is known from several localities in Yucatan and northern Campeche and Quintana Roo. It occurs from sea level up to approximately 100 m asl.	eng
63753	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a terrestrial and nocturnal inhabitant of thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is presumably an egg layer like other species of the genus. It has not been recorded from disturbed habitats, but very little is known about this species.	eng
63753	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63753	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no known threats to this species, although very little is known. It is most likely tolerant to habitat modification since there have been humans living within its habitat for a very long time.	eng
63754	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63754	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in Mexico on the Atlantic versant from southern Tamaulipas, southwards to Veracruz, and on the Pacific Coast from Guerrero through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and Chiapas, Mexico southwards to Costa Rica. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63754	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, tropical deciduous forest and savanna. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in agricultural land.	eng
63754	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63754	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63755	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range includes at least three protected areas.	eng
63755	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope from southern Veracruz eastward through Tabasco, Mexico, and El Petén in northern Guatemala. The distribution in the Yucatan Peninsula, although very imperfectly known, appears to be highly disjunct. There are records from El Petén, Guatemala, northwestern Yucatan, and northwestern Campeche in Mexico. It occurs from near sea level to around 200 m asl.	eng
63755	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This semi-aquatic species inhabits tropical moist forest usually in marshland. It cannot tolerate drainage of the wetland habitat.	eng
63755	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a locally common species in Veracruz and Tabasco, but rare elsewhere in its range.	eng
63755	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats at present to the wetlands where this species occurs.	eng
63756	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species is needed.	eng
63756	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is known from two specimens, one collected at the type locality near Tehuantepec in the municipality of Chinicuila at 1,390 m asl, and one from 12 miles south of Arteaga, at 884 m asl in the municipality of Arteaga, both in the state of Michoacán, Mexico.	eng
63756	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The holotype was collected under a rock in a rocky cattle pasture in partially cleared tropical deciduous forest.	eng
63756	population	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a very rare species; only two specimens have been collected, one in 1958 (Arteaga) and one in 1999 (Chinicuila).	eng
63756	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
63757	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes quite a few protected areas.	eng
63757	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This Yucatan endemic occurs from northern Chiapas, Mexico and central El Petén, Guatemala northward including Belize, and is probably pan-peninsular, but is not yet known from western Campeche, Mexico or northwestern El Petén in Guatemala. It is found at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl in Guatemala.	eng
63757	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	These terrestrial, nocturnal, rear-fanged snakes inhabit moist and dry forest. They are most often found in forest, and are not encountered in urban or agricultural areas.	eng
63757	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
63757	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Some subpopulations are possibly at risk due to deforestation for slash and burn agriculture, but overall the species is not threatened.	eng
63758	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is found in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
63758	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs in Mexico from central Veracruz on the Gulf slope, and Chiapas on the Pacific slope, south and east through the Yucatan Peninsula and northern Honduras to Costa Rica. It appears to occur more or less continuously through the northern third of the Yucatan Peninsula and isolated populations to the south in El Peten, Guatemala and Belize. In Guatemala, the species occurs from near sea level to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
63758	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	These active, fast-moving, diurnal snakes inhabit tropical and subtropical moist and dry forest, and open situations such as savannas and beaches. It can also be found in disturbed areas.	eng
63758	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63758	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63759	conservation	Lopez Luna, M.A., 2007	The type locality is within Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Further specimens are needed to verify the taxonomic status of this species. More information on range, ecology, population and threats is also needed.	eng
63759	distribution	Lopez Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality; Ejido Ruiz Cortines on the southeastern slope of the San Martín Tuxtla Volcano, in the Los Tuxtlas region of the state of Veracruz, Mexico, from 1,050 m asl.	eng
63759	habitat	Lopez Luna, M.A., 2007	The one specimen was collected in rainforest on the southeastern slope of a volcano.	eng
63759	population	Lopez Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is currently known only from one specimen. There is no information known about the population status of this species.	eng
63759	threats	Lopez Luna, M.A., 2007	The range of the species is within a protected area so it is unlikely to be experiencing substantial habitat destruction. However, with only one specimen known it is impossible to hypothesize if there are any threats to the species overall.	eng
63760	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63760	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs on the Pacific coast of Mexico, from northern Nayarit to the central Chiapas depression, including Balsas Basin and the Oaxacan valley in Morelos and Puebla. It occurs up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63760	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a very adaptable species occurring in a wide variety of habitats: tropical dry forests, semi-deciduous forest, grassland, cultivated land, mangroves, urban areas, etc.	eng
63760	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a widespread and common species.	eng
63760	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
63761	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It does not occur in any protected area.	eng
63761	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from Sierra Mixe, southern Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 1,700 to 3,080 m asl.	eng
63761	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is semi fossorial and can be found under rocks and logs in areas of pine and pine-oak forest. It is also recorded from cloud forest. It also persists, possibly in reduced populations in heavily disturbed habitat.	eng
63761	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is an uncommon species, but is regularly collected.	eng
63761	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation for corn fields.	eng
63762	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is present in at least five protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
63762	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This widespread species is endemic to central and southern Mexico. It has been recorded from the States of Distrito Federal, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Oaxaca and Puebla. It is found between 1,500 and 3,080 m asl.	eng
63762	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It occurs in tropical decidous forest, pine forest, oak forest, montane cloud forest and semi-arid habitats such as dry scrubland. It is found in disturbed areas including agricultural land. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63762	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
63762	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. It adapts well to disturbed areas.	eng
63763	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is present in a number of protected areas (eg. the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve). Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63763	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is distributed in central and southwestern Mexico from Jalisco, Michoacan, Guanajuato, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Distrito Federal, Estado de Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz and Oaxaca. It ranges between 1,750 and 3,100 m asl.	eng
63763	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a fossorial species found under rocks and logs in primary and secondary arid tropical scrub and tropical deciduous forest in the north of its range, and pine, pine-oak forest and fir forest, xerophilous vegetation and <em>Opuntia</em> in the south. It is found in disturbed and agricultural areas. It has been collected under rocks and leaf-litter. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63763	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is very common and regularly recorded.	eng
63763	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable widespread species.	eng
63764	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known to occur in the Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63764	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca in Mexico. Its elevational range is from 1,730 to 3,200 m asl.	eng
63764	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a fossorial species commonly found under rocks and bark and even under trash in pine, pine-oak, and deciduous forests. It can also be found in secondary forest and even in corn fields.	eng
63764	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are two parts to the species range, and it is uncommon in both.  It has been collected as recently as 2004 in Oaxaca.	eng
63764	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63765	conservation	Vasquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
63765	distribution	Vasquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is found in northern Mexico, from Chihuahua south to Guerrero and Oaxaca. It occurs from 1,900 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
63765	habitat	Vasquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is an inhabitant of a diversity of habitats from high aridity tropical scrub and dry grasslands to tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It is found under rocks or fallen tree trunks, or uses burrows under the ground. It feeds on insects and small vertebrates, including frogs and other snakes, and is a viviparous species.	eng
63765	population	Vasquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is moderately common within its range.	eng
63765	threats	Vasquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63766	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63766	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs mainly in the west of the United States, extending into extreme southwestern Canada. Its range extends from northern and central California (along the Coast Ranges south to San Luis Obispo County and the Sierra Nevada south to Tulare County) north to the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and also includes the Puget Lowland southwest of Tacoma (at least formerly) and scattered locations on the east side of the Cascades in Washington and north-central Oregon, as well as the southern end of Vancouver Island and the nearby Gulf Islands British Columbia, at elevations from sea level to around 2,010 m (6,600 feet) (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Leonard and Ovaska 1998, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). A record from near McGillivray Lake in south-central British Columbia needs confirmation (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63766	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes moist situations in pastures, meadows, oak woodlands, broken chaparral, and the edges of coniferous or hardwood forests (Stebbins 2003); also shrubby rabbitbrush-sagebrush (Weaver 2004, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 35: 176). The long-tailed form appears to be associated with coniferous forest habitats that are relatively cool and humid. This snake generally is found under logs, rocks, fallen branches, or other cover. It retreats underground during dry periods.	eng
63766	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped about 30 collection sites in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Many more sites exist in California. The adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species is locally common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably stable.	eng
63766	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.	eng
63767	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
63767	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, at Sierra de Juarez and Sierra Mazateca. It ranges from elevations of 1,200 to 1,865 m asl.	eng
63767	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	An inhabitant of cloud forest. It has not been collected from disturbed areas.	eng
63767	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a rare species, known only from a few specimens.	eng
63767	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
63768	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
63768	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species ranges from southern Veracruz eastward through northern Chiapas, Mexico to central El Petén in Guatemala, then discontinuously through Central America to eastern Panama and adjacent Colombia. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300 m asl.	eng
63768	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This terrestrial and diurnal snake inhabits lowland tropical wet forest.  It most likely also occurs in degraded forests but not in anthropogenic habitats.	eng
63768	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63768	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63769	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks or other well-protected areas.	eng
63769	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The range of this species extends from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic coast of North America (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003). The northern limit of the more or less continuous portion of the range reaches Nova Scotia, southern Quebec, southern Ontario in Canada, Minnesota, southeastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, southeastern Colorado, and Arizona in the United States. The southern limit extends to San Luis Potosi (Mexico), the Gulf Coast of the United States, and southern Florida. The species also occurs disjunctly in western North America in eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, and it ranges from southern Washington through western Oregon and throughout much of California (except the Central Valley and deserts) into northwestern Baja California, including Islas Todos Santos and San Martin along the Pacific Coast (Grismer 2002). This species has been introduced on Grand Cayman Island (probably via ornamental plants from southern Florida), but it is unknown whether or not the species is established there (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
63769	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake occurs in forests, woodlands, grassland, chaparral, and riparian corridors in arid regions (Stebbins 2003). Habitats are moist, at least seasonally. One or multiple individuals often are found near abandoned buildings and in junk piles in wooded areas. During daylight hours, this snake generally hides underground, in or under logs, or under rocks, stumps or other surface cover. Eggs are laid (often communally) underground or under logs or rocks.	eng
63769	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is represented by thousands of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 1,000,000. Local subpopulations may include several thousand individuals (e.g., Fitch 1975, 1982). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are very large and probably relatively stable.	eng
63769	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	No major threats to this species have been identified. Many local populations have been lost or reduced as a result of habitat destruction (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but these appear to amount to a small minority of the total distribution.	eng
63770	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63770	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from eastern Campeche, Mexico and Central Belize northward through Quintana Roo and Yucatan in Mexico. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.	eng
63770	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occupies the xeric thorn forest of northwestern Yucatan and the taller, more mesic forest on the east side of the Peninsula. It seems to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification and can even be found in deforested areas.	eng
63770	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a common and regularly recorded species.	eng
63770	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present. They eat snails, so are dependent on the distribution of snails which may be more adversely affected by deforestation.	eng
63771	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs in at least one protected area: the Biosphere Reserve of Chamela-Cuixmala. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63771	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from two areas in western Jalisco, and southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima, Mexico.	eng
63771	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs most commonly on shrubs and trees in areas of tropical decidous forest and tropical semi-decidous forest.	eng
63771	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Nothing is known about the species' population size. It is possibly rare; there are few specimens in collections.	eng
63771	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Habitat destruction (deforestation) is a problem in parts of the species' range, but this is not thought to be a significant threat across the whole range. A dam is in process of being constructed on the Marabasco River which will flood an area of around 10 km². This project may be completed by 2008.	eng
63772	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is no information.	eng
63772	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is suspected that the only known specimen of this species originated from South America and not Tabasco, Mexico, as was reported in the original description.	eng
63772	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is no information.	eng
63772	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Only one specimen has ever been collected.	eng
63772	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is no information.	eng
63773	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Several occurrences are on managed areas (federal, state, and private), but these are still subject to some unauthorized collection. Many managed areas are too small to support a viable population by themselves.	eng
63773	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its historical range extended throughout the lower Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States, from southern South Carolina through Georgia and Florida to the Florida Keys, and west to southern Alabama and perhaps southeastern Mississippi. Its current range includes southern Georgia (most common in the southeast; see Diemer and Speake 1983) and Florida (widely distributed throughout the state, south to the Keys, though perhaps very localized in the panhandle; Moler 1985, 1992; see also Ballard 1992). The species is apparently very rare or extirpated in Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Recent reintroductions have been made in Florida, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and Mississippi. One reintroduced population may be thriving in Covington County, Alabama.	eng
63773	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its habitat includes sandhill regions dominated by mature longleaf pines, turkey oaks, and wiregrass; flatwoods; most types of hammocks; coastal scrub; dry glades; palmetto flats; prairie; brushy riparian and canal corridors; and wet fields (Matthews and Moseley 1990, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Occupied sites are often near wetlands and frequently are in association with Gopher Tortoise burrows. Pineland habitat is maintained by periodic fires. Viable populations of this species require relatively large tracts of suitable habitat. Refuges include tortoise burrows, stump holes, land crab burrows, armadillo burrows, or similar sites. Eggs may be laid in gopher (<em>Geomys</em>) burrows (Ashton and Ashton 1981). See USFWS (1998) for further information.	eng
63773	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations, but many of these may not represent populations with good viability. This species is extant in many sites in southeastern Georgia; Diemer and Speake (1983) mapped well over 100 locations in perhaps several dozen counties. In Florida, the snake is known from about 400 locations, though most records represent single specimens. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 1 adult per sq. kilometer in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). The number of occurrences and range have been reduced significantly in the past 40 years; the species underwent a population decline in the 1960s and 1970s. USFWS (1990) categorized the status as "declining." Based on current rates of habitat destruction and degradation, USFWS (1998) surmised that the range-wide population is declining, although the rate of decline is uncertain.	eng
63773	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Decline is attributed to loss of mature longleaf pine habitat (e.g., conversion to slash and sand pine plantation, urbanization, citrus, mining, etc.), commercial collecting for pet trade (now illegal and has declined), and former widespread gassing of tortoise burrows (to collect rattlesnakes) (USFWS 1998). In northern Florida and adjacent southern Alabama and Georgia, important refugia have been lost with the decline in the Gopher Tortoise population (fewer burrows available) and the removal of stumps by the resinous wood industry; elsewhere, habitat fragmentation is a problem (Moler 1992).	eng
63774	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63774	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The range extends in the United States from southern Texas and Sonora south through the Gulf Coast of Mexico through the Yucatan peninsula including Guatemala and Belize. On the Pacific slope it extends from Sinaloa, Mexico, southward to lower Central America. The elevational range is from near sea level to around 1,900 m asl (6,230 feet) (Campbell 1998).	eng
63774	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	In the southern part of the range, habitat includes tropical and subtropical wet, moist, and dry forests (including secondary growth and often near water), edges of forest clearings, riparian zones through open areas, savannas, and mangroves (Campbell 1998, Lee 2000). In Texas, it occurs primarily along riparian corridors in thorn brush woodland and mesquite savanna of the coastal plain, but also in prairies, coastal sandhills, and limestone desert (Tennant 1998). This is a primarily terrestrial snake that often uses burrows. Eggs may be laid in gopher (<em>Geomys</em>) burrows or similar sites. In Mexico the species occupies a variety of habitats including savannas, mangroves, thorn forests, and taller wetter forests.	eng
63774	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by a large number (probably hundreds) of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCranie 1980). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one adult per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 200,000 sq. km). The species has declined in distribution and abundance at the northern end of the range in Texas, but it remains locally common there in some areas (Irwin 1995). Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable or at least not declining more than 10% over 10 years or three generations. The species is common in Mexico.	eng
63774	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	In Texas, threats include habitat destruction and fragmentation, mortality on roads, wanton killing, and, to a lesser degree, collection for the pet trade (Tennant 1984, Ernst and Ernst 2003). However, in most of the range, this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. There are no major threats to the species in Mexico.	eng
63775	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas. Research on the population status of the species is needed.	eng
63775	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs from southern San Luis Potosí, Mexico south to northwestern Honduras on the Atlantic versant and from south-central Oaxaca, Mexico to northern Nicaragua on the Pacific versant. The elevational range is from 850 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
63775	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species occurs in lower montane moist forest and cloud forest. It also occurs in cultivated areas and degraded forest.	eng
63775	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63775	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63776	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The Jalisco record is from an area which is going to become a reserve, in a canyon close to Guadalajara.	eng
63776	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This very poorly known species has been recorded only from western Mexico, in Sinaloa (on the coastal plain near Elota), around San Blas in coastal Nayarit, in Jalisco (close to Guadelajara), and in Carretera Playa Azul-Manzanillo in Michoacán (43 m asl). All records seem to be on the Pacific coastal plain, except the Guadelajara locality. It has been recorded from near sea-level up to 1,189 m asl. It is likely to occur more widely, and it is assumed to occur in suitable habitat between known localities.	eng
63776	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species seems to be restricted to the tropical deciduous forests and scrub forest covering the lowlands and mid-elevations in Pacific Mexico. It is a secretive, burrowing species, probably living mainly in leaf-litter.	eng
63776	population	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There is very little information. It seems to be common near San Blas (P. Ponce-Camps pers. comm.). It is a very secretive species and so has probably been under-recorded.	eng
63776	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	No threats have been directly identified. If it is dependent on forest leaf-litter, then it might be threatened by habitat loss for agriculture, at least locally, but tropical deciduous forest is still extensive within its range.	eng
63777	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	No information is available. It is a priority to determine whether or not this is a valid species.	eng
63777	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla San Marcos in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
63777	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	It has been found among gypsum boulders on a steep hillside. It presumably lives in xerophylic scrub.	eng
63777	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is no information, as it is known from only a few records.	eng
63777	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	No information is available.	eng
63778	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
63778	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This Mexican endemic species ranges from Bahía San Juanico, in the east-central Baja California peninsula, south-east to northern Bahia de los Burros and southward continuously along the peninsula to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Pacific island of Santa Margarita and on Cerralvo and Danzante islands in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
63778	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is mainly associated to rocky areas such as dry stream-beds, lava flows, boulder-strewn hillsides and deep rocky canyons, occurring up to the base of the pine-oak woodland in the Sierra de la Laguna region.	eng
63778	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive animal that is not often encountered.	eng
63778	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no threats identified for this species.	eng
63779	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63779	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to southern Florida, west to eastern Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois (Conant and Collins 1991, Mitchell 1994, Tennant 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63779	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes marshes, swampy weedy lake margins, wetlands along the edges of large rivers, oxbow lakes, beaver ponds, slow mud-bottomed streams, shallow sloughs with rotting logs, floodplains, drainage ditches, and brackish tidal areas (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This fossorial, semi-aquatic snake burrows in soft soil and among wet debris and mats of vegetation along the water's edge. Eggs are laid in earthen cavity, sometimes in alligator nests (<em>Copeia</em> 1993: 219-222). In South Carolina, juveniles entered aquatic habitats in spring (mainly) or in autumn (fall) (Semlitsch <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
63779	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and seldom seen by casual observers, but it is nevertheless common in many areas of suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63779	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.	eng
63780	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are protected in state parks, wildlife refuges, national seashores, etc.	eng
63780	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends along the Coastal Plain from southern Maryland to Florida, west to the Mississippi River (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63780	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake lives primarily in or near rivers, creeks, swamps, springs, open marshes, including brackish tidal areas; it burrows into soil, wet debris, and mats of vegetation along the water's edge, and it may shelter among cypress roots, logs, stone piles, or dock pillings; in some areas hibernation occurs in uplands near water (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003). In South Carolina, hatchlings presumably overwintered on land in the vicinity of the nest; in March and April they moved overland to an aquatic site where they remained if conditions remained suitable; they moved to a neighbouring aquatic area if the site became unsuitable (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 1977). Eggs are laid in a cavity in sandy soil.	eng
63780	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and is probably much larger. This snake is secretive but can occur in dense populations (Mount 1975, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is apparently uncommon in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Tennant (1997) reported it as uncommon to rare in Florida but regularly encountered when conditions are right. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63780	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat alteration (wetlands drainage and urbanization) and collecting for the pet trade have decimated some populations (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
63781	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in a small part of the Reserva de la Biosfera Meztitlan, Hidalgo. Further research is needed into the distribution, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
63781	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This recently described species is endemic to Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It is known only from two sites, the type locality of Zoquizoqipan in Hidalgo, and Guadalcazar in San Luis Potosi. It may range between the two known sites, however, there is little additional suitable habitat away from this area and it is believed to be a restricted range species. It occurs between around 1,200 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
63781	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This fossorial species is found in the specific ecotone between dry xerophytic vegetation and higher juniper forest. It can be found in primary and secondary vegetation, it has been recorded from cultivated agave fields although this is not especially good habitat. This species lives in tunnels under rocks. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63781	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is known only from a few specimens and may be naturally rare.	eng
63781	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It has a limited distribution that is threatened by road construction and fragmentation (general agricultural development) of suitable xerophytic scrub vegetation. It is not thought to move between habitat fragments.	eng
63782	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not found in any protected areas.	eng
63782	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from the Pacific drainage of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Niltepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 500 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63782	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an inhabitant of dry forest. It is a terrestrial species, and can be found under rocks.	eng
63782	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is not a common species.	eng
63782	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63783	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It may not be a valid species; further research is needed to verify its taxonomic status. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63783	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type-locality; near Chilpancingo De Los Bravos, in Guerrero, Mexico.	eng
63783	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a fossorial species occurring in cloud forest and pine-oak forest.	eng
63783	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no data available, probably due to its fossorial habitats.	eng
63783	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
63784	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are recommended.	eng
63784	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species' range extends from southern Texas, United States, through northeastern Mexico to Hidalgo, Puebla, and northern Veracruz (Hardy 1976, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to at least 1,500 m (Hardy 1976).	eng
63784	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species' habitats include thorn brush woodland (e.g., cactus, mesquite, acacia, paloverde; especially near water or along the edges of agricultural fields) and lower Rio Grande floodplain in lowland southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas (also recently irrigated lawns near human habitation in habitats encompassed by towns or suburbs), tropical deciduous forest in Veracruz, Hidalgo and southern Tamaulipas (Hardy 1976, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snakes burrows into soft soil. It is able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63784	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, although Hardy (1976) mapped only 33 collection sites rangewide (about eight of them in Texas), more recently Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 50 localities in Texas alone. The species is secretive and probably occurs in more locations than is now known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 10,000 km²). This species is considered to be common (but secretive) within its limited range in Texas (Tennant 1998). The population trend is unknown but is likely to be relatively stable. In Mexico, the species is also considered common and relatively stable.	eng
63784	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species.	eng
63785	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. More information on range, ecology and threats for this species is needed.	eng
63785	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known only from the Gulf of Mexico drainage system of Veracruz and Oaxaca in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico.	eng
63785	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest. It is not known if it is able to adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
63785	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is only known from specimens collected a long time ago, and is considered to be a rare species.	eng
63785	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63786	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63786	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is restricted to a small area in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations around 100 m asl.	eng
63786	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in tropical deciduous forest. It is not known whether it is able to adapt to disturbed areas.	eng
63786	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a very rare species.	eng
63786	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63787	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
63787	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known from the vicinity of Totontepec on the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Mixe, Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
63787	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It inhabits lower cloud forest. It can also persist in cleared, wet grassy areas.	eng
63787	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is a locally abundant species.	eng
63787	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
63788	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in the protected areas of Sierra de Manantlan in Jalisco, and the Nedvado de Colima in Colima. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
63788	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Central Plateau of Mexico. The type specimen was recorded from the neighbourhood of Mexico City in 1868. Populations are currently known from southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima. The species may be more widespread than is currently known. It has been recorded between 1,800 and 2,600 m asl.	eng
63788	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a fossorial species, generally present in primary pine and fir forests, although it can be found in disturbed habitat close to primary forest. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63788	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is difficult to find, but appears to be uncommon.	eng
63788	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species appears to be threatened by deforestation throughout its known range.	eng
63789	conservation	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This is a poorly known species, field work is necessary to evaluate the present conservation status of the populations.	eng
63789	distribution	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known from Cumbres de Acultzingo, west-central Veracruz, Mexico southeast of Puebla as well as in adjacent northern Oaxaca. Its elevation range is from 1,000 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
63789	habitat	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species has been found in pine forest, oak forest, and cloud forest. The species was collected in a secondary forest (and possibly cultivated) areas.	eng
63789	population	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no population studies, but the species is thought to be rare. It is known from only four specimens, the last one of which was collected in 2003.	eng
63789	threats	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Threats to this species have not been identified. It might be threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
63790	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63790	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality; about 1,035m asl on the Pacific slope of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. It is also likely to occur in adjacent Guatemala.	eng
63790	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	All records are from intact montane rain forest.	eng
63790	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is very little information available due to its fossorial habitats. The most recent record is from 1982. It is likely to have a stable population because much of its habitat remains.	eng
63790	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Much of the forest remains in the area where this species is known. It is possibly threatened by deforestation.	eng
63791	conservation	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range in Mexico includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63791	distribution	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes of Guatemala, and the adjacent Caribbean slopes of Chiapas, the Sierra de los Tuxtlas of Veracruz, and the Sierra Madre Oriental of Puebla in Mexico. It occurs from 150 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63791	habitat	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This fossorial species is found in wet forest, pine-oak forest and cloud forest as well as secondary and degraded forest. It has also been recorded from coffee plantations.	eng
63791	population	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63791	threats	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.	eng
63792	conservation	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been collected in the Parque Nacional Cañon del Rio Blanco. Further research is needed into the distribution, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
63792	distribution	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from Mirador and Cerro Aquila, in Veracruz, Mexico. It was collected from about 1,150 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63792	habitat	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs in the transition habitat between cloud forest and pine-oak forest. It has been recorded in primary forest. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63792	population	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known only from two specimens, one of which (the holotype) has been lost. The second specimen was collected in 1998.	eng
63792	threats	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The threats to this species are not well known. It was collected in an area that has been severely fragmented by habitat loss.	eng
63793	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63793	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from Jalapa, Veracruz, and several localities in the highlands of Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs from about 1,420 to 2,260 m asl.	eng
63793	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs in pine-oak forest and cloud forest, and can also be found in pastures and coffee plantations.	eng
63793	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is an uncommon species, although its apparent rarity is probably due to its secretive habits.	eng
63793	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63794	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is protected in the Comaltepec community forest.	eng
63794	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species occurs on the northern slopes of the Sierra Juarez, in Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
63794	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It occurs in cloud forest, and can also be found on the edges of clearings.	eng
63794	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is moderately abundant and regularly seen despite its secretive habits.	eng
63794	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63795	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in at least two protected areas.	eng
63795	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. Its known distribution is patchy: western slope of Sierra Madre Occidental, Chihuahua; Sierra Madre in Durango and Sinaloa; southern edge of the Mexican Plateau in Jalisco, Zacatecas, Nayarit and Aguascalientes; and in Michoacan. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,050 m asl.	eng
63795	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a fossorial species, occurring in the leaf-litter in oak, pine and fir forests.	eng
63795	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is an uncommon species. The genus is fossorial and difficult to find. Although currently the known range is patchy, new population records are reported regularly.	eng
63795	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a highland species: deforestation for agriculture is occurring in parts of the range and this could be a threat to some subpopulations. However, this is not a threat across the whole range.	eng
63796	conservation	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is found in El Triunfo and Tacana Biosphere Reserve, in Mexico.	eng
63796	distribution	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific versant of southeastern Chiapas, Mexico to adjacent Guatemala, from 1,000 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
63796	habitat	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in wet forest and cloud forest. It has not been found in disturbed areas.	eng
63796	population	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a very secretive snake, so it is difficult to estimate the population size, but it is thought to be abundant.	eng
63796	threats	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63797	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	More information is needed on life history, population, range, habitat status and threats for this species.	eng
63797	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is sympatric with <em>Geophis nigrocinctus</em> and <em>Geophis pyburni</em>, occurring in the Sierra de Coalcoman, northern Michoacan, Mexico. It is known from 2,100 m asl.	eng
63797	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A fossorial species, mainly inhabiting limestone outcrops in pine-oak forests.	eng
63797	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The population size is not known, as it is not a well studied species.	eng
63797	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Major threats to this species are not known. The Sierra de Coalcoman is an extensive area and is difficult to access. However, several human settlements exist there and disturbance caused by human activities is probable.	eng
63798	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Further research is needed to determine the range, population, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
63798	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from the indefinite type locality; Tehuantepec, Mexico. Judging by the habitats of other species, this locality probably refers to the general region rather than to the lowland environs of the city itself. It is not possible to create a range map. The elevational range is not known.	eng
63798	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It probably occurred in tropical deciduous forest.	eng
63798	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species because it is only known from a specimen collected in the 1800s.	eng
63798	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63799	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected area, although the nearby community of Comaltepec protects some forest.	eng
63799	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is restricted to Metates, Sierra de Juarez, in north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 800 m asl.	eng
63799	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species occurs only in tropical evergreen forest. It is not known whether the species will persist in secondary forest or coffee plantations, although some other species of <em>Geophis</em> inhabit coffee plantations.	eng
63799	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known from four specimens collected in 1986. There have been no sightings since then. Much of the habitat in the vicinity of the type locality has recently been converted into coffee plantations.	eng
63799	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Much of the forest near the type locality has been converted to coffee plantations, but it is not known whether this is a threat to the species.	eng
63800	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63800	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs from 100 to 600 m asl.	eng
63800	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It occurs beneath rocks and under the ground in areas of tropical rainforest. It has only been recorded from primary forest.	eng
63800	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species, possibly rare.	eng
63800	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Deforestation for cattle grazing and agriculture is a major threat.	eng
63801	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It probably occurs in Los Chimalapas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63801	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from extreme southeastern Oaxaca and the northern slopes of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs from 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63801	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in wet pine-oak and cloud forest, and is also found along the edges of secondary forest.	eng
63801	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	it is known from only a handful of records, but its apparent rarity is probably due to its secretive habits.	eng
63801	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63802	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats is needed for this species.	eng
63802	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from Putla on the Sierra Madre del Sur, in Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 900 m asl.	eng
63802	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This fossorial species inhabits the lowlands of tropical semidecidous forests. It can also be found in coffee plantations.	eng
63802	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	it is known from very few specimens and has not been seen since before 1965.	eng
63802	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63803	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The area in which the species was collected has been proposed as a Parque Nacional. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, biology and threats to this species.	eng
63803	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it has only been recorded in the Sierra de Alvarez, San Luis Potosi, at an elevation of about 2,400 m asl.	eng
63803	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a poorly-known, largely fossorial species that has been recorded from humid montane forest. It is not thought to occur outside of forest habitats. It is presumed to be oviparous. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species.	eng
63803	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is presumed to be a rare species. There have been no recent records.	eng
63803	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The area in which this species was collected has been heavily deforested for conversion to cropland and cattle pasture.	eng
63804	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further field studies are needed for this species.	eng
63804	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This poorly-known species is known only from the type locality "Cicio" in extreme eastern Michoacán, Mexico. It has been collected at 1,630 m asl.	eng
63804	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species is mainly fossorial, it occurs in a volcanic area where the original vegetation is the pine-oak forest in an ecotone with tropical decidous forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.	eng
63804	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is known only from the holotype collected in 1941.	eng
63804	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The threats to this poorly-known species are not known.	eng
63805	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed to fully establish the distribution of this species.	eng
63805	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It has been recorded from the highlands of San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Puebla and Veracruz. It has usually been recorded at more than 1,500 m asl.	eng
63805	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a fossorial species present in primary and secondary humid montane forest, pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It can also be found in disturbed forest and in cattle ranches. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63805	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a common species where it occurs.	eng
63805	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63806	conservation	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Triundo, and Tacana Biosphere Reserves, in Mexico.	eng
63806	distribution	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific versant of Chiapas, Mexico and Guatemala and adjacent parts of the Guatemalan Plateau and Southeastern Highlands in eastern Guatemala. Its elevational range is from 600 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63806	habitat	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	An inhabitant of tropical moist forest, it can also be found in disturbed areas including coffee plantations.	eng
63806	population	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a fossorial species that is frequently encountered. The true population size is unknown.	eng
63806	threats	Campbell, J.A., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63807	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It has been recorded from the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of the species.	eng
63807	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico. It has been recorded from Dos Aguas town in the Sierra de Coalcomàn, northern Michoacan, and from Las Joyas, Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco. It is found between 1,900 and 2,100 m asl.	eng
63807	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species inhabits pine-oak and cloud forests. It has only been recorded within forest. The species is found on the forest floor and under leaf-litter. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63807	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The population abundance is not known; it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
63807	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There appear to be no threats to the species; there is not thought to be any habitat disturbance where it has been recorded.	eng
63808	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.	eng
63808	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the vicinity of Omilteme, in Guerrero, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,000 m asl.	eng
63808	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This fossorial species occurs In the pine-oak forest. It has also been collected often in altered landscapes (corn fields).	eng
63808	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
63808	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Habitat loss due to small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement is prevalent in the area but is not currently considered a threat to the species. As long as there are earthworms this species is fine.	eng
63809	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is present in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, in Jalisco. Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species.	eng
63809	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. It has been recorded from Patzcuaro, central Michoacan; Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan, Jalisco; and there is a doubtful record from Mexico City. It is found at elevations of between 1,800 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
63809	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a fossorial species occurring in primary pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is possible that it may occur in secondary forest close to primary forest, but it is not found outside of forest habitats. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63809	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Although it is generally considered to be uncommon, in Jalisco it is reasonably common in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan.	eng
63809	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is threatened at Patzcuaro by habitat loss through clearance of forest for agricultural land. It is not threatened in the Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan.	eng
63810	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Research is needed to determine the range, population, biology, habitat status, and threats for this species. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
63810	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality from Rancho La Pastilla in the Sierra de Coalcoman, in Michoacan, Mexico, at 2,164 m asl.	eng
63810	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Known specimens of this species were found under dead wood and logs on a hillside in semi cleared areas surrounded by oak and pine forests.	eng
63810	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species has not been recorded since its description.	eng
63810	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Major threats to this species are not known. The are of the type locality has been impacted by human activities, however, for several years there has been reforestation in the area.	eng
63811	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.	eng
63811	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from southeastern Chiapas, Mexico, and across the Guatemalan highlands. It has also been recorded from Volcan Santa Ana in El Salvador. Its elevational range is from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
63811	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs mostly in pine-oak forests. It also occurs in gardens, coffee groves, and other disturbed habitats including wet pastures.	eng
63811	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is an abundant species. For example, this is the most abundant snake occurring near Guatemala City.	eng
63811	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63812	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in a protected area. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63812	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from outside of Putla, in Oaxaca, Mexico, from 900 m asl. It may occur more widely than is currently known.	eng
63812	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The habitat of this species is not known, but it is presumably terrestrial.	eng
63812	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is known only from a single record collected before the mid 1960s. Its current population status is unknown.	eng
63812	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63813	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected area. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats is needed for this species.	eng
63813	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality, Pluma Hidalgo, in Oaxaca, Mexico, from approximately 1,400 m asl.	eng
63813	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The only known specimens were found in a coffee plantation. There is no other habitat information known about this species.	eng
63813	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It has not been recorded since it was described in 1894.	eng
63813	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
63814	conservation	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	It is present in the Parque Nacional del Rio Blanco. Further research is generally needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
63814	distribution	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	This species is distributed along the eastern slopes of the neovolcanic plateau from Misantla southward to the Cordoba-Orizaba region of Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of between 500 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
63814	habitat	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	The species occurs in primary and secondary pine-oak and cloud forest, shrubland and disturbed habitats including agricultural land and urban areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63814	population	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	It is a fossorial species that is considered to be very common.	eng
63814	threats	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L. Márquez, 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63815	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Taxonomic studies are needed to determine whether this is a valid species.	eng
63815	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The range of this species is still uncertain, some records come from Guerrero and others from Coalcoman, Michoacan, Mexico.	eng
63815	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The habitat preferences of this species are not known.	eng
63815	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is known from only a couple of specimens, which are old. There is taxonomic uncertainty with this species.	eng
63815	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63816	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs inside two protected areas: Colima Volcano and Uruapan. More information is needed on the range, population size and trends, etc. of this species.	eng
63816	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from two widely separated areas: the slopes of Colima Volcano, Jalisco; and Uruapan in and around, central Michoacan, Mexico. It is not known if the species occurs in between these areas. It occurs at approximately 2,200 m asl.	eng
63816	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A fossorial species, it occurs in pine-oak forest on the slopes of mountains.	eng
63816	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is rare, although more common on Colima Volcano.	eng
63816	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Habitat loss and degradation (deforestation for agriculture and human settlements) occurs outside of Uruapan Park area, but probably not inside the park or on Colima Volcano.	eng
63817	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in national parks and other protected areas.	eng
63817	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range of this species extends from southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas in the United States, south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Hardy 1976, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range is around 305 to 2,100 m asl (1,000 to 6,890 feet) (Degenahrdt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63817	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The habitat of this semi-fossorial snake is primarily grassy foothills (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), but the species also occurs in lower desert communities (e.g., mesquite, mesquite-creosote bush, creosote bush-agave) and in higher elevations with persimmon-shin oak, oak-juniper savanna and woodland, and pinyon-juniper woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). At the northern limit of the range at the base of the Texas Panhandle, it occupies flat to rolling prairie grassland with gypsum and limestone outcroppings (Ferguson 1965). This species occurs in areas of loose soil, which may be rocky but may not include much sand or gravel (Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63817	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped more than 50 collection sites in New Mexico. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped several dozen collection sites in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of two adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 68,000 sq km.). This snake is fairly common in Texas (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The species is not common in other parts of its range, including Mexico.	eng
63817	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species.	eng
63818	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63818	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in western and northwestern Mexico, extending marginally into the southwestern United States. Its range extends from extreme south-central Arizona (Pataginia-Pajarito Mountains area), southward through Sonora and Sinaloa to Nayarit, at elevations from near sea level to about 1,340 m asl (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63818	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Its preferred habitat is deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, but it is also found in canyon bottoms, outwash plains, creosote bush desert, mesquite grassland foothills (including partly cultivated sections), thorn woodland, and dry tropical and subtropical forest (Stebbins 2003). This snake burrows into loose soil.	eng
63818	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In Mexico this species is common in the central and southern parts of its range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 10,000 sq. km). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
63818	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species.	eng
63819	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species probably is effectively protected in at least several areas of federal, state, and private lands (e.g., national parks and grasslands, state wildlife management areas, large cattle ranches).	eng
63819	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species ranges from southern Canada, through the United States to northern Mexico. Its range extends from southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba southward through primarily the Great Plains region to southeastern Arizona and central Mexico (San Luis Potosi), discontinuously east to Minnesota, Illinois, Missouri, and eastern Texas, and disjunctly west to central Wyoming; reported occurrence in northwestern Colorado need verification (Conant and Collins 1991, Walley and Eckerman 1999, Stebbins 2003). The single record for Arkansas is based on a misidentified specimen (Irwin 2001). Its elevational range is from near sea level to around 2,440 m asl (8,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63819	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its habitat consists of areas with sandy or gravelly soils, including prairies, sandhills, wide valleys, river floodplains, bajadas, mesquite grassland, thornscrub, semi-desert areas, creosote bush desert, open montane woodland, semiagricultural areas (but not intensively cultivated land), margins of irrigation ditches, and sometimes mountain canyon bottoms (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent burrowed in the soil or in existing burrows. Eggs are laid in nests a few inches below the ground surface (Platt 1969).	eng
63819	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, and Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. Historically, local declines probably occurred as a result of habitat destruction. The current trend is probably relatively stable overall, with local declines associated with habitat loss or degradation. Overall, declines are probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63819	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Conversion of prairie habitat to agricultural use has caused local declines, but overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
63820	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63820	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the united States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern New England through southern Ontario to Minnesota and South Dakota, and south to southern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63820	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include openly wooded upland hills, forest edges, fields, woodland meadows, prairies, forest-grassland ecotones, sand plains, barrier islands, fire-managed pinelands, river valleys, riparian zones, and various other habitats with loose soils and amphibian prey. This snake crawls on the surface and burrows into soil. It overwinters in burrows (made by mammal or self-dug) or under rocks of talus slopes. Eggs are laid in nests a few inches below the ground surface (Platt 1969) or in rotting wood (DeGraaf and Rudis 1983).	eng
63820	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63820	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, some populations have declined as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.	eng
63821	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Probably some occurrences are in protected areas. However, this snake appears to have disappeared in some large protected areas with relatively pristine habitats (Gibbons <em>et al</em>. 2000). Conservation needs include the following: 1) protecting large tracts of suitable habitat; 2) limiting pesticide use in preferred habitat types; 3) educating the public regarding snake's harmlessness; and 4) controlling fire ants on certain parcels of important habitat. Research is urgently needed to determine the factor or combination of factors responsible for the precipitous decline. Once the cause(s) is known, appropriate pro-active management measures may be implemented, and activities shown to be deleterious may be avoided. Specific research on the relationship, if any, between the disappearance of this species and the appearance of imported fire ants is needed.	eng
63821	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake is endemic to the southeast of the United States. It occurs on the Coastal Plain from eastern North Carolina to southern Florida (Lake Okeechobee), west to southeastern Mississippi (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is now very rare (or possibly extirpated) in the western part of the range in Mississippi and Alabama.	eng
63821	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits open, xeric habitats with well-drained, sandy or sandy-loam soils such as sand ridges, stabilized coastal sand dunes, pine flatwoods, mixed oak-pine woodlands and forests, scrub oak woods, and oak hammocks; also old fields and river floodplains (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake spends considerable time burrowed in the soil. <br/> <br/>Based on <em>Heterodon nasicus</em>, females probably mature at two to three years, and some individuals likely live well into their second decade. Hence generation length may be five to ten years.	eng
63821	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of collection sites, but the species appears to be no longer extant at many of these (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped several dozen collection sites in North Carolina. Adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This is a secretive, fossorial snake that is difficult to detect, so it may be more numerous than available observations indicate. Nevertheless, it appears to be uncommon to rare throughout much of the historical range. In Florida, Tennant (1997) rated it as uncommon to rare but occasionally locally common. Different survey methods may yield different impressions of abundance. For example, in west-central Florida, <em>H. simus</em> was locally common and one of the most frequently observed snake species during pedestrian surveys on roads, but it was seldom trapped by drift fences (Enge and Wood 2002, 2003). Population trend cannot be quantified with any confidence, but clearly there has been a substantial decline (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most records are based on specimens that were collected/observed a long time ago and probably reflect only historical presence, as recent records for many of these sites are lacking (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). No recent (1983-1998) records are available for Mississippi, Alabama, and much of the historical range within Georgia. The species was considered quite common in southwestern Georgia in the 1940s and 1950s, but only a few occurrences have been noted in this area since 1970 (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000).  In South Carolina, the species has been seen recently (since 1980) in only 10 of the 20 counties from which it was once known. The population is apparently stable at the Savannah River Plant site in South Carolina. This snake apparently has declined in abundance throughout the range. Current trend data are unavailable, but this snake appears to be declining in area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, data on commercial collection for the pet trade indicate that this snake is still locally common in at least three areas of Florida (Enge and Wood 2003). Assuming a generation time of around 5 years, the rate of decline over the past three generations (15 years) is unknown but may exceed 10%.	eng
63821	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Significant threats remain poorly understood. Predation of eggs and hatchlings by red imported fire ants (IFA) may be a factor in the decline (Tuberville <em>et al</em>. 2000). The snake's disappearance from certain areas is associated with heavy red IFA infestations. Other factors suggested to be of potential importance include loss of habitat to intensive agricultural/silvicultural activities, widespread pesticide application, road mortality, and the general persecution of snakes by humans. This species apparently can persist in areas of fragmented and altered upland habitats, although cumulative road mortality may be a significant factor, especially for hatchlings (Enge and Wood 2003).	eng
63822	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population and threats is needed before an assessment can be completed for this species.	eng
63822	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This Mexican endemic species is known from two specimens collected in the east of the state of Querétaro, one from the type locality which is 5 km east of Jalpan at 762 m asl, and another from 0.8 km west of Landa de Matamoros at 1,067 m asl. An additional locality is reported from southern San Luis Potosi by Dixon and Dean (1986).	eng
63822	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species has been recorded from arid tropical scrub forest.	eng
63822	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is still known only from a few specimens and there is no further information available on the status of the population.	eng
63822	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63823	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well-protected areas.	eng
63823	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from southern British Columbia, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Kansas southward through the southwestern United States to southern Baja California (including Isla Partida Norte, in the Gulf of California) and Guerrero in mainland Mexico, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,650 m asl (8,700 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Reports of occurrences as far south as Costa Rica (e.g., Ernst and Ernst 2003) are incorrect (Savage 2002).	eng
63823	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This snake generally inhabits arid and semi-arid plains, flats, canyons, and hillsides, usually rocky, dissected or hilly terrain with sandy or gravelly soils, including desert (e.g., creosote bush, sagebrush), prairie, foothill grassland, chaparral, thornscrub, thornforest, pinyon-juniper woodland, scrubby oak-juniper savanna, mesquite savanna, pine-hardwood woodland, and sometimes moist mountain meadows (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent under rocks or other surface cover, in crevices, or underground. In Idaho, individuals can be found under surface rocks in spring, but not in summer. It feeds on small amphibians and reptiles, and is an oviviparous species.	eng
63823	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The species occupies a wide range and is locally fairly common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The population in Mexico is stable.	eng
63823	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Santos-Barrera, G., Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats to this species have been identified. The habitat generally tends to be unsuitable for human settlement.	eng
63824	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
63824	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, where it is known from central Campeche, Quintana Roo and northwards to Yucatan. It occurs from sea level up to 220 m asl.	eng
63824	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This nocturnal snake inhabits the deciduous forest of Yucatan and the taller, more mesic forest in the south of its range. It can also be found in degraded forest, but not human habitats.	eng
63824	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63824	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63825	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in national and state parks. In the United States, state wildlife regulations prohibit collection without a permit or license.The species occurs in protected areas within Mexico.	eng
63825	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species' range extends from southeastern New Mexico (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) and southwestern Texas (Werler and Dixon 2000) in the United States, southward to northeastern Durango and extreme western Nuevo Leon, central Mexico (Stebbins 2003), at elevations of 670 to 2,286 m asl (1,200 to 7,500 feet) (Werler and Dixon 2000).	eng
63825	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitat includes dry, rocky (limestone, igneous) dissected desert terrain (including desert flats, rocky hillsides, canyons, escarpments, limestone ledges, roadcuts, and mountain gaps), vegetated primarily by Chuhuahuan Desert plants such as acacia, lechuguilla, desert willow, creosote bush, mesquite, ocotillo, opuntia, or sotol (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). This secretive snake stays in crevices or under cover during daylight hours.	eng
63825	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This secretive snake probably occurs in many more localities than are currently known, especially in areas away from roads. It is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000. its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable. The population size is probably also relatively stable, although roadside populations perhaps have been depleted in some areas. No population data exist for this species in Mexico.	eng
63825	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is one of the most desirable and sought-after snakes in the commercial pet trade in North America. Collectors perhaps have depleted roadside populations in some areas (snakes found on roads are mostly adult males; see Werler and Dixon 2000). The threat from collection has been reduced somewhat in recent years. Collection without a permit is illegal in Texas and New Mexico. Captive breeding has generated a good supply of animals for the pet trade. Populations away from roads (the majority of the population) presumably are not significantly threatened. Occasional persecution by humans occurs in Mexico because of confusion with the coral snake.	eng
63826	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63826	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from northern Florida to southern Texas, and north to Nebraska (west to Thayer County, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 20:13), Illinois, Kentucky, and Maryland (Conant and Collins 1991, Tennant 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63826	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include various open and semi-open areas, including weedy fields, farmland, barnyards, pastures, prairies, rocky hillsides, thickets, open woodland, sandhills, pine flatwoods, landward side of barrier beaches, coastal salt-grass savannas, marsh borders, and residential areas (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive snake (especially females) spends much time underground or under surface cover. Eggs are laid in an underground cavity (Behler and King 1979).	eng
63826	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number (hundreds) of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63826	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This species thrives on many sorts of minor disturbances or habitat alterations that create openings in forested landscapes. Locally, populations have declined as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses. In Missouri, this species incurred a high rate of mortality as a result of prescribed burning of tallgrass prairie in late October (Frese 2003).	eng
63827	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in a protected area. Taxonomic research is needed to determine whether this is a valid species. Further research is needed to determine the range, population, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63827	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the island of Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
63827	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species; the description is based upon one single individual that was dug out of the centre of a cactus plant. A shed skin, possibly of this species, was found near a small spring. The vegetation predominant in the island is cactus and other xerophilic plants. The species is cryptic and nocturnal, and it is not easily studied.	eng
63827	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is known with certainty only from a single specimen, and many attempts to find it have been unsuccessful (Grismer 2002), suggesting that is either rare, or very cryptic and secretive.	eng
63827	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are feral cats on the island, which might pose a threat to the species.	eng
63828	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well-protected areas.	eng
63828	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species' range extends from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast of North America, from southwestern Oregon, Nevada, southern Utah, southern Colorado, southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, West Virginia, and New Jersey in the United States, south to southern Baja California, northern Sinaloa, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Texas, the U.S. Gulf Coast, and southern Florida, at elevations from sea level to around 2,130 m asl (7,000 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63828	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats vary geographically and include open coniferous forest, woodland, swamps, coastal marshes, river bottoms, farmland, prairie, chaparral, and desert. This snake is primarily terrestrial. Periods of inactivity are spent in crevices or burrow, or under rocks, logs, stumps, vegetation, or other cover.	eng
63828	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63828	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Local declines probably have occurred in areas where habitat has been intensively developed for human uses, but in most of the range this species is not threatened.	eng
63829	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The southern island of Isla Todos Santos is not formally protected, but access is restricted as it is a military outpost. A management programme is needed to control the collecting of this species for the pet trade.	eng
63829	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the southern island of Isla Todos Santos, on the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico.	eng
63829	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It lives in coastal sage scrub with open, rocky terrain, and in the rocky, scrubby interior of the island.	eng
63829	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered. It is probably not abundant, even in its preferred habitat.	eng
63829	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is threatened by the international pet trade. Mellink (1995) reported widespread snake traps on Isla Todos Santos. The animals that are collected are exported. Its habitat has also been considerably degraded by collectors who break open rock crevices and overturn rocks.	eng
63830	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It range includes Santa Rosa state protected area.	eng
63830	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This Mexican endemic is found in Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, the western half of San Luis Potosi, extreme northeastern Jalisco, northwestern Guanajuato, extreme western Tamaulipas, southern Nuevo Leon, and extreme southeastern Coahuila. It occurs from 1,300 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
63830	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a very secretive species inhabiting mainly desert areas and woodlands, as well as oak forests and grasslands. It hides under rocks and fallen tree trunks, and can also be found close to houses. Its diet includes amphibians, reptiles and small mammals (Ferri 1992, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It is oviparous, and lays between three to five eggs (Markel 1990).	eng
63830	population	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63830	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species is commonly killed because it is confused by local people with the venomous coral snakes. Overall, however, there are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63831	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in several protected areas in the US; it is not present in any protected areas in Mexico. No conservation measures are currently needed for this species. Further taxonomic research is needed to determine the status of the subspecies <em>L. p. knoblochi</em>.	eng
63831	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species' range extends discontinuously from east-central Nevada, central and western Utah, Arizona, and southwestern New Mexico in the United States, to eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua, Mexico, at elevations of 850 to 2,800 m asl (2,800 to 9,100 feet) (Tanner 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Occupied areas are often surrounded by large areas of unsuitable arid habitat (Tanner 1983).	eng
63831	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species' habitats are primarily rocky, montane, and often near streams or springs, but also include lower elevations in mesic canyons (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tanner 1983, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Vegetation may include pinyon-juniper woodland, oak-juniper woodland, pine-oak woodland, pine-Douglas-fir woodland, or chaparral (Stebbins 2003). During daylight hours, this snake may be found among rocks, logs, or dense clumps of vegetation, under objects, or exposed.	eng
63831	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Tanner (1983) mapped about 56 collection sites rangewide; these are well scattered and represent probably about 50 distinct occurrences or subpopulations. This snake is secretive and occurs in rough terrain that often lacks good access for humans; the number of occurrences is very probably much larger than is currently known. Based on habitat considerations, probably many occurrences have good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). Compared to the historical situation, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably not declined by more than 25%.	eng
63831	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that "some populations have been adversely affected by habitat destruction and collecting for the pet trade" but did not elaborate or cite a source of this information. Certainly localized declines have occurred as a result of urbanization and in some roadside populations readily accessible to collectors, but in most areas this snake is not threatened. It is opportunistically collected occasionally as pets, although this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
63832	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Taxonomic as well as natural history studies for this species are needed.	eng
63832	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican species ranges from Pazcuaro, central Michoacan, to the west to Chiapala and Tapalpa, and to the east to Queretaro. It is found from about 1,500 to 2,250 m asl	eng
63832	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is found in thorn forest and pine-oak forest. It can be found in areas of forest fragmented with farmland. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63832	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63832	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is heavily commercially collected for the international pet trade, with some illegal trade taking place. It is also threatened by deforestation through conversion of habitat to agricultural land. Animals are sometimes killed on roads.	eng
63833	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.  Further information is needed on range, population, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
63833	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican endemic species is currently known from the type locality which is 4 km west of El Palmito on Highway 40, in Municipio Concordia, in the state of Sinaloa (23°33’14.2’’ N, 105°50’47.2’’ W), at 2,000 m asl, and from 10 km further down the highway just across the border in the state of Durango. This region is not well surveyed and it is more than likely that the range of the species is much wider than is currently known.	eng
63833	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The two known specimens were collected along the highway in rugged mixed boreal-tropical forest in a mountainous region.	eng
63833	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from two specimens in museums and a few sightings in the field. The lack of records is most likely due to the isolation and ruggedness of the species' range as well as it being a dangerous place to work in the field at present.	eng
63833	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species' range is quite rugged and isolated which affords it some protection from human activities. It may be threatened by the highway that passes through its range but with so few specimens known it is not possible to confirm if there are any threats to this species.	eng
63834	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences are in parks and other areas with protected habitat. Accessible sections of these areas are not necessarily well protected against illegal snake collecting.	eng
63834	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' range extends from southwestern Oregon, south along coastal and interior mountains of California in the United States, to northern Baja California, Mexico (Sierra Juarez, Sierra San Pedro Martir), with isolated populations in south-central Washington and apparently also adjacent northern Oregon, from near sea level to about 2,750 m asl (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63834	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The typical habitat of this species consists of moist open coniferous forests, oak woodlands, riparian woodland, chaparral, coastal sage scrub, and openly wooded areas where there are rocks or rotting logs (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). During periods of inactivity, individuals seek shelter under rocks, logs, bark, or underground.	eng
63834	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Zweifel 1975). This snake is secretive and occurs in rough terrain that is often not easily accessible to humans; probably there are many more occurrences than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000 (conservatively assuming a density of at least one to 10 adults per sq. km in an area of occupancy of at least 20,000 sq. km). The collections of the California Academy of Sciences and the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (University of California, Berkeley) include at least 185 specimens (Greene and Rodriguez-Robles 2003). Localized declines have occurred, but the overall level of decline is probably less than 25% compared to the historical situation. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over three generations or 10 years. In the southern part of its range, populations are restricted to higher elevations, and some of these could be small and threatened.	eng
63834	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Some local populations probably have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat destruction associated with urbanization. However, much of the range of this snake is in fairly remote country that is not threatened by urbanization. Some populations have probably been detrimentally affected as a result of snake collection by reptile hobbyists and commercial collectors and by the damage collectors do to the microhabitats used by this snake (Grismer 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This has impacted accessible populations (for example, along roads) in particular, but collectors also venture into remote areas for this species. Collectors have in  particular impacted its microhabitat in the southern of its range, in southern California and in Baja California.	eng
63835	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
63835	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope from central Veracruz southeastward through northern Guatemala and Belize. In the Yucatan Peninsula it is probably pan-peninsular, although it is yet to be found in southern El Peten or southernmost Belize. The species occurs on Cozumel. It occurs from near sea level to about 300 m asl.	eng
63835	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a terrestrial and arboreal inhabitant of tropical wet and dry forest. It also occurs in degraded forest. On Isla Cozumel it is common around human habitations.	eng
63835	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This is a very common species on Cozumel. In other parts of its range it is moderately common. Its population appears stable at present.	eng
63835	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
63836	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species' range includes several protected areas. It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63836	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This Mexican species occurs in the Pacific coastal lowlands and adjacent slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental from southern Sinaloa southeastward to the Rio Balsas, and inland in the Balsas in Michoacan and Guerrero. It has been recorded up to elevations of about 2,000 m asl.	eng
63836	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is adaptable to a relatively wide variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, mangrove forest and disturbed areas.	eng
63836	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is very abundant across its range.	eng
63836	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	No significant threats are known to impact this species.	eng
63837	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is found in la Sepultura Biosphere Reserve and Lagunas de Chacagua National Park in Mexico.	eng
63837	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is found from Guerrero, Mexico, along the Pacific coast to Costa Rica; and in Honduras also on the Caribbean side (not mapped here). It occurs from near sea level up to 1,300 m asl.	eng
63837	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in dry forest and wet forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas. It is a nocturnal and terrestrial snake.	eng
63837	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	No population data are available.	eng
63837	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63838	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from La Tobara and San Blas protected areas in coastal Nayarit.	eng
63838	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species has a patchy distribution, from the central Pacific coast of Sinaloa, southward to central and northwest coast of Jalisco, Mexico. It has been recorded from only five widely separated localities, however suitable habitat exists between these and it is likely to be much more widespread than is currently known.	eng
63838	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a terrestrial species inhabiting tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest.	eng
63838	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is little information on population size for this species. It is considered to be rare.	eng
63838	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no information about threats to this species. There is some habitat degradation occurring through deforestation, but this is not across the whole range of the species.	eng
63839	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas. More work is needed to determine whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
63839	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The range of this species extends from southern Sonora southward along the foothills and Pacific slopes of the Mexican Plateau to the coastal sierra of Michoacan and thence inland in the Balsas Basin to southwestern Puebla, Mexico.	eng
63839	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	It occurs in dry forest and wet forest. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
63839	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
63839	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is possible that it is being impacted by the loss of its forest habitat, at least in parts of its range.	eng
63840	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in at least ten protected areas. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened).	eng
63840	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A widespread endemic species, occurring from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Sonora to southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico. In part, the range includes the Balsas basin area. It occurs from sea level up to 1,600 m asl.	eng
63840	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A highly adaptable species, occurring in tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, mangrove forest, oak forest and wet forest. It can also be found in disturbed areas.	eng
63840	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a common to abundant species.	eng
63840	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is some deforestation in parts of the range (for agricultural expansion and human settlement), but this is an adaptable species and deforestation is not likely to be a significant threat at present.	eng
63841	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera, in Guatemala.	eng
63841	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from northeastern Chiapas, Mexico, and central Guatemala to northwestern El Salvador and southwestern Honduras. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
63841	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is an inhabitant of cloud forest, and is also present in recently disturbed areas, although it can't persist a long time in that environment.	eng
63841	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is becoming increasingly uncommon in some areas, especially in Mexico.	eng
63841	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
63842	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in several parks and preserves.	eng
63842	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the United States and southern Canada, with an isolated population in northern Mexico. Its range extends from Nova Scotia westward across southern Canada to southeastern Saskatchewan, south and west to northern New Jersey, western Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, southern Ohio, northwestern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Chihuahua (Mexico), and Utah, and highly disjunctly to southeastern Texas in the United States; the distribution is highly discontinuous throughout the western half of the range (Conant and Collins 1991, Grobman 1992, Walley 2003).	eng
63842	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' habitats include meadows, grassy marshes, moist grassy fields at forest edges, mountain shrublands, stream borders, bogs, open moist woodland, abandoned farmland, and vacant lots. This snake has been found hibernating in abandoned ant mounds. Eggs are laid under rotting wood, underground, or under rocks.	eng
63842	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (Walley 2003). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of occurrences or subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining (less than 10% over 10 years or three generations).	eng
63842	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Local populations are threatened by habitat loss and degradation resulting from human activities and successional changes, but in general the species is not very threatened.	eng
63843	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas across its range.	eng
63843	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, but widespread along the central Pacific coast region: from Nayarit to Istmo de Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. It occurs from sea level up to 700 m asl.	eng
63843	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	An adaptable species, found in tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest, mangrove, coastal lowland oak forest, and disturbed habitats.	eng
63843	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a common to abundant species.	eng
63843	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Some deforestation is occurring in parts of the range, but this is not considered a significant threat to this species at present.	eng
63844	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The area where the species occurs was declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1994 by the Goverment of Mexico. Eradication of the introduced species on the island is urgently needed to avoid further degradation of the habitat.	eng
63844	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from Clarion island, in the Revillagigedo archipielago, off the coast of north western Mexico. The highest elevation on the island is 300 m asl (1,000 feet). The island is 6 by 4 miles (roughly 6 by 10 km) in size.	eng
63844	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species lives on the ground in open areas. The habitat on the island is predominantly grassland and shrubland. There is no freshwater available on the island.	eng
63844	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population of this species.	eng
63844	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This island is uninhabited by humans. However there have been recent introductions of species (pigs, rabbits, sheep) which are significantly degrading the habitat on the island (Mendez-Guardado, 2003). Grass and shrubland are being converted to desert where overgrazing is causing soil runoff.	eng
63845	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in at least one protected area.	eng
63845	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the Cape Region, along the eastern slopes of the Sierra La Laguna, on the Baja California peninsula, Mexico.	eng
63845	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species prefers the foothills surrounding the Sierra La Laguna and sometimes can be found in the upland areas in pine-oak forests. It is found particularly in heavily vegetated rocky arroyos (dry creeks) on the eastern slopes of the Sierra La Laguna.	eng
63845	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered.	eng
63845	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
63846	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in a protected area.	eng
63846	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake is endemic to the western sides of the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
63846	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is associated with the more mesic, vegetated, western sides of the two islands from which it is known. It has been seen on rocky hillsides, and in low-growing vegetation on the beach.	eng
63846	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is probably not a rare species (only eight specimens known), but there is very little information.	eng
63846	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no known threats to this species. The islands on which it occurs are not inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
63847	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63847	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species' range extends from central Arizona to extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States, south through western Mexico to Colima, with an eastward extension onto the Mexican Plateau in Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas (Camper and Dixon 1994, Camper 1996). It occurs in Isla Tiburón in the Gulf of California. Camper and Dixon regarded records from Isla San Pedro Martir, Coahuila, and Oaxaca as erroneous. Its elevational range extends to 2,300 m asl (Camper 1996).	eng
63847	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species' habitats include semi-arid lower mountain slopes, with growth of grass, saguaro cactus, paloverde, and ocotillo, and extends through chaparral and juniper into pine-oak belt in mountains (Stebbins 2003); desert, grassland, and montane forest habitats (Camper 1996), and often found along rocky streams. It is basically terrestrial but also climbs in vegetation.	eng
63847	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Camper (1996) mapped over 200 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but it is likely to exceed 100,000. It is relatively common in many areas of suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63847	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	No major threats to this species are known. The habitat often is unsuitable for most human uses.	eng
63848	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs in several protected areas across its wide range in the United States and Mexico.	eng
63848	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species' range extends from the Balcones Escarpment of central Texas south to the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas in the United States, and in Mexico through Coahuila and Tamaulipas to central Veracruz, Hidalgo, and Puebla, and inland onto the Mexican Plateau; the western edge of the known distribution reaches Aguascalientes and northern Michoacan. It occurs at elevations of up to 2,300 m asl (Camper and Dixon 1994, Camper 1996).	eng
63848	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species' habitats include tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, shrublands, grasslands, canyons, woodlands of pine/juniper/oak, rocky stream courses, and pond edges. In Texas, this snake occurs in savanna (mesquite-live oak; dry, rocky, and often sandy areas) and Tamaulipan thorn woodland; it is often associated with streambeds and ponds (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). Microhabitats are terrestrial and arboreal. It retreats underground or into deep crevices in cold weather. Eggs may be laid in abandoned small mammal burrows.	eng
63848	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (Camper 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common in many parts of its range in Mexico, but Tennant (1998) described it as "somewhat uncommon" and "not numerous" in Texas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63848	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified. In southernmost Texas, semi-arid brushland habitats of this snake have been converted to agricultural and urban uses (Werler and Dixon 2000).	eng
63849	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs within a protected area.	eng
63849	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of San Esteban, in the Gulf of California, Sonora, Mexico.	eng
63849	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species prefers the coastal areas, near shrubs, at the mouth of arroyos (dry creeks), occurring in brush habitat. It is most abundant where the density of lizards (its preferred food) is highest. It also occurs in lower numbers on the mountainous peaks on the island.	eng
63849	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It seems to be a common species, especially in the lower lying coastal areas.	eng
63849	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no known threats to this species. The island on which it occurs is not inhabited by humans and not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
63850	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species in the United States are in protected areas. In the southern extent of the range in Mexico the species occurs in few if any protected areas.	eng
63850	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Washington and southern Idaho south through Oregon, eastern California, Nevada, Utah, western Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas, in the United Sates, to Chihuahua, western Coahuila, Durango, and Zacatecas to northeastern Jalisco in Mexico; the eastern and southern range limits in Mexico are poorly understood (Camper and Dixon 1994). The elevational range extends to 3,077 m asl in Inyo County, California (Stumpel 1995).	eng
63850	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	The species' habitats include shrublands, arid grasslands, sagebrush flats, canyons, pinyon-juniper woodland, pine-oak woodland, and rocky stream courses. Microhabitats are terrestrial and arboreal. It retreats underground or into deep crevices in cold weather. Eggs usually are laid in abandoned small mammal burrows (sometimes communal with conspecifics or with other snake species).	eng
63850	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Camper (1996) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common in many areas in the United States. It is apparently uncommon or rare in the southern part of the range in Mexico. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63850	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations are declining as a result of habitat destruction and road mortality.	eng
63851	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The range of this species includes several protected areas.	eng
63851	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is found from Sinaloa, Mexico, on the Pacific slope, and from Tamaulipas on the Atlantic slope, south through the Yucatan Peninsula to Panama. It is also found throughout most of Petén, Guatemala, the northern Yucatan Peninsula, and Belize. It occurs from near sea level to around 1,250 m asl.	eng
63851	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a largely terrestrial inhabitant of thorn forest, tropical deciduous, evergreen forest, and savannas. It also occurs in degraded forest, secondary forest, agricultural land, forest edge and small towns.	eng
63851	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species can be locally common.	eng
63851	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no threats to this very adaptable species.	eng
63852	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Several occurrences on the Gulf Coast are in protected areas, including Gulf Islands National Seashore (Mississippi) and possibly St. Marks and Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) (Florida). The range of subspecies <em>taeniata</em> on the Atlantic coast of Florida includes Tomoka State Park and perhaps northern end of Merritt Island NWR, but the status of snakes there requires study, as do their ecological needs.	eng
63852	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in coastal areas on the southern United States and on the northern coast of Cuba. Its range includes brackish coastal habitats of the northern Gulf of Mexico, from the vicinity of Corpus Christi, Texas, eastward to Florida and including most of that state's coastline, including the Keys, then northward on the Atlantic coast to Volusia County; also the northern coast of Cuba (Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The subspecies <em>Nerodia clarkii clarkii</em> occurs from the vicinity of Corpus Cristi in southern Texas east along the Gulf Coast to south of Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. The subspecies <em>N. c. compressicauda</em> ranges from northern Pinellas County, Florida, around the southern tip of Florida and north to at least Merritt Island, including the Florida Keys and northern Cuba. The subspecies <em>clarkii</em> and <em>compressicauda</em> intergrade in a zone that may extend from Cedar Key to northern Pinellas County. The subspecies <em>N. c. taeniata</em> occurs on the Atlantic coast of Florida north of the range of <em>compressicauda</em>, in Volusia County, and apparently intergrading with <em>compressicauda</em> in Brevard and Indian River counties (Kochman and Christman 1992).	eng
63852	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake is most common in estuarine situations, such as coastal brackish and salt marshes containing <em>Spartina</em>, <em>Juncus</em>, <em>Salicornia</em>; it occurs in lesser abundance farther inland in freshwater marshes with arrowheads, sedges, and naiads (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Toward the southern end of the range in Florida, it also inhabits buttonwood and red mangrove swamps and saline offshore islands (Tennant 1997). Microhabitats include the burrows of crayfish, fiddler crabs, or muskrats (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Tennant 1997). Sometimes it can be found on shore under rocks, logs, and other cover (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
63852	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many subpopulations are discontinuous and isolated by lack of habitat. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Large numbers still exist in some parts of the range (Ernst and Ernsat 2003). In Florida, this snake is common on the Gulf Coast but rare on the Atlantic coast at the northern extent of the range (subspecies <em>taeniata</em>) (Tennant 1997). Abundance has declined throughout much of the range, particularly where coastal marshes have been degraded (Werler and Dixon 2000). Large numbers are still present in some areas, but elsewhere they have become scarce (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Current trend is unknown; extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations, whereas population size may be declining at an unknown rate.	eng
63852	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	A major threat along the Gulf Coast is degradation of habitat by dredging, diking, development, and chemical pollution (Werler and Dixon 2000). Loss of salt marsh habitat appears to have slowed since 1988 (USFWS 1998). Insecticides may be lethal to the snake. Oil spills pose a potential threat. Along the Atlantic coast of Florida much habitat has been lost to commercial development (Tennant 1997). As habitat shrinks, the probability of interbreeding with <em>Nerodia fasciata</em> may increase, particularly along the Atlantic coast (Kochman and Christman 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63853	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63853	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern United States. Its range extends on the Coastal Plain from extreme western Florida and southern Alabama to southeastern Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to extreme southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois (Barbour 1971, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63853	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include marshes, forested swamps, ditches, canals, bayous, shallow lakes and ponds, wet coastal prairie, oxbows and floodplain sloughs, sluggish tree-lined streams, flooded fields, abandoned rice fields, and rice field reservoirs, often quiet waters of wooded areas; also some brackish-water marshes along the Gulf Coast (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake basks on banks or in shore vegetation, and it is seldom found far from water.	eng
63853	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).  Most occurrences are in the southern part of the range (e.g., see dot maps in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000), with relatively few in the north (Barbour 1971, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in some parts of the southern part of the range (Dundee and Rossman 1989), though uncommon in Texas (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). It is much less numerous northward in the Mississippi valley (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), but even in the north some local populations may be fairly large (Keiser 1958). This species seemingly was always relatively uncommon and sparsely distributed in the northern part of the range, where today it is even more so as a result of habitat loss. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63853	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Declines have occurred as a result of drainage of sloughs and swamps and removal of aquatic vegetation, particularly in the northern part of the range (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall this species is not significantly threatened.	eng
63854	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	In the United States, at least several occurrences are in protected areas. No protected areas exist for the disjunct populations in Mexico.	eng
63854	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species' range extends in the United States from southern Delaware and southeastern Maryland to northern Florida, west through Georgia and Alabama to southeastern New Mexico and western Texas, thence northward to northeastern Kansas and western Missouri, southward to central Nuevo Leon, Mexico; north in the Mississippi and Ohio river systems to central Illinois and southern Indiana; disjunct populations in Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Durango, and Zacatecas; records from West Virginia and Pennsylvania are erroneous; a record from New Jersey probably is based on human introduction (McCranie 1990). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 2,042 m asl on the Mexican Plateau.	eng
63854	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This snake occurs in a wide array of aquatic/wetland habitats, generally with permanent or semi-permanent water, such as forested and shrubby swamps, marshes, edges of ponds and lakes, ditches, and slow streams. It often basks or rests in water-edge vegetation. It wanders far from water, especially during warm wet weather. Hibernation sites are underground, under rockpiles, etc.	eng
63854	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCranie 1990). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63854	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitat destruction and/or "human contact" has extirpated this species from some parts of its former range (McCranie 1990), particularly in the north-central part of the range (Great Lakes states; see information for subspecies <em>neglecta</em>). Apparent range expansion accompanied impoundment of a river in Missouri (see McCranie 1990). This species can successfully colonize and establish populations in reclamation ponds in formerly strip-mined areas (Keck 1998). Reduction of the water table (e.g., through irrigation) would threaten the disjunct Mexican populations.	eng
63855	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63855	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from South Carolina disjunctly to southern Florida, and west through southern Georgia and the Florida panhandle to a small portion of southern Alabama (Mount 1975, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004); the species is apparently absent from most of southeastern Georgia (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
63855	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists of vegetated shallow lakes, ponds, marshes, wet prairies, rice fields, slow rivers, ditches with abundant vegetation, and other wetlands that are not much shaded, including brackish water in some areas (Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Basking sites are on grassy edges and in branches over water. This snake may travel overland at night; it seeks cover in water, and it also uses muskrat lodges.	eng
63855	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in much of Florida (Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63855	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Former DDT use probably reduced some populations (see Ernst and Barbour 1989).	eng
63856	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Many occurrences of this species in the United States are in protected areas.	eng
63856	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species' range extends in the United States from Kansas, southeastern Iowa, Illinois, and southwestern Indiana south to Alabama (east to the Mobile Bay drainage below the Fall Line), Gulf Coast, southcentral Texas, and eastern Mexico to the southwestern base of the Yucatan Peninsula (to Tabasco, northern Chiapas, and southwestern Campeche) (McAllister 1985, Conant and Collins 1991, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Its elevational range reaches 745 m asl in Coahuila but generally is below 500 m asl (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
63856	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This semi-aquatic snake occurs in a wide range of habitats, including the margins and shallows of lakes, ponds, rivers, smaller streams, swamps, marshes, canals, and ditches. It basks on banks and in edge vegetation and may wander on land, especially in wet weather. It hibernates in underground burrows near water. It is largely nocturnal.	eng
63856	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. It is locally common in much of its wide range in the United States and Mexico. Some populations at the margins of the range have declined, but this snake has remained stable or increased in many areas where bottomland habitats have been inundated by impoundments (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Many populations in xeric regions of Mexico have been extirpated or have declined (R. Conant pers. comm. 1997, cited by Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63856	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The major concern for this species is destruction and degradation of aquatic habitat (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), but this snake is not threatened in most of its large range. Declines in xeric regions of Mexico have been attributed to pollution or water diversion for human use (R. Conant pers. comm. 1997 cited by Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). This snake is vulnerable to pesticide-caused mortality (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), and historical declines in abundance probably occurred in some agricultural areas. Pesticides that persist in the environment for long periods of time may still be affecting some populations. Some currently used pesticides may be causing watersnake mortality (see Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). This species readily colonizes reclamation ponds of formerly mined areas if suitable habitat is adjacent (Keck 1998). Individuals are frequently killed intentionally by humans, but this not a major threat except perhaps where the snake is rare (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
63857	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrrences are in protected areas.	eng
63857	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain from Virginia to southern Florida, and west to Alabama, and also the piedmont of the Carolinas and Georgia (Mount 1975, Tennant 1984, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63857	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits rivers, large creeks, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, and marshes, including brackish tidal waters in some areas; it often climbs into woody vegetation overhanging the water, and it also perches on fallen trees, jetties, duck blinds, debris or other object along shorelines (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). In South Carolina, it was significantly associated with the steep-banked outer bends of the river and with areas having good perch-site availability; only large individuals crossed a 100 m wide river (Mills <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
63857	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often locally common to abundant in suitable habitat (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). No major declines have been recorded, aside from local reductions in limited portions of the range. Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63857	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Declines may have occurred at the periphery of the range and in areas subject to intense urbanization or pollution (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Many watersnakes are killed by people who fear that the snakes are venomous (Mitchell 1994). However, in most areas, this species apparently faces no significant threats.	eng
63858	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63858	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from San Luis Potosí and the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, Mexico. There are apparently disjunct populations in Guatemala, Belize, and northern Honduras. The elevational range of the species is from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63858	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This snake inhabits tropical and subtropical wet and moist forest. It is a secretive and nocturnal species.	eng
63858	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species can be locally common.	eng
63858	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no known threats to the species.	eng
63859	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In the United States, this snake is probably effectively protected in at least several areas of federal, state, and private lands (e.g., national parks and wildlife refuges, state wildlife management areas). In Mexico there is a need for more information on biology, population, range, threats to this species.	eng
63859	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs widely in the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. Its range extends from southern New Jersey to southern Florida, west to eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, and central Texas, north to the southern portions of the southern Great Lakes states in the United States, south into northeastern Mexico (Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas) (Walley and Plummer 2000).	eng
63859	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This snake typically inhabits dense vegetation (vines, shrubs, trees) near water; often at forest edges or in fairly open forests; also overgrown pasture, tallgrass prairie, thickets, barrier islands; open marsh and spoil banks in Louisiana; pine-oak, mesic hardwood hammocks, and occasionally mangrove swamps in Florida (see Walley and Plummer 2000). In Mexico, it inhabits tropical deciduous forest. It is mostly arboreal but less so in spring and fall. In Arkansas, it avoids basking (Plummer 1993). It occupies vegetation above ground at night in warmer months; underground in cold weather.  <br/> <br/>Eggs are laid under objects in damp areas (Ashton and Ashton 1981), in rotting logs (Goldsmith 1984), or in tree hollows. It may nest communally. In Arkansas, gravid females moved five to 75 m (average 36 m) terrestrially away from the lake shore and oviposited in small chambers within the hollowed interiors of small living trees, 25 to 300 cm above ground; individuals may return to a specific tree each year (Plummer 1989, 1990).	eng
63859	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (more than 100) (see map in Walley and Plummer 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but is probably greater than 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable overall, with local declines associated with habitat loss or climate variation (Plummer 1997). This is a rare species in Mexico; in the last 10 years, only four specimens have been found (Pablo Lavin pers. comm. 2005).	eng
63859	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, clearing of wooded wetlands and wooded borders of aquatic habitats is a potential threat, as is pesticide application in such habitats.	eng
63860	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in Big Bend National Park. Occurs in several protected areas in Mexico.	eng
63860	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species' range includes only southwestern Texas (central Hill Country, Trans-Pecos) and adjacent areas in northeastern Mexico: southwestern Edwards Plateau of Texas west through the dissected canyons of the Stockton Plateau and the Big Bend Region to the Davis Mountains, thence south into Mexico along Coahuila Folded Belt to the front range of Sierra Madre Oriental of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas; also the Sierra San Carlos of south-central Tamaulipas, at elevations of around 305 to 3,050 m asl (1,000 to 10,000 feet) (Lawson and Lieb 1990, Werler and Dixon 2000). Within this range, the distribution appears to be spotty (Tennant 1998), but this may in part reflect the snake's secretive behavior (Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63860	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Habitats include a wide variety of vegetational associations, from Chihuahuan desert scrub in Texas to Sierra Madrean pine forest in Tamaulipas (Lawson and Lieb 1990). In Texas, this terrestrial and arboreal snake inhabits wooded rocky canyons of Edwards Plateau, pinyon pine-needle grass uplands in Chisos Mountains, barren road-cut bluffs with scattered seep willow, and mesic canyons in montane forest and low desert areas in the Trans-Pecos region (Tennant 1984, 1998). Rocky, igneous or limestone habitats apparently are favoured, especially those with caves, deep crevices, and/or sheer canyon walls; eaves and wooded crevices associated with ranch outbuildings are also occasionally used (Lawson and Lieb 1990).	eng
63860	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by at least a few dozen distinct occurrences or subpopulations. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped several dozen collection sites in Texas; these represent probably at least 20 distinct occurrences. For Mexico, Lawson and Lieb (1990) listed three locations for Coahuila, three for Nuevo Leon, and three for Tamaulipas, so probably there are at least several subpopulations south of Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but probably at least several thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63860	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is not significantly threatened.	eng
63861	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63861	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southwestern Illinois, Missouri, southern South Dakota, and southeastern Colorado southward to San Luis Potosi and Veracruz, and through most of Texas, with a disjunct population in eastern Utah and western Colorado (Conant and Collins 1991, Burbrink 2002).	eng
63861	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes rocky hillsides, meadows, stream courses and river bottoms, canyons and arroyos, barnyards, abandoned houses and ranch buildings, areas near springs, caves (near entrance), and wooded areas. Terrestrial and arboreal.	eng
63861	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many subpopulations. Many occurrences appear to have good viability. Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This species is relatively common in many parts of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63861	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat destruction has reduced or eliminated some populations, but this species tolerates moderate levels of habitat alteration such as those associated with rural ranching activities.	eng
63862	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake occurs within several nominally protected areas, but whether these can support long-term viable populations by themselves is unknown. This species would benefit from increased protection of coastal marshland habitat throughout the range. Better information on current distribution and abundance is needed; where are the best occurrences?	eng
63862	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Canada and northern United States. Its range is entirely within the Great Lakes basin and includes southern Ontario, the southeastern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan, and northern Ohio; north to near Saginaw Bay (Michigan) and Georgian Bay (Ontario); eastward along northern Lake Erie to Long Point Bay (Ontario) and along southern Lake Erie to Erie County, Ohio; the range includes Pelee Island and some smaller Lake Erie islands; isolated records from near Buffalo, New York, and the western end of Lake Ontario (Ontario) have not been confirmed; a record from Massachusetts probably reflects erroneous data (Conant 1938, 1940, 1951; Powell 1990; Harding 1997).	eng
63862	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits shoreline marshes and vegetated dunes and beaches of the Great Lakes; it sometimes ranges into adjacent farm fields, pastures, and woodlots; it occupies rocky areas and open woodlands on Lake Erie islands; it rarely climbs into trees or shrubs, and it readily crosses bodies of water; hibernation occurs in mammal burrows, old buildings, or similar shelters (Harding 1997).	eng
63862	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Powell (1990) mapped about 35 collection sites, but the number of distinct occurrences or subpopulations is not precisely known. Adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This snake is locally common where ample habitat remains (Harding 1997). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to be declining; the species is now uncommon or rare in many areas where formerly it was abundant (Harding 1997).	eng
63862	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Threats include conversion of habitat to human uses (agriculture, industry, residential use), pollution and other habitat degradation, population fragmentation, mortality on roads, collection for the pet trade, and direct killing by humans (Harding 1997).	eng
63863	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63863	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern and southeastern United States. Its range extends from southern New Jersey, Maryland, and Kentucky southward to southeastern Louisiana, southern Mississippi, southern Alabama, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Burbrink 2002). Introduced on Grand Cayman Island and Grand Bahama Island (Buckner and Franz, 1994,<em> Herpetological Review</em> 25: 166) and elsewhere in the Caribbean region (e.g., may be established on St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands; Perry <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63863	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is mostly semi-fossorial, inhabiting in a wide variety of environments, from dry to humid, including pine forest, grass flatwoods, grasslands, open rock areas, and tropical hammocks.	eng
63863	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63863	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Habitat destruction is a local threat in some areas, but this species tolerates a fair amount of low intensity habitat alteration.	eng
63864	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63864	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species ranges widely in the east of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern New England and southern Ontario west to southeastern Minnesota, and south to southern Texas, the entire Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991). As defined by Burbrink (2001), the range of <em>Pantherophis obsoletus</em> is as follows: west of the Mississippi River from southern Louisiana along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas, west to central Texas on the Edwards Plateau, and through Oklahoma, central and eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, and southeastern Iowa to extreme southeastern Minnesota. However, this taxonomy/distribution has not been adopted in this database.	eng
63864	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include hardwood forest and woodland, wooded canyons, swamps, rocky timbered upland, wooded areas of streams and rivers, farmland near woods, old fields, barnyards, and rural buildings in wooded areas. This snake often occurs where wooded and open habitats (such as fields or farmland) are intermixed. It often climbs trees, especially rough-barked species or those with vines (Mullin and Cooper 2002), and it may sometimes enter water. Hibernation sites are in deep crevices or underground. Individuals exhibit very high fidelity to hibernacula (Prior <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
63864	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63864	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This snake thrives on partial deforestation. Locally, some populations have declined as a result of extensive deforestation and various forms of intensive development.	eng
63865	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63865	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the south of the United States. Its range includes eastern Texas and western Louisiana (Burbrink 2002). Taxonomic affiliation of cornsnakes in adjacent southern Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004) is uncertain, but presumably the species there is <em>slowinskii</em>.	eng
63865	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat in eastern Texas includes pine-oak woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000). Many specimens in northern Louisiana were collected in cultivated fields, pasturelands, barns, and abandoned buildings (see Dundee and Rossman 1989). Werler and Dixon (2000) commented that "next to nothing is known about this snake's natural history in Texas."	eng
63865	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many historical occurrences (subpopulations), but the current status of most of these is unknown. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 28 collection sites in eastern Texas. Dundee and Rossman (1989) mapped about 18 collection sites in western Louisiana. Adult population size is unknown. Trends in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are unknown.	eng
63865	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.	eng
63866	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63866	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan through Wisconsin, southern Minnesota, and Iowa to eastern Nebraska (possibly extreme northeastern Kansas), South Dakota, and northwestern Missouri and through northern and western Illinois to northwestern Indiana (Vogt 1981, Powell 1990, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Minton 2001).	eng
63866	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include dry and moist areas of farmland, prairie, pastures, open woodland (hardwoods, pines), forest edge, logged forest and old woodlots, woods near streams, stream valleys, pine barrens, oak savanna, and sandy oak scrub (Vogt 1981, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Minton 2001). This snake may spend much time in burrows and usually is found on the ground; it may hibernate in crevices, burrows, or old wells, sometimes underwater (Vogt 1981). Eggs are laid in old stumps, humus, or under logs and other objects on the ground (Vogt 1981).	eng
63866	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and undoubtedly is much larger than that. This snake is locally common. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63866	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This snake thrives on partial deforestation and where farming is not too extensively intensive.	eng
63867	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63867	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is patchily distributed from south-central Arizona, United States, south through Sonora to southern Sinaloa, Mexico, at elevations of about 300 to 910 m (1,000 to 3,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63867	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In the north, this snake occurs in upland rocky or sandy desert dominated by mesquite, creosote bush, saltbush, paloverde, and saguaro; habitats in the south include thorn scrub and the lower edge of thorn forest (Behler and King 1979, Stebbins 2003). It burrows into rocky or sandy soil.	eng
63867	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown. This snake is apparently common at some localities in Arizona (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is secretive and relatively difficult to find except on roads after spring and summer rainstorms. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63867	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats are known, but some local populations in Arizona are likely to have been reduced as a result of urbanization and other intensive land uses by humans.	eng
63868	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63868	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The range of this species extends from southern California (north to Inyo County), southern Nevada, extreme southwestern Utah, and central Arizona, United States, to southern Baja California (Grismer 2002) and southern Sonora (and one location in southern Sinaloa), Mexico, including certain islands in the Gulf of California; a record from San Joaquin County, California, is presumed not to represent a natural occurrence (McCleary and McDiarmid 1993). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 1,220 m asl (4,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63868	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitat generally consists of rocky, gravelly, or sandy desert plains or dunes with creosote bush (Stebbins 2003). This snake may burrow into loose soil or sand, and it hides under rocks or surface debris or in abandoned rodent burrows (Stebbins 1954, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63868	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by numerous occurrences or subpopulations (see map in McCleary and McDiarmid 1993). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common snake in most of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63868	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
63869	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63869	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' range extends from southern British Columbia to Indiana, and south through all of western North America to northern Baja California (Grismer 2002), Sonora, Sinaloa and Zacatecas in Mexico.	eng
63869	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, extending from lowlands to mountains: desert, prairie, shrubland, woodland, open coniferous forest, farmland, and marshes. Midwestern populations inhabit prairies; western and Mexican populations range from coastal grasslands and forests through deserts into montane forests (Sweet and Parker 1990). This snake is terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal. It remains underground in cold weather and during the hot midday period in summer; it may occupy mammal burrows (Schroder 1950, Fitch 1958) or dig its own burrow, aided by the pointed snout and enlarged rostral scale. Carpenter (1982) estimated that burrowing <em>Pituophis</em> could move up to 3,400 cubic cm of soil in an hour. Eggs are deposited in burrows excavated by the female in loose soil, in spaces beneath large rocks or logs, or possibly in small mammal burrows.	eng
63869	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Sweet and Parker 1990). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. This snake is relatively common in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63869	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. Local declines have occurred in areas with extensive, intensive agricultural or urban development, but these snakes persist in semi-agricultural landscapes and rural residential areas.	eng
63870	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63870	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican endemic species occurs in the states of Aguascalientes, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro, Veracruz, Zacatecas and Mexico City. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
63870	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	it inhabits pine forest, oak forest, scrubland, meadows, pristine and disturbed areas, cultivated land, plantations (corn), sub-urban areas, even University campus areas.	eng
63870	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a very common species.	eng
63870	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The pet trade could potentially be a threat, although it is a very common species.	eng
63871	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The island is a multi-use protected area in which people are allowed to practice sustainable activities.	eng
63871	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Cedros, off the Pacific coast of Baja California, in the State of Baja California, Mexico.	eng
63871	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a ground-dwelling species, living in arid and semi-arid shrubland habitats and in chaparral scrub.	eng
63871	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species, being ubiquitous on Isla Cedros.	eng
63871	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	No threats are known, and it lives commonly alongside humans who do not pose a risk to the species. It is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
63872	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in at least eight protected areas, including El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63872	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from southeast Jalisco throughout Sierra Madre del Sur, to Oaxaca, including Morelos, Veracruz, and Michoacan in Mexico, as well as in the highlands of Chiapas (but it is not found in the depression), and in to Guatemala. It ranges from 800 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
63872	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It inhabits wet forest, pine forest and cloud forest.	eng
63872	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.	eng
63872	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Deforestation in highland areas for agriculture is occurring, but this is patchy across the range and is not considered significant to the species at present.	eng
63873	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63873	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' range extends from extreme eastern Louisiana discontinuously east to eastern and southern Florida, and discontinuously north to Kentucky, Virginia, and southern New Jersey in the United States (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Records for Arkansas, Maryland, New York, and Veracruz (Mexico) probably represent introductions (Sweet and Parker 1990) and are not mapped here.	eng
63873	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Good quality pinesnake habitat appears to be characterized by xeric, pine-dominated or pine-oak (50 to 80% pine) woodland with an open, low understorey established on sandy soils. Longleaf pine sandhills appear to represent critical habitat over much of the southeastern United States. Pinesnakes also require forest openings, with level, well-drained sandy soils and little shrub cover, as nesting and hibernation sites. <br/> <br/>This snake is terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal. It remains underground in cold weather and during the hot midday period in summer (Fitch 1956, Zappalorti <em>et al</em>. 1983, Burger <em>et al</em>. 1988). It may occupy mammal burrows (Schroder 1950, Fitch 1958) or dig its own burrow, aided by a pointed snout and enlarged rostral scale; it is an accomplished burrower in loose soil (Franz 1992). Eggs are deposited in burrows excavated by the female in loose soil (Moore 1893; Zappalorti <em>et al</em>. 1983; Burger and Zappalorti 1986, 1991), spaces beneath large rocks or logs, or possibly small mammal burrows (Ernst and Barbour 1989, Franz 1992).	eng
63873	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Sweet and Parker (1990) mapped more than 100 collection localities. The number of occurrences or subpopulations with good viability is unknown but undoubtedly is significantly fewer than the number of extant occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 10,000. This snake is relatively common in some areas but appears to be uncommon over most of its range, including all of Florida (Franz 1992, Tennant 1997). Fossorial habits make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined over the past several decades, but the rate of decline is probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63873	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In many areas, the habitat of this snake has been destroyed or degraded by human activities.	eng
63874	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In March of 2004, a Candidate Conservation Agreement was developed and approved in order to identify and establish management protection for the pine snake on Federal land by protecting known populations and habitat, reducing threats to its survival, maintaining its ecosystem, and restoring degraded habitat. This agreement was intended to establish a framework for cooperation and participation in the pine snake's protection, conservation, and management within the boundaries of the Angelina and Sabine National Forests of Texas, Kisatchie National Forest in Louisiana, and Fort Polk Military Reservation in Louisiana. This agreement was implemented by the USDA Forest Service; Fort Polk, US Army, Department of Defense (Fort Polk); Region 2 and 4 of the US Fish and Wildlife Service; Texas Parks and Wildlife Department; and Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Restoration measures will include prescribed burning, thinning, and replanting of long-leaf pine forest.	eng
63874	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The Louisiana Pine Snake historically occurred in portions of west-central Louisiana and extreme east-central Texas (Jennings and Fritts 1983, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 199, Rudolph in litt. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). This area roughly coincides with a disjunct portion of the longleaf pine ecosystem situated west of the Mississippi River. The species is currently extant in a small portion of the historical range (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
63874	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists of longleaf pine savanna with sandy, well-drained soils and substantial herbaceous ground cover (Reichling 1990, Rudolph and Burgdorf 1997). Recent records of this snake are primarily from isolated patches of habitat where the influence of fire has been most effective in maintaining well-developed herbaceous understorey conditions (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). In Texas, these snakes occur in longleaf pine-oak sandhills interspersed with moist bottomlands; sometimes in adjacent blackjack oak woodlands and in sandy areas of short-leaf pine/post oak forest; the snake prefers openly wooded areas over dense forest; it is frequently found in fields, farmland, and tracts of second-growth timber (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Texas, Mitchell and Tinkle (1960) reported observing <em>P. ruthveni</em> foraging in a seasonally dry, acid bog, where the vegetation consisted of loblolly pine (<em>Pinus taeda</em>) and shortleaf pine (<em>Pinus echinata</em>) with a dense sweetbay (<em>Magnolia virginiana</em>) and cyrilla (<em>Cyrilla racemiflora</em>) understorey. In Louisiana, <em>P. ruthveni</em> is restricted to longleaf pine forests and second growth longleaf pine-blackjack oak (<em>Quercus marilandica</em>) associations (Fugler 1955, Walker 1965). Pocket gophers (<em>Geomys breviceps</em>) are an essential component of this habitat. They create burrow systems where the snakes are most frequently found and are a major source of food for the species (Rudolph and Conner 1996, Rudolph in litt. 1997). Movement patterns of pine snakes are typically from one pocket gopher burrow system to another (Rudolph in litt. 1997).	eng
63874	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a small number of occurrences (subpopulations). Based on recent range-wide surveys, Rudolph <em>et al</em>. (2006) mapped the extant distribution as comprising six small patches, plus two additional locations represented by single individuals in areas lacking significant amounts of suitable habitat. Only three areas (Fort Polk Military Reservation and the adjacent unit of the Kisatchie National Forest, Peason Ridge Military Reservation in Louisiana, and the southern portion of the Angelina National Forest in Texas) have extensive areas of suitable, frequently burned longleaf pine habitat that is not currently subject to extensive change in management intensity (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). The adult population size is unknown but relatively small and presumably at least a few thousand. This snake is uncommon to rare (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Rudolph <em>et al</em>. (2006) conducted extensive trapping in several areas of Louisiana and Texas identified as having most of the best remaining habitat for Louisiana pine snakes. Only 26 pine snakes were trapped in over 100,000 trap days. Surveys documenting the current condition of the fire climax longleaf pine forests, and results of Louisiana pine snake trapping and radio-telemetry, suggest that the species has declined in geographic distribution and possibly in local abundance during the last 50 to 80 years (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Louisiana pine snakes originally occurred in at least 9 Louisiana parishes and 15 Texas counties; recent surveys indicate that the species now occurs in only four Louisiana parishes and six Texas counties (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Both the quantity and quality of Longleaf Pine savanna have declined sharply in Louisiana and Texas. Virtually all remaining virgin timber in the south was cut during intensive logging from 1870 to 1920 (Frost 1993). In the 1920s, foresters began converting unmanaged woodlands to pine plantations (Frost 1993). Wahlenberg (1946) estimated that in 1935, 1.2 million ha (approximately 3 million acres) of Longleaf Pine type forests remained in southwest Louisiana and southeast Texas. However, 43% of these Longleaf Pine types consisted of clear-cuts and only 2.9% were uncut old-growth stands. Bridges and Orzell (1989) used published data from the 1980s to make more current estimates of the natural Longleaf Pine forests remaining in Louisiana and Texas. They estimated that in Louisiana only 15%, and in Texas only 7.5% of the 1935 acreages remained. A habitat assessment of known historical localities found that only 34% were still considered capable of supporting a viable population of pine snakes.  Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
63874	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The primary factors leading to degradation of <em>P. ruthveni</em> habitat are intensive pine silviculture and alteration of the pre-European fire regime (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Intensive silviculture and reduction in fire frequency eliminate or reduce the microhabitat conditions needed by pine snakes and also may result in declines of <em>Geomys breviceps</em> (Baird's Pocket Gopher), a primary prey of <em>P. ruthveni</em> (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Vehicle mortality, both on state roads and off-road trails, may cause significant impacts to the Louisiana Pine Snake's population numbers and community structure. Roads with moderate to high traffic levels can cause significant reductions in the populations of large snake species (see Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Most existing pine snake habitat is within 500 m of currently existing roads (Rudolph <em>et al</em>. 2006). Take of Louisiana pine snakes for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is not currently considered to be a threat. However, the low number of Louisiana pine snakes makes them vulnerable to unscrupulous collectors should locality data become available.  Disease and predation are not currently considered to be significant threats.	eng
63875	conservation	Brad Hollingsworth, Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas	eng
63875	distribution	Brad Hollingsworth, Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species ranges through most of the Baja California peninsula in Mexico, from southern El Rosario southward to Cabo San Lucas. The population in the north at Valle La Trinidad is not disjunct, but is connected through the interior valley to the main range of the species. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita as well the island of San Jose in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
63875	habitat	Brad Hollingsworth, Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is fairly ubiquitous in the Baja California peninsula, occurring from low arid tropical lands (including the Vizcaíno Desert, for example) to Sierra La Laguna highlands. It is most common in the arroyos (dry creeks) and open sandy areas refuging in rodent burrows, beneath rocks and logs and roots.	eng
63875	population	Brad Hollingsworth, Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is variably abundant across its range, and appears to be common in some places, but only moderately so in others.	eng
63875	threats	Brad Hollingsworth, Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There are no known threats. It occasionally appears in the international pet trade, but not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
63876	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Santos-Barrera, G. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is present in a number of protected areas including El Cielo, Tamaulipas and Sierra Gorda, Queretaro. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species. There is a need to educate people that this is not a venomous snake.	eng
63876	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Santos-Barrera, G. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This Mexican species is present from southern Tamaulipas, throughout Xilitla in San Luis Potosi, and in a small area of east Queretaro, Hidalgo, Veracruz and northern Puebla. It is found between around 900 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63876	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Santos-Barrera, G. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is present in primary and secondary cloud forest, and has also been recorded from shaded coffee plantations. It can be found below logs and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63876	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Santos-Barrera, G. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63876	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Santos-Barrera, G. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion to agricultural land. It is sometimes killed by people who confuse it with venomous coral snakes.	eng
63877	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
63877	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from southern Tamaulipas, Mexico, to central Honduras, and on the Pacific versant from Oaxaca, Mexico, to El Salvador, and including the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63877	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This snake inhabits tropical wet, moist, and dry forest. It also occurs in degraded and secondary growth as well as forest edge and perhaps also the edge of agricultural land.	eng
63877	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63877	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present. Deforestation for agriculture is a threat in some parts of its range.	eng
63878	conservation	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurrs in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve the status of this species.	eng
63878	distribution	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs in the Sierra de Santa Marta, in the Los Tuxtlas region, of southern Veracruz, Mexico. The elevational range of the species is from 700 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63878	habitat	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species can be found under leaf-litter in tropical montane cloud forest.	eng
63878	population	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63878	threats	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species is persecuted by humans because it is venomous.	eng
63879	conservation	Lee, J., 2007	Several populations occur in protected areas.	eng
63879	distribution	Lee, J., 2007	This species occurs discontinuously at low elevations on the Atlantic slope of Mexico from central Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi, to Veracruz southward to Tabasco and Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, and then in to northern and central Belize and an isolated locality in northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It continues southwards to northern Honduras, and is also found on Corn Island, Nicaragua. It has been recorded from sea level up to 500 m asl.	eng
63879	habitat	Lee, J., 2007	It occurs in lowland areas of tropical semi-deciduous forests and thorn forests. It can also occur in degraded and secondary forest.	eng
63879	population	Lee, J., 2007	It is an uncommon species, and its population appears to be declining in Quintana Roo in Mexico.	eng
63879	threats	Lee, J., 2007	Deforestation for agriculture and logging is a threat in parts of the species' range.	eng
63880	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
63880	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species ranges from southern Sonora, to southern Guerrero, including central Jalisco, Morelos, and Puebla, in Mexico. It occurs from sea level up to 1,100 m asl.	eng
63880	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in tropical semi-arid forest, tropical dry forest and arid scrub forest. It is an adaptable terrestrial species.	eng
63880	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
63880	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	No significant threats to this species are known.	eng
63881	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63881	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species has a very wide range along the central Pacific coast region of Mexico: from southern Nayarit, to the central coast of Guerrero, including Balsas basin and the Oaxacan valley. It occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63881	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is found in arid tropical forest, semi-deciduous forest, and lowland oak forest. It is a terrestrial species.	eng
63881	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
63881	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Habitat loss due to the destruction of natural forests is a threat in parts of the range, but this is not a significant threat across the whole range.	eng
63882	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	At least one population is protected in the Biosphere Reserve of Chamela-Cuixmala.	eng
63882	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the central coast of Jalisco, with one record from Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico.	eng
63882	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species can be found mostly on the ground in lowlands, in tropical dry forest and tropical semi-decidous forest.	eng
63882	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The population size is not known, but the species apparently is rare.	eng
63882	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Some habitat loss through deforestation (for agriculture and human settlement) is occurring in parts of the range, however, other areas (particularly northern areas and the area around Chamela) are well protected. Habitat destruction is not considered a significant threat to the species at present.	eng
63883	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Its range includes several protected areas in Mexico.	eng
63883	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations on the Atlantic slope from San Luis Potosi on the Gulf Coast of Mexico, to Bolivia and Brazil, and on the Pacific slope including the coast of Oaxaca, Mexico to lower Central America. It occurs through the base of the Yucatan Peninsula and northward through the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, apparently avoiding much of the drier western portion of the peninsula. In Guatemala this snake is known from near sea level to 1,000 m asl but may occur somewhat higher. In Mexico it occurs up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
63883	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This diurnal snake is an inhabitant of humid lowland forest and savannas. It is also found on small trees in pasturelands.	eng
63883	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
63883	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
63884	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63884	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range includes southern Georgia and peninsular Florida (Dorcas <em>et al</em>. 2003, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
63884	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This highly aquatic snake is usually in dense vegetation in shallow water of marshes, seasonally flooded prairies, swamps, sloughs, canals, lakes, sphagnum bogs, flatwoods ponds, temporary and permanent ponds, pocosins, or sluggish rivers (Ernst and Ernst 2003), primarily in areas that are not heavily shaded. Evidence for occurrence in brackish water is weak. Sometimes this snake traverses land, especially in humid or wet weather. Refuges include various burrows, including those made by crayfish, and spaces among or under wood or thick vegetation.	eng
63884	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Dorcas <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped somewhat more than 50 collection localities well distributed throughout the overall range. There are probably additional populations that have not yet been documented. Gibbons and Dorcas (2004) mapped occurrences in virtually every county in peninsular Florida. The adult population size in unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake attains high densities and is locally common throughout much of Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63884	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Habitat destruction has caused declines in some areas, and many are killed on roads each year (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but this snake is not significantly threatened in most of its range.	eng
63885	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63885	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from eastern Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois south to the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana (Webb 1970, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004 ).	eng
63885	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake inhabits sluggish streams, river-bottom sloughs, bayous, pond and lake margins, marshes, swamps, rice fields, and roadside ditches, often in water-edge vegetation, under shore debris, or in crayfish burrows (Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). It may travel away from water on rainy nights.	eng
63885	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Texas alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in much of its range (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is widespread but uncommon in Illinois (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999), locally abundant in Arkansas (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and locally abundant in a few places in Texas (Tennant 1998). Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that this snake is often locally common but "loss of crayfish populations because of pollution and acid rain has reduced its numbers drastically." However, overall its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
63885	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Without citing sources or details, Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that pollution and acid rain have reduced crayfish populations and have caused drastic declines in populations of <em>R. grahamii</em>. Local threats in Arkansas include draining and alteration of wetlands, but overall this species is not endangered or threatened there (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This snake often occurs in isolated colonies throughout its range (Werler and Dixon 2000); consequently, extirpated populations may not be readily reestablished through natural dispersal mechanisms. Werler and Dixon (2000) reported that this snake may prosper in the face of expanding human development, and they noted  the persistence of this species in urban parklands in Missouri and Texas. Overall, this species does not appear to be very threatened, but better information is needed on current trends and threats.	eng
63886	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63886	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends from Virginia (Buhlman <em>et al</em>. 1993, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 156-157) to northern Florida, west to eastern Texas and southeastern Oklahoma; most of the range is on the Coastal Plain, except in the northwestern portion (Webb 1970, Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63886	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include slow waters of lowland areas, such as swamps, nontidal and tidal freshwater marshes, sphagnum bogs, pocosins, seepage wetlands, ponds, lakes, flatwoods ponds, cypress ponds, bayous, rice fields, canals, drainage ditches, mucky areas along streams, and floodplains; also sometimes grassy or wooded upland habitats adjacent to wetlands (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Usually this snake is secluded in burrows (e.g., crayfish, muskrat), under mats of wet vegetation or debris at the water's edge, or among aquatic plants, but occasionally it basks on banks or on vegetation over water. It may travel on land during rain.	eng
63886	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Due to the snake's secretive habits, it is likely that more occurrences are yet to be discovered. For example, this species was not detected in North Carolina until 1954, yet Palmer and Braswell (1995) noted that 51 records were then known from that state. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is seemingly uncommon in most of the range, but this probably reflects secretive behavior and habitat preferences rather than true scarcity (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). It is common in some parts of Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Population trends are largely unknown but, based on habitat considerations, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63886	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Presumably habitat loss and degradation have caused local declines, but this snake is probably not threatened in most of its range.	eng
63887	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63887	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, and extends into southern Canada. Its range extends from the southern Great Lakes region (southeastern Wisconsin, Michigan, southern Ontario, and western New York) to the Gulf Coast of the Florida panhandle, and east to southeastern Pennsylvania, western New Jersey, and northern Delmarva Peninsula, and west disjunctly to Missouri (apparently extirpated, Johnson 2000) and Arkansas (Barbour 1971, Mount 1975, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Harding 1997, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst 2002, White and White 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
63887	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake occurs only where crayfish are present and fairly abundant, generally in moderate to fast-flowing streams with ample cover, wooded or open conditions, and good exposure to sun. Habitat has been characterized as follows: streams with vegetation along the shoreline, and rocky (north) or sandy (south) bottoms (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004); clean streams or marshes of open areas or woodlands (Ernst and Ernst 2003); small clear creeks with rocky or dandy bottoms, stream impoundments (Alabama; Mount 1975); woodland streams and cypress domes (Florida; Tennant 1997); exposed rocky river shorelines (Arkansas; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004); shallow rocky streams in agricultural, urban, and forested areas (Virginia; Mitchell 1994); shallow streams and rivers with plenty of sun, rocks, and overhanging shrubs and small trees (North Carolina; Palmer and Braswell 1995); unpolluted rocky woodland streams (Illinois; Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999); small rocky streams in wooded areas or open pastures, swampy woods (Kentucky; Barbour 1971); clear, spring-fed streams with moderate to fast currents and rocky bottoms, in lowland hardwood forests and shrub-carr communities (Wisconsin; Vogt 1981). In some areas the habitat may include slow-moving streams, ditches, canals, freshwater marshes, or the edges of ponds or lakes (Mitchell 1994, Harding 1997, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004), but this species generally is uncommon or absent from these habitats (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Minton 2001). This snake basks on branches overhanging the water. Sometimes it travels on land away from water. Refuges include burrows, rocks, logs, and other cover.	eng
63887	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped over 100 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many areas with suitable habitat. It is common along many streams above the Fall Line in Alabama (Mount 1975); uncommon in most of the range in Illinois, but locally abundant in good habitat (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999); uncommon and local in most of the range in the Great Lakes region, but locally common where ideal habitat remains (Harding 1997). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to have declined in some parts of the range (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but the degree of decline is unknown. In the Great Lakes region, numbers have declined in many places due largely to habitat degradation; this species is now scarce or absent in many stream that once harbored healthy populations (Harding 1997). This species appears to be declining on the Delmarva Peninsula (White and White 2002). Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63887	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Threats and declines appear to be greatest in the northern or peripheral parts of the range where habitat alteration has negatively affected crayfish populations (Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that water pollution and acid rain have combined to reduce crayfish populations in many parts of the eastern portion of the snake's range, and that this, along with drainage of wetlands, has eliminated the Queen Snake from many areas where it was once common. In Arkansas, eutrophication due to livestock or poultry waste runoff into streams is a possible threat, as is "overuse of water resources by human recreational activities" (Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Great Lakes region, siltation from urban or agricultural runoff may reduce or eliminate crayfish populations (Harding 1997). Threats in Illinois include pollution that reduces crayfish populations and siltation of rocky stream bottoms (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Anecdotal evidence suggests that local populations in the northeastern United States are being reduced in numbers or extirpated as a result of adverse effects of stream degradation and pollution on crayfish (Mitchell 1994, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, White and White 2002). Other potential threats include stream channelization and large impoundments (Mitchell 1994).	eng
63888	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within its distributional range.	eng
63888	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality and its vicinity, in the Sierra de Juarez of north-central Oaxaca, Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 2,025 to 2,075 m asl.	eng
63888	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is found underneath leaf-litter and logs in cloud forest. It has only been found in primary forest.	eng
63888	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is an uncommon species.	eng
63888	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation for agriculture is a major threat to this species.	eng
63889	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats for this poorly-known species.	eng
63889	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly-known species is known only from a single specimen collected in the Córdoba region of central Veracruz, Mexico. A record from the east side of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca is believed to be in error (P. Ponce-Campos pers. comm.). The elevation in Veracruz is at 600 m asl.	eng
63889	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It was collected in tropical evergreen forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.	eng
63889	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
63889	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The single site where it was collected has now been converted to a palm plantation.	eng
63890	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63890	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake is endemic to the southeast of the United States. It is discontinuously distributed along the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida (to Palm Beach County, Herp. Rev. 20:76), and west to eastern Louisiana (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Walley 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). It occurs mostly at elevations below 30 m and within 120 km of the coast (see Ernst and Barbour 1989).	eng
63890	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat is mainly damp pine flatwoods; also slash pine and longleaf pine woodlands; habitat is maintained by periodic fire (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Sometimes this snake is found in hardwood hammocks near pine flatwoods, along wooded edges of wet prairies, in sandhills near water, or in ecotones between sandhills and bottomlands and pocosins; some occur in dry live-oak woodlands on coastal islands off North Carolina and Florida (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is secretive and fossorial, often occurring under loose bark, in or under rotting logs, stumps, leaf litter, or other debris, buried in sandy soil, or in burrows. During dry periods, it has been found in crayfish burrows. Eggs usually are laid in rotting wood (Martof <em>et al</em>. 1980).	eng
63890	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). For example, Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped approximately 65 collection sites in North Carolina alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake often appears to be uncommon, but it is secretive and generally more numerous than casual observations indicate. The current trend is uncertain, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63890	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Some habitat has probably been lost due to changes resulting from fire suppression.	eng
63891	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine if wildfires are a threat to this species.	eng
63891	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is present in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental, in Veracruz, Mexico. It has been recorded from around 518 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63891	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is a fossorial species that has been recorded from primary pine-oak forest, it might also occur in secondary forest although this needs to be confirmed. It may be present in tropical evergreen forest at lower elevations, although this also needs to be confirmed. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63891	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63891	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species may be threatened by increased numbers of wildfires resulting from habitat fragmentation, however, it is unclear if this is a threat to this fossorial species.	eng
63892	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve (Puebla and Oaxaca). Further information is needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
63892	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it ranges from central Veracruz, through southeast Puebla to central and northern Oaxaca. The elevational range is about 1,800 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
63892	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is found in primary pine-oak forest and oak forest. It does not appear to be within secondary forest, or modified habitats. It is found in leaf-litter, under rocks and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63892	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63892	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation through clearing of land for agricultural use. The habitat is severely fragmented and animals cannot recolonise forest patches.	eng
63893	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species is found in El Tacana Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63893	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre of southwestern Guatemala and immediately adjacent Chiapas, Mexico, at elevations of 1,050 to 1,450 m asl.	eng
63893	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The only reported habitat is the ground litter in the shade of coffee plantations.	eng
63893	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Very little information is available on the population status of this species.	eng
63893	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Pesticides are potentially a threat to this species, but there is very little information known.	eng
63894	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least seven protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63894	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This widespread species is present in western Mexico, from Sinaloa southward into Guerrero, Morelos and Puebla, in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Cordillera Volcánica (Distrito Federal and State of Mexico), Sierra de Coalcomán and the Sierra Madre del Sur. It is found at elevations of between 884 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
63894	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a terrestrial species that has been found in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, tropical deciduous forest and mesquite grassland. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It is oviparous.	eng
63894	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63894	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63895	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species may occur in the Huitepec Private Reserve.	eng
63895	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the western portion of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 2,300 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
63895	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs in pine-oak forest. It may also persist in selectively logged forest.	eng
63895	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is very little information; it is known from very few specimens. It was last seen in the early 1980s. The paucity of records most probably reflects its secretive habits.	eng
63895	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Deforestation for wood extraction is a major threat to this species.	eng
63896	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in Lagos de Montebello National Park and Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera in Guatemala.	eng
63896	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the highlands of Chiapas near the Guatemalan border, the highlands of Alta and Baja Verapaz of extreme eastern Guatemala and adjacent Honduras, and northwestern Honduras. It has been recorded from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63896	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in the leaf-litter of lower montane wet and cloud forest. It also occurs in humid pine-oak habitats, but is found only in intact forest and possibly along forest edges.	eng
63896	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are sporadic records from throughout its disjunct range. It has been recorded since 1995. There are very few records probably due to its secretive habits.	eng
63896	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species at present.	eng
63897	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It can be found in El Tacana Biosphere Reserve, in Mexico.	eng
63897	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is distributed in the Pacific versant of the Sierra Madre of western Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. It is known from elevations of 1,050 to 2,637 m asl.	eng
63897	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in pine-oak and cloud forest, and can also be found in secondary forest, but needs shade. It eats salamanders, lizards, and small frogs.	eng
63897	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	it is a moderately common species.	eng
63897	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats identified for this species.	eng
63898	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
63898	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican endemic species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental and Volcanic Belt, ranging from west-central Durango, south to northern and central Michoacan, and east to Morelos and the vicinity of Mexico City.	eng
63898	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species occurs in pine and pine-oak forest under rocks and logs. There is no information on the extent to which it can adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63898	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63898	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63899	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within its distributional range.	eng
63899	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in eastern Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, at elevations from 1,200 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
63899	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	A terrestrial snake, it is found underneath leaf-litter and logs in pine-oak forests.	eng
63899	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63899	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
63900	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is only present in a proposed protected area in Tlanchinol, Hidalgo. There is a need to establish protected areas to preseve remaining islands of cloud forest habitat. Further studies are needed into the ecology, biology and natural history of this species.	eng
63900	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is known only from four small disjunct areas of cloud forest in the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico. It has been recorded from Xilitla, southeastern San Luis Potosi; Tlanchinol, Hidalgo; Villa Juarez, Puebla and Cuetzalan, Puebla. It ranges from 1,000 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
63900	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species exclusively occurs in primary montane cloud forest. It is generally a terrestrial species that lives under rocks, fallen tree trunks and other ground cover. It feeds on salamanders. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63900	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a locally rare species.	eng
63900	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The sites where this species has been recorded are threatened by deforestation through conversion to agricultural areas, including cropland and cattle pasture. It is also threatened by road construction in parts of its range.	eng
63901	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey and the the Parque Nacional Sierra Pena Nevada. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and taxonomy of this species.	eng
63901	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental in eastern Mexico, where it ranges through parts of western Nuevo Leon. It occurs at elevations of around 1,500 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63901	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in primary open pine-oak forest and dry grassland. It is not present in agricultural land. It can be found close to springs and marshy areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63901	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63901	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is threatened by fragmentation of primary habitat through agricultural expansion (cropland [e.g.. corn and wheat] and cattle ranching). The species can only be found in primary habitat and cannot cross areas of agricultural land.	eng
63902	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not found in any protected areas.	eng
63902	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from the Sierra Madre del Sur in the vicinity of Pluma Hidalgo and La Soledad in Mexico, at 1,524 m asl.	eng
63902	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It inhabits primary cloud and pine-oak forest.	eng
63902	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a very poorly known species.	eng
63902	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
63903	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.	eng
63903	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is distributed in the zone of the Sierra Madre del sur in central Guerrero, where it is known only from Omiltemi and the vicinity of Chilpancingo in Mexico. The known elevational range is from 2,226 to 2,439 m asl.	eng
63903	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in the leaf litter of pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is not known whether it occurs in disturbed areas.	eng
63903	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is very little information; it is known from relatively few specimens, many of which are 80 years old.	eng
63903	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Deforestation is occurring in the area, and the park is not well protected, but it is not known whether the species is able to adapt to modification of its habitat.	eng
63904	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is poorly known, and there needs to be further studies in the field. At least one population occurs in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra Gorda de Queretaro.	eng
63904	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from northern Puebla, Queretaro and possibly Guanajuato. It is found from about 1,800 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
63904	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is only known from primary pine-oak forest. It is found below leaf-litter, logs and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63904	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a rare species, known only from three specimens.	eng
63904	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The area from which this species has currently been recorded (three specimens in total only) is threatened by clearing of the pine-oak forest though conversion to agricultural use.	eng
63905	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63905	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the foothills along the eastern slope of Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, in Veracruz and northern Oaxaca, Mexico. The elevation range is between 800 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
63905	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The type specimens were collected in a banana grove. Its usual habitat is upper rainforest/lower cloud forest. It is a terrestrial species.	eng
63905	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a secretive species; it is possibly uncommon because it's uncommonly found.	eng
63905	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
63906	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in at least seven protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.	eng
63906	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it is found in the volcanic belt (<em>R. t. taeniata</em>) and the Sierra Madre del Sur (<em>R. t. aemula</em>). It has an elevational range of around 1,650 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
63906	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary pine forest, pine-oak forest, oak forest and juniper forest. It also occurs in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63906	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
63906	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
63907	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed on range, population, habitats and ecology for this species.	eng
63907	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality of Puerto del Gallo, in Guerrero, Mexico, from approximately 3,000 m asl.	eng
63907	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A terrestrial species found in fir forests.	eng
63907	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is very little information available. Two specimens were collected in the 1970s within 15 minutes of one another and none seen since, although no-one has been back to check.	eng
63907	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Deforestation and fires are probably a threat to this species, but insufficient information is known to confirm this.	eng
63908	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species' range is within a protected area.	eng
63908	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Cerralvo, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. It has been found only on the southern end of Isla Cerralvo, but probably occurs throughout the island (Grismer 2002).	eng
63908	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species has been found in sandy areas like arroyo bottoms and coastal dunes as well as on the branches of trees and bushes. The species is nocturnal.	eng
63908	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is no information on the population of this species. It is known only from four specimens and five field observations (Grismer 2002).	eng
63908	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no known threats to this species. The island is not known to be inhabited by humans, and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes or other natural disasters.	eng
63909	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63909	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range of this species extends from northern California, southern Idaho, Utah, southeastern Colorado, and southwestern Kansas in the United States, south to central Baja California, Jalisco, San Luis Potosi, and Tamaulipas, in Mexico, at elevations ranging from below sea level in desert sinks to around 1,900 m asl (6,233 feet) (Medica 1975, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63909	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' typical habitats include deserts, dry prairies, arid river valleys, thornbrush, and shrubland; sometimes oak-hackberry woodland (Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This snake retreats underground or under rocks by day. Eggs are laid underground or under rocks.	eng
63909	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Medica (1975) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in most of its Mexican range and in southern part of its US range. In some areas of the United States, it appears to be uncommon but secretive habits may make it seem less numerous than it actually is. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63909	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known for this species. Locally, some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of urbanization or conversion to intensive agricultural uses.	eng
63910	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Quintero Díaz, G. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least five protected areas.	eng
63910	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Quintero Díaz, G. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This widespread species is endemic to central Mexico. It is found at elevations of between 1,200 and 2,400 m asl	eng
63910	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Quintero Díaz, G. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is found in primary and secondary tropical dry forest, oak forest, pine-oak forest, pine forest and scrubland. It is also found in modified habitats including agricultural land. Its diet consists of amphibians, small lizards and small mammals. It is an oviparous species and lays up to two clutches in one season (Uribe-Peña <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
63910	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Quintero Díaz, G. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63910	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Quintero Díaz, G. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation of land for agricultural use in parts of its range.	eng
63911	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63911	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona (isolated population in Oak Creek Canyon, central Arizona), New Mexico, and central Texas in the United States, southward into northern Mexico as far as Hidalgo (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from sea level to over 1,980 m asl (6,500 feet), but in the western part of the range this snake seldom occurs below 1,370 m (4,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63911	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	In the western part of the range, habitats include rocky canyons, plateaus, and mountain slopes with open woodland or open ponderosa pine forests; in the east, the habitat includes prairies, arid shrublands, oak-juniper savanna, thorn brush woodland, and woodland-grassland-farmland mosaics (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63911	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nearly 100 collection sites in New Mexico alone. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is often common in suitable habitat (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63911	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Frost, D.R., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
63912	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63912	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species extends from southern and eastern California, western and southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah south through Arizona, southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas in the United States, to the tip of Baja California, southern Sinaloa, and Chihuahua, Mexico, at elevations ranging from below sea level in desert sinks to 2,135 m asl (7,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63912	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' habitat consists of sandy and rocky areas of plains and lower mountain slopes; creosote bush desert, ocotillo-yucca-agave flats, mesquite dominated washes, tobosa-grama grassland, broken upland terrain, succulent desert, partially dry streambeds of foothills and mesas, sagebrush semi-desert, chaparral, pinyon-juniper woodland; this snake is mainly terrestrial but sometimes climbs into vegetation (Behler and King 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63912	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. It is common in many parts of its range, but uncommon in Texas (Tennant 1984, 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63912	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
63913	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The species occurs in Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63913	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs from the Upper Balsas Basin and Valley of Tehuacan southward in to central portions of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Mexico. Its elevational range is approximately 1,400 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
63913	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a terrestrial species occurring in pine-oak and tropical deciduous forest and high desert.	eng
63913	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
63913	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
63914	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Cañon del Sumidero National Park.	eng
63914	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs along the Pacific coast of Mexico from Guerrero to Chiapas; also in Grijalva Valley of Chiapas. It possibly also occurs in adjacent Guatemala. It occurs from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63914	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs terrestrially and semi-arborially in pastures and dry forest. It also occurs in secondary forest.	eng
63914	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is an uncommon species but it is regularly recorded.	eng
63914	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63915	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63915	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is widespread in the central Pacific coast region of Mexico: from Nayarit, along the coast to the border of Guerrero and Oaxaca. It is also in the Santiago River Basin in Jalisco, Balsas Basin in Michoacan and Telhuacan Valley in Puebla.	eng
63915	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in a variety of habitats including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and cultivated land. This is a highly adaptable species.	eng
63915	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a common and regularly recorded species.	eng
63915	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no significant threats to this species at present.	eng
63916	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63916	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range includes the Coastal Plain from North Carolina to southern Florida, west to southern Alabama; extends up to 150 to 180 km inland from the coast in Georgia and South Carolina (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Dorcas <em>et al</em>. 1998, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004).	eng
63916	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include swamps, bayheads, Carolina bays, ponds, marshes, grassy wet prairies, sphagnum bogs, sluggish streams, ditches, canals, and lakes with abundant floating or emergent vegetation; sometimes this species has been found in salt marshes or brackish tidal water; usually this snake is found among vegetation in water or in or under debris at the water's edge, including matted vegetation of round-tailed muskrat houses; it may travel on land after heavy summer rains or when pond basins dry (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). In north-central Florida, individuals moved between temporary ponds and larger bodies of water; certain temporary ponds may comprise developmental habitat (Dodd 1993).	eng
63916	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see county distribution map in Gibbons and Dorcas 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake was the most abundant snake species in two long-term studies in South Carolina and Florida (Dodd 1993, Seigel <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is locally abundant in Florida (Tennant 1997) and relatively common in some areas of North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Wilson and Porras (1983) stated that populations in Florida have decreased. Current trends are not well known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63916	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, loss and degradation of wetlands likely have resulted in population declines or extirpations.	eng
63917	conservation	Lee, J., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico.	eng
63917	distribution	Lee, J., 2007	This species occurs from central Veracruz, Mexico, southward across Petén and eastern Guatemala, southern Belize, northern Honduras and eastern Nicaragua to Costa Rica; it also occurs on the Pacific watershed of northern Chiapas, Mexico, and southwestern Guatemala. In Guatemala, this species is known from near sea level to around 1,000 m asl. In Mexico it occurs only up to 680 m asl.	eng
63917	habitat	Lee, J., 2007	It is an arboreal and nocturnal inhabitant of humid lowland forests. It also occurs in degraded forest.	eng
63917	population	Lee, J., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63917	threats	Lee, J., 2007	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
63918	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in the El Tacaná and El Triunfo Biosphere Reserves as well as the forests protected by the Los Chimalapas community.	eng
63918	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs on the highlands of eastern Oaxaca and Chiapas, in Mexico, and in Guatemala, northern El Salvador, and southwestern Honduras. It ranges from 1,350 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
63918	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is found in leaf-litter, low shrubs, and low palms in pine, pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is also found in arboreal ferns. It is restricted to intact forest.	eng
63918	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is moderately common within its range.	eng
63918	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture, wood collection, and cattle grazing.	eng
63919	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The specimen was found in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63919	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The one known specimen of this species was found in Balzapote, extreme southeastern Veracruz in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico.	eng
63919	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species was found under leaf-litter in tropical rainforest	eng
63919	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is known from only one specimen collected in 1983. It has not been seen since, in one of the most well studied areas of Mexico, however, it is unclear whether extensive, appropriate surveys have been done to find this particular species. There is no reason to suspect that this species may be extinct.	eng
63919	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown, but the one specimen was found within a protected area.	eng
63920	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
63920	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occurs from northern Campeche through Yucatan, Quintana Roo and Yucatan in Mexico, and Belize and Guatemala on the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs from sea level up to 250 m asl.	eng
63920	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in tropical semi-deciduous forest and thorn forest. It also occurs in degraded forest as well as agricultural land.	eng
63920	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
63920	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63921	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63921	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific lowlands of western Mexico, where it ranges from southern Sonora, through extreme western Durango, to southern Sinaloa.	eng
63921	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species occurs in lowlands in areas covered by thorn forest and semi-deciduous forest. It is not found in open areas, or agricultural land.	eng
63921	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is a common species, but it is not well known, and little has been written about it.	eng
63921	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No threats have been directly identified, though it presumably suffers at least locally due to habitat loss for agriculture and other causes. However, it seems to avoid the coastal plain where habitat loss is most severe.	eng
63922	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is present in the Barranca de Huantitan protected area. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.	eng
63922	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is present in the States of Zacatacas and Aguascalientes. It ranges between 1,000 and 2,299 m asl.	eng
63922	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is found in shrubland, oak forest, pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63922	population	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63922	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat fragmentation through agricultural development.	eng
63923	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., Gustavo Quintero Díaz & Vázquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. No further research is needed into this species.	eng
63923	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., Gustavo Quintero Díaz & Vázquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. It has a scattered range from the Upper Balsas river basin in Michoacan and Guerro throughout Morelos and Puebla, and a record in the foothills of Colima. It ranges from around sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
63923	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., Gustavo Quintero Díaz & Vázquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is found in deciduous tropical forest and tropical shrubland. It is generally associated with primary habitat although it can occur in slightly disturbed areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63923	population	Ponce-Campos, P., Gustavo Quintero Díaz & Vázquez Díaz, J., 2007	It is a very rare species.	eng
63923	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., Gustavo Quintero Díaz & Vázquez Díaz, J., 2007	There are not thought to be any threats to this species. The habitat within its range is relatively intact.	eng
63924	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is present in the Barranca de Huantitan protected area. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.	eng
63924	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, it is present in central and southern Jalisco, southern Zacatas, eastern Nayarit and southwestern Sinola. It ranges between 1,000 and 1,690 m asl.	eng
63924	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is found in tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63924	population	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63924	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by habitat fragmentation through agricultural development.	eng
63925	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This snake occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63925	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern California, Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, southwestern Utah, southeastern Colorado, Kansas, and southwestern Missouri in the United States, south to southern Baja California, Chihuahua, and Tamaulipas in Mexico; from sea level to around 1,830 m asl (6,000 feet) (Frost 1983, Grismer 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63925	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats include arid and semi-arid regions: river bottoms, desert flats, sand hummocks, rocky hillsides with pockets of loose soil; from prairie and desert lowlands to pinyon-juniper and oak-pine zone; soil may be rocky to sandy, vegetation dense to sparse (Tennant 1984, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63925	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Frost 1983). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63925	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
63926	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
63926	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at low and intermediate elevations on the Pacific slope of Mexico southward from Guerrero to lower Central America. It occurs throughout much of central Petén, Belize, and northern Yucatan Peninsula. The elevation range of the species is from 100 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
63926	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This snake occurs in tropical moist and dry forest. It also occurs in disturbed forest, forest edge, and agricultural areas.	eng
63926	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species is locally common.	eng
63926	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no known threats to the species.	eng
63927	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Several occurrences are in protected areas. This snake occurs in Ocala National Forest (though management may not be adequate) and in some small state parks, preserves, and geological sites (Wekiwa Springs, Ichetucknee Spring, San Felasco Hammock, Devil's Millhopper). Surveys are needed to determine distribution and status of populations. Protection of substantial tracts of xeric habitat is essential. Degradation of the large tracts of good habitat in the Ocala National Forest should be prevented. This snake can coexist with necessary residential, agricultural, and industrial developments if development is not too intense (e.g., not more than one homesite per acre) and native ecosystems are preserved to the maximum extent possible (Campbell and Moler 1992).	eng
63927	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this snake is restricted to northern and central peninsular Florida in the southeast of the United States, from Suwanee and Columbia counties to Hillsborough, Orange, and Highlands counties (Franz <em>et al</em>. 1992); the species is not known from west of the Suwannee River.	eng
63927	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat is dry sandy uplands, especially longleaf pine-turkey oak (sandhill) and sometimes adjacent xeric oak hammocks and rosemary-sand pine scrub; this snake also has been found in sphagnum bog adjacent to typical habitat (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Carr and Goin 1955, Campbell and Moler 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Campbell and Christman (1982) reported that this species is more abundant in early successional stages in pine scrub than in advanced stages with a full pine canopy, dense evergreen shrub layer, and matted ground cover. This is a fossorial snake, sometimes found under objects or in leaf litter in autumn (fall).	eng
63927	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species has been found in more than 30 localities. It is secretive and relatively difficult to detect, so it can be expected to occur in additional sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This snake seems to be very rare where it does occur, but its secretive, fossorial habits may make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined and probably continue to do so, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
63927	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is threatened by loss of habitat to residential and agricultural development and possibly also by clearcutting and other timber management programs in sand pine scrub (Campbell and Moler 1992). Mining is an additional cause of habitat loss.	eng
63928	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63928	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	The species' range extends in North America from southern Maine, southern Quebec, southern Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, and northeastern South Dakota south to southern Florida (including the Lower Keys, Lazell 1989), the United States Gulf coast, and through eastern and southern Mexico to Veracruz and Oaxaca and from Chiapas to Honduras (Christman 1982).	eng
63928	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	This snake occurs in nearly all terrestrial and wetland habitat types in its range, including cities. Habitats in Mexico include cloud forest and tropical deciduous forest. Usually it inhabits moist situations, but it is not an aquatic species. It often occurs under debris or logs; frequently among water hyacinths in Florida. Hibernation sites (often communal) are underground or beneath buildings and other structures.	eng
63928	population	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number (hundreds) of occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Christman 1982). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally abundant (up to hundreds per hectare) in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63928	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Lee, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This snake tolerates a high level of habitat disturbance.	eng
63929	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and biology of this species.	eng
63929	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it ranges from Nuevo Leon, through Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi to northeastern Hidalgo. It occurs between 1,400 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
63929	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This terrestrial species occurs in primary and secondary cloud forest, pine forest, pine-oak forest and fir forests. It is not believed to occur in agricultural areas, but may occur in cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63929	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63929	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is threatened by severe fragmentation of suitable habitat by conversion to agricultural land throughout its range. Animals cannot move between habitat fragments.	eng
63930	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63930	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from Nova Scotia to southeastern Saskatchewan, and south to southeastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and central Florida; isolated population in the Black Hills, Wyoming-South Dakota (Ernst 2002, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63930	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats are varied and include mountainous or hilly woodland/forest, upland meadows and valleys, and swamp and bog edges (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake shelters under and in ground cover, in building foundations, and in abandoned ant mounds. Generally it occurs in mesic situations with abundant ground cover.	eng
63930	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Ernst 2002). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000, probably much more. This snake, though secretive and sometimes hard to detect, is locally common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63930	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.  This snake is tolerant of minor habitat alterations.	eng
63931	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species' range includes several protected areas.	eng
63931	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from cold areas of Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Puebla, San Luis Potosi and Mexico City. It has been recorded between 2,743 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
63931	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	An inhabitant of pine forest, scrub forests, meadows and pine-oak forests. It lives under rocks. It feeds on slugs.	eng
63931	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
63931	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63932	conservation	García Aguayo, A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Chamela-Cuitzmala Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63932	distribution	García Aguayo, A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific versant of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (southeastern Oaxaca and southwestern Chiapas, Mexico). It was also recently recorded at the mouth of the Rio Balsas in Michoacan and Chamela, Jalisco, Mexico. It occurs from near sea level up to 500 m asl. It may be continuously distributed along the Pacific coast of Mexico.	eng
63932	habitat	García Aguayo, A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is found in tropical deciduous forest, and is probably restricted to well-conserved forest.	eng
63932	population	García Aguayo, A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no recent records for the population in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but it is common at Chamela, especially during the rainy season.	eng
63932	threats	García Aguayo, A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is probably threatened by deforestation.	eng
63933	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63933	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from the Mexican states of Yucatan, eastern Campeche and Quintana Roo, to central Belize. The elevational records for this snake are between sea level and 300 m asl.	eng
63933	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is known both from deciduous thorn forest and from the more mesic forests on the eastern side of the peninsula and to the south. It can also live in degraded forest but not in human habitation. It eats grasshoppers.	eng
63933	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63933	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63934	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Protected area(s) are needed for this species. Field work is required to determine the limits of the species' range.	eng
63934	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This Mexican endemic species is known from the Sierra Madre del Sur (Myers and Campbell 1981), from the northern portion (recent localities come from 6 miles southeast of Tamazulapan) and the center of Oaxaca (Sierra de Juárez).	eng
63934	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in fragmented pine-oak forests.	eng
63934	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is generally rare, but is common in a few sites. There are only nine specimens known to date.	eng
63934	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Fragmentation due to logging and the conversion to agricultural lands is a major threat.	eng
63935	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs in some protected areas, including most of the Lower Rio Grande National Wildlife Refuge system and Padre Island National Seashore (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997).	eng
63935	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range of this species includes a disjunct population in southern Texas; the main portion of the range is in Mexico in Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983).	eng
63935	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitats include wooded and grassland-thorn brush communities (Tennant 1998). The species ranges from desert flats to wooded mountain canyons (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
63935	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The number of occurrences or subpopulations is not well known. Cole and Hardy (1981) mapped 12 collection locations in southern Texas and northern Mexico. It is rarely seen due to its secretive, fossorial way of life, nocturnal habits, and inaccessibility of habitat (Cole and Hardy 1981, A. Price pers. comm. 1997). There are probably many undiscovered occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least many thousands. This snake is not often collected, but it has a fairly wide distribution that may be spotty (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Probably it is more common than it appears to be (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably fairly stable.	eng
63935	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is not significantly threatened at the present time. Potential threats include loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation, as well as climatic change (L. Hardy pers. comm. 1997). A large amount of habitat in Texas is being converted to agriculture, sown to alien grasses for improved grazing, and fragmented by road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Loss of habitat to development is a potential threat (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997).	eng
63936	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to determine the extent to which it can survive in degraded areas.	eng
63936	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican species is known from northeastern Sinaloa, southern Durango, and western Zacatecas, south through Jalisco and Colima and east through Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Michoacán, southern Queretaro, Hidalgo, Mexico, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla and into central Veracruz. It occurs from 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
63936	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is found in pine-oak and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63936	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Little information appears to be available on its abundance.	eng
63936	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63937	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). The area is protected by local communities.	eng
63937	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality on the Caribbean versant of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Mexican state of Oaxaca at low elevations between 90 and 100 m asl. Another specimen has been found recently (L. Canseco Marquez pers. comm. 2005) in a nearby location.	eng
63937	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species was found in tropical moist and possibly dry forest.	eng
63937	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen, and one other specimen collected recently.	eng
63937	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Fires and deforestation are affecting the habitat within the range of this species.	eng
63938	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas within its large range.	eng
63938	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is widespread along the Pacific coast of Mexico; from Sinaloa to Guerrero and Morelos, with a separate record from Tehuacan in southern coastal Guerrero. Its range includes the Tres Marias Islands. It occurs from sea level up to 1,050 m asl.	eng
63938	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is adaptable and occurs in a variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, oak forest, mangrove, and cultivated land.	eng
63938	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63938	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no significant threats to this adaptable species.	eng
63939	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Field work and systematics is required to define the present conservation status of this species and then to define conservation measures if necessary. It occurs in Parque Nacional Eduardo Ruiz.	eng
63939	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the Sierra de los Tarascos, in Pacific Michoacan, Mexico. It is known only from one specimen collected at 1,430 m asl in 1939.	eng
63939	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The one specimen was found in an area originally covered by pine-oak forest in the ecotone with tropical deciduous forest, in an area of extensive lava outflows. It is fossorial.	eng
63939	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is known only from one specimen.	eng
63939	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The area in which it was found is highly disturbed, but this probably wouldn't impact the species because of its fossorial ecology. More information is needed regards whether there are any significant threats to this species.	eng
63940	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
63940	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from two localities of the Pacific versant of central Guerrero, Mexico, at 1,402 to 1,524 m asl.	eng
63940	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It was collected in tropical deciduous forest, and in an area grazed by livestock. It is a fossorial species.	eng
63940	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is known from only 12 specimens collected at two localities.	eng
63940	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The area in which the species was found had been grazed by livestock, but it probably has not had much effect on this fossorial species. More information is needed to determine if there are any major threats to this species.	eng
63941	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63941	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range extends from extreme southern Indiana and western Kentucky eastward to Virginia, and south to eastern Louisiana, Alabama, and the Florida panhandle (Barbour 1971, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63941	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat varies but tends to be relatively dry and wooded (often pine and oak), with an abundance of rocks, logs, or rotting stumps on the surface; specific examples of occupied habitats include xeric pine-oak woodland on hillsides and ridges; sandy pine flatwoods; maritime forests; sandhills; and sometimes mesic meadows, hardwood hammocks, and the wet margins of marshes, swamps, and rivers (Barbour 1971, Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). In daytime, this snake generally is under rocks, debris, or other surface cover, or within or under rotting logs or stumps. At night, it may be found on roads. Eggs are laid under woody debris, in rotting logs or sawdust piles, or underground.	eng
63941	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) e.g., (see dot maps of collection sites in Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and probably more numerous than available records indicate. It is locally common statewide in Alabama (Mount 1975), nowhere abundant but locally common in some areas in Kentucky (Barbour 1971), and uncommon in Florida (Tennant 1997). Current trend is unknown, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63941	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In Florida, this snake has been negatively affected by the recent invasion of imported fire ants (Tennant 1997). However, overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
63942	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Some occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63942	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species encompasses the Trans-Pecos region of western Texas in the south of the United States. It ranges from near Shafter (Presidio County), through the Big Bend region (Davis and Chisos mountains) and east to the Dolan Falls area of Val Verde County (Werler and Dixon 2000, Wilson <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63942	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include steep-sided rocky canyons with pinyon pine, oak, and juniper; hilly grassland with juniper and cholla; streamside woodland with creosote bush, acacia, yucca, and grasses; and low hills of arid grassland with creosote bush, yucca, ocotillo, and agave; at elevations of 1,180 to 1,712 m (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually under cover, underground, or in crevices; it may travel on the surface at night in summer when surface moisture is present.	eng
63942	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Wilson <em>et al</em>. (2000) mapped 25 collection sites. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped 28 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably is a least several thousand. Though seemingly rare (fewer than 100 have been collected), this secretive fossorial snake (like all <em>Tantilla</em>) is undoubtedly more common the available records indicate. Population trends are not certainly known, but there is no reason to suspect that extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not relatively stable.	eng
63942	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.	eng
63943	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63943	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from the Mexican states of Yucatan, northern Quintana Roo, and northern El Petén, in Guatemala, and northern Belize. It occurs from sea level up to 200 m asl.	eng
63943	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This snake inhabits thorn and tropical evergreen forests. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in human habitation. They eat centipedes.	eng
63943	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63943	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
63944	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and population abundance of this species.	eng
63944	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This little-known species occurs in the Pacific versant of Morelos State, Mexico. It occurs between 1,524 and 2,438 m asl.	eng
63944	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species inhabits primary and secondary open pine-oak forest. It can be found in disturbed habitats. Animals have been found under rocks and other ground cover. It is an oviparous species.	eng
63944	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63944	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It occurs in disturbed habitats.	eng
63945	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is found inside the Tehuacan- Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63945	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from central Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found at altitudes from 2,000 to 2,340 m asl.	eng
63945	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species inhabits oak forests. It is a terrestrial, diurnal species from primary forests, and can be found under logs, and leaf-litter.	eng
63945	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63945	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
63946	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas. However, in some areas, this may not be sufficient for long-term persistence (see Threats information).	eng
63946	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species' range extends from eastern Kansas, Missouri, and southwestern Illinois south through Oklahoma and Arkansas to central Louisiana, Texas in the United States, and adjacent Coahuila and Tamaulipas, in Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63946	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species' habitats include rocky prairie, wooded hillsides, rocky forest edges, pine-oak uplands, oak-juniper brakes, pine woods, moist deciduous woods, thorn woodland, and grass-brushland (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). This semi-fossorial snake often is found under rocks or logs after spring or summer rains. Eggs are laid in shallow underground hollows, under rocks (e.g., Cobb 1990), or in decaying vegetation.	eng
63946	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped more than 200 collection sites in Texas, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped more than 100 collection sites in Arkansas. In Mexico, the species is known from only a few specimens. Many occurrences have probably good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common.	eng
63946	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Tennant (1998) reported that nest predation by non-native fire ants has decimated populations in Texas. Werler and Dixon (2000) did not mention this threat.	eng
63947	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63947	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' known range extends discontinuously from southern California, southern Nevada, Utah, and west-central Colorado south to Arizona, southern New Mexico, Texas in the United States, and northern Mexico (Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila) (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983; Stebbins 2003).	eng
63947	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats include pinyon-juniper woodland, chaparral-woodland, riparian woodland, mesquite-yucca grassland, sagebrush-greasewood, cedar-ocotillo, persimmon-shin oak, mesquite-creosote bush, and cedar-savanna (Cole and Hardy 1983, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This semi-fossorial snake is secretive but may travel in the open at night.	eng
63947	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (see map in Cole and Hardy 1983). The total adult population size is not known but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is locally common, but it is secretive and difficult to detect except under specific temperature, moisture, and temporal conditions. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63947	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
63948	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
63948	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from eastern Chiapas, Mexico, across Guatemala into northwestern Honduras. It has been recorded from near sea level up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
63948	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in leaf-litter of pre-montane moist forest, and also in secondary forest and has been found along the edges of cardamom plantations.	eng
63948	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is known from about a dozen specimens, some collected after 2000, but the lack of specimens may be due to its secretive habits. There are no quantitative population data, but its habitat is not particularly threatened indicating that populations are stable.	eng
63948	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is locally threatened by deforestation.	eng
63949	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in the El Triunfo and Tacaná Biosphere Reserves.	eng
63949	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs on the Pacific versant from eastern Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico to Guatemala. It has been recorded from 305 to 960 m asl.  The record from Oaxaca requires confirmation.	eng
63949	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from leaf-litter of tropical moist forests and subtropical wet forests. It is found also in shade coffee plantations near forest. It probably does not tolerate much disturbance of its habitat because it requires a thick layer of leaf-litter.	eng
63949	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a poorly known species, and is probably uncommon. It was collected in 2001 in El Triunfo, Chiapas.	eng
63949	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is threatened by pesticides used in coffee plantations. Its range in Guatemala has been severely deforested.	eng
63950	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63950	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality, from Musté, Municipio of Motozintla, Chiapas, Mexico, at approximately 450 m asl. It may be more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
63950	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in sub-montane wet forest. Its adaptability to habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
63950	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species was described recently from two specimens collected in 1968. There are no recent records, but this may reflect the secretive nature of the species and a lack of survey work within its range.	eng
63950	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are currently no major threats to this species; much of the forest remains in the region where this species was collected.	eng
63951	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
63951	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula and occurs more or less continuously through northern Yucatan south to central Quintana Roo in Mexico. The several records from El Petén, Guatemala may represent an isolated population. Although it has not yet been recorded from Belize and Campeche (Mexico), it very probably occurs there. It occurs near sea level to about 200 m asl.	eng
63951	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is found in thorn forest and tropical deciduous and tropical evergreen forest. It can also be found in degraded forest but not in human habitation.	eng
63951	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63951	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63952	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63952	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Wyoming and southern Nebraska, south through eastern Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, southeastern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the United States, to northern Mexico (Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas), at elevations from near sea level to around 2,130 m asl (7,000 feet) (Cole and Hardy 1981, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63952	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats include plains and desert grassland (including cattle rangelands), shrubland, sandhills, rocky canyons, riparian zones along prairie streams, and thorn brush woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Sometimes this snake can be found in old rubbish dumps. It shelters underground or under rocks or other cover by day, and travels in the open at night.	eng
63952	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas in the United States and Mexico, but its secretive habits make it appear to be less numerous than it actually is. In Texas, it is moderately abundant in thorn brush habitat on the Rio Grande plain and in shortgrass prairie of the Panhandle (Tennant 1998). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of much less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63952	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats to this species are known. Conversion of habitat to intensive agricultural uses probably has reduced the area of occupancy in some regions.	eng
63953	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
63953	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is found in moderate and intermediate elevations of the Pacific versant in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
63953	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an inhabitant of subtropical moist forests, lower montane dry forests and lower montane moist forests.	eng
63953	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	No population data are available for this species.	eng
63953	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63954	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Protected sites on upper Key Largo include Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Key Largo Hammocks, and Port Bougainville. This snake is known also from Arch Creek Park. The current status and exact location of all occurrences should be determined so that they can be protected by some means. The primary protection need is the preservation of suitable habitat; this snake is able to coexist with some development if areas of native vegetation are left intact or at least if is a significant area is left in open space, parks, and green belts that are not subject to soil compaction or an altered water table (Campbell and Moler 1992).	eng
63954	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Florida in the United States. Its range includes eastern Dade County and Monroe County, Florida, including the Eastern Rock Rim of Miami oolite and the Florida Keys (including at least Key Largo, Upper Matecumbe Key, Grassy Key, and Vaca Key); a Tantilla specimen from Key West apparently is this species, but occurrence in the Lower Keys needs to be confirmed (Campbell and Moler 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Most of the range in Dade County has been lost.	eng
63954	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Known habitats include sandy or rocky soils in slash pine flatwoods, tropical hardwood hammocks, vacant lots, and pastures with shrubby growth and scattered slash pine (Campbell and Moler 1992). This fossorial snake may be encountered under fallen palmetto leaves, boards, logs, rocks, or other debris.	eng
63954	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a small number of known occurrences (subpopulations) (Telford 1980, Campbell and Moler 1992). The adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand (Tantilla usually are more numerous than available records indicate). However, very few individuals of this species have ever been found. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have probably declined significantly compared to the historical situation. Currently, the remaining populations are declining or deteriorating in quality as very rapid loss of habitat continues.	eng
63954	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The biggest threat is habitat loss and fragmentation from development (Lazell 1989, Campbell and Moler 1992). Rapid and intense habitat modification has occurred (and continues) within the Miami-Key Largo area. Apparently this species can withstand limited human incursion and can survive in somewhat altered habitat.	eng
63955	conservation	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63955	distribution	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species extends along the Coast Ranges from central California in the United States, just east (east of Livermore) and south of San Francisco Bay, to the tip of Baja California in Mexico. It also ranges to the desert side of the mountains in southern California (Cole and Hardy 1981, 1983; Grismer 2002; Stebbins 2003), but is absent from the Lower Colorado Desert, the Vizcaíno Desert, and the Magdalena Plain. Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,220 m asl (4,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Stebbins (2003) pointed out that the distribution of this species and of <em>T. hobartsmithi</em> in central California needs further study and clarification.	eng
63955	habitat	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include grassland, coastal scrub, chaparral, oak and oak-pine woodland, desert-edge, and thorn scrub, often in rocky areas and along streams, on both level ground and hillsides (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This snake stays underground or under rocks or other cover during daylight, and comes on to the surface at night.	eng
63955	population	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (see map in Cole and Hardy 1983). It is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in many more locations than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000. This secretive species is certainly more numerous than available specimens indicate. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63955	threats	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally in southern California, some habitat has been lost to urbanization.	eng
63956	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Some occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63956	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Florida in the United States. Its range extends disjunctly through peninsular Florida and northward into southern Georgia (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63956	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include sandhills, sand pine scrub, coastal dunes, and xeric and mesic hammocks (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Ernst and Ernst 2003); it is more common in sandhills than in scrub habitat (Mushinsky and Witz 1993). In scrub habitat, this snake appears to most common in early successional stages generated by periodic disturbance (e.g., fire, clear cutting) that removes the matted understorey or pine canopy (Campbell and Christman 1982). Fire periodicity evidently has no influence on local distribution in sandhill habitat (Mushinsky and Witz 1993). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually under the soil surface or under surface cover; it also uses pocket gopher mounds.	eng
63956	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Telford 1980). The adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is relatively common (Mushinsky and Witz 1993, Tennant 1997). The area of occupancy and population size have probably declined compared to the historical situation. Current trend is uncertain, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63956	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat in southeastern Florida has been reduced as a result of urban and agricultural development (Wilson and Porras 1983).	eng
63957	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field work in the area could help to determine the present conservation status of this species.	eng
63957	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This recently described species is known only from the type locality of Octimaxal Norte, northern Puebla, Mexico. It was collected at 800 m asl.	eng
63957	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The only known specimen was found in a transformed, or disturbed, area, originally covered by cloud forest now converted to a coffee plantation. It is oviparous.	eng
63957	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
63957	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are poorly-known. The only known specimen was collected in a coffee plantation. It is possible that habitat transformation has affected the populations of this species in the past.	eng
63958	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It presumably occurs in a number of proected areas. Research is needed to determine its abaility to survive in degraded habitats.	eng
63958	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is found at low, moderate and intermediate elevations (near sea level up to 2,618 m asl) of the Atlantic versant from central Nuevo Leon, Mexico, to western Guatemala, and also at various elevations on the Pacific versant in Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
63958	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs in pine forest, pine-oak forest, and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63958	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is not a common species, but it is not rare.	eng
63958	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63959	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a poorly known species, additional field work is needed in order to determine its range, population status, threats and ecology. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63959	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from one specimen collected in 1978 at La Union, western Guerrero, Mexico at 150 m asl.	eng
63959	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The specimen was collected in an area covered by tropical deciduous forest. It is a fossorial species.	eng
63959	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is known only from one specimen. Its fossorial habits may be the reason why it has not been collected more often.	eng
63959	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
63960	conservation	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Further research on population size, range, biology, threats and habitat status is needed. It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
63960	distribution	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known only from two locations; one in southeastern San Luis Potosi (Xilitla (Miramar)), and one in northwestern Veracruz (San Antonio Ixtatetla), Mexico (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is found at approximately 1,400 m asl.	eng
63960	habitat	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is a secretive inhabitant of the cloud forest.	eng
63960	population	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known from only two specimens and is considered rare.	eng
63960	threats	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat in the area is being degraded as cloud forest is modified for coffee plantations. The Xilitla area has been dramatically disturbed in recent decades due to logging and change in land use with the consequence of habitat being lost.	eng
63961	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found within Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63961	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species is known from low and medium elevations in the Los Tuxtlas region of Mexico.	eng
63961	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The few specimens were found in primary and secondary forest. The species is fossorial and difficult to find.	eng
63961	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is rarely encountered because it is difficult to find. The species is known from five to six specimens throughout the area.	eng
63961	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There is no information about threats to the species.	eng
63962	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
63962	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in the southeast region of Oaxaca, Mexico. It is found from 700 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
63962	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from tropical deciduous and oak forests. It is not known whether it can tolerate disturbance of its habitat.	eng
63962	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This a rare species. It is known from only a few specimens.	eng
63962	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a potential threat to the species, but there is very little information known.	eng
63963	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Tacaná Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63963	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality, Volcan Tacaná, in the Municipality of Union Juarez, Chiapas, Mexico, at 760 m asl.	eng
63963	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	All five known specimens of this species were caught in leaf-litter on the ground in a cafetal with shade trees in subtropical wet forest. Tolerance to greater habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
63963	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is known only from five specimens collected between 1970 and 1982. There is no recent population data, although there have been no significant land use changes in the last few decades.	eng
63963	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Complete deforestation would be a threat to this species but this activity is not widespread in the area where this species occurs.	eng
63964	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, ecology and threats for this species are needed.	eng
63964	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from south, central and northern Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
63964	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in cloud and montane humid forests.	eng
63964	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Only a few specimens of this species are known.	eng
63964	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There is some disturbance of the habitat in Sierra de Juarez, but overall threats to this are not well known.	eng
63965	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63965	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from the Huachuca, Santa Rita, and Patagonia mountains of extreme southeastern Arizona in the United States, south to eastern Sinaloa, Durango, San Luis Potosi, and Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Liner 1983, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from 910 to 2,440 m asl (3,000 to 8,000 feet).	eng
63965	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is found under rocks, logs, and dead plants (agave, yucca, and sotol) in shaded rocky canyons and on relatively open, sunny, rocky slopes in desert-grassland, pine-oak woodland, and evergreen woodland (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63965	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by at least a few dozen occurrences or subpopulations. It is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in more locations than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63965	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats to this species are known. The habitat is remote from any significant disturbance.	eng
63966	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	At least a few occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63966	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species' range extends from southeastern Arizona (Pajarito, Mule, and Chiricahua mountains) and the lower slopes of the Guadalupe and Peloncillo mountains, New Mexico (Painter <em>et al</em>. 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) in the United States, south through eastern Sonora, extreme western Chihuahua, and Sinaloa to Nayarit, Mexico, at elevations from near sea level to about 1,680 m asl (5,500 feet) (McDiarmid 1977, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63966	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In Mexico, habitats include deciduous thornforests of the Sierra Madre Occidental and tropical semi-arid and dry woodland of the coastal plain; in Arizona, this snake inhabits evergreen woodland and woodlands along streams (McDiarmid 1977, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Generally this snake is underground, or under rocks or logs.	eng
63966	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This snake is secretive, relatively difficult to find, and certainly occurs in more locations than are presently known. McDiarmid (1977) mapped a couple dozen collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but presumably is at least a few thousand and probably exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63966	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
63967	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63967	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific slope of southeastern Oaxaca, and on the Pacific coastal plain of Chiapas, Mexico, to south central Guatemala. It has been recorded from 200 to 1,700 m asl.	eng
63967	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It inhabits the leaf-litter of lowland rainforest and tropical deciduous forest. It occurs in corn fields, but apparently not in coffee plantations.	eng
63967	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is relatively abundant in Chiapas near the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
63967	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63968	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas in Mexico.	eng
63968	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is found in the Mexican states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, and the northern portion of the Guatemalan department of El Petén, and northern and central Belize on the Yucatan Peninsula. It occurs at elevations ranging from sea level to 500 m asl.	eng
63968	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This secretive snake occurs beneath surface debris and rocks in areas of thorn forest and tropical rain forest. It also occurs in degraded forest but not in human habitation.	eng
63968	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63968	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63969	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, Mexico.	eng
63969	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species ranges from central Veracruz, Mexico, through Guatemala into northwestern Honduras. In the Yucatan Peninsula it has been recorded from El Petén and southern Belize. It occurs from sea level to about 200 m asl.	eng
63969	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This snake inhabits lowland tropical wet and moist forest. Several specimens have been taken in secondary growth, plantain groves, and pastures, while others have been encountered in forest leaf-litter.	eng
63969	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is sporadically recorded, probably due to its secretive habitats. It is regularly recorded at Los Tuxtlas, in Veracruz, Mexico.	eng
63969	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
63970	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63970	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Its range includes southwestern Oregon and western California north of Point Concepcion, at elevations from sea level to around 1,920 m (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63970	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include rocky fast-flowing streams, sluggish streams with soft bottoms, ponds, small lakes, and the adjacent riparian zone, in areas surrounded by woodlands, woodland-grass ecotones, or chaparral (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). This snake basks on boulders and vegetation along banks and in mid-stream; it seeks cover under water under rocks or among exposed tree roots. In most areas this snake is closely tied to water, but individuals sometimes travel on land away from water.	eng
63970	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63970	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Predation by introduced bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) may be a concern in some areas.	eng
63971	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.	eng
63971	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. The native range includes southwestern New York and northwestern Pennsylvania, mainly in the unglaciated portions of the upper Allegheny River drainage, at elevations of 270 to over 700 m (Ernst and Barbour 1989, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This species is introduced and established at Pittsburgh and apparently also in Butler, Clearfield, and Erie counties (e.g., Lethaby, 2004, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 35: 73), Pennsylvania, in south-central New York (Conant and Collins 1991), and in Youngstown, Mahoning County, Ohio (Novotny, 1990, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 21: 42). In New York, this snake is restricted to the Allegheny River drainage in Chatagua, Cattaraugus, and Allegheny counties and two isolated (possibly introduced) areas at Horseheads straddling the Susquehanna and St. Lawrence river drainages, Chemung County (Bothner 1986).	eng
63971	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include old fields, meadows, pastures, forest edges, and other open herbaceous fields, often in areas close to water or wetlands; this snake scarcely penetrates wooded areas; it can be found active or basking on the ground or in stone piles or under debris (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Introduced populations are well established in urban settings. Hibernating individuals have been found underground on a steep rocky slope.	eng
63971	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Bothner (1976) mapped 69 records in New York and Pennsylvania and five questionable records. McCoy (1982) mapped 73 records in 11 counties from Pennsylvania. Hulse <em>et al</em>. (2001) mapped 70+ collection sites in Pennsylvania plus nine additional locations with established introductions. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is common to abundant in its small range (Harding 1997, Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001). Early references commented on high population densities, while Bothner (1976) commented on drastic declines, yet this species remains locally abundant in many areas. The current trend is uncertain, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable (see Bothner 1986) or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. This species appears to be common and secure within Pennsylvania. Large populations have become established through translocations outside of the native range (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
63971	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In some areas the preferred habitat has disappeared as old farms have been developed or abandoned and reforested (Bothner 1986). It has been suggested that <em>Thamnophis sirtalis</em> may be encroaching on the range of <em>T. brachystoma</em> in some reforested areas (Bothner 1986), but whether or not this poses a threat independent of that associated with habitat change is unknown.	eng
63972	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its level of protection is unknown, but this species probably occurs in at least several protected areas.	eng
63972	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada. Its range includes southern Ontario, eastern Michigan, eastern Indiana, Ohio, and southeastern Wisconsin (Vogt 1981, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63972	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists of open moist grassy/sedgy situations: meadows, pastures, marsh edges, margins of lakes and streams in open country, vacant lots, old dumps, railroad embankments, and roadsides, including such areas in cities; also seasonally dry uplands; shelters include logs, rocks, debris on the ground, old house foundations, burrows, ant mounds, and similar sites (Vogt 1981, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Harding 1997, Minton 2001, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63972	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Minton 1980). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is very common in preferred habitat in most of its range (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996), although Minton (2001) described it as a rare relict species in Indiana. The current trend is not definitely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63972	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This snake has benefited from deforestation, and it thrives in disturbed areas in urban areas, but sometimes is eliminated or reduced with intensive development of its preferred habitat.	eng
63973	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further reserach is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63973	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is distributed in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental from Puebla to central Veracruz, and in the Sierra Madre del Sur in southern Oaxaca and southern Guerrero. It has an altitudinal range of 1,500 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
63973	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This terrestrial species has a high affinity with humid habitats, it can be found under rocks and logs close to pools and streams in cloud forests and pine oak forest. It can be found in primary and secondary forest and degraded habitats, such as agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63973	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63973	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
63974	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Some occurrences are in protected  areas.	eng
63974	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the west of the United States. Its range includes the Sierra Nevada, California, north to the Pit River, south to the Tehachapi Mountains, and extends east along major rivers to the Owens Valley and west-central Nevada, at elevations of about 90 to 2,440 m (300 to 8,000 feet) (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63974	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats of this highly aquatic snake include pools of permanent or seasonal streams (often rocky), meadow ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and associated riparian zones (e.g., cottonwood, willow, sycamore, alder), in areas with oak woodland, grassy valleys, chaparral,  montane coniferous forest, or (east of the Sierra crest) pine-juniper-sagebrush  (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63974	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is locally common in various parts of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63974	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some populations may be declining as a result of predation by introduced non-native fishes (Rossmand <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
63975	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63975	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' range extends from southern Colorado and Utah south through Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas in the United States, and much of Mexico to Guatemala, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,700 m asl (8,700 feet) (Webb 1980, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The distribution is spotty in many areas.	eng
63975	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake occurs in a wide range of habitats, from desert flats, dry grasslands, and tropical lowlands to pine-oak habitats and cloud forest in mountains; in the southwestern United States it is often in the vicinity of permanent and intermittent streams, spring seepages, and irrigation canals, usually in canyons, foothills, or mountains (Stebbins 2003). It inhabits rocky hillsides and limestone ledges, and wooded ravines and cedar brakes, in the Texas Hill Country (Tennant 1984). In Mexico, habitats include tropical barrancas, thorny scrub forest, tropical deciduous forest, and upper arid or mixed boreal-tropical cloud forest (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snake wanders far from water into adjacent grassland, desert, woodland, and shrubland, but mostly it is restricted to the vicinity of consistent water sources in the arid southwest (Jones 1990).	eng
63975	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Webb (1980) mapped over 200 collection sites across the entire range. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often common in suitable habitat (Woodin 1953, Minton 1959, Tennant 1984). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. Possible declines have been recorded at the extreme northern limit of the range in southwestern Colorado (Hammerson 1999).	eng
63975	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. In some areas, habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of urbanization, deforestation, or conversion to intensive agricultural uses. The pet trade is a potential threat to this species.	eng
63976	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
63976	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The species' range extends from central British Columbia, central Alberta, and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, south through all of the western United States (east to western South Dakota, western Nebraska, Colorado, extreme western Oklahoma, and New Mexico) to (disjunctly) northern Baja California. There are many isolated populations around the margins of the main range (Fitch 1983, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003), notably in the Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino Mountains of California, and Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California (subspecies <em>T. c. hueyi</em>). Its elevational range extends from sea level to 3,995 m asl (13,100 feet) (very rarely); usually below 3,355 m asl (11,000 feet) (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63976	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, from lowlands to high mountains: grassland, shrubland, woodland, rocky hillsides, and open areas in forests. It is chiefly terrestrial in most areas, but also aquatic in some locations (e.g., high Sierra Nevada). Often in inhabits wetlands and areas near streams, ponds, and lakes.	eng
63976	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Fitch 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is very common in many areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. The isolated southern populations in California and Baja California are much less abundant.	eng
63976	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	No major threats are known. In high-elevation areas of the southern Sierra Nevada in California, introductions of non-native trout apparently have led to declines in populations of amphibians and possibly also of <em>T. elegans</em>, which may depend on amphibians as a primary food resource (and which may occasionally serve as prey for trout) (Matthews <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, Matthews <em>et al</em>. (2002) did not discuss the historical distribution of <em>T. elegans</em> in their study areas, so the significance of extensive trout introductions in the absence of garter snakes from some areas (John Muir Wilderness) is uncertain. Further study is warranted (e.g., in the mountains of Colorado, <em>T. elegans</em> is a versatile feeder [Hammerson 1999], and garter snake populations may not rely much on amphibian populations).	eng
63977	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The range of this species includes many protected areas.	eng
63977	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is known from central and southeastern Arizona (now rare) and extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States, south through the highlands of western and southern Mexico to Oaxaca, at elevations of 53 to 2,590 m asl (175 to 8,500 feet) (Roden and Schwalbe 1988, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). The Mexican distribution extends from southwestern New Mexico down the Sierra Madre Occidental and western edge of the Chihuahuan Desert to the southern mountains of the Mexican altiplano around Mexico City. There is an isolated population in Sierra Madre del Sur (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). In New Mexico, this snake is known from the lower Gila Basin, along Duck and Mule creeks in Grant County and near Virden in Hildago County (Hubbard and Eley 1985 cited by New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997); may now be eliminated from Duck Creek (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, it is known from the Santa Cruz Valley east and generally south of the Gila River; also from Agua Fria River, Oak Creek, Verde River, and several upper Salt/Black River sites (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1998). There is an unsubstantiated report from southwestern Texas (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). See De Queiroz and Smith (1996) for evidence of former occurrence in southern Nevada and adjacent Arizona.	eng
63977	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This snake is strongly associated with permanent water with vegetation, including stock tanks, ponds, lakes, cienegas, cienega streams, and riparian woods (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Manjarrez 1998). In the northern part of the range, the species is usually found in or near water in highland canyons with pine-oak forest and pinyon-juniper woodland, and it also enters mesquite grassland and desert areas, especially along valleys and stream courses (Stebbins 2003).	eng
63977	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations, most of which are in Mexico. In the United States, it is known from a few localities in New Mexico (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997) and roughly 50 localities in Arizona (Sabra Schwartz pers. comm. 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. This snake is common in much of its Mexican range. Tremendous numbers have been found in certain lakes of the Mexican altiplano, and it is abundant in a number of streams of the northern Sierra Madre Occidental (see Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Surveys during the 1980s indicate that abundance has declined in Arizona. During 1985-1986 a total of 79 Arizona sites were surveyed. During this survey, 180 observations were recorded and substantial populations were found at five of 21 locations. Museum records and habitat descriptions indicate that this species was formerly abundant at many more of these locations. Populations at the remaining locations consisted of few (less than 50) individuals or widely scattered individuals. Additionally, a crude statewide abundance estimate of 5,875 individuals was made (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). United States populations have disappeared from many historic locations and its status is of great concern (Jim Rorabaugh pers. comm. 1998). New Mexico populations have declined (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). In Arizona, substantial range contraction has been noted and fairly well documented (Kulby 1995) with populations extirpated at several locations since 1950 (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1998). The San Bernadino National Wildlife Refuge, Arizona, population is declining (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). During a 1985-1986 Arizona survey, Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) concluded that populations had been eliminated from Phoenix and Tucson and possibly eliminated from the Colorado and lower Santa Cruz rivers. Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) also noted population declines at several other historical Arizona localities. Overall, the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63977	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major range-wide threats are known. The species is not significantly threatened in Mexico. <br/> <br/>In the United States, primary threats include overcollecting, overgrazing, habitat alteration (dewatering, siltation, modification of stream morphology, and arroyo cutting), and the introduction of predaceous, non-native species, particularly bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) and domestic geese (Kulby 1995, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Cover is a critical habitat component. Removal of cover by grazing for even a single season could eliminate a population. Especially vulnerable to grazing are small, isolated populations in areas of limited habitat (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Bullfrogs influence populations through both competition and predation; garter snake numbers are lowest where bullfrogs are most abundant (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Additionally, the introduction of large catfish, bass, green sunfish, and pike may potentially have the same effect as introduced bullfrogs (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).	eng
63978	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a poorly known species, and more fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requrements. It presumably occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
63978	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species occurs from northwestern Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental through Durango to western Zacatecas and extreme northeastern Nayarit, Mexico. It is found from 1,860 to 2,545 m asl.	eng
63978	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is found under rocks and logs in pine and pine-oak forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63978	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is little information on its abundance.	eng
63978	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat, at least locally, if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63979	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterrey and Parque Nacional Sierra Pena Nevada. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63979	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico, where it has been recorded from an isolated population in southeastern Coahuila, and a second population in southern Nuevo Leon and southwestern Tamaulipas. It occurs between around 2,650 and 2,860 m asl.	eng
63979	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is found in primary and secondary dry pine-oak forests and grasslands, where it can be found under logs, rocks and other ground cover. Animals have been found hunting for prey under the leaves of agaves. It can be found in disturbed areas such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63979	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a locally common species.	eng
63979	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is locally threatened by severe habitat fragmentation through conversion to agricultural use in parts of its range, however, it can generally move between habitat fragments.	eng
63980	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in a few protected areas in Guatemala (for example, the Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera).	eng
63980	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from the Central Highlands and Sierra Madre in Chiapas, Mexico, Guatemalan Highlands, Sierra Chuacús-las Minas, and Sierra de los Cuchumatanes-Alta Verapaz Highlands, Guatemala, and western Honduras and northern El Salvador. The recorded elevational range is from 1,636 to 3,353 m asl.	eng
63980	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in pine-oak and cloud forests, and also in secondary growth, plantations, and highland marshes. It colonizes artificial bodies of water in the highlands.	eng
63980	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present.	eng
63980	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by the drainage of wetlands.	eng
63981	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in at least five protected areas. Further research is needed into the natural history and ecology of this species.	eng
63981	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is present in the southern Sierra Madre Oriental. The species has several disjunct populations in Puebla and Veracruz in the east, and Oaxaca and Guerrero in western Mexico. It occurs between 1,768 and 3,018 m asl.	eng
63981	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is associated with streams and other water bodies, such as ponds. It is found under logs and rocks in primary pine forest, pine-oak forests, oak forest and cloud forest. It is not present in secondary habitat or agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63981	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63981	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation of land throughout its range, through conversion of areas to agricultural use.	eng
63982	conservation	Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63982	distribution	Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is known from southwestern Chihuahua with disjunct populations from central Durango southward to Zacatecas, western Jalisco, Nayarit, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, northern Michoacan, Estado de Mexico and Distrito Federale in Mexico. It occurs at elevations of 1,158 to 2,545 m asl.	eng
63982	habitat	Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This is a very aquatic species, commonly found in pools and low streams in forested areas and deciduous woodlands.	eng
63982	population	Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Previously, the species was very common, it is now uncommon. It has suffered greatly from habitat destruction due to water pollution in the past 10 years, degrading its Area of Occupancy.	eng
63982	threats	Vasquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Water pollution due to agriculture and industry is a severe threat to the species.	eng
63983	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Rancho Cielo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, ecology, natural history and biology of this species.	eng
63983	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental in eastern Mexico, where it is restricted to Racho Cielo and Sierra de San Carlos in southwestern Tamaulipas. These sites may be isolated as there are lowlands between them. It is found from 1,100 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
63983	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species inhabits primary humid pine-oak forest and cloud forest. It is not present in secondary or disturbed habitats. Animals can be found under rocks, logs, under agave leaves and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63983	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
63983	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation through conversion of land to agricultural use, principally cattle ranching. It does not move between habitat fragments.	eng
63984	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a poorly known species, and more fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requrements. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
63984	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from southwestern Durango, Mexico. It occurs from 2,200 to 2,743 m asl.	eng
63984	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species seems to be associated with streams and basins in high elevation areas of forest. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63984	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is very little information on the abundance of this species.	eng
63984	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified, though its limited range places it at elevated risk should any threatening processes start. It is potentially at risk from the loss of its forest habitat if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63985	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63985	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in southwestern Canada and northwestern United States. Its range includes southwestern British Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, and extreme northwestern California, including various coastal islands, at elevations from sea level to around 1,680 m (5,500 feet) (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1981, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63985	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake is primarily terrestrial but may be found near or occasionally in water; often it occurs in meadows, forest clearings, and along the edges of thickets (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Hibernation sites include talus slopes or deep rock crevices.	eng
63985	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see dot map in Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1981). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63985	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known.	eng
63986	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	More research is needed on biology, population, range, habitat status and threats to this species.	eng
63986	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is known from the Tepalcatepec Valley in central Michoacan, and southwest of Chapala Lake. It occurs from 250 to 1,067 m asl.	eng
63986	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is associated with temporary pools in the lowland arid shrublands and dry forests.	eng
63986	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is not a very common species. In the Tepalcatepec Valley, it occurs throughout the entire area; the other two subpopulations are isolated from this valley.	eng
63986	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A small amount of forest removal for crop agriculture occurs in parts of the range. The area this species occurs in is hot and not attractive for many people to settle in, therefore habitat loss is not considered to be a significant concern for this species.	eng
63987	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Few data exist about natural history and population status of this species, although it is possibly present in some protected areas. More fieldwork is needed to provide data on its natural history, on the status of its populations, and on its conservation requirements.	eng
63987	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Several disjunct populations of this Mexican endemic species can be recognized, the northeastern most one in western and southeastern Durango, then eastwards to Queretaro, Hidalgo, Puebla and adjacent central Veracruz, and others from Jalisco to Michoacan, Estado de Mexico, the Federal District, and Morelos and south to Oaxaca.	eng
63987	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is found under rocks and logs in high elevation pine-oak and fir forests. It is not known to what extent it might be able to adapt to degraded habitats.	eng
63987	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is very little information on the abundance of this species.	eng
63987	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	No threats have been identified. It is potentially at risk, at least locally, from the loss of its forest habitat if it is unable to adapt to secondary habitats.	eng
63988	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63988	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species ranges from central United States to south-central Canada. Its range extends from southern Alberta, Montana, eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado and northeastern New Mexico eastward through southern Manitoba, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin and northern and central Illinois to northwestern Indiana and disjunctly to central Ohio, southward to northern Texas, western Oklahoma, and northern half of Missouri, at elevations of 120 to 2,290 m (400 to 7,500 feet) but usually below 1,830 m (6,000 feet) (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Walley <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
63988	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake often occurs in the vicinity of ponds, sloughs, marshes, lakes, or slow creeks or rivers, generally in prairie and farmland areas but also in the pinyon-juniper zone; it often disperses into adjacent terrestrial habitats, such as vacant lots, residential areas, old dumps, or prairie (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). Hibernation sites include burrows of rodents or crayfish, crevices, anthills, old wells, spaces under concrete, and other similar sites; some may hibernate underwater.	eng
63988	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Walley <em>et al</em>. 2003). The adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000, probably much more. This snake is very common in many parts of its large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63988	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This species tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration. Many are killed on roads or by mowing equipment, but this does not constitute a major threat.	eng
63989	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The type locality is not in a protected area. Further information on population, range, threats and ecology are needed in order to make an assessment of the status of this species.	eng
63989	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a recently described species from central Nayarit, Mexico. It is known only from the type locality; 1.4 km northwest of the small settlement of San Cayetano.	eng
63989	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an aquatic species, mainly found in running water in ditches, rivers and streams, but sometimes it can be found on the ground. The type specimen was collected from an open roadside ditch.	eng
63989	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Nothing is known about population size or trends of this species.	eng
63989	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown. More information about the species is required.	eng
63990	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Apparently there are few if any adequately protected occurrences of this species. The degree of threat (e.g, interactions with non-native fish species) is in need of further study. Better information on abundance, number of occurrences, and population trend is needed, especially in Mexico. If the species is declining in Mexico in the same way as has been recorded on the United States, it might qualify for listing as Near Threatened, or even Vulnerable, under criterion A2.	eng
63990	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Its range in the United States includes central and eastern Arizona and west-central New Mexico in the Mogollon Rim area. The Mexican range is larger and is disjunct from that in the United States. In Mexico it ranges from northern Sonora and Chihuahua and southward in the Sierra Madre Occidental to central Durango, with an apparently disjunct population in southwestern Durango. It occurs at elevations of 700 to 2,430 m asl (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Tanner 1990, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997, Stebbins 2003). <br/> <br/>The New Mexican distribution includes the Gila and San Francisco river drainages in Catron, Grant, and Hidalgo counties, at elevations of 1,125 to 2,100 m asl (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). <br/> <br/>In Arizona, this species occurs in upland drainages in central and eastern Arizona from the White Mountains and along the Mogollon Rim to Oak Creek Canyon, in Apache, Coconino, Gila, Graham, Greenlee, Navajo, and Yavapai counties; good populations found at Oak Creek Canyon and along the East Verde River (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997; Arizona Game and Fish Department, 2002, unpublished abstract compiled and edited by the Heritage Data Management System ). A previously eliminated population from Fort Valley Creek at the Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, may have been reintroduced (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).	eng
63990	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is regarded as one of the most aquatic of all garter snakes (Conant 1963). It often occurs along well-lit sections of rocky streams with abundant riparian vegetation, in areas of pinyon-juniper, oak-pine, or ponderosa pine; it basks on rocks, shrubs, or snags, and it often seeks cover under rocks in or adjacent to water (Fleharty 1967, Stebbins 1985, 2003; Rosen and Schwalbe 1988; Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). This snake may be numerous among rocks in areas with riffles, deep pools, and abundant large boulders, whereas areas with broad expanses of small rock and sand, and streams that traverse meadows, do not appear to be suitable habitat (Fitzgerald 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Along Oak Creek, Arizona, hibernation occurs from November to April in rocky areas well above the floodplain (Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).	eng
63990	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The population status and trend in Mexico, which includes the bulk of the range, is unknown. However, The Nature Conservancy's Heritage Program in Sonora estimated over 100 occurrences with possibly 80% of occurrences in good condition (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998).  <br/> <br/>In the United States, the number of distinct occurrences or subpopulations has not been determined using consistent criteria but probably there are at least several dozen. The Arizona Natural Heritage Program has recorded at least 51 occurrences, a few of which are believed to be not extant (Sabra Schwartz pers. comm. 1998). Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 27 collection sites in New Mexico. Its conservation status in Mexico is poorly known (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996). Tanner (1990) mapped six collection sites in New Mexico and 23 collection sites in Mexico. <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least several thousand. A 1985-1986 survey of 79 locations in Arizona yielded 157 individuals from 10 localities; a crude statewide abundance estimate indicated a population size of possibly fewer than 3,500 non-neonates (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). According to the authors, this preliminary estimate indicated surprisingly low abundance in Arizona. Additionally, there have been few recent observations during statewide and national forest surveys for sensitive herps in Arizona (Kulby 1995). <br/> <br/>In Arizona, some populations appear stable, while others have declined. A 1985-1986 survey conducted by Rosen and Schwalbe (1988) in selected regions of Arizona indicated that the species is nowhere abundant and has been nearly eliminated from some areas where formerly it was abundant. The species is believed to be extirpated from Flagstaff [see range comment] and Wall Lake, Arizona, and from adjacent parts of the East Fork of the Gila River in New Mexico (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). It has declined along the lower portions of Oak Creek, Arizona, where it is now scarce below Oak Creek Canyon, and apparently has declined in lower Oak Creek Canyon (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Kulby 1995, Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005). Additionally, there have been few observations during recent statewide and national forest surveys for sensitive riparian herps in Arizona.	eng
63990	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The greatest threats are introduced predators (bullfrogs, fishes, crayfish), loss of habitat (urbanization, overgrazing, and the destruction of rivers and wetlands), habitat fragmentation, and, in some areas (e.g., Oak Creek, Arizona), habitat degradation caused by heavy recreational use (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988, Nowak and Santana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).  <br/> <br/>There is indirect evidence that the introduction of bullfrogs (<em>Rana catesbeiana</em>) has eliminated populations in some areas (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Additionally, low densities and historical declines in the White Mountains correlate closely with the history of fish introductions (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). Populations may also be negatively affected by predation by introduced crayfish, which also may negatively affect the snake's prey base (Rosen and Fernandez 1996, Nowak and Sanatana-Bendix 2002, Nowak 2005).  <br/> <br/>Habitat alteration can negatively affect high-elevation populations. The greater need to thermoregulate at higher elevations makes optimal basking sites such as shrubs and snags essential. Under such circumstances, channelization or other activities that remove or disrupt bank vegetation may lead to extirpation (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).  <br/> <br/>A notable concern is the isolation of the central Arizona populations in Oak Creek Canyon and East Verde River. The absence of a mainstream population makes repopulation of these streams during local extinction events highly unlikely. This also implies that the East Verde and Oak Creek populations are irreplaceable and that further degradation of the main streams of the Salt, Black, and Gila rivers may eventually eliminate most, if not all populations in these drainages (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988). <br/> <br/>Needless killing and excessive collecting may be having a negative impact (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). There are indications of regular killing and removal along Oak Creek Canyon, Arizona. An estimated 44% of annual mortality of non-neonates is attributed to human mortality (Rosen and Schwalbe 1988).   <br/> <br/>This species is regarded as not very threatened by the Sonora, Mexico, Heritage Program (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). However, this does not cover all of the Mexican range, and the United States populations appear to be moderately threatened. The degree of threat warrants further investigation.	eng
63991	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
63991	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the east of the United States, and extends into southern Canada. Its range extends from Wisconsin to southern Maine and Nova Scotia, and south discontinuously to southeastern Louisiana, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This species has been reported from the Bahamas but may not be established there (see Powell and Henderson 1999).	eng
63991	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include wet meadows, marshes, seasonally flooded prairies, bogs, ponds, lake shorelines, swamps, and shallow slow streams; also hardwood hammocks and other wet or moist forest in some areas; usually this snake is in or near vegetative cover (often shrubs or clumps of sedges or grasses) in sun-exposed sites along the edge of standing or flowing water; it climbs into low vegetation, rarely into tree canopy (Bishop and Farrell 1994 <em>Herpetological Review</em> 25: 127, Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996, Harding 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Shelters include thick vegetation, muskrat lodges, or burrows. Hibernation sites are in burrows, ant mounds, underground on high ground (sometimes high on rocky slopes), or underwater.	eng
63991	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in many parts of its large range. Populations may be declining in some areas (Ernst and Ernst 2003), but overall the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
63991	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In most areas, this snake is not significantly threatened. Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that populations are declining over much of the range because of habitat destruction, but this likely pertains primarily to peripheral populations or areas where the species is naturally rare. Degradation of shoreline vegetation is believed to result in population declines (Harding 1997). Locally, large numbers are killed on roads (Rossman <em>et al</em>. 1996), but this may be more a reflection of local abundance than a significant threat.	eng
63992	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in at least three protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
63992	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico where it occurs along the volcanic belt. It has been recorded from western and central Jalisco, Michoacan, State of Mexico, Distrito Federal, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Hidalgo and Veracruz. It occurs between 1,800 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
63992	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This terrestrial species is present in primary and secondary pine, pine-oak and fir forests, where it can be found under rocks, logs, bark and leaf-litter. It has also been recorded from grasslands. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63992	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
63992	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and cattle pasture.	eng
63993	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Gustavo Quintero Díaz, 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas for this species. Further research is needed into the ecology, natural history and population of this species.	eng
63993	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Gustavo Quintero Díaz, 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico. It is present as isolated highland populations in the Central Plateau and the volcanic belt. It has been recorded from Michoacan, Aguascalientes, State of Mexico and the Distrito Federal. It has an elevational range of 2,230 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
63993	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Gustavo Quintero Díaz, 2007	The species is associated with streams and small canyons in semi-arid dry grasslands, shrubland and oak forest. It can be found in secondary habitats including agricultural areas, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63993	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Gustavo Quintero Díaz, 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
63993	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Gustavo Quintero Díaz, 2007	It is threatened by extensive habitat conversion to agricultural use. Populations can remain in areas with some limited habitat conversion.	eng
63994	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is present in the Sierra Gorda protected area. Further data is needed on the natural history, population status and threats to this species.	eng
63994	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in eastern San Luis Potosi and extreme northeastern Queretaro to Hidalgo, from here it occurs in central Veracruz and extreme northern and eastern Puebla. It is found at elevations of about 1,365 to 2,305 m asl.	eng
63994	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is highly associated with streams, irrigation ditches/canals, and other kinds of moving water, both close to, and within, primary humid montane forest, cloud forest and pine-oak forest. It can occur in agricultural areas (such as corn fields) and other disturbed areas. It can be found in leaf-litter and below logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.	eng
63994	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is an abundant to uncommon species.	eng
63994	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are currently no known threats to this species. It may be threatened in Hidalgo in the future by continuing habitat loss, and further studies are needed into this.	eng
63995	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in at least three protected wetland areas throughout its range.	eng
63995	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico and occurs along the Pacific coast from southern Sonora to the central coastal area of Guerrero, and part of the Balsas basin. There is an isolated population in the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula, where it occurs in the Sierra la Laguna and from near San José del Cabo (Grismer 2002).	eng
63995	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a semi-aquatic species. It is very adaptable and occurs in mangroves, swamps, streams, rivers, rocky canyon pools, irrigation canals, dams, marshy meadows oak woodland, and the lower parts of pine-oak woodland, always being found in association with water.	eng
63995	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a common species, and is locally abundant in the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula (Grsimer 2002).	eng
63995	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The main threat is loss of wetland habitat for small-holder farming, wood collection and human settlement. However, the species is currently widespread and relatively stable.	eng
63996	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
63996	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is widely distributed along slopes and foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental, Oriental, and Sur of Mexico. Specimens are known from the coastal plain and from the central plateau in the foothills of the Balsas and Tepaltepec basins. It occurs between 100 and 2,600 m asl.	eng
63996	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is usually found in rocky areas of irregular relief, also beneath rocks, and on the sides of rocks. It can also be found in croplands (corn).  It is tolerant of human disturbance.	eng
63996	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
63996	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
63997	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas. Its distribution in Mexico needs further study (LaDuc and Johnson 2003).	eng
63997	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range encompasses southwestern New Mexico (west to the Florida and Tres Hermanas mountains), western Texas, and adjacent Chihuahua and Coahuila in northeastern Mexico, at elevations ranging from at least 860 to 1,856 m asl (LaDuc and Johnson 2003). The range probably includes many of the Mexican mountain ranges bordering the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) throughout Chihuahua and to the Sierra del Carmen in western Coahuila, in addition to other uncollected intervening areas between Ciudad Chihuahua and the United States border (LaDuc and Johnson 2003).	eng
63997	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This snake occurs most commonly in dry, rocky terrain of mountains, canyons, hills, rock outcrops, fissured bluffs, and arroyos, in areas with desert plants (e.g., ocotillo, catclaw mimosa, white thorn, yucca, lechuguilla, prickly pear, cholla, and grasses) or riparian vegetation (e.g., ash, hackberry, juniper, oak), sometimes on desert flats dominated by creosote bush or in shallow canyons with mesquite (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, LaDuc and Johnson 2003).	eng
63997	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nine collection sites in New Mexico. Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 30 collection sites in Texas. These represent roughly 14 to 15 distinct occupied areas in addition to those in Mexico. Secretive habits and occurrence in rough terrain make it likely that this snake occurs in substantially more locations than are presently known. <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 and is probably much larger. Though often regarded as rare, this secretive snake is fairly common in some areas (e.g., McCrystal 1991) and is probably generally more numerous than available records indicate. <br/> <br/>Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63997	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
63998	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are adequately protected.	eng
63998	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends discontinuously from Illinois, Iowa, extreme southwestern Minnesota, and extreme southeastern South Dakota south through eastern Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma to New Mexico and Texas, at elevations from near sea level to around 2,000 m (6,560 feet) (Conant and Collins 1991, Oldfield and Moriarty 1994, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
63998	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include prairie hillsides and canyon bottoms, woodland edges, vacant city lots, residential yards, and abandoned trash dumps, in moist situations that may or may not be close to a body of water or wetland; in daytime, this snake can be found under rocks, logs, trash, and other cover (Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Johnson 2000, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
63998	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and sometimes hard to find within its range, but it is often common and sometimes locally abundant in suitable habitat. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
63998	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. This snake tolerates and even thrives on moderate habitat alteration.	eng
63999	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).	eng
63999	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is widespread along the Pacific coast of Mexico, from Sinaloa to Guerrero, including the Santiago River basin. It occurs from sea level up to 1,450 m asl.	eng
63999	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	An adaptable species, occupying a wide variety of habitats, including tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and disturbed areas. During the wet seasons, this species can often be seen on roads.	eng
63999	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not a particularly common species, but it is widespread.	eng
63999	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	No significant threats to this species are known.	eng
64000	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is found in Chamela Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64000	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is known from two disjunct ranges in Mexico; one from Pacific coastal Sinaloa to the south to Central Nayarit and coastal southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima to northwestern Michoacan, and the other in coastal western Oaxaca. It occurs at elevations from sea level up to 850 m asl.	eng
64000	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	A nocturnal snake that inhabits arid and semi-arid areas of scrublands and thorn woodland. Some specimens have been collected in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest. It tolerates some disturbance of its habitat.	eng
64000	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
64000	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64001	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known whether this species occurs in a protected area.  Further specimens of this species are needed to confirm its taxonomic status.  More information on range, population, ecology and threats is also needed.	eng
64001	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This Mexican endemic species is known from two specimens; one from the type locality "km 236.2 hwy 16 Chihuahua-Hermosillo", in the state of Sonora, at 1,643 m asl, and one from "km 36 on the autotrail Temoris-Chínipas", in the municipality of Guazapares, in the state of Chihuahua at 1,563 m asl.	eng
64001	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is no information regarding the habitat in which the species was collected. Both specimens were road kill.	eng
64001	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known only from two specimens, both of which were road kill. There is no information known about the population status of this species.	eng
64001	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is no information on the threats to this species.	eng
64002	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
64002	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from southeastern Virginia to northern Florida, west to central Texas, northward to central Missouri and extreme southwestern Tennessee (Conant and Collins 1991, Mitchell 1994, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werner and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
64002	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include rocky hillsides of dry open woods, limestone and sandstone cedar glades, woodland edge, mesic woodland and grassland, pastures, thickly wooded bottomlands, dry and mesic hammocks, pine flatwoods, wooded margins of streams in arid landscapes, swamp borders, gardens, and (often) vacant lots or woodlots in urban areas; this secretive semi-fossorial snake is usually in areas with moisture, ground cover, and some exposure to sunlight; often is found in rotting stumps or under rocks, logs, trash, loose bark, or other cover (Mitchell 1994, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
64002	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps in Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werper and Dixon 2000, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Texas alone. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common to abundant in many parts of its range (Tennant 1997, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64002	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that habitat destruction and pesticide spraying have reduced populations of this snake in many areas. Documentation of the effects of pesticides appears to be limited to Ferguson (1963), who listed one specimen of <em>Virginia striatula</em> that was found dead in an area sprayed with heptachlor. Mitchell (1994) noted that some populations in Virginia likely will be lost as a result of projected urbanization. However, on a range-wide basis, no major threats are known. This snake tolerates a good deal of habitat alteration and thrives in many urban areas.	eng
64003	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are adequately protected.	eng
64003	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from New Jersey and Pennsylvania to northern Florida, and west to southern Iowa, northeastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and central Texas; an isolated population occurs in peninsular Florida (Conant and Collins 1991, Powell <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
64003	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include deciduous woods, exposed rocky slopes in mixed deciduous-pine associations, pine woodland, grassy slopes with rocks in areas of deciduous forest, mesic hammocks, moist woodland along floodplains, wooded areas around marshes and other damp places, rocky sparse woods and forest edge, old fields, vacant lots, and wooded or brushy residential areas. In daytime, this secretive snake often shelters under logs, rocks, or other cover. It may aggregate during hibernation.	eng
64003	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and sometimes hard to detect, bit it is locally common in suitable habitat (e.g. Palmer and Braswell 1995, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999). Current trend is not documented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64003	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, this species is perhaps threatened in some areas by deforestation (Mitchell 1991), and some populations appear to have been eliminated by residential, industrial, and agricultural development (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
64004	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64004	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in two disjunct ranges; at low and moderate elevations on the Gulf slope from southern Tamaulipas in Mexico, and the Pacific slope from Oaxaca, south and eastward into the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. The Yucatan populations are apparently isolated from those to the south and east. It occurs from near sea level to about 200 m asl.	eng
64004	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This diurnal lizard is primarily an arboreal inhabitant of lowland tropical forest. In the Yucatan Peninsula it seems most abundant in the thorn and deciduous forests of the northern half of the peninsula. It can be found in secondary growth and degraded forests.	eng
64004	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
64004	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present and it appears to be able to tolerate significant disturbance of its habitat.	eng
64005	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The only known locality of this species is not within a protected area, and there is an urgent need to conserve habitat within its limited range. Further general research is needed, as is monitoring of populations.	eng
64005	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the limited area of Sierra San Lorenzo Texas and Sierra Solis in extreme southwestern Coahuila State.	eng
64005	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	It is a saxicolous species, with animals found perched on rocky outcrops in areas of typical desert scrub (creosote bush) habitat.	eng
64005	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Only one population exists and this is reportedly abundant. McGuire (1996) observed 25 individuals in an area of approximately 1.5 km length and 200 m width.	eng
64005	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Ongoing habitat degradation, mainly due to gravel extraction for building materials in nearby urban areas.	eng
64006	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many parks and refuges harbor populations of this lizard.	eng
64006	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to the western United States. It ranges from southeastern Oregon and southern Idaho south through northeastern California, Nevada, and western and lowland central Utah to southeastern California and western Arizona (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003); a museum record for Spokane County, Washington, is probably erroneous (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983) and at least should be considered questionable until confirmed by additional field work (McGuire 1996). Its elevational range extends from around sea level to about 7,500 feet (2,290 m) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64006	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs mainly in xeric, sparsely vegetated rocky areas; sometimes in adjacent areas lacking much rock; it perches atop rocks, and it hides under rocks or in rodent burrows (McGuire 1996). Eggs are deposited in sandy soil, rodent burrows, or under rocks.	eng
64006	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	McGuire (1996) mapped well over 200 known collection sites that are widely distributed throughout the range. The total adult population size is uncertain but probably exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance have probably not changed much compared to historical levels.	eng
64006	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64007	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Many populations exist in protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64007	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Range extends from southeastern Utah, southern Colorado, Kansas, and central and southern Missouri south through Arizona, New Mexico, western and central Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas to Sonora and north-central mainland Mexico (Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi) (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003). Records for Louisiana may not represent natural occurrences (Dundee and Rossman 1989, McGuire 1996).	eng
64007	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitat consists of rocky areas with sparse vegetation and encompasses open woodlands, bunchgrass areas, canyons, gullies, slopes, and mesa tops (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, McGuire 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). When inactive, these lizards hide under rocks or in crevices. Eggs are laid under large rocks or in burrows (Collins 1982).	eng
64007	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	McGuire (1996) mapped hundreds of collection sites across the broad range in the United States and Mexico. The total adult population size is uncertain but clearly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance all appear to be relatively stable.	eng
64007	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64008	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not clear whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
64008	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the Isla Tiburón in the Gulf of California and the adjacent Sonoran coastline (Sierra Bacha and Sierra Seri) between Punta Cirio and Bahia Kino.	eng
64008	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is a saxicolous species commonly found on hillsides and rocky slopes in dry, sparse, bushy vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
64008	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Both the islands and mainland populations seems to be abundant and healthy.	eng
64008	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitats of this species are not subject major pressure across most of its range. Only large scale settlement by people could threaten the populations of this species in Isla Tiburón, but this does not seem to be likely. Local people believe that this is a venomous lizard, but any resulting persecution is probably only a local threat.	eng
64009	conservation	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
64009	distribution	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to the Sierra los Cucapás and the Sierra el Mayor, in the northeast of the State of Baja California at 100 to 200 m asl.	eng
64009	habitat	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It is a saxicolous species in extremely arid desert. It is commonly found in rocky hillsides, using small to moderately-sized boulders to perch on.	eng
64009	population	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It is variably abundant across its range, but it is common in suitable habitats.	eng
64009	threats	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, as it occurs in a very remote area.	eng
64010	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The whole range of the species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. There is a need to further study the habitat, ecology and potential threats to this species.	eng
64010	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs only on the Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California of Mexico. It has an elevational range of around 15 to 500 m asl.	eng
64010	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is associated with rocky hillsides and flats bordering arroyos where the vegetation is not excessively thick. Animals can occasionally be observed sitting on fallen cacti.	eng
64010	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species in its small range, and its populations appear to be stable.	eng
64010	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	While the species has a very restricted range, the Isla Angel de la Guarda is uninhabited, and does not appear to be at risk from introductions of non-native species.	eng
64011	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It occurs in some protected areas in the United States and probably also Mexico.	eng
64011	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in southwestern Arizona (United States) and Sonora (Mexico) (McGuire 1996, Stebbins 2003). The range closely approaches that of <em>Crotaphtyus bicinctores</em> in a couple places along the Gila River, which separates the two species (McGuire 1996). In Arizona it is known from Gila, Mohawk, Little Ajo, Ajo, Pozo Redondo, Puerto Blanco, Sikort Chuapo, and Estrella mountains, as well as the Buckeye Hills, plus a few mountain ranges farther east, including the Quijotoa, Silverbell, and Tucson mountains, and probably also in the remaining mountain ranges south of the Gila River, though the Baboquivari Mountains might be inhabited by <em>C. collaris</em> (McGuire 1996). In Sonora it is known from: the transversely oriented foothills that follow the United States-Mexico border along Mexican Highway 2 (the Pinacate Region); several mountain ranges to the south and east in northern Sonora, including the Sierra Cubabi, Sierra La Gloria, Sierra El Alamo, and Sierra Rajon; either the Sierra Cubeta or Sierra El Pinto farther east in the northern foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental (one specimen only); and north-south-trending valleys in Sierra Madre Occidental foothills east of Hermosillo and Guaymas (McGuire 1996). A distributional gap apparently exists between the Caborca region (Sierra El Rajon) and the Hermosillo-Guaymas region.	eng
64011	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitat encompasses lowland desert and arid-tropical thornscrub mountain ranges; the species is always associated with rocks, such as granitic outcroppings or volcanic flows (McGuire 1996). In the northwestern part of the range, this lizard often perches on granitic rocks in sandy washes at the bases of rocky hillsides; in the south, it may be concentrated in arroyo bottoms and less vegetated valleys (McGuire 1996).	eng
64011	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	McGuire (1996) mapped approximately 50 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown, but probably it is at least many thousands, and it is common in some places. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable.	eng
64011	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
64012	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The primary conservation need is protection of habitat from alteration.	eng
64012	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard occurs in a relatively small areas in southern Texas, and Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas, Mexico (McGuire 1996). The range extends from Eagle Pass, Texas, on the north to Mission, Texas, on the southeast (Conant and Collins 1991, see Judd 1985). The Balcones escarpment of the Edwards Plateau in Texas is the northern limit of distribution, and the western distribution limit coincides with the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico (see Judd 1985).	eng
64012	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard inhabits thorn-scrub vegetation, usually on well-drained rolling terrain of shallow gravel, caliche, or sandy soils. It often occurs on scattered flat rocks below escarpments or isolated rock outcrops among scattered clumps of prickly-pear and mesquite, but it also commonly ranges into mesquite flats far from the nearest rocky habitat, and in Texas it is absent on some rocky outcroppings along the margins of bluffs where other <em>Crotaphytus</em> species might be expected to occur. Fence posts or the branches of mesquite trees may be used a basking perches, in addition to rocks. As in <em>Gambelia</em>, when approached, this collared lizard often runs to the base of a shrub and remains motionless. Eggs are laid probably under large rocks or underground. Summarized mainly from McGuire (1996).	eng
64012	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Montanucci (1976) mapped 32 collection sites in Texas and 16 in Mexico. Judd (1985) documented six locations in Texas and six in Mexico. Axtell (1989) mapped 65 collection localities in Texas. McGuire mapped 23 localities in Texas and 15 in Mexico. Dixon (2000) indicated the presence of this lizard in 11 counties in Texas. <br/> <br/>This is the rarest of the collared lizards (<em>Crotaphytus</em>) in the United States. The total population size is unknown. Data from museum collections suggest a low density throughout the range; the greatest number taken at a locality at one point in time was seven (see Judd 1985). The species may be locally fairly common: six were observed at one location. The distribution tends to be patchy, with large sparsely populated or uninhabited areas (Axtell 1989). <br/> <br/>Distribution and abundance may be declining, but distribution and population information are inadequate to assess status (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Some small populations may be declining; the species is found infrequently but it is not endangered (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64012	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In the southern part of the range, the greatest threat is habitat alteration, particularly land clearing practices, the conversion of native grazing lands to farms and improved pastures, and the planting of alien mat-forming grasses, including bufflegrass, for livestock grazing (Judd 1985, Axtell 1989, A. Price pers. comm. 1997). The introduced alien grasses degrade or destroy the preferred habitat. Buffelgrass has escaped from pastures and is common along road corridors (Judd 1985). Other potential threats include residential development and pit mining (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64013	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Valle de los Cirios, and the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. No direct conservation measures are currently needed to the species as a whole.	eng
64013	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species encompasses the desert side of the Peninsular Ranges of southern California (United States), north to the northern slope of the San Jacinto Mountains near Palm Springs, and south to much of Baja California (Mexico), southward to the southern margin of the volcanic Magdalena Plain (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, the range includes Tecate Peak near the U.S.-Mexican border, and the western foothills of the Peninsular Ranges, and areas near El Rosario, but the species is absent from most of the western margin of the Baja Peninsula (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to around 4,000 feet (1,094 m) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64013	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits rocky areas in arid and semi-arid habitat, generally with scant xerophytic vegetation, including hillsides, alluvial fans, canyons, and lava flows (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid presumably underground or under rocks.	eng
64013	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	McGuire (1996) mapped about 85 collection localities. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance probably are relatively stable.	eng
64013	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64014	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It occurs in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species as a whole.	eng
64014	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The geographic range of this species extends from extreme southern California (United States) (vicinities of Cameron Corners, Campo, and Potrero Grade) south through all but the Lower Colorado Desert region of northeastern Baja California to at least Todos Santos in the Cape Region, Baja California Sur, and encompasses the Pacific islands of Isla de Cedros, Isla Magdelena, and Isla Santa Margarita (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); the species is narrowly syntopic with <em>G. wislizenii</em> over a zone of about 1.6 km in Paseo de San Matias, Baja California (see McGuire 1996 and Grismer 2002 for further details).	eng
64014	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In Baja California, this lizard is particularly common on sparsely vegetated aeolian flats of the Vizcaíno Peninsula, where it can be observed basking on roadside rocks, on berms adjacent to graded dirt roads, or moving about in open spaces among clumps of vegetation; it also occurs elsewhere in Baja California in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, bajadas, open sandy flats, creosote bush scrub habitats, coastal sage scrub, and oak woodland habitats (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002). Apparently the species occurs in relatively densely vegetated chaparral in southern California (McGuire 1996). It is similar to other <em>Gambelia</em> in seeking shelter at the base of a shrub and remaining motionless there (McGuire 1996).	eng
64014	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	McGuire (1996) mapped approximately 75 collection sites that are well distributed throughout the geographic range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is abundant in the Vizcaíno Desert and south through the Magdalena Plain into the western portion of the Cape Region (Grismer 2002). Population trends are not definitely known, but it seems likely that the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are stable in many places, but slightly declining in others.	eng
64014	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Although the species is not threatened overall, there is ongoing loss of habitat due to the expansion of intensive agriculture in the Vizcaíno Desert, Magdalena Plain, and Isthmus of La Paz.	eng
64015	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	From a range-wide perspective, no major conservation measures need to be established at the present time. The species is presumed to occur in many protected areas.	eng
64015	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The geographic range extends from Oregon, southern Idaho, Utah and western Colorado south through eastern and southern California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas to northeastern Baja California and north-central mainland Mexico (including Isla Tiburon, Sonora, in the Gulf of California) (McGuire 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64015	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes desert and semi-desert areas with scattered shrubs or other low plants (e.g., creosote bush, sagebrush), especially areas with abundant rodent burrows (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Hammerson 1999, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The species is basically ground dwelling, but sometimes individuals climb into bushes. When threatened, leopard lizards typically run to the base of a shrub and remain motionless there. When inactive, they occupy burrows  Eggs are laid in burrows.	eng
64015	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is represented by a very large number of occurrences that are well distributed throughout the historical range (McGuire 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Population trends cannot be precisely quantified, but the area of occupancy and abundance are probably declining at a low rate as a result of ongoing habitat loss and degradation.  Mexico population is also common.	eng
64015	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Major threats include habitat loss and degradation resulting from agricultural, commercial, and residential development and invasion of alien herbaceous plants (e.g., cheatgrass) (Hammerson 1999). There are no major threats to this species in Mexico	eng
64016	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
64016	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico where it occurs in the States of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro and Hildalgo. It is present between 300 and 500 m asl.	eng
64016	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a fossorial species that is found in humid tropical forests and in semi-arid deciduous vegetation. It is found in both primary habitat and in secondary habitat close to primary forest. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64016	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a rare species that is known from very few specimens.	eng
64016	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation through the conversion of suitable habitat to agricultural land (cropland and pasture).	eng
64017	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64017	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The  species' range extends from northwestern and central Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986; Cobb, 2004) and extreme southwestern New Mexico in the United States (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), south through Sonora and western Chihuahua to southern Sinaloa, Mexico, from sea level to 1,900 m asl (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64017	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species' habitats include grassland, farmland, desert, brushland, thorn scrub, thorn forest, tropical deciduous forest, and lower pine-oak woodland, from plains to lower mountain slopes (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Arizona, this species is most commonly associated with rocky bajadas, slopes, and canyons of upland desert scrub and desert grassland (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). In New Mexico, it is most often found on rocky bajadas or in broad river valleys with mesquite, and occasionally on creosote bush flats of valley floors (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It sometimes enters buildings (Ernst and Ernst 2003). This is a fossorial snake that emerges into the open usually at night or sometimes on cloudy days (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64017	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 60 collection sites. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 14 collection sites in New Mexico. This secretive snake probably occurs in substantially more locations than are presently known (Campbell and Lamar 2004). <br/> <br/>The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This snake may appear to be rare, but this probably reflects secretive habits rather than true scarcity (Ernst and Ernst 2003). It is not abundant but not uncommon in Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64017	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64018	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy is needed, as it may not be a valid species.	eng
64018	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species ranges in eastern Mexico, from eastern Hidalgo southward to northern Puebla and portions of northwestern Veracruz. It may be more widely distributed than is currently known. It ranges from 50 to 2,100 m asl.	eng
64018	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs in cloud forest, tropical evergreen forest and can also be found in shaded coffee plantations. It occurs under leaf-litter and bark. It may live in termite nests as do many other species in the genus. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64018	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64018	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is not threatened by habitat loss. Animals are occasionally killed by people as it is a venomous species.	eng
64019	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in a protected area.	eng
64019	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species occurs at low elevations on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, from about Puerto Angel to Tapanatepec, in Mexico. It ranges from near sea level up to 400 m asl.	eng
64019	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs in tropical deciduous, dry coastal, and scrub forest. Its tolerance of habitat disturbance is unknown.	eng
64019	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is known from very few specimens at four localities. It is rarely encountered and has not been recorded recently.	eng
64019	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
64020	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
64020	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species has been reported from low and intermediate elevations in the States of México, Morelos, Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Chiapas in southern Mexico, southeast to the mountains of south-central Guatemala. The record from the State of Morelos, Mexico, may be based on misidentifications of <em>Micrurus tener</em> (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The elevational range of the species is from sea level to above 2,000 m asl.	eng
64020	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occupies tropical deciduous forest, pine-oak forest, and cloud forest. It also occurs in coffee and cacao plantations as well as degraded forest.	eng
64020	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is locally common.	eng
64020	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
64021	conservation	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix III (Honduras).	eng
64021	distribution	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at low and moderate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from central Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, and the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, southward through Belize and northern Guatemala to northwestern Honduras. The vertical distribution is from near sea level to about 1,250 m asl.	eng
64021	habitat	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This secretive snake inhabits tropical wet, moist and dry forest (tropical evergreen forest, tropical deciduous forest, lower cloud forest, and pine-oak forest). The species tolerates human disturbance; it has been found on ranches, plantations, and farms.	eng
64021	population	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is moderately common and regularly recorded.	eng
64021	threats	Lee, J. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	Habitat loss for small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement is occurring throughout the range of this species, but this is not considered to be a major threat, and there is no evidence of declines in population.	eng
64022	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in at least five protected areas throughout its range.	eng
64022	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This Mexican endemic occurs at low to moderate elevations from southwestern Chihuahua and southern Sonora, southward on the Pacific drainage through Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán to Guerrero, including the Santiago River basin. There is also a disjunct population in Aguascalientes (Vázquez and Quintero 1997, Quintero-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 2000, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). Its range within the Río de las Balsas basin probably includes portions of several other states as well. It occurs from near sea level to about 2,200 m asl.	eng
64022	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This coral snake occurs in tropical deciduous forest, semi-deciduous forest, lower elevation cloud forest and thorn forest  It is a fossorial species.	eng
64022	population	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64022	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The main threat is habitat loss for small-holder farming, wood collection, and human settlement. However, this is not considered a significant threat across the whole range at present.	eng
64023	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64023	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at moderate and intermediate elevations of the Caribbean versant in Mexico from central Veracruz, northern Oaxaca, and the Sierra de los Tuxtlas, southeastward through southern Tabasco, northern Chiapas, and the Atlantic drainage of the northern mountains of Guatemala to the Sierra de las Minas. The elevational range is from about 500 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
64023	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It occurs in lower montane wet forest, cloud forest and rarely tropical deciduous forest in areas of dense canopy. It has also been recorded from degraded forest and agricultural land.	eng
64023	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64023	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this relatively adaptable species.	eng
64024	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected area.	eng
64024	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from low and intermediate elevations of the Pacific drainage of Oaxaca, from the Continental Divide in Central Oaxaca to the lowlands and foothills of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in Mexico. It ranges from near sea level up to over 2,300 m asl.	eng
64024	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest. It has been found in disturbed forest, but not in open areas.	eng
64024	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	A rare species known from very few specimens. It has been collected as recently as 2002. The population in central Oaxaca probably declined substantially due to habitat destruction decades ago. Some habitat destruction continues.	eng
64024	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation due to agriculture is a major threat.	eng
64025	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
64025	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in the south of the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. It ranges from southeastern North Carolina to southern Florida, west to southeastern Louisiana, disjunctly northward to central Alabama (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64025	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include hardwood forest, pine-oak woodland, pine flatwoods, and xerophytic scrub, often in areas with sandy soils, sometimes marsh edges and residential areas (Mount 1975, Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive snake is often underground, under leaf litter, logs or stumps, or similarly secluded. Eggs probably are laid in loose soil or decaying organic matter (Mount 1975), or underground or under leaf litter or surface objects (Ernst 1992).	eng
64025	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 100 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. Nearly 2,000 were turned in for bounties in a 39-month period in one county in Florida (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is often common; its secretive habits may give a false impression of rarity (Ernst 1992). Mount (1975) characterized it as relatively common in the lower Coastal Plain of Alabama. Tennant (1997) reported it as common in Florida. Population trends are not documented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64025	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Overall, this species does not appear to be significantly threatened. In Alabama, populations declined after introduction of the fire ant, which may prey on eggs and young (Mount 1981). Habitat destruction and motorized vehicles are the most serious threats (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003).	eng
64026	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
64026	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico and occupies low, moderate and intermediate elevations in portions of the basins of the Río de las Balsas and Río Tepalcatepec in Michoacán, Guerrero, Jalisco. Its range extends northwestward along the coastal foothills of Colima and Jalisco. Its elevational range is from 300 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64026	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This coral snake is found in tropical deciduous forest, oak forest and arid tropical scrub forest.	eng
64026	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is regularly seen in suitable habitat.	eng
64026	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is some forest destruction in parts of the range, however, this is not considered significant to the species at present.	eng
64027	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
64027	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from low and moderate elevations of the Pacific versant from southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico, southeastward through Chiapas, Mexico, to eastern Guatemala. The elevational range is from about 300 to 1,280 m asl.	eng
64027	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It occurs in lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It can also occur in disturbed areas.	eng
64027	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64027	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64028	conservation	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64028	distribution	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This snake is found in low and moderate elevations of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, Mexico. It is known from the south slope of Volcán San Martín, Coyame, near Tebanca, and the vicinity of La Palma. Its elevational range is from 160 to 1,050 m asl.	eng
64028	habitat	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species occurs in tropical lowland moist forest and cloud forest. It is also found in pastures, agricultural areas, and secondary forests.	eng
64028	population	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64028	threats	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species is persecuted because it is venomous, but this is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
64029	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). One population is in Tehuacan - Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64029	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to northern Oaxaca in Mexico, from 1,585 to 2,256 m asl.	eng
64029	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	A nocturnal and crepuscular terrestrial snake found in pine-oak forest.	eng
64029	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a rare species but it can still be found.	eng
64029	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, but data on threats is lacking.	eng
64030	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species inhabits the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
64030	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This recently described species is known only from Zapotitlan Salinas, in southeastern Puebla, Mexico. It may range more widely than is currently known. It is found at around 1,500 m asl.	eng
64030	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This nocturnal and crepuscular species has been recorded on the ground in open areas of desert vegetation with cacti and mesquite vegetation. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64030	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
64030	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species possibly has a restricted range, but no habitat loss is taking place. As it is a venomous species it is killed when it is encountered by local people.	eng
64031	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	More research is needed to determine the range and population status of this species.	eng
64031	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known from the Pacific coast of Mexico, from northern Nayarit to extreme northern Jalisco. It has recently been recorded from a locality in southern Jalisco: this record is soon to be published (P. Ponce pers. comm. 2005). Suitable habitat occurs in a relatively wide range, therefore the species is likely to be much more widespread than is currently known. More surveys are required to determine occurrences elsewhere in the region. It is known only from elevations less than 150 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004). However, recently it has been recorded from 500 m asl (P. Ponce pers. comm. 2005).	eng
64031	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is found in tropical decidous forest, semi-deciduous forest and thorn forest.	eng
64031	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not rare, but not common. Records are known from the northern part of the range (Nayarit), and the southern part (northern Jalisco), with nothing recorded between these two points. There are other potential records from the southern Jalisco area, but these are in the process of being confirmed.	eng
64031	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Deforestation for agriculture and human settlement is occurring in some parts of the known range, particularly in central Nayarit. However, there is much undisturbed habitat still available for this species and the current deforestation activities are not considered a significant threat.	eng
64032	conservation	Lavin-Murcio, P., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further information on range, population, habitat requirements and threats is needed.	eng
64032	distribution	Lavin-Murcio, P., 2007	This species is known from four specimens collected from the type locality; "Sierra de Tamaulipas, Rancho La Sauceda", about 50km north of Gonzalez in the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. The specimens were collected between 750 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
64032	habitat	Lavin-Murcio, P., 2007	All specimens of this species were collected in pine-oak forest on a ranch that has cattle pastures scattered throughout the forest.	eng
64032	population	Lavin-Murcio, P., 2007	This species is known from only four specimens. There have been very few surveys of the area in which the specimens were found so there are no population estimates available.	eng
64032	threats	Lavin-Murcio, P., 2007	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
64033	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.	eng
64033	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species' range extends from western Louisiana and southwestern Arkansas to central and western Texas in the United States to Mexico in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, and northern Veracruz, extending west to Hidalgo, Guanajuato and San Luis Potosi. It occurs at elevations from near sea level to about 500 m asl in the United States and to about 2,000 m asl in Mexico (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
64033	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Habitats are varied and include mixed pine and hardwood forests, subtropical thorn scrub, tall-grass prairie, and riparian woodlands in otherwise dry areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Louisiana and Arkansas, this snake inhabits forested areas (Dundee and Rossman 1989, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Texas, habitats include rocky creek banks and canyons of oak-juniper brakes, live oak woodland, thornbrush chaparral of the coastal plain, sandy grass-mesquite, Cross Timbers woodland-thickets, and pine-hardwood forest; also gardens, wooded lots, and undeveloped parklands in cities; habitat is generally partially wooded and has organic ground litter (Werler and Dixon 2000). In western Texas and northern Tamaulipas, this snake usually is found near watercourses and in vegetation along temporary streams (Campbell and Lamar 2004). In northern Mexico, this snake occurs in mesquite-grassland, thorn forest, and desert; in southern Tamaulipas, it reaches 900 m asl in oak savanna; at the south end of the range it is apparently restricted to high elevations in pine-oak forest and mesquite-grassland (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake is often underground, under leaf-litter, logs or stumps, or similarly secluded. Eggs probably are laid in loose soil or decaying organic matter, or underground or under leaf-litter or surface objects.	eng
64033	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. It is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see dot maps of collection sites in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Werler and Dixon 2000, and Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake is common in Texas (Tennant 1998). In Mexico it is a widespread and common species. The population trend is undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64033	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In the United States, there are no major threats known, but the species has declined in some areas in Texas that have undergone intensive urbanization (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Mexico, the species is killed because it is venomous, however, it is not under any significant threat at present.	eng
64034	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species currently is not in need of any major conservation measures.	eng
64034	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Southern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), southwestern Texas (Dixon 2000), and adjacent northern Mexico, where it is widely distributed south to northeastern Durango and southern Coahuila (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64034	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Habitats include rocky limestone foothills with desert scrub vegetation such as creosote bush, acacia, and juniper (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); canyons, creviced escarpments, and low earthen hills. The species is particularly common in areas of flat rock and succulent vegetative debris. When inactive, individuals hide under rocks, debris, or in crevices (Smith 1946, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), and they may be found under debris near human habitations (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks. The species also occurs on sand dunes.	eng
64034	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Abundant where it occurs. This species is represented by many occurrences; it is known from about 40 counties in Texas (virtually all of the counties within its range extent in Texas), at least two dozen collection sites in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), and additional sites in Mexico. Its population size is unknown, but the species is common within its range in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable.	eng
64034	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64035	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
64035	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to western Mexico and ranges in the Madrean foothills in Sinaloa and southern Sonora, and perhaps in extreme adjacent southwestern Chihuahua.	eng
64035	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is a nocturnal and terrestrial gecko, in deciduous and semi-deciduous forest and shrubland. There are few data, but it can possibly tolerate disturbance of habitat.	eng
64035	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64035	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Parts of its habitat along the coastal plain is being lost to large-scale agriculture, but in the foothills, which encompass most of its range, much of its habitat is probably secure.	eng
64036	conservation	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species in endemic of an Island in the Gulf of California which is at present a Natural Protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64036	distribution	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla San Marcos, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
64036	habitat	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species has been found mainly in the Arroyo la Taneria, where it is highly associated to outcroppings of gypsum rocks on the hillsides, in steep canyons, and in smaller tributary arroyos (Grismer 2002). It is common around the garbage dump near the arroyo bottom (Grismer and Ottley 1988).	eng
64036	population	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	In the only locality known for this species it seems to be common. The species is cryptic and very difficult to find.	eng
64036	threats	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	There are no major threats identified. Isla San Marcos is uninhabited and not particularly susceptible to natural disasters.	eng
64037	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species occurs in Big Bend National Park and Big Bend State Natural Area (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Better informarion is needed on distribution, abundance, and trends.	eng
64037	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is found in the Big Bend region (Brewster and Presidio counties), Texas, and adjacent Mexico (southern Coahuila and northeastern Durango) (Dixon 2000). Curious gaps exist in the known distribution (Dixon 2000).	eng
64037	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in limestone canyons and other rocky areas in desert regions; most of those found thus far were on roads on summer evenings (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Individuals may climb on rocks or, when inactive, hide under them (Behler and King 1979, Dial 1978). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks.	eng
64037	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Population size is unknown. Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) reported that this species is infrequently seen; it may be rare, secretive, or both. Dixon (2000) stated that this species is more common in Texas than was previously believed. This lizard is locally common but very secretive and difficult to survey; it is probably stable, but population information is inadequate for reliably assessing trends (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). The species is found infrequently but is not threatened (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). It has a fairly restricted range and has not been well studied; nevertheless, it probably has a very stable population (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Status in Mexico is unknown but is assumed to be stable (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64037	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Threats are insignificant; the habitat is not suitable for other uses (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include commercial collecting for the pet trade, but the habitat is not easily accessible, so collecting is not a major threat (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Individuals occur under cap rocks; breaking rocks while surveying may be detrimental (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64038	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In view of its wide range, the species presumably occurs in many protected areas. The impact of harvesting should be monitored.	eng
64038	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This gecko occurs along the eastern fringe of the Peninsular Ranges from at least Borrego Springs and Yaqui Pass, northern San Diego County, California (United States), south into north-central and eastern Baja California (Mexico) to San Ignacio and the Santa Rosalia area (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). See Grismer and Ottley (1988) and Grismer (1990) for a listing of specific localities. There are unconfirmed reports of <em>C. switaki</em> occurring north to the Palms to Pines Highway, Riverside County, California. The elevational range extends from near sea level to around 700 m (2,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64038	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits rocky desert foothills, volcanic talus and terraces, and canyons; it is less common in areas with large granitic outcroppings (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). It appears to prefer areas with large rocks and sparse vegetation (Grismer 2002). The species has been found on flatlands up to about 100 m from rock outcrops, and it also has been found in arroyos and dump sites at or near the bottoms of steep washes (Grismer and Ottley 1988). Refuges include deep crevices among rocks and subterranean chambers.	eng
64038	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered. Approximately 25 occurrences were known as of the late 1980s (see Grismer and Ottley 1988, Grismer 1990); undoubtedly there are many others not yet documented. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably stable; sightings per year actually have been increasing (L. Grismer pers. comm. 1995).	eng
64038	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Overall, this species is not significantly threatened (L. Grismer pers. comm. 1995). However, mining and highway construction are localized potential threats, and the species is on the state threatened list for California. In the 1980s there was a concern about collecting this species for the national and international pet trade. However, the current level of harvest is probably lower, and in any case the effect of harvesting on populations is unknown.	eng
64039	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64039	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The range of this species in the United States encompasses southern California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, western and southern Arizona (including the Little Colorado River Basin; Persons and Nowak, 2004), and extreme southwestern New Mexico. In Mexico the species occurs throughout Baja California (except high mountains) and in western Sonora (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). <em>Coleonyx variegatus</em> also occurs on islands in the Gulf of California and off the western coast of Baja California. Its elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet).	eng
64039	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard occurs in a wide range of habitats, including creosote bush and sagebrush desert, pinyon-juniper woodland, and catclaw-cedar-grama grass associations in the eastern part of range and chaparral areas in the west; it occurs in both rocky areas and barren dunes (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Refuges during inactivity include rocks, burrows, and spaces beneath vegetative debris or trash.	eng
64039	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species has been found in hundreds of sites that are well distributed throughout the range. Its total adult population size is unknown, but almost certainly exceeds 100,000. Sometimes this lizard is locally very abundant; brief searches in a small area may yield dozens of individuals (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and abundance are probably relatively stable from a range-wide perspective. Its abundance and perhaps area of occupancy might be declining somewhat in the more populated portions of the range (e.g., California, parts of Arizona).	eng
64039	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Locally, in the northern part of the range, threats include conversion of habitat to human uses (e.g., development of retirement communities and associated infrastructure), but overall the species is not threatened. There is incidental pet trade only, but this does not constitute a threat.	eng
64040	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  Populations have been recorded in the Valle de Tehuacan, Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64040	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the mountains near Taxco, at the Rio Balsas, Guerrero State and in the Cuicatlan Valley, Oaxaca State. Populations are known from 461 to 1,725 m asl.	eng
64040	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species naturally inhabits tropical deciduous dry forest and secondary forest, and appears to be very adaptable to some habitat disturbance.	eng
64040	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It can be a locally common species.	eng
64040	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
64041	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The Isla Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64041	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64041	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species inhabits a variety of microhabitats, including rocks and cracks, dead cardon cactus and giant barrel cactus, branches of leatherplants, on the ground in sandy washes, and on stony beaches. The general habitat of the island is xerophylic scrub.	eng
64041	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It seems to be a common species within its limited range.	eng
64041	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although it has a limited island range, there appear to be no major threat to the species.	eng
64042	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and further research is needed into the biology, range, population status, and possible threats to this species.	eng
64042	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been reported from the States of Colima and northwestern Michacoacan.	eng
64042	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a saxicolous species that can be found in rocky areas within tropical dry forest. Animals are most frequently seen basking on rocks. It may be adaptable to some habitat modification.	eng
64042	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although little is known about the abundance of this species, populations are generally believed to be stable within their rocky habitat.	eng
64042	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are not believed to be any current major threats to this species.	eng
64043	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64043	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is apparently confined to the exposed igneous and limestone formations in the immediate vicinity of Tierra Colorada, Guerrero, Mexico. Its elevation range is from 1,000 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64043	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a nocturnal, saxicolous species inhabiting huge igneous and limestone rock outcroppings in tropical deciduous forest, dry forest and secondary forest. Animals are generally found in the crevices of rocks.	eng
64043	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is very poorly known. Only a few specimens have ever been recorded of this difficult to collect species.	eng
64043	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species. The rocky habitat is generally secure because of the difficulty in accessing these areas.	eng
64044	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Phyllodactylus duellmani is listed as Pr (special protection) within Mexican legislation. It does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat, ecology, population and potential threats to this species.	eng
64044	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the Balsas basin area in the States of Michoacan and Guerrero.	eng
64044	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from tree branches and rocks in tropical dry forest. There is little information available on the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.	eng
64044	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although there is little information on population abundance, and few specimens have ever been collected, it is suspected to be a locally common species.	eng
64044	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	While the species seems to have a relatively limited range, there currently appear to be no major threats.	eng
64045	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas, but the populations on San Pedro Nolasco Island and on the mainland are relatively safe.	eng
64045	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to western Mexico, where the nominate subspecies occurs in most of central and western Sonora and northwestern Sinaloa. Its northernmost point is a little north of Hermosillo. The supspecies <em>Phyllodactylus homolepidurus nolascoensis</em> occurs on the Isla San Pedro Nolasco in the Gulf of California.	eng
64045	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is an inhabitant of arid and semi-arid areas with some tropical floristic elements. It is commonly found beneath rock exfoliations and rock piles, and in fissures and shallow cracks.	eng
64045	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The population seems to be stable on the Isla San Pedro Nolasco, and most common within 100 m of the coast. It is probably also stable and common on the mainland.	eng
64045	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No significant threats are known. It is occasionally killed by people who erroneously consider this species to be venomous, but this is not thought to constitute a threat.	eng
64046	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It may be present in some protected areas, however, no conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64046	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is generally distributed from southwestern Nayarit in the north (including the Santiago River basin), south through Jalisco, Colima and Michoacan to northwestern Guerrero (including the Balsas basin area).	eng
64046	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is adaptable to a wide variety of natural and man-made habitats. It has been recorded in tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest, mangrove forest, disturbed forest and urban areas where it is commonly found in houses.	eng
64046	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is often an abundant animal.	eng
64046	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this adaptable and widespread species.	eng
64047	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species.	eng
64047	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the State of Oaxaca, Mexico. It ranges from a point a few miles north of Totolapan, east-southeast to the vicinity of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Populations are found from sea level to 1,300 m asl.	eng
64047	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from tropical deciduous forest and dry forest, and the species appears to adapt well to habitat disturbance.	eng
64047	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It can be a locally common species.	eng
64047	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
64048	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The islands of Isla Partida Norte and Cardonosa Este are both within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64048	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Partida Norte and Cardonosa Este, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Dixon 1964, Grismer 2002).	eng
64048	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is mainly saxicolous within xerophilic scrub, with animals sometimes observed on the ground or beneath dead cacti. It can presumably adapt to some degree of habitat modification.	eng
64048	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a common species within its small range, and it is presumed that populations are generally stable.	eng
64048	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	While it has a limited range, there appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64049	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not known if any populations are present within protected areas. More research is needed into the geographic range, population size and trends, habitat status, biology, ecology and threats.	eng
64049	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This very poorly known species is known only from the type specimen, collected from south Lombardia in the Balsas basin, Michoacan State, Mexico. In view of the general lack of field surveys for this species, it is uncertain as to whether it has a restricted geographic range.	eng
64049	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is reported as occurring in crevices and rocky cliffs, within xerophytic shrubland in tropical dry forest.	eng
64049	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population size or trends. No studies have been undertaken on this species since its description in 1960.	eng
64049	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
64050	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California which are part of the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64050	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the southernmost part of Baja California, Mexico, where it is present both on the mainland and on a number of islands in the Gulf of California. On the mainland this species is restricted to the Cape Region. Within the Gulf of California it has been recorded from the islands of Partida Sur, Espiritu Santo, Ballena, Gallo, Gallina and Cerralvo.	eng
64050	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is an scansorial animal found under rocks and within caves, but also beneath the bark of dead vegetation and rotting cardons (cacti). Along the Gulf coast it occurs in dry thornscrub.	eng
64050	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It generally appears to be a common species, except in urban areas.	eng
64050	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Although much of the habitat of this species is secure for the time being, there are local impacts of urbanization and intensive agriculture around La Paz and Cabo San Lucas.	eng
64051	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is present within a number of protected areas. Other than further taxonomic research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread gecko.	eng
64051	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range extends from southern California, from north of Palm Springs, south to the tip of Baja California, including more than 30 islands in Gulf of California and Islas Magdalena and Santa Margarita off the west coast of Baja California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 610 m (2,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64051	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits rocky areas (volcanic and granitic; ranging from talus and bedrock/boulder habitats to exfoliating slabs to beach cobble); occupied vegetation types include desert scrub, thornscrub, and broken chaparral; sometimes the species can be found under fallen columnar cacti or hidden among other plant material (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). When active at night, it may range into dunes or sandy arroyos and may forage on tree trunks or walls of buildings (Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid in crevices among rocks or under exfoliating bark (Grismer 2002).	eng
64051	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species has been documented in hundreds of sites that are well distributed throughout the historical range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000; the species is locally numerous. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably stable.	eng
64051	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64052	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.	eng
64052	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in Cuba, the Bahamas, and southern Florida in the United States. The range of this gecko includes the Dry Tortugas, extreme southeastern mainland Florida, and the Florida Keys (subspecies <em>notatus</em>, common throughout the larger Upper and Lower Keys, Lawson <em>et al</em>. 1991); Little and Great Bahama banks; Cat Island, Little San Salvador Island, Great Inagua Island; Cuba, including Archipielago de los Canarreos, Cayos de San Felipe, Cayos los Ballenatos; Isla de la Juventud; Morant Cays; Pedro Cays; Swan Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, which see for subspecies distributions). Introductions of the species also has been reported from Colombia (F. Castro, pers. comm., cited in The Reptile Database) and Honduras (Wilson and McCranie, 2002, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 33: 90-94).	eng
64052	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Schwartz and Henderson (1991) characterized this species as xerophilic and sometimes mesophilic. It occurs among or under leaf litter or debris on the floor of hammocks, coppice, coconut groves, ornamental gardens, pine lands, vacant lots, or around buildings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), and it is often abundant under flotsam on beaches just above the high tide line (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is uncommonly edificarian but often is associated with human debris and abandoned dwellings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Eggs are laid in rotting logs, at the bases of palm fronds, or under logs, boards, driftwood, coconut husks, or other debris (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
64052	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known from many sites that are well distributed throughout the historical range. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. This lizard is abundant in southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.	eng
64052	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64053	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Its habitat is protected from development in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas.	eng
64053	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species ranges widely in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range encompasses southern Nevada, extreme southwestern Utah along the Virgin River in the vicinity of Beaver Dam Wash (at least formerly), and southern California east of the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges southward through northeastern Baja California and all of southern Baja California (but not most of the Vizcaino Desert) and through western and central Arizona and western Sonora to northern Sinaloa. This lizard occurs on many islands in the Gulf of California and on Magdalena and Santa Margarita islands along the Pacific coast of Baja California (Hulse 1992, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The range in the United States coincides closely with that of creosote bush (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64053	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The habitat most often consists of sandy arroyos or other open areas with loose soils, but sometimes the species occurs on nearby rocky hillsides (Grismer 2002). In the north, desert iguanas are typically found in creosote bush desert with hummocks of loose sand and patches of firm ground with scattered rocks, whereas in the south they may occur in subtropical scrub habitats (Stebbins 2003). These lizards seek shelter in rodent burrows or rock crevices (Grismer 2002), and they may climb into bushes (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64053	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites throughout its range in the United States and Mexico (e.g., see Hulse 1992). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This lizard is very common in northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002) and in similar creosote bush desert habitats in southeastern California and southwestern Arizona. Localized declines in areas of occupancy and population size have occurred where habitats have been lost or degraded.	eng
64053	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In some areas, habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of conversion to human uses (agriculture, commercial and residential development, road construction). Populations along busy highways presumably have been reduced as a result of road mortality. However, these threats affect a relatively small portion of the overall range. There has been a very limited pet trade from Mexico in the past.	eng
64054	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat is protected from development in several national parks and monuments and in federal wilderness areas in the United States, and the species occurs within protected sites in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). Many sites outside formally protected areas are rugged and remote and thus protected from most potential threats.	eng
64054	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in the western United States and in northwestern Mexico. It ranges from southern Nevada, southern Utah, southeastern California, and western Arizona south to southern Baja California and west-central Sonora, Mexico; in Baja California, most of the distribution is away from the Pacific coast (Hollingsworth 1998, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64054	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits rocky desert; lava flows, hillsides, and outcrops. Creosote bush occurs throughout most of the range (Stebbins 2003). Habitats encompass subtropical thornforest in the southern part of the range. Individuals seek shelter in rock crevices (or in burrows on islands in the Gulf of California; Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid underground.	eng
64054	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of viable occurrences throughout the majority of the range in California, Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico. Abundance information is not available rangewide, but the total adult population size is probably more than 100,000. Coombs (1977) estimated a population size of 10,000-15,000 individuals in Washington County, Utah. The abundance in the remainder of the Utah range (Kane, Garfield, and San Juan counties) is likely to be less than in Washington County (G. Oliver pers. comm. 1998). Populations may vary with environmental conditions. According to Abts (1987), annual densities are variable with higher densities after relatively mild winters and the occurrence of summer rainfall. During a seven-year study in the Colorado Desert of southwestern California, densities ranged from 15 to 30 individuals per hectare (Abts 1987). Nevertheless, the area of occupancy and population size appear to be relatively stable over most of the range.	eng
64054	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Chuckwalla populations are locally threatened by excessive collecting and habitat degradation (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Collectors not only remove individuals from the habitat which may thus may reduce population viability but also often cause microhabitat destruction when tools are used to move or break rocks and exfoliations to expose the reptiles (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Some subpopulations have been hard hit by collectors. For example, the easily accessible South Mountain subpopulation, near Phoenix, Arizona, has a unique colour pattern and is highly desired by the pet trade; exploitation of this subpopulation and destruction of its habitat are on the rise (Gergus <em>et al</em>. 1998). Historical populations in the Glen Canyon area of Utah have been reduced or eliminated by the damming of the Colorado River. Habitat degradation due to grazing activities of goats, sheep, and burros is also a potential threat. Overall, however, the species appears to be moderately to not very threatened across most of its range. The species is regarded as not very threatened in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998).	eng
64055	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field work is needed to assess the conservation status of this species.	eng
64055	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from a few localities in central Michoacan, Mexico. The elevation has not been recorded, but it is a highland species.	eng
64055	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a fossorial species. The species has been recorded in a highly disturbed area originally covered by oak forest. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64055	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
64055	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The threats to the species are not known. It is known only from a very disturbed area of habitat. It is possible the disturbance and transformation of the original habitat could have affected populations in the past.	eng
64056	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64056	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas south through New Mexico, Oklahoma, and northern and western Texas to southeastern Arizona in the United States, and northern Chihuahua and Coahuila, in Mexico (Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Dixon and Vaughan 2003).	eng
64056	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats include prairies and prairie canyons, rocky and sandy deserts, and pinyon-juniper and juniper-oak woodland (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake is usually in damp loose soil and sometimes can be found under rocks, logs, or debris. Eggs are laid in an underground chamber, in a hollow in decaying vegetation, or in a rocky fissure.	eng
64056	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see spot maps in Hahn 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. This snake is fossorial, secretive, and not readily observed, but it is common in some areas. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64056	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64057	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Several occurrences are in protected areas, though this may not provide adequate protection from all threats, such as invasive species.	eng
64057	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range includes southern Oklahoma and Texas in the United States, northeastern Mexico, and possibly Queretaro and Hidalgo in central Mexico (Dixon and Vaughan 2003).	eng
64057	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitat consists of arid and semi-arid areas with sandy or loamy soils, usually near moisture, including rocky and sandy desert, cedar-ocotillo associations, rock-strewn hillsides and mountain slopes, thornbrush, cedar savanna, live oak and juniper woodlands, mesquite-lined creek banks, open grassy plains, and sometimes residential areas (Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000). This secretive, fossorial snakes sometimes can be found under rocks, logs, or debris. Eggs are laid in an underground chamber, in a hollow in decaying vegetation, or in a rocky fissure.	eng
64057	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Texas. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in Texas (Tennant 1998) and in Mexico. Sometimes several individuals can be found under a single rock or group of adjacent rocks. Its extent of occurrence and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable, but its area of occupancy and population size may have declined somewhat from the historical situation. Tennant (1998) reported that in Texas this snake, though still common, was formerly abundant but now is much less numerous.	eng
64057	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Tennant (1998) reported that the abundance of this snake in Texas has declined as a result of the invasion of fire ants.	eng
64058	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64058	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from southern California, southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah south through Arizona, southern New Mexico, and western Texas in the United States, to southern Baja California (including several adjacent islands) and Colima, Mexico, at elevations from below sea level in desert sinks to around 1,520 m asl (5,000 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64058	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitats range from deserts and desert-grasslands to brush-covered mountain slopes, including rocky hillsides, canyon bottoms or washes near stream courses, riparian zones, areas near springs, sandy areas above ocean beaches, and sometimes gardens and farmland (Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). This secretive, fossorial snake sometimes can be found under rocks, wood, or debris, among plant roots, or in crevices, often in loose damp soil.	eng
64058	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Werler and Dixon (2000) mapped about 50 collection sites in Texas. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 16 collection sites in New Mexico. This snake is "ubiquitous" in Baja California (Grismer 2002). The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is secretive and seldom seen by casual observers, but it is locally common in many areas (see Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64058	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64059	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
64059	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico where it is found in the Rio Balsas basin, ranging from Guerrero to the east, to Estado de Mexico, Morelos and Puebla in the west. It has been recorded between 800 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
64059	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a fossorial species that occurs in primary and secondary dry scrubland and tropical deciduous forest. It is present in agricultural areas such as cattle ranches and other disturbed sites; it can be found in areas of rubbish. It is not found in highly urbanised areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64059	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64059	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64060	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It presumably occurs in a few protected areas within its range.	eng
64060	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs from central Veracruz north to central Tamaulipas, northeastern San Luis Potosi and eastern Nuevo Leon, in Mexico. Its elevational range is from approximately sea level up to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64060	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is a burrowing snake, living under rocks and logs, some of them are found in termite nests (eat termites). It also occurs in disturbed areas, and appears to be adaptable.	eng
64060	population	Flores-Villela, O., Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
64060	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
64061	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Its habitat is protected in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64061	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard occurs widely in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It ranges from northwestern Nevada and extreme southwestern Utah south through southeastern California, Arizona, and extreme southwestern New Mexico to northern Mexico in Sonora, Sinaloa (south almost to Nayarit), and Baja California (south to the southern tip). It is also present on Islas Magdalena and Santa Margarita along the Pacific coast of Baja California and on several islands in Gulf of California (Angel de la Guarda, Carmen, Cerralvo, Coronados, Espititu Snato, Partida Sur, Patos, San Francisco, San Jose, San Luis, San Marcos, Santa Inez, Smith and Tiburon [Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003]). Its elevational range extends from sea level in desert sinks to about 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64061	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard is usually found in sparsely vegetated desert areas on open sandy washes, dunes (e.g., Vizcaino Desert), floodplains, beaches, or desert pavement (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); at higher elevations, it sometimes occurs on rocky, relatively shady, leaf-litter substrates (Grismer 2002). Eggs are laid probably underground or under rocks. It is a substrate-dependent species.	eng
64061	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is an abundant species. This species is represented by a large number of viable occurrences that are well distributed throughout its range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several hundred thousand. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and appear to be relatively stable.	eng
64061	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, the species has been detrimentally affected by habitat destruction and degradation as a result of conversion of land to human uses (e.g., agriculture, residential and commercial development). There is a tiny pet trade, but generally it is a non-target species, and the trade does not constitute a threat to the species.	eng
64062	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitat is protected in several national parks and monuments and federal wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64062	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range of this species extends from Arizona across most of southern New Mexico to northern Texas in the United States, and south to northern Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, and western Tamaulipas, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,100 m (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64062	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The habitat includes gravelly to rocky substrates in deserts with scattered to moderate vegetative cover (e.g., sparse cactus, mesquite, ocotillo, creosote bush, or paloverde), often along floodplains, arroyo edges, and similar topographic features (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid underground (Smith 1946).	eng
64062	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences that are well distributed throughout the range. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped well over 100 collection sites in New Mexico, and Dixon (2000) mapped this species as occurring in more than 100 counties in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Densities of 10 to 107 individuals per hectare have been recorded in New Mexico and Texas (Howland 1992, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species is common in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and appear to be relatively stable. The species is common in Mexico.	eng
64062	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified in the US or Mexico. Habitat loss and degradation resulting from agricultural, residential, and commercial development likely have caused localized declines.	eng
64063	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is not clear whether or not it occurs in any protected areas; there are only a few within its range.	eng
64063	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs mainly in northwestern Mexico, extending into southwestern United States. Its range includes south-central and southern Arizona and Sonora and Sinaloa (see Wilgenbusch and de Queiroz 2000 and Crother <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
64063	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Habitats include desert (e.g., rocky foothills and slopes of Arizona upland desert between 300 and 1,200 m), thornscrub, and oak-grass habitats above 1,200 m (Lowe 1964). The species is often associated with slopes and hill country.	eng
64063	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is reasonably common and represented by many subpopulations.	eng
64063	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Its hilly habitat is generally safe from large-scale agriculture.	eng
64064	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Populations of this lizard may occur at Dolan Falls (TNC), Seminole Canyon State Park, or Lake Amistad National Recreation Area (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997), but this needs to be confirmed. Overall, better information is needed regarding the biology and conservation status of this lizard.	eng
64064	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard occurs in central and southern Texas (different subspecies north and south of the Balcones Escarpment) and adjacent northern Mexico: Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas (Axtell 1968, Conant and Collins 1991, Dixon 2000).	eng
64064	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Habitats include moderately open prairie-brushland regions, particularly fairly flat areas free of vegetation or other obstructions (e.g., open meadows, old and new fields, graded roadways, cleared and disturbed areas, prairie savanna); also, oak-juniper woodlands and mesquite-prickly pear associations (Axtell 1968, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In Mexico, the species is also known to occur in desert habitats. Eggs are laid underground.	eng
64064	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Dixon (2000) indicated that this species has been found in at least 50 counties in Texas. However, the distribution appears to be discontinuous and localized (Axtell 1968). The total population size is unknown, but the species is not frequently observed and appears to be uncommon or rare (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This lizard has been declining in Texas since the early 1970s; all populations along the flatland, eastern coastal areas are extirpated; populations on the western periphery of the range and in southern Texas near the Rio Grande are declining; a few populations in this area still remain (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) noted that several recent searches in locations where this lizard had been found in the past failed to yield any additional observations. The population size and trends in Mexico are unknown.	eng
64064	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The greatest threats within the US are agricultural herbicides and insecticides; can survive ploughing (R. Axtel, pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation. Large amounts of habitat are being converted to agriculture, sown to alien grasses for improved grazing, or fragmented by road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). The same threats apply within the Mexican part of the species' range. The fire ant <em>Solenopsys invicta</em> was introduced into Texas in the 1950s and its range has spread along the eastern coast of Texas; this is likely to constitute a threat to this species.	eng
64065	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64065	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species ranges from southern South Dakota to central Texas, southwest to southeastern Utah and Arizona, southward to Jalisco and Guanajuato, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,100 m (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64065	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Habitats include areas of sparse vegetation and sandy or gravelly soil: washes, streambanks, dunes, prairie, mesquite and pinyon-juniper woodland, sagebrush flats, farmland, and shrubby/grassy sandhills (Collins 1993, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). This species seeks refuge in rodent burrows or by wriggling into the soil. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64065	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (e.g., Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The species is common (at least several adults per hectare) in many areas of Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and is common to abundant in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps slowly declining.	eng
64065	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Populations have been reduced or eliminated in some areas as a result of large-scale intensive cultivation. However, many viable populations remain, and the species currently faces no major threats. These lizards are attracted to disturbances (cattle grazing, fire) that create openings in otherwise thick vegetation (see Hammerson 1999).	eng
64066	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs on most of the Lower Rio Grande National Wildlife Refuge, Padre Island National Seashore, Mustang Island State Park, Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, and Matagorda Island State Park (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico, it occurs in the Laguna Madre protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64066	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species ranges from southern Texas south along northeastern coastal Mexico; inland in southern Texas, this lizard occurs northward to the southern edge of the Edwards Plateau (Axtell 1983). In Mexico, the species reaches as far south as the Tropic of Cancer (Tamaulipas), but does not range as far south as the State of Veracruz.	eng
64066	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Habitats include coastal dunes, barrier islands, and other sandy areas (Axtell 1983). Although it occurs well inland in Texas, this species is most abundant on coastal dunes, were it seeks shelter in the burrows of small mammals or crabs (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64066	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The species is represented by more than 100 extant populations (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Dixon (2000) mapped the presence of this lizard in 28 counties in Texas. Axtell (1983) mapped 12 collection sites in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. These lizards can be common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Probably the species declined somewhat during the historical period (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Populations in coastal regions and inland appear to be relatively stable (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Texas populations are doing well, particularly on coastal islands and dune fields; population status in Mexico is unknown, but the species occurs on barrier islands south of the Rio Grande in the state of Tamaulipas (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico, most of the current range area is uninhabited and protected; as such, the population is considered to be stable.	eng
64066	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats are known to exist in the US (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Potential threats include modification and destruction of habitat for coastal development and conversion of habitat to sugar cane fields, but this is not the case in the Mexican part of the range. It is unclear how much of a threat is posed by development or conversion to sugar cane fields; these lizards have been observed utilizing areas immediately surrounding hotels, and the amount of area being converted for sugar cane is very limited. A great deal of pasture habitat is still available (A. Price pers. comm. 1997). Threats may include the conversion of habitat for agriculture and alien grasslands, and habitat fragmentation due to road construction (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997). A potential threat is off-road vehicles or heavy beach traffic (J. Karges pers. comm. 1997). In Mexico there are no major threats, as the range area is largely uninhabited and unsuitable for agriculture.	eng
64067	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64067	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range extends from San Gorgonio Pass, Riverside County, California, in the United States, south through the arid portions of the Peninsular Ranges to at least Bahia de los Angeles, Baja California, Mexico, including the upper elevations of the Sierra las Pintas and the isolated El Pedregoso in Valle de Gato, Baja California. There is an isolated population on El Muerto island in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range is from near sea level to around 1,200 m (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64067	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This saxicolous lizard is most abundant among massive rocks (high rocky cliffs) in the shady, narrower parts of canyons, on the desert slope of mountains (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, some populations extend into chaparral and pinyon-juniper woodlands on the west face of the Sierra San Pedro Martir (Grismer 2002).	eng
64067	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Jennings (1990) mapped about 40 collection sites in Baja California and at least 25 in California. It is commonly seen in suitable habitat in Baja California. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is common or abundant in favorable habitat, such as cliffs and large rocks in canyon-bottom riparian zones (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and population size are relatively large and appear to be stable.	eng
64067	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified to this species.	eng
64068	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is present in the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve (Galina-Tessaro <em>et al</em>. 2003), and occurs in several other protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64068	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Baja Peninsula in Mexico. It ranges from 17 km north of Santa Catarina in central Baja California, south along the eastern part of the peninsula bordering the El Vizcaíno desert to Arroyo Seco, and from here to north of La Paz. It might occur further north, as far as Mesa San Carlos, but there are currently no specimens to document this.	eng
64068	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals have been recorded from several saxicolous microhabitats, but they seem to prefer rocky canyons, areas of granitic boulders, rock outcroppings, escarpments of lava plateaus, and may be found on sheer cliffsides in steep canyons and on the walls of stone houses (missions).	eng
64068	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.	eng
64068	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64069	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is present within the Islas del Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve. Further field studies are needed to gather additional information on the ecology and habitat requirements of this species, and to better evaluate the conservation status of this species.	eng
64069	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs only in the islands of Angel de la Guarda and Mejía, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64069	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a diurnal species, with animals found in rocky areas and on cliffs. It is possible that the species can persist in areas of habitat disturbance.	eng
64069	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species, and its population is suspected to be stable within its limited range.	eng
64069	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although it is only known from a small area, there appear to be no immediate threats to the species.	eng
64070	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is present in the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area, on the Isla Espiritu Santo Reserve, and may also occur in a number of additional protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species, and the possible threat to populations from illegal collection of animals.	eng
64070	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur in the Gulf of California, and from the Cape Region of the Baja California peninsula.	eng
64070	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is generally associated with rocky areas, but animals can sometimes also be found in upland wooded areas in the Sierra La Laguna.	eng
64070	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is an abundant species that is commonly seen in its preferred habitat.	eng
64070	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Animals are occasionally illegally collected for the pet trade (Mellink 1995), but probably not at a level to constitute a threat to the species.	eng
64071	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
64071	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Mexico, where it occurs in the States of Puebla, Oaxaca and Morelos. It has been taken from close to the border with Veracruz, and may be present in this State. It is found at elevations of about 800 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64071	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is found in primary and secondary tropical deciduous forest, scrubland and primary oak forest. It can be found in traditional agricultural areas, such as corn fields. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64071	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64071	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	In general, there appear to be no major threats to this species. Some populations are impacted by roads and others are overcollected for the pet trade.	eng
64072	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Extant populations exist in a fairly large number of areas with adequate protection.	eng
64072	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range extends from extreme southwestern Missouri and central Kansas to southeastern Colorado, and south and west throughout most of Oklahoma and Texas (including coastal barrier islands), eastern and southern New Mexico, and southeastern Arizona to northeastern Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango east of Sierra Madre Occidental, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, and Zacatecas (Price 1990). Native eastern limit is uncertain; records for Missouri and Arkansas have been questioned (now extirpated from Arkansas; Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004), and possibly the species is not native to Louisiana (Price 1990). This species has been introduced and is established in several areas in the southeastern United States, including North Carolina), Florida (Jensen 1994), and elsewhere (see Price 1990 for references).	eng
64072	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits open arid and semi-arid regions with sparse vegetation (deserts, prairies, playa edges, bajadas, dunes, foothills) with grass, cactus, or scattered brush or scrubby trees (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). Soil may vary in texture from sandy to rocky. When inactive, individuals burrow into the soil, enter rodent burrows, or hide under rocks. Sheffield and Carter (1994) reported individuals that climbed one to two m up tree trunks when soils were wet after heavy rains. Eggs are laid in nests dug in soil or under rocks (Collins 1982).	eng
64072	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites throughout the historical range in the United States and by well over 100 sites in Mexico (Price 1990). Many historically occupied sites still support populations (e.g., Hammerson 1999).  Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species can be locally abundant in undeveloped areas with appropriate habitat (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Hammerson 1999). This species apparently has declined in area of occupancy and population size near the northeastern margins of the range in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, but it is doing well in most the range. According to Price (1990), the Texas Horned Lizard has virtually disappeared from Texas east of a line from Fort Worth through Austin and San Antonio to Corpus Cristi (formerly widespread and abundant in that area); it has also declined in range and/or abundance in areas where it was formerly common in parts of north-central Texas, the Texas Panhandle, and parts of Oklahoma. Price's conclusions are supported by more recent surveys in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. A 1992 Texas survey found the greatest declines in east Texas (where no individuals were found) and apparent declines also in central Texas; the species appeared to be doing well in northern and western Texas (Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994). Bartlett and Bartlett (1999) stated that the decline may have halted in at least some parts of Texas; they found numerous individuals in areas where searches in several previous years yielded few. A 1999 survey in Texas was unable to determine if the decline has halted or if it continues today (Henke 2003). A 1992 Oklahoma survey found the species to be rapidly disappearing in eastern areas of Oklahoma where it was once known to be abundant (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993). A 1993 survey of the northern Flint Hills of Kansas suggested that populations were possibly declining (Busby and Parmalee 1996), and local collectors reported declines in the southeastern portions of Kansas (Bill Busby pers. comm. 1998). In Colorado no trend information is available, but recent surveys indicate that the species appears to be locally common and stable (Siemers pers. comm. 1998, Hammerson 1999). According to Rosen (<em>Herp Diversity Review</em> 1996), populations are thriving and plentiful in extreme southeastern Arizona. New Mexico densities have not changed historically, and populations are considered stable (C. Painter pers. comm. 1998). Status is unknown in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lizarraga pers. comm. 1998). It is considered to be a very common species in Mexico.	eng
64072	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Within the US, declines may be related to the spread of fire ants, use of insecticides to control fire ants, heavy agricultural use of land and/or other habitat alterations, and overcollecting for the pet and curio trade (Price 1990, Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994). This species is extremely vulnerable to changes in habitat, especially the loss of harvester ants (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993). Harvester ants comprise up to 69% of the diet (Pianka and Parker 1975), and fire ants are thought to out-compete native harvester ants for food and space (Henke and Fair 1998). This threat may be significant in parts of Texas but probably not elsewhere. Intensive agriculture (plowing) could destroy adults and their eggs (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1993, Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994) but, according to Henke and Fair (1998), reports of declines due to loss of habitat caused by urbanization, suburban sprawl, and conversion of native rangeland to agricultural crops are mostly unsubstantiated (Henke and Fair 1998). The widespread use of broadcast insecticides is also thought to contribute to declines. Insecticides can be detrimental by directly causing illness or death or indirectly by severely reducing or eliminating harvester ants (Henke and Fair 1998). In the past, this lizard was collected for the pet trade, by boy scout troops for trading at jamborees, for the curio trade, and by tourists (Donaldson <em>et al</em>. 1994, Henke and Fair 1998). Mortality from road traffic is an important local threat in some areas. Males are particularly vulnerable during May-June in Arizona-New Mexico (Sherbrooke 2002). A high level of road mortality may lead to significant local declines. <br/> <br/>There appear to be no threats to this species in Mexico.	eng
64073	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research employing genetic methods is needed to determine the taxonomic status of the named subspecies. Then further consideration should be given to the conservation status of the identified valid taxa. The impact of collecting for the pet trade needs to be assessed.	eng
64073	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard ranges throughout most of west-central and southwestern California (United States) as well as most of Baja California (Mexico) (except the northeastern portion). In California, it ranges north to Shasta County, though a disjunct population occurs farther north at Grasshopper Flat, Siskiyou County, California (Jennings 1988, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from near sea level to around 2,438 m (8,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Attempted introductions at Yosemite Valley and San Clemente Island (California), and in Hawaii, Colombia, and Guatemala have failed (Jennings 1988).	eng
64073	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in a variety of habitats, including scrubland, grassland, coniferous woods, and broadleaf woodlands. Typically it is found in areas with sandy soil, scattered shrubs, and ant colonies, such as along the edges of arroyo bottoms or dirt roads (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In southern California, <em>P. coronatum</em> was most common in areas with native ants and few or no Argentine ants, in areas with native chaparral vegetation, and in sites with porous soils relatively free of organic debris (Fisher <em>et al</em>. 2002). Individuals bury themselves in loose soil. Eggs are laid in a nest dug in the soil or in a burrow.	eng
64073	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known from hundreds of collection sites in California and well over 100 in Baja California (Jennings 1988), but many of these sites no longer support substantial populations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and may exceed 100,000. The species is common in parts of Baja California (Grismer 2002). The area of occupancy and population size appear to have declined significantly in California but much less so in Baja California. Its area of occupancy and population size are probably still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown (probably it is substantially less than 30% over the past three generations).	eng
64073	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The Coast Horned Lizard is now absent from much of its former southern Californian range due to urbanization, agricultural development, and over-collecting (Jennings 1987, 1988). In some areas, the non-native Argentine ant is displacing native ant species upon which this lizard feeds (Stebbins 2003). In Baja California, the expansion of intensive agriculture is also a threat, in particular in the Vizcaíno Desert, the Magdalena Plain, and the Isthmus of La Paz.	eng
64074	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Sherbrooke, W., 2007	Further studies are necesary to evaluate the status of this species in the wild. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
64074	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Sherbrooke, W., 2007	This very poorly known species is known only from four locations in eastern Sonora, Mexico. Its distribution is probably very imperfectly known, and the distribution map is based on the assumption that it occurs between the known localities. The known localities are: the Sierra Manzanal (type locality); the Sierra Baviacora; in the drainage of the Rio Yaqui; and at El Chorro (8 km northeast of Nacori Chico in the Sierra Occidental). The first two named localities in the drainage of the Rio Sonora. Its elevational range is 1,050 to 1,425 m asl.	eng
64074	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Sherbrooke, W., 2007	This species can be found in rocky habitats in evergreen oak and pine-oak woodland, short-tree Sinaloan decidous forest and thorn shrubland. However, its ecological requirements are very poorly known.	eng
64074	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Sherbrooke, W., 2007	It is generally a localised species, but it is relatively common in a couple of locations.	eng
64074	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden. H. & Sherbrooke, W., 2007	There is very little information, but the foothill areas that it inhabits are relatively secure from habitat loss. Subsistence wood cutting is taking place, but its impact is not known. Introduced fire ants would be a potential threat, but this is speculative at present.	eng
64075	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64075	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in the northwestern United States, and formerly in southwestern Canada. It ranges from southern British Columbia (where it is apparently extirpated; Powell and Russell 1998) south to northeastern California, northern Nevada, and southern Idaho (Zamudio <em>et al</em>. 1997, Stebbins 2003); eastern and southern range limits have not been precisely determined; there is an old record from extreme southwestern Montana, where current status is unknown (St. John 2002, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its elevational range extends from around 300 to 1,830 m (1,000 to 6,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64075	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard ranges from semi-arid plains to high mountains: sagebrush, bunchgrass, pinyon-juniper woodland, openly spaced pines (Stebbins 2003). Usually it occurs in open, shrubby, or openly wooded areas with sparse vegetation at ground level. Soil may vary from rocky to sandy. When not active on the surface, the lizards burrow into the soil or occupy rodent burrows.	eng
64075	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences scattered throughout its historical range. The number of occurrences with good viability is unknown, but probably there are many. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable.	eng
64075	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64076	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64076	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range extends from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan south through eastern Montana, the western Dakotas, Wyoming, western Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, eastern Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and mountains of western Texas to southern Durango (Zamudio <em>et al</em>. 1997, Stebbins 2003); the range limit in the vicinity of Idaho, western Wyoming, northern Utah, and northern Nevada has not been precisely determined. Elevational range extends from 170 to around 3,440 m (900 to 11,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64076	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats of this lizard range from semi-arid plains to high mountains; usually the species is in open, shrubby, or openly wooded areas with sparse vegetation at ground level; soil may vary from rocky to sandy (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). When not active on the surface, the lizards burrow into the soil or occupy rodent burrows.	eng
64076	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by very many occurrences that are well distributed throughout the wide range (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), but it can be fairly difficult to find in areas where it has been previously observed, even when habitat conditions appear to be stable (Hammerson 1999).	eng
64076	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat loss and degradation (e.g., urbanization and intensive cultivation, conversion of native shrubland to dense grass) have caused local declines, but the species appears to face no major threats over most of the vast range.	eng
64077	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In June of 1997, seven Federal and State agencies signed a Conservation Agreement (CA) to implement a Flat-tailed Horned Lizard Rangewide Management Strategy (Management Strategy). The purpose of the Management Strategy is to provide a framework for conserving sufficient habitat to maintain several viable populations of the species throughout the range in the United States. As part of the CA, agencies delineated specific areas under their jurisdiction as Management Areas (MAs). Approximately 181,100 ha of the remaining Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat managed by signatories of the CA exists within five MAs, which occur in the Borrego Badlands, West Mesa, Yuha Desert, East Mesa, and the Yuma Desert. These managed areas are believed to represent approximately 35% of Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat remaining in the United States. The five MAs were designed to identify large areas of public land where Flat-tailed Horned Lizards have been found, as well as to include most Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat identified as key areas in previous studies (Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980, Turner and Medica 1982, Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987, Foreman 1997). The MAs were delineated to include areas as large as possible, while avoiding extensive, existing and predicted management conflicts (e.g., OHV open areas). The MAs are meant to be the core areas for maintaining self-sustaining populations of Flat-tailed Horned Lizards in the US (FTHL-ICC 2002). This lizard commonly occurs in additional areas outside of the MAs. These areas include the Ocotillo Wells State Vehicle Recreation Area (Ocotillo Wells SVRA), Coachella Valley, the areas adjoining the Algodones Dunes, and east of the Algodones Dunes between Ogilby and the Mexican border (Norris 1949, Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980, Turner and Medica 1982). The Ocotillo Wells SVRA is currently a Research Area under the Management Strategy, and studies on the flat-tailed horned lizard have been encouraged and funded by the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) Division of Off-Highway Motor Vehicle Recreation (Foreman 1997). The majority of the potential habitat is within and adjacent to the Algodones Dunes is within the Imperial Sand Dunes Recreation Area. Over 47,754 ha of the Imperial Sand Dunes Recreation Area is used as an OHV open area. The majority of the Algodones Dunes north of Highway 78 is a designated wilderness area [from USFWS 2003]. Of the remaining habitat in the Coachella Valley, only about 2,150 ha of suitable Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat is estimated to be protected as part of the Coachella Valley Fringe-Toed Lizard Preserve System (Coachella Valley Mountains Conservancy 2001). Approximately 75% of the horned lizard habitat in the Coachella Valley is either private or Tribal land and subject to development in the near future [from USFWS 2003]. The majority (about 60 percent) of the range in Mexico lies within two federally protected areas: (1) The Upper Gulf of California and Colorado Delta Biosphere Reserve, and (2) the Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve (CEDO 2001). The National Park of Pinacate is an area administered by the Mexican government with use restrictions similar to those in a national park in the United States. The Upper Gulf of California Biosphere Reserve includes Flat-tailed Horned Lizard habitat in the vicinity of the Colorado River Delta in Sonora, Mexico [from USFWS 2003]. Grismer (2002) stated that "it is conceivable that the remote, undeveloped areas of northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora may become strongholds for this species".	eng
64077	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is known only from a limited area in extreme southwestern United States, and extreme northwestern Mexico. The range includes southeastern California, extreme northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002), northwestern Sonora, and southwestern Arizona (Funk 1981, Stebbins 2003). In California, the species ranges southward from the Coachella Valley, including both sides of the Salton Sea and Imperial Valley, and westward into the Borrego Valley, Ocotillo Wells area, West Mesa, and Yuha Desert (Yuha Basin), and, on the east side of the Imperial Valley, to the vicinity of the Dos Palmas Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC), but predominantly it occurs in East Mesa and in areas adjoining the Algodones Dunes (i.e., Imperial Sand Dunes, Glamis Sand Dunes) on the east side of the Imperial Valley. In southwestern Arizona, it occurs south of the Gila River and west of the Gila and Tinajas Altas Mountains in Yuma County (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). The range extends into Mexico from the international border in the Yuha Desert in California, south to Laguna Salada in Baja California, and from the international border in the Yuma Desert in Arizona, south and east through the Pinacate Region to the sandy plains around Puerto Penasco and Bahia de San Jorge, Sonora (Johnson and Spicer 1985, Gonzales-Romero and Alvarez-Cardenas 1989; these were cited, without full literature citations, by USFWS 2003). The distribution of the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard is not contiguous across its range; it is fragmented by large-scale agricultural and urban development, primarily in the Imperial Valley and the Coachella Valley. In addition, the Salton Sea, Colorado River, East Highline Canal, New Coachella Canal, and All American Canal are barriers to movement. Due to this habitat fragmentation and existing geographic barriers, the United States distribution appears to be currently divided on a broad scale into at least four geographically discrete subpopulations: three in California and one in Arizona. The three subpopulations in California are located in the Coachella Valley, the west side of the Salton Sea/Imperial Valley, and the east side of the Imperial Valley [from USFWS 2003]. The Flat-tailed Horned Lizard has been recorded at elevations as high as 520 m (1,706 feet) above sea level, but is more commonly found below 250 m (820 feet) in areas with flat-to-modest slopes (Turner <em>et al</em>. 1980). See Turner and Medica (1982) for the results of surveys done in southeastern California in 1978-1980; the area north of Highway 78 in the vicinity of Ocotillo Wells and Benson Dry Lake (= Ocotillo Dry Lake), eastern San Diego County, was identified as a particularly favorable area; other areas of relatively high abundance were in Imperial County--southern East Mesa, southeastern Yuha Desert, and the Superstition Mountain area. In Arizona, an area southeast of Yuma registered a relatively high abundance index (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). Its area of occupancy is very small within the extent of occurrence because of its dependence on wind-blown sand.	eng
64077	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Typical habitat consists of sandy desert flatlands with sparse vegetation and low plant species diversity; occasionally the species occurs on low hills, mud hills, alkali flats, or areas covered with small pebbles or desert pavement; it is most abundant where surface soils contain some loose or windblown sand but rarely occurs on dunes (see USFWS 1993, Beauchamp <em>et al</em>. 1998). Vegetation in favourable habitat may include creosote bush, bur-sage, indigo bush, saltbush, and ocotillo (Turner and Medica 1982); also salt-cedar (Grismer 2002). In Arizona, it is most abundant in areas with galleta grass, sandy soil, and many active black harvester ant nests (Rorabaugh <em>et al</em>. 1987). In southeastern California, abundance is positively correlated with density of perennial plants, and there is a strong positive association between lizard and ant densities (Turner and Medica 1982). This is a cryptic lizard that generally occurs on the ground; often it is immobile and difficult to detect until it moves. Sometimes it perches on rocks or wood (Grismer 2002). Periods of inactivity may be spent burrowed in loose sand. When approached, it may attempt escape into a burrow or under a shrub (Wone and Beauchamp 1995, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 26: 132). Hibernation burrows appear to be self-constructed (constructed by the lizards themselves versus using burrows constructed by other animals) and are within 10 cm of the surface (Muth and Fisher 1992). Mayhew (1965) found that the majority of lizards hibernated within five cm of the surface. The greatest depth recorded was 20 cm below the surface.	eng
64077	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The number of distinct occurrences has not been established using consistent criteria; probably there are more than 20 and perhaps fewer than 80 (e.g., see Funk 1981). Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped a few dozen extant populations in southern California, plus about 20 extirpated ones. The number of occurrences with good viability is unknown but probably does not exceed a few dozen. The BLM recently estimated the population size on the Yuha Basin Management Area (MA) (one of five management areas identified in a management strategy for the species) by using capture-mark-recapture (CMR) techniques incorporating detection probabilities (see Thompson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Williams <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the summer (June to August) of 2002, the population of Flat-tailed Horned Lizards for the Yuha Basin MA (24,122 ha) was estimated at 18,494 adults (95% confidence interval = 14,596 to 22,391) and 8,685 juveniles (95% confidence interval = 6,860 to 10,510). ''Adults'' included all lizards greater than 60 mm (Young and Young 2000), while ''juveniles'' included all lizards 60 mm or less in snout-to-vent length. Population estimates for the other four MAs using a CMR methodology will be conducted soon, for the first time (G. Wright, BLM biologist, pers. comm. 2002). [from USFWS 2003]. Based on this information, it seems likely that the total adult population size exceeds 100,000. Hodges (1997) estimated that the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard historically (prior to agricultural or urban development of either the Coachella or Imperial Valleys) occupied up to 979,037 ha in Arizona and California. Approximately 51% (503,173 ha) of this historical habitat remains in the United States, with about 56,770 ha in Arizona and 446,390 ha in California (Hodges 1997). The Salton Sea area could arguably be considered ephemeral historical habitat, present at some points and absent at others, as the area changed through time. Hodges (1977) included the Salton Sea as historical habitat. If the area the Salton Sea currently occupies is not considered historical habitat, then approximately 57% (557,072 ha) of historical habitat remains in the United States. [from USFWS 2003]. Johnson and Spicer (1985) estimated that in 1981 approximately 59% of the species range occurred in Mexico, with the majority of the range in Mexico occurring in the state of Sonora. However, the distribution of the species in Mexico is poorly understood because few surveys have been conducted to determine where the species occurs in Mexico. In 1981 in Sonora, about 14% of the habitat was estimated to be threatened by urban, agricultural or recreational use, and habitat degradation (Johnson and Spicer 1985). In Baja California, considerable habitat loss has occurred in the Mexicali Valley, where urban and agricultural development extends from Mexicali to the Colorado River (Johnson and Spicer 1985, Foreman 1997) [from USFWS 2003]. Overall, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy have been relatively stable to slightly declining in recent years.	eng
64077	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Based on information obtained since the withdrawal of the proposed listing rule in 1997 and information documented in the proposed rule, USFWS (2003) identified potential threats to the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard, including the following: urban development, agricultural development, OHV activity, energy development, military activities, introduction of non-native plants, pesticide use, and habitat degradation due to Border Patrol and illegal drive-through traffic along the United States-Mexico border. These threats and their effects on flat-tailed horned lizards and their habitat are discussed in further detail in USFWS (2003). After considering all the current available information, USFWS (2003) determined that the threats identified under Factor A (habitat loss/change) were not significant enough to conclude that the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard is likely to become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range in the foreseeable future. However, the Coachella Valley has experienced a significant amount of habitat curtailment and there is the potential for significant habitat destruction in the immediate future, because of the predominant private ownership of habitat and the rate of development in the Coachella Valley. Currently available information does not suggest that development of private lands on the west side of Salton Sea/Imperial Valley poses a threat in the foreseeable future. The only towns in this geographic area are Borrego Springs, Ocotillo, Ocotillo Wells, and Salton City. The largest of these towns is Borrego Springs with a population of approximately 3,000 people. It is likely that the size of these towns will not change significantly in the foreseeable future (USFWS 2003). Therefore, USFWS (2003) concluded that the threat of development of private lands in areas other than the Coachella Valley is not significant enough to endanger the species within the foreseeable future throughout a significant portion of its range. The available data do not suggest that habitat modification by OHV use threatens the Flat-tailed Horned Lizard on the west side of the Salton Sea/Imperial Valley and east side of the Imperial Valley (USFWS 2003). USFWS (2003) also concluded that the Arizona population is not likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future. The low percentage of lands in private ownership makes for a low degree of threat from development. Further, OHV use has not been shown to be a threat to populations there, and this geographic area experiences a relatively low level of OHV activity. Collection, predation, and disease are not believed to be significant threats (USFWS 2003). In Mexico, off-road driving by tourists over dunes is a major threat to its habitat. The species is also persecuted, and is harvested for the pet trade in Mexico.	eng
64078	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P., Lavin, P., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64078	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P., Lavin, P., 2007	The range extends from southeastern Arizona, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), southeastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999, Rondeau 2002), and northern Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000) south to San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from 210 to 2,200 m (700-7,220 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64078	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P., Lavin, P., 2007	This lizard occupies various desert grassland and desert shrubland habitats, generally areas of sparse scrub vegetation and gravelly to rocky soils, such as bajada slopes, edges of washes, desert flats, arid and semi-arid hills (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). It is also found in oak habitats in parts of its range. When not active or resting on the ground surface, it burrows into the soil or occupies rodent burrows. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64078	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P., Lavin, P., 2007	Very abundant. This species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Whiting and Dixon 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is "not uncommon" in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or very slowly declining.	eng
64078	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P., Lavin, P., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization or agricultural development.	eng
64079	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It is present in several (five or six) protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64079	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is widespread in Mexico. It ranges from the south of Chihuahua and Sinaloa, along Durango, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, central Mexico, to Queretero, Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Edo de Mexico, Mexico DF, Morelos, and from here to east Veracruz, Puebla,Tlaxcala and western Guerrero (Horowitz 1955, Anderson and Lidicke, 1963, Wilson and McCranie 1979, Rodríguez and Vázque 1996,Vázquez and Quintero 1997, De la Riva <em>et al</em>. 2000, McCranie and Wilson 2001, Vázquez and Quintero 2005). It occurs at elevation of 1,000 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
64079	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is present in a wide variety of primary and secondary habitats. It has been recorded from dry scrubland, pine-oak forest, oak forest, juniper forest, and has been reported from agricultural land (plantations and crops) and agave and <em>Opuntia</em> fields.	eng
64079	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
64079	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Although there are no major threats to the species, some populations are impacted by habitat fragmentation (largely deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use, and burning of in some places for livestock; overcollection of animals for the local pet trade (commonly offered for sale in cities); and predation by domestic animals.	eng
64080	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Populations exist in several national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.	eng
64080	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs widely in the west of the United States, extending into northwestern Mexico. The range extends from southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, and northern Utah south through eastern and southern California, Nevada, and western Arizona to northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora (Pianka 1991, Grismer 2002, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Old records for northeastern Utah need verification (St. John 2002). Its elevational range extends from below sea level (desert sinks) to about 1,980 m (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64080	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard inhabits deserts dominated by sagebrush, creosote bush, greasewood, or cactus, on sandy flats, alluvial fans, washes, or at the edge of dunes (Grismer 2002, St. John 2002, Stebbins 2003). Periods of inactivity are spent burrowed in the soil.	eng
64080	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is very common for a horned lizard. This species is represented by a large number of collection sites (Pianka 1991). Populations are probably extant in most of these locations. The total adult population size is unknown but is certainly very large. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
64080	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization, agricultural development, and off-road vehicle use.	eng
64081	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species exists in several national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.	eng
64081	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico, extending into southwestern United States. The range encompasses central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico (Guadalupe Canyon, Hidalgo County; Painter 1993, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 155), Sonora, portions of southwestern Chihuahua, and northern Sinaloa. It is also present on Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California (Parker 1974, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Stebbins (2003) mapped the range as extending through southern Sinaloa to at least Nayarit, but this appears to be an error. Elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,460 m (4,800 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64081	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard occupies generally level or gently sloping terrain with openly spaced desert vegetation (e.g., creosote bush, mesquite, saguaro), including rocky and gravelly habitats of arid and semi-arid plains, hills, canyons, and lower slopes of mountains (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). Three females lay eggs in 35 cm deep holes dug in fine soil within 1 m of shrubs (Van Devender and Howard 1973). It occurs in some desert corridors that penetrate deeply into the mountains. It is also present in mesquite grassland and oak woodland in a few places.	eng
64081	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by well over 100 collection sites that represented at least several dozen distinct occurrences (e.g., see Parker 1974). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence appears to be stable, and area of occupancy and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
64081	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations probably have been reduced or eliminated as a result of urbanization, agricultural development, and other human activities, but the species is unthreatened in most of the range.	eng
64082	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Populations are present within the protected areas of Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve and Sierra de Huautla in Morelos State. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64082	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the arid highlands of southern Mexico (States of Guerrero, Puebla and Oaxaca), where it ranges from the upper Balsas Basin crossing over continental divide into the Valley of Tehuacan. It is generally found below 1,500 m asl but has occasionally been reported up to 1,700 m asl (Zamudio and Parra-Olea 2000).	eng
64082	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a terrestrial species of high desert, arid scrub and tropical dry forest. It can persist in traditional pastures. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64082	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is considered to be a moderately abundant species.	eng
64082	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Some animals are collected for use in traditional medicines, the impact of this use needs additional research.	eng
64083	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Omiltemi Protected State Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64083	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur in central Guerrero State, Mexico. Populations are present between 1,500 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
64083	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a saxicolous species associated with limestone outcrops in pine-oak and fir scrub forest as well as in traditional corn fields with rocky areas. Animals can be found on rocks, tree limbs and fallen trunks, in pine forests.	eng
64083	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is very little information about the abundance of this species.	eng
64083	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, indeed, it is possible that deforestation could provide a more favourable habitat for the species.	eng
64084	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in at least five protected areas. No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64084	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Puebla, to western Michoacan and Jalisco (north of the Mexican Plateau), to northern Guanajuato, Queretaro and Hidalgo. It is found from 1,850 to 3,600 m asl.	eng
64084	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species inhabits in a great variety of habitats and microhabitats such as pine forest, bunchgrass, rocky areas and rock crevices. It is present in modified habitats including agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64084	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64084	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64085	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Santos-Barrera, G. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in at least two or three protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species because of previous confusion with other taxa.	eng
64085	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Santos-Barrera, G. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is found in the higher parts of the mountains bordering the south of the Mexican Valley in Distrito Federal and State of Mexico, Mexico. The species may occur more widely than is currently known. It is found from around 2,500 to at least 3,400 m asl	eng
64085	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Santos-Barrera, G. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is mainly saxicolous, it is commonly found in rock crevices in pine-forest. It can occur in secondary forest and disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64085	population	Flores-Villela, O., Santos-Barrera, G. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64085	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Santos-Barrera, G. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64086	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	Both islands inhabited by this species are part of the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Grismer (2002) recommends that this species needs further field studies (especially with regards to the natural history and ecology) as it is very poorly known.	eng
64086	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the islands of San Diego and Santa Cruz in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64086	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species seems to be ubiquitous in both islands exploiting a great variety of habitats such as rocky areas, caves along beaches, areas of beach cobble stones, sandy substrate, with animals also seen on the branches of small bushes and the limbs of cardones (cacti).	eng
64086	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This lizard is abundant throughout its limited range.	eng
64086	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is not believed to be facing any major threats.	eng
64087	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In New Mexico, large populations occur on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and important populations occur in New Mexico on state and private lands as well (Painter 2004). See Painter (2004) for management recommendations. Elimination or reduction of shinnery oak removal is an important conservation need.	eng
64087	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is restricted to a small area in the southern United States. It occurs in localized populations chiefly on the Mescalero Sands in southeastern New Mexico and Monahan Sandhills in adjacent Texas (Andrews, Crane, Gaines, Ward, and Winkler counties) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Dixon 2000, Painter 2004). The elevational range extends from around 780 to 1,400 m (2,550 to 4,595 feet) (Painter 2004). The extent of occurrence is 2,312 sq. km in New Mexico, plus a smaller area in Texas. In New Mexico, potential and occupied habitat consists of 1,697 sq. km (655 sq. miles). The area of occupancy in Texas is much smaller than in New Mexico.	eng
64087	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in the vicinity of active and semi-stabilized sand dunes; vegetation consists of scattered stands of <em>Quercus havardii</em> and <em>Artemisia filifolia</em>; it tends to occur in greatest abundance in areas where the lizard <em>Uta stansburiana</em> is scarce; it seeks shelter in burrows, under leaf litter, or by burrowing into loose sand (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). The lizard is absent where blow-outs, topographic relief, or shin-oak are lacking	eng
64087	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped a dense array of 46 collection sites in New Mexico. Dixon (2000) stated that this lizard occurs in four counties in Texas. Painter (2004) showed the expected distribution in New Mexico as consisting of one large area and three disjunct smaller ones; each area includes a few to many sites where the species occurs. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000 (based on at least 1,500 sq. kilometres of occupied habitat and a very conservative estimation of at least one adult per hectare). This species is fairly common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). This species is fairly common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Habitat alteration has caused the decrease or extirpation of some populations, but the level of decline is not precisely known (Painter 2004).	eng
64087	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Large-scale habitat destruction is the major threat to the continued existence of <em>S. arenicolus</em> in southeastern New Mexico (Painter 2004). Widespread use of herbicide for shinnery oak control and activities associated with oil/gas extraction have the greatest potential to cause significant Sand Dune Lizard population extinction or reduction (Peterson and Boyd 1998, Painter 2004). The short-term effect of these activities is lizard population decline resulting from development of a grassland habitat that is unsuitable for the lizard (unless this new habitat retains large blowouts, in which case it is capable of supporting very small populations of <em>Sceloporus arenicolus</em> for at least ten years after treatment;  e.g., see Snell <em>et al</em>. 1993, Gorum et. al., 1995). The long-term effect of these habitat modifications is unknown, but increased habitat fragmentation results in increased probability of extinction of individual populations (Painter 2004). In the mid-1990s, the BLM Roswell Resource Area placed a moratorium on chemical treatment of shinnery oak - sand dune habitat. However, the long-term future of this moratorium is uncertain. Other activities with the potential for habitat destruction (i.e., ORV use, livestock grazing, and fire) have been little studied or are considered of lesser importance (Painter 2004).	eng
64088	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from three protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, biology and threats to this species.	eng
64088	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to mountainous region of western Mexico from Nayarit to Guerrero; Uruapan; Michoacan; Cumbers de los Arrastrados in Jalisco and Chilapa in Guerrero. It ranges from 335 to 1,630 m asl.	eng
64088	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is an arboreal species found in primary pine and fir forests. It might be a viviparous, however this needs to be confirmed.	eng
64088	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is difficult to find and the population abundance is not well known, it may be common or uncommon.	eng
64088	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural used including crops and cattle ranches. This species has been collected for the pet trade although current collection levels might not be a significant threat.	eng
64089	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It has been recorded from the Pico de Orizaba Parque Nacional. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
64089	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges eastwards from the eastern perimeter of the valley of Mexico to the Sierra Madre Oriental in the State of Veracruz. It ranges between 2,900 and 4,400 m asl.	eng
64089	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is associated with macoyos grassland habitats (bunched-grass) within open pine forests. It can be found in both primary and secondary habitat, but it is absent from heavily disturbed areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64089	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.	eng
64089	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64090	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
64090	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	This species occurs in the Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico from southern Sinaloa through southwestern Durango. A disjunct population occurs in northwestern Jalisco, Mexico. The species is not present on the east-facing slopes of the Sierra Madre (Webb 1967). It has been reported from approximately 426 (Jalisco) to 2,133 m asl (Webb 1967).	eng
64090	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	This species inhabits rugged mountainous areas, where it can be found in mixed boreal-tropical forest and tropical deciduous forests (Webb, 1967). Animals may be encountered on large boulders, steep-sided rock walls, logs and upright deciduous or pine trees (Webb, 1967). It is probably aviviparous species, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
64090	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	It is common within its habitat.	eng
64090	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	There are no major threats. There is incidental habitat loss at a local level only, since it inhabits places that are not suitable for intensive human activities.	eng
64091	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Populations of this species are present in the Cañon del Sumidero National Park and La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64091	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Grijalva Valley of Chiapas State, Mexico, and adjacent parts of Guatemala. It has been recorded at between 500 and 1000 m asl.	eng
64091	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals can be found on boulders and low trees within dry forest and pine-scrub habitats. The species has been recorded from disturbed areas.	eng
64091	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a common species, and has been recently observed.	eng
64091	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64092	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It may occur in Parque Nacional Cumbres de Monterray, although this needs to be confirmed. Further research into the distribution, ecology and life history of this species is needed.	eng
64092	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Zacatecas, southwards to Coahuila and northwestern San Luis Potosi. It is present between around 1,500 and 1,900 m asl.	eng
64092	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It occurs in primary tropical xerophytic shrubland. It does not occur in agricultural areas. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64092	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64092	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The arid habitat of this species is threatened by transformation, in recent decades, to open agricultural areas.	eng
64093	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There is work underway to designate a protected areas in the region of the Sierra Peña Nevada where this species occurs. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
64093	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges in the Sierra Peña Nevada in southern Nuevo Leon and Sierra La Gloria, in southwestern Tamaulipas. It has an elevational range of 2,550 to 2,880 m asl.	eng
64093	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is present in arid areas of pine-oak forest and chaparral. It can be found in the axils of agaves. It is not found in disturbed habitats. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64093	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64093	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is potentially threatened by loss or severe fragmentation of habitat through agricultural expansion within the region in the near future.	eng
64094	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species.	eng
64094	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species ranges through the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico including Isla del Carmen, extending southward to northern Guatemala and central Belize. It has been found at elevations from sea level up to 300 m asl.	eng
64094	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a diurnal lizard that is abundant in thorn forest, forest edge, and disturbed habitat, but is absent from the deep shade of primary forest. It appears to be a very adaptable species.	eng
64094	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present. Populations may be increasing in response to ongoing forest fragmentation.	eng
64094	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species. Populations may benefit through the opening of forest habitat.	eng
64095	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G. & Frost, D.R., 2007	In view of its large range, this species is presuambly present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64095	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The range encompasses central and southeastern Arizona (and disjunctly southwestern and northwestern Arizona) and southwestern New Mexico and extends southward to western Jalisco, Mexico with an isolated population in Aguas Calientes (Vázquez-Díaz <em>et al</em>. 1999; Vázquez and Quintero, 2005). Elevational range extends from sea level to about 1,848 m (6,060 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64095	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This lizard occurs primarily in wooded habitats of lower mountain: oak-pine woodland, tropical deciduous forest, subtropical thornforest (Stebbins 2003), riparian woodland communities that penetrate into more arid landscapes from forested mountains (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); it also inhabits rocky areas at the lower edges of foothills and in oak-grassland communities as low as 1,060 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is primarily a tree-dweller (climbs high into trees) but also can be found on the ground among rocks. Woodrat nests in trees may be used as refuges.	eng
64095	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Degenardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped over 100 collection sites in New Mexico, and there are even more in Arizona and southward into Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The species is abundant in suitable habitat in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996) and very common on Isla San Pedro Nolasco. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be stable. The population is fine in Mexico.	eng
64095	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G. & Frost, D.R., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species.	eng
64096	conservation	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Much of the southern portion of the species range falls within the Cumbres de Monterrey National Park, however, there is little information on the number of populations within this protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the impact of the localised threats on populations.	eng
64096	distribution	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to north central Nuevo Leon and southeastern Coahuila. Populations have been recorded up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
64096	habitat	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This is a saxicolous species, with animals often found basking on rocky hillsides in canyons surrounded by xerophytic vegetation. It is not known is the species is adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
64096	population	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In studied populations the species seems to be locally common.	eng
64096	threats	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	In parts of its range the species is locally threatened by increasing levels of tourism; by off road motorcross competitions (leading to habitat degradation); overgrazing of vegetation by goats; and by urban expansion, especially close to the city of Monterrey.	eng
64097	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
64097	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, where it is known from numerous coastal localities in Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and extreme northern Campuche, and from the islands of Cozumel, Isla Contoy, and Isla Mujeres. It is found from sea level up to 50 m asl.	eng
64097	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in coastal habitats in sandy soils along beaches.  It is also found in houses built along the coast.	eng
64097	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable at present.	eng
64097	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The main threat to the species' habitat is infrastructure development along the coast, although they do seem to be able to adapt to a moderate degree of habitat modification, being found in people's backgardens.	eng
64098	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas.	eng
64098	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from the drier portions of the Sierra de Juarez, in northeastern Oaxaca State. Populations have been recorded between 1,800 and 2,500 m asl.	eng
64098	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The natural habitat of this species if pine-oak forest. It can also be found in secondary forest, road cuts, and pasture edges.	eng
64098	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	A relatively uncommon species. The habitat quality has not changed recently so populations may be stable.	eng
64098	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64099	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The species does not occur in any protected areas. There is a need to maintain suitable habitat for populations of this speices. Further research is needed into the impact of agricultural expansion on the habitat of species.	eng
64099	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species occurs in two isolated localities the Sierra de la Gavia, south Coahuila, Mexico. Its elevation range is 1,180 to 1,550 m asl.	eng
64099	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Animals can be found in xerophytic shrubland and premontane shrubland on mountain slopes. It is not known if populations can persist in disturbed habitat.	eng
64099	population	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64099	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The species is threatened due to extraction of building materials (rocks, gravel) from its mountain range. Studies are needed to better determine if agricultural expansion (for cropland) is also threatening populations.	eng
64100	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs in a few protected areas Other than general research into the threat and some monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64100	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southeastern Nayarit and northern Jalisco, through central Jalisco, to eastern Colima, northern Michoacan and the south of Guanajuato.	eng
64100	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a saxicolous species often found basking on rocks in oak, pine, and tropical dry forest as well as in premontane shrubland. Animals have been observed in urban areas.	eng
64100	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although it is generally a common species, it may have experienced some local population declines.	eng
64100	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although the global population does not seem to be in serious decline, some populations may be locally threatened by pollution. A number of populations in urban areas appear to be declining.	eng
64101	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Does not occur in any protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64101	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca and extreme western Chiapas, Mexico). Populations are present between sea level and 750 m asl.	eng
64101	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a saxicolous species found in crevices of large rocks within deciduous forest and dry scrub forest. Populations can persists in rock formations that are surrounded by heavily disturbed vegetation.	eng
64101	population	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is generally uncommon, but is regularly found in the appropriate rocky habitat. Animals are often hard to collect because they inhabit areas of large, inaccessible rocks.	eng
64101	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64102	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is unclear if the site at Peña Blanca is within the Sierra de Gorda Biosphere Reserve. Further surveys of areas with suitable habitat are needed to determine if additional populations of this species remain. If populations are found further studies of their taxonomy and ecology are needed.	eng
64102	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality of Peña Blanca, Queretaro, Mexico. It is possible that it may be present in some additional areas of suitable habitat, however these are all in deep canyons which are both difficult to survey and inhospitable to people. It has been found at 1,420 m asl.	eng
64102	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in a small area dominated by xerophytic shrublands. This area is a relict of the Chihuahua Desert. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64102	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species has not been seen in the last thirty years despite a number of directed surveys.	eng
64102	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The causes of decline for this species from the Peña Blanca area is unclear, however, it is suspected to have resulted from the overgrazing of vegetation by cattle and sheep, and the extraction of sand and rocks from the area for building material.	eng
64103	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is found in three or four protected areas including the Omiltemi Protected State Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and the ecology of this species.	eng
64103	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species is endemic to central Mexico. It is present in the highlands of the States of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz. It ranges between 1,850 and 3,450 m asl.	eng
64103	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It lives in primary and secondary humid pine-oak forest, oak forest and cloud forest. It can be found in traditional agricultural areas such as corn fields. Animals have been observed on rocks and in trees. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64103	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is moderately common.	eng
64103	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation through clearance of land for agricultural use (crops and livestock).	eng
64104	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Populations are present in the Sierra de Huautla and the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserves. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64104	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern Michoacan, through Guerrero and Morelos, to southern Puebla, and from here to northern and western Oaxaca. It is found at elevations of around 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64104	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals are mostly terrestrial, or are found on low vegetation (such as agaves) in tropical scrub forest. Populations seem to be largely confined to rocky canyons with cliffs.	eng
64104	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a common to abundant species.	eng
64104	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64105	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further surveys are needed in remaining patches of suitable habitat, to try to locate any additional populations of this species. More information is needed on the natural history and ecology of this species.	eng
64105	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is known only from Charcas in south Coahuila State (this population may now be extirpated) and a second site in north-central San Luis Potosi State, Mexico. It is found at around 1,600 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64105	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is found in arid grassland with xerophytic vegetation. It is not found in secondary habitat, and it is sensitive to habitat disturbance. It is an viviparous species.	eng
64105	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is an extremely rare with few known specimens.	eng
64105	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is susceptible to the habitat loss and the known areas are being transformed into wheat fields. Additionally the known sites are suffering from overgrazing by domestic livestock.	eng
64106	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many national parks and monuments. Other than further taxonomic research, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole	eng
64106	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard ranges from Washington, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota south to marginal north and central Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California, Mexico, northern Arizona, and northwestern New Mexico, and eastward into western Nebraska (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from around 150 to about -3,200 m (500 to about 10,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003). The disjunct populations in southern California and the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California were treated as a distinct species by Grismer (2002).	eng
64106	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include sagebrush and other types of shrublands (e.g., manzanita and <em>Ceanothus</em> brushland), also pinyon-juniper woodland and open pine and Douglas fir forests; occupied areas have with open ground and some low bushes (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). This is a ground dweller that regularly perches on rocks, logs, or snags; it uses rodent burrows, shrubs, logs, etc., for cover.	eng
64106	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many hundreds of collection sites (e.g., see Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Baxter and Stone 1985, Censky 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The species is common (up to dozens per hectare) in many areas throughout the range (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999). Extend of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps slowly declining.	eng
64106	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations are negatively affected  by various kinds of habitat degradation.	eng
64107	conservation	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Occurs in various protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64107	distribution	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The range encompasses southern Texas (Garcia-Prieto <em>et al</em>. 2000) and much of northern Mexico. Dixon (2000) regarded the Kleberg County and Refugio County records in Texas as representing "accidental introductions," and Garcia-Prieto <em>et al</em>. (2000) similarly concluded that they were extralimital, thus restricting the native range to four counties along the lowermost Rio Grande. Taxonomic uncertainties obscure the precise extent of the range in Mexico; Lara-Góngora (2004) recently included populations of much of Chihuahua, Sonora and possibly Sinaloa in <em>S. lemnosespinali</em>.	eng
64107	habitat	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This is an arboreal lizard that occupies large mesquite trees and oaks as well as other trees including nopaleras in arid and semi-arid terrain (Smith 1946, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
64107	population	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by many collection sites in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown. This lizard is common in northern Mexico, but localized, wary, and seldom seen in Texas, where the species may be more common than it appears to be (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
64107	threats	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64108	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	Cerralvo Island is within the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area. No direct conservation measures, other than occasional monitoring of populations, are currently needed for this species.	eng
64108	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species endemic to Cerralvo Island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64108	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although this species seems to prefer rocky sites it is commonly found in vegetated adjacent areas, vegetated coastal dunes and open flats with vegetation nearby. The species seems able to adapt well to some habitat disturbance.	eng
64108	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is an abundant species within its limited range.	eng
64108	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	At present there are not considered to be any major threat. However, as the species has a restricted island range it might in the future be susceptible to the introduction of alien species (such as cattle), tourism and overcollection.	eng
64109	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Campbell, J.A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64109	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Campbell, J.A., 2007	This poorly-known species is known only from the Pacific slopes of Oaxaca State, near Miahuatlan, in Mexico. It has been recorded at 1,500 m asl.	eng
64109	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species has been recorded in mid elevation xerophytic areas, living between agave leafs.	eng
64109	population	Flores-Villela, O., Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is known only from a single collection, and there have been no recent sightings.	eng
64109	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Campbell, J.A., 2007	The threats to this species are no known.	eng
64110	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs in at least three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64110	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found from central and eastern Jalisco to western Michoacan, south of the Rio Santiago Valley in the western end of the Neovolcanic Axis and the northern end of the Sierra Madre del Sur (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is found at elevations of 1,250 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
64110	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species of oak, pine and fir forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64110	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals seem to be common in some areas, and uncommon in others.	eng
64110	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	While the threats to this species are poorly-known, it is an arboreal species and presumably any significant deforestation would adversely affect populations. At present, some localized deforestation (for conversion of land to agricultural land) is taking place within its range.	eng
64111	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Populations occur in protected areas throughout the species range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64111	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southeastern Sinaloa, through Nayarit and northern Jalisco, east into southern Zacatecas and southwest Aguascalientes, and from here south through Colima, Michoacan, central and northern Puebla and the Balsas basin in Guerrero and Oaxaca.	eng
64111	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is highly adaptable to a wide variety of natural and man-made habitats. It has been recorded from forests, shrubland, grasslands, urban and rural areas. It is an insectivorous species. The females lay a single annual clutch of between eight and fifteen eggs (Casas 1982, Ramírez 2001).	eng
64111	population	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is largely an abundant species.	eng
64111	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., García Aguayo, A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
64112	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The Gulf of California islands inhabited by this species are within the Islas del Golfo de California Flora and Fauna Protection Area. Further studies are needed into the possible threats caused by expanding tourism in the region.	eng
64112	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to southern Baja California Sur in Mexico, where it is narrowly distributed in the Cape Region from La Paz to the eastern Sierra La Laguna, south to Cabo San Lucas. It is also present on the Gulf of California islands of Espiritu Santo, Gallo, Ballena, and Partida Sur.	eng
64112	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals are generally found around rocks and crevices in arid-tropical areas with an abundance of cactus. It is an adaptable species, and can be found in urban areas, including around hotels in the Cabo San Lucas area, but it avoids intensive agriculture.	eng
64112	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64112	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Apart from localized habitat loss due to intensive agriculture around La Paz, there are no significant threats to this species.	eng
64113	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected under Mexican legislation, and occurs in at least one protected area, the Parque Nacional Nevado de Colima. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64113	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from southern Jalisco and northern Colima to western Michoacan. Populations have been recorded between 800 and 2,400 m asl.	eng
64113	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animas are found in rocky areas within pine-oak-fir and tropical dry forest. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat disturbance.	eng
64113	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
64113	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although there is localized deforestation in parts of the species range, overall this habitat loss is not widespread and seems unlikely to currently constitute a major threat.	eng
64114	conservation	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64114	distribution	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from three disjunct ranges in Mexico; from Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz, in northern Oaxaca, and a population spanning from extreme eastern Oaxaca to northwestern Chiapas. It occurs from around 100 up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64114	habitat	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It inhabits moist forest and grassland. It can also occur in farmland in rural housing but not in urban areas.	eng
64114	population	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64114	threats	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
64115	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It has been recorded from at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
64115	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. It ranges from central Veracruz, south through eastern Puebla to central Oaxaca. It is found at elevations of 1,200 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
64115	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest, scrub forest and dry oak forest. It can be found in agricultural areas, such as corn fields and coffee plantations. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64115	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a generally a very common species, although it is uncommon in central Veracruz.	eng
64115	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
64116	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	In view of its wide range, it seems likely that this species is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64116	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south into Mexico, south to Durango and Zacatecas according to the systematic arrangement of Wiens and Penkrot (2002). Elevational range is about 1,370 to 3,550 m (4,500 to 11,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003). At the northern end of the range, this lizard occurs on major mountain ranges and certain minor mountain ranges (e.g., Winchester Mountains, Galiuro Mountains) (see Rosen and Persons 2002).	eng
64116	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This is a montane species, attracted to rocky canyons, cliffs, and hillsides, including areas of oak woodland, thornscrub, and mixed oak and pine (Stebbins 2003). Typically it occurs on rocky outcrops, sometimes climbs trees.	eng
64116	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by many collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Density ranges from a few dozen per hectare to more than 200 per hectare (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably stable. It is very common.	eng
64116	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64117	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There appear to be a number of protected areas within the range of this species, however, further details are needed to confirm that it is present within these sites. Additional studies are needed into the species distribution (in particular the possible presence in Sinaloa), ecological requirements and possible threats.	eng
64117	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This recently described species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in the Sierra Madre Occidental highlands of Chihuahua and northeastern to southeastern Sonora. The distribution map provided for this species in Lara-Góngora (2004) includes a portion of northeastern Sinaloa, which is reproduced here pending additional information. The species ranges between 1,800 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
64117	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Lara-Góngora (2004) reports that the species can be encountered on live trees, logs, stumps and fallen branches, in juniper, oak, pine-oak, pine and other temperate forest communities. It is unknown if the species can persist in modified habitat, however, Lara-Góngora (2004) observes that it is rarely seen away from trees.	eng
64117	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Although this may be a relatively common species, further details of the abundance of this species are needed.	eng
64117	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is possible that there are no major threats to this species, however, further studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
64118	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species has been recorded from the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field studies, no direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64118	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the extreme south of Baja California, Mexico. It is generally restricted to the Sierra La Laguna, in the Cape Region from Rancho Ancón south to La Soledad.	eng
64118	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs in brushy areas in the central portion the Sierra la Laguna. It is scansorial, with animals being found on logs and rocks close to low trees.	eng
64118	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a relatively common species in its preferred habitat.	eng
64118	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The Sierra La Laguna is a protected area with some tourism pressure, however, this is not currently considered to be a major threat.	eng
64119	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	Isla Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. Other than occasional monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64119	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64119	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals are often difficult to observe in the open, but are most frequently found on the flats along the inland edges of beaches and in arroyo bottoms. They can generally live near of the base of bushes and cacti, into which they retreat when threatened. The have not been recorded from rocky hillsides, although it is likely to occur there in limited numbers (Grismer 2002).	eng
64119	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the population abundance is poorly-known, it appears to be a common species in suitable habitat within its limited range.	eng
64119	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Other than the limited range size, there appear to be no major threats to the species.	eng
64120	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64120	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it occurs more or less continuously through the northern half of the peninsula in Mexico. Southern populations, apparently disjunct, occur in El Petén, Guatemala and Belize. It is known from elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.	eng
64120	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an arboreal, diurnal inhabitant of tropical moist and dry forest, and forest edges. It is typically seen on tree trunks to a  height of 20 m or more.  It has also been recorded from rock walls in human habitation such as fields, as well as in more built up urban areas. It is most likely a live bearing species like others in the group.	eng
64120	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species and it is not regularly encountered.	eng
64120	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Deforestation can be a threat because it is usually found high up in trees, however, it is also found in some modified habitats so this is probably not a major threat.	eng
64121	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No additional direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64121	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs at low elevations on the Pacific slope in the State of Oaxaca. It has been recorded from near sea level to around 600 m asl.	eng
64121	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	Populations are found in primary and secondary dry forest and tropical deciduous forest. Much of the original habitat in the species range has been modified, with populations persisting in these disturbed areas.	eng
64121	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is a fairly common species in parts of its range.	eng
64121	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64122	conservation	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	Part of the species range is within the Canyon Fernandez National Park, but there is a need to conserve additional areas of suitable habitat. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64122	distribution	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from eastern central Durango and southwestern Coahuila. The range is fragmented with little or no interbreeding between subpopulations.	eng
64122	habitat	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species occurs in rocky areas into xerophytic vegetation. It is not known in the species can adapt to some habitat disturbance.	eng
64122	population	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species is uncommon, and consists of perhaps three or four subpopulations are known.	eng
64122	threats	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species is potentially threatened by the expansion of urban areas and other settlements over much of its limited range. Quarrying of marble is also a potential threat to the species habitat. The impact of these threats is poorly known and further research is urgently needed.	eng
64123	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Populations occur in many national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
64123	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range extends from Nevada to southwestern Colorado, south to northern Baja California, Sinaloa, and Coahuila; west to west of the Central Valley in California, east to western Texas (Parker 1982, Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level  to around 1,520 m (5,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64123	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This lizard inhabits arid and semi-arid regions, from plains to lower mountain slopes, including desert shrubland and woodland, mesquite-yucca grassland, juniper and mesquite woodland, shrubby areas along arroyos and playa edges, and cottonwood-willow zones along rivers (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003). It occurs on trees, rocks, and on the ground near cover. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64123	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by many hundreds of collection sites (e.g., Parker 1982, Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and relatively stable. Common in Mexico.	eng
64123	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64124	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64124	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is present in central and western Veracruz and central and northern Puebla. It occurs at altitudes as high as 3,200 m asl.	eng
64124	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is restricted to semi-arid areas with xerophilous herbs and shrubs. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64124	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
64124	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of land to agave cultivation. It cannot recolonize patches of habitat and can considered to be severely fragmented.	eng
64125	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It does not appear to have been recorded from any protacted area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and common species.	eng
64125	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species ranges along the Pacific versant of Mexico to western Guatemala. It is found from the State of Nayarit in the north, through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, to the Rio Grijalva Basin of Guatemala. It ranges from sea level to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64125	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an arboreal species associated with tropical dry forest, semi-deciduous forest, and pine forest. It is not known if populations can persist in modified habitats.	eng
64125	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
64125	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no threats to this species.	eng
64126	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species occurs in several protected areas, including Big Bend National Park, Big Bend State Natural Area, Dolan Falls Ranch (TNC), Seminole Canyon Sate Park, Brushy Canyon Preserve (TNC), Devils River State Natural Area, Chandler Independence Creek Preserve, and Lake Amistad National Recreation Area (A. Price, R. Savage, and J. Karges pers. comms. 1997).	eng
64126	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is found in both Mexico and the United States. The range includes western Texas from Edwards to Persidio counties; also eastern Chihuahua, south central Coahuila, and extreme northern Durango (Olson 1979, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000).	eng
64126	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Habitats include canyon walls and rocky slopes with sparse vegetation. The lizard generally occupies steep rock faces and takes shelter in crevices. Eggs are buried beneath soil surface.	eng
64126	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Subpopulations are subdivided a fair amount by unsuitable habitat; overall, there are over 100 occurrences or localized subpopulations (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Studies of three subpopulations in Big Bend National Park indicate that abundance varies by year and is dependent on environmental conditions; Grape Vine Hills, 10-150/ha; Boquillas Canyon, 15 to over 200/ha; Maple Canyon, 20-60 or 80/ha (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997). The extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are stable (R. Axtell, A. Dunham, A. Price and R. Savage pers. comms. 1997); a large population retraction on northern edge of range in the 1980s probably was due to an extreme cold spell (R. Axtell pers. comm. 1997). Population fluctuations are a natural response to environmental changes, particularly drought (A. Dunham and A. Price pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64126	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden. H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	No major threats have been identified. In the United States, much of the range is within protected areas. Local populations in some areas of Mexico may be detrimentally affected by habitat degradation resulting from overgrazing (A. Dunham pers. comm. 1997).	eng
64127	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is present in at least five different protected areas. Further studies are needed into the biology, ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
64127	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. It ranges from northern Zacatecas to eastern Aguascalientes, northern Nuevo Leon, southwestern Tamaulipas and south to central San Luis Potosi, northern Guanajuato, southern Queretaro and north-central Hidalgo. It has an elevational range of 1,800 to 2,940 m asl.	eng
64127	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is found in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, and in areas of dry scrubland with xerophytic vegetation. It can be found at the edges of agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species, the females annually give birth to a litter of between three and eleven young (Ramírez-Bautista and Ramos-Flores 2000).	eng
64127	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64127	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation through conversion of forest to agricultural land (crops and pasture).	eng
64128	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in three protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species, especially with regards to the three subspecies.	eng
64128	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is found in Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla and Mexico, and in the highlands of Guerrero and Oaxaca. It has been recorded at elevations of 2,000 to 3,700 m asl.	eng
64128	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species is present in primary and secondary open montane oak woodland, pine-oak forest and pine forest. The subspecies <em>S. m. olsoni</em> is found in dry scrubland. Animals are associated with rock crevices in agricultural land. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64128	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64128	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use (crops and pasture). In open areas, it is threatened by fires set to clear land of scrub. While this species is present in the international pet trade it is not thought that current collection levels present a serious threat.	eng
64129	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	It occurs in at least one protected area that might not legally protect the animals.	eng
64129	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	This species is endemic to western Mexico in the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It ranges from southern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua, through Sinaloa and Nayarit, reaching central Jalisco (Guadalajra).	eng
64129	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	The species occurs in lowlands, in areas of tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forests on rocks. It is usually associated with rocky slopes.	eng
64129	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64129	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden. H., 2007	There appear to be no major threats. It occurs in rocky areas that are not normally degraded by anthropogenic activities.	eng
64130	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It does not appear to be present in any protected areas. There is a need to establish protected areas where good populations of this species remain. Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
64130	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, north of the Sierra Madre Oriental. It is present from south Coahuila to central Nuevo Leon. It occurs at elevations of around 2,000 to 2,377 m asl.	eng
64130	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This is a saxicolous species associated with rocky areas and canyons in pine-oak forest. It can be found in primary and secondary forest, but not in agricultural areas. The species shows strong site fidelity and does not move between habitat fragments. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64130	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64130	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat fragmentation caused by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural areas (cattle pasture and cereals).	eng
64131	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many national parks, monuments, and similarly well-protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64131	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in the western United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from Washington and southwestern Idaho south through Oregon, California, Nevada, and western Utah to northwestern Baja California (Bell and Price 1996, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003), and disjunctly south to Isla de Cedros of the Pacific coast of Baja California (Grismer and Mellink, 1994). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 3,353 m (11,000 feet) (Bell and Price 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64131	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occupies various habitats, including grassland, sagebrush, woodland, open coniferous forest, rocky canyons, talus slopes, fence rows, etc. (Stebbins 2003). This species is not found in severe desert areas, but it comes close on mountain slopes (Stebbins 2003). Usually it is on the ground or on low perches (e.g., logs, fences), but sometimes climbs well up into taller bushes or trees. Eggs are buried in loose soil. It is largely tolerant of human disturbed areas. On Isla de Cedros, it is found in pine forest in the upper elevations of the island.	eng
64131	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This is a common species is represented by hundreds of collection sites (e.g., see Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983,  Bell and Price 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000, and probably numbers many millions. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable (or slowly declining).	eng
64131	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, conversion of habitat to intensive human uses have eliminated or reduced some populations.	eng
64132	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is probably present in the Sierra de Huahutla, Morelos. Further research is needed into the ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
64132	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is restricted to parts of Guerrero, Morelos and Distrito Federal. It is found between 520 and 1,920 m asl.	eng
64132	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It inhabits primary and secondary tropical deciduous forest and dry oak forest. It can be found in traditionally cultivated areas (such as corn fields). It is believed to be an oviparous species.	eng
64132	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64132	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64133	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in a number of protected areas, and no direct conservation actions is currently needed.	eng
64133	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs in central and northern Mexico and the south of the United States. Its range includes Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico, to as far south as southern Tamaulipas, central Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi (Kennedy 1973, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000).	eng
64133	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., 2007	This primarily arboreal lizard occurs on mesquite, oak, and other trees, and on buildings, fences, and bridges; it is often associated with scrub vegetation (Smith 1946, Kennedy 1973, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64133	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is represented by well over 100 collection sites (e.g., see Kennedy 1973). It has been found in virtually every county (>100) within its range in Texas (see Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. Texas spring lizards are common to abundant throughout their range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are large and probably relatively stable. The populations are fine in Mexico.	eng
64133	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64134	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures currently needed for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Valle de los Cirios, and the Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64134	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is restricted to the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico, and southern California in the United States. Its range extends from the northern side of San Gorgonio Pass on the lower slopes of the Peninsular Ranges in southern California,  south to near La Paz in southern Baja California. It also occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California, including Carmen, Coronados, San Francisco, San Ildefonso, San José, San Marcos and Tortuga (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). It is absent from the Vizcaíno Peninsula, the Magdalena Plain, and the Cape Region. Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,130 m (7,000 feet).	eng
64134	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits granite outcrops in chaparral and on oak-covered slopes on the coastal side of the mountains in southern California; it also ranges into yellow pine habitat (Stebbins 2003). On the desert side, it occurs in rocky canyons and on rocks of upper alluvial slopes with chaparral, palms, or mesquite (Stebbins 2003). Habitats in Baja California include pinyon-juniper woodland and subtropical thornforest (Stebbins 2003). This species generally is associated with rocks, but in some locations it also climbs into vegetation (e.g., agaves, palms, willows) or occurs on the ground among shrubs (Grismer 2002). It probably it buries its eggs in the soil.	eng
64134	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Weintraub (1980) mapped 37 collection sites in Baja California and 22 in southern California. These represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences. Many additional occurrences undoubtedly exist. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are substantial and appear to be relatively stable.	eng
64134	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, in southern California, some habitat has been degraded by urbanization.	eng
64135	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve suitable habitat within the species limited range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64135	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from two disjunct localities in southern Coahuila State.	eng
64135	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Animals are largely restricted to rocky hills within arid shrubland. It is not known if the species can adapt to significant habitat disturbance.	eng
64135	population	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	In general, this is considered to be a rare species.	eng
64135	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	Although there are currently not considered to be any major threats to this species, it is possible that future collection of rocks and other similar building materials for use in construction could become a major threat.	eng
64136	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is present in in Parque Nacional Ajusco. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64136	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is present in Ajusco, Ocuilan and Nevada Sierras, where it ranges from 2,700 to 4,400 m asl. This species is probably more widely distributed in Mexico in the higher Sierra Madre in Distrito Federal, State of Mexico and extreme northern Morelos.	eng
64136	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species prefers dense humid coniferous forests. It is present in secondary forest, but does not occur in cultivated areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64136	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.	eng
64136	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There are not known to be any major threats to this species.	eng
64137	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in many protected areas including the Sierra Nevada in Coahuila. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and biology of this species.	eng
64137	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. It ranges from northern Coahuila, through southern Nuevo Leon to northern Guanajuato, central-western Tamaulipas, northern Queretaro and Hidalgo. It has an elevational range of around 1,300 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64137	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including shrublands, juniper forests, oak forest, pine forest, rocky sites and even disturbed areas such as cropland. Cultivated agave fields are considered to be a good habitat. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64137	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64137	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	At present there are no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened by fires set to clear forest for agriculture. It could be impacted by habitat fragmentation in the future.	eng
64138	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Populations occur in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64138	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range extends from southern New Mexico to central Texas, USA, and south to Zacatecas, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range: 300 to 2,818 m (1,000 to -9,245 feet) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64138	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This lizard occupies rocky canyons, gullies, hillsides, and outcrops in largely barren areas, mesquite grassland, creosote bush desert, arid woodland (e.g., oak/pinyon pine/juniper), and spruce-fir forest (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It is invariably closely tied to rocks and seeks shelter in crevices (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64138	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped more than 100 collection sites in New Mexico alone. Dixon (2000) mapped its occurrence in three dozen counties in Texas. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and very probably exceeds 100,000. The species can be common in suitable habitat (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and population size are substantial and are probably relatively stable.	eng
64138	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
64139	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species does not appear to have been recorded from any protacetd areas. Othere than general research, there are no direct conservation measures currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64139	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from the southwestern coast of Jalisco (Chamela) and Colima to Pacific Michoacan, Guerrero (including the Basas basin area), southwestern Mexico state, and southern Morelos.	eng
64139	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals are often found basking on rocks in streams and rivers within tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest. It is not known if this species can adapt to habitat disturbance. It is an oviparous species (Ramírez-Bautista and Olvera-Becerril 2004)	eng
64139	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
64139	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Some populations may be locally impacted by deforestation, however, this is probably not a significant threat to the species as a whole.	eng
64140	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. The distribution and ecology of this species need further study.	eng
64140	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico. The range is poorly-known, it has been recorded from Jalapa in central-western Veracruz; Puente de Fierro in northern Oaxaca and from Santo Domingo, northern Oaxaca. The species may range more widely than is currently known. It is found at elevations of between 700 and 2,000 m asl.	eng
64140	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is generally an arboreal species, recorded from primary and secondary tropical semi-deciduous forest and cloud forest. It has been recorded from traditional agricultural areas (corn fields) close to the forest, and coffee plantations. It may be viviparous, although this requires confirmation.	eng
64140	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There is little information about the abundance of this species, other than it occurs at low densities.	eng
64140	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is threatened by deforestation for conversion of land to agricultural use (cropland and pasture).	eng
64141	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species, as the range may be more restricted then is currently thought, and into the ecology and threats.	eng
64141	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it occurs in southern Coahuila and south-central Nuevo Leon. It is found at elevations of between 2,130 and 3,300 m asl.	eng
64141	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs in primary and secondary juniper-oak forest, pine forest, pine-oak forest, croplands and secondary vegetation. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64141	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64141	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It can persist well in modified habitats.	eng
64142	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it seems plausible that it is present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64142	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is a widespread endemic found over much of central Mexico. It has been recorded up to elevations of up to around 1,500 m asl.	eng
64142	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is abundant in the dry and arid plains, with animals often found in small patches of grass at the base of rocks. It is presumably adaptable to some degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
64142	population	Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a common species that is regularly encountered.	eng
64142	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
64143	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Further study of phylogenetic relationships is needed. However, the results of such research probably would not change the Red List status of this lizard.  Species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
64143	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The range encompasses southern Texas and Mexico (Conant and Collins 1991). The range of <em>S. serrifer</em> (<em>sensu lato</em>) is substantially larger than that of <em>S. s. cyanogenys</em> (or <em>S. cyanogenys</em>).  The range is Mexico is several disjunct populations representing several subspecies. Mexican range includes north Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, to southern Tamaulipas, Northern Veracruz, and north peninsula de Yucatan, central of Chiapas, and northern Guatemala.  It occurs from 700 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
64143	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard occurs on boulders, rock or earthen cliffs, stone bridges and walls, rock outcroppings, abandoned houses, or construction rubble; it takes shelter in holes and crevices in rocks or underground (Behler and King 1979, Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
64143	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The number of distinct occurrences is unknown. Dixon (2000) mapped this species as occurring in 11 counties in Texas. There are many more occurrences in Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This species is of localized occurrence in Texas but can be present in "sizable colonies" (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable. This is a common species in Mexico.	eng
64143	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats are known in the US portion.  Fragmentation due to agriculture (cattle grazing) is a threat in the Mexican portion of the range.	eng
64144	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Other than general field work, no direct conservation measures are currently needed fot the species as a whole.	eng
64144	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it ranges from western Guerrero along the Pacific Coast to eastern Chiapas. Populations have been recorded from near sea level to around 2,438 m asl.	eng
64144	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Populations can be found in areas of dry forest and oak forest. Animals have been recorded from disturbed habitat.	eng
64144	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
64144	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64145	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Better information is needed on lizard population trends and current habitat status. It is presumed to occur in some protected areas.	eng
64145	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The geographic range extends from southeastern Arizona (Chiricahua, Dragoon, Whetstone, Huachuca, and Santa Rita mountains) and extreme southwestern New Mexico (Animas Mountains) in the US, into Mexico south through the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra del Nido of eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua into northwestern Durango (Lowe 1964, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). This is primarily a montane species, but it occurs or occurred on high grassy plains of Animas Valley (New Mexico), Sonoita Plain (Arizona), and near Yepomera (Chihuahua), as well as in mountains (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1996, Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. 2003). The elevational range extends to at least 3,350 m (around 11,000 feet); some isolated populations occur at elevations as low as 1,220 m (about 4,000 feet) (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990); typically between 1,500 to 3,000 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64145	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Typical habitat in the southwestern United States is bunchgrass of sunny coniferous woodlands and open plains and mountains (Stebbins 2003). The species is most common in dense bunchgrass on east- and south-facing slopes (see Ballinger and Congdon 1996). It is much more abundant in ungrazed grassland than in grazed grassland in southeastern Arizona. The lizard is seemingly very vulnerable to predation; bunchgrass affords needed cover (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990, Ballinger and Congdon 1996). In Chihuahua, Mexico, the species occurs in forest and woodland habitats and apparently does not require bunchgrass (Van Devender and Lowe 1977).	eng
64145	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. (2003) mapped somewhat more than 50 locations that probably represent at least a couple dozen distinct occurrences. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped four locations in New Mexico (Watkins-Colwell <em>et al</em>. 2003 mapped one location in New Mexico). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. The species has been recorded at densities of 80 to 300 individuals per hectare in southeastern Arizona (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Declines have been noted in the northern portion of the range (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990, Ballinger and Congdon 1996, Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is common in Mexico.	eng
64145	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Cattle grazing in Arizona-New Mexico has degraded habitat and has caused large population declines (Ballinger and Congdon 1996), especially at lower elevations (Bock <em>et al</em>. 1990). Reduced populations on the Sonoita Plain, Arizona, may reflect drought combined with habitat loss from livestock grazing (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The species is not threatened in Mexico.	eng
64146	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Tacaná Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species	eng
64146	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is restricted to the highland of southeastern Chiapas State in Mexico and Guatemala. Populations have been recorded at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 m asl.	eng
64146	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	In general this species is associated with montane pine and cloud forest. It appears to tolerate some degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
64146	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	While there is very little information available on the abundance of this species in Mexico, it is considered to be common or even abundant in Guatemala.	eng
64146	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64147	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has been recorded in areas of forest protected by the community of Chimalapa, Oaxaca. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
64147	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from southern Oaxaca State to extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. It has an elevational range from close to sea level to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64147	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species occurs in tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, as well as pine forest. Animals may be found among the leaf litter, and under logs and rocks. Populations seem to adapt well to some habitat disturbance in rural areas.	eng
64147	population	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is generally considered to be a common species.	eng
64147	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64148	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Santos-Barrera, G., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It has been recorded from several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64148	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Santos-Barrera, G., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is a widespread endemic found over much of central Mexico. It ranges between 1,500 and 2,300 m asl (Florez and Gerez 1994).	eng
64148	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Santos-Barrera, G., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats including dry scrubland, juniper forest, oak forest, and within secondary forest and crops (traditional). It is an insectivorous species. The females lay a single clutch annually of between 10 and 30 eggs (Hernández-Ibarra <em>et al</em>. 2001, Vazquez and Quintero 2007).	eng
64148	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Santos-Barrera, G., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
64148	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., Santos-Barrera, G., Vázquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
64149	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and general ecology of the species.	eng
64149	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from Pacific slope of Guerrero State, Mexico. Its elevation range is 1,000 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
64149	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Populations of this species have been recorded from tropical pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest. It is not known how well this species adapts to habitat modification.	eng
64149	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	While is seems to be a difficult species to collect, it is presumed to have a large relatively stable population.	eng
64149	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although the species seems to have a generally restricted range, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64150	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There are no protected areas within this part of Mexico. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64150	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is currently known only from the type locality in the Sierra Madre del Sur of central western Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is believed to range more widely. It has been recorded from between 2,660 and 3,125 m asl.	eng
64150	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It seems to have both arboreal and terrestrial habits. Animals have been recorded from tropical xerophytic areas, dry pine forest and pine-oak forest. Populations have been recorded in cultivated fields, however further details on the persistence of these populations is needed.	eng
64150	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is not thought to be a very common species.	eng
64150	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although the threats remain poorly known, it seems possible that the species is susceptible to severe conversion of natural habitat to cultivated land.	eng
64151	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is present in the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Zempoala. Further studies are needed into the population and natural history of this species.	eng
64151	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it occurs in the southern Distrito Federal, extreme eastern State of Mexico and northern Morelos. It is found at around 3,000 to 3,500 m asl.	eng
64151	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occurs in temperate montane coniferous forests, it can be found in both primary and secondary habitat. It is not found outside of forested areas. It is not known if the species is oviparous or viviparous.	eng
64151	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64151	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to the species. There is some tourism and limited development in the region, but this is not considered to be a significant threat to remaining areas of forest.	eng
64152	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has been recorded from the Huitepec Private Reserve and Lagos de MonteBello National Park, Mexico. Further studies are needed into range and ecology, as well as the tolerance of populations to habitat disturbance.	eng
64152	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species ranges along the central plateau of Chiapas State, Mexico, into central Guatemala. Populations have been recorded between 1,200 and 2,500 m asl.	eng
64152	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from pine forest, pine-oak forest, and cloud forest. It appears to be able to adapt to some degree of habitat disturbance.	eng
64152	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is considered to be an abundant species.	eng
64152	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although in general there appear to be no major threats, some populations seem to be threatened by severe habitat loss resulting from the conversion of natural habitat to small-holder farms.	eng
64153	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats to this species. There is a need to conserve areas of suitable forest habitat. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64153	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality in the Sierra de Miahuatlan, in central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been collected at 1,800 m asl.	eng
64153	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species occurs in tropical pine forest. Animals need trees to climb on. It is possible that populations could persist in shade-grown coffee plantations, however this requires confirmation.	eng
64153	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known. It was most recently collected by Eric Smith in about 2000.	eng
64153	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	While the threats remain poorly known, it seems possible that deforestation, often resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, could present a threat to this species in some areas.	eng
64154	conservation	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The range of this species includes several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
64154	distribution	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This lowland species occurs at low elevations on the Atlantic slope of Central America from southern Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and Campeche in Mexico, eastward through El Petén in northern Guatemala to Belize. It occurs from near sea level up to around 800 m asl.	eng
64154	habitat	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It lives in forest edge, secondary growth of moist forests and savannas. It is also found in disturbed areas including archaeological sites and houses within local towns.	eng
64154	population	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a common species over most of its range.	eng
64154	threats	Lee, J., Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64155	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in at least five protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy (especially with regards to the five subspecies), ecology, distribution and biology.	eng
64155	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is widely distributed on the Central Plateau. It ranges from central Nuevo León and southern Tamaulipas through Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz and Morelos, from here is ranges westwards including the states of San Luis Potosí, Durango, Mexico, Distrito Federal, Michoacan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Queretaro, Aguascalientes, Nayarit and central Jalisco. It ranges from 1,000 to 3,200 m asl.	eng
64155	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a saxicolous species, generally inhabiting high elevations (even cool or cold areas). It is found in open semi-desert, rocky areas, grassland, coniferous forest and mixed forest. It is present in modified habitats (e.g.., traditional corn fields). It is a viviparous species.	eng
64155	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears to be stable.	eng
64155	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64156	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is present in a large number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64156	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species ranges from New York to Florida, west to Utah and Arizona, north to South Dakota and central Indiana, and south to the Gulf Coast and Zacatecas (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,050 m (10,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64156	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Habitat varies geographically; various populations are primarily arboreal, terrestrial, or saxicolous. These lizards usually occur in sunny/open situations. They go underground or retreat to crevices when inactive. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64156	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences that are densely distributed across the historical range. Many occurrences exhibit good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. Local declines have occurred, but the overall extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance are large and appear to be relatively stable.	eng
64156	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Local declines have occurred as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses.	eng
64157	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected in Mexico by national legislation. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the general ecology of this species.	eng
64157	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species ranges along the Pacific slope of Mexico from southern Sinaloa State through the Basas Basin to western Guerrero, and from here west to eastern and central Jalisco. Populations can be found up to 125 miles from the coast. Occurs from sea level to 1,700 m asl.	eng
64157	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a terrestrial species. Animals have been recorded from dense brush, where they are sometimes seen on logs or limbs of shrubs. It is no known if the species can persist in modified habitats. The diet is mostly comprised of arthropods including ants, beetles, termites, bugs and orthoptera.	eng
64157	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is common and regularly encountered.	eng
64157	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64158	conservation	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park, and also in some protected areas in the United States.	eng
64158	distribution	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is present in the in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. In the United States it ranges from the Coast Ranges in Los Angeles county, California, south to southern San Diego County, and occurs specifically on the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto, Palomar and Laguna Mountains. In Mexico it occurs as a disjunct population in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, northern Baja California. All populations are found above 1,900 m, up to at least 3,100 m asl.	eng
64158	habitat	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This is a diurnal, mountaintop species, and is confined to the pine forests and the chaparral ecotones at the Sierra San Pedro Martir. It is not able to adapt to  disturbance of its habitat.	eng
64158	population	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This seems is an abundant species in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, and on the San Gabriel, San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains. It is less common on the Palomar and Laguna Mountains.	eng
64158	threats	Hollingsworth, B., Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Most of the places where this species occurs are rather remote. However, its habitat is impacted locally by fire, logging, and recreational use. As a mountaintop species, it might be impacted in future by climate change.	eng
64159	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
64159	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The range encompasses extreme southeastern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico (Chiricahua, Peloncillo, Guadalupe, and Animas mountains) in the USA, and areas to the south in the Sierra Madre Occidental to at least southern Chihuahua, into Mexico (Stebbins 2003). It occurs as geographically isolated montane "island" populations, particularly in the northern part of the range (Cole 1968). Elevational range is 1,490 to 3,080 m (4,900 to 10,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64159	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This is a montane species that is most abundant in mixed pine and oak woods (e.g., wooded canyons and ravines), but it ranges upward into pine forest and downward in oak woodland along streams (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003); typically it is found on the ground among rocks, logs, leaf litter, and scattered grasses, or near sandy, rocky intermittent streams, but it readily climbs (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). In southeastern Arizona, individuals generally perch on rocks, rarely on trees (Smith 1996).	eng
64159	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by at least several dozen distinct occurrences. Cole twelve in Chihuahua. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped eight locations in New Mexico. Qualitative information suggests that at least several occurrences are of good viability. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species can be locally numerous; Smith (1985) recorded densities of 42 to 130 individuals per hectare in southeastern Arizona. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not precisely known but appear to be stable.	eng
64159	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats to this species have been identified.	eng
64160	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Populations occur in several sites on the Avon Park Bombing Range and at least one population occurs on each of the following areas: Archbold Biological Station, Highlands Hammock State Park, Johnathan Dickinson State Park, Saddle Blanket Lakes Preserve. There are multiple occupied sites on the Lake Arbuckle State Forest/State Park, Ocala National Forest, and Tiger Creek Preserve.	eng
64160	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to Florida in the southeastern United States. It occurs in four disjunct areas in central and southern Florida: vicinity of Ocala National Forest in northern peninsular Florida, numerous inland sites in Polk and Highlands counties, Atlantic coast scrubs in central and southern Florida (Brevard County to Broward County), and Gulf Coast scrubs in Lee and Collier counties (DeMarco 1992). It now occurs sparingly in Collier County on the southwest coast and in the scrub along the sandy southeastern coastline; it is more numerous in suitable habitat on the Lake Wales Ridge and in the scrublands of Lake and Marion counties (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
64160	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is largely restricted to evergreen oak scrub and young sand pine scrub with ample open space; it is less common in the ecotone between scrub and sandhills, sandhills surrounded by scrub, scrubby flatwoods, and citrus groves. It prefers sites with open sandy areas (for nesting, basking, and foraging) in close proximity to mature trees (<em>Pinus</em> or <em>Quercus</em>) that can provide shade and perch sites. Development of a closed canopy (e.g., in the absence of fire) results in increasingly unsuitable habitat. It never occurs in nonxeric sites. The species is mostly terrestrial but commonly perches low on tree trunks. See De Marco (1992) for further information. Eggs are laid in soil (e.g., <em>Geomys</em> and tortoise mounds) (Ashton and Ashton 1985).	eng
64160	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in numerous scrub sites throughout the range (> 200 localities), although number of occupied sites has declined in recent decades, especially on both coastal ridges. The precise number of distinct, extant occurrences is not known. On a small-scale map, Lee and Funderberg (1977) indicated several dozen collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds several thousand. Population densities vary from 10 to 120 per hectare. The species is still common on the Ocala National Forest. This species was historically far more widespread and numerous on Florida's now largely developed sandy ridges (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are undoubtedly declining as scrub habitat is converted for agriculture and commercial/residential/golf course development. The rate of decline is uncertain but probably does not exceed 30% over the past 10 years or three generations.	eng
64160	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its habitat is subject to destruction by agriculture (especially citrus), urbanization, forestry, and mining. The habitat is naturally fragmented, and scrub lizards appear to have limited dispersal capabilities due to high habitat specificity and low mobility, but genetic data indicate that some populations have existed in isolation for more than 1 million years (Clark <em>et al</em>. 1999). McCoy <em>et al</em>. (2004) documented a population decline over three years in a small habitat fragment. The decline was associated with a decline in the survivorship of reproductive females, possibly due to increased risk of predation.	eng
64161	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species. It is present in several protected areas.	eng
64161	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs along almost all of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, from Ensenada south and westward to Bahìa de Los Angeles and then southward to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Cedros, Magdalena and Santa Margarita islands in the Pacific and the Coronados, Carmen, Monserrate, San Jose, Partida Sur and Espiritu Santo islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002).	eng
64161	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This diurnal species is a generalist, inhabiting lowland scrub, chaparral, rocky areas, flat sandy desert and coastal dunes as well in well vegetated arroyos. Animals can commonly seen basking and perched on rocks and logs.	eng
64161	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.	eng
64161	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species overall, but locally it is being impacted by the expansion of intensive agriculture, and by urbanization.	eng
64162	conservation	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is considered to be threatened by the Goverment of Mexico. It has been recorded from a Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are urgently needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of protected areas.	eng
64162	distribution	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is restricted to western Coahuila, Mexico. It has a very restricted area of occupancy (AOO); the species occurs in 20 to 30 subpopulations restricted to sand dunes not totaling more than 70 km² in area.	eng
64162	habitat	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The species is terrestrial and completely restricted to sand dunes in xerophytic scrubland. It seems that the species has low genetic diversity and populations are considered to have a low viability.	eng
64162	population	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	It is generally a rare species. Under natural conditions, populations are stable. As soon as anthropogenic pressure is introduced, subpopulations are lost.	eng
64162	threats	Vazquez Díaz, J., Gadsden, H., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Ponce-Campos, P. & Lavin, P., 2007	The species is significantly threatened by habitat degradation resulting from the quarrying of sand, use of recreational vehicles within its sensitive habitat, and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
64163	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The species is presumably present in some protected areas. There is a need to protect sites from intrusion by vehicles, and from initiatives to present the movement of wind-blown sand. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64163	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The range includes southeastern California in the United States, and northeastern Baja California in Mexico (Pough 1977, Jennings and Hayes 1994, Trepanier and Murphy 2001, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Its populations are discontinuously distributed across disjunct patches of suitable habitat. In Mexico it ranges south from the United States border to the western edge of the Sierra los Cucapás. There is a disjunct subpopulation further south on the northern edge of the Sierra las Pintas (and it might occur further south in this range, but surveys have not been carried out). The species might also occur on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Juárez. Its elevational range extends from below sea level at the edge of the Salton Sea to around 180 m (600 feet) northeast of Borrego Springs in San Diego County, California (Jennings and Hayes 1994, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64163	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This lizard is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand in dunes, flats, riverbanks, and washes (Stebbins 2003). It also occurs in areas with extensive sand hummocks around the bases of plants (Grismer 2002). It requires fine, loose sand for burrowing. Vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid in subsurface burrows in sand.	eng
64163	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped approximately 34 extant locations in California. The species occurs in several additional locations in Baja California. The total adult population size is unknown but it is probably at least a few thousand and might exceed 10,000. In California, this lizard has been extirpated from at least four locations, and it has been recommended for special concern status (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Adequate information to determine population trends is not available, but there have clearly been declines in some areas. Reproduction and probably population size fluctuate with annual rainfall and food availability (see Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
64163	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Populations have been negatively impacted by off-road vehicle damage to sand dune habitat (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Other threats to habitat include commercial and residential development and the placement of windbreaks and other structures that stabilize sand. The lizard is tolerant of moderate non-destructive intrusion into the habitat but is susceptible to soil compaction due to foot or vehicle activity. Some populations have also been impacted by the spread of intensive agriculture, for example around Mexicali.	eng
64164	conservation	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species is considered as threatened and a priority by the goverment of Mexico. Although the species inhabits the core area of Mapimi Biosphere Reserve, it has intrinsic biological factors affecting its survival. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of dune habitat for this species.	eng
64164	distribution	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is Known only from the area of the type locality in the Mapimi region between the States of Chihuahua, Durango and Coahuila.	eng
64164	habitat	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The species is terrestrial and restricted to dune habitats. Individuals remain on the same sand dune throughout their lives. It presumably does not occur in modified habitat.	eng
64164	population	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	It appears to be a locally common species, with a population that probably contains more than 10,000 mature individuals.	eng
64164	threats	Lavin, P., Quintero Díaz, G.E., Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Vazquez Díaz, J., 2007	The population is restricted to a very specific habitat. They have low vagility and are vulnerable to threats such as trampling of their dune habitat by cattle.	eng
64165	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In Arizona, the species occurs on lands administered by BLM (Yuma Field Office), Bureau of Reclamation (Yuma Area), Department of Defense (Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range), USFWS (Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge), and the Arizona State Land Department; it also occurs on private lands. In Arizona, an undescribed species of Uma (Trepanier and Murphy 2001), usually assigned to this species, occurs on Mohawk Dunes designated State Natural Area; military closure protects much of the habitat (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997).	eng
64165	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is restricted to a limited area in extreme southwestern United States and extreme northwestern Mexico. The range includes scattered areas of suitable habitat in southwestern Arizona (south of the Gila River; mainly in the Mohawk and Yuma dune systems, Yuma County, and the Pinta Sands, Pima County) and northwestern Sonora south to at least Tepoca Bay (Pough 1977, Stebbins 2003). In Arizona, the known elevational range is 49 to 275 m asl.	eng
64165	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand dunes and sandy flats; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid below the surface in sand. It has been found in relatively degraded habitats where there is soft sand.	eng
64165	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Several distinct occurrences exist in Arizona (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997). In a somewhat dated publication, Pough (1977) mapped 10 collection sites in Sonora (about seven distinct areas) and four in Arizona. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations, and population size have probably not declined more than 25% compared to the historical situation, but better information on trend is needed. The short-term trend is probably relatively stable. Its status in Mexico is much less well known.	eng
64165	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard is specialized for fragile aeolian sand habitats that are frequently damaged by off-road vehicle use. Other threats to habitat include commercial, residential, and agricultural development (e.g., in the Mohawk Valley of Arizona) Valley (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). Overall, in Arizona, the species is not very threatened (S. Schwartz pers. comm. 1997). A potential threat is posed by a non-native annual mustard (<em>Brassica</em>), which recently invaded southwestern Arizona; it forms thick carpets and may degrade habitat (Arizona Game and Fish Department).	eng
64166	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Probably several occurrences are adequately protected.	eng
64166	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is endemic to southwestern United States. Its range is restricted to the Mojave Desert, California, and a small area in adjacent extreme western Yuma County, Arizona (Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 1,000 m (3,280 feet) (Jennings and Hayes 1994) (reported as 90 to about 910 m (300 to 3,000 feet) by Stebbins 2003).	eng
64166	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is restricted to sparsely vegetated windblown sand of dunes, flats, riverbanks, and washes; it requires fine, loose sand for burrowing; vegetation is usually scant, consisting of creosote bush or other scrubby growth (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid in subsurface burrows in sand.	eng
64166	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Pough (1974) mapped 31 collection sites, all but one in California. Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped 52 sites in California with extant populations; these represent at least a few dozen distinct occurrences. The total adult population size in unknown but surely is at least several thousand and probably exceeds 10,000. Jennings and Hayes (1994) indicated that almost all of the historical localities are extant. Population trends are unknown but presumably relatively stable in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of locations. Its population size may be declining with decreases in habitat quality associated with vehicular use of habitat.	eng
64166	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Threats include habitat degradation and direct lizard mortality resulting from off-road vehicle use, which may be increasing in some desert areas as human populations increase in the western Mojave Desert (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Landfills associated with human population growth in the desert have resulted in increased populations of generalized predators (e.g., ravens), and these predators could have a negative impact on lizard populations (further study is needed) (Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
64167	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994 (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is an ongoing eradication programme in the region, and there are plans to eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro (BirdLife International 2007). There is a need to implement a vegetation and soil restoration plan after sheep have been removed (Martínez-Gómez <em>et al</em>. 2001). Establish a research monitoring station on Socorro (Rodríguez-Estrella <em>et al</em>. 1996). Monitor the population, especially before and after the proposed eradication process (BirdLife 2007). Additional studies are needed into the impact of the introduced gecko <em>Hemidactylus frenatus</em> (Galina-Tessaro <em>et al</em>. 1999) on populations of <em>U. auriculatus</em>.	eng
64167	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific island of Isla Socorro (132 km²), in the Archipielago Revillagigedo of Colima State, Mexico. The species is generally distributed throughout Socorro, being absent from areas of erosion that have resulted from overgrazing by sheep (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Animals range from sea level to the top of the Everman volcano at around 1,040 m asl (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
64167	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is found in many vegetation types, including dry forest and scrubland, throughout the island (Brattstrom, 1955; Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Animals were recorded by Brattstrom (1955) 'in cracks in rocks, under debris on sandy beaches, in piles of lava boulders, under rocks on the ground, and, higher in the island, crawling about in trees'. It is presumably an oviparous species.	eng
64167	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It was reported by Slevin (1926) and Brattstrom (1955) to be a common, but not abundant species. It is less abundant in areas with very dense vegetation and few open areas (Brattstrom 1955). Arnaud <em>et al</em>. (1993), reported that the species was found at high densities in the remnants of natural ecosystems of the island, but was absent in deforested areas.	eng
64167	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Suitable habitat for this species is rapidly disappearing. The effects of feral sheep on Socorro have been severe, causing erosion damage, shifts in abundance of plant species and impaired forest regeneration (Ortega <em>et al</em>. 1992; Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Over 30% of the natural vegetation and soil have been destroyed through overgrazing by the sheep (Ortega <em>et al</em>. 1992, Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). Arnaud <em>et al</em>. (1993) reports that lizards are absent from the areas of erosion. Feral cats are a significant predator of lizards, with the occurrence of lizard in scats varying from 33.3% in February to 66.7% in November (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is anticipated that the impact of predation by cats on the lizard will increase directly as the cat population grows (Arnaud <em>et al</em>. 1993). A species of house gecko (<em>Hemidactylus frenatus</em>) has recently established a population on the buildings of the island Navy Garrison (Galina-Tessaro, <em>et al</em>. 1999). Further studies are needed into the impact of this introduction on <em>Urosaurus auriculatus</em>.	eng
64168	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably is present in a number of protected areas. There are no direct conservation measures needed for this generally adaptable species.	eng
64168	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This widespread species ranges along the Pacific Coast of Mexico, from southern Sonora as far as the central depression of Chiapas, and the Balsas basin area (Camarillo, 1983; Vázquez and Quintero, 1997; McCranie and Wilson 2001; Vázquez and Quintero 2005). Populations have been recorded from sea level to around 1,600 m asl.	eng
64168	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs in shrubland, tropical dry forest, tropical semi-deciduous forest, and oak forest. It is not known if the species can persist in heavily modified habitats.	eng
64168	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is very common.	eng
64168	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64169	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although Clarion Island has been designated as a Biosphere Reserve, the natural habitat of the island is still being damaged by people. Further studies are needed into the ecology of this species and the impact of introduced species. There is a need to determine whether cats have been introduced to the island. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are urgently needed.	eng
64169	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Clarion Island, in the Revillagigedo Archipielago, Colima State, Mexico. The highest elevation on the island is 300m asl (1,000 feet).	eng
64169	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although the dominant habitat on Clarion Island is tropical dry forest, it is not known if the species inhabits forested areas.	eng
64169	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
64169	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species has a highly restricted island range which is impacted by introduced species and military use. Domestic animals, including rabbits and pigs, have been introduced to the island for human consumption. This has resulted in a degradation of the islands natural habitat, with several native bird species being extirpated from the island. It is not known if feral cats are present on the island. Predation by cats is considered to be a serious threat.	eng
64170	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Other than general research, and occasional monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and reasonably adaptable species.	eng
64170	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This Mexican endemic ranges from the Balsas basin in southeastern Jalisco State, through Michoacan and Guerrero to the Pacific coast.	eng
64170	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Populations of this species are associated with tropical dry forest. Animals have been recorded from moderately disturbed areas.	eng
64170	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It can be a common species.	eng
64170	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no significant threats to the species. Localized habitat loss (largely deforestation for use of land in agriculture and human settlements) may impact some populations.	eng
64171	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Several to many populations are protected in various parks, monuments, and wilderness areas.	eng
64171	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in southwestern United States and extreme northwestern Mexico. The geographic range extends from southern Nevada south into northeastern Baja California (to Bahia de San Luis Gonzaga) and northwestern Sonora, Mexico, and from southeastern California east to northwestern and south-central Arizona (Vitt and Dickson 1988, Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). The elevational range extends from near sea level to about 1,070 m (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64171	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This is a desert species that frequents areas of loose sand and scattered bushes and trees such as creosote bush, burrowbush, catclaw, mesquite, ironwood, paloverde, or saltbush (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003); it also occurs in olive trees and Washington palms near houses in some desert towns (Stebbins 2003), and in association with low-growing halophytic vegetation along beaches in Baja California; usually it is found on the branches of trees and shrubs in flat, open sandy areas or in wide canyon bottoms (Grismer 2002); it may dig into sand or use burrows at night (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64171	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Its abundance varies greatly across its range, and is especially common in California. Vitt and Dickson (1988) mapped roughly 200 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are undocumented but the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable.	eng
64171	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of human activities (e.g., urbanization, off-road vehicle use), but in some areas these lizards have colonized and established populations in planted trees.	eng
64172	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It occurs in the Valle de los Cirios protected area.	eng
64172	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is restricted to a small area in vicinity of Catavina, Las Arrastras de Arriola and las Palmas, in Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64172	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a scansorial lizard, with animals found on both rocks and trees in arid, rugged, rocky landscape with granite outcroppings. It is particularly associated with fan palms, but also occurs in boulder-strewn areas.	eng
64172	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is common in palm oases, but less abundant in the intervening rocky desert.	eng
64172	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Despite its restricted distribution, there appear to be no major threats to this species in its rugged habitat.	eng
64173	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in several areas presently declared as Biosphere Reserves and National Parks. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
64173	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The geographic range of this species includes extreme southwestern California in the United States (desert and coastal sides of mountains in San Diego County) and the full length of the Baja California peninsula in Mexico, including the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita and many islands in the Gulf of California (Ballena, Carmen, Cayo, Coronados, Danzante, El Coyote, El requeson, Espiritu Santo, Gallina, Gallo, Gaviota, Islitas, Las Animas, Pardo, Partida Sur, San Cosme, San Damian, San Francisco, San Jose, San Marcos and Tijeras), but excluding the Vizcaíno Desert region of central Baja California (Grismer 2002). Its elevational range extends from sea level to about 2,120 m (6,950 feet) (Grismer 2002).	eng
64173	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in a wide variety of habitats, such as those with oak, sycamore, desert willow, or chaparral in southern California and thornscrub in Baja California (Stebbins 2003). It habitually perches on rocks or vegetation (Grismer 2002) and retreats underground to escape predators or find shelter. It avoids extreme desert situations.	eng
64173	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000., and is probably many millions This species occurs in tremendous numbers on some islands in the Gulf of California (Grismer 2002). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64173	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64174	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs in a large number of protected areas, such as national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
64174	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The geographic range extends from southwestern Wyoming (Baxter and Stone 1985), Utah, western Colorado (Hammerson 1999), southern Nevada, southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), and Texas (Dixon 2000) to northeastern Baja California (Grismer 2002), Sinaloa, northern Coahuila (Stebbins 2003), and Tamalipas. Elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,770 m (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64174	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitat includes a wide range of situations from desert to the lower edge of the spruce-fir zone; usually this lizard perches on massive rocks or trees (mesquite, oak, pine, juniper, alder, cottonwood, tamarisk, rough-bark eucalyptus) (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003), sometimes on fence posts or buildings. It is often associated with river courses. When inactive, it occurs in tree stumps, under bark, in rock crevices, in burrows, or similar protected sites. It lays eggs probably in soil/underground, or under rocks.	eng
64174	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996 and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and basically stable.	eng
64174	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64175	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The Isla Encantada belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64175	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Encantada, and the adjacent rocks, Islotes Blancos, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer (2002).	eng
64175	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is almost completely confined to the intertidal areas of the Isla Encantada and Islotes Blancos. Animals use the base of the cliffs, especially large boulders at the waters edge, in areas below seabird nests (Brown Booby (<em>Sula leucogaster</em>) and Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>)). They are less common in the islands' guano-covered, rocky interiors (Grismer 2002).	eng
64175	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although there is little-known about the population, it is presumed to be stable and naturally small.	eng
64175	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no threats identified for populations on the island.	eng
64176	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The Isla El Muerto belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64176	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla El Muerto in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64176	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species prefers the intertidal zones with abundant rocks and boulders, it can sometimes be found inland in rocky areas. It is less common in inter-tidal zones where the rocks are smaller than 18 cm. It is most common where steep rocks meet the water (Grismer 2002).	eng
64176	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is abundant within its small range, and its population is believed to be stable.	eng
64176	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	No threats have been identified for this species.	eng
64177	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The Isla San Pedro Nolasco belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64177	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species in endemic to Isla San Pedro Nolasco, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64177	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is common in and among rocks of all sizes, but does not inhabit rocky beaches or cliffs. It occurs mainly in arroyos, and in the more level parts of the island, always among rocks, usually adjacent to shrubs, rather than in very open or grassy areas.	eng
64177	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is very common within its small island restricted range.	eng
64177	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64178	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The isla San Pedro Martir belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64178	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species in endemic to the Isla San Pedro Martir (Sonora), in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64178	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs on rocky hillsides as well as in intertidal areas. Its habitat is dominated by a nesting colony of the Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>). The breeding season is tied to that of the boobies, and the lizards feed on the small flies that gather in huge numbers on the guano. The lizards also feed on left-over fish scraps, deposited by the birds. Outside the seabird nesting season the lizards feed mainly on plant matter.	eng
64178	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is an unusually abundant species, and is ubiquitous within its tiny range.	eng
64178	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although it has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats to the species.	eng
64179	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The Isla Santa catalina belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64179	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the Isla Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002), where it is ubiquitous.	eng
64179	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species seems to be ubiquitous in the island, it is common in rocky hillsides, in sandy arroyo (dry creek) bottoms and in the thorn scrub. In inland areas they are always in the vicinity of rocks, but also found in more open areas near the coast (Grismer 2002).	eng
64179	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Populations are generally abundant and stable. It is more common within 500 m of the coast than in the island's interior.	eng
64179	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64180	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occurs in many protected areas, such as national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64180	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The geographic range extends from central and northeastern California, central and eastern Oregon, central Washington, southwestern Idaho, Utah, and western Colorado southward to the tip of Baja California, northern Sinaloa, and northern Zacatecas, Mexico, including many islands along the Pacific coast of Baja California and in the Gulf of California  (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from below sea level in desert sinks to about 2,750 m (9,000 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64180	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitats include a wide variety of arid and semi-arid situations with scattered bushes and/or scrubby trees; soil may be sandy, gravelly, or rocky; the species is often found in sandy washes with scattered rocks and bushes (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are buried in sandy soil (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983).	eng
64180	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This lizard is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 1,000,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and relatively stable.	eng
64180	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64181	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species inhabit in an islands that belongs to the Biosphere Reserve "Islas del Golfo de California". Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64181	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Isla Coloradito, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64181	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species prefers the intertidal zones with abundant rocks and boulders, it can sometimes be found inland in rocky areas. It is most common where steep rocks meet the water (Grismer 2002).	eng
64181	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is abundant within its small range, and its population is believed to be stable.	eng
64181	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	No threats have been identified for this species.	eng
64182	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is not known to occur in any proteccted areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this poorly-known species.	eng
64182	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species has only been recorded from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Central Guerrero State, Mexico. It possibly occurs more widely than is currently known, especially as sampling within the species range has only taken place close to roads. It has an elevational range of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
64182	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded in the leaf-litter and low vegetation of pine and pine-oak forest. It is possible a forest edge species. It is not known if populations can persist in modified habitat.	eng
64182	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
64182	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although it is only known from a small area, there appear to be no immediate threats to the species.	eng
64183	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has been recorded from the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species. There is a general need to conserve areas of suitable tropical forest within the species range.	eng
64183	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from Ocozocoautla (the type locality) and El Ocote, in the State of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded at 940 m asl.	eng
64183	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has currently only been recorded within well-preserved tropical evergreen forest. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
64183	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is little information available on the population abundance of this recently described species.	eng
64183	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is likely that it is threatened by deforestation, largely resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
64184	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations have been recorded within Huitepec Private Reserve and Lagos de MonteBello National Park. Other than general fieldwork, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64184	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
64184	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals naturally occur in tropical pine-oak forest, but may also be found in areas of regenerating forest and similar disturbed habitats.	eng
64184	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is an abundant species within its limited range.	eng
64184	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	While it has a limited range, there currently appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64185	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology, and potential threats to this species.	eng
64185	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species appears to be known only from the holotype, collected at the undefined locality of "México" (Fitch and Henderson 1973, Lieb 1981, Nieto-Montes de Oca 1996). In view of the uncertainty about the species geographic range, no map has been prepared.	eng
64185	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
64185	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Apparently known only from the holotype (Fitch and Henderson 1973, Lieb 1981, Nieto-Montes de Oca 1996).	eng
64185	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
64186	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and the Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed.	eng
64186	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This Mexican endemic ranges from the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz, southwards into the mountains of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca, and eastward into the northern slope of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Chiapas. It occurs at elevations up to about 500 m asl.	eng
64186	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This aquatic species is restricted to areas of tropical wet and tropical moist forest and is not tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
64186	population	Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It can be common but only in pristine habitats.	eng
64186	threats	Flores-Villela, O., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Commercial logging and clearance of the forest for agriculture is considered to be a major threat to this species.	eng
64187	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although there are no direct conservation measures for this species, it is present in the community protected area of Los Chimalapas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64187	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from a small area in the extreme southeast of Oaxaca and adjacent Chiapas. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
64187	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from montane pine and cloud forests. It is not believed to occur in severely disturbed areas.	eng
64187	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is considered to be a rare species.	eng
64187	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation and fires, both presumably resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
64188	conservation	Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in many protected areas (parks, natural areas, etc.).	eng
64188	distribution	Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Range encompasses the southeastern United States: southern and eastern Texas, southeastern Oklahoma, central Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina south to the Rio Grande, Gulf Coast, and Florida Keys, with an isolated record from Tamaulipas, Mexico (presumably introduced) (Conant and Collins 1991). It has been introduced and is established in the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll (McKeown 1996, Lever, 2003); Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands (McCoid 1993, 1994; Wiles and Guerrero 1996; Vogt <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lever 2003); Palau (Crombie and Pregill 1999, Lever 2003); the Bahamas (Grand Bahama Island) (Lever 2003); <em>Anguilla</em> in the Lesser Antilles (Eaton <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lever 2003); introduced and possibly established on Grand Cayman Islands (Powell 2002); introduced to Japan (southern part of Okinawa-jima Island and the Ogasawara [Bonin] Archipelago) (Lever 2003, Goris and Maeda 2004); and Spain (isolated introductions at Cabo Huertas, Santa Pola, Almuñécar and on Tenerife) (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2002, Lever, 2003).	eng
64188	habitat	Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This mostly arboreal lizard occupies a wide variety of habitats, including upland forests, pine-palmetto scrublands, rocky escarpments, swamps, wooded parks, cleared fields, maritime scrub, and residential lots of coastal towns (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004); commonly it is in edge situations. It climbs on tree trunks, shrubs, vines, and various other plants, and also on fence posts and walls of buildings. It sleeps in vegetation at night. In cold weather, green anoles seek cover but do not go deep underground (Mount 1975). Eggs are buried in moist soil, sphagnum, leaf litter, rotting wood, or under rocks and debris.	eng
64188	population	Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 and may exceed 1,000,000. The species is locally common in many areas (Palmer and Braswell 1995, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and apparently relatively stable, though declines have occurred in Florida.	eng
64188	threats	Frost, D.R. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In Florida, appears to be disappearing where the introduced brown anole has become established (Ashton and Ashton 1991). This factor, competition with and predation by other non-native anoles, and human-caused habitat degradation have caused declines in central and southern Florida (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). An introduced population in Guam is restricted by predation by the introduced brown tree snake (McCoid 1994).	eng
64189	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Populations have been recorded from a community protected area named Los Chimalapas and in the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species and the persistence of populations in degraded habitats.	eng
64189	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the northeastern extreme of Oaxaca, southern Veracruz, and Western Chiapas. Populations occur between 500 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
64189	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This semi-arboreal and terrestrial is naturally found in lowland tropical moist forest, lower montane wet forest and pine-oak forest. Animals have been recorded from coffee plantations, and occasionally on cattle ranches.	eng
64189	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	In general, this is a common species.	eng
64189	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species is generally threatened through deforestation and fire, resulting from the conversion of its natural habitat to agricultural use.	eng
64190	conservation	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Further taxonomic research is needed into this taxon.	eng
64190	distribution	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly known species has only been recorded from La Paz, in the upper Balsas basin of Puebla, Mexico. The location of 'La Paz' is unclear and the species is not mapped here.	eng
64190	habitat	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The habitat and ecology for this species are not known.	eng
64190	population	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
64190	threats	Santos-Barrera, G. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64191	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations have been recorded from the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species, and the ability of populations to persists in coffee plantations.	eng
64191	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is restricted to Eastern Oaxaca and western Chiapas. Populations have been found at elevations of between 200 and 700 m asl.	eng
64191	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from primary and secondary wet montane cloud forest. It seems that populations can persist to some degree in coffee plantations, but are unlikely to survive in heavily disturbed areas.	eng
64191	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	In general, this is an uncommon species.	eng
64191	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There are not thought to be any major threats to the species. It seems to be able to adapt to living in coffee plantations, and there has been little recent additional change in land use within the region with no substantial change predicted.	eng
64192	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are urgently needed into the distribution, populations abundance, reproduction, ecological requirements, and threat to this species.	eng
64192	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz, Mexico.  It is present at elevations of about 1,000 m asl.	eng
64192	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species is quite poorly known, it has been recorded from tropical cloud forest, but it is not known whether it can tolerate habitat disturbance.	eng
64192	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is rare to common in suitable habitat throughout its range.	eng
64192	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64193	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. Further studies into the geographic range, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
64193	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species is known from the southern slope of Volcan San Martin and from Sierra Santa Marta, Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz State, Mexico. It occurs from 150 to 1,780 m asl.	eng
64193	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is restricted to lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It is not tolerant of disturbance of its habitat.	eng
64193	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
64193	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	The species is threatened by loss of habitat through conversion of forest to pasture.	eng
64194	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. Further studeis are needed into the ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64194	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This Mexican endemic is distributed in the Pacific coastal foothills, below 1200 m asl,  in central and western Guerrero and adjacent eastern Michoacan.	eng
64194	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is an arboreal, diurnal species that is primarily associated with tropical dry forest. It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats.	eng
64194	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The population density varies from rare to common throughout its range.	eng
64194	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is presumably threatened by ongoing deforestation (conversion of land to agricultural use) within its range.	eng
64195	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
64195	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This poorly-known species is known only from the vicinity of the town of Izucar de Matamoros, in Puebla, Mexico. It occurs at about 1,000 m asl.	eng
64195	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species occurs in tropical deciduous forest. It is believed to occur in both primary and secondary forest. It is not known if it can occur outside of forest habitats. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64195	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The population abundance of the species is not known. It is known only from the holotype.	eng
64195	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64196	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas; areas of natural habitat should be protected where they remain. In view of the restrcited range of this species, it is important to monitor populations in order to detect any population declines.	eng
64196	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the State of Guerrero, Mexico, where it ranges from Agua del Obispo to Acapulco on the Pacific coast. Populations have been recorded from sea level to close to 1,300 m asl.	eng
64196	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The natural habitat of this species is tropical semi-deciduous forest, where animals are mostly found on boulders and large rocks along rivers and streams. The range of this species has been highly disturbed, however the species can persist in these areas where there are waterways present.	eng
64196	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is not an especially uncommon species.	eng
64196	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this somewhat adaptable species.	eng
64197	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of remaining forest.	eng
64197	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the highlands of northwestern Chiapas, Mexico. It has been recorded from 1,525 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64197	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Populations have been recorded in cloud forest and pine forest. Animals may be found in open areas, and in areas of plantain and traditional corn cultivation.	eng
64197	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a common species within its restricted range.	eng
64197	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although it is somewhat adaptable, the species is threatened through general habitat loss resulting from the conversion of forest to agricultural land.	eng
64198	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O. Villela, 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable natural habitat for this species, with further research is needed into the threats.	eng
64198	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O. Villela, 2007	This little-known species is found in the foothills northwest of Tehuantepec, in Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is present from around 300 to 500 m asl. It might occur more widely.	eng
64198	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O. Villela, 2007	Populations have generally been recorded from thorn-scrub woodland, but animals have been found in disturbed areas.	eng
64198	population	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O. Villela, 2007	The species is rarely, seen and little is known about its abundance.	eng
64198	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O. Villela, 2007	There is little information, but the species might be threatened through conversion of its woodland habitat to small holder farms.	eng
64199	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded within the Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64199	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is found in the central Sierra Madre del Sur in the Mexican state of Guerrero. It probably occurs more widely in the range than is currently known. It has been recorded between 1,500 and 2,500 m asl	eng
64199	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals occur in leaf litter and low vegetation, within pine and pine-oak forested areas. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
64199	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.	eng
64199	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64200	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not occur in any protected areas, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable natural habitat. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species.	eng
64200	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is known only from the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Pochutla, Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is found from 600 to 800 m asl.	eng
64200	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This is an arboreal species if tropical deciduous forest. Animals have been found in the shade trees of coffee plantations.	eng
64200	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is rarely seen, probably because it occurs high in trees.  Animals have been collected as recently as 2002.	eng
64200	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.	eng
64201	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). This species has been recorded from the Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64201	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the central Sierra Madre del Sur in the Mexican state of Guerrero. It probably occurs more widely within the range than is currently known. It has and elevational range of 1,500 to 2,500 m asl	eng
64201	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals occur in leaf litter and low vegetation, within pine and pine-oak forested areas. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
64201	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is moderately common within its restricted range.	eng
64201	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is threatened by general habitat loss, largely resulting from the conversion of forests to agricultural land.	eng
64202	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution and possible threats to this species.	eng
64202	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to central Guerrero and western Oaxaca, Mexico. Populations have been found between 1,700 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
64202	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded within open oak woodland and pine-oak woodland. Populations can occur in disturbed habitat, most especially at the forest edge.	eng
64202	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is rare to common in suitable habitat throughout its range.	eng
64202	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64203	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution (including field surveys close to El Ocote), abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
64203	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This Mexican species appears to be known only from the type series of two adult females collected at El Ocote, in the State of Chiapas at 600 m asl (Alvarez del Toro and Smith 1956). The location of the 'El Ocote' location where the species was collected at is unclear as there is more than one in this region, hence the species is not mapped here.	eng
64203	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The habitat and ecology of this species remain unknown. One of the specimens contained a single, large intact egg; with other immature eggs present (Alvarez del Toro and Smith 1956).	eng
64203	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is apparently known only from two female specimens.	eng
64203	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64204	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed.	eng
64204	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly-known species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded in the northeastern highlands of Oaxaca State, including the area around Quetzaltepec, at elevations of around 1,500 m asl.	eng
64204	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Animals have been collected from evergreen tropical forest and cloud forest. It has also been recorded from disturbed areas, although further information on its persistence in these habitats is needed.	eng
64204	population	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species has only been collected twice, once in the 1940s, and once in the 1970s.	eng
64204	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The forest habitat from which the species has been recorded is threatened by burning and clearing for conversion to agricultural use (crops).	eng
64205	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a urgent need to protect remaining cloud forest habitat for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and biology of this species.	eng
64205	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it ranges from northeastern Hidalgo southward to central Veracruz, extreme northern Puebla with disjunct populations in southern Puebla. It has an elevational range of 500 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
64205	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is found in primary montane cloud forest, including humid areas close to waterfalls. It occurs in shady areas on tree branches and in leaf litter. It is an oviparous species.	eng
64205	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a naturally rare species.	eng
64205	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation and severe fragmentation of its habitat. Forest is cleared for conversion to agricultural land, including cattle pasture and cereal crops. Some locations are severely impacted by activities such as road construction (e.g.., in Hidalgo State).	eng
64206	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place, and the species is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
64206	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is restricted to the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca State, Mexico. Populations are found at 800 to 1,850 m asl.	eng
64206	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is present in leaf-letter, shrubs and low trees within pine-oak forest. It can be found in secondary forest, and has been recorded from banana and coffee plantations.	eng
64206	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It appears to be a locally common species, with populations that are believed to be stable.	eng
64206	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64207	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it presumably occurs in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64207	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This widespread species ranges from the Pacific foothills of central Guerrero at around 900 to 1,100 m asl, west to cover coastal and foothill regions of western Guerrero, from here along the Pacific coast through the States of Michoacan, Jalisco, and Nayarit as far north as central Sinaloa. From here it turns inland along the western foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental of Sinaloa, Sonora and Chihuahua. Additional populations occur in the high montane regions (to as least 2,100 m) of the Transverse Volcanic Range of Michoacan and Jalisco, and the Sierra Madrean regions along the Sinaloa-Durango border.	eng
64207	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is found in a wide variety of wooded habitats, including tropical subdeciduous forest, tropical deciduous forest and mangroves. It can especially be found in disturbed forest.	eng
64207	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This is generally a common species.	eng
64207	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64208	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from Omiltemi State Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64208	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the highlands of the Sierra Madre del Sur in central Guerrero State, Mexico. It occurs between 1,500 and 2,500m asl.	eng
64208	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It can be found in leaf litter and low shrubs within pine-oak and oak forests. It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat disturbance.	eng
64208	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is moderately common within its very restricted range.	eng
64208	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The main threat is general habitat loss caused by an expanding area of small-holder farming.	eng
64209	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Laguna Belgica State Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
64209	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is restricted to central-eastern Chiapas State, Mexico. Populations are found at 500 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64209	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded in both tropical dry and pine-oak forest. There are records from plantations, although further details are needed about the persistence of populations in modified habitats.	eng
64209	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	While animals are rarely seen, the general population size of this species is not known.	eng
64209	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64210	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). While it is not known from any protected areas, the forest in Sierra de Juarez is effectively protected by local community initiatives. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64210	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known only from the Sierra de Juarez, in Oaxaca State, Mexico. It can be found at around 2,100 m asl.	eng
64210	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is a semi-arboreal species that is restricted to primary pine-oak and cloud forest.	eng
64210	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is a species that is rarely seen.	eng
64210	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64211	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in El Ocote Biosphere Reserve and Los Chimalapas a community protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64211	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This Mexican species is distributed in the region of El Ocote in Chiapas State, and in northeastern Oaxaca State. Populations occur at elevations from 500 to 700 m asl.	eng
64211	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is restricted to tropical sub-deciduous forest and tropical moist forest. It is not thought to be able to adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64211	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known to be rare in El Ocote Biosphere Reserve, and is uncommon in northeastern Oaxaca.	eng
64211	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The major threat to this species is the ongoing expansion of small-holder farming within the areas; including clearance of land through the use of fire.	eng
64212	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Although there are no direct conservation measures in place, the species has been recorded from the Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
64212	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs close to Tejocotes and within the Valley of Zapotilan Salinas in the highlands of Oaxaca State. It has an elevational range of 1400 to 1800 m asl.	eng
64212	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The habitat of this species is open montane oak woodland and high desert or arid areas. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
64212	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Throughout its range, this species varies from being rare to common.	eng
64212	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64213	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the possible threats, such as habitat loss, for this species.	eng
64213	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is known from the Atlantic slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental in central Veracruz, Mexico. It occurs at around 1,340 to 1,530 m asl.	eng
64213	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is found in montane cloud forest. The species occurs in primary and secondary forest, and also within disturbed areas. This species is oviparous.	eng
64213	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64213	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to the area of cloud forest in which this species occurs are not known. Other areas of cloud forest are very threatened in Mexico, generally through deforestation through conversion to agricultural use.	eng
64214	conservation	García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	While it is not currently known to occur in protected areas, it may be present in the Chamela National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64214	distribution	García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This Mexican species is currently known only from single sites in Colima State and Michoacan State. A recently published record from Chamela, Jalisco State, needs to be confirmed. The species is believed to be more widely distributed in the areas than is currently known.	eng
64214	habitat	García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This is a small arboreal lizard, of tropical dry forest, and possibly also of semi-deciduous forest. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitat.	eng
64214	population	García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	The species is not well studied, and little is known about the population size or trends. However, it is expected to be more common and wide ranging than is currently known.	eng
64214	threats	García Aguayo, A. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	While deforestation may be considered a future threat, at present it is not significant enough a loss of habitat to threaten this species.	eng
64215	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). There are no protected areas within the species geographic range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
64215	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it appears to be restricted to the vicinity of Pinotepa Nacional, a small town in the Pacific lowlands in the State of Oaxaca. It is presumably a lowland species.	eng
64215	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest, it may be able to persist in secondary forest.	eng
64215	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Although the species is uncommon it can still be found.	eng
64215	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The threats to this species appears to be poorly known.	eng
64216	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and potential threats to this species.	eng
64216	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This little-known Mexican endemic appears to have been collected at a number of sites in Guerrero State (Davis 1954, Liner and Dundee 1969); it possibly also occurs in adjacent Oaxaca. The holotype was collected 'one mile southwest of Tierra Colorada, 900 ft' (Davis 1954). The type series appears to have been collected at around 300 m asl (900 to 1,000 ft).	eng
64216	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This is a poorly known animal, for which there is very little information available on the habitat and ecological requirements.	eng
64216	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
64216	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
64217	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is present in the Parque El Veladero. It is important to define the legal conservation status of one of the most important patches of vegetation at Puerto Marquez. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64217	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the Puerto Marquez area, in northern Acapulco, Guerrero State, Mexico. It is a lowland species occurring at sea level to 200 m asl.	eng
64217	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is generally a saxicolous species, with  animals found on boulders in patches of tropical semi deciduous tropical dry forest. Populations are present in the outskirts of Acapulco in very disturbed urban areas.	eng
64217	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is common within its restricted range.	eng
64217	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The forested patches surrounding Acapulco are scarce and small, and the area has experienced an accelerated rate of transformation into human settlements. There appears to be no imminent threat to this adaptable species.	eng
64218	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and potential threats to this species.	eng
64218	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This little known species was collected "about ten miles north of Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico" (Barbour 1932). It seems not to have been collected since (Lieb 1981, Nieto Montes de Oca 1996).	eng
64218	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There is little information recorded on the ecology or habitat requirements of this species. Barbour (1932) records that the type specimen was bought in a dusty lane from a Mexican cattle driver, who had been killing lizards on rocks and fence posts with the intention of taking these home to feed his cats.	eng
64218	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is known only by the female holotype (Barbour 1932, Lieb 1981, Nieto Montes de Oca 1996).	eng
64218	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64219	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in at least several protected areas.	eng
64219	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its range includes northern and central Florida and a small part of Georgia, encompassing a total of 28 Florida counties from Highlands County in the south-central Florida peninsula north to Lanier County, Georgia (Jensen and Payne 1996, Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). The distribution in Georgia includes only one known location (Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
64219	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include sandy, easily burrowed soils (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), such as dry upland hammocks and sand pine and longleaf pine-turkey oak sandhills (Ashton and Ashton 1985). The species is fossorial but may come above ground in September-October (Ashton and Ashton 1985). Worm lizards often are just beneath a leaf-mold layer in well-drained sandy soil, but reportedly they also can be common in ploughed fields (Carr and Goin 1955). Eggs are laid underground.	eng
64219	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is known from 510 localities (Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). These represent a much smaller number of distinct populations (but probably at least 100) (see map in Mulvaney <em>et al</em>. 2005). The total adult population size is unknown and would be very difficult to determine due to the worm lizard's fossorial habits. However, the species is probably not rare (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999) and probably exceeds 10,000 adults.	eng
64219	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Loss and degradation of habitat as a result of human activities (e.g., agriculture, residential and commercial development) probably are the most significant threats.	eng
64220	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64220	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is endemic to the United States. It occurs in scattered, disjunct subpopulations, extending from western New York and Pennsylvania to the Florida panhandle and Gulf Coast, west to eastern Texas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Kansas (Walley 1998).	eng
64220	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The habitat generally consists of humid wooded areas with abundant leaf litter and loose rocks; often the lizard occurs in the vicinity of springs, swamps, and bogs, but it also inhabits clearcuts, highway and powerline rights-of-way (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001), rocky bluffs above creek valleys, dry, rocky, south-facing hillsides (Johnson 2000), and dry shale barrens (West Virginia). Individuals often shelter under logs and rocks near water. Sometimes they take refuge in water. One nest was under a piece of shale (Mount 1975).	eng
64220	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Walley (1998) mapped well over 200 collection sites throughout the range. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. This lizard's secretive habits make it difficult to determine abundance. In the Northeast, it generally occurs as relatively small, localized populations (Hulse <em>et al</em>. 2001). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable in most of the range.	eng
64220	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. These lizards are tolerant of a moderate degree of habitat alteration (e.g., logging).	eng
64221	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is present in at least four protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy and distribution are needed for this species.	eng
64221	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This widespread species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from the States of Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Michocan, Colima, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz. It is found between around 800 and 2,900 m asl.	eng
64221	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a terrestrial species found in primary and secondary pine forest, pine-oak forest and oak forest. It can be found in disturbed areas close to forest. It can be found in leaf litter, under logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64221	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It can be a very common species.	eng
64221	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It may be locally threatened in parts of its range by severe deforestation.	eng
64222	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It occurs in a few protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64222	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species mainly in northwestern Mexico, extending into extreme southwestern United States (Lieb 1990, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico it is known from northwestern Chihuahua south through western slope foothills and barrancas of Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Sonora, Durango, Sinaloa, Nayarit, northern Jalisco, and Zacatecas. It is also present on the coastal plain of central Sinaloa south through Nayarit, south to Bolaños and Gaudalajara in Jalisco. In the United States it is known from Pajarito, Baboquivari, Santa Rita, and the Huachuca mountains in Arizona, and from the Peloncillo Mountains (Guadalupe Canyon, Geronimo Trail) in New Mexico. Its elevational range extends from near sea level (in Mexico) to above 1,980 m, but it is generally above (1,220 m in the United States (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64222	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden, H., 2007	In the United States, this skink inhabits rocky pine and oak habitats in the mountains, particularly in canyon riparian and hillside situations (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, it ranges down through western slope foothills and barrancas and is known from the coastal plain in the south (Lieb 1990). Eggs are laid under rocks and in similar sites and are attended by the female until after hatching (Tanner 1987) (live birth also reported). It is not found in agricultural habitats.	eng
64222	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Lieb (1990) mapped 43 collection sites rangewide, all but 6 of which are in Mexico. This is a secretive species and relatively difficult to collect, so undoubtedly there are many more occurrences or subpopulations than currently are known. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds several thousand. Overall it is reasonably common in Mexico. Skinks are secretive and can be numerous even in areas where they are difficult to detect by visual techniques. Pifall traps are needed to determine abundance. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) reported that most of the 89 specimens taken in New Mexico were obtained in pitfall traps. Population trends are poorly known but no major declines have been reported.	eng
64222	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R., Ponce-Campos, P. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species is probably secure throughout most of its range in Mexico, although some local populations may be jeopardized by habitat loss. Potential threats in the United States include uncontrolled wildfire and intensive cattle grazing of riparian zones in the limited areas where this species occurs. But overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
64223	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is present in the Volcan de Colima National Park. Additional research is needed to determine the population, biology, threats to the species and the status of its habitat.	eng
64223	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from northern Colima and adjacent Jalisco, with an isolated record by Webb (1959) 'at approximately 5000 feet in the southern part of the state of Sinaloa, one mile east of Santa Lucia...... on the road from Mazatlán to Durango approximately 18 miles (airline) northeast of Concordia' (the approximate site of this locality is mapped here). Populations have been recorded between 1,500 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
64223	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals are found in rock crevices and leaf litter within pine and pine-oak forest, on the slopes of Volcan de Colima and the Sierra de Manantlan.	eng
64223	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It may have been common in the past (Adrian Nieto Montes de Oca, pers. comm.), but now appears to be uncommon (A. Garcia Aguayo pers. comm.).	eng
64223	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64224	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is present in at least three protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64224	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from the States of Morelos and Mexico, and the Distrito Federal.	eng
64224	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species found in primary and secondary pine and pine-oak forest, where it occurs in rocky areas and under logs. It does not occur outside of forest habitat. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64224	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It can be very common in some places.	eng
64224	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some limited, localized habitat loss in parts of its range.	eng
64225	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. This is a poorly known species, further biological and ecological research is needed, and assessment of its habitat requirements.	eng
64225	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico where it ranges from central Guanajuato to the south reaching northern Michoacan, Mexico. It is a montane species probably occurring above 2,000 m asl.	eng
64225	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This little-known species occurs in upland areas of primary pine and pine-oak forests. It is not known if it can persist in secondary forest. It is usually found under logs and bark.	eng
64225	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is believed to be a rare species.	eng
64225	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss through logging. This has severely fragmented suitable habitat in the range.	eng
64226	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in a large number of parks, monuments, wildlife refuges, and other nominally protected areas.	eng
64226	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeastern United States. Its geographic range encompasses Florida, the coastal plain of Georgia, and a portion of the coastal plain and adjacent provinces of Alabama east of the Black Warrior and Tombigbee rivers (Mount 1968).	eng
64226	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include coastal dunes, sand pine scrub, longleaf pine-turkey oak woods, and xeric hammocks. This lizard is mostly fossorial; often under surface litter, also in pocket gopher burrows and mounds, burrowing beetle mounds; it occurs in greatest numbers where soil is sandy or gravelly and dry. It also occurs under rocks and tidal wrack on beaches. Eggs are laid in a cavity dug in sandy soil, several inches to six feet below the surface (Mount 1975).	eng
64226	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by at least several dozen occurrences or subpopulations; e.g., Mount (1968) mapped well over 100 collection sites throughout the range. This species is secretive; undoubtedly there are many more occurrences than are now known. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. This skink is secretive and is more numerous than visual observations indicate. In Florida, it is fairly common where suitable habitat remains intact (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are unknown but overall the species remains fairly common and secure in some parts of the range. Some populations have declined as a result of habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
64226	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In some areas, such as the sandy ridges of central Florida, the major threat is habitat destruction for residential, commercial, and agricultural development; fire suppression has resulted in declining habitat quality in some areas. In the Florida Keys and in the Cedar Key area in Florida, habitat destruction and lizard collection by herpetological enthusiasts are major threats.	eng
64227	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64227	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the eastern United States, and extending into southern Canada. Its geographic range extends from western New England and southern Ontario to Minnesota, and south through eastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma to eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and northern peninsular Florida (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
64227	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits wooded areas of many kinds, especially those that are humid, well-drained, supply abundant cover (rocks, logs, stumps, leaf litter), and have a patchy canopy; it also occupies seasonally flooded lowlands in some areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It is generally terrestrial but also climbs trees (distinctly arboreal in Texas). Generally secretive, it spends much time under cover. Eggs are laid in or under rotting logs, stumps, or humus, or under rocks (Fitch 1954, Vogt 1981). In Ontario, preferred nest sites were large, moderately decayed logs with high substrate moisture (Hecnar 1994). Oviposition sites may be outside the non-nesting home range (Seburn 1993).	eng
64227	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by very many occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Trauth <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites in Arkansas alone. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000, and is probably in the millions. The species tends to be common in most of the large range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
64227	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64228	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas (parks, refuges). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64228	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The geographic range of this species encompasses the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges from central California in the United States to northern Baja California in Mexico (Pacific coast to the central Sierra San Pedro Martir; Grismer 2002). Isolated populations exist in southeastern California, southern Nevada, and west-central Arizona (Stebbins 2003). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 2,220 m (7,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64228	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species occurs in a wide variety of habitats: grassland, salt flats, high desert, open chaparral, pinon-juniper woodland, and open pine forest, often in rocky areas in the vicinity of intermittent or permanent streams and springs (Stebbins 2003). It extends into hot desert areas along riparian corridors (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64228	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Jones (1985) mapped more than 150 collection sites throughout the range. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are not documented, but the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or slowly declining.	eng
64228	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In some areas, declines have probably occurred as a result of habitat destruction associated with residential and commercial development, and agricultural expansion. However, the species remains fairly common in many areas.	eng
64229	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64229	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the southeastern United States. Its geographic range extends from southern Maryland to the Florida Keys, and west to Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and eastern Louisiana, avoiding much of the Appalachian Mountains (Conant and Collins 1991).	eng
64229	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The habitat of this terrestrial and arboreal species includes various situations such as wet pine flatwoods, cut-over woodlots, cypress heads, scrub and sand-hill (high pine) habitats, ridgetops, well-drained sandy places, seashore islands, and abandoned buildings. These skinks often are under or in ground litter, logs, piles of wood, or stumps, which appear to be important elements of the habitat (Mushinsky 1992, Anderson and Tiebout 1993). Eggs are laid in logs or stumps or under rocks or other cover.	eng
64229	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Steiner (1986) mapped perhaps 150 to 200 collection sites throughout the range whereas Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped hundreds of collection sites in North Carolina alone. This secretive lizard undoubtedly occurs in many more sites than are currently known. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. It is common to abundant over most of its range (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.	eng
64229	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. The species tolerates moderate habitat alteration (logging, partial clearing). Frequent burning can be detrimental.	eng
64230	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Populations of this species are present within some protected areas, such as La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field research and monitoring of populations, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64230	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This Mexican endemic species ranges discontinuously from northern Baja California Sur, from San Francisco de la Sierra southward to San Jose Comondu. A disjunct distribution is located at the Sierra La Laguna, in the Cape Region in the south of Baja California Sur.	eng
64230	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species inhabits in montane deciduous forests, including pine-oak and oak forests, where it is found in humid microhabitats with permanent water. Animals dwell under ground cover, including rocks and logs, beneath grass and bushes, or under fallen palm fronds.	eng
64230	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a secretive species that is not often encountered.	eng
64230	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, as its forest habitats appear not to be threatened.	eng
64231	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many protected areas include populations of this lizard.	eng
64231	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs widely in the southeastern United States, avoiding much of the Appalachian Mountains. Its range extends from southeastern Pennsylvania, central Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and eastern Kanas south to eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and central Florida. An isolated population may occur in northeastern Indiana (record could represent an atypical <em>E. fasciatus</em> juvenile; Minton 2001 ). Isolated questionable records exist west of established range in western Oklahoma and central Texas, and to the south in southern Florida (Cooper 1988).	eng
64231	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Rangewide, the species occupies wooded areas and woodland edges having diverse soil types and moisture conditions; hammocks and cypress heads in Florida; also swamps, vacant debris-strewn lots, and barrier islands. These lizards are semi-arboreal and often sun themselves on snags or stumps; they take refuge in rotting stumps and standing dead trees, occupying old woodpecker holes and other hollows. On coastal islands in South Carolina, they prefer large live oaks having holes and a fringe of dense cover (bushes) (Cooper 1993); adults occur most often in oaks or on the ground, juveniles occur most often on walls, palmettos, or on the ground; they may actively avoid pines (Cooper and Vitt 1994). Eggs are laid in a nest in a rotting stump or dead tree or under rocks or other cover.	eng
64231	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Cooper (1988) mapped hundred of collections sites rangewide, and Palmer and Braswell (1995) mapped well over 100 sites in North Carolina alone. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. Population trends are not well documented, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size are probably stable or slowly declining.	eng
64231	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified. The species is tolerant of moderate habitat alteration (e.g., logging, partial clearing, nonintensive rural residential development).	eng
64232	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least five protected areas.	eng
64232	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This widespread species is endemic to Mexico, where it has been recorded from Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Nayarit, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaro, northern Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon. It occurs between 1,800 and 2,700 m asl.	eng
64232	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	This terrestrial species occurs in primary pine-oak forest and oak forest. It is not present in disturbed habitats. It is found under rocks, leaf-litter, logs and other ground cover. It is a viviparous species, giving birth to litters of up to five young (Ramírez-Bautista <em>et al</em>. 1998). The diet consists largely of insects and other arthropods.	eng
64232	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64232	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Ponce-Campos, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in parts of its range by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
64233	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. This is a rare and poorly known species, population and natural history data is scarce.	eng
64233	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is endemic to central-western Chihuahua, Mexico. Tanner (1988) records that populations occur in two areas, one north (vicinities of Chuhuichupa, García, and Yaguirachic) and one south (southeast of Creel) of the Río Papigochic. It has been recorded between 2,246 and 2,615 m asl (Tanner 1988).	eng
64233	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Populations have been recorded from meadows, rocky areas and streamsides in or near montane pine forest (Tanner, 1988); animals need an abundant ground cover of rocks and logs. It is not know if this species is able to adapt well to habitat disturbance.	eng
64233	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There is little information on the population abundance of this species, but it is currently considered to be a relatively rare species.	eng
64233	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64234	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in several national parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures, other than further taxonoimc studies, are needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64234	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The northern part of the geographic range includes southern South Dakota, Nebraska, southeastern Wyoming, and northeastern Colorado; the southern segment encompasses southern Colorado, southeastern Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. Elevational range is 910 to 2,620 m (3,000 to 8,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64234	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Northern populations inhabit prairie grassland and sandhills; southern populations occur in creosote bush desert, streamside thickets, pinyon-juniper and pine-oak woodland, fir forests, semi-desert and oak shrublands, vacant lots, dumps; soil may be rocky, sandy, or loamy (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson, 1999, Stebbins 2003). This is a secretive lizard that is usually found under ground cover. Eggs have been found under rocks.	eng
64234	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 70 to 75 collection sites in New Mexico. Hammerson (1999) mapped about 60 localities in Colorado. The species is secretive and undoubtedly occurs in sites not yet documented. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common. Pitfall samples may capture hundreds in areas where few are found by casual searching (see Hammerson 1999). Some localized declines have occurred, but overall the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations, and population size are probably stable or slowly declining.	eng
64234	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In prairie and shrubland regions, conversion of habitat to agricultural uses has caused local declines.	eng
64235	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This lizard occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64235	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The geographic range includes northeastern Colorado, southern Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa through Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, eastern Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico (to northern Tamaulipas and Durango) (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from near sea level to 2,650 m (8,700 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64235	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	In the eastern part of the range, this skink inhabits prairie regions: rocky areas, canyon bottoms, sandhills, and floodplains; in the west, it occurs in canyons, mesas, and mountains in semi-arid regions, especially in shrubby rock outcrops along stream courses. It is a secretive species that often takes refuge under rocks, logs, and other cover. Eggs are laid in nests dug under rocks (Fitch 1970).	eng
64235	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see Hall 1976, Collins 1993, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000. The species is locally common (Degenhardt et al.1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable. Locally common throughout its range.	eng
64235	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Large-scale intensive cultivation has eliminated or reduced some populations, but the species tolerates a moderate level of habitat alteration associated with agricultural development and cattle grazing.	eng
64236	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Populations are present in the Omiltemi State Park. Further general field research is needed for this species.	eng
64236	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is believed to be confined to the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero State, Mexico. It has been recorded from around 1,500 to 2,750 m asl.	eng
64236	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a terrestrial species of pine-oak and cloud forest. It is not known how adaptable the species is to habitat disturbance.	eng
64236	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It seems to be a fairly common species that is regularly seen.	eng
64236	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are currently no known threats to the species.	eng
64237	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a poorly known species, are few biological data are available. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
64237	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the western slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, in Sonora State, Mexico. It is a lowland species.	eng
64237	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals have been recorded from semi-arid bushland, generally at low elevations. It is not known to what extent it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
64237	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It appears to be a rare species.	eng
64237	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. The habitats within its range are generally intact.	eng
64238	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden. H., 2007	As with many other species of the genus <em>Eumeces</em> this is a poorly known species, and more biological data are needed in order to define its conservation. It occurs at the biological station at Chamela.	eng
64238	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden. H., 2007	This western Mexico endemic is known only from a few localities in southern Sinaloa and adjacent Nayarit (type locality at Tepic), coastal Jalisco (at Chamela), and near Tehuantepec (near Coalcoman), in Michocan (P. Ponce-Campos pers. comm.). Robinson (1979) also records a collection site within Colima. It probably occurs much more widely, especially between the currently known localities. Robinson (1979) records that it occurs from below 500 m asl to at least 1,000 m asl.	eng
64238	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden. H., 2007	The species appears to be restricted to oak woodland at lower elevations and transitional pine-oak forest at higher elevations (Robinson 1979). Animals can be found in holes (including the burrows of other animals), amongst leaf litter, and under rocks, logs and similar ground cover.	eng
64238	population	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden. H., 2007	There is very little information on this species.	eng
64238	threats	Ponce-Campos, P., Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden. H., 2007	There is no information, but based on habitat availability and ecological requirements it is very unlikely to be threatened.	eng
64239	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in many protected areas.	eng
64239	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to North America, occurring widely in the prairies of the United States, extending into southern Canada. Its range extends from southern Manitoba, Minnesota, and northwestern Wisconsin south through the eastern Dakotas, Iowa, eastern Nebraska, Kansas and adjacent northwestern Missouri (Figg 1993), Oklahoma, and western Arkansas to coastal Texas and northwestern Louisiana (Conant and Collins 1991). Populations at the northern end of the range in southwestern Manitoba apparently are separated from the closest occurrences in Minnesota and North Dakota by 193 km and 280 km, respectively (Bredin, 1989 COSEWIC report). Toal and Reiserer (1992, <em>Herpetoogical Review</em> 23: 89) reported subspecies <em>obtusirostris</em> from southwestern Missouri.	eng
64239	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat includes open sandy areas of pine barrens and bracken grassland, grassy dunes, sandy banks of creeks and rivers and along roadsides, open grass-covered rocky hillsides near streams, and forest edges and woodland; this semi-fossorial lizard is often under ground cover. Eggs are laid in shallow nests dug in loose moist soil under logs, boards, rocks, or other objects (see Frese 2003).	eng
64239	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This skink is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. It is secretive and undoubtedly occurs in significantly more localities than current records indicate. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000, and is probably much higher. This species is secretive and more numerous than visual observations indicate. Some local populations have probably been eliminated or reduced, but no major decline has been reported. Population trends are not documented but probably relatively stable. See Bredin (1989 COSEWIC report) for information on status in Canada (no evidence of decline).	eng
64239	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Presumably some habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of large-scale intensive cultivation, but overall no major widespread threats to remaining populations have been identified.	eng
64240	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This lizard occurs in many national parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64240	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The range of this species extends from south-central British Columbia in Canada, through the western United States to northwestern Baja California in Mexico. In the United States it ranges from the Pacific coast to western Montana, Idaho, eastern Utah, and north-central Arizona, including various islands off the west coast of California and Baja California (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). In Mexico, its range extends possibly as far south as el Rosario. Its elevational range is from sea level (California) to about 2,530 m (8,300 feet) (southern Utah, southern Nevada, northern Arizona) (Tanner 1988, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64240	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Habitats include grassland, chaparral, pinyon-juniper woodland, open  pine or pine-oak woods, and rocky areas near streams (Stebbins 2003); the species is partial to open wooded foothills and is usually associated with rocks, under which it takes shelter. It also digs burrows in soil. Eggs are laid in burrows or areas excavated by the female under rocks and stones.	eng
64240	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Tanner (1988) mapped nearly 200 collection sites rangewide. Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. (1983) mapped even more localities than did Tanner for the Pacific Northwest portion of the range. The secretive habits of this skink suggest that it occurs in many more localities than have been so far documented. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000 and is probably in the millions. The species is locally common in many areas. Like most skinks, it is secretive and much more numerous than visual observations would suggest. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.	eng
64240	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Reductions from habitat loss appear to be minimal.	eng
64241	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It occurs in many protected areas, both in the United States and in Mexico. Other than raising public awareness, no direct conservation measureas are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64241	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs in the southern United States and in northeastern Texas. The subspecies <em>E. t. tetragrammus</em> ranges from southern Texas to northern Veracruz and Queretaro, and west to Coahuila (Conant and Collins 1991). Subspecies <em>E. t. brevilineatus</em> occurs from central and southwestern Texas south through northern Coahuila and northern Nuevo Leon, with an isolated population in the Sierra del Nido, Chihuahua (Lieb 1990, Conant and Collins 1991).The species reaches an elevation of around 2,300 m (7,550 feet) in the Chisos Mountains (Conant and Collins 1991). The two subspecies intergrade in southern Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico.	eng
64241	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard inhabits rocky hillsides in arid and semi-arid country, brushlands, grasslands, thornscrub, edges of open pine-oak woodlands, pond edges, gullies near small streams, gallery forest of riparian corridors, tropical deciduous forests (in southern range area), and trash piles and dumps; it is often in leaf litter, rotting brush, old packrat houses, cactus clumps, or other debris, such as that around isolated dilapidated houses; may take cover in water (Smith 1946, Conant 1975, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug under rocks, logs, or other cover, or in loose soil. Individuals burrow underground or at least become difficult to find on the surface during the hottest summer weather (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
64241	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Lieb (1990) mapped well over 100 collection sites rangewide. Dixon (2000) indicated occurrences in virtually all of the several dozen counties within the range in Texas. This lizard is very secretive, and it is difficult to determine the size and robustness of individual occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000, and is probably much more. Population trends are unknown, but probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.	eng
64241	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified. However, in some parts of the range the species is killed under the erroneous belief that it is venomous.	eng
64242	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Field surveys are underway within the species range, and it is hoped that these will provide more details on the species range, biology, ecology and threats.	eng
64242	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from Apatzingan and from the Tepalcatepec-Balsas basin, in central Michoacan State, Mexico. However it is expected to have a wider range.	eng
64242	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a fossorial species, generally found in the leaf litter of tropical deciduous forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to modified habitats.	eng
64242	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no data on population size or trend. The species appears to be rare.	eng
64242	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species. Although there has been some conversion of land from primary habitat in the Apatzingan area, this may have resulted in population declines.	eng
64243	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
64243	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, occurring in Mexico, Guatemala and Belize.  It is found from near sea level to around 300 m asl.	eng
64243	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It inhabits both dry deciduous and more mesic forests and is active on the forest floor by day.  It is mainly restricted to forest habitats, but can occasionally be seen on the edge of urban areas.	eng
64243	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an uncommon species that is rarely encountered.	eng
64243	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64244	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Its range includes at least two protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64244	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is known from disjunct localities in coastal Veracruz and neighbouring states in Mexico.  It occurs from 200 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64244	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in tropical evergreen forest, oak forest, cloud forest and rainforest, as well as secondary and degraded forest. It also occurs in pasturelands.	eng
64244	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It can be very common in some places.	eng
64244	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
64245	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64245	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The large range of this United States species extends from New Jersey to southern Florida, west to Kansas, Texas, and north to southern Illinois, southern Indiana, and southern Ohio, and south to the Gulf Coast (Brooks 1975, Conant and Collins 1991). It is not currently known to occur with certainty in Mexico.	eng
64245	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in a wide variety of habitats; generally it occurs in areas with ground cover (grass, leaf litter, forest floor debris, rocks, etc.), including dry upland woodlands as well as stream and pond edges (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999); often it can be found under ground surface cover. It goes underground in cold weather and may seek cover in water when pursued. Eggs are laid in moist humus, logs, rotting vegetation, or under rocks (Ashton and Ashton 1985, Minton 1972).	eng
64245	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by thousands of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and probably exceeds 1,000,000. This is a very common lizard in many areas. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are large and probably relatively stable.	eng
64245	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64246	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in the Biospere Reserves of Tehuaccin-Cuicatlan and El Cielo. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
64246	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is present in the highlands of Mexico from eastern Puebla, southwest Veracruz and northern Oaxaca.	eng
64246	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs in pine and pine-oak forests. It is believed to occur only in primary forest habitats.	eng
64246	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64246	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There may be some localized habitat loss, although this is not thought to be a significant threat.	eng
64247	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly known species.	eng
64247	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Rio Grijalva in Chiapas State, Mexico, and Guatemala. It occurs from about 400 to 700 m.	eng
64247	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	In Guatemala it has been recorded from seasonal dry lowland Caribbean pine forest. Little else is known about this species.	eng
64247	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This is a uncommon and poorly known species. There are no recent records from Mexico, with the last record from 1956. The Guatemalan specimens were collected in the 1930s. This species is probably difficult to capture, which might be one reason why it is so poorly known.	eng
64247	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There is very little information on threats as the species is so poorly known. The area of distribution in Guatemala has not suffered major land use changes in the last several decades, although there has been some habitat disturbance resulting from fires and localized logging.	eng
64248	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes several protected areas throughout its range. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64248	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula. It is more or less continuously distributed throughout the northern half of the peninsula in Mexico, and occurs in the south as isolated populations on the Savannas of El Petén, Guatemala and Belize. It occurs at elevations between sea level and 300 m asl.	eng
64248	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	These wary, fast-moving lizards inhabit open situations, savannas, roadsides, and forest edges. They benefit from the opening up of habitats by humans, such as roadsides and urban areas.	eng
64248	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a very common species in suitable habitat, and its population appears stable at present.	eng
64248	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64249	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Protection status is unknown, but probably most of the occurrences are not well protected.	eng
64249	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southwest of the United States. Its small range historically included the area in the vicinity of Willcox (Cochise County) Arizona, the vicinity of Fairbank (Cochise County), and the Hackberry Ranch in Whitlock Valley (Graham County), Arizona (Wright and Lowe 1993, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Surveys in 2000-2003 found the species near Willcox and near Bonita (where not previously recorded in Graham County) but not at Fairbank or Whitlock Valley (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). The Fairbank locality appears to be erroneous and probably represents the base of operations rather than the collection locality (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
64249	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This is primarily a grassland species (Wright and Lowe 1993).	eng
64249	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In a range-wide survey, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) found this species at 12 sites in two general areas. Total adult population size is unknown but probably at least several thousand. Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) noted that "relatively large numbers" were seen at three sites. Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear not to have changed very much from the historical situation (Sullivan <em>et al</em>. 2005). Wright and Lowe (1993) reported that this species is "fairing badly" in Whitlock Valley, where it occurs in syntopy with a healthy population of <em>Aspidoscelis tigris</em> in an overgrazed, shrubby habitat. However, Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) concluded that the overall distribution and probably abundance appear to have been stable at least over the past 50 years.	eng
64249	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species appears to be holding its own despite habitat changes from heavy cattle grazing and the presence of a potential competitor (<em>Aspidoscelis uniparens</em>). Sullivan <em>et al</em>. (2005) found no evidence of replacement of <em>A. arizonae</em> by <em>A. uniparens</em> over the past several decades, even in area subject to heavy grazing. <em>A. arizonae</em> was associated with relatively open grasslands, whereas <em>A. uniparens</em> was often found in habitats with numerous invader shrubs (e.g., mesquite), regardless of grazing activity.	eng
64250	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island San Pedro Nolaco, and therefore the species entire geographic range, is within the Islas del Golfo de California Biospehere Reserve. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.	eng
64250	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the Gulf of California island San Pedro Nolasco, in the State of Sonora, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64250	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This largely arboreal species is ubiquitous on the island; animals can readily be found around rocks, in grassy areas and on the branches of bushes. It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed areas, however given the variety of habitats animals can be encountered in it seems possible that populations could adapt to at least limited habitat modification. Females produce a minimum of two clutches of one to three eggs each year (Walker and Maslin, 1969).	eng
64250	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species within its island range.	eng
64250	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the species has a restricted range, there appear to be no major threats to populations.	eng
64251	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It presumably occurs in some protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64251	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. Its patchy distribution extends from southern Arizona and extreme southwestern New Mexico south through Sonora into northern Sinaloa, Mexico (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, the species has been found only in Guadalupe Canyon, Hildago County, at 1,321 to 1,387 m (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); an unsubstantiated report exists for the Alamo Hueco Mountains, Hildago County (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1997). Its Arizona range includes Cochise, Pinal, and Pima counties (Arizona Game and Fish Department 1997). The subspecies <em>Aspidoscelis burti xanthonota</em> in central southern Arizona is probably isolated from other subpopulations of this species.	eng
64251	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This whiptail inhabits mountain canyons, arroyos (dry creeks), and mesas in arid and semi-arid regions, entering lowland dry thorn scrub along stream courses; often it occurs in rocky areas or among dense shrubs near streams (Stebbins 2003). In New Mexico, it occupies riparian zones, either wooded with sycamore, cottonwood, and ash, or with bunch grasses (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in nests dug in soil/underground.	eng
64251	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	At least several occurrences are extant in Arizona. In New Mexico, this species has been documented in one canyon and unsubstantiated reports exist for a couple additional locations (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1985; Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). More than 100 occupied sites probably exist in Sonora, Mexico, with 85% of the occurrences in good condition; extensively surveyed in 1995 (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998). The total adult population size is unknown but is certainly many thousands. The species can be common even at the periphery of the range. For example, 159 individuals were collected during 1992-1994 surveys in Guadalupe Canyon, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Specific population trend information is not available, but populations appear to be stable. According to J. Rorabaugh (pers. comm. 1998), the United States populations show no evidence of decline. The Guadalupe Canyon population, New Mexico is considered healthy and stable. The Arizona Game and Fish Department (1997) indicates that Arizona populations are apparently stable. The species is regarded as stable in Sonora, Mexico (A. Villareal Lazarraga pers. comm. 1998), where it is not usually abundant but is consistently present.	eng
64251	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Overall, this species is currently not threatened. Locally, potential threats include habitat alteration and overcollecting. Due to limited habitat, the population in New Mexico could be impacted by uncontrolled wildfire or overgrazing of riparian vegetation.	eng
64252	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It does not appear to have been recorded from any protected areas. In view of the species relatively limited geographic range, there is a general need to monitor trends in population size, most especially in areas of ongoing habitat modification.	eng
64252	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is limited to the Tepaltepec-Balsas basin area within the States of Michoacan and Guerrero, Mexico.	eng
64252	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This ground dwelling lizard typically inhabits tropical dry forest. As with a number of other species in the genus, it is possible that populations may be able to adapt to some habitat disturbance (such as conversion of land to pastoral use).	eng
64252	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is generally considered to be an uncommon species..	eng
64252	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	While there is some localized habitat disturbance within the species range, it is currently not believed to constitute a major threat to populations.	eng
64253	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The entire geographic range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.	eng
64253	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the islands Salsipuedes, San Lorenzo Norte, and San Lorenzo Sur in the northern part of the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64253	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	On Salsipuedes and San Lorenzo Norte, animals may be commonly encountered in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms and on beaches, as well as on rocky hillsides. On San Lorenzo Sur, it is most common on beaches and bottoms of the larger arroyos, where it forages beneath the vegetation and on the branches of low-growing shrubs (Grismer 2002).	eng
64253	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species within its island range.	eng
64253	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the species has a generally restricted island range, there appear to be no major threats to populations.	eng
64254	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island of is entirely within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. In general, there are no direct conservation measures needed, as there do not appear to be any current or future threats to the species.	eng
64254	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Carmen island in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64254	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is most commonly found between the bases of dryland shrubs where animals can find both refuge and food. Individuals are also found, though less commonly, in the rocky foothills of upland areas.	eng
64254	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species within its limited island range.	eng
64254	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is presumed that there are no major threats to this species, despite its small range.	eng
64255	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island of Santa Catalina is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. There is need to further study the impact of predation by cats on this species, and to control or eradicate cat populations if they constitute a threat to the species survival.	eng
64255	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the island Santa Catalina in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64255	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a terrestrial species that inhabits scrub vegetation within arroyos (dry creeks), and can be encountered along the edges of beaches. It is less frequently encountered on rocky hillsides, but it does occur on the peaks of the island.	eng
64255	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is an abundant species within its island range, becoming less common towards the interior of the island.	eng
64255	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are populations of feral cats on Santa Catalina island which are presumed to prey on this lizard. However, there is no evidence that this constitutes a significant threat.	eng
64256	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64256	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Isla San José in the Gulf of California, Baja California Sur State, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64256	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs mainly in rocky areas in the island interior, where it is found on rocky hillsides, arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, thickets and shrubland. They are much less common in open sandy areas. The most suitable habitat is generally in the northern part of the island (Grismer 2002).	eng
64256	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is common in suitable habitat within its island range, which is generally in the interior and northern parts of Isla San José.	eng
64256	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	While this lizard has a limited geographic range, there appear to be no current or predicted major threats to this species.	eng
64257	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64257	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Cerralvo (= Ceralbo), in the Gulf of California, State of Baha California Sur, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64257	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals can be found in open sandy areas of shrubland, retiring to refuges in vegetation when disturbed. It is also in sand dunes along the beach, rocky washes, and rocky hillsides.	eng
64257	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Populations are generally common and stable on the island.	eng
64257	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the species has a restricted island range, there are not considered to be any major threats at present or predicted for the future.	eng
64258	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It may be present in some protected areas, however, this needs confirmation. Many studies have been undertaken on this well-known species. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64258	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific coast of Mexico, ranging from southern Nayarit in the north, to the Balsas River in northern Guerrrero, and from here through to Tepaltepec in Michoacan and southern Jalisco.	eng
64258	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This lizard has been recorded from tropical deciduous forest, arid tropical forest and dry shrubland. It is a very adaptable species with populations present in disturbed habitat, including localities at the edge of urban areas.	eng
64258	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	In general, it is considered to be a very common species.	eng
64258	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64259	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Its occurrence in protected areas is not known, though it it is presumably present in some. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
64259	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, and ranges from the coastal plain of southeastern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua, south through Pacific coastal plain to Colima, thence east through though the Balsas Depression to Puebla and western Veracruz (these westernmost populations previously having been referred to as <em>Aspidoscelis alpinus</em>).	eng
64259	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and savanna, and is found particularly in brushy, broken country. It can survive in low-intensity subsistence agriculture, but not in commercially farmed areas.	eng
64259	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	While it  occurs at a relatively low density, it is not rare and animals are regularly seen..	eng
64259	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The threats to the species are localized, such as considerable habitat clearance in localized areas for intensive agriculture or human settlements. However, it is not significantly threatened overall.	eng
64260	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64260	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Cozumel off the east coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. It has been recorded at around sea level.	eng
64260	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This lizard inhabits open areas and shrubs on beaches and along roadsides. Populations may persist in the outskirts of towns but this requires confirmation. This is a parthenogenetic species.	eng
64260	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This is generally a common species that is easily caught.	eng
64260	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Although coastal development for tourism and housing is considered to be a major threat to this species natural habitat, it appears to be somewhat adaptable to habitat disturbance.	eng
64261	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The entire island range of this species is contained within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. It seems that no direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64261	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla San José in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64261	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is most commonly found in low-lying, flat, sandy areas (including the beach) or rocky flats, being most abundant where there are stands of vegetation separated by open space. It is less frequently found along the rocky foothills (Grismer 2002).	eng
64261	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a common species within its small range.	eng
64261	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	While this lizard has a limited geographic range, there appear to be no current or predicted major threats to this species.	eng
64262	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The New Mexican occurrence is on Bureau of Land Management land but is not necessarily afforded protection.	eng
64262	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern United States. The range includes two small disjunct areas: the lower benches of the Chinati Mountains in southwestern Presidio County, Texas (Dixon 2000), and the vicinity of Antelope Pass in the Peloncillo Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The elevational range is 1,300 to 1,450 m (4,265 to 4,755 feet) in New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), 275 to 450 m (900 to 1,475 feet) in Texas (Scudday 1973). Presidio County, Texas, encompasses about 10,000 sq. km. The range in New Mexico consists of fragmented populations in an area of approximately 3 x 5 miles (about 40 sq. km (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). Hence range extent is not more than about 10,000 sq. km and probably is much less.	eng
64262	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In Texas, the habitat comprises rocky plains, dry washes, canyon bottoms, and desert scrub (ocotillo, creosote bush, <em>Opuntia</em>) (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999); generally on rocky soils of desert shrublands and degraded grasslands on alluvial benches, canyon bottoms, and lower southwestern mountain slopes (Scudday 1973, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). In New Mexico, this lizard occupies sandy or gravelly creosote bush flats (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64262	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in one county in Texas and in one small location in New Mexico (Hubbard and Schmitt 1985, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Dixon 2000; see also New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). The total population size is unknown but surely is at least a few thousand and more likely is at least 10,000 (assuming at least 1,000 adults per sq. km, which is a modest density for whiptail lizards). The species is not uncommon in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). In New Mexico, this lizard may be locally abundant where suitable habitat occurs (see New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). In 1991 and 1994, population trend was reported as stable (Federal Register, 15 November 1994, Animal Candidate Review for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species). Some cite threats to habitat and believe the species is declining in Texas (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997), but there is reason to believe that this whiptail is probably reasonably secure in its Texas range because it appears to benefit from the grazing practices that are widespread there (Scudday 1973).	eng
64262	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Potential threats to gray-checkered whiptails in New Mexico include overgrazing, habitat alteration, BLM chemical brush control, mining, and possibly (unregulated) overcollecting (New Mexico Department of Game and Fish 1996). Texas habitats may be threatened by drought, mesquite invasion, conversion to alien grasses for grazing, and overgrazing (R. Savage pers. comm. 1997); however, the species occurs in deteriorated desert grassland and appears to benefit from the grazing practices that are widespread in Texas (Scudday 1973).	eng
64263	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The entire range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64263	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the islands of Espiritu Santo and Partida Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64263	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals generally prefer low-lying-flat brushy areas with sparse rocks, but are less commonly also found on the rocky hillsides. Occasionally the species can be found in the coastal dune systems that have built up along the back beaches and sometimes individuals are found in the bottom of arroyos (dry creeks) among clumps of vegetation and fallen cactus plants (Grismer 2002).	eng
64263	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is common in suitable habitat within its small range.	eng
64263	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	While the species has a restricted range, there do not appear to be any current or predicted major threats.	eng
64264	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species occurs in several parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64264	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range extends from the upper Rio Grande, Pecos River, and Canadian River valleys of New Mexico southward through western Texas to central Chihuahua (Rio Conchos and Rio Papigochic drainage basins) and westward to southeastern Arizona and northeastern Sonora, at elevations of 760 to 2,440 m asl (2,500 to 8,000 feet) (Stuart 1991).	eng
64264	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitats include desert, desert grassland, oak-pine woodland, and ponderosa pine, on rocky slopes, along sandy washes, and in canyons (Stebbins 2003). The species occurs primarily in Madrean evergreen woodlands (oak-juniper, juniper, juniper-pinyon associations) on mountain bajadas and valley sides; it ranges upslope to Great Basin conifer and lower Madrean montane forests, and it descends to semi-desert grassland, Chihuahuan desert scrub, and (locally) riparian floodplain communities (Stuart 1991). Eggs are laid in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
64264	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps Stuart 1991 and Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulation, and population size are probably relatively stable. The population is fine in Mexico.	eng
64264	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64265	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species occurs in at least several areas that are adequately protected.	eng
64265	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southwest of the United States. Its range includes central and southeastern Arizona (from Cerbat and Hualapai mountains to the Gila River Basin) and southwestern New Mexico (Stebbins 2003). Elevational range extends from 1,220 to 1,980 m (4,000 to 6,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003). Hulse (1973) reported this species (under the name <em>Cnemidophorus exsangui</em>s) as common at elevations of 1,060 to 1,515 m in east-central Arizona.	eng
64265	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard inhabits pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands, chaparral, and riparian woodland extensions into desert-grassland ecotones (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64265	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but very probably exceeds 10,000, probably much more. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64265	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64266	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The entire geographic range of this species is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64266	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the island of San Francisco, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64266	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is most commonly found on sandy hummocks at the base of rocky hills along beaches or dune areas (providing vegetation cover is sufficient for protection, yet sparse enough to allow running room). It is much less common on rocky foothills and flats, and is absent from hill tops.	eng
64266	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is common within its restricted distribution.	eng
64266	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although this species has a restricted range, there are no major threats currently or anticipated.	eng
64267	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Occurs in several protected areas throughout its wide range. No conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64267	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The range extends from southern Oklahoma, southeastern New Mexico, and Texas southward on both sides of the Sierra Madre Oriental to Aguascalientes, Queretaro, and Veracruz, Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stebbins 2003). There are some taxonomic problems with identification of specimens in northern central parts of Mexico: if these are resolved and included within <em>A. gularis</em>, the range of this species may be greatly extended.	eng
64267	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Habitats include desert grassland, shortgrass prairies, rocky slopes, plateaus, washes, weedy areas, and shrubby river bottoms, in areas of sandy, gravelly, or rocky soil and sparse ground cover, including disturbed and undisturbed areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Stebbins 2003). Nests have been found on south- to west-facing road embankments, among sparse vegetation (Trauth 1987). It is generally a lowland species. In the Sierra Madre, it is not present in the pine/oak habitat found at >2,000 m. However, there may be occurrences elsewhere above 2,000 m in more arid habitat.	eng
64267	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, the species has been found in virtually every county (well over 100) within its range in Texas (Dixon 2000). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The species is common to abundant throughout most of Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size evidently are relatively stable.	eng
64267	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64268	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in several protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64268	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species ranges from Northern Veracruz in eastern Mexico and from the Rio Balsas in western Mexico southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and thence eastward along the Pacific lowlands and foothills of Chiapas into upper Cintalapa Valley in Chiapas. The elevation range of the species is 0 to 1,200 m.	eng
64268	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest and tropical evergreen forest. It can also be found in savannas and coastal dunes. It occurs in degraded and secondary habitats, cattle ranches, and croplands.	eng
64268	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This is a very common species and its population appears stable at present.	eng
64268	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
64269	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard occurs on the White Sands National Monument and White Sands Missile Range.	eng
64269	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is restricted to a small area in the southwest of the United States. Its range includes the White Sands region, in south-central New Mexico (Wright and Lowe 1993). The White Sands region encompasses about 712 sq. km, and the lizard inhabits only a portion of this area.	eng
64269	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is restricted or nearly restricted to dunes of white sand (Wright and Lowe 1993). Dixon (1967) reported finding individuals as far as 50 m from the dunes, on what he called "adobe soil."	eng
64269	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The entire range of this species can be regarded as comprising only one occurrence or subpopulation. The total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 10,000 (assuming at least 10 adults per ha [1,000 per sq. km] over at least 10 sq. km; however, density and area of occupancy are unknown). Population trends are unknown but probably stable.	eng
64269	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64270	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species occurs in several to many parks and other protected areas. There is a need to conserve suitable habitat for this species in parts of its range.	eng
64270	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Lavin, P., 2007	The range includes New Mexico, western Texas, and northern Mexico (south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi) (Wright and Lowe 1993; species limits as in Crother <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
64270	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Lavin, P., 2007	This is primarily a grassland species that also inhabits grassy areas of desert shrubland, chaparral, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine woodland (Stebbins 2003); it occurs in areas with sandy, silty, or gravelly soil (Stebbins 2003), on flats and gentle slopes, including floodplains and prairie dog towns (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
64270	population	Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common lizard in Texas (e.g., Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are fairly large and probably slowly declining. In New Mexico, this species appears to be declining or has disappeared over a considerable portion of its range, especially in the southwestern corner of the state (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64270	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Gadsden, H. & Lavin, P., 2007	In some areas of New Mexico, overgrazing, urbanization, and other anthropogenic sources of habitat loss or degradation have resulted in declines of this species (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64271	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The southern part of the species range is within the Valle de Los Cirios Flora and Fauna Protection Area and the El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve. There is a need to maintain and protect suitable coastal dune habitat for this species.	eng
64271	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This Mexican endemic is distributed in a narrow band along the western coast of the Baja California peninsula. It ranges from Punta San José in northern Baja California, southward to Bahìa Sebastian Vizcaino in northern Baja California Sur (Grismer 2002).	eng
64271	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a specialised species living on fine, windblown, sandy hummocks and dunes. It is sensitive to disturbance of its habitat.	eng
64271	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	It is commonly seen in suitable habitat.	eng
64271	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Populations are generally threatened by the intensified use, and expansion of, agricultural land, and by urbanization, within their coastal range, especially on the San Quintin coastal plain. It is less threatened south of San Quintin, south to the Baja California - Baja California Sur state boundary.	eng
64272	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Occurs in protected areas on the US side of the river. No conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64272	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The range extends along a small area paralleling the Rio Grande in southern Texas and adjacent Tamaulipas, Mexico, from near Brownsville to the vicinity of Del Rio, including some localities well away from the Rio Grande (Walker 1987, Paulissen and Walker 1998, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).  <br/> <br/>Morphotype LAR-A (the form originally described as <em>Cnemidophorus laredoensis</em>) occurs on both sides of Rio Grande from Laredo and Nuevo Laredo southeast to south-central Hidalgo County and adjacent Tamaulipas, and in a few sites away from the river in parts of Dimmit, LaSalle, and Starr counties.  <br/> <br/>Morphotype LAR-B has disjunct distribution from Del Rio (Val Verde County) and adjacent Mexico southeast along the Rio Grande to northern Webb County and then from south-central Starr County and adjacent Mexico eastward to within 16 km of the Gulf of Mexico; all localities presently known for LAR-B are within 0.8 km of the Rio Grande (Paulissen <em>et al</em>. 1988).   <br/> <br/>Abuhteba <em>et al</em>. (2000) used the results of histocompatibility reactions to conclude that the name <em>A. laredoensis</em> should be restricted to populations in Texas and Mexico that are diagnostically identical with the parthenogenetic species described from two sites in Laredo, Webb County, Texas, in 1973.	eng
64272	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard inhabits sparse, weedy and/or scrub vegetation (short or tall grass-weed, weed-mesquite, bunchgrass-mesquite, or ecotonal thorn shrub) on hills and near streambeds in semi-arid areas; generally in disturbed situations with sandy to loamy soil. Also, it occurs along trails in dense vegetation (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), and may be found in urban areas (Mexico). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
64272	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Paulissen and Walker (1998) mapped 32 collection sites; these represent perhaps roughly 20 distinct occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds a few thousand. This species is fairly common in suitable habitats (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are unknown but probably relatively stable. The species is regarded as apparently secure in Texas by the Texas Conservation Data Center. In Mexico, the species is also considered stable and relatively secure.	eng
64272	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified. The species appears to be able to adapt to disturbed and modified areas.	eng
64273	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). In view of its wide range, it may be present in some protected areas, however, this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the adaptability of this species.	eng
64273	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This is a widespread Mexican endemic species. Populations occur in the Pacific lowlands, along the Santiago river, and southwards along the coast to northern Guerrero (Tepaltepec-Balsas area). It ranges from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
64273	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals may be encountered in shaded places such as dense scrub forest, gallery forest, or tropical dry and semi-deciduous forest. Although this lizard seems to be more of a habitat specialist than many other species in the genera, often preferring denser forest cover, it is probably adaptable enough to use some disturbed areas.	eng
64273	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	In general, this is an abundant species.	eng
64273	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	No significant threats are known to this species.	eng
64274	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The range of this species is entirely within the Isla San Pedro Martir Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures, other than general field research, are needed for this species.	eng
64274	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Isla San Pedro Mártir in the Gulf of California, Sonora State, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64274	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Isla San Pedro Martir is mostly comprised of steep, or emergent, rocky peaks edged with precipitous bluffs that generally lack extensive vegetation. These lizards occur throughout the island in shallow arroyos (dry creeks) and on steep rocky hillsides. It is uncommon on the narrow, rocky beaches. Its habitat is dominated by a nesting colony of the Blue-footed Booby (<em>Sula nebouxi</em>), and the lizards feed on left-over fish scraps, deposited by the birds. It is believed that they also eat the eggs of the endemic lizard <em>Uta palmeri</em>.	eng
64274	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although little is known about the species abundance, it is suspected to be common or even abundant within its island habitat.	eng
64274	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	It seems unlikely that there are any threats to this species within its remote island habitat.	eng
64275	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64275	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is known from northern Petén, in Guatemala and from several disjunct populations in southern, eastern, and northwestern Belize, and southern Quintana Roo and coastal and southeastern Campeche, in Mexico. It occurs from sea level up to 200 m asl.  Each disjunct population probably represents a separate origin for this parthenogenetic species.	eng
64275	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in several disturbed and open habitats such as beaches, roadsides and coconut plantations. It is a parthenogenetic species.	eng
64275	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a locally common species.	eng
64275	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Although it has a very restricted distribution, it is very adaptable, and there are no known threats to this species.	eng
64276	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No direct conservation measures, other than general field studies, are currently needed for this species.	eng
64276	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is endemic to central Oaxaca State, Mexico. It occurs at elevations from around 1,700 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64276	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Populations of this species are generally associated with semi-arid valleys. The species can be found in areas of habitat disturbance.	eng
64276	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It appears to be a common species within its limited range.	eng
64276	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64277	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It not found in any protected areas in Mexico. Further taxonomic research is needed to determine whether or not this taxon is a complex of several species.	eng
64277	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has a discontinuous distribution in subhumid environments from central Oaxaca (southern Mexico), through the middle Grijalva Valley in the central depression of Chiapas (southern Mexico), to Guatemala (the Salamá Basin, upper Motagua Valley and the southeast of the country), central Honduras, and southwestern El Salvador. Its elevational range is 500 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64277	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This lizard inhabits tropical deciduous forest and low-elevation humid forests. It also tolerates disturbed habitats.	eng
64277	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is moderately common.	eng
64277	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	In view of its adaptability, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
64278	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard occurs in White Sands National Monument, Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge, various national forests, and other protected or nominally protected areas. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64278	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The range encompasses, New Mexico, northwestern Texas, and probably adjacent Chihiahia, Mexico (Stebbins: Presidio County, Texas, north to Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, and west to Hidalgo County New Mexico. The species occurs disjunctly near Conchas Lake, San Miguel County, and Fort Sumner, De Baca County, in New Mexico (Taylor 2002), and at Petrified Forest National Park, Apache County, Arizona (Persons and Wright 1999). The Conchas Lake and Fort Sumner populations in New Mexico may be natural occurrences (Taylor 2002) but could possibly represent introductions, whereas the Apache County record in Arizona more likely represents an introduction. Elevational range is around 1,010 to 1,890 m (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64278	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Habitats characteristically are perpetually disturbed, disclimax habitats within the Rio Grande drainage (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), such as those along floodplains (Stebbins 2003), including grasslands with scattered shrubs, mesquite-creosote bush communities, river basins, washes, arroyos (dry creeks), and vacant lots; also shrubby edges of desert playas and desert/grassland ecotones (west of the Rio Grande) (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996); generally in areas with loose sand or packed sandy soil (Stebbins 2003); it also can be numerous among human-generated rubble (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). It rarely occurs at higher elevations in pinyon-juniper woodland where open sandy alluvial benches are present (Parker and Selander 1984, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
64278	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. For example, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped nearly 200 collection sites in New Mexico. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This is a common lizard in most of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64278	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64279	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is relatively common in at least a few protected areas (e.g., state parks). Better information is needed on the current status of this species.	eng
64279	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its known range include only southeastern Colorado, at elevations below 2,135 m (7,000 feet) (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64279	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This whiptail occurs in valleys, arroyos (dry creeks), canyons, and on hillsides, in areas dominated by plains grassland or juniper woodland, including areas such as parks with frequent human use and habitat disturbance (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997). This lizard is an all-female, parthenogenetic species.	eng
64279	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	When originally described as a distinct species, this lizard was known from about 15 to 20 localities (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997). Hammerson (1999) mapped 23 localities. The total adult population size is unknown but is probably at least a few thousand. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and populations size have declined in recent decades; the rate of decline probably has been less than 30% in any particular period of 10 years or three generations. Populations in natural areas appear to be stable, but current trend is not well documented.	eng
64279	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species has been extirpated from, or has greatly declined in, some areas as a result of urbanization or conversion of habitat to agricultural uses, whereas other populations exist in moderately or heavily disturbed areas (e.g., around buildings in parks and at rural landfills) and in nearby undisturbed habitats (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1996, 1997).	eng
64280	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is not know if the species is present in any protected areas. Further details are needed into the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64280	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species appears restricted to the Bavispe region, in northwestern Sonora State, Mexico.	eng
64280	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	Animals have been collected on the ground in areas of shrubland and subtropical vegetation. It is not known if it can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64280	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	There is little information available about the population abundance of this species.	eng
64280	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64281	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Some occurrences are within the Grand Canyon National Park (Wright and Lowe 1993).	eng
64281	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known only from the southwest of the United States. Its known range includes only Arizona, from the Grand Canyon and the Coconino Plateau eastward onto the Navaho Reservation; an apparently disjunct population occurs in the Mazatzal Mountains, Gila County, Arizona (Wright and Lowe 1993). Persons and Wright (1999) documented the occurrence of a population of the <em>A. inornata</em> group, most closely resembling <em>A. pai</em>, in Petrified Forest National Park (Navajo and Apache counties, northeastern Arizona).	eng
64281	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species inhabits chaparral and woodland, with an upper limit in ponderosa pine parkland (Wright and Lowe 1993).	eng
64281	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard has been documented from at least 10 localities (Wright and Lowe 1993, Persons and Wight 1999). The total adult population size in unknown. Collection sites generally have yielded several specimens, so evidently this species is fairly common or at least not rare. Population trends are not documented, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64281	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64282	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded within the Valle de Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. Other than general field research, no direct conservation measures are needed.	eng
64282	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is restricted to northern Oaxaca and adjacent Puebla, Mexico. Populations have been recorded between 500 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
64282	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded in semi-arid and mesquite-grassland areas, and from disturbed habitat including traditionally cultivated corn fields.	eng
64282	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a very common species within its limited range.	eng
64282	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64283	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The range of this species is within the Bahia de Loreto National Park. No direct conservation measures are needed.	eng
64283	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Isla Monserrate, in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Grismer 2002).	eng
64283	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species dwells in arroyo (dry creek) bottoms among dense vegetation of the island's interior. It is also common along sand dune-like areas behind beaches that are dominated by clumps of leatherplant (<em>Jatropha cuneata</em>).	eng
64283	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	This is a common species in suitable habitats.	eng
64283	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	Although the species has a limited range, there appear to be no major threats.	eng
64284	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
64284	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species, endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, is known only from Islas Contoy and Mujeres and from the vicinity of Puerto Juarez on the adjacent mainland of Quintana Roo. It occurs from around sea level.	eng
64284	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is an inhabitant of shrubs in sandy beaches. On the mainland it can be found in areas where there has been infrastructure development such as restaurants, piers, etc. It is a parthenogenetic species.	eng
64284	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a common species, especially on the mainland.	eng
64284	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Infrastructure development for tourism and other housing is a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
64285	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species has been recorded from some protected areas, including the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64285	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This Mexican endemic is found from southeastern Puebla to central Oaxaca and Balsas in Michoacan. Its elevational range is 800 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
64285	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from semi-arid basins and tropical dry forest. Populations can persist in areas of disturbed habitat.	eng
64285	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
64285	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64286	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Lavin, P., 2007	It may be present in some protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64286	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Lavin, P., 2007	Taxonomic ambiguities obscure the range of this species. The range minimally extends from the Big Bend region of southwestern Texas south into northern Mexico. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2001) restricted the range of <em>septemvittata</em> (in the strict sense) to Presidio County, Texas, and northeastern Chihuahua; they identified as undescribed species certain additional populations in Texas and Mexico that previously have been allocated to <em>A. septemvittata</em>; moreover, they believed that <em>septemvittata</em> should be treated as a subspecies of <em>A. gularis</em>. Here we provisionally regard <em>A. gularis</em> and <em>A. septemvittata</em> as distinct species and include in the range of <em>A. septemvittata</em> the undescribed species as well as populations assigned to <em>scalaris</em>, which we regard as conspecific with <em>A. septemvittata</em>. Hence the range of <em>A. septemvittata</em> includes several counties in southwestern Texas (Dixon 2000) and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, northeastern Durango, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi.	eng
64286	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Lavin, P., 2007	Habitat includes rocky terrain with sparse vegetation, from canyons and low desert foothills to mountains (Conant and Collins 1991, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Eggs are laid underground.	eng
64286	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Lavin, P., 2007	This species is represented by an uncertain number of occurrences or subpopulations. Walker <em>et al</em>. (2001) assigned to <em>A. septemvittata</em> 29 localities in Chihuahua and several localities in Presidio County, Texas. The species is represented by many additional occurrences or subpopulations when <em>scalaris</em> is included in A. septemvittata. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10,000. The species is fairly common in suitable habitat in Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999). Population trends are not documented but is probably relatively stable.	eng
64286	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Lavin, P., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
64287	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs in many parks and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
64287	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The range extends from Maryland to southern Florida, north to Wisconsin, east to eastern Wyoming, eastern Colorado, eastern New Mexico, and central Texas, and south to southern Texas and the Gulf Coast (Trauth and McAllister 1996). Ranges into extreme northeast Tamaulipas, Mexico.	eng
64287	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This lizard inhabits sunny areas with open ground; grassland, sandhills, sandy or gravelly banks and floodplains of streams, sparsely vegetated rocky areas at base of mountains, woodland edges and open woods, and beach dunes. It generally takes shelter underground or under rocks or other objects on the ground. Eggs are laid in a nest dug in soft soil or sawdust pile (Mount 1975) or under logs or other sheltering objects (Barbour 1971).	eng
64287	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is represented by at least several hundred occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Trauth and McAllister 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or very slowly declining.	eng
64287	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, some populations have declined or disappeared as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses. Historically, much habitat may have been lost with agricultural expansion.	eng
64288	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It presumably occurs in some protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64288	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species occurs in a relatively limited area in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Its range extends from southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico south into northeastern Sonora, Mexico, at elevations of about 210 to ,130 m (Stebbins 2003). It might occur in extreme northwestern Chuhuahua.	eng
64288	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard occurs primarily in upland habitats of oak-woodland and oak-grassland; also riparian woodland, desert-scrub of paloverde and saguaro, and thornscrub (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid probably in a nest dug in soil/underground.	eng
64288	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	It is a very common species. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped 16 collection sites in New Mexico. A larger number of localities exist in Arizona and Sonora. The total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64288	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64289	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Occurs in several protected areas on both sides of the border. Other than general research activities and conservation of suitable habitat, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64289	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The range extends from southeastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) through New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), extreme southeastern Arizona, and western Texas (Dixon 2000) to Chihuahua (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2003). The distribution is mostly discontinuous and localized (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bartlett and Bartlett 1999).	eng
64289	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This lizard in habits sparsely vegetated areas: canyon slopes, bluffs, gullies, flatlands; soil may be sandy, gravelly, or rocky; vegetation may include pinyon-juniper woodland, yucca grassland, mesquite-creosote bush associations, and cottonwood-tamarisk-willow stands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Lizards take shelter underground or under rocks. Eggs are laid in soft well-drained soil in an open area.  <br/> <br/>Different clones may occupy different habitats; e.g., in Presidio County, Texas, one occurs in sandy flood plains, another on gravelly alluvial benches; clonal diversity may allow for larger geographic and ecological distribution (Parker and Selander 1984).	eng
64289	population	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. Densities of two to 10 individuals per ha have been recorded in New Mexico (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). Population trends are not documented but is probably relatively stable or slowly declining over most of the range. However, the species appears to have disappeared from the vicinity of the type locality in Pueblo County, Colorado (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
64289	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Lavin, P., Vazquez Díaz, J., Quintero Díaz, G. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Locally, populations have declined as a result of urbanization and conversion of habitat to agricultural uses (Walker <em>et al</em>. 1996; see Hammerson 1999).	eng
64290	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments and other protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64290	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends from Oregon and Idaho in the United States, to southern Baja California, Sinaloa, and southern Coahuila in Mexico; west to California, east to Colorado and Texas (Stebbins 2003). The subspecies <em>marmoratus</em> (which is regarded as a distinct species by some authorities) ranges from southern New Mexico and southern and western Texas south through eastern Chihuahua and southern Coahuila.	eng
64290	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Habitat includes deserts and semi-arid shrublands, usually in areas with sparse vegetation; also woodland, open dry forest, and riparian growth. Soil may be firm, sandy, or rocky. Lizards seek shelter in underground burrows (dug by rodent or lizard) or under surface objects. Eggs are laid in soil/underground.	eng
64290	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations. The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This is a common lizard in most of its range. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.	eng
64290	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64291	conservation	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64291	distribution	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range includes Arizona, New Mexico, extreme western Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico, southward into central Chihuahua (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64291	habitat	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This whiptail is common in desert-grassland habitats and grasslands that have been degraded and invaded by shrubby species (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). It inhabits lowland plains and gentle foothill slopes and is often abundant in dense mesquite and sometimes occurs in areas with sparse grasses/herbs; it follows drainages into evergreen woodland in lower mountains (Stebbins 2003). Eggs are laid underground.	eng
64291	population	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 1,000,000. This species is abundant in many areas. Densities of more than 100 adults per ha have been recorded in some locations (see Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996). The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to be relatively stable or perhaps increasing with desertification of grasslands and riparian areas (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
64291	threats	Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64292	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in national parks and monuments.	eng
64292	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range is restricted to the Colorado Plateau and vicinity in southern Utah, western Colorado, northern Arizona, and northern New Mexico, at elevations of about 1,200 to 2,440 m (3,940 to 8,000 feet); introduced and established at Cove Palisades State Park, Jefferson County, Oregon (Stuart 1998, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64292	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include pinyon-juniper woodland, mountain shrubland, open chaparral, oak woodland, lower elevations of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests, and lowland riparian woodlands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64292	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number (100s) of occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Stuart 1998, and Hammerson 1999). The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 100,000. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are relatively stable.	eng
64292	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64293	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is not known from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
64293	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from Sierra de Juarez and Sierra Mije in north central Oaxaca, Mexico. It ranges from 800 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64293	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It inhabits primary cloud forest.	eng
64293	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is very rare; very few specimens are known.	eng
64293	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Habitat destruction, due to deforestation for agriculture and logging is a major threat to this species.	eng
64294	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
64294	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, where it is known from several localities in Yucatan and adjacent Quintana Roo, Mexico. The scattered records from southern Campeche, Belize, and El Petén, Guatemala may represent isolated populations. It occurs from near sea level to about 200 m asl.	eng
64294	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It occurs in tropical dry and moist forest. It can also be found in degraded forest, but not in human habitation.	eng
64294	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is generally considered to be a rare species.	eng
64294	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64295	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It occurs in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.	eng
64295	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs from central Veracruz, extreme northeast Oaxaca, southern Tabasco, and southeastwards through Chiapas, Mexico, into Guatemala.  It occurs from sea level up to 800 m asl.	eng
64295	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	A subterranean species found in moist forest, degraded forest and agricultural land.	eng
64295	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It can be common, but it is difficult to find as it is subterranean.	eng
64295	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64296	conservation	Lee, J. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its range in Mexico includes Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and Chamela biological station.	eng
64296	distribution	Lee, J. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species ranges along the Pacific versant of Mexico, from northern Sinaloa and adjacent Sonora southward to northern Costa Rica. Inland in Mexico it ranges in Morelos and northern Chiapas and scattered localities in the Yucatan Peninsula.	eng
64296	habitat	Lee, J. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species prefers lowland areas of dry forests and tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and savanna. It occurs in riparian vegetation. It can also be found in cultivated lands and grasslands.	eng
64296	population	Lee, J. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is an uncommon to rare species throughout its range.	eng
64296	threats	Lee, J. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is widely known and feared by the people of the Yucatan, which leads to human persecution of the species.	eng
64297	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64297	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species ranges widely in the United States, extending into northeastern Mexico. Its geographic range extends from southern New England to northern Florida, and west through the southern Great Lakes states and southern Iowa to southeastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, western Texas in the United States, and the extreme portions of northern Coahuila and eastern Chihuahua (Conant and Collins 1991, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from near sea level up to above 1,500 m asl.	eng
64297	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Copperheads are often in or near deciduous forest in hilly situations, usually in the vicinity of rock outcrops; they occur also on floodplains and at the edges of swamps in the south and in mesic situations near water in the arid west. Hibernation generally occurs in dens among rocks, or in caves, animal burrows, under objects, in hollow logs or stumps, or in similar sites. Usually copperheads are in areas with abundant surface cover such as rocks, logs, stumps, or leaf-litter. They are mainly terrestrial but sometimes climb into vegetation up to a few metres above the ground. In the east at least, gravid females select rocky areas that are more open and have warmer soil temperatures than those used by non-gravid individuals (Reinert cited by Ernst 1992).	eng
64297	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be slowly declining (less than 10% over 10 years or three generations).	eng
64297	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation probably have resulted in declines in copperhead abundance. In Mexico, the species occurs in disjunct populations, but it occurs in areas that do not have many humans.	eng
64298	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are protected in state parks, national parks, wildlife refuges, and national forests.	eng
64298	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. It range extends from southeastern Virginia (near junction of Appomattox and James rivers) to southern Florida, west to central Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and southeastern Kansas (Triplett, 1991, <em>Herpetological Review</em> 22: 135), and north in the middle Mississippi River drainage to southern Illinois (Mitchell 1994, Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Minton 2001, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64298	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This snake occurs in a wide range of aquatic and wetland habitats: swamps, sloughs, delta bayous, bayheads, ponds and streams in pine flatwoods, pine-palmetto forest, offshore keys, marshes, river bottoms, lowland floodplains, tidal stream courses, dune and beach areas, clear upland brooks, drainage ditches in some southern cities, brackish waters, and sometimes salt marshes (Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Cottonmouths may aggregate under waterbird rookeries. Hibernation sites include rocky wooded hillsides, in crayfish burrows, under rotting stumps or other cover, or in burrows of mammals (e.g., beavers, muskrats) or tortoises.	eng
64298	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see dot maps of collection sites in Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Campbell and Lamar 2004, and Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common in many parts of its large range. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Locally, declines have occurred with habitat loss and degradation. For example, in Virginia, this species decreased in abundance in the 1980s and 1990s (Blem and Blem 1995), and it has been extirpated from some localities (Mitchell 1994). However, cottonmouths remain locally common in even in regions where some declines have occurred.	eng
64298	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	From a range-wide perspective, no major threats are known. Locally, threats include wetland drainage for agriculture, residential and commercial development, and forestry, and disturbance and direct killing by humans (Blem and Blem 1995).	eng
64299	conservation	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat protection is needed, particularly in southeastern Tamaulipas. Further research on biology, range, population and threats is needed.	eng
64299	distribution	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is known from northeastern Mexico, from central Nuevo Leon southward including half of Tamaulipas, northern San Luis Potosi and Veracruz and extreme eastern Hidalgo.	eng
64299	habitat	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species habitats include mesquite-grassland, thornforest and tropical deciduous forest. It is associated with small water bodies.	eng
64299	population	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	It is a rare species. The current population trend is unknown. There are few data on population size, however the species is rarely encountered. Although it is suspected that the population is declining as a result of habitat loss and collection, there are currently no data to support this.	eng
64299	threats	Lavin, P., Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat loss and modification for livestock agriculture (cattle grazing) is a major threat. The species is rare and therefore is more attractive to collectors.	eng
64300	conservation	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Its range includes at least one protected area in Veracruz.	eng
64300	distribution	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species occurs at low, moderate and intermediate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from San Luis Potosi to northern Oaxaca, Mexico. It has been recorded from 670 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64300	habitat	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It occurs in mesic forests, including tropical moist and wet rainforest, deciduous forest and lower cloud forest, as well as secondary forest. It also occurs in plantations.	eng
64300	population	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64300	threats	Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
64301	conservation	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). Its range in Mexico includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz, and Ocote Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas.	eng
64301	distribution	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This species occurs at low to moderate elevations in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, from extreme eastern Oaxaca, and from northwestern Chiapas, Mexico, as well as Guatemala. It is known from elevations of 800 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
64301	habitat	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It inhabits upper rainforest (lower montane wet forest) and cloud forest. It can also be found in degraded forest and pastureland.	eng
64301	population	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64301	threats	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is persecuted by humans because it is venomous.	eng
64302	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in the Biotopo Mario Dary Rivera protected area and in a protected area in the Sierra de las Minas.	eng
64302	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species has a disjunct distribution in highland regions: moderate and intermediate elevations of extreme west-central Chiapas, Mexico (vicinity of Lagunas de Montebello, higher tributaries of the Río Lacantum); the Atlantic drainages of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Sierra de Chuacús, and Sierra de las Minas in Guatemala. The elevational range is generally from 1,200 to 2,300 m asl, but a few specimens have been reported from lower elevations on the north face of the Sierra de las Minas.	eng
64302	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is most abundant in lower montane cloud forest, but it enters subtropical wet forest (pine-oak forest) along mesic ravines. It requires old growth forest although occasionally it is found in small patches of secondary growth and coffee plantations bordering more intact forest.	eng
64302	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The population is probably declining substantially due to habitat destruction and overcollecting. It has been recorded as recently as 2003 in Guatemala.	eng
64302	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is threatened by the destruction of cloud forest habitat for agriculture (coffee and ornamental fern plantations) and by collecting for the international pet trade.	eng
64303	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in El Triunfo and Tacaná Biosphere Reserves.	eng
64303	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occupies moderate and intermediate elevations along the Pacific versant of the southern Volcanic Cordillera of Guatemala from the Volcán de Agua westward to Cerro Ovando in southeastern Chiapas, Mexico. It has also been taken from several localities in Honduras, including the Sierra de Merendón and the Cerro Santa Bárbara. The elevational range is from 500 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
64303	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It inhabits lower montane wet forest and lower montane moist forest. It can also occur in coffee plantations.	eng
64303	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is now rare in lower portions of its range owing to habitat destruction that occurred in the mid twentieth century. The higher elevation populations remain relatively healthy. It continues to be seen regularly (early 2000s).	eng
64303	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Deforestation and transformation of the land to agriculture areas are the main threats.	eng
64304	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is found in Laguna Belgica, state park in Chiapas, Mexico.	eng
64304	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species inhabits intermediate elevations of extreme southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico; these highlands include Cerro Baúl, Cerro Azul, and Cerro Atravesado. A single specimen known from the Selva Negra of the northern Chiapan highlands appears to be this species. Most of the range is on the Atlantic drainage, but the species also occurs sporadically on the Pacific versant. Its elevational range is from 1,500 to 1,830 m asl.	eng
64304	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It inhabits cloud forest and mesic ravines in pine-oak forest. It is found in primary forests and coffee plantations.	eng
64304	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a rare species.	eng
64304	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Deforestation and transformation of the land to agricultural areas are the main threats. The pet trade is also a potential threat to this species.	eng
64305	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Omiltemi protected state park.	eng
64305	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occurs at intermediate and high elevations of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, Mexico. The elevational range is from 2,390 to 3,300 m asl.	eng
64305	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	A terrestrial inhabitant of pine-oak and cloud forest. It has also been collected in disturbed (secondary growth) areas.	eng
64305	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species, though it appears to be declining as inferred through declining encounter rate.	eng
64305	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Deforestation and fires are a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
64306	conservation	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64306	distribution	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This recently described species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality of Cerro Petlalcala, Municipality of San Andres Tenejapan, western Veracruz State, Mexico. It may range more widely than is currently known. It has been collected between 2,100 to 2,300 m asl.	eng
64306	habitat	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species occurs in both primary and disturbed pine-oak forests, and also in adjacent areas, including basking on roads. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64306	population	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64306	threats	Lopez Luna, M.A. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats known to this species. It may have a restricted range, however, further field work is needed to establish this.	eng
64307	conservation	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in the Huitepec Private Reserve.	eng
64307	distribution	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from intermediate elevations on the relatively flat tableland of the Meseta Central of Chiapas, Mexico. It occurs from 2,050 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
64307	habitat	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It inhabits humid pine-oak forest and broadleaf wet forest. It can persist in areas with minor habitat alteration.	eng
64307	population	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Although there are no quantitative data, this species is regularly seen (including in 2005).	eng
64307	threats	Campbell, J.A. & Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, although the rate of loss is currently not very high.  There is not thought to be severe habitat destruction occurring within its range.	eng
64308	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Several occurrences are in protected areas. As of early 1995 there were no state or federal statutes specifically prohibiting the taking of the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake. Some states (Georgia, Florida) prohibit the gassing of Gopher Tortoise burrows, but do not place limits on the taking of this species. Improved state regulations pertaining to this species are needed. This snake should at least be given the status of a game animal, and the taking of specimens should be regulated by bag limits. Licenses should be required of people taking rattlesnakes. Out-of-state licenses should be much more expensive than in-state licenses. The sale of Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes should be regulated in the same manner as any game animal; interstate commerce should be prohibited.	eng
64308	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast of the United States. Its range encompasses the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from North Carolina to south Florida, and west to Mississippi and the Florida parishes of Louisiana, at elevations extending from near sea level to around 500 m (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). The major stronghold today is the northern Florida peninsula, eastern and southern Florida panhandle, and southwestern Georgia (Timmerman and Martin 2003). North Carolina: restricted to the Lower Coastal Plain south of the Neuse River; formerly occurred in the middle Coastal Plain but apparently never in the North Carolina Fall Line sandhills; not known on North Carolina barrier islands. South Carolina: patchily distributed in the lower and middle Coastal Plain; common in the coastal marsh-sea island area, occurring on Edisto and three smaller barrier islands. Georgia: restricted to the Coastal Plain, occurring on the Fall Line sandhills below Columbus (Fort Benning) and thriving on Georgia's sea islands. Florida: throughout the state, including many of the Florida Keys and most of Florida's east and west coast barrier islands. Alabama: does not range to the Fall Line but occurs in the lower Coastal Plain where longleaf pine and wiregrass dominated the uplands originally; has been recorded from Dauphin Island. Mississippi: occurs today principally in the counties of the southeastern portion of the state, east and northeast of the eastern tip of Louisiana; historically may have ranged to the limits of the longleaf pine forest, but today the range has contracted and is confined mainly to the longleaf pine hills and pine flats regions; there are no records from Mississippi barrier islands. Louisiana: nearly extirpated; was confined to the easternmost three of the seven Florida parishes, and never was reported from Louisiana barrier islands (Means unpublished manuscript).	eng
64308	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include pine and wiregrass flatwoods, pine-palmetto flatwoods, longleaf pine-turkey oak hills, rosemary scrub, mesophytic and coastal maritime hammocks, xeric hammocks, barrier islands and coastal scrub habitats, vicinity of wet savannas, wet prairies (during dry periods), mixed pine-hardwood successional woodland, and abandoned farms and fields (especially near pine-dominated habitats), particularly areas with abundant cover (Mount 1975, Dundee and Rossman 1989, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake usually does not occupy marshes or swamps but may pass through these habitats or occupy their edges. Large tracts of habitat are most suitable. Eastern diamondbacks are basically terrestrial and rarely climb into vegetation. Shelters include stump holes, burrows of other animals, brush piles, or similar sites. Stumpholes in shortleaf-loblolly pine oldfield successional forest are utilized more frequently than burrows of the gopher tortoise (Means 1995). Eastern diamondbacks can tolerate temporary inundation of their overwintering burrows (Means 1982, 1995). According to Ernst (1992), most young are born in retreats such as gopher tortoise burrows or hollow logs.	eng
64308	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped roughly 175 collection sites; however, relatively few of these represent extant populations with good viability. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 (several thousand are killed annually for the skin trade). This snake is rare in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989). However, it is still locally common in suitable habitat in some areas of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size clearly have declined significantly compared to the historical situation. This species probably ranged throughout the original extent of the longleaf pine forest in the Coastal Plain, but the longleaf pine forest now occupies only a small percentage of its former extent (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993). longleaf pine upland habitat has shrunk from 60.6% to less than 1.4% of the landscape since presettlement times (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993), so that the principal natural habitat of the species has diminished greatly. Many animals endemic in the longleaf pine forest such as the Gopher Tortoise and this rattlesnake are suffering range contractions because of the loss of the longleaf pine forest upland habitat in which they evolved and to which they are best adapted. Range contractions are known from Louisiana, Mississippi, and South and North Carolina. This snake is now very rare or virtually extirpated at the northern and western extremes of the range in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995) and Louisiana (Dundee and Rossman 1989). Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably declining throughout its range. The habitat continues to be drastically reduced at the northern extent of the range in North Carolina (Palmer and Braswell 1995). Substantial habitat loss is continuing in Florida (Tennant 1997). The rate of decline is unknown, but it may exceed 10% over three generations (probably at least 15 to 20 years). Eastern diamondbacks have been able to occupy many of the ruderal habitats that have sprung up in place of the native longleaf forest habitats, but these are also declining in percentage of the landscape (Ware <em>et al</em>. 1993, Means 1995).	eng
64308	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The original range has been reduced and fragmented by agriculture, forestry practices, urbanization, and plant succession resulting from fire suppression (Martin and Means 2000). Current threats to local populations include conversion of native habitat to planted slash or loblolly pine silvicultural plantations, agricultural fields, and urban and suburban uses. More than anything else, human alteration of native longleaf pine upland ecosystems (including fire suppression) is shrinking and fragmenting the suitable habitat base for this species. Another direct threat is the collecting of rattlesnakes for the skin trade and for competition for prizes in rattlesnake roundups held annually in Alabama (1) and Georgia (3). While probably not a serious threat in itself, when coupled with habitat loss, this sort of collecting is additive. It utilizes the practice of gassing the burrows of the Gopher Tortoise in winter (illegal in Florida and Georgia), sometimes killing rattlesnakes outright, and usually impacting the other fauna inhabiting burrows (Speake and Mount 1973). Rattlesnake roundups, themselves, account for only about 2,000 snakes per year. The skin trade is more insidious. Skin dealers have a huge network of pick-up stations where they advertise for people to bring in killed snakes to be frozen until the dealers can make the rounds and pick up the carcasses. Rangewide, this sort of activity probably accounts for at least ten times (20,000) the number of rattlesnake deaths caused by roundups (Means 1995). Berish (1998) provided further information on the harvest in Florida.	eng
64309	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in a protected area.	eng
64309	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where it has been found from sea-level up to 500 m (Klauber 1963).	eng
64309	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species is fairly ubiquitous in the island, which is dominated by thorn scrub vegetation. It has been found on gravelly beaches along the shore as well in rocky arroyos, washes and on the hillsides of the island's interior (Grismer 2002).	eng
64309	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is a very abundant species within its small range.	eng
64309	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. The island where it occurs is not known to be inhabited by humans. The species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
64310	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	It is present in at least three protected areas. More protected areas are needed for this species. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of this species are needed.	eng
64310	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the southern portion of the Central Plateau, Mexico. It ranges from southern Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, westwards and southward through Guanajuato, western Jalisco and northern Michoacan. In the east of its range it occurs from San Luis Potosi to Queretaro and Hildalgo. It has an altitudinal range of between 1,080 to 3,110 m asl.	eng
64310	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	The species occurs in different primary and secondary habitats such as pine-oak forests, oak forests, montane grassy meadows, stony mesquite-grassland areas and rocky areas. It can occur at the borders of agricultural fields, and has been found to be abundant in areas of cultivated agaves. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64310	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	This is still a common species, although populations are generally declining.	eng
64310	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed by people when it is encountered.	eng
64311	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64311	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' geographic range extends from southeastern California, possibly southern Nevada, central and southern Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas in the United States, south in Mexico to extreme northeastern Baja California, northern Sinaloa, Veracruz, and (at least formerly) disjunctly to Oaxaca (Ernst 1992, Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is unclear whether specimens collected in Kansas represent translocated individuals or part of a natural population (Matlack and Rehmeier 2002). The elevational range extends from near sea level up to at least 2,440 m asl in San Luis Potosi (Klauber 1972), but most locations are below 1,500 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64311	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitat encompasses arid and semi-arid regions, from plains to mountains and from sandy flats to rocky uplands, including desert, grassland, shrubland, woodland, open pine forest, river bottoms, and coastal islands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Tennant 1998, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southeastern Arizona, this snake is more numerous in desert scrub than in semi-desert grassland (Mendelson and Jennings 1992). It hibernates in rock crevices or cavities or sometimes in animal burrows or under other cover (Ernst 1992). Hibernation sometimes occurs communally in brushy upland ridges. A population in southeastern Arizona used mainly creosote bush flats but switched to rocky slopes during winter (Beck 1995). This primarily terrestrial snake sometimes climbs into vegetation or enters water.	eng
64311	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. This is a common snake in much of its range. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size is probably declining at less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64311	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified. Some populations have been decimated by habitat destruction, automobile traffic, and/or direct killing by humans, especially in conjunction with "rattlesnake roundups."	eng
64312	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
64312	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is widespread along the Mexican Pacific coast: from extreme southern Sonora southward along Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and northern Michoacan, including the northern Tepalcatepec Valley, the Balsas Basin, and the Santiago Basin. It occurs from sea level up to 2,900 m asl.	eng
64312	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species prefers thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest and even in the ecotonal belt between tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest, however, in Michoacan it is possible to find individuals even in high elevations with pine-oak to fir forests.	eng
64312	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is an abundant species.	eng
64312	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There is some habitat destruction in parts of the range. The species is venomous and is killed because of this.	eng
64313	conservation	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Its range is within the Islas del Golfo de California Fauna and Flora Protection Area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64313	distribution	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is known only from the Pacific island of Isla Coronado Sur, off the coast of northern Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002). It is ubiquitous on the island.	eng
64313	habitat	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It lives in low-growing brush and cactus that are generally wind-blown and stunted (Grismer 2002). It is most commonly found under the leaves of the ice plant (<em>Mesembryanthemum crystallinum</em>) that covers the island (Oberbauer 1992).	eng
64313	population	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It is abundant within its small range.	eng
64313	threats	Hollingsworth, B., 2007	There are no known threats within its small range.	eng
64314	conservation	Avila Villegas, H., Frost, D.R. & Arnaud, G., 2007	Although cats have been eradicated from the island, there is a need to ensure that they do not recolonize Isla Santa Catalina. There is a need to monitor populations and to prevent over-collection of this restricted range species.	eng
64314	distribution	Avila Villegas, H., Frost, D.R. & Arnaud, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Isla Santa Catalina, a 40 km² island in the Gulf of California, off the coast of Loreto, in Mexico (Campbell and Lamar 1989).	eng
64314	habitat	Avila Villegas, H., Frost, D.R. & Arnaud, G., 2007	The island topography is composed of rocky hillsides separated by wide and narrow sandy arroyos (dry creeks) bearing the typical Sonoran Desert vegetation. This species occurs mainly in heavily-vegetated arroyos, but can also be found on rocky and scrubby hillsides, beneath roots and rocks or even in open areas of sandy soils. It is mainly nocturnal and can be easily found and caught. Most of its diet (70%) is composed of the endemic mouse <em>Peromyscus slevini</em>, the only ground mammal species on the island.	eng
64314	population	Avila Villegas, H., Frost, D.R. & Arnaud, G., 2007	It was formerly a common species, but has probably declined, principally due to over-collecting. Abundance data gathered between 2003 and 2004 fluctuated between 0.23 (one snake every four person-hours) in June to 2.11 (two snakes per person-hour) in August (H. Avila-Villegas pers. comm.).	eng
64314	threats	Avila Villegas, H., Frost, D.R. & Arnaud, G., 2007	The main threat to this species is the loss of individuals by killing and illegal collection. "Pit fall" traps have been found on the island, and some fishermen have observed people collecting reptiles in bags. Other fisherman have allegedly taken people to the island to collect the species (what they get paid equals their profits in a week of hard work fishing). Santa Catalina Island is home to 10 reptile species, of which seven are endemic (Grismer 2002). Insular endemic species are the most wanted in the illegal trade market, hence, are the more threatened (Mellink 1995). Its passive behaviour makes it easy to catch or kill. Population declines of its main prey, <em>P. slevini</em> is also an important threat. A population of feral cats formerly invaded the island, --  /* Font Definitions */ @font-face  {font-family:Tahoma;  panose-1:2 11 6 4 3 5 4 4 2 4;  mso-font-charset:0;  mso-generic-font-family:swiss;  mso-font-pitch:variable;  mso-font-signature:553679495 -2147483648 8 0 66047 0;}  /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal  {mso-style-parent:"";  margin:0cm;  margin-bottom:.0001pt;  mso-pagination:widow-orphan;  font-size:12.0pt;  font-family:"Times New Roman";  mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";  mso-ansi-language:EN-US;} @page Section1  {size:612.0pt 792.0pt;  margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt;  mso-header-margin:36.0pt;  mso-footer-margin:36.0pt;  mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1  {page:Section1;} -->G. Arnaud and Hector Avila-Villegas observed several remains of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. catalinensis</span> in the scats (H. Avila-Villegas pers. comm. 2007). These cats were eradicated in 2002 (J. Donlan pers. comm. to H. Avila-Villegas).	eng
64315	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Several to many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64315	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species' range extends from southeastern California, southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah, south through southwestern Arizona in the United States, to northeastern Baja California and northwestern Sonora, and Isla Tiburon, in Mexico (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Sonora, this species occurs north and west of the Nogales-Hermosillo-Guaymas highway, with the heaviest concentration in the Desierto de Altar (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). The elevational range extends from below sea level to about 6,000 feet (1,830 m asl) (Stebbins 2003), but most localities are below 1,200 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64315	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This snake generally inhabits open desert terrain with fine windblown sand, desert flats with sandy washes, or sand dunes sparsely vegetated with creosote bush or mesquite; sometimes it occurs in rocky or gravelly sites (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In the Mojave Desert, snakes concentrated near washes and areas of relatively dense vegetation where mammal burrows were common (Brown and Lillywhite 1992), though in other areas this snake has been found to be more common where vegetation is sparse. During the daytime inactive period, individuals retreat into underground burrows or under bushes, or, at the end of activity at night, snuggle into sand with a minimum of the body exposed, remaining partially buried through daylight until conditions become too hot (then seeking shade) (Brown and Lillywhite 1992). Hibernation sites are in in burrows of rodents or tortoises (Secor cited by Ernst 1992, Brown and Lillywhite 1992). In the eastern Mojave Desert, sidewinders hibernated in rodent burrows at the sand-alluvium interface (Secor 1994). This terrestrial snake rarely climbs into vegetation.	eng
64315	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common in suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64315	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64316	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
64316	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake is endemic to Mexico and ranges from the central-western Baja California peninsula, from Cabo Colonet south and westward to Bahia de los Angeles and thence continuously to Cabo San Lucas. It also occurs on the Pacific islands of Magdalena and Santa Margarita, and on the Gulf of California islands of Cerralvo, Carmen, Coronados, Espiritu Santo, Pardo, Partida Sur, San Francisco, San Jose and San Marcos.	eng
64316	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs in several bushland and savanna habitats, but it avoids the arid land of the Lower Colorado Valley. It can be found under rocks, logs and trash piles and even in mammal burrows, and is common in the vicinity of human habitation. It also occurs in sand dunes. It forages on the surface at night.	eng
64316	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	Its abundance is hard to evaluate, as it is a secretive snake that is not often encountered.	eng
64316	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Frost, D.R., 2007	The northern extreme of its range is threatened by agriculture in the coastal plain of San Quintin. Agricultural developments in the Vizcaíno Desert, Magdalena Plain, and Isthmus of la Paz also pose threats.	eng
64317	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species ranges in a protected area.	eng
64317	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake is endemic to the island of San Esteban in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
64317	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This species occurs in brushy, rocky arroyos and on talus hillsides. They have also been observed in rocky areas at the water's edge (Grismer 2002).	eng
64317	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is common within its small range, and there is no reason to suspect that a decline could have occurred.	eng
64317	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island is not known to be inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters. The common rat (<em>Rattus rattus</em>) has been introduced to the island, but Grismer (2002) records that the snakes are eating the rats suggesting that they are not a threat.	eng
64318	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	At least several occurrences are protected. Protection needs: 1) protect all known denning areas and adequate surrounding foraging habitat (generally a radius of about 1.5 to 2.5 miles from the den site) (see Brown 1993); 2) foster protection through public education; and 3) do not reveal den locations to the general public or unknown persons.	eng
64318	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species ranges widely in the United States, ranging marginally into southern Canada (where it is extinct). Its range extends from central New England to northern Florida, and west to eastern Texas, central Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, southern and eastern Iowa, and southeastern Minnesota (Martin, in Tyning 1992; Ernst and Ernst 2003; Campbell and Lamar 2004). The distribution is spotty along the western and northern edges of the range. Sizeable populations still occur in the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania though the Virginias, across eastern Kentucky and Tennessee to northeastern Alabama, in the Ouachita and Boston mountains of Arkansas and extreme eastern Oklahoma, in heavily wooded sections of the southeastern Coastal Plain from North Carolina to northeastern Florida and west to Louisiana and southern Arkansas, and in the Piedmont in the Uwharrie National Forest of central North Carolina and Pine Mountain of west-central Georgia (Martin in Tyning 1992). See Martin (in Tyning 1992) for a detailed range map and further details on current known distribution. Dens occur at elevations of up to about 5,000 feet in the southern Appalachians, 2,200 feet in southern New England, and about 1,300 ft in northeastern New York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; individuals may range to higher elevations in summer (Martin in Tyning 1992).	eng
64318	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	In the northeast, this species inhabits mountainous or hilly deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, often with rocky outcroppings, steep ledges, and rock slides (Petersen and Fritsch 1986, Brown 1993). In the upper midwest, this snake occurs on steep rocky bluffs and bluff prairies with oaks (Breckenridge 1944, Oldfield and Keyler 1989, Vogt 1981). In the central midwest, optimum habitat is a high, dry ridge with oak-hickory forest interspersed with open areas (Minton 1972), and "deciduous forest, especially along hilltop rock outcrops in thick woods" (Fitch 1958). In the south, preferred habitat is "hardwood forests of the type found in Loess Bluff and in many river bottoms" (Cook 1943), swampy areas and floodplains (Mount 1975), wet pine flatwoods, river bottoms and hydric hammocks (Ashton and Ashton 1981), and hardwood forests and cane fields of alluvial plain and hill country (Dundee and Rossman 1989). Fogell <em>et al</em>. (2002) documented a relatively high level of agricultural field use at the western edge of the range in Nebraska. Activity is primarily terrestrial, but timber rattlesnakes sometimes climb into vegetation (see Fogell <em>et al</em>. (2002). Hibernacula are typically located in a rocky area where underground crevices provide retreats for overwintering, such as a fissure in a ledge, a crevice between ledge and ground, talus (rock slide) below a cliff, open skree slope (fallen rocks not associated with a cliff), or fallen rock (talus or skree) partly covered by soil (Martin 1989). At least in the northeastern part of the range (Reinert 1984, Reinert and Zappalorti 1988, Hammerson and Lemieux 2001), males and non-gravid females are primarily forest dwellers and gravid females use open, sparsely forested sites. Similarly, in Wisconsin Keenlyne (1972) reported gravid females using flat slab rocks and grassy, open slopes. This open habitat was not used by males or nongravid females. "Transient habitat" a somewhat arbitrary category, generally is within 200 m of a den. It tends to be broken by the rough topography and rocky terrain near the den site and supports more open woodland with exposed clearings and shelter rocks. This habitat occurs on outcrop knolls (Brown 1989) used as "stop-over" basking locations by rattlesnakes migrating away from a den in spring. This habitat also is used by gravid females during their reproductive year.	eng
64318	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (see Martin in Tyning 1992), though most may not represent populations that are viable in the long term. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is still fairly common in some parts of its range. The Canadian population in southern Ontario is extinct, having been last recorded in 1941. It is declining or extirpated in all northeastern states. In New York, it is extirpated at 26% of historically known dens, nearly extirpated at another 5% (Stechert in Tyning 1992). The population in central Connecticut is declining slowly (Fritsch, in Tyning 1992). It survives in at least five population clusters in Massachusetts (French, in Tyning 1992) and just a few in Connecticut (Klemens 1993). One population is known to be extant in New Hampshire (Taylor and Soha, in Tyning 1992), two in Vermont (DesMeules, in Tyning 1992). It is extirpated in Rhode Island (Raithel, in Tyning 1992) and apparently also in Maine (Hutchinson and Hunter, in Tyning 1992).  There has been a 50 to 66% loss of known populations in southern New Jersey (Zappalorti and Reinert, in Tyning 1992). It is extirpated in about half of the counties in which it was recorded in Ohio (Wynn, in Tyning 1992). It has declined substantially in Minnesota (Keyler and Oldfield, in Tyning 1992).  No careful mark-recapture population estimates have yet been published. One long-term study (W.S. Brown, northeastern New York) will provide such estimates after several more years of field work. What has been clear to date is the difficulty of recapturing individuals other than gravid females regularly. This problem may cause violation of an important sampling assumption of equal catchability of all sizes and age classes, an assumption necessary for population estimates to be valid. Brown (unpubl. data) has recaptured many snakes after long lapses (up to nine years) and it remains to be seen how the problem of inconsistent recaptures will affect calculations.  From earliest settlement of the North American continent, hunting rattlesnakes at their dens became a regular habit of many pioneers. Babcock (1929) commented: "It is probably only a matter of time when the timber rattlesnake in New England will share the fate of the passenger pigeon." Recognizing the scarcity of objective data to show trends in numbers, an overall consensus among virtually all scientists and field observers is that the timber rattlesnake indeed is declining over most parts of its range.  The first major recent warning was published by Galligan and Dunson (1979) who, on the basis of counts of snakes turned in by snake hunters and on interviews with them at a number of local community-sponsored rattlesnake hunts in Pennsylvania, documented severe declines in timber rattlesnake numbers. Stechert (1982) summarized factors in the historical decline in New York. Brown (1984, 1988) suggested denning populations in New York have been reduced by 50 to 75% of their historical numbers. Martin (1982) stated that most long-term observers feel that most dens are at 15% to 20% levels compared to 40 years ago. Its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and especially population size are probably still declining, possibly at a rate of more than 10% over three generations (roughly 20 to 30 years).	eng
64318	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Summary of primary threats: loss of habitat; habitat fragmentation and isolation of populations, which may become small and nonviable; and direct mortality caused by humans (including illegal snake hunters) and vehicles as habitat is encroached upon by urban/residential development (Brown in Tyning 1992, Brown 1993). <br/> <br/>1. HABITAT DESTRUCTION: In states where the snake is legally protected, housing developments near rattlesnake dens are causing the most serious problem. Current laws generally do not mandate habitat protection for endangered or threatened species. In some areas, persons encountering rattlesnakes in new developments have cooperated with protection efforts by calling persons authorized to catch and transport live rattlesnakes. This is an important factor in successfully protecting rattlesnake populations near developments. <br/>  <br/>2. MARKET HUNTING: Bounty systems have caused a high level of deleterious exploitation and significant reduction or extirpation of populations by a mere handful of people (W.S. Brown unpubl. data). In some areas (e.g., Pennsylvania) bounty hunting led to rattlesnake hunting among the general population and became a major outdoor activity promoted by sports and civic groups. Commercial collecting for the pet trade is an ever-present current threat, despite some decline in recent years. Single individuals have been responsible for removal of several thousand snakes (Stechert 1980). Today, a growing number of persons maintain reptiles in private collections. Timber rattlesnakes, beautiful and easily kept in captivity, are much sought-after. Private collectors are supplied by an often illicit network of collectors, dealers, and buyers. <br/> <br/>3. SNAKE HUNTING FOR "SPORT," ORGANIZED SNAKE HUNTS OR "ROUND-UPS." In Pennsylvania, organized snake hunts caused injury and cruelty to captured snakes, displacement from familiar range, removal of gravid females from already-depleted populations, and habitat destruction by snake hunters (Galligan and Dunson 1979, Reinert 1988). Despite regulations, timber rattlesnake populations in Pennsylvania were legally "harvested" at a nonsustainable level, leading to the collapse of most den populations (Martin <em>et al</em>. 1990). In response, Pennsylvania regulations were amended such that the open season extends from the second Saturday in June through July 31, with daily bag limit of one snake. These regulations should protect snakes at den sites, prevent stockpiling of snakes, and discourage rattlesnake hunting altogether. <br/> <br/>4. SHADING-OVER: In some regions, several investigators believe that "shading over" by the growth of large trees on and near a den may be causing conditions that are incompatible with long-term viability for timber rattlesnakes. According to this view, there is a need for an open, lightly wooded or brushy early successional plant association to provide an optimal denning environment. In contrast, Martin (pers. comm. 1990) says: "Shading over of the den site does not present a problem for snakes at emergence time when the trees are bare or just starting to leaf. The problem is shading over of the rocks that are used as gestating and birthing rookeries." Similarly, in Connecticut, G. Hammerson (pers. obs.) found that heavy shading (in summer) did not discourage den use, but he observed reduced use of a gestation/birthing site after it was shaded by growing vegetation. The possible threat of shading-over deserves further study, but it seems likely that shading has temporary, localized effects that are insignificant over the long term on a landscape scale. <br/> <br/>5. LOGGING: Commercial tree removal may not necessarily cause long-term harm to a timber rattlesnake population's habitat, but can pose a direct threat to the snakes if conducted during the active season (mainly April-October). <br/> <br/>6. ROAD MORTALITY: New Jersey Pine Barrens populations suffer from excessive mortality of gravid females due to vehicular traffic on roads and trails (Zappalorti and Reinert in Tyning 1992). Ill-placed developments and associated new roads and increased traffic can lead to increased mortality of rattlesnakes even in areas several miles from the development.	eng
64319	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
64319	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species shows a disjunct distribution with populations in the north grouped from southern Hidalgo, northern Puebla and Tlaxcala to adjacent western Veracruz, and in the south from southern Puebla to central and southern Oaxaca. Another population occurs in north-central Guerrero. It also occurs in Sierra Madre del Sur in Oaxaca. It ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 m asl.	eng
64319	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species prefers the pine-oak forest, however it can also be found in cloud forests in guerrero and even in desert areas in Puebla and Hidalgo. It can also be found in secondary forest.	eng
64319	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is a moderately common species.	eng
64319	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
64320	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is known from only one specimen; the type locality lies within Sierra de Manantlan Biosphere Reserve. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64320	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type specimen, collected from Puerto los Masos in southwest of Autlan de Navarro, southern Jalisco, Mexico.	eng
64320	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The type locality lies in a transition zone between tropical deciduous forest and pine-oak forest.	eng
64320	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species has been the focus of many surveys, but it has not been found again since its first discovery in 1966.	eng
64320	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
64321	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	At least several occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64321	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range encompasses southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southwestern Texas in the United States, and eastern Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, eastern Sinaloa, Zacatecas, eastern Nayarit, northern Jalisco,  Aguascalientes, western San Luis Potosi, western Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and southwestern Tamaulipas in Mexico (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from about 300 to 2,930 m asl (1,000 to 9,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64321	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This snake occurs mainly in rocky mountainous areas, including talus slopes, gorges, rimrock, limestone outcrops, and rocky streambeds, often in arid or semi-arid areas vegetated with pine-oak, oak-juniper, pinyon pine, ponderosa pine, or agave; it also inhabits mesquite grasslands and rocky desert flats and canyons, as well as mixed boreal-tropical forest and tropical deciduous forest in Mexico (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003). In forests it tends to occupy open sunny areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). It is a terrestrial species that may sometimes climb into low vegetation (Rossi and Feldner 1993 <em>Herpetological Review</em> 24: 35). It takes refuge under or among rocks, in animal burrows, or in or under stumps or similar refuges.	eng
64321	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 200 collection sites. Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. (1996) mapped about 50 collection sites in New Mexico. In Arizona, the species is known from more than 40 localities and it is considered to be locally common (Johnson and Mills, cited by Ernst 1992). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 10,000 and presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is locally common, but most populations appear to be small (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64321	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known. In Arizona, this species is largely unthreatened; minor or local threats include mining, grazing, road building, collecting, and recreational and urban development; in some cases mining can be favourable by creating suitable habitat conditions (Johnson and Mills cited by Ernst 1992).	eng
64322	conservation	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The species' only known site is in a protected area.	eng
64322	distribution	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of San Lorenzo Sur, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
64322	habitat	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The species occurs mainly in rocky areas and arroyo (dry creek) bottoms, and even in dunes near the coast. It can also be found in cave-like retreats formed by adjacent boulders.	eng
64322	population	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It is abundant in its only location.	eng
64322	threats	Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	No threats to this species are known. San Lorenzo Sur is not inhabited by humans and is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
64323	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64323	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species' range extends from southwestern Utah, southern Nevada, southeastern California, and western Arizona in the United States, south to the tip of Baja California (including islands in the Gulf of California and Isla Santa Margarita off the Pacific coast) and extreme northwestern Sonora, Mexico, at elevations from sea level to about 2,440m asl (8,000 feet) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003).	eng
64323	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The typical habitat of this species includes canyons, foothills, buttes, and erosion gullies of rocky desert areas (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003); sometimes this snake ranges away from rocks into sandy arroyos or onto desert flats with shrubs and animal burrows for cover (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Vegetation may include sagebrush, creosote bush, cacti, thorn scrub, chaparral (uncommonly), or pinyon-juniper woodland (Stebbins 2003). This is a terrestrial species that occasionally climbs into low vegetation. When inactive, it occurs under rocks or bushes or in crevices, caves, abandoned mines, or animal burrows.	eng
64323	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 200 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas of suitable habitat. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64323	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64324	conservation	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64324	distribution	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from western, central, and southern Arizona, central and southern New Mexico, and southwestern and central Texas in the United States, south through Mexico to the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau and Mesa del Sur (Oaxaca), including Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California, at elevations from near sea level up to around 2,930 m asl (9,600 feet) (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64324	habitat	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' habitat includes rocky areas (rock slides, outcrops, canyon slopes, areas near cliff, stream courses), with vegetation ranging from arid tropical scrub, tropical deciduous forest, mixed boreal-tropical forest, paloverde-cactus-thorn bush associations, oak-grass savanna, and mesquite grasslands to chaparral and the pine-oak and pine-fir belts (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Arizona and northern Mexico, this snake often occurs in rocky areas in pine-oak association. A population in southeastern Arizona frequented rocky areas but used arroyos (dry creeks) and creosote bush flats in late summer and autumn (fall) (Beck 1995). Other habitats include creosote bush-covered hills, grassy prairie, giant-dagger flats, and the vicinity of abandoned buildings (Tennant 1984). This species occupies a wide range of habitats in Mexico, where at the southern end of the range habitats include pine-oak, oak savanna, sweet-gum/oak forest, and mesquite grassland (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). Refuges during inactivity include rock crevices, caves, animal burrows, or wood rat houses. This snake is mostly terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or bushes.	eng
64324	population	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped more than 200 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. It is common in Mexico and in some areas of the United States. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64324	threats	Hammerson, G.A.,  Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64325	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species occurs in a protected area.	eng
64325	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake is endemic to the island of El Muerto, in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
64325	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	This snake is almost ubiquitous on the island. Since the island is very rocky the snakes can be found in deeply eroded contours of the rocks or in the rubble of talus slopes, as well as in scrub, hill ridges, and the intertidal zone.	eng
64325	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is common in all habitats within its small range, and there is no reason to believe there have been any population declines.	eng
64325	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no current threats to the species. The island where it occurs is not known to be inhabited by humans, and the species is not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
64326	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	There are many occurrences in protected areas.	eng
64326	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	As defined by Crother <em>et al</em>. (2003), following congruence of Pook <em>et al</em>. (2000), Ashton and de Queiroz (2001), and Douglas <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species encompasses the ranges of all subspecies of traditionally defined <em>C. viridis</em> except <em>viridis</em> and <em>nuntius</em> (i.e., southern British Columbia in western Canada, through the western United States (east to the Rocky Mountains) to central Baja California in Mexico). The ranges and relationships of <em>Crotalus oreganus</em> and <em>Crotalus viridis</em> in the Four Corners region and in northwestern Colorado need further clarification (Hammerson 1999, Brennan and Holycross 2004). The species avoids arid areas such as the Mojave and Colorado Deserts. The elevational range extends from sea level to around 3,355 m asl (11,000 feet) but most localities are below 2,745 m asl (9,000 feet) (Basey 1976, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64326	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This snake occupies a wide diversity of habitats, from shrubby coastal dunes to timberline, from shrubby basins, chaparral and canyons to open mountain forests (Nussbaum <em>et al</em>. 1983, Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Brown <em>et al</em>. 1995, Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). It avoids very arid areas. It is primarily terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or shrubs. When inactive, it occupies mammal burrows, crevices, caves, or similar secluded sites. Pregnant females may congregate near the winter den until parturition (Ashton and Patton 2001).	eng
64326	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is represented by a large number (hundreds) of occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is fairly common in many areas, but is very rare in Baja California south of Sierra San Pedro Martir. The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size has declined in many areas in comparison to historical levels (e.g., see Ernst and Ernst 2003). Currently, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations are probably relatively stable; population size may be declining but probably at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64326	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Overall, this species is not seriously threatened across most of its range. Locally, populations are being reduced as a result of persecution (especially around human settlements) and habitat loss and degradation from residential, commercial, and agricultural development. Populations in Baja California are being impacted by urbanization, agricultural expansion, and the construction of new roads (on which animals made be killed through collision with vehicles).	eng
64327	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	It is present in the Parque Nacional El Chico, Hidalgo. There is a need to establish protected areas where good populations of this species remain. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species.	eng
64327	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it is distributed in the southern portion of the Mexican Plateau, from west-central Veracruz, westward across central Puebla, Distrito Federal, northern Michoacan, southwestern Queretaro, Hidalgo, southern Guanajuato, central and eastern Jalisco and southern Zacatecas and Aguascalientes. It occurs between 1,450 and 2,600 m asl.	eng
64327	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	It is found in broad valleys, rolling plains and grassy meadows. It can be found also in pine-oak forests, mesquite-grassland areas and even in rocky outcrops or areas of old lava flows. It can be found in disturbed habitat with suitable rocky refuges close to agricultural fields. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64327	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	It is a very common species.	eng
64327	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Quintero Díaz, G., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed be people when it is encountered. It can persist in modified areas where there are rocky refuges.	eng
64328	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are protected areas or are in rough, remote areas not subject to major threats.	eng
64328	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	The species' range extends from southeastern Arizona in the United States (Chiricahua, Huachuca, Pinaleno, Dos Cabezas, and Santa Rita mountains) southward in Mexico through the Sierra Madre Occidental to northeastern Sonora, western Chihuahua, and Durango, and in the Sierra Madre Oriental of southeastern Coahuila, southern Nuevo Leon, southwestern Tamaulipas, and north-central San Luis Potosi, and in Aguascalientes (Prival <em>et al</em>. 2002, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range is from 1,220 to 3,200 m asl (4,000 to 10,500 feet) (Stebbins 2003); lower limit is about 1,850 m according to Campbell and Lamar (2004). Prival <em>et al</em>. (2002) found this species at 2,530 to 2,900 m asl in the Chiricahua Mountains.	eng
64328	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is a mountain rock dweller of pine-oak woodland, grassy and brushy areas, and open coniferous forest, usually occurring on well-lit rocky slopes such as south-facing talus (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In Mexico, it is also found in grassy-shrubby mountain valleys where prey is abundant, on pinyon pine-agave slopes, and in limestone-scrub oak-agave habitats where pines have been reduced by logging (the latter two habitats pertain to the eastern subspecies <em>miquihuanus</em>, Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This snake was found among stumps and coarse woody debris in July in high-elevation pine-oak forest in Sierra del Nido, Chihuahua (Bryson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In autumn (fall), individuals may shift from summer habitat to a different winter habitat (e.g., a different talus slope or beneath surface cover in a non-talus site (Prival <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
64328	population	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 46 collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. It is locally common in some areas but apparently rare in the southern part of the range. Ernst and Ernst (2003) stated that this species is now less common in Arizona than it was prior to 1982, but no evidence supporting this statement was provided. Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably stable.	eng
64328	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Vazquez Díaz, J. & Quintero Díaz, G.E., 2007	No major threats are known; most localities in Mexico are remote and difficult to access. Potential threats in Arizona include mining, grazing, overcollecting, logging, and recreational or other development (Johnson and Mills, cited by Ernst 1992).	eng
64329	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It occurs within Colima Volcano protected area.	eng
64329	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico. Disjunct locations are recognized; southwestern Michoacan in the Sierra de Coalcoman and in the northeast in eastern Volcanic Belt, and in the extreme western Volcanic Belt in southern Jalisco and adjacent Colima.	eng
64329	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It appears mostly to be restricted to pine-oak forest, usually in areas of volcanic rock and outcroppings.	eng
64329	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Currently no studies focusing on this snake are known to be underway.	eng
64329	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Habitat loss for agriculture and human settlement is the main threat, although it is not known how serious this is to the population.	eng
64330	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It is present in at least three protected areas including the Omiltemi State Park. Further research is needed into the taxonomy and ecology of this species.	eng
64330	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species occurs in temperate montane regions of moderate to high elevations across the Mexican Plateau from the Volcán de Toluca (Zinantecatl) in the State of Mexico to the highlands of west-central Veracruz, from here southward in the Sierra de Acatepec in Puebla and extreme northern Oaxaca; it is present in the Mesa del Sur in Oaxaca including the Sierra Juárez, in the mountains that extend northward from Cerro San Felipe, and in the Sierra Mixe and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero. It has also been recently reported from Hidalgo. The elevational range is from about 1,490 to slightly above 3,000 m asl.	eng
64330	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It occurs in primary and secondary pine-oak forest, oak forest, cloud forest, coniferous forest, dry scrubland, and upper tropical deciduous forest. It can also be found in agricultural land, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64330	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64330	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss, generally through clearing of land with fire for conversion to agricultural use. It is also directly killed be people when it is encountered.	eng
64331	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Several populations are in protected areas.	eng
64331	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	The species' range extends from southwestern California in the United States (from near Pioneertown and Morongo Valley of San Bernardino County and southeastern Los Angeles County) south through Baja California (Mexico), including several islands in the Gulf of California (e.g., Angel de la Guarda, Pond, San Marcos, Danzante, Monserrate, and San Jose islands) and Isla de Santa Margarita and Isla Cedros along the Pacific coast of Baja California to Los Cobos (Murphy <em>et al</em>. 1995, Grismer 2002, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species does not occur in the desert east of the Sierra de Juarez in northeastern Baja California (Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from near sea level to about 1,500 m asl but usually below 1,200 m asl (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64331	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	Habitats are varied and include rocky areas of tropical deciduous forest, ocean shores, desert scrub, thorn scrub, open chaparral, mesquite-cactus, and pine-oak woodland, sometimes also dunes, grassland, and cultivated areas between rock outcrops (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southern California, this snake is most common in the western foothills of the Coast Ranges and in dry rocky inland valleys (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003, based on Klauber's studies in San Diego County); it often inhabits areas of granite rock outcroppings, especially in winter (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In southern Baja California, it is most common in heavy brush where rocks and rocky outcrops are prevalent, but it also occurs in desert and open arid plains (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). This terrestrial snake commonly climbs into low vegetation. Refuges include rock crevices, animal burrows, brush piles, surface debris, or similar sites.	eng
64331	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). In California, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped roughly 80 extant locations and about 45 locations from which the species was believed to be extirpated. Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped about 27 collection sites in Baja California. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Jennings and Hayes (1994) estimated that about 20% of the suitable habitat in California has been lost. Declines have been much less severe in Baja California, though it has disappeared from urban areas. Currently, its extent of occurrence is stable whereas its area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably slowly declining; overall, the rate of decline is probably less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64331	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Hollingsworth, B., 2007	It is threatened by habitat loss caused by residential and agricultural development in inland valleys in portions of California and Baja California, where killing by humans likely has depleted populations near developed areas (Armstrong and Murphy 1979, Jennings and Hayes 1994).	eng
64332	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64332	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' range extends from southern California, southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah south through Arizona (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986), southern New Mexico (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996), western Texas (Tennant 1984) in the United States, and central Mexico to near the south end of the Mexican Plateau in Puebla and adjacent Veracruz (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from sea level to around 2,530 m asl (8,300 feet) (Stebbins 2003); above 1,800 m asl at the southern end of the range (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64332	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species' habitat is mostly upland desert and lower mountain slopes, including barren desert, grassland, open woodland, and scrubland; in the United States, vegetation in most occupied areas includes creosote bush, palo verde, mesquite, or cacti (Ernst 1992, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This snake usually is not in broken rocky terrain or densely vegetated areas. In southeastern Arizona, it is more numerous in semi-desert grassland than in desert scrub (Mendelson and Jennings 1992). In southern Arizona and adjacent Mexico, it is very common in prairie valleys between forested mountain ranges (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In the southern part of the range in Mexico, it occurs in open high interior plains, mesquite-grassland, pine-oak, and lava beds with cactus, agave, and grasses (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). In spring, this snake commonly coils under a small tree or shrub in early morning (Armstrong and Murphy 1979). Refuges include animal burrows, spaces under or among rocks, or similar sites.	eng
64332	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations). On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is often locally common (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable.	eng
64332	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
64333	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. Further field research is needed to determine the full distribution of this species, and to learn more about its ecology, biology and threats.	eng
64333	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the central Sierra Madre Occidental of western Mexico. It is present in western Durango and southeastern Sinaloa. It is found at altitudes of between 500 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64333	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species seems to prefer the foothills and canyons in the ecotone between tropical deciduous and pine-oak forests. It only appears to inhabit primary habitats. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64333	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a rare species, and is only known from a few specimens.	eng
64333	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	Pine forests in western Durango have been extensively logged commercially, areas of tropical deciduous forest are being converted to agricultural land. Suitable habitat for this species has been severely disturbed and fragmented. It is not thought to occur in any reafforested areas.	eng
64334	conservation	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The known range of the species is within Parque Nacional Pico de Tancítaro. More information on population, range, threats and ecology are needed for this newly described species.	eng
64334	distribution	Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species is thought to be restricted to the volcano Cerro Tancítaro, in the western part of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in Michoacán, Mexico. Two specimens were recorded at 3,225 m asl, and the only other specimen was collected sixty years earlier at 1,524 m asl. There is some doubt whether this latter elevation is correct, and it is suspected that it may have been collected at a higher elevation.	eng
64334	habitat	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The type locality of the species is predominantly pine-fir forest. The two most recently collected specimens were found in an open area of rocky bunchgrass in the forest. One specimen was found under a rock, the other on exposed ground.	eng
64334	population	Campbell, J.A., 2007	It has only recently been described and is presently known from only three specimens, two collected in 2002 and one collected in 1941.	eng
64334	threats	Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species' range is entirely within a national park. Its restricted range makes it more vulnerable to threatening processes.	eng
64335	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Some occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64335	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species' range extends from central Arizona south through south-central Arizona in the United States (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Painter and Milensky, 1993, Howland <em>et al</em>. 2002), to southern Sonora, Mexico, including Isla Tiburon in the Gulf of California, at elevations from sea level to about 1,465m asl (4,800 feet) (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Reported occurrences at higher elevations have not been confirmed (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
64335	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	The species' habitats include rocky desert canyons, foothills, and bajadas, in vegetation zones ranging from thornscrub, ocotillo-mesquite-creosote bush, saguaro-paloverde, mesquite grassland, and chaparral to tropical deciduous forest (southern Sonora) and the lower edge of oak woodland (Behler and King 1979, Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Ernst and Ernst 2003, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). In southeastern Arizona, this snake occurs strictly in rocky areas in winter and spring but uses edges of arroyos in summer (Beck 1995). It is a terrestrial species but may climb into low vegetation.	eng
64335	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped 33 collection sites. Lowe <em>et al</em>. (1986) stated that the species is known from approximately 100 localities throughout the range. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This snake is fairly common in some areas, but "some local populations seem small" (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64335	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Gadsden, H., 2007	Southern populations on the flatter areas of the coastal plain of Sonora are probably losing habitat due to the intensification of agriculture. However, overall, this species is not seriously threatened.	eng
64336	conservation	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island on which the species occurs is a protected area.	eng
64336	distribution	Frost, D.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the island of Tortuga, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. It has been found throughout the island, except in the caldera of the volcano.	eng
64336	habitat	Frost, D.R., 2007	The island is mostly rocky, and dominated by thorn scrub vegetation. The snake inhabits the rocky barren areas covered with sparse brush, scrub and cacti.	eng
64336	population	Frost, D.R., 2007	It is an extremely abundant species within its small range, with 26 individuals being seen in a few hours of night time searching (Grismer 2002).	eng
64336	threats	Frost, D.R., 2007	There are no threats to this species at present. The island is not inhabited by humans and are not considered to be at particular risk from invasive species introductions or from hurricanes and other natural disasters.	eng
64337	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is present in two protected areas; Parque Nacionals Ajusco and Lagunas de Zempoala. Further research is needed into the exact distribution of this species and its population abundance.	eng
64337	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	This species occurs in a very small area of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in central Mexico. It occurs in the Sierra Ajusco south of Mexico City, where specimens have been taken from the hillsides surrounding the Lagunas de Zempoala in extreme northwestern Morelos and adjacent parts of the State of Mexico. It has been found at elevations of between 2,900 and 3,300 m asl.	eng
64337	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The species is restricted to the highlands covered with pines and bunch-grass on steep volcanic slopes. It is not present in any highly modified areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64337	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	It is a very rare species.	eng
64337	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Campbell, J.A., 2007	The majority of the population is within protected areas and does not appear to be under any threat. There is some minor illegal habitat clearance for human habitations and agriculture within the parks. Ecotourism in the Lagunas de Zempoala and Ajusco mountain may also threaten this species although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
64338	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in at least two protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
64338	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it ranges along the volcanic belt, from west-central Veracruz, westward through parts of Puebla, Tlaxcala, Estado de Mexico, Morelos and western Michoacan. It occurs between 2,500 and 4,572 m asl.	eng
64338	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is largely found in open pine-oak forest, bunchgrass grassland and alpine grasslands above the tree line. It can occur in primary and secondary habitats. It is also found in agricultural areas, such as cattle pasture. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64338	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64338	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species as it can be found in open, modified areas. It is only locally threatened in parts of its range by severe habitat fragmentation.	eng
64339	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Many occurrences of this species are in protected areas.	eng
64339	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	As defined by Crother <em>et al</em>. (2003), following congruence of Pook <em>et al</em>. (2000), Ashton and de Queiroz (2001), and Douglas <em>et al</em>. (2002), this species encompasses only the ranges of subspecies <em>viridis</em> and <em>nuntius</em> of traditionally defined <em>C. viridis</em>. In other words, the range extends from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan in Canada, to the northern fringe of northern central Mexico, west to Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and extreme eastern Arizona, east to the Dakotas, western Iowa, Nebraska, central Kansas, central Oklahoma, and western and central Texas in the United States (Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). The ranges and relationships of <em>Crotalus oreganus</em> and <em>Crotalus viridis</em> in the Four Corners region and in northwestern Colorado need further clarification (Hammerson 1999; Brennan and Holycross, 2004). Its elevational range extends from about 100 m asl near the Rio Grande (Campbell and Lamar 2004) to at least 2,895 m asl (9,500 feet) in Colorado (Hammerson 1999).	eng
64339	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This snake inhabits a wide diversity of habitats, from prairies and arid basins to wooded mountains (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Werner <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is primarily terrestrial but sometimes climbs into trees or shrubs. When inactive, it occupies mammal burrows, crevices, caves, or similar secluded sites. Pregnant females may congregate near the winter den until parturition (Gannon and Secoy 1985, Graves and Duvall 1992).	eng
64339	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences. On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites (see also dot maps in Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996 and Hammerson 1999). The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000. Some local populations have declined or disappeared as a result of historical killing of snakes at dens (Hammerson 1999, Ernst and Ernst 2003). Currently, its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64339	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, populations have been eliminated or depleted as a result of killing at dens and loss/degradation of habitat by residential, commercial, and agricultural development (Hammerson 1999).	eng
64340	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in Tehuacan Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64340	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species occupies intermediate elevations from southern Puebla to Central Oaxaca in Mexico. Most of its range falls within the Atlantic drainage; however, in the south it crosses the Continental Divide and includes some of the upper tributaries of the Río Atoyac. The elevational range is from about 1,600 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
64340	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It inhabits high arid tropical scrub and tropical deciduous forest in the north, and pine-oak forest in the south.	eng
64340	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not very common.	eng
64340	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Much of the area the species inhabits has been overgrazed, cleared, or greatly eroded because of agricultural development. It is also persecuted by people.	eng
64341	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in at least three protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy, ecology and natural history of this species are needed.	eng
64341	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to central Mexico, where it is found as isolated populations in southern portions of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre del Sur. It has been recorded from the States of Hidalgo, Veracruz, Puebla, Oaxaca and Guerrero. It occurs between about 1,800 to 2,800 m asl.	eng
64341	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species occurs only in primary pine-oak forest, cloud forest and oak forest at moderately high elevations. It has been recorded from traditional corn fields, but only in southern Puebla. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64341	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a very rare species.	eng
64341	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat loss through conversion of cloud forest and in some parts, pine-oak forest areas to agricultural use. It is also directly killed by people when it is encountered. It is severely fragmented in parts of its range and does not move between remaining habitat patches.	eng
64342	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened). It occurs in the La Sepultura Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64342	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known from low elevations of the Pacific foothills and coastal plain from southwestern Oaxaca to extreme western Chiapas, Mexico. The elevational range is from near sea level up to a little over 700 m asl.	eng
64342	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species occurs terrestrially in tropical deciduous forest characterized by thorny, relatively short trees. It occurs in secondary forest but not in heavily altered habitats.	eng
64342	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is uncommon but regularly found, including four records from 2004.	eng
64342	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The major threat is habitat loss due to expanding agriculture.	eng
64343	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. More research is needed on population, range, biology and possible threats to this species.	eng
64343	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from two locations; one subpopulation on the Pacific coast of southern Colima, and Playa Colola on the coast of Michoacan, Mexico. Its known area of occupancy is less than 500 km². It occurs from sea level up to 300 m asl.	eng
64343	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is restricted to the dense tropical deciduous forest in lowland Pacific Mexico.	eng
64343	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is considered to be rare, however the habitat is difficult to survey and populations are very likely to be undetected.	eng
64343	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There are no known threats to this species, and the habitat appears to be mostly unaffected by deforestation.	eng
64344	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
64344	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species is found at low and moderate elevations of the Atlantic drainage from northwestern Chiapas (and possibly southern Tabasco and eastern Veracruz), Mexico, eastward through northern Guatemala and the Caribbean lowlands of Central America to Panama and northern Colombia to Ecuador. It occurs locally on Pacific drainages of Costa Rica and Panama, and thence southward on the Pacific Coast of Ecuador. Its elevational range throughout most of its range extends from near sea level up to about 900 m asl; in Colombia there is a questionable record at 1,880 m asl.	eng
64344	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species occupies lowland rainforest and lower montane wet forest. It has also been found in secondary forest.	eng
64344	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	The species is considered to be moderately common.	eng
64344	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is persecuted by people because it is venomous, but this is not a major threat.	eng
64345	conservation	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes a few protected areas.	eng
64345	distribution	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	This species occupies the northern third of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, in northern Quintana Roo, northern Campeche and Yucatan. It occurs from sea level up to about 150 m asl.	eng
64345	habitat	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It inhabits thorn forest and tropical deciduous forest. It can also occur in degraded forest but not in human habitation.	eng
64345	population	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is a locally common species.	eng
64345	threats	Lee, J. & Calderón Mandujano, R., 2007	It is persecuted by the local population because it is venomous. When fields are being cleared there are a lot of individuals killed.	eng
64346	conservation	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It is believed that at least a few dozen occurrences are protected, particularly in the northern parts of the range. Southern and western populations may occur on public lands, but the status of the protection needs investigation. It is clear that the pattern of known protection is not adequate to protect the variation of the species.	eng
64346	distribution	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' range extends discontinuously from the Great Lakes region of the United States (east to parts of southern Ontario (Canada) and a few sites in New York) southwest through the central and southern Great Plains region to southeastern Arizona (see <em>Herpetological Review</em> 21: 41), Texas Gulf Coast, and northeastern Mexico (Coahuila and Nuevo Leon) (Seigel 1986, Ernst and Barbour 1989, Stebbins 2003, Campbell and Lamar 2004). Its elevational range extends from sea level up to around 2,100 m asl (6,890 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64346	habitat	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species' habitat varies regionally (Ernst and Ernst 2003). Habitat in the eastern part of the range includes sphagnum bogs, fens, swamps, marshes, peatlands, wet meadows, and floodplains; also open sanannas, prairies, old fields, and dry woodland; the snakes often occur in wetlands in fall, winter, and spring, in drier adjacent uplands in summer. In Missouri, massasaugas shifted from prairie in spring to upland old fields and deciduous woods in summer, returned to prairie in spring (Seigel 1986). In the western part of the range, the habitat includes grassy wetland, rocky hillsides, mesquite/scrub plains, thornbrush, oak-grass, dry prairie, desert grassland, and sand dunes of coast and offshore islands (Degenhardt <em>et al</em>. 1996, Hammerson 1999, Werler and Dixon 2000). In Texas, this snake often occurs near moist microhabitats or sources of water (Werler and Dixon 2000). In Mexico, massasaugas have been reported from dry shrubby areas that also include wetlands or lush riparian areas (Campbell and Lamar 2004). Hibernation occurs in underground burrows (e.g., of mammals or crayfish), crevices, or similar protected sites.	eng
64346	population	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by numerous occurrences (subpopulations) (Campbell and Lamar 2004 mapped hundreds of collection sites), but many may be of low quality. Paucity of information on current status precludes a range-wide estimate of the number of extant occurrences. Probably most of the remaining occurrences have less than good viability. <br/> <br/>Its abundance is difficult to determine. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000, based on the large number of subpopulations and comments by Tennant (1984), Hammerson (1999), Ernst and Barbour (1989), and Seigel (1986), but supporting data are scant. <br/> <br/>Declines in area of occupancy and abundance undoubtedly have occurred in nearly every US state, though good documentation generally is lacking. Current trend data are not available for most areas, but this species appears to be declining in area of occupancy and abundance in many parts of the range. The rate of decline may or may not be more than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64346	threats	Frost, D.R., Hammerson, G.A. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Decline has been due to habitat loss and fragmentation caused by agricultural development, urbanization, damming, and drainage of wetlands (Lowe <em>et al</em>. 1986, Harding 1997, Werler and Dixon 2000). Wetland habitats remain highly threatened. Natural vegetation succession (encroachment of dense woody vegetation) is a significant cause of habitat loss in many areas. In some areas deliberate killing by humans is a problem, as is mortality from automobiles, late season burning, summer mowing, and pasturing of pigs in massasauga habitat. "In the Southwest, loss of prairie grasslands to overgrazing has eliminated much of the snake's original habitat" (Ernst and Ernst 2003). In some western states, the decline in agriculture may result in some habitat reclamation, but it may take a long time for abandoned fields to become suitable habitat. In Colorado, habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from agricultural expansion in the future might threaten the relatively large existing populations (Hobert <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
64347	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
64347	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the United States. Its range extends from eastern North Carolina to the Florida Keys, west to Oklahoma and eastern Texas, and north to southern Missouri and southwestern Kentucky (Conant and Collins 1991, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Werler and Dixon 2000, Campbell and Lamar 2004, Trauth <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
64347	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitats include wet prairies, wet savannas and pastures, palmetto-pine flatwoods, swamps, hardwood-dominated floodplains, sandhills, mixed pine-hardwood forest, hilly second-growth forests, scrub pinewoods, borders of cypress ponds, vicinity of lakes and marshes, and along rice-field canals and roadside ditches, generally in moist or wet lowlands (Werler and Dixon 2000, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake is mainly terrestrial; it shelters under surface cover (logs, stumps, thickets, etc.) or in animal burrows. It swims well; rarely climbs into vegetation.	eng
64347	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurences. On a range-wide scale, Campbell and Lamar (2004) mapped hundreds of collection sites. The adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000. This snake is common to locally abundant in some areas of suitable habitat in the core of the range. Population trends are undocumented, but its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
64347	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats are known. Locally, habitat loss and degradation probably have reduced or eliminated some populations. Between September 1997 and March 1998, a severe skin, eye, and mouth disease (fungal dermatitis and stomatitis) was observed in a subpopulation of subspecies <em>barbouri</em> at the Lake Woodruff National Wildlife Refuge in Volusia County, Florida (Cheatwood <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
64348	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the Canon del Sumidero National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64348	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This Mexican endemic is known only from the type locality of Cañon of Sumidero in Chiapas State. It was collected at 600 m asl.	eng
64348	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Animals are found on rocks and logs in tropical deciduous forest. The species needs shady sites and are not found in open areas.	eng
64348	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is very rare species, with few specimens ever collected.	eng
64348	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	The species is generally threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation.	eng
64349	conservation	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has not been recorded from any protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64349	distribution	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The species is known only from the vicinity of the type locality on Cerro Lachiguiri, Oaxaca, Mexico. It may be more widely distributed than currently recognized. It has been collected at 2,200 m asl.	eng
64349	habitat	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It has been recorded from pine forest and grasslands with <em>Agave</em> and <em>Nolina</em> vegetation (Smith, 1942; Bezy and Camarillo, 1992). It is not known if this species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
64349	population	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Known from the type specimen and a few additional specimens.	eng
64349	threats	Flores-Villela, O. & Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64350	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It has been recorded from the Reserva de la Biosfera "Sierra Gorda de Queretaro". Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology and natural history of this species.	eng
64350	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Mexico, where it is found in northern Queretaro and adjacent northwestern Hidalgo. It has been recorded at elevations of around 1,800 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
64350	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	The species prefers limestone crevices in pine-oak forest, although some individuals have been found in rocky areas within thorn scrub and xerophytic scrubland. It is present in modified habitats that still contain rocky areas. It is a viviparous species, Dixon <em>et al</em>. (1972) report on a captive female giving birth to a single young.	eng
64350	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64350	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There are no major threats as the species is reasonably adaptable. However, it is threatened by severe deforestation and fragmentation in parts of its range.	eng
64351	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64351	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is found on the slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlán in south-central Oaxaca State, Mexico. The elevational range is not known.	eng
64351	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There is very little information on the habitat requirements of this species. Animals have been collected from coffee plantations.	eng
64351	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
64351	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64352	conservation	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). It has been recorded from the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64352	distribution	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality of "Presa Mal Paso, 30 km N Cintalapa", Chiapas State, Mexico. It has been collected at 600 m asl.	eng
64352	habitat	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	Populations may be confined to seasonal tropical moist forest, where animals can be found under logs, rocks and other ground cover. It is possible that the species can occur in coffee plantations, although their presence in this habitat requires confirmation.	eng
64352	population	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is a common species at the type locality.	eng
64352	threats	Muñoz-Alonso, A., 2007	It is threatened by conversion of forest to agricultural use (including the use of fires for clearing land).	eng
64353	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
64353	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from San Bartolome Zoogocho, in the Municipality of Zoogocho, northern Oaxaca State, Mexico. It has been recorded at 2,200 m asl.	eng
64353	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This poorly-known species has been recorded living in rock crevices within pine-oak forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats. Camarillo, (1999) reports that a female gave birth to four offspring in April.	eng
64353	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
64353	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
64354	conservation	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Part of the range of this species is within the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats to this poorly-known species	eng
64354	distribution	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa, in eastern San Luis Potosi and adjacent southern Tamaulipas States, Mexico. It is currently known from no more than five caves.	eng
64354	habitat	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Animals have been recorded from inside limestone crevices and caves in tropical deciduous forest. Active animals have been observed out side of the caves (see Bezy and Camarillo, 2002). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64354	population	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
64354	threats	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	While no major threats have comprehensively identified for this species, many limestone caves have been used for recreational activities (such as caving). The effects of these activities on populations of this species are not known and need further investigation.	eng
64355	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the ecology and biology of this species are needed.	eng
64355	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to north-central Mexico, where it is found in the Valle de Jalpan of northern Queretaro and adjacent San Luis Potosi. It occurs at elevations of between 900 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
64355	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is found in thorn scrub forest, where it inhabits rocky areas at the base of limestone outcrops. It can also be found on rock walls and ruins. It can occur in urban areas, but is not present in agricultural areas. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64355	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64355	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
64356	conservation	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection). Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
64356	distribution	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	This Mexican species is known only from Veracruz, and occurs in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas and from the vicinity of the Rio Coatzacoalcos near Jesus Carranza on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.  It occurs from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
64356	habitat	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	These nocturnal lizards are found beneath the bark and between the buttresses of trees within the rainforest and cloud forest, as well as secondary forest. They are also found on the walls of rural houses and on rocks in pastureland.	eng
64356	population	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64356	threats	Calderón Mandujano, R. & Lopez-Luna, M.A., 2007	There are no major threats to this reasonably adaptable species.	eng
64357	conservation	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is protected by Mexican law under the category Pr (Special Protection).  It does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
64357	distribution	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species is known only from two localities from southern and central Oaxaca, Mexico: San Jose Manteca (five km from San Carlos Yautepec); and on the road from Mitla to Ayutla. It might be more widely distributed than current records suggest. Animals have been collected between 1,750 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
64357	habitat	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Populations occur in semi-arid, scrub forest. Animals have been found in disturbed habitat, but probably do not persist in areas of heavy disturbance.	eng
64357	population	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This is a rare species known from the holotype and five additional specimens. It might have disappeared from type locality due to habitat destruction.	eng
64357	threats	Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is probably threatened through habitat destruction caused by grazing goats.	eng
64358	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in the Rancho Cielo Biosphere Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
64358	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it ranges from central eastern Nuevo Leon, through western Tamaulipas and eastern San Luis Potosi, and from Hidalgo to western Veracruz and northern Puebla in the south. It has an elevational range of around 1,000 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64358	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is found in primary and secondary cloud forest, humid pine forest and dry pine-oak forest. At Hidalgo, it has been observed in cattle pasture close to forest, where it occurs under fallen trees. Animals may generally be found hiding beneath logs, rocks and bark. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64358	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64358	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is threatened by general deforestation and forest fragmentation throughout its range.	eng
64359	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a need to survey and monitor the present status of populations.	eng
64359	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This Mexican endemic is currently known from two, widely separated locations in the State of Michoacan. It has been recorded at Mexiquillo, on the Pacific coast, and from the northern Sierra de Coalcoman. It might occur more widely.	eng
64359	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species can be found mainly in tropical deciduous forest and oak forest, or in the transition zone between these two habitats, in rocky areas. The type series was collected in a rocky ravine in tropical semi-deciduous forest, but they may have been collected from evergreen oak woodland (Bezy and Camarillo 2002). It is a nocturnal species that lives in rock crevices. It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64359	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It appears to be a naturally rare species.	eng
64359	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species occurs in rocky areas where there are few serious threats to its habitat. However, its ecological requirements remain largely unknown.	eng
64360	conservation	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
64360	distribution	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known from the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, in central Veracruz, west and southward to northern Oaxaca, southern Veracruz and northern Chiapas, Mexico.  It occurs from 150 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
64360	habitat	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It occurs mainly in tropical humid forest and tropical rain forest, as well as cloud forest, where it is found beneath bark and logs. It is restricted to forest and may survive in secondary but not heavily degraded forest.	eng
64360	population	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
64360	threats	Calderón Mandujano, R., Lopez-Luna, M.A. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Deforestation for agriculture, cattle grazing and commercial logging is a major threat to the species' habitat.	eng
64361	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The level of protection is uncertain, but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses. Better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species.	eng
64361	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. The range includes only a small area in Arizona; a recent taxonomic change that recognized <em>X. arizonae</em> as a distinct species and that described a new species (<em>X. bezyi</em>) in Arizona  (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001) did not precisely define the range of <em>X. arizonae</em>. A phylogeographic analysis of <em>Xantusia</em> by Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) determined that <em>X. arizonae</em> has a smaller range than depicted by Stebbins (2003).	eng
64361	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops (Pappenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
64361	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by at least several distinct occuurrences or subpopulations. Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped six collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown. Population trends have not been documented but presumably are relatively stable.	eng
64361	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64362	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Level of protection is uncertain, but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses. Better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species.	eng
64362	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. When first described, the known range was confined to a small area near Sunflower, Maricopa County, central Arizona (Pappenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001). Subsequent phylogeographic study expanded the range, but it is still confined to central Arizona (Sinclair <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
64362	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
64362	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This lizard is represented by several known occurrences or subpopulations. Sinclair <em>et al</em>. (2004) mapped eight localities that they assigned to this species. The total adult population size is unknown. Long-term and short-term trends are presumably relatively stable, but no data are available.	eng
64362	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Status and current threats are unknown but the species is probably not very threatened, assuming the habitat is generally unsuitable for other uses.	eng
64363	conservation	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It has been reported from the Canon San Fernandes protected area. Other than monitoring of populations, and general habaitat protection, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
64363	distribution	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is known from the vicinity of its type locality "6-6.5 road miles north-east of Pedriceña on Mexico Highway 40, at an elevation of 4,400 feet [1,341 m asl]" in central Durango State, Mexico. It might occur more widely.	eng
64363	habitat	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Animals can be found inhabiting crevices in adesitic rocks, within areas of yucca vegetation. It is not known if this species is able to adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64363	population	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This appears to be a naturally rare species, and seem to be difficult to collect, largely because of its secretive nature.	eng
64363	threats	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Other than its apparently restricted range, there appear to be no major threat to this species.	eng
64364	conservation	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The species occurs within the Canyon Fernandes protected area. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64364	distribution	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution within the Pedricenas region, in the southern portion of the Chihuahuan Desert of south-eastern Durango State, Mexico.	eng
64364	habitat	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This nocturnal species inhabits desert and arid lands with a ground cover of rocks, fallen yucca plants and agaves (Webb 1965). It is a viviparous species. It is not known how well populations can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64364	population	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	It can be abundant within optimal habitat (Webb 1965).	eng
64364	threats	Gadsden. H. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	Other than the species restricted range, there appear to be no major threat to the species.	eng
64365	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The one occurrence is in a state park.	eng
64365	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is endemic to the southwestern United States. Its known range is confined to the Truckhaven Rocks area (an area of about 3 km by 1.3 km), in the Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, on the southeastern flank of the Santa Rosa Mountains, San Diego County, California; elevation 240 to 305 m (787 to 1,000 feet) (Grismer and Galvan 1986, Lovich 2001, Lovich and Grismer 2003).	eng
64365	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Habitat consists of sandstone crevices and burrows primarily in and along the canyons that cur through the Truckhaven Rocks (Lovich and Grismer 2003). Some "were unearthed in what appeared to be rodent burrows atop piles of hardened siltstone" (Grismer and Galvan 1986).	eng
64365	population	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	One known occurrence exists, 32 km from the nearest known locality for <em>Xantusia henshawi</em> (Grismer and Galvan 1986). The total adult population size is unknown. Population trends are unknown.	eng
64365	threats	Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified, other than those inherent in the very limited distribution.	eng
64366	conservation	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The species is present within some protected areas, incuding the Sierra San Pedro Martir National Park. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64366	distribution	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	The range of this species extends from southwestern California in the United States (Peninsular Ranges and a few other areas; Wilcox <em>et al</em>. 1995) so to 7,600 feet) (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64366	habitat	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	Its habitat encompasses rocky canyons, foothills, and hillsides in arid and semi-arid areas of chaparral, other shrubland, or pinyon-juniper woodland, particularly massive exfoliating granitic outcrops in shadier parts of canyons or near water (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). This secretive lizard is usually in rock crevices or under rock flakes or fragments by day.	eng
64366	population	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations. Lee (1976) mapped more than 100 collection sites. The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000. Its extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable, based on the habitat generally being unsuitable for conversion to human uses.	eng
64366	threats	Hollingsworth, B. & Hammerson, G.A., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
64367	conservation	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	It is not known to occur in a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
64367	distribution	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This recently described Mexican endemic is known only from three localities, Moyahua in Zacatecas State, and from the Guadalajara area and a second, unknown locality in Jalisco State. It seems likely that the species will occur in a much wider area than is currently known.	eng
64367	habitat	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded under tree bark (of dead trees) and among rocks in mesquite and oak forests. It is not known how well the species can adapt to habitat disturbance.	eng
64367	population	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Nothing is known about the population abundance of this species.	eng
64367	threats	Ponce-Campos, P. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. As animals use rock crevices, it is suspected that populations may be less susceptible to most common threats.	eng
64368	conservation	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	At least several occurrences are in national parks. Other than some general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
64368	distribution	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	The range extends from southern Utah, western and central Arizona, southern Nevada, and southern California south to southwestern Sonora and throughout most of Baja California, Mexico (Grismer 2002, Stebbins 2003). Some Arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as <em>X. arizonae</em> and <em>X. bezyi</em> (Papenfuss <em>et al</em>. 2001). A population in northern Durango is now recognized as <em>X. extorrus</em>. See Feldman <em>et al</em>. (2003) for discussion of distribution in the southern Sierra Nevada region of California.	eng
64368	habitat	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This lizard lives in arid and semi-arid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas, agaves, cacti, and other large plants, also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines; it ranges locally into pinyon-juniper, sagebrush-blackbrush, and chaparral-oak (Stebbins 2003).	eng
64368	population	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	This species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations (e.g., see map in Bezy 1982). The total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10,000 and probably exceeds 100,000. No evidence of a significant overall decline has been reported. The species is common in Mexico.	eng
64368	threats	Hammerson, G.A., Frost, D.R. & Santos-Barrera, G., 2007	No major threats have been identified, but locally the species likely is locally declining where its habitat has been degraded by commercial and residential development.	eng
64369	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species complex is currently under taxonomic revision, and some of the subspecies are in the process of being elevated to the species level. A re-evaluation of the Red List status of these species will then be needed as some of them might be seriously threatened. Its range includes Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Ocote Biosphere Reserve.	eng
64369	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species ranges from central-southern Mexico to central Guatemala. Several disjunct populations are recognized: one in central Veracruz; one in southern Oaxaca; one in northern-central Oaxaca; two along the highlands of central Chiapas; and one in central Guatemala. There are five subspecies, several of which might actually be full species. It is known from 800 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
64369	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	The five recognized subspecies inhabit a great variety of ecosystems, from xerophytic vegetation to tropical rainforest and cloud forest, oak forest, and tropical deciduous forest. It is commonly found in volcanic terrains and rocks, and can also be found in secondary or degraded forest. It lives in rock crevices.	eng
64369	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	At some localities it is common but in others it is uncommon.	eng
64369	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This species in the international pet trade, with all specimens being taken from the wild. The subspecies <em>Xenosaurus grandis grandis</em> may have been reduced to only two subpopulations near the town of Cuautlapan in Veracruz, mostly because the area that surrounds Orizaba and Córdoba is highly deteriorated due to human activities (Zúñiga-Vega <em>et al</em>. 2007). One of the two surviving subpopulations of <em>Xenosaurus grandis grandis</em> is on Buena Vista Mountain, which belongs to a cement factory, whose activities include mountain demolition to obtain raw materials for the production of construction cement (Zúñiga-Vega <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
64370	conservation	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine the full geographic range of the species, and to better understand the impact of habitat conversion on the persistence of the few known populations.	eng
64370	distribution	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	This Mexican endemic is known only from the area of Xilita (4.1 miles east of Xilitla) (at close to 1,100 m altitude) in extreme southeastern San Luis Potosi State, and from La Selva in the State of Veracruz (7.2 km east of Huayacoctla) at 2,000 m asl (Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is also expected to occur in remote mountains to the north of the known range, although the distribution of this species is patchy, and any range extension needs to be carefully confirmed (Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
64370	habitat	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Animals are found in rock crevices, within areas of highly eroded karst limestone in closed-canopy  tropical deciduous and oak forest, pine forest, areas of dense second growth forest and citrus/coffee plantations (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2000; Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 2003). This is a viviparous species with a gestation period of approximately 11 to 12 months, a biennial reproductive cycle, and a litter size of one or two young. Interestingly, this species may possibly shows post-hatching parental care (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 1997). Individuals have relatively small home-ranges and are largely sedentary (Lemos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
64370	population	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Lemnos-Espinal <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that the species is reasonably common in the limestone hills and bluffs immediately east of Xilitla.	eng
64370	threats	Lavin, P. & Mendoza Quijano, F., 2007	Forest habitat within the known range is being degraded through modification and conversion to coffee plantations. Animals may also be killed as a result of the mistaken belief that the species is venomous.	eng
64371	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
64371	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	This species is known only from a single locality at Sierra de Malinaltepec, Cerro Pico del Aguila, central Sierra Madre del Sur, Guerrero, Mexico. It was collected at 1,800 m asl.	eng
64371	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	The species has been recorded from pine-oak forest, where animals live in crevices formed by boulders and rocks. The area of collection has been modified by people, there is some secondary growth and the species does not appear to have been affected by this disturbance.	eng
64371	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	Five specimens were collected at the type locality. It appears to be a locally abundant species.	eng
64371	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., Campbell, J.A., Ponce-Campos, P., Muñoz-Alonso, A. & García Aguayo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The area of collection has been disturbed through local extraction of pine and other kinds of wood for subsistence use.	eng
64372	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the habitat and ecology of this newly described species.	eng
64372	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	This recently described species is endemic to Mexico, where it is known from San Juan Acaltepec, and Sierrra Mixe, Oaxaca State. Populations have been recorded at elevations from 1,800 to 1,900 m asl.	eng
64372	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	Animals inhabit rocky crevices and areas of small boulders within oak and pine-oak forests. Occasionally, individuals are found amongst rocks in traditionally cultivated agricultural land	eng
64372	population	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	It appears to be common within its restricted geographic range.	eng
64372	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
64373	conservation	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is not present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to establish protected areas to conserve the species. There is a need to educate people, especially tourists to the area, about this animal. Further research is needed into the species ecology and biology.	eng
64373	distribution	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico, where it is restricted to extreme southeastern Tamaulipas. It is thought to occur between 1,300 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
64373	habitat	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is present in primary dry scrub forest and oak savanna habitats. Animals are associated with rocky sites where they are found in rock crevices. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64373	population	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	It is a generally a common species within its limited range. It occurs at densities of around one or two animals per km2.	eng
64373	threats	Mendoza-Quijano, F., 2007	This species is threatened by continuing fragmentation of its primary habitat through the development of tourism in the area, and through the conversion of land to agricultural use (crops and livestock). The species does not move between these fragments. It is also threatened by predation by feral cats.	eng
64374	conservation	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	The species occurs in the Tehuacan Valley Biosphere Reserve. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
64374	distribution	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	This species is known only from Chapulco, southeastern Puebla, Mexico. It is found at around 1,500 to 1,800 m asl.	eng
64374	habitat	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	Animals are found only in rock crevices in pristine semi-arid areas, with xerophytic vegetation, at the Tehuacan Valley. It is a viviparous species.	eng
64374	population	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	It is an uncommon species.	eng
64374	threats	Canseco-Márquez, L. & Flores-Villela, O., 2007	There currently appear to be no major threats to this species, and there are no threats predicted for the near future.	eng
64377	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area, the Cape Peninsula National Park.	eng
64377	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Western Cape Province. This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region from the slopes of Table Mountain, and from the Cape Agulhas, Grabouw, and Hermanus areas. It is known from the upper reaches of the rivers on the Cape Peninsula, the Hottentot's Holland Mountains, the Klein River Mountains, and in the lower reaches of the Steenbras, Palmiet, and Rooiels Rivers. Bott (1960) listed the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. brincki</span> as Table Mountain, South Africa, but this was later discovered to be an error arising from a misread museum label (Stewart, 1997). The actual type locality is Viljoen's Pass, 8 km NNE of Grabouw, Western Cape Province, South Africa.	eng
64377	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the generally unpolluted clear cool-temperate acid water streams flowing over boulder-strewn stream beds in the upper reaches of the mountain streams of the Cape Peninsula. This species is also found in the acid brown-water habitats of the middle reaches of short coastal rivers such as the Steenbras, Palmiet, and Rooiels Rivers in the Western Cape.	eng
64377	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from more than 10 localities in the past decade.	eng
64377	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range, pollution from agriculture.	eng
64378	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it occurs in a protected area, the Kruger National Park, South Africa.	eng
64378	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be about 200,000 km². The geographic range of this species includes Mpumalanga and North-West Provinces in South Africa, and Mozambique. It is also found in the Charre and Caia River basins in the lower Zambezi River basin in Zimbabwe.	eng
64378	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The habitat of this species is seasonal marshy wet ground in savannah country. During the day it lives in burrows (which it digs), while at night it leaves its burrows to feed in water or on land. This species moves into open water when it is available during the rainy season.	eng
64378	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an extent of occurrence that is estimated to be about 200,000 km².	eng
64378	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The wetland habitat required by this species is seasonal, and long-term threats to this species could come from human encroachment onto wetlands as human populations rise.	eng
64379	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It has been recorded from a protected area, the Royal Natal National Park.	eng
64379	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal, Free State Provinces. This small-bodied species is known only in the montane-escarpment region of the Drackensberg Mountains in the Free State Province of South Africa. This species occurs in the upper tributaries of the Tugela River which rises on the 3,050-meter high Mont-aux-Sources plateau near where the Free State Province border meets that of Lesotho. The upper course of the river lies within the Royal Natal National Park and flows through the Drackensberg range. This species is also found in the vicinity of Oliviershoek Pass and in the lake behind the Sterkfontein Dam near the summit of Van Reenan's Pass. The southernmost locality is the Cathedral Peak. The range of this species may extend further south into KwaZulu-Natal Province, and north into other parts of the Free State, and it may even be present in Mpumalanga Province. The total drainage basin of the Tugela River is more than 28,000 km², but this figure includes the middle and lower reaches of the river in western KwaZulu-Natal, and P. clarus is found in only the upper reaches of this river, an estimated 9,000-10,000 km² of this basin.	eng
64379	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in pristine cool temperature high-gradient fast-flowing mountain streams with moderate concentrations of dissolved solids. It is also found in the rocky headwaters of the Tugela River where it shelters under rocks and boulders. The carapace and limbs of this species are orange.	eng
64379	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from six localities in the past decade.	eng
64379	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.	eng
64380	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64380	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province. This small-bodied riverine species is endemic to the low-gradient mature river systems in the tropical east coast region of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It's distribution includes the Mgeni (Mngeni) River (approximately 232 km long with a catchment area of 4,432 km²) which is controlled by several dams (the Midmar, Albert Falls, Nagel, and Inanda). Potamonautes dentatus is found in the middle reaches of the Mgeni River near Pietermaritzburg from below the Nagle Dam to the Howick Falls and the Albert Falls Dam (an estimated area of about 2,000 km²). This species has also been collected from tributaries of the Tugela River including the Bushman's River near Estcourt, the Mooi River, and the Inyamvubu River (an estimated additional 2,000- 3,000 km²). It has not been recorded from the Msunduzi (Dusi) River, a tributary of the Mngeni River.<br/><br/>Gouws, Stewart and Coke (2000), and Gouws and Stewart (2001) provided details of its distribution and habitat.	eng
64380	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in medium to large rivers where it shelters under rocks in the parts of the rivers where the water velocity is fast enough to prevent silting up of the rocky substrate. Stewart, Coke, and Cook (1995), and Gouws and Stewart (2001) provided details of its distribution and habitat.	eng
64380	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species but it has been collected from eight localities in the past decade and the indications are that it is relatively abundant.	eng
64380	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64381	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No special conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. It is found in a protected area, the Highland Nature Reserve.	eng
64381	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province: This medium-sized species is known only in the montane-escarpment region of the Drackensberg Mountains. It is found in the faster flowing tributaries of the Drakensbergs and the higher altitude areas of the midlands in the Mzimvubu, Mzimkulu, Mkomasi, and Mgeni Rivers, as well as the Mooi River within the Tugela River system. The species is widespread in the Drakensbergs and their foothills south of Giants Castle, with the southernmost locality in the headwaters of the Mzimkulu River (possibly extending into the Eastern Cape Province), and the northernmost locality in the Highland Nature Reserve. It is likely that this species is also found in Lesotho.	eng
64381	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in pristine cool temperature high-gradient fast-flowing mountain streams of the Drackensbergs and the higher altitude areas of the Midlands that have moderate concentrations of dissolved solids. The carapace is brown to green-brown colour in life.	eng
64381	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species which has been collected in the past decade.	eng
64381	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64382	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
64382	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Namibia and Angola:  Kunene River. This species is endemic to the Cunene (Kunene) River and its tributaries in southwestern Angola and northern Namibia, where this river forms the border between these two countries. The Cunene River is more than 1,000 km long and has a catchment area of approximately 112,492 km². The course of the river includes a series of rapids, plus the Ruacana Falls and the Epupa (or Montenegro) Falls, after which its volume is reduced as it passes through the Namib Desert before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Because P. dubius is known only from a short stretch of this river its EOO is estimated to be less than 20,000 km², and its estimated area of occupancy is estimated to be about 2,000 km². More collections are necessary to establish the conservation status of this species.	eng
64382	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a river-living species.	eng
64382	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
64382	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.	eng
64383	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
64383	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Western Cape Province: This large-bodied riverine species is endemic to the Cape Fold Mountains.	eng
64383	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the boulder-strewn stream beds in the middle and lower reaches of the Oliphants River system from Citrusdal to Lutzville, Western Cape Province. The tips of the chelipeds are orange.	eng
64383	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, which has been collected in the past decade. Despite recent collections of material there is insufficient information on population size and trends, and on the number of mature individuals to assess the species under criteria A, C, and D.	eng
64383	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.	eng
64384	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64384	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Angola: This large-bodied riverine species is newly-discovered and is so far known only from a single locality in central Angola, and is therefore endemic to that country. The Kwanza (Cuanza) River is over 1,000 km in length and has a total catchment area of more than 150,000 km². However, because P. kensleyi is known from a single locality in the middle reaches of the river on the inland plateau (before the river breaks through the escarpment between the Malanje highlands and Bié Plateau to flow into the sea about 90 km south of Luanda), its estimated EOO is less than 100 km².	eng
64384	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The type locality is a rocky river bed with no ciliary vegetation.	eng
64384	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
64384	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range. Although specific threats are unknown, alteration of river systems by damming for reservoirs and hydroelectric projects is a potential threat.	eng
64385	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  However, it is found in three protected areas in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal: the Mapelane Nature Reserve, the Mkuze Game Reserve, and the Hluhluwe Game Reserve.	eng
64385	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Kwa-Zulu Natal Province. This medium-sized species is endemic to swamp forests in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. It is known from localities in the University of Zululand near Empangani, the Mdibi swamp forest near Richards Bay, and the Mapelane Nature Reserve. Additional localities include the Mkuze Game Reserve, False Bay Park, Ntambanana, Mtubatuba, and Hluhluwe Game Reserve, all in northeastern Kwa-Zulu Natal. An unconfirmed locality in the Amatikulu River would represent the southernmost limit of the species.	eng
64385	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs only in swamp forest dominated by <em>Barringtonia racemosa</em>, <em>Ficus trichopoda</em>, and <em>Syzigium cordatum</em>.<br/><br/>Individuals inhabit u-shaped burrows dug into spongy hydromorphic, peat soil. This species digs burrows sited among vegetation away from seepage channels, and is quite terrestrial in habit. It leaves its burrow when it rains, and is most active on overcast days, migrating to higher elevations when the water-table rises. In life, the carapace is an orange/red colour with a blue sheen.	eng
64385	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
64385	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to the wetland habitat of this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64386	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64386	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Angola: Sierra do Moco. This large-bodied riverine species is endemic to Angola.	eng
64386	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A river-living species.	eng
64386	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
64386	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64387	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64387	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Western Cape Province: This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region of the Western Cape Province of South Africa. This species occurs in the headwaters (mountain stream zone) of the Liesbeek River system of Table Mountain, Cape Town.	eng
64387	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from high mountain streams on the Cape Peninsula where it prefers unpolluted streams with leaf cover and small boulders. The high altitude upper reaches of the Liesbeek River have a steep gradient, a high-energy flow, and pure water quality. These headwaters are relatively undisturbed and in a good ecological state, but are potentially sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
64387	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species, but it has been collected from a number of localities in the past decade.	eng
64387	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases.	eng
64388	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64388	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Western Cape Province. This small-bodied species is found only in the Cape Fold Mountains region in the headwaters of the Berg and Olifants River systems.	eng
64388	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found only in the upper reaches of the Oliphants and Berg River systems.	eng
64388	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is little information available on the population size or abundance of this species but it has been collected from a number of localities in the past decade.	eng
64388	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64389	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64389	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa:Western, Eastern, and Northern Cape Provinces, and Namibia. In the Western Cape <em>P. perlatus</em> is found in the Olifants, Berg, Bree, and Gamtoos River systems. This species is found in the upper, middle and lower reaches of rivers from Clanwilliam in the Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape. There are unconfirmed records of this species occurring in Namibia (Balss 1922, Barnard 1935).	eng
64389	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in large rivers and is not found in small mountain streams.	eng
64389	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This large-bodied riverine species is widespread and abundant with an extent of occurrence of at least 100,000 km².	eng
64389	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64390	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
64390	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa, Swaziland, and Mozambique. In South Africa this species is found in Northern Cape, Mpumalanga, North-West, Gauteng, Free State, Eastern Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces. In KwaZulu-Natal, <em>P. sidneyi</em> is found throughout the low lying midlands region from the foothills of the Drakensbergs to the coast, and from Lake Sibayi in the north to Port Shepstone in the south.	eng
64390	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This large-bodied species is found in major rivers, small pristine mountain streams, and reservoirs behind dams, lakes, and swamps. <em>Potamonautes sidneyi</em> commonly shelters in burrows dug into the side of muddy river banks or under large boulders in rivers with boulder-strewn or sediment bottoms, leaving its shelter to feed, usually at night. This species is tolerant of moderate to high levels of organic pollution. In KwaZulu-Natal this species is typically found in the slower-flowing middle and lower reaches of rivers, and has not been recorded from the upper reaches and faster flowing tributaries of the Mzimkulu, Mzimvubu, and Mkomasi Rivers. However, there are reports of <em>P. sidneyi</em> from the faster-flowing streams and upper tributaries of the Tugela River and Mgeni River draining the Drackensbergs and its foothills where this species has been collected sympatrically with <em>P. clarus</em> and <em>P. depressus</em>. The presence of <em>P. sidneyi</em> in the upper drainages may have been assisted by impoundments such as the Woodstock, Kilburn, Driel, and Spionkop Dams in the Tugela River system and the Albert Falls Dam and Midmar Dam in the Mgeni River system (Gouws and Stewart. 2001).	eng
64390	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in aquatic habitats of a number of major river systems and has an estimated extent of occurrence of at least 180,000 km².	eng
64390	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64391	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it has not been found in a protected area.	eng
64391	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa and Zimbabwe. This species is found in the highveld (temperate) region from the interior plateau of Zimbabwe to the South African Provinces of Mpumalanga, Limpopo, Gauteng, North West, and Free State. This species has not been recorded from KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and Northern Cape Provinces.	eng
64391	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is common in the middle and lower reaches of the Limpopo River system where it shelters under boulders and submerged vegetation. This species is tolerant of high levels of organic pollution (Stewart and Cook 1997). In Zimbabwe this species is found in streamless grassy depressions in low-lying, gently sloping treeless areas that are seasonally waterlogged by seepage from the surrounding high ground and by rainfall. During the dry season surface water is lacking and crabs have been observed to migrate overland to perennial streams (Gratwicke 2004)	eng
64391	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 200,000 km².	eng
64391	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64392	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.   Not found in a protected area.	eng
64392	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South Africa: Free State, Potchefstroom. Also southern Namibia and southern Botswana.	eng
64392	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found under boulders in the middle and lower reaches of rivers.	eng
64392	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A widespread and fairly common species.	eng
64392	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) and pollution (mines) due to human  population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
64396	conservation	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & To, A.W.L., 2008	Not known to occur in any enforced marine protected areas. There are no specific conservative measures for <em>E. bruneus</em>.<br/><br/>A more up-to-date stock assessment is crucial in determining abundance and population trends. More information on its stock, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended.	eng
64396	distribution	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & To, A.W.L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bruneus</em> is narrowly distributed from the coasts of the Republic of Korea, Japan (north to Hegura-jima Island, 37°50’N), China (north to Shanghai, south to Hong Kong and Hainan Island), and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
64396	habitat	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & To, A.W.L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. bruneus</em> inhabits rocky reefs and mud bottoms (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Adults can be found in depths of 20 to 200 m, while juveniles occur in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The maximum size of<em>E. bruneus</em> recorded is 136 cm TL (38 kg) (Jason Schratwieser, IGFA World Records, pers. comm. 12 Jan 2007).  <br/><br/><strong>Spawning</strong><br/>According to fishermen, does not take baits readily during summer and the gonads of <em>E. bruneus</em> are empty, indicating a “spent” (post-reproductive) condition (Chan 1968).<br/><br/>No information is available on sexual pattern, fecundity or recruitment.	eng
64396	population	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & To, A.W.L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Little information is currently available for this species across most of its range, although it has been previously abundant in regional fisheries. The species is occasionally seen in local Hong Kong markets (Sadovy Y, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Abundance</strong><br/><em>E. bruneus</em> was one of the most abundant species in Hong Kong waters in 1968 (Chan 1968). <em>E. bruneus</em> was available in markets throughout the year, with highest abundance from October to May (Chan 1968). Wilson (2003) frequently observed <em>E. bruneus</em> on Hong Kong artificial reefs. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) later described <em>E. bruneus</em> as one of the rarest grouper in Hong Kong, especially for fish larger than 50 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/><em>Hong Kong</em><br/>Wilson (2003) stated that <em>E. bruneus</em> could be found on artificial reefs frequently. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) occasionally recorded <em>E. bruneus</em> during underwater observations (one 30 cm TL fish in a shallow coral area at about 3 m and a larger individual around large boulders at depth of 15 m).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data</strong><br/>No fishery-dependent data is available. No data are available on the sex composition or length-age relationship.	eng
64396	threats	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & To, A.W.L., 2008	The major threat to <em>E. bruneus</em> is fishing. The species is vulnerable to a wide range of gear types, including long-liners, trawlers and hand-liners (Chan 1968). Fishing on both juveniles and adults contributes to this threat.	eng
64397	conservation	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.	eng
64397	distribution	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em> is known only from Tonga.	eng
64397	habitat	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em> is a demersal species, but nothing is known of its habitat and biology. The absence of additional specimens is puzzling. The only specimen currently in collection was obtained from locals from Tongatapu by J. Quoy and P. Gaimard during the expedition of J. Dumont d'Urville, 1826-1829.	eng
64397	population	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	Nothing is currently known of the population of <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.	eng
64397	threats	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	Owing to the lack of life history, population and fisheries data, no major threats can be established for <em>Epinephelus chlorocephalus</em>.	eng
64398	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is only known from Clipperton Island, a remote location not thought to be subject to demersal fishing, Alijos Rocks (northern Baja California), and Revillagigedos Island, which is a marine protected area. There are no specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
64398	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is restricted to Clipperton atoll, Alijos Rocks (northern Baja California) and Revillagigedos Islands.	eng
64398	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> is found in shallow reefs and rocky bottoms. Because of the isolation of Clipperton, nothing is know about its biology, but it is assumed that it is very similar to its sister species and very closely relative, <em>Epinephelus labriformes</em>.	eng
64398	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	This is a common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> at Clipperton Atoll (Allen and Robertson 1999). It is very closely related to <em>Epinephelus labriformes</em> and was often reported as <em>E. labriformes</em> or <em>Epinephelus</em> sp. prior to its description in 1999 (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
64398	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	There are no major threats to <em>Epinephelus clippertonensis</em> because it occurs in an uninhabited area. Its restricted range makes it vulnerable to threatening processes that may develop.	eng
64399	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em>.	eng
64399	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>darwinensis</em> is known from the western central Pacific from a single specimen caught off the north coast of Northern Territory (Australia) and landed at Darwin (hook and line) (Randall and Heemstra 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Capture location: S 10°11'; E 129°48'; Timor Sea.	eng
64399	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> is a demersal species, but is known only from a single specimen caught by hook and line at a depth of 107 m over a muddy, sandy bottom. The species does not appear to be reef associated.	eng
64399	population	Ferreira, B.P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> is known only from a single specimen caught off the north coast of Northern Territory, Australia and landed at Darwin.<br/><br/>No survey work has been done and additional surveys are needed. Some underwater visual surveys have been done that have yet to be evaluated. The species may avoid detection because of its depth.	eng
64399	threats	Ferreira, B.P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> darwinensis</em> was captured in an oil prospect region and in an area subject to international territorial  disputes.	eng
64400	conservation	Ferreira, B.P. & Peres, M.B., 2008	<em>USA</em><br/>Informational Public Hearing Document On Marine Protected Areas To Be Included In Amendment 14 To The  Fishery Management Plan For The Snapper Grouper Fishery Of The South Atlantic Region January 2004 South Atlantic Fishery Management Council [In consideration of the eight species in the deepwater snapper grouper complex: Speckled Hind (<em>E. drummondhayi</em>), Snowy Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> niveatus</em>), Warsaw Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. nigritus</em>), Yellowedge Grouper, Misty Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em>), Tilefish, Blueline Tilefish (<em>Caulolatilis microps</em>) and Sand Tilefish (<em>Hoplolatilus chlupatyi</em>)]. Regulations that apply to the entire snapper grouper FMU but affect deepwater species include a prohibition of trawls, traps and bottom longlines inside of 50 fathoms and North of St. Lucie Inlet, Florida and the commercial limited entry program in which two permits must be retired for one new vessel to enter the fishery.<br/><br/>Under Amendment 6/Environmental Assessment (SAFMC 1993), which was developed to rebuild the Snowy Grouper, Golden Tilefish, Speckled Hind, Warsaw Grouper, Misty Grouper, and Yellowedge Grouper resources: all deepwater species are included under an aggregate recreational bag limit in which recreational fishermen are limited to five groupers per person per day. Current regulations for deepwater snapper grouper species (SAFMC 2003) applied for Yellowedge Grouper included in five grouper aggregate bag limit limited access.	eng
64400	distribution	Ferreira, B.P. & Peres, M.B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>flavolimbatus</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA) to French Guiana, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. It ranges from central Brazil (12°S) south to the border of Uruguay (Rio Grande do Sul (32°32'S)). The species may occur in areas between French Guiana and central Brazil.<br/><br/>Higher concentrations are known from around Florianópolis (26°37'S to 27°42'S), Santa Catarina, Brazil (Haimovici pers. comm. 2007, REVIZEE-SCORE-SUL 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Brazil (Alagoas, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, São Paulo, Sergipe), Cayman Islands, Colômbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicarágua, Panamá, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Geórgia, Lousiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.	eng
64400	habitat	Ferreira, B.P. & Peres, M.B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is a demersal, solitary species occurring in rocky areas and on sand mud bottom. On soft bottoms they are often seen in or near trenches or burrow-like excavations. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly brachyuran crabs) and fishes (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is typically marketed fresh and considered good quality.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> inhabits moderately deep waters, and is typically distributed from 90 to 365 m (Smith 1971). Unlike most groupers, which are associated with reefs and structure, yellowedge grouper can be found in a variety of habitats. Off Texas, they are often found over areas of flat bottom, near "lumps" associated with tilefish, <em>Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps</em>, and over rock ridge habitats (Roe 1976, Jones <em>et al.</em> 1989). In the Western Gulf of Mexico, Yellowedge Grouper have been observed inside burrows cut into soft sediment at depths of ~275 m. They have also been collected at the shelf edge on mud, sand or sand-shell bottom (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1989, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Juvenile Yellowedge Grouper are found inshore of the adult population, as shallow as 30 m (Smith 1971, NMFS SEAMAP surveys). In Southern and South Brazil this species is caught over areas of flat bottom, near "lumps" the so called "dirty floor".<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum reported size is 114 cm (45.3 in) TL (male), with a maximum weight of 18.6 kg (41 lbs) (Heemstra and Randall 1993); maximum length is 125 cm TL from Brazil (Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>This fish is reported to be protogynous (Bullock <em>et al.</em> 1996). A study conducted by Bullock <em>et al.</em> (1996) in the Gulf of Mexico reported that 50% of fishes are mature at 22.4 in, and that 50% of females transform into males by the time they reach 81 cm TL. Spawning occurs from April through October in the South Atlantic (Keener 1984, Manooch 1984, Parker and Mays 1998). Ripe females were found in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from May through September (Bullock <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 6</strong>: Monthly mean gonadosomatic index values and sample sizes for mature females (A) and monthly mean diameter of the largest oocytes (B) of yellowedge grouper examined (1977-1980) from the eastern Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>A wide variety of invertebrates (mainly brachyuran crabs) and fishes comprise the diet of this species (Bullock and Smith 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip (2000) report yellowedge grouper as old as 35 years off Trinidad and Tobago. However, a recent investigation in the Gulf of Mexico using carbon-14 validation indicates that yellowedge grouper may live as long as 85 years (Banhick and Fitzhigh unpublished data, cited in Cass-Calay and Bahnick 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Early life history</strong><br/>The eggs and larvae of yellowedge grouper are pelagic and cannot be distinguished from larval snowy grouper,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> niveatus</em> (Cass-Calay and Bahnick 2002). The early life history is relatively unknown (Richards 1999).	eng
64400	population	Ferreira, B.P. & Peres, M.B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> has declined in abundance in many parts of its range, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and Brazil. Its habitat has been fished by roller-rigged trawls, resulting in habitat destruction. Although abundance trends are lacking in many areas for this species and its catch is often pooled with other groupers, population trends for other more abundant species targeted by the same fisheries have shown drastic declines. Other species that co-occur in trawled, longlined, handlined and gillnet catches are considered overexploited (to the point of being critically endangered). Therefore, it can be inferred that <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> populations have also decreased. As this species is associated with specific habitats, the population might be fragmented and subjected to extreme local declines, considering the long generation time of the species.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>During 1997 to 1998, several fishery independent (research) surveys were conducted along the southern Brazilian upper shelf and slope. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> was captured with horizontal and vertical longlines, and occurred from São Paulo (25°40´S) to Rio Grande do Sul (32°32 S), in moderately deep waters (100 to 199 m) with higher concentrations at Santa Catarina, around Florianópolis (26°37' to 27°42' S), Santa Catarina, from 120 to 135 m deep (Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004, REVIZEE-SCORE-SUL 1999, Haimovici pers. comm. 2007). It was commonly associated with flat mud bottoms ("plateau") near deep trenches. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> may be classified as a rare species (0.5 kg per 1,000 hooks per hour, and 0.7 to 1.4% of total catch, as kg) with a patchy distribution, and occurring at specific, rare habitats.<br/><br/><em>USA</em><br/>Results from longline surveys off the coast of Louisiana conducted in 1984 and 1985 (Louisiana State University) to explore the economic potential of commercial longline fishing averaged 0.189 lbs/hook for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> in 1984 and 0.137 lbs./hook in 1985 (Cass-Calay and Banhick 2002). These estimates were obtained from fishing locations with positive catches and, therefore, do not represent absolute abundances. However, the catch results do reflect records of catch from a nearly unexploited stock in Louisiana in the mid-1980s (Bankston and Horst 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em> <br/>Commercial fishery data: <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is vulnerable to several types of bottom fishing gear, especially longlines and gillnets that target Snowy Grouper (<span style="font-style: italic;">H.</span><em> niveatus</em>) and tilefish (<em>Lopholatilus villarii</em>) (Olinto, A. pers comm. 2007). No directed fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is known from Brazil. <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is identified occasionally in bottom trawl commercial landings targeting angel sharks in depths from 80 to 150 m, over soft mud bottoms near rocky areas (M. Peres pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species is registered in commercial landings for São Paulo, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. State statistics generally group <em>Epinephelus</em><em> flavolimbatus</em> (now recognised and referred to hereafter as <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em>) with other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, under the name "cherne" (grouper). For Rio Grande do Sul (IBAMA-CEPERG), "cherne" mainly includes <em>Polyprion americanus</em>, <em>E. niveatus</em> (now recognised and referred to hereafter as <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> </em><em>niveatus</em><em></em>) and other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. flavolimbatus</em>. For Santa Catarina (GEP-UNIVALI), fishery statistics display commercial landings for&#160;<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> </em><em> </em><em>flavolimbatus</em> under "chene-galha-amarela", probably because the species is regionally important, but it may also be registered under the "cherne" category, together with <em>P. americanus</em> and&#160;<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">H.</span><em> </em><em>niveatus</em><em></em>. São Paulo state (Instituto de Pesca) also groups <em></em><em>H. flavolimbatus</em> with other <em>Epinephelus</em> species, under the name "cherne" (grouper).<br/><br/>Bottom longline and gillnet have dramatically increased in the last 10 years, with the development of the wreckfish <em>P. americanus</em> fishery off southern Brazil and the snowy grouper and tilefish fishery mainly off southeastern Brazil. All grouper annual landings severely decreased after the period 1996 to 2002 (Figures 1, 2 and 3). As a by-catch of such fisheries, <em>H. flavolimbatus</em> populations have presumably been impacted by the heavy fishing effort off south and southeastern Brazil. It is inferred that <em>H. flavolimbatus</em> population trends mirror those of <em>P. americanus</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. niveatus</em> and <em>Lopholatilus villarii</em>, which have drastically declined from heavy fishing pressure and are considered overexploited to critically endangered (Cornish and Peres 2003, Haimovici <em>et al.</em> 2004, BRASIL 2004, Avila-da-Silva and Haimovici 2005).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><br/><strong>Figure 1</strong>: Grouper landings at Sao Paulo, Brazil (in kg) (1998-2005)<br/><br/><strong>Figure 2</strong>: Grouper landings at Santa Catarina, Brazil (in kg) (2000-2006)<br/><br/><strong>Figure 3</strong>: Grouper landings at Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (in kg) (1991-2005)<br/><br/>With the decrease in target species catch and abundance, some longliners have directed their catches to other grouper species, and may opportunistically hit some spawning and feeding aggregations. These may be reflected in the high seasonal landings from July to October (Peres pers. obs.). <br/><br/><em>Gulf of Mexico</em><br/>Cass-Calay and Banhick (2002) reported that in the Western Gulf of Mexico (WGOM), nominal CPUE was highest in 1992 at 0.160 lbs./hook and have averaged 0.087 lbs./hook since 1995. In the eastern Gulf (EGOM), nominal CPUE was less than 0.065 lbs./hook since 1990. They concluded that these results suggest a decline in longline CPUE for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> since the onset of commercial fishing for the species in the region. <br/><br/><em>South Atlantic</em><br/>Cass-Calay and Banhnick (2002) reported CPUE as variable; since 1992 CPUE is declining in the Western Gulf of Mexico longline and Eastern Gulf of Mexico handline fisheries, while EGOM longline and WGOM handline CPUEs remained fairly constant.<br/><br/><em>Caribbean</em><br/>Landings increased in the 1980s due to the development of longline fisheries for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> (over 70 m depth) and Red Grouper, <em>Epinephelus morio</em>, in the Caribbean. Bannerot <em>et al.</em> (1987) discussed the sustainability of these fisheries and mentioned that fisheries for yellowedge groupers ceased in the Gulf of Mexico because of sharp catch declines (Nelson, W., pers. comm., cited in Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>Snappers and groupers have been traditionally exploited on the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago by artisanal fishers (Mendoza and Larez 2004). The eastern Venezuelan snapper?grouper fishery is composed of medium range and long range handliners and longliners. The main species exploited by the medium range fishery are southern red snapper, <em>Lutjanus purpureus</em>, and Yellowedge Grouper, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> (Mendoza and Larez 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> catch and effort increased more or less linearly between the years 1981 and 1991 when catches peaked at around 2400 t. Since then catch and effort have been declining and historic lows were registered in the last years of the series (Mendoza and Larez 2004).<br/><br/><em>Southeastern USA</em><br/>Williams and Dixon (2003) reported landings from the Southeastern US headboat fishery for several deepwater species. Yellowedge Grouper landings declined five-fold during the past 20 years in both weight and abundance and 10-fold over 30 years relative to landings prior to 1981. CPUE by gear also dropped three-fold over the periods reported.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for the following figures from preliminary analysis of headboat (recreational) surveys of some deepwater species (Williams, E.H. and Dixon, B., 31 October 2003, SEDAR4-DW-16):<br/><br/><strong>Figure 4</strong>: Number and weight (mt) of landed deepwater species from the South Atlantic headboat fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Figure 5</strong>: Catch per unit effort for Yellowedge Grouper using trips which caught at least one member of the deepwater complex.<br/><br/><strong>Status</strong><br/>Ault <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated that Yellowedge Grouper was overexploited in the Florida Keys. Musick <em>et al.</em> (2000) considered the status of US Atlantic populations of Yellowedge Grouper in the Gulf of Mexico uncertain. However, NMFS (2002) considers that this resource is not overfished in the area. According to NOAA Fisheries 2002 report to Congress on the status of US fisheries (NMFS 2003), Yellowedge Grouper is not considered to be overfished, based on the pre-SFA definition of that term. Under that definition, the stock is overfished when the SPR (spawner per recruit) falls below 30%. This stock is not considered to be experiencing overfishing, based on a post-SFA definition of the MFMT. Overfshing is defined as a fishing mortality rate in excess of that corresponding to a 30% Static SPR (NMFS 2003). The council is currently reviewing these status determinations criteria in Amendment 13B to the Snapper-Grouper fishery management plan (FMP).<br/><br/>Mendoza and Larez (2004) concluded that in Venezuela, a significant amount of catch and income had been forgone due to overfishing, based on maximum sustainable yield (MSY) estimates. They considered that a biomass recovery plan must be instituted to establish adequate stock levels and recover the economic potential of the fishery. Cass-Calay and Banhick (2002) estimated FMSY between 0.050 and 0.076 and concluded that appropriate fishing mortality for Yellowedge Grouper is quite low. MSY estimates ranged from 230 and 630 mt, indicating that commercial yield is already at is maximum (Cass-Calay and Banhick 2002).	eng
64400	threats	Ferreira, B.P. & Peres, M.B., 2008	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> flavolimbatus</em> is heavy fishing effort, especially of the bottom longline and gillnet fisheries. Yellowedge Grouper are a long-lived, hermaphroditic species and relatively slow to mature, which increases their vulnerability to overfishing.	eng
64401	conservation	MacIlwain, J., Ferreira, B.P., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Rocha, L. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	There has been a recent regulatory change to impose effort control by limiting number of fishing vessels in Oman. There are no protected areas within the range of this species and no regulations specific for <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em>. Because the species occurs in rocky reefs, some protection may be afforded to them from trawl fisheries.	eng
64401	distribution	MacIlwain, J., Ferreira, B.P., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Rocha, L. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	The distributional range for <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> extends from the coast of Oman (Muscat) to the eastern border of Yemen, as well as Socotra (Yemen) and Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). In 2001, one individual was collected at a landing site in northern Oman, approximately 100 km south of the Straits of Hormuz (the opening of the Persian Gulf). However the same landing site was sampled for 12 months (March 2004 to March 2005), with no record of <em>E. gabriellae</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
64401	habitat	MacIlwain, J., Ferreira, B.P., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Rocha, L. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is a demersal species found over rocky bottoms.<br/><br/>Juveniles and sub-adults are the second most common species of grouper on inshore rocky areas along the southern coast of Oman (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Apparently juveniles/sub-adults prefer areas of high coral, then migrate into deeper water further offshore when they mature (McIlwain, J. pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Max size: 70.3 cm<br/>Max weight: 5.3 kgs<br/>Longevity: 26 yrs (oldest specimen examined using otolith sections)	eng
64401	population	MacIlwain, J., Ferreira, B.P., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Rocha, L. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is one of the most common species of grouper along the southern coast of Oman and is a major component of the grouper fishery. It is comparatively less common in shallow waters.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> forms a major component of the Omani grouper fishery and is caught by both traditional fishers using small (20 to 32 ft) fiberglass boats and by industrial trawlers operating in the Arabian Sea. Data were collected weekly from the major landing site at Muscat from March 2004 to March 2005. <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> made up approximately 11% of all grouper species measured during sampling (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science & Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data). <br/><br/>Unfortunately, the official Omani Ministry of Fisheries statistics do not differentiate between species of grouper that occur in landings. However, data suggest that the total grouper landings from Oman has actually shown a small increase over a 12 year period (on average 3,800 t/yr for 1991-2002). In contrast, many fishers suggested that catch-per-unit-effort and grouper landings had decreased by approximately 75% over the same time period. This coincides with a dramatic increase in the numbers of fishers over the past 20 years, coupled with heavy subsidies provided by the government that go towards providing new vessels, outboard engines, etc. This apparent increase has probably come from the industrial sector which is largely unregulated and is comprised of 12 to 20 foreign-owned and foreign-manned vessels (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science and Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>According to McIlwain, who conducted visual census at 46 sites along the entire Omani coast, <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> was rarely encountered. The census of grouper was conducted using  strip transects (three transects per site), during which time <em>E. gabriellae</em> were counted at only four of the 46 sites, and usually found in very low densities. Three of these sites were situated at a group of small islands (the Halaniyats) 60 km offshore of southern Oman and east of the Oman/Yemen border. Here, counts averaged 2.2 individuals/90 sq. m, with a size range of 20 to 40 cm TL. One individual was recorded on a transect at Masirah Island in central Oman (the northern most distribution on the species map). Apparently juveniles/sub-adults prefer areas of high coral, then migrate into deeper water further offshore as they mature. This ontogenetic shift has been suggested from fisher interviews who stated that they catch small <em>E. gabriellae</em> (<40 cm TL) on the shallow reefs around Salalah (southern Oman) during the monsoon season when it is too rough to fish further offshore (Jenny MacIlwain, Fishery Biologist, formerly of the Dept. of Marine Science and Fisheries, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, unpub. data).	eng
64401	threats	MacIlwain, J., Ferreira, B.P., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Rocha, L. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus gabriellae</em> is increasing commercial and artisanal fishing pressure that coincides with a dramatic increase in the numbers of fishermen in the past 20 yrs. These fisher increases are coupled with heavy subsidies, apparently from the unregulated traditional sector, that provides funding for new vessels, outboard engines, etc. Recent new regulations have come into being to limit the number of fishing vessels in Oman. Whether this recent regulatory change is sufficient to reduce the observed (by fishers) declines in catch abundance and catch-per-unit-effort is not currently known (McIlwain, J., pers. comm.).	eng
64402	conservation	Samoilys, M. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no protected areas in the range of <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>. Data on its population, range and fisheries is definitely needed.	eng
64402	distribution	Samoilys, M. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em> has a limited range and its occurrence is confirmed only in the Indian Ocean: Puntland coast of Somalia, and Oman (unspecified locality in Oman). There are reports from fishermen of the species occurring in the Gulf of Aden coast of Somalia (A. Hersi, pers. comm. 2007). The extent of its range into the Arabian Sea and south into the Indian Ocean requires confirmation.	eng
64402	habitat	Samoilys, M. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em> occurs on rocky reef and sandy bottom at depths of 70 to 200 m. No other information is available.	eng
64402	population	Samoilys, M. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no data on the population size and abundance of <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>, but the limited information available suggests it is uncommon. It is not known whether it is in decline.	eng
64402	threats	Samoilys, M. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no population data or fisheries information for <em>Epinephelus indistinctus</em>, making a detailed threats assessment difficult. The Puntland coast of Somalia is fished by both local fishers and by foreign vessels, especially from Yemen. The former is unmanaged and the latter is unregulated and unreported. Civil war has continued in Somalia since 1991 to the present, therefore, no fisheries management is taking place. Other threats, such as those from coastal development and pollution are highly unlikely at present.<br/><br/>The species is known by Puntland fishers, but is not targeted specifically and is said to occur at around 200 m depth in the Gulf of Aden where it is caught incidentally by handline (Abdilwahid Hersi, pers. comm., Jan 2007).	eng
64403	conservation	Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
64403	distribution	Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is a very poorly understood species and is known only from the holotype, probably collected somewhere in the Indo-Pacific.	eng
64403	habitat	Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is described from a single known specimen, the holotype, collected during the circumglobal voyage of the “L’Astrolabe” and “La Zélée” which were attempting to find the South Pole. Hombron and Jacquinot (1853) reported that the provenance of this species was unknown, but since most fish species collected were from the Indo-Pacific region it is assumed that this species was also collected there (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>No habitat information is given with the holotype.	eng
64403	population	Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus lebretonianus</em> is known from only one specimen.	eng
64403	threats	Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known threats to the species.	eng
64404	conservation	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em>.	eng
64404	distribution	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>perplexus</em> is known only from the holotype taken from Cape Moreton, southern Queensland, Australia.	eng
64404	habitat	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em> is known only from the holotype collected by the FIV 'Endeavour'. Collected between 129 to 137 m. The absence of additional specimens may indicate that this species normally inhabits deeper waters. The size of the holotype specimen is 465 mm SL/565 mm TL.	eng
64404	population	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>perplexus</em> has an unknown population abundance.	eng
64404	threats	Rhodes, K., Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em></em><em>perplexus</em> is apparently a rare, deepwater species. No current known threats. It is not part of any known fishery. Possible limited distribution.	eng
64405	conservation	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em>.	eng
64405	distribution	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is known only from a single specimen taken from the Minami-Koto Seamount which lies on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge.	eng
64405	habitat	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is a bathydemersal species, but is only known specimen was collected in a trawl at 360 to 570 m from Minami-Koto Seamount, Kyushu-Palau Ridge.	eng
64405	population	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em> is known only from the holotype.	eng
64405	threats	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	There are no known threats for <em>Epinephelus suborbitalis</em>.	eng
64406	conservation	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	Nothing specific for <em>Epinephelus timorensis</em>.	eng
64406	distribution	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is broadly distributed across the eastern Indian Ocean (off western Australia) and parts of the eastern central Pacific, but has a disjunct occurrence (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Areas of occurrence include American Samoa (Tuitila) and the Phoenix Islands (Canton Island), Kiribati, Fiji, limited areas of Western Australia, and Samoa.	eng
64406	habitat	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is a demersal species found at depths of 73 to 210 m (Randall and Hemstra 1991). Nothing has been published on the biology of this rare species.  The apparent rarity of this species is probably a result of its deep-water habitat and the fact that it was only recently described as a new species (Heemstra & Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong><br/>Maximum size: 26.5 cm SL (Heemstra & Randall 1993).	eng
64406	population	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> is a wide-ranging species, but very sparsely distributed; its apparent rarity is a result of its deep water habitat (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Nothing has been published on its population(s).	eng
64406	threats	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	No published information is available for <em>Epinephelus timorensis</em> across much of its range. Annual reported catch in American Samoa peaked in the late 1980s at about 200 kg, but dropped to 13 kg by 1996 (PROCFISH database).	eng
64407	conservation	Rhodes, K., Kulbicki, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	There are some indirect conservation measures in place for <em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> within its distributional range, such as the protection provided through the UNESCO world heritage site at Henderson Island. No other protective measures are known within the species range.	eng
64407	distribution	Rhodes, K., Kulbicki, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is known only from the French Polynesia (Tuamoto Islands, Society Islands, Gambier Island, Rapa), the Pitcairn Group (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Randall 1999), and Raratonga in the Cook Islands (Mead 1983).	eng
64407	habitat	Rhodes, K., Kulbicki, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits the outer slope of coral reefs. Fourmanoir (1971) found ophichthid eels, <em>Leiuranus phoenixensis</em>, in the stomachs of his type specimens. May be of some importance to artisanal fisheries, but it is rarely caught because of its preference for deep water. Depths of capture (and presumably habitat) range from 120 to 250 m.	eng
64407	population	Rhodes, K., Kulbicki, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	There is no published information on the population status or life history of <em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em>.	eng
64407	threats	Rhodes, K., Kulbicki, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tuamotuensis</em> is apparently narrowly distributed within the Pacific and is found within a relatively confined depth strata. The species can be caught by deepwater handlining (>200 m), as demonstrated during a 1983 longlining experiment conducted in the Cook Islands by the South Pacific Commission (Mead 1983). However, these practices are unlikely to be conducted on a large-scale as long as other less costly and less labor-intensive methods remain viable for procuring fish. Some individuals may be captured by artisanal fishing, however, there are no known systematic fisheries records for this species to establish fisheries or population trends.	eng
64408	conservation	Pollard, D., Rhodes, K. & Russell, B., 2008	While there are no specific conservation measures for the species, <em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> does occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the northern extent of its range.	eng
64408	distribution	Pollard, D., Rhodes, K. & Russell, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> occurs within the southern portion of the western Pacific from southern Queensland (One Tree Islands, Great Barrier Reef at 23°30'S) to Bateman's Bay (35°44'S) on the east coast of Australia (New South Wales). Catch distribution ranges from 22°07'09"S 151°47'01"E to 35°44'00"S, 150°15'00"E, but is recorded from Lord Howe Island and Lord Howe Rise. One specimen, assumed to be a vagrant, was reported from Kangaroo Islands, South Australia. The National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian) collection includes one specimen (dried head) that was reported from New Caledonia (Cat. No. USNM 111371: 1943). This specimen is possibly an unreliable record (Randall and Heemstra 1991; Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
64408	habitat	Pollard, D., Rhodes, K. & Russell, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits coral reefs and rocky areas. The species possibly occurs deeper than the reported habitat maximum. It is an active swimmer that will leave the bottom to take a floating bait.	eng
64408	population	Pollard, D., Rhodes, K. & Russell, B., 2008	No population data are available for <em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em>. The species is presumed to be fairly common and is a favored species for anglers.	eng
64408	threats	Pollard, D., Rhodes, K. & Russell, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus undulatostriatus</em> occurs as by-catch within the trawl fishery. Is it likely to be moderately protected by its relatively deepwater habitat.	eng
64409	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	The range of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> includes a few protected areas. It is recommended that fishing of this species cease.	eng
64409	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> is known only from the eastern Atlantic. The species is known with certainty only from the Azores and Madeira (Portugal), Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands (Spain) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
64409	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> is a demersal species that occurs near the bottom in rocky areas at depths from 1 to 200 m. Juveniles may be found in tide pools. Two specimens collected from the Cape Verde by J. Cadenat were from a depth of 50 m.	eng
64409	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> has a limited range and was previously abundant, but due to fishing pressure is now locally rare. There has been local extirpation from the most intensively fished areas in the islands of the Canary Island Archipelago.<br/><br/><strong>Sub-populations Azores (Az), Madeira (Mad) and the Canary Islands</strong> <br/><em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> has an erratic distribution. Individuals are rarely observed greater than 40 cm TL, or approximately half of the known maximum size.<br/><br/>In the Canary Archipelago, among all groupers surveyed, <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em> had the greatest mean area biomass  (464.63 ± 1464.25 g/100 m², mean ± SD; n=768 transects), while the mean abundance was 0.32 ± 0.76 ind/100 m² (mean ± SD, n = 768). Significant differences in abundances and biomasses were observed among the islands surveyed (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Specific areas of occurrence</strong> <br/>Santa Maria (Azores) at Baixa do Norte (reproductive aggregation known and monitored annually); São Miguel (Azores) at Ilhéus dos Mosteiros (adults very rare); Terceira (Azores) at Ilhéu da Mina (adults very rare); Faial (Azores) at Baixa do Castelo Branco (formerly the largest known reproductive aggregation in the NE Atlantic, presently totally extirpated by overfishing); MAP of Garajau (Madeiras), very common including adults but presently not known if reproductive aggregations occur; North Coast of Porto Santo Island (Madeiras), very rare but adults are regularly seen at depths below 30 m. (Barreiros, J.P., pers. comm., UAC/IMAR).	eng
64409	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	Fishing targeted at spawning aggregations, which for other serranids of similar life history has resulted in population declines, altered sex ratio and aggregation extirpation.<br/><br/>Both <em>M. fusca</em> (along with <em>Epinephelus marginatus</em>) showed the strongest responses to variations in fishing intensity and human population among the Canary Islands, thus supporting the hypothesis that major human intervention has affected the abundance and biomass of both species across the Archipelago (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
64410	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> occurs in several marine protected areas throughout its range. In areas not protected, harvest management is needed.	eng
64410	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from Florida (USA) and Bermuda to southern Brazil, including the Brazilian off-shore islands, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba and throughout the Caribbean.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Trindade), Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.	eng
64410	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is reef-associated and found mainly on rocky or coral bottoms from the shoreline to at least 55 m depth (Smith 1978). Small and medium-sized individuals commonly occur in mangrove-lined lagoons. More common in island waters than along the coast.<br/><br/>The species is reported to have slow growth, long life spans, and presumed low natural mortality rates that likely increases their susceptibility to overfishing (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip 2000), as with many of its congeners with similar life histories.<br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/><em>M. interstitialis</em> feeds on fishes.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex-reversal has been reported for the species. The species is a pelagic spawner.<br/><br/><strong>Colouration</strong><br/>The tri-colored pattern of the juveniles mimics that of the juveniles of the clown wrasse, <em>Halichoeres maculipinna</em>. The aggressive mimics behavior includes folding down the median and caudal fins, which adds to its wrasse imitation and allows it to approach its otherwise wary prey.	eng
64410	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is a naturally uncommon species throughout its range. Signs of decline (at least 30%) in all of its range is inferred from fishery data.<br/><br/>The species has been classified as vulnerable in the US, since it has low productivity and is vulnerable to overfishing (http://www.sefscpanamalab.noaa.gov/docs/Yellowmouth_grouper.doc). Extirpation is possible for this uncommon species, since it is taken along with similar yet more abundant and more persistent species, such as scamp (<em>M. phenax</em>) (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000) and <em>M. bonaci</em> (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
64410	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is targeted by fisheries in some areas, but its rarity prevents it from becoming a major target species. In areas where fisheries are developed, rapid population declines have been noted. <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is apparently tolerant to habitat loss.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is caught with hook-and-line, traps and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and is of significant commercial value in Venezuela (Smith 1971; Gonzalez and Celaya 1986; cited in Manickchand-Heilmand and Phillip 2000). The yellowmouth grouper is also commercially exploited in Bermuda (Smith 1971) and the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock and Murphy 1994). In Honduras, large grouper species (e.g. <em>E. striatus</em>, <em>Mycteroperca</em> spp.) are caught in all areas but with different techniques, whereas in Utila, they are predominantly caught with handlines. Smaller individuals are caught elsewhere in larger proportions with spearguns, nets, and sometimes traps (<em>Gobert et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent data</strong> <br/><em>Bermuda</em><br/>In the 1980s, a rapid development of trap fishing on shallow water grouper populations in Bermuda led to a seven year decline in grouper catches from 40,000 to 10,000 pounds per year (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/><em>Trinidad/Tobago</em><br/>Historically, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> has been fished on the continental shelf and shelf edge northwest of Tobago and along the north and northeastern coasts of Trinidad by artisanal vessels from Trinidad and Tobago, as well as from Venezuela (Mendoza and Larez 2004). Declines in catch rates have been reported in these areas (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip 2000, Mendoza and Larez 2004).<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>In Brazil a sharp decline was observed in the grouper fishery in the Abrolhos bank (<em>Mycteroperca</em> spp). The present CPUE (1.4 kg per fisher<sup>-day</sup>) is considerably lower than in the late 1970s (12 kg per fisher-day) (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>In Brazil, <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> is recorded in the landings under the same category as other <em>Mycteroperca</em> species. Ferreira <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated that <em>Mycteroperca interstitialis</em> represented 3% of the total <em>Mycteroperca</em> catches in the northeast (<em>M. bonaci</em> is the main species with 88%), while Costa (unpub. data) estimates it represents 1.36% of the total <em>Mycteroperca</em> landings in the central coast of Brazil. During four research cruises of the Revizee Program between 1996 and 1998, 190,746 hooks were deployed in depths between 100 and 500 m in four areas distributed in the Abrolhos to Vitoria region (12° to 22° S). A catch-per-unit-effort of 0.2 to 2.1 kg per 1,000 hooks was estimated for this species that included 1.4 kg per 1000 hook in depths above 100 m and 0.3 kg per 1,000 hook in areas between 100 and 300 m.	eng
64411	conservation	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. areolatus</em> occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including some specifically designed to protect spawning aggregations (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 2005). Seasonal closures associated with spawning times are also in place in some areas (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002). Size-limits and catch quotas have also been imposed in various sites in Australia.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>The Marine Protection Act of 1994 prohibits sale or purchase of <em>P. areolatus</em> (and <em>E. polyphekadion</em> or <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>) from April 1 through July 31 each year, intended to protect spawning aggregations. In 1995 the Act was amended to prohibit any capture of these groupers even for subsistence purpose in the closed period (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). A four-month bul (taboo) was enforced in the state of Ngeremlengui, but not completely effective in preventing fishing on the spawning aggregation. <br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>A sales ban is enforced on all groupers, including the squaretail coralgrouper, during March and April, which coincides with a portion of its January-May spawning season (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><em>Queensland, Australia</em><br/>Size limit: minimum 38 cm TL and a total combined bag limited seven individuals (coralgrouper), applied across all sectors of the coral reef fin fish fishery that includes commercial and recreational fishers, and charter boat operators. The minimum size limits is designed to ensure that at least half of the fish in a population reach reproductive maturity and spawn before harvest.	eng
64411	distribution	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species, known from the Red Sea, with a population in the Maldives and Chagos Island, disjunct at the coast of Southeast Asia (Myanmar and Thailand), and then from the Philippines, north to Ryukyu Islands (Japan); south to Indonesia, east and west Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and most of Micronesia.<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations are known from the Solomon Islands; in Palau, it aggregates in Ebiil, Western Entrance and Ngerumekaol; Pohnpei, Micronesia (Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, Palikir Pass, Ant Channel), Chagos Archipelago; Mundoo Channel, Maldive; Kiribati; aggregates outside and around passages in Abaiang atoll , Fiji. Other Pacific countries where they have been reported include Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Samoa. Occasional individuals are sighted in Milne Bay Province (Papua New Guinea) (Allen 1998).	eng
64411	habitat	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. areolatus</em> inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in areas with rich coral growth. Most frequently encountered in channels along the reef front. Often a shy fish, but will take bait during reproductive periods. Feeds exclusively on fishes. May be ciguatoxic in some areas. Forms spawning aggregations in association with specific lunar phases, with variable seasonality and lunar cycle associated with spawning by locale. The species commonly co-aggregates with the camouflage grouper, <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion</em>, and brown-marbled grouper, <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> throughout its range. Aggregation-associated abundances can number in the 1,000s of individuals (Conservation Society of Pohnpei unpublished data), although in many area, spawning aggregations may be naturally small, composed of 10s to 100s of individuals (Hamilton pers. Comm.). A total of 5781 individuals were recorded at the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary spawning site during monitoring in three days during peak aggregation periods in 2001  (Pet <em>et al.</em> pers. Comm.). Natural variations in mean size may occur between locales, but this phenomenon has not yet been confirmed and may be attributed to fisheries-induced changes in population structure. <br/><br/>Initial data suggests that some aggregations that appear within the presumed reproductive season, including some of substantial size, may not be reproductive and composed entirely, or nearly so, of a single sex, as demonstrated by fisheries data collected in January 2005 over a 5-day period leading up to the 'normal' full moon spawning time associated with the species in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data). Although there was no fisheries-independent data to support all-male aggregations, fishing over similar periods in subsequent aggregation months (February-May) resulted in a minimum of 1:4 female-to-male sex ratio to suggest that several females would have been captured in January of present. If confirmed, fishing on large, same-sex aggregations could impact sex ratios during subsequent reproductive periods in a manner similar to that shown for other aggregating serranids (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Kiribati</em><br/>In Abaiang Atoll of the Gilberts Group, Kiribati, local knowledge indicates a September to February spawning season, with spawning peak in early December. Occasional individuals sighted at 2 to 30 m, in coral reefs of Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Allen 1998).<br/><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>Mature females ranged between 347 and 510 mm FL, mature males between 390 and 557 mm. Immature fish ranged from 300 to 345 mm, so sexual maturation was attained at about 346 mm, but size distribution varied significantly between study aggregations. In 1996, no recruitment was observed within the smallest size category of females moving into Ebiil and Western Entrance spawning aggregations and negligible recruitment occurred at Ngerumekaol, suggesting larval settlement of <em>P. areolatus</em> 2 to 3 years earlier may have been very low. About 5-10 times as many females as males were counted in the most lightly fished area (Western Entrance), while spawning aggregations in more heavily fished areas Ngerumekaol (highest female: male (f:m) ratio recorded was 1:5 during peak aggregation) and Ebiil sites, f:m ratio exceeds one only at Western Entrance and Solomon Island (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999).This sex ratio may be responsible for the aggressive behavior observed between sexes and may have prevented spawning. Sex and size structure in spawning aggregation should be monitored where fishing on spawning aggregations occurs.<br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>In Pohnpei, marketed fish were derived primarily from inner reef locales using spear (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Individuals taken during a tagging exercise in Pohnpei had a mean size for mature females of 390+/-30 cm SL, with males averaging 462+/-28 cm SL. Mature females ranged from 318-469 cm SL, while males were found between 390-570 cm SL (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data).<br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands</em><br/>One of the earliest records of spawning aggregations of <em>P. areolatus</em> was in the Solomon Islands (Johannes 1988). Johannes noted aggregations in two outer reef passages and counted no more than 100 fish at any one time.	eng
64411	population	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Possibly the most abundant <em>Plectropomus</em> species in the central Western Pacific. However, there have been severe declines regionally, probably due in part to targeting spawning aggregations by local and foreign commercial fishers and the species is highly valued in the international live reef fish trade centered in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Although spawning can be induced in this species, it is not commercially raised in hatcheries (Tucker and Fitzgerald 1994; Sadovy, Y., pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Maldives</em><br/>In the Maldives, <em>P. areolatus</em> abundance is lower in the more heavily fished outer reef channels than in less intensely fished channels in the western side of Laamu Atoll (Sluka 2000). Stocks of <em>P. areolatus</em> was estimated at 1600 tonnes.<br/><br/><em>Kiribati and other Pacific locales</em><br/>In Abaiang Atoll of the Gilberts Group, Kiribati, fishing targeting spawning aggregations was traditionally practiced but became very intensive in the 1980s when an Outer Island Fisheries Project was started. The Project buys fish from the outer islands to sell in the capital, Tarawa. During peak fishing season, daily catch  of <em>P. areolatus</em> was estimated at two tonnes (about 1,200 individuals). A concurrent underwater visual survey showed a mean density of 0.13 individuals per 100 sq. m, with a mean individual length of 40 cm TL (Yeeting, unpublished data-1999). In 2004, a subsequent survey showed that mean density had declined to 0.04 individuals per 100 sq. m, with associated declines in mean size to 33 cm TL (ProcFish 2005). Other densities (per 100 sq. m) and mean length (cm TL) estimates are: Abemama, Kiribati: 0.19, 37; Chuuk, FSM: 0.0057, 50; Salelavalu, Samoa: 0.0072, 38; Funafuti, Tuvalu: 0.074, 44; Nukufetau, Tuvalu: 0.081, 37 (ProcFish 2005).<br/><br/>The species is apparently the most abundant live reef food fish species in the Fijian Islands (Yeeting <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>In Pohnpei, the species forms aggregations from January to May within the Kehpara Marine Sanctuary, an enforced marine protected area (Rhodes <em>et al.</em> 2005). Aggregations also form at Palikir Pass (Pohnpei) and Ant Channel (Ant Atoll) that overlap temporally with those at KMS, although the size and temporal duration of Ant and Palikir aggregations are unknown; the latter sites are open to fishing and smaller in abundance to those of Kehpara (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data). The species was the 6<sup>th</sup> most abundant serranid in marketed catches, contributing 12% to the Pohnpei spear and line serranid fishery over five months in 2006; the size range of marketed individuals was 211 to 513 mm TL, with a mean size of 352.0 +/- 55.4 cm TL (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Individuals were captured predominantly by spear in inner reef locales, with immature individuals accounting for the majority of catch: 75.6% and 97.2% of marketed catch of females and males, respectively, below the mean size at sexual maturity (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). <br/><br/><em>Indonesia</em><br/>In Komodo National Park, the species formed spawning aggregations during full moon periods from September to February and occasionally during new moon periods (Pet <em>et al.</em> 2005). During the 5-year monitoring program (1995-2000) at two sites within the Park, mean size declined by 8 cm, with heavy fishing continuing even following protection of the sites in 2001 (Pet <em>et al.</em> 2005); fish numbers at aggregations were low, less than 100 per aggregation site and period. <br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea</em><br/>At Roviana Lagoon (Solomon Islands), Hamilton and Kama (2004) identified seven spawning sites for <em>P. areolatus</em> through fisher interviews, with a reported peak in spawning activity between October and January during third quarter to new moon lunar phases. Hamilton and Smith (2005) report that 2 to 3 Manus fishers (Papua New Guinea) can remove an estimated 100 individuals per night from spawning sites using night-time spearfishing techniques, with associated declines in abundance and catch (Hamilton 2003). Catch-per-unit-effort records from Roviana estimate a catch rate of 16.8 kg/hr per fisher (41 fishing trips) (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Kavieng (Papua New Guinea), the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) has operated on and off during the past decade and traditionally used traps and handlines to target spawning aggregations and reproductive migratory pathways, although trap fishing is now banned. A number of Kavieng sites have been systematically fished, with associated declines in abundance often severe. In Roviana, at least one <em>P. areolatus</em> aggregation was fished to economic extinction from the LRFFT (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005) and coral reef damage was observed in association with this type of fishing at the same site (Rhodes pers. obs.). In Roviana, LRFFT operations between 1996 and 1997 removed an estimated 3 to 4 tonnes of the serranids, including <em>P. areolatus</em> (Hamilton and Kama 2004) during 24-hour daily fishing operations.	eng
64411	threats	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> is the commercial live reef food-fish trade. The species is taken for both live and fresh/dead for international and national trade using a combination of line, trap and possibly chemicals (sodium cyanide). It is sold in Hong Kong live reef fish food market, with the highest proportion at 35-45 cm length. Import to Hong Kong was 2319 tonnes in 1997, maturity size range is 31-35 cm TL, common consuming size is 38.24 –50.21 cm TL (Lau and Parry-Jones 1999). Much of the foreign commercial fishing targets spawning aggregations (Sadovy <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Pacific countries it is the most abundant and main target grouper species for the Live Reef Fish Food Trade.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Pohnpei (Micronesia)</em><br/>Although subsistence use is not usually considered a main threat, a recent survey of serranids in Pohnpei showed that <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em> comprised >12% of serranids targeted by the spear and line fishery, with the majority of the catch composed of juveniles (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Local commercial fishers are also responsible for targeting spawning aggregations and reproductive migratory pathways, resulting in reduced abundances following heavy fishing (Rhodes and Tupper unpublished data; Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999; Hamilton and Kama 2004). <br/><br/><em>Solomon Islands</em><br/>In the Solomon Islands (and likely elsewhere), <em>P. areolatus</em> moves to shallow reef habitats (e.g. reef flat) at night within spawning aggregation periods. These areas are easily accessible to fishers, who can obtain exceptionally high catches over short periods of time (Johannes 1988); mean night-time CPUE was significantly higher than during the daytime (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005). Marovo (Solomon Islands) fishermen state that the average size of aggregations of <em>P. areolatus</em> has been diminishing since spearfishing became widely practiced in the area. Increasing human population in the Western Solomon Islands (doubling about every 17 years) is also exerting pressure on the species. Johannes suggests that aggregation fishing should be managed or banned in the Solomon Islands, where aggregations occur in multiple and often closely spaced (kms) locations, because heavy fishing pressure is likely to rapidly deplete them (Johannes and Kile 2001). Hamilton (unpublished manuscript) reports that night-time spear fishing poses a threat to spawning aggregations of the species because the high hourly catch rates possible using this method could rapidly deplete aggregations. <br/><br/><em>Palau</em><br/>According to Noah Idechong, at least four spawning aggregations have disappeared since the 1970s in Palau, including one composed primarily of <em>P. areolatus</em>. Sites include Rebotel, Mesikm near German Channel and Uchul a Chei on the southern tip of Ngermediu reef (lost in the 1970s). An aggregation site of <em>P. areolatus</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> was virtually eliminated at Denges in the late 1980s by a live grouper export fishing enterprise (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). Possibly as a result of fishing pressure, the <em>P. areolatus</em> aggregation at Ebiil has been reduced to aggregating one only one of two sides of the channel (Johannes <em>et al.</em> 1999). <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, along with <em>Epinephelus fuscoguttatus</em> and <em>Epinephelus polyphekedoin</em>, dominate the commercial catch of groupers in Palau (Kitalong and Dalzell 1993).	eng
64412	conservation	Choat, J.H., Liu, M., Craig, M.T., Yeeting, B. & Robinson, J., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas in portions of its range.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, a preliminary recommendation for closed areas within Komodo National Park has been designed (The Nature Conservancy, unknown year).<br/><br/>To date conservation actions include size limits, total area closures to fishing and temporal sales bans. The current management plan on the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) has set a minimum size limit of 500 mm FL for this species. Approximately 30% of the GBRMP now comprises areas closed to fishing. However the primary habitat of this species in eastern Australia (exposed reef fronts on the northern Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea reef systems) have large areas of reef open to fishing. Increasing ease of access and navigation means that the protection by isolation component will be reduced in the near future. In Pohnpei (Micronesia), the species is prohibited for sale, along with other groupers, during March and April (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
64412	distribution	Choat, J.H., Liu, M., Craig, M.T., Yeeting, B. & Robinson, J., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. Its range extends from the East African coast (Kenya to Mozambique) to the central and southern Pacific. Pacific latitudinal range from southern Japan to Middleton Elizabeth Reefs. Pacific longitudinal from the western Pacific to the Tuamotos and Pitcairn Island.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique), Comores, Madagascar, Tulear, Aldabara, Seychelles Réunion, Mauritius, Rodríguez, Chagos, Maldives, Lakshadweep, west India, Sri Lanka, Andamans, Nicobars, west Thailand, Myanmar, Sunda Shelf (excluding Malaya), Indonesia (excluding Irian Jaya), Bali, Sangalakki, Borneo, eastern Indonesia (excluding Aru), Flores, Komodo, Cocos-Keeling, Western Australia, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, Great Barrier Reef, Chesterfield Reefs, Coral Sea Reefs, Middelton Reef, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Peng Hu Shan, Ryukyu, Kashimo-Jima, Izu Islands, Ogashawara Islands, Korea (Ceju), Micronesia, Pohnpei, Marianas, Howland Island, Fiji, Tonga, Niue, Uvea, Samoa, Cook Island, Society Islands, Tuamotos, Gambier, Austral Islands, Pitcairn, and Rapa.<br/><br/>(Data from Robert Myers distributional database).	eng
64412	habitat	Choat, J.H., Liu, M., Craig, M.T., Yeeting, B. & Robinson, J., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is conspicuous on outer coral reef slopes throughout the Indo-Pacific, occurring in depths between 4 and 90 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <em>P. laevis</em> appears to be a relatively fast-growing species and reaches 50 cm in less than four years; females achieve maturity in under three years (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006). Similar growth rates are recorded from individuals taken from the Western Indian Ocean (Grandcourt 2005). Fished populations of this species on the Great Barrier Reef have an age structure skewed strongly toward young (3 to 4 year old) fish and a high total mortality rate.<br/><br/><em>Plectropomus laevis</em> feeds mostly on fishes and occasionally on crustaceans (Lieske and Myers 1994). The prey comprises a variety of large reef fishes, including groupers that is likely responsible for the high concentrations of ciguatera toxins (Randall 1980).<br/><br/><em>P. laevis</em> attains 100 cm SL (about 125 cm TL) and a weight of 18 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/>Based on histological examination of gonads, <em>P. laevis</em> was suggested to be a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite, with males derived exclusively through sexual transition of mature females (Adams 2002, 2003).  Adams (2002, 2003) found that male maturation was seen in transitional phase gonads only and that immature bisexuals were present.<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>Komodo National Park: October to January (The Nature Conservancy, undated)<br/><br/><em>Colouration</em><br/>This species occurs in two distinct color phases: the blacksaddled or barred, and the blue spot phase. The barred color phase is generally associated with smaller individuals although it is still retained in a minority of very large fish. In a comprehensive survey of the Great Barrier Reef, Davies <em>et al.</em> (2006) stated that the barred color pattern was retained in individuals up to 12 years of age but that the majority of individuals displaying this phase where immature females. A minority of secondary males also retained the barred color phase. Ayling (pers comm.) has not observed the barred phase in Coral Sea reefs. <br/><br/><em>Age and Growth data</em><br/>Great Barrier Reef:  Linf      948 mm FL   K   0.14   (n=346) (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Aldabra                  Linf    1015 mm FL   K   0.19   (n=22) (Grandcourt 2005)<br/><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/><em>P.laevis</em> is a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite with highly biased female sex ratios (Adams 2002), although males may have been underrepresented in the sample. No historical fishing data specific to <em>P.laevis</em> is available to judge past population structure. Although small bisexual individuals were identified, the spermatocytes never passed beyond the secondary stage and no evidence of ovarian degeneration was observed. It was inferred that the male developmental pathway was monandric, with males only derived through sex change of mature females. The youngest male found was 9 years of age with transitional individuals occurring at 8-9 years. Sexual maturity occurred at 2.2 yrs (50% females mature) and at ~400 mm FL. (Davies <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Average age at maturity is 10.1 yrs (generation time calculated following Pianka (1978), using the formula t2 =(a+b)/2, where a=age at maturation and b=longevity Here, a= 2.2 years and longevity=18 yrs. Generation time is commonly assumed to be equivalent to age at 1st maturity.<br/><br/>Spawns in small groups (Samoilys, M., pers. comm.) and reported to spawn in an aggregation in Papua New Guinea (Hamilton 2003).	eng
64412	population	Choat, J.H., Liu, M., Craig, M.T., Yeeting, B. & Robinson, J., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>With the exception of Coral Sea reef localities <em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is invariably an uncommon to rare species achieving abundances of less than one individual per 1000 sq. m. Regional catch data indicates substantial declines.<br/><br/>The primary issue with <em>P. laevis</em> is the rarity of this large roving serranid over most of its range. Its congener <em>P. leopardus</em> was up to 10-15 times more abundant on the GBR in the 1980s (Ayling and Ayling 1986). In a series of surveys in 1994 to 2001, Ayling and Choat (unpublished) recorded abundances of ~0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m in their main habitat in 1994, while similar surveys in 2001 recorded only 0.1-0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m. In no-entry preservation zones the numbers remained at 0.3 individuals per 1000 sq. m. On remote far northern GBR and Coral Sea reefs and atolls, relatively high numbers (0.5-0.9 per 1000 sq. m) were recorded. However these numbers are not high when compared with a number of other exploited reef fish species. Increasing access to remote areas by charter line and spearfishers suggests numbers will continue to decline in the future. Relatively low numbers of <em>P. laevis</em> were recorded from offshore west Australian reefs both at fished sites (Ashmore Reef; Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2006) and unfished sites (Rowley Shoals, Scott Reef; Done <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species was also found to be rare in the western Indian Ocean. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data</strong><br/><em>P. laevis</em> is exploited over much of its range through line fisheries and is an important part of the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT). Catch records are difficult to interpret as a number of species may be aggregated under the term coral trout or leopard grouper. <br/><br/>As <em>P. laevis</em> (and especially the saddleback colour variant) is distinctive, a number of fishery databases exist that allow an analysis of trends. A review of the Maldives grouper fishery (Sattar and Adam 2005) identified the 8 most important grouper species in the line and diver-assisted fishery, which includes <em>P. laevis</em>-- one of the most valuable fishes in the live reef fish export trade (Table 3 in Sattar and Adam 2005).The fishery was initiated in 1994 with 1 million groupers being processed in 1997. By 2005, catch abundance had declined 75% with associated reductions in mean size. Additionally, fully 43% of the groupers taken at this time were immature. In response to declining abundance and mean size for targeted groupers, 16 species were protected under a quota system, with an annual quota of 30,000 individuals set for <em>P. laevis</em>. Twenty-one other serranid species did not receive quota protection. <br/><br/>Although no species-specific catch abundance estimates were included in Sattar and Adam (2005), a quantitative survey of the grouper fauna in the Maldives (Sluka 2001) revealed that <em>P. laevis</em> was rare, with abundance patterns similar to that obtained from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>A recent study in northern Indonesia (Scales <em>et al.</em> 2007) followed species-specific catch records for 6 species of grouper from 1995 to 2003. Total annual catch rate of the saddleback grouper (<em>P. laevis</em>) declined from 1995 to 2003 and was one of the rarer species. In terms relative abundance (kg per fisher per trip), <em>P. laevis</em> was the rarest of all species recorded. <br/><br/>In Pohnpei (Micronesia), <em>P. laevis</em> constituted 0.1% of serranid catch over a 5-month period in 2006 that included line and spear catch (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data </strong><br/>Despite extensive surveys in the Seychelles, <em>P. laevis</em> was only recorded on granitic reefs of the Mahe Plateau and then at very low densities. It was also the rarest species in a demographic study of Aldabra serranids (Grandcourt 2005).<br/><br/>(Pears 2005) (expressed as number of individuals (+/-SD) per 1000 sq. m) <br/><br/>West Indian Ocean<br/>Seychelles granitic reefs 0.1 (0.1)<br/>Northern Amirantes 0 (0)<br/>Southern Amirantes 0 (0)<br/><br/>(Ayling Choat unpublished) (expressed as number of individuals (+/-SD) per 1000 sq. m) <br/><br/>Northern GBR <br/>Fished reefs  (1994/95):  0.3 (0.1)<br/>Fished reefs  (2001):       0.12 (0.08)<br/>Unfished reefs (2001)      0.32 (0.09)<br/><br/>The summary of a comprehensive analysis of the distribution and abundance of four species of <em>Plectropomus</em> of the NE coast of Australia and the Coral Sea (Ayling and Ayling 1986) is provided below. All abundances are adjusted to numbers per 1000 sq. m<br/>  <br/>Geographic region.<br/>Far North<br/>Reef position    Inner shelf   0 (0)<br/>                      Mid shelf      0.09 (0.04)<br/>                      Outer shelf  0.9 (0.1)<br/>North       <br/>                      Inner shelf   0.01 (0.01)<br/>                      Mid shelf      0.01 (0.02)<br/>                      Outer shelf  0.4 (0.07)<br/><br/>South<br/>                     Inner shelf    0 (0)<br/>                     Mid shelf       0.1 (0.02)<br/>                     Outer shelf   0.3 (0.06)<br/><br/>Coral Sea<br/>                    Herald Cays   0.5 (0.7)<br/>                    Lihou 1         0.6 (0.5)<br/>                    Lihou 2         0.7 (0.8)<br/>                    Lihou 3         0.6 (0.8)<br/><br/>Surveys on West Australian off-shore reefs (Done 1994) showed that <em>P. laevis</em> was never abundant compared to <em>P. leopardus</em> and <em>P. areolatus</em>. <em>P. laevis</em> was present mainly on outer reef slopes. Surveys at Ashmore Reef (Indian Ocean) (Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2005) revealed very low numbers:  0.1 (1998) and 0.03 (2005) individuals per 1000 sq. m. The reduction in numbers may be due to heavy fishing on this reef by Indonesian fishers. No <em>P. laevis</em> were observed during comprehensive surveys of Cocos/Keeling and Christmas Island in 2004 (Choat unpublished).<br/> <br/>Estimates of abundance (as individuals per 1000 sq. m) from outer reef habitats from three Pacific localities found the following: Fiji (0.54 individuals), New Caledonia (1.2 individuals), and Tonga (0.43 individuals). These numbers are consistent with estimates from other localities surveyed (IRD database).<br/><br/>No spawning aggregations sites for <em>P. laevis</em> have been identified in either Australia or the SW Pacific (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
64412	threats	Choat, J.H., Liu, M., Craig, M.T., Yeeting, B. & Robinson, J., 2008	The major threat for <em>Plectropomus laevis</em> is collection for the aquarium trade. It may turn up in live fish trade, but this is not considered to threaten this species. However, given strong interest in the live food trade and that large species tend to be taken as juveniles for this trade because of the small sizes preferred in restaurants, there is potential for increased exploitation. Hamilton (2003) reports declining catches from an aggregation noted by fishers in the Solomons.	eng
64442	conservation	Gledhill, D. & Last, P., 2005	There are currently no conservation or management initiatives in place for this species, excepting those indirectly afforded by the inclusion of Bathurst Harbour in the World Heritage area of south-western Tasmania.	eng
64442	distribution	Gledhill, D. & Last, P., 2005	A temperate Australian species, confined to two large estuary systems in western Tasmania, Bathurst and Macquarie Harbours. Its range within these systems is unknown but appears to be mainly in the upper estuary. The total available habitat is no more than a few tens of km² and initial surveys suggest the population is likely be small (less than 1,000 individuals; pers. obs.).	eng
64442	habitat	Gledhill, D. & Last, P., 2005	A medium-sized ray (to at least 77 cm total length (TL)), this species is unique among skates in that it is found only in brackish water. The estuarine systems in which it lives are high in tannin content, with low light penetration and silty bottoms, resulting in the encroachment of several deepwater invertebrate species into relatively shallow depths. The morphology of this skate resembles that of <em>Dipturus</em> species found on the continental slope (Last and Stevens 1994). <br/>Little is known of the biological or ecological requirements of this recently discovered and unnamed species. The estuaries are well separated and, given that this skate has never been taken in the sea, may form genetically distinct populations. Specimens have been caught in a broad range of brackish salinities to almost fresh water (pers. obs.).	eng
64442	threats	Gledhill, D. & Last, P., 2005	Both populations of this skate, which are likely to be small, are in scenic and important recreational areas facing increasing pressure from ecotourism. They are probably also caught occasionally by recreational gillnetting. The isolation of Bathurst Harbour in the World Heritage area of south-western Tasmania affords some habitat protection for this species. However, the other population is in an estuary heavily polluted by prolonged mining operations.	eng
132722	conservation	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Fennesy, S., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are currently no conservation or management initiatives for this species. It probably occurs in a few marine protected areas within its range.	eng
132722	distribution	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Fennesy, S., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> can be found throughout the southern Mediterranean (up to 44°N in the Adriatic Sea) and along the west coast of Africa to southern Angola, including islands of the Gulf of Guinea. Records from the Canary Islands (Spain) and Cape Verde are unsubstantiated (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Albania, Algeria, Angola, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovenia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo Dem Rep, Congo Rep, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, France, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Gibraltar, Greece, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Portugal, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Montenegro, Sierra Leone, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey and Western Sahara.	eng
132722	habitat	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Fennesy, S., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Adults of <em>E. aeneus</em> occur on rocky or mud-sand bottom up to depths of 200 m, while juveniles have been taken in coastal lagoons and estuaries (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Length and growth</strong><br/>Ezzat <em>et al.</em> (1981) revealed a linear relationship between total length (L) and scale radius (S): L = 0.1217+5.4420S.<br/><br/>Based on 104 <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from Gulf of Gabès in Tunsia, the von Bertalanffy growth equation was SL(cm)=204.34 (1-e(-0.039(Age+0.767)) (Bouain 1986). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>In the west African waters, Longhurst (1960) found that its diet comprises of fishes (58%), stomatopods (21%), crabs (10%), and cephalopods (10%). Examination of commercially-caught specimen along Senegalese shore, stomach contents of <em>E. aeneus</em> (400 to 900 mm TL; n=161) suggested that <em>Sardinella aurita</em> and <em>Octopus vulgaris</em> were the preferential and accessory preys during the cold season, respectively. During the warm season, teleosts were abundantly ingested while mollusks (esp. <em>Sepia officinalis</em>) as an accessory prey with the crustacean <em>Callinectes amincola</em> be an occasional prey in the stomach of <em>E. aeneus</em> (Diatta <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite that female matures first at 50 to 60 cm TL and weigh about 3 kg for Tunisian fish. Most females change sex at about 9 kg, but smaller males (3 to 5 kg) are occasionally found (Bruslé 1985).<br/><br/>Based on histological examination on ovaries, Bouain and Siau (1983) suggested <em>E. aeneus</em> spawns in June and July in southeast Tunisian seashores.<br/><br/>Total potential fecundity was estimated to range from 789,436 ova in a 44 cm SL fish of 2.2 kg to 12,589,242 ova in a 87 cm SL fish of 12.6 kg (Bruslé 1985). Vadiya (1984) estimated “absolute fecundity” of a 93.5 cm, 8.6 kg <em>E. aeneus</em> in southeastern Mediterranean at 3,873,271 ova.<br/><br/>Bouain and Siau (1983) estimated the total potential fecundities of a 43.5 cm SL and 87 cm SL <em>E. aeneus</em> from southeastern Tunisian waters were 789,436 and 12,589,242 ripe oocytes, respectively.<br/><br/>750,000 to 1,200,000 eggs were produced by natural spawning in each of the five experiments (4 to 5 females and 3 to 4 males) in captivity, with an average of 80.2% of fertilization rate. (Gorshkova <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Bouain et al (1983) found that the largest fish of the Tunisian population was 115 cm TL, 25 kg, and was estimated to be 17 years old; females mature at 5 to7 years (1.5 to 3.0 kg, 50 to 60 cm TL) and sex change occurs at 10 to 13 years (6 to 15 kg, 80 to 110 cm TL)<br/><br/><strong>Migration</strong><br/>Cury and Worms (1982) suggested the seasonal migratory behaviour of <em>E. aeneus</em> from Mauritania to Senegal. Cury and Roy (1988) noted that <em>E. aeneus</em> migrate and colonize protective areas from Mauritania to Senegal because of the onset of Senegalese upwelling and relaxation of the upwelling off Northern Mauritania. Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> (2000) suggested that <em>E. aeneus</em> is the process of colonization of new areas in the northern Mediterranean and Adriatic.	eng
132722	population	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Fennesy, S., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> was previously an abundant species, but has declined significantly in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In the 1950s, <em>E. aeneus</em> was abundant along the south coast of Morocco (Furnestin <em>et al.</em> 1958).<br/><br/>On the basis of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and effort of maximization calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal as an over-exploited species.<br/><br/>Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) described <em>E. aeneus</em> was very frequent found in the African-Mediterranean waters, but significantly rare in central areas, and not found in northern regions of the Mediterranean.  <br/><br/>Froese (2004) suggested the stock of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal is overfished based on three simple indicators (percentages of mature fish in catch, specimens with optimum length in catch and ‘mega-spawners’ in catch.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>Senegal</em><br/>Between 1984 and 1986, artisanal captures of 3,870 tonnes of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal were very strong, which surpassing the MSY. Since then, these captures reduced and reached their low-level of 1,135 tonnes in 1998 (Martial <em>et al.</em> 2002a). On the basis of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and effort of maximization (fMSY) calculated from fishery data, Gascuel and Ménar (1997) classified <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal as an over-exploited species, with fishing effort in 1991 as 2.7 times the fMSY. MSY of <em>E. aeneus</em> was estimated to be 3000 metric tonnes a year (Gascuel and Ménar 1997).<br/><br/>The percentage of mature <em>E. aeneus</em> has decreased from close to 80% in the early 1990s to about 38% in 1999.  In the same period, the percentages of <em>E. aeneus</em> at optimum size and of mega-spawners have decreased from about 35% to less than 20%. These suggest that the stock is overfished (Froese 2004).<br/><br/>A range of stock assessment approaches show a decline in biomass of 80 to 90% from 1971 to 1999 as a result of excessive fishing effort (Laurens <em>et al.</em> 2002, 2003). Caught with a variety of fishing gear, including industrial trawls although this sector has contributed a maximum of 27% to landings (1990).<br/><br/>Total catch of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal was 1,851 tonnes in 1991 (Gascuel and Ménar 1997). <br/><br/>MSY of <em>E. aeneus</em> in Senegal was estimated to be 3,000 metric tonnes a year by the surplus production model (Gascuel and Ménar 1997), with fishing effort in 1991 as 2.7 times the fMSY.<br/><br/><em>Saharan Bank, west Africa</em><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> accounted for 5.3% of the mean total abundance of landed fish in 1942 and declined to 0.001% in 1974. <em>E. aeneus</em> was not recorded during a cruise in 1990 (Balguerías <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/><em>Tunisia</em><br/>More than 90% of female <em>E. aeneus</em> collected from 1970-1973 were sized 3-9 kg (Bruslé and Bruslé 1976).<br/><br/>Bouain <em>et al</em>. (1983) stated that <em>E. aeneus</em> comprised 90% of the uploading of fish in Sfax in Tunisia.	eng
132722	threats	Thierry, C., Sadovy, Y., Fennesy, S., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>E. aeneus</em> is overfishing. It is highly esteemed in the market of West Africa (Maigret and Ly 1986) and typically caught with hook-and-line and in trawls (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/><em>E. aeneus</em> is heavily fished throughout its range by various methods from artisanal to industrial. It is consumed as food with considerable economic importance in fisheries of the Mediterranean and west coast of Africa (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). <em>E. aeneus</em> played an important role on the fish market in Senegal, mainly supplies by artisanal fishing.  Fresh <em>E. aeneus</em> was produced in industrial scale and for export (Cury and Worms 1982).  Cury and Worms (1982) recorded that <em>E. aeneus</em> only comprised a small amount in weight (83,557 kg, 3.7% of the total landing in Saint-Louis and 439,803 kg, 4.3% of the total in Kayar) but a relatively high monetary value of 11% and 17.6% of the total, respectively in 1980.  <br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture potential</strong><br/>Gorshkova et al (2002) suggested that broodstock management and larval culture seem to be the main deterrents for successful domestication of <em>E. aeneus</em>. Glamuzina and Skaramuca (1999) noted that juvenile <em>E. aeneus</em> (about 200 g) were adapted to aquarium conditions in Dubrovnik.  Particularly good results of aquaculture on <em>E. aeneus</em> have been achieved in Israel (Hassin <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
132723	conservation	Choat, J.H., Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>E. maculatus</em> is found in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132723	distribution	Choat, J.H., Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> is a Pacific Ocean species found from the Cocos-Keeling Islands to Line islands, north to southern Japan, south to southeastern Australia and Lord Howe Island.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Nicobars, West Thailand, Myanmar,   Bali, Sangalakki, Borneo, eastern Indonesia, Manado, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo Sunda Is Ambon, Halmahera, Howland Island, Flores, Timor, Aru, Raja Ampat, Cocos-Keeling, Christmas, Ashmore Scott Reef, Phillippines, GBR, Solomon Is, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Loyalty Is, Chesterfields, Elizabeth & Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe, Hong Kong, South Taiwan Peng hu shan, Ryukyu, Kawhisi-jima, South Japan, Izu Is, Ogosawara, Line Islands, Micronesia, Palmyra, Phoenix, Palau, Yap, Ifalik, South Marianas, North Marianas, Marshall Is Fiji, Rotuma, Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, Cook Islands, West Papua (Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, Caroline Islands, Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) <br/><br/>FAO Areas: Indian Ocean, Eastern Pacific, Northwest Pacific, Western Central Pacific, Eastern Central Pacific, Southwest.	eng
132723	habitat	Choat, J.H., Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em> E. maculatus</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths of 1 to 100 m. It tends to occur on more shelter reef localities on the GBR (Pears 2005) but in the Pacific was associated with outer reef habitats (Kulbicki 2006). May be ciguatoxic in some areas (New Caledonia) (Myers 1999). Juveniles are found in shallow coral rubble. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Prey comprises mainly small fishes, crabs, and octopuses. (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Sex ratio</strong><br/>In New Caledonia there were 150 males compared to 440 females.<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth, reproduction</strong><br/>Analysis of 64 otoliths identified <em>E. maculatus</em> showed the species to be a fast growing serranid with a high population turnover rate. No reproductive data was gathered for this species. Lmax  431 mm TL, Tmax  seven years.  A size of 400 mm FL was achieved by 10% of three year old individuals.<br/><br/>There are anecdotal reports of spawning aggregation formation from Papua New Guinea and Pohnpei (Rhodes pers. comm.).	eng
132723	population	Choat, J.H., Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> is moderately common and not currently in significant decline throughout its range, although there may be some localised declines. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Estimates of abundance from three Pacific localities (Kulbicki IRD data base adjusted to no. per 1,000 m²) gave for Fiji (0.09), New Caledonia (0.5), and Tonga (0.12) all in outer reef habitats and are consistent with estimates from other localities. Greater abundances are found in soft bottom habitats.<br/><br/>Replicated counts of <em>E. maculatus</em> from the Great Barrier Reef indicate very low abundances with evidence of restriction to northern reefs (no. per 1,000 m²) (Pears 2005):<br/><br/>Location: Lizard mid-shelf 0.87 +/1 0.16; Townsville 0; McKay 0; Pompey 0.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In New Caledonia where it is caught in experimental fishing it makes up 24% by number and 16% by weight of all serranids caught. Catches in 1987 were approximately twice as high as in 2000, and average weight changed from 1.1 to 0.9 kg per fish for the same levels of fishing effort.<br/><br/>In Pohnpei, 35 individuals were observed in the coral reef fishery over a five-month survey period, for a total of 1.9% of the total serranid catch during this period. The size range of catch was 185 to 345 mm TL. (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132723	threats	Choat, J.H., Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is targeted by artisinal and subsistence fisheries. It is traded internationally, and is part of the live fish trade and for example is found in the Hong Kong live fish markets. In areas where there are grouper fisheries it is collected incidentally.	eng
132724	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Rocha, L., Gaspar, A.L.B., Sadovy, Y. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> occurs in several marine protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific management</strong><br/>In southern and southeastern Brazil there is a minimum size of catch 45 cm (IBAMA 2003)  <br/><br/>It is protected within the Conch Reef Research Only Area (a no-take marine reserve) in the northern Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (Lindholm <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Because grouper landings in the Campeche Bank decreased between 1991 and 1997, the Mexican government proposed management measures to protect the grouper resource, but without considering the biological characteristics and fishery aspects of each exploited species (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003, SEMARNAP 2000a, 2000b). Commercial fishing regulations for Gulf of Mexico Federal Waters consist of: an annual commercial quota of 4445 t for the shallow-water grouper complex, which includes the black grouper; commercial minimum size limits of 61.0 cm TL; a seasonal closure on commercial harvest and prohibition on sale of this species from 15 February to 15 March. Recreational fishing regulation in the same area consist of: minimum size limits of 55.9 cm TL; a recreational aggregate daily bag limit of five groupers per person; and also a seasonal closure on commercial harvest and prohibition on sale of this species from 15 February to 15 March (www.gulfcouncil.org).<br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is listed under the regulatory instruction Number 5 (IN5) from 21/05/2004 revised in 08/2005 MMA- as overexploited or threatened of overexploitation: Overexploited are species considered to be under high levels of exploitation, enough to reduce the biomass, spawning potential and future catches beyond sustainable levels.  For these species listed, management plans must be developed, under the coordination of the Brazilian Institute of Environment, within the next five years. These plans should promote stock recovery and sustainable fisheries.	eng
132724	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Rocha, L., Gaspar, A.L.B., Sadovy, Y. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is a western Atlantic species distributed from Bermuda and Massachusetts (USA) to Brazil (Villa des Remedios Island (northeast of Natal), to about 28°S), including the Brazilian off-shore islands, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba and throughout the Caribbean. Adults are unknown from the northeastern coast of the USA.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua and Bermuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil (Alagoas, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe, Trindade), Cayman Islands, Colômbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, México (Campeche, Quintana Rôo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatán), Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao), Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Mississippi), British Virgin Islands, United States Virgin Islands, and Venezuela.	eng
132724	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Rocha, L., Gaspar, A.L.B., Sadovy, Y. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is a reef-associated, solitary species inhabiting rocky and coral reefs and can withstand some degradation in its habitat. Their depth ranges from anywhere from 19 to 250 feet (6 to 75 meters). Juveniles sometimes occur in estuarine seagrass and oyster rubble habitat in North Carolina and South Carolina (Keener <em>et al</em>. 1988; Ross and Moser 1995). In the Florida Keys, juveniles settle on patch reefs (Sluka <em>et al.</em> 1994), similar to those in Brazil (Rezende unpub. data, Schawnborn 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Adults feed primarily on fishes, including grunts, snapper, and herrings. Juvenile black groupers feed solely on crustaceans.<br/><br/>According to Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2004) fishing peaks occurs during a phenomenon known among local fishermen as the correção - which is an aggregation of these fish along the shelf break Northeastern coast during some periods of the year. The period of the correção – according to the interviews and the annual fishing reports from Brazilian Institute of Environment (www.ibama.gov.br/cepene) – indicated that, in the north area, the correção is expected between October and January; and, in the south area, between December and March. The correção, during the studied time, did not present any association with the phases of the moon.<br/><br/>The observations, during the correção, of the gonadal stages and the proportion of fat suggested that <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> was not in reproductive activity. All of the sampled gonads were in the resting stage presenting a large proportion of fat in the body cavity. This fat is used in the processing of the gonadal products and presents an inverse relation with the gonadal weight, as mentioned by Ferreira (1993) for <em>Plectropomus</em> and by Rajasilta (1992) for <em>Clupea harengus membras</em>.  <br/><br/>Based on this assumption, it seems that the black grouper takes advantage of the reproductive aggregations of other species as an opportunity to feed. This can be observed during the correção with the <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>, in Caiçara do Norte, where its capture was associated to the reproductive aggregations of <em>Lutjanus analis</em>, <em>Lutjanus jocu</em> and <em>Seriola</em> spp. and confirmed by the presence of ripe gonads in these species (personal observation in situ). Thus the black groupers during the correção, coming from ever deeper and inaccessible sites to the fishing gears’, are vulnerable to fishing pressure and are massively caught, as recorded during sampling at the correção period and on the annual fishing reports of IBAMA (www.ibama.gov.br/cepene) (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, age and maturity</strong><br/>The species is a monandric, protogynous hermaphrodite that forms spawning aggregations (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004, Smith 1965, García-Cagide and García 1996, Crabtree and Bullock 1998, Brulé <em>et al.</em>2003).  According to a study in Campeche Bank, females changed sex between 85.5 and 125.0 cm FL, with median length of 103.3 cm FL. At 114.5 cm FL, 50% of the females in the sample had transformed into males. The age at sex change was 15.5 years. The smallest size of <em>M. bonaci</em> in transition reported in Brazil by Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2005) was 64 cm (LF). This size is similar to the size of the Cuban <em>M. bonaci</em> (LT of 65 cm) determined by García-Cagide and García (1996), but smaller than the Floridean type observed by Crabtree and Bullock (1998) with a LT of 94.7 cm (92.3 cm LF). In Campeche Bank the size at which 50% of the females transformed to males was 111.4 cm, and in Florida 119.9 cm (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Black grouper probably spawn throughout the year, however, peak spawning of females occurs from January to March. In Brazil, histological results and the gonadosomatic index suggest that the spawning period occurs between April and September (Teixeira <em>et al.</em> 2004). The spawning period of the Cuban <em>M. bonaci</em> is from November to May with peaks recorded in November and February (García-Cagide and García 1996). In Florida, Crabtree and Bullock (1998) indicate that the peak of spawning of <em>M. bonaci</em> is from December to March. In Campeche Bank (Mexico), the spawning season for black grouper is also from December to March (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Brulé <em>et al.</em> (2003) did not observe spawning aggregations for <em>M. bonaci</em> from the Campeche Bank. This grouper has been reported to form spawning aggregations in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (Fine 1990, Carter and Perrine 1994; Domeier and Colin 1997; Eklund <em>et al.</em> 2000). Off Belize, black grouper are believed to spawn in aggregations at the same sites used by Nassau grouper (Carter and Perrine 1994).  Eklund <em>et al.</em> (2000) describe a black grouper spawning aggregation discovered during winter 1997-1998, less than 100 m outside a newly designated marine reserve.<br/><br/>In South Florida, Crabtree and Bullock (1998) indicate that black grouper appear to reach a maximum age of at least 33 years, and its growth was most rapid for the first ten years and then slowed considerably. The von Bertalanffy growth equation was TL = 1,306.2(1-e super((-0.169(Age+0.768)))). In Florida Keys, Manooch and Manson (1987) obtained the von Bertalanffy growth equation for black grouper using back-calculated data, which was Lt=1,352 (1<sup>-e</sup>-0.1156(t+0.927)). In this case growth was most rapid for the first three to four years, and then gradually trended downward throughout the remaining years, and the maximum age estimated was 14 years.<br/><br/>Age of first maturation was 5.2 at a size of 82.6 cm, and age of transition was 15.5 years by a length of 121.4 cm (Crabtree and Bullock 1998).<br/><br/>The size of first maturation for black grouper from Campeche Bank was 72.1 cm, from Florida was 82.6 cm, and from Cuba 84.4 to 108.7 cm (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Natural mortality (M) is estimated to be 0.15 (Potts and Brennan 2001).  Crabtree and Bullock (1998) found that black grouper live for at least 33 years and attain sizes as great as 151.8 cm (60.1 in) TL. Females ranged in length from 15.5 to 131.0 cm (6.1 to 51.9 in) TL and males range in length from 94.7 to 151.8 cm (38.3 to 60.1 in) TL.	eng
132724	population	Ferreira, B.P., Rocha, L., Gaspar, A.L.B., Sadovy, Y. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> was probably the most abundant large grouper of the shallow water serranid-lutjanid complex throughout most of its area of occurrence. Black groupers are commonly landed in commercial grouper fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico and the south Atlantic Ocean. They are also very common in the recreational fishery. Commercial landings of black grouper exceed landings of any other grouper in the Florida Keys<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent data</strong><br/><em>Bermuda</em><br/>In Bermuda the rapid development of trap fishing on grouper population in shallow waters in the 80’s led to decrease in grouper catches over a period of seven years; the decrease was from 90,000 lbs/yr to 15,000 lbs/yr for the black grouper (Bannerot <em>et al</em> 1987), a six-fold reduction.<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>Black grouper is an important species for the demersal fisheries in the Northeastern Brazilian coast, and is the most frequently caught serranid in the demersal bottom line fisheries of the northeastern coast (lat. 0 to 12° S) (MMA 2006). It is caught together with lutjanid species and is one of the species responsible for characterizing the typologies in the reef fishery of northeastern Brazil (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). Teixeira <em>et al.</em> (2004) interviewed 40 fishermen based on their experience, that ranged from a period between 10 and 45 years along the northeastern Brazilian coast (lat. 0 to 12° S). According to the fishermen interviewed, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is probably already undergoing overfishing effects, as the capture of the black grouper has decreased these last two decades.<br/><br/>The bottom line fisheries in south of Bahia state, is one of the oldest in Brazil. It was the main source of income of Porto Seguro province, in the beginning of the XVI century, maintaining an industry of salted and dried fish that was exported to Portugal and to other provinces in Brazil (Bueno 1998). Abundances of large groupers declined, and nowadays snappers make up 38% of total catch, pelagic species accounted for 43% while <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>, represented 10% (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>According to Martins <em>et al.</em> (2005), until the end of the 1980s, the bottom line fleet operating hand lines from dories in the Abrolhos region, between the lat 17 and 18° S, had as main target the large reef fishes badejo (<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) and the red grouper (<em>Epinephelus morio</em>). The collapse of these fisheries in the 80’s led fishers to turn to other resources.  By the end of the 1980s, a new market developed with the deep frozen or fast frozen techniques. The mains target for this fishery are lutjanids and smaller serranids, usually plate size (around 1 kg), caught and quickly dipped in frozen water, and exported.  Between  997 and 2000 only 11% of the fleet operated with dories targeting black groupers, and the rest was targeting coney and lutjanids. Figure 1, taken from Martins <em>et al.</em> 2005, illustrates the shift in the catches from black grouper to coney and yellowtail snapper.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: catch comparison between yellowtail snapper (<em>Ocyurus chrysurus</em>) and black grouper (<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) 1978-1998.<br/><br/><em>Cuba</em><br/>In Cuba, Nassau grouper is the main exploited grouper species. Catches for these species have gradually declined from an annual mean of 1,476 t (1959 to 1963) to less than 100 t (1992 to 1998). Reduction of yields was attributed to constant increase in fishing efforts (Fernandez 1984). Compared to Nassau grouper, other groupers were less significant in Cuba, all grouped in statistics as other fishes” (e.g. <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em>) (Claro <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>Mexico</em><br/>In the southern Gulf of Mexico, <em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> can account for 40% of the grouper catch by weight for some commercial vessels, however in this area grouper fishery was considered deteriorated and lacked a well-defined management strategy (Brulé <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent data</strong> <br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>The reef fish assemblages along the Brazilian continental margin (40 to 500 m depth), between 13° E 22°, were investigated exploring data sampled during two demersal surveys using bottom long-line (Olavo <em>et al.</em> 2006) and during four demersal surveys using bottom long-line between 100 and 500 m (Costa <em>et al.</em> 2005). During four cruises between 1996 and 1998, a 190,746 hooks were deployed. CPUE for the black grouper was 0.8 to 1.8 kg/1000 hooks – 1,3 in depths above 100 meters and 0.2 in areas between 100 and 300 m.	eng
132724	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Rocha, L., Gaspar, A.L.B., Sadovy, Y. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca bonaci</em> is heavily fished throughout its range and involved in international fishery. Spawning and feeding aggregations are commonly targeted. Sedimentation is a problem in nursery areas.	eng
132725	conservation	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is likely to occur in some marine protected areas, but no specific measures are in place for the species.	eng
132725	distribution	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is an Indo-Pacific species found around the islands of the western Indian Ocean to Japan and the central Pacific, except for a single specimen caught off the coast of Natal (South Africa). Heemstra and Randall (1993) know of no confirmed records from other continental localities of East Africa, but there is one unconfirmed record from Mozambique (Fennessy pers. comm.). The East African record of <em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> reported by Morgans (1982) is a misidentification of <em>Cephalopholis nigripinnis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa, China, South China Sea (Spratlys), Taiwan, Christmas Island, Cook Islands, Djibouti, Fiji, French Polynesia (Tahiti, Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands), Guam, India (Lakshadweep), Indonesia (Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Madagascar, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius (Rodrígues), Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia (not in Loyalty Islands), Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guienea, Philippines, Pitcairn, Réunion, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Thailand (not shown in map), Tonga, Tuvalu. <br/><br/>The species is also recorded around Howland Island in the Pacific (B. Mundy pers. comm.). Australian records are based on misidentification of <em>C. spiloparea</em> (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006). There are no records of the species from Line or Phoenix Islands (Kiribati), Australia (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006), or Raja Ampat (Indonesia), and its occurrence in Malaysia is questionable.	eng
132725	habitat	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is a reef-associated species found on steep seaward reefs, usually at depths of 100 to 250 m, but can occur in shallower water. Museum specimens are lacking. The recorded maximum size of 60 cm TL is probably an exaggeration (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132725	population	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> is a poorly known deep-water grouper, with no fisheries statistics available.	eng
132725	threats	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The threats to <em>Cephalopholis aurantia</em> are unknown and the species is too small to be threatened by commercial fisheries. It may, however, be taken by some small-scale commercial or artisinal fishers.	eng
132726	conservation	Fennesy, S., Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in parts of its range. Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. Quotas under currently under consideration in the Maldives (500 fish per year-smallest quota of any species of grouper).	eng
132726	distribution	Fennesy, S., Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is found only in the Indian Ocean and is distributed from the Gulf of Aden south to Port Alfred (South Africa) and east to the northwest tip of Sumatra (Indonesia). It is also found in the islands of the western Indian Ocean, including Cargados Carajos and Rodríguez. It is not known from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Eastern Cape Province (South Africa), Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya to Somalia, Comoros, Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius, Madagascar, southern Oman (Randall), west Indian coast, Sri Lanka, east Burma Sea, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Reported catches from deep-slope reefs in Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia are based on mis-identifications (Myers pers. comm.).	eng
132726	habitat	Fennesy, S., Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is a reef-associated species. Juveniles inhabit shallow reefs while adults are found on deeper coral and non-coral reefs from 10 to 150 m. Maximum size of at least 90 cm TL, 17 kg.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em>feeds on a variety of fishes, crabs, shrimps, spiny lobsters, squids, and small octopi (Morgans 1964).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and reproduction</strong><br/>Given the relatively large size, they are likely to be slow-growing, and probably protogynous. Ripe fish obtained in January on the North Kenya Banks and in October off Mafia Island (Nzioka 1977). Reproductively active fish were caught in August and November, the former month coinciding with very large catches (Morgans 1964). Females mature at around 50 cm (Morgans 1982).	eng
132726	population	Fennesy, S., Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> does not appear to be abundant across much of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not commonly record <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St. Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet few <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> were observed. Not recorded in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Very seldom (seven individuals of >12 000 groupers) recorded from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data).<br/><br/>Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Only recorded in 2001 and 2003 (no numbers provided) during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Not recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is abundant (possible confusion with <em>E. multinotatus</em>). <br/><br/>Morgans (1964) recorded relatively high numbers (7.5 % by no. to overall catch of serranids) of this species in catches on the North Kenya Banks.<br/><br/>Nzioka (1979) recorded catching 13 specimens from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes.<br/><br/>Overall grouper catch in the Maldives have declined appreciably since the beginning of the fishery in 1997, and particularly since the 2004 tsunami. Catch in 1997 was one million groupers overall, but by 2005 down to 250,000.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves between 1987 and 1992. On the west coast of India, this species was only recorded at one of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), and at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.) Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson 1996, Pereira 2003).	eng
132726	threats	Fennesy, S., Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Loss of habitat  is likely the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em>, with episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Overfishing is also a possible threat, although most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g. Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so the deeper regions of this species’ habitat are less exploited, particularly by small-scale fishers.<br/><br/>In the Maldives, <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> is part of the live fish trade (Sattar and Adam 2005).	eng
132727	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> occurs in several marine protected areas and it is perceived that no other measures are needed at the moment.	eng
132727	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is known from the eastern Atlantic islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in Africa, and in the western Atlantic from Florida (USA), the Gulf of Mexico, and Bermuda to Brazil, and the Ascension Island in the central Atlantic.	eng
132727	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is a demersal species that occurs near the bottom in rocky areas and coral reef areas and feeds on plankton, forms large school often mixed with damselfishes.	eng
132727	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is very abundant throughout its range especially in off-shore islands. The creole-fish is not fished and there is currently no known decline. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Visual surveys in Sao Tome resulted in density of 50 plus fish per 40 m² transect and 0.019 fish per m² from shipwreck in northeast Brazil.	eng
132727	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias furcifer</em> is not found in the fishery as it doesn't usually take hook because it feeds on plankton only.	eng
132728	conservation	Rhodes, K.L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is found in protected areas in Eilat and Aqaba Jordan, Ras Mohammed National Park, northern Egypt.	eng
132728	distribution	Rhodes, K.L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is a western Indian Ocean species known only from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Socotra (Yemen) (Myers distributional database 2006).	eng
132728	habitat	Rhodes, K.L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in shallow protected coral reefs and in shallow lagoons and seaward reef slopes (1 to 30 m) or brackish-water environments. No published information on the biology of this species has been found. It is sold fresh in local markets and when encountered on the reef it is often found in pairs or small groups.	eng
132728	population	Rhodes, K.L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus summana</em> is uncommon in the northern Red Sea and Yemen.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>FAO statistics report fluctuating annual catch between 18 and 54 mt from Saudi Arabia between 2000 and 2004.	eng
132728	threats	Rhodes, K.L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus summana</em> is affected by subsistence fisheries and a local commercial fishery in Egypt, with increasing commercial use. There is some threat of habitat degradation.	eng
132729	conservation	Rocha, L., McGovern, J.C., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>Management</strong><br/><em>United States</em><br/>The grouper fishery is managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan. Current regulations include a limited entry fishery where a limited number of commercial fishing permits are available, a seasonal closure during March and April to reduce the commercial catch and minimum size limits. These regulations have helped the stocks to recover; the most recent stock assessments show that scamp is not overfished or undergoing overfishing. Regulations are under consideration that would establish a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the commercial grouper fishery in the southeast. A TAC will greatly enhance the sustainability of the grouper populations.<br/><br/>There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (Oculina HAPC) where spawning of scamp probably occurs. In addition, US Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. This amendment implement protection to Oculina Banks which harbour spawning aggregation of this species. Spawning scamp have been collected from several of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.	eng
132729	distribution	Rocha, L., McGovern, J.C., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca phenax</em> occurs on the continental coast of North and Central America, from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela. Juveniles are occasionally found as far north as Massachusetts (USA).<br/><br/>A vagrant was recently collected in the northeastern Atlantic in the Azores (Portugal) (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
132729	habitat	Rocha, L., McGovern, J.C., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca phenax</em> is a reef-associated species  found over ledges and high-relief rocky bottoms in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and at low-profile bottoms at depths of 30 to 100 m in North Carolina. Scamp were the most abundant grouper in areas of living <em>Oculina</em> coral formations at depths of 70 to 100 m off the east coast of Florida. <em>Oculina</em> banks are threatened by bottom trawling, and aggregations of scamp are strongly associated with this habitat (Koenig <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species apparently moved inshore when bottom temperature fell below 8.6°C. Juveniles found in shallow water at jetties and in mangrove areas. <br/><br/><strong>Life history</strong><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/>Scamp are protogynous, with females dominating sizes less than 70.0 cm (27.8 in). Spawning occurs from February through July in the South Atlantic Bight and in the Gulf of Mexico, with a peak in March to mid-May. Hydration of eggs occurs primarily during the morning and late afternoon, which indicates that scamp spawn during late afternoon and evening. Spawning individuals have been captured off South Carolina and St. Augustine, Florida at depths of 33 to 93 m. Off the Carolinas, scamp spawned from April through August with a peak in May and June, and fed on fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans (Matheson <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Scamp aggregate to spawn. Spawning locations and time of spawning overlaps with gag. Fishery-independent sampling revealed that: (1) spawning probably occurred during the late afternoon and evening, and (2) higher proportions of scamp spawned around new moon and full moon.<br/><br/><em>Size at maturity and mortality</em><br/>Scamp live for at least 30 years, and attain sizes as great as 107.0 cm (42.4 in) TL and 14.2 kg (31.3 lbs). Natural mortality rate is estimated to be 0.15 (Potts and Brennan 2001).  Length and age at first spawning of females off North Carolina to southeast Florida is 30.0 to 35.0 cm (11.9 to 13.8 in) TL and age one. Length and age at 50% maturity is 35.3 cm (13.9 in) TL and 1.28 years, respectively (Haris <em>et al.</em> 2002). In a study conducted in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, all fish larger than 35.0 cm TL were sexually mature.<br/><br/><em>Feeding</em><br/>Fish are the primary prey of this species.	eng
132729	population	Rocha, L., McGovern, J.C., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>It is an abundant species below 60 m, and it is not currently in decline.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The US South Atlantic stock was assessed in 1997. The Gulf of Mexico stock has not been assessed. The US South Atlantic stock was not experiencing overfishing and was not overfished (Potts and Brennan 2001). The US 2006 Report to Congress indicates that the overfished status of scamp in the Atlantic was unknown since biomass with respect to a minimum stock size threshold was not specified by the 1997 assessment. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico annual commercial catch have been fairly constant. Recreational landings show a good bit of fluctuation.<br/><br/><em>Size</em><br/>Median length decreased significantly from 610 mm TL in 1979 to 1989 to 570 mm TL in 1990 to 1997, although there were no significant differences in the median age, size at maturity, and age at maturity between periods. The percentage of males declined from 34% to 21% for specimens >500 mm TL, although the sample size was much smaller during the earlier period (336 vs 1,645). The percentage of scamp age 10 and older declined from 17% in 1979 to 1989 to 7% in 1990 to 1997 (Haris <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
132729	threats	Rocha, L., McGovern, J.C., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Oculina</em> coral formations are threatened by bottom trawling, and aggregations (both spawning and feeding) of scamp are strongly associated with this habitat. Since there are no signs of overfishing, the major current threat is habitat destruction; <em>Oculina</em> banks are very fragile and easily destroyed.	eng
132730	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> may occur in some protected areas within its range, but it is likely that it occurs too deep to be protected by most coastal MPAs. In the Gulf of California, there needs to be regulation of harvests as the current level is unsustainable.	eng
132730	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Hyporthodus</em> <em>acanthistius</em> is an eastern Pacific species with a distribution from southern California (USA) to central Peru.	eng
132730	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is a demersal species found in reefs and sandy bottoms near the coast at depths of 46 to 90 m.	eng
132730	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is common in fisheries throughout the Gulf of California and in central Mexico, and is  occasionally taken on the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico. There is only a single record of the species in southern California.	eng
132730	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> is targeted by recreational fishing, but is only incidentally caught in commercial fishery in the southern portion of its range. In the Gulf of California, it is targeted by artisanal fishermen at a level constituting a major threat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Hyporthodus</em><em> acanthistius</em> was reported to comprise 1.2% of the total fish catch in Colima, Mexico, from 1983 to 1998 based on surveys of 5 to 20 boats (Espino-Barr <em>et al.</em> 2004). The same reference reports the total fishery of Colima to catch ~25 kg/day of fish based on the effort of ~1,000 boats working ~250 days/year. (by extrapolation 0.3 kg/day of <em>H. acanthistius</em> are taken).	eng
132731	conservation	Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is very little information on its abundance, its size distribution, reproduction or life span. It will gain from marine reserves or protection of the reef habitat. Harvest management of this species is needed as it is heavily fished throughout its range.	eng
132731	distribution	Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is found on coral reef islands from Japan to Pitcairn, including Ogasawara, Pitcairn, Marshall Islands (Rigili island, Enewetak), Bikini, Yuroshi Island, Society (Tahiti), Tuamotu, Kiribati (Canton Island), Samoa, Northern Mariana, Tuvalu, Fanning Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra, Phoenix, Australe, Cook, Gambier, Rapa, Mururoa, Guam, Northern Marianas, Dulcie, Henderson, Marcus. It is not reported from Melanesia (New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Tonga) or Caroline Islands.	eng
132731	habitat	Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus socialis</em>is found in a very specific habitat: the shallow part of reef flats exposed to the wave action from the ocean. It is found in less than 10 m and most records are from less than 3 m deep. The habitat of this species is not very large in most of the islands where it is found. Known to reach at least 52 cm TL, most fish less than 35 cm. In parts of its range it is probably not eaten because of risks of ciguatera. It is not dependent on coral cover.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species lives on the bottom where it feeds on fish and benthic invertebrates (crustaceans, octopus). Ambushes its preys. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Nothing reported on its reproduction.	eng
132731	population	Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	The population size of <em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is unknown and the very few accounts of population densities, size range or catch data are not sufficient to clearly define the population status. However, all the available information points to low natural abundances and restricted biotope. Populations can be considered as very fragmented. Local extinction is likely on such islands, with however a strong potential for re-colonization from nearby less populated or disturbed islands.	eng
132731	threats	Kulbicki, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus socialis</em> is threatened mainly by subsistence fishing. This species is mainly threatened on islands with high human densities and easy access to reef flats exposed to oceanic action. It is very vulnerable to fishing as adults and juveniles live on reefs easily accessible and do not require sophisticated means to be caught. This species is never abundant and its relatively large adult size makes it a favored target for subsistence fishing over most of its range. In some highly populated islands (e.g., Tahiti, Tarawa) pollution of shallow oceanic reefs and coastal development (roads, peers, runways, hotels, etc.) may also be the cause for habitat degradation and decrease in prey abundance. The specificities of its habitat (shallow, close to shore) makes it very sensitive to cyclones and pollution (agriculture, terrestrial runoffs, etc.).	eng
132732	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Kulbicki, M., Fennesy, S., Heemstra, P.C. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is found in marine protected areas within its range, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. No other measures specific to the species.	eng
132732	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Kulbicki, M., Fennesy, S., Heemstra, P.C. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species recorded from the Red Sea to Durban (South Africa) and eastward to the Line Islands. Its range includes most islands in the Indian and west-central Pacific oceans. The species is absent from the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It also is recorded from the East Andaman Sea, Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), and India (southwest tip) (Myers distributional database 2006). Misidentified as <em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> from Reuníon (Postel <em>et al.</em> 1963).	eng
132732	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Kulbicki, M., Fennesy, S., Heemstra, P.C. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> inhabits clear waters of coral reefs and is more often found in exposed rather than protected reef areas (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). On the Barrier Reef, only found in outer shelf back-reef areas (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> feeds on fishes (80%, mainly <em>Pseudanthias squamipinnis</em>) and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The species forms haremic groups comprising of a dominant male and two to 12 females; haremic groups occupy territories of up to 475 sq m subdivided into secondary territories and defended by a single female (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991). The species is listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite, but has not been confirmed through histological analysis (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). Sex ratio in New Caledonia 84 females to four males. Males were larger, but immature; females were found mature at 23 cm TL (IRD database).	eng
132732	population	Cabanban, A.S., Kulbicki, M., Fennesy, S., Heemstra, P.C. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is common in most coral-rich areas within its range (Myers pers. comm.) and is generally common in the Red Sea (Lieske and Myers 1994) but low in numbers (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Relative abundance (RA = 0.05) = pooled number of species in all censuses/total number of individuals in all censuses x 100 (Rilov and Benayahu 1998). <br/><br/>Frequency of appearance (Red Sea) (FA=no. of censuses in which the species was found/total number of censuses x 100) = 21.2 (Rilov and Benayahu 1998).<br/><br/>Densities 0.03 indiv/1,000 m² in shallow reef in New Caledonia, but higher abundance 0.8/1,000 m² on bommies (IRD database). <br/><br/>It shows stable abundances in New Caledonia over a ten-year survey period (IRD database). It is common in coral reef marine reserve in South Africa (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993). The species are not abundant in shallow waters in areas surveyed along the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Constitutes 3% of serranid catch in New Caledonia (IRD database) and less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132732	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Kulbicki, M., Fennesy, S., Heemstra, P.C. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis miniata</em> is threatened by both overfishing and habitat degradation (fish-bombing, sedimentation). It is a common species of economic importance to local fisheries and is captured by hook and line, spear and traps. It is a component of the live reef fish trade, but occurs in unknown quantities. No population trend data is available (citation from Annadel-Busing). The species constitutes less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Declines in catch of serranids from Sabah includes an unknown sub-component of <em>C. miniata</em> (Cabanban and Biusing, submitted to NAGA).	eng
132733	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em>, although it occurs in various marine parks throughout Baja California (Loreto, Cabo Pulmo) and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
132733	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> is an eastern Pacific species that is narrowly distributed from the Gulf of California to Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands.	eng
132733	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> is a common, shy and secretive reef-associated, non-migratory species that is found on coral reefs and rocky shore habitats. Maximum depth to at least 30 m. Maximum size recently increased to 387 mm TL (M. Craig SIOMVC). There is one doubtful record to 76 m. It prefers shallower, warmer water than many of its congeners.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>B. Erisman recent confirmed protogyny for the species. Spawning peaks in July/August in Loreto, Mexico (B. Erisman, SIO, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Age</strong><br/>Maximum age is approximately 25 years (Craig <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
132733	population	Craig, M.T., 2008	There is currently limited information on populations of <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> over its range.<br/><br/>The population of <em>C. panamensis</em> in Loreto (Baja California) appears stable from informal surveys 2000-2007 (B. Erisman, MTC pers. obs.). <br/><br/>REEF surveys indicate ~55 to 60% site frequency from 2000 to 2006 (www.reef.org).<br/><br/>Anecdotal surveys by B. Erisman and M. Buckhorn indicate its population has been, and continues to be stable (six years of survey). REEF surveys also indicate that the population has remained stable since 2000. While the species is incidentally caught and may be taken by subsistence fisherman, there is no direct threat to this species by intentional harvest.	eng
132733	threats	Craig, M.T., 2008	Threat levels for <em>Cephalopholis panamensis</em> are low. It is primarily targeted by subsistence and recreational fisheries and occurs as incidental catch in the commercial fishery.	eng
132734	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L., 2008	The depth range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is outside of most protected areas.	eng
132734	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>niphobles</em> is an Eastern Pacific species narrowly distributed from northern California to Peru.	eng
132734	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is a demersal, deepwater species found in deep rocky reef and soft bottom. Juveniles have been collected in relatively shallow water.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is reported to be often caught in shrimp trawls in central Gulf of California, but is too rare to be of commercial interest.	eng
132734	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> appears to be naturally rare throughout its range and there is very little population information. It is not known if it is in decline.	eng
132734	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em></em><em>niphobles</em> is incidentally taken in subsistence and recreational fisheries and is also caught by shrimp trawl (Gulf of California), but it is unknown if these activities present a major threat.	eng
132735	conservation	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory) and there is nothing specific for the species. In shallower coastal areas, it may occur in some marine protected areas within its range, but not at its lower depth range.	eng
132735	distribution	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Pakistan, India, Viet Nam, Hong Kong, China (Shanghai), Korea, southern Japan, Taiwan, and northwest Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is unknown from the east coast of Africa, the Indian Ocean islands, Indonesia, Philippines, or Papua New Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory), Bahrain, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong - Hainan, Guangxi, Shandong, Shanghai, Zhejiang), Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Hong Kong, India (Dadra-Nagar-Haveli, Daman, Diu, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mahé, Tamil Nadu), Iran, Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, and Viet Nam.	eng
132735	habitat	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> seems to prefer continental localities and bottoms of low relief. Its maximum size is 137 cm SL, with a maximum published weight of 58.6 kg (Randall and Heemstra 1991). The reported depth range is from 20 to at least 230 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Large individuals are taken on coarse sand or rocky areas, while the smaller ones live on silty-sand and muddy bottom. Also caught throughout the year by longliners.	eng
132735	population	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is common in markets in Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore and the Persian Gulf. No population trends have been established for the species.	eng
132735	threats	Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus latifasciatus</em> is commercial fishing and it is common in markets of the Persian Gulf, Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan.  It can be caught with hook and line, long-line, trawl and traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is rarely observed in the live fish trade in  Hong Kong.	eng
132736	conservation	Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Kulbicki, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, including Ningaloo reef park in Western Australia and the GBR Marine Park and MPA in the Philippines.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.	eng
132736	distribution	Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Kulbicki, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species that is distributed from East Africa to the western Pacific, southward into temperate waters of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. It is not known from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf or Fiji.	eng
132736	habitat	Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Kulbicki, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs on coral reefs, areas with rocky substrata, algal flats and seagrass beds. In New Caledonia, it is found on soft bottoms with scattered hard bottomed refugia (IRD database). The largest recorded specimen in New Caledonia is 47 cm.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and crustaceans.  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, growth and larval development</strong><br/>A monandric, protogynous hermaphrodite that forms spawning aggregations. <em>E rivulatus</em> has a fast growth rate (Table 3), although it is relatively long-lived, having been aged to 24 years (Mackie 1998). It matures at a small size/age, with the smallest mature female recorded at 144 mm TL, one year in Australia (Mackie 1998); the smallest mature male was 221 mm TL two years in Australia (Mackie 1998). The mean age of males was significantly greater than females (Australia 9.4 vs. 4.6 years, Mackie 1998). The mean size of males was significantly larger than females (South Africa 338 vs. 298 mm TL; Fennessy 2000) and was consistently significantly larger for males from a range of sites on Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia (Mackie 1998). Monandric protogynous sex change has been confirmed in this species, based on the occurrence of transitional individuals, gonad morphology and the absence of males below the female size at maturity (Mackie 2000, Fennessy 2000). Size at sex change varied in Western Australia from 263 to 315 mm TL (Mackie, 2000). Based on manipulative experiments, sex change was shown to be determined by the relative numbers of males and large females in the area (Mackie 2003) and could occur within a short period of about 3 weeks (Mackie 2003, 2006). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: growth parameters for <em>E. rivulatus</em>.<br/><br/>In South Africa, based on sampling of commercial catches, males outnumbered females 1.25:1 as a consequence of the fishery targeting larger individuals (Fennessy 2000). In contrast, at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, in an area closed to fishing and based on research sampling, females were five to six times more numerous than males. Females had overlapping home ranges, while males were territorial towards each other and their territories rarely overlapped (Mackie 1998, 2000). Males aggressively defended their territories during the spawning season. Fish were reproductively active over an extended period in the austral winter and spring in both Australia and South Africa (July to December; Mackie 2000, Fennessy 2000), when water temperatures are cooler. Peak spawning occurred from September to December (Australia) and August to November (South Africa). Nzioka (1979) recorded ripe fish in October in Tanzania, while Morgans (1964) reported ripe fish in August off Kenya. Mackie (in press) observed that they do not form spawning aggregations at Ningaloo Reef, although numbers of females in male territories increased up to threefold during the spawning period; he ascribed the non-formation of “classic” aggregations as a consequence of this species naturally occurring in relatively high densities in this area. Spawning occurred in pairs, with gametes being released about 1.5 m above the substratum (Mackie in press). Spawning occurred after sunset (probably throughout the night) during a six day period over the full moon, followed by a 20 day period of no spawning during which gametes were replenished. In an adjacent area to the study area, spawning also occurred as the moon phase waned, but not as it waxed. Based on otolith micro-increment analysis, the larvae remained in the plankton for 21 to 61 days (Mackie 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Length-weight relationships</strong><br/>Wt g = 0.0114 x FL cm3.0862 (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005)<br/>Wt g = 0.000006902 x FL mm3.1148 (Australia: Mackie 1998)<br/>Wt g = 0.0000196 x TL mm2.968 (South Africa: Fennessy 2000)	eng
132736	population	Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Kulbicki, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> is a widespread and often very common small grouper. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Experimental catch decreased by about 50% in New Caledonia between 1987 and 2000 (IRD database). This species comprised 5% of the serranid catch. Recreational fishing off northern Natal - 40% decline in catch rate over a 15 year period. In Mozambique catches have been extremely variable over a 12 to 13 year period.<br/><br/>Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial linefishery shows that by 2002, fishing effort (no. of fishing days) had declined by half to that in 1993, and, from 2000, boats started to increasingly fish further north and on deeper (to 190 m) reefs as catches on the southern reefs declined (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003) (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><br/>The only other long-term data set on catch is that from Richards Bay on the east coast of South Africa, in which recreational hook and line catches from boats are monitored. This fishery commenced in the mid-1980s, but monitoring data are only available from the early 1990s. Figure 1 suggests that catch rates of <em>E. rivulatus</em> generally declined from 1991 to 1999, and then appear to have stabilized at a level approximately 40% of that in 1991. For the commercial sector, the time series is much shorter and inconsistent, possibly because these boats have gradually expanded their area of operation as catches on inshore reefs (where the recreational sector mainly fish) declined. <br/> <br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: long-term boat-based hook and line catch data from Richards Bay on the east coast of South Africa.<br/><br/>Neither of these sectors can be said to target <em>E. rivulatus</em> – although numbers caught in the commercial sector are quite high, they contribute very little to overall catches, which are dominated by sparids. The fishery is also quite different (recreational and small-scale commercial, operating from relatively sophisticated craft on non-coral reefs in relatively rough seas) to that practiced elsewhere in the range of this species, except perhaps in Australia. It is therefore not appropriate to extrapolate between the status of the species in Richard Bay and elsewhere. <br/><br/>Using per-recruit modeling which did not incorporate the effects of sex change, Fennessy (2000) reported that spawner-biomass-per-recruit levels were 82 to 87% of the unfished level in two sites in South Africa (including the Richards Bay area) in the mid-1990s, even when a wide range of fishing mortality was applied. This was ascribed to the rapid growth rate, the high rate of natural mortality (0.75 to 0.8 yr<sup>-1</sup> in South Africa, 0.994 yr<sup>-1</sup> in Australia) and the observation that the age at first capture (four years) was greater than the age at maturity (1.9 to 2.3 yrs), and greater than/close to the age at sex change (2.2 to 4.3 yrs).  Essentially, the fishery targeted larger fish, allowing <em>E. rivulatus</em> to spawn several times before it recruited to the fishery. <em>E. rivulatus</em> does not form dense aggregations in order to spawn, although it can occur in fairly high densities. As well as reducing their vulnerability to fishing relative to species which do aggregate, this feature facilitates regular interaction between males and females which forms the basis of social cues for sex change. Further, the common occurrence of non-functional spermatic tissue in ovaries, and the simultaneous proliferation and degeneration of male and female tissues, was suggested by Mackie (2006) as mechanisms to facilitate rapid sex change. Together, these features suggest that <em>E. rivulatus</em> can compensate for the selective removal of males by fishing (observed in the South African fishery), which partially determines the extent to which stock can be harvested, as theoretically predicted by (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> (1987) and Huntsman and Schaaf (1994). Overall, a combination of small size, fast growth, early maturity, early and rapid sex change has better equipped this species to withstand fishing pressure than many other groupers.<br/><br/>However, the per-recruit assessment is already 10 years old. While fishing pressure in Richards Bay is not increasing, the commercial sector is seeking reefs further and further from the launch site as catch rates decline on inshore reefs (reflected in the recreational catches). While the modal size of this species has not changed over almost 20 years, it is apparent that the smaller size classes now make a more substantial contribution to the catch than before (Table 2), suggesting that this population is under some pressure (notwithstanding its resilience described above).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>E. rivulatus</em>: handline and longline catches from New Caledonia.	eng
132736	threats	Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Kulbicki, M. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to <em>Epinephelus rivulatus</em> are overfishing and loss of habitat. <br/><br/><strong>Loss of habitat</strong><br/>Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006).	eng
132737	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> occurs within marine protected areas within some parts of its range.	eng
132737	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is distributed in the Indo-Pacific, ranging from East Africa (but not the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, or South Africa) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to northern Australia. Its range includes most islands of the Indian Ocean and those of the west-central Pacific (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also reported from Réunion (Leternour 1996), and is found in the east Andaman Sea (Allen and Stone 2005).<br/><br/>One record from Rodríguez by Heemstra and Randall (1984) could not be verified and is probably erroneous (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132737	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species found at depths of 1 to 40 m. Leopard Hind occur in coral-rich areas of lagoon pinnacles, channels, and outer reef slopes. The species is solitary (Myers 1999) and secretive, usually hiding in caves and crevices in the reefs. Leopard Hind are one of the smallest species of groupers known.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Leopard Hind diet is omnivorous with a diet composed of fish and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Life history</strong> <br/>The species reproduces late in life and has a low GSI. Leopard Hind seldom form schools and are often territorial. It exhibits low growth after first reproduction and has low mortality; life-span 7 to 12 years (Mellin <em>et al. </em> 2006).	eng
132737	population	Cabanban, A.S., Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> has variable abundance across its range. It is common in the western Indian Ocean, but uncommon in the Great Barrier Reef and Reunion.	eng
132737	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	The major threat to <em>Cephalopholis leopardus</em> is habitat degradation from fish-bombing, sedimentation and eutrophication. It is not a specific target of commercial fisheries, although it is fished for subsistence purposes. The species is not commercially important in Papua New Guinea (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006) and is recorded in the trap fisheries in Mozambique. It is typically lumped with other serranids in catch records. Leopard Hind are present in the Maldives live food fish trade; no export quota established for this species.	eng
132738	conservation	Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>V. louti</em> occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132738	distribution	Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola louti</em> occurs throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific region from the Red Sea to the Pitcairn Islands of eastern Oceania. It is found along the east coast of Africa south to Durban (South Africa) and along the western coast of Australia to Shark Bay. This common and widely distributed grouper is known from most of the tropical islands of the Indian and west central Pacific oceans. In the western Pacific it ranges from Japan (southern Honshu) to New South Wales (Australia). It has not been found in the Persian Gulf or the Hawaiian Islands (USA).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Gulf of Aquaba, Gulf of Aden, south Oman, Socotra (Yemen), east Somalia, East Africa to 28°S, Comoros, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabara, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrígues, Chagos, Maldives, Laccadives, Sri Lanka, Andamans, west Thailand, Myanmar, Sumatra, Bali, Sangakkaki, Borneo, east Indonesia, Minado, Togean Islands, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo Sunda Island, Raja Ampat, west Papua, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, Asmore, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, NW Australian coast, Phillippines, Sprately Island, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Chesterfields, Elizabeth & Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe island, south Taiwan, Peng hu shan, Ryukyu, Kawhisi-jima, south Japan, Izu Is, Ogosawara, Palau, Yap, Pohnpei, Ifalik, Chuuk, Kapingamarangi, Kosrae, south Marianas, north Marianas, Marshall Islands, Wake Island, Fiji, Rotuma, Tonga, Uvea, Samoa, Tuvalu, Phoenix, Line Island, Society Islands, Tuamotos, Gambier, Marquesas, Austral Island, Rapa, and Pitcairn (Myer distributional database 2006).	eng
132738	habitat	Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is a coral reef-associated species found at depths of 3 to 240 m. Yellow-edged lyretail are usually seen in clear-water areas at depths below 15 m. <em>V. louti</em> prefers islands and offshore reefs, rather than continental shores. There is evidence of ciguatera in this species in the western Indian Ocean (Opic <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species feeds primarily on fishes, including a variety of coral-reef species; crustacean prey comprises crabs, shrimps, and stomatopods. <br/><br/><strong>Reproductive</strong><br/>Morgans (1982) reported mature females of 33 cm standard length, and spawning, which occurred between December and February.<br/><br/>Robinson <em>et al.</em> in prep have provided details of the reproductive biology of <em>V. louti</em> in the Western Indian Ocean. The size by sex distribution tends to suggest protogyny (Heemstra and Randall 1993), with females ranging from 300 to 600 mm FL and males from 300 to 700 mm FL. However until these data are examined in terms of age structure associated with histological analysis of smaller/younger individuals, protogyny cannot be confirmed. Distribution of females reproductive activity over the annual cycle suggests two spawning peaks based on the distribution of GSI values and the presence of hydrated oocytes. The highest GSI values associated with the presence of hydrated oocyctes where in March April and October. In both periods GSI fell abruptly following the presumed spawning periods.<br/><br/><strong>Growth</strong><br/>Demographic data are available for the Indian Ocean populations of <em>V. louti </em> (Grandcourt 2005).<br/>Growth parameters; Linf  510 mm FL,  K  0.48, M  0.28. The sample comprised individuals collected from Aldabara Atoll with Lmax 600 mm FL and Tmax 15 yrs.	eng
132738	population	Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is a widespread grouper species that is abundant in the Western Indian Ocean gradually reaching low density east to the Western  Pacific. In areas with detailed fishery records, this species has declined sharply over 20 years period.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> abundance patterns differ sharply over their range with the major contrasts being between the western Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific. In the west Pacific, using UVC, <em>V. louti</em> was found to be one of the less abundant serranids on the Great Barrier Reef within the 5 to 0 m depth range. Analysis by habitat on the northern GBR (Pears 2005) demonstrated greater abundances on exposed reef fronts. <br/><br/>Abundances are expressed as no. per 1,000 m².<br/><br/><em>MidShelf</em><br/>Lagoon  0<br/>Back reef  0<br/>Front reef  0.25±0.2<br/><br/><em>Outer Shelf</em><br/>Lagoon  0<br/>Back reef  0.45±0.4<br/>Front reef  1.3±0.6<br/><br/>On a north/south gradient on the Great Barrier Reef with habitats combined <em>V. louti</em> was found to be marginally more abundant in the north.<br/><br/>Localities: Lizard 0.1±0.02; Tvlle 0.2±0.05; McKay 0; Pompey 0.<br/><br/>The carbonate reef systems of the  western Indian Ocean supports abundant populations of <em>V. louti</em>. Abundances of <em>V. louti</em> on these reefs are equivalent to those of <em>Plectropomus leopardus</em> on the Great Barrier Reef. Each species appears to have a similar ecological role in the different regions. <br/><br/>Sampling WIO (Seychelles) Abundances are expressed as no. per 1,000 m².<br/><br/>Regions: Grantic reefs (Mahe) 0.1±0.08; North Amirantes 8.2±1.4; South Amirantes 5.1±1.3; Farquahar Atoll 3.5±0.8.<br/><br/>Zeller (2006) provides some catch trends from the Northern Marianas, Guam and American Samoa.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figures 1</strong>, <strong>2</strong> and <strong>3</strong>	eng
132738	threats	Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>V. louti</em> is overfishing. This species is also present in the aquarium trade and live fish food trade.<br/><br/><strong>Fishing</strong><br/><em>V. louti</em> is fished over most of its range and contributes to the Live Reef Fish Food Trade (LRFT) (Lau and Li 2000). In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), this species contributes to both local commercial (Grandcourt 2005) and Live Reef Food Fish Trade (Satter and Adams 2005). In the western and central Pacific <em>V. louti</em> has been fished intensively in the northern Mariana Islands for at least 25 years with landings maintained at  6 to 8 metric tonnes in the 1960s following by an increasing decline to 15 to 20% of this catch in the 1990s with this low rate being maintained through 2000 (Zeller 2006) (Fig 1). The recent Samoan fishery has shown fluctuating landings but an overall decline (Fig 2). The Guam fishery is erratic and relatively small with no trends (Fig 3). The combination of relatively low densities and declining catch rates indicates that this species is probably overfished in the West Pacific. Indian Ocean populations appear to be healthy although this species is considered to be one of the more important elements of the LRFT in the Maldives and as one of the eight most important species for export has a quota of 30,000 individuals (Sattar and Adams, 2005). Grandcourt (2005) suggests a fast growing high turnover species that maintains high abundance in the WIO (Pears 2005). However the magnitude of the decline in landings of this species in the West Pacific (Zeller 2006) and the evidence of declines in the Maldives associated with the LRFT suggests that this species is overexploited.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figures 1</strong>, <strong>2</strong> and <strong>3</strong>	eng
132739	conservation	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Choat, J.H., 2008	No specific conservation actions are known, though <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> may be present in some marine protected areas within its range. More information is needed from fisheries to determine the population status and trend.	eng
132739	distribution	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> has a wide tropical (27°N to 13°S) Indo-West Pacific distribution, ranging from East Africa to southern India and Sri Lanka in the northern Indian Ocean, to Taiwan in the north and the Solomon Islands in the east in the central western Pacific Ocean.	eng
132739	habitat	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although generally considered to be a reef-associated species, <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> also lives on offshore banks and on open silty sand and mud substrates, where it seeks refuge in holes in the bottom or around solid structures, including shipwrecks or other bottom debris. Adults generally live at depths of ~25 to 90 m, and juveniles as shallow as 5 m. Juveniles living around <em>Montipora</em> coral colonies in the Gulf of Mannar (India/Sri Lanka) comprised the second most abundant (at 12%) of the grouper species “fry” occurring in this habitat (Ramesh 1996). It reaches a maximum total length of ~75 cm (females maturing at ~55 cm).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The species is a macrofaunal predator, feeding mainly on small fishes and crustaceans, but also on pelagic tunicates.	eng
132739	population	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Choat, J.H., 2008	The population status of <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is unknown, although it is apparently relatively common at least in Sri Lanka and southern India. According to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species is (or at least was) common on the North Kenya Banks off Lamu and in the Wadge Bank trawl fishery off the west coast of Sri Lanka (see also Munasinghe 1972).	eng
132739	threats	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B.P. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is heavily fished in southern India and Sri Lanka, but it is not known what impact this has on the global population. According to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species is (or at least was) common on the North Kenya Banks off Lamu and in the Wadge Bank trawl fishery off the west coast of Sri Lanka (<em>see also</em> Munasinghe 1972). It is also of some importance in the fishery along the Tamil Nadu coast of India, where it is caught with hooks and lines, vertical longlines, trawls, gill nets and fish traps. According to Deveraj and Murty (undated), in the Gulf of Mannar this species comprises ~6% of the grouper catch, which in turn comprises ~25% of the overall reef fish catch, in this primarily hook and line fishery. Devaraj (1996) states that:  “A private company (Scanet Aqua) is currently operating a net cage at Tuticorin in the Gulf of Mannar for captive holding and fattening of grouper for live export in ships to Hong Kong. The company exported in 1996 about 20 tons of live groupers”. <em>Epinephelus undulosus</em> is likely to be one of the species involved in this export trade.	eng
132740	conservation	Samoilys, M., Rocha, L. & Choat, J.H., 2008	Fisheries regulations are reasonably well enforced in Seychelles, and increased protection of spawning aggregations for <em>Epinephelus multinotatus </em>and other grouper species is currently under discussion (Robinson <em>et al.</em> in review).<br/><br/>Fisheries management is well established in Western Australia through five separate commercial fishing zones for a mixed demersal fishery which includes <em>E. </em><em>multinotatus</em>. The management plans are under review considering concerns of growth overfishing. Ningaloo Marine Park which is closed to commercial fishing provides protection to this species (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
132740	distribution	Samoilys, M., Rocha, L. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is a western Indian Ocean species that is distributed along mainland East Africa and in the island states (Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar), Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman and most of the Western Australia coast.<br/><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is not listed in Australia’s Northern Territory Museum records (Barry Russell pers. comm. 30th January 2007)<br/><br/><strong>Genetic sub-populations</strong><br/>Shark Bay, Ningaloo, Pilbara and Broome locations in western Australia recognised as separate stocks from genetic studies which supports the current approach of four separate fisheries management plans for this species (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
132740	habitat	Samoilys, M., Rocha, L. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is a reef-associated species found on drop-offs and banks throughout the Seychelles from 10 m to over 100 m (Robinson, pers. comm. 2007), and from deep rocky reefs at 20 to 110 m depths in Western Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations of <em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> are reported during peak reproductive months (Wheeler and Ommanney 1953, Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2004) and probably non-aggregating spawning at other times (derived from Robinson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Reproductive seasonality is 12 months, with peak of 3 to 4 months (Aug. to Oct.) when spawning aggregations occur (Robinson <em>et al.</em>, in review).<br/><br/>Sex change parameters (sex ratio fished and unfished, size of sex change, type of hermphroditism, etc.): M:F – 1:2.1 (lightly fished, Seychelles, Farquar atoll, Robinson <em>et al.</em> in review).	eng
132740	population	Samoilys, M., Rocha, L. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> has three separate sub-populations in the Indian Ocean as recognised by Heemstra and Randall (1993)  based on differences in colour pattern and scale counts:<br/><br/>1) Western Indian Ocean<br/>2) Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman<br/>3) Western Australia<br/><br/>Within Western Australia, there are also three separate sub-populations which are all managed individually.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus mulitnotatus</em> is relatively abundant in the Seychelles and recorded as the most common of the three groupers taken in the demersal handline fisheries (Mees 1992, MRAG 1996). Populations on the granitic islands are now overfished (Jan Robinson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Very limited national deeper (>30m) water fisheries occurring in East Africa, though hook and line, seine, traps and trawl are listed for taking groupers in Tanzanian waters. Some illegal foreign fishing vessels trawling the shelf area beyond territorial waters may be taking this species (Samoilys 2004).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> is the most common of the three groupers taken by the whaler and schooner fisheries in Seychelles (Robinson pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> is listed as occurring in catches from 2000, 2002, and 2003 from commercial hook and line vessels in Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. multinotatus</em> taken in small-scale artisanal fishery around Réunion, as one of 19 <em>Epinephelus</em> species. Total catches are estimated weights provided by fishers (not very reliable) in mt and have declined from around 20 to 45 mt in 1998 to 2002, to 3 mt in 2004 to 2005, though no effort data are provided (Dominique Miossec, IFREMER, La  Réunion, pers comm. January 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries independent</strong><br/>Densities in shallow strata (<20 m) range from 0 to 0.51 fish/1,000 m², with higher densities found in the Amirantes Isles (Pears 2005).<br/><br/>Possibly uncommon in mainland East Africa - not seen in underwater surveys (to ~20 m depth) along the Kenyan coast (Samoilys 1988, pers. obs), or in southern Tanzania’s Mnazi Bay Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (Obura 2004), though this may reflect its deeper range.	eng
132740	threats	Samoilys, M., Rocha, L. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Overfishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/>Overfishing  of <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is reported from the Mahé plateau, Seychelles by the local whaler and schooner fisheries, though fishing pressure reputedly light in the outer islands and atolls (Robinson pers comm. 2007). Growth overfishing is reported from the trawl fishery in Western Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is taken in multispecies demersal fisheries in north Western Australia – taken by a trawl fishery in Pilbara region, and by trap and line fisheries in the Broome region, W. Australia (Stephenson <em>et al.</em> 2001). <em>Epinephelus multinotatus</em> is the most heavily fished grouper in Western Australia.	eng
132741	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R., Yeeting, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is found in marine protected areas throughout its range, including the Great Barrier Reef. No specific measures for the species.	eng
132741	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R., Yeeting, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species, occurring from the Red Sea to South Africa, and eastward to Tahiti (French Polynesia). It has been reported from the Arafura Sea (Russel and Houston 1989). It has also been recorded from Yemen (Rouphael <em>et al.</em> 1998). Reports by Heemstra and Randall (1984) from the Gulf of Oman, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka are unsubstantiated. It is absent from the Persian Gulf and is not yet known from Lakshadweep Islands (India).	eng
132741	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R., Yeeting, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is a reef-associated species ranging in depth from 6 to 150 m. It is found in rich coastal to outer reefs, usually along deep walls with caves, rich with invertebrate growth such as large sponges or soft corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The species is also found inside the lagoon (Sluka 2002). <em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is a secretive species that is active nocturnally in shallow water and diurnally in deeper water (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991b). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> feeds mainly on fishes (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and maturity</strong><br/>Length at maturity = 24.91 cm (Mangi and Roberts 2006).<br/>Maximum total length = 50 cm TL (Randall 1995); Linf = 220 mm SL, K =0.63 (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/>150 to 240 mm SL = 2 to 8 years (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
132741	population	Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R., Yeeting, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is common in specific reef habitats on outer coral reef slopes (caves and crevices) (Randall and Heemstra 1991) and also on deep walls in caves (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>It was uncommon in shallow water visual censuses along the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005). It was also not common in New Caledonia (0.01% of the grouper catch) (IRD database). It is generally rare  in survey and catch statistics (Myers pers comm.). In visual surveys in New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga and French Polynesia, ths species was found only on the outer barrier reef (density=0.2 fish/1,000 m²). (IRD database).	eng
132741	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R., Yeeting, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to <em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> are overfishing and habitat loss.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sexmaculata</em> is incidental and small-scale fishery and found in the Live Reef Fish Trade (LRFT). It is captured for food in artisinal and subsistence fisheries as juveniles (14.4 cm) in Kenya (Mangi and Roberts 2006). <br/><br/>Northern Marianas catch data was 120 kg/yr in 1950s and dropped to and fluctuated around 25 kg/yr from 1986 to  2002 under increasing fishing pressure (Zeller 2006). <br/><br/>It is commercially important in Papua New Guinea but assessed as extremely vulnerable to commercial fishing  (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006). It constitutes less than 1% of catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132742	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of <em>Cephalopholis nigri</em>. Protection of this species' habitat is desirable.	eng
132742	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is an eastern Atlantic species ranging from Senegal to Angola, including the Canary Islands (Spain), and islands of the Gulf of Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Spain (Canary Islands), and Togo.	eng
132742	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> occurs in shallow tropical rocky reefs to a maximum depth of 100 m.	eng
132742	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is a relatively common species, but is not very abundant through its range. <br/><br/><strong> Fisheries-independent</strong><br/>In a recent underwater visual survey in São Tomé island (unpublished) average densities varied from 0.07 to 2.1 fish per 40 m² transect.	eng
132742	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis nigri</em> is fished with spear and hook and line in São Tomé and Príncipe for subsistence but it is not currently considered a major threat. In the future, it may become a major threat.	eng
132743	conservation	Pollard, D., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range. No other known actions are reported for this species.	eng
132743	distribution	Pollard, D., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed from western India to the Philippines, north to southern Japan (Honshu), and south to northern Australia. '<em>Epinephelus formosus</em>' from Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius are probably based on mis-identifications of <em>Cephalopholis polleni</em>. The species is confused with <em>Cephalopholis boenak</em>.	eng
132743	habitat	Pollard, D., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is a reef-associated species that prefers shallow (10 to 30 m) dead or silty reefs. This may account for the primarily continental distributions of this species and <em>C. boenak</em>. Within this range it generally doesn’t occur around oceanic islands and atolls (except the Lakshadweeps).<br/><br/>No detailed biological information is available, but the maximum recorded size is 34 cm TL.	eng
132743	population	Pollard, D., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	The population status of <em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is unknown, but the species is apparently relatively common, for example, in western India (Sluka and Lazarus, unpub.). There are, however, no known separate fisheries statistics.	eng
132743	threats	Pollard, D., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis formosa</em> is threatened with overfishing through incidental catch.	eng
132744	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	Spotted grouper are present in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132744	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> occurs in the eastern Pacific from southern California (USA) to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, and Galápagos islands.	eng
132744	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> is reef-associated, being abundant in patch and rocky reefs where it is readily caught by anglers. Spotted groupers feed mainly on crustaceans and fishes on rocky and sandy bottoms. During winter, individuals move closer to the shore and feeds heavily on swarms of pelagic red crab <em>Pleuroncodes planipes</em>.	eng
132744	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus analous</em> is common throughout its range and the most abundant small grouper in the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. <br/><br/><strong> Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is a reported 18 to 20 tonnes of annual landings of <em>Epinephelus analous</em> in Ecuador and the population appears stable.	eng
132744	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus analous</em> is sought by commercial and recreational fisheries, yet is an abundant species that is not currently threatened by overfishing.	eng
132745	conservation	Kulbicki, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	There are no known protections established for <em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> to date.	eng
132745	distribution	Kulbicki, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> ranges from South Africa to the southern tip of Tuamotu in tropical deep water reefs. It is known from many islands across the Indian and west Pacific oceans. It is seldom found south of the tropic of Capricorn. Its distribution seems patchy in the Indian Ocean but this is probably due to a lack of data. It is found in the Red Sea but absent from the Persian Gulf. In the Pacific it is found in most tropical Pacific islands west of Pitcairn (where it is not reported). Not reported from the subtropical south Pacific (Lord Howe, Kermadec, Rapa).	eng
132745	habitat	Kulbicki, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is found in deep waters (80 to 370 m) on the slopes of islands, sea mounts or continental shelves. Almost nothing is known of it s biology (despite its importance in deep water bottom line fishing). <br/>It has been reported as ciguatoxic in Mauritius.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus morrhua</em>feeds upon benthic fishes and large invertebrates. <br/><br/><strong>Size at catch</strong><br/>Comet grouper reaches a size of 90 to 100 cm. The maximum weight recorded weight is 10 kg from catches during experimental fishing in the South Pacific (however no precise measurement is available). The average weight in deep water line catches in the South Pacific was 2.5 kg, with individuals being smaller (0.9 to 2 kg) in the west (PNG, Solomon Is., Palau) than for small isolated islands (Tuvalu, Tonga seamounts, Cook, French Polynesia, Kiribati) where the fishes ranged on average between 2 and 5 kg with a maximum in Kiribati (7.9 kg). Seasonal variations in the catch suggest that there could be migrations.	eng
132745	population	Kulbicki, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is the most common Serranidae in the catch of bottom line fishing on reefs in Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It is commercially fished in the Red Sea, but it does not seem to be a major component of the deep reef bottom line fishing in the West Indian Ocean. Detailed catch data from experimental fishing is available for most South Pacific islands (most commonly caught serranid) (SPC experimental campaigns in New Caledonia, Vanuatu, PNG, Solomon, Marshall, Yap, Palau, Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Tuamotu, Society Is., Cook Is., Niue, FSM, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Wallis, Futuna), for NW Australia, Torres and Queensland. Some catch information is available for the Maldives, La Réunion, the Red Sea in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>In Mozambique, <em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> makes up 20% of groupers caught in the commercial trap fishery. The species is regularly caught in the commercial line fishery  (FRI database).	eng
132745	threats	Kulbicki, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus morrhua</em> is vulnerable to line fishing but at present there is no location where it seems threatened, although in some areas catch of this species in deepwater fisheries is declining.	eng
132746	conservation	Russell, B., Rhodes, K., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> occurs in marine protected areas within its range, but there are no specific measures for the species.	eng
132746	distribution	Russell, B., Rhodes, K., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species found from Natal, South Africa to the central Pacific. It is not known from the Red Sea nor Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia: New South Wales - Lord Howe Is., Cook Islands, Hong Kong, Indonesia: Bali, Java , Lesser Sunda Is., Moluccas , Papua , Sumatra, Japan: Ogasawara-shoto , Ryukyu Is., Kiribati, Madagascar, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia Federated States of, Mozambique, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea: Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons, Philippines, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal, Taiwan, Province of China ,Tokelau, United States Minor Outlying Islands.	eng
132746	habitat	Russell, B., Rhodes, K., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is a coral reef-associated species occurring in outer reef flats and shallow lagoons (Myers 1999), reportedly in depths less than 7 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993) although also reported to occur in reefs at a depth of about 30 m (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and has appeared in trawls (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984). Its maximum size is reported to be 35.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). There are reports of ciguatera poisoning for this species (Dalzell 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and benthic crustaceans (Masuda and Allen 1993).	eng
132746	population	Russell, B., Rhodes, K., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	Little known about its population or abundance, probably because <em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is a member of the reticulated (hexagonatus) grouper complex and easily confused with other species. It is not commonly observed. It constituted less than 2% of catch in reef fish fisheries in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132746	threats	Russell, B., Rhodes, K., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus melanostigma</em> is found in subsistence fisheries, but because of its small size and apparent rarity, it is of little or no commercial importance. Habitat degradation (coral loss) may also impact this species.	eng
132747	conservation	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, but there are no known measures specific to foursaddle grouper.	eng
132747	distribution	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> has a widespread, primarily insular, tropical Indo-West Pacific distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Central East African coast (Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique); Madagascar and all main tropical Western Indian Ocean Islands including Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, Chagos; Maldives; Laccadives, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India); and other islands throughout the tropical Indian Ocean, and off southern Myanmar, western Thailand and Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Philippines (?), northern Papua New Guinea, Rowley Shoals to Scott Reef (off NW Western Australia), GBR and Coral Sea off northeast Australia and eastwards across the Western Pacific Ocean via Micronesia and Polynesia to the Line Islands. Except for its occurrence along the East African coast, it seems to be a primarily insular species, probably occurring around most or all of the islands of the tropical Indian and Western Pacific Oceans.<br/> <br/>* Contrary to Heemstra and Randall (1993), this species does occur around the coral reefs and islands of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea off NE Australia (Zool. Cat. Aust., Vol 35, Fishes); www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishguide/15744.html).	eng
132747	habitat	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> is a shallow water species (down to ~30 m depth) in insular coral reefs, where it occurs over lagoonal patch reefs, the upper slopes of channels, and reef margins (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>In the Maldives, where it was one of the more common species observed during underwater visual census, it occurs primarily on rubble patches, mainly near their edges and adjacent to areas of high coral relief rather than out in the open (Sluka and Reichenbach 1996). Almost nothing is known about its biology, though it grows to a maximum total length of ~35 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>In Pohnpei, the species was captured primarily by spear on the outer reef, although there was little difference in the percentage of the species captured between out and inner reef locales (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132747	population	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> is apparently relatively common throughout most of its range. Its population trend unknown, but is probably relatively stable.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoeps</em> represented 13.1% of the serranid catch by all combined gear types in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). It was the third most common grouper overall.	eng
132747	threats	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus spilotoceps</em> does not appear to be threatened by overfishing, although the live food fish trade could pose a threat in the future, particularly if spawning aggregations are targeted.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>In the Maldives this species is captured in the live food fish trade, in which it is a common but not particularly important species. In this fishery it has a (nominal) annual export quota of 8000 individuals (Shakeel and Ahmed 1996, Sattar and Adam 2005). It is also listed as a "regulated species" in the Fisheries (Coral Reef Fin Fish) Management Plan 2003 of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Australia), though it is considered to be relatively insignificant in this primarily Great Barrier Reef line fishery (www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishguide). It is no doubt also caught in local artisinal and subsistence fisheries throughout most or all of its range.	eng
132748	conservation	Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is protected by marine protected areas is some parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. There is no export quota in the Maldives.	eng
132748	distribution	Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from Kenya, through Tanzania and Mozambique to South Africa (32°S), and east to the Watubela Group of the eastern Banda Sea. Longspine grouper are not known from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. Records from Fiji are likely <em>E. maculatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Indo-West Pacific: Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Eastern Cape (South Africa), Madagascar, Comoros, Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion, India (Myers distributional database 2006, Sluka and Lazarus unpub.), Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore (Myers distributional database 2006). Sourced from Heemstra and Randall (1993) unless otherwise stated. <br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean islands, west Indian coast (Myers distributional database 2006, Sluka and Lazarus in prep.), Sri Lanka and the smaller northern Indian Ocean islands (Andamans and Nicobars), east Burma Sea, Indonesia/Malaysia (Sumatra, Sunda shelf, Bali, excluding Iryan-Jaya (Myers distributional database 2006)).	eng
132748	habitat	Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits coral reefs or rocky areas and occasionally on sandy bottom at depths of  1 to 70 m. Attains 55 cm (Smith and Heemstra 1986). Heemstra and Randall (1993) report it to attain at least 46 cm SL, 2.7 kg.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Longspine grouper feed mainly on crustaceans, especially crabs and stomatopods, rarely on small fishes, squids, and pelecypod flesh. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Morgans (1964) reported the smallest obviously mature specimen to weigh 3.5 lb (1.59 kg), which, using the Fishbase length-weight (L-W) relationship for the similarly-proportioned <em>E. maculatus</em>, produces a TL estimate of 44 cm. He also reported “Nearly-ripe” fish in August and September. A reproductively ripe fish was obtained in January on the North Kenya Banks (Nzioka 1977). Morgans (1964) reported that stomachs were dominated by stomatopods and also fishes and cephalopods.	eng
132748	population	Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> does not appear to be abundant throughout much of its range, although Heemstra and Randall say it is not uncommon. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) did not record it during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet no <em>E. longispinis</em> were observed. In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Rarely recorded (six individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data). Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Also not reported in subsequent port monitoring of this fishery to 2005 (D. Gove, Director, Instituto de Investigaçao Pesqueira, pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Not recorded during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.) or trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common. Morgans (1964) recorded 17 individuals (2.5% by no. to overall serranid catch) of this species in catches on the North Kenya Banks. Nzioka (1977) recorded catching a single specimen (reported as <em>E. fario</em>) on the North Keya Banks from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes. On the west coast of India, this species was only recorded at two of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.) Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species. Joseph <em>et al.</em> (1987) (reported in James <em>et al.</em> 1996), stated that longspine grouper was one of five groupers that contributed to trawl catches on the south-east coast of India.	eng
132748	threats	Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus longispinus</em> is overfishing, followed by loss of habitat, since episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). <br/><br/>Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004). Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so most of this species’ habitat is exposed to small-scale fishing.	eng
132749	conservation	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Carpenter, K. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	No specific actions for <em>Epinephelus stictus</em>, but there is currently a trawling ban off the coast of China to depths of 0 to 60 (to 100 m in some areas) (since circa 1950s) (Min pers. comm.).	eng
132749	distribution	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Carpenter, K. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is found in the Eastern Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, but known only from southern Japan, Hong Kong, Hainan Islands of China, Viet Nam, South China Sea, Java, and northwest Australia. There is a record from Taiwan (Katayama 1960), but that is dubious (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Australia (Western Australia), China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong–Hainan, Guangxi), Hong Kong, Indonesia (Java), Japan (Shikoku), Taiwan, Viet Nam.	eng
132749	habitat	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Carpenter, K. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is a demersal species that occurs over mud and sand substrata. It has a maximum size of 33.0 cm SL.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is caught by trawling at depths ranging from 37 to 142 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). In Hong Kong, it is trawled at depths ranging from 37 to 92 m (Chan 1968).	eng
132749	population	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Carpenter, K. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	Although <em>Epinephelus stictus</em> was one of the most common species of grouper caught by trawlers in the vicinity of Hong Kong, Chan (1968) reported that it was not of much commercial importance. Small size and edible quality probably account for its low market value.	eng
132749	threats	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Carpenter, K. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus stictus</em> is overfishing, particularly from commercial trawl fishing.	eng
132750	conservation	Craig, M.T., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132750	distribution	Craig, M.T., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is an eastern Pacific species that occurs from Baja California (Mexico) to Peru, including the offshore islands of Cocos, Revillagigedo, and the Galápagos Islands. The range for this species has recently been extended northward to San Diego, California (USA) based on a previously overlooked museum specimen (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006). Other anecdotal records also indicate that this species sparsely populates the Pacific coast of Baja California. It is present in the northern Gulf of California, reaching higher densities in the south.	eng
132750	habitat	Craig, M.T., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rocky reefs to at least 30 m. Adults are most abundant in shallow water and also occurs to a depth of at least 30 m.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a solitary predator that seems to feed on smaller fishes by day and crustaceans after dark. Spawning occurs in late summer.<br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Age and growth studies indicate a maximum age of 30 years (Craig <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Recent unpublished data confirms protogyny (B. Erisman pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Species does not appear to form aggregations in the Gulf of California (B. Erisman pers. comm.)	eng
132750	population	Craig, M.T., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is a very common species throughout its range, especially common in the Galápagos Islands and off Mazatian and Puerto Vallarta (central Mexico).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery dependent</strong><br/>Anecdotal reports indicate that the species has not declined substantially in Loreto (Baja California). <br/><br/><strong>Genetics</strong><br/>Recent genetic survey indicates strong population connectivity throughout entire range.	eng
132750	threats	Craig, M.T., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus labriformis</em> is in subsistence, artisinal, sub-national fisheries, but it is currently not considered a major threat.	eng
132751	conservation	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B., Fennesy, S. & Myers, R., 2008	Some conservation measures are in place regionally for coral reefs (e.g., Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) and also for serranids (e.g., Pohnpei and Palau) that include marine protected areas, size limits prohibitions on SCUBA-based fishing, destructive fishing gears (Dynamite, poisons) and seasonal closures around reproductive periods, although none are specific for <em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em>. Population increases seen in areas following declaration of marine protected areas in North Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
132751	distribution	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B., Fennesy, S. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific and ranges from East Africa south to East London (South Africa) and east to Tonga. It is unknown from the Red Sea, but it does occur in the Persian Gulf. A record from northwestern Australia is doubtful. It is closely related to, and is often confused with, three other white-spotted species: <em>Epinephelus ongus</em>, <em>Epinephelus summana</em>, and <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Seychelles (Pittman 1996), Kuwait (Faraj and Al Tamimi 2003), Australia (Northern Territory, New South Wales, Queensland) (Pollard pers. comm.), Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004), Philippines (Russ and Alcala 1996), Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), Myanmar (Heemstra and Randall 1993), Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), Maldives (Sluka and Reichenbach 1996), New Caledonia (Wantiez and Thollot 2000), Indonesia (Allen pers. comm.) (including Irian Jaya, and all the major island groups), Fiji, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, Kapingamaringi, Ant), Wake Island, Bonin, Japan (Ryuku, Yaeyama, Kashiwa-jima, Ogasawara) (Myers distributional database 2006, Rhodes and Tupper 2007), Taiwan and Pecadores Islands (Kulbicki pers. comm.), Solomon Islands (Allen pers. comm.), Papua New Guinea (Allen pers. comm.), southern and eastern Africa, Madagascar, Réunion and Mauritius, Lakshadweep and western India, Sri Lanka, the Nicobar Islands, Vanuatu, Loyalty Islands, Gilbert Islands, and Tuvalu.	eng
132751	habitat	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B., Fennesy, S. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in rocky or coral-rich areas of deep lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes; usually in or near caves. It is often found in greater abundances on fringing and intermediate reefs relative to barrier reefs. Whitespotted grouper occurs along mid-shelf reef slopes (GBR) (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997). Juveniles are found in mangroves and tide pools. In areas where populations assessments have been conducted, the species appears to be generally rare in most reef areas, but appears to prefer outer reef to lagoon areas. <em>E. coeruleopunctatus</em> is reported to be found in caves (among other reef habitats) along the Queensland portion of the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fish (10 to 15% of its diet) and crustaceans (up to 70% of its diet). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Although the species is fished through much of its range and there are possible indications of spawning aggregation formation and targeting by fisheries, no information is known of its reproductive biology or general life history, including size at sexual maturity, spawning method or size-age relationships.	eng
132751	population	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B., Fennesy, S. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> is a widespread and occasionally observed species, but never abundant. No information on population trends are available. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is little published information on its population status. The species forms part of artisanal, small-scale (e.g., Rhodes and Tupper 2007) and large-scale commercial fisheries in much of its range and is targeted by the live reef food fish trade (LRFFT) (Sadovy and Liu 2006). It is considered of moderate value within the LRFFT relative to other groupers. In Mozambique, the species provides little to commercialo catch (Instituto de Investigao Pesquiera, Maputo). Rhodes and Tupper (2007) found that the species contributed 13.2% to overall catch volume (as weight) of serranids in Pohnpei (Micronesia), although it was rarely observed during a recent REA (Allen and Stone 2005). <em>E. coeruleopunctatus</em> was more common in catch from outside versus inside reef locales in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Indications of spawning aggregation formation were suggested (but not confirmed); targeting by the LRFFT in Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004) and possibly other locales where the fishery is active. In New Caledonia, represents only 0.6% of experimental catch (IRD database). Simiilar densities in Fiji and New Caledonia are reported (50 fish/sq km of reef). Low levels of catch in the line and trap fishery in Mozambique (FRI unpub. data). No males recorded in New Caledonia experimental fishing in mangrove areas and nearshore areas. Mangrove catch was dominated by juveniles (IRD database).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>During dive surveys, along sections of the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, abundances were relatively low in comparison to other serranids (Pears 2005); also in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands (Allen, unpub. data). Rare in the Seychelles and along the Great Barrier Reef (<1/1,000 m²) (Pears 2005).	eng
132751	threats	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B., Fennesy, S. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Although <em>Epinephelus coeruleopunctatus</em> appears to make up a relatively minor component of reef fisheries in areas surveyed and is widely distributed within the Indo-Pacific, the species appears vulnerable to overfishing. In areas where the LRFFT operates, spawning aggregations (if they form) may be vulnerable to extirpation, as shown for other aggregating serranids globally when aggregations are targeted. In other areas, the species may be considered vulnerable to overfishing, including by small-scale commercial fishers, such as those typical of developing islands (e.g. Pohnpei and Palau) (e.g., Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat Loss</strong><br/>Although the species is found on coral reefs, the effects on populations of coral loss from climate change, pollution or reef destruction from physical forces is unknown. The species appears to prefer certain types of corals (branching or tabular forms). The species may also occur in silty areas associated with coral reefs. The species is on the "species of least concern" list for the Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
132752	conservation	Rhodes, K., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	None known.	eng
132752	distribution	Rhodes, K., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em> is an eastern Indian Ocean species known only from Western Australia (Port Wolcott 20°39'S to Yampi 16°08'S). It was illustrated in colour as <em>Epinephelus maculatus</em> by Allen (1985) and Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> (1985). This species has been much confused with other 'reticulated groupers' in the literature, and many museum specimens have been misidentified. G. Allen identified six individuals in Raja Ampat (Indonesia) in 2002 and 35 specimens in 2006 at Fak Fak-Kaimana (Irian Jaya).	eng
132752	habitat	Rhodes, K., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em> is an inshore, reef-associated species found on coral reefs or rocky bottom at depths from four to 50 m. There is no published information on its biology.	eng
132752	population	Rhodes, K., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known population data for <em>Epinephelus bilobatus</em>. It is possibly common in some areas, but rare in Western Australia.	eng
132752	threats	Rhodes, K., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	Its occurrence in areas of Indonesia suggests it is fished by small-scale commercial and subsistence fishers there, but the level of threat is unknown.	eng
132753	conservation	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	Fisheries regulations for <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> are in place for several countries within its range, but enforcement is probably weak. There are no protected area within its range.	eng
132753	distribution	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is known from West coast of India to Yemen coast, but the range may be greater (Randall and Heemstra 1991). However, it does not occur in the Maldives (Anderson pers. comm. 31st Jan 2007).	eng
132753	habitat	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is observed in 10 to 15 m quite frequently, although only along the southern Oman and eastern Yemen coast (J. Kemp pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fsheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is caught from 33 to 100 m in trawls (Randall and Heemstra 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent</strong><br/>Surveys conducted off Muscat using baited remote underwater videos showed their preferred habitat was small rocky outcrops in depths from 70 to 155 m, which is supported by traditional fishermen and recreational fishermen from Muscat (Gulf of Oman) who say the species is difficult to catch because it inhabits deep water (>80 m) and prefers rocky outcrops. In contrast <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is caught in large numbers in the Arabian Sea in >50 m water. "I think the deep water habitat, in which this species is found at locations in the Gulf of Oman, is difficult for fishermen to access, which may inadvertently be offering some refuge to overfishing". This is also suggested in the age structure of this species from the Gulf of Oman where there were many individuals >10 yrs of age, compared to the age structure of samples taken from the Arabian Sea where there were fewer fish >10 yrs, with the sample comprised primarily of 3 to 5 yr old individuals. Though it is also possible that greater fishing pressure in the Arabian Sea has truncated the age structure, removing the older/larger individuals (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex change parameters (sex ratio fished and unfished, size of sex change, type of hermphroditism, etc.): M:F – 1:5<br/>diandric protogynous hermaphroditism (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).	eng
132753	population	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is not well known through its range, in part due to misidentification as <em>E. chlorostigma</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>It is likely to be part of the 'perch' fishery of west India which has operated since the 1960s (James <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>“From monthly sampling at Dibba fish market in Musandam, northern Oman, from March 2004 to March 2005, we found <em>E. polylepis</em> accounted for only 1.4% (in abundance) of all grouper species landed. During the same period, monthly surveys from Muscat (central Oman) reveal <em>E. polylepis</em> accounted for 14% of the total number of grouper landed at the primary landing site at Muttrah” (J. McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>"This species along with <em>E. gabriellae</em> and <em>E. diacanthus</em> is one of the most commonly caught grouper by the Industrial fishery sector which operates foreign-owned and manned trawlers in the Arabian Sea. Unfortunately the Ministry of Fisheries, in compiling their official fisheries statistics, pool all serranid species into one category. In the past 10 yrs the total grouper catch across both the traditional and industrial sectors averages 3,200 t, which has been steadily increasing despite strong evidence from traditional fishermen that CPUE has declined significantly over the same period" (J. McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>UAE – stock assessment data may be available from Bruce Shallard Ltd. (Simon Wilson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Apparently common off Oman in the Arabian Sea (Bianchi 1987 pers. comm. Cited in Randall and Heemstra 1991, and J. Kemp pers. comm. 1st Feb 2007).	eng
132753	threats	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus polylepis</em> is primarily threatened by overfishing and it is taken by trawl, and probably handline. <br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>It is threatened by fishing pressure in the Arabian Sea coast of Oman, which is probably quite high and may have truncated the age structure of population compared with the lighter fishing pressure in the Gulf of Oman where fish are older (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007). Threats in the rest of its range not known.<br/><br/>In Oman there are no restrictions on the effort or numbers or size of <em>E. polylepis</em> in the traditional commercial fishing sector (mixed gear). But there is some effort control in the industrial trawl fishery in that only 13 boats are allowed to operate at any one time and there is a TAC quota allocated each year across all species. However there is evidence that this quota is regularly exceeded due to the lack of enforcement (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Traditional fishermen from Muscat (Gulf of Oman) rarely take this species because it is difficult to catch because it inhabits deep water (>80 m) and prefers rocky outcrops. Local recreational fishermen from Muscat target this species during fishing competitions (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>E. polylepis</em> is caught in large numbers in the Arabian Sea by both traditional and artisanal fishermen and by the industrial trawlers which operate in >50 m water (McIlwain pers. comm. 2007).	eng
132754	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout it range.	eng
132754	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is distributed within the eastern Pacific and ranges from the northern Gulf of California (Mexico) to southern Peru, including the Galápagos Islands.	eng
132754	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is a demersal, non-migratory species found in shallow water. Pacific Mutton Hamlet are a cryptically coloured, secretive species that inhabit seagrass and rocky reef areas. Individuals are sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, and rely on their effective camouflage to escape detection. It sometimes partly covers itself with sand. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Pacific Mutton Hamlet are nocturnal predators that feed mainly on benthic crustaceans. <br/><br/><strong>Resilience</strong><br/>It is tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation.	eng
132754	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is more common in north of its range and becomes less common in the southern extent of its range where <em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> becomes the more common of the two species. The species is not known to be in decline.	eng
132754	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> is not currently a target of the commercial fishery, but it is caught in the artisanal fishery.	eng
132755	conservation	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	None known, though this species may be present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. Its capture is monitored under fisheries management plans in the Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia.	eng
132755	distribution	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species with spotty distribution from the Red Sea to Japan and Papua New Guinea (36 deg. N to 24 deg. S), southern Japan to northern Australia. In Japan, the species is referred to as <em>Epinephelus morrhua morrhua</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea (Saudi Arabia, Sudan (?), Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Yemen), Gulf of Oman (Oman, Iran (?)), Réunion, Mauritius, Chagos, Maldives (?), Sri Lanka, southeastern India, Burma (?), Hong Kong, Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, eastern Papua New Guinea and Timor, and north-western Western Australia, the Northern Territory and north-eastern Queensland (?) in  northern Australia. Records from South Africa and Mozambique are unsubstantiated.	eng
132755	habitat	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is a demersal species found over hard substrates at depths between 80 to 383 m, with juveniles in 18 to 20 m of water. The species is apparently rare. It is found over sandstone reefs in Sri Lanka and over coral reefs in the Maldives. The species occurs in large schools (~50 to 100 fish) on banks off India and Sri Lanka. The maximum recorded size is ~70 cm TL. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>This species is reportedly a protogynous hermaphrodite, although there is no histological evidence to support this claim.	eng
132755	population	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus radiatus</em> is unknown, but it is considered rare in at least parts of its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The species is apparently uncommon in deepwater, based on deep rover observations. It occurs in large schools (~50 to 100 fish) on banks off India and Sri Lanka, where large adults inhabit depths 80 to 160 m. Moderate interest to fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>In developing new fisheries off Queensland and Western Australia, Northern Territory deepwater dropline and trap, the species represents a minor component of catch. In Sri Lanka, it is quite common in deepwater longline and handline fishery around the island (Debruin <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
132755	threats	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	There are no currently known threats to any populations of <em>Epinephelus radiatus</em>, although aggregations (reproductive ?) may be being targeted by trawling in India and Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>This species was recently moved from the Data Deficient to the Least Concern list by the Northern Territory Government (Australia), as it was regarded as reasonably common in NT waters (www.nt.gov.au/rneta/wildlife/threatened/publicconsultation/pdf/fish_dd.pdf).<br/><br/>The species occurs in artisanal fisheries in Reunion (IFREMER).	eng
132756	conservation	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is found in marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
132756	distribution	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is an Indo-West Pacific insular species ranging from East Africa (excluding the Red Sea and Persian Gulf) to the Gilbert Islands and Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands (FishBase).	eng
132756	habitat	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is a reef-associated species found in a variety of habitats. Juveniles (8 to 21 cm SL) have been taken from mud bottoms, seagrass beds, mangrove swamps, and from coral reefs in depths of 1 to 16 m; adults in coral reefs at depths of 18 to 180 m. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Stomach contents reported to include juvenile clappid crab, a stomatopod, and a gastropod (Morgans 1982).	eng
132756	population	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is typically found in low densities. Fry <em>et al.</em> (2006) caught only four individuals (mean SL = 320 mm ±37; mean weight 835 ±258 g) in an undisturbed volcanic seamount reef, Lihir Island Group, Papua New Guinea.	eng
132756	threats	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus miliaris</em> is threatened by overfishing and is taken by subsistence and incidental fisheries. Destruction of habitats is also a concern, including loss of mangrove forests, trawling on bays (soft-bottom environment), reclamation of seagrass beds and sedimentation and fish-bombing on coral reefs.	eng
132757	conservation	Fennesy, S., Min, L. & Russell, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Tomato hind occurs in numerous marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Africa</em><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a strictly enforced 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Trans-boundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.<br/><br/><em>Australia</em><br/>The species is protected by a size regulation in Queensland, with a maximum catch size of 38 cm TL (Fisheries Amendment Regulation No. 2 2003). <br/><br/>No other country-specific regulations for the species are known.	eng
132757	distribution	Fennesy, S., Min, L. & Russell, B., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> is widespread within the Indo-Pacific, occurring from east coast of Africa (Djibouti and Socotra (Yemen) to Durban (South Africa)) to the Line Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to southern Queensland (Australia). It is not found at the Chagos Archipelago despite intensive surveys there. The species is not reported from the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.	eng
132757	habitat	Fennesy, S., Min, L. & Russell, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephelopholis sonnerati</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in deep lagoon reefs and steep outer reef slopes. It is encountered in coastal areas with rocky substrates. Juveniles are usually found near sponges or coral heads. Adults usually reside at moderate depths with bommies with large holes, usually occupied by cleaner shrimps.  Usually caught in depths of 30 to 100 m, but in Madagascar, it occurs in depths of 10 to 20 m; may occur in as little as 3 to 4 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Tomato hind feed on small fishes and crustaceans including shrimps, crabs and stomatopods (Morgans 1964). Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon (1976) report that 99% of the prey comprised crustaceans. <br/><br/><strong>Size, maturity and reproduction</strong><br/>The maximum recorded size is 57 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and one tomato hind of 4.8 kg was recoded from spearfishing (van der Elst 1993). Females mature at about 28 cm SL and males at about 34 cm SL. The smallest observed mature fish 32 cm (Maldives), theoretical length at first maturity 28.5 cm (Shakeel and Ahmed 1997). Morgans (1964) reported a mature fish of 2 lbs, which equates to a weight of 909 g and a length of 37 cm using the length-weight relationship below.<br/><br/>Ripe tomato hind were caught in April, May-June and November-December on the North Kenya Banks (Morgans 1964); ripe fish obtained in January and in October on the North Kenya Banks and/or off Mafia island, Tanzania (Nzioka 1979). Likely spawning aggregation identified at Waigeo, Eastern Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004). Length-weight relationship y g = 0.0145.x cm FL.3.058 (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>The sex ratio was 3:1 female-to-male in New Caledonia during experimental fishing trials, with the smallest mature female at 29.5 cm TL and the smallest mature male at 38 cm TL (IRD database).<br/><br/>There is evidence that this species forms spawning aggregations, which increases its vulnerability to over-fishing.<br/><br/>A congeneric, <em>C. boenak</em>, is protogynous with both primary and secondary males occurring (Liu and Sadovy 2004), and other congenerics exhibit gonads with both male and female tissue (Smith 1965), so it is possible that this species is also protogynous (although <em>C. sonnerati</em> attains a much larger size).	eng
132757	population	Fennesy, S., Min, L. & Russell, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> is a common species throughout its range. There are some indications of population declines due to fisheries in Japan, but no specific information elsewhere. Limited catch data is currently available although it is a widespread, commonly-caught species. Few aspects of their biology have been studied.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>One of the three commonest groupers caught off northern Somalia (Darar 1994). This species is the third most common grouper (n=108 individuals, 16% of groupers) caught on the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964). Less common (n=11 of 130 groupers) in linefish catches in this region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Initially it was the most commonly recorded grouper (60% of all groupers recorded; only percentages available; suspected biased sampling) (Fennessy unpub. data) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 7 and 25% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Seldom recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=7 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Occasionally recorded (23 individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute, 1988). Also occasionally recorded (74 individuals of 12,094 groupers) from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy, unpub. Data). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common. Reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec pers. comm., IFREMER) but lumped with several other species.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: data from Yaeyama Is. Fishing market (Ishigaki and Iriomote Island) of the southern part of Okinawa island sic. In 2005, this species contributed <1% to all grouper landings there; mostly caught by hook and line and spear.<br/><br/>Catches have declined by 50% in southern Japan, although catch-per-unit-effort has declined less markedly (Table 1). Catches from Mozambique and the Pacific show no obvious trend (Table 2 and 3 respectively). A substantial proportion of the catch is immature (Table 5).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery. By 2002, fishing effort (no. of fishing days) had declined by half to that in 1993, and, from 2000, boats started to increasingly fish further north and on deeper (to 190 m) reefs as catches on the southern reefs declined (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003). Percentages are relative contributions to total catch (all species). Discrepancies between figures obtained for 2000/2001 cannot be explained.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 3</strong>: Catches (kg) of <em>C. sonnerati</em> from two localities in the Pacific (Choat unpub. data). American Samoa = boat sector, Guam = offshore sector. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 4</strong>: Densities (no. of fish/km²) of <em>C. sonnerat</em>i (Kulbicki unpub. data).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 5</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>C. sonnerati</em> from UVC in New Caledonia (1st row), caught by handline and longline from New Caledonia (2nd row) date? (Kulbicki unpub. data) and from hook and line/spear at Yaeyama Island, Japan (3rd row) in 2005 (Itaru Ohta, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center Ishigaki Lab. unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Few <em>Cephalopholis sonnerati</em> were seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira, 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded only one individual out of 43 groupers. On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at two of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), but at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). In Tonga and New Caledonia, this species ranked 17th (of 18 grouper species) and 23rd (of 32 grouper species) respectively in terms of densities on all reef types (Table 4). Incidental in Pohnpei fisheries (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Constitutes 3% of grouper catch in New Caledonia (Kulbicki pers. comm.). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Commonly encountered off northern Somalia, Kenya, southern Mozambique and eastern Madagascar. A likely spawning aggregation was identified at Waigeo, Eastern Indonesia (Sadovy and Liu 2004).	eng
132757	threats	Fennesy, S., Min, L. & Russell, B., 2008	The primary threat to tomato hind is loss of habitat, since the species is reef associated. Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/>Fishing is also a major threat to tomato hind, although most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale. Fishing, however, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Tomato hind are caught in the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy, 1998). Based on length frequency data, most of the catch is immature. The species is a minor component of the coral reef fishery in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Tomato hind are targeted in Indonesia for local consumption, apparently from spawning aggregations (Sadovy and Liu 2004).	eng
132758	conservation	Rhodes, K.L., Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is found in some marine protected areas within its range, such as the fishing Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve, WA, Great Barrier Reef and World Heritage Area, Queensland, Australia.	eng
132758	distribution	Rhodes, K.L., Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is known from the Red Sea and the East African coast, east to the Pitcairn group, north to Ryukus (Japan), and to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south. There are records from China, (south China Sea), Taiwan, Australia, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands (Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef) (B. Mundy pers. comm.). Museum records of the species are available from the Timor Sea, Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands (Kiribati), Papua New Guinea, and the Malay Archipelago (D. Pollard pers. comm.).	eng
132758	habitat	Rhodes, K.L., Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> prefers clear water areas on coral reefs; juveniles have been taken on reef flats and in tidepools and mangrove estuaries; adults are found in deeper waters up to 50 m. Along the Great Barrier Reef, Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997 found the species on outer reef slope. The maximum recorded size is 75 cm TL (61 cm SL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993), but there is one report of 107 cm TL in Lau and Li (2000) and another of 2 m in Huang (1994), that are likely misidentifications for the species. <em>E. tauvina</em> is probably solitary by nature. It is occasionally ciguatoxic. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feed on fishes mainly and sometimes crustaceans (Parrish 1987, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The spawning season in India is Oct-Feb; In Kuwait: April-July (questionable since no occur in the area, may be <em>E. coioides</em>). Some recent published data are questionable as a result of misidentifications of <em>E. coioides</em>, <em>E. malabaricus</em> and <em>E. lanceolatus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993), for example: Reproductive biology of <em>E. tauvina</em> in the Kuwaiti waters (Abu-Hakima 1987), in the Arabian gulf waters (El-Sayed 1999), and others.	eng
132758	population	Rhodes, K.L., Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Partly due to the taxonomic confusion with other groupers, there is no reliable data that show population declines for <em>Epinephelus tauvina</em>. The species is fairly common in lightly fished areas of Micronesia (Myers 1989). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Serranid catch, in general, declining in Sabah, but there is no species-specific data from this area for this species.<br/><br/>FAO catch data:<br/>From Malaysia: 1982 (90t), 1983 (226t); questionable since not distributed in the area.<br/>From Saudi Arabia:  2000 (958t), 2001 (1113 t) in 2002 (1173 t); in 2003 1992 t; in 2004 786<br/><br/>It appears in the Great Barrier Reef at 0.04 fish/1,000 m² (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Habitat</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is found more commonly in New Caledonia on the barrier reef than in fringing and intermediate reef, but in low densities (0.06 fish/1000 m sq) (IRD database). It is not common in Fiji, Tonga or French Polynesia.	eng
132758	threats	Rhodes, K.L., Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus tauvina</em> is likely overfishing. It is caught by multiple gears, including hook-and-line, spear, and traps. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is important to artisanal and recreational fisheries, and is found in the Live Reef Fish Trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998). It is a minor component of serranid catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). In southern Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.), <em>E. tauvina</em> was one of the commercial important fishes caught by hook-and-line in 1993 to 2005.	eng
132759	conservation	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> is not protected by area management within its range of occurrence except in the Dyminiyats Islands in the Gulf of Oman. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will be required in the future. There is effort control on number of fisher licenses in Oman.	eng
132759	distribution	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> has a disjunct distribution. It is known with certainty only from the northern end of the Red Sea, and then occurs on the northern coast of Oman to the Arabian Gulf and coast of Pakistan. And there are recent records from Socotra (Yemen) and mainland Somalia. Records from elsewhere are apparently based on misidentifications of other species.	eng
132759	habitat	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the Red Sea, <em>C. hemistiktos</em> is more often found on patchy open reef areas rather than on well developed coral reefs and occurs at depths ranging from 4 to at least 55 m. In Oman is abundant but patchily distributed on shallow coastal reefs. The greatest abundance is shown in central region (Muscat) with smaller number in the Arabian Gulf. In Oman on rocky reef substrata from 2 to 55 m. Abundant in the upwelling area of the Gulf of Oman despite local fishery. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a diurnal, ambush predator feeding throughout the day on fishes (64%, mostly pomacentrids) and crustaceans (36%). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>C. hemistiktos</em> is a monogamous species and each pair jointly defends a common territory of up to 62 m² (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991).	eng
132759	population	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	Records from northern Oman show that <em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> is one of the most abundant species of <em>Cephalopholis</em> recorded, however, abundance in other parts of its range is unknown. The population structure and abundance patterns of this species in Oman are highly variable. <em>C. hemistiktos</em> is abundant in the Gulf of Oman extending north beyond Musandam into the Arabian Gulf. To the south abundance drops sharply and this species is absent from reefs of the Arabian sea south of Ras al Hadd (McIlwain pers comm.).	eng
132759	threats	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threats to <em>Cephalopholis hemistiktos</em> are habitat loss and overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>The yellowfin hind is not as heavily fished as larger co-occurring groupers at present, but as these larger species decline and are no longer economically viable to target, it is expected that this species will become more of a focus of the fisheries. It is heavily fished by line and trapping on central Oman coast. Weekly sampling in the Muttrah market from March 2004 to March 2005 revealed <em>C. hemistiktos</em> as the most abundant grouper, accounting for 34% of all grouper that were measured (by numbers). During the same time period, sampling the landings at Dibba in Musandam found that <em>C. hemistiktos</em> accounted for 16% of the total grouper landings. Logbooks filled out by Omani traditional fishermen from Barka (35 km north of Muscat) suggests <em>C. hemistiktos</em> accounts for 7.5% of the total catch (all fish species combined) and 42% of grouper species. <br/><br/>Not necessarily targeted in Musandam, but are caught as by-catch in traps that are set around reefs. This species is not targeted or caught by the Industrial trawl fishery which operates in the Arabian Sea where <em>C. hemistiktos</em> does not occur (J. McIlwain pers. comm.).	eng
132760	conservation	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	The current conservation status of <em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is unknown, although it possibly occurs in some small marine protected areas in Bali and Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka reports suggest poor management of marine protected areas (M. Samoilys pers. comm.).	eng
132760	distribution	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean from southern India, Sri Lanka, southern Indonesia (Bali, Lombok) and Cocos-Keeling Islands. However, it is likely that its distribution is continuous from Pakistan to Indonesia. The record from the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory) is based on <em>Epinephelus macrospilos</em>.	eng
132760	habitat	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs in shallow waters (1 to 125 m) over coral reefs or rocky substrate. It appears to be a small species. In southern India, it is found in inshore rocky reefs, silty reefs covered in algae and sponges (Sluka and Lazarus in press).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>A 17 cm SL fish from Sri Lanka had fairly well-developed ovaries.	eng
132760	population	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is no information on population trends for <em>Epinephelus faveatus</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Density estimates from western India (seven localities) showed it to be the second-most common grouper.	eng
132760	threats	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Myers, R., Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus faveatus</em> is of little interest to fisheries in Sri Lanka; elsewhere it may occur in catch, but is probably recorded as a mis-identified species within a 9-species complex of reticulated serranids.	eng
132761	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	There are a few protected areas in the graysby's range. The establishment of MPAs in areas of complex reef habitat and that reduce fishing pressure on this and other small serranids are recommended.	eng
132761	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> is found in the North Atlantic and within the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles), Trinidad, Gulf of Mexico, USA (North Carolina to southern Florida), Bahamas and Bermuda. There are unsubstantiated records from Brazil, but no specimens or photographs from there.	eng
132761	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> is found in <em>Thalassia</em> beds and on coral reefs from shore to depths of 170 m. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico, it occurs on the rocky reef ledge in depths greater than 27 m. It is strongly associated with its habitat and is susceptible to habitat degradation. Graysby are small, secretive fish that usually stay near hiding places in the reef during the day. <br/><br/><strong>Age, growth and reproduction</strong><br/>Nagelkerken (1979) found that at the end of their first year; graysby were 8 cm long (standard length) and had formed seven growth rings in their otoliths. Females mature at 16 cm (total length) and most change sex between 20 and 23 cm (ages four and five), with sexual transition occurring immediately after spawning in August and September.<br/> <br/>The observations on protogyny by Nagelkerken (1979) and Potts and Manooch (1999) confirm the suggestions of  (Thompson and Munro 1983) but a more detailed histological analysis is required to confirm sexual pattern. Thompson and Munro (1978) estimated the number of eggs per spawning at 262 to 604 for a fish of 29 cm total length. Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (in press) estimated size at first female maturity for the St Lucia population at 16 cm FL with 100% maturity at 26 cm FL with only 12% of the trapped sample being immature females.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>They are crepuscular predators, and adults feed mainly on fishes, with a preference for <em>Chromis multilineata</em> where this species is abundant (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Home range and movement</strong><br/>Tagging with acoustic transmitters in St. Lucia (Popple and Hunte 2005) showed that this species had a mean home range of 2,120 m² and showed a clear preference for areas with high levels of reef complexity.	eng
132761	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Abundance data from Curacoa (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005) shows that <em>Cephalopholis cruentata</em> was moderately abundant on reef slopes with peak abundances ranging from 10.5 to 11.7 per 1,000 m² during two widely separated sampling periods 1973 and 2003. The authors detected no major time-associated trends in abundance over the three-decade time period despite a 58% reduction in hard coral cover and continuous fishing activity. However, the depth distributions at which peak abundances occurred shifted downwards from 9 m in 1973 to 20 to 27 m in 2003.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: results of comparisons of demography and size structure of five Caribbean populations of graysby (K. Ranatunga, PhD data) subject to heavy (Barbados, Belize), moderate (Curacao), light (Las Aves), and full protection (Los Roques) lying within the same latitudinal stratum.<br/><br/>The most consistent feature is the association of reduced maximum age and size and higher mortality rates with increased fishing. Although this species is not a major commercial target, artisanal trap and line fishing at a number of sites appear to be impacting on fished populations.<br/><br/>A comprehensive size-based earlier study on tropical Atlantic serranids (Thompson and Munro 1983)  demonstrated the that graysby was a relatively minor element of the serranid catch in the intensively fished areas around Jamaica in the 1970s. The data on sex and size distributions suggested protogyny with a sex ratio strongly biased toward females (1:6) which the authors suggest reflects intensive fishing on larger individuals in the Port Royal area. Modal sizes for catches in the vicinity of Jamaica were 20 to 24 cm FL. This was low compared to recent samples (Ranatrunga 2006). However, the main findings of Thompson and Munro (1983) were that samples of this species were very small compared to most of the other exploited serranids in the locality suggesting that this species is relatively rare and has never been a targeted species in the serranid commercial fisheries of the Caribbean.	eng
132761	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threats to graybsy appear to be overfishing and habitat loss and degradation.<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>Although graysby are heavily fished over much of its range at present, this appears to be having little impact on the population. However, if this threat increases, it will presumably have a significant effect in the future.<br/><br/>This species is the subject of a minor fishery in Florida waters with a high proportion of catches being released (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000). Thompson and Munro (1983) have provided catch statistics of this and a number of other Caribbean groupers.<br/><br/>In Curacao, this is a commercially important species that constitutes 11% of the reef fish catch (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005). Gobert <em>et al.</em> (2005) show that while <em>C. cruentata</em> had a long history in the Honduran line, trap and spear fishery, it made up only a small proportion of the total reef fish catch in 1999 which confirms that it is not a highly targeted fishery species in most localities.<br/><br/>The recent evidence suggests some impacts of artisinal fisheries in Barbados and Belize although the impacts of these fisheries need to be evaluated through abundance estimates, as was done for the Curacao population (Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>Fishery records (Thompson and Munro 1983, Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000) suggest low catch rates reflect small size and relatively low abundance. However Potts and Manooch (1999) point to increasing catch rates, Harper <em>et al. </em>(2000) confirm that although this species is taken in the Florida recreational fishery the numbers are small with a high proportion of releases.<br/><br/>The most definitive fishery data is provided by Nagelkerken <em>et al.</em> (2005). Despite that this species was the target of a commercial fishery in Curacao and constituted 11% of the reef fish catch there were no significant changes in abundance over a 30 yr period although the population shifted to deeper habitats.<br/><br/>Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (in press) have shown that while <em>C. cruentata</em> represents about 2 to 3% of the reef fish population in St. Lucia (light fishing) and Jamaica (heavily fished) they were not considered to be highly “trappable” at either locality when compared to taxa such as haemulids and lutjanids.	eng
132762	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	Nothing specific for <em>Epinephelus costae</em>, although it occurs in a few protected areas in the Mediterranean. <br/><br/>More data on fishing pressure as well as population are needed across its range.	eng
132762	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal south to central coastal Angola, including the Cape Verde Islands and the Canary Islands as well as the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Albania, Italy, France, Spain, Malta, Portugal, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Canary Ilands (Spain), Cape Verde Islands, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and Angola. Records of <em>Epinephelus alexandrinus</em> from Madeira (Portugal) are apparently based on misidentifications of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>.	eng
132762	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is a demersal species found on sand, mud or rock bottoms 20 to 80. Juveniles form small groups.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on crustaceans, mollusks, and fish. Does not adapt well in aquariums. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Total fecundity for a female of 47 cm standard length was estimated to be 879,000 eggs. Migrates annually to the same site.<br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture</strong><br/>Eggs and larvae have been reared in laboratory in Croatia and there is an attempt to start large-scale aquaculture (Glamuzina <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
132762	population	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus costae</em> is (or was in the 1970s) evidently fairly common in the Mediterranean and tropical west coast of Africa (Seret 1981). It is also reported as abundant in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands.	eng
132762	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest potential threat to <em>Epinephelus costae</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus costae</em> is caught by large and small scale fisheries in Turkey and may be caught incidentally in other fisheries such as trawling, but this need to be confirmed.	eng
132763	conservation	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C. & Samoilys, M., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place for <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em>, although it occurs within marine protected areas within its range. There are size and bag limits for serranids within the Great Barrier Reef (northern Queensland).	eng
132763	distribution	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is a western Pacific species that is found in Thailand, Hong Kong, and Taiwan to Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales), and eastward to the Solomon and Mariana Islands, including Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Christmas Island, Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, and Palau. Possibly it also occurs in Timor. It occurs occasionally in northern New Caledonia (Allen in press). Adults are often misidentified as <em>Epinephelus macrospilos</em>.	eng
132763	habitat	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is a reef-associated species common in shallow silty reefs, sometimes in estuarine areas, but also found on clear outer reef slopes. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The ovary was well developed in an examined fish of 30 cm SL.	eng
132763	population	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Nothing is known about the population of <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Less than 1% of the catch in the Pohnpei fishery (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). Low abundance within marine protected areas in Sabah (Cabanban pers. comm.).	eng
132763	threats	Rhodes, K., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C. & Samoilys, M., 2008	The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus corallicola</em> is overfishing by the life reef food fish trade and small-scale commercial fishers. Global warming may affect coral reef habitat, providing a second level of threat.	eng
132764	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Marques, S., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	Mutton hamlet occur in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132764	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Marques, S., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Alphestes afer</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic from Bermuda, south Florida (USA), Bahamas, Cuba, West Indies, Panama, Venezuela, and southward to the state of Sao Paulo (Brazil), and in the eastern Atlantic in the Gulf of Guinea, western Africa.	eng
132764	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Marques, S., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>A. afer</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species with a depth range of 2 to 30 m. Mutton hamlet are solitary and typically occur in seagrass habitats. The species is sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, sometimes partly covering itself with sand while lying on its side.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Nocturnal feeders of benthic crustaceans. Piscivorous, invertivorous (small fishes and crustaceans) (Randall and Bishop 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Mutton hamlets are sequential hermaphrodites (Randall and Bishop 2004). Thompson and Munro (1983) estimated the number of eggs in four females to range from 157,512 to 223,706 per fish.	eng
132764	population	Ferreira, B.P., Marques, S., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The genus <em>Alphestes</em> was represented by a single species in the eastern Atlantic (Rocha and Costa 1999). In the tropical western Atlantic it has been synonymized with <em>Alphestes galapagensis</em> (Fowler), <em>Alphestes fasciatus</em> (Hildebrand), and <em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> (Breder).<br/><br/>Recently, genetic studies have confirmed specimens of <em>A. afer</em> occurring in the eastern Atlantic (Gulf of Guinea, western Africa). Thus, <em>A. afer</em> was re-described and its amphi-Atlantic distribution has been confirmed (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The species is common along the coast of Brazil, although it is not a main target of any fishery. Mutton hamlet are caught by spear, line and traps along the northeastern coast as by-catch and for personal consumption (unpublished data from Brazilian Institute of Environment, P. Lins pers. comm.). It is uncommon in samples from the Paraná Coast, south of Brazil (Spach <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Mutton hamlet are targeted or landed as by-catch in Bermuda (Luckhurst 1996) and Martinique (Gobert 1991, Gobert 1996, Reynal <em>et al.</em> in press), but not in Honduras (Goberta <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is scarce along St. Croix’s northeast coast with 13 individuals recorded by visual census (Mateo and Tobias 2001). It is also scarce in fisheries samples in Martinique (Gorbet 1990). When an artificial reef was built in a seagrass bed in the Virgin Islands, <em>A. afer</em> became the principal serranid fish which colonized it, with individual mutton hamlets moving in as adults from the adjacent seagrass bed (Randall and Bishop 2004).<br/><br/>According to data from the SCORE-Central/REVIZEE Program, <em>A. afer</em> is uncommon in fisheries between Cabo São Tomé (Rio de Janeiro State) and Salvador (Bahia State) (Brazil) (Rocha and Costa 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Recorded by visual census in West Indies coast (Bouchon-Navaroa <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Genetics</strong><br/>Species of <em>Alphestes</em> (Bloch and Schneider) in the eastern Pacific are sister taxa indicating post-closure speciation (Craig <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
132764	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Marques, S., Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Rocha, L., 2008	Mutton hamlet are caught as part of a mixed catch fishery by artisanal fisheries (especially trap fisheries) in several locations within its distributional range.	eng
132765	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus goreensis</span> is not subject to any conservation measures and there is no protected area in its range.	eng
132765	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that is distributed from Mauritania and Senegal to southern Angola, including Cape Verde and islands of the Gulf of Guinea (Maigret and Ly 1986, Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.	eng
132765	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	Epinephelus goreensis is reported to occur from a variety of habitats (rock, mud and sand). The adults live in relatively deeper waters (Maigret and Ly 1986). Little is known about its biology.	eng
132765	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is little or no information available for <em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> on its population status, biology or fisheries history.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The only information available is catch data for Sierra Leone (in tonnes) from FAO fisheries statistics (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Annual catch statistics from Sierra Leone.	eng
132765	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y., Bertoncini, A.A. & Sampaio, C., 2008	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus goreensis</em> is overfishing. It is fished along the coast of Africa but fishery data are lacking. Habitat loss is unlikely to be a threat because of its preference to deep waters.	eng
132766	conservation	Kulbicki, M., Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is present in MPAs in numerous countries of its range, in particular Australia, New Caledonia, Maldives, La Réunion, Seychelles and in South Africa (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
132766	distribution	Kulbicki, M., Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is widespread from South Africa to the Marquesas (French Polynesia), north to the Ryuku Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Japan), and south to New Caledonia.<br/> <br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa; Australia (all Queensland; Western Australia; Scotts Reef, Rowley Showls; Northern Territories); Chagos Is.; China Main (Hong Kong; Spratleys; Hainan; Fujian); Chagos (Diego Garcia); Cocos Is; Comoros; Fiji; Federated States Micronesia; India (Kerala; Lakshadweep Islands); Indonesia (Sumatra; Java; Bali; Flores); Japan (Ryukyu; Ogasawara Is.); Kenya; Kiribati; Line islands (Jarvis; Kiribati; Fanning); Madagascar; Malaysia; Maldives; Marquesas Is; Marshall Is; Mauritius; Micronesia; Mozambique; Myanmar; New Caledonia (main island; Loyalty Is.; Chesterfield); Palau; Papua N Guinea; Philippines; Réunion (also Europe Is.; Rodrígues); Samoa; Seychelles; Solomon Is.; South Africa;  Sri Lanka; Taiwan (Taiwan; Pescadores); Tanzania; Thailand; Tonga; Vanuatu; Vietnam.++++++++	eng
132766	habitat	Kulbicki, M., Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> occurs on coral reefs, including outer reef slopes to 44 m. May have ciguatera in part of its range (e.g., New Caledonia). The species has a maximum size of 52 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on crabs, with fish less than 20% of its diet.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Nothing is described for the reproduction of this species. Size at first maturity was found to be 340 mm (female) in New Caledonia, but probably matures at a smaller size.	eng
132766	population	Kulbicki, M., Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is typically not abundant but usually found in a number of coral reef habitats, including bommies. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>During UVC in the Pacific, observed densities vary considerably from one island to the next: New Caledonia 138 fish/km² of reef; Fiji 8 fish/km²; Tonga 50 fish/km²; Great Barrier Reef 10 fish/km². Within a country densities may vary amongst reef types, with the highest densities being observed on barrier reefs.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>New Caledonia: 1.8% of caught Epinephelinae; 2% in numbers and 0.5% in weight of experimental catch for groupers in New Caledonia.	eng
132766	threats	Kulbicki, M., Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus macrosilos</em> is targeted by the live reef food fish trade in the Maldives (Sattar and Adam 2005), but otherwise is typically part of the subsistence and small-scale commercial fishery throughout its range. The species occurs within shallow reef habitats  susceptible to habitat destruction and bleaching.	eng
132767	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> occurs in a few protected areas in its range.	eng
132767	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is an eastern Pacific species distributed from southern California (USA) to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo and Galápagos Islands, Cocos Island, and Clipperton Island.	eng
132767	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is a reef-associated species inhabiting rocky reefs in mostly shallow water, but not found in sandy bottom or mud. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>D. dermatolepis</em> is a diurnal predator that feeds on small benthic fishes and occasionally on crustaceans. It often uses browsing herbivorous fishes as a moving blind in order to feed on the cryptic fauna disturbed by these browsers; it will also follow foraging moray eels to catch the fishes frightened from their hiding places. Small juveniles have been seen hiding among the long spines of the dark-colored sea urchin, <em>Centrostephanus coronatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>D. dermatolepis</em> forms spawning aggregation in limited number, approximately 40 to 50 individuals.<br/><br/><strong>Juvenile life history</strong><br/>Juveniles live among sea urchin spines.	eng
132767	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is locally abundant throughout its range, albeit patchily distributed.	eng
132767	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Dermatolepis dermatolepis</em> is recreationally targeted and incidentally caught along with other grouper species, but this is apparently not at a level currently constituting a major threat. If spawning aggregations were targeted in the future, this could represent a major threat, particularly given the small size of the aggregations.	eng
132768	conservation	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is not known to occur in any protected areas	eng
132768	distribution	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is known only from Dillon Shoals (~11°S, ~125°E) in the Timor Sea off northwest Western Australia.	eng
132768	habitat	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	Nothing is known of its biology or ecology. Only two specimens have been collected, in tropical waters from the base of an oil rig at ~130 m depth, substrate unspecified. The maximum size of the specimens collected was 15 cm TL (12.6 cm SL).	eng
132768	population	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus trophis</em> is known only from two specimens.	eng
132768	threats	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	None known, although its apparently rarity and limited distribution may be of concern if fishing in its distributional range should increase.	eng
132769	conservation	Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is probably found in some marine protected areas within its range (e.g., Philippines and Hong Kong).	eng
132769	distribution	Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is a coastal species in the western Pacific from southern Japan to Taiwan, including mainland China, Philippines, Viet Nam, Hong Kong, Hainan and Sarawak (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132769	habitat	Samoilys, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> occurs in shallow rocky areas of bedrock and boulders at 15 to 20 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes, prawns, crabs, worms and gastropods (Chan 1968).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Minimum age at sex change two years (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1980b).	eng
132769	population	Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> was one of the most common nearshore fishes in the 1960s in Hong Kong waters, now only moderately abundant in local markets (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
132769	threats	Samoilys, M., 2008	Although <em>Epinephelus fasciatomaculosus</em> is a small species, it is important in trawl, gill net and hook and line fisheries in Hong Kong and Taiwan because it is a favoured and valuable food fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132770	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Ferreira, B.P. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is present in coral reef protected areas in the Greater Caribbean and Florida and regulated by fisheries in Bermuda and US Caribbean.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In 2004, Puerto Rico’s Department of Natural Resources passed a new fisheries regulation to prohibit the take of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> during its spawning season (December 1st to February 28 of each year), throughout the waters of Puerto Rico (up to 9 nautical miles from shore). This eliminated the site specific protection of the known spawning areas that had already been enforced for some time. Outside the 9 nautical miles (EEZ) the federal government (NOAA) has designated a ban on the take of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em>. The enforcement and implementation of the new regulations has been low (Michelle T. Schärer, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations of <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> are protected in St. Thomas (US Virgin Islands), and there are signs that the species is recovering in this area, including an increase in average size of fishes (Nemeth 2005).	eng
132770	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Ferreira, B.P. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is a western Atlantic species that ranges from North Carolina (USA) to Venezuela. The red hind is the most common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> in the West Indies and also occurs in the Bahamas, Antilles, and the Central and South American coasts. There are a few records for Brazil, but those are not confirmed, and there are no voucher specimens or photographs of this species south of Venezuela (Moura and Menezes 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Anguilla, Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherland Antilles, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, British Virgin Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, USA, and Venezuela (www.fishbase.org, Cervigon 1991, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Smith 1997).	eng
132770	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Ferreira, B.P. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is a reef-associated species found in shallow reefs and rocky bottoms. Important in terms of numbers caught and total weight of landings in the Caribbean. Easily approached by divers. Excellent food fish.  Readily caught on hook and line and easily speared. Faster growing and shorter-lived than most groupers in the Gulf of Mexico (Potts and Manooch 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on crabs (<em>Calapa</em> and <em>Mithrax</em>) and other crustaceans (alpheid shrimps and scyllarid lobsters), fishes (labrids and haemulids), and octopus.  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Red hind are usually solitary but seasonally aggregate to spawn. Some undergo sexual inversion at 28 cm TL; most fish larger than 40 cm are males. Females rest on or close to the bottom, while males patrol around an area that consists of one to five females and defend this territory from other males.<br/><br/>Protogynous hermaphrodite species that produces pelagic eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch in 27 hours in lab (Colin <em>et al.</em> 1987). Females rest on or close to the bottom, while males patrol around an area that consists of one to five females and defend this territory from other males. Form aggregations and reproduce almost exclusively within the aggregation period (Shapiro <em>et al.</em> 1993). Reproduces from December to April in the Caribbean and from May to July in Bermuda.<br/><br/>Known spawning aggregations in Puerto Rico:<br/>1. Bajo de Sico, Mayagüez<br/>2. Abril la Sierra, Cabo Rojo<br/>3. Bajo Tourmaline, Mayagüez<br/>4. El Hoyo, La Mella and La Laja, Lajas<br/>5. Mona Island<br/>6. Grappler Bank, Guayama<br/><br/>Largest fish collected in Puerto Rico, 42 cm TL (Mona Island).	eng
132770	population	Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Ferreira, B.P. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is one of the most common species of <em>Epinephelus</em> in the West Indies.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>The primary data comes from the Caribbean Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program (SEAMAP-C), a fisheries-independent sampling program that targets the western insular platform of Puerto Rico and collects data on standardized catch rates and fish sizes throughout the year. Fishery-independent data trends showed annual progressive decreases in average catch per unit effort (CPUE), and average lengths of males and females, in both protected and unprotected areas prior to the enactment of seasonal closures. A small increase in annual average CPUE occurred in both regions soon after the enactment of closures, but was followed by continual low values. Initially there were no significant differences in annual average lengths, by sex, prior to and following the enactment of seasonal closures, but significant increases were observed during 2004 to 2006 (A. Marshak MS thesis).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for: <br/><br/><strong>Table 1</strong>:  Red Hind Average Catch per Unit Effort and Standard Error per year for the total sampled west coast of Puerto Rico, and the three protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Table 2</strong>:  Red Hind Average Catch per Unit Effort and Standard Error per annual spawning period (Dec-Mar) for the total sampled west coast of Puerto Rico, and the three protected areas.	eng
132770	threats	Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A., Ferreira, B.P. & Craig, M., 2008	In Puerto Rico (and many other islands across the Caribbean), <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> is threatened by the destruction of coastal habitats (mainly coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and lagoon habitats) by dredges, coastal fill projects and the impacts associated with high-density residential and industrial development of the coastline (water pollution, thermal pollution, increased sedimentation, etc.). Commercial and recreational fisheries target <em>Epinephelus guttatus</em> with SCUBA with speargun, hook and line, fish traps and nets. Much effort towards red hind is expanded during the reproductive season of the species (Dec. to Feb.) despite local regulations. Other fishing gear such as traps and nets that do not target red hind may take them incidentally.	eng
132771	conservation	To, A.W.L., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B.P., Bertoncini, A. & Craig, M., 2008	As there is little information on the population or status of <em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em>, no conservation measures are recommended or currently in place. Additional quantitative information on the landings, abundance and wild status of this deep-water species will be of conservation value.	eng
132771	distribution	To, A.W.L., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B.P., Bertoncini, A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is a western Atlantic species found from areas off North Carolina (pelagic post-larva, possibly drifted north from Florida or the Bahamas) to the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and south to Vitoria, Brazil, Trindade Island.	eng
132771	habitat	To, A.W.L., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B.P., Bertoncini, A. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is a demersal, solitary species reported predominantly from sandy bottoms, although it may also occur in rocky habitats. No available is information on its biology.	eng
132771	population	To, A.W.L., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B.P., Bertoncini, A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> this species is relatively rare in commercial fisheries within its narrowly-distributed range (Beatrice Ferreira pers. comm.) (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). Most records of this species are found within the Caribbean (Rhode <em>et al.</em> 1995). The rarity of this species may be resulted from the deep-dwelling habit. The true abundance remains unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent</strong><br/>Quantitative fishery information is completely lacking within its range of distribution but qualitative information suggests that this species is rare in commercial fisheries within the region (Matthew Craig pers. comm., Beatrice Ferreira pers. comm.). Records from various studies also suggest rarity of this species in Trindale Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001) and coast of Jamaica (Thompson and Munro 1978). Except for occasional deep trawl and hand-line specimens, this species has been rarely caught (Rhode <em>et al.</em> 1995, Matthew Craig pers. comm.). This relatively rare and small species (300 mm TL) is not considered important as a food fish (Heemstra and Randall 1993). However, due to the beautiful body pattern and colour, it is potentially more valuable as aquarium fish (Froese and Pauly 2006). Information in this aspect is lacking, but any attempt to keep this fish alive in aquarium would be difficult as this fish is rarely caught and its deep-dwelling habit makes aquarium unlikely to be a suitable environment for this species.	eng
132771	threats	To, A.W.L., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B.P., Bertoncini, A. & Craig, M., 2008	Available qualitative information suggests that <em>Gonioplectrus hispanus</em> is currently under relatively low fishing pressure within its relatively narrow range of distribution. Fishing pressure from the aquarium trade is unlikely to be large, although information is lacking.	eng
132772	conservation	To, A.W.L. & Pollard, D., 2008	Available information suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> has not been recorded within marine reserve in South Africa and Mozambique (reported from dive surveys from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993; Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). Information from other regions is lacking. There is no known specific fishery regulation or management on this species.	eng
132772	distribution	To, A.W.L. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging west to Somalia and South Africa, to China, Korea and Japan, south to Australia and New Zealand and east to the Marquesas. No information on important sites, areas of occupancy nor extent of occurrence (except for the distribution map) is available.	eng
132772	habitat	To, A.W.L. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> favors deep (150 to 300 m) rocky reefs (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is reported to have a maximum life span to 56 years (FAO 2003).	eng
132772	population	To, A.W.L. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is a rare species throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Quantitative fishery data are lacking as catches of this species are probably lumped with other groupers) (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.). Qualitative information suggests that this species could be found along the whole northwest coast of Australia and one specimen weighing 66 kg was caught in Scott Reef from 200 m depth (John Choat pers. comm.). Quantitative data suggest that medium amounts of this species are landed annually in Western Australia, and the quantity is increasing, from 5,800 kg in 2001 to 72,100 kg in 2005 (Mark Cliff pers. comm.). Direct estimation of CPUE using available information on the number of vessel involved in such fisheries reveals a four times increase in CPUE during the period, from 322 kg/vessel (2001) to 1,441 kg/vessel (2005) (vessel irrespective of type). The landings of this species in Guam from 1998 to 2002 fluctuated bi-annually, but dramatically increased form 3 kg in 1992 to 1,530 kg in 1994 (annual mean: 392 kg) (data provided from Sea Around Us Project). Its true abundance may be overlooked due to its preference to live in relatively deeper water (150 to 300 m) (Froese and Pauly 2006), leading to decreased encounter rate from underwater survey and most shallow-waters fisheries.	eng
132772	threats	To, A.W.L. & Pollard, D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> otofasciatus</em> is primarily threatened from the commercial (also likely by recreational) fisheries. The magnitude of the fishing pressure is not clear within the range of distribution but its scale of fishery is likely to be relatively small (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Quantitative information is lacking for evaluating its importance and involvement into fisheries within its range of distribution.	eng
132773	conservation	Fennesy, S., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> occurs in marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is no clear how much compliance there is. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. May not be retained in South Africa (since 1992) and by recreational fishers in Mozambique (since 1999). Australia: Western Australia and Queensland: totally protected.	eng
132773	distribution	Fennesy, S., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is a widely distributed Indo-Pacific species. It can be found in the Red Sea, Pakistan, southern Oman, Somalia (Myers distributional database 2006, Mann and Fielding 2000), Socotra (Yemen), Kenya, Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), some western Indian Ocean islands (Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion (last two: Myers distributional database 2006)), west coast of India (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.), Sri Lanka, Indonesia (Flores and Bali -Nusa Penida, Solomon Islands, excluding Irian-Jaya (Myers distributional database 2006), the northwest Australian shelf, Great Barrier Reef, Christmas Island, Coral Sea, Osprey Reef, Papua New Guinea (Myers distributional database 2006), Taiwan, southern Japan, Paracel Islands, Pratas Reef, and the East African coast from the Red Sea south to Aliwal Shoal 30°S (South Africa) (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).	eng
132773	habitat	Fennesy, S., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is a reef-associated species mainly found in deep reef channels and seamounts, in current prone areas. Juveniles may be found in tide pools. Considered to be exceedingly territorial and very aggressive towards intruders.  Vulnerable to spear fishers.  Hand fed by divers in certain areas, but potentially dangerous to the inexperienced. Prefers coral reefs, although also occurs on non-coral reefs at depths of 10 to 150 m (Heemstra and Randall 1986); museum specimens collected from 3 m depth on the GBR (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002), occasionally to depths of 400 m (QFS 2000, reported in Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). An aggressive species (van der Elst 1993), easily approached particularly on reefs which are protected from fishing.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on reef fishes, skates, crabs, and spiny lobsters.<br/><br/><strong>Growth and Reproduction</strong><br/>Maximum size 150 cm TL, 90 kg (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004); Lieske and Myers (1994) indicate a maximum length of 200 cm (110 kg). Yeh <em>et al.</em> (2003) reported inducing protogynous sex change in captive specimens. Matures at about 90 cm (Morgan, 1982); 90 cm TL/16 kg (Yeh <em>et al.</em> 2003); Lau and Li (2000) report maturity at 99 cm TL. Length weight relationship y(kg) = 1.0-5.xTL cm 3.07. A slow-growing species: von Bertalanffy parameters k 0.13 yr<sup>-1</sup>, Linf 114.9 cm (t<sub>0</sub> assumed to be zero), natural mortality 0.13 yr<sup>-1</sup> (Grandcourt 2005). Ripe fish obtained in February, October and December on the central East African coast (North Kenya Banks and Mafia island; Nzioka 1977).	eng
132773	population	Fennesy, S., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is not a common species where fishing is known to occur, but may be more common in unfished areas. The species is patchy over its range and highly localized. Very rare in Japan (Dr. A. Ebisawa, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Potato grouper are classified as rare (based on density estimates) on the GBR (Pears 2005). Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) recorded it as common during informal diving and angling surveys (8 to 45 m) on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point. In a more formal survey, in shallow (9 to 13 m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded densities of this species which were higher than any other serranid. Attraction to divers cannot be ruled out however. On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at six of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m), but at a low relative abundance compared to other groupers (Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). Few seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Juveniles are relatively common (20% of all grouper caught from the shore by researchers, n=108 of 546 groupers) from the shore in the St Lucia/Maputaland marine reserves in South Africa 2000 to 2005; catches were higher in sanctuary areas compared to catches in areas which had been open to fishing five years previously (Mann, Oceanographic Research Institute, unpub. Data). Not reported from commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Recorded in 2002 to 2004 (no numbers provided) during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique from 2000 to 2005 (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.); recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=7 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Morgans (1964) recorded only one individual in 689 groupers in catches on the North Kenya Banks, at a time when the reef had not been exploited. Nzioka (1977) recorded catching five specimens from 1974 to 1977 as part of a survey of reefs between Mafia Island (Tanzania) and the North Kenya Banks which caught 130 other serranid fishes. Also reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other species.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Localised small aggregations of large fish reported anecdotally by recreational scuba divers in numerous locations, particularly in areas where fishing effort is low e.g. northern KwaZulu-Natal MPAs, southern Mozambique – “Bass City” (Pereira 2003), Bassas d’India Mozambique channel (Oceanographic Research Institute, unpub. Data, Aldabra (Grandcourt 2005). Such aggregations may be for spawning as recorded by Robinson <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
132773	threats	Fennesy, S., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus tukula</em> is threatened by loss of habitat and overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Loss of habitat</strong><br/>Episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong> <br/>Most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g. Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewelling and Hosch 2006). Caught in the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998).  In the Hong Kong live fish markets.	eng
132774	conservation	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Cornish, A., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Areolate grouper occurs in marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in NT Australia. There is a 35 cm minimum size limit and bag limit five fish (mixed species) in Queensland Australia (Department of Primary Industries 2003).	eng
132774	distribution	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Cornish, A., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is a very widespread Indo-Pacific species that ranges from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to Natal (South Africa), east to Fiji, north to Japan, and south to the Arafura Sea (Russell and Houston 1989) and northern Australia. Recently it has been recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). Areolate grouper appears to be absent from Micronesia, Polynesia, and most islands of the western Indian Ocean (Randall and Heemstra 1991). It is often confused with <em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia), Bahrain, Cambodia, China (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangdong–Hainan, Guangxi, Shanghai, Zhejiang), Cook Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Fiji, Hong Kong, India (Andaman Island, Nicobar Island, Goa, Karaikal, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Maharashtra, Mahé, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Tripura), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan (Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Maldives, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Oman, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago North Solomons), Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, United Arab Emirates, Viet Nam, and Yemen.	eng
132774	habitat	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Cornish, A., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is found usually in turbid water in seagrass beds or silty sand bottoms around isolated small rock outcrops, dead coral or soft coral (Randall and Heemstra 1991) in shallow continental shelf waters (Leis 1987) in depths from 2 to 200 m (Randall and Ben-Tuvia 1983, IRD database). Juveniles are common at water depths to 80 m (Kailola <em>et al.</em> 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feed on fish and benthic invertebrates, primarily prawns and crabs (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005, Randall and Heemstra 1991, Parrish 1987, Salini <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Size and age</strong><br/>Maximum size is reported to be 47.0 cm TL, with a maximum weight of 1.4 kg (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). The maximum reported age for areolate grouper is 15 years (Shapiro 1987).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Areolate grouper probably spawns during restricted periods and forms aggregations when doing so (Shapiro 1987).<br/>In New Caledonia, the sex ratio is reported as 1:6 males to females, with a size at maturity of females at 19.5 cm TL and 29 cm TL for males (IRD database).	eng
132774	population	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Cornish, A., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is widespread and reasonably common, relatively common in some areas, but details of its current population abundance are unknown. However, it is likely declining due to intensive fishing efforts over soft bottoms (i.e. trawling) throughout much of its range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Areolate grouper are reported catch from Saudi Arabia, but statistics do not indicate a decline (2000 to 2004) (http://www.fao.org).<br/><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is one of the most common grouper species on soft bottoms in New Caledonia (8.0% of grouper catch). Experimental fishing within a 10 year interval resulted in a 50% decline in catch (IRD database). Reported mean size 30 to 35 cm TL, with a density of 0.013/100 m sq. in New Caledonia (SPC PROCFISH data 2005).<br/><br/>A once common species in Hong Kong, but now rare, as a result of intensive trawling (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Small-scale industrial and commercial line and trap catch (Mozambique) represents 0.5 to 1% of the total catch (unpub. Data: FRI-Maputo). Second-most commonly caught serranid captured in Djibouti commercial fisheries (Darar 1984).	eng
132774	threats	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Cornish, A., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> is subject to commercial and recreational fishing activities, including the live reef fish trade (Philippines) (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000, Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003) and the marine aquarium fish trade, have the potential to adversely affect populations of this species.<br/><fisheries-dependent><br/>A trawl species in N. Australia (Errity 2003) and forms part of by-catch of the Northern Prawn Fishery in Australia (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> (2001). Reported catch (tonnes) for Saudi Arabia (FAO unpublished) for 2000 (306), 2001 (245), 2002 (289), 2003 (309), 2004 (349) does not indicate any decline in this fishery. Not significantly caught by handline but major component of serranid long-line catch in New Caledonia (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2000). A 50% decline of catch in the experimental longline fishing in southern New Caledonia (IRD database).<br/><br/>One of the most common mariculture species in southern China SE Asia and the Middle East (Leung <em>et al.</em> 1999). Live reef fish import data from the Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department (HK CSD) record the largest quantities of "other groupers" and "other marine fishes" as being imported from Thailand. Thailand and Malaysia are important sources for so-called "cultured" species including brown-spotted groupers <em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> / <em>E. bleekeri</em>, which are amongst 12 most commonly available species imported to Hong Kong (http://www.traffic.org/reef-fish/executivesummary.html). Fingerlings are wild-caught in Vietnam and Thailand (Sadovy 2000) and no hatcheries are known for this species (Sadovy pers. comm.).</fisheries-dependent>	eng
132775	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is protected in the Ras Mohammed National Park,  Dungonab and  Sanganeb Marine Parks (Sudan)  and other marine protected areas throughout it s range.  <br/><br/>The Saudi Arabia Ministry of Agriculture is concerned with the protection of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> and <em>P. areolatus</em> along the coast, therefore fishing was prohibited during the closed season. This management method started in 1994; and the closed season was from April 15 to 14 June. Catching of these two species was also prohibited during the years (1995-1999-2001), so the landed catch in these periods was markedly decreased (Fallatah 2005).<br/><br/>There is a quota for aquarium fish trade in Maldives: 15,000.00 (Sattar and Adam 2005). An assessment of Morris <em>et al.</em> (2000) already led to the classification of roving coralgrouper as a vulnerable species (VU 2Ad).	eng
132775	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has a widespread but disjunct distribution from the Red Sea to Fiji. <br/><br/><strong>Localities</strong><br/>Red Sea, Zanzibar, Maldives, Lacaadives, St. Brandon's Shoals, Sri Lanka, Chagos, Nazareth Bank, Sumatra, and Fiji (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Subspecies localities</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessuliferus marisburi</em> occurs in the Red Sea, while <em>Plectropomus pessuliferus pessuliferus</em> from the rest of the Indo-Pacific region. Occurs in Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Fiji, Indonesia (Bali, Java and Sumatra), Israel, Jordan, Maldives, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Tonga, and Yemen.	eng
132775	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is strongly coral reef-associated and is an uncommon species found in shallow lagoon and seaward reefs. It occurs at depths of 3 to 147 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Myers and Samoilys pers. comm.) and has a maximum size of 120 cm TL (Red Sea) and at least 63 cm (TL) (other parts of the Indo-Pacific) (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding and ecology</strong><br/>It is piscivores (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). As other groupers, <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has shown to have specific microhabitats that are utilized preferentially to the surrounding general habitat. For example, in Maldives, Shepherd <em>et al.</em> (apud Sluka and Reichenbach 1996) reported that <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> has higher biomass on slopes adjacent to unmined reef flats, than in mined flats. And in Laamu Atoll this species was most abundant in faro reef slopes (Sluka 2001).	eng
132775	population	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is rare to uncommon throughout most of its range, with higher abundances in the Maldives and the Red Sea. There is no specific information available on its abundance (Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Fisher interviews suggest declines in some areas. It is highly targeted in the Red Sea, particularly by spear. Based on its general abundance (rare to uncommon), declines in certain areas can be inferred. It is virtual absence from Eritrea following heavy fishing. <br/><br/>Sattar and Adam (2005) in review of grouper fishery in Maldives presented some information about <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> fisheries in this area, as demonstrated here. In early stages of Maldives fisheries <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was considered “red” category, the most valuable, and all others groupers were considered as “black”. Rf. 14.00 was the value of individuals of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> measuring more than 20 cm total length, while Rf. 13.00 was given for individuals of black group in the same size. The total catch in Maldives is declining because of the decreasing catch and because smaller individuals being taken in the fishery. The average size of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> in the fishery is 40.2 cm, with the most common length 40.0 cm, and the maximum length catch was 86.0 cm.  <br/><br/>Fishing pressure on grouper continues to increase in Maldives and many sites show signs of local over-fishing (Sluka part 3). A survey of 18 fishermen was conducted from Faafu Atoll to reveal P. <em>pessuliferus</em> (together with <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em>, <em>P. areolatus</em>, <em>P. laevis</em>, <em>C. argus</em>, <em>C, miniata</em>, <em>A. rogaa</em>, <em>A. leucogrammicus</em> and <em>V. louti</em>) to be the most commonly caught species, suggesting the use of this species as the indicator species in the proposed “Grouper Management Plan for Faafu Atoll”.<br/><br/>According to Robinson Jan (pers. comm.), <em>Plectropomus pessuliferus</em> is common to Seychelles fisheries. However, it is not routinely monitored for fisheries catch and effort data. Thus, published or grey literature with regards to <em>P. pessuliferus</em> is lacking. This species is more common at the coral atolls to the south of the archipelago, where it is lightly fished. On the banks of the Mahe Plateau, surrounding the main granitic islands where most of the population resides, this species is rare to largely absent from catches. As there are no decent historical data, it is not known if this id due to fishing pressure or lack of favored habitat, although it is probably a combination of the two. From CPUE data, a decline is observed in the groupers family from areas close to centers of population.<br/><br/>Export oriented trade of groupers started in the Maldives in 1993. Catches rose from 200 t in 1994 to 1,000 t in 1995 (Sattar and Adam 2005). This fishery has been considered opportunistic and unregulated (Sattar and Adam 2005, citation of work from MRC). Total catches of groupers in the Maldives are declining both from smaller numbers and smaller individuals taken in the catch.<br/><br/>The fishery-dependent data presented here were compiled by Fallatah (2005) (Figure 1) and they are based on the Fisheries Statistics bulletins published by the Marine Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture of Arabia Saudita between 1995 and 2002. Catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> takes place along the Red Sea Coast in three places, namely the northern, the central and the southern, through traditional fishing boats and methods (hand line, gill net, and traps). In the northern and central areas the quantity caught is much higher than southern area. Between 1995 and 2002 hand line dominated catches (79.6% of production), while gill nets and traps do not exceed 1%. Hand line also had stability in catches along this period, while gill net and traps demonstrated a grate drop in catch. However there was an increase in quantities catch by other means of catch, due a reduction in boats and increase in yield, which raised the catch per trip (Fallatah 2005). The annual average catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was 384 tons. Figure 1 shows the total catch of <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> from 1995 to 2002, which represents 2.3% of the total catch of fish the in the coastline of Red Sea in Saudi Arabia during this period. Generally the catch is consistent, but a gradual reduction in northern and central areas and an increase in south can be observed. However, in southern area <em>P. areolatus</em> (species considered economically important too) is misidentified as <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em>, so its land catch may be overestimated in this area (Fallatah 2005).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: catches of <em>P. pessuliferus</em> by traditional fishing boats for 1995 to 2002 period at the Red Sea Coast in Kingdom Saudi Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery independent</strong><br/>In Republic of Maldives the diurnal activity patterns of six grouper species (<em>Cephalopholis argus</em>, <em>C. miniata</em>, <em>Epinephelus merra</em>, <em>Plectropomus areolatus</em>, <em>P. laevis</em>, <em>P. pessuliferus</em>) were studied on coral reefs between Gamu and Baresdhoo islands (Sluka (Part 1 ).  Due to low numbers of roving coralgrouper observations in a study conducted between March and June 1998, Sluka (2000) could not used statistical analyses to infer about timing, location and characteristics of spawning aggregations for <em>P. pessuliferus</em> in Republic of Maldives. One hundred and forty three individual grouper were observed; among these six species, <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was the species with minor abundance (n=7).<br/><br/>In the South Sanai (Egypt) Red Sea <em>P. pessuliferus</em> was not recorded in a work focused on the impacts of tourists’ activities (Leujak 2006, Millport, UK, University of London, Ph.D.: 517 pp). Part of the research involved the establishment of a permanent monitoring program in the Gulf of Aqaba during 2001 to 2003. An assessment of fish communities was made at seven monitoring stations at 3 m and 10 m depth. Fish abundances at each station were estimated by underwater visual census along 4 x 50 m (total 200 m) transects. Fish were counted within 5 m to either side of the observer’s path, yielding a censused area of 2,000 m² at each depth, and a total survey area of 4,000 m² per station. <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> was not recorded in these underwater visual censuses. Fishing in the Gulf of Aqaba is carried out only by resident Bedouin communities, with groupers being a main target species (Ashworth 2006). Artisanal Bedouin fishing is low-intensities and Ras Mohammed National Park is closed to inshore fishing activities.<br/><br/><em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> seems to be naturally rare in the Red Sea. In February 2006 in a survey of shallow water fish communities along the Baluchistan coast of Pakistan, roving coralgrouper does not seem to occur there (Leujak pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Table 1 provides some length information from fishes captured during experimental fishing trials in the Maldives. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Life history data from the Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management in the Maldives Paper 3: Exploitation of Reef Resources: Grouper and other Food Fishes.	eng
132775	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> is overfishing, followed by habitat loss and degradation. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>The demand for live reef fish by southeast Asian markets has resulted in intense fishing pressure on coral-reef fish resources throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Among the main coral-reef fish in demand is the grouper species <em>Plectropomus pessulferus</em> (Sluka 2000). In Maldives, it is one of the most important species in the live trade (Sattar and Adam 2005). In some of its range dynamite/cyanide fishing is practiced (Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is heavily overfished in parts of the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Conservation actions seem to cover only in a few areas over its broad distribution. It has been previously assessed as vulnerable, and it seems to be the status of this species, unless the combination of high value in the live reef fish market, rarity, declining catch rates and absence of information/records in several areas within its distribution can be considered as indicative of an endangered status.	eng
132776	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Sadovy, Y. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> occurs in a few protected areas throughout its range (e.g., Great Barrier Reef Marine Park).	eng
132776	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Sadovy, Y. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is a western Pacific species found in the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, northeastern Australia (Cape York to northern Great Barrier Reef), Belau, Truk, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and the Solomon Islands (FishBase);  it is reported from Malaysia (Abu Khair <em>et al.</em> 1993), Western Australia (Scott Reefs), Timor Sea and Hibernia Reef.	eng
132776	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Sadovy, Y. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is reef-associated and inhabits drop-offs and steep channel slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is dependent on good-quality coral reefs. It is reported to forage in groups of two or three for rock- and sand living crustaceans and fishes; L-W relationship: Y = 0.0268 cm SL x 2.9317 (Cabanban and Kassem unpub. data).<br/><br/>It has been implicated in ciguatera poisoning in some parts of its range (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132776	population	Cabanban, A.S., Sadovy, Y. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is rare in most areas (Lieske and Myers 1994), but is well known in the Philippines (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is found in low numbers even in protected areas (e.g., about 1 in 500 m²; Cabanban and Kassem unpub. data). There is no information on population trend.	eng
132776	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Sadovy, Y. & Samoilys, M., 2008	<em>Plectropomus oligacanthus</em> is incidental and subsistence fisheries throughout its range. It is not targeted, but if caught can be found in trade including internationally in the live reef food fish trade. It is threatened by the destruction of coral reefs by fisheries damage and global warming.	eng
132777	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	No specific conservative measures for <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em>.<br/><br/>McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggested area closures that protecting critical habitat together with installing satellite tracking devices in individual trawlers would be successful in managing this species.	eng
132777	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is an Indian Ocean species found on the continental shelf of the northern Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Aden (possibly) to Sri Lanka and Madras (India). It is not known from the Persian Gulf nor the Red Sea (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Western Indian Ocean (30°E to 80°E; 45°S to 30°N), Eastern Indian Ocean (77°E to 150°E; 55°S to 24°N). Records of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> from the South China Sea, southern East China Sea, and western Pacific (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997) are based on misidentifications of <em>E. stictus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>India, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Yemen and Iraq (Nader and Jawdat 1977). The species is also possibly found off Malaysia and Mozambique.	eng
132777	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> occurs on mud or muddy sand bottom in depths of 10 to 120 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It occurs within trawl catches ranging in India from 250 to 500 m (cited in James <em>et al.</em> 1996). Also recorded on hard coral and hard bottom in shallow water (2 to 12 m) (possibly juvenile habitat?) (Sluka and Lazarus in press). <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> reaches 52 cm TL (Boulenger 1895).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Based on 65 specimens collected in India, <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em>  feeds on crustaceans (mainly crabs and small prawns) and fishes (mainly <em>Ambassis</em> sp. and <em>Leiognathus</em> spp.)  (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/> <br/>Juveniles abound the midshelf waters for feeding for eight months before migrating to the deeper waters for further growth and breeding (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction, age, growth and maturity</strong><br/><em>Maturity</em><br/>Based on 530 specimens collected in 2000-2001 in Oman, 87.2% and 71.7% of the fish sampled were mature females and males, respectively (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Oman, sizes of first maturity for female and male <em>E. diacanthus</em> were found to be 39.2 mm FL and 42.5 mm FL, respectively (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The minimum size of maturity was estimated to be about 125 mm SL in Taiwan (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1980b).<br/><br/><em>Spawning</em><br/>According to GSI study, McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) found that spawning of female <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> coincided with the decrease in sea surface temperature (25°C to 22.3°C) during June and July, during which disappearance of spawning / running gonads were also seen from macroscopic examinations. But there was no such pattern for male <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> (McIlwain <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/><em>Growth</em><br/>Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995a) calculated that the growth rate of juvenile is 2.5 cm per month. Based on fish collected in Greater Bombay in 1989 to 1992, the length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> (sample size not specified) was found to be TL=502 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.61(Age<sub>-0</sub>)) (Chakraborty 1994).<br/><br/>Based on 5,043 specimens collected at two landing centers of Greater Bombay in India, Chakraborty and Vidyasagar (1996) calculated the length-at-age von Bertalanffy growth equation for <em>E. diacanthus</em> to be TL=494 mm (1<sup>-e</sup>(-0.59(t-t<sub>0/</sub>)).<br/><br/><em>Mortality</em><br/>The natural mortality of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> was calculated to be 1.10 in India (Chakraborty and Vidyasagar 1996).<br/><br/><em>Sexual pattern</em><br/>Based on 380 specimens collected in 1975 to 1977 in Taiwan, <em>E. diacanthus</em> is protogynous which changes sex at two to three years of age in Taiwan (Chen <em>et al</em> 1980b).  Chen <em>et al.</em> (1980b) found that the intersexual fish were found within two to six year-old classes and absent during spawning, and males became dominant after four years old.<br/><br/><em>Fecundity and Recruitment</em><br/>Chen <em>et al.</em> (1980b) estimated the fecundity of <em>E. diacanthus</em> ranged from 64,000 to 233,000 ova, with a linear relationship with SL (Fecundity = -265.2036+2.6570xSL).<br/><br/><em>Sex ratio</em><br/>Based on 530 specimens collected in 2000 to 2001 in Oman, the male-to-female sex ratio of <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> was found to be 1:2.3, with females (40.3 mm FL; Flmin-max: 26.0-53.2 mm FL) had a lower average body size than males (41.2 mm FL; Flmin-max: 28.2 to 51.6 mm FL) (McIlwain <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>More up-to-date information on its abundance, biology, age-and-growth and management practices is recommended given its susceptibility to probable unsustainable exploitation (especially the trawling fishery).	eng
132777	population	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>It is uncommon in Sri Lanka, but abundant on muddy trawling grounds and forms large schools on Pakistan trawling grounds at depths of 20 to 50 m (Debruin <em>et al.</em> 1995). There have been declines noted in India and some concern that juveniles were being taken. One of the most abundant species in trawl catches (18 to 45 m) (James <em>et al.</em> 1996). <em>See</em> Table 1,  showing the mortality, yield and stock parameters for <em>E. diacanthus</em> (Chakraborty 1994).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: the mortality, yield and stock parameters for <em>E. diacanthus</em>.<br/><br/><em>India</em><br/>The landing of <em>E. diacanthus</em> at Mangalore increased by 328% from 81.4 tonnes in1988/89 to 348.3 tonnes in 1993/94, with an increase in catch rate (kg / hour) from 0.18 to 0.54, respectively (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).  <em>E. diacanthus</em> was found in the trawl fishery from October to May, with peak landing occurred during December (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).<br/><br/>Table showing the annual landings of <em>E. diacanthus</em> and ‘all fish’ catch by multi-day trawlers at Mangalore and Malpe during 1988/89 to 1993/94 (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a) (Table 2).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: The annual landings of <em>E. diacanthus</em> and ‘all fish’ catch by multi-day trawlers at Mangalore and Maple during 1988/89 to 1993/94.<br/><br/>In September 1995, <em>E. diacanthus</em> comprised 82.65% (size ranged from 25 to 46 cm TL with modal size group at 30 to 34 cm TL) of the groupers caught in the trawl fishery in India. In October 1995, the size of fish dropped to a length range of 20 to 32 cm TL with modal size at 24 to 26 cm TL (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995b).<br/><br/><em>Pakistan</em><br/>Based on a trawl survey carried out off Pakistan waters in 1983-1984, the mean catch rates of <em>E. diacanthus</em> ranged 6.80 kg/hour in September to 12.68 kg/hour in June (Iqbal 1995).<br/><br/>Biomasses of <em>E. diacanthus</em> in Pakistani coastal waters and in total shelf area of Sindh were estimated ranging from 0.01 to 0.14 tonnes per nm² and 93 to 1302 tonnes per nm², respectively (Iqbal 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is moderately common in northwest India in visual surveys (Sluka and Lazarus in press).	eng
132777	threats	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus diacanthus</em> is overfishing and exploitation of juveniles and possible bycatch from trawl fisheries. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995a) indicated that very small <em>E. diacanthus</em> were discarded as trash fish and used for poultry feed. The trawl fishery of <em>E. diacanthus</em> consisted exclusively of juveniles (max catch size was 23.5 cm TL) from 30 to 60 m depth, which comprised of the 0-year age class (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a). The trawling fishery went deeper from 60 to 80 m in 1994 to 72 to 108 m in 1996, inducing a more serious threat to the population in Indian waters (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995b).<br/><br/>Exploitation of juveniles and the associated overfishing will lead to depletion of the stock of <em>E. diacanthus</em> from Dakshina Kannada coast in India (Zacharia <em>et al.</em> 1995a).  <br/><br/>Chakraborty (1994) suggested go fishing beyond 70 m in Bombay waters will increase the yield of <em>E. diacanthus</em> without posing a threat to the depletion of this species  On the contrary, Zacharia <em>et al.</em> (1995b) pointed out that the trawling fishery went deeper from 60 to 80 m in 1994 to 72 to 108 m in 1996 will inducing a more serious threat to the population in the Indian waters.<br/><br/>McIlwain <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggested area closures that protecting critical habitat together with installing satellite tracking devices in individual trawlers would be successful in managing this species.	eng
132778	conservation	Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Rhodes, K., 2008	No specific action is required at present for <em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> as it is not a major target of fisheries.	eng
132778	distribution	Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is distibuted from East Africa (Madagascar, Mascarene islands) all the way to Pitcairn in tropical waters. It is absent from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, most of the East African coastline except Kenya. It is present in India (Lakshadweep), Maldives, and probably in Sri Lanka, and it is likely to be present in Nicobar, Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia. In Australia, star-spotted groper are present from the Torres Strait down to New South Wales. It was introduced to Hawaii in 1956 but has not established there.	eng
132778	habitat	Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is a shallow water species (depth range 0 to 30 m) which prefers coral reefs exposed to oceanic influence and is also found in rubble bottoms in clear waters. It is, therefore, found preferentially on islands, especially barrier reefs. Maximum length is reported as 27 cm TL. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>This species is usually solitary and lives on the bottom where it feeds mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and occasionally on worms. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>It is reported to be protogynous (unconfirmed), with external fertilization, the pelagic eggs. Sexual maturity is reached at 19 cm (TL). No spawning aggregations are known and sexual behavior has not been described. One study of growth suggests rapid initial growth, but requires confirmation.	eng
132778	population	Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> is abundant in many areas, based on museum records (Heemstra, pers. comm.), and is usually common over most of its range. Density data are available for most of the South Pacific, Hawaii, La Reunion Is., Japan. Populations are highly fragmented, each island holding probably a distinct population, exchanges between islands occurring for most of its range by larval migration. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Known abundances (fish/km² of reef): New Caledonia: 173; Fiji: 68; French Polynesia : 28; Tonga: 56. Highest abundance observed on the outer reefs of unpopulated atolls in French Polynesia with >2,000 fish /km².<br/>Most observed fishes between 15 and 25 cm; less than 5% of the specimens >25 cm (FL)<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Represents 0.05% of reported reef fish catches in American Samoa; 0.31% in CNMI; 0.01% in Guam; less than 0.1% of grouper experimental catch (in weight or numbers) in New Caledonia.<br/><br/>Declining catch of groupers (generic) is reported for Sabah (Busing 1990). It was not found during Greenforce surveys in 1999 to 2005 (Sabah).	eng
132778	threats	Kulbicki, M., Heemstra, P.C., Myers, R. & Rhodes, K., 2008	The major threats to <em>Epinephelus hexagonatus</em> are habitat loss and overfishing, although neither currently appear to pose a substantial problem to the species. It is often common is artisanal and small-scale fisheries throughout its range because of its prevalence in island locales. It is taken by hook, line, spear and gillnets, but usually not targeted by fishermen as it is small. It is likely a component of the live reef food fish trade.	eng
132779	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> has no specific conservation measures implemented for it, but occurs in marine protected areas in Eilat and Jordan (Aqaba), Sudan and Egypt.	eng
132779	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is endemic to the Red Sea and ranges from Eilat in the northern Gulf of Aqaba to the Farasan Islands off the southern end of Saudi Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, and Eritrea.	eng
132779	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits dead reefs in silty areas, including coral reefs and silty lagoons in 15 to at least 50. Usually found in or near caves; juveniles in coral rubble areas. It could possibly be an aquarium novelty. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Ripe females are found at 17 to 19 cm SL and a mature males at 22 cm SL were reported (Randall and Ben-Tuvia 1983).	eng
132779	population	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> is generally uncommon, but in some areas (Hurghada) there are up 5 to 10 individuals per 250 m² (Leiske and Myers 2004). There is no population or fisheries information for this species.	eng
132779	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis oligosticta</em> has a low potential for overfishing and is currently taken incidentally in subsistence fisheries.	eng
132780	conservation	Russell, B., Cabanban, A.S. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in its range, e.g. the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and Tubbataha Marine Park (Sulu Sea), Bunakken Marine Park (Sulawesi), but nothing specific has been proposed for this species.	eng
132780	distribution	Russell, B., Cabanban, A.S. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is a Western Pacific species occurring in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Spratleys, Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, the Arafura Sea and Australia (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Russell and Houston 1989).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.	eng
132780	habitat	Russell, B., Cabanban, A.S. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is a reef-associated species that is common on silty, soft sand or mud bottoms (10 to 80 m depth).  Its preference for soft-bottom habitats may account for its restricted distribution and absence at oceanic islands. The maximum size is listed as 40.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) but more usually 21 cm SL (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The length-weight relationship for Northern Territory (Australia) population is described by Willing and Pender (1989). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> feeds on small fishes and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Females are mature at 13 cm SL (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132780	population	Russell, B., Cabanban, A.S. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is absent from oceanic islands in the Indian Ocean. Little is known of the biology, fisheries or population status for this species is limited.	eng
132780	threats	Russell, B., Cabanban, A.S. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus sexfasciatus</em> is primarily threatened by overfishing. Although a small species, it is commonly and readily caught in trawls, consequently it is often seen in local markets (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It also occurs in Indonesia inshore fisheries (Allen and Adrim 2003).	eng
132781	conservation	Liu, M. & Choat JH, 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> occurs in number of marine protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>The establishment of no-take reserves appears to have played a key role in maintaining the sustainability of the fishery. As an example, in 1995, five no-take fisheries reserves were established within the Nabq Natural Resource Protected Area (South Sinai, Egyptian Red Sea). The abundance and body size of <em>C. argus</em> (other two monitoring species are <em>Lethrinus obsoletus</em> and <em>Variola louti</em>) had increased in the reserves; the CPUE within the adjacent fished areas also increased during five-year monitoring (Galal <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
132781	distribution	Liu, M. & Choat JH, 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> is the most widely distributed of the groupers, occurring from the Red Sea to South Africa and east to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn group, including northern Australia, Lord Howe Island, and Japan. It was recently introduced to the Hawaiian Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Recorded from the Red Sea, Gulf of Aquaba, Gulf of Aden, Oman, Socotra, east Somalia, eastern Africa to 28°S, Comores, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabra, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrígues, Chagos, Maldives, Laccadives (India), Sri Lanka, Andamans (India), west Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia (Sumatra, Bali, Sangakkaki, Borneo, east Indonesia, Minado, Togean Islands, Sulawesi, Flores, Komodo, Sunda, Raja Ampat, West Papua), Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, Australia (Ashmore Island, Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, NW Australian coast, Great Barrier Reef, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe Island), Philippines, Spratly Island, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia (Chesterfields, Ouvéa), south Taiwan (Peng hu shan), Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Kawhisi-jima, south Japan, Izu Islands, Ogosawara), Palau, Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Pohnpei, Ifalik, Chuuk, Kapingamarangi, Kosrae, south Mariana Islands), Northern Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, United States Minor Outlying Islands (Wake Island), Fiji (including Rotuma Island), Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, Kiribati (Phoenix Islands, Line Island), French Polynesia (Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands, Gambier Islands, Marquesas Islands, Austral Islands, Rapa), and Pitcairn (Myers distributional database 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Additional records</strong><br/>China (Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan Strait, south China Sea). Records from Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, Kingman Reef (B. Mundy pers. comm.). <em>C. argus</em> was also introduced to Hawaii (USA) from French Polynesia in 1955-1961 (571 individuals) (Randall 1987, Planes and Lecaillon 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Distribution References </strong><br/>Randall and Ben-Tuvia (1983), Heemstra and Randall (1993), Huang (1994), Donaldson (1995), Planes and Lecaillon (1998), Sadovy and Cornish (2000), TNC/WWF (2003).	eng
132781	habitat	Liu, M. & Choat JH, 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> occurs in a variety of habitats, but is most commonly associated with exposed reef front habitats. Recorded to at least 40 m, but prefers 1 to 10 m depths. <em>Cephalopholis argus</em> causes ciguatera at some islands in the Pacific region, such as French Polynesia, Marshall Islands and Hawaii (Randall 1980, 1987; Hokama <em>et al.</em> 1994; Bruslé <em>et al.</em> 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Social system, reproduction and growth</strong><br/>Peacock grouper occurs in social groups comprising of a single male and haremic females. Male territiory size is positively associated with fish size. Growth tends to be highly asymptotic (Pears 2005) and there is presently no evidence of rapid increase in size in males. In the Gulf of Aqaba, <em>C. argus</em> is found in social units comprising up to 12 adults, including one dominant male. Each group occupies a specific area (up to 2,000 m²) that is defended by the territorial male and subdivided into secondary territories, each inhabited by a single female (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991a). A similar social organization has been observed in Hawaii populations (Meyer 2004).<br/><br/>There is very little information available on the reproductive biology of this species. Behavioural studies (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991a, Meyer 2004) suggest that male <em>C. argus</em> defend large territories that incorporate smaller female territories as described for <em>C. boenak</em> (Lui and Sadovy 2005). Protogynous hermaphroditism has not confirmed for <em>C. argus</em>, although the testes remain primary-growth stage oocytes and have ovarian structure with a lumen and lamellae (Bruslé <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Ciguatera</strong><br/>More detailed studies have implicated this species in ciguatera in the south Pacific (Bagnis 1968, Bagnis <em>et al.</em> 1979) and also in introduced populations in Hawaii (Dierking 2007) although demographic analyses carried out in this study indicated no impact on the fishes themselves. In some areas in the south Pacific fishing is restricted due to ciguatera. (R. Robertson pers. comm.). The very high densities recorded by Kulbicki from French Polynesia appear to reflect this.	eng
132781	population	Liu, M. & Choat JH, 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>This is one of the most abundant medium-sized serranids in the Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In addition to a wide geographic distribution, <em>C. argus</em> is one of the most abundant of the medium size serranids in both the Indian and Central Pacific oceans (Pears 2005). On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) the highest abundances are in the northern regions. Replicated estimates of abundance derived from belt transects are available for the western Indian Ocean (Seychelles), the western Pacific GBR (Pears 2005) and the central Pacific (American Samoa) (A. Green pers. comm.) (Table 1). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: estimates of abundance derived from belt transects for the western Indian Ocean (Seychelles), the western Pacific Great Barrier Reef and the central Pacific (American Samoa).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Saudi Arabia, catch ranged from 11 to 72 mt over the period of 2000 to 2004 (www.fao.org).<br/><br/>In the Maldives, there has been a slight reduction in average size since exploitation began (Sattar and Adam 2005). <br/><br/>Estimates of abundance from four Pacific localities (Kulbicki IRD data base adjusted to no. per 1,000 m²): Fiji (1.7), Tonga (2.7), New Caledonia (0.6) (relatively low compared to other Pacific localities subject to fishing), French Polynesia outer reefs (14.7) (exceptionally high and indicate a local constraint on fishing). All areas sampled in the Seychelles and the GBR are subject to a moderate line fishery.<br/><br/>In American Samoa, Rose Atoll and Ofu/Olosegu are exposed to less fishing than Tau, Tutuila and Upolu. Low abundances on the GBR are not a result of heavy fishing pressure as this species is not specifically targeted. On the GBR <em>C. argus</em> is a member of a complex of abundant cryptic serranids including <em>Cephalopholis cynaostigma</em>, <em>C. microprion</em> and <em>C. boenak</em>. In the Seychelles this complex included <em>C. urodeta</em>, <em>C. miniata</em> which are associated with high abundances of small <em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em>. <br/><br/>Despite heavy fishing pressure in areas such as Samoa this species maintains healthy populations and only one locality showed reduced numbers associated with fishing. In addition this species is a strong colonizer and has established large populations in Hawaii after deliberate introduction from Moorea and the Marquesas (Randall 1987).<br/><br/>In a non-fishing area, the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea), adult <em>C. argus</em> (also <em>C. miniata</em> and <em>C. hemistiktos</em>) were experimental removed from their resident reefs. Within three years, limited recruitment was observed; replenished mainly by other predators of different taxa (Shpigel and Fishelson 1991b).<br/><br/>One of the most abundantly speared groupers in reef fisheries in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Demography</strong><br/>The demography of this species is highly plastic and shows great variation over its distributional range especially in terms of maximum longevity, maximum size and the VBGF parameters. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: summary of <em>C. argus</em> demographic data (Pears 2005, Molea and Choat unpub. data).<br/><br/>Notable features of the population dynamics are shorter life spans, larger size and high K value for the Indian Ocean populations, the extended life span in GBR populations and the growth dynamics of the Hawaiian invasive populations. The Hawaii populations are closer to the dynamics of the Indian ocean populations than of their parent populations in Moorea and the Marquesas. The GBR populations also have distinctive dynamics.	eng
132781	threats	Liu, M. & Choat JH, 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis argus</em> is potentially threatened by overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Although abundant over most of its range, is subject to increasing fishery pressure in some regions. At three localities examined for landings of the distinctive species, the landings showed declines in the number of fish caught (Zeller 2006). The most dramatic was in the northern Mariana Islands where catches in a non-commercial fishery decline from 6 mt in 1952 to 1 mt in 2002. The Guam fishery was smaller and erratic but landings were also declining by 2001. For Samoa after a peak in the early 1990s the landings are now in steep decline. Localized protection is required at sites of heavy fishing as isolated populations are becoming increasingly vulnerable to larger vessels.	eng
132782	conservation	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is likely to occur in marine protected areas within its range, but no specific measures are known for this species.	eng
132782	distribution	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is a western Pacific species found in the Philippines, Indonesia (Sulawesi and Flores, but not recorded in the Raja Ampat Islands), and northern Papua New Guinea.	eng
132782	habitat	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits protected or silty reef areas. <br/><br/><strong>Maturity</strong><br/>A mature female of 14 cm has been recorded (Randall and Heemstra 1991).	eng
132782	population	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The population status of <em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is unknown. It is a small, poorly known species with a restricted (known) distribution.	eng
132782	threats	Liu, M. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis aitha</em> is probably not targeted by fisheries because of its small size and is unlikely to occur as by-catch.	eng
132783	conservation	Liu, M., Yeeting, B., Russell, B., Craig, M.T., Heemstra, P.C. & Pollard, D., 2008	Darkfin Hind are present within numerous protected area throughout its range.	eng
132783	distribution	Liu, M., Yeeting, B., Russell, B., Craig, M.T., Heemstra, P.C. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis urodeta</em> is widely distributed within the Pacific Ocean, occurring eastward to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn Islands, and on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><strong>Recent records</strong><br/>There are recent new records of darkfin hind from Howland Island, Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (B. Mundy pers. comm.) and from Brunei (A. Conish, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Introductions</strong><br/><em>C. urodeta</em> was introduced into Hawaii in 1958-1961, but it did not become established there (Randall 1987).<br/><br/><strong>Specific localities</strong><br/>Calamianes Islands; Davao Gulf; Coral Sea; Great Barrier Reef; Hsiao-liu-chiu; Indonesian Sea; Kimbe Bay; Kuroshio current; Lagonoy Gulf; Lingyen Gulf, Milne Bay; north northeast and northwest Australian Shelves; Panay Gulf; Peng-hu; Polynesian waters; Ragay Gulf; South China Sea; Spratly Islands; Sulu-Celebes Sea; Tubbataha Reefs; and Verde Island Passage.	eng
132783	habitat	Liu, M., Yeeting, B., Russell, B., Craig, M.T., Heemstra, P.C. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephaplopholis urodeta</em> is a reef-associated species that is not tolerant of habitat degradation. The species prefers clear, shallow waters of outer reef areas to 60 m. It is occasionally found in lagoons, back-reef areas, and on the reef-top. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, it occurs on reef flats and slopes (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Rota, Mariana Islands, it occurs largely on the upper reef terrace at 2 to 13 m, and is associated with coral pavement (Donaldson 2002). In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, <em>C. urodeta</em> is one of the dominant groupers (together with <em>Epinephelus merra</em> and <em>E. fasciatus</em>) (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Darfkfin hind feed mainly on small fishes and crustaceans. In a quantitative study of the stomach content in Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan (Nakai <em>et al.</em> 2001), small fish and decapod crustaceans constituted 73.4% of stomach contents by weight. Diet composition has seasonal differences; diet is abundant from May to November, and higher hermit crabs in February.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>The minimum size for sexual maturity is 17 cm TL, with a maximum size of 28 cm TL.<br/><br/>The reproductive biology of darkfin hind has been studied briefly (Nakai and Sano 2002). In Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands, Japan, darkfin hind ranged from 11.5 to 21.1 cm TL. Males were larger than females. Protogynous hermaphroditism was proposed, but unconfirmed, because the sexual transitional individuals (with degenerating mature oocytes) were not found in samples.	eng
132783	population	Liu, M., Yeeting, B., Russell, B., Craig, M.T., Heemstra, P.C. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis urodeta</em> is a very common species throughout its range and is not known or suspected to be in decline.<br/><br/><strong>Hybridization</strong><br/>Hybridizes with <em>C. nigripinnis</em> at Christmas Island (Randall and Heemstra 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>In the Mariana Islands, <em>C. urodeta</em> appeared to have a mating group organization with a single male and six to eight females (Donaldson 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In Brunei, a UVC survey in 2004 showed low abundance and biomass (A. Cornish pers. comm.):<br/>Abundance: 0/transect (5x50m); Biomass: 0.5g/transect).	eng
132783	threats	Liu, M., Yeeting, B., Russell, B., Craig, M.T., Heemstra, P.C. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Major threats to darkfin hind are habitat destruction due to coral reef loss and degradation, climate change and in particular coral bleaching (present and future threat).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Darkfin hind are a target of the subsistence fishery in some regions. It is also targeted by the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, it is sold occasionally in markets (fishers caught locally by hook-and-line and traps), with price HK$26-30/pound and size mainly 15 to 20 cm TL (Min Liu unpub. data).	eng
132784	conservation	Russell, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> may occur in a protected areas in South Africa, but there are no specific measures for the species.	eng
132784	distribution	Russell, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is very widely distributed Indo-West Pacific species, with a disjunct distribution. It ranges from the Natal coast of South Africa, northern Mozambique, Réunion, Mauritius, New Caledonia, Philippines, New Guinea, New Ireland, and Fiji and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is one record from Australia (Myrmidon Reef, Coral Sea) (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1994), but it is unknown in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Fiji; Mauritius; Mozambique; New Caledonia; Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago); Philippines; Réunion; South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); Tonga.	eng
132784	habitat	Russell, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is known only in deep water (128 to 300 m) in the vicinity of coral reefs. Its biology is largely unknown. According to Postel <em>et al.</em> (1963) it grows to a maximum size of 150 cm TL and a weight of 50 kg.	eng
132784	population	Russell, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em> is fairly common in Reunion (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and occurs regularly in the line and trap fisheries of Mozambique (FRI unpub. data.).	eng
132784	threats	Russell, B. & Fennesy, S., 2008	Commercial fishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus magniscuttis</em>. It is of some importance to the fisheries at Réunion (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and Mozambique (FRI database), where it is fairly common.	eng
132785	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> may occur in a few protected areas in Thailand, but management is doubtful.	eng
132785	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from Pakistan to India including Laccadive (Lakshadweep) Islands (India), Sri Lanka, and through the larger islands of the East Indies and the Gulf of Thailand.	eng
132785	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is a reef-associated that inhabits areas with muddy or silty-sand bottoms in harbours and in estuaries. Nothing has been published on its biology. A 16.3 cm SL fish was found to have ripe ova.	eng
132785	population	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> is unlikely to be common as there is very little published information.	eng
132785	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus erythrurus</em> may be threatened by overfishing, but there is no fishery information from its range of occurrence, although it occurs in trawls, also hooks and line and traps. It is most likely fished for subsistence, and occurs within densely human populated areas, so this may be a threat but further information is needed to clarify.	eng
132786	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2008	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> occurs in marine protected areas in some parts of its range.	eng
132786	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis nigripinnis</em> is a valid species confined to the Western Indian Ocean plus Jakarta and the western end of Sumatera. In the Indian Ocean, <em>C. nigripinnis</em> is known from the east coast of Africa (South Africa to Kenya), Comoros, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Seychelles, Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrígues) and Chagos.	eng
132786	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>C. nigripinnis</em> inhabits shallow coral and rocky reefs and is a common species in depth up to 60 m. Information is available on the habitat and ecology of the closely related <em>C. urodeta</em> which is likely to be very similar for <em>C. nigripinnis</em>. However, this information must be verified.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>C. nigripinnis</em> feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans.	eng
132786	population	Craig, M.T., 2008	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> is abundant throughout its range. There is currently no information on population trends.	eng
132786	threats	Craig, M.T., 2008	<em>C. nigripinnis</em> currently has no identified major threats, but it may be taken in subsistence and artisinal fisheries. At present, this is not believed to be a major threat factor.	eng
132787	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Yeeting, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> occurs in marine protected areas in various areas, including Palau, Malaysia, Philippines, Pohnpei, East Africa (Kenya) and Australia.	eng
132787	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Yeeting, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species widely distributed from the Red Sea south to Mozambique, east to the Phoenix Islands, north to Japan, and south to Australia (southern Queensland and Heron Island). Its distribution probably includes all the islands of the tropical Indian Ocean. It is also found on the coast of Oman and Aldabra (Seychelles).	eng
132787	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Yeeting, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species that inhabits coral rich areas (5 to 80 m) and clear waters on lagoon and seaward reefs. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on fishes and probably on crustaceans. The distinctive blue and gold striped juveniles are mimics of the wrasse <em>Halichoeres purpurescens</em>. Juveniles mimic some of the small lined wrasses of the genus <em>Halichoeres</em> or dark damsels in surge zones. This allows the species to approach their prey.	eng
132787	population	Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Yeeting, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> is widespread, but not abundant. There is no evidence of decline, but there is currently insufficient data for this species. Possible declines may be associated with habitat loss or degradation of coral reefs.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The slender grouper is uncommon in catches in Pohnei, where is was shown to contribute only to the spear fishery and occurred in only 3.2% of catches overall (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132787	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Samoilys, M., Yeeting, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	In some areas, there are major threats to <em>Anyperodon leucogrammicus</em> from overfishing, but in consideration of its overall range this is likely not a threat to the species overall. The species is not specifically targeted for the commercial fishery, but appears in Hong Kong live fish markets occasionally. Juveniles are targeted for the aquarium trade. Global warming may well affect the abundance and distribution of the species.	eng
132788	conservation	Liu, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	In Australia and in other areas within its range, <em>Epinephelus merra</em> is protected in marine reserves, but no other specific protective measures are known for the species.	eng
132788	distribution	Liu, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus merra</em> is one of the most widely distributed and common small groupers in the Indo-Pacific, occurring from South Africa to Pitcairn, excluding the Middle East, coastal India and Hawaii. North to southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island. It is reported from the East China Sea (China) (Huang 1994). It also appears in the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and Exmouth, WA, Australia (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006), Howland Is., Baker Is., Jarvis Is., Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (Bruce Mundy pers. comm.), Pakistan and Sri Lanka.	eng
132788	habitat	Liu, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus merra</em> is a reef-associated species with depth range 0 to 50 m, but mainly occurs in depths <20 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Honeycomb grouper are common in shallow lagoons and semi-protected seaward reefs. They may also be found in marginal coral reef habitats. Juveniles are common in thickets of staghorn <em>Acropora</em> corals. <em>E. merra</em> spends its entire life in one small area, having no significant movement from their home reef. Maximum body size is reported to be 26 cm SL (about 32 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993).  Reports of ciguatera poisoning.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>E. merra</em> is protogynous hermaphroditic. Of 1,067 fish examined, the average size of females was 16 cm SL (largest female was 21 cm SL), and the average size of males was 20 cm SL (largest male was 25 cm SL) (Randall 1955). <br/><br/>Males were larger than females in Reunion and sex change occurred at 3 to 5 years old (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>At the Society Is., honeycomb grouper spawn between Jan and Apr for 3 to 4 days at the time of the full moon (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>At Okinawan waters, spawning season is between May and August with the peak of June, and spawn between the full moon and the last quarter moon. GSI of ripe females prior to spawning time (i.e. around the full moon) up to 13% (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia, the spawning season of <em>E. merra</em> was between March and April (Song <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>At New Caledonia, spawning season from Sep. to Feb. with a peak of Nov. to Dec. and sex-ration of 1:3 (female:male); and at Tahiti, from Jan to April (Shapiro 1987).<br/><br/>Around Sesoko Island, Okinawa, mature fish of <em>E. merra</em> disappeared from their inhabited fringing reefs for a few days after the full moon and appeared again in the same areas. These combined with gonadal development during spawning season (above), the authors proposed that <em>E. merra</em> formed spawning aggregation outside of their inhabited reefs (Soyano <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Honeycomb grouper feed on fishes and crustaceans, with increasing piscivory with age.<br/><br/><strong>Growth, mortality and early life history</strong><br/>Honeycomb grouper has relatively high growth rate with k ranging from 0.43-0.8. Natural mortality was 0.9 to 1.67 (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004). The TL-SL relation is SL=0.75TL+26.84 (n=38, r=0.94) (Pothin <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>Early life history was summarized by Sazaki <em>et al.</em> (1999) (see Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>.	eng
132788	population	Liu, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus merra</em> is abundant throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Brunei (2004), underwater visual census showed (Andy Cornish, pers. comm.):<br/><br/>Abundance: 0.4/transect (5x50 m)<br/>Biomass: 15.7 g/transect(5x50 m)<br/><br/>In Hong Kong wet markets, 95% of <em>E. merra</em> were immature and prices at HKD 51 to 64 per kg (Allen To pers. comm.). Honeycomb grouper are common in artisanal fisheries in the Pacific.	eng
132788	threats	Liu, M. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus merra</em> is of importance in artisanal fisheries because of its abundance in shallow water. It is caught with handlines, traps and spear (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>In Vietnam, <em>E. merra</em> is mainly cultured in Ha Long Bay and the central seas, and the juveniles are caught from wild (Tuan <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Commonly caught during gleaning at night (Pacific Islands) (Yeeting pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It is captured during spawning events in Micronesia (Rhodes pers. comm.).	eng
132789	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Yeeting, B., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	Nothing specific for <em>Cephalopholis microprion</em>, but it occurs within marine protected areas in some parts of its range.	eng
132789	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Yeeting, B., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis microprion</em> is a western Pacific species distributed from the Gulf of Thailand to New Caledonia, north to Luzon (Philippines), and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). Its range includes Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands, Palau and New Caledonia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Western Pacific: Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Philippines, northeastern Australia (south to Lord Howe Island), Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.	eng
132789	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Yeeting, B., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis microprion</em> is a shallow, reef-associated species, usually on silty reefs. It is found on mid-shelf lagoons and back reef areas on northern and central Great Barrier Reef (Newman <em>et al.</em> 1997, Pears 2005). Secretive in corals to about 30 m depth. Juveniles under corals with rubble substrate.	eng
132789	population	Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Yeeting, B., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	There is no information on the population status of <em>Cephalopholis microprion</em>. Common on the Great Barrier Reef (Pears 2005).	eng
132789	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Russell, B., Pollard, D., Yeeting, B., Kulbicki, M. & Fennesy, S., 2008	The primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalopholis microprion</span> is overfishing; probably taken incidentally in reef fisheries.	eng
132790	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Choat, J.H. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is not in protected areas, primarily because it occurs in deepwater habitats where few marine protected areas have been established.	eng
132790	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Choat, J.H. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is a Western Pacific species with a disjunct distribution that ranges from the Republic of Korea and southern most coast of Democratic Republic of Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China. It is bounded by subtropical coordinates 39°N to 34°S, 114°E to 155°E, off eastern Australia (between 25°S to 32°S), off the coast of Western Australia (south of 19°30' S), and Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands (Japan).	eng
132790	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Choat, J.H. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Triso dermopterus</em> occurs on rocky or soft (silty-sand or mud) bottoms. <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Young <em>Triso dermopterus</em> have been observed to feed on zooplankton in the water column; feeding of adults has not yet been discovered (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>Triso dermopterus</em> is reported to be protogynous (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132790	population	Cabanban, A.S., Choat, J.H. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is an uncommon species and there is  little information on population trends.	eng
132790	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Choat, J.H. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Triso dermopterus</em> is incidentally caught in deep-water fishing, but it is not a targeted species because it is too rare and occurs in deepwater habitats.	eng
132791	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesey, S., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> has no known conservation measures in place.	eng
132791	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesey, S., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is distributed from southern Japan to Fiji and French Polynesia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Japan, Ogasawara Islands (Japan), Taiwan, Philippines, Guam, Tahiti, and French Polynesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is also reported in Fiji and Tuvalu by Chapman and Cussack (1990). Palau, Marianas, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Rotuma (Fiji), Samoa, Cook Islands, Society Islands and Tuamotus Islands (French Polynesia), and Christmas Island. The reported occurrence of this species in Indonesia needs to be confirmed.	eng
132791	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesey, S., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is a deep-water (80 to 250 m) demersal species associated with steep drop-offs, seamounts and offshore banks (Mattieu <em>et al.</em> nd). Maximum length is 43 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>140 to 190 mm = 2 to 5 years old (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006)<br/>Length infinity - 44.8 cm<br/>Growth coefficient (K) - 0.07<br/>Natural morality (M) - 0.35<br/>Length at maturity - 25.4 cm<br/>Life span - 40.6 years<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Gut contents showed that it feeds on fishes and crustaceans (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132791	population	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesey, S., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em> is rare to scarce. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>There is discontinuous catch data available from Guam between 1985 (10 kg) and 1999 (260 kg) (Zeller 2006). This could be attributed to increasing effort. Its occurrence in Tahiti, French Polynesia is reported from a specimen caught at 250 m. It is apparently exploited commercially in Indonesia, with stocks and biomass reportedly in decline.	eng
132791	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesey, S., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is overfishing. There is both a subsistence fishery and a game fishery for <em>Cephalopholis igarashiensis</em>. It has been reported from a commercial fishery in Indonesia (Mathieu <em>et al.</em> no date) and is also reportedly commercially valuable in Papua New Guinea (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
132792	conservation	Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	It s not known if <em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> occurs in any protected areas.	eng
132792	distribution	Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> is distributed from the Philippines south through eastern Indonesia, PNG and Solomon Islands, south to the northern tip of Cape York in Queensland, Australia.	eng
132792	habitat	Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> is only known from brackish or freshwater areas within its range, usually in mangrove areas.	eng
132792	population	Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus polystigma</em> abundance and population trends are unknown.	eng
132792	threats	Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is nothing published for <em>Epinephelus polystigma</em>. Presumably coastal development and mangrove destruction are major threats. It is too small to be targeted by fisheries.	eng
132793	conservation	Pollard, D., Mcilwain, J., Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> may be present in marine protected areas in some parts of its range, including the Red Sea.	eng
132793	distribution	Pollard, D., Mcilwain, J., Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> has a tropical to subtropical (~10 to 30°N) continental distribution around the shores of the Red Sea and the northwest Indian Ocean, from Egypt to (and including) Pakistan.	eng
132793	habitat	Pollard, D., Mcilwain, J., Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	Almost nothing is known about the biology and ecology of <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> other than that it is reef associated. It generally occurs on shallow sandy bottoms (from 5 to 50 m depth) near small coral heads, though it is not known from well developed coral reefs. It grows to a maximum total length of ~38 cm. <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> becomes abundant in the Arabian Sea south of Massirah Island, it is caught in this area and constitute 10% of the serranid catch in the Muscat market.	eng
132793	population	Pollard, D., Mcilwain, J., Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Nothing is known for <em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> population trends or status.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> was very common during dive surveys carried out on inshore reefs (few corals, mainly dominated by red algae, oscidians and sponges) in north eastern Somalia (Indian Ocean between Barmadobe and Dundura) in 1998 (Mann and Fielding 2000).	eng
132793	threats	Pollard, D., Mcilwain, J., Samoilys, M. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Epinephelus stoliczkae</em> is not currently threatened, though targeting of spawning aggregations could pose a threat to its populations in the future. Nothing has been published on the fishery catches of this species, although it is caught in local subsistence and artisanal fisheries and sold fresh in local market (traps, hook and line).	eng
132794	conservation	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus retouti</em> may be present in marine protected areas in some regions, but there is no known specific measure targeting <em>Epinephelus retouti</em>.	eng
132794	distribution	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is a widespread species with patchy tropical to subtropical (35° N to 25° S) insular distribution from the Mozambique Channel in the west to French Polynesia in the east, and southern Japan in the north to Madagascar and New Caledonia in the south.<br/><br/><strong>Localities</strong><br/>Bassas da India in the Mozambique Channel, via Madagascar, Réunion, Mauritius, Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Christmas Island, Lesser Sunda Islands (Indonesia), Spratley Islands (?), Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and southern Honshu (Izu Islands) (Japan), Midway Islands (?), Palau, Micronesia, Kiribati (?), New Caledonia, Tonga (?), Samoa and the Line Islands eastwards to the Society Islands and Tuamotu Islands in French Polynesia. Also on the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia (Zool. Cat. Aust., Vol 35, Fishes).	eng
132794	habitat	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is a reef associated species, with juveniles occurring mainly at depths between 20 and 40 m, and adults from 70 to 220 m on outer reef slopes. The maximum total length of this species is ~50 cm, and its “theoretical’ length at maturity is 25 cm (Shakeel and Ahmad 1996).	eng
132794	population	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population status of <em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is unknown, but apparently it is not very common at individual sites within its wide geographical range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Deep slope handlining catch statistics (Dalzell <em>et al.</em> 1996): Melanesia 1.13%; Micronesia 0.47%; Polynesia 10.2%.	eng
132794	threats	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus retouti</em> is generally too rare to be of particular commercial fisheries importance, though it is caught with handlines and vertical longlines (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>In the Maldives it is exploited in the live food fish trade, and could be threatened there if its spawning aggregations are targeted, but is not an important species in that fishery. Its status in this fishery is “unrestricted”, i.e. it has no export quota (Sattar and Adam 2005).	eng
132795	conservation	Pollard, D. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>There are no specific conservation measures currently in place for sevenbar grouper, though it is a component of managed fisheries in both NSW and Queensland waters, where species-specific catch figures are now recorded. Rowling (1995) suggested that reducing the catches of smaller fish would be beneficial to the stock (see Threats, above). It has also been suggested by Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) that, it seems likely that this species forms large aggregations for spawning, and that the marked fluctuations in catches of this species from season to season probably relate to the aggregation and spawning behaviour of the species. Thus, the designation of seasonal and/or area closures (at specific times and places) may prove to be necessary to protect breeding stocks of this species; though, to justify such action, this assumption [i.e. the occurrence of such spawning aggregations] needs to be tested by examining the sexual maturity of specimens where large catches have been made (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>There seem to be no marine protected areas which include populations of this species at this time, particularly as it is a deepwater species and few deepwater MPAs exist globally. Based on the above, the creation of  such reserves would be not only beneficial to the sustainability of the fishery, but to the longer term survival of the species.	eng
132795	distribution	Pollard, D. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is a southwest Pacific species found off the eastern coast of Australia (mainly northern New South Wales and southern Queensland). It is mainly found in subtropical to warm temperate waters (~18 to ~36°S) off eastern Australia, including (mainly northern) New South Wales (NSW) and (mainly southern) Queensland. Outlying records include Bass Strait (Victoria) to the south, and Dunk Island (Queensland) to the north. The primary (fished) range of this species only extends over ~1,000 km of coastline. There are also reports of two large specimens from a fish market in Western Samoa (possibly of a different species) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
132795	habitat	Pollard, D. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General and Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> generally inhabits deeper water rocky reefs and hard ground on the continental shelf and upper slope, but has been found at depths from ~15 to ~370 m (it is mainly caught deeper than 110 m in NSW waters). Juveniles and smaller fish are found in the shallower part of this depth range (~15 to 130 m). It grows to at least 157 cm and 66 kg, although fished specimens rarely exceed 100 cm and ~20 kg (max. wt from the NSW fishery was ~35 kg).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and females are thought to mature at between 70 and 80 cm in length and 6 to 8 kg in weight (Rowling 1994). Size composition data suggest that the stock in NSW may be subject to fluctuations in recruitment strength from year to year (Rowling 1995). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The diet consists of fish, crustaceans and molluscs (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
132795	population	Pollard, D. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> is unknown. Although catches fluctuate, the overall population seems to be reasonably stable.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Sevenbar Grouper is mainly fished in deep waters using droplines (vertical longlines) off the east coast of Australia. Smaller specimens are taken as by-catch in fish traps and prawn trawls in shallower waters. It is the dominant species in the northern NSW line fishery, and is marketed regularly but in relatively small quantities through the Sydney Fish Market (Yearsley <em>et al.</em> 1999).The best fisheries related information on this species comes from the northern NSW dropline fishery, in which the species began to be heavily fished (and recorded separately in the fisheries statistics) around 1990. Annual catches from this fishery over this past 15 year period have fluctuated between around 10 and 30 tonnes. Though annual catches have declined over the four years from 2001/02 to 2005/06 (from ~30 t to ~10 t), none the various ways of looking at the catch rate show a dramatic decline in kg/day fished since the late 1990s (K. Rowling pers. comm.). Rowling (1996) also noted that, advice from fishers is that Sevenbar Grouper are very susceptible to hook fishing, and that reasonable catch rates are only maintained by fishing previously unexploited grounds or grounds which have been rested for some time. Catch figures for the Queensland deepwater fishery (Sumpton and Ryan 2004) seem to be even more variable (e.g., ranging from 0 t to >16 t between 1992 and 1998) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). Catch figures from both the NSW and Queensland fisheries will need to be carefully monitored over coming years, and more detailed estimates made of CPUE for both fisheries.	eng
132795	threats	Pollard, D. & Rhodes, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Although no serious threats to populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> ergastularius</em> have been identified at this stage, there should be some concern about the size composition of the commercial catch. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Rowling (1996) stated that, the high proportion of small fish in the [NSW] catch is cause for concern. While the length at first maturity (of females) is estimated to be between 70 and 80 cm, the majority of the fish landed are between 40 and 70 cm (the range being ~20 to ~130 cm) (Rowling 1994). Few fish >70 cm are caught, and thus this fishery seems to be primarily based on immature individuals. Most of the smaller fish marketed may come from trap and trawl fishery by-catch, as the sizes of the hooks used in the dropline fishery generally take fish >50 cm in length (Rowling 1994). Rowling (1996) has suggested that: "It may also prove beneficial to examine ways of minimizing the catch of very small Sevenbar Grouper, in order to improve the yield per recruit for this valuable species". Also, although there are probably large areas of unfished habitat, the development of new fishing grounds (e.g., in southern Queensland) could lead to a reduction in the extent of such previously available refuge areas for larger adults (including males) of the species.	eng
132796	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<em>Epinephelus caninus</em> occurs in protected areas in the Mediterranean, but there is no protection in its African range. Harvest management is recommended for the overfished part of its range.	eng
132796	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is an eastern Atlantic species that is distributed from Portugal to Angola, including the Mediterranean and Canary Islands (Spain). There are no records from the northern coast of Spain, France, or the northwestern coast of Italy.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Albania to Italy, France (Corsica), Spain, Portugal, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Canary Islands, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and Angola.	eng
132796	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus caninus</em> is a demersal species that occurs on sandy mud bottoms 30 to 400 m. A maximum weight of 78 kg was reported by Jose Manuel, Spain (05/05).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes and invertebrates.  <br/><br/><strong>Age</strong><br/>A single specimen from Majorca was aged at 75 years old; 164 cm TL; 67 kg (Morales-Nin, Bauza and Grau 2005).	eng
132796	population	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>There is very little population information for <em>Epinephelus caninus</em>, but it is known to be rare in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Fishery-independent survey at protected and unprotected areas in the Mediterranean indicated that it is now rare. The highest abundance observed was 0.2 individual per 250 m² (Charton <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
132796	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Bertoncini, A.A. & Ferreira, B., 2008	Overfishing for commercial trade is a major threat in many parts of its range, e.g., in the Mediterranean and the coast of west Africa.	eng
132797	conservation	Fennesy, S., 2008	In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. This area incorporates the only coral reefs in the country, which form the preferred habitat for this species. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species.<br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers; no limits for commercial and artisinal fishers. Madagascar – no restrictions.	eng
132797	distribution	Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is found only in the Western Indian Ocean and is known only from Madagascar, Natal in South Africa, and southern Mozambique. Reported southernmost occurrence at Park Rynie (30.3343° S, 30.7342° E) in KwaZulu-Natal (D. King pers. comm.); northernmost occurrence in Mozambique at Ponta Zavora (24.52° S, 35.20361° E) Mozambique (South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity). In Madagascar, reported from commercial fishing boats operating from Tamatave, between 15° S, 21.30° S (A. Pages pers. comm.). Also reported in catches from Réunion (D. Miossec pers. comm., IFREMER).	eng
132797	habitat	Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is a coral reef-associated that appears to be rare and found at depths of 20 to 50 m. It is of some importance to South African sport fishers along the northern coast of Natal. One specimen measured 1,055 mm, 14.2 kg from Mozambique (Oceanographic Research Institute unpub. data).	eng
132797	population	Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus posteli</em> is rare in catch throughout its range and apparently rare in the wild.<br/><br/><strong>Fsiheries-independent</strong><br/>As well as being range-restricted, this species is probably not abundant. Chater <em>et al.</em> (1993) categorized it as rare during informal diving (8 to 45 m) and angling surveys on coral reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, south Africa) from 1987 to 1990. The St Lucia reserve, which is well-policed to prevent demersal fishing, had been in existence since 1979 at that point, and yet very few <em>E. posteli</em> were observed. In a more formal survey, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) did not record this species in shallow (9 to 13m) UVC surveys in these reserves between 1987 and 1992. Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson 1996, Pereira 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Fsiheries-dependent</strong><br/>Not recorded in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial boat catches from central KZN coast 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy upub. data). It was not reported from commercial hook and line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al</em>. 1994). Not recorded during monitoring of commercial linefish catches in southern/central Mozambique (2000 to 2005; Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute pers. comm.), or trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1999 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est. pers. comm.) reported that <em>E. posteli</em> was caught very rarely in commercial vessels operating out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar.	eng
132797	threats	Fennesy, S., 2008	The major threat to <em>Epinephelus posteli</em> currently is loss of habitat through episodes of reef bleaching and overfishing, particularly given its apparent rarity. Bleaching in the range of this species is likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Netting on reefs has resulted in loss of habitat in Mozambique and Madagascar (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001). Commercial fishing in Mozambique appears to have stabilized, although there has been a steady expansion of the fishing grounds northwards. Artisanal effort is relatively low on offshore reefs.	eng
132798	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is classified as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory), but there are no species measures in place for this species within its range.	eng
132798	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is a tropical western Pacific species distributed from Indonesia, the Philippines, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, northern Australia and New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and north to Japan and South Korea. The Queensland record possibly originates from the Gulf of Carpenteria.	eng
132798	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> seems to prefer soft (sedimentary) bottom, rather than rocky areas and most specimens have been taken on mud or silty sand bottoms in depths of 40 to 235 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Nothing has been published on the biology of this species. Maximum size: 35.0 cm SL (Randall and Heemstra 1991).	eng
132798	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is no known information on <em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> and it is apparently rare.	eng
132798	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus heniochus</em> is primarily threatened by commercial trawl fishing, particularly in northern Australia (Errity C. M. 2003) and Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah (Rumpet <em>et al.</em> 1998). It may also be taken as bycatch in Northern Prawn Fishery in Australia (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
132799	conservation	Liu, M., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is protected in marine parks in Hong Kong. It is also protected in marine reserves in Queensland and Western Australia and Northern Territory. Subject to size and bag limits in Queensland.	eng
132799	distribution	Liu, M., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is widespread within the Indo-Malay region and occurs from the Andaman Islands to northern New South Wales (29° 47' S) and Western Australia (Shark Bay), north to Japan and Korea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Taiwan Province of China, Philippines, Japan, Korea.<br/><br/><strong>Introductions</strong><br/>Hawaii introduced <em>E. quoyanus</em> in 1956, but it did not establish.	eng
132799	habitat	Liu, M., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is a sedentary species of shallow (0 to 50 m), often silty, inshore, waters. Longfin grouper are well camouflaged when lying close to <em>Platygyra</em> coral heads, the polyps of which have a similar size and shape to the spots of the fish (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Size, maturity and reproduction</strong><br/>The maximum size is reported to be 40 cm TL (Lau and Li 2000). 50% of female maturity size is about 19 cm SL (i.e., 24 cm TL) (Allen To personal communication).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, the spawning season is April-May (Sadovy, 1998). <em>E. quoyanus</em> is protogynous hermaphroditic on the basis of gonadal histology (Allen To pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> feeds on shrimps, worms, small fishes (e.g., Apogonidae and Blenniidae species) and crabs (Connell 1998, Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
132799	population	Liu, M., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is not observed frequently during underwater surveys. There is no other information on population trends for the species. <em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> was one of the most common groupers in shallow and inter-tidal, eastern, waters of Hong Kong in the 1960s; however, it is not observed frequently today (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries dependent</strong><br/>In Sabah, <em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is lumped together with other groupers and catch trends are decreasing. This situation is inferred in other areas in Southeast Asia.	eng
132799	threats	Liu, M., Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus quoyanus</em> is of some economic importance in fisheries in Hong Kong and Taiwan (Heemstra and Randall 1993) and can be found in live reef fish food markets in Hong Kong and likely other parts of Southeast Asia. Small juveniles of 2 to 5 cm have been collected in the summer and larger fish are taken by gill nets, hand-line and traps (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Allen To pers. comm.). <br/><br/><strong>Aquaculture</strong><br/>Juveniles are grown-out in cages in small scales in southeast Asia. In Hong Kong markets, >30% of fish sold are immature with price of HK$128 to 180/kg and >85% are caught from local waters (Allen To, pers. comm.).	eng
132800	conservation	Rhodes, K.L., Myers, R. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> occurs within marine protected areas within its range, but there are no specific conservation actions for this fish.	eng
132800	distribution	Rhodes, K.L., Myers, R. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from northern Mozambique to French Polynesia, north to Okinawa (Japan), and south to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Australia). It is unknown from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, but has been recorded from Europa Island (in the Mozambique Channel), Réunion, Mauritius, Indonesia, Scott Reef and Rowley Shoals (Australia).	eng
132800	habitat	Rhodes, K.L., Myers, R. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is a reef-associated species and an active swimmer usually found on outer reef slopes and channels adjacent to deep water. It hovers above the bottom and probably feeds primarily on fishes. It is uncommon and usually solitary, however Myers (1989) reported of occasional sightings of groups of three or four fish.	eng
132800	population	Rhodes, K.L., Myers, R. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Gracila albomarginata</em> is widely distributed and rare in most localities within its range, preferring deeper water habitat.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent and independent</strong><br/>Out of 17,000 serranids, only five individuals were observed in the South Pacific (IRD database). Only one specimen seen in Guam in 15 years of monitoring (creel census data) (Myers pers. comm.). A survey of 1,848 serranids over a seven month period in Pohnpei in 2006 did not find any of this species in catch in the reef fish fishery (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). The species is relatively rare on reefs in Pohnpei.	eng
132800	threats	Rhodes, K.L., Myers, R. & Yeeting, B., 2008	<em>Gracila albomarginata</em> may be threatened by small-scale commercial and artisinal fisheries in some areas as it is a rare species, in general. It may also be sensitive to habitat loss through coral destruction and climate change.	eng
132801	conservation	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> occurs in some marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
132801	distribution	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> occurs only in the western Indian Ocean from Kenya to South Africa, and is found in the Comoros, Madagascar, Seychelles, Aldabra, Mauritius, St. Brandon's Shoals, Nazareth Bank, and the Chagos Archipelago (Randall and Hoese 1986), as well as southern Oman, Socotra (Yemen), Somalia. It is unknown from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Asian coast from Arabia to (but not including) India (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132801	habitat	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is usually found in shallow water (less than 30 m). Occurs solitary or in small groups. Often drifts well above the bottom (Lieske and Myers 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Kyushin <em>et al.</em> (1977) reported three specimens from the Nazareth Bank (NE of St Brandon’s Shoals) that were caught on a vertical long-line at depths of 45 to 62 m.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds exclusively on fishes (parrotfishes, wrasses, holocentrids, acanthurids, a triggerfish, and a juvenile <em>Sphyraena</em>) (Morgans 1986).	eng
132801	population	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is relatively uncommon over most of its range, and probably in decline in part of its range due to fishing pressure.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Field studies have been undertaken to the atolls and islands of Cosmoledo, Farquhar and Praslin, where aggregations of <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> were documented. Similar to <em>P. leopardus</em> on the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> aggregations at Cosmoledo Atoll comprised around 50 individuals and formed on the edge of the outer reef slope. There is some evidence to suggest that Cosmoledo is host to numerous, small aggregations of this species. Whether or not this reproductive strategy makes <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> less vulnerable to overfishing, needs to assessed (Robinson 2004).	eng
132801	threats	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Fennesy, S., 2008	The major threat to <em>Plectropomus punctatus</em> is overfishing, including commercial and recreational line fishing, the live reef fish trade, and aquarium fish collecting (juveniles). According to Morgans (1982), <em>P. punctatus</em> was common in markets of Zanzibar in the 1950s. It probably is (or was) of commercial importance in the Seychelles and Mauritius. Caught with hook and line, trolling, spear and on benthic long-lines (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132802	conservation	Fennesy, S., Samoilys, M., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007) and it is not clear how much compliance there is in Tanzania and Mozambique. In Kenya the protected habitat is too shallow to affect this species. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast to the shelf edge is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer further protection to this species. In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers. There are no known protections for this species in other parts of its range.	eng
132802	distribution	Fennesy, S., Samoilys, M., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus poecilonotus</em> is a widespread, but has a disjunct distribution within the Indo-West Pacific ranging from the east coast of Africa to Japan, Korea, South China Sea, Viet Nam, and Fiji. It is unknown from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<br/><br/><strong>Specific locales</strong><br/>Port Alfred, South Africa (33°31' S), through Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya to southern Somalia, (not known from the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf), southern Oman (latter = Myers). Western Indian Ocean islands. West and East coasts of mainland India (Myers), Maldives. Sri Lanka. Indonesia/Malaysia (Sumatra, Sunda shelf, Bali, excluding Iryan-Jaya and the Malayan peninsula - Myers). Vietnam, Taiwan, southern Japan, Fiji. No important sites identified; reportedly common on East coast of Madagascar between 15° S, 21.30° S (see Population section below).	eng
132802	habitat	Fennesy, S., Samoilys, M., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits relatively deep water (45 to 375 m), but a lower latitudes occurs in shallower waters. It attains at least 63 cm TL and 4 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>“Nearly ripe” fish caught in November and December on Kenyan North Banks (Morgans 1964). Females mature at around 41 cm (Morgans 1982). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Diet comprises fish and crustaceans (Morgans 1964).	eng
132802	population	Fennesy, S., Samoilys, M., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Heemstra and Randall (1993) describe <em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> as rare (because of a scarcity of specimens, ascribed to its preferring deep water), with the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific populations apparently separated. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> was seldom recorded (16 individuals of 1,378 groupers examined) in catches from reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Not recorded from commercial hook and line catches from central KZN coast 2001 to 2006 (12,000 individual groupers; Fennessy unpub. data). Not reported from commercial hook and line catches from southern Mozambique in the early 1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Reported from late 1998s onwards - five individuals of 597 groupers in 1998 (Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 2000); reported every year from 2000 to 2005 (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.; no numbers provided), probably as the boats started fishing on deeper reefs. Contributed 4% (44 of 993 groupers) to a deep-water (>100 m) trap fishery in southern Mozambique in 1997 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). A. Pages (Refrigepeche Est., pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species was common. Morgans (1964) recorded 19 individuals (of 689 groupers - 3% by no.) of this species in catches at depths of 95 to 130 m on the North Kenya Banks. Not reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER). Described as rare in Japan – caught sometimes on offshore banks (Dr. A. Ebisawa, Okinawa Prefectural Fisheries and Ocean Research Center, pers. comm.).	eng
132802	threats	Fennesy, S., Samoilys, M., Myers, R. & Fennesy, S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major potential threat to <em>Epinephelus peocilonotus</em> is overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>In the western end of its range, most of the fishing effort in the region is small-scale, is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The majority of this is concentrated on shallower reefs, so the deeper regions of this species’ habitat are less exploited, particularly by small-scale fishers. Since 2000, commercial fishing in Mozambique has increased on deeper reefs – up to 190 m (Torres <em>et al.</em> 2003); fishing on deeper reefs is increasing throughout the region as shallower reefs are depleted. No information is presented here on fishing within the eastern portion of its range, although trawling along the coasts of Taiwan, Japan and China is intense and may pose a problem for this species.	eng
132803	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Myers, R., 2008	There is nothing specific for <em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em>, although it occurs in Similan Islands, a marine protected area.	eng
132803	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is an eastern Indian Ocean species found in Thailand (coast near Phuket in the East Andaman Sea), Indonesia (off Sumatra), and the Similan Islands (Thailand). The distribution of this species is probably more extensive, but it has only recently been described.	eng
132803	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is a reef-associated found in mixed coral and rubble in 3 to 20 m. Generally in small groups in the same coral/rubble patch. The smallest mature female examined was 13 cm SL (Randall and Satapoomin 2000). The maximum size of collected specimens is 17 cm SL.	eng
132803	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is recently recorded. The species is fairly common in the Similan Islands. No fisheries information is currently available, but it appears in markets in southern Thailand where it occurs. The known distribution is restricted.	eng
132803	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Myers, R., 2008	The greatest threat to <em>Cephalopholis polyspila</em> is overfishing and habitat destruction.  It is caught locally by fisheries as incidental catch.	eng
132804	conservation	Russell, B., Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	No measures specific to <em>Epinephelus ongus</em> are known, although it likely occurs in marine protected areas in some parts of its range.	eng
132804	distribution	Russell, B., Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species distributed from East Africa to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, and northern Australia.  It is recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also reported from Somalia and India by Heemstra and Randall (1984), but valid records and specimens have not been found (Randall and Heemstra 1991). It is closely related to <em>Epinephelus summana</em>, known only from the Red Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia), Fiji, Indonesia (Bali, Java, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Japan (Honshu, Kyushu, Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands, Shikoku), Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons), Philippines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, and Vanuatu.	eng
132804	habitat	Russell, B., Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is a reef-associated species that inhabits inner coastal and lagoon reefs, but is also found in brackish waters where it occurs in ledges and caves. Adults are usually found in 20 to 60+ m depth (IRD database). It has been reported to occur in middle and outer shelf reefs, lagoons and back-reefs (Newman <em>et al</em> 1997, Pears 2005). It maximum size is reported to be 40.0 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) but more usually 25 cm SL (31 cm TL) (Heemstra and Randall 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>A cryptic species, feeds mainly macrofauna (crabs fishes shrimps and prawns) (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and growth</strong><br/>The sex ratio recorded from experimental fishing is 8:21 males-to-females. Only 5% of fish over 35 cm TL (IRD database).<br/><br/>Spawning aggregations in northern Borneo are thought to be extirpated. In Sabah, spawning is reported to occur January-April and December (Daw 2004).<br/><br/>Munro and Williams (1985) studied its growth within a Papua New Guinea population and length-weight relationships have been established for a New Caledonia population (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
132804	population	Russell, B., Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is common in protected coral-rich habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus ongus</em> is the most dominant serranid species in the Naha market in Okinawa (Craig 2007). It represented 0.3% of experimental grouper catch in New Caledonia (IRD database). It is not common in catch in the Maldives fishery. There are declining catches of serranids that includes this species in the live and dead fish markets in Sabah.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Very low densities 15- to 0 fish/50 km sq. Highest densities on fringing reefs. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Spawning aggregations reported around Kavieng, Papua New Guinea and Roviana Lagoon, Solomon Islands (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2005, Hamilton and Kama 2004) and reported to have a peak spawning season in many areas of Roviana Lagoon that occurs between October and January each year, but at some sites at least, spawning aggregations form over a much more extended period of the year (Hamilton and Kama 2004). Spawning aggregations are also reported in Sabah (Daw 2004).	eng
132804	threats	Russell, B., Heemstra, P.C., Pollard, D., Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	The two main threats to <em>Epinephelus ongus</em> are overfishing and habitat loss, particularly in areas where destructive fishing methods are used (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia). Although not very common, it is of some interest to fisheries in Japan (and probably elsewhere) and caught with hook and line spear and traps (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132805	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> has no specific management measures, but it is likely to occur in some marine protected areas.	eng
132805	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is an Indo-Pacific species found in scattered insular localities from the Comoros to the Line Islands and French Polynesia. It is unknown from the Red Sea, coast of East Africa, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Guinea, and the larger islands of Indonesia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Comoros, Mascarenes, Chagos Islands (British Indian Ocean Territory), Maldives, Christmas Island, Indonesia, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Philippines, Okinawa (Japan), Palau, Guam, Solomon Islands, Society Islands (French Polynesia), Marianas Islands, New Britain (Papua New Guinea), and Line Islands.	eng
132805	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is a reef-associated species that occurs only at oceanic islands. It inhabits clear waters of steep drop-offs from 10 to 120 m and is rarely seen in less than 30 m. It has been taken in depths of 120 m and may occur deeper and is also found in caves and crevices. This species is typically solitary.	eng
132805	population	Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> is a rare, deep-water species. No fisheries information, except records from artisinal fisheries from Reunion are available.	eng
132805	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Kulbicki, M., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis polleni</em> has a small potential for overfishing owing to its small size, and habit of dwelling in deep water and in caves.	eng
132806	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Marques, S., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	In Brazil this is a common species in several  marine protected areas, including  APA dos Corais; Atol das Rocas; Fernando de Noronha in Brazil, as well as several protected areas in the Caribbean. There is a bag size limit in Florida for all groupers.	eng
132806	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Marques, S., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is a western Atlantic species ranging from South Carolina (USA) and Bermuda to southern Brazil, including Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha (Froese and Pauly 2006, Teixeira 2005), Trindade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001), and St. Paul’s Rocks (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Cuba, French Guiana, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, British Virgin Islands, and U.S. Virgin Islands.	eng
132806	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Marques, S., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species, that prefers coral reefs and clear water from depths of 1 to 40 m. Found above rocks and coral heads, rarely in the water column, usually hides in caves or under ledges during the day. In the Gulf of Mexico, it occurs in clear deep reefs (at least 45 m). At Bermuda and the West Indies, the species is common in shallow water, but it usually hides in caves or under ledges during the day. Wary, but approachable. Cleaned by Pederson's cleaner shrimp (<em>Periclimenes pedersoni</em>), scarlet striped cleaner shrimp (<em>Lysmata grabhami</em>), and goby (<em>Gobiosoma evelynae</em> and others) as observed on the coral reefs in Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. Also cleaned by <em>Thalassoma noronhanum</em> observed at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago off northeastern Brazil (Froese and Pauly 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The species is protogynous with females maturing at 16 cm TL and transforming to males at about 20 cm (Coehlo 2001). Males are territorial and form harems. Mature females transform to males at a length of about 20 cm. Spawning occurs just before sunset over several days, and a male will spawn daily with each of the several females in his harem. Spawning is pelagic and occurs in small groups composed of one male and multiple females. Fecundity estimates range from about 150,000 to 282,000 eggs per female; with eggs 0.95 mm in diameter and having a single oil globule. Larvae are reported to have a long period of larval duration with a large capability of dispersion (Freitas <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Although ripe ovaries are found from November to March off the west coast of Puerto Rico, spawning activity appears to be limited to several days around the last quarter and new moon phases during January and February (Figuerola <em>et al.</em> 1997). In some areas, the spawning season may be protracted. For example, off the central coast of Brazil, the period of reproductive activity can last up to ten months (Coelho 2001). However, shorter spawning periods were observed in other areas (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Shapiro 1987, apud Araújo and Martins 2006). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds mainly on small fishes and crustaceans (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005, Randall and Bishop 2004, Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2001, Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000). May follow morays and snake eels to feed on flushed prey. The coney is a diurnal sit-and-wait predator, occasionally roving near the bottom, or following bottom-disturbing grubbers (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000, Sazima 1986). Juveniles mimic damselfish and feed opportunistically on fishes within damselfish schools (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). Coney is alert and opportunistic predator, as other epinepheline groupers and would be expected to inspect almost every moving animal (Sazima and Grossman 2005). Coney is the dominant carnivore in Atol das Rocas (and nearby Fernando de Noronha), and in some tropical coastal sites like Tamandaré and Guarapari Islands (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Age, growth and maturity</strong><br/>Potts and Manooch (1999) examined the otoliths from 55 coney that were collected during 1979 to 1997 from North Carolina to the Dry Tortugas, Florida. The maximum reported age was 11 years and maximum size was 39.7 cm (15.7 in) TL. Araujo and Martins (2005) reported and size-ranges of 172 to 428 mm total length (TL) and maximum observed ages of 25 years, a maximum age well above that previously reported for coney. The von Bertalan¡y growth equation was TLt¼316(17e70.138(tþ5.301). Natural mortality rate is estimated as 0.18 (Ault <em>et al.</em> 1998). The estimated theoretical growth parameters show that coney grows fast in early life, achieving about 60% of the theoretical maximum size in the first year and then growing very slowly after the first few years (Araújo and Martins 2006).	eng
132806	population	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Marques, S., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Common even in intensively fished areas (Sadovy 1992, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Froese and Pauly 2000, Roberts pers. obs.), including in western Atlantic and Trindade (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> is caught in mixed catches in shallow waters in Caribbean.  A decrease in catch was observed in the 80’s following an increase in the in trap effort (Bannerot <em>et al.</em> 1987). Morris <em>et al.</em> (2000) states that coney is a very important species in the commercial fisheries of the West Indies. Scarce in sampling fisheries in Caribbean sea (Martinique) (Gorbet 1990).  In St. Paul’s Rocks is was considered rare in 2001. Authors think that this minor population originated from Fernando de Noronha where is very common (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Genetic flow: Freitas <em>et al</em>. (2003), using isozymes’ electrophorese, analysed samples from populations of <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em>, from the Atol das Rocas (mid Atlantic) and the Northeastern Brazilian Coasts, and found no genetic difference, concluding that there is genetic flow between the Atoll and the coast (genic identity, I = 1,000; FST = 0,048 P>0,05). They speculated that the high homogeneity might be associated to a elevated dispersion capability and larval production.<br/><br/><em>Santa Lucia</em><br/>The fisheries database shows 2005 annual fish landings for <em>Cephalopholis fulva</em> of 4.59 tons (S. Scott, Senior Fisheries Biologist, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Point Seraphine, Castries, Saint Lucia, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>Coney is a relatively abundant species of the line fishing fleet between Cabo São Tomé and Salvador (Brazilian Coast) and also along the northeastern Brazilian coast, where it is the most abundant serranid registered in artisanal catch (Lessa and Nóbrega, 2000). In this area, is caught together with lutjanid species and is one of the species responsible for characterizing the typologies in the reef fishery of northeastern Brazil (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). Artisanal catch data from northeastern Brazil showed coney to represent 2.4% of total abundance and occurred in 15% of catches overall (Fredou <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, these figures may underestimated take of coney, which is also used as live bait, consumed on board or taken home and thus not registered in statistics.  Klippel <em>et al.</em> (2005) estimated landings of coney in the Abrolhos-Vitória area as 1,116 t/year, almost six times higher than reported in official statistics. Catch per unit effort estimated for the region varied between 0.03 and 3.35 kgs/fisher/day (Klippel <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>Coney was the most abundant serranid during surveys in Brazilian reefs using UVC (mean/m²) and significantly more abundant in unfished areas (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
132806	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B., Marques, S., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Bertoncini, A.A. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The main threats to Coney are overfishing. <br/><br/><strong>Overfishing</strong><br/>In the Caribbean Sea and South Atlantic Ocean the status of coney is considered unknown (Status of Fisheries, 1997-2006), although the species is considered at lower risk extinction. Although this species is very important in the West Indian commercial fisheries, coney are a relatively small, early reproducing fish, and coney are shown to be common even in intensively fished areas (Sadovy 1992, Heemstra and Randall 1993, Morris <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><em>Honduras</em><br/>In Nassava Island (one of nine National Wildlife Refuges administered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex), grouper considered common in the 1970s and 1990s, were rare during a study conducted by McClellan and Miller in 2002, and preliminary analysis suggests serial overfishing is occurring (Miller 2003). In Haiti, since large grouper species are extremely rare within fish community in recent years, smaller grouper such as coney are now targeted (Miller 2003). <br/><br/><em>Brazil</em><br/>The collapse of the Abrolhos-Vitoria (17 to 18° S) fisheries in the 1980s led fishers to turn to other resources.  By the end of the 80’s, a new market developed with the deep frozen or fast frozen techniques. The mains targets for this fishery are lutjanids and smaller serranids, including coney and yellow tail snapper (from Martins <em>et al.</em> 2005).  <br/><br/>In the 1990s, coney was one of the species most used as live bait in commercial fisheries in Northeast of Brazil for catch of large fishes, such as black grouper and was also traditionally consumed by fishermen and their families. Today, however, coney has been reduced in commercial fisheries to the point where they are now kept for personal consumption rather then utilized it as bait. As a result, others small species (e.g. <em>Holocentrus adscensionis</em>) are exploited as bait. (Rezende, S., pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Araújo and Martins (2006), coney has a maximum age comparable to larger serranids, suggesting comparable natural mortality rates, and thus, susceptibility to fisheries.	eng
132807	conservation	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is now being bred and released back into the wild for stock enhancement purposes in Japan (Anon 2003). It may also be protected in some marine protected areas in various places within its range.	eng
132807	distribution	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a Northwest Pacific species  known with certainty only from Japan, Korea, and China. Reports from other areas appear to be based on misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>octofasciatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Japan, South Korea, North Korea, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Reports from other areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans (primarily to the south) appear to be based on misidentifications of <em>H. octofasciatus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>The geographic range of this species is restricted to only subtropical to warm temperate (~24 to ~40° N) north-eastern Asian waters (around Japan, Korea and China), and all other records (including fisheries catch records) from other areas of the Indo-Pacific region apparently refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">H</span><em>. octofasciatus</em>.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em> septemfasciatus</em> is, however, cultivated for aquaculture purposes outside this range (e.g., in Italy).	eng
132807	habitat	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species that occurs near shore, including semi-enclosed sea areas in rocky reefs in shallow waters. The species is commercially cultured in Japan and, apparently, in Italy. Specimens recorded from deepwater seamounts (down to ~360 m) are probably <em>H. octofasciatus</em>, which is known to be a deepwater species. The maximum recorded size of the species is ~155 cm and ~63 kg. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and has been bred and raised in captivity (Kitajima <em>et al.</em> 1991, Anon 2003). There are numerous references in the scientific literature to its reproduction, diseases and parasites, etc. in relation to its aquaculture potential.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>It is a macrofaunal predator, feeding on small fishes and crustaceans.	eng
132807	population	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	The population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> is unknown, but wild populations have reputedly been depleted to some extent by fishing in some parts of its range.	eng
132807	threats	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	No specific threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus </span><em>septemfasciatus</em> have been reported, although it has reputedly been heavily exploited throughout large parts of its range. The fact that it is now being bred in captivity and released back into the wild is encouraging in this regard (Anon 2003).<br/><br/>This species is of some commercial fisheries importance in Japan, and probably also in Korea and China (Heemstra and Randall, 1993). Much interest has been shown in it more recently, in Japan and elsewhere, as an aquaculture species (e.g., Moon <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
132808	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is found in marine protected areas in some parts of its range. In some areas, it has been shown to migrate out of park boundaries and can be caught 50 m beyond the boundaries of park (Zeller <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are no specific measures for this species.<br/><br/>Although it occurs in a marine protected area in Sabah, visual census has not reported any observations of this species over 10 yrs. Therefore, the park may not be effective for this particular species.	eng
132808	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is a western Pacific species found from the Philippines to Australia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Dampier Islands (off Western Australia) to the Capricorn Islands (off the southern Great Barrier Reef); including Palau, New Britain (Papua New Guinea) and the Solomon Islands (Heemstra and Randall 1993); East Andaman Sea (Allen and Stone 2005), Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia.	eng
132808	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths from 1 to 50 m. It inhabits shallow protected coastal reefs, in seagrass beds, and in coral-rich areas (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter and Konozuka 2001). Feeds on crustaceans and fishes (Myers 1999). <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>C. cyanostigma</em> individuals 9.8 to 21.4 cm: about 75% of diet are fishes, apogonids, pomacentrids, caeesionids, clupeids, and 25 % Small invertebrates (Beukers-Stewart and Jones 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/><em>C. cyanostigma</em> may live up to 46 years (Mosse 1997). Late onset of sexual maturity, long spawning season (seven months) (Mosse 1997). The species is listed as protogynous; male to female ratio in Great Barrier Reef is 0.4:1 (Mosse 1997). Vulnerable to overfishing, regional variability in growth rates (Mosse 1997).	eng
132808	population	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is the most abundant small serranid on the Great Barrier Reef (avg. 7.52 individuals per 1,000 m², but more abundant on the  mid rather than the outer shelf) (Pears 2005). It is common in Bali and found in the Solomon Islands (Beeing pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Visual census surveys in Sabah in the late 1990s show that the species is no longer found (Greenforce, Cabanban pers. comm.).	eng
132808	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis cyanostigma</em> is vulnerable to overfishing (Mosse 1997) and habitat degradation (fish-bombing, sedimentation; bleaching in some areas). It is found in incidental and subsistence fisheries and occasionally in the live reef food fish trade.	eng
132809	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout it range.	eng
132809	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is an eastern Pacific species found from the Gulf of California (Mexico) to extreme northern Peru, including the off-shore islands of Cocos (Costa Rica) and Malpelo (Colombia).	eng
132809	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is a demersal, non-migratory rocky reef and shallow-water species, cryptically colored and secretive. The species is sedentary during the day, hiding in crevices or lying among seaweed, and rely on their effective camouflage to escape detection (sometimes lying and partly covering itself with sand). They are nocturnal predators feeding mainly on benthic crustaceans.	eng
132809	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is more common in south of its range and becomes less common in north of its range where <em>Alphestes immaculatus</em> becomes the more common of the two species. The species is not known to be in decline.	eng
132809	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Alphestes multiguttatus</em> is not currently targeted by commercial fishery, but it is caught in artisanal fishery.	eng
132810	conservation	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Rhodes, K. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout its range, but no specific measures are targeted toward this species. <br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Export quotas for this species in the Maldives  are 10,000 individuals yr<sup>-1</sup>. White-edged lyretail falls under the general rules for bag and size limits of groupers in Queensland.	eng
132810	distribution	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Rhodes, K. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from the east coast of Africa (Zanzibar and Mafia Island, Tanzania) to Samoa, north to Ryukyu Islands (Japan), south to Queensland (Australia), and Mozambique. It is also found in East Andaman Sea (Thailand; Allen and Stone 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Southwest coast of India, Seychelles, western Thailand, Spratly Islands, Scott Reef (northwest coast of Australia), and the Cook Islands.	eng
132810	habitat	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Rhodes, K. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is a reef associated species that is found in depths ranging from 4 to 200 m. White-edged lyretail is a generally uncommon species that inhabits seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1984). Juveniles are typically found inshore on algae and soft coral reefs, usually swimming well above the substrate and looking much like a basslet (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Adults are usually found in small groups (Opic <em>et al.</em> 1994). The fish is highly ciguatoxic in some areas within its range (e.g. New Caledonia) (Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is piscivorous. <br/><br/><strong>Life history: General</strong><br/>The species has a reported max. length of 65.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and fish ranging 163 to 250 mm SL were reported to be one to five years old (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Population parameters from Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006:<br/>Linf = 244±7; K = 0.97±0.14<br/><br/>Long-lived and faster-growing but catch rates are low and variable requiring precautionary approach in exploitation (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
132810	population	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Rhodes, K. & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Variola albimarginata</em> is a generally uncommon species (Lieske and Myers 1984). However, white-edged lyretail are common in the Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands and Bali, uncommon in areas of Micronesia (e.g. Pohnpei) and Timor and very uncommon on the Great Barrier Reef (H. Choat pers. comm.). <em>Variola albimarginata</em> is often mis-identified as <em>V. louti</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>The species represented less than 1% of total catch within the coral reef fish fishery in Pohnpei in 2006 (Rhodes and Tupper 2007). No other catch details are available for this species, as it is often lumped together with other species in catch statistics. Overall grouper catch is reported declining in Indonesia. Fry <em>et al.</em> (2006) caught 19 individuals (239±7 mm SL; 352±26 g) on volcanic seamount, Lihir Island Group, Papua New Guinea. Not uncommon in the hook and line fishery in Mozambique. From the 1950s to 2002, annual decline in catch from 70 kg yr<sup>-1</sup> to about 15 kg yr<sup>-1</sup> (CNMI) (Zeller 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Moderately abundant in unfished waters.	eng
132810	threats	Cabanban, A.S., Fennesy, S., Myers, R., Rhodes, K. & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Variola albimarginata</em> is important to subsistence and commercial fishery throughout its range and is captured for the Live Reef Fish Trade. Its low and variable catch rate suggest a precautionary approach in exploitation (Fry <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
132811	conservation	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is a fully protected species in California and presumably occurs in protected areas within other parts of its range.	eng
132811	distribution	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is found within the eastern central Pacific and ranges from San Francisco Bay, California (USA) to southern Peru. The holotype was reported from the Galápagos Islands and this is the only record from there; it is more than likely that the specimen has been mislabeled and is probably actually from Peru (Rosenblatt and Zahuranec 1967).	eng
132811	habitat	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is a demersal species that occurs from mangrove areas to over hard bottom of the continental shelf and the slope. According to Thomson <em>et al.</em> (1979), this species prefers mangrove estuaries.  Adults and juveniles occur in shallow water with adults found to depths of 60 m.	eng
132811	population	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is abundant in a portion of its range (southern Baja California). There is only one record from San Francisco, USA. Surveys with fishermen indicated that this species was once more abundant in Mexico.	eng
132811	threats	Craig, M.T., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Rocha, L. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	The fishery is not a major threat, but <em>Mycteroperca xenarcha</em> is incidentally caught. Perhaps the major threat to the species is loss of habitat (mangrove habitat) from infrastructure development for housing and tourism.	eng
132812	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no known conservation measures for <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>.	eng
132812	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em> is a western Pacific species distributed from the Andaman Sea to southern Japan, Taiwan, China, Philippines, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Arafura Sea, north-western Australia, and Fiji (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132812	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em> occurs on coral and rocky reefs in depths of 80 to 130 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Tseng and Chan (1985) discussed food, rearing procedures and larval development <em> E. amblycephalus</em> from Hong Kong.	eng
132812	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no population data for <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>.	eng
132812	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	Overfishing is the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus amblycephalus</em>. <em>E. amblycephalus</em> is a popular and commercially important species in Hong Kong (Tseng and Chan 1985), but in Singapore is “Not a popular grouper in the market” (Tan <em>et al.</em> 1982). The species is presently rarely observed in Hong Kong markets (Min pers. comm.).	eng
132813	conservation	Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is unlikely to occur in any protected areas. More information is needed on threats to this species as well as population status and trends.	eng
132813	distribution	Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is a western Pacific species that occurs in Indonesia (from Java eastwards), Philippines, Taiwan, Solomon Islands and New Britain (Papua New Guinea).	eng
132813	habitat	Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is found on mud or rocky or cobble bottoms. The species appears to be one of the rarest groupers in the Indo-Pacific region, nothing has been published on its biology.	eng
132813	population	Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	There is very little information on <em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> population status and trends. It is common in suitable habitats in Bali (Rob Myers  pers. comm.)	eng
132813	threats	Myers, R. & Heemstra, P.C., 2008	It is not known whether <em>Epinephelus bontoides</em> is found in fisheries.	eng
132814	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is found in protected areas throughout its range, but there are no conservation measures specific to this species.	eng
132814	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species found from the Red Sea to South Africa, east to Samoa and Phoenix Islands, and north to southern Honshu (Japan). It is probably found around all tropical islands of the Indian Ocean (but is not yet recorded from Mauritius). It is recorded from Europa Island (MNHN 1992-0475).	eng
132814	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is a reef-associated species found in coastal reefs and lagoons, often silty habitat, in or near caves and holes in the reef ranging from 1 to 60 m. Small juveniles mimic <em>Centropyge vrolikii</em>, and <em>C. nox</em> until they outgrow their model in size. It is found in Hong Kong live fish markets.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> feeds mainly on small fishes (including <em>Pempheris</em> spp.), also on stomatopods (<em>Pseudosquilla</em> spp.) and crustaceans.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Preliminary data indicate that the species spawns at any time of the year and matures (females?) at about 35 cm SL. Not known to form spawning aggregations (<a href="http://www.scrfa.org">Society for the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA)</a>).	eng
132814	population	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is widespread, but typically uncommon with variable regional abundance. It is occasionally found in markets, but no detailed population information is available.	eng
132814	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	The primary threat to <em>Aetheloperca rogaa</em> is overfishing, and it is incidentally captured by artisinal and small-scale commercial fishers. It is also vulnerable to habitat loss (coral removal or loss).	eng
132815	conservation	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The species is likely to occur in marine protected areas within some parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>New Caledonia has restricted fishing during the spawning months in the area of the known spawning aggregations.<br/><br/>In Australia listed as “lower risk, least concern” (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002), with a 35 cm minimum size limit and a bag limit of five fish (mixed species) (Department of Primary Industries 2003, Queensland, Australia).<br/><br/>The export of live fish by sea is banned in Malaysia and Indonesia. The trade in live fish is currently banned in the Philippines (Cabanban pers. comm.).	eng
132815	distribution	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> is a western Pacific species, occurring from southern Japan to southern Queensland (Australia), the Gulf of Thailand, and east to Fiji, the islands of Micronesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993) (except for the Marianas), and to Tonga (Myers distributional database 2006, Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The record from Western Australia in the Indian Ocean is dubious; the species is replaced by <em>Epinephelus flavocaeruleus</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1989).	eng
132815	habitat	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Speckled blue grouper are usually found around isolated coral heads in lagoons or bays, but are also caught on outer reef areas, in depths of 2 to 150 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). According to Myers (1999) it usually swims out in the open, several meters above the bottom. It is readily caught by anglers at night (Grant 1975). Reports of ciguatera poisoning (Myers 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>The species feeds mainly on sand-dwelling fishes and crustaceans such as snake eels and box crabs (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 2005, Thollot 1996). <br/><br/><strong>Size distribution</strong><br/>Max size: 120 cm TL.	eng
132815	population	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> is relatively uncommon throughout most of its range, but is common within some locales (e.g., New Caledonia). <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific data</strong><br/><strong><em>New Caledonia</em></strong><br/><em>Reproduction</em><br/>This species is known to aggregate for spawning in Dumbea Pass (November to December), mixed with other species of groupers, in particular <em>Epinephelus polyphekadion</em> and <em>E. fuscoguttatus</em> (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.) Chauvet (2005).<br/><br/><em>Fisheries-independent</em><br/>The <em>Epinephelus cyanopodus</em> stock in New Caledonia’s southwestern lagoon has been studied since 1992. An assessment by diving visual census was done of spawning aggregations every spring and recruitment every summer. Moreover, fisheries are monitored by the Fishery Service.<br/><br/><em>Fisheries-dependent</em><br/>Data on commercial catches and fishing effort have been analyzed and a demographic study has been carried out (samples in catches and otolith analysis). The results show firstly, a regular decrease of the aggregation size and a real collapse since 1998; secondly, a high variation in recruitment success (exceptional one in 1996 followed by a big one in 1997); thirdly, an adult stock demography dominated by one or two successful cohorts (the stock size increased in 1999 and the bigger sizes were in 2000 and 2001). The collapse in spawning aggregations could be the consequence of the disturbance caused by the fishermen (recreational fishing). However, it seems that the recruitment success could be linked with the ENSO climatic system, although 12 years of observation is too short to draw conclusions. Stock size depends on variable recruitment (stochastic) and variations in stock size can be predicted by the previous recruitment knowledge. Therefore the size of spawning aggregations is not an index of the size of the stock (Chauvet 2005). In experimental fishing trials in New Caledonia (1984 to 2005) (383 individuals), the sex ratio was ~1:10 males-to-females I (IRD database), with the smallest male 52 cm TL and the smallest female 31.5 cm TL.<br/><br/>Previously uncommon in New Caledonia, but following a large recruitment event in 1997 to 1998, this species has become one of  the most common serranid in markets. Experimental fishing indicated that there was an increase in abundance of approximately 30% (1987 to 2000). The average size of individuals (3.5 kg) remained steady (IRD database).<br/><br/><strong><em>Fiji</em></strong><br/>One of several groupers that aggregate in large numbers in, or near, the channels and  passes of Fiji’s outer reefs for just a few months each year (Sadovy 2005).<br/><br/><strong><em>Australia</em></strong><br/>On the Great Barrier Reef occurs on mid – outer shelf reefs in densities 0.03 to 0.18 fish/100 m² (Pears unpub. data)<br/><br/><strong><em>Hong Kong</em></strong><br/>This species was common on Pratas Reef and Macclesfield Bank during the 60s (Chan 1968).	eng
132815	threats	Russell, B., Pollard, D., Kulbicki, M., Yeeting, B. & Cabanban, A.S., 2008	The major threat to speckled blue grouper is overfishing. The species appears in Hong Kong live fish markets and is targeted within spawning aggregations, while juveniles are often collected by the aquarium trade.	eng
132816	conservation	Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no current conservation measures is in place for <em>Saloptia powelli</em> and no marine protected areas occur within its depth range.	eng
132816	distribution	Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Saloptia powelli</em> is distributed within the South China Sea and western Pacific to French Polynesia. It has been reported from Taiwan, Okinawa (Japan), Mariana Islands, Society Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, South China Sea, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Tuamotu Islands, Vanuatu (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Dalzell and Preston 1992).	eng
132816	habitat	Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> is found on rocky substrates in deep water. Nothing is known or published on its biology. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> is captured by dropline fishing in 100 to 200 m depth in Pacific Island countries (Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is an important component of the deep water handline fishery in the Marianas (Polovina and Ralston 1987).	eng
132816	population	Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>No current information on population trends or abundance for <em>Saloptia powelli</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Saloptia powelli</em> was considered a virgin stock in the 1970s to 1980s (Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is taken in deep water drop line and handline fisheries throughout most of the Pacific; in the Cook Islands this species dominated the grouper catch (Polovina and Ralston 1987, Dalzell and Preston 1992). It is likely to be taken in any deep water fisheries within its range and is specifically is targeted in Japan.	eng
132816	threats	Samoilys, M., Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	The greatest threat to <em>Saloptia powelli</em> is overfishing. It is not protected through any conservation measures (beyond the depth range of many marine protected areas), therefore research is recommended to assess this interesting monotypic species.	eng
132817	conservation	Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M., Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> occurs in numerous marine protected areas throughout its range.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/><em>Africa</em><br/>Only 225 km² of reefs are no take-areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique (Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007), however compliance is variable. In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which should offer further protection to this species. <br/><br/><em>South Africa</em><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. <br/><br/><em>Mozambique</em><br/>In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.<br/><br/><em>Australia</em><br/>Occurs throughout the GBR Marine Park, and there are also size and bag limit restrictions for the recreational fishery in the state of Queensland, Australia. <br/><br/><em>Philippines</em><br/>In the Philippines in the Tubataha Marine Protected Area, Sulu Sea.	eng
132817	distribution	Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M., Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific species ranging from the Red Sea to Port Alfred (South Africa) (33°36’S), eastward to the Pitcairn Group, north to Japan and Korea, and south to the Arafura Sea, southern Queensland and Lord Howe Island (Australia). The species is one of the two most widely distributed groupers. It may not occur off Wallace and Futuna islands.<br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Somalia (Myers distributional database 2006), Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal South Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Comores, Mauritius, Réunion, Oman (Myers distributional database 2006), Yemen, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, southern Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia (Northern Australia, Western Australia, Queensland, Great Barrier Reef), Papua-New Guinea, Taiwan, southern Japan, Korea, southern China, Fiji, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Samoa, and New Caledonia. Source: Heemstra and Randall (1993), unless otherwise stated.	eng
132817	habitat	Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M., Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is a reef-associated species that is common in outer reef slopes at depths below 15 m to 160 m. Less common on non-coral reefs. It also occurs in protected bays and lagoons as shallow as 4 m. Blacktip grouper may also be found down to a depth of 160 m. It occurs on mid-shelf reefs on the GBR, Queensland (Pears, 2005; Newman <em>et al</em> 1997) and is very common around dead coral blocks in seagrass beds in the Red Sea (southern Egypt) (Lieske and Myers 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>In Madagascar it feeds night and day on brachyuran crabs, fishes, shrimps, and galatheid crabs. In Kenyan waters it feeds on crabs, stomatopods, fishes, ophiuroids, and octopus and in the Red Sea, mostly fishes and some crustaceans (mainly crabs) are consumed (Morgans 1964, Harmein-Vivien and Bouchon 1976). In Tuamotu archipelago the species is reported as a macro-carnivore (Mellin <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Blacktip grouper is a small species (max. size to 40 cm TL), with a relatively fast growth rate and small size at maturity. The species is known to form spawning aggregations in Sabah (Daw, 2004). Backtip grouper can attain sexual maturity at 12 cm SL (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), although Myers (1999) gives a length of 16 cm (SL). Maximum age is reported at 19 years (Pears 2005) (Table 8). Reproductively active fish were obtained in February on the North Kenya Banks and/or off Mafia island, Tanzania (Nzioka, 1979). Spawning aggregations have been reported from Sabah, Eastern Malaysia (Daw 2004). A length-weight relationship is given by Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> (2005) of y g = 0.0138.x cm FL.3.04066. Male and females mature at the same size (20 cm) in New Caledonia to implies gonochorism for this species; sex rations of 2:1 females to male were established (IRD database).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 8</strong>: Growth parameters for <em>E. fasciatus</em> from the Great Barrier Reef (Lizard island, Townsville, Mackay, Pompey combined) and Seychelles (Northern and Southern Amirantes) (Pears 2005); New Caledonia (Loubens 1978).	eng
132817	population	Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M., Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is one of the most widespread and common of all grouper species. There are some questions about distinct sub-populations and there are also known declines in some areas. The species appears to be able to replace other larger grouper species that are fished out.<br/><br/><strong>Subpopulations</strong><br/>Up to six populations may exist, based on meristic and colour variation. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Intra-specific variation in <em>E. fasciatus</em> characters.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Not seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported from the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964). Reported in shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique coral reefs between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al</em>. (1995) recorded five individuals out of 43 groupers, and rated it as common based on informal fishing and diving surveys in these MPAs. Classified as abundant (~27 individuals per 1,000 m² of reef) in the Seychelles (Pears 2005). On the west coast of India, this species was recorded at only one of nine shallow water (2 to 28 m) sites surveyed in shallow water (2 to 28 m; Sluka and Lazarus unpub.). Rare in Hong Kong (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Classified as rare (~0.6 individuals per 1,000 m² of reef) on the GBR (Pears 2005); low densities (0.22 to 0.89 fish/4,000 m²) in UVC dives on mid-shelf and outer-shelf reefs (Newman <em>et al</em>. 1997). In terms of densities, this species ranked 8th of 12 grouper species in French Polynesia, 10th of 18 grouper species in Tonga and 6th of 32 grouper species in New Caledonia. Densities were highest at the latter locality.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Densities (no. of fish/km²) of <em>E. fasciatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Few (n=4 of 130 groupers) recorded in linefish catches in the east African region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Initially quite commonly recorded (8% of all groupers; only percentages available) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort during the civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em>, 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 0 and 4% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Not recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997-1998 (Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Not recorded from commercial boat line catches (12,094 groupers) from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. data). Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon (1976) reported it to be one of the most abundant serranids in south-west Madagascar at depths of 20 to 45 m, although commercial fishers report it to be very rare off Tamatave on the East coast (A. Pages, Refrigepeche, Est. pers. comm.). Makes an important contribution to artisinal catches in Reunion (Table 3) and is a primary target of artisinal fishers in the Seychelles (Pittman 1996). This author also noted that it was particularly abundant on reefs of Baie Ternay Marine Park and Brizarre Rock. Spawning aggregations reported from Sabah, Eastern Malaysia (Daw 2004). Percentage contributions (assumed to be by number) to grouper catches from “essentially unexploited” deep-slope reefs were low in Micronesia (0.55%) and Polynesia (1.82%) - Dalzell and Preston (1992), reported in Dalzell <em>et al.</em> (1996).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for:<br/><strong>Table 3</strong>: Data from Yaeyama Is. fishing market (Ishigaki and Iriomote Island) of the southern part of Okinawa island.<br/><strong>Table 4</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><strong>Table 5</strong>: Small-scale artisinal fishery catches (mt; voluntary estimated data provided by fishers) from Reunion.<br/><strong>Table 6</strong>: Catches (kg) from three localities in the Pacific.<br/><strong>Table 7</strong>: Length frequencies of <em>E. fasciatus</em>.	eng
132817	threats	Fennesy, S., Kulbicki, M., Cabanban, A.S., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus fasciatus</em> is loss of habitat from episodes of coral reef bleaching in the range of this species that are likely to occur increasingly as SST increases (Sheppard 2003). Other threats include dynamiting of reefs, fishing with poisons and netting on reefs that have resulted in loss of habitat in several countries, such as Tanzania, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kunzmann 2004).<br/><br/><em>Fishing</em><br/>Most of the fishing effort for blacktip grouper in the region is small-scale, but it is largely unregulated and can generally be assumed to be increasing (e.g., Martosubroto 2005, Cunningham and Bodiguel 2006, Morgan 2006, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). The species is caught for the live reef fish trade (Lee and Sadovy 1998).	eng
132818	conservation	Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>P. maculatus</em> is presently protected in eastern Australia by the GBRMPA marine park zoning system (Russ pers comm.) has reported a 20% increase in three years in coastal MPAs on the Great Barrier Reef relative to open reefs.	eng
132818	distribution	Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Plectropomus maculatus</em> is known only from the western tropical Pacific: Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Australia (Western Australia to southern Queensland). The species was formerly listed for the western Indian Ocean (Heemstra and Randall 1984) due to a misidentification of <em>P. pessuliferus</em> (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/>West Thailand-Myanmar, Bintan, Sumatra, Seribu, Java Bali, Malay/Singapore, east Indonesia, Togean Islands, Suluwasei, Ambon, Halimahera, Flores, Komodo Sunda Islands, Raja Ampat, West Papua, Philippines, Solomon Islands; northwest Australia, Great Barrier Reef, South Taiwan, Micronesia, and Palau.	eng
132818	habitat	Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>P. maculatus</em> inhabits largely coastal and inshore reefs contrasting with other species of <em>Plectropomus</em> that are mainly associated with offshore and oceanic reefs. Turbid water and coastal habitats have resulted in relatively few abundance estimates.  The depth of capture is typically from 5 to 50 m.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>The reproductive biology of this species is complex (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1991). Adams (2002) concluded this species was a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite after sampling 104 individuals from the northern Great Barrier Reef. Histological examination revealed immature males with a primary testis configuration at one year of age, transitional gonads in females five to six years of age and the presence of females with precursory sperm sinuses. The operation sex ratio in the sample collection was 3.1F:1.0M. Maximum age of females was six years, males ten years suggesting all females changed sex. No evidence of large long-lived females was collected. <br/><br/>The most important aspect of the reproductive biology is the evidence for hybridization between <em>P. leopardus</em> and <em>P. maculatus</em> on the east coast of Australia (Frisch and van Herwerden 2006, van Herwerden <em>et al.</em> 2006). Analyses in van Herwerden <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that <em>P. leopardus</em> females have hybridized historically with <em>P. maculatus</em> males and that <em>P. maculatus</em> mitochondria were displaced through introgressive hybridization and fixation in the <em>P. maculatus</em> founder population on the Great Barrier Reef. Both species co-occur on mid shelf reefs of the east coast but not on the west coast where hybridization has not been recorded.  It is unknown if hybridization occurs at any other localities where these two species co-occur. <br/><br/><strong>Age and growth</strong><br/>Ferreira and Russ (1992) aged 103 individuals. Tmax was 12 years with L max 710 mm FL , Linf  732 mm Fl, K  2.1, Z  0.39. The median size of the sample was 370 mm FL and median age of 4 yrs. <em>P. maculatus</em> is relatively fast growing with males achieving a greater growth rate than females (Adams  and William 2001). Adams (2002) estimated age based reproductive parameters with 50% female maturity at 18 months and 300 mm FL. No age-based data is available from other regions.	eng
132818	population	Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>As with <em>P. leopardus</em>, the main area of abundance is on the Australian plate. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Halford (Indonesia) and Hamilton (Solomons PNG) report (pers. comm.) report this species as rare to uncommon during underwater surveys. The main species of <em>Plectropomus</em> encountered in these surveys was <em>P. areolatus</em>. Occurrence records and abundance estimates show a characteristic onshore to offshore decline in abundance in this species. The summary of a comprehensive analysis of the distribution and abundance of four species of <em>Plectropomus</em> of the NE coast of Australia and the Coral Sea (Ayling and Ayling 1986) is provided in Table 1. <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>.<br/><br/>There appear to be few estimates of abundance of this species in the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos. As with <em>P. leopardus</em>, this species appears to be relatively rare at low latitudes and achieves its greatest abundance in inshore reef habitats on the Australian plate.<br/><br/>Not recorded on offshore Western Australia reefs. (Done <em>et al.</em> 1994)	eng
132818	threats	Choat, J.H., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T., Ferreira, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>P. maculatus</em> is subject to fishing over most of it’s range including the Live Reef Fish Trade (LRFT). Was the 4th most abundant serranid recorded in a survey of the NW Australia coastal trap and line fishery (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). Commercially fished over much of its range for both local consumption and the LRFT (Lau  and Li 2000). Records of capture may be difficult to interpret as this species is usually lumped with <em>P. leopardus</em> in the east Australian fishery.	eng
132819	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	Closure of areas suggested due to local depletion and low rate of movement in shallow reef populations of <em>E. adscensionus</em>. In St. Helena, there is a catch limit of 45 metric tonnes per year. It occurs in some protected areas in its range, including the Gladden Spit Marine Reserve in Belize where spawning aggregations have been reported.	eng
132819	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Epinephelus adscensionis</em> is a wide-ranging species known from Ascension and St. Helena Islands in the central and eastern Atlantic, and in the western Atlantic from USA (Massachusetts (one record), South Carolina, Georgia, Florida), Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles), to southern Brazil (including Villa des Remedios Is (northeast of Natal), Abrolhos, Fernando de Noronhas, Trinidade). It has also been recorded from São Tomé in the Gulf of Guinea (Heemstra and Randall 1993), and the Azores (Portugal) (Myers distributional database 2006).	eng
132819	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong> <br/><em>E. adscensionus</em> occurs on rocky reefs in depths of 2 to 100 m.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>E. adscensionus</em> feeds mainly on crabs (67%) and fishes (20%). At Ascension Island, rock hind include juvenile triggerfish (<em>Melichthys niger</em>) and young sea turtles in their diet. At St. Helena, <em>E. adscensionis</em> are common in shallow water and represent 90% of “groundfish” landings; large adults (over 50 cm) are taken regularly in 50 to 100 m, but are rare in shallow water (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Only the Ascension Island population contained mature individuals at the time of sampling (May to June). Female maturity occurred at 350 mm FL and four years of age. The presence of older individuals with sexually transitional gonads indicates protogynous hermaphroditism. However histological analysis of small individuals was too sparse to allow unambiguous identification of male recruitment pathways. <br/><br/>Mean testis wt in mature individuals 7.3±0.6 gms <br/>Mean ovary wt in mature individuals 39.8±6.9 gms<br/><br/>This, plus observations, suggest that some spawning occurs within the context of small haremic groups. <br/><br/>Fishers in Belize have identified <em>E. adscensionus</em> as a group spawning species in the Gladdens Spit area (Heyman 2001).	eng
132819	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>Detailed analyses of the demography of <em>E. adscensionus</em> are available from the Islands of Ascension and St. Helena courtesy of the Fisheries Directorate St. Helena. On both Islands <em>E. adscensionus</em> was one of the few serranids present in reefal waters and a line fishery that extended to 60 m  recorded only this species of serranid.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>The abundance estimates (Table 1) represent some of the highest densities recorded for serranids on shallow reefs. However the low abundances recorded from sites adjacent to major population centres on St. Helena identify a potential to remove this species from specific localities. Very high abundances were recorded from one locality in deeper water on the north coast of Ascension indicating a possible groups spawning site.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: abundance patterns (count results).<br/><br/><strong>Population dynamics</strong><br/>Estimates of age structure from St. Helena and Ascension and from one Caribbean site showed that this species is fast growing and relatively short lived reaching 300 mm FL in four years with a maximum size of 60 cm.<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: estimates of age structure from St. Helena and Ascension.<br/><br/>Both St. Helena and Ascension populations displayed very similar demographic characteristics despite the relative positions in tropical and subtropical water masses. No difference in length weight relationships was identified between the island populations.<br/><br/>Analysis of a small sample from Los Roques in the northern Caribbean showed a size range from 190 to 545 mm FL and 4 to 12 years in age.	eng
132819	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>Fishery-dependent</strong> <br/>Although <em>E. adscensionus</em> is targeted by some tropical western Atlantic fisheries, the numbers taken are relatively small (Harper <em>et al.</em> 2000). However the isolated populations of Ascension and St. Helena represent targeted fisheries. On both island this species is subject to a local line fishery and is the main shallow water species targeted. The fishery is more intense on St. Helena. UVC on both islands identified fishing effects especially on St. Helena.<br/><br/>The St Helena fishery especially is increasing and now stands at approx 45 metric tonnes of <em>E. adscensionus</em> per year. Although effort has also increased there no evidence at this time of a decline in CPUE. However the evidence from the St. Helena UVC data strongly suggests localized depletion of this species in fished areas. <br/><br/>The potential for an export fishery exists in St. Helena once an international airport is established.	eng
132820	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of <em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em>, nor are conservation measures needed at the moment.	eng
132820	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is an eastern Atlantic species found from Western Sahara to Angola, including Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe islands.	eng
132820	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is a demersal species found in shallow tropical rocky reefs and sandy bottoms from 20 to 200 m. Females attain sexual maturity at 18 cm TL.<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/><em>C. taeniops</em> is listed as a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite and a pelagic spawner. The low ratio of males in the population may correlate with polygamy. This study concluded that some males of <em>C. taeniops</em> may not pass through a functional female stage as observed in most groupers, and that these males may have developed directly from immature females conferring with the hypothesis of Shapiro (1987) and  Siau (1994).	eng
132820	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is relatively common and abundant at Sao Tome and Cape Verde. Elsewhere in its range there is no data on its population. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>In a recent underwater visual survey in São Tomé island (unpublished) average densities varied from 0.1 to 7.4 fish per 40 m² transect.	eng
132820	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Bertoncini, A.A., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis taeniops</em> is fished for subsistence use but not at a level that is a threat to this species in south Sao Tome and Principe. In Cape Verde it is fished more heavily, where it is the most abundant, commonly caught and important demsersal species. There is no information on threats along the west coast of mainland Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>Total landings have peaked at 350 tonnes per year in 2000 in Cape Verde. A reduction is recommended since it is being fished at its maximum.	eng
132821	conservation	Pollard, D., To, A.W.L., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>No specific conservation actions are known for <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em>, although the species may be present in some marine protected areas in its distributional range. It was listed as being present in a proposed “fisheries protection area” in Port Shelter, Sai Kung, Hong Kong, by Ching <em>et al.</em> (undated) (www.hku.hk/ecology/porcupine/por34/34-vert3-survey.htm), although it is unlikely these areas are effectively enforced. <br/><br/><strong>Other</strong><br/>This species is also apparently now being propagated in captivity for aquaculture purposes in both Taiwan and Hong Kong.	eng
132821	distribution	Pollard, D., To, A.W.L., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is primarily a subtropical (~20 to 37°N) species occurring in coastal east Asian seas, from southern China to southern South Korea and southern Japan. Possibly it also occurs in northern Vietnam. Records of the species from the Solomon Islands need confirmation (Hamilton 2003).	eng
132821	habitat	Pollard, D., To, A.W.L., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is generally reef-associated, with juveniles are common in tide pools and in shallow clear water around rocks and coral reefs (Chan 1968). Juveniles are also common around artificial reefs in Hong Kong waters (www.artificial-reef/images/worksheet4-6.xls; www.artificial-reef/English/5_1k.htm). Adults are generally found in deeper water. This species grows to a maximum total length of ~50 cm. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Sex reversal and artificial spawning have been experimentally induced by Kuo <em>et al.</em> (1988), who referred to the species as <em>E. fario</em>.	eng
132821	population	Pollard, D., To, A.W.L., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	The population status of <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> is unknown, although may be relatively common throughout much of its range.	eng
132821	threats	Pollard, D., To, A.W.L., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>No immediate threats to <em>Epinephelus trimaculatus</em> have been identified, although any targeting of the spawning aggregations of the species for the live food fish trade could threaten its population sustainability in the future.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>This species is caught commercially throughout its range using vertical longlines and handlines, and is an important food fish in Japan and Hong Kong. From a survey of the Hong Kong live food fish trade, although some aquaculture of the species is apparently practiced there, most of the live fish marketed were apparently wild caught using hand lines and cage traps, mainly in Hong Kong and nearby waters. Most specimens marketed were between 15 and 30 cm in total length, the largest being <40 cm (A. To, pers. comm.). Aquaculture of the species is also practiced in Taiwan (Yeh, undated).	eng
132822	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is found in several protected areas and there is currently no need to add further protection since it is not a targeted species within the fishery.	eng
132822	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is restricted to the eastern Pacific and is distributed from the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galápagos, Clipperton, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.	eng
132822	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<em>Paranthias colonus</em> is a reef-associated species found typically in small aggregations well above the reef, but retreats to the reef at the approach of danger. The species feeds mainly on small planktonic animals picked individually from the water, made possible by their shortened snout which facilitates close-range binocular vision.	eng
132822	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	Pacific creole-fish are very abundant throughout their range. The species is not fished and there is no known decline.	eng
132822	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	Pacific creole-fish are not found in fishery. The species doesn't usually take baited hooks because of its plantivorous feeding behaviour.	eng
132823	conservation	Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Fennesy, S., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Robinson, J. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General <br/><em style="font-weight: normal;">Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Country-specific</strong><br/>In KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, most of the north coast which contains coral reefs is protected by a 145 km long MPA in which no demersal fishing is allowed, and is strictly enforced. This reserve extends to deeper waters, and so offers protection to this deep-living species. <br/><br/>It is intended that this MPA and the southern Mozambique coast from Ponta d’Ouro to Maputo will be incorporated into a Transboundary MPA, with areas zoned for protection, which will offer future protection to this species. <br/><br/>In South Africa, as part of a suite of restricted species, a maximum of five individuals of this species may be retained by recreational fishers in one day; no limits for commercial fishers. In Mozambique, a maximum of 10 individuals of demersal species may be retained by recreational fishers.</strong>	eng
132823	distribution	Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Fennesy, S., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Robinson, J. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is an Indo-Pacific species that ranges from the Red Sea to Natal (South Africa), eastwards to the western Pacific (including Madagascar), north to southern Japan, and south to New Caledonia. Records from the Persian Gulf are apparently misidentifications of <em>Epinephelus polylepis</em>. Its presence has not been verified from the Comoros, on the continental shelf between Oman and Cambodia, Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, western Australia or Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Red Sea, Djibouti, Aden (Yemen), Oman (Groeneveld, unpub. data), Somalia (Darar 1994, Mann and Fielding 2000), Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), southwestern Madagascar (Myers distributional database 2006), east coast of Madagascar (A. Pages, Refrigepech Est. pers. comm.), Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius (Myers distributional database 2006), Maldives, India, Indian islands (Andaman, Nicobars, Lakshadweep), Sri Lanka (Myers distributional database 2006), Thailand (East Burma Sea (distributional database 2006)), southern Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia/Malaysia (northern Sumatra, Malaysian peninsula, Sunda shelf, Bali), Western Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (Myers distributional database 2006), Samoa, southern Japan, Fiji, Taiwan (Myers distributional database 2006), China (Hong Kong). The distribution is from Heemstra and Randall (1993), unless otherwise stated.	eng
132823	habitat	Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Fennesy, S., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Robinson, J. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is a reef-associated, non-migratory species found over a wide range of habitats like seagrass beds and outer reef slopes; in the South China Sea, it is also found on mud bottoms. Depth range from 4 to 280 m (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum size 75cm TL, 7 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Maximum length estimated to be 80.7 cm (MRAG 1996), reported to 80 cm TL from South Africa (Oceanographic Research Institute unpub. data).<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/> Feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (mainly stomatopods and crabs).  <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and size</strong><br/>Based on consistent observations of male islets in mature, active female gonads from the Seychelles, Moussac (1996) concluded that the species is protogynous, with sex change first occurring at around 34 cm TL, and the first active males appearing at 37 cm. He suggested that sex change occurs over a wide range (34 to 56 cm) and that not all females change sex. Moussac attributed a skewed sex ratio (F:M) of 2.4:1 to fishing, noted that a more balanced ratio of 1.1:1 occurs where populations are not so heavily fished. Females mature at between 23 and 29 cm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993) while Moussac (1996) indicated a size at 1st maturity of about 31 cm. Morgans (1982) reported maturity at 25 cm SL in Kenya, while the smallest male observed was 39 cm TL (Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988). The spawning season of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> in the Seychelles was protracted, occurring between November and April and with peaks at the beginning and end of that period (Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988). These peak periods correspond to the inter-tropical monsoon months. Morgans (1964) reported ripe or nearly-ripe fish in February, March, August and September off Kenya. Nzioka (1979) reported a ripe fish in September off Kenya/northern Tanzania. While a few fishers have reported the formation of spawning aggregations (Robinson <em>et al.</em> 2004), mating and spatial patterns of spawning are unverified. It is considered unlikely that transient aggregations occur (or used to occur) in this species, as large aggregations of common target species are generally well known to fishers (Robinson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Spawning season in Egypt (Red Sea) extended from May to end July, peaking in June. Length at 50% maturity was 28 cm TL (three years). F:M ratio 2.4:1. Mean size at sex reversal is 48 cm TL. Said to be protogynous, based on disparate length frequencies for males and females and observation of bisexual gonads. Absolute fecundity increases from age three to six, then drops at age seven. Relative fecundity 121 to 776 eggs/g body weight (Ghorab <em>et al.</em> 1986).<br/><br/>Spawning season in Oman extended from August to October and peaked in September. Length at 50% maturity is 41 cm (Oman Fisheries Dept. unpub).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>In the Seychelles, it is common across the Mahe Plateau and surrounding banks, especially at depths ranging from 40 to 60 m. More abundant over rough rubble and coralline areas although it is taken in (experimental) trawls over more sandy areas (J. Robinson, Seychelles Fishing Authority, pers. comm.). In Seychelles it frequents the shelf edges of the banks and has been fished down to depths of 250 m (Intes and Bach 1989). It is less common on the atolls to the south of Seychelles and appears absent on shallow reefs (Pears 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Growth and maturity</strong><br/>Growth parameters for <em>E. chlorostigma</em> from the Seychelles have been derived using a range of methods, but those considered the most reliable are given, using length based (Mees 1992, Sanders <em>et al.</em> 1988) or size at age approaches (Grandcourt 2002) (Table 2). Aged up to 26 years in Oman.  <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: Growth parameters for <em>E. chlorostigma</em> from the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Estimates of natural mortality using the growth parameters of Mees (1992) and Sanders <em>et al.</em> (1988) in Table 2 vary from 0.43, using Pauly (1980), to between 0.37 and 0.39 using Ralston (1987) models, which are considered more reliable for slow growing fish. Using the parameters derived by Grandcourt (2002), natural mortality estimated from Pauly is 0.37 yr<sup>-1</sup>.  <br/><br/>Length-weight relationship y g = 0.0145.x cm FL.3.05.	eng
132823	population	Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Fennesy, S., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Robinson, J. & Rocha, L., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is an abundant species throughout its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>The most common grouper caught off northern Somalia (Darar 1994), although few were seen in northern Somalia while diving on shallow (2 to 14 m) non-coral reefs in northern-eastern Somalia (Mann and Fielding 2000). Not reported in >130 shallow (<30 m) SCUBA dives in southern Mozambique between Ponta do Ouro and Inhaca (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1996, Pereira 2003). In shallow (9 to 13 m) fixed transect UVC surveys in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1987 and 1992, Chater <em>et al.</em> (1995) recorded only one individual out of 43 groupers.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>Moderately common (n=31 individuals, 4.5% of groupers) caught on the North Kenya Banks in the late 1950s (Morgans 1964), slightly less common (n=4 of 130 groupers) in research hook and line catches in this region by the mid 1970s (Nzioka 1977). Not commonly recorded (<1% of all groupers recorded) in commercial line catches from southern Mozambique in the mid-1990s after the fishery rapidly developed following 20 years of light fishing effort owing to civil war (Dengo and David 1993, van der Elst <em>et al.</em> 1994). Subsequently (to 2005), its contribution to grouper catches fluctuated between 0 and 27% by number (D. Gove, Mozambican Fisheries Research Institute, pers. comm.). Occasionally recorded in trap catches in central Mozambique from 1997 to 1998 (n=23 individuals of 1,304 groupers; Abdula <em>et al.</em> 2000). Rarely recorded (3 individuals of 1,278 groupers) in a survey of boat catches from non-coral reefs off the central KwaZulu-Natal coast during 1985 to 1987 (Oceanographic Research Institute 1988). Occasionally recorded (76 individuals of 12,094 groupers) from commercial boat line catches from central KZN coast (non-coral reefs) from 2002 to 2006 (Fennessy unpub. Data). Pages (Refrigepeche Est pers. comm.), operating a commercial linefishing fleet out of Tamatave (central east coast) in Madagascar, reported that this species is common, constituting about 20% of all grouper caught (total grouper catch about 30 mt yr<sup>-1</sup>). Reported in catches from Reunion (D. Miossec, pers. comm. IFREMER) but lumped with several other grouper species. Percentage contributions (assumed to be by number) to grouper catches from “essentially unexploited” deep-slope reefs were moderate to low in Melanesia (7.05%), Micronesia (2.35%) and Polynesia (0.23%) – Dalzell and Preston (1992), reported in Dalzell <em>et al.</em> (1996). Possibly the main grouper species caught in Seychelles; also in Djibouti/Somalia/Oman.<br/><br/>In terms of the inshore handline fishery, catch rates (CPUE) of the grouper guild, of which <em>E. chlorostigma</em> is one of the main species, have significantly declined since 1990, from over 0.6 to less than 0.3 kg/fisher/hr (Grandcourt and Cesar 2003). CPUE in the schooner handline fishery has declined significantly, from around 3.5 kg/man<sup>-day</sup> in 1986 to just over 1.0 kg/man<sup>-day</sup> since 2002. By contrast, CPUE in the whaler handline fishery has remained relatively stable since 1990 (between 0.5 and 1.2 kg/man<sup>-day</sup>), but effort estimation for these fisheries is confounded by a degree of within-trip target switching (demersal to pelagic) which may vary from year to year and is not reliably accounted for in the surveys.<br/><br/>Mees (1992) estimated the MSY of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> to be in the range of 0.013 to 0.023 mt/km², corresponding to 161 to 290 mt over the fishing ground. These estimates were based on a standing stock of 1,468 mt. Catches were maintained at just below the conservative MSY estimate until the closure of the mothership-dory fishery (Figure 1). This species is vulnerable to both pulse (mothership) and sequential fishing. High catches and CPUE prior to 1994 are thought to have been maintained through expansion of the fishery and sequential targeting. Stock assessments conducted at the level of statistical sector found localized depletions resulting from the mothership-dory fishing, and decreases in abundance at the level of sector have been detected (Mees 1996) following this period. Current length at first capture (Lc50 = 36.44 cm) is only slightly greater than 0.5L∞ (Lm50 is unknown), while F/M is >2, highlighting concern over current levels of fishing mortality (F = 0.91). <br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Figure 1</strong>: Total annual catch of <em>E. chlorostigma</em> form the Seychelles.<br/><br/>Catch data from commercial hook and line vessels off southern Mozambique are inconclusive – declines in recent years could be due to a spatial shift in fishing effort (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: Catch data (port monitoring) for the Mozambican commercial line fishery.<br/><br/>In Oman, in three fisheries management areas, preliminary surplus production stock assessments of groupers (of which <em>E. chlorostigma</em> forms an important part – extent not quantified) range from over-exploited to under-exploited (Oman Fisheries department unpub. data).	eng
132823	threats	Choat, J.H., Craig, M.T., Fennesy, S., Ferreira, B., Bertoncini, A.A., Robinson, J. & Rocha, L., 2008	<em>Epinephelus chlorostigma</em> is under intense fishing pressure regionally, yet its deep habitat may provide some natural protection.	eng
132824	conservation	To, A.W.L & Pollard, D., 2008	Available information suggests that <em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> does not occur within established marine reserves in South Africa and Mozambique (reported from dive surveys from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). Information from other regions is lacking. There is no known specific fishery regulation or management on this species.	eng
132824	distribution	To, A.W.L & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a widespread Indo-West Pacific species, occurring from South Africa and the Red Sea, east to Papua New Guinea, north to southern Japan, and south to the Gulf of Carpenteria (Australia).	eng
132824	habitat	To, A.W.L & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in the continental shelf (71 to 291 m) over soft bottom.  It also inhabits rocky bottoms. Nothing has been published on its biology. <em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is a medium-size species attaining 800 mm TL. Except for its preference to inhabit deep waters over rocky bottoms and suggested protogyny (Heemstra and Randall 1993), nothing has been published on its biology.	eng
132824	population	To, A.W.L & Pollard, D., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is generally rare within its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>A rare species in fisheries within its range of distribution, for example in Taiwan (K-T Shao pers. comm.). Available information since 1987 suggests that this species is relatively rare in area around South Africa and Mozambique (Sean Fennessy pers. comm.) even within marine reserves (reported from dive and angling surveys within 8 to 45 m depth zone from 1987 to 1992) (Chater <em>et al.</em> 1993, Chater <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is only caught very occasionally around South Africa and Mozambique waters (43 out of 1,867 groupers) (Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 1999, Lichucha <em>et al.</em> 2000) from commercial line-fish catch and cage-trap from 1997 to 1998. Records by Chan (1968) and from a 15-month survey in Hong Kong SAR from 2004 to 2006 (Allen To unpub. data) (only six specimens ranging from 100 to 300 mm TL) suggests that this species is now rare in commercial catches (mostly by trawling) since the 1960s, despite its good edible quality (Chan 1968). However, its natural abundance may be overlooked due to its preference for relatively deep waters (71 to 291 m), potentially leading to a decreased encounter rate from underwater survey and most shallow-waters fisheries.	eng
132824	threats	To, A.W.L & Pollard, D., 2008	<em>Epinephelus epistictus</em> is potentially threatened by overfishing.	eng
132825	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B. & Myers, R., 2008	<em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> occurs in marine protected areas throughout parts of its range.	eng
132825	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is a widespread Indo-Pacific species ranging from East Africa (Pinda, Mozambique: 15°S) to French Polynesia and the Pitcairn Group, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and south to Heron Island at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef (Australia).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>American Samoa, Australia (Queensland and Western Australia, including Rowley Shoals), Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Cook Islands, French Polynesia (Society Islands, Tuamotu Islands), Guam, India (Lakshadweep), Indonesia (Bali, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, Papua, Sulawesi), Japan (Ogasawara-shoto, Ryukyu Islands), Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago, North Solomons), Philippines, Pitcairn, Réunion, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Taiwan, Tanzania, Tonga, United States Minor Outlying Islands (Wake Island).	eng
132825	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is a reef-associated species found at depths from 16 to 108 m. It is perhaps the most common grouper on Indo-Pacific coral reefs found below 40 m. The species is known primarily from insular localities except those collected from Pinda, Mozambique. Little is known of the biology of this species other than spawning, courtship and feeding. <br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>Donaldson (1995a) described courtship and spawning behaviour of <em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> from Rota, Mariana Islands. This species has male-dominated haremic groups. Daily courtship behaviour began late in the afternoon and proceeded until after sunset. Males repeatedly visited females in single-male, multiple-female mating groups during each period and engaged in courtship bouts. Males were predicted to devote more effort toward intra-and interspecific interactions compared to females and to maximize reproductive success. Females were predicted to devote more effort towards foraging, compared to males. This behaviour maximizes reproductive effort. Foraging behaviour by both sexes was virtually absent during daylight and pre-courtship periods. Fish sought shelter and were not incidentally observed foraging after dusk, suggesting that this species actively forages later at night or during early morning hours, just prior to and during sunrise.	eng
132825	population	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B. & Myers, R., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em> is not commonly seen in shallow waters, but in deeper outer reef slope areas waters it is probably more common. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent</strong><br/>Only one individual, measuring 30 cm, was recorded in New Caledonia, during underwater visual census  in New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Fiji and Tonga in Barrier, Fringing, Intermediate, outer-barrier-reef and Lagoon-bottom reefs. Density estimates for the species were three individuals/per sq km, with a size was between 25 and 30 cm.<br/><br/>It is relatively common on reefs of the southern Mariana Islands (Myers 1999, in Donaldson, 2002). <br/><br/>In December 1995, Machida <em>et al.</em> (1997) reported seven species of groupers collected at Agdao Fish Market in Davao City, including <em>C. spiloparaea</em>, which was the first record from Mindanao for this species. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>Fishery statistics from The Sea Around Us From 1985 to 2002, <em>C. spiloparaea</em> represented 0.25% (304 kg) of total offshore catch of Serranidae (118,579 kg) in Guam.	eng
132825	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Gaspar, A.L.B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to <em>Cephalopholis spiloparaea</em>.	eng
132826	conservation	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Australia (Northern Territory), but there are no measures specific to this species. The species does occur in some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
132826	distribution	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species ranging from the Persian Gulf to Taiwan, Indonesia and the northern coast of Australia. Currently it is not known from Japan, but it may occur there. It has not been found at any islands of Micronesia or Polynesia (Heemstra and Randall 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Australia (Northern Territory, Western Australia), Bahrain, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Fujian, Guangdong), Hong Kong, India (Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal, Kerala, Mahé, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Yanam), Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, Moluccas, Sulawesi, Sumatra), Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak), Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and Viet Nam.	eng
132826	habitat	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is a demersal species that occurs on shallow banks (30 to 104 m), but is not known from well-developed coral reefs (Randall 1995). <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>It is usually taken by trawling in 30 to 45 m or by hand-lining over rocky banks. Its maximum size is reported at 76.0 cm TL (Chan 1968). <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. Wild caught juveniles are also utilized for aquaculture for live fish market in Hong Kong (Lee and Sadovy 1998, Donaldson <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
132826	population	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is widespread, but apparently no longer abundant in large parts of its range. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/>In Hong Kong, declines are common to all medium-bodied groupers, including this species. There are inferred declines in the abundance of wild-caught fingerlings/juveniles for grow-out according to Hong Kong mariculturists. In southern China, fingerlings are near extirpated (Sadovy 2000). These declines suggest a reduction in the adult population in source areas throughout Southeast Asia (Min pers. comm. 2007). The species is still common in the markets of the Persian Gulf.  <br/><br/>A minor part of the Western Ausrtalia trap fishery. A total of 55 kg caught in Onslow, Western Australia (1986 to 1987) and 46 kg in 1987 to 1988 (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
132826	threats	Russell, B., Samoilys, M., Cornish, A. & Carpenter, K., 2008	<span style="font-weight: bold;">General</span><br/>Perhaps the greatest threat to <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is overfishing.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong> <br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> is subject to commercial trawling of adults, including India (James <em>et al.</em> 1996) and in trap fishery in Western Australia (Moran <em>et al.</em> 1988). <br/><br/>Within the live reef food fish trade, there is a capture fishery of wild caught fingerlings and juveniles (fingerlings, hereafter) for grow out in sea cages and pens. Juveniles are commonly taken in estuaries in the Philippines (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000, Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Thailand (Vidthayanon and Premcharoen 2002), Malaysia, southern China, Vietnam and Indonesia. Fingerlings are either locally grown out or sold to Taiwan or Hong Kong (Sadovy 2000). The numbers can be substantial. For example, in one year 10 million fry were exported from Thailand to Hong Kong (Sadovy 2000). These fingerlings are grown out in open sea cages and big pens in Malaysia. Wild caught <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> fingerlings are raised in floating cages and ponds in Vietnam (Tuan 2003). <br/><br/>Among the fishing gears, seine net, scoop net and push net are mainly used for collecting small fish of 1 to 3 cm. Seine nets provide the highest yield (catch per unit effort) in terms of number of pieces per trip. For larger seed, encircling nets, used together with artificial reefs, were the most important in terms of quantity and quality of catch. The seasonality of use of different gears reflects the growth of the seed and their move to deeper water as the season progresses (Tuan and Hambrey 2000). No hatcheries are known for this species (Sadovy pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> was widely cultured in Hong Kong in the early 1990s when green groupers experienced disease problems that could not be overcome. <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> was not affected by the same disease, so fish farmers gave up farming green grouper and changed to this species. E. bleekeri <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> adapted very well to the new environment but grew much slower than green groupers. Disease problems with <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em> began about three years ago. The diseased fish would consume excessive food one day, then stopped feeding the following day. By then an infection was noticeable on the fish’s body. Its condition would worsen very quickly and within three days most of the fish would die. Treatments with antibiotics, freshwater bath, malachite green, methylene blue and formalin have had no success with this problem. The situation was uncontrollable in 2001 with an almost 95% mortality rate for imported <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>. Researchers found that the disease was caused by a new vibrio (SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin #9).<br/><br/>Listed in Life Reef Food Fish Trade in Hong Kong (Donaldson <em>et al.</em>  2003) and Philippines (Pratt <em>et al.</em> 2000 Padilla <em>et al.</em> 2003). Live reef fish import data from the Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department (HK CSD) record the largest quantities of "other groupers" and "other marine fishes" as being imported from Thailand. Thailand and Malaysia are important sources for so-called "cultured" species including Brown Spotted Grouper <em>Epinephelus areolatus</em> / <em>Epinephelus bleekeri</em>, which are amongst 12 most commonly available species imported to Hong Kong (http://www.traffic.org/reef-fish/executivesummary.html).	eng
132827	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are closed areas in the Gulf of Mexico (Madison-Swanson) and South Atlantic (<em>Oculina</em> HAPC) where misty grouper may occur. In addition, Amendment 14 to the Snapper Grouper Fishery Management Plan of the South Atlantic Region will be implemented during 2007. Misty grouper may occur in some of the proposed South Atlantic MPAs.	eng
132827	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> occurs in the western Atlantic, where it is found in Bermuda, North Carolina (USA), Florida (USA), Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas, Cuba, Yucatan (Mexico), Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the Leeward islands to Trinidad. In the eastern Pacific, it is reported from the Galápagos Islands, Paramount Seamount, coastal Ecuador, northeast coast of Brazil south to 22° and Trindade Island.	eng
132827	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> is a bathydemersal species that is typically solitary and occurs from 100 to 400 m. Juveniles sometimes occur in water as shallow as 30 m.  <br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Feeds on fishes, crustaceans, and squids.  Virtually nothing is known of the age, growth, and reproduction of this species.  <br/><br/><strong>Size and mortality</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> attains a maximum body weight of 107.0 kg, with male attaining a maximum size of 160 cm TL and females at least 100 cm TL (Appeldorn <em>et al.</em> 1997, Heemstra and Randall 1993). Natural mortality is estimated to be 0.14 (J. McGovern, pers. com.).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>The estimated size at maturity is 81.1 cm (31.9 in), although this may not be accurate (J. McGovern, pers. com). No information is available on its reproductive life history, including spawning and sexual pattern.<br/><br/>Virtually nothing is known of the age and growth of this species (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132827	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> was described as "mysterious" and "rarely seen" grouper species (Schobernd 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data</strong><br/>There are no studies on the abundance except the annual species and abundance survey conducted by novice and expert divers. <br/><br/><strong>Fishery-independent data by country</strong><br/>USA-based on the information from Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF), the sighting frequency (SF; a value calculated as dividing the number of survey with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> encountered [n] by the total number of survey carried out in a particular year [N]) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in tropical western Atlantic ranged from 48.0% to 60.5%, with an average of 0.010% from 1993 to 2005 (www.reef.org/data; accessed on 15th Sep 2006) (Table 1).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 1</strong>: sighting frequency of <em>H. mystacinus</em> from underwater visla census by Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF).<br/><br/>Bullock and Smith (1991) did not record any <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> during their survey on groupers from the west Florida shelf.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent Data</strong><br/>NMFS is the only source on the landings of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Fishery-dependent data by country</strong><br/><em>USA</em><br/>According to NMFS, annual landings of commercial catches of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in the USA from 1990 to 2003, the quantity caught stayed relatively low (0.8 to 2.0 metric tonnes) with no data available in 1991 to 1995, 1997 to 1998, 2001 and 2004 to 2005 (www.st.nmfs.gov, accessed on 14th September 2006) (Table 2).<br/><br/>Follow the link below for <strong>Table 2</strong>: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) commercial catch data 1990-2003.<br/><br/>Commercial landings are minor and there is little recreational take in SE US. <br/><br/><em>Central Brazil</em><br/>The catch per unit effort for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> in Brazil was 3.2 fish per 1,000 hooks between 100 to 300 m.	eng
132827	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, B., Choat, J.H., Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> mystacinus</em> is threatened by both recreational and commercial fisheries (Heemstra and Randall 1993).	eng
132828	conservation	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> probably does not occur within protected areas because it prefers deep waters. Further information is required on population and fishery.	eng
132828	distribution	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span> <em>haifensis</em> is found in the southern Mediterranean and occurs south along the north and west African coast to southern Angola (Heemstra 1991). There is a recent report of the species from Lampedusa Island in Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000), which extends its range to the central Mediterranean.	eng
132828	habitat	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> is a large species, reaching a maximum total length of 110 cm and 25 kg (Poll 1954). It is found in depths from 90 to 220 m over mud, sand or rock bottoms (Poll 1954), rocky reefs with encrusting coraline algae, and most commonly found between the depths of 80 to 160 m (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
132828	population	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is very little population information about <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em>, as this is a deep-water species, and there is no information on current population trend.	eng
132828	threats	Samoilys, M., Craig, M.T., Sadovy, Y. & Choat, J.H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hyporthodus</span><em> haifensis</em> is probably important in local fisheries in the Mediterranean and the west coast of Africa, but there is insufficient data (Heemstra and Randall 1993). It is frequently taken by long line fisheries, which target <em>Epinephelus caninus</em> around Lampedusa Island, Italy (Azzurro <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
132829	conservation	Kulbicki, M., 2008	There are no specific actions being taken for <em>Epinephelus howlandi</em>, although it is protected within many MPAs in its range (e.g., New Caledonia, GBR, Samoa, Pohnpei). Its presence on many small unpopulated islands is probably also a natural protection for this species. In Pohnpei, the species is protected seasonally by a sales ban March to April (Rhodes pers. comm.).	eng
132829	distribution	Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> occurs on the islands of the South Pacific and Micronesia from the Line islands (Palmyra, Kingsman Reef, Jarvis Island) to Papua New Guinea, Palau and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). It is also present offshore in the China Sea, in the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands (Japan). Blacksaddle grouper are noted to be found in Indonesia and Pitcairn, but these records require further confirmation considering the known range of this species.<br/><br/><strong>Present records</strong><br/>Ryuyyu and Ogasawara Islands (Japan), Palau, South China Sea, New Caledonia (including Chesterfields, Ouvéa, Lifou), Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, Micronesia (Chuuk, Ifaluk, Yap), Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, Northern and Southern Marianas, Tuvalu, Australia (Great Barrier Reef (north and south), Lord Howe Island), Papua New Guinea (Kimbey Bay, Milne Bay), U.S. Minor Outlying Islands (Howland Island, Baker Island), Solomon Island, Jarvis Island, Kingsman Reef, Palmyra Island), Kiribati (Phoenix Island, Gilbert Islands), Nauru.<br/><br/>The record from the Paracel Islands needs confirmation (Myers distributional database 2006).	eng
132829	habitat	Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is found on shallow reefs (0 to 37 m) in both good and marginal coral habitats. Information from New Caledonia suggests that nearshore individuals are smaller but more abundant. No small specimens (<20 cm) were observed on barrier reefs in New Caledonia. When observed, it is generally solitary and mainly active during daytime periods. Its maximum size is 44 cm TL, although no fish larger than 39 cm FL were recorded in New Caledonia (UVC record of 45 cm). There is a possible ontogenetic shift from inshore to offshore with size.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> ambushes its preys by laying still on the bottom. Its diet is made of fish and crustaceans (shrimp and crab) with occasional molluscs or worms. Fish tends to be the major diet item in large fish (>200 mm).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction</strong><br/>No information on breeding (season, place). Sexual maturity reached at 250 mm TL in females in New Caledonia. With a highly skewed sex ratio (95% females New Caledonia for 48 fishes examined). Could be that males being the largest individuals were not well sampled.	eng
132829	population	Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is typically not abundant, but may be fairly common in some areas. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Known abundances on reefs (fish/km² of reef) are as follows: GBR 10 to 50; New Caledonia 60 to 350; Fiji 45 to 213; Tonga 53 to 231.<br/><br/>Observed size ranges in New Caledonia-Fiji-Tonga: most fish observed were between 20 and 35 cm (FL); less than 5% of the specimens >37 cm (FL).<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent data</strong><br/><em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> represents 0.3% of reported reef fish catch in CNMI and <0.01% in Guam; not reported in catches from American Samoa; 2.5% in numbers and 0.5% in weight of groupers caught in experimental fishing in New Caledonia. The species constituted 12% of serranid catch in Pohnpei (Rhodes and Tupper 2007).	eng
132829	threats	Kulbicki, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>The major threat to this species is overfishing and possibly habitat loss or damage.<br/><br/><strong>Specific</strong><br/>Although caught in fisheries throughout its range, <em>Epinephelus howlandi</em> is not always targeted as it is often ciguatoxic. It can be caught by hook and line, gill nets, and spearfishing. In other areas of the central Pacific, it is commonly targeted by spear and taken by line in both inner and outer reef areas. The species is also part of the live reef fish trade. <br/><br/>As this species is a shallow water species it may be locally endangered by large scale coral bleaching. As this species is present on a large number of islands, populations are isolated but there are probably exchanges between many islands through larval flow.	eng
132830	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> occurs in several protected areas in Southern Brazil, where the minimum size of capture is 23 cm. Examples of marine protected areas are the Arvoredo Biological Marine Reserve and Laje de Santos Marine State Park. Also in protected areas in the Caribbean, Texas.	eng
132830	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> is distributed within the Western Atlantic, ranging from Texas (USA) and the northwestern Gulf of Mexico to Venezuela, including Bermuda, and central Brazil south to the state of Rio Grande do Sul (to around 28°S) (Carvalho-Filho 1999, Loebman and Vieira 2005). It has an apparently disjunct distribution, being absent from northeastern Brazil and most of the Caribbean. A report of this species (as <em>Serranus acutirostris</em>) from the Canary Islands (Spain) is probably a misidentification of <em>Mycteroperca fusca</em>.	eng
132830	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/><em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> is a reef-associated species. Juveniles inhabit turtle grass beds, mangrove areas, and shallow waters among soft corals and coral reefs.  Adults are found on rocky bottoms with high relief. Easily found in groups of dozens of individuals. Juvenile (2 to 5 cm) are usually found among floating objects. Adults are often sighted in the water column predating on sardine schools. It reaches approximately 4 kg, although reports of specimens up to 10 kg do exist (Carvalho-Filho 1999, Gibran 2004). Juveniles found in intertidal rocky shores in tide pools in South Brazil (Barreiros <em>et al.</em> 2004). Sazima (2002) reports that comb grouper shows aggressive mimic behaviour of the wrasses <em>Halichoeres poeyi</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Feeding</strong><br/>Reported to feed on plankton, sardines and squids, although systematic feeding studies are not available.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-dependent</strong><br/>The species is a popular game fish in southern Brazil for both spear fishermen and rod-and-reel anglers. Fish of 4 to 7 kg are common, with the spear fishing record at 10.1 kg (Capt. Eduardo Baumeier pers. comm. 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Reproduction and maturity</strong><br/>Preliminary results of reproductive biology (Gerhardinger, unpub. data) indicate that 2 kg fish are still juveniles. It is suggested that they spawn during spring time in Brazil (September-December) (Silvano <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
132830	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	<strong>General</strong><br/>In the coast of Brazil, it is more abundant in the rocky tropical and subtropical shores, from the state of Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina. Common throughout its range.<br/><br/><strong>Fisheries</strong><br/>Comb grouper is important for small-scale artisanal fisheries as well as amateur fishing. It is common throughout its Brazilian range, but is regarded as a target of a “heavy” fishing pressure by Floeter <em>et al.</em> (2006). There is no comprehensive fishery data available for <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Fisheries-independent data</strong><br/>Densities in shallow rocky reefs in south Brazil obtained with UVC are in the order of 0.035/m² (A. Bertoncini  unpub. data).	eng
132830	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Gerhardinger, L.C., Sadovy, Y., Rocha, L., Choat, J.H., Ferreira, B. & Craig, M., 2008	Fishing is the main known threat  to <em>Mycteroperca acutirostris</em> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rocha and Costa 1999, Ferreira and Goncalves 1999). Disease events are reported from Southern Brazil, when large number of individuals died in summer months. However no further information is known. The species is a popular game fish in southern Brazil for both spear fishermen and rod-and-reel anglers.	eng
132831	conservation	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<st1:placename w:st="on">Cocos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> is a National Park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and as such is a well-protected site by the national authorities of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Costa Rica. Access is restricted and </st1:place></st1:country-region>any visits are regulated by the authorities on the island. Regular surveys of the habitat are conducted by the authorities' agents, who are constantly present on the island. Populations of <em>E. cocoense</em> do not seem to require any specific conservation action at present as the species is common on the island.</span>	eng
132831	distribution	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<p>    </p><p><em>Epidendrum cocoense</em> is strictly endemic to <st1:placename w:st="on">Cocos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Province of Puntarenas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Costa   Rica</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160; (Hágsater 1999). It has never been found on the continental lands of tropical America.Cocos Island (also known as Isla del Coco) is a volcanic island of 24 km<sup>2</sup>, located at 5º32’57” N and 86º59’17” W, in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place> (Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). <br/></p><p><br/></p>    <p>One of the first distribution studies of <em>E. cocoense</em> was done by Trusty (2004) who visited the island in 2004. She also recorded herbarium specimens and based on these data estimated an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 22.3 km<sup>2</sup> for this species. </span>We, the present assessors,&#160; visited the island in April 2006 and collected this species along five transects: i.e. the path between Wafer and <st1:placename w:st="on">Chatham</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bays</st1:placetype>, along <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Genio</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Punta Presidio, path to Cerro Yglesias and Los Llanos plain. Based on these data we calculated an EOO of 4.5 km<sup>2</sup>. </p>  <p></p>	eng
132831	habitat	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<p><em>E. cocoense</em> is epiphytic, mostly growing on <em>Sacoglottis holdridgei</em> (a common endemic tree of the island from the Humiriaceae family). <em>E. cocoense</em> grows from about 1 m high on the trunk of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saccoglottis </span>in the understory of the rain forest. The plants produce white fragrant flowers and it is suggested that moths or butterflies might carry out pollination. However, no data have been found on this part of the ecology of the species. The life zone is pre-montane rain forest according to Gómez (1986).</p>	eng
132831	population	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<em></em>  <em>E. cocoense</em> is a commonly found epiphyte, occurring from sea level to about 400 meters in altitude.	eng
132831	threats	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<p>Cocos Island is very isolated and the national authorities restrict visits to this area. The island flora does not seem to be threatened by illegal collectors or deforestation. Nevertheless, it is a fragile ecosystem restricted to a small area in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place>. Climate change might be the main threat in the future. Lack of pollinators (yet unknown) or invasive species might also pose a future threat.</p>	eng
132832	conservation	Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>Although Humpback Whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling since 1966, they can still be killed for the purposes of scientific research under Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. The IWC’s Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary (e.g. the northern boundary of this Sanctuary follows the 40°S parallel of latitude except in the Indian Ocean sector where it joins the southern boundary of that sanctuary at 55°S, and around South America and into the South Pacific where the boundary is at 60°S) provides an additional layer of protection to Humpback Whales while on their summer feeding grounds in Antarctica, although whales inside the Sanctuary can still be killed under Article VIII.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>At present, more than 12 million km<sup>2</sup> of EEZs of more than a dozen South Pacific countries and territories have been designated as whale sanctuaries. This provides protection from commercial whaling for Humpback Whales in some of their breeding areas. Most recently an MoU under the CMS convention has been designed to protect cetaceans and their habitats in the South Pacific. It has already been signed by several countries and territories.</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p><st1:country-region w:st="on">New  Zealand</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> have active disentanglement programmes to release any Humpback Whales captured in fishing gear.</p>	eng
132832	distribution	Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>Humpback Whales have a global distribution. Individual humpbacks have been observed to travel more than 8,000 km between their high-latitude summer feeding grounds and winter mating and calving range in tropical waters (Rasmussen <em>et al</em>. 2007). The Oceania subpopulation is delineated by its breeding range, with approximate boundaries in the west at 145°E (eastern Australia), in the east at 120°W (between French Polynesia and South America), in the north at the equator at 0°S, and in the south to approximately 30°S.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>During the austral autumn and winter, Humpback Whales in <st1:place w:st="on">Oceania</st1:place> are spread across lower latitudes from approximately 30°S northwards to the equator. The South Pacific is a vast area with thousands of islands, and there has not yet been a comprehensive survey of the entire region. However, localized research by members of the South Pacific Whale Research Consortium (SPWRC 2008) has identified many island groups whose waters are host to Humpback Whales. During austral spring and summer, Humpbacks travel to Antarctic feeding grounds. These linkages have been demonstrated through Discovery tagging, photo-identification and, most recently, genotype matching and satellite telemetry (Mackintosh 1942, Chittleborough 1965, Dawbin 1966, Mikhalev 2000, Franklin <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>    <p></span></p>	eng
132832	habitat	Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>Humpback Whales have been recorded across most of the South Pacific, although densities vary from large numbers in East Australia to very low numbers in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Fiji</st1:country-region> (in E3) and parts of <st1:place w:st="on">French Polynesia</st1:place>. They are regularly found around island groups but also in open water away from islands. Humpbacks have been recorded throughout the southern ocean, including south to the ice edge and in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ross</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Sea</st1:placename></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Little is known regarding life history parameters for the Oceania subpopulation of Humpback Whales, although it is assumed that these rates are similar to those described from whaling records in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Dawbin 1956, 1964, 1966; Chittleborough 1965). One rate that has been preliminarily investigated in the region is calving interval, which is approximately 2-3 years (consistent with that reported from other oceans). The diet of these Humpback Whales consists mainly of krill, which they consume while in Antarctic waters. They are not known to feed while in tropical breeding grounds.	eng
132832	population	Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>The following population estimates are available:</p>  <p>(i) SPWRC (2006) provided a preliminary mark-recapture estimate from photo-identification of the combined population size for E2 (<st1:state w:st="on">New  Caledonia</st1:state>), E3 (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Tonga</st1:country-region>) and F (<st1:place w:st="on">French Polynesia</st1:place>) of 3,827 (CV = 0.12) for the period 1999-2004. There are no estimates of rate of increase available for this area but it was noted that there was little indication of trend in abundance over the survey period (SPWRC 2006).</p>  <p>(ii) Noad <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated from land-based sighting surveys that population size of E1 (Eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) was 7,090 (95% CI ± 660) for 2004 with an annual rate of increase of 10.6 (95% CI ± 0.5%) for 1987 – 2004. </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>The IWC is presently engaged in a Comprehensive Assessment of Southern Hemisphere humpback whales, and research on the South Pacific breeding stocks of E1, E2, E3, and F is ongoing. The IWC (2006) Comprehensive Assessment of Southern Hemisphere Humpback workshop in 2006 agreed that, “<em>the situation for Breeding Stocks E and F is complex and currently unresolved, and therefore that it was not possible to construct stock structure hypotheses for assessment modelling, particularly with respect to the assignment to Breeding Stocks of catches taken on the feeding grounds</em>”.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>For example, while east <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and <st1:state w:st="on">New Caledonia</st1:state> (E1 and E2) are within the longitudinal boundaries of Antarctic Area V, and <st1:place w:st="on">French  Polynesia</st1:place> and the Cook Islands (F) are within the longitudinal boundaries of Area VI, Tonga (E3) falls close to the boundary between the two Areas. Thus, in the current assessment, the approach of pooling demographically independent sub-stocks was necessary for practical reasons to develop catch allocation scenarios. However, this approach is likely to be conservative in ignoring potential differences in variable rates of recovery from the regional impacts of whaling. Soviet whaling on the Antarctic feeding grounds in the early sixties was extremely intense, with over 27,300 whales taken during two summers (1959-1961) alone. Maternal site fidelity together with a hunt concentrated both in time and space may have resulted in more extreme declines in some of the far-flung wintering sub-stocks of the Southwestern Pacific. </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  Jackson <em>et al</em>. (2006) explored a number of catch allocation scenarios for the combined sub-stocks of Oceania and east <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In their combined assessment of sub-stocks E1, E2, E3 and F, median population recovery toward historical levels in 2005 was estimated at between 15.9-24.8% (95% probability intervals (PI) 11.1-30.5%; prior population growth rate mean = 6.7% after Branch <em>et al</em>. (2004)).&#160; The most appropriate interpolation between these two recovery estimates depended on the degree of interchange between east <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Oceania</st1:place> (15.9% is complete interchange, 24.8% is no interchange). Recent photo-identification surveys (Garrigue <em>et al</em>. 2007) indicate that interchange between these regions is relatively low, suggesting that the ‘no interchange’ scenario may be more appropriate for the region. Under this interchange scenario, estimated abundance in 1942 was 41,356 (95% PI 36,800-53,580). Recovery level of the population three generations later (in 2005) is 26.6% (95% PI 18.2-33.5%) relative to 1942. This is using an estimate of 21.5 years/generation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
132832	threats	Childerhouse, S., Jackson, J., Baker, C.S., Gales, N., Clapham, P.J. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>During the last two centuries, Humpback Whales have been hunted intensively, especially in the southern hemisphere, where it was estimated that populations were reduced to a few percent of their pre-exploitation abundance (Chapman 1974). Based on catch records corrected for illegal Soviet whaling, a total of more than 200,000 Humpback Whales were killed in the Southern Hemisphere from 1904 to 1980 (Clapham and Baker 2002). Catches during the 19th century in the South Pacific by American whalers were made mainly during winter months in three tropical breeding grounds: off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ecuador</st1:country-region>, around the Tongan archipelago, and northwest of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New   Caledonia</st1:place></st1:state> (Townsend 1935, Mackintosh 1942). During the 20th century, Humpback Whales were hunted along their migratory corridors, such as along the coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and more intensively in their feeding areas in sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters (Mackintosh 1942, 1965). The IWC gave legal protection to Humpback Whales from commercial whaling in 1966 but they continued to be killed illegally by whalers from the <st1:place w:st="on">Soviet Union</st1:place> until 1972. Illegal Soviet takes of 25,000 Humpback Whales in two seasons (1959/60 and 1960/61) precipitated a population crash and the closure of land stations in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mikhalev 2000, Clapham <em>et al. </em>2005).<em></em>  <p>Recently, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region> proposed to kill 50 humpback whales as part of its programme of scientific research under special permit (scientific whaling) in the IWC management areas IV and V in the Antarctic. Areas IV and V have demonstrated links with breeding stock <st1:place w:st="on">E. Japan</st1:place> postponed its proposed catch in the 2007/08 season but have not removed Humpback Whales from its future whaling programme. The continuation of this programme has the potential to slow the recovery of the <st1:place w:st="on">Oceania</st1:place> subpopulation.<em></em></span>  <p>Mortality of Humpback Whales due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships have been reported in the Southern Hemisphere (IWC 2001). Entanglement of Humpback Whales in pot lines occurs in both <st1:country-region w:st="on">New Zealand</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. There is little information from around the rest of the South Pacific, but a humpback mother (with calf) was reported entangled in a longline in 2007 (N. Hauser, reported in SPWRC 2008) and another Humpback was struck and killed by a vessel in 1999 in Tonga (Diver 2004).<em></em>	eng
132833	conservation	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, as a National Park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a well protected site by the national authorities of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Costa Rica</st1:place></st1:country-region>: restricted access, visit regulation and regular survey of the habitat are under control of the authorities' agents, who are constantly present on the island. The population of <em>E. insulanum</em> does not seem to require any specific conservation action as it is common on the island. The species is included in CITES Appendix II.	eng
132833	distribution	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<p><em>E. insulanum</em> is strictly endemic to <st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Province of Puntarenas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Costa   Rica</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160; (Hágsater 1999). It has never been found on the continental lands of tropical America. <st1:placename w:st="on">Coco</st1:placename>s <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype> (also known as Isla del Coco) is a volcanic island of 24 km<sup>2</sup>, located at 5º32’57” N and 86º59’17” W, in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place> (Castillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988).</p><p><br/></p>  <p>A previous distribution study of <em>E. insulanum</em> was done by Trusty (2004) who visited the island in 2004. She also recorded herbarium specimens and based on these data estimated an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 18.2 km<sup>2</sup> for this species.We, the present assessors, visited the island in April 2006 and collected this species along five transects: i.e. the path between Wafer and <st1:placename w:st="on">Chatham</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bays</st1:placetype>, along <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Genio</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Punta Presidio, path to Cerro Yglesias and Los Llanos plain. Based on these data, we calculated an EOO of 3.0 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
132833	habitat	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<em>E. insulanum </em>is an epiphytic plant, mostly growing on <em>Sacoglottis holdridgei</em> (a common endemic tree of the island from the Humiriaceae family), but it can be found on other trees and shrubs around the island. <em>E. insulanum</em> grows on the trunk and branches of <em>Saccoglottis</em> in understorey conditions but is also found on exposed branches of the forest or along the rivers and bays. The plants produce small (up to 1.3 cm) yellowish flowers. No data have been found on the pollination of this species. The life zone is pre-montane rain forest according to Gómez (1986). The species can usually be found growing in proximity to <em>E. cocoense</em>.	eng
132833	population	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	<em>E. insulanum</em> is common from sea level to about 400 meters in altitude.	eng
132833	threats	Bogarin, D., Warner, J., Gigot, G. & Savolainen, V., 2008	Cocos Island is very isolated and the national authorities restrict visits to this site. The island flora does not seem to be threatened by illegal collectors or deforestation. Nevertheless, it is a fragile ecosystem restricted to a small area in the <st1:place w:st="on">Pacific Ocean</st1:place>. Climate change might represent the main threat in the future. Lack of pollinators (yet unknown) or invasive species might also pose a future threat.	eng
132834	conservation	Goedeke, T., Sharma, J., Delphey, P. & Marshall Mattson, K., 2008	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p><em>P. praeclara</em> is federally listed in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Federally protected since 1989, a recovery plan for the species was published in 1996. The focus of recovery has been on “maintaining the habitat of known populations on native prairie and providing the highest level of protection appropriate for all populations” (USFWS 1996). To accomplish these goals, the USFWS seeks to achieve two recovery criteria:</p>  <ol><li>ensuring that a minimum proportion of plants within several ecological units occur on lands that are protected from being converted to non-grassland; and</li><li>that those protected plants are subject to appropriate management (USFWS unpublished).</li></ol>      <p>Because many populations of orchids are found on land in private ownership (USFWS 1996), protection of the orchids has largely been approached and executed on an <span style="font-style: italic;">ad hoc</span> basis by various, interested agencies and organizations in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. However, according the USFWS (unpublished) three of nine ecological sections having large, extant populations of <em>P. praeclara</em> are currently protected at some level [The Nature Conservancy levels 4 to 9], or nearly so.&#160; The remaining five ecoregions are still with low or no protection for populations. These lands continue to be vulnerable to conversion for agricultural production or development.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In terms of management of adequately protected populations, “the Service has not approved any management plans” or “developed specific management guidelines for the species” (USFWS unpublished). Therefore, criterion number two continues to be difficult to achieve.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>State level conservation measures:</p>  <ul><li><st1:state w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:state>: Presently, some 84% of orchid plants are protected at some level in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, most of which occur on land owned by The Nature Conservancy (Sather 2002, 2004).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">North  Dakota</st1:state>: Over 90% of known orchids in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state> are found on the Sheyenne National Grassland, which is managed by the USDA Forest Service. The Nature Conservancy also owns land with orchid populations, as do some private land owners. Orchid populations are monitored in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>; state protection and conservation measures are not reported (Lenz unpublished).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>: There are 33 known sites hosting orchid in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iowa</st1:place></st1:state>, 13 of which are protected through state ownership. Seven sites are protected by some other measure on private lands (Pearson unpublished).</li><li><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Missouri</st1:place></st1:state>: The three sites are managed by the Missouri Department of Conservation.</li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:state>: Of the 116 distinct populations presumed extant in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>, most (about 72%) are privately owned and vulnerable to inappropriate management or outright destruction (USFWS unpublished). Only 20 populations are known to be protected.</span></li><li><st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>: Only one of five extant populations of orchids in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state> is protected in some way. The species is not protected by <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state> state law (Freeman unpublished).</li></ul>            <p>&#160;</p>  <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p><em>P. praeclara</em> is listed as endangered under <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s federal Species at Risk Act since 2003. It is also listed as endangered by the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:placename></st1:place> under its Endangered Species Act. The latter law prohibits actions that “destroy, disturb or interfere with the habitat of an endangered species”. While there is a National Recovery Plan for the species, this plan has not been formally adopted on either the federal or provincial level.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is at the northern fringe of the range for this taxon and, as such, habitat supporting the species in this region is limited. According to Environment Canada (2006), “many of the largest patches of plants are found on [Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie] Preserve land—more than 80% of flowering plants observed in 2005 were found there.” The Preserve protects some 3,000 hectares of tallgrass prairie, including prime orchid habitat in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> (Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Although knowledge of the full extent of the orchid’s distribution and occurrence in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is uncertain, particularly on private lands, known populations on the Preserve are managed and monitored for conservation, as per the National Recovery Plan (Environment Canada 2006).</p>	eng
132834	distribution	Goedeke, T., Sharma, J., Delphey, P. & Marshall Mattson, K., 2008	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><em>P. praeclara</em> was historically distributed throughout the western Central Lowlands and eastern Great Plains within the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region>, inclusive of the following states: <st1:state w:st="on">South Dakota</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Oklahoma</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Missouri</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>. Presently, extant populations of <em>P. praeclara</em> are found in 45 counties in six states ranging through nine ecoregion sections. Most recently, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) indicates that counties containing extant populations are presently found in the states of <st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Missouri</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state>, and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, with the latter three states having the bulk of the remaining populations. Largest numbers of flowering individuals occur in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state> on land preserves managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources and by The Nature Conservancy.&#160; Other sites of significance occur in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>, where over 90% of known orchids are located within the Sheyenne National Grassland, which is managed by the USDA Forest Service.</p>  <p>      </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Canada,</st1:country-region> <em>P. praeclara</em> occurs in one extant metapopulation in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:placename></st1:place>, occupying approximately 670 ha. <st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state> Many of the largest patches of plants are currently located within the Manitoba Tall Grass Prairie Preserve.<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></p>  <p></p>	eng
132834	habitat	Goedeke, T., Sharma, J., Delphey, P. & Marshall Mattson, K., 2008	<p>The ideal habitat for <em>P. praeclara</em> is calcareous prairies and sedge meadows, primarily along swales and in marsh areas (Sieg and King 1995, Schwarz 2005, USFWS 1996). <em>P. praeclara</em> is also found in ditches and along roadsides in unmanaged prairie remnants (Crummy 1993, Environment Canada 2006). The orchids prefer higher, drier slopes of swales and ditches, in full sunlight (Alexander 2000, 2001). However, they require a moist soil and warm climate; they do not readily flower in dry areas or during times of drought (Sears and Linden 2002, Schwarz 2004, Schwarz and Keicker 2003, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). <em>P. praeclara</em> appears to require some sort of prescribed fire or grazing management (Pleasants 1994; Sieg and King 1995; Self 2003, 2004; Self and Anthonisen 2005), although uncertainty remains about the appropriateness of specific techniques and regimes. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The reproductive ecology of <em>P. praeclara</em> is very complex:</p>  <ul><li><em>P. praeclara</em> requires pollination by specific pollinators, most notably hawk moths (sphingids) (Cuthrell and Rider 1992, Cuthrell 1994). Hawk moths, however, are not conversely dependant upon the orchids. Thus, pollination success can be greatly influenced by timing of flowering, availability of other flowering species, and range of the pollinator in relation to orchid populations (Pleasants 1993, Pleasants and Moe 1992, Westwood and Borkowsky 2004). Moreover, a decline in pollinator populations, due to habitat loss or application of insecticides for example, could adversely impact the <em>P. praeclara</em>.</li><li>Has erratic flowering, and plant/seed dormancy periods.</li><li>Needs suitable symbionts.</li><li>As populations become smaller and more isolated, reduced genetic vigour and a decline in seedling success are likely to occur (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002, Environment Canada 2006).</li></ul>	eng
132834	population	Goedeke, T., Sharma, J., Delphey, P. & Marshall Mattson, K., 2008	<p>Population sizes fluctuate considerably over the years for this taxon.&#160; For example, across 43 sites in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Minnesota</st1:place></st1:state>, total counts declined steadily from 5,133 flowering plants in year 2001 to 1,117 flowering plants in 2006.&#160; Of the five known localities in the state of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kansas</st1:place></st1:state>, plants were not seen at three sites during 2003 and 2006 (time period for which data are available).&#160; One locality contained two flowering individuals in 2004, but none have been documented since.&#160; </span>At another locality, searches in the last two years have yielded no flowering individuals, there were  two or three observed in 2003 and 2004, respectively.&#160; In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Missouri</st1:place></st1:state>, across three known sites, while total count has increased from 21 flowering individuals to 38, no flowering plants were seen recently at one location.&#160; In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nebraska</st1:place></st1:state>, total counts across all monitored sites at times have declined by up to 60% during the last 6 years.&#160; In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iowa</st1:place></st1:state>, overall, 90-</span>100% decline has been observed over the past at least 20 years at several localities. While at most localities in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:place></st1:state>, declines of up to 80% have been observed over the last seven years, two to three sites have shown increases in the numbers of flowering individuals.</p><p> <br/></span></p><p>The number of plants occurring in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manitoba</st1:place></st1:state> is difficult to determine because of dramatic fluctuations in numbers from season to season. A low of 1,818 plants were counted in 1995 and a high of 23,530 were recorded in 2003. Fluctuations in the number of flowering individuals are very common for this species, however, it is the overall decline in the numbers of reproductive individuals at each fragmented location which is of biological concern.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>These summaries are based on data supplied by Missouri Department of Conservation, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, North Dakota Natural Heritage Inventory, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Environment <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
132834	threats	Goedeke, T., Sharma, J., Delphey, P. & Marshall Mattson, K., 2008	<p>The most significant threats to <em>P. praeclara</em> are habitat destruction/loss and habitat degradation/alteration, particularly in the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Improper management of the intact habitat is also a significant threat to the species. Large tracts of prairie habitat ideal for the orchids have been lost due to conversion of land for agricultural production, especially row-cropping which results in ploughing (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Lenz 1996, Fauske and Rider 1996, USFWS 1996). In addition, habitat is increasingly lost under pressure of development as both remnant prairie and grazing lands are converted for housing and commercial uses. Although some habitat conversion has been documented in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Collicutt 1993, Punter in press) in recent years, historical trends are not available.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The orchids are also at risk from habitat alteration and degradation, which is induced by anthropogenic factors. Inappropriate land management practices can damage individual plants or create ecological changes that disadvantage entire orchid populations. For example, cattle can damage individual plants by grazing and trampling them (Self and Anthonisen 2005; Alexander 2000, 2001; Fauske and Rider 1996). More problematic are management practices and other alterations to associated ecological systems that disadvantage <em>P. praeclara</em>. For instance, non-application or misapplication of prescribed fire, grazing, or mowing could have a detrimental impact on plant survival, growth, and reproduction (USFWS 1996, Self and Anthonisen 2005, Environment Canada 2006). Similarly, a loss of prairie habitat within the landscape matrix could lead to a decline in pollinators and change local hydrology, thereby altering the surrounding vegetative communities (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002, USFWS 1996, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). With more dry conditions, for example, Leafy Spurge (<em>Euphorbia esula</em>) an invasive exotic plant species, commonly invades <em>P. praeclara</em> habitat, often out-competing the orchids (Challey 1992, Crummy 1993, Kirby <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Wolken <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Other exotic species that are observed in the habitat and could potentially out-compete <em>P. praeclara</em> are <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">St. Johns</st1:place></st1:city> Wort (<em>Hyperiucum perforatum</em>), Smooth Brome (<em>Bromus inermis</em>), Kentucky Bluegrass (<em>Poa pratensis</em>), Reed Canary Grass (<em>Phalaris arundinacea</em>) and clover species (<em>Trifolium</em> sp.) (Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>There are other factors that are less well understood, but that may threaten <em>P. praeclara</em>. First, the orchid is subject to grazing by wildlife and insects, from which individual plants can sustain damage (Cuthrell and Rider 1992, Cuthrell 1994, Pleasants 1994, Sieg and O’Brien 1993, Self 2003). While such natural grazing may have been sustainable under historical circumstances (meaning when the species was widely distributed), mounting threats, as well as the orchids complex biology/ecology, makes any reduction in fitness problematic.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Second, as the biology and ecology of <em>P. praeclara</em> are increasingly understood, concern increases about the threshold of the species. The life cycle and reproductive biology of this species are very complex. As populations continue to decline, biological traits such as erratic flowering, dormancy periods, the need for suitable symbionts, and the need for particular pollinators may reduce the likelihood of recovering the species over the long-term. Finally, as populations become smaller and more isolated, reduced genetic vigour and a decline in seedling success are likely to occur (Sharma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Environment Canada 2006).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Other threats to the orchid include damage or destruction of plants by herbicide used during control campaigns for invasive species, roadway maintenance activities, introduction of new, alien species (primarily grasses on grazing lands), and the collection of plants by hobbyists and commercial plant dealers (Environment Canada 2006, USFWS unpublished). A new, potential threat in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> is the over-application or improper application of fertilizer, specifically hog manure. Problematic application of hog manure on or near orchid habitat could cause harm to the orchid or affect changes in plant communities thereby disadvantaging the orchid (Environment Canada 2006).</p>	eng
132835	conservation	Minton, G., Collins, T., Pomilla, C., Findlay, K.P., Rosenbaum, H., Baldwin, R. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Humpback whales have been legally protected from commercial whaling in the southern hemisphere since 1963, and the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> region has always been a closed area to commercial whaling under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. However, humpback whales were taken from the region illegally by Soviet pelagic operations in 1965 and 1966. The hunting of any cetacean species is prohibited by law in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>. At the species level, the humpback whale is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.&#160; The <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian  Sea</st1:place> is also part of the International Whaling Commission’s Indian Ocean Sanctuary.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The potential for successful conservation of humpback whales in the region is considered to be high, provided that range state governments are made aware of this population’s precarious status. The countries of the Arabian region are generally affluent and in a good position to implement marine conservation measures for humpback whales in addition to those already initiated for other taxa, such as sea turtles. A coordinated series of marine protected areas, combined with species-specific protection measures, could greatly enhance the long-term prospects for humpback whales in the region. </span></p>	eng
132835	distribution	Minton, G., Collins, T., Pomilla, C., Findlay, K.P., Rosenbaum, H., Baldwin, R. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species found in all of the major oceans (Clapham and Mead 1999). All known subpopulations, with the exception of the subpopulation in the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place>, migrate between breeding grounds in tropical waters and feeding grounds in productive temperate or polar waters. </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Nineteenth century whalers and observers on 20<sup>th</sup> century merchant vessels documented the presence of humpback whales in the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (e.g., Brown 1957, Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Wray and Martin 1980, Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1991). Data from illegal Soviet whaling operations (Yukhov 1969, Mikhalev 1997, Mikhalev 2000) include records of sightings&#160; or whales captured off the coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Yemen</st1:country-region>, Southern Oman, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Iran</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>.&#160; </span>These locations are well within the northern hemisphere, but there are no feasible migration routes to any of the <st1:place w:st="on">North Atlantic</st1:place> or North Pacific feeding grounds used by other humpback whales in the northern hemisphere. Given other genetic and demographic information (see below), it is assumed that the humpback whales of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> are an isolated remnant population with a historical connection to the southern hemisphere.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Research efforts during the past thirty years have confirmed the continued presence of humpback whales off the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Gulf</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Oman</st1:placename> and Arabian Sea coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but only limited incidental observations of the species have been recorded for the rest of the reported range. Two humpback strandings are known from the <st1:place w:st="on">Persian Gulf</st1:place> (Gervais 1883, Al-Robaae 1974). Two strandings and one sighting of a mother-calf pair have been recorded for the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region> (G. Braulik pers. comm.). A small number of strandings have been documented from the west coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mathew 1948, Mörzer Bruyns cited in Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Ahmed 1988, Lal Mohan 1992, Sathasivam 2000). All records of strandings and sightings from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:place></st1:country-region> are from the western and north-western side of the island (Winn <em>et al.</em> 1980; Whitehead 1985; Ilangakoon 2002, 2006).&#160; Three confirmed sightings of mother-calf pairs in the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Maldives</st1:country-region> may represent vagrants from a southern hemisphere population or the southernmost extent of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> population (Anderson 2005 and pers comm.). A single sighting off the west coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Saudi Arabia</st1:country-region> indicates that individuals from this population may stray into the <st1:place w:st="on">Red Sea</st1:place> (Baldwin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).	eng
132835	habitat	Minton, G., Collins, T., Pomilla, C., Findlay, K.P., Rosenbaum, H., Baldwin, R. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p>  The southwest monsoon system in the <st1:place u1:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> drives one of the five largest upwelling systems in the world (Burkill 1999). During the peak monsoon months of July and August sea-surface temperatures drop to 16-17˚C (Sheppard <em>et al. </em>1992, Wilson 2000).&#160; High nutrient levels in the upwelling systems result in phytoplankton blooms and high productivity, with highest levels recorded on the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Savidge <em>et al</em>. 1990). This productivity is believed to supply the food that permits whales to reside year-round in the tropical <st1:place u1:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 1991, Papastavrou and Van Waerebeek 1997).<u2:p></u2:p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  Sightings of humpback whales off <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> include observations of defecation and feeding (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press). Over 50% of 190 whales examined in the November 1966 Soviet catch had full or half-full stomachs. Euphausiids, of unknown species, were the primary prey item in the northeastern part of the Arabian Sea, while small fish from the <em>Scomber </em>and <em>Sardinella</em> families were more prominent off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mikhalev 2000).	eng
132835	population	Minton, G., Collins, T., Pomilla, C., Findlay, K.P., Rosenbaum, H., Baldwin, R. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Soviet whaling data, observations from merchant vessels and recent research (primarily along the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region>) collectively include records from every month of the year and indicate that there is a resident population in the western <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> (Brown 1957, Slijper <em>et al.</em> 1964, Mikhalev 1997, Minton <em>et al.</em> in press). Re-sightings of photographically identified individuals off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> in early autumn and late spring provide further evidence of year-round residency (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Examination of stomach contents and fetuses from the 238 humpback whales taken during Soviet whaling operations in the Arabian Sea in 1965-66 indicated that both breeding and feeding were taking place off the coasts of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, consistent with a northern hemisphere cycle (Mikhalev 1997, Mikhalev 2000). A formal comparison of photo-identification catalogues from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Madagascar</st1:country-region>, the <st1:placename w:st="on">Comoros</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype> and <st1:city w:st="on">Zanzibar</st1:city> yielded no photographic matches between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and any other region of the <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place>. Fluke pigmentation pattern frequencies differed significantly between the Oman animals and those from other areas (Minton 2004, Minton <em>et al.</em> in press) and initial analysis of song indicates significant differences between Oman and other regions (C. Clark pers comm.).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Genetic analysis of tissues sampled from live and beach-cast humpback whales off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> also provides evidence for a discrete <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> subpopulation. Although this subpopulation clearly originated from the larger Southern Hemisphere population, analyses of maternally inherited mitochondrial (mt) DNA and nuclear microsatellites confirm genetic differentiation from Southern Hemisphere populations including Madagascar, the Comoros Islands and Mozambique, and lack of current exchange with these neighbouring areas (Pomilla <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 2006). These conclusions were reached with the congruent support of several analytical approaches including: searches for shared or private haplotypes, measures of population differentiation (<em>F</em>-statistics), Bayesian individual clustering and <span lang="EN-US">maximum likelihood estimates of migration rates. These results are even more striking in light of the fact that similar levels of distinctiveness have not been shown elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere (Pomilla <em>et al.</em> 2006, Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 2006, Olavarria <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Of 85 sexually mature females examined in the Soviet catch, 39 (45.9%) were pregnant, and the size range (140-375c m, mean 232 cm) of 36 examined fetuses indicated calving commencing in December, with a peak in February. Mikhalev (2000) suggested a 3-4 month mating season lasting from January to May, coincident with that of other Northern Hemisphere populations. Females with calves have been observed on the Arabian Sea coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> between the months of November and February, with recent observations of likely neonates limited to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Halaniyat</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Islands</st1:placetype></st1:place> in February 2000 (Minton <em>et al.</em> in press).&#160; </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Mark-recapture studies using three different pairings of tail fluke photographs collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> in two main research areas over a period of four and a half years yielded a population estimate of 82 individuals (95% CI 60-111). However, sample sizes are small, and there are various sources of possible negative bias, including insufficient spatial and temporal coverage of the population’s suspected range (Minton <em>et. al.</em> in press).</span>	eng
132835	threats	Minton, G., Collins, T., Pomilla, C., Findlay, K.P., Rosenbaum, H., Baldwin, R. & Brownell Jr., R.L., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Humpback whales are well-known to be susceptible to entanglement in fishing gear (Volgenau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). A total of nine humpback whale entanglements in fishing gear have been recorded off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160; Eight of these animals were freed, another was observed swimming but trailing gear (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press).&#160; Analysis of scarring on the caudal peduncle region of photographically identified humpback whales in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Oman</st1:place></st1:country-region> indicates that between 30-40% are likely to have been involved in entanglements with fishing gear (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>in press). Fishing effort off the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Oman</st1:country-region> and in other parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> is increasing (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 2002, Ministry of National Economy 2003, FAO 2007) and drifting and set gillnets as well as traps are already widely used (Stengel and Al Harthy 2002).<p><span lang="EN-US">The <st1:place w:st="on">Arabian Sea</st1:place> humpback whale population is small, and any human-induced mortality, especially of females, must be a concern.	eng
132859	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132859	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132859	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found only in subtidal turbid water, attached to wave washed rock. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, the back slope, in lagoons, and on inter-reef rubble substrate. It may be found on the foreslope. This species is found to 10 m. <br/><br/><em>Oulastrea</em> is usually found in muddy areas on the shallow back reef and seldom occurs among dense coral on the fore reef (Wood 1983). It may be more abundant in degraded habitats where other coral species have disappeared, e.g., Jakarta Bay.	eng
132859	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is generally an uncommon species, but locally common in degraded environments. It is one of the very few corals remaining in the Jakarta Bay.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132859	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Apart from the large global threats, the only threat is the physical removal of the habitat.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132860	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132860	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Seychelles, Indonesia, the oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific including Easter Island.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, <em>Psammocora stellata</em> is recorded from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.<br/><br/>In the ETP specific records include: <br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands), Michoacán and Guerrero (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murciélago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, La Penca, Brasilito Bay, Cabo Blanco, Curú Bay, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Marino Ballena National Park, Osa Peninsula, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés 1990, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005), Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Island, Uva Island, Unnamed Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island, Taboga Island and Saboga Island in the Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: La Libertad and Sucre Island at mainland Ecuador, and Devils Crown, Floreana; Wolf Island; Darwin Bay, Genovesa Island; Gardner Bay, Española; Marchena (Hickman 2005, Wells 1983, Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
132860	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	<em>Psammocora stellata</em> occurs on shallow wave washed rock, or at depths of 15-20 m depth on coarse sand bottoms (Hickman 2005).<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993; Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).	eng
132860	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare to uncommon in the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora stellata</em> has been categorized as common in many parts of its range including Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama. It is considered rare in Clipperton Atoll and mainland Ecuador, and <em>P. stellata</em> was common in the Galápagos (Wells 1983) before the 1982-83 El Niño event (Hickman 2005), and although it is still locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132860	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5. <br/><br/>The sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998,Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent.<br/><br/>In Galápagos, following the 1982-83 El Niño event <em>P. stellata</em> experienced extreme population reductions at Española Island (Glynn 1997); in Costa Rica, after the 1991-92 ENSO event ~40% of all colonies were dead in Manuel Antonio (Jiménez and Cortés 2001), and after the 1997-98 El Niño event <em>P. stellata</em> disappeared from one locality (Punta Cambial) in Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003). Despite the fact that <em>Psammocora stellata</em> is affected by ENSO events, this species is more resistant to bleaching than shallow water corals such as <em>Pocillopora</em> (Feingold 1995). Additionally, <em>Psammocora stellata</em> has also shown resistance to anomalous conditions during ENSO events (Feingold 1995, Feingold 1996, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001). At Devils Crown, Floreana (Galápagos), <em>Psammocora stellata</em> bleached during the 1982-83 El Niño event but did not die (Robinson 1985). <br/><br/>Algae overgrowth has also been reported to cause mortality on <em>Psammocora</em> (Glynn 1997, Jiménez and Cortés 2001, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006). At Uva Island, Panama, large aggregations of <em>P. stellata</em> at 8-10 m depth that survived the 1982-83 El Niño event were overgrown by thick mats of Caulerpa species (Glynn 1997); additionally, in Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, <em>Psammocora</em> species were completely overgrown by a brown algae (Jimenez and Cortés 2001). At La Penca (Costa Rica), <em>Psammocora</em>-dominated reef that once covered 0.3 ha is now reduced to several small (1-3m2) patches of coral among a dense bed of <em>Caulerpa</em> (Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132861	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	More research is needed on the taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of this species.	eng
132861	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species was collected in the Muscat Area (Daymaniyat Islands, Cemetery Bay, Bandar Khayran) and the Arabian Sea near the Island of Masirah (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).  However, it is a recent discovery it is likely to occur in a wider range than currently known.	eng
132861	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Colonies are found attached to hard substrate: fragments of coral skeleton, large flagstone of limestone and <em>Ophiolite bedrock</em>. They have been found between 4-22 m depth in mixed communities dominated by <em>Cyphastrea</em>, <em>Leptastrea</em>, <em>Favites</em>, <em>Porites</em>, and <em>Goniopora</em> on the lower part of the reef, in areas with cold upwellings. Colonies are very sensitive to even slight changes in water pressure or movement and respond readily to the slightest disturbance by retracting the polyps (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).	eng
132861	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is relatively common in some environments, but it is a cryptic species and colonies are small (Claereboudt and Al-Amri 2004).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132861	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in areas with cold upwellings and is unlikely to experience warming to the same extent as species in other areas. However, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132862	conservation	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132862	distribution	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, the Solomons, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007) Andaman Island, and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132862	habitat	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132862	population	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132862	threats	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132863	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132863	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
132863	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef slopes and in lagoons.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132863	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132863	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 950.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132864	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132864	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. On the main coast of Africa, the lower latitudes of the range are not confirmed.	eng
132864	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on lower reef slopes and sandy reef base. The depth range is from 3-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 12 cm diameter and the generation length is approximately seven years. This is a free-living single polyp.	eng
132864	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a widespread species and is moderately common in deeper waters. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132864	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132865	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132865	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found only near Japan and in the East China Sea.	eng
132865	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is only found in shallow, partly wave washed rocky foreshores nested among algae and soft corals. The depth range is unknown for this species. It is estimated to take three years for a colony of <em>A. japonica</em> to reach sexual maturity (Harii <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
132865	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132865	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132866	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132866	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, east Papua New Guinea, Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132866	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is commonly found on fringing reef flats, and also other reef habitats. This species is found from 1 m to at least 20 m.	eng
132866	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132866	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread in tropical and subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132867	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132867	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
132867	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132867	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132867	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132868	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132868	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution. It is found in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, northern tip of Madagascar, and north Sulawesi (Indonesia)<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132868	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. <em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
132868	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common but inconspicuous so easily overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132868	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132869	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132869	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Cook Island (Wallace 1999), and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
132869	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found subtidally on reef tops, walls and slopes to 30 m (Wallace 1999).	eng
132869	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 31 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132869	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. One disease is found in this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 3297.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132870	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132870	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea.	eng
132870	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is restricted to turbid water with muddy substrates. It is also occurs in muddy areas exposed at low tide. This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. Colonies are generally small, consisting of one or several corallites, and are often unattached (Wood 1983). This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.	eng
132870	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132870	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132871	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132871	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. Also recorded from Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132871	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes and sandy substrates, especially with turbid water. This is a branching <em>Pectinia</em> species. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. elongata</em> colonies grow up to 30 cm (Fenner pers. comm). This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. elongata</em> is very conspicuous.	eng
132871	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132871	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132872	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.	eng
132872	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Tanzania, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, southeast Papua New Guinea, and eastern Australia.	eng
132872	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in protected reef environments, typically in shallow water. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons.	eng
132872	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species, but it is recently described and might be overlooked (Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132872	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.	eng
132873	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132873	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132873	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on back reef margins, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132873	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132873	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132874	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132874	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.<br/><br/>This species has a questionable record from Brazil.	eng
132874	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found at intermediate to deep fore reef and lagoon habitats, edges of channels, and at the base of the reef, in hard ground areas and in soft substrate. Occurs from 10-80 m (Reed 1985) though most common from 15-25 m.	eng
132874	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs at low abundances, generally as solitary polyps but occasionally in small groups.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132874	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching and occasionally observed with disease (white plague), but only low levels of mortality have been observed.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132875	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132875	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southern Japan and South China Sea, and northeastern Australia, north coast of New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.	eng
132875	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow exposed reef environments. The colonies are small. This species is found from 5-40 m.	eng
132875	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132875	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132876	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132876	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
132876	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found in deep water and on vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 15-25 m.	eng
132876	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132876	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132877	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132877	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific but more specifically in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, Bismarck Sea, and Gilbert Islands and northeastern Australia. Also in Solomon Island (Veron and Turak 2006).	eng
132877	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 3-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter. It reproduces asexually by budding (Hoeksema 2004). It is noteworthy to mention that this species has never been found with parasites.	eng
132877	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon but may occur in very local clusters due to budding. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132877	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132878	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132878	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, East Africa, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the Solomons, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132878	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper to lower reef slopes from 3 m to at least 25 m. Sparse colonies of <em>F. maxima</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in lagoons, and sometimes in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to 35 m.	eng
132878	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132878	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132879	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132879	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), Andaman Sea, and central Indo-Pacific.	eng
132879	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132879	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132879	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132880	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132880	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
132880	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. This species is found from 2-20 m.	eng
132880	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132880	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132881	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species to the E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures should include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132881	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132881	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, especially lagoons and protected reef slopes. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
132881	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common and may form extensive single species stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132881	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 6,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132882	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132882	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
132882	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-8 m depth.	eng
132882	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common, and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132882	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132883	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132883	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
132883	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow and deeper clear-water reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
132883	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common, and it may be a dominant species of subtropical reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132883	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 315. There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a large harvest in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132884	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132884	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
132884	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in back reef and fore reef environments from 0.5-55 m depth (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). The form <em>C. amaranthus</em> occurs in intermediate to deep waters from 10-30 m.	eng
132884	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common in most reef environments, but at low to moderate abundances. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, but localized mass mortality events have been recorded (e.g. Bruckner and Bruckner, 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132884	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats are disease (black-band disease and white plague), bleaching, and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) predation. Localized declines may be taking place due to bioerosion by endolithic sponges and predation by <em>Stegastes planifrons</em> (Three-spot Damselfish). This species is also sensitive to sedimentation. This species generally exhibits moderate rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132885	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132885	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.	eng
132885	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on the lower reef slopes and on vertical walls. The maximum size is 25 cm. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
132885	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132885	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was nine.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132886	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132886	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia.<br/><br/>Also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
132886	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow lagoons and on foreshores exposed to wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132886	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132886	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132887	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132887	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132887	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on the lower reef slopes and on vertical walls. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
132887	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132887	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132888	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132888	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
132888	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially upper reef slopes and outer reef flats. It is also found subtidally on reef edges and walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/><em>Acropora secale</em> likely spawns annually in September and October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
132888	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in the Pacific, but it is uncommon in the Indian Ocean. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 35 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132888	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). One record of disease for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,198.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132889	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132889	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northwest Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132889	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow water and is tolerant of high salinities, generally to depths of 15 m. Although this species lives generally in less than 5 m, and tolerates salinities of up to 48 ppt. (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
132889	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common and may form patch reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132889	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132890	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132890	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific and Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). So far it is known from two sites in Sabah, Malaysia (Darvel Bay: Ditlev <em>et al</em>. 1999; Semporna: Wood pers. comm.), one site in Papua New Guinea (Steene in Veron 2000), one in the Solomon Islands (Sprung pers. comm.), four sites in the Philippines, and 12 sites in Indonesia: southwest Sulawesi (Bruckner 2002b), north Sumatra, west, central, and east Java, Bali, Komodo, and Rinca, central Java, West Timor (Lilley, 2000), northern Sulawesi, and two sites in the Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), West Papua (Irian Jia) (Turak, pers. comm.).	eng
132890	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in protected, preferably turbid water. <em>C. jardinei</em> has a depth range of 24-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species can be found from 0-40 m.<br/><br/><em>Catalaphyllia</em> occurs in a variety of reef biotypes, but is especially common on soft substrates rather than in areas of dense coral growth. Mature colonies may reach 100 cm in diameter (Wood 1983, Turak pers. comm.)	eng
132890	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare, but conspicuous and easy to identify. It is rare in the western Indian Ocean. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132890	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter of this species and set an annual export quota of 26,500 wild caught pieces in 2005 and 1,000 cultivated pieces. Export of this species from Fiji is at zero in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132891	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132891	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is restricted to the Hawaiian Islands and northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005).	eng
132891	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef and lagoon environments (Fenner pers. comm.). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.	eng
132891	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare (Fenner 2005).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132891	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132892	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132892	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
132892	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected, upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
132892	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132892	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132893	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132893	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean.	eng
132893	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
132893	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132893	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132894	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132894	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. There are unconfirmed reports from East Africa (Obura pers. comm.).	eng
132894	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef slopes. This species can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.	eng
132894	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but it is more common in some places, such as Vietnam (DeVantier pers. comm).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132894	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132895	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132895	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, Eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Also in the Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
132895	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most shallow tropical reef environments except areas with strong wave action. This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
132895	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132895	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is likely used in the aquarium trade but there are no specific records for this species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132896	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132896	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132896	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is only found in environments with moderate wave action, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
132896	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132896	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132897	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132897	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southeast Asia, South China Sea. Palau and the Marianas Islands (Randall 1995).	eng
132897	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132897	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132897	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132898	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132898	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in Japan, and it has also been recorded from the Eastern Philippines (Licuanan and Capili 2003).	eng
132898	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132898	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132898	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	I<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132899	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132899	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132899	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef slopes. This species is also found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
132899	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132899	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132900	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132900	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Arabian Gulf, northern and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Am Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132900	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on all reef habitats. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
132900	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132900	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	S. radians around Orpheus Island on the GBR were largely unaffected by the massive bleaching that occurred in 1998 (Baird and Marshall 1998)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132901	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132901	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, southern Japan and South China Sea.	eng
132901	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in lower reef slopes. It can form large fields. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
132901	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132901	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132902	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132902	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132902	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and lagoons.	eng
132902	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132902	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132903	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132903	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Persian Gulf, southwestern and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
132903	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes and vertical walls. The maximum size is 30 cm. This species is found from 10-30 m.	eng
132903	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132903	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132904	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Panama: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.	eng
132904	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) Indian Ocean (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species  is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Revillagigedo Archipelago, Cabo Pulmo (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago; recorded as <em>Pavona cf. minuta</em> (Guzman <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Clipperton Atoll</strong> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
132904	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. At various sites in the Gulf of Panama and Gulf of Chiriqui. <em>Pavona minuta</em> forms large colonies on upper reef slopes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). Growth forms range from hemispherical colonies (<3 m in diameter) to upright columns; in addition, on places exposed to strong turbulence, colonies are individually sculptured into a range of very different shapes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). The growth rates of P. minuta vary between 9.5 mm/yr and 13.8 mm/yr, at depths of 6-8 m and 16-17 m respectively (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). The maximum size is at least 1 m. This species may be found from 6-25 m. <br/><br/>Occasionally, the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> bites pieces of <em>P. minuta</em> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Pavona</em> is a fairly common coral that is found in most reef habitats. Some of the massive colonies are large, and the foliaceous ones may form extensive tracts (Wood 1983).	eng
132904	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona minuta</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000); <br/><br/>Common: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and is present at 36 sites across the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman et al., in prep.); <br/><br/>Rare: Mexico including the Revillagigedo Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000; Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132904	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited some high bleaching and significant mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132905	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132905	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific; north, west and south Australia; South-east Asia; eastern Australia; and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132905	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs on soft substrates in deep water or in shallow turbid water protected from wave action and currents. It occurs to at least 20 m, and likely to 30 m depth.	eng
132905	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon but conspicuous. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132905	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <br/><br/>The <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132906	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132906	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Solomons,  Japan and the East China Sea. It is found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
132906	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 1-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132906	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is sometimes common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132906	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132907	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132907	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the South China Sea. Also occurs in the Great Barrier Reef (Turak pers. comm.), American Samoa, New Caledonia, Coral Sea, and Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132907	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action, and in crevices. This species forms small colonies; rarely exceeds 10 cm (Fenner pers. comm.). It is found from approximately 5-20 m.	eng
132907	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare, but distinctive. The species is more common in Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132907	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The species is rare and does not appear in coral trade statistics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132908	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132908	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
132908	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132908	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is  uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132908	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2483.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132909	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132909	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south-west Australia. It is also found in Thailand, Indonesia, the Solomons, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.) and Sulawesi (Fenner pers. comm.). It is reported from Thailand by Wallace (1999), also in Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).	eng
132909	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found in protected lagoons or sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-20 m.	eng
132909	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132909	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132910	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132910	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>Found in Palau (Randall 1995) and South Africa (Wallace 1999).	eng
132910	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, in lagoons and on fringing reefs, and is subtidal (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora cf. divaricata</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 5-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132910	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common, and may be a dominant species. It was found at 6 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at five sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132910	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known what threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 3506.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132911	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132911	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the coral is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Revillagigedo Archipelago (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahía Culebra, Parque Nacional Marino Ballena, Isla del Caño and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn and Ault 2000), and Iguana Island, Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzman 1993). Maté (2003), questioned the presence of <em>P. maldivensis</em> in Panamá; however, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), confirmed this species at Coiba Archipelago, Panamá; <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); Unconfirmed record (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Clipperton Atoll</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
132911	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially those exposed to strong wave action. It is also found on vertical rock faces and in caverns. It is also found on deeper reef slopes and vertical walls. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region it also occurs on coral communities and on rocky substrata, often on vertical surfaces or at the entrance of crevices (Chiriboga, Guzmán, Hickman, and Edgar pers. comm.). The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
132911	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona maldivensis</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Rare: Revillagigedo Archipelago (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island); Coiba Archipelago and Iguana Island, Panama (Holst and Guzman 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004); mainland Colombia, and Galápagos Archipelago.<br/><br/>In the northern islands of Wolf and Darwin, Galapagos, the relative abundance of <em>P. maldivensis</em> seems to be moderately common (Chiriboga, Hickman, Edgar, Banks and Vera, pers. comm.). In addition, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. maldivensis</em> is uncommon in Panama and Costa Rica. <br/><br/>Although, the population trend of <em>P. maldivenis</em> in Eastern Tropical Pacific region is unknown, it seems to be stable in the Galápagos Archipelago, despite the fact that no detailed data are available (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132911	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132912	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132912	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species was collected from Sabah, North Borneo (Ditlev 2003).	eng
132912	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This specimen was collected at 2 m depth in a turbid location with moderate currents (Ditlev 2003).	eng
132912	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	There is no population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132912	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132913	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132913	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific in Thailand, west Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.), Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Andamans, and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It has a disjuct distribution.	eng
132913	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It can be found on fringing reefs (Richards pers. comm.). This species can be found from 3-15 m.	eng
132913	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132913	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132914	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132914	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
132914	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 2-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132914	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132914	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132915	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132915	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The distribution of this species is reported to include the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, and Brazil (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). However, it is not yet confirmed that <em>S. stellata</em> is the form present in the wider Caribbean (E. Weil pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species has been reported from Fortaleza to Cabo Frio, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>The taxonomic status of forms in the Caribbean requires further investigation.	eng
132915	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow reefs, lagoons and intertidal pools (Goreau and Wells 1967). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
132915	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common in Brazil and unknown in the Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132915	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	A potential future threat is sea-level rise, especially in areas where hard-bottom communities are replaced by soft substrates.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132916	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132916	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).	eng
132916	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on reefs and rocky foreshores. It may form encrusting plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
132916	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common except in the Indian Ocean where it is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132916	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132917	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132917	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>México</strong>: Puerto Escondido to Huatulco (Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Osa, Isla del Caño and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Contadora Island, Saboga Island, Mogo Mogo Island, Pacheca Island, Iguana Island, Unnamed Island (Secas Island) and Uva Island (Glynn and Mate 1997); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, La Plata Island and Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 2003).	eng
132917	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments from 2-30 m. Colonies are massive to encrusting, sometimes with laminar margins. It usually occurs on walls or under overhangs in clear water  This species can be found in most reef habitats but is not a particularly common coral (Wood 1983). Sparse colonies of <em>G. planulata</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>G. planulata</em> usually occurs on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata at depths of 3-30 m (Guzmán, Chiriboga and Edgar pers. comm.); it also occurs on walls or under overhangs in clear water. <em>G. planulata</em> colonies are among the predominant framework builders in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 2000). <em>G. planulata</em> has reported average growth rates of 10.4 and 13.2 mm per year in Costa Rica and Panama, respectively (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, and Glynn 1985). Reproduction of <em>G. planulata</em> is mainly sexual (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <em>G. planulata</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996), with an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite mode of reproduction (spawning of first one sex then the other in given colony, in a lunar phase, and over the breeding season (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, <em>G. planulata</em> has a high proportion of mixed sexual patterns, with gonochoric colonies usually predominating over hermaphrodites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). This pattern of sexuality could promote outbreeding during periods of high population abundance, but still allow sexual reproduction by selfing at times of severe population decline (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the earliest age of sexual reproduction for <em>G. planulata</em> is 20 years; which may retard the recovery of the population, especially in areas that have experienced catastrophic mortality. Gardinoseris planulata has revealed no sexual recruitment where seed populations are absent or rare (Galápagos Islands), and only low recruitment (Panamá) in areas with colonies that survived the ENSO disturbance (Glynn 1996). At Uva Island, Panamá, corals that recruit are subject to significant mortality by <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (Glynn 1996). <em>G. planulata</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em>; which may affect the population structure and distribution of <em>G. planulata</em> (Fong and Glynn 1998, Glynn 2001). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the slow rates of sexual recruitment of agariciid corals critically affect recovery of eastern Pacific coral communities that have experienced severe disturbances. However, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.) recruits of <em>G. planulata</em> in the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama are common on rocky substrates.	eng
132917	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.  This is not a particularly common coral (Wood 1983).<br/><br/><strong>Population trend</strong><br/><strong><em>Eastern Tropical Pacific</em></strong>: Increasing.<br/>In terms of relative abundance within the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>G. planulata</em> has been categorized as (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 2001): common: Caño Island, Costa Rica; uncommon: Cocos Island, Costa Rica; Panamá; Colombia (including Malpelo Island); rare: Mexico; mainland Costa Rica, and Ecuador (including the Galápagos Archipelago). <br/><br/>According to Glynn (1997), prior to the 1982-83 ENSO event approximately 100 colonies were present in Costa Rica (Caño Island) and 26 colonies in Galápagos (central southern islands). After that ENSO event, only 10 colonies survived in Costa Rica, and two colonies in the central southern islands of the Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997). In 1998, only one single colony was known in the Galapagos central southern islands (at Punta Estrada, Santa Cruz), with a combined total of approx. 550 cm² live tissue. This colony was totally bleached on 11 May 1998 (Glynn 1998), and has not been found since (Glynn 2001), although another colony in the region on Champion Island is now known (Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán and Cortés (2001), the number of colonies in Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) and Panamá are increasing (Guzmán and Cortés 2001). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), reported G. planulata as a very common species in Coiba Archipelago, found in 50 to 75% of the sites; and, according to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) G. planulata is common at the Gulf of Chiriqui (46% of the sites), as well as in Las Perlas Archipelago (35% of the sites). The species is also moderately common at Malpelo, Colombia (Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Galapagos, after a major population decline following 1982-83 ENSO event; a few isolated patches have persisted and are possibly increasing in number at Darwin and Wolf islands (Chiriboga, Hickman and Edgar pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong><em>Rest of the world</em></strong>: Usually uncommon.<br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132917	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Although, <em>G. planulata</em> colonies seem not to be as sensitive to high temperatures as other species of corals (Fong and Glynn 1998), after El Niño 1982-83, approximately 92% of the southern Galápagos population was dead (Glynn 1994, 1997),as well as approximately 90% of the known colonies at Caño Island (Glynn 1997). According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for eastern Pacific small populations reef corals (e.g Gardineroseris planulata). Gardinoseris planulata has revealed no sexual recruitment where seed populations are absent or rare (Galápagos Islands), and only low recruitment (Panamá) in areas with colonies that survived the ENSO disturbance (Glynn 1996).<br/> <br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em> can influence the population structure and distribution of <em>G. planulata</em> in coral reefs (Fong and Glynn 1998, Glynn 2001), but no outbreaks resulting in mass coral mortality are known (Glynn 2001). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was six.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132918	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132918	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the west, north and east New Guinea. Also in the Sulu Sea (one record), and in the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.).	eng
132918	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes, especially in turbid water. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). Typical colony size of <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is not known, but it is one of the smaller species (has smallest branches). <em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is quite distinctive. This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
132918	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132918	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132919	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132919	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
132919	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. Is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132919	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-western Australia, and is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132919	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132920	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132920	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the Central Indo-Pacific.	eng
132920	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, protected tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back slope, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft substrate. It can be found on the foreslope as well. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
132920	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species, can be locally common in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132920	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132921	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Further taxonomic work is needed to clarify the status and distribution of the form in the Caribbean. <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132921	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in the southern Caribbean, in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands, and on the north coast of South America from Colombia and Venezuela, and in Trinidad and Tobago. It is also known from Brazil, from Ceara to Cabo Frio, and the oceanic Ferbando de Noronha Archipelago, Trindade Island, and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
132921	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow-water (0-3 m) reef and hard-ground environments, channels, and intertidal pools, in areas with good water circulation. It may be common in <em>Acropora palmata</em> thickets in the southern Caribbean.	eng
132921	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon in shallow-water exposed environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132921	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Typical threats for shallow-water corals (e.g., pollution, bleaching, sedimentation) may result in localized declines.<br/><br/>However, the genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132922	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132922	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
132922	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow and deeper environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
132922	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132922	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 78. It is harvested in Fiji, and probably also in Indonesia (though there is no species-specific export quota in this country).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132923	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is present in at least in one protected area in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: Mexico: Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI). It is included with corals in CITES appendix II.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132923	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in Mexico: Socorro Island, Clarion Island and San Benedicto at Revillagigedo Islands (Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is possibly also present in the Galápagos Islands (Darwin and Wolf), but this requires confirmation (Hickman 2005).	eng
132923	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action at depths of 2-26 m (Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001). The maximum size is 60 cm across.	eng
132923	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.  <br/><br/>In Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico, <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is considered a rare species, covering less than 20% of the reef (Glynn and Ault 2000; Reyes-Bonilla 2003). Glynn and Ault (2000) consider <em>P. woodjonesi</em> as an endangered species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, with known populations of ten or fewer colonies.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132923	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, presumably El Niño and climate change are threats. According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals including Pocillopora woodjonesi). Glynn and Ault (2000) consider <em>P. woodjonesi</em> colonies to be in the order of ten or less known colonies. However, in the Revillagigedo Islands (i.e., the location where <em>P. woodjonesi</em> is known to be present), coral mortality did not exceed 20% of the total coral population after the 1997-98 ENSO event (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). According to Reyes-Bonilla (2003), El Niño events are not as catastrophic on reefs off the west coast of Mexico as further south in the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Other threats: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2001, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132924	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132924	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, northwest Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), American Samoa  (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
132924	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in lower reef slopes and lagoons. The maximum size is over 1 m. The corals of this species may form small fields. This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
132924	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132924	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132925	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132925	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific and the Solomon Islands.	eng
132925	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on soft substrata on reef slopes. It is a single free-living polyp with a maximum size of 8.5 cm diameter. The species reproduces asexually by fragmentation. This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
132925	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare, but when found, it is usually in high densities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132925	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132926	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is listed in CITES and included in MPAs.	eng
132926	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is known from southern Japan and Palau. This species may be more widespread although there are no current records to confirm this. A specimen has been recorded from Chagos, central Indian Ocean, although this is still to be confirmed (Sheppard pers. comm.).	eng
132926	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a deep water species, found usually below 50 m depth. This species forms clumpy thickets and is found on reef rocks in deeper areas. This species is thought to be mainly ahermatypic, and therefore most likely not affected by coral bleaching.	eng
132926	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species, but it is seldom seen by divers because it is found in waters deeper than 50 m.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132926	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is unlikely to be affected by bleaching but could be affected by climate change.	eng
132927	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132927	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and North and Western Australia, Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (D. Fenner pers. comm.), and the Coral Sea (D. Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132927	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on deep reef slopes and vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
132927	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132927	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132928	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132928	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132928	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in most reef environments, especially lower reef slopes and turbid water habitats. <em>P. lactuca</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In the Philippines, this species has been seen at 5 m (Sheppard pers. comm.). <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. lactuca</em> colonies grow to around a metre. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. lactuca</em> is conspicuous.	eng
132928	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132928	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO. <em>P. lactuca</em> exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,350 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,889.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132929	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132929	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific. Madagascar, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
132929	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very common on reef flats. This species prefers high energy environments. This species can be found to 35 m.	eng
132929	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132929	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132930	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132930	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132930	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
132930	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon. It is possibly more common than presently known.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132930	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs in tropical and subtropical habitats, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132931	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132931	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea, and Japan (Richards pers. comm.). Found in Fiji and Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.). Also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner CI RAP publication).	eng
132931	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of environments from lower reef slopes to lagoons. It occurs well below the low water mark (Wallace 1999) on submerged reef flats and slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-20 m.<br/><br/>Recruits of this species may experience higher mortality in regions that experience deposition of sediments enriched with marine snow. Both sediment composition and short term deposition affect the survival of juveniles (Fabricius <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
132931	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in Western Australia, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132931	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132932	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132932	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Northeast Somalia, Mozambique, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Southeast Asia, and Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands.	eng
132932	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
132932	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132932	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>Acanthaster planci, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132933	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132933	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread and occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995) and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).	eng
132933	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in deep water or protected reef backs and lagoons. It is very common in sandy environments including subtidal protected sandy slopes and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-50 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132933	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132933	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species probably occurs in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This is a delicate species and particularly vulnerable to physical damage. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132934	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132934	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Japan (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
132934	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, rocky foreshores exposed to wave action. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
132934	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132934	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132935	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132935	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. This species is found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.); Palau, Solomons, Pohnpei (Wallace pers. comm.); Philippines, Banggai, and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132935	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on sheltered reef slopes, deep slopes and walls below 12 m (Wallace 1999). This species can be found from 10-30 m.	eng
132935	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon, but very conspicuous species. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132935	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This is a plating morphology species that is particularly vulnerable to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>A delicate, lightly calcified species very prone to physical disturbance.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132936	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132936	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
132936	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found in all reef environments, often a dominant species of back reef margins. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can sometimes be found in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 50 m.	eng
132936	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is one of the most common faviids.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132936	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005; the 2006 export quota is 5,000 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,176. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132937	conservation	Fenner, D, Richards, Z. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132937	distribution	Fenner, D, Richards, Z. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), Papua New Guinea, west coast of Australia (Wallace 1999).	eng
132937	habitat	Fenner, D, Richards, Z. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is most common on backreef or reef flat but is found intertidally in many environments in clear water reefs (Fenner pers. comm.). It is typically found in waters less than 5 m deep (Fenner and Richards pers. comm.) but may be found up to 10 m deep (Wallace and Muir pers. comm.).	eng
132937	population	Fenner, D, Richards, Z. & Turak, E., 2008	Common where it is found (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132937	threats	Fenner, D, Richards, Z. & Turak, E., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132938	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132938	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west and north Australia, southeast Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>There are unresolved taxonomic issues around <em>P. evermanni</em>; the central Indo-Pacific part of the range may not be for this species, and it may in fact be restricted to Hawaii.	eng
132938	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Veron (2000) records that this species is found in shallow, protected reef environments especially lagoons , generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
132938	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Veron (2000) notes that this species is usually uncommon, but due to taxonomic issues it is not clear as to which species this information relates to.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132938	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132939	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132939	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in Sri Lanka, west and northeast Australia, southern Japan, south Sumatra, northwest and northeast Java, Lombok, north and southwest Sulawesi, Moluccas, and West Papua (Indonesia) (Hoeksema and Best 1991).	eng
132939	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> and <em>Cyclosers</em> species. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5 cm in diameter. This species is found from 15-100 m.	eng
132939	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species may be locally super abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132939	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132940	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132940	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread and occurs in the Red Sea, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It was reported from Chagos by Wallace (1999).	eng
132940	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It also is found in turbid or clear water on upper or lower reef slopes. It is found from 5-20 m depth (Lovell pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acropora acuminata</em> likely spawns annually in September in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132940	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, but uncommon. This species is sparsely distributed on Pacific reefs, but may be very common on reefs of the Indonesian archipelago (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132940	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	An open branching table growth forms and therefore susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish. Presumed susceptible to bleaching in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptible to wave damage (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132941	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132941	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southern Sulawesi (Hoeksema pers. comm.)	eng
132941	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in deep reef slopes on sandy and coarse sand substrata. This is an attached free-living polyp. This species has been observed between 20-25 m.	eng
132941	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is only known from two records from Sulawesi (Hoeksema pers. comm.). It has a very restricted range and it has been recorded as absent from adjacent sites.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132941	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132942	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Research on the resistance of M. capitata to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132942	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132942	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef flats and slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
132942	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is abundant in Hawaii (Fenner pers. comm.). It is the most common of the three Hawaiian endemic <em>Montipora</em> species.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132942	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The small range of this species renders it at increased risk of extinction to any future threats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132943	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132943	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in Madagascar.	eng
132943	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found in shallow reef environments exposed to some wave action and in sheltered lagoons. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
132943	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132943	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132944	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132944	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Thos species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, southwest Madagascar, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Pitcairn.	eng
132944	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper reef environments, typically in clear water on fore reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
132944	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132944	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132945	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132945	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Although reports have indicated that this species is distributed throughout the wider Caribbean, the species is restricted to the Caribbean coastal waters off Costa Rica and Panama. It may also be present off Colombia.	eng
132945	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs from 2-25 m in fore-reef and back-reef environments, channels, and lagoons. It favours cryptic environments, including crevices, under ledges, and shaded habitats.	eng
132945	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon, and generally occurs at very low abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132945	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Shallow-water populations are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, and high sedimentation, which is probably leading to localized declines particularly in coastal areas undergoing land clearing and development. Algal overgrowth is likely to interfere with recruitment and growth.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132946	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132946	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
132946	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially on horizontal substrates. This species is found from 0.5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132946	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is sometimes common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132946	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132947	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132947	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and eastern Australia. Also in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa, Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.) and recorded in Tanzania (Obura pers. comm.)..	eng
132947	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, but especially turbid water on protected, steeply sloping substrates. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/><em>Echinophyllia</em> is found in most fore reef areas (Wood 1983). Typically, colonies can reach up to 20-40 cm (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132947	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon in Australia, it is common in the northern hemisphere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132947	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132948	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132948	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, south-west Indian Ocean, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
132948	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, especially reef slopes protected from wave action. It occurs subtidally on walls and steep slopes, usually below 15 m, but occasionally shallower where shaded conditions exist (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-40 m.	eng
132948	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 26 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132948	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown of thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,009.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132949	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132949	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, Japan, and eastern Australia.	eng
132949	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Protected turbid reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132949	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132949	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132950	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132950	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, and the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
132950	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 0.5-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132950	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in Indonesia, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132950	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132951	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132951	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
132951	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-10 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132951	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132951	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132952	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132952	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west, and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea. Records from the central Indo-Pacific are doubtful.	eng
132952	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 1-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132952	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132952	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132953	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132953	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132953	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on all reef slopes including steep slopes. This species can be found from 2-45 m.	eng
132953	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132953	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132954	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132954	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific, and Hawaii, based on a museum specimen (Hoeksema 1989).	eng
132954	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in soft substrata either on seagrass beds or the reef base, and also on reef slopes. <em>C. cyclolites</em> is commonly found from 18-20 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). <em>C. cyclolites</em> has a depth range of 13-36 m on the Great Barrier Reef and has been found at 17 m off New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). The depth range is from 1-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). Often only a single specimen is encountered, but occasionally may also occur in clusters. The maximum size is at least 10 cm. It is a single free-living polyp. It may reproduce asexually by fragmentation.	eng
132954	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a widespread and uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132954	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132955	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132955	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132955	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, although exact depths are unknown.	eng
132955	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132955	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132956	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132956	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132956	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in turbid water, especially on horizontal substrates. Also found in clear water (Fenner pers. comm.). <em>P. alcocornis</em> colonies are commonly around 20 cm or less in diameter (Fenner pers. comm.). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995); <em>P. alcocornis</em> is conspicuous. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983).	eng
132956	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132956	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132957	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132957	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132957	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reefs and rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 2-25 m. <br/><br/><em>Turbinaria</em> is the only reef-building (hermatypic) coral in the family Dendrophylliidae and sometimes contributes significantly toward coral cover. It is especially common on reef slopes, and colonies may be large and come in a variety of forms (Wood 1983).	eng
132957	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132957	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited locally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132958	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. <br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>El Salvador: Complejo Los Cobanos (Areas Naturales Prioritarias del SANP). <br/>Costa Rica: Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/>Panama: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)); Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Isla San Telmo and Isla San Jose private reserves (Las Perlas archipelago) <br/>Colombia: Utria Natural National Park (IUCN category II); Ensenada de Utria Natural National Park (IUCN category II); Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), and Gorgona Island Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/>Ecuador: Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.	eng
132958	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species has a patchy distribution in the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach, Los Cobanos (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahia Culebra, Samara, Manuel Antonio, Caño Island (Cortes and Guzmán 1998), and Cocos Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), Gulf of Chiriquí and Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>., in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Ensenada de Utría; Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island (Zapata and Vargas-Angel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003).	eng
132958	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in shallow rocky foreshores and is found on coral reefs, and in lagoons, platforms and coral communities on rock at sites with high energy; from shallow depths to around 20 m (Cortes and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán pers. comm.). The maximum size is 50 cm.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. capitata</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
132958	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon except in the far eastern Pacific. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora capitata</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California, and from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Costa Rica (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000); found at 45 sites in the Gulf of Chiriqui and 17 sites in Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán et al. in prep.). Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003) and Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>Guzmán and Chiriboga (pers. comm.) consider that <em>P. capitata</em> is common in some localities of Panama (Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama) and the Galápagos Islands. Moreover, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. capitata</em> populations seem to be recovering at Panamá. <br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recovery or recruitment in these areas since (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132958	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>. (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galápagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132959	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132959	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is currently known only from Sri Lanka.	eng
132959	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially lagoons. It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.	eng
132959	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132959	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132960	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132960	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132960	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments. This species is mostly found on upper front reef slopes.	eng
132960	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon but occasionally locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132960	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species may be part of the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132961	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. Recorded from Pulley Ridge Habitat Area of Particular Concern. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132961	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Only known to occur in the Gulf of Mexico off the south-west coast of Florida (Dawson 2002, Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
132961	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found on hard substrates at 60-75 m (Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species may be found as shallow as 25 m.	eng
132961	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown. Identified in surveys conducted on Pulley Ridge as one of the less common corals in a multi-species assemblage (Culter <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132961	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132962	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132962	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, Madagascar, Comoros Islands and Lakshadweep.	eng
132962	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments. This species is found to 45 m.	eng
132962	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132962	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132963	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132963	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
132963	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in back reef or fore reef environments, but only in soft bottom habitats or cobble, rubble, mixed-sand communities; common in subtidal seagrass beds. Occurs from 1-65 m depth, and most abundant from 1-10 m. This species is tolerant of temperature and salinity changes, and is found in areas of high sedimentation. Commonly co-occurs with the free-living form of <em>Porites divaricata</em>, <em>Cladocora arbuscula</em>, and <em>Oculina</em> species.	eng
132963	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species can be locally abundant in seagrass beds.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132963	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Localized threats include disease (black-band disease), dredging, burial by sedimentation, removal and burial during hurricanes, and habitat loss due to loss of seagrass beds. In the past, this species was collected for the aquarium trade, but this now seems to be very limited. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132964	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132964	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found only in southeast Asia with a patchy distribution.	eng
132964	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in lower reef slopes as a free-living with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 15-35 m (Hoeksema and Dai 1991). Maximum length is 30 cm in diameter.	eng
132964	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132964	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132965	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132965	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Flores Sea, Indonesia and southern Japan. The current distribution is unclear as it is not a well known species.	eng
132965	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef backs.	eng
132965	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is extremely rare. This species is only known from two locations: Flores Sea, Indonesia and southern Japan (Hoeksema pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132965	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132966	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132966	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
132966	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132966	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132966	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132967	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132967	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132967	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and generally prefers lower reef slopes. This species may form large carpets. This species is found from 6-30 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
132967	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species but may occasionally be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132967	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Although this species is certainly collected in Indonesia, there is no species specific information. Fiji had an export quota of 400 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132968	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132968	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, and West Pacific. It has a patchy distribution.	eng
132968	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and lagoons as a free-living with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 5-25 m (Hoeksema 1990, Hoeksema 1993a). Maximum size is 1 m in diameter. It reproduce asexually by fragmentation.	eng
132968	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132968	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132969	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132969	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (questionable Veron 2000), the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Mauritius (Wallace 1999).	eng
132969	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, especially those exposed to strong wave action, also just subtidal shallow reef edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
132969	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132969	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132970	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations and rates of recovery in deep-water habitats.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132970	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
132970	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in fore reef, slope, deep channels and deep lagoon environments. Recorded from 10-76 m (Reed 1985), but most common from 15-25 m (E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.), and especially at shallower depths (10-15m) in highly turbid waters. <br/><br/>This species forms large overlapping shingles.	eng
132970	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Common in intermediate to deep water. This is the dominant species at the base of the reef in the southern and western Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132970	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major long-term threat to this species has been bleaching with reported mortality during the 1987/1988, 1990, 1995, 1998 and 2005 bleaching events in various places throughout the wider Caribbean, including Puerto Rico, Netherlands Antilles, Florida, and Jamaica (Sebens 1994, A. Bruckner, B. Precht and E. Weil pers. comm.). They are particularly susceptible to bleaching because they have very thin tissues and a limited ability to cope with the affects of temperature. Since 2001, there has been a dramatic increase in the occurrence of white plague and increasing rates of mortality. Localized declines result from other disease (black band) and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132971	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132971	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
132971	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores in shallow turbid water. This species is found from 1-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132971	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132971	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132972	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132972	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. Also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Society Islands (Wallace 1999).	eng
132972	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. It occurs just subtidally on reef edges and upper slopes as well as in sheltered lagoons (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-35 m.	eng
132972	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species but can be found to be locally common for example Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132972	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132973	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132973	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia. Also found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).	eng
132973	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may cover extensive areas on horizontal muddy substrates with clear water. This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
132973	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132973	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	A very fragile species. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132974	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132974	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific to the east Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands.	eng
132974	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on lower protected reef slopes. This species is found in very turbid water usually in single colonies not more than 50 cm diameter. This species is found from 8-15 m.	eng
132974	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132974	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is likely to be targeted for the aquarium trade. There is no species specific data.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132975	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132975	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Mariana Islands and American Samoa, including Australia and Japan.<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, West Thailand, Northwest Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give western Indian Ocean to Samoa and Great Barrier Reef to Japan.	eng
132975	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
132975	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered relatively common throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132975	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching. However, it is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132976	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132976	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
132976	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs on upper reef slopes, but occurs in a wide range of environments. It occurs subtidally on reef flats, submerged reefs, and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
132976	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific. It was found at 6 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132976	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. Known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,971.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132977	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132977	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132977	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in wide range of reef environments from reef flats to mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
132977	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in the Red Sea, and rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132977	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132978	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132978	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132978	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected reef slopes. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
132978	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132978	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10. It is harvested in Fiji and Indonesia, but there are no species-specific export quotas.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132979	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132979	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the  Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132979	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
132979	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132979	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132980	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132980	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
132980	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in most reef environments except where the water is turbid. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It is possibly found on inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Leptoria species are usually found along the reef front an upper reef slope and may form colonies several meters in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
132980	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common, especially on upper reef slopes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132980	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 582.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132981	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132981	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean and the Philippines (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
132981	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and on submerged patch reefs (Wallace 1999). In the northern Red Sea, this species grows rapidly and lives for 13 to 24 years. The annual mortality rates estimated for this species in the northern Red Sea were 4.9 to 9.8% per year (Guzner <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
132981	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. This species currently exhibits low recruitment, which indicates a potentially declining population in the northern Red Sea (Guzner <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132981	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132982	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132982	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is known from a single specimen found in northwest Australia.	eng
132982	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The single specimen was found in a turbid water environment.	eng
132982	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is only known from the holotype.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132982	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132983	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132983	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, western to southern India, western Sri Lanka, Thailand, Southeast Asia, western to northeast Australia (except in Gulf of Carpentaria), northern tip islands of Papua New Guinea, Palau, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), the Solomons, Micronesia, Kiribati, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, French Polynesia, and southern Oahu (Hawaii).	eng
132983	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
132983	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132983	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132984	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132984	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, Pohnpei Micronesia (Wallace pers. comm.) and Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
132984	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments protected from strong wave action. This species occurs subtidally on protected deep slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
132984	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon except on some sheltered reef slopes. It was found two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132984	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	A fine branching species prone to physical disturbance. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987) although this species is too delicate to be targeted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132985	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132985	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Lovell pers. comm., Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132985	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. It forms crusts up to 50 cm. Sparse colonies of <em>T. radicalis</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 2-25 m.	eng
132985	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare except in some subtropical localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132985	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132986	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132986	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
132986	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and on reef flats as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 23.5 cm in diameter.	eng
132986	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132986	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 75% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991). In a later study (2005) in the same area, this appears to have no mortality effect on population density (Hoeksema pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132987	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132987	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Cook Islands. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132987	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, protected reef environments, but also occurs in deeper waters. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
132987	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132987	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132988	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132988	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
132988	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in a wide range of reef environments. It is found subtidally on protected slopes, sandy slopes, and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
132988	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common and may be a dominant species on unconsolidated substrates. It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132988	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132989	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132989	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
132989	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Found in deeper water, generally below 6 m (Claereboudt 2006). Colonies are massive to sub-massive, and flattened in deeper environments (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
132989	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132989	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132990	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132990	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Southeast Asia, and Solomon Islands (Richards pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
132990	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in wave washed lagoon margins, subtidally on submerged reef tops, ledges in walls, and rocky slopes; it is often found in indentations or crevices in the reef surface (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
132990	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rare, being apparently absent on most reefs (Wallace 1999). When it does occur, groups of colonies can be found, suggesting that some localized form of recruitment is involved (Wallace 1999).  Locally common on the Great Barrier Reef (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132990	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species may be in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132991	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132991	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in Socotra, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific.	eng
132991	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments from 10 to 30 m depth.	eng
132991	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species, but may be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132991	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
132992	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132992	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995) and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
132992	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and reefs flats, intertidally and subtidally on reef tops, upper reef slopes to 5 m, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 5-11 m on the north Great Barrier Reef (Sheppard 1982).	eng
132992	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually common, and sometimes a dominant species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 36 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132992	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Very susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two diseases known (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20,902. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132993	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132993	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, southern Japan and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132993	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 12-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is over 1 m in diameter. The corals may reproduce asexually by fragmentation.	eng
132993	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132993	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132994	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132994	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found  in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos, Archipelago, Andaman Sea, southeast Vietnam, Sulu Sea, south Celebes Sea, eastern Java (Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Pohnpei, and Fiji.	eng
132994	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
132994	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132994	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132995	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132995	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, and South China Sea.	eng
132995	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
132995	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132995	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132996	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
132996	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean and also in southern Japan (Hoeksema pers. comm.).	eng
132996	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 5-25 m (Hoeksema 1993 b). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter.	eng
132996	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132996	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132997	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132997	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
132997	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
132997	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132997	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,000. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,600 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 4,000 pieces in 2006.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132998	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
132998	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
132998	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. It is found to approximately 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
132998	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is usually a very common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 36 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132998	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
132999	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
132999	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is restricted to western Atlantic, off the coast of Brazil.	eng
132999	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
132999	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
132999	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133000	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133000	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and  north, west and south Australia, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia). It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133000	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on outer reef slopes. This species is found from 2-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133000	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133000	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133001	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133001	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in Sri Lanka, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133001	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow turbid reef environments. The species also occurs in a wide range of depths and water quality (Turak pers. comm.), but is generally found to 20 m depth.	eng
133001	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133001	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133002	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133002	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, northwest Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133002	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may form fields of at least 50 cm in diameter. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133002	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133002	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133003	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133003	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in the Rodrigues Islands, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, southeast Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, Phoenix Island, Line Islands, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133003	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in sheltered reef environments. Sparse colonies of <em>L. bewickensis</em> are found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133003	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon and sometimes locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133003	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133004	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133004	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific. There is no real records known except for one (Umbgrove 1939).	eng
133004	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments.	eng
133004	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species was previously known from a single beach eroded specimen. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133004	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133005	conservation	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133005	distribution	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
133005	habitat	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments in turbid water (Turak pers. comm.). This species is found from 5-15.<br/><br/>General genus information:  there are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).	eng
133005	population	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133005	threats	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133006	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II and Threatened on the US Endangered Species Act. In the US, it is present in several MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. In response to ship grounding and hurricanes, there have been efforts to salvage damaged corals and reattach them in acroporid habitats.<br/><br/>More information is needed to assist the recovery of acroporids including survival and fecundity by age, sexual and asexual recruitment, population information, juvenile population dynamics, importance of habitat variables to recruitment and survivorship, and location of populations showing signs of recovery (Bruckner, 2002). Further research is needed into disease etiology, and effectiveness of current restoration methods.	eng
133006	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. While <em>A. cervicornis</em> has been documented further north along the Florida east coast, the northern extension of <em>A. palmata</em> is at Fowey Rocks offshore the Miami area (25°37’ N) (Porter <em>et al</em>. 1987).	eng
133006	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef ecosystems, favouring outer reef slopes exposed to wave action. It has been recorded to depths of 22 m at Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico (Zimmer <em>et al</em>. 2005), but this is a recent range extension potentially due to the results of climate change (Precht and Aronson 2004). The normal depth range is 0.5-5 m (Goreau and Wells 1967), but it can be found up to 40 m.<br/><br/>This species has limited sexual recruitment.	eng
133006	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There has been an 80-98% loss of individuals in parts of the Caribbean since the 1980s. There have been some signs of recovery. A second report has validated declines on the order of 97% in the Florida Keys, Jamaica, Dry Tortugas, Belize and St Croix (<em>Acropora</em> BRT 2005) and Puerto Rico (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There are signs of recovery in populations in some localities. For example, populations in St Croix showed increases from 2001-2003, although larger colonies are not surviving, as large colonies are more affected by stressors (Grober-Dunsmore <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Similarly, there are signs of recovery in Puerto Rico and other parts of the southern Caribbean (E. Weil pers. comm.). However, some of these same populations have undergone subsequent declines.<br/><br/>Overall, decline of destroyed and critical reefs in the Caribbean region has been 38% (according to Wilkinson 2004) however there have been much higher population reductions for this species as it is particularly susceptible to disease and bleaching.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133006	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species has been disease, specifically white-band disease which is believed to be the primary cause for the region wide acroporid decline during the 1980s (Aronson and Precht,  2001a,b) and is still ongoing (Williams and Miller, 2005). Other major threats include thermal-induced bleaching, storms, and other diseases (Rodriguez-Martinez <em>et al</em>. 2001,Precht <em>et al</em>. 2002,Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002,<em>Acropora</em> BRT 2005). <br/><br/>Localized declines are associated with: loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation; predation by snails; mortality by endolithic sponges; ship groundings, anchor damage, trampling, and marine debris. The long-term threat of reduced skeletal integrity due to ocean acidification is of particular concern due to the species' presence in wave-swept environments.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133007	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133007	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.	eng
133007	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133007	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133007	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. It is a fragile species that is probably not significantly used in trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133008	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133008	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, the Philippines, the West Pacific, and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133008	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on lower reef slopes and reef bases as a free-living single polyp. It is only found on sand. The depth range is from 18-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 15 cm in diameter.	eng
133008	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133008	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133009	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133009	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It might occur more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133009	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found from 2-10 m.	eng
133009	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133009	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133010	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133010	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea, south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133010	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found around the low tide mark, in shallow subtidal habitats (Wallace 1999) and on reef slopes and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133010	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is very common and may form extensive single species stands. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 18 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133010	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). One disease is known for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133011	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133011	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific. <br/><br/>It has also been recorded in Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2003), Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003), and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133011	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. Colonies are small.	eng
133011	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common on exposed reef fronts. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133011	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133012	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. In the Marine Conservation District off St Croix this species is the most abundant coral species. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133012	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133012	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This is a common species. <em>M. franksi</em> is found from 5-50 m, and is often the most abundant coral from 15-30 m in fore-reef environments (Weil and Knowlton 1994, Szmant <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
133012	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. annularis</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. Declines in <em>M. franksi</em> appear to have taken place mainly in the past 10 years. Although this coral appears to be more resistant to disease than the other species in the complex, since 2002 in US waters, there has been an accelerating decline in cover (A. Bruckner and E. Weil pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133012	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (e.g., plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133013	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133013	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. This species is also found in the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).	eng
133013	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide variety of environments, especially upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species occurs only subtidally, usually in protected waters and is most commonly encountered in enclosed lagoons or sheltered slopes with sandy substrata (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133013	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at nine sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133013	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Two different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133014	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133014	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea.	eng
133014	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, and general depths are unknown for this species.	eng
133014	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133014	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133015	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133015	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific. <br/><br/>Records from the eastern central Pacific are doubtful.	eng
133015	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in crevices and beneath overhangs in semi-shaded areas. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133015	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133015	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 846. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133016	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133016	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133016	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of environments, generally to depths of 40 m.	eng
133016	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133016	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133017	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133017	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Southeast Asia, the Solomons. Also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133017	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on sheltered upper reef slopes. It occurs in shallow subtidal habitats, including outer reef flats and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-30 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133017	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133017	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 749.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133018	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133018	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133018	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats exposed to strong wave action or currents. This species is found from 1-8 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133018	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133018	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133019	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133019	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133019	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow protected reef environments, mid-reef slopes and also on vertical walls. The maximum size is 30cm. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133019	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133019	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133020	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133020	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133020	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in shallow subtidal habitats including outer reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
133020	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in the western Pacific and the Red Sea, and is uncommon elsewhere. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133020	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). One disease recorded (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 66,228.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133021	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133021	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).	eng
133021	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, also in turbid water and sandy lagoons. It is found in subtidal habitats such as slopes and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133021	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common and may be a dominant species in shallow water. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133021	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Two disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133022	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133022	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. This recently described species might be found to occur more widely. <br/><br/>Records from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden require confirmation.	eng
133022	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow and deeper environments protected from wave action, mainly on mid to deep slopes. This species is found to at least 35 m.	eng
133022	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133022	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. It is small and is unlikely to be significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133023	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133023	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Although several sources have not recorded this species in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991, DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.), Veron (2000) does record the species as being present there.	eng
133023	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is frequently a dominant species of lagoons and reef slopes, generally to depths of 30 m. On the outer reef flat of central Vietnam's reefs, <em>P. lichen</em> is one of two species that dominate in both degree of substrate coverage and size of many circled colonies reaching 3 m across (Latypov 2001).	eng
133023	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common and usually conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133023	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia annual collection quota for P. lichen is 6,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133024	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133024	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the east African coast, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Also found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133024	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of reef environments. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133024	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133024	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 634 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,484.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133025	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133025	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133025	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs. It only occurs in protected subtidal habitats such as contained lagoons and sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.	eng
133025	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. Locally common in Papau New Guinea. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 10 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133025	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133026	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133026	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133026	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in shallow reef environments, protected from strong wave action.<br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995), but <em>M. mancaoi</em> is not a particularly conspicuous species.	eng
133026	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133026	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133027	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133027	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is also known from the eastern Atlantic.	eng
133027	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, hard-bottom communities, tidal flats, seagrass beds and rubble fields, to 3 m depth. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)	eng
133027	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is very common in shallow-water reef and hard-bottom habitats. Some localized declines have been reported, but no major range-wide declines have been observed (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133027	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The species is fairly tolerant to sedimentation. However, localized declines may be taking place due to pollution (oil spills) and habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly where there are ongoing coastal development projects, due to their occurrence in shallow waters. A potential future threat is sea-level rise, especially in areas where hard-bottom communities are replaced by soft substrates (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133028	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133028	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133028	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found mostly on upper reef slopes. The maximum size is 20 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133028	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon and locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133028	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 656.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133029	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133029	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn.	eng
133029	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper to mid reef slopes. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, and in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133029	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133029	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133030	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133030	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the north-west Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, American Samoa, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133030	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments, especially where exposed to strong currents. It occurs intertidally or just subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133030	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is common in Indonesia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133030	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133031	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133031	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133031	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133031	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133031	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133032	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133032	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and East China Sea, north eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea and southwest Pacific.	eng
133032	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most shallow reef environments, especially clear waters. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133032	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133032	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133033	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133033	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133033	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually restricted to shallow back-reef margins. It occurs in reef flat and shallow habitats or interefal lagoons (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora pulchra</em> likely spawns annually in September in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 1-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth  (Wood 1983).	eng
133033	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133033	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 420.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133034	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133034	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South Japan and East China Sea, north, west and eastern Australia and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133034	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on soft substrata on lower reef slopes and reef bases. The depth range is from 1 m (Fenner pers. comm.)  to 40 m (Hoeksema 1990) The maximum size is 15 cm in diameter. It may reproduce asexually by fragmentation. This species is usually found living in the deeper reef zones, but has also been seen in shallow seagrass beds.	eng
133034	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon but can be locally abundant. It may even be very abundant in some areas due to fragmentation (Hoesksema, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133034	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133035	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133035	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. Found in the Great Barrier Reef and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133035	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 0.5-30 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133035	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133035	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133036	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is protected in a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133036	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The distribution of the species is disjunct.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>Fungia curvata</em> has been reported from <strong>México</strong>: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Nayarit and Colima (Revillagigedo Islands included) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em> 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés and Guzmán 1997), Puerto Jimenez (Cortés and Guzmán 1997), and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Gulf of Panamá and Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and Maté 1997, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Varagas-Ángel 2003, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific (Hickman 2005), this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, and East China Sea.	eng
133036	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	<em>Fungia curvata</em> is a free living coral that occurs on soft inter-reef, coarse sand, coral rubble and sometimes reef substrata, at depths of between 3 to 73 m depth (Hickman 2005, Feingold 1996, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>In Mexico, <em>F. curvata</em> is most common at depths of 20 to 40 m (Reyes-Bonilla 2006), while in the Galapagos the species occurs at depths of 10 to 20 m (Wells 1983). It is a free-living polyp and can reach a maximum of 8.5 cm diameter. It reproduces asexually in some areas by breaking itself apart. <br/><br/>According to Feingold (1996), <em>Fungia</em> spp. can survive extended periods (>180 days) in the bleached state.	eng
133036	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In México this species is rare throughout its distribution (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). However, this species can be very abundant in some locations (e.g., San José Island: thousand of animals within 1 ha) and populations are probably stable in Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In Costa Rica, Glynn and Ault (2000) considered the species rare in mainland Costa Rica and Cocos Island. At present, Bahía Culebra is the only known site in Costa Rica with live polyps (Cortés and Guzmán 1997, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés pers. comm.) with a mean percentage cover of 0.05 in 12 transects (Jiménez 2001). <br/><br/>In Panamá, Unnamed Island (Secas Island group) in Gulf of Chiriquí is the only known site with live animals (Maté 2003), with two specimens found at 14 m depth in 2001 (Maté 2003). <br/><br/>This species is considered rare in Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). Devils Crown (Floreana Island) in the Galápagos is the only known site with living animals. At present, fewer individuals are found than in the 1970s. According to Feingold (1996), the population is very small, comprising only 30-40 individuals. <br/><br/>In the Indo West Pacific, this species is locally very abundant in the Persian Gulf (but may have been affected by recent bleaching events), in the Gulf of California and in the Galápagos. This species can reproduce by breaking apart along suture lines, and in this way it can reach high densities.<br/><br/>Parts of the range have suffered severe declines, specifically in the Persian Gulf and there are records of bleaching in the East Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133036	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Robinson (1985) found that <em>Fungia</em> species bleached but did not die during the 1982-83 El Niño event at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos. According to Feingold (1996), survival of <em>Fungia</em> species. was due to cool water that periodically flushed over the habitat, which mitigated the effects of elevated temperatures caused by the ENSO event.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133037	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133037	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133037	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in deep-water fore reefs, walls and overhangs. It occurs from 20-76 m (Reed 1985).	eng
133037	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This is the least common of all species in the genus. In certain deep-reef habitats it is known to be abundant (for example, the Dominican Republic, Grand Cayman and Venezuela; Weil, 2003, 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133037	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown, but given the susceptibility of other <em>Mycetophylla</em> species to disease, it may be at risk from white plague and other diseases, and bleaching. Because of the depth at which it occurs, and its tendency to grow on walls, it is not likely to be affected by sedimentation and hurricanes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133038	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133038	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133038	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common on lower reef slopes and lagoons protected from wave action, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133038	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133038	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. nigrescens</em> is 10,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133039	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133039	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in northern Australia.	eng
133039	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 2-20 m.	eng
133039	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133039	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133040	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133040	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Its presence in East Africa requires verification. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133040	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow water, especially lagoons and back reef margins. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of reefs. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133040	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133040	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133041	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133041	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133041	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. <em>P. descussata</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It may form fields up to several meters across.	eng
133041	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133041	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was eight.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133042	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133042	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Caribbean.	eng
133042	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species inhabits shallow water reef tops, generally to depths of about 15 m. It is usually found in areas with some water movement, and is common in areas with constant surge (Humann and DeLoach 2006). <br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133042	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is abundant to common in Florida, the Bahamas, and the Caribbean (Humann and DeLoach 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133042	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht, pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but can be resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133043	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133043	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in throughout the Indian Ocean (excluding the Gulfs), the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133043	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133043	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread and usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133043	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and high mortality in the bleaching event in 1998 in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133044	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133044	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the Bismarck Sea to Fiji including Vanuatu (Hoeksema pers. comm.). There are records for the Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).	eng
133044	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes. It is an attached and encrusting species. It is often found with a single mouth, but can also sometimes forms colonies. Approximately 5-7cm in diameter. The generation length is approximately seven years and it is a slow grower (Hoeksema 1993a). This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
133044	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found to be rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133044	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133045	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133045	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific. Rodrigues  (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) - data unconfirmed, Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>Possibly present in Galápagos; however this requires confirmation (Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005). According to Veron (2000), <em>Pocillopora ligulata</em> is present in the Eastern Tropical Pacific on the coasts of continental Ecuador, Galápagos, Colombia and Panama. Nevertheless, no other publication confirms this distribution. <em>P. ligulata</em> is not reported in any of the recent publications for the eastern Pacific (e.g., Glynn 2003, Maté 2003, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000). Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2007) listed <em>P. ligulata</em> as a valid species, present in Hawaii, USA, and Easter Island, Chile. Hickman (2005) lists <em>P. ligulata</em> for the Galápagos Islands, but mentions that the presence of this species in Galápagos requires confirmation.	eng
133045	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow water exposed to strong wave action. The maximum size is 50 cm across.	eng
133045	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133045	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133046	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133046	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Rodrigues and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133046	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m. <br/><br/>There are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).	eng
133046	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133046	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133047	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133047	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133047	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in intermediate and deep fore reef environments, and also in deep channels. Occurs from 10-80 m (Reed 1985), though more common from 15-25 m.	eng
133047	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but at low abundances in intermediate to deep reef environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133047	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague, black band disease) and has been known to bleach in intense bleaching events, although mortality is low. Isolated cases of mortality have been observed from white plague. This species is also at risk from high sedimentation. The plating morphology may make them susceptible to sand scouring and burial during severe storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133048	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133048	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and oceanic west Pacific. Also found in the Great Barrier Reef, south-west Madagascar and Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Also found in western and American Samoa, and the Andaman Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133048	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133048	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133048	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133049	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133049	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-west Pacific except Hawaii. It occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf, East Africa and Madagascar, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, Fiji, Melanesia and Polynesia.	eng
133049	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species found in shady habitats on walls and overhangs where it can form encrusting sheets. Colonies can reach up to 3 m in diameter.	eng
133049	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very widespread and common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133049	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133050	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133050	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, and the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133050	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, subtidally on reef tops and slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0.5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133050	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133050	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133051	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133051	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, and Southwest Pacific.	eng
133051	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133051	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon except at Norfolk Island, in the western Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133051	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133052	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133052	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is endemic to the Red Sea. It is known only from the Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. Further surveys might show that it occurs more widely in the northern and central Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133052	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, partly protected reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and possibly in lagoons from 1 m to at least 4 m.	eng
133052	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is a rare species; only three stands are known.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133052	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133053	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133053	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also present in Brazil.	eng
133053	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs at intermediate, deep fore reef and lagoon environments especially towards the base of the reef and adjacent soft substrate communities. Occurs from 10-92 m (Reed 1985), but most common from 15-25 m. This species tends to be resilient to waters with high sedimentation.	eng
133053	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs at low abundances, generally as solitary polyps but occasionally in small groups.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133053	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching and occasionally observed with disease (white plague), but only low levels of mortality have been observed.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133054	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133054	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Southwest Pacific.	eng
133054	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in subtidal reef environments, especially lagoons, generally to depths of 30 m. In the Arabian Sea it is found in non-reef substrates in areas subjected to cold-water upwelling between 2-5 m deep (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133054	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133054	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133055	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133055	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southwest India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Marianas Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Islands, and Line Islands.	eng
133055	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133055	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common (DeVantier pers. comm.), for example in Indonesia (Johan and Syahrir pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133055	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 276. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133056	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133056	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133056	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow to mid-depth reef environments, including lagoon back reef areas. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133056	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133056	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133057	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133057	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133057	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in mid-slope reef environments protected from wave action. This species is found from 5-20 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133057	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but likely rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133057	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 5,416 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133058	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133058	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west and northeast Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and southern Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133058	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in protected reef environments, especially vertical faces and lower reef slopes. This species is found from 5-40 m. <br/><br/>Echinophyllia is found in most fore reef areas, but has a preference for slightly shaded spots on the reef slopes (Wood 1983). Colonies of <em>E. echinata</em> grow to 20 cm or less (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133058	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually rare. Uncommon (Fenner and Sheppard pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133058	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133059	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133059	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, and Palau. Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).	eng
133059	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133059	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133059	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133060	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133060	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, northern Maldives, eastern India, Thailand, South China Sea, Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133060	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually found in intertidal or just subtidal areas, but it also occurs in a wide range of other deeper habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133060	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but it is sometimes locally common (DeVantier and Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133060	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133061	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133061	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Southeast Asia.	eng
133061	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 2-25 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133061	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is sometimes common in Vietnam.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133061	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133062	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133062	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133062	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef environments, deep channels, and walls. Occurs from 10-75 m (Reed, 1985), but most abundant from 10-20 m. The species has the potential to exhibit moderate rates of recovery, due to its brooding reproductive strategy and some observations of successful recruitment following disturbance.	eng
133062	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common throughout its range, but at low abundances. Because of its low abundance, and similarity in appearance to <em>M. danaana</em> (especially the smaller colonies), it is not frequently recorded in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133062	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague and black band disease); white plague has caused localized mortality events. Also at risk from high sedimentation and bleaching.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133063	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133063	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, south Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133063	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 53 cm in diameter.	eng
133063	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133063	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,800 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 978 pieces in 2005.The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12,137.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133064	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133064	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Papua New Guinea.	eng
133064	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid environments, especially lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133064	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133064	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133065	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, this species is present in the Coringa Herald Reserve in the Coral Sea (Cecarelli <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133065	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific region. It can be found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Southeast Asia, including southern Japan, Australia, and the Coral Sea.  It has also been recorded off the coast of South Africa and Mozambique (Reigl 1996).<br/><br/>Specific location records include: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Western Australia, Philippines, Indonesia, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea, Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fabricius and Alderslade (2001) give Red Sea, Madagascar, Mozambique, most of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific (eastern limit: Marshall Islands and Vanuatu) and the Great Barrier Reef. Gosliner <em>et al</em>. (1996) gives East Africa, Red Sea to New Caledonia; Solomon Is., southern Japan, Marshall Islands, Madagascar, Andamans, Sabah, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, and Fiji.	eng
133065	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reef, possibly to 12 m or more, and is found on exposed reef locations, and reef flats (Richards pers. comm).	eng
133065	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered common in the western Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133065	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	Due to its attractive bright red skeleton, this species is collected for the curio, jewellery and aquarium trade. In 2005, 13,803 pieces of live and 2,714 pieces of raw Tubipora musica were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers comm.).<br/><br/>This species is moderately susceptible to damage from hurricanes (K. Fabricius, pers comm.). It is generally not well known if <em>Tubipora</em> is particularly susceptible to bleaching, as it has light coloured tentacles so bleaching is hard to detect. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133066	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133066	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, SW Madagascar, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133066	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133066	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133066	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats in shallow to mid depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133067	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133067	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands. Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).	eng
133067	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133067	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133067	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133068	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133068	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. This species is found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133068	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, especially back reef margins. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133068	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133068	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 810. It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133069	conservation	Bass, D., Reboton, C., Lovell, E., Aeby, G., Richards, Z. & Delbeek, J.C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133069	distribution	Bass, D., Reboton, C., Lovell, E., Aeby, G., Richards, Z. & Delbeek, J.C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). Records from the Red Sea are doubtful.	eng
133069	habitat	Bass, D., Reboton, C., Lovell, E., Aeby, G., Richards, Z. & Delbeek, J.C., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133069	population	Bass, D., Reboton, C., Lovell, E., Aeby, G., Richards, Z. & Delbeek, J.C., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133069	threats	Bass, D., Reboton, C., Lovell, E., Aeby, G., Richards, Z. & Delbeek, J.C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species may not be particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133070	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133070	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Somalia, western Madagascar, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Timor Sea, northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Papua, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), and American Samoa.	eng
133070	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in most tropical reef environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133070	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133070	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested, but there are no data, as it is newly described and probably still not widely recognised.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133071	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133071	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133071	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is mostly found on protected upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133071	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133071	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,298. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2550 live pieces in 2005. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. <br/><br/>Other more localized threats include disturbance by coral removal and harvesting, fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133072	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Surveys are needed to determine its full distribution range.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133072	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from two sites: the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia; and the Yemen Red Sea coast. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133072	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133072	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This recently described species is so far known only from a single area.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133072	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133073	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133073	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the main Hawaiian Islands and northwest Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005), as well as the Marshall Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133073	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, fringing reefs. It is known to what depth this species can occur.	eng
133073	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon (Fenner 2005). It is very small, with most colonies less than 3 cm in diameter (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133073	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133074	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133074	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution. It is found  in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, northwest Philippines, southern Japan, and northern Papua (Indonesia).	eng
133074	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores of temperate locations, and in tropical areas (DeVantier pers. comm.). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133074	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133074	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133075	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133075	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Andaman Sea, northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, northeast and southwest Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, Papua New Guinea to the Solomon Islands and the Astral Islands. Palau (Randall).	eng
133075	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in relatively shallow water up to 30 m deep and is found on all parts of the reef except in high wave energy areas. This is a branching coral and can form large beds up to 6-8 m diameter. This species shows a large range of growth forms.	eng
133075	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon in Australia. It may be common in shallow waters, but can be found up to 30 m deep.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133075	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133076	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133076	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Africa, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern and northern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133076	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species can be found in most reef environments. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133076	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133076	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133077	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133077	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in southern Great Barrier Reef around south Australia to Shark Bay in southwest Australia.	eng
133077	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133077	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133077	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133078	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133078	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in Eastern Africa, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.	eng
133078	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133078	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133078	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133079	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133079	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found  in the Red Sea, northern Madagascar, Celebes Sea, and Papua New Guinea. It has a disjunct distribution.	eng
133079	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper reef edges. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133079	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in the Red Sea and locally common in some other parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133079	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133080	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133080	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern and south-west Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133080	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide variety of environments from exposed upper reef slopes to turbid lagoons. It is found subtidally on protected reef slopes and patch reefs in lagoons (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133080	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 12 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133080	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,343.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133081	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133081	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea, New Caledonia, Philippines, Solomons (Richards pers. comm.), Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Palau (Randall 1995), and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133081	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow water protected from wave action, only in protected, subtidal lagoons (Wallace 1999), and protected reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133081	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133081	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133082	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133082	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133082	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs with <em>P. lobata</em> and <em>P. australiensis</em> on back reef margins, lagoons and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 30 m. <em>P. lutea</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, with massive colonies at 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In American Samoa, one colony is known to be 6.5 m tall and 41 m circumference (D. Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133082	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common. In the Red Sea this species is abundant in sheltered areas where huge colonies can cover over 75% of the substrate over thousands of square metres.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133082	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. lutea</em> is 1,900 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133083	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133083	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, New Caledonia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, oceanic West Pacific and Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133083	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes in depths of between 6 m and 20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 40cm diameter. It has white tentacles which makes it easy to distinguish from other species. The generation length is approximately 10 years. This is a free living coral in the adult stage and therefore makes more independent after habitat destruction. This species is found from 6-20 m.	eng
133083	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon throughout its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133083	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is vulnerable to bleaching, although mortality does not always occur (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133084	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133084	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133084	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially reef backs and sedimented lagoons protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is typically found on back slopes, in lagoons, and inter-reef soft substrate and can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and foreslopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133084	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133084	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species exhibited low to moderate bleaching in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133085	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133085	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in the East Atlantic and the Mediterranean.	eng
133085	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on rocky foreshores to a depth of 50 m. This is a solitary coral (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>This species is a solitary, non-constructional coral that lives on rocky substrates. It has an annual cycle of sexual reproduction; it is a simultaneous hermaprhodite and brooder. Size at sexual maturity ranged from 6-10 mm length and specimens of this size are approximately three years old. (Goffredo <em>et al</em>. 2002)<br/><br/>General genus information: this genus generally prefers deeper waters, it can occur at depths exceeding 1,000 meters. Solitary dendrophylliids are widely distributed throughout temperate and tropical waters (Wood 1983).	eng
133085	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is sometimes common. This is a small, rare coral which is easily overlooked (Wood 1983).  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133085	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133086	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133086	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133086	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 2-15 m.	eng
133086	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133086	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133087	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133087	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133087	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is usually restricted to protected back reefs with clear water and soft substrates. This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133087	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133087	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133088	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133088	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133088	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may be a dominant species in shallow water habitats with flat substrates. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, in lagoons, and inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133088	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133088	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 976.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133089	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133089	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea. Also recorded from Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133089	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on vertical substrates with clear water at 10-40 m depth. Colonies are typically 50 cm or less (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133089	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133089	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133090	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133090	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, NW Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133090	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, in lagoons, and on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133090	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133090	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133091	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Present in at least two protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Costa Rica: Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133091	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, South Japan and South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Records in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Clipperton Island</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998; Glynn and Ault 2000; Guzman and Cortes 1992, 2006); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galápagos (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000), where it is restricted to the northern islands of Darwin and Wolf (Hickman 2005). Glynn and Ault (2000) also report this species from mainland Costa Rica, but according to Cortés and Guzmán (pers. comm.), the presence of this species anywhere on the mainland of the Eastern Tropical Pacific is questionable. So far the only reliable records are from the Galápagos Archipelago, Cocos Island and Clipperton Atoll (Cortés and Guzmán pers. comm., Guzman and Cortes 2006).	eng
133091	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is usually found on vertical or overhung walls in deep water. The maximum size is 30cm. Usually grows on rocky substrata on cracks and vertical or overhung walls (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); but can also overgrow dead corals (Guzman and Cortes 2006). In the Indo-West Pacific it is considered a deep water coral; nevertheless, in Galapagos and Cocos Island the species has been found as shallow as 8 m (Guzman and Cortes 2006). This species can be found from 8-30 m.	eng
133091	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually common on lower reef slopes and vertical walls.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Leptoseris scabra</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as: common at Clipperton Island, and uncommon at Cocos Island and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Guzman and Cortes (2006), the population in Cocos Island is increasing and common.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133091	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 150.<br/><br/>Threats to this species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific are unknown. It is potentially threatened by El Niño and climate change.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133092	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133092	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, the Solomons, Eastern Australia. It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).	eng
133092	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-10 m.	eng
133092	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon in subtropical Japan and rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133092	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133093	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133093	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; southwest Indian Ocean; northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133093	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on protected upper reef slopes, and can be found to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133093	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is relatively common in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133093	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133094	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133094	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia (Pichon 2006), Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133094	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is often found in reef habitats exposed to strong wave action, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133094	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133094	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133095	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133095	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central and Northeastern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic west Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific. Rodrigues  (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena Peninsula; Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Bahia Culebra, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: Coiba Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), Canal de Afuera Island, and Ladrones Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Maté 2003), Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn 2003).	eng
133095	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	<em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> occurs on shallow reefs and amongst coral communities on rocky reefs, at depth from 3-27 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). The colonies are small (up to 30 cm).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals from the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). The growth rates of <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> from Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica, varies between 1.8 to 5.6 cm per year, and these were the highest growth rates at Golfo de Papagayo, Costa Rica (Jimenez and Cortes 2003). <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. meandrina</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzman and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002), particularly <em>P. damicornis</em>.<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133095	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common on exposed reef front. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/>Common: Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico; Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Cocos Islands, Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Coiba Archipelago, Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000), at 10 sites in Las Perlas and at 42 sites in the Gulf of Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); mainland Costa Rica, and the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific following the 1982/82 El Niño was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galapagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well development at the northeastern sectors of San Cristobal, Española and Floreana Island until 1980s (Glynn 2003). These communities disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event; with minimal coral recruitment 10 to 15 years later (Glynn 2003). As an example, at Devils Crown, Floreana Island, pocilloporid patch reef disappeared from the inner platform (Glynn 1994). Amongst the pocilloporids, <em>P. meandrina</em> populations trends in the Galapagos Islands are unknown (Edgar and Chiriboga pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133095	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 335.<br/><br/>Monofilament fishing lines are probably one of the major causes of <em>P. meandrina</em> death at popular cast fishing sites in Hawaii (Yoshikawa and Asoh 2004).<br/><br/>El Niño and presumably climate change are threats in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin Eucidaris galapagensis (syn E. thouarsii) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galápagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, especially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats in the Eastern Tropical Pacific include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133096	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133096	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, extending along the Horn of Africa, including Socotra.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133096	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133096	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon. In the Red Sea, it was recorded along with <em>P. lutea</em> which is widespread. However, it is not known whether <em>P. columnaris</em> is itself common, as taxonomic uncertainties make this difficult to determine.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133096	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133097	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133097	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. The species has also been reported by other authors from the Indo-West Pacific including Easter Island (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007). Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006) Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995)<br/><br/>According to Reyes-Bonilla (2002), Colombia is the only location where <em>Pocillopora danae</em> is found at the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. However, this coral is not listed by Zapata and Vargas-Angel (2003). Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2007), listed this species as present in the Society Islands, Tuamotus and Marquesas in French Polynesia, and at Easter Island, Chile.	eng
133097	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on partly protected reef slopes. The maximum size is over 1 m across. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. danae</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133097	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133097	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	<em>Pocillopora</em> genus is particularly susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133098	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Included in one protected area in México:<br/>Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage site (UNESCO (ii)(iii)(iv)).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133098	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Recorded throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>México</strong>: San Lorenzo Channel, Baja California Sur, and in the locations of Santa Cruz Bay and La Entrega Bay at Oaxaca (Layte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra and Cocos Island (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Gulf of Panamá* (Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Colombia* (Glynn and Ault 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: La Plata Island* (Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>(*only dead <em>L. papyracea</em> found)	eng
133098	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It usually occurs on lower reef slopes, on horizontal sandy bottoms. Can occasionally found in shallow sandy flats. It usually forms large fields. Fragments can easily break off as a mechanism of asexual reproduction. Inter-reef soft substrate areas.<br/><br/>In the western Pacific <em>L. papyracea</em> usually occurs between 20 and 30 m, but can be found to 176 m depth (Dinesen 1980). <br/><br/>In contrast, within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region this species is usually found in mean depths of 13 m (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). According to Leyte-Morales (2001), <em>L. papyracea</em> occurs in shallow depths in the Eastern Tropical Pacific because of two main factors: reduced light and lower temperatures at shallow depths, both of which are associated with upwelling and imitate deeper areas in the central and western Pacific where <em>L. papyracea</em> more typically occurs. Leptoseris papyracea is typically found on hard surfaces amongst soft substrata with little sediment movement (Jiménez 1997, 2001). At both Bahía Culebra, Oaxaca and Baja California Sur, this coral is found at a mean depth of approximately 13 m (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez 2001, Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). Considerable sections of the Esmeralda reef are constructed of Leptoseris papyracea; although frame construction by this species is rare (Jiménez 1997, Jiménez 2001).	eng
133098	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>At present <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> is only found in two countries in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, Costa Rica (Jiménez 1997, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Jiménez 2001, Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cortés and Jiménez 2003) and México (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In Mexico, this species was found in the states of Baja California Sur (San Lorenzo Channel) and in Oaxaca (Santa Cruz and La Entrega). At the moment the populations from Oaxaca have disappeared, only dead fragments are visible (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm.; Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). In addition, populations at La Entrega and in San Lorenzo Channel are very small with most colonies dead (Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. 2001). According to Leyte-Morales <em>et al</em>. (2001), this is evidence that populations of <em>L. papyracea</em> in these sites are failed, transient or marginal, which hampers the possibility of sexual reproduction.<br/><br/>Before the 1997-98 ENSO event, at the Esmeralda reef, Bahía Culebra (Costa Rica), the deepest (i.e., mean depth of 13 m) sections of the reef were completely dominated and constructed by <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> (Jiménez 1997). This living stand was approximately 2,500 m² (Jiménez 2001). Nevertheless, this small patch reef was reduced from 68% to 3.6% live coral cover when the 1997-98 ENSO event began (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001; Cortés and Jiménez 2003); after the event, the total live coral cover was reduced by more than 90% (Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>According to Glynn and Ault (2000), <em>L. papyracea</em> populations seem to be declining in Eastern Tropical Pacific region. Since this species was previously recorded from several sites throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133098	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Local extinctions of <em>L. papyracea</em> in some areas of the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (e.g. Colombia and Panama; see Glynn and Ault 2000) have not been linked to known causes (Glynn 1997). Nevertheless, the ENSO event presumably had disastrous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Jiménez (2001) reported a frequent and intensive use of Esmeralda reef, Bahía Culebra (Costa Rica), by commercial divers for the aquarium trade. The impact of this activity on the coral community and coral reef is considerable, having disturbed entire areas (>25 m²) of the Esmeralda reef (Jiménez 1997). Another major threat for <em>L. papyracea</em> at Esmeralda reef is coastal development, since a resort marina may be built over this reef (Jimenez 2001).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em> (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion may degrade coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133099	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133099	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, the Oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006) and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003) and the Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this coral species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerreo and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pérez Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>El Salvador</strong>* (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Murcielago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, Peninsula de Osa, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>(*Taxonomic determination requires confirmation (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).)	eng
133099	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> occurs in all shallow water habitats on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.), to at least 20 m depth, but is most common between 1-10 m depth (Guzmán and Chiriboga pers. comm.). Maximum size is 25 cm.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> is one of the major reef building species (along with <em>P. damicornis</em>), forming intermeshing compact frameworks that can attain 2-3 m in relief (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). Reported growth rates of Pocillopora elegans vary little between locations in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, from 3.1 cm per year in Galápagos to 3.32 cm per year in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). <br/><br/><em>P. elegans</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991), with the capacity to function as a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991), larval settlement in the Galápagos Islands presumably has been the predominant mode of recruitment, and the only observed form of recruitment in areas that experienced high mortality (97-100%) in 1983. Asexual reproduction by fragmentation has been reported as an important mechanism for reef recovery in Panama (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). <em>P. elegans</em>, like other pocilloporid species in the eastern Pacific, has low rates of recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Histological evidence indicates that spawning is likely to occur during a few days around the new moon (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Reproductive activity in the eastern Pacific its related to local thermal regimes, with a generally higher incidence of gravid corals at sites with stable, warm water conditions, or during warming periods in areas that experience significant seasonal variation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991) conclude that moderate El Nino warming can stimulate gametogenesis in Galápagos pocilloporid corals.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. elegans</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133099	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is locally common in some regions of the central Indo-Pacific and the far eastern Pacific. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of Pocillopora elegans in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows:<br/><br/>Abundant: Mexico, Panama and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California, Revillagigedo Islands in Mexico, and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>Uncommon: Malpelo Island, Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Rare: Costa Rica including Cocos Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Nevertheless, according to Guzmán and Cortes (1989), <em>P. elegans</em> is likely to be abundant in mainland Costa Rica but rare in Cocos Island, and common in Panama (Guzmán et al., in prep.).<br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> populations are probably increasing in Costa Rica and Panama following the severe coral mortality of recent ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98) and red tides (Guzmán and Cortes 2001). Population trends of <em>P. elegans</em> in the Galápagos Islands are unknown (Edgar and Chiriboga pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>In mainland Ecuador at Sucre Island, Machalilla, the predominant frame-building species before 1983 were <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> and <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em>, with the two species generating a rigid framework that covered over 1 ha of bottom (Glynn 2003). However, by 1991 the reef had declined to dispersed colonies of <em>P. damicornis</em> and <em>P. elegans</em> (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133099	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133100	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. It may be offered limited protection by MPAs, such as Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133100	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean in the Greater Antilles, and from Yucatan, Mexico to Venezuela and the southern Gulf of Mexico. The precise limits of the distribution range are unclear. This species is also found in Brazil.	eng
133100	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in the fore reef, deep water habitats below 20 m. Recorded to depths of 80 m (Reed 1985).	eng
133100	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Common, but at low abundances in the southern and western Caribbean; uncommon in the northern Caribbean. This species is possibly rare in Brazil. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133100	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to this species may include disease, bleaching and high sedimentation, based on the susceptibility displayed by congenerics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133101	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133101	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Cambodia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northeastern tip of Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, and American Samoa.	eng
133101	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species can be found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133101	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133101	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia or Fiji, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133102	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. At least in this species, from Florida, a causative agent for white plague has been identified (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998), which could have relevance since so little is known of disease etiology. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the status of both Dichocoenia species. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133102	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133102	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in back and fore reef environments, rocky reefs, lagoon habitats, spur and groove formations, channels, and sometimes at the base of the reef, from 2-72 m. Hemispherical heads are more abundant on shallow exposed reefs from 5-20 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; E. Weil. pers. comm.).	eng
133102	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, and may be locally abundant in certain habitats and localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133102	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is highly susceptible to white plague and has experienced localized mass mortalities since 1995 in Florida (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998). There was no evidence of coral recruitment in the seven years following the epizootic, and <em>D. stokesii</em> populations have continued to decline. The colony size-frequency distribution pattern on these reefs changed over this time period, with the <em>D. stokesii</em> population exhibiting a trend to domination by large colonies, suggesting that the remaining population, while growing, is no longer reproducing (Richardson and Voss, 2005). The species is also susceptible to black band disease, bleaching, high sedimentation, and damage by storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133103	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133103	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the Solomons, as well as the central Indo-Pacific. It is in east peninsular Malaysia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133103	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats exposed to strong wave action and in lagoons, intertidal or just subtidal on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0.5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133103	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is common in the central Indian Ocean, and is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133103	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133104	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133104	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133104	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, fringing reefs. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133104	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133104	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133105	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133105	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean (including Gulf of Aden), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific. However, records from the western Indian Ocean are doubtful.	eng
133105	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, clear water, especially reef flats, generally only to depths of 5 m.	eng
133105	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133105	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133106	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133106	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and S Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133106	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments, and does well in sedimented and turbid waters. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133106	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very widespread and moderately common, and more common in high latitude locations.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133106	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133107	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133107	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan, the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133107	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133107	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133107	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133108	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133108	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species has a restricted distribution in Vietnam, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), W Papua, Japan and the East China Sea. Also found in the Philippines (Licuanan pers. comm.).	eng
133108	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in rocky foreshores, reef slopes. These species are typically small (to 15 cm) and conspicuous. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133108	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare from south Viet Nam and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133108	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133109	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133109	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in east Indonesia, the Philippines, north coast of Papua New Guinea, and West Pacific. The Solomons (TNC).	eng
133109	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually found in reef slopes. The maximum size is 50 cm. Branches can break off easily and regenerate as a form of asexual reproduction. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133109	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133109	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133110	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133110	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, North and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific, Palau and the Maldives (Hoeksema 1989). Marshall Island (Rogers pers. comm.)	eng
133110	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes in water depths of 3-25 m. (Hoeksema 1990). This is a free-living species and the maximum size is 48 cm. The generation length for this species is at least 10 years. This species is found from 3-25 m.	eng
133110	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is widespread and relatively common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133110	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133111	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133111	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. There are three records, one from the north and two from the south, and probably occurs more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133111	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 8 m.	eng
133111	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133111	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching, and this species was affected by bleaching in the southern Red Sea. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133112	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133112	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is in Fiji (Lovell and Fenner pers. comm.), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).	eng
133112	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species occurs subtidally on slopes, ledges on walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133112	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. This species is generally rare, but is common on some reefs of northern Indonesia and northeastern Papua New Guinea (Wallace 1999). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133112	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is hypothesized to have a low reproductive capacity due to a lack of radial corallites (Wallace and Richards pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species does occur in the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 135.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133113	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133113	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, and New Caledonia and the Solomon Islands.	eng
133113	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in sheltered environments, especially sheltered lagoons with turbid water and soft substrates. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.	eng
133113	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133113	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133114	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133114	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Australia and Vietnam.	eng
133114	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It usually occurs in water over 20 m deep, attached to a solid substrate but in areas where soft sand predominates. It usually forms small creeping colonies or low clumps in which the corallites are united at their bases by coenosteum (Wood 1983). This species may be found to 30 m.	eng
133114	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a rare, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133114	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133115	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133115	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
133115	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in tidal pools. <em>Acropora retusa</em> likely spawns annually in September and October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 1-5 m.	eng
133115	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in South Africa, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133115	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133116	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133116	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133116	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes particularly from the mid to lower regions. This species is found from 3-30 m.	eng
133116	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133116	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 2,400 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133117	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133117	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995). It has a disjunct distribution.	eng
133117	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133117	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133117	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133118	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133118	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southeast Asia, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133118	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found mostly on reef flats, generally to depths of 5 m.	eng
133118	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133118	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133119	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133119	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species has not been observed outside Sabah (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133119	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	General genus information: <em>Plerogyra</em> is especially common on reef slopes and in the shelter of boulders and coral heads. Solitary coralla do not generally exceed 15 cm in diameter with the vesicles fully inflated. Colonial forms are usually less than 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133119	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133119	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133120	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133120	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133120	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in a wide range of environments, especially shallow turbid water. It occurs subtidally on reef slopes, walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.	eng
133120	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common except in the central and western Indian Ocean where it is only known from a few records. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133120	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three diseases recorded (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004)<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. Known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 60.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133121	conservation	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133121	distribution	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Siderastrea glynni</em> is an endemic species of Panama; only known from a single locality, Uraba Island, Panama Bay, near the Pacific opening of the Panama Canal (Budd and Guzmán 1994, Forsman <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>S. glynni</em> was discovered in September 1992 (Budd and Guzmán 1994).	eng
133121	habitat	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	The known colonies of <em>S. glynni</em> were reported to be unattached and occur along the upper sand-coral rubble reef slope at a depth of 7 to 8.5 m (Budd and Guzmán 1994). Its current habitat is restricted to the aquarium of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001, Maté 2003).<br/><br/>The genus <em>Siderastrea</em> contains only five extant species (Van-Oppen <em>et al</em>. 2006). Budd and Guzmán (1994) hypothesized that <em>S. glynni</em> originated from a rare dispersal event from the central Pacific. However, new studies conducted by Forsman <em>et al</em>. (2005) have revealed that it is more likely that S. glynni originated by a breach of the Panama Isthmus, or by a contemporary introduction by ship. <br/><br/>Glynn (1997) suggested that <em>S. glynni</em> could be an ENSO immigrant, and that colonies perhaps settled and started growing sometime between 1982 and 1985. Glynn (1994) agued that this could be possible if there is a source population located in the Gulf of Panama or elsewhere in the equatorial eastern Pacific (Glynn 1997).	eng
133121	population	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Siderastrea glynni</em> is an extremely rare endemic species in Panama; only five individual colonies have ever been discovered, and only four currently survive (Budd and Guzmán 1994, Maté 2003, Forsman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Following the discovery of this species (i.e., September 1992), extensive surveys in presumably suitable habitats have failed to reveal additional populations (Glynn 2001). Additionally, since the four living colonies were moved to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) aquaria due to a bleached and unhealthy state of the corals, no living colonies are presently known in the wild (Maté 2003, Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>After the removal of <em>S. glynni</em> from the wild, signs of bleaching stopped with temperature control; moreover the colonies are now in good health (Guzmán pers. comm.). Attempts made by H. Guzmán to propagate this corals in the STRI aquaria have produced 11 propagules (Guzmán pers. comm., Fenner 2001).	eng
133121	threats	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	During the 1997-98 El Niño event, the four <em>S. glynni</em> colonies started to deteriorate, displaying bleaching and tissue loss (Fenner 2001, Glynn 2001). Due to the unhealthy state of the corals, the four colonies were moved to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute aquaria (Maté 2003). However, the original rareness of this species has been related to unknown causes, and not to the ENSO event (Glynn 1997). Nevertheless, such small populations typically display low genetic variability, thus lowering their capacity to survive environmental perturbations (Glynn 1997). <br/><br/>Other threats to this species include coastal development and oil production and transport in the Gulf of Panama (Guzmán pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133122	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133122	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133122	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-10 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133122	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133122	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133123	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133123	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea. Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003). There is also a doubtful record from the Red Sea.	eng
133123	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133123	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133123	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133124	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133124	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. It may be absent from portions of the south-western Caribbean (Panama?).<br/><br/>This species is reported to have been eliminated from Panama, even though recent fossils (<1,000 year old) have been found.	eng
133124	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Colonies are found on flat or gently sloping back reef and fore reef environments from 1-25 m depth, most commonly from 5-15 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.). Colonies do not occur in extremely exposed locations. This colony is resistant to heavy wave surge; however, colonies will occasionally topple due to bioerosion at the bases. Upper portions of the colonies generally survive, and the colony produces multiple new pillars which continue to grow upward (A. Bruckner pers. comm.).	eng
133124	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon but conspicuous. Usually at low abundances, but can be locally abundant in shallower well-circulated areas due to propagation by fragmentation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133124	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is highly susceptible to disease (white plague), which has resulted in partial mortality to individual colonies (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997,Weil 2005). Localized impacts have been associated with hurricane damage (e.g., Rogers <em>et al</em>. 1991), other diseases, predation by damselfish, bioerosion by sponges. Collection for curios was reported to be a threat in the past (Colin, 1978), but this has now been banned (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Although it propagates through fragmentation, due to reproductive pattern (gonochoric), low juvenile survivorship, and the frequent occurrence of individual clones in localized areas this species may be slow to recover after disturbance events.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133125	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133125	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines and possibly Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133125	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments protected from strong wave action. <em>Acropora fenneri</em>, <em>A. derawanensis</em> and <em>A. filiformis</em> may occur together in the same habitat.	eng
133125	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133125	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133126	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133126	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, northern and central Indian Ocean, northwestern Madagascar, central Indo-Pacific up to the Solomon Islands. Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
133126	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes and reef flats. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133126	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133126	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133127	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133127	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133127	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and rocky areas. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133127	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133127	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133128	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133128	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
133128	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores in shallow turbid water. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133128	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is locally common in mainland Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133128	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133129	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133129	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and south-west Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995), Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), and American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133129	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133129	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133129	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not susceptible to bleaching and can live on reefs that have been highly impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133130	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133130	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133130	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	It is found in <em>Acropora</em> dominated communities (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133130	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133130	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133131	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133131	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Mozambique, Madagascar (except for the southwest part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.	eng
133131	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid waters and in lagoons. It also occurs in clear-water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133131	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133131	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133132	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133132	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. Wallace (1999) reports it from Oman.	eng
133132	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reef flats. It occurs on reef flats and shallow lagoons, also exposed upper reef slopes and deep water. It is found from 0-5 m. <br/><br/>Where zoning can be detected on reef flats, <em>Acropora aspera</em> tends to occur between the ranges of <em>A. millepora</em> (outer flat) and <em>A. pulchra</em> (inner flat) and overlapping with each species at the edges of its range. It can be confused with either species, but especially with <em>A. pulchra</em>, with which it can occur in dense stands (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133132	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133132	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is found typically in shallow water and is particularly vulnerable to bleaching as well as human impacts. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade and this species is known to be present in the trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 740.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133133	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133133	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, Solomons, and the oceanic west Pacific. It might be found in Fiji and the Marshall Islands.<br/><br/>It is considered to be a generalist species (found in less than 12 areas) in the Indian Ocean, the Indo-Australian Arc, and the Pacific Ocean (Wallace 1999). This species also occurs in South-east Asia, Western Australia, and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133133	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found on shallow reefs. It is also found in lagoons or reef slopes protected from strong wave action. This species is restricted to enclosed lagoons and protected reef slope habitats and thus may be missed on many reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-18 m (Fenner and Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133133	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands of south-west Australia. The species is most common in Western Australia and elsewhere it is more rare (Richards pers. comm., based on C. Wallace database).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133133	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Major threats are bleaching and reef destruction. This species is generally found in lagoon or reef slope habitats protected from strong wave action that are generally more susceptible to bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 25.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133134	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133134	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133134	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This is a common species. <em>M. annularis</em> is found from 0.5-82 m (Reed 1985), and is often the most abundant coral from 1-10 m, especially in semi-protected reef environments; it is frequently a dominant species of lagoons and upper reef slopes.	eng
133134	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. annularis</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. For example, 90% of the cover of the species was lost in the coastal waters off Jamaica from 1980 through 1994 (Hughes 1994). Off the coast of eastern Puerto Rico, declines in cover were recorded at between 40 and 60% (Hernandez-Delgado 2005), at around 40% off south-eastern Puerto Rico (E. Weil pers. comm.), 50% off Mona Island (Bruckner and Bruckner 2006), and 72% in St John, US Virgin Islands, between 1988 and 1999 (Edmunds and Elahi 2007). Dustan and Halas (1987) observed a 31% decline in cover of <em>M. annularis</em> complex on Carysfort Reef (Key Largo) between 1975-1982, with a 21% decline in colony size. <br/><br/>Off the northern coast of Belize, declines upwards of 90% were recorded specifically for <em>M. annularis</em> (Burke <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133134	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (white plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), hurricane damage, and loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133135	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of this species because of its occurrence in cryptic habitats, deep water and low abundance. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133135	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and Mediterranean.	eng
133135	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The azooxanthellate form is found in cryptic habitats (e.g., in crevices, caves, under ledges) in fore reef and deep reef environments, and is also found in silty back reef lagoon environments, from 5-30 m. The zooxanthellate form is found in deep-water fore reef environments below 25 m, with a maximum depth recorded of 99 m (Reed 1985).	eng
133135	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but in low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133135	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There are no major threats known, and the deeper zooxanthellate form has not been reported to bleach.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133136	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.	eng
133136	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133136	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons.	eng
133136	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133136	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.	eng
133137	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133137	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Micronesia, Polynesia, and Papau New Guinea. Found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133137	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133137	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133137	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not particularly susceptible to bleaching or disease and is likely to survive on reefs heavily impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133138	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133138	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
133138	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 5-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133138	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133138	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133139	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133139	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Dominant in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in American Samoa (Wallace and Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133139	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found subtidally on deeper parts of reef flat and reef edge, reef slopes and walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <em>A. palifera</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 0-4 m of Chagos and 0-5 m off the north Great Barrier Reef (Sheppard 1982). This species can be found from 2-20 m.	eng
133139	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. This is species is the most abundant coral of the northern Great Barrier Reef where it is the dominant species of most exposed outer reef slopes. It is usually less dominant elsewhere in Australia and most other countries.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133139	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species particularly prone to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Three different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133140	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133140	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Red Sea and near Madagascar to South East Asia, including southern Japan, Australia, to Pohnpei (Micronesia), and American Samoa. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found near the Clipperton Atoll (Glynn 1997). The type locality is likely the Red Sea (Fenner, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef, Fiji (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia, China, Guam, Japan, the Philippines, and Thailand.	eng
133140	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133140	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range (Hoeksma pers comm).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133140	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching, although less so than <em>M. dichotoma</em> or <em>M. platyphylla</em> (Fenner pers comm). It is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). In 2005, 50 pieces of raw <em>Millepora exaesa</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood pers comm.).<br/><br/>This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133141	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133141	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean on the western coast of Africa.	eng
133141	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found on rocky foreshores up to 35 m depth.	eng
133141	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133141	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133142	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133142	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is only found in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
133142	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found on shallow rocky substrates, to deep water where colonies are azooxanthellate.<br/><br/>This species grows as a number of distinct subspherical colonies 10-30cm in diameter or as large formations reaching some decimetres in height covering several square metres in surface area (Peirano <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>In the Ligurian Sea, this species is mainly distributed between 7-15 m and lives in turbid water at a relatively low irradiance level (Rodolfo-Metalpa <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
133142	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. This species can be locally abundant (Peirano <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133142	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133143	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133143	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species has a restricted distribution in the Caribbean. All references to it outside of the southeastern Caribbean are likely misidentifications of a growth form of <em>M. complanata</em> (Fenner, pers. comm.).	eng
133143	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This shallow water species is often found on reef crest to depths of approximately 10 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.).	eng
133143	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This is the most restricted of the Caribbean <em>Millepora</em> species. It is considered common to occasional from the Dominican Republic southward through the Lesser Antilles. But has not been reported from Florida, the Bahamas, or the northern or western Caribbean (Humann and DeLoach 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133143	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133144	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133144	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Caribbean, and has a wide depth distribution. It is found in the southwest Gulf of Mexico (Tunnell 1988), the Cape Verde Islands (Laborel 1974), Brazil (Hetzel <em>et al</em>. 1994), and Florida (Humann and deLoach 2006). A species in Bermuda is also referred to as <em>M. alcicornis</em> but is very different from the rest of the Caribbean (Sterrer and Schoepfer-Sterrer 1986).	eng
133144	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is the only Caribbean fire coral that commonly can be found deeper than 10 m, and is relatively uncommon in shallow surge zones (Humann and DeLoach 2006). <br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.), commonly encrusting and overgrowing other species (Precht pers. comm.).	eng
133144	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is the most common of the <em>Millepora</em> genus in the Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133144	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In 2005, 117 pieces of live <em>Millepora alcicornis</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood pers comm.).<br/><br/>This species has been reduced from historical baselines, but probably not much more than 10% except locally on some reefs. This species has been affected in past bleaching events but appears to recover more rapidly than most scleractinian species (Precht pers comm).<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133145	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133145	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific including Cocos Keeling and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, Taiwan, South Ryukyus (Japan) and the Bismarck archipelago.	eng
133145	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in in shallow water from 2-10 m depth. It is found under overhangs and in crevices on the upper fore reef. This is an encrusting coral that forms colonies up to 10 cm in diameter.	eng
133145	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133145	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133146	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133146	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific. Kermedec (Brook 1999). Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
133146	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on shallow reefs and rocky foreshores. The maximum size is approximately 1 m. This species is found from 7-20 m.	eng
133146	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common in a wide range of reef environments. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133146	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 57.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133147	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133147	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133147	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is usually found on lower slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. This species is found from 6-20 m.	eng
133147	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133147	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133148	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133148	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, NW Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, North and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, the southern part of Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133148	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats. The depth range is 1 m to 20 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 44 cm in diameter and it is a free-living adult. It generally has a single mouth. These are among the largest single polyp animals.	eng
133148	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is wide-ranging and very common within its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133148	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	20% of individuals in one study were affected by bleaching (Hoeksema 1991). All sizes are collected for the curio trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133149	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133149	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and the Horn of Africa.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133149	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments exposed to turbulence, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133149	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133149	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133150	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133150	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea.	eng
133150	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133150	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133150	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, <em>P. aranetai</em> was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133151	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133151	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea, Kenya, Tanzania and Cosmoledo Atoll (Aldabra group, Seychelles).	eng
133151	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, exposed and sheltered reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the foreslope, and in lagoons. It can also be found on the back slope of the reef. This species is found from 1 m to at least 15 m.	eng
133151	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133151	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133152	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133152	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central and northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, north and west and east Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133152	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species can be found in most reef environments except high energy regions but is preferably found on protected upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133152	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133152	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133153	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument, and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.	eng
133153	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also found in Brazil.	eng
133153	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in sheltered intermediate to deep reef environments from 10-102 m (Reed, 1985). It is sometimes found in cryptic habitats (e.g., crevices, under ledges), when sometimes found in shallower waters.	eng
133153	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Widely distributed at low abundances. This species is sometimes confused with other agariciids. There is no information available on whether or not the species has undergone population declines or increases.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133153	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species has suffered localized mortality from disease (white plague), bleaching, and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133154	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133154	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It may only have been recorded from the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.) and the Solomons (TNC).	eng
133154	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in protected, turbid reef environments, especially on steeply sloping surfaces. This species is found from 5-40 m.	eng
133154	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133154	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133155	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133155	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133155	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is the most widely distributed species in this genus occurring in exposed locations, protected back reef environments and in bays with high sediment loads. It is found from 0.5-55 m depth (Goreau and Goreau 1973); however, it is most common above 10 m (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). In certain environments, like in reef-crest environments, it can form monospecific stands.	eng
133155	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The most common of all <em>Diploria</em> species, and the dominant coral in Bermuda. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, although localized declines have taken place in some areas due to disease (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133155	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Of the three species of <em>Diploria</em>, this is the most susceptible to black band disease and white plague. Predation by <em>Stegastes planifrons</em> (Three-spot Damselfish) and <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) is also a major threat (Bruckner and Bruckner 1998, 2004). This species is also susceptible to localized impacts from bleaching, bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133156	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133156	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004). Palau and Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133156	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133156	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has a wide range, but is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133156	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133157	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species to the E.U. countries from Tongo was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133157	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern and northern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133157	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found in most reef environments. Sparse colonies of <em>S. vitensis</em> were found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 50 m. <br/><br/>This genus is rounded, disk-like and attached to the substrate by a broad or narrow stem. It is fairly common on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133157	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, and it is rare in the south-west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133157	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,500 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133158	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133158	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west eastern Australia, southern Japan, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133158	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes as an attached polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 3-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is over 1 m in diameter.	eng
133158	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133158	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 24% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species exhibited moderate bleaching in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133159	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133159	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Comoros, and Madagascar.	eng
133159	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species may form large colonies several meters in diameter and occurs in a wide variety of reef habitats. It usually forms rounded colonies in exposed shallow areas. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133159	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133159	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133160	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133160	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west, and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, central Pacific, and Palau (Randall 1995). It is also in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
133160	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs subtidally in almost all reef locations (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora austera</em> likely spawns annually in November in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 0.5-20 m depth.	eng
133160	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is usually very common throughout the Indo-Pacific (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133160	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1953.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133161	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133161	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Socotra (Yemen), eastern Africa, north Madagascar, Chagos Archipelago, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Line Islands. GBR and the Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133161	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores or shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a metre or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133161	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is common around mainland Japan. Generally a moderately common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133161	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is not exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133162	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133162	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133162	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow environments, including reef flats and mid-depth slopes. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133162	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133162	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133163	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133163	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is only found in Australia.	eng
133163	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores and southwestern Australian reefs. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133163	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133163	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133164	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133164	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia.  Also found in the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Timor Sea, Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.) and Sri Lanka (Wallace pers. comm.).	eng
133164	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on sheltered reef slopes and on deep sandy reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). It is found in free-living colonies or matted assemblages, intertwined with <em>Leptoseris papyracea</em> (Dana 1846). Found in assemblages among Leptoseris and other species. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
133164	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133164	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). However, this species not likely to be affected by COTS.<br/><br/>Found in inter-reef areas that may be trawled. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133165	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. Identified as a Species of Concern in the US under the Endangered Species Act; this does not provide any legal protection, but is designed to raise awareness about this species and promote proactive conservation efforts. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. The largest known population is in an area known as <em>Oculina</em> Banks has been protected as the <em>Oculina</em> Habitat Area of Particular Concern (HAPC) since 1984, prohibiting trawling, dredging, bottom longlines and anchoring. Legislation was enacted in 2000 for expansion of the <em>Oculina</em> HAPC to 1,029 km². The United States Coast Guard has been charged with surveillance and enforcement of the ban on bottom fishing and trawling. The primary difficulties in protecting these reefs and other deep-water Marine Protected Areas are their remoteness and time required to engage an enforcement vessel (Reed 2002). Consequently, some illegal fishing continues to occur that continues to impact remaining populations. <br/><br/>Small-scale restoration attempts have been undertaken in the <em>Oculina</em> reserve with varying success.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133165	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, much of the Gulf of Mexico (excluding the Flower Gardens), Florida, and the Bahamas. The northernmost record is off the coast of North Carolina at Cape Hatteras (Reed, 1980). The presence of this species in Bermuda requires confirmation.	eng
133165	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Colonies are found to depths of 152 m depth on limestone rubble, low-relief limestone outcrops, high-relief, steeply sloping prominences, and soft-bottom sloping habitats. Colonies are semi-isolated, patchy and low-growing in shallow water, or they form larger, massive coalescing aggregates (thickets or coppices) with substantial topographic relief in 50-100 m depth. In shallow waters (2-30m) the form is zooxanthellate, inhabiting limestone ledges. In deeper waters, an azooxanthellate form is known from the shelf edge off eastern Florida, USA from Ft. Pierce to Daytona (Reed 1980, 1983, 2002; Brooke and Young 2003).<br/><br/>The arbuscula form is reported to be tolerant of a wide temperature range and varying light levels. It occurs both in well lit areas and darker crevices from shallow subtidal at least to 25 m depth, but most common from 5-6 m depth. In shallow water it is found on jetties, submerged ships, and other artificial substrates. It also occurs on vertical surfaces and under overhangs. High abundances of macroalgae in shallow water appear to limit its occurrence (Miller 1995).	eng
133165	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is relatively common throughout its range, and may form dense monospecific assemblages and bioherms.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that habitat quality has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133165	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species is mechanical damage associated with fishing gear, including dredges, bottom long lines, trawl nets and anchors. There have been major losses of this coral off the east coast of Florida to North Carolina in an area known as the <em>Oculina</em> Banks, with over 50% of the population being decimated due to bottom-trawling (Koenig <em>et al</em>. 2005,Reed, in press). The species is not reported to be affected by disease and bleaching. There may be minor impacts associated with bio-eroding organisms such as endolithic sponges.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133166	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133166	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133166	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 3-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 63 cm in diameter. It may break into regenerating fragments.	eng
133166	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133166	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133167	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133167	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133167	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in all tropical reef environments. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely 1-2 m and 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It is very common on shallow reef flats in highly fluctuating environments, and is resistant to warming and high salinity. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of reefs, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to at least 50 m.	eng
133167	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133167	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In Malaysia and Singapore, of the <em>Cyphastrea</em> species it is one of the more susceptible to bleaching, but it recovers fast. <br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 633.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133168	conservation	Héctor, M., Guzmán, A., Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., & Edgar, G., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>In Mexico it is found in Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/><br/>In El Salvador it is found in Complejo Los Cobanos (Areas Naturales Prioritarias del SANP). <br/><br/>In Costa Rica it is found in Marino Las Baulas de Guanacaste National Park (IUCN category II); Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Golfito National Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Corcovado National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Canio Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/>In Panama it is found in Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Golfo de Chiriqui National Marine Park (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)), and Isla San Telmo and Isla San Jose private reserves (Las Perlas archipelago).<br/><br/>In Colombia it is found in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), and Gorgona Island Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/>In Ecuador it is found in Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).	eng
133168	distribution	Héctor, M., Guzmán, A., Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., & Edgar, G., 2008	Found in the South Pacific: Fanning Atoll, Kiribati Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000) and in American Samoa, New Caledonia, and Fiji (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in:<br/><br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Concepcion Bay to Coronados Islands; Carmen Island, Loreto and Agua Verde Bay; San Jose Island, La Paz and Cerralvo Island; Cabo Pulmo to Cabo San Luca (Baja California Sur); Jaltemba Island to Punta Mita, and from Isabel Island to Marias Islands (Nayari); Bandera Bay to Tenacatita Bay (Jalisco); Revillagigedo Islands; Manzanillo (Colima); Zihuatanejo to Acapulco (Guerrero); and Puerto Escondifo to Huatulco (Oaxaca) (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003).<br/><br/><strong>El Salvador</strong> (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahia Culebra, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriquí and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm., Glynn 1997, Maté 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Ensenada de Utría, Tebada, Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island (Reyes 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman 2005).	eng
133168	habitat	Héctor, M., Guzmán, A., Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Pavona gigantea</em> occurs widely on coral reefs and coral communities on rocks, except from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998) to 30 m. In several locations it can also grow in cryptic habitats (Chiriboga pers. comm., Guzman pers. comm.). <em>Pavona gigantea</em> along with <em>Pavona clavus</em> and <em>Porites lobata</em> can sometimes build reef frameworks or contribute to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). <em>P. gigantea</em> can reach more than one metre high and may build patches of hundreds of square metres (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1993), growth rates of <em>P. gigantea</em> vary between 0.83 and 0.86cm/yr. <br/><br/>Reproduction of <em>P. gigantea</em> is mainly sexual (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996) suggested that this species is a broadcast spawner. It is an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). However, <em>P. gigantea</em> has a high proportion of mixed sexual patterns, with gonochoric colonies usually predominating over hermaphrodites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). This pattern of sexuality could promote outbreeding during periods of high population abundance, but still allow sexual reproduction by selfing at times of severe population decline (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the earliest age of sexual reproduction for <em>P. gigantea</em> is 11 years. This may retard the recovery of populations, especially in areas that have experienced catastrophic mortality. Sexual recruitment of <em>P. gigantea</em> after the El Niño of 1982-83 was low, with only moderate recovery evident since 1983 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996) suggest that the factor which limits the number of corals reaching recruitment stages is probably mortality during planktonic development and settlement or shortly thereafter. According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), the low rates of sexual recruitment of agariciid corals critically slows recovery of eastern Pacific coral communities that have experienced severe disturbances.	eng
133168	population	Héctor, M., Guzmán, A., Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., & Edgar, G., 2008	According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. gigantea</em> is widespread and abundant within much of the region (Costa Rica, including Cocos Island, Panama, Colombia and throughout central and north Galápagos Archipelago), and in recent years populations appear to be increasing, and new recruits and colonies are more frequently observed. As an illustration, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported <em>P. gigantea</em> in 75 to 100% of studied sites in Coiba Archipelago, Panama. <br/><br/>Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered this species as abundant at the Gulf of California and nearby areas, and common from Nayarit to Oaxaca including the Revillagigedo Islands. According to Glynn and Ault (2000), <em>P. gigantea</em> is common at Panama, mainland Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), uncommon at Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) and mainland Ecuador, and rare at Clipperton Atoll.<br/><br/><em>Pavona gigantea</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTs) which sometimes affects the coral’s abundance (Cortes and Guzman 1998).<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133168	threats	Héctor, M., Guzmán, A., Chiriboga, A., Hickman, C., & Edgar, G., 2008	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). In general, after the 1982-83 El Niño event mean reef mortalities ranged between 50% and 75% at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama, and between 85% and 97% at the Gulf of Panama, Panama, and the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador, respectively (Glynn 1990, Glynn 2001). Sexual recruitment of P. gigantea into eastern Pacific coral communities disturbed by ENSO 1982-83 has been low, with only moderate recovery evident since 1983 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em> (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development, overexploitation and destructive fishing practice, inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (COTS), and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/><em>Pavona gigantea</em> colonies are preferred prey on by <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTS) which sometimes affects the coral’s abundance (Cortes and Guzman 1998). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133169	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133169	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133169	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found only on vertical surfaces of mid- to lower reef slopes. It forms crusts of up to approximately 25 cm across.	eng
133169	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon, but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133169	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133170	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Several colonies are now growing <em>ex situ</em>. Research on the resistance of <em>M. capitata</em> to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133170	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands, where it is known only from Kaneohe Bay on Oahu in the main island group, and in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands it is known in 2004 from four islands: Midway (two sites); Kure (two sites), Pearl and Hermes (two sites) and Lisianski (one site). The records from the Northwestern islands had previously been recorded as <em>Montipora turgescens</em>. However, inspection of photographs provided by Aeby (pers. comm.) indicate that the species in question is likely to be <em>M. diiatata</em>. Corals possibly belonging to this species have been reported from one location on Palmyra in the  Line Islands (Maragos and Obura), and this requires confirmation.	eng
133170	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It occurs in shallow back reef environments with strong surge. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133170	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The population on Oahu declined drastically to two known remaining colonies after a bleaching event in 1996, which have since increased to approximately ten. On the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, it remains common in a few locations, despite bleaching events in 2002 (Aeby pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133170	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In the northwest Hawaiian islands this species was more resistant to bleaching than <em>M. capitata</em>, which bleached and died. <em>M. dilatata</em> bleached and recovered (Aeby pers. comm.). It is also less susceptible to disease. The Oahu population crashed to near zero due to bleaching, and has had a very slow recovery.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133171	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133171	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).	eng
133171	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, typically on flat substrates. <em>Coeloseris</em> has a scattered distribution on most reefs, but is most likely to be found along the reef top and rim (Wood 1983). It is found from 1-5 m.	eng
133171	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133171	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	<em>C. mayeri</em> around Orpheus Island on the GBR were largely unaffected by the massive bleaching that occurred in 1998 (Baird and Marshall 1998). In Indonesia (northwest Java 1983,Bali 1997) the species has been observed as bleaching (Hoeksema pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133172	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133172	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133172	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, especially lower reef slopes, lagoons, and fringing reefs. In the Red Sea it is found in mid to deep (30-40 m) water (Sheppard and Sheppard, 1991).<br/><br/><em>Echinophyllia</em> is found in most fore reef areas, but has a preference for slightly shaded spots on the reef slopes (Wood 1983).	eng
133172	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>Colonies of <em>Echinophyllia</em> may reach a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983), including <em>E. aspera</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133172	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133173	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133173	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, east as far as Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133173	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes from mid reef to deeper water (30 m max). <br/><br/>Large colonies are usually found in more sheltered areas. May be a dominant species on protected horizontal substrates and on rocky outcrops in high latitude locations. Colonies often exceed 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983), and often cover many square meters.	eng
133173	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common, and where it is occurs it can form carpets (in Chagos, Shepperd pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133173	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27,550 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 400 pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133174	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133174	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Australia and Papua New Guinea. It is also found in the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.), Palau (Randall 1995), the Pitcairn Islands, and southern Tuamotu. This species has a patchy distribution.<br/><br/>Records from northern Indian Ocean are doubtful.	eng
133174	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments on rocky foreshores. This species is found from 2-15 m.	eng
133174	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is rare in the tropics, but common in subtropical localities of Eastern Australia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133174	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133175	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133175	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Oman, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, and French Polynesia.	eng
133175	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133175	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133175	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133176	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133176	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133176	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments to depths of 35 m. It is found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133176	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133176	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133177	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133177	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133177	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on inshore reefs and shallow rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. They form plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 7-20 m.	eng
133177	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon except in subtropical localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133177	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10.<br/><br/>This species exhibited locally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133178	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133178	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, south tip of India, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133178	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133178	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is uncommon with local abundance.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133178	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,975. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,850 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 3,000 pieces in 2006.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133179	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133179	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific and Polynesia.	eng
133179	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-24 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 14 cm.	eng
133179	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133179	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133180	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133180	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and South China Sea, and eastern Australia. New Caledonia (Conservation International Rapid Assessment Program (CI RAP)).	eng
133180	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on vertical rock faces protected from wave action. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133180	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133180	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133181	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133181	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found from 3-30 m depth.	eng
133181	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133181	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil et al. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133182	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133182	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995). <br/><br/>There is a discrepancy between records from Wallace (1999) and those illustrated in Veron (2000).	eng
133182	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs, especially exposed upper reef slopes and sand flats. This species is found on subtidal reef flats, reef edges and reef slopes to about 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.	eng
133182	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133182	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. A disease has been recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004) and therefore likely to be susceptible. <br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133183	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133183	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, South Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll. Southwestern Madagascar  (Fenner pers. comm.) Palau and S Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133183	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 2-33 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 18.5 cm in diameter.	eng
133183	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133183	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133184	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133184	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of Brazil.	eng
133184	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow water and is tolerant of turbid environments. <br/><br/>In Brazil, this species has been observed from very shallow waters (0.5 - 0.1 m above chart datum) to depths of 3.9 m. It was most abundant between 2.5-2.9 m. Observed colony size ranged from 1.3 - 65.3 cm. (Oigman-Pszczol and Creed 2004).	eng
133184	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>This species showed low overall mean cover of about 1.4% with up to 13% or relative coral cover. (Oigman-Pszczol and Creed 2004)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133184	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133185	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133185	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found on the coast of eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, the Red Sea, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Philippines, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the central Pacific.	eng
133185	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs on reef crests, outer reef flats and upper slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133185	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133185	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133186	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133186	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133186	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It occurs especially on upper and mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133186	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in the Coral Sea, and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133186	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133187	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133187	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites arnaudi</em> was regarded as an endemic species within the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, but the species is now also known to occur throughout the central south Pacific. In the ETP, this species is primarily found near the Revillagigedo Islands and Clipperton Atoll.	eng
133187	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes or rocky foreshores exposed to strong wave action. <em>Porites arnaudi</em> is distributed at depths from 7 to 37 m, especially in steep rocky slopes or rocky foreshores exposed to strong wave action (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet 2000). <em>P. arnaudi</em> forms tiered plates that frequently overgrow other species, especially <em>P. lobata</em>, <em>Pavona varians</em> and <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996; Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet 2000 ). Reyes-Bonilla and Carricart-Gavinet (2000) suggested that the fishes <em>Arothron meleagris</em> and <em>Melichthys niger</em> may feed on <em>P. arnaudi</em>.	eng
133187	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common in the south central Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) report <em>Porites arnaudi</em> as a rare species (i.e., found in less than 20% of the reef) but sometimes locally abundant at the Revillagigedo Islands. At Clipperton Atoll, this coral may be prevalent on some upper seaward slopes (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). It was not abundant at the southeast site, but comprised to 7.4% mean cover at 16 m (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133187	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133188	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133188	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. This species is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133188	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments, can go deep, turbid waters. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and in lagoons. It can be found also on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133188	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon in the western Indian Ocean, it is rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133188	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133189	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133189	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands.	eng
133189	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs on subtidal reef flats, reef edge, and reef slope from 3 m to about 15 m depth (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133189	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133189	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133190	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133190	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Thailand, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
133190	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow tropical reef environments and on rocky foreshores. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133190	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133190	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133191	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133191	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea. It is recently described, and has probably been misidentified in the past. It might occur more widely.	eng
133191	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow protected embayments, and also at mid depths. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133191	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133191	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133192	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133192	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also recorded from Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133192	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. This species is found from 3-40 m. <br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133192	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133192	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 349.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133193	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133193	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific region. It has been reported in Fiji. It can be found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Southeast Asia and Polynesia, including southern Japan, Australia, and throughout the Coral Sea to American Samoa. The largest blue coral stand in the world is thought to be off of Ishigaki Island, in southwest Japan (Zann and Bolton 1985). <br/><br/>Specific records include:<br/>Madagascar, Lakshadweep, western Thailand, northwestern Australia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Zann and Bolton (1985) present a detailed map of the distribution in the Pacific, which includes the Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Wallis & Futuna, western Samoa, American Samoa, Tuvalu, the Marshalls, Micronesia and the area between Micronesia and the GBR, also Taiwan, Marianas, Bonin, and Ryukyu Islands of Japan.	eng
133193	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reef (generally less than 2 m), exposed reef locations, reef flats and intertidal zones (Richards, pers. comm.). Off the coast of Kenya, this species can occur in generally disturbed or marginal habitat (Hoeksma, pers. comm.).	eng
133193	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This coral is generally common throughout its range, although it can also be locally rare. It is known to form large colonies up to 10 km long in Japan and Indonesia (Zann and Bolton 1985, Foster <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is rare in the main archipelago of Fiji, but is considered common near the outlier island of Rotuma, common in Tuvalu, and abundant in Kiribati (Zann, pers comm., Lovell, pers comm.). This species is dominant in the Marshall Islands, prevalent in Kiribati, and uncommon in Ofu lagoon pools (Fenner pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133193	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is collected for the curio and jewellery trade (dried skeletons give blue colour), and the aquarium trade. In 2005, 2,868 pieces of live and 5,787 pieces of raw <em>Heliopora coerulea</em> were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers. comm.). <br/><br/>The huge <em>Heliopora</em> stands that extend for almost 10 km in Banda Aceh, Indonesia were the most damaged species of all corals due to the earthquake (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133194	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133194	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, northern Maldives, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwest to northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133194	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may be a dominant species of shallow mud reef flats. This species is found to at least 5 m.	eng
133194	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133194	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is reasonably widespread, and  is often a conspicuous survivor on reef tops following disturbances, including bleaching. It therefore appears to be more resilient to threats than some other members of the genus. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,889.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133195	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133195	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the southwest and northern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><strong>Red Sea</strong><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133195	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow rocky foreshores and reefs. This species is found from 1-15 m depth. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133195	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean, and it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133195	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This growth form is moderately susceptible to predation by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133196	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133196	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Rodrigues, Thailand, Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, American Samoa, Line Islands, Hawaii, Johnston Atoll, and Pitcairn.	eng
133196	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical and subtropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper and mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133196	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133196	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133197	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133197	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species has a widespread distribution within the Indo-West Pacific and Eastern Tropical Pacific regions.<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, this species is found in <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: mainland Costa Rica including Cocos Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Colombia</strong>: mainland Colombia including Malpelo Island (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). <br/><br/>Glynn and Ault (2000) reported <em>P. verrucosa</em> throughout the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, while Glynn (2003) later recorded this species as present on the mainland coast of Ecuador. The presence of <em>P. verrucosa</em> in the Galápagos Islands awaits confirmation (Hickman 2005). Nevertheless, <em>P. verrucosa</em> is not reported by Cortes and Jimenez (2003), Mate (2003), or Zapata and Vargas-Angel (2003) in Costa Rica, Panama, or Colombia, respectively. Additionally, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered this species as a synonym of <em>P. elegans</em>. Reyes-Bonilla (2002) discussed the uncertain taxonomic status of <em>P. verrucosa</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>, and suggested that more detailed morphological and genetic studies are needed to clarify the issue of whether they should be synonymised. However, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported <em>Pocillopora verrucosa</em> and <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> as valid species.	eng
133197	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments from exposed reef fronts to protected fringing reefs and coral communities on rocky substrata (Guzmán pers. comm.), at depths of 1 to 54 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <em>P. verrucosa</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and the Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The maximum size is 30 cm across.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. verrucosa</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133197	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no specific population information available for this species in the Indo-West Pacific.<br/><br/>According to Glynn and Ault (2000), the relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora verrucosa</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: Gulf of California (Mexico); Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), and Panama. <br/><br/>Common: mainland Mexico, and mainland Colombia and Malpelo Island.<br/><br/>Uncommon: mainland Costa Rica, and mainland Ecuador.<br/><br/>Rare: Cocos Island<br/><br/>Reyes-Bonilla (2003) recorded this species as abundant throughout Mexico. By contrast, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. verrucosa</em> is an uncommon species throughout its range within the region.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133197	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 5,600 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, El Niño and presumably climate change are threats. Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133198	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133198	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in Sri Lanka, South-east Asia, Micronesia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) to New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).	eng
133198	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes protected from strong wave action, generally to depths of 25 m.	eng
133198	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but it can be locally common (Sheppard pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133198	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133199	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133199	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from one site on the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133199	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is recently described and is little known. This species is found from 1 m to at least 10 m.	eng
133199	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is moderately common in its only known site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133199	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133200	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133200	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133200	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments, but especially in lagoons. This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133200	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133200	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133201	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133201	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and east Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133201	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species lives as a free-living single polyp in reef slopes. Maximum size is 18 cm in diameter. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). It may also reproduce asexually by budding (Hoeksema pers. comm.).	eng
133201	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133201	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133202	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Survey work is needed to determine the distribution of this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133202	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea. It is recently described, and its range is possibly not yet fully known.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133202	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments in bays or reef slopes protected from strong wave action. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133202	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133202	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133203	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133203	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133203	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes below 40 metres and subtidal, protected slopes, shelves, 25-70 m (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133203	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species may be locally common. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133203	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133204	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133204	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133204	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.	eng
133204	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133204	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133205	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133205	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and north and east Papua New Guinea. The Solomons (TNC).	eng
133205	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes and enclosed embayments, especially with turbid water. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. teres</em> grows to around 30 cm (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995). <em>P. teres</em> is one of the less conspicuous <em>Pectinia</em> species.	eng
133205	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133205	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133206	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133206	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean. It is also found in Mauritius (Richards pers. comm.) and Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133206	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m.	eng
133206	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133206	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133207	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133207	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133207	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on upper reef slopes, back reef margins and fringing reefs. This species is found from 8-20 m.<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>Spirobranchus</em> species are highly prevalent on <em>Acropora clathrata</em> (Floros <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
133207	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133207	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Particularly susceptible to COTS and physical disturbance (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133208	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133208	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-West Pacific excluding Hawaii and the Far East. This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133208	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in widely in all reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, and rarely at 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133208	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species over a wide range of environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133208	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 8. This species exhibited moderate to high bleaching and moderate mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133209	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133209	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan, western India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Island, and Line Islands.	eng
133209	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.	eng
133209	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133209	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133210	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133210	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean,  and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133210	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanov, 2002). It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons to 40 m. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate.	eng
133210	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is one of the most common faviids, especially in high latitudes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133210	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was one. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133211	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133211	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, the South China Sea, and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
133211	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments where diversity is high, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133211	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133211	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133212	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P. and Dry Tortugas National Park. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>There is a need to evaluate the impacts associated with trawls and fishtraps in habitats where this coral occurs. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133212	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico (but not in the Flower Gardens), Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is unclear whether descriptions of this coral in the Gulf of Mexico are actually of this species and not of <em>O. varicosa</em>.	eng
133212	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs predominantly in soft-bottom habitats, including seagrass beds, branching coral thickets, sloping fore reef and back reef environments, in deeper lagoon habitats, and in the roots and sediments of mangrove islands. Found from 0.5-30 m, but most abundant from 1-15 m. This species is generally resistant to high rates of sedimentation, salinity and temperature changes.	eng
133212	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is widespread in soft-bottom habitats, and may be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133212	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	A major threat affecting this species could be bottom-tending fishing gear (trawls, traps, longlines). Not reported to be affected by bleaching or disease. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133213	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133213	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and east Australia, Japan and East China Sea, and Samoa. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133213	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes as an attached, encrusting polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-20 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 81 cm.	eng
133213	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133213	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133214	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133214	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, Great Barrier Reef, Papau New Guinea, the Andaman Is and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), in the Marianas, (Randall).	eng
133214	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Rare to uncommon in Randall (1995).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133214	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Perhaps not particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133215	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133215	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll, northwest Hawaiian islands.	eng
133215	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and can occur on rubble and sand. The depth range is from 1-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is a single free-living polyp with a maximum of 8.5 cm diameter. Generation length is five years.	eng
133215	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is widespread and moderately common throughout its range. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133215	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133216	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133216	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this species is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and Guerrero (Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Santa Elena, Culebra Bay, Brasilito Bay, Sámara, Cabo Blanco, Bahía Ballena, Punta Leona, Manuel Antonio, Punta Dominical, Punta Uvita, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulf of Panama and Chiriquí (Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, and La Plata Island in mainland Ecuador, and throughout the Galápagos Islands (Glynn and Wellington 1983, Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Hickman 2005, Guzmán and Cortés 1993); Clipperton Atoll (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
133216	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is frequently a dominant species of back reef margins, lagoons and some fringing reefs, and can be found generally to depths of 30 m. <br/><br/>It is one of the predominant framework builders (Glynn 2000), sometimes building monospecific reef frameworks or contributing to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). <em>Porites lobata</em> is a relatively slow-growing species with reported growth rates of 8.4 mm/year in Costa Rica and 8.1 mm/year in the Galápagos; however it can grow as fast as 14 to 19 mm/year during the first few years (Guzmán and Cortes 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). <br/><br/><em>P. lobata</em> utilizes a gonochoristic reproductive strategy (except from Caño Island, Costa Rica), and is presumably a broadcaster spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggested that eastern Pacific populations appeared to be reproductively active over multiple annual intervals, including periods of relatively low temperature. According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994), fecundity can vary between regions; <em>P. lobata</em> has higher fecundities at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, than in the Galápagos Islands, where water temperatures are lower and more seasonally variable. Moreover, Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1994) suggest that <em>P. lobata</em> reproduces twice per year in thermally high and stable environments. Fecundity of this coral appears to benefit from moderate sea warming events, but may decline dramatically during unusually strong thermal anomalies (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). After 1983, observations of sexual recruitment have been rare to infrequent in the eastern Pacific; however sexual recruitment has been observed in some areas of the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). The almost complete absence of sexual recruitment for this species in the eastern Pacific may be due to high larval mortality in the water column; as well as increased levels of competition with benthic alga, and increased densities of grazers and bioeroders following the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/><em>Porites lobata</em> can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). In the eastern Pacific the incidental feeding activities of the triggerfish <em>Pseudobalistes naufragium</em> can generate fragments that survive to form new colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). This form of fragmentation is common in Costa Rica and Panama, but uncommon in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Fragmentation also occurs by initial weakening of colonies by bioeroders; <em>P. lobata</em> colonies possess high densities of boring bivalves (<em>Lithophaga</em> spp.), which erode the skeletal structure, a process that can also lead to fragmentation (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>At least eight fish species feed on live corals, with their feeding strategies ranging from removing mainly live tissue and causing little damage to the skeleton, to abrading or breaking apart colonies in the feeding process, such as during feeding of <em>Arothron meleagris</em> and <em>Pseudobalistes naufragium</em> (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001). <em>Porites lobata</em> is commonly grazed by the puffer <em>Arothron meleagris</em> (Guzmán and Robertson 1989, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
133216	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is probably the most common <em>Porites</em>, especially in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. According to Guzmán and Cortés (1993), <em>P. lobata</em> is one of the most important hermatypic coral from the south section of the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. Additionally, Cortés and Guzmán (1998), considered <em>P. lobata</em> as the most important reef framework builder in the Caño and Cocos Islands, Costa Rica.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133216	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>Porites lobata</em> was greatly affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Guzmán pers. comm.) at Caño Island, Costa Rica, where live cover declined by about 68% (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1987). Populations were even more reduced in Cocos Island (to 3%) (Guzmán and Cortes 1992), but had recovered after 20 years (Guzmán and Cortes 2006). High mortalities (95-100%) were also reported in the Galápagos from many sites (e.g., San Cristobal and Santa Cruz), and high partial mortality (<1-18% live tissue remaining) was found at most sites (Glynn 1990, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific, this species exhibited moderate bleaching and mortality (10-40%) in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year; annual collection quota for <em>P. lobata</em> is 3,000 (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133217	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133217	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133217	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is a free-living form that inhabits sandy environments in channels between reef spurs, at the base of the fore reef, in some deeper lagoon habitats, and seagrass beds, and sloping soft-bottom communities in front of and back of the reef. It occurs from 5-80 m (Reed 1985), but more abundant from 15-20 m. This species does well in areas of high turbidity and high sedimentation.	eng
133217	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is relatively common throughout its range; usually at low abundances, but moderately abundant at some localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133217	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species may be susceptible to disease (white plague and black band), due to observations of these in <em>M. meandrites</em>, and bleaching. It is also at risk from storms, especially in shallower waters, as a result of tumbling, burial and removal.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133218	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133218	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in eastern Indonesia, Philippines, north coast of Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
133218	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found in lagoons and on lower reef slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. It may form small fields. This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
133218	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133218	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133219	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133219	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found throughout the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133219	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid or sheltered reef environments. This species is found from 8-30 m.	eng
133219	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare, but conspicuous. However, this species may form very large carpets and can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133219	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 14,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133220	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133220	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Kenya, Tanzania, northern Madagascar, Andaman Islands, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn. Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133220	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133220	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133220	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133221	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133221	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from Qalhat in the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133221	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The shallow water colonies kept the branching pattern but branches were shorter and sturdier; found also on soft substrate in the form of coralliths (Claereboudt 2006). This species can be found from 10-18 m.	eng
133221	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133221	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133222	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133222	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical and Sub-tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic west Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Far Eastern Pacific, and Easter Island (Glynn 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/> <br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species has been reported from: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 1998, Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez-Perez 1998, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>El Salvador</strong>: Del Amor beach, Los Cóbanos (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Bahia Culebra, Bahia Brasilito, Samara, Cabo Blanco, Punta Leona, Herradura, Manuel Antonio, Punta Uvita, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007, Guzmán and Cortés 2007); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Maté 2003, Glynn 1997, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island, Ensenada de Utría and Tebada (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
133222	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in all shallow water habitats from exposed reef fronts to mangrove swamps and wharf piles. This species is found in mono-specific stands or multi-species reefs throughout its range from near the surface to a maximum depth of 20 m. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002) This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0.5-6 m of Panama (Sheppard 1982). This species is relatively tolerant of sedimentation and low salinity as long as there is adequate water motion. Colonies reproduce by fragmentation and by sexual reproduction (broadcast spawning) (Hodgson 1998).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the species has not been reported from mangrove environments (Cortés and Guzmán pers. comm.) but it is one of the major reef building species, forming intermeshing compact frameworks that can attain 2-3 m in relief (Glynn 2001). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortés 1993). Reported growth rates of <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> vary substantially between locations in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, from 1.27 cm per year in Colombia to 3.96 cm per year in Panama (Guzmán and Cortes 1993).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. damicornis</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/><em>P. damicornis</em> is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991) with the capacity to function as a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991), larval settlement in the Galápagos Islands presumably has been the predominant mode of recruitment, and the only observed form of recruitment in areas that experienced high mortality (97-100%) in 1983. Asexual reproduction by fragmentation has been reported as an important mechanism for reef recovery in Panama (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). <em>P. damicornis</em>, like other pocilloporid species in the eastern Pacific, has low rates of recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Histological evidence indicates that spawning is likely to occur during a few days around the new moon (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Reproductive activity in the eastern Pacific its related to local thermal regimes, with a generally higher incidence of gravid corals at sites with stable, warm water conditions, or during warming periods in areas that experience significant seasonal variation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1991) conclude that moderate El Nino warming can stimulate gametogenesis in Galápagos pocilloporid corals.<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133222	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>Specific information for the Indo-West Pacific populations may be available since this is a widely studied species.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Abundant: from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Panama, Costa Rica and Colombia (Cortes and Guzmán, pers. comm.; Glynn and Ault 2000). Highly recovering in Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortes 2001) and in Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Common: Gulf of California (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Uncommon: Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), and Ecuador including the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>Rare: Del Amor beach, El Salvador (Reyes-Bonilla and Barraza 2003).<br/><br/>Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988) report high rates of pocilloporid coral mortality across the eastern Pacific following the 1982/83 El Niño, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). According to Cortés and Guzmán (pers. comm.), Pocillopora damicornis seems to be very abundant and recovering in Panama, Costa Rica and Colombia, despite severe coral mortality after the ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98).<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003). No live <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em> has been seen in the once coral-filled lava rock pools at Punta Espinosa, Fernandina, Galápagos Islands since 1983 (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>In mainland Ecuador at Sucre Island, Machalilla, the predominant frame-building species before 1983 were <em>Pocillopora elegans</em> and <em>Pocillopora damicornis</em>, with the two species generating a rigid framework that covered over 1 ha of bottom (Glynn 2003). However, by 1991 the reef had declined to dispersed colonies of <em>P. damicornis</em> and <em>P. elegans</em> (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133222	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is the most commonly harvested species in the area. Like other coral species it is collected to be used directly as construction material, to make lime, which is used to make concrete and to sell as curios. Live corals are collected for sale to the aquarium trade (Hodgson 1998).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 6,000 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15,321.<br/><br/>This species exhibited variable bleaching (0-50%) and low mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133223	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133223	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread and occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Yemen, Japan (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133223	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is restricted to shallow fringing reefs and upper reef slopes where <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity is high and it is subtidal (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133223	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon, but distinctive. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133223	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133224	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133224	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133224	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs primarily on the fore reef, but is also found in back reef environments. Occurs from 0.5-80 m (Reed 1985), and is most common from 8-30 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Pinzon and Weil in review). Tolerates high turbidity and high sediment influx. The species has the potential to undergo recovery, because of its observed good recruitment success.	eng
133224	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common throughout its range, with moderate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133224	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat is disease (white plague), which has resulted in localized mortalities (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997,Richardson <em>et al</em>. 1998,Weil 2005). Also susceptible to other diseases (black band), bleaching, and localized predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) (Bruckner and Bruckner, 1998). During intensive bleaching episodes, there have been reports of colony mortality; however, the species also exhibits annual patterns of bleaching from which the colonies exhibit high recovery rates.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133225	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133225	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan islands and the East China Sea, the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133225	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all parts of the reefs, particularly in sheltered areas. They can form large colonies up to 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 2-35 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133225	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is moderately common and widespread within the central Pacific. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133225	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 228.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133226	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133226	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
133226	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes. This species is found from 4-15 m.	eng
133226	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133226	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is likely collected for the aquarium trade under a different name.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133227	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133227	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, north-west Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133227	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133227	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. Rare in Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133227	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species may be targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish is unknown.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133228	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133228	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
133228	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It has only been found attached to sandstone rock in shallow water. This species is found from 5-15 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133228	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is the dominant species of Ôjioya Port, Tanegashima, Japan, the only place where this species has been found in Japan. This species is extremely rare elsewhere (Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133228	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133229	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Research on the resistance of M. capitata to bleaching stress could also be extended to this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133229	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is endemic to Hawaii and is found on all of the Hawaiian Islands apart from in Johnston Atoll (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133229	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments on reef flats and slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133229	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in Hawaii (Fenner pers. comm.). There is no evidence of a population decline for this species (Aeby pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133229	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching, though this species has not been heavily impacted so far. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The small range of this species renders it at increased risk of extinction to any future threats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133230	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133230	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and the Kermadec Islands (Brook 1991, Hoesksema 1989).	eng
133230	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in soft substrata on lower reef slope and reef bases. The depth range is from 20-36 m (Hoeksema 1990).This is a single free-living polyp. It reproduces asexually by fragmentation. It has a maximum size of 8 cm diameter.	eng
133230	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species widespread and uncommon.  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133230	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133231	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133231	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.)	eng
133231	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on both exposed and protected reef environments. This species is found occasionally on most reefs, especially on upper reef slopes or in areas exposed to swell or currents. Colonies generally grow to a large size, and it is common to find some several meters in diameter. <br/><br/>Small gobies are often associated with this coral and can be seen lying on the surface or moving around in search of food (Wood 1983). This species is found in the outer reef channel and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133231	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon, but sometimes very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133231	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 450 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,353.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133232	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133232	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, South China Sea, and eastern Australia.	eng
133232	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133232	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133232	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133233	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133233	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), and Osprey Reef Coral Sea (Wallace pers. comm.), and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).	eng
133233	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons, also on patch reefs, typically seen between 3 and 12 m depth (Wallace 1999). It is also found on submerged reef flats (Richards pers. comm.). This species may be found to 15 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133233	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at two sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133233	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1282.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133234	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133234	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133234	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on sloping rock faces. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133234	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133234	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133235	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133235	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the eastern Indonesia, Philippines and eastern Australia. Also found in Fiji (Ed Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133235	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is usually found on upper slopes and outer flats of subtropical reefs. The maximum size is 50 cm. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133235	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare in the tropics, and it is uncommon in subtropical localities. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133235	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133236	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133236	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and south China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133236	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on lower reef slopes and on vertical walls.	eng
133236	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133236	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133237	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133237	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Cabedelo (06°58'S to 034°50'W) to north of Esprito Santo, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic.	eng
133237	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is widely distributed through most reef environments from 0.5-95 m depth (Goreau and Wells 1967), with peak abundance from 10-30 m depth (Szmant <em>et al</em>. 1997). Colonies have been observed to 113 m depth (Reed 1985). Although this coral has a high tolerance for turbid and silty environments, this species is not adapted to eutrophic conditions (Tomascik and Sander 1987).	eng
133237	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common and tends to be the more abundant of the <em>Montastraea</em> species in environments with moderate sedimentation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133237	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to this species are disease (black band disease and white plague) and bleaching, although the proportion of colonies affected is generally lower than that observed in the other <em>Montastraea</em> species (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997). Localized threats include bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, other diseases, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133238	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133238	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Comoros, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southeast India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133238	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in most turbid water habitats, and also in clear waters. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely at 12-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133238	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133238	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a wide range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133239	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133239	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133239	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in all Acropora assemblages, but especially those of upper reef slopes. It is found subtidally on reef edge, slope, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133239	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 70 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133239	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,652.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133240	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/><br/><strong>México</strong>: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Manuel Antonio National Park (IUCN category II); Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia); Golfito National Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Corcovado National Park (IUCN category II); Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)); Golfo de Chiriqui National Marine Park (IUCN category II), and Isla San Jose and Isla San Telmo Private Reserves (Las Perlas archipelago).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)), Isla Gorgona Natural National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galápagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.	eng
133240	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, Southern, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within Eastern Tropical Pacific: <strong>México</strong>: Baja California Sur (San José Island, La Paz, Cerralvo Island and from Cabo Pulmo to Cabo San Lucas), Revillagigedo Archipelago, Nayarit, Jalisco (from Banderas Bay to Tenacatita Bay), Colima (Manzanillo) and Oaxaca (from Puerto Escondido to Huatulco) (Reyes-Bonilla and Lopez 1998, Calderon-Aguilera 2005, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Perez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Islas Murciélago Archipelago, Bahía Culebra, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island and Cocos Island (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>: throughout the Gulf of Chiriquí and the Gulf of Panamá (Holst and Guzman 1993, Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo, Gorgona and Ensenada de Utría (Glynn and Ault 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island, La Plata Island and throughout the Galápagos Island (Glynn 2003); <strong>Clipperton</strong> (Reyes-Bonilla 2002).	eng
133240	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It occurs on reef slopes. It commonly occurs in habitats exposed to currents from 2-15 m. It may form large fields.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pavona clavus</em> occurs broadly on coral reefs and coral communities on rocks, except from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998; Guzmán pers. comm.); in some locations the species can also occur in cryptic habitats (Chiriboga pers. comm.), on soft bottoms (Guzmán pers. comm.), and in habitats exposed to currents Veron (2000). <em>P. clavus</em> occurs as isolated colonies or can develop large patches (Guzmán pers. comm.). <em>P. clavus</em>, along with <em>Pavona gigantea</em> and <em>Porites lobata</em>, can sometimes build reef frameworks or assist pocilloporid corals in reef building (Glynn 2001). According to Cortés and Guzmán (1993), the growth rates of <em>P. clavus</em> vary between 0.9 and 1.3 cm/yr. <em>Pavona clavus</em> colonies are preferred prey for <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, which can limit the coral’s abundance (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).	eng
133240	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is common species in habitats exposed to currents.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pavona clavus</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as: <br/><br/>Abundant: Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 2001), and Coiba Archipelago, several islands in gulfs of Chiriqui and Panamá (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Common: Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003), Panamá (Guzmán pers. comm.), Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzmán pers. comm.), Ecuador (Glynn 2003) and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago, except at Fernandina and the west side of Isabela (Glynn 2003, Hickman 2005, Edgar and Hickman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), populations of Pavona clavus are probably increasing in recent decades after the severe impacts of 1982-83 El Niño event. Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), reported <em>P. clavus</em> as an abundant species at Coiba Archipelago (present in 75-100% of the sites).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133240	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.	eng
133241	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133241	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Known only from the type location in Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
133241	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on moderately exposed upper slopes with high coverage between other Pectinidae, <em>Porites</em> species, and <em>Acropora</em> staghorn along the reef edge (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133241	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133241	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133242	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133242	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific. Papua New Guinea  (Fenner 2003) Milne Bay at the east end (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is present in: <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago and Uva Island, Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzman <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maté 2003a,b), and Las Perlas archipelago (11 sites), Gulf of Panamá (Glynn and Mate 1997, Maté 2003a,b, Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Bahía Culebra, Golfo Dulce, Isla del Caño, Parque Nacional Marino Ballena (Cortes and Guzman 1998, Jiménez 2001, Cortéz and Jiménez 2003, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
133242	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. <em>P. frondifera</em> has a compact foliose morphology and is an inhabitant of shallow sheltered reefs (Maté 2003 a,b). In Costa Rica and Panamá, it commonly occurs in reef rubble areas where it can be found as attached colonies (Maté 2003). Generally found in shallow depths, between three and 13 m (Maté 2003b), this coral can also occur amongst coral reef and coral communities on rocks in depths to 20 m (Guzmán pers. comm.). This species can be found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>The maximum size is approximately 50 cm. However, size can vary from small colonies of a few centimetres, which usually occur free or lightly attached to substrata, to hemispheric attached colonies larger than 1 m in diameter (Guzmán and Cortés 1998, Maté 2003b, Guzman pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Pavona</em> is a fairly common coral that is found in most reef habitats. Some of the massive colonies are large, and the foliaceous ones may form extensive tracts (Wood 1983). This genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching compared to other genera (Gleason 1993).	eng
133242	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is generally a common species.<br/><br/>Glynn and Ault (2000) and Glynn (1997) have classified <em>P. frondifera</em> as a rare species in Costa Rica and Panama, perhaps due to a limited spatial survey (Guzman, pers. comm.). In addition, Maté (2003a,b) reported <em>P. frondifera</em> from only one location in the Gulf of Panama (single clone), and two sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí. Moreover, Glynn and Ault (2000) considered that <em>P. frondifera</em> should be considered as an endangered species, since the known populations consist of ten or fewer colonies. Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), in recent decades the relative abundance of <em>Pavona frondifera</em> within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has increased, and can be categorized as common on many locations within the Gulfs of Chiriquí and Panamá, Panamá, as well as in Costa Rica. In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported P. frondifera as a common species in Coiba Archipelago, Panama, occurring at 25 to 50% of sites. Finally, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) reported <em>P. frondifera</em> at 11 sites in Las Perlas archipelago and at 60 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133242	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Threats presumably include ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133243	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133243	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Vietnam, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northeastern Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Phoenix Islands.	eng
133243	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel and inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133243	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133243	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133244	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133244	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Marianas Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133244	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133244	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133244	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133245	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133245	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern tip of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia and also in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133245	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of shallow, tropical reef environments, including lagoon margins. It is also found on high latitude reefs and on rocky foreshores. Sparse colonies of <em>M. spongodes</em> are found at 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133245	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133245	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread in tropical and subtropical habitats, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,255. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133246	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133246	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133246	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments. This species has a large tolerance range for all reef environments, e.g. differing depths and light, including deep water and reef flats. This species is found to 50 m.	eng
133246	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is the most common <em>Acanthastrea</em> and is very widespread.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133246	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133247	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133247	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean. It is also found in New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). There is some doubt about Pacific records (Lovell pers. comm.), and Cocos-Keeling (Wallace 1999).	eng
133247	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on sheltered reef slopes. This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133247	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133247	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133248	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133248	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133248	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef margins exposed to strong wave action, intertidal or just subtidal reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-8 m.	eng
133248	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in the central Indo-Pacific. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 30 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133248	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133249	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133249	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and eastern Australia. However, records from the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf/Arabian Sea are doubtful.	eng
133249	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in back reef margins, lagoons, and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133249	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133249	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133250	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133250	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
133250	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical, wave washed back margins of reefs, and found intertidally on reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0-12 m.	eng
133250	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 43 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133250	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133251	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133251	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the southwest Indian Ocean.	eng
133251	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found only in shallow water exposed to wave action. The maximum size is approximately 20 cm across. This species is found to 10 m.	eng
133251	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon, except on the edge of reef flats exposed to wave action. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133251	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133252	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133252	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. It is also found in the central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.), Line Island (Wallace 1999), and Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
133252	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in lagoons and other protected subtidal habitats (Wallace 1999), subtidal, and protected sandy lagoons (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 1-30 m.	eng
133252	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common at Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs of south-east Australia, and it is rare elsewhere.  Common in Rongelap Atoll, Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.). Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133252	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is very popular in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133253	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133253	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific and Fiji.	eng
133253	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes protected from wave action and turbid environments. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133253	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is relatively uncommon throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133253	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,800 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133254	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133254	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is also found in south central Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm., Richards pers. comm.). Known from the Lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
133254	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes and submerged walls, 15-25 m (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133254	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133254	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is in an area likely to be heavily impacted by anthropogenic disturbance. This species has a generally low reproductive capacity and therefore would be slow to recover. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), although this is a deepwater species not likely to be heavily impacted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is targeted in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 175.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133255	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed to clarify the status of the genera (<em>Undaria</em> and <em>Agaricia</em>) and of the morphospecies within the A. agaricites species complex (see Taxonomy). (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133255	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133255	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in fore reef environments, channels, and deep lagoons, from 5-20 m.	eng
133255	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Common, but less abundant than <em>A. agaracites</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133255	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	White plague has been responsible for mass mortality events in this species, and it has suffered high mortality from intensive bleaching (e.g., Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands, and eastern Caribbean; E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.). Localized threats include hurricanes, sedimentation, pollution, and possibly other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133256	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133256	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific and Micronesia. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133256	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments. <em>E. glabrescens</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may be found from 1-35 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133256	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is generally found to be common throughout most of its range, but rare in the Red Sea. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133256	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 6,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133257	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133257	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133257	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found from 1-43 m depth, and is most common from 2-15 m in lagoon and fore-reef environments (Goreau and Wells 1967).	eng
133257	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common in most reef environments, but at low abundances. In certain localized areas, this species can be the most abundant brain coral. There are no known instances of widespread population declines, but localized mass mortality events have been recorded (e.g., Bruckner and Bruckner 1997).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133257	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species is black band disease and white plague, with localized impacts from bleaching, bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133258	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133258	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133258	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found in protected reef environments except in high energy environments. <em>P. sinuosa</em> is commonly found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 3-35 m.	eng
133258	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common and very widely distributed.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133258	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 410 pieces in 2,005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133259	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133259	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Oman, Southeast Asia, South China Sea, Vietnam, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to northwestern Australia, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Palau, and Fiji.	eng
133259	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow turbid water, and also in clear water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133259	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common and sometimes a dominant species, especially on reef flats, and protected upper reef slopes.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133259	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133260	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133260	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic southwest Pacific.	eng
133260	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in tropical, inter-reef environments and on soft substrates around continental islands, generally to depths of 40 m. It is frequently it is found with other free-living corals: <em>Heteropsammia</em> (Dendrophylliidae), <em>Heterocyathus</em> (Caryophylliidae) and the fungiids, <em>Cycloseris</em> and <em>Diaseris</em>. Large colonies are found only in certain protected, shallow island embayments. This is a small coral seldom over 20cm in diameter. <br/><br/>It is rarely found among dense coral, but prefers soft sandy or muddy substrates on sheltered reef slopes or in lagoons (Wood 1983). It has a depth range of 16-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef and has been found at 17 m of New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is typically found as solitary unattached colonies but occasionally forms massive colonies.	eng
133260	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread and uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133260	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 51,000 live pieces in 2005 plus 10,000 under the name of <em>Wellsophyllia radiata</em>. Fiji had an export quota of 6334 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133261	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133261	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea.	eng
133261	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments exposed to wave action. It may form smaller crusts up to 40 cm. This species is found from 0.5-15 m.	eng
133261	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133261	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133262	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133262	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific, as well as in the Arabian Sea (Claerboudt 2006).	eng
133262	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species may form single species stands or individual colonies on sloping reef faces in clear or turbid water, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133262	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133262	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133263	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133263	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in East Africa, and the southwest and the northern Indian Ocean. This species is also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133263	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133263	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133263	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133264	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is listed in CITES and included in MPAs, including the Great Barrier Reef MPA.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133264	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia.	eng
133264	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	It is associated with <em>Halimeda</em> banks at over 20 metres depth. This species is known from dredge samples taken between 55 and 130 m (Wallace 1999).	eng
133264	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133264	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	A deepwater species and therefore less likely to be susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish predation or bleaching. However, it is fragile and would be susceptible to bottom trawling.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133265	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133265	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific and the Solomons.	eng
133265	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 3-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133265	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133265	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133266	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133266	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133266	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in deep, sandy lagoons to upper reef slopes. <em>A. nobilis</em> is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can be found from 5-25 m.	eng
133266	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133266	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133267	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133267	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoas (Lovell pers. comm.). It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).	eng
133267	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments in turbid waters in wide ranging habitats. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133267	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133267	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133268	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133268	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the Solomons, central Indo-Pacific and northern Australia.	eng
133268	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133268	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133268	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133269	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Import of this species to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133269	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northwest, north and eastern Australia, south Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133269	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually found on reef flats and reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). It may reproduce asexually by budding. Maximum size is 21 cm.	eng
133269	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133269	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 1% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 48,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 51,518. This species is one of the top ten most traded corals for aquarium industry (Raymakers 2001). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133270	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133270	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in eastern Australia and the oceanic West Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133270	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133270	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133270	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133271	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133271	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133271	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons as well as subtidally on reef tops (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133271	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133271	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133272	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133272	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133272	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in turbid water habitats, especially on fringing reefs and in crevices on reef slopes. <em>P. paeonia</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. paeonia</em> can grow to around 50cm (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 3-25 m.<br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133272	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133272	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO. <em>P. paeonia</em> exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data); <em>P. paeonia</em> is the second most collected <em>Pectinia</em> species collected in this area (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133273	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133273	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133273	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs. This species is found from 0.5-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133273	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133273	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133274	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133274	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, east end of Papua New Guinea, Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Papua New Guinea  (Fenner 2003).	eng
133274	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow lagoons and reefs. This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133274	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is common in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133274	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133275	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133275	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is only found in Japan.	eng
133275	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133275	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133275	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133276	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133276	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is restricted to Sumatra, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Xisha Islands, China.	eng
133276	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species can be found in reef habitat at depths generally to 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.).	eng
133276	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered to be relatively common within its restricted range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133276	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133277	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133277	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west, central and east Pacific.	eng
133277	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs with <em>P. lutea</em> and <em>P. lobata</em> on back reef margins, lagoons and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m. This species is commonly found from 1-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133277	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133277	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133278	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133278	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species if found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, east Africa, Comoros, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, north Maldives, east Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Phoenix Islands, Line Islands, Oahu (Hawaii), and Pitcairn. Southwest Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133278	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments but can be found in deeper water. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel or on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133278	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is can be a locally abundant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133278	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133279	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133279	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133279	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments, especially lagoons.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133279	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is sometimes common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133279	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 335.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133280	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133280	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomons.	eng
133280	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef slopes and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133280	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133280	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133281	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133281	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133281	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in deep water fore reef habitats, and also on deep consolidated substrates and patch reefs, from 15-30 m, although more common at depths below 20 m (E. Weil pers. comm.).	eng
133281	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon, occurring at low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133281	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague), although no known mass mortality events have been reported, and to high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133282	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133282	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean. This is a recently described species from Southern Madagascar, and its full distribution is unknown. The holotype from Tulear in southwestern Madagascar.	eng
133282	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. Protected back reef margins from fringing reefs and lagoons. This species is found from 5 m to at least 15 m.	eng
133282	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133282	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133283	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133283	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), and Ponape (Turak pers. comm.). It is also in the Solomons (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133283	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments. This species occurs subtidally to at least 44 m deep on slopes and ledges on walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found on submerged reefs and slopes, 10-40 m deep (Richards pers. comm.). This species may be found as shallow as 1 m deep.	eng
133283	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133283	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a fragile species that easily breaks. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133284	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133284	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133284	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It occurs in most reef environments, including shaded places such as under overhangs. Also it occurs on rocky foreshores of temperate locations protected from strong wave action. It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m and 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may form large colonies several metres in diameter and occurs in a wide variety of reef habitats. It usually forms rounded colonies in exposed shallow areas and plate-like growths on reef slopes where light intensity is low (Wood 1983). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133284	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon in many places, but abundant in parts of southeast Asia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133284	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133285	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133285	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Pohnpei.	eng
133285	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in upper to mid reef slopes and shallow lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133285	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133285	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133286	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133286	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is currently known only from the Muscat area in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133286	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is recorded from shallow environments at the limit of the algal mats (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.	eng
133286	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is relatively common (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133286	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Currently, the species is known only from the Muscat area of the Gulf of Oman. Muscat itself is a developed area, but direct threats to the species are not known at present.<br/><br/><em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133287	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133287	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the southwest and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133287	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, including reef flats, lagoons and upper slopes. It often forms small colonies less than 20 cm in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133287	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133287	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133288	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of the populations in deeper habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133288	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.<br/><br/>This species is also found in Brazil.	eng
133288	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in deep fore reef habitats usually below 20 m. Recorded to depths of 115 m (Reed 1985).	eng
133288	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Observational data suggest that the species is common in deep-water habitats, but it generally occurs at low abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133288	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to this species are disease (white plague), bleaching and high sedimentation. However, there is no information on the impact of these threats throughout the range of the species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133289	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Import of this species from the Solomon Islands to E.U. countries was banned in 2003 under CITES regulations (this negative opinion is reviewed regularly and suspensions can be lifted/implemented in response to new data). <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133289	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, central Indian Ocean, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133289	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments in most areas of the reef. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/>All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133289	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but may be common in parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133289	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,000 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133290	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133290	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific.	eng
133290	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, rarely from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-reef rubble substrate to 40 m.	eng
133290	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133290	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27,550 live pieces in 2005; the 2006 export quota was 5,500 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,708. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133291	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133291	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean (these are doubtful records Obura, pers. comm.), the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea. Also found in Marshal, Islands Society, Cooks, Kiribati, Solomons, Western and Eastern Australia including the Great Barrier Reef (Wallace pers. comm.; Wallace 1999). It is found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995) and also Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier pers. comm.).	eng
133291	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow, rocky foreshores or shallow reef flats. <em>Acropora striata</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 10-25 m.	eng
133291	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species may be locally dominant in Japan, and rare elsewhere. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 44 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133291	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133292	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133292	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south-west Indian Ocean, north-west Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific. Everywhere except Hawaii and Lord Howe.	eng
133292	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in most shallow, tropical reef environments except very turbid water. This species is found from 3-20 m.	eng
133292	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	By far the most common <em>Astreopora</em> species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133292	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133293	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Included within Gorgona Natural National Park (IUCN category III). All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133293	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.	eng
133293	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments and rocky foreshores. It is found intertidally on the outer reef flat and subtidally on the reef edge and tops of submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). At Gorgona Island, <em>Acropora valida</em> was found in a rocky wall habitat (diabasic type) at approximately 10 m (Prahl and Mejia 1985). This species is found from 1-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133293	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific this species is locally common.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, this coral is only known from three colonies at Rocas del Horno, Gorgona Island, Colombia (Prahl and Mejia 1985, Guzman 1988, Glynn 1997). <em>Acropora valida</em> colonies have not been seen since the original discovery (8 September 1983) at Gorgona Island or anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, despite targeted searches (Glynn 1988, 1997, 2000, and 2001). <br/><br/>The Gorgona Island (Colombia) population has been suggested as an extralimital population recruited from the Indo West Pacific (Guzmán 1988). According to Glynn (1997), there is no evidence that A. valida became established in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region during the 1982-83 ENSO event. This population was discovered in 1983, and Guzmán (1988) estimated that the colonies at that time were of the order of 5-10 years old.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133293	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Glynn (1997) suggested that the disappearance of <em>Acropora valida</em> from Gorgona Island may have resulted directly from the 1982-83 ENSO, or from a secondary, minor mortality event. According to Glynn (1988), El Niño disturbance could have disastrous consequences for small populations of Eastern Pacific reef corals such as Acropora valida. Nevertheless, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel (2003) suggest that it is unclear whether the 1982-83 El Niño event drove <em>A. valida</em> to extinction in the Eastern Tropical Pacific because the colonies at Gorgona Island had a normal appearance when they were found in September 1983 (i.e., towards the end of the warming episode) by Prahl and Mejia.<br/><br/>Other threats: presumably climate change.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Four disease records (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,535.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133294	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133294	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Pohnpei (Turak pers. comm.), Raja Ampat, Coral Sea (Fenner pers. comm.), Solomons (Turak pers. comm.), and the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133294	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs in sheltered lagoon patch reefs (Wallace 1999) and shallow reef flats (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-25 m (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133294	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133294	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents, but it is likely to be targeted by the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133295	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133295	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra.	eng
133295	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments, protected from strong wave action. <br/><br/>Information from Sheppard and Sheppard (1991): Occurs down to at least 30 m. This species is found over a broad range of depths on fore and back-reef slopes. It also tolerates well the more sedimented lagoon habitats where it can resist sedimentation, partly due to a tendency to always grow on vertical faces in such habitats. May form colonies of up to 1 m across in sheltered areas, though colonies are usually smaller on fore-reef slopes.<br/><br/>This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995), which is true of <em>M. umbra</em>.	eng
133295	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133295	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133296	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133296	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, including the Solomon Islands, and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier 2005).	eng
133296	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133296	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133296	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133297	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133297	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133297	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133297	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133297	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133298	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133298	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133298	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133298	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133298	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133299	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133299	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, North, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, Johnston Atoll and south east Africa. There is one record of many specimens from Hawaii islands (Hoeksema 1989)	eng
133299	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on soft substrata, especially on reef bases. The depth range is from 9-40 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is a free-living single polyp with a maximum size of 8.5 cm. This species reproduces asexually by fragmentation.	eng
133299	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon, but can be in high densities at greater depths. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133299	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133300	conservation	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	Based on the former distribution of <em>M. boschmai</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, it was present in two protected areas: Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, a World Heritage Site, and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133300	distribution	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This species was only found in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991), and most recently, in Indonesia (Razak and Hoeksema 2003). Before 1983, the species was also reported to occur at Contreras Islands, Secas Islands, Coiba Island and Bahía Honda, Panama (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991). <br/><br/>According to Razak and Hoeksema (2003), <em>M. boschmai</em> may so far have been overlooked in Indonesia and the Indo-West Pacific because it is relatively rare or because it is not well known.	eng
133300	habitat	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>M. boschmai</em> was reported from the upper forereef slope (2 m) to deep, sand and rubble slopes (18 m); however, it was most abundant at the reef base (5-6 m) and deeper outer slope to 12-15 m (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991).<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133300	population	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This species is considered to be rare.<br/><br/>According to de Weerdt and Glynn (1991), <em>M. boschmai</em> was the least abundant of the three <em>Millepora</em> species known from the Gulf of Chiriquí. De Weerdt and Glynn (1991) reported the elimination of  <em>M. boschmai</em> following the 1982-83 El Niño event. Detailed searches from 1984 through 1990 across the former range revealed only dead colonies (Glynn and Feingold 1992). However, in the early 1990's eight live colonies were found in the Gulf of Chiriquí; five colonies at Uva Island (Glynn and Feingold 1992), and three colonies at the north end of Coiba Island (Anonymous 1993 in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). However, after the 1997-98 ENSO event, all known colonies were dead (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Since then, no live colonies have been observed, despite targeted searches throughout the former distribution. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133300	threats	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is also susceptible to bleaching events, and this species is thought to have completely disappeared from the majority of its range in the Eastern Tropical Pacific following recent bleaching events (de Weerdt and Glynn 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133301	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133301	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, in the Coral Triangle.	eng
133301	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133301	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133301	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133302	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133302	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in the Andaman Islands and American and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133302	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of shallow tropical reef environments, especially in shallow turbid waters. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133302	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133302	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133303	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133303	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Found in Palau and south Marianas (Randall 1995). Also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Andaman, Banggai, Fiji, Raja Ampat, Papau New Guinea, and Western Samoa, Line Is, Japan, and Chagos (Wallace 1999).	eng
133303	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action or currents. It is also found subtidally on reef edge to about 5 m depth and on submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora lutkeni</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-12 m.	eng
133303	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is sometimes common on the Great Barrier Reef, it is usually uncommon elsewhere. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133303	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133304	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133304	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
133304	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments from 2-40 m except high energy areas. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133304	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133304	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three. This species is likely targeted for the aquarium trade but there is no species specific data.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133305	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133305	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is known from Palau, Marianas Islands, Phoenix Islands, French Polynesia, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133305	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef flats. It is a very poorly known species. This species is found to at least 5 m.	eng
133305	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133305	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133306	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133306	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000) and Vanuatu (Done and Navin 1995).	eng
133306	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133306	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133306	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/> <br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133307	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133307	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. <br/><br/>Records from East Africa require confirmation, and are not mapped here.	eng
133307	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is also found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133307	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133307	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Members of this genus are usually less preferred by crown-of-thorns starfish, and is relatively resistant to bleaching. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 303. It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133308	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133308	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, South Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133308	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living single polyp. The depth range is from 1-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 38 cm in diameter. Sometimes it shows budding.	eng
133308	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133308	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 51% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133309	conservation	Chiriboga, A., Guzmán, H., Cortés, J., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133309	distribution	Chiriboga, A., Guzmán, H., Cortés, J., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is present on continental and oceanic islands of Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena (Cortés and Jiménez 2003); Bahia Culebra (Jiménez unpublished data, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); and San Pedrito Island, Islas Muricelago (Glynn 1999).<br/><strong>Panama</strong>: Saboga Island, and Contadora Island in the Gulf of Panama (Mate 2003, Glynn 1999), Pedro Gonzalez Island (Las Perlas) and Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>According to Obura and Stone (2002), <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is tentatively identified in the central tropical Pacific in the Republic of Kiribati.	eng
133309	habitat	Chiriboga, A., Guzmán, H., Cortés, J., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Pocillopora inflata</em> occurs in coral reef and coral communities on shallow rocky substrata (Guzmán pers. comm.), in depths of less than 10 m (Glynn 1999, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The species is usually found intermixed with other pocilloporid corals in Costa Rica and Panama (Jiménez and Cortés 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>According to Glynn (1999), <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> may have evolved within the eastern Pacific and is presently distributed widely over much of the region. Furthermore, the presence of a large dead colony of <em>P. inflata</em> in the Galápagos Urvina Bay uplift, where a coral community was elevated during a volcano eruption in 1954, indicates that <em>P. inflata</em> is not a recent ENSO-associated immigrant from the Indo-West Pacific; this species has been present in the Galápagos Islands for more than four decades (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the fastest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). The growth rates of Pocillopora inflata range between 2.0 and 4.4 cm per year, with a mean growth rate of 3.15 cm per year at Bahia Culebra Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003, Cortés and Jiménez 2003b). <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is the only pocilloporid coral observed to spawn (Glynn 1999). The spawning event occurred on the morning (07:30 and 10:30 hours) of 22 March 1998 in Saboga Island, Panama (Glynn 1999). Among the six observed colonies, one spawned eggs and five produced sperm (Glynn 1999). <br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. inflata</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133309	population	Chiriboga, A., Guzmán, H., Cortés, J., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> has been categorized as:<br/><br/>Rare: in the Gulf of California and nearby areas, from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes Bonilla 2003), and Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Uncommon: in Panama, and in the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>According to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. inflata</em> is a rare species at Coiba Archipelago, Panama; found in less than 25% of the studied sites. At seven sites in Las Perlas and 9 sites in the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.).<br/><br/>Glynn (1999) indicates that the abundance of pocilloporid species shows marked interannual fluctuation. At three sites in the Galápagos Islands (Cormorant Bay, Floreana; Northeast anchorage, Santa Fe; and Caleta Robinson, Santa Cruz) in surveys undertaken from 1993 to 1997, <em>P. inflata</em> was present during some surveys, but absent after 1 to 3 yr in subsequent surveys (Glynn 1999). <br/><br/>Although <em>Pocillopora inflata</em> is widely distributed in the Galapagos Islands, it has a low relative abundance (1.9 to 16.7% of all pocilloporid corals), as well as very low densities, ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 colonies per ha (Glynn 1999). According to Glynn (1999), this low abundance probably reflects the severe coral mortality (97%) during the 1982-83 ENSO event. Since them coral recovery has been negligible to slow (Glynn 1994); however, it is likely that all live colonies of <em>P. inflata</em> have recruited since 1983 (Glynn 1999).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133309	threats	Chiriboga, A., Guzmán, H., Cortés, J., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn, 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán et al 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, especially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant et al (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133310	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133310	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is distributed from Northeast Somalia, Tanzania, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia, Fiji, and Phoenix Islands.	eng
133310	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species may be found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Leptoria</em> species are usually found along the reef front an upper reef slope and may form colonies several meters in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133310	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133310	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133311	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133311	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia, Papau New Guinea, and Micronesia (Wallace 1999).	eng
133311	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Found in sandy, inter-reef habitat and forming small clumps in thickets (Aeby, Lovell, Richards, Delbeek, Reboton, and Bass pers. comm.). This species is found from 10-20 m.	eng
133311	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species can be locally common (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133311	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in inter-reef areas that may be trawled (Aeby, Lovell, Richards, Delbeek, Reboton, and Bass pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). However, this species not likely to be affected by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133312	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133312	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific and Eastern Australia.	eng
133312	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133312	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133312	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133313	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133313	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Northwest Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995). It is found in Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
133313	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and lagoons. It is found subtidally on reef slopes and submerged reefs, not usually intertidally (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>Populations in the Hawaiian Archipelago become sexually mature during the early summer (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2007). <em>Acropora cytherea</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-25 m.<br/><br/><em>A. cytherea</em>, along with <em>M. aequituberculata</em>, is the dominant coral species on the reef slope of central Vietnam reefs at a depth of 2-6 m (Latypov 2001).	eng
133313	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common, and conspicuous.<br/><br/>This species is the most widespread and abundant of the <em>Acropora</em> species in the Hawaiian Archipelago with its highest densities in this area found in the French Frigate Shoals (Kenyon 1992). In the French Frigate Shoals, it has a patchy distribution with several areas of high abundance (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2006). Only two specimens had been recorded in the main Hawaiian Islands until August 2006 when two colonies were observed by divers at Mana Reef, Kauai (Kenyon <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>On the outer reef flat of central Vietnam's reefs, <em>A. cytherea</em> is one of two species that dominate in both degree of substrate coverage and size of many circled colonies reaching 3 m across (Latypov 2001).<br/><br/>It was found at 55 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133313	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three different diseases are recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005) and three different (total six diseases) found in the northern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).<br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 384.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns predation, storm damage, and bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133314	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133314	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133314	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species, along with <em>A. cytherea</em>, is the dominant coral species of the reef slopes of central Vietnam reefs at 2-6 m (Laytpov 2001). It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can form extensive monospecific stands. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133314	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is very common. It may be a dominant species on sheltered, upper reef slopes..<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133314	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. This species also prone to predation by <em>Drupella</em> snails.<br/><br/>Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In the summer months of 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 a disease causing atramentous necrosis was observed on this species in the fringing reefs of Magnetic Island, Australia. The disease spread rapidly and was gone quickly causing elevated levels of mortality. Temperature-induced coral disease outbreaks represent an added problem for corals during the warmer summer months (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 970.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133315	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133315	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also in Tuamotus (Wallace 1999).	eng
133315	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on upper reef slopes. This species occurs around the low tide mark and just subtidally on rocky, wave-swept, shallow reefs, as well as reef habitats subject to strong tidal currents (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-12 m.	eng
133315	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is sometimes common in Eastern Australia, usually uncommon elsewhere. It was found at 1 of 3 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 29 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133315	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is very vulnerable to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Three different diseases are known for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133316	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133316	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in the central Indo-Pacific. Also recorded in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007) and the Solomons (TNC).	eng
133316	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133316	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133316	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133317	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133317	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northeast Australia and eastern Australia, South Taiwan, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133317	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in deeper reef slopes as an attached, encrusting polyps with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 6-27 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 13 cm in diameter.	eng
133317	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133317	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133318	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133318	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and Eastern Australia. It is also found in Western Australia and Great Barrier Reef (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133318	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on protected reef slopes. It is common amongst living <em>Halimeda</em> on submerged banks (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
133318	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133318	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133319	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133319	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.  It is found in Palau (Randall 1995) and the Line Islands (Wallace 1999).	eng
133319	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid water around fringing reefs, and subtidally on protected deepwater flats, lagoons, and sandy slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133319	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. This species is observed to have undergone dramatic population declines at Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef, and Kimbe Bay, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at nine sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Observed to have undergone dramatic population declines at Orpheus Island, Great Barrier Reef and Kimbe Bay, Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). This species loses reproductive capacity after disturbance (Wallace 1985). There are large sterile zones (Richards pers. comm.).  Low density clade a zooxanthellae (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133319	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987).<br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5013.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133320	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133320	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133320	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments and on rocky foreshores in subtropical locations. It occurs subtidally on reef slopes and walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133320	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common at subtropical locations, and is rare elsewhere. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at seven sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133320	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133321	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133321	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133321	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons and can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133321	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Veron (2000) considered it to be rare, but more recent surveys have shown it to be common in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133321	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133322	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133322	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific and Palau (Randall 1995). This species is also found in Vanuatu, Tonga, and Samoa (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133322	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef margins exposed to strong wave action. This species is found between 5-20 m.	eng
133322	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133322	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133323	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133323	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan, the East China Sea, and Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003).	eng
133323	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 50 m.	eng
133323	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean, it is uncommon in the central Indo-Pacific.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133323	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 22.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133324	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133324	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, northwestern Hawaii, and the central Pacific.	eng
133324	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and flats, intertidally and subtidally on reef tops, upper slopes, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999) and is found from 1-15 m. <em>A. gemmifera</em> is commonly found from 1-5 m, rarely from 9-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133324	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 41 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133324	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is vulnerable to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Two different diseases are recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 565.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133325	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133325	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133325	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reefs, also rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to at least 50 m.	eng
133325	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133325	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133326	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133326	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, the Solomons, and Fiji.	eng
133326	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133326	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133326	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133327	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133327	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau and southern Marianas (Randall 1995). It is in the Red Sea and Mauritius (Wallace 1999). It is also in the Austral Is and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999) and Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133327	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow, protected lagoons, and lagoon entrances, found subtidally in lagoons and calm-water reef shoals (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.	eng
133327	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found to be rare in most of its distribution, but may be locally common. This species is common on subtropical reefs of south-east Australia where it forms extensive stands. Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133327	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133328	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133328	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
133328	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133328	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133328	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133329	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133329	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. It has also been recorded from Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133329	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in reef flats, generally to depths of 5 m.	eng
133329	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133329	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133330	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133330	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. <br/><br/>Hawaii (Fenner 2005); New Caledonia (Pichon 2006); the Solomons (TNC); American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133330	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is usually found on lower reef slopes and on vertical or overhung walls. This species is found from 15-30 m.	eng
133330	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133330	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was five.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133331	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133331	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species has a disjunct and restricted range. It is only found near Rodriquez Island, Taiwan, the Marianas Islands, and Yap and Truk, Micronesia.<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range as Mauritius, Taiwan, Mariana Islands, Yap and Truk.	eng
133331	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef habitat. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133331	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is relatively common within its disjunct and restricted range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133331	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133332	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133332	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; southwest Indian Ocean; northern Indian Ocean; central Indo-Pacific; north, west and south Australia; South-east Asia; Japan and East China Sea; eastern Australia; oceanic West Pacific; and the central Pacific. It has also been found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133332	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in protected reef environments. In the Red Sea, it was recorded in dimly lit conditions with moderate sedimentation at the base of the reef slope (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991). This species is most commonly reported at depth between 5 and 10 m. However, the exact depth range is unknown, and this species is likely to occur in quite a wide range of depths. For example, it has been recorded from dim light conditions suggesting that it can occur at depths greater than 10 m.	eng
133332	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133332	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133333	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133333	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Southeast Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, northwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and American Samoa. SW Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133333	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes.<br/>This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species may be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133333	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon, but sometimes conspicuous species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133333	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133334	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133334	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133334	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It occurs on the upper reef slopes and tidal pools.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133334	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133334	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133335	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133335	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133335	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found on sheltered reef slopes with turbid water. <em>M. steeni</em> is inconspicuous (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
133335	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133335	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133336	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133336	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea. It is known only from the Tiran area in Saudi Arabia. Further surveys might show that it occurs more widely in the northern and central Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133336	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133336	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species currently known only from a single site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133336	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133337	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133337	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133337	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all reef environments. It is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 50 m.	eng
133337	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very common, rare in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133337	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 3,000 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133338	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133338	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Also found in Southeast Asia, central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.); New Caledonia, Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, Sarawak, Banngai, Papau New Guinea, and Western Samoa  (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133338	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in protected reef environments with clear water and a high <em>Acropora</em> diversity. It occurs subtidally on walls and steep slopes, usually below 15 m, but occasionally shallower where shaded conditions exist (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 12-30 m.	eng
133338	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous.  Sparsely distributed across its range (Wallace 1999). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133338	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133339	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133339	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, central Indo-Pacific, oceanic West Pacific.  However, it has a disjunct range, and it is possible that the Red Sea records are a separate species. The species is also very rare across its known range and further surveys are required to confirm its range.	eng
133339	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on lower reef slopes protected from wave action, generally between 10 and 30 m depth.	eng
133339	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133339	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133340	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133340	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in one northern section of Australia and the southern coastline, both east and west.	eng
133340	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on subtidal rocky foreshores of temperate localities and a probable record from northern Australia. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133340	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133340	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133341	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133341	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995) and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133341	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow, usually turbid, reef environments and deep water soft substrates. Sometimes it is also found on exposed upper reef slopes.. This species is found from 2-25 m.	eng
133341	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but it is more abundant than other <em>Anacropora</em> spp. Locally common on the Great Barrier Reef (Richards pers. comm.). Common in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).  Common in Palau (Delbeek pers. comm.). Found at one site of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133341	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is particularly susceptible storms and bleaching (Delbeek pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133342	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133342	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and East Africa.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133342	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs in most reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133342	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133342	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Other more localized threats include disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133343	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133343	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133343	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 25 m.	eng
133343	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but patchily common, for example in East Africa (Obura pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133343	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133344	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133344	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is only known from one location in the Red Sea.	eng
133344	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found on a single reef slope in the Red Sea. This species is known from 10-20 m.	eng
133344	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is rare. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133344	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133345	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133345	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133345	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical and subtropical reef environments. <em>M. tuberculosa</em> is commonly found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133345	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133345	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 201. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133346	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133346	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is presently known from a few localities in the Arabian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden, and from Malaysia, Indonesia, and South-East Australia. Additional records from published illustrations extend the species distribution to Japan (Yabe and Sugiyama 1936) and the Philippines (Hoeksema and Van Ofwegen 2004, Benzoni 2006).	eng
133346	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread on reefs, generally to depths of 28 m.	eng
133346	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is not likely to be uncommon, as it is widespread on reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133346	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133347	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133347	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Indonesia and the Philippines (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133347	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is primarily found on more exposed localities than <em>P. multilobata</em> and is presumably widespread in Indonesian and Philippine waters (Ditlev 2003).<br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Plerogyra</em> is especially common on reef slopes and in the shelter of boulders and coral heads. Solitary coralla do not generally exceed 15 cm in diameter with the vesicles fully inflated. Colonial forms are usually less than 50 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133347	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133347	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133348	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133348	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the south-west Indian Ocean. Also found in Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133348	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m.	eng
133348	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133348	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133349	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133349	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Hawaiian Islands, including northwestern Hawaiian Islands.	eng
133349	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef and lagoon environments, generally to depths of 30 m. This species forms monospecific stands in protected areas at medium depths (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133349	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is the dominant coral in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. This is an abundant species throughout the Hawaiian Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133349	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133350	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133350	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Collected on the eastern coast of northern Borneo (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133350	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found on shoals and exposed lower slopes from 15 to 30 m depth (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133350	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rather common on shoals and exposed lower slopes on the eastern coast of northern Borneo from 15 to 30 m depth (Ditlev 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133350	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	<em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133351	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133351	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133351	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found on lower reef slopes and vertical walls. Maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 10-30 m.	eng
133351	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common on vertical walls.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133351	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133352	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133352	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Solomon Islands.	eng
133352	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 5-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133352	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133352	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5065.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133353	conservation	Cortés, J., Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133353	distribution	Cortés, J., Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, the oceanic West Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region, this species has been reported from Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia.<br/><br/>Specific records in the ETP include: <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Caño Island, Punta El Bajo at Golfo Dulce and Marino Ballena National Park (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Restinge Island (Glynn and Ault 2000, Maté 2003) and Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
133353	habitat	Cortés, J., Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and rubble, generally to depths of less than 5 m. Colonies are nodular or form small flattened branches; the latter may be only weakly attached to the substratum.<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6 cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). However, <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).	eng
133353	population	Cortés, J., Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-Pacific, <em>P. obtusangula</em> is an uncommon species, although it may be locally common. However, the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora obtusangula</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133353	threats	Cortés, J., Hickman, C., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	According to Cortés and Jiménez (2003), <em>Psammocora</em> species were highly affected by the 1992 El Niño event in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, with 75% of all colonies bleached in Costa Rica, although the species is though to rapidly recover. According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent. Similarly, the sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998,Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133354	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133354	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northern, western and eastern Australia, Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133354	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. Sparse colonies of <em>G. astreata</em> are found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 20-30 m on the Chagos lagoon (Sheppard 1982). The maximum size is over 2 m.	eng
133354	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133354	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau. It was affected in all areas and was one of the most affected species (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,650 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 606 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5,529.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133355	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133355	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean and the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133355	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133355	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133355	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133356	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133356	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. Possibly present in the Flower Gardens, though not mentioned by Grimm and Hopkins (1977).	eng
133356	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is most common in fore reef environments from 5-30 m (but is more abundant from 10-20 m), but also occurs at low abundance in certain deeper back reef habitats and deep lagoons. The species has the potential to exhibit recovery, because of its reproductive strategy (e.g., brooding with moderate recruitment success).	eng
133356	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common throughout its distribution range at intermediate abundances. The most common species of the genus in shallow to intermediate reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133356	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to the species is disease (white plague) and bleaching, which have both resulting in localized declines throughout the range. Also susceptible to black band disease and high sedimentation (especially when compromised by bleaching or disease). An outbreak of white plague was first identified in Florida in 1975 (Dustan, 1977) with a second occurrence in the same location in the early 1980s (Dustan and Halas, 1987). They predicted that this event would cause localized extinctions of the species; however, during later surveys, new recruits were observed. A more virulent form of white plague affected the species since the late 1990s in other locations throughout the wider Caribbean, which has been associated with high rates of mortality [get refs]. During the 2005 bleaching event, this species sustained high mortality off reefs off Puerto Rico and the associated islands, and Grenada, due to severe bleaching and a subsequent outbreak of plague.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133357	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133357	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, and eastern Australia. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133357	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133357	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133357	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133358	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133358	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea and Micronesia.	eng
133358	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133358	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is sometimes common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133358	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133359	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133359	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also in Samoa, the Cook Is and Chagos (Wallace 1999).	eng
133359	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on upper reef slopes. It occurs just subtidally at reef edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133359	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133359	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987) and the growth form of this species is particularly susceptible to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133360	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133360	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133360	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occur on reef slopes and vertical walls. It may form large crusts over 1 m in diameter. This species may be found from 3-20 m.	eng
133360	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/> <br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133360	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133361	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>It is recommended that the distribution for this species is verified.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133361	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is very poorly known and might be more widely distributed.	eng
133361	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, including upper reef slopes. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133361	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133361	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133362	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133362	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is restricted to the western Atlantic off the coast of Brazil.	eng
133362	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133362	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	There is no population information known for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133362	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133363	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133363	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Known only from the type location in Sabah, Malaysia.	eng
133363	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species was recorded on a sheltered lagoon slope around 10 m depth at Bohey Dulong, Sabah, Malaysia on a moderately sloping protected continental slope with turbid water (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133363	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133363	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	There are no data for past population declines specific to this species. The genus does not appear in trade statistics.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133364	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133364	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, eastern Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, and oceanic West Pacific, including American Samoa (Birkeland pers. comm.).	eng
133364	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in subtidal environments usually uninhabited by other corals. From low water down to a maximum of half a metre deep, often found on dead coral (Hoeksema pers. comm.). This is one of the smallest corals known.	eng
133364	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually rare. However, the species is very cryptic and is easy to miss in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133364	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133365	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133365	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133365	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in mostly shallow and deeper subtidal communities. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It may be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133365	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133365	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 14. There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a harvest quota in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133366	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133366	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
133366	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially in subtropical  localities. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133366	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133366	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was two.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133367	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133367	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133367	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, including lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133367	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133367	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 585.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133368	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133368	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, and central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133368	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133368	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133368	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133369	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133369	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species was described Sri Lanka. There are also records from Kenya, Tanzania and Comoros (Obura pers. comm.). Further surveys might show it to occur more widely within the western and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133369	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133369	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In East Africa this species is widespread and uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133369	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133370	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133370	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Gulf of Aden, the southwest Indian Ocean, and the Southwest Pacific (Papua New Guinea).	eng
133370	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133370	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon or rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133370	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133371	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Cabo San Lucas, Flora and Fauna Protection Area (IUCN category VI); Cabo Pulmo National Park (IUCN category II); Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133371	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region <em>Fungia distorta</em> has been reported from: <strong>México</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands), Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em> 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>*: Cocos Island, Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003); <strong>Panamá</strong>*: Gulf of Chiriquí and Gulf of Panamá (Maté 2003); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Archipelago (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>(*Currently only dead fragments are known).<br/><br/>In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern and central Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, east Australia, south Japan, West Pacific, Central Pacific and the Hawaii Islands (Cairns 1999, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Hickman 2005).	eng
133371	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	<em>Fungia distorta</em> is a free-living coral that occurs on soft substrata, sediments and coral rubble, especially where exposed to currents; and sometimes found in seagrass beds (Feingold 1996). It is found to 85 m, but the most common depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990)  Maximum size is 7.5cm in diameter. It also reproduce asexually by fragmentation.<br/><br/>According to Colley <em>et al</em>. (2000), <em>F. distorta</em> individuals are gonochoric and probably broadcast spawners. Reproduction activity occurs during the warm, wet season from at least February to June, peaking in April (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Fecundity is high for <em>F. distorta</em>, with up to 13,000 mature eggs per cm² of live coral tissue (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Individuals can have from four to eight reproductive cycles per year; additionally, the minimum size for sexual activity is 1.75 cm diameter (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). Asexual reproduction is locally important. In addition, parental fragments as well as secondary fragments can produce gonads (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000). At Davil's Crown, Galapagos Islands, the sex ratio is skewed towards males (5:1), which can be a result of fragmentation (Colley <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
133371	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	<em>Fungia distorta</em> is uncommon but may be locally common. <br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>F. distorta</em> within the Eastern Tropical Pacific has been classified as:<br/><strong>México</strong>: Abundant, with apparently stable populations (Reyes-Bonila, pers. comm.). Additionally, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. (2005), reported this species at twelve different locations in the Gulf of California Sur. Glynn and Ault (2000) considered this as a common species in the Gulf of California. According to Reyes-Bonilla (pers. comm.), <em>F. distorta</em> can be locally very abundant (e.g., at San Jose Island densities across an area of 1 hectare are between 100 and 200 individuals m<sup>-2</sup>). By contrast, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) considered the species to be generally rare throughout its Mexican distribution.<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Only dead fragments are known, from Bahía Culebra (Cortés and Guzmán 1998). <br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: Only known from dead fragments (Maté 2003). <br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Considered rare by Glynn and Ault (2000). <br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: Abundant (tens of thousands over 1 to 2 ha) at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos Island, which is the only known site with living individuals in Ecuador (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133371	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	Robinson (1985) found that <em>Fungia</em> species bleached but did not die during the 1982-83 El Niño event at Devils Crown, Floreana, Galápagos. According to Feingold (1996), survival of <em>Fungia</em> species. was due to cool water that periodically flushed over the habitat, which mitigated the effects of elevated temperatures caused by the ENSO event.<br/><br/>According to Feingold (1996) species of Fungia are capable of surviving extended periods (>180d) in the bleached state.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133372	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133372	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133372	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The maximum size is 38 cm in diameter. The specimens may reproduce asexually by fragmentation. This species is found to 15 m.	eng
133372	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is locally common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133372	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133373	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133373	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. May also be present in Bermuda, but this requires confirmation.	eng
133373	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	<em>M. faveolata</em> is found from 1-30 m in backreef and fore-reef habitats, and is often the most abundant coral between 10-20 m in fore-reef environments.	eng
133373	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the last 20 years, there has been a severe decline in the overall cover and abundance of <em>M. faveolata</em> in several parts of the Caribbean. For example, 90% of the species was lost in the coastal waters off Jamaica from 1980 through 1994 (Hughes, 1994). Off the coast of eastern Puerto Rico, declines in cover were recorded at between 40 and 60% (Hernandez-Delgado 2005), at around 40% off south-eastern PR (E. Weil pers. comm.), 40-80% off Desecheo Island and Mona Island (Bruckner and Bruckner 2006, A. Bruckner pers. comm.), and 72% in St John, US Virgin Islands, between 1988 and 1999 (Edmunds and Elahi 2007). Dustan and Halas (1987) observed a 31% decline in cover of <em>M. faveolata</em> on Carysfort Reef (Key Largo) between 1975 and 1982, with a 21% decline in colony size.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133373	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to the species are infectious diseases (e.g., plague, yellow band and black band disease) and bleaching. Other threats include predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), hurricane damage, and loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation, as well as localized impacts due to bioerosion by sponges and other organisms, and other diseases.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133374	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133374	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133374	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid-depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133374	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is a rare species. However, it is very common in the central Philippines in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133374	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133375	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133375	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Southwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133375	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially shallow to mid reef slopes. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.	eng
133375	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133375	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133376	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133376	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific as far as Samoa.	eng
133376	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in depths of 1-20 m in all sheltered reef areas away from high wave action. This species is found to 15 m.	eng
133376	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133376	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133377	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133377	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133377	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs up to 15 m depth, but is most abundant from 0.5-3 m depth in back-reef and exposed fore-reef environments (Goreau and Wells 1967, A. Bruckner pers. comm.).	eng
133377	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common in shallow water. No significant declines in populations have so far been recorded.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133377	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species is black band disease, with localized impacts from bleaching and other diseases (e.g., white plague).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133378	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133378	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific.	eng
133378	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in sheltered reef environments, especially beneath overhangs, generally to depths of 20 m. In the Red Sea, this species found in overhangs and darkened areas of reef slopes but commonest on steep slopes in clear and moderately turbid habitats (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133378	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon but conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133378	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133379	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133379	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133379	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species occurs on turbid reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 1-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133379	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133379	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133380	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133380	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Gulf, the northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, north eastern Australia, southwest Pacific, Micronesia and Polynesia. Southern Marianas (Randall).	eng
133380	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments and prefers low-light areas, like crevices and under overhangs and in turbid water. It can grow up to 1 m in diameter. It is an encrusting species with many tiny polyps. Sparse colonies of <em>M. kirbyi</em> are found from 3-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species can be found to 60 m.	eng
133380	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a widespread and uncommon coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133380	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133381	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II and Threatened on the US Endangered Species Act. In the US, this species is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize) and Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Localized efforts to propagate and reintroduce the species have occurred in Florida, Puerto Rico, Domincan Republic, Jamaica and Honduras (A. Bruckner pers. comm.). In response to ship grounding and hurricanes, there have been efforts in some areas to salvage damaged corals and reattach them in acroporid habitats.<br/><br/>More information is needed to assist the recovery of acroporids including survival and fecundity by age, sexual and asexual recruitment, population information, juvenile population dynamics, importance of habitat variables to recruitment and survivorship, and location of populations showing signs of recovery (Bruckner, 2002). Further research is needed into disease etiology, and effectiveness of current restoration methods.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133381	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas and has been documented as far north as Palm Beach (26 deg 3'N) along Florida’s east coast (Goldberg 1973).	eng
133381	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef ecosystems, favouring upper to mid-reef slopes and lagoons in areas with moderate to low wave exposure. It is usually recorded from 1 m to around 25 m (Aronson and Precht 2001a,b), with occasional records to 60 m (Goreau and Goreau 1973).<br/><br/>Recruitment by sexual reproduction is limited.	eng
133381	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There has been an 80-98% loss of individuals in parts of the Caribbean region since the 1980's. There have been some signs of recovery. A second report has validated declines on the order of 97% in the Florida Keys, Jamaica, Dry Tortugas, Belize and St Croix (Acropora BRT 2005) and Puerto Rico (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There are populations present off the coast of Broward County (Florida), Mona Island (Puerto Rico), places in the southern Caribbean, and Dairy Bull Reef in northern Jamaica (Idjadi <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Overall, decline of destroyed and critical reefs in the Caribbean region has been 38% (according to Wilkinson 2004) however there have been much higher population reductions for this species as it is particularly susceptible to disease and bleaching.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133381	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species has been disease, specifically white-band disease which is believed to be the primary cause for the region-wide acroporid decline during the 1980s (Aronson and Precht, 2001a,b) and is still ongoing (Williams and Miller, 2005). Other major threats include thermal-induced bleaching, storms, and predation by <em><em>Stegastes planifrons</em></em> (Three-spot Damselfish) (Precht <em>et al</em>. 2002,Acropora BRT 2005). <br/><br/>Localized declines are associated with: loss of habitat at the recruitment stage due to algal overgrowth and sedimentation; predation by snails; mortality by endolithic sponges; ship groundings, anchor damage, trampling, and marine debris.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133382	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133382	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Kermadec Islands (Brooke 1999).	eng
133382	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is common on reef slopes and vertical walls. It can form large plates of up to 1 m in diameter. This species can be found from 3-25 m.	eng
133382	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133382	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was eight.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133383	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133383	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west and south Pacific.	eng
133383	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It has been recorded from shallow lagoons, foreslope, back slope, and reef flats. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133383	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133383	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133384	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Recommended conservation measures include specific localised habitat protection and awareness raising in the region.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133384	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in New Caledonia. It is also reported from Papua New Guinea, Milne Bay Provence (Allan <em>et al</em>. 2003) but it is unconfirmed and not included in the current distribution.<br/><br/>There are Miocene fossil records form the species from Indonesia (Hoeksema 1989).	eng
133384	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in deep water close to sediment in sheltered bays. The maximum size is 7cm diameter. It is an attached stalked species (Hoeksema and Best 1984). This species is found from 10-20 m.	eng
133384	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a rare species and has a restricted range, endemic to New Caledonia. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133384	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The main threat to this species is mining activities causing sedimentation and habitat degradation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133385	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133385	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133385	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on mid-reef slopes exposed to strong currents. This species is found from 8-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133385	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133385	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133386	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133386	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133386	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef habitats from 2-30 m.	eng
133386	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133386	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133387	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133387	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.<br/>Is found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Philippines, Andamans, Polynesia, and Micronesia (Wallace pers. comm.) and Pitcairn (Wallace 1999).	eng
133387	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found intertidally (Wallace 1999) on upper reef slopes and reef flats. <em>Acropora globiceps</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found to 8 m depth.	eng
133387	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133387	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133388	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133388	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from Guam, American Samoa, Fiji, the Great Barrier Reef, Palau and the Marianas (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133388	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The species occurs in very shallow, wave exposed habitats. The maximum size is 25 cm.	eng
133388	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133388	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133389	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133389	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It has been recorded as far north as the coast of northern North Carolina (Macintyre and Pilkey 1967, Macintyre 2003).	eng
133389	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in all types of reef environments from the shallow subtidal to 70 m depth (Goreau and Wells, 1967), and is most common at 5-15 m depth. This species does well in areas with high sedimentation and high turbidity.	eng
133389	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common in most reef environments, at low to moderate abundances. In certain localized areas, this species can be the most abundant coral. Localized declines have been reported, but no major range-wide declines observed. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133389	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Colonies of this species are susceptible to bleaching, but generally show higher rates of recovery than other species, and only minor partial mortality has been observed as a result of extreme bleaching events. This species generally exhibits high rates of recruitment, but new recruits may sustain high mortality due to algal overgrowth. Localized mortality may take place due to bio-erosion from endolithic sponges, and ship groundings (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133390	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133390	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133390	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, especially intertidal reef flats. <em>S. hystrix</em> is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m and deeper from 18-20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It can form large fields of over 1 m across.	eng
133390	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133390	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 3,200 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 5,644 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 15,077.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133391	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133391	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea.	eng
133391	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133391	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133391	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133392	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133392	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.<br/><br/>It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133392	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m.	eng
133392	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in the Red Sea, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133392	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133393	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133393	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133393	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133393	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133393	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133394	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133394	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia. It is also found in Malaysia, Western Australia, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.), Philippines, Andamans, and Banggai (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133394	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments in protected lagoons. This species is found from 1-30 m.	eng
133394	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but may be a dominant species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at four sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133394	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133395	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many Marine Protected Areas, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Its presence in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary requires verification. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize, and Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park in the Bahamas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133395	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. It is also known from the eastern Atlantic.	eng
133395	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	<em>P. porites</em> is found on most reef environments, from 0.5 to 35 m depth, and also exists in back reef shallow platforms with <em>Thalassia</em> turtle grass beds and attached to mangrove prop roots; this species is most common from 1-15 m (Weil 1992b).	eng
133395	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is the most common of the branching Porites corals in the Caribbean. Several places in shallow-water back reef and some shallow (above 10 m) fore reef environments that used to have very large stands have experienced extensive mortality (e.g., Mona Island and the south coast of Puerto Rico, Grenada, Morrocoy NP in Venezuela (Glynn 1973, E. Weil & A Bruckner pers. comm.)), although smaller colonies still occur in these areas.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133395	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Shallow-water populations are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which have caused localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133396	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133396	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, and the Solomons. It is found in Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.) and the Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000). It is found in Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier).	eng
133396	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments, subtidally on slopes or submerged reefs, mostly below 15 m (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 10-30 m.	eng
133396	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133396	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. <em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133397	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133397	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwestern Indian Ocean, South-east Asia, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, northern Australia, and Vanuatu.	eng
133397	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a single free-living polyp and very occasionally fragments to reproduce asexually. The depth range is from 25-35 m (Hoeksema 1990). It is most common on the soft substrata of the deeper parts of the reef base.	eng
133397	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133397	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133398	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133398	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Southwest and Northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the Central Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Tropical Australia, Southern Japan and the South China Sea, the Oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread distribution within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Jaltemba Island to Punta Mita, and from Isabel Island to Marias Islands (Nayarit); Revillagigedo Islands; Zihuatanejo to Acapulco (Guerrero); and Puerto Escondido to Huatulco (Oaxaca) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Calderon-Aguilar 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2003); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Guanacaste, Bahía Culebra, Punta Mala, Manuel Antonio, Peninsula de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Guzman and Cortes 1992, Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Chiriqui and Panama (Glynn 1997, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Maté 2003a,b); <strong>Colombia</strong> (Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes 2000, Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003): Ensenada de Utría, Tebada; Gorgona Island and Malpelo Island; <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Glynn 2003).	eng
133398	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. It occurs on shallow and deeper reefer slopes and on vertical walls. Generally, <em>Pavona varians</em> occurs broadly amongst coral reefs and coral communities on rocks and rubble substrata, but is absent from shallow platforms with high energy (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000); in some locations this coral is found in cryptic habitats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). The maximum size is over 1 m. This species is typically found from 2-40 m but has been reported from 80 m. <br/><br/><em>P. varians</em> is a broadcast-spawner, releasing masses of minute eggs and sperm (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Most colonies utilize an alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodite mode of reproduction (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000) suggest year-round reproductive activity. In addition, spawning appears to increase during high temperature conditions (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000), <em>P. varians</em> may reach reproductive maturity at seven years; while the minimum colony size at first reproduction was found to be 5 cm (about five years old). The growth rate of <em>P. varians</em> has been estimated as 0.35 cm/yr in Costa Rica (Guzman and Cortes 1993). Recruitment of <em>P. varians</em> has been described as nil to low and patchy (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
133398	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pavona varians</em> is as follows: <br/><br/>Considered abundant at Clipperton Atoll (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996, Glynn and Ault 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1996), <em>P. varians</em> is dominant on the lower reef slopes, where it often covers more than 90% of the substratum. In addition, the lower zone limit of this species is unknown; colony abundance at some sites shows no signs of decreasing at 80 m depth (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1996). <br/><br/>According to Maté (2003b), the relative abundance of <em>P. varians</em> in the Gulf of Panama, varies from abundant to rare depending on site; and common to rare in the Gulf of Chiriquí. However, Guzman (pers. comm.) disagrees with Maté (2003b), since Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) recorded <em>P. varians</em> at 136 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí and at 61 sites at las Perlas Archipelago. At Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>P. varians</em> was present in 75 to 100% of the sites studied by Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/><br/><em>P. varians</em> was considered abundant at Caño Island, Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 2001); common along mainland Colombia (Ensenada de Utría and Tebada), as well as in Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Glynn and Ault 2000, Guzman and Cortes 2006) and Malpelo Island, Colombia (Edgar pers. comm.). Uncommon in mainland Costa Rica and the Galápagos Island, Ecuador (Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 2003). Rare in Mexico (from Nayarit to Oaxaca and the Revillagigedo Islands) and mainland Ecuador (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (2000), population densities increased from ~1-4 colonies per 20 m² immediately following the 1982-83 ENSO to six to 12 colonies at Caño Island (Costa Rica) and Uva Island (Panama) after 10-yr. Survivorship to reproductive maturity at Caño Island, Uva Island and the southern Galapagos corresponded with recruitment rates of 0.1, 0.2 and 0 colonies/m², respectively, and recovered to pre-ENSO abundances at these sites (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Recruitment success of <em>P. varians</em> at Uva Island was significantly related to maximum monthly positive sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies that occurred in the year preceding recruitment over the period 1982 to 1996; recruitment failed when SST anomalies exceeded 1.6 to 1.9°C during the severe ENSO events of 1982-83 and 1997-98 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133398	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 223.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133399	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133399	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has been found only in southern Japan.	eng
133399	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in semi-protected shallow reef or terrigenous rock substrates. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133399	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133399	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133400	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133400	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133400	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow, intermediate and deep fore reef environments, from 1-65 m, but is most common from 10-25 m (Goreau and Wells, 1967; A. Bruckner and B. Precht pers. comm.). It occasionally occurs in patch reefs in lagoon environments. It can form large monoclonal colonies at intermediate depths.	eng
133400	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is usually common at low abundances in most fore reef environments throughout the wider Caribbean; in some areas especially the southern Caribbean can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133400	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is highly susceptible to white plague and bleaching with localized mortalities reported; also susceptible to overgrowth and smothering by macroalgae (e.g., <em>Dictyota</em> and <em>Halimeda</em>) (Hughes 1994). At shallow depths it is susceptible to breakage by hurricanes and high sedimentation. Localized predation by <em>Sparisoma virdie</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133401	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133401	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the Solomons. It is found in Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea (Wallace 1999) and Southeast Asia (Richards pers. comm.) and Thailand (Wallace 1999).	eng
133401	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It occurs subtidally on outer reefs, reef slopes, or ledges on walls and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
133401	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133401	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species has a growth form particularly vulnerable to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133402	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133402	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, including Madagascar and Indian Ocean islands.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133402	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. It occurs on submerged patch reefs and reef shoals (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-18 m.	eng
133402	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133402	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133403	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133403	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133403	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It may form conspicuous dome-shaped colonies on upper reef slopes. Unlike other <em>Turbinaria</em>, this species is seldom found in turbid waters. The maximum size is 50 cm. This species is found from 2-15 m.	eng
133403	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133403	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133404	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133404	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133404	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133404	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133404	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133405	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133405	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East and South China Sea. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133405	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs on tropical, shallow reefs, on hard and mixed substrates, as well as on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations. This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs as well as in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133405	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in Western Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133405	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12,612. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,350 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133406	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133406	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, southwestern and northwestern Indian Ocean, Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic west Pacific, Hawaii and central Pacific.	eng
133406	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments to 40 m.	eng
133406	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133406	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 22.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133407	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133407	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northeastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, the Far Eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species  is present in: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Nayarit Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); <strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Santa Elena Peninsula, Islas Murcielago Archipelago, Culebra Bay, Peninsula de Osa, Caño Island, and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998); <strong>Panama</strong>: Uva Island, Unnamed Island, Canal de Afuera Island, Restinge Island, Montuosa Island, Jicaron Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island and Las Perlas Archipelago in the Gulf of Panama (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Colombia</strong>: Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, and Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Salango Island, Los Frailes, Sucre Island and La Plata Island, and throughout the Galápagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn 2003).	eng
133407	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on exposed reef fronts and where currents are strong. <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> occurs in most reef environments, especially exposed reef fronts and at sits with strong currents; this coral also occurs on coral communities on rocky substrata (Hickman 2005). It has been reported from 2 m to at least 20 m depth, but commonly occurs between 5-10 m (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.). It may form large stands. The maximum size is over 1 m across.<br/><br/><em>P. eydouxi</em> is capable of building reef frameworks; in Santa Elena, Costa Rica, a 50 m² reef is composed exclusively of <em>P. eydouxi</em> (Cortes and Jimenez 2003). Additionally, at La Azufrada and Playa Blanca in Gorgona Island, Colombia, <em>P. eydouxi</em> forms fringing reef frameworks with large dense colonies (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003). Moreover, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), at least one reef in Colombia is formed from 100% cover of <em>P. eydouxi</em>.<br/><br/>Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). Reported growth rates of <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> range between 2.1 and 3.9 cm per year at Bahia Culebra, Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2003). Guzmán and Cortés (1993) reported growth rates from 3.1 cm per year in Galápagos to 3.32 cm per year in Costa Rica.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. eydouxi</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133407	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Common throughout the Indo West Pacific.<br/><br/>The relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region has been categorized as follows: <br/><br/>Common: Revillagigedo Islands (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), Malpelo (Glynn and Ault 2000) and Gorgona Islands (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003). <br/><br/>Uncommon: Panama, and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Rare: Gulf of California and nearby areas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Costa Rica including Cocos Island, and Ecuador including the Galápagos Islands (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. eydouxi</em> is likely to be moderately common in Panama (reported at 24 sites in Las Perlas and 77 sites in Gulf of Chiriqui), Colombia and Costa Rica. In addition, according to Jiménez and Cortés (2003), <em>P. eydouxi</em> can be found in moderate abundance at Culebra Bay, Costa Rica. Likewise, in the Galápagos Islands, this coral is moderately common in the northern Archipelago (Hickman 2005) but uncommon in the central region (Hickman and Chiriboga pers. comm.). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported <em>P. eydouxi</em> as a very common species at the Coiba Archipelago, Panama.<br/><br/>According to Glynn <em>et al</em>. (1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galapagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). However, following this high coral mortality, numerous pocilloporid recruits have been observed at some sites in Costa Rica, Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Glynn unpublished data in Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1991). Apparently, Pocillopora eydouxi populations have been recovering in recent years (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. pers. comm.), following the severe coral mortality associated with recent ENSO events (1982-83 and 1997-98) and red tides.<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, pocilloporid communities were well developed off northeastern San Cristobal, Espanola and Floreana Island until the 1980s (Glynn 1994, 2003), but disappeared following the 1982-83 ENSO event, with minimal coral recruitment since (Glynn 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133407	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar <em>et al</em>.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,498.<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133408	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133408	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in East African coast, Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Austral Islands.	eng
133408	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually found encrusting vertical or overhung faces, generally to depths of 50 m.	eng
133408	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species but widespread and sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133408	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 5.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133409	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133409	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and northeast Australia.	eng
133409	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons that are protected from wave action. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133409	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133409	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133410	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133410	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133410	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found is most commonly on lower reef slopes. It forms large fields. This species is found from 4-25 m.	eng
133410	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133410	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 346 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 131.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133411	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133411	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, north, east and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133411	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133411	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare except in subtropical localities where it is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133411	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133412	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133412	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and the northern Indian Ocean. A single doubtful specimen has been recorded from the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.	eng
133412	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This widespread species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments protected from strong wave action. It occurs in shallow and deep fore reef areas, but does not form large colonies (Wood 1983). This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133412	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133412	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133413	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133413	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the east coast of Africa, Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133413	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in protected reef environments and deep sandy substrates. It has a depth range of 24-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species can be found to 50 m.	eng
133413	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread and uncommon, can be locally common, and is conspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133413	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 8,000 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and low mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133414	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133414	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133414	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper, tropical reef environments. It is found in most shallow water environments. <em>G. pectinata</em> is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may also be found on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 40 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133414	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133414	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,800 live pieces in 2005. The Indonesian export quota was 1,900 pieces in 2006. There is also Fiji export quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,303.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133415	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133415	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific and Philippines and Maldives. It is also found in Andamans Islands, Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.). Found in Fiji and Vanuatu (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133415	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133415	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It is known to form large stands in the Philippines (Reboton pers. comm.) and at least one large thicket in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133415	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	A very fragile species. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133416	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133416	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and eastern Africa from Somalia to northern Tanzania<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133416	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow reef environments, and often occurs in lagoons. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.	eng
133416	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133416	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133417	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133417	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Pitcairn, Tuomotos, northwestern Australia, and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133417	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is found on tropical, protected shallow reef slopes where the substrate is partly sandy. It forms extensive single species stands, sometimes over 5 m across.. It can also found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133417	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133417	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	No bleaching was seen in this species in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 190.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133418	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133418	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific, Hawaii Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133418	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and is a free living adult. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 17 cm in diameter.	eng
133418	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is widespread and common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133418	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, almost 50 % of the specimens were recorded as bleaching (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133419	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133419	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133419	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments to 50 m. It is commonly found from 9-15 m, rarely at 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133419	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread, very common and may be a dominant species and may form extensive single species stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133419	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,500 live pieces in 2005. This species is also likely exported from Fiji but there is no specific information.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133420	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133420	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, northern Maldives, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwest to northeast Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, and Fiji.	eng
133420	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133420	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133420	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133421	conservation	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133421	distribution	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	<em>Porites baueri</em> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Marias Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003).	eng
133421	habitat	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	This species is poorly known.	eng
133421	population	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	Based on collections by D.F. Squires in 1957, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) report <em>Porites baueri</em> as a rare species at the Marias Islands, Mexico. However, besides Squires (1959), there is no other literature record for this species. Recent studies in the Marias Islands revealed no colonies that could unmistakably be assigned to the nominal species <em>P. baueri</em>, but many colonies of <em>Porites lobata</em> were collected (Perez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006). These results support previous studies (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999, Glynn 2000) that suggest that <em>P. baueri</em> is a synonym of <em>P. lobata</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133421	threats	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133422	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133422	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133422	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133422	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133422	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. This species occurs especially in lagoons. These habitats have been particularly affected by high sea temperature-induced bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 281.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133423	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133423	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north, west and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133423	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp. The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size 21.5 cm in diameter.	eng
133423	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common and widespread.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133423	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, this species has been recorded as almost 50% of specimens is being bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133424	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133424	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Seychelles, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133424	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments but prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on the back and foreslope, in lagoons, and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133424	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, though common in shallow reefs in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133424	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133425	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Its presence in murky, cold, sandy, hard-bottom habitats means that it has been generally understudied compared to most other zooxanthellate scleractinian corals. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133425	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas. The northernmost record is from the coast of North Carolina (Macintyre and Pilkey 1969, Macintyre 2003).	eng
133425	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in a wide range of reef habitats and rocky foreshores, especially turbid environments typically from 1-30 m (although in North Carolina they are found from 20-40 m depth on hard substrates covered by fine sediments; Macintyre 2003).	eng
133425	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is widespread, but at low abundances, and more common in the northern wider Caribbean than in the south.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133425	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species may be susceptible to bleaching and disease, but there has been no verification of the impacts of these. This appears to be a species tolerant to a wide range of temperature, salinity and sediment loads.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133426	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133426	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeastern Somalia, northwest Madagascar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Gulf of Carpentaria, eastern Africa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133426	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reefs and rocky foreshores of tropical and subtropical locations. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes of the reef, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found from 3-20 m.	eng
133426	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133426	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133427	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133427	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Indonesia and the Philippines (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133427	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	It is found on protected reef slopes from 20 m depth (Wallace 1999) to 60 m (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133427	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133427	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133428	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133428	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133428	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs on a wide variety of reef slopes from five to 30 m, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133428	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133428	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133429	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133429	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133429	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It forms large stands on protected horizontal substrates including shallow reefs and lagoons. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and can be found in inter-reef soft substrates. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133429	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, can be locally common in patches.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133429	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133430	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133430	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has a disjunct range. It has been recorded from west, north and east Australia, southern Japan, and the southwest Pacific.	eng
133430	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is semi-protected shallow reef or terrigenous rock substrates, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133430	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common in subtropical localities, rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133430	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133431	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133431	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133431	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> and <em>Cyclosers</em> species. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5cm in diameter. <em>H. aequicostatus</em> has a depth range of 16-30 m on the Great Barrier Reef and 8-17 m off of New Caledonia (Fisk 1983). This species can be found to 100 m.	eng
133431	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species may be locally very abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133431	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133432	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133432	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133432	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes. It occurs mostly intertidally on reef flats (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-10 m.	eng
133432	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, and is uncommon elsewhere.  It is common in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133432	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133433	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133433	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia and the East China Sea.	eng
133433	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and lower reef slopes. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133433	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133433	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133434	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133434	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
133434	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133434	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133434	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133435	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133435	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Central Indo-Pacific. Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.) Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006).	eng
133435	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in protected reef environments. The maximum size is 30cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133435	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133435	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133436	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the status of both <em>Dichocoenia</em> species. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133436	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.	eng
133436	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in fore reef habitats below 15 m. Coexists with <em>D. stokesii</em> in deeper water. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.) This species may be found to 22 m.	eng
133436	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is usually uncommon. This is a deep-water species, often classified as the more abundant and closely related <em>D. stokesii</em>, and there is no reliable information on its current population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133436	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species has been observed with white plague, and is likely to be susceptible to other disease (black band), bleaching, and high sedimentation, but it is not known whether these have resulted in significant mortalities (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133437	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133437	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, western and eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. Southwestern Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.), New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).	eng
133437	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes as a free-living polyp. The depth range is from 3-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). Maximum size is 18.5 cm in diameter.	eng
133437	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133437	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 7,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,807.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133438	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133438	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, southeast Asia, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marianas, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Kiribati, French Polynesia, and Pitcairn.	eng
133438	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found most on reef foreslopes. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133438	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon, but relatively distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133438	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 65. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133439	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There is a need for more quantitative data from other locations on population status, and information on recovery rates in areas that have been highly impacted. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. Several protected areas offer protection to the species, including Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize) and MPAs off the Mexican Yucatan.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133439	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean and the southern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
133439	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow fore reef spur and groove zones and on low-energy lagoon reef complexes, from 1-15 m. In high-energy reef environments, it forms box-like networks that are wave resistant (Chornesky 1991, Aronson and Precht 1995) and in low-energy lagoon environments it forms delicate open framework bouquets (Aronson and Precht 1997). <br/><br/>This species has high rates of recruitment, and rapid growth rates, so it has the potential to recover quickly from disturbance.	eng
133439	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common and abundant in southern and western Caribbean localities; it is less abundant in the northern Caribbean. <br/><br/>In some places, this species forms extensive monospecific stands. <br/><br/>In the last decade, populations off Belize, the Bay Islands, Yucatan, Jamaica and Guantanemo Bay have sustained extensive mortality with some recovery reported (Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2000, McField 1999, B. Precht pers. comm.); however, in other places, populations have remained stable, for example in Panama and Venezuela (E. Weil pers. comm., Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133439	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species is bleaching, causing mass mortality events (Aronson <em>et al</em>. 2000,Kramer and Kramer 2002). Localized mortality events have occurred due to disease (white plague) and hurricane damage; the species is likely to be sensitive to high sedimentation.<br/><br/>Particularly susceptible to bleaching and disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133440	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133440	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Northern Red Sea, east Africa, Madagascar (except for the eastern side), Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Marshall Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Line Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133440	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133440	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133440	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is not exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133441	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133441	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.) and Raja Ampat (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133441	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on protected reef slopes, sandy areas (Wallace 1999), and deep, sandy reef slopes (Richards pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-30 m.	eng
133441	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133441	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133442	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133442	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, the southwest, and central Indian Ocean (including southern tip of India and Sri Lanka), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific. Also recorded from Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133442	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on shallow, protected reef slopes. In Chagos, the species is commonly found in deeper waters (20-30m) on seaward reef slopes (Sheppard pers. comm.). Red Sea range information from Sheppard and Sheppard (1991): This is a mid to deep-water species, preferring sheltered sites without strong water movement, but without much sedimentation either. It is not usually conspicuous, partly because of its neutral grey or pale brown colour, but is not uncommon below 25 m. This species is distinctive (Sheppard pers. comm.). Colonies of <em>Oxypora</em> seldom exceed 1 m in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133442	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133442	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 60.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133443	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133443	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific and the Solomons Islands.	eng
133443	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 2 m to at least 30 m.	eng
133443	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133443	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133444	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. May be offered limited protected by MPAs. <br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133444	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the southern Caribbean. Reported from Martinique (Adey <em>et al</em>. 1977). The limits of the distribution range are not well defined.	eng
133444	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is likely to occur on shallow to intermediate rocky reefs based on closely related species in the genus (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.) This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
133444	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133444	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133445	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133445	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133445	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow fringing reefs, generally to depths of 15 m. It prefers areas of low exposure, and tolerates sedimented conditions well (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133445	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is locally common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133445	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, in the Persian Gulf this species survived the 1998 warming event well, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133446	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133446	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in the northern Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, and in the east Atlantic on the coast of west Africa.	eng
133446	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found on rocky shores and jetty pilings, and it is tolerant of a wide range of temperatures. <em>A. poculata</em> is distinct from its Caribbean relatives by exhibiting facultative symbiosis with zooxanthellae (Jacques and Pilson 1980), and can be both zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate.<br/><br/>Corals in this family are small, non-reef-building corals that may be found in shallow waters. They tend to grow under ledges and rocks in both shallow and deep waters. This cryptic habit, together with their small size, means that they are readily overlooked (Wood 1983).	eng
133446	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no specific population information for this species.	eng
133446	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133447	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133447	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (southern tip of India and Sri Lanka), central Indo-Pacific, and in the Solomons. Also in eastern Papua New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.) and Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133447	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in shallow reef environments.	eng
133447	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133447	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Echinopora</em> species are collected for the aquarium trade; they are in the top 15 genera collected in Lampung in South Sumatra, which is one of the two main coral collecting areas in Indonesia.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133448	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133448	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133448	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species forms large single species stands, especially in turbid water. In the Red Sea, common in sheltered, sandy or lagoon areas between 2-15 m deep.	eng
133448	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common, and is considered the most common species of this genus recorded in the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133448	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>G. columna</em> occurs in shallower depths, which makes it susceptible to bleaching; but it also occurs in turbid waters, which can also help to protect it against bleaching effects. <em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133449	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133449	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, as well as the south-west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133449	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 0.5-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133449	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133449	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133450	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133450	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia.	eng
133450	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid environments and also in clear water habitats. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133450	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133450	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species occurs in subtropical as well as tropical waters, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting to massive species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133451	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133451	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and South Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133451	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper to lower reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133451	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133451	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a wide range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 0. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133452	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.	eng
133452	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133452	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is usually found in intertidal habitats where different colonies may adjoin to form flat expanses frequently over 5 m across. It also occurs in shallow, tropical reefs in protected turbid environments. It is found on subtidal rock or rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a metre or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133452	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species was present at 10% of the sites in a study of 25 areas in a variety of Indo-Pacific regions (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is uncommon and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133452	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a large harvest in Fiji.	eng
133453	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133453	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133453	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It may develop into large mound-shaped colonies in shallow water, but smaller colonies occur in a wide range of habitats including those exposed to strong wave action. <em>P. rugosa</em> is commonly found from 9-20 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). It forms large fields. This species can be found from 5-20 m.	eng
133453	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133453	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited variable but generally high bleaching and high mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001)<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 340 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,351.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133454	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133454	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, and is so far known from one site on the southern Wajh Bank in Saudi Arabia. It is recently described and future work will probably show it to be more widely distributed, at least in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133454	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow semi-sheltered reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133454	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This recently described species is so far known only from a single site.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133454	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. However, the southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry. Genetics studies have however demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea coral populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following any regional scale disturbance that decimates coral populations in the Red Sea might be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133455	conservation	Guzmán, H., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/>In Costa Rica it is found in Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II) and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).	eng
133455	distribution	Guzmán, H., 2008	This species is found throughout the Indo West Pacific region (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is also present in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region in Costa Rica: Cocos Island, first report of <em>P. xarifae</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Cortés and Guzmán 1998) and in Panama: present in several sites (15) in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. unpublished data, final report).	eng
133455	habitat	Guzmán, H., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>Pavona xarifae</em> grows in shallow (<20 m) on rocky reef environments (Guzmán pers. comm.).	eng
133455	population	Guzmán, H., 2008	Glynn and Ault (2000) classified <em>P. xarifae</em> as rare in Costa Rica. Moreover they consider that <em>Pavona xarifae</em> should be considered as an endangered species, since the known populations consist of ten or fewer colonies.<br/><br/>According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>Pavona xarifae</em> is not a common species that is known from 15 sites in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama and at least one site (Cocos Island) in Costa Rica. Distribution is unknown due to taxonomic uncertainty among field researchers.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133455	threats	Guzmán, H., 2008	Presumably El Niño and climate change are threats to this species. According to Glynn (1997), species that are rare (such as <em>P. xarifae</em>) are vulnerable to extinction from future environmental disturbances, such as ENSO events. <br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development, overexploitation and destructive fishing practice, inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation (COTS), and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133456	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133456	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133456	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found more often in turbid reef environments but may be found in most reef habitats. Sparse colonies of <em>P. lichtensteini</em> are found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). Some colonies can be very large, reaching 3 m in diameter. This species can be found from 1-20 m.	eng
133456	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133456	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 10,500 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133457	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133457	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Flower Gardens), and the Bahamas.	eng
133457	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in most fore reef environments and deeper lagoon reef complexes, from 5-30 m, but most commonly between 10-20 m.	eng
133457	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs at low abundance in deeper fore reef environments.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133457	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague) and bleaching, with localized mortality affecting individual colonies in some areas. Not tolerant of high rates of sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133458	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133458	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133458	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all reef environments. This species is found to 35 m.	eng
133458	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133458	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is quite susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 4,750 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133459	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133459	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133459	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species forms large single species stands, especially in turbid water, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133459	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133459	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133460	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133460	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133460	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments and lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133460	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133460	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133461	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133461	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is known from Brazil and is not present in the wider Caribbean region.	eng
133461	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in clear protected water with horizontal or rubble substrates. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133461	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133461	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133462	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133462	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species was collected at Rongelap Atoll, northern Ralik archipelago in the Marshall Islands (Richards and Wallace 2004). It is also found in Micronesia, Irian Jaya (Richards pers. comm.), Marshall Islands, Pohnpei, and Sulawesi (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133462	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species was collected subtidally from a deep lagoon habitat between 28 and 30 m depth (Richards and Wallace 2004). It can be found on protected deep sandy slopes (Richards pers. comm.). It can be found as shallow as 20 m and as deep as 40 m.	eng
133462	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Rare throughout its range (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133462	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133463	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133463	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread found in the southwest, northern, and eastern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. This species is reported from Society Island and Pitcairn by Wallace (1999).	eng
133463	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found on shallow reefs on upper reef slopes and lagoons.<br/><br/>This species occurs through a broad depth range, often being found to a depth of 20 m on slopes and walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-35 m depth (Richards and Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>General genus information: Throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133463	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually common in the central Indo-Pacific, it is uncommon elsewhere. It occurred at 17 of 87 surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Z. Richards pers. comm.) and all six regions of Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133463	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a fragile species that readily bleaches. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species has a corymbose growth form (clumpy plate-like) and therefore, is more susceptible to COTS (De'ath and Moran 1998). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is present in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was three.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133464	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133464	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific; South-east Asia; Japan; and South China Sea.	eng
133464	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is primarily found on exposed shallow reef slopes, although it can occur to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133464	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133464	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133465	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133465	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common on very turbid lower slopes in Darvel Bay and may be interpreted as a local turbid water specialist (Ditlev 2003).	eng
133465	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133465	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133466	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133466	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species has a restricted range in the Caribbean. It is known only from Guadeloupe, San Blas (Panama), Venezuela, Colombia (de Weerdt 1990) and Belize (Fenner 1999).	eng
133466	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell, pers. comm.)	eng
133466	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is rare in Belize and Panama (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133466	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133467	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133467	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, including the Solomon Islands.	eng
133467	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on rocky surfaces exposed to currents, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133467	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133467	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133468	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133468	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, Oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133468	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, especially back reef margins. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies from 3-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133468	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133468	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 56. It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133469	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133469	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the north-west Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133469	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on shallow margins of fringing reefs and submerged reef patches (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.	eng
133469	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133469	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133470	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133470	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Northern Madagascar, Central Indo-Pacific, Japan and East China Sea, northern and Eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133470	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all reef areas including high energy sites. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133470	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133470	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133471	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133471	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in Australia including the Great Barrier Reef, in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133471	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reef flats. It occurs in reef lagoons. This species occurs predominately along continental or island coastlines, rather than on patch reefs. In Eastern Australia, it occurs in sub-tropical latitudes, in coastal shoals, rocky reefs and on some cay-bearing reefs offshore, but is rarely seen on middle and outer reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (Wallace 1999).<br/><br/>This species is found from 0-5 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133471	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133471	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, at Heron Island, it was the only reef flat species to survive the 2002 bleaching (Pratchett pers. comm.) and therefore may be resistant to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133472	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133472	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, New Caledonia,  and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Madagascar, Ellice Islands, Coral Sea, American Samoa, Fiji, Australia and western Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It is found in Indonesia (Wallace pers. comm.).	eng
133472	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	It occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially reef flats exposed to strong wave action. It is found subtidally on submerged reef tops (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-15 m.	eng
133472	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in Indonesia. Unknown elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133472	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is very resilient to bleaching in Fiji (Lovell pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species may be susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish because of its growth form. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133473	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133473	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, south-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific. American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)	eng
133473	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually found in most reef environments. This species is found from 2-25 m.	eng
133473	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133473	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133474	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133474	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, East Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific east to Fiji.	eng
133474	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on most reef environments. This species can be found to 40 m.	eng
133474	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133474	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,400 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133475	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133475	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is known from American Samoa and Taiwan, may be the senior synonym of <em>A. akajimensis</em>, in which case it would be known also from Japan, the Philippines and southeastern Asia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133475	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species was originally dredged in 7.5 to 13 fathoms from Taema bank, south of Pago Pago Harbor (Hoffmeister 1925).	eng
133475	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133475	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	<em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133476	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Reported from Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is needed to verify the validity of this species (see Taxonomy). (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133476	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Recorded from Colombia (Von Prahl and Ehardt 1985), Netherlands Antilles (Roos 1978), Jamaica (Wells and Lang 1973), Grand Cayman, and the Flower Gardens (Bright <em>et al</em>. 1984). Western Africa.	eng
133476	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in intermediate to deep-water fore reef environments, from 12-200 m.	eng
133476	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133476	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown, but likely as for <em>Madracis aureterna</em> (susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation; localized mass mortality events due to white plague have been recorded in Venezuela and the Netherlands Antilles) and <em>M. decactis</em> (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133477	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133477	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in Brazil.	eng
133477	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical reef habitats. <br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Favia</em> is common in nearly all reef localities, but does not usually form heads more than a meter or two in diameter. This genus is unimportant in the western Atlantic in terms of reef-building. It is generally restricted to shallow reefs (Wood 1983).	eng
133477	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is generally uncommon.<br/><br/>General genus information: This genus forms small spherical or encrusting colonies. Colonies are always small (less than 30 cm in diameter) and are generally restricted to shallow reefs (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133477	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133478	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133478	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133478	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all reef environments but especially lagoons and reef slopes. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133478	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133478	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 10,900 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 662 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133479	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	<em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> can be successfully transplanted as attached fragments if it is transplanted in the spring and vertically oriented (Okubo <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133479	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133479	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and outer reef flats, intertidally on reef flats, and subtidally on reef edges, slopes and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999).This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found at 4-10 m on the Chagos lagoon (Sheppard 1982). <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia. (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006) This species is found from 5-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133479	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is one of the most abundant corals of exposed outer reef slopes of much of the western Pacific. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 40 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133479	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited very high bleaching levels and high mortality approaching 100% in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). Five different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This is particularly susceptible to COTS, disease, and physical disturbances (Richards and Aeby pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 19908. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 13,750 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133480	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133480	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean.	eng
133480	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, lagoons, and fringing reefs. This species is found from 5-30 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133480	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133480	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133481	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133481	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Chesterfield Island, Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is in Tokelau and the Cook Islands, Wallace (1999).<br/><br/>Some distribution records are doubtful and therefore it may be more restricted in its distribution.	eng
133481	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes and in lagoons. It is found from 3-20 m depth. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133481	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species on the Chesterfield Reefs and Norfolk Island. It is rare elsewhere. Found at eight sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133481	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133482	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133482	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and central Pacific.	eng
133482	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on protected upper reef slopes. Although it can occur up to 50 m depth, it is commonly found from 9-20 m, with mass colonies from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133482	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. But in the Red Sea it is the most common species of <em>Alveopora</em> recorded (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133482	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,050 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,568.<br/><br/>In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133483	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133483	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133483	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on shallow reef slopes. This species is found from 2-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133483	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133483	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133484	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133484	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found off of the east African coast, in the southern Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean. <br/><br/>This species is not found in the Chagos Archipelago.	eng
133484	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in turbid environments at the base of reefs and in intertidal pools, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133484	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common in south-east Africa, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133484	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133485	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133485	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, oceanic west Pacific, and central Pacific and Australia. It is also found in New Caledonia, Coral Sea and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133485	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133485	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133485	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. However, this species is not particularly susceptible to bleaching and disease and likely to survive on reefs heavily impacted by bleaching events. Susceptibility to crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this genus in 2005 was 95.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133486	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133486	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, PNG, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133486	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from less than 10 m to greater than 20 m.	eng
133486	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133486	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, <em>P. horizontalata</em> was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133487	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133487	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from Muscat area in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133487	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Relatively common in deep, turbid environments, but also occurs in shallow environments (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133487	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Relatively common in deep, turbid environments (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133487	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133488	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133488	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean.	eng
133488	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). For <em>P. africana</em>, colonies are usually less than 0.3 m across. This species is found from 3-30 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133488	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133488	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133489	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133489	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is distributed from Southeast Asia, in Vietnam and central Indo-Pacific, northwest Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
133489	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is restricted to shallow reef edges. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133489	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133489	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133490	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133490	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf.	eng
133490	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is known only from moderately deep, sedimented and turbid water. This species is found between 5-15 m.	eng
133490	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133490	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133491	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133491	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Rodrigues, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, and Ogasawara Island (Japan).	eng
133491	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes. Colonies may reach several metres in diameter (Wood 1983). This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133491	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133491	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133492	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133492	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Red Sea, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central and eastern Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.<br/><br/>It also occurs in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, and has been reported from Sámara, Costa Rica (Cortés and Murillo 1985, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). However, when <em>P. rus</em> was discovered at Sámara, the colonies (i.e., approximately 102 according to Glynn 1997) were bleached and since then <em>P. rus</em> has not been recorded from Sámara nor anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 1997, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000). Glynn (1997) and Glynn and Ault (2000) reported this species as Regionally Extinct in the Eastern Tropical Pacific.	eng
133492	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It is a common coral in the Indo-Pacific, which is especially successful in shallow reef areas. Branched colonies often form large tracts along the reef front, while massive and encrusting species thrive at more exposed sites. (Wood 1983). <em>P. rus</em> is commonly found from 1 to 11 m, rarely from 12 to 20 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>At Sámara, Costa Rica, <em>P. rus</em> was found on exposed rocky outcrops (Cortés pers. comm.).	eng
133492	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common in the Indo-Pacific portion of its range, and may be a dominant species in a wide range of habitats. In a study of 11 areas in the Philippines, three in Malaysia, two in Indonesia, and one each in Madagascar, Rodrigues, Andamans, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa and Hawaii, the species was present at 79% of the sites surveyed (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, <em>P. rus</em> is possibly extinct. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133492	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133493	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133493	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133493	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133493	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133493	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133494	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133494	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea. It is also found in Indonesia, west and eastern Australia, and Japan (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133494	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments exposed to wave action, intertidal reef flats (Wallace 1999), and ultra shallow and exposed reef (Richards pers. comm.). This is found in depths of between 1 and 5 m.	eng
133494	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at three of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133494	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133495	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133495	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, northern, western, and eastern Australia, South China Sea, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133495	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common at greater depths where it can grow in large fields. It reproduces asexually by fragmentation. This species is found to 25 m.	eng
133495	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133495	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133496	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133496	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133496	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species may be a dominant species in lagoons or on back reef margins. <em>P. cylindrica</em> is commonly found from 1-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133496	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common to abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133496	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 28,950 live pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>This species exhibited moderate to high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133497	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133497	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East and South China Sea, the Solomons, and eastern Australia. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). Also found in New Caledonia (Pichon 2006) and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133497	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on slopes and horizontal substrates protected from wave action and with turbid water. This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 18 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: <em>Caulastrea</em> is an uncommon coral. It often forms small colonies less than 30 cm in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133497	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133497	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of this range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,114. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,500 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133498	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133498	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133498	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It occurs shallow on sandy reef flats and deep sandy reef bases. It forms plates of over 1 m. <em>T. peltata</em> is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found from 0.5-25 m.	eng
133498	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133498	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 15,650 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17,191.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133499	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133499	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific and South China Sea.	eng
133499	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is known to what depth this species can occur.	eng
133499	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133499	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133500	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133500	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and north, west and south Australia.<br/><br/>It is also found in Thailand, Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.), Philippines, and Andamans (Fenner pers. comm.). It has a disjunct distribution.	eng
133500	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found subtidally on outer reefs, upper slopes or walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
133500	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a rare species. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133500	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133501	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133501	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, and eastern Australia. It has also been recorded from the Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.), Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape (Turak pers. comm.), and Hong Kong (Chan <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
133501	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in protected turbid environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133501	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common and conspicuous at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, south-west Australia, and is considered uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133501	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133502	conservation	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133502	distribution	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific, including Palau and the Marianas Islands (Randall 1995).<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) region <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> has been reported from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador. <br/><br/>Specific records in the ETP include:<br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima (including the Revillagigedo Islands) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Osa Peninsula, Caño Island, Marino Ballena National Park, La Penca, Curú Bay and Cocos Island (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Alvarado <em>et al</em>. 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Panamá</strong>: throughout the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Maté 2003, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador and the Galápagos Islands (Glynn 2003, Wells 1983, Hickman 2005, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
133502	habitat	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	<em>Psammocora superficialis</em> occurs in a wide range of reef environments; on rocky substrata and rubble from shallow water to 30 m. Sparse colonies of <em>P. superficialis</em> were found from 9-15 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).<br/><br/>In general, <em>Psammocora</em> species are very slow growing corals; with a calculated growth rate of 0.6cm/year for <em>P. superficialis</em> in Costa Rica (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). Sexual reproduction is important, but asexual reproduction and fragmentation are more effective strategies for colonizing free areas within the reef (Cortés and Guzmán 1998).	eng
133502	population	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Psammocora superficialis</em> has been categorized as follows:<br/><br/>Uncommon or rare in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000, Hickman 2005), Panama (Glynn and Ault 2000), mainland Ecuador (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000), throughout Mexico (including the Revillagigedo Islands) (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); Costa Rica (including Cocos Island) (Glynn and Ault 2000), and Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000).<br/><br/>According to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. superficialis</em> is very common at Coiba Archipelago National Park; present in 50 to 75% of sites, and also at 105 sites studied in the Gulf of Chiriqui and 82 at Las Perlas Archipelago (Guzmán <em>et al</em>., in prep.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133502	threats	Cortés, J., Edgar, G., Chiriboga, A., Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 150. <br/><br/>According to Cortés and Guzmán (1998) and Guzmán and Robertson (1989), the puffer fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> is capable of reducing populations of <em>Psammocora</em> species if other preferred coral species such as <em>Porites lobata</em> are absent. The sea star <em>Acanthaster planci</em> and the fish <em>Arothron meleagris</em> feed on <em>Psammocora</em> species (Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>During the 1991-92 El Niño event in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, <em>Psammocora</em> species were the most affected, with 75% of all colonies bleached (Cortés and Jiménez 2003), and approximately 66% mortality of corals in three localities (Manuel Antonio, Cambutal and Ballena) on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica (Jiménez and Cortés 2001). However, <em>Psammocora</em> species are considered to be amongst the most opportunistic species because of the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzmán and Cortés 2001).<br/><br/>Algae overgrowth has also been reported to cause mortality on <em>Psammocora</em> (Glynn 1997, Jiménez and Cortés 2001, Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006). At Uva Island, Panama, large aggregations of <em>P. stellata</em> at 8-10 m depth that survived the 1982-83 El Niño event were overgrown by thick mats of <em>Caulerpa</em> species (Glynn 1997); additionally, in Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, <em>Psammocora</em> species were completely overgrown by a brown alga (Jimenez and Cortés 2001). At La Penca (Costa Rica), <em>Psammocora</em>-dominated reef that once covered 0.3 ha is now reduced to several small (1-3 m²) patches of coral among a dense bed of <em>Caulerpa</em> (Bernadette <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by crown-of thorns starfish, disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133503	conservation	Hoeksema, E., Obura, C., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133503	distribution	Hoeksema, E., Obura, C., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific.	eng
133503	habitat	Hoeksema, E., Obura, C., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on back reef, flat reef, reef slopes and lagoons. This is a solitary, free-living coral found between depths of 1-20 m. The depth range is from <1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size of the species is 31 cm diameter. It is a good asexual reproducer and often occurs in clusters as a result. This species is one of the first colonisers to settle in blasted areas and thrives in disturbed environments.<br/><br/>It is always attached as a juvenile and free living as an adult, and as a result it is mobile. It is a good competitor and can live on a variety of substrata.	eng
133503	population	Hoeksema, E., Obura, C., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is very common and widespread (Hoeksema 1989). It can occur in very dense clusters on reef flats and in multi-species fungiid assemblages on slopes.<br/><br/>Disturbed habitats provide good settlement areas for this species, and in many areas population size may be increasing.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133503	threats	Hoeksema, E., Obura, C., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching and in one study approximately 50% of individuals were bleached. Mortality rates were not known (Hoeksema 1991). <br/><br/>This species may be eaten by crown of thorns starfish, although are not targeted. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Other threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 9,438.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133504	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133504	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133504	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow to mid-slope reef environments, and sometimes in shallow seagrass habitats. On the south coast of Puerto Rico, occurs from 0.2-50 m, and is most abundant from 1-15 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Weil 1992b). This species may be the dominant coral on the reef flat forming monospecific stands; colonies form a dense framework at 0.5-1.5 m depth, immediately behind the <em>Millepora</em> dominated reef crest and extending into the back reef (Goreau 1959, Glynn 1973).	eng
133504	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is fairly common throughout the range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133504	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Shallow-water populations of this species are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133505	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133505	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Vietnam, Philippines, Taiwan, southern Japan, Celebes Sea, and northwest Papua (Indonesia). <br/><br/>This species is possibly more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
133505	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow water exposed to wave action, and on mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133505	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is probably rare but little studied.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133505	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133506	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133506	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Lakshadweep islands and the Red Sea (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133506	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes of the reef and can be found in lagoons. This species is found from 8 m to at least 25 m.	eng
133506	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species, but is inconspicuous and might be overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133506	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133507	conservation	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133507	distribution	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133507	habitat	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow protected lagoons.	eng
133507	population	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133507	threats	Delbeek, J.C., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133508	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133508	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeast Somalia, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Micronesia, and Fiji.	eng
133508	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments, especially shallow fringing reefs. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133508	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133508	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133509	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133509	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in Madagascar, central Indo-Pacific to the east of Singapore, north and east Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133509	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slope as an attached polyp with multiple mouths. Maximum size is over 50 cm. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133509	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133509	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133510	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133510	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, northeastern Somalia, eastern Africa, northwestern Madagascar, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northern half of Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Line Islands.	eng
133510	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. It can grow into very large colonies greater than 200 cm diameter. This species is found in lagoons. It can be found also on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133510	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133510	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133511	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133511	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is limited to the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
133511	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found on rocky foreshores and caves.<br/><br/>This species is abundant in wide areas along the Israeli coast at a depth range of 0.5-10 m. It is found in natural habitats of sandstone reefs and disturbed sites such as areas exposed to domestic and industrial pollution, artificial boulders, submerged metal objects, jetties and marinas. Azooxanthellate colonies can be found in dark caves and crevices at a depth of 1-6 m. This species has the ability to live and reproduce under varying and diversified environmental conditions, such as a wide range of water temperatures, salinity, UV radiation, turbidity and strong wave energy (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is a gonochoric coral, which spawns for only two nights every year, precisely during the September full moon. This species is able to reproduce sexually while still at small colony size (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
133511	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.	eng
133511	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	Coral bleaching was first recorded along the Israeli coast in the summer of 1993. It was explained by a bacterial infection to which high water temperature was a contributing factor. These bleaching events were assumed to be new and have adverse affects on the ability of this coral to sexually reproduce. Bleaching was not observed in the Western Mediterranean (Fine <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133512	conservation	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133512	distribution	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	<em>Porites sverdrupi</em> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, and is only known from Mexico, where it has been reported from Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000). <br/><br/>Fossil records from the Pliocene and Pleistocene indicate a wider historical distribution to the south as far as the Marias Islands (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
133512	habitat	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	This species occurs at depths of 1 to 40 m, but is most common in deeper water (>20 m) (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
133512	population	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	<em>Porites sverdrupi</em> is considered a rare species throughout its current range (Reyes-Bonilla 2003). In the early 1980s, Reyes-Bonilla (1992) reported this species at Cabo San Lucas but the local populations have since become extinct (López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003). Nevertheless, new live populations have been reported recently from Loreto (Baja California Sur) and from Bahia de Banderas (Jalisco) (Reyes-Bonilla pers comm.). In general, this species distribution has contracted since the 1980s.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133512	threats	Chiriboga, A., Edgar, G. & Reyes-Bonilla, H., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133513	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133513	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133513	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species is found from 5 to ~10 m depth.	eng
133513	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is usually an uncommon species, but locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133513	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). The growth form is particularly susceptible to COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133514	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133514	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from the Muscat area, Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133514	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Colonies were found below 12 m in depth (Claereboudt 2006), although it is not known to which depth this species occurs. On soft sediment, this species forms coralliths (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133514	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133514	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133515	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133515	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Melville Island (Australia), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133515	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats sheltered from strong wave action. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and also in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133515	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133515	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota for this species in Indonesia or Fiji. It is rare and so is probably not directly targeted, but there is probably some harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133516	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.	eng
133516	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found Tanzania to northern Mozambique, Madagascar (except southwestern part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Papua, Marianas Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, and Fiji.	eng
133516	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow reef environments. This species is found in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs.	eng
133516	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in equatorial regions.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133516	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.	eng
133517	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133517	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is only found in northeast Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia) and has a restricted range.	eng
133517	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found commonly below a depth of 10 m in the inner part of Darvel Bay on steep hard substratum (Ditlev 2003). This species can be found to 20 m.	eng
133517	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133517	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is very local. Within its limited range, threats include siltation due to deforestation. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133518	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133518	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, the Solomons, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia.	eng
133518	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found in most reef locations from 0.5 m to approximately 15 m depth (Wallace 1999). <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133518	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133518	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133519	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133519	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133519	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef environments, deep channels, and walls, from 15-30 m, but more common from 15-25 m. The species has the potential to exhibit moderate rates of recovery, due to its brooding reproductive strategy and some observations of successful recruitment following disturbance.	eng
133519	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common throughout its range, but at low abundances. Population abundances are usually lower than <em>M. lamarckiana</em>. Because of its low abundance, and similarity in appearance to <em>M. lamarckiana</em> (especially the smaller colonies), it is not frequently recorded in surveys.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133519	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The species is susceptible to disease (white plague and black band disease); white plague has caused localized mortality events. Also at risk from high sedimentation and bleaching. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133520	conservation	Guzmán, H., Chirioboga, A., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	In Costa Rica protected in Isla del Caño Biological Reserve (IUCN category Ia), Cocos Island National Park (IUCN category II), and Cocos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO criteria N (ii)(iv)).<br/><br/>In Panamá protected in Isla Iguana Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV); Golfo de Chiriquí National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/><br/>In Colombia protected in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSA); Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii)); Isla Gorgona National Park (IUCN category II), and Utria National Park (IUCN category II).<br/><br/>In Ecuador protected in Machalilla National Park (IUCN category II); Zona Marina Parque Nacional Machalilla (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar); Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133520	distribution	Guzmán, H., Chirioboga, A., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, this species is present on continental and oceanic Islands, from Costa Rica to Panamá, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Costa Rica, it is found in Caño Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Guzman and Cortes 2001) and Cocos Island (Guzmán and Cortés 2006).<br/><br/>In Panamá, it is found in Montuosa Island, Ladrones Island, Secas Island, Silva de Afuera Island, Uva Island (Contreras Island), Santa Cruz Island, Coiba Island, Jicarita Island, Restinge Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí, and Iguana Island, Saboga Island (Pearl Island) in the Gulf of Panamá (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003, Maté 2003b). <br/><br/>In Colombia it is found in Malpelo Island, Gorgona Island, and Utria (unconfirmed specimen) (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In Ecuador it is found in La Plata Island and throughout the Galapagos Archipelago (except for Fernandina and the west side of Isabela) (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hickman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
133520	habitat	Guzmán, H., Chirioboga, A., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	<em>Pavona chiriquiensis</em> encrust basaltic outcrops at depths of 3-20 m (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), the species can also be found to depths of 30 m. This coral typically occurs on protected rock surfaces not exposed to direct wave action (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001) from 3-30 m.<br/><br/><em>P. chiriquiensis</em> is reproductively active year round, with peak activity from Jan to May (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is a broadcast spawner (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). Most colonies are alternating periodic sequential hermaphrodites, with spawning of first one sex then the other in a given colony, in a lunar phase, and over the breading season (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). In addition, spawning increases during high temperatures (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Nevertheless, recruitment was found to fail ("nil to low and patchy") when SST anomalies exceeded 1.6 to 1.9°C during the severe ENSO events of 1982-83 and 1997-98 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Reproductive maturity is reached 2-3 years after settlement, when colonies are about 3 cm in diameter (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Bioeroders such as <em>Lithophaga</em> spp. and other bivalve molluscs and polychaetes live in abundance within the thin skeleton (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
133520	population	Guzmán, H., Chirioboga, A., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	In the Gulf of Chiriquí the relative abundance of <em>Pavona chiriquiensis</em> has been categorized as rare or uncommon at most localities to abundant (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003b). In addition, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) recorded <em>P. varians</em> at 131 sites across the Gulf of Chiriquí. Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported this species as abundant (present in 75-100% of the sites) at Coiba Archipelago, and at 131 sites across the Gulf of Chiriqui (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.). <br/><br/>In contrast, in the Gulf of Panama the species is rare, with isolated colonies present at Iguana Island and Saboga Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Maté 2003b). It is rare in Colombia, with only isolated colonies at Malpelo Island and Gorgona Island (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). At La Plata Island, Ecuador, four colonies have been recorded (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/>In the Galápagos, the species commonly occurs at Darwin and Wolf, but is uncommon elsewhere (Hickman, Chiriboga, Edgar pers. comm.). Nevertheless, according to Guzmán (pers. comm.), P. chiriquiensis is widespread and abundant within much of the region (Costa Rica, including Cocos Island, Panamá and Colombia), and in recent years its populations have been increasing and colonies are more frequently observed.<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133520	threats	Guzmán, H., Chirioboga, A., Hickman, C. & Edgar, G., 2008	Presumably threatened by ENSO events and climate change.<br/><br/>El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs on the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats include small colony size, slow skeletal growth, susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (COTS) predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133521	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. <br/><br/>Further taxonomic work is required to determine whether the two ecomorphs represent distinct species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133521	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. This species is also present from Brazil.	eng
133521	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in most reef communities, from depths of 1-100 m (Reed, 1985). The crustos form is the more abundant form of the species in shallower habitats, lagoons, and silty environments (5-15 m), while the boulder form is mostly in fore reef habitats, channels, and deep lagoons, and is more abundant from 10-20 m. The deep-boulder form is often encountered associated with a pinkish-brown polychaete worm.	eng
133521	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common and can be locally abundant. It is rare in Brazil.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133521	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats to this species are white plague and bleaching, which have both resulted in localized declines. It is also susceptible to other diseases (black-band and dark-spot), hurricane damage (for the boulder ecomorph), predation by <em>Spirisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish), and high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133522	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133522	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133522	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in intermediate to deep fore reef habitats, deep lagoons, and channels from 10-40 m, though most abundant from 10-20 m. Occurs in cryptic habitats (under overhands, ledges) in shallower waters, but in exposed areas in deeper waters.	eng
133522	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon. Abundance is highly variable between localities.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133522	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Although no large declines have been observed, they are susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, and sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133523	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133523	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133523	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to a depth of 30 m.	eng
133523	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133523	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133524	conservation	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133524	distribution	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133524	habitat	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may cover extensive areas on lower reef slopes, especially in turbid water. Often found in mixed assemblages with other <em>Anacropora</em> spp. (Turak pers. comm.). This species is found from 8-25 m.	eng
133524	population	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is usually rare and can be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133524	threats	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	No specific threat information for this species. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133525	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133525	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133525	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper reef slopes, but also grows deeper. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133525	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133525	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 121. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133526	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133526	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific and the Oceanic West Pacific. Tubataha (Philippines), Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), Indonesia (Fenner 2002) Coral Sea, Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.) and Vanuatu (Hoeksema pers. comm.)<br/><br/>These areas are very general. Based on the localities were survey work has been carried out, we assume that area should be more limited, for instance to Eastern Indonesia and South Madagascar (Hoeksema pers. comm.)	eng
133526	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is 20 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133526	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133526	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133527	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133527	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs only in Brazil.	eng
133527	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow turbid reef environments. The genus occurs in a variety of reef habitats, but is a relatively small coral with a restricted range, so it is not often encountered (Wood 1983).	eng
133527	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This is a common species. The genus forms massive colonies of a relatively small size (Wood 1983).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133527	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133528	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133528	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133528	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in a wide range of reef environments including crevices and deep, steep slopes. This species is found to 50 m.	eng
133528	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is moderately common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133528	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 48.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133529	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133529	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean and along the East African coast and Madagascar.	eng
133529	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m, in sandy reef areas.	eng
133529	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133529	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133530	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133530	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133530	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is found in most reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133530	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133530	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133531	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133531	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995); American Samoa, Andamans, Great Barrier Reef, Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.); Mauritius, Micronesia, Cook Islands (Wallace 1999); Philippines (Veron and Fenner 2000).	eng
133531	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on reef flats exposed to strong wave action and in lagoons, also intertidally or subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges, especially in areas of strong current (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 0-12 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133531	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133531	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133532	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133532	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Fiji, and Rodrigues (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133532	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes, especially those exposed to wave action or currents. It is found in shallow reef top and reef edge habitats often filling in spaces between other <em>Acropora</em> species (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m.	eng
133532	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common, especially in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133532	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133533	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the taxonomic status of this species, their distribution range, threats, and population status. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133533	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is reported off the Florida middlegrounds.	eng
133533	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in near-shore hard ground environments that may be exposed to high turbidity, to 20 m. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)	eng
133533	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species has been identified in surveys off the west coast of Florida, but no quantitative information available on abundance or trends. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133533	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown. It is possible that this species would have been affected during major red-tide blooms off the west coast of Florida (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133534	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133534	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133534	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It may form fields of at least 1 m across. This species is found to 15 m.	eng
133534	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133534	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133535	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is urgently needed to clarify the status of the genera (<em>Undaria</em> and <em>Agaricia</em>) and morphospecies within the <em>A. agaricites</em> species complex.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133535	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Cape Sao Roque (05°29'S to 035°16'W) to Nova Almeida (20°03'S to 040°12'W), and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atoll das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
133535	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in all reef environments from shallow back reef habitats, lagoons, channels, reef platforms, seagrass beds, and fore reefs. It occurs to depths of 75 m (Reed, 1985). This species is one of the early colonizers of formerly disturbed areas.	eng
133535	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Abundant, and in some places this may be the dominant coral. These corals are short-lived and generally small-sized but exhibit extremely high rates of recruitment. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133535	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	White plague has been responsible for mass mortality events in this species, and it has suffered high mortality from intensive bleaching. Localized threats include hurricanes, sedimentation, pollution, and other diseases (black band).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133536	conservation	Guzmán, H., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, <em>M. intricata</em> is present in two protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region in Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133536	distribution	Guzmán, H., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999).  It is found near Madagascar, in South East Asia, the South China Sea, southern Japan, the Great Barrier Reef, and Micronesia. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region it is only known from the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991, Glynn 1997).<br/><br/>Specific records: Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range as Indonesia eastward to the Caroline Islands and Great Barrier Reef to Japan. Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give the range as Indonesia, China, Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.	eng
133536	habitat	Guzmán, H., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	In the Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>M. intricata</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 3 to 30 m on coral reefs and amongst coral communities (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). The growth rate of <em>M. intricata</em> is considered rapid with a mean branch extension of 4.6 +- 0.7 mm/month in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133536	population	Guzmán, H., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	This species is considered abundant throughout its range.<br/><br/>It is currently considered as widely distributed and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí. According to Glynn (1997), the population size of <em>M. intricata</em> was 102-103 colonies at Uva Island and Secas Islands. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. intricata</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by late October 1983 only a 2 cm branch of <em>M. intricata</em> was found on a nearly 6 ha coral reef in Secas Islands (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). According to Glynn and de Weerdt (1991), M. intricata started to colonize basalt substrata in 1985, and by 1987 recruits were observed on Uva reef. More recently, Glynn and Ault (2000) categorized <em>M. intricata</em> as relatively common compared to other coral and hydrocoral species in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133536	threats	Guzmán, H., Edgar, G. & Chiriboga, A., 2008	In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. intricata</em> was severely bleached in Panama from January to March 1983 (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).However, since then <em>M. intricata</em> has recovered and is now considered widespread and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama.<br/><br/>This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133537	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133537	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the southwest Indian Ocean and Persian/Arabian Gulf, southeast Sumatra, northwest Java, southwest and north Sulawesi and Moluccas (Indonesia), south Taiwan, and northeast Australia. (Hoeksema and Best 1991).	eng
133537	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping bottoms usually in association with <em>Heteropsammnia</em> spp. and <em>Cyclosers</em> spp. It is a free-living polyp with a single mouth. The maximum size is 1.5 cm in diameter. This species is found from 15-100 m.	eng
133537	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species may be locally super abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133537	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133538	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133538	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133538	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-30 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 62 cm in diameter.	eng
133538	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133538	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 9% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,000 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,119.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133539	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133539	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133539	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and on vertical walls. The maximum size is 20 cm. This species is found from 10-20 m.	eng
133539	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133539	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133540	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133540	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, and northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka).	eng
133540	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments and lagoons, generally to depths of 15 m. This species forms large colonies that can be several metres across.	eng
133540	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133540	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133541	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133541	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Australia.	eng
133541	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments and rocky foreshores. This species is found from 1-20 m.	eng
133541	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133541	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133542	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133542	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Northwest Madagascar, southeast India, eastern Australia, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, and Micronesia.	eng
133542	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133542	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is rare, except at Cocos (Keeling) Atoll.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133542	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133543	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133543	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Hawaiian Islands and the Johnston Atoll.	eng
133543	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. It is known to what depth this species can occur. It is a common coral which is especially successful in shallow reef areas, and forms small colonies of 10 cm or less.	eng
133543	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133543	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133544	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Further research is required to confirm the status of the species and its distribution.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133544	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Currently only known from Curacao in the Netherlands Antilles, although Vermeij <em>et al</em>. (2003) state that it occurs throughout the Caribbean.	eng
133544	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in deep water fore reef environments. The species is mostly found from 20-40 m depth (Vermeij <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
133544	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Relatively common (Vermeij <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133544	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133545	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133545	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133545	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in most reef environments. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133545	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133545	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133546	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133546	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west and central Pacific.	eng
133546	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133546	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133546	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133547	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133547	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133547	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments and on rocky foreshores. It occurs subtidally (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133547	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133547	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is know to have had three different diseases (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133548	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133548	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea, east Africa, Madagascar and the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the Andaman Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, Melanesia, Polynesia and the southwest Pacific.	eng
133548	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most areas on a reef, mostly in shady areas, in crevices and over-hangs. This species is found from 1-50 m.	eng
133548	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It may be fairly common in some localities (Wood 1983). <em>Stylocoeniella</em> is an inconspicuous cryptic coral and is readily overlooked among other larger and more exotic reef corals.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133548	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133549	conservation	Guzmán, H. & Cortés, J., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133549	distribution	Guzmán, H. & Cortés, J., 2008	<em>Porites panamensis</em> is an endemic species within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, reported from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador.<br/><br/>Specific records include:<br/><strong>Mexico</strong>: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima (including Revillagigedo Islands), Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Ketchum and Reyes-Bonilla 2001, Reyes-Bonilla and López-Pérez 1998, López-Perez <em>et al</em>. 2003, Pérez-Vivar <em>et al</em>. 2006, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Glynn 1997).<br/><strong>Costa Rica</strong>: Peninsula de Santa Elena, Culebra Bay, Sámara, Cabo Blanco and Caño Island (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Panama</strong>: through the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Holst and Guzmán 1993, Glynn and Maté 1997, Maté 2003, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004, Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Colombia</strong>: Gorgona Island and Ensenada de Utría (Zapata and Vargas-Ángel 2003, Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn 1997, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><strong>Ecuador</strong>: mainland Ecuador (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
133549	habitat	Guzmán, H. & Cortés, J., 2008	<em>Porites panamensis</em> occurs on coral reefs and coral communities on rocky substrates, at depth ranges of 0 to 36 m (Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/><em>Porites panamensis</em> is a slow growing species (e.g. 3.6 mm/year in Panama), which form small massive or encrusting colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, López-Pérez <em>et al</em>. 2003). In some areas, <em>P. panamensis</em> has shown high levels of sexual recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
133549	population	Guzmán, H. & Cortés, J., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Porites panamensis</em> has been reported as abundant or common in the Gulf of California (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); Peninsula de Santa Elena and Culebra Bay in Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez 2003); Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Taboga Island, Panama (Maté 2003).<br/><br/>It has been reported as uncommon or rare in Colombia (Glynn and Ault 2000), mainland Ecuador (Glynn 2003, Glynn and Ault 2000); the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003); from Nayarit to Oaxaca, Mexico (Reyes-Bonilla 2003), and the southern section of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Cortés and Jiménez 2003).<br/><br/><em>Porites panamensis</em> was considerably affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). The species virtually disappeared from Caño Island following this event, with high mortalities reported from all studied reefs in the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Nevertheless, <em>P. panamensis</em> rapidly recovered from this event (Glynn pers. comm.). At Taboga Island, Panama, <em>Porites panamensis</em> passed from rare after 1983 to common in 1987 and to abundant by 1990 (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). Furthermore, <em>P. panamensis</em> is presently abundant in Costa Rica and Panama; and current population trends are probably stable or increasing (Guzmán and Cortés pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133549	threats	Guzmán, H. & Cortés, J., 2008	<em>Porites panamensis</em> was considerably affected by the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1994). It virtually disappeared from Caño Island after this ENSO event; and high mortalities at all studied reefs in the Gulfs of Panama and Chiriquí were reported (Glynn et al 1988, Glynn et al 1994). Nevertheless, <em>P. panamensis</em> rapidly recovered from the event.<br/><br/>The genus is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. .<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133550	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133550	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west Indian Ocean, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia), the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the central Pacific. It is found in Madagascar, Sarawak, and Lord Howe (Fenner pers. comm.). It is in Oman, Bangladesh, PNG, Fiji, and American Samoa (Wallace 1999).	eng
133550	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on rocky foreshores of subtropical locations, subtidal on reef tops, and upper slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133550	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in subtropical locations and rare elsewhere. It was found at 2 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133550	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133551	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133551	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found on the east coast of Africa and Madagascar, in the Red Sea, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, central Pacific.	eng
133551	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread on reefs but prefers calmer conditions where it may develop into super-colonies covering many square metres. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133551	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is common and sometimes is very abundant and forms super colonies.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133551	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 12,800 live pieces in 2005. <em>Lobophyllia</em> is also targeted in Fiji but there is no species specific quota.<br/><br/>This species exhibited high bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133552	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133552	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in Madagascar.	eng
133552	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments exposed to strong wave action. The maximum size is 2 m across.	eng
133552	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133552	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133553	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133553	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. It is found from the Red Sea and Madagascar, to Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Australia, the Coral Sea, to Pohnpei (Micronesia) and American Samoa. The type locality is likely the Red Sea (Fenner, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Solomon Islands (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range from Red Sea to the Ellice Islands, and New Hebrides to Taiwan.<br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia west and east coast, Xisha Is, China, Guam, Japan, Philippines, South China Sea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.	eng
133553	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m.<br/><br/>Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.)	eng
133553	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range (Hoeksma pers comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133553	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is susceptible to bleaching. However, it  is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133554	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133554	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwestern Indian Ocean, Madagascar and Comoros (DeVantier pers. comm.) and possibly in Seychelles and Mauritius (DeVantier pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133554	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical, shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes, in lagoons, and sometimes in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133554	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133554	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133555	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133555	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific, southern Japan, the South China Sea, eastern Australia, PNG, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133555	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments , generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133555	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133555	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133556	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133556	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific. <br/><br/>It might have been misidentified in the past.	eng
133556	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, including in semi-turbid areas. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133556	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133556	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133557	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133557	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, SW Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Oceanic West Pacific. It is also found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.) and American Samoa and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133557	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in all reef habitats at depths of 1-20 m.	eng
133557	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread but uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133557	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133558	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133558	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, Persian and Arabian Gulf, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133558	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is usually found in lagoons and on upper reef slopes, especially those of fringing reefs, and in turbid water protected from wave action, where colonies are sometimes over 10 m across. It is commonly found from 3-11 m, rarely from 12-15 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species may be found from 3-20 m.	eng
133558	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/> <br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133558	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species exhibited high bleaching and high to moderate mortality in the bleaching event in 1998 in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,362.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133559	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133559	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133559	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in most reef environments protected from strong wave action. It prefers tropical reef environments. <em>M. elephantotus</em> is commonly found from 12-15 m, rarely at 3-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995); this is true of M. elephantotus.<br/>It is found to at least 40 m. <br/><br/>Colonies of <em>Mycedium</em> occur in shallow fore reef areas, but are more common on slopes and overhangs. They tend to become fragile and leaf-like at depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133559	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133559	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Fiji had an export quota of 1,448 pieces in 2005.The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,702.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133560	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133560	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia (Pichon 2006).	eng
133560	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. This species may be found on the back and foreslope of the reef, as well as in lagoons. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133560	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133560	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no harvest quota in Indonesia, and it is not targeted, but there is probably some harvest. There is a harvest in Fiji.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133561	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133561	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from eastern Papua New Guinea.	eng
133561	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected fringing reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133561	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133561	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In Papua New Guinea, reefs are relatively unimpacted compared to other regions, with only 5% destroyed or in a critical state (Wilkinson 2004).<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133562	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133562	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from the Red Sea.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133562	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found in protected reef environments. Colonies can grow up to 2 m across. This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
133562	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon, but conspicuous coral.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133562	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133563	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133563	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Southern Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southwestern tip of India, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Australia. Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Line Islands, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133563	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow to mid reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133563	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133563	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133564	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133564	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133564	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in the fore reef and back reef environments, consolidated hard-bottoms and rocky reefs, and lagoon environments, from 3-20 m.	eng
133564	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but generally at moderate abundances with certain areas showing moderate abundances. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133564	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threats include disease (white plague) and bleaching, which have resulted in localized mortalities. Also susceptible to other diseases (black band), high sedimentation, and storm damage in shallower habitats.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133565	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133565	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, southwest Pacific and north east Australia.	eng
133565	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on the shallow upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.	eng
133565	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133565	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133566	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133566	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern, southern and southwestern Australia, and the oceanic southwest Pacific and Micronesia. Lord Howe Island east of Sydney (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133566	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found in reef environments or on rocky headlands in high latitudes. This species is found from 10-40 m. <br/><br/>This genus is rounded, disk-like and attached to the substrate by a broad or narrow stem. It is fairly common on deep reefs, but is seldom found in areas of dense coral growth in shallow areas  (Wood 1983).	eng
133566	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is relatively common in subtropical localities, uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133566	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was four.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133567	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133567	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has a highly disjunct range, and as it is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, the northern Indian Ocean, and in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133567	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on lower reef slopes protected from wave action, generally to depths of 50 m.	eng
133567	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133567	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133568	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133568	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. Currently it is known from only Sulawesi and Raja Ampats (Indonesia) and Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea).	eng
133568	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 15 m.	eng
133568	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon. However, it is more common in eastern Papua New Guinea than in the western part of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133568	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> is heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>Branching forms of <em>Porities</em> have almost twice the "bleaching response" as massive <em>Porites</em> species (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and branching Porites are within the top ten genera for "bleaching response". For example, in Japan, P. aranetai was found to have undergone extremely high mortalities after the 1998 bleaching event (reduced from 1.3% cover to 0% cover) (Loya <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Porites species are more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133569	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133569	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133569	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It may be a dominant species on reef back margins. It is common in nearly all reef localities, but does not usually form heads more than a metre or two in diameter. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the foreslope, in lagoons, and in inter-reef substrate. It can be found in inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 50 m.	eng
133569	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133569	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133570	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133570	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northern and central Indian Ocean, the  Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, including Palau and the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995), as well as in the Central Pacific and Clipperton Atoll.	eng
133570	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m. However, it is commonly found from 9 to 15 m and rarely from 1 to 5 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133570	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133570	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133571	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133571	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific. Records from the Red Sea require confirmation. It is a newly described species that might occur more widely.	eng
133571	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983). This one of the main reef-building corals in Hong Kong, but uncommon to rare elsewhere, as far as is known.	eng
133571	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133571	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133572	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133572	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, and the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133572	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally in clear water (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991). This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133572	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133572	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133573	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133573	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Sri Lanka, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133573	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is usually found in lower reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133573	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon and sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133573	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133574	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133574	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known from only one small site in the Hawaiian Islands, on Molokai Island, and live colonies have only been seen by Don Potts and Cindy Hunter (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133574	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow, protected reef environments, especially lagoons. Reef slope only (D. Fenner pers. comm.). It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133574	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon. This species is very rare and probably exists in less than 50 colonies (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133574	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species has a highly restricted range.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133575	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133575	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), and the Bahamas.	eng
133575	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in seagrass beds, soft-bottom lagoon environments, soft-bottom and cobble back reef and fore reef slopes, and at the base of the reef, from 1-25 m. It is found in turbid environments with high rates of sedimentation, and is tolerant of fluctuations in temperature and salinity.	eng
133575	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species may be locally abundant in certain reef-associated habitats. Due to its occurrence in soft-bottom habitats, there is an absence of data on population abundance and status.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133575	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There are no known major threats, and currently no reported cases of disease and bleaching affecting this species. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133576	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133576	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995). It is in Pitcairn, Cook Island and Line Island, Wallace (1999).	eng
133576	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It occurs on upper reef slopes. This species occurs subtidally on outer reef flats, reef slopes, walls, and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-20 m.	eng
133576	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is a very common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 54 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133576	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 890.<br/><br/>Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133577	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133577	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar (except southwest coast), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Sulu Sea, Papua (Indonesia), and Papua New Guinea.	eng
133577	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments, typically on reef tops and outer reef flats. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 10 m.	eng
133577	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133577	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133578	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133578	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Madagascar (Fenner pers. comm.). It is recently described and might be found to occur more widely.	eng
133578	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133578	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species, but it has probably been overlooked as it is recently described.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133578	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133579	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133579	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133579	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs only in deep water. The maximum size is 50 cm.	eng
133579	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare (Fenner pers. comm.).  <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133579	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133580	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133580	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, and Pohnpei.	eng
133580	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially reef flats. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133580	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133580	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this species is unlikely to be a main target of trade because of its growth form.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133581	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133581	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the northwest Indian Ocean and the Arabian/Iranian Gulf. Records from Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995) are unlikely.	eng
133581	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. This species is found from 5-20 m.	eng
133581	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133581	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133582	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133582	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra, Sri Lanka, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific. Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.) and the Solomon Islands (TNC).	eng
133582	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	700	eng
133582	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133582	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133583	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133583	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, Southeast Asia, and Micronesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also in the Solomons and Pohnpei (Turak and DeVantier, pers. comm.).	eng
133583	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found on shallow reef slopes and fringing reefs. It is found on the shallow parts of protected sandy slopes (to 5 m) and submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). Occurs in mixed hispidose branching complexes.	eng
133583	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species may be common in parts of its range (Richards pers. comm.). It was found at four of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at one site of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133583	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a delicate species and particularly vulnerable to physical damage. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133584	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133584	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133584	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow back-reef environments, especially seagrass beds. According to Goreau and Wells (1967), occurs from 0.1-47 m, but is found most commonly from 0.5-3.0 m (Glynn 1973, Weil 1992b).	eng
133584	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is usually common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133584	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Shallow-water populations of this species are susceptible to typical threats such as pollution, bleaching, burial by sediment, hurricane damage, and loss of habitat due to coastal development, dredging, and beach renourishment, which may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133585	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133585	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-East Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133585	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found attached to bare rock as well as on coral reefs, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133585	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon, however it is small and may be overlooked.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133585	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133586	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133586	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of Brazil.	eng
133586	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow or subtidal reef environments. Can live off coral reef habitats.	eng
133586	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133586	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133587	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133587	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, west, northeastern Australia and southern Japan, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133587	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 6-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 34 cm in diameter. In some areas, individuals reproduce asexually by fragmentation.	eng
133587	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133587	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133588	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133588	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in east Africa, the Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific. Also known from American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133588	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species can be found on all areas on a reef from depths of 1-35 m. This is an attached single polyp. All members of the genus <em>Euphyllia</em> have commensal shrimp species associated with them.	eng
133588	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This is widespread and moderately common. They usually exist in small colonies. There is no specific population information for this species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133588	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 30,100 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 156 pieces in 2005.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133589	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133589	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean excluding the Gulfs, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133589	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133589	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133589	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133590	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133590	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found from the Red Sea to Fiji, however, records from the Pacific require verification.	eng
133590	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments or sandy lagoons, generally to depths of 10 m. Colonies are often partly buried in sand. This species is one of the hardiest Scleractinian species, and is often found in very high salinity and high temperature environments.	eng
133590	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but may be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133590	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133591	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133591	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including the Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133591	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in shallow to intermediate fore reef, back reef, lagoon, grassbed, and rocky reef environments, from 1-15 m. This species may be found to 20 m.	eng
133591	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but generally at low to intermediate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133591	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague, and black band) and bleaching, which have resulted in minor localized mortality. Also potentially at risk from high sedimentation and hurricane damage in shallower waters.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133592	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133592	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, north, west and south Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133592	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, protected reef environments, especially lagoons. This species is found from 2-20 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133592	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in the Philippines and uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133592	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 801.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133593	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133593	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133593	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments where water movement is strong. It prefers tropical reef habitats. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and can be found in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133593	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133593	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133594	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133594	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is also known from the eastern Atlantic.	eng
133594	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in most fore reef and back reef environments, and in seagrass beds provided there is suitable substrate for them to settle on. Recorded from 0.5-20 m depth, though most common from 0.5-5 m.	eng
133594	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is abundant in shallow water habitats.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133594	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Localized threats include disease (white plague and black band), bleaching, burial by sediment, predation by <em>Diadema antillarum</em> (sea urchins), and hurricane damage. In certain locations, this species is coincidentally harvested with "live rock", and sold in the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133595	conservation	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. <br/><br/>Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, based on the former distribution of <em>M. platyphylla</em> in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, it was present in two protected areas: Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site, and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133595	distribution	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region (Cairns <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to northern Australia and French Polynesia. However, in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, the species is only known from the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). Before 1983, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was reported to be present at Contreras Islands, Secas Islands, Coiba Islands and Bahia Honda, in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).<br/><br/>Specific records: Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (Socotra), Madagascar, Lakshadweep, W Thailand, NW Australia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Yap, Pohnpei (Micronesia), Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands, Great Barrier Reef (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.). American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Randall and Cheng (1984) give western Indian Ocean eastward to the Tuamotus and GBR to Japan.<br/>Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give Indonesia, Australia, China, Guam, Japan, Oman, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand.	eng
133595	habitat	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	In the Indo-Pacific, this species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, <em>M. platyphylla</em> has been reported to occur at depths of 2 to 18 m on coral reefs and coral communities.<br/><br/><em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133595	population	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This species is considered relatively common in the Indo-Pacific region.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, Glynn (1997) found a population size of <em>M. platyphylla</em> of 102 colonies at Uva Island and Secas Islands. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by April 1983 no living colonies were found in the Gulf of Chiriquí  (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). Glynn and de Weerdt (1991) reported <em>M. platyphylla</em> to be locally extinct because they did not find any live colonies after almost 9 years intensive searching in likely habitats within their former range in the Gulf of Chiriquí. <br/><br/>Since 1983, <em>M. platyphylla</em> has not been seen or reported alive in the Gulf of Chiriquí or anywhere else in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Glynn 1997, Glynn and Ault 2000, Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2001, Guzman 2004).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133595	threats	Guzmán, H. & Edgar, G., 2008	This genus is generally not found in the aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. In 2005, 90 pieces of live Millepora platyphylla were exported for the aquarium and curio trade (E. Wood, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific, this species is susceptible to bleaching, although less so than <em>M. dichotoma</em> (Fenner pers comm). It is also somewhat weedy and quick to take over disturbed habitats (Hoeksma pers comm). This species is also susceptible to bleaching in the Gulf of Chiriqui, Glynn and de Weerdt (1991) reported the elimination of <em>M. platyphylla</em> following the 1982-83 El Niño event. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, <em>M. platyphylla</em> was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by April 1983 no living colonies could be found in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991); since then <em>M. platyphylla</em> has not been seen in the Eastern Tropical Pacific.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133596	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133596	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found in the Atlantic Ocean on the western coast of Africa.	eng
133596	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is found on rocky foreshores up to 35 m depth. This species can live off coral reef habitat.	eng
133596	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133596	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133597	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures to protect this species.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133597	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is endemic in the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Reports of this species from the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean and northern Indian Ocean are questionable.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133597	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on fore-reef slopes in depths of 15-30 m. It is a single polyp attached to hard substrata.	eng
133597	population	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare within the Red Sea and occurs at low densities (Hoeksema 1989). There have been declines in the northern most point of the range due to habitat degradation.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133597	threats	Hoeksema, B., Wood, E., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	There is habitat degradation due to high diving activity and localised industrial activities close to ports.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133598	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133598	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is also found in American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.)	eng
133598	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133598	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common and may be a dominant species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133598	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133599	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133599	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133599	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found mostly on upper reef slopes. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133599	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133599	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133600	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133600	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, Banggai, Raja Ampat, Suluwesi (Fenner pers. comm.), the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.), Thailand, and Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133600	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on horizontal surfaces protected from wave action, found subtidally on surfaces such as submerged reef flats or ledges, or on very gentle slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found between 10 and 20 m.	eng
133600	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a common species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133600	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), this species has a plate-like form that is targeted by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133601	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133601	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southern India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, western to northeastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Micronesia, Marianas Islands, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133601	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow to deep reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslopes, and in lagoons. It can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133601	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon, but less so in some places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133601	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133602	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133602	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Togian Islands of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.) and western PNG (Turak pers. comm.).	eng
133602	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially exposed upper reef slopes and flats. It is found subtidally on sandy slopes and fringing reefs (Wallace 1999). This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity. This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
133602	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133602	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/>This is a brooder and therefore has a smaller sexual reproductive output and limited dispersal capacity.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133603	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133603	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is fairly widespread in the Indo-West Pacific. It is found from South East Asia and southern Japan to American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.), and Tonga.<br/><br/>Specific location records: Indonesia to Samoa and Tonga to Japan (Randall and Cheng 1984), Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Razak and Hoeksema 2003).	eng
133603	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species can be found in reef habitat at depths generally to 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133603	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered relatively common throughout its range. It is uncommon to rare in American Samoa and New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.). <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133603	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell, pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133604	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>More research needed to determine the species actual distribution.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133604	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, and the northern Indian Ocean and in the northern part of Madagascar. The distribution is disjunct.<br/><br/>This species was described originally from the Persian Gulf and subsequently recorded from the Red Sea and western Indian Ocean. There is some question about the validity of the records outside of the Persian Gulf. <br/><br/><strong>Red Sea</strong><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson, 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133604	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It is found on the upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 0.5-12 m depth.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133604	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133604	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133605	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, may be present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. May also be present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. Further taxonomic work is required to clarify the species status of <em>S. wellsi</em> (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133605	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is reported to occur in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.<br/><br/>This species is known from Brazil.	eng
133605	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Based on closely related species, presumably occurs in intermediate, deep fore reef and lagoon habitats, edges of channels, and at the base of the reef, in hard ground areas and in soft substrate, from 10-40 m. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).	eng
133605	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown, but based on closely related species in the genus, assumed to occur at low abundances on intermediate, deep fore-reef and lagoon habitats. (Aronson, R., Precht, W., Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133605	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown, but likely susceptible to bleaching and disease (white plague) (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133606	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133606	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, East Africa, northern and central Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and east Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133606	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on all reef habitats. This species lives in a wide range of depths and may be more resistant to increased temperatures. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133606	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133606	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133607	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133607	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, eastern Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133607	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in subtidal reef environments, especially lagoons, generally to depths of 30 m. In the Red Sea this species is a relatively inconspicuous coral found on reef slopes down to 20 m deep (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133607	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133607	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133608	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133608	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known only from the Red Sea.	eng
133608	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is found on shallow reef slopes. Colonies of <em>O. egyptensis</em> may grow to over 1 m across. The genus <em>Oxypora</em> is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133608	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133608	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133609	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133609	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean (southern tip of India), the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007). Also in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133609	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in most shallow, tropical reef environments. Colonies are less than half a metre across. In Chagos, this species was found in lagoons (Sheppard pers. comm.). This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133609	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133609	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133610	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133610	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is known from the Bar Al-Hikman reef complex along the Arabian Sea coast of the Sultanate of Oman (Claereboudt 2006). Since this is a newly described species, it is likely that further surveys will extend its range.	eng
133610	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species was collected around 4-7 m depth on the fore reef (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133610	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Locally common in the type locality (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133610	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133611	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>There is a need for more quantitative information on the status of this species because of its occurrence in deep water habitats and low abundance, and the problems of misidentification with <em>M. decactis</em>.	eng
133611	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133611	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in deep water fore reef environments, and also found at intermediate depths in murky reef areas, from 12-25 m, but most abundant below 15 m in reef environments adjacent to sandy substrates. This species may be found to 30 m.	eng
133611	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but at low abundances throughout its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133611	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Unknown. No known occurrences of disease or bleaching have been reported. It may be at risk from burial by high sedimentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133612	conservation	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133612	distribution	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species known from the Philippines, Taiwan, the Great Barrier Reef, and American Samoa. It has a patchy distribution.	eng
133612	habitat	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species occurs in reef habitat to depths of approximately 20 m. <em>Millepora</em> species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).	eng
133612	population	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This species is considered relatively common within its restricted range. It is uncommon to rare in American Samoa and rare in the Philippines, though it is hard to recognize in the Philippines and could possibly be more common there (Fenner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133612	threats	Obura, D., Fenner, D., Hoeksema, B., Devantier, L. & Sheppard, C., 2008	This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, <em>Millepora</em> is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133613	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133613	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest, central and northern Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indo-Pacific, west, north and east Australia, South-east Asia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Palau and Southern Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133613	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133613	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133613	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133614	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133614	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the south China Sea.	eng
133614	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially where protected from strong wave action, including vertical walls and beneath overhangs. The maximum size is 30 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133614	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species. <br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133614	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133615	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133615	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean (Sri Lanka and Gulf of Mannar), central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and Central Pacific to French Polynesia.	eng
133615	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 30 m.	eng
133615	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133615	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133616	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133616	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, East Africa, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133616	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons from 1-30 m.	eng
133616	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133616	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133617	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133617	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in Indonesia and Papau New Guinea (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in the Philippines, American Samoa, Suluwesi, and  Papau New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133617	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef slopes protected from wave action, subtidal on walls and ledges on walls from around 10 to 30 m depth (Wallace 1999). It is found on reef slopes and submerged reefs, 10-35 m deep (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133617	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at 5 of 6 regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133617	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Anecdotal evidence that bleaching wiped this species out in Kimbe Bay in Papua New Guinea (Jones pers. comm.). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. The extent of this threat is unknown. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1842.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133618	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133618	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.	eng
133618	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species can be found in fore reef and back reef environments, lagoons, channels, from 3-40 m.	eng
133618	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Common, and sometimes locally abundant in shallow to intermediate waters. Often forms large monospecific stands.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133618	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Susceptible to disease (white plague), bleaching, hurricane damage, and high sedimentation. Localized mass mortality events due to white plague have been recorded in Venezuela and the Netherlands Antilles (E. Weil and A. Bruckner pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133619	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133619	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found from the central Indo Ocean, Andaman Sea, Malaysia, southern Viet Nam. It not recorded from the Philippines and central Indonesia. It occurs in north and eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea, southern west Pacific and Micronesia.	eng
133619	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found to 10 m.	eng
133619	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found to be uncommon, and in some places rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133619	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 45.<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133620	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133620	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Papua New Guinea, northeast Australia, and Solomon Islands.	eng
133620	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back slope, foreslope, and in lagoons. It is typically found in turbid to clear waters around high islands or in reef lagoons. This species is found to at least 15 m.	eng
133620	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It is generally not in large stands, but it has been found more abundantly in the Solomons (Turak pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133620	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 100.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133621	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133621	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133621	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and lower reef slopes protected from wave action and inter-reef channels. This species is found from 5-25 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133621	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133621	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is known in the aquarium trade. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 27.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133622	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Research on the genetic diversity of this species, and its resistance to bleaching stress is underway.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133622	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found from Southwest Madagascar, Rodrigues, Andaman Sea, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, American Samoa, Line Islands, Hawaii, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133622	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in shallow reef environments and on soft substrates. In Hawaii it occurs in highly disturbed environments where it is one of the two dominant species of coral. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133622	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common in the north and central Pacific, but is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133622	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is prone to disease in Hawaii.<br/><br/>The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133623	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133623	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133623	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, especially lagoons. This species is found from 2 m to at least 20 m.	eng
133623	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133623	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast. This species occurs especially in lagoons. These habitats have been particularly affected by high sea temperature-induced bleaching.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133624	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133624	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Central Indo-Pacific, Micronesia and the Solomons.	eng
133624	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in lagoons and upper reef slopes. This species is found to 12 m.	eng
133624	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon. This species is widely distributed, but disjunct due to the possible misidentification with faviid corals.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133624	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133625	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133625	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Recorded from the main Hawaiian Islands and northwest Hawaiian Islands (Fenner 2005), and from the Marshall Islands (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133625	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs on sandy reef slope, and may be most abundant in very deep waters (D. Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found from 10 m to more than 40 m.	eng
133625	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare (Fenner 2005).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133625	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133626	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management.	eng
133626	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133626	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes and in lagoons. It is found intertidally (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-15 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth  (Wood 1983).	eng
133626	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species may be locally common, but is otherwise rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133626	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133627	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133627	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Pakistan and central Indian coast, southern India, and Myanmar coast of Andaman Sea.	eng
133627	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow to deeper reef environments (DeVantier pers. comm.)  This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and also in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133627	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133627	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133628	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133628	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Andaman Sea, the central Indo-Pacific, south-east Asia, Japan and the east China Sea, eastern Australia, the oceanic west Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. It is also found in Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133628	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in tropical, shallow reef environments. It is generally a small species. This species is found on the back slope and foreslope of reefs as well as in lagoons and can be found in the outer reef channel. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133628	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, locally common in the Celebes Sea.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133628	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133629	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133629	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Southeast Asia, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, northwest Australia, and Solomon Islands.	eng
133629	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found in the outer reef channel and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133629	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon to rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133629	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133630	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133630	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, northern Madagascar, Rodrigues, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, southern coast of Solomon Islands, and Micronesia.	eng
133630	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons to 20 m.	eng
133630	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133630	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Probably harvested in Indonesia but there is no quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133631	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133631	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of Kutch.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133631	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on reef slopes protected from wave action. This species is found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 25 m.	eng
133631	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a reasonably common species in the northern Red Sea, but perhaps rarer elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133631	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133632	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is little known, and its taxonomic validity needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133632	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.). It might occur more widely.	eng
133632	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The original specimen was collected in shallow water, washed by breakers on seaward edge of Utelei Reef (Hoffmeister 1925).	eng
133632	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This  is a rare species and very little is known about it.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133632	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	There is no direct information of threats to this species. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133633	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133633	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133633	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is common in shallow turbid environments. Mass colonies of <em>T. mesenterina</em> are found from 9-15 m, rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133633	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133633	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 17,550 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 17,739.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133634	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133634	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133634	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is sometimes a dominant species of intertidal habitats. This species can be a primary reef builder in East Africa, Gulf of Aden, and Hong Kong (DeVantier, Obura, Huang, Johan, Syahrir, and Hodgson pers. comm.). It is commonly found from 1-15 m, with mass colonies at 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133634	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133634	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 950 live pieces in 2005. There was an Indonesian export quota of 1,000 pieces in 2006. In Fiji there is also an export quota. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1,158.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133635	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133635	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific. Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995).	eng
133635	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments. It prefers tropical reef environments. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133635	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species that is sometimes locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133635	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133636	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133636	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, and the South China Sea, Eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133636	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It usually occurs on lower reef slopes with soft substrates. It can form large fields even on sandy bottoms. This species is found from 10-30 m.	eng
133636	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133636	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133637	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133637	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in the southwest Indian Ocean.	eng
133637	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is over 1 m across. This species is found from 2-20 m.	eng
133637	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133637	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133638	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133638	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, China, southern Japan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, northern and northeast Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Ogasawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Fiji.	eng
133638	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper, tropical reefs in turbid environments and muddy bottoms. It is found on reef slopes. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in lagoons, and in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found from 5 m to at least 30 m.	eng
133638	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, locally common in some places (East Africa, south Vietnam).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133638	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133639	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133639	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.<br/><br/>This species is also found in Papau New Guinea, Micronesia, Solomons, Truk (Richards pers. comm.), and Philippines (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133639	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	It is found on protected reef slopes below 30 metres, on reef walls (Wallace 1999), on submerged shelf reefs 10-70 m, and shipwrecks (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133639	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species may be locally abundant. It was found at one of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133639	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133640	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133640	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, South-east Asia, South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, including the Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll, Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007), American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Palau, the Mariana Islands (Randall 1995), and Guam (Randall and Myers 1983).	eng
133640	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3 m to more than 20 m.	eng
133640	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133640	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. In Indonesia, the catch quota for this genus is 55,500 per year.<br/><br/>The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133641	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133641	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, and oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133641	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species may form large single species stands in turbid water, generally at depths to 20 m. <em>G. djiboutiensis</em> is commonly found from 12-20 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In the Arabian Sea, this species is found in moderately sheltered habitats at about 5 m (Sheppard and Sheppard 1991).	eng
133641	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133641	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133642	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133642	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan, East China Sea and Solomon Islands. Also recorded in New Caledonia, American Samoa (Fenner pers. comm.), Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133642	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in mid-reef slopes. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133642	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is widespread and found to be uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133642	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133643	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133643	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is currently only known from the Red Sea. It is a relatively new species (described in 2000) and more extensive surveys may reveal a wider range.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133643	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found on upper reef slopes, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133643	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133643	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133644	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	<em>Acropora formosa</em> can be successfully transplanted as attached fragments if it is transplanted in the spring and vertically oriented (Okubo <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133644	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and north-west Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133644	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, reef slopes, and in lagoons. This species is found from 5-30 m.	eng
133644	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common and frequently a dominant species. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 40 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133644	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited high levels of bleaching and mortality in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Monospecific stands of this species are particularly vulnerable to disease outbreaks (Willis and Page pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 36,308. Indonesia is the largest exporter, with an annual quota of 10,700 live pieces in 2005. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133645	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133645	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, around the Horn of Africa and Socotra, the southwest Indian Ocean (eastern Africa), and eastern Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133645	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133645	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is rare, except at Cocos (Keeling) Atoll.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133645	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. <br/><br/>The unbranching species in this genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133646	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133646	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the Central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133646	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper and mid reef slopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133646	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133646	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is widespread, and occurs across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 4,646. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 1,700 live pieces in 2005. In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting to sub-massive species that is probably not significantly impacted by harvest.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133647	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133647	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is in Japan, Samoa and the Cook Is, (Wallace 1999).	eng
133647	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. This species appears to be confined to reef-edge habitats with good water circulation (Wallace 1999). <em>Acropora polystoma</em> likely spawns annually in October in French Polynesia (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is found from 3-10 m.	eng
133647	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133647	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 120.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133648	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133648	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133648	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments. It is very common on shallow reef flats in highly fluctuating environments, and is resistant to warming and high salinity. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslopes of reefs, in lagoons and in inter-reef soft and rubble substrate. This species is found to at least 30 m.	eng
133648	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a very common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133648	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133649	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133649	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is widespread and occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic west Pacific, and the central Pacific.	eng
133649	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, especially reef margins and reef crests exposed to strong wave action. It is commonly found in subtidal reef flats. The maximum depth it is found is to 10-15 m. Often occurs in sympatry with <em>Acropora robusta</em>, which is its sister species (Richards pers. comm.).	eng
133649	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It occurs in 9 out of 87 sites in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.). Occurs in five out of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133649	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	<em>Acropora</em> species are generally vulnerable to bleaching, disease and crown-of-thorns outbreaks. Sedimentation and eutrophication is a local threat. This species occurs in high wave action habitats and is generally robust. No specific cases of bleaching are known for this species and it is probably more resistant to bleaching than other species.  It is also resistant to predation because of its well-developed radial corallite lips.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002).  In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133650	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133650	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar (except for the southwest part), Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, southwest tip of India, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, southern Japan, northwest Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomons, and Fiji.	eng
133650	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslope and in lagoons to 20 m.	eng
133650	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133650	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	It is probably harvested in Indonesia, but there is no species-specific quota.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133651	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and is present in some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, biology and ecology of the species, habitat status, threats, uses, harvest levels, conservation measures, and trends; training in conservation measures; conservation of the habitat; restoration actions; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; and recovery management.	eng
133651	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean & Arabian/Iranian Gulf, Northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, Oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific. This species is found in Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133651	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in most tropical reef environments, especially back reef margins. This species is found on the back and foreslope of the reef and in lagoons.<br/><br/><em>Platygyra</em> species occupy a variety of reef habitats. They may form colonies a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133651	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but can be common in places.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133651	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The major threats are global warming and predation. The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe.<br/><br/>Other more localised threats include coral removal and harvesting, disturbance by fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, storms, and human recreation and tourism activities.<br/><br/>It is exported from Fiji (Hodgson pers. comm.).	eng
133652	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133652	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific, and the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133652	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of reef environments. It prefers tropical habitats. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, rarely from 1-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It may be found in the outer reef channel and on inter-reef rubble substrate. This species is found to 30 m. <br/><br/>Species in this genus may be overlooked because of their low growth profile and the relatively small colony size (seldom exceeding 25 cm in diameter) (Wood 1983).	eng
133652	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species in much of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133652	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133653	conservation	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133653	distribution	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific.	eng
133653	habitat	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, especially exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-12 m.	eng
133653	population	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common in Papua New Guinea, it is uncommon elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133653	threats	Turak, E., Richards, Z., Lovell, E., Delbeek, J.C., Aeby, G. & Bass, D. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133654	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133654	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and East China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133654	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in a wide range of shallow reef environments. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. It can be found on inter-tidal rubble substrate. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133654	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133654	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 27, 550 live pieces in 2005 and 8,000 pieces in 2006. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 6,813. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133655	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133655	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, Raja Ampats (West Papaua, Indonesia) and the Solomon Islands. There is also a record from New Caledonia (Fenner, pers. comm.).	eng
133655	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0.5-20 m.	eng
133655	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is occasionally locally common, but is usually rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133655	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is has a plate form which is preferred by COT.<br/><br/>Acropora are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. It is not known to what extent this particular species is collected, or the extent of threat this presents.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133656	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133656	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is known from two sites in Sulawesi (Indonesia) (Fenner pers. comm.), from the Solomons, and in Western Irian Jaya (Fenner, DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Veron (2000) shows the range of species as throughout the Coral Triangle; this range is estimated rather than being based on actual records of the species throughout the area.	eng
133656	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Occurs around 10 m in protected areas (Fenner pers. comm.). Shallow reef environments.	eng
133656	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Rare. It is more common in western Irian Jaya than in other parts of its range.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133656	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The genus does not appear in trade statistics, suggesting that <em>Echinophyllia</em> is not collected for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133657	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, and Buck Island Reef National Monument. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. <br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133657	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, and the Bahamas.	eng
133657	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in sandy environments between reef habitats from shallow sub-tidal to 30 m on the fore-reef. Also in deep channels, seagrass beds, and reef lagoons. This species is found to 30 m.	eng
133657	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, but generally at a low abundance except in certain habitats; for example, in Florida Bay it is the predominant massive coral (B. Precht pers. comm.). Probably more abundant in the northern than southern wider Caribbean.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133657	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Localized mortality has occurred from disease (white plague) and bleaching. The species is also susceptible to black band disease and hurricane damage.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133658	conservation	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management.	eng
133658	distribution	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Found in the Great Barrier Reef (Fenner pers. comm.), Papau New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands (Turak pers. comm.).	eng
133658	habitat	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs on shallow reefs. It occurs on upper reef slopes. This species is found from 1-25 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133658	population	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133658	threats	Aeby, G., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133659	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133659	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133659	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. The maximum size is approximately 25 cm across. This species is found to 40 m.	eng
133659	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133659	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133660	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133660	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Samoa, Micronesia, and Indonesia (Wallace 1999). Found in the Philippines, Fiji, Madagascar, Raja Ampats (West Papua, Indonesia), Lord Howe, New Caledonia, and Papau New Guinea (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133660	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in all shallow, tropical reef environments, especially upper reef slopes and reef flats. It is found intertidally or just subtidally on reef flats, reef tops or submerged reefs (Wallace 1999). This species is found to 15 m depth.	eng
133660	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is common, but less so than <em>A. palifera</em>.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133660	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Very susceptible to crown-of-thorns starfish because of its growth form. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species is known to be susceptible to bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Susceptible to disease with a record of Black Band disease (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004)<br/><br/>Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133661	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133661	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is widespread, found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is found in Southeast Asia, the central Pacific (Richards pers. comm.) and Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133661	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical protected reef environments with clear water and a high <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity, and is also found subtidally on protected sandy slopes and lagoon floors (Wallace 1999). It has a narrow habitat preference. This species is found from 8-25 m.	eng
133661	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous.  Common in specific habitats (Lovell pers. comm.). It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 17 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133661	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. This species exhibited very high bleaching levels and high mortality approaching 100% in the 1998 bleaching event in Palau (Brunno <em>et al</em>. 2001). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. They are known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 1296.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133662	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133662	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean and the Gulf, central Indo-Pacific, western, northern and eastern Australia, Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133662	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common on reef slopes. This species is found in reef environments protected from strong wave action. It is commonly found from 3-15 m, rarely from 1-2 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The maximum size is over 5 m.	eng
133662	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common in a wide range of habitats and may be a dominant species on inshore fringing reefs.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133662	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 17,550 live pieces in 2005. Fiji had an export quota of 1,600 pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 20,682.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133663	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133663	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida (including Florida Middle Grounds), the Bahamas, and Bermuda. <br/><br/>In Brazil, reportedly from Pernambuco to Sao Paulo, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992), and the Atoll das Rocas (Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
133663	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in fore reef and back reef environments, lagoons, and reef channels. Recorded from 5-98 m (Reed 1985).	eng
133663	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is common, at low to moderate abundances.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133663	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is susceptible to disease (white plague), intense bleaching, and high sedimentation, but no significant mortality events have been reported.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133664	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133664	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in West Papua (Indonesia) and southeast Papua New Guinea. This species has been recorded from these three areas, but is most likely also found throughout the adjoining areas.	eng
133664	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in reef slopes. Maximum size is over 1 m. It may also form small fields. This species is found from 5-15 m.	eng
133664	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133664	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133665	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133665	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and northern Madagascar. It might be found to occur more widely.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future. The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133665	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on semi-exposed reef slopes. This species is found in lagoons. It is found to 15 m. <br/><br/><em>Goniastrea</em> species are usually hardy corals often found on back reef areas. Many of the colonies are small or medium in size, but others grow to a meter or more in diameter (Wood 1983).	eng
133665	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133665	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133666	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133666	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. It is also found in Yemen and South Africa (Wallace 1999).	eng
133666	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments, usually reef flats, but also lagoons and upper reef slopes. This species is typically found in intertidal or shallow subtidal areas (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 2-12 m.	eng
133666	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is common. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 13 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133666	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. Three different diseases recorded for this species (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004). <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). This species is particularly susceptible to crown-of-thorns and bleaching (Richards pers. comm.). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,220.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133667	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133667	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is known only from the Red Sea and the Chagos Archipelago.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133667	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found on deep, steep seaward slopes, generally to depths between 30 and 70 m.	eng
133667	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is very abundant between 50 and 70 m in its current range of distribution.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133667	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133668	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133668	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwest Indian Ocean, northwest Indian Ocean, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and South China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, including Palau (Randall 1995).	eng
133668	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually found free-living on soft substrates, generally to depths of 30 m.. It is commonly found from 9-20 m, but rarely from 3-5 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002).	eng
133668	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but conspicuous. It can also be locally common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133668	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>Goniopora</em> is in the top five genera in the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Indonesia, the catch quota for this species is 47,000 per year. In one area, 360 Goniopora were collected over 7 months (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Although disease risk is likely to be low for species of this genus (Aeby pers comm.), <em>Goniopora</em> species are moderately susceptible to bleaching in the western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007), and exhibit low susceptibility in the Great Barrier Reef (Marshall and Baird 2000).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133669	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133669	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, eastern Australia, and the oceanic West Pacific. Also found in New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.) and Fiji (Fenner 2006, 2007).	eng
133669	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found in a wide range of reef environments, especially lagoons and lower slopes. It is the only branching member of its genus, and it forms patches. This species is found in inter-reef soft substrate. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133669	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species by comparison with some other members of the genus.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133669	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133670	conservation	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133670	distribution	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northern Indian Ocean, Andaman Sea, central Indo-Pacific, Hong Kong, and southwestern Pacific.	eng
133670	habitat	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments to 30 m deep. This species is particularly common in high energy areas.	eng
133670	population	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133670	threats	Turak, E., Sheppard, C. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133671	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133671	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, the species occurs in South China Sea, Myanmar, Mindanao (Philippines), East Australia, East Kalimantan, and Moluccas including West Halmahera (Hoeksema and Best 1991).	eng
133671	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is almost always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping sandy bottoms as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. It usually occurs in association with <em>Heterocyathus</em> spp. and <em>Cycloseris</em> spp. The maximum size is 2.5 cm. This species is found from 15-25 m.	eng
133671	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133671	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133672	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133672	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133672	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on steep reef slopes. This species is found from 10-40 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133672	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is rare.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133672	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133673	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133673	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific and Hawaii Islands.	eng
133673	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found on reef slopes and is a free living adult. It is commonly found from 12-20 m, rarely from 9-11 m, in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). The depth range is from 1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990).	eng
133673	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133673	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In one study, 52% of the specimens were recorded as bleached (Hoeksema 1991).<br/><br/>This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 7,500 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 7,580.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133674	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133674	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, eastern Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, eastern Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, southwestern to eastern Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, and Johnston Atoll.	eng
133674	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical and subtropical reef environments. It is found in subtidal muddy reef flats and in other inshore habitats. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133674	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is especially common in high latitude locations of Australia.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133674	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133675	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133675	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, southwestern Indian Ocean, northwestern Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf, northern Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, north and west and south Australia, South-east Asia, Japan and East China Sea, eastern Australia, oceanic West Pacific, and central Pacific.	eng
133675	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow tropical reef environments, to depths of 50 m.	eng
133675	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133675	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Species of this genus are attractive to the aquarium trade due to their physical appearance. Threats to this species therefore include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. In addition, the <em>Alveopora</em> genus was ranked as having the highest bleaching response and is in the top ten genera for extinction risk in the Western Indian Ocean (McClanahan <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, Alveopora species are considered to be relatively unsusceptible to disease.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133676	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133676	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in the Japan, the East China Sea and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133676	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments, generally to depths of 20 m.	eng
133676	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133676	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133677	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133677	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
133677	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on upper reef slopes, intertidally or just subtidally on shallow reef tops and edges (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 3-15 m.<br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983)	eng
133677	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133677	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133678	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133678	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133678	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found in shallow protected reef environments, especially lagoons.	eng
133678	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon in Japan, and rare elsewhere.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133678	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133679	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133679	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific. New Caledonia (Pichon 2006; Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133679	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is almost always found on soft horizontal and gently sloping sandy bottoms as a free-living polyp with one mouth. It usually occurs in association with <em>Heterocyathus</em> and <em>Cycloseris</em> species. The maximum size is 1.5 cm. It has a depth range of 10-35 m on the Great Barrier Reef (Fisk 1983). This species may be found to 100 m.	eng
133679	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species may be super abundant. This species is found in densities of up to 300 individuals per square meter on the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133679	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133680	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix II. In the US, it is present in many MPAs, including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Biscayne N.P., Dry Tortugas National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Also present in Hol Chan Marine Reserve (Belize), Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (Bahamas). In US waters, it is illegal to harvest corals for commercial purposes. (Aronson, R., Precht, W.,  Moore, J., Weil, E., and Bruckner, A. pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133680	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, Bermuda, and the Eastern Atlantic.<br/><br/>In Brazil, this species is reportedly from Cape sao Roque to Abrolhos, and the oceanic Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Atol das Rocas (Pires <em>et al</em>. 1992, Echeverria <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
133680	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in all reef and near-reef environments. <em>Porites astreoides</em> dominates on the shallow exposed fore reef where other massive species are rare, and it is found on the deep reef and in the back reef; depths range from 0.2-70 m, with the highest abundance from 1-15 m (Goreau and Wells 1967, Lang 2003). Also present in subtidal rocky environments and seagrass beds. They commonly inhabit disturbed reef surfaces (and are often the first to recolonize areas following disturbance), and are also common in areas of high sedimentation and high turbidity.	eng
133680	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is extremely abundant, and in some places this may be the numerically dominant coral. These corals are short-lived and generally small sized but exhibit extremely high rates of recruitment.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133680	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	The major threat to this species is disease (white plague), although this is one of the less affected species. Other threats include bleaching and predation by <em>Sparisoma viride</em> (Stoplight Parrotfish) (Frydl 1979, Bruckner and Bruckner 1998, Rotjan <em>et al</em>. 2006). Localized declines may be taking place due to pollution (oil spills) and physical damage from storms.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133681	conservation	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133681	distribution	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species is found in Eastern Australia and New Caledonia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133681	habitat	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on exposed upper reef slopes and flats. This species is found from 0-5 m. <br/><br/>General genus information: throughout its range, <em>Acropora</em> can be found on any stretch of reef and is often the dominant coral, especially along the reef front. Staghorn and plate forms flourish in sheltered areas, whereas clusters and semi-massive types can withstand more exposed conditions. Species that occur from the reef top to the reef slope become gradually more flattened with depth (Wood 1983).	eng
133681	population	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133681	threats	E. Lovell, G. Aeby, Z. Richards, J.C. Delbeek, C. Reboton & D. Bass, 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133682	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133682	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133682	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on shallow reef slopes with a high <em>Acropora</em> spp. diversity, but it is protected from strong wave action. It is found subtidally on submerged reefs and gentle reef slopes (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 5-25 m.	eng
133682	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is common in shallow water. It was found at six of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at six sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133682	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 12.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133683	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133683	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in the Coral Triangle and the Solomon Islands (TNC).	eng
133683	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is found in shallow reef environments, protected from wave action and where the water is slightly turbid. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). Colonies of <em>P. maxima</em> may reach up to 1 m across. This species is found from 3-25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133683	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This species is usually uncommon, but distinctive.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133683	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133684	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133684	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is found in Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
133684	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on rocky foreshores. It is not known to which depth this species occurs.	eng
133684	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a rare species with a very limited range.	eng
133684	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.	eng
133685	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133685	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133685	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It is primarily found in shallow water reef environments exposed to strong wave action. Sparse colonies of <em>S. pistillata</em> are found from 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0-4 m of Eilat (Sheppard 1982). The maximum size is approximately 30 cm across. It can be found to 15 m.	eng
133685	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common. It may be a dominant species on exposed reef fronts.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133685	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,250 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,526.<br/><br/><em>S. pistillata</em>'s susceptibility to bleaching has been related to decreased capacity of it's zooxanthellae species to cope with photo damage (Yakovleva and Hidaka 2004).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133686	conservation	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133686	distribution	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species occurs in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico.	eng
133686	habitat	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is found in tropical reef environments, restricted to deeper water from 30-150 m.	eng
133686	population	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	This species is uncommon. <br/><br/>Over the last three decades, average hard coral coverage has decreased by 80% in the Caribbean region with some recent recovery in Jamaica (Gardner <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133686	threats	Aronson, R., Bruckner, A., Moore, J., Precht, B. & E. Weil, 2008	There are no known major threats for this species as it lives in deep waters greater than 30m.	eng
133687	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133687	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and west and central Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>The northern Red Sea from Rabigh to the Sinai Peninsula escaped most of the bleaching and the mortality of the last couple of decades. Destroyed and critical reefs are only 6% of the total (Wilkinson 2004) because of its high latitude and very deep water extending close to shore, and wind induced upwelling. If these factors continue they are likely to contribute to survival of northern Red Sea species into the future.  The southern Red Sea did not escape recent bleaching events and the Gulf of Aqaba and the Hurghada regions are affected by numerous direct impacts from coastal development and industry.<br/><br/>Genetics studies have, however, demonstrated the wide degree of differentiation of Red Sea populations from other Indian Ocean and Indo-West Pacific populations, consistent with a low level of gene exchange between the Red Sea and elsewhere. This relative isolation means that recovery following regional scale disturbance that decimates populations in the Red Sea may be compromised. For Red Sea endemics such disturbances would prove catastrophic.	eng
133687	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. This species is found on the back and foreslopes and in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133687	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is a common species in the northern Red Sea, but rare in East Africa.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133687	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133688	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133688	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines and Indonesia (Richards pers. comm.). It is also found in Milne Bay, Papau New Guinea and Ryukyu Japan (Turak pers. comm.).	eng
133688	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	It is found on protected, steeply sloping reef edges and reef walls (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 30 to around 60 m.	eng
133688	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at two of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133688	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a deeper water species that may not be as prone to bleaching and disease as other <em>Acropora</em> species. However, this species is uncommon and likely to also be threatened by the collection for aquarium trade. In addition has a fairly low reproductive capacity (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987), but since this species is in deep water it is not likely to be affected by COTS. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as Acropora species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>Threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006).  Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133689	conservation	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133689	distribution	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the East China Sea, and Eastern Australia. It is also found in Vanuatu. Found in Andamans, Rodrigues, and Okinawa (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133689	habitat	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>There are few records for this coral, and it is difficult to give detailed information on its distribution. It is generally found on soft substrates of lower reef slopes in clear or slightly turbid water. In certain areas it may occur in extensive tracts (Wood 1983).	eng
133689	population	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	This is a rare species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133689	threats	Aeby, G., Lovell, E., Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Reboton, C. & Bass, D., 2008	Nothing is known about specific threats to this species.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133690	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133690	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, the Solomons, South-east Asia, Japan and the East China Sea.	eng
133690	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, exposed reef environments. It prefers tropical and subtropical reef habitats. It is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs and on the back and foreslopes of reefs. It is also found in lagoons. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133690	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Veron (2000) considered it to be uncommon, but more recent surveys have shown it to be more abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133690	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133691	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. <br/><br/><br/>Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>Mexico: Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category VI); Islas Marias (Core Zone) Biosphere Reserve Core Zone (IUCN category Ia); El Veladero National Park (IUCN category II); Huatulco National Park (IUCN category II); Cuencas y corales de la zona costera de Huatulco (Wetlands of International Importance, Ramsar), and Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)<br/>Included with corals in CITES appendix II.	eng
133691	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>Records in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region: <strong>Mexico</strong>: Caleta de Chon, Manzanillo, Playa Coral and Morros del Potosi at Guerrero, and at La Tijera, Montosa and Mazunte in Oaxaca (Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005); Clipperton Atoll (Glynn and Ault 2000); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Galapagos Archipelago (Hickman 2005); potentially in Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).	eng
133691	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Pocillopora is common on most reefs, especially along the reef front, where it may occur in dense banks (Wood 1983).<br/>Shallow reef environments and rocky foreshore that are exposed to strong wave action.<br/><br/>Pocilloporid corals, presumably including <em>P. effusus</em>, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include:<br/><br/>a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (<em>Arothron</em>), parrotfishes (<em>Scaridae</em>), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (<em>Trizopagurus</em>, <em>Aniculus</em>, and <em>Calcinus</em>) (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (<em>Jenneria pustulata</em> and <em>Quoyula</em> sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (<em>Stegastes acapulcoensis</em>), and <em>Acanthaster planci</em> (Glynn 2002).<br/><br/>d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/><em>Jenneria</em> and <em>Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of <em>Pocillopora</em> (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (<em>Trapezia</em> sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star <em>A. planci</em> (Glynn 2001).	eng
133691	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common at Clipperton Atoll and rocky foreshores of western Mexico.  <br/><br/><em>Pocillopora</em> is common on most reefs, especially along the reef front, where it may occur in dense banks (Wood 1983). The genus <em>Pocillopora</em> is very common and very conspicuous.<br/><br/>According to Veron (2000), in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the relative abundance of <em>Pocillopora effusus</em> is common at Clipperton Atoll, and on the rocky foreshore of western Mexico. Nevertheless, Reyes-Bonilla (2003) classified this specie as rare in mainland Mexico (Guerrero and Oaxaca). According to CONABIO (2006), in Mexico populations trends of this coral are presumed to be stable.<br/><br/>In the Galápagos Islands, the relative abundance of <em>P. effusus</em> varies between uncommon at the northern Islands of Darwin and Wolf to rare in the rest of the Archipelago (Hickman 2005).<br/><br/>In the event that the presence of <em>P. effusus</em> is confirmed in Panama, its populations should be regarded as uncommon or rare (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133691	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (<em>Porites</em>, <em>Pavona</em>, <em>Gardinoseris</em>) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn <em>et al</em>.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 1988). <br/><br/>Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin <em>Eucidaris galapagensis</em> (syn. <em>E. thouarsii</em>) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). <br/><br/>Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al (unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. <br/><br/>Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially <em>P. capitata</em> and <em>P. elegans</em>) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 1990).<br/><br/>According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001)<br/><br/>Other threats include: a) predation principally by <em>Acanthaster</em> and <em>Jenneria</em> (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133692	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133692	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the northwest Indian Ocean and Arabian/Iranian Gulf. This species is found in the Rodrigues (Fenner <em>et al</em>. 2004) and Mauritius (Pillay <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
133692	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in marginal reef environments, mainly the Arabian region. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, on the back and foreslope of the reef, and in lagoons. This species is found to 20 m.	eng
133692	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133692	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133693	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133693	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in southwest Indian Ocean, central Indian Ocean, central Indo-Pacific, northwest and eastern Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, oceanic West Pacific, Central Pacific.	eng
133693	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is found in reef slopes and reef flats as a free-living polyp with multiple mouths. The depth range is from 1-21 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size is 45 cm in diameter.	eng
133693	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is common.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133693	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133694	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133694	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, South-east Asia, Japan and the South China Sea. Also in Papua New Guinea (Fenner 2003) and the Solomon Islands (TNC).	eng
133694	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	It is usually found on algae dominated rock. <em>Pectinia</em> colonies occasionally reach 1 m or more in diameter (Wood 1983). <em>P. ayleni</em> colonies can grow up to a metre (Fenner pers. comm.). This species is found to 25 m. <br/><br/><em>Pectinia</em> occurs in most reef habitats, both in shallow and deep areas (Wood 1983). This genus is typically conspicuous (Veron 1995).	eng
133694	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133694	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	In the Great Barrier Reef, <em>Pectinia</em> showed high susceptibility to bleaching (Baird and Marshall 2000). There is no information on bleaching response in the WIO.<br/><br/>In Lampung, Southern Sumatra <em>Pectinia</em> is in the top 25 genera collected for the aquarium trade (Terangi Indonesian Coral Reef Foundation, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133695	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	Mechanisms to ensure sustainability of harvesting should be developed, including certification of source reefs by the Marine Aquarium Council.<br/><br/>All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133695	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Japan and the East and South China Sea, and the oceanic West Pacific.	eng
133695	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments. It is found on slopes and flat substrates, often with <em>C. furcata</em>. This species is found in lagoons and inter-reef soft substrates. This species is found to at least 20 m.	eng
133695	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133695	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is a target for collection for the aquarium trade, and this is a threat in some parts of its range. In Lampung, this genus was the second most heavily exploited (MAQTRAC database from ReefCheck). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 501.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133696	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133696	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the central Indo-Pacific, Japan and the east China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific.	eng
133696	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on protected reef slopes. This species is found to at least 10 m.	eng
133696	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This is an uncommon species, but can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133696	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133697	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133697	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, tropical and sub-tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.	eng
133697	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	It may form large stands on fringing reefs where the water is turbid. It forms plates of over 1 m in diameter. This species is found from 2-15 m.	eng
133697	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133697	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 278.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133698	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133698	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is found in the south-west and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, and the oceanic west Pacific. Also found in Palau and the Marianas (Randall 1995), Samoa and the Society Islands (Wallace 1999).	eng
133698	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on outer reef flats where currents or wave action is strong, just subtidally at reef edge and top of slope (Wallace 1999). This species is found from 1-10 m.	eng
133698	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species is uncommon. It was found at five of six regions in Indonesia (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2001).  Found at 22 sites of 87 sites surveyed in the Marshall Islands (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133698	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Major threats are global warming and predation. Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>This species is heavily preyed upon by fish (Richards pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Acropora</em> species are in the top three genera collected for the aquarium trade. This species is known to occur in the aquarium trade (Delbeek pers. comm.). The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 2,580.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133699	conservation	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133699	distribution	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in the central Indo-Pacific. It is found in the Philippines, and north Sulawesi, Indonesia (Fenner pers. comm.).	eng
133699	habitat	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This species occurs in shallow reef environments. It is found with <em>Acropora derawanensis</em> in shallow reef environments protected from wave action. This species is found from 8-20 m.	eng
133699	population	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	This is an uncommon species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133699	threats	Richards, Z., Delbeek, J.C., Lovell, E., Bass, D., Aeby, G. & Reboton, C., 2008	Members of this genus have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover. <br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus <em>Acropora</em> (Colgan 1987). Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133700	conservation	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133700	distribution	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is found in Eastern Africa, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, China, South China Sea, Japan, Papua New Guinea, northern half of Australia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, Mariana Islands, Osagawara Island (Japan), Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Cook Islands, and French Polynesia.	eng
133700	habitat	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species occurs in shallow and deeper tropical reef environments. It is found in most reef environments. This species is found to at least 40 m.	eng
133700	population	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	This species is common, but inconspicuous.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133700	threats	DeVantier, L., Hodgson, G., Huang, D., Johan, O., Licuanan, A., Obura, D., Sheppard, C., Syahrir, M. & Turak, E., 2008	The bleaching of coral reefs, which has become increasingly frequent since the 1970s, is related to the ongoing rise in ocean in temperatures as a result of global climate change. Bleaching events, leading to coral mortality, are predicted to become more frequent and severe. Species in the genus <em>Montipora</em> are susceptible to bleaching. However, this species is extremely widespread in tropical, subtropical habitats, and across a range of depths, providing a possible degree of resilience to threats relating to global warming. Species in the genus tend to be quite fast growing and reproduce asexually by fragmentation, so if they can re-establish after mortality, they can recover fast.<br/><br/><em>Acanthaster planci</em>, the crown-of-thorns starfish, has been observed preferentially preying upon members of this genus (Colgan 1987).Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (<em>Acanthaster planci</em>) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. These starfish are voracious predators of reef-building corals, with a preference for branching and tabular corals such as <em>Acropora</em> species. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts of COTS has become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. <br/><br/>In 2006 the Indonesia export quota for all <em>Montipora</em> species was 19,200 pieces. However, this is an encrusting species that is probably not significantly harvested.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133701	conservation	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.	eng
133701	distribution	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This species is only found in the Chagos Archipelago and so has a restricted distribution.	eng
133701	habitat	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	It is found on reef slopes and lagoons. This species is found from 3-45 m.	eng
133701	population	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	This is a locally common species.<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133701	threats	Sheppard, C., Turak, E. & Wood, E., 2008	In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133702	conservation	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. Present in multiple protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region:<br/>México: Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (IUCN category Ia, VI).<br/>Panamá: Coiba National Park (IUCN category II); Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection (IUCN category II), and Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (ii)(iii), C (iv)).<br/>Ecuador: Galápagos Marine Reserve (IUCN category VI); Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA); Galapagos Island World Heritage Site (UNESCO N (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)), and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO).<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.	eng
133702	distribution	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and central Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, the central Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll, and the far eastern Pacific.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region is present on: <strong>México</strong>: Punta Chileno and Cabo Pulmo at Baja California Sur; Islas Marietas, Nayarit; and Revillagigedo Islands, Colima (Reyes-Bonilla pers. comm., Reyes-Bonilla 2003, Reyes-Bonilla <em>et al</em>. 2005, CONABIO 2006); <strong>Panamá</strong>: Coiba Archipelago, Gulf of Chiriquí; recorded as <em>Pavona cf. duerdeni</em> (Guzmán <em>et al</em>. 2004), and Las Perlas Archipelago, Gulf of Panama (Guzman <em>et al</em>. in prep.); <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Punta Estrada*, Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos Archipelago (Chiriboga pers. comm.). <br/><br/>(* Taxonomic determination not confirmed; identified from underwater photographs.).	eng
133702	habitat	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species occurs in most reef environments and forms large colonies on horizontal shallow substrata. It forms big boulders over 1 m. This species is found from 3-15 m. <br/><br/>In Panama and Galápagos occurs on broken reef and rock habitats in shallow depths (<15 m) (Guzmán and Chiriboga pers. comm.). According to Guzmán (pers. comm.), <em>P. duerdemi</em> forms very large colonies in the Gulf of Chiriqui and Gulf of Panama, Panamá.	eng
133702	population	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	This species is uncommon, but conspicuous. It is rare in the Red Sea.<br/><br/>Within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region the distribution and abundance of <em>Pavona duerdeni</em> is almost unknown (Guzmán pers. comm.) due to taxonomical uncertainty. However, according to Guzmán <em>et al</em>. (2004), <em>P. duerdeni</em> is considered rare at Coiba Archipelago, found in less than 25% of sites, as well as in Las Perlas Archipelago, found in less than 3% of sites, and in the Gulf of Chiriqui occurring at 23 sites (Guzman et al., in prep.). In México, Reyes-Bonilla (2003), considered P. duerdeni as rare (found in less than 20% of the reef) at the Gulf of California and nearby areas, as well as at the Revillagigedo Islands.<br/><br/>However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.<br/><br/>The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133702	threats	Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M., 2008	El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are the most important source of natural disturbance controlling coral communities (Glynn 1990). <em>Pavona</em> species have a high sensitivity to extreme elevated temperatures that interfere with reproduction and recruitment (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000). El Niño disturbance could have perilous consequences for small populations of eastern Pacific reef corals (Glynn 1988).<br/><br/>Bryant <em>et al</em>. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs in the coast of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001).<br/><br/>Other threats (Glynn <em>et al</em>. 2000): small colony size; slow skeletal growth; susceptibility to <em>Acanthaster planci</em> predation, and infrequent asexual fragmentation.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.<br/><br/>Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. <br/><br/>The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133703	conservation	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.<br/><br/>Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.	eng
133703	distribution	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	<em>P. ericacea</em> is currently known only from the Gulf of Oman (Claereboudt 2006).	eng
133703	habitat	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Colonies are small. The common branching form becomes flattened and encrusting in deeper water (Claereboudt 2006). It is not known to which depth this species generally occurs.	eng
133703	population	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	Found in most environments but always unusual or rare (Claereboudt 2006).<br/><br/>There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined globally.<br/> <br/> The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. <strong>Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates</strong>.	eng
133703	threats	Sheppard, A., Fenner, D., Edwards, A., Abrar, M. & Ochavillo, D., 2008	The species is known only from the Gulf of Oman and specific threats to the species are unknown. <br/><br/><em>Porites</em> species are heavily collected for the aquarium trade. The genus is not particularly susceptible to bleaching, but is more prone to disease than many other corals. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil <em>et al</em>. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland <em>et al</em>. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter <em>et al</em>. 2001, Patterson <em>et al</em>. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.<br/><br/>In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by  a number of localized threats. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.	eng
133704	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Southern right whales have been protected from commercial whaling through international agreements in1935 and 1946, but not in Chile where the last right whale was killed in 1966 (Aguayo 1974). Although right whales were taken illegally by Soviet pelagic fleets until the early 1970s, none of these were taken in the southeast Pacific. No specific protection areas exist in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> for right whales.&#160; </p>	eng
133704	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Southern right whales have a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, but various breeding components of this species are concentrated near coastlines in the northern part of the range. In the case of Chile-Peru, the northernmost sighting is from 15° 08’ S in Bahia San Fernando, Peru. During the austral winter and spring, these whales are known from southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Peru</st1:country-region> (Santillan <em>et al</em>. 2004) to central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Aguayo and Torres 1986, Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1992). During the same seasons, they are observed passing through coastal waters between southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Peru</st1:country-region> and central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The right whales in this population need to be considered isolated due to their breeding location and lack of any observable increase in numbers over the past four decades.</p>	eng
133704	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Based of sightings of right whales in recent years off <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>, all coastal waters appear to be important areas used as migratory corridors. Southern right whale habitat is poorly known because of the small population size. Females have been recorded with calves in southern Peru 15°– 17° S, Antofagasta, Chile 23°-25°S, Valparaiso, Chile (31°-33°S), and Arauco to Osorno, Chile (37°-40°S), and there is a single record from Punta Arenas, Chile (53°S). Females in other populations produce calves at 3-5 year intervals and calves are born between June and October with a peak in August (Best 1994). The diet consists mainly of copepods and euphausiids (Tormosov <em>et al</em>. 1998). </p>	eng
133704	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Best (1987) estimated that American whalers in the 19<sup>th</sup> century killed over 14,600 southern right whales in the South Pacific, but he did not attempt to allocate the catch to any geographic regions. French whalers in the 19<sup>th</sup> century took about 2,372 right whales along the coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Du Pasquier 1986). These estimates do not include any allowance for struck and lost animals. During the 20<sup>th</sup> century between 1929 and 1966, a total of 119 right whales were killed by shore-based whalers in Chilean waters (Aguayo 1974). In only two decades between 1951 and 1971, Soviet pelagic whaling operations killed at least 3,368 right whales in the Southern Hemisphere (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998). These catches occurred in all the major habitats where right whales are known to be increasing today but none of these Soviet catches occurred in the waters off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></p>    <p><span lang="EN-US">The IWC conducted its last major review of southern right whales in 1998 (IWC 2001), but little information was available for the whales in the waters off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Between 1964 and 1991, only 16 female-calf pairs were recorded from south-central to northern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and none from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1998). The first female-calf pair in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> was recorded in 1996 (Van Waerebeek <em>et al</em>. 1998). There were no known major catches by coastal whalers off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> in the past and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> during the 20<sup>th</sup> century and no catches in this region by Soviet pelagic operations between the 1950s and early 1970s. Thus, it is surprising that no increase has been observed in this subpopulation. Other subpopulations (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Argentina</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>) have shown increases with doubling of times around 10-12 years. The maximum 1-day count of only four whales (Aguayo <em>et al</em>. 1992) is extremely low compared to maximum daily counts of 15, 40, 155 and 256 (2 days) off southeast Australia, southwest Australia, Argentina, and South Africa respectively (IWC 2001). </p>	eng
133704	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Right whale mortality due to entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships is known throughout the Southern Hemisphere (IWC 2001). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>, two whale deaths from human activities are known. One was a calf harpooned by fishermen (Aguayo <em>et al.</em> 1992) and the other was a calf that stranded after being struck by a vessel (Canto et al.1991). Mortality caused by entanglements and vessel strikes is a very serious issue for western <st1:place w:st="on">North Atlantic</st1:place> right whales. Similarly, any human-caused mortality in the subpopulation off <st1:country-region w:st="on">Chile</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region>, especially of females, would have a serious impact on the subpopulation.	eng
133705	conservation	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p>The locality was declared a protected area but part of the forest was opened up for constructing the national highway connecting Bontoc and Ifugao. </p>	eng
133705	distribution	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p>Occurs on Luzon Island (Philippines) in   Bontoc and Ifugao Provinces (Mt.  Polis), at 1,853 m asl, (16º58'33'' N and 121º01'35'' E ).   <br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>	eng
133705	habitat	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p>The species is found in open mossy forest along highways between Ifugao and Bontoc at higher elevations.</p>	eng
133705	population	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	The species is confined to one location and although the size of the population is not known, it is unlikely to be large.	eng
133705	threats	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	Loss of habitat through   conversion of mossy forest into a national highway poses a major threat as opening the area also facilitates increased human disturbance and provides easier access to collectors.	eng
133706	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>North Pacific right whales were legally protected from commercial whaling through international agreements in 1935 and 1946, but this has been fully respected in practice only since the 1970s. A Recovery Plan has been developed by the US National Marine Fisheries Service, but to date the only conservation measure undertaken has been the designation in 2006 of two areas of Critical Habitat (the southeastern Bering Sea and a small region off eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Kodiak Island</st1:place>) under the US Endangered Species Act.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The species is listed in Appendix I of both CITES and CMS.</p>	eng
133706	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Prior to the onset of commercial whaling in the 1830s, right whales were widely distributed across the North Pacific (Scarff 1986, Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the eastern North Pacific, the waters adjacent to the Aleutian Islands and much of the Bering Sea below 60<sup>o</sup>N were major feeding grounds during spring, summer and autumn, as was virtually the entire <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place>. Neither the historical nor the present-day breeding/calving grounds for this subpopulation have been identified.&#160; </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In recent decades, both the southeastern Bering Sea and the western <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place> (shelf and slope waters south of Kodiak) have been the focus of sightings as well as illegal Soviet catches (see below). Recent acoustic detections of right whale calls have been made in both areas using autonomous recording packages deployed for extended periods (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2006). They confirm the presence of right whales in the southeastern Bering Sea from May into November; records from the <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place> are somewhat more sporadic, but include detections in August and September.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Seasonal movements are evident in sighting and catch data from the 20<sup>th</sup> century, with a general northward migration into the Gulf of Alaska and <st1:place w:st="on">Bering Sea</st1:place> in spring and summer, and a gradual movement away from these areas in autumn (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004, Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are very few records of right whales anywhere in the North Pacific in winter.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">In general, the majority of eastern North Pacific right whale sightings (historically and in recent times) have occurred from about 40º N to 60º N. There are historical records from north of 60º N, but these are rare and many are likely to be misidentified bowhead whales. Right whales have on rare occasions been recorded off <st1:state w:st="on">California</st1:state> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, as well as off <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hawaii</st1:place></st1:state>. However, as noted by Brownell <em>et al.</em> (2001), there is no evidence that either <st1:state w:st="on">Hawaii</st1:state> or the west coast of North America from <st1:placename w:st="on">Washington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> to <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Baja California</st1:place></st1:state> has ever been important habitat for right whales. Consequently, the few records from this region are considered to represent vagrants.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  Recent data indicate that while the present range of the remnant eastern subpopulation is likely reduced relative to pre-whaling times, the southeastern Bering Sea and western Gulf of Alaska (south of Kodiak) remain important habitats.	eng
133706	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Little is known about habitat use by eastern North Pacific right whales. The rarity of coastal records in winter in either historical or recent times suggests that their breeding grounds may have been offshore (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is in contrast to southern and North Atlantic right whales, both of which form inshore breeding concentrations. There is clearly some northward migration in summer and southward in winter (Clapham <em>et al.</em> 2004), but the location of the wintering grounds is unknown. The historical catches show that in summer the population occurred mainly on feeding grounds in the Bering Sea and <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place>. Data on food habits are sparse, but suggest that right whales in the eastern North Pacific feed primarily on copepods of the genera <em>Calanus</em> and <em>Neocalanus</em> (Shelden <em>et al.</em> 2005). Primary habitats today include core areas of the southeastern Bering Sea and an area off eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Kodiak Island</st1:place>, which were also significant parts of the range in the past.</p>	eng
133706	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>As noted above, right whales in the eastern North Pacific are considered to be separate from those in the west on the basis of distinct catch and recovery histories (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001, IWC 2001). The right whale population throughout the North Pacific is only a small fraction of what it was prior to 19<sup>th</sup> century whaling. A preliminary estimate of 26,500-37,000 animals taken (including struck and lost) throughout the entire North Pacific during the period 1839-1909 was given by Scarff (2001), of which 21,000-30,000 were taken during 1840-49 alone.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In the eastern North Pacific between 1941 and 1964, there were 598 sightings of right whales; in contrast, in the period 1965-1999 there was a total of only 82 sightings in this region (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). The dramatic decrease was due to illegal Soviet catches of 372 whales in the Bering Sea and <st1:place w:st="on">Gulf of Alaska</st1:place>, mainly in the period 1963-66 (Doroshenko 2000); given the paucity of sightings in subsequent years, this catch total may well have constituted the bulk of the remaining subpopulation. In all, 411 right whales were killed in the eastern North Pacific in the 20<sup>th</sup> century (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001).</p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p>The few animals observed in the eastern North Pacific today are often alone and are scattered in their distribution. The only exception is an area of the southeastern Bering Sea where small groups of right whales have been seen in several successive years (LeDuc <em>et al.</em> 2001); in 2004, a recorded group of at least 17 individuals represented the largest sighting since the Soviet catches of the 1960s (Wade <em>et al.</em> 2006). No quantitative estimate of abundance is available, but the paucity of sightings suggests that right whales in the eastern North Pacific number only in the tens (Brownell <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore, the reproductive rate appears to be low: there have been only three records of calves since directed survey effort began in 1998 (Waite <em>et al</em>. 2003, Wade <em>et al</em>. 2006). </p>	eng
133706	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	<p>Commercial hunting for right whales in the eastern North Pacific was initiated by Europeans and Americans in the 1830s; by about 1900, the subpopulation had been reduced to a fraction of its original abundance, as evidenced by the comparatively low number of 20<sup>th</sup> century sightings (Brownell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Although legally protected by the IWC since 1946 (and by an earlier agreement in 1935), illegal hunting continued into the 1960s with the Soviet catches of 372 animals in the eastern North Pacific (Doroshenko 2000, Brownell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).   <p>&#160;There is currently no evidence of human-related mortality or injury, but the very low observer effort and remoteness of the right whale’s habitats probably means that most deaths and injuries pass unrecorded.  <p>&#160;The eastern North Pacific subpopulation is subject to anthropogenic threats such as entanglements in fishing gear, disturbance by vessels and other noise, collisions, and possibly petroleum-related and other contaminants.  <p>&#160;As compared with the intensively studied North Atlantic right whale, the more offshore and remote distribution of eastern North Pacific right whales may be an advantage in terms of less intensive exposure to human impacts, but the disadvantage is that impacts that do occur are less likely to be detected and their consequences are harder to ascertain and evaluate.<em><em></em></em></span>  <p>&#160;Small populations numbering less than a few hundred individuals can have a number of interacting effects that accelerate overall risk (Gilpin and Soule, 1986).&#160; Among those effects are demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and density depensation (Allee effects).&#160; Although direct data are lacking for marine mammals at low density, the expectation is that these threats could be serious because cetaceans are social animals with low reproductive output. <em><em><br/> <br/> </em></em>	eng
133707	conservation	Medecilo, M.P., Ong, R.G. & Amoroso, V.B. , 2008	Both locations were declared as protected areas but the implementation is very poor.	eng
133707	distribution	Medecilo, M.P., Ong, R.G. & Amoroso, V.B. , 2008	<p><st1:placename w:st="on">Occurs on Mindanao</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island (Philippines) in</st1:placetype> Misamis Occidental (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename></st1:place>) and Bukidnon Provinces (Impalutao Reforestation Project) at 777 m asl (08º15'190'' N and 125º02'135'' E).&#160; </p>	eng
133707	habitat	Medecilo, M.P., Ong, R.G. & Amoroso, V.B. , 2008	<p>Found in primary and secondary forest at low altitudes. </p>	eng
133707	population	Medecilo, M.P., Ong, R.G. & Amoroso, V.B. , 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. sanderiana</span> is confined to two locations: <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Misamis Occidental and Impasug-ong, Bukidnon, but no nformation on population size is available..	eng
133707	threats	Medecilo, M.P., Ong, R.G. & Amoroso, V.B. , 2008	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>Agricultural expansion (kaingin) and associated increased exploitation are the main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sanderiana</span> at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Malindang</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:place></span>.&#160; In Bukidnon, the population is at risk from recreational activities; the area is often visited by local tourists due to the presence of water falls and swimming pools. Plants are collected for ornamental and medicinal use.	eng
133708	conservation	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	No conservation actions are currently in place and hence attempts are required to put some measures in place to ensure the future survival of this species in the wild.	eng
133708	distribution	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Occurs on Samar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Philippines) at&#160; Marabot. It is located at 11º11'47'' N longitude and 125º10'52'' E latitude at a low altitude of 43 m asl.&#160; &#160;</p>	eng
133708	habitat	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinuata</span> is found in limestone forests at very low altitude near the beach. </p>	eng
133708	population	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<em>A. sinuata</em> was introduced into cultivation in international nurseries and gardens over a century ago, but since then the species has only been recordedonce in the wild at the location in <st1:place w:st="on">Samar</st1:place>.	eng
133708	threats	Medecilo, M.P. & Ong, R.G., 2008	<p>The major threat to the species is the conversion of the habitat to beach resorts.&#160; During the assessment, collection of the species in the wild was not observed but a few individuals were seen growing in gardens in the area, hence low level collecting may still be an issue..</p>	eng
133709	conservation	Madulid, D.A., Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G., 2008	No actions are in place.	eng
133709	distribution	Madulid, D.A., Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G., 2008	<p><st1:placename w:st="on">Known only from Mindanao</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island (Philippines)</st1:placetype>, where it was recorded at <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Candalaga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype>, Maragusan, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Compostela</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>	eng
133709	habitat	Madulid, D.A., Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. magnifica</span> occurs in lowland evergreen rainforests <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> at 600–800 m asl.	eng
133709	population	Madulid, D.A., Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G., 2008	The species is confined to the mountain range of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Candalaga</st1:placename></st1:place>. Only a few individuals were found with 3-5 individuals per cluster. So far, only male individuals have been recorded</span>.	eng
133709	threats	Madulid, D.A., Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G., 2008	The construction of a national highway in the area has facilitated easier human access and disturbance poses a threat to the species (these unusual flowers are often treated as visitor attractions). Furthermore, parts of the forest are being converted into banana plantations.	eng
133710	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><em>Sousa</em> spp. are listed in Appendix I of CITES.</p><p><br/></p>  <p>Efforts are being made to characterize this dolphin population and the threats it faces, and to integrate relevant information into <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s environmental impact assessment and mitigation processes (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b).</p>	eng
133710	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p>The primary range of this subpopulation consists of coastal western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> from the estuaries of the Houlong and Jhonggang rivers (<st1:placename w:st="on">Miaoli</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>) in the north to Waishanding Zhou (a large sandbar off <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Chiayi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>) in the south (see Figure 1 in attached PDF).&#160; However, one sighting of about 20 dolphins has been confirmed from the inshore waters of Tainan County and a dolphin, almost certainly a “stray,” was observed at the mouth of Fugang Harbour (Taitung County) where adjacent waters are deep and oceanic (i.e., clearly not the preferred habitat of this species).&#160; All sightings have been within 3 km off shore with the exception of the mud flats/littoral zone in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Changhua</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>, the central part of the distribution, where extensive oyster mariculture structures and associated activities likely exclude dolphins physically (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b).&#160; The distribution is linear, i.e. similar to that of a riverine species.&#160; </span>Most of the dolphins in this subpopulation have been sighted in and around the two main estuaries of western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> (Dadu and Joushuei rivers of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taichung</st1:place></st1:city>, Changhua and Yunlin counties) (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a, b).</p>	eng
133710	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p>The ETS dolphins appear to be year-round residents of the coastal waters of central western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where dedicated surveys have resulted in sightings from April to August (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007a).&#160; Opportunistic sightings have been made in other months; as of December 2007, the only months with no confirmed sightings were January, February and March, when conditions and opportunities for observations are poor (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., 13 December 2007).&#160; In late winter and early spring, grey mullet (<em>Mugil cephalus</em>) fishermen report seeing humpback dolphins near their nets (trammel and gill nets that are commonly used as encircling nets as well).&#160; Recreational shore fishermen report that the dolphins are seen most commonly in the winter months in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Dadu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> estuary. Although reports by fishermen need to be viewed skeptically because of the possibility of misidentification, other species of dolphins are generally not present in the near-shore waters of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> so the chances of confusion are relatively small in this instance (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b). All sightings have been in waters less than 25 m deep, most in less than 15 m and within 3 km of shore.&#160; </span>The few measurements of sea surface temperatures at sightings have varied from about 24 to 30<sup>o</sup>C (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Schools of dolphins often patrol parallel to the coastline just off the surf zone and large sandbars.&#160; Estuaries are likely where most of the foraging occurs.&#160; </span>Feeding behind active trawlers (as in Hong Kong and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>) has not been observed but dolphins move along the length of set trammel or gill nets, possibly searching for injured or net-entangled fish.&#160; In general, they appear to be indifferent towards boats (at least the research vessels that have been used to study them – a fishing boat and a large raft made of plastic tubing).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins appear to be opportunistic feeders.&#160; </span>They take a wide variety of nearshore, estuarine, and reef fishes.&#160; They also eat cephalopods in some areas, although crustaceans appear to be rare in the diet (Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001, Ross 2002, Ross <em>et al</em>. 1994). Little is known about the specific feeding habits of the ETS subpopulation but these dolphins have been observed feeding on croakers (Sciaenidae), mullets (Mugilidae), threadfins (Polynemidae) and herring (Clupeidae) (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b).</p>	eng
133710	population	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p>The subpopulation was estimated to number 99 individuals (CV=51.6%) in the mid-2000s (Wang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).&#160; By analogy with the Pearl River Estuary subpopulation of <em>S. chinensis</em>, mature individuals constitute about 60% of this subpopulation (Jefferson 2000), or about 60. Using a default value of 50% percent for this species (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007), however, would suggest only about 50 mature individuals. Almost all individually recognizable dolphins were novel in 2002 but by 2004, most had been photographed in previous years (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007a); the catalogue of recognizable dolphins numbered fewer than 30 at that time (J.Y. Wang pers. comm., December 2007).</p>	eng
133710	threats	Reeves, R.R., Dalebout, M.L., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	<p><em>Fisheries</em></p>  <p>This population is not known to be hunted presently but is likely to have been hunted at least opportunistically in the past.&#160; Entanglements of humpback dolphins in gillnets have been recorded in coastal waters of the <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place> (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1994, Jefferson and Karczmarski 2001).&#160; The greatest direct and immediate source of human-caused dolphin mortality for the ETS subpopulation is probably incidental catches in fishing gear (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2007b).&#160; </span>There are anecdotal records of incidental catches in trammel and other kinds of gill nets and trawls.&#160; Thousands of trammel and gill nets operate in the coastal waters of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and this clearly represents one of the most serious threats to this subpopulation.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Habitat Degradation and Reduction</span></em></p>  <p>Reduction of freshwater flow and other kinds of degradation of estuaries and adjacent coastal waters (<em>e.g.</em> land reclamation) are almost certainly having an impact on this dolphin population, and there are continuing proposals for large-scale industrial development projects involving land reclamation (<em>e.g</em>., offshore wind farms, steel factory of the Formosa Plastic Group, Chinese Petroleum Company’s petrochemical factory within the animals’ restricted habitat) (Wang <em>et al</em>. 2004b, 2007b).&#160; Besides the physical removal of habitat, activities associated with land reclamation, such as pile-driving, can cause disturbance or even direct harm to the dolphins.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><em>Pollution</span></em></p>  <p>Pollution (industrial, agricultural and residential discharge with minimal to no treatment) poses a risk to humpback dolphins via the consumption of marine prey species (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2000, Parsons 2004).&#160; Spills of oil and other toxic substances by commercial ships could be catastrophic for a population so small and limited in its distribution. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Parsons (1997) estimated that a humpback dolphin in <st1:place w:st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> waters ingests up to 70,500 faecal coliforms/day (minimum) from sewage-contaminated seawater.&#160; </span>To put this in context, a one-off ingestion rate of 200-300 coliforms is considered unacceptable for humans (Parsons 2004). <st1:place w:st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> discharges over two billion litres of sewage into its coastal waters every day. The ETS humpback dolphins live in the coastal and estuarine waters of western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where there is minimal treatment for residential and other sewage. Therefore, as in Hong Kong, a high rate of ingestion of contaminants of many kinds is to be expected, with associated concerns for the health of dolphins living in the coastal and estuarine waters of western Taiwan. In January 2008, an international group of scientists making up the Eastern Taiwan Strait <em>Sousa</em> Technical Advisory Working Group was established to provide expert advice and guidance on the conservation of the ETS population.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
133711	conservation	de Villalobos, A., 2008	Further surveys are required to confirm that the species is now Extinct in the Wild. The <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> efforts need to be increased to ensure a large and healthy population from which plants could possibly be taken for reintroduction back into suitable sites in the wild.	eng
133711	distribution	de Villalobos, A., 2008	The species is native to Argentina, and was found in the Province of Buenos Aires, Partido de Tornquist.	eng
133711	habitat	de Villalobos, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. leucopeplus</span> occured in temperate grasslands.	eng
133711	population	de Villalobos, A., 2008	The population is now extinct in the wild.	eng
133711	threats	de Villalobos, A., 2008	Major threats include: livestock farming, changes in native species dynamics and human disturbance related to recreational activities.	eng
133712	conservation	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Eastern spinner dolphins, as with other species impacted by the ETP tuna purse-seine fishery are managed both nationally by the coastal countries and internationally by the IATTC under a full observer scheme.&#160; The IATTC has imposed annual mortality limits by population on each purse seine and promulgated regulations regarding the safe release of dolphins (Bayliff 2001).</span></p>	eng
133712	distribution	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The subspecies occupies a range of roughly 10 million km<sup>2</sup> in the eastern tropical Pacific, extending from about the equator to about 20<sup>o</sup> North latitude and from the coast of Mexico and Central America west to about 135<sup>o</sup> West longitude.&#160; The core of the range (highest densities of dolphins) is north of 5<sup>o </sup>N and east of 130<sup>o </sup>W (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1991).</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Subpopulations likely exist within the subspecies; spinners off northern Mexico (the "Tres Marias spinners") are longer on average than those farther to the south and offshore (Perryman and Westlake 1998), and peak timing of reproductive seasonality varies spatially within the range (Barlow 1984).</span></p>	eng
133712	habitat	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Eastern spinner dolphins occur typically in the Eastern Pacific Warm Pool, a water mass characterized by high surface temperature and chlorophyll, low surface density and a shoal thermocline underlying a shallow mixed layer (Ballance <em>et al. </em>2006).&#160; Pelagic dolphins are capable of moving 50 km or more in a single day (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1979).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The eastern spinner dolphin commonly occurs together with pantropical spotted dolphins (<em>Stenella attenuata</em>) in large aggregations and often accompanied by schools of yellowfin tuna (<em>Thunnus albacares</em>).&#160; </span>Tuna fishermen take advantage of the tuna-dolphin bond, using the dolphins as surface indicators of tuna and herding and capturing them to catch the tuna associated with them.&#160; </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  The diet is composed almost entirely of small deep-scattering-layer organisms that migrate toward the surface nocturnally: fishes such as myctophids, small squids and krill-sized crustaceans (Perrin <em>et al. </em>1973, Galván Magaña 1999). </span>	eng
133712	population	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The most recent estimate of abundance is about 613,000 animals (CV = 22%) based on sighting effort of roughly 300,000 km in 13 multi-vessel line-transect surveys conducted 1979-2003 (Gerrodette <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160; Annual estimates ranged from 271,000 to 734,000.&#160; The population is estimated to have declined 54.5-84.5% (median 71.2%) from its original size of 1.3 million, beginning in the late 1950s and continuing into the mid- to late 1970s (Wade <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; Due to greatly reduced levels of directly observed bycatch in the fishery in the 1970s and 1980s to below sustainable levels, the decline stopped.&#160; </span>The rate of increase between 1979 and 2003 has been estimated at 1.1%, an estimate not significantly different from zero (Gerrodette and Forcada<em> </em>2005).&#160; </p>	eng
133712	threats	Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjørge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. & Wilson, B., 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The major threat to the subspecies has been bycatch in the tuna purse seine fishery, which has caused a decline of 65% in abundance since 1959 (Reilly <em>et al. </em>2005).&#160; Since the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) implemented per-vessel mortality limits on the international fleet, the annual mortality for the eastern spinner dolphins has decreased, to 274 in 2005 (IATTC 2006).&#160; Although current mortality is greatly reduced, the subspecies has not shown clear signs of recovery. Potential factors such as fishery-related stress, unobserved mortality due to calf separation and orphaning during fishing operations (Archer <em>et al.</em> 2001), possible mortality imposed by small vessels that do not carry observers, ecosystem changes, and under-reporting of mortality have been suggested as possible reasons for the eastern spinner’s slow recovery (Gerrodette and Forcada 2005).&#160; These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; two or more be operating in combination to prevent rapid recovery of the population.&#160; </span>However, in any case the cause is not understood.&#160; If indirect effects of chase-and-capture are the root of the problem, the impact could have been increasing in recent years, because the number of net sets on dolphins in the ETP has been steadily increasing since the early 1990s to an all-time high in 2003 of 14,000 sets (U.S. Marine Mammal Commission 2006), similar to levels in the 1980s and nearly twice as high as in the 1980s.</p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">An additional threat is bycatch in artisanal gillnet fisheries in several nations (Vidal <em>et al. </em>1994, Palacios and Gerrodette 1996). </span></p>	eng
133713	conservation	Hermann, P. & Cambi, V., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. nubigena </span>is protected by national legislation.	eng
133713	distribution	Hermann, P. & Cambi, V., 2008	Recorded from   <span lang="ES-AR">Argentina (Neuquén Province, Dto. Aluminé y Dto. de los Lagos and Rio Negro Province, Dto. de Bariloche); and Chile (VIII Región (BioBio) and X <span lang="ES-AR">Región (Los Lagos)).<span lang="ES-AR">	eng
133713	habitat	Hermann, P. & Cambi, V., 2008	This species is restricted to mossy and wet crevices of permanent water courses (cascades or water falls).	eng
133713	population	Hermann, P. & Cambi, V., 2008	The population size is estimated to number less than 1,000 mature individuals. No population trends have been recorded.	eng
133713	threats	Hermann, P. & Cambi, V., 2008	Major threats include: plant collection and recreational activities as well as recreational infrastructure development. Domestic water pollution is likely to become a threat in the future.	eng
133714	conservation	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species <em>T. truncatus</em> is listed as Data Deficient by IUCN, although the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> population is highlighted as a concern in the IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group's 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Commercial hunting of Black Sea cetaceans including bottlenose dolphins was banned in 1966 in the former <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region>, and in 1983 in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The riparian states assumed international </span><span lang="EN-US">obligations to protect <span lang="EN-US">Black Sea cetaceans as contracting parties to the </span><span lang="EN-US">Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, Appendix II), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The 1st Session of the Meeting of the Parties to ACCOBAMS (2002) adopted a resolution to strengthen measures for restricting the deliberate catching, keeping and trade of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> bottlenose dolphins. At the 12th Conference of the Parties to CITES (2002), a quota of zero was established for commercial export of live dolphins wild-captured in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place>. In 2003 the IWC Scientific Committee’s Sub-Committee on Small Cetaceans reviewed the status of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> bottlenose dolphins and concluded that this population should be managed for conservation as a distinct entity (IWC 2004).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The bottlenose dolphin is included in Annex II of the EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora. In 1996 the Ministers of Environment of Black Sea countries adopted cetacean conservation and research measures in the framework of the Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (paragraph 62). The bottlenose dolphin is included as Data Deficient in the regional Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). However, in 2002 it was listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol of the Bucharest Convention. The regional Conservation Plan for Cetaceans in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> has been drafted in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  On a national level, <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> cetaceans, including bottlenose dolphins, are protected by environmental laws, governmental decrees and national Red Data Books. The bottlenose dolphin is listed in the Red Data Books of Bulgaria, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> (which do not use the IUCN categories and criteria). In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Red Book inscription means that a species should be monitored and managed by appropriate state/national programmes. Such a programme has existed in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> since 1999 (the Delfin-programme adopted by the Ministry of Environment). Action Plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> (2001) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (2003) but they have no legal effect. The ACCOBAMS Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) envisage the development of a pilot conservation and management project to benefit bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises in the well-defined area between <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Sarych</st1:placename> and <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Khersones</st1:placename>, southern Crimea (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>).	eng
133714	distribution	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The range of Black Sea bottlenose dolphins includes the Black Sea proper; <st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype> along with the adjoining part of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Tzalkin 1940; Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1997; Sokolov 1997); and the Turkish Straits System (TSS) (Kleinenberg 1956, Beaubrun 1995, Öztürk and <span lang="EN-US">Öztürk 1997</span><span lang="EN-US">) (see Figure 1 in the attached PDF, see link below). The genetic data suggest that the TSS constitutes an ecological barrier between the Black Sea dolphins and those in the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>, although limited gene flow between the two seas is probable. A possible vagrant from the Black Sea population was identified genetically in the western <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place> (Natoli <em>et al</em>. 2005). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The range of the Black Sea subspecies includes the territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine in the Black Sea; internal waters of Ukraine in the Black Sea (including the Dnieper-and-Boug Liman, Karkinitsky Bay and Donuzlav Lake); internal waters of Russia and Ukraine in the Kerch Strait and Azov Sea; and internal waters of Turkey, represented by the Turkish Straits System including the Bosphorus Strait, Marmara Sea and Dardanelles. </span><span lang="EN-US">There are a few records of bottlenose dolphins entering rivers, <em>e.g</em>. the Danube in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region> (Police 1930, cited in<em> </em>Tomilin 1957) and the Dnieper in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Birkun 2006)<span lang="EN-US">.</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p>Population structure within the Black Sea is likely (<span lang="EN-US">Bel’kovich 1996), with several subpopulations or “semi-resident” communities, including those that spend most of the year in geographically and ecologically different areas, <em>e.g</em>. northwestern Black Sea; coastal waters off the southern Crimea; Kerch Strait and adjoining portions of the Black Sea and Azov Sea; shelf waters off the Caucasian coast; Turkish Black Sea; and TSS.</span></p><p><br/></p>  [Note: It has been agreed that territorial waters of all six <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries constitute the 12-mile-wide aquatic strip along the coasts of the sea; marine boundaries of the countries coincide with the external (offshore) border of this strip. However, there are some areas where the sea runs deep inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), and in these places the 12-mile rule does not work. These water bodies are situated quite far from the state boundaries and constitute the so-called “internal [marine] waters” of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries.]<br/></span>	eng
133714	habitat	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Bottlenose dolphins are distributed across the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> shelf; they sometimes occur far offshore (Beaubrun 1995, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997). In the northern Black Sea they form scattered communities of some tens to approximately 150 animals in different places around Crimea, including the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype></st1:place> and coastal waters off the western and southern extremities of the peninsula (Zatevakhin and Bel’kovich 1996, Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004a, Birkun 2006). Accumulations also are known to form off the Russian Caucasus (Olga Shpak pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US">, 2005<span lang="EN-US">) and close to the Turkish coast (Sergey Krivokhizhin pers. comm.<span lang="EN-US">, 2005</span><span lang="EN-US">). Bottlenose dolphins typically aggregate during autumn, winter and spring in a relatively small area off southern Crimea between <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Sarych</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Khersones</st1:placename></st1:place> (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2006). According to a 2-year photo-identification study, this “winter” accumulation consists of animals from other “summer” concentrations. Mean group sizes varied from 2.0 to 2.9 in different surveyed areas (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2003, 2004a).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  The peculiarities of cetacean ecology in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> are conditioned mainly by the high degree of geographical isolation of the sea, its relatively low salinity, significant seasonal fluctuations of water temperature, and the presence of anoxic water saturated with hydrogen sulphide below 100-250 m depth. Bottlenose dolphins are primarily piscivorous in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place>, taking both benthic and pelagic fishes, large and small. A total of 16 fish species have been reported as prey off the Crimean and Caucasian coasts (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957, Krivokhizhin <em>et al</em>. 2000) including four species of mullet&#160; (</span><em>Lisa aurata</em>,<em> L. saliens</em>, <em>Mugil cephalus </em>and <em>M. so-iuy</em></span>).	eng
133714	population	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	The total population size is unknown. Region-wide estimates of absolute abundance, based on strip transect surveys carried out in the <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region> (1967-1974) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region></st1:place> (1987), have been discredited by the IWC Scientific Committee due to irremediable methodological and interpretive problems (Smith 1982, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). During most of the 20th century, the bottlenose dolphin was considered the least abundant of the three cetacean species in the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976, Yaskin and Yukhov 1997). During the last decade, bottlenose dolphins have become prevalent in coastal waters of the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004b). The estimated sighting rate increased by a factor of five between 1995 and 1997-1998. There is an annual autumn accumulation of bottlenose dolphins in waters close to the southern extremity of the Crimea (<st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Fiolent</st1:placename> – <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Sarych</st1:placename></st1:place>). Groups of hundreds of animals migrate every autumn to this relatively small area from the eastern and, probably, other parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> (Birkun <em>et al</em>. 2004b, Birkun 2006).</span> Estimates of abundance from recent line transect surveys in different parts of the range (see Table 1 in the attached PDF, see link below) </span>suggest that present population size is at least several 1,000s.<br/><br/>    <p><strong>Population Trend:&#160; </strong><span lang="EN-US">In the 20th century, the number of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> bottlenose dolphins was reduced by direct killing for the cetacean-processing industry, which continued until 1983. The numbers of animals taken were not recorded accurately; much of the catch data was recorded as numbers of animals undifferentiated to species (all three <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetacean species were targeted) and by wet weight aggregates (<em>e.g</em>. tons of small cetaceans landed). Nevertheless, it can be inferred that the </span>population size of <em>T. t. ponticus</em> had been reduced<span lang="EN-US"> by many thousands as a result of these direct kills by the time of the total ban on the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> dolphin fishery (see “Threats” section). <span lang="EN-US">It is suspected that during the period </span>from 1983-2005, the population had a tendency to increase. However, it is also suspected that recovery was compromised by a mortality event in 1990 and is continuing to be compromised by the persistent and probably increasing anthropogenic influences listed below under<span lang="EN-US"> “Threats”. </span></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <strong>Generation Time:</strong>&#160; It was assumed that </span>Black Sea bottlenose dolphins have a life history similar to <em>T. truncatus</em> elsewhere and therefore that the generation time is approximately 20 years. The interval between births is from two or three to six years (Tomilin 1957), but in captive females the reproductive cycle can be as short as two years (Ozharovskaya 1997). It was assumed that one female is unlikely to produce more than eight calves in her lifetime (Tomilin 1984, cited after: Ozharovskaya 1997). Sexual behaviour can be observed during the whole year with a peak in spring and early summer. The reproductive season (maximum five spontaneous ovulations) extends from March to October with a peak in June; the highest concentrations of testosterone in males were recorded in July and the lowest in January (Ozharovskaya 1997). Gestation lasts 12 months. Lactation can last more than 1.5 years.	eng
133714	threats	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">In the past, the population was subject to extensive commercial killing. Bottlenose dolphins were <span lang="EN-US">taken by all Black Sea countries for manufacturing oils</span><span lang="EN-US">, paint, glue<span lang="EN-US">, varnish, </span><span lang="EN-US">foodstuffs, medicine<span lang="EN-US">, soap, </span><span lang="EN-US">cosmetics, leather, “fish” meal<span lang="EN-US"> and bone fertilizer (Kleinenberg 1956, Tomilin 1957,</span><span lang="EN-US"> Buckland <em>et al</em>. 1992). <span lang="EN-US">The total number of animals killed is unknown; however, it is generally acknowledged that all <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetacean populations, including bottlenose dolphins, were greatly reduced by the dolphin fishery (IWC 1983, 1992, 2004). It has been roughly estimated that between the early </span><span lang="EN-US">1930s and mid 1950s bottlenose dolphins constituted only 0.5% of the aggregate numbers of Black Sea cetaceans killed and processed in the USSR (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956) including present-day Russia, Ukraine and Georgia. The statistics of the fishery were commonly expressed as total weight or total numbers of animals in the catch without species differentiation. Using the value of 0.5%, Zemsky (1996) estimated that a total of only 4,279 bottlenose dolphins were taken in the USSR (1946-1966) and Bulgaria (1958-1966), with yearly variation from 30 (in 1966) to 656 (in 1959). These figures are very likely underestimated to a great extent for the following reasons: (a) in spring 1946, more than 3,000 bottlenose dolphins were caught during a single day in one location close to the southern Crimea (Kleinenberg 1956); (b) in 1961, the Bulgarian cetacean fishery concentrated almost exclusively on bottlenose dolphins and about 13,000 of them were taken (Nikolov 1963 cited in<em> </em></span><span lang="EN-US">Sal’nikov 1967); (c) in April 1966, a single dolphin-processing factory in Novorossiysk, Russia, processed 53 bottlenose dolphins (Danilevsky and Tyutyunnikov 1968).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p>Thus, taking into consideration the unknown but presumably significant size of the Turkish and Romanian catches, it can be inferred that the number of bottlenose dolphins killed before the mid 1960s was sometimes very high. </span><span lang="EN-US">From 1976 to 1981, bottlenose dolphins<span lang="EN-US"> were believed to account for 2-3</span><span lang="EN-US">% of the total catch in the Turkish cetacean fishery, which took an estimated 34,000-44,000 small cetaceans annually (IWC 1983; Klinowska 1991<span lang="EN-US">). This would imply 680-1,320 bottlenose dolphins per year, or 4,080-7,920 for the six years all told. No reliable information is available on illegal commercial killing of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> bottlenose dolphins since the ban on cetacean fisheries in 1983. Isolated cases of deliberate killing and harassment (with pyrotechnic devices and firearms)</span> have been reported in coastal fisheries. For instance, at least two bottlenose dolphins were reportedly shot in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Balaklava</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Sergey Popov, 2004, pers. comm.).&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Since the mid 1960s, many hundreds of bottlenose dolphins (probably >1,000, not including </span>those that died during capture operations<span lang="EN-US">) have been live-captured in the former <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> for military, commercial and scientific purposes (Birkun 2002a). The capture operations sometimes <span lang="EN-US">cause </span>accidental <span lang="EN-US">(but usually unreported) death<span lang="EN-US">s. In recent years, 10-20 animals have been taken annually in May–June from a small area in the Kerch Strait, Russia. During the 1980s–early 2000s the number of facilities for dolphin shows and “swim with dolphins” programmes greatly increased in <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> countries. The export of bottlenose dolphins from Russia and Ukraine for permanent and seasonal shows also expanded, for example, to Argentina, Bahrain, Byelorus, Chile, Cyprus, Egypt, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Kuwait, Lithuania, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and former Yugoslavia countries. A few captive animals were exported from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Yugoslavia</st1:country-region> and then re-exported to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region>. According to CITES statistics, at least 92 individuals were removed from the Black Sea region during 1990-1999 (Reeves <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Russia reportedly has exported at least 66 for travelling shows since 1997 (Fisher and Reeves 2005).</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>    <p>At present, incidental mortality in fishing gear is probably one of the main threats to <em>T. t. ponticus</em>, although these animals have never been the predominant species in national cetacean bycatch statistics. They constituted no more than 3% of the totals in the reports from Black Sea countries during the 1990s </span>(Birkun 2002b). At least 200-300 bottlenose dolphins were estimated as being taken incidentally in Turkish fisheries each year (Öztürk 1999).</span> They are known to be susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing nets, including bottom-set gillnets for turbot (<em>Psetta maeotica</em>), spiny dogfish (<em>Squalus acanthias</em>), sturgeon (<em>Acipenser </em>spp.) and sole (<em>Solea </em>spp.), purse seines for mullet (<em>Mugil</em> spp. and <em>Lisa</em> spp.) and anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>), </span>trammel nets and trap nets. However, only bottom-set gillnets are thought to take significant numbers, especially during the turbot fishing season between April and June.</p><p><br/></p>  <p>Small-scale coastal fisheries also affect Black Sea bottenose dolphins indirectly by </span>depleting their prey populations.</p><p><br/></p>  Declining trends have been observed in the abundance of indigenous mullets (</span><em>M. cephalus </em>and <em>Lisa</em> spp.</span>) (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). At the same time, the effects of a suspected decrease in cetacean forage resources (Bushuyev 2000) might be</span> offset at least to some extent by the introduced far-east mullet, <em>M. so-iuy</em>, which has become abundant in the northern Black Sea since the 1990s (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997). In fact, it may be responsible for the relocation of bottlenose dolphin groups and the recent marked increases in density along the Crimean coast (see “Abundance”).<br/><br/>According to annual compilations of cetacean stranding records in <st1:place w:st="on">Crimea</st1:place> (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), there was a prominent peak in <em>T. t. ponticus</em> strandings in 1990 (20 dead animals, representing 44% of all bottlenose dolphin strandings reported from 1989-1996). </span>The primary cause and magnitude of that spike in bottlenose dolphin mortality remains unclear, although it can be inferred that many more than just 20 animals died. Severe purulent pneumonia was revealed in some cases. The multi-microbial pollution </span>from untreated sewage in coastal waters poses a chronic risk of opportunistic bacterial infections to bottlenose dolphins, and there is evidence that they (as well as other <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> cetaceans) </span>are exposed to morbillivirus infection (Birkun 2002c). Another ongoing problem (as a p</span>otential source of exotic infections and genetic “pollution”) is the poorly managed intentional releases and spontaneous escapes of captive bottlenose dolphins and other marine mammals from dolphinaria or oceanaria (e.g., Veit <em>et al</em>. 1997, ACCOBAMS/SC 2005).	eng
133715	conservation	Alfonso, G.L. & Prina, A., 2008	There are no conservation actions in place.	eng
133715	distribution	Alfonso, G.L. & Prina, A., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina, Province of de Mendoza, Departments Malargüe and San Rafael.	eng
133715	habitat	Alfonso, G.L. & Prina, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. chachahuensis</span> grows in rocky areas.	eng
133715	population	Alfonso, G.L. & Prina, A., 2008	No information on population size is available, but it is presumably declining because of impacts to the habitat.	eng
133715	threats	Alfonso, G.L. & Prina, A., 2008	Major threats include: smallholder livestock (overgrazing), mining activities, plant collection for subsistence use, and invasive alien grazers.	eng
133722	conservation	Averyanov, L. & Thomas, P., 2008	The species has been recorded from some protected areas: Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park (Quảng Bình) and Bat Dai Son Nature Reserve (Hậu Giang).	eng
133722	distribution	Averyanov, L. & Thomas, P., 2008	Recorded from Viet Nam in the provinces of: Bắc Kạn, Cao Bằng, Hà Giang, Hoà Bình, Nghệ An, Quảng Bình, Sơn La. The species is principally restricted to limestone karst areas of these provinces.<br/><br/>It may occur in adjoining provinces of Lao PDR that share the same limestone geological formations (Sơn La/Houaphan, Quảng Bình/Khammouan and Savannakhet). <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris</span> is also possibly found in adjoining parts of China (Hà Giang-Cao Bằng/Guanxi, Hà Giang/SE Yunnan).	eng
133722	habitat	Averyanov, L. & Thomas, P., 2008	The species grows on rocky limestone ridges and steep slopes. Associated conifers vary according to location: <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotsuga sinensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Keteleeria</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. in the northern localities; <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrycarpus imbricatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dacrydium elatum</span> in the southern localities (Quảng Bình).	eng
133722	population	Averyanov, L. & Thomas, P., 2008	This species is rare in most provinces although it may be locally common in specific localities. The total population estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals. Seedlings and regeneration of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris</span> is rare and hence recruitment is poor.	eng
133722	threats	Averyanov, L. & Thomas, P., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. rupestris </span>is threatened by selective logging for timber, general deforestation and forest degradation.	eng
133729	conservation	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species <em>D. delphis</em> is listed globally as Least Concern by IUCN. At the same time, the Mediterranean population is listed as Endangered (see Bearzi <em>et al.</em> 2003), and concerns regarding the Black Sea population were expressed in the IUCN/SSC 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan (Reeves <em>et al.</em> 2003). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Commercial killing of Black Sea common dolphins, as well as other Black Sea cetaceans, was banned in 1966 in the former <st1:country-region w:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region>, and in 1983 in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Black Sea states assumed certain international </span><span lang="EN-US">obligations to protect cetaceans as contracting parties to the <span lang="EN-US">Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention), Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (Bucharest Convention), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The common dolphin is included in EC Directive No.92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora; <em>D. delphis</em> is listed in its Annex IV (Animal and Plant Species of Community Interest in Need of Strict Protection). In 2003 the IWC Scientific Committee’s Sub-Committee on Small Cetaceans recommended that the <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> population should be managed for conservation as a distinct entity (IWC 2004).</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">The Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> (1996) envisages some special cetacean-oriented conservation and research actions. The common dolphin was included as Data Deficient in the Black Sea Red Data Book (1999). Nevertheless, it is listed as Endangered in the Provisional List of Species of Black Sea Importance, an annex to the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol (2002) of the Bucharest Convention. The regional Conservation Plan for Black Sea Cetaceans prepared in accordance with the ACCOBAMS International Implementation Priorities for 2002-2006 (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2002) was adopted by the 3rd Meeting of Parties to ACCOBAMS (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Dubrovnik</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, 22-25 October 2007). </p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</p>  On a national level, <st1:place w:st="on">Black  Sea</st1:place> cetaceans, including common dolphins, are protected by environmental legislation and governmental decrees. Action plans for the conservation of Black Sea cetaceans were produced in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> (2001) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Romania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (2003) but they have no legal effect at present. The common dolphin is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Red Book inscription means appropriate monitoring and management programs should be implemented at state or national levels. Such a program has existed in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> since 1999.	eng
133729	distribution	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	The range of common dolphins encompasses almost the entire Black Sea, including territorial waters and exclusive economic zones of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Romania</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Russia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region>, and internal waters of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:country-region> in <st1:placename w:st="on">Karkinitsky</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype> (Kleinenberg 1956; Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976; Birkun 2006) and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region> including the <st1:placename w:st="on">Bosphorus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Marmara</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype></st1:place> (</span>Öztürk and Öztürk 1997</span>). Common dolphins do not occur in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Azov</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype> and normally avoid the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype></st1:place>, although a single live stranding was recorded there in 1994 at the time of a morbillivirus epizootic (Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1999; see distribution map, Figure 1, in the attached PDF). There is no reliable information from the Dardanelles Straits connecting the Marmara and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Aegean</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Seas</st1:placetype></st1:place>, nor is there any reliable evidence of movement by common dolphins through the Turkish Straits System. <br/><br/>  [Note: It has been agreed that territorial waters of all six <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries constitute the 12-mile-wide aquatic strip along the coasts of the sea; marine boundaries of the countries coincide with the external (offshore) border of this strip. However, there are some areas where the sea runs deep inland (gulfs, bays, etc.), and in these places the 12-mile rule does not work. These water bodies are situated quite far from the state boundaries and constitute the so-called “internal [marine] waters” of the <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> countries.]</span>	eng
133729	habitat	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	Common dolphins are distributed mainly offshore and visit shallow coastal waters following seasonal aggregations and regular mass migrations of their preferred prey, small pelagic fishes such as Black Sea anchovy (<em>Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus</em>) and Black Sea sprat (<em>Sprattus sprattus phalaericus</em>) (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976). Annual winter concentrations of anchovies in the southeastern Black Sea and, to a lesser degree, south of <st1:place w:st="on">Crimea</st1:place> create favourable conditions for wintering concentrations of dolphins. Summer concentrations of sprats in the northwestern, northeastern and central <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> attract common dolphins to quite different feeding grounds. These cetaceans avoid waters with low salinity, and this may explain why they never occur in the Sea of Azov and, normally, in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kerch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Strait</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The mean size of common dolphin groups recorded in 2003-05 varied from 2.9 to 5.4 (Krivokhizhin 2006 pers. comm.), and many such groups can be observed in close proximity to one other.	eng
133729	population	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p>The population size is unknown.<span times="" new="" roman=""="">&#160; Region-wide estimates based on strip transect surveys in the <st1:country-region u1:st="on">USSR</st1:country-region> (1967-1974; Zemsky and Yablokov 1974) and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region> (1987; Çelikkale <em>et al. </em>1989) have been shown to be fundamentally flawed for a number of methodological analytical reasons so their use as indicators of absolute abundance is unwarranted (e.g., IWC 1992, Buckland <em>et al.</em> 1992). Nevertheless, it is generally recognized that for almost the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the abundance of common dolphins in the <st1:place u1:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> was far higher than that of bottlenose dolphins, <em>Tursiops truncatus ponticus</em>, and harbour porpoises, <em>Phocoena phocoena relicta</em> (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956, Geptner <em>et al.</em> 1976). <br/></p><p><br/></span></p>  <p><u2:p>&#160;</u2:p>Line transect surveys have been conducted recently to estimate common dolphin abundance in <span times="" new="" roman=""="">a few parts of the range <span times="" new="" roman=""="">(see Table 1 in attached PDF)</span><span times="" new="" roman=""="">. The survey areas are small relative to the total range of the subspecies. R<span times="" new="" roman=""="">esults <span times="" new="" roman=""="">suggest that current population size is at least several 10,000s, and possibly 100,000 or more.<br/> <br/> </span><strong><span times="" new="" roman=""=""><u2:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="country-region" downloadurl="http://www.5iantlavalamp.com/"></u2:smarttagtype><u2:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place" downloadurl="http://www.5iantlavalamp.com/"></u2:smarttagtype>Population Trend:</strong><span times="" new="" roman=""=""><br/></span></p><p><span times="" new="" roman=""="">By the mid<span times="" new="" roman=""=""> 1960s, the population was depleted due to long-running overexploitation, which involved the killed of many 100,000s of common dolphins in the mid-20th century (IWC 1983; see “Threats”). The directed takes continued until 1983 when cetacean hunting finally ceased in <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The numbers of animals taken were not recorded systematically or reliably, and therefore total removals have to be estimated indirectly. It can be inferred that the <span times="" new="" roman=""="">number of common dolphins was much reduced<span times="" new="" roman=""=""> by the directed kills. It might be assumed that during the period from </span><span times="" new="" roman=""="">1983-2005, the population was increasing. However, this may not be the case in view of mass mortality events (in 1990 and 1994) and the pronounced depletion of these dolphins’ primary prey species during the same period. The population has not fully recovered, and in fact it may have recovered only very little, from the depletion caused by hunting. Further decline seems likely if degradation of the <st1:place u1:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> environment continues.</p>	eng
133729	threats	Birkun Jr., A.A, 2008	<p><span lang="EN-US">Last century, the population was depleted because of directed takes. The total number of animals killed is unknown, but it was estimated that before the <span lang="EN-US">mid 1950s common dolphins comprised 94.8% of the total number of Black Sea cetaceans killed and processed in the former <st1:place w:st="on">Soviet  Union</st1:place> (Tzalkin 1940, Kleinenberg 1956). Based on this value, it was calculated that during the last five years of the cetacean fishery in the USSR and Bulgaria (1962</span>-66), these two countries landed 121,395 common dolphins, while during the preceding 31 years (1931-61) a further 1,449,304 had been landed mainly by the USSR (Zemsky 1996). <span lang="EN-US">Between 1976 and 1981, </span><em>D. d. ponticus</em><span lang="EN-US"> was believed to account for 15-16% (or 37,500-40,000 individuals) of the Turkish catch, estimated for that period as 250,000 animals of all three species (IWC 1983). </p>  <p>&#160;</span></p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">Reduced prey availability has been considered an ongoing major threat to <em>D. d. ponticus</em> since the late 1980s (Bushuyev 2000). Of two mass mortality events that killed unknown but certainly large numbers of common dolphins in winter<em>–</em>spring 1990 and summer<em>–</em>autumn 1994 (Krivokhizhin and Birkun 1999), the latter was recognised as being the result of a morbillivirus epizootic (Birkun <em>et al.</em> 1999). However, both die-offs coincided with a drastic decline in the abundance of both principal prey species, anchovy and sprat, which has been blamed on overfishing, eutrophication (e.g. water hypoxia) and the explosive increase of the introduced ctenophore <em>Mnemiopsis leidyi</em> (Zaitsev and Mamaev 1997).&#160; The total commercial catch of anchovies declined by 12-fold (from 468,800 tonnes in the 1987-88 fishing season to 39,100 tonnes in 1990-91), while landings of sprat fell by a factor of nearly eight (from 105,200 tonnes in 1989 to 13,800 tonnes in 1993) (Prodanov <em>et al.</em> 1997).</span>&#160; This <span lang="EN-US">correlation between large die-offs of <st1:place w:st="on">Black Sea</st1:place> common dolphins and prey scarcity could signify that reduced prey availability compromised the health of the dolphins and increased their susceptibility to viral infection.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-US">&#160;</span></p>  Other known threats (bycatch in pelagic trawls, parasitic invasions) are of secondary importance (at least at present).	eng
133733	conservation	Porley, R.D., 2008	<p>Portscatho: small-scale hand-clearance of grass on top of soil-capped walls.</p>  <p>Talland Bay: currently grazed by ponies which will help to keep grassland open and disturbed.</p>  <p><br/></p><p>Material from Talland Bay is in <em>ex situ</em> cryopreservation facility (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew).</p>	eng
133733	distribution	Porley, R.D., 2008	The extant population is confined to the United Kingdom, being found in two tiny areas in Cornwall, England:&#160;    <st1:placename w:st="on">Talland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Bay</st1:placetype> (AOO 17 cm²<sup></sup>) and at Portscatho (AOO 15 cm²).	eng
133733	habitat	Porley, R.D., 2008	<p>Short open grassland or bare ground on free-draining, summer-droughted, non-calcareous circumneutral loamy soils and on top of soil-capped field walls (‘Cornish hedges’) mostly coastal. Contrary to statements that&#160; <em>W. multicapsularis</em> is a dynamic colonist, it is now understood to behave as a perennial stayer and is faithful to sites, persisting if the niche is maintained.</p>  <p></p>	eng
133733	population	Porley, R.D., 2008	<p>    </p>    <p>The species is found at two locations separated by about 55 km on the south coast of Cornwall:</p>  <p>Talland Bay: 3 – 4 subpopulations over approx. 200 m.</p>  <p>Portscatho: 3 subpopulations over a 500 m linear stretch.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
133733	threats	Porley, R.D., 2008	<p>Neglect (lack of grazing), competition from vascular plant growth and other bryophytes, nutrient enrichment and scrub encroachment are severe and increasing threats.</p>  <p></p>	eng
133734	conservation	Perold, S.M., 2008	The local municipality has proclaimed the site a protected area and has erected a plaque at the site to that effect.<p></p>	eng
133734	distribution	Perold, S.M., 2008	This species is only known from one locality in <st1:country-region u6:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region>: Platklip, <st1:place u6:st="on"><st1:city u6:st="on">Stellenbosch</st1:city>, <st1:state u6:st="on">Western Cape</st1:state></st1:place>. The area falls within the Fynbos Biome and has a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall and hot, dry summers.<p></p>  <p></p>	eng
133734	habitat	Perold, S.M., 2008	<p>    </p><p>  It grows seasonally on shallow, moist sand in hollows on a dome-shaped granite outcrop, ca. 80 m above sea level.</p>  <p></p>	eng
133734	population	Perold, S.M., 2008	Know only from a single locality, and the population is presumably very small.	eng
133734	threats	Perold, S.M., 2008	Nearby to Platklip are sewerage works and a municipal dumping site.&#160; However, according to information supplied by Dr. C. Boucher of <st1:place u4:st="on"><st1:placename u4:st="on">Stellenbosch</st1:placename> <st1:placetype u4:st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>, by his instigation and that of like-minded associates, the local municipality has proclaimed the above granite outcrop a protected area and has erected a plaque at the site, to that effect. So, for the foreseeable future, this locality is not under immediate threat. However, as this little species is only known from this one locality, it remains highly vulnerable.<p></p>	eng
133954	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133954	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fangcheng in Guangxi.	eng
133954	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under stones or in crevices of stones of mountain streams	eng
133954	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133954	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133955	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Goal area.	eng
133955	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known only from type locality in Gunung Goal, Sungei Siput, Perak, Pahang, northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
133955	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known, presumably semi-terrestrial in habits.	eng
133955	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133955	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The potential development of the areas, long "protected" due to insurgency problems, is a concern.	eng
133956	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No. Retention of the protected status Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.	eng
133956	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, endemic to the Danum Valley Conservation Area.	eng
133956	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial. Holotype was found hiding in a dry tree stump on a ridge in primary rainforest, some distance away from the nearest stream. It was very agile on land.	eng
133956	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133956	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, as its range is within Danum Valley Conservation Area.	eng
133957	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133957	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Huitong, Loudi, Xinhua and Chenxi in Hunan Province. Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area.	eng
133957	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133957	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133957	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133958	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The forest of Lom Kao have been designated to Khao Kho National park.	eng
133958	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lomkao and Lomkao District, Phetchabon Province, Thailand, Asia. Lomkao District has an area of 927km².	eng
133958	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Holotype was found in burrows made in the soil of an orchard and a forest.	eng
133958	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133958	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets. Collected for food.	eng
133959	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133959	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangdong Province.	eng
133959	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133959	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133959	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133960	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
133960	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Kunming, Hekon, Daweishan, Geijiu/Geiji, Mengzi/Menzhi, Shiping, Mengla, Kaiyuan/Kei Yuan, Xichou Counties in Yunnan Province.	eng
133960	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133960	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133960	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
133961	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133961	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Almost certainly endemic to Sarawak.	eng
133961	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Considering the physiognomy of the species, it is likely to be fully aquatic and probably occurs in clean mountain streams.	eng
133961	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133961	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known, species known only from old museum material.	eng
133962	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133962	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Central New Guinea: Indonesia: west Irian Jaya; and Papua New Guinea.	eng
133962	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133962	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133962	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
133963	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133963	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Chiang Khong District, Chiang Rai Province, northwesternThailand.	eng
133963	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133963	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133963	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133964	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
133964	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
133964	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous, mainly aquatic species. Demonstrating pale body pigmentation. Found in limestone area.	eng
133964	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133964	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, because its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
133965	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133965	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: North Hengduan Mountains Area; Yongsheng in Yunnan.	eng
133965	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.	eng
133965	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133965	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
133966	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133966	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Collected 14 km west of St. Domingo, tributary of Rio Toachi.	eng
133966	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
133966	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133966	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
133967	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133967	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Pa Dang, Mae Sot District; Pa Charoen Waterfall, Mae Sot District; Tak Province.	eng
133967	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133967	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133967	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133968	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133968	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Central Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Borneo. There have been no records in over 35 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.	eng
133968	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133968	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133968	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133969	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133969	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Karnataka state: Coorg [Kodagu] is a district of Karnataka state in southern India. The species is known only from the type locality, Coorg, Karnataka, which is adjacent to northen Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
133969	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecology not known.	eng
133969	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
133969	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No recent information on this species and no information about population size, trends or threats.	eng
133970	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Langkawi highlands and monitoring of pollution levels. The Durian Perangin water is near Gunung Raya forest reserve, which is a protected area.	eng
133970	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: northern Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is Durian Perangin Waterfall, Pulau Langkawi, Kedah (6 23'58"N, 99 50'05"E). Only known from type locality, but probably found on most of the highlands of Pulau Langkawi. Endemic to highlands of Pulau Langkawi, Kedah.	eng
133970	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species seems to have semi-terrestrial tendencies and seems to prefer burrows under shaded rocks in the moist area adjacent to fast flowing streams, the substrate being mud and soil. The animals dig relatively deep but gently sloping burrows at least 20 cm in length. These crabs are not very aggressive and stay for long periods out of water, however, they appear to be extremely susceptible to high temperature (Ng 1988).	eng
133970	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133970	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Tourism.	eng
133971	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133971	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
133971	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected from under stones in moist soil in a dry stream margin, in a shady area, where <em>Pilarta anuka</em>, new species, is syntopic.	eng
133971	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133971	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
133972	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133972	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: three specimens collected 32 km north of Puyo, from a spring in the forest.	eng
133972	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133972	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133972	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
133973	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133973	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Sonora State.	eng
133973	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known from a river which runs in the limits of the Sonoran Desert. During a recent trip (July 2007), no crabs were found and there have not been sightings by locals in a long time.	eng
133973	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133973	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
133974	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133974	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xinpin County (24 1N, 102 E), Yunnan Province.	eng
133974	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133974	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133974	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133975	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133975	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma.	eng
133975	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133975	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133975	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133976	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of the Maliau Basin area.	eng
133976	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Maliau Basin.	eng
133976	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Associated with tea-coloured waters of fast-flowing streams.	eng
133976	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133976	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of the Maliau Basin	eng
133977	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.	eng
133977	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to northern Kelantan (Malaysia). Thailand: Also found in immediately adjacent parts of southern Thailand near Sungai Golok Town (06°05'30.5"N 101°57'18.2"E).	eng
133977	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
133977	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133977	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Also collected for aquarium trade.	eng
133978	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133978	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Guerrero State, southern Mexico (not on the Pacific slope);  Rio La Parota, small tributary of the Pinela River, Municipio Ayutla de los Libres.	eng
133978	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. Fed on by the river otter (<em>Lutra longicaudis annedectens</em>).	eng
133978	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133978	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
133979	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133979	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone. Xingyi, Guizhou Province.	eng
133979	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Average temperature 16.2°C.	eng
133979	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133979	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133980	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133980	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in Peru: Puerto Maldonaldo, southeast Peru (Department Loreto), Brazil: Amazonas and Para States, and Bolivia. This species is found in the entire length of the Amazon river from Peru to the mouth in Brazil. Its northern and southern distribution limits are unknown because large areas in the northern parts of the Amazon drainage system have yet to be explored, so the full range of this species is still unknown.	eng
133980	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
133980	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
133980	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
133981	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133981	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hondouras: Endemic to Roatan Island (133 km²) off the coast of Honduras.	eng
133981	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and small rivers on Roaten island.	eng
133981	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133981	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. There have been major tourist impacts with lots of building and uncontrolled release of sewage; regulations are coming in to try to control these.	eng
133982	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is found in Doi Sutep National Park	eng
133982	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: from northwestern Thailand in the Chiangmai and Lampang areas. "Torrents du Mont Su Tep, Laos occidental"; Chiang Mai Province (Mae Nam Taeng and Mae Taeng); Mae Nam Ping Basin (19 07'N 98 58'E); Doi Saket; Lampang, on road to Thoen - 17 50'N 99 18'E; Nam Mae Khot, at 65 km milestone, road 1001.	eng
133982	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is common in shallow, rock-strewn streams with relatively fast-flowing waters and does not normally burrow.	eng
133982	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133982	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
133983	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133983	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Roungshui (25.0N, 190.2E) and Ziyuan in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Congjiang and Rongjiang counties in Guizhou Province.	eng
133983	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133983	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133983	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133984	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133984	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Ilan County (Chilan).	eng
133984	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133984	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133984	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.	eng
133985	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133985	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Ganjam, Cachar Hills, Assam state.	eng
133985	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133985	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133985	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133986	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133986	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Chantaburi Province, eastern Thailand. Type specimen from Pong Nam Ron in Chantaburi Province is lost. (Yeo unpubl. data).	eng
133986	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133986	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133986	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133987	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
133987	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Kinabalu area, Sabah above 1,000 m above sea level. Bundutuan, Luidan river, Kina-Balu, North Borneo, Malaysia.	eng
133987	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Occurs in flowing streams with pristine waters and under forest cover. Also found in stagnant pools	eng
133987	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133987	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Kinabalu National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
133988	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133988	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Pacific drainage. This species is known only from a single locality in the San Juan River Basin (Campos 2005).	eng
133988	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range between sea level and 50 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific, inferred from its type locality. The search for new specimens has been hampered due to public order problems in the region.	eng
133988	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133988	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
133989	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Since 1990, the species has been known only from a 20 hectare area in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, but may be found in small numbers in other small isolated swampy parts in the adjacent areas. Continued protection of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and surrounding buffer areas is essential.	eng
133989	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Singapore: only from a part of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest. The species is endemic to Singapore.	eng
133989	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in well-shaded acid water swamp forests with tea coloured water of low pH (5.0-5.5). Digs burrows by the side of muddy banks. Very secretive, only active nocturnally. Feeds on plant matter predominantly, but also scavenges for animal matter when the opportunity arises.	eng
133989	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133989	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat destruction and/or deterioration.	eng
133990	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of designated protected areas.	eng
133990	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Widespread throughout Sarawak. Indonesia: Kalimantan: Also found in western and northwestern Kalimantan.	eng
133990	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic in all types of water bodies, from stagnant pools to flowing peat swamp or clear-water streams and rivers.	eng
133990	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133990	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within areas throughout its range.	eng
133991	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133991	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: State of Jalisco.	eng
133991	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The type locality consist of a steep slope flanking a stream flowing along Highway 110, 38 km south of Mazamitla, Jalisco, Mexico. The crab was collected near a pumping station in a damp area surrounding a drip from a leaking pipe. This site is in the Rio Tuxpan watershed which is a tributary of the Rio Coahuayana.	eng
133991	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133991	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
133992	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Redang forests and monitoring of pollution levels as well as freshwater use.	eng
133992	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Pulau Redang Island, Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Pulau Redang, Terengganu.	eng
133992	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with rocky streams with fast-flowing waters and adjacent small pools. Biology not well studied.	eng
133992	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133992	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The development of Redang as a resort island will increase land-use threats and over-use of very limited freshwater supplies.	eng
133993	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133993	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Balabac Island of Palawan Islands; Negros Island of Visayan Islands.	eng
133993	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133993	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133993	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133994	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
133994	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: West Hengduan Mountain area, southwest China; Lushui in Yunnan.	eng
133994	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 12-16°C, pH 5.6-6.	eng
133994	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133994	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.	eng
133995	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133995	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil (Para, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul States), Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. In Paraguay it is found in President Hayes, Concepcion, Boquerion, and Guaira Departments in the basins of the Tapajos, Paraguay, Parana, La Plata drainage, Confuso, and Pilcomayo river basins close to Argentina. In Argentina it is found in Santa Fe, Corrientes, Chaco, and Misiones Provinces.	eng
133995	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in lakes and rivers where it occurs in floating macrophytes, between old leaves, in the holes of trunks as well as under submerged and immersed trunks and other objects. River, remora, swamp, submerged leaf litter, aquatic vegetation, woody debris.	eng
133995	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
133995	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
133996	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133996	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: The western Amazon basin in Peru (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996) from 20 km sw Ikitos, tributary of Rio Nanay. This species is also found near Pucallpa.	eng
133996	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crabs found in leaves and soil in clear water an din leaves in black-water-coagulate.	eng
133996	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133996	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
133997	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133997	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: This species is known only from the holotype from the Department Loreto in the Rio Ucayali and Amazonas basin.	eng
133997	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
133997	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
133997	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
133998	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
133998	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hunan, and Hubei Provinces. From Qianshan, Leping, Yushan, Yiyang, Jiujiang, Nanchang, Poyang, Xinjian, Gaoan, Yifeng, Jinxian, Guixi, Yichun, Yugan, Shanrao, Fengcheng, Chongren, Fuzhou, Guangfeng, Nancheng, Ninggang, Ruijin Counties in Jiangxi Province. From Guilin and Yangshuo Counties in Guangxi Province. Zhijiang, Huangpi, Puqi, Tianmen, Mianyang counties in Hubei Province. And from Taoyuan, Yuegang, Xiangtan in Hunan Province.	eng
133998	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
133998	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
133998	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
133999	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
133999	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Brazil-Venezuela border: Rancho Grande; Aragua State.	eng
133999	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
133999	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
133999	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134000	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134000	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cessar Department: Curumani, San Sebastian tream, 100 m asl, foothills of the Sierrania de Perija (Campos 2005).	eng
134000	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 100 m asl in the foothills of the Sierrania de Perija.	eng
134000	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134000	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134001	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134001	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Pacific drainage of Colombia, Cajambre River (Campos 2005).	eng
134001	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 500 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134001	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134001	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134002	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134002	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Oaxaca State. Only known from the male holotype collected in 1964.	eng
134002	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134002	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134002	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134003	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134003	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xinping (24, 0N, 101.9E), Yuxi County, Yunnan Province.	eng
134003	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134003	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134003	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134004	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134004	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: southern Taiwan (Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fenggang River - Taitung county); Taitung County (Tawu).	eng
134004	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134004	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134004	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134005	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134005	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cordillera Occidental, Paso de Galápagos, Serranía de Los Paraguas (4º47’30’’N, 76º09’02’’ W), 2,500 m asl, approximately 11 km NE of the  Municipio de El Cairo, Departamento del Valle del Cauca, Colombia. From Colombia.	eng
134005	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crabs were collected in a brook, in madrigueras and small pools, hidden underneath humid vegetation from a muddy substrate, with a predominance of abundant organic matter.	eng
134005	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134005	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134006	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134006	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ethiopia: Kaffa Province: Bidiru River near village of Sokoro, about 100 km NE of Jimma; Atule River 8 miles south of Jimma; Yabo River 13 miles N of Jimma near village of Yabo; Marauwa River, 10 km E. of Jimma; Marauwa River, 8 miles east of Jimma; Marauwa River, Jimma area; Karsa River, Karsa, near Jimma; Bidaru River, Jimma Area. Illubabor Province, Dabama River. Wollega Province, Lor-Chissa River. Rushubi.	eng
134006	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134006	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134006	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134007	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134007	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Dran, Langbian Plateau, South-Central Viet Nam (Yeo and Ng 1999)	eng
134007	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134007	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134007	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134008	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134008	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Oaxaca State, and Colima, Jalisco State. It is found in more than one locality: its distribution extends from the state of Colima to Morelos in Michoacan on the banks of Lake Chapala and in the rivers and their tributaries associated with the lake; also found in the municipality of Huetamo.	eng
134008	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134008	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134008	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134009	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134009	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ukraine: Crimea. Turkmenistan: Mary Province, Transcapsia, Takhta-Bazar, Murpat-system. IRAN: Khorasan Province.	eng
134009	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134009	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134009	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134010	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place, not found in a protected area.	eng
134010	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Queensland: Cape York, northern Australia. Headwaters of One Mile Creek, a tributary of the Alice River. Known only from type locality. Restricted distribution. Mitchell-Alice Rivers National Park, near Normanton [15°28′10″S, 142°05′07″E] (371 km²), 1748 km northwest of Brisbane.	eng
134010	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A burrowing freshwater species. Caught in a small seasonal creek, about 200 km from the sea. The creek only flows during the wet season (Nov. to April) at which time the crabs number in their thousands in shallow water.<br/><br/>During the wet season, the crabs are very active during the day. In the dry season crabs occupy sandy burrows amongst the roots of fringing paperbark trees (<em>Melaleuca</em> spp.).	eng
134010	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	During the wet season (Nov. to April) crabs number in their thousands in shallow water.	eng
134010	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>A. tigrina</em> was first introduced to the Sydney aquarium trade in 1991. It has since sold steadily under the market name 'tiger crab' along with another freshwater crab marketed as the 'porcelain crab'. This species is only abundant during the wet season in an area that is currently leasehold pastoral land and lies largely within the Alice River Mining Field. Gold mining is a foreseeable threat to the habitat of the species.	eng
134011	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134011	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Khun Yuam District, and in hole in rice field Huai Chong Kham; Mae Hong Son Province. Area of Khun Yuam district is 1,700 km².	eng
134011	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134011	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Last collected in 1979.	eng
134011	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The use of pesticides in rice fields.	eng
134012	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134012	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a river close to the village of Bayanga, in the Central African Republic.	eng
134012	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The type specimens were collected in rainforest from a large river (as opposed to a small stream) in a baited trap.	eng
134012	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134012	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134013	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134013	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Queensland: Cape York, northern Australia, NE coastal region; known only from a limited area, Torres Strait south to Musgrave Station, Normanby River, Cape York.	eng
134013	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in burrows.	eng
134013	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134013	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134014	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134014	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: small cave crabs, Alta Verapaz Department - Grottes de la Sierra de Pampur. Mexico: Chiapas.	eng
134014	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Truly troglobitic. Mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala.  Grottes C3 and G3 in the Sierra de Pampur, Guatemala, and other elevations around the town of Coban are a continuation of the karstic topography of Chiapas (Mexico). A blind crab, depigmented, with long slender legs.	eng
134014	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134014	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134015	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
134015	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabalu area; Luidan River, Bundutuan, Mount Kinabalu.	eng
134015	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic.	eng
134015	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134015	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.	eng
134016	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134016	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea	eng
134016	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134016	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134017	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134017	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Ngakau Surat, 1.5 km inside cave, Sumpurkudus, Sumatra Barat and Sing Karah Sumatra.	eng
134017	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown. Found deep within a cave.	eng
134017	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134017	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134018	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134018	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia, Sumatra, Java.	eng
134018	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134018	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134018	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134019	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134019	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shaanxi, Sichuan and Hubei provinces.  Middle China region, West Mountain Subregion (of Hengduan Mountain area), Basin zone. Shaanxi (=Shensi) Province: Hang-Tschong Fu, Shensi, 800 m. Ningqiang, Hanzhong. Sichuan Province: Qingchuan, Mingshan, Yaan, Mianyang, Chengdu, Wangcang, Yibin, Gauxian, Xuyong, Dazu, Hechuan, Nanchuan, Nantong, Peiling, Fengdu, Chonqing, Dianjiang, Wulong, Shizhu, Daxian. Hubei Province: Shiyan.	eng
134019	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The subalpine zone in the southern Hengduan Mountains has abundant conifer forests with distinct forest types of hemlock, spruce, and fir species. The Hengduan Shan is a mountain range (Latitude: 27° 30' N, Longitude: 99° 0' E) that forms the border between Myanmar and Yunnan Province, China.  Largely covered in subalpine conifer forests, elevations range from 1,300 to 4,000 m. The dense, pristine forest, the relative isolation and the fact that most of the area remained free from glaciation during the ice ages provides a very complex habitat with a high degree of biological diversity. This mountainous region is home to the rare and endangered Giant Panda. Other species native to the mountains are the Chinese yew (<em>Taxus chinensis</em>) and various other rare plants, deer and primates.	eng
134019	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134019	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Environmental groups have recognized the Hengduan Mountains as being threatened by "a growing human population and the resulting demand for non-timber forests and wildlife products for medicinal and other uses"	eng
134020	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134020	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangdong, southern China (Naiyantr 1997); Nanning, in Guangxi Province (Dai 1999).	eng
134020	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134020	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134020	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134021	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134021	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Guerrero State,Tehauantepec to Sonora.	eng
134021	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134021	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134021	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134022	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134022	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: North Hengduan Mountains area; Li'jiang in Yunnan.	eng
134022	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 8-10°C, pH 5.5.	eng
134022	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134022	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134023	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134023	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department. This species is known only from a single locality in the Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134023	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,600 m asl.	eng
134023	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134023	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134024	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134024	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guilin, Yangshuo, Xingan Counties in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region, southern China.	eng
134024	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134024	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134024	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134025	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134025	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: confluence of Rıo Saloya and Rıo Mindo, between 1,000 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
134025	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134025	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134025	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134026	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134026	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Watercourses in the state of Chiapas, Mexico that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
134026	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134026	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134026	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134027	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134027	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Only known from offshore islands of Taiwan - Lanyu Island (Taitung county).	eng
134027	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134027	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from only a few specimens collected from a single locality between 2001 and 2003.	eng
134027	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nuclear waste has been stored in the southern part of the island starting in 1982, which will hopefully be removed from the island by 2016.	eng
134028	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134028	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Chanchamayo, Eastern Peru. The province of Chanchamayo is located to 305 km to the east of Lima, in the North part of the territory of the Junín Region.<br/><br/>Peru has three main drainage systems. One comprises about 50 torrential streams that rise in the sierra and descend steeply to the coastal plain. The second comprises the tributaries of the Amazon River in the montaña region. In the third the principal feature is Lake Titicaca, which drains into Lake Poopó in Bolivia through the Desaguadero River. The Napo, Tigre, and Pastaza rivers rise in Ecuador and flow into Peru. The latter two streams are tributaries of the Marañón River, and the Napo empties into the Amazon River. The border between Peru and Colombia is delineated by the Putumayo River.	eng
134028	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus inca</em> in Peru.	eng
134028	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134028	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134029	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134029	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Stream in Cuc Phuong National Park, about 16km  from main gate, Ninh Binh Province, northern Viet Nam.	eng
134029	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	River and stream	eng
134029	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134029	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134030	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134030	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Mindanao, Mountains northwest Tayabas.	eng
134030	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134030	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134030	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134031	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134031	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: District Federal and Aragua State. Last recorded collection of this species was 1972.	eng
134031	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134031	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134031	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134032	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134032	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountains area; Yongsheng in Yunnan.	eng
134032	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.	eng
134032	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134032	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134033	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	there are no conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134033	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tad San Waterfall, Nam San River, Dan Sai; Ban Gaeng Hai, Nam San, Dan Sai River; Ban Pag waterfall; Loei Province. Also in Mae Chan District, Chiang Rai Province.	eng
134033	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134033	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134033	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134034	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134034	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Acre, AM States, the type locality is in Rio Jurua, southwestern Amazonia.	eng
134034	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134034	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134034	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134035	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134035	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from two close localities along Kumerly-Munar road, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134035	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected from muddy soil at a margin of a shady streamlet.	eng
134035	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134035	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134036	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134036	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Sam Lon waterfall, Muang Saraburi District, Saraburi Province; and in the proximity of Bangkok (type locality). Specimens from Simla, Himalayas and perhaps from Calcutta do not belong to Larnaudia larnaudii. On the contrary, specimens form the collecting place in Sumatra are presumably correct, but are imprecisely described.	eng
134036	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Waterfall crab.	eng
134036	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134036	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134037	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134037	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Panxi County (24 3'N, 103 2'E) in Yunnan Province.	eng
134037	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134037	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134037	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134038	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None in place.	eng
134038	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	China: Xuanwei City, Yunnan Province, coll. Haiyan Yang and Xianmin Zhou, 18 Aug. 2005.	eng
134038	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is a second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.	eng
134038	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134038	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None known	eng
134039	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134039	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Prome; Rangoon; Kakhyen Hills; Mandalay, Yangon. Distance between Yangon and Mandalay is 578km.	eng
134039	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134039	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134039	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134040	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
134040	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysian peninsula, Asia. Type locality: Bentong, Pahang (3°27'36"N, 101°53'31"E)<br/>This species is distributed at the lower half of the Main Range (south of 4"28'N) in Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and northwestern Johore.<br/><br/>Endemic to highland forests of the lower half of the Main Range in Selangor, Pahang, Negri Sembilan and northwestern Johore.	eng
134040	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation in hill streams. More commonly found in shaded areas and where water flow is slow. One concern is that the species may prove to be part of a species complex and the range/threats will then need to be re-evaluated.	eng
134040	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134040	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss/degradation and pollution outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.	eng
134041	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134041	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Batam island (415 km²) in the Riau Islands Province of Indonesia, located 20 km (12.5 miles) off Singapore's south coast.	eng
134041	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in fast-flowing stream with slightly tea-coloured waters draining from a freshwater swamp forest. The substrate is mud and sand and overgrown with the sedge <em>Eleocharis</em> spp. The edge of the stream was lined with dead ferns and leaves, and most of the specimens were collected from under this detritus.	eng
134041	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134041	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The island of Batam (400 km²) is being rapidly developed and large tracts of land are currently being, or have already been, cleared for housing, industrial and commercial projects. The scale of the development plans are such that much of the native fauna will be (if not already) under serious threat in the years to come.	eng
134042	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134042	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen from Bhutan. The report by Pretzmann (1975) that the holotype is from Tirokave, 40 km WSW of Kainantu a small town in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea) is most likely an error, because these localities are in New Guinea well out of the range of the other members of this genus. In another section of that work Pretzmann indicated that this species is from southwest Bhutan in the basin of the Torsa and Raidak Rivers, and this is most likely the correct locality data for the type. Torsa River (also spelt Torsha and also known as Machu and Amo Chu) rises from the Chumbi Valley in Tibet, China, where it is known as Machu. It flows into Bhutan, where it is known as the Amo Chu. It has total length of 358 km, out of which 113 km in China and 145 km in Bhutan before flowing into the northern part of West Bengal in India. It flows past the important border town of Phuntsholing in Bhutan. Raidak is a major river in Bhutan that rises in the Himalaya and empties into the Brahmaputra in India. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Asia.	eng
134042	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available (freshwater).	eng
134042	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134042	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134043	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134043	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Aragua State, District Federal, Rancho Grande National Park.	eng
134043	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134043	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134043	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134044	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134044	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: road between El Dorado and Santa Elena de Guairen, 126 km from El Dorado. From the Brazil-Venezuela border. Possibly also found in Suriname.	eng
134044	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela in the Cuyuni river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134044	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134044	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134045	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134045	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca and Boyaca Departments: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 950-1,600 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134045	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 950-1,600 m asl.	eng
134045	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134045	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134046	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: This species is known only from the type locality on Nagasaguipi River, Palawan Island of the Philippines which was found in 1985. There are no more recent records.	eng
134046	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is the smallest known species in this genus <em>Parathelphusa</em>.	eng
134046	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134047	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134047	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Altaverapaz Department, Rio Chilax, Mountains of Alta Verapaz. Alta Verapaz, south Senahu, Seamay Cave. Trece Aguas, Cacao, karstic system Seamay-Sejul. Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea. Not specially adapted for caves - long legs but normal eyes.	eng
134047	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Holotype was found in a cave.	eng
134047	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134047	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. Seamay Cave is a tourist destination.	eng
134048	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134048	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan. This species is known only from the type specimen from Gunong Sarenipaka (1°50'12"S 115°44'54"E), Meratus Mountains, Kalimantan, South Eastern Borneo. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134048	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134048	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134048	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134049	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134049	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality Kaduwappara, between Mundakayam-Kumerly, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134049	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected next to a drying stream, under stones and from moist soil.	eng
134049	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134049	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134050	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134050	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Chiang Mai Province, Lamphun Province, Uttaradit Province. Buagcrok village (near Sonkampaeng) and Mae Sa village, both in Muang Chiang Mai District; Sanpathong District; Handong District; Chiang Mai Province. Muang Uttaradi District, Uttaradit Province.	eng
134050	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common in rice fields or bodies of still or stagnant water in these areas.	eng
134050	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134050	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No threats known.	eng
134051	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134051	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas State: Montozintla, Finca de la Victoria. Last recorded finding of this species in 1962.	eng
134051	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134051	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134051	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134052	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134052	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Liberia: This species is known only from one locality in Bong County (the St. Paul River at the Bong Mine Fishing Club near Haindi) and is therefore endemic to that country.	eng
134052	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Populations of  <em>L. nanoides</em> are found only in the rocky parts of the fast-flowing waters of the St. Paul river, which during the rainy season was up to 100 m wide and 1-3 m deep at the collecting station. <em>Liberonautes nanoides</em> is only known from one of the major rivers in the rainforest zone of Liberia, and is rarely, if ever, found in small streams. The dwarf river crab serves as the second intermediate host to <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> in Liberia, but the incidence of infection is low indicating that this species does not play an important role in the transmission of the parasite to humans.	eng
134052	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from a large number of specimens that were collected from a single locality in Liberia. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134052	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134053	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134053	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Mindanao, Naujanlake.	eng
134053	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134053	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134053	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134054	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Mt Saribau area.	eng
134054	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: This species is known only from the type locality, Mount Saribau, 2,500 feet above sea level.	eng
134054	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Associated with limestone areas, living in caves. Biology not known.	eng
134054	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134054	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134055	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134055	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Palawan.	eng
134055	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134055	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134055	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134056	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134056	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sichuan Province (Rongjiang County (29 7'N 102 8'E, Shiping Village and Yingjing). Middle China, West Mountain subregion (of Hengduan mt region), west mountainous area to the basin zone.	eng
134056	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Recorded in water at pH 6 and temperature 17°C.	eng
134056	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134056	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134057	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134057	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico.	eng
134057	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from a major river.	eng
134057	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the major river systems of Mexico but there is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134057	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134058	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134058	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Department Baja Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, 96 km north of Guatemala City. Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea.	eng
134058	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134058	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134058	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134059	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134059	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Central and South Sulawesi (=Celebes), especially around the Malili Lakes System (Lake Towuti, Lake Mahalona, Lake Matano) up to the Poso area. Kalaena tributaries, small river of Soroaka 2 31'19.7"S 121 20'32.6"E; 2 37'40"S 121 12'50"E; 2 39'35"S 121 14'50"E.	eng
134059	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in forest and rivers/tributaries.	eng
134059	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134059	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134060	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134060	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Loshing/Luocheng, Hedi, Lingchuan, Xingan and Jinxin Counties in Guangxi Province.	eng
134060	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134060	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134060	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134061	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134061	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Rio Maranon, Department San Martin and Valley of Rio Santiago). The species is also found in the Amazon slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, in the provinces of Zamora, Santiago and Pastaza.	eng
134061	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134061	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134061	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134062	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134062	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hong Kong (New Territories: lower course of Lam Tsuen River and Su Kwun), China.	eng
134062	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs in a variety of lotic and lentic lowland habitats, and is fairly tolerant of organic pollution, although it prefers unpolluted riverine habitats and slow-flowing low-gradient streams where the substratum might be muddy. Also inhabits irrigation ditches and flooded furrows. This species has been found to dwell among the roots of floating plants, such as the exotic water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em> or the trailing roots and stems of riparian grasses and other plants.	eng
134062	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is very hard to find and collect in Hong Kong.	eng
134062	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pesticides used in rice fields pose a major threat to this species.	eng
134063	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134063	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The range of this species covers a vast area in the basins of the Mamore, Paraguay, and Parana Rivers, and it is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin in Paraguay (Concepcion Department, Rio Paraguay drainage, near the Brazilian border), ARGENTINA (Reconquista, Rio Parana Mini, Santa Fe Province), Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul States), and Bolivia (Beni Province) (Rodriguez, 1992).	eng
134063	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and bays, and in holes of submerged tree trunks or in hollows above water level.	eng
134063	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134063	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134064	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134064	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state: Darband Pass, Cachar; Sibsagar (26.98N, 94.63E) a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2668 km²). Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Bhutan: Samchi, 26.86N, 89.10E (303 m).	eng
134064	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134064	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134064	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134065	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
134065	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Turkey: This species is restricted to the rivers of the eastern Taurus Mountains in Konya Province in southern Turkey.	eng
134065	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potamon bileki</em> is found in springs and water channels in gardens in the eastern Taurus Mountains in Konya Province in southern Turkey, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
134065	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species and no studies have been conducted.	eng
134065	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134066	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134066	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Baiyan Cave (29.5 N 109.4 E), Longshan County, very near Hubei Province, Northeastern Hunan Province.	eng
134066	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Baiyan Cave (White Rock Cave) is a small, relatively superficial cave (only 10 m under plateau) with small streams. Average temperature is about 18.4°C, water temperature 20.9-21.3°C and pH 8.7-8.8. Two specimens were collected about 150 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>This species might be predominantly cavernicolous but may make forays into the surrounding region.	eng
134066	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134066	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134067	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation forests, water resources and monitoring of pollution levels in Fraser's Hill area.	eng
134067	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is "the Gap", Bukit Telaga, between Fraser's Hil and Gunong Ulu Semangkok, Selangor (3"26'N, 101"26'E).  Endemic to Fraser's Hill, Pahang, and vicinity of high elevation. Described from specimens collected above 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
134067	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation in and adjacent to forest streams.	eng
134067	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134067	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The increased use of the area for tourists etc. is a concern. Over-use of freshwater resources and warming of surrounding forests may pose challenges. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.	eng
134068	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134068	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Angola, Southern Africa. Province of Lunda Norte, Cuango River, Cafunfo (08.8479S, 18.8019E).	eng
134068	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134068	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Bott (1968) described this taxon from 38 specimens all from the same locality. Population levels and trends unknown.	eng
134068	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134069	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134069	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: State of Lacom, highlands of southeasternThailand. Type locality is in Amphoe Kok Pho, Pattani Province, Isthmus of Kra. Also found in Yala Province and Narathiwat Province.	eng
134069	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A highland species. Found under rocks in the shallow waters of fast flowing streams.	eng
134069	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common.	eng
134069	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution	eng
134070	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134070	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The Philippines: Pitogo River, Panay.	eng
134070	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134070	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134070	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134071	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134071	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Omkoi District (2,093 km²), Chiangmai Province.	eng
134071	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134071	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134071	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134072	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134072	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in Côte-d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Gabon. It is likely that S. aubryi is also present in Equatorial Guinea. Cumberlidge (1994) extended the range of this species westward to include Côte-d’Ivoire and Ghana, and removed the Republic of the Congo and D. R. Congo from the range.	eng
134072	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes aubryi</em> is found in the guinea and woodland savannah regions from Côte-d’Ivoire to northern Cameroon, and in tropical rainforest from south-east Nigeria to Gabon. This large species inhabits streams, rivers, and ponds, and digs burrows near waterways; at night and during rainstorms it is often found on land because it is capable of breathing air.	eng
134072	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.	eng
134072	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134073	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134073	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Sam Teb Waterfall, Nam Som Distirict; and Ban Pak Chom (18°01'38.6"N, 102°21'53.0"E), both Udon Thani Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134073	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is the smallest potamid crab known from Thailand. This waterfall crab lives under rocks in clear fast flowing streams.	eng
134073	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134073	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134074	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134074	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guizhou Province, Zhaibian in Congjiang County, Rongjiang County, Datang and Leishan county;  Hunan Province and Guangxi Province.	eng
134074	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134074	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134074	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134075	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134075	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are two records of this species, both in Ecuador. One in Esmeraldas province, and one on the Chone River, Manabi province.	eng
134075	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134075	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134075	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134076	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134076	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Vera Cruz State.	eng
134076	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134076	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134076	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134077	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time..	eng
134077	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Gabon: Libreville. Bangui, Central African Republic. D. R. Congo (Angolan localities doubtful)	eng
134077	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Small streams and watercourses in rain forest.	eng
134077	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Reported to be quite common and fairly abundant when first encountered in 1921 (Rathbun, 1921)	eng
134077	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134078	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The whole of Palawan Island has been declared a wildlife preserve.	eng
134078	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Manguao (10°45'27"N, 119°33'30"E), Municipality of Taytay in northern Palawan.	eng
134078	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has been found in slightly alkaline water with a pH between 8.1-8.86 and 7.44-7.77 in water that had a temperature from 26.4 to 30.4°C.<br/><br/>The type specimens of <em>P. manguao</em> were caught at the northern littoral of Lake Manguao (10°45"27'N, 119°33"30'E) among stony substrate. <em>Parathelphusa</em> species have also been observed from many other parts of the lake. It is likely that <em>P. manguao</em> has a highly restricted distribution like most Philippine <em>Parathelphusa</em> species.<br/><br/>The banks of Lake Manguao are dominated by rock, rarely grit and sand. Water temperature ranged from 26.4 to 30.5°C in 1989, and around 26.8°C in 2001. The water was slightly alkaline, with the pH varying from 8.1 to 8.86 (Davies and Green 1990), and 7.44-7.77 at the surface slightly decreasing towards bottom to a minimum of 6.79 (SPCP-ASTD). Dissolved oxygen (DO) was found between 9.5 mg/l¨£ 127% saturation (morning, water surface) and 6.3 mg/l¨£ 79% saturation (early night, water surface) in the Davies & Green (1990) study. Values of the second study were 5.2 mg/l to 8.7 mg/l. From both studies, no substantial variations in DO were reported between surface and bottom layers indicating good vertical circulation. Conductivity was reported to be 43 mS/cm (Davies & Green, 1990) and 55 mS/ cm to 79 mS/cm (SPCP-ASTD).	eng
134078	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134078	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information.	eng
134079	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134079	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: North Hengduan Mountains Area; Huili and Dechang in Sichuan.	eng
134079	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.	eng
134079	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134079	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134080	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134080	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Java.	eng
134080	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134080	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134080	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134081	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134081	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jama La Tai Dong (cave), Jia Ban, Libo County, southern Guizhou Province.	eng
134081	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A cavernicolous species. The entrance of the cave was situated at the foot of a limestone mountain and a small river flows down the mountain and into La Tai Cave. Outside the cave were rice and rape fields with many irrigation ditches and small fields.	eng
134081	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134081	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134082	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134082	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cauca, Narino, and Valle del Cauca Departments: Pacific drainage of Colombia (Campos 2005).	eng
134082	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50- 100 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134082	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134082	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134083	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134083	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known from south India; in addition to the type locality, Bott (1970) also recorded the species from “Palanis, Vandaruvu; shola bei Shembaganur; Bach bei Kukkal; Palanis Flub im Dschungel”.	eng
134083	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecology not known.	eng
134083	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134083	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134084	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134084	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yiyang (28.4N, 117.4E), Jiangxi Province.	eng
134084	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134084	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134084	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134085	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134085	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Hoa Binh (Chi Le), Ha Tay (Ba Vi), Bac Thai Province (Cao Ky, Ky Phu) northern Vietnam (Yeo, unpubl. data). Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Bac Thai Provinces, northern Vietnam.	eng
134085	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134085	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134085	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134086	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134086	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Nankang, Denqshanli, Taipei City; Taipei County (Shuangchi; Chisinghan; Alilao; Yuhlio; Juipin) Keelung City; Ilan County (Chiaochi).Taiwan, Asia. Recorded specimens from Ryukyus actually belong to other species (see Shy and Ng 1998).	eng
134086	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134086	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134086	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. The very narrow distribution and small populations of this species means that it could be easily exterminated by large scale developments.	eng
134087	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134087	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Caco, Trace Aguas, Caco, karstic system Seamay-Sejul. The only specimen is the male holotype.	eng
134087	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134087	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134087	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134088	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134088	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Coastal rain forest from south Cameroon to Gabon in central Africa. Gabon.--vicinity of Franceville, on the river Alima, Mission de Brazza;  Lac de Franceville, Mission de Brazza. Cameroon.--Ohana, Besa, Nyong; Mt. M. Banbarto, river Noun; Batouri District; Belabo; Ebogo; Boedou, near Banyo; Foumban, vicinity of Dschang. The presence of this species in southern Cameroon and northern Gabon makes it likely that S. chavanesii is also present in Equatorial Guinea.  Bott (1955) reported S. chavanesii from a wider region of Central Africa (from Cameroon to D. R. Congo). However, there are no confirmed records of this species in the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, or in the D. R. Congo. Bott (1959) and Monod (1977, 1980) extended the range of S. chavanesii further to include West Africa, from Guinea all the way to Zaire. However, there is reason to doubt these records. Bott (1959) reported S. chavanesii from Guinea and Mali. And Monod (1977) illustrated these same specimens, from ravin de Sokonafing, near Bamako, Mali (Monod 1977, figs. 103, 104, 106, 107), and from Fenaria, Guinea (Monod 1977, figs. 105). This same material, deposited in IFAN, from Dabola, chutes de Tinkasso, Guinea (KIndia, 5 Apr 1954, A. Villiers ), and from Mali (Ravin de Sokonafing, Bamako, May 1945), was all identified here as Liberonautes latidactylus (De Man, 1903). There are, therefore, no confirmed records of S. chavanesii in any country in West Africa (i.e., from Senegal to Nigeria).	eng
134088	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in large rivers in rain forested areas of Central Africa.	eng
134088	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There have been no studies on population levels and trends but this species is well represented in museum collections from specimens collected recently.	eng
134088	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134089	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The conservation of as many parts of Bau as possible is necessary.	eng
134089	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Bau, endemic to the Bau limestone formations.<br/><br/>More material (one specimen) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now two (both in the Bau Limestone Area).	eng
134089	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat. Primarily aquatic. Prefers lowland streams with rocky substrates and forest cover. Other specimens collected from stagnant water, among leaf litter with a sand and mud substrate. A specimen of <em>Isolapotamon bauense</em> was collected in a nearby pool.	eng
134089	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134089	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	As the Bau area does not have long-term protection and the species occurs in low-lying areas, it is very vulnerable to anthropogenic effects.	eng
134090	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134090	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: top and at the foot of Mount Damoes, Sambas.	eng
134090	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134090	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134091	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134091	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: This species is known only from its type locality. Erawan Waterfall, Changwat Kanchanaburi.	eng
134091	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in waterfalls.	eng
134091	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Holotype and paratypes (5M and 4F) from same locality. Collected in 1975 and again in 1990.	eng
134091	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This waterfall is frequented by tourists, so there is a threat of pollution.	eng
134092	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134092	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rwanda: Matale, Lake Kivu. Several localities in nearby D.R. Congo: Tshiwia stream, Mukoba, southwest Kahusi; Mongbwalu; Makahe.	eng
134092	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134092	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134092	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134093	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134093	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil. This is a tropical species. The holotype is from Paraguay (Rio Paraguay). It is also found in Bolivia (Department Beni, Rio Beni system) and Brazil (Amazonas, Para, Rondonia, and Mato Grosso States). This species is known from the central and southern regions of the Amazon basin, and from the northern part of the Paraguay River basin (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996, De Melo 2003). The southern limits of its range are unknown, but it is probably found as far south as northern Argentina.	eng
134093	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in rivers, lakes, bays, cryptic habitats such as hollows and holes of submerged trunks, or aquatic vegetation.	eng
134093	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134093	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134094	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134094	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Tham Te, near Ban Na; Tham Houai Say near ban Khen; and Tham Thon, near Ban Thongkha; Khammouan Province.	eng
134094	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is cave-dwelling and occurs in small streams and isolated ponds. A gravid female was collected from the cave wall outside of water. None were found in the large exogenous underground rivers.  This species can be regarded as an obligate cave-dweller, i.e. troglobite.	eng
134094	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is fairly abundant in the caves where it is found in small streams and pools. One specimens was collected from the cave wall, out of water.  None were found in the large exogenous underground rivers.	eng
134094	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134095	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134095	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Kaohsiung County (Sanmin; Meinung; Neimen, Mucha; Chiahsien); Pingtung County (Shandeman).	eng
134095	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134095	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134095	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134096	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134096	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: This species is known from Brazil (Amazonas State), between 2 to 3 degrees S, and 66 to 67 degrees W as well as from the Amazonas lowlands of Peru (Department Loreto), and Ecuador (Department Pastaza).	eng
134096	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134096	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134096	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134097	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134097	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone; Kunming, Dianchi and Hekou counties, in Yunnan Province.	eng
134097	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134097	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134097	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134098	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134098	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: eastern mainland on the eastern coastal range in Sucre, Monagas, and Nueva Esparta States. Also found on Margarita Island; plus the island of Trinidad.	eng
134098	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Also found in a cave. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Venezuela.	eng
134098	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information.	eng
134098	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134099	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134099	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zhangpu in Fujian Province, southern China. Known only from this single locality in China. Male Holotype, female allotype and seven male and four female paratypes all from the same locality.	eng
134099	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134099	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134099	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134100	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134100	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines. This species is known only from the type specimen from Palawan Island. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.	eng
134100	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134100	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134100	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134101	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134101	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Anlong County in Guizhou.	eng
134101	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134101	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134101	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134102	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134102	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Congo: Central Africa, associated with the lower reaches of the Congo River from Ngancin (=Ngabé) to Gombe–Matadi (D. R. Congo) 4°58’60”S, 14°43’0”E; also found in the southeastern tributaries of the Congo River (the Kwa, Kwilu, and Kwango rivers), and Kinshasa and Malebo Pool in the D. R. Congo. Bott (1955) listed material from Kidzueme (= Kidzweme) 3°58’0”S, 18°26’60”E, Moluma stream, Kwilu river, a tributary of the river Kwango in the D. R. Congo. The report by Rathbun (1894) that this species occurs in Gabon cannot be confirmed.	eng
134102	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ngancin (=Ngabé) in the Republic of the Congo is on the right bank of the lower Congo River, at a stretch where the river banks are up to 1.5 km apart. Ngancin (=Ngabé) is directly opposite Kwamouth in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Here the river is deep and fast flowing, and the volume of water very high, because this section of the river is where the Congo is joined by the Ubangi, Sangha, and Kwa Rivers. Close to Kinshasa the Congo River forms the Malebo Pool, a large lake-like stretch of water about 25 km by 30 km. All the adult egg bearing females of <em>E. brazzae</em> known so far have been found either in the swampy areas of the lower Congo River and its tributaries, or on the banks of Malebo Pool, rather than in the river itself. The fact that only egg-bearing females have been collected between April and June, and that these were all taken from muddy ground near the river banks (either under stones, under boardwalks, or tangled in water plants) has given rise to speculation that this species releases its hatchlings in such habitats, but spends the rest of its lifecycle elsewhere. At Malebo Pool <em>E. brazzae</em> occurs together with <em>Potamonautes paecilei</em> (A. Milne-Edwards, 1886) in mud under boards and timbers.	eng
134102	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Population estimates for this species are low based on its lack of wide representation in museum collections, and its rarity, because it has not been collected (to our knowledge) since 1947.	eng
134102	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134103	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134103	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: "Montagnes de Laos, Siam" (= present day eastern Thailand) and Xe Set River, Saravan Province, southern Laos	eng
134103	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134103	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134103	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134104	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134104	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Near Quito; Gualea, western Ecuador, 943 m; Alluriquin, affluent of the Rio Toachi, SE of Santo Domingo de los Colorados, Pichincha Province. Pacific slope of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, between the Guayllabamba and Toachi rivers, tributaries of the Esmeraldas River, at altitudes between 880 and 2740 m asl. Basin of the Paita River.	eng
134104	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134104	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134104	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Human induced habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134105	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134105	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nicaragua: Matagalpa and Jinotega Departments.	eng
134105	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134105	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134105	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134106	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134106	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Island of Borneo: Kalimantan, also found in the Liang Koeboeng mountains (1894; de Man, 1899). Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, the type locality is the Kadamaian River, Mount Kinabalu. Lectotype and paralectotype come from same locality on a hill/mountain.	eng
134106	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134106	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134107	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134107	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Lingchuan County, Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province.	eng
134107	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134107	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134107	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134108	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134108	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma: Thagata, Mount Mooleyit, Tenasserim.	eng
134108	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Like other species of this genus, <em>D. thagatensis</em> is mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. This genus is sometimes found outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134108	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134108	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134109	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134109	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: restricted to the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija, between this country and Venezuela. Canon del Rio Manaure, 1 km from Finca El Susoiro, Serrania de Valledupar, Perija, Departmento del Cesar, 2,150 m above sea level (Campos 2005).	eng
134109	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from a single site, where it lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 2,150 m above sea level in the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija. Further collection efforts have been hampered by public order problems in the region.	eng
134109	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134109	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134110	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134110	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Central Ryukyu Islands. Holotype: Ishikiridome, Akirigami River, Tokuno-Shima Island. Paratype: Youmisaki, Kasari Town, Amami-Ohshima Island. Others: Tokuno-Shima Island; Bane, Shikaura River; Kedokina; Tete; Manatsu River;  Akirikami River; Kametoku River; Nango River; Amami-Ohshima Island; Asato River; Ohmi River; Uragami River; Manatsu River;  Kawauchi River, Yamato-Sumiyou Village;  Youmisaki, Kasari Town; Manatsu River;  Ariya River; Yani River; Uragami River; near Nazemata Bridge, Nakagachi River; Yakukachi River;  Sumiyo River; Kawauchi River, Uken Village;  Kinsakubaru.<br/><br/>Amami Oshima (710 sq km/273 sq mi) and Tokunoshima (250 sq km/96 sq mi) islands in the Ryukyu islands in southern Japan. These islands lie south of Watase's Line marked by the Tokara Strait and so are part of the Indomalayan region.	eng
134110	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134110	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134110	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known long-term threats to this species, and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134111	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134111	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Hwalien County (Taroko; Hsiulin, Loshao; Hsiulin, Chankuang Temple).	eng
134111	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134111	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134111	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134112	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134112	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangdong Province.	eng
134112	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134112	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134112	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134113	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134113	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Haveri, near Meroka (=Moroka), Port Moresby Subdistrict, Central District, Territory of Papua, Papua New Guinea at about 9.26?S, 147.31?E, altitude 700 m asl. This species is known only from the type specimen which was collected in 1892, and there have been no records in over 110 years.	eng
134113	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134113	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134114	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134114	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sintang, Sarawak, Borneo. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.	eng
134114	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134114	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134114	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134115	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134115	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Departments of Boyaca, Caldas, Cudinamarca, and Tolima in the Eastern Cordillera; between Guadas and Honda. From the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain to the Madgdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134115	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 300-1,500 m asl.	eng
134115	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134115	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134116	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134116	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Cherra Punji, Assam state.	eng
134116	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134116	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134116	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134117	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134117	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Dayu in Huanglung (25.4 N 114.4 E) County, Jiangxi Province.	eng
134117	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134117	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134117	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134118	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Kaki Bukit area.	eng
134118	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Laha Datu.	eng
134118	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial to semi-terrestrial. Found in a disturbed habitat - secondary forest near an oil palm plantation.	eng
134118	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134118	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No specific threats known. Probably habitat loss/degradation. Although there is a decline in habitat quality, as it is found in a disturbed habitat, secondary forest near an oil palm plantation,  it has persisted despite the disruption, so may be quite resilient to threats.	eng
134119	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of designated protected areas.	eng
134119	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Singapore: Singapore. Malaysia: Widespread throughout Peninsular Malaysia: Pulau Aor; Terengganu. Indonesia: Sumatra: southern half of Sumatra (<em>ca</em>. 1°101'S, 101°15'E) (Ng 1988).	eng
134119	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. This species prefers lowland streams and seems quite tolerant of muddy waters. These animals have a high tolerance of low oxygen conditions and can be found in stagnant pools sometimes. It is common under rocks, logs, vegetation and debris, but also dig deep burrows by the banks. The burrows always open above the water level, however, the end of the burrow is always filled with water (burrows can be a metre or more in depth, can be slanted and sometimes bent). Gravid females rarely move around  in the open, instead stay in the burrows. Brooding ones are occasionally encountered. This is a nocturnal species and is most active after sunset. Can be a pest in rice fields, but is basically harmless.	eng
134119	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134119	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, especially to populations within protected areas throughout its range. Occasionally sold as pets in the aquarium trade.	eng
134120	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134120	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guizhou Province (Bulang in Puding County; Yushe Forest Reserve in Shuicheng County).	eng
134120	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 14°C, pH 6.	eng
134120	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134120	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134121	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134121	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Moyobamba (56,064 km²), Amazon drainage northern Peru.	eng
134121	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A river-living species.	eng
134121	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134121	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134122	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134122	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: King Amphoe Na Muan, Nan Province, northern Thailand.	eng
134122	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134122	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134122	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134123	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134123	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jianfengling and Dongfang in Hainan Island.	eng
134123	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134123	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134123	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134124	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134124	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: According to Tuerkay and Naiyanetr (1987) this species is found in North CochinChina (= southern Vietnam).	eng
134124	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134124	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134124	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134125	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134125	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Restricted to the Upper Amazon (western basin) in Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil (Amazonas State).	eng
134125	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134125	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134125	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134126	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134126	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Queensland: Known only from a limited area, from the west and eastward flowing catchments in the vicinity of  Coen, Cape York, northern Queensland.	eng
134126	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burrowing, freshwater.	eng
134126	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134126	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134127	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134127	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Baoshan/Boshan and Jingdong Counties in Yunnan Province, Southwest China; Hengduan Mountains area (west).	eng
134127	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In water of pH 6.5.	eng
134127	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134127	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134128	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134128	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca Depatment: Agua Blanca stream, Vereda Lamal, Inspeccion Guadualito, Municipio Yacopi, 720 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia (Magadelena, Orinoco and Catatumbo River basins)  (Campos 2005).	eng
134128	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 720 m asl. Crabs found in shaded moist banks of springs and streams in soft mud under rocks.	eng
134128	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134128	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134129	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134129	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Cabayugan River, Puerto Princesa, Palawan. The Cabayugan River catchment (10°09'N, 118°51'E) is approx. 3,683 ha and the catchment is surrounded by mountains 1,028 m high. This species was discovered during an extensive ecological survey in 2000-2001 of the river systems of St. Paul’s Subterranean River National Park in Palawan, Philippines, that included the Cabayugan / Underground River.	eng
134129	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in lowland waters surrounded by mountains. The soils in the upper river are alluvial shale and sandstone, while in the lower and underground levels they are limestone. Specimens were collected from different micro-habitats such as under small falls, in riffles and in pools, and also in caves. Individuals were not found in paddy fields or their drainage channels. No specimens were found in other river stretches, in the subterranean course, or the estuary. This species may leave the water body for short times at least. This species is primarily aquatic. The specimens were found in the permanent tributaries, which are lowland waters, with a basic pH of 7.1 to 8.7 and a high conductivity (140-170 uS/cm). Influenced by anthropogenic activities (paddy fields, settlements, increased temperature fluctuations 26°C +/- 3°C and raised turbidity).<br/><br/>The Cabayugan River catchment (10 09' N, 118 51' E), has an area of approximately 3,683 ha. The catchment is surrounded by mountains up to 1,028 m high, but all permanent tributaries and sites sampled are lowland waters. The soils drained are yellowish to deep red clays on ultrabasic subsoils at the peripheral headwaters; alluvial soils on shale and sandstone at the upper to middle river course; and karst soils on limestone at the lower and subterranean course of Cabayugan/Underground River. The pH was generally basic, ranging from 7.1 to 8.7, and the conductivity relatively high, ranging from 140 to 740 mS/cm. The specimens were collected from the river bed and in colonization baskets situated between stony and course organic substrates. Crabs were found in different micro-habitats such as under small falls, in riffles, and in pools. Applying drift nets at all sites, several specimens were caught only at a spring brook running out off limestone rocks. Dissolved oxygen was occasionally found decreasing to 60% saturation in this site. All other sites sampled had generally higher values. Lower abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> was found in the middle river course that is influenced by anthropogenic activities (paddy fields, settlements). Those result in higher temperature fluctuations (26°C +/- 3°C), raised turbidity and slightly increased BOD2+5 (max: 2.6 mg/l, n=5). In paddy fields and their draining channels, no individuals of the species were found. This is in contrast to other parathelphusid crabs such as members of Sayamia, Esanthelphusa and Somanniathelphusa that occur in rice fields in many parts of Indochina and China (see Ng and Naiyanetr 1993, Naiyanetr 1994, Ng 1995, Dai 1999, Yeo and Nguyen 1999). Not found in the subterranean course of the river and the estuary. The species is primarily aquatic but actively leaves the water body for short times. Juvenile stages (<5 by 4.5 mm) occur throughout the year at the same stream courses as the adults. One female (26.4 by 21.6 mm) was found carrying 54 juveniles of 2.0 by 1.9 mm size. Juveniles of the same size were detected as smallest among the released free living ones. <em>P. cabayugan</em> has an affinity for small and undisturbed headwater streams, with clear and unpolluted water. The preferred habitats overlap in parts with those of the potamid genus <em>Insulamon</em> Ng & Takeda, 1992.	eng
134129	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	High abundance in undisturbed first to 3rd order headwaters, lower abundance in middle river course. It is<br/>possible that the absence or low abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> in the middle parts of the river may be due to natural physical/environmental variables. However, the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the nearby paddy fields may also have played a part. The highest abundance of <em>P. cabayugan</em> was found in undisturbed first to third order headwaters with moderate to low turbidity (> 120 cm light penetration).	eng
134129	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pesticides and fertilizers from paddy fields.	eng
134130	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134130	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Tabasco State, Montecristo (35,980 km²).	eng
134130	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Potamocarcinus hartmanni</em> has been collected in the large drainage systems of the Grijalva and San Pedro Rivers in the state of Tabasco.	eng
134130	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134130	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The Grijalva river has already been dammed in one place to form Lake Nezahualcoyotl.	eng
134131	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is found in a protected area.	eng
134131	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia, and Argentina (Rodriguez 1992). Brazil (Amazonas, Amapa, Para, Mato Grosso, Rondonia, Acre, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Sao Paulo States).  The records for Sao Paulo State in southern Brazil are most likely of populations of this species that were introduced into that State by human activities. Peru (Rio Tombopata, Madre de Dios Department). Paraguay (Rio Paraguay, Rio La Plata drainage, Rio Salado, Rio Manduvira drainage, Presidenty Hayes Department, Rio Pilcomayo and adjacent overflow pools at bridges to Argentina). Colombia (Amazonas Magdalena, Maracaibo Departments) (Campos 2005).	eng
134131	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Amazon floodplains, Paraguay/Parana River basins, white water rivers, floating meadows, remanso, swamp. Rivers and lakes, also in interior of holes in flat areas. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 85-970 m asl. Typical of floodplain areas, usually associated with floating meadows.	eng
134131	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134131	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134132	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134132	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Narino Department: Municipio Barbacoas, Corriregimento Altaquer, Carbonera stream, 1,400 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134132	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers between 1,200 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
134132	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134132	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134133	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134133	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Turkey and Syria (sources of Khabur River in Ras al-Ain; Nar al-Khabur). Known from the Khabur River from the lower reaches to the spring region, about 170 km upstream north to the Turkish border, and from the Euphrates River in the region from the mouth of Khabur River upstream to Lake Assad in southeastern Turkey. Syria: Hassaka Province, Nahr al-Khabur-system, Ras al-Ain (36.51.00N, 40.04.00E) and 35 other localities. Turkey: Sanliurfa Province: Euphrates tributary, bridge.	eng
134133	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134133	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134133	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134134	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
134134	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This very common trichodactylid species is found in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil (Amazon River, Piaui, Para, Amapa, Roraima, Amazonas, Maranhao, and Rondonia States and the lower Amazon basin, Balawa-ú village). It is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin in Colombia and Peru (Paraguay River) and is also found in the coastal river basins of the Atlantic Guianas in French Guiana, Guyana (Rupunumi River), plus Venezuela (Bolivar State, Rio Cuyumi basin), and northeastern Brazil. It is also found in Colombia (Department Amazonas), Peru (Amazon basin, Department Loreto, Rio Siamiria), Bolivia (Department Chochabamba, Region Chapare), Paraguay (Concepcion, Rio Paraguay Drainage, Amambay Department), between Brazil and Paraguay in Bella Vista Paraguay, and Argentina (probably Buenos Aires Province) (Campos 2005).	eng
134134	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Araguari, Corantijn, Essequibo, and Oyapock river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, Rio Trombetas, and Rio Jari rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon River. This species is common in rivers, streams, and lakes, has an altitudinal range of between 100 and 180 m asl, and is also found in deep ponds or hollow cracks, submerged trunks, or it is associated with aquatic vegetation. It occurs in Balawa-ú village (01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W) in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006). Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin. This medium-sized species (carapace breadth usually < 60 mm) is primarily aquatic, although it can occasionally be found out of water. It occurs in the Guianas, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, has a wide distribution throughout the Amazon basin, and occupies different types of habitats. In the stream near the Balawa-ú village, it was found in the sandy bottom of the stream.	eng
134134	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134134	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams, and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Freshwater crabs exploited by the Yanomami include two species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two species of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs by the Yanomami is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
134135	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134135	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Amazon drainage - this species is known from four localities.	eng
134135	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134135	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134135	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134136	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134136	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134136	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134136	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134137	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134137	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.	eng
134137	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134137	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134137	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134138	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134138	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cauca Department:Timbiqui, Quebrada Huanqui stream (02.50N, 77.30E), Rio Saija area, from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134138	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 100 m asl.	eng
134138	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134138	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134139	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134139	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra and Java.	eng
134139	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134139	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134139	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134140	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134140	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Bawangling, Zhanxian, Limushan, Baisha in Hainan Island- Guangdong Province.	eng
134140	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134140	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134140	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134141	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134141	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Tolima Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 470 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134141	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 470 m asl.	eng
134141	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134141	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134142	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134142	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar. Station forestière de Tampolo, Province de Toamasina, 17°17’2”S, 49°24’5”E, 10 m elevation, in leaf axils of Pandanus.	eng
134142	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from the Station forestière de Tampolo, Province de Toamasina. <em>Malagasya goodmani</em> is found at different elevations, always in association with <em>Pandanus</em> leaf axils.	eng
134142	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from 5 specimens all from the type locality (Tampolo).	eng
134142	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134143	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134143	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hainan Island: Hele, Jiajie.	eng
134143	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134143	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134143	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134144	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134144	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Boyaca and Cundinamarca Departments, mountain springs and streams, in the median course of the Magdalena River valley 320-900 m asl in the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain to the Madgdalena river (Campos 2005).	eng
134144	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 320-900 m asl.	eng
134144	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134144	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134145	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134145	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Andrafiabe. This species is known only from the type locality.	eng
134145	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134145	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
134145	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134146	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Bang Pae waterfall is part of Khao Phra Thaeo National Park.	eng
134146	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Salanga (=Phuket Island); Tone Sai waterfall Phuket Island (08 01.64'N 98 21.74'E), Phuket Province; Nam Tok Kathun (07 55.96'N 98 19.43'E, Phuket; Bang Phae waterfall, Phuket Island; southern Thailand (Yeo, unpubl. data); (11 km between Tone Sai and Nam Tok Kathun waterfall).	eng
134146	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134146	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Phuket is a major tourist destination. The waterfalls are easily accessible by humans.	eng
134147	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134147	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Mt. Catcin; Mount Katein/Katun, Northern Burma. Specimens from Hotha, Yunan, and Kakhyen Hills, Poonsee, Upper Burma have been lost (Yeo unpubl. data).	eng
134147	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134147	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134147	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134148	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and caves, and monitoring of pollution levels in Bau district.	eng
134148	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Upper Sarawak, Malaysia, Southeast Asia. Endemic to Bau district, Sarawak.<br/><br/>More material (four specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, and Gunung Kawa (three specimens), in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now two (both in the Bau Limestone Area).	eng
134148	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The holotype collected in cave stream in total darkness; this species prefers swampy areas or is found out of water in moist areas.	eng
134148	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Appears to be a facultative cavernicolous species (troglophile).	eng
134148	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation	eng
134149	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134149	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Watercourses in the state of Chiapas, Mexico that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
134149	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134149	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134149	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134150	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134150	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: southern Brazil (SP, ES, BA States).	eng
134150	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams. and is known only from three localities in three states in Brazil.	eng
134150	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134150	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134151	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134151	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Chiang Khua, Muang Sakon Nakhon Distirct, Sakon Nakon Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134151	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.	eng
134151	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134151	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Caught for food during the wet season. Human induced habitat loss is a threat.	eng
134152	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134152	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hispaniola (Dominican Republic, possibly Haiti). Found only in the areas of the central Cordillera at high altitudes. The Dominican Republic (48,440 km²) occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Island of Hispaniola (Haiti is the western third). The type locality in the Dominican Republic is the Rio Magua, tributary of the River Mao, Sierra Platicos, northern slope of the Cordillera Central, near the watershed, Santiago Province, Dominican Republic, near Cascade, 2,300 m above sea level.	eng
134152	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found only in the highland areas of the Cordillera central at high altitudes in streams and rivers.	eng
134152	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134152	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major current and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution due to urbanization and the development of agriculture. Forest loss has been rapid and wide reaching in the Dominican Republic, with cover reduced from 75% to 14% between 1920 and 1981 (Brothers 1997). This deterioration has continued.	eng
134153	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134153	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico. A neotropical species with a distribution in the states of Michoacan, Mexico and Guerrero. Its geographical range extends into the region of Tierra Caliente (Turicato and Aryan) ca. 75 km as the crow flies from Jungapeo and Huiramba (2,100 m), and the coastal region (Chucutitán, 60 meters) around 150 km as the crow flies from Uruapan.	eng
134153	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Turicato: streamside zones standing among dead leaves and boulders.: house in an urban area, next to a pit. Chucutitán: under trees and gaps between rocks near intermittent streams. Tres Palos: water in ponds with abundant litter. Carámicuas: between grassland and pine forest, near an intermittent stream.	eng
134153	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134153	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134154	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134154	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Meixian and Pingyuan (24.5°N, 115.8°E), Guangdong Province.	eng
134154	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in upper reaches of streams, under stones or in muddy holes	eng
134154	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134154	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134155	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134155	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3,825 m) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills; Cherrapunji (also spelled as Cherrapunjee), is a town in East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya, one of the world's wettest places; Garo Hills are part of the Garo-Khasi range in Meghalaya, India. Orissa state: Ganjam (19°23′N 85°04′E /19.38, 85.07) is a town in Ganjam District in the state of Orissa, India. Assam state: north Cachar, an administrative district (3,786 km²) in the state of Assam in India.	eng
134155	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134155	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134155	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134156	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134156	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. So far only known from its type locality Pahang. Endemic to Taman Negara Park in Pahang, where it was first described from and has not been reported since it was first caught in the the 1950s.	eng
134156	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Almost certainly terrestrial to semi-terrestrial in habit (as indicated by its highly arched carapace, typical of air-breathing species). No ecological notes associated with original capture.  Johora species are primarily aquatic and found in clean, clear, fast-flowing fresh waters, typically associated with hill streams.	eng
134156	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134156	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its precise range not known. That it was described from Taman Negara suggests it should be safe for the moment.	eng
134157	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134157	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Salvacian, Busuanga, Palawan; vicinity of Puerto Princessa, Palawan. Tagbariri River, Palawan.	eng
134157	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134157	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134157	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134158	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134158	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Fang District, Chiang Mai Province; about 99°36'N 18°17'E and Muang Lampang District, Lampang Province, northern Thailand (Yeo, unpubl. data).	eng
134158	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A rice field crab.	eng
134158	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134158	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134159	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134159	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Cochinchine = southern Vietnam. This species is known only from the type specimen from Vietnam. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Vietnam.	eng
134159	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134159	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134160	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134160	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: Duma (Uele).	eng
134160	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134160	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134160	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134161	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134161	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Quebrada between La Soledad and Barinitas, Barinas State, 570 m.	eng
134161	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134161	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134161	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134162	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134162	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A very common species in the Western Himalayas to Punjab. India: Simla (=Shimla) Himachal Pradesh; Dharmsala (=Dharamsala) (1,333-1,666 m). Afghanistan.	eng
134162	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134162	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134162	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134163	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.   The cave systems where this species occurs provide an amount of protection for this species due to its inaccessibility.	eng
134163	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Cueva Punto Fijo I, Rıo Guasare, Zulia State. This species comes from localities in the karstic formations of the Sierra de Perija, eastern Venezuela. (1) Cueva Los Laureles, Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; 600 m altitude; on the mud near the water's edge, 700 m from the cave's entrance; (2) Cueva El Saman, Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; 470 m altitude; under a stone in a dry gallery, 2,400 m from the cave's entrance. (3) Cueva El Saman (El Laberinto), Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; (4) Cueva El Saman (galeria La Culebra), Rio Socuy, Estado Zulia; (5) Cueva La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 900 m altitude; collected in stream, current speed 50 liters/sec,420 m from the cave entrance; (6) Cueva El Sumidero De La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 815 m altitude; collected in stream, l current speed 30 liters/sec; (7) Cueva de los Cantos, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 740 m altitude; collected on land near stream, current speed 250 litres/sec, 420 m from the cave entrance; (8) Cueva El Veladero de La Retirada, Rio Guasare basin, Estado Zulia; 850 m altitude; collected in gallery without a stream, but wet, 250 m from the cave's entrance.	eng
134163	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Chaecus caecus</em> has been recorded from several caves near the type locality. This species is from the middle courses of the rivers Guasare and Socuy, which drains in the northern portion of Lake Maracaibo. The holotype of <em>Chaceus caecus</em> comes from Cueva Punto Fijo, a cave to the north of this area, in the northern escarpment of the Guasare Valley. New records for this species were found in an extensive karstic area in the Socuy River, where the river goes underground in many places, to reappear further down in its course. The sinks and cavities where these crabs were found comprises the Cueva El Saman considered at present the largest cave in Venezuela, with a total length of 11.8 km; the Cueva Los Laureles, with a development of 1,617 m; the Cueva La Retirada, with 520 m development, with the nearby El Sumidero (sink) de La Retirada and El Veladero de La Retirada; and the Cueva de los Cantos.<br/><br/>The stygiobiont characters in this species are fully developed only in the adults, because the eyes in the juveniles are of normal size, although depigmented, and the pereiopods are not particularly slender. The eyes in the juveniles of <em>Chaecus caecus</em> are not reduced, as is the case in the adults, but there is no trace of pigment in the cornea; the legs are not particularly slender.	eng
134163	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The number of juveniles per clutch is very low in relation to other species in the family. The brood found under the abdomen of a female from Cueva El Saman consisted of 8 juveniles. The size of these juveniles is large relative to the size of the mother.  The number of offspring is small, because the clutch size in other pseudothelphusids fluctuates according to the size of the species at reproduction - between 25 and 125 eggs.	eng
134163	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134164	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134164	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xiuren in Guangxi.	eng
134164	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134164	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134164	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134165	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134165	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nicaragua: Jinetoga, Department Jinoteca, and Atlantico Norte Department.	eng
134165	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134165	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134165	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134166	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134166	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Sullivan Island and the mangrove swamp of Kisseraing Island, both localities off Myanmar. Mergui Archipelago, Gulf of Bengal. Thailand: Also found on islands of southern Thailand, about 300 km away.	eng
134166	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134166	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134167	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Penrissen Mountains area.	eng
134167	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Penrissen Mountains.	eng
134167	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Aquatic to semi-terrestrial.	eng
134167	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134167	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134168	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134168	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from two localities, Chathankodu and Ponmudi (type locality), Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134168	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All recent material was collected from under stones and logs in wet soil, and from shallow burrows in wet soil, adjacent to small streams. The crabs were always found in the shade.	eng
134168	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134168	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134169	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134169	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Twelve specimens were collected at Quebrada Los Tubos, and thirty-two more were collected at Río Naranjo, Santa María de Dota, both sites in the Province of San José. Distribution is apparently restricted to the southwest of Costa Rica.	eng
134169	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica. <em>P. costaticaensis</em> lives under rocks in small streams at an altitude of approximately 1,300 m and at a median water temperature of 16°C.	eng
134169	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134169	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134170	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134170	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jianou County in Fujian Province.	eng
134170	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.	eng
134170	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134170	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134171	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Gauyun, Jiangxi Province.	eng
134171	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common in rice paddy fields, lives in burrows 70-80 cm in length, located along bunds of paddy fields. The mouth of the burrow is surrounded by an oval to circular bund ('castle'). <br/><br/>See Pillai and Subramoniam (1984) for the breeding ecology of this species.	eng
134171	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134172	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134172	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jinping county in Yunnan Province.	eng
134172	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134172	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134172	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134173	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
134173	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil (Amazonas State), Ecuador, and Peru. This species is found in the Amazon and Rio Orinoco drainiage basins. Pyayamino, Napo-Pastaza; Rio Pindo, tributary of the RioTigre; upper Amazon, Loreto (Peru); Napo River basin (Ecuador); Amazon River basin (Colombia). It is also found in the Cuau River Amazonas territory, Venezuela. This species is found in the Colombian foothills of the Andes and towards the east to the Venezuelan Guiana, and in the Caqueta River basin and Orinoquian basin. Colombia: Amazonas, Caqueta, Cundinamarca, Guaviare, Meta, Putamayo, and Vaupes Departments (Campos 2005).	eng
134173	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. In the Cuau River (Venezuela) this species lives in the ground near the cano in muddy or swampy soil and eats <em>Gymnophonia</em> spp. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-900 m asl.	eng
134173	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134173	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134174	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134174	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Napo County, Guangxi Autonomous Region.	eng
134174	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134174	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134174	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134175	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134175	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Lindu (1°18'S 120°05'E), Central Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134175	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A lake.	eng
134175	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134175	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134176	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134176	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Nantow County, Sun Moon Lake (8 km²).	eng
134176	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134176	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134176	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134177	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place, not found in a protected area.	eng
134177	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Nosy-Bé, rivière de la route des lacs, 23.XI.1972; Grotte nord de l’Ankara, Berges Sable; Province de Ansiranana, Sta. SMG 12362, forest de Binara, near Analamazava River, 7.5 km west of Daraina.	eng
134177	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134177	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from three localities all in northern Madagascar.	eng
134177	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134178	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134178	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Tamil Nadu state: The species is known only from the type locality (Coramandal coast) in South Eastern India. Yerkad (=Yercaud near Salem) in the Servarayan range of hills (anglicized as Shervaroy Hills) in the Eastern Ghats.	eng
134178	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known, probably a rice field crab.	eng
134178	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134178	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134179	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134179	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Siguqiao, Yushan county (28.6 N 118.2 E; 1731 km²) and Shangrao county.	eng
134179	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134179	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134179	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134180	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134180	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: southern Shan State: rice fields near Yawnghwe; and Tuanggyi.	eng
134180	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A rice field crab	eng
134180	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134180	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134181	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134181	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:Tamil Nadu state: southern India, Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains panning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India. The species is known from Avalanche, Nilgiris, southwestern India.	eng
134181	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecology not known.	eng
134181	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134181	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134182	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134182	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nancheng (27.5N, 116.6 E) Jiangxi Province.	eng
134182	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134182	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134182	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134183	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134183	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Borneo, from Barito Basin, South Kalimantan.	eng
134183	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134183	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134183	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134184	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134184	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Lushan (29.4N, 115.9E); Tongcheng in Hubei Province. Also Wuning, Xiushui, Yifeng in Jiangxi Province.	eng
134184	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134184	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134184	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134185	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134185	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taiwu Village and Machia Village, Pingtung County (Neipu township; Liangshan), northern Hengchun Peninsular, southern Taiwan.	eng
134185	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives in burrows near small streams.	eng
134185	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134185	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134186	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134186	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Distribution indeterminate because the type locality and only record ("Rogue") cannot be located (Rodriguez 1982). Tentatively assigned here to Colombia.	eng
134186	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Presumably streams and rivers.	eng
134186	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134186	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
134187	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134187	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Pingtung County (Laii; Machia; Sandimen; Taiwu).	eng
134187	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134187	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134187	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134188	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134188	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Malabar coast and Nicobar, southern India.	eng
134188	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134188	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134188	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134189	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134189	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: southern Thailand (Prachuap Khiri Khan Province and southern Phetchaburi Provinces); Huai Sad yai and Pala Ou waterfall (12°32'11.2''N, 99°28'51.9"E) in Hua Hin District; Kui Buri forest in Kui Buri District, Huai Yang Waterfall, Thap Sakae District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province; Kaeng Krachang in Tha Yang District, Phetchaburi.	eng
134189	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A waterfall crab, collected from waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134189	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134189	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134190	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134190	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mindanao, Philippines, Asia (Takeda and Ng 2001).	eng
134190	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous, obligate troglodyte.	eng
134190	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134190	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134191	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil.	eng
134191	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Suriname. French Guiana. Peru. Brazil: Amazonas, Para, Maranhao, Acre, and Goias States, lower basin of the Amazon, near Santarem.	eng
134191	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Araguari, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. Found in rivers and lakes in areas with deep basins, and in holes in flat areas.	eng
134191	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134191	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams, and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134192	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134192	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: eastern part of Guangdong Province, East River (= Dongjiang River) and Han River flow through it, there is a subtropical monsoon climate.	eng
134192	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134192	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134192	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134193	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134193	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: This species is only known from Nanning county in Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous region, south China.	eng
134193	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134193	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134193	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134194	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134194	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Lonbok Island. This species is known only from the type specimen from Air Sigaguruh, Lombok.	eng
134194	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134194	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134194	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134195	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134195	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Quebrada Chipo, Punta Arditas, Departamento del Choco; Serrania Costera del Baud (Campos 2005).	eng
134195	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 10 m asl.	eng
134195	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134195	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134196	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134196	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Durango State.	eng
134196	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rediscovered three or four years ago from a small spring in downtown Cuernavaca, this species is strongly threatened by urban development.	eng
134196	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134196	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rediscovered 3 or 4 years ago from a small spring in downtown Cuernavaca, this species is strongly threatened by urban development. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134197	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134197	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shanxi, Henan, Heibei and Hubei Province. Huixian, Yichuan, Ruyang, Xingchuan in Henan. Yangcheng, Huanhengxian in Shanxi.  Shexian in Heibei. Zhongxiang, Yingshan, Anlu, Jingshan, Jingzhou, Guanghua, Yunmeng & Suixian in Hubei.	eng
134197	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134197	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134197	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134198	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134198	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Kaohsiung (2,792 km²), Taitung (3,515 km²) and Tainan county (2,106 km²). Kaohsiung County (Neimen, Mucha); Tainan County (Nanhsi); Chialuohstoei; Kending; Manchow, Kangou; Manchow, Jeouperng; Moschow, Nanren Lake; Suchongshi; Wutai; Taitung County (Tawu).	eng
134198	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134198	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134198	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134199	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Bako area as a National Park would help to protect this species.	eng
134199	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: This species is known only from the vicinity of Kuching and possibly is also found in Bako National  Park. More material (15 specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Tai Ton, Gunung Tongga (one specimen) and Gunung Aup (one specimen) in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now three (all in the Bau Limestone Area). <br/><br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated at 100 km², based on two original collections made a few years apart by different collectors (both list locality as simply “Kuching, Sarawak”), plus new material belonging to this species collected in 1986 from Bako National Park about 35 km north of Kuching city.  However, the new specimen was not directly examined – it is identified from a photograph, so the original locality is the only one for certain – but the authors speculate that “Kuching” as a locality might well have referred to the Bako National Park north of the city where the new specimens was photographed. So the EOO estimate of 100 km² might be acceptable.	eng
134199	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	These crabs are semi-terrestrial, foraging on vegetation at night, but digging and hiding in deep burrows in peat soil by day. This species digs deep holes in the forest floor on forest soil many meters away from the nearest stream. Collected from burrows in a small cocoa plantation next to the main forest.	eng
134199	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134199	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<p>The peat swamp remnants this crab occurs in are all small and their long-term survival questionable. Only one of the peat swamp remnants (one of the smallest ones) is protected as a state park (not a national park) and nests in an urban area, while the rest are still been developed for a wide range of agricultural crops.</p>	eng
134200	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134200	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: near Kisangani (Stanleyville). Rivers of the Congo river basin.	eng
134200	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Major rivers in the central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).	eng
134200	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was locally abundant in the early part of the 20th century.	eng
134200	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134201	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134201	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: North Hengduan Mountains area, Ning Lang in Yunnan.	eng
134201	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 16°C, pH 6.5.	eng
134201	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134201	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan mountains area.	eng
134202	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134202	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Watercourses in Guatemala that drain into the Caribbean Sea. 14 km south of Guatemala City.	eng
134202	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134202	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134202	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134203	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134203	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains, and Tabasco States.	eng
134203	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.	eng
134203	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134203	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134204	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134204	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Pichincha Province: Basins of the Napo and Pastaza Rivers which drain into the Amazon River, and the Esmeraldas River which drains into the Pacific. From a tributary of the Rio Peripa, W of La Aurora, and Mindo; Eastern Cordillera. Colombia: Narino, Putamayo Departments: San Miguel-Putumayo basin (24.885 km²), Amazon drainage. Western slopes of the Colombian Andes in southern Colombia and eastwards into Ecuador (Campos 2005).	eng
134204	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-2,000 m asl.	eng
134204	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134204	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134205	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134205	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Central Sulawesi Lake Poso, Tentena; Pendola south coast; Tindolo east coast on sand. Surface area of Lake Poso 323 km². Crabs found in area surrounding lake.	eng
134205	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on sand of lake and outlet.	eng
134205	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134205	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134206	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134206	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Antioquia and Choco Departments: found only in the Atrato River basin which drains into the Caribbean (Campos 2005).	eng
134206	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,800-2,500 m asl. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. in Colombia.	eng
134206	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134206	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134207	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134207	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Thagata Monte Mooleyit.	eng
134207	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134207	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134207	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134208	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134208	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Napo Province, Amazon slopes of Ecuador. Colombia: Putamayo Department: Caqueta River basin. Southern Colombia in the eastern slope of the Colombian Andes. This species is found in two river basins: the Caqueta and Napo Rivers, affluents fo the Amazon River (Campos 2005).	eng
134208	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 450 and 600 m above sea level.	eng
134208	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134208	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134209	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134209	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	El Salvador: Department Santa Ana, Hacienda Los Planes. Honduras. Guatemala.	eng
134209	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134209	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134209	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134210	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134210	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Southern Mexico, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala. According to Rodriguez (1982) the type locality is unknown, although Nicaragua and Guatemala are mentioned as possible localities. Montecristo,Tabasco, 24,475 km² (Mexico); Nicaragua (130,000 km²); Guatemala (108,889 km²)	eng
134210	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134210	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134210	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134211	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134211	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Caldas Department: eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in th basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134211	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,700-1,800 m asl in the humid forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera.	eng
134211	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134211	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134212	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134212	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: This species occurs in the basins of the coastal rivers in the south of Brazil (mainly in the state of Rio Grande do Sul). The record for Rio de Janeiro is highly doubtful. This species also occurs in URUGUAY (in the basin of the river Uruguai in Paysandu, Rio Negro, Treinta y tres, Durazno, and Tucuarembo Departments); and in ARGENTINA (in Buenos Aires Province).	eng
134212	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in rivers and streams.	eng
134212	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134212	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134213	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134213	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: "montagnes du Laos" present day northeastern Thailand or Laos.	eng
134213	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134213	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134213	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134214	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of highlands of Penang island and monitoring of pollution levels.	eng
134214	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Stream on wedge of rock, with dripping water, Titikarawan Falls, Penang, N Malaysian peninsula, Asia. Endemic to highlands of Penang.	eng
134214	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. This species prefers clean flowing mountain and hill streams and usually hides under rocks and vegetation. Younger specimens have been found in relatively calm pools adjacent to the main stream with water trickling down. Aggressive crab species that can survive out of water for more than an hour without severely weakening.	eng
134214	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a locally common taxon, apparently endemic to the Penang highlands in Penang, Malaysia.	eng
134214	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134215	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures in place.	eng
134215	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: Ketapang, Sei Pelang, west Kalimantan.	eng
134215	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134215	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134216	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134216	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state (78,543 km²): Cachar; Sibsagar; Darband Pass (Alcock 1909).	eng
134216	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information.	eng
134216	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134216	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation, pollution and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134217	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134217	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: From a river near Tectuapan, in northwest Chiapas State (17°28'0"N, 93°9'0"W)	eng
134217	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134217	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134217	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134218	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134218	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tak Province (Mae Nam Moi, Phop Phra District) and Phitsanulok Province in the lower half of northwestern Thailand. Phop Phra District has an area of 1006.5km².	eng
134218	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134218	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134218	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134219	conservation	Lara Esser, Cumberlidge, N., and Darren Yeo, 2008	The continued conservation of Bukit Timah Hill and the associated stream systems in Jungle Fall Valley offers the only hope for survival of this species in Singapore.	eng
134219	distribution	Lara Esser, Cumberlidge, N., and Darren Yeo, 2008	Singapore: Known only from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (no longer found here) and a very small population in a streamlet on a small hill near Bukit Batok. The species is endemic to Singapore.	eng
134219	habitat	Lara Esser, Cumberlidge, N., and Darren Yeo, 2008	This species is found under rocks at the sides of the main stream as well as hiding inside clumps of leaves and detritus, even in almost stagnant pools. It feeds on plant detritus as well as on oligochaete worms, which are present in the soft mud of a stream. Quite terrestrial habits and mainly nocturnal species (Ng 1988). Undisturbed primary hill forest streams.	eng
134219	population	Lara Esser, Cumberlidge, N., and Darren Yeo, 2008	Known only from a very small population in a streamlet on a small hill near Bukit Batok in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.	eng
134219	threats	Lara Esser, Cumberlidge, N., and Darren Yeo, 2008	Loss of forest cover and aquatic pollution. Acidification of water and lowering of water table, probably reducing stream flow and availability of suitable habitats.	eng
134220	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measure are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134220	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Kerala state: Maharastra state: Mahableshwar. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134220	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134220	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134221	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134221	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Chongren (27.7N 116.0E), Linchuan and Pingxiang Counties in Jiangxi Province.	eng
134221	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134221	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134221	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134222	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134222	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma. Two localities are known: Upper Irrawaddy River, Myanmar; Teinzo, Upper Irrawaddy.	eng
134222	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134222	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134222	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134223	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134223	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yangshan and Lechang Counties, Guangdong, southern China. Holotype and one female and one male paratype are from the same locality (1981), then two males (one juvenile) and two females (two juveniles) from a second locality (1964).	eng
134223	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134223	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134223	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134224	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134224	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Annam, central Vietnam, Phuc Son, northern Vietnam. Hoah Binh (Chi Ne), Bac Thai (Ky Phu), nam Trung bo (Phuc Son).	eng
134224	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134224	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. Collected for food so presumably reasonably abundant.	eng
134224	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Eaten, so harvesting might be a threat.	eng
134225	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134225	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India Calcutta.	eng
134225	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134225	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134225	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134226	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134226	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Upper Tenasserim.	eng
134226	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134226	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134226	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134227	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134227	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Jalisco State, Colima State.	eng
134227	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134227	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134227	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134228	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in a protected area.	eng
134228	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagasacar, Antsiranana Province, Parc National de Marojejy (= Marojezy), 13 km SE Doany, on ridge between the Andranomazava and Antsahaberaoka Rivers (14°26.2'S, 49°37.2'E),  northern Madagascar. Well-surveyed for.	eng
134228	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Restricted to montane forest. Caught by hand in undisturbed montane forest (1,070 m asl) on slope with slightly wet ground; one specimens found 20 cm below surface of soil; others collected at 810-875 m asl in pitfall traps.	eng
134228	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from 2 adults (one male and two ovigerous females) and 3 juveniles, all from high altitude (810-1070 m) on the forested slopes of Mount Marojejy in northern Madagascar.	eng
134228	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No threats known.	eng
134229	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134229	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand:  Ban Phoem, King Amphoe Na Yung, Udon Thani Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134229	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134229	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134229	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134230	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134230	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.	eng
134230	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134230	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134230	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134231	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134231	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from four locations, two in Colombia and two in Ecuador. Colombia: It occurs at Sibundoy and Mocoa, Putamayo Department, corresponding to the eastern slope of the Colombian Andes (Campos 2005). Ecuador: The range of this species extends south to the Napo Province in Ecuador. This species is found in two basins: the Caqueta and Napo Rivers which drain to the Amazon River (Rodriguez and von Sternberg 1998).	eng
134231	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 450-1,200 m above sea level.	eng
134231	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134231	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134232	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134232	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Jacatepec River in Santa Marıa, Jacatepec (17851.369N, 96812.309W), Municipio de Santa Marıa Jacatepec, Oaxaca.	eng
134232	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134232	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134232	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134233	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134233	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Xingshan; Zhenzi Commune, Xingshan; Huangliang Commune, Xingshan; Nanyang Commune; Baolong, Xingshan; Pingshui, Xingshan; Sanyang, Xingshan; Honghua Commune, Shennongjia; Wufeng, Xingshan. Also Yichang County.	eng
134233	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134233	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134233	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134234	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134234	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Putamayo Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the Caqueta River Basin which is part of the Amazon River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134234	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134234	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134234	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134235	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The conservation of as many parts of Bau as possible is necessary.	eng
134235	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to the Bau area of Sarawak. More material (one specimen) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Doya in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak, so now known from two locations in this area.	eng
134235	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial to terrestrial. Likely to be in the swampy areas between the limestone formations in Bau.	eng
134235	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134235	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	As the Bau area does not have long-term protection and the species occurs in low-lying areas, it is very vulnerable to anthropogenic and associated effects.	eng
134236	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134236	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yixian and Taiping in Anhui Province.	eng
134236	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134236	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134236	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134237	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134237	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Lake Chapala, Jalisco State, Michoacan State, Guanajuato State.	eng
134237	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the major river systems of Mexico.	eng
134237	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of Mexico.	eng
134237	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134238	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134238	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Departments of Caldas, Risaralda, & Valle del Cauca, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).	eng
134238	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-1,980 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.	eng
134238	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134238	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134239	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134239	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas State: Rancho La Esperanza and San Juan Bosque (Rodriguez, 1992).	eng
134239	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134239	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134239	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134240	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134240	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Turrialla, Province Cartago. Mexico: Atamajac, east Guadalahara, Jalisco State; and San Antonio, Domingo, and San Blas, Nayarit State.	eng
134240	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134240	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134240	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134241	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134241	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Tamil Nadu state. This species is known only from the Palni Hills, a range of hills, an eastward extension of the Western Ghats, southwestern Tamil Nadu state, southern India. The Palni Hills are a continuation of the Anaimalai Hills in Kerala state, the Palni Hills are about 70 km wide and 23 km long, hills terminating abruptly in the south in steep slopes. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134241	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known, probably similar to <em>Snaha aruna</em>, which was collected from a shallow (<15 cm deep) streamlet (<1 m wide), under stones, but at 1,800 m altitude.	eng
134241	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134241	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134242	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134242	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone<br/>Hubei and Sichuan County.  Yuguan, Bayi, and Yangjahe in Wufeng County; Yazikou and  Duzhengwan in Chengyang/Changyang County; Dayan County;  Tianzhushan, Yishang/Yichang County; Yuquan and Zaolin in Dangyang County. Zhijiang County. All in Hubei Province. Plus Pengxian, Dayixian, Guanxian, Wenjiang, Shuangliu, Qionglai, Yaan, Mianyang and Chengdu all in Sichuan Province.	eng
134242	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134242	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134242	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134243	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134243	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taoyuan County (Fuhing, Takuan), Ilan County. About 60 km between Taoyuan and Ilan.	eng
134243	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134243	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134243	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134244	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134244	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Occurs in the western part of the southern Chao Phraya drainage, in an area from Sing Buri Province, Authaya Province, Samud Prakan Province, Ratch Buri and outskirts of Bangkok.	eng
134244	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The specimens from Suphunburi and Samud Prakan were taken from the roots of the water hyacinth. The other specimens were obtained from under small stones in shallow streams with fast-flowing water.	eng
134244	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134244	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134245	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134245	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Choco and the borderline between Choco and Valle del Cauca Departments: found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific (Campos 2005).	eng
134245	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams of the Pacific drainage and has an altitudinal range of between 70-2,000 m asl.	eng
134245	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134245	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134246	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan. This species is known only from the type specimen from Benguela Basin, esat Kalimantan, Borneo.	eng
134246	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134247	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134247	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kingoyo, lower Congo, D R Congo, Central Africa	eng
134247	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134247	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134247	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134248	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134248	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: This species is known only from the type specimen from Agan River, Oriental Mindoro Island of the Philippines (Freitag and Yeo 2004). There have been no records in over 20 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.	eng
134248	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134248	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134248	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134249	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134249	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos:  local market, Luang Prabang Province, northern Laos; tributary of Nam Talan about 3 km S of Ban Nateuy, Nam Tha watershed, Mekong basin, Luang Nam Tha Province, northern Laos.	eng
134249	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134249	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134249	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134250	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134250	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sudanonautes faradjensis is found in the rivers of the rainforest regions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon (Ivindo River, Makokou, 0.6° N 12.9° E) and D. R. Congo. It occurs in the middle reaches of the Congo River basin, and in the rivers Ubangui and Uele, and in the tributaries of the Congo River. The distribution of this species in D. R. Congo (Gombari (=van Kerckhovenville) and Faradje) is described by Rathbun (1921) and Balss (1936), and the distribution in Cameroon (Bipindihof; Boedou stream, subdivision of Banyo; Foumban, Dschang district) by Balss (1929).	eng
134250	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is restricted to the more humid areas of the rainforest from south Cameroon to the D. R. Congo. This species occurs in permanent aquatic habitats from large rivers to small streams. The following notes are based on the observations of Herbert Lang, the leader of the US Congo Expedition, as reported by Rathbun (1921). <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is one of the largest river-living crabs of the Uele district in the Congo River basin. The species is found under stones in quiet portions of the river near rapids, where it is reportedly preyed upon by small crocodiles and carnivorous fish. In Cameroon, <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is sympatric with <em>Potamonemus mambilensis</em>. The local name for <em>S. faradjensis</em> in Cameroon is the "Nyar" crab.	eng
134250	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There have been no studies on population levels and trends in this species but it appears to be abundant based on recent collections of material from several different localities.	eng
134250	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134251	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134251	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo: only known from the type locality, Luebo.	eng
134251	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134251	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134251	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134252	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134252	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: Leopoldville, Kinshasa, Lower Congo. Erimetopus vandenbrandeni is found either in, or near, the Congo River in the vicinity of Kinshasa, D. R. Congo. Balss (1936) based his description on three lots of specimens, all from Kinshasa, and Bott (1955) reported on two female specimens from Kalima (near Kinshasa).	eng
134252	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Probably a river-living species.	eng
134252	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a relatively narrow distribution, is not well represented in  museum collections, and has not been collected (to our knowledge) since 1935 and its population levels are likely to be low. It is known from 20 specimens collected from the same locality (Kinshasa, D. R. Congo) on 12 different occasions between 1925 and 1931,  and from specimens collected from Kalima which is near Kinshasa.	eng
134252	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Threats unknown.	eng
134253	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is a widespread and abundant species, has been collected recently and its conservation status is secure. This species is found in a number of protected areas including the Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia (Pe´rinet-Re´serve), the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Parc National d’Andringitra and the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre.	eng
134253	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Sakaleone river; Toamasina (formerly Tamatave); Andrafiavelo (Sakarava); Analamazastra river, Toamasina, Moramanga; Beforona, freshwater stream between Tananarive and Toamasina; Analamazastra river, forest streams; Analamazastra river, Moramanga; Ambodiriana, road to Lakato, Moramanga;  Road to Toamasina, from lake<br/>near Mandrake dam; Ambodiriana, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Analamazastra river. Madagascar. This species is found in the streams and rivers between Tananarive and Toamasina, in the region between Bombetok and Tananarive, and in the Sakaleone river near Mahela. Mangoro River, affluent of Tetivato River, basin of Mangoro River, Betafo, 840 m asl, 18°52.37S, 48°06.55E, affluent of Lantara River, basin of the Manampatrana River, Andringitra, 1,370 m asl; Ambatandrano River, basin of the Namorona River Ambatandrano, 775m asl; Vakoho River, basin of Sakanila River, Lakato road, 812 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, Lakato road, 1,050 m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, base camp, 1,075 m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, Mt Ambre-Aval, 1,040 m asl; Sahatany River, basin of Rianila River, Perinet-Reserve, Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia, 935m asl; camp on road to Lakato, 1,075 m asl; Manambolo River, basin of Ivondro River, Ampasimadinika, 444 m asl; Tsaratango River, basin of Namorona River, Tsaratango, 585m asl; basin of Namorona River, Hotel Domaine nature; Tsaratango River, basin of Namorona River, 537 m asl; Sahatandra River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodirina, 980 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, affluent of Sahatandra River, 1,050 m asl;  basin of Rianila River, Lakato road, 1,050 m asl; Gri-Gri, Ilazana River, basin of Rianila River, 430 m; Beharena River, basin of Betsiboka River, Antaniditra, 1,370 m asl; basin of Rianila River, affluent of Sahatandra River, Moramanga, 800m asl; Sandrakatrana River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodiaviavy, 420 m asl; Sandrakatrana River, basin of Rianila River, Ambodaviavy, 325 m asl; basin of Rianila River, Perinet-Reserve, Parc National d’Andasibe-Mantadia, 900 m asl; 15 km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 980m asl; Makis River, basin of Antongombato River, northern affluent, 990 m asl; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 75m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1,050 m asl; Moramanga, basin of Mangoro River, 940 m asl, Anosibe An’ala, basin of Mangoro River, 960 m asl; Sahatandra River, cascade de Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 975 m asl; Sahatandra River, 200m before the bridge, basin of Rianila River, 1050m asl; 15km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 975m asl; 15 km east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 980m asl; east of Morarano, basin of Rianila River, 975m asl; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 1,075 m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1,050 m asl; road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 0m asl; camp on road to Lakato; camp on road to Lakato, basin of Rianila River, 1,075 m asl; Iantara River, basin of Manampatrana River, Andringitra, camp I, 1,350 m asl; Lakato road, basin of Rianila River, 1050m asl; Amaringilra; basin of Rianila River.	eng
134253	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is found in the streams and rivers mainly in the northern, central and south-eastern regions of the island (in Fianarantsoa, Antananarivo, Toamasina and Antsiranana Provinces). A total of 53 different localities are known for <em>H. agilis</em> from the literature (Rabeharisoa 1996, Cumberlidge 1997, Cumberlidge and Boyko 2001, Cumberlidge and Sternberg 2002). <em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is found in the rivers and streams of eight major river basins in five out of six Madagascan provinces in latitudes between 12° and 22°S, and from a lake near Mandraka, Toamasina Province. These river drainages are Antongombato (Antsiranana Province), Betsiboka (Antananarivo Province), Namorona and Manampatrana (Fianarantsoa Province), and Rianila, Mangoro, Ivondro and Sakanila (Toamasina Province). There are no records for this species from Mahajanga Province. The localities in the Betsiboka river basin are all at high elevations (1,220–1,370 m asl) in the clean fast-flowing tributaries of the highlands of Antananarivo Province. <em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> has been collected from a range of elevations from sea level (a stream in the drainage of the Rianila River) to 1,800 m asl in the headwaters of the Tsiribihina River.	eng
134253	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa agilis</em> is a large and common species that is sympatric with <em>H. madagascariensis</em> in the Ambatandrano River in the Manampatrana river basin in Andringitra (775 m asl ), and in the Iantara River (1,370 m asl ).	eng
134253	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134254	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134254	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Valle del Cauca Department: Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134254	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m asl.	eng
134254	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134254	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134255	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134255	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Cana.	eng
134255	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134255	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134255	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134256	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134256	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: That Luang swamp/wetlands, outside Vientianne. Also Thailand.	eng
134256	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common in rice fields and wetlands. This species appears to be territorial and quarrelsome, with larger individuals often attacking smaller conspecifics. Normally they burrow into mud down to depth of at least 50 cm. This species is an important predator of the invasive gastropod the Golden Apple snail (<em>Pomacea canaliculata</em>), which is a major pest on rice and other aquatic plants in southeast Asian wetlands.	eng
134256	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134256	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No threats known.	eng
134257	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134257	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Ruijin (25.8N 116.0 E) in Jiangxi Province. In mountains bordering Fujian Province in southeast Jiangxi Province.	eng
134257	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134257	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134257	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134258	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134258	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yuxi County (24 4N, 102 5'E), Yunnan Province.	eng
134258	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134258	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134258	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134259	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134259	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yiwu village, Mengla, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan.	eng
134259	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134259	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134259	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134260	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134260	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), and Uruguay(Rodriguez, 1992).  In Paraguay it is found in the drainage basins of the rivers Uruguai and Parana, and from Arroyo Pindo at a bridge on a dirt highway (route 3) ca. 9 km N of Mbutuy, and from ca. 67 km N of Coronel Oviedo, Rıo Manduvira, San Pedro/Caaguazu.	eng
134260	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in rivers and streams.	eng
134260	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134260	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134261	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134261	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Amazonas Department: Sitio La Sabana, Centro Providencia, Comunidad Makuna, Corregimiento La Pedrera, in the Amazon basin as far as the Caqueta River in the upper Amazon basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134261	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Colombia in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 190-200 m asl.	eng
134261	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134261	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134262	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134262	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mindanao, Philippines.	eng
134262	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134262	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134262	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134263	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134263	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Salakpet; Ko Chang; Koh Kut, Ko Chang; Than Mayom waterfall, Ko Chang, Trat Province.	eng
134263	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134263	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134263	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134264	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134264	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cordoba Department. The distribution of this species is restricted to the Sinu River which drains into the Caribbean at the northernmost corner of Colombia at a distance of more than 800 km from the main distribution area of the genus (Campos 2005).	eng
134264	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134264	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134264	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134265	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134265	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: known from a number of localities in Risaralda Department in the western and eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera (Campos 2005).	eng
134265	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,350-1,600 m asl in the forested western and eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.	eng
134265	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134265	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134266	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.	eng
134266	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Found throughout most of southern Thailand (Ko Samui, Trang Province, Nakhon Si Tammarat Province, Chumpon Province, Surat Thani Province) and its outlying islands down to northern Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysia: reaching south to Perak and possibly Selangor. E.g. in the states of Perlis and Kedah (6.29.39N, 100.15.30E; 6.29.30N, 100.15.30E; 6.23.58N, 99.50.05E; 6.23.58N, 99.50.05E; 6.21.06N, 99.52.10E).	eng
134266	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Collected from under rocks, stones, at the base of water plants, and in clumps of vegetation. This species prefers relatively shallow and slow flowing streams with clean water. The substrate is usually sand, not mud. It has been collected in lower sections of waterfalls. It can excavate depressions under rocks for shelter during the day and forage towards dusk and during the night. <br/>It has also been found very close to the sea and can almost certainly tolerate tidal changes and small changes in salinity. <br/><br/>Not an aggressive species, can be kept together in relatively large numbers without loss of limb or damage, unless they're moulting. This species found in same area as Somanniathelphusa sexpunctata. <br/><br/>Found in a shallow stream with about 1.6m/s flow rate	eng
134266	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134266	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134267	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134267	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Caldas Department, Manzapares (1870 m asl), tributary of Rio Magdalena, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).	eng
134267	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,870 m asl in the humid eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River.	eng
134267	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134267	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134268	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134268	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Bato Lake, Luzon.	eng
134268	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134268	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134269	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134269	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Longlin, Guangxi.	eng
134269	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134269	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134269	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134270	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134270	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: northwestern India (Punjab: Bilaspur; Kangra; Dharampur near Simla; Simla, Kumason. Himachal Pradesh). NEPAL: western to central Nepal (Gandaki, Lumbini and Narayani Provinces). Nepal, N-India. Nepal: Silatpati, Sarda Khola, 3500 ft, Nepal; Dhadama Khola, Jarepipal, Palpa, Palpa district, Lumbini Province,Western Region, 27? 48.741 N, 083? 31.433 E, Alt. 764 m, 10.01.00; Chundi Khola, Tanahu near Dumre, Tanahu district, Gandaki Province, Western Region, 27? 57.559  N, 084? 24.891 E, Alt. 450 m; Daune Khola, Daune, Nawalparasi district, Lumbini province, Central region, 27? 33.336 N, 083? 50.523 E, Alt. 500 m; Phusre Khola (tributary of Buldi Khola) Ranigaon, Tanahu, Tanahu district, Gandaki Province, Western Region, 27? 59.409  N, 084? 16.727 E; Lumbini Province, Western Region, 27? 48.894  N, 083? 32.019 E, Alt. 615 m; Armadi Khola, Waling, Syangja district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 27? 59.625 N, 083? 46.758  E, Alt. 618 m; right tributary of Jugedi Khola, Jugedi, Chitawan, Makawanpur district, Narayani province, Central region, 27? 46.024 N, 084? 28.182 E, Alt. 285 m,; Bhut Khola at Bhut Pul, Palpa, Palpa district, Lumbini Province, Western Region, 27? 44.743 N, 083? 28.508 E, Alt. 840 m (origin from Siwalik hills),; Samari Khola, Samari bridge, Hetauda, Makawanpur district, Narayani province, Central region, 27? 27.383 N, 08502.55  E, Alt. 474 m. Type locality:INDIA: Bilaspur or Kangra, Punjab. Distribution: Northwestern India, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, western to central Nepal.	eng
134270	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134270	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134270	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134271	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134271	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Bac Thai Province, northern Vietnam.	eng
134271	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134271	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134271	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134272	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134272	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Yemen: Socotra Island (3,625 km²). Waterfall in the western part of the Nojid plane at the escarpment (12.20.271N, 53.37.894E).	eng
134272	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has only been recorded to occur in the type locality which is a series of waterfalls and rock pools at the base of the escarpment in the western part of the Nojid plane on the south coast of Socotra island.	eng
134272	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134272	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
134273	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134273	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Langbian Peaks, south Annam, Viet Nam.	eng
134273	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134273	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134273	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134274	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134274	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico. From 10 km south of Valle Nacional, Oaxaca, Mexico (1°7"42'N, 96"19'W) at an altitude of 600 m, in a stream; collected in 1971.	eng
134274	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134274	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134274	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134275	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134275	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Okinawa, Amami and Tokunoshima; Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134275	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134275	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134275	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134276	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134276	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: Tschopo river near Stanleyville (Kisangani). Also Lake Kivu.	eng
134276	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Small streams that flow into the Tshoipo River in the upper Congo river basin.	eng
134276	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134276	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134277	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134277	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma: This genus is found in Myanmar, the actual type locality of <em>L. barbouri</em> should therefore be regarded as <em>incertae cedis</em> for the time being, but probably somewhere in northern India. Distribution assumed Myanmar (Yeo's thesis 2000). Also possibly from “Buitenzorg (=Bogor), Java, Indonesia”, coll. T. Barbour, 1906-1907.	eng
134277	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134277	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134277	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134278	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134278	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Ban Xieng Dad, Muang Phu Kit (Muang Sui), Xieng Khuang Province, Northern Laos.	eng
134278	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134278	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134278	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134279	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	protection of highland drainages.	eng
134279	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Almost certainly endemic to Sarawak.	eng
134279	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Considering the physiognomy of the species, it is likely to be fully aquatic and probably occurs in clean mountain streams.	eng
134279	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134279	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known. Species known only from old museum material.	eng
134280	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.  No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134280	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hong Kong: stream at Wu Kwai Sha, Kwun Yum Shan stream and Tai Po Kau Forest Reserve in New Territories; The Peak, Hong Kong (Kemp 1918).	eng
134280	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species appears to be most numerous in shaded shallow streams with clear, fast-flowing water, rocky substratum, and accumulations of leaf-litter, which serve as shelter and food. It is not found in polluted waters. For a potamid, this species is timid and specimens can be kept together without much damage to one another.	eng
134280	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134280	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134282	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134282	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Darjeeling state: Darjeeling District: Punkabari, Darleeling. Sikkim state: a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. TheTeesta valley, Sikkim, recieves intense rainfall, even for the eastern Himalaya. Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Meghalaya state: Garo Hills, part of the Garo-Khasi range. NEPAL: Thankot Hills, Kathmandu valley, 10 km from Kathmandu. Assam state: Cherra Punji, a village in the Khasi Hills which have some of the heaviest rainfall on the globe; Daphla (or Dafla) Hills, a tract of hilly country on the border of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Bhutan: Phuntsholing (200 m). (Alcock, 1910; Bott, 1970)	eng
134282	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134282	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134282	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134283	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jianfengling, Hainan Island.	eng
134283	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134283	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134283	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134284	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134284	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Afghanistan and western Pakistan, western tributaries of the Indus River. Afghanistan: Kandahar, Kabul, Parvan, Farah, Faryab, Jawzjan, Nangarhar, Kunar, Herat, Patkia, Helmand, Bamiyan, and Parvan Provinces. Pakistan: Northwest Frontier Province. Beluchistan Province: Pond of Shisba River, 6,440 ft, Beluchistan; Barshor River, Peshin Valley, Beluchistan. India: Salt Range, Punjab; near Hallur, Habar; Beluchistan; Seistan; Quetta; Peshawur.	eng
134284	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134284	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134284	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134285	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134285	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: Santa Fe de Bogota, slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 2,200-2,900 m asl. Also Sabana de Bogota, Bogata area, Magdalena watershed (Campos 2005).	eng
134285	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,200 and 2,900 m asl.	eng
134285	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134285	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134286	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134286	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra: This species is known only from the type specimen from the Mentawei Islands (a series of four islands off the coast of Sumatra). There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134286	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134286	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134286	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134287	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134287	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	El Salvador. Berg Caguatique, Dept. Morazan near Osicala.	eng
134287	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134287	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134287	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134288	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134288	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shangyong, Xishuangbannam Yunnan Province.	eng
134288	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134288	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134288	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134289	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134289	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Oaxaca State, Cueva del Brujo, Rancho el Guayabo, 4 km south of Jacatepec, Municipio Velle Nacionale. This species is known only from one cave and has a very particular morphology. Samples from other caves in the region suggest that this species is restricted only to the type locality in Cueva del Brujo, in Municpio de Valle Nacional, Oaxaca.	eng
134289	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from one cave and has a very particular morphology.	eng
134289	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134289	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from one cave and represents a very particular morphology. Samples from other caves in the region suggest that this species is restricted only to the type locality in Cueva del Brujo, in Municpio de Valle Nacional, Oaxaca. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134290	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134290	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Arbor County (present day Arbor State, Arunchal Pradesh), India.	eng
134290	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134290	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134290	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134291	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134291	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Antioquia Department: eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134291	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 950-1,600 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera.	eng
134291	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134291	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134292	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134292	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Nhu Xuan District, Thanh Hoa Province , northern Vietnam; Nghe Tinh Province, central Vietnam.	eng
134292	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134292	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134292	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134293	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Current national and international conservation efforts aimed at preventing populations of freshwater crabs in the Mediterranean region from decline are generally inadequate due to a general lack of knowledge of crab ecology and biology, and to long-term neglect (until recently) driven by the low economic value of these animals. The distribution of <em>P. fluviatile</em> in the Southern Tuscan Apennines (and presumably in the rest of its range) is not obviously associated with any biotic or abiotic parameters (Vannini and Gherardi 1981, Barbaresi <em>et al</em>. 2007). For example, this species is not highly sensitive to environmental conditions and occurs in waters that have relatively high minimum and maximum temperatures, variable oxygen levels, a wide range of dissolved ions, and different bedrock types. In addition, high concentrations of calcium in their water does seem to affect crabs, presumably because calcium is an essential element for crustacean exoskeletons. Informal field observations of river crabs in urban areas indicate that <em>P. fluviatile</em> may be quite resistant to some kinds of water pollution.<br/><br/>Leaf litter is a common component of the diet of crabs but it is not the sole source of protein for these animals (Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1987). Shelters and burrows in streams are vital for survival because adult crabs seek refuge either in burrows or under riparian vegetation and juvenile crabs hide under pebbles and cobbles to avoid predation by fishes and adult conspecifics. The conservation of these freshwater crabs depends heavily on habitat protection and the preservation of freshwater ecosystems. Given the crisis that populations of native freshwater decapods are facing (Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Füreder <em>et al</em>. 2002) it is imperative that conservation planners make the most effective use of information currently available. The protection of river crabs needs to be strongly regulated at all levels of legislation (from community to regional levels) in order to guarantee the preservation of crabs throughout their distributional range. In Italy, <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> is protected by local regulations and regional laws but these have been adopted by only a few regions (Latium, Tuscany, Liguria, and Abruzzo), and are often not sufficient to preserve this species from decline. For example, crabs are not found in every part of suitable habitats within their range. The presence of crabs in some streams and their absence in similar streams nearby may be the result of over-exploitation by fishermen who continue to poach crabs despite the protection of crabs by local laws, an explanation that is supported by reports from local people and by long-term researchers. Today the pressure on freshwater resources ranges from moderate to intense, and some species have either been reduced or even locally extirpated from parts of their range. There is at present very little effective management and conservation in many parts of the distributional range of this species. Existing plans for managing aquatic inland resources primarily focus on water use and do not include specific, enforceable monitoring and management objectives, conservation actions, and little being done to <br/>protect either aquatic habitats and communities or endangered and threatened species.<br/><br/><strong>Recommendations</strong>. Rivers and streams should be protected against drying. Perennial rivers, and those rivers that normally flow for only part of the year, should be protected against extended seasonal drought because these are vital habitats for aquatic freshwater animals. Stream and river beds should not be concreted to make channels and water pollution should be prevented. Water pollution should be prevented, and the collection of crabs for food should either be banned or regulated.	eng
134293	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Potamon fluviatile has a highly fragmented geographic distribution over a wide area in a number of countries that have a Mediterranean coastline. This species is found in Italy (Trento, Lombardia, Veneto, Liguria, Toscana, Umbria, Lazio, Campania, Puglia, Calabria, Sicily Provinces), the Maltese Islands (Malta and Gozo), the Balkan Peninsula (Croatia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania), and Greece (western mainland Greece plus the Ionian islands and western Aegean islands). In mainland Greece the Axios River in the Macedonian Province marks the easternmost point of its distribution. It is found in the Axios,Kalamas, Aheron, and Arachthos River drainages, and in Peloponnesos in the Pinios, Piros-Tethreas, Pamisos, and Evrota River drainages. The distribution of P. fluviatile also includes the provinces of Pella, Trikala, Larisa, Fthiotis, Prevenza, Aitolia-Akarnania in western Greece, and the Peloponnesian provinces of Korinthia, Arkadia, and Lakonia. Potamon fluviatile is also found on the Ionian islands (Kerkyra (=Corfu), Kefallinia, Lefkas, Zaknythos (=Zante)); on the Northern Sporades Islands: Skiathos and Skopelos islands (Magnesia Province), Evvoia island and Skyros island (Evvoia Province), and in the Cyclades island of Andros.	eng
134293	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers, streams and lakes throughout its range. In the Northern Apennine mountains in Tuscany, Central Italy, <em>P. fluviatile</em> lives in streams that are part of the Arno and Reno river basins (ranging from 155 to 596 m a.s.l.) that flow through wooded areas over both calcareous and siliceous rocks (Nocita <em>et al</em>. 2006, Barbaresi <em>et al</em>. 2007). In streams and rivers crabs shelter under stones or among vegetation, or they rest in their burrows dug into the banks; burrows are up to 50 cm deep and have water at the bottom. Crabs are most active between May and October, after which (i.e., from November to February) they are less active and hibernate either in natural refuges or inside burrows (Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1988, Gherardi <em>et al</em>. 1998). Crabs feed at night either in water or on land, and they are opportunists that consume a wide variety of food items, that is either dead or alive, plant of animal. Food items include vegetable matter, tadpoles, insects, small frogs, and fish. Crabs have few predators, but they are vulnerable to habitat degradation, over-harvesting, and pollution (despite the population of crabs in an unpolluted part of the city of Rome). Young crabs are more aquatic than adults, and females mate in late spring and release hatchlings in summer. Crabs are semi-terrestrial and spend time out of water either at night or in the day when it is raining. Crabs are capable of dispersal by walking on land across relatively short distances to reach nearby streams.	eng
134293	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Population levels of <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> have declined dramatically in recent years throughout its range. This trend towards a decline in population levels is often explained as the result of factors such as pollution, overharvesting, and habitat damage (Matthews and Reynolds 1995, Gherardi and Holdich 1999). More recently, the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish species into southern European waters may pose a further threat to freshwater crab survival (Gherardi and Holdich 1999). In the Maltese islands <em>P. fluviatile</em> has disappeared from a number of valleys either because its habitat has dried up, or because the springs that feed the water body have been polluted, or because it has been over-harvested by humans for food. In Greece, crabs used to be common in the Gallicos River system on the plain west of Thessaloniki, but none were found in surveys in the 1990s. This loss is attributed to the introduction of intensive agriculture here in the 1970s-1980s and to the increased use of insecticides, pesticides, and water draw-off for irrigation (Pretzmann 1993). Similarly, in 1978 the only living population of crabs on the island of Andros (Cyclades) was found near Meldano, and crabs were not found during searches elsewhere on the island where these animals.	eng
134293	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Many freshwater habitats in the Mediterranean region where <em>P. fluviatile</em> occurs (Italy, Greece and the Maltese Islands) are increasingly subjected to unprecedented levels of human disturbance, and the future rate of species extirpation in these habitats is predicted to be almost five times greater than that for terrestrial animals and three times that of coastal marine mammals (Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1999). For example, since 1900 Greece has lost an estimated 75% of its wetlands due mainly to human activities. Many populations of river crabs are now in urgent need protection, especially those populations that are found on the Mediterranean islands. <em>Potamon fluviatile</em> is associated with streams and rivers and it is important that these habitats be protected from pollution and drying out. Growth of agro-business (for fruits and agrarian products) and of tourism (hotels) have caused local water pollution and have placed large demands on the supply of fresh water. Also, increasing use of pesticides and insecticides on fields has caused increasing contamination of ground water, ponds, and streams. In some places stream beds have been concreted to make water channels and this has adversely affected crab populations by preventing them from digging burrows for shelter and breeding. An increasing volume of water is being extracted from streams and rivers in pipelines to supply hotels, factories, villages, industry and agriculture, and this is causing drying and a subsequent loss of aquatic habitat. <br/><br/>Interestingly, studies on <em>P. fluviatile</em> in Italy indicate that the main factors affecting its distribution are anthropogenic pressures and uncontrolled harvesting rather than specific alterations to the biotic and abiotic parameters of its aquatic habitat.<br/><br/>Studies in mainland Greece indicate that <em>P. fluviatile</em> may be threatened by pollution and habitat alterations. Populations of this species in the Axios River delta (along with the Aliakmon delta and Loudias and Gallikos rivers) live in a protected area that consists of wetlands of great ecological and international importance (Ramsar convention). However, even this habitat is now threatened by industrial pollution (from the disposal of industrial solids and liquid wastes from tanneries, slaughterhouses, pig farms, and phosphoric fertilizer factories), by sewage sludge, and by water extraction for irrigation and electric power production. Additional threats to crab habitat come from pesticides and herbicides, uncontrolled river sand extraction, alluvial deposits, overgrazing, overfishing, poaching, and arbitrary building.	eng
134294	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
134294	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Potamon setiger is found in the following countries: southeastern Turkey (in Konya, Kahraman Maras, Gaziantep, and Hatay Provinces), in Syria (in Halab, Hama, and Idlib Provinces), and in Lebanon (in Al-Bika Province). This species occurs in the basin of the Orontes River (which originates in Lebanon and flows through Syria into Turkey), the Afrin River (which flows from Turkey to the northwestern part of Syria and returns to the Alexandretta region that borders Turkey and Syria), and the Ceyhan River (in Turkey).	eng
134294	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potamon setiger</em> is found in springs, streams and rivers in southeastern Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
134294	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134294	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and pollution associated with industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134295	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134295	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: River Song Da (=riviere noire) inTonkin.	eng
134295	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134295	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134295	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134296	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134296	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: tributary of Rio Labones, west of Santa Isabel.	eng
134296	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Ecuador.	eng
134296	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134296	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134297	conservation	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None in place.	eng
134297	distribution	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	China: Fuyuan County, Qujing City, Yunnan Province, coll. 28 Jul. 2005.	eng
134297	habitat	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Rivers and streams. Rivers and streams. This species is a second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.	eng
134297	population	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134297	threats	Cumberlidge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134298	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134298	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Mato Grosso State, restricted to the region to the north of the pantanal matogrosso in the Paraguay River basin at Matto Grosso (Mato Grosso, Jauro River, Pto Esperidiao).	eng
134298	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and bay areas, occurring between the roots and aquatic macrophytes, between cracks and holes of submerged and emerged dead tree trunks close to the water level and outside of water, under tree trunks and objects close to the edge.	eng
134298	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134298	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134299	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134299	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.	eng
134299	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134299	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134299	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134300	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134300	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Rio San Pedro, Bocas del Toro (1978).	eng
134300	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134300	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134300	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134301	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134301	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Boyaca and Cundinamarca Departments: Bogota, between 950-1,250 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordillerias of Colombia (Campos 2005).	eng
134301	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 950-1,250 m asl.	eng
134301	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134301	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134302	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134302	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Boyang (29.0 N, 116.6 E); Qianshan and Duchang, Jiangxi Province. Also Yanshan in Jiangxi (Dai, 1999).	eng
134302	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134302	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134302	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134303	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kaeng Chet Khwae National Park covers Khao Krayang National Reserved Forest which is partly in Tambon Kaeng Sopha of Wang Thong district, Phitsanulok province.	eng
134303	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Wang Thong District, Phitsanulok Province, in the lower half of northwestern Thailand. Wang Thong District has an area of 1,687 km².	eng
134303	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is the smallest potamid from Thailand (cw 12.8 mm adult).	eng
134303	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134303	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134304	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134304	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: The species is known only from two very close localities between Gudalur and Manjery, Tamil Nadu, southeastern India.	eng
134304	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were from a very shallow stream (<1 m wide, <10 cm deep), in a well-shaded area. The substrate of the stream was mostly gravel and small stones. All the crabs were found from under small stones.	eng
134304	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available	eng
134304	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134305	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134305	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Tamil Nadu: southern India, Nilgiris Hills. Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains spanning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southern India. The species is known only from the type locality, Mudumalai, Nilgiris, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134305	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecology not known.	eng
134305	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134305	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Inadequate infrastructure, proliferation of slums, inappropriate tourist infrastructure, lack of liquid and solid waste management systems, lack of coordination and conflicting interest of government agencies plague the Nilgris district (online edition of India's National Newspaper. Sunday, Oct 02, 2005. Nilgiris: An action plan to save the hills by Dharmalingam Venugopal).	eng
134306	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.	eng
134306	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Ghana (West Africa).	eng
134306	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This small species of freshwater crab is endemic to Ghana where it is known from six localities. The type and paratypes come from a stream about 9 km north of Kibi, which is near to Puso Puso, about 7 km west of Asiakwa, about 90 km north of Accra.	eng
134306	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134306	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134307	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134307	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands. Okinawa island has an area of 2,272 km².	eng
134307	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134307	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known from 7-8 localities. Found in locally small numbers.	eng
134307	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This island is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134308	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134308	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: El Coronel.	eng
134308	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama.	eng
134308	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A rare species.	eng
134308	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134309	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134309	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cauca, Choco, and Valle del Cauca Departments: San Juan River Basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134309	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams of the Pacific drainage and has an altitudinal range of between 500-1,600 m asl	eng
134309	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134309	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134310	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134310	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei, Sichuan, Henan, Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces. Zigui, Yichang, Xingshan, Chongyang, Badong, Wufeng counties in Hubei Province. Shizhu, Dazu, Pingwu, Qingchuan, Jiange, Kaijiang, Yungyang, Kaixian, Wanxian, Liangping, Zhongxian, Dianjiang, Fengdu, Changshou, Peiling, Wulong, Chongqing, Beibei, Nantong, Hechuan, Daxian counties in Sichuan Province. Luanchuan county in Henan Province. Zhenan county in Shaanxi Province. Wenxian county in Gansu Province.	eng
134310	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134310	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134310	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134311	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area in Tham Tharn Lod National Park.	eng
134311	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Central Kanchanaburi Province (Tham Tharn Lod waterfall and Tritung waterfall, Bo Phloi district; and Thong Pha Phum District), central Thailand.	eng
134311	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134311	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134311	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134312	conservation	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None in place.	eng
134312	distribution	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	China: Junjuang River, Xueli Village, Gaocun Rural, Mayang Miao autonomous county, Hu’nan Province, coll. 26 Jul. 2005.	eng
134312	habitat	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.	eng
134312	population	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134312	threats	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134313	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134313	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: North of Amazonas State, Rio Marauia, and the upper region of Rio Negro, close to the Venezuelan border.	eng
134313	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134313	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134313	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134314	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134314	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Amani Island and Tokunoshima Island, Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134314	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134314	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134314	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134315	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134315	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Siam, montagnes du Laos (= northeastern Thailand).	eng
134315	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134315	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134315	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134316	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Road between Bombetok and Tananarive; Imerimandrosa; Tananarive; Forest, Manambato Valley, North of Tsaratanana Mountains; Lake Alaotra, North of Antananarivo (formerly Tananarive); Toamasina; Chambendiana river.	eng
134316	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is found in streams, rivers and lakes in the north-western, central and south-eastern regions of Madagascar in Antsiranana, Antananarivo and Toamasina provinces. <em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is found in five major river basins in three provinces between 13° and 24°S, from the Tsaratanana massif in the north, to the Marotsy River near Androkabe in the south-east. <em>Hydrothelphusa goudoti</em> is not known from either the north-western Province of Mahajanga or the western and southern Province of Toliara (except for the extreme south-east of this province), and there are no records from Fianarantsoa Province.	eng
134316	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134316	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Although <em>H. goudoti</em> is locally common in the central highlands of Madagascar and is offered for sale in the market in Antananarivo, it is still known from only a few localities.	eng
134317	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None needed for the immediate future.	eng
134317	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Throughtout most of southern Thailand (Sai Kau and Cape Patani). Malaysia: northern Peninsular Malaysia, including Pulau Langkawi.	eng
134317	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Aquatic. Common in shallow stagnant bodies of water, especially in paddy fields and ponds. It digs relatively deep burrows (30 cm or more) by the sides of bunds, usually several centimetres above the water level, but sometimes metres away. Base of burrow is below the water table. Small animals hide in submerged vegetation and do not appear to dig burrows. High tolerance for anoxic water conditions. <br/>Nocturnal species, which are pests on rice fields, but are collected in traps. Natural enemies are herons, kingfishers, waterfowl and otters.<br/><br/>This species is peaceful and unaggressive, therefore adapts well to captivity. It moults when completely submerged in the aquarium and will only completely harden after two days.	eng
134317	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134317	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat. One concern is that if there is over-use of pesticides in rice-cultivation etc., the species will be severely affected.	eng
134318	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134318	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines, island of Bohol (caves), Asia. Quinapon-an Cave, Antequera, Bohol.	eng
134318	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous, muddy bottom on subterranean stream, 20 to 30 cm deep, about 300 m from entrance.	eng
134318	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134318	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134319	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134319	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Heping, Guangdong Province.	eng
134319	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134319	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134319	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134320	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134320	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. Original specimen found 100 years ago, in 2004 another specimen was found, so now known from two localities.	eng
134320	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134320	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134320	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134321	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134321	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality in Brazil, northwest of Amazonas, in the mountain range of the Sierra do Curicuriari in the upper region of the Rio Negro. The type material was collected 300 m above sea level in the extreme NW of Brazil not far from the Venezuelan and Colombian borders.	eng
134321	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat and ecology of this species is inferred from the type locality, found in the rivers and streams of the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134321	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134321	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134322	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).	eng
134322	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Amazonas State: upper Rio Negro basin, surroundings of Balawa-ú village. Venezuela in the upper Rio Negro region. Guyana.	eng
134322	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Guyana and Brazil in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The Balawa-ú village is situated at 01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela. Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but is distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin. This is a large (carapace breadth >60 mm) terrestrial species that is commonly found in moist areas of the forest floor, usually inside burrows close to tree roots and not very far from the water body. It is distributed in the upper Rio Negro basin, mainly in the left bank tributaries, but its geographical range encompasses Venezuela, Brazil and Guyana (Magalhães and Rodríguez 2002).	eng
134322	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134322	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.	eng
134323	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134323	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Mahalona, Lake Towuti, and Lake Matano. Lake Mahalona (2°34'0'' S, 121°31'0'' E). Lake Mahalona (north and west coast) (2°33'54.3"S 121°29'44.1"E) and (2°35'57.2"S 121°28'9.2"E; 2°35'57.2"S 121°28'19.2"E); Sungai Mahalona, 12 km from Lake Mahalona (2°36'65.8"S 121°31'06.4"E). Lake Towuti, 3 km South of Timampu (2°46'53.5"S 121°26'26.0"E). Lake Matano (2°31'48.7"S 121°27'9.9"E; 02°30.43'S 121°19.96'E) Lengko laro (Nautilo-Bay). All three lakes are interconnected by fast-flowing streams.	eng
134323	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crabs found on sand and under rocks or on muddy substrate in soft sediment. All three lakes are interconnected by fast-flowing streams.	eng
134323	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134323	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).	eng
134324	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The watershed area according to the National Tourism Authority of Lao has been identified to have high potential for both culture and nature tourism. A larger Luang Namtha province eco-tourism project is also in place.	eng
134324	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Tributaries of Nam Tha River, Luang Nam Tha Province, northern Laos; Nam Luang about 1km upstream of Ban Nam Luang, ((21°9'5"N 101°20'34"E) Nam Tha watershed; tributary of Nam Talan about 3 km south of Ban Nateuy, Nam Tha Watershed, Mekong basin, Luang Nam Tha Province.	eng
134324	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134324	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134324	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Threats for Nam Tha watershed in general include slash and burn agriculture, hunting of wildlife for food, road building which is reducing habitat and improving access for hunting and harvesting by outsiders, harvest of timber resources<br/>Also free ranging domestic animals, which disturb wildlife populations, compete for habitat, spread diseases, and increase probabilities of depredation of livestock by wildlife.	eng
134325	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134325	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Serranía de Los Paraguas, Cordillera Occidental. Paso de Galápagos, Serranía de Los Paraguas (4º47’30’’N, 76º09’02’’W), 2,500 m asl, approximatley 11 km NE of the Municipio de El Cairo, Departamento del Valle del Cauca.	eng
134325	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crabs were collected in a stream, brook, small river (apparently without a name), in madrigueras and small pools, hidden underneath humid vegetation. Muddy substrate, with a predominance of abundant organic matter.	eng
134325	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information.	eng
134325	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134326	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Cameron Highlands area.	eng
134326	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality: Gunong Brinchang, Cameron Highlands, Pahang (ca. 4 31'N, 101 23'E), exceeding 1,900 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134326	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not well-known.	eng
134326	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134326	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134327	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134327	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona, south Sulawesi; Lake Towuti (2°42'37.7"S 121°26'26.0"E; 2°40'53.5"S 121°26'06.9"E; 2°50.74'S 121°26.09'E; 02°40.89'S 121°41.49'E; 2°36'38.1"S 121°31'51.7"E).	eng
134327	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lakes. Collected when clinging to a rock in strong current, some collected with sands and rocks, others collected under rocks and sandstone terraces.	eng
134327	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This lake-living species is found in a large number of localities, but the extent of occurrence is small (< 50km²).	eng
134327	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134328	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134328	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Federal Territory of the Amazon, San Carlos de Rio Negro, Amazon drainage, Amazonas State. The type locality is San Carlos de Rio Negro in the state of Amazonas in the Negro River. Colombia: southeastern region of Colombia: Guaviare, Vaupes and Amazon Departments which correspond to the Negro, Guiviare, and Caqueta River basins (Campos 2005). Brazil: state of Amazonas, upper Rio Negro.	eng
134328	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 130-300 m asl and is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134328	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134328	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134329	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134329	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea:  This species is known only from the type specimen from Finim Tel Plateau, Bahrman Mountains near Mt Fugilil Dabom, West Sepik District, Territory of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 25 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134329	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous crab, muddy sump pool connecting extensive phreatic areas in a cave. Water temperature was 13°C.	eng
134329	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134329	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134330	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134330	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Ban Long Chen and side of dam, Saisombun Special Zone, northern Laos; Haut Lao, Ban Nong.	eng
134330	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134330	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134330	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134331	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134331	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Occurs on the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta mountain range (Campos 2005).	eng
134331	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has been collected from one site. From these collection it has been inferred that it lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,580 m and 3,000 m above sea level. Further collection efforts have been hampered by public order problems in the region.	eng
134331	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134331	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134332	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134332	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guixi County in Jiangxi.	eng
134332	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134332	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134332	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134333	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134333	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Belize: from Blind Crab cave, 12 km SW of Millionario, Cayo District.	eng
134333	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A truly troglobitic crab from Blind Crab cave, 12 km SW of Millionario, Cayo District, Belize.	eng
134333	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134333	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134334	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134334	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.	eng
134334	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134334	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Although many collecting trips have been conducted in the mountain area where these crabs were originally collected, no new samples of them are available.	eng
134334	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134335	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134335	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park and adjacent limestone formations, Sarawak. Malaysia, Asia.	eng
134335	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in subterranean streams and showing complete loss of cornea and body pigmentation.	eng
134335	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134335	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134336	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134336	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India (Jessore, near Calcutta), Asia. Hazrapur, Jessore; Rookee; Purneah; Darbhanga; Barnagur, near Calcutta; Santipore, near Calcutta; Kissengunj; Mingura, Jessore; Lucknow; Abjulgar, Bijnor. Possibly also Myanmar (Bott 1970).	eng
134336	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134336	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134336	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134337	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134337	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo: Aketi Ibembo; Boangi, Momboyo.	eng
134337	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134337	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134337	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134338	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134338	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sudanonautes floweri is a common species of freshwater crab widely distributed in Central Africa and in West Africa only as far as Nigeria. This species is found in Nigeria, Cameroon, Bioko, Central African Republic, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, D. R. Congo, Congo, Gabon, and Cabinda (Angola). It is likely that <em>S. floweri</em> is also present in Equatorial Guinea. The distribution includes the Nile River system, the Congo River system, and the Chari River system including Lake Chad.	eng
134338	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> is found in the moister regions of the woodland and guinea savannah zones from central Nigeria to southern Sudan. This species is also found in the humid tropical rainforest habitats in south-east Nigeria, south Cameroon, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), Chad, Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, D.R. Congo, Congo, Gabon, Angola (Cabinda). <em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> is common in shallow streams, rivers, and ponds, and digs burrows near waterways. This species is also found on land either next to water or some distance away, since it is capable of breathing air, and functions well for long periods out of water. The widened and highly arched carapace, and the lack of teeth on the anterolateral margins of the carapace of <em>S. floweri</em> are features often associated with air-breathing and burrow-living. <em>Sudanonautes floweri</em> serves as an important second intermediate host to the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> and <em>P. africanus</em> in Nigeria and Cameroon (Voelker and Sachs 1977).	eng
134338	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.	eng
134338	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134339	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134339	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia:  Mont Liang Koebang, Central Borneo (Balss 1937).	eng
134339	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134339	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134339	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134340	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134340	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Fujian and Jiangxi Provinces. Southeast China, Asia<br/><br/>Shaowu, Jianou, Jiangle, Pingnan, Shouning, Fuzhou, Longyan, Liancheng counties in Fujian. <br/>Taihe, Yongfeng, Poyang, Pingxiang, Yihuang, Xingguo, Fenyi, Nancheng, Yigang, Ningdu, Shong rao, Guixi, Chongren, Lichuan, Shicheng and Shangyou counties in Jiangxi Province.	eng
134340	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes. Rivers and streams.	eng
134340	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134340	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134341	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134341	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: (Saigon), Cochin China, southern Viet Nam. Specimens from Chiang Mai and Chantaburi Province are not this species.	eng
134341	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134341	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134341	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134342	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134342	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Casanare Department: from the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera in the llanos of Colombia (Campos 2005).	eng
134342	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 290 m above sea level.	eng
134342	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134342	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134343	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134343	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yulin/Guilin County, Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China. This species is known only from a single locality in China. Last recorded collection in 1979.	eng
134343	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134343	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134343	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134344	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, a National Park.	eng
134344	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to one hill in a national park in Malaysia, Gunung Jerai, Keday, near Sungei Petani, not far from the island of Penang, in northwest peninsular Malaysia. Gunung Jerai is forested, and is a massive limsestone outcrop that rises 1200m above sea level.	eng
134344	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has small but stable populations that are probably not faced with any known long-term threats.	eng
134344	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution, but not faced with any known long-term threats.	eng
134345	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A multiple-use protected area in Balabac that advances conservation and sustainable development is being developed as well as  a marine ecoregion (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion = SSME) that is important to coral conservation and pearl farming. (WWF homepage: Coral Reef Conservation in Balabac Island).	eng
134345	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines:  Balabac Island in the Palawan Islands.	eng
134345	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134345	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134345	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases.	eng
134346	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134346	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Only known from its type locality in Taman Negara National Park, Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 4 34'31"N, 102 13'59"E) 1,600 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134346	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All known specimens have been collected at high altitudes. Semit-errestrial to aquatic. Not well studied.	eng
134346	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134346	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threats, as its range is restricted to Taman Negara.	eng
134347	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134347	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species appears to be endemic to the northernmost Andes of Venezuela, in Trujillo state. This species is known from its type specimen, which was found in a small stream in the area surroudning Santa Ana town (Suarez 2006).	eng
134347	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The stream in which the type was discovered was a very disturbed, boulder strewn stream with dry forest on either bank.	eng
134347	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134347	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134348	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134348	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Kezhouken of Yongan city 25°42'N 117°30'E, Fujian Province, southeast China.	eng
134348	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives under stones in streams with shallow water. Breadth of stream 0.31 to 1 m.	eng
134348	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134348	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134349	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134349	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yongchun (43.7°N 125.2°E), Fujian Province.	eng
134349	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134349	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134349	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134350	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134350	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Guerrero State. Last collected in 1962.	eng
134350	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134350	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134350	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134351	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134351	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxian (35.5N, 111.5E), Shanxi Province.	eng
134351	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134351	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134351	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134352	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134352	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Suriname: Coppename River, Paramaibo District; Brown's Mountain, Nassau Range, Marowijne Basin.  No localities outside of Suriname are mentioned.	eng
134352	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Suriname in the Coppename, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134352	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134352	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134353	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134353	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area; Hongjiang, Huitong counties in Hunan. Xianfeng in Hubei.	eng
134353	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134353	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134353	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134354	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134354	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Khao Ram, Nakhon Si Thammarat mountains, Peninsular Siam (=southern Thailand) and Sai Rung waterfall, Trang Province, southern Thailand, 100 km between localities. This species does not have a wide distribution.	eng
134354	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134354	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Last collected in 1988.	eng
134354	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134355	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134355	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia and Ecuador: Esmeraldas River (2,400 km²).	eng
134355	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134355	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134355	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution along this river system.	eng
134356	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134356	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Around the vicinity of Ussu and Maros (Kabupaten Maros, Leang Leang; Taman Wisata (5°02'S 119°40'E), Bantimurung Kabupaten, south Sulawesi. The extent of occurrence for this species is estimated to be small - approximately 100 sq km.	eng
134356	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134356	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134356	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Last collected in 1988. The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134357	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134357	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: endemic to Bawean Island, approximately 200 km north of Surabaya in the Java Sea, badly damaged specimens from the  north of Bawean Island  (Krong).	eng
134357	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134357	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134357	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134358	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134358	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Hanoi, from Dong Xuan market; Haiphong, Hadong; Hong City Market; northern Vietnam.	eng
134358	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	From rice fields.	eng
134358	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134358	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Harvesting may pose a threat - this is unknown.	eng
134359	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134359	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Kasuli, Punjab.	eng
134359	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134359	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134359	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134360	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134360	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Asia<br/>Anshun, Bijie, Kaiyang, Shuicheng and Huishui county in Guizhou Province. Wufeng, Zushi, Xuanen, Hefeng, Xianfeng, Laifeng, Luchuan, Badong, Xingshan, Luotian counties in Hubei Province. Shizhu, Penshui, Qiuyang and Xiushan in Sichuan Province.	eng
134360	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Recorded from water bodies at pH 6 and 6.5, and temperature 12.9°C and 12.5°C.	eng
134360	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134360	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134361	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Kaki Bukit area.	eng
134361	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to Kaki Bukit, Perlis (6 36'59"N, 100 12'44"E) in the northwestern state of Kedah, Malaysian peninsula, near the Thai border.	eng
134361	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, biology probably similar to <em>S. stoliczkana</em>. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to highland streams.	eng
134361	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134361	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134362	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134362	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: south Thailand (Nakhon Si Thammarat Province); Yong waterfall in Thung Song District, Krung Chin waterfall park in Ta Sala District and Krarom waterfall in Lan Saka District (Yeo, unpubl. data).	eng
134362	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134362	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134362	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134363	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134363	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas State.	eng
134363	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134363	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134363	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134364	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Found in a protected area in part of its range (Masoala National Park).	eng
134364	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar. Antongil Bay; Forest in Manambato Valley; Ambilobé; Tamatave; Toamasina; Tsingalapaky; Fetoky; Fandiarano; Marotsy river; Tsimantsy;  Forêt de Périnet; Moramanga; Grotte de la Mananjiba, Nosy-Bé; Ambilobe; Vondrozo; Masaolo Peninsula.	eng
134364	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species inhabits holes in old trees, in the forest. It has also been collected from rainforest canopy.	eng
134364	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A number of specimens of this species have been collected recently from different parts of Madagascar and this species is probably locally quite common.	eng
134364	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134365	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
134365	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Potamon algeriense occurs in streams and rivers in North Africa that drain into the Mediterranean Sea. Its distribution includes three countries: Morocco (in Kenitra and Fes Provinces), Algeria (in Algiers, Lemdiyya, and Bejaia Provinces), and Tunisia (in Jenduba, Beja, Kairouan, and Gafsa Provinces). This species is not found in either Libya or Egypt.	eng
134365	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potamon algeriense</em> occurs in streams and rivers in North Africa.	eng
134365	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. However, the population is considered likely to be stable based on the relatively high number of localities and collections (23) in three countries where this species occurs.	eng
134365	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134366	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134366	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Rangoon (16 47'00"N 96 10'00"E), south Myanmar.	eng
134366	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134366	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134366	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134367	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134367	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Borneo - Sarawak.	eng
134367	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134367	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134367	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134368	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134368	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fucheng (20.0°N, 110.3°E), Hainan Island.	eng
134368	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A semi-terrestrial crab species.	eng
134368	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134368	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134369	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134369	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Tabasco State, Southern Mexico, Arroyo Pueblo Viejo (17823.759N, 93839.759W), Ejido Carlos A. Madrazo, Municipio de Huimanguillo, Tabasco, 900 m above sea level.	eng
134369	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134369	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134369	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134370	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134370	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Sheetee Hill, Kakhyen Hills, Upper Burma.	eng
134370	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134370	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134370	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134371	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134371	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Himchal Pradesh state: Beas [Bias] River. Uttar Pradesh state: Saharanpur, northern India; Hardwar [Harwar]. Uttarakhand state: Roorkee; Dehradun [Dehra Doon] (30°11′24″N, 78°2′24″E; 30.19°, 78.04°). Nagla, Udham Singh Nagar district (29°59′0″N, 77°15′0″E/ 29.983333°, 77.25°). Nainital is a town in the Indian state of Uttarakhand in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas (1,938 m (6,358 feet) above sea level), Nainital is set in a valley containing a pear-shaped lake, approximately two miles in circumference, and surrounded by mountains. Bihar state: Darbhangā is a city and a municipal corporation in and headquarters of Darbhanga district and Darbhanga Division in the state of Bihar, India (26°10′ 12″N, 85°54′0″ E/26.17°, 85.9°). Chattisgath state: Bijor is located in Bilaspur District of Chattisgarh.	eng
134371	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134371	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134371	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134372	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134372	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Known only from the holotype from Cueva de Las Lianas, Mesa Turik, Zulia State, western Venezuela. The collecting sites are on elevated ground between 1700 and 2600m above sea level. A deep karstic depression runs across the eastward section, with a series of five small caves located on its northern-most portion. Three large rivers have their headwaters in this mesa, the Rio Guasare and Rio Palmar in the lands to the north, and the Rio Apon on the southern slopes. The last two rivers drain into Lake Maracaibo, located to the east of Mount Turik. Details of the caves and collecting localities are as follows:  <br/><br/>1 - Cueva de Las Lianas (10°24'44"N - 72°42'08"W), 1,750 m above sea level. Total length of the cave is 200 m, no water course, but water dripping from the roof, aphotic. Crabs collected 40 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>2, 3, 4 - Cueva de la pared Norte (10°24'44"N - 72°42'06"W) 1,700 m above sea level. From a cavity located on the northern escarpment of the mesa, below Cueva de Las Lianas. The collecting localities were a tunnel which connects an internal doline with the external wall with the water course, which is open with vegetation and light (Locality 2), and Tunnel 5, a lateral gallery, which is aphotic, and crabs were collected 50 m from the entrance.<br/><br/>5 - Cueva del Rio (10°24'23"N - 72°42'32"W) 1,800 m above sea level. With a water course, headstream of Rio Palmar, aphotic.<br/><br/>6 - Cueva del Laberinto (10°23'46"N - 72°42'00"W) 1,700 m above sea level. In the headwaters of Rio Palmar, outside the main depression of Mesa Turik. Aphotic.<br/><br/>7 - Canon del Rio Apon, Mesa Turik, 1,800 m above sea level. A large canyon on the southem portion of the mesa, through which run the headstreams of the Rio Apon, which drains into the Maracaibo lake.	eng
134372	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Chaecus turikensis</em> is found in a system of caves in Mesa Turik, a rectangular flat-top table mountain of irregular topography, with its main axis oriented NE-SW. The Mesa Turik lies in the Cordillera de Perija, in eastern Venezuela, where three large rivers have their headwaters. Despite being found mainly in caves, the species is not restricted to caves and the only obvious stygobiont character is the relative slenderness of the appendages including the chelipeds.	eng
134372	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134372	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution.	eng
134373	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134373	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: western Irian Jaya. Utakwa River, Bivak EIland (=Island) in the Lorentz River, Alkmaar, on the Lorentz River, Kloof-Bivak, on the Lorentz River, at altitudes of less than 10 m, 30 m, 1,050 m, and 1,700 m.	eng
134373	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134373	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134374	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mae Charim forest belongs to the Mae Charim National Park, however this may not protect it from all threats..	eng
134374	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Huai Sa Kohrn, Sa District; and Nam Wa stream, Ban Nam Wa, Mae Charim District; Sakhon stream, Ban Nam oon, Wiang Sa District; all in Nan Province.	eng
134374	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134374	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134374	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A major recreational activity in the national park is rafting. Swimming is also allowed.	eng
134375	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134375	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Teikyi township, near Hmawbwi about 40 km north of Yangon. Also Htauk Kyant, Balar stream, km 12 on Yangon-Mandalay highway (17.03.46N, 96.09.02E).	eng
134375	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All specimens were collected from a paddy (rice) field, some were collected from a burrow about 50 cm deep in the dyke of the field.	eng
134375	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134375	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134376	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures in place.	eng
134376	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: from a very wide cavern of a cae, Lina Massif, south of Manokwari (0.53°S, 134.05°E) northwestern Irian Jaya.	eng
134376	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	40 m in cave (with many bats).	eng
134376	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134376	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134377	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134377	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,600-2,400 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134377	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,400 m asl.	eng
134377	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134377	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134378	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134378	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Manbhum; West Bengal state: Parisnath Hill; Barābhūm (23°2'0'' N, 86°22'0'' E);<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Calicut; <strong>Uttaranchal state</strong>: Haridwar [Hardwar]; <strong>Madhya Pradesh state:</strong> Morar [= Gwalior]; Debnaddi, Narbudda [Narbada] river basin; <strong>Jharkhand state</strong>: Chota Nagpur, a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh); Maharashtra state: Nassik, Upper Godavari Valley, Poona [Pune]; Maharashtra state: Western Ghats: Khandalla and Mahableshwar. <strong>Travancore state</strong>: Madathoray. <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Shervaroy Hills; <strong>Madhya Pradesh state:</strong> Hoshangabad; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Ootacamund; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Anamalai Hills, a range of mountains in southern India, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, lying between 10° 13' and 10° 31' N. lat., and between 76° 52' and 77° 23' E. long., forming a portion of the Western Ghats south of the Palghat Pass, and south of the Nilgiris. They consist of a forest-clad and grassy tableland, with summits rising about 8,000 ft. The only inhabitants are a few wild tribes who live by hunting and collecting jungle produce. <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Coonoor, Nilgiris (Coonoor is a large hill station in the Nilgiris, surrounded by tea plantations, at an altitude of 1839 metres) Nilgiris (mountains), a range of mountains spanning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.	eng
134378	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A terrestrial crab, also found in rivers and streams, i.e., semi-terrestrial.	eng
134378	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134378	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Although this species has a wide distribution, it is potentially threatened in the future by habitat loss due to continued human development because this terrestrial crab lives in a region that is developing rapidly.	eng
134379	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Khao Yai National Park).	eng
134379	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: In Khao Khie in Khao Yai National Park and outside of the National Park (14.30N, 101.25E), Nakhon Rachasima Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134379	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134379	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134379	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134380	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134380	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: Bogota; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,700-2,350 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134380	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,700 and 2,350 m asl.	eng
134380	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134380	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134381	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
134381	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has an extensive range in the Amazon basin and is a very common trichodactylid crab. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. In Peru it is found in the Rio Madeira River drainage and in the upper part in Puerto Maldonado, and it is also found in the Upper part of the Rio Maranon. In Brazil it is found in AP, PA, MT, AC, GO states and in the lower part of the Rio Madeira in Amazonas State. In Colombia this species is found in the Caqueta and Putumayo Departments in the Amazon basin and its tributaries. In Ecuador it is found in the Rio Bobonaza - Pastaza basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134381	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon and Araguari river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Jari river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river. This species appears difficult to collect, because it lives in permanently submerged habitats. This species is found in rivers and lakes, in areas with deep depressions, under rocks and in flat hollows. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 80-240 m asl.	eng
134381	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134381	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134382	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134382	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Babahoyo River, Pacific drainage, in Los Rios Province and from Guayaquil in Guayas Province.	eng
134382	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134382	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134382	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134383	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134383	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134383	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134383	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134383	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134384	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134384	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taipei County (Kungliao, Homei).	eng
134384	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134384	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134384	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134385	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134385	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela:  Sabana de Piedras, La Toma, Monagas State, 1,210 m.	eng
134385	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134385	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134385	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134386	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134386	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines, Marinduque and Luzon.	eng
134386	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134386	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134386	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134387	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134387	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines. A widely distributed species in central and southeastern parts of Bohol. Stream near Sierra Bulliones, about 5 km NW of Jagna, Bohol; Castigio Cave, Batuan, Bohol; Pahangong Talon, Ginguyuran , Bohol; Capiro Spring, Batuan, Bohol; Carmulaon lower part, Cugon, Jagna, Bohol.	eng
134387	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in surface waters as well as in caves. Both caves were rich in organic nutrients. One of the caves had a very high amount plant debris, the other ones is receiving waters from nearby rice fields.	eng
134387	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134387	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is apparently frequently sold in markets. The very low prices and abundance of the crabs strongly suggest that they came from the neighbourhood of Hanoi.	eng
134388	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134388	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Between Merida and Mucuchies, Rancho Grande (14,300 km²) (Merida State, Barinas State), in the vicinity of the city of Merica.	eng
134388	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134388	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134388	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat decline/loss and water pollution due to urbanization are the major threats to this species.	eng
134389	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134389	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Pegu.	eng
134389	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134389	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134389	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134390	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134390	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangzhou and Gaoyao in Guangdong Province. Known from southwestern China (Ng & Dudgeon, 1992).	eng
134390	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134390	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134391	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134391	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, West mountain subregion (Hengduan Mt area), west mountainous area to the basin zone.<br/>An County (31 8'N, 104 4"E); Baishi Country, Wenchuan County (31 4'N, 103 6'E); Yingxiu Country Wenchuan County; Shuimo Country, Wenchuan County. Sichuan Province.	eng
134391	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134391	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134391	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134392	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.	eng
134392	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known from vicinity of Gunong Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 2°50'42"N, 104°09'14"E), Malaysia.<br/>Endemic to Pulau Tioman (probably in vicinity of Gunung Kajang). However not found despite several recent attempts.	eng
134392	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Poorly known. Collected from 'amongst forest leaf litter', but likely to be more aquatic like other members of the genus.	eng
134392	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Despite numerous attempts to find this species, it has not been found. Therefore populations are likely to have declined and the species may have disappeared.	eng
134392	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat at present, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely.	eng
134393	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134393	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Phalat Waterfall, Mae Sariang District in Mae Hong Son Province.	eng
134393	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Watrefall.	eng
134393	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134393	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134394	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134394	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134394	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134394	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134394	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134395	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place and it is not found in a protected area. Further work is needed on all aspects of this species as little is known about its distribution, ecology or threats.	eng
134395	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Orissa state: Northern India, Ganjam (+19°22'58.80", +85°4'1.20"); Assam state: north Cachar. This species is known from only two locations in neighboring states in northeastern India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range.	eng
134395	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available.	eng
134395	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available.	eng
134395	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available. Likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134396	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134396	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Huitong, Loudi in Hunan Province, and Ziyuan in Guangxi Province.	eng
134396	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134396	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134396	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134397	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in protected areas.  Mt. Emei was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. Lushan is part of Lushan National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (cultural) as well as Lushan Quaternary Glaciation National Geopark which is a member of UNESCO Global Geoparks Network.	eng
134397	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yaan, Emei and Lushan in Sichuan Province.	eng
134397	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134397	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134397	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134398	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A big part of the Dan Sai district is part of the Phu Hin Rong Kla National Park.	eng
134398	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ban Na Wa, Dan Sai District, Loei Province, Thailand, Asia	eng
134398	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134398	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134398	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is considered pretty as pets.	eng
134399	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134399	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fujian Province, Longhai County.	eng
134399	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.	eng
134399	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134399	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134400	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134400	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea: northeast New Guinea and Papua New Guinea. This common and widespread species is known from 15 localities in NW Irian Jaya, Indonesia and six localities in Papua New Guinea.	eng
134400	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not a rare species.	eng
134400	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134401	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134401	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Lampun Province (Mae Kong River) and Tak Province (Ban Tak District, Huai Tung Ka Sao; Mae Nam Ping Basin - 16.48N, 99.93E; 16.47N, 98.03E), Phitsanulok Province (Mae Nam Nan Basin (Nam Phak at Ban Tha Sakae - 17.14.N, 100.40E). This species is known mainly from the Tak area.	eng
134401	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown	eng
134401	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134401	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134402	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134402	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Province (Guangxi Autonomous Region), Jingxi/Jianxi County.	eng
134402	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 20°C.	eng
134402	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134402	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134403	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134403	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela (Araguay, Paraima, Guarico, Monagas, Bolivar States), Colonie Tovar; Central coastal range. Orinoco drainage system of Venezuela and Colombia (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). Type specimen from Orinoco River. This species has been recorded from the Orinoco and many of the rivers draining to it  - Ciudad Bolivar, Rio Orinoco, affluent of the Rio Apure, Rio Cura and Rio Taguay, Rio Chiviripa, Rio Guarapiche, draining to Rio San Juan and the Gulf of Paria. (Rodriguez 1992). Colombia: Arauca, Caqueta, Casanare, Cundinamarca, Meta Departments. This species is found in eastern Colombia, in the Meta River and many of its afflluents, and the Guaviare River and some of its affluents (Campos 2005).	eng
134403	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134403	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134403	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134404	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of freshwater and peat swamp habitats in its range.	eng
134404	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Widespread throughout Peninsular Malaysia. Indonesia: Sumatra: Also found in eastern Sumatra.	eng
134404	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in acidic freshwater swamps (pH 4.5-5.5) as well as blackwater peat swamps (pH 3.5).	eng
134404	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134404	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Although widespread, restricted to freshwater and peat swamp habitats. Rapid loss and degradation of such habitats is a threat.	eng
134405	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134405	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state: Sirpo Valley, near Renging and Naga Hills.	eng
134405	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134405	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134405	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134406	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134406	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Bohol, caves (Boho sa Bikahan, Bikahan, Antequera).	eng
134406	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Was found in a cave (Boho sa Bikahan) northwest of Antequera which is subject to periodic resurgence of waters. At the end of the rainy season, the water in the cave is stagnant. There is a large amount of organic debris like tree branches and leaves in the pools, as well as numerous mollusc shells. Catfish are also present.	eng
134406	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown but this species is found in caves and has a narrow distribution.	eng
134406	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134407	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134407	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Iriomote Island, Yaeyama Group, Southern Ryukyus.	eng
134407	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134407	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134407	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134408	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134408	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes orthostylis</em> is known only from the rivers and streams of the rainforests of south west Cameroon. <br/>The type locality is recorded as Bipindihof, but this locality is most likely Bipindi (3° 08’N, 10° 30’E). Also found at Beduma (=Baduma), Cameroon, 4°50'0'' N, 9°28'0'' E.	eng
134408	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rainforest in Cameroon.	eng
134408	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Population levels and trends unknown. This species is known only from 14 specimens from two localities (Bipindi and Baduma, Cameroon).	eng
134408	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134409	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134409	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tanzania: Herkulu Estate, a tea plantation in the Western Usambara Mountains.	eng
134409	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The Herkulu Estate is a tea plantation in the Western Usambara Mountains in Lushoto District of the Tanga region of Tanzania. This locality is 1,666 m asl and is situated in the montane forest zone, where areas of forest have been retained to prevent soil erosion.	eng
134409	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is difficult to estimate the population status and trends of this species but its population is estimated to be declining based on indirect factors such as the lack of recent specimens, its poor representation in museum collections and increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
134409	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. There is increasing habitat disturbance from deforestation associated with growing human populations in the region.	eng
134410	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, the Sai Yok National Park (500 km².)	eng
134410	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Sai Yok Noi waterfalll in Sai Yok district (14.06.00N, 99.23.00E); Thong Pha Phum district; Ban Huay Ka Yeng in Thong Pha Phum district, and Nam Chon waterfall in Si Sawat District in Kanchanaburi Province.	eng
134410	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134410	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134410	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134411	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134411	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya: Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Mountains. Mount Kenya, 762 m asl; forest near Meru, north of Mount Kenya; Limuru, southern Aberdare Mountains; Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers, Mt. Kenya; northern Aberdare Mountains, Chania River below Kiandongoro Forestry station (2,187 m asl) (0°27'S, 36°50'E), 6-9 m wide, stony bed with boulders, quite shallow, part tree shaded; Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers, eastern slope of Mount Kenya.	eng
134411	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in streams in forest in the Gituambugi/Mutonga Rivers on the eastern slope of Mt. Kenya, and in the northern Aberdare Mountains, in the Chania River below Kiandongoro Forestry station (2,187 m asl) (0°27'S, 36°50'E)l  here the river is 6-9 m wide, with a stony bed with boulders, and is quite shallow, and partly tree shaded.	eng
134411	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The populations of this species may be stable because it was first collected from Mt. Kenya in 1911, and has been collected from the streams draining Mount Kenya recently (2003)	eng
134411	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134412	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, Cucphuong National Park.	eng
134412	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Cuc Phong National Park, Ninh Binh Province.	eng
134412	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams.	eng
134412	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134412	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134413	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134413	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Rio Sabinal west of Tuxla Guiterez in Chiapas State.	eng
134413	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134413	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134413	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134414	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134414	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sichuan Province, Middle China region, west mountain region (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Wushan County (31 N 109 8'E).	eng
134414	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134414	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134414	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134415	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not found in a protected area.	eng
134415	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Mantano (and about 2 km southeast of Matano; South coast, west of Sorokao; southwest coast near Matano (2 27'41.5"S, 121 13'6.3"E; 02 30.49'S, 121 19.96'E; 2 28.44'S, 121 15.78'E), south Sulawesi. Lake Matano Cliff, south Sulawesi (2 28'59.1"S, 121 17'12.9"E).	eng
134415	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The source of Matano lake is assumed to come from an area west of the lake (known as Matano village). This species is found around Lake Mantano under roots and logs on sand.	eng
134415	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Locally common. Many localities, but all close to the South West side of Lake Matano.	eng
134415	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. There is a small mining town (Soroako/Sorowako) close to lake Mantano which could influence water quality in the future. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).	eng
134416	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134416	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: probably northwestern Luzon.	eng
134416	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134416	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134416	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134417	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134417	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Department of Antioquia, Boqueron, near Medellin. <em>Strengeriana spp</em>. are restricted to the western slopes of the Central Cordillera (Campos 2005). Although many collecting trips have been conducted in the area where these crabs were originally collected, no new specimens were found.	eng
134417	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m above sea level on the western slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River. Recent collection trips by students from the University of Antioquia have failed to find this species (Campos pers. comm.).	eng
134417	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134417	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. No specific threats are known, but its disappearance from its previous site suggests that threats are present.	eng
134418	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134418	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cesar Department: restricted to the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija (Campos 2005).	eng
134418	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 870-1,400 m asl in the high western slopes of the watershed of the Sierrania de Perija.	eng
134418	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134418	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134419	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134419	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Ilan County (Lotung; Sanshing; Tatung Jiuntow; Tatung Shnagtsukeng); the distance between Lotung and Tatung is 7.5 km.	eng
134419	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134419	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134419	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	habitat loss and pollution	eng
134420	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
134420	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil. This species is known only from the Central Amazon region in Brazil (AM, PA states) possibly in a larger area of eastern Amazon region. The holotype comes from Lagos Manacapuru, near Manaus; it has also been found in the Rio Negro 80 km upstream from Manaus, at Igarape Agua Preta (Rodriguez 1992) and in Amazonas and Para States (De Melo, 2003).	eng
134420	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. Found in lakes, rivers, in areas with inundated bushes, or in cracks and holes of submerged and immersed dead tree trunks	eng
134420	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134420	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134421	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134421	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Lichuan (35.3N 112.7E), Jiangxi Province.	eng
134421	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134421	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134421	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134422	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134422	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ton Tok Waterfall, Palian District (973 km²), Trang province, southern Thailand.	eng
134422	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a small species, as the largest adult female is 24.9 by 20.5 mm. All the specimens were collected out of water, along the banks of a waterfall.	eng
134422	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Apparently locally abundant as collected for food.	eng
134422	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is collected by humans for food.	eng
134423	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134423	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Pingguo in Guangxi.	eng
134423	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134423	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134423	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134424	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134424	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Tali, Ilan County.	eng
134424	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134424	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134424	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134425	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134425	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yunnan Province: Songhua dam, near Kunming; Kunming, Chengjiang, Zhangyi, Mengding and Geiju. Middle China region, West Mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone.	eng
134425	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134425	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crab populations may be in decline due to competition with a species of crayfish that has been introduced into the habitat of this crab which used to be common. Competition with introduced crayfish is a major threat to this crab species.	eng
134425	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution in the Songhua River. Competition with introduced crayfish may be a major threat. This species used to be common. To date the competition with introduced crayfish is a major threat to this crab species.	eng
134426	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134426	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic to Kume Island (Latitude: 26.352°N; Longitude: 126.772°E). Kumejima Island is an island in Okinawa, Japan. It has an area of 63 km². It belongs to the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134426	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
134426	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134426	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No specific threats known. Probably habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134427	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134427	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Mengdin, Gengma County (23.5°N, 99.4°E); and Sifangjian, Gengma County; Yunnan Province.	eng
134427	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134427	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134427	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134428	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134428	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma, Thailand.	eng
134428	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134428	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134428	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134429	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134429	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera, Antioquia and Tolima Departments (Campos 2005).	eng
134429	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,500 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.	eng
134429	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134429	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134430	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134430	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Suikat, Langbian Plateau, South Annam (= south-central Vietnam); 97 km west of Kontum, central Viet Nam.	eng
134430	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134430	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134430	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134431	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134431	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Oaxaca State, Isthmus of Tehuantepec.	eng
134431	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134431	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134431	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134432	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134432	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yongjiang Village Shuanpai County (25.9N, 111.6E); Shuangpai County, Yongjiang village; Yongzhou City, Futian Village, Zhengjiaoqiao County; Dao xian/County; all in Hunan Province; Lianxian, Guangdong Province.	eng
134432	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134432	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134432	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pollution and habitat loss/ degradation.	eng
134433	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134433	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Yemen: Diksam, 700 m, Haghir massif, Socotra Island (3625km²).	eng
134433	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In rockpools in crevices in limestone karst, plateau 660-740 m.	eng
134433	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134433	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss or disturbance.	eng
134434	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134434	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: This species is known only from the type specimen from Nan Province in northern Thailand.	eng
134434	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected from under rocks in shaded, shallow streams with rocky/sandy substrata.	eng
134434	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134434	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134435	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134435	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Palawan Islands: Panitan River, Panibacan River, Palawan, and Swan River, near Quezon, Palawan.	eng
134435	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134435	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134435	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134436	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134436	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Central Cordillera and Caldas Department. Cafetal Camelia near Angelopolis (1820 m asl) Rio Cauca (100,000 km²); Filadelfia (1589 m asl) Rio Cauca, Department of Caldas, north-Central Cordillera. Western slopes of the Central Cordillera. Also found in Fredonia, Antioquia Departmen (Campos 2005).	eng
134436	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,100-1,800 m asl in the forested western slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Cauca River.	eng
134436	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134436	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134437	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134437	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo.	eng
134437	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134437	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134438	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. It is not found in a protected area.	eng
134438	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cameroon, Central Africa. This species is found in the forested highlands of southwest Cameroon (Somié Village, Tikow Plain, Bamenda, Bambulae and Nfom Grasslands; Foumban, region of Dschang), and in the forested lowlands of south Cameroon (Douala and Yaounde).	eng
134438	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the forested highlands of southwest Cameroon (Somié Village, Tikow Plain, Bamenda, Bambulae and Nfom Grasslands; Foumban, region of Dschang), and in the forested lowlands of south Cameroon (Douala and Yaounde). <em>Potamonemus mambilorum</em> is a riverine crab and is eaten by the Mambila people especially during the dry season when crabs are caught by villagers who bail out drying sections of river bed. The Mambila people call this species the "Kap" crab. <em>Sudanonautes faradjensis</em> is sympatric with <em>P. mambilensis</em>.	eng
134438	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Population levels and trends unknown. This species has been collected recently and is known from more than 20 specimens from about 8 localities.	eng
134438	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
134439	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134439	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin. Colombia: eastern region in the Meta River and many of its tributaries, and the Guaviare River and some of its tributaries. The distribution is centered in the marginal Orinoquian River basin.	eng
134439	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela in the Orinoco river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 300-600 m asl.	eng
134439	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134439	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134440	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134440	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: southwest India, Trivandrum, Travancore, Shastancottah near Quilon. Travancore (=Thiruvithaamkoor) was a princely state in India with its capital at Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram), now part of Kerala State. This species is found in the southern-most states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, south India. A widely distributed species.	eng
134440	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in deep burrows next to streams (sometimes about 5-6 m away from the stream margins in shaded as well as in open areas). Juveniles were observed in burrows in wet muddy and sandy soil adjacent to streams in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, between 100-980 m in altitude (Bahir and Yeo, in publication).	eng
134440	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134440	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134441	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134441	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Tongshi, Ledong, Wuzhishan, Jianfengling counties in Hainan Province (Guangdong - Hainan), southern China.	eng
134441	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134441	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134441	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134442	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134442	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kepahiang, Sumatra.	eng
134442	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134442	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134442	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134443	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134443	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Para State, Rio Tapajos, Estado do Para, Monte Cristo; Estado do Para: Rio Tapajos, Fodlandia, Igarape do Cassepa.	eng
134443	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on the silty margins of small watercourses. In mud on river banks.	eng
134443	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134443	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134444	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. Some localities lie within a protected area, the Mont Nimba National Park.	eng
134444	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guinea: This species is known from several localities on the slopes of Mount Nimba in Guinea and is therefore endemic to that mountain in this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone. It is also probably present on the Liberian side of Mount Nimba.	eng
134444	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The vegetation cover on the slopes of Mount Nimba includes lowland forest and savannah (up to altitudes of 500 m), high evergreen forest (from 900-1,200 m), and high altitude grassland (above 1,200 mm). <em>Liberonautes nimba</em> was collected in cracks in rocks in high altitude grassland, above the upper limit of montane forest. This species may therefore be semi-terrestrial in habit.	eng
134444	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a relatively few specimens from less than ten localities. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134444	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation, human population increases and advancing agriculture..	eng
134445	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134445	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Choco Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the San Juan River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134445	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 50 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134445	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134445	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134446	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this abundant species.  It is found in a protected area in Colombia, the Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Canaveral, Piedras River, Magadelana, Santa Marta.	eng
134446	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution in Nicaragua, Honduras, and Colombia (Magdalena River basin). The single record from Nicaragua is doubtful. In Colombia this species is found in northern Colombia in the foothills of the Eastern Cordillera in the Upper Magdalena River basin and the Meta River basin. Nicaragua: The type locality is in the Escondido River, 50 miles form Bluefield, Nicaragua and the holotype is a female; this is the only Nicaraguan specimen known. Colombia: Atlantica: Sabanagrande (1 loc); Bolivar: Zambrano (1 loc); Cesar: Valledupar (1 loc); Magdalena: Cienaga (1 loc), Santa Marta (8 locs); Meta: Cubarral (1 loc); Villavicencio (1 loc) (Campos 2005).	eng
134446	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 0- 400 m asl.	eng
134446	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134446	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. However, it is of concern that the distribution of this species is fragmented with populations in Central America separated by large distances from populations in Columbia.	eng
134447	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134447	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Chishui in Guizhou Province. Yunlian, Gaoxian, Xingwen in Sichuan Province.	eng
134447	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134447	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134447	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134448	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134448	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi Province (Mingshan in Jiujiang 29.7 N, 115.9 E; Boyang, Yongfeng, Xinjian, Nancheng counties), southeast China. Endemic to Jiangxi Province	eng
134448	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134448	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134448	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134449	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134449	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: west Irian Jaya, Lake Sentani. Manikion south of Ransiki (1.34S, 134.11E) in the exterme eastern part of the Vogelkop peninsula.	eng
134449	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134449	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134450	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Penrissen Mountains and Bau areas is recommended.  The effective preservation of hilly rain forest in the regions of the two known localities is essential. In addition, further survey work in the hilly border area of Sarawak and Kalimantan is necessary and to help provide a better indication of the species' current population status.	eng
134450	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia, Sarawak (Island of Borneo). This species is known from only two locations in the western corner of Borneo: Mount Penrissen, in western Sarawak, and Bau, a gold mining town in the Kuching Division of Sarawak. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range.	eng
134450	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Associated with sandstone areas. Its biology is not well-known, but has also been found in caves and near karst areas.	eng
134450	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134450	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation primarily as a result of logging. Much of the suitable habitat within its range around Mount Penrissen has recently been converted into a golf course and to cultivated land. An additional threat from deforestation is the resultant sedimentation of the streams where it lives.	eng
134451	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134451	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Soi Yok District, Kanchanaburi, central westernThailand.	eng
134451	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134451	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134451	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134452	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Kledang area.	eng
134452	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Only known from its type locality in Gunong Kledang, Perak (ca. 4 36'30"N, 101 02'E) above 700 m above sea level in the northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134452	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not known.	eng
134452	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Only known from the solitary type (male holotype).	eng
134452	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its very narrow range is a major concern.	eng
134453	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134453	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The Philippines, Palawan Island: Simbulan; Iraan River; and Manili. So change from single locality to three localities.	eng
134453	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134453	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134453	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134454	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	National Park	eng
134454	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: stream in Cuc Phuong National park, about 16 km from main gate, Ninh Binh Province; and Kim Boi and Chi Ne, Hoa Binh Province; northern Viet Nam. About 80 km between the locations.	eng
134454	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	River and streams	eng
134454	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134454	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134455	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134455	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Phu (Mt.) Luang, Udon Thani Province (101 23'E 17 25'N); northeastern Thailand, 17 km SE Phrae.	eng
134455	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in a waterfall	eng
134455	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134455	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134456	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134456	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica (Agua Buena) and Panama, Central America.	eng
134456	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in streams and rivers.	eng
134456	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134456	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134457	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Indian Reservation).	eng
134457	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in most of the Guianan Shield region in the Atlantic Guianas River basins and northern tributaries of the Amazon River in Brazil in the states of Roraima, Amazonas, and Para. Guyana: Dadanawa Crossing. Suriname: Paramaribo District, Coppename River. French Guiana.	eng
134457	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Corantijn, Essequibo, Oyapock, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. In rivers, waterfalls and rapids. In general, crabs remain in cracks or holes under and between rocks, in areas of backwater.  Occurring in highplain rivers, usually among rocks along rapids and falls.	eng
134457	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134457	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134458	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels along Kinabatangan River.	eng
134458	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabatangan River area.	eng
134458	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
134458	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134458	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The ecology of the upper reaches of the river has been severely disrupted by excessive logging and clearing of land for plantations. However, the original lowland forests and mangrove swamps near the coast have largely survived	eng
134459	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134459	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Cochinchine, Montagues de Cau-Thi-Vay, southern Viet Nam, and Cochinchine Saigon.	eng
134459	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134459	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134459	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134460	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. The island where it is found is an army base, which may provide it with some protection.	eng
134460	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia, endemic to the Indonesian island of Natuna (Pulau Natuna Besar, formerly Pulau Bunguram or Bungaram Island).	eng
134460	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134460	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134461	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134461	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca and Boyaca Departments: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,350 to 2,600 m above sea lebel, 50 km west of Bogata on the eastern edge margin of the Bogata River (6,000 km²). Quebrada El Penon, Vereda Aposento, Municipio Nuevo Colon, Cundinamarca, 1,700 m; Municipio Tena, Vereda El Rosario, Departimento Cindinamarca, 1,500 m. Bogota area, Magdalena watershed (Campos 2005).	eng
134461	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at between altitudes between 1,350 and 2,600 m above sea level.	eng
134461	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species. This species has been found in large populations when collected though (Campos pers. comm.).	eng
134461	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The Magdalena River and its tributaries are the main “drains” for the sewage systems of most Colombian cities. The worst problem is caused by the Bogotá River, which receives all the effluent from the Bogotá metropolitan area (over 4 million people) and joins the Magdalena near the city of Girardot. Downstream from Girardot, the quality of the river water becomes so poor that it is hazardous to human health.	eng
134462	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134462	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Magdalena Department: San Lorenzo, northern region of the Sierra de Santa Maria (Campos 2005).	eng
134462	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,000-2,700 m asl.	eng
134462	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134462	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134463	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134463	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mt Carien (Karen Mountaints) and Kakhyen Hills in Burma. Ponsee in Yunnan; Momien in West Yunan, China.	eng
134463	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134463	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134463	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134464	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134464	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guizhou, Hubei and Sichuan Province. Yingjiang and Shiqian in Guizhou province. Xianfeng and Lichuan in Hubei Province. Qianjiang in Sichuan Province.	eng
134464	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134464	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134464	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134465	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134465	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Tan Ky District, Nghe Tinh Province, northern Vietnam; and Nghe Tinh Province, southern Vietnam.	eng
134465	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species occurs in streams in hilly or mountainous areas (Dang and Ho 2001)	eng
134465	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134465	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134466	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kubah National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
134466	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Endemic to Gunung Matang (Serapi) area in Kubah National Park (2,230 ha) located about 20 km from Kuching.	eng
134466	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living under rocks and vegetation in well-shaded forest streams.	eng
134466	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134466	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat as a range is within Kubah National Park.	eng
134467	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134467	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: This species is only known for certain from the Khok Samrong District (983 km²) in Lop Buri Province. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Thailand.	eng
134467	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown	eng
134467	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134467	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134468	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134468	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: This species is known only from the type specimen from Mois Chero, Nord de la Chochinchine (=northern part of south Vietnam) (Yeo unpubl. data). There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of IndoChina.	eng
134468	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134468	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134469	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134469	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Tainan County (Nanhsi).	eng
134469	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134469	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from several specimens from 2 different localities collected between 1992 and 2002.	eng
134469	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134470	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134470	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Longlin County in Guangxi.	eng
134470	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134470	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134470	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134471	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134471	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Antioquia and Choco Departments: headwaters of the Atrato River which flows north into the Gulf of Uraba to the Caribbean Sea; also from the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific. This trans-basin distribution arises probably due to the intermittant communication between both basins, which occur during flood seasons in areas with an altitude below 100 m (Campos 2005).	eng
134471	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50-2,400 m asl along the San Juan River and the headwaters of the Atrato River.	eng
134471	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134471	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134472	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in caves and in Ao Phangnga National Park which covers an area of 400 square kilometres, mainly many isles of different shape and size. The caves, bays, rock formations and mangroves are some of the park's major attractions.	eng
134472	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tham Poung Chang, Phangnga Caves in Phangnaga Province, southern Thailand, about 60 km northeast of Phuket Island (Ng 1988).	eng
134472	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicole.	eng
134472	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134472	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to tourism.	eng
134473	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134473	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Norte de Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,125-1,900 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134473	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,125-1,900 m asl.	eng
134473	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134473	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134474	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134474	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Western Hengduan Mountain area, Southwest China; Jianchuan, Yangbi, Lijiang Counties in Yunnan Province.	eng
134474	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134474	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134474	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan area (WWF ecoregion profile)	eng
134475	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134475	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: northern Burma. China: YunnanProvince: Kakhyen Hills, Ponsee; Momein valley; Hotha valley, western Yunnan. India: Assam: Darjiling.	eng
134475	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134475	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134475	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134476	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134476	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park (4.03N, 114.56E), Borneo.	eng
134476	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial. Living in burrows in forest floor. Often flooded lowland forest.	eng
134476	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134476	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134477	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134477	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Senangkhanikhom District (526 km²), Ubon Ratchathani Province Province.	eng
134477	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134477	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134477	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134478	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134478	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Juyu in Fangxian and Zhushan.	eng
134478	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134478	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134478	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134479	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134479	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico:  Chiapas State, Tonina, Municipio de Ocosingo; highway Ocosingo-Palenque km 125.	eng
134479	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134479	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134479	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134480	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is a widespread and abundant species. It has been collected recently, and its conservation status is secure. This species is found in three protected areas in Antsiranana Province (the Réserve Spéciale de l’Anjanaharibe-Sud, the Réserve Spéciale de l’Ankarana and the Parc National de Marojejy). It is also found in two protected areas in Antananarivo Province (the Réserve naturelle Intégrale d’Amparaky and the Réserve Spéciale d’Ambohitantely) and three in Fianarantsoa Province (the Parc National de Ranomafana, the Parc National d’Andringitra and the Réserve Spéciale du Pic d’Ivohibe).	eng
134480	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Sakaleone river near Bombetok; Androkabe Bach, NW of Fort-Dauphin (Straße Fort Dauphin-Ranomafan du Sud); Andrafiavelo (Sakalava); Vallée d’Isaka, mountain stream; East of Sakavalana; Toamasina; Bezofo; Nosy-Bé, rivière de la route des lacs; Ambodirano, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Marozohy river; Ambodirano, road to Lakato, Moramanga; Analamazastra river, Toamasina, Moramanga; Tapimbato; Near Cuidongy, road to Farafangana, from rapids in forest; Nosy-Bé; Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana), Montagne d’Ambre; Col de Sakavalana; Isandra river at Ankodobé, east of Béfotaké, 500 m, road to Farafangana; Bijofo, Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana); Toamasina; Tsingalapaky, Fetoky, Fandiarano (= Fandriana?), Tsimantsy, Marotsy river; Lily river, Ampéfy, Soavinandriana; Marotsy river, Farafangana; Antananarivo Province, Re´serve Spe´ciale d’Ambohitantely, jardin botanique, 24 km north-east of Ankazobe, 1,450 m.	eng
134480	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is found in the streams and rivers of the central highlands in all six provinces, from Tolagnaro in the south to Antsiranana in the north. Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis is sympatric with <em>H. agilis</em> and with <em>H. goudoti</em>. <em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is found mainly in the headwaters of 10 major river basins in five Malagasy provinces in latitudes between 12° and 25°S. These are the basins of the Antongombato (Antsiranana Province), Betsiboka and Tsiribihina (Antananarivo Province), Namorona, Manampatrana and Mananara-Sud (Fianarantsoa Province), Rianila (Toamasina Province), and the Efaho, Mandrare and Manampanihy (Toliara Province) Rivers. <em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> has been collected from a range of elevations from 25 m asl (in a stream in the basin of the Rianila River) to 1,390 m asl in the Andringitra massif. The southern localities in Toliara Province are close to the limits of the humid forest biome, and crabs are absent from the xerophytic zone which begins to the west of the Anosyennes Mountains. The headwaters of the Mandrare River in Toliara Province flow through humid forest, but the lower section of the river passes through arid spiny bush country, its river bed is seasonally dry, and crabs are therefore absent.	eng
134480	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Hydrothelphusa madagascariensis</em> is the commonest and most widely distributed species of freshwater crab in Madagascar.	eng
134481	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134481	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Nemotha, Cachar, Assam state; Cachar 25 05'00"N 92 55'00"E	eng
134481	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives in high mountain environment.	eng
134481	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134481	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134482	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134482	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Iran: northeastern Iran between Meshed and Bijistan. It is also found in northwestern Afghanistan (Herat and Oruzgan Provinces).	eng
134482	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134482	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134482	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134483	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.	eng
134483	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Mekhong River, Amphoe Muang, Changwat Mukdahan, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134483	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has been found along banks, under stones, on muddy sand.	eng
134483	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134483	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134484	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134484	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Wutai, Pingtung County.	eng
134484	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134484	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134484	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134485	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134485	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Meta and Cundinamarca (Bogata) Departments. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Municipio Acacias, Vereda Portachuelo, Departemanto Meta, Orinoco watershed, 1,500 m asl; Municipio Restrepo, Vereda Caney Alto, Rio Caney Alto, Departamento Meta, 700 m asl; VIllavicencio, Vereda Quebrada Colorada, Departamento Meta, 1,000 m asl; VIllavicencio, Vereda Buena Vista, Cano Blanco, Departamento Meta, 1,300 m asl; Municipio Cumaral, Vereda Marayal, Departamento Meta, 825 m asl; Municipio Guayabetal, Quebrada San Miguel, Departamento Cundinamarca, 1500 m asl; 500-1,575 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134485	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 500-1,575 m asl.	eng
134485	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134485	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134486	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134486	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda: Bundeko. Known from five localities: Alibuaki, 900 m asl, west of Issango; Undussuma; Mbeni (Fort Mbeni in the Semliki Forest); Bundeko, south of Lake Albert, Semiliki Valley; Koganos.	eng
134486	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134486	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134486	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134487	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134487	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Ohsumi Peninsula, Kyushu Islands.	eng
134487	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A mainly aquatic species. See Okano <em>et al</em>. 2000	eng
134487	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134487	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134488	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134488	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from two localities in Kerala, southwestern India: between Kumerly-Munnar and near Perumedu, between Perumedu-Kumerly.	eng
134488	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were obtained from deep burrows along a paddy field bund between Kumerly-Munnar at 1,140 m altitude, as well as from deep burrows in a muddy stream margin near Perumedu, between Perumedu-Kumerly, Kerala, India, at 1,050 m altitude.	eng
134488	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134488	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134489	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area (Barbillas National Park), Costa Rica.	eng
134489	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Cano Seco River, affluent of Rıo Barbillas, Barbillas National Park.	eng
134489	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134489	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134489	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134490	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134490	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: central Thailand (Uthai Thani and Kamphaeng Phet Provinces); Huai Ai Yo, Lan Sak District and Huai Chang Tai in Ban Rai District, Uthai Thani Province. Klong Lan waterfall in Kamphaeng Phet Province.	eng
134490	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134490	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134490	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134491	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Con Dao National Park is working with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Vietnam to further protection in the marine areas, with programs to establish a Marine Protected Area and develop sustainable nature-based ecotourism.	eng
134491	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Con Son Island (formerly called Poulo Condor or Pulau Condore; Ile de Poulo Condore/Pulau Condore/ Con Dao Island) lies in the China Sea; Stream Dao Con Dao, southern Vietnam (8.41.00N, 106.37.00E).  Con Son Island is part of an island group of 13 volcanic islands and islets about 100 km southeast of the Ca Mau Peninsula in the South China Sea. Con Son Island is 21 km long and 8 km wide (160 km²), is well wooded and has an indented coast.	eng
134491	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134491	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134491	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134492	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
134492	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Greek islands of Ikaria,Tilos, Kos, Samos, and Rhodes in the southern Aegean Sea. It is also found in a number of localities in western Anatolia in Turkey adjacent to these Greek islands along the coastal plain west of the Taurus Mountains in Mugla, Aydin, Izmir, and Manisa Provinces.	eng
134492	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potion rhodium</em> has been collected from springs, a well basin at a spring in a cypress forest, in the streams and rivers in western Anatolia in Turkey, and in freshwater habitats on the islands of Rhodes, Ikaria, Tilos, Kos, and Samos. Otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
134492	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is not much information on the population size and abundance of <em>P.rhodium</em> in most parts of its range, but it would appear that populations of this species on the islands of Rhodes may be declining. In 1935 freshwater crabs were reported to occur at Monolithos in Rhodes, but subsequent surveys of this area in 1963 and 1969 did not produce any specimens (probably because the spring that fed this aquatic ecosystem now leads directly into a pipeline, and the stream bed is now completely dry).  A similar story may apply to the other islands where this species occurs.	eng
134492	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. In Greece population declines and even local extinctions of P. rhodium relate to habitat destruction by human activities including water supply projects that adversely affect streams and rivers, and water pollution. Stream desiccation resulting from water abstraction for crop irrigation and the diversion of rivers and streams for potable water supplies for cities and towns represent other present and future threats to this species.	eng
134493	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134493	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Antioquia Department: this species is known only from a single locality in the Atrato River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134493	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has at an altitude of 25 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134493	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134493	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134494	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134494	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Shirase River and branch thereof; northwest of Higa; Suhara River; all in Kume Island, Central Ryukyus Island.	eng
134494	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Near riverside or banks of middle and upper reaches of the rivers, where water will seep out if the burrows are dug.	eng
134494	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134494	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134495	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134495	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Caqueta Department, Meta Department; restricted to the eastern slope of the Central Cordillera at 2000 m asl. Venezuela (Amazonas Federal Territory).  Peru (Rio Ucayali), and Loreto, upper Amazon. Ecuador (Napo Province). The distribution of the species includes the Colombian Ilanos, west to the foothills of the Andes (Loreto, in Napo Province, not Loreto in Colombia), and towards the east to the Venezuelan Guiana (Rodriguez, 1992).	eng
134495	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134495	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134495	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134496	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134496	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico.	eng
134496	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134496	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134496	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134497	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Luzon (Rio Agno, Mariveles and Palanan), Camiguin, Samar.	eng
134497	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134498	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134498	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Linhua (27.1 N, 113.9 E).	eng
134498	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134498	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134498	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134499	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134499	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Trat Province, eastern Thailand. This species is only known from the Chantaburi and Trat areas in eastern Thailand. Not known whether it also occurs in Cambodia.	eng
134499	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown	eng
134499	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134499	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. This species is found in a fast growing area without protection, with future long-term threats from human development very likely.	eng
134500	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Upper reaches of catchment where it is found are within a protected area.<br/>Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland and monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.	eng
134500	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman. The type locality is Sungai Ayer Besar drainage, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°52'39"N, 104°11'48"E). Also found in Sungai Salang (northwestern part of island), Sungai Baharu, Sungai Keliliing and Sungai Paya area. (Sungai = river or stream in Malay). Endemic to Pulau Tioman, Pahang.	eng
134500	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A semi-terrestrial species, which can be found under rocks in damp areas, up to many metres away from the stream. Most common under large rocks in wet areas adjacent to the stream. Nocturnal in habit and is probably omnivorous.<br/><br/>Found in the rugged mountain areas with the headwaters of the rivers draining the central highlands.	eng
134500	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Annual collecting trips have turned up fewer specimens in recent years.	eng
134500	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Part of this species' range is in a protected area, but in the lower reaches there is water pollution, habitat loss/degradation and uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and over-exploitation of limited freshwater resources) which is a concern. In particular there is tourist swimming and playing in streams; alteration of stream course and reduced discharge due to water being piped to beach resorts. Some areas where crabs previously occurred have been altered or lost, e.g. stream flow altered or stream has dried up.	eng
134501	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134501	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: northeastern portion of Hengchun Peninsula and much of east coast of Taiwan - Taitung county. Hwalien County (Juisui; Shoufeng, Shyrtiping; Shoufeng, Takangkou; Yuli); Taitung County (Tungho, Dergualao; Tungho, Taiyung; Peinan, Chiafong) (Shy, Ng and Yu 1994).	eng
134501	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134501	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134501	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134502	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.	eng
134502	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Eastern Sarawak to Brunei. West ridge of Gunong Mulu, Gunung Mulu National Park (4-3'N 114 53'E), Dipterocarp forest.	eng
134502	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris. Sandstone/clay bank.	eng
134502	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134502	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134503	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134503	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Beishiping, Chenyang; Bajiao, Ensi/Enshi; Dingzhai, Xingfen; Xuanen.	eng
134503	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hubei Province (from 29°05'-33°20'N to 108°30'-116°10'E) is situated in the middle part of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River, east of the Sichuan basin. Hubei Province is a transition area between the faunas of the north and south, and it also connects eastern and western faunas. 31°N is the delimitation of the Palaearctic and Oriental realms.	eng
134503	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134503	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134504	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake Posso is protected.	eng
134504	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Poso, also Lake Poso Salopa Waterfall (19km west of Tentana), Central Sulawesi. It was first collected in 1901 and then again in 2000.	eng
134504	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134504	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134504	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Present and future threats to this species still exist. These include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134505	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134505	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Lombok Island (4,725 km²). This species is known only from the type specimen from Lombok. There have been no records in over 35 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134505	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
134505	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134505	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
134506	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Suitable areas needed to be identified to ensure its survival.	eng
134506	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo: Endemic to the hills around Kinabalu National Park.	eng
134506	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, lives under covered forests in small streams with clear water.	eng
134506	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134506	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no clear threats but as its small range is mostly unprotected, it is very vulnerable.	eng
134507	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134507	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Yemen: Socotra Island (3,625 km²): Kerignigi; Wadi Daneghan (12.36.57N, 54.03.48E); Wadi Fahuh (12.26.463N, 54.09.355E); wadi near Hadibo; Wadi Ayhaft (12.36.461N, 53.59.449E).	eng
134507	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Socotra island where it is common in freshwater streams and wadis throughout the island from the low coastal areas in the north to the mountainous parts of the Haghier. It is usually found in shallow water or on river banks where it builds its burrows.	eng
134507	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Socotra island and it is common in freshwater streams and wadis throughout the island .	eng
134507	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134508	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Half of Cat Ba Island is a national park. In 2004 the UNESCO recognized the area as a Biosphere Reserve of the World. Parts of this park may not offer much protection to the species.	eng
134508	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: cave at Gia Lung, cave at Thien Long, cave Hoa Cuong Cave in Gia Luan (20.50.20N, 106.58.57E), and cave Sung Sot Cave, all on Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay. Cat Ba is one of the largest islands in Vietnam, with an area of 356 square kilometers, forested zones, coastal mangroves and freshwater swamps, beaches, caves, and waterfalls. In 1986, the northeast side of the island was designated a national park, including a protected marine zone. Cat Ba Island supports a population of over 20,000 people, most of whom live off fishing or farming in the south, in and around Cat Ba Town.	eng
134508	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Has been found in caves, but has no troglobitic cavernicole characteristics. Caves are in limestone hills.	eng
134508	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134508	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Even though there is a national park, the increase of tourism is a risk, e.g. tours lead into Sung Sot cave which contains light installations.	eng
134509	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134509	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, Nayamakad Tea Estate, on Munnar-Pollachchi road, Tamil Nadu, India.	eng
134509	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The type series was collected from a shallow (<15 cm deep) streamlet (<1 m wide), under stones in the Nayamakad Tea Estate, on Munnar-Pollachchi road, Tamil Nadu, India, at 1,800 m altitude.	eng
134509	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134509	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134510	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134510	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Binh Phuoc (bau Canh).	eng
134510	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134510	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134510	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134511	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134511	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from one location, 2 km east of Mendez, Morona-Santiago province, Ecuador (Rodriquez and von Sternberg 1998).	eng
134511	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134511	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134511	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134512	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134512	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kayan Basin, East Kalimantan	eng
134512	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134512	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134512	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134513	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134513	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.	eng
134513	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134513	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134513	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134514	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134514	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, Vaguvurai Estate, between Munnar-Pollachchi, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134514	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All the specimens were obtained from muddy edge of a rocky stream at Vaguvurai Estate.	eng
134514	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134514	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134515	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	there are no known conservation measures at this time	eng
134515	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Cochinchine=Southern Vietnam. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of IndoChina.	eng
134515	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134515	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134515	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134516	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134516	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park and adjacent limestone formations in Groen Cave and Clearwater Cave.	eng
134516	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in and around subterranean streams. Shows reduced cornea and body pigmentation.	eng
134516	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134516	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threats, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134517	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Tawau Hills Park should ensure its survival.	eng
134517	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Tawau Hills Naitonal Park.	eng
134517	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial.	eng
134517	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134517	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, as its range falls within Tawau Hills Park.	eng
134518	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134518	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: from Portobelo, Panama, collected in Feb 1973.	eng
134518	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134518	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134518	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134519	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134519	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar (Yeo and Ng 1999). This species is known only from the type specimen from the Mergui Archipelago, Tenasserim.  There have been no records in almost 120 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134519	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134519	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134520	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134520	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Travancore: Madathoray, Kulattupuza (=Kolattupuzha, 8°54'0'' N, 77°4'0'' E). This species has been recorded throughout southwestern India.	eng
134520	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected from shallow to deep (10 cm to 1.5 m) streams. At Chathankodu, some of the crabs were found under leaf litter in a pool along a sandy, shaded stream (1 m deep). Crabs were always found in the water, and 56 to 600 m (Bahir and Yeo, in press 2007). This species is widely distributed. The area this species is found in is growing and developing. This species likes clean fast flowing water, which is threatened by habitat degradation due to human development.	eng
134520	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134520	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed but parts of the area where this species is found are developing rapidly. This species likes clean fast flowing water and so it could potentially be threatened by habitat degradation due to human development.	eng
134521	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134521	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic to Uotsuri Island, Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134521	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134521	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends. Found in locally small numbers.	eng
134521	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Apparently this island is uninhabited.	eng
134522	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134522	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Liberia: <em>Liberonautes lugbe</em> is known only from Lugbe in Nimba County in Liberia and is therefore endemic to that country.	eng
134522	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The specimens were captured in rainforest in Liberia by hand when the crabs were walking on land close to a stream.	eng
134522	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134522	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream and river habitats associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134523	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134523	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Upper watershed areas of the Kolok and Sai Buri River Basins, in Wang and Sukirin District, Narathiwat Province, southern Thailand. Huai Sam Sop, Ko Lok River Basin, Ban Ba La; 5.71583N 101.83917E Wang District and upper Klong Ai Ka Ding in Wang District 5.80933N 101.82283E; Sirindthron Waterfall Ban Ba La  5.8N 101.82983E and 5.80567N 101.81167E; Sai Buri River Basin; Klong Phu Khao Tong, Ban Phu Khao Tong (5.8N 101.77283E and 5.80133N 101.7615E) in Sukirin District, Narathiwat Province.	eng
134523	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is primarily aquatic and lives in clean, clear, fast-flowing fresh waters, typically associated with hill streams (upper stretches). It is typically found in areas where water flows slowly, such as at the side of the main stream or in  adjacent pools,. It is found under rocks and vegetation. They are nocturnal and hide during the day.	eng
134523	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134523	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134524	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134524	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Only known from a single locality on a small offshore island (15 km² at high tide) off of Taiwan - Lyudao/Lutao Island (Taitung county).	eng
134524	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134524	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134524	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134525	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134525	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yichang, Hubei Province (Yichang covers an area of 21,084 km².)	eng
134525	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134525	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134525	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134526	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134526	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountains area; Yongsheng, Yunnan Province.	eng
134526	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.4.	eng
134526	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134526	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134527	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134527	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India (Madhya Pradesh state: Banjar river, Moki Blaghat).	eng
134527	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134527	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134527	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134528	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134528	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shaanxi (Shansi) Province: Dingxian.	eng
134528	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134528	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134528	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134529	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134529	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Tainan County (Nanhsi); Hsinchu County (Peipu, Nanpu; Herngshan); Taipei County (Chungho; Tanshui; Sanchih); Taoyuan County (Fuhsing, Kaoyih); Miaoli County (Shanwan, Tahodi); Taichung County (Taiping, Tsaohu; Hoping, Tianlerng); Nantow County (Tsaotun, Jeoujeoufong; Puli; Shuili); Yunlin County (Kukeng; Linnei, Linpei); Chiayi County (Meishan; Chuchi; Chuchi, Paichii; Meishan, Yeongshing; Tapu, Tamaopu; Chiayi City (Jiuntou); Tainan County (Yuching; Nanshi); Kaohsiung County (Sanmin, Minchu).	eng
134529	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134529	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Populations are assumed to be stable because this species is known from a large number of localities in a relatively wide geographical area, but it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134529	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	habitat loss and pollution	eng
134530	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134530	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico (Chiapas State). Guatemala (Alta Verapaz). Costa Rica (Santa Ana Department). El Salvador. Honduras (2 miles n of La Venta).	eng
134530	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134530	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134531	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place and this species is not found in a protected area.	eng
134531	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species is found in Ankara Province in central Turkey and in Erzurum and Agri Provinces in the Tigris-Euphrates river systems in eastern Turkey.	eng
134531	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potamon hueceste</em> is found in the streams and rivers in Central and Eastern Anatolia in Turkey, otherwise there is no information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
134531	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. However, the population is considered likely to be stable based on the relatively high number of localities and collections (15) in Turkey where this species occurs.	eng
134531	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134532	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134532	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: North part of the Venezuelan Andes; Portuguesa State (Bumbis River, near Aparicion) and Barinas State; Trujillo State: Quebrada of Escuque town.	eng
134532	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134532	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134532	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134533	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134533	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Market at Ngo Li Si lien Street and other 2 markets in Hanoi; Pleiku, northern Vietnam.	eng
134533	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134533	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134533	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Can be bought from markets in Hanoi, in heterogeneous lots together with <em>Somanniathelphusa pax</em>.	eng
134534	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134534	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Menghai County, Jinghon County, Yunnan Province.	eng
134534	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134534	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134534	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134535	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134535	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya: mid-altitude forest (2,500-2,800 m) on western slopes of Mount Kenya; Mount Kenya, Sirimon River (0°08'N, 37°06'E), 13-15 km north of Nanyuki on the road to Meru, 3.7 m wide, up to 0.6 m deep, part shaded, rounded stones, some larger blocks. streams in low- and mid-altitude bamboo and Podocarpus forest (2,400-2,700 m asl). This species lives in the rivers and streams of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares.	eng
134535	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in the rivers and streams of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares in streams in low- and mid-altitude bamboo and <em>Podocarpus</em> forest (2,400-2,700 m asl). On Mount Kenya it is found in mid-altitude bamboo forest, and was collected from a torrential river in a clearing (2,700 m asl); it was also collected from Mount Kenya in a low-altitude Podocarpus forest (2,400 m asl) from the Burgurett River (Burguret is an ascent trail on Mount Kenya).	eng
134535	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was first collected in 1912 and has been collected recently (2005) from fast flowing streams on Mount Kenya in Kenya.	eng
134535	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134536	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134536	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Magdalena Department: restricted to the northwestern slope of the Sierra de Santa Marta, Cincinnati Coffee Plantation (Campos 2005).	eng
134536	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,500 m asl.	eng
134536	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134536	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134537	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134537	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Aru Islands (Calman 1914) Last recorded collection in 1989.	eng
134537	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134537	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134537	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134538	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134538	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya: Marsabit in northern Kenya.	eng
134538	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134538	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134538	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134539	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place, not found in a protected area.	eng
134539	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D. R. Congo: Bolobo	eng
134539	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Congo River which is wide and deep at Bolobo.	eng
134539	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from the type material (2 specimens).	eng
134539	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134540	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134540	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Ikor Saenchai, King Amphoe Mae Fah Luang, Chiang Rai Province, northern Thailand.	eng
134540	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134540	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134540	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134541	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134541	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Chaling County (29.6N, 113.7E), Hunan province.	eng
134541	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134541	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134541	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134542	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134542	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya: from Amboni River, southern Aberdare Mountains, Nairobi Forest, 25 km from Nairobi, Central Province (0°24'0'' S, 36°59'0'' E); Murang’a (= Fort Hall); Kiganjo, Mt. Kenya, Chania River at road bridge below Nyeri (0°06'S, 37°52'E) 6.1 m wide, fast, bed of small boulders & stones; Mt. Kenya, Kiganjo, Nairobi River on road up to Trout Research Station, large stones in sandy bed, occasional small falls over outcrops and large rocks; Meru, northern Mount Kenya, Kiganjo, first stream north of last station, 2-2.5 m wide, open, sandy, some embedded large stones and a cattle watering pool; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River (0°07'S, 38°13'E), 1,585 m asl, 8.4 km from Mikinduri (00°07'N, 37°50'E) 3.7-4.6 m wide, stony with some boulders, 89+90 specimens, with large species and small pink species, shaded, at forest edge; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River, 1,585 m asl, large crabs from mid stream; Nyambeni Hills north of Mt. Kenya, unnamed stream, 1.2 km nearer, Mikindwi than Thangatha River, 0.7 m wide, shallow, occasional boulders, otherwise, sandy with a few stones, large male from beneath a boulder, mid-sized mature male with pale-legged pattern; Nyembeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Ngobit River at Ngobit on road between Naro Moru and Rumuruti (1°17'N, 36°47'E), a tribuitary of the Ewaso Ngiri River, 3.7-4.6 m wide, up to 0.7 m deep, gravel bed, embedded in silty clay, few large stones, crabs from rubble at sides of river below bridge; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; between Mt. Kenya and Murang'a, 2,833 m asl.	eng
134542	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Chania River at road bridge below Nyeri (0°06'S, 37°52'E) 6.1 m wide, fast, bed of small boulders and stones; Mt. Kenya, Kiganjo, Nairobi River, large stones in sandy bed, occasional small falls over outcrops and large rocks; Meru, northern Mount Kenya, Kiganjo, first stream north of last station, 2-2.5 m wide, open, sandy, some embedded large stones and a cattle watering pool; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River (0°07'S, 38°13'E), 1,585 m asl, 8.4 km from Mikinduri (00°07'N, 37°50'E) 3.7-4.6 m wide, stony with some boulders, 89+90 specimens, with large species and small pink species, shaded, at forest edge; Nyambeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Thangatha River, 1,585 m asl, large crabs from mid stream; Nyambeni Hills north of Mt. Kenya, unnamed stream, 1.2 km nearer, Mikindwi than Thangatha River, 0.7 m wide, shallow, occasional boulders, otherwise, sandy with a few stones, large male from beneath a boulder, mid-sized mature male with pale-legged pattern; Nyembeni Hills, north of Mt. Kenya, Ngobit River at Ngobit on road between Naro Moru and Rumuruti (1°17'N, 36°47'E), a tributary of the Ewaso Ngiri River, 3.7-4.6 m wide, up to 0.7 m deep, gravel bed, embedded in silty clay, few large stones, crabs from rubble at sides of river below bridge; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; Kasarongai River, west of Mt. Kenya; between Mt. Kenya and Murang'a, 2,833 m asl.	eng
134542	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134542	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134543	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134543	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas States. Veracruz: Los Tuxtlas, mountains; and Rio Basura 17 km NW Catemaco. Restricted to Mexico.	eng
134543	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A troglophile species that is  restricted to the Cueva del Azufre and has not been collected anywhere else.	eng
134543	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134543	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134544	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134544	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Srisungwarn waterfall, Chiang Dao District; and Doi Chiang Dao (and 1' east of it), all in Chiang Mai Province, northwestern Thailand, Asia.<br/><br/>Amphoe Chiang Dao 1,882 km².	eng
134544	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mountains.	eng
134544	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134544	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134545	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134545	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Estero San Agustın, 4 km south of the bridge over the Rıo Banchal, Manabı.	eng
134545	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134545	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134545	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134546	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134546	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: near Rotung, Abor Country, 1,000-1,300 ft (305-396 m) asl, northeastern India.	eng
134546	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134546	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134546	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134547	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134547	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Ban Xieng Dad, Muang Phu Kut (Muang Sui), Xieng Khuang Province, northern Laos.	eng
134547	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134547	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134547	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134548	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134548	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru. Suriname. Brazil (AM, PA).	eng
134548	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134548	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134548	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134549	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134549	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra, Java.	eng
134549	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134549	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134549	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134550	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134550	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Ishigake, Yaeyama group, Southern Ryukyus.	eng
134550	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species can be found in shallow, narrow, slow-flowing streams and in small muddy swamps. Specimens were collected under large stones and from burrows.	eng
134550	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134550	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134551	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134551	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China. No information about exact location available.	eng
134551	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134551	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134551	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134552	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134552	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma (Myanmar) Meetan - Upper Tenasserim, Kokareet; and Valle de Houngdarau, Tenasserim.	eng
134552	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134552	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134552	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134553	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. More information needed on distribution, ecology and threats.	eng
134553	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state: Naga Hills. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134553	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available	eng
134553	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available	eng
134553	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available - likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134554	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134554	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Iran: only known from the Elburs Mountains, in Ghilan Province: south of Khorramabad;  Kegachag east of Rasht; Shahshovar, east of Rascht; 42km south of Rascht; 20 km south of Rascht, tributary of the Sefi-Rud. Also from Mazandaran Province: 2 km south of Chalus; 20 km south of Chalus; 42 km south of Chalus; 44 km south of Chalus; Tula Rod River, southwest of the Caspian Sea.	eng
134554	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134554	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134554	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134555	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134555	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi Province:  from Wanzai (28.1N, 114.4E), Xiushui, Leping, and Nancheng counties. Hunan Province: Yueyang and Liuyang Counties.	eng
134555	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134555	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134555	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134556	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134556	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Pu Tae, Thong Pha Phum District; Ban Dong Lek, Tha Charep (ha Chalab), Si Sawat District, Kanchanaburi Province (Yeo unpubl. data). Localities probably 50km apart?  Both districts together have an area of 6,950 km².	eng
134556	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A terrestrial animal. In deep burrows along the banks of small, heavily shaded streams in dense forests. The banks of the streams consist of mud and are overgrown by herbs.	eng
134556	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134556	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134557	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134557	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo: Loashi, 1300 m asl, Lake Kivu (plus 5 other localities). Rwanda: Nduga, Nyanza; Mwaka, Nyanza, 1700 m asl. BURUNDI: Kishubi, Muyehe, 1700 m asl.	eng
134557	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134557	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134557	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134558	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134558	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Luzon, Philippines.	eng
134558	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134558	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134558	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134559	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134559	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Titrung waterfall in Tharn Lod, Si Sawat District, Kanchanaburi Province, western Thailand.	eng
134559	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Waterfall.	eng
134559	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134559	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134560	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134560	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador. Paramba, 70 miles north of Quito; Pacific drainage (Ecuador); Pichincha, 10 km south of Santo Domingo de los Colorados.	eng
134560	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134560	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134560	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134561	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134561	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Kakhyen Hills, Poonsee, Upper Burma; Moung Sal, Mekhok River. China: Shuangjiang, Jinghong, Xiaomengyong, Mengla Counties in Yunnan (Dai 1999).	eng
134561	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134561	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134561	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134562	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134562	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tad Ton waterfall, Phu Phan Mountain, Muang Sakon Nakhon District, Sakon Nakhon Province.	eng
134562	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Holotype from a waterfall.	eng
134562	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134562	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134563	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134563	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Gua Kelawan (Lubang Kelia) (Bat cave), just south of forest station at Long Pala (river junction, 4 01'36"N, 114 47'58"E).	eng
134563	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous, semi-terrestrial	eng
134563	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134563	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134564	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134564	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Gushui, Guangning, Guangdong Province.	eng
134564	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134564	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134564	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134565	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134565	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Zulia State: Venezuelan slopes of the Sierra de Perija (Perija Mountain Range) from Kunana in the headwaters of the Rio Negro to the upper Rio Guasare.	eng
134565	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134565	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134565	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134566	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134566	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: known from 15 localities in Caldas and Tolima Departments, eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).	eng
134566	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 400-1,750 m asl in the humid forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River.	eng
134566	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134566	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134567	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134567	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: endemic to Jiangxi province (Ninggang 28.7 N, 113.9 E).	eng
134567	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134567	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134567	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134568	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134568	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountain Area; Tengchon County, Yunnan Province.	eng
134568	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	pH 6.5 to 7.	eng
134568	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134568	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to Hengduan mountains area.	eng
134569	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134569	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region (of Hengduan Mt area), West mountain subregion, west mountainous area to the basin zone. Luocheng County, Guangxi Province and Zmei County in Sichuan Province.	eng
134569	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134569	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134569	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134570	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134570	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: The type locality "Monterrodendo", Colombia, given by Bott (1967) is an unidentifiable locality. The type-locality is probably near Quetame, 30 km NW of Villavicencio, in the Rio Negro Valley. Corregimento Monterredondo, Municipio Quetame, 1,350 m asl; Municipio Guayabetal, Vereda El Naranjal, 1350 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia; 1,320-1,500 m asl, Orinoco watershed (Campos 2005).	eng
134570	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,320 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
134570	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134570	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134571	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.	eng
134571	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sabah: endemic to Tawau and Lahad Datu area in eastern Sabah, including Danum Valley Conservation area.	eng
134571	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial. Associated with puddles and temporary water bodies in muddy areas and swamp.	eng
134571	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134571	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to population in Danum Valley Conservation Area. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
134572	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Xishuangbanna is the only tropical rainforest nature reserve zone in China.	eng
134572	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Moung-Sal, Mekohk River, northeastern Myanmar. China: Menglun in Xishuangbanna autonomous prefecture in Yunnan Province and Puwen, Mangzhang, Simao, Manghong, Jinghong, Menghong, Xiaomengyang, Manwei, Menghan, Mengyang, Menghai, Maliping Counties of Yunnan Province, southern China.	eng
134572	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134572	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134572	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134573	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134573	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: around Bangkok.	eng
134573	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages. Caught for food during the wet season.	eng
134573	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134573	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Human induced habitat loss is a threat. Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets and populations could be vulnerable from over collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
134574	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134574	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province.	eng
134574	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134574	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134574	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134575	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134575	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Bolivia. Known only from the holotype.	eng
134575	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134575	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134575	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134576	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	It is found in a protected area.	eng
134576	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Restricted to the island of Borneo with a rather wide range (Holthuis, 1979) (4 03'N 114 56'E). It is likely that it is found in Kalimanta because the original locality referred to "southeast Bornea" I.e. Kalimantan. Most of the subsequent records have been from Sarawak. It has been collected recently in 1978 in a protected area (Gunong Mulu NP).	eng
134576	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected in alluvial forest, which is often flooded. This is a semi-terrestrial species, common in burrows. Mainly nocturnal. Crab guts contained vegetable, mineral and insect matter, and these crabs may contribute significantly to leaf litter degradation and the removal of leaves from the alluvial forest floor.	eng
134576	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Crabs were found to be quite common along the banks of larger rivers and nocturnal in habits.	eng
134576	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134577	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  Some localities lie within a protected area, the Mont Nimba National Park.	eng
134577	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Liberia and Guinea: Liberonautes rubigimanus is known from only three localities: two in Liberia (Mount Gibi, Margibi County, and Balloon creek, Grand Gedah County) and one in Guinea (Mount Nimba) (Cumberlidge and Huguet 2003). It is endemic to this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone.	eng
134577	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Liberonautes rubigimanus</em> is found in fast-flowing mountain streams in Liberia (Mount Gibi) and Guinea (Mount Nimba), and at lower elevations in forest streams in Grand Gedah County, Liberia. The specimen from Mount Nimba was collected in forest at 600 m altitude. This is a large species, with an adult size range between cw 62-75 mm. This species is sympatric with <em>L. latidactylus</em> and <em>L. paludicolis</em>.	eng
134577	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens from three localities in Liberia and Guinea. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134577	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its mountain stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134578	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area, although the cave system where it is found provides a certain amount of protection because of its  inaccessibility.	eng
134578	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas State: caves in eastern Sierra Madre.	eng
134578	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The only troglobitic (cave-living) trichodactylid. This species is blind, and its carapace and legs are depigmented, and it has long slender walking legs. Semi-terrestrial in habit, spending time out water too.	eng
134578	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134578	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134579	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134579	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality between Munnar-Maraiyoor, on Munnar-Pollachchi, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134579	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens were collected from just beside a streamlet, in moist soil and under stones, between Munnar-Maraiyoor above 1,570 m altitude.	eng
134579	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134579	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134580	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134580	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Mount Liang -Koeboeng.	eng
134580	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134580	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134580	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134581	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.	eng
134581	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Tributary of Sungei Kelantan (5°19'N, 102°18'E) and Terengganu, Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Kelantan and Terrengganu.	eng
134581	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
134581	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134581	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134582	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134582	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Khao Ram, Nakhon Si Thammarat mountains; Phrommalok waterfall, Phrommakhiri District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province; southern Thailand. Found on hill next to city.	eng
134582	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Recently reported to be the second intermediate host of <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> in Surat Thani, Thailand (Sugiyami <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
134582	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134582	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134583	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. The Lombong area (Kota Tinggi waterworks) is a protected area and this will help ensure its survival. A larger area of protection is desirable.	eng
134583	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. The type locality is Lombong waterfall (Kota Tinggi), Gunang Panti area, Johore (1"46'N, 103"51'E). Endemic to Kota Tinggi and Gunung Panti, Johore, and adjacent areas in Johore and Pahang.	eng
134583	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Found under rocks and vegetation on the sides of waterfalls, streams or adjacent pools.	eng
134583	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134583	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss/degradation and pollution outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.	eng
134584	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134584	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Dharampur, Simla (Shimla) Hills, 5,000 feet	eng
134584	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134584	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134584	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134585	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134585	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Loudi (27.7N, 111.9E); Lengshui Jiang; Lianyuan, Loudi; Shangfengxian; Hunan province.	eng
134585	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134585	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134585	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134586	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134586	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sumatra. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134586	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134586	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134586	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134587	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134587	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: This species has a wide distribution in central Thailand, centering around the Chao Phrya drainage, Asia<br/>Phukae, Saraburi Province; Lomsak District (Tantip waterfall) and Nong Phai District (Subchomphu Waterfall) Phetchabun Province; Lumnarai District, Lopburi Province.	eng
134587	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in small, fast flowing streams, the substrate are rocks and small boulders.	eng
134587	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134587	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134588	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (National Park).	eng
134588	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo: Wanariset Research Swamp Forest, east Kalimantan.	eng
134588	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lowland species.	eng
134588	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The population levels are small but stable, and this species lives in a protected area where there are no known long-term threats to its habitat.	eng
134588	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134589	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134589	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Manu Province, Madre de Dios Department, and Brazil (AM) where it occurs in the Amazon basin and in the sub-basin of the lower Rio Madeira / Madre de Dios.	eng
134589	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134589	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134589	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134590	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134590	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma: Mergui Archipelago, Andaman Sea, off southern Myanmar. The holotype and a few other specimens were collected from here in 1886 and it has not been collected since.	eng
134590	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Like other species of this genus, <em>D. merguensisi</em> is mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. This genus is sometimes found outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134590	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134590	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134591	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134591	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Kerala state: Cochin State Forest, Kerala is the type locality in southwestern India and the only locality known. The species is known only from the types from Cochin State Forest, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134591	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known, probably from under stones and logs in wet soil and from shallow burrows in wet soil, adjacent to small streams (Bahir and Yeo, in publication).	eng
134591	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134591	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134592	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation and monitoring of pollution levels in Gomantong caves area.	eng
134592	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo (5 33'N, 118 06'E). Only known from its type locality (Simud Puteh Cave, Gomantong, Sabah). Endemic to Gomantong caves, Sabah.	eng
134592	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial. An obligate cavernicolous species (troglobite) living in and around subterranean streams.	eng
134592	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134592	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134593	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Tawau Hills Park and Danum Valley Conservation area should ensure its survival.	eng
134593	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Tawau and Lahad Datu area in eastern Sabah, including Danum Valley Conservation Area. This species appears to be restricted to Sabah in the northeastern part of Borneo, and is found inTawau Hills Park, Madai Caves, Danum Valley Conservation Area and Lower Segama River.	eng
134593	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic.	eng
134593	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134593	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Tawau Hills Park and Danum valley Conservation Area. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
134594	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134594	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	El Salvador: Volcan Monte Cristo, 25 km N of Metapan, 2,300 m.	eng
134594	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134594	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134594	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134595	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area on Dominica.	eng
134595	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lesser Antilles, West Indies: St. Vincent, Dominica, Martinique, Guadaloupe.	eng
134595	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers in the highland areas of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.	eng
134595	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country, but its distribution is fragmented and its populations are isolated because they are found on different islands.	eng
134595	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat destruction.	eng
134596	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134596	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Tonghai (24 1N, 102 7'E), in Yunnan Province.	eng
134596	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134596	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134596	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134597	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134597	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hong Kong: Tai Po Kau Reserve, Nai Chung stream in New Territories, and near Victoria peak on Hong Kong Island. Known only from Hong Kong.	eng
134597	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found mostly in secondary forest, it is very terrestrial and rarely occurs in the water proper, instead inhabiting the dry areas beyond the banks of streams. Found for example near roots and large rocks. They excavate burrows which are gradually sloping and difficult to dig out. During rain, the adult crabs move out of their burrows, even during daylight. Smaller crabs and juveniles appear to stay closer to pools or patches of wet ground.<br/><br/>In captivity, this species is agile and climb semivertical surfaces with little effort. As this species is aggressive, specimens particularly conspecifics, cannot be kept together in confine spaces (Ng and Dudgeon 1992).	eng
134597	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134597	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134598	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134598	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Tamil Nadu state: southern India, Nilgiris Hills. The species is known from Coonoor and Hill-Grove, Nilgiris, and Glendale Tea Estate, Tamil Nadu, southern India. Possible additional records from Karnataka as well (Srivastava 2005).	eng
134598	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Recently collected mature specimens are from a small (< 1m wide), shallow (< 30 cm deep), steep, rocky stream in a shaded area at about 15 km from Mettuppalayam on Ooty road (at 500 m altitude), Tamil Nadu, India. Juveniles were collected from Glendale Estate on Mettuppalayam-Ooty, are from 5–10 cm deep wet soil on a large boulder, in an open area within the tea garden, Tamil Nadu, 11.19’49.7”N, 076.47’18.3”E, at 1,560 m altitude.	eng
134598	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134598	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134599	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.	eng
134599	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Senegal: This species is known only from one locality in the Sénégal river, Sénégal, and is endemic to that country. In 1970 when this species was collected the Senegal RIver was saline for more than 250 km inland. In 1985 a dam was built at Diama to prevent the invasion of saltwater upstream of the dam. The collection locality is not specific but it seems likely that it was collected in the freshwater zone of the river which at the time was upstream of Podor, and so the locality must have been between here and the border with Mali.	eng
134599	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The only locality record is from the Sénégal river, Sénégal. The highly arched and rounded carapace of this species is typical of freshwater crabs that live a semi-terrestrial life and breathe air as well as water (Cumberlidge 1999).	eng
134599	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134599	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134600	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134600	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from PNG. There have been no records in over 30 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Australasia.	eng
134600	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134600	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134601	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134601	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines, Luzon.	eng
134601	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	One specimen was found in hollow of tree, well above the ground and away from water in a forest	eng
134601	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134601	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134602	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134602	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Calbigau on Samar; Loquilocum on Samar;  Danao lake; Molawin Creck, Laguna di Bay, Calibato Lake; streams near Goa; Leyte; Luzon, Philippines, Asia<br/><br/>Samar, Luzon, Leyte and Camiguin Islands, Philippines (Balss 1937).	eng
134602	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134602	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134602	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134603	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134603	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Karnataka state: Bellary area, Wagrakarwar, Mysore; and tributary of Cauveri River, at Hunsur 50 km from Mysore on Madekeri -Mysore Rd. Localities probably 125 km apart.	eng
134603	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on the bank of a shallow (<30 cm) slow-flowing, rocky stream.	eng
134603	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134603	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134604	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134604	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand, Ut Mai Thani Province, Lan Sak District, Nam Chon waterfall (15'25"00N, 99'41"00E); Lampang Province, Amphoe Hang Chat, Khun Tai waterfall (18'20"00N, 99'21"00E); Chang Rai province, Murang, Prong Pra Bat.	eng
134604	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Waterfalls, mountain streams.	eng
134604	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134604	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134605	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134605	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: La Jolla Cave, State of Guerrero, Mexico, 5 km northeast from Taxco by highway 95 at 1,800 m asl.	eng
134605	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cave species. Isolated area in complete darkness 1,120 m from the cave's entrance, after a 20 m vertical drop, this seems to restrict the distribution of the species to the deeper parts of the cave.  Has no obvious adaptations to cave life - carapace dark, eyes normal.	eng
134605	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134605	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134606	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134606	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: southern Shan State: Inle Lake area, He-Ho stream, 3800 feet, from the Hsin Dawng stream near Yawnghwe and close to the Ngot bat cave. Was not found in the lake, only in its vicinity.	eng
134606	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under stones at the edge of running water and in holes in the banks of small streams.	eng
134606	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134606	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134607	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134607	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: West Colombia, Choco Department. From the headwaters of the Atrato River which flows north into the Gulf of Uraba to the Caribbean Sea; also from the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific. This trans-basin distribution arises probably due to the intermittant communication between both basins, which occur during flood seasons in areas with an altitude below 100 m (Campos 2005).	eng
134607	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20-500 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134607	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134607	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134608	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134608	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz State, Alta, Coban, Haute Vera Paz.	eng
134608	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	From a cave in the state of Veracruz, but no obvious adaptations to cave life.	eng
134608	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134608	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134609	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134609	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Dapaolake, Mindanao, Philippines, Southeast Asia	eng
134609	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134609	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134609	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134610	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134610	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi Province: Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Longnan, Daiyu, Ruijin. Fujian Province: Pingwu. Guangdong Province: Meixian and Shaoguan. Hunan Province: Lingxian.	eng
134610	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134610	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134610	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134611	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134611	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pong Nam Ron, Chanthaburi Province, Thailand, Asia. Pong Nam Ron District covers an area of 927 km².	eng
134611	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134611	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134611	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Species of this genus are considered pretty as pets.	eng
134612	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134612	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province: Juyu, Fanxian; Yunxian; Yangyuenwan, Shennongjia; Benshui, Shennonjia.	eng
134612	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134612	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134612	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134613	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of the Pulau Langkawi highlands and monitoring of pollution levels.	eng
134613	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: northern Malaysian Peninsula. This species is common throughout the highlands of Pulau Langkawi, Kedah (e.g. 6 23'58"N, 99 50'05"E).	eng
134613	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is a highland species which is absent in the lower stretches of streams and prefers shaded areas under leaf beds and rocks. It is semi-terrestrial to aquatic in its habits and has been collected from the wet terrestrial bank adjacent to streams. A resilient but timid species which is able to survive out of water for over a day if the environment is cool. Also very agile and fast on land. Moulting has been accomplished out of water, the carapace can harden without needing to be completely submerged in water. Although it feeds on animal and plant matter, it prefers animals.	eng
134613	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134613	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134614	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134614	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: So far only known from southern Thailand, Kra of Isthmus area (7 35'23" N, 99 30' 46"E), Surat Thani Province (99 58'E, 8 25'N, and Trang Province, southern Thailand.	eng
134614	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is semi-terrestrial to terrestrial, hides in deep burrows during the day.	eng
134614	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134614	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. This species is occasionally caught by local villagers for sale as pets. It has three colour morphs, but there is no apparent morphological difference between the colour morphs (Yeo, unpubl. data).	eng
134615	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134615	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama.	eng
134615	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134615	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134615	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134616	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134616	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Kreo Noi, Khlong Phrae Sai, north of Ranong (10 08'50.9"N 98 41'11.3"E) and Ban Kho Krue, Khlong Kho Krue (10 22'13.7"N 98 48'34"E), Ranong Province, southern Thailand (Yeo unpubl. data). Localities are 28km apart and this species is not widespread.	eng
134616	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134616	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134616	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134617	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134617	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Choco, Huila, and Risaralda Departments: Found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific, Serranía de Los Paraguas, Cordillera Occidental. Choco Department (= 46,530 km²), San Juan River drainage (16,465-km² basin) approx 25% of Choco area. This is one of the three large rivers that drain the Chocó Department, the other two being the Atrato River and the Baudó River, each one with many tributaries. The Baudó Mountains on the coast and the Cordillera Occidental are cut by low valleys with an altitude less than 1,000 meters that form most of the territory. Most of the Chocó is thick rain forest (Campos 2005).	eng
134617	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 490-700 m asl.	eng
134617	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134617	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134618	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134618	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nanning County in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China.	eng
134618	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134618	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134618	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134619	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134619	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Sang Fa, Muang Mae Hong Son District; and Huai San, about 1 km on turnoff to Ban ma Sang (19°26'26"N 97°59'48"E), Mae Nam Pai basin, Mae Hong Son Province, central northeast Thailand. 40 km distance between locations. Not a widespread species.	eng
134619	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134619	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134619	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134620	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.	eng
134620	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nigeria: This species is known only from one locality in southern Nigeria and is endemic to that country.	eng
134620	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes nigeria</em> is known only from four specimens collected in the rainforest zone of southeast Nigeria in the western part of the Lower Guinea forest block.	eng
134620	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from only four specimens, all from a single locality. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134620	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134621	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134621	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Mindanao.	eng
134621	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134621	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134621	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134622	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134622	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Zulia and Merida States. Colombia: Cundinamarca, Norte de Santander, Boyaca, Santander, Tolima departments: extensive distribution on the slopes of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras in systems that drain into the Magdalena River which drains into the Pacific. Between Melgar and Bucaramanga, upper Magdalena basin, found exclusively in the Magdalena basin. <em>Hypolobocera b. angulata</em> is known from nine localities in Cesar Department; seven localities from Magdalena Department, and four localities from Venezuela (Merida and Zulia States). <em>Hypolobocera b. monticola</em> is known from eight localities in Antioquia Department; 26 localities from Risaralda Department, six localities from Caldas Department, one from Choco department, one from Quindio department, four from Valle del Cauca Department, and 17 localities from Tolima Department. <em>Hypolobocera b. stenolobata</em> is known from six localities in Huila Department (Campos 2005).	eng
134622	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species (as <em>H. b. monticola</em>) is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus</em> sp. in Colombia.	eng
134622	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134622	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134623	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kubah National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
134623	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Western Sarawak including Gunung Matang (Serapi) in Kubah National Park. Also found in northwestern Kalimantan, Indonesia. Asia<br/><br/>More material (four specimens) was collected in 2002 from Gunung Meraja, Gunung Batu Payong (12 specimens), Gunung Krian (one specimen), Gunung Pambor (seven specimens), Gunung Tongga (46 specimens), Gunung Ropih (eight specimens), Gunung Lanyang (two specimens), Gunung Podam (seven specimens), Gunung Stulang (13 specimens), Gunung Doya (five specimens), Gunung Tai Ton (one specimen) and Gunung Kawa (seven specimens), in the Bau Limestone Area of Sarawak. So the number of localities known is now 28 (all in the Bau Limestone Area).	eng
134623	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Prefers fast-flowing waters.	eng
134623	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134623	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Kubah National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
134624	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134624	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from PNG. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134624	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134624	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134625	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Lanjak-Entimau as a Wildlife Sanctuary should ensure its survival.	eng
134625	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Borneo: Sarawak: South Sarawak including Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, and northwestern Kalimantan, Borneo, Indonesia.	eng
134625	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic.	eng
134625	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134625	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
134626	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).	eng
134626	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Suriname: Monts Nassau. French Guiana. Brazil: Amapa, Amazonas, Para, Ceara States. This species is found in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Marowijne/Marone, and Suriname river basins. Atlantic Guianas and the eastern and central Amazon. Not found east of the mouth of the Amazon River. The easternmost records of this species are in Brazil from the Rio Acara in Tome-Acu, state of Para, and the Rio Gurupi, a coastal Atlantic river that divides the states of Para and Maranhao, Brazil. In Brazil, this species is found in the central Amazon region and in the Rio Calçoene, a coastal Atlantic river in Amapá State; also in Serra do Navio [00°52'N 51°59'W], serra do Veado; Serra do Navio, sítio São Sebastião, right bank of Rio Amapari. The record from the Serra do Navio confirms the occurrence of the species in the eastern Amazon region. Amazonas State: Presidente Figueiredo [02°04'S 60°10'W], road to Balbina, igarapé no sítio "Refúgio do Maroaga". Also found in Ceara State, northeastern Brazil, outside of the Amazon region.	eng
134626	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on land, in humid areas of forest ground and in small water courses throughout the forest. This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134626	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134626	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134627	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134627	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Linchuan (27.9 N, 116.2 E), Jian and Fengcheng, Jiangxi Province, distance between Linchuan and Jian is 146 km².	eng
134627	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134627	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134627	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134628	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134628	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Amazon drainage of Peru (Departments of Loreto and Huanuco); Huacamayo River, km 155, road to Basadre, Pucallpa Department–Aguaytia Province, in the south-western part of the Amazon basin in tributaries of the Rio Ucayali (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).	eng
134628	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134628	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134628	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134629	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134629	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Loshang District, Xiushui County, Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province; Luocheng and Xiuren counties.	eng
134629	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134629	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134629	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134630	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134630	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Amazon River basin in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. Brazil this species is found in the Amazon basin (Amazonas and Amapa States) and it also occurs in two localities in Colombia (Leticia) (Campos 2005).	eng
134630	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon River basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Jari river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon River. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 80 and 120 m asl.	eng
134630	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134630	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134631	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134631	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Para and Amazonas State. Could be present from Guyana to the Central Brazilian Shield. So far, this species is known to occur in four Amazon river sub-basins: Rio Trombetas and Rio Uatumã (northern tributaries) and Rio Curuá-Una and Rio Xingu (southern tributaries).	eng
134631	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon and Araguari river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Uatuma and Rio Trombetas rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river, as well as in the Rio Xingu, a southern tributary of the Amazon river. This species occurs running rivers, waterfalls and rapids, as well as shallow areas, between cracks and under rocks, also being able live outside of water. It is also found in highplain rivers, usually among rocks along rapids and falls.	eng
134631	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134631	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134632	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134632	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Liberia: This species is known only from one locality, Weeni creek, Grand Bassa County, in Liberia and is therefore endemic to that country.	eng
134632	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in a small stream (Weeni Creek) in the rainforests of central Liberia.	eng
134632	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens and there is no information available on its population size or abundance.	eng
134632	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134633	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134633	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountains Area, Dali in Yunnan (Dali city has an area of 1468 km².)	eng
134633	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134633	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134633	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134634	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134634	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brunei: Near summit of East Kuala Belalong, Temburong.	eng
134634	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Forest floor, near summit of East Kuala Belalong	eng
134634	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134634	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134635	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134635	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Yunxi, Yunyang, Fangxian, Zhuxi, Baokang, Shennongjian, Xingshan, Laifeng, Nanzhang, Badong counties in Hubei Province. Plus Wuxi, Chengkou, Wanxian counties in Sichuan Province.	eng
134635	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134635	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134635	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134636	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134636	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines - northeastern Mindoro.	eng
134636	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134636	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134636	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134637	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134637	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: small cave crabs, Chiapas State - Cueva del Tio Ticho. Eastern Sierra Madre of Chiapas; Cueva del Tio Ticho, 3 km south of Comitan, Chiapas; plus Cueva Murcielagos and Cueva de los Llanos, which are both located 14 km ESE of San Cristobal de las Casas. Blind, depigmented, long slender legs.	eng
134637	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Caves. Truly troglobitic, no pigmentation on carapace or appendages, ocular peduncle lacks visual pigments.	eng
134637	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134637	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134638	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area, the Parc National de Niokolo-Koba in Senegal.	eng
134638	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is common in the major rivers in the western part of the West Africa with a distributional range that includes Mauritania (Guidimaka), eastern Sénégal, Mali (river Niger and Mali, Lac Télé, near to Goundam), Burkina Faso, Côte-d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, and possibly Cameroon (although this record is doubtful). This species may also be found in the Gambia.	eng
134638	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found throughout the major rivers of West Africa.	eng
134638	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species, and has been collected recently from two different localities (the Niger River at Bamako and Mopti, Mali) in the past five years. It is the subject of small scale local fisheries in Mali where it is captured in nets or in baited fish traps.	eng
134638	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134639	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134639	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: National Park HQ to Gia Luan (Ra Luan), about 1km and about 3-4km (20 4757"N 107 00'05"e Cat Ba Island, Hai Phong, northern Vietnam.	eng
134639	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected from along the stream banks as well as a short distance from the streams. Semi-terrestrial habit.	eng
134639	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134639	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134641	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134641	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.	eng
134641	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134641	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134641	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134642	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134642	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Bhamo, Upper Irrawaddy River, Myanmar; Upper Burma	eng
134642	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134642	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134642	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134643	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The selective protection of swamp forests is the only recourse.	eng
134643	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to the lowland swamps of southerwestern Johore.	eng
134643	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing waters with dense leaf litter and submerged vegetation, usually in freshwater swamp forests.	eng
134643	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134643	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The increasing loss of the swamp forests of southeastern Johore poses a clear threat.	eng
134644	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
134644	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Nakhon Phanom Province, northeastern Thailand (Yeo 2004). Also found in Lao PDR.	eng
134644	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A rice field crab.	eng
134644	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134644	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. Pesticides used in rice fields pose a threat as well.	eng
134645	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134645	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan Mt area), west mountainous area to the basin zone, including basin zone. Kwanshsien/Wan xian, Chungking/Chong qing, Guanxian, Xinjin, Shifang, Chengdu, Yibin counties in Sichuan Province. Chishui in Guizhou Province.	eng
134645	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lung fluke associated with this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Sichuan variety) and <em>P. szechuanensis</em> (Chung & Ts'ao).	eng
134645	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134645	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134646	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134646	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state: Ganjam in northern Cachar Province in Assam.	eng
134646	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown (freshwater)	eng
134646	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134646	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134647	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134647	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sikkim or Burma. Sikkim (also Sikhim) (Devanāgarī) is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas.	eng
134647	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134647	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134647	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134648	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134648	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cesar Department: Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,270m to 1,800m above sea level (Campos 2005).	eng
134648	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,270 and 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
134648	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Large populations of crabs found.	eng
134648	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134649	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134649	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Huanning (24.1N, 102.9E) Yunnan Province.	eng
134649	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134649	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134649	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134650	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134650	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Taoyuan (32.3N, 110.2E); Niuchehe village, Taoyuan; Taojianping village, Xupu; Hunan Province.	eng
134650	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134650	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134650	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Agricultural expansion and industrial manufacturing and mining pose threats to the environment.	eng
134651	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134651	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Holotype from Pamplona, Norte del Santander Department. In addition to the type material, the species has been reported from a number of localities in the rivers of the Lago Maracaibo drainage in Venezuela (Zulia State) and Colombia (Rodriguez 1992). Magalhaes and Tuerkay (1996) and (Campos 2005) define the distribution of the genus Bottiella as northern Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
134651	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50-325 m asl.	eng
134651	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a common and widespread species.	eng
134651	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134652	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134652	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Close to Bombetok; Bombetok, Province Faranfangana; Andrafiavelo (Sakalava); Forest, 1,700 m, Ambohitantely; Lily River-Ampefy, Department of Soavinandriana;  Province d’Antananarivo, Réserve spéciale d’Ambohitantely, 24 km NE Ankazobe, 1,450 m.	eng
134652	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A river-living species.	eng
134652	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134652	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134653	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134653	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Emei Mountain, Sichuan Province.	eng
134653	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134653	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134653	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134654	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134654	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: La Mina, Rio Torres, San Jose Province; Alajuela Province; Heredia Province.	eng
134654	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus caliensis</em> and <em>P. mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica.	eng
134654	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134654	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134655	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134655	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: collected 5 km west of La Meced (-11.0500 S, -75.3167 W) Departamento de Junin (44.410 km²).	eng
134655	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected from mountain streams under stones.	eng
134655	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134655	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134656	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134656	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cameroon: Buea / Kumba area, and Victoria, southwest Cameroon.	eng
134656	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Two male specimens (cws 21.3, 20.1 mm) from Victoria, Cameroon collected 6 February 1912 by DR. E. Fickenday, were described as “Essbare Landkrabben” (edible land crabs).	eng
134656	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Population levels and trends unknown.	eng
134656	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134657	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134657	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Tolima Department: Eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134657	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,100 m asl in the humid forests of the Central Cordillera of Colombia.	eng
134657	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134657	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134658	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134658	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Solala Department; St. Augustine, near Atitlan. Mexico: Cavadonque (Covadonga?), sw Mexico.	eng
134658	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.	eng
134658	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134658	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134659	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134659	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: found throughout Taiwan (except the northeast). In the western region it is found from Taipeh County (Wulai Village) to Taoyuan County (Fuxing village). In the eastern region from Hwalien County down to Taitung County (Hsinwulu stream, Wulu, Haituan) and in the South Hengchun Peninsular. Found in 18 of the main river systems in Taiwan from mountain streams ot coastal plains.	eng
134659	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs from sea level rivers to mountain creeks. Highland and lowland. It is found in rock crevices and in muddy areas. It is important as it is a secondary intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> in Taiwan, which was common before the 1960s. See Liu and Li (2000) for the reproductive behaviour and ecology of this species.	eng
134659	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A widespread and abundant species that is endemic to Taiwan. It has been collected recently from 1994 to 2003.	eng
134659	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution	eng
134660	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134660	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Mounte Mooleyit, Myanmar.	eng
134660	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134660	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134660	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134661	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in a protected area - a National Park. (but this is insufficient to protect it from threats)	eng
134661	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Huai Fai Hin, Chiang Mai Province. Also Nam Mae Chai (300 m NE of hot springs of Fang - 19°58'N 99°10'E); Doi chang; Doi Sutep Waterfall; Huai Kiaow waterfall in Doi Sutep-Pu National Park, Chiang Mai Province.	eng
134661	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134661	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134661	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Doi Su Tep National Park is one of the most visited national parks in Thailand. Much of the forest has been in decline because of its closeness to Chiang Mai, the rapid development of tourism and the presence of hill tribe families in the park.	eng
134662	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134662	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Gaoan (24.8°N 117.4°E), Huaan, Fujian Province.	eng
134662	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134662	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134662	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134663	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134663	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Mindanao - Sultan Kradarat Province.	eng
134663	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134663	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134663	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134664	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134664	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Tambelan Islands.	eng
134664	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134664	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134664	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134665	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134665	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: east side of Dawna Hills, Myanmar; Thailand: Senangkhanikhom District, Ubon Ratchathani Province.	eng
134665	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134665	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134665	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134666	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134666	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Bougainville in the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134666	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134666	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134666	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134667	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134667	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Kaiyang, Shiqian, Jiangkou Counties in Guizhou Province. Zushi in Hubei Province.	eng
134667	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134667	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134667	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134668	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, and receives special protection because it is named for the Queen of Thailand.	eng
134668	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ngao Waterfall Forest Park, Amphoe Muang, Muang Ranong District, Ranong Province, southern Thailand.	eng
134668	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under small stones in mountain streams of Ngao Mountain at 100 m asl.	eng
134668	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134668	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134669	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134669	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Near Pointe Bolivar.	eng
134669	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134669	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134669	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134670	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134670	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Dongyin (26 22'42"N, 120 29'E, Matsu) a small island off Fujian.	eng
134670	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was collected in irrigation ditches beside vegetable gardens.	eng
134670	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134670	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134671	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area, although its cave habitat provides a degree of inaccessibility and therefore protection.	eng
134671	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: On the island of Halmahera in the Indonesian Moluccas.	eng
134671	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in limestone caves. Probably not an obligate cavernicole because although its legs are elongated and it is pale in colour, its eyes are not reduced in size. They live in small ponds either far from (as well as near to), or actually in the underground river in the cave.	eng
134671	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	These crabs were reported to be locally common in the cave where they were collected and live in small ponds either far from (as well as near to), or actually in the underground river in the cave.	eng
134671	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134672	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134672	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China:  Endemic to Jiangxi Province: found in the following counties - Wanzai, Ruichang, Duchang, Boyang, Leping, Fengcheng, Yichun, Xiushui, Anyi, Xinyu, Yongfeng, Gaoan, Anfu, Nancheng, Shangxian and Taihe.	eng
134672	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134672	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134672	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134673	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean. Much of the park is covered with primeval rain forest, and it is home to more than 500 different species of birds. In addition, hundreds of thousands of birds and insects following a natural migratory route fly over the park at Portachuelo Pass.	eng
134673	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: northern slope of the Venezuelan central range of the Venezuelan Andes from Distrito Federal to Aragua and Carabobo States.  Between 1966 and 1973, 13 crabs were collected by the Society of Natural History, La Salle, Caracas. This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean.	eng
134673	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Henri Pittier (= Rancho Grande) National Park, Aragua State, western coastal range in the Cordillera de la Costa, Aragua estado (state), Venezuela (900 sq km) between Lago (lake) de Valencia and the Caribbean. Much of the park is covered with primeval rain forest, and it is home to more than 500 different species of birds. In addition, hundreds of thousands of birds and insects following a natural migratory route fly over the park at Portachuelo Pass.	eng
134673	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134673	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134674	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134674	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: Kidzueme, Moluma stream, Kwilu (Kwango). Known from 3 localities.	eng
134674	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134674	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134674	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134675	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134675	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Zulia, Lara,Trujillo, Merida, and Falcon States. Colombia: Boyaca, Caldas, Cesar, Cordoba, Cuindinamarca, Guajira, Magdalena, Tolima, Norte de Santander and Bolivar Departments. This species is widely distributed in the upper and median course of the Maracaibo and Magadalena River basins (Rodriguez 1992, Campos 2005).	eng
134675	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-570 m asl.	eng
134675	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134675	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134676	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134676	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Zhuang Auto Province, Yangshuo county.	eng
134676	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134676	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134676	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134677	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134677	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Nanpu, Xinzhu/Hsinchu, Nantou, Takao (Kaohsiung). Xinzhu County 1,427 km².	eng
134677	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134677	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134677	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134678	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134678	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Banhan ("massif mont de Taikinh"), near Hanoi.	eng
134678	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134678	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134678	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134679	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134679	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: northeastern portion of Hengchun Peninsula in southern Taiwan as well as much of east coast of Taiwan - Taitung County. Taitung County (3,515 km²) (Chiben; Peinan, Taiping); Hwalien County (4,628 km²) (Yuli; Juisui; Kwungfu; Shoufeng; Shoufeng, Takangkou).	eng
134679	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134679	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134679	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134680	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134680	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: State of Oaxaca, Tehuantepec.	eng
134680	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134680	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134680	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134681	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	In the Ukraine this species is listed in that country's Red Data Book but in Greece no conservations measures are in place.  Conservation measures proposed include a complete inventory of the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, an evaluation of the population levels and trends, and the creation of protected areas.	eng
134681	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species has a wide and highly fragmented distribution ranging from the the middle and lower Danube River system and its tributaries and other coastal rivers of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, to the rivers of the Caucasus, northern Greece, and the northern Aegean islands. In the Black Sea region this species is found in Bulgaria (Haskovo, Varna, Burgas, Lovec, and Plovdiv Provinces), Ukraine, Crimea, Caucasia (= Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan). This species is also found in the region to the south of the Caspian Sea region in Turkmenistan (Maurakis et al., 2004) and Iran (Mazandaran, Province). In Turkey, this species is found both in the European part (Erdine, Kirklareli, and Tekirdag Provinces), and the Asian parts in the Provinces of Canakkale, Balikesir, Bursa, Bilecik, Sakarya, Ankara, and Rize. In Greece, Potamon ibericum occurs in Macedonia and the northeastern mainland part of Greece east of the Axios River to the Evros River at the Greece-Turkey border in Hevros,Thessaloniki, and Makedonia Provinces. Potamon ibericum is also found in the northeastern Aegean region on the islands of Thassos (Kavala Province), Samothraki, Chios (Chios Province), and Lesbos (Lesbos Province). The populations of this species in southern France from the Herault River near St. Guilhem le Desert, 350 km west of Nice are thought to be relatively recent introductions to France via human activity rather than representing relict populations that reached this location by natural means. Although the name might imply that P. ibericum occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, it is not found in either Spain or Portugal, and there are no species of true freshwater crabs in either of these countries.<br/><br/>Turkey (Meandre, Trabzon, Samsun, Sakarya River, Bursa, Istanbul, cave by Incaya by Brussa/Bursa), Macedonia (Lake Doiran), Greece (Soufli, River Maritza), Crimea, Caucasia, Turkmenistan, Black Sea, Bulgaria, Caspian Sea, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, France.	eng
134681	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	On the island of Cyprus, this species inhabits streams and rivers up to altitudes where the water temperature does not get below 5°C, but it is absent from estuaries due to the relatively high salinities (brackish water) and pollution. Crabs survive temporary drying up events by hiding in deep burrows and under stones on river-beds and are also found in artificial ponds, but do not breed in stagnant water. Crabs feed on land at night and during the day when it rains, and can survive without any water for a long time in humid air. This species eats a variety of foods including detritus, green filamentous algae, fallen leaves, worms, amphipods, insect larvae, molluscs,  tadpoles, frogs, fish and carrion and will eat any plant or animal food. Copulation and spawning take place during the warm season from June until October. For the first 5-7 days hatchlings live under the female abdomen, where they grow up to carapace widths of 3.6 mm, after which they adopt an independent life mode.	eng
134681	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is relatively little known about the population size or abundance of this species in most parts of tits range, despite the wide distribution and high number of records from over 10 countries. However, in the Crimea (Ukraine) there has been a distinct decline in population abundance and distribution of this species since the mid 1970s, and in some places populations of crabs may have already disappeared, and in others they may now be threatened. This has led to the authorities in the Ukraine to assess this species as Endangered in that country. Sharp population declines in other parts of the range of <em>P. ibericum</em> also give cause for concern, especially those that are isolated on islands. On the island of Chios in Greece, industrial pollution near Kalimasis (Kallimasia) has rendered stream water visibly dirty and no crabs were found living there in 1988 (Pretzmann 1993). Elsewhere in the southwest of Chios, rivers shown as perennial on maps have actually dried out and either have very little natural running water or are actually completely dry. A one-week search for freshwater crabs on Chios in 1988 found only a single population of crabs living in a small stream about 100 m long in the north of the island near Hagos (Pretzmann 1993). Similarly, on the Greek island of Lesbos, a population of freshwater crabs previously found in a small stream near Agra may be threatened or extirpated because this stream was reported to be in danger of drying out in the 1980s. On the other hand, <em>Potamon ibericum</em> has accidentally been introduced in southern France, and is apparently thriving there.	eng
134681	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	In the Ukraine this species is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from water supply projects such as river-bed straightening and the building of reservoirs. In addition habitats may dry up due to the withdrawal of water for local needs, and crabs may be adversely affected by water pollution from non-purified sewage. Sometimes crabs are caught for food or for the aquarium trade. In Greece population declines and even local extinctions of <em>P. ibericum</em> relate to habitat destruction by human activities including dam construction and operation, stream channelization, canalization, and pollution. Another major threat is stream desiccation resulting from water abstraction for crop irrigation and the diversion of rivers and streams (e.g. the Evinos and Mornos Rivers) for potable water supplies for Athens and other cities and towns. Most development in Greece is occurring at lower elevations and this is affecting the small to medium sized streams near coastal areas where Potamon populations are most prevalent.	eng
134682	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134682	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia. Java. Known from three localities, Garut, Buitenzorg, and “Java” (no info given as to where exactly for this last locality).	eng
134682	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134682	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134682	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134683	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134683	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: northern Colombia in Sulca, Merida, and Cucuta in Norte del Santander Department. Venezuela: Locally abundant in Venezuela in Zulia and Merida States. This species is restricted to altitudes beween 30-180 m asl in the Maracaibo basin (Campos 2005), which has an area of approximately 90,000 km².	eng
134683	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 30-180 m asl.	eng
134683	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not widely distributed but has been reported to be locally abundant.	eng
134683	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134684	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134684	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Hsiulin, a village at the mouth of the Taroko Gorge, on the east coast of the island. Localities in the Taroko Gorge National Park include the Ching-Shui Cliff (800-1,100 m) between Hojen and Chungte that borders the ocean, Chungte, and the Shakatang Trail. Taroko National Park (92,000 hectares) lies in the northern section of the Central Mountain Range. The Park is 36 kilometers from north to south and 42 kilometers from east to west. It is situated at Nantou. Hualian County - 4,628 km².	eng
134684	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134684	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134684	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No specific threat known, probably habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134685	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area.	eng
134685	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a trans basin distribution and is known from two localities in distinct tributaries of the upper Ro Trombetas (Brazil, state of Para), and one locality in Suriname. This species has a Guianan Shield distribution, but is restricted to the upper course of rivers coming from mountain ranges (Serra Acari and Serra Tumucumaque) along the border between Brazil (north of Para State, Rondonia State) and Guyana (Brazilian Guiana), and Suriname. Known in tributaries draining north of the river Amazon proceeding from the Macico of the Guianas and in the basin of the river Coppename (Suriname). This species is also found in the Rio Trombetas river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134685	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil and Suriname in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the RioTrombetas river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river. Found in waterbodies of mountainous regions.	eng
134685	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134685	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. However, it occurs in remote and relatively pristine areas of the mountain range along the border of Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. The upper Rio Trombetas is an Indigenous land reserve.	eng
134686	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134686	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department and Boyaca Department (Campos 2005).	eng
134686	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,110 and 2,150 m asl.	eng
134686	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134686	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134687	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134687	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar: Dawana Hills. India: Naga Hills, Assam state.	eng
134687	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134687	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134687	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134688	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134688	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hanyang (30.5N 114.1E), Tongcheng and Shishou counties, Hubei Province.	eng
134688	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134688	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134688	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution (air and water) from municipal, industrial and agricultural sources (from SD FAO homepage http://www.fao.org/sd/EPdirect/EPan0011.htm).	eng
134689	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134689	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Gunung Mulu National Park (4 03'N 114 56'E).	eng
134689	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial. Alluvial lowland rain forest. Caught in a pitfall trap in a frequently flooded alluvial forest.	eng
134689	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134689	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is within Gunung Mulul National Park.	eng
134690	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134690	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Changan (34.1N, 108.9 E), Shanxi Province.	eng
134690	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134690	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134690	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134691	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134691	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China.	eng
134691	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134691	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134691	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134692	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134692	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma: Kokareet Hills, Tenasserim; Meetan, Houng Darau; Meetan (sul Houngdarau) and Valle del Houngdarau.	eng
134692	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134692	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134692	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134693	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134693	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma/Myanmar: Monts Catchin; Kakhyen Hills; Sheli Chaung (about 25 miles ESE of 96E 24N); all northeastern Myanmar.	eng
134693	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134693	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134694	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134694	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Gunung Mulu National Park. Also found in Baram River,Temburung, Brunei.	eng
134694	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with streams and heath and peat swamp forest. Alluvial lowland forest.	eng
134694	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134694	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to population within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134695	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134695	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from Loka near Bonthain (<em>ca</em>. 5°30'S 119°50'E); Matinangkette; Loka, Bonthain; Luwu district; South Sulawesi (=Celebes), and Central Sulawesi (Palopo and Sungai Lampea Malili <em>ca</em>. 2°38'S 121°06'E) (Ng 1988).	eng
134695	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A highland taxon.	eng
134695	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134695	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134696	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134696	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Mecatan, Nayarit State.	eng
134696	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.	eng
134696	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134696	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134697	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134697	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Liancheng County in Fujian Province.	eng
134697	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134697	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134697	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134698	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134698	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China:  Shanxi Province, Yong'an (31'13"N, 109.31"E).	eng
134698	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134698	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134698	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134699	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134699	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Maharastra state: Mahableshwar. This species is known only from the type specimen from southwestern India. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134699	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134699	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134700	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134700	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Falcon State, El Mene D'Acosta in the western region of the Venezuelan coastal Cordillera.	eng
134700	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134700	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134700	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134701	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134701	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3,825 m) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Assam state: Goalpara, a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (1,824 km²); Sibságar [Jorhāt] (types), a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2,668 km²). Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills.	eng
134701	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134701	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134702	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134702	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Batavia River [Wenlock River], near Mapoon Mission, Cape York, northern Australia. Queensland (N Gulf, NE coastal); known only from limited area, from Wenlock River to Archer River, on western coast, and around Port Stewart, in the East.	eng
134702	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burrowing, freshwater.	eng
134702	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134702	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134703	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134703	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Colima State.	eng
134703	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134703	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134703	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134704	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134704	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zbian, Emei, Hongya, Yingjing counties in Sichuan.	eng
134704	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134704	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134704	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat threatened by development and a decrease in forested areas.	eng
134705	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134705	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra: Southeast Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134705	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134705	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134706	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134706	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil (Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Para, and Rondonia States), Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. This species is found in the Paraguay and lower Parana river basins. It is widespread throughout the Amazon River basin; Beni (Bolivia) and Paraguay River basins.	eng
134706	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams.	eng
134706	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134706	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134707	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134707	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra: Nias Islands, western Sumatra. Nias (4,771 km²) is an island off the western coast of Sumatra (1°6′0″N, 97°32′0″E' 1.1°, 97.533333°).	eng
134707	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134707	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is rare and has not been collected since 1930.	eng
134707	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution	eng
134708	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Sungei Yum area.	eng
134708	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality, a stream near Sungei Yum, Perak (ca. 4 53'N, 101 23'E), northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134708	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial. Lives under rocks in damp areas near or adjacent to streams. Biology not well-known.	eng
134708	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134708	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134709	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134709	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Ryukyuk Islands (Omotodake, Ishigaki and Iriomote Islands, Yaeyama Islands). Upper reaches of Miyara River and Omoto-dake, both on Ishigaki Island, Yaeyama Islands.	eng
134709	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial crab and does not occur in the water itself. In Ishigaki Island it occurs from the banks of the upper reaches of the Miyara  and Nagura Rivers almost to the top of the mountain. The crab can sometimes be found in wet terrestrial areas during the breeding season.	eng
134709	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134709	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134710	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134710	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Kingsleya gustavoi</em> is known from three localities in Brazil, in Para State. One location is in the Rio Parauapebas, one on the Rio Itacaiunas (both in the same sub-basin of the Rio Tocantins), and one in the RioTocantins itslef. This species represents the easternmost occurrence of genus.	eng
134710	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134710	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134710	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134711	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134711	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos" Mountains of Laos (present day northeastern Thailand or Laos).	eng
134711	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134711	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134711	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134712	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134712	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo: Kisangani (Stanleyville); mouth of Tshoppo River near Kisangani; Meshe, road to Walikale; Matale-Kivu; Bas-Congo, terr. de Cataractes, grot de Kavruya; Lubongola, Lake Kivu; Bukari, Lake Kivu; Kiasamba River, Loashi, 1350 m asl; Irangi; 156 km from Kisangani on Nya Nya road.	eng
134712	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common in forest brooks and in the shallow waters at the edges of large rivers in the Central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).	eng
134712	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was reported to be abundant when first encountered in the early 20th century.	eng
134712	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution	eng
134713	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134713	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sao Tome and Principe: the island of Príncipe is the close to mainland Africa and has an area of 128 km².	eng
134713	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected from the top of a mountain.	eng
134713	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134713	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134714	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134714	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, West mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Hubei and Sichuan province.  Eanduhe Badong (31.0N, 110.3E); Nanmuyan, Badong; Fenghuang Brigade, Xingshan; Pingshui commune; Gaoqiao town, Xingshan; Yangling, Zigui; Jinyangkou, Chang yang county; Liuping Chang yang; Sandouping, Yichang; Daishi, Yichang; Yangxin County. Hubei Province. And Yunyong, fengjie, Shizhu and Wushan County in Sichuan Province.	eng
134714	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134714	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134714	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134715	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134715	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia. South Sulawesi and the southern parts of Central Sulawesi, bordering South Sulawesi. Luwu district, Palopo, South Sulawesi; Enrekang; Tiamba; Malawa spring near Bowanglangi; Kalaena; Malawa, underground river; Kabupaten Maros, above Bantimurung Waterfall; Bengo, Maros. Also 3°54'S 121°14'E; 4°55'46.9"S, 119°40'42"E; 4°47'05"S, 119°56'28.4"E; 5°1'30.5"S 119°40'39"E; 5°02'35.2"S 119°42'9"E; 4°55'46.9"S 119°40'42"E	eng
134715	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Facultative cavernicole.	eng
134715	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134715	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134716	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134716	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Dran, Langbian Province, south Annam, south central Vietnam.	eng
134716	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134716	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134716	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134717	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134717	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	D.R. Congo: Kidzueme, Moluma stream, Kwilu (Kwangero). Nepoko River upper Congo; Bondo Mabe, Panga, Lusahi. Gabon: Libreville.	eng
134717	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers in the central African rainforest.	eng
134717	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Quite common in the Nepoko River.	eng
134717	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134718	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134718	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia:  Batam Island is one of the 3,000 islands which make up the Riau Archipelago and is closest to Singapore, which is only 20 kms away. Batam island has an area of 415 km².	eng
134718	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>P. batamensis</em> is only known from one area on the western part of Batam island where the forests are intermediate between freshwater and peat swamps. This species was collected from a well-shaded relatively fast-flowing blackwater stream in a disturbed swamp forest where the banks were overgrown with <em>Pandanus</em> and the waters were dark tea-coloured. The pH of the water was about five and the substrate was clay and leaf detritus. Crabs were obtained from burrows along the waterline as well as among the submerged roots and leaf litter.	eng
134718	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134718	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The island of Batam (400 km²) is being rapidly developed and large tracts of land are currently being, or have already been, cleared for housing, industrial ands commercial projects. The scale of the development plans are such that much of the native fauna will be (if not already) under serious threat in the years to come.<br/><br/>The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases. In the 1970s, the island underwent a major transformation from topologically forest area into a major harbour and industrial zone. The population drastically grew from a few thousand in the 1960s to more than 700,000 now. Located in the direct proximity of Singapore and provided with cheaper labour forces, several Singaporean companies have established factories in Batam.	eng
134719	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.  However, it is found in an inaccessible place (a cave system) which provides it with some protection from casual collection.	eng
134719	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas States.  Veracruz State, Lake Catemaco; Chiapas State, 1 km north of Palenque; Oaxaca State, Cueva de Juan Sanchez, NW Acatan; Tabasco State, Cuevita de la cascada Azufre, 3 km N Tapijulapa.	eng
134719	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is sometimes associated with caves, but is not specially adapted for life in caves (and is also found in lakes).	eng
134719	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance or trends.	eng
134719	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134720	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134720	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi Province, Hubei and Anhui Provinces; Huoshan, Guichi, Xixian and Rongxi in Anhui Province. Qichun, Yingshan, Huangmei, Guangji, Suixian, Jiangxi in Hubei. Shangrao, Wuyuan, Fuliang in Jiangxi Province.	eng
134720	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes.	eng
134720	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134720	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134721	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134721	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cuba: Central Cuba, Topes de Collantes, at foot of Sierra de Trinidad, 50 km south of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara.	eng
134721	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134721	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134721	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134722	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134722	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Halamahera Sulawesi (=Celebes).	eng
134722	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134722	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134722	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134723	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134723	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yung Chang in the Mekong watershed, and Erhai, Lincang and Dali Counties. Yunnan. West Hengduan Mountain subregion, southwest China.	eng
134723	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	From a pool stream, outside the city wall.	eng
134723	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134723	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134724	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134724	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sichuan Province, North Hengduan Mountain subregion. Mountain slope of Xiaojian river, Muli County (27 9'N, 101 2'E); Nursery field of Boao Country.	eng
134724	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134724	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134724	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134725	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.	eng
134725	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Western Sarawak.	eng
134725	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat. Semi-terrestrial. Lives along-side lowland streams in many areas, often with covered or partially covered forests in primary and secondary forests; with leaf litter substrates. Collected from muddy/sandy banks adjacent to a relatively slow-flowing lowland stream. Burrows located well away from the water, some of which were several meters away from the edge of the stream. The semi-inflated carapaces of <em>P. oxygona</em> may also indicate that this species has similar habits to the semi-terrestrial genera <em>Sommaniothelphusa</em> and <em>Sayamia</em> from Thailand.	eng
134725	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134725	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134726	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134726	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico, Chiapas State.	eng
134726	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Grutas del cocona, Tabasco, caves.	eng
134726	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134726	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134727	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134727	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Santander department: sllopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,600-2,400 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134727	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,400 m asl.	eng
134727	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134727	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134728	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134728	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xiangtan (27.8V, 112.9E), Hunan Province.	eng
134728	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134728	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134728	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134729	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134729	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sarawak, Borneo. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.	eng
134729	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134729	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134729	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134730	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area: Kuanwu (Guanwu) is in the Shei-Pa (Xueba) National Park, Hsinchu county, Taiwan, <em>ca</em> 2000-2300 km².	eng
134730	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Kuanwu Sassafras randaiense protected area, Taian village, Miaoili County; Kuanwu waterfall; Kuanwu Peony Garden; Dalu forest trail about 13.5 km  from Kuanwu all from Taian Village; Wufeng Village in Hsinchu County.	eng
134730	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Species appear to be wholly aquatic, living under boulders and stones in the streams. It is mainly  nocturnal in habit. Brooding females can be found during the summer months. At lower elevations, <em>G. hirsuta</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>Candidiopotamon rathbuni</em>.	eng
134730	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134730	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134731	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  It is not found in a protected area.	eng
134731	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from several localites in the rainforest zone of southeast Nigeria near Calabar, Cross River State, and is endemic to these forests.	eng
134731	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in the overhanging vegetation at the sides of small, slow-flowing freshwater streams and is known only from a locality in the Palmol Estate (a palm oil estate that was formerly rainforest) in southeast Nigeria.	eng
134731	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a few specimens. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134731	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134732	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134732	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Huaan and Longhai Counties in Fujian province, southern China.	eng
134732	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134732	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134732	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134733	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134733	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xinping (24.0N, 117.2E), Yuxi, Yunnan province.	eng
134733	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134733	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134733	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134734	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found also in national parks.	eng
134734	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Chon Buri, Chachoengsao and Chantaburi Provinces, Eastern Thailand. Chanthaburi, Khao Yai Nat'l Park (Chuengri, 1973); Khao Sebap, Chantaburi, Chantaburi Province; Krating waterfall area, near Kitchabood National Park, east Thailand; Khao Soi Dao, Chantaburi Province; downstream of Nam Tok (waterfall) Krating (12 51'7.9"N 102 6'40.4"E) about 30 km from Chantaburi (rd. 3249) and about 1 km on road to Nam Tok Prew (waterfall) (12 31'14"E 102 10'36.1"E) after leaving Chantaburi-Trat highway; Khao Khieo, Chon Buri Province; Chan Ta Then waterfall in Khao Khie-Khao Chumphu wildlife sanctuary (rd.3144) off highway 7, 17 km from Chon Buri town, Chon Buri Province;Tha The Kiep wildlife sanctuary Chachoengsao Province.	eng
134734	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134734	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134734	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134735	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134735	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Cana.	eng
134735	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134735	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134735	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134736	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134736	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: This species is only known from the Phrae area/province. Nam Mae Lai, Muang District, Phrae Province; Mae Yom Basin, tributary of Mae Nam Yom (18.03N, 99.47E); Bah Huai Ket, Phrae Province; Mae Nam Yom Basin, Nam Mae Kham Mi, near Ban Mae Krating (18.22N, 100.25E). This species has a limited distribution with an extent of occurrence of aproximately 375 km².	eng
134736	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species appears to prefer the roots of water plants in small rivers.	eng
134736	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Last collected in 1985.	eng
134736	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major/ future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134737	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134737	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand and Laos: As all the known species of this genus are found in northeastern and eastern Thailand, and Laos, the type locality of this species is probably somehwere in this region, even though the label only indicates "Cochin-Chine", which would be Vietnam.	eng
134737	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages. Caught for food during the wet season. Human induced habitat loss is a threat.	eng
134737	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134737	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134738	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134738	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Reventazon, at the Atlantic Coast. Alto La Palma, San Jose Province; Cartago Province.	eng
134738	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134738	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134738	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134739	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134739	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Also found in Temburong, Brunei.	eng
134739	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with fast-flowing streams.	eng
134739	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134739	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to population within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134740	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134740	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Himalayan region and foothills of northeastern India; Sikkim, Darjeeling; Runghee, Sikkim, India. <br/><br/>Nepal: Thankot Hills, Pokhara; Nigale; Pokhara, Gandaki Province - Western Region; Kathmandu Valley, SW Kathmandu, Mechi Province - Eastern Region. Nepal: Nigale; Balu Khola, Biratnagar; Mabandra Gupha, Pokhara, Nepal;  Kathmandu Valley, 27? 45 N, 085? 17E, Nagarjong, Nepal, Alt. 1,600 m; Chisapani Garhi SW Kathmandu, Bhainse Dobhan (tributary of Rapti river), 27? 34 N, 085? 08 E; Nepal, Uyam, Juwa Khola, before mouth into Kabeli Khola (28? 09  N, 084? 02 E), 1,400 m; Pushre Khola, Chorepatan, Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 11.114 N, 083? 57.466 E, Alt. 730 m; Yamdi Khola, Hyanja, near Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 15.360 N 083? 57.676  E; Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 15.360 N, 083? 57.676 E, 30.03.99; Sediya Khola, Sedi, Pokhara, Kaski district, Gandaki province, Western Region, 28? 13.449 N 083? 57.121  E, Alt. 912 m; Biche Khola, Goda, Ilam, Ilam district, Mechi Province, Eastern Region; right tributary to Mai Khola before bridge, Ilam, Ilam district, Mechi Province, Eastern Region. Alt. 500-700 m asl. Type locality: Darjeeling. Distribution: Sikkim, Darjeeling, eastern Nepal from 200 m up to 2000 m, central Nepal (distribution area ends west of Katmandu). <br/><br/>Bhutan: Phuentsholing, 200 m, a border town in southern Bhutan, opposite the Indian town of Jaigaon, situated in Chukha Dzongkang; Balu Jhura, 200 m, Bhutan.	eng
134740	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134740	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134740	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	habitat loss and pollution	eng
134741	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134741	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Thakhek in Muang Khammouan, central Laos.	eng
134741	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages.	eng
134741	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134741	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from collection for food and human induced habitat loss.	eng
134742	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134742	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Alta Verapaz Department, Totonicapan Department. El Salvador: De la Paz Department. Belize: Silk Grass Falls, Bokowina. Mexico: Chiapas State, Coban and Vera Paz. Nicaragua.	eng
134742	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Guatemala.	eng
134742	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134742	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134743	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134743	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:Tamil Nadu state: southwestern India, Nilgiris Hills, a range of mountains panning across the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southwestern India. Avalanche, near Ooty (Ootacamund) Western Ghats the Nilgiri chain of mountains.	eng
134743	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not known.	eng
134743	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134743	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134744	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134744	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: tributary of Nam Thenn River, downstream of Nam Noy.	eng
134744	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134744	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134744	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134745	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134745	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: northeastern frontier. Abor County (Abor Expedition), between Yambung and Puak; stream below Balek; Egar stream; Lalek stream between Renging and Rotung; Rotung, alt. 1,300 ft (396 m); upper Rotung, alt. 2,000 ft (610 m); Sirpo stream; Renging, Abor County.	eng
134745	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134745	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134745	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134746	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134746	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xingan and Rongshui in Guangxi Province.	eng
134746	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134746	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134746	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134747	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134747	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: North Hengudan Mountains area, Xichang and Mianning in Sichuan Province.	eng
134747	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 16°C, pH 6.	eng
134747	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134747	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan mountains area.	eng
134748	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134748	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Nosy Be; Nosy Komba; Antsirana city, northwestern Madagascar.	eng
134748	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134748	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134748	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134749	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134749	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Cangyuan (29.1N, 99.2E), Yunnan Province	eng
134749	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134749	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134749	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134750	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Gunung Padang area.	eng
134750	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Only known from the type locality in Gunang Padang, Trengganu (4 51'N, 102 52'E) in the northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134750	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Believed to be semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Biology not known.	eng
134750	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134750	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss/degradation. The isolated nature of the type locality should ensure survival in the near future.	eng
134751	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134751	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Ilan County (Nanao, Chinyang; Nanao, Suhwa Road).	eng
134751	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134751	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134751	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134752	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134752	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Bang Phrik Waterfall, Takua pa District, Phangnga Province.	eng
134752	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134752	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134752	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134753	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134753	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Qiongshan on Hainan, south China.	eng
134753	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134753	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134753	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134755	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134755	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Doi Chang, north Siam (= Chiang Mai), northern Thailand.	eng
134755	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134755	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134755	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134756	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134756	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guizhou Province:  Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area. Conjiang County (3,244 km²), Guizhou County.	eng
134756	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Average temperature of county 18.4°C.	eng
134756	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134756	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134757	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134757	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic toTokashiki Island. The size of Tokashiki Island is 9 kilometers north to south and 2.8 kilometers east to west, and has an area of 15.8 square kilometers.	eng
134757	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Stream on the southeastern side of a mountain located between Tokashiki and Tokashiku, Tokashiki Island, Okinawa, Japan	eng
134757	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134757	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134758	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134758	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Meta Department: Serrania de la Macarena, El Pinal, Guapaya stream, affluent of the Guapaya River, 400 m asl. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 400 m asl (Campos 2005).	eng
134758	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes of 400 m asl.	eng
134758	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134758	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134759	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place; not found in a protected area.	eng
134759	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cameroon: Bamenda highlands.	eng
134759	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134759	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134759	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134760	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area, because the cave Phong Nha lies in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.	eng
134760	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: In cave about 300 m inside and in a forest near Cha Noi, both in Quang Binh Province.	eng
134760	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in forest as well as in a cave, about 300 m inside, but probably not a cavernicolous species. A terrestrial species.	eng
134760	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134760	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134761	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134761	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Sheetee Hull, Kakhyen Hills, Upper Burma (=Myanmar)	eng
134761	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134761	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134761	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134762	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Not found in a protected area.	eng
134762	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Grotte de l’Ankara. This species is known only from the type locality.	eng
134762	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134762	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only form the holotype collected in 1939.	eng
134762	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134763	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Cameron Highlands areas.	eng
134763	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: northern Malaysian peninsula. Only known from Cameron Highlands, Pahang (ca. 4 28'N, 101 23'E) (Ng, 1988). Endemic to Cameron Highlands, Pahang, and surrounding montane area exceeding 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
134763	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Has only been collected in streams. Primarily aquatic, hiding under rocks or wood in very clean flowing water in shaded areas with sandy substrates. It is an extremely difficult species to maintain, as it is highly susceptible to temperature and stress, and aggressive.	eng
134763	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134763	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The population has decreased in the last 15 years and is believed to be due to the scale of development in the Cameron Highlands.	eng
134764	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation - Brazil) and in the upper Rio Caura basin it is found within the borders of indigenous land (Magalhaes pers. comm.).	eng
134764	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela, Bolıvar State: (1) Basin of the Rio Caura, a tributary of the Rio Orinoco in Venezuelan Guiana; (2) Rıo Mojagua, affluent of Rıo Erebato; (3) El Raudal, Cano Cambur, 15 km SW of Maripa (basin of the Rio Caura (47,500 km²), a tributary of the Rio Orinoco in Venezuelan Guiana. Brazil, state of Roraima: upper rio Uraricoera basin (C. Magalhães, unpublished data).	eng
134764	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the rivers and streams draining the Guyana Shield in Brazil and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river basin draining the Guyana Shield that is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134764	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134764	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134765	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134765	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rwanda: Terifwazi, SW Kahuzi, Lake Kivu.	eng
134765	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134765	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134765	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134766	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134766	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Bismark Archepelago, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134766	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134766	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134766	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134767	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and caves monitoring of pollution levels in Bau district.	eng
134767	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Bau district.	eng
134767	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial to semi-terrestrial. A facultative cavernicolous species (troglophile) living in and around subterranean streams and epigeally, in limestone areas. The threats to this species are higher than stated as there are two species now regarded as this, and if split, their respective ranges are substantially reduced.	eng
134767	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134767	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Quarrying and gold mining.	eng
134768	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134768	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sudanonautes africanus </span>is common in the eastern part of West Africa with a distributional range that includes the coastal rainforest regions of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa. This species is found in southeast Nigeria to the east of the river Niger and is not known from the rest of the West African region (from western Nigeria to Sénégal). The western boundary for <em>S. africanus</em> is closer to the Cross river than to the Niger river. In Central Africa, <em>S. africanus</em> occurs in south Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the D. R. Congo, and Gabon (the San Benito, Ogoué and Alima rivers), and in the lower reaches of the Congo River basin. It is likely that this species is also found in Equatorial Guinea and Cabinda.	eng
134768	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> is restricted to the more humid areas of the coastal rainforest belt from south-east Nigeria to the lower provinces of the D. R. Congo. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> is capable of breathing air, and is often found on land at night. The species is also common in streams and rivers draining mature forest, and also digs burrows near waterways. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> occurs in a range of permanent aquatic habitats from large rivers and small streams (with both fast and slow flowing water) to ponds. This crab also occurs in temporary water sources such as drainage culverts and ditches. Most aquatic habitats were found to be shaded by overhanging climbing palms or by emergent vegetation. <em>Sudanonautes africanus</em> serves as an important second intermediate host to the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> and <em>P. africanus</em> in Nigeria and Cameroon (Voelker and Sachs 1977).	eng
134768	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.	eng
134768	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134769	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134769	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: known from just two localities in the Caldas and Huilas Departments in the Cordillera of Central Colombia (Campos 2005).	eng
134769	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,350 m asl in the basin of the Magdalena River.	eng
134769	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134769	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134770	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134770	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Travancoriana charu</em> is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134770	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens obtained from under boulders in a streamlet (<1 m wide and <30 cm deep) in well shaded area, at Ponmudy, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134770	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134770	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134771	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134771	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Tongren city (27.7N, 109.2E), Jiangkou county; Liujiaoqiao village; Guizhou Province. Jiangkou, Tongjiang, Leishan, Wanshan, Zhenyuan counties in Guizhou Province. Xinhuang, Jishou and Fenghuang in Hunan Province.	eng
134771	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134771	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134771	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134772	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Gunung Mulu area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134772	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: It is found in Gunung Mulu National Park. From Deer Water Cave, and from a Dipterocarp forest. It is also found in Niah Cave NP and in Pulong Tau NP, all in northern Sarawak.	eng
134772	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, lives under covered forest in small streams with clear water. Facultative cavernicole.	eng
134772	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134772	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat as its range is within Gunung Mulu National Park.	eng
134773	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area (Bawangling National Park).	eng
134773	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hainan Island: Wuzhishan/Mount Wushi, Dongfeng, Jiangfengling, Bawangling. (Area of Hainan Island 34,000 km²). First described in 1916, then found again in 1979. Not seen since.	eng
134773	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Living in holes at the bank of streams, or under stones.	eng
134773	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134773	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Hainan has been subjected to a great deal of deforestation, both recent and historical. For example, by 1949, forest cover had been reduced to about 25 percent. In 1981, the remaining forest cover on the island was only 7.2 percent.<br/>(http://www.eoearth.org/article/Hainan_Island_monsoon_rain_forests, downloaded 2/4/08)<br/><br/>Therefore habitat loss is a likely threat for this species.	eng
134774	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134774	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xiamen and Fuzhou Counties, Fujian Province, south China.	eng
134774	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134774	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134774	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134775	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134775	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Collected for the first time in 1930 in an inaccessible area at 1730 m altitude in eastern Venezuela, Sucre State. A second collection in the same area at 1,900 m altitude in 1993 also produced male specimens with malformations in the first gonopod. Because malformations of the sexual appendages of Neotropical freshwater crabs are very rare, a genetic factor cannot be discarded.	eng
134775	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134775	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134775	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134776	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134776	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shaoyang county, Hunan Province.	eng
134776	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134776	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134776	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134777	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134777	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Sinaloa State, Western Elata near La Cruz. Only specimen is a male holotype collected in 1939.	eng
134777	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134777	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134777	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134778	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134778	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Trinidad: North Range, Cerro del Aripo. Last recorded collection was of the holotype in 1955. The presence of the endemic pseudothelphusid <em>M. odaelkae</em> in Trinidad probably reflects an older connection with the continent.	eng
134778	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134778	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134778	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134779	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134779	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Nayarit State.	eng
134779	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134779	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134779	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134780	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134780	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Kerala state. Maharashtra state: Mahableshwar, Poona [Pune] (altitude 1,666 m asl). This species is known from only two locations in neighboring states in southwestern India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the two known sites. There are no recent records, probably due to lack of collection work within its range. Karnataka state: North Canara (=Uttara Kannada) (Bott 1970).	eng
134780	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available. Freshwater.	eng
134780	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134780	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Likely threats include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134781	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134781	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India (Darband Pass, Cachar, Assam); Thailand (Phangnga Province).	eng
134781	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Waterfall.	eng
134781	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134781	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown	eng
134782	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134782	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China, Sichuan Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone. Laowuji Country, Lichuan County (30 3'N 108 9'E); Muqiang Country, Jianshi county; Hubei Province. Xhangping Country, Yunyang County (33 4'N, 112 7'E); Jingji Country, Fengjie County (31 N, 109 5'E); Wanxian county; Kaixian county in Sichuan Province.	eng
134782	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134782	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134782	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134783	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134783	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Jalisco State, Atamajac, western Guadelahara.	eng
134783	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Mexico.	eng
134783	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134783	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134784	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134784	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi, Hubei, Zhejiang, and Anhui Provinces. Fenghua River, Qiantang River and middle-lower Yangtze River. Plus: Suixian, Tiantai, Fenghua, Yinxian, Xinchang, Jinyun, Chunan, Yiwu, Zhuji, Shaoxing, Linan, Hangzhou, Yuhang, Jian, Changxing in Zhejiang Province. Huangshan, Ninguom Jingde, Xixian, Fanchang and Guangde in Anhui Province. <br/>Shangrao, Qianshhan and Yushan in Jiangxi Province. Zhaoyang and Nanzhang in Hubei Province. Changcheng, Tongbai, Shenxian/Shanxian and Xinyang in Henan Province. Jurong in Jiangsu Province.	eng
134784	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours metacercariae of lung flukes. Found in water at pH 6.	eng
134784	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134784	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134785	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134785	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Magdalena Department: northwestern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta (Santa Marta Mountains), Cincinnati Coffee Plantation, 1,200 m above sea level, northern Colombia. The range of <em>C. pearsei</em> overlaps here with the range of <em>C. davidi</em>. <em>Chaseus pearsei</em> is also found in Cesar Department (Campos 2005).	eng
134785	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,600 m above sea level.	eng
134785	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134785	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134786	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Maxwell Hill area.	eng
134786	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known only from the type locality: Maxwell Hill (Bukit Larut), Perak (4 47'N, 100 45'E) 1,000 m above sea level, northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134786	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with deep, fast flowing waters of montane streams and waterfalls. It is also very aggressive and can stay out of water for several hours if external conditions are cool.	eng
134786	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134786	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its small range is a major concern.	eng
134787	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134787	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Bogota. Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordillerias of Colombia, in the basin of the Rio Sanchez. Municipio Charala, Corregimento Virolin, departamento Santander, 1,700 m asl. Quebrada de Hormas, 7 km S of Moniquira, 40 km NW of Tunja, Boyaca Department: 1,450-2,150 m asl. Cueva de los Indios, La Paz, Departamento Santender, 1,995 m asl.  Caves. Sogamoso River basin (21,500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134787	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in caves at altitudes between 1,450 and 2,150 m asl.	eng
134787	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134787	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134788	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134788	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Dongting lake, Yueyang (29.3 N, 118.1. E), Hunan Province. Yichang county in Hubei province (Yueyang and Yichang counties together have an area of 36,103 km²).	eng
134788	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake.	eng
134788	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134788	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake Dongting's area has been reduced over time by rapid sedimentation and reclamation for farmland. (http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEM7H01XDYD_index_0.html).	eng
134789	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134789	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil (RO, MT, MS), Paraguay (basin of the Rio Paraguay), and northern ARGENTINA (banks of Parana River and its drainage basin) (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).	eng
134789	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in rivers, lakes, bays, creeks, remanso, swamps, beaches, gullies, aquatic vegetation, and woody debris. Found in cryptic habitats such as hollows and in holes of submerged trunks, and between submerged aquatic vegetation.	eng
134789	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134789	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134790	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134790	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Bangkok metropolis area (Khet Bang Na, Ket Huai Khwang, Khet Bang Kapi, pond in Chulalongkorn university); hole in rice field in Bang Rachan District, Sing Buri Province; Pho Thon District, Ang Thon Province; Uttaradit about 100 06'N 17 37'E, Central Thailand.	eng
134790	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in pond on the campus of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.	eng
134790	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134790	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134791	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134791	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Rincon de Osa, Osa peninsula, Puntarenas Province, southwest Costa Rica (1971-72).	eng
134791	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134791	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134791	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134792	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134792	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Baishuiyan Country, Huaxi County (24 2N, 102 9'E), Guizhou Province.	eng
134792	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134792	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134792	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134793	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134793	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Pingtung County (2,776 km²), Wutai, Ila.	eng
134793	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134793	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134793	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan is highly populated, so although no specific threats are known, it is likely that this species will be subject to habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134794	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134794	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Market in Ban Haui Rai, and Ban Rai, both located in Denchai District (265 km²), Phrae Province, northern Thailand.	eng
134794	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134794	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134794	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134795	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Gorgona Island which is a protected area.	eng
134795	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: This species is endemic to Gorgona Island (26 km²), off the Pacific coast of Colombia (Campos 2005). Gorgona island lies in the Pacific Ocean about 50 km off the Colombian Pacific coast and is part of the municipality of Guapi in the Cauca Department. The island is about 9km long and 2.5 km wide, with a maximum height of 338 m. In 1985 it was turned into a National Natural Reservation Park noted for a large number of endemic species resulting from its isolation from the American continent.	eng
134795	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20 m and 300 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134795	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Although the EOO and AOO are very small, the population size and abundance of this species are likely to be stable and it is found in a protected area.	eng
134795	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134796	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134796	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sichuan Province, Middle China region, western mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Weiyuan County (29 9'N, 101 2'E).	eng
134796	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134796	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134796	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134797	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134797	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Hanoi, bought in market.	eng
134797	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Probably found in rice fields.	eng
134797	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134797	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is apparently frequently sold in markets. The very low prices and abundance of the crabs strongly suggest that they came from the neighbourhood of Hanoi.	eng
134798	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures known.	eng
134798	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: adult male, holotype, Fianarantsoa Province: region of Vondrozo near village of Vevembe (22º47'44"S, 47º11'19"E), Ramanara River, tributary of Sahampindra River, Mananara River drainage basin, 66.6 km inland from<br/>Farafangana, in a forested area in the mountains of southeastern Madagascar (M. Vences) (ZMA De. 205976);<br/>Sahavatov River, basin of Manampatrana River, Andringita Camp II, 1,390 m asl (20-Nov-93); Sahambano River, Mananara-sud River drainage basin, Madagascar, 570 m asl, 25-May-95.<br/><br/>One of these locations is far from the other two, so it is likely that this species is more widely distributed that these 3 records suggest.	eng
134798	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers in forested regions.	eng
134798	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134798	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Not found in a protected area but no major threats known.	eng
134799	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134799	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nanri Island (25.2°N, 119.5°E), Putian County, Fujian Province.	eng
134799	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134799	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134799	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134800	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134800	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Western Java.	eng
134800	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in high mountains.	eng
134800	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134800	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Threats include anthropogenic fires, illegal tree felling, and farming that all degrade the mountain stream habitat where this species lives.	eng
134801	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134801	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Garo Hills; Pegu; Cachar; Sibsagar, Assam; Moulmein; Tyipperah; Naril, Jessore.	eng
134801	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134801	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134801	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134802	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
134802	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to western Sabah (Gunong Lumaku, Mendolong, Sipitang District), including Kinabalu area (Mt Kinabalu - Luidan River).	eng
134802	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Aquatic. Occurs in highland streams.	eng
134802	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134802	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to population within Kinabalu National Park. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
134803	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134803	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa Island (2,272 km²).	eng
134803	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134803	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134803	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Possible threat from future development. Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134804	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134804	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province: Yushan (28.6 N 118.2 E).	eng
134804	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134804	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134804	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134805	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134805	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Anhui Province.	eng
134805	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134805	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134805	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134806	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134806	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, Hengduan mountain area. Maoping village, Guzhang county (28.6N, 109.9E); Dongping village, Guzhan county; Luoyixi village, Guzhang county; Heku village, Fenghuang county; Panchou village, Jishou county; Baitian village, Yuanling county; Banbodu village, Cili county; Qinggongdu village, Shimen county; Taoyuan county; Hunan Province. China.	eng
134806	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134806	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134806	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134807	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134807	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state: northern India, Cherra Punji, a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with heaviest rainfall; Assam state: Cachar; Meghalaya state: Shilong. Nagaland state; Naga Hills. Bhutan: Phuntsholing; Kamiee (850 m), and Samchi (300 m).	eng
134807	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134807	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation, pollution, and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134808	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (Yanomami Reservation).	eng
134808	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: On the border between Venezuela and Brazil, South America. El Abismo, Cantarrana, the Rio Icabaru, a tributary of the Caroni River with its headwaters in the Sierra Pacaraima, Estado Bolivar, 500 m above sea levell. Brasil, Amazonas: surroundings of Balawa-ú village. Venezuela: The type locality is in El Abismo, Rio Icabaru, state of Bolivar, Venezuela (Rodríguez and Pereira 1992), which lies in the upper Rio Caroni (Orinoco basin), northern slope of Serra de Pacaraima. The record in the Amazon basin extends the distributional range of the species southwards, indicating that it has a transbasin distribution.	eng
134808	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Brazil in the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>The Balawa-ú village is situated at 01º47,91'N 63º46,88'W in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela. Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin.  This is a large terrestrial species and, apparently, syntopic with <em>F. fittkaui</em>.	eng
134808	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134808	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.	eng
134809	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134809	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Belize.	eng
134809	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134809	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134809	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134810	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134810	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Ryukyus, Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu. Widely distributed on the Japanese mainland (north of Honshu southward to Nakano-shima of the Tokara Islands, south of Kyushu) (Suzuki and Okana 2000).	eng
134810	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species can live in both water and land (amphibious) (See Okano <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
134810	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Populations are assumed to be stable because it is known from a total 201 specimens collected from three populations.	eng
134810	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134811	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134811	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya: New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Irian Jaya, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134811	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134811	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134811	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134812	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time.	eng
134812	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Iran: Yazd Province, 10 km south of Yazd. 19 localities in Fars Province in Iran. Southeast Iran from Shiraz to the Afghan border region.	eng
134812	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134812	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134812	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134813	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134813	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Den Chai District; Amphoe Den Chai (99°12'N 18°09'E);  Muang Phrae District; Phrae Province.	eng
134813	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rice fields.	eng
134813	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134813	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No known threats.	eng
134814	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area - because Yakushima's forest is a natural World Heritage Site since 1993.	eng
134814	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Southern Kyushu on Yakushima Island (500 km²).	eng
134814	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Their altitudinal range is limited.	eng
134814	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134814	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134815	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place but this species is found in a protected area - Yangminshan National Park.	eng
134815	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Yangmingshan, Taipeh City.	eng
134815	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134815	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134815	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The park is facing growing pressure from development and leisure use.	eng
134816	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134816	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Boyaca Department, Colombia (23,189 km²): slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 2350-3000 m asl. La Uvita, basin of the Sogamoso-Magdalena rivers. The following localities are all in the Upia-Meta (93,800 km²)-Orinoco River basin: 150 km from type locality (La Uvita) and on a different drainage basin: Quebrada El Penon, Vereda Aposento, Municipio Nuevo Colon, Cundinamarca, 2,525 m asl; Quebrada Calliente, Municipio Ventaquemada, Departamento Boyaca, 2,625 m asl; Vereda Pavas, Minicipio Umbita, departamento Boyaca, 2,550 m asl. Sogamoso River basin (21 500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134816	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 2,350 and 3,000 m asl.	eng
134816	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134816	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134817	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134817	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Java: Known only from west Java.	eng
134817	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Probably this is a semi-terrestrial burrowing species, feeding mainly on vegetable matter. The species is a minor pest on Javanese tobacco farms.	eng
134817	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134817	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on a tobacco plantation and pesticides pose a major threat to this species.	eng
134818	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134818	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Boholl, and Nicobar. Last recorded collection in 1989.	eng
134818	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134818	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134819	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134819	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Iheya Island, the Central Ryukyus Islands. Mt Koshi-Dake (promenade and northern side); west and southeastern side of Mt Gayou-Zan; downstream of Kamiya River; dam reserve south of Gakiya.	eng
134819	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Along the sides of rivers, on the banks, or within the water of the middle to upper reaches. This species prefers slow flow stream.	eng
134819	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134819	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134820	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134820	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cuba: Province de La Havane, Calabazar, El Guama, near Havana. El Guana. Rio Yateras, near Guantánamo, Provincia de Oriente, a basin conterminous to the area of E. armata. The species has been recorded westward, up to Havana , and Provincia Pinar del Rio (San Diego de los Baños). La Maya [25 km NE of Santiago], Najasa [Sierra de Najasa, south of Camaguey, Provincia de Camaguey]. The typical form is fragmented into Epilobocera cubensis cubensis Natio baracoensis [type locality: Baracoa, Provincia de Oriente] and additional paratypes from Paso de Cuba [10 km SSE of Baracoa]; Epilobocera cubensis cubensis Natio guisensis, type locality Río Guisa [draining into Cauto river, approximately 15 km NE of Bayamo, Provincia de Oriente]. Also Cotorro [12 km W of Havana, Provincia de la Havana] and R. Jaimanitas [a locality not identified]; Placetas [32 km ENE of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara], and Cueva S. Tomas [Cueva San Tomás, Provincia de Pinar del Río], Cueva S. Tomas.<br/><br/><em>E. armata</em>: Cuba. Restricted to the eastern end of Cuba. Baracoa, Province de Oriente, Rio Cacao and vicinity, Guantánamo, 80 km SE of Baracoa.<br/><br/><em>E. diazbeltrani</em>: Cuba:  Known only from the type locality, La Ceiba, in the municipio de Tercer Frente Ceiba (provinca de Santiagio of Cuba), 446 m asl. The type llocality is a very small town on the highway that leaves Baire towards the south, between Negros and Matías about twenty kilometers from Baire.<br/><br/><em>E. cubensis gilmani</em>: The type locality is in the Isla de Pinos (Isla de la Juventud) and this species is restricted to this island. The Isle of Youth (Spanish: Isla de la Juventud) is the largest Cuban island after Cuba proper and the sixth-largest island in the West Indies. The island has an area 3056 km² (1180 square miles) and is 100 km to the southwest of mainland Cuba, across the Gulf of Batabanó. The island lies almost directly south of Havana and Pinar del Río, and because of its superficial extension, population and for its economic characteristics, is considered to be a Special Municipality, not being a part of any province.<br/><br/><em>E. najasensis</em>: Cuba: Najasa, Sierra de Najasa, S of Camaguey, Provincia de Camaguey.<br/><br/><em>E. placensis</em>: Cuba: Type locality Placetas, 32 km ENE of Santa Clara, Provincia de Villa Clara.<br/><br/><em>E. poliocertes</em>: Cuba: Rio San Juan.<br/><br/><em>E. synoecia</em>: Cuba: Type locality Cueva San Tomás, Provincia de Pinar del Río.<br/><br/><em>E. gertraudae</em>: Cuba: Sierra de los Organos, Los Banos, 4 milies north of Vinales, Provincia de Pinar del Rio, and other karstic areas of Pinar del Rio province, Cuba. Long slender legs.	eng
134820	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in streams and rivers and is also found in cave systems in caves in Las Villas, Cuba.<br/><br/>It lives in rainwater that collects in the small holes, microcaverns, and depressions in superficial lapiaz karstic rocks, in disturbed submontane forest, much of which has been converted to coffee plantations. The landscape in this part of Cuba is barren with exposed limestone slabs, and the vegetation becomes richer closer to Ceiba and the landscape becomes more rugged forming an area of irregular limestone in which erosion has produced fissures, sinkholes, underground streams, and caverns. The superficial rocks form irregular separated blocks which are cracked, with eroded irregular holes (microcaverns) filled with leaves and rainwater. The species inhabits these small water-filled cavities in rocks. It is not difficult to collect these crabs, by day or at night, catching them by hand or reaching deep down into their microcaverns (small natural caves filled with water).This habitat is unique in the genus <em>Epilobocera</em> and is an interesting example of adaptive evolution.<br/><br/><em>E. cubensis gilmani</em> lives in streams.	eng
134820	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of Cuba.	eng
134820	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134821	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134821	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Southern Mexico: Veracruz.	eng
134821	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from caves in Veracruz, Mexico. Caves, Cueva del Tuknel, Mahoilca, Porvenir Zongolica, Veracruz.	eng
134821	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134821	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134822	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134822	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Boonyaban (10 2'32.4"N 98 39'27.7"E) Bun Ya Barn Waterfall, Muang Ranong District; Houw Waterfall, near Ranong town; Su Wan Kiri Waterfall; Klong Ban Man waterfall, along Highway 4, 22 km to Kapoe (9 27'24.2"N 98 30'31.1"E), Ranong District; stream below bridge on Highway 4 (10 2'6.1"N 98 39'48.3"E), Ranong District; Ranong Province, 67 km between two localities.	eng
134822	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134822	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tourism. There are some 4,000 people living in the biosphere reserve of Ranong. They live mainly from fishing and a shrimp farm. Tourism is little developed yet, but there is potential. Habitat loss and degradation, pollution.	eng
134823	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134823	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Ban Hinpoon in Ban Xieng Khuang Province.	eng
134823	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. Endemic to a small area in lowlands, near to villages.	eng
134823	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134823	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from human collection for food during the wet season and human induced habitat loss.	eng
134824	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134824	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is from Iran. The type locality is the Minab River near Roodan, east of Bandar Abbas, Roodan County, in the Hormozgan Province, southern Iran (N. Cumberlidge, pers. comm. 29 August 2008).	eng
134824	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134824	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134824	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134825	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134825	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed. India: <strong>Maharashtra state</strong>: Mumbai [Bombay], W. Ghats; Poona [Pune]; <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Khandalla, Chattisgarh state: Bilaspur; <strong>Uttar Pradesh state</strong>: Lalauli [Lanauli] 25°49'0'' N, 80°33'0'' E; near near Kuerli caves (Alcock, 1910). Bott (1970) records this species from the Ganges and its southern tributaries; Jubbelpore; Bombay; Hosangabad, Banjar River; Yamuna River near Allahabad; Alibagh; Lonavia, Bombay; Nagpur; Kumta, Northern Kanara, in rice fields.	eng
134825	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available. Freshwater.	eng
134825	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134825	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed. The future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134826	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species, but it is found in a protected area.	eng
134826	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar: Northern Madagascar, between Ankarana and Analamera and from Montagne des Francais and the island of Nosy Be. The Ankarana massif (Antsiranana Province) is about 100 km south-west of Antsiranana, to the north of Ambilobe. The Ankarana massif is an undeveloped region of limestone formations (karst) consisting of caves and underground rivers with numerous forested valleys forming the Reserve Speciale d’Ankarana. This species has been collected in forest near the Andrafiabe cave, Reserve Speciale d’Ankarana, and in the Reserve Speciale d’Analamerana, Foret d Ankavanana about 19 km southeast of Anivorano-Nord. Madagapotamon humberti is also found on the slopes of the Anosiravo mountains (Antsiranana Province) and Montagne des Francais (Vuillemin, 1972) a few kilometres south of Antsiranana. Photographs of the specimens in Vuillemin (1972) are strikingly like Madagapotamon, rather than Malagasya (as labelled in that work). Cumberlidge and Sternberg (2002) also reported that <em>M. humberti</em> occurs on the nearby island of Nosy Be (Antsiranana Province) and from Baie de Diego, Diego-Suarez (now Antsiranana), Antsirana, 230 m altitude.	eng
134826	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This semi-terrestrial species is restricted to limestone karst and as such has a limited distribution. Ankarana is aligned obliquely north-east/south-west and forms the western part of a limestone plateau lying to the south of the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre. This limestone plateau continues eastward as the Andrafiamena–Analamera escarpment, which ends close to the Baie du Loky. The Ankarana and Andrafiamena escarpments are separated by a low-lying region occupied by the main road between Ambilobe and Antsiranana (Vuillemin 1970). "Forêts à feuilles caduques, sur calcaire (lapias) de l’Ankara et de l’Analamera. Crabe arboricole en saison des pluies. Passe probablement la saison sèche dans les fissures très profondes, les avens et les cours d’eau souterrains de ces lapias.  XII.1937 et I.1938”. Ces crabes corps et pinces blanc opaque ne sont pas rares sur les rochers, dans la forêt qui recouvre les pentes ouest de la Montagne des Français. Ils sont extrêmement vifs, à la saison sèche, vivent dans les trous des rochers et sortent dès que la pluie commence."<br/><br/>Found in the forest near the Andrafiabe cave, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana; Northern Madagascar, between ‘Ankara and Analamera’. The locality ‘Ankara’ is almost certainly Ankarana (Vuillemin 1970).  Northern Madagascar, Ankarana, Montagne des Français and Nosy Be. <em>Madagapotamon humberti</em> is found in the Ankarana massif (Antsiranana Province) about 100 km south-west of Antsiranana, to the north of Ambilobe. The Ankarana massif is an undeveloped region of limestone formations (karst) consisting of caves and underground rivers with numerous forested valleys forming the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana. Ankarana is aligned obliquely north-east/south-west and forms the western part of a limestone plateau lying to the south of the Parc National de la Montagne d’Ambre. This limestone plateau continues eastward as the Andrafiamena–Analamera escarpment, which ends close to the Baie du Loky. The Ankarana and Andrafiamena escarpments are separated by a low-lying region occupied by the main road between Ambilobe and Antsiranana (Vuillemin, 1970). <em>Madagapotamon humberti</em> is also found on the slopes of the Anosiravo mountains (Antsiranana Province) and Montagne des Français (Vuillemin 1972) a few kilometres south of Antsiranana.	eng
134826	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Up to 20 specimens have been collected recently from about 5 different localities and this species could be locally common.	eng
134826	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
134827	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134827	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin, Bolivar State. Guyana: River Cuyuni, Rio Rupununi, Bernice River, Great Falls.	eng
134827	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the streams and rivers draining the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Guyana. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134827	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134827	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134828	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134828	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas State.	eng
134828	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Truly troglobitic. Caves. Cueva de Los Llanos, 15 km ESE San Cristobel de Las Casas, Chiapas; Cueva de los Murcielagos, 15 km ESE San Cristobel de Las Casas, Chiapas.	eng
134828	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134828	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134829	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.	eng
134829	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°50'08"N, 104°08'32"E), Peninsular Malaysia. This species is known from Sungai Genting, Sungai Raya (Mukut) drainages as well as Sungai Keliling, Sungai Asah, Sungai Nipah, Sungay Pasal on Pulau Tioman Island and probably between and adjacent to these areas. Endemic to drainages in the southern portion of Pulau Tioman, Pahang.	eng
134829	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, hiding under large boulders in areas adjacent to the main stream, often in pools. Associated with clean, clear, flowing waters. Mainly nocturnal, forages on and under rocks for food and is probably a scavenger and carnivore (e.g., freshwater snails) (Ng 1988).	eng
134829	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134829	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation in lower reaches of drainages. Uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and overexploitation of limited freshwater resources) is a concern.	eng
134830	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134830	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nicaragua: Rio Escondido, 50 miles from Bluefields municipality in formerly Zelaya Department. Costa Rica. Panama: le Barro Colorado, close to Darien; Rio Masimbar, Empire, Canal zone.	eng
134830	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
134830	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134830	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134831	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in any protected areas.	eng
134831	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Neopseudothelphusa fossor</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope of the central Cordillera, Venezuela (District Federal, Miranda State, Vargas State). Also La Guyara, Camuri Grande River; Central coastal range. An alluvial fan in the lower reach of the Camuri Grande River located in the east of Varagas State receives a large amount of sediment.	eng
134831	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in small rivers that flow directly into the ocean, and ranges up to 200 m above sea level.	eng
134831	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134831	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	River channel is subject to blockage by a large amount of sediment, so sedimentation might pose a threat to this species. However, while the streams on the lower part of the mountain are disturbed due to the impact of agriculture and urbanization, this species is more often found in the upper portion of the mountain, where streams are well preserved (Lasso pers. comm.).	eng
134832	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134832	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: West Bengal state: Barnagore near Calcutta; Buxa National Park in the Buxa hills that include the southern hilly area of the kingdom of Bhutan. Located inside the national park is the 759 square kilometers Buxa Tiger Reserve. SIKKIM STATE: southeast Sikkim, a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas. Darjeeling state: Darjeeling District: Sureil, Kerseong, 1,655 m.	eng
134832	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134832	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134833	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134833	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Close to Buenaventura (Campos 2005).	eng
134833	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20-200 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134833	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134833	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134834	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area. Research needed into all aspects of this species.	eng
134834	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: West Bengal state. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 110 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134834	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information.	eng
134834	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134834	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134835	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134835	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Anfusi, Zhijiang; Maohutang, Yidu; Jiuzhenshan, Hanyang; Jiuahenshan.	eng
134835	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134835	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134835	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134836	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134836	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Guerrero State. Specimens were collected 40 km apart.	eng
134836	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134836	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134836	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134837	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134837	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Cana. The male holotype is the only known specimen of this species.	eng
134837	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134837	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134837	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134838	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134838	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea: caves.	eng
134838	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in a cave system.	eng
134838	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134838	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134839	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134839	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Santander Department: slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,050-1,750 m asl. San Gil, 75 km south of Bucaramanga. Plus four localities in Departamento Santander, Colombia. Sogamoso River basin (21,500 km²) which drains into the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134839	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,000-1,750 m asl.	eng
134839	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134839	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134840	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134840	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Koaten, Fokien (occidental Chine).	eng
134840	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134840	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134840	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134841	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134841	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China Region, West mountain subregion, upper reaches of Hongshui zone; Hsingyi, Guizhou.	eng
134841	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lung fluke found in this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Kerbert)?	eng
134841	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134841	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134842	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134842	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Liancheng, Fujian Province.	eng
134842	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134842	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134842	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134843	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134843	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountain area, Zhongdian, Yunnan Province.	eng
134843	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 19°C, pH 7.	eng
134843	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134843	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.	eng
134844	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134844	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Province, Longpin village, Zhaoping county.	eng
134844	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134844	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134844	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134845	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134845	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Choco Department: Andagoya, found only in the San Juan River basin which drains into the Pacific (Campos 2005).	eng
134845	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 20- 50 m asl along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134845	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134845	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134846	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134846	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	West Africa: This species occurs in the major rivers in Ghana (Assini), Cote d'Ivoire, and Liberia, and is endemic to the major rivers of this part of the Upper Guinea Forest block.	eng
134846	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Liberonautes chaperi</em> is found in the major rivers of the rainforest zones of Liberia, Côte-d’Ivoire, and Ghana (Cumberlidge 1985, Cumberlidge and Sachs 1989); it has never been found in small streams. Liberonautes chaperi serves as second intermediate host to the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em>) in Liberia (Sachs and Cumberlidge 1991). However, the incidence of infection of these crabs in Liberia is low indicating that this species may not play an important role in the transmission of the parasite to humans.	eng
134846	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species.	eng
134846	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases. In addition, this species is caught regularly in baited fish traps set by fishermen.	eng
134847	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134847	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Ishigaki and Iriomote Island, Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134847	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134847	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134847	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134848	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Tamil Nadu state: This species is known only from the type specimen from Tranquebar in southeastern India. There have been no records in over 200 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134848	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species commonly lives in rice-field embankments. It has also been observed in burrows at the margins of waterholes.	eng
134848	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134849	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134849	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru:  Pucallpa, Ucayali, km. 59 of Basadre highway, Loreto Department.	eng
134849	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134849	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134849	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134850	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134850	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Saraburi, Ratchaburi. Vietnam: South Vietnam. Cambodia: Cambodia.	eng
134850	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134850	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134850	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134851	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134851	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Motuo, Tibet.	eng
134851	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134851	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134851	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134852	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134852	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Taman Negara, Pahang.	eng
134852	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic.	eng
134852	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134852	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is restricted to Taman Negara.	eng
134853	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134853	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Veracruz State, Los Tuxtlas, mountains.	eng
134853	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134853	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134853	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134854	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.	eng
134854	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman. The type locality is Ulu Lalang, Gunong Kajang, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°51'23"N, 104°09'37"E). Endemic to Gunung Kajang and immediately adjacent high elevation areas of Pulau Tioman, Pahang. Described from specimen collected at 792 m above sea level.	eng
134854	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has semi-terrestrial tendencies, foraging in areas relatively far from permanent water at night. Juveniles have been found in a dry cave (Yeo 1999). Terrestrial. Associated with higher elevation hill forests. Biology poorly known.	eng
134854	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134854	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear immediate threat, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely. Nevertheless, that it is a specialist and has a restricted range is a concern.	eng
134855	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134855	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Province: Wenzhu village, Zhaoping County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.	eng
134855	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134855	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134855	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134856	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134856	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Pakxe, Champaskak Province.	eng
134856	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A terrestrial crab which digs burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by local populace.	eng
134856	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134856	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134857	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134857	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yongcheng County, Yunnan Province.	eng
134857	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 20°C, pH 6.5.	eng
134857	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134857	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134858	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134858	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Near and north of Lake Toba, Sumatra. Lake Toba is 100 km long and 30 km wide, and 505 m deep at its deepest point, located in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra with a surface elevation of about 900 m (3,000 feet), stretching from 2.88° N 98.52° E to 2.35° N 99.1° E. It is the largest volcanic lake in the world, and the biggest lake in SE Asia (1,265 km²).	eng
134858	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found near Lake Toba in streams and rivers. Not found in the lake itself.	eng
134858	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134858	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134859	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134859	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Baoshan, Yunnan, southwest China; West Hengduan Mountain area.	eng
134859	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 19°C, pH 6.	eng
134859	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134859	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountain area.	eng
134860	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tam Dao belongs to Tam Dao National Park which covers an area of 36,883 hectares.	eng
134860	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Tam Dao, Vinh Phu Province in northern Vietnam.	eng
134860	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134860	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134860	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tam Dao is a tourist destination, but it is also a National Park.<br/><br/>The Tam Dao National Park is situated 80 km north-west of Hanoi. The protected area of the Park extends over three mountains and contains primary Dipterocarp forest. Severe pressure is placed on the Park through the wild harvesting of plants for medicine, food and fuel. Timber extraction has led to serious deforestation and severe erosion on the slopes of the Park buffer zone threatening flash floods and mud slides. (http://www.bgci.org/worldwide/article/217/, downloaded 2/4/08)	eng
134861	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Maxwell Hill area.	eng
134861	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Perak, West Malaysia. Endemic to type locality Maxwell Hill (Bukit Larut), Perak (4 47 N, 100 45'E) from 70 m to 850 m.	eng
134861	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial to aquatic. Living under rocks and leaf litter in slower parts of streams and waterfalls.  Leaf-covered areas are preferred by this species. Its habits are semi-terrestrial to aquatic and it is agile on land.  A placid species that won't fight excessively even when crowded.	eng
134861	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134861	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. Its small range is a major concern.	eng
134862	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134862	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Daweishan County; Wuchang, Daweishan County; Adakuo, Daweishan County; Mengla County (21.4°N, 101, Yunnan Province.	eng
134862	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134862	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134862	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134863	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134863	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Northern Peru to Lima; rivers of western Peru (Lima Province, Chachapoyas, Cajamarca Department, Bongara Province - Florida district 6.50'N, 79.10'W, North - La Languish, Rio Jaquetepeque) (Rodriguez 1982).	eng
134863	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung flukes <em>Paragonimus caliensis</em>, <em>P. amazonicum</em>, and <em>P. mexicanus</em> in Peru.	eng
134863	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134863	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134864	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134864	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Cartago, Heredia, San Jose Provinces. Cariblanco, River Banana, Rio Reventazon; Monte Verde; Cachi, Cartago Province, Reventazon River.	eng
134864	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Costa Rica.	eng
134864	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134864	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134865	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134865	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Pacific side of Volcano Aguas in Saqatecepez Department near the border with El Salvador, from the foot of the Volcán de Agua, 900 m asl (14°27'53"N; 90°44'35"W).	eng
134865	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134865	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134865	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134866	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.	eng
134866	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sabah: Island of Borneo: Eastern Sabah.	eng
134866	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing lowland streams under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
134866	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134866	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134867	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134867	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malay Peninsula (Renong, Ko Chang), South Thailand (Trang Province, Krabi Province, Surat Thani Province, Ko Samui, Phuket Province, Phangnaga Province, Ranong Province, Chumphon Province), Asia	eng
134867	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134867	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is common and abundant and is known from many localities and over many years of collection.	eng
134867	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134868	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134868	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Stream in El Valle Cocle, 670 m asl, pH 5.5, under stones.	eng
134868	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134868	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134868	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134869	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134869	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Wuling Mountain area. Luiyang, Hunan Province. Pingxiang in Jiangxi Province. Distance between Luiyang and Pingxiang about 75km.	eng
134869	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134869	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134869	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution..	eng
134870	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Baling area.	eng
134870	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to Baling, Kedah.	eng
134870	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Presumably semi-terrestrial in habits, based on comparison with its congeners.	eng
134870	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134870	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The potential development of the areas, long 'protected' due to insurgency problems, is a concern.	eng
134871	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134871	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Endemic to Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134871	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134871	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134871	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134872	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134872	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	West Africa: This species is common in the western part of the West African region with a distributional range from Sénégal and Mauritania to Ghana, in an area bounded by the Sahara desert and the Atlantic ocean. The species has been recorded in rainforest from localities in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Côte-d'Ivoire and Ghana, and in savanna from localities in Sénégal, Mauritania, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte-d'Ivoire. In Ghana it is found in the Prah River in the southern Ashanti region.	eng
134872	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Liberonautes latidactylus</em> is the most common and most frequently caught freshwater crab in small streams throughout the rainforest and savannah zones of West Africa. It is also encountered from time to time on land adjacent to streams. During the day these crabs remain inactive, lying hidden under stones or in crevices in the stream bed. At night crabs leave their resting places to feed on dead organic material or on small aquatic animals, such as molluscs, which they find in the creeks. Crabs also eat vegetable matter, and are attracted into traps baited with cassava, palm nuts, red papaya, or meat. Occasionally <em>L. latidactylus</em> is found on land adjacent to creeks, feeding on the abundant vegetable matter and small invertebrates on the forest floor. <br/><br/>This species is economically important because it is the commonest freshwater crab species and forms part of the diet of many people in West Africa. This species is also medically important because it is the predominant second intermediate host of <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em>, the human lung fluke that cause human paragonimiasis in Liberia and Guinea (Sachs and Voelker 1982) and in Côte-d’Ivoire (Nozais <em>et al</em>. 1980). This species plays a very important role in the transmission of the human lung fluke to humans. <em>Liberonautes latidactylus</em> also serves as the host of the larvae of biting blackflies (<em>Simulium</em>) that are the vectors of <em>Onchocerca volvulus</em>, the parasite that causes river blindness (onchocerciasis) in parts of Liberia and Guinea and elsewhere in West Africa.	eng
134872	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species.	eng
134872	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
134873	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134873	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Endemic to Jiangxi Province. Jiangganshan, from a reclaimed and cultivated wasteland farm, Jianggangshan City (26.5N, 114.1E); Lianhua, Xingzi and Anfu Counties.	eng
134873	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pH 6.	eng
134873	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134873	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134874	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134874	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: River near Pare-Pare; Maros, Kappang Gua Tanette; 5 02'S 119 40'E; small river at Anoengga; Gua Salkkan Kallang; Maros, cave, source of Gua Tanette near Kappang village; Gua Assuloang, gallery entrance 4 55'46.9"S 119 40'42"E; 4 55'46.9"S 119 40'42"E; South Sulawesi. In the vicinity of Maros, South Sulawesi. Localities 12km apart.	eng
134874	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	From caves (found along a subterranean stream) as well as rivers and streams.	eng
134874	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134874	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial development.	eng
134875	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134875	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Irian Jaya. This species is known only from the type specimen from  Utakwa River, New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134875	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134875	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134875	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134876	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134876	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin: Territory of the Amazon, Rio Ventuari, Rio Manapiare; Culebra, Rio Cunucunuma, Territorio Federal Amazonas, 175 m asl; Carinagua, middle course of the Orinoco River near Puerto Ayacucho, Territorio Federal Amazonas, Amazonas Province; Upper Orinoco basin.	eng
134876	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134876	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of Venezuela.	eng
134876	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134877	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134877	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Moulmein; Dafla Hills; dry stream bed, 2 km NE of Let Pan Village, 19°22.013´N 94°10.008´E, Rakhine State, Myanmar.	eng
134877	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134877	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134877	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134878	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of sufficient drainages in its range.	eng
134878	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Eastern Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: Western Sarawak.	eng
134878	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in medium elevation fast-flowing streams with gravel substrate, under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
134878	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134878	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134879	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134879	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea:  This species is known only from the type specimen from the headwaters of the Wakip River, north coast of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134879	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found under stones in the bed of the stream at the foot of the waterfall. The water was perfectly fresh and flowing, but specimens were not plentiful.	eng
134879	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134879	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134880	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134880	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: southern Panama, Province Darien, Rio Yape, Rio Chucunaque.	eng
134880	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134880	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134880	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134881	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134881	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Morelos State.	eng
134881	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The type locality is in a region where periodic and extended droughts occur.	eng
134881	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134881	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution. The type locality is in a region where periodic and extended droughts are common.	eng
134882	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134882	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Miranda State, central coastal range of central Venezuela from the Rio Guaire and Rio Tuy basins. Last recorded collection of this species was in 1966.	eng
134882	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134882	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134882	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134883	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134883	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Valle del Cauca: Cajambre River in the Pacific drainage of Colombia, Costa del Pacifico (Campos 2005). The Pacific river basins of Colombia (76,365 km²) consist of a broad coastal plain and the western slope of the Cordilleras. The Cajambre, is one of many smaller streams, including the Dagua, Cajambre, Naya, Micay, Guapi, and Sanguianga rivers. The principal rivers from north to south are the Baudó, San Juan, Patía, and Mira. All rivers drain the western Cordilleras. The basins consist of mountainous terrain with elevations as high as 4,600 m, valleys descending onto the broad coastal lowlands (elevation 100 m), and depositional deltas.	eng
134883	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 50- 700 m above sea level along the coastal plain of the Pacific.	eng
134883	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134883	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134884	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134884	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nanning in Guanxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, south China.	eng
134884	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134884	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134884	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134885	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134885	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: States of Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas (Zapotes), Oaxaca (Lakes), Rıo San Antonio Canada, Acatlan-Oaxaca.	eng
134885	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134885	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134885	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134886	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134886	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangdong Province.	eng
134886	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134886	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134886	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134887	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134887	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Quebrada de Perales, Departamento de Tolima, Central Cordillera (Campos 2005).	eng
134887	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,850 m asl in the forested eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River. Crabs found in a shaded creek buried in a mound, 10 m from the water in holes 1 m deep.	eng
134887	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134887	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134888	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134888	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Muang Nan District (e.g., 100°46'N 18°46'E), Nan Province. There have been no records in over 25 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Thailand.	eng
134888	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A rice field crab.	eng
134888	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134888	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134889	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134889	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from several localites in Côte d' Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroun, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), and the Central African Republic.	eng
134889	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is restricted to the tropical rainforest zone of West Africa from Côte-d' Ivoire to Cameroon, including the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). In the Oban Hills northeast of Calabar, Nigeria, <em>S. granulatus</em> occurs in streams flowing through mature rainforest. Crabs were collected by hand from small streams (1-10 m wide, 20-50 cm deep), with fast, medium or slow flowing water, and even from a dried-up stream bed. The stream beds varied from mudstone to sand, together with either clay or yellow silt. These streams usually lacked vegetation (although one collection was made in a grass swamp). Crabs were collected from a variety of habitats: lodged among grass, under stones, burrowing among root material in the centre of the stream, hiding among stones, or burrowing in the moist bed of a dried up stream. One locality was a roadside ditch, with rust-red algae and grass in the water.	eng
134889	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species that has been collected in the past five years.	eng
134889	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134890	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134890	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shaanxi, Hubei, Hena, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Gansu Provinces. Yunnan Province: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone. Plus Hanzhong, Sanmenxia, and Yangqu counties in Shaanxi Province. Mianyang in Sichuan Province. Xingshan, Gucheng, Zhushan, Junxian and Fangxian counties in Hubei Province. Lushi and Luoning counties in Henan Province. Huixian county in Gansu Province.	eng
134890	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134890	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134890	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134891	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134891	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador, Peru, Brazil (AM). This species was first collected from Ecuador where it is found in two different drainage systems, the Bobonaza-Pastaza rivers and Santiago-Maranon Sevilla de Oro rivers, between Mendez and Paute (Rodriguez 1992). Other authors indicate that this species is more widespread and occurs in the Amazon Basin (Brazil, Peru, Ecuador) (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996).	eng
134891	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134891	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134891	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134892	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134892	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	El Salvador: Hacienda los Planes, Department Santa Ana. Panama. Honduras (Nueva Ocotepeque).	eng
134892	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134892	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134892	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134893	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134893	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Myanmar; Sibsagar. India: Assam and Kakhyen Hills.	eng
134893	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134893	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134893	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134894	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134894	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taipei City 271km² (Neishuangchi; Nankang); Taipei County 2,052 km² (Hsintine; Pinglin; Chinshan); Hsinchu County 1,427 km² (Hengshan); Nantow County 4,106 km² (Dihli) (Shy, Ng and Yu 1994). Qinliang Lake. Records of this crab from the Ryukyus actually belong to other species (see Shy and Ng 1998).	eng
134894	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134894	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134894	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Very narrow distribution, therefore large scale developments could easily exterminate the species.	eng
134895	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134895	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Bolivia: Rio Chapare, tributary of the Rio Grande, Mamore River basin, and Paraguay River basin. ARGENTINA: Santa Fe, Rio Parana, Formosa,Tucuman, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre-Rios, and Buenos Aires Provinces, and Rio Sali, Department Santiago del Estero (Magalhaes & Tuerkay, 1996).	eng
134895	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
134895	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134895	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134896	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134896	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hainan Island: Wuzhishan, Qiongzhong.	eng
134896	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134896	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134896	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134897	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134897	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hengduan Mountains area, Lushui County, Yunnan Province.	eng
134897	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Average temperature 16°C, pH 6.	eng
134897	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134897	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Commercial logging and illegal wildlife trade are major threats to the Hengduan Mountains area.	eng
134898	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134898	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taichung County (Hoping, Sheauyeakow; Hoping, Songbor).	eng
134898	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134898	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134898	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134899	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134899	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shuangouan reservoir, Sangzhi county (29.3 N, 110.1E); Dayong, Baojing, Sangzhi counties in Hunan Province. <br/>Daiyong city and Fanjingshan, Guizhou Province. Xiuxi reservoir, Xiushan; Qiuyang county in Sichuan Province. <br/>Laifeng county in Hubei province. This species is distributed in the north-western side of Wuling Mountain.	eng
134899	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134899	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134899	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134900	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134900	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo. This species is known only from the type specimen from Kenepai Mountains, western Kalimantan. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.	eng
134900	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134900	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134901	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
134901	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from the Bamenda highlands in southwest Cameroon, and from the neighboring Obudu plateau in southeast Nigeria, which is continuous with the Bamenda highlands.	eng
134901	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The Obudu plateau in Cross River State, southeast Nigeria is a steep-sided plateau some 1,000 m above sea level rising steeply out of the rainforest. This Nigerian highland region continues across the nearby border with Cameroon (where it is known as the Bamenda highlands).  The climate on top of the plateau is cool and humid, and supports a tropical montane vegetation, including extensive grasslands. The streams and rivers where the specimens of <em>P. sachsi</em> from Nigeria were collected drain south into the Cross River, just to the east of the Nigeria-Cameroon border. These streams are about 2 m wide and 10 cm deep, with a medium flow, and a gravel-sand bed. The crabs were all caught by hand, from under boulders in stretches of the stream that were shaded by overhanging vegetation and the forest canopy.	eng
134901	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134901	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134902	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134902	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Tokashiki Island, Kerama Group, Central Ryukyu Islands.	eng
134902	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected from a very small stream less than a metre in width, and about 5 cm in depth. Crabs were seen in the stream itself or along the banks.	eng
134902	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134902	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134903	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
134903	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Kenya: south of Lake Rudolf, now Lake Turkana (6,405 km²) in the Great Rift Valley. Lake Turkana is the world's largest permanent desert lake and the world's largest alkaline lake. The speciemens were not collected in the lake but in a freshwater stream that flows into the lake.	eng
134903	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134903	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134903	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134904	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (Atlantic forests).	eng
134904	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a wide distribution mainly along the coastal strip of southeastern Brazil (states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana and Santa Catarina) (de Melo 2003, C. Magalhaes pers comm.).	eng
134904	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In Venezuela this species is very common in the llanos, in rivers discharging into the Orinoco River.	eng
134904	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134904	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134905	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134905	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Nakanai Mountains (2,316 meters), from cave in limestone karst, Tolan, Nouvelle-Bretagne, the largest island of the Bismark group, Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 90 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134905	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Adapted to subterranean life. 20°C in the cave.	eng
134905	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134905	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134906	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134906	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: <strong>Maharashtra state</strong>: Mumbai [Bombay], Western Ghats; Kham River, near Aurangabad; <strong>West Bengal state</strong>: Coonoor, Nilgiris; <strong>Tamil Nadu state</strong>: Shervaroy Hills; South Arcot. <em>Barytelphusa cunicularis sensu</em> Bott, 1970b, is a widely distributed species in a north-south direction along much of the Western Ghats, and is known from Maharashtra state, the general area around Bombay, including Pune (=Poona) and Manjra (=Manjira) River along the Balaghat Range in the north; through Karnataka State, Dharward and Dandeli; Nilgiris, Annamalai (see also Bott,1970b). This species is also found in many localities in Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
134906	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in shallow to deep (10 cm-1.5 m) streams. Large crabs were found under large boulders in streams 0.5-1.5 m deep in water.	eng
134906	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown. The population is presumed to be large.	eng
134906	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
134907	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134907	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Wude Village Shiqian county (27.5N, 108.2E), and Longjing village, Shiqian county, Guizhou Province.	eng
134907	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134907	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134907	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134908	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of designated protected areas.	eng
134908	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia:  Malaysian peninsula. Found throughout most of Pahang and western Terengganu (e.g. 4 21'N, 102 24'E)<br/>Widespread throughout Pahang, western Trengganu and Selangor.	eng
134908	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in slow-flowing waters with dense leaf litter and submerged vegetation. Found under rocks and debris in shallow well shaded areas.	eng
134908	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134908	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within protected areas throughout its range.	eng
134909	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134909	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Borcua.	eng
134909	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134909	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134909	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134910	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134910	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Quebrada La Negra, between Seboruco and Las Mesas, Tachira State, Venezuelan Andes, 790 m asl.<br/>Colombia: Norte de Santander Departments: from the western and northern regions of the Venezuelan coastal Cordillera, and the northeastern slope of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. Brazil-Venezuela border, Suriname, Trinidad (Campos 2005).	eng
134910	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 790 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
134910	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134910	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134911	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134911	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Kaili County in Guizhou Province.	eng
134911	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134911	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134911	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134912	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134912	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Narino Department: from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin (Campos 2005).	eng
134912	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,200-1,300 m asl.	eng
134912	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134912	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134913	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134913	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: Para State, Rio Xingu, Vitoria do Xingu.	eng
134913	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134913	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134913	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134914	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134914	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Caves in the vicinity of Maros, South Sulawesi. Gua Saripah (near Teduang Village; lake , Samanggi, Kabupaten Maros 5 2'35.2"S 119 42'9"E; gallery Cacing of Gua Saripa; Kecamatan Simbang; spring of Saripa, Samaggi).	eng
134914	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is likely to be a cavernicolous species.	eng
134914	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134914	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134915	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134915	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Province: Pingguo, Longlin, Napo, Tianlin, Leye, Lingyun and Jinxin Counties. Guongning County in Guangdong Province.	eng
134915	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134915	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134915	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134916	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134916	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Menghai, Yunnan.	eng
134916	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134916	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134916	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134917	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Retention of Recreational Forest status or upgrading of protection of Gunung Pulai area, especially for the headwaters. Restricting access to more pristine, sensitive sites within.	eng
134917	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Type locality: Gunang Pulai, Johore (1"35'N, 103"32'E). Endemic to Gunung Pulai, Johore.	eng
134917	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Common under rocks and vegetation, especially in the slow waters of side streams and areas where water is trickling down. Most common in upper stretches of a stream (between 150 and 250 m above sea level). Replaced by another species in the lower stretches. Extremely agile and can climb, also able to stay out of water for several hours.<br/><br/>This species is very aggressive, but should not be kept crowded. This species does well in captivity if the water is clean and feeds on all forms of animal and vegetation (Ng 1988).	eng
134917	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134917	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear immediate threats, as locality is within designated Recreational Forest. However, potential disturbance/pollution from resulting to high levels of human activity coupled with the small range is a concern. Over the last 15 years, the species has become rare in the lower stretches of the drainage (where most human impacts are) but still relatively common in the higher areas.	eng
134918	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134918	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Sao Tome and Principe: Endemic to the island of Sao Tome (836 km²).	eng
134918	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134918	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Endemic to the island of SãoTomé which lies further out to sea than Principe.	eng
134918	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134919	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134919	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zhangping, Longyan and Longxishan Counties in Fujian Province.	eng
134919	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water temperature 23-27°C, pH 6.5.	eng
134919	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134919	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134920	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134920	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: southern Taiwan: Pingtung County (2,775 km²) (Hengchun Peninsula south of Fenggang River; Hengchun, Sgehding; Henguhun, Byitzou), Taitung County (3,515 km²) and Tainan County (2,016 km²) (Nanhsi).	eng
134920	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134920	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134920	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134921	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134921	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Tuanhe, Huitong (26.8 N, 109.7 E); Huitong, Hongjiang, Qiangyang, Longhui in Hunan Province. Tianzhu and Liping in Guizhou Province.	eng
134921	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134921	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134921	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134922	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134922	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: This species has a wide distribution in inland north-western Australia, across the Northern territory to the Lake Eyre basin, the Darling River drainage system in western New South Wales and into inland and coastal Queensland. Queensland: Cape York, northeast Australia. NSW (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin), NT (Lak Eyre basin, N coastal, N Gulf, W plateau), QLD (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin, N Gulf, NE coastal), SA (Lake Eyre basin, Murray-Darling basin, W plateau), WA (N coastal, W plateau); known only from limited area, from Fitzroy River, near Derby, across northern Australia to west of Chillagoe, N QLD, and south to Lake Eyre catchment and down the Murray-Darling system to about Nyngan, mid western NSW, east of Great Dividing Range between Townsville and Gladstone, QLD. This taxon appears to be a species-complex and may prove to comprise three undescribed species all found across the northern coastal strip (Davie, 2002). This widespread species is endemic to Australia. The localities cited for this species as Fiji islands (de Man, 1892), New Guinea (Nobili), and Thursday Island (Haswell) are regarded are doubtful.	eng
134922	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This widespread species burrows in the banks of streams, springs, swamps, ground tanks, and waterholes. Found in arid parts of inland Australia because its burrowing behaviour has preadapted it to life in low rainfall areas. Crabs dig burrows 50-100 cm deep in heavy impermeable clay soils, and construct a plug that forms an airtight seal to the burrow. Crabs aestivate during the arid season in a moistened chamber at the foot of the burrow. It is difficult to find burrows in habitats which have been dry for any length of time as weathering of the soil surface destroys the surface earthworks of the burrow. This species can survive long periods of drought in these burrows, and emerge from their burrows in large numbers when the rains start.	eng
134922	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Stable.	eng
134922	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None.	eng
134923	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134923	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: "Manille" = Manila (Rathbun 1904).	eng
134923	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134923	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134923	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134924	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134924	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Southwest Taiwan, Kaoshiung county - Chahsien.	eng
134924	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134924	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134924	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134925	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134925	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines. This species is known only from the type specimen from the Palawan Islands. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of the Philippines.	eng
134925	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134925	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134925	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134926	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland and monitoring of water usage from lower reaches of streams.<br/><br/>The inland forest of Tioman Island has been gazetted as a wildlife reserve encompassing a total are of over 8,000ha (80 km²) since 1979. This species is found in a river draining the inland forests (Sungai Besar Drainage = Sungai Ayer Besar).	eng
134926	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sungai Besar Drainage, Pulau Tioman, Pahang (2°52'39"N, 104°11'48"E), Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to drainages in the central portion of Pulau Tioman, Pahang.	eng
134926	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens have been collected several metres above sea level, i.e. near the sea, but also above 300 m sea level. It is primarily an aquatic species, associated with clean, clear, flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water.	eng
134926	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134926	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Potential water pollution and habitat loss/degradation in lower reaches of drainages. Uncontrolled tourism (viz. increased land use and overexploitation of limited fresh-water resources) is a concern. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.	eng
134927	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134927	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Borneo, Longlanuk (1°58'S 117°50'E). This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 45 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134927	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134927	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134928	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134928	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yunnan Province: Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), mountainous area.<br/>Hubei Province: Changyang, Jianshi, Zushi, Xuanen, Xianfeng (Dai, 1999).	eng
134928	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134928	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134928	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134929	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The conservation and monitoring of pollution levels of the stream systems in Bukit Timah Hill and the Nee Soon Swamp Forest offer the best chance for maintaining good populations of this species.	eng
134929	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Known from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, various parts of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, especially in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest. Not known from outside Singapore.	eng
134929	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species prefers slower parts of shaded streams, sometimes they are found under rocks, but usually among leaf litter with muddy substrates. It is not an obligate highland crab, it can be common in lowland secondary forest streams. Predominantly feeds on dead leaves and freshwater oligochaete worms (Ng 1988).	eng
134929	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134929	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Loss of forest cover and water pollution.	eng
134930	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Terap district area.	eng
134930	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to Padang, Terap district, Kedah, northern Malaysian peninsula.	eng
134930	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, likely to be similar to <em>S. stoliczkana</em>. Biology poorly known.	eng
134930	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134930	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134931	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134931	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: CochinChina, Saigon, southern Vietnam. This species is known only from the type specimen from Vietnam. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Vietnam	eng
134931	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134931	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134932	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134932	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Burma, Pegu Yoma.	eng
134932	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134932	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134932	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134933	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134933	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangxi Province: Jingxi, Du'an, Debao Counties.	eng
134933	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under the stones in mountain stream.	eng
134933	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134933	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134934	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134934	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hong Kong.	eng
134934	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mountain streams.	eng
134934	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134934	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134935	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134935	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Fung Daeng, Amphoe That Phanom, Nakon Phanom Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134935	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.	eng
134935	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134935	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134936	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species .  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (Atlantic forests, SP).	eng
134936	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Trichodactylus fluviatilis is found in southeast and southern Brazil (BA, MG, RJ, SP, SC, RS states) from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul in the basins of the coastal rivers and in the upper basin of the Rio Parana. Identifiable localities mentioned in the literature are the following: Brazil in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, and Espírito Santo States (Rodriguez 1992). This species also occurs in two localities in Colombia (Leticia) (Campos 2005). The type is not extant and there are doubtful records from Guiana, central Brazil, Chile, "Sandwich Islands", and Peru.	eng
134936	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams, common under rocks of mountain streams	eng
134936	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134936	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134937	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134937	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Minahassa, Tomohon, Sulawesi; Sungai Riska, Mondondow, near Manado, northern Sulawesi. This species is not widespread and its known extent of occurrence is estimated to be approximately only 25 km².	eng
134937	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found on banks of fast flowing river with sandstone crevices	eng
134937	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134937	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134938	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134938	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: West Bengal state: Hill stream near Harmutti. Nagaland state: Naga Hills (3825 meters) on the border of India and Myanmar. The Naga hills are part of a complex mountain system, and the parts of the mountain ranges inside the Indian state of Nagaland are called Naga hills. Assam state: Goalpara, a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (1824 km²); Sibsagar (types), a city and administrative district in the state of Assam (2668 km²); Cacha; Silchar town, Barak River, the major river of northeastern India and part of the Surma-Meghna River System. Meghalaya state: Khasi Hills; Garo Hills part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the wettest places in the world, part of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion. Bangladesh: Sylhet is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh on the northern bank of the Surma River, surrounded by the Jaintia, Khasi and Tripura hills, nestled among tea plantations and lush green tropical forests.	eng
134938	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134938	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134938	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134939	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Afghanistan: This species is known only from the type specimen from Rud. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Asia.	eng
134939	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134940	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134940	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Okinawa Island, Central Ryukyus. Tamagusuki village (Mt Meiji-Yama; Mt Yanbaru-Yama); Ohgimi Village (Taiho River; Oshi River), north of Iji; Kunigami Village (Yona River; east of Benoki Dam Reserve); between Hiji and Iji; near Ishiyama. More than 10 localities.	eng
134940	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Occurs near middle and upper reaches of the banks or along small swamps in submontane areas. It also digs burrows adjacent to areas with water seeping out.	eng
134940	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134940	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134941	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134941	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Maharasthra state (69,425 km²): Mumbai [Bombay]; Kandala [Khandalla]; Lalauali [Lanauli]. This species is known from at least three locations all in Maharasthra State in western India. It possibly occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between the three known sites. There have been a few recent records and there are no known long-term threats, so this species is assessed here as LC.	eng
134941	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134941	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134941	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134942	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134942	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia:  Lake Towuti and Lake Mahalona, South Sulawesi (2 42'37.7"S 121 26'26.0"E; 2 36'55.8"S 121 31'06.4"E; 2 37.56'S 121 31.94'E; 2 36.98'S 121 30.02'E; 2 37.56'S 121 31.94'E). The surface area of Lake Towuti is 561.1 km². Crabs were found in a surrounding area near the lake which was much smaller (>20 km²).	eng
134942	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Under rocks and sandstone terraces.	eng
134942	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134942	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake Towuti is in a lake system with Lake Matana. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel due to mining for this metal which causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF Global 200 Ecoregions homepage).	eng
134943	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM, Indian reservation).	eng
134943	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution and is found on the island of Trinidad (Mitan, near Nariva swamp) and on the mainland of northern South America in Venezuela, Trinidad, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Colombia, and Brazil (RR, RJ, SP States). This species is widely distributed in the basin of the Guiana and Orinoco Rivers including many tributaries of the Orinoco River. It is found in the basins of the coastal rivers in the north of South America, but not in the Amazon basin itself. In Venezuela it is found in the states of Portuguesa, Cojedes, Calabozo, Apure, Guarico, Aragua, Monagas, Bolivar and Delta Amacurain, as well as in the states of Yaracuy, Falcon, Guarico, Sucre, and Bolivar. In Colombia it is found in Bolivar Department at the Confluence of the Rio Merguia and Rio Cobugon, and in Norte del Santander, Arauca, Bolivar, and Cordoba Departments. In Suriname it is found in the Paramaribo, Corantijn, and Coppename Rivers. (Rodriguez, 1992; Campos 2005).	eng
134943	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Suriname, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Cuyuni, and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river. Lowland species. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 0 and 80 m asl.	eng
134943	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134943	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
134944	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place, not found in a protected area.	eng
134944	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	DR Congo: Stanleyville. Congo: Ngancin (Nganchu). Central African Republic.	eng
134944	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives in small brooks and streams in the central African rainforest (Rathbun 1921).	eng
134944	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Reported to be abundant at Kisangani (Stanleyville) in the early part of the 20th century.	eng
134944	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134945	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134945	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: River David, Chiriqui Province, Volcan, and Chiriqui.	eng
134945	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134945	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of Panama.	eng
134945	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134946	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134946	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Costa Rica: Emus Cave, Provincia de Punta Arenas, southern Costa Rica.	eng
134946	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A cave-living species.	eng
134946	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134946	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134947	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134947	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: West Hengduan Mountain subregion: Poonsee, Hotha, Sipai Mountain, Kakhyen Mountain in Yunnan. Also Myanmar.	eng
134947	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134947	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134947	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134948	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134948	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Si Songkhram District, Nakonphanom Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134948	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134948	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134948	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134949	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134949	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pakistan: Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan and is the provincial capital of Sindh province.<br/><br/>Bangladesh: Narail District (Khulna Division, 990.23 km²),I n South-western Bangladesh. Jessore (or Jashahor) is a district in south western region of Bangladesh. Sylhet is a major city in north-eastern Bangladesh.<br/>Balaganj, in the Division of Sylhet, Bangladesh. Balaganj is located at 24.6667° N 91.8333° E . It has a total area 389.51 km². Rajshahi is a city in Rajshahi District in northwestern Bangladesh.<br/><br/>India: Uttar pradesh: Saharanpur is a city in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India. West Bengal state: Kolkata, formerly Calcutta, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Barnagore. Uttarakhand: Haridwar (also spelled Hardwar) is a holy city. Bihar state: Darbhangā. Kissenganj. Mangura, Jessore. Rajastan state: Kerwah (Kherwah) Gorge, Jhelum District, 2,000 ft. Punjab state: Safed-bein Canal, Jullunder District. Orissa state: Sur Lake, Puri District. Assam state: Cachar. Tipperah Hills (former name of Tripura) Tenasserim: narrow coastal region, southeastern Myanmar (Burma), bordered to the east by Thailand and to the west by the Andaman Sea.	eng
134949	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134949	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
134949	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	habitat loss and pollution	eng
134950	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134950	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Type locality unknown - assumed to be somewhere on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador and Peru where its closest relatives are found (<em>H. gracilignatha</em>, <em>H. orientalis</em>, <em>H. latipenis</em>, <em>H. puyensis</em>, and <em>H. hauserae</em>).	eng
134950	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134950	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134950	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134951	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134951	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Papua New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from Papua New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
134951	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134951	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134951	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134952	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134952	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Fiji islands (18,700 km²). This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Australasia. The specimen(s) may not have actually come from Fiji, locality unknown.	eng
134952	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134952	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134953	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134953	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Type locality: Ton Nga Chang Waterfall, Amphoe Hat Yai, Songkhla Province. Also found in Bo Ri Phat waterfall, Rataphum, Songkhla Province, and at Pa Num/Nun Waterfall and Ya Roy Waterfall, which are both in King Amphoe Khuan Don in Satun Province, southwestern Thailand. Combined area of Amphoe Hat Yai and Khuan Don is 1052 km².	eng
134953	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found under rocks in waterfalls and relatively fast flowing streams	eng
134953	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134953	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134954	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134954	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos	eng
134954	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134954	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134954	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134955	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (Serra do Tumucumaque).	eng
134955	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Bolivar State. Tributaries of the upper Caroni River (a tributary of the Orinoco River) which drain the Gran Sabana plateau a highland savanna drained by the headwaters of the Caroni River and and the southern slopes of Mount Roraima. Bolivar State. Brazil: Rio Uraricoera, state of Roraima [C. Magalhaes, unpublished data]. The subspecies <em>F. e. siapiensis</em> is found in the Siapa river, Amazonas State. The Siapa River is a small river that flows near the Orinoco River in Venezuela, 518 m, but drains into the Amazon through Brazo Casiquiare and the Rio Negro; also from the Cunucunuma River, an affluent of the Orinoco with its headwaters in the Cerro Duida.	eng
134955	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela and Brazil in the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river basin draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
134955	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134956	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in Perlis area.	eng
134956	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Found in southern Thailand including Phuket (Salanga). Nam Tok Tone Sai (08 01.64'N 98 21.74'E) and Nam Tok Kathun (07 55.96'N 98 19.43'E) on Phuket.  Malaysia: Present in northern Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis).	eng
134956	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in shallow slow flowing streams and rivers with clean water, under rocks, vegetation, leaf litter and debris.	eng
134956	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134956	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
134957	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134957	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	South India, Asia. Ranigunj, lower Bengal; Dumagudin and Ellore; Pondicherry; Madras; Calcutta; Madras; Barabhoom, lower Bengal; Allahbad; Trivandrum; Travancore; south India; Ramnad, Madura; Sur Lake, Orissa; Pallode, Travancore; Calicut; Shervaroy Hills; Bankura, lower Bengal; Shencottah, Travancore; Madura (Madurai), Tamil Nadu; Shervaroy Hills (=Shevaroy Hills), Tamil Nadu.	eng
134957	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134957	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134957	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134958	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134958	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Type locality: Anshu in Shu Cheng. Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Hebei Province. Changxing County in Zhejiang Province. Yixing and Xuzhou in Jiangsu. Dingyuan, Chuxian, Xixian, Chaohu, Shuchen, Funan and Fengyang counties in Anhui. Jinan and Taian in Shandong Province. Baoding in Hebei Province.	eng
134958	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134958	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134958	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134959	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  It is found in a protected area.	eng
134959	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Seychelles: Mahe, La Digue, Silouette, Praslin islands in the granitic Seychelles. Endemic to the Seychelles.	eng
134959	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in streams in the rainforests of mountains in the centre of the islands.	eng
134959	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has been collected recently and appears to be locally abundant but the populations are severely fragmented (it is found on four separate islands).	eng
134959	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss.	eng
134960	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134960	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China:  Middle China region, West mountain subregion, Hengduan Mountain area. Yuanhou district, Jinsha country, Qingshan village;Tiantanggou village, Jinsha country; Guandu country, Wuli village; Fuxing district, Panlong country. Guizhou Province. Jinsha and Fuxing are about 250 km apart.	eng
134960	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in small streams, water temperature 10°C, pH 6, breadth of the stream 0.5-1 m.	eng
134960	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134960	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134961	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134961	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Kaeo District, Prachin Buri Province.	eng
134961	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134961	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134961	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. In addition, species of this genus are considered attractive as pets and may be subjected to over collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
134962	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134962	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: small cave crabs, Sierra de Chama, Grotte de Chicam. This locality in Guatemala extends the range of the genus (not the species) some 170 km to the NE and suggests the likelihood of the presence of one or more congeners in the intervening karst areas separating this crab from its closest allies in north-central Guatemala. It is also present in caves in Mexico: Chiapas.	eng
134962	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Truly troglobitic. Grotte de Chiacam, Sierra de Chama, mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, a short distance east of the caves in which <em>T. michelli</em> occurs. The elevations around the town of Coban are a continuation of the karstic topography of Chiapas (Mexico). A blind crab, depigmented, with long slender legs.	eng
134962	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134962	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134963	conservation	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None in place.	eng
134963	distribution	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	China: Xiangyun County, Yunnan Province, coll. 31 Jul. 2005.	eng
134963	habitat	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.	eng
134963	population	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134963	threats	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134964	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134964	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Luanzhou, Lushi and Luoning in Henan.	eng
134964	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 19-21°C, pH 7.	eng
134964	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134964	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134965	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134965	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: central Thailand (Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi Provinces), Asia. Also Myanmar (Tenasserim River "at same latitude as Ratchaburi). Krathing waterfall, Suan Phung waterfall (13°1'12.6''N, 99°14'19.9); Kao Chon waterfall in Suan Phung District; Mae Nam Pachi Basin (13°35'37"N, 99°12'25"E) in Ratchaburi Province. Huai Bong Ti in Sai Yok District; LinTin in Thong Pha Phum District; in Kanchanaburi Province.	eng
134965	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
134965	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134965	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134966	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134966	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: This species is only known from an unspecified locality in China. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of China.	eng
134966	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134966	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134966	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134967	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134967	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam: Jokdon, Taynguyen plateau in Daclac Province; and from Laos: Pakse market in Champasak Province.	eng
134967	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is distributed in the streams of the mountainous areas in large quantities and is often used as food for the local people in Pakse.	eng
134967	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134967	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134968	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134968	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tham Hud, Nam Lang District, Mae Hong Son Province, northern Thailand.	eng
134968	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in caves, but is probably an epigeal species that just accidentally wandered into the caves (Ng 1988).	eng
134968	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134968	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134969	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134969	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: This species is only known from a single locality (Casabianca) in the Tolima Department in the Cordillera of Central Colombia in the basin of the Magdalena River (Campos 2005).	eng
134969	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 15,00 m asl in the basin of the Magdalena River.	eng
134969	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134969	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134970	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134970	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen from Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Central New Guinea, Doorman, River in Mamberabmo District, 110-1,410m asl.	eng
134970	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134970	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134971	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134971	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Phetchaburi Province, Lop Buri Province, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. 2-3 km from Phetchaburi town (99°56'N 13°06'E), Muang Phetchaburi District, Khok Samrong District, Lop Buri Province; Muang Prachuap Khiri Khan District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province.	eng
134971	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in stagnant pools of water in open areas with thick vegetation, including rice fields.	eng
134971	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134971	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134972	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place. Found in a protected area in part of its range (Marojejy National Park).	eng
134972	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Madagascar. Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve naturelle intégrale de Marojejy, source of Andranomifototra River, under rocks, 1875 m, 14°26’8”S, 49°44’1”E, 1875 m, 11 km northwest of Manantenina collected in 1996.	eng
134972	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	11 km northwest of Manantenina, Province d’Antsiranana, Réserve naturelle intégrale de Marojejy, 14°26’8”S, 49°44’1”E, source of Andranomifototra river, under rocks, 1,875 m.	eng
134972	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Known only from the type material (6 specimens) all from the same locality.	eng
134972	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134973	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134973	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: feeder stream to Suoi Mo, Suoi Ho Mon, Ba Na foothills, Song Thuy Loan basin, Da Nang Province, Central Vietnam.	eng
134973	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134973	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134973	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134974	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Redang forests and monitoring of pollution levels as well as freshwater use.	eng
134974	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Endemic to Pulau Redang Island, Terengganu.	eng
134974	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with rocky streams with clean, fast flowing waters.	eng
134974	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134974	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation. The development of Redang as a resort island will increase land-use threats and overuse of very limited freshwater supplies.	eng
134975	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134975	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia, 1,200 m asl, between the Boyoca and North of the Santander Department. Orinoco watershed (Campos 2005).	eng
134975	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,200 m asl.	eng
134975	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134975	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134976	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134976	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil: This species is found in central, southeast, northeast and north Brazil in the Amazon, Sao Francisco, upper Paraguay and upper Parana river basins. In Brazil it is found in Para,Tocantis, Goias, Pernambuco, Sergipe, Bahia, Matto Grosso, Matto Grosso do Sul, Sao Paulo, and Maranhao States (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). It is also found in the Parana River and Xingu River basins in the highlands of Goias. The geographical range of this species spans both sides of the South American water divide formed by the Serra das Divisoes (Rodriguez 1992).	eng
134976	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Typical of the rivers of the planalto.	eng
134976	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
134976	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
134977	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134977	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Colonie Tovar (Aragua State); Central coastal range, mountainous region of central Venezuela, several collections have been made in the State of Miranda where this species occurs in the Parque Nacional Guatopo, 750 m, where it was living under a decayed tree trunk.	eng
134977	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134977	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134977	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134978	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Bako area as a national park should ensure its survival.	eng
134978	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: East Malaysia: Sarawak: Island of Borneo: endemic to Bako National Park.	eng
134978	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living under rocks and vegetation in waterfalls and streams.	eng
134978	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134978	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear threat, as its range is within Bako National Park.	eng
134979	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
134979	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces. Fenghua, Tianmushan, Zhuji, Wencheng, Yongjia, Hechuan, Longquan, Qingtian, Lishui, Yunhe, Qingyuan, Linhai, Qingtian, Jinyun, Suichang, Yinxian, Tiantai, Panan, Taishun, Pingyong, Dongtou, Dinghai, Leqing, Kaihua, Shengxian in Zhejiang Province. Shouning in Fujian Province.	eng
134979	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lung fluke found in this species: <em>Paragonimus westermani</em> (Kerbert).	eng
134979	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134979	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134980	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134980	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Manipur Hills, Manipur State.	eng
134980	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134980	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134980	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134981	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134981	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: This species is known only from the type specimen from Jismil Camp, a few km from LabuhanTobela, along Sungai (River) Labuhan Tobela, northern Pulau Buton (4°26'30"S 122°59'E) in southeast Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 10 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
134981	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	In hardly disturbed primary evergreen rainforest, boulder covered with calcareous deposits.	eng
134981	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134981	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134982	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134982	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Daban in Phan Rang Province, South Annam (= central Viet Nam).	eng
134982	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134982	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134982	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134983	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134983	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Guanajuato, Morelos, Puebla, Guerrero, Oaxaca States. Cuba, Haiti (Hispaniola) are doubtful records.	eng
134983	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134983	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
134983	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
134984	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134984	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sichuan Province: Motuo, Xizang Autonomous Region, China (Dai, 1990). Sping Country, Rongjing County (29 7'N 102 8'E). Yingjing, Sichuan Province (Dai 1999).	eng
134984	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 17°C, ph 6.0.	eng
134984	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134984	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134985	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
134985	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Orinoco River basin. San Jose del Cuao, and alto Rio Cuao, both in theTerritorio Federal Amazonas, 400 m above sea level. The Cuao River is a tributary of the Orinoco near Puerto Ayacucho, Quebrada El Garzon, 18 km from Rio Parguaza, Estado Bolivar, 100 m above sea level. Quebrada El Garzon, 18 km from Rıo Parguaza, Bolıvar State - Venezuela, 100 m. The subspecies <em>Fredius adpressus piaroensis</em> is from the Paguaza River, another minor tributary of the Orinoco, north of the Cuao River.	eng
134985	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Venezuela. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. The two subspecies localities are in remote areas, and are not well surveyed (Lasso pers. comm.).	eng
134985	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134985	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known. The areas in which this species has been collected is considered to be still quite pristine.	eng
134986	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134986	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: This species is known only from the type specimen from Tanah Merah, Lempaka, Samarinda (1°04'S 117°05'E), eastern Kalimantan, Borneo. There have been no records in over 15 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Borneo.	eng
134986	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134986	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134986	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134987	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134987	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Queensland: Port Stewart District, Cape York; known only from a limited area, near Croydon, Norman River catchment, and north to Coen River in the west, east to the upper Baron River, and north to Port Stewart, Cape York in the east.	eng
134987	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temporary freshwater lagoon, under leaves on hard bottom, also found in small streams, ponds, and lives in burrows.	eng
134987	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134987	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134988	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is not found in a protected area.	eng
134988	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nigeria: This species is known from several localites in central Nigeria and is endemic to that country.	eng
134988	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes kagoroensis</em> is locally common in streams and rivers of the guinea savannah zone of west central Nigeria on the western slopes of the Jos plateau. The species occurs in the rivers on the top of the plateau, in the fast-flowing streams which drain the western escarpment, and in the rivers close to the western base of the plateau. All seven localities from which <em>S. kagoroensis</em> has been collected are associated with the Mada river, which collects water from the Jos plateau and which eventually joins the Benue/Niger river.	eng
134988	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a relatively few specimens from several localities. There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
134988	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its river and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
134989	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134989	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Himalayas, in mountains near Burma. China: South China region, South Yunnan mountainous region (Hengduan mountain area); Jinghong Tuanshan in Yunnan Xishuangbanna, China.	eng
134989	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134989	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134989	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134990	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134990	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: District Wanon Niwat, Sakon Nakhon Province, in northeastern Thailand.	eng
134990	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. Crabs are collected for food by the local populace.	eng
134990	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134990	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
134991	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134991	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi (=Jian'ou) Province and Fujian Province.	eng
134991	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134991	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134991	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134992	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134992	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma: Inle Lake (and one of its tributaries He-Ho stream), Southern Shan States, Myanmar.	eng
134992	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134992	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134992	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134993	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134993	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guyana: The type locality of <em>M. rodriguezi</em> provided by Suárez (2006) is “the Rupununi River, Melville, British Guiana”, which is most likely Dadanawa (= Melvilles Ranch), in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana (2°49'60'' N, 59°31'0'' W). This locality is 156 m asl making it the only species in the genus that occurs at altitudes below 500 m (Suárez 2006).	eng
134993	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Guyana in the Essequibo river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.	eng
134993	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134993	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134994	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134994	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philiipines, Luzon Island, Quezon Province, caves.	eng
134994	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Collected in a shallow stream or inside a cave +/- 100 m from the cave's entrance in a shallow puddle of water very near the main underground stream. Two juveniles were observed on higher puddles above the stream.	eng
134994	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134994	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134995	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134995	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Belize: Balam's Cave (Uchen Balam), Cayo District (last recorded collection in 1967).  Mexico: Southern Mexico (Veracruz, Chiapas). Troglobitic characters are not conspicuously developed in this species. Legs only a little slender, carapace not pale, eyes normal.	eng
134995	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
134995	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
134995	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
134996	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
134996	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known only from a single locality. The literature record is not clear about the location, but it may be somewhere in Sikkim State, India (N. Cumberlidge, pers. comm 29 August 2008).	eng
134996	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134996	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134996	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134997	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134997	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Ban Nan Sinuan in Amphoe Muang, Mukdahan Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
134997	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All members of <em>Pudaengon</em> are terrestrial crabs which dig burrows on the forest floor. They are collected for food by the local populace.	eng
134997	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
134997	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. There are long-term threats from collection for food and human induced habitat loss.	eng
134998	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134998	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam state. This species is known only from the type specimen from Sibsagar in Assam. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
134998	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134998	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
134998	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
134999	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
134999	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Queretaro State. Only known from the male holotype.	eng
134999	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
134999	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
134999	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135000	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135000	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Maharasthra state: Khandalla. This species is known only from the type specimen (Alcock, 1909). There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
135000	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available.	eng
135000	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
135000	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information is available. Likely threats include habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135001	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135001	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: The actual distribution of this species is unknown, probably north of Bangkok.	eng
135001	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mainly found in fast-flowing to torrential mountain streams and cascades. During the day it takes shelter under rocks and in crevices and at night it ventures out to forage. Some specimen were collected outside water but in very moist areas adjacent to water bodies, such as under rocks in the splash zone of the stream bank or in crevices in vertical walls behind waterfalls and cascades.	eng
135001	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135001	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135002	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135002	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Only known from western Taiwan (Bain-Her). Zhanghua/Changhua, Nantou, Yunling, Jiayi/Chiayi and Tainan.<br/>Taiwan, Nantou, Chung-Hsing Village.	eng
135002	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lives in holes along the banks of streams  under an altitude of 500 m above sea level. Also in mud burrows in rice fields with a depth of 50 cm.	eng
135002	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135002	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135003	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135003	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Naujan Lake, Mindoro.	eng
135003	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135003	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135003	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135004	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a wide distribution on mainland Australia but it's populations are fragmented because it is also found on Lizard Island, a protected area off coast of Queensland in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
135004	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Australia: Lizard Island, off coast of Queensland, to north of Cooktown, and Eureka Creek, Walsh River, Cape York, northern Australia. Queensland (N Gulf, NE coastal); known only from limited area, from Ravenshoe west to Walsh River, near Chillagoe, and north to Iron Range in the east, and Archer River in the west.	eng
135004	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burrowing, freshwater. From cattle and horse pads on grass slopes during rain.	eng
135004	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135004	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135005	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Lanjak-Entimau as a Wildlife Sanctuary should ensure its survival.	eng
135005	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sarawak: Endemic to Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary (170,000 ha) in Sarawak, Malaysia.	eng
135005	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic, there are many more undescribed species in this genus known from Sarawak but have been missed due to their small size.	eng
135005	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135005	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	no clear threat, as its range is within Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
135006	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135006	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yenyun/Yanyuan County (24°4'N 101°4'E), Sichuan Province.	eng
135006	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135006	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135006	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135007	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135007	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, West Mountain subregion (of Hengduan Mountain area), Basin zone.	eng
135007	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135007	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135007	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135008	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135008	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Nam Yun District, Ubon Ratchathani Province.	eng
135008	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135008	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135008	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135009	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135009	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nicaragua: Granada and Rio San Juan Departments, Greytown.	eng
135009	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135009	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
135009	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135010	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135010	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines - southern Luzon, from a small valley north of Taal Lake, near Tagatay.	eng
135010	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Waterfalls.	eng
135010	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135010	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135011	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135011	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: 50 km west of Touranne (= Dan Nang), Phuc Son (Nam Trung bo) and Dong Tam Ve (Nghe An), Annam (= central Vietnam).	eng
135011	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135011	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135011	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135012	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135012	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fujian Province: Shaowu and Fuzhou counties.	eng
135012	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135012	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135012	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135013	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135013	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Choco and Risaralda Departments: Cauca River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
135013	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 420-2,400 m asl.	eng
135013	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135013	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135014	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135014	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, and Parana States) and Argentina (from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina). This species occurs in the coastal basins of the east band of Brazil, coincident with the oldextension of Mata Atlantica, and in the basin of the high Parana.	eng
135014	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in rivers and streams, and is common under rocks of mountain streams.	eng
135014	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
135014	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135015	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
135015	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Sanming, Jiangle, Huaan, Zhangping in Fujian Province. Meixian in Guangdong Province.	eng
135015	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Temperature 24-25°C.	eng
135015	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135015	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135016	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
135016	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in four countries. It is found in Turkey (Sivas, Kayseri, Malatya, Elazig, Diyarbakir, Siirt, Bitlis, Van, and Hakkari Provinces, and in the Upper reaches of Aras, southwest of Erzerum, eastern Anatolia), in Iraq (Sulayamanijah Province), in Iran (Azarbayejan-e Gharbi, Azarbayejan e Sharqi, Gilan, Markazi, Hamadan, Bakhtaran, Lorestan, Esfahan Provinces), and in Armenia. This species is found the Tigris-Euphrates river systems and in the region from Lake Van to the Elburs Mountains and in the region south of Esfahan in Iran.	eng
135016	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potion persicum</em> is found in the streams and rivers of eastern Turkey, Armenia, Iraq and Iran, but otherwise there is no information available on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
135016	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species.	eng
135016	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
135017	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135017	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Nancheng (27.5N, 116.6 E), Jiangxi Province.	eng
135017	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135017	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135017	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135019	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels in its range.	eng
135019	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula,Terengganu (5°04'25.0"N, 103°03'19.8"E); endemic to Terengganu State (12,955 km²).	eng
135019	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Living in shallow (i.e., less than 1 m depth), slow flowing shaded forest streams among leaf litter and submerged debris. In well shaded forests, with temperatures around 25.9°C and pH 6.71.	eng
135019	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135019	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation.	eng
135020	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135020	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Heping (24.4°N, 114.9°E), Guangdong Province.	eng
135020	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135020	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135020	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135021	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135021	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangxi Province. Endemic to Jiangxi Province. Maozhushan, Xiushui (29 N 114.5 E), Xishui County has an area of 2,000 km²; Fengxin and Yifeng Counties. Jianxi Province is situated in the south-east part of China. Its north boundary is bordered by the Changjiang River, while its east, south, and west sides are surrounded by mountains (500-2000 m asl)	eng
135021	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135021	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135021	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution..	eng
135022	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135022	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Wenzhou (28.0°N 120°E), Zhejiang Province.	eng
135022	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135022	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135022	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135023	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi. This species is known only from the type specimen from Lake Poso, Tomini gulf, Central Sulawesi. There have been no records in over 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
135023	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135024	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A male crab was caught in Kaeng Krachan National Park in 1998. The national park provides reasonable protection.	eng
135024	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Western Thailand and southern Burma. Thailand: Ban Krang, Huae mae Phraeng in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Phetchaburi Province. Also found in Tavoy (14.05.00N, 98.12.00E), Tenasserim, and in the Hills between Burma and Thailand (Phetchaburi Province, Thailand).	eng
135024	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135024	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135024	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135025	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135025	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia (Borneo - Kalimantan), Southeast Asia.	eng
135025	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135025	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135025	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135026	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135026	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The Philippines.	eng
135026	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135026	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135026	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135027	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135027	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Bohol, from caves (Quilas cave, Nueva Vida Norte, Butuan).	eng
135027	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Quilas cave is part of a long chain of chambers with large pools. They do not seem to be connected directly to any permanent surface stream but rather, are fed diffusely or by periodical inputs from the surface. The presence of catfish in the cave suggested that a hidden connection to surface waters might exist.	eng
135027	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown, although many specimens of this amphibious crab were observed, but only at the type locality.	eng
135027	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135028	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
135028	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Angola: Dondo, Punto-Andongo, Ambaca. This large-bodied riverine species is common in the northwestern <br/>part of the southern African region with a distributional range that includes Angola and the neighboring provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This species occurs outside of the southern African region in Central Africa (the DR Congo), but significant immigration between these regions is not expected to occur.	eng
135028	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A river-living species.	eng
135028	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 1,000,000 km².	eng
135028	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
135029	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area	eng
135029	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Rio Sinu drainage, Ayapel, Lorica, Pueblo Nuevo, and San Pelayo, all in Cordoba Department. This species occurs in a quite restricted area in the Maracaibo, Magdalena, and Rio Sinu drainage systems in northern Colombia and across the border in western Venezuela (Magalhaes and Tuerkay 1996). It is found in the Sinu River near Monteria, Cordoba Department, and in the San Jorge River basin (Campos 2005).	eng
135029	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lowland species. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 10- 50 m asl.	eng
135029	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is reported to be scarce and is known from only a few specimens (Campos, 2005).	eng
135029	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135030	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Tonle Sap is the largest freshwater lake in South East Asia and is an ecological hotspot that was designated as a UNESCO biosphere in 1997.	eng
135030	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cambodia: swampy margin of Great Lake of Tonle Sap (2,700 km²), near Siem Riep.	eng
135030	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135030	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135030	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135031	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135031	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela: Cerro Turimikiri, Sucre State, 1,500 m.	eng
135031	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135031	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135031	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135032	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135032	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This large-bodied riverine species is common in the northern part of the southern African region in Angola (Braganza-District), northern Botswana (Okavango Delta), Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, and its range extends northward into the Katanga Province of the D. R. Congo in Central Africa, but significant exchange between the regions is not thought to occur.	eng
135032	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a large-bodied river-living species.	eng
135032	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species with an extent of occurrence of at least 1,000,000 km².	eng
135032	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include habitat loss/degradation (human induced) due to human population increases in most parts of its range.	eng
135033	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135033	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Pakistan: Kalagan, Bampush, Mand, Pishin, all in the Province of Baluchistan. The Province of Baluchistan was a former province of British India in the northen parts of modern Blaochistan Province of Pakistan.	eng
135033	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135033	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
135033	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135034	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135034	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: southern Taiwan (Hengchun Peninsula, south of Fenggang River); Pingtung County (Manchow, Jeouperng; Manchow, Nanren Lake).	eng
135034	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135034	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135034	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135035	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Phu Rua National Park.	eng
135035	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tad Lu Waterfall at Phu Luang, northeastern, Amphoe Wang Saphung, Loei Province. Also Ban Nam Tob, Khao Luang, Amphoe Wang Saphung; Huai Phai Waterfall, Phu Rua, Amphoe Phu Rua; Ban Na Wa, Amphoe Dan Sai - all in Loei Province.	eng
135035	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in mountain stream of a waterfall	eng
135035	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135035	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135036	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135036	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Trat and Chantaburi Province, eastern Thailand. Khao Rakam, Muang Trat District; Khlong Fuai (rd. 3271, 12 23'44.8N 102 39'34.5"E), Trat Province; Nam Tok Salad Dhai, ~5-10km NW of milestone 26 on rd 3157; Klong Nam Ron (stream) about 54 km N from Chantaburi (12 54'44.3N 102 22'16.2"E) Pong Nam Ron district; Pong Nam ron (12 52'8.6"N 102 22'44.5"E) in Pong Nam Ron District, Chantaburi Province.	eng
135036	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135036	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135036	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
135037	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135037	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Nam Xi below Kuang Xi (Kuang Si) waterfall, upstream of Ban Thapen, Luang Prabang Province and "torrents ou ruisseaux, Luang Prabang, Indochine", northern Laos.	eng
135037	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135037	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends but the types were collected in 18th century and one further specimen was collected in 1997.	eng
135037	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is not widely distributed and Kuang Xi waterfall is a tourist spot that may be developed in the near future.	eng
135038	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135038	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera in the basin of the Magdalena River. Only known from four localities all in the Tolima Department (Campos 2005).	eng
135038	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,400-2,000 m asl in the humid forests of the Central Cordillera of Colombia.	eng
135038	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135038	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135039	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135039	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Narino Department: from the western slopes of the Andes in southern Colombia in the Patia river basin. Quebrada Taibai, Vereda Piedra Verde, Inspeccion Buena Vista, Municipio Barbacoas, 1,140 m asl, southern Colombia. Pacific slope of the Western Cordillera of Colombia which is a continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador (Campos 2005).	eng
135039	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 1,140 m asl.	eng
135039	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135039	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135040	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135040	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: northern Viet Nam (Thuan Chau District, Son La Province, probably also Hoa Binh Province with part of the Song Da river drainage) (Yeo, unpubl. data)	eng
135040	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135040	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135040	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Deforestation and replacement by rice fields in the Song Da River watershed. Also the Da River watershed has been profoundly changed by the construction of the Hoa Binh Dam between 1979 and 1994. The dam now supplies nearly 50% of Vietnam’s electricity, powering much of the urban, industrial development taking place in the lowland deltas. Damming the Da River resulted in the inundation of 200 square kilometers of surface area, extending 230 km upstream. (Asia Forest Network, Research Network Report Number 10, January 1998, from homepage: http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/E5E0A84E9B42A19F80256690003862FB/$FILE/PART3.html)	eng
135041	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135041	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: West Bengal state: Barnagore, near Calcutta. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in almost 100 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of India.	eng
135041	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available (freshwater).	eng
135041	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135041	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135042	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135042	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Northern Prachuap Khiri Khan (Huai Sad Yai in Hua Hin District) and Phetchaburi Provinces (Kaeng Krachang in Tha Yang District), south Thailand, Asia. (from Yeo's thesis 2000).	eng
135042	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species appears to have different habitat preference from its congeners, being collected from mountain streams and creeks, rather than from waterfalls and cascades (Yeo's thesis 2000).	eng
135042	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135042	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135043	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
135043	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in Colombia (Amazon region), Ecuador, Venezuela, and Brazil (Amazonas State) in the Amazon drainage basin. This species was described from a single female specimen whose typical locality is not well established ("we found it in a jar with several crustaceans coming from Pernambuco; we believe accordingly that this species lives in the rivers of that state", Moreira, 1901). Bott (1969) assigned to this species one small male from Rio Cuieras, affluent of the Rio Negro in the Amazon basin of Brazil and the Negro River in Venezuela. Pernambuca River; rivers of the Atlantic drainage, Pernambuco State (Brazil).  Associated with rivers and blackwater lakes, in littoral areas, associated with submerged vegetation. Colombia: Amazonas, Guiania Departments (Campos 2005).	eng
135043	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro and Rio Uatuma rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. Found rivers and blackwater lakes, in littoral areas, associated with submerged vegetation. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 75-160 m asl.	eng
135043	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
135043	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
135045	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135045	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	West Africa: This species is known only from the rainforest zone in Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire and is endemic to this part of the Upper Guinea Forest zone. West Africa. It is quite a common species.	eng
135045	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Liberonautes paludicolis</em> is found in or near forest streams, or in low-lying areas of cleared forest which have permanent surface water, such as fish farm excavations, swamp rice farms, and ditches. Crabs also occur in other sites which become inundated with shallow water only during the rainy season in Liberia (May to October). Crabs spend a good deal of time resting in burrows dug into the banks of streams, swamps, marshy land, or the forest floor. Burrows are usually sited next to, or in the vicinity of water and are usually absent from those parts of the forest where there is no nearby surface water. Swamp crabs have often been encountered crossing the road during daytime rain storms or at night, when they leave their resting places to look for food on the nearby land. Occasionally <em>L. paludicolis</em> ventures into streams (as evidenced by the occasional collection of specimens in basket traps set in creeks). The ecology of the swamp crab is distinct from that of <em>L. latidactylus</em>, but there is an area of overlap, because the two species are both found in the small streams of the rainforest zone of Liberia (<em>L. latidactylus</em> always, <em>L. paludicolis</em> occasionally). <em>Liberonautes paludicolis</em> is an important second intermediate host to <em>Paragonimus uterobilateralis</em> in Liberia and plays an key role in the transmission of the human lung fluke parasite to humans.	eng
135045	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A fairly common species in the rainforest.	eng
135045	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specific threats to this area include deforestation and advancing agriculture in cleared forest in Liberia and on the slopes of Mount Nimba that disrupt its wetland habitat. This results in habitat loss/degradation. Increases in human populations are also an issue.	eng
135046	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135046	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cauca and Huila Departments: found exclusively in the Magdalena River basin, drains into the Caribbean (Campos 2005).	eng
135046	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This inland species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,300-2,300 m asl.	eng
135046	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of one country.	eng
135046	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135047	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135047	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Laos: Nam Ou at confluence with Huay Nam (21°4'10"N 102°31'44"E), Phongsali Province, northern Laos; Nam Sa River, tributary of Nam Ou (22.05'31"N, 102.06'19"E), Phou Dendin, Phonsgali, northern Laos (distance between locations in 130 km).	eng
135047	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Dry evergreen forest, mixed with bamboo.	eng
135047	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135047	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
135048	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135048	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, Ponmudi, Kerala, southwestern India.	eng
135048	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Specimens from the type locality were collected from a dry stream. All the crabs were collected from under stones in moist soil in shade. Sand accumulates on the dense setae of their ambulatory legs, facilitating camouflage in the wet soil and leaf litter on the forest floor.	eng
135048	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135048	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135049	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135049	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: Assam Province: Khasi Hills; Darjiling	eng
135049	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135049	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135049	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135050	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135050	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Ecuador: Collected from one location, Estero Lojca, Muisne Salima, Esmeraldas Province.	eng
135050	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135050	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135050	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135051	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135051	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India: South India, Travancore, Western Ghats. The species is known only from the type specimens collected from south India.	eng
135051	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Probably a stream crab like its congeners but its ecology is generally not known.	eng
135051	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135051	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135052	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135052	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia (Borneo - Kalimantan - Barabai, Meratus Mountains (2 36'44"S, 115 22'02"E), Southeast Asia.	eng
135052	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135052	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135052	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135053	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival. Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels outside protected areas.	eng
135053	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula. Endemic to Kelantan. Found within Taman Negara which is a national park.	eng
135053	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with clean, clear flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water. Biology poorly known.	eng
135053	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135053	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Taman Negara. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas.	eng
135054	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.  This species is found in a protected area in Brazil (AM).	eng
135054	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout the Orinoco and Amazon River basins in Venezuela, the island of Trinidad, the Guianas, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. In Brazil it is widespread along the Amazon river basin in the states of Pará, Amazonas, Rondonia, Acre, Amapá States, and in the coastal river basins of the state of Maranhão. Valdivia serrata is found in Suriname (Paramaribo, Litani River, upper reaches of the Marowijne River basin), and Guyana (Demerara River). This species is also found in Venezuela (Amazonas Federal Territory, Bolivar State), Ecuador (Napo Province), and Colombia. In Colombia this species is found in the eastern region of the country (Amazonas, Arauca, Caqueta, Meta, and Putumayo Departments) in the Putamayo and Maqueta Rivers which drain to the Amazon River and the Guiviare, Meta and Aracua Rivers which drain into the Orinoco River (Campos 2005).	eng
135054	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela in the Amazon, Coppename, Corantijn, Cuyuni, Essequibo, Marowijne/Marone, Orinoco and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro, Rio Uatuma, Rio Trombetas, and Rio Jari rivers draining the Guyana Shield which are tributaries of the Amazon river. This species is found in rivers and lakes, and in holes of submerged tree trunks. It has also been recorded from a stream near Agrauniversita Pucallpa, Quebrada de Lecheria. This species lives in rivers and streams and has an altitudinal range of between 120-800 m asl. The Balawa-ú village (01º47,91'N, 63º46,88'W) is in dense lowland rainforest at the foot of the southern slope of the Serra do Urucuzeiro, near the border with Venezuela (Magalhaes <em>et al</em>. 2006). Geologically, the area is part of the Pre-Cambrian Guyana Shield. The village lies near small forest streams, but distant from any large river. It is in the headwaters of the Rio Demini, a left tributary of the upper Rio Negro basin.  This is a medium-sized species and is primarily aquatic. It is usually associated with the submerged leaf litter and wood debris. In the stream near the Balawa-ú village it was found in the sandy bottom of the stream.	eng
135054	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
135054	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution which might affect populations on a local basis. These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web. This species is captured and eaten by the Yanomami, a group of South American Indians that live in the rainforest along the borderlands of Brazil and Venezuela. People from Balawa-ú village, state of Amazonas, Brazil, depend on hunting, gardening and wild food for survival, and crabs and other crustaceans are a highly prized food item in their diet. Species exploited by the Yanomami include two crab species of Trichodactylidae (<em>Sylviocarcinus pictus</em>, <em>Valdivia serrata</em>, the indigenous name for both is "hesiki tôtôrema") and two of Pseudothelphusidae (<em>Fredius fittkaui</em> indigenous name "oko", and <em>F. platyacanthus</em> indigenous name "peimatherimi"). The intensity of collection pressure on these crabs is not thought to be a threat to their long-term survival.	eng
135055	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135055	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Rio Cocle del Norte, western Panama.	eng
135055	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke <em>Paragonimus mexicanus</em> in Panama.	eng
135055	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135055	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135056	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135056	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Myanmar/Burma. Valley of Houngdareau (=Haungtharaw) River at the southwest slope of the Dawna Hills, Upper Tenaserim, south Burma (16.36.00N, 98.01.00E); Meetan (=Mitan Chaung (=river) 15.59.00N, 98.24.00E at the south-west slope of the Dawna mountain range); Kokareet, Tenasserim (= Dawna Hills).	eng
135056	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135056	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135056	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135057	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135057	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Stream at Ninhhai (Ninhphuoc District, Ninhthuan Province), Viet Nam.	eng
135057	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135057	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135057	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135058	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135058	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Pingshan, Muchuan counties in Sichuan Province.	eng
135058	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135058	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135058	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135059	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135059	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hubei Province, Middle China region, west mountain subregion (Hengduan mountain area), basin zone.<br/>Yaohua, Zhijiang county, Hubei Province.	eng
135059	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135059	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135059	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135060	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135060	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Hekou, Yunnan Province.	eng
135060	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135060	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135060	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135061	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of Taman Negara as a national park should ensure its survival. Conservation of forests and monitoring of pollution levels outside protected areas.	eng
135061	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Singapore and Malaysian peninsula. Type locality: Kuala Tahan, Pahang (4°21'N, 102°24'E). Found in northern two-thirds of Pahang (<em>ca</em>. 3°30'N and above), Kelantan and western Trengganu. Endemic to small range of mountains east of the main range in Pahang and western Terrengganu.	eng
135061	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic. Associated with clean, clear, flowing waters, hiding under rocks and vegetation during the day and emerging at night to forage in the water.	eng
135061	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135061	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat to populations within Taman Negara. Water pollution and habitat loss/degradation outside protected areas. No population impacts observed over last 20 years.	eng
135062	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
135062	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. Dow Hill, Kurseong, 4,000-5,000 ft; Dafla Hills; Ajmere, Rajputana. Bhutan: 87 km northwest of Phuntsholing; Bhutan: Chukka district, Chima Kothi (1,900-2,300 m).	eng
135062	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135062	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135062	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135063	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135063	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Xingren County in Guizhou.	eng
135063	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135063	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135063	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135064	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
135064	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species is found in eastern Turkey in the upper reaches of the Euphrates andTigris Rivers (in Artvin, Mus, Erzurum, Bingol, Sivas, Elazig, Sanliurfa, Adiyaman, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep Provinces), in Iraq (Ninava, Ymaniah, At-Tamin, SulaSalahudin Provinces), and in western Armenia and northern Syria (Halab Province).	eng
135064	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	<em>Potion magnum</em> is found in the streams and rivers in Turkey, Armenia, Syria, and Iraq, otherwise there is no specific information on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
135064	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or abundance of this species. Although no studies have been conducted, the population is considered to be stable based on the number of collections (13) and the number of different localities (13) representing one subpopulation, in the four countries where this species is known to exist.	eng
135064	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
135065	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135065	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Lingxian County, Hunan.	eng
135065	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135065	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135065	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135066	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
135066	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The species is restricted to highlands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, southern India. Type specimens were from Tandikudi, Palanis. In addition, we found T. convexa from a wider range (three locations in Kerala, alt. 1,050-1,200 m) than its congeners.	eng
135066	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Most of the recent specimens were collected from shallow, small streams, especially from under boulders. Specimens from beside a paddy field on Kumerly-Munnar road, Kerala, India, 09.39’18.6”N, 077.09’54.5”E, alt. 1,100 m, are from a muddy canal in turbid water, collected by removing <em>Alocasia</em> plants.	eng
135066	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135066	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135067	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135067	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: northern Sulawesi; Batjan in the Mollucas, and Soah Konorah in Halmahera.	eng
135067	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135067	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135067	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135068	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135068	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: Known from two closely-spaced localities in Kerala, south western India. Kodagara Village on Trissur-Chalakudy road, Kerala (10°21'30.7"N, 076°08'45.0E) and Koratti Village, Chalakudy Angamali Road, Kerala (10°21'39.7'N, 076°08'45"E).	eng
135068	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	All the crabs were from shallow to deep burrows along the muddy banks of rice-field embankments.	eng
135068	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135068	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135069	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135069	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	El Salvador: La Joya, south of Cuidad Arce (= El Chilamatal) La Libertad Department, also Santa Ana, Sonsonate, El Salvador, Chalatenango, and Cuscatlan Departments. Waterfall 2 km east of Juayua, Sonsonate Department.	eng
135069	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
135069	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135069	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135070	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	India:<strong>Kerala state</strong>: This species is known only from the type specimen from Kolaththuppuzha-Tenmalai Road (08°54'12.7"N 077°32'7.2"E) in southern India.	eng
135070	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Was collected from rice-field embankments, crabs were also observed in burrows in the margins of adjacent streams.	eng
135070	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135071	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135071	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Bohol, about 2km southwest of Batuan 09 46' 45''N, 124 07' 54''E at entrance of Ughob cave; at Bonugan cave, Batuan and Kalumpan, Behind-the-clouds, Batuan, caves. This species is found in caves only in a small area (EOO of 10 km²).	eng
135071	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Was found in a number of rather diverse habitats, all in the Batuan region in the centre of Bohol. Found in a garden well as well as in caves. Bonugan is one of a chain of caves along the same brook. The substrate of this stream is only moderately enriched with organic matter and the surface fauna is present only in the entrance. In Kalumpan the crab was found in an illuminated siphon pool which had no direct connection with any surface stream.	eng
135071	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135071	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Human disturbance of the biota is not as severe in Bonogan as in Ughab cave, e.g. bathing, laundry, swimming. The irrigation system of Eastern Batuan uses the caves for faster irrigation during harvest time (Urich (1991) from Proceedings of the international conference on environmental changes in the Karst Areas). Major threats are an irrigation system and the human use of these caves.	eng
135072	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135072	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Guangdong Province.	eng
135072	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135072	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135072	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135073	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135073	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zunyi County in Guizhou Province.	eng
135073	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135073	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135073	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135074	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135074	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is known from four localities in NW Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Ajamaru on  Ajamaru Lake, Jate Lake near Djitmau, and Aitinjo on Aitinjo Lake, and Biak Island).  Three of these are lakes on the Vogelkop Peninsula while the fourth site was from a stream in Biak Island, Shouten Islands, Geelvink Bay.<br/><br/>Described from specimens collected between 1952-55 and has not been collected since.	eng
135074	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135074	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135075	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135075	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fujian Province.	eng
135075	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135075	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135075	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135076	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135076	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Vietnam:  Tonkin, montagnes du Yunnan (via Lao Koi), northern Vietnam border. China: Hekou in Yunnan Province, southern China. Wide range (Vietnamese Red Data Book 1992).	eng
135076	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in rivers and streams in mountainous areas.	eng
135076	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135076	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135077	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135077	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Panama: Cerro Azul (9° 10' 0N, 79° 25' 0W), 646 m asl.	eng
135077	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135077	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135077	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135078	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135078	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Aluoi district, Thuathienhue Province.	eng
135078	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams.	eng
135078	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135078	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135079	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135079	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Viet Nam: Sin Ho District in Lin Chau Province, northern Vietnam. China: Hetouzhai, Jinping County in Yunnan Province, southern China.	eng
135079	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135079	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135079	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135080	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lake Poso is in a protected area.	eng
135080	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Posso (East shore between Tentena and Peura, Tentena, Tindali East coast Pendolo, west coast near Taipa, east coast south of Tindoro among cliffs), Central Sulawesi.	eng
135080	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135080	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No studies have been conducted on the population levels of this species, and the population size and trends are unknown.	eng
135080	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development.	eng
135081	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135081	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Peru: Holotype. Huánuco, Dantas, La Molina (9°38′5′′S, 75°0′W) 450 m asl.	eng
135081	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Streams and rivers.	eng
135081	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135081	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135082	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135082	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guyana: collected near Middle Camp in deep humus on the floor of cloud forest on the Wokomung Massif, in Potaro-Siparuni Province, western Guyana (05°06'36.3'' N, 59°49'14.1'' W), 1,135 m asl (according to altimeter) or about 1,219 m (according to the topographic map of the region).	eng
135082	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The following is based on the field notes provided by D. Bruce Means. The holotype was collected scuttling around on the deeply humic and leaf-littered floor of a large cloud forest (31 km by 11.5 km) on the remote unexplored Wokomung Massif (1,650 m) a tabletop mountain (tepui) in the Pakaraima Mountain range of Guyana. Other larger specimens that were not collected were seen on the banks of a small blackwater stream, and specimens reported on here were collected from land, not water. The Pakaraima Mountains are part of the Precambrian quartzite and sandstone mesas known as the Guayana Highlands (Huber 1995), a series of tepuis found in Venezuela, northern Brazil, and Guyana. Nearby Mt. Roraima was made famous by the book ‘The Lost World’ by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1912). The Wokomung Massif is drained by tributaries of the Essequibo River that flows north into the Caribbean Sea and by the Ireng River that flows south into the Amazon River. The vegetation at the type locality on Wokomung is single-tiered semi-open cloud forest with a canopy of medium height (about 15-18 m) and trees close together. The trees and plant stems are heavily draped with epiphytes (mostly aroids) that are also present on the ground together with spiny palms, and the tree trunks, branches, and lianas in the forest are all covered by a fuzzy, dark green moss. During July when the specimens were collected it rained constantly, with clear skies less than 5% of the time, indicating that this cloud forest is perennially wet. The soil is predominantly humic and is underlain at some depth by sand or indurated sandstone. The cloud forest on the top of this tepui is completely surrounded by seasonally dry lowland rainforest, and it is likely that this species will prove to be endemic to this very isolated location. Interestingly, the paratype of <em>M. meansi</em> was regurgitated from the stomach of a large tree frog (<em>Stefania</em> sp., Anura: Hylidae: Hemiphractinae) that was kept overnight in a collecting bag. Several other specimens of these small red crabs were seen (but not collected) crawling around in the litter of the forest floor at night, mostly near the banks of small streams, and it is estimated that <em>M. meansi</em> may reach carapace widths of about 30 mm or more.	eng
135082	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135082	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135083	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
135083	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Sabah: Endemic to Kinabalu area.	eng
135083	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Primarily aquatic.	eng
135083	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135083	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.	eng
135084	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135084	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Shitai and Guichi in Anhui Province; Chunan county in Zhejiang Province.	eng
135084	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species harbours the metacercariae of <em>Paragonimus</em> lung flukes.	eng
135084	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135084	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135085	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135085	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Java: western Java;  Lombok;  Sumbawa;  Flores.	eng
135085	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species digs burrows by the swampy, muddy, grass-covered banks of slow streams, but its habits appear to be basically semi-terrestrial.	eng
135085	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135085	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135086	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135086	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Yunnan Province: Zhaotong, Dongchuan, Chuxiong, Yanglin; North Hengduan Mountain area: vicinity of Kunming; and west mountain subregion, mountainous area. Szechuan (Sichuan) Province: Yibin, Leibu, Panzhihua, Nantong, Miyi, Chengkou and Suifu. Guizhou Province: Chishui. Hunan Province: Jishou and Guzhang. Hubei Province: Badong, Zushi, Zigui, Xingshan, Shennongjia and Yingshan. Shaanxi Province: Shangnan and Zhengping.	eng
135086	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135086	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Populations are assumed to be stable because it is abundant enough to be collected in large numbers to sell at local markets in Kungming, China (record from 2000).	eng
135086	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135087	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
135087	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Mainit Lake, Mindanao.  Lake Mainit (17,430 km²) is the fourth largest lake in the Philippines located between the Provinces of Surigao del Norte and Agusan del Norte, in the Island of Mindanao (9020.32”-9031.98” N Latitude and 125028.50” E Longitude). It is also the deepest lake with a maximum depth of about 223 m and a mean depth of about 128 m.	eng
135087	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135087	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135087	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Human interference in lake through introduction of alien species.	eng
135088	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135088	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Tham Nam Pah Kohan Cave, Kwai Valley in Kanchanaburi Province.	eng
135088	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Cavernicolous and troglobitic potamid species. The cave in which the type specimen was found had a small river running from it. The crab was found in a gallery 30 m above the river level and 150 m away from the entrance of the cave. The river was about 30 m below sea level, water temperature 25°C.	eng
135088	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135088	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135089	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135089	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Cundinamarca Department: Facatativa, Municipio Bocaja, Bogata River basin (6,000 km²); Choachi, Negro (35,944 km²)-Guayuriba-Meta (93,800 km²) rivers basin; Municipio Bojaca, Vereda Chantilly, Departamento Cundinamarca; 1,800-2,350 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Cundinamarca Department, Bogata area, astride Orinoco and Magdalena watersheds (Campos 2005).	eng
135089	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 1,800 and 2,350 m asl.	eng
135089	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135089	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135090	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135090	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: BunGabondar; Toba Lake; Harangol; Siboelangit in Western Sumatra.	eng
135090	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135090	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135090	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135091	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135091	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines. (Exact location unknown.)	eng
135091	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135091	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135091	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135092	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135092	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Apartado, Grande River, 30 m asl, Antioquia Department (Campos 2005).	eng
135092	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at an altitude of 30 m asl.	eng
135092	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135092	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135093	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135093	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: This species is found in four counties: Nantou, Yunling, Jiayi, and Tainan counties. Shihguei R. (Dounan, Yunlin), Wushulin (Baihe, Tainan).	eng
135093	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rice fields channels and rivers in mountains.	eng
135093	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135093	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Overuse of  pesticides in rice fields poses a major threat to this species.	eng
135094	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place at this time	eng
135094	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Huangshan, Jixi, Ningguo, Yixian in Anhui Province. Linan, Chunan, Kaihua, Linhai and Suichang in Zhejiang Province.	eng
135094	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Water at pH 5.4.	eng
135094	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135094	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135095	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135095	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Njapa Mountain (1°51'26"N 117°17'58"E), Borneo, eastern Kalimantan.	eng
135095	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found near a drainage channel.	eng
135095	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135095	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135096	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135096	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Santander Department: Hoyo del Aire, La Paz, 1,800 m asl; slopes and high plains of eastern Cordilleria of Colombia (Campos 2005).	eng
135096	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This cave-living species lives at an altitude of 1,800 m asl on the slopes and high plains of the eastern Cordilleria of Colombia. Cavernicolous, collected from two caves.	eng
135096	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135096	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135097	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The crabs are not eaten by the local population, but the location of the swamp is a holy place and therefore protected.	eng
135097	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Bung Dunlumphun, Na Chuak, Maha Sarakham Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
135097	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The animals live in burrows in a swampy area, some parts may dry out during the dry season. During the day the crabs usually stay in their holes, they come out at night to feed. Rarely seen to come out during the daytime and then show little activity. The depth of the burrow depends on the groundwater level. The crabs are not eaten by the local population, because the location of the swamp is a holy place.	eng
135097	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135097	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135098	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135098	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Mexico: Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco States.	eng
135098	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135098	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135098	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution.	eng
135099	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135099	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	New Guinea. This species is known only from the type specimen from close to the headwaters of Wakip River, north coast of New Guinea. There have been no records in over 80 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of New Guinea.	eng
135099	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135099	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135099	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135100	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135100	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Burma (Myanmar): Pegu.	eng
135100	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135100	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135100	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135101	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.  Not found in a protected area.	eng
135101	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Uganda. Amaler River.	eng
135101	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	River.	eng
135101	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135101	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135102	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135102	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Guatemala: Alta Verapaz.	eng
135102	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Caves, cavernicolous, troglobite, troglophile, subterranean waters.	eng
135102	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135102	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135103	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135103	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Alima, Lateke, Gabon, Central African Republic, Central Africa.<br/><br/>D.R. Congo: Kasa, Kalambaie near the Kasa River; Binya, Banyala; Binya, Equateur; Flandria; Isangila; Kosa-Kosa. Matadi, Mporo River; Stanleypool Station 35, Nsele River; Maniema, Kasongo, Lamba River; Riv. Talya, Bilboma, kamituga Talya river 2. Matadi, Luashi. <br/><br/>In addition, it may well also occur in the rivers and streams of Congo and southeast Cameroon because Gabon does not share an adjacent border with the DR Congo and the CAR. However, it is likely that populations of this species may be fragmented over its range. It was last collected in 1960.	eng
135103	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135103	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135103	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No specific threats are known, but this species lives in the rivers and streams of the rainforest and may be impacted by deforestation and shifting agriculture in the future.	eng
135104	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135104	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Island of Hispaniola: found in both Haiti (Moline) and the Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo near Paradis). Found in nearly all lowland rivers on Hispaniola.	eng
135104	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lowland rivers.	eng
135104	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135104	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major current and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution due to urbanization and the development of agriculture. Forest loss has been rapid and wide reaching in the Dominican Republic, with cover reduced from 75% to 14% between 1920 and 1981 (Brothers 1997). This deterioration has continued, and is greatest at lower altitudes.	eng
135105	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
135105	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	<em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> is found only in the sudan and Guinea savanna zone of West Africa in Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria, Republic of Benin, and Togo. The species is not found in the sahel savanna regions and in the tropical rainforest zone. In Nigeria <em>S. monodi</em> is associated with three major river systems draining the savanna region: the Benue River basin, the Hadejia-Jama'are River/ Lake Chad basin, and the Kaduna River/ Niger River basin. In Togo and Benin <em>S. monodi</em> occurs in the upper reaches of the Volta River basin which drains savanna country. <em>Sudanonautes monodi</em> is locally common throughout a wide area of savanna in West Africa from Togo to Cameroon, and is particularly abundant in Nigeria. The most northerly record is from Hadejia in northern Nigeria, a locality close to the border between the sudan savanna and sahel regions. It would appear that the sahel savanna region, which lies close to the southern edge of the Sahara desert forms the northern boundary for this species. Sudanonautes monodi has not been recorded from the tropical rainforests of Nigeria and Cameroon despite regular surveys of the decapod fauna in southeast Nigeria over a number of years. This species is also absent from collections of freshwater crabs from sites in woodland savanna as well as the rainforest. The southern boundary of the distribution lies between the Guinea savanna and woodland savanna zones, and it is found from Togo to Cameroon. However, the savanna region of West Africa (from Sénégal to southern Sudan) is an apparently uniform environment which presents few obvious geographical or ecological barriers to the distribution of its fauna.	eng
135105	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in seasonal wetlands in Sudan savannah. The respiratory physiology and ecology of <em>S. monodi</em> were described by Cumberlidge (1986). In the Guinea and Sudan savannah regions of West Africa the dry season lasts from October to April.  To survive in this arid environment, each crab digs a burrow. Tunnels and burrows up to one metre long are dug into dried stream banks, waterless swamp beds and cracked water holes, which are all sited in low-lying areas where the water table is close to the surface. This species is found living in colonies of up to a hundred, with one crab per burrow. The purpose of digging a burrow is to avoid exposure to high temperatures, and to create a makeshift aquatic environment at the bottom. This habitat offers the crab little more than a shallow layer of mud-brown tepid water, which collects by seepage through the soil.  This water is usually sufficient to only partly immerse the resident crab, but it is enough to keep the crab alive in the dry season, by maintaining body fluid levels and by keeping respiratory surfaces moist. Crabs spend the hot daytime hours of the dry season resting semi-submerged in their tepid underground habitations, where the air is cooler and damper than at the surface. Later, in the colder nocturnal air, crabs emerge from their burrows, scavenging nearby land for vegetable matter or plant and animal remains. During the dry season this species is inactive in its burrow by day and active on land at night. The first storms of the wet season inundate the burrows and prompt crabs to move onto land in the daylight hours, as well as the night. The night air is cooler and more humid, and the new undergrowth provides crabs both concealment from predators and shade from the sun. Once the wetlands develop, crabs congregate in great numbers in the muddy, shallow waters of the newly-formed pools and marshes. During the wet season this species is active both day and night, either under water, on land, or resting in its burrow.	eng
135105	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and not uncommon species with an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1 million sq km.  It has been collected systematically from the same locality in northern Nigeria for a period of 2-3 years and no declines in population levels were observed.	eng
135105	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major present and future threats to this species include loss/degradation (human induced) of its wetland and stream habitat associated with deforestation and human population increases.	eng
135106	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135106	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sumatra. This species is known only from the type specimen. There have been no records in over 70 years, but this is probably largely due to a lack of collection efforts and long-term taxonomic problems which until recently have made it difficult to identify freshwater crabs species from many parts of Indonesia.	eng
135106	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135106	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135107	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This crab is named after the Queen of Thailand.  The royal family is highly respected in Thailand, and this can be expected to afford some degree of protection to this species.  Last collected 1987.	eng
135107	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Amphoe Sai Yok District, Mountain creek in Ban Nam Chon: 14.06.00N, 99.23.00E, Kanchanaburi Province, south Thailand. Also purchased from Chatuchak market, Bangkok.	eng
135107	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The crabs live in burrows that they dig in the soil of secondary forests at a depth of 30-120 cm. The depth of the burrow depends on the height of the ground water level. The burrows were found in open forest often in places that would be covered by water during the wet season, e.g. near creek beds that dry out during the winter.	eng
135107	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Presumed large populations because this species is collected for sale in local markets.	eng
135107	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135108	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species but it is found in a protected area administered by the Forest Department which is nevertheless subjected to degradation by direct human impacts.	eng
135108	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Found in northeastern Thailand in the Mun River, Kengsaphu, Amphoe/District Phibun Mamgsahan, Ubon Ratchatani Province. Reported to have a wide distribution.	eng
135108	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found under water plants.	eng
135108	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135108	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution. Habitat subjected to degradation because of direct human impacts.	eng
135109	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135109	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi (Celebes); Panu River southern part of Matingang moutain chain, northern Sulawesi; Kakaskasen 1 20'34.2"N 124 50'29.7"E.	eng
135109	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	A semi-terrestrial species. Collected from a small river, between forest and rice fields, water pH 6.5.	eng
135109	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135109	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development	eng
135110	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
135110	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Sulawesi: Lake Matano (2 27'41.5"S 121 13'6.3"E; 2 26.97'S 121 13.00'E; 02 30.43'S 121 19.96'E; 2 26.01'S 121 13.03'E), Lake Matano has a surface area of 164.1 km², and crabs were also found in the surrounding area.	eng
135110	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Lakes and nearby streams.	eng
135110	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This lake-living species is found in a large number of localities, but the extent of occurrence is small (< 50km²).	eng
135110	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The present and future threats to this species include human induced habitat loss/degradation due to population increases and industrial and agrarian development. The shores of Lake Matano contain large deposits of nickel. Mining for this metal causes pollution and destroys habitat. Commercial fishing, development, and the introduction of non-native species are among other threats to this ecoregion (WWF 200 Global Ecoregion homepage).	eng
135111	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135111	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Fuching, Qiongshan, Qionghai, Huangjiang on Hainan Island, southern China.	eng
135111	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135111	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135111	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135112	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135112	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zhongshi, Anyuan (25.1 N, 115.3 E), Jiangxi Province. Last recorded collection in 1989.	eng
135112	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135112	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135112	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135113	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
135113	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Puerto Rico (8,960 km²): Caguo, Rio Grande; Salinas core, Eusenada. US Virgin Islands (230 km²): Saint Croix.	eng
135113	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in caves in Puerto Rico.	eng
135113	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is an abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country but its distribution is fragmented and its populations are isolated because they are found on different islands.	eng
135113	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135114	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135114	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species has a wide distribution in Brazil in the Rio Negro basin (state of Amazonas) and the state of Rondonia (Rio Madeira basin). The records from Rondonia state are based on unpublished data by C. Magalhães.	eng
135114	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil in the Amazon river basin. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south.  This species is also found in the Rio Negro river draining the Guyana Shield a tributary of the Amazon river.	eng
135114	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species.	eng
135114	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and water pollution which might affect populations on a local basis (especially species with limited distributions). These effects include deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the surrounding water bodies (especially in terra firme non-flooded forest streams), and mining activities that damage the environment and/or release pollutants such as heavy metals that may bioaccumulate in the food web.	eng
135115	conservation	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	None in place.	eng
135115	distribution	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	China: Junjuang River, Xueli Village, Gaocun Rural, Mayang Miao autonomous county, Hu’nan Province, China, coll. 26 Jul. 2005.	eng
135115	habitat	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Rivers and streams. This species is the second intermediate host of the human lung fluke (<em>Paragonimus westermani</em>) in China.	eng
135115	population	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135115	threats	Cumberildge, N. and Naruse, T., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135116	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135116	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Hwalien County (Hsiulin, Lushui/Lushai; Hsiulin, Holiu; Hsiulin, Paiyang).	eng
135116	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135116	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135116	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135117	conservation	Cumberildge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species in most parts of its range.	eng
135117	distribution	Cumberildge, N., 2008	Potamon potamios has a wide but highly fragmented distribution and is found from Rhodes and Naxos in Greece, to southern Turkey and south throughout the Jordan and Litani River basins to the Sinai peninsula in Egypt. This species is found in the following countries that border the Mediterranean Sea: Greece (Crete and Karpathos plus Naxos in the Cyclades); Turkey (in the southern coastal provinces of Mugla, Burdur, Isparta, Antalya, Icel, Adana, and Hatay); in Cyprus; in Syria; in Jordan (in Irbid, Balqa, Asimah, Karak, and Maan Provinces); in Lebanon (in Jabal Lubnan and Al-Janub Provinces); in Israel (coastal region, upper Jordan Valley, lower Jordan Valley, Dead Sea region, southern Israel); in the Occupied Palestinian Territories; and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula).	eng
135117	habitat	Cumberildge, N., 2008	This species has a very wide distributional range from the Mediterranean and Aegean islands of Greece to the semiarid inland regions in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Egypt. Its habitat includes diverse environments including streams, rivers and lakes, and <em>P. Potamios</em> is semi-terrestrial in habit. In Israel <em>P. potamios</em> occurs near rivers and fish ponds in the coastal plain, and inland to the Sea of Galilee near rivers draining into the Dead Sea and south into Sinai, Egypt. Medium-sized crabs are nocturnal whereas the larger ones are diurnal and are active during daytime in the water and on the banks of the rivers.	eng
135117	population	Cumberildge, N., 2008	There is not much information on the population size and abundance of <em>P. potamios</em> in most parts of its range, but it would appear that populations of this species on the islands of Naxos and Cyprus are declining. On Naxos, crabs were present during surveys of the western, northern, and central mountain regions, and the river southwest of Apolon in 1983 (Pretzmann 1993) but later surveys in 1988 did not find any crabs in these localities, and the river near Apolon was completely dry. The only stable population of crabs found was at Engares in the eastern part of Naxos. In Cyprus, freshwater crabs are locally abundant in the numerous year-round small springs and seepages in the Akamas peninsula, and in the mountain streams of the Troodos mountains and Paphos Forest. However, freshwater crabs have disappeared from many parts of Cyprus probably as a result of the extensive use of DDT and other insecticides during the campaign against malaria. The use of less harmful insecticides in recent years has seen some recovery of certain populations of this species, but not all populations have recovered and some must be presumed extinct in some areas. Populations of <em>P. potamios</em> in Cyprus are now recovering from the use of DDT.	eng
135117	threats	Cumberildge, N., 2008	In Cyprus, <em>P. potamios</em> is threatened by deforestation, loss of water in its habitat, and pollution from pesticides. Protection from these threats may be provided to those populations of crabs that are found in the State Forests which are protected areas in the westernmost tip of the island of Cyprus that may become part of a National Park in the near future.	eng
135118	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135118	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Taiwan: Taichung County (Hoping, Chingshan).	eng
135118	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135118	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135118	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135119	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species occurs in a protected area, the Leigonshan Nature Reserve.	eng
135119	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Middle China region, west mountain subregion, Hengduan mountain area; Leigongshan, Leishan county (26.4N 108.2E), Guizhou Province.	eng
135119	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135119	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135119	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The major and future threats to this species include human-induced habitat loss/degradation and pollution.	eng
135120	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Found in national park: the Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, which is a strictly protected area (1560 km²).	eng
135120	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Thailand: Phu Khieo in Chaiyaphum Province, northeastern Thailand.	eng
135120	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135120	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Wide distribution, also found in national park.	eng
135120	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution.	eng
135121	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135121	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Zhibenshan, Yunlong (24.8°N, 101.5°E) Yunnan Province.	eng
135121	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135121	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135121	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135122	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place	eng
135122	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	China: Jiangfengling, Wuzhishan (Mount Wuzhi), Hainan Island. This species  occurs in Wuzhishan; Bawangling; Jiangfengling (in Wuzhishan area); and Dongfeng on Hainan. It is not surprising to find two species (<em>H. orientale</em> and <em>H. daiae</em>) on Mount Wuzhi as it is high enough (1,867 m) and large enough to have three major drainages flowing independently from it (to the southeast, northeast and west), which could isolate and give rise to several sibling species.	eng
135122	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Rivers and streams.	eng
135122	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135122	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135123	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Conservation of Pulau Tioman hinterland.	eng
135123	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia: Malaysian peninsula, Pulau Tioman, cavernicolous. Endemic to Pulau Tioman, Pahang. Described from single highland locality, Gua (cave) Tengkuk Ayer, on Gunung Kajang, 900 m above sea level.	eng
135123	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Semi-terrestrial species found in caves and probably subterranean streams. Only obligate cavernicolous crab (troglobite) known from Peninsular Malaysia. Biology not well-known.	eng
135123	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135123	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No clear immediate threat, as development of extremely rugged hilly hinterland of Pulau Tioman appears unlikely.	eng
135124	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135124	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Philippines: Luzon.	eng
135124	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135124	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135124	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135125	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	The retention of the protected status of Kinabalu National Park should ensure its survival.	eng
135125	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Malaysia; East Malaysia: Sabah, Island of Borneo, endemic to Kinabalu area.	eng
135125	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Terrestrial, has been known to climb trees.	eng
135125	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135125	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No immediate threat, as range falls within Kinabalu National Park.	eng
135126	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None in place.	eng
135126	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Colombia: Magdalena Department: Santa Marta, Verada Alto Guachaca, Oriente stream, affluent of Perdido River, 800 m asl; northwestern slopes of the Sierra de Santa Marta, Cuidad Perdida, 1,000 m asl. The range of <em>C. davidi</em> overlaps here with the range of <em>C. pearsei</em> (Campos 2005).	eng
135126	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species lives in rivers and streams at altitudes between 800-1,000 m asl.	eng
135126	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on the population size, abundance, or population trends of this species.	eng
135126	threats	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	None known.	eng
135127	conservation	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in a protected area (Serra do Tumucumaque).	eng
135127	distribution	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Venezuela (Federal Territory of the Amazon), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Peru, and Brazil (Para, Amazonas, Rondonia, Mato Grosso, Ceará). Wide distribution in the lowland areas of the Atlantic Guianas and the eastern and central Amazon. Also eastern Peru in the coastal strip of the north, and part of northeastern Brazil. Not found east of the mouth of the Amazon River.  Rio Negro, Amazon drainage, Venezuela; Guyana; Surinam; French Guiana; Brazilian Guiana.<br/><br/>Brazil, Pará: Santarém [02°24'S 54°44'W], Comunidade Santa Rosa, 03.iv.1999, Equipe Faculdades Integradas do Tapajós. -Ceará: Serra da Ibiapaba, Viçosa do Ceará, Fonte do Caranguejo, 03º33'43.2"S 41º5'09.6"W, 625 m altitude; Serra da Ibiapaba, Ipu [04°19'S 40°11'W], sítio Santa Cruz. The easternmost records of this species are from the Rio Acará, in Tomé-Açu, state of Pará, and the Rio Gurupi, a coastal Atlantic river that divides the states of Pará and Maranhão (Magalhães, 1986). The latter was considered uncertain by Magalhães and Rodríguez (2002) because it is based on female specimens. The records from the state of Ceará considerably extend the species distribution towards northeastern Brazil, clearly transcending the limits of the Amazon.	eng
135127	habitat	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species is found in the Guyana Shield in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname in the Amazon, Araguari, Coppename, Marowijne/Maroni, and Suriname river basins. The Guyana Shield encompasses a large region of northern South America, broadly ranging from eastern Colombia to the west, to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east, and to the Rio Negro and Rio Amazonas to the south. This species is also found in the Rio Negro river (and possibly the Rio rombetas) draining the Guyana Shield which is a tributary of the Amazon river.<br/><br/>This species is found on land in humid areas of forest ground and in small water courses through the forest. The specimens from Ipu were collected in muddy areas near swamp vegetation. They were observed to inhabit small holes. In Viçosa do Ceará, the crabs were found inside holes under stones in the moist terrain of a forest area; they were around a spring close to a rocky wall. The habitat is similar to that where the species is found in the Amazon region, that is, in the moist soil of the forest.<br/><br/>Except for a transitional zone in the state of Maranhão, most of the Brazilian Northeast is a very dry, semiarid region, with an unpredictable annual rainfall regime, usually with a short rainy season of three to five months and a pluviometrical average lower than 800 mm. The soil is shallow and rocky, with a typical xerophytic, deciduous and open vegetation called "caatinga" (scrubland) placed in extensive inter-plateau and inter-mountain plains; rivers are usually intermittent. The occurrence of <em>F. reflexifrons</em> in the Serra da Ibiapaba could be linked to the climatic conditions of the area, which is a high plain plateau with altitudes between 650 to 850 m and extending approximately 200 km in a North-South direction along the northwestern state of Ceará. The crabs were found in its eastern part, which is covered by a tropical pluvial forest, where the climate is hot and humid, with a six month rainy season and pluviometric indexes up to 1,800 mm (Bezerra 1989, Velloso <em>et al</em>. 2002). Such conditions propitiate a favourable environment for these crabs, similar to where they are usually found in the Amazon region.	eng
135127	population	Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This is a widespread and abundant species found in the major river systems of more than one country.	eng
135128	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135128	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Indonesia: Kalimantan: Island of Borneo: Kajan River (1 22'N, 115 12'E) and Kapuas River (0 48'N, 113 54'E), central Borneo.	eng
135128	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135128	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No information available.	eng
135128	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135129	conservation	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species and it is not found in a protected area.	eng
135129	distribution	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	Japan: Miyako Island, Southern Ryukyus, Japan  Type locality: Miyako-Jima  (24-25°N, 125-126°E). It is only known from three small springs of Miyako Jima.	eng
135129	habitat	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	This species was caught during the fall in small springs and its downstream. Many burrows were observed at the banks of downstream, and one or two individuals were seen from burrows. It is omnivorous, e.g., land snails and detritus in the field.	eng
135129	population	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	There is no information on population size, abundance, or trends.	eng
135129	threats	Esser, L. and Cumberlidge, N., 2008	No specific information about threats to these springs. However springs are very vulnerable habitats from e.g. water abstraction and lowering of water tables, or small pollution events. This island is highly populated and is also a tourist destination, so human impacts are likely to be high. Therefore habitat loss and pollution are likely threats.	eng
135149	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	No location in a formal protected area, but two of the springs ‘protected’ by Buddhist temples.	eng
135149	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Endemic to Lake Dianchi its tributaries and springs. However, currently now only known from Muyang River, Lengshui River, Black dragon spring and Green dragon spring. These four sites all belong to Songhuaba Reservior drainage.	eng
135149	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Prefers riffle habitats and cold water. It hides under big stones or caves under water in winter. In summer, it feeds in fast flowing water over sand and cobbles. It feeds and grows in lakes or rivers, but during the breeding season it will migrate to the rivers or any other kind of stream inlet to Lake Dianchi where it spawns in riffles (Chen and Cao 2000).	eng
135149	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Known from about two temple spring ponds, and two lake tributaries (Muyang/Lengshui), but they make just one population. Population size is unknown.	eng
135149	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J., 2008	Its loss from the lake likely due to introduced fish species, water pollution, over-fishing, and breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.	eng
135150	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	The spring is not protected.	eng
135150	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Only ever known from one tributary spring of Lake Dianchi.	eng
135150	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	In clear spring water. The bottom is sand and some stones with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratoph demersum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirogyra</span> spp. and some other macrophytes on the ground. The colour pattern between the mature male and female is very distinct.	eng
135150	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Population size is small for restricted distribution.	eng
135150	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Current threats at the springs are introduced species and modification of spring structure.	eng
135151	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	None.	eng
135151	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Known from the Lake Dianchi basin, in its tributaries and effluent river, Zhangjiu River. It is also reported from two tributaries of Jinshajiang (upper Yangtze) in Sichuan (Ding 1994) and Yunnan.	eng
135151	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	It lives in rivers and streams with flowing water and rocky bottom. It is a small carnivorous fish living at the water bottom.	eng
135151	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	Since its discovery in 1935 in Jinning County, KIZ have deposited two specimens collected in 1960 and this is the last record of this fish. Even if the species still exists, the population should be very small.	eng
135151	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, B., 2008	The main threats to the species are the sudden explosion of the population of Kunming City and the discharge of domestic and industrial polluted waste water into the lake, seriously polluting the water of the lake and inflow and outflow rivers/streams. In addition, the large-scale reclamation of land from around the lake since the end of the 1950s to the beginning of 1970 destroyed the living and spawning environment of the fish, which is another cause of endangerment.	eng
135152	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J.-X., 2008	No location in a formal protected area, but five of the springs ‘protected’ by Buddhist temples. It is Grade 2 National Protected Species.<br/><br/>The assessors have recommended six of the 20 monitoring spots to a&#160; local government agency of Kunming City as key protected sites in Sep, 2007.	eng
135152	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J.-X., 2008	Endemic to Lake Dianchi its tributaries and springs. Now the species is extirpated from the lake itself, and is only known to survive in 20 temple spring ponds, and one lake tributary (Muyang/Lengshui) all within 36 km of the lake shore.	eng
135152	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J.-X., 2008	Clear water usually with indigenous macrophytes such as Ottelia acuminata or Hydrilla verticillata. When water quality in the lake was better it is believed it breeds only in the spring waters. Needs flowing water to breed, laying its eggs on hard substrates (sand to rocks, not mud or silt). Breeds from January to April.&#160; In winter it appears to migrate into cave streams. Adults eat shrimp and small fish, and juveniles eat zooplankton. They like water temperature about 20°C.	eng
135152	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J.-X., 2008	Known from about 20 temple spring ponds, and one lake tributary (Muyang/Lengshui) = four subpopulations. However the temple springs may be connected by small underground karst rivers. There are still a big portion of rivers and reserviors that has not been investigated, so the population size outside of the lake is impossible to estimate.	eng
135152	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Yang, J.-X., 2008	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, declining water  quality, loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing, and also  breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.<br/><br/>Current threats  to the springs are introduced species (especially rainbow trout and red-eared  slider turtle); also land use adjacent to springs and modification of spring  structure.	eng
135153	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Not known from any a formal protected areas.	eng
135153	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Endemic to Jinsha River and Lishe River, Yunnan Province, China. These locations distributing in Jinsha River include those along Niulan River, Muyang River and Lengshui River (headstreams of Lake Dianchi), and Tanglang River. This species is becoming rare in Jinsha River. It is strongly believed that the specimen from Lishe River is a distinct species, research is needed to confirm this.	eng
135153	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Lives in gaps between stones or floating grasses in slow streams. Feeds on insect larva at the bottom of the water body. Maturated almost in Dec.	eng
135153	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	The population size of the species is unknown.	eng
135153	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Habitat loss and water pollution threaten this species. Construction of a hydro power dams has resulted in population fragmentation.	eng
135154	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	No location as a formal protected area.	eng
135154	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Endemic to Dianchi Lake, Yunnan Province, China.	eng
135154	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	This species lives in the bottom of the medium layer of the water body.  <em>Polyphagous</em>, including zooplankton and algae. Spawning from May to June.  The eggs stick on gravels at the riverside.	eng
135154	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135154	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Jiang, Y.-E., 2008	Its loss from the lake is likely due to introduced fish species and loss of breeding sites.	eng
135161	conservation	Percequillo, C., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in Caparaó National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002), and several other protected areas in its range (C. Percequillo and M. Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
135161	distribution	Percequillo, C., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs from southeast Brazil (northern Espirito Santo south through Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo to the west and south to Rio Grande do Sul (C. Percequillo pers. comm.), to northeast Argentina and east Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
135161	habitat	Percequillo, C., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	Within the Brazilian Atlantic forest region, this species has been collected primarily from secondary forest (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is a widespread species which occurs in conserved and altered vegetation. Also some occur in Cerrado gallery forest. It uses trees and ground so it needs forest structure.	eng
135161	population	Percequillo, C., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is considered common (easy to capture) but not abundant (not captured in numbers) (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
135161	threats	Percequillo, C., Weksler, M., Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Teta, P. & Patterson, B., 2008	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion effect some populations.	eng
135163	conservation	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	The fish was listed as a second-class protected animal by the Government of Yunnan Province in 1989 and the Regulations on Fishing In Dianchi Lake was issued for the producing areas. The lake is closed for fishing for five months every year and seven no-fishing protected bay areas were set up, providing feeding grounds for a part of the fish population of the lake.	eng
135163	distribution	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	Only ever known from Dianchi Lake itself and Songhuaba Reservior, Yunnan Province, China.	eng
135163	habitat	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	It lives in the middle and upper layers of waters and feeds mainly on aquatic insects, plankton and fragments of plants. It becomes sexually mature after one winter and lays sticky eggs. The average standard length is 126.4 mm for one year’s individual, 172.8 mm for two years; 210.8 mm for three years; 251.2 mm for four years; 284.2 mm for five years and 311,9 mm for six years (Chu and Chen 1989).	eng
135163	population	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	Known from Dianchi Lake and Songhuaba reservoir. Only a few individuals are occasionally caught during the fishing season and population size is unknown.	eng
135163	threats	Chen, X.-Y. & Du, L.-N., 2008	Its decline in the lake is likely due to introduced fish species, decreasing water quality, the loss of macrophytes (in part due to grass carp), over-fishing and the loss of breeding sites lost due to siltation and blocked access.	eng
135164	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is not of conservation concern and its range includes several protected areas.	eng
135164	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species occurs from Washington north to southern Alaska in the United States and Canada, and west of the Coastal and Cascade mountain ranges, including the Queen Charlotte Islands and islands along the coast of British Columbia and the Alexander Archipelago. <em>Peromyscus keeni</em> also occurs in Yukon Territory and occurs farther inland in British Columbia than previously documented (not mapped here) (Lucid and Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Included are the ranges of the following nominal <em>Peromyscus maniculatus</em> and <em>P. sitkensis</em> taxa of Hall (1981): <em>oreas, interdictus, isolatus, sitkensis, oceanicus, algidus, hylaeus, keeni, macrorhinus,</em> and <em>prevostensis</em> (<em>carli, doylei,</em> and <em>triangularis</em> probably also should be included) (Hogan <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
135164	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species inhabits western coastal lowlands to high-elevation alpine forests. They appear to avoid closed canopy forested habitats and, at lower elevations, associate with edge vegetation, along logging roads, or at the periphery of small islands. They will enter human habitations. Diet includes various seeds, fruits, and small invertebrates.<br/><br/>On outer coastal islands it inhabits the edge of dense Sitka spruce-western cedar forests, and is found at forest edge and on beaches in cover of logs, stumps and rock crevices (Banfield 1974).<br/><br/>Multiple litters of about 3-5 young probably are produced each year. Gestation lasts about 23 days (non lactating) or 25 days (lactating) (Kirkland and Layne 1989). Probably capable of breeding at about 5-6 weeks. In southern British Columbia, it was reported as breeding from March through July.<br/><br/>Its distribution on smaller outer islands indicates it is probably less competitive than <em>maniculatus</em>, which occupies larger islands (Banfield 1974). It probably originally reached many islands on natural rafts.	eng
135164	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is widespread on coastal islands and the western mainland of the Pacific Northwest from Washington to southern Alaska.	eng
135164	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
135292	distribution	Lim, T.W., 2008	This species is known only from a single male specimen collected from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
135292	habitat	Lim, T.W., 2008	Tropical rainforest – foodplant unknown.	eng
135292	population	Lim, T.W., 2008	The remaining habitat in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been explored but no specimens of the species have been found in more than 100 years.	eng
135292	threats	Lim, T.W., 2008	<p>  Habitat loss (human-induced) as well as possibly collection for traditional medicine probably contributed to the extinction of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ridleyi</span>.</p>	eng
135295	conservation	Kevan, P.G., 2008	Currently there are no conservation measures in place to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>. <br/><br/>It would be beneficial to attempt to prevent the spread of commercially based disease pathogens to native populations, as these are thought to be having a major negative impact on <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>. Further research is needed for: <br/><ul><li>the size and range of the remaining population: although very few individuals have been observed, further investigation should be done to reveal precisely how many <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span> are remaining;</li><li>the species' ecology and biology: a better understanding of the behaviours and general biology of the bee, and its habitat requirements, especially any that might be limiting factors; </li><li>threats: studying the pathology, control, and cross-infectivity of different suspected disease agents of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span>, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Nosema bombi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Locustacrus buchneri</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crithidia bombi </span>(Colla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Otterstatter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005) would allow for better understanding of the risks to the bumblebee populations and the preventative measures that should be taken. The introduction of these diseases could also be better studies as an element of the risks of commercial trafficking in bumble bees (Thorp 2003);</li></ul>The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini</span> needs protection. The protected habitat must have an abundance of suitable pollen and nector aources such as, but not limited to: <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eschscholzia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agastache</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Monardella </span>as sources of pollen and nectar for the bees to feed on. Proximity to a natural source of fresh water would also be beneficial as it would increase the flowering season of the plants upon which the bees feed. Also, suitable nest sites are needed, such as abandoned rodent burrows.	eng
135295	distribution	Kevan, P.G., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bombus franklini </span>occurs only in the USA. It is found only from southern Oregon to northern California between the Coast and Sierra-Cascade Ranges, in Douglas, Jackson and Josephine and Siskiyou and Trinity counties in Oregon and California respectively. This area is around 190 miles in the north-south direction (40º58’ to 43º30’N latitude) and 70 miles from east to west (122º to 124ºW longitude).	eng
135295	habitat	Kevan, P.G., 2008	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. franklini </span>includes floral resources, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Lupinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Eschscholzia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agastache</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Monardella </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia</span>, and abandoned rodent burrows that are thought to be used for nesting.      Bumblebees are social insects; they live in colonies. Most make their homes in abandoned animal burrows or in grassy tussocks, and feed on both the nectar and pollen rewards offered by the flowers of the plants they pollinate. Bumblebees have a special technique in foraging that makes them exclusive pollinators of certain plants. They engage in “buzz pollination” by which they sonicate the flowers to vibrate the pollen loose from the anthers.&#160; </span>Tomatoes and related plants (Solanaceae), blueberries (Ericaceae), and others are pollinated this way.	eng
135295	population	Kevan, P.G., 2008	The population is currently decreasing drastically. Dr R.W. Thorp’s unpublished surveys have revealed that, since 1998, the populations have decreased drastically, and no individuals were found at all in 2004. Surveys of many historic and potential sites within the area inhabited by these bumblebees were repeated annually over nine years. Between nine and seventeen historic sites were visited annually. Some were visited more than once for an average of visits of historic sites per year. In addition, six to nineteen potential sites were visited at least once each year. During the first three years, bees were observed at seven new sites (where this bee had not been recorded before) but as time went on this number decreased. The continued abundance of other bumblebee species suggests that the habitat has not recently become uninhabitable.	eng
135295	threats	Kevan, P.G., 2008	<p>The use of commercial bumblebee colonies in greenhouses to pollinate crops such as tomatoes, peppers and some field crops such as highbush blueberries has had an impact on bumblebee populations as exotic diseases are introduced into populations of native bee species. The commercialization of bumblebees in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u4:st="on">North America</st1:place></st1:place> over the past two decades is thought to have caused a pathogen spillover that has devastated local, wild populations of the same and some other species. These pathogens include tracheal mites (<em>Locustacarus buchneri</em>) and intestinal protozoa (<em>Crithidia bombi, Nosema bombi</em>), which can be transferred from bumblebee to bumblebee via the flowers upon which they feed, or within the colony. Although these pathogens are not necessarily lethal because they don’t directly kill their hosts, they reduce the bumblebees’ ability to learn to handle or feed on new flower types (Gegear <em>et al.</em> 2004). This can have extremely detrimental consequences for the health of the colony, by reducing resources brought in from foraging, and thus limiting the size of the colony and number of offspring it can produce. For <em>B. franklini</em>, exotic diseases such as <em>Nosema</em>, which have been introduced through transportation and sale of commercial bumble bee queens and nests (Colla <em>et al</em>. 2006, Otterstatter <em>et al</em>. 2005, Thorp 2003).<br/> <br/> Habitat destruction and degradation as a result of agricultural intensification is believed to threaten the future of tis species habitat. Agricultural pesticides are also a threat as these can be picked up by bumblebees and, if not immediately deadly to the insects, carried back to their nests to poison other colony members and the brood. However, many efforts are being made to reduce, if not eliminate pesticide application, as the far-reaching repercussions of their use are well-understood.</p>	eng
135301	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135301	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135301	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135301	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135301	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135302	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135302	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135302	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135302	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135302	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135303	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135303	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135303	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135303	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135303	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135304	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135304	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135304	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135304	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135304	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135305	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135305	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135305	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135305	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135305	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135306	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135306	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135306	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135306	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135306	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135307	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135307	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135307	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135307	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135307	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135308	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135308	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135308	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135308	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135308	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135309	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135309	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135309	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135309	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135309	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135310	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135310	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135310	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135310	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135310	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135311	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135311	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135311	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135311	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135311	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135312	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135312	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135312	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135312	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135312	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135313	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135313	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135313	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135313	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135313	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135314	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135314	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135314	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135314	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135314	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135315	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135315	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135315	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135315	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135315	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135316	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135316	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135316	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135316	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135316	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135317	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135317	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135317	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135317	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135317	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135318	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135318	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135318	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135318	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135318	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135319	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135319	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135319	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135319	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135319	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135320	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135320	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135320	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135320	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135320	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135321	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135321	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135321	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135321	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135321	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135322	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135322	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135322	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135322	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135322	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135323	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135323	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135323	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135323	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135323	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135324	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135324	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135324	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135324	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135324	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135325	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135325	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135325	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135325	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135325	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135326	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135326	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135326	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135326	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135326	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135327	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135327	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135327	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135327	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135327	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135328	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135328	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135328	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135328	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135328	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135329	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135329	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135329	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135329	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135329	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135330	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135330	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135330	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135330	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135330	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135331	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135331	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135331	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135331	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135331	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135332	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135332	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135332	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135332	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135332	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135333	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135333	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135333	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135333	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135333	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135334	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135334	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135334	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135334	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135334	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135335	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135335	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135335	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135335	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135335	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135336	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135336	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135336	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135336	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135336	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135337	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135337	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135337	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135337	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135337	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135338	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135338	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135338	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135338	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135338	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135339	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135339	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135339	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135339	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135339	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135340	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135340	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135340	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135340	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135340	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135341	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135341	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135341	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135341	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135341	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135342	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135342	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135342	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135342	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135342	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135343	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135343	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135343	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135343	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135343	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135344	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135344	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135344	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135344	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135344	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135345	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135345	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135345	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135345	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135345	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135346	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135346	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135346	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135346	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135346	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135347	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135347	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135347	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135347	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135347	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135348	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135348	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135348	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135348	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135348	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135349	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135349	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135349	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135349	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135349	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135350	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135350	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135350	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135350	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135350	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135351	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135351	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135351	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135351	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135351	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135352	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135352	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135352	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135352	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135352	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135353	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135353	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135353	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135353	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135353	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135354	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135354	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135354	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135354	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135354	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135355	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135355	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135355	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135355	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135355	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135356	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135356	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135356	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135356	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135356	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135357	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135357	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135357	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135357	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135357	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135358	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135358	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135358	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135358	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135358	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135359	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135359	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135359	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135359	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135359	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135360	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135360	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135360	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135360	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135360	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135361	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135361	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135361	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135361	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135361	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135362	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135362	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135362	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135362	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135362	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135363	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135363	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135363	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135363	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135363	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135364	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135364	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135364	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135364	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135364	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135365	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135365	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135365	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135365	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135365	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135366	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135366	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135366	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135366	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135366	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135367	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135367	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135367	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135367	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135367	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135368	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135368	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135368	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135368	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135368	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135369	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135369	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135369	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135369	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135369	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135370	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135370	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135370	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135370	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135370	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135371	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135371	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135371	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135371	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135371	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135372	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135372	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135372	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135372	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135372	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135373	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135373	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135373	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135373	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135373	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135374	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135374	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135374	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135374	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135374	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135375	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135375	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135375	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135375	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135375	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135376	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135376	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135376	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135376	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135376	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135377	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135377	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135377	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135377	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135377	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135378	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135378	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135378	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135378	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135378	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135379	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135379	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135379	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135379	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135379	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135380	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135380	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135380	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135380	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135380	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135381	conservation	Rand, P.S., 2008	<p>1. Many subpopulations of sockeye in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British   Columbia</st1:place></st1:state> were found to be threatened based on this assessment. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is responsible for salmon management and is currently formulating conservation units (Holtby and Ciruna, unpublished manuscript) and initiating new policy (e.g,. Wild Salmon Policy) and procedures to stem the loss in diversity (DFO 2005, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Irvine</st1:place></st1:city> and Fraser 2008). Two locations of sockeye salmon, <st1:placename w:st="on">Sakinaw</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Cultus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, have been assessed and listed as Endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (<a href="http://www.cosewic.gc.ca">COSEWIC</a>). However, the federal government has declined protection under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) due to the social and economic costs of closures to the fishery (Irvine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). We encourage COSEWIC and DFO to focus attention on those subpopulations that we identified as threatened in this IUCN assessment. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>2. We considered <st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye salmon as individual spawning sites in a larger subpopulation (SEASONAL UPWELLING). These lake systems are recognized individually as Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs) by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latter two <em>sites </em>were not included in the genetic baseline applied in this assessment, thus we assumed all sites are members of a larger, parent subpopulation. Further, we did not include <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> in our assessment given the recent escapement data available for the native beach-spawning population at that location is obscured by repeated attempts at establishing a tributary spawning population originating from broodstock taken from outside the basin. We encourage efforts at expanding the range-wide microsatellite-DNA baseline to include <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pleasant</st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Quinault</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, and to investigate the status of the native beach-spawning sockeye in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ozette</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>3. Most of the data used in our assessment, particularly in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alaska</st1:place></st1:state>, were from large aggregate stocks that may contain many (sometimes 100s) of individual spawning sites, and hence may mask important dynamics occurring at small scales. While a number of recent studies have shown that there is a significant degree of coherence among populations within a given region, it is important to acknowledge that a majority of the variability in vital rates are not explained by regional, environmental drivers, and may result from localized threats, for example road or other infrastructural development, or by different life history characteristics which affect productivity. Where possible and feasible, we recommend a more comprehensive monitoring approach that addresses dynamics at the scale of individual spawning sites. An excellent example of this approach is the Wood River system in Alaska’s Bristol Bay region, where a combination of sampling approaches provides a more integrated monitoring system that translates into a robust assessment of the status of the species in that basin. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>4. Mixed-stock fishing is likely to be a key factor in the decline observed at many sites and subpopulations in our assessment. We feel a key priority is filling a gap in knowledge about composition of mixed-stock harvest in coastal sockeye salmon fisheries. While a great deal of resources has been invested in developing weak-stock management for Fraser River sockeye salmon through the Pacific Salmon Commission and DFO, there has been much less attention placed in other regions along the west coast of North America, particularly in the regions where we found the greatest diversity of subpopulations. We encourage continued investment in developing methods and protocols to account for subpopulation composition of coastal fisheries targeting sockeye salmon to help track harvest pressure at a biologically and ecologically meaningful scale. Further, we encourage fisheries management agencies to explore restructuring fisheries in a way that would result in shifting fishing pressure from coastal regions to more terminal locations, thus providing a more effective means of controlling fishing pressure at the scale of individual subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>5. Another leading factor threatening sockeye salmon are poor marine survival rates. This has been documented in cases where smolt-to-adult survival rates are estimated through intensive monitoring programs. This appears to be a significant factor explaining declines in adult abundance across many locations in the southern range of the species in <st1:place w:st="on">North America</st1:place>. While marine conditions have been shown to cycle based on climate forcing and may, in fact, improve in future years, we feel it is important for those managing salmon in this region to acknowledge that poor marine survival may persist, particularly given projections based on global climate change. Reversing declining trends in those subpopulations affected may require increased attention to agents of mortality that are occurring at other life history stages over which we have more local control. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>6. Many previous attempts at re-introductions of sockeye salmon have been unsuccessful, and we feel any effort at captive breeding or inter-basin transfers for re-introduction purposes should proceed with great caution. These efforts, to the extent that they exist, are at best stop-gap measures and are in no way a substitute for conserving the species in the wild. The lack of success from the captive breeding of endangered Sakinaw sockeye salmon by DFO, and endangered <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Redfish</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> sockeye by NMFS, are examples of the limitations to these expensive measures. Recent evidence of re-establishment of anadromous runs of sockeye from remnant, isolated kokanee populations following dam removal or modification (e.g., <st1:placename w:st="on">Allouette</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">British Columbia</st1:place></st1:state>) may offer hope in re-establishing anadromous life histories in cases where dams have prevented passage. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>7. Enhancement activities (particularly hatchery releases and spawning channel construction) is likely to be a key factor in reducing abundance in neighboring, small wild populations. In our assessment, we were unable to functionally track both wild and enhanced sockeye salmon where they intermingle. We strongly recommend adoption of integrated monitoring programs that includes a robust marking program and monitoring efforts targeted toward wild sockeye salmon populations that would provide the data necessary to address the degree to which enhancement practices threaten wild sockeye salmon. It is important to note that two large basins in our assessment (Fraser and <st1:place w:st="on">Skeena</st1:place>) are all strongly. influenced by enhancement activities, and these activities likely represent a key factor threatening many neighboring subpopulations. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>8. While not addressed in the present assessment due to lack of data, we feel there should be more focused research attention on sea-and river-type sockeye that may serve as colonizers in the future. This line of research is particularly important given expected habitat alterations from climate change. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  9. Very few data were available to assess population viability of sockeye salmon in the Russian Far East, and we document a significant reduction in escapement in recent years at a <em>site </em>within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> that warranted an endangered listing for this subpopulation. The leading threat recognized for this subpopulation is overfishing. The situation has been exacerbated by an increase in illegal fishing practices. We encourage the leading agencies in this region to provide more open access to data, and supporting meta-data, for assessment purposes. We also encourage development of new monitoring efforts throughout the region and increased enforcement to reduce poaching. Many populations of river-type sockeye exist, particularly in western <st1:place w:st="on">Kamchatka</st1:place>, and focused research on these populations will provide important insight into the status of the species there. </span>	eng
135381	distribution	Rand, P.S., 2008	The current distribution of <em>Oncorhynchus nerka</em> extends from approximately 45-70°N to 140°E-125°W longitude. The species has been recorded from Russia, United States, Canada, and Japan, although the Japanese populations are likely to have resulted from introductions; Japan is therefore not considered to be part of this species' natural range. <br/><br/>See the additional supporting documentation (particularly Figures 1 & 2, and Appendices 1 & 2) for details on the range of this species and of each of the 80 subpopulations identified. <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135381	habitat	Rand, P.S., 2008	The species exhibits a great variety of life history patterns. It has a genetically diverged life history form called “kokanee” that lives its entire life within freshwater, but this assessment includes only anadromous populations commonly referred to as “sockeye” or “red salmon”. Sockeye are born in gravel nests in rivers or lakes and the majority of life history forms rear as juveniles for one to three years in freshwater before migrating to the ocean. Some sockeye assume a river-type life history and rear in a river channel, while others are lake-type and rear in a lake environment. Primary prey during this life history stage include zooplankton and stream invertebrates. Some sea-type populations migrate within one to three months following emergence, and these make extensive use of estuaries. Most populations spend one to three years in offshore feeding areas where they grow to maturity (ca. 50-60 cm total length, 2.5-3.0 kg weight). Diet in the ocean consists primarily of zooplankton (copepods and euphausiids), but their diet also includes squids and fishes. Natural predators during this period in their life history include salmon sharks (<em>Lamna ditropis</em>) and Daggertooth (<em>Anotopterus nikparini</em>). Foraging individuals mix among populations both within and between Asia and North America, but at maturity they all migrate back toward their natal freshwater habitat where they spawn and die. The return to natal habitat and the isolation of spawning populations results in considerable genetic differentiation and adaptation to local conditions. Many fish are intercepted by fishers during the homeward, spawning migration, and natural predators include seals, sea lions and bears. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, in lake outlet or lake tributary streams or along lake beaches in finer sediments where subterranean upwelling occurs or among boulders on wave-aerated shores. River-type sockeye spawn in river channels not associated with lakes. Adults display bright red bodies and green heads. Males compete with each other for access to females. Females compete with each other for gravel sites where they build nests, deposit eggs (fecundity typically ranges from 2,000-5,000 eggs), and briefly guard the redd. Median population size for the species is <em>ca</em>. 6,000 individuals. Reviews of life history and ecology of the species appear in Smith <em>et al</em>. (1987), Burgner (1991), Wood (1995) and Quinn (2005).	eng
135381	population	Rand, P.S., 2008	At the species level, the population is believed to be stable; however, some subpopulations are declining. For more details on subpopulaiton size estimates and trends, see the additional supporting documentation (particularly Appendix 2). <strong>Follow the link below for a PDF of the additional supporting documentation</strong>.	eng
135381	threats	Rand, P.S., 2008	<strong>General threats to <em>O. nerka</em></strong><br/>The key threats to the species identified by the IUCN SSC Salmon Specialist Group were: <br/><br/>a) Mixed stock fishing leading to over fishing small, less productive populations <br/>b) Changing river and ocean conditions that are likely linked to global climate change, expressed in poor marine survival rates and increased incidence of disease in adult spawners <br/>c) Negative effects of hatcheries and construction of artificial spawning habitat <br/><br/>It is important to note that in many cases, the causes for declines in some specific sockeye salmon subpopulations remain unknown.	eng
135407	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive.<br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).	eng
135407	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland: several lakes draining westward, in Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Donegal and Westmeath Counties.	eng
135407	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December.	eng
135407	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	About 30% of population is extirpated (Igoe & Hammer 2004). In the last few decades the decline of the species has increased rapidly (e.g. high profile extinctions in Corrib and Conn). The species is extirpated in all the lakes in Clare (Loughs Cloonsnachta, Fin, Gortglass, Inchiquin, Licken), two lakes in Galway (Loughs Boffin, Corrib), two in Mayo (Castelbar, Conn), two in Donegal (Erne, Minitiaghs) and two in Westmeath (Ennell, Owel).	eng
135407	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication of lakes, introduced fish species (both predation and competition from non native species and introgression from farmed charr) and acidification.	eng
135408	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135408	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Germany: Lake Ammersee.	eng
135408	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Spawns in all seasons with a peak in September and October.	eng
135408	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135408	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are no known threats. Many species have been introduced into the lake including other char species, the lake has been eutrophic (currently mesotrophic), it has been the target of commercial fisheries for many years, the catchment is heavily populated and the species has not seen any decline in population (unlike the other lake endemic - <em>Coregonus bavaricus</em>).	eng
135411	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive.<br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).	eng
135411	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eire: endemic to Lough Coomasaharn (Kerry), a small oligotrophic lake about 9 km from the sea.	eng
135411	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December.	eng
135411	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Healthy population in Lough Coomasaharn.	eng
135411	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species. Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. <em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>, <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, <em>Esox lucius</em>, <em>Perca fluviatilus</em>, <em>Abrabus brama</em> and <em>Tinca tinca</em>).	eng
135412	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135412	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Shetland Islands (Loch of Girlsta); possibly Scotland (Loch More, Sutherland).	eng
135412	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135412	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last collected in 2006. Population trends unknown.	eng
135412	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).	eng
135413	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	A conservation action plan has been developed to translocate stock from Melvin to nearby reservoirs in County Tyrone, which would serve as refuge populations. It has been unsuccessful so far to locate any Char to translocate.<br/><br/>In general, Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).	eng
135413	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland: Lough Melvin.	eng
135413	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives at depths of 10-30 m, except during spawning season. Feeds on <em>Cladocera</em>. Spawns in November, in shallow rocky area.	eng
135413	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining.	eng
135413	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Lough Melvin, rudd (<em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>) were introduced around 20 years ago (1980s), and recently a rudd/roach hybrid was caught, indicating that roach have recently been introduced. The lake is also experiencing increasing amounts of phosphorous from its catchment. Surveys in the past few decades have seen a decline in the number caught, in 1975 33 specimens were caught as part of a fisheries survey, 42 in 1986 which declined to 12 in 2001. As part of a conservation plan (translocate stock to a nearby reservoir to set up a refuge population) in 2003, 30 fyke nets were set up at a range of depths and failed to catch any specimens of char, snorkelling along shorelines also found no signs of spawning activity. (Igoe, F. http://www.charr.org/char/melvin. 20/02/2007).<br/><br/>Many char populations have been extirpated in Irish lakes due to eutrophication and introduced species (e.g. Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Rutilus rutilus, Esox lucius, Perca fluviatilus, Abrabus brama and Tinca tinca).	eng
135414	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135414	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Orkney Islands (Heldale Water, Hoy Island) - presumed extirpated (last recorded in 1908), Scotland (Loch Mealt, Isle of Skye).	eng
135414	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Loch Meallt is a small eutrophic lake, up to 3 m deep, on top of an exposed cliff. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on sticklebacks, molluscs, insect larvae.	eng
135414	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135414	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Canadian arctic charr are farmed on Loch Mealt, but the impacts upon the native charr are unknown. (http://www.snh.org.uk/futures/Data/pdfdocs/FRESHWATERS.pdf pg 88 20/02/2007)	eng
135415	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135415	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scotland: Loch Killin (Inverness-shire), Loch Doine (Trossachs), possibly Loch Builg (Cairngorms) and from several other lakes.	eng
135415	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deeper part of lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Killin, moves to shallow areas to spawn. Feeds on insect larvae, bivalves and crustaceans.	eng
135415	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135415	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fish farms and other means of introductions of alien fish species are a potential threat to the species.	eng
135416	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135416	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes in Sweden, Norway, southern Finland and northern Russia (Kola Peninsula, northern Karelia, including Lakes Ladoga and Onega).	eng
135416	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large deep lakes, very rarely in rivers. Benthic. Spawns in lakes, in shallow water along sand-pebble shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In larger lakes (Ladoga, Onega), two forms: one in relatively shallow waters, about 30-50 m deep, the other one at 70-150 m. Both forms feed on fish, amphipods, molluscs, insects and gammarids. Growth is slow. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years, spawns once every 2-3 years. Spawns in August-October.	eng
135416	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rare.	eng
135416	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135417	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Control programmes for the cormorants have since been set up, but these do not kill the birds only scare them and the results of which are unknown.	eng
135417	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	England: Haweswater (Cumbria). A resevoir that was created by the construction of a dam in 1929, which flooded two lakes (Highwater and Lowwater) and raised the water level.	eng
135417	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135417	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135417	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The level of cormorant predation of the species in Haweswater is causing concern (Maitland et al. 2007). A tree nesting colony of these birds first took up residence at Haweswater in 1992, numbers have since increased and in 1998 50 pairs bred there.(www.countryside.wales.gov.uk/fe/fileupload_getfile.asp?filePathPrefix=1396&fileLanguage=e.pdf)	eng
135418	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135418	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scotland: Loch Scourie (presumed to be Loch a'Ghriam) and Loch Shin (Sutherland).	eng
135418	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135418	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Still present in both lakes but no information on population trends.	eng
135418	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known. But alien fish species introduced from fish farming and angling is a potential threat.	eng
135419	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135419	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Recorded from several lakes in northern Scotland, especially draining to North Minch (strait between Highland, Skye Island and Hebrides Islands): Loch near Ben Hope, possibly Loch Merkland (Sutherland), Loch Clair, Loch Coulin, possibly Loch Maree (Wester Ross), Loch Langavat, Loch na Craobhaig (Isle of Lewis).	eng
135419	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135419	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135419	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).	eng
135420	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Thingvalla is within the Thingvallir National Park.	eng
135420	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Iceland: Lake Thingvalla.	eng
135420	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to 18 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-6 years. Spawns in October. Feeds on zooplankton (Daphnia, Cyclops) and insects. A few individuals are piscivorous, have a slightly different morphology, tend to live closer to shores and develop a colour pattern somewhat similar to <em>S. thingvallensis</em>; they feed mainly on <em>Gasterosteus islandicus</em>, supplemented by small planktivorous conspecifics. Recent data suggest that they might be a distinct species.	eng
135420	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135420	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. The lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry.	eng
135421	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135421	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Neuchâtel (Switzerland).	eng
135421	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on muddy sediments in Lake Neuchâtel. Feeds mainly on insect larvae, snails, crustaceans and fish eggs.	eng
135421	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species was last recorded in 1904. Further research has been undertaken and failed to find the species.	eng
135421	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135422	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Char in Ireland are not adequately protected by law and are not listed under the EU habitats Directive. <br/><br/>Some habitat improvements have been successful (e.g., Loughs Enell and Conn), and some catchment management plans have been set up, however unless they are successful in reducing phosphorous levels little change in water quality can be expected (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Improvement in water quality is needed in those lakes where the Char remain. Sport anglers need to be made aware of the potential impacts of non-native fish, including Pike, introductions. Limit afforestation in areas where native Char could be impacted by the increased acidification, particularly in the west of Ireland. Closer monitoring and possible licensing of Char farming should also be considered to try and limit the level of escapee fish, and ensure farmed Char do not have access to waters containing native Char (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003, Igoe and Hammer 2004).	eng
135422	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eire: The species is known from Loughs Leane (19 km²), last recorded in 1999 (current status unknown), and the oligotrophic Lough Muckross (1.5 km²) where the last record was in 1904 (current status unknown) in Kerry. It has been extirpated from Loughs Tay (Wicklow), last recorded 1908, and Dan (Wicklow) where it was last recorded 1988 and subsequent surveys in 1994 and 1996 failed to record any char. In Lough Accose (Kerry) surveys in 1983 failed to find any char.	eng
135422	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135422	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135422	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lough Leane is eutrophic which is impacting the species, it also suffered from domestic pollution in the early 1980s. The reasons for the extirpations in Lough Tay and Dan are believed to be the increased acidic conditions caused by afforestation in the catchment. High levels of inorganic aluminium were recorded from a river that drained a heavily afforested catchment into Lough Dan (Igoe <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
135423	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Llyn Padarn is a protected area (SSSI). Llyn Cwellyn is protected as a SAC (Special Area of Conservation - EU). Llyn Cwellyn has an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.<br/><br/>Approval for the draining of Llyn Peris, and the construction of the water pumping scheme was only granted on the condition that the Arctic Char were translocated into suitable lakes in North Walse (Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy).	eng
135423	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Wales: Lakes Llyn Peris, Padarn, Cwellyn and Bodlyn (Gwynedd). Stock from Llyn Peris were translocated to Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy.	eng
135423	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forms shoals at surface in summer, probably for feeding on insects or plankton. Spawns in November-December. In Llanberis lakes, used to move in November from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme disrupted this migration; now mainly living and spawning in Llyn Padarn.	eng
135423	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The populations in Padarn and Cwellyn are healthy, in Bodlyn the status is unknown and in Peris it is extirpated (1970's). The translocated fish from Llyn Peris, in Llyn Dulyn and Ffynnon Llugwy are both healthy populations.	eng
135423	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Used to move from lower lake (Llyn Padarn) to lower part of upper lake (Llyn Peris), where it spawned in shallow areas. Construction of Dinorwic hydroelectric scheme (1970s) disrupted this migration, it is now extirpated from Llyn Peris.<br/><br/>In the 1980s there was concern that eutrophication was causing faster growth and larger adult size in the fish in Llyn Padarn, but a phosphate stripper installed on the sewage has solved this problem. There is also potential impacts to the Llyn Padarn population from increased angling use and other recreational use (currently low).<br/><br/>Llyn Cwellyn currently has low angling and recreational use and although a dam was constructed on the outflow from the lake in 1976 an operational agreement between the owners of the dam and the Environment Agency to ensure levels of water are not reduced to levels that would be harmful to the species during spawning season.<br/><br/>Llyn Bodlyn has no official level of protection and may be at the most risk. The lake is very small (16 ha / 0.16 km2 max of 22 metres deep) so that climate change may reduce deep water thermal refuge in the lake. A dam was also built on the outflow of the lake and provides a regulated water supply.	eng
135424	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135424	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scotland: Loch Rannoch and Loch Ericht.	eng
135424	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic zone of fjord-like lakes, usually less than 20 m below surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Reaches up to eight years. Adult males have dark red flank and belly, white pelvic-fin edges. Spawns in late September-October on gravels along shelving shores of lakes. Feeds on zooplankton, especially Cladocera (Daphnia).	eng
135424	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Charr are common in Loch Rannoch.	eng
135424	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potential threats to the species, most notably from introduced species (char have been impacted by introduced species across the UK and Ireland) and escapees from fish farms with non-native arctic char.	eng
135425	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Thingvalla is within the Thingvallir National Park.	eng
135425	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Iceland: Lake Thingvalla.	eng
135425	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow littoral zone, in water 0-10 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Active at night, hides between stones during day. Lives up to 17 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Usually spawns in October-November, but in areas with cold water springs, some individuals may spawn in July-September. Feeds mainly on snails, and to a lesser extent on benthic insects.	eng
135425	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135425	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. The lake has very little population in its catchment and no agriculture or forestry.	eng
135426	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In the lakes where the species was extirpated stock from other lakes were often introduced.	eng
135426	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Alpine and subalpine lakes in Italy (Trentino, Alto Adige), France (Lake Bourget), Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Introduced in numerous high altitude lakes.	eng
135426	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes in glacial valleys, high altitude lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December, on pebble to stone bottom on steep slopes, at 30-120 m depth. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and benthic fauna; a few individuals develop as large piscivores and develop a distinct morphology. Numerous dwarf, stunted populations exist in Alpine lakes (up to 2680 m); all seem to result from introductions.	eng
135426	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In some lakes it was extirpated (e.g. Mondsee) in many cases restocked from other lakes. In some lakes it is recovering (e.g Constance where it was almost extirpated, Geneva). In some lakes the population has always been healthy (e.g. Grundl and Konigsee). In general, there was a population collapse in the 1970s and the population is now recovering.	eng
135426	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The major threat to the species was eutrophication which occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Habitat destruction is also a local threat.	eng
135427	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes Windermere and Ennerdale are both nationally protected as SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest). There have also been translocations (unknown whether it is the spring or autumn spawning Char) from Windermere to Grimwirth Reservoir (Yorkshire) (1989, 1990, 1991), where the species is most likely still present.	eng
135427	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	England: Lakes Windermere and possibly also found in Ennerdale Water (Cumbria).	eng
135427	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in early November, in shallow water (1-3 m deep) and in main tributaries, on stone bottom. Eggs hatch in 64-80 days.	eng
135427	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are concerns over the stocks in Windermere and Ennerdale.	eng
135427	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication and introduced species and possibly impacted by land use change.	eng
135428	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135428	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scotland: Loch Eck, and possibly also recorded from Loch Awe (Argyll), Loch Lee (Angus), Loch Earn (Pertshire), and Loch Doon (Ayrshire); Loch Doon population has been introduced in Megget and Talla reservoirs.	eng
135428	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Doon: Lives up to nine years. Spawns in October, over gravel and stones in shallow water, along stone shore line. Feeds on zooplankton in summer, on benthic invertebrates rest of year.	eng
135428	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135428	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potential threats to arctic charr in the UK are introduced species, often from live bait practices in angling, and from charr fish farms (non native charr, e.g. Canadian arctic charr have been farmed in two Scottish lochs).	eng
135429	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is not recorded from any protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
135429	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Saguinus fuscicollis melanoleucus</em> occurs along the east (right bank) of the upper Rio Juruá, south from the mouth of the Rio Eirú (Hershkovitz 1977). With <em>S. f. acrensis</em> now recognized to be a hybrid form of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> x <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> at the headwaters of the Rio Juruá (Peres 1993), the range of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> now includes that of <em>acrensis</em>, along the right bank of the upper Juruá up to its headwaters, as described by Hershkovitz (1977). No records are available for the Rio Tarauacá, but according to Hershkovitz (1977) specimens collected by A. M. Olalla from Santa Cruz, Rio Eiru, in 1936, were from the right bank of the river, indicating that the distribution extends at least to the left bank of the Rio Tarauacá. No saddleback tamarins have to date been recorded to the east of the Rio Tarauacá in the state of Acre as far as the upper Rio Purus. Mena <em>et al</em>. (2007) provided the first record of <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> for Peru (headwaters of the Río Breu (right bank affluent of upper Juruá). However, the specimen actually looks like one of the hybrids (<em>fuscicollis</em> × <em>melanoleucus</em>) that were discussed by Peres <em>et al.</em> (1996).<br/><br/>The origin and distribution of the subspecies <em>Saguinus fuscicollis crandalli</em> is not known. Hershkovitz (1977, p.636) proposed that it may occur between the Rios Purus and Madeira, south of the Rio Amazonas/Solimões. The affinity of this tamarin to <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em> and particularly the form described as <em>S. f. acrensis</em> by Hershkovitz (1977) (here regarded as a hybrid form of <em>S. f. fuscicollis</em> and <em>S. f. melanoleucus</em>, see Peres 1993, Peres <em>et al.</em> 1996) in terms of its pelage colour and pattern is the only indication of its distribution, and on this basis, Hershkovitz (1977, p.622) subsequently suggested a more likely locality: the headwaters of the Rio Purus in southern Peru.	eng
135429	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Saguinus melanoleucus</em> occurs in Amazonian lowland, seasonally flooded forest, remnant forests or fringe patches and secondary forest (Snowdon and Soini 1988).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet. The dentition of the tamarins (<em>Saguinus</em> and <em>Leontopithecus</em>) does not provide for gouging and they eat gums only when readily available. <br/><br/>Tamarins live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals, but usually 2-8.<br/><br/>Saddleback tamarins travel and spend most of their time in the lower layers and understorey of the forest up to 10 m above the ground (Snowdon and Soini 1988). They tend to form mixed-species groups with the larger, sympatric moustached tamarins, including <em>Saguinus mystax</em>, <em>Saguinus labiatus</em>, and <em>Saguinus imperator</em> (see Yoneda 1981; Buchanan-Smith 1990; Peres 1992a,b, 1993c; Hardie 1998; Heymann and Buchanan-Smith 2000). The moustached tamarins trravel higher on the forest, spending more time in the lower and middle canopy, above 10 m.<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Tamarins are monomorphic - exhibiting only minor differences in body and canine size.<br/>Adult H&B 25.0 cm, TL 38.0 cm (Hershkovitz 1977).	eng
135429	population	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Peres (1997) estimated population densities for <em>Saguinus m. melanoleucus</em> at three terra firma forest sites on the upper Rio Juruá: Porongaba, 65.1 individuals/km²; Kaxinawá Reserve, 36.7 individuals/km²; and Penedo, 67.6 individuals/km².	eng
135429	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	At present, there is no evidence of any major threats to the species. However, although it occurs in a remote region of the Brazilian Amazon, its small distribution and the rapidly expanding development of the state of Acre would indicate that it may be vulnerable. Probably not hunted, possibly some use as pets.	eng
135440	conservation	Molur, S., Singh, M. & Kumar, A., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is on Schedules II, Part I, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 amended up to 2002 (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). In Sri Lanka it is included under the Fauna and Flora Protection Act number 2 (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range in India (Sri Venkateshwara National Park, Nellapattu Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Biligiri Rangsweamy Temple Sanctaury, Mudumalai Sanctaury, Chinnar Sanctuary, Neyyar Sanctuary, Peppara Sanctuary, Parambikulam Sanctuary, Shendurney Sanctuary, Grizzled Giant Squirrel Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Sanctuary, Kalakad Sanctuary, and Mundanthurai Sanctuary), and in Sri Lanka (Knuckle Range Forest Reserve, Ampara Sanctuary, Buddaragala Sanctuary, Kanthale Naval Sanctuary, Wilpattu National Park, Ritigala Strict Nature Reserve, Angamedilla National Park, Flood Plains National Park, Giritale National Park, Moragaswawe National Park, Somawathie National Park, Wasagamuwa National Park, Uduwalawe National Park, Bundala National Park, Lunugamvehera National Park, Madura Oya National Park and Ruhuna National Park).<br/><br/>Molur <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggests research on taxonomy, man-animal conflict, more surveys, as well as habitat management, wild population management, public education, monitoring, and limiting factor management.	eng
135440	distribution	Molur, S., Singh, M. & Kumar, A., 2008	This species is widely distributed in southern India and Sri Lanka. <br/><br/><em>S. p. priam</em><br/>Occurs south of river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh to Madurai in Tamil Nadu, but the actual areas of occupancy are sparse in between (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003), with large areas absent of langurs. The forests of the Eastern Ghats are not contiguous, have highly degraded dry deciduous forests, and are for the most part scrubby. The ratio of extent of occurrence to area of occupancy is very high (A. Kumar, M. Singh and S. Molur pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>S. p. thersites</em><br/>It is found in the southern Western Ghats in India and in the dry zone of Sri Lanka.  However, there are some <br/>populations of langurs on the foothills of southern India along the western slopes of the Western Ghats and in the Palghat gap, whose identity has not been established. Extent of occurrence is around 10,000 km<sup>2<sup> in India and around 40,000 km<sup>2<sup> in Sri Lanka.  Area of occupancy is almost contiguous in the Indian portion, while it is about one-fourth in Sri Lanka.	eng
135440	habitat	Molur, S., Singh, M. & Kumar, A., 2008	This species is found in tropical dry evergreen forest, riparian, dry deciduous forest, coastal forest, gardens, around temples in Sri Lanka and cultivated areas (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is found in India up to 1,200 m and in Sri Lanka up to 500 m (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; A. Nekaris pers. comm.). It is arboreal, semi-terrestrial, folivorous and frugivorous, and diurnal. In southern India these langurs are not very commensal with humans (M. Singh pers. comm.).	eng
135440	population	Molur, S., Singh, M. & Kumar, A., 2008	The global population size is unknown. There is a continuing decline in habitat in Andhra Pradesh that suggests a decline in population, but the rates are unknown (A. Kumar, M.Singh and S. Molur pers. comm.). In Sri Lanka, there has been a drastic decline in habitat (>50% in the last 30 years), and there is more than 50% decline in population over the last 3 generations (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003; A. Nekaris pers. comm.).	eng
135440	threats	Molur, S., Singh, M. & Kumar, A., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss are the major threats (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting is rampant in the Eastern Ghats and the forests of the eastern coast, and common in some areas near national parks, like for example Ruhuna National Park (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2003). The habitats are highly vulnerable to human activities, and very few places are protected. Man-animal conflicts in Andhra Pradesh are also a concern. Other threats include capture for pets.	eng
135442	conservation	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is listed in the Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive and in the Appendix III of the Bern Convention.	eng
135442	distribution	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	It is restricted to central and northern Portugal.	eng
135442	habitat	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
135442	population	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
135442	threats	Crivelli, A.J., 2006	No data.	eng
135446	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C. & Link, A., 2008	In Ecuador, <em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em> is protected in accordance with Resolution No. 105 of the Ministry of the Environment (<em>Registro Oficial </em>No. 5  of 28 January 2000) (Tirira 2001). This prohibits hunting and commercialization throughout Ecuador.<br/><br/>Tirira (2001) proposes the following measures: <br/>Research on its range and the size and status of remaining populations;<br/>Evaluation of the effectivness of the protected areas where it occurs;<br/>Research on its ability to cope with deforestation and forest fragmentation, and proximity to humans and their activities;<br/>Research on the extent of illegal hunting by colonists and Indigenous people;<br/>Evaluate the needs and possibilities for increasing the size of the current protected areas and providing for more protected areas where it occurs;<br/>Carry out education awareness campaigns and environmental education programs in its range - emphasizing particularly aspects of the traffic in, and commercialization of, primates; and<br/><em>Ex situ</em> breeding programme, and associated research needed for such (e.g., husbandry, reproduction) .<br/><br/>The subspecies are recorded from the following protected areas:<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em><br/><br/>Ecuador<br/>Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (243,638 ha) (Tirira 2007)<br/>Los Cedros Protected Forest (Tirira 2007)<br/>Awá Ethnological Reserve (Tirira 2007)<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em><br/><br/>Colombia<br/>Los Katios Natural National Park (72,000 ha)<br/>Las Orquideas Natural National Park (32,000 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
135446	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C. & Link, A., 2008	There are two recognized subspecies:<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps </em> is endemic to Ecuador, in the north, west of the Andes, in the Province of Esmeraldas, and, at least historically it would seem, south as far the Cordillera de Colonche (Tirira 2007). There are two populations remaining: one in the Chongon Colonche Mountain Range and the another in the Cotacachi-Cayapas Reserve and surrounding forests in the north. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) suggested that <em>A. f. fusciceps</em> might occur in southern Colombia, south of the Río Mira, continuous with the populations in Ecuador, but no evidence has been forthcoming regarding this. <br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em> ranges from the western cordillera of the Andes from south-western Colombia, northward on west side of the Río Cauca to eastern Panama (Cerro Pirre and the basin of the Río Bayano of the Pacific coast) (Rylands <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Cerro Pirre or the Río Tucutí mark the border with <em>A. geoffroyi grisescens</em>. In Colombia, <em>A. f. rufiventris</em> occurs throughout the Pacific lowlands except for Juradó, norh-western part of the Department of Chocó, supposedly the domain of <em>A. g. grisescens</em> (Hernández-Camacho and Cooper 1976; Defler, 2003, 2004). It occurs in the Urabá region in north-western Antioquia, Córdoba, Sucre, and northern Bolívar east to the lower Río Cauca along the western bank to south-central Antioquia. The most southerly record in Colombia is Barabacoas, Department of Nariño, and the most northerly is southern bank of the Canal del Dique, Cartagena. Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) believed that it formerly occurred as far north as Pendales.<br/><br/><em>Ateles f. rufiventris</em> does not occur in Ecuador and is discontinuous with <em>A. f. fusciceps</em>. Furthermore, this subspecies range in Colombia is likely fragmented in the southern part of its range. There are only two known locations in the Chocó region.	eng
135446	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C. & Link, A., 2008	In Ecuador (<em>A. f. fusciceps</em>), tropical and subtropical humid forests from 100 to 1,700 m above sea level (Tirira 2007). In Colombia (<em>A. f. rufiventris</em>), Hernández-Camacho and Cooper (1976) recorded that it occurs in dry forest, humid forest and cloud forest, occupying the greatest range of forest habitats of any of the Colombian spider monkeys. Defler (2004) indicated that they range as high as 2,000-2,500 m above sea level in the Cordilllera Occidental. <br/><br/>Spider monkeys travel and forage in the upper levels of the forest. They spend much time in the canopy and also use the middle and lower strata but are rarely seen in the understorey. In accordance with their use of the highest levels of the forest, they are highly suspensory. When travelling they spend more time hanging from branches, moving by brachiation and arm swinging, and climbing than they do walking or running on all fours. They are highly frugivorous and feed largely on the mature, soft parts of a very wide variety of fruits, which comprise 83% of their diet and are found mainly in the emergent trees and upper part of the forest canopy (Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). They also eat young leaves and flowers (both especially at times of fruit shortage during the beginning of the dry season), and besides such as young seeds, floral buds, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, bark, decaying wood, and honey, and very occasionally small insects such as termites and caterpillars. They play a significant role as seed dispersers. Van Roosmalen (1985; Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988) found that <em>A. paniscus </em>was dispersing the seeds of at least 138 species (93.5% of all fruits species used) through their ingestion and subsequent defecation (endozoochory). A further 10 species were being dispersed by the monkeys carrying them off some distance from the tree before dropping them (exozoochory). In only 23 species were the seeds being ruined or eaten (seed predation).<br/><br/>Spider monkeys live in groups of up to 20-30 individuals (for review see Van Roosmalen and Klein 1988). However, they are very rarely all seen together, and nearly always to be found travelling, feeding and resting small in groups of varying size and composition (most usually 2-4), the only persistent association being that of a mother and her offspring (McFarland Symington 1990). Group members will also travel on their own. Each female in the group has a “core area” of the group’s home range which she uses most. Klein and Klein (1976, 1977) estimated 259-388 ha ranges with 20-30% overlap for <em>A. belzebuth</em> in La Macarena National Park, Colombia. <em>Ateles</em> are rarely seen in association with other primates and mostly they are occasional and ephemeral, resulting from the simultaneous occupation of fruiting trees.   <br/><br/>Six estimated birth dates given by Klein (1971) for <em>A. belzebuth</em>, were spread throughout the year (December, January, April, September, October and November). Spider monkeys apparently reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years of age (Klein 1971; Eisenberg 1973, 1976). They give birth to single offspring after a long gestation period of 226-232 days, with a minimum theoretical interbirth interval in captivity of 17.5 months, but in the wild probably as long as 28-30 months (Eisenberg 1973, 1976). Late maturation and long inter-birth intervals make it difficult for them to recover from hunting and other threats.	eng
135446	population	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C. & Link, A., 2008	<em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em> is rare and diifficult to see (Madden and Albuja 1989). In Cotacachi-Cayapas, this subspecies is found in population densities of 1.2 individuals/km² (Gavilanes and Endara 2006).<br/><br/>There is no population information available for <em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em>.	eng
135446	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Shedden, A., Rodríguez-Luna, E., de Grammont, P.C. & Link, A., 2008	<em>Ateles fusciceps fusciceps</em><br/>Tirira (2001) has reported an 80% reduction in population size based on habitat loss. This species has a very small distribution, is highly fragmented, and is under pressure from a high rate of habitat loss due to deforestation and strong hunting pressure.<br/><br/><em>Ateles fusciceps rufiventris</em><br/>In Colombia, Defler <em>et al.</em> (2003) all spider monkeys are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat loss and fragmentation. National Parks such as Katios and Orquideas are believed to have very few spider monkeys because of indigenous hunting pressure (N. Vargas pers. comm.; H. Rubio pers. comm.) and the population density of <em>Ateles</em> may be decreasing in Los Katios (Director del Parque Los Katios, D. Pintor pers. comm.). Widespread censuses of <em>Ateles</em> are needed, especially in national parks.<br/><br/>In Colombia, along the Atlantic coast, it has been estimated that over 30% of habitat has been lost in the past 10 years based on calculations from satellite photos (Miller <em>et al</em>, 2004). Ground truthing of this data found only 2.5% of viable secondary forest habitat was left in this region (Miller <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Panama, there is a lower human population and likely higher habitat availability, but more research is needed to determine population status and threats to this subspecies.	eng
135458	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	No specific measures are known. More data are required.	eng
135458	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	This species is known from two localities in Iran (Kurdistan) and from three regions in Turkey: in the vicinity of Meydanekbez, Hakkari and Tatvan (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). All records are from the southern margin of the Anatolian-Iranian high plateau (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species could be found more widely distributed in the western parts of the range (there is only one record from 1800s that was not precise) (Turkey and potentially adjacent Syria), and there are Upper Pleistocene records (as <em>Talpa chthonia</em>) further south. This suggests that the species' range has been shrinking over the last ten thousand years. Specimens were apparently always collected at altitudes of around 2000 metres above sea level.	eng
135458	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The species occurs in mountain meadows and pastures. The species' habitat is little known; two specimens have been collected from burrows in a hayfield whilst others have been found in alpine grassland. The specimen reported from the town seems anomalous, it is unlikely that this would be suitable habitat for a burrowing mole (Krystufek <em>et al.</em> 2001). Like other moles, this species inhabits burrows and eats worms and insects.	eng
135458	population	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	The species is rare.	eng
135458	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Amori, G., 2008	Habitat degradation due to urban and agricultural expansion may have contributed to the historical reduction of the range, but there is no information to confirm this or any data available on current threats.	eng
135484	conservation	Erdmann, M., 2008	This species is protected locally by Indonesian regulations and internationally by CITES, which includes all <em>Latimeria</em> species (CITES Appendix I, since 2000).<br/><br/>This species needs further research in all aspects of its ecology and biology and to determine the extent of its distribution, population size and trends. However it is an extremely difficult and expensive animal to study due to it's habitat time and deep water living.<br/><br/>Shark nets were outlawed in Bunaken National Park which includes Manado Tua where the first individuals were caught.	eng
135484	distribution	Erdmann, M., 2008	This species is known from the Celebes Sea, north of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is only known only from three localities.  The first two specimins were caught on Manado Tua in September 1997 and July, 1998.  Another was caught in Manado Bay in May, 2007. The third site is northern Suluwesi near Dondo Bay, slightly to the east on Tanjum Kandi.  The animal from the Dondo Bay site was observed in the Jago submersible in November 1999.  The Tanjum Kandi sighting was in June 2006 from the Fukushima Aquamarine Aquarium ROV.	eng
135484	habitat	Erdmann, M., 2008	This is a demersal, non-migratory marine species found in deep water between 150-200m depth. It lives in water temperatures from 17-20°C. It is presumably found in rocky slopes and caves. Fricke <em>et al</em>. (2000) observed two specimens of 120 and 140 cm length in a deep carbonate cave at a depth of 155 m (water temp. 17.8-20.1°C).  <em>Latimeria menadoensis</em> is presumed to be very slow growing and long lived, with very low fecundity (maximum of around 50 for congeneric species), similar to sharks. Females produce large, orange-sized eggs which hatch within the oviduct before the female gives birth to live young. The autopsy of the Sulawesi Coelacanth that was caught in May 2007 in Bunaken National Marine Park, showed that in fact the fish was pregnant. Scientists in Indonesia, France and Japan are currently conducting research to better understand the reproductive biology of this fish.<br/><br/>Though scientists have never observed coelacanths feeding in their natural habitat, analyses of stomach contents of captured specimens have shown that their diet includes cuttlefish, squid, and various small to medium-sized benthic fishes – including lantern fishes, cardinal fishes and deepwater snappers.<br/><br/>Coelacanths can weigh up to 100 kg, though an average size is closer 30 kg.They may live to an age of at least 22 years.<br/><br/>There are many unanswered questions about the ecology of <em>Latimeria manadoensis</em>.<br/><br/>A unique combination of morphological features suggest that the coelacanth lineage is close to the origin of the evolution of early terrestrial, four-legged animals (tetrapods) like amphibians. The most remarkable of these features is the presence of seven lobed fins, unique among the living fishes. The paired fins move in an alternating fashion which resembles a horse in a slow trot. Other interesting features include a small secondary "epicaudal" lobe on its tail, an oil-filled notochord instead of a backbone, an intercranial joint which is thought to allow them to widen their gape when capturing prey, and a unique electrosensory rostral organ that may be used to detect prey. While their morphological features lead many scientists to believe the coelacanth lineage was the direct link to tetrapods, recent molecular evidence suggests that lung fish might be more closely related to tetrapods (University of California Museum of Paleontology, website).	eng
135484	population	Erdmann, M., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown. It is believed to be a naturally small population (suspected to be less than 10,000 mature adults) and rare. A population study has never been undertaken and the species is very rarely caught by fisherman. One experienced fisherman informed that during his life as a fisherman this species was caught no more than 30 times, or not more than one or two times per year (M. Erdmann pers. comm.). The growth of its population is likely to be very slow, similar to <em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>. The shark fishermen at Menado Tua Island generally catch 1-2 individuals of <em>L. menadoensis</em> once every 5-10 years as bycatch (Erdmann and Kasim Moosa, pers. comm.). In northern Sulawesi, all fishermen are aware of this species and would report it if caught.	eng
135484	threats	Erdmann, M., 2008	<em>Latimeria menadoensis</em> has a very low population size and its life history makes it a species with higher extinction risk due to slow growth and low fecundity. This is not a commercial species and has no food value, but is caught as bycatch by deep shark nets and by hook and line targeting deepwater snapper.<br/><br/>This species is an extremely sought after aquarium fish, although no specimen has ever been successfully kept alive for aquarium display.	eng
135485	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	It is possible that this species is present in a number of protected areas in East Africa; it has been recorded from Tsavo National Park in Kenya. In southern Africa it has been recorded from the Kruger National Park in Limpopo Province, South Africa. There is a need to protect important roosting sites of this species, and to limit collection of animals to sustainable levels. Additional studies are needed into the identity of populations currently allocated to <em>Hipposideros vittatus</em>.	eng
135485	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has mainly been recorded from East Africa and southern Africa with some scattered records from West Africa and Central Africa. In East Africa the species ranges from Ethiopia and Somalia in the north, through Kenya and Tanzania to Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique. In southern Africa it has been recorded in Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and marginally in northeastern South Africa. In Central Africa there are patchy records from Angola, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Central African Republic. In West Africa the species currently appears to limited to a few records from Nigeria and Conakry in Guinea. It has been recorded from around sea level to 1,700 m asl.	eng
135485	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of habitat types. In East and southern Africa it seems to be largely associated with savanna woodland habitats (Skinner and Chimimba 2005), whereas in West Africa it is possible that the species has additionally been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest, secondary forest and riverine forest (Happold 1987). The species can occur locally in very large numbers (thousands of individuals) where suitable cave habitats are available, however, animals have been recorded (presumably in considerably smaller numbers) roosting in tree canopies, hollow trees and dense vegetation (Happold 1987; Skinner and Chimimba 2005). This bat has been recorded flying among and within buildings, and roosting under the eaves of buildings (Skinner and Chimimba 2005).	eng
135485	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	This species is known to exist as a few large ancestral roosts, containing tens of thousands of individuals which seasonally migrate considerable distances.	eng
135485	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M., Bergmans, W. & Cotterill, F.P.D., 2008	In view of the species wide distribution, there might not be any major threats to the species as a whole. However, a number of the major colonies are threatened by the mining of limestone caves, disturbance by tourists, and subsistence overhunting, particular for the use of their fat for making candles (this species stores particularly large amounts of fat in its body [Churchill <em>et al.</em> 1997]).	eng
135486	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135486	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135486	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Azov and Caspian Sea basins. In Volga, native in delta, now up to Lake (Resevoir) Rybinskoye.	eng
135486	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Azov and Caspian Sea basins. In Volga, native in delta, now up to Lake (Resevoir) Rybinskoye.	eng
135486	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks.  <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135486	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks.  <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135486	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135486	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135486	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135486	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135487	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135487	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135487	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin; Maritza and Struma drainages in eastern Aegean basin. In Danube, historically present up to about Vienna, invasive since 1970s, now reaching upstream to southern Germany. Recorded in 1999 from Rhine where it arrived from Danube through a canal and spread as far as the Netherlands (2002). In South Bug and Dniepr native far upriver. Arrived to North America in ballast of ships in 1991.	eng
135487	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black Sea basin; Maritza and Struma drainages in eastern Aegean basin. In Danube, historically present up to about Vienna, invasive since 1970s, now reaching upstream to southern Germany. Recorded in 1999 from Rhine where it arrived from Danube through a canal and spread as far as the Netherlands (2002). In South Bug and Dniepr native far upriver. Arrived to North America in ballast of ships in 1991.	eng
135487	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters from estuarine to small, slowly flowing premontane streams. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks. Often very abundant in backwaters and lakes, proliferates in reservoirs and channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135487	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A variety of slow-flowing or still waters from estuarine to small, slowly flowing premontane streams. Usually associated with dense vegetation or coarse rocks. Often very abundant in backwaters and lakes, proliferates in reservoirs and channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only 1-2 seasons, in April-August. Females spawn more than once during a season. Males guard the eggs, which are deposited in cavities. Larvae and juveniles benthic. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135487	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135487	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135487	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135487	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135488	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135488	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.	eng
135488	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats. Chornaya is a medium-sized stream with a flow of about 10 m<sup>3</sup>/s. The inhabited stretch is about 25 km long. In its lower part, water is extracted in large quantities for irrigation and the stream is almost dry in summer. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135488	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135488	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase, so that the river below Chornya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted increase.	eng
135489	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135489	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Upper Volga drainage and northern and eastern Gulf of Bothnia from Estonia eastward and northward to Finland and northern Sweden. Cottus populations from Dniepr, Ural and Pechora drainages might be conspecific.	eng
135489	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Medium sized rivers to small streams, lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.	eng
135489	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135489	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135490	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135490	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes of western central Baltic basin, Sweden, southern Norway, Denmark, lower Odra drainage in Poland.	eng
135490	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-March, along shores, at 5-10 m depth, on firm bottom, or in lower part of tributaries. Feeds on zooplankton.	eng
135490	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135490	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135491	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135491	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135491	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.	eng
135491	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black and Azov Seas from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.	eng
135491	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deeper layers (50-70 m) of coastal waters. Migrates from sea to mouth and lower reaches of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water, usually close to shore, in upper 2-4 m, in almost still water bodies as flood plains or lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver at 1-2 years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. Spawners appear along coast in late January-March, enter rivers when temperature reaches about 10°C, in late April-May. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or beyond, in May-June. Eggs are bathypelagic or sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate to estuaries and coastal lagoons or to sea near river mouths to feed. In autumn, they move to sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or estuaries during first summer, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (crustaceans), insect larvae and small fish.	eng
135491	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in deeper layers (50-70 m) of coastal waters. Migrates from sea to mouth and lower reaches of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water, usually close to shore, in upper 2-4 m, in almost still water bodies as flood plains or lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver at 1-2 years. Many individuals spawn 2-4 seasons. Spawners appear along coast in late January-March, enter rivers when temperature reaches about 10°C, in late April-May. Spawning starts when temperature reaches about 15°C or beyond, in May-June. Eggs are bathypelagic or sink to bottom. Spent fish migrate to estuaries and coastal lagoons or to sea near river mouths to feed. In autumn, they move to sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea or estuaries during first summer, remaining there until they mature. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (crustaceans), insect larvae and small fish.	eng
135491	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135491	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135491	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened in the northern Black Sea basin by the increasing salinity in the limans, due to water abstraction and drought.	eng
135491	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened in the northern Black Sea basin by the increasing salinity in the limans, due to water abstraction and drought.	eng
135492	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135492	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135492	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages; Amur drainage (Russia, Mongolia and China).	eng
135492	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages; Amur drainage (Russia, Mongolia and China).	eng
135492	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps, backwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135492	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Swamps, backwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135492	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally abundant.	eng
135492	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally abundant.	eng
135492	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135492	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135493	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135493	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	From Aliakmon to Nestos drainages (Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria).	eng
135493	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135493	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135493	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135495	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135495	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Caspian basin in Europe: Kuma, Terek, Sulak, Shura-ozen and Samur drainages. Records from Kuban drainage need confirmation.	eng
135495	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper montane reaches of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135495	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in western Caspian basin.	eng
135495	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135496	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135496	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is known from five streams on the Crimea; Salgir, Alma, Chornya, Bel Bek and Kacha.	eng
135496	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower and middle parts of streams and estuaries. In estuaries, lives close to surface. Migrates to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in June-July. Forages in small stream estuaries and migrates upstream to spawn. Some juveniles forage in lower part of streams. Feeds on drifting and terrestrial insects and zooplankton. Regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.	eng
135496	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It's presence in Salgir needs to be confirmed, it is rare in Kacha and Chornaya streams, almost extirpated in Almastill but still abundant in the Bel Bek stream.	eng
135496	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It is threatened by pollution (Salgir stream), water abstraction (Alma, Chornaya, Kacha) and river regulation (Chornaya). The level of drought is predicted to increase in severity due to climate change.	eng
135497	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135497	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Southern Portugal: Mira, Arade and Bensafrim drainages.	eng
135497	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Ubiquitous. Small to medium sized streams. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135497	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135497	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Alien species (<em>Gambusia</em>, <em>Lepomis</em> and <em>Micropterus</em>) which are probably impacting the species. Streams almost dry out in summer due to water abstraction and drought where the species survives in small refuges. If the spring rains fail, the species risks extinction as it may have no habitat remaining.	eng
135498	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135498	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ukraine: lower parts of Dniestr and South Bug drainages. Likely to occur as well in lower Dniepr.	eng
135498	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in foot hills and lowlands with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135498	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135498	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135499	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135499	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135499	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian (mostly western and southwestern coast, from Ural, Volga to Safid-Rud drainages).	eng
135499	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian (mostly western and southwestern coast, from Ural, Volga to Safid-Rud drainages), and Aral Sea basins.	eng
135499	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. In estuaries, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12 ‰. Earlier migrated for long distances upstream, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations in reservoirs spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kura) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-September in water 0.2-0.7 m deep, current about 1 m/s, and 18-26°C, often with much splashing. Males seem to be partly territorial. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Embryonic development lasts 2-3 days, larvae first staying among gravel for 8-11 days, then actively migrating to shallows and backwaters. Adults migrate back to sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles migrate downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish.	eng
135499	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. In estuaries, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12   %o. Earlier migrated for long distances upstream, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in small rivers or streams with heavy current on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations in reservoirs spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kura) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-September in water 0.2-0.7 m deep, current about 1 m/s, and 18-26°C, often with much splashing. Males seem to be partly territorial. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Embryonic development lasts 2-3 days, larvae first staying among gravel for 8-11 days, then actively migrating to shallows and backwaters. Adults migrate back to sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles migrate downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish.	eng
135499	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The poplation declined in the 1950's and 1960's due to the damming of the rivers which blocked access to spawning sites. However they have formed stable landlocked populations and can still spawn below the dams.	eng
135499	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	The poplation declined in the 1950's and 1960's due to the damming of the rivers which blocked access to spawning sites. However they have formed stable landlocked populations and can still spawn below the dams.	eng
135499	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Currently overfishing and pollution in the Caspian Sea could be a threat to the species.	eng
135499	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Currently overfishing and pollution in the Caspian Sea could be a threat to the species.	eng
135500	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135500	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: streams draining to Mediterranean between Rhône and Pyrénées.	eng
135500	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly area with moderate current, over sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135500	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135500	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135501	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135501	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Tisza system, Danube drainage.	eng
135501	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135501	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135501	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135502	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135502	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rhône drainage, except Lake Geneva basin (France, Switzerland). Apparently eastward to Roia drainages (France, Italy), possibly further eastward in Ligurian Sea basin.	eng
135502	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rivers and streams, in clear, cold, well oxygenated water, with slow to fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only. Spawns for the first time at four years. Spawns in late December, at temperatures about 4°C, on gravel or coarse sand. Feeds on invertebrates, fish, amphibians.	eng
135502	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fragmented and locally abundant.	eng
135502	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hybridisation with <em>S. trutta</em>.	eng
135503	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135503	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Vistonis drainage (Greece). Shemajas from Filiouris drainage might be conspecific.	eng
135503	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135503	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Was believed to extinct, but information from fisherman and subsequent survey has found the species.	eng
135503	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Commercial fishing and loss of spawning grounds due to damming of rivers. Increased salinity of the lagoon, due to the blocking of tributaries for irrigation, is also threatening the species. Pollution may also be a threat as there is intensive agriculture which surrounds the catchment and lagoon.	eng
135504	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135504	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Romania: known from a single small lagoon near Portita, south of Danube delta in the Golovita-Sinoe-Razelm Lake complex.	eng
135504	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A small and shallow lagoon behind coastal sand dunes with brackish water and mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135504	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in 1994, when it was described. The site was visited the year later and none were found. Another survey in 1998 also failed to find the species.	eng
135504	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135505	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135505	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages (Black Sea basin).	eng
135505	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Unknown. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults were known to migrate and were the target of specific fisheries in lower part of rivers in autumn and spring (including in lower Dniepr where <em>E. mariae</em> is known to be absent). It is not known whether the migration was restricted to freshwater or included a period at sea. Spawns during spring in headwaters, in clear water, over gravel bottom or recently flooded areas.	eng
135505	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded around the end of 19th century.	eng
135505	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135506	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135506	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).	eng
135506	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns in 10-60 m water depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July-November. After spawning migrates to deeper places, at depths of up to about 140 m. Migrates to 50-60 m in March-April. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels and snails).	eng
135506	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Thought to have gone extinct in the early 1970s.	eng
135506	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in coregonids is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.	eng
135507	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135507	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aegean Sea basin, from Volvi to Nestos drainages (Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria).	eng
135507	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers; prefers stretches with clear water and riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Reaches up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in June.	eng
135507	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135507	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, drought, poaching and pollution from agriculture.	eng
135508	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135508	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Ohrid basin (Macedonia, Albania). Mainly in springs draining into the lake and the upper Drin river.	eng
135508	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Springs along lake shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135508	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135508	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drought is most likely not a threat as the springs and Lake Ohrid are fed by the water from Lake Prespa.	eng
135509	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135509	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135509	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian, Azov and Black Sea basins. Close to sea.	eng
135509	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian, Azov and Black Sea basins. Close to sea.	eng
135509	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to saline water of coastal lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and lagoons, in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Individual females may spawn several times during a season. Males defend eggs in cavities under stones, plant material or mollusc shells. Eggs hatch at 3.0-3.8 mm. Feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
135509	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh to saline water of coastal lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and lagoons, in shallow, well vegetated habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives less than two years. Spawns after first winter, at 20 mm SL. Spawns in March-July. Individual females may spawn several times during a season. Males defend eggs in cavities under stones, plant material or mollusc shells. Eggs hatch at 3.0-3.8 mm. Feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
135509	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135509	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135509	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135509	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135510	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135510	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Gulf of Taganrog and limans of eastern coast of the Sea of Azov; also along western coast especially in high-water years when the species is recorded in central parts of the sea, too (Iljin , 1927a, 1927c, 1930; Maiskiy, 1955, 1960). The species is formally described from Voronezh (Upper Don R. system, 51.8ºN 33.5ºE) but have never been recorded in Don so up since (Fedorov, 1960). According to our samplings, along the main course of Don it only occurs up to the upper reach of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Benthophilus stellatus may be present in Severskiy Donetz and Manych (Solodovnikov, 1930; Vitkovskiy, 2000) and in Lower Kuban' River (Emtyl' et al., 1988) together with Benthophilus durrelli but this needs clarification. Prefers shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers.	eng
135510	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow coastal lagoons and lowland rivers, in fresh and brackish water with salinity below 12 ‰. In rivers, prefers mainstream, more than 3 m deep and with mud bottom. In Sea of Azov over sand, avoiding silted areas. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter, in May-June. Females die shortly after spawning, males some weeks later. Feeds mainly on molluscs, insects and crustaceans.	eng
135510	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135510	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135511	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135511	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Great Britain; Atlantic drainages from Garonne (tributaries draining from Massif Central) to Scheldt [French: Escaut] in France and Belgium. Lower, middle and northern upper Rhine mainstream in Germany and the Netherlands, reaching upriver (southward) to Karlsruhe. Also in rivers Mosel and Sieg in Germany. Might also be present in other major Rhine tributaries, the French stretch of the upper Rhine and the lower Meuse.	eng
135511	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium-sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year in Belgium; up to four times, in February-early July, in stream Bere (southern England). Most individuals spawn 2-3 seasons. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching. Males may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
135511	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135511	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution, water abstraction and alteration of river morphology.	eng
135512	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135512	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).	eng
135512	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, near flat shores, or near bottom, sometimes on steep slopes. Spawns in shallow water, along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in late November-December. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (especially mussels, snails, worms and insects).	eng
135512	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Naturally rare.	eng
135512	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hybridisation with <em>C. macrophthalmus</em> (another native species in Lake Constance) happened through a ranching programme. This was stopped in 2004.	eng
135513	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135513	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Germany: Lakes Ammersee, Starnbergersee, Tegernsee, Schliersee, Kochelsee; Austria: Traunsee, Hallstädtersee. In 1480, introduced from Kochelsee to Walchensee (not previously inhabited by <em>Coregonus</em>).	eng
135513	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic in surface layers. Usually spawns above gravel or rocks on bottom or along shores. Spawns below surface in Ammersee. In Traunsee and Hallstädter See, reported to migrate to spawn in tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns in late November-early December at 3-4 m depth (Schliersee), in mid December-late January at 10-20 m depth (Tegernsee), in second half of November at 2-3 m depth (Starnbergersee), in mid-December at 80-100 m depth (Kochelsee, Walchensee), in November below surface (Ammersee). Feeds mainly on zooplankton, rarely on benthic invertebrates. May consume large amounts of small fish in summer.	eng
135513	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information	eng
135513	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The type locality (Starnbergersee 59 km²) has been heavily impacted by pollution (eutrophication) and stocking of alien species	eng
135514	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135514	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: Kuban drainage.	eng
135514	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane rivers with strong current and gravel bottom. Most of year in middle or upper stretches of rivers; in winter, moves downstream to lower stretches or larger tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at three years, females often one year later. In January-February, starts spawning migration to uppermost montane reaches, entering small shallow streams with very fast current. Spawns in March-May at sites with gravel or hard sand, with rapids and swift current (up to 1.5 m/s), 0.2-1.0 m deep, in clean water with high oxygen concentrations. Females lay 1000-1250 eggs, during a short period, usually in a single night, but often in several portions. Most individuals at a given spawning site spawn over 3-4 nights. Eggs are sticky and adhere to substrate. Feeds mainly on detritus, also on periphyton, benthic invertebrates, especially during first year of life.	eng
135514	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant.	eng
135514	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The dam one dam in the basin (Krasnodar Dam) was built during Soviet times and may have had an impact. Currently there are no threats to the species.	eng
135515	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135515	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Thessaly: Pinios and Karla Lake drainages (now extirpated).	eng
135515	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stretches of streams and rivers with moderate flow, usually sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135515	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135515	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Intense water abstraction and drought, pollution from domestic sources.	eng
135516	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135516	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sea of Azov: Taganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov and Don River from mouth upstream to the upper stretch of Tsymlyansk Reservoir. Prefers freshwater and does not penetrate into the sea, abundant in fresh waters at river mouths. Introduced (mixed with mysids) in Kuibyshev reservoir on Volga, from where it spread in Volga, from Gorgy to Volgograd reservoirs.	eng
135516	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish waters. In coastal areas of Sea of Azov, but mostly at river mouths (saline water, up to 3 ‰), lower reaches of rivers, and reservoirs. Prefers silty sand with mollusc shells. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on insect larvae and small molluscs.	eng
135516	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135516	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135517	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135517	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: Mediterranean coastal streams from Gardon to Tech; probably extends further to south and east. Possibly an introgression zone with <em>P. phoxinus</em> in lower Rhône, from about Lyon southward.	eng
135517	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, cold, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135517	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135517	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, species introductions (<em>P. phoxinus</em>) and climate change is predicted to increase the severity of droughts.	eng
135518	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fertilised eggs from the fish have now been relocated to nearby Llyn Arenig as part of a two year project.	eng
135518	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Wales: Llyn Tegid [Lake Bala]. Introduced into Llyn Arenig.	eng
135518	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.	eng
135518	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135518	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining water quality, a lack of oxygen and the depths of the lake in summer, human activity and fluctuating lake levels.<br/><br/><em>Gymnocephalus cernuus</em> (ruffe) - introduced to the lake in the 1980s - attacks spawning <em>C. pennantii</em> and predates upon eggs and young fish.	eng
135519	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135519	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Vistula drainage (mainly San and Wisloka systems) downstream to Wilga (about 50 km from Warsaw), upper Dniestr basin in Poland and Ukraine. Similar barbels from upper Tisza system (Danube drainage) may belong to this species.	eng
135519	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rather small rivers with moderate to fast current in piedmont and montane zones at 200-600 m above sea level. Prefers stone, gravel, pebble or sand bottom and river stretches with rapids and deep holes. Spawns in shallow places over pebble bottom with fast current and clear water with high oxygen concentrations. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at 4-5. Spawns in May-July. At beginning of spawning season, migrates upriver to shallow, smaller tributaries. Does not migrate for long distances. During feeding season, usually moves along main course of stream. Spawning peaks in evening, at sunset. Males and females splash. Individual females actively dig holes with anal, into which eggs are released. Probably spawns 2-3 times during a spawning season. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135519	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Slowly declining.	eng
135519	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by dams, particularly in highland areas.	eng
135520	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135520	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Recorded once in 1998 from the Danube drainage: upper Arges. May be present in other tributaries of lower Danube.	eng
135520	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Known from a cold and fast-flowing small river. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135520	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135520	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135521	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135521	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic and Tyrrhenian basins in Italy and Switzerland. Widely introduced in Italy. Most likely only native in Po drainage and Adriatic rivers east of Po.	eng
135521	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In well vegetated lowland rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. Spawns on submerged plants. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 15 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Fractional spawner. Spawns in March-July, when temperature rises above 18°C. Feeds predominantly on macrophytes and terrestrial insects.	eng
135521	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135521	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hybridisation with introduced <em>S. erythrophthalmus</em>.	eng
135522	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135522	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135522	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal streams of Thrace from Karasu (Sea of Marmara basin) to Papuc (Black Sea basin) (Turkey).	eng
135522	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Coastal streams of Thrace from Karasu (Sea of Marmara basin) to Papuc (Black Sea basin) (Turkey).	eng
135522	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine and lacustrine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forages in lower part of rivers, close to surface.	eng
135522	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine and lacustrine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forages in lower part of rivers, close to surface.	eng
135522	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135522	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135522	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135522	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135523	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135523	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sweden: Lakes Vänern, Locknesjön, Skalka-Parkijaur, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Siljan, Övre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, and probably others.	eng
135523	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deeper waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-February, on gravel to stone bottom, at 1-10 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.	eng
135523	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135523	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None known	eng
135524	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135524	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: from Loire to Garonne drainages on Atlantic slope, from Tech to Aude drainages on Mediterranean slope. Leuciscus population from Hérault possibly conspecific.	eng
135524	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers, sectors with current, clear and cool water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Adults apparently undertake small migrations. Spawns in February-March, at night, in stretches with swift current and pebble bottom, in deeper pools.	eng
135524	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135524	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135525	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135525	conservation	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Common Goby.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out to ensure they do not become more widespread.	eng
135525	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Coastal waters of Atlantic from northern Morocco northward to southern Norway, Baltic northward to about 63°N; isolated records from northwestern Mediterranean.	eng
135525	distribution	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	The Common Goby (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomatoschistus microps</span>) occurs from Norway to Mauritania and its range includes the Baltic Sea, the western Mediterranean and the Canary Islands.	eng
135525	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes connected to sea, large to medium size rivers. Usually found on sand or mud. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to two years. Spawns after first winter. Spawns at sea in February-September, depending on latitude. Individual females spawn several times during a season. Adhesive eggs, 0.9x0.7 mm, are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Juveniles enter freshwater habitats in late summer to forage. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
135525	habitat	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	The Common Goby is an inshore, benthic species that occurs in sandy shallows, often around estuaries and the brackish waters of salt marshes (Miller 1986).&#160; Its diet consists of polychaetes, mysids, bivalve siphons, and isopods, though it is an opportunistic predator and its diet reflects the local abundance of prey (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;  During reproduction, males build nests in sandy substrate and are responsible for caring for the unhatched eggs (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006). &#160; This species is found down to a depth of 12 m.	eng
135525	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135525	population	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	The Common Goby is a common species and surveys in areas such as the Mondego Estuary, Portugal, have found it to be the most abundant fish species (Leitao <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
135525	threats	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	As the Common Goby is an inshore species, its habitat quality may be deleteriously impacted by coastal development and pollution discharges such as sewage effluent.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the entire range of this species and so will only be causing localised declines in abundance, if they are impacting this species at all.	eng
135525	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135526	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135526	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eastern part of the Sea of Azov: Miusskiy, Eyskiy, Kurkuy and other limans, estuarine and deltaic areas, Gulf of Taganrog.	eng
135526	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish waters with salinity below 11‰, usually over mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions within or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on molluscs, crustaceans and chironomid larvae.	eng
135526	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135526	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135527	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135527	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes Prespa (Greece, Macedonia, Albania).	eng
135527	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surf zone along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June.	eng
135527	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135527	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, drought, pollution and introduced species which could impact the whole lake.	eng
135528	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are local reserves set up specifically for the species in Italy.	eng
135528	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Tyrrhenian basin of Italy from Magra drainage southward.	eng
135528	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly areas; in lowland in karstic resurgences. Clear waters around 10-20°C, usually with dense subaquatic vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only. Spawns in January-March, on gravel bottom, in shallow water. Feeds mainly on aquatic insects.	eng
135528	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining.	eng
135528	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, overfishing and stocking of non-native trouts (hybridisation and competition).	eng
135529	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135529	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Germany: Lake Chiemsee.	eng
135529	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns in shallow water 1-5 m deep, on gravel or rock bottom. Chiemsee is mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns in mid-November to early-January, usually in first week of December. Feeds on zooplankton and small insects.	eng
135529	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in the 1940's. Fisherman indicate its presence until the late 1980's.	eng
135529	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Stocking of alien species, most likely <em>Coregonus macropthalmus</em>.	eng
135530	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135530	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drin drainage including Lake Ohrid and Lake Skadar basins  (Macedonia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo) .	eng
135530	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane zones in clear, well oxygenated brooks. Ammocoetes in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Probably similar to <em>E. mariae</em>. Metamorphoses in November-April in Drin drainage (but this requires confirmation).	eng
135530	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135530	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135531	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135531	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Ladoga, especially southeastern part. It used to enter rivers (including the Volkhov and Svir) and migrate very high upstream to spawn in ruffles.	eng
135531	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Alevins and juveniles mostly occur along eastern shore, adults in deeper places. Used to migrate to River Volkhov up to its uppermost reaches for spawning, now blocked by a dam. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Migrates to eastern coast before spawning, starting in May-June. Spawns in October-early November. In Volkhov, used to spawn high upstream, in riffles. Information about spawning in the lake is very sparse, but continued presence confirms lacustrine reproduction. Spawning is now assumed to occur in Volkhov estuary, probably also in River Svir. Feeds on benthos (crustaceans, insect larvae, molluscs).	eng
135531	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Catch data from Lake Ladoga do not distinguish between different species of Coregonus species. However it is still recorded as present by fisheries scientists.	eng
135531	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams have blocked the access to the river spawning sites (Volkhov dammed in 1921).<br/><br/>Overfishing is the main current threat to the species, but the impact is unknown as catches are identified to species level. <em>Coregonus</em> catches are decreasing in Lake Ladoga. The species is listed in the Red List of Russia.	eng
135532	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135532	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135532	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western and southwestern Caspian basin, from Kuma to Safid-Rud drainages.	eng
135532	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Western and southwestern Caspian basin, from Kuma to Safid-Rud drainages.	eng
135532	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Water bodies with slow to fast current; prefers places where current is slowed down, commonly in shallows near bottom. Abundant in middle and lower reaches of large rivers and their tributaries, reservoirs and swampy creeks; also in brackish water at river mouths, in estuaries and coastal lakes. Spawns in shallow water, 0.1-0.5 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, commonly forms schools in upper water layers. Lives up to three years, spawns 1-2 times during its life. Spawns in April-July, when temperatures rise above 18-23°C. Males predominate in mating groups (sex ratio 2.5:1). Eggs sticky, laid on submersed plants, rarely on pebbles, 1.4 mm diameter. Females lay 2-3 portions of eggs in a season. Feeds on plankton, insect larvae, seeds.	eng
135532	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Water bodies with slow to fast current; prefers places where current is slowed down, commonly in shallows near bottom. Abundant in middle and lower reaches of large rivers and their tributaries, reservoirs and swampy creeks; also in brackish water at river mouths, in estuaries and coastal lakes. Spawns in shallow water, 0.1-0.5 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, commonly forms schools in upper water layers. Lives up to three years, spawns 1-2 times during its life. Spawns in April-July, when temperatures rise above 18-23°C. Males predominate in mating groups (sex ratio 2.5:1). Eggs sticky, laid on submersed plants, rarely on pebbles, 1.4 mm diameter. Females lay 2-3 portions of eggs in a season. Feeds on plankton, insect larvae, seeds.	eng
135532	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135532	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135532	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135532	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135533	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Skadar is a nature reserve, but this has little impact.	eng
135533	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Skadar (Montenegro, Albania).	eng
135533	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to about five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in June-July along shore, at temperatures around 23-28°C, on sand or gravel. Overwinters in deep water at northeastern part of lake in depressions fed by sublacustrine springs with constant temperature.	eng
135533	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Species was observed to be abundant on the local fish markets in 2006 (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).	eng
135533	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potentially threatened by introduced species, damming of the tributary river and pollution from industrial development.	eng
135534	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135534	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135534	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Don, Kuban, Volga, Ural and Emba drainages. Outside Europe in most Siberian drainages, eastward to Amur and Huang He (China).	eng
135534	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Don, Kuban, Volga, Ural and Emba drainages. Outside Europe in most Siberian drainages, eastward to Amur and Huang He (China).	eng
135534	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From small lowland streams to large rivers with gentle current, and lakes. Mostly in habitats with dense vegetation on sand-silt to sand-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June, when temperatures reach 16-17°C, among filamentous algae or other aquatic vegetation.	eng
135534	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>From small lowland streams to large rivers with gentle current, and lakes. Mostly in habitats with dense vegetation on sand-silt to sand-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June, when temperatures reach 16-17°C, among filamentous algae or other aquatic vegetation.	eng
135534	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135534	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135534	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135534	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135535	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135535	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage: lower and middle Danube upriver to Bratislava, entering only lowermost parts of tributaries; Tisza system in Hungary and Slovakia.	eng
135535	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers. Usually in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in Danube and in mouths of some tributaries.	eng
135535	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135535	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135536	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135536	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	West Caspian basin, from Kuma to Samur drainages.	eng
135536	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and mountain rivers with strong current and rock to gravel bottom. Spawns over hard bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years, about 120 mm SL. Spawns in March-April. Females lay eggs probably in several portions. Eggs adhere to gravel. Feeds mainly on detritus, and also on periphytic algae and benthic invertebrates, especially during first year of life.	eng
135536	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135536	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135537	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There is a canal which has been constructed to allow fish to pass the Volgograd Dam, so some fish occasionally get past.	eng
135537	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian Sea from where adults ascend Volga (only few fish enter Ural and Terek) to spawn. Earlier reached upriver up to Kama and Oka systems. Migrations now blocked by Volgograd dam. There are indications it has formed landlocked populations in Volga reservoirs.	eng
135537	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in a wide variety of habitats. Migrates to middle reaches of large rivers, spawning close to shores in main channel and in almost-still water bodies such as river bays, river eddies and flood plains. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver to spawn at 4-5 years. Enters rivers with unripe gonads. Some spawn 2-4 seasons, but most females die after spawning. Spawners appear along the coast in March-April, entering rivers April-May when temperatures reach about 9°C, peaking at 12-15°C. Spawning run originally lasted 30-50 days. Spawning starts in May-August when temperature rises above 15°C, and lasts as long as temperatures remain at 15-23°C. Spawning is most intensive between 4 and 10 p.m. Eggs are bathypelagic. Spent fish migrate back to the sea to feed. In autumn, they move to the southern part of the sea to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to the sea or to estuaries during their first summer, remaining there until maturity. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton, crustaceans and small fish.	eng
135537	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Still relatively abundant and stable below the Volgograd dam where it appears to have found new spawning grounds. Juveniles are regularly found in the delta of the Volga. In 2000 the estimated number of mature individuals in the Caspian was 12,000,000 (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.)	eng
135537	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The damming for the Volga River (main spawning river) in the 1950's and 1960's, blocked most of the spawning grounds. Currently the major threat to the species is commercial and illegal fishing in the Caspian Sea and at the mouth of the Volga during the migration. The flow regulation from the Volgograd dam (which is dependant on energy demand) is also a threat to the species as the species needs a large flow in April to the beginning June for optimal spawning conditions.	eng
135538	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135538	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from the original description at the type locality. Bulgaria: River Beli Vit (Danube drainage), possibly in other lower Danube tributaries.	eng
135538	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.	eng
135538	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135538	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information	eng
135539	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135539	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).	eng
135539	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep water (below 80 m). Lives and feeds on bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>When brought to surface in nets, usually appears with a greatly bloated belly because of expansion of gas bladder resulting from reduction of water pressure. Possibly spawns on an extended period between July-February (or maybe even at all seasons), at depths around 60-80 m, on pebble bottom in most lakes. Feeds mainly on cocoons of <em>Turbellaria</em> and copepods.	eng
135539	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in the 1970's.	eng
135539	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication which peaked in 1979. Natural reproduction in <em>Salvelinus</em> species is said to have almost stopped during the period of high eutrophication as the eggs could no longer develop in the low-oxygen substrates.	eng
135540	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135540	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Restricted to seven streams of the Crimea (Black and Azov Sea basins).	eng
135540	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Widespread, from mountain streams with strong current to brackish stream estuaries. Prefers river stretches at 100-600 m above sea level. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, about 65 mm SL, females at three years, about 100 mm SL. Moves upstream into upper reaches, or near rapids to spawn on gravel or rock bottom. Females lay eggs in 1-3 portions. Eggs are non-sticky and lie among or under pebbles until hatching. At beginning of winter, moves to deeper places with less current and stops feeding. Feeds mainly on zoobenthos.	eng
135540	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135540	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water pollution and abstraction. Water abstraction is expected to increase.	eng
135541	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135541	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: Lez to Tech drainages (Mediterranean basin); Spain, in Ebro drainage and between Bidasoa and Nervión drainages on eastern Cantabric slope (introduced in Douro drainage).	eng
135541	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data, probably largely similar to <em>B. barbatula</em>. Spawns for the first time at 40 mm SL.	eng
135541	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135541	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135542	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135542	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: Adour drainage. Spain: Ebro drainage and streams of Cantabric range (possibly introduced in some). Introduced into Douro drainage.	eng
135542	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and creeks in foothills with clear and cold water, and gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns in April-June. Feeds mainly on aquatic macroinvertebrates.	eng
135542	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135542	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135543	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135543	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Ohrid (Macedonia, Albania). Imported in France and probably other countries, might be locally established.	eng
135543	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, usually on sand to pebble bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Spawns in June-July.	eng
135543	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135543	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There is a potential threat of introduced species, many have already been introduced into Lake Ohrid.	eng
135544	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Its distribution within the Krka basin is partially covered by Krka National Park.	eng
135544	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandecko near Livno, Šarena lakes (many lake some are interlinked) at Knin, Krka (in a natural lake, dammed by a waterfall) and Cetina basins.	eng
135544	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Slow-flowing and still waters and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135544	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Population in the Krka basin is very abundant.	eng
135544	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Buško lake <em>Silurus glanis</em>, a highly predatory cat fish, was introduced around 2000. Its impacts upon <em>S. dergle</em> are unknown. In Livanjsko polje, there is very little water remaining due to long term water abstraction (it has been like this many years).	eng
135545	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There are special fishing regulations in some territories, and in places it is illegal to catch for consumption (M. Skopets, pers. comm.).	eng
135545	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	There are special fishing regulations in some territories, and in places it is illegal to catch for consumption (M. Skopets, pers. comm.).	eng
135545	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Ocean basin, from Ponoi (Kola Peninsula, White Sea basin) eastward to Anadyr (Siberia), Yukon (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.	eng
135545	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Arctic Ocean basin, from Ponoi (Kola Peninsula, White Sea basin) eastward to Anadyr (Siberia), Yukon (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.	eng
135545	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, in pelagic zone with water salinity up to 20?. Large lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Prefers cold water with temperatures below 16°C. Forages and overwinters in lower reaches of large rivers, deltas, estuaries and sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Migrates for spawning in rivers, moving upstream for long distances, up to uppermost reaches in European rivers. Lacustrine populations migrates into tributaries. Spawns over shallows with sand-gravel bottom and 2-3 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous or semi-anadromous, resident in some rivers and landlocked in some lakes. Resident and anadromous populations co-occur in some rivers in North America. Anadromous populations spawn for the first time at 600-900 mm SL and 8-16 years, females 2-3 years later than males. Freshwater populations may mature earlier, males at four, females at five years and have shorter life cycle. Usually spawns only 1-2 times during life, rarely three, usually every 2-3 years. Starts migration in early spring just after ice melting, reaches spawning sites by autumn. Spawns in September-October, 80,000-420,000 non-sticky eggs. Adults actively feed after spawning and spend following winter and spring in river, return to lower reaches and sea by next summer. Embryonic development lasts 250-260 days, larvae (12-14 mm SL) appear in May-June. Fry migrates to sea soon after start of active feeding or remain 2-3 years in rivers. Juveniles feed on mysids, insect larvae and fry, become exclusively piscivorous at about 300 mm SL. Active predator feeding on all available fishes. Occasionally hybridises with <em>Coregonus</em> species.	eng
135545	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, in pelagic zone with water salinity up to 20‰. Large lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Prefers cold water with temperatures below 16°C. Forages and overwinters in lower reaches of large rivers, deltas, estuaries and sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Migrates for spawning in rivers, moving upstream for long distances, up to uppermost reaches in European rivers. Lacustrine populations migrates into tributaries. Spawns over shallows with sand-gravel bottom and 2-3 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous or semi-anadromous, resident in some rivers and landlocked in some lakes. Resident and anadromous populations co-occur in some rivers in North America. Anadromous populations spawn for the first time at 600-900 mm SL and 8-16 years, females 2-3 years later than males. Freshwater populations may mature earlier, males at four, females at five years and have shorter life cycle. Usually spawns only 1-2 times during life, rarely three, usually every 2-3 years. Starts migration in early spring just after ice melting, reaches spawning sites by autumn. Spawns in September-October, 80,000-420,000 non-sticky eggs. Adults actively feed after spawning and spend following winter and spring in river, return to lower reaches and sea by next summer. Embryonic development lasts 250-260 days, larvae (12-14 mm SL) appear in May-June. Fry migrates to sea soon after start of active feeding or remain 2-3 years in rivers. Juveniles feed on mysids, insect larvae and fry, become exclusively piscivorous at about 300 mm SL. Active predator feeding on all available fishes. Occasionally hybridises with <em>Coregonus</em> species.	eng
135545	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining in European and Siberian range.	eng
135545	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Declining in European and Siberian range.	eng
135545	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.	eng
135545	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.	eng
135546	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135546	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia and Ukraine: river Don.	eng
135546	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135546	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135546	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135547	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135547	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Romania: River Ialomita and tributaries of lower River Siret in Danube drainage.	eng
135547	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Sandy streams with clean water and moderate to fast current. Burrows into sand, rarely in gravel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in spring. Eggs 0.9-1.1 mm in diameter, sticky and indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel or other substrate. Portion spawner. Eggs hatch in 50-60 h at 22°C. Larvae 3.0-3.4 mm TL start to feed after 6 days. Free larvae lack external gill filaments, but have a transparent bump on forehead.	eng
135547	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declining, localised and fragmented population.	eng
135547	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Development in Romania is leading to increased water abstraction, pollution and damming of rivers.	eng
135548	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135548	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135548	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian Sea from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.	eng
135548	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian Sea from where adults ascend rivers, migrating a short distance upstream to spawn.	eng
135548	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in coastal waters with steady current, avoids areas with stable salinity. Migrates from sea to mouth of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water at shallow sites washed by flow of large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 4-5. Many individuals reproduce 2-4 seasons. There are two migration peaks, one in late April (mostly males) and one in early May (mostly females), entering rivers when temperature rises above 10°C. Spawns when temperature reaches 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns usually in the upper 3 m. Eggs semipelagic and demersal. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer, remaining at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominantly on zooplankton such as copepods and mysids.	eng
135548	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic, in coastal waters with steady current, avoids areas with stable salinity. Migrates from sea to mouth of large rivers, spawns in fresh or slightly brackish water at shallow sites washed by flow of large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 2-3 years, females at 4-5. Many individuals reproduce 2-4 seasons. There are two migration peaks, one in late April (mostly males) and one in early May (mostly females), entering rivers when temperature rises above 10°C. Spawns when temperature reaches 15°C or more, in May-June. Spawns usually in the upper 3 m. Eggs semipelagic and demersal. Spent fish migrate back to sea. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer, remaining at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominantly on zooplankton such as copepods and mysids.	eng
135548	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135548	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135548	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known. Damming in the Caspian basin (1950-60s) has restricted the species access to some of their spawning grounds.	eng
135548	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known. Damming in the Caspian basin (1950-60s) has restricted the species access to some of their spawning grounds.   Hoever, most spawning places originally were and still are situated below dams.	eng
135549	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135549	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.	eng
135549	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats. Chornaya is a medium-sized stream with a flow of about 10 m<sup>3</sup>/s. The inhabited stretch is about 25 km long. In its lower part, water is extracted in large quantities for irrigation and the stream is almost dry in summer. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135549	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135549	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase so the river below Chornya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted increase.	eng
135550	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135550	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Freshened areas of Black and Azov Seas, entering Don, Kuban, Dniepr, Dniestr and rarely Danube drainages.	eng
135550	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. While at sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 ‰ during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Starts approaching coasts in August and entering rivers in September, with a peak in October. Ceases migration by end of November and overwinters in main river or estuaries. Spawning migration resumes with breaking up of ice in March (Dniepr). Spawns in April-May. Adults return to estuaries to forage immediately after spawning. Juveniles migrate to estuaries during first summer (August).	eng
135550	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Reported to decline in population in the 1950s and 1960s. Currently declining but still abundant especially in the Azov Sea.	eng
135550	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Currently the species is threatened by the increasing salinity of the limans and estuaries in the northern Black Sea basin, due to water abstraction and drought. The species was also heavily impacted in the 1950s and 1960s by the construction of large dams.	eng
135551	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135551	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135551	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece; Lesbos and Streams draining into the northern Agean in Turkey.	eng
135551	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<p>Turkey; Lake İznik basin, streams Simav and Biga (Sea of Marmara drainage) as well as from the stream Menderes on the Biga peninsular (Aegean Sea drainage). Greece; Lesbos. </p>	eng
135551	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and sometimes restricted to isolated pools during droughts. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135551	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and sometimes restricted to isolated pools during droughts. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135551	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135551	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135551	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Droughts (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution and water abstraction.	eng
135551	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Droughts (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution and water abstraction. Bakir stream, a major part of the species range (est. 25%) in Turkey, is heavily polluted by a coal power station, the species only survives in the tributaries.	eng
135552	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135552	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Austria: subalpine lakes in Danube drainage (Attersee, Traunsee, Fuschlersee). The same or similar species were apparently recorded in subalpine lakes in Switzerland (e.g. Vierwaldstätter [Rhine drainage]).	eng
135552	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. Spawns along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine species, not reported to migrate to tributaries. Only caught in May (hence the vernacular name) when it comes in to shallow waters, presumably to spawn. Eggs white, about 2 mm in diameter. Feeds on fishes.	eng
135552	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135552	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown	eng
135553	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135553	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135553	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian basin: From Kuma, south to lower courses of Iranian costal drainages to Gorgan Bay.	eng
135553	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian basin: From Kuma, south to lower courses of Iranian costal drainages to Gorgan Bay.	eng
135553	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rivulets and streams 3-10 m wide and less than 1 m deep in foothills and plains, sometimes in channels. Usually on gravel, rarely on sand bottom. Usually along steep banks. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July-August.	eng
135553	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Rivulets and streams 3-10 m wide and less than 1 m deep in foothills and plains, sometimes in channels. Usually on gravel, rarely on sand bottom. Usually along steep banks. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July-August.	eng
135553	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135553	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135553	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction in particular in Iran, dams, channelization of the lower courses and drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).	eng
135553	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Water abstraction in particular in Iran, dams, channelization of the lower courses and drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).	eng
135554	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135554	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Austria: Lake Attersee. Presence in Lake Mondsee questionable.	eng
135554	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, usually at depths of 10-30 m. Spawns in open water close to surface, above depths of 20-40 m (Attersee) or at 2-3 m and close to shore (Mondsee). Attersee is an oligo-mesotrophic lake and Mondsee a mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years (Mondsee). Spawns for the first time at four (Attersee) or three years (Mondsee). Spawns in early February-mid March (Attersee), late December-mid January (Mondsee). Eggs sink to bottom. Individual fishes usually spawn 2-3 seasons. Feeds on zooplankton and small amounts of benthic invertebrates.	eng
135554	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Some decline has occurred after the 2nd World War (presice date is unknown).	eng
135554	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduction of non-native coregonids, leading to hybridisation and competition.	eng
135555	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135555	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Caspian basin: from Kuma (Russia) to Yalaminskie (Azerbaidjan) drainages.	eng
135555	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabit streams and river stretches with fast current and gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Lives up to six years. Feeds on Trichoptera larvae.	eng
135555	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135555	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135556	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135556	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: Lake Bourget.	eng
135556	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February, at 70-80 m depth, on mud bottom.	eng
135556	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dissapeared apparently in the 1960s.	eng
135556	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135557	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135557	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Thun and Brienz.	eng
135557	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in midwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December, along shores at 0-30 m depth.	eng
135557	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	One of the most abundant species in Lake Thun.	eng
135557	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135558	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135558	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Kalamas, Acheron, Louros and Arachthos drainages; Lake Pamvotis. Possibly extends northward to Neretva drainage.	eng
135558	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135558	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135558	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135559	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135559	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is known from the Caspian Sea from where adults ascend the Volga (to Volgograd dam) to spawn, however this is spawning mostly unsuccessful (juveniles are rarely recorded). Its current status in the Ural is unknown.<br/>The species used to enter rivers from Terek to Ural.	eng
135559	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, in a wide variety of marine habitats. Migrates to delta and lower reaches of large rivers, spawns in main channel. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Migrates upriver to spawn at 2-3 years. Females spawn 2-3 times in their life. Appears at estuaries in April, enters rivers when temperature reaches about 9°C, in late April-early June with a peak at 17°C. Spawning run lasts 3-8 days. Enters rivers with ripe gonads. Spawning starts when temperature rises above 13°C, in late April-June, and continues as long as temperature remains below 27 °C. Eggs are pelagic. Spent fish migrate back to sea to feed. In autumn, moves to southern Caspian to overwinter. Juveniles migrate to sea during first summer, remaining there until maturity. At sea and during migrations, feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton (e.g. crustaceans) and small fish.	eng
135559	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is now so rare there are no statistics from commercial catches and it is rarely recorded from scientific surveys.	eng
135559	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Historically overfishing (fishing was banned before 1962) and dam construction destroying spawning grounds and blocking migratory routes (late 1950's and early 1960's) caused population declines. Recently the channelization and canalisation of river mouths has inhibited the species migratory routes and the loss of more spawning sites.	eng
135560	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135560	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Middle Kuban drainage, in the main course at Armavir and Belaya and Laba tributaries (Russia). Invasive in Don drainage, in River Egorlyk, which it entered through Nevinnomyssky canal.	eng
135560	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>High-gradient stretches of large rivers with fast (not turbulent) current and gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Nocturnal, found near shores during night on mud or sand bottom. Seems to spawn early and have a short spawning period. Only large juveniles observed in July.	eng
135560	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135560	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No current threats, but economic development of the region is expected to impact the species in the future.	eng
135561	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135561	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Ladoga. Widely introduce to lakes in Latvia, European Russia and Siberia.	eng
135561	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years and 30 g (males) and 60-70 g (females). Juveniles feed on zooplankton, adults on fish (mostly <em>Osmerus eperlanus</em>). Reported to hybridise with other <em>Coregonus</em> species.	eng
135561	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant in Lake Ladoga.	eng
135561	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135563	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135563	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Neuchâtel, Bienne and Morat. Introduced in Lake Geneva and other lakes and reservoirs in France and Switzerland.	eng
135563	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 3-4 years, females at five. Spawns on gravel near shore or, depending on population, in depths up to 50 m. Spawning time depends on depth and apparently of temperature at that location, from November-December in shallow water to February in deepest places.	eng
135563	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in Lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne. Extirpated in Morat in early 1900s due to water level management and polluton (eutrophication).	eng
135563	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication is the probable cause of the species extirpation in Lake Morat. There are no current threats to the species in lakes Neuchâtel and Bienne.	eng
135564	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135564	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin: Soca drainage (Italy, Slovenia). Danube drainage: upper Save, Archar, Krupaja, Vlasinsko and Nera systems, possibly more widespread in upper Danube drainage. Aegean basin: Gallikos, Vardar, Loudias and Aliakmon drainages (Greece, Macedonia).	eng
135564	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate-flowing premontane and montane streams and small rivers with gravel bottom. Spawns in riffles. Most abundant in rapids and riffles during day. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Moves to upper reaches for spawning. Spawns in May-July.	eng
135564	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135564	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135565	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135565	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ukraine: Salgir, Alma and Bel Bek drainages (southern Crimea).	eng
135565	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135565	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135565	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Intensive water abstraction, drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).	eng
135566	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135566	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Scotland: Loch Lomond and Loch Eck; introduced in two reservoirs in Loch Lomond basin (Loch Sloy, Carron Reservoir).	eng
135566	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In Loch Lomond, spawns in late December-early February, usually in early January, on offshore banks and reefs at temperatures close to 6°C. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.	eng
135566	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135566	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduction of alien species is a potential threat	eng
135567	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135567	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135567	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	None known.	eng
135567	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
135567	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In all tropical and subtropical seas; Mediterranean, Black Sea and Atlantic, reaching northward to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Lake Trasimeno (Italy).	eng
135567	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	In all tropical and subtropical seas; Mediterranean, Black Sea and Atlantic, reaching northward to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Lake Trasimeno (Italy).	eng
135567	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread but the reproduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cephalus</span> in estuarine waters has never been observed in western Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugil cephalus</span> is the most cosmopolitan <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugil</span> species. It inhabits warm and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, being variably abundant in coastal marine waters, estuaries (sometimes far up-river), lagoons and hyperhaline environments (up to 100%  in the Sine Saloum).	eng
135567	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The specis is distributed throughout the rivers of the eastern Africa Indian Ocean coastline.	eng
135567	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Coastal species that often enters estuaries and rivers.  Usually in schools over sand or mud bottom and dense vegetation.  Mainly diurnal, feed on zooplankton, benthic organisms and detritus.  Adult fish tend to feed mainly on algae while inhabiting fresh waters.  Reproduction takes place in the sea, from July to October.  Females spawn 5 to 7 million eggs provided with a notable vitellus. Sexually mature at 7 to 8 years.	eng
135567	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	In coastal waters and estuaries, but frequently ascends rivers into the freshwater zone (Thomson 1986).	eng
135567	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes forages in lagoons, estuaries and lower courses of rivers. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns several million of pelagic eggs in July-October. Eggs develop optimally at full marine salinity. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, larger individuals filter algae, vegetal detritus, sediment and small invertebrates.	eng
135567	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes forages in lagoons, estuaries and lower courses of rivers. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns several million of pelagic eggs in July-October. Eggs develop optimally at full marine salinity. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, larger individuals filter algae, vegetal detritus, sediment and small invertebrates.	eng
135567	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135567	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135567	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
135567	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
135567	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
135567	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135567	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135567	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known	eng
135568	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135568	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Lake Stymphalia and Vouraikos drainage; possibly present in other drainages of northern Peloponnese.	eng
135568	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in April-May. Feeds on a variety of plant and animal food.	eng
135568	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135568	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Stymphalia dried out in 1998 caused by drought and water abstraction. Climate change is predicted to increase the severity of droughts in the future. The Vouraikos stream is also threatened by the same threats.	eng
135569	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135569	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian basin, in Emba, Ural and Volga (with Oka and Kama) drainages; Black Sea basin, in Don drainage.	eng
135569	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lowland and piedmont rivers with moderate to strong current; also in reservoirs. Common in river main courses in rapids, sandy shallows and river curves. Spawns on gravel or rock bottom in shallow riffles of larger rivers or in smaller tributaries with moderate to strong current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years, females usually one year later. Spawns in April-May. Eggs are sticky, adhere to gravel. Larvae and early juveniles with superior mouth feed on small invertebrates. After 3-4 months, juveniles about 30-35 mm SL change to adult feeding mode and graze benthic diatoms and detritus from hard substrate in habitats with strong current. Most of year in middle and upper stretches of rivers, moving in winter to lower stretches or to larger tributaries. Reported to occur year round in lower reaches and deltas of Volga and Ural.	eng
135569	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sharply declined in many parts of Volga and Don due to building of dams (1950s and 1960s).	eng
135569	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No current threats are known. Pollution may be a local threat to the species. The decline in population due to damming occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.	eng
135570	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135570	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lake Morat.	eng
135570	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns on sand or mud at 35-40 m deep, in January.	eng
135570	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in 1890. Survey work in the 1950s found no coregonus in the lake. The Coregons that are present in the lake now originate from stocked individuals from other species.	eng
135570	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication which happened before 1950s.	eng
135571	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135571	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia: Kuban drainage.	eng
135571	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats from montane rivers to small lowland streams with a gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135571	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135571	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135572	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135572	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: Dniestr. Southern Baltic basin in Poland, most likely further east to Lithuania.	eng
135572	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. They lay adhesive eggs in a compact clutch on the ceiling of small cavities in gravel or rock bottom. Males guard eggs until hatching; a single male may guard egg clutches of several females. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates.	eng
135572	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135572	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135573	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135573	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Southern (Pyrrenean) Garonne drainage (France, Spain).	eng
135573	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.	eng
135573	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135573	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135574	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135574	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135574	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Circumpolar. In Europe: eastern Atlantic, White and Barents Seas.	eng
135574	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Circumpolar. In Europe: eastern Atlantic, White and Barents Seas.	eng
135574	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December-May under ice. Spawning in May reported from White Sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.	eng
135574	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December-May under ice. Spawning in May reported from White Sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.	eng
135574	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135574	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135574	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135574	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135575	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135575	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aoos drainage in Greece and Albania. Maybe also present in adjacent drainages in Albania.	eng
135575	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135575	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135575	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, pollution (especially in Albania), drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change).	eng
135576	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135576	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from a few localities. France: upper Dordogne and upper Loire drainage. Populations from upper Lot possibly conspecific.	eng
135576	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135576	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135576	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams in the Loire and Dordogne impact the habitat up and downstream.	eng
135577	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135577	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	British Isles: Loughs Melvin, Erne, Corrib and Mask (Ireland), several lakes of northern Scotland, apparently also Lakes Ullswater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria) and Llyns Padarn and Peris (Wales).	eng
135577	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large oligotrophic lakes; in Scotland usually only in lakes inhabited by <em>Salvelinus</em> species on which it preys. Spawns only in the larger and deeper tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 23 years. Spawns in November-December. Feeds on fishes and a variety of insects. In Scotland, feeds on invertebrates until about 300 mm SL, then switches to a fish diet, mostly <em>Salvelinus</em> species.	eng
135577	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information	eng
135577	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown	eng
135578	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135578	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug, Alpnach, possibly in Sempach, Baldegg and Hallwil; introduced in Lakes Aegeri, possibly Lungern, Maggiore and Locarno (possibly has hybridised with other introduced species).	eng
135578	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, feeds on benthic (spring) and pelagic prey (summer). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Fast growing species. Spawns in November-December, along gravel to stone shores, in very shallow water. Feeds on crustaceans, insect larvae and molluscs. Survival of Lake Hallwil population depends on stocking as eutrophication makes the lake unsuitable for reproduction since 1960.	eng
135578	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter. Status in other lakes unknown.	eng
135578	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135579	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135579	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135579	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway and British Isles (not reaching southern Baltic); northern Red Sea. Introduced in Caspian Sea.	eng
135579	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway and British Isles (not reaching southern Baltic); northern Red Sea. Introduced in Caspian Sea.	eng
135579	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries, rarely into freshwaters. Among Mugilidae recorded from European freshwaters, this is the least tolerant of freshwater. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Spawns in September-November. Juveniles move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in winter and especially in spring. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger individuals feed on algae, vegetal detritus, and sediment.	eng
135579	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries, rarely into freshwaters. Among Mugilidae recorded from European freshwaters, this is the least tolerant of freshwater. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Spawns in September-November. Juveniles move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in winter and especially in spring. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger individuals feed on algae, vegetal detritus, and sediment.	eng
135579	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135579	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135579	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135579	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135580	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135580	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aegean basin, from Maritza to Aliakmon drainages (Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia).	eng
135580	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stretches of streams and rivers with moderate flow, usually sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135580	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135580	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135581	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135581	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ukraine: Crimea: Chornaya drainage, below Chornaya gorge only.	eng
135581	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with still to moderately flowing clear water, on sand to silt bottom or in dense vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135581	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135581	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	High levels of water abstraction, leaving very low levels of water in spring and summer. The abstraction rate is likely to increase so the river below Chornaya Gorge may end up dry. Currently the river only runs for about 1km below Chornaya Gorge in spring. Climate change also poses a threat to the species as the severity of droughts are predicted to increase.	eng
135582	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The identification of spawning sites in Lough Leane and their protection from declining water quality and development works is a priority to ensure the future survival of the species (Doherty <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
135582	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lough Leane (19 km²) (Killarney, Eire).	eng
135582	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, spawns in shallow bays. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Females are larger than males. Spawns in June-July on gravel bars and gravelled shallows around large islands of the lake. Feeds mostly on zooplankton. Highly sensitive to pollution (Whilde 1993).	eng
135582	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The population was considered small in 1993 (Whilde 1993).	eng
135582	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication of the Lough Leane is a current threat to the species. The presence of excessive algal growth overlying littoral gravel may impede spawning. Also recently cyprinids such as <em>Rutilus rutilus</em> and <em>Abramis brama</em> have been recorded in the lake, and they may represent a threat to the species through competition.	eng
135583	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135583	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Large lakes of northern Sweden (Parkijaure, Hornävan, Storlaisan, Storuman, Vojmsjön, Storlögdan), Finland and Russia (Karelia). Only sporadically in Baltic near Neva and Narva estuaries.	eng
135583	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Often enters rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in October-November, on gravel to stone bottom, near shores. Feeds on zooplankton and insects from surface.	eng
135583	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135583	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135584	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135584	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Tisza system (Danube drainage), from Hron to Somes sub-systems, occasionally reaching to eastern Austria. Upper Vistula drainage in Slovakia and Poland; Wierzyca system (lower Vistula drainage, Poland); upper Dniestr drainage in Poland and Ukraine.	eng
135584	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate flowing premontane and montane streams and small rivers with gravel bottom. Most abundant in shallow rapids and riffles during summer. Moves to deeper places in winter. Spawns in fast-flowing water (0.8-1 m/s) of shallow (0.5-0.8 m) riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years and about 75 mm SL (males), 110-140 mm SL (females). Spawns in May-August at temperatures above 18°C. Females deposit 2-3 portions of non-sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae drift short distance from spawning site to shallow shoreline habitats. Larvae and juveniles benthic, in very shallow shoreline habitats. They leave the shores for faster-flowing waters as they grow. Feeds on a wide variety of benthic invertebrates and algae.	eng
135584	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135584	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by dams, particularly in highland areas.	eng
135585	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135585	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Veleka and Resowska drainages, draining from the Strandzha (Yildiz Daglari) range to Black Sea (Bulgaria, Turkey).	eng
135585	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135585	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135585	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drought, and water abstraction is also a potential threat to the species, a decline in annual discharge of the Veleka has been recorded.	eng
135586	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135586	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: lower stretch (less than 5km) of Manikiotiko stream on eastern slope of Evia (Euboea) Island.	eng
135586	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: Stream on gravel bottom, flow usually interrupted in summer when only a few pools may subsist. <strong>Biology</strong>: No data. In June, individuals over 110 mm SL had nuptial tubercles.	eng
135586	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135586	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction for agriculture and drought are causing the stream to almost totally dry up in summer. Climate change also poses a threat as it is predicted that the severity of droughts will increase.	eng
135587	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135587	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Large rivers draining to Baltic Sea (absent in northern Sweden and Finland north of 62°N), North Sea (Weser, Elbe), Black Sea, Sea of Azov (Don) and Caspian Sea (abundant in Volga, rare in Ural).	eng
135587	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers with backwaters; also in eutrophic lowland lakes. Spawns on submerged vegetation along shores of rivers or in backwaters. Also reported to spawn on gravel in moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives more than 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years and about 150 mm SL. Most individuals spawn several times during their life. Spawns in spring (March-April in lower Danube, April-early May in Baltic, May-June in Volga delta), when temperature reaches 10°C (8-12°C in lower Danube). Spawning period short, usually only 1-2 weeks. Females spawn once a year. Males often defend spawning territories along shoreline. In mature males, sides of body above anal with nuptial tubercles. May undertake long migrations upriver to suitable spawning sites. Juveniles in backwaters and flooded zones along rivers. Enters freshened parts of seas to forage. Feeds predominantly on zooplankton in open water of backwaters and other still water bodies.	eng
135587	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135587	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135588	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135588	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135588	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas. Turkey: Rivers on the western coast (Aegean drainage) from Bakir to Great Menderes.	eng
135588	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<p>Greece: Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas. Turkey: Rivers on the western coast (Aegean drainage) from Menderes (Biga peninsular) to Dalaman.</p>	eng
135588	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Stream and upper parts of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.	eng
135588	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.	eng
135588	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135588	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135588	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution, industrial, domestic and agricultural, water abstraction and climate change (predicted to increase the severity of droughts).	eng
135588	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Pollution, industrial, domestic and agricultural, water abstraction and climate change (predicted to increase the severity of droughts).	eng
135589	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135589	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Italy: Timavo spring, north of Trieste. Timavo spring is the resurgence of River Reka, which flows from Slovenia after 35 km of underground course through the Kras (Karst) plateau. There is no record of Cottus species in Reka.	eng
135589	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large, very cold spring. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in March. Most individuals live only 1-2 years.	eng
135589	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135589	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is restricted to a very small area, but there are no known current threats to the species. However the spring is very close to a road which may pose a threat.	eng
135590	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135590	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: lower course of Danube, Dniepr and South Bug and coastal lakes. Almost or completely extirpated in Danube.	eng
135590	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower and middle parts of large rivers, estuaries, coastal lakes and adjacent areas of seas where salinity is lowered by large inflow of freshwater. Tolerates salinities up to 12 ‰. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom, today only below dams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn and move upstream during winter and/or spring. Spawns in May-July at 18-26°C. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Adults return to sea, lakes or estuaries soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles move downriver in autumn of same year or the following spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish. Regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.	eng
135590	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135590	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The reason for the extirpation of the species in the Danube is unknown. <br/>Dams blocked most spawning sites of the species, but they now spawn below the dams. Illegal fishing at the new spawning sites below the dams could threaten the species.	eng
135591	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135591	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135591	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Mediterranean basin (including Mallorca, Sardinia, Corsica), Atlantic basin south of English Channel and along western slope of British Isles; Rhine drainage. Hybrid zone with G. aculeatus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to Switzerland.	eng
135591	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Mediterranean basin (including Mallorca, Sardinia, Corsica), Atlantic basin south of English Channel and along western slope of British Isles; Rhine drainage. Hybrid zone with G. aculeatus in English Channel, southern North Sea, Baltic Sea and their basins. Introduced to Switzerland.	eng
135591	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and ponds with slow to moderate current, clear water, sand bottom. In Mediterranean basin, commonly in spring-fed water bodies, also found in other habitats (including brackish water in Po delta). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, non-migratory species. Reproduces in April-May in Spain, in Italy in May-July in springs and earlier in brackish waters. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. In spawning season, males develop a vivid red belly. They defend territories, in which they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas. They dig a depression to which they bring plant materials, which are glued together with kidney secretions and covered by sand, leaving only the entrance distinct. Several females are then led in turn to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in about 10 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days, after which the male abandons the nest. Feeds mainly on small invertebrates.	eng
135591	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, lakes and ponds with slow to moderate current, clear water, sand bottom. In Mediterranean basin, commonly in spring-fed water bodies, also found in other habitats (including brackish water in Po delta). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, non-migratory species. Reproduces in April-May in Spain, in Italy in May-July in springs and earlier in brackish waters. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. In spawning season, males develop a vivid red belly. They defend territories, in which they construct a nest on the bottom, in relatively shallow areas. They dig a depression to which they bring plant materials, which are glued together with kidney secretions and covered by sand, leaving only the entrance distinct. Several females are then led in turn to the nest to spawn, then chased away. Males guard and fan eggs to provide them with oxygenated water. Spawning behaviour very stereotyped. Eggs hatch in about 10 days and juveniles are guarded for a few days, after which the male abandons the nest. Feeds mainly on small invertebrates.	eng
135591	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135591	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135591	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened in the Mediterranean basin.	eng
135591	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened in the Mediterranean basin.	eng
135592	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135592	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland: Lough Melvin (21 km²); possibly other lakes of Ireland and Scotland.	eng
135592	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in shallow benthic waters. Spawns near or in lake outlet. May also spawn on sandy bays in middle region of northern shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December. Juveniles swim upstream to return to lake. Feeds primarily on snails and trichopteran larvae, supplemented by other benthic invertebrates.	eng
135592	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135592	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication and introduced species are potential threats to the species.	eng
135593	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135593	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135593	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Ocean basin, in Siberia from Ob' to Ienissei drainages, in Europe in some tributaries of Pechora (Usa, Kos'yu, Kozhim), Korotaikha and Kara.	eng
135593	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Arctic Ocean basin, in Siberia from Ob' to Ienissei drainages, in Europe in some tributaries of Pechora (Usa, Kos'yu, Kozhim), Korotaikha and Kara.	eng
135593	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane cold rivers and lakes with high oxygen concentrations. Spawns in montane streams with heavy current on shallows with rock-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Includes several ecotypes (lacustrine, riverine-lacustrine, riverine, brook) differing in migratory pattern and duration of different stages of life cycle. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, brook short-cycle ecotype at 1-2 years. Breeding males are brighter coloured and have an enlarged posterior part of dorsal. In April-May, migrates to upper reaches for foraging and spawning; in summer, returns downriver to larger streams and lakes, then, in winter, moves to deeper places. Spawns in May-June at 6-12°C. Embryonic development takes 10-14 days. Feeds on benthic organisms, small fish, algae and plants. Larvae and small juveniles feed on small crustaceans and other small objects, then up to 70 % of diet contains insect larvae, worms, molluscs, and terrestrial insects.	eng
135593	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane cold rivers and lakes with high oxygen concentrations. Spawns in montane streams with heavy current on shallows with rock-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Includes several ecotypes (lacustrine, riverine-lacustrine, riverine, brook) differing in migratory pattern and duration of different stages of life cycle. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years, brook short-cycle ecotype at 1-2 years. Breeding males are brighter coloured and have an enlarged posterior part of dorsal. In April-May, migrates to upper reaches for foraging and spawning; in summer, returns downriver to larger streams and lakes, then, in winter, moves to deeper places. Spawns in May-June at 6-12°C. Embryonic development takes 10-14 days. Feeds on benthic organisms, small fish, algae and plants. Larvae and small juveniles feed on small crustaceans and other small objects, then up to 70 % of diet contains insect larvae, worms, molluscs, and terrestrial insects.	eng
135593	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The population is increasing as the water quality increases due to the decline of many industries and towns since the collapse of the Soviet era.	eng
135593	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	The population is increasing as the water quality increases due to the decline of many industries and towns since the collapse of the Soviet era.	eng
135593	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution from industry, now decreasing.	eng
135593	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Pollution from industry, now decreasing.	eng
135594	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135594	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: Resowska (Turkey) and Veleka (Bulgaria) drainages.	eng
135594	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine. Migrates to upper reaches of tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with heavy current on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forages in lower part of rivers, close to surface.	eng
135594	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In is still abundant in the Resowska (Oezulug pers comm.) and Veleka.	eng
135594	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Heavy fishing (poaching, commercial and sport fishing). Drought (at the spawning grounds) is also a potential threat to the species, already a decrease in the mean annual discharge of the Veleka has been recorded.	eng
135595	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135595	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes Skadar and Ohrid basins (Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia).	eng
135595	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and in lake tributaries. Spawns on lakes shores, or migrates to tributaries to spawn in shallow riffle habitats. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, forms large schools. Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at one year. In Lake Skadar, spawns in March-July, peaking in May at 18-23°C; in Lake Ohrid in May-June. Eggs are deposited on sand, gravel and rock bottom, at about 0.3 m depth. Eggs hatch in about 4 days. Feeds mainly on <em>Cladocera</em> and copepods.	eng
135595	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135595	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135596	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135596	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135596	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian basin; common in Volga drainage, upriver to Moscow. Introduced in Aral basin in 1954.	eng
135596	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian basin; common in Volga drainage, upriver to Moscow. Introduced in Aral basin in 1954.	eng
135596	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium-size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Usually on open sand or sand-shell bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to three years. Spawns for the first time at one, rarely at two years. Spawns in April-September. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly crustaceans and insect larvae) and small fish.	eng
135596	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large to medium-size rivers, on sand or mud bottom. Usually on open sand or sand-shell bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to three years. Spawns for the first time at one, rarely at two years. Spawns in April-September. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates (mainly crustaceans and insect larvae) and small fish.	eng
135596	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135596	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135596	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135596	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135597	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135597	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube, upper Elbe and Odra drainages. Coastal Black Sea drainages south of Danube in Bulgaria and Turkey. Western Anatolia.	eng
135597	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Flowing or still waters from small brooks to large rivers, springs, lakes and oxbows. On sand, silt or mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Females live up to five years, males up to three years. Spawns in aquatic vegetation in April-July. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. taenia</em> and <em>C. tanaitica</em>.	eng
135597	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135597	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135598	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135598	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Bulgaria: Lake Mandras drainage (Black Sea basin).	eng
135598	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates up to upper reaches of lake tributaries to spawn. Spawns in riffles with strong current, on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June. Forages in pelagic area of lake, close to surface. Feeds on terrestrial insects and zooplankton.	eng
135598	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Reportedly abundant in the lake.	eng
135598	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution in the lake from industrial and domestic sources and impoundment of spawning rivers, some are already blocked.	eng
135599	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135599	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lake Neuchâtel. Introduced in Lake Maggiore (where it has possibly hybridised with other introduced species).	eng
135599	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four. Spawns in January, on sand or mud, in deep water, at depths up to 90-130 m.	eng
135599	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135599	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduced species (coregonids) - competition, may have impacted the species when they were first introduced. Eutrophication (1970s) of the lake caused a population decline, but the conditions in the lake are now improved.	eng
135600	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135600	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: two springs, one near Almiri (probably now extirpated) and the other at Meligou (Peloponnese).	eng
135600	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish water springs (up to 23 ‰ salinity). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Observed in areas with slow current.	eng
135600	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	At Almiri Spring in 2002 the species was not observed in a survey, in October 2003, five larvae were found and it has not been seen since where it is now expected to be extirpated (Kottelat pers comm.). At Meligou the species seems to be surviving in the lagoon adjacent to the bathing area in 2004.	eng
135600	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Habitat loss. One of the two springs the species is known from, Meligou, has been converted to a bathing area. <br/>At Almiri Spring, once brackish water, was observed to be totally marine in 2002 for unknown reasons.	eng
135601	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135601	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135601	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern and northwestern Caspian Sea. For spawning, enters Volga, Ural, Emba, Terek and Kura drainages. In Volga, migrates through delta and southern zone of Volga-Akhtuba system, only few go as far upstream as Volgograd. In Terek, does not migrate beyond delta.	eng
135601	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Northern and northwestern Caspian Sea. For spawning, enters Volga, Ural, Emba, Terek and Kura drainages. In Volga, migrates through delta and southern zone of Volga-Akhtuba system, only few go as far upstream as Volgograd. In Terek, does not migrate beyond delta.	eng
135601	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. At sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 ? salinity during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years. In September, adults moves close to coasts and overwinter in shallow waters from middle of November until ice melts. Spawning migration commences in late March-early April at 1-3°C and peaks at 7-9°C. Spawns in April-May on shallow shores of coastal lakes and flooded areas at 10-17°C. Eggs are sticky, laid among plants. Annual spawner, but some females spawn only every second year. After spawning, adults return to sea where they join groups of immature juveniles, not travelling for long distances, staying in areas with high abundance of prey. Larvae migrate to sea, first passively, then actively. By August, juveniles reach coastal waters. While in river, juveniles feed on plankton (mostly Cladocera) and small benthic animals. At sea, they feed on oligochaetes and chironomid larvae, sometimes algae. At one year, starts to feed on molluscs and large benthic crustaceans. Adults also feed on crustaceans, worms and chironomid larvae.	eng
135601	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spends most of year in shallow brackish coastal waters. At sea, adults are most abundant at 2.5-4 m depth and 2-4 ‰ salinity during summer. Enters freshwater of estuaries, lagoons and lower reaches of large rivers to spawn. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-5 years. In September, adults moves close to coasts and overwinter in shallow waters from middle of November until ice melts. Spawning migration commences in late March-early April at 1-3°C and peaks at 7-9°C. Spawns in April-May on shallow shores of coastal lakes and flooded areas at 10-17°C. Eggs are sticky, laid among plants. Annual spawner, but some females spawn only every second year. After spawning, adults return to sea where they join groups of immature juveniles, not travelling for long distances, staying in areas with high abundance of prey. Larvae migrate to sea, first passively, then actively. By August, juveniles reach coastal waters. While in river, juveniles feed on plankton (mostly Cladocera) and small benthic animals. At sea, they feed on oligochaetes and chironomid larvae, sometimes algae. At one year, starts to feed on molluscs and large benthic crustaceans. Adults also feed on crustaceans, worms and chironomid larvae.	eng
135601	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135601	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135601	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The population in the Caspian sea has declined due to overexploitation from commercial fisheries.	eng
135601	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	The population in the Caspian sea has declined due to overexploitation from commercial fisheries.	eng
135602	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135602	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is kown from several localities in the Adour drainage (France).	eng
135602	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams, sectors with current, clear and cool water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135602	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135602	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135603	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135603	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia: Kuban drainage.	eng
135603	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabits a wide range of habitats from small lowland streams to foothill rivers with clear water and gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135603	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135603	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135604	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135604	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Tendrovskiy Bay, limans and coastal lakes of north-western Black Sea, lakes of Danube delta. It occurs rather far upstream: in Danube to Iron Gate dam, in Dniester to Bendery, in South Bug to Gard rapids. Native range in Dnieper not clear. Invasive in reservoirs in Dnieper after damming in late 1940s where distributed now up to Kiev, in Ingulets up to Snegirevka (Smirnov 1986, Pligin <em>et al</em>. 2002; pers. obs.).	eng
135604	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish waters. Prefers lowland rivers, deltas and coastal lakes. In rivers, usually abundant in main stream. Usually on silty sand with mollusc shells. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-August. Females probably lay eggs in 2-3 portions inside or under a mollusc shell. Adults die soon after spawning. Feeds mainly on chironomid larvae, amphipods and molluscs.	eng
135604	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135604	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135605	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135605	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135605	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Europe: southern tributaries of lower Kuban. Caucasian Black Sea basin of Russia, Georgia and eastern Turkey near Hopa.	eng
135605	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	In Europe: southern tributaries of lower Kuban. Caucasian Black Sea basin of Russia, Georgia and eastern Turkey near Hopa.	eng
135605	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large rivers. Associated with salmonid fishes or cyprinids of barbel zone. Spawns over clean gravel areas in flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilic. Spawns in April-July. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
135605	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide range of cold and well oxygenated habitats from small, fast-flowing streams to large rivers. Associated with salmonid fishes or cyprinids of barbel zone. Spawns over clean gravel areas in flowing water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, rheophilic. Spawns in April-July. Spawns in shoals, fractional spawner, females deposit the sticky eggs deep into clean gravel. Feeds on invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
135605	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135605	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135605	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135605	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135606	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135606	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135606	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	All European coasts. Absent from White, Barents, Baltic and Caspian Seas and from Northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.	eng
135606	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	All European coasts. Absent from White, Barents, Baltic and Caspian Seas and from Northern Black Sea and Sea of Azov.	eng
135606	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Coastal waters and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 30 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-7 years and about 350 (males) and 420 (females) mm SL. A pelagic spawner in open sea, in January-June at temperatures above 9°C. Larvae planktonic. Juveniles move inshore as they grow, aggregating in brackish estuarine nursery areas where they usually remain until their second summer. Large juveniles and adults show a complicated migration pattern at sea, coming close to shore and entering freshwaters of estuaries during summer to forage. Juveniles feed on invertebrates, taking increasingly more fish with age. Adults piscivorous.	eng
135606	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Coastal waters and estuaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 30 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-7 years and about 350 (males) and 420 (females) mm SL. A pelagic spawner in open sea, in January-June at temperatures above 9°C. Larvae planktonic. Juveniles move inshore as they grow, aggregating in brackish estuarine nursery areas where they usually remain until their second summer. Large juveniles and adults show a complicated migration pattern at sea, coming close to shore and entering freshwaters of estuaries during summer to forage. Juveniles feed on invertebrates, taking increasingly more fish with age. Adults piscivorous.	eng
135606	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135606	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135606	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135606	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135607	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135607	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Caspian basin, from Terek to Samur drainages in northern Caucasus, Daghestan and Azerbaidjan. After construction of Kuma-Manych canal, invaded Chograiskoie Reservoir (Don drainage).	eng
135607	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and montane stretches of rivers and streams with stone or gravel bottom. Ranges upstream to uppermost reaches in mountains. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to seven years. Females spawn for the first time at four years, males at 2-3. Migrates upriver and spawns in shallow tributaries in March-September. Average female spawns about 9,000 eggs. Larvae and yearlings remain in spawning streams, adults migrate downriver. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, terrestrial insects and diatoms. In still-water habitats, feeds on terrestrial insects and zooplankton.	eng
135607	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135607	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135608	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135608	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern and southeastern Caspian Sea; deltas of Ural and Volga; along western coast southward to Daghestan.	eng
135608	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A near-pelagic coastal marine species; found in areas with different salinities, including fresh water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives one year. Matures at 18-20 mm SL. Spawns after first winter, in May-July, down to 2-7 m. Females probably lay 2-3 portions of eggs (0.4 × 1.0 mm), separately attached inside a mollusc shell. Adults probably die soon after spawning. Feeds on small crustaceans.	eng
135608	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135608	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135609	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135609	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135609	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drainages of Arctic and Pacific Oceans. In Europe in Umba (Kola Peninsula), Severnaya Dvina, Mezen and upper Pechora drainages. In Asia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea); Amur drainage; Sakhalin Island; Hokkaido (Japan).	eng
135609	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Drainages of Arctic and Pacific Oceans. In Europe in Umba (Kola Peninsula), Severnaya Dvina, Mezen and upper Pechora drainages. In Asia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea); Amur drainage; Sakhalin Island; Hokkaido (Japan).	eng
135609	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All types of rivers and streams, including brackish waters. Spawns in sand-gravel bottom in shallow water. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Enters floodplain meadows during high waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depend on latitude when temperatures reach 13-15°C, from late March to mid-July or later. Migrates into small brooks to spawn. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2.5-3.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer, overwinters and spawns in spring. Ammocoetes remaining in temporal floodplain pools burrow into the bottom and form a protective capsule of slimy secretion and remain immobile until water returns.	eng
135609	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All types of rivers and streams, including brackish waters. Spawns in sand-gravel bottom in shallow water. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. Enters floodplain meadows during high waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Non-predatory, freshwater resident. Timing of spawning season depend on latitude when temperatures reach 13-15°C, from late March to mid-July or later. Migrates into small brooks to spawn. Males dig a shallow nest in habitats with moderate current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 2.5-3.5 years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer, overwinters and spawns in spring. Ammocoetes remaining in temporal floodplain pools burrow into the bottom and form a protective capsule of slimy secretion and remain immobile until water returns.	eng
135609	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135609	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135609	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135609	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135610	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135610	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Kuban drainage: southern tributaries from Adagum to Laba systems.	eng
135610	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Piedmont and mountain streams with Mediterranean water regime, strong to moderate current, rock or gravel bottom, abundant along shores. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats, with strong current and stone or pebble bottom, at 10-20 cm water depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females often one year later. Spawns in April-June at temperatures above 20°C. Does not migrate long distances, but moves downstream in winter to deeper pools, and in summer to uppermost stretches of streams. Females lay eggs in 2-3 portions during entire spawning period. Eggs are 1.9 mm in diameter, orange, and adhere to pebbles. Eggs hatch in 3 days. Larvae lack adhesive glands, lie passively on bottom; at 3 days, become negatively phototactic and actively hide under stones. After start of active feeding, they drift to shallow areas. Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects, benthic invertebrates and algae.	eng
135610	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135610	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135611	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135611	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes Como, Garda, Orta, Maggiore, Lugano and Iseo (northern Italy, Switzerland). Introduced in Lakes Bolsena, Bracciano and Vico (central Italy).	eng
135611	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Most individuals reproduce only once or twice. Spawns when temperatures rise above 15-16°C in June-August, along shores near surface at night in bright moonlight. Feeds predominantly on cladocerans and copepods but also consumes small fish.	eng
135611	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135611	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135612	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135612	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic: Bothnian Gulf, Gotland (missing along Swedish coast southward of Stockholm); southern Baltic: from Germany to Gulf of Finland; several landlocked populations in northern Germany (almost extirpated), Sweden (lakes Vänern, Vättern, Locknesjön, Storvindeln, Storlaisan, Skalka-Parkijaur, Arjeplog), Russia (Neva drainage, Lakes Ladoga and Onega).	eng
135612	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, coastal waters. Lacustrine, at depths greater than 30 m, in Lake Ladoga commonly at 50-150 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Lives up to 20 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-6 years. In northern Baltic, spawns along shores or in lowermost stretches of rivers, in October-January. In Lake Ladoga, spawns at 50-100 m depth, in late November-December (later than other sympatric <em>Coregonus</em> species), overwinters in deep water and moves to higher water layers (25-40 m) only in summer. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially gammarids, molluscs and insect larvae.	eng
135612	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135612	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135613	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135613	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lower Struma drainage and Lakes Volvi and Koronia (Greece).	eng
135613	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135613	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant. In the resevoir created by a dam on the Struma river, the species is very abundant.	eng
135613	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction and pollution is a potential threat to the species in the Struma tributaries. In August of 1995 almost all fish died in Lake Koronia, due to anoxic conditions provoked by extreme pollution. The lake totally dried in 2002.	eng
135614	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135614	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Freshwater lakes, backwaters and reservoirs in Volga and Ural drainages. Invasive in middle Don drainage and in middle and upper Volga drainage, especially in River Kama.	eng
135614	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic zone of large freshwater lakes and reservoirs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic. Lives up to five years. Spawns in open water in late evening, in April-July. Eggs are pelagic. Feeds on crustaceans such as copepods and cladocerans.	eng
135614	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135614	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135615	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135615	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Bulgaria: River Provadiskaya (enters Black Sea near Varna).	eng
135615	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Restricted to the upper and middle stretch of a small, slowly flowing stream. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135615	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very restricted and fragmented.	eng
135615	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pollution from industrial and domestic sources.	eng
135616	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Improving water quality.	eng
135616	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lake Vierwaldstätter.	eng
135616	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, feeding at 5-30 m depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In July-September, moves to depths of up to 80-200 m to spawn. Feeds on crustaceans.	eng
135616	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Thought to be extinct, but was re-discovered in early 2000s. The population seems to be on the increase.	eng
135616	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication was thought to have caused the species to go extinct. Now conditions in the lake are improving.	eng
135617	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135617	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Ohrid (Macedonia, Albania).	eng
135617	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Surf zone along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May-June.	eng
135617	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135617	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduced species are a potential threat to the species. Many species have already been introduced into Lake Ohrid.	eng
135618	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135618	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Vierwaldstätter, Zug and possibly Alpnach and Sarnen.	eng
135618	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic feeder. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Most individuals spawn in November-December, at depths of 20-80 m, along littoral slope. In lake Vierwaldstätter, a very rare "<em>albeli</em>" is spawning in July-August. Its identity needs further investigations. Feeds on zooplankton and insect nymphs.	eng
135618	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Extirpate in Zug (before 1950). Very abundant in Vierwaldstätter.	eng
135618	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No current threats to the species are known.	eng
135619	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135619	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea basins, from Genova to southernmost Italy, Ionian Sea basin in southern Italy (Sini and Basento drainages), Adriatic basin from Ofanto drainage (southern Italy) to Krka drainage.	eng
135619	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small rivers and streams with riffles and pools. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Spawns in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water. Also along shores of slowly flowing lowland rivers, even in very small mountain streams. Also in large lakes, undertaking spawning migrations to inflowing streams or spawning in very shallow water, over stones close to surf zone. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Juveniles gregarious, adults more solitary. Lives up to 15 years. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-3 years, females at 3-5. Spawns in April-July, when temperature rises above 14°C. Females spawn more than once during a season. Individual females spawn with several males. Males assemble at spawning grounds and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles or lake shores. Females deposit the sticky eggs into excavations made in gravel. Feeding larvae and juveniles inhabit very shallow shoreline habitats. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial animal and plant material. Large individuals become predominantly piscivorous. Frequently forms hybrids with <em>Alburnus arborella</em> and <em>A. albidus</em>.	eng
135619	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135619	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135620	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135620	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Doiran (Greece, Macedonia).	eng
135620	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, near shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Along southern shore, spawns in surf zone of lake.	eng
135620	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135620	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction from the lake for agricultural irrigation. It is predicted that the lake will be dry by 2015 if current abstraction rates continue.	eng
135621	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135621	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: upper Loire, Dordogne, Lot and Tarn drainages.	eng
135621	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in hilly area with moderate to swift current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135621	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135621	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams, especially the regulation of flow regime allowing the spread of lowland species. Introduction of other species of <em>Gobio</em> is a potential threat.	eng
135622	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135622	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lower reaches, deltas and limans of rivers draining to northern Black Sea (Dniestr, Dniepr), Sea of Azov (Don and Kuban deltas, mouth of smaller rivers) and Caspian Sea (delta and lower reaches of Volga).	eng
135622	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and slightly brackish water with salinity up to about 10 ‰; usually over mud bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Probably lives only one year. Spawns in May-August, in shallow areas, at 0.5-0.8 m depth (also reported down to 20 m), with some current, hard sand, mud or clay bottom and with rare vegetation. Spawns in empty mollusc shells. Probably spawns eggs (4.3 × 1.8 mm) in several portions. Males probably tend the nest. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, rotifers and algae.	eng
135622	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135622	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Shortening of the brackish zone, due to water abstraction and flow regulation of the rivers.	eng
135623	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species entire range (Lake Posta Fibreno, 0.29 km² and tributaries) is included in Lago di Posta Fibreno Nature Reserve.	eng
135623	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Italy: Lake Posta Fibreno and tributaries.	eng
135623	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Posta Fibreno is an elongated karstic lake with underwater springs and caves, 1.1 km long, 0.1-0.3 km wide, 0.29 km², 289 m above sea level, 15 m deep (average depth 2.5 m), about 10°C year-round and clear and well oxygenated water. Spawns close to underwater springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, sometimes entering lake tributaries. Spawns in December-January (local <em>S. cettii</em> population in February-March).	eng
135623	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135623	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potential threats of introduced species and pollution.	eng
135624	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135624	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia: middle and lower Neretva drainage, Stara (Old) Neretva, Lake Desne, lake basins near Imotski, Matica drainage near Vrgorac.	eng
135624	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In well vegetated rivers, backwaters, oxbows, ponds and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135624	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135624	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135625	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135625	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin, from Drin to Aoos drainages, including Lakes Skadar and Ohrid (Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Greece).	eng
135625	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine and riverine. In streams and rivers, prefers stretches with clear water and riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135625	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135625	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Overfishing, drought.	eng
135626	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135626	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Black Sea basin: from Kamchiya to Resowska drainages (Bulgaria, Turkey).	eng
135626	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fast to moderate flowing rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns until July.	eng
135626	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135626	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135627	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135627	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Geneva (Switzerland, France).	eng
135627	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in moderate depth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In summer, feeds on insects. Moves to deeper water in winter. Spawns in February in deep water over aquatic vegetation.	eng
135627	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It was last recorded in Lake Geneva in 1920. Although the name féra is still used for the only coregonid present in Lake Geneva, this is not the original species but the introduced <em>C. palaea</em>.	eng
135627	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The reasons for the extinction are thought to be eutrophication and overfishing in the early 1900s.	eng
135628	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135628	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.	eng
135628	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in July (or until December?) in Lake Zurich, in deep water. Spawns near shores, at depths of 20-80 m, in October-November in Lake Walenstadt. Feeds on plankton in midwater and on benthic invertebrates (snails, chironomids).	eng
135628	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135628	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None known.	eng
135629	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135629	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Montenegro: Lake Skadar basin, Moraca drainage.	eng
135629	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers with stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135629	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In 2003 and 2006, it was found to be very common in the Moraca.	eng
135629	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135630	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135630	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: lakes of Acheloos and Louros drainages; introduced in Lake Pamvotis.	eng
135630	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine; spawns in shallow and sandy areas, with vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at three years. Spawns once a year, in March-April, on plants or gravel. Eggs are very adhesive, 1.0-1.4 mm in diameter. Larvae and juveniles are found away from shore. Juveniles feed on invertebrates and plant material, individuals larger than 120 mm SL feed mainly on snails and mussels.	eng
135630	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135630	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major current threats known, but it is potentially threatened by introduced alien fish species.	eng
135631	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135631	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135631	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian, Black, Baltic, White, Barents, Arctic, North and Aral Seas and Atlantic basins, southwest to Adour drainage; Mediterranean basin, in Rhône drainage and northern Italy. Widely distributed in North America and Siberia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea basin). Historically absent from Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean France, central Italy, southern and western Greece, eastern Adriatic basin, Iceland, western Norway and northern Scotland. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe.	eng
135631	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian, Black, Baltic, White, Barents, Arctic, North and Aral Seas and Atlantic basins, southwest to Adour drainage; Mediterranean basin, in Rhône drainage and northern Italy. Widely distributed in North America and Siberia eastward to Anadyr drainage (Bering Sea basin). Historically absent from Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean France, central Italy, southern and western Greece, eastern Adriatic basin, Iceland, western Norway and northern Scotland. Now widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe.	eng
135631	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats with aquatic or periodically flooded vegetation. Often semi-anadromous in part of northern Baltic basin with lower salinity. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 170-350 mm SL, females at 250-400 mm SL, at 1-6 years. Reproduction closely related to the presence of submerged vegetation. Spawns in late winter or early spring, between February in the south and June in the north, when temperature rises above 5°C. Several males court a single female. Eggs are deposited in flooded areas and on submerged vegetation over a period of 2-5 days. Juvenile survival is negatively related to biomass of older individuals and positively related to the area of the patches covered by submerged vegetation. Feeds on various small vertebrates, predominantly fish, and large invertebrates as decapod crustaceans. Cannibalism is common. In arctic lakes, it is sometimes the only fish species in a given water body; in such cases, juveniles feed on invertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates; large individuals are predominantly cannibals.	eng
135631	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In a wide variety of habitats with aquatic or periodically flooded vegetation. Often semi-anadromous in part of northern Baltic basin with lower salinity. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 170-350 mm SL, females at 250-400 mm SL, at 1-6 years. Reproduction closely related to the presence of submerged vegetation. Spawns in late winter or early spring, between February in the south and June in the north, when temperature rises above 5°C. Several males court a single female. Eggs are deposited in flooded areas and on submerged vegetation over a period of 2-5 days. Juvenile survival is negatively related to biomass of older individuals and positively related to the area of the patches covered by submerged vegetation. Feeds on various small vertebrates, predominantly fish, and large invertebrates as decapod crustaceans. Cannibalism is common. In arctic lakes, it is sometimes the only fish species in a given water body; in such cases, juveniles feed on invertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates; large individuals are predominantly cannibals.	eng
135631	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135631	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135631	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135631	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135632	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135632	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lake Thun.	eng
135632	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in August-December, at 40-150 m deep, mainly near torrent deltas. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially chironomids.	eng
135632	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In recent surveys the species is rare but present.	eng
135632	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135633	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135633	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Austria: Lake Traunsee.	eng
135633	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At depths of 40-60 m, up to surface in summer. Spawns close to shore. Traunsee is a 25.6 km² oligotrophic lake at 422 m above sea level (maximum depth 191 m, average depth 90 m). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns from mid-October to early March.	eng
135633	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135633	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The introduction of non-native coregonids, has led to hybridisation.	eng
135634	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135634	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Subalpine lakes in Germany and Austria.	eng
135634	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Migrates for short distances to lower reaches of tributary streams. Spawns in streams with strong current, on gravel bottom, rarely along lake shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years, females one year later than males. Spawns in May-July, in shallows, current about 1 m/s, and 12-18°C, often with much splashing. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Adults return to lakes soon after spawning to forage. Larvae move downriver soon after hatching. All age groups feed on zooplankton.	eng
135634	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135634	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135635	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Natura 200 species.	eng
135635	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Natura 200 species.	eng
135635	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Basins of North, southern Baltic, Black, western and southern Caspian and Aegean Seas (south to Pinios drainage); Mediterranean basin, only in northern Rhône (France) and Drin drainages (Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia). Invasive in France in southern Rhône and west of Seine, in southern Russia in Don and Kuban drainages. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy. Absent in River Ural, Denmark, Scandinavia, Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas, most of Adriatic basin and Black Sea basin south of Kuban drainage.	eng
135635	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Basins of North, southern Baltic, Black, western and southern Caspian and Aegean Seas (south to Pinios drainage); Mediterranean basin, only in northern Rhône (France) and Drin drainages (Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia). Invasive in France in southern Rhône and west of Seine, in southern Russia in Don and Kuban drainages. Introduced to Great Britain and northern Italy. Absent in River Ural, Denmark, Scandinavia, Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas, most of Adriatic basin and Black Sea basin south of Kuban drainage.	eng
135635	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in still or slow-flowing water with dense aquatic vegetation and sand-silt bottom as lowland ponds, canals, slow-flowing rivers, backwaters and oxbows, where mussels are present. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year and about 30-35 mm SL. Lives exceptionally up to five years but most individuals do not survive the year of their first reproduction and populations sizes fluctuate greatly over the years. Spawns in April-August.	eng
135635	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in still or slow-flowing water with dense aquatic vegetation and sand-silt bottom as lowland ponds, canals, slow-flowing rivers, backwaters and oxbows, where mussels are present. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at one year and about 30-35 mm SL. Lives exceptionally up to five years but most individuals do not survive the year of their first reproduction and populations sizes fluctuate greatly over the years. Spawns in April-August.	eng
135635	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135635	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135635	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by water pollution, weed clearing, and stocking of predatory fish.	eng
135635	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Locally threatened by water pollution, weed clearing, and stocking of predatory fish.	eng
135636	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135636	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lower Danube in Romania and Ukraine, from confluence with River Arges downstream to delta.	eng
135636	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Deep waters of large rivers on sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135636	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species was last recorded in the 1960's. There have been many studies within the species range which have all failed to find the species. Recently in 2001, 2002 (J. Freyhof, pers comm.) and 2003 (Bogutskaya, N. pers comm.) survey work in the Danube delta in the species habitat all failed to find the species.	eng
135636	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135637	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135637	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Romania: freshwater springs of hypersaline littoral Lake Techirghiol (south of Constanta).	eng
135637	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Freshwater springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns during an extended period, in February-October.	eng
135637	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in the 1960's. Further surveys, most recently in 1998, all failed to find the species.	eng
135637	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hybridisation with <em>G. aculeatus</em> which invaded its habitat when irrigation transformed the hypersaline lake which served as a natural barrier between the two species.	eng
135638	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135638	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Maritza drainage (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey).	eng
135638	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams to rivers, stretches with moderate current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Omnivorous; feeds mainly on insects and aquatic invertebrates. Spawns in April-June in shallow areas with gravel bottom.	eng
135638	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally some populations are declining.	eng
135638	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by water abstraction and drought.	eng
135639	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135639	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135639	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Large rivers draining to Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas. Introduced or native to Northern Dvina drainage (White Sea basin) where it is quickly spreading from warmer upper reaches (Vychegda system) northward. Introduced in River Volkhov (a Lake Ladoga tributary), in Rhine in 1995 and invasive in Vistula drainage, coming from Black Sea basin through Prypet-Bug canal (connecting Dniepr and Vistula drainages).	eng
135639	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Large rivers draining to Black, Azov, Caspian and Aral Seas. Introduced or native to Northern Dvina drainage (White Sea basin) where it is quickly spreading from warmer upper reaches (Vychegda system) northward. Introduced in River Volkhov (a Lake Ladoga tributary), in Rhine in 1995 and invasive in Vistula drainage, coming from Black Sea basin through Prypet-Bug canal (connecting Dniepr and Vistula drainages).	eng
135639	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers and estuaries. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Poorly known. Thought to be a rheophilic, nocturnal species. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Spawns in April-May when temperature rises above 8°C. Spawns in large aggregations. Semi-anadromous populations forage in large brackish-water habitats in estuaries around Black Sea. Spawning migration of semi-anadromous individuals start in November (Kura). Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135639	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large lowland rivers and estuaries. Spawns in fast-flowing water on gravel bottom or submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Poorly known. Thought to be a rheophilic, nocturnal species. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Spawns in April-May when temperature rises above 8°C. Spawns in large aggregations. Semi-anadromous populations forage in large brackish-water habitats in estuaries around Black Sea. Spawning migration of semi-anadromous individuals start in November (Kura). Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135639	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135639	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Unknown.	eng
135639	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	May be locally threatened by water pollution.	eng
135639	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	May be locally threatened by water pollution.	eng
135640	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fishing for the species is now banned in its remaining locations.	eng
135640	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	England: Lakes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite (Cumbria); Scotland: Castle Loch and Mill Loch near Lochmaben. It has been introduced for conservation purposes in Loch Skene.	eng
135640	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. Spawns on gravel or stone shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, shoaling. Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in November-December. Males gather in spawning places and females join these shoals and spawn together in midwater. Eggs sink to bottom and develop between stones. Shoals move to deeper water in warm weather. Comes closer to shores in late summer. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>Entomostraca)</em>, supplemented by small insects.	eng
135640	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135640	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication was the cause of the species extirpation in Castle Loch which occurred in 1911 and Mill Loch in the early 1970s. The main threat to the species in Bassenthwaite is <em>Gymnocephalus cernuus</em>, an introduced species which eats the eggs of <em>C. vandesius</em>. There is no plausible threat to the Derwentwater population.	eng
135641	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135641	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: basins of Lakes Volvi (69 km², maximum depth 23 m) and Koronia (where it is now extirpated).	eng
135641	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. Spawns in streams <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135641	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Currently abundant in Lake Volvi.	eng
135641	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species was extirpated from Lake Koronia as the lake almost dried up in 1995, and then totally dried in 2002. The threats to the species in Lake Volvi is drought (which is predicted to be increase in severity due to climate change), especially of the spawning streams of which there is only one or two.	eng
135642	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan.	eng
135642	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria).	eng
135642	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, usually at 0-40 m during summer. Spawns at surface over deep water, off-shore. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-3 years. Spawns in first half of December, when temperature falls below 7°C. Males aggregate at surface and females ready to spawn come from deeper water to join these aggregations. Eggs sink to bottom and hatch in March. Larvae swim to surface and start to feed after about 8 days. Feeds on plankton and insects; preys on juvenile Perca fluviatilis in summer.	eng
135642	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135642	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135643	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135643	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia: Lake Kezenoi-am (formerly Eizenam (Daghestan)) in northern Caucasus at 1870 m above sea level. In 1963, introduced in Lake Mochokh (Daghestan), probably established.	eng
135643	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Kezenoi-am is a mountain lake, 2.4 km²,with a maximum depth of 74 m,, temperatures about 5°C below 20 m and 5-18°C in upper layers in summer, covered by ice in winter, high oxygen concentrations down to bottom year-round and low plankton density. Spawns in lake, close to underwater springs; large-sized form probably migrates to tributaries. Prior to the introduction of <em>Gobio holurus</em> and <em>Squalius cephalus</em>, <em>S. ezenami</em> was the only fish in the lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, migrates to tributaries. Two forms are known: small-size (adults 160-260 mm SL, 200-350 g) and large-size (adults 380-1130 mm SL, over 1 kg). Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Spawning period extends over almost entire year. Young juveniles feed mostly on gammarids, chironomid larvae; larger juveniles and adults feed on molluscs, benthic invertebrates and fry; largest individuals are mostly piscivorous, especially since the introduction of <em>G. holurus</em>.	eng
135643	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135643	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduction of alien species (<em>Squalius cephalus</em>), which feeds on its fry. The region is hard to access as it is a war zone (Chechnya) so levels of harvesting are unknown.	eng
135644	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135644	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Research is needed on the distribution and impacts of threats on the species.	eng
135644	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Europe, restricted to western Sardinia (Italy). Southwestern Mediterranean coast, from northern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Enters permanent rivers and coastal lagoons. Landlocked population in Lake Ichkeul (Tunisia) and in man-made lakes in Sardinia.	eng
135644	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	In Europe, restricted to western Sardinia (Italy). Southwestern Mediterranean coast, from northern Morocco to northern Tunisia. Enters permanent rivers and coastal lagoons. Landlocked population in Lake Ichkeul (Tunisia) and in man-made lakes in Sardinia.	eng
135644	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns close to estuaries in fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-4 years, females at 4-5. Starts entering rivers when temperatures reach 14-18°C, mainly in May. Spawning commences when temperature rises above 20°C in May-June. Spent individuals migrate back to sea, but many die after spawning. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth in first summer and remain at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominant on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
135644	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Spawns close to estuaries in fresh and brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Males migrate upriver at 3-4 years, females at 4-5. Starts entering rivers when temperatures reach 14-18°C, mainly in May. Spawning commences when temperature rises above 20°C in May-June. Spent individuals migrate back to sea, but many die after spawning. Most juveniles migrate to river mouth in first summer and remain at sea until they mature. At sea, feeds predominant on crustaceans and small fishes. In freshwater, adults do not feed and juveniles prey on planktonic crustaceans.   Landlocked populations are resident.	eng
135644	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135644	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135644	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	It is suspected that the species spawns in the brackish zone of estuaries. If the flow of freshwater is reduced due to dams, flow regulation, water abstraction and climate change, this brackish water area may be disappear.   . Landlocked populations are vulnerable to overfishing, habitat modification and pollution. The impacts of the threats to the species are unknown.	eng
135644	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	It is suspected that the species spawns in the brackish zone of estuaries. If the flow of freshwater is reduced due to dams, flow regulation, water abstraction and climate change, this brackish water area may be disappear. The impacts of the threats to the species are unknown.	eng
135645	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135645	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sea of Azov basin (Russia, Ukraine), where it migrates up the Don to the Tsymlansk Dam, Kuban to Krasnodar Dam, and other smaller rivers. There is a landlocked population in the Tsymlansk Resevoir.	eng
135645	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower parts of rivers, coastal lakes, estuaries, and open sea. At sea, lives close to surface and tolerates salinities up to 12 ‰. Landlocked populations in reservoirs. Migrates for long distances, up to upper reaches of streams in piedmont and montane zones. Spawns in rivers or streams with heavy current, on gravel bottom. Landlocked populations spawn in reservoir tributaries. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years, females one year later than males. Anadromous populations start entering rivers in autumn (September in Kuban) and move upstream during winter and/or in spring. Spawns in May-July, in shallows and at 18-26°C. Males assemble at spawning grounds and wait for ripe females, which arrive later. Eggs are sticky and adhere on pebbles or stones. Adults return to sea soon after spawning to forage. Young juveniles move downriver in autumn of same year or next spring. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, algae and insect larvae, adults mainly on planktonic crustaceans, terrestrial insects, and small fish. Regularly hybridizes with <em>Squalius cephalus</em>.	eng
135645	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in Tsymlansk Resevoir. Its status in the Sea of Azov is unknown but thought not to be currently declining. (declined in the 1960's - Don damed in 1963).	eng
135645	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Current potential threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
135646	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135646	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Russia: Kuma, Terek and Sulak drainages in Western Caspian basin.	eng
135646	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of habitats in small rivers and streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135646	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135646	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135647	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135647	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135647	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas and western Anatolia from Bakir.	eng
135647	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lesbos Island, stream Evergetoulas and western Anatolia from Bakir to Great Menderes.	eng
135647	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper part of stream, with current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.	eng
135647	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper part of stream, with current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: No data.	eng
135647	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally common (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).	eng
135647	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very few populations but locally common (J. Freyhof, pers comm.).	eng
135647	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction. Climate change is also a threat as the severity of droughts are predicted to increase.	eng
135647	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Water abstraction. Climate change is also a threat as the severity of droughts are predicted to increase.	eng
135648	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135648	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: three disjunct populations in Hérault drainage.	eng
135648	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small stream with clear, swift water and stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Probably similar to <em>C. gobio</em>.	eng
135648	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135648	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drought (potentially increasing due to climate change) and increasing water abstraction is a potential threat to the species, especially as the species occurs in a very restricted range.	eng
135649	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135649	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Spain; Guadalmina and Guadiaro rivers in Andalucia.	eng
135649	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species inhabits streams with clear water and gravel bottoms and prefers moderate flowing water.	eng
135649	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rare and declining.	eng
135649	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction, mainly due to the proliferation of golf fields.	eng
135650	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135650	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Don drainage.	eng
135650	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Prefers main course of rivers, with clear water, moderate to slow current, sand or sand-clay bottom. Avoids turbid and still waters. Commonly stays on bottom, in water 0.3-3 m deep. Spawns in stretches with heavy current and stone bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Forms small groups of individuals of similar size. Lives up to seven years. Spawns in April-May at 5-6°C. Eggs are 2.0 mm in diameter, sticky, slightly transparent. Eggs hatch in 9 days at 13°C. Larvae lack adhesive glands, lie passively on bottom, are negatively phototactic. Starts active feeding at 16 days. Feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, molluscs, also on other benthic invertebrates and algae.	eng
135650	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135650	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135651	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135651	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Middle and upper Danube drainage.	eng
135651	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Riverine and lacustrine habitats with sand bottom. Spawns in shallow water, over stones, sand or plant material. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135651	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135651	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135652	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135652	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage.	eng
135652	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing large and medium size lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. Juveniles may inhabit backwaters. Lacustrine population in Lake Balaton (Hungary). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other large benthic invertebrates.	eng
135652	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declined in the mid 20th century.	eng
135652	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No current threats known. Dam construction in the mid 20th century probably impacted the species.	eng
135653	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135653	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland: Lough Melvin (21 km²).	eng
135653	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, pelagic, in relatively deep water. Moves to tributaries for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December in most lake tributaries. Feeds mainly on mid-water plankton, especially Cladocera, and chironomid pupae.	eng
135653	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135653	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication and invasive species are potential threats to the species. Arctic charr have gone extinct in other Irish lakes due to eutrophication.	eng
135654	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135654	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Along most coasts of Caspian Sea (at depth 3-15 m in North Caspian, and at down to 50 m in Central and South Caspian), abundant in Volga delta (Ragimov, 1976, 1977, 1981, 1985b). recorded in Volga downstream from Volgograd (Lagunova, in Ragimov, 1981) but a single sample is reliably known only from the upper part of the Volga delta (45 km upstream from Astrakhan', Ragimov's matererial, IZA uncat.).	eng
135654	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh and brackish waters, salinity up to 13 ‰. Down to 50 m, mature adults at 1-11 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in May-September, until December in southern Caspian. Some individuals may spawn for the first time at 6-7 months. Females probably lay eggs in three portions. Females die after spawning, males probably 3-4 weeks later.	eng
135654	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135654	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sensitive to oil pollution.	eng
135655	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135655	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin, in Dniestr, Dniepr and Don drainages; Baltic basin, in Vistula and Odra drainages.	eng
135655	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inhabits a wide range of habitats from small lowland streams to fast-flowing piedmont rivers with clear water and sand to gravel bottom. Usually absent from large lowland rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Burrows into sand, avoids mud or silt, sometimes in gravel. Spawns in spring. Eggs 1.1-1.2 mm in diameter, sticky and indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel or other structures. Portion spawner. Eggs hatch in 50-60 h at 22°C. Larvae 3.1-4.2 mm TL start to feed after 6 days. Free larvae lack external gill filaments, but have a prominent transparent bump on forehead.	eng
135655	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135655	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135656	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135656	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lower reaches and deltas of Volga, Ural, Samur, Terek (Berg, 1949; Ragimov, 1966, 1981, 1985а; Vasilieva, 1983, 2000).  In Central Caspian along the western coast, and in South Caspian further eastward to Gorgan Bay (ZISP and IZA collections). We suppose that the species does not occur along the eastern coast of Central Caspian Sea; reports on its distribution there most probably refer to the later described B. mahmudbejovi.	eng
135656	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow coastal waters and estuaries, usually at 0.5-10 m depth, over mud bottom; lower reaches of rivers. Widely distributed but rare. During warm seasons prefers coastal waters down to 10 m. In northern Caspian Sea, moves to deeper areas (20-25 m) in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Forms schools during spawning season (April-July) in coastal shallows over hard mud bottom with mollusc shells. Females lay eggs in at least two portions into empty shells. Feeds mostly on molluscs and fish (small gobies), also worms and crustaceans.	eng
135656	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	One of the most abundant species in North Caspian.	eng
135656	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sensitive to oil pollution.	eng
135657	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135657	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Sperchios, Pinios and Cholorema drainages, streams in northern extremity of Evia (Eubea) Island.	eng
135657	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers; prefers stretches with clear water and riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135657	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135657	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, drought, water pollution (agricultural).	eng
135658	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135658	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rivers draining to Black Sea. Lipkovska stream in upper Vardar drainage (Macedonia).	eng
135658	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, along coasts at depths of up to 50 m. Migrates to hill streams. Resident part of populations in streams and uppermost reaches with fast current, cold clear water and stone or gravel bottom. Spawns in upper reaches with fast current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, lacustrine and resident ecotypes. Spawns in October-January. Parrs spend 2-4 years in rivers and streams, then smoltify and migrate to sea or mature in freshwater. Spends 2-4 years at sea. Anadromous individuals return to rivers in April-May and again in October-November. Eggs hatch in 6-8 weeks. Parrs and resident adults feed on a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Anadromous and large lacustrine individuals feed mainly on fish and large crustaceans. Anadromous individuals feed while in rivers.	eng
135658	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135658	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The anadromous ecotype is very rare in Europe, most abundant in southern Caucasus and Turkey. Because of damming, most returning adults are unable to reach spawning sites. The resident populations are less impacted by the dams.	eng
135659	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135659	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from the Zeta stream and the lower Moraca river, part of the Lake Skadar basin (Montenegro, Albania).	eng
135659	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lake Skadar and lower parts of tributary streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135659	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Possibly naturally rare.	eng
135659	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction is a current threat to the species and drought is a potential threat (however the Zeta stream is fed by karstic water basin and therefore unlikely to totally dry out).	eng
135660	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135660	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135660	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from White Sea to Chukotka (eastern Siberia), Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); America from Vancouver Island to Coronation Bay.	eng
135660	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from White Sea to Chukotka (eastern Siberia), Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); America from Vancouver Island to Coronation Bay.	eng
135660	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal shallows and bays; fresh water in lowland and piedmont rivers. At sea, pelagic, at 4-8 m depth. Spawns in rapids, in clear water, over stone-gravel bottom and depth 0.2-0.5 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Enters rivers only for spawning, first at 3-4 years. Lives up to 11 years. Spawning migration starts in April-May under ice. Distance of migration depends on availability of spawning sites, from tens to thousands of kilometres. Usually spawns in May-June and returns to sea soon after. Spawns at 7-14°C. Eggs are yellow, 0.8-1.0 mm in diameter, and adhere to pebbles and stones. Eggs hatch in 18-25 days at 5-18°C. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger juveniles mostly on gammarids and mysids. By August, juveniles migrate to sea. Becomes piscivorous when reaching sexual maturity. Feeds mostly on smaller, schooling fishes, usually juveniles of cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>), Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Coregonidae.	eng
135660	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal shallows and bays; fresh water in lowland and piedmont rivers. At sea, pelagic, at 4-8 m depth. Spawns in rapids, in clear water, over stone-gravel bottom and depth 0.2-0.5 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Enters rivers only for spawning, first at 3-4 years. Lives up to 11 years. Spawning migration starts in April-May under ice. Distance of migration depends on availability of spawning sites, from tens to thousands of kilometres. Usually spawns in May-June and returns to sea soon after. Spawns at 7-14°C. Eggs are yellow, 0.8-1.0 mm in diameter, and adhere to pebbles and stones. Eggs hatch in 18-25 days at 5-18°C. Larvae and young juveniles feed on zooplankton, larger juveniles mostly on gammarids and mysids. By August, juveniles migrate to sea. Becomes piscivorous when reaching sexual maturity. Feeds mostly on smaller, schooling fishes, usually juveniles of cod (<em>Gadus morhua</em>), Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Coregonidae.	eng
135660	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135660	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135660	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135660	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135661	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135661	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin, in Danube drainage; Aegean Sea basin, in Maritza and from Gallikos to Pinios drainages.	eng
135661	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mainly hill streams with clear water and bottom with sand or fine gravel bottom. In moderate current with few plants at water depths up to 1.5 m. Also observed in large rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Burrows during daylight into sand, sometimes in gravel. Spawns in spring. In aquarium, eggs indiscriminately scattered over sand, gravel and plants. A dwarf population was observed in a pond fed by a warm thermal spring with constant temperature in western Romania.	eng
135661	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135661	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135662	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The area is protected to maintain clean drinking water.	eng
135662	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from the type locality the Norin stream (10 km) in the Neretva drainage (Croatia).	eng
135662	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Outflow of a karstic spring, discharging 3.5-6.0 m/s in summer, down to 5.5 m, with gravel to mud-gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Adults observed in deepest parts of stream, juveniles in shallow areas among vegetation.	eng
135662	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very rare.	eng
135662	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water is abstracted from the spring and used for drinking water. However the habitat is in good condition.	eng
135663	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance is a cross border lake (Austria, Germany and Switzerland) and has a well managed and strictly regulated management and harvest plan.	eng
135663	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Constance (Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Introduced in lakes of Po drainage (where it possibly has hybridised with other introduced species) and probably in several other European lakes.	eng
135663	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, midwater along shores. Spawns in shallow water, on bottom, along shores. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December. Feeds on insects and plankton.	eng
135663	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The second most abundant species in Lake Constance.	eng
135663	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135664	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135664	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Kuban drainage and Sea of Azov close to Kuban estuary.	eng
135664	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain and piedmont streams, with strong currents, sand, gravel or rock bottom. Less abundant in lowland stretches and estuary. Spawns on gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at three years, females at four. Spawns in May-August. Spawning run starts at end of March and peaks in May. Migrations may extend to uppermost reaches of tributaries. Female lays up to three portions of eggs (total up to 60,000). After spawning, adults migrate downstream and spend winter in main course of Kuban and lower reaches of tributaries. Larvae and small juveniles feed mostly on chironomids and algae. Larger juveniles and adults feed on a variety of benthic invertebrates, and small fish.	eng
135664	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135664	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams.	eng
135665	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135665	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135665	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages. Introduced or stocked in many lakes in northern and central Russia.	eng
135665	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Arctic Ocean basin, from Kara to Kolyma drainages. Introduced or stocked in many lakes in northern and central Russia.	eng
135665	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes and their tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, marine waters with salinity up to 6-10?. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, lacustrine-riverine, and riverine stocks are reported. Most stocks are migratory. Spends most of year at sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Enters rivers in July-August and reaches spawning sites by October-November. In larger rivers, moves upriver up to 2000 km (average speed 20 km/day). Spawns for the first time at 6-14 years, 470-500 mm SL. Spawns in rapids or shallows, at 1-2°C, when rivers start freezing. Adults leave spawning sites in winter. Eggs hatch in 150-180 days; peak hatching usually in April. Juveniles feed on planktonic crustaceans. Adults feed on plankton in winter (during which they do not cease active foraging) and benthic invertebrates in summer.	eng
135665	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower reaches of rivers with slow current, large lakes and their tributaries, floodplain lakes, deltas and estuaries, marine waters with salinity up to 6-10‰. Rivers during migration. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, semi-anadromous, lacustrine, lacustrine-riverine, and riverine stocks are reported. Most stocks are migratory. Spends most of year at sea, sometimes rather far from coast. Enters rivers in July-August and reaches spawning sites by October-November. In larger rivers, moves upriver up to 2000 km (average speed 20 km/day). Spawns for the first time at 6-14 years, 470-500 mm SL. Spawns in rapids or shallows, at 1-2°C, when rivers start freezing. Adults leave spawning sites in winter. Eggs hatch in 150-180 days; peak hatching usually in April. Juveniles feed on planktonic crustaceans. Adults feed on plankton in winter (during which they do not cease active foraging) and benthic invertebrates in summer.	eng
135665	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Not declining (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.).	eng
135665	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Not declining (N. Bogutskaya pers comm.).	eng
135665	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135665	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135666	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135666	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Iceland; some populations with low scute number in Norway and northern Finland possibly belong to this species.	eng
135666	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and lakes. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No information. Most likely similar to <em>G. aculeatus</em>. Morphological differences are reported in several lakes between individuals inhabiting different substrates (mud, lava), especially in Lake Thingvalla.	eng
135666	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135666	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135667	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135667	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal areas of western Europe, from Netherlands to Garonne drainage (France), Ireland, southern Great Britain.	eng
135667	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Shallow still water with dense vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns at one year in April-June. Males build a nest hanging to aquatic vegetation and take care of eggs and larvae. Eggs hatch in 10-20 days. Dies at end of spawning season. Feeds mainly on zooplankton, small crustaceans and benthic insects.	eng
135667	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135667	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135668	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135668	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Black Sea basin (Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages), southern Baltic basin (Odra, Vistula), southern North Sea basin (Elbe, Rhine). Occurrence in Lake Ilmen and Ladoga basins questionable.	eng
135668	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. To spawn, both sexes move to surface or open water. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other larger benthic invertebrates.	eng
135668	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declined in the mid 20th century.	eng
135668	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In the mid 20th century large dam construction destroyed areas of the species habitat.	eng
135669	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135669	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Pinios drainage, Aliakmon (Greece), Vardar (Greece and FYROM) and upper Struma (FRYOM and Bulgaria).	eng
135669	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open waters of medium to large rivers. Forages close to surface. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135669	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135669	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Drought, water abstraction, pollution.	eng
135670	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135670	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin: from Soca drainage to Ancona province (Slovenia, Switzerland, Italy), Ricica, lower Zrmanja and Neretva drainages (Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina). Tyrrhenian basin: Arno drainage (Italy). Introduced in Ombrone and Tevere drainages (Italy).	eng
135670	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Open surface waters in a variety of habitats ranging from large subalpine lakes to small, lowland streams. Spawns in shallow riffles or along stony shores of lakes, occasionally above submerged vegetation. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Usually spawns only for a single season, in May-August at temperatures above 15°C. Feeds on plankton, drifting insects or invertebrates fallen on waters surface.	eng
135670	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135670	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135671	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	None.	eng
135671	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lake Geneva (Switzerland, France).	eng
135671	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>The species is found in deeper parts of the lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>In December, moves to spawn in shallower areas, near shore, on gravel.	eng
135671	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Last recorded in the early 1900s. If the species still existed it would have been recorded in one of the many surveys that have taken place.	eng
135671	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The reasons for the extinction are thought to be eutrophication and overfishing in the early 1900s.	eng
135672	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is ranched in all of its range states. In Gulf of Bothnia alone, about 6 million juveniles were stocked annually in 1995-1998 to support commercial fisheries.	eng
135672	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Baltic Sea: Swedish coast (including Bothnian Gulf, missing in Gotland); in southern Baltic, German coast, extending from River Schlei to Gulf of Finland. Southeastern North Sea basin: Ems, Weser and Elbe drainages and small rivers of Schleswig-Holstein and Denmark. Landlocked in Lake Miedwie (former Madüsee) and other lakes in Poland, Lakes Vättern, Vänern, Mälaren, Siljan (Sweden), Ladoga (Russia) and others. Introduced and transplanted in many drainages within its native range and outside westward to Rhine drainage.	eng
135672	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Forages along coasts and spawns in freshened parts of estuaries or in lower stretches of rivers. Also in deep, oligo-mesotrophic lakes. Spawns in shallow water, in rapids or small rivers or over firm sediments in lowland rivers and estuaries. In Lake Vänern, spawns at 8-20 m depth, over firm bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Spawns for the first time at 3-5 years. Enters rivers in June-October (northern Baltic) until November (southern Baltic), when temperature falls below 10°C. In River Tornionjoki (Finland), individuals ascending from sea in June-August can be distinguished by DNA markers from fish ascending in September. Spawns in October-November (Finland) until November-December (Poland), when temperature falls below 6°C. Spawners overwinter in river or at sea very close to estuaries. Eggs hatch in early spring (March-April in Odra) and drift to sea or to estuarine bays. Juveniles migrate to sea in June-August (Odra). May migrate up to 700 km from spawning river to forage at sea (Bothnian Bay). Northernmost stocks undertake the longest migrations between spawning and foraging grounds. Some females spawn every second year. Feeds on benthic prey (crustaceans, molluscs, large insect larvae, small fish).	eng
135672	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declined across most of the species range. In Germany and Poland, since the 2nd World War, all populations have been extirpated except one, there is only one population remaining in Denmark. In Sweden and Finland the poplations have also massively declined.	eng
135672	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water pollution, impoundment of rivers and overfishing.	eng
135673	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135673	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eastern and northeastern Sea of Azov: Gulfs of Taganrog and Temryuk. Bolshoi Akhtanizovski Liman, Kuban delta, rare in Don delta.	eng
135673	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Coastal fresh and brackish waters with salinities up to 7 ‰, and river mouths. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>A gregarious, bottom-dweller. Females live up to four years, males up to three. Spawns for the first time at one year. Spawns in least saline part of Gulf of Taganrog in June-July, at 24-25°C. Eggs are released over mud bottom; although slightly sticky, they do not adhere to bottom but become coated with minute substrate particles. Soon after spawning, adults migrate to open sea. Eggs hatch in two days. Larvae first lie on bottom, moving to the to surface at four days. From about 6 mm SL they actively prey on planktonic crustaceans, at 16-40 mm on larger copepods and mysids, and from second the year of life on <em>Knipowitschia longecaudata</em>, <em>Clupeonella cultriventris</em>, benthic worms, molluscs, and insect larvae.	eng
135673	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135673	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135674	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135674	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes of Baltic and White Sea basins from southern Norway to Karelia and Kola Peninsula (and possibly further eastward), e.g. in Lakes Gruda, Krøderen, Randsfjorden (Norway), Bullaren, Bolmen, Vänern, Vettasjärvi, Siljan, Storsjön, Tåsjön, Ormsjön, Flåjsön, Övre Särvsjön, Nedre Särvsjön, Östra Vattnan, Orten-Randsjön, Ansjön (Sweden), Inarijärvi (Finland), Onega, Ladoga, and Imandra (Russia).	eng
135674	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine. In Lake Ladoga, mainly at depths less than 50 m. Migrates to spawn in bays at beginning of autumn and spawns in November over clean pebble or silt bottom at depths of 2 to 10 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious, forms shoals. In small lakes and low altitude often sole species of genus. Spawns in September-February, depending on latitude and habitat, in flowing water in mid-autumn, in deep water in winter. In lake Vänern, spawns in November-December, at 2-5 m depth, over gravel or sand. Feeds on plankton in summer, may take benthic prey too.	eng
135674	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135674	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135675	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135675	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135675	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Europe: from Loire drainage (France) eastward to White, Barents and Arctic Sea basins; upper Volga drainage; southeastern Caspian basin; rivers draining to Black Sea; Rhône drainage (France); in Italy, native only in Po drainage; eastern England (now extirpated). In Siberia eastward to River Lena. Originally absent from Iberian Peninsula, central and southern Italy, Adriatic basin, Greece, Ireland, western and northern Great Britain and western France.	eng
135675	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Europe: from Loire drainage (France) eastward to White, Barents and Arctic Sea basins; upper Volga drainage; southeastern Caspian basin; rivers draining to Black Sea; Rhône drainage (France); in Italy, native only in Po drainage; eastern England (now extirpated). In Siberia eastward to River Lena. Originally absent from Iberian Peninsula, central and southern Italy, Adriatic basin, Greece, Ireland, western and northern Great Britain and western France.	eng
135675	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All well oxygenated flowing waters and large lakes. Known from estuaries of large lowland rivers as well as from small mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Generally nocturnal. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three in Central Europe. Spawns in November-March, at temperatures below 4°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. Spawns at night, in groups of up to 20 interlaced individuals forming a ball about 60 cm in diameter constantly moving and rolling on the bottom, releasing eggs and sperm. Eggs are semipelagic, slightly sticky and 1.2-1.8 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 40-70 days. Larvae are positively phototactic, float below surface in March-April. After about two months, juveniles are benthic, grow rapidly, reach about 80 mm SL within first year. In contrast to most freshwater fish, very active during winter even below ice cover. Larvae feed on drifting invertebrates or zooplankton. Juveniles and adults feed on large invertebrates and small fish.	eng
135675	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>All well oxygenated flowing waters and large lakes. Known from estuaries of large lowland rivers as well as from small mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Generally nocturnal. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three in Central Europe. Spawns in November-March, at temperatures below 4°C. May undertake short spawning migrations. Spawns at night, in groups of up to 20 interlaced individuals forming a ball about 60 cm in diameter constantly moving and rolling on the bottom, releasing eggs and sperm. Eggs are semipelagic, slightly sticky and 1.2-1.8 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch after 40-70 days. Larvae are positively phototactic, float below surface in March-April. After about two months, juveniles are benthic, grow rapidly, reach about 80 mm SL within first year. In contrast to most freshwater fish, very active during winter even below ice cover. Larvae feed on drifting invertebrates or zooplankton. Juveniles and adults feed on large invertebrates and small fish.	eng
135675	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135675	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135675	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135675	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135676	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135676	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Spain: Ebro and Llobregat drainages. France: from Tech and Agly drainages, probably also Aude (Languedoc-Roussillon); possible introgression with S. cephalus in southern Garonne tributaries and Adour drainage.	eng
135676	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with flowing, clear water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135676	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135676	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135677	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135677	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Spain: Ebro and Bidasoa drainages; France: Adour drainage. Introduced to rest of Spain and Portugal.	eng
135677	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams in foot hills with moderate current, with sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135677	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135677	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135678	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135678	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Spain; from the Mijares to the Vinalopo river, on the Mediterranean slope (Mijares, Turia, Jucar, Serpis, Bullent, Gorgos, Guadalest, Monebre/Verde, Albufera de Valencia Lagoon, Vinalopo).	eng
135678	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species inhabits streams in the lower basins (prefers moderate flow), with clear water and gravel bottom.	eng
135678	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is found to be the dominant species in small rivers, but becomes local and rare in larger ones. However overall, the species population is declining.	eng
135678	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In the past decade the species habitat has been reduced by water abstraction (for agriculture), construction of dams, and introduction of alien fish species.	eng
135679	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135679	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adriatic basin, from Po to Drin drainages. Introduced elsewhere in Italy.	eng
135679	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams with clear, cold, well oxygenated water, over gravel to stone bottom. Most common in foot hills. In plains, usually associated with springs. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. Lives up to six years, usually three years. Spawns for the first time at two years in hilly areas, sometimes at one year in lowland. Spawns in May-July, in groups of one or a few females and numerous males. Eggs are deposited in shallow water on sand or gravel bottom. Fractional spawner. Eggs hatch in 4-5 days at 18°C. Feeds on aquatic macroinvertebrates and algae.	eng
135679	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135679	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135680	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135680	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Widely spread but not abundant in coastal areas of almost the whole Caspian Sea. In the south, reliably known from Gorgan Bay. Not reported from eastern Central Caspian	eng
135680	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Fresh, brackish, rarely marine waters, prefers salinity below 9 ‰. In still or slowly flowing water over mud bottom. At depths around 0.5-10 m in summer, moves to deeper places in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives about one year. Spawns in April-October. Females lay eggs in two, sometimes more, portions. Females die shortly after last release of eggs, males 3-4 weeks later. Males probably guard a clutch of eggs until hatching. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly molluscs.	eng
135680	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135680	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Sensitive to oil pollution.	eng
135681	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135681	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135681	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Angola to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Caspian Sea.	eng
135681	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Mediterranean, Black Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Angola to Bay of Biscay. Introduced in Caspian Sea.	eng
135681	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in May-August, rarely until early October. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in summer and autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic organisms until 50 mm SL; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135681	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in May-August, rarely until early October. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in summer and autumn. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic organisms until 50 mm SL; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135681	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135681	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135681	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135681	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135682	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135682	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coastal areas of the whole Caspian Sea, especially abundant at northern and eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea, at river deltas, in particular, of Ural and Volga (up to Astrakhan).	eng
135682	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Both fresh and marine waters; prefers brackish and slightly saline zones in deltas and estuaries. In summer inhabits shallow coastal waters (0.5-20 m) and shallow channels of deltas, moves to deeper areas (down to 60-70 m) in winter. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns after first winter. In northern Caspian Sea and Volga delta, spawns in April-July in shallow water. Feeds mostly on molluscs and crustaceans.	eng
135682	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135682	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135683	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135683	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Portugal: Estremadura, in Alcabrichel, Sizandro and Safarujo drainages. It is believed the population in the Safarujo is extirpated after the stream dried up.	eng
135683	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lower stretches of rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data. Spawns in April-May.	eng
135683	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135683	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species is heavily impacted by pollution from domestic and agricultural sewage and water abstraction.	eng
135684	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fishing is banned in the Caspian Sea.	eng
135684	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Targetted fishing for this species is banned in the Caspian Sea.	eng
135684	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aral basin (extirpated in the sea - due to salinity, only survives in the resevoirs of its tributaries), Chu drainage and southern and western Caspian Sea. For spawning, migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts: Terek, Samur, Kura, lower Aras. Rarely in lower Volga (up to Volgograd) and Ural.	eng
135684	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Aral basin (extirpated in the sea itself - due to salinity, survives in much reduced landlocked populations in the large rivers and.in the resevoirs of its tributaries), Chu drainage and southern and western Caspian Sea. For spawning, migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts: Terek, Samur, Kura, lower Aras. Rarely in lower Volga (up to Volgograd) and Ural.	eng
135684	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, at depths of up to 25 m. In rivers, in deep stretches with gravel or stone bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water at sites with hard bottom, 1-2 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and riverine populations. Spawns for the first time at about 500-700 mm SL, 5-7 years, females later than males. Spawns in April-August, with peak at 23-27°C. Some individuals start spawning migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring after overwintering in river. Some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Female lays 100,000-1,250,000 bright yellow eggs; in 2-3 portions during a single season. Eggs are semipelagic and hatch while drifting downstream after at least 2 days at 25°C. Larvae settle into places with slow current for 2-12 months, then drift downstream to sea (or reservoir if river is dammed). In freshened parts of sea, feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans. Does not feed while migrating upstream. At spawning sites, starts to feed again, mainly on insects, eggs and juveniles of other fishes, rarely on algae, seeds and other plant material.	eng
135684	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, at depths of up to 25 m. In rivers, in deep stretches with gravel or stone bottom. Spawns in fast-flowing water at sites with hard bottom, 1-2 m deep. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous and riverine populations. Spawns for the first time at about 500-700 mm SL, 5-7 years, females later than males. Spawns in April-August, with peak at 23-27°C. Some individuals start spawning migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring after overwintering in river. Some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Female lays 100,000-1,250,000 bright yellow eggs; in 2-3 portions during a single season. Eggs are semipelagic and hatch while drifting downstream after at least 2 days at 25°C. Larvae settle into places with slow current for 2-12 months, then drift downstream to sea (or reservoir if river is dammed). In freshened parts of sea, feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans. Does not feed while migrating upstream. At spawning sites, starts to feed again, mainly on insects, eggs and juveniles of other fishes, rarely on algae, seeds and other plant material.	eng
135684	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's).	eng
135684	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. Now almost extirpated in the Caspian basin. Almost all spawning rivers are blocked by dams and there while no special fisheries target this species, it is the victim of bycatch in fishereies for other species, especially for <em>Rutilus frisii</em>. While other long-distance migratory, anadromous species in the Caspian Sea basin as <em>R. frisii</em> and Acipenseridae are artificially reproduced and massively stocked, this species is not reproduced and is therefore at the verge to extinction in the Caspian basin. No riverine or landlocked populations are known from ths species. <br/><br/>In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's) but it still survives in much reduced landlocked populations in the large rivers.	eng
135684	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increasing salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threat is overfishing (illegal) in the Caspian sea.	eng
135684	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increasing salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threats   are the loss of spawning sited by dam construction and overfishing (as bycatch) in the Caspian sea.	eng
135685	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135685	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Slovenia: upper Save system (Danube drainage).	eng
135685	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small streams to medium sized rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn for several years.	eng
135685	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135685	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135686	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Part of the catchment is covered by a nature reserve.	eng
135686	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Germany: Lake Breiter Luzin.	eng
135686	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, reported to inhabit deep water layers (20-58 m) and move to shallow waters to spawn. Lake Breiter Luzin is a 3.5 km² mesotrophic lake (formerly oligotrophic), maximum depth 85 m. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to six years. Matures at two years. Spawns in April-July, usually May-June. Feeds mainly on chironomids and <em>Mysis relicta</em>.	eng
135686	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Since the 1970's, when the lake was eutrophic, the species has increased in abundance along with the water quality.	eng
135686	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The species survived heavy eutrophication in the 1970s, caused by sewage and agricultural pollution. Stocking of alien species is a potential threat to the species.	eng
135687	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fishing is banned in the Caspian Sea.	eng
135687	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Fishing is banned in the Caspian Sea.	eng
135687	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian basin, for spawning migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts, from Volga southward to Atrek (Iran). Was always very rare in Volga. Aral basin, in Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Chu drainages, extirpated in the Aral Sea.	eng
135687	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian basin, for spawning migrates up larger tributaries of western and southern coasts, from Volga southward to Atrek (Iran). Was always very rare in Volga. Aral basin, in Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Chu drainages, extirpated in the Aral Sea.	eng
135687	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, mostly close to shores. Forages also in estuaries. Spawns in lowland streams and rivers on sand-gravel bottom, usually in strong current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous but rarely landlocked in reservoirs. Spawns for the first time at 3-7 years, females later than males, over 200 mm SL. Spawns in April-August. Males are annual spawners, females apparently spawn every 2-3 years. Semi-anadromous populations start migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring, but some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Migrate to uppermost tributaries of rivers. Landlocked populations migrate just before spawning to upper stretches of tributaries, or spawn in lakes and reservoirs on sand to mud bottom. Female lays 15,000-125,000 light grey eggs. Larvae feed on zooplankton and small benthic invertebrates. Juveniles and adults feed on invertebrates, algae, detritus, plant material, and small fishes.	eng
135687	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, mostly close to shores. Forages also in estuaries. Spawns in lowland streams and rivers on sand-gravel bottom, usually in strong current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Semi-anadromous but rarely landlocked in reservoirs. Spawns for the first time at 3-7 years, females later than males, over 200 mm SL. Spawns in April-August. Males are annual spawners, females apparently spawn every 2-3 years. Semi-anadromous populations start migration in late summer-autumn and spawn following spring, but some enter rivers in early spring and spawn same year. Migrate to uppermost tributaries of rivers. Landlocked populations migrate just before spawning to upper stretches of tributaries, or spawn in lakes and reservoirs on sand to mud bottom. Female lays 15,000-125,000 light grey eggs. Larvae feed on zooplankton and small benthic invertebrates. Juveniles and adults feed on invertebrates, algae, detritus, plant material, and small fishes.	eng
135687	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's).	eng
135687	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Declined sharpley due to damming in the 1950's and 1960's in the Caspian Sea. In the Aral sea the species declined due to the shrinking (increased salinity) of the Aral sea (started in 1970s to present) and damming of its tibutaries (1950's to 1970's).	eng
135687	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increased salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threat is overfishing (illegal) in the Caspian sea.	eng
135687	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Historically dam construction and overfishing was a threat, increased salinity in the Aral sea caused the species to become extirpated. Currently the main threat is overfishing (illegal) in the Caspian sea.	eng
135688	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The whole lake catchment is a nature reserve, which is well managed.	eng
135688	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Northern Germany: Lake Stechlin (4.2 km²).	eng
135688	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, inhabit deep water layers (20-60 m), migrate above 20 m at night. Lake Stechlin is a 4.25 km² oligotrophic lake (mean depth 23 m, maximum depth 69 m) formed during Weichselian glaciation (about 12,000 years BP). <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years, 65-110 mm SL for females. Spawns in April-September, usually May-June. Most individuals spawn only for a single season. Feeds mainly on <em>Cladocera</em> and <em>Copepoda</em>.	eng
135688	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135688	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135689	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135689	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135689	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
135689	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Coasts of Mediterranean, Black Sea (absent from Sea of Azov) and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway, southern Iceland and Faroe Islands.	eng
135689	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Coasts of Mediterranean, Black Sea (absent from Sea of Azov) and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Norway, southern Iceland and Faroe Islands.	eng
135689	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Coastal areas of Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is known from Scandinavia and Iceland south to Senegal and Cape Verde. Also Mediterranean Sea; southwestern Black Sea.	eng
135689	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools along shores, frequently enters lagoons and estuaries, juveniles easily adapt to freshwater. Lives up to 12 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three, later in northern areas. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in February-April. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in April-June, return to sea in summer. Juveniles feed on zooplankton; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135689	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shores, sometimes in lagoons and estuaries. Spawns at sea in coastal surface water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools along shores, frequently enters lagoons and estuaries, juveniles easily adapt to freshwater. Lives up to 12 years. Males reproduce for the first time at two years, females at three, later in northern areas. Females larger than males. Spawns pelagic eggs in February-April. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in April-June, return to sea in summer. Juveniles feed on zooplankton; adults feed on algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135689	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal, catadromous fish that lives in fresh and brackish water. Occurs inshore, enters brackish lagoons and freshwater. Migrates occasionally. Tends to move northward in summer-time as the temperatures rise. Feeds mainly on benthic diatoms, epiphytic algae, small invertebrates and detritus. Oviparous. Reproduction occurs in the sea during winter. Eggs and larvae pelagic.	eng
135689	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135689	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135689	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
135689	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135689	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135689	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing of the species by the use of seine nets and the prevention of the migration of alevins.	eng
135690	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135690	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western Mediterranean and along all European coasts to White and Barents Seas; absent from northern Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. Regularly reported from freshwaters in Kanin Peninsula (Barents Sea). Occasionally reported from freshwater outside Barents Sea basin, but individuals might be misidentified <em>P. flesus</em>.	eng
135690	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom from a few metres down to about 100 m, at sea and in estuaries, rarely entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Spawns at sea, in January-June, in deep water, at temperatures around 6°C. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Juveniles enter freshwater to forage in mid-June in Kanin Peninsula, remaining there until August. Not all individual enter brackish and fresh-water. Adults do not move into brackish or fresh water. Feeds on thin-shelled molluscs and polychaetes.	eng
135690	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135690	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135691	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135691	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lakes Ladoga and Onega, introduced in many natural and artificial water bodies in European and Siberian parts of Russia.	eng
135691	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>In summer, mainly along coasts of southern part of Lake Ladoga, and in winter, along the northern coast. Prefers stone and gravel bottom. No data from Lake Onega. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 10 years. Spawns for the first time at 4-5 years. Forms large aggregations in July-August in a few localities along southern coast of both lakes for intensive foraging, and again in late October-early November (when first ice appears) over stone bottom in southern part of lakes. Spawns during 10-15 days along shores, at a maximum depth of 2 m, on rocks or gravel bottom. After spawning, moves to deeper places to overwinter. Feeds on benthos (insect larvae, molluscs and crustaceans), in summer usually moves to upper water layers to feed on zooplankton especially Cladocera.	eng
135691	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in both lakes.	eng
135691	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135692	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135692	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Montenegro: Moraca drainage and its tributary upper Zeta river.	eng
135692	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only.	eng
135692	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135692	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Introduction of trouts which may hybridise with the species.	eng
135693	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135693	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Zürich, Walenstadt, Pfäffikon and Greiffensee.	eng
135693	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in midwater. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in November-December, at depths of 12-100 m. Feeds on plankton.	eng
135693	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Extirpated in Pfäffikon and Greiffensee. Abundant Lakes Zürich and Walenstadt.	eng
135693	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135694	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135694	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Lowland river of the Don drainage.	eng
135694	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Bottom of moderately flowing lowland rivers, prefers sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to five years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Females spawn up to four times during a season at about two-week intervals in May-July. Nocturnal, benthic, feeds on insect larvae and other large benthic invertebrates.	eng
135694	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant, even in the large resevoirs.	eng
135694	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by pollution and river channelization.	eng
135695	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135695	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Karstic streams in Livanjsko polje, Lakes Buško and Mandecko near Livno and river Cetina. Possibly introduced to Lake Blidinje (Bosnia-Herzegovina) more than 100 years ago.	eng
135695	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Slow-flowing and still waters and lakes. Possibly enters subterranean waters during winter or droughts. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in April-June. In lakes, adults prey on small fishes.	eng
135695	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant in Lakes Buško and Mandecko and Cetina. However Livanjsko polje is almost dry and the species is only found in a small part.	eng
135695	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction and drought (which are predicted to increase in severity due to climate change)	eng
135696	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135696	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135696	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Most European drainages, from Adour (France) to Pechora (White Sea basin); Aegean Sea basin, in Lake Volvi and Struma and Maritza drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Scotland, Scandinavia north of Bergen (Norway) and 67°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Ireland, Spain and northeastern Italy. In Asia, Marmara basin (Turkey) and eastward to Aral basin. Introduced in Lake Baikal and upper Ob and Yenisei drainages.	eng
135696	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Most European drainages, from Adour (France) to Pechora (White Sea basin); Aegean Sea basin, in Lake Volvi and Struma and Maritza drainages. Naturally absent from Iberian Peninsula, Adriatic basin, Italy, Scotland, Scandinavia north of Bergen (Norway) and 67°N (Finland). Locally introduced in Ireland, Spain and northeastern Italy. In Asia, Marmara basin (Turkey) and eastward to Aral basin. Introduced in Lake Baikal and upper Ob and Yenisei drainages.	eng
135696	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of lakes and large to medium sized rivers. Most abundant in backwaters, lower reaches of slow-flowing rivers, brackish estuaries and warm and shallow lakes. Semi-anadromous individuals enter freshened parts of seas to forage. Usually spawns in densely vegetated backwaters, floodplains or lake shores. Sometimes far from shore. Nearly all surfaces can be used for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. During winter, form large aggregations, often together with other fish. Lives about 10-20 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Some females do not spawn every year. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 15°C. In many populations, spawning migration starts in autumn (especially semi-anadromous individuals), slows down during winter and continues in spring. Migrate far upriver (100 km in Dniepr) to spawn. Males with nuptial tubercles on head and body. Males often defend spawning territories along shoreline. Females spawn from once a year over a few days (Rhine) to 1-3 portions, at 7-14 days intervals (Lake Ilmen). Eggs are sticky and egg size increase with age of female. Larvae and juveniles inhabit still water bodies, feeding on plankton. Survival of juvenile is high in backwaters and low in main channel of large rivers. Growth is faster in main river than in backwaters. Juveniles 1-2 years old move from backwaters to river for feeding and then return to backwaters to spawn. If juveniles do not have an opportunity to leave backwaters, they are able to adapt but have a slower growth and reach maturity at a smaller size (stunted populations). In lower parts of large rivers, juveniles drift to brackish estuaries to forage when water level of flooded areas drops. Juveniles forage in brackish waters enter lower parts of rivers to overwinter in freshwater. Juveniles mostly feed on zooplankton. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, which are dug out of fine bottom sediments, and also often on molluscs. May shift to particle feeding or even filter feeding at high zooplankton abundance. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>.	eng
135696	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>A wide variety of lakes and large to medium sized rivers. Most abundant in backwaters, lower reaches of slow-flowing rivers, brackish estuaries and warm and shallow lakes. Semi-anadromous individuals enter freshened parts of seas to forage. Usually spawns in densely vegetated backwaters, floodplains or lake shores. Sometimes far from shore. Nearly all surfaces can be used for spawning. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Gregarious. During winter, form large aggregations, often together with other fish. Lives about 10-20 years. Spawns for the first time at 3-4 years. Some females do not spawn every year. Spawns in May-June at temperatures above 15°C. In many populations, spawning migration starts in autumn (especially semi-anadromous individuals), slows down during winter and continues in spring. Migrate far upriver (100 km in Dniepr) to spawn. Males with nuptial tubercles on head and body. Males often defend spawning territories along shoreline. Females spawn from once a year over a few days (Rhine) to 1-3 portions, at 7-14 days intervals (Lake Ilmen). Eggs are sticky and egg size increase with age of female. Larvae and juveniles inhabit still water bodies, feeding on plankton. Survival of juvenile is high in backwaters and low in main channel of large rivers. Growth is faster in main river than in backwaters. Juveniles 1-2 years old move from backwaters to river for feeding and then return to backwaters to spawn. If juveniles do not have an opportunity to leave backwaters, they are able to adapt but have a slower growth and reach maturity at a smaller size (stunted populations). In lower parts of large rivers, juveniles drift to brackish estuaries to forage when water level of flooded areas drops. Juveniles forage in brackish waters enter lower parts of rivers to overwinter in freshwater. Juveniles mostly feed on zooplankton. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, which are dug out of fine bottom sediments, and also often on molluscs. May shift to particle feeding or even filter feeding at high zooplankton abundance. Frequently forms fertile hybrids with <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>.	eng
135696	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135696	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135696	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135696	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135697	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	A Natura 2000 species.	eng
135697	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece and FYROM; Vadar River to Pinios River.	eng
135697	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In lowland rivers with slow moving or stagnant water.	eng
135697	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant.	eng
135697	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Locally threatened by water abstraction.	eng
135698	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135698	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Germany: Lake Ammersee.	eng
135698	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At depths of 60-85 m, down to 60 m in summer. Spawns on bottom at depths of 40-50 m. Ammersee is a mesotrophic lake. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in June-July, usually between 15 June and 15 July.	eng
135698	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Since 2000 only three individuals have been caught. In the 1940s the species was an important commercial species.	eng
135698	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The major threat to the species is eutrophication, caused by pollution from domestic sources. The lake is still mesotrophic.	eng
135699	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135699	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Western and northern Black Sea basin (from Danube to Kuban drainages). In Danube, Dniestr and Kuban drainages restricted to lowermost part. More widespread in South Bug and Dniepr drainages. Expected in part of Baltic basin (Vistula and Odra drainages).	eng
135699	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Large coastal lakes and lower part of rivers on silt bottom, as well as smaller streams with sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in May. Migrates to larger water bodies in autumn for overwintering. Usually occurring together with hybridogenous, sperm-parasitic lineages, which have originated by hybridisation with <em>C. elongatoides</em>.	eng
135699	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135699	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135700	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135700	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135700	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	From Veleka (Bulgaria) to lower Sakarya and Simav (Turkey).	eng
135700	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	From Veleka (Bulgaria) to lower Sakarya and Simav (Turkey).	eng
135700	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Streams.	eng
135700	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Streams.	eng
135700	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135700	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135700	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, droughts (exacerbated by climate change).	eng
135700	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Water abstraction, droughts (exacerbated by climate change).	eng
135701	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Cormorant control measures are being practised. Reducing the level of water abstraction.	eng
135701	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	England: Lakes Haweswater, Ullswaterand, Brotherswater and Red Tarn (Cumbria).	eng
135701	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in January-February, in shallow bays on stones and gravel. Feeds on crustaceans and insects.	eng
135701	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Haweswater the population has seen a decline. Stable in the other three lakes.	eng
135701	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction and cormorant predation.	eng
135704	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fishing regulations and stocking for conservation purposes.	eng
135704	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Ireland: Lough Neagh, lower and upper Loughs Erne, Lough Ree and Lough Derg.	eng
135704	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in open waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to nine years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in October-December on rocky or gravel shallow areas. Feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>Mysis relicta</em>), supplemented by insect larvae, shrimps and small fishes.	eng
135704	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only abundant in lough Neagh, where after a decline in the 1970's, the population is on the increase and may number several million (Whilde, A. 1993. Threatened mammals, birds, amphibians and fish in Ireland. Irish Red Data Book 2: Vertebrates. HMSO, Belfast). The species relies upon stocking in the other Loughs. It was on the verge of exinction in Lough Erne where, in 1992, only two individuals were caught.	eng
135704	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Eutrophication of the loughs, the introduction of alien species (competition with cyprinids), overfishing and potentially warming of the water due to climate change. In Lough Neagh competition with roach is a serious threat.	eng
135705	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135705	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage in Bulgaria and Romania: Mures, Arges, Olt, Iskar, Jantra, Ialomita and Beli Vit systems. Kamchyia drainage (Black Sea basin of Bulgaria).	eng
135705	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Upper and middle stretches of streams and small rivers, with fast, clear and well oxygenated water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135705	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135705	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135706	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135706	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135706	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian Sea and tributaries in Europe (Ural, Volga, Terek, Kuma) and Asia. Migrates to uppermost tributaries in Volga.	eng
135706	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian Sea and tributaries in Europe (Ural, Volga, Terek, Kuma) and Asia. Migrates to uppermost tributaries in Volga.	eng
135706	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in sea and spawn in reaches of rivers and streams with strong current. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Spawns in couples in March-July (River Sakmara, Ural drainage), when temperatures reach 15-23°C. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoete stage lasts 2-4 years in freshwater. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis, juveniles migrate to the sea. In lower Volga, the occurrence of small (about 190 mm TL) and large (370-550 mm TL) mature adults implies that adults may feed one or two summers before breeding. Feeds on invertebrates and dead fish. Feeding behaviour unknown. Adults start to migrate to rivers in autumn and winter, usually in October-February. Spawning migration is not interrupted by ice flow in Volga.	eng
135706	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in sea and spawn in reaches of rivers and streams with strong current. Ammocoetes live in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous. Spawns in couples in March-July (River Sakmara, Ural drainage), when temperatures reach 15-23°C. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoete stage lasts 2-4 years in freshwater. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms. After metamorphosis, juveniles migrate to the sea. In lower Volga, the occurrence of small (about 190 mm TL) and large (370-550 mm TL) mature adults implies that adults may feed one or two summers before breeding. Feeds on invertebrates and dead fish. Feeding behaviour unknown. Adults start to migrate to rivers in autumn and winter, usually in October-February. Spawning migration is not interrupted by ice flow in Volga.	eng
135706	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only single individuals have been caught in fisheries catches in the past few years (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.) at the Volga river mouth. There is an indication that there is a landlocked population above the Volgograd dam (status unknown). The species has aparently disapeared in the Kuma, Terek and Kura. In Iran individuals are still caught regularly (A. Abdoli, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).	eng
135706	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Only single individuals have been caught in fisheries catches in the past few years (N. Bogutskaya, pers comm.) at the Volga river mouth. There is an indication that there is a landlocked population above the Volgograd dam (status unknown). The species has aparently disapeared in the Kuma, Terek and Kura. In Iran individuals are still caught regularly (A. Abdoli, pers comm. to J. Freyhof).	eng
135706	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Dams of rivers in the Caspian sea in the 1950's and 1960's blocked off many spawning grounds, causing a population decline. Current threats to the species is the drying of the rivers (drought), as the species has found some new spawning grounds below the dams. The species is not poached.	eng
135706	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Dams of rivers in the Caspian sea in the 1950's and 1960's blocked off many spawning grounds, causing a population decline. Current threats to the species is the drying of the rivers (drought), as the species has found some new spawning grounds below the dams. The species is not poached.	eng
135707	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135707	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian Sea and lower reaches of Volga, Ural and possibly Terek.	eng
135707	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>At sea, pelagic. Spawns near river mouth. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Pelagic, marine or anadromous. Lives up to six. Spawns in open water in late evening in April-July at 10-25°C. Pelagic eggs usually released in water 5 m deep and with a salinity of 0.02-15 ‰. Feeds on zooplanktonic crustaceans (copepods, mysids), following their daily vertical movements, in surface layers at night, descending during daylight hours.	eng
135707	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135707	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135708	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135708	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135708	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rivers, estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from Kara drainage to Chukotka (eastern Siberia) and to Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); in America, from Copper to Kobuk (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.	eng
135708	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Rivers, estuaries and coastal waters of European and Siberian shores of Arctic Ocean, from Kara drainage to Chukotka (eastern Siberia) and to Korea and Hokkaido (Japan); in America, from Copper to Kobuk (Alaska) and Mackenzie (Canada) drainages.	eng
135708	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal waters of open sea; freshwater of lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Anadromous populations pelagic at sea, commonly at 4-5 m depth and spawning in rivers. Landlocked populations may spawn in lakes or migrate to their tributaries. Spawns along shallow river shores and in backwaters with little or no current, often in lakes, on sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Does not migrate long distances. Enters deltas and lower reaches of rivers in September-December to overwinter, then returns to sea and rivers for spawning. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July. Eggs are about 0.75 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in 11-16 days. Juveniles remain close to spawning sites for a year or longer, then migrate to sea or estuaries. Feeds on zooplankton, mostly crustaceans.	eng
135708	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Brackish water of estuaries, lagoons, coastal waters of open sea; freshwater of lowland and piedmont rivers and lakes. Anadromous populations pelagic at sea, commonly at 4-5 m depth and spawning in rivers. Landlocked populations may spawn in lakes or migrate to their tributaries. Spawns along shallow river shores and in backwaters with little or no current, often in lakes, on sand or gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous and landlocked populations. Does not migrate long distances. Enters deltas and lower reaches of rivers in September-December to overwinter, then returns to sea and rivers for spawning. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-July. Eggs are about 0.75 mm in diameter. Eggs hatch in 11-16 days. Juveniles remain close to spawning sites for a year or longer, then migrate to sea or estuaries. Feeds on zooplankton, mostly crustaceans.	eng
135708	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135708	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135708	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135708	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135709	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Angling is regulated.	eng
135709	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Tributaries of the lower Vardar (Crna system) and Aliakmon drainages (Macedonia, Greece); populations from Stumica drainage possibly represent a distinct species.	eng
135709	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mountain streams. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Resident ecotype only.	eng
135709	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135709	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In the Greek part of the species range the main threat is overfishing and poaching, and the introduction of alien trout (hybridisation). The introduction of alien trout is also a threat, but has not yet happened, in FYROM.	eng
135710	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135710	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rhine and Meuse drainages, in Rhine upriver (southward) to about Mannheim, including tributaries of Main and Neckar.	eng
135710	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Small, cold streams with gravel bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 2-4 years. Spawns in March-April, when temperature rises above 12°C. Females spawn once a year. Most individuals spawn 2-3 years.	eng
135710	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135710	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135711	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135711	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	France: upper reaches of Lot, Aveyron, Tarn and Dordogne drainages (Garonne drainage).	eng
135711	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers, sectors with current and clear water, in deep pools. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Feeds on vegetal matter. Spawns in March-April in stretches with swift current and pebble bottom.	eng
135711	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135711	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Hydropower dams are modifying the flow regime, reducing the suitable habitat of the species.	eng
135712	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135712	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Croatia, Imotzki polje.	eng
135712	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
135712	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Rare.	eng
135712	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, and climate change.	eng
135713	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135713	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Morat and Bienne, possibly also Lake Neuchâtel.	eng
135713	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, deep waters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in December-January, in Lake Morat on sand or mud at 35-40 m depth, in Lake Bienne on slopes, at 2-20 m depth.	eng
135713	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Extirpated in Morat (1960's).	eng
135713	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Extirpated in Morat due to eutrophication and water level management. There are no current threats to the species in Lakes Bienne and Neuchâtel, but the introduction of coregonid species is a potential threat.	eng
135714	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135714	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135714	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Mediterranean, Black Sea, Azov Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Baltic and British Isles (not reaching northern Scotland). Migrates north during summer. Landlocked population in Fratel reservoir, Portugal. Introduced in Lake Kinneret (Israel).	eng
135714	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Mediterranean, Black Sea, Azov Sea and Eastern Atlantic from Cape Verde and Senegal to southern Baltic and British Isles (not reaching northern Scotland). Migrates north during summer. Landlocked population in Fratel reservoir, Portugal. Introduced in Lake Kinneret (Israel).	eng
135714	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, entering lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, often found in polluted waters. Spawns offshore at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four or later. Females somewhat larger than males. Spawns several million pelagic eggs in September-December, April-July on British coast. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn and especially winter. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic animals and plants. Adults filter algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135714	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Pelagic near shore, entering lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, often found in polluted waters. Spawns offshore at sea. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Usually lives in schools. Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at four or later. Females somewhat larger than males. Spawns several million pelagic eggs in September-December, April-July on British coast. Juveniles around 20 mm SL move to coastal lagoons and estuaries in autumn and especially winter. Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 30 mm SL, then on benthic animals and plants. Adults filter algae, vegetal detritus and sediment.	eng
135714	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135714	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135714	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135714	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135715	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135715	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Switzerland: Lakes Thun and Brienz.	eng
135715	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, in deep water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns in September, at 30-100 m depth. Spawns for the first time at about 120 mm SL.	eng
135715	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In recent surveys the species was found to be abundant in Lake Thun.	eng
135715	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135716	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135716	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Adour and Nivelle drainages (France, Spain).	eng
135716	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams with clear, cool, moderate to swift water, and stone substrate. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135716	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135716	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135717	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135717	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span>. However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvesting and high loadings of chemical waste.<br/><br/>It is recommended that systematic monitoring is undertaken  to determine stock status across the entire range.	eng
135717	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Eastern Atlantic, from White to Mediterranean and Black Seas. Introduced in Caspian Sea and Great Lakes of North America. Enters rivers and coastal streams. In Rhine, recorded up to 650 km upriver.	eng
135717	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	This natural range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span> extends from the White Sea to the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Due to accidental introductions in ballast water, it may also be found around North America.	eng
135717	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus </span>is common around the British Isles, where it is typically found resting on the muddy substrate of estuaries. It has been found at a depth range of 1-100 m. It migrates into the open sea to breed from March to June, during which time it can migrate up to 300 km offshore, although it will more often migrate just 30 km. The larvae feed on copepods and diatoms and gradually shift to a diet of mysids, decapods, crustaceans, polychaetes, and bivalves. The young then return to estuarine waters, where they live on the bottom until they are ready to migrate and spawn.	eng
135717	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and in estuaries, frequently entering freshwaters. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males reproduce for the first time at 2-3 years, females at 3-4. Migrates to sea in October-December. Spawns at sea, in deepwater, in January-June. Eggs and larvae are pelagic and drift with current. At about 10 mm SL, left eye moves to right side, pigmentation develops, and juveniles switch to benthic life. Pelagic larvae migrate to brackish- and fresh-water habitats with tidal currents; they move in the water column during flood and to the bottom during ebb. First pelagic flounders are usually recorded in estuaries in March. Juveniles start to migrate upriver to forage by mid-April. Not all individuals enter brackish- and fresh-water. Spawned adults do not return to brackish or freshwater but remain at sea. Feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.	eng
135717	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135717	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus </span>is common throughout its range.	eng
135717	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Due to the close association of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platichthys flesus</span> with estuarine waters and the benthic invertebrate fauna within these habitats, it has been impacted by chemical pollution within these sediments. In particular, xenoestrogens, which occur in domestic, industrial and agricultural waste, have been noted to have a negative effect on this species, causing the occurrence of intersex specimens. Intersex individuals are caught in low, but constant amounts (Lye <em>et al.</em> 1998). The effects of xenoestrogen are markedly lower further from the shore (Vethaak <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In addition, this is a commercially important food fish, with some of the most important fisheries existing in Baltic and Danish waters. The total landings for 1999 were 11,879 t, with Denmark and the Netherlands contributing the greatest landings of 3,528 t and 3,159 t respectively.	eng
135717	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135718	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135718	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Aegean Sea basin; Currently only known from the Aggitis system (Strymon basin) (Greece), records from the Loudias and Filiouris drainages are tentativley considered to be P. strymonicus but this requires examination of the specimens for confrmation. (Greece, probably Bulgaria).	eng
135718	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Most abundant in small streams with clear and cold water; occasionally found in irrigation canals. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>No data.	eng
135718	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135718	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, drought (predicted to increase in severity due to climate change), pollution from agriculture.	eng
135719	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135719	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
135719	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Circumpolar; seas and freshwaters of northern Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, Arctic, White and Barents Sea basins of Russia and Norway, from Pechora (Russia) to Pasvik (Norwegian-Russian border) drainages.	eng
135719	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Circumpolar; seas and freshwaters of northern Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, Arctic, White and Barents Sea basins of Russia and Norway, from Pechora (Russia) to Pasvik (Norwegian-Russian border) drainages.	eng
135719	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in coastal and estuarine waters and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, predatory. Adults migrate into rivers in late summer and autumn, until rivers freeze. The migration is mainly nocturnal. Spawning season depends on latitude, when temperatures reach 12-16°C, from April to August. Both sexes dig a shallow nest in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3½ years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer. Most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea the following spring and early summer. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of fish, mostly Clupeidae and Salmonidae. Feeds on body tissues of the prey, which is usually killed. Adults feed for 1-3 summers before migrating to spawning grounds. Large and small mature individuals might represent different age classes returning from sea to spawn. Landlocked populations are not found in Europe, but are known in Alaska. Individuals of these populations are smaller.	eng
135719	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Adults live in coastal and estuarine waters and spawn in strong-current habitats of rivers and streams. Ammocoetes burrow in detritus-rich sands or clay sediments. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Anadromous, predatory. Adults migrate into rivers in late summer and autumn, until rivers freeze. The migration is mainly nocturnal. Spawning season depends on latitude, when temperatures reach 12-16°C, from April to August. Both sexes dig a shallow nest in habitats with fast current. Spawners form large aggregations. Adults die after spawning. Ammocoetes stage lasts 3½ years. Feeds on detritus and micro-organisms, metamorphoses in late summer. Most juveniles overwinter in freshwater and migrate to the sea the following spring and early summer. At sea, feeds on a wide variety of fish, mostly Clupeidae and Salmonidae. Feeds on body tissues of the prey, which is usually killed. Adults feed for 1-3 summers before migrating to spawning grounds. Large and small mature individuals might represent different age classes returning from sea to spawn. Landlocked populations are not found in Europe, but are known in Alaska. Individuals of these populations are smaller.	eng
135719	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135719	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
135719	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135719	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
135720	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135720	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Fjellfrøsvatn, an oligotrophic subarctic lake on a tributary of River Målslev (69°N), Tromsø County, northern Norway.	eng
135720	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Lacustrine, below 20 m depth. The lake is oligotrophic, 6 km2, maximum depth 80 m, flat and muddy bottom in deeper part, covered by snow and ice from November-December to May-June. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at 70 mm SL. Spawns in late February-early March. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
135720	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135720	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Potentially threatened from introduced species (stocking of other Arctic charr) and eutrophication.	eng
135721	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135721	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Greece: Marathon plain (now drained for agriculture) and Sperchios and Kifissos drainages.	eng
135721	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Springs, swamps, canals; usually among vegetation or under shore cover. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to two years. Spawns in May-September. Feeds on a wide variety of aquatic invertebrates, algae and detritus.	eng
135721	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135721	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Water abstraction, drought, drainage for agriculture, agricultural pollution and introduced species (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>).	eng
135722	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135722	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Danube drainage upriver of Iron Gate; most abundant in Save drainage.	eng
135722	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Medium sized to large rivers. Spawns over gravel or submerged plants in fast-flowing water of riffles. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns at 10-14°C in March-May. Biology almost unknown.	eng
135722	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135722	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135723	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
135723	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: Lower and middle Kuban drainage.	eng
135723	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Restricted to large, high-gradient river stretches with fast but not turbulent current and gravel or sand bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Almost no data. Nocturnal, at night near shores on mud or sand bottom. Seems to spawn late and to have a long spawning period. Many small juveniles found in July. Feeds on benthic invertebrates, mainly Trichoptera larvae.	eng
135723	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
135723	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No current threats, but economic development of the region is expected to impact the species.	eng
135724	conservation	Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	No specific conservation measures needed. It is not known if the species occurs in protected areas.	eng
135724	distribution	Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	<em>A. witherbyi</em> occurs in plains, mountain and plateau steppes, and highland semideserts (not found in desert depressions) from east of the Dnepr River in the southern Ukraine, through the Caucasus, extending southeast to western-central Pakistan (probably occurs in Afghanistan and northern Iraq, but there are no records). In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Greece (Rhodes), Anatolian Turkish steppe, Syria, Israel, Lebanon and Jordan. Occurs up to at least 2,100 m.	eng
135724	distribution	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	Occurs on Rhodes (Greece) and in S Ukraine. Also in N and S Caucasus, Anatolian Turkish steppe, south to N Israel and NW Jordan; through C and N Iran to Kopet-Dag Mountains of SW Turkmenistan and WC Pakistan. Probably also occurs in Iraq and Afghanistan (Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
135724	habitat	Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	Found in shrublands and in degraded forests. It needs shrub cover.	eng
135724	habitat	European Mammal Assessment team, 2006	"Plains, mountain and plateau steppes, and highland semideserts" (Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
135724	population	Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	Generally common within suitable habitat in its range.	eng
135724	threats	Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
135725	conservation	Monadjem, A., 2008	It is presumably present in many protected areas, with no direct conservation measures needed as a whole. Additional taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the distribtuion of this species and <em>Mus minutoides</em> in Central Africa and East Africa.	eng
135725	distribution	Monadjem, A., 2008	The range of this species is poorly understood. It appears to range through West Africa, between Senegal in the west to Nigeria in the east, then into Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) and Congo, with an unresolved distribution resulting from confusion with the similar <em>Mus musculoides</em> from northern Congo in the west, through Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the East Africa of Uganda, western and southern Kenya and much of Tanzania.	eng
135725	habitat	Monadjem, A., 2008	This species has been recorded in Nigeria from savanna and grassland habitat, extending its range into farmland and similar open habitats where forest has been cleared (Happold 1987). Animals occasionally enter tropical moist forest, but this is a marginal habitat. In Sierra Leone, it has been recorded from most vegetation types with the exception of mangroves and inland swamps, and is especially common in gardens, farmas an farm bush habitats (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Ghana, it has been recorded in the vicinity of houses (Jeffery 1973).	eng
135725	population	Monadjem, A., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
135725	threats	Monadjem, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
135726	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135726	distribution		<em>Bokermannohyla itapoty</em> is known from the type locality (Lençois River, 12 33 13 S, 41 24 48 W) in Serra do Sincora (500-1300 masl), Chapada Diamantina, Municipality of Lençois, and from the Municipalities of Andaraí, Mucugé, and Palmeiras, state of Bahia, in Northeastern Brazil (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).	eng
135726	habitat		The species can be found in rocky montane fields. Both adults and juveniles were active at night close to streams.<br/>During the day, adults were seen on rocks, sandy soil, or rupicolous vegetation, generally in sunlight, but some occupied rock crevices. When found in sunlight, <em>B. itapoty</em> were on moist rocks or in stream beds. Prolonged breeder, males called throughout the year, on stones, in rock crevices, or perched on rupicolous vegetation, but some call from bushes and trees. Calling activity began at sunset and continued throughout the night. Males were territorial and frequently fought to defend calling sites (may be used for oviposition). Juveniles were observed on rocks in the stream bed. Egg clutches were deposited as a loose aggregate on the rocky bottom of stream backwaters; egg clutches obtained in aquaria contained 186–445 eggs (295.4 +- 92.2, N = 8). Tadpoles in different developmental stages and recently metamorfosed froglets were found throughout the year. Tadpoles were active during the hottest hours of the day into night. They were found in the rocky substrate of streams and generally remained in backwaters with little or no current, avoiding areas of high flow (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).	eng
135726	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135726	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135729	conservation		Most populations are found within Sierra de La Culata National Park (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135729	distribution		Pristimantis culatensis is known from Páramo La Culata (8 44’33’ ’N, 71 04’20’’ W,  2870-2900 masl) and Páramo Los Conejos, above Monte Zerpa, Municipality of Libertador, Mérida state, Venezuela (La Marca, 2007).	eng
135729	habitat		The species lives in páramo ecosystems and the upper limit of cloud forests close to the city of Mérida, Venezuela. In Páramo Los Conejos the species can be found under rocks, especially under rock walls; here it is found in sympatry with Pristimantis briceni. In Páramo la Culata individuals have been found to live in disturbed areas, under rocks, where they have been found together with Atelopus oxyrhynchus and Pristimantis briceni (La Marca, 2007).	eng
135729	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135729	threats		Some populations are affected by agriculture. Occasional man-made fires may constitute a potential threat to this species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135730	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.	eng
135730	distribution		This species is known only from the several localities on the northern slope of Mount Simpson, at 1,400-2,500m asl in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has not so far been found in neighbouring sites such as Mount Dayman and Mount Suckling. It is unlikely to be widespread, but further surveys are needed to determine whether or not it is endemic to Mount Simpson (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).	eng
135730	habitat		This species has been recorded from closed-canopy mid-elevation tropical moist forest, montane cloud forest and open montane mixed shrub-grassland (Kraus and Allison, 2006). At lower elevations (around 1,500m asl) these frogs call from the steams and leaves of shrubs, or from within <em>Pandanus</em> leaf axils (Kraus and Allison, 2006). At higher elevations (around 2,500m asl) they call from low grass tussocks (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.	eng
135730	population		It is apparently common in its small known range.	eng
135730	threats		Bushland fires might possibly pose some threat to the species if these fires are eroding the primary montane forest habitat for the species (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). On the other hand, the species also lives in grassland/shrubland areas, so such fires might not have much impact on its status (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).	eng
135731	conservation		The species occurs at Tiputini Biodiversity Station and Yasuni National Park.	eng
135731	distribution		Pristimantis waoranii is only known from the type locality: ca 2.5 km west-northwest of Tiputini Biodiversity Station (0 38' 18.49" S, 76 08' 56.69" W, 217 masl), near the border of Yasuni National Park, along the Tiputini River, Province of Orellana, Ecuador (McCracken et al., 2007).	eng
135731	habitat		The species inhabits the sub- to upper canopy strata of lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest of the upper Amazon Basin. Individuals of this species have been found in the water-filled outer bracts of tank bromeliads at heights ranging between 23.5 and 38.0 m, on branches or trunks of trees in terra firme forest. Another syntopic anuran species is Pristimantus aureolineatus (McCracken et al., 2007).	eng
135731	population		This is considered to be a common species (S. McCracken, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135731	threats		Deforestation and forest fragmentation caused by petroleum operations and subsequent colonization were observed in the region where this species occurs (S. McCracken, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135733	conservation		There is a protected area in the Serra dos Órgãos, Serra dos Órgãos National Park (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).	eng
135733	distribution		The species is only known from near the Soberbo River at Serra dos Órgãos (22 22' S, 42 45' W), Municipality of Guapimirim, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).	eng
135733	habitat		The species occurs within the Atlantic forest domain.	eng
135733	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135733	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135734	conservation		Its only known sites are not in protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.	eng
135734	distribution		This species has been recorded from three areas in Papua Province, in the Indonesian part of New Guinea: 1) at 500 to 1,150m a.s.l. in the Waira and Amoman Mountains northeast of Serui, on Yapen Island, Cenderawasih Bay (1°47’S and 136°20’E); 2) on the New Guinea mainland along the Nabire-Mapia road at 750m a.s.l. (3°30’S, 135°44’E); and 3) in the Foya Mountains (02°36’S, 139°05’E) in northern New Guinea. It is likely to occur more widely, especially between known locations.	eng
135734	habitat		This species lives on the ground in primary and secondary rainforests, where they perch on bare humus soil and on, or in, leaf litter. It probably cannot survive in completely open-up habitats (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.	eng
135734	population		It is rather rare in its only known localities (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
135734	threats		The species might be at risk in at least some of its sites from selecting logging and clear-felling (R. Günther, pers. comm.). However, it seems to be a widespread species, so it is probably not seriously threatened.	eng
135735	conservation	Selvino Neckel Oliveira, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	One population in Amapá is close to Tumucumaque National Park. Other populations are not close to protected areas (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135735	distribution	Selvino Neckel Oliveira, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	The type locality is "Sta. Isabel bei Para", Brazil. The species is distributed over the Amazon Basin of Brazil, according to Frost (2007). According to M.S. Hoogmoed (pers. comm. 2008) at least 3, possibly 4, species are distributed in Brazilian Amazônia and <em>B. paraensis</em> only occurs in eastern Pará State between Belém and Bragança, below 50 m above sea level, and in Amapá, in the Guianan Shield. All other records from Brazilian Amazônia concern other taxa. The species found in Acre may be <em>Bolitoglossa altamazonica</em> (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135735	habitat	Selvino Neckel Oliveira, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	The species is known to occur in lowland Amazonian rainforests. It occurs primarily on bushes and tree trunks of the primary forest understory. Clutch size can vary between 8-15 eggs (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008). Specimens of a related taxon in western Brazilian Amazonia were mostly found in leaf litter on the forest floor (M.S. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135735	population	Selvino Neckel Oliveira, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	This is considered to be a common species in the forest fragments in and around Belém do Pará. Taxa confounded with it  appear to be rare in other localities (the region of Juruti, Pará, and states of Amapá and Amazonas: Urucu, Benjamin Constant and Juruá) (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135735	threats	Selvino Neckel Oliveira, Marinus Hoogmoed, 2008	Deforestation due to urban growth in the region of  Belém and bauxite mining in the region of Juruti. Other localities are well preserved (S. Neckel Oliveira, pers. comm. 2008). The habitat of a related taxon in western Brazilian Amazonia is threatened (or already destroyed) by expanding agricultural activities (M.S. Hoogmoed, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135737	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, though it could occur in the Udzungwa National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
135737	distribution		This species is so far known only from Mafinga on the Udzungwa Plateau of southern Tanzania at around 1,600m asl. It can be expected to occur more widely, at least within the Udzungwa Plateau.	eng
135737	habitat		The species has been found in a flooded meadow partially fringed by pine trees. It is probably associated with montane grassland, and presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
135737	population		There is no information. Several frogs were found calling at its only known locality.	eng
135737	threats		There is no information. If it is dependent on montane grassland, it could be at risk, as this habitat is being lost to agriculture and tree plantations.	eng
135738	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135738	distribution		Centrolene callistommum is known from tributaries of the Río Bogotá (1 05' 13.8" N, 78 41' 25.8" W, 83 masl; 1 05' 9.06" N, 78 41' 8.7" W, 77 masl), Province of Esmeraldas, and from the Río La Carolina (0 42' 16.16" N, 78 12' 4.14" W, 500 m), on the Ibarra–Lita Road, near Jijón y Caamaño, Province of Carchi, Ecuador (Guayasamin and Trueb, 2007).	eng
135738	habitat		The species inhabits the Evergreen Lowland Forests in northwestern Ecuador. It is active during the night and has been found on leaves along streams. Males call from the upper sides of leaves, and females deposit pigmented eggs on the upper sides of leaves (Guayasamin and Trueb, 2007). The species requires permanent streams for breeding (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135738	population		The species is locally abundant at the localities where it has been found (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135738	threats		Habitat destruction is a major threat for this species (and others that inhabit the Chocoan Ecoregion). It may be restricted to the Chocoan Ecoregion (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135741	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135741	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella katantika</span> is known only from the type locality, the village of Pelechuco (3,600 m asl), and its vicinities, Province of Franz Tamayo, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). This species is considered to have restricted geographical and altitudinal (perhaps from 3,400-3,800 m asl) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135741	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species lives in the upper limit of cloud forests; <span style="font-style: italic;">Polylepis</span> ferns are common in the area. Individuals can be found among mosses and ferns on the old walls and ruins of the village of Pelechuco. Vocalizations have been reported for the month of March. Males are known to call primarily at night, although diurnal calling activity has also been reported (De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
135741	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is considered to be an abundant species (De la Riva 2007).	eng
135741	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious future threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135744	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135744	distribution		Restricted to a small stream near the village of Chusmisa (19 41' S, 69 13' W), 92 km NE of Huara, Iquique Province, region of Tarapaca, northern Chile, 3650 m (Formas et al., 2006).	eng
135744	habitat		Region of ocurrence has an annual mean temperature of 12.5 C, in the austral summer rainfall ranges between 50–100 mm. The type locality is a semi-desertic area, with scarce vegetation (Browningia candelaris, Verbena<br/>gynobaris, Adesmia spinusissima and Balbisia stitchkinii). Adults were collected by hand below stones on the bottom of a slow moving stream (1 m wide, 12 C) covered with aquatic plants during the austral summer (11 March 2002). Tadpoles (Stages 28–39) were collected with a net below aquatic plants on the banks of the stream (Formas et al., 2006).	eng
135744	population		Species description is based on 9 adult frogs and 19 tadpoles collected in March 2002; no population status information is available.	eng
135744	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135745	conservation		The type locality of this species, Pampa Hermosa, is locally protected (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135745	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis cruciocularis</span> is known from three localities (Pampa Hermosa, San Alberto, and 30 km [airline] NE Tingo María) at elevations of 1,330–1,850 masl in the Departments of Pasco and Huánuco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006).	eng
135745	habitat		The species is known to occur in the Selva Alta Ecoregion. The type locality is near the Chanchamayo Valley and is comprised of undisturbed primary forest. Individuals are active at night and can be found on vegetation, ca 1 m above the ground or on the ground. Sympatric anuran species include P. bipunctatus, P. bromeliaceus, P. cf. platydactylus, P. sagittulus, Hypsiboas cf. melanopleura, and Gastrotheca atympana (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
135745	population		This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135745	threats		Deforestation has been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135747	conservation		The purchase of land for conservation purposes is recommended for this species, as is the establishment of an <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ </span>assurance colony (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).	eng
135747	distribution		This species has been found on the eastern flank of the northen Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes at ca 5 08´ N 74  56´ W, 1,780 m asl,  in the  Municipality of Falan, Department of Tolima, Colombia (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
135747	habitat		It is found on the forest floor and hides in bromeliads up to 2 meters from the ground (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The reproductive mode, reproductive period and clutch size of this species are unknown (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.), although it is possible that it may have larval development ocurring in bromeliads.	eng
135747	population		It is a relatively abundant species within a small range (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). However, intensive sampling carried out in forest fragments close to the type locality and over a radius of ca 80 km have not shed additional records for this species (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).	eng
135747	threats		The forest habitat of this species has been lost due to cattle grazing, selective logging and agricultural crops. Some areas of forest are now recovering from logging (Rueda-Almonacid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In addition, illegal collection of individuals for the pet trade has been observed (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid pers. comm.).	eng
135748	conservation		The species is present within Dinira National Park (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135748	distribution		Pristimantis jabonensis is only known from the type locality, Páramo El Jabón, Municipality of Carache, state of Trujillo, Venezuela. It has been found between 3100-3200 masl (La Marca, 2007).	eng
135748	habitat		The species is known to occur in the páramo ecosystem. It inhabits páramo grasses (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135748	population		The species was relatively common at the time of discovery. However, there have been no further visits to the type locality thereafter (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135748	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135749	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, and, if it is a valid species, surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135749	distribution		This species is known only from an unspecified location in "Tonkin", in northern Vietnam. Because of this lack of specificity, no distribution map is provided.	eng
135749	habitat		Nothing is known of its ecological requirements. It presumably breeds in small pools by larval development.	eng
135749	population		This is an extremely poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.	eng
135749	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135750	conservation	Vences, M., Andreone, F. & Cox, N., 2009	It occurs in the Marojejy National Park and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.	eng
135750	distribution	Vences, M., Andreone, F. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is reliably known only from the holotype, collected in 2005 at Camp Simpona (14º26'S, 49º44'E), at 1,326 m asl in Marojejy National Park, and its recently confirmed presence at Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Future studies should clarify whether or not some of the previous records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Plethodontohyla notosticta</span> from the Marojejy National Park, at 700-1,300 m asl (Raselimanana <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), and the Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve, at 1,000-1,700 m asl (Raxworthy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guentheri</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. notosticta</span> or even another species.	eng
135750	habitat	Vences, M., Andreone, F. & Cox, N., 2009	The only known specimen was found on the ground during the day in montane rainforest. It contained large eggs, suggesting that reproduction occurs during the rainy season. Its breeding is not known, but is likely to be by larval development, not requiring water. It might breed in tree holes.	eng
135750	population	Vences, M., Andreone, F. & Cox, N., 2009	There is no information, as this species is so far known only from a single specimen.	eng
135750	threats	Vences, M., Andreone, F. & Cox, N., 2009	The only known specimen was collected in a well-protected area. It is possible that, if this species occurs more widely, it is present in some areas where it is at risk from habitat loss.	eng
135751	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135751	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis ornatus</span> is known from several  localities at elevations of 2,400–3,000 masl in the Province of Pasco, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006). This species' range may possibly extend into Ecuador (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135751	habitat		Pristimantis ornatus occurs in cloud forest (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). It was found at night between 1900–2300 hrs on the ground or on vegetation up to 1 m above the ground. During the day, individuals can be found among leaf litter and under stones. Sympatric anurans include Rhinella multiverrucosa, P. lundbergi, P. mendax, P. platydactylus, Gastrotheca stictopleura, Phrynopus juninensis, and Phyllonastes duellmani (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
135751	population		This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135751	threats		Deforestation and agriculture have been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135753	conservation		Cuba's Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas considers the area where the species is found to be at medium risk. The species has not been found in a nearby protected area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135753	distribution		Eleutherodactylus michaelschmidi is known from La Ceiba [type locality, 20 11'07'' N, 76 20'14'' W, 408 masl], Municipio Tercer Frente, and the region of Los Negros, Municipio Contramaestre, both localities in the karstic valleys and premontane areas at the north slope of Sierra Maestra, Province of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba (Díaz et al., 2007). The species is currently known only from this restricted area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135753	habitat		The limestone mountains and premontane valleys inhabited by Eleutherodactylus michaelschmidi are covered by secondary vegetation and the remnants of a semideciduous forest. Many places, including the type locality, are widely used for coffee plantations. Specimens are often found at night (21:00–1:00 hours), mostly on rocky surfaces and cave entrances, but may also be found on fallen trunks. Other anuran species in this area include Bufo peltocephalus, B. taladai, Osteopilus septentrionalis, Eleutherodactylus atkinsi, E. auriculatus, E. cuneatus, E. ionthus, E. leberi, E. ronaldi, and E. varleyi (Díaz et al., 2007).	eng
135753	population		Although this is considered to be a relatively common species, it was never recorded before during previous surveys to this area (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135753	threats		The area where this species occurs is used for coffee plantations, and it is also affected by urban encroachment: many places within the area have exposed karst, without vegetation cover, and the area is crossed by various roads and tracks (L.M. Díaz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135754	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135754	distribution		Pristimantis stictoboubonus is known from two localities at elevations of 3000 and 3130 masl in the Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This area is in the northern part of the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Duellman, Lehr and Venegas, 2006).	eng
135754	habitat		This species is found in the ecotone of grassland with bushes (Baccharis) and very humid montane forest. Individuals have been found at night on the bases of bunch grass and on a rock. The species is sympatric with several other anuran species in the two localities: Pristimantis corrugatus, Colostethus sp., Pristimantis wagteri, Gastrotheca ossilaginis, Telmatobius atahualpai, Rhinella arborescandens, P. bromeliaceus and P. schultei (Duellman, Lehr and Venegas, 2006).<br/><br/>In February 2008 an egg clutch containing 14 eggs was found amidst the grass. The only species found in this area was P. stictoboubonus, and the hatchlings resembled adults of this species (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135754	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.	eng
135754	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135755	conservation	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	The species occurs within two biological stations in Ecuador, Yasuní Scientific Research Station and Tiputini Biodiversity Station.	eng
135755	distribution	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	<em>Pristimantis aureolineatus</em> is known to occur at localities below 350 m in elevation, in the upper Amazon Basin of eastern Ecuador and Peru (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135755	habitat	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	This species can be found in Amazonian lowland forest, including terra firme forest (nonflooded forest), várzea (flooded forest), and seasonally flooded forest (Guayasamin et al., 2006). Individuals can be most often found up to 40 m into the canopy, often associated with bromeliads, although they may also occur on low vegetation and on the forest floor (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135755	population	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	This appears to be an abundant species in the canopy; bromeliad patch sampling of 40 bromeliads among eight trees resulted in the collection of eight specimens (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135755	threats	Juan Manuel Guayasamin, 2008	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135756	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135756	distribution		<em>Cochranella erminea</em> is only known from the type locality: Sabetari stream (11 14’31’’ S, 73 31’33’ ’W, 370 masl), on the Tambo River Basin, 9 km NNE of the indigenous community of Quitepampani, province of Satipo, department of Junín, Peru (Torres-Gastello et al., 2007).	eng
135756	habitat		The species inhabits the Amazonian tropical forest. The area has suffered little human impact and it is covered by primary lowland forest with predominance of dense forest (canopy height above 15 m), and semi-dense forest with patches of bamboo (<em>Guadua sarcocarpa</em>). The female holotype was found on a leaf of a 20-m fallen tree next to the stream, 30 cm above ground, at night. The stream had a slow water flow due to the season, and its bottom was rocky. <em>Cochranella erminea</em> is syntopic at the type locality with <em>Pristimantis</em> cf. <em>buccinator</em>. Other sympatric anurans include <em>Rhinella</em> sp. (aff. <em>margaritifer</em>), <em>Ameerega macero</em>, <em>Pristimantis toftae</em>, <em>P. ventrimarmoratus</em>, and <em>Oreobates quixensis</em> (Torres-Gastello et al., 2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135756	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135756	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135758	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135758	distribution		The species is known from the type locality of Caiçara, Municipality of Cáceres, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil (Nascimento <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
135758	habitat		No habitat information is available for this species.	eng
135758	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135758	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135759	conservation		It occurs in the Crocker Range Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
135759	distribution		This species from Borneo is known only from two sites, both in Malaysia: Meligong, on the Akah River, in northern Sarawak (Inger and Haile, 1960); and the Crocker Range (Trails 3 and 4), mostly between 750 and 820m asl, in Sabah (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2007). It presumably occurs more widely on Borneo, including at sites between the two known locations.	eng
135759	habitat		It lives along the banks of clear, small, rocky streams in primary forests, and can be found perching on rocks either along banks or mid-stream, usually near rapids. Breeding takes place in streams, but the larvae have yet to be recorded.	eng
135759	population		It is locally common is suitable habitat in the Crocker Range between 750 and 820m asl.	eng
135759	threats		Deforestation caused by logging, and the associated sedimentation of streams, are probably the principal threats to this species.	eng
135760	conservation		Known locations include the rocky southern portion of the Parry's Lagoon Nature Reserve, and the Prince Regent Nature Reserve (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this species more completely.	eng
135760	distribution		This species occurs in northwestern Australia. It is currently known from: a) two locations near "The Grotto", approximately 30 km south of Wyndham, in the northeasternmost part of Western Australia (Doughty and Anstis, 2007); b) the Mitchell Plateau and Prince Regent Nature Reserve in the northern part of the Kimberley Plateau (Doughty and Anstis, 2007); and c) Katers Island, Bigge Island and Southwest Osborn Island (P. Doughty pers. comm.). Extensive searches of museum collections of the related <em>Litoria coplandi</em> have not turned up any additional specimens of <em>L. staccato</em>, suggesting that it has a naturally small distribution (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). However, owing to the inaccessibility of the Kimberley region due to the rugged terrain and large areas with no vehicular access, it is likely that <em>L. staccato</em> will be found elsewhere in the Kimberley Plateau, and possibly also to the east in the Northern Territory (Doughty and Anstis, 2007).	eng
135760	habitat		In general, the species seems to prefer big flat rock platforms with lots of shallow, ephemeral pools in which to breed (P. Doughty pers. comm.), and also smaller creeks (that run into larger ones below) (M. Anstis pers. comm.). Owing to their slightly more ridge-dwelling existence compared to the common rock frog <em>Litoria coplandi</em>, <em>L. staccato</em> can be found in a wider range of places with less water. <em>L. coplandi</em> is more common around flowing streams, whereas <em>L. staccato</em> is happy can be found on ridges with no water around (P. Doughty pers. comm.). This species has been found in two areas near "The Grotto" with flowing water. The first was a steep rocky ridge with a slow trickle of water running under large boulders where males were calling, and where the eggs and tadpoles were collected (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). The second area was a creek that ran down a rocky ridge, about 2-3 km long (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Both sources of water came from underground streams that flowed from near the top of ridges. The vegetation at the rocky ridge sites where <em>L. staccato</em> occurs is sparse but dominated by <em>Triodia wiseana</em> with <em>Cochlospermum fraseri</em>, <em>Calytrix exstipulata</em> and stunted <em>Erythrophlem chlorostachys</em> (Doughty and Anstis, 2007). Along the watercourses where <em>L. staccato</em> was calling were <em>Triodia pungens</em>, <em>Terminalia volucris</em>, <em>Ficus</em> sp. and occasionally the boab tree <em>Adansonia gregorii</em> (Doughty and Anstis, 2007).	eng
135760	population		It can be quite abundant at choruses located in ideal habitat.	eng
135760	threats		This species occurs in a remote area with limited human impact, where there are not likely to be many threats in operation.	eng
135761	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected and and the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.	eng
135761	distribution		This species is known only from Carbine and Windsor Tablelands, in northeastern Queensland, Australia (Mahony <em>et al</em>., 2006), at 700-1,300m asl.	eng
135761	habitat		The species is found around clear, flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter near streams and ponds. No further information about this species’ ecology is available.	eng
135761	population		It is a common species within its small range, but it is uncommonly seen.	eng
135761	threats		In the past, habitat loss from logging was a threat. The area in which this species has been recorded is national park or forest reserve in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. The forest reserve is currently being converted to national park tenure.  There is only one minor tourist road in the distribution and no significant tourist or recreation activities in the area.	eng
135763	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135763	distribution		This species is only know from the East Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania, from 752m asl, but to at least 1,000m asl, perhaps higher. It might occur more widely.	eng
135763	habitat		It lives along margins of streams in forest. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135763	population		It is quite common in the East Usambaras, but previous workers have identified it as <em>Amietia angolensis</em>.	eng
135763	threats		In the East Usambaras it is probably threatened by deforestation for slash-and-burn clearing techniques, plantations of exotic tree species (such as teak, pine or eucalyptus), and human settlements, and also by the subsequent siltation of streams.	eng
135764	conservation		Its only known sites are not in protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.	eng
135764	distribution		This species has been found in two localities on the island of Biak, 120 km off the nortwestern coast of New Guinea, in Papua Province, Indonesia. It has been recorded from a swamp 6 km southwest of the fishing village of Korim (Korem) (0º56’S, 136º00’E) at 100m a.s.l., and at the mouth of a stream surrounded by marsh at the village of Warsa (Biawar) on the northeast coast of the island (0º48'S,135º56'E), close to sea-level. It might occur more widely on the island (especially between the known localities), but is likely to be endemic to Biak (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
135764	habitat		The type locality is densely vegetated with bushes and slender trees. Larger trees were absent as an obvious result of prior logging. Populations were concentrated on a narrow ditch filled with water 10-30cm deep which served as a spawning site. Many specimens were found sitting on leaves of bushes and trees between 1.5 and 3 m above the ground with a few perched on herbaceous plants and grasses 30-80 cm above the ground, or above 3 m on trees. All records are so far from secondary habitats, but its original habitat was probably lowland swamps with scattered shrubs and trees, and perhaps also lowland rainforest. It probably could not survive in completely opened-up habitat (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The breeding is not known, but is believed to take place is still water in swamps.	eng
135764	population		It is rather rare in its two known localities (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
135764	threats		The island of Biak has suffered from extensive habitat destruction with the majority of its forests destroyed recently. The habitat within its range is at risk from selective logging, clear-felling for timber, shifting agriculture, and small holder farming. However, as a species that survives in secondary habitats, it is not clear that it is immeditately at risk.	eng
135765	conservation		This only known site is within the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project area (Richards and Oliver, 2006), where the habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.	eng
135765	distribution		This species is known only from around the Yuwong Village at around 400m asl in the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project area on Huon Peninsula, in Morobe Province in Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2006). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
135765	habitat		Most specimens have been encountered in primary rainforest calling from high in the canopy on ridges adjacent to the Tarona River (Richards and Oliver, 2006). One specimen was in a tree adjacent to a forest garden and two specimens were collected from primary rainforest in trees overhanging puddles that had formed in a previously dry rocky creek bed after torrential rain (Richards and Oliver, 2006). One male descended to within three metres of the pools during observation, suggesting that this species may descend after torrential rain to breed in pools on the forest floor (Richards and Oliver, 2006).	eng
135765	population		There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is hard to find.	eng
135765	threats		The habitat where the species is known to occur is reasonably well conserved. However, the species probably occurs more widely, and might be found in less well protected sites. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest.	eng
135767	conservation		The species is found within the boundaries of Buenaventura Reserve (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).	eng
135767	distribution		<em>Nymphargus buenaventura</em> is only known from Buenaventura Reserve (03 38’S, 79 45’W, 1200 masl), canton of Piñas, Province of El Oro, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).	eng
135767	habitat		The type locality is covered by Seasonal Evergreen forest. Individuals are found on leaves of shrubs and low trees, 1-3 m above streams. Calling activity has been reported for the months of December and July. Egg clutches have been found on the upper side of leaves above rivulets. They contain ca 38 eggs and there are suggestions that males may exhibit parental care. Other sympatric species include <em>Centrolene prosoblepon</em>, </em>Hyloscirtus alytolylax</em> and two undescribed species of <em>Pristimantis</em> (Cisneros-Heredia and Yánez-Muñoz,  2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135767	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of four specimens, but additional individuals were observed at the type locality. It considered to be an uncommon species at the type locality (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135767	threats		Severe habitat destruction and transformation (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135768	conservation		It has been recorded from the Parque Nacional Volcán Rincón de la Vieja, Distrito Liberia, Canton Liberia; and from the protecetd watershed of Miravalles (Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed to better define the full extent of this species range.	eng
135768	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the Volcán Miravalles and the Volcán Rincón de la Vieja in the Cordillera de Guanacaste, Costa Rica (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). These mountain ranges are geographically isolated from the ranges of other species of Crepidophryne (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). The range appears to remain poorly known, however it has not yet been located during surveys in adjacent mountain peaks (Gerado Chaves pers. comm.). It is found between around 1,900 to 2,000m asl.	eng
135768	habitat		It is restricted to cloudforest and wind-swept elfin forest (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). Animals are presumably associated with deep leaf litter, as are other members of this genus. It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
135768	population		It is currently known only from three speciemens, and there is no information on the abundance of this species (Federico Bolaños and Gerardo Chaves pers. comm.).	eng
135768	threats		The current known range of this species is fully within well-protected areas, and there are not considered to be any major threats ongoing or predicted.	eng
135769	conservation		It occurs in the Yangmingshan National Nature Reserve. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.	eng
135769	distribution		This species is currently known only from Yangmingshan region, in Shuangpai County, Hunan Province, China, at 840-1,300m asl (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). It might occur more widely.	eng
135769	habitat		In the non-breeding season it lives in forest (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007). It breeds in October, laying eggs in paddy fields, ponds and other still water habitats (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135769	population		It is common where it occurs (Shen <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135769	threats		The habitat of this species is being affected by clear-cutting. The species might also be adversely affected by climate change in future, causing the drying of breeding habitats.	eng
135770	conservation		It occurs in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Matsui, 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135770	distribution		This species is known only from Bala, in the Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, Narathiwat Province, southernmost Thailand, near the Malaysian border (Matsui, 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, including in neighbouring Malaysia. Its elevational range is not known.	eng
135770	habitat		The only known specimen was found among rock about 10m from a large stream in rainforest (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.	eng
135770	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype (Matsui, 2006).	eng
135770	threats		No information is available on threats to this species. The only known locality is in a protected area.	eng
135771	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135771	distribution		Cochranella amelie is known from two nearby localities in the Province of Pastaza, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and Meza-Ramos, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M. Ortega pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135771	habitat		Two of the known specimens were collected on Heliconia leaves (ca. 0.8 m above ground) over a small affluent of the Oglán River, in primary forest. Both specimens were calling on the upper surface of leaves in the month of July.  One male was found next to a single-layer egg clutch deposited on the upper surface of a leaf. Other anuran species found along the stream included <em>Hypsiboas boans</em> and <em>Osteocephalus</em> sp. (Cisneros-Heredia and Meza-Ramos, 2007).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135771	population		The species is only known from three specimens, two included in the type description and an additional specimen collected at a nearby locality. Although there are no estimates of relative abundance, the species appears to be rare in those localities where it was found (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135771	threats		No major threats are known for this species, although habitat destruction in nearby areas is apparent (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135773	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on three tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis, and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135773	distribution		Pristimantis saltissimus is known only from the Wokomung Massif at elevations between 698 and 1560 masl (Means and Savage, 2007). It is also possible that this species may also be found on Mt. Ayanganna to the north of Wokomung and Maringma to the east. P. saltissimus may also be present at an elevation of about 1000 masl in transitional forest between rainforest and cloud forest below the Prow of Mt. Roraima in Guyana (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135773	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found on leaves of shrubs, branches, tree buttresses, exposed roots, and herbaceous ground vegetation, from below 0.5 m off the ground to 2 m high, in dense cloud forest. Most often individuals are found near the leafy banks of small cascades plunging down the steep sides of escarpments, often in the identical microhabitats of a species of arboreal toad, Oreophrynella sp., but they are also found on the leaves of understory vegetation in the cloud forest away from streams and cascades. P. saltissimus is syntopic with P. dendrobatoides and P. jester (Means and Savage, 2007).	eng
135773	population		This is the most commonly encountered frog in cloud forest habitats on the Wokomung Massif. At the moment, it is a common species (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135773	threats		No major threats were observed for this species. However, introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135774	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135774	distribution		Brachycephalus alipioi is known from the type locality, "Fazenda Aoki or Fazenda dos Japoneses” (20 28’24” S; 41 00’36” W, approximately 915 masl), municipality of Vargem Alta, and the neighboring municipalities of Forno Grande and Santa Teresa, all in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. The exact place where specimens were collected in Santa Teresa is not known; fieldwork to locate this species in Santa Teresa failed. However, when the specimens were collected, in 1952, the municipality of Santa Teresa was larger than in present time; it is possible that the locality indicated as Santa Teresa is not part of the current municipality (Pombal and Gasparini, 2006).	eng
135774	habitat		The species is known to inhabit the leaf litter and forest floor of Atlantic rain forests. It is a slow-moving diurnal species. One female was found to have large unpigmented ovules, suggesting direct development, as in other species of this genus (Pombal and Gasparini, 2006).	eng
135774	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135774	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135776	conservation		It occurs in the Eravikulam National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135776	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Eravikulam National Park, in the southern Western Ghats of the State Kerala, India, at 2,200m asl (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). It might be found to occur a little more widely.	eng
135776	habitat		This species has been found along slow-flowing streams in montane (shola) forest patches in the Kolukkumalai area and Turners Valley where tree canopy is high, and in the higher mountains in the Bhimanada shola-grassland mosaic (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). Specimens have been located in the vicinity of water, among dead leaves and stones on the floor of the shola forest (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007). It breeds in streams by larval development (Radhakrishnan <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135776	population		No information is available on its abundance.	eng
135776	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135777	conservation		It occurs in many protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
135777	distribution		This species is widely distributed in northeastern Madagascar and the Sambirano region of northwestern Madagascar. It ranges from sea level up to 900m asl.	eng
135777	habitat		It occurs in a variety of habitats including rainforest, dry forest, degraded forest and in open areas. It is a terrestrial species. The eggs are laid on land near water, and the larvae develop in temporary and permanent pools, and sometimes in brooks.	eng
135777	population		It is a locally abundant species.	eng
135777	threats		It is an adaptable species, and there are few, if any, habitat-related threats. It is has been suggested that over collecting for commercial and private purposes is a threat, but it is only traded in low numbers.	eng
135778	conservation	Rao, D.-Q. & Bain, R., 2008	It occurs in the Huanglianshan National Nature Reserve (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
135778	distribution	Rao, D.-Q. & Bain, R., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Huanglianshan, at 2,400 m asl above Ha-Zha Village, in Qimaba Township, Luchun County, Luchun County, Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan Province, in southern China (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). It can be expected to occur more widely in the mountainous areas of neighbouring Jinping County, in the border region with Viet Nam (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). Its range could, therefore, extends into northern Viet Nam (Rao and Wilkinson 2007).	eng
135778	habitat	Rao, D.-Q. & Bain, R., 2008	This species lives in cascading mountain streams of heavily forested mountains (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). The streams have sandy bottoms and large boulders beside or within the stream (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). The tadpoles live in streams (Rao and Wilkinson 2007). It is not known whether or not the species can survive in deforested areas, but all records are from forest far from human settlements (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).	eng
135778	population	Rao, D.-Q. & Bain, R., 2008	It is a rare species at its type locality (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).	eng
135778	threats	Rao, D.-Q. & Bain, R., 2008	There are potential threats through occasional harvesting for food, and deforestation by local people (Rao Ding-Qi pers. comm.).	eng
135779	conservation		It has been recorded from Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Namtok Phliu National Park, Pang Si Da National Park, Khao Yai National Park, and probably Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006; Kongjaroen and Nabhitabhata, 2007; Inthara <em>et al</em>., 2004). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, adundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135779	distribution		This species is currently known from several rovinces in southeastern Thailand. There are records from: Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Soi Dao Tai Mountain, in Chantaburi Province, at 600-1,000m asl; Namtok Phliu National Park, in Khlung District, Chantaburi Province; Pang Si Da National Park, in Muang Sa Kaeo District, Sa Kaeo Province, at 600m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006); and Khao Yai National Park, in Pak Chong District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, at 900-1,000m asl (Kongjaroen and Nabhitabhata, 2007). In addition, records of tadpoles attributed to <em>Megophrys parva</em> from Khao Ang Rui Ni Wildlife Sanctuary, in Chachoengsao and Chon Buri Provinces (Inthara <em>et al</em>., 2004) probably refer to this species (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.). It might occur a little more widely, but the species is probably restricted to the uplands of southeastern Thailand, the closely-related <em>Xenophrys auralensis</em> occurring in nearby Cambodia (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).	eng
135779	habitat		This species has been found at night on boulders and rock outcrops above swift, rocky streams with waterfalls in hilly evergreen mixed with bamboo forest, and on leaf-litter near swift, rocky streams in disturbed vegetation next to an abandoned road through hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). However, there is no evidence that it can adapt to seriously disturbed habitats (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.). The tadpoles live in streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
135779	population		It can be a locally abundant species in suitable habitat.	eng
135779	threats		No information is currently available on threats to this species. All records so far are from well-managed protected areas.	eng
135780	conservation		Its only known site is in a protected area, but this has not prevented logging from taking place. Effective protected area management is needed. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.	eng
135780	distribution		This species is known only from the eastern slopes of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula at 400 to 800m a.s.l. (approximately 2°58’S, 134°38’E) in the northwestern part of Papua Province in Indonesian New Guinea. It probably occurs more widely (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
135780	habitat		All specimens of this species have been located in closed-canopy primary rainforest. They prefer loamy slopes but have also been found on horizontal areas on the ground in small valleys. When calling they perch without exception on the surface of the ground where they stay on bare humus or clay soil, or on, or in, leaf litter. The species can probably survive in secondary forest, but not in completely opened-up areas (R. Günther, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.	eng
135780	population		It is at least locally common within its small range, as several hundred calling males were registered along a strip about 100 m wide and 4 km long strip. Loamy slopes between 600 and 700 m a.s.l. are most densely populated.	eng
135780	threats		It is impacted by clear-felling and selective logging at its only known site, which has taken place after the construction of a road inside the protected area in 1997-1998 (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
135782	conservation	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The species occurs in two national reserves.	eng
135782	distribution	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	Eupsophus septentrionalis is found in Los Queules National Reserve, Province of Concepción (35 59 S, 72 42 W) and in the vicinity of Los Ruiles National Reserve, Province of Cauquenes (35 49 S, 72 30W), Chile. The species is latitudinally distributed along the Cordillera de la Costa, between Los Ruiles National Reserve (Chanco, VII Region, 35 49 S) and Trehuaco (VIII Region, 36 26 S) (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004).	eng
135782	habitat	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	The species can be found in fragments of temperate forest dominated by Nothophagus obliqua and Nothophagus glauca of the Cordillera de la Costa (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). It can be found within the forest's leaf litter, in humid areas and sites that are close to flowing water (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).	eng
135782	population	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	Nineteen specimens were reported in the original description. In addition, type specimens were collected between 1998-2001 (Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). It is considered to be a rare species given that it is found in low densities and in a relatively restricted area (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).	eng
135782	threats	Juan Carlos Ortiz, 2008	There is forest fragmentation outside of the national reserves where the species is found (see Ibarra-Vidal et al., 2004). This is due primarily to collection of firewood and the development of silviculture (pine and eucalyptus), which changes the local habitat and its relative humidity. In addition, protected areas in the region cover a limited surface area (J.C. Ortíz, pers. comm.).	eng
135783	conservation		There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
135783	distribution		This species is known only from the island of Borneo, where it has been recorded from close to Samling Camp at Ravenscourt, at 1,351m asl on Gunung Murud, Sarawak State, Malaysia (Das, 2005). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
135783	habitat		The holotype was collected from vegetation at 0.8 m above a granite boulder at the edge of a stream (Das, 2005). It is presumed to be a larval-developing species.	eng
135783	population		It is currently known only from the female holotype (Das, 2005).	eng
135783	threats		The species was collected at a relatively inaccessible site (Das, 2005), but it was logged a few months after the holotype was collected (I. Das pers. comm.).	eng
135784	conservation	Gunther Köhler, Javier Sunyer, 2008	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135784	distribution	Gunther Köhler, Javier Sunyer, 2008	Craugastor chingopetaca is known from Chingo Petaca, Rio San Juan (40 masl) Department of Rio San Juan (Köhler and Sunyer, 2006), Cerro El Bolívar, near Río Machado, and  Boca de San Carlos, Nicaragua (G. Köhler, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135784	habitat	Gunther Köhler, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The only known specimen was found during the daytime, in the leaf litter of the forest floor, on a wet ridge in the forest (Köhler and Sunyer, 2006).<br/><br/>It likely breeds by direct development, as in other congeners (G. Köhler, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135784	population	Gunther Köhler, Javier Sunyer, 2008	The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.	eng
135784	threats	Gunther Köhler, Javier Sunyer, 2008	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135785	conservation		It occurs in the Ba Na, Bach Ma, and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Parks. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
135785	distribution		This species is known from the mountains of central Viet Nam (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). There are records from: Ba Na National Park, in Danang Province, at 1,400m asl; Bach Ma National Park (Hai Van Mountain Range), in Thua Thien-Hue Province, 1,300m asl; Huong Hoa district, in Quang Tri Province, at 400m asl; and Phong Nha – Ke Bang National Park, in Quang Binh province, at 300m asl (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It presumably occurs more widely, especially in areas between known sites, and it can be expected from neighbouring Laos.	eng
135785	habitat		This species lives in valleys near mountain streams in evergreen forest (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It is arboreal, but prefers the lower strata of the forest (usually 30-100cm above ground), and can be found on leaves of ferns and Gingeraceae and Araceae plants at night (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). Clutches of 5-12 eggs are found on the back surface of the leaves, sometimes with 2-3 clutches lie on the same leaf (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). The males appear to guard the egg clutches (Orlov and Cuc, 2005). It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
135785	population		It is probably common in suitable habitats.	eng
135785	threats		There is no direct information on threats, but the habitat of this species is presumably being impacted by expanding agriculture and human settlements, and by logging.	eng
135786	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135786	distribution		Bokermannohyla oxente is known from the Municipalities of Lençois, Andaraí, Mucugé, and Palmeiras, all from the Serra do Sincorá in the central part of the Chapada Diamantina, and also from the Municipality of Rio de Contas, south<br/>of Chapada Diamantina, north of the Espinhaço mountain range, Bahia, in northeastern Brazil. It can also be found in the Municipalities of Utinga and Bonito, in the northeastern area of the Chapada Diamantina, Brazil. All localities reported<br/>are approximately between 500 and 1300 m elevation. Georeference coordinates of the municipalities are: Lençois, 12 33 47 S and 41 23 24 W; Palmeiras, 12 31 44 S and 41 33 32 W; Mucugé, 13 00 19 S and 41 22 15 W; Rio de Contas 13 34 44 S and 41 48 41 W (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).	eng
135786	habitat		Both adults and juveniles of B. oxente are nocturnal, living close to permanent streams with clear or brownish red water, bordered by riparian vegetation. Reproduction is prolonged; males call throughout the year. Males apparently are territorial, remaining far from each other (10–20 m), and apparently defend their territory only by acoustic signals; combats between males were never observed. Males generally call while perched on bushes and trees at the margins of the streams, but some of them were found calling on rocks or in rock crevices. Calling activity begins at sunset and can extend through the night. Females and juveniles were observed on rocks of the stream bed (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).<br/><br/>Egg clutches are deposited on the rocky bottoms of stream backwaters. One clutch contained 313 eggs (oviposition observed in situ); an egg clutch obtained in an aquarium contained 296 eggs. Eggs are pigmented, with diameter range of 1.4–1.9 mm, enveloped by individual gelatinous capsules. Tadpoles in different developmental stages and recently metamorphosed froglets were found throughout the year. Tadpoles are diurnal and nocturnal, beginning the activity at the hotter hours of the day, and remaining active all night. They were found on the rocky botton of streams and mostly remain in backwaters with slow or no current, avoiding areas of fast flow (Lugli and Haddad, 2006).	eng
135786	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135786	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135788	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135788	distribution		Leptodactylus sertanejo is found at the Clube de Caça e Pesca Itororó of Uberlândia (around 19 00’00” S, 48 18’53” W, 850 masl), Municipality of Uberlândia, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). It is hypothesized that populations currently allocated to Leptodactylus jolyi distributed in the Cerrado ecoregion may in fact be Leptodactylus sertanejo (Giaretta and Costa, 2007). If populations of large sized Leptodactylus historically referred to as L. jolyi are in fact conspecific with L. sertanejo, its distribution includes large areas of the Cerrado Biome, such as Serra do Cipó, Serra da Canastra and Chapada dos Veadeiros (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.). The elevational range is comprised between 750-850 masl  (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135788	habitat		Males call from natural and artificial grassland areas, near rivulets or temporary ponds. Syntopic Leptodactylus species include L. furnarius, L. fuscus, L. labyrinthicus, and L. ocellatus. Males call under dense vegetation, from within underground chambers or exposed (Giaretta and Costa, 2007).<br/><br/>The reproductive season coincides with the rainy season (September-February). It is thought to reproduce like other members of the Leptodactylus fuscus group i.e. eggs laid in excavated ground chambers close to waterbodies. Clutch size is estimated to be ca 200 eggs (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135788	population		This is considered to be a common species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135788	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135789	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135789	distribution		Pristimantis tantanti is only known from the type locality: Myaria (11 20' 14.3" S, 73 00' 29.8" W, 321 masl), District of Echarate, Province of La Convención, Department of Cusco, Peru (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
135789	habitat		This species inhabits primary lowland rainforest. Individuals have been found on leaves ca 150-800 cm above ground. It is suspected that the species could be a canopy dweller. Other species of Pristimantis found at Myaria are P. diadematus, P. fenestratus, P. ockendeni, and P. peruvianus  (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
135789	population		The species is known from the type series, comprised of two specimens. However, this is likely a canopy dweller, and the forest canopy in this area has not been studied (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135789	threats		Deforestation has been observed in the region where the species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135790	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed, in particular to determine geographic range, habitat occupancy, population size and life history.	eng
135790	distribution		This species is currently known only from Keri Village, Sattari Taluk, in North Goa district, Goa Province, India, at 32-42m asl (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
135790	habitat		Two of the three known specimens were collected from rotting vegetation at the base of saplings c. 5m from a small river in a mixed orchard of arecanut, banana, coconut, acacia and pepper (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The soil where the specimens were collected was black and rich in mixed compost and rotten waste (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The third specimen was collected from underneath piles of rotting coconut leaves c. 20m from a small rivulet (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The soil was lateritic, mixed with clay (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species can clearly adapt to certain anthropogenic habitats, and its original natural habitat is unknown. It is assumed to be oviparous, like other members of its genus, with terrestrial eggs that develop directly, and to not be dependent on water bodies for breeding.	eng
135790	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known from just three specimens (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135790	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
135791	conservation		The species can be found within a small forested area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park. Long-term studies are recommended to estimate population size, and research of regional northeastern museum collections may increase the known geographic distribution of this species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135791	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllomedusa bahiana</span> is known from northeastern Brazil; specifically, from the state of Bahia [Serra São José (12 06’ S 39 02’ W; 400 masl), Municipality of Feira de Santana, and Lages, Municipality of Morro do Chapéu (11 29’ S 41 20’ W; 900 masl), state of Bahia, Brazil; Serra São José and Lages are approximately 120 and 330 km (respectively) from the type locality (Salvador) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllomedusa b. bahiana</span>] (Silva-Filho and Juncá, 2006). Museum records also place <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bahiana</span> in the municipalities of Miguel Calmon, Mucugê, Lençóis, Rui Barbosa, Muritiba, Palmeiras, Conceição de Feira and Senhor do Bonfim. The species occurs between 100-900 masl (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135791	habitat		The species can be found near permanent ponds in the Caatinga domain, with presence of seasonal forest and Atlantic forest. In the Caatinga domain the landscape is comprised of emergent rock, intermittent streams, permanent and temporary ponds. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a dry and wet seasons. The wet season at Serra São José runs from March to May, and the dry season runs from August to October. At Lages, the wet season is from November to January, and the dry season is as above (Silva-Filho and Juncá, 2006). P. bahiana has been found within deciduous or semi-deciduous humid forest fragments, and it is common in caatinga areas with vegetation above 3m high (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It lays clutch in leaves and tadpoles develop in water (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135791	population		This is considered to be a common species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135791	threats		Deforestation and fire of deciduous and semi-deciduous forests are the main threats to the species (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135792	conservation		It occurs in the Andringitra National Park. Research is needed to determine its geographic range and ecological requirements.	eng
135792	distribution		This species has been reliably identified only from the Andringitra Massif, at altitudes between 1,400 and 2,000 m asl. Further research might show it to occur more widely.	eng
135792	habitat		It requires clean streams, usually in forest, and above the tree line in montane grassland. It breeds in streams by larval development. It probably does not occur in degraded habitats.	eng
135792	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135792	threats		All currently known records are within a protected area, but if it occurs more widely, it could a be threatened by habitat loss.	eng
135793	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135793	distribution		This species is known from Zhaojue County, in Sichuan province, and from Lichuan County, in Hubei province, China at 3,050-3350m asl. It presumably occurs more widely, in particular in locations between the currently known sites.	eng
135793	habitat		The species is associated with marshes, ponds, pools or paddyfields, and makes foam nests in holes near the still water from the beginning of May until the end of June. Outside the breeding season, it lives in forest.	eng
135793	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135793	threats		This species is affected by habitat degradation as a result of clear-cutting and the impacts of tourism. It might also be adversely affected by climate change, which is causing both increased droughts and flooding in its range.	eng
135794	conservation		Given the species distribution, it is likely to occur in protected areas.	eng
135794	distribution		Pseudis platensis is distributed from southeastern Bolivia and south-central Brazil into northeastern Argentina (Frost, 2007).	eng
135794	habitat		Pseudis platensis is an aquatic species (Aguiar-Jr et al., 2007).	eng
135794	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135794	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135795	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135795	distribution		Rhinella alata's distribution is poorly documented; the type locality is in Panama but the population currently allocated to this name is in Venezuela north of the Orinoco River, possibly also in northern Colombia (Frost, 2007).	eng
135795	habitat		No information available on the species' habitat and ecology.	eng
135795	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135795	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135796	conservation		The species is found within the boundaries of Grande Sertão Veredas National Park (Brandão et al., 2007). It is also present in the the Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Veredas do Oeste Baiano, and at the Serra das Araras State Park (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135796	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella veredas</span> is found in sandy ground chapadas (plane highlands) in the southwestern parts of the states of Piauí (Uruçuí-Una Ecological Station) and Bahia (Cocos Municipality) and in northeastern Minas Gerais (Formoso, Serra das Araras, Chapada Gaúcha, Pirapora, Várzea da Palma and Buritizeiro municipalities), Brazil (Brandão et al., 2007). It occurs between 200-250 m elevation in those localities on the margins of Rio São Francisco (Pirapora, Várzea da Palma, Buritizeiro) up to approximately 1000 m elevation on the border of the states of Bahia, Goiás and Minas Gerais (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135796	habitat		Individuals of this species were found in open areas (cerrado, campo cerrado, veredas, and campo sujo). No reproductive activity was observed nor tadpoles found. However, in December toadlets were found close to wet areas, but no adults. Leptodactylus troglodytes, Pleurodema diplolistris, and Physalaemus centralis are found in the same habitats as R. veredas (Brandão et al., 2007). Individuals were observed in open areas during the rainy season, but were nowhere to be seen during the dry season. It is possible that they may burrow underground. The presence of some individuals with soil on their heads and developed calluses suggest that they may bury underground. R. veredas uses large temporary pools in the rainy season in the border area of the three states (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135796	population		It is an infrequently encountered species, seen mostly at the beginning of the rainy season (October/November) (Brandão et al., 2007). It is less common than other congeneric sympatric species: R. granulosa; R. schneideri; R. cerradensis; however, it cannot be considered as rare (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135796	threats		The main threat in the region is the rapid conversion of land to monoculture of grain crops or trees (Pinus and Eucalyptus). The region is especially fragile due to its sandy soil, easily arable land and the lack of physical barriers for the mechanized treatment of soil, allowing for a rapid land use change. There are, however, populations of this species that are found within conservation areas (Parque Nacional Grande Sertão Veredas, Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Veredas do Oeste Baiano, Parque Estadual da Serra das Araras and another four private natural heritage reserves in the area of the three state borders, such as  São Francisco da Trijunção, Sertão do Formoso, Guará and Leite Verde) (R. Brandão, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135798	conservation		It occurs in the Ankarana Special Reserve. Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.	eng
135798	distribution		This species is only known from the Ankarana Special Reserve in northern Madagascar which has a total surface of 182 km2. Within the Ankarana Reserve, it has been found around the "Petit Tsingy", the "Campment des Anglais" (now called Campement Anilotra), and close to the "Campement des Americains" (now called "Campement d'Andrafiabe") in the west of the reserve, indicating that the species has a wider distribution in the central part of Ankarana. It occurs at low elevations, and records so far come from 50-117m asl. It appears likely that this species is endemic to the Ankarana Reserve, but it cannot be excluded that its also occurs in other remote "tsingy" formations (such as Tsingy de Namoroka or Tsingy de Bemaraha), or in other karstic areas (such as Analamera Reserve).	eng
135798	habitat		The Ankarana reserve consists mainly of eroded "tsingy" limestone formations and moderately dry forest areas, with rivers and subterranean passages and caves. All four specimens of Tsingymantis antitra were found at night and were associated with the "tsingy" formations. One specimen was found along a small brook, whereas the other three<br/>specimens were not associated with open waters (although they were not far from dry riverbeds). One specimen was sitting on the ground close to the entrance of a big cave. Another specimen was found on the top of the "tsingy" limestone, and the fourth specimen was in a cave of approximately 1m depth in "tsingy", both close to a dry riverbed. A further individual was photographed along a brook. It remains unclear if the species is mainly distributed along streams, or is widespread in the "tsingy" formations of Ankarana. Its mode of reproduction is unknown.	eng
135798	population		There is very little information on its abundance, though it appears to be rare. Only four specimens are known, plus one field observation.	eng
135798	threats		There are no obvious threatening process currently affecting this species due to the inhospitability of the terrain in the "tsingy" formations. However, it is intrinsically at risk due to its small range.	eng
135800	conservation		It occurs in Daiyun Mountain National Natural Reserve and in Nanjing Huboliao National Natural Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine the range, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135800	distribution		This species is currently known from five localities in Fujian Province, southeastern China, where it has been recorded at 700-1,400m asl (Geng Baorong pers. comm.). There are records from Daiyun Mountain, Datian, Yongding, Nanjing and Zhaoan (Geng Baorong pers. comm.), though it probably occurs more widely, and is likely to occur in localities between the currently known sites.	eng
135800	habitat		It is an inhabitant of forest-fringed, small hill streams, particularly those with cascades. It does not survive where the forest is removed. The eggs are laid in rock crevices where the water splashes over them, and the larvae cling to the rocks by means of a ventral sucker.	eng
135800	population		It is a common species.	eng
135800	threats		The major threats to this species are habitat destruction and degradation caused by agriculture, clear-cutting, human settlement and the construction of hydroelectric plants.	eng
135802	conservation		It occurs in the Endau-Rompin National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135802	distribution		This species is so far known only from Peta Visitor Centre in Endau-Rompin National Park, Johor Province, Peninsular Malaysia at 46m asl (Grismer, 2007). This species presumably occurs more widely, beyond the confines of Endau-Rompin National Park.	eng
135802	habitat		The only record so far of this species was of individuals heard calling from a swampy area centered on a slow-moving, shallow stream beneath a closed-canopy portion of lowland forest. All individuals were collected during the early evening following a brief period of afternoon precipitation. They were seated no higher than 0.5 m above the ground on dead vegetation along the streambed.	eng
135802	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is so far known from only three specimens (Grismer, 2006).	eng
135802	threats		Its only known location is in a well-protected location. However, if it is occurs more widely, as is very likely, it will most likely be found to be present in places where its habitat is at risk from logging and agricultural expansion (especially oil palm plantations).	eng
135803	conservation		It has been recorded from the Las Tablas protected area in Costa Rica, and from Reserva de la Biósfera de La Amistad in Costa Rica and Panama. Additional field studies are needed to better determine the threats to this species.	eng
135803	distribution		This newly described species is present in the border area of Costa Rica and Panama. It is reported by Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) from "both Pacific and Atlantic slopes of the southern Cordillera de Talamanca, with localities ranging from the vicinity of Cerro Pando on the Costa Rica-Panama border in the west, to the Pacific slope in Chiriquí Province, Panama, as far east as the Boquete area, east of Volcán Barú". Animals have been recorded between 1,900 and 2,300m asl.	eng
135803	habitat		Wake <em>et al. </em>(2007) record the species presence in "Tropical Lower Montane Rainforest zone (sensu Holdridge, 1967) at elevations between 1900 and 2300 m". The species is nocturnal and frequently arboreal; whereas the holotype was found at night on the ground, others were found on low vegetation within a couple meters of the ground (Wake <em>et al.</em>, 2007). It is not known if the species can persist in modified or degraded habitat. It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
135803	population		This species has only been collected on a few occasions and little is known about the population abundance.	eng
135803	threats		The threats to the species are not well-known, however it is distributed in an area that is largely protected.	eng
135804	conservation		It occurs in the reserve on the Wandammen Peninsula, as well as in the Foya Mountains protected aea. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
135804	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea where it has been recorded from three sites in Papua Province, Indonesia: near the former Biological Station PUSPPENSSAT at the "54 km" site along the Nabire-Mapia road about 30 km direct line southeast of Nabire, at 500-800m asl; in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula at 750m asl; and in the foothills of the Foya Mountains of north-central Papua near Marina Valen (Günther and Richards, 2005) at around 500m asl. It almost certainly occurs more widely, in particular between these known sites.	eng
135804	habitat		The species is associated with small rocky mountain streams bordered by dense riparian vegetation in primary or secondary tropical moist forest. The streams have both fast and slow-flowing sections, with larvae present in the slower flowing sections. Adult animals can be found perched on stones or leaves at the margin of the stream or overhanging it (Günther and Richards, 2005). The species appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance as breeding animals were recorded at the edge of a road with motor traffic, and at a site where people regularly came to collect water (Günther and Richards, 2005).	eng
135804	population		It is a rather common species (R. Günther and S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
135804	threats		There is no direct information on threats, but it is an adaptable species and so is not likely to be seriously affected by habitat degradation (R. Günther, S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
135806	conservation	Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Max Kasparek, 2008	This species has been recorded from the protected areas of Lake Beyşehi National Park and Kovada Lake National Park.<br/>The impact of habitat loss and conversion and collection requires monitoring. The taxonomic status of this species requires further investigation.	eng
135806	distribution	Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Max Kasparek, 2008	This species is endemic to the Lakes District in southwestern Anatolia, Turkey, ranging from the Konya Plain to Denizli. There are records from Lake Beyşehir, Lake Eğridir, Lake Suğla, Çarşamba Creek (Konya), Lake Gölcük (Isparta), Lake Hotamiş, Ivriz (Ereğli/Konya), Işikli Lake in Çivril (Denizli), and Çardak (Denizli).	eng
135806	habitat	Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Max Kasparek, 2008	This is a largely aquatic species of permanent wetlands with rich aquatic vegetation. The species' habitats include permanent ponds, rain pools, streams, rivers, irrigation channels, reservoirs, marshes, springs and fishponds. It is a seasonal breeder, with breeding taking place in permanent waterbodies, and can be found in surrounding terrestrial habitats. This species is somewhat adaptable and can occur in modified habitats where suitable wetlands exist.	eng
135806	population	Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Max Kasparek, 2008	It is common species in suitable habitat (Ǒz, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135806	threats	Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Max Kasparek, 2008	A major threat to this species habitat loss from water extraction, the drying of its aquatic habitats, and land conversion.  A number of dams for drinking water and irrigation are planned in the species' habitat which would dry lakes in the area and pose a significant threat to the species.  In addition, this species is the largest edible frog in Turkey, and is commercially collected for trade for food in France, Italy, and Switzerland representing threat to the species.	eng
135808	conservation		The species occurs within the Serra dos Órgãos National Park.	eng
135808	distribution		Gastrotheca fulvorufa is known from the region of the Serra dos Órgãos, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).	eng
135808	habitat		The species occurs within the realm of the Atlantic Rain Forest domain.	eng
135808	population		No population status information is currently known for this species.	eng
135808	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135809	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on the tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135809	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis dendrobatoides</span> is known from the Wokomung Massif in west-central Guyana  in cloud forest habitat (1,385–1,570 masl) (Means and Savage, 2007). It is possible that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. dendrobatoides</span> may also be present on both Mt. Ayanganna to the north of Wokomung and Maringma to the east (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135809	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found sitting on small leaves in cloud forest understory vegetation up to 2 metres from the ground, sometimes in close proximity to mountain streams, but sometimes very far from running water (40 m). All individuals were found alone, 2-4 hours after full dark and during rains or lulls in rainfall (Means and Savage, 2007).	eng
135809	population		Considered to be a rare species given that in ca six weeks of field work during four expeditions to the Wokomung Massif, only about 10 specimens were found. Ten-day field trips to two other tepuis yielded two or three specimens per trip (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135809	threats		No major threats were observed for this species. Introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135810	conservation		The Serra dos Barbados belongs to the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Serra dos Barbados”, a protected area with sustainable management (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).	eng
135810	distribution		Type material of Bohermannohyla diamantina was collected at the Riacho do Tijuquinha, Serra dos Barbados, District of Catolés de Cima, Municipality of Abaíra (13 16’ 08’’ S; 41 54’ 39’’ W; 1700 m masl), State of Bahia, Brazil (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).<br/><br/>This species is only known from the type locality, Municipality of Abaíra, in Serra dos Barbados. The Serra dos Barbados is a mountain range with altitudes varying from 600 to 2033 m, (the highest point of the State of Bahia), and is located in the Brazilian semiarid. The mountain scenery contains ecosystems like Caatinga, Cerrado, Campo Rupestre <br/>(“rock fields”), Deciduous and Semi-Deciduous Mountain Forests, and Gallery Forests (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).	eng
135810	habitat		Bokermannohyla diamantina occurs in gallery forests along creeks surrounded by rocky mountain fields called “Campo Rupestre”, a biome typical in Chapada Diamantina. The three males heard were calling from the central axis of an epiphytic bromeliad, a cavity under a rock on the side of a stream, and on the ground in an open field near the stream, respectively. Two individuals were collected in a gallery forest, and four in the “Campo Rupestre” near a stream, all at night. Only one individual was collected during the day, resting inside the gallery forest (Napoli and Juncá, 2006).	eng
135810	population		There were ca 20 vocalizing males at the type locality when the species was found. However, no further surveys have been conducted therafter (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135810	threats		This species inhabits the Chapada Diamantina, where the main threats are fire and cattle (F. Juncá, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135811	conservation		It has been recorded from the Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (Tapajos National Forest) (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007). This is a little-known, newly described species for which more information is needed in general.	eng
135811	distribution		This recently described species is known only from the eastern Amazonian rainforest, in the State of Pará, Brazil (Heyer, 2005).	eng
135811	habitat		The few data available for this species indicate that it has generally been recorded from closed canopy primary tropical moist forest (Heyer, 2005). Although it has not been found in deforested areas, it is common in forests that have been subjected to selective logging (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
135811	population		It is common in some parts of its range (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
135811	threats		There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (Albertina Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
135812	conservation	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species has been recorded from within the Tsaratanana Strict Nature Reserve, the Manongarivo Special Reserve, and the Marojejy National Park (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), and may be present within the Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve and the Masoala National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
135812	distribution	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species has been recorded from the Tsaratanana Massif at 688 m asl, the Manongarivo Massif at 1,000 m, and the Marojejy Massif at around 700 m, in northwestern Madagascar (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Glaw and Vences 2007, Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been provisionally recorded through observation from the Anjanaharibe Sud Special Reserve, Ambolokopatrika-Betaolana (at 1,200 m) and from Masoala (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It might exist as several isolated populations (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
135812	habitat	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species appears to be restricted to primary mid-elevation tropical moist forest (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It is not thought to occur in disturbed areas. Calling males have been observed at night perched on vegetation at 2-3 m alongside small streams. It is a stream-breeding species with a larval development stage (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
135812	population	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species appears to be locally abundant in undegraded habitat.	eng
135812	threats	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	The known populations within protected areas are not considered to be under any immediate threat (Vences <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). However, it is a forest specialist, and so any populations outside protected areas could be at risk from forest loss. Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) generally report that there is a substantial continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, presumably through the general conversion of land to agricultural use or logging/collection of firewood.	eng
135814	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas, though a protected area is planned for the Wanui site. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
135814	distribution		This species is known only from New Britain Island, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. It has so far been confirmed only at two localities (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006): near Sulu and Silali Villages in the foothills of the Nakanai Mountains, West New Britain (Foufopoulos & Brown 2004); and Wanui, East New Britain (near Sampun Village (05° 21.638'S, 152° 05.266'E)). It has been found at 300–500m a.s.l. It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135814	habitat		Both known sites are in primary rainforest. These frogs call from elevated perches (leaves and branches) as high as 2m above the ground. They presumably breed by direct development without dependence upon aquatic habitats. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to heavily degraded habitats, but some closely related species are very adaptable (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
135814	population		There is little information on its abundance, as it had previously been confused with <em>Platymantis schmidti</em>. However, at Wanui it was 8-10 times more abundant that <em>P. schmidti</em>, which appears to be more common at lower elevations.	eng
135814	threats		No information is available on threats to this species. If it is dependent upon undisturbed forest, it could be impacted by ongoing forest clearance on New Britain.	eng
135815	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	No information is currently available on existing conservation measures for this species.	eng
135815	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Proceratophrys paviotii is found at Santa Lúcia Biological Station (19 57’ S, 40 31 ’W, 560 masl), municipality of Santa Teresa, state of Espírito Santo, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2005).	eng
135815	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Proceratophrys paviotii was found to vocalize in sympatry with Proceratophrys boiei and P. laticeps in a stream with sandy bed and also on the margins of a stream with a rocky bed (where P. moehringi was heard) (Cruz et al., 2005).	eng
135815	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135815	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	No information on major threats is currently available for this species.	eng
135816	conservation		The Valley of Sibundoy has a regional network of natural reserves; the species was collected in most of these areas. However, there are no apparent differences between the reserves and their near surroundings, indicating that these reserves are not fulfilling their conservation roles. In addition, there are no other known conservation measures for either this species or any other species from other taxonomic groups (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135816	distribution		Pristimantis colonesis is known from Valle de Sibundoy in Colón, San Francisco and Sibundoy municipalities, department of Putumayo, Colombia. It is found at elevations between 2200–2750 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
135816	habitat		The species is found in montane forest ecosystems. Individuals are active at night, and can be found mainly on vegetation between 1 and 2 meters above the ground along small streams inside the forest, and in clearings from 0.5 to 2 meters above the ground. The call of this species is not known (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
135816	population		While the species may not appear to be rare, there is insufficient information to determine its relative abundance (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135816	threats		The species has been found in disturbed forests. While the observed impact of habitat destruction has not appeared to be significant, no quantitative studies were undertaken, so it is possible that it may comprise a potential threat (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135817	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135817	distribution		Pristimantis meridionalis is only known from the type locality: Caraz,  District of Caraz, Province of Huaylas, Department of Ancash, Peru. This locality is in the northern part of the Callejón de Huaylas in the Río Santa Valley, at 2290 masl. The area is in the Mountain Steppe (Serranía de Esteparia) Ecoregion (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).	eng
135817	habitat		Nothing is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
135817	population		The species is only known from the one type specimen.	eng
135817	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135818	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
135818	distribution		This species is known only from Gunung Jeroi on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia, where it has been found at 720m asl on the Teroi River (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005). It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.	eng
135818	habitat		This species has been found perching on rocks and sand along mountain streams in montane myrtaceous forest (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. Higher elevations on Gunung Jeroi (1,050-1,100m asl) are occupied by <em>Odorrana hosii</em> (Matsui and Jaafar, 2005), suggesting the <em>O. monjerai</em> might have a narrow elevational range.	eng
135818	population		There is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
135818	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135819	conservation		Many occurrrences are in protected areas.	eng
135819	distribution		Range includes the south-central United States in eastern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Texas, Louisiana, and eastern and southern Mississippi (Lemmon et al. 2008).	eng
135819	habitat		Habitats of this ground-dwelling frog are diverse and include forests, fields, swamps, marshes, irrigation ditches, and temporarily flooded areas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Lemmon et al. 2008). Eggs are laid in small clusters that adhere to submerged vegetationin shallow temporary pools, ditches, and flooded areas where emergent vegetation or a grassy margin is present (Dundee and Rossman 1989).	eng
135819	population		This species is represented by large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g., see maps in Dundee and Rossman 1989 and Trauth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000.<br/><br/>Over the long term, likely stable in extent of occurrence; unknown degree of decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Current population trend is unknown but probably stable to slightly declining.	eng
135819	threats		No major threats have been identified. This frog tolerates a substantial level of habitat alteration. Various kinds of habitat loss and degradation attributable to human activities (e.g., urbanization, intensive agriculture) undoubtedly have caused localized declines.	eng
135821	conservation	Stefan Lötters, 2008	No information is currently available for conservation measures in place.	eng
135821	distribution	Stefan Lötters, 2008	<em>Ameerega yungicola</em> is only known from km 10 on road from Caranavi to Yolosa (15 53 17 S, 67 33 09 W), and from  ca km 22-30 on the Caranavi-Yucumo road, Yungas de La Paz, Caranavi Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (Lötters et al., 2005; Köhler et al., 2006). Its altitudinal range lies between 600-1450 masl. However, it is expected to occur more widely (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135821	habitat	Stefan Lötters, 2008	The entire area of the species' distribution is comprised of humid montane rain forest. Males call from exposed positions on the ground by day; specimens were often found at the forest edge along roads; calls were heard and recorded in the months of February-May and October. Other syntopic callers include <em>Ameerega boliviana</em> and <em>Ameerega picta</em> (Lötters et al., 2005). Information on reproductive biology is limited, but it is likely to be as in related species, ca 10-20 eggs per clutch throughout the year if it is not too dry. Tadpoles are carried to temporary water (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135821	population	Stefan Lötters, 2008	The species has a small known distribution where it can be locally common. It can be considered somewhere between rare and common (S. Lötters, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135821	threats	Stefan Lötters, 2008	At the type locality small scale agriculture has induced local deforestation (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005).	eng
135822	conservation		It occurs in Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Sok National Park (Matsui, 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135822	distribution		This species is so far known only from Thailand. There are records from central peninsular Thailand at: Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Sok National Park, both localities being in Surat Thani Province; and Klong Hat Som Pen, Muang, in Ranong Province (Matsui, 2006). Much further north there is a record from Pilok, Thong Pha Pum, in Kanchanaburi Province in southwestern mainland Thailand (Matsui, 2006). It presumably occurs in intervening areas, including, mist likely, Myanmar. Its elevational range is not known.	eng
135822	habitat		Males have been found calling at night among stones and litter on on slopes 1-10m from small streams (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.	eng
135822	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135822	threats		There is no direct information on threats, but it is presumably affected by ongoing forest loss due to logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
135823	conservation		The Valley of Sibundoy has a regional network of natural reserves; most specimens were collected in one of these reserves, which is protected because the owners live within the reserve. However, in most cases there are no apparent differences between the reserves and their near surroundings, indicating that these reserves are not fulfilling their conservation roles. In addition, there are no other known conservation measures for either this species or any other species from other taxonomic groups (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135823	distribution		<em>Pristimantis zoilae</em> is known from San Francisco and Santiago municipalities, Valle de Sibundoy, department of Putumayo, Colombia, between elevations of 2060–2550 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
135823	habitat		This species is found in disturbed forests. Individuals have been found during the night, on grass, bushes and bromeliads up to 2 meters above ground.  Males have pale yellow testes and the females have a mass of pale eggs (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
135823	population		The species does not appear to be rare and seems to be much more abundant than P. colonensis, although further studies need to be undertaken to determine if the species is common or abundant (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. com. 2008).	eng
135823	threats		The species has been found in disturbed forests; it has even been more frequently encountered in partially open areas. While the observed impact of habitat destruction has not appeared to be significant, no quantitative studies were undertaken, so it is possible that it may comprise a potential threat (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135824	conservation		The species occurs within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135824	distribution		Pristimantis vilcabambae is only known from the type locality: Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp Two<br/>(11 33' 35" S, 73 38' 28" W, 2050 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru.	eng
135824	habitat		Vegetation at the type locality consists of tall cloud forest (18–20 m) with a high number of epiphytes, terrestrial Araceae, ferns, and orchids. Nothing is known about the species' ecology (Lehr, 2006).	eng
135824	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprising 4 specimens.	eng
135824	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135825	conservation	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Parco Naturale Regionale ?Sette Fratelli-Monte Genas?.	eng
135825	distribution	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species has a tiny range in extreme southeastern Sardinia, Italy. It is only known from the general vicinity of Monte dei Sette Fratelli, between 200 and 850 approximately, in the territory known as Sarrabus, in the province of Cagliari (roughly between 39°15?N and 39°12?N).	eng
135825	habitat	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in a granitic, almost caveless area, in humid rocky outcrops, crevices, and forested areas.<br/>It possibly reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs but there is some evidence that it might be a live-bearing species.	eng
135825	population	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is not rare in some places.	eng
135825	threats	Antonio Romano, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	The only known population is in a protected area, so there are not any obvious direct threats to its habitat. However, the species is intrinsically at risk because of its tiny range, and through illegal collection.	eng
135826	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135826	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynopus tautzorum</span> is only known from the type locality, 15 km southeast of Maraypata, near Laguna Gwengway (10 11.04' S, 76 05.17' W, 3770 m asl), Province of Ambo, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Lehr and Aguilar 2003).	eng
135826	habitat		The species lives in the puna ecoregion. Specimens from the type series were found in the afternoon under stones on moist underground (Lehr and Aguilar 2003).	eng
135826	population		This is considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135826	threats		Livestock farming has been observed at the type locality (E.Lehr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135828	conservation		Conservation measures are urgently needed to protect the only wetland system where the species is known to occur, and also the associated limestone hills to the south, which include two watersheds that drains freshwater into this wetland (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Other conservation measures may also include the restoration of wetlands with similar characteristics as those at the type locality, the implementation of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>breeding projects (individuals of this species have been successfully bred in captivity with a relatively simple methodology, N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008) and reintroduction of the species (both captive bred and translocated individuals) into these restored wetlands (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some conservation measures already in place include assigning the species a Critically Endangered (CR) status and the designation of its ecosystem and surroundings as Essential Critical Natural Habitats. This designation, issued by the Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales (DRNA) of Puerto Rico, provides a legal basis for the regulation and enforcement of the area's conservation. Although this is the first time the DRNA issues this kind of designation, it is being challenged at local courts by a landowner and by the municipal government of Toa Baja. In the meantime, there is still no management plan and no actions have been undertaken to create a Natural Reserve at this site, which limits the protection that this designation can afford (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135828	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi</span> is only known from the type locality: Sabana Seca, Toa Baja Municipality, in a seasonally flooded herbaceous wetland in the vicinity of the US Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca (USNSGASS) and the Caribbean Primate Research Center, Puerto Rico (18 26.127' N, 66 12.092' W, 10-20 m asl)(Rios-López and Thomas 2007).	eng
135828	habitat		The species inhabits the subtropical moist forest life zone. The type locality consists of a palustrine herbaceous wetland at 17 m asl. The wetland is seasonally flooded with fresh water; the soil consists of swamp and marsh organic deposits. Herbaceous vegetation in this habitat includes the toothed midsorus fern (<span style="font-style: italic;">Blechnum serrulatum</span>), willdenow's maiden fern (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thelypteris interrupta</span>), bulltongue arrowhead (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sagittaria lancifolia</span>), flatsedges (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus</span> sp.), spike rushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis</span> sp.), and vines and grasses. The habitat at the type locality occupies ca 180 ha; the species was not found in other wetland sites in the northern coastal plain. Individuals are active between 1900-2200 hours, while perching, sitting, or calling on herbaceous vegetation, between 0.4 m and 1.2 m above water level. Calling sites for males were found to be between 0.6 and 1.2 m above ground level. Egg clutches vary between 1-5 eggs and are mostly deposited on leaf axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. lancifolia</span>. Embryos hatch after approximately 19 days (Rios-López and Thomas 2007; N. Rios-López pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species is thought to have year-round reproduction given the frequency of juveniles found in any given month. However, most adult activity (including calling males) is greater during the warm and wet months (May to November), and diminishes during the cooler and drier months (particularly between the end of January and end of March). It is expected that recruitment rates reflect this seasonal pattern with a greater amount of clutches being produced during the warm and wet months. The seasonal breeding pattern in this frog is similar to that of other species of the genus in Puerto Rico, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">E. antillensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cochranae</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. coqui</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cooki</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. gryllus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. portoricensis</span>. (N. Rios-López pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135828	population		The species appears to be common in the type locality (Rios-López and Thomas 2007). Nonetheless, it is the less abundant species among sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">E. brittoni</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. cochranae</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. coqui</span>) (N. Ríos-López pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135828	threats		The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi </span>has, in the past, experienced little disturbance partly due to restricted access of local people by the US Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca (USNSGASS) and the limited development of military installations in this wetland. However, it is now threatened by private and governmental housing, industrial, and recreational projects that are spreading rapidly through the region after the USNSGASS ceased operations in 2005 (Rios-López and Thomas 2007).	eng
135829	conservation		The species occurs in the Territorio Comunitario de Origen and Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006).	eng
135829	distribution		Cochranella phryxa is only known from the type locality: approximately 20 km west of Población de la Cascada (Territorio Comunitario de Origen y Reserva de la Biosfera Pilón Lajas), La Paz department, Bolivia (15 22' 37" S, 67 12' 4" W), 1000 masl (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006). It is possible that it may occur in montane streams from about 300-1500 masl (M. Harvey, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135829	habitat		The type locality is part of a bioclimatic zone of the Bolivian Yungas called ‘‘Amazónico Pluvial del Alto Beni’’. The emergent layer of the forest at the type locality reaches 35 m. The holotype was found perched on a leaf about 50 cm above the ground along a dry stream in the month of September. Other species of anurans found in sympatry with Cochranella phryxa include Atelopus tricolor, Rhinella veraguensis, Hyloscirtus armatus, Hypsiboas balzani, Ischnocnema cf. santaecrucis, Pristimantis danae, Pristimantis fenestratus, Cochranella spiculata and Cochranella sp. Hyalinobatrachium bergeri has been collected along a dry stream through forest at an adjacent locality on the same mountain (Aguayo and Harvey, 2006).	eng
135829	population		The species is only known from the holotype. Several researchers have collected in the area, however, the species remains known from a single specimen; thus, it is likely to be a rare species (M. Harvey, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135829	threats		The species occurs in a protected area and extensive undisturbed habitat occurs nearby. On the other hand, like other centrolenids, C. phryxa likely reproduces in montane streams and may be threatened by chytrid fungus (M. Harvey, pers. comm., 2008).	eng
135830	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135830	distribution		Brachycephalus pombali is known only from the type locality: Morro dos Padres, Pico da Igreja (25 39 S; 48 51 W, 1300 masl), municipality of Guaratuba, state of Parana, southern Brazil (Alves et al., 2006).	eng
135830	habitat		Brachycephalus pombali is an inhabitant of the leaf litter in Atlantic rain forests. The species is active by day and adult males are exposed on the litter when calling (Alves et al., 2006).	eng
135830	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135830	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135831	conservation		It occurs in Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary and Phu Kradueng National Park (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, adundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135831	distribution		This species is currently known only from Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary and Phu Kradueng National Park in Loei Province, northern Thailand, at 1,100 to 1,500m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It might be found to occur a little more widely, but surveys in nearby Laos have not located it (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.). However, specimens from new localities in Thailand, that are probably this species, are currently being examined (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.).	eng
135831	habitat		This species has been found at night in intact hilly evergreen forest on boulders, rock outcrops and fallen trees within a few metres of swift, rocky streams and cascades, and in one case a slow stream (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. It probably cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).	eng
135831	population		It can be a locally abundant species.	eng
135831	threats		No information is currently available on threats to this species. All records so far are from protected areas.	eng
135833	conservation		The species can be found within Manu Biosphere Reserve (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135833	distribution		Hyla antoniiochoai is known only from the type locality: Esperanza, Cosñipata Valley, Department of Cusco, Peru, 13 11.350 S, 71 35.092 W, 2817-2845 masl (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).	eng
135833	habitat		Type specimens were found in cloud forest during the rainy season. Hyla antoniiochoai appears to be a secretive species living in bromeliads, and it possibly has a mostly arboreal, non-swimming lifestyle. The holotype contains immature white ovarian eggs, developed fat bodies, and undeveloped oviducts, suggesting that the specimen, collected at the end of the wet season, was probably ready to lay eggs in the following days or weeks. This individual was found at night within a fallen bromeliad of the genus Catopsis, near a stream, whereas the second individual was<br/>in an area without water bodies. Flora of the area includes plants in the genera Miconia, Ruagea, Myrica, Fucsia, Clusia, Alnus, Calceolaria, Peperomia, Muehlenbeckia, Oreocallis, Fragaria, Lachemilla, Rubus, Psychotria, Meliosma, Agalinis, Alonsoa, Leucocarpus, Physalis, Solanum, Pilea, Valeriana, Viola, Cyathea, Diplopterygium, Polypodium, Histiopteris, as well as orchids and bamboos. Other species of anurans that could be identified in the area of the type locality of Hyla antoniiochoai are Gastrotheca excubitor, Hyla armata, Eleutherodactylus rhabdolaemus, Phrynopus peruvianus, and P. cophites (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).	eng
135833	population		No population status information is available for this species, although the authors suggest it is rare (De la Riva and Chaparro, 2005).	eng
135833	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135834	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
135834	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality on the northeast plateau of Mount Ayanganna, Guyana, between 1490 and 1550 masl (MacCulloch and Lathrop, 2005).	eng
135834	habitat		MacCulloch and Lathrop (2005), record the vegetation at the type locality as consisting of 'wet low evergreen high-tepui forest, dominated by Bonnetia roraimae, Schefflera, Clusia and Ilex, with large terrestrial bromeliads (Brocchinia)'. The specimens were collected at vegetation above ground level. As there is little free water on Mount Ayanganna, it is suspected that the larvae of this species may develop in the water of bromeliads (MacCulloch and Lathrop, 2005).	eng
135834	population		It is known only from the recently collected type series.	eng
135834	threats		The threats to this species are not known. It is possible that there are no major threats to this species.	eng
135835	conservation		The type locality is close to Podocarpus National Park, and one of the additional localities is the Yachana Protected Forest (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008). Additional recommended conservation actions include the conservation and recovery of forest fragments, as well as the protection of river basins (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135835	distribution		<em>Centrolene durrellorum</em> is known from four localities on the foothills of Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador, provinces of Zamora-Chinchipe, Orellana, and Napo. The localities encompass an altitudinal range between 600 and 1150 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135835	habitat		The species inhabits primary foothill evergreen forests. Individuals have been found at night on the upper surface of leaves of small trees, between 3–4 m above small rivulets. The holotype was found in sympatry with an undescribed <em>Cochranella species</em>, other populations are sympatric with <em>Cochranella puyoensis</em>, <em>Cochranella flavopunctata</em>, and <em>Hyalinobatrachium</em> sp. (cf. munozorum) (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135835	population		The species is known from four different populations. Just one specimen was collected at the two localities originally referred in the type description, however several specimens have been collected at two additional localities in the provinces of Napo and Orellana, and the species may be considered as uncommon in those areas (Cisneros-Heredia, 2007; D.F. Cisneros-Heredia and M.H. Yánez-Muñoz pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135835	threats		Habitat destruction in the foothills of the Cordillera Oriental is extensive, most areas are widely deforested and heavily populated (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135836	conservation		This species is found within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135836	distribution		Pristimantis tanyrhynchus is only known from the type locality, Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp Two<br/>(11 33' 35" S, 73 38' 28" W, 2050 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).	eng
135836	habitat		Nothing is known about the species' ecology. Vegetation at the type locality consists of tall cloud forest (18–20 m) with a high number of epiphytes, terrestrial Araceae, ferns, and orchids (Lehr, 2007).	eng
135836	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.	eng
135836	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135837	conservation		It occurs in the Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
135837	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Phou Dendin National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Phongsaly District, Phongsaly Province, Laos, where there are records from near the Nam Khang and Nam Ou Rivers, at 600-600m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135837	habitat		All records of this species are from the immediate vicinity of streams in hilly evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found on foliage of bushes up tp 1.5m above the ground (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). The tadpoles remain unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006), but presumably develop in streams.	eng
135837	population		It is a locally abundant species in its only known site (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
135837	threats		The species is probably affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
135839	conservation		It occurs in the Kokagala Forest Reserve (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007), but active conservation measures now need to be targeted towards securing the survival of this species in both of the sites in which it occurs. Surveys are needed to determine more accurately its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
135839	distribution		This species is endemic to Sri Lanka, where is is know from the eastern intermediate zone (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has so far been recorded from Kokagala Hill, in Ampara district, Eastern Province, and from Yakunhela, near Bibile, Monaragala District, Uva Province (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). All records are from between 200 and 620m asl (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). Although might be discovered in future in other locations, many of the hill tops in eastern Sri Lanka, including Monaragala, have been searched for this species without success (S. Fernando pers. comm.).	eng
135839	habitat		This species is associated with seasonal streams with rock crevices on hillsides with scattered trees, and a ground cover of grasses, dominated by <em>Cymbopogon</em> sp. (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). Rock crevices, boulders, masses of grass (<em>Cymbopogon</em> sp.), and roots and vegetation mats consisting of <em>Utricularia</em>, <em>Eriocaulon</em> and <em>Xyris</em> spp. have been identified as microhabitats (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The vegetation and the water sources rapidly dry out during the southwest monsoon winds in July-October, and bush fires are frequent at this time of year (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The new species is more active at night; during the day it hides in the microhabitats (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). In the morning, individuals gather on the open vegetation mats of <em>Utricularia</em> to prey on insects attracted by flowers (Fernando <em>et al</em>., 2007). The tadpoles presumaly live of wet rock surfaces by streams, like other members of the genus. The species has a short annual activity period (December-February), after which the habitat dries out and the frogs hide underground (perhaps in deep rock crevices) (S. Fernando pers. comm.). In anthropogenic habitats within its range, the landscape modifications (such as slash-and-burn cultivation) result in a very low water-retaining capacity in the ground, and so it is thought that the species cannot survive in such areas (S. Fernando pers. comm.).	eng
135839	population		It is quite common at its two known locations. Populations are aggregated, with 10-15 individuals being found along a 10m length of a seepage stream (S. Fernando pers. comm.). There are certainly more than 100 mature individuals in each of its known locations (S. Fernando pers. comm.).	eng
135839	threats		The species is threatened by removal of the natural vegetation for agriculture, including slash-and-burn cultivation (S. Fernando pers. comm.). Human activities are increasing on the hill tops on which it occurs, with burning of the grassland, and felling of trees (S. Fernando pers. comm.). All of these activities reduce the water-retention capacity of the small streamlets (S. Fernando pers. comm.). It might also be impacted by high agrochemical usage (S. Fernando pers. comm.).	eng
135840	conservation		It is known from the Raksawarn Public Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135840	distribution		This species is known only from the Isthmus of Kra in southern Thailand (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). There are records from: Punyaban waterfall, Raksawarn Public Park, Ranong Spa, in Ranong Province; Klong Hat Som Pen, Muang, in Ranong Province; and Kao Lak, in Phang Nga Province (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). In addition, specimens from Tasan, in southern Thailand, formerly considered to belong to <em>Ansonia malayana</em>, are now considered to belong to <em>A. kraensis</em> (Grismer, 2006). It is possible that other records of <em>A. malayanus</em> from southern Thailand might refer to this species. The type locality (Punyaban waterfall) is at 113m asl, but no information has been provided on its elevation range.	eng
135840	habitat		It lives in forest and has been found at night along the bank of a mountain stream perching on leaves of short grasses (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). They have also been found near a seepage over 30m from a stream (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005). It breeds by larval development in streams (Matsui <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
135840	population		No information is currently available on its abundance.	eng
135840	threats		No direct information on threats is yet available, although it is likely to be affected by forest loss for logging and agricultural expansion.	eng
135841	conservation		Gunung Benom is in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135841	distribution		This species is known only from two sites in Peninsular Malaysia: Sungai Lembing logging camp (3° 52.26” N, 103° 3’.13” E), in Pahang Province, at 255m asl; and Gunung Benom in the western part of Pahang Province (Grismer, 2006). The elevation of the Gunung Benom records is not recorded, though it is likely to be higher than Sungai Lembing logging camp. The species presumably occurs more widely, especially in locations between the currently known sites.	eng
135841	habitat		This species is associated with streams in closed-canopy hill dipterocarp forest (Grismer, 2006). These toads perch no higher than two metres above the ground on leaves overhanging the streambed or on the tops of large rocks along the edge of the stream (Grismer, 2006). The ability of this species to adapt to modification of its forest habitat is not known.	eng
135841	population		It is very common at Sugai Lembing, and probably locally common at Gunung Benom.	eng
135841	threats		There is currently no direct information on threats to this species, but it is very likely to occur in places where its forest habitat is being lost to logging and agricultural expansion (indeed, Sugai Lembing was a logging camp).	eng
135842	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species. By conserving ponds the species is thus conserved (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135842	distribution		The species is known from the vicinity of Murucusa, Municipality of Petit (11 02’ N, 69 35’ W), 550 masl, and Curimagua, District of Petit, spurs of Sierra de San Luís, Estado Falcón, Venezuela. This species may be endemic to the low, dry lands of the Sierra de San Luis and vicinity, but it also could be more widespread through similar habitats in northwestern Venezuela in the states of Falcón, Lara, Yaracuy and Zulia (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). It could potentially be constrained by the dry zone of the Barquisimeto depression towards the southwest and the Yaracuy depression towards the northeast (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135842	habitat		P. neildi is known only from xeric localities on a spur of the Sierra de San Luis. The dominant vegetation consists of low trees (to 8 m) called locally “cujíes”, spiny bushes, and cacti, composing a dry semi-deciduous dwarf forest (Barrio-Amorós, 2006).<br/><br/>Egg clutches were observed in August 2001 at the type locality. Eggs were encased in one or two leaves. Nests were found to contain 255 and 282 white eggs, surrounded by transparent jelly capsules. Adult males called from bushes at heights of 1.5 m to 4 m, around ponds. Amplectant pairs were observed in vegetation at various heights above water. Other species of anurans common in savannas and xeric habitats of northern South America that were found in the pond where P. neildi was breeding include Chaunus marinus, C. granulosus complex, Dendropsophus microcephalus, D. minutus, Hypsiboas crepitans, Scinax “x-signatus”, Engystomops pustulosus, Pleurodema brachyops, and Leptodactylus insularum (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The call is described in Barrio-Amorós (2006).	eng
135842	population		There was as considerable number of individuals where the species was found; however, like other species in the genus, it is not necessarily a dominant species (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135842	threats		No major threats were observed. Although the drying out of ponds could comprise a potential threat, it is unlikely that this would happen as they are used by cattle in the region (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135843	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135843	distribution		The species is known only from the right bank of the Florestão river (22 55’ S, 44 21’ W; near sea level),  Ariró, Municipality of Angra dos Reis, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Weber et al., 2006).	eng
135843	habitat		Individuals of Physalaemus angrensis were collected near sea level, associated with ponds or leaf litter from the coastal plain in the Atlantic Forest domain. They are often found under dead leaves on the edge of temporary ponds at very disturbed sites near the border of secondary forests. Males call at late afternoon during the rainy season (October to February) in this region (Weber et al., 2006). <br/><br/>It is possible that P. signifer (and probably also P. spiniger) occur in the same habitat. Two species of the P. signifer group are geographically close to P. angrensis: P. atlanticus and P. moreirae, known respectively from a lowland and a mountain locality in northeastern São Paulo state (Weber et al., 2006).	eng
135843	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135843	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135844	conservation		The species is found within the Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park (surface area of 122,000 ha), which contains the<br/>Cordillera de Yanachaga that reaches an elevation of 3643 m, and descends into the valley of the Rıo Palcazu (Duellman et al., 2006).	eng
135844	distribution		The species is only known from the type locality, i.e. the vicinity of San Alberto (10 32' 53" S, 75 22' 17" W, 2200 masl), Department of Pasco, Province of Oxapampa, Peru (Duellman et al., 2006).	eng
135844	habitat		Gastrotheca carinaceps is found on the Amazonian slopes of the Andes in central Peru, in humid montane forest (Duellman et al., 2006).	eng
135844	population		The species is only known from two specimens.	eng
135844	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135845	conservation		It occurs in the Ngezi Forest Reserve which requires careful management for this extremely rare species.	eng
135845	distribution		This species is endemic to Ngezi Forest, on Pemba Island, in Tanzania. It occurs close to sea-level.	eng
135845	habitat		It appears to be dependent on lowland forest. At its only known site it was found calling in forest trees overhanging a small pool, but it was absent from the grasses and herbage at the other end of the same pool in a more open situation. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135845	population		It appears to be a rare species. Only 10-20 males were heard calling at its only known site.	eng
135845	threats		It is restricted to a tiny area where its forest habitat is at risk from harvesting of wood, and small-scale agriculture.	eng
135846	conservation		It occurs in the Kakamega Forest National Park, but much stricter protection of forests in and around this area is urgently needed.	eng
135846	distribution		This species is known only from the Kakamega Forest and its vicinity in western Kenya at around 1,500-1,700m asl. It is possible that the species will also be found in Uganda. It is also possible that frogs in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo currently included in <em>Leptopelis modestus</em> actually belong to this species, or to another undescribed species (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
135846	habitat		This species is only known from forest habitats, including in secondary and disturbed forest. It is arboreal, and males have been heard calling above a small stream. A tadpole was found in a water-filled puddle with a surface area less than 0.5 by 0.5m and a depth of approximately 0.2m in secondary forest. The eggs are probably deposited in the soil on the forest floor, and and at hatching tadpoles wriggle over the ground to the water to continue their development (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006). So the species is probably dependent on areas with loose ground substrate which turns into puddles after terrestrial egg deposition.	eng
135846	population		It appears to be a rare species within Kakamega Forest, where the area of available habitat is small.	eng
135846	threats		Although it is able to adapt to secondary forest, it is believed that selective logging (illegal), alteration of the forest by cattle browsing, collection of fuel-wood, and draining or modification of natural water bodies might threaten its survival  (Köhler <em>et al.</em> 2006; J. Köhler pers. comm.).	eng
135847	conservation		The species is known to occur within a 1180 ha Biological Reserve (Pau Brasil) and in several private reserves in southern Bahia.	eng
135847	distribution		Gastrotheca pulchra is known from several localities in southern Bahia [Pau Brasil Biological Reserve (CEPLAC), vicinity of Porto Seguro (16 22’ S, 39 10’ W, 30 masl); RPPN Estação Veracruz, Porto Seguro (16 27’S, 39 04’W); RPPN Salto Apepiqui, Ilhéus (14 47’S, 39 03’W); Fazenda Alto São Roque (13 51’S, 39 40’W), Itamari; Fazenda São José, Mascote (15 34’S, 39 18’W); all in the state of Bahia], Brazil.	eng
135847	habitat		Gastrotheca pulchra is known to occupy primary tropical forest characterized by tree heights reaching approximately 30m, several of them with DAB > 80cm. The area also has a high diversity of bromeliads and ferns. Clumps of large bromeliads are abundant and attached to the trunks of large trees (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).<br/><br/>The holotype is an adult female with ten developing eggs in the dorsal pouch, and was found sitting on a moderately sized leaf, approximately 1m above ground (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).	eng
135847	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135847	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135848	conservation		It is found in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
135848	distribution		This is a very widespread species. It is found in central, northern, southern and south-western China (including Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau), and through mainland Southeast Asia, south to northern Peninsular Malaysia. It has been recorded from a single locality in the north of Sumatra (Indonesia). It occurs up to 2,000m asl. The boundary between this species and <em>Microhyla ornata</em> is not clear, but has been arbitrarily set at the western border of Myanmar, pending further information.	eng
135848	habitat		It occupies a number of habitat types including lowland scrub forest, grassland, agricultural land, pastureland and urban areas. Sub-fossorial in habit, it is also found in forest floor leaf-litter. It is mostly a nocturnal species that is only active diurnally during the rainy season. It breeds in temporary rain pools and other bodies of still water. It can occur in modified areas, such as non-intensively farmed agricultural land.	eng
135848	population		It is a common species through most of its range.	eng
135848	threats		Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.	eng
135849	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135849	distribution		The type locality of Plectrohyla miahuatlanensis is north of Candelaria Loxicha, 2550 m (16 12.844’ N, 96 31.938’ W), Sierra de Miahuatlan, state of Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
135849	habitat		The habitat at the type locality consisted of mesic pine-oak forest (Meik et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The single female specimen was found in the late afternoon, inactive between the leaves of an arboreal bromeliad. Other amphibians collected at the type locality include Eleutherodactylus mexicanus, Bolitoglossa oaxacensis, and a series of hyline frogs of the Exerodonta sumichrasti group (Meik et al., 2006).	eng
135849	population		The species was described from a single female specimen; no population status information is available for this species.	eng
135849	threats		Although the area where Plectrohyla miahuatlanensis was found was covered with relatively intact forest during 2001, many slopes of the Sierra de Miahuatlan have been cleared, or partially cleared, for agricultural purposes (Meik et al., 2006).	eng
135850	conservation		It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
135850	distribution		This species is widely distributed in Ryukyu Islands and Amami Islands in Japan. It is found on most of the islands from the Tokara Archipelago on the north to the Yaeyama Archipelago in the south. It is introduced to Suwanosejima in the Tokara Group, Taramajima of the Miyako Group, and Kuroshima of the Yaeyama Group.	eng
135850	population		It is a common species through most of its range.	eng
135850	threats		Globally there are no major threats to this species. It might be locally threatened by agrochemical pollution (land and water) and the conversion of habitat to intensively cultivated land.	eng
135851	conservation		The species is found within Munchique National Park.	eng
135851	distribution		Pristimantis jubatus is only known from the type locality: Munchique National Park, La Romelia sector (02 38' 40" N, 076 54’ 55" W, 2550–2750 masl), municipality of El Tambo, Department of Cauca, Colombia (García and Lynch, 2006).<br/><br/>Given the bioclimatic conditions of the area and the species' low dispersal rate outside of Munchique, P. jubatus is considered to be endemic of the area (J.C. García, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135851	habitat		The species inhabits humid forest with dense plant cover (>80%). Individuals can be found at night on vegetation within 2 meters of the ground, with leaves being the preferred perch site. Relative abundance of juveniles during April-September and February-March suggests that reproduction of the species is continuous (García and Lynch, 2006).	eng
135851	population		Considered to be a very abundant species (García and Lynch, 2006).	eng
135851	threats		The species is currently known from a high elevation area (above 2500 masl) within a National Park. However, a potential threat, if the park's conservation policies were to change, could be constituted by the extensive Smurfit's pine crops that occur in neighbouring areas (J.C. García, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135852	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135852	distribution		Phrynopus oblivius is known from the type locality and vicinities: village of Maraynioc (11 20' 39.4" S, 75 26' 44.7" W), Vitoc Valley, between 3210 and 3220 masl, Province of Tarma, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).	eng
135852	habitat		Individuals of this species were found in remnants of a cloud forest beyond the old village and former Hacienda Maraynioc; all were found during the day on humid ground beneath rocks next to a small creeks. Gastrotheca griswoldi is the only other anuran known from the type locality (Lehr, 2007).<br/><br/>The species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
135852	population		This is likely a rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135852	threats		Deforestation and agriculture are a problem in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm.).	eng
135853	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135853	distribution		Ranitomeya intermedia is known only from the type locality: Huallaga Canyon, San Martin region, Peru, 200 m elevation (Frost, 2007).	eng
135853	habitat		No habitat and ecological information are available for this species.	eng
135853	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135853	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135854	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135854	distribution		Pristimantis caeruleonotus is known from ‘‘Nueva York’’ hill and ‘‘Quebrada Parramata’’, Rıo Blanco Basin, District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru. It is known from elevations comprised between 2500 and 2900 masl (Lehr et al., 2007). Its distribution may extend into Ecuador (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135854	habitat		The species inhabits cloud forest (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). All individuals of this species were found at night at 2000–2240 h on vegetation 0.2–1.5 m above ground. One individual was found in a terrestrial bromeliad. Sympatric anuran species include P. aquilonaris, P. bellator and P. colodactylus (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
135854	population		The species appears to be locally abundant, although further fieldwork is needed to confirm this (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135854	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135855	conservation		Colostethus ucumari is known to occur in a regional protected area, as well as outside of the confines of this area.	eng
135855	distribution		Colostethus ucumari is known from cloud forest localities in the Cordillera Central of Colombia at approximately 2100–2500 m above sea level (Grant, 2007).<br/><br/>Type material of Colostethus ucumari was collected at: Parque Regional Natural Ucumarí (ca 2500 m above sea level), Department of Risaralda, at approximately 4 42’ N, 75 29’ W; Hacienda El Carelia, ca. 8 km E Salento, Department of Quindío; Finca La Cristalina (2152–2250 m) ,Vereda Guamal, Pijao, Department of Risaralda; 20.3 mi WNW Cajamarca, Department of Tolima;  6 km ESE Villa María (2130 m), Department of Caldas; 5.5–6 km by road southeastward from Villa María (2320 m), Department of Caldas, Colombia (Grant, 2007).	eng
135855	habitat		Colostethus ucumari is a riparian species not known to occur more than a few meters (<3 m) from the water’s edge. Specimens were collected in grassy vegetation, on and beneath rocks along streams and pools, in both primary forest  and in or at the edge of forest clearings, such as pastures and grassy roadside drainage ditches. Most specimens were<br/>taken during diurnal collecting, although some type specimens were collected while active at night (Grant, 2007).	eng
135855	population		Information on population status is currently unavailable for this species.	eng
135855	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135857	conservation		It probably occurs in the Zhadatulin Nature Reserve.  Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135857	distribution		This species is currently known only from Zadam (Tzada), in Xizang (Tibet), in western China at 2,900m asl (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135857	habitat		This species lives in high-elevation wetlands, such as ponds and marshes, and in surrounding meadows and grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135857	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135857	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135858	conservation		Urgent measures are needed to conserve forest on limestone karst in northwestern Panay. Surveys for this species in karst forest habitats should be conducted across Panay Island in the rainy season.	eng
135858	distribution		This species is known from the northwestern peninsula of Panay Island in the Philippines (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has so far been found only at 180–300m asl on the mountain known locally as ‘‘Mount Lihidan’’ (11º 24' 52.74'' N, 122º 06' 16.74'' E), in the Municipality of Pandan in Antique Province (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, it is suspected to have a wider elevational and geographic range (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135858	habitat		This species has been found in a small patch of disturbed, secondary-growth forest in karst habitat. Males call from either the top of rock outcroppings or from within crevices in the rock formations (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species appears to be adaptable to a certain extent, as it has been found in secondary areas, but it is not clear whether or not it can tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. It is suspected that of the main factors needed for this species to survive in these karst forests is moisture content within the forest and rocky crevices (C. Siler pers. comm.). While the species should be able to survive in somewhat degraded and open habitats, as the forest gets more heavily destroyed, the karst patches will eventually become more arid and possibly less suitable for this species (C. Siler pers. comm.). Although it is expected to occur more widely, it is possible that one of the main limiting factors to this species’ range is distribution of forest on limestone karst (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence of water.	eng
135858	population		The species was observed to be quite common during periods of heavy rain in the region.  It is believed that this species maintains healthy populations in the karst forests of northwestern Panay and possibly has a wider geographic distribution on the island.	eng
135858	threats		There is widespread forest destruction in its only known locality due to expanding local agriculture (Siler <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, the habitat is protected to some extent from agricultural expansion as it is very difficult to farm on the very rocky terrain, which may provide some protection for this unique forest microhabitat (C. Siler pers. comm.). Nearly all surrounding soil-dominated habitat around the karst patches has been heavily disturbed by farming (C. Siler pers. comm.). Mining of stone is a direct threat to the habitat of this species (C. Siler pers. comm.). More detailed information on threats is needed.	eng
135859	conservation		The species is known to occur in Parque Estadual (PE) Serra do Conduru (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).	eng
135859	distribution		Frostius erythrophthalmus is known from four localities in the Atlantic Rain Forest Domain in southern Bahia, Brazil, at altitudes between 140 and 920 masl (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).	eng
135859	habitat		Frostius erythrophthalmus inhabits primary or slightly disturbed fragments of the hygrophilous forests of southern Bahia. Fragments at the type locality, in the contiguous forests of PE Serra do Conduru, and in the EEE Nova Esperança are well preserved patches of ombrophilous forests. Individuals have been found during the night in leaf litter, sitting on the leaves of bushes or bromeliads, 0.1 to 0.7 m above ground, or climbing tree trunks. All specimens were found away from water bodies, suggesting an association with bromeliads (Pimenta and Caramaschi, 2007).	eng
135859	population		No population status is currently available for this species.	eng
135859	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135860	conservation		There are a number of protected areas within the range of this species. The boundary between this species and <em>Rana amurensis</em> needs to be determined.	eng
135860	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Republic of Korea, where it is widespread. It is presumably present also in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, but the boundary between this species and <em>Rana amurensis</em> is unclear. For the purpose of this assessment we have arbitrarily taken the boundary to be at 40ºN in the Korean Peninsula. This is mostly a lowland species occurring up to 700m asl, but it is usually below 400m asl (J.-Y. Song pers. comm.).	eng
135860	habitat		The species is present in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, shrublands and grasslands. It is found most frequently in open, wet places such as wet meadows and forest glades, swamps, overgrown lakeshores, riverbanks, and floodplains. Reproduction and larval development takes place in shallow lakes, ponds, ditches, large puddles and marshes with stagnant water. Large numbers of this frog may be found hibernating in the bottom mud of ponds and pools. It may be found in modified habitats.	eng
135860	population		It is a common species in the Republic of Korea.	eng
135860	threats		The species is mostly threatened by general habitat loss, and the drainage and pollution of breeding pools, but overall it is not significantly threatened.	eng
135861	conservation		The type locality is found within the "Ciénaga de Zapata" Biosphere Reserve, where there is an environmental education programme for children and adults (Rodríguez and Rivalta in press).	eng
135861	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo florentinoi </span>is only known from the type locality and its vicinities: Gironcito  (224' 9.62" N, 811' 10.81" W), Playa Girón, Península de Zapata, Province of Matanzas, Cuba (Moreno and Rivalta 2007). The species occurs at 0 m asl (V. Rivalta pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135861	habitat		The species lives in the karst subcoastal semideciduous forest. It is believed that during the day the toad hides within the karstic rocks. It is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Peltophryne peltocephala</span> in the type locality (Moreno and Rivalta 2007). Playa Girón lies on the coastal lowland to the south of Matanzas province, where marine intrusions that probably can fill the holes where the species lives have frequently been reported (Rodríguez Schettino and Rivalta in press). The species has at least two types of acoustic emissions, during the night on exposed limestone rocks, or inside crevices between rocks (Hernández Quinta 2007; Alonso <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
135861	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135861	threats		Rising of the sea level caused by climatic change is considered to be a threat (Rodríguez and Rivalta in press).	eng
135862	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, and to ascertain whether or not it has any conservation needs.	eng
135862	distribution		This species is known only from Cameroon, where it has been recorded from two main areas: western Cameroon at 700-2,200m asl on the Mbos Plain (in the Bamileke Plateau) and Mount Manenguba); and the Adamawa Plateau at 1,100-1,200m asl around Sadolkoulaye, Ngaoundere and Wakwa. Its distribution is probably imperfectly known and it will probably be found elsewhere.	eng
135862	habitat		On Mount Manenguba it has been found around lakes and in marshes in high-elevation grassland. On the Mbos Plain it has been found in flooded grassland and marshes in humid savanna. In the Adamawa Plateau it was found in a temporary lake in grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135862	population		It is a poorly known species, and there is little information on its abundance. However, it is appears to be uncommon, and is certanly patchily distributed.	eng
135862	threats		There is no information on threats to this poorly known species.	eng
135863	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this poorly known species.	eng
135863	distribution		This species is known only from the vicinity of Wamangu, adjacent to the Nakam River in the Sepik Basin, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, at 180m asl (Richards, 2007). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135863	habitat		It has been found in a complex patchwork of secondary lowland rainforest, patches of bamboo, coconut plantations, cleared forest and gardens, and sago swamps (Richards, 2007). The males call predominantly on relatively cool, wet nights, and are common around pools and swamps (particularly sago swamps) in severely disturbed habitats (Richards, 20070. Several males were found calling from sago palm leaves about 3–5m high in the evening after rain; others were found in lowland rainforest near the sago swamps, calling from between 50cm–2m above ground on leaves. The species preumably deposits its eggs on leaves above water, into which the larvae fall to complete their development.	eng
135863	population		It is apparently common in suitable habitat (Richards, 2007).	eng
135863	threats		It appears to be an adaptable species, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
135864	conservation		The species is found at Yanayacu Biological Station.	eng
135864	distribution		<em>Nymphargus wileyi</em> is only known from the type locality, Yanayacu Biological Station (0 41′ S, 77 53′ W; 2100 masl), Province of Napo, Ecuador (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135864	habitat		The species inhabits primary cloud forests. Individuals can be found at night on leaves 120–220 cm above streams (males) or above the ground (one female). Three males were found near egg clutches, which were on the tip of leaves; males were never found in the same leaf as the egg clutches, suggesting that males do not guard the eggs. The number of eggs per clutch varies from 19-28; eggs are whitish as well as embryos in early developmental stages. Males call from the upper side of leaves (Guayasamin et al., 2006). A male can fertilize up to 4 clutches in one breeding season. The species breeds in permanent streams (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135864	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of six specimens, which were collected during 3 years of inventory work at Yanayacu, suggesting that <em>Nymphargus wileyi</em> is a rare species (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135864	threats		Habitat loss is a conspicuous threat for the species. It is thought to have a restricted range, although further field work is needed to test this (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135865	conservation	Alberto Veloso, 2008	A protected area (Reserva Nacional Los Queules) is in place. The private company that commercially exploits the region's forests and scientists from the Universidad de Chile are conducting conservation studies in the area. Several proposals have been generated, and it is possible that corridors may be established between the remaining Maulino forests in the region (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135865	distribution	Alberto Veloso, 2008	Eupsophus queulensis is known only from the type locality, the east edge of Reserva Nacional Los Queules, 71 km W<br/>Cauquenes (450 m), coastal mountain range of the Costa, VII Maule Region (35 59' S, 72 41' W), Chile (Veloso et al., 2005).	eng
135865	habitat	Alberto Veloso, 2008	Within native Maulino forest, individuals were found only in moist habitats including shallow streams, soil cavities, leaf litter and under logs. No individual was found in surrounding pine plantations. The Maulino forest is dominated by the deciduous tree, Nothofagus glauca, and evergreen trees e.g. Persea lingue, Gevuina avellana, Aetoxicum punctatum.<br/>Advertisement calls were heard from September to January. Male and female pairs were found together with egg masses or recently hatched embryos in soil cavities near streams. Tadpoles were found in shallow waters (Veloso et al., 2005).<br/><br/>The species inhabits permanent streams subject to strong fluctuations (lowest volume during the summer months of December-March).  The breeding season (once a year) coincides with the rainy season. Clutch size is comprised of approximately 200 large, unpigmented eggs, which are deposited in small flooded cavities in the ground. Endotrophic tadpoles emerge from these small holes and are dragged into small streams (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135865	population	Alberto Veloso, 2008	Population status information unavailable for this species.	eng
135865	threats	Alberto Veloso, 2008	The species is found within a protected area, Reserva Nacional Los Queules, which belongs to the Servicio Nacional de áreas protegidas, and contains Maulino forest. This type of forest is severely fragmented in the region and is embedded within a matrix of Pinus radiata which is commercially exploited by the private sector. The reserve size, however, is small (only 147 ha), limiting this species' habitat protection (A. Veloso, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135867	conservation		It occurs in the in Ranomafana National Park. Research is needed to determine its distribution, status and ecological requirements.	eng
135867	distribution		This species is know only from two localities in Ranomafana National Park in south-eastern Madagascar. The type locality is near the summit of Mount Maharira (21°20.053' S, 47°24.787' E), at approximately 1,350m asl. It has also been recorded from and from sites west of Vohiparara, above 1,000m asl, just outside Ranomafana National Park (Glaw & Vences 2007). It might occur a little more widely, but its distinctive calls have not been heard in other parts of southeastern Madagascar, such as Andringitra, so it appears to be genuinely restricted in its range.	eng
135867	habitat		This species was found most commonly on the mountain peak, which is characterized by large bare surfaces of granitic rock, surrounded by heath, bushland and patches of rainforest. Two related species, Gephyromantis enki and G. decaryi, occur commonly at lower altitudes (1,000-1,200 m), but these species become less frequent towards the summit where Gephyromantis runewsweeki occurs. The species calls intensely from perch heights of 10 cm to 1.5 m in these bushes. Its breeding is not known, but it probably breeds by direct development.	eng
135867	population		Calls of this species were commonly heard on summit of Mount Maharira. The species was also heard less commonly in rainforest below the summit. At sites east of Vohiparara it is very rare (M. Vences pers. comm.). The species has a very distinct call, and the patchiness of records shows that it is not a ubiquituous throughout its limited range (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
135867	threats		Although this species occurs in a well-protected area, the Ranomafana National Park, it might occur a little more widely in habitats that are much less secure from forest loss due to agriculture. Its probable small (or at least discontinuous and patchy) distribution also raises some concerns about its conservation status, and there is little suitable high-elevation forest habitat within its range.	eng
135868	conservation		It has been recorded in the Tay Yen Tu Nature Reserve and Xuan Son National Park (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). The Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, the Bac Giang and Lang Son Forest Protection Departments, and Cologne Zoo are collaborating on an <em>ex-situ</em> conservation program starting in 2008 (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135868	distribution		This species is so far known only from northern Vietnam (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). There are confirmed records from the following localities: the vicinity of Dong Vanh Village, Luc Son Commune, Luc Nam District, Bac Giang Province at 250-300m asl (21°12' N, 106°40' E) (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005); Quang Thanh Commune (22°38' N, 105°55' E) and Thank Cong Commune (22°48' N, 105°44' E), both of these being in Nguyen Binh District, Cao Bang Province (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005); Mau Son Mountain in Lang Son province at 900-1,000m asl (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.); and Xuan Son National Park in Phu Tho Province (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Records from and Pu Hoat Forest, Dong Van Commune, Que Phong District, Nghe An Province were attributed to <em>Tylototriton vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005), but genetic studies have since shown that these belong to another species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Specimens from Nam Tha Commune (21°55' N, 104°22' E, 850m a.s.l.), in Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province and from Tay Con Linh Mountain (22°45’ N, 104°49’ E, 1,700m asl), in Vi Xuyen District, Ha Giang Province exhibit some slight morphological differences from <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005; Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.), and have been referred to as <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> (Bain and Nguyen, 2004), but might belong to an undescribed species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). The species probably also occurs more widely, including in adjacent southern China (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). Indeed, several Vietnamese records previously referred to as <em>Tylototriton asperrimus</em> (or <em>Echinotriton asperrimus</em>) are likely to refer to <em>T. vietnamensis</em> (Fleck, 2003; Nguyen, <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
135868	habitat		This species is probably generally associated with forest, and specimens have been found in ponds within dense bamboo vegetation in secondary forest (Böhme <em>et al</em>., 2005). Although it can tolerate disturbed forest, the species is dependent on small, muddy ponds in the shadow of trees, and so it probably cannot tolerate serious deforestation (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Mating and reproduction presumably take place in water during the rainy season, with the adults living on land at other times of year.	eng
135868	population		It appears to be an uncommon species (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).	eng
135868	threats		The main threat to this species is habitat degradation (especially in Bac Giang and Lang Son provinces) resulting from agricultural encroachment and logging (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.). Collecting for the pet trade or traditional medicine are probably not serious problems at the present time (Nguyen Quang Truong pers. comm.).	eng
135870	conservation		It occurs in the Puchangkuankuoshui Nature Reserve. Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.	eng
135870	distribution		This species is currently known only from its type locality, Shuiyang, in Guizhou Province, China, at 1,350-1,500m asl (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007). It is not known whether or not it occurs more widely.	eng
135870	habitat		When not breeding, the adults live on land in montane forest (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007). They breed in water, and the larvae develop in small streams surrounded by the forest, and sometimes can be found in pools near springs (Xu <em>et al</em>, 2007).	eng
135870	population		It is a rare species where it is found (Xu <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
135870	threats		The habitat of this species is being degraded by human activities, including clear-cutting, logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
135872	conservation		The species occurs within a protected area, the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve.	eng
135872	distribution		Allobates spumaponens is only known from the type locality: Mabura Hill Forest Reserve, Upper Demerara-Berbice Region, (central) Guyana (5 09'N, 58 41'W, ca 100 masl) (Kok and Ernst, 2007).	eng
135872	habitat		The species occurs within the Mabura Hill Forest Reserve, which is characterized by gently undulating terrain with low elevations ranging from 90–100 masl. Individuals were found throughout the forest in low-lying as well as slope habitats. The species was not recorded on top of a rock plateau that supports dry evergreen low forest (Kok and Ernst, 2007).<br/><br/>Allobates spumaponens deposits its eggs (5–11) in moist leaf litter. Clutches have been found attached to dead leaves. Subsequent to hatching, tadpoles are usually carried by the male, although it is also possible that they may be   carried by the female. Larvae are eventually deposited in small lentic pools and continue their development within these aquatic habitats. The new species occasionally deposits tadpoles in leptodactylid foam nests (Kok and Ernst, 2007).	eng
135872	population		Allobates spumaponens was the fourth most abundant amphibian species recorded at the type locality. It was found to be most abundant in primary forest than in secondary forest, and more abundant in the wet season than in the dry season. Despite differences in abundance between habitats, the species appeared to cope relatively well with the more restrictive conditions within secondary forests. This may be in part due to its reproductive biology, which is relatively independent of open water (Kok and Ernst, 2007).	eng
135872	threats		The Mabura Hill Forest Reserve encompasses approximately 20 km² of primary rain forest and is part of the Wappu compartment located within a 500 km² Timber Sales Agreement concession. Disturbed sites were located outside the reserve’s core area, within the main logging concession (Kok and Ernst, 2007).	eng
135874	conservation		The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.	eng
135874	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Anomaloglossus kaiei</span> is known from Kaieteur National Park and the Pakaraima Mountains, Guyana, where it is known to occur in primary and disturbed forest (Kok et al., 2006). The species can also be found along the Guyana-Brazil border and is also possibly present in Brazil. It occurs between 150-900 m elevation (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135874	habitat		The species has been found mainly in primary and disturbed forest, with one individual found at the edge of the savannah. Anomaloglossus kaiei is a terrestrial, diurnal species, which is not closely associated with bodies of water. Males call from their territories, and females exhibit parental care (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
135874	population		The species is considered to be locally abundant (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
135874	threats		Mining activities within the boundaries of Kaieteur National Park constitute a threat to the Park's forest ecosystem  (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
135875	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135875	distribution		Pristimantis minutulus is known from the type locality, 0.0-1.5 km NW of Cacazú, 10 38' S, 75 07' W, 900-1200 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). It is now also known to occur in Finca Panguana, 300 masl, Department of Huánuco, Peru.	eng
135875	habitat		The species is known only from humid lower montane forests on the lower Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera Yanachaga in central Peru. All individuals were on leaves 30-60 cms above the ground at night (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).	eng
135875	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.	eng
135875	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135876	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135876	distribution		<em>Dendropsophus juliani</em> is known from the vicinity of the settlement of Barracón, on the road from Cobija to Riberalta, 11 33’ S, 66 56’ W, 160 masl, Province of Madre de Dios, Department of Pando, Bolivia. In 2007 its call was heard also in the vicinity of the community  of Palmira, 10 35´S, 65 44´W, Province of Federico Román, Department of Pando, Bolivia (Moravec et al., in prep.). It is also possible that a population in the northern Department of Santa Cruz may be <em>D. juliani</em> (Moravec et al., 2006).	eng
135876	habitat		The type locality is located in an alluvial plain of the small river Arroyo Jenichiquia. The area consists mostly of western Amazonian forest represented primarily by old secondary forest with many large emergent trees (e.g. <em>Bertholletia excelsa, Dipteryx micrantha, Ficus schultesii</em>, etc.), which were not selected for timber harvest 30–40 years ago. An important feature of the area is the presence of isolated pockets of open or overgrown pampas associated with poorly drained soils, which penetrate the closed forest. Males called from emergent grasses from small lakes or flooded depressions or from bushes over the water surface (ca. 5–50 cm above water). Nevertheless, single males were observed calling from bushes and young trees up to 250 cm above the ground and a chorus of males was heard calling from dense bushes and trees growing on the banks of Arroyo Jenichiquia (month of January). Calling activity started approximately a half hour before sunset. Other hylid species found in sympatry with <em>D. juliani</em> include <em>Dendropsophus leucophyllatus, D. minutus, Hypsiboas boans, H. cinerascens, H. lanciformis, Phyllomedusa bicolor, P. camba, Scinax ruber</em> and <em>S. parkeri</em>. Females and larvae of <em>D. juliani</em> are unknown (Moravec et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The species occurs in wet forest edges and open wet areas including disturbed habitats (e.g. sides of forest roads) (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).	eng
135876	population		<em>Dendropsophus juliani</em> was a relatively common species at the type locality (Moravec et al., 2006).	eng
135876	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135877	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135877	distribution		Hyloxalus parcus is known from Limón and Gualaceo, on trail between Agua Rica and San Juan Bosco, 1981 masl, and from Plan de Milagro, a tambo on the trail between Limón and Gualaceo, ca. 10 km WSW of Limón, 1707 masl, Province of Zamora-Santiago, Ecuador (Rivero, 1991).	eng
135877	habitat		No habitat and ecology information is currently available for this species.	eng
135877	population		No population status is available for this species.	eng
135877	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135878	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135878	distribution		Phyllomedusa nordestina is distributed over northeastern Brazil, in the caatinga and adjacent regions, in the states of <br/>Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia and Minas Gerais (Caramaschi, 2006).	eng
135878	habitat		The species is found in the ecoregion of Caatinga (dry shrubland).	eng
135878	population		No population status information is available.	eng
135878	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135879	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135879	distribution		This species is known only from a single site, Nguti (Sukhalu), in Zunheboto District, Nagaland, northeastern India at 1,715m asl (Mathew and Sen, 2007). It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
135879	habitat		The only known specimen was collected from a torrential mountain stream strewn with rocks and boulders (Mathew and Sen, 2007) in undisturbed hilly forest (R. Mathew pers. comm.). The species probably also occurs in forest surrounding the stream, and it presumably breeds in streams.	eng
135879	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from a single specimen, and efforts to locate additional specimens at the time of its discovery were not successful (Mathew and Sen, 2007).	eng
135879	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. In Zunheboto district, many people consume frogs and tadpoles, but this is a small species and so it is probably not directly targeted (R. Mathew pers. comm.).	eng
135880	conservation		It occurs in Chu Yang Sin, Yok Don, and Cat Tien National Parks, and in Bac Huong Hoa and Song Thanh Nature Reserves (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). In addition, it has been found just outside Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park, and is possibly present in Dakrong Nature Reserve (T. Ziegler, pers. comm.). Surveys  are needed to determine its geographic distribution (especially its potential occurrence in Laos), abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135880	distribution		This species occurs in the highlands of central and southern Viet Nam and eastern Cambodia. There are records in Viet Nam from the following locations (arranged from north to south): Minh Hoa in Quang Binh Province; Dong Tam Ve and Huong Hoa in Quang Tri Province; A Luoi and Thua Luu in Thua Thien-Hue Province; Tra My, Nam Giang and Tay Giang in Quang Nam Province; Kon Plong in Kon Tum Province; K Bang, Kon Cha Rang and Krong Pa in Gia Lai Province; Yok Don and near Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve in Dak Lak Province; Da The and Lac Duong in Lam Dong Province; and Cat Tien in Dong Nai Province (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.; Bourret 1942; Ziegler <em>et al</em>., 2006); N. Orlov, pers. comm.). In Cambodia it is known from Mondolkiri Province. It can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in locations between the currently known sites, and probably in neighbouring Laos. It has been recorded between 100 and 1,000m asl (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
135880	habitat		This species is only found in forests in upland areas, where it is associated with streams and can also be found away from streams on the forest floor (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). It has been found in limestone areas (Ziegler <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. In central Viet Nam it has been found in disturbed forest, but not outside forest (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
135880	population		It is an uncommon species (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
135880	threats		In Vietnam this species is collected by local communities for food (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.). Its natural habitat is being threatened by forest clearance for agriculture, logging and human settlements (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
135881	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135881	distribution		Hyloxalus maculosus is only known from "Puyo, between Turingia and theatre, 950 m, Provincia Pastaza, Ecuador" (Frost, 2007).	eng
135881	habitat		There is no information available on this species' habitat and ecology.	eng
135881	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135881	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135882	conservation		The species' type locality is within the limits of the Manu Biosphere Reserve in southeastern Peru (Chaparro et al., 2007).	eng
135882	distribution		Rhinella manu is known only from the type locality, Trocha Union Km 6, situated in the Kosñipata Valley (13 06' 91.2" S, 71 17 00' W, 2700–2800 masl), District of Paucartambo, Province of Paucartambo, Department of Cusco, Peru (Chaparro et al., 2007).	eng
135882	habitat		The species inhabits montane cloud forests. The floristic composition of these primary forests includes the following genera: Clusia (Gittiferae), Miconia (Melastomataceae), Hedyosmum (Chloranthaceae), Schefflera (Araliaceae), Oreocallis (Proteaceae), Piper (Piperaceae), Chusquea (Bambusoideae), and Cyatheacea (tree ferns). Other anuran species in the area of the type locality include Pristimantis rhabdolaemus, P. cf. cruralis, Phrynopus cf. peruvianus, and P. cophites. Individuals are found during and directly following the rainy season. Rhinella manu is likely nocturnal and arboreal as all type specimens were encountered at night, on leaves and branches of arboreal ferns (Cyathea), 50 cm–2 m above the ground. Most individuals have been found in areas without standing water (Chaparro et al., 2007).	eng
135882	population		This is considered to be a rare species (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135882	threats		Although the species is found within the boundaries of Manu National Park, there are areas that are open to tourism, including Trocha Union, where there is a project to develop a camp site at the type locality, which would bring more tourism but also cause more impacts on the area (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135883	conservation		Hypsiboas jimenezi is known to occur in Canaima National Park, Bolivar state, Venezuela.	eng
135883	distribution		This species is known from montane streams on the southern slopes of Auyan-tepui and from its summit, in Bolıvar state, Venezuela, between 950–1850 m (Señaris and Ayarzagüena, 2006).	eng
135883	habitat		Males call at night from upper surfaces of leaves or branches 0.2 to 4 m above water in gallery forest. Other anurans found at the Atapere stream include Hypsiboas sibleszi, Centrolene gorzulai, Hyalinobatrachium crurifasciatum, H. taylori, Rana palmipes and Leptodactylus mystaceus. The following species were also found in other streams and in the adjacent forest: Colostethus tepuyensis, Hypsiboas benitezi, Hypsiboas sp., Adelophryne gutturosa, Lithodytes lineatus, Leptodactylus sp. and Otophryne robusta. The centrolenids Centrolene gorzulai, Hyalinobatrachium crurifasciatum and H. taylori were also found in the same locality; Tepuihyla edelcae was found in adjacent herbaceous habitat (Señaris and Ayarzagüena, 2006).	eng
135883	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135883	threats		Major threats for this species are unknown.	eng
135884	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135884	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis bellator</span> is known from four localities at elevations of 1,900–3,100 masl in the northern Department of Piura (District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba), and adjacent Department of Cajamarca (District of Tabaconas, Province of San Ignacio, Department of Cajamarca), Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).	eng
135884	habitat		The species occurs in paramo and humid montane forest. Individuals were found during the day on moss and at night on the ground or on vegetation up to 1.7 m above the ground. They can sometimes be found in terrestrial or arboreal bromeliads. Sympatric anurans include Pristimantis aquilonaris, P. colodactylus, P. galdi, P. cajamarcensis, Phrynopus parkeri and an unidentified species of Gastrotheca (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
135884	population		This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135884	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135885	conservation		It occurs in the Arabuko-Sokoke National Park. Jozani Forest is within the Proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park. Both of these areas need increased protection. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not this species survives at any other sites.	eng
135885	distribution		This species is known from Jozani Forest on Unguja Island (Zanzibar), Tanzania, and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal Kenya. It is likely to be found in other forested localities on the East African coast. All records are from very close to sea-level.	eng
135885	habitat		Both known sites are in coastal forest where it lives on the forest floor. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135885	population		It is abundant in Jozani Forest.	eng
135885	threats		It is probably unable to adapt to loss of its forest habitat (Pickersgill 2007). The main threats are expanding agriculture and removal of timber.	eng
135886	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135886	distribution		Cordillera de Carpish, vicinity of Caserío Carpish de Mayobamba (09 43' 50" S, 76 06' 46" W, 2625 masl, and 09 43' 14" S, 76 06' 53"  W; 2735–2750 m), Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Guayasamin et al., 2006).	eng
135886	habitat		The species inhabits montane forests within the Selva Alta or Yungas Ecoregion, in an area where humans have had little impact. At night, individuals of Nymphargus mixomaculatus were found syntopically with <em>Gastrotheca stictopleura</em> in bushes along a small fast-moving stream. Other sympatric anurans include <em>Rhinella chavin</em>, <em>Pristimantis</em> sp., <em>Phrynopus carpish</em>, <em>Phrynopus dagmarae</em>, and <em>Phrynopus kauneorum</em> (Guayasamin et al., 2006).<br/><br/>The species breeds in permanent water (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135886	population		The species is known from the type series, comprised of six specimens. It is possible that the species may be locally abundant, but further field work is needed to verify this (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135886	threats		The species could have a restricted range, although this has to be tested with further field work (J.M. Guayasamin, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135887	conservation		Queimada Grande Island is a federally protected area in the Brazilian conservation category "Área de Relevante Interesse Ecológico" (area of relevant ecological interest). This category is equivalent to a Natural Monument (Category III) under the classification of protected area management categories by IUCN. Additional enforcement of the conservation status of the Queimada Grande Island is needed to maintain the only known population of<em> S. peixotoi</em> (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Critical priorities for conservation of <em>S. peixotoi</em> are to survey the species' aggregations throughout the island, estimate population size, and evaluate the quality and distribution of its habitat (Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
135887	distribution		<em>Scinax peixotoi</em> is known only from Queimada Grande Island (24 29' 02.12" S; 46 40' 33.66" W), a 43 ha island about 33 km from the coast of Itanhaém, in the southern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil (Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The species is found at about 50 m asl (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135887	habitat		Most of the area of Queimada Grande island is still covered by native Atlantic forest, especially those parts located in the western slopes and on the mountaintops of the island. The forest on the eastern slope is much shorter because of frequent exposure to strong winds carrying salt from the sea. Approximately one fifth of the area originally covered by forests is now covered by introduced grasses (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>In the course of six visits to the type locality between 2001 and 2005, calling and reproductive behavior were only observed in January 2002. Males call at night from the leaves of ground bromeliads (ca 40-60 cm in diameter) on a rock outcrop. Females are also found on bromeliad leaves. <em>S. peixotoi</em> tend to favour clustered bromeliads. All type specimens were collected at a single large patch of bromeliads at an altitude of ca. 50 m asl (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
135887	population		The species appears to be relatively rare at Queimada Grande Island. The bromeliads in which this species is found are patchily distributed. The species distribution is likely to be much smaller than the total island area (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
135887	threats		Removal of forest was undertaken by the Brazilian Marine Force several decades ago to reduce the risk of snake encounters associated to forests. Currently, the island's vegetation landscape has not experienced any further changes (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135889	conservation	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Bolivian populations can be found in the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Apolobamba (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135889	distribution	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The type locality of Telmatobius sanborni is Limbani (14 08’ S, 69 42’ W, 3350 masl), Department of Puno, Peru. <br/>The species has also been found ca 6 km (airline) SW of Ollachea, 3240 m, Department of Puno, Peru, and in Bolivia, where it has only been found in the vicinity of Pelechuco, in the Cordillera de Apolobamba, western Department of La Paz (14 49’ S, 69 05’ W). The airline distance between the two most distant localities (Pelechuco and Ollachea) is around 180 km. It occurs within an altitudinal range comprised between 3100-3800 masl (De la Riva, 2005).	eng
135889	habitat	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species lives in streams on steep Andean slopes in the upper part of cloud forests and Polylepis formations (De la Riva, 2005).	eng
135889	population	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species is common in the Pelechuco River valley (De la Riva, 2005). However, it has not been found again in Peruvian localities (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135889	threats	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Major threats for this species are unknown, although it is possible that the species may be used (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135890	conservation		No conservation measures are in place for this species or its immediate habitat, the creation of a protected area encompassing the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pyrodactylus</span> is suggested (Venegas and Barrio 2006).	eng
135890	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus pyrodactylus</span> is only known from the type locality: trail from Los Chilchos to Leymebamba (06º 41'   19" S, 77  º 41'   48  "   W, 2,860 m asl), Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This site is located in the northern section of the Río Huallaga basin, at a ridge between two tributaries of the Río Chilchos, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central (Venegas and Barrio 2006).	eng
135890	habitat		Prevalent vegetation in the type locality is evergreen montane forest, mostly continuous with small clearings next to the trail; some larger clearings were also noticed. The clearings are embedded in the matrix of montane forest. The holotype was found at the end of the dry season (December), by late morning during a slight rain. The frog was spotted at the edge of a trail, hidden beneath a mud trail-cut-wall (Venegas and Barrio 2006).	eng
135890	population		The species is known from the holotype (Venegas and Barrio 2006) and a female which was found dead at the type locality in January 2006. The species has not been seen since, despite searches at its type locality in February 2008. The species is likely threatened with extinction (P. Venegas pers. comm. May 2008).	eng
135890	threats		The forest at the type locality is currently under high human pressure. The land is being cleared mostly for cropland but cattle ranching is also an issue, and both are caused by increased human migration into the area (Venegas and Barrio 2006). The dead female found awaits chytrid screening tests (P. Venegas pers. comm. May 2008).	eng
135891	conservation	Fred Kraus, 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.	eng
135891	distribution	Fred Kraus, 2008	This species is known only from the western slope of Mount Obree, at 600-1,800m asl in Central Province, Papua New Guinea (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely in the Owen Stanley Range in Central Province.	eng
135891	habitat	Fred Kraus, 2008	This species has been found in somewhat disturbed closed-canopy low-elevation rainforest, and primary mid-elevation rainforest (Kraus and Allison, 2006). Animals are associated with rather steep slopes and, to a lesser extent, ridges; they were not obtained close to streams (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been found it in moderately well-developed secondary forest in a stream valley along which several villages are scattered (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). It probably does not occur in extensively opened-up habitats, but it can recolonize recovering forests (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). This species presumably reproduces through direct development, without dependence on water.	eng
135891	population	Fred Kraus, 2008	It is apparently common in its small known range.	eng
135891	threats	Fred Kraus, 2008	There are no obvious threats to this species within its currently known range (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).	eng
135892	conservation		The park is an isolated enclave within the city of Rio Branco. Survey and monitoring efforts should be urgently implemented to determine the threat levels to this species (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.).	eng
135892	distribution		The species is only known from the type locality: Parque Zoobotanico of the Federal University of Acre (09 57' S, 67 57' W, 136 masl), city of Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil (Lima et al., 2007).	eng
135892	habitat		The Zoobotanical Park of the Federal University of Acre covers 100 ha of remnant primary and secondary forest in different stages of regeneration (Lima et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Males call from positions on leaves or small branches in leaf litter from the end of October until May. Egg-laying sites are ca 10 cm above the ground, and only one clutch is deposited per leaf. This species lays its eggs on the lower surface of leaves. Clutches are composed of 8-10 white eggs and are attended by the male. The tadpoles develop on the lower surface of leaves until stage 25, when they are carried by the male to complete metamorphosis in pools (Lima et al., 2007). Males have 1-5 clutches, an average of 3 clutches per male in a breeding season (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.)	eng
135892	population		The species appears to be relatively common at the type locality.	eng
135892	threats		Habitat fragmentation is a threat to this species, as it occurs within a forest fragment in the city of Rio Branco. Field trips to other forest fragments close to Rio Branco have not shed reports for this species, although the species was not the subject of these studies (A.P. Lima, pers. comm.).	eng
135895	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
135895	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known from a single locality on the Tiri River, a small tributary of the Mamberamo River in the southern Mamberamo Basin, central Papua Province, Indonesia (3°17'30"S,138°34'53"E) (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
135895	habitat		Males have been found calling from palm leaves 4–6 metres above the water in a shallow swamp in primary lowland rainforest (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). The breeding season seems to be independent of substantial rainfall (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
135895	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135895	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135896	conservation		It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area, where its habitat is conserved. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
135896	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Southern Highlands Province in Papua New Guinea. All records so far have been from streams near Moro Camp (6°21.833’S, 143°13.481’E) at 800m asl, and the Benaria River (6°03.287’S and 142°58.707’E) at 1,345m asl, both of these sites being within the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area. It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
135896	habitat		Male specimens have been encountered in riparian rainforest, where they called from branches 3-10m above ground, overhanging torrential streams. It is assumed to breed in streams by larval development.	eng
135896	population		Many frogs were heard at its only known sites.	eng
135896	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135897	conservation		It occurs in the Foya Mountains protected area (S. Richards, pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
135897	distribution		This species is known from Yapen Island and the New Guinea mainland, both locations being in Papua Province, Indonesia. On Yapen Island it has been found at 620-1,050m asl on and near the central mountain ridge in the Amoman region and along the road to Ambaidiru Village, and also on Waira Mountain (Günther, 2006). On the mainland it has been recorded from the foothills of the Foya Mountains at 500m asl, in the Mamberamo Basin (Günther, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.	eng
135897	habitat		All specimens have been encountered in primaery tropical moist forest, or in partly logged and regenerating areas of forest (Günther, 2006) and secondary vegetation near roads (R. Günther pers. comm.). Animals were found perched on vegetation 2-6m above the ground, often along streams, by water holes, at the margin of roads, and at the forest edge (Günther, 2006). The larvae live in small permanent ponds and probably also stream pools surrounded by dense vegetation (Günther, 2006). Eggs are believed to be laid on vegetation overhanging the water, with the larvae falling into the water upon hatching (Günther, 2006).	eng
135897	population		It is an uncommon species (R. Günther pers. comm.).	eng
135897	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. No immediate and obvious threats have been noted (R. Günther and S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
135898	conservation		Both Ngok Lin and Chu Yan Sin are protected areas where its habitat is protected. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135898	distribution		This species is currently known only from two localities in the central highlands of Vietnam: Ngoc Linh Mountain, in Dac Glei District, Kon Tum Province, at 1,700-1,900m asl (Orlov, 2005); and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve at 1,600m asl in Dak Lak Province (N. Orlov pers. comm. to J. Pilgrim). It presumably occurs more widely, especially in locations between the two currently known sites.	eng
135898	habitat		It has been found on a forest slope on a small watershed between two rapid streams. It is presumed to breed in streams by larval development. If it is like other members of this genus, it is not able to adapt to anthropogenic habitats (N. Orlov, pers. comm.).	eng
135898	population		No information is available on its abundance, as it is a very secretive and cryptic species (N. Orlov, pers. comm.).	eng
135898	threats		There is currently no information available on threats to this species. If it occurs outside protected areas, it could be threatened by forest loss.	eng
135899	conservation		The species occurs in the Mount Dawei National Nature Reserve (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.). Additional studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
135899	distribution		This species is known only from the type locality of Mount Dawei, in Pingbian County, Yunnan Province, China (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found from 2,089m asl up to about 2,500m asl (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It could possibly widely, including in neighbouring Vietnam.	eng
135899	habitat		The species has been recorded from moderately sized, slow-flowing forested streams close to the summit of Mount Dawei (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is not known if the species can persist in heavily disturbed habitats. Males have been hearde calling beside streams, usually from just under the soil (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is a larval-developing species, with oviposition presumably taking place in streams.	eng
135899	population		It is a rare species (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).	eng
135899	threats		This species is known only from a well-protected area, where the only threat is potential habitat loss through the construction of facilities for tourists (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).	eng
135900	conservation		The species occurs in the vicinity of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.	eng
135900	distribution		Pristimantis albertus is known from Rio San Alberto, 0.9 km N, 2.1 km E of Oxapampa, 10 33; 36" S, 75 24' W, 1970 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). It may occur more widely (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).	eng
135900	habitat		The species can be found amid the leaf litter of humid montane rainforest. One female was found to contain 16 unpigmented eggs. Other anuran species known to occur at the type locality include Pristimantis cruciocularis, P. saggitulus and an apparently undescribed species of Scinax (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).	eng
135900	population		The species is only known from two specimens.	eng
135900	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135901	conservation		It occurs in the Longuza and Kambai Forest Reserves. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of this species, and its conservation needs.	eng
135901	distribution		This species has so far been recorded only from the Kambai and Longuza Forest Reserves in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains in northeastern Tanzania at around 300m asl. It might occur more widely, as it was confused with <em>Arthroleptis xenodactylus</em> and <em>A. xenodactyloides</em> in the past (Pickersgill 2007).	eng
135901	habitat		This species is most common in forest clearing where they call from elevated positions in bracken and brambles. They are less common in the forest itself, perhaps because ground cover is more scace there. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to completely open habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.	eng
135901	population		In Kambai Forest Reserve these frogs were found to be abundant, calling in their hundreds (Pickersgill 2007).	eng
135901	threats		From the little evidence available, it would appear that this species benefits from a degree of opening up of the forest. However, it is not known whether or not it can tolerate full-scale forest clearance.	eng
135902	conservation		It occurs in the   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve  and the Mont d'Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Montagne des Français has been granted Temporary Protected Area Status (the first of three steps necessary to create a permanently protected area) (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Research is needed to determine its geographic range and ecological requirements.	eng
135902	distribution		This species is reliably known from   Fôret d’Ambre Special Reserve,  Montagne d’Ambre National Park (D'Cruze <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), Ankarana, and Montagne des Français in northern Madagascar, and Andape in the northeast (Glaw and Vences 2006; D'Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007; Glaw and Vences 2007). The species can be expected to occur more widely within its range in northern and northeastern Madagascar. It occurs at 100-1,100m asl.	eng
135902	habitat		It lives along streams in  evergreen forest and dry forest, and also survives in degraded habitats. It has been found in a ditch in degraded forest near the edge of a town. It breeds in streams.	eng
135902	population		It is a very common species (M. Vences pers. comm.) and is abundant on the Montagne des Français (D'Cruz et al. 2007).	eng
135902	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
135903	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135903	distribution		Nymphargus vicenteruedai is known only from the type locality: quebrada Aguas Claras (ca 06 01’ 13.3” N, 73 05’ 52.4” W, 2650-2700 masl), Santuario de Fauna y Flora Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, Department of Santander, Colombia. This locality is on the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007).	eng
135903	habitat		The species inhabits high Andean forest in excellent conservation status, with plenty of epiphytes and sources of water. Oak and encenillo trees are common in this forest. Some watersheds appear to have a high tannin content (M. Rada, pers. comm.). Nymphargus vicenteruedai is a nocturnal species, associated with the streams of the area. The males are found vocalizing on top of leaves of plants over the water at a height of approximately 1-2 m, close (< 30 cm), but not in contact, with egg masses. Reproductive activity is restricted to the rainy season between April and May. Breeding activity, as indicated by the number and regularity of calling males, declined rapidly after mid-May(Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007). Clutch size is estimated to be between 20-30 eggs (M. Rada, pers. comm.). Other amphibian species sympatric with N. vicenteruedai are Rheobates palmatus, Hyloscirtus callipeza, Atelopus<br/>mittermeieri, and Centrolene buckleyi (Velásquez-Álvarez et al., 2007).	eng
135903	population		The species is known from the type series, comprised of nine specimens.	eng
135903	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species, although attention should be paid to any symptoms associated with the chytrid fungus, which has been reported in the type locality of Atelopus mittermeieri (M. Rada, pers. comm.).	eng
135904	conservation		The site occurs within a conservation area.	eng
135904	distribution		Phyllomedusa itacolomi is known from two localities associated to the southern part of the Espinhaço mountain range complex, locally called Serra do Itacolomi and Serra de Ouro Branco. It can be found at Lagoa Seca (20 25’ S, 43 29’ W, 1600m above sea level), Parque Estadual do Itacolomi, Municipality of Ouro Preto, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Caramaschi et al., 2006).	eng
135904	habitat		Specimens were found in an ephemeral pond in an open area at ca 1600m above sea level. The pond is a rain-flooded depression of ca 800m2 located in a “campo rupestre” patch (a type of altitudinal rocky field), with bushes and small trees on a sandy soil predominantly covered with grasses. Some scattered massifs of quartzitic rocks emerge in the field. The sparse bushes and small trees emerging from the continuous herbaceous layer are typical elements also found in other regions of “campos rupestres,” such as Velloziaceae, Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, and Eryocaulaceae (mainly Paepalanthus), and isolated Melastomataceae. The perimeter of the flooded area is densely covered by Juncaceae (mainly Juncus cf. microcephalus), Cyperaceae, and grasses, leaving only a small central portion of open water. During the dry months (April-September), the pond becomes completely dry with peats and lichens covering the exposed areas between grasses. Winters are dry and and summers are hot and rainy. The annual rain mean ranges 1450-1900mm (Caramaschi et al., 2006).<br/><br/>Phyllomedusa itacolomi was collected during the rainy season, between October and December, when the pond was totally full and a small rivulet drained the excess water. Individuals were found on the bushes around the pond and along the rivulet, at ca 0.5 to 2.0m above the water. The call is composed of low-pitched, short, isolated notes (Caramaschi et al., 2006).	eng
135904	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135904	threats		In spite of being within a conservation area, the site bears anthropogenic pressures including sporadic visitations by horses. The area is also accidentally burned (Caramaschi et al., 2006).	eng
135905	conservation		It occurs in the Endau-Rompin National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135905	distribution		This species is so far known only from Sungai Semawak, in Endau-Rompin National Park, Johor Province, Peninsular Malaysia at 46m asl (Grismer, 2006). The type locality is 5km west of the Endau-Rompin National Park visitor centre at Peta (Grismer, 2006). This species presumably occurs more widely, beyond the confines of Endau-Rompin National Park.	eng
135905	habitat		All individuals were collected from the same small, rocky stream (Sungai Semawak) which runs through a closed-canopy portion of lowland forest (Grismer, 2006). They were found at night following periods of afternoon precipitation, and were perched no higher than one metre above the ground on small leaves overhanging the streambed (Grismer, 2006). Its breeding has not been observed (Grismer, 2006), but it is presumably by larval development in streams.	eng
135905	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is so far known from only four specimens (Grismer, 2006).	eng
135905	threats		Its only known location is in a well-protected location. However, it is occurs more widely, it could be found to be present in places where its habitat is at risk from logging and agricultural expansion (especially oil palm plantations).	eng
135906	conservation		No conservation areas or measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135906	distribution		<em>Bokermannohyla vulcaniae</em> is known only from the type locality: Morro do Ferro, municipality of Poços de Caldas, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (De Vasconcelos and Giaretta, 2003). It occurs at ca 1000 masl (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135906	habitat		The species can be found in gallery forests adjacent to streams (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.). Specimens were found on leaves of bushes at approximately 1.5 m above the margin of slow moving streams in the forest. <em>Aplastodiscus perviridis</em> and <em>Scinax ranki</em> are species that occur in sympatry with <em>B. vulcaniae</em> (De Vasconcelos and Giaretta, 2003).	eng
135906	population		This is considered to be rare species (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135906	threats		Deforestation has been observed in the species' distribution area due to agricultural and mining activities (A.A. Giaretta, pers. comm.).	eng
135907	conservation		It occurs in Mantadia National Park and the Ambohitantely Special Reserve.. Further work is need to determine the geographic range, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135907	distribution		This species is known from several localities in central eastern Madagascar (at least from Andasibe, Ambohitantely and Antoetra). It probably occurs more widely.	eng
135907	habitat		This species is associated with rocky streams in rainforest, secondary forest, and open areas adjacent to forest, and in more open savannah on the high plateau of Madagascar. However, it requires clear streams and so cannot survive in fully transformed agricultural landscapes. It is usually associated with larger waterfalls than its close relative, Mantidactylus lugubris. It breeds in streams. The eggs are laid on steep rocks near streams, and the tadpoles presumably live in water.	eng
135907	population		It is rather rare. Only few individuals are generally found, while Mantidactylus lugubris is, by comparison, very common.	eng
135907	threats		It is somewhat adaptable, but cannot tolerate extreme deforestation.	eng
135908	conservation		It occurs in the Maoershan National Nature Reserve (which contains some agricultural areas). Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.	eng
135908	distribution		This species is currently known only from the type locality, Maoershan Mountain, in Xingan County, Guangxi Province, southern China, at around 2,000m asl (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is not knowh whether or not it occurs more widely.	eng
135908	habitat		This species lives in marshes and surrounding forest, breeding in pools or ponds from early November until the end of February (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). Each female lays one pair of egg sacs containing an average of 82 eggs (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006). The male guards the eggs after oviposition (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
135908	population		It is quite a common species in the breeding season (Zhou <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
135908	threats		This species is probably being affected by the negative impacts human activities on its habitat, including road construction, tourism and some small-scale agriculture. As a high mountain species, living close to the summit of Maoershan, it is also at potential climate change.	eng
135909	conservation		Parque Estadual da Serra do Cabral covers a great part of the species' known distribution (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).	eng
135909	distribution		Scinax cabralensis is only known from the region of the Serra do Cabral, in the Municipalities of Joaquim Felício and Buenópolis, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, but its distribution may extend to other localities in the Espinhaço Mountain range (Drummond et al., 2007). It is found at elevations above 1000 masl (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).	eng
135909	habitat		Scinax cabralensis can be found in marshes, lakes, seasonal and permanent streams and rivers, and shrubby savanna habitats. Reproduction coincides with the rainy season (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.). Calling males are found in high densities, during the beginning of the rainy season. They are nocturnal callers, calling from perches on the emergent shrubby vegetation and on the ground or rocks, at the margins of temporary and permanent streams, ponds, and marshes. Dendropsophus minutus, Elachistocleis ovalis, Leptodactylus labyrinthicus, Physalaemus cuvieri, Pseudopaludicola cf. mystacalis, Pseudopaludicola saltica, Scinax squalirostris and Scinax sp. were found in activity in the same site of S. cabralensis (Drummond et al., 2007).	eng
135909	population		The species is considered to be locally abundant (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).	eng
135909	threats		Fires are frequent at Serra do Cabral and they always sweep a great part of the area. There are also extensive pine plantations as well as small cattle ranching in the area. Although the species is found within a reserve, this protected area does not currently have an adequate infrastructure. The amphibian species of the area are also used as fishing bait by local inhabitants. In addition, the species' area of occurrence is small (L.O. Drummond, pers. comm.).	eng
135910	conservation		It presumably occurs within Dayaoshan Nature Reserve. Survey work is needed to determine the range, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135910	distribution		This species is only known from Dayao Mountain in Shiliugongli in Guangxi Province, southern China (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). There are records from Shiliugongli at 900m asl and from Xiang-Lu-Chong at 1,200-1,600m asl, both localities being in Jinxiu County, Laibin Prefecture, Guangxi Province (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). It might be endemic to Dayao Mountain, but it is possible that it might in future be discovered elswhere in southern China (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).	eng
135910	habitat		It has been found in undisturbed monsoonal evergreen forest with mostly broad-leaf trees (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006).The males call in grass within or beside shallow ponds, and males and amplexing pairs have also been found in wooden trays set out by local people to ambush-hunt birds (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). White foam egg-nests have been found on the sides of the wooden trays (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). Males call during the day and night, but more so at night (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). In some areas, the habitat was dry, and what little water that was present was in the wooden trays, so the frogs were limited to these sites for breeding (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006). Some frogs also call from perches within broad-leaf trees (Rao <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
135910	population		It is common on parts of Dayao Mountain (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.)	eng
135910	threats		The major threat is probably forest loss, especially for wood extraction and farming. Although it has been found in disturbed habitats, these are in areas close to the forest and the species is not expected to survive significant forest loss (Rao Ding-Qi pers comm.).	eng
135911	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135911	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella condoriri</span> is only known from the type locality: Amaguaya  (3,760 m asl), Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It is believed to have a restricted distribution, and may occur between 3,500-3,800 m asl (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135911	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Individuals of the species can be found under stones by day in humid páramo with abundant mosses, slightly above the village of Amaguaya (De la Riva 2007). The species presumably has direct development.	eng
135911	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Although its population status is unknown, it could be common, given that the three known specimens were found within a half hour (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135911	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135912	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135912	distribution		Brachycephalus ferruginus is known only from its type locality: Pico Marumbi (25 26' S; 48 55' W), municipality of Morretes, Parana state, southern Brazil, at an altitude 1200 masl (Alves et al., 2006).	eng
135912	habitat		The species is an Atlantic forest inhabitant. It is found in leaf litter and is active by day. Adult males were always exposed on the litter when calling. A female was found to contain three large, unpigmented maturing oocytes. Direct development of terrestrial eggs was described for Brachycephalus ephippium and it is suspected that this may also be the case for B. ferruginus (Alves et al., 2006).	eng
135912	population		The species is locally abundant (Alves et al., 2006).	eng
135912	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135913	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135913	distribution		The species is known for the type locality in Maracas, state of Bahia, and Matias Cardoso, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Caramaschi and Cardoso, 2006).	eng
135913	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found in epiphytic bromeliads, and males call from temporary pools (Caramaschi and Cardoso, 2006).	eng
135913	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135913	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135964	conservation		It occurs in the Charpa Forest Range, in the Vazhachal Forest Division, but this probably does not provide much in the way of effective protection. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135964	distribution		This species is known only from the Charpa Forest Range, in Vazhachal Forest Division, Thrissur District, Kerala State, southwestern India (Das and Dutta, 2006). Its elevational range in unknown.	eng
135964	habitat		There is no direct information, though the species presumably occurs in forest and breeds by larval development in ponds. The collection of a metamorph at the end of July indicates that the species breeds during the Southwest Monsoons (Das and Dutta, 2006).	eng
135964	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from three adult males and a metamorph collected in 1986 (Das and Dutta, 2006).	eng
135964	threats		There is no direct information on threats to the species, but it is likely to be impacted by deforestation and extraction of of minor forest products (I. Das pers. comm.).	eng
135965	conservation		This species' type locality is close (within 2 km) of Parque Nacional Cerro Azul (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135965	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Craugastor cyanochthebius</span> is known from San Isidro, on the western flanks of Montaña del Cerro Azul, Sierra del Espíritu Santo, Departament of Copán, Honduras. The locality is at approximately 15 07' 38.2" N, 88 56' 13.8" W and the species was found between 900 and 1,200 masl (McCranie and Smith, 2006).	eng
135965	habitat		The species is found in Montane Subtropical (Premontane) habitats. Individuals have been found between 1730–1930 hours sitting on low vegetation (ca 0.25–1.00 m above the ground) in an area of karstic limestone outcropping during foggy and light rainy conditions. Craugastor charadra is also present at the locality (McCranie and Smith, 2006).	eng
135965	population		The species was described from seven specimens. It is considered to be a common species (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135965	threats		The original vegetation in the San Isidro area has been heavily denuded and is now largely taken over by coffee and crop fields. However, the rugged nature of the isolated karstic limestone areas in the region has allowed their associated vegetation to remain largely intact (McCranie and Smith, 2006).	eng
135966	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135966	distribution		The species is reported to occur in the chaco region of Bolivia (Provinces of Beni and Santa Cruz), Paraguay and northern Argentina (Provinces of Salta, east of Jujuy, Formosa, Chaco, north of Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe and Corrientes), and in the regions of pantanal and cerrado in central Brazil (states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Tocantins, Goiás, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais) (see Caramaschi, 2006).	eng
135966	habitat		The species is associated to savannah-type environments.	eng
135966	population		No population status information is available.	eng
135966	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135967	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
135967	distribution		This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Nakanai Mountains on the island of New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, at 520-865m asl, in the vicinity of the western end of Jacquinot Bay. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the Nakanai Mountains.	eng
135967	habitat		This species lives in leaf-litter in primary and old secondary rainforests. It can probably tolerate some habitat alterations, but is unlikely to survive in completely open habitats. It presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on aquatic habitats.	eng
135967	population		From the limited information currently available, it appears not to be a common species.	eng
135967	threats		The most obvious threats are forest logging and, if the species occurs more widely on New Britain, permanent conversion of habitat to oil palm plantations (the currently known locality is probably not at risk from this latter threat).	eng
135968	conservation	Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	This species is found within Podocarpus National Park and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006).	eng
135968	distribution	Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Centrolene mariaelenae is known from seven localities along the slopes of Cordillera Oriental, provinces of Napo, Orellana, Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006, 2007; Cisneros-Heredia and Guayasamin, 2006). The species can be found between 1400 and 1820 masl (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2007).	eng
135968	habitat	Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	All individuals with natural history information were active at night, on leaves up to 5 m above water of small streams in primary or old secondary-growth Low Montane Evergreen Forest. Other centrolenid frogs in sympatry with this species <br/>are <em>Cochranella cochranae</em> and an undescribed species of <em>Centrolene</em> (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid, 2006). The species may use temporary (seasonal) sources of running water during the reproductive period. During the non-reproductive period the species appears to inhabit the forest canopy (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135968	population	Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	The species is rare at all known localities, where usually just one or two specimens have been collected despite significant collection efforts (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135968	threats	Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, 2008	Habitat destruction (deforestation) and water pollution (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008). Predictions suggest that, in Ecuador, almost half of the habitats suitable for this species have been deforested (Cisneros-Heredia, 2008).	eng
135985	conservation		The species occurs within the boundaries of Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (Lehr et al., 2007). <br/><br/>Studies on the presence of the chytrid fungus are recommended for this species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008; J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135985	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella yanachaga</span> is only known from the Yanachaga Chemillén National Park, Cordillera Yanachaga, Province of Pasco, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2007).	eng
135985	habitat		The species can be found in cloud forest with a thick layer of moss covering the ground and tree trunks. Individuals have been found beneath a layer of moss and dirt about 10–20 cm below the surface on the side of a trail, resting on<br/>the tops of leaves (ca. 50 cm above the ground) and in trees. Syntopic species include Phrynopus bracki, Pristimantis mendax, and P. sagittulus. One gravid female was found to contain 136 unpigmented eggs (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
135985	population		The species was seen as recently as 2007 and 2008. It was one of the most abundant species in the area (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135985	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135986	conservation		In southeast Asia, this species is confirmed from only a single protected area (Doi Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary in Viet Nam). In China the species occurs in the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve. Surveys are needed to verify its occurrence in adequately protected areas (particularly the Lao, Vietnames and Thai populations), and to identify any undiscovered populations (including in Myanmar, and possibly in India). The conservation of mature lowland rainforest is essentail for this species. The listing of 'Threatened' for <em>R. nigropalmatus</em> in the 1992 Viet Nam Red Data Book (Tran <em>et al.</em>, 1992) probably refers to <em>R. reinwardtii</em>, at least in part.	eng
135986	distribution		This species is known from southern and southwestern China (Mengyang in Jinghong County and Mengla County in Yunnan Province, and Longzhou and Pingxiang in Guangxi Province), south to the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Bokeo, Khammouan and Phongsaly Provinces, Viet Nam (Gia Lai, Ha Tinh, Lao Cai, Quang Binh and Than Hoa Provinces), and northern and western Thailand (Doi Chiang Dao in Chiang Mai Province and "Me Wang, in northern Thailand") (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). Although there are likely to be some undiscovered populations, its distribution is probably severely fragmented due to the loss of mature lowland rainforests through much of its range, and Ohler and Delorme (2006) estimate that only about 1,500km2 of suitable habitat remains within its range. It is expected to occur in Myanmar, and a record from West Bengal in India needs confirmation (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It occurs up to about 1,400m asl, though it occurs mainly at lower elevations.	eng
135986	habitat		It has been recorded from primary and secondary evergreen rainforest with a closed canopy, generally at low elevations (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It appears to avoid forest on mountain slopes (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). It has also been observed in forest edge near villages. It is a canopy species that makes foam nests above pools and ponds inside forests (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). Adults probably spend most of the time in the upper forest strata. It is an explosive breeder that apparently descends from the canopy only occasionally to congregate at breeding pools, attracting about a dozen animals.	eng
135986	population		In most places, the populations of this species are not large, though it is considered to be common in suitable habitat in southern China. Its rarity in museum collections is partly due to the small size of its breeding populations, and partly due to its arboreal behaviour (Ohler and Delorme, 2006). In one locality, more than ten males could be observed in a tree at a breeding site (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).	eng
135986	threats		The main threat is the loss of its rainforest habitat and potentially water pollution. Removal of mature lowland forest through logging, agricultural expansion and human settlements has probably reduced the available habitat to less than 1,500km2 (Ohler and Delorme, 2006).	eng
135987	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135987	distribution		This species occurs in western and peninsular Thailand and presumably in adjacent Myanmar. There are records from: Pa Lao U, in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province; Pilok, near Thong Pha Phum, in Kanchanaburi Province; and from Punyan Waterfall, in Ranong Province (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). An old record of <em>Amolops larutensis</em> from Chumphon presumably refers to this species (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). The records from Punyan Waterfall are at 113m asl, but elevations are not given for the other locations.	eng
135987	habitat		This species is associated with streams and waterfalls in forest (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006). The tadpoles live in streams and sometimes cling to rocks near waterfalls (Matsui and Nabhitabhata, 2006).	eng
135987	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
135987	threats		This species is presumably impacted by forest loss due to agriculture and logging.	eng
135988	conservation		It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve and the Ikwamba Forest Reserve.	eng
135988	distribution		This species is known only from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania between 1,500 and 1,900m asl. It is thought likely to be endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.	eng
135988	habitat		All records are from leaf litter in montane forest. It probably cannot tolerate forest clearance. It presumably breeds by direct development, like other members of its genus, without any dependence on water.	eng
135988	population		It is probably relatively common in suitable habitat within its small range.	eng
135988	threats		The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
135989	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135989	distribution		The species is known from Darby Island (23 50' S,  76 11' W) and Bell Island (24 19' S, 76 32' W),  Exuma Cays, Long Island and San Salvador (Watling Island), Bahama Islands (Goin, 1955).	eng
135989	habitat		No habitat and ecology information are currently available for this species.	eng
135989	population		The description was based on a type series consisting of 49 individuals, although other revised specimens include many more. No current population status information is available for this species.	eng
135989	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
135990	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Further fieldwork is needed to investigate the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).	eng
135990	distribution		This species is known only from Bonaccord, in Thiruvanathapuram District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of southern India (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). It is not known where it was collected on the Bonaccord estate, and so the elevation of its occurrence is not known (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135990	habitat		Almost nothing is known about this species, with only a single specimen collected from unknown habitat (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). However, if it is similar to other members of the genus, it is probably an oviparous species with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae, and the adults are likely to be subterranean. The holotype was most probably found by locals or estate workers while they were helping to collect the caecilian <em>Gegeneophis ramaswamii</em> for physiological studies at the University of Kerala (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007). Previous collections of hundreds of <em>G. ramaswamii</em> at Bonaccord have mostly occurred in agricultural land within the tea estate at around 600m asl, and it is possible that <em>U. oommeni</em> occurs more frequently in other habitats in the area, including adjacent forest and/or higher altitude sites (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).	eng
135990	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype (Gower and Wilkinson, 2007).	eng
135990	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
135991	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135991	distribution		This species is known only its type locality, 30km north of Kohima, in Nagaland State, northeastern India, at 1,421m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
135991	habitat		The only known specimen was collected during a rainy day from near a residential area with trees (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006), suggesting that it can adapt to some anthropogenic habitat. Its natural habitat is presumably montane forest, though this has not yet been verified. The only specimen was not close to any water body (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is probably arboreal, breeding in tree holes like other members of the genus, but there is no information on this.	eng
135991	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype.	eng
135991	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
135992	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
135992	distribution		This species is currently only known from Misima Island in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It has been found in three locations at 200-300m asl: the Misma mine site (152° 47.761' E, 10° 39.540' S); the North Dump Rainforest (152° 47.876' E, 10° 39.848' S); and, Boma Village (152° 47.064' E, 10° 39.090' S) (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It can be expected to occur more widely on the island.	eng
135992	habitat		Most specimens have been found in leaf litter on the rainforest floor. One specimen was collected from moist, dense rainforest regrowth of an old garden adjacent to rain forest. It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
135992	population		There is little information on its abundance, but it appears to be moderately common in rainforest (Richards and Oliver, 2007).	eng
135992	threats		The rainforest on Misima has been fragmented by intensive human activities, including mining and small-scale agriculture (S. Richards, pers. comm.), though the species appears to survive at least in old regrowth.	eng
135993	conservation		The species appears to be endemic to a very restricted area. Therefore, survival may depend on the development of a specific in situ conservation policy because of the high extinction risk the taxa with small geographic ranges face (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006).	eng
135993	distribution		<em>Melanophryniscus admirabilis</em> is only known from the type locality: Perau de Janeiro (52 18' W, 28 51' S), Municipality of Arvorezinha, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006).	eng
135993	habitat		<em>Melanophryniscus admirabilis</em> occurs along the southern slopes of the Brazilian Southern Plateau. All known specimens were caught during the day inside marginal ponds or over flattened stone formations along the left bank of the Forqueta River, at 616 masl. The vegetation is dominated by riparian native forest. Some natural history observations indicate that the species may have reproductive activity during October. In this month some clutches and tadpoles were recorded inside the marginal ponds, and many males were heard calling (Di-Bernardo et al., 2006). <br/><br/>This species is associated to lotic waters. Although clutch size is not known, it is very possible that the species may have similar features to those of other members of the genus (e.g. just over 100 eggs per female) (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
135993	population		This is considered to be a rare species, given that, although the number of individuals observed tends to be high, members of this genus are known to be explosive breeders, so it is likely that when breeding individuals are observed, a large proportion of the existing population may be involved in the observation (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
135993	threats		No major threats are known for this species, although its restricted distribution could make it vulnerable to stochastic events (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
135994	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135994	distribution		This species is only known from the southwestern foothills of Mount Nlonako, between the villages Ekomtolo and Badjong, in southwestern Cameroon at around 450m asl. Future research might show it to occur more widely.	eng
135994	habitat		This species has been found at a site which dominated by lowland and submontane secondary rain forest. Animals have been found along the bank of a small creek close to a waterfall, either in the leaf-litter, or perching in low vegetation. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135994	population		Little information is available. Eleven specimens were collected during surveys of Mount Nlonako over a six-year period.	eng
135994	threats		Its habitat is probably at risk from agricultural expansion and removal of timber, but little information is available.	eng
135995	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.	eng
135995	distribution		This species ranges from southwestern Uganda (Lake Bunyonyi) to northwestern Rwanda (Ruhengeri and Rwaza near lake Ruhondo) (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). Its range is poorly known, and possibly occurs also more widely. It has been found from 1,220 to 1,799m asl (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.).	eng
135995	habitat		It can be found on the margins of lakes, streams and rivers, especially in forested areas. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
135995	population		It is very common on Bushara Island.	eng
135995	threats		The quality of its habitat is probably declining due to intense farming, human settlement, and deforestation which increases siltation of streams during the rainy season. Many streams in non-forested regions may be uninhabitable by tadpoles due to intense siltation during the rains (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.).	eng
135996	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135996	distribution		<em>Nymphargus laurae</em> is known from "Loreto, Upper Rio Napo" [= Loreto region, near the town of Loreto](ca. 77 20' S, 00 40' W, ca. 500 m asl), lower slopes of the Sumaco Volcano, on the Cordillera Oriental, eastern slopes of the Andes, Province of Orellana, Ecuador. This area of Amazonian foothills corresponds to the trapezoidal plateau limited to the northeast and west by the Cordillera Oriental (the eastern range of the Andes in Ecuador), to the southeast by the Cordillera de Galeras, to the south by the Napo River, and to the north and east by the Payamino River. This plateau covers almost 1200 km2, and the small town of Loreto is located within it (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2007).	eng
135996	habitat		The adult male holotype was likely found along a stream that runs through the Foothill Evergreen forests of the Loreto plateau. <em>Nymphargus cochranae</em>, <em>Cochranella flavopunctata</em>, an undescribed centrolenid, and an unidentified glassfrog were also collected in the Loreto region and may occur in sympatry with <em>N. laurae</em>. In addition, <em>Hypsiboas boans</em> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dendropsophus triangulum</span> were collected by J. Olalla (the holotype collector) at the locality in the same month that <em>N. laurae</em> was collected, which suggests possible sympatry (Cisneros-Heredia and McDiarmid 2007). No reproduction information is currently available, but based on the reproductive mode of all other congeneric glassfrogs (and most members of the family Centrolenidae), it is possible that <em>N. laurae</em> may have arboreal eggs, placed as clutches attached to leaves overhanging running water sources (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135996	population		The species is only known from the holotype. Despite the fact that it was recently described, the only known specimen was collected during the 1950s and recent surveys in the Loreto plateau and surrounding areas have not found extant populations of <em>N. laurae</em>. Collections during the 1950s in the Loreto plateau were intensive and over several years because the collector (part of the Olalla family) lived in the area; however, only one specimen of <em>N. laurae</em> was ever collected (versus numerous specimens of other species of centrolenids), suggesting that even at the time of collection (when the quality of the habitats was better) the species was at least uncommon  (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135996	threats		Habitat destruction in the Loreto Plateau (the only known locality for the species) is extensive and most forested areas in the plateau are gone. In general, the entire northern foothills of Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador, where <em>N. laurae</em> occurs, are widely deforested and heavily populated (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135997	conservation		The Reserva Biológica de Una is a protected area including all gradients of forest regeneration, along with plantation areas (Pimenta et al., 2005).	eng
135997	distribution		Physalaemus camacan is found at the Reserva Biológica de Una (15 10' S, 39 04' W; 35 m above sea level), Municipality of Una, state of Bahia, Brazil.	eng
135997	habitat		The area of Una is characterized by the existence of large, well-preserved or secondary forest patches connected by agricultural forest systems, especially cacao and rubber tree plantations. Physalaemus camacan was found in small shallow ponds left by a temporary stream inside a well-preserved forest patch. Males call from the edges of ponds or floating on shallow water, and when disturbed, they jump in the water and hide beneath foam nests (Pimenta et al., 2005).	eng
135997	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
135997	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
135998	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
135998	distribution		This species is only known from the type locality: north end of the town of Vilhena, km 16, 12 43' S, 60 07'W, state of Rondonia, Brazil (Heyer and Crombie, 2005).	eng
135998	habitat		Leptodactylus lauramiriamae is known only from a single Cerrado enclave in a predominantly Amazonian rainforest landscape. Individuals of the species were found under trash within the cerrado habitat (Heyer and Crombie, 2005).	eng
135998	population		No population status is available for this species.	eng
135998	threats		No major threats are known for this species. It appears to live in disturbed and degraded environments.	eng
135999	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
135999	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella guillei</span> is only known from the type locality: ca 4 km E of Chullina (3,590 m asl), Cantón Charazani, Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. This locality is on the top of the mountain range that separates the valleys of the Río Charazani and Río Quillhuacota, on the Amazonian slopes of the Cordillera de Apolobamba (De la Riva 2007). It is thought to have restricted geographical and altitudinal ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
135999	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits an area that is heavily cultivated, with old terraces. Frogs of this species can be heard calling in the morning from a patch of forest with ferns and mosses. Males call when mist rolls over the vegetation (De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces by direct development.	eng
135999	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
135999	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Traditional agriculture has been reported for the type locality (De la Riva 2007). There is limited connectivity between forest patches. If relictual forest formations disappear, the species may also disappear with them. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136000	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
136000	distribution		This species was known only Poojagodde (=Poojagoda) Estate, Ramboda, Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007), but is now considered to be Extinct. Poojagoda is in fact a division of the Frotoft Estate, Ramboda (7°04’30”N, 80°42’15”E), a tea plantation approximately 1,400m asl (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). The Pedro Forest Reserve, which extends along a forested ridge bordering Frotoft Estate about 1 km north of Poojagoda, is now the only remaining undisturbed habitat in this area (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, extensive surveys of this forest have failed to detect this species (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136000	habitat		One of the specimens apparently had eggs attached to its abdomen, a form of brooding hithertoo unknown in frogs (Günther, 1876; Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). However, Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. (2007) give reasons for believing that this species in fact attached its eggs to leaves, as is also done by <em>Philautus femoralis</em>. This species presumably lived in montane forest and bred by direct development.	eng
136000	population		Attempts to locate this species in the vicinity of the type locality in the period 1993–2003 have been unsuccessful, and it is now considered to be Extinct (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is known from only two specimens collected in 1876 or earlier (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136000	threats		Clearance of the cloud forest adjacent to Frotoft Estate in 1978 might have lead to the extinction of this species  (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>., 2007). The clearance of this forest resulted in the extinction of <em>Albizia lankaensis</em> (Mimosaceae), a tree species formerly endemic to this site (Kostermans 1980).	eng
136001	conservation		The species is known to occur within the Parque Botânico do Morro do Baú (Mun. Ilhota) and Parque dos Nascentes (Blumenau)(A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136001	distribution		<em>Leptodactylus nanus</em> is known from the northern region of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil (Kwet, 2007) and may also occur in adjacent Paraná (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008). It is found from sea level to ca 800 masl (morro do Baú, Mun. Ilhota), perhaps even a bit higher (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136001	habitat		<em>Leptodactylus nanus</em> can be found on the slopes leading to the mountains of the Atlantic Forest domain (within the forest and/or close to it), in transitional areas, and in urbanized areas (close to roads, gardens, etc.)(A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008). The species undergoes all of its ontogenetic development inside foam nests, which are usually laid far from water (Lutz, 1947).	eng
136001	population		The species appears to be locally abundant, although its geographic distribution is not considered to be overly extensive (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136001	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136002	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136002	distribution		This species is known only from Kon Du, Mang Canh village, in Konplong district, Kon Tum Province, southern Vietnam (14°41'25'' N, 108°19'31'' E), at 1,210m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
136002	habitat		The type specimen was found in a hollow of a big tree 4m above the ground. The hollow was filled with water<br/>(depth about 20 cm), leaf litter and bark. In addition to the type specimen, some tadpoles (more than 5) and two adults of this species were also found. <em>Theloderma stellatum</em> was found on the same tree, and <em>T. gordoni</em> was recorded on hollow trees 50m distant. The general habitat was primary montane forest. It is not known whether or not this species can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136002	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from the holotype, and two other adults and some tadpoles found at the same time.	eng
136002	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
136003	conservation		This species occurs in one small conservation park (C. Hoskin, pers. comm.). Management of <em>L. myola</em> should focus on protection and revegetation of the stream habitat and surrounding rainforest throughout its range, and include strict control of impacts from the catchments that may affect water quality, water flow and sedimentation (Hoskin, 2007). There should be a prohibition on moving and releasing adults or larvae of both <em>L. myola</em> and <em>L. genimaculata</em> throughout the Kuranda area, as this could lead to a breakdown in the isolating mechanisms between the two species (Hoskin, 2007).	eng
136003	distribution		This species has a very small distribution in northeastern Queensland, Australia. It is known from short sections of 13 streams draining into the Barron River in the Kuranda area (between the localities of Kuranda, Fairyland, Myola, Mantaka, Kowrowa, and Oak Forest). The distribution is bound to the north, east and south by the northern lineage of<em> Litoria genimaculata</em> (which also occurs at most <em>Litoria myola</em> sites), and to the west by the limit of rainforest distribution (Hoskin 2007). All sites are between 320 and 360m asl. The extent of occurrence of <em>L. myola</em> is 13.5 km2 (calculated as a minimum convex polygon that includes all records) (Hoskin 2007).	eng
136003	habitat		All records of <em>L. myola</em> are from rainforest along permanent and ephemeral streams (Hoskin, 2007). Rainforest along the streams ranges from mesophyll vine forest to rainforest regrowth dominated by <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Calamus</em>. <em>Litoria myola</em> is a stream breeder (Hoskin, 2007). Stream substrate at the sites ranges from rock and gravel through to coarse sand, and stream gradient at all sites is low. Males were only encountered along the streams, at high density at some sites (Hoskin, 2007). Females were rarely encountered, with most found on the streams, primarily as gravid individuals, and always where <em>L. myola</em> males were calling (Hoskin, 2007). Occasionally, females were sighted perched high in trees, and several females were encountered a considerable distance from the streams (Hoskin, 2007). Metamorphs were rarely encountered (on streamside vegetation) and juveniles were not observed (Hoskin, 2007). Therefore, as is in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Richards and Alford, 2005; C.J. Hoskin, unpubl. data), <em>L. myola</em> utilizes streams as breeding habitat, primarily in spring and summer, and nonbreeding adults and subadults utilize the surrounding rainforest. Given the apparent rarity of non-breeding individuals on the streams, and how infrequently the species is encountered in the surrounding rainforest, it would appear that <em>L. myola</em> utilizes the mid and upper forest levels when not breeding (Hoskin, 2007).	eng
136003	population		<em>Litoria myola</em> is abundant along only one stream, where it occurs at a density of up to 50 males per 100m of stream (Hoskin, 2007), a density similar to or higher than recorded at sites across the range of <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Laurance, McDonald and Speare, 1996; Richards and Alford, 2005; C.J. Hoskin, pers. observ.). Although <em>L. myola</em> was consistently recorded at a high density along this stream, the four smaller monitored populations were inconsistently detected and declined in abundance from common to rare over the monitoring period (Hoskin, 2007). The decline appeared to be due an extended drought between 2002 and 2005, during which most streams in the area stopped flowing and several were completely dry for consecutive years. This was particularly the case for streams on the drier western end of the species' range and populations at these sites may be particularly susceptible to dry periods as they breed in ephemeral streams on sandy soils in marginal rainforest habitat (Hoskin, 2007). Intensive surveys in the region in early 2007, following a year of reasonably high rainfall, detected <em>L. myola</em> at all known sites (13 streams), although it remained rare at four of the five monitoring sites (Hoskin, 2007). Based on stream surveys of mature males, and assuming an equal sex ratio, the total breeding population was estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals in the summer of greatest abundance and considerably less in other summers (Hoskin, 2007). This consisted of a population on one stream estimated at 500 mature individuals and smaller populations of between ten and 100 individuals across the other streams (Hoskin, 2007).	eng
136003	threats		<em>Litoria myola</em> is threatened by: (1) clearing of rainforest (including regenerating rainforest); (2) impacts to the streams in terms of water flow, water quality, and sedimentation; and (3) fragmentation of habitat and breeding populations (Hoskin, 2007). The species is potentially threatened by: (1) altered levels of hybridization and/or competition with <em>L. genimaculata</em> due to captive breeding and release or movement of individuals of either species into or out of the Kuranda region; (2) frog chytrid fungus; and (3) stochastic events (Hoskin, 2007). The sites where <em>L. myola</em> has been recorded are generally unprotected strips of riparian rainforest along streams whose catchments are being heavily altered by rural residential development and more intensive urbanisation (Hoskin, 2007). Disturbance to upstream sections of the stream catchments has the potential to detrimentally impact the breeding habitat of <em>L. myola</em> by affecting stream flow, water quality, or sedimentation (Hoskin, 2007). <em>L. myola</em> sites are subject to considerable disturbance from clearing, road construction, dam construction, and run-off of sediment, chemicals and rubbish from the catchments (Hoskin, 2007). The degree of connectivity between the populations in each of the catchments is not known. Given the genetic similarity between <em>L. myola</em> and <em>L. genimaculata</em>, the effect of disease and parasites on <em>L. myola</em> would be predicted to be similar to that seen in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin, 2007). <em>Litoria genimaculata</em> is currently common throughout the Australian Wet Tropics but underwent population declines in the early 1990s (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). Concurrent declines in several other Wet Tropics stream-breeding frog species resulted in complete disappearance of some species and the decline of others from upland areas (Laurance <em>et al.</em>, 1996; McDonald and Alford, 1999). A chytridiomycete fungus (<em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em>) has been identified as the most likely proximate cause of these declines (Berger <em>et al.</em>, 1998), and chytrid is known to be a source of mortality in <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Speare and Berger, 2005). Populations of <em>L. genimaculata</em> appear to have recovered to pre-decline levels across the Wet Tropics (McDonald and Alford, 1999; Richards and Alford, 2005). The effect of chytrid on <em>L. myola</em> is not known but is assumed to be similar to its effect on <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin, 2007). <em>Litoria myola</em> is parasitized by a Dipteran fly (<em>Batrachomyia</em> sp.), but it is not known whether or not this has a negative impact on populations (Hoskin, 2007). Hybridization between <em>L. myola</em> and the surrounding populations of <em>L. genimaculata</em> is very limited (Hoskin <em>et al</em>., 2005). Interaction between these two species as it currently stands is not a threat; indeed, it appears to be the driving force for speciation of <em>L. myola</em> from <em>L. genimaculata</em> (Hoskin <em>et al</em>., 2005). However, the reproductive isolation (and competitive interaction) between these two species may be in part density or habitat dependent, and if this were so, the integrity of <em>L. myola</em> could be compromised by reductions in population size or translocations of <em>L. myola</em> frogs or tadpoles out of, or <em>L. genimaculata</em> into, the Kuranda area (Hoskin, 2007).	eng
136004	conservation		Many occurrences are in national parks and other protected areas.	eng
136004	distribution		Range includes large areas of Canada and the western and north-central United States from the Great Bear Lake in Canada's Northwest Territories to northern Ontario, southward to Arizona, New Mexico, northern Oklahoma, Missouri (possibly northern Arkansas), and Illinois; disjunctly also in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, northern New York, and northwestern Vermont (Conant and Collins 1991, Stebbins 2003, Lemmon et al. 2007). Elevational range extends to above 12,000 feet (3,670 meters) in Colorado and Utah (Hammerson 1999, Stebbins 2003).	eng
136004	habitat		Habitat is mostly the vicinity of nonflowing bodies of water and associated wetlands and meadows; sometimes these frogs cross up to a few hundred meters of upland habitat between wetlands, and they may overwinter in upland sites adjacent to wetlands; periods of inactivity may be spent in water, among thick wetland vegetation, under objects on the ground, or in rodent burrows (Hammerson 1999). Breeding sites include marshes, rain pools, glacial kettle ponds, snow-melt pools, bog ponds, marshy edges of lakes and reservoirs, flooded areas, and other bodies of water with little or no current; breeding pools may be temporary or permanent, and they usually contain aquatic or wetland plants or submerged terrestrial vegetation (Hammerson 1999).	eng
136004	population		This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations). Many occurrences have good viability.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and presumably exceeds 1,000,000.<br/><br/>Area of occupany, number of subpopulations, and population size probably have declined somewhat over the long term, especially in the southeastern portion of the range where habitat change has been most extensive, but the extent of decline may not exceed 25 percent.<br/><br/>Current trend is not well documented, but area of occupany, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.	eng
136004	threats		No major threats are known, but locally some populations probably are declining as a result of conversion of habitat to intensive human uses.	eng
136005	conservation		This species is present in the Cerros de Escazú protected zone, and Parque Nacional Tapantí and Reserva Biológica Cerro las Vueltas. Additional studies are needed into the threats to this recently described species.	eng
136005	distribution		This recently described species has been recorded from the northern slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca and the Cerros de Escazú, of Costa Rica (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). Animals have been collected between 1,745 and 2,500m asl (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136005	habitat		This species is found in subtropical montane tropical moist forest to cloud forest habitats (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). The mean annual temperature within the species range in 12-15 ºC, with between 1,825 to 2,300mm of annual rainfall (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is a relatively arboreal species that has often been collected from bromeliads, although animals have also been captured under surface litter and the bark of logs (García-París <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
136005	population		There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
136005	threats		It is presumably threatened by some conversion of forest to agricultural land at lower elevations in its range. Additional studies are needed into the threats to this species.	eng
136006	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136006	distribution		Phrynopus kotosh is only known from the type locality in the eastern part of the Cordillera Central, Peru: 10.8 km W of Huancapallac at 2950 masl, Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru (Lehr, 2007).	eng
136006	habitat		Nothing is known about the species' natural history. Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
136006	population		The species is only known from seven specimens that comprised the type series, collected in 1969.	eng
136006	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136007	conservation		It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara North Forest Reserve. The extent of its distribution within the Ukaguru Mountains needs to be assessed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
136007	distribution		This species is only known from one site in the Mamiwa-Kisara North Forest Reserve in the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania, at around 1800m asl, and it appears to be very rare. It is probably endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.	eng
136007	habitat		All specimens were in montane forest in a valley dominated by the tree fern <em>Cyathea manniana</em>. The animals were found on vegetation up to 1.3m from the ground during rainy evenings along a stream and close to standing water.In terms of microhabitat selection it was most often found on small trees, shrubs or bushes, with males calling from exposed sites. It is presumably a live-bearing species, like other members of its genus.	eng
136007	population		There is little information on its abundance. Ten specimens were collected on its discovery, and there has been only one subsequent record.	eng
136007	threats		The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
136008	conservation		The forest on Mount Malinao is not formally protected, butis  owned by a private geothermal company, which protects it to a certain extent by keeping out squatters. However, conservation initiatives aimed at protecting habitat of this species are urgently needed, and could also guarantee the future supply of clean water for the human populations surrounding the southern and eastern foothills of Mount Malinao (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007).	eng
136008	distribution		This species is known only from Mount Malinao, in the municipalities of Tiwi and Malinao, Albay Province, on the Bicol Peninsula, in the south of Luzon Island, in the Philippines, between 900 and 1,160m asl (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). It is presumed to have a small distribution, but might occur more widely on the central geological component of the Bicol peninsula (for example on Mounts Isarog, Bulusan and Labo). It could possibly occur even further afield on Catanduanes and the Caramoan Peninsula.	eng
136008	habitat		This species is currently known only from mid-elevational transitional forest between lower- and mid-montane<br/>dipterocarp forest communities (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Calling males exhibit a microhabitat preference unique among Philippine <em>Platymantis</em>, calling solely from the edge of steep cliffs along deep arroyo-like creek ravines (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). These frogs were observed at the upper edges of a few cliffs, 15–35m above the level of the water below, and were situated only on dry patches of soil directly underneath the overhanging edge of the cliffs’ upper lip. Calling males face out into the forest, away from the cliff edge, and calls could be heard 50–75m away in the forest below (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In one locality, specimens were only collected 30–40m away from water, at the upper edge of a slope (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Despite extensive searches below and above cliff ledges on the plateau above, individuals were only encountered along the narrow strip of exposed soil at the edge of the overhanging and collapsing cliff edge (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). The predominant vegetation is lower montane rainforest, the dominant trees being Podocarpaceae (<em>Podocarpus</>, <em>Dacycarpus</em>), Lauraceae, some Moraceae, Fabaceae (<em>Lithocarpus</em>) and Melastomaceae (<em>Medenilla</em>), with some stilt-rooted Pandanaceae (<em>Pandanus</em>), and many epiphytic shrubs, ferns, and orchids with moderate to thick moss cover on branches and trunks (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). During surveys on Mount Malinao, biologists spent several weeks at the lower edge of the forest (approx. 700–800m asl) and at higher elevations between the type locality and the mountain’s peak (1,550m als), but <em>Platymantis diesmosi</em> was only encountered between 900 and 1,160m asl (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). It has not been found outside forest. It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136008	population		It is a very common species locally.	eng
136008	threats		The available evidence suggests that this species is restricted to a single habitat type: the transition zone between lower- and mid-montane dipterocarp forests (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Near the type locality, extensive slash-and-burn shifting agriculture and selective logging is taking place throughout mid-montane elevations on Mount Malinao (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In 2001, the type locality was barely 100m above some of the most severe disturbances on the eastern face of Mount Malinao, and it is feared that continued degradation of the forest edge at this site will soon extend upwards to the type locality (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). Because this area also supplies the majority of freshwater to the municipality of Tiwi, continued and unchecked exploitation of this fragile transition zone habitat will threaten not only the continued existence of <em>Platymantis diesmosi</em>, but also the future availability of freshwater for humans in the Tiwi watershed (Brown and Gonzalez, 2007). In addition to agricultural expansion, extensive timber poaching is taking place within the forest.	eng
136009	conservation		The species is found within the Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136009	distribution		<em>Pristimantis thyellus</em> is found almost exclusively in Páramo El Batallón, state of Táchira, Venezuela, between 2900 and 3800 masl. The type locality is found within a protected area [Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park (ca 8 10’48’’ N, 71 54’08’’ W, 3125 masl), municipality of Guaraque, state of Mérida, close to the boundary with the state of Táchira, Venezuela] (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136009	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found in shrubby páramo habitat, under rocks, on top of relatively moist soil.  One individual was found close to a clutch of ca 20 x 15 cm, which contained 34 cream-yellowish eggs laid in a single egg mass (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136009	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136009	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136010	conservation		It is known only from the Parque Nacional El Cusuco. Further conservation of the habitat of this species is needed within this protected area. Additional field surveys are needed to determine whether this species ranges more widely than is currently known.	eng
136010	distribution		This species is endemic to Honduras, where it has been recorded from the Parque Nacional El Cusuco in the Sierra del Omoa. It is known only from this single locality, and it is certainly possible that it is endemic to the area, although futher studies are needed to confirm this. It has been recorded at elevations of 1780 to 1800m asl.	eng
136010	habitat		It has only been recorded from pirmary tropical cloud forest. It has been found under leaf litter close to streams. Little more is currently known about this species.	eng
136010	population		This recently described species is known only from two specimens.	eng
136010	threats		There is some habitat loss taking place within the Parque Nacional El Cusuco, resulting from shifting ariculture and conversion to coffee plantations.	eng
136011	conservation		It occurs in the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project Area where its habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136011	distribution		This species is known only from the Huon Peninsula, in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea at 1,100-1,830m asl (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It has been recorded from just two sites, Surim and Albagumut, 30 km apart (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It does not appear to occur at Dendawang (2,000m asl) or at Tarona (200–400m asl) despite the close proximity of these sites to Abalgamut and Surim respectively, suggesting that this species may be restricted to wet forests at altitudes between about 1,000 and 1,850m asl (Richards and Oliver, 2007). Within this elevational band, it is expected to occur in other sites, at least on the Huon Peninsula, and perhaps elsewhere.	eng
136011	habitat		It has been found in extremely wet, lower-montane rainforest (Richards and Oliver, 2007). Thick moss covers most exposed surfaces in the forest (Richards and Oliver, 2007). At Surim this species was found calling from the ground or from logs on the forest floor, usually in positions hidden by low foliage (Richards and Oliver, 2007). At Abalgamut males called from more elevated positions (up to 1.5m above the ground), normally from within dense mossy clumps on the side of tree trunks or on tree branches above the ground (Richards and Oliver, 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136011	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136011	threats		The forest where it occurs is reasonably well protected in a Wildlife Management Area (S. Richards, pers. comm.), but overall there is no information on threats.	eng
136012	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136012	distribution		Pristimantis amydrotus is only known from the ridge above the base camp near Chorro Blanco, ca. 4.5 km (airline) NE of Monte Seco (ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, ca. 1500 masl), Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Duellman and Lehr, 2007).	eng
136012	habitat		The species possibly occurs in isolated patches of cloud forest (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).	eng
136012	population		The species is only known from the type material, comprised of two specimens.	eng
136012	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136013	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
136013	distribution		This species is known from West New Britain Province on New Britain Island, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. All records are from the northern Nakani Mountains, at 1,500–1,700m a.s.l. on a ridge between the Ivule and Sigole rivers (05°33.1129S, 151°04.2699E) (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Its true distribution probably includes similar forested high-elevation habitats throughout the Nakanai Mountains and perhaps other mountain ranges on New Britain.	eng
136013	habitat		It is a species known from montane rainforest, including El Niño-damaged <em>Nothophagus</em> forest with a fairly open canopy and a dense secondary understory of climbing bamboo and <em>Pandanus</em> screw palms. It appears to be dependent on <em>Pandanus</em> stands, perching on leaf-fronds 2–4m above the ground (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has never been observed to perch in adjacent understory vegetation or bushes (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). Dense congregations of calling individuals have been observed in areas where <em>Pandanus</em> stands were plentiful (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2006). This species presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on aquatic habitats, laying eggs in leaf axils. It can probably survive in selectively logged areas but not in completely opened up habitats (J. Foufopolos pers. comm.).	eng
136013	population		It is common in its only known locality.	eng
136013	threats		No direct information is available on threats to this species. However, it could be impacted by ongoing commercial logging on New Britain, and also the effects of global climate change (droughts bringing fire which destroy its habitat).	eng
136014	conservation	Tinsley, R., Measey, J. & Howell, K., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
136014	distribution	Tinsley, R., Measey, J. & Howell, K., 2008	The range of this species is extremely unclear following its separation from <em>Xenopus laevis</em>. For the purposes of this assessment we have assumed that all animals in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo east of 28ºE refer to this species.  It occurs up to 3,000m asl. We therefore consider that all animals from Zambia southwards refer to <em>Xenopus laevis</em>, and all animals in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Congo west of 28ºE refer to <em>X. laevis sudanensis</em>.	eng
136014	habitat	Tinsley, R., Measey, J. & Howell, K., 2008	It is a water-dependent species occurring in a very wide range of habitats, including heavily modified anthropogenic habitats. It lives in all sorts of waterbodies, including streams, but tends to avoid large rivers, and waterbodies with predatory fish. It reaches its highest densities in eutrophic water. It breeds in water; there are no records of it breeding in flowing water. It has very high reproductive potential. It is a highly opportunistic species, and colonizes newly recreated, apparently isolated, waterbodies with ease. It can migrate in large numbers when breeding ponds start to dry up, and the weather is wet.	eng
136014	population	Tinsley, R., Measey, J. & Howell, K., 2008	It is an extremely abundant, and often increasing, species.	eng
136014	threats	Tinsley, R., Measey, J. & Howell, K., 2008	It is very successful and adaptable, and is not facing any significant threats.	eng
136015	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136015	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis aquilonaris</span> is known from three sites: Alto Samaniego (2,200 masl), "Quebrada Parramata", Rıo Blanco basin, (2,500 masl), and Rıo Blanco riverbank (2,000 masl), all in District of Carmen de la Frontera, Huancabamba province, Department of Piura, Peru. The species is found in montane forests at elevations of 2,000–2,500 masl (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
136015	habitat		The species is found in humid montane forest. Individuals were found during the day on the ground and at night on the ground and in low vegetation up to 0.5 m above the ground. Sympatric anurans include Pristimantis caeruleonotus, P. cajamarcensis, P. colodactylus, and P. galdi (Lehr et al., 2007).	eng
136015	population		This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136015	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136016	conservation		Both known localities are in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area (Richards and Oliver, 2006), where the habitat is conserved. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.	eng
136016	distribution		This species is known from two localities in southern Papua New Guinea: the Darai Plateau in Southern Highlands Province at 420m asl; Dark End Lumber in Gulf Province (Richards and Oliver, 2006). It probably occurs more widely, and a specimen from Kokoda in the Owen Stanley Range might refer to this species (Richards and Oliver, 2006).	eng
136016	habitat		This species has been found only in trees in primary rainforest where males call at night from branches high above the ground (Richards and Oliver, 2006). Its breeding requirements are unknown, though it possibly lays eggs in tree holes, and presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
136016	population		There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is hard to find.	eng
136016	threats		The habitat where the species is known to occur is reasonably well conserved. However, the species probably occurs more widely, and might be found in less well protected sites. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest.	eng
136017	conservation	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species can be found within the boundaries of Tunari National Park. However, the rest of the species' distribution falls outside of protected areas (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136017	distribution	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The type locality is Tolota (= Tolata), Jordán Province, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, 17 32’ S, 65 55’ W. The species can also be found in the high valleys of the departments of Cochabamba and northern Potosí, 2700-4400 masl. The most distant localities are ca 300 km apart (airline) (De la Riva, 2005).	eng
136017	habitat	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Telmatobius hintoni occurs in streams and pools in the high valleys of the departments of Cochabamba and northern Potosí (De la Riva, 2005). It occupies dry valleys and puna ecosystems (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008). It is a completely aquatic species inhabiting permanent streams and temporary pools associated to permanent streams (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136017	population	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species was described in 1940 and was considered to be abundant until recently. Populations in Cordillera Tunari, Department of Cochabamba, were very abundant in 1998; however, there has been no subsequent additional information (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136017	threats	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Threats to this species include pollution, human consumption and perhaps chytrid fungus (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136018	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
136018	distribution		This species is currently known only from a tributary of the Nam Tha River, in Nam Tha Commune, Van Ban District, Lao Cai Province, in northern Vietnam, at 640m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
136018	habitat		All records have been from along streams in submontane evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It has been found on riverside banks, on rocks in the torrent, and on low-lying branches (0.5–1 m above ground) adjacent to the water (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). In the area where <em>R. cucae</em> is found, the Nam Tha is completely forested on both sides (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). All rivers and streams in the area are geomorphologically variable: bottoms vary from rocky to sandy; banks vary from steep and rocky to low with humus and vegetation (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). <em>Rana cucae</em> has also been found inside the forest within 100m of water on the forest floor, on logs, and in trees (up to 4m above ground)  (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). This forest is composed of stands of mixed hardwood, bamboo and banana (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Males were calling from leaves on small branches (0.5–4 m above the ground) directly beside streams (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles are unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006), but presumably develop in rivers.	eng
136018	population		It is a locally abundant species in its only known site (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
136018	threats		The only locality known so far for this species might no longer exist, as it was being surveyed for a hydro-electric project at the time of collection (R. Bain, pers. comm.). The planned high-water mark of the river valley was dozens of metres above the collection sites of this species (R. Bain, pers. comm.). The species is probably also affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
136019	conservation	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev Natalia Ananjeva, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is listed in the Red Data Books of the USSR, Russia and Georgia. It is present in protected areas in Russia and Georgia, and was re-introduced in the Caucasian Nature Reserve. It is present in some protected areas in Turkey.  Control of invasive raccoons is necessary to help stop the decline of this species.	eng
136019	distribution	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev Natalia Ananjeva, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species ranges from the western Caucasus in southern Russia and Georgia (in the mountain forest belt on the north-western and south-western slopes of the Main Caucasian Ridge), through northwestern Armenia and northern Turkey west to the Bosphorus Strait. It has been recorded from near sea level (Tabbaria Lake) up to around 2,750m asl (in Turkey)	eng
136019	habitat	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev Natalia Ananjeva, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is found in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests (composed of birch, oaks, eastern hornbeams, alders, chestnuts, beach and rhododendrons) up to subalpine meadows. Reproduction occurs in lakes, ponds (including temporary pools), large puddles, drainage canals, roadside ditches in meadows, slow-flowing streams and stream pools in open areas near or within forests. The number of eggs varies between 50 and 100. It can occur in some slightly modified habitats.	eng
136019	population	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev Natalia Ananjeva, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Uğur Kaya, 2008	The species is sporadically distributed over much of its range, but is common in suitable habitats.	eng
136019	threats	Kurtuluş Olgun, Jan Willem Arntzen, Sergius Kuzmin, Theodore Papenfuss, Ismail Ugurtas, David Tarkhnishvili, Max Sparreboom, Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev Natalia Ananjeva, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is sensitive to habitat loss.  In the Western Caucasus, this species is threatened by predation from the introduced raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>).  In breeding ponds, the raccoon has been found to consume 50% of reproductive adults per year. Construction and building along the Black Sea coastline impacting the northern Turkish population. Over one-hundred dams are planned for the north-eastern part of its range in Turkey which would negatively impact the species. Within the Caucasus, habitat loss and fragmentation (through forest destruction, destruction of wetlands, overgrazing by cattle, urbanization, industrial and agrochemical pollution) are negatively impacting populations. In the Caucasus it is threatened by collection for the pet trade.	eng
136020	conservation		It occurs in the protected area on the Wandammen Peninsula (R. Günther pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.	eng
136020	distribution		This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the eastern slope of the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula (Cenderawasih Bay), in Papua Province, Indonesia, at 350-850m asl (Günther, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.	eng
136020	habitat		It is found in a primary rainforest at altitudes above 350m asl, and animals prefer slopes with exposed stones and small rocks (Günther, 2006). Some specimens were found a few metres away from rocks on leaf litter covering humus or clay soil (Günther, 2006). Nearly all calling males maintained a position at a crevice or an overhanging rock or stone (Günther, 2006). This is direct developing species in which the males exhibit parental care by guarding the terrestrial eggs and transporting the hatched froglets on their backs (Günther, 2006). It can probably tolerate a certain level of habitat disturbance, but is unlikely to be able to survive in opened-up habitats (R. Günther pers. comm.).	eng
136020	population		It is a common species with more than 100 calling males counted during a walk of 4 km (Günther, 2006).	eng
136020	threats		There are no obvious threats to this species at present, but more information is needed (R. Günther pers. comm.).	eng
136021	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136021	distribution		Psychrophrynella boettgeri is only known from the type locality, Phara (14 07' 36.2" S, 69 39' 52.3" W, 3466 masl), District of Limbani, Province of Sandia, Department of Puno, Peru. It is located in the Cordillera Oriental in southeastern Peru (Lehr, 2006).	eng
136021	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests with small bushes, small trees, and small streams. Individuals have been found under rocks during the day. Females are known to contain between 5 and 8 ovarian eggs (Lehr, 2006).<br/><br/>The species is presumed to breed by direct development. It likely reproduces during the rainy season (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136021	population		This is not considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136021	threats		Deforestation was observed to occur in the region (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136022	conservation		The type locality is an area restricted to public access, although it is unclear whether it is a reserve or protected area. Other localities appear to be unprotected (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136022	distribution		<em>Pristimantis padrecarlosi</em> is known from a section of the road between Bucaramanga and Pamplona (kms 18-22), municipalities of Tona and Floridablanca, department of Santander, Colombia. It can be found between 1500 and 1950 masl (Mueses-Cisneros, 2006).	eng
136022	habitat		The species is active at night, often found on vegetation between 1-1.5 meters above the ground, next to small streams, roads, and in cracks between rocks in the splash zone of the stream in the type locality. Other amphibian species at the site include Cochranella daidalea, Hyalinobatrachium ibama, Hyloscirtus callipeza, Pristimantis bicolor, P. douglasi, P. miyatai, P. prolixodiscus and Bolitoglossa nicefori (Mueses-Cisneros, 2006). The species was also found within the forest, both close and far away from bodies of water (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
136022	population		The species was described from 15 specimens. In order to give a reliable estimate of P. padrecarlosi's relative abundance it is necessary to first resolve the identity of this species and that of P. douglasi both in the field and in museum collections, given the similarity between both species (J.J. Mueses-Cisneros, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136022	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136023	conservation		Many occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
136023	distribution		Range encompasses the southern Cascades and Sierra Nevada of California, from Shasta County to Tulare County (Kuchta and Tan 2006); <span style="font-style: italic;">T. sierrae</span> hybridizes with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. torosa</span> in the southern Sierra Nevada (Kaweah River area) (Kuchta 2007).	eng
136023	habitat		Breeding occurs in streams, ponds, and reservoirs, and terrestrial individuals occupy various adjacent upland habitats such as grassland, woodland, and forest (Storer 1925, Petranka 1998, Stebbins 2003, Kuchta 2005). Eggs are attached to sticks, undersides of stones, or vegetation in flowing or nonflowing water.	eng
136023	population		This species is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. Over the long term, likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences. Currently relatively stable in extent of occurrence; probably relatively stable to slowly declining in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences.	eng
136023	threats		Locally, population have been reduced or eliminated as a result of habitat degradation or loss caused by conversion of habitat to human uses and to a much lesser degree by large-scale commercial exploitation (Jennings and Hayes 1994). Many are killed on roads as they move between uplands and aquatic breeding sites. Introduced fishes likely have a negative impact in some bodies of water inhabited by this species.	eng
136024	conservation		It occurs in the Taman Negara National Park, Lakum Forest Reserve, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Ampang Forest Reserve, Raja Muda Forest Reserve, Kenaboi Forest Reserve and Khao Lu-ang National Park (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007; N. Ahmad, pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine is distribution and adundance.	eng
136024	distribution		This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and in the southern part of Peninsular Thailand (McLeod and Ahmad 2007). There are records from the following localities in Malaysia: Taman Negara Resort, Kuala Tahan Taman Negara, Pahang State, at 82 m asl; Lakum Forest Reserve, Pahang State, at 72 m asl; Bukit Rengit and Kuala Gandah, Pahang State; Pulau Perhentian, Pahang State; Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah State, at 385 m asl; Sungai Lasor base camp, Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah State, at 193m asl; Ampang Forest Reserve and Raja Muda Forest Reserve, Selangor State; and Kenaboi Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan State (McLeod and Ahmad 2007, N. Ahmad, pers. comm.). In Thailand it has been recorded from Khao Lu-ang National Park, in Nakhon Si Thamarat Province, at 400 m asl (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Additional fieldwork is necessary to confirm the full distribution of this species (McLeod and Ahmad 2007). However, on the basis of the known localities, it seems likely that <em>Theloderma licin</em> might occur throughout the Malay Peninsula and perhaps as far north as the Isthmus of Kra in Thailand (McLeod and Ahmad 2007).	eng
136024	habitat		This species has been found in a number of habitats, including secondary tropical evergreen forest, by a steep cliff near a logging road, in the gardens of the resort area in Taman Negara, in a sewage tank, and at a temporary pool in forest (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Several records have been of frogs sitting on leaves up to 40cm above ground (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). It is clearly able to adapt well to antropogenic habitats, and one specimen was found inside a bathroom at the Sungai Lasor base camp (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007). Its breeding is unknown, but probably takes place in tree holes by larval development, like other members of its genus.	eng
136024	population		It is common in the gardens of the resort area in Taman Negara (McLeod and Ahmad, 2007).	eng
136024	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, but given that it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, it is probably not significantly threatened.	eng
136025	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range of this species.	eng
136025	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known only from the Derewo River basin at 1,890m asl in an unnamed mountain range in Papua Province, Indonesia.	eng
136025	habitat		The two known specimens were collected in very wet montane rainforest close to a torrential stream. It is presumed to breed in streams by larval development.	eng
136025	population		There is no information on its abundance as it is known from only two specimens.	eng
136025	threats		There is no information on threats, but it occurs in a very remote area where there are no immediate treats to its habitat.	eng
136026	conservation		It presumably occurs in some protected areas (such as Mikumi National Park in Tanzania).	eng
136026	distribution		This species is said by Pickersgill (2007) to range widely in western and eastern Africa, south to South Africa. However, here we restrict its range to the confirmed localities given by Pickersgill (2007), in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda. It must presumably also occur in other countries such as Mozambique. Clarification of the range of this species will require resolution of the taxonomic issues in the <em>Hyperolius nasutus</em> complex.	eng
136026	habitat		On the assumption that its ecological reqirements are similar to those of other members of the <em>Hyperolius nasutus</em> complex, it is associated with emergent vegetation at the margins of swamps, rivers and lakes in savannah and grassland habitats. It can presumably be found around human settlements, but probably does not respond well to extreme urbanization and agricultural intensification. It presumably breeds in swamps, shallow plans, emergent vegetation, vleis, lakes and permanent pools.	eng
136026	population		Because of confusion with other species, its abundance is hard to ascertain.	eng
136026	threats		In South Africa it is threatened by coastal development, wetland drainage, and expansion of sugar cane plantations. However, overall, this species is presumably not seriously at risk.	eng
136027	conservation		The species is associated to the Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá buffer zone. In addition, private reserves have been created in the western slope of the buffer zone, e.g. Karagabi (A. Acosta, pers. comm.).<br/> <br/>An increase in the authority of park staff is recommended  (A. Acosta, pers. comm.).	eng
136027	distribution		The species is known from the Tatamá mountain range, western Cordillera, Municipalities of Santuario (5 5' N and 76 01' W) and Mistrató, Department of Risaralda, Colombia. It is found between 1760 and 2130 masl (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).	eng
136027	habitat		Bolitoglossa tatamae is a nocturnal species, often found on the lower branches of shrubs (0.5 to 2 meters) and on leaf-litter. The inner forest has tall and dense trees, belonging to the ‘‘montane humid forest’’.  B. tatamae is sympatric with several species of anurans (‘‘Dendrobates bombetes’’, Eleutherodactylus palmeri, Eleutherodactylus orpacobates, Eleutherodactylus thectopternus and Eleutherodactylus mantipus) (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).<br/><br/>A juvenile was collected in the month of February, so it is possible that reproduction may take place between the months of October or November (A. Acosta, per. comm.).	eng
136027	population		It is reported to be a common species (Acosta and Hoyos, 2006).	eng
136027	threats		The species is found in the buffer zone of Parque Nacional Natural Tatamá, which is under severe anthropogenic pressure (deforestation); the landowners of the site where the species was found were eliminating native forests to give way to agriculture (A. Acosta, pers. comm.)	eng
136028	conservation	Manuel Bernal, Víctor Fabio Luna-Mora, 2008	The possibility of establishing a reserve in the type locality to protect forest fragments where the species is found is currently being studied by the local community and landowners (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In view of the fact that the species has been recently described, there is still a lack of information regarding its natural history and distribution. In addition, it would be important to compare this species with another recently encountered species in Supatá (Cundinamarca), which bears a general external resemblance to R. tolimense (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136028	distribution	Manuel Bernal, Víctor Fabio Luna-Mora, 2008	Ranitomeya tolimense is known only from the type locality [vereda el Llano, Department of Tolima, Municipality of Falan, Cordillera Central of Colombia, (5 01’08” N, 75 02’31” W)] on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Central, Department of Tolima, Colombia. Specimens were collected at an elevation of about 1852 m above sea level (Bernal et al., 2007).	eng
136028	habitat	Manuel Bernal, Víctor Fabio Luna-Mora, 2008	The type locality of the species is a small patch of a secondary forest dominated by trees with a maximum height of 4 to 6 m, covered by epiphytic plants, mainly of the families Araceae, Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae. The canopy is dense, allowing for little penetration of light. Humidity in the area is maintained by the constant cloud cover and frequent rainfall. The forest floor is covered by leaf litter, fallen tree branches and trunks, house to fungi, mosses and lichens. There are also smaller trees, palms and tree ferns. The mean temperature is about 19 C and the annual precipitation is between 2500–3000 mm per year (Bernal et al., 2007).<br/> <br/>Ranitomeya tolimense is a diurnal inhabitant of the forest floor. Males call throughout the day hidden in small holes within the root system of some trees, under leaf litter. One egg clutch deposited in the laboratory contained 3 brown eggs  (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008). A male nurse frog carrying a tadpole on his back on the ground near bromeliads and heliconias was also found in May (Bernal et al., 2007). The species requires a permanent water source for its tadpoles (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136028	population	Manuel Bernal, Víctor Fabio Luna-Mora, 2008	This is considered to be a rare species (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136028	threats	Manuel Bernal, Víctor Fabio Luna-Mora, 2008	The general area of the species' distribution is dominated by farms with coffee plantations, most likely not suitable habitat for R. tolimense (Bernal et al., 2007). In addition, the small population size may render the species susceptible to stochastic processes (M. Bernal and V.F. Luna-Mora, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136029	conservation		The species is found within the boundaries of Madidi National Park (Padial et al., 2006).	eng
136029	distribution		Rhinella tacana is only known from two close localities, Huairuro (14 19'28.2'' S, 68 05'36.1'' W), and Arroyo Huacataya (14 20'12.1" S, 68 5'57.3" W), at ca 1500 masl, path from San José de Uchupiamonas to Apolo, Serranía Eslabón, Madidi National Park, Franz Tamayo Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (Padial et al., 2006).	eng
136029	habitat		This species inhabits primary humid montane forest with high abundance of arboreal ferns, bromeliads and other epiphytes. Potentially flooded flat surfaces are almost inexistent but there are some small streams. Rhinella tacana is a nocturnal species that can be found active on leaves of bushes or on the trunk of trees from 1–4 m height. It climbs vertical trunks covered by moss. The adult female presents convoluted oviducts and small white ova. The call, tadpole and reproductive mode are unknown. Other anuran species that occur in the area are Atelopus tricolor, Ameerega boliviana, Hyalinobatrachium bergeri, Hyloscirtus armatus, Hypsiboas balzani, Pristimantis danae and P. madidi (Padial et al., 2006).	eng
136029	population		The species may be rare or perhaps moderately common (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136029	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136030	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136030	distribution		Psychrophrynella illampu is known from the type locality, 18.5 km from Sorata on Sorata-Mapiri road (15 44' 07" S, 68 38' 11" W, 3840 masl) and its surroundings, in the Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007). The species may possibly be found within a few kilometres from the type locality (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136030	habitat		The species can be found in the upper part of open elfin forest and the adjacent humid paramo. Individuals were located under stones near a small lake with dirty water. One clutch of eight brown, translucent eggs 5.5 mm in diameter was found under a stone in the month of November. The eggs contained much yolk, and the embryos had well-developed legs. Calling activity has been reported for the month of March, with males calling just before dusk but becoming silent shortly after. Gastrotheca marsupiata was common in the area in 1999 (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136030	population		It is considered to be a common species in the type locality (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136030	threats		A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136031	conservation		The creation of protected areas in the ridges of the Cordillera Central is a much needed conservation action (Venegas, 2007).	eng
136031	distribution		Pristimantis wagteri is only known from the type locality: Ullilen (06 50' 32" S, 77 41' 50.1" W, 3000 masl) and vicinities (Los Cóndores Lake,  2870 masl), Province of Mariscal Cáceres, Department of San Martín, Peru. This area is in the northwestern corner of the department of San Martín in the northern portion of the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Venegas, 2007).	eng
136031	habitat		The species is known to occur the humid montane forest of the Yungas eco-region. Individuals are active at night and can be found on logs on the ground and in terrestrial bromeliads, in pasture area for cattle and on rocks and bushes. Sympatric anurans include Gastrotheca ossilaginis, Pristimantis corrugatus, P. schultei, P. stictoboubonus, and Telmatobius truebae (Venegas, 2007).<br/><br/>A clutch of 14 white eggs presumably of P. wagteri was found among the leaves of a terrestrial bromeliad in the month of November. Abundant juveniles were found in the same area on the same day. Vocalizations of P. wagteri<br/>sound like a little bell (Venegas, 2007).	eng
136031	population		This species is abundant at its type locality (P. Venegas, pers. comm. May 2008).	eng
136031	threats		The montane forests of the northern Andes in Peru are continuously suffering destruction because of agricultural expansion and cattle grazing (Venegas, 2007).	eng
136032	conservation		The species is known to occur in the Sierra Nevada National Park.	eng
136032	distribution		Pristimantis flabellidiscus is currently only known from its type locality, Los Aranguren (ca 8 35’59’’ N, 70 55’28’ ’W, 2860 masl), south slope of the Sierra Nevada National Park, municipality of Rangel, Mérida state, Venezuela (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136032	habitat		Individuals of this species have been found during the day, under small rocks close to human habitation or close to a stream in the subpáramo ecosystem. At time of encounter air temperatures varied between 6 C and 10 C (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136032	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136032	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136033	conservation	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	The species is being constantly monitored at the type locality, which is in a protected area. Efforts have been directed towards the captive breeding of this species, although unfortunately without positive results in producing captive-bred offspring.	eng
136033	distribution	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	<em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, quebrada Aguas Claras (6 14' N, 72 56 W, 2525 masl) vereda Río Negro, Santuario de Flora y Fauna Guanentá-Alto Río Fonce, Municipality of El Encino, Department of Santander, Colombia (Acosta-Galvis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
136033	habitat	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	The species inhabits montane humid forest with canopy heights not exceeding 10 m. This forest is rich in moss and lichens. <em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> is a diurnal stream-associated species, where adults are found either near the margins of the Aguas Claras stream or in the stream itself. Tadpoles are also found within the stream. Breeding activity has been recorded for July, after the rainy season, although tadpoles have been found both during March and July. Calls attributed to this species have been heard during the months of May and August. One female revealed 393 cream-coloured eggs (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006).	eng
136033	population	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	The population at the type locality appears to be stable (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006), although densities of adults are found to be low, while tadpole densities appear to be high (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136033	threats	Andrés Acosta-Galvis, 2008	The presence of <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been confirmed for the known extant population of <em>Atelopus mittermeieri</em> (A. Acosta, pers. comm. 2008; Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008), although live specimens did not exhibit clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis (Ruiz and Rueda-Almonacid, 2008). Other possible threat factors include predation by introduced trout, pollution and sudden fluctuations in the stream's water level (Acosta-Galvis et al., 2006).	eng
136034	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136034	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Bryophryne bustamantei </span>is known only from the Umasbamba Valley, near Abra de Málaga, and Canchayoc, District of Huayopata, Province of La Convención, Department of Cusco, Peru, between 3,555–3,950 masl (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
136034	habitat		This species inhabits the transitional zone from cloud forest to puna. Individuals were found in two kinds of habitats: humid, grassy puna (between 3,700–3,950 m) and the adjacent humid forest (between 3,555–3,700 m). These frogs can be found during both rainy and dry seasons, under stones along roads, within bushes and grass, and under moss. Males call from bushes during the day in April. The female holotype, collected in April, contained convoluted oviducts. Other amphibians found in sympatry were <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannophryne corynetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrotheca excubitor</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurodema marmoratum</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis rhabdolaemus </span>(Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is thought to have direct development. It may possibly reproduce during the rainy season, e.g., April (J.C. Chaparro, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136034	population		This is considered to be a rare species (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
136034	threats		The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bustamantei</span> is being severely affected by the construction of the Cusco-Quillabamba road and the increasing human activity in the area (Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Given the restricted distribution of the species and its rarity, Chaparro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) proposed to include it as “Endangered” in the Peruvian official list of threatened species and in the IUCN Red List.	eng
136035	conservation		The species is known to occur in several protected areas, i.e. Parque Nacional de Aparados da Serra, Parque Nacional da Serra Geral, Parque da Ferradura and Parque Caracol (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136035	distribution		<em>Ischnocnema henselii</em> occurs in the subtropical Atlantic rain forest and parts of the <em>Araucaria</em> forest domain in southern Brazil (northeastern Rio Grande do Sul and coastal mountain range of southeastern Santa Catarina), Misiones, Argentina, and probably southeastern Paraguay (but see Brusquetti and Lavilla, 2006), at altitudes from about sea level up to 1200 masl (Kwet and Solé, 2005).	eng
136035	habitat		Ischnocnema henselii lives on mountain slopes with subtropical Atlantic rain forest and in Araucaria forests on the margin<br/>of the Araucaria plateau. It is a ground-living species with diurnal and nocturnal activity. During the breeding season (October to January) males call at night, rarely during the day, on the ground or from fallen trees and stones. Calling activity increases during warm periods with rainfall. Eggs are deposited terrestrially, below trunks or stones. One female was found to have 26 large (3 mm diameter) and 45 small (1 mm diameter) yellowish eggs (Kwet and Solé, 2005).	eng
136035	population		This is considered to be a common species (A. Kwet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136035	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136036	conservation		The species occurs within a protected area, Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).	eng
136036	distribution		Melanophryne barbatula is only known from Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park, at approximately 2500 masl, District of Oxapampa, Province of Oxapampa, Department of Pasco, Peru. Yanachaga-Chemillén is in the valley of the Río Palcazu in the Amazon Basin of central Peru (Lehr and Trueb, 2007).	eng
136036	habitat		Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park is 122 000 ha in area and consists primarily of the Cordillera de Yanachaga, reaching an elevation of 3643 masl. On the eastern side of the park, the Cordillera de Yanachaga descends gradually into the valley of the Río Palcazu. On the western flank, the Cordillera de Santa Barbara reaches an elevation of 3400 m and is<br/>separated from the Cordillera de Yanachaga by the deep Huancabamba Canyon (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). <br/><br/>The species is found within forested areas (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). One female  contained 22 pigmented eggs with an average diameter of 1.6 ± 0.09 mm (n = 10). One stomach content revealed a diet consisting of  arthropods belonging to Blattelidae, Carabidae, Cryptorhynchinae, Galumnidae, Oribatidae and Formicidae, suggesting that the species is a leaf litter inhabitant (Lehr and Trueb, 2007). Although the reproduction mode is unknown, it is possible that the species may use terrestrial bromeliads like M. carpish (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136036	population		The current populations size for this species is unknown (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136036	threats		Deforestation was observed to occur in the region (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136037	conservation		Much of the species' habitat is protected within National Parks and State Forests.	eng
136037	distribution		This species is widely distributed in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area of northeastern Queensland from lowland and upland areas, from Home Rule in the north to the Paluma Range in the south. It has been recorded from 100 to 1,500m asl.	eng
136037	habitat		The species is found around fast-flowing streams and nearby pools in mountainous rainforest. It is a spring and summer breeder. Males call from leaf-litter from the surface of the leaf-litter, or buried up to 5cm under leaf-litter, near streams and ponds. Egg deposition sites are unknown.	eng
136037	population		It is a common species, but it is sparsely distributed and uncommonly seen.	eng
136037	threats		In the past, habitat loss from logging and clearing for farmland was a major threat. Most habitat is in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area and national parks or equivalent protected areas. High-use tourism and recreation occurs in a few areas and consists mainly of graded tracks and small picnic areas. However, this frog survives in these areas where suitable adjacent rainforest habitat occurs, thus indicating no significant impact.	eng
136038	conservation		Its altitudinal range overlaps with that of Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca (Coloma 2005).	eng
136038	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> occurs in the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes in Ecuador, Provinces of Napo and Chimborazo, at elevations of 2,660<span style="font-style: italic;">-</span>3,300 m asl (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
136038	habitat		The species inhabits montane cloud forest and high montane evergreen forest. Knowledge on the life history of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> is poor. Individuals were formerly found under rocks at the edge of a stream, in streambeds, under logs on grassy hillsides, on cushion plants in paramo habitat, on a trail, along the border of the river.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Atelopus petersi </span>(as<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. pachydermus</span>) occurs sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. ignescens</span> sensu stricto (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136038	population		The last record for this species in Napo Province was a dead individual, found on 8 November 1996. Despite occasional efforts to locate <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>subsequently, no additional individuals have been found. In the past, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>was a very common species in the vicinity of Papallacta. Interviews with local people revealed that these toads once were abundant but have not been seen for several years, although in Oyacachi some people claimed, on September 2003, that from time to time they still see single individuals (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
136038	threats		The area of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus petersi</span> is close is to areas where climate abnormalities have occurred and <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius </span>extinctions have been reported. They are also close to areas where the chytrid fungus has occurred, or its presence is predicted. Given this scenario and considering the overwhelming evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>has been affected by these two key factors in the highlands, it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. petersi </span>may be extinct, although the possibility of existing relictual populations may not be overlooked (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
136039	conservation		The entire island is contained within the Ilha Grande Biological Reserve.	eng
136039	distribution		Hylodes fredi is known only from Ilha Grande (23 09' S, 44 30' W), an island belonging to the Municipality of Angra dos Reis, southern coast of the state of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil (Canedo and Pombal, 2007).	eng
136039	habitat		The new species is known to occur within the Atlantic forest domain.	eng
136039	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
136039	threats		No major threats are known for this species, although it is only known to occur in an island, Ilha Grande.	eng
136040	conservation		It has not been confirmed to occur in any protected areas.	eng
136040	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from southeastern Papua New Guinea, with records from: the mountains behind Port Moresby; the foothills of Mount Obree in Central Province; the southern Owen Stanley Mountains; Fergusson and Normanby islands in the D’Entrecasteaux group; and Kwatto island (just off the southermost part of New Guinea) (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Records from Sudest (Tagula) island in the Louisiade Archipelago have been provisionally assigned to this species (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Its distribution is still very poorly known, and it might occur elsewhere. It has been recorded from sea-level up to 800m asl.	eng
136040	habitat		This species occupies low-elevation and mid-elevation streams in forest with flow rates varying from fast to stagnant (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Adults are most often encountered at night along the banks and in the beds of streams with substrates of cobbles, rocks, or boulders. Animals have occasionally been found traversing the forest at night on ridges well away from water. It breeds in streams. It adapts to anthropogenic environments, occurring, for example, along somewhat disturbed lowland streams in secondary habitats (F. Kraus pers comm.).	eng
136040	population		It is a fairly common species.	eng
136040	threats		It is an adaptable species for which there are no obvious threats.	eng
136041	conservation		It occurs in the Gunung Gading National Park (Das and Haas, 2005) and Kubah National Park (I. Das pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
136041	distribution		This species is known only from the island of Borneo, where it was collected at the granite massif of Gunung Gading, Lundu Division, Sarawak, East Malaysia (Das and Haas, 2005) below 150m asl, and from Kubah National Park in western Sarawak (I. Das pers. comm.). It is expected to occur more widely, in particular at low elevations between the currently known localities.	eng
136041	habitat		The species has been recorded up to 3m in vegetation overhanging granite boulders at the edge of a torrential forest stream of approximately 8m in width (Das and Haas 2005). It is presumed to be a larval-breeding species.	eng
136041	population		It is known only from the holotype and paratype (Das and Haas, 2005).	eng
136041	threats		The species was collected in a protected area (Das, 2005), and so it is possible that there are no major threats to this species at this location. However, it might be found in future at other sites that are less secure.	eng
136042	conservation	Annemarie Ohler, Fei Liang, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Sabitry Bordoloi, Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2008	Three of the areas in which it occurs in India are protected areas: Namdhapa and Mouling National Parks, and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary. Provided the existing protected areas of the region remain intact the survival of this species appears secure. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution more accurately, and in particular whether or not it occurs in Myanmar and Viet Nam.	eng
136042	distribution	Annemarie Ohler, Fei Liang, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Sabitry Bordoloi, Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2008	This species occurs widely in southeast Asia. It is known from: southern and southwestern China (southern Xizang Province, southern Yunnan Province, Guangxi Province [Dayaoshan] and Hainan Province [Diaoluoshan and Wuzhishan]; north-eastern India (from four sites in Arunachal Pradesh (Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary, Mouling National Park, Namdapha National Park, and northern West Siang District); northern Myanmar (Machanbaw in Kachin Province); eastern Thailand; Cambodia; Lao People's Democratic Republic; and northern and central Viet Nam (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1999, Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2004, Orlov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  It is present at altitudes comprised between 250-2,100 m asl.	eng
136042	habitat	Annemarie Ohler, Fei Liang, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Sabitry Bordoloi, Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2008	It is an arboreal species known from closed-canopy evergreen forest and forest edge in lowland and montane rainforest areas. It breeds in rain pools and standing water in streams in forest. Foam nests are created on tree branches overhanging shallow moving water. It sometimes also occurs in orchards and cultivated areas.	eng
136042	population	Annemarie Ohler, Fei Liang, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Sabitry Bordoloi, Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2008	In India and China it is a common species within its range.	eng
136042	threats	Annemarie Ohler, Fei Liang, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Sushil Dutta, Sabitry Bordoloi, Lu Shunqing & Yang Datong, 2008	It is probably impacted by degradation of its forest habitat through logging, agricultural encroachment, and human-induced wildfires, but it is able to adapt to some anthropogenic habitats, so it is probably not seriously threatened. It is also threatened by water pollution and aquaculture in China. In India, there is a concern that it might be experiencing detrimental effects of the current management plan of Namdapha National Park, which is largely determined by the requirements of the large mammal fauna.	eng
136043	conservation		The species is known to occur in two reserves, Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo and Pacaya Samiria (Brown et al., 2006).	eng
136043	distribution		Ranitomeya uakarii is known from upstream Quebrada Blanco in the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Reserve, Department of Loreto, Peru (4 11’ 21.88” S, 73 6’ 15.66” W)(Brown et al., 2006). It is found at elevations between 100 and 220 masl (J. Brown, pers. comm.).	eng
136043	habitat		Dendrobates uakarii can be found throughout the Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo Community Reserve and further south to Pacaya Samiria Reserve, on the Rio Yarapa. It is thought to occur between Rio Amazonas, Rio Javari, and Rio Ucayali (north of the Contamana-Sierra Divisor Arch) in western Brazil and eastern Peru on the basis of Christmann’s (2004) book, which contains pictures of a similar looking species 200 km east of Iquitos, south of Rio Napo, and further east to the tributaries on the south side Amazon, near the Brazilian border. In Tahuayo, the species occurs sympatrically with two other Dendrobates, D. ventrimaculatus sensu lato and D. flavovittatus (Brown et al., 2006). <br/><br/>D. uakarii occurs in primary forests. It spends most of its time on the forest floor, however it occasionally ventures a few meters into the canopy. Males have been observed to carry one to four tadpoles to large phytotelmata such as bromeliads (Brown et al., 2006). This species breeds year round, clutches vary between 2-7 eggs (average ~3), if food and breeding pools are abundant, females can breed 1-4 times a month.  Populations are limited by reproductive resources (i.e. arboreal bromeliads, tree holes) (J. Brown, pers. comm.).	eng
136043	population		This species is common in late-secondary and primary forests that are not prone to flooding. These forests only compromise a small proportion of the species' range area (Jason Brown, pers. comm.).	eng
136043	threats		Major threats include habitat loss and collection for the pet trade (J. Brown, pers. comm.).	eng
136044	conservation		It might occur in some protected areas. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomic status of this species and its relatives.	eng
136044	distribution		This species has been recorded from mid-elevations in southern Kenya, including around Nairobi. Its overall distribution and altitudinal range are still unclear because of confusion with <em>Bufo lonnbergi</em> and <em>Bufo mocquardi</em>, and the range map should be regarded as provisional.	eng
136044	habitat		There is no information on its habitat and ecology, although it is apparently a savanna woodland species that presumably breeds in water.	eng
136044	population		The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
136044	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136045	conservation		It has not been recorded from the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136045	distribution		This species has so far been recorded only from the general vicinity of Kurichiyarmala, in Wayanad District, Kerala, India, at 1,200m asl (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is currently known from seven sub-populations on the Wayanad Plateau (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). It might be found to occur a little more widely, but it is probably endemic to Wayanad Plateau (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).	eng
136045	habitat		This species has been recorded from Shola forests (patches of high-altitude forest separated from one another by undulating grassland) (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007). Of the seven currently known populations, five are in degraded forests in and around small-scale cultivation and plantations of cardamom and coffee, and two are in undisturbed, wet evergreen forest (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). There is no clear difference in abundance in these two habitat types (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to seriously degraded, open habitats (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). The males start calling from marshes inside the forest during or immediately after sunset (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007) in the monsoon period (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.). While most species of <em>Nyctibatrachus</em> are aquatic, the miniature species mainly inhabit the forest floor, where they are mostly found in leaf litter or under rocks (Biju <em>et al</em>., 2007), and on the banks of streams (though not in the flowing water (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.)). It breeds by larval development in shallow water (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).	eng
136045	population		It is a locally common species, but it is restricted to a small area within its range (S.D. Biju, pers. comm.).	eng
136045	threats		It can adapt to somewhat degrated forest. However, it is possible that serious opening up of the habitat for agriculture is detrimental to the species.	eng
136046	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136046	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Ranitomeya ignea</span> is only known from the type locality: "Rio Itaya (near Iquitos), Perú" (see Frost, 2007).	eng
136046	habitat		There is no information available on the species' habitat and ecology, although it is recorded from an area of lowland rainforest.	eng
136046	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
136046	threats		No major threats are known to this species.	eng
136047	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136047	distribution		Phrynopus ayacucho is only known from the type locality: Rapi, Provincia de La Mar, Department of Ayacucho, Peru. <br/>This is located in the northeastern section of the Department of Ayacucho, near Chiquintirca. Rapi is likely the<br/>short form for Hacienda Rapi (13 5' 51' S, 73 48' 49" W), which is at 3411 masl. No other species of Phrynopus is known from this locality (Lehr, 2007).	eng
136047	habitat		Nothing is known about this species' ecology. The type locality may likely have puna and/or cloud forest habitats (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
136047	population		The species is only known from the two type specimens.	eng
136047	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136048	conservation		It occurs in the Parc National de l’Isalo. Further work is needed to determine the range of this species, and its conservation needs.	eng
136048	distribution		This species is known so far only from Ambovo in the Parc National de l’Isalo, Madagascar at 996m asl. It might occur more widely in the Isalo Massif.	eng
136048	habitat		Several individuals were found inside a narrow canyon (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). Calling males were hanging at night on the almost vertical canyon walls at about 150–200 cm above the bottom or the water surface. Females and males have also been found on the canyon bed inside the water pools. It has also been found in rocky areas within canyons, near cliffs (F. Andreone pers. comm.). Breeding is not known, but it is presumed to be by larval development.	eng
136048	population		Littlie is known of its abundance; several individuals were found at the only known locality. But surveys have generally shown this species to be rare (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
136048	threats		It is potentially at risk because of its small range and specialised habitat. No specific threats to its habitat are currently known.	eng
136049	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, and measures are needed to conserve its habitat, in particular in the face of expanding coconut plantations. Further research is needed to determine its threats and conservation needs in more detail.	eng
136049	distribution		This species is restricted to the central and northern group of Nicobar Islands, India: Car Nicobar; Teressa; Kamorta; Trinkat; and Nancowry (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).	eng
136049	habitat		This species is largely restricted to the grassland habitat, where they have been observed breeding in the rainwater puddles (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). A few individuals have been observed in littoral zone, but there are greater encounter rates in grassland (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). On Car Nicobar Island, it also occurs coastal wetlands (both pre- and post-tsunami) and along newly cleared forest trails (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). It presumably breeds by larval development.	eng
136049	population		This species can be reasonably common in suitable habitat. It is more common on Car Nicobar Island than on other islands (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).	eng
136049	threats		The recent initiative to plant coconut trees in the preferred grassland habitat of this species could pose a serious threat to this species (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.). It is one of the frog species that survived the tsunami in late 2004 (S.P. Vijayakumar, pers. comm.).	eng
136050	conservation		It probably occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, including, for instance, the Awa Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas in Ecuador (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136050	distribution		This little-known species is limited to the wettest areas of the Colombian Choco and adjacent forests of Ecuador (Heyer 2005; Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). The species is largely restricted to the Pacific lowlands and western Andean foothills (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). It formerly ranged as far south as the Province of Pichincha in Ecuador (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136050	habitat		This species is associated with the Colombian Choco and adjacent tropical moist forests of Ecuador (Heyer 2005). Populations can persist in modified or disturbed areas containing some forest patches, but are absent highly altered areas, such as agricultural monocultures or grasslands/pasture (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). The breeding strategy includes the use of large holes, inforest, close to streams (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136050	population		It is fairly common in primary forest habitats, being found at lower densities in seondary habitats (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136050	threats		In Ecuador, the species is threatened by general deforestation and fragmentation, and to a lesser degree the pollution of rivers and other waterbodies (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007). It is harvested in parts of its range, with additional research needed to determine whether this constitutes a significant threat to the species (Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136051	conservation		Aprada tepui is found within the boundaries of Canaima National Park (C. (Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136051	distribution		Anomaloglossus breweri is known only from Aprada tepui, Bolívar state, Venezuela (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The type series was collected at the entry to the vast Cueva del Fantasma (05 27’N, 62 27’W, 660 masl), a collapsed steep gorge on the northwestern slope of the tepui (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). The species seems unlikely to be restricted to the Cueva del Fantasma, but is possibly endemic to the Aprada tepui or more widely to the Gran Sabana region (Barrio-Amorós, 2006).	eng
136051	habitat		The species has been recorded along creeks and in quiet pools along small streams on the slopes of the tepui (Barrio-Amorós, 2006). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed areas. The breeding biology of the species has not been recorded, but it is presumed to undergo larval development.	eng
136051	population		The species is known only from the type series.	eng
136051	threats		Barrio-Amorós (2006) considers that the species is potentially threatened by natural or artificial catastrophes within its presumed restricted distribution.	eng
136052	conservation		It occurs in the Serengeti National Park, and presumably other protected areas. More work is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and to determine the relationship between this species and frogs currently assigned to <em>Cacosternum boettgeri</em> from Ethiopia.	eng
136052	distribution		This species is known mainly from highland areas in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya (including the Serengeti National Park, Nairobi, Mau Narok and the Kinangop Plateau), but its range is very poorly known. There are also records from Kitende in Uganda and the Marungu Plateau in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It probably occurs at least between 1,200 and 2,500m asl. Further work is needed to determine the range of this species.	eng
136052	habitat		It is a species of grasslands (including montane grassland) and dry savannahs, favouring open areas with short vegetation, and is extremely successful in grassy meadows. It breeds in any shallow water body, including vleis, flooded depressions, drainage ditches, puddles, small pools, inundated grasslands and shallow pans, especially where grass is growing. It is able adapt to human-modified habitats, and is found in the edges of Nairobi, and near the airport where they call in large choruses from roadside ditches (S. Lötters pers. comm)..	eng
136052	population		It is abundant around the edges of Nairobi (S. Lötters pers. comm.).	eng
136052	threats		If its ecology is similar to that of <em>Cacosternum boettgeri</em>, it is a generalist that is very unlikely to be signifcantly threatened.	eng
136053	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136053	distribution		Psychrophrynella ankohuma is known from the type locality, Cooco (15 47' 14.4" S, 68 26' 55.9" W, 3540 masl), and a nearby locality, Ankho Uma (Ancoma; 15 44' 33.0" S, 68 29' 22.8" W, 3690 masl), Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. These localities are 6.6 km (airline) apart, without discontinuity in habitat (humid paramo) (De la Riva, 2007). It is believed to be restricted to one valley (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136053	habitat		The species occurs in humid paramo. Individuals can be found during the day under stones, and males can be heard calling at night (De la Riva, 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
136053	population		The species is abundant within its known distribution (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136053	threats		The predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose a serious threat to this species, in addition to its restricted distribution (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136054	conservation		The species is known to occur within Brownsberg Nature Park, Brokopondo district, Suriname (Fouquet et al., 2007), and in French Guiana National Park (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136054	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella martyi </span>occurs in most of Suriname including Brownsberg Nature Park, Goliathberg area, Lely mountains, Kaysergebergte, Sipaliwini and Raleighvallen; in southern French Guiana in "Savane layon ouest - Haute Wanapi" and "Sud-Mitaraka"; it is known from Guyana, i.e. Bartica, Kurupukari and Baramita; and also from Serra do Navio, Amapá, Brazil (Fouquet et al., 2007; A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). This species is probably also present in other adjacent areas of Brazil and may extend into northeastern Venezuela. It has been found between 50-510 masl (Fouquet et al., 2007).	eng
136054	habitat		This species can be found in lowland primary rainforest (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). Rhinella martyi was observed calling at dawn and during the night in small groups on the road leading to the camp of Brownberg Nature Park after heavy rainfall in January 2006 (Fouquet et al., 2007). It breeds in temporary pools (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).<br/>There are no obvious ecological differences with Rhinella margaritifera (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136054	population		This is likely an abundant species (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136054	threats		The region where the species occurs is quite pristine but regional threats are forest clearing and gold mining (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136055	conservation		It occurs within the boundaries of Ranomafana National Park. However, more inventory work is necessary to understand its actual distribution range and habitat requirements.	eng
136055	distribution		This species has so far been recorded only known from the Ranomafana region in southeastern Madagascar, from Ranomafana village (c. 550 m asl) to the Kidonafo bridge near Vohiparara (1,000 m asl). Despite intensive surveys in the central-eastern rainforests around Andasibe and Moramanga, this species has never seen or heard in these sites. Nevertheless, it probably occurs also in additional locations beyond Ranomafana, but it is probably a regional endemic to southeastern Madagascar.	eng
136055	habitat		Calling males have been observed mostly after dusk in primary rainforest and in secondary vegetation. They sit on tree trunks at heights of 50-150 cm above the ground. They have also been found in small tree holes, and hidden under extensive moss layers on tree trunks. Close to Ranomafana village, this species was found in acoustic syntopy with Anodonthyla boulengeri. It presumably breeds in tree holes by larval development.	eng
136055	population		This species is relatively common around Vohiparara, close to Ranomafana.	eng
136055	threats		Although this species occurs in a well-protected area, the Ranomafana National Park, it might occur more widely in habitats that are much less secure. However, it appears able to adapt to secondary habitats, at least to some extent. Its probable small (or at least discontinuous and patchy) distribution also raises some concerns about its conservation status.	eng
136056	conservation		It occurs in the Yinggeling Nature Reserve which was established in 2004. Surveys are needed to clarify the distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136056	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Yinggeling Mountain range on Hainan Island, Hainan Province, southern China, at 1,300-1,550m asl (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are records from Mahuolong and Yinggezui (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its not been found in surveys of other mountains in Hainan despite surveys there, but it will probably be found in more sites in the Yinggeling Mountain Range (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). There are not many areas in Hainan above 1,300m asl (B. Chan pers. comm.).	eng
136056	habitat		It is known only from primary montane rainforest (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has been found on the leaves of shrubs 30cm over a dried pool in a stream, and in sedges in a dried rain pool on a mountain ridge (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). It appears to be a montane species that breeds in still water, and there are not many suitable breeding habitats within its elevational range (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.). It is not known if it can survive in opened up habitat.	eng
136056	population		It appears to be a rare species, as during a three-month survey, only three specimens were found (B. Chan pers. comm.). The area of suitable habitat is very small (M.W.N. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
136056	threats		The montane habitat of the species is above the elevation at which human disturbance of the forest is taking place  (Chou <em>et al</em>., 2007). The forest was given formal protection in 2004. The species could be at risk if climate change leads to a decrease in rainfall, as the species is believed to be dependent on rainpools for breeding, which are few and far between in the steep terrain where it lives.	eng
136057	conservation		It occurs in the Mamiwa-Kisara Forest Reserve. The extent of its distribution within the Ukaguru Mountains needs to be assessed. It is listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
136057	distribution		This species is only known from the Ukaguru Mountains in eastern Tanzania, from 1800m asl up to 2,200m asl. It is probably endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains.	eng
136057	habitat		The species lives in leaf litter on the floor on montane forest. It has not been found outside forest habitats. It is presumably a live-bearing species, like other members of its genus.	eng
136057	population		It appears to be common within its small range.	eng
136057	threats		The forests in the Ukaguru Mountains are poorly protected, and threatened by agricultural encroachment and human settlement.	eng
136058	conservation	Martin Pickersgill, 2008	It occurs in the Longuza and Kambai Forest Reserves. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of this species, and its conservation needs.	eng
136058	conservation		It occurs in the Longuza and Kambai Forest Reserves. Further research is needed to determine the distribution of this species, and its conservation needs.	eng
136058	distribution		The distribution of this species is poorly known, but all confirmed records are from northeastern and eastern Tanzania. There are records from from Mombo at the foot of the West Usambara Mountains, Kambai and Longuza Forest Reserves in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, and Morogoro at the foot of the Uluguru Mountains. There are unconfirmed records from coastal Kenya at Kilifi Creek and Kwale. It appears to occur at low elevations up to around 500m asl.	eng
136058	distribution	Martin Pickersgill, 2008	The distribution of this species is poorly known, but all confirmed records are from northeastern and eastern Tanzania. There are records from Mombo at the foot of the West Usambara Mountains, Kambai and Longuza Forest Reserves in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, and Morogoro at the foot of the Uluguru Mountains. There are unconfirmed records from coastal Kenya at Kilifi Creek and Kwale. It appears to occur at low elevations up to around 500 m asl.	eng
136058	habitat		This species is the forest-dwelling equivalent of Arthroleptis stenodactylus. It occurs on the floor of lowland forest and in recently cleared areas. It is not clear how long it can survive in deforested areas. It presumably breeds by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
136058	habitat	Martin Pickersgill, 2008	This species is the forest-dwelling equivalent of <span style="font-style: italic;">Arthroleptis stenodactylus</span>. It occurs on the floor of lowland forest and in recently cleared areas. It is not clear how long it can survive in deforested areas. It presumably breeds by direct development without a larval stage.	eng
136058	population	Martin Pickersgill, 2008	It can occur at high densities in suitable locations.	eng
136058	population		It can occur at high densities in suitable locations.	eng
136058	threats	Martin Pickersgill, 2008	More information is needed to determine the long-term adaptability of this species to loss of forest habitat. It can clearly adapt to some level of deforestation, but it is not clear that it can persist in completely open up areas.	eng
136058	threats		More information is needed to determine the long-term adaptability of this species to loss of forest habitat. It can clearly adapt to some level of deforestation, but it is not clear that it can persist in completely open up areas.	eng
136059	conservation		It has been recorded from Andringitra and Ranomafana National Parks. Work is needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
136059	distribution		This species has so far been recorded only from the Andringitra Massif, and from Maharira forest in Ranomafana National Park, at 1,300-1,800m asl. Both localities are in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
136059	habitat		It lives alongside streams in mid to high-elevation forests, and has not been found in more open forest habitats. It breeds in streams.	eng
136059	population		It is a relatively rare species (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
136059	threats		Its currently known sites are within protected areas, but it probably occurs in other unprotected sites which are likely to be subject to forest loss.	eng
136060	conservation		The species is found within the protected area of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, which is difficult to access (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136060	distribution		Pristimantis seorsus is only known from the type locality: Cordillera de Vilcabamba, CI/RAP Expedition Camp One<br/>(11 39' 36" S, 73 40' 22" W, 3350 masl), Province of Satipo, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr, 2007).	eng
136060	habitat		Vegetation at the type locality consists of pajonales, mixed-species forest, and Polylepis forest. Nothing is known about this species' ecology (Lehr, 2007).	eng
136060	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of four specimens.	eng
136060	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136061	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136061	distribution		Pristimantis cordovae is known from four localities at elevations of 3400–3985 masl (up to 4010 masl based on vocalizations) between Quiruvilca and Huamachuco (airline distance 37 km), Province of Santiago de Chuco, Department of La Libertad, Peru. These localities are on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in northwestern Peru (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).	eng
136061	habitat		The species inhabits the Puna Ecoregion. At the type locality, the dominant vegetation consists of Polylepis sp. and Peruvian Feather Grass (Stipa icchu). Individuals are found under rocks between, or in, clumps of Stipa icchu near small streams. Males call from within clumps of Stipa icchu at 1630–2300 hrs. Gastrotheca peruana occurs sympatrically with P. cordovae (Lehr and Duellman, 2007). The species needs puna grass (micro habitat)(E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136061	population		This is considered to be a common species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136061	threats		There are mines close to the type locality of this species (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136062	conservation		It occurs in two nature reserves (Jizushan and Yulongxueshan) and a national park (Lijiang). Research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.	eng
136062	distribution		This species is known only from Binchuan and Lijian Counties, in Yunnan Province, China, from 1,900 to 2,800m asl.	eng
136062	habitat		This species is associated with mountain streams surrounded by forest. The mating call of the males can be heard at the end of May. The tadpoles live under rocks in streams.	eng
136062	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136062	threats		The habitat of this species is being degraded as a result of the effects of logging, road contruction, and tourism.	eng
136063	conservation		Yanachaga Chemillén National Park is an established protected area in the general region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136063	distribution		Pristimantis flavobracatus is only known from the type locality, Km 34 on road Oxapampa to Yaupi (10 44' 44.4" S, 75 30' 02.2" W, 1770 masl), District of Chontabamba, Province of Oxapampa, Department of Pasco, Peru (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
136063	habitat		The species is found in the Selva Alta Ecoregion. Individuals are active at night between 1900–2200 hrs, and have been found on vegetation 1–3 m above ground, next to a road. The roadside is nearly vertical and covered with secondary vegetation, which is cut several times a year as part of road maintenance. There are several small<br/>creeks near the type locality, and a roadside ditch containing running water. Other sympatric anuran species include Atelopus sp., Pristimantis bipunctatus, P. rhabdocnemus, and Hyalinobatrachium bergeri (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
136063	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of five specimens.	eng
136063	threats		Deforestation was observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136064	conservation		The species occurs within Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, which is a conservation unit managed by the  Instituto Estadual de Florestas do Estado de Minas Gerais. It is an area that covers ca 13000ha (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136064	distribution		Chiasmocleis mantiqueira is currently only known from the type locality, Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro (20 53’S, 42 31’W, 1227 masl), District of Careço, Municipality of Ervália, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136064	habitat		The species occurs in the Atlantic rainforest domain. Inidividuals were found after strong rains, at the edge of a temporary lake (Lagoa das Bromélias), with ca 250m2 of water surface. This lake is found within an epiphyte-rich  forest (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136064	population		The type series is comprised of 15 specimens.	eng
136064	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136065	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136065	distribution		Rhinella lescurei is only known from French Guiana, i.e. the southwestern (Haute Wanapi and Mitaraka), central (Saül), western (Litany) and northeastern portions (Cisame camp on Approuague river, Pararé station on Aratai river). Localities range from 20 to 170 masl. The species probably occurs in southeastern Suriname and Brazilian areas adjacent to French Guiana and Suriname. Preliminary results of an analysis of genetic data spanning the distribution of the R. margaritifera group suggest that this taxon could be endemic to the Guianan Shield (Fouquet et al., 2007).	eng
136065	habitat		This species can be found in pristine lowland primary rainforest; males are often found  near the banks of a permanent river (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008). During the rainy season (from November to January and from March to May), males call during day time within 10 meters of slowly running water. Calling males are usually isolated from each other and perched between 0.3 and 1 m high on a vine, dead trunk or root (Fouquet et al., 2007).	eng
136065	population		This species appears to be rare; however, its range is still poorly known and data are still insufficient to provide a more reliable estimate of its population status (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136065	threats		The region occupied by this species is quite pristine, but regional threats are clearing and gold mining (A. Fouquet, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136066	conservation		Cerro Aracamuni is considered to be a natural monument (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136066	distribution		Pristimantis aracamuni is known from the summit of Cerro Aracamuni (01 28’ 36’’ N; 65 50’ 07’’ W, 1493 masl), state of Amazonas, Venezuela. Cerro Aracamuni is in the northern part of the huge Neblina massif, reaching a maximum elevation of 1600 m (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).	eng
136066	habitat		The vegetation at Cerro Aracamuni is considered to be “broad-leaved, shrubby upland meadows on peat” . Individuals have been found in a moss patch on a rocky tallus (0.8 m high), in a small creek (2 m wide) of tannic water and rocky<br/>bed. The creek is located in a dwarf gallery forest (2.5 m canopy). There is one other species of amphibian known from Aracamuni, Cochranella riveroi (Barrio-Amorós and Molina, 2006).	eng
136066	population		The species is only known from a type series comprised of two specimens.	eng
136066	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species. However, the species' restricted distribution may render it vulnerable to stochastic events (C. Barrio-Amorós, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136067	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136067	distribution		This species is known only from Pa Lao U, in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, in southwestern Thailand (Matsui, 2006). The elevation of this locality is not given. It can be expected to occur more widely, perhaps including in neighbouring Myanmar.	eng
136067	habitat		Males have been found calling at night among stones and litter on the forest floor along a stream (Matsui, 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval devleopment. It is not known whether or not it can tolerate anthropogenic disturbance of its habitat.	eng
136067	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only four specimens (Matsui, 2006).	eng
136067	threats		No information is available on threats to this species.	eng
136068	conservation		The taxonomic status of this species needs to be clarified.	eng
136068	distribution		This species is only known from Kasiki, at 2,300m asl in the Marungu Highlands in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. This locality was inadvertently stated to be in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo by Schiøtz (2006a).	eng
136068	habitat		There is no information on its ecology. It presumably breeds in water by larval development.	eng
136068	population		There is no information. It has not been recorded since its discovery.	eng
136068	threats		There is no information.	eng
136069	conservation		It occurs in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136069	distribution		This species is known only from Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and Phnom Nam Lyr Wildlife Sanctuary at 500-700m asl in O'Rang District, Mondolkiri Province, eastern Cambodia (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006), and from 300 km to the north on Ngoc Linh Mountain, at 930-1,480m asl in Tra My District, Quang Nam Province, Vietnam (Bain and Truong, 2006). It is presumably, therefore, found through the the intervening area in the Truong Son and Annamite ranges.	eng
136069	habitat		It lives in hilly evergreen forest, and in mixed evergreen and deciduous forest with bamboo forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is closely associated with streams, and is nocturnal, and can be found on leaf litter on the forest floor near streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development. In Viet Nam it has only been found in primary or mature secondary forests, and it has not been recorded from degraded habitats (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
136069	population		This species is locally abundant at its Cambodian site (B. Stuart, pers. comm.), but appears to be rare in its Vietnamese site, where only a few animals have been found (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
136069	threats		There is no direct information on threats, but it is believed to be affected by ongoing forest loss due to logging and expanding agriculture.	eng
136070	conservation		It occurs in the Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136070	distribution		This species is currently known only from Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park, in Na Chaloey District, Ubon Ratchatani Province, in eastern Thailand, at 230-360m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Future surveys might show it to occur a little more widely, but a month-long survey in Laos, close to the type locality, did not locate any specimens (B.L. Stuart, pers. comm.). However, specimens from a new locality in Thailand, that are probably this species, are currently being examined (Y. Chuaynkern, pers. comm.).	eng
136070	habitat		This species has been found in a variety of habitats: on igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with a grassy understory; on a road through hilly evergreen forest; and in hilly evergreen forest near flowing, rocky streams (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Adults appear to be most active at night (19h00–21h00 ) (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles have been found in a rain-filled depression on igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with grassy understory (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Although it has been found in slightly disturbed habitats (on a road in forest), there is no evidence that it can tolerate severe anthropogenic disturbance (B.L. Stuart pers. comm.).	eng
136070	population		This species is common in suitable habitat in Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park.	eng
136070	threats		No information is available on threats to this species. All records so far are from a well-managed national park.	eng
136071	conservation		The species has been seen and heard at the federal reserve of Floresta Nacional do Tapajos (Lima et al., 2007).	eng
136071	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella magnussoni</span> is known from the type locality, Highway 163, Km 89 (03.15313° S, 54.84216° W), Belterra municipality, near Santarém city, Pará state, Brazil. However, it has also been seen and heard calling in the Floresta Nacional do Tapajos, at km 72 on the BR 163 highway, Belterra municipality (Lima et al., 2007).	eng
136071	habitat		The species is found in lowland Amazon terra firme rainforest (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008). Males call frequently during daylight hours from within leaf-litter distant from streams or terrestrial pools. Oviposition sites are pools of water that form on fallen tree trunks, these can contain tadpoles of R. magnussoni in more than one developmental stage. Tadpoles can also eat eggs. Calling males apparently exhibit site fidelity, returning to call at the same place after being caught and handled. Reproduction appears to be seasonal and occurs between January and March. At night, males and females rest on vegetation at 30 to 150 cm above ground. Rhinella magnussoni occurs in sympatry with R. castaneotica, another member of the R. margaritifera species group (Lima et al., 2007).	eng
136071	population		This is considered to be a common species in the western region of Pará, between Santarém and Ruranópolis (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136071	threats		The species occurs within a relatively large protected area, but a regional threat is extensive deforestation (A.P. Lima, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136072	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, and conservation needs.	eng
136072	distribution		This species is known from around the village of Utai in Sandaun Province, north-western Papua New Guinea (at 03°23'S, 141°35'E) (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is likely that this new species has a broad distribution in the extensive lowland rainforests of northern New Guinea, and specimens collected in the foothills of the Foya Mountains, Papua Province, Indonesia might refer to this species (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136072	habitat		This species is arboreal and was encountered calling from at least 5–8m above ground in forest trees in lowland rainforest, and one specimen was found calling from 1.5m high in the vegetation in a swamp  (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006). This suggests that this species may breed in lentic water bodies on the forest floor (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136072	population		There is no information on its abundance, as it is a canopy species which is probably hard to find.	eng
136072	threats		There is no direct information on threats to this species. It is probably dependent on intact rainforest, and so might be affected by forest exploitation and clearance.	eng
136073	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species. However, part of its potential distribution would be within the boundaries of a national park (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136073	distribution		Hyalinobatrachium tatayoi is known from a stream near Tokuko (09 50’ 30.6’’ N, 72 49’ 13.6’’ W; 301 masl), state of Zulia, Venezuela (Castroviejo-Fisher, Ayarzagüena, and Vilà, 2007). This locality is in the Venezuelan Cordillera de Perijá, in the Northern border between Colombia and Venezuela (Castroviejo-Fisher et al., 2007). Although the species is currently known from only one locality, it is very likely that it may have a wider distribution, and that it may occur throughout the humid foothills of the Sierra de Perija (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136073	habitat		The type locality of this species is part of the submontane rainforest. Individuals have been found during sunset and night along a stream used to provide water to the Tocuco village. Frogs sit on leaves (1–3 m above water) along a stream and males are known to call in the month of July. Males guard their egg clutches, which are composed of ca 35-40 eggs. Rana palmipes and juveniles of Rhaebo haematiticus were found syntopically with Hyalinobatrachium tatayoi (Castroviejo-Fisher et al., 2007). The species does not require of a permanent source of water (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136073	population		This is considered to be a common species (S. Castroviejo-Fisher, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136073	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136074	conservation		It occurs in the Kakkayam Forest Reserve Reserve (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species. In particular, work is needed to confirm whether or not it occurs in the Anamalai Hills.	eng
136074	distribution		This species is known only from the Kakkayam Forest Reserve (11°33’16” N, 75°55’12” E), in Calicut District, Kerala State, in the Western Ghats of southern India , at around 745m asl (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species is most unlikely to be endemic to the Calicut district, and indeed it seems probable to it occurs in the Anamalai Hills of Kerala (Karthikeyan Vasudevan and S.D. Biju, pers comm. to K.V. Gururaja).	eng
136074	habitat		This species appears to be closely associated with reed brakes (i.e., dense stands) of the bamboo <em>Ochlandra setigera</em> (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). These reed brakes can be found on the edges of forests and in more in open habitats (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). These frogs reside inside the hollow tube of the internodal region of <em>O. setigera</em> stems, and generally remain there throughout the day at a height of 2.25–2.7m above the ground (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The frogs use slit-like openings in the bamboo stems to enter and leave (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). This species has only been found inside live bamboo stems, and the males call from inside the stems (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). An egg clutch with six developing embryos has been observed attached to inner walls of the hollow stems (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species breeds by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136074	population		It appears to be an uncommon species. Groups of 10-15 individuals have been located in in stands of <em>Ochlandra</em> reed brakes with an area of 0.25ha (50m X 50m) (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). In other nearby localities (at lower elevations, in other habitats such as canopy forests), the call of the species could not be heard (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.).	eng
136074	threats		The habitat of this species in the Kakkayam Forest Reserve Reserve is being fragmented and reduced in area as a result of dam construction and other related activities (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007), including: clearing of forest for access roads, power lines, and pipelines; cutting of the reeds to provide temporary shelters for the construction work force; and cutting of the reeds for fuel wood for the construction workers (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.). It seems that this species can survive wherever there are <em>Ochlandra</em> reed brakes, including in open habitats in the surrounding ladscape.	eng
136075	conservation		It is found in the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary (L. Grismer pers. comm.). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136075	distribution		This species is so far known only from the eastern flank of Phnom Samkos, in Pursat Province, in the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, at 501m asl (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
136075	habitat		The only known specimens were found seated 1.5m above the ground on the leaves of small shrubs among grassy vegetation along the edge of a temporary rain pool at the edge of a wide trail surrounded by hill evergreen forest (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed in water by larval development. It is not known whether it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136075	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only two specimens (Grismer <em>et al</em>., 2007) found among large choruses of other <em>Chiromantis</em> species.	eng
136075	threats		A wide road has just been graded through the type locality in the exact place where the two specimens were found (L. Grismer pers. comm.). If the species occur more widely, as is expected, it might be affected by habitat loss for other reasons.	eng
136076	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
136076	distribution		This species is currently known only from the general vicinity of Mang Canh village, in Konplong District, Kon Tum province, in the central highlands of Viet Nam at 1,150-1,250m asl (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
136076	habitat		The species is known only from tropical mountain rainforest, along the banks of fast-flowing streams (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). Vocalizing males sit on the rocks, fallen trunks and wide leaves of plants along the banks of the streams (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006). It presumably breeds in streams by larval development.	eng
136076	population		It is abundant along streams in its only known location, with eight frogs being found along a 100m length of stream (Orlov <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136076	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136077	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136077	distribution		This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the holotype collected at the Wapoga Alpha drill site (3º 08.687' S, 136º 34.423' E), Wapoga River headwaters, in Papua Province, Indonesia, at 1,070 m asl (Günther and Richards, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.	eng
136077	habitat		The holotype was collected from the branch of a spiny <em>Pandanus</em> “tree” about 1.8 m above the ground in forest (Günther and Richards, 2006). This forest is a transition between hill forest and closed-canopy lower montane rainforest, and is dominated by emergent <em>Agathis</em> trees (Mack and Alonso, 2000). Reproduction in this species has not been recorded, but it is presumably by direct development.	eng
136077	population		This species is currently known only from the holotype.	eng
136077	threats		There are no obvious threats to this species at the present time (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136078	conservation		It has been recorded from the Reserva Dantas in the Districto Los Angeles, Canton San Rafael (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). Los Juncos is part of a Forestry Reserve (Eduardo Boza pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136078	distribution		This species is known from several localities (including Los Juncos 1,500 to 1,600m asl) near Cascajal, on the Cerro Chompipe, and from the Reserva Dantas in the Cordillera Central in central Costa Rica (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
136078	habitat		Animals have been recorded from primary or mature cloudforest with a closed canopy (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It appears to be associated with deep leaf litter (Vaughn and Calvo, 2003; Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007). It is possible that this species undergoes direct development, however this requires further investigations (Vaughn and Mendelson, 2007).	eng
136078	population		Vaughn and Mendelson (2007), mention that this is generally a rare toad with a few individuals being recorded along trails. However it is reported to be generally common by other researchers (five to seven animals encountered daily) (Eduardo Boza pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136078	threats		There appears to be no definite habitat loss ongoing or predicted within the range of this species. However, while it is not certain, the possibility remains that part of the habitat within the range of this species could be degraded through the expansion of housing from the city of San José (Federico Bolaños pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136079	conservation		The species is likely to be present within many protected area. There are no direct conservation measures needed for the species as a whole.	eng
136079	distribution		This species ranges from eatern Honduras, through Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia adjacent to Panama (Heyer, 2005), with a seemingly disjunct population present in the area of Santa Marta in northern Colombia. A largely lowland species ranging from close to sea level to premontane areas at 660m asl (McCranie and Wilson, 2002).	eng
136079	habitat		This large frog has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats including primary and secondary lowland to premontane tropical moist forests, forest edges and severely deforested areas (McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; Heyer, 2005). Animals can often be found at some distance from waterbodies (Savage, 2002).  Males call at night on the ground near rivulets and ponds within or adjacent to forest, during the rainy season (Ibañez <em>et al.</em> 1999). The large larvae can be encountered in backwaters of small streams, temporary ponds, swampy areas, small man made ponds or in foam nests and burrows (Muedeking and Heyer, 1976; McCranie and Wilson, 2002; Savage, 2002; Heyer, 2005).	eng
136079	population		Presumed to be a common species throughout most of its range.	eng
136079	threats		In general, there appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
136080	conservation		It is unclear if the species is present within any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest for this species in western Ecuador. Additional studies are needed into the natural history of this recently described species.	eng
136080	distribution		This recently described species is endemic to the seasonal evergreen forests of western Ecuador (Heyer 2005; Cisneros-Heredia 2006).	eng
136080	habitat		This species is generally limited to the tropical seasonally evergreen forests found in the contact zone between the Chocoan and Tumbesian regions of Ecuador (Cisneros-Heredia 2006). Heyer (2005) reports that it hads been encountered in previously forested areas, although its persistence in these areas needs further investigation.	eng
136080	population		There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
136080	threats		Much of the forest (~70% - Diego Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2007) within the known range of this species has been cleared for timber, or through conversion of land to agricultural use, with remaining forest remnants being greatly threatened by ongoing deforestation (Cisneros-Heredia 2006).	eng
136081	conservation		It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136081	distribution		This species is generally restricted to northeastern parts of Brazil.	eng
136081	habitat		This species is associated with tropical open formations, including caatinga and the adjacent northern part of the cerrado (Heyer 2005).	eng
136081	population		There is little information available, but it is presumably reasonably common in suitable habitat.	eng
136081	threats		The threats to this species are not well known, but it is presumably fairly adaptable to open habitat types.	eng
136082	conservation		This species is present in the the forest fragment associated with the Las Cruces Biological Station (Catherine and Robert Wilson Botanical Garden). Further details are needed on the threats to this newly described species.	eng
136082	distribution		The range of this recently described species is described by Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) as being a "small region along the Pacific slope on either side of the Costa Rica-Panama border". In Costa Rica it has been recorded between 1,170 to about 1,250m asl from "the eastern end of the Fila Costeña at the Las Cruces Biological Station (Catherine and Robert Wilson Botanical Garden) and the relatively close Finca Loma Linda" (Wake <em>et al.</em> 2007). Specimens are also known from the western slopes of the Cordillera de Talamanca in extreme western Panama (at 1,700 to 2,120m asl); these have been collected at three separate sites both in the vicinity and above and to the east of the valley of the Río Candela (Wake <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136082	habitat		Wake <em>et al.</em> (2007) report that the species is found in the "Tropical Premontane Rainforest and Tropical Lower Montane Rainforest zones (sensu Holdridge,1967)". Animals have typically been collected from large bromeliads, up to 3m up trees, within cloud forest; a single animal was collected from the forested ridge of a recently cleared field (Wake <em>et al.</em>, 2007). It is possibly a direct developing species, however this requires confirmation.	eng
136082	population		This species has only been collected on a few occasions and little is known about the population abundance.	eng
136082	threats		The threats to the species are not well-known, however much of the known range of this species is unprotected.	eng
136083	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136083	distribution		Pristimantis ventriguttatus is only known from the type locality: Hacienda Taulis (approx. 6 50' S, 79 10' W, 1800 masl), Province of Santa Cruz, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Lehr and Köhler, 2007).	eng
136083	habitat		The species inhabits montane forests. Sympatric Pristimantis include P. cajamarcensis, P. lymani, and P. pinguis (Lehr and Köhler, 2007).	eng
136083	population		The species is known from the type series, comprised of four specimens, and additional collections undertaken in 2007 (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136083	threats		Deforestation of the dry forests in northen Peru is an ongoing issue (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136084	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136084	distribution		Physalaemus irroratus is only known from the type locality: Fazenda Duas Barras (16 25' S, 40 03' W; 800 m above sea level), Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. This locality is in the Serra do Cariri mountain range, which separates the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, as well as the basins of Jequitinhonha and Buranhém rivers (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136084	habitat		Fazenda Duas Barras is an unprotected area within the Atlantic rain forest domain, characterized by the presence of large, well-preserved or secondary forest patches, associated with cattle breeding activities. Physalaemus irroratus have been found during the wet season (October and January). Males call floating on small temporary ponds at the edge of forested areas, and foam nests are deposited on these temporary ponds (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136084	population		No population status is available for this species.	eng
136084	threats		There are no major threats currently known for this species.	eng
136085	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136085	distribution		This species from New Guinea is known only from the headwaters of the Wapoga River, in Papua Province, Indonesia. All specimens were found at the Wapoga Alpha mineral exploration camp (3°08'41"S, 136°34'25"E) at 1,070m asl. It probably occurs more widely.	eng
136085	habitat		Most specimens have been encountered at night on low vegetation along torrents in closed-canopy lower mountane rainforest (Richards and Iskandar, 2006). No females were detected but the close association of males with torrential streams and their absence from lentic water bodies in the area suggests that this species breeds in lotic environments (Richards and Iskandar, 2006) by larval development.	eng
136085	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136085	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136086	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine this species' distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136086	distribution		This species is known only from a single site, Sercchip, in Sercchip District, Mizoram, northeastern India at 880m asl (Mathew and Sen, 2007). It presumably occurs more widely.	eng
136086	habitat		The only known specimen was collected from a the compound of a guest house, where it was entering an underground hide-out (Mathew and Sen, 2007). The countryside surrounding the compound is dominated by trees (R. Mathew pers. comm.). If its ecology is similar to that of other members of its genus, it breeds in streams and occurs in forest surrounding streams.	eng
136086	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known only from a single specimen, and efforts to locate additional specimens at the time of its discovery were not successful (Mathew and Sen, 2007).	eng
136086	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136087	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
136087	distribution		This species is known only from Manus and Los Negros Islands, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea. It is widespread on both islands. It is found from 5 up to at least 296m asl, and is generally a lowland species (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136087	habitat		This species occurs in lowland rainforest, but also in degraded habitats and rural gardens. Males called from exposed or semi-exposed positions in forest litter, or from the base of grass tussocks in disturbed garden habitats, after heavy rain (Richards <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species seems to be at least as abundant in gardens where canopy cover is severely reduced, as it is in closed-canopy forest. This species occurred in micro-sympatry with <em>P. latro</em>, and calling males of the two species were frequently spaced less than 50 cm apart. It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136087	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
136087	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
136088	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136088	distribution		Pristimantis coronatus is only known from the type locality: Campamento Nueva York, Rio Blanco, (79 22' 32.1" S, 04 54' 28.2" W, 2850 masl), District of Carmen de la Frontera, Province of Huancabamba, Department of Piura, Peru (Lehr and Duellman, 2007).	eng
136088	habitat		This species inhabits montane cloud forest and can be found amidst the leaf litter on the forest floor at night. The single specimen known for this species, a female, was found to contain ovarian eggs when it was collected, in May 2005 (Lehr and Duellman, 2005).	eng
136088	population		The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.	eng
136088	threats		Deforestation has been observed in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136089	conservation	Olgun Kurtulu?, Murat Bozdógan, Mehmet ?z, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, U?ur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas. The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation. The Council of Europe (Anon. 1991) recommended that the introduction of salmonid or other predator fish to the species habitat was strictly forbidden; and that there was a need to carry out a field survey of the species in the whole Taurus Mountains range. Local public awareness programmes have been initiated (Olgun 1998).  Captive breeding might be necessary in the future if threats continue.	eng
136089	distribution	Olgun Kurtulu?, Murat Bozdógan, Mehmet ?z, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, U?ur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to the Bolkar Dagi, in the Taurus Range, southern Turkey. There are records from Karagöl (2,500m asl), the Çiniligöl lakes (2,600m asl) and Eğrigöl (16km southeast of Karagöl - 3,000m asl). Within this small region it is patchily distributed, being absent from apparently suitable habitat, such as Çinili Lake, which is at a slightly higher elevation.	eng
136089	habitat	Olgun Kurtulu?, Murat Bozdógan, Mehmet ?z, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, U?ur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species inhabits high montane lakes with grassy borders and slow-flowing creeks created by snow water. The frogs are also found in meadows close to the water bodies in which they breed. The creeks are surrounded by prairies where domestic sheep graze. Pads formed by grass roots on the creek sides provide a suitable habitat under which the frogs spend the winter. The related species, <em>Rana macrocnemis</em>, occurs at lower elevations in the Bolkar Dagi (it is found at Seviçova at 2,500m asl, below Eğrigöl (3,000m) where <em>R. holtzi</em> occurs).	eng
136089	population	Olgun Kurtulu?, Murat Bozdógan, Mehmet ?z, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, U?ur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	Baran (1969) noted that the population at Karagöl was large. Baran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2001) stated that the population size of <em>Rana holtzi</em> had declined approximately 60%-70% in Karagöl because of the introduction of the common carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em>. Kaya <em>et al</em>. (2005) estimated the population size of <em>Rana holtzi</em> in Karagöl to be between 725 and 1,432 individuals based on a mark-recapture study. They also stated that this species is facing a very high risk of decline in its natural habitat.	eng
136089	threats	Olgun Kurtulu?, Murat Bozdógan, Mehmet ?z, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, U?ur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The species is endemic to a popular tourist area. A road has recently been completed at the site potentially increasing the number of visitors. It is reported to be declining through overcollection for scientific and possibly other purposes (Olgun 1998; Eken pers. comm.), and the introduction of predatory fishes (including carp) into the lakes in the 1990s, has led to a significant decline in the population. The impact of local fisheries (including dynamite fishing) and overgrazing of surrounding meadows by goats on the species requires further information, but is presumed to be having a negative impact.	eng
136090	conservation		More information is needed about the species' population status, distribution and conservation biology. Effective preservation of lowland forest is essential for the survival of the species. It is present in Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia, and in some protected areas in Thailand (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
136090	distribution		This species is known from Peninsular Thailand (two sites), Peninsular Malaysia (including the island of Pulau Sibu on the east coast) and Singapore (Berry, 1975; Dring, 1979; Chan-ard <em>et al.</em>, 1999; Leong, 2000; Das <em>et al</em>., 2007). It has recently been recorded from a single locality in West Sumatra. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. It has an altitudinal range of 0-500m asl.	eng
136090	habitat		It is known from lowland areas of primary rainforest, forest edges, moderately modified rainforest, and "secondary trackside growth" (Dring, 1979). Explosive breeding takes place in forest pools. Adults are generally found in leaf-litter.	eng
136090	population		This species is frequently encountered (N. Yaakob, pers. comm.).	eng
136090	threats		The major threats to this species are largely unknown, although it is unlikely to tolerate extensive forest degradation from logging and expanding oil palm plantations.	eng
136091	conservation		This species has been found adjacent to the Mahadayi Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007), where it presumably occurs. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed, in particular to determine geographic range, habitat occupancy, population size and life history.	eng
136091	distribution		This species is currently known only from the Western Ghats of southern India in the vicinity of Chorla village, Khanapur Taluk, Belgaum District, Karnataka Province (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are records from two sites: the surroundings of Rameshwar Temple (15°39′ N, 74°08′E) at 728m asl; and 2km away at Chavatyaar, Chavato vaddo, at 732m asl (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species probably occurs more widely.	eng
136091	habitat		One specimen was collected from underneath piled rotting grass in an open field at a distance of c. 50m from Haltar nallah (nallah = canal) (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The other two specimens were dug from soil in a small plantation of young banana plants and mature jackfruit trees (canopy cover c. 40%) (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). A strong monsoonal stream flows along the edge of on of the sites, and subsequently joins the Haltar nallah, a tributary of the River Mahadayi (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). The species can clearly survive in humid anthropogenic habitats, but it is not known if it also occurs in nearby forest (Bhatta <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its reproductive biology is unknown, although where known other members of the genus are oviparous with terrestrial eggs that develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
136091	population		There is no information. It is so far known from only three specimens.	eng
136091	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. It is clearly somewhat adapatable, but more information is needed.	eng
136092	conservation		This species occurs in Nameri National Park and Dihingpatkai Wildlife Sanctuary. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136092	distribution		This species is known only from five sites in northeastern India: Suffry tea estate (26° 55’-27°00’ N, 94°55’-95°03’ E), in Assam (Bordoloi <em>et al</em>., 2007) at 60-100m asl; Nameri National Park in Assam (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); Dihingpatkai Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); Wokha district in Nagaland (S. Bordoloi, pers. comm.); Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary In Arunachal Pradesh (S. Sengupta, pers. comm.); and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (27° 04' 15'' N 92° 24' 06'' E), in Arunachal Pradesh (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). Its overall elevational range is unknown, but it is probably restricted to relatively low elevations, though the record from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary was at 1,250m asl (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). It is likely to occur more widely.	eng
136092	habitat		Thi species is found mainly in swampy areas (S. Bordoloi pers. comm.). It has also been recorded from a banana plantation, and areca nut tree, and from sugarcane plants in personal gardens (Bordoloi <em>et al</em>., 2007), and has been found resting on ferns in the day time along the side of the road (I. Agarwal, pers. comm.). It is presumably an arboreal species that breeds in still water by larval development.	eng
136092	population		It appears to be rare within its habitat (S. Bordoloi pers. comm.).	eng
136092	threats		No direct information is available on threats to this species. However, the general threat in this area might be pollution in water bodies due to use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture.	eng
136093	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136093	distribution		Pristimantis phalaroinguinis is only known from type type locality: Río Zaña, ca. 06 51’ S, 79 06’ W, 1800 masl, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Duellman and Lehr, 2007).	eng
136093	habitat		The species possibly occurs in isolated patches of cloud forest (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).	eng
136093	population		The species is only known from the type series, comprised of six specimens.	eng
136093	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136094	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Although it can clearly tolerate disturbed habitats, its distribution and biology remain largely unknown and more survey work and research are needed (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136094	distribution		This species is so far known with certainty only from Venkidds Valley Estate, about 20 km south of Madikeri (5<br/>Mercara), in Kodagu (5 Coorg) District, southern Karnataka, in the Western Ghats of India, at 1,143m asl (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is likely to occur more widely, and there is a specimen from an unspecified locality in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka or Kerala (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). There are also additional possible records from Karnataka and northern Kerala currently under investigation (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
136094	habitat		The type locality is a mixed coffee and areca nut plantation, and the holotype was collected by digging in soil adjacent to a small stream (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007). Its original habitat is unknown. It is presumably oviparous with terrestrial eggs and aquatic larvae, like other members of its genus.	eng
136094	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only seven specimens, but several of these were collected in a single day by digging (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136094	threats		Although it can clearly survive in agricultural habitat, more information is needed on its  range and ecological requirements of this species before it could be considered unthreatened (Wilkinson <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136095	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species. In view of its extremely restricted range, habitat specificity, and the pending threat to the habitat of <em>C. faustoi</em>, Brasileiro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2007) propose that this species be considered as susceptible to extinction and, thus, be included in the Critically Endangered (CR) category of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.	eng
136095	distribution		<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> is only known from Saco do Funil (24 05 58.4 S, 45 41 42.3 W) at the island Ilha dos Alcatrazes (135 ha), municipality of São Sebastião, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species was recorded between 20 and 100 m asl, but it may occur a little higher (maximum elevation on the island: 150 m asl). (C.A.Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136095	habitat		<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> was found in a small valley area (Saco do Funil) bordered by Atlantic forest in a dry stream bed composed of several large rocks. During the rainy season, the water trickles through this valley. Both males and females were found in rock crevices. Two other frog species were recorded in the Ilha dos Alcatrazes, <em>Scinax alcatraz</em> (Hylidae) and <em>Leptodactylus cf. marmoratus</em> (Leptodactylidae), which occupy different microhabitats than <em>C. faustoi</em> (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<em> C. faustoi</em> has been recorded in the months of March, August, and September. Calling activity was recorded once in August 2005 when five males were calling from rock crevices and one female was found guarding an egg clutch in a crevice. The female did not leave the clutch even after being disturbed. The swelled throat (possibly storing water) of the female was in contact with the eggs. The clutch had 31 large white eggs, with an average diameter of 3.8 mm (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136095	population		<em>Cycloramphus faustoi</em> appears to be scarce on the island. The maximum number of individuals recorded in one night was 11. Related species, such as <em>C. boraceiensis</em> and <em>C. dubius</em> from nearby coastal localities in the state of São Paulo occur in higher abundance; up to 30 individuals may be found in small stretches of streams at night (see Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136095	threats		The vicinity of Saco do Funil is used by the Brazilian Navy for artillery training activities. Occasionally this practice ignites the vegetation, as was the case for a fire in November 2004, thus posing a serious threat to <em>C. faustoi</em> and other island endemics (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136096	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136096	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypsiboas curupi</span> is restricted to Misiones, northeastern Argentina, between 300 and 700 masl.  Its distribution seems to be associated with the basins of the Paraná and Uruguai rivers. In Brazil, it is potentially present in the state of Paraná (Garcia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).	eng
136096	habitat		The vegetation where Hypsiboas curupi is found is seasonal forest and Araucaria forest in Atlantic Forest domain. H. curupi call in the vegetation, on the margins or backwaters of shallow streams, and in forested areas. Individuals perch on trees and vegetation surrounding forest streams at variable heights, at distances of 50–100 cm from water. Males are dusk and nocturnal callers, and when in high densities, tend to call in a chorus. Calling activity and tadpoles were observed in the months of December, January, and February. Males call from the vegetation or partially submerged in water. Spawns are laid in clumps of eggs, laid in water, adhered to vegetation or stones.  A spawn was found to contain 263 eggs with a dark animal pole; each egg being covered by an individual jelly capsule. Tadpoles have been found in streams of clear water inside the forest. Other anuran species that share the same area include Aplastodiscus perviridis and Crossodactylus schmidti (Garcia et al., 2007). The advertisement call is reported in Garcia et al. (2007).	eng
136096	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136096	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136097	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136097	distribution		Allobates caribe is known from the southern slope of Cerro El Humo (10 41' 094" N, 62 37' 147" W), Penınsula de Paria, state of Sucre, Venezuela, at an elevation of 1050 masl (Barrio-Amorós et al., 2006).	eng
136097	habitat		The species inhabits cloud forest. Individuals were found at the entrance of a hole at the edge of a path in the cloud forest and in a dry streambed, together with young Craugastor biporcatus. The advertisement call of this species is unknown. The species is believed to be terrestrial (Barrio-Amorós et al., 2006).	eng
136097	population		The species is only known from the type series, consisting of three specimens.	eng
136097	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136098	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136098	distribution		The species inhabits wet tropical forests of the foothills of the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental (departments of Boyacá and Santander) and eastern slopes of the Cordillera Central (departments of Caldas and Antioquia), in Colombia. It is found between 70 and 320 masl (Grant et al., 2007).	eng
136098	habitat		The species is found in forests that are no taller than 20 m. The mean temperature of the region is 28 C and annual precipitation is greater than 2,000 mm, with one rainy season in April–June and a second season of greater precipitation in September–November. The presence of the species becomes conspicuous with the onset of winter (September–November) rains (Grant et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Allobates niputidea is diurnal, most active in the morning hours. Males call from the forest leaf litter. Individuals are often found  at some distance (greater than 3 m) from permanent streams. Adults were observed scattered throughout the forest from September–November, whereas juveniles were found in isolated pools in the forest interior (Grant et al., 2007).	eng
136098	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
136098	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136099	conservation		It occurs in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area, in which there are strict controls on vegetation disturbance. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not the species occurs more widely.	eng
136099	distribution		This species is known only from two sites at 900-930m asl on Iagifu Ridge, near Moro, in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. It might occur more widely, but intensive surveys have not located it around Kopi, Gobe and Mount Sisa, suggesting that is distrbution might be genuinely small.	eng
136099	habitat		Animals have been found between 1.0 and 3.5m above the ground on leaves and branches adjacent to a small stream in submontane rainforest. It has not been found in anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136099	population		It appears to be a common species, but its arboreal habitats make it hard to detect (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136099	threats		The only known site is well protected. If it occurs more widely, it might be found in some areas experiencing habitat loss.	eng
136100	conservation		This species occurs in Guaramacal National Park (a.k.a. General Cruz Carrillo National Park)(E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136100	distribution		Pristimantis rhigophilus is known from the type locality and its vicinities: Páramo de Guaramacal (9 13’ 53.9’’ N, 70 11’ 08.7’’ W, 3100 masl), on the  Laguna de Los Cedros- Guaramacal road, Municipality of Boconó, Trujillo state, Venezuela. It is known to occur between 2360-3100 masl.	eng
136100	habitat		The species is found from montane rain forest to páramo. Individuals have been found under rocks in a páramo pasture-like area, with a vegetation landscape dominated by Espeletia sp. and Puya sp., a habitat that is shared with Pristimantis boconoensis. One individual was also found under a rock near a forest stream in a transition zone between cloud forest and páramo; other species found in this habitat include Atelopus sp. and Nephelobates sp. (La Marca, 2007).	eng
136100	population		This has been always a rare species to find (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136100	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136101	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for the species.	eng
136101	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella harveyi</span> is only known from the type locality: 2.5 km N of Jatum Incacasani (between 3,400-4,000 m asl), Province of Ayopaya, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in areas adjacent to the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136101	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	The species is found in the grass and under rocks. Calling activity is reported for August and September, where the species calls during the day (De la Riva 2007).	eng
136101	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136101	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	A restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136102	conservation	Cortez, C., De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136102	distribution	Cortez, C., De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella iani</span> is only known from the type locality (Tucurmani Molino and Achapampa, Cantón Tacacoma, Province of Larecaja, Department of La Paz, Bolivia) and its vicinities (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in areas adjacent to the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008). It occurs between 3,000-3,500 m asl.	eng
136102	habitat	Cortez, C., De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found in humid páramo habitat. Individuals of this species were found under a large moss patch and under stones, near a narrow rivulet (ca 10 cms) by day during the dry season. No eggs were found. The species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
136102	population	Cortez, C., De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No population status information is currently available for this species. It was first and last seen in 1995 (C. Cortez pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136102	threats	Cortez, C., De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Potato crops are grown in the near vicinity (C. Cortez pers. comm. 2008). In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136103	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136103	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella illimani</span> is known only from the type locality, from Río Caballuni, 5 km from Totoral on the road to Cooperativa 15 de Agosto (3,594 m asl), Province of Sud Yungas, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It is thought to have restricted geographical and elevational (perhaps no more than 300 m around the type locality) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136103	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found in an area which has both elfin forest and wet páramo, with abundant mosses on the ground and rocks. Individuals are found under stones by day. Locomotion in most <span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella </span>species is by walking, but individuals of this species are able to jump short distances (De la Riva 2007).	eng
136103	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	The species is considered to be rare (De la Riva 2007).	eng
136103	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Mining activity has been observed around the area. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are also considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136104	conservation	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136104	distribution	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Psychrophrynella quimsacruzis is known from Choquetanga and Mina Caracoles (16 52' 39" S, 67 18' 23" W, 3660 masl) and from the junction of the roads to Quime and Choquetanga (17 00' 02" S, 67 16' 49" W, 3730 masl), Province of Inquisivi, Department of La Paz, Bolivia. The two localities are separated by an airline distance of 13.9 km, and lie in the northeastern versant of the main massif of the Cordillera de Quimsa Cruz (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136104	habitat	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species is found in humid paramo habitats. Individuals can be found under stones by day. Gravid females were found to contain numerous, large, unpigmented eggs. Other anurans at the type locality are Telmatobius bolivianus and Gastrotheca marsupiata (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136104	population	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	It seems that there are two different populations of this species; however, it is not known whether these populations are conspecific with each other (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136104	threats	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Mining activities can be a potential threat to the species. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136105	conservation		This species occurs in the vicinity of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park.	eng
136105	distribution		Prisitmantis adiastolus is only known from the type locality, 1.5 km NW of Cacazú, 10 38' S, 75 07' W, 1200 masl, Department of Pasco, Peru (Duellman and Hedges, 2007). This species may occur mode widely (W.E. Duellman, pers. comm.).	eng
136105	habitat		The species is found in montane forests of the Cordillera Yanachaga, in central Peru. The holotype was found perching on a leaf at ca 1.5 m above the ground in riparian forest at night. Other species of anurans at the type locality or in the near surroundings include Leptodactylus andreae, L. griseigularis, Hypsiboas cinerascens (=Hypsiboas granosus), Rhinella poeppigii and Pristimantis albertus (Duellman and Hedges, 2007).	eng
136105	population		The species is only known from one specimen, the holotype.	eng
136105	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136106	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species. Surveys are needed in the type locality to determine whether it is still present there (the holotype was collected in 1972)(Mueses-Cisneros, pers. com. 2008).	eng
136106	distribution		Rhaebo lynchi is only known from the type locality, Vereda “El Chuscal”, boundaries with Caicedo, Urrao, Antioquia, Colombia (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
136106	habitat		The holotype was captured in primary forest, under logs during a rainy season. The female has a mass of pale eggs and convoluted oviducts (Mueses-Cisneros, 2007).	eng
136106	population		The species is only known from a single specimen, the holotype.	eng
136106	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136107	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, and, if it is a valid species, surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136107	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from Surat Thani and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces, Peninsular Thailand (Pauwels and Chérot, 2006). The distribution map should be considered highly provisional.	eng
136107	habitat		Nothing is known of its ecological requirements. It presumably breeds in small pools by larval development.	eng
136107	population		This is an extremely poorly known species, and there is no information on its abundance.	eng
136107	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136108	conservation		The species is known to occur within the realm of two research stations.	eng
136108	distribution		Ischnocnema penaxavantinho is known from the type locality: Estação Ecológica do Panga (Panga), (19 11’ S; 48 24’ W, ca. 800 masl), municipality of Uberlândia, and Perdizes (Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Ambiental Galheiro; about 19 12’ S, 47 10’ W; 700–1000 masl; 2840 ha), another municipality in the Triângulo Mineiro region, both in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Both localities are ca 130 km apart (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136108	habitat		The vegetation at the type locality (Panga) includes several Cerrado physiognomies, including “Veredas” (a vegetation dominated by grass-like plants, with dispersed bushes and Mauritia flexuosa palms) and a riverine forest running along the Panga River (2 m wide). Human altered areas are covered by the exotic grass Brachiaria sp.. The local weather presents a hot and wet summer (Sep.–Mar.), and a cold and dry winter (Apr.–Aug), when frosts may occur. Males were heard calling on the ground or perched (up to 60 cm height) amidst dense tufts of natural grass-like herbs in Veredas or on Brachiaria sp. Up to 200 m from permanently wet soil. Rarely, when fires cleared open areas from<br/>grasses, males were heard also from within forests or forest borders. Calling activity was observed between October and  March, being most intense in the afternoon and first hours of the night (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136108	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136108	threats		Natural wildfires may comprise a potential threat to this species.	eng
136109	conservation		The type locality is a research station (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136109	distribution		Phyllomedusa araguari is currently only known from the type locality: Estação de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Ambiental Galheiro (ca 19 12’ S, 47 10’W; 900 masl), municipality of Perdizes, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136109	habitat		Vegetation types at the type locality include small patches of several Brazilian savanna (Cerrado) physiognomies, including forests and grass fields. Males were found calling during the night along a narrow (0.5 m wide) deep (2 m)<br/>eroded trench (100 m) bordered by short (< 1 m high) dense grass-like vegetation and sparse low (< 2 m high)<br/>shrubs, including Velloziaceae. Tadpoles were found in deep (up to 2.5 m) pools along the trench. The<br/>water of these pools was colored muddy red and was permanently shaded by the marginal bank and bordering<br/>vegetation. One egg clutch found in the month of December 2003 was wrapped in a leaf (Melastomataceae) hanging over a pond. It had 24 eggs with embryos (Gosner stage 21, 21.8 mm TL), and many small (2 mm) jelly spheres. Syntopic frogs include Ameerega flavopicta and Leptodactylus cunicularius (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136109	population		The species is known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.	eng
136109	threats		The reservation is surrounded by cattle farms, agricultural fields and the lake of a hydroelectric power station (Nova Ponte, MG) in the Araguari River. Given that the new species is a grass/shrub environment dweller, it probably is not threatened of extinction by local human activities such as damming, deforestation, and cattle farming. Potential threats appear to include fires, exotic grasses (Melinis minutiflora Beauv) over-shadowing trenches/ponds, and removal of natural vegetation for agriculture (Giaretta et al., 2007).	eng
136110	conservation	Raúl Maneyro, 2008	No conservation areas are currently known for this species.	eng
136110	distribution	Raúl Maneyro, 2008	<em>Rhinella achavali</em> can be found in two hill systems (known as ‘‘Cuchillas’’; Cuchilla de Haedo and Cuchilla Grande) in northeastern Uruguay, at an altitude of approximately 500 masl (Maneyro et al., 2004), and across several localities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (100-374 masl), southern Brazil (Kwet et al., 2006).	eng
136110	habitat	Raúl Maneyro, 2008	This is a mostly nocturnal species found in or near small forest streams (Maneyro et al., 2004; Kwet et al., 2006). Individuals can be found perched on tree-trunks, about 20-50 cm above the water surface, and sometimes under stones or in the water (Kwet et al., 2006). The species was recently found in artificially-forested (<em>Pinus</em>, <em>Eucalyptus</em>) environments (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The hill systems of Uruguay where the species is found exhibit a particular hydrographic system and associated vegetation that have other endemic species of bufonids, i.e.  <em>Melanophryniscus orejasmirandai</em> and <em>Melanophryniscus sanmartini</em>. The tadpole, eggs and vocalizations of <em>R. achavali</em> are not currently known (Maneyro et al., 2004; Kwet et al., 2006). While this may be considered an "explosive" breeder, the breeding season appears to be a lengthy one, on a yearly basis (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
136110	population	Raúl Maneyro, 2008	This is a common species in those areas where it is found, although the habitat itself is considered to be specialized (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
136110	threats	Raúl Maneyro, 2008	Due to its small distribution range, Maneyro and Langone (2001) classified <em>R. achavali</em> (as <em>Bufo sp.</em>) as potentially threatened in Uruguay. Kwet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) indicate that data are still insufficient to assess the distributional range and threat category of this species in Rio Grande do Sul, but that <em>R. achavali</em> may have a wider distribution than presently acknowledged, being sometimes mistaken for <em>R. arenarum</em> or <em>R. icterica</em>.<br/><br/>A major part of the environment where this species was recorded is considered to be a “zona de prioridad forestal”, meaning that the area is likely to be drastically modified in the future as native vegetation is being replaced with plantations of exotic wood species. It is thus important to conduct monitoring studies that address the impact of these forestry practices on <em>R. achavali</em> (R. Maneyro, pers. comm.).	eng
136111	conservation		It occurs in Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary and Kudremukh National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the geographic range, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136111	distribution		This species is known from several localities in the Sharavathi River basin, in the central part of the Western Ghats, Karnataka State, India, at 534-692m asl (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). Within this elevational range it occurs quite widely in this river basin (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007), and has also been located further to the north, as far as the Bedti River basin in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, and south as far as Kudremukh National Park (K.V. Gururaja, pers. comm.).	eng
136111	habitat		The region where this species occurs has an undulating terrain, with both evergreen and moist-deciduous forests in which this species occurs(Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). In relatively flat areas there are freshwater habitats known as <em>Myristica</em> swamps, dominated by members of plant family Myristicaceae, and these sites are favoured by the species. The species is absent from unsuitable habitats within its range, such as rock outcrops, recently burnt areas, open/barren lands, agricultural fields, plantations, and built-up areas (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is presumed to breed by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136111	population		Its abundance varies through its range (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007). There were 6-8 individuals/mhs (man-hours of search) in the <em>Myristica</em> swamps, where densities were relatively high, compared to the densities of 2-4 individuals/mhs observed in forested habitats (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136111	threats		This species has lost much habitat within its range due to the construction of dams for hydropower, the extension of agricultural fields into forested areas, and urbanization, and its populations are now severely fragmented (Gururaja <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136112	conservation	Köhler, J. & Cox, N., 2009	It occurs in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park. There is a need to prevent continuing habitat loss and degradation within the species limited forest habitat.	eng
136112	distribution	Köhler, J. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is currently known only from two localities in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, Mahajanga Province, west-central Madagascar: Andafiabe at the Beboka River (18°47'03" S, 44°46'46" E) at 177 m asl; and in the northern parts of the Bendrao Forest (18°47'04" S, 44°51'37" E) at 430 m asl (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> It is believed to be endemic to Bemereha, where it is limited to suitable forest along streams (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<em><br/></em>	eng
136112	habitat	Köhler, J. & Cox, N., 2009	As specimens have not been observed or heard calling in open habitat, <em>Boophis tampoka</em> must be considered a dry forest species (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is limited to forest habitat along streams (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is presumably a stream breeder, however, this needs confirmation.<br/><br/><br/><br/><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
136112	population	Köhler, J. & Cox, N., 2009	It is abundant in its only known non-degraded sites (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)<em>.</em>	eng
136112	threats	Köhler, J. & Cox, N., 2009	The main threat to this species is deforestation as a result of over-grazing by zebu cattle, and collection of firewood, which continue inside the national park (J. Köhler pers. comm. 2009). General water pollution has also been noted as a threat to this species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
136113	conservation		The U.S. Geological Survey has developed a conservation plan for this species, and about 1.7 million hectares were designated as critical habitat for it in California (USFWS 2001). A monitoring and conservation program needs to be implemented in the Mexican portion of the range, which does not include any protected areas.	eng
136113	distribution		Native historical range extended from southern Mendocino County in northwestern California south (primarily west of the Cascade-Sierra crest) to northwestern Baja California (Shaffer et al. 2004). Historical populations on the floor of the Central Valley may not have persisted due to extensive natural flooding (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). Range is now much reduced in the Sierra Nevada and in southern California, but the species is still present throughout much of its former range in the central California coast range (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). This species has been introduced in a few places in Nevada, but the current status of those populations is uncertain (A. Cook, cited by Fellers, in Lannoo 2005). Rana draytonii is still present in Baja California, Mexico (USFWS 2000, Grismer 2002, Shaffer et al. 2004). Elevational range extended from sea level to about 1,500 meters (5,000 feet); usually below 1,200 meters (3,935 feet).	eng
136113	habitat		This species usually occurs in or near quiet permanent water of streams, marshes, ponds, lakes, and other quiet bodies of water. In summer, frogs estivate in small mammal burrows, leaf litter, or other moist sites in or near (within a few hundred feet of) riparian areas (Rathbun et al. 1993, cited by USFWS 1994; USFWS 1996). Individuals may range far from water along riparian corridors and in damp thickets and forests. Breeding occurs in permanent or seasonal water of ponds, marshes, or quiet stream pools, sometimes in lakes (Fellers, in Jones et al. 2005); eggs often are attached to emergent vegetation, float at surface (Hayes and Miyamoto 1984).	eng
136113	population		Number of distinct occurrences (subpopulations) is unknown but probably is at least several dozen. According to USFWS (2000), the species occurs in about 238 streams or drainages.<br/><br/>In the mid-1990s, most of the occupied habitat was in Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Santa Barbara counties; the species occurred in only 5 sites south of the Tehachapi Mountains (80+ historic sites) (USFWS 1996) Aggregations including more than 350 adults were known only from Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve in coastal San Mateo County, Point Reyes National Seashore in Marin County, and Rancho San Carlos in Monterey County (USFWS 1996). More than 120 breeding sites exist in Marin County (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>In California, south of Los Angeles, a single population is known from the Santa Rosa Plateau in Riverside County (Shaffer et al. 2004). Only two populations are known to exist south of Santa Barabra (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>In the Sierra Nevada, Rana draytonii is now represented by only about a half dozen populations, only one of which is known to have more than 10 breeding adults (Shaffer et al. 2004).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 10,000. The species is still locally abundant in portions of the San Francisco Bay area and the central coast (USFWS 2000). Breeding sites in Marin County include several thousand adults (Fellers, in Lannoo 2005).<br/><br/>Over the long term, extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size have undergone a major decline. The species has been extirpated from much of its former range in California (Hayes and Jennings 1988, Shaffer et al. 2004). Range has been reduced by 70% (USFWS 1996, 2000). Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probabaly are still declining, but the rate of decline is unknown.	eng
136113	threats		Factors contributing to the decline include wetland destruction and degradation/fragmentation, urbanization, residential development, reservoir construction, stream channelization, livestock grazing of riparian vegetation, off-road vehicle activity, drought, overharvesting, and exotic fishes (bass, mosquitofish) and possibly bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998; USFWS 1994, 1996, 2000; Adams 1999, 2000; Lawler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999; Cook and Jennings 2001; Kiesecker, Blaustein and Miller 2001a; Cook 2002). An important threat is the loss of wetlands in the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and Puget Lowlands (Washington). Conversion of habitat to more permanent ponds is an important threat (as this allows breeding waters to be invaded by non-native predators). <br/><br/>Declines in the red-legged frog complex also have been attributed to global warming, UV-B radiation (Belden and Blaustein 2002), airborne contaminants (pesticide drift), and disease (see Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Davidson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) found support for the negative impact of wind-borne agrochemicals and weaker evidence for the widespread impact of habitat destruction and UV-B radiation; evidence did not support the hypothesis that declines have been caused by climate change.	eng
136114	conservation		Most occurrences are on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service or U.S. National Park Service. However, occurrence in protected, pristine areas does not ensure population persistence.	eng
136114	distribution		Historical range extended from the Diamond Mountains northeast of the Sierra Nevada in Plumas County, and from just north of the Feather River in the extreme northwest region of the Sierra Nevada, California, south through the Sierra Nevada to Inyo County, California, and east to Mt. Rose, northeast of Lake Tahoe, in Washoe County, Nevada (Vredenburg et al. 2007). West of the Sierra Nevada crest, the southern part of the range is bordered by ridges that divide the Middle and South Fork of the Kings River, ranging from Mather Pass to the Monarch Divide; east of the Sierra Nevada crest, R. sierrae occurs in the Glass Mountains just south of Mono Lake (Mono County) and along the east slope of the Sierra Nevada south to the type locality at Matlock Lake (Inyo County) (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Rana sierrae is now extirpated from Nevada and from large portions of the historical range in the Sierra Nevada of California.	eng
136114	habitat		The habitat of frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex includes sunny river margins, meadow streams, isolated pools, and lake borders in the Sierra Nevada. Sierran frogs are most abundant in high elevation lakes and slow-moving portions of streams. They seldom are found away from water but may cross upland areas in moving between summer and winter habitats (Matthews and Pope 1999). Wintering sites include areas near shore under ledges and in deep underwater crevices (Matthews and Pope 1999).	eng
136114	population		Extensive surveys between 1995 and 2005 yielded only 11 occupied sites (Vredenburg et al. 2007). Total adult population size is unknown but may not exceed a couple thousand (generously assuming 20 sites each with 100 adults).<br/><br/>A precipitous decline in Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae appears to have occurred over the past 3-4 decades (Bradford 1991, USFWS 1999). For the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as a whole, Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped many more extirpated populations than extant populations. Rana sierrae has declined greatly in the Yosemite area of the Sierra Nevada, California (Drost and Fellers 1996). In the Sierra Nevada, recent surveys indicate that Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae has been reduced to a small number of widely scattered, mostly very small populations (fewer than 20 adults) (Knapp and Matthews 2000). Surveys in the 1990s indicated that the rangewide decline in distribution may be as much as 70-90 percent (USFWS 2000). <br/><br/>Of the 146 historical R. sierrae sites studied by Vredenburg et al. (2007), only 11 sites contained frogs when revisited between 1995 and 2005 (92 percent extirpation rate).<br/><br/>The current trend (past 10 years) is unknown, but probably the decline is ongoing.	eng
136114	threats		A petition to list the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex as endangered cited the following threats: non-native fish introductions, contaminant introductions, livestock grazing, acidification from atmospheric deposition, nitrate deposition, ultraviolet radiation, drought, disease, and other factors (see USFWS 2000).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys in the Sierra Nevada clearly demonstrate the strong detrimental impact of introduced trouts on R. muscosa/Rana sierrae populations (Bradford 1989, Knapp and Matthews 2000). Removal of non-native fishes (relatively easy in some Sierra Nevada lakes) might easily reverse the decline (Knapp and Matthews 2000).<br/><br/>See Bradford (1991) for information on mass mortality and extinction of a population due at least in part to red-leg disease and predation on metamorphics by Brewer's blackbird; reestablishment of the extirpated population probably will be prevented through predation by introduced fishes.  <br/><br/>Frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex are possibly but probably not threatened by sublethal effects of low pH and elevated levels of dissolved aluminum (Bradford et al. 1992).<br/><br/>Fellers et al. (2001) documented oral chytridiomycosis (often indicated by oral disc abnormalities) in larvae and recently metamorphosed individuals of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex in the Sierra Nevada, where recent declines have occurred. However, loss of pigmentation of larval mouthparts does not always indicate chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrium infection) (Rachowicz 2002).<br/><br/>Davidson et al. (2002) found support for the hypothesis that airborne agrochemicals have played a significant role in the decline of frogs of the Rana muscosa/Rana sierrae complex.	eng
136115	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136115	distribution		Hydrolaetare caparu is only known from the type locality, Caparú Ranch (14 48.795 S; 61 09.602 W, 158 masl), Provincia Velasco, Department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Jansen et al., 2007). The species may possibly be distributed more widely in adjacent areas with similar habitats (e.g. northern Bolivia and neighbouring areas in Brazil (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136115	habitat		This species seems to be restricted to seasonally flooded riparian forests of a small river associated with the Rio Paragua that dries up during the dry season. Occasionally, the species was found in an adjacent flooded grassland area near the borders of the forest.  All 17 observations in February 2006 were found near or on small islands formed by roots at the bottom of trees. Twelve individuals were found in the water, five were found on the ground. Calling males were observed on sites close to the waterline or half inside the water with high escape distance (approximately 5–10 m). Other anuran species recorded at this site were Dendropsophus cf. leali, Leptodactylus chaquensis, Osteocephalus sp. and Rhinella cf. margaritifer (Jansen et al., 2007). The species is likely to burrow itself during the dry season (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136115	population		Seventeen individuals were observed in early 2006, while only one subadult was observed in December of the preceding year. A remarkably high density of this species could be observed along 100-m transects: up to three individuals were seen on 11 surveys along the transect (12 observations; average 1.1 per survey), and up to four individuals could be heard (24 observations on 11 visits; average 2.2 per survey). Although H. caparu appeared to be very rare in October 2005, the strikingly high densities of H. caparu during the surveys in January 2006 suggest that this species is highly seasonal in its appearance (Jansen et al., 2007).	eng
136115	threats		A potential threat outside the type locality is habitat fragmentation. Further research is needed to assess its impact on the species (M. Jansen, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136116	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136116	distribution		Pristimantis chimu is only known from the type locality, 2–3 km NW (straightline) El Pargo (Llama-Huambos Road), 3000–3100 masl, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (2007).	eng
136116	habitat		Nothing is known about the species' ecology (Lehr, 2007). The species' likely habitat may be puna or dry forests of the western cordillera (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136116	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136116	threats		No major threats are known for this species. However, if it does occur in dry forests, these are threatened by deforestation in northern Peru (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136117	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas (R. Günther pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136117	distribution		This recently described species is endemic to New Guinea where it has been recorded in Papua Province, Indonesia. It is currently known only from the type locality of the '"54 km" site along the Nabire-Mapia road, about 30 km direct line southeast of Nabire, 750m asl (3º29.517' S, 135º43.913'  E') (Günther and Richards, 2005). It might occur more widely.	eng
136117	habitat		The only known specimen was found on the leaf of a shrub 1.8 m above the surface of a fast flowing "rocky" stream, near to a road with motor traffic (Günther and Richards, 2005). The vegetation surrounding the stream is secondary tropical moist forest. It presumably breeds by larval development in streams.	eng
136117	population		It is known only from the holotype, and appears to be rare.	eng
136117	threats		The threats to this species are not known (R. Günther pers. comm.).	eng
136118	conservation		It probably occurs in some other protected areas. More work is needed to resolve the taxonomy, distribution and ecological requirements of this species.	eng
136118	distribution		This species occurs in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Its distribution in these countries is poorly known, but on current knowledge it ranges from Lira in north-central Uganda, through the western and central Kenyan highlands, to the southeastern Kenyan coast and northeastern Tanzania, south to the Udzungwa Mountains, and also on the island of Zanzibar. A record from Somalia is doubted by Lanza (1990) and records from northeastern Angola (Laurent 1954; Ruas 1996) probably refer to <em>Phrynobatrachus parvulus</em>. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 1,800m asl.	eng
136118	habitat		It is found amongst herbaceous vegetation, leaf litter, rocks or mud at the swampy margins of lakes, rivers, streams and temporary pools in both moist grassland and forest clearings. It breeds in lake edges, rivers, streams and pools.	eng
136118	population		It is a poorly known species, partly because it is not well defined taxonomically, and so there is little information on its abundance.	eng
136118	threats		There is little information, but if its ecology is similar to that of <em>Phrynobatrachus minutus</em> it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation, especially as a result of agricultural expansion, human settlement and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
136119	conservation		It in the Nyika National Park and might occur in the Udzungwa National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution, ecology and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136119	distribution		This species is known from the Udzungwa Plateau in southern Tanzania (with records from Dabaga and Masisiwe), and the Nyika Plateau in northern Malawi. It is probably also present in the intervening highland areas. In Tanzania it has been recorded around 1,740m asl, but probably also occurs higher, at least to 2,000m asl.	eng
136119	habitat		It is known from the margins of streams and rivers in forest and montane grassland. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
136119	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136119	threats		Its habitat is probably threatened by expanding plantations of exotic tree species such as teak or eucalyptus, as well as by human settlements.	eng
136120	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species.	eng
136120	distribution		This species has been collected from several localities in southeastern Papua New Guinea, including in Milne Bay Province and a single site in Central Province (Kraus and Allison, 2006). In Milne Bay Province it has been recorded from the Cloudy Mountains, Owen Stanley Mountains, Fergusson Island and Normanby Island (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been recorded near Aieme Creek in Central Province (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It has been recorded from sea-level up to 1,500m asl, but most records are from 300m to 1,000m asl (Kraus and Allison, 2006).	eng
136120	habitat		This species is generally found in closed-canopy lowland and mid-elevation tropical moist forest (Kraus and Allison, 2006). Animals have also been collected at sea-level in a sago swamp (on Normanby Island) and from more open montane forest (1,500m asl) dominated by <em>Metrosideros</em> (Mytaceae) trees (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species occurs widely through the forest, with no tendency to cluster near streams, unlike some other members of the genus (Kraus and Allison, 2006). The species can be observed fully exposed at night perching on vegetation, and during a drought they have been found hiding in moist soil beneath rocks, close to streams (Kraus and Allison, 2006). It can survive in somewhat degraded, secondary forest, but it doesn't like open areas (F. Kraus, pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, without dependence on water.	eng
136120	population		It is a very common species (F. Kraus, pers. comm.).	eng
136120	threats		This species is reasonably adaptable with much extensive habitat through its range, so it is unlikely to be significantly threatened.	eng
136121	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas (R. Günther pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136121	distribution		This species is currently known only from Yapen Island, in Papua Province, Indonesia. There are records from Amoman Mountain (1º 45' S, 136º19' E), at 1,130m asl, and from around 1 km south of here at 1,000m asl. on (Günther and Richards, 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely.	eng
136121	habitat		This apparently largely arboreal species has been recorded along a road traversing partly logged mossy rainforest (Günther and Richards, 2006). Animals have been found on trees 1-8m above the ground, with a single specimen found on the ground in a small earth hole at the margin of a road about 6m from the adjacent forest (Günther and Richards, 2006). The calling sites suggest that the species is more arboreal than terrestrial (Günther and Richards, 2006). Animals on trees were associated with accumulations of humus formed by decomposing wood or decomposing epiphytes and which were encrusted with moss (Günther and Richards, 2006). Reproduction in this species has not been recorded, but it presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
136121	population		It seems to occur at high densities, as over 100 males were heard calling along a 500m length of road, and sometimes the frogs were only a few metres apart.	eng
136121	threats		At present there are no obvious threats to this species, but more information is needed (R. Günther pers. comm.)	eng
136122	conservation		No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
136122	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Mannophryne trujillensis</span> is known from two locations: Paseo Los Ilustres, Quebrada Los Cedros (850 masl, 9 21´ 46.0" N, 70 26´ 41.8" W), city of Trujillo, state of Trujillo, Venezuela, and from Paragüita (700 masl), 2 km E of Flor de Patria, state of Trujillo, Venezuela (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007).	eng
136122	habitat		The species inhabits semi-deciduous forests in the state of Trujillo. Individuals have been found on rocks and vegetation (submersed roots), under rocks and in a stream (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007). The species appears to require a permanent water source (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136122	population		The populations at the two sites where the species is known to occur survive in low numbers (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007).	eng
136122	threats		One population lives in an urban park where solid waste was observed contaminating the local stream. The stream's water was found to be somewhat acidic (pH=5.75). The other population is found in an area undergoing dramatic change due to urbanization (Vargas Galarce and La Marca, 2007). Habitat destruction (through deforestation) seems to be the single most important factor of change for this species (E. La Marca, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The species is thought to occupy an area less than 500 Km², which is severely fragmented (R. Sánchez, pers. comm. Jan. 2008).	eng
136123	conservation		The species is known to occur within the limits of Emas National Park (Maciel et al., 2007).	eng
136123	distribution		<em>Rhinella cerradensis</em> has a large distribution in the Cerrado biome, occurring in the Brazilian states of Piauí, Bahia, Goiás, Minas Gerais, and Distrito Federal (Maciel et al., 2007). It has recently been recorded in the municipality of Dourados, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, by Rodrigo Lingnau and identified by Natan Maciel (N. Maciel, pers. comm.).	eng
136123	habitat		<em>Rhinella cerradensis</em> is known to occur in open Cerrado physiognomies (Cerrado and Campo Sujo). Adults were observed in March (end of the rainy season), and August to October of 2002 (from dry season to just before the beginning of the rainy season). The species is sympatric with <em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. veredas</em> in western Bahia and Piauí states, and with <em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. rubescens</em> in the states of Distrito Federal (<em>R. schneideri</em> and <em>R. rubescens</em> were found breeding in the same permanent pond as <em>R. cerradensis</em> in Brasília) and Goiás. <em>R. cerradensis</em> is predated upon by <em>Conepatus striatus</em> (Mammalia: Mustelidae). The elongate and well developed inner metatarsal tubercle suggests that <em>R. cerradensis</em> might bury itself during the dry Cerrado season as do other Neotropical species (e.g., <em>Eupemphix nattereri</em>, <em>Pleurodema diplolistris</em>, and <em>Odontophrynus cultripes</em>). (Maciel et al., 2007).	eng
136123	population		Considered to be a rare species in the areas where it has been recorded (N. Maciel, pers. comm.).	eng
136123	threats		The Cerrado system in which the species exists is severely threatened by increasing deforestation, charcoal<br/>production, and large hydroelectric dams (Maciel et al., 2007).	eng
136124	conservation		It occurs within the Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia.	eng
136124	distribution		This species is is known only from the northern Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes at 1800-2000 masl, in the department of Caldas, Municipality of Samaná. It can be found within the Parque Nacional Natural Selva de Florencia, on the eastern flank of the cordillera Central, ca 5 30' N, 75 5' W (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006).	eng
136124	habitat		<em>Ranitomeya daleswansoni</em> lives in the wettest areas of the understory of both primary and secondary montane forests. Animals are concentrated in areas with moderate leaf litter, high humidity and abundant refuges or holes in the ground. It is sympatric with <em>Ranitomeya opisthomelas</em> at around 1800m, but replaces it above this elevation. The larvae have been found in bromeliads (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006), while eggs are laid in the leaf litter. Reproduction is possibly continuous throughout the year, based on the examination of gonads in preserved specimens and on the presence of tadpoles at any time of the year. Clutch size is unknown. <em>Ranitomeya daleswansoni</em> can inhabit secondary or selectively logged forests insofar as it is adjacent or in the vicinity of primary forests (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid, pers. comm.).	eng
136124	population		It is a relatively common species in forested habitats within its distribution range (Rueda-Almonacid et al., 2006).	eng
136124	threats		Deforestation for the purposes of wood collection is present in this species' geographic area. In addition, there appear to be bromeliad collection and illegal trade activities (J.V. Rueda-Almonacid, pers. comm.).	eng
136125	conservation		The species occurs within several protected areas (area protectora del Macizo de Turimiquire, Mochima National Park and Cueva del Guacharo National Park) (Manzanilla et al., 2005).	eng
136125	distribution		Mannophryne leonardoi is known from its type locality [caserío El Toyano, Parroquia Pozuelos, Municipio Sotillo, Estado Anzoátegui, Venezuela (10 07´30.7" N; 64 29´ 35.7" W)] and the areas within the Turimiquire Massif (ca 540 000 ha), in NE Venezuela. The species can be found throughout a wide altitudinal gradient, from a few metres above sea level to 1650 masl (Manzanilla et al., 2005).	eng
136125	habitat		The species lives in montane forests and forests at the foothill of the Turimiquire massif. It is often found next to streams, and males sit on higher elevation objects, from where they call. Females are often dispersed around the area (Manzanilla et al., 2005).	eng
136125	population		This used to be a common species, but recent surveys suggest a dramatic population decline, potentially associated to the use of agrochemicals (see Manzanilla et al., 2005).	eng
136125	threats		Part of the area is being afflicted by urban development, agriculture and building of roads (Manzanilla et al., 2005).	eng
136126	conservation		All amphibians are legally protected in Israel, but this does not mean that the sites in which they occur are protected. Indeed, the habitat at the only confirmed site has been destroyed (C. Grach, pers. comm.). The site at Ein Fara is protected, but there is some doubt as to whether or not the species was ever found there. There was formerly a breeding stock in captivity, but this was confiscated and it is believed that all the animals subsequently died. Surveys are needed to determine whether or not any other populations of this species exist. Research is also needed to determine it conservation requirements should any populations be found.	eng
136126	distribution		This species is known from just three localities in Jerusalem and the adjacent Judean Hills in Israel and the Palestinian territories: Mamilla Reservoir; the Wadi near Moza; and Ein Fara. This implies a geographic range with a west-east stretch of 13km and a north-south extent of 6 km (Grach <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, information from C. Grach (pers. comm.) casts doubt on whether or not the specimens from Wadi and Ein Fara really originated from these two localities - it is possible that they too came from the Mamilla Reservoir. The species might therefore be known from a single site, though all three are included in the distribution map.	eng
136126	habitat		The Mamilla reservoir is an ancient cistern excavated in limestone which dries out in the summer months, and is 6m deep at its deepest point. Ein Fara in the Judaean desert is a spring-fed pool, with ample vegetation dominated by <em>Typha australis</em>. The frogs sit on the <em>Typha stalks</em>. The Wadi at Moza has a water depth of greater than 1m, with tangled vegetation dominated by the spiny bush <em>Rubus sanctus</em>, on which the frogs sit. The Mamilla reservoir and the Wadi near Moza lie within the Mediterranean region (<em>sensu stricto</em>) with average annual precipitation of 500-700mm, and average annual temperatures of 17-19ºC. The third locality, Ein Fara, is an oasis-like spring habitat on the fringe of the Judean Desert, with average annual precipitation fluctuating widely around 300 mm, and average annual temperatures around 19-21ºC. <em>Hyla heinzsteinitzi</em> is sympatric with <em>Hyla savignyi</em> and in some places the two are apparently syntopic. The species breeds by larval development in temporary pools.	eng
136126	population		The species no longer exists in any of the three listed localities from which it has been recorded (C. Grach, pers. comm.). At the Mamilla Reservoir, suitable habitat no longer exists. At present there is no locality where the species is still known to exist  (C. Grach, pers. comm.). The species is certainly gravely endangered, and might be Extinct (C. Grach, pers. comm.). Attempts to locate other populations of the species have not been successful.	eng
136126	threats		The tiny range of <em>Hyla heinzsteinitzi</em>, and the lack of connectivity between its isolated sites place it at considerable risk. The confirmed site at the Mamilla Reservoir has been destroyed, and no suitable habitat remains there (C. Grach, pers. comm.).	eng
136127	conservation		The species is found within the perimeter of Sapiranga Reserve.	eng
136127	distribution		The species is known from Sapiranga Reserve (12 34’ S; 38 02’ W, 12 masl), Municipality of Mata de São João, state of Bahia, Brazil.	eng
136127	habitat		Sapiranga Reserve lies within a “restinga” forest, which is an ecosystem restricted to the Atlantic Forest Biome and<br/>is typically known as coastal sand dune habitats, covered with herbaceous and shrubby vegetation, common along the Brazilian coastline. The Reserve includes 500 hectares covered by arboreal vegetation, with various water sources such as springs, streams, freshwater and brackish rivers, lakes, ponds, as well as areas without bodies of water with a few terrestrial bromeliads (N < 20 bromeliads per 1000 m2), and sandy areas without bodies of water with a high density of bromeliads (N > 100 bromeliads per 1000 m2) (Cruz et al., 2007).<br/><br/>Individuals of C. sapiranga have only been collected with pitfall-traps in the past, despite active search efforts. These were collected in plots with arboreal vegetation with temporary ponds and/or permanent lakes, arboreal vegetation with rivers, springs or streams, and arboreal vegetation without bodies of water on the ground; however, they appear to be more common in the latter two environments (Cruz et al., 2007).	eng
136127	population		No population status is available for this species.	eng
136127	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136128	conservation		This species occurs on Eglin Air Force Base in Florida.<br/><br/>Activities aimed at restoring/maintaining the ecological integrity of mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and associated ephemeral wetlands are needed to preserve extant populations of flatwoods salamanders.<br/><br/>Recovery is directly linked with the ability to preserve existing habitat and restore degraded habitat. Given the drastic decline in the extent of longleaf pine-dominated communities (Ware<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1993), elevation of flatwoods salamander populations above present levels is unlikely. Restoration of degraded mesic, seasonally inundated longleaf pine flatwoods and savannas has not been attempted, and may only be feasible in cases where soil disturbance is minimal. The effectiveness of reintroduction into areas where extirpated is unknown.<br/><br/>High quality occurrences include several wetlands within a matrix of pine flatwoods and savanna. Based on the maximum distance adults are known to travel between reproductive and nonreproductive habitat (1.7 km), each breeding site should be surrounded by at least 10 sq km of terrestrial habitat. Long term perpetuation of a viable population of flatwoods salamanders will presumably require protection of a larger area of terrestrial habitat encompassing a suite of alternative breeding sites (Travis 1994). A suite of wetlands guards against extirpation at any one breeding site, since animals can immigrate from nearby wetlands. The minimum viable population size needed to sustain a population longterm is not known. Preliminary drift fence data at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, suggests that breeding population sizes are low relative to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ambystoma</span> (Palis, unpubl. data). However, this may be a site specific observation as larger breeding migrations have been observed elsewhere in the range (R. Moulis, pers. comm.). Presently, there is no method of assessing an occurrence based on the number of animals captured at a drift fence or the number of larvae inhabiting a breeding site.<br/><br/>Maintenance of intact mesic longleaf pine-wiregrass flatwoods and ephemeral wetlands by mimicking natural forces, such as lightning-season fire, is the most appropriate form of management. On sites where timber extraction is practiced, several precautions should be taken to limit the impact to flatwoods salamanders. Tree harvest should be restricted to dry periods to prevent soil compaction and rutting. Clearcutting should be replaced with selective timber harvest and natural regeneration enhanced by fire, particularly lightning-season fire. If off-site species such as slash pine have been planted, they should be removed and replaced with longleaf pine at densities found in nature. Mechanical preparation of the soil should be avoided. If a site supports mature, closed-canopy pine plantations, they should be thinned with as little disturbance to the soil and remaining groundcover as possible. The natural hydrology and fire regime of terrestrial and aquatic habitats should be restored on sites where altered. <br/><br/>The wetland/upland ecotone appears to be critical to successful flatwoods salamander reproduction. Some areas are in need of periodic burning to clear encroaching shrubby vegetation that shades out herbaceous ground cover (Palis and Jensen 1995). Maintenance of a graminaceous ecotone and breeding site will require burning in the lightning-season when wetlands are dry or nearly dry (Huffman and Blanchard 1990) . Bury et al. (1980) recommended that wiregrass not be burned in winter (destructive to wiregrass [used for egg attachment] and possibly to salamanders directly). Palis and Jensen (1995) stated that winter burns may be needed to avoid catastrophic fires when warm-season burning is initiated. <br/><br/>Mechanical disturbance of the wetland-upland ecotone should be avoided. The practice of "protecting" wetlands by encircling them with plow line should be abandoned. Where present, berms should be removed and drainage ditches filled. <br/><br/>Breeding ponds should not be dredged or stocked with fishes.<br/><br/>Demographic data are needed to better understand the natural history and, in particular, factors that limit population size (e.g., egg, larval, and metamorph survivorship; competition with other species). <br/><br/>Longterm drift-fence studies are needed at several nearby sites to examine inter-pond salamander movement and to delineate the range of natural population fluctuations. <br/><br/>More information is needed on the extent of upland habitat required to support a population breeding in a particular pond. Radiotelemetry or radioactive tagging of adults could be used to address this need. <br/><br/>Effects on salamander populations of different forms of resource management and of anthropogenic habitat disturbance need to be examined (Palis and Jensen 1995).	eng
136128	distribution		Range includes a small portion of the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from the Apalachicola and Flint rivers (western part of the Florida Panhandle and southwestern Georgia) westward (at least formerly) to extreme southwestern Alabama (Conant and Collins 1991, Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Based on 22 occurrences, and assuming 4 square kilometers per occurrence (actual value is unknown), area of occupancy would be 88 square kilometers; actual area of occupancy likely is larger than this.	eng
136128	habitat		The following information pertains to the Ambystoma cingulatum/bishopi complex as a whole.<br/><br/>Post-larval individuals inhabit mesic longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)-wiregrass (Aristida stricta) flatwoods and savannas. The terrestrial habitat is best described as a topographically flat or slightly rolling wiregrass-dominated grassland having little to no midstory and an open overstory of widely scattered longleaf pine. Low-growing shrubs, such as saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra) and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), co-exist with grasses and forbs in the groundcover. Groundcover plant diversity is usually very high. The underlying soil is typically poorly drained sand that becomes seasonally inundated. <br/><br/>Slash pine flatwoods is often cited as the preferred terrestrial habitat of the flatwoods salamander (e.g., Conant and Collins 1991). This may be the result of an error made by Martof (1968) in which he referred to longleaf pine as slash pine (Pinus elliottii). In addition, slash pine now dominates or co-occurs with longleaf pine in many pine flatwoods communities as a result of fire suppression and preferential harvest of longleaf pine (Avers and Bracy 1975). Historically, however, fire-tolerant longleaf pine dominated the flatwoods, whereas slash pine was confined principally to wetlands (Harper 1914, Avers and Bracy 1975). Post-larval individuals are fossorial (live underground) and occupy burrows (Goin 1950, Neill 1951, Mount 1975, Ashton 1992). Presumably, they remain underground during the lightning-season (May through September). Adults are rarely encountered under cover objects at or near breeding sites (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Breeding occurs in acidic (pH 3.6-5.6 (Palis, unpubl. data)), tannin-stained ephemeral wetlands (swamps or graminoid-dominated depressions) that range in size from 0.02 to 9.5 ha, and are usually not more than 0.5 m deep (Palis, unpubl. data). The overstory is typically dominated by pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) and slash pine, but can also include red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus). Canopy coverage ranges from near zero to almost 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The midstory, which is often very dense, is most often composed of young of the aforementioned species, myrtle-leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia), Chapman's St. John's-wort (Hypericum chapmanii), sandweed (Hypericum fasciculatum), titi (Cyrilla racemiflora), storax (Styrax americana), popash (Fraxinus caroliniana), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), vine-wicky (Pieris phillyreifolia), and bamboo-vine (Smilax laurifolia). Depending on closure of the canopy and midstory, the herbaceous groundcover of breeding sites can range from about 5% to nearly 100% (Palis, unpubl. data). The groundcover is dominated by graminaceous species, including beakrushes (Rhynchospora spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), panic grasses (Panicum spp.), bluestems (Andropogon spp.), jointtails (Manisurus spp.), three-awned grass (Aristida affinis), plumegrass (Erianthus giganteus), nutrush (Sclera baldwinii) and yellow-eyed grasses (Xyris spp.). The floor of breeding sites is riddled with the burrows of crayfish (genus Procambarus). Breeding sites are typically encircled by a wiregrass-dominated graminaceous ecotone. Breeding sites can include roadside ditches (Anderson and Williamson 1976; Palis, pers. obs.) and borrow pits (D. Stevenson, pers. comm.). Breeding sites often harbor fishes, the most typical species include pygmy sunfishes (Elassoma spp.), mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrookii), and banded sunfish (Enneacanthus obesus) (Palis, unpubl. data). Favorable breeding habitat lacks large predatory fishes. <br/><br/>Before breeding sites fill with water, eggs are deposited singly or in small groups on the ground beneath leaf litter, under logs and Sphagnum mats, at the base of grasses, shrubs or trees, or at the entrance to crayfish burrows (Anderson and Williamson 1976). In wetlands that fill incrementally, eggs are deposited amid graminaceous vegetation at the edge (J. Palis, pers. obs.). Egg deposition in shallow water also has been reported (Ashton 1992). Larvae hide amid inundated graminaceous vegetation by day, but will enter the water column at night (J. Palis, pers. obs.).	eng
136128	population		Surveys completed since 1990 indicate that 22 populations are known from across the historical range, with 2 in Georgia and the remainder in Florida (none known extant in Alabama) (USFWS 2005, Pauly et al. 2007).<br/><br/>Secretive habits of adults make population estimates difficult. Total adult population size presumably is at least 1,000, but actual number is unknown.<br/><br/>During extensive surveys of historical (pre-1990) breeding ponds, researchers recorded the species at only a small minority of formerly inhabited sites. Currently, the species presumably is declining in concert with continued loss of remaining intact pine flatwoods community (particularly degradation of groundcover). The rate of decline is unknown.	eng
136128	threats		Potential threats include conversion of pine flatwoods habitat for agriculture, silviculture, or commercial/residential development; drainage or enlargement (with subsequent introduction of predatory fishes) of breeding ponds; habitat alteration resulting from suppression of fire; mortality and collecting losses associated with crayfish harvest; and highway mortality during migration.  <br/><br/>The principal threat is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture, silviculture, and residential and commercial development. Modern silvicultural methods rely on altering soil hydrology, suppressing fire, shortening timber rotations, and replacing widely-spaced longleaf pine with dense plantations of slash pine. Loss of groundcover vegetation due to mechanical soil preparation, fire suppression, and shading by overstories of slash pine have been implicated in the decline in north Florida (Means et al. 1994, 1996).<br/><br/>Larvae are threatened in some wetlands by the harvest of crayfish as bait. Bait harvesters drag large hardware cloth buckets through inundated vegetation, dump the contents of the bucket on the ground, and then sort out the crayfish. Flatwoods salamander larvae taken in this manner are left to die or are collected as bait (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>The effect of herbicide or fertilization application on flatwoods salamanders is unknown. However, fertilization of plantations often results in eutrophication of wetlands, promoting algal blooms. Larval flatwoods salamanders have not been observed in algal-choked wetlands (J. Palis, pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Ditching or berming of small, isolated pond-cypress wetlands, a common practice when establishing slash pine plantations on mesic sites, results in lowered water levels and shortened hydroperiods (Marois and Ewel 1983). These hydrologic perturbations could prevent successful flatwoods salamander reproduction by preventing egg inundation or stranding larvae before they are capable of metamorphosis. Altered hydrology, in association with fire exclusion, results in a shift in dominance from pond-cypress to broad-leaved hardwoods that reduce herbaceous groundcover vegetation through shading (Marois and Ewel 1983). This may be detrimental since A. cingulatum larvae take shelter in herbaceous vegetation during the day.<br/><br/>Ephemeral pond-cypress depressions are sometimes converted into permanent water bodies, rendering them unsuitable for flatwoods salamander reproduction (J. Palis, pers. obs.). <br/><br/>A constant winter-burn fire plan could be detrimental (Ashton 1992). <br/><br/>See USFWS (1999) for additional information.	eng
136129	conservation	Edgar Lehr, 2008	No conservation measures are reported; however, in view that many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius</span> are considered to be declining, several conservation actions are recommended (see under Conservation Measures).	eng
136129	distribution	Edgar Lehr, 2008	The species is considered to be endemic to Peru. The type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. punctatus</span> is "Santa María de Valle, Huánuco", Province of Huánuco, Department of Huánuco, Peru. It is found in the provinces of Huánuco and Pachitea both in the Department of Huánuco, 2,300-3,000 m asl (Lehr 2005).	eng
136129	habitat	Edgar Lehr, 2008	This is a semi-aquatic frog. It inhabits permanent streams in puna and cloud forests (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136129	population	Edgar Lehr, 2008	This is considered to be a rare species (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136129	threats	Edgar Lehr, 2008	Major threats include water pollution derived from agriculture and the use of agrochemicals and waste derived from the mining industry, and deforestation. It is also possible that the species may be used as a food source and in traditional medicine (E. Lehr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136130	conservation	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The Río Apaza is at the edge of Carrasco National Park (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136130	distribution	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	<em>Telmatobius espadai</em> is known from the vicinity of Choquetanga Chico, Inquisivi Province, Department of La Paz, Bolivia, and from near Río Apaza, Province of Chapare, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. It is considered to be endemic and only known to occur in the two places where it was collected, which are ca 12 km (airline) from each other, 3,000-3,500 m asl (De la Riva 2005).	eng
136130	habitat	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	The species can be found in clear streams at the ceja de montaña, the upper limit of the cloud forest. Adult specimens were found both above and under water under trunks and stones, juveniles and tadpoles were found under stones and among aquatic plants in small rivulets and tributary branches of the main stream. <em>Telmatobius espadai</em> may be a moderately terrestrial species (De la Riva 2005). The species inhabits permanent streams (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136130	population	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	Adults and juveniles are difficult to find; tadpoles were found to be abundant throughout the year in 1990, but in 1994 intensive sampling efforts yielded no tadpoles, and only a single tadpole was found in 1998 (De la Riva 2005). The last tadpole seen showed clinical symptoms of chytridiomycosis. The species is currently considered to be extremely rare (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136130	threats	Ignacio De la Riva, 2008	There is habitat alteration at the Río Apaza location given its proximity to the road (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136131	conservation	Salvador Carranza, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in the El Montseny Natural Park, though this area is not managed to conserve this species. Research is needed to determine the species' ecological requirements, and to determine management options. A captive breeding programme started in 2007 and is being carried out by the Departament de Medi Ambien of the Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain. Measures are urgently needed to protect this species' habitat (e.g. to prevent mountain streams from drying out). This species is protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>C. asper</em>).	eng
136131	distribution	Salvador Carranza, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the El Montseny mountain massif situated in northeastern Spain. It has only been found in seven mountain streams, all within the boundaries of El Montseny Natural Park (Carranza and Amat 2005). It is found between 700 and 1,200m asl.	eng
136131	habitat	Salvador Carranza, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It lives in oligotrophic, cold (below 15°C) fast running waters, preferentially in beech forest (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) but also in holm oak forest (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), with patches of <em>Algnus glutinosa</em> (Carranza and Amat 2005). Neither juvenile nor adult <em>C. arnoldi</em> have been found on land  (Carranza and Amat 2005). If this behaviour is confirmed, the only way that contact among populations could occur is by moving down one watercourse and then up other tributaries of the same river system. It therefore seems possible that there is a considerable degree of isolation between the populations.	eng
136131	population	Salvador Carranza, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Its population is thought to number between 1,000 and 1,500 mature individuals, with an estimated rate of decline of 15% over the last 10 years. Preliminary demographic studies have been carried out in two streams. In three streams <em>Calotriton arnoldi</em> occurs at very low densities and in one stream it is extinct above 1,000m asl. Populations are declining in the upper parts of all the streams as the water table is being lowered. The population of <em>C. arnoldi</em> is divided into two sub-populations that occur on each side of a river valley. These two sub-population groups are genetically and morphologically differentiated (Carranza and Amat 2005).	eng
136131	threats	Salvador Carranza, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The drying out of mountain streams is the most immediate threat to this species. Large amounts of water are being extracted from El Montseny, and this is bottled and sold widely in Spain and Europe. As a result, El Montseny is drying out and the distribution of <em>Calotriton arnoldi</em> is being reduced dramatically. The low population size of the species could also be due to past human alteration of its original habitat (Carranza and Amat 2005). The species might also be affected by global warming. For instance, the beech (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) forest, an excellent habitat for <em>C. arnoldi</em>, has shifted upwards by 70m at the highest altitudes (1,600-1,700m asl) since 1945, and is being replaced by holm oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) forest at lower altitudes (800-1,400 m) (Peñuelas and Boada 2003). In other words, the most favoured woodland habitat of the species is moving up into areas where the streams are drying out.	eng
136132	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136132	distribution		Pristimantis pardalinus is only known from the type locality, vicinity of the village of Huasahuasi (11 16' 06.1" S, 75 39' 28.3" W) at 2640 masl  District of Huasahuasi, Province of Tarma, Department of Junín, Peru (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
136132	habitat		The species can be found in the Puna Ecoregion. Individuals have been found during the early afternoon in terrestrial bromeliads surrounded by the Peruvian Feather Grass (Stipa ichu) on a hillside (Lehr et al., 2006).	eng
136132	population		This species is common where there are terrestrial bromeliads (it depends on them), but the bromeliads themselves are not common (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136132	threats		Agriculture is ongoing in the region where this species occurs (E. Lehr, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136133	conservation		Populations have been recorded from the Península de Paria National Park, and a protected area established for the Turimiquire massif ("area protectora del macizo del Turimiquire") (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). It seems likely that the species might also be present in the Mochima National Park (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). Further studies are needed into the natural history of this newly described species, and into its long term tolerance of habitat modification.	eng
136133	distribution		This large species is endemic to northeastern Venezuela where it is mostly distributed in the State of Sucre and parts of adjacent Monagas and Anzoategui. Its range includes much of the Serranía de Turimiquire. The species has been recorded from 150 m asl (Heyer, 2005), but is likely to range between 50 and 500 m asl (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136133	habitat		This species is generally associated with tropical lowland forest, including both primary and secondary forest (Péfaur and Sierra, 1995; Heyer, 2005). Péfaur and Sierra (1995), recorded the species within secondary growth of mixed riparian and thory forests, with animals being found under rocks, in crevices or amongst dense vegetation. It has also been reported from formerly forested areas used for agriculture (Péfaur and Sierra, 1995; Heyer, 2005); additional details are needed on the persistence of populations in cleared sites. There is little additional information currently available for this species.	eng
136133	population		There are currently no esitmates of population abundance available for this species.	eng
136133	threats		Threats to this species include ongoing conversion of forested land to agricultural use (and previously also through the development of urban areas), and possibly harvesting of timber and wood (Enrique La Marca pers. comm. 2007). Péfaur and Sierra (1995), report that some experimental commercial frog farms in Brazil and Venezuela are using <em>Leptodactylus labyrinthicus</em>, within which<em> Leptodactylus turimiquensis</em> was formerly included, and they suggest that this may represent a threat to wild populations. It remains unclear if <em> Leptodactylus turimiquensis</em> is being commercially harvested, and if so, what impacts this may be having on wild populations.	eng
136134	conservation		At least several occurrences are in protected areas.	eng
136134	distribution		Range includes extreme southeastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Delmarva Peninsula of eastern Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia (Tobey 1985, Hulse et al. 2001, White and White 2002, Lemmon et al. 2007). Conant and Collins (1991) stated that the species ranges north to Staten Island, New York, but Gibbs et al. (2007) did not indicate any historical or extant occurrences of this frog in that area.	eng
136134	habitat		This frog occupies various moist habitats, including grassy floodplains and wet woodlands containing shallow wetlands (ephemeral pools, ditches, wooded swamps, freshwater marshes) in which breeding occurs (White and White 2002). Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation.	eng
136134	population		This species is represented by a large number of occurrences. Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This frog is common throughout the Coastal Plain of the Delmarva Peninsula (White and White 2002).<br/><br/>Trends are not well documented, but area of occupnacy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.	eng
136134	threats		No major threats are known, but locally the species likely has been reduced or eliminated as a result of conversion of habitat to human uses.	eng
136135	conservation	Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is protected by law in several provinces in Italy, and it is listed in Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in several protected areas, including the Abruzzo National Park.	eng
136135	distribution	Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	This species is endemic to peninsular Italy, mainly in the Appenine Mountains (where it is widespread), but also in other hilly areas to the west and east of the Appenines, south to the province of Caserta (Campania region) (south of this it is replaced by <em>Salamandrina terdigitata</em>). It is usually found at elevations between 200 and 900m asl, but can occur between 50 and 1,500m asl.	eng
136135	habitat	Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is mainly found in forests with dense undergrowth in hilly and mountainous areas, often in north-facing mountain valleys. Only females of this species are aquatic during the short oviposition phase for which well-oxygenated waters, slow running streams (usually with rocky beds), drinking troughs, and residual and vernal ponds (sometime of very small dimensions) are used. It appears to avoid seriously modified habitats. This species shows high site fidelity to breeding sites.	eng
136135	population	Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	It is sometimes difficult to find, but it is common in western parts of its range.	eng
136135	threats	Antonio Romano, Marco Mattoccia, Valerio Sbordoni, Franco Andreone, Claudia Corti, 2008	In parts of the species range there are some localized declines through habitat loss and aquatic pollution. But overall, it is not significantly threatened.	eng
136136	conservation		Jozani Forest is within the Proposed Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park, which, once gazetted, will include the largest known suitable within its boundaries. However, there is a need to establish how far individuals disperse into other habitats, such as coral rag thicket, after breeding, and to ensure that dry season refugia also receive suitable protection to ensure the survival of the species. A wider-ranging survey for the presence/absence of this species on Zanzibar is also needed.	eng
136136	distribution		This species is known only from Jozani Forest, and its surroundings, on Unguja island (Zanzibar) in Tanzania. It has been found at 0-50m asl.	eng
136136	habitat		It has been recorded around pools in ground water forest, where it breeds, and in the surrounding terrestrial<br/>habitats (forest and small-holder farmland). Juveniles and sub-adults were found outside the breeding season in coral rag thickets and plantation forest areas that were up to 3 km away from depressions within the Jozani Forest, which are the most likely breeding locations. The species appears to be a seasonal visitor to ephemeral breeding sites, but can disperse to distant areas. The habitat requirements of the species are still poorly known, but it is unlikely to survive in completely opened-up habitats.	eng
136136	population		There is little information currently available on its abundance.	eng
136136	threats		There is ongoing encroachment of thickets and forest of Unguja for small-scale agriculture and other human uses.	eng
136137	conservation		It occurs in the Obo National Park.	eng
136137	distribution		This species is endemic to São Tomé island, and the small island of Rolas, in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, Gulf of Guinea. It is present from sea level up to 1,412m asl.	eng
136137	habitat		It is a typical puddle frog, present in primary forest, farm bush (heavily degraded former forest), and abandoned plantations where wet conditions prevail. It breeds in most types of water, but it is not found in drainage ditches. It is generally not present close to human habitation.	eng
136137	population		It is generally common where it occurs.	eng
136137	threats		It is an adaptable species facing no immediate threats.	eng
136138	conservation		The species' range includes some protected areas. Surveys are needed to clarify the species' distribution, ecological requirement, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136138	distribution		This species is known from southern China, northern Viet Nam and northern Laos (Ohler, 2007). There are records from: Mengyang, in Yunnan province, China (Wu and Tian, 1995); Menglian and Jinghong in Yunnan province, and at Debao in Guangxi province, China (reported as <em>A. chunganensis</em>) (Fei <em>et al</em>., 1999); Fan Si Pan Mountain in Viet Nam (reported as <em>A. chunganensis</em>) (Ohler <em>et al</em>., 2000); the vicinity of Sa Pa village, in Lao Cai Province in northern Viet Nam (reported as <em>Rana daorum</em>) (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2003); Phou Louey<br/>Mountain, Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Vieng Tong District, in northern Laos (reported as <em>R. daorum</em>) (Stuart, 2005); and an unspecified location in Huaphahn Province, northern Laos (reported as <em>R. daorum</em>) (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). A photographic record from Hong Kong should be treated as unconfirmed. It probably occurs more widely than current records suggest, especially in areas between known sites. Known localities are between 680 and 1,900m asl.	eng
136138	habitat		This species lives in tropical forest on partially submerged rocks in waterfall cascades, as well as in vegetation adjacent to the streams. It presumably breeds in clear, flowing streams. It has not been found outside forest.	eng
136138	population		There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136138	threats		The specific threats to this species are not certain, but it is believed to be affected by forest loss arising due to smallholder farming, subsistence-level harvesting of wood and expanding human settlements.	eng
136139	conservation		It has been recorded from Phu Sri Tan Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Pha Namtip Non-hunting Area, and Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136139	distribution		This species is known from a few localities in northeastern Thailand (Matsui and Panha, 2006). There are records from: Phu Sri Tan Wildlife Sanctuary, in Kalasin Province, at 500m asl (Matsui and Panha, 2006); Phu Pha Namtip Non-hunting Area, in Roi Et Province (Matsui and Panha, 2006); and Phu Jong-Na Yoi National Park, in Na Chaloey District, Ubon Ratchatani Province, at 230-325m asl (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). It can be expected to occur more widely, in particular in areas between the currently known locations.	eng
136139	habitat		This species has been found in a variety of habitats: on the ground or in low vegetation near a rain-filled depression in igneous bedrock in deciduous dipterocarp forest with grassy understory; on the ground next to a seep running over solid rock substrate at the side of a road through deciduous dipterocarp forest; on vegetation 0.5–1.8m above a small, rocky stream and a small pond near a road through hilly evergreen forest; in a dried rocky streambed with small pools; and on the leaves of trees (<2m above the ground) along the bank of a small pond (Matsui and Panha, 2006; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Tadpoles have been found in a small stream pool with silt and leaf litter substrate in hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136139	population		There is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
136139	threats		The species has so far only been found in protected areas (Matsui and Panha, 2006; Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006), and so it is possible that there are no major threats to this species at these locations. However, it might be found in future at other sites that are less secure. The species is found on the "Thai-Lao Dry Plateau" (Inger, 1999), where much of the natural vegetation has been removed (Matsui and Panha, 2006) for agriculture and collecting of wood, and so the species has probably lost much of its original habitat.	eng
136140	conservation		The island does not have any legal conservation status under federal laws. In view of its small distribution and the absence of any enforcement, <em>S. faivovichi</em> should be in a threatened IUCN category (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
136140	distribution		<em>Scinax faivovichi</em> is known only from Ilha de Porcos Pequena (23 22' 32.6" S, 44 54' 01.6" W, C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008), a 24-ha island approximately 0.74 km from the northern coast of São Paulo state, Brazil (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The species occurs between 0-80 m asl (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136140	habitat		The species is restricted to the Ilha de Porcos Pequena, a privately-owned island covered by native preserved Atlantic Forest. Males of the species are known to call in the months of April, October, and December, although less so during April. They are nocturnal, calling from bromeliad leaves. Females were also found on bromeliad leaves. Tadpoles were found in bromeliad axils during October and December, suggesting that breeding season coincides with early summer rains in September/October (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136140	population		The species is abundant within the island, especially on rainy and hot nights (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136140	threats		Given its extremely restricted range and habitat specificity, <em>S. faivovichi</em> is believed to be susceptible to extinction because of habitat modification or disturbance (Brasileiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This modification includes destruction of the species' breeding habitat, bromeliads (C.A. Brasileiro pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136141	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136141	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinella hoogmoedi </span>is distributed along the Atlantic Rain Forest of Eastern Brazil, from the state of Ceará to the state of Paraná. There are three juvenile specimens from Leopoldina, state of Rio de Janeiro, collected in 1938. Currently, Leopoldina is inside the City of Rio de Janeiro and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. hoogmoedi </span>is not present in this city (Caramaschi and Pombal, 2006).	eng
136141	habitat		Individuals of Rhinella hoogmoedi may be found inside the forest at night, resting on vegetation a few centimeters above the ground. The reproduction is explosive, when males can be heard by day and night. Males vocalize on the ground or tree trunks up to 60 cm above the ground near ponds or slack water of rivulets inside forest or restinga (Caramaschi and Pombal, 2006).	eng
136141	population		There is no population status information available for this species.	eng
136141	threats		No major threats are known to this species.	eng
136142	conservation		It is likely to occur in the Udzungwa National Park, but has not so far been recorded from there.	eng
136142	distribution		This species occurs in the Uluguru Mountains and on the escarpment of the Udzungwa Mountains in eastern Tanzania. In the northern Udzungwa Mountains it occurs very close to the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Probreviceps rungwensis</span>, and the two species are possibly sympatric. It occurs in the montane and submontane zones, and its altitudinal range in the Udzungwa Mountains is 900–2,100 m asl, and in the Uluguru Mountains is 1,200 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
136142	habitat		It lives in montane and submontane forests, and can survive mild disturbance where good vegetation cover remains, but cannot tolerate complete forest clearance. It lives on the forest floor, where it is semi-fossorial. The eggs are deposited in burrows where they develop directly without a larval stage.	eng
136142	population		It is a common species.	eng
136142	threats		It is almost certainly being adversely affected by ongoing forest loss, especially for small-scale agriculture.	eng
136143	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136143	distribution		<em>Sphaenorhynchus caramaschii</em> is known to occur in the highlands (the type locality is at 910 masl) of the states of São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catarina; in Santa Catarina it also occurs in a lowland locality (about 150 masl)(Toledo et al., 2007).	eng
136143	habitat		The species can often be found in open and flooded areas, and permanent swamps, generally with deep waters (i.e. over 1m deep). Water bodies with floating vegetation are also favoured (L.F. Toledo, pers. comm. 2008). <em>Sphaenorhynchus caramaschii</em> can also be found in permanent and temporary ponds in open areas. Reproduction occurs in the rainy season (September-March), where males call from floating vegetation in ponds. Eggs are laid in lentic water, from which exotrophic tadpoles emerge. The eggs are attached individually to submerged vegetation (Toledo et al., 2007).	eng
136143	population		It seems to be an abundant species (Toledo et al., 2007).	eng
136143	threats		No threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136144	conservation	Pablo Venegas, 2008	It is reported to occur in the Área de Conservación Privada Huiquilla (Enciso et al., 2008).	eng
136144	distribution	Pablo Venegas, 2008	<em>Pristimantis corrugatus</em> is known from several localities at elevations of 3000–3300m asl in the regions of San Martín and Amazonas, Peru (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008). This area corresponds to the Cordillera Central in northern Peru (Duellman et al., 2006).	eng
136144	habitat	Pablo Venegas, 2008	The species is found in very humid montane forest and in patches of elfin forest. Individuals are found on leaves of low bushes, 30–150 cm above ground at night. Sympatric species at the different localities include <em>Colostethus</em> sp., <em>Pristimantis wagteri</em>, <em>Gastrotheca ossilaginis</em>, <em>Rhinella arborescandens</em>, <em>Centrolene lemniscatus</em>, <em>Pristimantis bromeliaceus</em>, <em>P. rufioculis</em>, <em>P. schultei</em>, <em>P. stictoboubonus</em>, <em>Gastrotheca ossilaginis</em> and <em>Telmatobius atahualpai</em> (Duellman et al., 2006).	eng
136144	population	Pablo Venegas, 2008	This species is considered to be relatively abundant (P. Venegas, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136144	threats	Pablo Venegas, 2008	Enciso et al. (2008) reported <em>Aeromonas caviae</em> and other bacteria from skin samples, where <em>P. corrugatus</em> was one of the sampled species. These authors suggest that there is a potential for infection and development of the disease if populations undergo stress.	eng
136145	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136145	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella kallawaya</span> is only known from the type locality, Caalaya (ca 3,600 m asl), Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). This site is found in the Cordillera de Apolobamba (De la Riva 2007). The species is thought to have restricted geographical and elevational (no more than 200 m) ranges (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136145	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits a moderately dry valley where there is extensive agricultural activity (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008). Individuals of this species are found in the wettest parts of a small area near a stream that flows into the Río Caalaya, approximately 900 m before reaching the village of Caalaya travelling from Charazani to Curva. The otherwise moderately dry area is cultivated; the type locality is perhaps the only suitable habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella </span>in the Caalaya Valley. Individuals are found under stones during the day<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(De la Riva 2007). This species presumably reproduces through direct development.	eng
136145	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This is considered to be a common species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136145	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Agriculture is a major threat to this species. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136146	conservation		The paratype comes from a forest study area of the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP, in Iquitos) called “Arboretum”. On one side, this area is not cleared (a regular net of trails is managed inside only). On the other hand a new campus of UNAP was built recently just at the margin of the “Arboretum”. This made this area accessible and considerably increased anthropogenic pressure to it. The holotype was collected in a territory which was (is?) a property of UNAP and the University had its field station there. Therefore, there is a chance that this area might be saved from the anthropogenic changes taking place in its surroundings, although the university's long-term plans are unknown. A nature reserve lies between both localities, which could provide the species with necessary protection (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The occurrence of <em>Chiasmocleis magnova</em> in the Zona Reservada Allpahuayo-Mishana has to be confirmed (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).	eng
136146	distribution		The species is only known from the surroundings of Iquitos (04 00’ S, 73 26’ W and 03 50’ S, 73 22’ W, ca. 120 masl), Department of Loreto, Peru (Moravec and Köhler, 2007).	eng
136146	habitat		<em>Chiasmocleis magnova</em> can be found in disturbed unflooded Amazonian lowland forest with sandy substrates and in disturbed terra firme forest at the alluvial zone. Individuals can be found during the daytime, within the leaf litter or on top of fallen trees. They appear to feed on ants, and the presence of large unpigmented eggs in the holotype suggests terrestrial mode of reproduction. Other microhylids found in sympatry with <em>C. magnova</em> include <em>Chiasmocleis bassleri</em> and <em>Hamptophryne boliviana<em>. Males and larvae of <em>C. magnova</em> are unknown (Moravec and Köhler, 2007).<br/><br/>The holotype is a gravid female collected in March. Therefore, it is possible that the species reproduces at least in the wettest period of the year (February-May) (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).	eng
136146	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136146	threats		Threats include deforestation and urbanization of the landscape, road network building and white sand mining (J. Moravec, pers. comm.).	eng
136147	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136147	distribution		Phyllodytes maculosus is known to occur in northeastern Minas Gerais and southern Bahia, specifically, in the Municipality of Bandeira (15 49’ S, 40 30’ W; 837 masl), state of Minas Gerais, and Municipality of Mascote (15 34’ S, 39 17’ W), state of Bahia, Brazil (Cruz et al., 2006).	eng
136147	habitat		The species is found in Atlantic rainforest.	eng
136147	population		No population status information is currently available.	eng
136147	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136148	conservation		The species occurs within the confines of El Cusuco National Park.	eng
136148	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Isthmohyla melacaena</span> is known to occur in El Cusuco National Park, 15 31' N, 88 12' W, 1370–1990 m elevation, Department of Cortes, Honduras, and "mountains west of San Pedro, Honduras"’ (see McCranie and Castañeda, 2007).	eng
136148	habitat		The species is known from 1370 to 1990 m elevation in pine forest with an understory of broad leaf shrubs and grasses and in broadleaf cloud forest. Many bromeliads occur on the pine trees at the type locality, which lies on a hillside at least 150 m from the nearest streams or rivers (McCranie and Castañeda, 2006). The other known specimens were also probably associated with bromeliads. Tadpoles have also been collected in bromeliads (J.R. McCranie and F. Castañeda, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Males call at night from 1-2 m above the ground, a female was found at ca 3 m above the ground. The species appears to retreat into bromeliads (3-5 m high) during the daytime. Bromeliohyla bromeliacia was found in sympatry with I. melacaena (McCranie and Castañeda, 2006).	eng
136148	population		This is considered to be a common species (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136148	threats		Habitat destruction outside of El Cusuco National Park (J.R. McCranie, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136149	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
136149	distribution		This species occurs in the Usambara (East and West) and Nguu Mountains in Tanzania. Its altitudinal range is not fully known, but it is a species of medium to high altitudes. Records from the coastal plain of Tanzania require confirmation.	eng
136149	habitat		It is a forest-dependent species, and does not survive in degraded habitats. It breeds in swampy valley bottoms and temporary pools in closed-canopy forest.	eng
136149	population		It is abundant where it occurs.	eng
136149	threats		The main threat is habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment, logging, and expanding human settlements. Its habitat in the East Usambara Mountains has recently come under serious threat as a result of the activities of illegal gold miners.	eng
136150	conservation	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136150	distribution	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psychrophrynella saltator</span> is only known from the type locality, ca 15 km (by road) from Charazani on the road to Apolo (2,550 m asl), Province of Saavedra, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva 2007). It may occur in other nearby localities, although likely not far from the type locality (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136150	habitat	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits a region of semi-humid forest in the otherwise dry valley of the Río Charazani in the Cordillera de Apolobamba. Calling activity was recorded for the month of November, males call at night. Individuals have been found in a small patch of disturbed forest on both sides of the road. Males call while perched on plants 50 cm above the ground. These frogs are agile and able to jump (De la Riva 2007). This species is presumed to reproduce by direct development.	eng
136150	population	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This is an abundant species at the type locality.	eng
136150	threats	De la Riva, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Agriculture, deforestation, habitat fragmentation and desertification have been observed at the type locality. In addition, a restricted geographic distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g., drying up of regions) are considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136151	conservation		Its only known site is not in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.	eng
136151	distribution		This species has been recorded only from Yapen Island, Cenderawasih Bay in Papua Province, in the Indonesian part of New Guinea. The only records are from near the road to Ambaiduru Village, about 17 km in a direct line northeast of Serui, at 1,000 to 1,100m a.s.l. on Amoman Mountain (1°45´S and 136°19´E). It almost certainly occurs more widely on Yapen Island, and could well occur on the New Guinea mainland (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
136151	habitat		All records have been from near a road traversing a partly logged mossy rainforest. Their calling sites are in small holes 5-20 cm below he surface, beneath trees or shrubs. Most animals occurred in loose groups. It is unlikely to be able to survive in completely opened-up habitats (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
136151	population		It is common in its only know location (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
136151	threats		It is probably affected by selective logging and clear felling of its habitat (R. Günther, pers. comm.).	eng
136152	conservation		It occurs in the Amani Nature Reserve (Tanzania), the Nyika National Park (Malawi), and is almost certainly present in the Udzungwa National Park (Tanzania), and probably in several other protected areas.	eng
136152	distribution		This species ranges from Malindi in coastal Kenya, south across eastern and southern Tanzania to the highlands of Malawi. It is presumed to occur in northern Mozambique and perhaps in extreme northeastern Zambia, but there are not yet any records from these countries. It occurs from sea level, up to over 2,000m asl.	eng
136152	habitat		It lives in several habitats, including dry forest, moist forest, humid savannah woodland, and bush land. It can survive in somewhat degraded habitats, but cannot tolerate complete opening up of its habitat. The males call from vegetation around pools, where they breed.	eng
136152	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
136152	threats		Although somewhat adaptable, there is a limit to the amount of opening up of its habitat that it can tolerate, and so it is probably impacted by agricultural expansion, logging, and increasing human settlements. It is sometimes found in the international pet trade but at levels that do not currently constitute a major threat.	eng
136153	conservation		It occurs in the Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
136153	distribution		This species is currently known from only two localities in Laos and Viet Nam: in Houay Ting Tou Stream and Houay Duen Stream in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, in Nakai District, Khammouan Province, Laos, at 700m asl; and in Po Xi Stream between Mang Xang and Ngoc Lay Villages, in Dak Glei District (formerly part of Dac To District), Kon Tum Province, Viet Nam, at 1,500m asl (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, especially in the extensive area of mountains along the Lao-Vietnamese border between the two currently known sites.	eng
136153	habitat		This species has been found in or close to streams in evergreen forest (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). They have been found on vegetation up to 5m above the ground, and  on rocks and bushes within the splash zone of a large cascade (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). Amplexing pairs have found very close to a cascade, either on the ground or on wide leaves of Araceae plants, and on a gravel bank on the edge of a stream pool (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006). The tadpoles remain unknown (Bain <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136153	population		It is a locally abundant species (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
136153	threats		The species is probably affected by forest loss for agriculture and logging (R. Bain, pers. comm.).	eng
136154	conservation		Given its widespread occurrence it is possible that this species may be found within protected areas.	eng
136154	distribution		Pseudis boliviana is distributed from the mouth of the Amazon valley of Brazil to northern Bolivia (Frost, 2007).	eng
136154	habitat		The species inhabits lowland Amazonian rainforest. It is an aquatic species.	eng
136154	population		No population status is currently available for this species.	eng
136154	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136155	conservation	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	The species is known to occur within established protected areas (e.g. Tambopata National Reserve, Manu National Park, both in Peru)(A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136155	distribution	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species occurs in Amazonian Brazil, northern Bolivia and southeastern Peru, from 10 to 999 m elevation (Funk et al., in press).	eng
136155	habitat	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	Physalaemus freibergi can be found in lowland Amazon rainforest. It is usually found amidst the leaf litter in primary forest. A nocturnal species, males call at night from the leaf litter in the vicinity of temporary ponds and slow-moving streams. The breeding period coincides with the rainy season (December-March), during which time foam nests are deposited on the surface of ponds (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136155	population	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	This species varies from rare to common in several localities of Madre de Dios, southeastern Peru (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136155	threats	Ariadne Angulo, 2008	No major threats are known for this species, although some populations could be affected by local deforestation outside of protected areas (A. Angulo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136156	conservation		Its only known site is not in a protected area. Surveys are needed to determine the status, distribution and ecological requirements of the species, and to determine whether or not there are any threats. If its range proves to be genuinely small, a protected area should be established.	eng
136156	distribution		This species is known only from a mountainous area in the centre of Yapen island (off the northern coast of New Guinea), in Papua Province, Indonesia. All specimens were encountered in a 50 m wide and one km long strip on Amoman Mountain at 900-1,150m a.s.l., along the road to the village of Ambaidiru (at 1°45´S and 136°19´E). The species is likely to occur at least a little more widely on Yapen island. It might well be endemic to the island, but this is not yet certain.	eng
136156	habitat		Most specimens have been encountered in primary rainforest either directly on soil or on leaf litter under bushes and trees where small hollows are preferred. No specimens have been seen climbing on leaves or hidden underground. Patches of secondary vegetation which have replaced the original rainforest in some places were also inhabited, but at a lower density. It is throught that the species could not survive in completely opened-up habitats (R. Günther pers. comm.). The species presumably breeds by direct development, depositing its eggs in damp terrestrial habitats, without dependence on aquatic ecosystems.	eng
136156	population		It is common in its only known site. Searches for it at lower-elevations have not been successful (R. Günther pers. comm.).	eng
136156	threats		The habitat in its only known site is not threatened at the moment (R. Günther pers. comm.). If clear-felling takes place in future, this would be very detrimental to the species.	eng
136157	conservation		The information available thus far suggests U. daviesae is restricted to the sand sheets of the Howard River and the Elizabeth River, and it has not been identified outside of these catchments (Young <em>et al</em>., 2005). Additional surveys across a broader range of northern Australia designed to target <em>U. daviesae</em> would be valuable to confirm twhether or not its distribution is genuinely restricted. It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
136157	distribution		This species has only been recorded from sandsheet areas in the Howard River catchment and the Elizabeth River catchment, south of Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia. It might occur more widely.	eng
136157	habitat		It has been found in open savannah/<em>Grevillea</em> woodland, on ephemerally flooded sands with short to medium-height grasses; sedges and herbs are dominant in the understory (Young <em>et al</em>., 2005). The main breeding areas are characterized by shallow pools with small mounds (possibly termite) with clumps of grass growing over the tops, sparse tea tree <em>Leptospermum</em> spp., and <em>Banksia</em>. Several species of carnivorous plants, such as sundews (<em>Drosera</em> spp.) and bladderworts (<em>Utricularia</em> spp.), are common within the habitat. Most male <em>U. daviesae</em> were observed calling from small chambers at the base of sand mounds within flooded grassland, either on wet sand or in very shallow water.	eng
136157	population		Populations of this species have been found throughout the Howard River catchment (Young <em>et al</em>., 2007), suggesting that it is common through its small known range.	eng
136157	threats		There is no information on threats, though it occurs in an area of limited human impact.	eng
136158	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
136158	distribution		This species is widely distributed on Manus, Los Negros, Rambutyo and Pak Islands in the Admiralty Archipelago, Papua New Guinea.  It is found from 5 up to at least 296m asl, and is generally a lowland species (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136158	habitat		This species occurs in lowland rainforest, but also in degraded habitats (including grassy paddocks in the centre of Lorengau Town) and rural gardens. Males called from exposed or semi-exposed positions in forest litter, or from the base of grass tussocks in disturbed garden habitats, at night after heavy rain (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species occurred in micro-sympatry with <em>P. admiraltiensis</em>, and calling males of the two species were frequently spaced less than 50 cm apart (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2007). It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136158	population		It is an abundant species.	eng
136158	threats		It is an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
136159	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas.	eng
136159	distribution		This species is known only from southernmost Papua New Guinea from sea-level up to 600m asl (although in fact almost all records are from near sea-level, and higher-elevation records might refer to wanderers or non-self-sustaining populations (F. Kraus pers. comm.). There are records from Fergusson, Goodenough and Normanby islands in the D'Entrecasteaux Group, the Pini Range at the west end of Milne Bay, and the southern Owen Stanley Mountains in Milne Bay Province. It could possibly occur a little more widely in extreme southeastern New Guinea, but it is not likely to be very widespread (F. Kraus pers. comm.). Its area of occupancy is probably only a very small proportion of its extent of occurrence.	eng
136159	habitat		This species is associated slow- and faster-flowing streams, ditches, and <em>Pandanus</em> swamps, in disturbed grassy habitats and villages (Kraus and Allison, 2007). The frogs are encountered sitting within watercourses or alongside<br/>their edges, but never even a few meters away in adjacent forest (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Animals from sea-level in the D’Entrecasteaux islands occupied areas within a few metres of the sea and at least one of these streams on Normanby Island was subject to tidal flux (Kraus and Allison, 2007). Although it can clearly adapt to anthropogenic habitats, there is probably a limit to the amount of disturbance that it can tolerate (F. Kraus pers. comm.).	eng
136159	population		It is an uncommon species, occurring sparsely and in moderate numbers (F. Kraus pers. comm.). The D'Entrecasteaux Islands seem to be the species' stronghold, but on the New Guinea mainland in Milne Bay Province it has not been found in several locations otherwise appear to be suitable for it (F. Kraus pers. comm.).	eng
136159	threats		Although this species can adapt to certain anthropogenic habitats, it has a small range, sparse numbers, and is restricted to elevations that tend to be moderately to heavily disturbed by humans. Its status is therefore of concern.	eng
136160	conservation	Andreone, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	Two of the know localities, Iamabahatsy and Sakamalio, are within the Parc National de l’Isalo. Outside this protected area conservation measures are needed to protected the species' habitat from the effects of fires and mining.	eng
136160	distribution	Andreone, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is currently known from only three localities (Andriamanero, Iamabahatsy and Sakamalio) in the northern part of the Isalo Massif, between 640 and 689 m asl (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). It might occur a little more widely in the Isalo Massif. It is inferred that the potential distribution includes forest habitats along streams of the Isalo area, within and outside the protected areas boundaries (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008, Mercurio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
136160	habitat	Andreone, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	This species has been found in large canyons with running water in the river bed between stones, as well as in the gallery forest. Calling males were observed at night on leaves in the forest at about 50–150 cm above the ground (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). Its breeding is not known, but is presumably by larval development in streams.	eng
136160	population	Andreone, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	There is little information, although individuals were found in suitable gallery forest habitat calling 10-20 m from each other (Mercurio and Andreone 2007). It is presumed that the population is declining with the associated continuing habitat loss.	eng
136160	threats	Andreone, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	On of the known localities, Andriamanero is outside the boundaries of the Parc National de l’Isalo. Threats affecting this area include the extensive prairie burning leading to the loss of gallery forest, and habitat alteration due to the excavation of mines for sapphires, an activity that has a great potential for long-term persistence and is thus seriously threatening the Isalo biodiversity (Duffy 2006).	eng
136161	conservation		It is known only from a restricted area within the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project Area. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136161	distribution		This species is currently known only from Moran in the Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project (KICDP) Area in the Southern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea (6°14.363'S, 143°07.660'E) at an altitude of 1,800m asl (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). This species was not detected at numerous sites at lower elevations in the KICDP area, and was also absent from higher sites on Mount Sisa (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). It is possible that this species is restricted to a relatively narrow altitudinal range within the KICDP.	eng
136161	habitat		This species is found in lower-montane rainforest on steep limestone in dangerous terrain that included deep hidden sink-holes (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). The frogs call from elevated positions between 0.2-0.5m above ground in dense mossy montane forest after heavy rain at night (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). No calling was heard on dry nights (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007). Males called from within curled leaves in dense low foliage and are extremely difficult to detect (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007).  It presumably breeds by direct development without dependence on water.	eng
136161	population		Many individuals were heard calling at its only known site (Richards <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136161	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136162	conservation		There are currently no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Given the presumed rapid population decline, it appears that urgent conservation actions are needed. Further population surveys of the type locality and possibly suitable sites are needed to locate and monitor remnant populations (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004). The species is not known from any protected areas, but consideration should be given to protecting the remaining habitat at the type locality. General studies are additionally needed into the breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
136162	distribution		<em>Atelopus epikeisthos</em> has been recorded only from the type locality of 7 km East of Chachapoyas, in the eastern Cordiillera Central of Departamento de Amazonas, northern Peru (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). The type collection took place in a small ravine along the road from Chachapoyas to Molinopampa. The ravine stream flows into the Río Sonche, a tributary of the Río Utcubamba, which flows into the Río Marañón (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).	eng
136162	habitat		The single collected specimen was found in a small remnant of humid montane forest with tree fern vegetation (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). The specimen was collected walking on the floor (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2004). It is not known if the species can persist in heavily disturbed forest. Although the breeding biology of this species is not known, it is presumed to undergo larval development within streams. The specimen was found along a permanent stream, and it is expected that <em>A. epikeisthos</em> is (at least seasonally) a riparian species, as are many other <em>Atelopus</em> in similar environments (S. Lötters, pers. comm.).	eng
136162	population		The species is known only from the holotype collected in 1989. No animals were observed during a visit to the type locality in 2002 (Lötters<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).	eng
136162	threats		By 2002, the remaining forest at the type locality had almost entirely been cleared through conversion of land to cattle pasture and corn fields (Lötters <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It seems plausible that remaining populations of this species would be susceptible to the disease chytridiomycosis that has been implicated in the decline of several congeners.	eng
136163	conservation		It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
136163	distribution		This species is known only from an unspecified locality in Sri Lanka. It is considered to be Extinct.	eng
136163	habitat		There is no information, though it is likely to be associated with forest. It presumably bred by direct development, like other members of its genus.	eng
136163	population		This species has not been found since the holotype was collected prior to 1859. Extensive surveys in Sri Lanka in recent years have not located the species, and it is now believed to be Extinct.	eng
136163	threats		No information is available, though the species is likely to have disappeared due to loss of forest.	eng
136164	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136164	distribution		This species is known from two sites in New Guinea: 5.5 km west of Tabubil township, in Western Province, Papua New Guinea (5°17’30”S and 141°11’55”E;) at 500m asl; and adjacent to the Tiri River, Mamberamo Drainage, in Papua Province, Indonesia (3°17’30”S, 138°34’53”) at 80m asl (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It is expected to occur more widely, especially in suitable habitat in intervening areas (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006).	eng
136164	habitat		This species is likely to be a canopy dweller and may glide given its extensively webbed fingers and toes (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It has been found in lowland rainforest in areas of very high rainfall (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006). It is presumed to breed by larval development, and may lay eggs in swamps or ponds on the forest floor, and/or in small canopy ponds (those trapped in tree forks and hollows and regularly replenished by high rainfall) (Dennis and Cunningham, 2006).	eng
136164	population		There is no information on its abundance. Only two specimens have ever been found, but it might be a canopy species which is hard to detect.	eng
136164	threats		There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136165	conservation		The species occurs within the Cotapata National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management (PN-ANMI Cotapata).	eng
136165	distribution		Psychrophrynella chacaltaya is known from the type locality, Sanja Pampa (16 15' 13.8" S, 68 01' 41.8" W, 3900 masl), Province of Nor Yungas, Department of La Paz, and the nearby locality of Zongo Valley (16 11' 47"S, 68 07' 35" W, 3600 masl), 1.7 km above Central Botijlaca, Province of Murillo, Department of La Paz, Bolivia (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136165	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found under stones or amid grasses and mosses in paramo, usually occupying different<br/>microhabitats with a variable degree of humidity, commonly around small lakes which are sometimes associated with Polylepis formations. Males can be heard to call by day and night, with or without rain (De la Riva, 2007). <br/><br/>The species presumably has direct development.	eng
136165	population		The species seems to be scarce in the Zongo Valley, as compared to Cotapata (De la Riva, 2007).	eng
136165	threats		The species could be affected by the removal of Polylepis formations and agriculture in Zongo Valley. In addition, its restricted distribution and the predicted effects of climate change (e.g. drying up of regions) are also considered to pose serious threats to the species (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136166	conservation		The species occurs within the boundaries of Manu Biosphere Reserve. It may also occur in other neighbouring protected areas (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136166	distribution		Oreobates lehri is known from the type locality in the Apurimac River Valley (Apurimac River Valley, Camisea Natural Gas Pipeline, Wayrapata Camp, 2445 masl, 12 50' 10" S, 73 29' 43" W, Department of Cusco, Peru), and from two localities in the Kosñipata Valley (Pillahuata, between Puente Kosñipata and road, 2430 masl, 13 09' 52" S, 71 35' 46" W, and Esperanza, Kosñipata Valley, 2600–2800 masl, 13 10' 56" S, 71 36' 14" W), Department of Cusco, Peru. Both localities are separated by an airline distance of ca 200 km (Padial et al., 2007).	eng
136166	habitat		This species inhabits cloud forests, where individuals have been found on the ground. A gravid female was found during the dry season, suggesting that the species may reproduce throughout the year (I. De la Riva, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136166	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136166	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136167	conservation		Most of the species' distribution lies within the “Amazonian Park” of French Guiana. However, there are problems with illegal mining and associated pollution in the park (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136167	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Allobates granti</span> is currently known from French Guiana, at elevations between 100-730 masl.	eng
136167	habitat		This is a diurnal, forest-dwelling species not closely associated with bodies of water. Males are territorial and call from the leaf litter. Reproduction does not seem to be seasonally constrained, as courtship and tadpoles were observed in February and March, and females collected in February, April, May July and November contained mature eggs. An egg clutch was found to have 9 fertile eggs (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
136167	population		This is considered to be an uncommon species, and found in small isolated populations at Arataye and Nouragues, French Guiana (Kok et al., 2006).	eng
136167	threats		There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
136168	conservation		One of the localities, Andranobe, is a special reserve embedded within the Masoala National Park, but the other known localities are outside any protected area. Research is needed to identify ecological requirements and threats and determine its distributional extent.	eng
136168	distribution		This species has been recorded only from the western coast and slope of the Masoala Peninsula in northeastern Madagascar at 10-780 m asl. It is currently known from the following localities: Ambanizana; Andasin’I Governora; Andranobe; Antsarahan’Ambararato; and Menamalona. Ambanizana and Andranobe are on or near the coast, while the others are farther inland on the slopes. A specimen from Nosy Mangabe island could belong to either this species, or to <span style="font-style: italic;">Anodonthyla boulengeri</span>.	eng
136168	habitat		This species has been found during the day and night at 0–3 m above the ground, but it has only been found calling or out of refuges at night. Six of eight specimens found in 2001 were found in phytotelmata (tree holes), while the other two were found moving freely on a tree trunk and vine respectively. Male-female pairs with eggs have been found in water-filled tree holes. The species is presumably dependent upon moist forest habitat, though,like other members of its genus, it can probably survive in somewhat altered forest..	eng
136168	population		It is a rather common species within its small range.	eng
136168	threats		Deforestation is a serious threat on the Masoala Peninsula, especially due to small-holder agriculture and extraction of timber.	eng
136169	conservation		The species occurs within Kaieteur National Park.	eng
136169	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypsiboas liliae</span> can be found on the Kaieteur Plateau (5 10'51" N, 59, 28'57" W), ca 400 m elevation, and vicinity of Elinkwa River (5 10' 06" N, 59 23' 41" W), ca 550 m elevation, Kaieteur National Park, Potaro-Siparuni district, Guyana (Kok, 2006). The species was also heard calling at the Guyana-Brazil border. It is likely widespread in the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. It is found between 400-1200 m elevation (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136169	habitat		Hypsiboas liliae can be found in primary forest and edge of primary forest with savannah, in the proximity of large bromeliads. Individuals call from high elevations (above 10-15 m) in trees (Kok, 2006) in the month of March.	eng
136169	population		This is considered to be a rare species at known sites (P. Kok, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136169	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136170	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas, but might occur in some.	eng
136170	distribution		This species is known with certainty only from the Tanzanian coast between Dar es Salaam and Tanga, inland to the foothills of the West Usambara Mountains (M. Pickersgill pers. comm.). There is an unconfirmed record from Lake Kenyatta in coastal Kenya (Pickersgill 2007). There are records from very close to sea-level, up to 429m asl in the West Usambara footlhills.	eng
136170	habitat		It has been found calling from puddles and pools, occupying areas with denser fringing vegetation than <em>Phrynobatrachus mababiensis</em>. It has also been in sites where dense bush has been cleared for vegetable plots. The little available evidence suggests that it survives well in habitats modified by humans. It breeds in water by larval development.	eng
136170	population		It is locally abundant, but little data are available, as it has probably been confused with other species.	eng
136170	threats		It is probably an adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
136171	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
136171	distribution		Oreophrynella dendronastes is only known from the type locality and immediate vicinities: northeast slope of Mount Ayanganna (5 24.11' N, 59 57.41' W, 1490–1550 masl) District 7, Guyana (Lathrop and MacCulloch, 2007).	eng
136171	habitat		Individuals of this species can be found on broad-leaf vegetation at a height of 1.5 m or more between 2000–2400 h. Their discovery coincided with very humid evenings in which it had either rained all day, or was in the early stages of<br/>a downpour. Oreophrynella dendronastes appeared to be relatively active at night. Individuals have been found on their own, and no breeding groups have been observed. Seven of the eight females of the type series have 20 or more small ova (<0.5 mm) in one ovary; in five specimens the ova are in the left ovary, while in two specimens the ova are in the right ovary (Lathrop and MacCulloch, 2007).	eng
136171	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136171	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136172	conservation		No conservation measures are known for this species. However, there is ample habitat to support this species on three tepui cloud forests, which are extensive on these tepuis, and the tepuis are not suitable for human agriculture or occupancy (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136172	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis jester</span> is known from the tops of the two highest summits (Mt. Wokomung and Little Ayanganna) of the Wokomung Massif of west-central Guyana (1411–1650 masl)(Means and Savage, 2007). It is also possible that the species may be found on Mt. Maringma to the east of Wokomung (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136172	habitat		The species inhabits dense cloud forest approaching tepui scrub forest. The trees are no more than 10 m high with trunks, stems, and leaves densely covered with epiphytes ranging from mosses and a gooey, slimy alga to bromeliads and large aroids. The forest included trees of the genera Podocarpus, Weinmannia, and Clusia. Individuals of this species were collected at about 2 m off the ground during light rain alternating with cloudy skies and blowing mists (Means and Savage, 2007).	eng
136172	population		Only 4 or 5 individuals have been found during four expeditions to the Wokomung Massif.  It seems to be as uncommon as or more so than <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis dendrobatoides</span> (B. Means, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136172	threats		No major threats have been observed for this species. Introduced microbes and/or chemicals could be an unobservable threat (B. Means pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136173	conservation		This species is not known to occur in any protected areas in Ecuador.	eng
136173	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus onorei</span> is only known from near Río Chipla (2 47' 24" S, 79 21' 36" W, ca. 2,500 m asl), 10–15 Km E Luz María, and a nearby creek, in the Azuay Basin of the Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador, Azuay Province, Ecuador (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136173	habitat		The species inhabits humid cloud montane forest on the Pacific versant of the Cordillera Occidental. Individuals were found close to running water, and were active during the day, with numerous pairs found in amplexus. A female was found to contain 133 ovarian eggs ca 2.14 mm in diameter. The species occurs in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nanay</span> at one of the localities (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The species requires a permanent source of water (L. Coloma pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136173	population		Although this species was previously abundant at the type locality, no individuals have been found after 1990, despite at least four occasional search efforts to locate the species at the same site as before and surroundings (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136173	threats		The area of occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus onorei</span> is close is to areas where climate abnormalities have occurred and <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Telmatobius </span>extinctions have been reported. They are also close to areas where the chytrid fungus has occurred, or its presence is predicted. Given this scenario and considering the overwhelming evidence that <span style="font-style: italic;">Atelopus</span> has been affected by these two key factors in the highlands, it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">A. onorei</span> may be extinct, although the possibility of existing relictual populations may not be overlooked (Coloma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
136174	conservation		The species is known to occur in a protected area, Peninsula de Paria, National Park. However, shifting agriculture is a common practice in the region, including within the realm of the national park (Manzanilla et al., 2007).	eng
136174	distribution		Mannophryne venezuelensis is found on the slopes of the Península de Paria, Municipality of Arismendi, state of Sucre, Venezuela, from near sea level to about 600 masl (Manzanilla et al., 2007).	eng
136174	habitat		The species is found in and around mountain streams, some individuals have been found in a stream that runs through a cocoa field (Manzanilla et al., 2007).	eng
136174	population		No population status information is available for this species.	eng
136174	threats		Major threats to this species include traditional shifting agriculture and use of agrochemicals in upstream coffee and cocoa plantations (Manzanilla et al., 2007).	eng
136175	conservation		The species occurs within Itatiaia National Park.	eng
136175	distribution		Gastrotheca ernestoi can be found in the Serra dos Órgãos, but extends to the Serra do Mar and Serra da Mantiqueira, in the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).	eng
136175	habitat		Gastrotheca ernestoi is an inhabitant of the Atlantic rain forest. It occurs in sympatry with Gastrotheca albolineata and Gastrotheca fulvorufa at Serra dos Órgãos (Caramaschi and Rodrigues, 2007).	eng
136175	population		No population status is available for this species.	eng
136175	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136176	conservation		It probably occurs within the Masoala National Park, though this has yet to be confirmed. It is considered that the presence of this park is favourable for the conservation of the species (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
136176	distribution		This species has been collected only from the type locality of Menamalona, Antalaha Fivondronana, Antsiranana Faritany (Diégo Suarez Province) at 780 m asl on the Masoala Peninsula of northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is suspected to occur more widely at low and middle-elevation forests on the Masoala Peninsula, and perhaps elsewhere in northeastern Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
136176	habitat		This species has only been recorded from unaltered tropical moist forest (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It has been collected from a small pool near a stream and is expected to be an explosive breeder during the wet season, and to have a larval development stage (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species has not been recorded from heavily modified habitat and might be restricted to mature tropical moist forest (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
136176	population		This species is currently known only from the type series.	eng
136176	threats		The species is considered to be generally threatened by the ongoing rapid deforestation of its habitat in Madagascar (Andreone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
136177	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution (in particular whether or not it is known from any other islands, such as Misima and Rossel), ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136177	distribution		This species is probably endemic to Sudest (Tagula) Island in the Louisiade Archipelago, off the southeastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There are records from Vanua Mountain and the western slopes of Mount Rio at 127-410m asl, and it probably occurs through most or all of Sudest Island (Kraus, 2007; Hiaso and Richards, 2006). Local people have also reported it from the vicinity of Araeda, on the north coast of the island. This species was not found on surveys of the nearby Rossel and Misima islands, the other large islands of the Louisiade Archipelago.	eng
136177	habitat		This arboreal species is associated with primary lowland rainforest (Kraus, 2007; Hiaso and Richards, 2006). Most specimens were found around the margins of a muddy, largely dried, oxbow pond along a slow-flowing river (Kraus, 2007). Adults and tadpoles were also located around or in water-filled pig wallows on ridges up to 410m asl, far from any natural standing water (Kraus, 2007). Local people haves reported that the species also inhabits sago swamps and other areas with standing water (Kraus, 2007). It can probably tolerate some habitat disturbance, but not complete opening up of its habitat. The eggs are attached to leaves and suspended over water (Kraus, 2007).	eng
136177	population		It is probably a moderately common species.	eng
136177	threats		The habitat of the species is not seriously threatened at the present time, but there is no direct information on threats to this species.	eng
136178	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136178	distribution		Crossodactylus cyclospinus is only known from the type locality at Fazenda Duas Barras (15 53' S, 40 28' W, ca 800 masl), Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The locality is in the mountain range called Serra do Cariri, which separates the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia, and the Basins of Jequitinhonha and Buranhém rivers (Nascimento et al., 2005).	eng
136178	habitat		Adults, juveniles, and tadpoles of Crossodactylus cyclospinus are diurnal and active during the wet season, in the months of October and January. The new species can be found in shallow rivulets in forested areas in Atlantic Rain Forest. Males vocalize from rocks or under plants in the midst of these rivulets. The frogs are vigilant, males tend to vocalize when they perceive the presence of an observer. When threatened, individuals hide in the leaf litter or dive into water (Nascimento et al., 2005). The vocal repertoire of the species is described in Nascimento et al. (2005).	eng
136178	population		No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
136178	threats		No major threats are known for this species.	eng
136179	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Urgent measures are needed to conserve the habitat of this rare species.	eng
136179	distribution		This species is known only from the Milyang sub-basin of the Kyeongsang Basin southeastern Korea (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003, 2007). There are records from described from Hyoam-ri and Gilcheon-ri (both in Jangan-eup), Gijang-gun, and Busanshi (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003). The type locality is at 45m asl (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003).	eng
136179	habitat		It inhabits forests and slow-flowing streams. The larvae also develop in these streams.	eng
136179	population		There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136179	threats		The habitats of this species are limited and are being destroyed (Kim <em>et al</em>., 2003).	eng
136180	conservation		It probably occurs in the Waza National Park. Surveys are needed to determine the distribution of this species.	eng
136180	distribution		This species is so far known only from its type locality in northern Cameroon, 40km northeast of Mora, near Waza. It presumably occurs more widely, and can be expected to be found in neighbouring Nigeria and Chad.	eng
136180	habitat		The species was discovered in an ephemeral marsh in seasonally flooded grassland in an open, treeless landscape. It is probably adapted to Sahelo-Sudanian zone, with a long (nine-month) dry season. It presumably breeds by larval development in water.	eng
136180	population		There is very little information, as it is known only from six specimens collected in 1975. When it was discovered, it was much less numerous that <em>Kassina senegalensis</em>, which was also present at the same site.	eng
136180	threats		There is no information on threats.	eng
136181	conservation		It occurs in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2006). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136181	distribution		This species is known only from the Chung Chry Stream, at 500m asl in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, O'Rang District, Mondolkiri Province, eastern Cambodia (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005). It presumably occurs more widely, perhaps including in neighbouring Viet Nam; indeed, records of <em>Ophryophryne gerti</em> from Viet Nam could refer to this species (Nguyen Quang Truong, pers. comm.).	eng
136181	habitat		Both specimens were found near a swift-flowing stream in hilly evergreen forest (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005). It presumably breeds by larval development in streams. It has not been found in degraded habitats.	eng
136181	population		There is no information on its abundance. It is known from only two specimens (Stuart <em>et al</em>., 2005), but this apparent rarity might be an artifact of limited sampling.	eng
136181	threats		There is no information on threats to this species. The only records so far are from a protected area.	eng
136182	conservation		No conservation measures are currently known for this species.	eng
136182	distribution		The species is known from the locality of Povoação, at sea level, municipality of Linhares, northern portion of the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil, although it is possible that it may also occur in Governador Lindemberg, Espírito Santo and in southern Bahia, Brazil (Almeida and Angulo, 2006). The species has recently been recorded and collected in Mimoso do Sul, southern Espírito Santo, extending its range by ca 300 km (A.P. Almeida, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136182	habitat		Leptodactylus thomei is a leaf litter inhabitant of cacao plantations within alluvial forests. It breeds in temporary ponds, and its tadpoles need water to complete their ontogenetic development (Almeida and Angulo, 2002). Reproductive activity goes from August to March, coinciding with the rainy season in this area (Almeida and Angulo, 2006). Foam nests have been found to contain 27-29 tadpoles (Almeida and Angulo, 2002), a collected female released 32 eggs (Almeida and Angulo, 2006).	eng
136182	population		The species is common to abundant in the rainy season at the locality of Povoação.	eng
136182	threats		No major threats are currently known for this species.	eng
136183	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, ecological requirements and conservation needs.	eng
136183	distribution		This species is known only from the southern slopes of the Nakanai Mountains on the island of New Britain, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, at 517-850m asl, in the vicinity of the western end of Jacquinot Bay. It is likely to occur more widely, at least in the Nakanai Mountains, and perhaps elsewhere on New Britain.	eng
136183	habitat		Most specimens have been encountered in primary and old secondary rainforest either in ravine bottoms or on hill slopes in leaf litter. It can probably tolerate some habitat alterations, but is unlikely to survive in completely open habitats. This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
136183	population		It is probably not common, but it is a very difficult species to detect.	eng
136183	threats		The most obvious threats are forest logging and, if the species occurs more widely on New Britain, permanent conversion of habitat to oil palm plantations (the currently known locality is probably not at risk from this latter threat).	eng
136184	conservation		The species is known to occur at Reserva de Produccion Faunıstica Cuyabeno and Yasuni National Park (Ecuador), as well as within the realms of Tiputini Biodiversity Station (Ecuador), and the Gueppi Reserved Area and Allpahuayo-Mishana Reserved Area (Peru) (Faivovich et al., 2006).	eng
136184	distribution		<em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> is distributed in the western Amazon Basin. Specimens reported in the original description originate from the northern and southern regions of eastern lowland Ecuador and from northeastern Peru at elevations below 600 m, and from lowlands of Colombia around Leticia. The northernmost locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nympha</span> is "Singue", province of Sucumbıos, Ecuador, whereas the southernmost record is Leticia, Colombia. The species probably also occurs in adjacent western Brazil (Faivovich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006).	eng
136184	habitat		<em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> appears to prefer primary lowland forests flooded by white and black waters, and is occasionally found in lowland nonflooded (terra-firme) forests. The type locality is a swampy area (water depth 5–20 cm), approximately 50 m distance from a stream. The arboreal vegetation at the type locality includes species of the families Verbenaceae, Lauraceae, Arecaceae, Bombacaceae, Actinidiaceae, and Rubiaceae, with stem diameters up to 450 mm; poor herbaceous coverage and an average canopy height between 12–23 m (emergent trees up to 40 m). The general topography of the type locality consists of low hills with flat or slightly rounded tops and slightly convex slopes; the lowermost areas were flooded. Other hylids collected at the type locality of <em>Hypsiboas nympha</em> are <em>Dendropsophus leucophyllatus</em>, <em>D. marmoratus</em>, <em>D. miyatai</em>, <em>Hypsiboas boans</em>, <em>H. calcaratus</em>, <em>H. fasciatus</em>, <em>H. geographicus</em>, <em>H. granosus</em>, <em>H. lanciformis</em>, <em>Osteocephalus cabrerai</em>, <em>O. planiceps</em>, <em>O. taurinus</em>, <em>O. yasuni</em>, <em>Scinax ruber</em>, and <em>Sphaenorhynchus lacteus</em> (Faivovich et al., 2006).  In other localities (e.g., Tiputini Biodiversity Station) the species has been found in small slow rivulets amidst the low riverine vegetation.<br/><br/>One female of <em>H. nympha</em> was found to contain ca 70 unpigmented oviductal eggs of ca. 2 mm (Faivovich et al., 2006).	eng
136184	population		No population status information is available for this species; however, the species is relatively uncommon in most areas where it has been recorded (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136184	threats		Although the species has a widespread distribution, several areas of its current distributional range are severely affected by deforestation produced by colonization and the uncontrollable extension of the agricultural frontier (e.g., Limoncocha and Cuyabeno areas in northeastern Ecuador and Iquitos surroundings in northern Peru) and by contamination of water sources due to residues of oil extraction (e.j. Cuyabeno area in northeastern Ecuador)(D.F. Cisneros-Heredia, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136185	conservation		The range of the species includes several protected areas.	eng
136185	distribution		This Australian endemic occurs along the coast and in adjacent areas of New South Wales (south of the Wollondilly River) and eastern Victoria (as far as the Aberfeldy River) (Donnellan <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
136185	habitat		The species inhabits rocky and mountain streams in rainforest and wet and dry forest including swamps. It is often found on shrubs and low vegetation beside creeks and streamside ponds, seldom in still water. It breeds in summer and spring. Males call from rocky riverbanks or streamside vegetation. Eggs are attached to submerged vegetation in streams and ponds. Larvae take 12 weeks to metamorphose.	eng
136185	population		It is a common species.	eng
136185	threats		In the past logging in forest was a threat. Development and clearing of wet sclerophyll forest and drainage of swamps are now more serious threats. It is probably also impacted by introduced fish, notably trout. Chytridiomycosis has been confirmed in this species by PCR testing. There has been extensive monitoring across the distribution and significant declines have been noted in high altitude populations, some of which have disappeared.  However, overall this species remain abundant in many places and is not significantly threatened.	eng
136186	conservation	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	It occurs in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park where there is a need to limit additional habitat degradation, especially in the Bendrao Forest. Research is needed to determine the limits of its distribution, and its ecological requirements.	eng
136186	distribution	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is known only from Bendrao Forest, at 420-470 m asl, in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, Mahajanga Province, western Madagascar. It appears to be endemic to the low-elevation dry forest of the Tsingy de Bemaraha.	eng
136186	habitat	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	Very little information is available on this species. It has been found in moderately moist dry forest among "tsingy" rocks. One specimen contained more than 100 eggs, indicating that the specimen was ready for reproduction at the end of the rainy season. Its stomach contained a large number of medium-sized insect remains (ants, beetles) and pieces of dead leaves from the forest floor. Both specimens were found in the same forest (Bendrao), but the actual range is likely to comprise a larger area. However, it is probably endemic to the Tsingy de Bemaraha massif due to the absence of sufficient humidity outside the karstic habitats elsewhere in the general region.Its breeding is not known, but it is probably a terrestrial, larval developing species, not requiring water, like some other members of the genus.	eng
136186	population	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	It is known from only two specimens. Attempts to locate the species, using pitfall traps in three other sites in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, failed to capture any additional specimens, so it appears to be rare.	eng
136186	threats	Vences, M., Andreone, F., Rabibisoa, N.H.C. & Cox, N., 2009	The Bendrao forest has been degraded by zebu (cattle) grazing. It is possible that other dry forest habitats potentially inhabited by this species in the Tsingy de Bemaraha have also been degraded by overgrazing, and firewood or timber collection.	eng
136187	conservation		It is not known whether or not it occurs in any protected areas, though it could be in the Namdapha Tiger Reserve. Surveys are needed to determine its distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136187	distribution		This species is known only from 10 km north of Gandhigram, in Changlang District, Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). It could occur more widely, and no information is available on its elevational range.	eng
136187	habitat		The only record was from dense forest on the north bank of the Noa Dihing River, in a tree hollow about 3m above ground (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). The follow was full of dead leaves and rain water (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
136187	population		There has been no information since its discovery in 1988 (Sarkar and Ray, 2006). Several frogs were found at that time, two of which were collected (Sarkar and Ray, 2006).	eng
136187	threats		No information is available.	eng
136188	conservation		It occurs in Khao Yai National Park (Bain and Stuart, 2005). Surveys are needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservations needs.	eng
136188	distribution		This species is known only from Khao Yai National Park in Thailand, in Nakhon Ratchasima Province and in Nakhon Nayok Province (Sarika Waterfalls) (Bain and Stuart, 2005). Its elevational range is not known, nor is it known whether or not it might occur more widely.	eng
136188	habitat		Specimens of this species have been collected at night in dry evergreen and gallery evergreen forest on rocks, vines, trees, and stream banks within 4.5 m of 3.5–18m wide streams (Bain and Stuart, 2005). One specimen was also found on the forest floor away from water (Bain and Stuart, 2005). These frogs have been found from ground level to 1.5m above ground (Bain and Stuart, 2005). The tadpoles are unknown (Bain and Stuart, 2005), but presumably develop in streams.	eng
136188	population		There is no recent information on the abundance of this species (Bain and Stuart, 2005). It is known only from 18 specimens collected in 1969 and 1970 (Bain and Stuart, 2005), but the lack of subsequent records might be due to a lack of survey effort.	eng
136188	threats		There is no information on threats to this species, but all records so far are from a well-protected area.	eng
136189	conservation		In the course of three studies the species was collected at two different sites, both of which are in protected areas [one is in a Reserve projected to become a Natural Park, and the other one is in an area that has been declared as a Sactuary](S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136189	distribution		Pristimantis carlossanchezi is known from localities ranging from the departments of Santander (northern section) to  Boyacá (south-western section), Colombia. It has been recorded for elevations ranging from 2400-2550 masl (Arroyo, 2007).	eng
136189	habitat		The species is more frequently observed in cloud forest above 2400 masl, particularly in secondary forest (S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008). Individuals are found on leaves at heights 1.5 to 2.0 m above the ground and are nocturnal. Pristimantis carlossanchezi was not heard, male calling activity was not recorded (Arroyo, 2007).	eng
136189	population		It is considered to be a rare species (Arroyo, 2007).	eng
136189	threats		Given that the species was collected in regenerating secondary forest, perhaps deforestation could be a possible threat (S. Arroyo, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136190	conservation		There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and general ecology of the species.	eng
136190	distribution		This species from New Guinea is currently known only from the type locality in the headwaters of the Wapoga River, in Papua Province, Indonesia: the Wapoga Alpha exploration camp (3º 08.687' S, 136º 34.423' E), at 1,070m asl) (Günther and Richards, 2005). It is expected to occur more widely.	eng
136190	habitat		This species has been found within torrential headwater streams at night, or on the riparian vegetation surrounding these streams. Specimens were also collected during the day from underneath stones in the streams (Günther and Richards, 2005). While the breeding biology of this species needs further research it is presumed to be a larval developing species within its associated stream habitats. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to degraded habitats, but it probably would suffer if its stream habitat is degraded (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136190	population		It is common in its type locality (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136190	threats		There are no obvious threats to this species at present (S. Richards, pers. comm.).	eng
136191	conservation		It is not known from any protected areas. This species is very poorly known, and so research is needed to determine its population numbers, range, threats and conservation needs. Habitat protection is probably important for this species.	eng
136191	distribution		This species is so far known only from its type locality, Shuicheng County, in Guizhou Province, China, at 1,910-1970m asl (Tian <em>et al</em>., 2006). The limits of its distribution are not yet clear, but it is not likely to be very widely distributed.	eng
136191	habitat		The species lives in a karstic region. The adults live on the forest floor near streams in the non-breeding season. Breeding takes places in pools, ponds or near the springs from early May until the end of June, and the larvae develop in these habitats.	eng
136191	population		It is a rare species where it is found (Tian <em>et al</em>., 2006).	eng
136191	threats		This species is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of clear-cutting, expanding agriculture, and pollution as a result of the use of pesticides and herbicides.	eng
136192	conservation	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed in to the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136192	distribution	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from Peninsular Malaysia and the type locality in Sumatra (Abai Siat, 01°02'S, 101°43'E, south east Kota Baru, Sumatra Barat). Surveys to the east of the mapped range in Malaysia have failed to find the species (T. Kingston pers. comm.).	eng
136192	habitat	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	This is a lowland rainforest species (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136192	population	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136192	threats	Francis, C., Bates, P. & Kingston, T., 2008	Deforestation and degradation of the habitat due to logging, agriculture, infrastructure development, plantations and fire are major threats to this species.	eng
136193	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is present in Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and threats to this species.	eng
136193	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is so far known only from Khammouan Province in central Lao PDR. There are records from the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Thakhek district, and from the surroundings of Ban Muang and Ban Doy.	eng
136193	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	Collected specimens have been found at the base of limestone karst caves. Morphological features, such as its broad forefeet, stout claws, naked hindfeet with large cheridia, and others, suggest that it may be a karst limestone specialist. The behavioral ecology of the species is unknown (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005). Jenkins and Robinson (2002) recorded the species in heavily degraded mixed decidious forests, scrubland and bamboo.	eng
136193	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	A survey conducted by Musser <em>et al</em>. (2005) in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area found this species to be locally abundant.	eng
136193	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It is not known if it is susceptible to habitat loss or over-hunting.	eng
136194	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in several protected areas such as Pico de Orizaba, Mapimi.	eng
136194	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It occurs in North Central Mexico (Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Veracruz) (Tejedor 2005).	eng
136194	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Tropical deciduous forest, mountain tropical forest, from lowlands to middle elevations. Its distribution is probably more limited by the availability of roosts rather than vegetation type (Tejedo 2005)	eng
136194	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is considered as common.	eng
136194	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136195	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136195	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in eastern fringe of Amazonian rainforest, principally in Pará and Mato Grosso east of the Rio Xingu and as far south as Serra do Roncador, central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136195	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is often found in house plantations, gallery forest and Cerrado dry forest (Tribe, 2005).	eng
136195	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance.	eng
136195	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136196	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136196	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the extreme northwest of Yunnan province (Mekong and Salween river valleys) (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging between 2,400-4,250 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136196	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It inhabits open and rocky meadows and stream banks in forests (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproductive period occurs from early summer to late fall (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136196	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136196	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136197	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Fagundes, V., Christoff, A. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range (Fagundes pers. comm.). At present the efficient method of identifying species is using karyotyping (2n = 24, 25, 26) (Fagundes pers. comm.).	eng
136197	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Fagundes, V., Christoff, A. & Geise, L., 2008	This species occurs from east Paraguay (Gamarra de Fox and Martin, 1996), northeast Argentina (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em>, 2003), and southeast Brazil (Rio de Janeiro to Rio Grande do Sul, including gallery forest settings in Minas Gerais and Goiás; Geise <em>et al</em>. 2001; Rieger <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Brazil, the species occurs from coastal areas inland to eastern Mato Grosso do Sul.	eng
136197	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Fagundes, V., Christoff, A. & Geise, L., 2008	The species inhabits Atlantic forest and cerrado. Akodon montensis has been collected only above 800 m in Rio de Janeiro State, and in northern-most areas of its distribution it occurs above 900 m. Species occurs in gallery forest along creeks and streams (Pardiñas <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136197	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Fagundes, V., Christoff, A. & Geise, L., 2008	It is an abundant species.	eng
136197	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Fagundes, V., Christoff, A. & Geise, L., 2008	Although there are no major threats to the species, the Atlantic forest populations are affected by habitat destruction.	eng
136198	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is not included in any protected area.	eng
136198	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, junction of Hwy 2 and Arroyo Paraíso, 197 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136198	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species holotype was collected in a rocky area within disturbed rainforest approximately 6 m uphill from a river (Mares and Braun 2000).	eng
136198	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136198	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	Deforestation at the forest areas where it was found.	eng
136199	conservation	Roos, C., Kappeler, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is known to occur in the Analamazaotra Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park. It is not clear whether it also occurs in Mangerivola Special Reserve. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Zurich, Switzerland) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136199	distribution	Roos, C., Kappeler, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently, this species is known only from the type locality of Andasibe and surrounding regions (for example, Maromizaha Forest, including the two protected areas Analamazaotra Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park (Kappeler <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roos and Kappeler 2006). The extent of the distribution of this species to the south and north is still unknown. The maximum extent of its range to the south may be Ranomafana National Park, where it is replaced by <em>M. rufus</em>, and to the north to the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve and Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve and National Park, where it is replaced by <em>M. simmonsi</em> (Roos and Kappeler 2006).	eng
136199	habitat	Roos, C., Kappeler, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136199	population	Roos, C., Kappeler, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only discovered in 2005.	eng
136199	threats	Roos, C., Kappeler, P. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. It is currently known only from protected areas.	eng
136200	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It does not occur in protected areas.	eng
136200	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Ternate and Tidore, west of the island of Halmahera, Indonesia.	eng
136200	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in tropical moist forest and disturbed forest, as well as plantations.	eng
136200	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is common.	eng
136200	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Flannery, T., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is adversely affected to some degree by local hunting for food, although population numbers are probably stable. There is an active volcano on Ternate. Introduction of other <em>Phalanger</em> species is also a potential threat.	eng
136201	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It may be distributed more widely than is currently known, additional field surveys are needed to determine the full range of this species.	eng
136201	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea it has been recorded from Central, Milne Bay, and Western Provinces (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). In Papua Province, Indonesia it has been reported from the Kwiyawagi area (Flannery 1995). It has been recorded at altitudes of between 1,900 and 2,800 m asl.	eng
136201	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	Bonaccorso (1998) reports that this species has been recorded in southern beech (Nothofagus) moss forest and over subalpine grasslands. The roosting habits are unknown.	eng
136201	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is known from only a few specimens.	eng
136201	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	Threats to this species are not known, but there are likely to be few, if any, major threats within its range (F. Bonaccorso pers. comm.).	eng
136202	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136202	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is known from two separate ranges. Northeastern and northwestern sectors of the piedmont hills systems that are found between the Venezuelan Guiana Shield border and the Orinoco River. From the foothills of the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia and foothills of northern and southern slopes of Cordillera de Merida (Venezuela) (Lew <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
136202	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is distributed along the hill system. It has been collected in premontane, basimontane, and submontane locations (50–800 m elevation), including nonflooded ombrophilous and riparian forests, with semideciduous and mostly evergreen vegetation, from medium to tall (15 to 25 m) in height (Lew <em>et al.</em>, 2006). The species is often more common in secondary forest (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136202	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is common throughout its distribution (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136202	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There are no major threats. The forest on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera del Merida have been heavily deforested and the populations have likely declined or become locally extirpated (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136203	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in parks, however, attention should be made to loose of habitat between protected areas.	eng
136203	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs from the Eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; this taxon is expected to occur in southern Colombia; the elevational range comprise from 1,480 to 2,500 m (Velazco, 2005).	eng
136203	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is basically frugivorous. This species is very poorly known.	eng
136203	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.), as in other country throughout its range. Population status in Bolivia is considered vulnerable due its its presence in a highly fragile ecosystem.	eng
136203	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
136204	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136204	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Argentina and Bolivia (Barquez <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136204	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Insectivore. Found in all kind of roosts (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
136204	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
136204	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	None known.	eng
136205	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The range of this species overlaps numerous protected areas.	eng
136205	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in lower Amazon Basin, south of the Rio Amazonas between the Rios Tocantins and Madeira, central Brazil, as least as far south as northwest Mato Grosso (Musser <em>et al.</em>, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136205	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is found in lowland moist forests of the Amazon River basin.	eng
136205	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is widespread and common.	eng
136205	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
136206	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Lokobe Special Reserve (Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> 2006). As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136206	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently believed to be confined to the island of Nosy Bé in north-western Madagascar.	eng
136206	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded only from humid forests on Nosy Be.	eng
136206	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136206	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Its only known locality is a protected area.	eng
136207	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Further research&#160; is needed.	eng
136207	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Peru, Loreto Department, southeast bank of Río Gálvez, village of Nuevo San Juan (5°17'30"S, 73°9'50"W, 150 m; Simmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136207	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This small bat is mainly insectivorous. May be associated with giant armadillo burrows (Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
136207	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	It is rare (Simmons <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
136207	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Holotype was not found in protected areas but we know nothing more.	eng
136208	conservation	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in many protected areas.	eng
136208	distribution	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	Ranges east of the Volta River system in Ghana (recorded from Accra Plain and Salaga) to Sudan (Imatong Mountains in the south to Jebel Marra in the north), Uganda, and the Lake Turkana district of Kenya. Recorded up to about 1,900 m asl.	eng
136208	habitat	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable species, residing in degraded habitats or forest edges (e.g., in Togo and Bénin; Campbell <em>et al.</em> 2008), and found in both rural and urban environments.	eng
136208	population	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	Common species, widely distrubuted in appropriate habitat. The population is stable and possibly increasing due to forest clearance providing more suitable habitat.	eng
136208	threats	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
136209	conservation	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136209	distribution	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Known only from a small area on the Libyan coast (in the Cyrenaica area) (Benda <em>et al.</em> 2004)	eng
136209	habitat	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Unknown, although the photograph of the type locality in African Bat Conservation News 4: 7 (2004) (see http://flyingfur.typepad.com/abcn/abcn4.pdf) indicates typical Mediterranean woodland interspersed with shrubland.	eng
136209	population	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136209	threats	Aulagnier, S. & Palmeirim, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136210	conservation	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2009	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, although there are seven protected areas within the general range of this species. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
136210	distribution	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2009	This species occurs at middle elevations in east Andean slopes, central Peru. It has an altitudinal range of 700 to 1,800 m (Tribe 1996, Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136210	habitat	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2009	It is presumably an arboreal, nocturnal species. It is present in lower montane forest, cloud forest and east Andean slopes. It is not known if the species can persist in secondary habitats, although one specimen was collected from an abandoned shed (Tribe 1996).	eng
136210	population	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2009	It seems to be a rare species.	eng
136210	threats	Zeballos, H., Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2009	This species is threatened by deforestation through conversion of land to agricultural use and illicit crops (e.g., coca).	eng
136211	conservation	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	This species may occur in Tatamá Natural National Park.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136211	distribution	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	The precise geographic range of this species is not known. It is believed to occur on the western slopes and foothills of the Andes in the region of Quindío and Riseralda. This being so it would occur in areas currently assigned to <em>A. zonalis</em>.	eng
136211	habitat	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	Submontane and possibly montane tropical forest, western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed the habitat and forest preferences of the genus.<br/><br/>Night monkeys are nocturnal: they are most active at dawn and dusk. The only exception is <em>Aotus azarae azarae</em> of the Chaco of southern Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina, which is cathemeral (active during night and day). They are frugivorous; their diet includes fruit, nectar and flower (seasonally important for the <em>A. a. azarae</em> in the Chaco), leaves, and small animals prey such as insects (Wright 1989; Fernandez-Duque 2007).<br/><br/>They are socially monogamous, living in small groups of an adult pair and offspring of different ages (infant, one or two juveniles and sometimes a subadult. In <em>A. a. azarae</em>, a significant number of adults range alone. They may be subadults that have left their natal groups or older adults which have been evicted from their groups by competitors (Fernandez-Duque and Huntington 2002; Fernandez-Duque 2004). Both sexes disperse. Males care for the infants (carry them) (Rotundo <em>et al</em>, 2002, 2005). Lone adults were observed by Villavicencio Galindo (2003) in northern Colombia. Night monkeys are territorial—groups occupy overlapping territories of 5-18 ha (depending on the species and location) (Wright 1978; Fernandez-Duque 2007). Wright (1994) and Fernandez-Duque (2007) review the behaviour and ecology of the genus.<br/><br/>Captive male <em>A. lemurinus</em> reach sexual maturity when 2 years old, and captive female <em>A. vociferans</em> and <em>A. nancymaae</em> first breed when 3-4 years old (Dixson 1983; Fernandez-Duque 2007). In the wild, male <em>A. azarae</em> reach adult weight only when about 4 years old, and age at first reproduction is about 5 years of age (Juárez <em>et al.</em> 2003; Fernandez-Duque 2004). A female <em>A. azarae</em>was found to breed for the first time at 58 months of age (Fernandez-Duque <em>et al.</em> 2002). Single offspring are the rule. Wright (1985) recorded births between August and February for <em>A. nigriceps</em> in Peru (Manu National Park), and Aquino <em>et al.</em> (1990) indicated a birth season between December and March) for <em>A. nancymaae</em> in north-eastern Peru. In the Argentinean Chaco, <em>A. azarae</em> shows a peak of births between March and June (Fernandez-Duque 2007).	eng
136211	population	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	No information available. Known only from type locality. Aquino and Encarnación (1994b) reviewed population structure and densities for the genus.	eng
136211	threats	Morales-Jiménez, A.L. & Link, A., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
136212	conservation	Butynski, T.M.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., De Jong, Y.A. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is present in the Arabuko-Sokoke National Park, Shimba Hills National Park, Tana River Primate National Reserve, and in Kipini Conservancy (Kenya) (Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006; Y. de Jong and T. Butynski pers. comm.). There is a need to better determine the distribution range, especially along the coast of Somalia and around Nairobi in Kenya (Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136212	distribution	Butynski, T.M.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., De Jong, Y.A. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is present in coastal forest, ranging from the north coast of Kenya (possibly in coastal southern Somalia) to northern coastal Tanzania (see Butynski <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found at elevations from sea level to at least 210 m asl over the coastal zone of Kenya, and to at least 350 m asl in the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania (Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136212	habitat	Butynski, T.M.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., De Jong, Y.A. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is found in the middle storey of coastal lowland tropical moist forest, riverine forest, and some secondary growth such as cultivated mosaic habitat and rural gardens (Bearder <em>et al.</em> 2003; Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006). It may also occur in tropical montane forest. They sleep in tree hollows (Bearder <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.<br/><br/>Sympatric with <em>Galago senegalensis</em> and <em>Otolemur garnettii</em>. Parapatric with <em>G. z. udzungwensis</em> or, possibly, sympatric at a few sites in the coastal strip of north Tanzania. Probably parapatric with <em>Galago gallarum</em> in north central Kenya (Butynski and De Jong 2004; Butynski <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136212	population	Butynski, T.M.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., De Jong, Y.A. & Honess, P., 2008	According to Butysnki <em>et al.</em> (2006) this species is the most abundant and widespread galago in the coastal forests of<br/>Kenya, with densities of approximately 170 –180 individuals/km² both at Gedi and Diani (see Harcourt and Nash 1986).	eng
136212	threats	Butynski, T.M.M., Perkin, A., Bearder, S., De Jong, Y.A. & Honess, P., 2008	This species is locally threatened over much of its range by conversion of suitable habitat to cultivated land, especially non-timber plantations of pineapple and sisal. However, it is able to persist in high numbers in agricultural areas with good tree coverage.	eng
136213	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas. Needs taxonomic revision as it could be a species complex.	eng
136213	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species occurs along the eastern flanks of the Andes in northern Argentina and extending just into southern Bolivia (Gardner 2007)	eng
136213	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species is found in dry thornscub and shrub forests. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136213	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Abundant in appropriate habitats.	eng
136213	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	There are no threats to the species at this time although some populations are threatened by deforestation.	eng
136214	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It occurs in a number of protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
136214	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species occurs between the Sanaga River in Cameroon, through Congo and Rio Muni (Equatorial Guinea) to Gabon (between the Sanaga and Ogooue Rivers). Its extension south beyond the Ogooue River is unknown.	eng
136214	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species lives in the lower levels of mature tropical moist forest, and may sometimes be found in secondary and logged forest. It forages on the ground in heavily shaded forest with a clear floor and numerous lianas and tree trunks. The ranges of males (30–60 ha) were 3–5 times greater than those of females (8–10 ha) (Charles-Dominique 1977). It is presumed to give birth to one to two young per year.	eng
136214	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is found at relatively low densities in much of its range.	eng
136214	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Presumably this species is locally threatened in parts of its range through conversion of forest to agricultural land and timber extraction.	eng
136215	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range. Research is needed into its population status.	eng
136215	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in the Oriental Basin of eastern Puebla north to Veracruz and west to the base of Volcán La Malinche, Tlaxcala (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevation from about 2,300 m to 2,700 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136215	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak.	eng
136215	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There is no population information available for this species, but it is presumed to be common.	eng
136215	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.	eng
136216	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species has been found in protected areas (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136216	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is found in Central and SW Kopetdag (Turkmenistan) and NE Iran. In Central Kopetdag found in Chuli, Hailenau, Firuza River basin, Hermab, and Dushak Mt. In W Kopetdag along Sumbara and Chandyr rivers (Zorenko, Golenistchev, Biodiversity Conservation centre).	eng
136216	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Inhabit cereal and herb steppes in middle and higher mountain belts (1000-2500 m), often found at areas with trees and shrubs. In lower semi-desert belt (300-1000 m) found only along rivers and moist ravines with clay and rubbly soils. Abundant in fruit gardens and lucerne fields. In spring and summer active in dusk and down; in winter and early spring also diurnal. In winter active under snow. Burrows are shallow, however, sometimes ap to 70 cm deep. Burrows system is complex with several exits. Exits are connected by pathes on the ground. One colony can cover 5-12 m<sup>2</sup>. Feed on green parts of plants, roots, bulbs an seeds. Often feed on cultivated plants, wheat, barley, oats, corn and cotton. Store food, supplies that could be up to 3,5 kg. Reproduction starts in May, litter size is 5-7 young. Gestation is 20-22 days.(Zorenko, Golenistchev, Biodiversity Conservation center).	eng
136216	population	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The species is locally abundant in suitable habitat, and the population fluctuates (GMA Turkey, 2005). In Turkmenia population is declining due to climate aridification and overgrazing. This species does not adapt easily to new conditions and that results in range shrinkage.	eng
136216	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, however, in Turkmenistan population is declining due to climate change (increased aridity) and overgrazing. This species does not adapt easily to new conditions..	eng
136217	conservation	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.	eng
136217	distribution	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136217	habitat	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous; a few fecal pellets from a single bat have been examined; they contained only beetles (Silva-Taboada, 1979).	eng
136217	population	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Rare.	eng
136217	threats	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Hurricanes.	eng
136218	conservation	Flannery, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	Riley (2002) states that the key site for the conservation of this species is the Sahendaruman forest block on Sangihe. This forest is 4,268 ha in size, and represents the only remaining sizable area of primary forest left in the two islands. It was designated as Protection Forest <em>Hutan Lindung</em> (Riley 2002), but it is not strictly protected and is subject to a number of threats (Riley and Wardill 2001). The species is protected under Indonesian law, but there is little enforcement. Increased community awareness and enforcement are seen as essential to the conservation of this species, which will require a reduction in hunting pressure and habitat protection (Riley 2002). Further taxonomic research should be conducted to confirm the identity of the bear cuscus on Sangihe, and field surveys are needed to confirm its continued existence on Salibabu.	eng
136218	distribution	Flannery, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Indonesia, where it has been reported from Sangihe (the largest island in the Sangihe Island group) and Salibabu (within the Talaud Islands). However, although a bear cuscus has been seen and photographed on Sangihe, no specimen from here is known to exist. It has been assumed that this bear cuscus is <em>Ailurops melanotis</em>, but this requires confirmation as the Sangihe Island group is separate from the Talaud Islands and lies closer to Sulawesi, where the more widespread <em>A. ursinus</em> exists.	eng
136218	habitat	Flannery, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is though to be restricted to primary forest and gardens next to the Sahendaruman caldera on Sangihe, but on Salibabu it is reported also from degraded forest and adjacent gardens (Riley 2002).	eng
136218	population	Flannery, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is rare. It the late 1990s survey work on Sangihe and Salibabu Islands failed to locate the species (Riley 2002). This survey work was intense on Sangihe (120 days), but brief on Salibabu (Riley 2002). A captive individual was found on Sangihe and there was local knowledge of the species on both islands (Riley 2002).	eng
136218	threats	Flannery, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is heavily hunted (Riley 2002). Its populations are now small and fragmented within its small range (Riley 2002). Although it has been reported from secondary forest and gardens, these individuals are probably dependent on nearby primary forest, which continues to be reduced and degraded by logging, expanding agriculture, and human settlement.	eng
136219	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known.	eng
136219	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Known from three locations in Middle Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan). Also may be found in Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.	eng
136219	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Was found in caves in arid areas.	eng
136219	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Despite specially organized in field trips in the 1970s and 1980s, this species has not been found since the 1950s. <br/><br/>Dr. P. Strelkov didn't find any signs of occupation at the colonies during his field trip in the 1970s (P. Strelkov pers. comm.). In the 1980s Dr. Khabilov investigated areas around terra typica, but did not find any signs of Myotis bucharensis. There was semi-fresh guano in the cave from which Myotis bucharensis was described, but that time there was impossible to identify if the guano belonged to M. bucharensis or other bat species.	eng
136219	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136220	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. Research on distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats urgently required. Museum specimens should be checked to clarify distribution of <em>R. hussoni</em> and <em>R. io</em>.	eng
136220	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is known from two records (Genoways and Baker, 1996). Suriname and Brazil.	eng
136220	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Little known, probably similar to <em>R. tumida<em>. One specimen found in mixed savanna and gallery forest in southwestern Suriname and the second from the state of Bahia in Brazil. Found in lowland evergreen rainforest. (Genoways and Baker, 1996). Also found in Para in the southeastern Amazon. (Peters <em>et al</em>. in press.).</em></em>	eng
136220	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare and poorly known. It is an aerial insectivore so sampling methodology may be biased.	eng
136220	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is extremely poorly known. Probably threatened by habitat lost.	eng
136221	conservation	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in Itatiaia National Park (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2002). Its montane habitat is better preserved than its lowland habitat. This species is protected in several state and national parks as well as reserves.	eng
136221	distribution	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and Espirito Santo states, above 600 m asl (Leite, 2003, Lara and Patton, 2000).	eng
136221	habitat	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent occurs in primary and second growth rainforest with a dense overstory (Leite, 2003).	eng
136221	population	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is common and its population is presumed to be large (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
136221	threats	Bergallo, H., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no major threats at this time (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
136222	conservation	Langguth, A. & Reis, M., 2008	This species occurs in the Terra Ronca State Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, ecology and threats.	eng
136222	distribution	Langguth, A. & Reis, M., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil, in northeastern Goias State and possibly adjacent Tocantins State (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136222	habitat	Langguth, A. & Reis, M., 2008	This rodent is possibly associated with dry forest and calcareous substrate (Reis, M. pers. comm.). It is restricted to the Brazilian Cerrado (Langguth, A. pers. comm.). Some specimens have been collected from rocky habitats, where it nests in rock crevices; it is vegetarian, feeding primarily on cacti, manioc and leaves (Moojen, <em>et al.</em>, 1997). It is reported to be an active and acrobatic animal (Moojen, <em>et al.</em>, 1997).	eng
136222	population	Langguth, A. & Reis, M., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance. It is known from only three specimens.	eng
136222	threats	Langguth, A. & Reis, M., 2008	Threats to this species are presently unknown. As a large species, it is possible that it is affected by hunting pressure (Lacher pers. comm.), but this requires confirmation.	eng
136223	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	In Guinea, recorded from the Classified Forests of Ziama and Diécké. Survey work in Taï N.P., adjacent to its current known range, has thus far failed to confirm the presence of the species (Gaubert in press). This is a species in need of further survey work in order to better assess the status of this species in the wild, and also to determine levels of offtake from the wild.	eng
136223	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Restricted to the Upper Guinean rainforests, in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Côte d’Ivoire (Gaubert 2003, in press). A specimen collected from Oda in Ghana in 1946 has been attributed to this species, but the true origin of this animal is in question (Gaubert in press).	eng
136223	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	All localities from which the species has been recorded to date are from rainforest. There is no other information available on the biology of this species.	eng
136223	population	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	There is limited information available on the population status of this species. It is known from 29 museum specimens, several having been recovered from bushmeat markets in south-eastern Guinea as recently as 2003 (Gaubert in press).	eng
136223	threats	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Habitat loss is likely to be a major threat, particularly if this species is restricted to rainforest as suspected, although Liberia still retains significant tracts of forest: forest loss in Liberia over the period 1984-2000 has recently been estimated at only 0.2% per annum, but was as much as 20% over the course of this 14-year period in neighbouring Côte d’Ivoire (Christie <em>et al.</em> 2007). Hunting is also a likely threat, as skins have been sighted in the bushmeat market of Man, Côte d’Ivoire (P. Gaubert and C. Crémière, pers. obs.).	eng
136224	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest within the Taita Hills.  Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology andthreats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
136224	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This East African species is known only from Kenya, where it has been recorded from Mount Sagalla (1,500 m asl) and Chawia Forest (1,600 m asl) in the Taita Hills (Oguge <em>et al.</em> 2004). It was not present at an additional 12 sites sampled by Oguge <em>et al.</em> (2004). It might be present in northern Tanzania, however, this requires confirmation (Hutterer 2005).	eng
136224	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	Much of the habitat of this species is fragmented or severely degraded through the conversion of forest to agricultural use, including plantations (Oguge <em>et al.</em> 2004), and presumably also through some harvesting of timber, firewood and similar resources.	eng
136225	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Further research is necessary to determine the range of this species and whether it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
136225	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Central Argentina (La Rioja, Catamarca, and Córdoba Provs.); distributional limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136225	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Little is known of the habitat of this species.	eng
136225	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species.	eng
136225	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Major threats are unknown.	eng
136226	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species has been collected from Khammouane Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in Lao PDR. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this very poorly known species.	eng
136226	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	The distribution of this species is very poorly known. It is found in northeastern and central Thailand and central Lao PDR. In northeastern Thailand, it has been found in Loei province, 48 km south of Loei, Ban Nong Hin and Wat Tham Maho Lan (Hutterer 2005). Motokawa and Harada (1998) found also a male specimen at Sakaerat Station, Nakhon Ratchasima province, central Thailand. In Lao PDR it has been found in the Khammouane National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further research is likely to show that the species is more widespread, in particular in locations between the currently known localities. The type locality habitat ranged in altitude from 542-575 m asl, and it is believed to occur up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
136226	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is found predominantely in lowlands. Its habitat in the Khammouane Conservation Area of Lao PDR is comprised of limestone karst and heavily degraded, mixed decidous forests, scrubland, bamboo, rice paddies and undisturbed semi-evergreen forests, suggesting that the species might be able to tolerate a wide range of habitats. This species of shrew is smaller than <em>C. fuliginosa</em>, as was determined from the skulls extracted from owl pellets (Jenkins and Smith 1995; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
136226	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136226	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.	eng
136227	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There are records from Guaripiche Forest Reserve, Mariusa National Park and Delta del Orinoco Biosphere Reserve (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136227	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found only in northeast Venezuela. It is known from the Orinoco River and Gulf of Paria, in Delta Amacuro Territory and eastern Monagas State, including recent alluvial plains of the Orinoco, Morichal Largo, Guanipa, and San Juan rivers (Lew <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
136227	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	It is known from deltaic plains, seasonally or perennially flooded. It occurs only from low- to medium height (15-25 m) evergreen permanently flooded swamp forest or seasonally flooded marsh forest (Lew <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
136227	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is common in appropriate habitat (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136227	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There are no major threats. The vast majority of the area is uninhabited. The area does not have high human settlements, but there are surveys for oil in the area, and plans to drill for oil and build gas pipes (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136228	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It occurs in two prteceted areas (Valle Fertil and Sierra de las Quijadas).	eng
136228	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in west-central Argentina in San Juan and San Luis Provinces in scrublands associated with salt flats, 380-412 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136228	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Salt basins, Several fragmented and found only in seven localities.	eng
136228	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136228	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is habitat specific to a unique vegetation and geological formation which is sensitive to human disturbance, however, the extent to which this species is affected is unknown and requires research.	eng
136229	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It is present in several national parks. Recommended actions include surveys to better understand the species' distribution, molecular studies on distance between subpopulations, and protection of roosting sites.	eng
136229	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It is present in several national parks. Recommended actions include surveys to better understand the species' distribution, molecular studies on distance between subpopulations, and protection of roosting sites.	eng
136229	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. It is present in several national parks. Recommended actions include surveys to better understand the species' distribution, molecular studies on distance between populations, and protection of roosting sites.	eng
136229	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Pyrenees; Alps from France to Slovenia, Dinaric Alps, Greece incl. Crete; Corsica; from Anatolia through Caucasus to south Iran; Syria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Altitudinal distribution from sea level to 2,800 m (Garin 2003, Pavlinić and Tvrtković 2004).	eng
136229	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Recorded from the Pyrenees (Andorra, Spain and France); the Alps from France to Slovenia, Dinaric Alps, Greece including Crete; Corsica; from Anatolia through Caucasus to south Iran; and in Syria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Altitudinal distribution from sea level to 2,800 m (Garin 2003, Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004).	eng
136229	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Recorded from the Pyrenees (Andorra, Spain and France); the Alps from France to Slovenia, Dinaric Alps, Greece including Crete; Corsica; from Anatolia through Caucasus to south Iran; and in Syria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Altitudinal distribution from sea level to 2,800 m (Garin 2003, Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004).	eng
136229	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	Is known from a wide array of habitats. In Croatia it was found in all altitudinal zones from sea level to mountain tops above the tree line. It occupies Mediterranean oak shrub as well as  beech and pine forests (Pavlinić and Tvrtković 2004). The highest record is 2,800 m (Pyrenees: Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Eastern Alps maternity roosts are located in attics of churches, winter roosts are not known (Spitzenberger 2002), the highest record here is 1,720 m (Spitzenberger 2006).	eng
136229	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Is known from a wide array of habitats. In Croatia it was found in all altitudinal zones from sea level to mountain tops above the tree line. It occupies Mediterranean oak shrub as well as  beech and pine forests (Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004). The highest record is 2,800 m (Pyrenees: Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Eastern Alps maternity roosts are located in attics of churches, winter roosts are not known (Spitzenberger 2002), the highest record here is 1,720 m (Spitzenberger 2006). In the western Alps observed up to 2,800 m and often roosts in churches (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136229	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Is known from a wide array of habitats. In Croatia it was found in all altitudinal zones from sea level to mountain tops above the tree line. It occupies Mediterranean oak shrub as well as  beech and pine forests (Pavlinic and Tvrtkovic 2004). The highest record is 2,800 m (Pyrenees: Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the Eastern Alps maternity roosts are located in attics of churches, winter roosts are not known (Spitzenberger 2002), the highest record here is 1,720 m (Spitzenberger 2006). In the western Alps observed up to 2,800 m and often roosts in churches (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136229	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	This species was only recognised in 2003, and remains quite poorly known. However, it seems to be generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution. Individual colonies are composed of few (less that 50) individuals. Fewer than 50 colonies are known, but more are likely to be discovered in the future (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2003). Molecular analyses have confirmed that subpopulations from different mountain ranges are genetically isolated (Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136229	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species was only recognised in 2003, and remains quite poorly known. However, it seems to be generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution. Inidividual colonies are composed of few (less that 50) individuals. Fewer than 50 colonies are known, but more are likely to be discovered in the future (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2003). Molecular analyses have confirmed that subpopulations from different mountain ranges are genetically isolated (Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136229	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species was only recognised in 2003, and remains quite poorly known. However, it seems to be generally uncommon, with a fragmented distribution. Inidividual colonies are composed of few (less that 50) individuals. Fewer than 50 colonies are known, but more are likely to be discovered in the future (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2003). Molecular analyses have confirmed that subpopulations from different mountain ranges are genetically isolated (Garin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136229	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	In the European and Asian parts of its range, restoration of old buildings and development of tourism infrastructure is causing habitat loss.	eng
136229	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	In the European and Asian parts of its range, restoration of old buildings and development of tourism infrastructure is causing habitat loss.	eng
136229	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Javier Juste, Stéphane Aulagnier, Juan Tomas Alcaldé, 2006	In the European part of its range, restoration of old buildings and development of tourism infrastructure is causing habitat loss.	eng
136230	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	It has been recorded from Lore Lindu National Park and possibly occurs in Panua Nature Reserve. Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.	eng
136230	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species occurs in the lowland forests of central and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the southern limits of its range still unclear. It has an altitudinal range from sea level to 985 m.	eng
136230	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland tropical evergreen rainforest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is a large rat that feeds on worms and probably has a specialised ecology. It has not been recorded from modified habitats.	eng
136230	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	The abundance of this species is not well known.	eng
136230	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through collection of wood for subsistence use. It does not appear to be threatened by opportunistic hunting.	eng
136231	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136231	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is widespread, occurring in China and Mongolia (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the provinces of Nei Mongol (Smith and Xie 2008) and Gansu.	eng
136231	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species inhabits grasslands (Smith and Xie 2008). It lives in colonies and is diurnal (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136231	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136231	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. The Mongolian Red List of Mammals suggests that unsustainable harvesting, habitat degradation, and drying of water sources may pose a threat, but these were listed with regard to <em>Spermophilus erythrogenys</em> within which they included <em>brevicauda</em> and <em>pallidicauda</em> as subspecies (Clark <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136232	conservation	Velazco, P. & Muñoz, A., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas but these are sparse and fragmented.	eng
136232	distribution	Velazco, P. & Muñoz, A., 2008	This species is currently known from both slopes of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, from 1,230 to 2,950 m (Velazco, 2005).	eng
136232	habitat	Velazco, P. & Muñoz, A., 2008	This bat is basically frugivorous. It roosts in small groups in leafy tangles, tree hollows, or caves. In caves it can be found with other species.	eng
136232	population	Velazco, P. & Muñoz, A., 2008	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) and in Colombia (Muñoz pers. comm.) and Peru (Velazco pers. comm.).	eng
136232	threats	Velazco, P. & Muñoz, A., 2008	The species occurs in a fragile ecosystem on the slopes of the Andes which is undergoing rapid conversion to agriculture and other land-uses. Caves where they are found are threatened by tourism.	eng
136233	conservation	Suyanto, A., Maryanto, I. & Francis, C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology and threats of this species.	eng
136233	distribution	Suyanto, A., Maryanto, I. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known from Majuyod, Negros, and Guimaras islands in the Philippines, and Selaru island in the Lesser Sundas (Indonesia) (Kitchener and Suyanto 2002; Simmons 2005). A reference for Borneo from Simmons (2005) refers to a nearby offshore island adjacent to northern Borneo, Balambangam (Sabah, Malaysia) (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985; C. Francis pers. comm. 2006). Also, there is a record from Sumbawa, Roti, Timor, Semau, and Sawu in Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136233	habitat	Suyanto, A., Maryanto, I. & Francis, C., 2008	The ecology and habitats for this species are not known.	eng
136233	population	Suyanto, A., Maryanto, I. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136233	threats	Suyanto, A., Maryanto, I. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136234	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136234	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in north eastern Argentina, in Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Two small outlier localities included in southern portion of the distribution (Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
136234	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136234	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are three main populations, which are also severely fragmented.	eng
136234	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species is considered a pest in the north and is because they invade fields to eat vegetables. Their burrows also cause horses to harm their legs. For these reasons they are considered a pest and hunted (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136235	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It could be present in at least two national parks, Mantadia and Zahamena, and in the Zahamena Strict Nature Reserve, although this may require confirmation given the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the exact distributional limits of the various species of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. It may also be the form in Analamazaotra Special Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
136235	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar. As with other species formerly included in <em>C. major</em> and regarded as distinct, the range of <em>C. crossleyi</em> remains to be determined. Groves (2000, 2001) describes it as running inland to that of <em>C. major</em> in eastern Madagascar and extending farther to the north, this based on specimens from Lac Alaotra, Andasibe, and Vohémar. According to Hapke <em>et al.</em> (2005), this is also one of three <em>Cheirogaleus</em> species found west of Tolagnaro, along with <em>C. major</em> and <em>C. medius</em>.	eng
136235	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Inhabits the eastern moist forests, but other information on ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.	eng
136235	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, and complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests. In the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Cheirogaleus now thought to be this species were recorded at densities of 70-110 individuals/km² (Pollock 1979).	eng
136235	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss is a likely threat across the range.	eng
136236	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136236	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species in known only from type locality: Juruena, Mato Grosso State, Brazil; 206 m in altitude (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136236	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	The habitat at the collection locality is lowland rainforest (Percequillo, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136236	population	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	Population and abundance are unknown (Percequillo pers. comm.).	eng
136236	threats	Percequillo, A. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat is agricultural expansion (Percequillo <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136237	conservation	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	Part of the eastern edge of the range falls within Tuz Lake Special Protected Area (declared in 2000), which is not well managed for nature protection and has deteriorated in condition over the past 5 years. More genetic research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, and further surveys are needed to determine the range, population, and trends.	eng
136237	distribution	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Turkey, where it occurs in the steppes of central Anatolia. Its distribution limits are poorly known, but it appears to be restricted to southern parts of central Anatolia (Demirsoy <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136237	habitat	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	This species is found in areas with dry alkaline soil vegetated sparsely with halophytic plants. It can also be found in areas of sugar beet agriculture during the harvest season only (at other times of the year the species is absent from sugar beet fields).	eng
136237	population	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	Little information is available. This species lives in small colonies.	eng
136237	threats	Yigit, N., Kryštufek, B. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	The species is found in an area that is a remnant zone from the Tetis Sea, an area of typical alkaline vegetation (halophytic plants) that hosts a number of endemic animal and plant species. This area is under increasing exploitation for sugar beet cultivation. Irrigation for this agriculture is the main threat. Rodenticides are also used in the area (N. Yigit pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136238	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed, as <em>C. attenuata</em>, as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136238	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations from sea level up to 2,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136238	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It occupies grassland, secondary forest, bamboo thickets and pastures (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136238	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is a common species (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136238	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136239	conservation	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The species range is within two protected areas in which it is likely to occur although there are no records (Burneo pers. comm.)	eng
136239	distribution	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species occurs throughout the Ecuadorian Andes, including the eastern and western slopes of the Andes of northern Ecuador, and the slopes of the Cordillera de Cóndor and Cordillera del Cutucú in southern Ecuador. Its known distribution is restricted to higher elevations (1,300-1,890 m on the eastern and 2,000-2,275 m on the western slopes), where it inhabits montane cloud forests (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136239	habitat	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat inhabits mid elevations of outer slopes of the Andes. One specimen was captured in the Numbala caves, where it was roosting with 4 other individuals. All specimens have been collected in mature cloud forest habitat. Anoura fistulata consumes nectar and pollen from a number of large-flowered plants, and supplements its diet with insects. Pollen was collected from the fur of 4 individuals. Three were carrying pollen from unidentified bromeliads, 2 from Marcgravia, 2 from Meriania, 2 from Centropogon nigricans, and 1 from Markea. A faecal sample collected from 1 of these 3 contained pollen of Marcgravia, Aphelandra acanthus, and bromeliads, as well as wing scales of Lepidoptera and other insect parts. The gut contents of a 5th individual contained insect parts and pollen from Pitcairnia brogniartiana, Marcgravia coriaceae, and Markea (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136239	population	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Although widespread, this species is uncommon, as demonstrated by the low rate of capture in mist nets and its relative rarity in museum collections (Muchhala <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136239	threats	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	The ecosystem on which it is highly dependant is very fragile and the rate of destruction is high (Mantilla pers. comm.).	eng
136240	conservation	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known from Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in Mondul Kiri Province in Cambodia, Phu Suan Sai National Park in Loei Province and Nam Nao National Park in Petchabun Province, both in Thailand (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), and from a National Park in Viet Nam (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
136240	distribution	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is found in the forests of northern Myanmar (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2004; Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2005), and its range extends eastwards to Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007). Future studies may increase the range of this recently described species (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Lao PDR it has been recorded between 150-800 m asl.	eng
136240	habitat	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	In Myanmar the species has been collected from good deciduous and evergreen forest (around 100 m asl), and in Viet Nam it has been collected in evergreen to semi evergreen forest with some bamboo (at 229 m asl in central Viet Nam) (P. Bates pers. comm.). In Cambodia it has been collected in deciduous dipterocarp forest, near bamboo (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), in Thailand in lower montane forest which included banana trees, bamboo groves and mixed deciduous forest (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007), and in Lao PDR in evergreen forest (Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136240	population	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This is a widespread but never abundant species (P. Bates pers. comm.). Soisook <em>et al.</em> 2007 consider it to be locally common in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand.	eng
136240	threats	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
136241	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park.	eng
136241	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known only from a few localities in Brazil (Goiás, São Paulo and Minas Gerais states) (Gardner, 2007).	eng
136241	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Found in high altitude areas of cerrado, a habitat which is limited. The species occurs in gallery forest. Their activity is predominantly terrestrial and diurnal. Little known, probably similar to other species of <em>Monodelphis</em>.	eng
136241	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Rare and poorly known. Surveys around the known range have not found more individuals (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
136241	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species seems to be restricted to a naturally rare habitat type (Vieia pers. comm.) and occurs patchily across the presumed range. Where it does occur the species is threatened by habitat conversion and populations are in decline.	eng
136242	conservation	Kaneko, Y. & Sasaki, H., 2008	Badgers are designated in local Red Data Lists in 11 out of 46 prefectures: Vulnerable (VU): Hyogo; Near Threatened (NT or C): Chiba, Kagawa, Tokyo, Oita, Okayama, Osaka and Yamaguchi; Data Deficient (DD): Aichi, Gunma, Tochigi.	eng
136242	distribution	Kaneko, Y. & Sasaki, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku (Wilson and Reeder, 2005), and Shodoshima but no other small islands. The Environmental Agency of Japan (1979) reported that there were many in Fukui (Honshu), Miyazaki and Oita (Kyushu) but less in Ibaraki, Osaka, Chiba and Tokyo (Honshu) prefectures. Kurose <em>et al</em> (2001) suggest that genetic distances among Japanese populations were much smaller than the continental one. Nowadays the badger’s distribution is declining.	eng
136242	habitat	Kaneko, Y. & Sasaki, H., 2008	Although the ecology of the Japanese badger is one of the least studied in Japan, several scientific surveys were conducted in three typical habitats in Honshu; evergreen broad-leaved forest in Yamaguchi, subalpine conifer plantation in Nagano (Mt. Nyugasa) and conifer plantation/countryside mosaic in Tokyo suburb (Hinode-town).<br/><br/>Body size, Life cycle and reproduction<br/>One of differeces between Japanese badgers to European species is body size. In total body length in adults (over 2 years old), 78.7±4.9 cm in males and 72.0±2.3 cm in females (Tokyo Kaneko <em>et al.</em> 1996) are far shorter than <em>M. meles</em>, more smaller badgers were recorded in south evergreen forest population (66.8±2.7 cm in males and 60.4±2.4 cm in females, Yamaguch, Tanaka 2002). Abramov (2005) reported Japanese badgers’ downsizing of the skull accompanied by a decrease of sexual size dimorphism (except in canine size) in comparison to the continental species.<br/><br/>Body weight (April-July period) has much variation between individuals as well as seasons, 7.7±1.3 kg in males and 5.4±0.8 kg in females in Tokyo (Kaneko and Maruyama 2002), 5.7±0.4 kg in males and 4.4±0.6 kg in females in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2002). <br/><br/>Female’s parturition is from 2 years of age and on mid-April in Tokyo, mid-March to April in Yamaguchi, average litter size of 2.5±1.2 cubs (1-4 cubs in range, Kaneko 2001) and 2.3 cubs in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2002). Copulation is from April, just after parturition in April and blastocysts delayed implant until February (Kaneko 2001). Tanaka (2002) reported badgers are nocturnal, as well as their activity almost ceased in January and February, badgers remained in their setts most of the time with about 3 degree lower body temperature, is likely hibernation.<br/><br/>Food, home range and  cover<br/>Japanese badgers feed on earthworms from spring and autumn in sub-alpine zone (Yamamoto 1991, 1995), ever green forest (Tanaka 2002) and Tokyo suburb (Hinode-town, Kaneko 2001; Kaneko <em>et al.</em> 2006).  Badgers are also known to eat other items with worms; berries and beetles in summer in all three habitats and switched worms to persimmon (tree fruit) in autumn Tokyo suburb. Nowadays in Japan, old and new land use types are mixed because of rapid growth and development by building new residential area. <br/><br/>Social structure<br/>Unlike European badgers, there are no male-female bond for rearing cubs by direct observation in Tokyo suburb (Ito 1992) as well as both female and male adult badger home ranges were solitary in Yamaguchi (Tanaka 2001). It seemed that male badgers is solitary but construct a temporary bond with one or several females only in mating season. In mating season in Tokyo suburb (Kaneko <em>et al</em>. in prep)and Yamaguchi (Tanaka <em>et al.</em> 2002), male badgers extend their range overlapped with 2-3 females. Tanaka suggest intra-sexual territoriality in Yamaguchi population, may differ from large social group or pair in European badgers. Scent marking in Japanese badgers in Tokyo suburb (Kaneko in prep.), the border latrines may be effective sources of information about badger presence and oestrus status in low density populations because there are few opportunities for badgers to encounter each other and no badgers met at latrines.	eng
136242	population	Kaneko, Y. & Sasaki, H., 2008	In 2003, the Ministry of the Environment reported in a National survey on the Natural Environment that badger geographic range was obviously shrinking in 45 of 46 prefectures compared to 1978 survey, especially in Nara and Chiba (Honshu) prefectures while only one prefecture (Ehime in Shikoku) reported increase. Recorded area is about 29% of country (about 126,000 km²) and 7% reduction in last 25 years. <br/><br/>It is classified as a "game species" in Japan, although numbers hunted each year have been declining from 7,000 individuals per year in the 1970s to less than 2,000 individuals in late 1980s, though this might be caused by a loss of interest in badgers as game animals (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). Although present scientific surveys are not sufficient to define population trends or density, it was estimated as 4 adults/km² in Tokyo suburb from seven years capture-recapture result.	eng
136242	threats	Kaneko, Y. & Sasaki, H., 2008	Japanese badger population and distribution has been shrinking over the last 30 years, mainly due to intensive development and agriculture (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). In addition, there is a threat from the invasive carnivore raccoon (<em>Procyon lotor</em>) (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006). Radio-tracking data from a Tokyo suburb showed that a breeding female was not allowed to use her breeding site in a year a raccoon was present in its home range (Y. Kaneko pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136243	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in Lachay National Preserve (Solari, 2003). Very little information is available on this species and further research is needed into its ecology and effect of threats.	eng
136243	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in around five localities in the coastal Peru (departments of Ancash and Lima) (Solari 2003; Braun <em>et al.</em> 2005; Gardner 2005). The species may occur further north, though not much given the available habitat; it is unlikely to be found more extensively to the south. This species has the northernmost range of the genus (S. Solari pers. comm.). It is found from 300 to 3,000 m (Solari 2003).	eng
136243	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in the coastal deserts and shrublands of Peru (Solari, 2003). Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The species of this genus are crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136243	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	Unknown, there are specimens from a handful of localities (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136243	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are agriculture and small settlements (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136244	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
136244	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The range is the western Andean slopes from southwestern Colombia to southwestern Ecuador (Gardner 2007). There are recent records from Tumbes Department (Tumbes Reserve Zone), Peru (H. Zeballos pers. comm.) which need to be confirmed. It has an altitudinal range of 0 to 1,500 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136244	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary. It is known from wet evergreen lowland rainforests and wet montane forests (Emmons and Feer, 1997). The southern region of its range is dry forest.	eng
136244	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is little known about the populations.	eng
136244	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The southern part of its range has little protection, outside of Tumbes Reserve Zone in Peru. The northern part of its range is severely fragmented by agriculture and human settlements.	eng
136245	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136245	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in Paraguay and north Pantanal, western Brazil.	eng
136245	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Lacher, T., 2008	The species inhabits in open vegetation in cerrado and transition areas forest edge and grassland (Lacher pers. comm.).	eng
136245	population	Bonvicino, C. & Lacher, T., 2008	This rodent is common and abundant throughout the range (C. Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136245	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at this time.	eng
136246	conservation	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. Continued enforcement of export bans of this species is necessary to aid recovery. It is protected by domestic legislation banning all hunting since 1981. The species is not present in any protected areas. Local awareness programmes are needed to emphasize the importance of wildlife resources. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
136246	distribution	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the four adjacent small main islands of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia.	eng
136246	habitat	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is found in forest, mangroves, and agroforest. Although there is virtually no primary forest remaining on the islands, there is significant secondary forest and agroforest, which this species utilizes. It reproduces throughout the year (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
136246	population	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The population in 1981 was estimated to be 1,000 animals (Wiles and Payne 1986), and between 2,500-5,000 animals in 1986 (J. Engbring, unpubl. data in Wiles 1992). Although there are no current population estimates, numbers had increased even further by the early 1990s following protection (G. Wiles pers. comm.).	eng
136246	threats	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The population of this species was drastically reduced during the late 1970s through commercial hunting for export of animals to Guam and the Northern Marianas for the luxury food market. It is estimated that 23,410 bats were imported from Yap to Guam between 1975 and 1989 (Wiles 1992). The species is currently threatened by subsistence hunting for local use that continues despite the 1981 ban, by the impacts of tropical typhoons, and by minor amounts of deforestation (E. VanderWerf pers. comm.; G. Wiles pers. comm.).	eng
136247	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
136247	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is known from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136247	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	The species normally roosts in large colonies (thousands or hundred of bats) in cooler portions. It begins foraging later than many other bats (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its diet typically contains some combination of insects, nectar, and fruit. In a detailed survey, 75% of the individuals consumed at least some insect remains, 76% had fed on nectar, 85% had eaten fruit, and about half the bats had consumed all three dietary items during their most recent foraging period (Soto-Centeno, 2004). Seeds found in fecal pellets indicate that it often feeds on the fruit of Panama berry, elder, and turkey berry, whereas pollen samples obtained from the fur suggest that this bat also visits flowers of banana, guava, and wild tamarind for nectar (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005). It has a litter size of one and probably gives birth just once each year in spring. On Puerto Rico pregnant females can be obtained from February through June and lactating females from May through September (Gannon <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136247	population	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This bat is locally common; it can form colonies of thousands (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136247	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Same cave issues as it is a hot cave species, more susceptible to hurricanes. Mining (Rodriguez pers. comm.).	eng
136248	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, habitats, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136248	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality at Lequi Mia, Meera, Timor-Leste, at 1,220 m asl (Simmons 2005).	eng
136248	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	It was collected from a shallow man-made, humid cave (Quoto Lo Cave), on a heavily forested slope. It is believed that more than six or seven individuals were inhabiting the caves.	eng
136248	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	The status of the population is unknown. It is known only from the holotype collected in 1979.	eng
136248	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	Major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136249	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Monarch Butterfly Sanctuary. Research is needed into its distribution and natural history.	eng
136249	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern slopes of Volcán de Toluca and Valle de Bravo regions of central Mexico (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2004). It ranges in elevation from 2,500 m to 3,500 m asl. (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is a possibility that another nearby valley also contains this species, but it has yet to be sampled (M. Hafner pers. comm.).	eng
136249	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Like all pocket gophers this species is patchily distributed within its range, depending on the type of soil. There is, however, a lot of suitable soil where this species occurs (M. Hafner pers. comm.). It is found in pine-oak forests that transition into predominantly pine forest at higher elevations, but is also prevalent in agricultural fields.	eng
136249	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Populations of this species are fairly dense within its range (M. Hafner pers. comm.).	eng
136249	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It has co-occurred with people for a very long time and while considered an agricultural pest, it is not subject to serious control measures that threaten its existence. The forested terrain where this species occurs is rugged and does not appear to be under threat from logging (M. Hafner pers. comm.).	eng
136250	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species occurs in Songshan, Shennongjia, and Pangquangou Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and may be present in other protected areas. Research is needed in the areas of population status, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats. In China, this species was regionally Red Listed (as <em>M. mystacinus</em>) as Near Threatened nearly meeting the criteria for listing as Vulnerable under criterion A1bc (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136250	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in the following provinces: Beijing, Hebei, (Smith and Xie 2008), Nei Mongol, Shanxi, (CSIS 2008), Hubei and Shaanxi.	eng
136250	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no data on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136250	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	There are no current data on the population status for this species.	eng
136250	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136251	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species may occur more widely than currently known.	eng
136251	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from the Isalo National Park in south-central Madagascar. Collecting localities with recorded elevation info range from 650-700 m asl.	eng
136251	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is at least in part terrestrial and lives outside forest formations (Carleton and Goodman 2007).	eng
136251	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This recently described species is known only from four specimens (Carleton and Goodman 2007).	eng
136251	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently, all known specimens of this very recently described species are recorded from the Isalo National Park. It is not likely that there are any threats to the species, but further survey work is needed.	eng
136252	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its geographic distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs.	eng
136252	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This species is known only from the Elburz Mountains in northern Iran. There are records from: the foothills of Elburz Mountains near Fasham; the southern foothills and ridges (2,590 m asl) of Mount Demavend; Doab on the crest of the central Elburz Mountains; and on the northern slopes of the Elburz Mountains in Mazandaran Province at Abass-Abad (36º44' N, 51º08' E). The limits of its distribution remain unresolved and is almost certainly occurs more widely than current records suggest, though it is likely to be endemic to the Elburz Mountains.	eng
136252	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on its ecological requirements, though it is likely to occur in mountain forests.	eng
136252	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on its abundance.	eng
136252	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
136253	conservation	de Oliveira, M.M., Boubli, J.-P. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas, though several are within range, including Guaribas Biological Reserve (2,714 ha), Barra do Mamanguape EPA (14,640 ha), Manguezais da Foz do rio Mamanguape (Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest; 5,721 ha), and Engenho Gargau RPPN and Mata Estrela RPPN. Surveys over its entire range are needed to establish habitat preferences, area of occupancy, and population numbers.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136253	distribution	de Oliveira, M.M., Boubli, J.-P. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The coastal region of north-east Brazil in the states of Alagoas, Paraíba and Pernambuco (Oliveira and Langguth 2006; Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Cebus libidinosus</em> occurs inland (see Oliveira and Langguth 2006).	eng
136253	habitat	de Oliveira, M.M., Boubli, J.-P. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	Lowland coastal rain forest and <em>Montrichiardia linina</em> swamp in north-east Brazil (Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006), secondary forest, semi-deciduous seasonal forest, canopy at about 20 m and emergents about 25 m. Capuchin monkeys are arboreal quadrepeds, they are typically found in the lower to mid-canopy and understorey (Freese and Oppenheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al</em>. 2004; Jack 2007). <br/><br/>Capuchin monkeys are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Typical group size for tufted capuchins is about 18 individuals, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males (adult sex ratio of 0.85). Pontes <em>et al</em>. (2006) recorded a group of 18. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male HB 36.8 cm, TL 37.8 cm, weight 3.0 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006)<br/>Adult male HB 40.0 cm, TL 41 cm, weight 2.9 kg (Pontes <em>et al</em>. 2006)<br/>Adult female HB 35.1 cm, TL 38.4 cm, weight 1.8 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006)<br/>Adult female HB 36.1 cm, TL 38.0 cm, weight 2.5 kg (Oliveira and Langguth 2006).	eng
136253	population	de Oliveira, M.M., Boubli, J.-P. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The remaining populations of this species are all extremely fragmented (approximately 24 subpopulations) each averaging approximately 15 total individuals. The estimated total remaining mature populations size is 180 individuals (M. M. de Oliveira, unpubl.).	eng
136253	threats	de Oliveira, M.M., Boubli, J.-P. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	The major threats are hunting (for food and pets), and habitat loss and fragmentation (mainly through coastal development and sugar cane).	eng
136254	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. This is presumably the species that occurs in Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, but this requires confirmation. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136254	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from the region of its type locality (Andramasay) in western Madagascar. Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> (2006) put the southern limit as the Tsiribihina River, and the northerly limit as either the Manambaho or Mahavavy du Sud Rivers. However, <em>L. ahmansonorum</em> has been described by Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) from south of the Mahavavy du Sud (although its southern limit is unclear). The northerly limit is here provisionally taken as the Maningoza, but this obviously requires further investigation, especially relative to the southern limits of <em>L. ahmansonorum</em>.	eng
136254	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
136254	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136254	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss is likely a threat.	eng
136255	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It occurs within a community managed area. Further studies into the taxonomic status and population abundance of this species are needed as well as research into conservation measures. Hunting regulations should be developed for this species.	eng
136255	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the high elevations in the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. It ranges from 3,000 to 3,800 m asl.	eng
136255	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is present in upper montane tropical forest and subalpine grasslands. Little else is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
136255	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
136255	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by local hunting for food.	eng
136256	conservation	Menkhorst, P., Taggart, D., Ellis, M. & Martin, R., 2008	Its range includes numerous protected areas.	eng
136256	distribution	Menkhorst, P., Taggart, D., Ellis, M. & Martin, R., 2008	This species occurs from Ulladulla in southern New South Wales, south to Wombat Forest and Mount Cole in central Victoria. It occurs from sea level up to 1,300 m asl (but usually above 300 m; Martin 2008).	eng
136256	habitat	Menkhorst, P., Taggart, D., Ellis, M. & Martin, R., 2008	It is a mostly scansorial species, of various tall open and closed forest types. It can occur in exotic pine plantations and is a pest in regenerating pine plantations. The female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days; the young have a pouch life of five to six months (Martin 2008). Along the Snowy River it dens in rocky crevices instead of tree holes or logs.	eng
136256	population	Menkhorst, P., Taggart, D., Ellis, M. & Martin, R., 2008	It is a common species (Martin 2008).	eng
136256	threats	Menkhorst, P., Taggart, D., Ellis, M. & Martin, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range. Foxes also can be a problem.	eng
136257	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It probably is present in some protected areas on the island.	eng
136257	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Motokawa and Lin 2002; Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 300-3,000 m asl (Motokawa and Lin 2002; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136257	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies subtropical, mixed deciduous, and coniferous forest, as well as alpine tundra, and has been caught in agricultural fields, riparian woodlands, and dwarf bamboo (Jameson and Jones 1977; Smith and Xie 2008).  It is at greatest abundance in deciduous forests (1,500-2,500 m asl) (Jameson and Jones 1977; Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136257	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136257	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136258	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species probably occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
136258	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	The species' range is confined to west-central Texas (Schmidly 2004) and southeastern New Mexico (Baker <em>et al.</em> 1989, Hopton and Cameron 2001, Frey 2004). The distributional limits in New Mexico are unclear (Frey 2004).	eng
136258	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This fossorial rodent is restricted to areas with deep, sandy, aeolian soils; usually in native yucca-grassland habitat, although it is also found on grassy roadsides, pastures, and lawns (Bradley and Baker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999).  Breeding occurs from late October to early April (Pembleton and Baker 1978). Gestation is probably about 23 days; delayed implantation or sperm storage by females probably occurs (Bradley and Baker, in Wilson and Ruff 1999). It feeds on tubers, roots and stems of plants such as yucca, sunflowers, and grasses (Bradley and Baker 1999, as cited in Hopton and Cameron 2001).	eng
136258	population	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	This species is represented by several to many distinct occurrences or subpopulations. It has been recorded from 10 counties in Texas (Schmidly 2004) and five counties in New Mexico (Frey 2004). Total population size is unknown but presumably is at least several thousand. This pocket gopher is locally common throughout its range (Schmidly 2004). The population trend is not well documented. Probably the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are not declining at a rate of greater than 30 percent over 10 years of three generations; decline might be less than 10 percent, or trend could be stable.	eng
136258	threats	Linzey, A.V., Hammerson, G. & Cannings, S., 2008	Ploughing or disking eliminates or degrades habitat by destroying burrows. The species is vulnerable to applications of rodenticides. However, these factors are not known to be major threats at the present time.	eng
136259	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136259	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Mount Tay Con Linh II (22°45'27"N, 104°49'49''E), Ha Giang province in Viet Nam where it has been collected in sympatry with <em>Chodsigoa parca</em>. The species is likely to occur more widely in the montane forests of northern Viet Nam and southern China.	eng
136259	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Specimens were collected in montane forests between 1,300 and 2,000 m asl. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
136259	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known, as this species was only recently discovered on Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136259	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. However, if it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range, most likely as a result of agriculture and extraction of timber.	eng
136260	conservation	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This mouse occurs in Caparao and in Itatiaia National Parks (Geise <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The taxonomy of this species requires revision to determine whether Akodon paranaensis and A. reigi are valid species.	eng
136260	distribution	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is known only from highland localities, 2000-2700 m, in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro States, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136260	habitat	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species is restricted to high altitude fields within it range in the Atlantic forest. It has been found in areas covered by dense rainforest in Caparao, and in Itatiaia, more frequently in swampy areas (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136260	population	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This mouse is common throughout the range.	eng
136260	threats	Christoff, A., Fagundes, V., Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136261	conservation	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Ths species is not known from a protected area.	eng
136261	distribution	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Salta Province, which is questionable as Euneomys is otherwise unrecorded this far north in Argentina (see Mares <em>et al.</em>, 1989).(Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136261	habitat	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species. Possibly dry chaco.	eng
136261	population	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species.	eng
136261	threats	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is nothing known of threats to this species.	eng
136262	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	This species probably occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136262	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The species ranges from Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
136262	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	It can inhabit a wide variety of habitat: from evergreen rainforest to cultivated land near villages, from lowland to<br/>mountain areas.	eng
136262	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136262	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Hedges, S., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
136263	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Andohahela National Park (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006); assuming that the Mananara River is indeed the northerly limit of the range, then it will also occur in the Midongy du Sud National Park, but this requires confirmation. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136263	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Manangotry region, specifically the rainforest parcel of Andohahela National Park between the Mandrare and Mananara Rivers (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Formerly, the sportive lemurs in this region were thought to be <em>L. microdon</em>. Further work is needed to confirm the limits of the range.	eng
136263	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of rainforest regions in the south-east.	eng
136263	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136263	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136264	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is found in Timboong Hibok-hibok Natural Monument.	eng
136264	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines and is restricted to Camiguin island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
136264	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in montane and mossy forest and areas which are subject to natural disturbance caused by volcanoes and landslides, there is little or no old growth forest here because of this disturbance. It is possible that the species remains in lower elevation habitats, including disturbed areas (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It has been reported at an elevation range from 1,000 m to 1,475 m (Heaney and Tabaranza 1997).	eng
136264	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The population is likely to comprise of less than 10,000 individuals (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006). This is a relatively common in suitable habitat (L. Heaney pers. comm.), but occurs at lower densities than <em>Apomys camiguinensis</em> which is tolerant of a wider range of habitats.	eng
136264	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	If the species remains in lower elevation areas, it may be affected by habitat loss due to slash and burn agriculture, logging, urbanization and increased tourism; it is less threatened at higher elevation areas where logging and deforestation occur to a lesser degree and areas of intact forest remain (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136265	conservation	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in many protected areas.	eng
136265	distribution	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	This species ranges from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau to west of the Volta River system in Ghana. It is also recorded from the Bijagos archipelago (Guinea Bissau) (Gippoliti and d Dell'Omo 2003). This species has been introduced to Barbados and Saint Kitts and Nevis in the Caribbean, and also to Cape Verde.	eng
136265	habitat	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	Recorded from riverine gallery woodlands, acacia savannas, mangrove forest and at the edge of lowland tropical moist forest (Gippoliti and d Dell'Omo 2003).	eng
136265	population	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	Reasonably abundant, especially in the delta areas of West African rivers.	eng
136265	threats	Kingdon, J. & Gippoliti, S., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
136266	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136266	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of central Peru (Simmons, 2005). Known from type locality, at 1,600 m (Gardner and Patton 1972)	eng
136266	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
136266	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The species might be rare.	eng
136266	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Not known.	eng
136267	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	The species likely occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136267	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the northern portion of the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia (Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). It is found from 2,500 to 2,800 m asl (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).	eng
136267	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, as well as agricultural fields (Delgado pers. comm. 2005). It is predated by the crab-eating fox, <em>Cerdocyon thous</em> (Delgado 2002).	eng
136267	population	Woodman, N., 2008	It is commonly found in appropriate habitat.	eng
136267	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats identified for this species.	eng
136268	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas. Research actions.	eng
136268	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from San Luis Potosi (Mexico) south to west Panama (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136268	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is poorly known. All previous information for <em>C. brevicauda</em> applies to <em>C. sowell</em>i (Pineda pers. comm.).	eng
136268	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In a rapid assessment in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, <em>C. sowelli</em> was the most abundant species.	eng
136268	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no known threats throughout its range.	eng
136269	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The Red-fronted Brown Lemur is found in five national parks (Isalo, Ranomafana, Zombitse, Vohibasia and Andringitra), two special reserves (Andranomena and Pic d'Ivohibe), the Analabe Private Reserve in the Menabe region (and in Berenty), and in the Kirindy-Mitea Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136269	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The Red-fronted Brown Lemur is found both in western and eastern Madagascar. In the west, it is known from the Tsiribihina River south at least to the Fiherenana River near Toliara. The limits of its distribution in eastern Madagascar are not as well defined, but it appears to occur from the Onive and Mangoro Rivers south to the Andringitra Massif, the southern limit of its range probably being the Manampatra River, which separates this subspecies from <em>E. cinereiceps</em>. South-east of the Andringitra Massif, there is a 60-km wide hybrid zone between <em>E. rufifrons</em> and <em>E. cinereiceps</em> at the Iantara River (headwaters of the Manampatrana) (Irwin <em>et al.</em> 2005). A small introduced population of Red-fronted Brown Lemurs (hybridized with <em>E. collaris</em>) also inhabits the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar. Ranges from sea level to 1,670 m.	eng
136269	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Present in moist lowland and montane forest in the east, and dry tropical forest in the west. It has been studied in western Madagascar in the deciduous forests of Antserananomby and Tongobato, in the Kirindy Forest, and in eastern Madagascar in Ranomafana National Park (see Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008, and references therein). Based on these studies, the species has a very adaptable behavioural ecology. Group size varies from four to 17 (with an average size of nine) in the west and from six to 18 (with an average size of eight) in the east. In the west, population density is reported to be very high and home ranges small; in the east, population densities tend to be lower and home ranges as large as 100 ha. Reproduction is seasonal. In western populations, one male typically monopolizes the females of the group, while in the east several males may participate in reproductive pairings. In the west, mating takes place in June, births occur in September and October, and the young are weaned by January.	eng
136269	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	In the east, Irwin <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded 22 individuals/km² in Ranomafana National Park. In the west, Sussman (1974) documented densities of 1,120 individuals/km² at Antseranomby, but recent estimates have declined considerably to about 23.9/km² (kelley <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136269	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The principal threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture, burning to clear pastureland, fuelwood gathering, and illegal logging. Hunting and trapping are also threats throughout its range.	eng
136270	conservation	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	The species is found in one protected area. More data are needed on population densities, trends, habitat preferences, and threats.	eng
136270	distribution	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	<em>Crocidura arispa</em> is endemic to Turkey. Currently it is known only from two localities, about 400 km apart (one individual recorded from each site) in the Taurus Mountains, in the southern part of the country (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001).	eng
136270	habitat	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	<em>C. arispa</em> inhabits rocky areas. It is adapted to arid climates (Kryštufek and Vohralík 2001) and is adapted to live in fissures (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136270	population	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	This is a rare species, although it is difficult to collect; despite several attempts to collect the species it has only been collected twice, perhaps because of specific habitat requirements.	eng
136270	threats	Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Amori, G. & Kefelioglu, H., 2008	No major threats are known at present.	eng
136271	conservation	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in most protected areas within its range. Further taxonomic work is required to assess the validity of proposed subspecies.	eng
136271	distribution	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Distributed from the Ethiopian Rift Valley, highlands east of the Rift, and southern Somalia in the north, through the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia (east of the Luangwa Valley), Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa (all provinces). This species has also been recorded from the islands of Pemba and Mafia, Tanzania, and the Manda Islands, Lamu Archipelago, of northern Kenya. Sympatric with <em>Papio</em> spp and <em>Erythrocebus patas</em> (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
136271	habitat	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable and versatile species able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas, and sometimes found living in both rural and urban environments. A significant part of the range consists of Miombo woodland. Is generally absent from desert areas and deep forest within its range. Lives in multi-male and multi-female groups of up to 38 individuals; many unrelated males may be present in a group.	eng
136271	population	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Often common and abundant. However, very patchily distributed over its extensive geographic range, probably due to its need to drink water daily (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers comm.). Regarded as a pest species in cultivated areas in parts of its range.	eng
136271	threats	Kingdon, J., Gippoliti, S., Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	There are no major threats although it is classed as vermin in parts of its range and is actively persecuted (shot and hunted) by landowners in areas where it raids crops or interacts with humans. Vervets are found to be a source of bushmeat in some areas (e.g. Turkana District, Kenya; De Jong <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
136272	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. The only protected area in which it is known to occur is the Anjanaharibé-Sud Special Reserve. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136272	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>Microcebus mittermeieri</em> occurs in and around the Anjanaharibé-Sud Special Reserve in north-eastern Madagascar. The type locality is at 1,056 m asl.	eng
136272	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136272	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.	eng
136272	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. The only locality from which it is currently known is a protected area.	eng
136273	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	The species' range includes several protected areas, that may include appropriate habitat.	eng
136273	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico where it occurs in Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, and Sinaloa (Carraway and Timm, 2000). It ranges from 3 m up to 550 m asl in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Sinaloa (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136273	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs a variety of dry habitats including fallow fields, bordered by scattered cacti, thornbush and mesquite, and shrubland.	eng
136273	population	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
136273	threats	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	Conversion of the mesquite areas into agriculture is a major threat to this species (Ivan Castro-Arellano pers. comm.).	eng
136274	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species habitat is owned by army for field training, this provides some degree of protection (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136274	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in the Serra da Mantiqueira, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Leite, 2003). It was collected at 1,800 m elevation.	eng
136274	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is known from mixed montane rainforest at 1,800 m altitude, a very specific and naturally restricted habitat (Leite, 2003).	eng
136274	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Very little is known about populations of this species.	eng
136274	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136275	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Xishuizhongyaredaisenlin, Houhe, Jinfoshan, Ailaoshan, Changshanerhai, Jinpingfenshuiling (Yunnan), and Zhujiashan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136275	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Sichuan (southern mountains), Yunnan (east of the Salween river) (Smith and Xie 2008), Hubei (CSIS 2008), and possibly Guizhuo as Musser and Carelton (2005) indicate that the specimens listed by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1997) require verification.	eng
136275	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The species occupies montane forests (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136275	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136275	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
136276	conservation	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species potentially occurs in several protected areas in its range in Paraguay and Brazil, but records are not known from those areas.	eng
136276	distribution	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, south Brazil (Matto Grosso do Sul State, Municipality Maracaju, Fazenda da Mata) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). Langguth and Bonvicino (2002) believe that this rodent also occurs in Bolivia and eastern Paraguay.	eng
136276	habitat	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is confined to gallery forest (disturbed gallery forest also) (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002). Other members of this group are tolerant of habitat modification.	eng
136276	population	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is uncommon (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).	eng
136276	threats	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The major threat to some populations is agricultural expansion.	eng
136277	conservation	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C., Samudio, R., Emmons, L., González, J. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136277	distribution	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C., Samudio, R., Emmons, L., González, J. & Pino, J., 2008	This species occurs from Panama to western Colombia and western Venezuela (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
136277	habitat	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C., Samudio, R., Emmons, L., González, J. & Pino, J., 2008	The species occurs only in habitat close to water including marshes, estuaries, and along rivers and streams. Depending on habitat and hunting pressure, it is found singly or socially. It is diurnal or nocturnal depending on hunting pressure and the season. In Venezuela, the species breeds throughout the year, usually with a single breeding cycle. Gestation lasts up to 120 days after which an average of 3.5 young are born (range, one to seven) (Eisenberg and Redford 1999).	eng
136277	population	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C., Samudio, R., Emmons, L., González, J. & Pino, J., 2008	This species is common in protected and unprotected areas in Panama, and uncommon in Venezuela. Its population status is unknown in Colombia.	eng
136277	threats	Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M., Delgado, C., Samudio, R., Emmons, L., González, J. & Pino, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation of gallery forest and extensive agriculture. There is subsistence hunting of this species throughout its range; it is used as a food source. It is heavily hunted in Colombia. Habitat for this species is being rapidly destroyed in Colombia, where many swamps are being drained at the mouth of the Magdalena River.	eng
136278	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136278	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is endemic to southeast Brazil, where it occurs from Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Paraná states (Gardner, 2007).	eng
136278	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Known only from wet montane forest and cloud forest (Mustrangi and Patton 1997).	eng
136278	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Known from relatively few specimens and localities; habitat range narrow (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136278	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
136279	conservation	Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known to occur in Ke Bang Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136279	distribution	Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam, Quang Binh province, Minh Hoa district, 35 km south Minh Hoa (Qui Dat), Yen Hop valley near Yen Hop. Borissenko and Kruskop (2003) found this species only in Ke Bang Nature Reserve (Quang Binh province) but probably this bat inhabits valleys of small streams in middle elevation through the whole of central Viet Nam.	eng
136279	habitat	Csorba, G., 2008	This species inhabits valleys of small rivers, with variably disturbed vegetation. Foraging bats were seen only over the water surface (Borissenko and Kruskop 2003).	eng
136279	population	Csorba, G., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136279	threats	Csorba, G., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136280	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not it is widespread through the region.	eng
136280	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known from two localities in Nahkon Ratchasima (Khorat) province in south central Thailand: the type locality, Ban Nong Sanga (14°32'33''N, 101°57'44''E), and Tumbon, both 50 km SSE from the town of Khorat (Auffray <em>et al</em>. 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005). It has also been recorded from Lamam, Sekong Province, in Lao PDR (K. Aplin pers. comm.). Additional field surveys and reexamination of museum specimens may reveal an even wider range.	eng
136280	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It was found in dry grass and patches of pygmy bamboo along roadsides or dikes bordering dry rice fields (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded in sympatry with <em>M. cervicolor</em>, and <em>M. caroli</em> were also found.	eng
136280	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is currently known only from 21 specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136280	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There likely are no major threats to the species.	eng
136281	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136281	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from a single specimen from the type locality at 600 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 2006), in Southern San Juan Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136281	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136281	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136281	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136282	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136282	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species has a wide distribution on the Olympic Peninsula as well as surrounding regions in western Washington state in the United States, and also occurs northwards in to British Columbia, Canada, where it is found south of the Fraser river near the Pacific Coast. It has been recorded from near sea-level up to a maximum of 700 m asl.	eng
136282	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	It occupies most terrestrial habitats excluding areas with very little or no vegetation.	eng
136282	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species, but it is thought to be secure, although not common.	eng
136282	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species at present.	eng
136283	conservation	Emmons, L. & Patton, J.L., 2008	Occurs in at least one protected area (type locality in Noel Kempff Mercado NP).	eng
136283	distribution	Emmons, L. & Patton, J.L., 2008	This species was recently described and is known from only a handful of locations in northeastern Bolivia (Santa Cruz and Beni Departments) in the environs of Noel Kempff Mercado National Park.	eng
136283	habitat	Emmons, L. & Patton, J.L., 2008	This species is known from only a few localities. It is suspected to prefer humid, semi deciduous forest and liana forests and wet and dry savanna and cerrado formations (Emmons and Patton, 2005).	eng
136283	population	Emmons, L. & Patton, J.L., 2008	Very little is know about populations of this species	eng
136283	threats	Emmons, L. & Patton, J.L., 2008	Major threats are unknown.	eng
136284	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	No protected areas are included in its range; the Petrobras drilling station is probably having a positive effect in some respects since it is excludes humans from some areas of the species range (Patton, J. pers. comm.).	eng
136284	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Brazil; it is known from five specimens in two localites which are 300 km apart: Rio Jurua (type locality) and upper Rio Urucu, Amazonas state (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Its distributioin may be more widespread than the range indicates as the majority of the possible range of the species has not been surveyed. It is difficult to distinguish from M. hispidus (Patton, J. pers. comm.).	eng
136284	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species has been obtained in traps placed in trees in terra firme forest, one at 1.5 m above the ground, the others in canopy platforms positioned between 9.6 and 15.4 m (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). During the same survey, two adult females were collected in early June; one was pregnant with a single embryo (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
136284	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	It is considered vulnerable to imperiled by NatureServe.	eng
136284	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136285	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Based on the description of Zaramody <em>et al.</em> (2006), this species is presumably present in a number of protected areas, including Ranomofana National Park. Further research is necessary to investigate the boundaries of this form with <em>A. betsileo</em> to the north, and to investigate the population status of the species.	eng
136285	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The precise limits of distribution are unclear, but the species is currently known from south of the Onibe River in the forests of Manara, Vatoalatsaka, Sangalampona, Mahasoarivo and Ranomafana in eastern Madagascar (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, see Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> (2007; Fig. 25).	eng
136285	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136285	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only described in 2006.	eng
136285	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat to the species.	eng
136286	conservation	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species is found in Mt. Kitanglad Nature Park.	eng
136286	distribution	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is known from high elevations of the Kitanglad Mountain Range in the province of Bukidnon, Mindanao (Philippines) (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is likely that the species will be found on other high peaks of central Mindanao (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
136286	habitat	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The species occurs in primary mossy montane forest from 2,500 up to 2,800 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data).	eng
136286	population	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is moderately common in high-elevation forest, but probably has a restricted geographic range (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
136286	threats	Heaney, L. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The habitat of this species is not under threat.	eng
136287	conservation	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research into the habitat, ecology, threats and range is needed for this poorly known species.	eng
136287	distribution	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	This species is known from a few records collected near the type locality at Lago Aricoma, 13 miles (20.8 km) ENE of Crucero, in the Cordillera Carabaya of the eastern Andes, Puno Department, southern Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has been recorded between 4,500 and 4,800 m asl.	eng
136287	habitat	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is specifically restricted to moist microhabitats in Puna grassland. It can be found in areas that have some traditional pastoral use.	eng
136287	population	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	It is a very rare species. It has not been collected since 1970, although there have been no recent searches in this area.	eng
136287	threats	Patterson, B. & Zeballos, H., 2008	No major threats currently exist for this montane species, however, it may be threatened by drainage of suitable wet habitat, although this needs to be confirmed. It has a restricted elevational range which is considered to be threatened by climate change in the future.	eng
136288	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Poorly known species with very restricted range and which requires legal protection and a conservation management plan. Research on status, ecology, threats and conservation measures is needed. Public awareness campaigns may also be valuable.	eng
136288	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Rare species, endemic of the basin of the Sevan Lake, Armenia (ca. 4000 sq. km, above 1800 m a.s.l.).	eng
136288	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Only females have been found. Unknown, habitats may be similar to <em>M. aurascens</em>, including forest, scrub and roosts in underground sites.	eng
136288	population	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Population size unknown, the species is known only from five sites, probably of records from nursery colonies (no male individuals have yet been recorded). There are no proved records since 1980s. There have been 2 surveys, although effort was only three days in one case, a second survey in 2003 specifically for this bat did not find the species (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2008) - it might be extinct. Only thirty specimens are in museum collections.	eng
136288	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M., 2008	Unknown, destruction of roost sites might be threat to the population.	eng
136289	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136289	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Paraguay, in Ñembucú and Misiones Provinces. The range is restricted by the Paraguay River to the west and the Parana River to the south (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It occurs to the east of the city of Pilar (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136289	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	C. pilarensis usually lives in sandy soils and do well in manioc (yucca) fields.	eng
136289	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species has a patchy distribution, there are only three or four known isolated populations (Bidau pers. comm.) in a single location.	eng
136289	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Owing to the fact that they live in manioc fields they are considered a pest to agricultural crops.	eng
136290	conservation	Bello, J., Reyna, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	The species is listed in CITES Appendix III for Guatemala as <em>M. temama cerasina</em>.<br/>Recommended conservation actions are: further information about habitat status, distribution and abundance, ecological research; study about their importance for human community as uses and harvest levels and their cultural relevance; implementation of management plans and legislations at international and national level.	eng
136290	distribution	Bello, J., Reyna, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Very little is know of the actual distribution and range limits for the Central American red brocket. It is presumed to occur in southern México, North and central Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Panama, and extend into western Colombia. In México there are records for states around the cost of gulf of Mexico and Pacific ocean: Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Quintana Roo. Further field and genetic reserach are required to determine where <em>M. temama</em> seperates from <em>M. americana</em> and vice versa.	eng
136290	habitat	Bello, J., Reyna, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	The brocket deer is considered characteristic of well-preserved high forest sites (Branan and Marchinton 1985, Eisenberg 1989). It occupies perennial forest, cloud forest, sub-perennial forest and low-dry forest (Reyna-Hurtado 2002, Ivan-Lira and Naranjo-Piñera 2003). It can, however, be found at transformed sites such as secondary forests and cropland as well (Bodmer 1989, Bello 2004), but in some conserved areas it avoids deforested areas and agricultural vegetation types (Weber 2005). During three years of camera-trapping in the Cordillera Talamanca region in Costa Rica - the species was found in a variety of native (but not altered) forest and non forest habitats, and from lowlands to paramo (2,800 m asl) (J. Schipper unpublished data). In areas with high hunting intensity, brocket deer also use low flooded forest (Reyna-Hurtado 2002). Its preference for well-preserved sites seems to be a protective strategy, as deer can stand still and hide in thick vegetation when a predator approaches, or run through it without being easily caught (Pinder and Leeuwenberg 1997). Further research is needed to determine the degree of disturbance and isolation of the fragments that they inhabit.	eng
136290	population	Bello, J., Reyna, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Total populations are unknown. There is some information about density but only at local level abundance for Mexico. Including Protected areas, the estimates were of 0.09 deer/km² in tropical forest (including M. Pandora) (Weber 2005), in cloud forest the estimate was 0.32 individuals/km² (Lira-Torres and Naranjo-Piñera 2003). No reliable estimates exist for Nicaragua, Honduras or Colombia.	eng
136290	threats	Bello, J., Reyna, R. & Schipper, J., 2008	Habitat fragmentation and degradations for agricultural and livestock activities is one of the principal factors in the reduction of their potential habitats and distribution. This also includes natural disasters such as wildfire (Bello 2004). Hunting is a major threat in some areas - especially in and around protected areas. Harvesting for cultural activities, and principally as a food source could influence their populations levels and behaviour (Reyna-Hurtado 2002). Another threat that has existed for a long time is their killing as a pest control in bean croplands (Méndez-Izquierdo and Bello-Gutiérrez 2005).	eng
136291	conservation	Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is present in several protected areas.	eng
136291	distribution	Butynski, T.M., 2008	Ranges from southern Democratic Republic of the Congo southwards to northern Namibia and to the Luangwa Valley, Zambia, west of the Luangwa River.	eng
136291	habitat	Butynski, T.M., 2008	This species is present in savanna, open woodland, and forest-grassland mosaic, especially close to rivers. It is an extremely adaptable species that can live in both rural and urban environments.	eng
136291	population	Butynski, T.M., 2008	It is presumably reasonably common as much of the area where this species occurs has a low human population density.	eng
136291	threats	Butynski, T.M., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
136292	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
136292	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	S Argentina, S Chile (Simmons 2005).	eng
136292	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat dependent, found in forests.	eng
136292	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Populations are low in south but there are not many problems.	eng
136292	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Habitat destruction, there are problems with beavers in Terra Del Fuego (introduced sp).	eng
136293	conservation	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	It is most important to determine the taxonomic affinity of this name, especially whether it is a species-level taxon, rather than a junior synonym of an existing described species. Secondly it is important to determine the morphological and molecular characteristics which diagnose this taxon (if it is distinct), which in part would require collection of new material (preferably including whole animals) and conducting an analysis of the congruence of molecular and morphological data.	eng
136293	distribution	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This nominal species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam, specifically the Pu Hoat area in Que Phong District, Nghe An Province (Grubb 2005; Le Trong Trai pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins). See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential range.	eng
136293	habitat	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	The region around the type locality is closed-canopy evergreen forest, on steep slopes above about 900 m asl with various forms of secondary and degraded forest, primarily on slopes, persisting below this (Le Trong Trai and Do Tuoc pers. comm. to R. J. Timmins 1999). Nothing is known about the species' natural history and ecology. See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential habitats.	eng
136293	population	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This nominal species is known only from the type, which has insufficient material to allow morphological assignment of other material as conspecific (even that collected around the type locality), or even morphological confirmation that the species is distinct (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Thus, there is no further information on possible populations. See <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> for a fuller description of potential status.	eng
136293	threats	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Threats to <em>M. puhoatensis</em> are likely to resemble those to other muntjac species in Indochina, and for large mammals in general. The most significant is hunting for subsistence and local and more widespread bushmeat trade intertwined with large scale snaring for species of international trade value (such as civets). The threat from habitat loss is relatively minor in comparison to the latter, although in the long term could significantly impact the species. Specific threat assessment is rendered impossible by the inability to determine the name’s taxonomic status, especially whether it constitutes a distinct species rather than a synonym, and if a distinct species what its range might encompass.	eng
136294	conservation	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	Protected by Decreto de Veda General Indefinida (D.S. 22641, 1990) in Bolivia (Tarifa 1996).<br/><br/>This species occurs, or may occur, in several protected areas, including:<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Amboró National Park (?) (98,640 ha) (637,600 ha - WCMC DB)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (927,000 ha) (WCMC DB)<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado National Reserve (21,900 ha) (WCMC DB)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (135,000 ha)<br/>Chapada dos Guimarães National Park (33,000 ha)<br/>Taiamá Ecological Station  (14,325 ha)<br/>Serra das Araras Ecological Station (28,700 ha)<br/>Iquê Ecological Station (?) (200,000 ha)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Defensores del Chaco National Park (780,000 ha) (Stallings 1985, 1989)<br/><br/>It is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Callithrix melanura</span>).	eng
136294	distribution	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	The most widespread of the "<em>argentata</em>" group marmosets, <em>M. melanurus</em> is the only one to occur naturally outside of Brazil, extending south through the Pantanal of Mato Grosso into Bolivia and Paraguay. Hershkovitz (1977) indicated the Rio Tacuarí in Brazil and the headwaters of the Río Mamoré in Bolivia as the southern limit of its distribution, but Stallings and Mittermeier (1983) and Stallings (1985) recorded it also from the north-eastern Paraguayan chaco, extending the known range to approximately 20ºS. In Bolivia, it occurs east of the Río Mamoré, in the Departments of Beni and Santa Cruz (Brown and Rumiz 1986; Anderson 1997).<br/><br/>According to Hershkovitz (1977), in Brazil it occurs to the east of the Rio Madeira, from the mouth of the Rio Aripuanã extending south to beyond the Rio Guaporé and west to the Rio Roosevelt. However, field research and the discovery of a number of distinct new marmosets has modified the range he proposed. In the state of Rondônia evidence has not been forthcoming for its occurrence between the Rios Aripuanã and Roosevelt (the range of <em>M. intermedius</em>). It does occur on the east bank of the Rio Aripuaná, north at least to 10ºS, and probably west to the Rio Juruena, or the Rio Teles Pires, where Ávila-Pires (1986) predicted that it would meet the range of the form <em>M. emiliae</em>. Hershkovitz’s (1977) proposal for its occurrence west of the Rio Aripuanã-Roosevelt was based on three localities. The first was the Foz do Rio Castanho (near the junction of the Rios Roosevelt, Guariba, and Aripuanã in the state of Amazonas) (locality 197b, p.569, Hershkovitz 1977). This is the type locality of the distinct form <em>M. marcai</em> described by Alperin (1993). According to Vivo (1985), the marmosets at the other two localities indicated by Hershkovitz (1977: 214b, mouth of the Rio Jiparaná, upper Rio Madeira; and 214c, Urupá, Rio Jiparaná) would not be the form <em>melanura</em>, but <em>Callithrix emiliae</em> according to their similarity (although darker) to the marmosets from the Rio Curuá, in Pará (the type locality of <em>M. emiliae</em> [Thomas, 1920]). However, the “Callithrix emiliae” of Vivo (1985) occurs to the west of the range of <em>M. melanurus</em> and, if aligned with the <em>Callithrix emiliae</em> of Thomas (1920), listed by Cruz Lima (1945), Cabrera (1957) and Ávila-Pires (1986), would indicate a disjunct distribution, being separated by typical <em>M. melanurus</em> between the Rios Aripuanã and Juruena (or Teles Pires). The Rondônia marmoset of Vivo (1985, 1991) is distinct from <em>melanurus</em> in its paler colour (less brownish dorsum) and the lack of the distinct pale thigh stripe.	eng
136294	habitat	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	<em>Mico melanurus</em> is known from the Amazon lowland rain forest of the state of Mato Grosso, extending south form the south and east of Serra dos Pacáas Novos into Bolivia and Paraguay. Stallings and Mittermeier (1983) and Stallings (1985) found <em>M. melanurus</em> in the northeastern Chaco. The habitats there are diverse and annual precipitation is high. There it occurs in tall forest along the ephemeral waterways or <em>cauces</em> (Stallings 1985).  Recorded during surveys in the mountainous region of Huanchaca, eastern Bolivia, by Braza and García (1987). In Bolivia, it occurs in primary and secondary growth forest, dry, deciduous forests, gallery forest and forest patches in savannas (Tarifa,1996).<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Two groups seen by Braza and García (1987) were of 7 and 12 individuals. Stallings (1985) recorded mean group sizes of 4.6 (Agua Dulce) and 7.8 individuals (Chovoreca) in Paraguay. Generally only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. <br/><br/>Size:<br/>Mean H&B 22.6, T 33.0 (N=30) (Ferrari 2008).	eng
136294	population	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	In the north-eastern Paragyana Chaco, Stallings (1985) recorded densities of 1.6 groups/km² (Agua Dulce) and 3.52 groups/km² (Chovoreca) , with mean group sizes of 4.6 and 7.8 individuals, respectively.	eng
136294	threats	Rylands, A.B., Mittermeier, R.A. & Wallace, R.B., 2008	A wide ranging species with no obvious major threats at present. Generally not hunted, though there is some use as pets.	eng
136295	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136295	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Chile, General Carrera Province, about 2 km S Chile Chico and 1 km west of Chile Chico aerodromo (46o33?S, 71o46?W) and Coyhaique Province, 4.5 km SE Coyhaique Alto (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
136295	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136295	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136295	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136296	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in protected areas in Peru and Bolivia.	eng
136296	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Bolivia (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004) and Peru (Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Solari and Rodriguez, 1997; Patterson <em>et al</em>. in review), with two isolated records in the lowlands, one from Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia and from the type locality in Matto Grasso State, Brazil (Pine, 1981) (Gardner, 2005). The disjunct range in Peru and Bolivia is likely a sampling artefact.	eng
136296	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Specimens of this species have been taken from a diversity of landscapes, including: primary lowland forest, lowland dry forest, seasonally flooded evergreen gallery forest, and cloud forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136296	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The species seems to be common from the known localities in Peru (Pacheco and Vivar, 1996; Solari and Rodriguez, 1997).	eng
136296	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
136297	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species' range but there is no clear evidence that they are depressing populations, except where formerly suitable habitat is converted to non-forest uses. Adequate legal basis exists in most or all range states to control both potential threats (through protected areas and regulations governing wildlife trade and hunting). The chief need is presumably for effective translation of these laws into action. More specific needs cannot be identified in the absence of more detailed information on this species' current status throughout its range, and investigations of the effects upon it of the high levels of hunting and habitat modification.	eng
136297	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain as defined here occurs in Borneo, Sumatra, the Thai–Malay Peninsula, many islands within the Greater Sunda region, and continental South east Asia north to at least 18°10′N, as established through Lao PDR specimens from Thangon (Osgood 1932; Chasen 1940; Meijaard 2003; Meijaard and Groves 2004; E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2004). This includes the countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.<br/><br/>Grubb (2005) also included China, but the occurrence there of <em>T. kanchil</em> is not confirmed, reflecting the difficulty of separation from <em>T. williamsoni<em>. Records from Yunnan Province seem on present evidence likely at least to include <em>T. williamsoni</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008) but the additional occurrence of <em>T. kanchil</em> cannot be ruled out. Similarly, records in Viet Nam north to ca 22ºN (Dang Huy Hyunh 1994) and in the west part of Lao PDR’s northern highlands (e.g. Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; 21°N), could refer to <em>T. kanchil</em> or to <em>T. williamsoni</em>, or to a mix. It is unclear if there are chevrotains at all in the central and eastern parts of Lao PDR’s northern highlands. The record of chevrotain signs in Evans <em>et al</em>. (2000) for Phou Dendin NPA, far north-eastern Lao PDR and outside the interview derived range as shown in Duckworth <em>et al</em>. (1999: 269), was by a relatively inexperienced observer and upon recent re-examination of his original notes, he has retracted the record, since confusion with muntjac fawn was possible (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). More telling, during interviews by the same observer in the same area in 2004–2005, villagers commonly reported that while they knew what a chevrotain ("kai", or "fan kai") is, most said they are essentially absent from the area (including the southern sector), and always have been. But whether they are truly absent or only rare differed somewhat with informants (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2008). Likewise, the northern extent of <em>T. kanchil</em> in Thailand remains unclear. No species of chevrotain appears to penetrate Myanmar away from Tennaserim (Tun Yin 1967; Lynam 2003; in the latter, identifications to species should be disregarded). Well outside the confirmed range of the genus, Khan (1985) speculated that Lesser Oriental Chevrotain might occur in Bangladesh: "over a hundred villagers, whom I have interviewed have said they have either seen, killed or eaten such an animal". But he could procure no physical evidence for this, and none has been traced subsequently (Md Anwarul Islam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>A recent taxonomic revision of chevrotains (Meijaard and Groves 2004), followed here, attaches a slight doubt to assume that any records, other than those validated through examination of specimens, from non-Sundaic South-east Asia, certainly refer to this species; as well as <em>T. williamsoni</em> (of at least northern Thailand, but perhaps with a much wider range) there is also <em>T. versicolor</em> of South-east Viet Nam, also perhaps with a much wider range. This Red List account assumes that the chevrotains of the Mekong basin and Thailand south from 18°N to the Thai–Malay peninsula refer to <em>T. kanchil</em>, on the basis of a fair number of specimens from many localities (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008: a listing of the mainland specimens examined for Meijaard and Groves 2004). Further south, <em>T. kanchil</em> is widely sympatric with <em>T. napu</em>, making chevrotains often challenging to identify (particularly for people with limited field experience of the genus) on field views, camera-trap photographs and even in hunting studies (Duckworth 1997; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). Many observers have therefore pooled their Sundaic chevrotain records as ‘chevrotain spp.’ (e.g. Bennett <em>et al</em>. 2000; Laidlaw 2000; Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003; O'Brien 2003; Kawanishi and  Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006; Azlan and Engkamat Lading 2006; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2007). Thus, the information base for determining this species' status is much thinner than would be expected from the general perception of the genus as being widespread and common, at least in the Sundaic part of its range.</em></em>	eng
136297	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	This species is found in lowland/foothill primary and secondary forests as well as cultivated areas up to 600 m in elevation (Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm.).  The habitat of this species is a mosaic of riverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps.  In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest.  In Peninsular Malaysia, it feeds on shoots, young leaves and fallen fruits in the tall forest of the lowlands.<br/><br/>During the day it may prefer crown-gap areas with dense undergrowth of creeping bamboo, and move to higher and drier ridge areas at night. Home range All <em>Tragulus</em> species are associated with forests, but there is strong evidence that <em>T. kanchil</em> does not require old-growth forest or even particularly mature secondary forest. Its heavy use of disturbed habitats was confirmed by Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. (2003), who found that in Kabali-Sepilok (Sabah), <em>T. kanchil</em> fed primarily in crown-gap areas dominated by bamboo stands, probably because it prefers fruits and soft leaves of pioneer plants with lower concentrations of secondary metabolites. Later, at another site in Sabah, Matsubayashi and Sukor (2005) again found a strong association of <em>T. kanchil</em> with immature forest.  Johns (1997) found <em>Tragulus</em> to be more common in logged forests than in mature forests in Peninsular Malaysia, and densities tended to decrease again as logged forests matured. The abundance of <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (<em>T. napu</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em> combined, with no information on the proportions or even confirmation that both species were present) was higher (strongly statistically significantly so) in areas within 1 km inside the boundary of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, than in the interior of the park, suggesting higher numbers in somewhat encroached habitat (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers to <em>T. kanchil</em>. The genus (presumably including this species) was ubiquitous in a study in West Malaysia which paired each of seven of virgin jungle reserves with a nearby unprotected area with seriously encroached habitat (Laidlaw 2000). By contrast, at the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities of <em>T. kanchil</em> were 21–39 animals per km² in primary forest but only 10–15 animals per km² in selectively logged areas (and there was an even bigger decrease of 55–66% for <em>T. napu</em>); in this area, where hunting is negligible and so is not confounding patterns, chevrotain densities were positively correlated with fruit abundance, and negatively correlated with pioneer trees and grass and herbs (Heydon 1994; Heydon and Bulloh 1997; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). Heydon and Bulloh (1997) suggested the obligate frugivory of chevrotains limited their ability to compensate for logging-led loss of fruit trees by browsing the abundant regrowth of logging areas. This may be significant in rationalising the differences between areas concerning the apparent effects of logging on the species: in some logging areas, fruiting trees are common along streams and tend to be left, and pioneer colonists produce abundant edible fruit. Around Buon Luoi, southern Viet Nam, most encounters with chevrotains (assumed to be largely or entirely this species rather than <em>T. versicolor</em>, based on ratios of specimens) were in places where tall forest alternated with scrub thickets, patches of grassland and moist riverine habitats. Riverbank slopes appeared particularly favourable to chevrotains (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). E. Pollard (pers. comm. 2008) sees Lesser Chevrotains commonly in highly degraded forest in Mondulkiri province, Cambodia. In Thailand, R. Steinmetz (pers. comm. 2008) finds the species commonly in edge habitats, also widely, but probably less frequently, within big blocks of closed-canopy forest. By contrast in Lao PDR, the genus seems to be scarce in the interior of old-growth forest, based on surveys of many of the country’s remaining forests. Chevrotains have been camera-trapped in at least one protected area (Nakai–Nam Theun NPA), but only in one part of that (Johnson and Johnston 2007); the report does not discuss habitat. Tracks are readily identified by those familiar with them, but are rarely found within heavy forest in Lao PDR (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Chevrotains are easily spot-lit at night where they occur, yet extensive spotlighting in south and central Lao PDR during 1992–1996, with most of such survey in areas below 550 m asl, found the species only once, and there were not many more records by day (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994; Duckworth 1996, 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; and a lack of records in many other sources). All or nearly all the handful of sightings (day or night) were in edge or heavily degraded areas (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008), but some lengthy surveys of lowland encroached forest failed to find the genus (notably in the ‘corridor’ sector of Phou Xang He NPA). This indicates a general overall rarity, or at least a localised distribution, either natural or human-induced. The apparently large numbers on the Vientiane plain (see Threats; Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992) (at the time of surveys perhaps among the most intensively hunted areas of Lao PDR for mammals of this size-class), including persistence at dreadful sites like Houay Nhang (whence almost all mammals larger than rats had been hunted out; see Threats), argues against human agency being responsible for the absence or low densities of chevrotains elsewhere in lowland Lao PDR in places like the corridor of Phou Xang He NPA and interior forests. Extensive surveys in the 1990s of Lao forest areas suggests almost certainly that in extensive tracts of semi-evergreen and evergreen forest below 1,000 m asl chevrotains are naturally scarce at least away from ‘edge areas’, because hunting pressure from snares, dogs, and day and night hunting with guns is relatively low, and other quarry species captured in similar ways to chevrotains are often common (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In contrast, Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004), who concurred that, in Viet Nam, closed-canopy forests often support few if any chevrotains, proposed that this is an artificial pattern produced through hunting (see Threats). In Lao forest ‘edge’ areas the very low numbers of chevrotains cannot necessarily be concluded to be a natural pattern, as these ‘edge areas’ tend to be in the vicinity of human settlements and in at least the 1990s experienced high levels of snaring and gun hunting (primarily by day) for primarily local consumption or local markets and ubiquitous hunting dog presence (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Experiences in 2005, however, suggest that chevrotain presence is perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features, as in the Nam Kading National Protected Area there was a clear hunting focus on chevrotains with an evidently significant capture rate; yet general wildlife field surveys in 2005 and 1995 observed the species in the field only once, despite significant spotlighting effort (Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm.. to R.J. Timmins 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). It suggests that the species is tied to specific microhabitats; perhaps this might be related to water requirements as there is a surprising regularity with which authors note commonness in riverine areas. Dumas’s (1944) description of the distribution in Cambodia strongly echoes modern findings that it is localised in Lao PDR and associated with gaps in Sabah: he stated that it was absent from heavy forest of tall trees without understory, and in general it was localised in occurrence but found somewhere in each of most of the forested provinces of Cambodia, wherever there are low, dense, thickets, and within clumps of bamboo, of which it is fond of the young shoots. Such a pattern 70 years ago seems unlikely to have been produced by hunting. In sum, the habitat use of this species with respect to edge–interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult.<br/><br/>The Lesser Chevrotain may even be able to survive in large numbers in plantation landscapes: in the Sarawak Planted Forests, Bintulu, Sarawak, Belden Giman (pers. comm. 2008) has many records from <em>Acacia mangium</em> plantations both mature and immature. However, this landscape contains many patches of secondary and old-growth forest (Belden <em>et al</em>. 2007), so further study is needed to assess use, if any, of landscape-level monocultures.<br/><br/>Most of this chevrotain’s geographic range is dominated by evergreen or semi-evergreen forests, but large areas of Cambodia, Thailand and to a lesser extent Lao PDR and Viet Nam are deciduous. One survey in Mondulkiri province, Cambodia, in 2008, found chevrotains to be widespread and common in mixed deciduous forest, dominated by e.g. Lagerstroemia spp., but they were not found in nearby deciduous dipterocarp forest (C. Starr pers. comm. 2008). In this same general area, J. Walston (pers. comm. 2008) also found them commonly in mixed deciduous forest, during 2002–2006. Field surveys of extensive landscapes of deciduous dipterocarp forest and mixed deciduous forest (in which ground fires are almost annual) in eastern and northeastern Cambodia (including Mondulkiri) have not detected the species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and camera-trapping from the same landscapes also suggest chevrotains are absent from deciduous regularly burnt forest tracts, but occur in semi-evergreen forest patches within the same landscapes (WWF unpublished data). Dumas (1944) stated that chevrotains were unknown in the deciduous dipterocarp forests of Cambodia, No other information on their use of deciduous landscapes has been traced; it is probable that even within deciduous dipterocarp they might use the semi-evergreen riverine strips within.<br/><br/>The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain may be absent from highlands throughout much of its range, and seems to be an extreme lowland specialist in some areas. The clearest analysis, from Borneo, found that it lived mostly below 100 m asl, with no record above 600 m asl (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985). The maximum altitude in Indonesia (i.e. Borneo and Sumatra) is also said to be 600 m asl (G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006); specific information from Sumatra has not been traced. In Lao PDR most known sites (see Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994; Duckworth 1996; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000) are also below 600 m asl; however, chevrotains are abundantly hunted in the Nam Ha NPA which has a minimum altitude of 560 m asl (and rises to nearly 2,100 m asl) and is almost entirely rugged (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003), although these are perhaps more likely to be <em>T. williamsoni</em> than <em>T. kanchil</em>. There is a chevrotain specimen from Thateng on the Bolaven plateau (FMNH 38012) confirmed as <em>T. kanchil</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), suggesting occurrence at 800–1,200 m asl, although a short-distance trade origin may be possible. A recent finding of the genus being common in one part of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA (Johnson and Johnston 2007) gives no information on altitude of the records, and there are too few relevant specimens to allow a firm prediction as to which species they relate. Good populations certainly occur well above 600 m asl in Thailand: chevrotains are common in the degraded and edge habitats around Khao Yai National Park headquarters at 760–800 m asl (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008) and a number of specimens from nearby Pakchong suggest that these are likely to be <em>T. kanchil</em>, rather than unsuspected southerly occurrence of <em>T. williamsoni</em>. Also in Thailand, at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary chevrotains were camera-trapped commonly at 700–900 m asl, although the species involved is/are unclear (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; A.J. Lynam pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Lesser Chevrotains visit saltlicks regularly (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Lesser Chevrotain is often stated to be nocturnal, but in fact most activity is diurnal (in the first few and last few hours of daylight), with animals spending most of the night resting (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003; Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005). It is highly solitary (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Apparent territorial behaviour has been observed (Davison 1980); home ranges and core areas overlap considerably between males and females but core areas are completely separate between individuals of the same sex (Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males are highly philopatric but females establish new home ranges when giving birth (Ahmad 1994 in Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005). Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated home-range size for females at 4.3 ha and for males 5.9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the difference between males and females was not significant. The mean daily distance travelled for males was 519 ± 89 m, that for females 574 ± 220 m. The Lesser Chevrotain is partly frugivorous, but also eats substantial quantities of shoots and young leaves, mostly of fast-growing gap species rather than closed forest understory species; the latter tend to be richer in secondary protective compounds (Dang Huy Huynh 1968; Medway 1983; Kuznetzov and Puzachenko 1992; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003). Among fruits, those of mass 1–5 g and seeds of mass 0.01–0.5 g are particularly taken (Heydon and Bulloh 1997). It seems to be facultively monogamous–polygymous (given the congruence between core areas of individual males and females with a conspecific of the opposite sex; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2006), with post-partum oestrus, females being almost continuously pregnant (Cadigan 1972 in Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005). The gestation period is 140–177 days (Lekagul and McNeely 1977), with 2–3 young per year, the fawns kept hidden (Meijaard <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136297	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	The Lesser Oriental Chevrotain populations are not well studied, in part reflecting a general lack of research interest in the genus and in part the difficulties of confirming how much of the information on the genus relates to this species. <em>T. kanchil</em> seems to be relatively common on at least Borneo (Payne <em>et al</em>. 1985), specifically in the Bintulu Planted Forests Area in Sarawak (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). In Thailand, even though it is generally more common than Greater, there are no studies and sightings are too few to determine national population status or trends (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2008). During the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani province; 20–130 m asl), 172 Lesser Chevrotains were ‘rescued’ compared with only six Greater Chevrotains (Nakasathien 1989). At Kuiburi National Park (12°N), only <em>T. kanchil</em> has been camera-trapped (Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2007; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). The genus is commonly camera-trapped on Sumatra (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003), where this species is reportedly still common (G. Semiadi and Boeadi pers. comm. 2006). The genus also remains common in West Malaysia (Laidlaw 2000; Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004; Azlan 2006) and in far southern Myanmar (Lynam 2003; the identifications to species should be disregarded). At the Danum Valley, Sabah (East Malaysia), densities of <em>T. kanchil</em> were 21–39 animals per km² in primary forest but only 10–15 animals per km² in selectively logged areas (see Habitat and ecology) (Heydon 1994; Heydon and Bulloh 1997; Davies <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species specifically was also found commonly in several other sites in Sabah (Matsubayashi and Sukor 2005; Matsubayashi <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2006, 2007). Population densities for <em>Tragulus</em> spp. (presumably including this species) in Taman Negara, Malaysia, were taken to be 0.37–0.83 per km² (Kawanishi and Sunquist 2004).<br/><br/>Non-Sundiac populations are poorly documented. Chevrotains are common in Thailand’s Khao Yai National Park, at least in the degraded and edge habitats around the park headquarters (J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008) and Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; identifications to species should be disregarded). The genus seems to be of localised occurrence in Lao PDR (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994, 1999; Duckworth 1996, 1998; Evans <em>et al</em>. 2000; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Johnson and Johnston 2007; see Habitat and ecology). Chevrotains seem also to be localized in Viet Nam. They are common in Cat Tien National Park, southern Viet Nam (Borissenko and Ivanova 2003; Polet and Ling 2004). Somewhat further north, intensive sign and spotlighting searches at several sites in lowland Dak Lak in 1997 failed to find the genus (Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; an earlier listing in a report for that area should not be taken seriously, see Duckworth and Hedges 1998: 66–68), although these were mostly in rather or entirely deciduous areas and perhaps outside the species' habitats; however, landscape in parts of the areas surveyed is similar to that in eastern Mondulkiri, Cambodia (see below). Further north again, they were common around the Buon Luoi area, although seem to have declined recently (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). As in Lao PDR, there are many other areas within the genus’s range (as defined by Dang Huy Hyunh 1994) from which reasonably intensive mammal surveys have failed to find the species (e.g. Phong Nha Ke Bang National Park [Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999] and the Huong Son District of Ha Tinh Province [Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001]). In Cambodia, chevrotains were recorded commonly by recent surveys in at least one area of Mondulkiri province dominated by semi-evergreen forest (T.D. Evans pers. comm. 2008; E. Pollard pers. comm. 2008; J.L. Walston pers. comm. 2008; C. Starr pers. comm. 2008); but in the primarily deciduous lowlands presence appears to be patchy (see Habitat and Ecology), but no good modern composite picture for the country is available (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Dumas (1944) considered that it occurred in most of the forested provinces of Cambodia, wherever its favoured microhabitats were found.	eng
136297	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Semiadi, G., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss occur at high levels almost throughout this species' range. While it is clear that the genus remains widespread and common in its Sundaic range in the face of these threats, few data to support assessment specifically of Lesser Chevrotain’s current status were traced: many key studies there have not identified chevrotains to species. In the non-Sundaic areas, evaluation of resilience is hampered by evident heterogeneity of chevrotain occurrence with a lack of convergence of opinion as to explanations of same.<br/><br/>North of the sympatry with <em>T. napu</em>, <em>T kanchil</em> is heavily hunted and is often considered one of the most preferred wild meats (Srikosmatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004; R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006, R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Nonetheless, it is clear that <em>T. kanchil</em> is adept at surviving in areas (at least in the lowland plains) in the face of very heavy hunting, major habitat degradation and isolation from other forest areas. Exemplifying this, it was one of the few mammals larger than a rat confirmed to persist at Houay Nhang, an isolate of a few km² of highly degraded forest just outside the capital of Vientiane facing, in the early 1990s, exceedingly concentrated hunting with guns and snares (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994). A little to the west it persists in Sangthong district, which was heavily logged just before a 1996 survey and also supported heavy hunting (Duckworth 1996). These two areas are within 10 and 70 km, respectively, of, and ecologically contiguous with, Thangon, from where Osgood (1932) reported specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> (confirmed by E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008 as this species), and thus the modern records probably do relate to <em>T. kanchil</em>. Hansel (2004) provided a further record from the adjacent low hills. Numbers of chevrotains in Vientiane markets in the early 1990s (Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992) were so high that they could not be at the brink of extinction in this degraded and fragmented landscape. Chevrotains are still common in trade in the city, although mostly in transit rather than on open sale in the city’s markets, and their origin is not clear (T. Hansel pers. comm. 2008). The genus was recently camera-trapped quite commonly in a part of Nakai–Nam Theun NPA where ground mammals were much depleted (Johnson and Johnston 2007), perhaps indicating higher resilience than many other mammals, although there is no information to compare with pre-exploitation levels. <br/><br/>While non-Sundaic chevrotains can, therefore, clearly persist under extreme pressures in at least some circumstances, this does not rule out that densities might be quickly reduced through the twin pressures of hunting and habitat degradation. Decreasing population densities between the 1970s and 1990s, in at least parts of southern Viet Nam, were suggested by both spot-lighting surveys and qualitative assessments of footprints. Near Buon Luoi in December 1978, chevrotains were spotlit at about three animals per 5 km of transect route, but by 1993, when forest had undergone heavy degradation and hunting was very heavy, chevrotains were not even found every night with at least 10 km of transect (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) proposed that night-time hunting may explain chevrotain’s near-absence from habitats with open-understory (this feature allowing chevrotains to be readily hunted using spotlights and guns) in the Buon Luoi area, because by contrast in Cat Tien National Park, where the use of firearms has been banned for decades and enforcement is fairly effective, chevrotains are encountered with comparable frequency both in thickets and on exposed forest floor (Borissenko and Ivanova 2003). This sighting rates contrast is consistent with a difference between the headquarters area of Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (where chevrotains are readily found by spotlight) and which is relatively well-protected from hunting, and Lao forests (see above) where hunting was effectively unrestrained (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). However, a proposal that, where hunting is unrestrained, as it is in most of Viet Nam and Lao PDR, chevrotains would be common in heavy forest but have been effectively eradicated from such habitat, is flawed for at least Lao PDR, where numbers of forest mammals killed through spotlight hunting are probably insignificant compared with those trapped (including with snares) and perhaps even killed using dogs (J.W. Duckworth and R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on numbers of active hunters encountered at nigh versus traps found, in many areas of Lao PDR). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) based their reasoning on only two sites and it is possible that other factors explain the differences. In sum, the effects of hunting and habitat modification, and the interaction between them, on non-Sundaic chevrotains remain most unclear.<br/><br/>The effects of potential threats operating in the Sundaic range are not understood well, either. Lesser Oriental Chevrotain is now rather rare on Singapore (K. Lim pers. comm. 2008), presumably nowadays constrained by habitat quality rather than by ongoing hunting, although the role of free-ranging dogs, if any, in restraining population numbers is unclear. However, the ‘island within an island’ situation of remaining forest on Singapore and the extreme habitat loss over the last 150 years prevent useful extrapolation of this species' situation there to other Sundaic areas. Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, Sumatra, among snared ungulates was greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains, as assessed by diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Chevrotains were more then nine times as abundant in areas of Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, with low than with high human population density within 10 km of the park boundary, suggesting low resilience to human presence, presumably the effects of hunting (O'Brien <em>et al</em>. 2003); note that it is not confirmed that this information refers to <em>T. kanchil</em>. Bennett <em>et al</em>. (2000) profiled the effects of hunting in both Bornean states of Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah), each with eight study areas, upon chevrotains (not distinguished to species) through a lengthy hunting study in February 1993 to June 1995. They constituted 8–9% of animals killed. No direct or index measure of chevrotain densities was possible at these sites to determine what effects, if any, such heavy hunting was having on chevrotains. Chevrotains are among the most favoured wild meat by inhabitants of the Sarawak Planted Forests area, Bintulu, Sarawak, after Sambar <em>Rusa unicolor</em> and wild pigs <em>Sus</em> (Belden Giman pers. comm. 2008). Logging can apparently drive substantial reductions in density, at least locally, although other studies have found it allows an increase in numbers (see Habitat and ecology). No information on the use of plantation landscapes has been traced. In the Greater Sundas, lowland forest is being converted at unprecedented high rates. At least in Borneo, where this species is concentrated in areas below 100 m asl, most of its habitat either has been substantially modified during the last two decades or will be in the next two (e.g. Holmes 2000; BirdLife International 2001; Jepson <em>et al</em>. 2001; McMorrow and Talip 2001; Lambert and Collar 2002; Fuller <em>et al</em>. 2003; Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003; Curran <em>et al</em>. 2004; Fuller 2004; Eames <em>et al</em>. 2005, Aratrakorn <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, inferring proportionately large population losses in Lesser Chevrotain populations is not possible: depending on how serious hunting is and what exactly is being done to the habitat post-logging (forest regeneration, tree plantation or non-woody habitat) in any given area, chevrotain numbers might remain broadly unaffected, decrease or increase in logged-over areas.	eng
136298	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is not known if the type locality is within a protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136298	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Likiang Range, Sushancheng, Yunnan, China (Hutterer 2005). It occurs around 3,000 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136298	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is no habitat and ecology information for this species.	eng
136298	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It is known only from the type species.	eng
136298	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136299	conservation	Woodman, N., Samudio, R. & Pino, J.L., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas, such as el Darien National Park in Panama.	eng
136299	distribution	Woodman, N., Samudio, R. & Pino, J.L., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands along the Panama-Colombia border (Hutterer, 2005). It is found from 1,400 to 1,500 m asl (Reid, 1997).	eng
136299	habitat	Woodman, N., Samudio, R. & Pino, J.L., 2008	The species can be found in wet, evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). It is terrestrial and individuals have been trapped under logs on steep banks of streams. The banks were wet and densely covered with ferns (Goldman, 1920 in Reid, 1997).	eng
136299	population	Woodman, N., Samudio, R. & Pino, J.L., 2008	It is not widely distributed and probably not uncommon in its range (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
136299	threats	Woodman, N., Samudio, R. & Pino, J.L., 2008	Deforestation and pesticides are a major threat to this species.	eng
136300	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is not currently known from protected areas.	eng
136300	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is found in dry forests on the lower slopes (below 500 m asl) of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, through the lowlands to the eastern slopes (below 1,100 m asl) of Serrania de Perija in Colombia (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 1999). The species is also likely to be found in adjacent Venezuela, and perhaps wider in northern Colombia.	eng
136300	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in dry forest.	eng
136300	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Unknown. There are only a few records, there is a recent record from 2003 near Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
136300	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown..	eng
136301	conservation	Lizcano, D. J. & Alvarez, S. J., 2008	Some populations are probably present in all Venezuelan Andean national parks, but hunting still occurs and the effect of hunting on its populations is unknown (Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez 1995). The protected areas overlapping Mérida brocket distribution and the establishment of corridors between the parks could protect a large part of Merida brocket populations. Additionally consensus building is needed among key social and political actors, with top-down and bottom-up approaches that consider ecological, social, and political sustainability (Yerena <em>et al.</em> 2003). Hunting of Merida brocket is against the law in Venezuela since 1979, when a general ban on hunting of this species was formalized due to the low density (República de Venezuela 1980). It is actually considered an endangered species in Venezuela (República de Venezuela 1996a, 1996b).	eng
136301	distribution	Lizcano, D. J. & Alvarez, S. J., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in the high Andes in northern Colombia and western Venezuela. According to present forest distribution, the largest populations of M. bricenii should be located in the following Venezuelan national parks: El Tama National Park, between Táchira and Apure states; Páramos del Batallón National Park between Mérida and Táchira states; Sierra Nevada National Park between Barinas and Mérida states; Sierra de la Culata National Park in Mérida and Trujillo states; Guaramacal National Park also known as "General Cruz Carrillo" in the state of Trujillo, with a small portion located in the state of Portuguesa (Utrera 1999); and Dinira National Park located in Sierra de Barbacoas, in watersheds of Tocuyo river between Lara, Portuguesa and Trujillo states. Dinira and Guaramacal are probably the eastern most location of the species within Venezuela. Some populations might be expected outside protected areas in the hinterlands between Sierra Nevada and Páramos del Batallon national parks, an area known as Pueblos del Sur de Mérida, and between Guaramacal and Sierra Nevada national parks, known as Ramal de Calderas.  In Colombia it is found in Tama national park in Norte de Santander state and possibly in Cocuy national park between Boyaca, Arauca and Casanare states.  The southern distribution limit is unknown.	eng
136301	habitat	Lizcano, D. J. & Alvarez, S. J., 2008	Originally found in montane forests and paramos at altitudes between 1000 and 3500 m.a.s.l. in  mountain chains and massifes crossing over Venezuela (Zulia, Tachira, Apure, Merida, and Trujillo) and Colombia (La Guajira, Cesar, Norte de Santander, Santander, Boyaca). Linares (1998) reports M. bricenii as present on the eastern flank of Perija massive based on animal body parts that he collected at 3100 m in Cerro Viruela near Pico Tetari. Thus, it is highly probable that the species also occupies paramos on the Colombian side of Perija.  <br/><br/>The main habitat of M. bricenii is paramos and tropical montane cloud forests above 1500 m. The paramos are high altitude grasslands (Boom <em>et al.</em> 2001), which are dominated by Calamagrostis spp. and gigantic Andean rosette plants from the genus Espeletia (Luteyn 1992). The tropical montane cloud forest is a type of vegetation that has special climatic conditions causing cloud and mist to be regularly in contact with the forest vegetation (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas 1998). These forests support ecosystems of distinctive floristic and structural forms with lower canopy and thicker understory than lowland forests (Grubb <em>et al</em>. 1963). Details on M. bricenii ecology are unknown, although it seems to be solitary, active at day as well as at night, and expected to be a browser/frugivore in the forest understory. They are shy and secretive animals, rarely seen because of their nocturnal habits. They live either alone or in pairs and normally within a small territory. They usually defecate in latrines probably located at boundaries of territories. Further research is required.	eng
136301	population	Lizcano, D. J. & Alvarez, S. J., 2008	Current distribution and abundance need to be assessed. A decreasing population trend is inferred from habitat destruction.	eng
136301	threats	Lizcano, D. J. & Alvarez, S. J., 2008	Habitat destruction occurs due to small-scale cattle ranching and agriculture practiced by local communities through forest cutting and burning of montane grasslands and shrub lands. Illegal plantations of opium and Coca may be the main cause of habitat destruction in some areas of Colombia (Alvarez, 2007). Mining, road construction and colonization expand habitat loss. Climate change might also result in a reduction of available habitat for the species in the future, since cloud forests and paramos are broadly affected by atmospheric temperature rise (Foster 2001). Hunting occurs as a source of meat and medicinal products at the local level but needs assessment. They are preyed on by a small number of South American predators, such as puma and feral dogs.	eng
136302	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The species does not occur in any protected area. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.	eng
136302	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Quebrada de la Vena, at approximately 7 km SSE of Uspallata village (32˚39.405’S, 69˚20.970’W, 1,880±150 m asl) in Mendoza Province, Argentina (Braun and Mares 2002).	eng
136302	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is found in Monte Desert habitat, and is a specialist feeder on creosote bush (<em>Larrea divaricata, L. cuneifolia</em>, and <em>L. nitida</em>) (Braun and Mares, 2002).	eng
136302	population	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136302	threats	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136303	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	The whole island is State Reserve "Ostrov Vrangelya".	eng
136303	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic to Wrangel Island, southeast Siberia, Russia.	eng
136303	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits river and brook valleys with mixed herbs, mountain avens and willows, in areas with moderately wet soil. In the center of the island colonies are common in the plains of Mamontovaya River and on low terraces. At the beginning of September, with the onset of snowfall on the island, lemmings move to areas with deep snow cover (river and brook banks, low marshes and small drying tundra lakes). Lemmings remain at winter habitats until snowmelt (beinning of June). Seasonal migrations of <em>Lemmus portenkoi</em> are short distance and are not mass migrations. The species feeds mainly on lings, cotton grass, cereals and green mosses. In total, 53 different species of plants have been recorded in the diet. Litter size is 5-7 young.	eng
136303	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Populations undergo periodical fluctuations that coincide with those of <em>Dycrostonyx vinogradovi</em>.	eng
136303	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic of a single island, with pronounced population cycles. No major threats, but intrinsically vulnerable because of restricted distribution and marked population fluctuations.	eng
136304	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136304	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	Occurs in west-central Argentina (Cordoba); limits to the distribution of this species are poorly known (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136304	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	Prefers dry shrublands and grasslands (Espinal). Populations fluctuate..	eng
136304	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	This is an abundant species.	eng
136304	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G., Jayat, J.P. & Teta, P., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
136305	conservation	Moura, R., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Both localities where this rodent occurs are within protected areas. Further surveys required to determine extent of occurrence.	eng
136305	distribution	Moura, R., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is known from the type locality at Porto Seguro, Bahia State, Brazil (Lara <em>et al.</em>, 2002). A second locality has been found at Pau Brasil Ecological Station (Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136305	habitat	Moura, R., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is known from stands of Caesalinia echinata (Lara <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species is present in lowlands habitat, in secondary forest (Moura pers. comm.).	eng
136305	population	Moura, R., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance of this species.	eng
136305	threats	Moura, R., Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are deforestation and destruction of habitat (H. Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
136306	conservation	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136306	distribution	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This species is endemic to Jamaica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs below 400 m (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136306	habitat	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	This is one of the poorest known species on Jamaica. No specimens have been recorded from within caves or near caves so this appears to be a tree-roosting bat. Often it is caught over water. It is insectivorous (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136306	population	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	It is rare; known from only six localities (Genoways <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136306	threats	Mancina, C. & Dávalos, L., 2008	Habitat loss, hurricanes.	eng
136307	conservation	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Likely found in several protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
136307	distribution	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	South of the Amazon and west of the Xingu in Brazil, through Bolivia (La Paz and Pando departments) to Manu National Park in Peru (Anderson, 1997; Gardner, 2007)	eng
136307	habitat	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Lowland tropical forest. Species of the genus Monodelphis are among the least arboreal of the Didelphids, and are usually found on the ground, though they can climb. They are nocturnal, and their diet consists of small rodents, insects, carrion, seeds, and fruit (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136307	population	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136307	threats	Brito, D. & Astua de Moraes, D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Extreme southern portion of range is subjected to logging, soybean plantations, cattle, and general loss of habitat.	eng
136308	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136308	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Known only from the type location of Catamarca Province, La Puntilla, Argentina.	eng
136308	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136308	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136308	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136309	conservation	Rovero, F. & Doggart, N., 2008	The known range falls entirely within two protected areas, namely the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (including Mwanihana forest and the eastern part of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest) and the Kilombero Nature Reserve (including the remaining, western part of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest). Both the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Kilombero Nature Reserve are designated for the protection of biodiversity and no utilization  of animals for food or trade is permitted in either protected area. The National Park has a management plan that is being implemented with a regular operating budget. The National Park also has a community education and outreach plan.  Rates of disturbance are low relative to other Eastern Arc Mountains. The Kilombero Nature Reserve consists of three Forest Reserves that have recently been upgraded to a Nature Reserve.  As yet, the Nature Reserve does not have a management plan and the operating budget is, as yet, insufficient to support many management activities. With donor support, community involvement in forest management was promoted for the former forest reserve.	eng
136309	distribution	Rovero, F. & Doggart, N., 2008	Endemic to the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania (Kilombero District, Morogoro Region and Kilolo District, Iringa Region), where it occurs solely in two forests, namely Ndundulu-Luhomero forest (north-western Udzungwa) and Mwanihana forest (north-eastern Udzungwa). Within these forests, locations recorded by Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the species is found in montane and upper montane forest throughout Ndundulu-Luhomero, whilst it occupies only the northern part of Mwanihana forest (north of Sonjo valley), above 1,000 m in elevation, which is where large areas of montane forest are found. The area of occupancy for <em>R. udzungwensis</em>, including all  the closed-canopy, sub-montane and montane forest habitat above 1000 m a.s.l., is estimated to be 300 km² (Rovero <em>et al</em>. 2008). This estimation is based on the spatial distribution of known and inferred sites of present occurrence based on sightings, camera-trap photos and live-trapping (Rovero <em>et al</em>. 2008). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 720 km². This includes a 25-km stretch of wooded grassland that separates the two forests from where <em>R. udzungwensis</em> has been recorded.<br/><br/>The extensive zoological surveys that have been conducted in the Udzungwa Mountains and adjacent highland forests indicate that it is unlikely that the species will be found in forests other than Mwanihana and Ndundulu-Luhomero in the Udzungwa Mountains. However, further research is required to accurately define the margins of its distribution, especially in Mwanihana forest.	eng
136309	habitat	Rovero, F. & Doggart, N., 2008	<em>Rhynchocyon udzungwensis</em> was found in different forest types, but always within moist, sub-montane and montane evergreen to upper montane closed-canopy forest, including bamboo thickets (Rovero <em>et al.</em> 2008). The canopy of sub-montane and montane forest was typically 25–50 m high, while that of the upper montane forest was 10–25 m. The forest floor vegetation varied from relatively open areas covered in leaf litter to more densely covered with clumps of grasses, herbs and tree seedlings.<br/><br/>The behavioural ecology of <em>Rhynchocyon udzungwensis</em> appears similar to congeneric species (Rathbun 1979). For example, five nests were examined by Rovero <em>et al</em>. (2008), each had an oval cup excavated in the soil lined with layered leaves and loose leaves piled on top to form an indistinct dome surrounded by thick leaf litter on the forest floor. Four of the five nests were situated at the base of trees	eng
136309	population	Rovero, F. & Doggart, N., 2008	Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimate the population abundance at 15,000-24,000 individuals extrapolating a density range of 50–80 individuals/km² over the known area of occupancy. The density range was considered to be realistic by Rovero <em>et al.</em> (2008) based on sighting rates obtained during survey walks, which were compared with data from other species of <em>Rhynchocyon</em>.	eng
136309	threats	Rovero, F. & Doggart, N., 2008	The main threat to this species is from habitat loss as a result of forest fires. These fires are causing a slow reduction in forest area, particularly in the Ndundulu – Luhomero forest.  <br/><br/>A recent analysis of changes in forest and woodland areas for the period 1970-2000 was carried out for the Udzungwa Mountains by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (2006; see also Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2007). The study was based on analysis of remotely sensed images of land cover and ground truthing. For the present assessment, the analysis was applied to the extent of occurrence of <em>R. udzungwensis</em> (courtesy of Jenny Hewson, Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International). The results reveal that Ndundulu-Luhomero forest has faced a reduction of 2.71% between 1970 and 2000, Mwanihana forest has faced a reduction of 0.52%, and the woodland area between these two forests was degraded by 56%. Habitat loss in this area is mainly attributed to human-induced or natural fires. Fires appear to have caused major degradation of the woodland (including the low elevation, deciduous forest in Mwanihana) along with evergreen forest loss that mainly occurred at the edges and interior clearings. As <em>R. udzungwensis</em> appears to be restricted to forest interiors, the gradual reduction in total forest area will reduce the habitat available to the species.<br/><br/>Whilst there is no evidence of hunting by the local people, the ethnic tribe living in the western Udzungwa plateaux (called the Wahehe) are known to routinely practice subsistence hunting, including of the giant sengi<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rhynchocyon cirnei </span>(Nielsen 2006). This species occurs widely in the Udzungwa Mountains including areas near the Wahehe villages located to the west of the Ndundulu-Luhomero forest (T. Jones pers. comm.). Therefore, in addition to the predicted habitat reduction, with the growth and expansion of human population around protected areas in the Eastern Arc Mountains (Schipper and Burgess 2004), threats to the very localized <em>R. udzungwensis</em> are likely to increase.	eng
136310	conservation	Juste, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136310	distribution	Juste, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of São Tomé (São Tomé and Príncipe) where it is widespread (Juste <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136310	habitat	Juste, J., 2008	The species appears to be quite common both in forest and plantations (Javier Juste pers. comm. 2008). A particular cave in Santa Catarina (north) had a quite impressive population (several thousands) that was near the 'city' and could be particularly sensitive to human disturbances (Javier Juste pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136310	population	Juste, J., 2008	It is a common species (Juste <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
136310	threats	Juste, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
136311	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is known to occur in the Kalambatritra Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136311	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from Kalambatritra Special Reserve in south-eastern Madagascar, west of the Mananara River and north of the Mandrare River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further studies need to be conducted to determine the precise limits of the distribution, especially relative to <em>L. leucopus</em> and <em>L. fleuretae</em>.	eng
136311	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of lowland rainforest.	eng
136311	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136311	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss and hunting are presumably threats.	eng
136312	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.	eng
136312	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the northwest Peru; limits are uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136312	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	<em>T. preator</em> is poorly known. This is nocturnal, terrestrial and perhaps arboreal. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo. It can be found in primary and second growth forest and moderately disturbed areas (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136312	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136312	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136313	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136313	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Red River Valley from northern Viet Nam to south central Yunnan, China (Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
136313	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	There is little information available for this species. The type specimen was collected at high elevation (2,500-3,000 m) from Mt. Fan Si Pan, near Chapa Tonkin, Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136313	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136313	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136314	conservation	Soriano, P. & Tavares, V., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. Needs taxonomic review.	eng
136314	distribution	Soriano, P. & Tavares, V., 2008	This species occurs from central and south Nicaragua south to northern Colombia and western Ecuador; as well as Venezuela; It is also found on Trinidad and Tobago; San Andes and Providencia, Guyana; northeastern Amazonia Brazil; and northern Bolivia (Simmons, 2005). Central Brazilian portion of range need taxonimic review (Tavares pers. comm.), therefor Bolivian, Ecuadorian and Colombian populations are unclear (Aguirre pers. comm.). Need taxonomic clarification to determine appropiate geographic range.	eng
136314	habitat	Soriano, P. & Tavares, V., 2008	This bat inhabits a variety of habitats, including evergreen and deciduous forest, thorn shrub, open areas, and villages. It appears to favor slightly disturbed, deciduous forest. Its roosts are unknown, but it can take refuge in buildings and hollow trees, like other species of the genus. This is one of the first bats to appear at sunset, often flying low to the ground along wide trails or roads. There are two peaks of activity, for an hour after sunset and within an hour of dawn. It feeds on small flying insects. Individuals appear to have established hunting routes. Echolocation calls are short, with maximum energy at 50 to 60 kHz.	eng
136314	population	Soriano, P. & Tavares, V., 2008	In Central America it is uncommon to locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
136314	threats	Soriano, P. & Tavares, V., 2008	Non known since taxonomy is unclear. No threats.	eng
136315	conservation	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The species is in Appendix I of CITES.<br/><br/>Regulations, including net attendance rules and gear modifications, have been introduced to reduce bycatch but enforcement, especially in remote areas, has been inadequate (Hale 1997). Some protection is believed to accrue to snubfin dolphins from their presence in dugong protection areas (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136315	distribution	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Australian snubfin dolphins inhabit coastal, shallow waters of the tropical and subtropical zones of Australia, and possibly some parts of New Guinea (Beasley <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Australia, they occur from Broome, Western Australia, north and east to the Brisbane River, Queensland. The range along the northern Australian coast and New Guinea is poorly documented (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136315	habitat	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	Australian snubfin dolphins inhabit coastal, shallow waters and are most common in brackish estuaries. They have been seen in the same areas as Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, which sometimes chase them aggressively. They occur most often near river and creek mouths, generally in waters less than 10 m deep (with a preference in some areas for very shallow waters, < 2 m deep) (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006b)<br/><br/>Australian snubfin dolphins appear to be generalist feeders, taking a wide variety of fishes (including anchovies, sardines, eels, halibut, breams, grunters, and other estuarine species). They also eat cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, and octopus), and crustaceans (shrimps and isopods, although the latter may be consumed incidentally).	eng
136315	population	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	No overall population estimate is available for this species. There are only two abundance estimates for the Australian snubfin dolphin. Freeland and Bayliss (1989) roughly estimated that there were about 1,000 individuals in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory, Australia. Their highest estimate was 1,227 individuals (CV=25%). However, the scientific credibility of that estimate has been challenged due to the difficulty of distinguishing Australian snubfin dolphins from other species during aerial surveys over turbid waters and later surveys conducted in the gulf that indicated a much lower population density (Parra <em>et al</em>. 2002; H. Marsh pers. comm). In Cleveland Bay, Queensland, abundance was estimated as < 100 (actual estimates ranged from 62-78, with CVs from 8-17%) (Parra 2005; Parra <em>et al</em>. 2006a). A survey conducted in May 2006 recorded only 15 groups totaling 88 animals distributed sparsely along portions of the northeastern part of the Kimberly coast (Debra Thiele pers. comm. to Brian Smith on 24 Jan 2007).<br/><br/>Although the species has been surveyed in only two areas (Cleveland Bay and Gulf of Carpentaria) which, together, comprise less than 20% of the species’ range, the results of those surveys, as well as the preliminary results from a reconnaissance survey of a portion of the Kimberly coast in 2006, indicate that the number of mature individuals is well below 10,000. It is assumed that the surveyed areas are broadly representative of the species’ density across its range. The population may be declining due to bycatch in commercial fishing nets (e.g. gillnets) and anti-shark nets.	eng
136315	threats	Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, T.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y. & Zhou, K., 2008	The nearshore occurrence of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to human activities. However, most of its range in northern Australia and New Guinea has not been severely degraded. Substantial numbers of snubfin dolphins have been killed in anti-shark nets set to protect bathers (Paterson 1990). For example, in the Townsville region between 1968-1976, 15 of 24 dolphins known to have been killed were this species (Heinsohn 1979). The mortality rate of snubfin dolphins in anti-shark nets along the Queensland coast declined to an estimated 1.3/year between 1992-1995, coincident with the replacement of most anti-shark nets with baited drumlines (Gribble <em>et al</em>. 1998). In addition to the mortality in anti-shark nets, these dolphins die in inshore gillnets set across creeks, rivers and shallow estuaries primarily for barramundi (<em>Lates calcarifer</em>) and threadfin salmon (<em>Polynemus sheridani</em>) and (<em>Eleutheronema tetradactylum</em>) (Anderson 1995; Hale 1997).	eng
136316	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas, including Ambatovaky and Mangerivola Forest Reserves and Mantadia National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution and natural history of this species. This is the only native species of rodent that is restricted to eastern lowland humid forest, and is restricted to one province.	eng
136316	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is endemic to lowland eastern Madagascar, and is known only from Toamasina Province (Carleton 2003). It has recently been recovered from several additional localities - Andriantantely, Saharay, and Sandranantitra - form within the same localized area (Carleton and Goodman 2007). It has been recorded between 450 and 1,145 m asl.	eng
136316	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This forest-dependent species has been recorded from lowland humid forest. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal.	eng
136316	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species has been rarely collected, and until 2003 was known from only three specimens.	eng
136316	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is threatened by both deforestation, largely for agricultural purposes, and the resulting fragmentation of its habitat. There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
136317	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in protected areas - however, areas surrounding these areas are rapidly changing to agriculture.	eng
136317	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species occurs along the Andes from western Venezuela south to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Velazco, 2005). However, it has also been found at lower elevations along the Andes.	eng
136317	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This bat is basically frugivorous and likely lives under palm trees (Aguirre pers. comm.). This species is poorly known and needs further research.	eng
136317	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In Ecuador it is frequent (Tirira, in prep.) as in Peru (Velazco pers. comm.). Seems to be common as well in Colombia and is less common in Bolivia although poorly known.	eng
136317	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs is a fragile ecosystem on the eastern flanks of the Andes - an area undergoing rapid habitat conversion.	eng
136318	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place. More research is needed, particularly taxonomic research.	eng
136318	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	<em>Sorex arunchi </em>is endemic to Europe, where it is found in the Udine province of north-east Italy, and probably adjacent Slovenia (Lapini and Testone 1998).	eng
136318	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	It is a lowland taxon, and is found in forested areas.	eng
136318	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	There are no population data available for <em>S. arunchi</em>.	eng
136318	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Pesticides and habitat destruction (agriculture) are likely to be the main threats. Shrews tend to accumulate toxins from pesticides and pollutants through their invertebrate diet (Stone 1995). It may be particularly vulnerable to habitat loss because of its restricted range.	eng
136319	conservation	Shekelle, M., Merker, S. & Salim, A., 2008	Tarsiers are protected by national law and international treaties, including CITES Appendix II. Many portions of the range of this taxon are protected and indeed it occurs in at least one national park (Lore Lindu); however, there needs to be improved management of the currently protected areas to ensure the ongoing survival of the species. Public education to overcome the misconception that tarsiers are crop pests would be a step forward in improving conservation measures for the species. In fact the species might actually be beneficial to crops, as they eat, and may even have a dietary preference for, some of the real crop pests such as large grasshoppers.	eng
136319	distribution	Shekelle, M., Merker, S. & Salim, A., 2008	This species is found in western central Sulawesi (Indonesia) in the Lariang River basin near the confluence with its tributary, the Meweh River, and extends as far north as Gimpu. The precise limits of its distribution have yet to be precisely determined, though the eastern boundary is known to be parapatric with that of <em>T. dentatus.</em>  Its distribution is likely to be much larger than what is confirmed at present.	eng
136319	habitat	Shekelle, M., Merker, S. & Salim, A., 2008	This is a newly described species and was separated from <em>T. tarsier</em>, thus information has been extrapolated from prior knowledge of both it and <em>T. dentatus.</em>. Based on these assumptions, it should occur in primary, secondary and mangrove forests, forests gardens, and a variety of other habitats of varying degrees of human disturbance that provide adequate shrubby cover (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Tarsiers show extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping (VCL) in the understory of suitable tropical habitats, often 2 meters or less from the ground. Nocturnal, social primates, they likely live in small, monogamous or polygamous groupings of 2-7. Their diet is 100% live animal prey, mostly insects with some small vertebrates (M. Shekelle pers. comm.).	eng
136319	population	Shekelle, M., Merker, S. & Salim, A., 2008	Very little is known of the population of this species. Preliminary studies suggest that its population densities and home range sizes are similar to those of <em>Tarsius dentatus</em> (S. Merker unpubl. data).	eng
136319	threats	Shekelle, M., Merker, S. & Salim, A., 2008	Although this is a newly described taxon, by analogy with other taxa major threats can be extrapolated to be habitat loss and illegal logging, with lesser threats including agricultural pesticides, and predation by domestic animals (dogs and cats). In addition, some animals may be entering the pet trade. There has been extensive loss of habitat; however, the species has some tolerance to forest conversion. A crucial unknown variable in determining how critical the threats to this species are is its elevational distribution. GIS data indicate that large areas of quality forested habitat remain at higher elevations, but the vertical range of this species is believed to stop somewhere between 1,100-1,500 m, thus rendering a large portion of the best remaining habitat outside the range of this species.	eng
136320	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Karakelang Utara dan Selatan Wildlife Reserve. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
136320	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found only on Karakeland and Salebabu in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia (Helgen 2003).	eng
136320	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is sympatric with <em>Melomys caurinus</em>. It is thought (due to tail size) that <em>Melomys talaudium</em> is arboreal, and <em>M. caurinus</em> is terrestrial, while other similarities point towards a common ancestor between these two species (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136320	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from a handful of specimens, and there is no information available on current population status.	eng
136320	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to logging. It may also be impacted by competition with introduced murids.	eng
136321	conservation	Ditchfield, R. & Gregorin, A.D., 2008	More biological surveys are needed in the area where the species has been found to date. Museum records should be reviewed to verify that the species has not been collected previously.	eng
136321	distribution	Ditchfield, R. & Gregorin, A.D., 2008	This species is known from three localities in northeastern Brazil (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005) and northern Minas Gerais (Nogueira, pers. com.).	eng
136321	habitat	Ditchfield, R. & Gregorin, A.D., 2008	This species is found in arid Caatinga vegetation (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005). Based on closely related species and morphology, this species may be an important pollinator (Ditchfield pers. comm.).	eng
136321	population	Ditchfield, R. & Gregorin, A.D., 2008	Five specimens have been collected to date. No further information on population (Gregorin and Ditchfield, 2005; Nogueira, pers. com.).	eng
136321	threats	Ditchfield, R. & Gregorin, A.D., 2008	The habitat is suffering extensive habitat change and degradation (Gregorin pers. comm.).	eng
136322	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. The area from which the single specimen was collected has been declared a reserve (Flannery and Groves 1998). There is a need to enforce the protection of this area and conduct additional surveys in suitable habitat for remaining populations on Berg Rara and in the Foja Range. Further research is needed into the natural history of the species and into conservation measures to protect it.	eng
136322	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is known from one specimen collected in 1961 at 1,600 m asl, from a single mountain of Berg Rara in the Cyclops Mountains in extreme northern Papua Province, Indonesia. It has not been located in the adjacent mountain ranges of Torricelli and Bewani (there are fossil records from the Bewani range). It could be found in the Foja Range, which has not been adequately surveyed. An expedition to the Cyclops Mountains in May 2007 found evidence of the species (recent digging activity and burrows), and there was local knowledge of the species that implied its continued existence there, although no echidna was sighted (J. Baillie, <em>in litt.</em>). This expedition concluded that the species probably occurs also at lower elevations than previously thought; 166 to 1,600 m.	eng
136322	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is found in tropical montane moss forest. It is likely that this species lays eggs (given what is known of its congeners and from local reports) and the primary food is worms.	eng
136322	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species has not been recorded since 1961. An expedition to the Cyclops Mountains in May 2007 found evidence of the species (recent digging activity and burrows), and there was local knowledge of the species that implied its continued existence there. It is thought to have been distributed more widely. It is a large animal that probably occurred at low density and would not have existed in such a small area naturally.	eng
136322	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	Hunting by local people continues to be a major threat (J. Baillie, <em>in litt.</em>). The habitat is also being degraded by logging and by the expansion of small-scale agriculture.	eng
136323	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are several protected areas within its range. There are no known conservation measures specific to this species.	eng
136323	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species occurs at higher elevations from south-east Hildalgo, central Veracruz, and central Guerrero to Oaxaca and Chiapas, México, south through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras (Houseal <em>et al</em>. 1987; Schmidly <em>et al</em>. 1988; Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136323	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species occurs in thorn scrub, forest edge, and clearings; it favours rocky areas with brush and scattered trees. It is found in stands of conifers but rarely enters in mature broadleaf forest (Reid 1997).  This species is nocturnal. Its preference for relatively open areas makes it easier to observe at night than related species. Stomachs of 11 individuals caught in Chiapas contained 91% athropods, 6% seeds, and 3% green plant material (Alvarez <em>et al</em>. 1984). Breeding can take place year-round; mean litter size is 2.3 young in Oaxaca, Mexico (Millar 1989).	eng
136323	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species is widespread and common (as <em>Peromyscus levipes</em> in Reid 1997).	eng
136323	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136324	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Occurs in Lorentz National Park and possibly other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species, and to determine its sensitivity to heavy disturbance.	eng
136324	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs on New Guinea, where it is widespread in the southern lowlands of Papua Province, Indonesia. It has also been recorded from Wokam Island in the Aru Islands (Musser and Carleton 2005). The elevational range of the species is from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
136324	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in lowland forest.	eng
136324	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136324	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species. Despite the habitat loss due to deforestation (i.e., logging and oil palm expansion), this species is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
136325	conservation	Goodman, S., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Razafimahatratra, E., 2008	It has been recorded from the Masoala National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this taxon.	eng
136325	distribution	Goodman, S., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Razafimahatratra, E., 2008	This taxon has been found in eastern Madagascar where it is known from two widely separated localities, 40 km north-west of Maroantsetra in the north and in the vicinity of Lohariandava in the south (Carleton 1994). It has been recorded at 400 m (Lohariandava) and 850 m asl (Maroantsetra).	eng
136325	habitat	Goodman, S., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Razafimahatratra, E., 2008	Little is known about the ecology of this taxon. Presumably it is an arboreal or scansorial animal of lowland and mid-altitude tropical rainforest.	eng
136325	population	Goodman, S., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Razafimahatratra, E., 2008	It is known only from two specimens.	eng
136325	threats	Goodman, S., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Razafimahatratra, E., 2008	Major threats to this species are unclear, but it is probably threatened by deforestation for cultivated land and extraction of forest products (timber and firewood). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
136326	conservation	Eken, G., Bozdogan, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. In Turkey, it is considered to be of conservation concern. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of steppe habitat and to monitor the abundance of known populations.	eng
136326	conservation	Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. In Turkey, it is considered to be of conservation concern. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of steppe habitat and to monitor the abundance of known populations.	eng
136326	distribution	Eken, G., Bozdogan, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Anatolia (Turkey), the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkey), and northwestern Iran, with an isolated population in central Afghanistan. It ranges from 360 m asl in the west of its range, to 3,200 m asl in Afghanistan (Habibi 2003).	eng
136326	distribution	Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	This species is widely distributed in Anatolia (Turkey), the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkey), and northwestern Iran, with an isolated population in central Afghanistan. It ranges from 360 m asl in the west of its range, to 3,200 m asl in Afghanistan (Habibi 2003).	eng
136326	habitat	Eken, G., Bozdogan, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species occurs in steppe regions with sparse vegetation. It is rarely found in cultivated lands, although it occurs in secondary steppe habitats where open vegetation remains. Animals have been observed running on roads through pine forests (Çolak and Yiğit 1998). This species lives in burrows, and produces two litters of three to six young annually (Çolak and Yiğit 1998).	eng
136326	habitat	Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	This species occurs in steppe regions with sparse vegetation. It is rarely found in cultivated lands, although it occurs in secondary steppe habitats where open vegetation remains. Animals have been observed running on roads through pine forests (Çolak and Yi?it 1998). This species lives in burrows, and produces two litters of three to six young annually (Çolak and Yi?it 1998).	eng
136326	population	Eken, G., Bozdogan, M. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found at relatively low densities relative to other species of jerboas. There is evidence of local extinctions in central Turkey (Kefelioglu pers. comm.). In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-desert and foothills and mountain steppes and rare in lowland and riparian forests.	eng
136326	population	Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	This species is found at relatively low densities relative to other species of jerboas. There is evidence of local extinctions in central Turkey (Kefelioglu pers. comm.). In Azerbaijan, the species is considered common in semi-desert and foothills and mountain steppes and rare in lowland and riparian forests.	eng
136326	threats	Eken, G., Bozdogan, M. & Molur, S., 2008	In Turkey, the species is affected by the transformation of steppe regions to agricultural use, primarily for growing sugar beets. Steppe habitat has declined significantly in the last decade in Turkey (Kilic and Eken 2004).	eng
136326	threats	Krystufek, B. & Yigit, N., 2008	In Turkey, the species is affected by the transformation of steppe regions to agricultural use, primarily for growing sugar beets. Steppe habitat has declined significantly in the last decade in Turkey (Kilic and Eken 2004).	eng
136327	conservation	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	It is common in Tai National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, and is presumably present in several more protected areas. Further research is needed into the range of both this species and the partially sympatric <em>Crocidura crossei</em>.	eng
136327	distribution	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	Hutterer (2005) records this West African species as probably ranging through southern Guinea, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire. Grubb <em>et al</em>. (1998) indicate that the species is present in northwestern Sierra Leone.	eng
136327	habitat	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This species is present in lowland tropical moist forest, and possibly in montane forest. Additional details are needed on the adaptability of this species to secondary habitats.	eng
136327	population	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	This is a locally abundant species. It is very abundant in both Tai National Park (Côte d’Ivoire) and on Mount Nimba (Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone).	eng
136327	threats	Hutterer, R. & Jenkins, P., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to the species as a whole.	eng
136328	conservation	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136328	distribution	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in Sierra de Mérida, west Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005). This species is found from 1,500 to 3,250 m (Soriano <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
136328	habitat	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is terrestrial and solitary. It occurs in cloud forest (Woodman and Pascual, 2004). This species is nocturnal, and omnivorous (M. Aguilera and B. Rivas pers. comm.). This species is a bioindicator of cloud forest conditions.	eng
136328	population	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is abundant.	eng
136328	threats	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	There are no current threats because the habitat of this species is well protected by national parks.	eng
136329	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Taxonomic review. More surveys are urgently required, using appropriate methodology. Forest in the area where the species is found should be conserved.	eng
136329	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is known only from French Guiana (Simmons and Voss, 1998).	eng
136329	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	All specimens have been found in forest. It is an aerial insectivore that exploits uncluttered space. Otherwise, its natural history and ecology is poorly known.	eng
136329	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Rare (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136329	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Forest degradation.	eng
136330	conservation	Goodman, S., 2008	This species has been recorded in the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and Bemaraha National Park. There is a proposal to extend Bemaraha N.P. further north. This species needs more study into its distribution and natural history.	eng
136330	distribution	Goodman, S., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to western Madagascar, where it is has been collected from the limestone regions near Maintirano south to the Mananbolo River. A recently captured individual (not adequately identified) was found from the Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park to the south of Antsalova (Ryan 2003). Subsequently, three individuals have been confirmed from Bemaraha (Goodman and Schütz 2003). There have been surveys surrounding the range, so the species is likely to be localized in the region.	eng
136330	habitat	Goodman, S., 2008	The habitat preferences of this species are not known. The Tsingy de Bermereha National Park where the species has been recorded is largely comprised of limestone karst and deciduous forest (Ryan 2003). Terrestrial, only known from intact tsingy forest.	eng
136330	population	Goodman, S., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens. In the deep karst habitat of Bemaraha it is observed to be common (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
136330	threats	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is threatened by fires and the conversion of habitat to pastures. There is also illegal selective logging in localized areas.	eng
136331	conservation	Chapman, R.E., 2008	No information is available on conservation measures.	eng
136331	distribution	Chapman, R.E., 2008	The geographic range of this species  extends from the northeastern slope of the Villarrica Volcano to Puyehue, in Chile, and up to the district of the Nahuelhuapi Lake in Argentina (Gallardo and Reise, 1992).	eng
136331	habitat	Chapman, R.E., 2008	Colonies are found in areas of the Valdivian rain forest that are covered with shrubby vegetation and bamboo thickets above the timberline, close to the Andes (Gallardo and Reise, 1992).	eng
136331	population	Chapman, R.E., 2008	There is little known about populations of this species.	eng
136331	threats	Chapman, R.E., 2008	Little is known of the threats to this species.	eng
136332	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is present in Amazonia National Park (1,114,917 ha) (Ayres and Milton 1981), while both Jatuarana National Forest (837,100 ha) and Pau Rosa National Forest (827,877 ha) are in range. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
136332	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> occurs south of the Rio Amazonas in Brazil, west from the rios Tapajós and Juruena, to the Rios Madeira and Aripuanã, to about 9ºS. There are outlying populations north of the Rio Amazonas in the region of Oriximiná and Óbidos on the lower Rio Trombetas (Napier, 1976) and just south of the Rio Amazonas-Solimões, midway between the rios Maderia and Purus, at the Lago Janauacá (A. Rylands, pers. obs.; Langguth <em>et al.</em> 1987; Bonvincino <em>et al</em>. 1989; Gregorin 2006).	eng
136332	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	<em>Alouatta nigerrima</em> is found in tall evergreen terra firme forest, seasonally inundated forest and forest patches in savanna areas, as well as secondary forest in abandoned rubber plantations. <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaws which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Black howler groups number four or five or up to 11 or so individuals. There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984).	eng
136332	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	There is no information available on population densities.	eng
136332	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Hunting and habitat loss are localized threats, but human population density is relatively low, and neither is likely to be driving significant range-wide declines.	eng
136333	conservation	Anderson, R.P. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species may occur in Machalilla National Park and Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve which has suitable vegetation; however, its presence there has not been confirmed, other protected areas within the species potential range do not appear to have suitable habitat (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). It has been found in some very small reserves (R.P. Anderson pers. comm.).	eng
136333	distribution	Anderson, R.P. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is known only from central western Ecuador from near the Rıo Esmeraldas and Rıo Guayllabamba south to the Cordillera de Chongon-Colonche, from near sea level on the coastal plain to up to 2,000 m asl on the western slopes of the Andes. Populations from the Cordillera de Chongon-Colonche may be isolated (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).	eng
136333	habitat	Anderson, R.P. & Tirira, D., 2008	A nocturnal species associated with small water courses where it uses distinct runways (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). It occurs in drier and fairly seasonal evergreen forests in the southernmost extension of the Choco, along the Pacific coastal plain and western slopes of the Andes; it can occur in mildly disturbed forest (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).	eng
136333	population	Anderson, R.P. & Tirira, D., 2008	It is uncommon to rare (D. Tirira, pers. com.).	eng
136333	threats	Anderson, R.P. & Tirira, D., 2008	Six of the seven localities where the species has been collected are in landscapes where most of the natural vegetation has been removed (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002). The distribution of H. teleus has been much reduced, with only around 13-19% of its historical distribution still forested and an estimated 2-3% intact and falling in protected areas (Anderson and Martinez-Meyer, 2004). Deforestation and extreme fragmentation due to logging and African Oil Palms are major threats to this species (Anderson and Jarrin, 2002).	eng
136334	conservation	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
136334	distribution	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Otro Cerro, in Catamarca Province, Argentina at 3,000 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005). Braun and Mares (2002) suggested that it is probably restricted to Sierra de Ambato of Catamarca and La Rioja Provinces.	eng
136334	habitat	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	It is known from rocky areas with grasslands over 3,000 m asl.	eng
136334	population	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136334	threats	Ojeda, R. & Jayat, J.P., 2008	Intentional, controlled burning of vegetation by cattle farmers is a major threat.	eng
136335	conservation	Thalmann, U., Geissmann, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. it is known to occur in Tsingy de Bemeraha National Park, a World Heritage Site. Given the extremely small known range of Cleese’s Woolly Lemur, surveys are obviously urgently needed to find additional populations.	eng
136335	distribution	Thalmann, U., Geissmann, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is known only from the Tsingy de Bemaraha region of western Madagascar, north of the Manambolo River (Thalmann and Geissman 2005). The northern limit of its range is unclear and there is no evidence of its occurrence between the Sambao and Mahavavy Rivers or between the Mahavavy and Betsiboka Rivers (Thalmann and Geissmann 2005). Currently, it is known only from within Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park, where it has been sighted in two localities, in the forest of Ankindrodro (19°08′S, 44°49′E;) and the type locality (18°59′S, 44°45′E), a forest 3 – 4 km east-northeast of the village of Ambalarano at the base of the western Tsingy precipice (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006). The species was previously outside the reserve’s boundaries in 1994, in the heavily disturbed forest in the surroundings of the village of Ankinajao (19°03′S, 44°47′E; Thalmann and Geissmann 2000). However, the forest was completely destroyed since these sightings at Ankinajao, and no woolly lemurs have been found there since 2003 (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006).	eng
136335	habitat	Thalmann, U., Geissmann, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>Avahi cleesei</em> occurs in subhumid, dry deciduous forests close to the western Tsingy precipices, in the larger Tsingy crevasses or gorges, and forests along small seasonal rivulets and seasonal swamps close to the Bemaraha massif (Thalmann and Geissmann 2006).	eng
136335	population	Thalmann, U., Geissmann, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species was originally discovered in 1990 and named in 2005. Thalmann and Geissmann (2000) describe <em>Avahi</em> as being generally rare in the Bemaraha region, where the forests it inhabits tend to have a high proportion of evergreen trees. Ironically, local population densities appear to correlate negatively with levels of habitat disturbance, meaning that higher population densities seem to be found in disturbed habitats.	eng
136335	threats	Thalmann, U., Geissmann, T. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Thalman and Geissmann (2005, 2006) note that the disturbed forest close to the village of Ankinajao (outside the park), which supported a substantial number of individuals in 1994, had been cut completely by 2003. The subhumid forest at the base of the escarpment of the Tsingy de Bemaraha is under continuous pressure from bush fires that reduce it in many places every year–in some places to only a few meters in width. Such subhumid forests are the only habitat in which Avahi cleesei is known to occur so far.	eng
136336	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros and Grande Sertao Vereiras National Parks (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
136336	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known from Minas Gerais, Tocantins and Goias States (Carminhoto 2004, Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
136336	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in cerrado and also gallery forests (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
136336	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is relatively common. Weksler and Bonvicino (2005) collected only 12 individuals in Chapada dos Veadeiros.	eng
136336	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The main threat is deforestation due to agriculture.	eng
136337	conservation	Appleton, B., 2008	This species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. In Australia protection and monitoring of important roosting and foraging sites across the species range is needed. Further studies into the taxonomy and dispersal routes of this species are needed.	eng
136337	distribution	Appleton, B., 2008	This species ranges from the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (including Sulawesi and Seram), the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea) as far east as the Solomon Islands (islands of Santa Isabel, San Cristobal and Rennell), and northern and eastern Australia. The range aslo may include the island of Timor (Timor-Leste and Indonesia). It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,120 m asl in southern parts of its range. It is to be noted that genetic work, published recently (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2004), shows that there may be a number of species within Australia and New Guinea (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
136337	habitat	Appleton, B., 2008	This species forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines (although it has occasionally been found in man made tunnels), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. The species prefers large, warm caves. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In south-eastern Australia it hibernates in underground sites in winter (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It changes roosts in response to seasonal needs, long-distance movements occur occasionally.	eng
136337	population	Appleton, B., 2008	In Indonesia, it is a locally common species throughout its range. In Australia a large cave may hold many thousands of individuals of this species.	eng
136337	threats	Appleton, B., 2008	There are overall no major threats to this species. There are historical records of mass mortality events in Australia. A meeting was held at the 9<sup>th</sup> European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain of the closely related species <em>M. schreibersii</em> did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter or early spring. In Australia, it is primarily threatened by the disturbance of colonies in roosting caves and the destruction of caves for limestone mining in some areas (L. Hall pers. comm.).	eng
136338	conservation	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs in three protected areas: Caparao, Itatiaia, and Serra dos Orgãos National Parks.	eng
136338	distribution	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs in east Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro States, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136338	habitat	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This species occurs in middle to upper elevations (1,000-2,700 m), in disjunct mountain ranges (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species has a similar habitat requirements and ecology to <em>D. dorsalis</em> and <em>D. sublineatus</em>.	eng
136338	population	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	This rodent is known from three point localities (Caparao, Itatiaia, and Serra dos Orgãos); it is difficult to find in the field but it’s population is assumed to be large as it is thought to have a range which extends as far as other species in the same genus (L. Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136338	threats	Geise, L., Percequillo, A. & Bergallo, H., 2008	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction within its range, it is also affected by fires which are common to the grasslands which it inhabits (L. Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136339	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of this species. Taxonomic research is needed to clarify its distribution. More information is also needed on the species population status, major threats, ecology and distribution.	eng
136339	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Oaxaca and Guerrero in Mexico. Its exact distribution is not known as there is ongoing confusion with <em>Sorex veraepacis mutabilis</em>. It occurs at elevations from 1,900 m to at least 3,000 m asl (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136339	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in conifer and pine-oak forest with deep humus and leaf litter.	eng
136339	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
136339	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation is a major threat to this species.	eng
136340	conservation	Oliver, W., 2008	The species occurs in several designated protected areas, though most of these exist only on paper. The clear exception is Mount Iglit-Baco Natural Park, though this area largely comprises of a former cattle ranch and therefore also largely composed of grasslands unlikely to adequately support representative biodiversity in this globally critical region. Reinforcement of existing legislation, more effective protection of the few remaining natural habitats of Mindoro, research to identify pure populations, and increased public awareness, are all needed as a matter of some urgency for the conservation of this and other Mindoron endemic species (Boitani <em>et al</em>. 2006; Gonzalez <em>et al</em>, 1999).	eng
136340	distribution	Oliver, W., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where is found only on Mindoro (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998). Surveys conducted in the late 1990’s indicated the species is now mostly confined to the central and north-western mountain ranges higher elevations.	eng
136340	habitat	Oliver, W., 2008	This species was formerly found in most habitats, from sea level to upper montane areas. It now occurs in lowland, mid-montane and dry-molave forests and savanna grasslands (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>1999), being mainly restricted to higher elevations.	eng
136340	population	Oliver, W., 2008	Its population size is unknown, but it is fragmented and declining.	eng
136340	threats	Oliver, W., 2008	The main threats to this species include widespread destruction of former forest habitats, evident weaknesses in the existing protected areas network on Mindoro, and anomalies in local legislation pertaining to allowable hunting of threatened versus non-threatened’ species by local indigenous peoples. Many (perhaps most) of Mindoro’s remaining forest areas are also severely threatened by commercial mining claims and salient ‘pro-mining’ agendas by many of the relevant Philippine governmental authorities. Genetic contamination via hybridisation with free-ranging domestic pigs maintained in hinterland communities is also known to occur in Mindoro and might pose the single most important threat to the genetic integrity of this species (Gonzalez <em>et al</em>, 1999; W. Oliver pers. comm.). It is also hunted for food, bushmeat trade and local ceremonials.	eng
136341	conservation	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	It is present in protected areas. It is listed as Near Threatened (NT) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
136341	distribution	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, where it is found on 15 small islands in the Amami Islands and Okinawa Islands (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It occurs from sea level up to around 400 m asl.	eng
136341	habitat	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	It inhabits bushes and grasslands along river banks, and in cultivated fields, and shrubs at low elevations (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136341	population	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136341	threats	Motokawa, M. & Abe, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. Many habitats have been destroyed by urban expansion since the 1970s, but the population appears to be fairly large and stable. The introduced mongoose preys upon this species in Amami-Oshima.	eng
136342	conservation	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	Its only known locality is the Huu Lien Nature Reserve. This is one of three new genera of petricolous rodents described in the last two to three years from karst landscapes in northern Indochina, underscoring the need for further survey work for this particular species throughout north eastern Viet Nam and southern China.	eng
136342	distribution	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Viet Nam: Lan Dat village, Huu Lien Nature Reserve, Lang Son province at 150 m. Its distribution in this reserve is likely patchy. It probably occurs in suitable forested habitats throughout karst landscapes of northern Viet Nam, and perhaps even in southern China (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136342	habitat	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This is a petricolous species, and was collected from talus habitats composed of large limestone blocks in forested tower karst landscapes. It is mostly nocturnal, but also active during the day, and includes insects in its diet (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136342	population	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This recently described species is represented by 14 adult museum specimens. It has specific microhabitat requirements and is not uncommon in these specific areas.	eng
136342	threats	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There are probably no major threats other than possible destruction of limestone habitats for quarrying.	eng
136343	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species has not currently been recorded from any protected areas, but it might be present within the Udzungwa National Park. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable montane forest habitat for this species.	eng
136343	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This recently described species is known only from the Ndundulu and Nyumbanitu Forests of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005). All localities where the species has been collected are above 1,500 m asl. It is suspected to be present in the Udzungwa National Park, which borders the Ndundulu Forest, but has yet to be confirmed from here (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136343	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	This montane species has been recorded from forested areas either predominated with bamboo, or in marshy habitats (Stanley <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136343	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It appears to be relatively common within its limited range. Stanley <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that it was the most numerous shrew, making up 53% of the insectivores captured, during a 2003 survey.	eng
136343	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is likely to be some habitat loss taking place, presumably through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use, within the limited range of this species.	eng
136344	conservation	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
136344	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.	eng
136344	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The species occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range. No specific conservation measures are necessary at present.	eng
136344	distribution	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	<em>Erinaceus roumanicus</em> has a distribution extending from central and eastern Europe, the Baltic and the Balkan peninsula eastwards through Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, reaching as far as western Siberia. In the south, its range extends as far as the northern Caucasus and possibly north-western Anatolia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). It is recorded from sea level to at least 1,400 m (Lapini 1999).	eng
136344	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Erinaceus roumanicus</em> has a global distribution extending from central and eastern Europe, the Baltic and the Balkan peninsula eastwards through Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, reaching as far as western Siberia. In the south, its range extends as far as the northern Caucasus and the island of Crete. It is recorded from sea level to at least 1,400 m (Lapini 1999). Within the Mediterranean region, it ranges from Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, European Turkey) and extending south into the Near East Anatolian Turkey.	eng
136344	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>Erinaceus roumanicus</em> has a global distribution extending from central and eastern Europe, the Baltic and the Balkan peninsula eastwards through Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, reaching as far as western Siberia. In the south, its range extends as far as the northern Caucasus and the island of Crete. It is recorded from sea level to at least 1,400 m (Lapini 1999). Within the Mediterranean region, it ranges from Italy and Slovenia, through the Balkan peninsula (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, European Turkey) and extending south into the Near East Anatolian Turkey.	eng
136344	habitat	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It inhabits farmland, parks and gardens in rural and urban areas, and scrubby habitats at the edge of forests. Like its congener <em>E. europaeus</em>, it is more abundant in artificial than in natural habitats (Lapini 1999).	eng
136344	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	The northern white-breasted hedgehog inhabits farmland, parks and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at the edge of forests, and shrubby vegetation. Like its congener <em>E. europaeus</em>, it is more abundant in artificial than in natural habitats (Lapini 1999).	eng
136344	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	The northern white-breasted hedgehog inhabits farmland, parks and gardens in rural and urban areas, scrubby habitats at the edge of forests, and shrubby vegetation. Like its congener <em>E. europaeus</em>, it is more abundant in artificial than in natural habitats (Lapini 1999).	eng
136344	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>E. roumanicus</em> is locally common in at least some areas (Lapini 1999). It is considered common in Greece. There is no evidence to suggest a population decline.	eng
136344	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	<em>E. roumanicus</em> is locally common in at least some areas (Lapini 1999). It is considered common in Greece. There is no evidence to suggest a population decline.	eng
136344	population	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	It is relatively rare in the colder parts of its range, but there is no evidence to suggest a population decline. It is locally common in at least some areas (Lapini 1999).	eng
136344	threats	Boris Kryštufek, 2006	Many are killed by collision with cars (Lapini 1999), but this is unlikely to cause widespread population decline.	eng
136344	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Many are killed by collision with cars (Lapini 1999), but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines.	eng
136344	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Many are killed by collision with cars (Lapini 1999), but this is unlikely to cause widespread population declines.	eng
136345	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Sumaco National Park and close to other two protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136345	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental, 2400-3600 m, north central Ecuador (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In addition, there are some records in Bolivar province, Cordillera Occidental, central Ecuador (V. Pacheco, com. pers.).	eng
136345	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Seventeen specimens of Thomasomys erro in the vicinity of Papallacta, were collected. Of these, eleven were taken in dense secondary vegetation, five in Subalpine Rain Forest, and one in Upper Montane Rain Forest. All recorded captures were on the ground (Voss, 2003).	eng
136345	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is rare. The <em>Thomasomys erro</em> reported in 1980 was the first report since the original description in the 1920s (Voss, 2003).	eng
136345	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136346	conservation	Rylands, A.B. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	This is a widespread and adaptable species, which occurs in a number of protected areas where suitable (forest) habitat is available. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136346	distribution	Rylands, A.B. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	Occurs in north-east Brazil in the eastern part of the state of Maranhão, from the basin of the rios Mearim and Itapecuru, through Piaui, Ceará, into Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Paraíba  and Apagoas. It ranges west of the Rio São Francisco, through the Cerrado or bush savanna, in Tocantins, Goiás, western Minas Gerais and part of western Bahia, and north-eastern Mato Grosso, being replaced by <em>C. apella</em> to the north in transition to the Amazon rain forest and the dry forests of Mato Grosso (Silva Jr., 2001). Silva Jr. (2001) indicates that the right (east) bank of the Rio Araguaia may be the westernmost limits to its range ion the north, with <em>C. apella</em> occurring west from the left bank, and further south, at the headwaters, giving way to <em>C. cay</em>. The southern limit is in the region of the Rio Grande in western Minas Gerais (<em>Triângulo Mineiro</em>). <em>C. nigritus</em> occurs to the south of the Rio Grande (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Rylands <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136346	habitat	Rylands, A.B. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	Dry, deciduous forest open, forest and scrub of the Caatinga of north-east Brazil, gallery forest and dry forests of the cerrado (bush savanna) of Central Brazil.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Group sizes range from 6 or 7 to 20, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Freese and Oppenmheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
136346	population	Rylands, A.B. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	There are no population desnity estimates available.	eng
136346	threats	Rylands, A.B. & Kierulff, M.C.M., 2008	This species is hunted in many parts of its range, much of which is open savanna grassland or thorny desert scrub. However, it is wide-ranging, and there is no reason to believe that the species is threatened at the present time. The region over which it occurs is undergoing habitat loss due to the expanding agricultural frontier (charcoal, soy, etc.). Some wild individuals are collected for the pet trade.	eng
136347	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Known to occur in the Anjiamangarana and Bora Special Reserves (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of its range and population status, and to confirm the taxonomic distinctiveness of this taxon.	eng
136347	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from six forest fragments between the rivers Sofia and Maevarano in north-west Madagascar (Olivieri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Prior to recent taxonomic revisions, the mouse lemurs in this region were  assumed to be <em>M. ravelobensis</em>.	eng
136347	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of deciduous forest.	eng
136347	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136347	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136348	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas (one locality) and seems reliant of mature primary forest.	eng
136348	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is known only from northwestern Ecuador and southwestern Colombia (Dávalos, 2004), and is known from only three localities (1 in Ecuador and 2 in Colombia). These three localities are known as areas of high endemism and are in primary forest.	eng
136348	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat has been captured along with other glossophagines (<em>Anoura</em> spp.) in a disturbed secondary forest in nets left open overnight due to continuous rain (B. Lim pers. comm.). The habitat associated with the capture of <em>L. chocoana</em> has been characterized as disturbed, and the simultaneous capture of other glossophagines probably indicates the presence of local food resources, regardless of the habitat condition (Dávalos, 2004). This species is very poorly known.	eng
136348	population	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is rare, known from only a few records (Dávalos, 2004).	eng
136348	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Habitat degradation.	eng
136349	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species does not occur in any protected area (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). Further surveys are needed on ecology, habitat requirements and conservation.	eng
136349	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in Ecuadorian Andes. It is known from a few records from slopes Pichincha volcano (00°15'S, 78°33'W, 3,500 m) (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136349	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	<em>T. vulcani</em> is poorly known. This is nocturnal and terrestrial. It occurs in montane forest and shrubby paramo into the western Andean cordillera (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136349	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is rare, known from less than five records (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136349	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136350	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Although it is known to occur in some protected areas and likely to occur in others within its range, the species is not the target of management plans and actions. In Mexico is listed as subject to special protection under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>Centronycteris maximiliani</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136350	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species can be found in areas between southern Mexico and southeastern Peru (Simmons 2005). There are records from Bolivia (GMA Andes).  Found between 0-500 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em> 2000). Point locality Rio Ure Cordoba Colombia (Mantilla, pers comm.)	eng
136350	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is found in mature rainforests, semi-deciduous forests and secondary forests; it tends to roost in hollow trees and on tree trunks. It appears to be a slow flier and has a rather regular pattern of foraging in its home range, a feature shared with other emballonurids. It forages in beats, with a slow, fluttering flight. They have been noted flying in the late afternoon. Pregnant females have been noted in May. Its flight is slow and deliberate; individuals may patrol the same area repeatedly (Eisenberg 1989; Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997; Timm <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
136350	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is apparently rare everywhere in its geographic range (Emmons and Feer 1997; Reid 1997). Abundant in intact habitat, restricted by the quality of the forest (Miller pers. comm.)	eng
136350	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Local level deforestation.	eng
136351	conservation	Bergmans, W. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The species has been recorded from the Kasungu National Park in Malawi. Further field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution range, threats and conservation status of this species.	eng
136351	distribution	Bergmans, W. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This recently described species is currently only known from Malawi, where it has been collected in the Kasungu National Park (collected in 1982 and 1988) and (most probably) the Karonga area (collected in 1961) (Bergmans and van Strien 2004).	eng
136351	habitat	Bergmans, W. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	Bergmans and van Strien (2004) record that 'the type specimen was mist netted in Miombo woodland at an elevation of 1,000 m, over a stream  between two water berry trees, <em>Syzygium cordatum</em> Hochst., in fruit (Bergmans <em>et al.</em>, 1983).' Furthermore, they state that 'the vegetation of Lifupa Camp, the locality where the female paratype was collected (exact elevation unknown, but between 1,000 and 1,100 m) is Miombo woodland with <em>Brachystegia</em> and <em>Julbernardia</em> (Bergmans <em>et al.</em>, 1983)'.	eng
136351	population	Bergmans, W. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
136351	threats	Bergmans, W. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	Bergmans and van Strien (2004) note that they "have no reason to believe that the species is in any danger but at the same time the available data are few and between 43 and 16 years old".	eng
136352	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136352	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Venezuela, through Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, to Amapá, Brazil, and southwards to Amazonas and Pará, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136352	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species in this nocturnal genus occur in lowland areas where they feed on seeds, insects and fruit (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). The litter size ranges from two to four (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
136352	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Populations in this genus undergo great fluctuations in abundance throughout the annual cycle (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
136352	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136353	conservation	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has been recorded from the Serrania Huanchaca, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136353	distribution	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Bolivia, Santa Cruz Department, Velasco Province, Serrania de Huanchaca, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, Campamento "Huanchaca II", 14°31'S, 60°44'W, 700 m (Emmons, 1999).	eng
136353	habitat	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has been recorded from well drained or rarely- and shallowly-flooded open savanna with dense bunch grass and scattered trees or shrubs. It is not known if this species can occur in modified habitats. This species co-occurs with <em>Kunsia tomentosa</em> (Emmons, 1999).	eng
136353	population	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species was common in several localities within the park, but may have recently declined (2004-2007, Emmons unpubl.)	eng
136353	threats	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. There are no people in the area. Failure to burn and overgrowth of the grasslands with shrubs or trees may affect population densities of this species (Emmons, L. pers. comm.).	eng
136354	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	Occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
136354	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	NE Turkey (humid forest along southern shore of Black Sea east of type locality), N Caucasus (Russia), S Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and W Azerbaijan), and NW Iran. The western range limit are undefined; there are records further west based on morphology that have not been karyotyped. The southern and western range limits are not well defined. Elevation: 500-1,400 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136354	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	Northeastern Turkey (humid forest along southern shore of Black Sea east of type locality), northern Caucasus (Russia), southern Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and W Azerbaijan), and northwest Iran. The western range limit are undefined; there are records further west based on morphology that have not been karyotyped. The southern and western range limits are not well defined. Elevation: 500-1,400 m (B. Krystufek pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136354	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species occurs in mixed forests, shrubland and forest clearings as well as in alpine pastures. The species prefers forest clearings and does well in degraded habitats. Also occurs in bogs.	eng
136354	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species is common over its wide distribution.	eng
136354	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Bukhnikashvili, A., Shenbrot, G. & Sozen, M., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136355	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	It occurs in a protected area within its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136355	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species occurs in Bahia State, Brazil.	eng
136355	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in gallery forest and open vegetation, cerrado and rocky outcrops (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136355	population	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is common throughout its range (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136355	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This rodent is hunted and may be affected by fire in rupestrian fields (Bonvicino and Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136356	conservation	Maharadatunkamsi, D., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been recorded from Lesneur National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136356	distribution	Maharadatunkamsi, D., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species occurs across Sumatra, in Indonesia. The type locality is 150 km north of Bencoolen, upper Ketuan River, Lebang Tandai.	eng
136356	habitat	Maharadatunkamsi, D., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	It has been mist netted from lowland primary forest in Lesneur National Forest (U. Sinaga pers. comm.), and also collected from secondary forest (D. Maharadatunkamsi pers. comm.).	eng
136356	population	Maharadatunkamsi, D., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	It is considered rare and uncommon (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
136356	threats	Maharadatunkamsi, D., Sinaga, U. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is not hunted. Deforestation as a result of expanding agriculture and plantations, logging and forest fires is a major threat particularly in lowland areas.	eng
136357	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	There are no conservation measures yet to preserve this new species.	eng
136357	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This species is known from two localities in Southern Ceara state, northeastern Brazil (Tribe, 2005).	eng
136357	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This rodent occurs in open fields, in palm trees, and other trees (Tribe, 2005). It is associated with agricultural lands, soil ranging from sandy to stony and black earth, near permanent and intermittent rivers.	eng
136357	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	This species was recently described and there is no information on population or abundance.	eng
136357	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, M., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136358	conservation	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	Needs to have a proper taxonomic evaluation. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136358	distribution	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	This species occurs in Atlantic Forest Region of southeast Brazil, Bahia to Santa Catarina States, and along riverine forest into Cerrado and Caatinga regions; limits poorly documented (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136358	habitat	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cerrado and Caatinga where it is found along rivers. The species can persist in secondary and degraded areas (Paglia pers. comm.).	eng
136358	population	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	This rodent is locally common in areas of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado (Paglia pers. comm.).	eng
136358	threats	Costa, L., Bonvicino, C., Weksler, M. & Paglia, A., 2008	The major threats are deforestation by agricultural expansion and urbanization.	eng
136359	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The type locality is in Manusela National Park. There is a need for further survey work to more appropriately determine the range of this species on Seram, and also the habitat requirements of the species.	eng
136359	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, on the south coast of Seram island, Piliana, (3°15'S, 129°30'E at 400 m) (Helgen 2003; Musser and Carleton 2005). It is likely to occur more widely in the lowlands than current records suggest (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
136359	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species was recored in a moderately disturbed low elevation rainforest in precipitous limestone country (Helgen 2003). It was formerly included as a subspecies of <em>Melomys rufescens</em>, which is rarely encountered in undisturbed forest, and seems to favor modified habitats such as village gardens and secondary forest (Helgen 2003). It is probably sympatric with <em>Melomys fulgens</em> (Helgen 2003).	eng
136359	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from the holotype (Helgen 2003), and there is no information on current population status.	eng
136359	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss due to logging, although as noted it probably can adapt to some habitat degradation as is typical of <em>M. rufescens</em>.	eng
136360	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Surveys (if possible combined with those for other poorly known and regionally endemic mammals) in the Southern Annamites and southern portions of the Central Annamites (in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR) at a range of altitudes and in various habitats are urgently required to document the species’s range, status, and habitat and altitudinal preferences, using appropriate methods such as camera-trapping and specimen collection. Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) urged for particular attention to be paid to forests persisting around Nhatrang and Buon Loui; but given the lack of ecological similarities between these areas, either the Nhatrang location is in error or the species has a wide ecological tolerance. In either case, this urges surveys to be extensive rather than focussed on only these two areas. The suggestion in Meijaard and Groves (2004b) that "the main external differences between <em>T. kanchil</em> and <em>T. versicolor</em> are distinctive and it is likely that, if <em>T. versicolor</em> still exists, local hunters will know both species" should not be taken to suggest that village information alone would be a suitable survey method, rather that it may help in determining where to invest time and effort in camera-traps. After examination of three of Thomas’s (1910) specimens alongside specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> from Indochina, R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) thought that field identification of <em>Tragulus</em> (or from photogpaphs) should be done very cautiously, and that there could be circumstances for confusion; experience with muntjacs <em>Muntiacus</em> in Indochina urges caution with both field identification and use of villager information in surveying for species (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Until one or more populations are found, further conservation measures cannot be recommended additional to the general need to consolidate the declared protected areas in southern Indochina into functioning biodiversity conservation areas.	eng
136360	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The specimens used by Thomas (1910) to describe this species were acquired at Nhatrang on the coast of southern Viet Nam (12°15'N 109°10'E). The provenance of the specimens cannot be certain, although there is no specific reason to doubt it, because they may have been acquired in trade. Another specimen was obtained from local hunters on 16 January 1990 at about 500 m asl near the River Tra (a tributary of the River Ba) around Dak Rong and Buon Luoi, about 20 km north of Kan Nack (Gia Lai province, Viet Nam) and is now held at the Zoological Museum of Moscow University (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little conscious knowledge of the species, so surveys have not sought it; many have assumed that only one <em>Tragulus</em> occurs in most of Indochina and therefore not critically identified records. Confusion was fomented by the widespread inclusion of <em>T. versicolor</em> within <em>T. napu</em>, although in many external characters <em>T. versicolor</em> is more like <em>T. kanchil</em> than it is <em>T. napu</em> (Meijaard and Groves 2004a; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), meaning that even surveyors who thought they had correctly excluded ‘the second Indochinese chevrotain’ from their records of <em>T. kanchil</em> (then referred to as <em>T. javanicus</em>) had not in fact done so (e.g. almost all records from Lao PDR in the 1990s). Few, if any, records of <em>Tragulus</em> from Indochina other than those in Meijaard and Groves (2004a) and in Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) have been positively identified to species using criteria that could distinguish <em>T. versicolor</em> from <em>T. kanchil</em>. However, the species is certainly not as widespread as <em>T. kanchil</em> in Indochina (which is known from a scattering of specimens from throughout southern and central Indochina; Meijaard and Groves 2004a; E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), and analysis of <em>Tragulus</em> photos (by R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) from camera-traps from a number of localities (central Annamites: Quang Nam; B. Long/WWF; Virachey NP; Huy Keavuth/WWF; Northern Annamites: Nakai-Nam Theun NPA; W.G. Robichaud/J. Johnson/WMPA; eastern Cambodian lowlands; Huy Keavuth/WWF) have either been of unidentifiable chevrotains or more commonly have certainly been of <em>T. kanchil</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). The same appears to be true of photos from camera-traps from Siema Biodiversity Conservation Area in eastern Cambodia (J. Walston pers. comm. 2005 to R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>T. versicolor</em> would be difficult to separate confidently from <em>T. kanchil</em> especially under field conditions and this is so even on photographs. Thus, building knowledge on the species is likely to prove difficult and time consuming (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Distinguishing characters were discussed by Meijaard and Groves (2004a) and by Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004). The latter, admittedly on the basis of a single specimen which, lacking a skull, could not be aged, confirmed the pelage pattern differences described in the earlier source, but suspected that <em>T. versicolor</em> might be smaller than sympatric <em>T. kanchil</em>, rather than consistently larger.	eng
136360	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Speculation on habitat and altitudinal preferences are complicated by the diverse range of habitats (from deciduous to evergreen) and the abrupt changes in altitudinal range (sea-level to 500 m asl) in the two localities for which evidence of presence comes (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008), taking Nhatrang as a true locality. The 1990 specimen came from an area from where 24 specimens of <em>T. kanchil</em> were collected during 1980–1993, indicating sympatry, although records are not located precisely enough to speculate on actual syntopy (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004).	eng
136360	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	There is no meaningful way of estimating population levels or trends. The paucity of records of the species cannot be taken as evidence of real rarity because of the likelihood that records of the species have in the past been mistakenly identified as <em>T. kanchil</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Kuznetzov and Borissenko (2004) stated that the specimen they identified as <em>T. versicolor</em> in 2004 had been noted at time of collection (1990) as oddly coloured, and that none of the other 24 chevrotains examined in the Buon Luoi area in the 1978–1993 period were similar. Also, the same team’s investigations further south on the Tay Nguyen plateau were quite extensive, and encountered and collected many chevrotains without any other specimens of <em>T. versicolor</em> having come to light in the Russian collections (Viet Namese ones have apparently not been checked). Retrospective statements without the specimens to hand can only be provisional and moreover even if the low ratio around Buon Luoi is genuine, this might simply reflect suboptimal habitat for the species at that site (e.g. through altitude, humidity, underlying geology). It cannot be taken as indicating that <em>T. versicolor</em> is generally rare across its range. It is impossible to determine whether <em>T. versicolor</em> is genuinely specialised to certain habitat types within a restricted range, or a common species (perhaps even the predominant chevrotain species) over wide areas of southern Indochina from where there is very little information on <em>Tragulus</em> rigorously identified to species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136360	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Threats to the species are little more than speculation. The forests of Viet Nam are subject to very high levels of indiscriminate hunting especially snaring for small game such as chevrotains and civets (Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Timmins <em>et al.</em> 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) and specifically this is so around Buon Luoi (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). In general, hunting pressure may be somewhat lower in southern regions of the country although this region is less well known when compared with the northern Annamites and the northern parts of the Central Annamites (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Whether this species would be able to cope with high hunting levels is not yet debatable as there are no relevant data, but some congeners persist in the face of very heavy hunting, even in fragmented and degraded landscapes (see 2008 Red List accounts of other Tragulus). Declines in <em>T. versicolor</em> are very likely to have happened to some extent, because even the most resilient ground-dwelling species in chevrotain size-class occur in unnaturally low densities in most forest areas of Viet Nam (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1999; Timmins and Trinh Viet Cuong 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Spotlight surveys in protected areas around Buon Luoi totalling 100 hours in about year 2003 found no chevrotains (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004), but the significance of this is unclear, as chevrotains are absent or exceptionally rare in various Lao forests whence they cannot plausibly have been eradicated, given their persistence in other more heavily hunted and degraded areas (see 2008 account for <em>T. kanchil</em>). Hunting patterns are similar in Lao PDR and Cambodia, which may also be found to support the species, although the intensity and severity of hunting is generally less than in Viet Nam, but on the increase (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and fragmentation may also be threats, depending on how well the species persists in such areas. These processes occur widely in the species' known range and throughout its plausible range. Habitat conversion is more likely to reduce or eliminate populations where it occurs, although there is no evidence of whether <em>T. versicolor</em> can use plantation crop landscapes. By the mid 1990s the area around Buon Luoi had been completely deforested and converted to agriculture (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). Although protected areas remain in the general region, all are being logged and heavily hunted (Kuznetzov and Borissenko 2004). No information is available on the current status of the habitat whence came the original material, because this is not known precisely.	eng
136361	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed because this species has a restricted range and low density, making it vulnerable to various threats.	eng
136361	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs in San Luis Potosi and south-east Zacatecas (Mexico) (Patton 2005).  It is found from 1,600 to 2,400 m asl (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136361	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is exclusively found in xerophilius shrub (Ceballos and Oliva 2005), and can be found on the desert plains. It occurs along rocky cutbanks and along old stone walls. It is less restricted to areas of soft soil. It is nocturnal, emerging from burrows at the bases of desert plants or crevices in rock cliffs or rocks walls, one hour after dark and rarely straying far from cover.<br/><br/>Food consists of the seeds of prickly pear cactus (<em>Opuntia</em>). The fruits may be opened and partially eaten, presumably by birds, and seeds falling to the ground are gathered by lined pocket mice (Best 1993). However, <em>C. lineatus</em> apparently does not feed on the red pulp of the cactus fruit (Dalquest 1953).	eng
136361	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species occurs at low densities (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136361	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E., 2008	The combination of restricted distribution and low density could make this species to vulnerable to habitat change or other threats.	eng
136362	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	The species is found in Timboong Hibok-Hibok Natural Monument (L. Heaney pers. comm.). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136362	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is found so far only on Camiguin Island, Philippines, in the Bohol Sea (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006) is likely to be restricted to this island (L. Heaney pers. comm.). It is found from the central highlands of the island, the only location of surveys where it has been documented from 1,000-1,400 m (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136362	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	The species was caught in disturbed lowland forest and primary montane and mossy forest (Heaney and Tabaranza 2006). Some surveys in lowland, heavily disturbed agricultural areas did not find any records (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006). The known area is very steep, cold and wet (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
136362	population	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is moderately to very common in known elevations (Heaney and Tabaranza 1997; Heaney and Tabaranza 2006).	eng
136362	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	The region is under threat from both commercial and local logging; almost all of the lowland forest is gone, although there is some forest left in highlands (L. Heaney pers. comm.). The farmers at 600-800 m, and up to 1,000 m have been moving away from farmlands due to poor soils, and for tourism jobs on the coast of island.	eng
136363	conservation	Velazco, P. & Pineda, W., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
136363	distribution	Velazco, P. & Pineda, W., 2008	Northern Mexico including Baja California south to Panama (Davalos and Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136363	habitat	Velazco, P. & Pineda, W., 2008	These bats are generally found in dry and semi-deciduous forest and secondary growth forests, and are occasionaly found in evergreen forest. They can be found at elevations up to 2,400 m, but are usually found around 300 m. They roost in moist caves. (Reid 1997). Little is known about mating systems in this family (Reid 1997). In El Salvador and Mexico, <em>N. stramineus</em> is reported to breed during the dry season. In Mexico and Central America, pregnant females have been found from January through July, and gestation is thought to last 8 to 10 months. Females are thought to be monoestrus, and to have slow development of the fetus. A single offspring is produced annually, weighing almost half of the adult mass, or about 2.1 g (Nowak 1999). During the breeding season, the sexes apparently segregate, so that males and females roost separately. (Nowak 1999, Reid 1997). Groups of Mexican funnel-eared bats leave the roost approximately 30 minutes after sunset to feed on small, flying insects (Reid 1997).	eng
136363	population	Velazco, P. & Pineda, W., 2008	This species generally roosts in deep, moist caves. These bats are typically found in groups of up to 300 bats in one colony. While roosting in the caves, the individuals are spaced out widely in the dark caverns. Most flight occurs at understory level, with great speed and agility in dipping, twisting, and dodging the vegetation. These bats are most active within 2 hours after sunset. As the evening progresses, the bats may use nighttime refugia which differ from their normal daily roosting location. Northern populations will sometimes migrate, causing colony size to vary considerably (Reid 1997).	eng
136363	threats	Velazco, P. & Pineda, W., 2008	Cave issues, like mining and tourism.	eng
136364	conservation	Pacheco, V., Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species has not been recorded from a protected area. There is only one protected area between the two localities in the known habitat, Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136364	distribution	Pacheco, V., Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is known only from the Chanchamayo Valley of Peru (Gardner, 2007). The type locality of this species is Utcuyacu, between Tarma and Chanchamayo, Junin (11°12'S, 75°28'W, 1463 m) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Also, there may be an additional record from Huanuco Department, central Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 1,460 m up to 2,200 m (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136364	habitat	Pacheco, V., Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is found only in primary montane forest. Other ecological aspects are unknown (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136364	population	Pacheco, V., Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species is known only from the holotype and one additional individual (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136364	threats	Pacheco, V., Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is agricultural expansion in the area, mainly subsistence agriculture. In the lower elevation, there are illicit (coca) crops which may expand further (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136365	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It presumably occurs in several protected areas in China. This species has been recently recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136365	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs mainly in China, where it has been recorded from Gansu, Hubei and a large part of southwestern Yunnan (Smith <em>et al</em> 2008; Smith and Xie 2008). It also extends into northern Viet Nam, where it has recently been recorded from Mount Tay Con Linh II (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It might occur more widely, possibly even in northern Lao PDR and Myanmar.	eng
136365	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is believed to occur mainly in forested habitats. Specimens from Viet Nam were collected in bamboo forest between 1,500-1,700 m elevation (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136365	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136365	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then it might be impacted by forest loss in some parts of its range.	eng
136366	conservation	Wallace, R.B., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>El Rey National Park Province of Salta (44,162 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/>Calilegua National Park, Province of Jujuy (76,000 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/>Baritú National Park Province of Jujuy (72,000 ha) (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1986; Brown 1989)<br/><br/>Bolivia<br/>Noel Kempff Mercado Natonal Park (1,500,000 ha) (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1998)<br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Pantanal Matogrossense National Park (136,046 ha) (in range)<br/>Serra da Bodoquena National Park (77,232 ha) (in range)<br/>Acurizal Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Penha Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Boqueirão Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Singapura Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda América Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Trevo Private Reserve (RPPN)<br/>Fazenda Floresta Negra Private reserve (RPPN)<br/><br/>Paraguay<br/>Ybicui National Park (5,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Cerro Cora National Park (5,500 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Caaguazu National Park (6,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Kuri y National reserve (2,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Yakui Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/>Nacunday Protected Forest (1,000 ha) (Stallings 1985)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136366	distribution	Wallace, R.B., 2008	The distribution of <em>C. a. paraguayanus</em> (here referred to as <em>C. cay</em>) is described by Cabrera (1957) as the south of the state of Mato Grosso (now the states of Mato Grosso and Mato do Grosso do Sul) and extreme south-east of Goiás, Brazil, through Paraguay, to south-east Bolivia, to northern Argentina, including the provinces of extreme south-east Jujuy, Salta, Formosa, and Chaco (Mantecon <em>et al</em>. 1984; Brown 1989). In Paraguay, <em>C. cay</em> occurs to the east of the Río Paraguai (Hill 1960; Stallings 1985, 1989). Capuchin monkeys are not found in the chaco region of the Provinces of Formosa and Chaco in northern Argentina. So the distribution of <em>C. cay</em> forms a horseshoe shape, bordering the xerophytic chaco of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay (Brown and Rumiz 1986). In the west, the limits are defined by the Andes in Argentina and Bolivia, and in the east it is confined to eastern Paraguay, east of the Rio Paraguai. Probably its southernmost limit in the east is defined by the confluence of the Rios Paraguai and Paraná, about 27º15’S.	eng
136366	habitat	Wallace, R.B., 2008	This is a subtropical humid and semi-deciduous forest species, ranging into the Yungas, the dry deciduous forests of northern Bolivian Chaco, eastern Paragiuay (not recorded in the Paraguayan chaco; Stallings 1985, 1989), and the Pantanal. It is an adaptable species that also occurs in degraded habitats.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers. Stallings (1985) recorded an average size of seven for four groups in the Ybicui National Park: population density there was estimated 4 groups/km² or 28 individuals/km². Wallace <em>et al</em>. (1998) recorded an average group size of nine (n=47, SD±5.7, range 1-25) and estimated a population density of 14.1 individuals/km² in the Noel Kempff Mercado Natonal Park in Bolivia. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>Adult male 1.35-4.8 kg (mean 3.05 kg); adult female: 1.76-3.4 kg (mean 2.4 kg) (Jack 2007).	eng
136366	population	Wallace, R.B., 2008	There is no information on population densities available.	eng
136366	threats	Wallace, R.B., 2008	There are no major threats. It is hunted for subsistence purposes in some of its range, but human population density is typically low in those areas. Hunting (by Indigenous peoples) and forest loss are the main threats in eastern Paraguay (Stallings 1985). As elsewhere in its range, in Paraguay, <em>Cebus cay</em> is the most common primate pet.	eng
136367	conservation	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no protected areas within its range. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.	eng
136367	distribution	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known from the Sierra de Famatina in Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Its range is thought to extend to eastern San Juan Province, in Argentina (Cabrera, 1961), possibly in Sierra del Valle Fertil and/or Sierra Pie de Palo (Braun and Mares 2002).	eng
136367	habitat	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species inhabits rocky outcrops in grasslands (Thomas, 1920) at elevations over 3,800 m asl.	eng
136367	population	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136367	threats	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
136368	conservation	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas in its range.	eng
136368	distribution	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cerrado of Matto Grosso do Sul to Goiás and west Minas Gerais, central Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).	eng
136368	habitat	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is tolerant to habitat modification including agricultural areas (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).	eng
136368	population	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is very common (Langguth and Bonvicino, 2002).	eng
136368	threats	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Threats to some populations include agricultural expansion, cattle, and soybeans.	eng
136369	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Andohahela National Park, the Ste. Luce Private Reserve, and in the Mandena Conservation Zone (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further studies are required to determine the exact distribution range of this species.	eng
136369	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Restricted to the reserve of Andohahela and the area of Sainte Luce in south-eastern Madagascar (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
136369	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.	eng
136369	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136369	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136370	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136370	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Southern Cordoba and southern San Luis Provinces, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It no longer occurs near the type locality of La Carlota, Cordoba Province (Tiranti <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136370	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Historically, this species natural habitat was Pampas.	eng
136370	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is naturally rare (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136370	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The major threat to this species is habitat loss to conversion to agriculture.	eng
136371	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent can be found within Caparao National Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136371	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Minas Gerais, and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro States, between 1,300-2,700 m, southeastern Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136371	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest and humid montane forest and scrub areas.	eng
136371	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is known from very few specimens, the first being described in 1998 (Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136371	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
136372	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is listed as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It has not been recorded from protected areas although it could occur in Brahmagiri and Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuaries in Coorg, Karnataka. Distribution, ecological and population studies are recommended (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
136372	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern Western Ghats, especially the Nilgiris (Musser and Carleton 2005) and the Coorg Western Ghats of Brahmagiri and Pushpagiri areas (S. Molur pers. comm.). It ranges from 900 to 2,100 m asl and is restricted in its extent of occurrence to less than 5,000 sq km. and its area of occupancy to less than 500 sq km. based on available undisturbed montane habitats. Specimens of <em>Vandeleuria</em> in central northern Coorg match the descriptions of <em>V. nilagirica</em>, while those in the south and southeast in the low lying areas are <em>V. oleracea</em>. Specimens from Raigad district of Maharashtra and foothills of the Nilgiris in Anaikatty near Coimbatore are <em>V. oleracea</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
136372	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is seen in evergreen montane forests and relatively undisturbed plantations of coffee, banana and cardamom with native canopy (S. Molur pers. comm.). It builds spherical to oval shaped nests of grass and leaves in forks of trees or on coffee. It is usually found nesting in pairs in the months of October to February. Once the young mature, the family abandons the nests and seek shelter in tree holes and shallow nests high up in trees (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
136372	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Very patchy in distribution, the only good population (inferred from the number of active nests) was seen in a relatively undisturbed coffee plantation close to a forest fragment in Haleri, Coorg (S. Molur pers. comm.)	eng
136372	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Human disturbance, use of pesticides and exotic trees are found to be major threats to this species (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
136373	conservation	Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Field studies are needed to determine important roosting and foraging sites for this species. It does not appear to be present in any protected areas.	eng
136373	distribution	Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2009	This species has been recorded from the islands of Mioko, New Britain, New Ireland, Sakar, Duke of York, and Umboi in the Bismarck Achipelago of Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995, Bonaccorso 1998). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,200 m asl. Records from the main island of New Guinea are likely vagrants.	eng
136373	habitat	Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2009	Animals have been recorded in lowland and hill forests, secondary forest, plantations, logged forest, and in gardens at the forest edge. It is also found on coconut plantations (feeding on coconut flowers). It roosts in vegetation (Flannery 1995, Bonaccorso 1998). Presumably females give birth to a single young. There is male lactation in this species. Lifespan averages 8–10 years and reaches maturity at 1–2 years of age.	eng
136373	population	Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2009	This cryptic species is distributed at low densities over a wide range.	eng
136373	threats	Hamilton, S., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2009	The species is threatened by intensive logging activities on New Britain and New Ireland Islands. The species is probably highly threatened through the clearing of land for oil palm plantations and the subsequent loss of roost sites. Logging is most pervasive at low elevations within this species' range (for estimates of forest cover loss on New Britain for the period of 1989–2000, see Buchanan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
136374	conservation	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	May be present in some protected areas.	eng
136374	distribution	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the Bismarck Archipelago and Admiralty Group of Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). It has been recorded from the following provinces: East New Britain, Manus, Medang Province, Morobe Province (Umboi), New Ireland, West New Britain (Bonaccorso 1998), and Northern Solomons (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It ranges from sea level up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
136374	habitat	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	This species lives in colonies which roost in tree hollows, caves, and man-made tunnels. It feeds on canopy and subcanopy fruits (Bonaccorso 1998; Flannery 1995). Found in many habitats, including human dominated environments. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
136374	population	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	It is a common species that may have increased in abundance with development, because it feeds in agricultural areas.	eng
136374	threats	Helgen, K., Allison, A., Bonaccorso, F. & Hamilton, S., 2008	Local populations are vulnerable to the disturbance of caves and overhunting.	eng
136375	conservation	Passamani, M., Brito, D., de la Sancha, N. & Solari, S., 2008	Found in a number of protected areas.	eng
136375	distribution	Passamani, M., Brito, D., de la Sancha, N. & Solari, S., 2008	This species occurs from eastern Brazil south to Paraguay and into Argentina (Gardner 2007).	eng
136375	habitat	Passamani, M., Brito, D., de la Sancha, N. & Solari, S., 2008	Probably similar to <em>Philander opossum</em>. Found in lowland evergreen rainforest.	eng
136375	population	Passamani, M., Brito, D., de la Sancha, N. & Solari, S., 2008	Locally abundant (M. Passamani and D. Brito pers. comm.).	eng
136375	threats	Passamani, M., Brito, D., de la Sancha, N. & Solari, S., 2008	No major threats are known (D. Brito pers. comm.).	eng
136376	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not known from any protected areas. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136376	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found between the Betsiboka and Mahavavy du Sud Rivers in western Madagascar. The southern extent of the range across the Mahavavy du Sud River is unknown (Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136376	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
136376	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136376	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but presumably habitat loss is a threat.	eng
136377	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Studies into the apparent loss of populations at some localities are needed.	eng
136377	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is found in the mountains of northern and northeastern Iran (from southern foothills of Elburz Mountains in Semnan Province near Semnan and adjacent Sang-i-sar eastward through northern Khorasan Province in northeastern Iran to the Mashhad region), southwestern and southern Turkmenistan (from Little Balkhan Mountain east through the Kopet Dag Mountains to east of the Tedzhen River), and northwest Afghanistan (Herat Province). (Lebedev <em>et al.</em> 1998; Musser and Carleton 2005; Norris <em>et al</em>. 2008). Southern and eastern borders of the range are unresolved.	eng
136377	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Little is known about its ecology, what is known is from Iran where the species is found in barren, dry and rocky mountain sides with little vegetation. It nests in concealed rock crevices, individuals frequently share favourable shelter sites and feeds on Bromus grasses. It does not seem to be as exclusively nocturnal, during the summer months it is active only during the hours of darkness, but in autumn and winter it can be seen foraging by day. The breeding season is long with early pregnancy observed from October to November, two litters per year is usual.	eng
136377	population	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	Information on the status is conflicting, some report the species to be abundant, whilst anecdotal information from field workers suggests the species is rarely encountered and may be approaching extinction at some localities.	eng
136377	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
136378	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas, but these are rapidly becoming isolated. The species is not well protected in Ecuador.	eng
136378	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in northwest Peru and western Ecuador. The species may also occur in northwest Colombia, however, there are no records (Velazco pers. comm.).	eng
136378	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in moist forests on the west of the Andes. 50-680 m asl (Velazco pers com).	eng
136378	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Not abundant (Velazco pers com)..	eng
136378	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Habitat destruction and increasing human settlements (Velazco pers. com)..	eng
136379	conservation	Lumsden, L. & Schulz, M., 2008	On Christmas Island, there were a number of survey for this species s in the 1980s and 1990s. Further surveys appropriate to the problems of the island (destruction of traps by Coconut Crabs) are needed. If populations are found, there is a need for investigation of the taxonomic status, and - dependent on results of this - a captive insurance colony and other <em>in-situ</em> conservation measures. <br/><br/>There is a Recovery Plan for this species (Schulz 2002), which outlines the following needed actions: investigate the taxonomic status of the shrew; investigate current status and distribution; develop wildlife management program for potential habitat outside the Christmas Island National Park; control abundance and spread of the yellow crazy ant; implement a community awareness programme; establish a captive breeding population; implement effective management of any remaining wild populations; identify and describe critical habitat; and identify threatening processes. This Recovery Plan also outlines the following Management Practices: "No removal of primary plateau rainforest within Christmas Island National Park; implementation of the Invasive Ants on Christmas Island Action Plan; ensure tight quarantine controls to prevent accidental introductions of new diseases and exotic pests; implement feral cat and black rat control programmes within primary plateau and terrace rainforest; and maintainenance of existing habitat quality or primary rainforest through strategies to minimize spread of exotic weeds following the Weed Management Strategy".	eng
136379	distribution	Lumsden, L. & Schulz, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Christmas Island (Australia).	eng
136379	habitat	Lumsden, L. & Schulz, M., 2008	The most recent records are from tall plateau rainforest in deep soils, and terrace rainforest with shallow soils (Schulz 2002). It is not known whether or not this species can tolerate secondary growth, but there appear to be no records around human settlements on the island (Schulz 2002). It was recorded using holes in rocks and roots of trees as shelter, and foraging predominantly on small beetles (Andrews 1900).	eng
136379	population	Lumsden, L. & Schulz, M., 2008	<em>C. trichura</em> was common in 1900 (Andrews 1900) but already rare in 1909 (Andrews 1909). The most recent specimens (two animals) were found in 1985. Several unconfirmed reports occurred between 1996 and 1998 but a survey undertaken in 2000 to determine the status of the shrew were not successful in finding any individuals (Meek 2000). <em>C. trichura</em> formed part of the endemic mammal fauna of the Christmas Island, along with <em>Rattus nativitatis</em> and <em>R. macleari</em>, both of which are now extinct (Meek 2000). It is possible that <em>C. trichura</em> is also now extinct.	eng
136379	threats	Lumsden, L. & Schulz, M., 2008	The reasons for the reduction of the population on Christmas Island are unknown. Schulz (2002) lists the following potential threats in the Recovery Plan for this species: disease; the introduced yellow crazy ant (<em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>) which is a dangerous threat for many terrestrial animals on Christmas Island; habitat loss; habitat alteration (in part through the spread of invasive weeds); predation by both introduced and natural predators (including cats and black rats); small population size; and mortality due to road traffic.	eng
136380	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Some populations are protected within the Welder Wildlife Refuge of Texas.	eng
136380	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is known from Brazos River in south-central Texas (Milam and Burleson counties) south along the west bank of the Brazos River to the Gulf Coast (Matagorda County), southwest along the coast beyond Rockport (Aransas and San Patricio counties), and northwestward to Atacosa County (Williams and Cameron 1991).	eng
136380	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	They are found in sandy soils of bunchgrass and annual forb community (Williams and Cameron 1984, Cameron <em>et al.</em> 1988), they also occur in silty clay loam soils and in habitat dominated by annual plants. They are fossorial, rarely occurring above ground. The diet is generalized and is composed mainly of grasses and forbs, of which they take above and below ground portions in equal amounts. Breeding occurs between October and June with females giving birth to an average of two young per litter and may have more than one litter per season. The burrows of this pocket gopher do not follow the linear patterns of similar species, but instead are convoluted, often criss-crossing an area.<br/><br/>Radio telemetry indicated activity throughout day in May, but they spent more than 60% of the day in nest area (Cameron <em>et al</em>. 1988). Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988).	eng
136380	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	Attwater's pocket gopher is common within its range (NatureServe). Population densities can range from 11 to 43 individuals per hectare (Williams and Cameron 1991).	eng
136380	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range. It is often viewed as a pest species. Gophers eat crops, their burrows lessen soil stability and the mounds of soil created at the openings of burrows destroy underlying vegetation. Because of this they are often targets of trapping and rodenticide.	eng
136381	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
136381	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was endemic to Cuba.	eng
136381	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	An insectivorous species.	eng
136381	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known from recent fossil deposits suggesting that they persisted until the modern era and their extinction followed the arrival of European settlers.	eng
136381	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Introduced rats are the most probable reason for the extinction of this species. Fossil deposits of this species have been found with rat fossils.	eng
136382	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	This species has been recently recorded from Mounnt Tay Con Linh II Proposed Nature Reserve in northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136382	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	This species is found on Hainan Island (China). It is also known from Mount Tay Con Linh II, Ha Giang Province, northern Viet Nam (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003). The exact limits of species' distribution are unknown, and it is expected to occur more widely.	eng
136382	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Specimens have been captured in forests between 1,300-1,500 m asl (Lunde <em>et al</em>. 2003).  It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136382	population	Lunde, D., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136382	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on forest, then threats are likely to include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture, timber extraction and human settlement.	eng
136383	conservation	Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Sandro Lovari, 2006	It is listed (as <em>Capra aegagrus</em>) on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive (natural populations only). <br/><br/>On Crete it is fully protected under national law, which is well enforced. Part of the agrimi's distribution on Crete falls within Samaria (Lefka Ori or White Mountains) National Park. There are no current management plans in operation other then an attempt to control poaching. Agrimi inhabiting Theodorou island also receive protection. Shackleton (1997) proposes the following measures for agrimi on Crete: 1) Establish a strict control program to eliminate feral goats inside Samaria National Park to remove the threat of hybridization with the agrimi. Only reducing or eliminating the herds of domestic goats from the surrounding areas will prevent their immigration into the Park. 2) Continue improving the control of poaching by regularly patrolling the Park during winter, and by allowing no further increases in access. 3) Impose greater controls on tourism developments in the Park. These should include banning the development of major tourist facilities (chair/ski lifts, hotels, restaurants, roads, etc.) in the mountain regions of the Park and its surroundings, and strictly controlling visitor use (e.g. specific hours of use enforced, no overnight use of the Park). 4) The population should be censused and the area surveyed regularly throughout the Lefka mountains, paying special attention to the degree of hybridisation and human encroachment. 5) Overall, it may be desirable to eradicate domestic x wild goat hybrids, unfortunately F1 hybrids are difficult to distinguish from agrimi in either external appearance or behaviour. (However, compared to agrimi, the hybrid' s coat appears to be slightly longer and interspersed with black hairs, the horns are curved outwards a little more and are more robust, and the resting tail is held more horizontal than downwards.) 6) Determine the degree of hybridization of the goats found on the various islands to help direct conservation management decisions. <br/><br/>On Majorca, the wild goat has been studied since 2001 and several groups have been protected in fenced areas and captive-bred (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).  Palomo and Gisbert (2002) recommended that selective hunting should be used to remove the hybrids from the population. Since 2006, hunting of pure-bred animals has been banned (Decret 91/2006, Balearic Government) but hunting of hybrids amd recent feral domestics goats is allowed and encouraged. Trophy hunting of Mallorcan wild goats will be allowed again once populations have reached target levels stated in Decret 91/2006. To prevent poaching, capturing alive animals for trade, and illegal hunting of hybrids for commercial purposes, the Balearic Government is collaborating with SCI and Junta Nacional de Homologación de Trofeos de Caza, MMAM, Spanish Government (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136383	distribution	Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Sandro Lovari, 2006	This Red List assessment refers to populations of <em>Capra hircus</em> that were introduced to Mediterranean islands  in prehistoric times, known as Cretan or Majorcan "wild" goats, or as agrimi (Cretan populations only). These feral descendants of primitive domestic stock are clearly distinct from modern domestic and feral goats, and are of conservation interest as "living fossils" and repositories of important genetic diversity (Shackleton 1997). More recent feral populations are not considered here; neither are domestic <em>Capra hircus</em>.<br/><br/>"Wild" goats can be found in mountainous areas in northern and western Majorca (Spain), and on Crete (Greece) where they were formerly widespread but are now restricted to an area of approximately 72 km<sup>2</sup> in the Lefka Mountains at the western end of the island. There is a small, semi-captive population on the small (68 ha) satellite island of Theodorou (Shackleton 1997, Palomo and Gisbert 2002). Populations on the Greek islands of Dia, Agii Pantes (Agii Apostoli), Erimomilos (Antimilos), Samothrake, Gioura and others, are all considered hybrids of "wild" and modern domestic or feral goats (Shackleton 1997), as are populations in the Czech Republic (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999). There are genetic and morphological differences between the Cretan and Majorcan populations (Seguí 2005). The species occurs from sea level to 1,450 m (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
136383	habitat	Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Sandro Lovari, 2006	Agrimi inhabit mountainous areas, where there is a mixture of rocky outcrops or scree slopes and vegetation (shrubby maquis thickets or conifer forests). They tend to be found in relatively arid habitats, and are herbivorous, feeding on grasses, herbaceous plants and shrubs (Pedrotti and Lovari 1999).	eng
136383	population	Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Sandro Lovari, 2006	The 1985 Cretan population was estimated to be around 500 agrimi, and together with those on Theodorou island, make a total population of at least 570 to 600 agrimi in Europe at that point (Shackleton 1997). More recent population estimates vary widely, but some are as large as 2,000 individuals (G. Giannatos pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at high densities in at least parts of its range on Crete, although its total range is very small. In 1998 a census of Majorca found 20,000 individuals (Palomo and Gisbert 2002), although this included hybrids and feral domestic goats (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007). The current (2007) estimate of the Majorcan wild goat population is 1,500-2,000 individuals, out of a total of 10,000 including hybrids and feral descendants of modern domestic goats (B. Seguí pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136383	threats	Giorgos Giannatos, Juan Herrero, Sandro Lovari, 2006	For the Cretan population, the greatest threat is hybridization with recently feral domestic goats that are common even within Samaria National Park. Other problems arise from increased road accessibility, which in turn increases tourism and poaching problems. In Majorca, hybridization with feral domestic goats is again the main threat (Palomo and Gisbert 2002).	eng
136384	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This species is reported to occur in two national parks (Andohahela and Midongy du Sud); this is also probably the species in Kalambatritra. Additional survey work is needed to establish the precise range of this species (especially relative to <em>H. griseus</em> to the north) and obtain additional info on biology and ecology.	eng
136384	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar and is the southernmost of the bamboo lemurs. The type locality is the forestry station of Mandena, located approximately 10 km north of Tolagnaro in far southern Madagascar (Warter and Tattersall 1994). The precise range is a little unclear, but it ranges at least from Andohahela north to the Mananara River. Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> (2007) noted that an animal from Atsimo appeared to be a heterozygote between this species and <em>H. griseus</em>. Upper elevation limit unclear as animals from 1,600 m on the Andringitra Massif are now either <em>H. meridionalis</em> or hybrids between <em>H. griseus</em> and <em>H. meridionalis</em>).	eng
136384	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The behaviour and ecology of this species are poorly known. It was first found in degraded littoral forests dominated by <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> and <em>Pandanus</em> spp., which at the most contained only patchy stands of bamboo. It is believed to be diurnal and to live in relatively small groups (Mutschler and Tan 2003).	eng
136384	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136384	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The principal threat is habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture (for growing Cannabis), illegal timber extraction, charcoal production, and for mining of titanium. Hunting is also a threat.	eng
136385	conservation	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The Asian badger is listed as Critically Endangered under criteria A2cd on the Chinese Red List (China Species Information Service 2007). The China Red List regards <em>M. leucurus</em> as occurring only in Tibet while the populations elsewhere in the country are treated as <em>M. meles</em> and are Near Threatened. According to Wozencraft (2005), only <em>M. leucurus</em> occurs in China and hence the existing Red Listing cannot be correct. Further studies are required to clarify this situation and accurately assess threat status in the region. The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136385	distribution	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The Asian badger is found in Russia (from the Volga River through Siberia) through Middle Asia, Mongolia, China, to DPR Korea and Republic of Korea (Wozencraft 2005). The boundary between distribution ranges of European <em>M. meles</em> and Asian badger <em>M. leucurus</em> is the Volga River (up to the Middle Volga). <em>M. meles</em> is distributed west of the Volga River, while <em>M. leucurus</em> is distributed from the Volga River to the east. The only locality of Asian badger distribution on the right bank of Volga River is the Zhiguli Nature Reserve (Abramov and Vekhnik, 2003). The Asian badger is widely distributed in the Urals and area easttward of the Ural Mountains. The sympatric zone between two badger species is country between the upper Volga and Kama rivers (Abramov <em>et al</em>., 2003). Corbet and Hill (1992) mapped occurrence into northern Lao PDR, but there is no evidence for it occurring there (Duckworth 1997) and this is assumed to have been in error. The species is found from sea level to 2,500 m in Tian Shen Mountains, potentially higher in Tibetian Plateau up to over 4,000 m.	eng
136385	habitat	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The Asian badger is similar to the European badger. It prefers deciduous woods with clearings, or open pastureland with small patches of woodland, but is also found in mixed and coniferous woodland, scrub, suburban areas, steppe and semi-deserts. <br/><br/>This species is an opportunistic forager with an omnivorous diet, including fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns, and cereal crops. It also consumes a variety of invertebrates (especially earthworms), wasp and bee nests, birds' eggs, carrion, and live vertebrate prey such as mice, voles, hedgehogs and mole. In the northern parts of its range the species hibernates during the winter months.	eng
136385	population	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The Asian badger is widespread and common.	eng
136385	threats	Abramov, A. & Wozencraft, C., 2008	The Asian badger is hunted legally in China, Russia and Mongolia, as well as illegally within protected areas in China. There is an established hunting season in Russia, usually from August to November; the hunting is limited and licensed (Abramov pers. comm. 2006)	eng
136386	conservation	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Research actions, found in protected areas (Mancina pers. comm.).	eng
136386	distribution	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136386	habitat	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136386	population	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Rare. Poorly known (Mancina pers. comm.)	eng
136386	threats	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136387	conservation	Wiles, G., 2008	This species is known from a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Studies are needed to determine the species' status/abundance, population trends, exploitation levels, ability to withstand habitat degradation, and taxonomic standing. Wiles <em>et al.</em> (1997) recommended a hunting ban within 100 m of bat roosts, further enforcement of a ban of firearms, and the consideration of three sites as potential protected areas, including: Ngeream Island and another unnamed island to the south-east in Airai State, the Rock Islands, and the area along the border between Melekeok and Ngiwal States in central Babeldaob Island.	eng
136387	distribution	Wiles, G., 2008	This species is endemic to Palau. It is widespread in the main islands of Palau, but is also present on nearby Kayangel Atoll and on the more distant islands of Sonsorol and Fanna. It is known from sea level to 213 m asl. (the highest point in the islands).	eng
136387	habitat	Wiles, G., 2008	Palau flying-fox can be found in a range of habitats, but they appear to prefer tropical moist forest and swamp forest. Although they can be regularly seen feeding in villages and farms, they do not roost near human settlement. Likewise, they inhabit savannas and mangroves, but are less numerous here than in their preferred habitats. Mangrove use is also likely to be seasonal with the bats heavily using these areas when <em>Sonneratia alba</em> is in bloom (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>Most of the population appears to roost solitarily or in small groups. Colonies are uncommon, usually containing 30-200 animals (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997). There may be a few colonies that number into the thousands, but this is unproven, and unlike <em>P. mariannus</em>, is probably rare. Palau flying-fox also has the unusual tendency to form regular colonies for only a few hours in the early morning. Females are thought to give birth annually to a single young.	eng
136387	population	Wiles, G., 2008	Two studies of its abundance in Palau were conducted using point counts from April to May 1991 (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997) and from April to May 2005 (G. Wiles, unpublished data). Both studies were inconclusive about total numbers, but provided baseline encounter rates that could, and should, be repeated in the future to determine population trends. Data from 2005 have not yet been analyzed, but bats were common in many locations. Numbers appeared to have increased since 1991. Prior to the early 1990s the species had gone through a large decline due to commercial exploitation with thousands of bats being exported annually to markets in Guam and the Northern Marianas. In the 1940s the species was considered abundant (Marshall 1945, as reported in Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997), but by the 1970s numbers were starting to decline (Owen 1977), and at some point in the 1980s this trend reversed itself with less bats being exported (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
136387	threats	Wiles, G., 2008	The major threat to this species has always been over-exploitation, primarily for commercial trade outside of Palau, but also for local use (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997). Hunting for commercial export ended in 1994, but considerable hunting for local consumption continues (G. Wiles, unpublished data).<br/><br/>Deforestation and development, particularly of roads of the largest island of Babeldaob, were identified as future threats in the 1990s (Wiles <em>et al.</em> 1997), and these threats are present today (Hinchley <em>et al.</em> 2007). Additionally, large typhoons, while uncommon in Palau, are a potential threat not only because of the direct loss of bats these storms can inflict, or even the loss of habitat, but there is often a sharp increase in hunting of Pacific island Pteropus bats that follows major storm events (e.g., Esselstyn <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136388	conservation	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Balete, D. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The only record is from Mt. Guiting Guiting Mangrove Forest Reserve, however, habitat protection offered by this protected area is minimal. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136388	distribution	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Balete, D. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	This species is known only from its holotype around 1,325 m elevation on Sibuyan island, Philippines (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136388	habitat	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Balete, D. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The holotype was collected in a mossy forest (Goodman and Ingle 1993).	eng
136388	population	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Balete, D. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
136388	threats	Heaney, L., Alviola, P., Balete, D. & Tabaranza, B., 2008	Sibuyan Island is threatened by widespread illegal logging, slash and burn agriculture, especially in the lowlands (P. Alviola pers. comm.), and there is potential for mining in the near future (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
136389	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2010	Part of the distribution is included in the   Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve and Los Tuxtlas Biological Station. According to Cervantes and Guevara (2009),  a specific conservation action plan is needed in order to buffer and eventually halt alterations of the habitat and protect the integrity of the populations of this species.	eng
136389	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2010	Until recently, this species was known only from the type locality; which is on the western slope of the extinct Volcán San Martín Tuxtla in Veracruz, Mexico (Hutterer 2005). It has been recorded from 1,463 m up to the summit of the volcano at 1,650 m asl (Goldman 1951). Recently, it was found at three additional localities in the vicinity of the type locality (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). These localities lie on the south face of the volcano and just to the north west of the nearby Catemaco Lake (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). It has been hypothesized that this shrew probably occurs in suitable habitats throughout that Sierra (Choate1970). However, a recent study on the mammalian diversity of Sierra de Santa Martha, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:place></st1:state> did not record the presence of this species (Gonzalez Christen 2008).	eng
136389	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2010	<p>The habitat reported by Merriam (1895) for the holotype and paratypes was evergreen tropical forest, represented by well-conserved vegetation that consisted of areas covered by layers of volcanic sand and ashes and trees of large size (Choate 1970, Goldman1951). The lower section of its range, from 1,460 to 1,525 m asl, is within dense primary forest; above this elevation it is montane grassland. The vegetation where the recently discovered specimens were obtained was cloud forest. In one of the three localities sampled, at 1,500m, the trees of the canopy were unusually low (Cervantes and Guevara 2009). It is an insectivorous species, feeding exclusively on insects.</p>	eng
136389	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2010	It was considered common when collected by Goldman (1951). One adult male, one male juvenile, and one female adult have been  recently found by Cervantes and colleagues (Cervantes and Guevara 2009).	eng
136389	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2010	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nelsoni</span> is gradually changing or disappearing due to the use of land within the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve. The activities within the reserve frequently involve logging, cattle grazing, induced fires, and crops (Cervantes and Guevara 2009) .  In the area of the type locality, deforestation is as much as 90% and the annual deforestation rate is 6.2% (Dirzo and Garcia 1992).	eng
136390	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It does not occur in any protected areas but it is listed as Endangered in red list of Argentina.	eng
136390	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality at Estancia San Luis, Cordoba Province, above 2,000 m asl in the Sierras Grandes, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136390	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	C. osvaldoreigi occurs in highland grasslands.	eng
136390	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from one very small population (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136390	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Severe fires struck population recently in 2006. Grazing also impacts population (Ojeda, Bidau and Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
136391	conservation	Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No specific measures are known (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136391	conservation	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No specific measures are known (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136391	distribution	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species occurs in northeast to central Armenia, extending north into extreme south central Georgia and west into Turkey. It is elevationally separated from <em>Microtus socialis</em> and is found at higher elevations (above 1,400 m). The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.	eng
136391	distribution	Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	This species occurs in northeast to central Armenia, extending north into extreme south central Georgia and west into Turkey. It is elevationally separated from <em>Microtus socialis</em> and is found at higher elevations (above 1400 m). The distribution map shows the approximate distribution of the species, but that this needs verification.	eng
136391	habitat	Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Inhabit xerophytic steppes and meadow-steppes at altitudes 1400-1700 m. Also found in agricultural fields and fruit and vegetable gardens in that altitude range. Burrows are simple.	eng
136391	habitat	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Inhabit xerophytic steppes and meadow-steppes at altitudes 1400-1700 m. Also found in agricultural fields and fruit and vegetable gardens in that altitude range. Burrows are simple.	eng
136391	population	Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Unknown (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136391	population	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	Unknown (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136391	threats	Shenbrot, G. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136391	threats	Shenbrot, G., Temple, H. & Bukhnikashvili, A., 2008	No major threats (GMA Turkey, 2005).	eng
136392	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The only known individual is from Caraima National Park.	eng
136392	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found only in Bolívar State, Venezuela, near the border with Guyana and is known only from the type locality (Gardner, 2007). The region has been heavily surveyed; however, this remains the only record. There is a possibility that this species is found only in a narrow elevational band on Sierra de Lema (D. Lew pers. comm.). The species could be found in Guyana.	eng
136392	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The individual was found in evergreen montane forest, at around 1,300 m (Gardner, 2007).	eng
136392	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Known only from the holotype.	eng
136392	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There is a major road, power lines, and tourism through the national park that goes through Brazil. There is forest loss in the area from gold and diamond mining, although this is in the lower elevations; there is a steep gradient up the slope, and there is some disturbance into the forest, including fires.	eng
136393	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is known from in or near to four protected areas, but is never as common or as abundant as other sympatric molossid species (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and its conservation status should be reviewed in the future when new data are available. In particular, information on its propensity to dwell in buildings is needed.	eng
136393	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar where it is found from the north-west to the south-west of the island. It is known to occur in areas with dry deciduous or spiny forest from 50 to 870 m above sea level (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although further surveys may reveal that this species is more widespread than currently known, it has yet to be recorded from some sites with extensive limestone caves, from where it would be expected based on habitat preference and distribution (Goodman and Cardiff 2004; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Cardiff 2006).	eng
136393	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	It is usually associated with tropical dry deciduous forest, and the spiny bush of the south-west on a karst and sandstone substrate (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species roosts in caves and houses, and buildings in villages (Goodman and Cardiff 2004). In the extended network of caves at the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, <em>C. jobimena</em> was only found in a single cave (Cardiff 2006).	eng
136393	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The population and local abundance of this species are not known, but at Ankarana the recorded roost is 1,200 individuals (S. G. Cardiff pers. obs.). Forty individuals were recorded from a house roughly 10 km from Parc National de Namoroka (A. F. Kofoky pers. obs.).	eng
136393	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known, but it is probably hunted in the south of Madagascar for food.	eng
136394	conservation	Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	Surveys are required to determine the geographic range of the species on nearby islands as well as its tolerance to habitat disturbance.	eng
136394	distribution	Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from Dinagat island (Heaney and Rabor 1982). It is thought to occupy areas above 300 m. It may be more widespread than its current known range, occurring perhaps on Siargao and Bucas Grande, but surveys are required to determine this (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
136394	habitat	Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in lowland forest at around 350 m (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998). This species is not thought to be tolerant to major habitat disturbance.	eng
136394	population	Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	The species is known only from two specimens collected in 1975, and one individual in 1995 (Musser <em>et al</em>. 1998). There have been no subsequent surveys done specifically for this species, but other surveys in the area in the early 2000s failed to locate any additional individuals (B. Tabaranza pers. comm.).	eng
136394	threats	Tabaranza, B. & Heaney, L., 2008	The population of this geographically restricted species on Dinagat island has been particularly threatened by habitat loss caused by illegal logging since 1995 and more recently (2001-2007) several mining companies have started operating there. The habitat of this species is found within the mining concessions. The local government is also very supportive of the mining companies because of their contribution to the local governments funds.	eng
136395	conservation	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	It is found in many protected areas.	eng
136395	distribution	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is found in the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). In Ecuador, it has an altitudinal range of 2,000 to 3,700 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136395	habitat	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	Species of the genus Didelphis are seen as generalists, having large ranges and high migration rates between populations in comparison with other Neotropical small mammals (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). In Bolivia, there is the potential for crossbreeding between this species and <em>D. albiventris</em> (Lemos and Cerqueira, 2002). It is common in disturbed areas including secondary forest, open lands, agricultural areas, and suburban areas.	eng
136395	population	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	The species seems to be common in appropriate habitat.	eng
136395	threats	Lew, D., Patterson, B., Delgado, C. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no major threats.	eng
136396	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are several protected areas that overlap with this species' range. Research is needed into its population status.	eng
136396	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is endemic to Mexico, where it occurs in southern Hildalgo, the mountains of Puebla, and west-central Veracruz south to Cofre de Perote and Mount Orizaba (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005). It ranges in elevation from about 2,400 m to 4,000 m asl (Hafner <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136396	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species lives in grasslands (sacatonal), and temperate forests of pine and oak.	eng
136396	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There is no population information available for this species, but it is presumed to be common.	eng
136396	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. In many parts of its range, however, habitat is being degraded or lost to expanding agriculture and human settlement.	eng
136397	conservation	James, R., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There was a community based conservation program to control hunting in the central Bauro area, but this is no longer active. Further research is needed into population size, ecology, harvest levels, and threats to this species.	eng
136397	distribution	James, R., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Solomon Islands. It has been recorded from the islands of Makira (San Cristobal) and Uki Ni Masi (Flannery 1995). The species was recorded in the early 1990s from Olu Malau (Three Sisters) Island, but these are likely to be vagrants. The total area of the two islands is just over 3,200 km<sup>2</sup>. It has been found at sea level and at 350 m asl.	eng
136397	habitat	James, R., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	There is little information on the natural history of this species. It is believed to be solitary (Flannery 1995). A nursing mother was found by day hanging in a banana tree by a river. This species is often seen congregating in small numbers (approximately 3-6 individuals) on fruiting trees close to villages; in these conditions, the species is more vulnerable to hunting (R. James pers. comm.).	eng
136397	population	James, R., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Only a few specimens of this species have been collected, and none since the early 1990s. It can be observed around food resources; animals are known to have been harvested recently by local people (R. James pers. comm.). A photograph was taken this species in the late 1990s providing further evidence for its continued presence.	eng
136397	threats	James, R., Hamilton, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is hunted opportunistically for food, and this may be a threat. The species is also hunted for its teeth, which are used in necklaces. Subsistence agriculture and land conversion for cocoa and teak plantations and rice farms could significantly impact this species, due to its highly restricted distribution. Large-scale logging on the western third of Makira is potentially a major threat.	eng
136398	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Honduras, Guatemala and Costa Rica.	eng
136398	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands of southern Mexico (Chiapas), Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, northern Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica (Hutterer, 2005). It is known from 975 to 1,650 m (Flores Villela and Gerez, 1994; Woodman and Timm, 1993).	eng
136398	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in evergreen, broadleaf and pine-oak forest and cultivated areas near forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known.	eng
136398	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This shrew apparently is uncommon (Reid, 1997). In Guatemala it is considered common (Woodman and Matson pers. comm.).	eng
136398	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation and pesticides are localized threats to this species, but over its entire range they are not considered major threats at present.	eng
136399	conservation	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas; it may be necessary to extend the boundaries of Anjanharibe-Sud National Park to encompass the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the ecology and natural history of the species. In addition, surveys should be done to determine the distributional limits of this species.	eng
136399	distribution	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This poorly known species is endemic to Madagascar, where it has been recorded from two nearby sites on the western slope of Anjanharibe-Sud. It has been collected at 1,200 and 1,600 m asl (Carleton and Goodman 2003; Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species probably occurs within forest in this elevational range throughout the northern highlands.	eng
136399	habitat	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	It is a nocturnal, and presumably strictly arboreal species of the eastern rainforests. This is a forest dependent species. It is presumed to nest in hollow sections of standing tree trunks (Carleton and Goodman 2003).	eng
136399	population	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens. It has not been more frequently encountered largely because of its nocturnal and arboreal habits.	eng
136399	threats	Goodman, S. & Rakotondravony, D., 2008	This species is threatened by loss of forest habitat due to selective logging, shifting agriculture and wildfires - the zone between 1200 and 1600 meters is less threatened than lower elevations, although the area where this species occurs is also threatened by mining for quartz. There is evidence that it is at least passively hunted on occasion (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2003). There is good evidence that all Nesomyinae species (especially those found over 800 m) are susceptible to 100% mortality from plague from introduced rodents - these seem to be localized events.	eng
136400	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species has been found in Reserva Biológica de Poço das Antas, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Leite, 2003).	eng
136400	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from two localities 200 km apart in southern Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states, Brazil (Leite, 2003).	eng
136400	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The type specimen was collected 1 m up on a tree branch in old, second growth broadleaf evergreen rainforest with a dense overstory about 10 m from a stream in a private unprotected area of about 5,000 ha (Leite, 2003).	eng
136400	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Very little is known of populations of this species.	eng
136400	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136401	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	At present, there are no known records from protected areas. This is a recently described taxon that does not appear to rely on large tracts of intact forest for its survival (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further studies are needed to understand its adaptation to high elevations and extreme climate (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136401	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar where it has mainly been recorded from sites above 900 m elevation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) although there are a few records from sites at elevations <50 m (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is known from <10  confirmed localities ranging in elevation from 40 to 2,200 m above sea level. It is presumed to have a broad distribution spanning various portions of the central highlands (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136401	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Recorded from central highlands of Madagascar were it roosts in shallow caves in rocky (marble and limestone) outcrops (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007). The natural forest of this area has mostly been cleared and replaced with introduced trees (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007), but some remnant native vegetation remains. It has also been recorded from open savanna areas (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Records from southern Madagascar at elevations <50 m might consist of breeding colones or be evidence of migration (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136401	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this recently described endemic species.	eng
136401	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species and it exists in areas some distance from native forest (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136402	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is recorded in the border of one Protected Area (Reserva Mocona).	eng
136402	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, 6 km NE (by Hwy 2) junction of Hwy 2 and Arroyo Paraíso, 360 m (Musser and Carleton 2005). .	eng
136402	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The habitat is suspected to be Mata Atlantica forest.	eng
136402	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136402	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Deforestation at the border of the Reserva Mocona.	eng
136403	conservation	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is probably present in Bajo Cauca and Nechi protected areas (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
136403	distribution	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in basins of the Magdalena, Cauca and Porce Rivers, north Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 0 to 2,000 m (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Delgado and Cataño-B., 2004).	eng
136403	habitat	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It occurs in areas of dense tall grass near water (Emmons and Feer, 1997). This species is preyed upon by barn owls in Colombia (Delgado and Catano-B., 2004).	eng
136403	population	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde & Weksler, M., 2008	The population of this species is unknown.	eng
136403	threats	Delgado, C., Gómez-Laverde & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat is general deforestation.	eng
136404	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is a need for further research to determine the exact distributional limits. The only known individual was found in Manu National Park (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136404	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in the lowland forest of southeastern Peru (Solari, 2004). The species is known only from the type locality (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136404	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is most similar to <em>Monodelphis adusta</em> (Solari, 2004). The only known individual was found in mixed forest with cane thickets (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136404	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype. Although the vicinity of the area has been surveyed, appropriate sampling has not been extensive (S. Solari pers. comm.).	eng
136404	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136405	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas.	eng
136405	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is limited to the Pacific slope of the Sierra de Miahuatlán, South Oaxaca, México.	eng
136405	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found on the Pacific slope of Oaxaca in deciduous tropical forest.	eng
136405	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	There is no information about the population of this species.	eng
136405	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and habitat transformation for tourism development and small-holder agriculture.	eng
136406	conservation	Heaney, L., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. The immediate priority for this species is additional survey work to provide the needed details about distribution and abundance, and taxonomic studies to resolve their status relative to <em>T. palawanensis</em>.	eng
136406	distribution	Heaney, L., 2008	This species occurs in the Philippines, where it is found only on the low-elevation islands of Busuanga and Culion (part of Calamian Isls) and Cuyo (Helgen 2005).	eng
136406	habitat	Heaney, L., 2008	The meagre data available suggest that this species is likely to be uncommon to common in heavily disturbed second-growth forest habitat and bamboo thickets, which is the only habitat that has been evaluated to date, although they may do well in old-growth forest (L. Heaney pers. comm.).	eng
136406	population	Heaney, L., 2008	Known from 15 specimens collected in 1947 from the islands of Cuyo, Culion, and Busuanga by the Philippine Zoological Expedition of 1946-47 (Sanborne 1952), and a further 10 specimens (deposited in USNM) collected in 1962 from Culion (L. Heaney pers. comm.). There is no recent information on their population status.	eng
136406	threats	Heaney, L., 2008	The major threats are not immediately clear, although the islands on which this species occurs have been pretty extensively converted for agriculture, and mining is ongoing.	eng
136407	conservation	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	One population of this species occurs in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). A second population occurs in Restinga de Jurubatiba National Park. These protected areas are considered insufficient because Restinga National Park is the only national park in its range, Barra da Maricá is not protected and Poço das Antas is one of the only strong protection areas.	eng
136407	distribution	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the northern region of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). There are three known populations, one from the type locality at Barra de Maricá coastal scrubland and the second from Poço das Antas Biological Reserve (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).  The third population occurs in Restinga de Jurubatiba National Park, which is the only national park in its range (D. Brito pers. comm.).	eng
136407	habitat	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	<em>Trinomys elaisi</em> is distributed in small, isolated populations within a restricted geographic range. It is small solitary, terrestrial species, occurring in dry land forest being most common in dense, viny undergrowth and around fallen trees and complex tree roots (Emmons and Feer, 1997). It is crepuscular in activity and has low mobility. Females breed successfully from eight months with two young per litter, producing up to four litters year round. Males reproduce successfully from about five months; longevity recorded in the field is about 30 months (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003). It is preyed upon by small didelphid marsupials amongst other predators.	eng
136407	population	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Brito <em>et al.</em> (2003) conducted a population of viability analysis using VORTEX (a computer simulation model) which predicted population sizes of 200 animals to achieve demographic stability, but buffering for declines in genetic variability required populations of 2,000 animals. Estimated minimum areas of suitable habitat were approximately 250 and 2,500 ha for demographic and genetic stability, respectively. Mortality rate and mean litter size were the most sensitive modeling parameters (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).	eng
136407	threats	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Habitat destruction and degradation are major threats in Barra de Maricá which is used for sand extraction and as an illegal waste dump (Brito and Figueiredo, 2003).	eng
136408	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The species is not included in any protected area.	eng
136408	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Mendoza Province, Departamento La Valle, La Pega; 32°48′S, 68°40′W, and vicinity between 600-1200 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136408	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species occurs in halophytic desert scrub habitats dominated by several species of saltbush (<em>Atripler lampa. A. fivescens. A. nrgenrina</em>) and the halophytic shrub <em>Suaeda divaricnta</em> (Braun <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
136408	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136408	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Agricultural activities are an increasing threat.	eng
136409	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. In Mongolia approximately 8% of the species’ range occurs within protected areas. Considered Vulnerable on the Japanese Red List. Conservation measures required. Further research on all aspects of ecology and population trends is strongly recommended.	eng
136409	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	N China; Upper Yenisei River (Russia); Altai Mtns (Russia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia); Korea; Ussuri region (Russia); Sakhalin (Russia); Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku (Japan).	eng
136409	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits hilly and mountainous areas, up to 4000 m ASL, with mixed coniferous-broadleafed and broadleaved forests and usually with underground cavities. In northern Mongolia it is found in taiga zones. Day roosts were found in tree canopies and other tree- or timber-associated shelters (under loose bark, in firewood piles, etc.), and also in caves. In China this species is known to roost in caves, in trees, and in houses. They forage in both forested and open areas. Life habits are poorly known. Apparently insectivorous, probably a ground-gleaner (at least in part), picking its prey from soil or vegetation surface. The foraging flight is powerful and manoeuvrable. This species is unusual because it is a ground feeder, searching for beetles. This information is verified by the regularity of them being caught in pitfall traps, and never being caught in traps higher than ground level (S. Dorjderem pers. comm.). While foraging, this species may also extensively use quadrupedal ground locomotion. Echolocation signal is an FM sweep from 112 to 40 kHz, with maximum energy around 50-80 kHz. Births probably occur in the beginning of summer. Females do not form large nursing colonies and possibly live solitarily. One or two young are produced in each litter. A resident species, hibernating in caves, were it can form aggregations up to several hundreds of individuals. Maximum recorded longevity is up to 16 years (usually ca. 5-9).	eng
136409	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There is no population information available on this species at present. It is widespread, but naturally rare species.	eng
136409	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	No available data across much of the range, although as logging activity increases, habitat loss may constitute a threat in the future. In Japan, decrease of old-growth forests is a major threat.	eng
136410	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is unknown whether this bat exists in any protected areas. Taxonomic revision is a priority for this species.	eng
136410	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is known only from Madura Island and the Kangean Islands in Indonesia (Simmons 2005). The maximum elevation of these Islands is less than 500 m asl. The type locality of <em>R. madurensis</em> is Soemenep, Madura Island, off north-eastern Java, Indonesia.	eng
136410	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This is a cave roosting species. It is probably not dependent on water, but forages in primary forest.	eng
136410	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is known from seven specimens. The only records of this bat are from Madura Island by Andersen (1918) and collections made from 1982-1984 on the Islands of Kangean, Saubi and Sepanjang (Bergmans and van Bree 1986).	eng
136410	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species is under threat due to loss of habitat as a result of limestone extraction and deforestation for logging and agriculture.	eng
136411	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
136411	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has been recorded from Luzon (Bulacan, Camarines Sur, Isabela, Nueva Viscaya, and Rizal provinces), and from Negros, Palawan and Sibuyan (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998). Only one specimen has been collected on Palawan although there is no information on the locality (Allen 1922). It is generally found from near sea-level to 1,125 m asl (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998), but there is a record of a specimen at 1,465 m asl from Mount Banahaw, Luzon (J. Sedlock pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136411	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The habitat preferences of this species are poorly known. It has been found in primary lowland and montane forest and in an agricultural area near sea level (Mudar and Allen 1986; Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136411	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	It is very poorly known, but it is probably an uncommon species (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136411	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G. & Tabaranza, B., Sedlock, J., Ingle, N., Heaney, L. & Balete, D., 2008	The species is probably threatened by deforestation in the lowland parts of its distribution.	eng
136412	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no measures known specific to the entire species. However, there are protected areas within its range, and the island populations are considered threatened under Mexican law (Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Additional research is needed to assess population size and status of this species.	eng
136412	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Known from south-west California, USA, south through Baja California (into central Baja California Sur, Mexico) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs on several islands in the Gulf of California.	eng
136412	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	<em>P. fraterculus</em> is found in areas of desert shrub and rocky slopes. In areas with sandy substrate it will dig burrows, otherwise it is known to live in piles of vegetation or rock crevices. <br/><br/>The nocturnal habits and ability to enter extended states of inactivity during the summer months allow this species to cope with arid conditions (Caire 1999). The diet of the Northern Baja Deermouse varies with seasonal availability, but may include seeds, insects, flowers and fruit (Veal and Caire 1979).	eng
136412	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136412	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136413	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It occurs in two protected areas, Santuario de Vida Silvestre Tabaconas-Lavaye  en Peru and Bosque Protector Cashca Totaras en Ecuador (V. Pacheco and D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136413	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of central and south Ecuador (Bolivar and El Oro Provinces, as per Luna and Pacheco, 2002; Musser and Carleton, 2005). Recently, it has been recorded in northern Peru (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has an altitudinal range of 2,500 to 3,350 m (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136413	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in high elevation elfin forest (Luna and Pachero, 2002).	eng
136413	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is uncommon.	eng
136413	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136414	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is not included in any protected areas.	eng
136414	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is known from the type locality and from Queimadas, Bahia State, Brazil. It is endemic to sand dunes, restricted dune range probably includes most of the continuous main sand dune field on left bank of the middle Sao Francisco River, and probably excludes the smaller northern field (Rocha, 1995).	eng
136414	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in sand dune fields with sparse shrubby cover; it is present in caatinga region, where the species builds extensive burrow systems in the dunes (Rocha, 1995).	eng
136414	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136414	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threat to this species is the loss of its habitat to sand extraction (Y. Leite pers. comm.)	eng
136415	conservation	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas, but areas between these are dissappearing rapidly.	eng
136415	distribution	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is known only from the Pacific coast of northwestern Ecuador, with records from Esmeraldas, Guayas and El Oro (southern extent), Los Ríos, and Pichincha Provinces. It is reported also from Alta Quer Narino, Colombia in the Pacific versant of the Colombian Andes - however, the record is pending review.	eng
136415	habitat	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This bat is poorly known. It is found in tall evergreen forest and dry forest. It travels through the forest understory; the short, broad wings enable slow, highly maneuverable flight. Although it is largely insectivorous, fruits and pollen may be eaten during dry season.	eng
136415	population	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is not uncommon.	eng
136415	threats	Burneo, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Habitat destruction.	eng
136416	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E, 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
136416	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E, 2008	This species is endemic to the Cordillera Transvolcanica from west central Jalisco eastwards to Distrito Federal and north Morelos, México. It is found from 2,300 to 2,700 m asl.	eng
136416	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E, 2008	This species is found in pine-oak, conifer, and wet forests within its range (Caballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136416	population	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E, 2008	This species is abundant within its habitat.	eng
136416	threats	Castro-Arellano, I. & Vázquez, E, 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation, particularly in the conifer forests.	eng
136417	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Tongbiguan Nature Reserve (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it is present in any other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136417	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in western Yunnan province (Smith and Xie 2008). It is known only from Ruili County (Smith and Xie 2008).  It occupies elevations between 970-1,300 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136417	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no data regarding the habitat preferences or ecology of this species.	eng
136417	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been characterized as rare (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
136417	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136418	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	Its range overlaps with several protected areas, including the Bi Dup-Nui Ba and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserves and Rhung Thong Da Lat.	eng
136418	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is restricted to the Langbian highlands of the Dà Lat region of southern Viet Nam. Species distribution limits remain unresolved (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136418	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This is a large terrestrial omnivore that lives in montane forest. It is tolerant of secondary forest.	eng
136418	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from a handful of museum specimens, but is presumed to relatively common in its highland range.	eng
136418	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136419	conservation	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	It is listed on Appendix I of CITES. This is the only black uakari not in any protected area. A conservation strategy for the species should be based on a conceptual mosaic composed of fully protected areas, a private reserve and community-based extractive areas. The success of a conservation programme for the black uacari in the Aracá River depends on the participation of traditional local communities (the ‘piassabeiros’ and other important stakeholders exploit the fiber of <em>Leopoldina piassaba</em>) in the process of reserve creation and management.	eng
136419	distribution	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	The range of Ayres Black Uakari is limited to a small area comprising the Curuduri River Basin and the mid to lower Aracá River. Local people claim this species is present in neighbouring areas, but field surveys to date have failed to confirm the existence of this monkey outside the region of the Curuduri, Aracá Rivers. The total geographic range of <em>C. ayresi</em> might be as small as 5,000-6,000 km².	eng
136419	habitat	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	Very little is known about the ecology of the Ayres Black Uakari. It has only been seen twice in the wild in igapós in large groves of the palm <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> and terra firme forest interspersed by an open herbaceous vegetation characteristic of the Aracá River basin (J-P. Boubli, pers. obs.).	eng
136419	population	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no data concerning the population status of this species.	eng
136419	threats	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species has a very limited distribution. Human settlements are few and small in the extent of occurrence. Hunting appears to be restricted to the rainy season when fish, the main source of protein for people in the Aracá River, become scarce. During the rainy season, all black uakaris use igapó forests intensively to take advantage of the pulse of fruit production at this time. While foraging in the igapó, black uakaris are easy to find because of the noise produced when fruits are dropped into the water.	eng
136420	conservation	Muños, A., Lim, B. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Protect the kartisc areas.	eng
136420	distribution	Muños, A., Lim, B. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is known only from four sites in Antioquia, Colombia.	eng
136420	habitat	Muños, A., Lim, B. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This small bat is poorly known. Occurs in lowland and is associated with karstic formations in a restricted area (Muñoz and Cuartas 2001)	eng
136420	population	Muños, A., Lim, B. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is rare (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136420	threats	Muños, A., Lim, B. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Restricted to karstic areas which are threatened. Does not occur in reserves and is vulnerable in roost sites.	eng
136421	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	None.	eng
136421	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is known from the Cape Region of Baja California Sur (Mexico) (Patton 2005).	eng
136421	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is poorly known. There is no information on habitat and ecology. This species is associated with desert and sandy areas and specifically with epiphtic plants, where more moisture occurs.	eng
136421	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There is no known information on population or abundance. This species is not considered to be common. Within its range, however, it is more common on the Gulf side of the peninsula than on the Pacific side (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).	eng
136421	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Its habitat is quickly being converted for coastal development and tourism.	eng
136422	conservation	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Serra da Canastra National Park, Grande Sertao Veredas National Park, Chapada Diamantina, and Dos Veadeiros as well as several other protected areas.	eng
136422	distribution	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Ceará southwestwards to east Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Goias, Tocantins, part of Bahia and Mato Grosso do Sul, central and east Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005; Tribe, 2005).	eng
136422	habitat	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in gallery and semideciduous forests of the cerrado-caatinga biomes (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is an arboreal species, found in primary and secondary forest. One specimen also found in the Atlantic Forest area in Chapada Diamantina (Bahia state) (Tribe, 2005, Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136422	population	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
136422	threats	Patton, J., Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Some populations are threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
136423	conservation	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	Several protected areas exist throughout the range of the species complex.	eng
136423	distribution	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	The species is found on Sumatra, Nias Island, Java, and Sulawesi (all in Indonesia), and throughout Borneo.	eng
136423	habitat	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species inhabits primary forest but is also collected in villages and disturbed habitats.	eng
136423	population	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	This species is uncommon and it seems that the population is decreasing.	eng
136423	threats	Ruedas, L. & Suyanto, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
136424	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Found in protected areas.	eng
136424	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs from Jalisco and Tamaulipas, Mexico, throughout Central America to Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, and Amazonian Brazil. Lowlands to 2,600 m (Reid, 1997). Also Bolivia.	eng
136424	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This small bat occurs in evergreen and deciduous forest, second growth, and orchards. Roosts in hollow trees, logs, caves, mines, buildings, culverts, and large mammal burrows in areas with some natural light, they are alert and easily induced to take flight. Shallow earthen depressions along banks and among tree roots are also ocupied. Clusters of 4 to 6 bats hang together from the ceiling of the roost. Their diet includes fruit and insects; insects may be gleaned from the vegetation or captured in flight. Food is usually consumed at a night roost, which may be the same as the day roost or may only be used at night. A collection of wings and legs dropped at night roosts in Costa Rica consisted of insects of 13 different orders, with small scarab beetles, grasshoppers, cockroaches, crickets, and katydids predominating. Seasonal changes in diet, probably reflecting insect abundances, were noted (LaVal and LaVal, 1980). A roost in Mexico contained wings of Lepidoptera. In Panama flies and beetles were taken (Humphrey <em>et al.</em>, 1983). Single young are born annually, usually at the onset of the rainy season.	eng
136424	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Rather common and widespread. This species is the most commonly encountered <em>Micronycteris</em> in southeastern Mexico and Central America (Reid 1997).	eng
136424	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species range.	eng
136425	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in Chapada dos Veadeiros and Chapada Diamantinha protected areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005; Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136425	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known only from two localities from Campo Rupestre in high altitude Cerrado (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
136425	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent is a specialist of high altitude areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
136425	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is rare and occurs in low densities. For additional information see Weksler and Bonvicino (2005).	eng
136425	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136426	conservation	Delgado, C., Aguilera, M., Timm, R. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Further taxonomic research in needed to determine whether any of the subspecies of <em>S. hirsutus</em> should receive specific status.	eng
136426	distribution	Delgado, C., Aguilera, M., Timm, R. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs from southern Chiapas, Mexico, through Central America (excluding Belize), and into northern Colombia and northern Venezuela (Linares, 1998; Peppers and Bradley 2000; Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005). Musser and Carleton (2005) state that its northern limits are uncertain, but they include subspecies found as far north as El Salvador. Using genetic analysis, Carroll <em>et al.</em> (2005) refer all subspecies formerly assigned to <em>S. hispidus</em> occurring in Central America and southern Chiapas, Mexico, to <em>S. hirsutus</em>. This includes one subspecies, <em>S. hirsutus zanjonensis</em>, found in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala, to which Musser and Carlton (2005) assign species status.	eng
136426	habitat	Delgado, C., Aguilera, M., Timm, R. & Samudio, R., 2008	It occurs in tropical rainforest and dry forest, and is primarily found in the lowlands (however, see reference to the subspecies <em>S. h. zanjonensis</em>, which occurs in highlands). It is often found in sugarcane fields and wet cattle pastures.<br/><br/>This rat is mainly active during the day but may also be active at night if population is high. It feeds on green plant material, fungi, some seeds, and insects (Alvarez <em>et al.</em> 1984). Its nests are usually built under cover of logs, rocks, or dense clumps of grass. Occasionally, short burrows dug by other mammals are used as nest sites (Reid 1997). It is preyed upon by barn owl (Delgado and Cataño B. 2004).	eng
136426	population	Delgado, C., Aguilera, M., Timm, R. & Samudio, R., 2008	It is common to abundant in grassland, clearings and brush (Reid, 1997). Common in agricultural areas, especially sugarcane. It has increased its distribution over the past several decades. However, the population fluctuates greatly.	eng
136426	threats	Delgado, C., Aguilera, M., Timm, R. & Samudio, R., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136427	conservation	Burneo, S. & Soriano, P., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136427	distribution	Burneo, S. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Yasuni Reasearch Station (00 30'S, 75 55'W, 220 m), Yasuni National Park, Orellana Province, Ecuador (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004).	eng
136427	habitat	Burneo, S. & Soriano, P., 2008	This bat is poorly known. The holotype of <em>L. yasuni</em> was caught in a mist net placed in the sub-canopy approximately 9 m above the ground in primary forest. The habitat consists of evergreen lowland forest (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004). Like other members of the genus, it probably eats insects inside the forest.	eng
136427	population	Burneo, S. & Soriano, P., 2008	It is rare, now from only one specimen (Fonseca and Pinto, 2004).	eng
136427	threats	Burneo, S. & Soriano, P., 2008	Unknown due to recent discovery.	eng
136428	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known to occur in Borneo in Sepilok Forest Reserve and Tanjung Puting National Park (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136428	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known from peninsular and eastern India, Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah (Malaysian Borneo), where it is confirmed from Sepilok Forest Reserve (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003; Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). Another record from Tanjung Puting National Park in Kalimantan (Borneo) represents the first record of this species in Indonesia (Struebig <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species may be much more widespread than is currently known (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136428	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. In India it is found in the forests of Tamil Nadu (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136428	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has only recently been resurrected from its subspecific status within <em>K. papillosa</em> (Vanitharani <em>et al</em>. 2003). The abundance, population size and trends are not known.	eng
136428	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136429	conservation	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
136429	distribution	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is widespread in central and south east China (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008), extending to eastern India, where it is known from Meghalaya (Srinivasulu <em>et al.</em> in press), and Viet Nam.	eng
136429	habitat	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species except that it is a forest dwelling species that may roost in caves and tree hollows (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.; Bates and Harrison 1997; Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136429	population	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm.).	eng
136429	threats	Csorba, G. & Bates, P., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136430	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	None.	eng
136430	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species (if distinct) is endemic to Curaçao Island in the Netherlands Antilles.	eng
136430	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	No known information.	eng
136430	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species if valid, is presumed to be extinct.	eng
136430	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	<em>Rattus rattus</em> remains were found together with those of <em>O. curasoae</em> suggesting that the introduced Black Rat may have played a role in its demise.	eng
136431	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	It is unknown whether or not Rossel Island Melomys occurs within protected areas. A survey of Rossel Island to determine the population status of this species should be a high priority.	eng
136431	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Rossel Island Melomys is known only from specimens collected from Rossel Island (Papua New Guinea): the holotype from the early 20<sup>th</sup> century, and four more specimens collected by the fifth Archbold Expedition in October 1956 (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005). Other Milne Bay Islands have been well-surveyed without locating this species, thus it is likely to be endemic to Rossel (Flannery 1995). Specimens were collected at elevations ranging from 50 to 700 m asl (Flannery 1995).	eng
136431	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There is no information about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
136431	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There is no information about the population of this species.	eng
136431	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There is no recent information about threats pertaining specifically to this species. Rossel Island is still mostly forested and is unlikely to be under severe threat of habitat destruction within the next ten years (F. Kraus pers. comm.). The village of Cheme is quite large and its footprint is probably serious within the surrounding area. The higher elevations of Mt. Rossel are considered taboo by local inhabitants, and the habitat is particularly secure here (note: Rossel reaches a maximum elevation of 839 m asl, and the species has been recorded as high as 700 m asl) (F. Kraus pers. comm.). Introduced murids would have the potential to compete with this species.	eng
136432	conservation	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	The range is included in a provincial protected area (Ecological Park Sierra de San Javier).	eng
136432	distribution	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Tucumán Province, Tafí Viejo Department, Las Aguitas, Cumbres del Tafícillo, 1700 m asl; 26°42′S, 65°22′W (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136432	habitat	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	Inhabit high montane grasslands and although diet is unknown, they are thought to specialize in soil invertebrates like other Akodons (Diaz <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
136432	population	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species, there only two specimens collected from this species.	eng
136432	threats	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	Rare, with restricted distribution; considered a locally threatened species for Tucuman Province, Argentina (Tabeni <em>et al.</em> 2004). There is threat by intentional fire for cattle and agricultural activities (Jayat, J.P pers. comm.)	eng
136433	conservation	Timm, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Search for roosting sites and associated foraging areas; employ acoustic equipment capable of detecting <em>Eumops</em>. Every effort must be made to protect existing roosts and their surrounding habitats.	eng
136433	distribution	Timm, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	The range encompasses southern Florida, including Charlotte, Collier, and Lee counties on the Gulf Coast and Miami-Dade County on the Atlantic Coast (Timm and Genoways 2004); the species is known mainly from the Miami, Coral Gables, and Fort Lauderdale areas. According to Timm and Genoways (2004), "In the greater Miami area, only three records exist of the Florida bonneted bat after 1965. The most recent of these are from the 1990s; one is a single recent specimen from Coral Gables and one is an acoustic recording. Additionally, an extant, albeit probably small, population occurs along Florida's southwestern coast in Lee County near Fort Myers and adjacent Collier County in the Fakahatchee-Big Cypress area." Excluding fossil records, <em>Eumops floridanus</em> was first recorded at Miami in 1936. A pregnant female was captured in Coral Gables in 1988, indicating the continued existence of this species in Florida after an earlier survey concluded that the subspecies probably was extinct (Belwood 1992). Ted Fleming (pers. comm., 1994, 1995) obtained anecdotal acoustic evidence of the bat's continued existence in the Miami area between 1989 and 1993, and he also found evidence of an early 1990s occurrence in the George Merrick House in Coral Gables. This bat was found in 1979 near Punta Gorda, Charlotte County, on the western coast of Florida (8 individuals, including a pregnant female); the roost was destroyed as part of a highway construction project (Belwood 1992).	eng
136433	habitat	Timm, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Once believed to be common on Florida's eastern coast in the Miami-Coral Gables area but reported there only a few times since the mid-1960s. One of the few occurrences in southwestern Florida was destroyed. Low fecundity (only one young at a time).<br/>This bat occurs in urban, suburban, and forested areas; it roosts in buildings (e.g., in attics, rock or brick chimneys of fireplaces, and especially under Spanish roof tiles, often in buildings dating from about 1920-1930), sometimes in tree hollows (including those made by woodpeckers), occasionally in foliage of palm trees (e.g., shafts of royal palm leaves); also has been found under rocks, in fissures in limestone outcrops, and near excavations (Layne 1978, Timm and Genoways 2004). The species is known primarily from suburbs, also (on the west coast) from a pine flatwoods community where several were found in a longleaf pine in a cavity 4.6 meters above ground; the cavity had been excavated by red-cockaded woodpeckers and enlarged by a pileated woodpecker (Belwood 1992); this tree was later cut down in conjunction with road construction. In the early 2000s, a colony consisting of at least one male and several females took up residence in a bat house in a North Fort Myers (Lee County) suburban backyard (Organization for Bat Conservation).	eng
136433	population	Timm, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is represented by very few occurrences or subpopulations. All of the known occurrences are relatively small and probably of less than optimal viability, yet they probably have a good probability of persistence for the foreseeable future. This species has appeared to exist in low numbers for several decades (Timm and Genoways 2004). Total adult population size is unknown. The species appears to be rare but may be more numerous than historical evidence indicates (USFWS 1996). It roosts singly or in small groups.	eng
136433	threats	Timm, R. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Vulnerable to habitat loss (in urban and forested areas), habitat alteration (removal of old trees with cavities, or buildings with spaces suitable for roosting), and pesticide spraying for mosquitoes. The last may be responsible for the species' decline in the Miami area, as roosting sites are still abundant. Severe hurricanes may cause loss of older trees with roosting cavities. Hurricane Andrew, an intense Category 5 hurricane that struck southeastern Florida in 1992, may have had a significant impact upon the already low population of bonneted bats (Timm and Genoways 2004). Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission has listed this species as endangered (2004)	eng
136434	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve.	eng
136434	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Restricted to the type locality of the Manombo Reserve in south-eastern Madagascar. The precise limits of the distribution are unknown (Zaramody <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
136434	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136434	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Described only in 2006.	eng
136434	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136435	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
136435	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Recorded from Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Isl.), and Congo Republic (Gaubert 2003a, in press).	eng
136435	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	The localities from which the species has been collected to date suggest that it may be restricted to rainforest (Gaubert 2003a, in press).	eng
136435	population	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species, but the scarcity of records suggest it is rare and localized. It is represented by 10 known specimens in collections, and has not been collected since 1946 (Gaubert 2003b, in press).	eng
136435	threats	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Threats to this species are unclear, but hunting is a likely threat as most of the museum specimens were collected from local hunters or bushmeat markets (Gaubert in press).	eng
136436	conservation	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has been recorded from the Serrania Huanchaca and Noel Kempff Mercado National Park. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136436	distribution	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Bolivia, Santa Cruz Department, Velasco Province, Parque Nacional Noel Kempff Mercado, Flor de Oro, 13°33'S, 61°00'W, 210 m (Emmons, 1999).	eng
136436	habitat	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It was collected in relictual open savanna woodland on upland dense long grass. The savanna where it was collected is an open area surrounded by forest, entirely isolated from other grassland or cerrado habitats (Emmons, 1999). It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats.	eng
136436	population	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
136436	threats	Dunnum, J., Emmons, L., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It may be threatened by cattle ranching in the recent past, through modification of the grassland.	eng
136437	conservation	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Present in several protected areas across the range.	eng
136437	distribution	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Ranges from Senegal to Ghana, although the eastern boundary is uncertain (Gaubert and Dunham in press). Crawford-Cabral (1980-81) suggested the Volta R. as a possible barrier to the species.	eng
136437	habitat	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Present in a wide range of habitats; usually restricted to primary and secondary rainforests, gallery forests and moist woodlands, but also occurs in forest plantations, bush-lands and suburban areas (Gaubert and Dunham in press).	eng
136437	population	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	Believed to be common. Night-time field searches carried out from a vehicle in Niokolo-Koba N.P. in Senegal resulted in an estimated frequency of occurrence of 0.7/100 km (Sillero-Zubiri and Marino 1997).	eng
136437	threats	Gaubert, P. & Dunham, A., 2008	There are no known major threats. However, they have been recorded from bushmeat markets.	eng
136438	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	It is found in several protected areas (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136438	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs on the western and eastern slopes of the Andes of central Ecuador (Hutterer 2005). It has an altitudinal range of 1,600 to 4,300 m asl (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
136438	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known. There have been some records from secondary habitats and pastureland.	eng
136438	population	Woodman, N., 2008	This species ranges from being uncommon to frequently encountered (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136438	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species apparently tolerates some degree of disturbance.	eng
136439	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in some protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136439	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is endemic to the Phillipines. It has been recorded from Mindanao (Bukidnon, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Sur, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Zamboanga del Norte provinces), Dinagat, and Siargao islands (Heaney and Rabor 1982).	eng
136439	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species inhabits primary lowland to montane forest from 500 to 1,600 m, although it is most abundant at middle elevations (Musser and Heaney 1992).	eng
136439	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is moderately common in midelevation primary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
136439	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136440	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	It was collected in the Area Natural de Manejo Integrado San Matias. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
136440	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Pozo Mario (200 m), Estancia Las Conchas, Santa Cruz Department, southeastern Bolivia (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136440	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	It was collected in Cerrado, in a transitional mosaic between dense and high savanna, with open forest. Ground cover was some dead leaves with 30 to 40% grass cover. It is not known if this species can occur in modified habitats (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136440	population	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype (Brooks <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136440	threats	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	The threats to the species are not known. It seems to have restricted habitat availability within the Cerrado.	eng
136441	conservation	Helgen, K. &  Hutson, A.M., 2008	Pulau Nustaram Nature Reserve is within the range of this species. This species needs further taxonomic studies as it may be conspecific with <em>N. albifenta</em> which is more widespread (M. Sinaga pers. comm.).	eng
136441	distribution	Helgen, K. &  Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species has been recorded from Maluku, the Kai Islands, Tanimbar (Timorlaut), and Babar island groups in Indonesia (Simmons 2005), and is probably also on Timor and Flores (K. Helgen pers. comm.). The type locality for this species is 12 km north of Tual, near Taman Anggrek (5°38'S, 132°44'E), Pulau Dullah (closely associated with Pulau Kai Kecil), Maluku, Indonesia. There is a record of the species also from Gag Island, Indonesia (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). Its altitudinal range is thought to be below 1,000 m asl.	eng
136441	habitat	Helgen, K. &  Hutson, A.M., 2008	It has been caught by mist-netting in disturbed vine forest, with an understorey of lantana (<em>Ficus, Erythrina, Podocoarpus, Albizia</em>). It has also been found in mixed gardens (I. Maryanto pers. comm.).	eng
136441	population	Helgen, K. &  Hutson, A.M., 2008	This species is common on the islands where it occurs.	eng
136441	threats	Helgen, K. &  Hutson, A.M., 2008	Habitat loss on the islands, due to conversion to agriculture and mining are the main threats to this species. This species is not hunted.	eng
136442	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent occurs within several protected areas.	eng
136442	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known from several localities in São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil at 30 m elevation (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136442	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest areas.	eng
136442	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from a few localities; it was described in 1998 (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136442	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
136443	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The island of Supiori is a protected area. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
136443	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the islands of Biak and Supiori, in Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia.	eng
136443	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded in lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
136443	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species appears to be uncommon. It is known only from two museum specimens and a pet. The last five surveys to Biak have only encountered it as a pet.	eng
136443	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is threatened by rapid, ongoing deforestation of suitable habitat, and by hunting for food and collection as a pets by local people.	eng
136444	conservation	Kryštufek, B. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	None known.	eng
136444	distribution	Kryštufek, B. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Known only from the SW coast lowlands of Caspian Sea in Iran and Azerbaijan. The species is found in the Lenkoran district of Azerbaijan (Baku 2004).	eng
136444	habitat	Kryštufek, B. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136444	population	Kryštufek, B. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136444	threats	Kryštufek, B. & Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136445	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Specimens have been collected in Yuli Wildlife Refuge, Lulinshan Major Wildlife Habitats (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006), and it is probably present in Yushan Nature Reserve. Further research is needed in the areas of abundance, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
136445	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs on Taiwan, Province of China (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006). All collected specimens (n=11) come from the mountainous region of the country, between elevations of 1,000-2,400 m asl (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136445	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in coniferous plantations or mixed forests of coniferous and broad-leaf trees with more or less closed canopy (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006). Two collected specimens were obtained from a tunnel (Kuo <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136445	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136445	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species since it appears to be restricted to closed canopy forests, although there is no longer significant deforestation going on at higher elevations in Taiwan. More information on the species' extent of occurrence is needed to establish whether it occurs in lowland areas that are more affected by deforestation.	eng
136446	conservation	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	The babirusa was accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993).<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas of various levels on Sulawesi (e.g. Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Lore Lindu National Park, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, the Nantu Wildlife Reserve, the Panua Nature Reserve, Morowali Nature Reserveand others (Macdonald, 1993; Alvard, 2000, Riley, 2002; Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002, http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/274feature3.shtml - accessed 5 June 2008)) The species often remains under hunting pressure even in protected areas.<br/><br/>There is an international studbook for the world captive population of the Sulawesi babirusa and both the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) have cooperative breeding programmes for the species, cooperating with the South East Asian Zoos Association (SEAZA). The founders of this population likely originated from northern Sulawesi. Ongoing genetic studies will hopefully help to resolve this origin question.	eng
136446	distribution	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	<em>Babyrousa celebensis</em> is endemic to Indonesia, and, as defined here, occurs widely on Sulawesi, with the exception of the southwestern  peninsula where the form <em>bolabatuensis</em> is known from subfossials (Meijaard and Groves 2002a). It is also known from offshore islands, including Muna, Buton and Lembeh. On the northern peninsula of Sulawesi, they have most likely disappeared from the most northern section and their distribution may now be largely limited to the western end of the Bogani Nani-Wartabone National Park, and to the Nantu Wildlife Reserve and the Panua Nature Reserve; all in the western half of the peninsula ((Riley, 2002). The babirusa still occurs in central Sulawesi and the eastern and southeastern peninsula, although precise information regarding the current extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is lacking (Macdonald, 1993; Alvard, 2000; Burton, 2002, Riley 2002; Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002). The species is unlikely to still occur on the severely deforested southern island of Muna. On Buton the species was not found during recent mammal surveys (Meijaard and Groves 2002b, Wiles <em>et al</em>., 2002) and no babirusa skulls were found during a recent visit to the island in search of anoa skulls (J. Burton pers. comm.). Its continued presence on the island of Lembeh is also uncertain.	eng
136446	habitat	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	The Sulawesi babirusa inhabits tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. Whereas in the past the animal has tended to occur in low lying areas near coasts, recent anecdotal and survey reports indicate that it is now confined mostly to the interior, on higher and less accessible ground (Riley, 2002).<br/><br/>In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). They visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002). Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>In northern Sulawesi groups or troops of up to 13 individuals have been observed in rainforest, especially around water, communal wallowing areas and salt licks (Patry <em>et al</em>., 1995; Clayton, 1996). Older adult males were often observed singly and most groups were composed of five or fewer animals, the majority of which were females with young animals.	eng
136446	population	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	<em>B. celebensis</em> has been largely extirpated from the northeast part of the northern peninsula, and is being brought to markets in the neighbourhood of Manado from practically all over Sulawesi at an alarming rate (Milner-Gulland and Clayton, 2002; Lee <em>et al</em>, 2005).  Recent survey data strongly suggest that populations in the wild are seriously depleted (Riley, 2002). Babirusa appear to have become rare in Lore Lindu National Park, but may be more common in the area to the north of Palu (Riley, 2002; Burton, 2002).	eng
136446	threats	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Babirusa are hunted for food to supply the Christian markets in North Sulawesi (Blouch, 1990; Burton 2002; Milner-Gulland and Clayton, 2002; Lee <em>et al</em>., 2005). As the species becomes rare or absent from eastern sections of the northern peninsula, hunting is moving to the west and centre. For example, babirusa from the area to the north of Palu and from Lore Lindu National Park (although the species now appears severely depleted in the latter) are being hunted and sold to traders from North Sulawesi (Burton, 2002).<br/><br/>The species is also increasingly threatened by commercial logging, and by the spread of other land-uses resulting in forest conversion and degradation (MacDonald 1993; Riley 2002). Total lowland forest loss on the island is estimated to be likely more than 75% (Riley 2002).	eng
136447	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. In particular it is important to determine whether or not this is a valid species.	eng
136447	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from Bangka Island (Indonesia). It perhaps also occurs on Sumatra.	eng
136447	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species has been recorded in primary and secondary lowland forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats, such as plantations.	eng
136447	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136447	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Forest is being lost on Bangka as a result of logging, and also expanding plantations, especially for oil palm, though it is not yet known whether or not this species can survive in these secondary habitats. Mining on Bangka also represents a major threat to this species.	eng
136448	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Protect the caves and provide environmental education.	eng
136448	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	From Para (Brazil) to the south to São Paulo and Rio Grande do Norte (Brazil) (L. Davalos and A. Tejedor pers. comm.).	eng
136448	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Roosts in caves.	eng
136448	population	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
136448	threats	Dávalos, L. & Tejedor, A., 2008	Extirpation in campaigns against rabies in Brazil.	eng
136449	conservation	Woolley, P., 2008	This species occurs in Mt. Bosavi National Park and Mt. Victoria protected area. Field studies are needed to confirm whether or not it occurs in the large area between the known collecting localities (and if not, the degree of divergence between the two populations should be assessed). Further information concerning the threats to this species (should they exist), and its population status is required.	eng
136449	distribution	Woolley, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known from a small number (33) of specimens, collected between 1894 and 1985, from the southern side of the Central Cordillera. It has been recorded from Mt. Bosavi and Mt. Sisa in the west and Mt. Victoria/Vanapa River in the east (Woolley 2005). The species ranges in elevation between 650 and 1,600 m asl, and it presumably occurs within appropriate habitat between the two known areas, but this requires confirmation.	eng
136449	habitat	Woolley, P., 2008	This species inhabits primary lowland and montane forest. Like its congeners, it is thought to be largely terrestrial and diurnal. Peter Dwyer has noted seeing this species active during daylight hours (as reported in Woolley 2005).	eng
136449	population	Woolley, P., 2008	There is no population information concerning this species.	eng
136449	threats	Woolley, P., 2008	There is no information concerning possible threats to this species.	eng
136450	conservation	Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	In New Guinea it occurs in Kikori management area. It is well protected in the Australian portion of its range.   <br/>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
136450	distribution	Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is found in the southern lowlands of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) and possibly in the Aru islands (Indonesia). It is also present in the McIlwraith Range/Iron Range block of rainforest on the eastern seaboard of Cape York Peninsula (Winter <em>et al.</em> 1991; Maxwell <em>et al.</em> 1996; Winter and Leung 2008).	eng
136450	habitat	Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	In New Guinea the species often occurs in gallery forest near rivers, but is found also in a variety of habitats with trees, including secondary forests and gardens. It does well in degraded areas. In Australia it is a rainforest specialist; confined to semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest, notophyll vine forest, and evergreen notophyll vine forest.	eng
136450	population	Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
136450	threats	Salas, L., Dickman, C. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species overall. In New Guinea this species is affected by hunting and local trade. Mining is also occurring within its range. In Australia it is well protected.	eng
136451	conservation	Turvey, S., 2008	No actions required.	eng
136451	distribution	Turvey, S., 2008	The bones of this species were discovered in a cave in northern Venezuela (Monagas) in 1988 and more recently in southeastern Brazil (Trajan and de Vivo 1991). Remains have been reported from other countries in the region, so it seems to have had a wider distribution than initially thought. The other countries are not recorded in the list below, but may include the Guinas, Colombia and Ecuador. The remains were not mineralized and found in association with living species, thus the extinction is presumed to be recent.	eng
136451	habitat	Turvey, S., 2008	Presumed to be similar to other members of the genus.	eng
136451	population	Turvey, S., 2008	Not known.	eng
136451	threats	Turvey, S., 2008	The reasons for the extinction are not known.	eng
136452	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	None	eng
136452	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Known only by a single skull from southern Peru, presumably of an animal that lived in recent times (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136452	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There is nothing known about the ecology of this species.	eng
136452	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The is no population data on this species.	eng
136452	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	Nothing is known of the threats to this species.	eng
136453	conservation	Queirolo, D. & Geise, L., 2008	Is not found in any protected areas (at the moment national system of protected areas is being developed in Uruguay) (G. D'Elia. pers. comm)	eng
136453	distribution	Queirolo, D. & Geise, L., 2008	This species occurs in southern Uruguay, south of the Río Negro (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136453	habitat	Queirolo, D. & Geise, L., 2008	This rodent occurs in wetlands, scrub, humid grasslands, sandy areas (Queirolo pers. comm.).	eng
136453	population	Queirolo, D. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is poorly known; there are only a few locations known.	eng
136453	threats	Queirolo, D. & Geise, L., 2008	The major threats are habitat destruction, tourism development, and urban expansion.	eng
136454	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas through its range, including Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136454	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in central and southern China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou), extending to northeastern India, northern and central Thailand, Lao PDR, and northern Viet Nam (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998, 2000, 2008). It presumably occurs in Myanmar, though there are not so far any records. The species has been recorded from Nakhon Ratchasima in central Thailand (Kloss 1919), Doi Inthanon in northern Thailand (Allen and Coolidge 1940) and Thung Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries in western Thailand (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 1995). In Lao PDR it has been recorded from Xe Pian and Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
136454	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available on the ecology and habitat requirements of this species. The holotype was captured in timberline forest on Ssu Shan (Snow Mountain) at 4,000 m asl (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). In Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR), a single specimen was caught in semi-evergreen forest near Ban Taong (Robinson 1997). In Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR), the species was recorded in an area comprising dense, relatively undisturbed, semi-evergreen forest surrounded by karst formations reaching heights of 200-300 m asl, with small areas of grassland maintained for grazing (Robinson and Webber 1998). These observations, taken together, suggest that the species occur in a wide variety of environmental conditions, from high temperate mountains to the lowland tropics. Its ability to adapt to anthropogenic habitats is not known.	eng
136454	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136454	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown. If it is dependent on forest, then threats, especially in the lowlands, include forest clearing, conversion to agriculture, timber extraction and human settlement.	eng
136455	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Xuelingyunshan Nature Reserve in China (CSIS 2008) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the species' abundance.	eng
136455	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in China, Kazakhstan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Kyrgyzstan (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005). In China, it is known from the province of Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008). Its range is allopatric with <em>Spermophilus relictus</em> (Thorington and Hoffmann 2005).	eng
136455	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species inhabits meadows in which it constructs burrows (Smith and Xie 2008).  <br/><br/>It is diurnal and feeds on grass, green vegetation, and insects (Smith and Xie 2008). It hibernates from between August/September and the end of February/beginning of March (Smith and Xie 2008). Reproduction occurs during spring, after it has emerged from hibernation (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation is 25-27 days and litter size is 3-7 (average) (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136455	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136455	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136456	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	No conservation actions are needed.	eng
136456	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	On the basis of current subfossil evidence, <em>Cryptoprocta spelea</em> occurred at a variety of sites from Lakaton’ny Akanga in the far north near Antsiranana, along the western portion of Madagascar, south to numerous sites at the southern end of the island; it is also recorded on the central highlands at Antsirabe (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136456	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Given the size of <em>Cryptoprocta spelea</em>, its massive jaws, and large carnassial teeth, it must have been a formidable predator and certainly capable of taking larger prey than the extant <em>C. ferox</em>. Evidence suggests that the two forms of <em>Cryptoprocta</em> might have been separated well enough in size to be able to coexist (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136456	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Extinct.	eng
136456	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The reasons for the disappearance of this species on Madagascar are unknown.	eng
136457	conservation	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is not included in any protected area.	eng
136457	distribution	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Argentina, Misiones Province, Guaraní Department, ca. 2 km W Parque Provincial Moconá, junction of Hwy 21 and Arroyo Oveja Negra (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136457	habitat	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species holotype was collected from under a log uphill from a nearby river (Mares and Braun 2000).	eng
136457	population	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136457	threats	D'Elia, G., Pardinas, U. & Patterson, B., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
136458	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar).	eng
136458	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>Microcebus jollyae</em> is found in south-eastern Madagascar, its range extending from just south of the Mananara River north to the north bank of the Mananjary River. According to Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006), populations of this species are reported to occur in the forests of Mananjary and Kianjavato. The type locality is at 71 m asl.	eng
136458	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the south-eastern rainforest.	eng
136458	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.	eng
136458	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136459	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Meigu Dafengding and Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserves, but is it not known if it occurs in any additional protected areas.  Further research is needed in the areas of distribution, abundance, biology and ecology, habitat, and threats.	eng
136459	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in China, it's known distribution is restricted to two nature reserves in southwestern Sichuan province (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007). All specimens (n=18) were collected between 2,560-3,100 m asl (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136459	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species was collected in forest dominated by fir and spruce, with an understory of bamboos and humid spruce forest with abundant bamboo and moss (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136459	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136459	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. Ecotourism development within Meigu Nature Reserve, that does not consider the protection of wildlife habitat, may pose a threat (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136460	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
136460	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	Endemic to the Mediterranean (Morocco, N Algeria, Tunisia). Range overlaps with that of the closely-related species <em>M. shawi</em> in eastern Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia (Pavlinov 2000; Musser and Carleton 2005). Occurs up to at least 2,800 m in the High Atlas (F. Cuzin pers. comm.)	eng
136460	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is common in relatively humid habitats in the mid-Atlas Mountains. It is present in all bioclimatic zones, and in gardens and palm plantations.	eng
136460	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	It is common in suitable habitats. In some regions (e.g., Marrakesh) it is considered an agricultural pest species and its numbers are controlled.	eng
136460	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	No serious threats are affecting the population at present.	eng
136461	conservation	Happold, D., 2008	It has been recorded from the Lopé National Park, Gabon. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136461	distribution	Happold, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Central Africa, where it has been recorded from central Gabon, south of the Ogooué River and south to the Massif du Chaillu.	eng
136461	habitat	Happold, D., 2008	This species is generally associated with tropical moist forest, especially where trees of the families Cesalpiniaceae and Burseraceae are common. It is usually observed as single animals or less frequently in pairs in the lower storeys of the forest at 4-6 m above ground, but has been recorded in all storeys from ground level to >25 m.	eng
136461	population	Happold, D., 2008	It is moderately common within the known range.	eng
136461	threats	Happold, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
136462	conservation	Woodman, N., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in several protected areas such as El Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas.	eng
136462	distribution	Woodman, N., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in the Mexican highlands, from 1,040 to 2,500 m asl in the states of Hidalgo, México, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz (Hutterer, 2005).	eng
136462	habitat	Woodman, N., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in dense, wet cloud forest where it is found in the thick herbaceous undergrowth and leaf litter. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136462	population	Woodman, N., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is a moderately common species (Neal Woodman pers. comm.). In El Cielo Reserve it is considered common (Ivan Castro Arellano pers. comm.).	eng
136462	threats	Woodman, N., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation for agriculture and urban development is a threat to this species.	eng
136463	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	This species occurs in Lawn Hill National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
136463	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	The Purple-necked Rock Wallaby is endemic to Australia, where it is present in north-western Queensland from Dajarra and west of Mount Isa to the eastern end of the Selwyn Ranges, extending northwards to Lawn Hill and probably into the Northern Territory. There are sight records from Wollogorang (Northern Territory) that are likely of this species.	eng
136463	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is found in areas of rocky outcrops, cliffs, and boulder formations near dry forests savannas and spinifex grasslands (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It lives in small colonies. Colonies that have access to permanent water tend to be larger, and those that do not may disappear during prolonged droughts (Johnson and Eldridge 2008).	eng
136463	population	McKnight, M., 2008	The populations are patchily distributed within its range. It is common around Dajarra and Mount Isa, but rarer to the west near Lawn Hill (Johnson and Eldridge 2008). It seems to have declined in the south-eastern part of its range due to the presence of goats (Johnson and Eldridge 2008).	eng
136463	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is likely threatened by competition with domestic and introduced herbivores. It is possibly threatened by introduced predators.	eng
136464	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is present in one protected area: Estação Ecológica do Taim, Rio Grande do Sul. Freitas (1995) considers the species as endangered.	eng
136464	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil where it occurs along the southeastern coast (de Freitas, 1995).	eng
136464	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species inhabits seashore dunes, in an area of high salinity and poor vegetation where it burrows into the moving dunes.	eng
136464	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	There is an estimate of six individuals per hectare (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136464	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is considered the most endangered of the tuco-tucos in southern Brazil  due to its habitat specificity (Fernandez, 2007).  In the north of its range, the species occurs in an area of dunes which is undergoing urbanization. Exploration for coal may be occurring within its geographic range. Habitat degradation is also occurring due to removal of dunes.	eng
136465	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	<em>Myzopoda schliemanni</em> has been trapped in Parc National de Namoroka and Parc National d'Ankarafantsika (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) as well as a recently created protected area in the Lac Kinkony - Mahavay area (Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Based on current information this is a restricted-range species for which there are few data on natural history or ecology and basic field research is clearly needed.	eng
136465	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This recently described species is known from central western Madagascar in lowland areas from Ankaboka in the north (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2007) to Andranomanintsy in the south (Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). It was not found during surveys of Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha (Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007), Parc National de Kirindy-Mité (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2006) or Kirindy CFPF (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Goodman <em>et al</em>. (2007) suggested that the distribution of range of <em>M. schliemanni</em> is broader than currently known and may extend north as far as Ambanja.	eng
136465	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Kofoky <em>et al.</em> (2006) observed <em>M. schliemanni</em> roosting in a cave. There are no other published observations of this species' roosting preferences, although it is assumed to also use broad-leaved plants such as <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> (Strelitziaceae) (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2007; Russell <em>et al</em>. 2008). There are few accounts of its foraging habitats, although Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandrianina (2007) mist-netted 16 individuals in relatively disturbed forest. In Andranomanintsy forest, 17 of the 18 bats captured were males and the diet consisted mainly of Blattaria and Lepidoptera (Rajemison and Goodman 2007)	eng
136465	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Estimated effective population size using demographic models from two sites was between 61,453 and 134,630 individuals (Russell <em>et al.</em> 2008). A roosting colony of 4 individuals was reported from a cave in Parc National de Namoroka (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
136465	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known because of a lack of information on habitat preferences. Russell <em>et al.</em> (2008) consider bats of the <em>Myzopoda</em> genus to benefit from deforestation.	eng
136466	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has been recorded from the Apurimac protected area. Further research is needed into the distribution, population status, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
136466	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: North of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba, Department of Cusco, Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It might range more widely in the nearby elfin forest, but the extent of its range is not known. It is found at 3,350 m asl (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
136466	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is an arboreal species (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It was collected in primary elfin forest. Nothing further is known about the ecology of this species. Apparently it is hunted by long-tailed weasel (<em>Mustela frenata</em>), of which a specimen was collected nearby (Emmons, 1999).	eng
136466	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is only known from the holotype.	eng
136466	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	The lowland areas of forest, close to where the species was collected, are threatened by the conversion of forest to cropland, especially cocoa.	eng
136467	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. Further studies in to the habitat and ecology of this species is needed. There is a need to actively protect areas of forest on Yamdena Island before it is totally logged.	eng
136467	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This poorly known species is known only from the type series collected on Yamdena island of the Tanimbar Island Group, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It may be present on other islands in the Tanimbar Island Group, however, this needs to be confirmed (K. Helgen pers. comm.).	eng
136467	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a lowland species but has been recorded up to 200 m. It is not known if the species can occur in modified habitats.	eng
136467	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is known only from the type series, the abundance is not known.	eng
136467	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The forest on the island is being clear-cut, however, it seems as though the species can adapt to modified habitat in a similar way to the related <em>Melomys rufescens</em>.	eng
136468	conservation	Marinho-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2009	This species occurs in Brasilia National Park.	eng
136468	distribution	Marinho-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2009	This rodent was known only from the type locality: Brazil, Federal District, Parque Nacional de Brasília, ca. 20 km NW Brasília, 1,100 m (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). A second individual was collected in 2003 outside the park, from the Federal District. The species has a relatively narrow distribution area.	eng
136468	habitat	Marinho-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2009	This species occurs in transition zones between sylvan and pastoral environments of the cerrado, which includes wet and mixed grassland, shrub and low trees.	eng
136468	population	Marinho-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2009	Populations of this species are poorly known. There have not been any efforts to trap this species recently (E. Vieira pers. comm.).	eng
136468	threats	Marinho-Filho, J. & Vieira, E., 2009	This species' habitat has been heavily degraded within its small extant of occurrence, and remaining potential habitat is severely fragmented.	eng
136469	conservation	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>E. munbyanus</em> occurs in several protected areas, including Tubkal National Park, and Djurdjura in eastern Algeria.	eng
136469	distribution	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	<em>Eliomys munbyanus</em> occurs in Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the Spanish North African territories. It is found from sea level to 3,800 m in the High Atlas.	eng
136469	habitat	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It occurs in a wide range of habitats from humid forest to semi-desert (e.g. in the Saharan Atlas), and maybe desert, in coastal dunes, pine forests and mountain cedar forests. They have a preference for rocky habitats, and sometimes enter buildings. Nocturnal and solitary, but little is known of the ecology of this species. Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) recorded two specimens as active in full winter, suggesting that they may not hibernate as is typical of dormice.	eng
136469	population	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Both <em>E. melanurus</em> and <em>E. munbyanus</em> are locally common.	eng
136469	threats	Amori, G., Aulagnier, S., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
136470	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to locate any remaining populations and also to study the natural history of this little-known species.	eng
136470	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype collected from Owi Island in the Paidaido Islands east of Supiori-Biak, Papua Province, Indonesia. It is probably a small island endemic.	eng
136470	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Lunde, D., 2008	Nothing has been recorded about the natural history of this species. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest.	eng
136470	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Lunde, D., 2008	There is no information available on population abundance of this species. Recent collecting efforts have not located this animal.	eng
136470	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Lunde, D., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation. It is susceptible to changes in its habitat since it is known from a small island system.	eng
136471	conservation	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	It is presumably present in protected areas over much of the species range (eg. Ein Gedi Nature Reserve, Israel).	eng
136471	distribution	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This widely distributed species ranges from the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel, through much of the Arabian Peninsula, southern Iraq and Iran to southern Pakistan (Baluchistan and Sindh at 300 to 1,200 m asl) in the east of its range.	eng
136471	habitat	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from several semi-arid or dry habitats, including rocky areas and hilly soils in Mediterranean woodland, dry deciduous forest and scrub forests. In Egypt the species invades human habitations, and it can also be encountered in agricultural areas.	eng
136471	population	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	This species is common in parts of its range (eg. Israel and Jordan). It was considered to be 'near threatened' in the United Arab Emirates by Hornby (1996).	eng
136471	threats	Amr, Z., Shenbrot, G. & Molur, S., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
136472	conservation	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	All species of babirusa were accorded full protection under Indonesian law in 1931 (Dammerman, 1950; Setyodirwiryo, 1959). The species has been included on Appendix I of CITES since 1982, although international trade in this species is not thought to be have been an important issue in recent times (Macdonald 1993). The Togian Islands have been designated a Marine National Park since 2004 (Kepulauan Togean), incorporating 336,773 ha of sea and 25,832 ha of land (http://www.dephut.go.id/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_index.htm – accessed 5 June 2008).	eng
136472	distribution	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	<em>Babyrousa togeanensis</em> is confined to the Togian Archipelago in Indonesia, between the northern and eastern Sulawesi peninsulas (Macdonald, 1993). Babirusa are found on the islands Batudaka, Togean, Talatakoh and Malenge (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136472	habitat	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Babirusa generally inhabit tropical rain forest on the banks of rivers and ponds abounding in water plants. On the Togean islands babirusa were also sighted in mixed gardens, regrowing scrub of former ‘ladang’, secondary forest, village edges, freshwater swamps, and beaches (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).<br/><br/>In common with most of the other suids, babirusa are omnivorous and both wild and captive individuals consume a wide variety of leaf, root, fruit and animal matter (invertebrates and small vertebrates). Babyrusa on Sulawesi visit volcanic salt licks and drink the water and ingest the soil (Clayton, 1996; Leus <em>et al</em>., 2002), and so they might also do this on the Togian Islands. Although detailed studies of their diet in the wild still need to be carried out, a review of the available information from the wild combined with studies on the stomachs and digestive abilities of captive animals suggest that from an anatomical/digestive point of view, they are most likely non-ruminant forestomach fermenting frugivores/concentrate selectors (Leus <em>et al</em>., 2004). Their jaws and teeth are reported to be strong enough to crack very hard nuts with ease. However, babirusa do not exhibit the rooting behaviour typical of other suids because of the absence of a rostral bone in the nose.  They will probe soft sand as well as wet, muddy places for food.<br/><br/>On the Togian islands troops of up to eleven individuals have been observed (Ito <em>et al</em>, 2005). During interview surveys on the Togian islands, 37% of respondents considered babirusa to be solitary, 29.6% reported them to occur in groups composed of one adult pair with a litter and 29.5% of respondents reported a group size of more than 5 typically composed of an adult males with multiple females and their litters (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136472	population	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Selmier (1983) estimated that the total 1978 population on the Togian Islands was in the region of 500 to 1,000 individuals. Recent estimates by Ito (pers. comm., 2008) place the upper limit of population size at about 500. Recent estimation from questionnaires showed local residents did not provide agreement on population size (ranges from <100 to >1,000), but the interview surveys did suggest that at least between 1995 and 2000 there had not been a sharp population decline (Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007).	eng
136472	threats	Macdonald, A.A., Burton, J. & Leus, K., 2008	Babirusa on the Togian islands are susceptible to habitat loss due to forest clearance and forest fires, to disturbance by humans, occasional hunting by the local people if perceived as a threat to crops and predation by dogs (Ito <em>et al</em>, 2005; Akbar <em>et al</em>., 2007, Ito pers. comm., 2008). Hunting for food only occurs in a few non-Muslim village communities. In 1998 two thirds of Malenge Island’s forest was damaged by fire (due to annual climatic variation). No large animal carcasses were found and babirusa have been seen in several of these localities since, but the fire may have impacted food availability for the species (Ito <em>et al</em>., 2005, Akbar <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136473	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in those parts of the range where these apply. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends and minimising or preventing disturbance to roost sites in Europe.	eng
136473	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive, and there is some habitat protection through Natura 2000. Recommended actions include monitoring population trends and minimising or preventing disturbance to roost sites in Europe.	eng
136473	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Plecotus kolombatovici</em> is a Mediterranean endemic with its distribution fragmented into three parts: southern regions of the Balkans and Asia Minor (Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and probably into Israel, Palestine and Jordan), northeast Libya (Cyrenaica) and northwest Africa from Morocco to northwest Libya, it was found in Malta and Pantellaria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs from sea level to higher altitudes in the Rif and Atlas mountains.	eng
136473	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	The distribution of <em>Plecotus kolombatovici</em> is fragmented into three main parts: southern regions of the Balkans and Asia Minor, Libya (Cyrenaika) and northwest Africa from Morocco to Tunisia; it has been found in Malta and Pantellaria (Spitzenberger <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs from sea level to higher altitudes in the Rif and Atlas mountains.	eng
136473	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It forages in a variety of open and semi-closed habitats, mainly steppe but also agricultural landscapes in both lowland and mountain areas. It often forages over small water bodies. It feeds predominantly on moths, but also takes beetles and flies. Summer roosts are primarily rocky cavities, but also dark areas of old monuments, ruins, caverns and buildings. Winter roosts are located in buildings, mines, caves, wells, and trees.	eng
136473	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	It forages in a variety of open and semi-closed habitats, mainly steppe but also agricultural landscapes in both lowland and mountain areas. It often forages over small water bodies. It feeds predominantly on moths, but also takes beetles and flies. Summer roosts are primarily rocky cavities, but also dark areas of old monuments, ruins, caverns and buildings. Winter roosts are located in buildings, mines, caves, wells, and trees.	eng
136473	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, although it is regarded as relatively common in North Africa. In Europe, the total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and it is suspected that the population may be declining. Summer colonies usually number 10-30 females, although a breeding colony of 120 females was found in a building in Croatia (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Winter clusters are smaller (10 ind.), and the species is often solitary at this time of year (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). It is possible that European, African and south-west Asian populations are isolated from each other.	eng
136473	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Little is known about population size and trends in this species, although it is regarded as relatively common in North Africa. In Europe, the total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and it is suspected that the population may be declining. Summer colonies usually number 10-30 females, although a breeding colony of 120 females was found in a building in Croatia (F. Spitzenberger pers. comm. 2006). Winter clusters are smaller (10 individuals), and the species is often solitary at this time of year (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2007). It was thought that European, African and southwest Asian populations were isolated from each other, but range extensions as a result of recent records indicate that they might not be as isolated as was previously thought.	eng
136473	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Pesticides and roost disturbance have a negative impact on the species, but are not thought to be causing significant population declines at the global level. However, in Europe, where this species is largely restricted to coastal areas, disturbance of roost sites by tourists may be a major threat.	eng
136473	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, 2006	Pesticides and roost disturbance have a negative impact on the species, but are not thought to be causing significant population declines at the global level. However, in Europe, where this species is largely restricted to coastal areas, disturbance of roost sites by tourists may be a major threat.	eng
136474	conservation	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It is present in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Further survey work is needed to assess the current population status of this species, and levels of offtake and harvest.	eng
136474	distribution	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Most specimens of this recently described species were collected from Thakhek District, Khammouan Province (Lao PDR), including several localities in the vicinity of the villages of Ban Mauang and Ban Doy, and were also reported to have been trapped at Ban Dong, 23 km from the turning to Gnommalat. Specimens were also extracted from owl pellets within the limestone cave system Tam En (Swift Cave), 67 km north of Mauang and 3 km north east of Ban Tonglom, Hinboun District, Khammouan Province (Lao PDR). Other specimens have been observed at roadside stalls between Thakhek and Gnommalat, that were apparently obtained from limestone outcrops of the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136474	habitat	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	It was trapped in large limestone boulders varying in size up to several metres, on steep slopes surrounding karst formations, where traps were set on bare earth under and between boulders. The slopes were covered in both evergreen and deciduous trees, but with little ground vegetation. Low lying areas away from the karst had been cleared for the cultivation of paddy rice. Villagers reported that the animals were caught only in the vicinity of the karst (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is not clear whether the species is able to use, in addition to scree slopes around the base of the karst, the massive karst limestone formations themselves, nor whether it is able to exist in secondary scrub habitats.<br/>Believed to be nocturnal. Morphological features of the hypsodont molars, capacious stomach, a large caecum and appendix combined with evidence of plant remains in the stomach, suggest that it is primarily vegetarian in its diet. In an analysis of dietary toothwear by Gina Semprebon, which guages the probable diet of the last few meals, fine wear on the teeth suggested that leaves formed the diet of one individual, while there was evidence of grass and seed in the diet of a second specimen (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136474	population	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	There is no reliable information on the population status of this species, but they have been found in bushmeat markets.	eng
136474	threats	Aplin, K. & Lunde, D., 2008	Limestone habitats in general are relatively safe from large scale destruction; however, tree cover in peripheral and accessible karst areas is very vulnerable to loss due to logging and firewood removal. The species is found in bushmeat markets, and it is unclear whether it is able to tolerate the very high levels of offtake that is ubiquitous within its known range.	eng
136475	conservation	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Ranomafana National Park. This species requires further taxonomic work, particularly with regards to the populations in the Masaola Peninsula.	eng
136475	distribution	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is found in the eastern lowland forests from the Masoala Peninsula in the north to Manantantely, near Tolagnaro, in the south (Ryan 2003). It appears to have a patchy distribution over this range. It is present from near sea level to elevations approaching 1,025 m asl.	eng
136475	habitat	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This is a terrestrial, crepuscular species of lowland rainforest. Animals use a number of multi-chambered burrows which are often situated under logs, brush piles and other ground cover. The litter size is presumably one or two young. This species seems to be very sensitive to forest destruction, and has not been found outside of forest.	eng
136475	population	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	Patchily distributed, and more common at lower elevations.	eng
136475	threats	Goodman, S., Rakotondravony, D., Razafimahatratra, E., Andrianjakarivelo, V. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss through clearance for cultivation, and also by deforestation for the production of charcoal.	eng
136476	conservation	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Surveys are required to see if it extends to other north coast ranges.	eng
136476	distribution	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Recorded only from the type locality, Bainyik on the southern slopes of the Princess Alexandra range (Papua New Guinea) at 200 m asl.	eng
136476	habitat	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Found in streams and rivers in lowland tropical forest, possibly extending to higher elevations. Occurs in rural gardens.	eng
136476	population	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Known from two specimens, only one of which has a locality.	eng
136476	threats	Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Possibly threatened by forest clearance, but this needs confirmation.	eng
136477	conservation	Francis, C., 2008	Several of the records are from protected areas although there is habitat loss within these (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136477	distribution	Francis, C., 2008	This species is known from central Lao PDR. The type locality is Ban Keng Bit (18°15'N, 104°34'E), Nam (River) Kading, Bolikhamxai province.	eng
136477	habitat	Francis, C., 2008	There is a lack of knowledge on roosting sites and habitat and ecology for this species (C. Francis pers. comm.). Presumably, it is found in dry forest and it may tolerate some degree of disturbance (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136477	population	Francis, C., 2008	This species is only known from a limited number of records, each with only 2-3 individuals, with limestone cave areas nearby.	eng
136477	threats	Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136478	conservation	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, and ecology of this species.	eng
136478	distribution	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in Yunnan, China (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2008), extending to Myanmar (Akanti, Upper Chindwin), northern Thailand, and northern Viet Nam (Simmons 2005). It can be expected in northern Lao PDR, but this has not been confirmed. Although <em>H. grandis</em> is considered distinct from <em>H. larvatus</em> the geographical range is not clearly understood and it is impossible to draw a range separate from that of <em>larvatus</em> with any degree of confidence.	eng
136478	habitat	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	Nothing is known about habitat preferences that is unequivocally attributable to this species (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136478	population	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	As currently defined this is a common bat throughout much of its range (P. Bates and C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136478	threats	Bates, P., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C. & Csorba, G., 2008	There are no major threats although the species may be affected by hunting in some parts of its range (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136479	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	There is limited knowledge on this newly discovered species, and more information is needed on its biology, ecology, threats, and population size and trends. The known range has several large protected areas. The major taxonomic uncertainties over this group of species needs resolution before a solid conservation assessment can be made.<br/><br/>Muntjac-leather jackets are an almost ubiquitous status appareil in Myitkyina and other Kachin state towns, although there is no information on the proportions of the different muntjac species used in their manufacture (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). Even in advance of any further taxonomic understanding it can be assumed that hunting management activities are likely to be a conservation need for this muntjac; if it is a species with limited resilience to hunting, such measures are urgently needed.<br/><br/>There are surveys currently underway in India (Arunachal Pradesh), especially within the Namdapha Tiger Reserve (Datta <em>et al</em>., 2003).	eng
136479	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	The species is known only from a limited area in northern Myanmar and adjacent India. The known range is in the mountain region between the Mali Kha and Mai Kha rivers of the Hakakaborazi National Park and adjacent Naungmung area of northern Kachin state, Myanmar, south within Kachin state through the Hponkhanrazi range to the Bumpha Bum range (also known as Sumprabum), based on camera-trap data (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. based on WCS unpublished data). Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004) stated there are also specimen records from the Hukaung valley and near Saramati massif, this latter extending the species' range south to 25°42′N, 95°13′E. Records of <em>M. putaoensis</em> from northeastern India (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003) initially identified morphologically have been confirmed by recent genetic analysis of five specimens as <em>M. putaoensis</em> (James <em>et al</em>. press). Specimens came from the villages of Lumpang (96°10′09″E, 27°17′45″E) and of Mossang Putok (96°17′38″E, 27°20′37″E), in the general areas of the northeast part of Namdapha Tiger Reserve and reserve forests to the south-west in the Patkai hills in Jairampur Forest Division (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003, James <em>et al</em>. in press). The species could also occur east from its known range in Myanmar towards the border of China, and possibly into China; Wang (2003) listed the species, without caveat of identification for Yunnan, specifically ‘western parts-Tengchong, Lianghe, Yingjiang and Longchuan’. No details were given for the basis of this statement. The southern extent of the species range is very uncertain as little survey work has been carried out in potentially suitable areas.<br/><br/>The known elevational range based on camera-trap data is from 700 m to 1,220 m asl in Myanmar (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008, based on WCS unpublished data); Indian specimens were reported by hunters to have come from 900–1,100 m asl (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003). Amato <em>et al</em>. (1999b) stated that the leaf muntjac “resides ‘on mountain tops’ while the other two larger sympatric species, the common [northern red] muntjac, <em>M. muntjak</em>, and the [a taxon allied to] black muntjac, <em>M. crinifrons</i., are found lower down”. Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) made a similar statement that the species was only found on “distant hilltops” away from village areas from 1,600 to 2,000 m asl. These statements are not consistent with more specific information from Myanmar and India, above.	eng
136479	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	All known localities are in forest and like other muntjacs the leaf muntjac is probably tied to forest. There is no information available on its tolerance to degradation and fragmentation. The species occurs sympatrically with northern red muntjac but is probably largely allopatric with <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, with the latter apparently at higher altitudes (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). The species apparently feeds on a range of plant materials, including fruits; an examination of stomach contents by Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) revealed mostly fruit.	eng
136479	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	There is no information on the global population size or trends for this species, but camera-trapping within the species' range has captured it with similar frequency to northern red muntjac, suggesting that it is likely to be naturally abundant (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Sample sizes are too small to say anything more conclusive (R.J. Timmins and Than Zaw pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Villagers’ assessments of hunting levels suggest that the species is relatively abundant but decreasing over time (Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
136479	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Zaw, T., 2008	The major threat to leaf muntjac may be hunting, not targeted on this species, which is heavy throughout in its Indian and Myanmar range (Datta <em>et al</em>. 2003; Than Zaw and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006), but the species' resilience to such hunting is unknown. The presumed Indian range is within areas of rapid habitat loss and human expansion; much of the Myanmar range is within an area which has seen remarkable stability of forest cover (Renner <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this healthy situation may change in the near future, as some other forests of northern Kachin (which have not been surveyed for the species, and so may hold, or have held, it) have recently been devastated (Eames 2007). Although habitat needs, and thus the effects of forest fragmentation and degradation are essentially unknown, it is unlikely that viable populations can survive outright forest conversion. It is also likely that in areas where forest is being fragmented, negative effects of hunting on populations of leaf deer are compounded and populations decline, whatever intrinsic ability the species has to use fragmented areas.<br/><br/>Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) suggested that this species and other muntjacs are less adaptable than other deer, and that this might explain the ‘restricted’ ranges of this and other small muntjacs. However, the thee most widespread muntjacs, <em>M. muntjak</em>, <em>M. vaginalis</em>, and <em>M. reevesi, are very successful: they use a wide variety of forested habitats, and are well able to exploit secondary and degraded habitats. Secondly, and contrary to the statements of Rabinowitz <em>et al</em>. (1999) and others, which have not taken into account the patchiness of suitable surveying, the ‘small’ muntjacs comprising the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex are not particularly restricted in range, but are rather widespread in montane areas of northern southeast Asia. The lack of evidence of the complex from many areas, giving an apparent disjunct distribution, is much more likely to reflect the paucity of suitable surveys than the genuine distribution pattern. Survey work in southwest and southeast China, much of Myanmar, the Himalayan region and northern and western Thailand have certainly been insufficient to conclude anything about the range of this species-complex in those regions.</em>	eng
136480	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It occurs in the Rio Biseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136480	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from the Pampa del Cuy Valley, in upper montane elfin forest from 3,250 to 3,380 m, north central Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136480	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species co-occurs with <em>Thomasomys apeco </em>(Gardner and Romo, 1993). Little is known about this species. It is terrestrial, and occurs in montane forest and close to paramo (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136480	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136480	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136481	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in several protected areas (e.g. Madidi National Park in Bolivia). Maintenance of savanna habitats may be needed to prevent forest encroachment.	eng
136481	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, and possibly northern Argentina (see Galliari <em>et al.</em>, 1996) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In southern Peru it is known from the Pampas del Heath (Pacheco <em>et al</em>. 1995). It is found at elevations from 300 to 2,030 m.	eng
136481	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has been recorded from a number of habitats including cerrado, chaco, savanna and open areas. It can be found in disturbed areas.	eng
136481	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136481	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J., Bernal, N., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is locally threatened in savanna habitats through clearance for cattle ranching.	eng
136482	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136482	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from Riama island (Indonesia), a small island off the west coast of the larger Pulau Selaru in the Tanimbar Island Group (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The distribution of this species is poorly known, and it seems likely that it may also be present on other islands in the Tanimbar Island Group, although this requires confirmation. The species has been recorded from sea level, and may occur up to a maximum of 200 m on Riama Island.	eng
136482	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The habitat requirements of this species are not well known. It is unclear as to whether it is associated with forest habitats, related species can be found in grassland habitats including those within modified areas.	eng
136482	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	While this species is poorly known, related animals can be common.	eng
136482	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Forest habitat on Riama island is decreasing through logging, and this may be impacting the species, although this requires confirmation. It is a small species that is not utilised.	eng
136483	conservation	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G, Christoff, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas in Argentina and Brazil (Itatiaia National Park, A. Langguth pers. comm.).	eng
136483	distribution	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G, Christoff, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs from southeastern Brazil (Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul States) to northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province) (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136483	habitat	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G, Christoff, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	This rodent occurs in temperate climate Araucaria forests and Atlantic rainforest with fields at about 900 m altitude in above mean sea level.	eng
136483	population	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G, Christoff, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species is abundant throughout the range (A. Christoff and  A. Langguth pers. comm.).	eng
136483	threats	Pardinas, U., D'Elia, G, Christoff, A. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species has no reported threats (Christoff and Langguth pers. comm.).	eng
136484	conservation	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in Guaramacal and Yacambu National Parks. The species would benefit from a reduction in habitat loss close to protected areas (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001)	eng
136484	distribution	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is known from the Venezuelan Andes (Lara and Trujillo States), 1,600 to 3,230 m, western Venezuela (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The type locality is Venezuela, Lara State, Parque Nacional Yacambu, 9 km SE Sanare, El Blanquito, 1,600 m; 09°40'N, 69°37'W (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
136484	habitat	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The species is present in cloud forest and paramo (Ochoa <em>et al.</em>, 2001) and is almost entirely terrestrial and nocturnal. It is presumably omnivorous, but has some preference to insects (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
136484	population	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is locally common within remaining undistrurbed habitat within its restricted distribution (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
136484	threats	Ochoa, J., Aguilera, M., Gómez-Laverde, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	The major threats are lost habitat in the Lara and Trujillo States close to the protected areas (J. Ochoa pers. comm.).	eng
136485	conservation	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species occurs in some protected areas.	eng
136485	distribution	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is known only from the foothills and the crest of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, the disjunct Serrania de la Macarena, and from western and northern Venezuela. The known range of this species in Venezuela includes the foothills of the Serrania de Perija, the lowlands of the western Maracaibo Basin, the Cordillera de Merida, and the Cordillera de la Costa (Voss and de Silva, 2001). It has an altitudinal range of 54 to 2,600 m asl.	eng
136485	habitat	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species inhabits lowland rainforest, but at higher elevations the typical habitat is probably cloud forest (Voss and de Silva, 2001). To the best of our knowledge, no specimens have been taken in unforested (e.g., savanna or paramo) landscapes. In a freshly dissected specimen the stomach was full of brownish paste, possibly consisting of chewed bark; no insect parts, seeds, or other identifiable food fragments were observed (Voss and da Silva, 2001).	eng
136485	population	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is apparently rare, known only from a few specimens; however, like other species of porcupine, the species could be just difficult to record.	eng
136485	threats	Delgado, C. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species is threatened in parts of its range by deforestation.	eng
136486	conservation	Urbani, B., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including:<br/><br/>El Avila National Park (85,192 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Henri Pittier National Park (107,800 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Aguaro-Guariquito National Park (569,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Sierra Nevada National Park (190,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Guatopo National Park (92,640 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>Macarao National Park (15,000 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982)<br/>El Guacharo National Park (15,500 ha) (Venezuela, INPARQUES, 1982).<br/><br/>  This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Alouatta seniculus</span>).	eng
136486	distribution	Urbani, B., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Alouatta arctoidea</em> is endemic to Venezuela. Its range, following Hill (1962) and Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987), is along the Venezuelan coast, east of Lake Maracaibo from Falcón to the state of Miranda. Bodini and Pérez-Hernández (1987) indicated that the howler monkey north of the Río Orinoco and west through Apure basin north of the Rio Meta, widely distributed throughout the Venezuelan <em>llanos</em>, is a distinct, as yet undescribed, form. Linares (1998), however, considered it to  be <em>A. arctoidea</em>. Linares (1998) descibed its range as the Cordillera Oriental, Cordillera Central and the Coro System along northern Venezuela, extending south throughout the <em>llanos</em> to the Río Orinoco, between 10 m and 1,160 m above sea level. To date, the species is known only from Colombia, but it may extend into Colombia in Arauca.	eng
136486	habitat	Urbani, B., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species is found in the llanos (plains), in deciduous forest patches and gallery forest. Long-term studies of this species have been carried out at Hato Masaguaral, Guarico, in seasonally inundated "<em>bajo llanos</em>". Troth (1979) describes the vegetation on the ranch. It is otherwise known from the biogeographic region of the North coast range (approximately 62ºW to 69ºW), where there are humid rain forest patches, either lowland tropical or pre-montane, resulting from orographic rainfall. Some mountains rise to elevations exceeding 2,000 m and in some ranges there are true montane cloud forests (Eisenberg and Redford 1979). <br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surrounds the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber.  It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 km (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988).  Mean group size in Hato Masaguaral, Guarico State, Venezuela, ranged 7.7 to 10.5 at various times in the period 1969 to 1984 (Crockett and Eisenberg 1984). Mean numbers of adult males per group ranged 1.1 to 1.8, and adult females from 2.3 to 2.9. Group size in another ranch in the llanos, Hato El Frío, was 7.6 (Braza <em>et al.</em> 1981). In the red howlers, there is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) examined seasonal variation in births in red howlers from northern Venezuela, and found that they were less frequent during the early wet season (weaning would occur at the time of greatest food shortage). Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Crockett and Rudran (1987a,b) reviewed long-term demographic data on births at Hato Masaguaral, examining seasonality and interannual and habitat differences. Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982).<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Venezuela<br/>Adult male 6.31 kg (n=64) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988)<br/>Adult female 4.67 kg (n=46) (Rodríguez and Boher 1988).	eng
136486	population	Urbani, B., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Between 15 to 118 individuals/km² have been recorded in Venezuela (Defler 2003). Rudran and Fernandez-Duque (2003) report on 30 years of demographic data on this species at the Hato Masaguaral, Guarico State, Venezuela. Habitats there include a continous gallery forest along the Río Guarico and forest patches in seasonally inundated grasslands. Populations on the ranch ranged from a peak of 346 in 1989/1990 to 99 in 1999; population densities from 223 to 58 individuals/km². Population increases were found to result in part from increases in group size and in part from increases in the numbers of groups. The authors fojund that density was a good predictor of the size of established and new groups. A gradual increase from 146 in 1970 to 346 in 1989/1990 was partly due to habitat regeneration. The decline in the population from 1990 to 1999 was believed to result from disease and food shortage, the latter resulting in stress, longer distances travelled to find food, less nutritious diets, and increased susceptibilty to botfly infestations. Short-term fluctuations were related to rainfall, drier years reducing population growth. Crockett and Eisenberg (1986) and Crockett (1996) examine particular aspects of demography, habitat and group size in this species.	eng
136486	threats	Urbani, B., Boubli, J.-P. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	The main threat to this species is hunting.	eng
136487	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs close to two ecological protected areas: Antisana and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserves (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136487	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the crest of cordillera Oriental, 3,350-3,700 m asl, north central Ecuador (Napo and Pichincha Provinces) (Voss, 2003; Musser and Carleton, 2005). The species is known from a single location.	eng
136487	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species has been captured in grassy paramo, in shrubby paramo/forest ecotone or in grassy glades surrounded by forest, and in deep inside Subalpine Rain Forest. Most recorded captures were on the ground, on special rabbit trails or runways through dense grass or low herbs, and along the wet margins of small streams. Other muroid species that were trapped syntopically (in the same habitats) with T. ucucha include Akodon latebricola, Akodon mollis, Anotomys leander, Chilomys instans, Microryzomys altissimus, M. minutus, Neusticomys monticolus, T. aureus, T. baeops, T. cinnameus, T. erro, and T. paramorum (Voss, 2003).	eng
136487	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is frequently captured but only at a single location (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136487	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136488	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas (Maya Biosphere Reserve), and is listed under Mexican regulation as subject of special protection.	eng
136488	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and adjacent Belize and Guatemala. Also it is known from owl pellets collected in Guerrero, Mexico (Choate, 1970). It occurs in lowlands mainly below 100 m asl (650 m asl in Guerrero) (Reid, 1997).	eng
136488	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	It can be found in lowland, dry scrub, deciduous forest, and seasonally dry evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology and ecology is poorly known.	eng
136488	population	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	This shrew is locally common (Reid, 1997).	eng
136488	threats	Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C., Woodman, N. & Matson, J., 2008	Deforestation, particularly in the Mexican part of its range where it is reported at around 14-20% loss (Alfredo Cuaron and Paloma Carton de Grammont pers. comm.).	eng
136489	conservation	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Zambales Mountains have no designated protected areas. We recommend that a national park or other protected area be designated in Zambales that includes all types of habitats at all elevations, to assure protection of this newly documented center of mammalian endemism, including the highly distinctive <em>R. tapulao</em>. Additional basic research needed on this species is needed (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136489	distribution	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>Rhynchomys tapulao</em> is known only from the type locality on Mt. Tapulao, Zambales province, Luzon island (Philippines) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007). It may occur on several peaks within the mountain chain (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136489	habitat	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>Rhynchomys tapulao</em> was recorded in mossy forest at 2,024 m, near the peak of Mt. Tapulao. It appears to be nocturnal–crepuscular and occur naturally at low densities. Stomachs of two specimens contained fragments of earthworms, centipedes, collembolans, ground beetles (<em>Staphylinidae</em>), and unidentified insect larvae (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136489	population	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Current data on the new species suggests that they are not abundant and that they are probably restricted to montane habitats (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136489	threats	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The montane habitats are not under substantial threat from logging or agriculture, but plans for mining (a combination of metals, possible cromite) in Zambales pose some reason for concern (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001). Mines that were once active and then abandoned may have started up again (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136490	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136490	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in China and Kazakhstan (Smith and Xie 2008). In China it is present in the northern region of Xinjiang province (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs allopatrically to <em>Spermophilus alashanicus</em> and <em>S. pallidicauda</em> (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136490	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are few data regarding this species, but it is thought to occupy dry steppes and semi-desert brushlands (Smith and Xie 2008). It is a burrow-dwelling species, in which it will hibernate if temperatures are low enough or retreat to if it is too hot (Smith and Xie 2008). Burrows are generally located at the base of shrubs (Smith and Xie 2008).<br/><br/>It is primarily vegetarian, feeding opportunistically on seasonal vegetation (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136490	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136490	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136491	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Manombo Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136491	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Manombo Special Reserve region in south-eastern Madagascar. The precise northern and southern limits of the range are unknown, but it could range south of the Manampatrana River and north of the Mananara River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136491	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of moist lowland rainforest.	eng
136491	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136491	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136492	conservation	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	More research is needed on this species.	eng
136492	distribution	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Brazil.	eng
136492	habitat	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Little is known oif the habitat and ecology of this species. It is suspected to use remnant of lowland tropical moist forest.	eng
136492	population	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species.	eng
136492	threats	Brito, D., Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The area where this species occurs has been very heavily converted to agriculture and pasture.	eng
136493	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136493	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has been recorded only from Kai Besar island (Kai Islands, Indonesia).	eng
136493	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species. Presumably, it occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forest.	eng
136493	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only by two skins and a single skull (Groves and Flannery 1994). The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
136493	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136494	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136494	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Northwestern Argentina (Simmons 2005).	eng
136494	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
136494	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very rare in southern Argentina (Barquez pers. comm.). Endangered because its low population density and habitat impact. In Bolivia is restricted to very nearly places (Anderson 1997)	eng
136494	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136495	conservation	Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. There is a need for additional taxonomic research into this probable species complex. In South Asia, additional research is needed into the species conservation status, with public awareness initiatives additionally recommended (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136495	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	In view of the species wide range, it seems probable that it is present in many protected areas. There is a need for additional taxonomic research into this probable species complex. In South Asia, additional research is needed into the species conservation status, with public awareness initiatives additionally recommended (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136495	distribution	Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Thedistribution range of this species is clouded by ongoing taxonomic problems, however, it has presently been widely recorded from the Caucasus in the west of its range, through much of Central Asia and western and central China, being found as far south as northern India and Nepal. In the Caucasus, it is likely present in northeastern Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and the Caspian region of northern Iran. In Central Asia, the species appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. In China, it has been recorded from Qinghai, Gansu and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008), and is possible present in Xizang. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central Nepal) in South Asia (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). Elevation details are not known.	eng
136495	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	Thedistribution range of this species is clouded by ongoing taxonomic problems, however, it has presently been widely recorded from the Caucasus in the west of its range, through much of Central Asia and western and central China, being found as far south as northern India and Nepal. In the Caucasus, it is likely present in northeastern Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and the Caspian region of northern Iran. In Central Asia, the species appears to be distributed in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. In China, it has been recorded from Qinghai, Gansu and Xinjiang (Smith and Xie 2008), and is possible present in Xizang. In South Asia, this species has been recorded from India (Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya and West Bengal) and Nepal (Central Nepal) in South Asia (Srinivasulu <em>et al</em>. in press). Elevation details are not known.	eng
136495	habitat	Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of often arid or mountainous habitats, including forest, shrubland, grassland areas and desert. It has also been recorded from rural garden and urban areas in South Asia. Roosts in cracks in in buildings, rocks, caves and old mines (Smith and Xie 2008; C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008; Katerina Tsytsulina pers. comm. 8 May 2008). Animals usually begin feeding after dusk, hunting flying insects low above ground. The flight is fast and manoeuvring. It is most probably non-migratory, but populations can relocate to different roosting sites if they are disturbed. Winters in underground shelters. The species reproduces once a year, giving birth to a single young.	eng
136495	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This species is found in a wide variety of often arid or mountainous habitats, including forest, shrubland, grassland areas and desert. It has also been recorded from rural garden and urban areas in South Asia. Roosts in cracks in in buildings, rocks, caves and old mines (Smith and Xie 2008; C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008; Katerina Tsytsulina pers. comm. 8 May 2008). Animals usually begin feeding after dusk, hunting flying insects low above ground. The flight is fast and manoeuvring. It is most probably non-migratory, but populations can relocate to different roosting sites if they are disturbed. Winters in underground shelters. The species reproduces once a year, giving birth to a single young.	eng
136495	population	Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widely distributed, generally common species. In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136495	population	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	This is a widely distributed, generally common species. In South Asia, the abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136495	threats	Temple, H., Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. However, in South Asia (and possibly other parts of the range) it is  presumed that the species is probably locally affected by loss of or damage to roost sites and landscape changes (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136495	threats	Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Molur, S. & Srinivasulu, C., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. However, in South Asia (and possibly other parts of the range) it is  presumed that the species is probably locally affected by loss of or damage to roost sites and landscape changes (C. Srinivasulu pers. comm. 24 February 2008).	eng
136496	conservation	Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	Three of the four populations in Thailand occur in protected areas (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Further research is needed on the range and population status of this species.	eng
136496	distribution	Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	This species occurs in Thailand, western Malaysia and adjacent small islands. It is also present in south Viet Nam but the<br/>exact locality is not known and so is not mapped here.	eng
136496	habitat	Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	It is found in mixed pristine deciduous forest in west Thailand, and in the south in pristine lowland dipterocarp forest (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). In Malaysia it is primarily found in lowland and hill forest, and found roosting in crevices in rock boulders, and other individuals have been found from palms in understorey (Kingston <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136496	population	Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	In Thailand it is locally rare (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Surveys in areas surrounding pristine forest in Thailand have failed to find the species in degraded habitats, it is probable that they would have been found in these areas if they were there. The population at the type locality is no extirpated (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). It is rare in Malaysia (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
136496	threats	Bumrungsri, S. & Csorba, G., 2008	Forest loss due to logging, agriculture, plantations and fires is a major threat for this species. The cave locality in the north of Thailand is disturbed by tourism (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.).	eng
136497	conservation	Batin, G. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is listed (under <em>Manis javanicus</em>) on CITES Appendix II. This species is protected under a ban on the collection of any form of wildlife in the Province of Palawan, the entire province having been declared a game refuge and bird sanctuary in 1969 (Proclamations 219 and 530-B) (CITES 2000). There is further research needed into population size and trends, as well as the magnitude and types of threats to this species. There is currently no evidence of international trade in this species, but in the future this should be tightly monitored given the declines of other Asian pangolins.	eng
136497	distribution	Batin, G. & Widmann, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Palawan faunal region. The species is known from mainland Palawan and adjacent islands (Busuanga, Culion and Calauit), and has also been introduced to Apulit Island (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998; Schlitter 2005).	eng
136497	habitat	Batin, G. & Widmann, P., 2008	This species is found in lowland primary and secondary forests, grassland/secondary growth mosaics, mixed mosaics of agricultural lands, and scrubland adjacent to secondary forests (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The upper elevational limit is not known. As with other pangolins, this species feeds on termites and ants.	eng
136497	population	Batin, G. & Widmann, P., 2008	There is very little information available on the population of any species of Asian pangolins. This species is rarely observed due to its secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits, and there is not enough research on population densities or global population (WCMC <em>et al</em>. 1999; CITES 2000). The species is suspected to be moderately common across its range, with sometimes localized distribution, although it is not often sighted (Hoogstraal, 1951; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). According to local hunters, the species population is in decline (Batin pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136497	threats	Batin, G. & Widmann, P., 2008	The species is affected by deforestation and it is also hunted for its skin/scales, which are used to treat asthma, and for its meat (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). There are reports that the species has been seen for sale in Puerto Princesa, as well as reports that the it is hunted in places on Palawan such as Taytay, in logged lowland forest (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species is described by locals as fairly common, but under moderate hunting pressure (Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004). The scales are also presumably in the Chinese medicine trade, as part of the shift to market economies among Tagbanua and other ethnic groups on Palawan (Lacerna and Widmann 1999; Esselstyn <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136498	conservation	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	This species is found in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
136498	conservation	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	This species is found in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are recommended.	eng
136498	distribution	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Endemic to Europe, where it occurs in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia. In Austria, it is found in two isolated localities and also found along the Italian and Slovenian border (Spitzenberger 2002). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,700 m (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2006). One record for Serbia (B. Kryštufek pers. comm. 2007)	eng
136498	distribution	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	Endemic to Europe, where it occurs in Austria, eastern Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia, and Croatia. In Austria, it is found in two isolated localities and also found along the Italian and Slovenian border (Spitzenberger 2002). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,700 m (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2006). One record for Serbia (B. Kry?tufek pers. comm. 2007)	eng
136498	habitat	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
136498	habitat	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It inhabits pastures, meadows, open woodland and woodland clearings, preferring open areas with dense herbaceous vegetation to mature forest. In the high mountains it is also found in dwarf pine <em>Pinus mugo</em>, and in the coastal lowlands it occurs dry meadows, vineyards, and hedgerows (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
136498	population	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline (Kryštufek 1999).	eng
136498	population	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	It is locally common in at least parts of its range, and there is no evidence of population decline (Kry?tufek 1999).	eng
136498	threats	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning.	eng
136498	threats	Spitzenberger, F., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Palomo, L.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is sometimes considered a pest, and is controlled through poisoning.	eng
136499	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136499	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Southwest Catamarca Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). Known only from the type locality (Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
136499	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136499	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136499	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136500	conservation	Nijman, V. & Lammertink, M., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II, but is not protected by national law. Lammertink <em>et al</em>. (2003) recommend, for the conservation of the species, the implementation by the district government of Natuna of two strict conservation areas on the island, and the maintaining of a larger area of sustainably used natural forest around Mount Bedung.	eng
136500	distribution	Nijman, V. & Lammertink, M., 2008	This species is confined to Bunguran Island, in the northern Natuna Islands off the northwestern coast of Borneo, Indonesia (Groves 2001).	eng
136500	habitat	Nijman, V. & Lammertink, M., 2008	This species is reported from a range of habitats, including primary and logged forest and rubber plantations (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136500	population	Nijman, V. & Lammertink, M., 2008	Groups average 3.5±SD 2.0 individuals and occur in a density of 2.3±SD 1.1 groups/km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolation of the density estimates to the entire island indicates that <10,000 individuals remain in two subpopulations (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136500	threats	Nijman, V. & Lammertink, M., 2008	The species is threatened in part by the demand for captive individuals as pets but mostly by continuing degradation and reduction of forest (Lammertink <em>et al</em>. 2003), and perhaps by the presence of offshore petroleum production activities and defense facilities.	eng
136501	conservation	Patton, J.L. & Bantel, C.G., 2008	Occurs in many protected areas.	eng
136501	distribution	Patton, J.L. & Bantel, C.G., 2008	Known from the Amazonian region of Peru (Ucayali and Loreto Departments), and adjacent portions of Brazil (Acre and Amazonas states) (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999; Emmons and Feer, 1997; Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Gardner, 2007).	eng
136501	habitat	Patton, J.L. & Bantel, C.G., 2008	When in sympatry with <em>P. opossum</em> along the Rio Jura, <em>P. mcilhennyi</em> occurs in terra firma forests, while <em>P. opossum</em> occurs in varzea forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136501	population	Patton, J.L. & Bantel, C.G., 2008	Locally common, more common in upland forests (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136501	threats	Patton, J.L. & Bantel, C.G., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136502	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	There is a need to reduce habitat loss and review the species distribution.	eng
136502	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Argentina, S Bolivia, S Peru (Simmons 2005).	eng
136502	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Found only in forests.	eng
136502	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	It is locally not abundant, threatened in Yungas.	eng
136502	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
136503	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for its protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats and Species Directive. Two of the three known localities are in the National Park of Gennargentu and the Orosei Gulf. Recommended research actions include surveys and monitoring to determine distribution, status, and population trend. Protection of roosting and foraging habitat is also recommended.	eng
136503	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Plecotus sardus</em> is restricted to the island of Sardinia (Italy). The three known localities are situated near to the coast or at low elevations.	eng
136503	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It occurs in the most wooded areas parts of Sardinia, and roosts in natural caves. Two of the three known localities are situated in karstic areas, one locality lies near the sea coast (Mucedda <em>et al.</em> 2002). Artificial habitats are not used. It is a sedentary species.	eng
136503	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species was first described in 2002 and is poorly known. It is considered to be rare (known only from five specimens).	eng
136503	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Juste, J., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Roost disturbance (as a result of tourism) and habitat loss (caused by forestry management) are the main threats to the species.	eng
136504	conservation	Helgen, K., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. A proposed protected area (Pulau Kobroor) is within the general area where the species was found. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats of this species.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136504	distribution	Helgen, K., 2008	This species is apparently restricted to the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Simmons 2005).	eng
136504	habitat	Helgen, K., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology of this species.	eng
136504	population	Helgen, K., 2008	This species has not been collected since the nineteenth century. The complete absence of twentieth-century records for P. a. aruensis is concerning, and expeditions to the Aru Islands sponsored by the Western Australian Museum in the early 1990s did not encounter it. However, a single toothless jaw from a kitchen midden collected by P.A. Woolley at Namara on the island of Kobroor in October/November 1992 probably represents this species (field number NA/36, unregistered lot at CSIRO) (K. Helgen pers. comm.). It is a very large and colourful bat and so hence it is potentially a target of concerted hunting. It could possibly be extinct.	eng
136504	threats	Helgen, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. This species is a potential target for hunting, and this may have resulted in the species decline, but this has not been confirmed.	eng
136505	conservation	Solari, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Occurs in a few protected areas.	eng
136505	distribution	Solari, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Biogeographic Choco - western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. Occurs from 0-500 m asl (Solari pers. comm.)	eng
136505	habitat	Solari, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Lowland moist tropical humid forests of the Choco.	eng
136505	population	Solari, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Rare.	eng
136505	threats	Solari, S. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
136506	conservation	Pacheco, V., Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas-Pava, P. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in a protected area. Further surveys on habitat, ecology, taxonomy and distribution are required for this species.	eng
136506	distribution	Pacheco, V., Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas-Pava, P. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes of west and central Colombia (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It has an elevation range from 1,828 to 3,150 m; the distribution is likely to be larger than currently known (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136506	habitat	Pacheco, V., Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas-Pava, P. & Delgado, C., 2008	It occurs in paramo, montane forest habitats, and secondary forest.	eng
136506	population	Pacheco, V., Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas-Pava, P. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is scarce throughout its range.	eng
136506	threats	Pacheco, V., Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas-Pava, P. & Delgado, C., 2008	Deforestation is affecting its conservation.	eng
136507	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Nujiang and Tongbiguan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), and is likely to be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, distribution, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136507	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in southern China and the extreme northeast region of Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it is known from the area west of the Salween river valley in Yunnan province (Smith and Xie 2008). Its range may extend to southern Yunnan and the east-central regions of Myanmar (Musser and Carleton 2005). It occupies elevations ranging from 2,300-3,200 m asl (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136507	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	It inhabits dense montane forest at high elevations, preferring steep slopes and banks (Smith and Xie 2008). There are few data regarding the natural history of this species.	eng
136507	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136507	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
136508	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is not yet recorded from a protected area, but known records are adjacent to several and it is presumed to occur there.	eng
136508	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only in eastern Peru. There are only two general locations known. The type locality was identified as the Valle de Occobamba, Cuzco, Peru (Gardner, 2007). There is also a locality at 860 m at Moyobamba, San Martin, Peru (Osgood, 1913). There are records from an expedition to Vilcabamba (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2001) that likely represent this species (Solari pers. comm.). The species likely is found more extensively, perhaps into Bolivia (Solari pers. comm.). It is found from 300 to 2,700 m.	eng
136508	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is a low and upper montane forest. It is restricted to forest, there are no records from secondary forest though may persist there.	eng
136508	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136508	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats. The northern locality has habitat loss, though the southern known range is relatively intact.	eng
136509	conservation	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	The range of this species overlaps with protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history of this species.	eng
136509	distribution	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, Australia, where it ranges from the Mitchell River and near Mount Carbine, west to Mungana and south to the Burdekin River near Mount Garnet (Eldridge and Close 2008). It is found from sea level to 1,000 m asl.	eng
136509	habitat	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This is a poorly known species, associated with areas of rocky hills, cliffs, and gorges.	eng
136509	population	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	This species is common.	eng
136509	threats	Winter, J., Burnett, S. & Martin, R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. Much of their range around Mareeba is subject to agricultural and rural development, and is in areas where predation by dogs poses a threat.	eng
136510	conservation	Goodman, S., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the distribution, habitat preferences,<br/>and densities of the species (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).	eng
136510	distribution	Goodman, S., 2008	This species is known only from the Forêt d'Andaladomo in the Forest des Mikea, Province de Toliara, south-eastern Madagascar. It was collected at about 80 m asl (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005). Without further inventory work it cannot be discerned if this species occurs elsewhere in the region (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136510	habitat	Goodman, S., 2008	The single known specimen was collected on the ground in an isolated fragment of dry deciduous forest growing on red sands. The area of capture was surrounded by small bushes and succulent euphorbias (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).	eng
136510	population	Goodman, S., 2008	It is known only from the holotype collected in 2003. This single animal was the only individual captured in the course of a total of 3100 trap nights accrued. However, the fact that only a single individual was obtained during the Foret des Mikea survey, that took place at the end of the rainy season, does not necessarily mean that this species is rare (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005).	eng
136510	threats	Goodman, S., 2008	The local forest habitat is partially degraded, mostly associated with cleared and abandoned areas for growing maize (Goodman and Soarimalala 2005). The Foret des Mikea, one of the last remaining tracts of extensive forest habitat in this region of Madagascar, is not protected and has extensive anthropogenic pressures in the form of selective logging, cattle pasture, and clearing for agricultural crops.	eng
136511	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Potentially it occurs in Parque Nacional das Emas. Its range is probably wider; so research is needed to determine its actual distribution.	eng
136511	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species was only recently described and is known only from the type locality: Brazil, Goiás State, Jaborandi Municipality, Fazenda Sertão do Formoso (formerly Fazenda Jucurutu), in the Cerrado, central Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136511	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	Occurs in Cerrado habitat (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136511	population	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is locally common (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136511	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The major threats are agriculture expansion, cattle and the growing soybean agroindustry.	eng
136512	conservation	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is presumably present in the Cameron Highlands Wildlife Sanctuary, and may be present in other protected areas within the region. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species and its tolerance to habitat modification.	eng
136512	distribution	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found only in the Cameron Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia in an elevational range from 1,520 to 2,010 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136512	habitat	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in primary montane tropical forest (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
136512	population	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It may be common as it is known from large series of specimens.	eng
136512	threats	Musser, G. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The species is threatened by conversion of habitat to cultivated use (including vegetable and tea plantations) at elevations below 1,700 m. The habitat at elevations above 1,700 m is threatened by conversion to tea plantations and infrastructure development (eg. roads).	eng
136513	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136513	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This Central African species is distributed from central and eastern Cameroon, though southern Central African Republic and northern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (north of the Congo Basin), to southern Sudan in the east of its range.	eng
136513	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It has been recorded from moist savanna grasslands and forest margin areas. It appears to prefers sandy soils on valley slopes above riverine forest, with dense tall grasses and termite mounds.	eng
136513	population	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is generally uncommon or rare.	eng
136513	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
136514	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	The species is found in many protected areas throughout its range. Further studies into the taxonomy and migration routes of this species are needed.	eng
136514	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This widely distributed species ranges from the Caucasus through to South Asia, Peninsular Southeast Asia, China, North and South Korea. It has been recorded also over much of the Philippines, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali (all Indonesia), and from the island of Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). In Japan, it is found on Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima Island, and Sado Island (Abe <em>et al.</em>, 2005).<br/>Confusion between <em>M. schreibersii</em> and <em>M. magnater</em> makes the mapping of the distribution extremely difficult. Future research may show that this species is less abundant in Southeast Asia than previously thought.	eng
136514	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	It forages in a variety of open and semi-open natural and artificial habitats, including suburban areas. It has an altitudinal range of sea level up to 2,120 m asl in southern parts of its range. It feeds mainly on moths, and occasionally on flies and spiders. It is a colonial species that roosts almost exclusively in caves and mines (although it has occasionally been found in man made tunnels), often in large mixed colonies with other cave-dwelling bat species. Large and warm caves are preferred. Solitary animals and small groups may sometimes occupy other types of shelter. In winter it hibernates in underground sites (usually large caves with a constant microclimate). It is a migrant species which changes its roosts frequently, long-distance movements occur occasionally.	eng
136514	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is widely distributed and common. Summer breeding colonies typically number 500-10,000 individuals (formerly up to 100,000 in India). It winters in clusters of at least a hundred individuals. Population trends vary in different parts of the range: in the Middle East it appears to be stable.<br/>It is the second most common bat species in Iran, with large colonies of thousands of individuals (A. Karatash and M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005), and the population in Iran is probably stable (M. Sharifi pers. comm. 2005), although there is a possible historical record of a mass mortality event in Iran. Populations in the Caucasus are considered near threatened (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). In Indonesia, it is a locally common species throughout its range. In Japan it can be found in colonies of over several hundred bats.	eng
136514	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are overall no major threats to this widespread species. In the Caucasus, disturbance caused by tourism in caves is a problem (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm. 2005). There is a possible historical record of an incidence of mass mortality in Iran, and many more mass recent mass mortalities in Europe within the closely related <em>M. schreibersii</em>, as well as in Australia with <em>M. oceanensis</em>. A meeting was held at the 9th European Bat Conference to discuss these incidents. Veterinary investigations in Spain did not identify any disease as the cause of the die offs, and there is increasing belief that the die offs are caused by bad weather in late winter/early spring.	eng
136515	conservation	MacPhee, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	No conservation actions are required. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136515	distribution	MacPhee, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Originally known only from subfossil remains uncovered at Long Mile Cave in Jamaica, but additional cranial and postcranial material attributed to <em>Xenothrix</em> has since been recovered from elsewhere on Jamaica (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991, MacPhee and Horovitz 2004).	eng
136515	habitat	MacPhee, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>Xenothrix</em> is known only as a fossil taxon. It has traditionally been regarded as a frugivore. Several features of the known limb skeleton suggest a slow quadrupedal locomotor style that has no evident counterpart among extant platyrrhines, but was possibly somewhat convergent on sloths (MacPhee and Fleagle 1991).	eng
136515	population	MacPhee, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Extinct. It is believed to have survived until after 1500, perhaps until some time after 1700 (MacPhee and Fleming 1999).	eng
136515	threats	MacPhee, R. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The reasons for the extinction of this species in Jamaica are not known.	eng
136516	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
136516	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is found from northeast Colombia and northwest Venezuela. There is a record from Caqueta Department, Colombia, that may refer to this species (S. Solari pers. comm.). The distribution in Colombia is not well known, especially in light of the taxonomic revision. This species occurs from sea level to 2,250 m (D. Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136516	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is terrestrial. It is found in forest, including gallery and secondary forest. There are also records in plantations, including coffee.	eng
136516	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	The species is common in appropriate habitat.	eng
136516	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats are known, however, there is significant deforestation, especially outside of protected areas, particularly in the lower elevations of the species range.	eng
136517	conservation	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Thorough surveys, ecology, population and dsitribution studies are recommended. It has been recorded outside of Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Coorg. It is also classified as a vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. There is an urgent need to conserve areas of suitable undisturbed forest for this species.	eng
136517	distribution	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	This species is endemic to the northern Western Ghats found of India, where it is found in three severely fragmented regions of Satara in Maharashtra, the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Musser and Carleton 2005) and Coorg in Karnataka (S. Molur pers. comm.). It occurs at elevations ranging from 700 to 2,150 m asl.	eng
136517	habitat	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It has been recorded only in pristine montane moist deciduous and evergreen forests. It is a strictly canopy dwelling animal coming to the ground occasionally only to the base of the tree or vine. It lives in nests or burrow in the middle or high canopy, is frugivorous and insectivorous. It is a slow mover, almost reluctant to move even when released from the trap, and prefers to run rather than hop like <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni </em>or <em>R. r. rufescens</em> (S. Molur pers. comm.). This species is highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (S. Molur pers. comm.). In disturbed forests and fragments it is not recorded, nor is it available in coffee and cardamom plantations with either a native or exotic canopy where <em>R.r. wroughton</em>i displaces this species completely (S. Molur pers. comm.)	eng
136517	population	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	It is most commonly trapped rat in undisturbed forest fragments in Coorg compared to <em>Rattus rattus wroughtoni</em> or <em>R. r. rufescens</em>.	eng
136517	threats	Molur, S. & Nameer, P.O., 2008	Habitat loss from conversion of forests into plantations, fragmentation, logging, collection of minor forest produce, use of pesticide and planting of exotic species are all major threats to this species (S. Molur pers. comm.).	eng
136518	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Further surveys are required to determine its extent of occurrence, its abundance and its habitat requirements.	eng
136518	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found on the banks of the middle Rio Maderia between 5 and 9o S latitude, Brazil (Wilson and Reeder, 2003).	eng
136518	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The  paratype of the species from Santa Maria was taken from local vegetation described as tall "seringal" forest growing on terra firme with abundant rubber trees, Brazil nuts and other trees (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001)	eng
136518	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is rarely encountered and very little is known about it.	eng
136518	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136519	conservation	Brescia, F., 2008	The hunting of this species is regulated under wildlife laws (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). It has only been recorded once from Riviére Bleu National Park (Flannery 1995). Field surveys of population numbers, range, utilization, and ecology studies are ongoing by IAC (Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien) (Brescia and Borel 2004; Boissenin and Brescia 2007).	eng
136519	distribution	Brescia, F., 2008	New Caledonia blossom bat is known from only a few caves in the northern part of the island of New Caledonia (Brescia and Borel 2004; Boissenin and Brescia 2007).	eng
136519	habitat	Brescia, F., 2008	It is a cave roosting species. It is usually observed close to their roosting area, foraging near areas of human habitation on coconut flowers (F. Brescia pers. comm.). Presumably it also forages in tropical moist forest.	eng
136519	population	Brescia, F., 2008	It forms colonies of up to 300 animals, and is an uncommon species.	eng
136519	threats	Brescia, F., 2008	Threats to this species include disturbance at roosting caves (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Brescia and Borel 2004), and, to a much lesser extent, hunting (Boissenin and Brescia 2007).	eng
136520	conservation	Chapman, R.E., 2008	This rodent occurs in Serra do Tabuleiro State Park which may receive funds from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem rehabilitation. <em>C. intermedia</em> habitat has been designated a Preservation Zone, and all entry is prohibited (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999). This park is unmanaged and the park status and entry prohibition are not enforced.	eng
136520	distribution	Chapman, R.E., 2008	This species in known from Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, on Moleques Island do Sul, in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil. This island has a surface area of 10.5 ha. This is one of the worlds? smallest geographical distributions for a mammal (found in an area of only 4 ha) (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
136520	habitat	Chapman, R.E., 2008	Its ecology and natural history is poorly known, as it was only recently discovered (Cherem <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
136520	population	Chapman, R.E., 2008	Salvador and Fernandez (2008) studied the population dynamics of this species between March 2004 and June 2005 using monthly capture?mark?recapture sampling methods and radio telemetry. Over 5,530 trap-nights, there were  665 captures of 141 individuals. The minimum population was 24, and maximum population was 60, in a sample year with 42 as the sample average. The population had a high and stable density, stable age structure with mostly adults, small home ranges, and high rates of survival.	eng
136520	threats	Chapman, R.E., 2008	People have free access to the island and protected area enforcement is not strict. The hunting of this rodent is presumed a threat.	eng
136521	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has been collected in Cotapata National Park in Bolivia, and from Manu Biosphere Reserve in Peru. Further research is generally needed into this poorly known species.	eng
136521	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	This poorly known species is known from three localities. Two of these are in the Alto Madre de Dios river basin in Peru (Cuzco and Madre de Dios Departments), the third locality is at Bajo Hornuni, in Bolivia. It has been recorded between 450-2,100 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136521	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	This is believed to be an arboreal species; it has been collected at 2 m above ground and in pitfall traps. It has been found in a variety of habitats from dry cane fields in lowland areas close to rivers, to humid montane forest. It has been collected in disturbed forest.	eng
136521	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is known only from four specimens. This is likely to be a reflection of low sampling effort and inadequate methods.	eng
136521	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136522	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R. & Wright, D., 2008	There are no protected areas on the island. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136522	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Manus, Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).	eng
136522	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R. & Wright, D., 2008	It seems to be a largely arboreal species, and has been recorded in forested areas including a cacao plantation (Flannery 1995).	eng
136522	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R. & Wright, D., 2008	It is only known from two specimens (Flannery 1995), but there have been further collections in 2004 (but these are not yet confirmed).	eng
136522	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R. & Wright, D., 2008	Much of the island has been, and continues to be, cleared for plantations and human settlement. Only the areas at higher elevation are still intact.	eng
136523	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and any threats to this species are needed.	eng
136523	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is currently known from a single locality in the Agaun area (elevation 1,300 m asl) and is believed to have a restricted range in the mountains of south-eastern New Guinea (Papua New Guinea). Note that our map is much larger than the proven range of the species.	eng
136523	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	This species is an insectivore and may specialize on worms. It is probably dependent on mature forest.	eng
136523	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	It is known only from a single specimen.	eng
136523	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D. & Allison, A., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136524	conservation	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	Occurs in protected areas.	eng
136524	distribution	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species occurs throughout Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela (Simmons, 2005).<br/>Not found in Costa Rica (Bernal Rodriguez pers. comm.)	eng
136524	habitat	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This bat is strictly insectivorous. Likely forest dependent. This bat prefers moist habitats and montane tropical forest or evergreen forest.	eng
136524	population	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	This species is poorly known. This species is likely rare.	eng
136524	threats	Molinari, J., Aguirre, L. & Samudio, R., 2008	Habitat modification.	eng
136525	conservation	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is probably found in Leoncito National Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.	eng
136525	distribution	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Los Sombreros, Sierra del Tontal, in southern San Juan Province, Argentina, at 3,800 m asl (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136525	habitat	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species inhabits rocky outcrops in grasslands.	eng
136525	population	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The size and distribution of this species are unknown.	eng
136525	threats	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136526	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species was collected from within the Arfak Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136526	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known from the holotype, collected on the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia at 2,000 m asl, and some additional specimens in the Australian Museum in Sydney (Helgen 2007). The area has not been well collected, so it could well be more widely distributed in the Arfak Mountains.	eng
136526	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The natural history of this species is unknown.	eng
136526	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The population of this species is unknown.	eng
136526	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Possible threats to this species are not known.	eng
136527	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in Sanjiangyuan and Qiangtang Nature Reserves and other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Data Deficient (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136527	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Qinghai and Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.	eng
136527	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Cricetulus kamensis</em>, occuring in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136527	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136527	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
136528	conservation	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction, ecology and threats of this species.</p>	eng
136528	distribution	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species occurs on Kei Islands in Indonesia.	eng
136528	habitat	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
136528	population	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
136528	threats	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136529	conservation	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	It occurs in many protected areas. No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
136529	distribution	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species occurs in the east of the Andean foothills and western margins of the Amazon Basin, including central and southeast Colombia, east Ecuador, east Peru, northern Bolivia, and western Brazil (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Percequillo, in press); eastern limits indeterminate (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136529	habitat	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is nocturnal, terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on seeds, fruit, and insects. It if found in virtually every habitat along rivers in the Amazon, including disturbed habitats (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136529	population	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is common (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136529	threats	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136530	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in a protected area (Reserva San Javier).	eng
136530	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in Tucuman Province (Argentina).	eng
136530	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in Yungas.	eng
136530	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136530	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats apparently for the species.	eng
136531	conservation	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is not believed to be present in any protected areas (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). There is a need to clarify the taxonomy of this species, and conduct further research on current population size and threats.	eng
136531	distribution	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	This poorly-known species is restricted to Kosrae Island in the Federated States of Micronesia. A specimen in the Berlin Museum collected on Pohnpei in the 1800s is undoubtedly mislabeled (G. Wiles pers. comm.).	eng
136531	habitat	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known. Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> (1992) suggest that it is similar to <em>Pteropus mariannus</em> in that it forms congregations in native forest and mangrove habitats.	eng
136531	population	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	Populations of this species significantly declined through disease in 1927. A few colonies of 100 to 400 bats were reported in 1983, and the species was still uncommon in 1989 (Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992). Current abundance is not known. Although there is little information on the overall population size and trends, there are at least two good fruit bat roosts in Kosrae and the species is probably stable: one at the opening of the Utwe-Walung channel on the south side of the island, and another on a mangrove island in Lelu, which is in a much more developed area (K. Ewel pers. comm.).	eng
136531	threats	Wiles, G., Helgen, K. & Allison, A., 2008	The species declined rapidly in 1927 through a disease epidemic. It appears to have been exported from Kosrae to Guam in the 1980s in significant numbers for the luxury food market. Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> (1992) states that government officials in Kosrae reported this trade, although officials in Guam did not have documentation concerning imports from Kosrae. The species is not locally hunted for food. The species is threatened by typhoon events, which are rare on Kosrae. A vegetation map of Kosrae was published in the 1980s and there has not been a great deal of change since then (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Much of the interior of the island is occupied by mountainous terrain with scrubby vegetation, while the forest on the coastal plain is freshwater swamp dominated by <em>Terminalia carolinensis</em> and used for agroforestry (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Mangrove forests occupy about 15% of the total land area of the island (K. Ewel pers. comm.). Mangrove habitat loss is due to filling from the interior for building sites, and harvesting for firewood, which can be extensive in some places (K. Ewel pers. comm.).	eng
136532	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	No conservation actions are needed.	eng
136532	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from subfossil remains on Madagascar where it is believed to have had a wide distribution.	eng
136532	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although it was believed to be extremely suspensory, hence the name "sloth lemur".	eng
136532	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Extinct. Relict populations may have survived until as late as 1300 to 1620 AD (Burney <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136532	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The reasons for the extinction are not known.	eng
136533	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Much more research is required; in particular it is a priority to reassess the taxonomic validity of the species. This requires collecting more material of <em>Tragulus</em> from across the northern highlands of South-east Asia but an immediate and possibly highly informative first step would be critical examination of material already held in collections in the region (particularly China, Thailand, and Viet Nam). Distributional surveys focusing on relative species status (of <em>T. williamsoni</em> and <em>T. kanchil</em>) and altitudinal range, perhaps focussed on acquiring remains from hunters, should be carried out in widely spaced localities in northern Thailand, northern Lao PDR (both east and west of the Mekong), southern China, and perhaps also Viet Nam and Shan State, Myanmar (such surveys could sensibly be combined with those for other taxa, for instance <em>Muntiacus</em> spp.). <br/><br/>Because of the species' presumed external similarity to <em>T. kanchil</em>, it will be necessary to collect specimens in order to distinguish the two species. Most unfortunately it seems likely that while data collected from camera-trapping studies will be helpful in establishing the genus’s distribution and conservation status, until specimen-based clarification of ranges, particularly the extent of geographic and ecological overlap, is clear, species-specific conclusions will not be possible from this method. Similarly, hunting studies such as those of Johnson <em>et al</em>. (2003) which do not systematically collect voucher specimens will be of limited use in determining this species' conservation needs.<br/>Because this species might have a small range it might therefore be a conservation priority and clarification of chevrotain status in degraded and fragmented forests and in plantations in its possible range is urgently needed.<br/><br/>Many protected areas exist within the northern highlands of South-east Asia. Whether any hold the species is as yet unclear. Few of those that might do are effectively reigning in hunting levels.	eng
136533	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	<em>Tragulus williamsoni</em> is only known from the holotype which was collected at Meh Lem, Muang Pre, Song forest of Thailand (18°25'N, 100°23'E); also referred to as Me Song (Meijaard and Groves 2004). The species' true range cannot be determined until more material of <em>Tragulus</em> is examined from the northern highlands of South-east Asia and adjacent southern China; this will require serious further collecting. The lack of subsequent records of <em>T. williamsoni</em> may largely reflect the paucity of collecting in recent decades, the fact that most surveyors and other biologists in the region have been unaware of the taxon’s distinctiveness, and so have not sought it and may well have overlooked it when they came across it. The collections in China and Thailand (and Viet Nam), where additional specimens of <em>T. williamsoni</em> would be most likely to be found, were not studied by Meijaard and Groves (2004) and remain to be critically examined. Thus, the current restriction of records to the type locality cannot be seen as even weakly indicative of a genuinely restricted  distribution. The type locality is west of the Mekong and this river is a biogeographic barrier for some species (Meijaard and Groves 2006, Timmins and Duckworth in press) but it should not be assumed to be so for <em>T. williamsoni</em>. While all specimens (about four) examined from east of the Mekong from localities lying along the southern edge of the northern highlands of Indochina have all proved to be <em>T. kanchil</em> (E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008), this is a small sample size and does not represent the actual highland area. Most significantly, two specimens from Yunnan province (China) here provisionally assigned to this species (below) come from east of the Mekong. Specifically, given the known presence of <em>Tragulus</em> across a large area of the northern highlands of Lao PDR far from any specimens validated to either <em>T. williamsoni</em> or <em>T. kanchil</em> (Bergmans 1995, Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003), it is an open question whether <em>T. williamsoni</em> occurs in Lao PDR. Records from the area of north Lao PDR west of the Mekong (Xaignabouli province), based on village interviews but surely reliably indicative of the genus given the strength of the distribution pattern in Lao PDR from this nation-wide dataset (Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269), should be priorities to determine to species. Two specimens from Mengla, Xishuanbanna, southern Yunnan province, China (21°32’ N, 101°36’ E) appear to be <em>T. williamsoni</em> on the basis of some skull measurements (the skulls are damaged and knowledge of intraspecific variation in this taxon is obviously weak given only a single specimen from the region of the type locality) (Wang Yingxiang <em>in litt</em>. to E. Meijaard pers. comm. 2008). <em>Tragulus</em>, nominally identified as <em>T. javanicus</em> (=, here, <em>T. kanchil</em>) occur in northern Viet Nam (Dang Huy Huynh <em>et al</em>. 1994), but the distributional map suggests records are likely to have been from the lowlands. <br/><br/>The type locality and the data from China suggest that this species might be associated with highland terrain and higher altitudes than <em>T. kanchil</em>, but this is no more than speculation at present. The genus <em>Tragulus</em> has an odd northerly distribution within South-east Asia, being entirely unrecorded from Myanmar (except the far south) (Tun Yin 1967, Lynam 2003, Meijaard and Groves 2004; Shan state, adjacent to highland areas of northern Lao PDR and Thailand which hold the genus, has not been well investigated and may yet be found to hold the species), apparently absent from the east of Lao PDR’s northern highlands (and the central northern highlands remain to be investigated; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999: 269), present in northern Viet Nam but quite probably restricted to the lowlands (see above), and penetrating China only in the far southwest, in Xishuangbanna prefecture of Yunnan Province (Smith and Xie 2008). The <em>T. williamsoni</em> holotype appears to be the only <em>Tragulus</em> record critically identified to species from this extensive area, making the absence of confirmed <em>T. kanchil</em> records biologically uninformative.	eng
136533	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	Its habitat is currently speculated to be evergreen forest, though it is essentially unknown. Meijaard and Groves (2004) thought it might be restricted to higher elevation forests; this is plausible but currently entirely speculative (see above). Other <em>Tragulus</em> species appear to be associated especially with forest microhabitats with dense undergrowth, such as especially edges (see other species’ 2008 Red List accounts).	eng
136533	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	The population status is unknown, but there are indications of the status of <em>Tragulus</em> as a genus from the northern highlands of South-east Asia. Chevrotains (which may or may not comprise or include <em>T. williamsoni</em>) are clearly common in and around Nam Ha National Protected Area, Lao PDR: they are one of the most commonly hunted (mostly with snares, some with guns), eaten, and traded wildlife. Only 3% of households interviewed considered the genus to be in decline (Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003) (However, because no wildlife taxon was considered to be in decline by more than 13% of households questioned and even such heavily traded species such as pangolin, otter, tiger and sambar were assessed as being in decline by fewer than a tenth of villagers questioned, there was either a major mismatch of villagers’ perceptions with reality or of surveyors’ records with villagers’ beliefs: so nothing should be concluded from this statement of villagers’ perception of decline.) An intensive hunting study of two villages in Thailand’s northern highlands in the general areas of the type locality did not record the species at all (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Given the genus’s prominence in hunting bags when it is present, it can safely assumed to be absent from around the two study villages; and given that the study was specifically investigating species extirpation sequence, it is safe to assume that it never occurred in these two areas. Neither village is located precisely. This suggests the genus’s populations may be localised in Thai northern highlands.	eng
136533	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Meijaard, E., 2008	There is no applicable knowledge of threats, because even though hunting and habitat change patterns in the region can be presented even without resolution of the species' actual distribution, there is no information whatsoever on the effects these patterns have on the genus. The northern highlands of Thailand, China and Indochina are generally subject to heavy hunting from local people, often with high densities of snares suitable to catch animals like chevrotains. At least in Indochina, chevrotains are a favoured quarry (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There is an enormous trade in wild meat from rural areas to markets in adjacent towns, those further afield, across international borders and up into, particularly, Viet Nam and China (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). However, whether the species would be significantly threatened by such activity is unknown (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008); it might be one of several ungulates that is remarkably resilient. Despite extensive forest disturbance through shifting cultivation in the species' likely range, habitat-related factors may only have been a relatively minor threat to date, if indeed one at all, given the adaptability of the genus to disturbed and secondary habitats (see other species 2008 Red List accounts). This may be changing fast, because the northern highlands of Lao PDR and adjacent areas are currently seeing heavy conversion of forest (albeit mostly secondary and regrowth, which is all that survives in large areas) to plantations to supply the burgeoning Chinese market for rubber. This will have three linked negative effects on ground-dwelling mammals: direct loss of forest habitat, decline and destabilisation of the forest resource-base (including wild-meat sources) for subsistence-level communities, leading to higher hunting levels in remaining wildlife areas (C. Wood pers. comm. 2005 to J.W. Duckworth, based on emerging patterns across several provinces in Lao PDR’s northern highlands); and shrinkage of the size of natural habitat blocks and thereby reduction and, locally, loss, of the cushioning effect which allows hunted wildlife to persist in large blocks of forest when eradicated from smaller blocks. Although this habitat trend is not in doubt, it is entirely unknown to what extent rubber plantations will support chevrotains in northern South-east Asia, so effects on the genus cannot be predicted. Hunting and habitat loss are provisionally seen as threats to the species, pending actual data.	eng
136534	conservation	Esselstyn, J., 2008	It is not so far known from any protected areas. Further work is needed to determine the distribution, abundance, ecological requirements, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136534	distribution	Esselstyn, J., 2008	This species was discovered in 2006, and is so far known only from its type locality: Mount Siburan, Barangay Batong Buhay, Sablayan Municipality, Occidental Mindoro Province, Mindoro Island, Philippines, at 100 m asl. It probably occurs more broadly on Mindoro Island.	eng
136534	habitat	Esselstyn, J., 2008	The four specimens were collected at the edge of selectively logged lowland forest and an open field with a few guava trees (Psidium sp.). It is not yet known to what extent this species is dependent on forest.	eng
136534	population	Esselstyn, J., 2008	It is very poorly known and is so far known from only four specimens.	eng
136534	threats	Esselstyn, J., 2008	If this species is dependent of lowland forest, then its population must have been seriously reduced due to habitat loss. However, at this stage, the precise threats to the species are not clear.	eng
136535	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Kefelioglu, H. & Sozen, M., 2008	Part of the eastern edge of the range falls within Tuz Lake Special Protected Area (declared in the year 2000), which is not well managed for nature protection and has declined over the past 5 years. The species' natural history, ecology, and distribution need research.	eng
136535	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Kefelioglu, H. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species is restricted to central Turkey. The species' range limits are poorly known, and further work is needed to determine the species' distribution. Found from 200-800 m.	eng
136535	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Kefelioglu, H. & Sozen, M., 2008	The species is found in open, dry habitats including farmlands.	eng
136535	population	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Kefelioglu, H. & Sozen, M., 2008	There is not much known about the species population abundance, however, the species is not very common. It can be a pest locally.	eng
136535	threats	Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Kefelioglu, H. & Sozen, M., 2008	There are no known major threats. Although there are agricultural areas within its range, the species persists in these areas.	eng
136536	conservation	Amori, G., 2008	The species is found in protected areas. Research is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species.	eng
136536	distribution	Amori, G., 2008	This species is known from southern Italy, Calabrian Peninsula, Camigliatello Silano (Wilson and Reeder 2005). Genetic data also indicates that the species occurs in Abruzzo region of central Italy (Castiglia <em>et al.</em> 2008; G. Amori pers. comm. 2006). The distribution limits between <em>M. savii</em> and <em>M. brachycercus</em> require clarification.	eng
136536	habitat	Amori, G., 2008	It is found in the majority of terrestrial habitat types, with the exception of high mountains, dense woodlands, and some very sandy, rocky or wet areas. It occurs in many anthropogenic habitats including pastures, arable land, gardens, and urban areas.	eng
136536	population	Amori, G., 2008	Like <em>Microtus savii</em>, to which it it closely related (indeed perhaps conspecific), it is likely to be widespread and abundant within its range, with a stable population trend (G. Amori <em>in litt. </em>2006).	eng
136536	threats	Amori, G., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
136537	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Possibly present in the Bongolava Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Further surveys are needed to determine the full extent of its range and population status, and to confirm the taxonomic distinctiveness of this taxon.	eng
136537	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from three small forest fragments in the area around Port-Bergé, between the rivers Mahajamba and Sofia in north-western Madagascar (Olivieri <em>et al.</em> 2006). Prior to recent taxonomic revisions, the mouse lemurs in this region were assumed to be <em>M. ravelobensis</em>.	eng
136537	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Inhabits the western deciduous forest of Madagascar.	eng
136537	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136537	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. The area where it occurs is quite difficult to access.	eng
136538	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	This species has been recorded from the Arfak Nature Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to it. The species needs to be looked for in the Tamrau range.	eng
136538	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the Arfak mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula of Papua Province, Indonesia. It is known only from four specimens collected at two localities (the extent of occurrence is less than 3,000 km²). It has been recorded from 1,800 m to 2,200 m asl.	eng
136538	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is found in high-elevation tropical moist forest. Three of the known specimens were collected in the vicinity of a lake.	eng
136538	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	The population abundance is not known.	eng
136538	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Bonaccorso, F., Helgen, K. & Seri, L., 2008	There are no known threats to this montane species, but there is a growing human population and there are hunting camps in the Arfak Mountains.	eng
136539	conservation	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is present in the Andringitra Strict Nature Reserve and possibly the Ankarana Special Reserve. Further research is needed into the ecology and behavior of this species.	eng
136539	distribution	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar. It is known from widely dispersed sites between Ankaratra Massif (the type locality) south to the Andohahela National Park. It is largely a montane species recorded up to 2,200 m asl, but also down to 800 m. The range is likely continuous, although previously it was thought to be on isolated montane localities.	eng
136539	habitat	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	This species is scansorial, and occurs in montane forest. It is notably more common in degraded ericoid grasslands above the forest line. After the grasslands are burned, this is one of the first species to return (S.M. Goodman pers. comm.).	eng
136539	population	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	At certain sites, such as above forest line on the Andringitra massif, this species is notably common (B. Rasolonandrasana pers. comm.).	eng
136539	threats	Goodman, S., Raherisehena, M. & Ramiarinjanahary, H., 2008	In montane forests, the main threat is fire for pastureland. At lower elevations, this species is threatened by conversion of its forest habitat to cultivated land.	eng
136540	conservation	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	None.	eng
136540	distribution	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species was known from Jamaica.	eng
136540	habitat	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136540	population	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Extinct.	eng
136540	threats	Turvey, S. & Helgen, K., 2008	Likely went extinct following the introduction of mongoose. The species was last recorded 5 years after the introduction of mongoose to Jamaica.	eng
136541	conservation	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It occurs in Kayan Mentarang National Park (Puri 1997; I. Maryanto pers. comm.), and several other protected areas in Kalimantan. Conservation of forests is needed for this species.	eng
136541	distribution	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is found in Borneo, in Sabah (Mt. Kinabalu 1,833 m), Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei, and Kalimantan (Indonesia).	eng
136541	habitat	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species occurs in montane primary forest above 600 m asl.	eng
136541	population	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species is believed to be quite common in highlands.	eng
136541	threats	Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	Deforestation as a result of agriculture, logging, fires, and plantations represents a major threats to this species mainly in lowland areas.	eng
136542	conservation	Hammerson, G., 2008	There is little information available for this species. It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
136542	distribution	Hammerson, G., 2008	This species was initially known from three areas in central Alaska: Crow Creek near Galena (type locality), about 140 km east of the type locality near the Yukon River, and upper Susitna River; it is apparently widespread but scarce in subarctic Alaska (Dokuchaev 1997). It has subsequently been found in southwestern Alaska (Peirce and Peirce 2000; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
136542	habitat	Hammerson, G., 2008	There is little information available for this species. All specimens have been from riparian areas (Dokuchaev 1997). It is usually found burrowing in or using soil, or under fallen logs or debris.	eng
136542	population	Hammerson, G., 2008	As of the mid-1990s, this shrew was known from three areas in Alaska, where the first specimen was collected in 1982; its distribution is poorly known but apparently widespread and seemingly scarce in subarctic Alaska. Its scarcity may be that it is difficult to detect. Extensive pitfall trapping will be necessary to determine its distribution and abundance.	eng
136542	threats	Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
136543	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	One of two localities where occurs it species is in a protected area. Surveys to determine the extent of occurrence are required.	eng
136543	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality Minas Gerais, Brazil (Pessoa, 1992).	eng
136543	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in forest lands above 1,000 m asl; it is present at the border between Cerrado and Atlantic Forest (Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136543	population	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is not commonly found.	eng
136543	threats	Catzeflis, F., Patton J., Percequillo, A., Bonvicino, C. & Weksler, M., 2008	The major threats are deforestation and destruction of habitat; also, there are frequent fires in its range.	eng
136544	conservation	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species has been found in the Bemaraha and Namoroka National Parks and in the Anakarana Special Reserve. Further survey work is needed to determine whether the species is more continuously distributed between recorded localities.	eng
136544	distribution	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	This species is endemic to western and northern Madagascar. It is currently known from three widely separate regions: the Bemaraha National Park; the Namoroka National Park; and the Ankarana Special Reserve and the Forest d'Ambilondambo near Daraina in the north of the island (Carleton and Goodman 2007). There has not been much survey work in the intervening tsingy forest, the species' specific habitat. All ;localities are at low elevations (50-550 m).	eng
136544	habitat	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	Originally believed restricted to limestone tsingy and associated forest habitat, but recent collections in the north have also recorded the species near massive metamorphic rock outcrops at the edge of transitional dry-humid forest (Carleton and Goodman 2007).	eng
136544	population	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	Unknown. Known only from ten specimens (Carleton and Goodman 2007).	eng
136544	threats	Goodman, S. & Raherisehena, M., 2008	The tsingy habitat are at risk of degradation and removal for agriculture.	eng
136545	conservation	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Several protected areas throughout the range - but not collected from any protected areas (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136545	distribution	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality, "Crato", Ceará, Brazil (Gardner, 2005). It is presumed to occur in East/central Brazil in the Caatinga and Cerrado biome (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136545	habitat	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species occurs in the Caatinga and Cerrado, from 400 to 760 m (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136545	population	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are only a few known individuals, all from old records, so it is not possible to evaluate the population (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136545	threats	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Expansion of agriculture is causing habitat loss in the cerrado (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136546	conservation	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is probably present in Aconcagua Provincial Park. Further research is needed to determine the species' range, population status, threats and ecology.	eng
136546	distribution	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from type locality: Punta de Vacas, Mendoza Province, Argentina at 3,000 m asl (Braun and Mares, 2002). Thomas (1921) suggested its distribution extended to northwestern Mendoza Province, Argentina, and Cabrera (1961) suggested its distribution included southwestern San Juan Province, but specimens have not been confirmed from these two areas (Braun and Mares, 2002).	eng
136546	habitat	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found in puna-like, high Andean habitat with short grass and low shrub vegetation cover (Braun and Mares, 2002).	eng
136546	population	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.	eng
136546	threats	Jayat, J. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The major threats, if any, to this species are unknown.	eng
136547	conservation	Teta, P. & de la Sancha, N., 2008	This species occurs in several disjunct protected areas, however, porpulations are increasingly fragmented. Further reseacrh is needed to establish the range and susseptibility of this species to numerous possible threats.	eng
136547	distribution	Teta, P. & de la Sancha, N., 2008	Currently known only from northern Argentina, <em>Chacodelphys formosa</em> may be widely distributed in the Chaco and other adjacent Neotropical biomes (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2004). Teta <em>et al.</em> (2006) presents four localities, all in north central Argentina, constituting new records.	eng
136547	habitat	Teta, P. & de la Sancha, N., 2008	Until 2004, the only available information about the habitat of <em>Chacodelphys formosa</em> was recorded by the collector of the  holotype in 1920, and it was known only from northern Argentina (Voss <em>et al.</em> 2004). The new recorded localities of <em>C. formosa</em> suggests that this species may be endemic to the humid Chaco (Teta <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136547	population	Teta, P. & de la Sancha, N., 2008	It is a rare species, being less common than <em>Cryptonanus chacoensis</em>, another small marsupial found in sympatry (Teta <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136547	threats	Teta, P. & de la Sancha, N., 2008	Deforestation and conversion of habitat for agriculture are the primary threats to this narrowly distributed species.	eng
136548	conservation	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Protect the caves.	eng
136548	distribution	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Dominican Republic, and Haiti (Simmons 2005).	eng
136548	habitat	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is found throughout dry areas. <em>Natalus major</em> has been found almost exclusively in caves, the exception being one report of nine individuals (2 females and 7 males) found roosting inside a large hollow tree in semiarid lowlands in the northern Dominican Republic (Timm and Genoways 2003). Its delicate wing membrane is subject to rapid dehydration; thus, this species probably require caves with relative humidity for day time roosts. There is not reproductive information available (Hoyt and Baker 1980).  It is insectivorous (Nowak 1999). It probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
136548	population	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is locally common in specific areas (Hoyt and Baker 1980). Dependent on caves (L. Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
136548	threats	Miller, B., Reid, F., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Caves modification by tourists, mining in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.). Guano extraction, mining for material construction (Rodriguez-Duran and Turvey pers. comm.)	eng
136549	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It occurs in several proteced areas.	eng
136549	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in east-central Argentina and eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136549	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	A semiaquatic rodent occupying xeromophic woods with trees and shrubs and in coastal areas, riverine marshland (Nava <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136549	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is considered a common species. In a study capturing 55 species of rodents in northeastern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, this species was the most abundant (Nava <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136549	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
136550	conservation	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Its range does not include any protected areas.	eng
136550	distribution	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is currently known from only two localities; Sierra de Cuatro Venados and Sierra Yucuyacua, in Oaxaca state, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). The type locality is at an elevation of 9,500 ft (2,860 m asl).	eng
136550	habitat	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is poorly known, the only habitat information is from the type locality which is described as "wet meadow" within cloud forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136550	population	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from only a few specimens (Neal Woodman pers. comm. 2008). There have been several surveys in its range but no recent specimens have been collected, including the American Museum of Natural History, UNAM, and Centro Interdisciplinario de Desarrllo Integral (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.).	eng
136550	threats	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation is probably a threat to this species, but more information is needed.	eng
136551	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md. & Sagar Baral, H., 2008	Northern Red Muntjac occurs in many protected areas throughout its range and in most countries is covered by laws regulating hunting at some level. Across large parts of its range, the species would benefit if these national laws involving the protection of the species were more efficiently enforced, particularly those which relate to wildlife trading.	eng
136551	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md. & Sagar Baral, H., 2008	This species occurs in Sri Lanka, most of India, northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and southern China, including Hainan and southern Tibet, and into southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia) south to the northern part of the Thai–Malay peninsula (Roberts 1977; Groves and Grubb 1990; Ohtaishi and Gao 1990; Corbet and Hill 1992; Wang Ying-xiang 2002; Groves 2003; Grubb 2005). The precise southern range limit remains unclear on the Thai–Malay peninsula (see Taxonomy). It has been introduced in the Andaman Islands (Corbet and Hill 1992). It is widespread in most range states, except Pakistan (see Population).	eng
136551	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md. & Sagar Baral, H., 2008	The Northern Red Muntjac inhabits a wide variety of forests and scrub, including level plains and rugged mountains, dense and open forests, evergreen and deciduous areas, old-growth and secondary forests, and even grass- and cropland near woody habitats; from sea-level commonly up to about 1,500 m asl and occasionally over, perhaps with some variation regionally (Blanford 1891; Prater 1971; Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004). Within this broad habitat use, densities doubtless vary based on conditions. Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. (2008) found that signs, and presumably animals, were significantly more common in lower- than higher-lying areas of the Tenasserim–Dawna mountains, Thailand, noting that this was the opposite of the patterns that would be predicted if hunting (itself concentrated heavily in the lowlands) was the chief determinant of population densities. Kushwaha <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Kumaon Himalaya (India), <em>M. vaginalis</em> frequently exploits grass- and herb-dominated environments, linked to highly logged locations, and with a preference for lower altitudes (although they did not specify what altitude range was covered, nor discuss the possibility that because logging tends to occur in valley bottoms and lower hills rather than on steep hills and ridges, a preference for lower altitudes could simply be a consequential effect of a preference for logged areas. Teng <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that in Hainan, muntjacs preferred shrub grassland and thorny shrubland; used dry savanna in proportion to its availability; and avoided woods, cultivated grass-plot, and deciduous monsoon forests. Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) attributed the apparent stability in numbers of the Chinese population to logging activities, which were bringing about an increase of secondary forest and scrub dominated areas. A study of coffee estates around Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, India, recorded Red Muntjac more widely than any other herbivorous mammal, including in coffee areas far from the sanctuary’s boundary (Bali <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>Its diet is based on fallen fruits, buds, small seeds, twigs, seed pods, tender leaves, and young grass (Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001; Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004). The species has been cited as a major dispersal agent of fruit-producing plants in southern China (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001) and Thailand (Lekagul and McNeely 1977) and this is presumably so throughout its range.<br/><br/>In much of its range (although rather less than was popularly supposed until recently) this is the only muntjac species. Where congeners occur, it is widely sympatric, evidently even syntopic, with them; there is no solid evidence for competitive exclusion except perhaps at very high altitudes. Where it overlaps with Fea’s Muntjac <em>M. feae</em> in Thailand, Red clearly predominates in more deciduous habitats and lower altitudes, with Fea’s apparently more common in high altitudes and fully evergreen forest (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2008). It probably occurs throughout the range of Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em> (e.g. Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998). There is extensive overlap with muntjacs of the <em>M. rooseveltorum</em> species-complex (<em>M. rooseveltorum</em>, <em>M. truongsonensis</em>, <em>M. puhoatensis</em> and <em>M. putaoensis</em>), but there may be areas above about 1,500 m asl where the latter greatly outnumber <em>M. vaginalis</em> and some where <em>M. vaginalis</em> is absent (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008, based on examination of numerous camera-trap photographs from many camera-trap programmes). Camera-trap results from northern Myanmar suggest that Red Muntjac occurs largely below the altitudinal range of <em>M. gongshanensis</em>, but fully through the range of <em>M. putaoensis</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on WCS unpublished data). Schaller and Rabinowitz (2004), however, reported many <em>M. vaginalis</em> at high altitudes in Arunachal Pradesh, with one direct sighting at 3,000 m asl near Tawang, and there may therefore be significant local variation in the upper altitudinal limit. Two specimens in the Natural History Museum, London from Nepal have recorded altitudes of 11,400 and 8,500 feet (3,450 and 2,590 m asl) (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Northern Red Muntjac appears to be able to breed all year around, although the existence of well-defined breeding seasons has been suggested for some populations, particularly in those inhabiting locations with a more seasonal climate (Barrette 1977; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977; Chen <em>et al</em>. 2001). In any case, "peaks" of mating activity are present, at least, in some areas (Prater 1971; Barrette 1977; Roberts 1977). Despite only a single fawn being born each occasion, overall lifetime output is high (Barrette 2004). Even where births occur throughout the year, there is still a fairly rigid cycle of antler formation and shedding, synchronised at the population level (Barrette 1977; Mishra 1982; Acharjyo and Patnaik 1984). It tends to be solitary (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Seidensticker 1976; Karanth and Sunquist 1992; Barrette 2004); reports of small groups could be attributed to mating pairs or to female/offspring units, or to temporary incidental proximity of individuals at concentrations of high-value food, e.g. fallen fruit under a tree (Barrette 1977, 2004; Lekagul and McNeely 1977). Individuals seem strongly attached to a certain home range, but there is no convincing evidence of territoriality (Barrette 1977, 2004). Northern Red Muntjac is diurnal in some areas, nocturnal in others (Prater 1971; Barrette 1977; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Roberts 1977) and is probably best regarded as crepuscular. It is an important prey for Leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>, Tiger <em>P. tigris</em>, and Dhole <em>Cuon alpinus</em>.	eng
136551	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md. & Sagar Baral, H., 2008	This adaptable and widespread species remains locally common in most of its range (e.g. Whitehead 1993; Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999; Lynam <em>et al</em>. 2001; Lynam 2003; Johnsingh <em>et al</em>. 2004; Polet and Ling 2004; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2006; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008), even in Hong Kong, an almost totally deforested landscape which has in the past sustained hunting and habitat disruption heavy enough to force extinction even of squirrels (R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008). About 20–30 individuals were estimated by Roberts (1977, based on a 1972 estimate) for Margalla National Park in northern Pakistan; this would account for most of the population surviving in that country at the time. It appears to be increasingly rare in Bangladesh, with only a small population left in the Sundarbans and a few in the northeast and southeast of the country (Md Anwarul Islam <em>in litt</em>. 2008); this reflects “rampant...forest destruction” during the British colonial era which was, if anything, even worse after independence (Khan 2003). Even so, muntjacs (assumed to be this species) can still be seen readily in the north-east (P.M. Thompson pers. comm. 2008). Sheng and Ohtaishi (1993) stated that the total Chinese population is about 500,000, although the assumptions behind such a number were not explicit. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) estimated that a total of 30,000 individuals were harvested each year on Hainan Island alone. In mainland China, Red Muntjac are notably scarcer than in Hong Kong, based on encounter rates of calls, faeces and camera-trap photographs; this is attributed by rural hunters to recent very heavy hunting with gin-traps precipitated by a fire-arm ban (B.P.L. Chan and M.W.N. Lau pers. comm. 2008). Populations are certainly also declining in Lao PDR and Viet Nam, and probably to a lesser extent, Cambodia and Thailand through heavy trade-driven hunting (see threats). Populations in Nepal are thought to be relatively stable (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Red Muntjacs are common in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Thailand (Ngoprasert <em>et al</em>. 2007), but this is within the main transition zone between Sundaic and northern taxa, so the species there is/are unknown. The following densities have been estimated in India: Bhadra Tiger Reserve, 3.64 +/- 0.63 (SE) per km² (Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003); Kanha moist deciduous forest, 0.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Nagarahole moist deciduous forest, 6 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Bandipur dry deciduous forest, 0.7 animals per km² (Karanth and Nichols 2000); Tadoba-Andhari dry deciduous forest, 0.9 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Melghat dry deciduous forest, 0.6 animals per km² (Karanth and Kumar 2005); Wilpattu, Sri Lanka, 2.5 animals per km² (Barrette 1977); Karnali-Bardia, Nepal, 1.7 animals per km² (Dinerstein 1987); and Rajaji National Park, 1 animal per km² (A.J.T. Johnsingh pers. comm. to Barrette 2004). Where studied, population densities are always well below those of herding ungulates (previous citations), but this is not so in areas where hunting has perverted ratios, where Red Muntjac may even be the only deer species remaining.	eng
136551	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R., Samba Kumar, N., Anwarul Islam, Md. & Sagar Baral, H., 2008	Northern Red Muntjac are hunted widely, both legally and illegally, over most of its range (Sheng and Ohtaishi 1993; Madhusudan and Karanth 2002; Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002; Jathanna <em>et al</em>. 2003; Johnson <em>et al</em>. 2003; Santiapillai and Wijeyamohan 2003; Hansel 2004; Kaul <em>et al</em>. 2004; Kumara and Singh 2004; Rao <em>et al</em>. 2005; Steinmetz <em>et al</em>. 2008), and it is probably among of the most used and most desired wild meats in South and South-east Asia (e.g. Srikosamatara <em>et al</em>. 1992; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999). Patterns of threat vary across the species' range. Viet Nam, Lao PDR and to a lesser extent Cambodia and northern Thailand are apparently the areas where mammal hunting is heaviest. In its mainland China range, rates may be even higher, because a recent fire-arm ban is said to have pushed up levels of gin-trapping (B.P.L. Chan pers. comm. 2008). Muntjacs are hunted within a thriving hunting and wildlife trading culture in this area and in adjacent countries such as China and Thailand, involving many land vertebrate species, along with other forest products such as orchids and <em>Aquilaria</em> resin (e.g. Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998; Compton <em>et al</em>. 1999; Noreen and Claridge 2001). Such hunting reaches all areas, although in large rugged mountain forest blocks trade-driven hunting of species valued only for their meat (rather than high-value, low-weight, generally medicinal products that can be carried out efficiently from even the remotest areas) is still limited by economics of accessibility. The regional wild meat trade has little likelihood of abating as long as there are any pigs, muntjacs, and civets to be hunted. The human population of Viet Nam is more than 70 million, that of China more than 1,000 million. Together, they comprise an enormous market for wildlife products. For example, tens of millions of wild turtles are imported, legally and illegally, into China annually (van Dijk <em>et al</em>. 2000). There has been no comparable study of ungulate trade levels. Within the Northern and Central Annamites, every square kilometre of Viet Namese forest and of Lao forest that is within 5 km of the Viet Namese border probably has snares capable of capturing muntjacs set in it every year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Intensity in some areas probably reaches many thousands of snare-nights per square kilometre per year (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Snaring is less intensive in Lao PDR at least away from the Viet Namese border, but is increasing dramatically (Timmins and Robichaud 2005; W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. to R.J. Timmins 2007). Hunting intensity has in recent decades been generally lower in southern Viet Nam than in Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam, leaving many wildlife populations less depleted (e.g. Le Xuan Canh <em>et al</em>. 1997; Timmins and Duckworth 2000; Polet and Ling 2004), but the general increase in regional hunting intensity and economic wealth indicate that hunting intensity in this region must also be increasing. When muntjacs become rare, the animals are hunted in group drives; the meat is often sold (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002).<br/><br/>Closed tropical evergreen forests have inherently low ungulate biomass (Robinson and Bennett 2000), and beyond this populations of all wild animals larger than 20 kg in Indochina have been significantly reduced by human exploitation (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Field survey encounter rates with Northern Red Muntjacs in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia are remarkably low compared with other areas in its range (Timmins and Ou 2001; Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). In a recent reconnaissance survey of highly fragmented habitat in southern Lao PDR (Pathoumphon district, Champasak province), outside the protected area system, muntjac were the only ungulates (assumed to relate to this species on habitat and distribution) for which signs were commonly found, even wild pigs <em>Sus</em> sp(p). being noticeably more scarce (K. Khounboline and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). This pattern is general throughout Lao PDR (K. Khounboline pers. comm. 2008). However, areas of heavy hunting have lost muntjacs or had them reduced to extreme rarity, not only forest isolates such as Houay Nhang (a few square kilometres,, just outside Vientiane; Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1994) but also, where hunting has been extremely heavy, less fragmented landscapes (such as the western lowlands of Xe Bang-Nouan National Protected Area in south Lao PDR; J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). In such areas, even though forest within them is in general heavily degraded, habitat is unlikely to be the prime cause of decline, because in some other areas of long-standing forest devastation now dominated by a mix of secondary ruderals, shrubs and grasses, muntjacs are still relatively common, e.g. <em>Phongsali</em> (far northern Lao PDR), where they can even still be heard from the provincial capital town (Duckworth and Robichaud 2005). Similarly, Red Muntjac is common and widespread in Hong Kong, an almost deforested landscape (Chek 2006; R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008), and studies in Hainan indicated selection of openings and other edge habitats rather than forest interiors (Teng <em>et al</em>. 2004); this seems generally true throughout South-east Asia (R.J. Timmins and J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008). There is also evidence from elsewhere in its range that this species is better able than most ungulates to withstand a certain degree of continuous harvesting as well as habitat disturbance (Jathanna <em>et al</em> 2003), although this has rarely been based on quantified status assessment. In Nagarahole National Park, India, Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) found no difference in muntjac abundance between a heavily hunted and a lightly hunted site, compared with enormous differences for most other ungulates. In the context of Indochina, even their heavily-hunted site would, however, rank as lightly hunted (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008, from based on visit and discussion). Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) cautioned against assuming that these results indicated an intrinsic resilience to hunting by this muntjac: it is not so readily hunted as, for example, Chital <em>Axis axis</em>, because of its solitary nature, affinity for dense cover and therefore risks of getting caught are higher when using appropriate techniques to kill or capture it. However, the ubiquitous disparity in status between <em>M. vaginalis</em> and other ungulates (and indeed almost all other mammals of similar or larger body weight) in Indochina indicates that it is truly much more resilient to hunting. An intensive study of hunting on mammals in two Hmong villages of northern Thailand classified quarry species into tiers representing the sequence of loss through overhunting; muntjacs (most or all were presumably <em>M. vaginalis</em>) fell in the fifth tier, persisting much longer than all other ruminants and with only species like squirrels, civets, and linsangs being placed later in the extinction sequence (Tungittiplakorn and Dearden 2002). Even so, villagers reported that muntjacs were greatly reduced in numbers in the area. The strongest demonstration of its remarkable resilience is that it is now common and widespread in Hong Kong, an almost deforested landscape which has in the past sustained hunting and habitat disruption heavy enough to force extinction even of squirrels. Red Muntjac were reduced to very low populations a few decades ago, but did not become extinct, and has increased rapidly in recent years (Chek 2006; R. Corlett pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>While wild meat is the major driver of South-east Asian muntjac trade, parts such as antlers are also heavily traded (e.g. Duckworth <em>et al</em>. 1999, Noreen and Claridge 2001).<br/><br/>Rapid economic development and expanding wealth in the species' range, particularly South-east Asia and China, are increasing the demand for wildlife meat and ‘medicines’ (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 2007). Timmins <em>et al</em>. (2007) highlighted a common misconception, especially in documentation of development projects in the region, that poverty is a principal cause of biodiversity loss, but as they pointed out for Saola <em>Pseudoryx nghetinhensis</em>, the main driver of threats to wild ungulates, at least for the mid-term, is not rural poverty but increasing urban wealth in Indochina and China. In Viet Nam “the free market economy has resulted in feverish periods of trade in wild species nationwide, with negative impacts on biodiversity” (Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2004). In Cambodia, the same factor has fostered a thriving bushmeat market and hunting of species for international wildlife trade (Timmins and Ou 2001; Maxwell <em>et al</em>. 2006; Timmins 2006). There is a rapid, ongoing, expansion of wealthy social strata in Lao PDR, directly accelerated by illegal trade in rosewood, wild meat, and other forest resources, and by the economics of large infrastructure projects (e.g. Nan Theun 2 hydro-electric power project), creating a significantly greater in-country demand for luxury meats such as venison (W.G. Robichaud pers. comm. 2007). Wild meat is chosen in preference to farmed meat despite a greater price per unit weight (e.g. Hansel 2004). Markets along major roads such as route 13 (e.g. at Ban Namthon) have expanded, not contracted, in the last 15 years and have a huge (albeit unquantified) turnover of wild meat; at this specific market, multiple stalls are selling dried muntjac meat daily (balance of muntjac species unknown). The effects of hunting in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Thailand have been exacerbated during the last two decades by habitat loss and various socio-economic factors, of which the most biologically significant are discussed in the Red List account for Large-antlered Muntjac <em>M. vuquangensis</em>.<br/><br/>Thus, even though this is one of the most resilient of large mammals in Indochina persisting in fragmented landscapes and often in peripheral forest areas, populations in Indochina (Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia) are likely to be declining significantly (perhaps at a level to trigger VU i.e. 30% in 10–15 years; for the regional population). Densities especially in Lao PDR and Viet Nam are generally well below carrying capacity, although in extensive areas of Cambodia are likely to be more natural, as they are across the range west of the Mekong.	eng
136552	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It has been recorded from some protected areas. Hunting regulations are needed to protect this species. Further field studies to identify important areas for this species are needed. The taxonomy of this species should be reviewed.	eng
136552	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is widespread throughout the central mountains of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Foja Mountains (Indonesia), and the Huon Peninsula (Papua New Guinea), but it has a very patchy distribution and is probably now extirpated from most of its range (specimens are very common in the fossil record). Historically, it has been recorded from sea level to around 4,150 m asl. It is, however, rarely found at sea level now.	eng
136552	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species ranges from tropical hill forests to sub-alpine forests, grasslands and scrub. It is also found in secondary habitats. It has a large altitudinal range. This species lays eggs and the primary food is worms. It can have large home ranges, as evidenced by a recorded home range of about 198 ha over a two month period (D. Wright pers. comm.). Is a long-lived species; there is a record of an animal from the London Zoo which lived for thirty years.	eng
136552	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species has been hunted to local extinction in the densely populated and accessible regions of New Guinea. It may be more common in inaccessible areas. Tim Flannery (pers. comm.) says that the subpopulations in the western half (mainly the central mountains of Papua, Indonesia) have largely gone extinct, but some in the east (Papua New Guinea) appear to be more secure.	eng
136552	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is heavily threatened by hunting for food by local people (a prime prey species), and also by loss of habitat through conversion of suitable areas to cultivated land. A nickel mine has been proposed in the Wowo Gap area (in the next 10-15 years), which is an area that appears to support a good population of this species (L. Seri pers. comm.). The major populations are now largely confined to the higher reaches of the central massifs.	eng
136553	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where those apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Further research is required on population size and trends, distribution, habitat requirements and ecology, and potential threats to this species. Measures to increase public awareness are also recommended.	eng
136553	conservation	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in the range states where those apply. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. Some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Further research is required on population size and trends, distribution, habitat requirements and ecology, and potential threats to this species. Measures to increase public awareness are also recommended.	eng
136553	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the protection of this species through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of EU Habitats & Species Directive. Some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Further research is required on population size and trends, distribution, habitat requirements and ecology, and potential threats to this species. Measures to increase public awareness are also recommended.	eng
136553	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	<em>Myotis aurascens</em> is a western Palaearctic species; from present knowledge it is distributed in south-east Mediterranean and extending eastwards out of the region into steppe Europe, and in south-west Asia (i.e. from Italy through the Balkans to southern Russia and Transcaucasia). In parts of this area it may be the most common of the <em>M. mystacinus</em> group and one of most common bat species (Benda 2004).	eng
136553	distribution	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	<em>Myotis aurascens</em> is a western Palaearctic species; from present knowledge it is distributed in south-east Mediterranean and extending eastwards out of the region into steppe Europe, and in south-west Asia (i.e. from Italy through the Balkans to southern Russia and Transcaucasia). In parts of this area it may be the most common of the <em>M. mystacinus</em> group and one of most common bat species (Benda 2004).	eng
136553	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	<em>Myotis aurascens </em>is a western Palaearctic species; from present knowledge it is distributed in south-east Mediterranean and steppe Europe, and in south-west Asia (from Italy through the Balkans to southern Russia and Transcaucasia). In that area it is the most common of the <em>M. mystacinus</em> group and one of most common bat species (Benda 2004).	eng
136553	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Recorded from forest and scrub (including Mediterranean-type scrub), and likely to occur in underground habitats.	eng
136553	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Recorded from forest and scrub (including Mediterranean-type scrub). In Turkey it is usually caught in riparian areas (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Roosts in cracks and crevices in rocks, winters in caves (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm). Forms small winter aggregations up to 15 individuals (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).	eng
136553	habitat	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Recorded from forest and scrub (including Mediterranean-type scrub). In Turkey it is usually caught in riparian areas (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007). Roosts in cracks and crevices in rocks, winters in caves (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm). Forms small winter aggregations up to 15 individuals (K. Tsytsulina pers. comm.).	eng
136553	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Exact details are not known, but it is a widespread and common species.	eng
136553	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Is a widespread species, and although common in parts of its range, this is not true everywhere. Almost all records from Turkey are based on animals caught in mist nets, usually only 1 to 2 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007)	eng
136553	population	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Is a widespread species, and although common in parts of its range, this is not true everywhere. Almost all records from Turkey are based on animals caught in mist nets, usually only 1 to 2 animals (A. Karatas pers. comm. 2007)	eng
136553	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Potential threats include habitat loss (as a result of infrastructure development and other causes), and disturbance of roost sites in buildings or underground habitats. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
136553	threats	Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Hutson, A.M., Tsytsulina, K., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Potential threats include habitat loss (as a result of infrastructure development and other causes), and disturbance of roost sites in buildings or underground habitats. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
136553	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Zoltan Nagy, 2006	Potential threats include habitat loss (as a result of infrastructure development and other causes), and disturbance of roost sites in buldings or underground habitats. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the species at present.	eng
136554	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, distribution, natural history and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable D2 (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136554	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is known from Yunnan, China and northern Myanmar (Smith and Xie 2008). It occupies elevations ranging from 3,350-3,650 m asl (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136554	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies rocky alpine meadows (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136554	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136554	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136555	conservation	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	The majority of the species' range is in the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Site.	eng
136555	distribution	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is restricted to tropical Queensland, between Bluewater Range and the Mt. Windsor Tableland (Burnett and Crowther 2008). This species is found at altitudes above approximately 600 m (Burnett and Crowther 2008).	eng
136555	habitat	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	This species is found only in upland dense tropical vine-forest, in areas that receive highly seasonal rainfall up to 1500 mm annually (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). It prefers rainforest that is relatively undisturbed Burnett and Crowther 2008). Its habitat preferences are similar to that of <em>A. subtropicus</em> (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000), and it occurs sympatrically with <em>A. godmani</em> and <em>A. flavipes rubeculus</em> around Ravenshoe (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). <br/><br/>It frequently nests in epiphytic ferns, and also in tree hollows. Shelter within tree hollows, often shared by multiple individuals, are lined with leaf litter, moss, and lichens and are typically located in the mid- to upper- strata of the forest (Burnett and Crowther 2008). This species has a home range of 1 to 2 hectares. It feeds on moths, beetles and other insects, as well as spiders, worms and small vertebrates such as skinks and frogs. It is also known to consume carrion (Burnett and Crowther 2008).	eng
136555	population	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	It is common within its limited range (Burnett and Crowther 2008).	eng
136555	threats	Burnett, S. & Winter, J., 2008	In the future, climate change could be a very severe threat, and over the next 30-50 years it is suspected that much of its range will be lost. 1080 baiting to control pigs and wild dogs may be resulting in incidental poisoning of some animals.	eng
136556	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136556	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from type locality at 500 m asl (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 2006) in southeastern Jujuy Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136556	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136556	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136556	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136557	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species has not been found in any protected areas.	eng
136557	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is known only from type locality at Salar de Pipanaco in Catamarca province, Argentina (27°50'S; 66°15'W) (Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
136557	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The habitat consists of perisaline shrublands associated with the salt pans of Pipanaco. Low shrubs dominate the area and the substrate is mainly sand with significant amounts of salt. The animals are restricted to a narrow band of halophytic plant habitat that lies between the bare salt and the more typical Monte Desert habitats (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It specializes in feeding on halophite plants.	eng
136557	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136557	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The major threat to this species is loss of habitat to agricultural expansion, in the form of olive plantations. Its area of occupancy is less than 10 km² and all individuals are in a single location.	eng
136558	conservation	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species has been collected from a National park, Kirirom National Park (Csorba and Bates 2005). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats, and ecology of this species.	eng
136558	distribution	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is only known from Kirirom National Park in southern Cambodia (Csorba and Bates 2005).	eng
136558	habitat	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	The species has been collected in disturbed semi evergreen gallery forest with many immature trees (Csorba and Bates 2005). This area had been selectively logged in the past (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
136558	population	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
136558	threats	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
136559	conservation	Lamoreux, J., 2008	There are protected areas within its range.	eng
136559	distribution	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Foothills and lowlands of eastern of México, from the Rio Grande, south across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, into the Yucatán Peninsula and lowlands of Chiapas and northern Guatemala (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005; Musser and Carleton 2005) Range limits require vouchered documentation (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136559	habitat	Lamoreux, J., 2008	Occurs in coastal and moist lowland grassland habitats (Carroll <em>et al</em>. 2005; Ceballos and Oliva 2005). Can be found in agricultural areas, including sugarcane fields (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136559	population	Lamoreux, J., 2008	This species is common.	eng
136559	threats	Lamoreux, J., 2008	No known major threats.	eng
136560	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occurs in Songshan and Liangshui Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008), but it is not known if it occurs in additional protected areas.  Further studies are needed regarding the taxonomy, abundance, and natural history of this species.  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136560	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a widespread species, occurring in China, Mongolia, Russia, and the Korean Peninsula (Smith and Xie 2008). In China, it occurs in the provinces of Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Sichuan, Henan, Anhui, Shandong, Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang (Smith and Xie 2008), Beijing (CSIS 2008), and Hebei. This species occurs as a vagrant on Hokkaido, Aomori Prefecture and Tsushima Island in Japan (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005 as <em>Pipistrellus savii</em>).	eng
136560	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	In China this species occupies a variety of habitats and is known to roost in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136560	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136560	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136561	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (as <em>M. bennetti</em>) (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136561	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from south Mexico to Colombia (Simmons, 2005). It occurs in lowlands only (Reid, 1997).	eng
136561	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in dry and semideciduous forest, as well as mature evergreen forest (Reid, 1997). Its biology is poorly known. Usually it roots in groups of 2 to 20 in limestone caves (most captures are made in or around roosts) (Reid, 1997). LaVal (1977) reported a roost of 15 to 20 in a hollow log. It probably gleans prey from vegetation. Whitaker and Findley (1980) found remains of large scarab beetles and a bird in feces of 4 individuals. Small lizards and katydids are also taken. A single young are born at the onset of the rainy season (Reid, 1997).	eng
136561	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This bat is common on the Yucatan Peninsula; but rare and local southward, in rainforest (Reid, 1997).	eng
136561	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	None known. Its biology is poorly known.	eng
136562	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136562	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Unknown; Carter and Dolan (1978) have suggested that the type and only known specimen is probably not from South America.	eng
136562	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
136562	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	There is no information on population.	eng
136562	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Not known.	eng
136563	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs mainly in national parks.	eng
136563	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species is restricted to adjacent areas of Rio de Janero, Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo States, Brazil (Bonvicino pers. comm.). The species is known from 3 disjunct locations - and occurrence between these sights is unknown.	eng
136563	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This is an arboreal species; it occurs in high altitude forest (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136563	population	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This is a very rare species; it is known only from three specimens collected in one year during over eight years of surveys. It is possible that the lack of collection in most years may be due to inappropriate survey methods (Geise pers. comm.).	eng
136563	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	There are no known major threats at this time (Bonvicino pers. comm.), however, the species has a very limited range and is currently occurring only in a few remaining protected areas. The species was likely more widespread and the remaining populations need protection.	eng
136564	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species roosts in one cave that is locally protected by 'fady' or taboo (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded from five protected areas: Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha, Parc National de Namoroka, Parc National d’Isalo, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana and Réserve Spéciale d’Analamerana (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). A total of nine roosting colonies are currently known: six in Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana (Cardiff 2006), two in Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007) and one in Sarodrano (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005; Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007), and all receive some form of protection. More research is needed on its roosting ecology and surveys are required in areas where this species is expected to occur.	eng
136564	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar where it is has a disjunct distribution from the north to the south-west of the island. It has an elevation range of 5 m to 800 m above sea level (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136564	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is restricted to areas with sandstone and limestone outcrops in western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) and appears to be an obligate cave dweller (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, its roosting colonies were associated with caves that were relatively cool, high and in close proximity to water (Cardiff 2006). The diet consists mainly of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera (Andriafidison <em>et al</em>. 2007) and foraging habitats are not thought to be associated with intact forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136564	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The colony of <em>O. madagascariensis</em> in a cave in the south of Parc National du Tsingy de Bemaraha consisted of between 90 and 100 individuals in 2003 (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Sarodrano roost in the south of Madagascar contained at least 67 animals in November 2003 (Andriafidison <em>et al.</em> 2007). The maximum colony size at Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana was 97 individuals (S. G. Cardiff pers. comm.).	eng
136564	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The threats to this species are unclear, but more research is needed into possible disturbance at its roost sites.	eng
136565	conservation	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is not known whether or not this species occurs in any protected areas. Research is needed to determine its taxonomic validity and geographic distribution.	eng
136565	distribution	Stuart, S.N., 2008	This recently described species is currently known only from its type locality in northwestern Iran: Bu’in-Zahra (49º58′E, 35º39′N), 65 km south of Qazvin City, Qazvin Province. The species presumably occurs more widely, but it range limits are currently unknown.	eng
136565	habitat	Stuart, S.N., 2008	There is no direct information on its habitat preferences, though these are likely to be similar to <em>Microtus guentheri</em> and <em>M. irani</em>.	eng
136565	population	Stuart, S.N., 2008	It is said to be locally common or abundant within its range.	eng
136565	threats	Stuart, S.N., 2008	Although its distribution is still very unclear, this species is probably adaptable, and there are unlikely to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136566	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has been collected from Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, threats, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136566	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality in south east Sulawesi (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2007), Lanowulu, Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park (04°22’S, 121°44’E) in Indonesia. Future studies may show it to be more widespread elsewhere in Indonesia and beyond.	eng
136566	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	All individuals of this species were captured in lowland rainforest. The forest was disturbed, and vegetation near the edge was characterized by a high incidence of bamboo and rattan (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136566	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136566	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136567	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136567	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Brazil, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It inhabits a sandy soiled region named 'Coxilha das Lombas', along a narrow line of old sand dunes that extends from north of Guaiba Lake to the northwestern sandbanks of Barros Lake (Freitas, 2001).	eng
136567	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136567	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136567	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	A hybrid zone between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lami </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. minutus</span> has been identified. The two species were formally separated by a wide humid zone but rice farming has reduced the swamp to a dry region and the two species have been brought together (Gava and Freitas, 2003). Urbanization and the development of agriculture, particularly rice and soybeans, in its limited geographic territory, make <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lami</span> a threatened species (Fernandes, 2007).	eng
136568	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136568	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Los Cardones (26o40?S, 65o51?W) Tucumán Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136568	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136568	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136568	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136569	conservation	Kumar, A., Sinha, A. & Kumar, S., 2008	As this is a newly described species, it is not yet listed on the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005; 2006a), but is covered by CITES Appendix II. Sinha <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest the establishment of community awareness and conservation programs, as well as the designation of a protected area that is locally appropriate. At the moment it is not known to occur in any official protected areas, its occurrence in Mouling National Park is likely but needs to be confirmed (A. Kumar pers. comm.).	eng
136569	distribution	Kumar, A., Sinha, A. & Kumar, S., 2008	This recently described species is reported from the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type locality is Zemithang (27°42’ N, 91°43’ E, at 2,180 m), Tawang District in Arunachal Pradesh (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is distributed over much of Tawang District, and in the western part of West Kameng, they may also occur in other parts of Arunachal Pradesh, and in adjoining areas of Bhutan and Tibet (China) (Sinha <em>et al. </em>2005). The extent of occurrence of this species from the available field data is about 3,700 km<sup>2</sup> and area of occupancy is about 2,700 km<sup>2</sup> (Kumar <em>et al.</em> in press). Macaques resembling <em>M. munzala</em> have recently been observed in areas adjacent to Mouling National Park in Upper Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh; however, the taxonomic identity of these animals needs confirmation (A. Kumar Chhangani pers. comm.).	eng
136569	habitat	Kumar, A., Sinha, A. & Kumar, S., 2008	This species is mostly terrestrial and has been sighted in a range of habitats, including: degraded broadleaf forest, degraded open scrub forest, agricultural areas, undisturbed oak forest, and undisturbed conifer forest (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species occurs at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,500 m (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is relatively tolerant of humans, and has occasionally been recorded close to villages and crops (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136569	population	Kumar, A., Sinha, A. & Kumar, S., 2008	According to one source there are currently thirty-five distinct troops known, with at least 569 different individuals (32 troops of 540 individuals in Tawang, and 3 troops of 29 individuals in West Kameng, Kumar <em>et al.</em> in press; Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Another source, however, has the number of mature individuals as less than 250 (A. Kumar pers. comm.).	eng
136569	threats	Kumar, A., Sinha, A. & Kumar, S., 2008	These animals are sometimes killed in retaliation for damaging crops (Sinha <em>et al. </em>2005). In general, however, the local people do not eat primates (Sinha <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some hunting of primates for meat is carried out by non-local government employees (Sinha <em>et al.</em> 2005). According to Sinha <em>et al</em>. (2006b), 54 macaques were killed in one village over a year in West Kameng district. There is not much habitat loss within its range.	eng
136570	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is known from several indigenous reserves (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
136570	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	So far known from the central and lower drainage of the Rio Juruá, western Brazil; range limits require amplification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136570	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The majority of specimens were obtained in terra firme forest during survey of the Rio Jurua, some were also collected from seasonally flooded varzea forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Pregnant females have been observed during August, September, October, November, May, and June, in both the wet and dry seasons suggesting that reproduction occurs throughout the year (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is thought that sexual maturity is reached at an early age (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
136570	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent is known from a few specimens (total = 32) from 7 localities (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). It is thought to be reasonably abundant (Patton pers. comm.).	eng
136570	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136571	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136571	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species is found in Indonesia, in northern Moluccas, Togian Islands, Sangihe Islands, Talaud Islands, Pelang, and Sulawesi and other Indonesian islands (Muno, Buton, Peleng, Kabaena, Mangole, Sanana, Halmahera, Siau, Sangihe, Karekelang and also Hoga Island).	eng
136571	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is commonly found in gardens and disturbed forest (Flannery 1995). It is not dependent on water. It roosts in caves, trees, and rock crevices. This species lives in large colonies. Births probably take place in December (Flannery 1995).	eng
136571	population	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.	eng
136571	threats	Hutson, A.M., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range. Hunting, and limestone extraction at roosting sites in south Sulawesi are localised threats to this species.	eng
136572	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species has been collected from Krau Wildlife Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136572	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality in Peninsular Malaysia; Kuala Lompat, Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang Province (3°43’N, 102°10’E).	eng
136572	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	All known examples of this bat have been caught in the understorey of mature lowland rainforest. The type specimen was caught over small pools in the stream bed of a seasonal stream in relatively undisturbed forest about a kilometre from the clearing at Kuala Lompat. Other individuals were caught along forest understorey trails, showing no particular association with streams or swamps. Nothing is known of the species’ roosting ecology, although, like other <em>Kerivoula</em> it has not been found to roost in caves in the area (Francis <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136572	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136572	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	Threats to this species are not known, although deforestation will be a threat if it is known to occur outside of the forest reserve.	eng
136573	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	Found in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136573	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	These opossums are found in northeastern Brazil, French Guiana, Surinam, Guyana and Venezuela (Gardner 2007).	eng
136573	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	Known from lowland rain forest, including swampy forest and secondary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). It is nocturnal; terrestrial; solitary. Feeds on insects and fruit.	eng
136573	population	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	Poorly known. Apparently rare but locally abundant, but based on very few surveys.	eng
136573	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Silva, C., 2008	No known threats.	eng
136574	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. Populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
136574	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is endemic to Sangir Island (Sangihe) of the Molucca Islands (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136574	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is commonly found in low elevation primary forests, where it has its highest population density, but it is also common in all cultivated areas (Riley 2002).	eng
136574	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	<em>P. rosenbergii</em> is the most frequently encountered mammal on Sangihe island in several habitat types, with the highest population density in primary forest.	eng
136574	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	Sangihe island is heavily cultivated at low elevations. Though this animal does well in secondary and cultivated habitats, its primary habitat is rapidly being transformed (Riley 2002).	eng
136575	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Otishi National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136575	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from elfin forest at the type locality at 3,350 m Vilcabamba, south Peru (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136575	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This rodent occurs in montane forest and is terrestrial (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136575	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species likely common (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136575	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, fragmentation, and agriculture.	eng
136576	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. Little is known about this newly described species.	eng
136576	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is known from Durango, Sinaloa, and Sonora, Mexico (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004; Cabrera <em>et al. </em>2007). It might possibly be present throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental (Cabrera <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
136576	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in pine-oak forests at elevations greater than 2,000 m (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
136576	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is relatively common within suitable habitat.	eng
136576	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to logging.	eng
136577	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas.	eng
136577	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The species occurs in the eastern slope of the Andes in Bolivia and Peru (Velazco pers. comm.). Elevation range is 650-3,350 m asl (Velazco 2005)	eng
136577	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Lives under palm leaves in forested areas. It is frugivorous but there is no information on its specific diet. The ecology of this specis is poorly know (as with all <em>Platyrrinus</em>)	eng
136577	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	In seems to be common.	eng
136577	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	The species occurs in a fragile ecosystem on the slopes of the Andes which is undergoing rapid conversion to agriculture and other land-uses.	eng
136578	conservation	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
136578	distribution	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo, where it  has been recorded from Kalimantan (Indonesia) and Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia). It presumably also occurs in Brunei.	eng
136578	habitat	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available on this species. It is found in primary and secondary forest, but also occurs also in cultivated areas.	eng
136578	population	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The population size of this species is not known. It is believed to be common in suitable habitats.	eng
136578	threats	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This is a widespread and adaptable species, and so is unlikely to be facing any significant threats.	eng
136579	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. The urgent priority with this species is to resolve <em>Miniopterus</em> taxonomy and identification in order to understand the distribution, abundance, habitat requirements, ecology, and threats to it. Important roosting and foraging sites for this species should be protected. In parts of the range there is a need to sustainably manage harvesting of the species.	eng
136579	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species ranges from New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), through the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), into the Solomon Islands (Choiseul, New Georgia, San Cristobal), through the islands of Vanuatu to New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands). It is found from sea level to 3,200 m. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
136579	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species is found from lowland tropical forest habitats to subalpine grasslands. It occurs in very large colonies, perhaps in the thousands in large, dry caves (and often in association with other species). It is an aerial insectivore and one of the smallest bats in the genus. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
136579	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is common at high altitudes, and less common in lowland elevations. However, these data are unclear, given identification problems (T. Reardon pers. comm.).	eng
136579	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Reardon, T., 2008	The genus <em>Miniopterus</em> is very reliant on caves and tend to form large aggregations that are susceptible to disturbance. It is collected for food by the Telefol and Tifal people on New Guinea.	eng
136580	conservation	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas, however, it may be present in Gunung Leuser National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, population abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly known species.	eng
136580	distribution	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly known species is known only from the type locality of Blangnanga Base Camp, in the Aceh foothills of Gunung Leuser, northern Sumatra, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was collected at 1,097 m.	eng
136580	habitat	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is found in lowland forest. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
136580	population	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005) and its population status is unknown.	eng
136580	threats	Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. But if this is found to be a lowland species, it is potentially seriously threatened by ongoing deforestation.	eng
136581	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Listed as rare in Red List of Kazakhstan (category 3: rare species with limited distribution).	eng
136581	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Distributed in Kazakhstan (lower Ural River basin, along Uil, Temir and Emba rivers flood plains).	eng
136581	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	A steppe species. It inhabits moist sands and adjacent areas with sabulous soils and high underground water. Found in clearings in forests, steppe islands, hilly fixed sands, ravine slopes and old river beds. A solitary and obligately subterranean species. Active year round. Peak of digging activity is in spring, the minimum is in June. There are no evident peaks in daily activity. Burrows are complex, consist of shallow feeding passages and deep passages that include nest cells. Nests range from 0.9 to 3 m in depth. Total length of passages is 145-540 m. This species feeds on underground parts of various plants, but the main part of the diet is volga wild rye (<em>Elymus giganteus</em>). Local distribution of <em>Spalax uralensis</em> is linked to that of <em>Elymus giganteus</em>. The species makes food caches of up to 2.5 kg in weight. Reproduction is usually once a year in spring or summer, some females can give a second litter in autumn. Litter size is 2-6.	eng
136581	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Spatial distribution is very uneven, associated with isolated sand massifs. In Aktyubinsk region, population density ranges from 0.26 to 1 individuals per hectare. On the borders of sand massif Kokzhide it is 1-2 individals per hectare. On the southern border of Kumzhargan sands it is 4 indviduals per hectare (Garbuzov, 1977)	eng
136581	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Overgrazing, extremely low temperatures in winter and droughts.	eng
136582	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from Cerro Machim (2,500-3,000 m), in the Sierra de Juarez, Oaxaca (Mexico) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136582	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species in only found in cloud forest from 2,500-3,000 m. It has a very restricted range.	eng
136582	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
136582	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation throughout its very restricted range.	eng
136583	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It occurs in several proteced areas.	eng
136583	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	South Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul), North Argentina (Provincia de Entrerios) and Uruguay.	eng
136583	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	This species is found in grasslands and is herbivorous.	eng
136583	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136583	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	No major threats for this species.	eng
136584	conservation	Global Mammal Assessment Team, 2008	Listed in CITES Appendix II (under Primates spp.). At present, no conservation measures are required. Humans are present in numerous protected areas throughout their range.	eng
136584	distribution	Global Mammal Assessment Team, 2008	Humans have the widest distribution of any terrestrial mammal species, inhabiting every continent on earth (although there are no permanent settlements on Antarctica). A small group of humans has been introduced to space, where they inhabit the International Space Station.	eng
136584	habitat	Global Mammal Assessment Team, 2008	Humans are found in a wide variety of habitats, largely thanks to their ability to use technology to adapt to and modify their habitats. Major concentrations are found in urban centers: over the past 30 years, the urban population has increased so that more than half of the world population will be living in cities by 2008 (Population Reference Bureau 2007).	eng
136584	population	Global Mammal Assessment Team, 2008	In mid-2007, the total population of human beings was estimated at 6.6 billion, an increase from 6.1 billion in 2001. Two countries, China and India, hold approximately one-third of the entire human population alone, with 1,318 million and 1,312 million people, respectively. The United States of America is third with 302 million. The annual rate of increase is about 1.2%; the total population is expected to reach 7,965 million by mid-2025, and 9,294 by mid-2050 (Population Reference Bureau 2007).	eng
136584	threats	Global Mammal Assessment Team, 2008	There are currently no major threats to humans, although some subpopulations may be experiencing localized declines as a result of disease, drought, war, natural disasters, and other factors.	eng
136585	conservation	Duckworth, J.W., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The species is listed (as <em>M. meminna</em>) in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and occurs in numerous protected areas throughout its range (Raman 2004). Several of these are well secured from damaging levels of hunting and from serious habitat encroachment. Conservation of the species outside well-secured protected areas is hampered by the almost total lack of knowledge of its specific conservation needs. As stated by Raman (2004), “Habitat and ecological requirements for the conservation of the Indian Chevrotain require field research that has hitherto been lacking. Radio-telemetry studies of home range and social organisation and behavioural-ecological studies on habitat preferences and use, foraging ecology, the effects of habitat alteration and degradation, and on reproduction and population dynamics are sorely needed to develop a more realistic and comprehensive picture of the future conservation prospects of this species”. Perhaps most urgent is that the actual population-level effects of the heavy hunting documented by various studies are unknown, and therefore the urgency to address these illegal practices is unclear.	eng
136585	distribution	Duckworth, J.W., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Indian Chevrotain inhabits most of the India, from Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the far south, north to at least 24°N, i.e. Mandla, Hoshangabad, Palamau and near Udaipur (Rajasthan) at 24°04′N (Tehsin 1980, Groves and Meijaard 2005). The northern limit has been muddled in past and current literature. Champion (1929) strongly doubted the occurrence of chevrotains in Nepal, and originated a now commonly-held view its northern limit lay at about 24°N. Most of the subsequent major reviews have followed this and have thus omitted Nepal from the species’s range (Corbet and Hill 1992; Groves and Meijaard 2005; Grubb 2005); this overlooks several valid records from the country. Hodgson (1841) stated that chevrotains occurred at Vulgo Bijay in the terai. Many of Hodgson’s Nepal specimens came from Sikkim and Bhutan, outside the modern boundary of Nepal (see e.g. Hinton and Fry 1923), but there are no indications that any species of chevrotain occurs in these areas, so this standard explanation cannot, therefore, be used for the presence of the species in Hodgson’s Nepal list, and it was therefore retained as a Nepal inhabitant by Hinton and Fry (1923). Hodgson’s statement was vindicated by Mitchell and Punzo (1976), who obtained a specimen (a partial skeleton from a decomposed carcase, supplied by hunters) and saw two live wild chevrotains in Sal Shorea robusta forest at Mahadeva, Banke District (28°13′N, 81°56′E; 220 m asl), and observed a live wild chevrotain in tall elephant grass at Tamispur, Nawal Parsi District (27°34′N, 83°57′E; 90 m asl) on 15 February 1968. Mitchell and Punzo’s (1976) records were simply overlooked, not rejected, by Groves and Meijaard (2005) (C. P. Groves pers. comm. 2008) and presumably the other reviews. Other Nepal records include a live animal displayed some years ago in the Nepal zoo collected from the country’s lowlands (K. Shah per Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008), a specimen held at the Kathmandu Natural History Museum labelled ‘West Nepal below 300 m’, and several reports from foresters of direct sightings in the lowlands (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008). Suitable habitat, which would always have been limited in the country, has been mostly lost (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
136585	habitat	Duckworth, J.W., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Raman (2004) synthesised the following: the Indian Chevrotain is found in tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaux, extending into montane forests up to around 1,850 m elevation (Prater 1971, personal observations). It is reported to favour rocky habitats (MacDonald and Norris 2001), grass-covered rocky hill-sides and forest (Prater 1971), and it often occurs along forest streams and rivers (personal observations). It also occurs in some anthropogenically disturbed areas, such as plantations, rural gardens, and degraded forest. Very little is known about the ecology and behaviour of the Indian Chevrotain with much of the information being in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records (Prater 1971, Krishnan 1972, Paulraj 1995, Gokula 1997). Like other forest ruminants, adults are mostly solitary except at the time of courtship. During the day, chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles (Krishnan 1972). Occasionally, they may also be encountered resting in the leaf litter of the forest floor where their dappled pelage acts as an effective camouflage as long as the animal stays immobile. If one chances upon it while it is resting thus, the animal allows the observer to approach quite close before suddenly rushing off into the forest undergrowth or into a well-chosen hiding spot. Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal. Chevrotains are of a shy and retiring disposition, avoiding open areas and ready to scurry away at the least hint of alarm. They forage for herbs and shrubs and fallen fruit from the forest floor. Krishnan (1972) noted that the Indian Chevrotain eats the fruits of species such as <em>Terminalia bellerica</em>, <em>Gmelina arborea</em>, and <em>Garuga pinnata</em>, common in the deciduous forests of south India. The species is reported to have a gestation period of around five months (MacDonald and Norris 2001). Females are reported to bring forth their young, usually twins, in their dens or hides, at the end of the rains and commencement of the cold season (Prater 1971). It is prey for a wide range of carnivorous mammals (especially leopard <em>Panthera pardus</em>) and reptiles, and even birds. Some of the information in this section quoted from secondary references such as Prater (1971) may have been drawn originally from Sri Lankan populations, not here considered conspecific with <em>M. indica</em> of India and Nepal.	eng
136585	population	Duckworth, J.W., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	This chevrotain has a poorly-known population status. Raman (2004) synthesised the following: the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve at the extreme south of the Western Ghats appears to be one of the best localities for the species and may represent a major population stronghold (personal observations). The species may also be frequently met with in most other protected areas along the Western Ghats such as the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent Valley, Mudumalai-Bandipur-Nagarahole, Bhadra, and Kudremukh. Krishnan (1972) noted that the species is seen almost commonly around Karwar and in some forests of south India, having also observed the species in the Simlipal hills of Orissa in the east. Along the Eastern Ghats populations occur in the forest tracts along the Nallamal hills and Srisailam Nagarjuna Sagar. To this can be added further support for it being regularly encountered in the Western Ghats at sites surveyed by Kumara and Singh (2004).<br/><br/>In Nepal, it would always have had a small population, restricted to the lowlands, Siwalik hills and Bhabar area. Hem Sagar Baral (pers. comm. 2008) traced a number of records from Nepal, but none was from recent years (see Distribution). This species may now be very rare there, or even extinct, but it would be premature to consider it so, because there has been no recent search specifically for the species. The hills of the Chitwan valley are the most likely place the species might persist in Nepal, because habitat here is protected and relatively little encroached (Hem Sagar Baral <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
136585	threats	Duckworth, J.W., Hem Sagar Baral & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Raman (2004) synthesised the following: Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. Hunting of them by indigenous and settled local communities is widespread along the Western and Eastern Ghats. Madhusudan and Karanth (2000, 2002) give an account of the techniques used for hunting chevrotains by people such as the Kuruba in tropical forests of Karnataka near and within Nagarahole and Kudremukha. Active hunting uses hunting dogs to locate and flush the animals and a club/machete to kill them, while passive means include deadfall traps. Much of the hunting is for the pot, although wild meat is often sold in local markets in many places. This is one species that even women and children join with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beat bushes and flush animals toward nets held by people where the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. In the Dakshin Kannada district, 78% of 49 hunters interviewed by Madhusudan and Karanth (2002) ranked the chevrotain as the species they hunted the most. They also believed that this had led to depressed abundance of the species in areas with hunting. Three-quarters of the hunters themselves identified hunting as the most important factor for the decline in abundance. The control of hunting therefore may be required for the conservation of the species. Raman (2004) provided no empirical information on habitat relevant to conservation. As a forest-associated species, forest conversion has obviously greatly reduced the area holding Indian Chevrotain over the past few millenia. Compared with most of the tropical world, outright forest conversion in its range has been low within recent decades: more serious has been degradation and fragmentation of what remains, but the Indian Chevrotain’s adaptability to fragmentation and degradation has never been studied. In Nepal, the Siwalik hills and Bhabar area that lie just north of the Gangetic plain presumably formed the northernmost range limit. These areas remained little disturbed until recently mainly because of malaria infestation and low quality land for cultivation. With the quashing of malaria, habitat conversion was rapid and now such habitat persist only within protected areas (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136586	conservation	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species occurs in protected areas in Viet Nam. Further studies are required to determine the population status of this species (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136586	distribution	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	This species is currently known from a geographically restricted area, on the border between central Lao PDR and central<br/>Viet Nam. It is only known from a small number of records (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136586	habitat	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	It is currently known only from caves in limestone areas (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136586	population	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	Surveys around the area, though not specifically for this species, have not captured any individuals (P. Bates pers. comm.). It is likely to have a population size of less than 10,000 individuals (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136586	threats	Francis, C. & Bates, P., 2008	The species is affected by disturbance of caves and it may be hunted in Lao PDR.	eng
136587	conservation	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	Surveys needed to determine the presence of this species in south-west lowland areas of Bougainville. Studies are needed also on population size.	eng
136587	distribution	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from lowland forest from sea level to 200 m on the islands of Bougainville (including the immediately adjacent small island of Puruata), Buka, Choiseul, and Isabel (including the immediately adjacent small island of Barora Fa) (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands). These are all land bridge fragments of a formerly larger island.	eng
136587	habitat	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species appears to be entirely dependent on old-growth, lowland forest. It probably roosts solitarily in foliage, though it might also utilize hollows or cavities of large ficus trees (S. Hamilton pers. comm.). The generation length may be 5 years or a bit longer.	eng
136587	population	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	This species is very infrequently encountered. It was last collected from Choiseul in 1964, from Bougainville in 1968, from Buka in 1987, and from Barora Fa in 2000. Field surveys in Choiseul and Isabel in the 1990s failed to detect this species. Local people in Choiseul suggest that it has disappeared. Recent surveys over the course of the three years, 2002-2005, on Bougainville failed to detect this species (S. Hamilton pers. comm.).	eng
136587	threats	Helgen, K., Hamilton, S. & Leary, T., 2008	Forest clearance and disturbance, along with active hunting, probably threaten this species. Hunting is likely to be a major threat, given the size of this species. Civil tensions in Bougainville from 1987 till 2000 resulted in an increase in hunting pressure.	eng
136588	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136588	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Sierra Famatina northwest, Rioja Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It is only known from a single specimen from the type locality (Bidau, Ojeda and Lessa pers. comm.)	eng
136588	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136588	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136588	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136589	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	This species might be present in Namdapha National Park, although this requires verification. General taxonomic research, field surveys, and monitoring of populations are recommended for this species.	eng
136589	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to the South Asian countries of Bhutan and India (present in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim) where it is confined to the southeastern slopes of the Himalaya (Hutterer 2005). It occurs at an elevational range of 1,500 to 3,100 m asl and is probably widely distributed.	eng
136589	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	It occurs in subtropical and tropical montane forests in the Himalayan slopes.	eng
136589	population	Molur, S., 2008	Population status and trends are not known for this species.	eng
136589	threats	Molur, S., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known.	eng
136590	conservation	Yigit, N., 2008	No specific measures are known.	eng
136590	distribution	Yigit, N., 2008	Endemic to the Taurus mountains of Turkey. Found at altitudes of 1,000 m and above.	eng
136590	habitat	Yigit, N., 2008	A montane species.	eng
136590	population	Yigit, N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136590	threats	Yigit, N., 2008	No threats at present because it occurs at higher altitudes that are not subject to major human impacts.	eng
136591	conservation	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species needs research and museum studies.	eng
136591	distribution	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Mistrato, Colombia (980 m). This species occurs in the west Andes of Colombia (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136591	habitat	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Nothing is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Holotype is in primary forest.	eng
136591	population	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	This is a newely described species known from one location.	eng
136591	threats	Muños, A. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Unknown due to lack of information.	eng
136592	conservation	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136592	distribution	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	South America. This species is endemic to the Guiana Shield. It occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, and adjacent portions of Brazil (Lim <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Ventura <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136592	habitat	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Nocturnal; terrestrial and arboreal; solitary. It is omnivorus feeding on fruit and insects. This species has been found in lowland rainforests, and is sympatric with <em>D. marsupialis</em> (Ventura <em>et al.</em>, 2002). The females build a leaf nest in a tree cavity or burrow. Its ecology is lesser known than other species of Didelphis. Found from 60-2,550 m (Lew pers. comm.).	eng
136592	population	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	This species is relatively common in some areas  (Lew pers. comm.) and rare in others.	eng
136592	threats	Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136593	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in Lore Lindu National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats for this species.	eng
136593	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is known only from four specimens collected in the swamp forest of Kenawu village, Lindu Lake, Lore Lindu National Park, central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Maryanto and Yani 2003).	eng
136593	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	This newly described species is known only from swamp forest at 995-1,005 m (Maryanto and Yani 2003).	eng
136593	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species. It is known only from four specimens.	eng
136593	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136594	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	More research is needed to get a better understanding of the species distribution, abundance, basic ecology and threats.	eng
136594	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is found in Guyana and Brazil (Gregorin <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136594	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	It is found in savanna areas and cerrado.	eng
136594	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This is a recently described species that is known from only four specimens.	eng
136594	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species natural habitat is being rapidly converted to pasture or agriculture lands. More research is needed to identify threats more thoroughly.	eng
136595	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136595	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Southeast Jujuy Province and Salta Province, northwest Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136595	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136595	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136595	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136596	conservation	Meegaskumbura, S. & Meegaskumbura, M., 2008	This species is present in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136596	distribution	Meegaskumbura, S. & Meegaskumbura, M., 2008	This recently described species is currently known only from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Sri Lanka (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). It has been recorded at two sites in Sinharaja Forest, at Kudawa (460 m asl) and Morningside (1,040 m asl) (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). Sampling efforts at ten other sites in Sri Lanka have not located any additional populations, and it seems possible that this species is restricted to Sinharaja Forest with an available range of 110 km²; although it is still considered possible that it might be present in other nearby forested areas (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136596	habitat	Meegaskumbura, S. & Meegaskumbura, M., 2008	Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. (2007) only recorded the species from recent secondary forest (regrowth since logging operations in the 1970s), although it is possible that animals initially identified as <em>Crocidura miya</em> by Wijesinghe and Brooke (2005) from unlogged forest habitat at Sinharaja might be <em>C. hikmiya</em> (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007). The forest at Kudawa is as a <em>Mesua</em>–<em>Doona</em> community (mixed dipterocarp forest), while the forest at Morningside is transitional between the lowland wet-evergreen vegetation and low-elevation (~1,000 m asl) tropical montane forest (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136596	population	Meegaskumbura, S. & Meegaskumbura, M., 2008	It is considered to be the most abundant shrew species in Sinharaja (Meegaskumbura <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136596	threats	Meegaskumbura, S. & Meegaskumbura, M., 2008	It seems probable that the habitat of this species is under a degree of degradation or loss, largely through conversion of these forested areas to agricultural use (including plantation systems).	eng
136597	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	The species has not been recorded from a protected area, but Yasuni National Park is within its known localities (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136597	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is found in the lowlands (below 400 m asl) of western Ecuador. A juvenile specimen purchased near Iquitos, Peru suggests the species may be more widely distributed (Voss and da Silva, 2001).	eng
136597	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	This species is poorly known. Some field observations of Coendou ichillus are available. An adult female porcupine was briefly observed in the night as it ate ripe bananas suspended by a cord from the rafters of a building surrounded by gardens and secondary vegetation. Another adult was observed at night in adjacent primary floodplain forest, where it was perched on a liana about 8 m above the ground. At least two individuals were said by lodge employees to inhabit holes in hollow palm trunks that were used as upright supports for the kitchen and other buildings (Voss and da Silva, 2001).	eng
136597	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	It is uncommon; the species is known only from a few individuals (Voss and da Silva, 2001).	eng
136597	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C., Weksler, M., Anderson, R.P. & Gómez-Laverde, M., 2008	Major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136598	conservation	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Its range does include a few protected areas.	eng
136598	distribution	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	This species ranges from the Altai mountains in Kazakhstan, eastwards through southern Siberia, Mongolia, northern China, to the Republic of Korea and the Russian islands of Sakhalin and Iturup (Kuriles). In Mongolia it is distributed throughout northern Mongolia, in Mongol Altai, Hangai, Hövsgöl and Hentii mountain ranges (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980 as <em>P. auritus</em>), and Eastern Mongolia (Dorjderem, 2004 as <em>P. auritus</em>).	eng
136598	habitat	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	Inhabits steppe and forest-steppe habitats in northern Mongolia, and taiga and southern mountain forests in Siberia, and temperate forest in the remainder of its range. It often roosts in the crevices of trees. It does not avoid areas inhabited by humans. It feeds on small to medium-sized insects, including mosquitoes and butterflies. It hunts at night catching prey in the air, but are also ground seeking (Sokolov and Orlov, 1980). Breeds in colonies, young are born in June, usually just one offspring is produced.	eng
136598	population	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There is no information on population sizes in Mongolia (or elsewhere in the range) at present.	eng
136598	threats	Stubbe, M., Ariunbold, J., Buuveibaatar, V., Dorjderem, S., Monkhzul, Ts., Otgonbaatar, M. & Tsogbadrakh, M., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
136599	conservation	Hoeck, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, including Udzungwa Mts and Kilimanjaro National Parks, Arusha National Park and several forest reserves in the Eastern Arc Mts of Tanzania, such as Kindoroko and Nguru North Forest Reserves (see Cordeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005; Roberts <em>et al</em>. in press). The taxonomic status of this species relative to <em>D. arboreus</em> requires further investigation.	eng
136599	distribution	Hoeck, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species has a restricted and patchy geographic range, being limited to montane forests on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Meru, the Eastern Arc Mountains, and coastal forests of Tanzania, southern Kenya and offshore islands, including Pemba, Zanzibar and Tumbatu (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
136599	habitat	Hoeck, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Occurs in moist lowland and montane forest, from sea level to 3,070 m (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press). The species appears to be susceptible to habitat disturbance. In the Udzungwa Mts, logging has a significant impact on population numbers, especially where hunting also occurs (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001). In disturbed forests, individuals call less frequently. Overall, high population densities (i.e., based on calling frequency) appear to be linked to isolated, undisturbed forest patches. This would agree with the findings of Kundaeli (1976) on Mt Kilimanjaro: highest densities were estimated at an elevation of 2,310 m, where disturbance from logging was low.	eng
136599	population	Hoeck, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	Locally abundant. They are rarely seen, but can frequently be heard calling. Based on Circular Plot Counts of calls, densities of up to 17 individuals/ha have been estimated in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest on the Udzungwa Mts (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001).	eng
136599	threats	Hoeck, H. & Hoffmann, M., 2008	The main threats to this species are severe forest loss and fragmentation (mainly due to logging and burning), and hunting. Although individuals can persist in closed-canopy forests of less than one square kilometre, logging, including selective logging of large trees, removes potential shelter trees, destroys arboreal pathways and makes animals more vulnerable and prone to ground trapping (Roberts <em>et al.</em> in press). Eastern Tree Hyraxes are hunted for their meat and skins (to make blankets or karosses, which can still be found for sale in Arusha), and easily trapped using snares set at the head of runnels (pathways through the undergrowth) near the base of a tree. They may also be clubbed, speared, or run down by dogs having been ‘smoked out’ or following the felling of a den tree (a common method employed in the Udzungwa Mts) (Topp-Jørgensen and Pedersen 2001).	eng
136600	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from Marus National Park, Lambu Sango National Reserve, and a few other protected areas.	eng
136600	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is known from Sulawesi and adjacent islands in Indonesia (T. Kingston pers. comm.). The type locality is Peleng Island east of Sulawesi in Indonesia.  Its elevational range is from sea level up to 1,000 m asl.	eng
136600	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This bat is dependent on karst and cave habitats for roosting sites. It occurs in large colonies in the hundreds, perhaps thousands, and forages over cultivated land.	eng
136600	population	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	This species is locally common.	eng
136600	threats	Hutson, A.M., Schlitter, D. & Kingston, T., 2008	Limestone extraction in South Sulawesi for cement factories is a threat to this species.	eng
136601	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136601	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality Lago Blanco (46oS, 71oW), Chubut, southern Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136601	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136601	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136601	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136602	conservation	Hutterer, R., 2008	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136602	distribution	Hutterer, R., 2008	This species is known from a few localities in southeastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. In Cameroon, it has been recorded from Tinta, Mamfe; Bibundi Crater, Mount Cameroon; and Mount Nyasoso. In Nigeria, it is known only from Okpuje, Nigeria.	eng
136602	habitat	Hutterer, R., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in montane tropical moist forest habitats.	eng
136602	population	Hutterer, R., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136602	threats	Hutterer, R., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. It might be threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
136603	conservation	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	CITES Appendix I (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis nebulosa</span>), fully protected in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei.  It occurs in most protected areas along the Sumatran mountain spine, and in most protected areas on Borneo.  More research is needed on population size and basic ecology (IUCN Cats Red List workshop, 2007).	eng
136603	distribution	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	The Sunda clouded leopard is probably restricted to the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Buckley-Beason <em>et al.</em> 2006, Kitchener <em>et al.</em> 2007, Wilting <em>et al.</em> 2007a,b, Eizirik <em>et al.</em> submitted). It is unknown if there are still Sunda clouded leopards on the small Batu Islands close to Sumatra.  There are clouded leopard fossils from Java (Meijaard 2004), but none in modern times.  Although the Sunda region includes the Malay peninsula , Kitchener <em>et al.</em> (2007), on the basis of a small sample of skins, ascribed clouded leopards from the Malay peninsula to the mainland species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Neofelis nebulosa</span>.<br/>    <p>The map shows range within forest cover (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003) to reflect patchiness caused by deforestation upon recommendation of the assessors (IUCN Cats Red List workshop 2007).</p>	eng
136603	habitat	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	On Sumatra it appears to be more abundant in hilly, montane areas, whereas on Borneo it also occurs in lowland rainforest (perhaps because there are no tigers on Borneo).  It is forest-dependent, and does not go deep into plantations (oil palm, etc), although it can be found, perhaps at lower density, in logged forest. Records on Borneo are below 1,500 m. Occurs higher in Sumatra (IUCN Cats Red List Workshop 2007).<br/><br/>On Sumatra the Sunda clouded leopard occurs most probably in much lower densities (1.29/100 km²: Hutajulu <em>et al.</em> 2007) than on Borneo (6.4/100 km²: A. Hearn and J. Ross pers. comm. 2007 -  9/100 km²: Wilting <em>et al.</em> 2006).  One explanation for this lower density might be that on Sumatra the clouded leopard co-occurs sympatric with the tiger, whereas on Borneo the clouded leopard is the largest carnivore <br/><br/>From local hunters, Rabinowitz <em>et al.</em> (1987) collected reports of clouded leopards with kills of a wide variety of prey, including young sambar deer, barking deer, mouse deer, bearded pig, palm civet, gray leaf monkey, fish and porcupine.<br/><br/>It is strongly arboreal.  Holden (2001) found that the encounter rate for clouded leopards increased significantly when camera traps were set along narrow ridges or in places where animals would have difficulty moving arboreally.  In level or undulating terrain clouded leopards were seldom if ever photographed, suggesting that the species does move about in trees, although from tracks they are known to travel along logging roads and trails (Holden 2001, Gordon and Stewart 2007).  Clouded leopards may be less arboreal on Borneo (Rabinowitz <em>et al.</em> 1987) than in other areas where tigers and leopards are sympatric.	eng
136603	population	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Wilting <em>et al.</em> (2006) estimated a rough clouded leopard density of about 9 individuals per 100 km², derived from classification of individual tracks in a study area of Tabin Wildlife Reserve. Their preliminary landscape analysis confirmed the presence of clouded leopards in 25% of Sabah?s surface, but only a small fraction of these areas are classified as totally protected forest reserves. As a first working hypothesis Wilting <em>et al.</em> (2006) extrapolated, based on their densities from Tabin Wildlife Reserve, the potential number of clouded leopards in Sabah to be 1,500-3,200 individuals. However, they pointed out that this number most likely overestimates the true number.<br/><br/>Based on a different methodology (camera traps), Andrew Hearn and Joanna Ross (unpubl. 2007) obtained a lower density in a different area of Sabah of 6.4 adults per 100 km².  This suggests the Sabah population could be at the low end or even below the above population estimates.<br/><br/>There are no population estimates for the remainder of its range in Borneo and Sumatra, but in lowland forest in Sumatra Hutujulu <em>et al.</em> (2007) estimated a low density of 29 adults per 100 km², from camera traps.  This suggests the population of Sumatra could be considerably lower than on Borneo.	eng
136603	threats	Hearn, A., Sanderson, J., Ross, J., Wilting, A. & Sunarto, S., 2008	Sumatra and Borneo are undergoing high rates of deforestation, with oil palm plantations expanding rapidly, as well as logging and clearance for agriculture and settlement (Rautner <em>et al.</em> 2005, FAO 2007).  There is substantial illegal trade in clouded leopard skins, partially fuelled by indiscriminate use of snare traps (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia pers. comm. 2007).  Holden (2001) reported that in Sumatra, clouded leopards are snared accidentally in traps set for other species, but their parts have commercial value, and seven were killed in Kerinci Seblat's National Park from 2000-2001.  Reports of clouded leopard attacking livestock are rare, but do occur, with one cat known to have been shot after reportedly taking goats from an enclave village surrounded by forest.	eng
136604	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history, and threats to this species are needed.	eng
136604	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This poorly-known species is endemic to the Kai Besar in the Moluccan Islands of Indonesia (extent of occurrence less than 570 km²). A record from the island of Kai Taam may also refer to this species. Elevation range: sea level to 500 m asl.	eng
136604	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The natural history of this species is not well known. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest. It is not known if the species can adapt to secondary or degraded forest.	eng
136604	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is possibly a common species.	eng
136604	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	The islands from which the species has been recorded are being logged. It is potentially threatened by competition with the non-indigenous <em>Rattus rattus</em>.	eng
136605	conservation	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136605	distribution	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil, northern Argentina. A record from central Mexico listed by Corbet and Hill (1980, 1991) is dubious) (Simmons 2005).	eng
136605	habitat	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	One lactating female of <em>Cynomops paranus</em> was netted over a small creek on August 1992, at Bosque Nacional Alexander von Humboldt, Ucayali, Peru (Solari <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
136605	population	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Very rare in Argentina (Barquez 2006). According Lim and Engstrom (2001), although this species is known from only a few museum specimens, its apparent rarity may be an artefact of collecting bias because, like other molossids, <em>C. paranus</em> typically flies high in the canopy. In Ecuador is known by one register at Scientific Station of Onkone Gare (00°40’S, 76°24’W, 250 m), at National Park of Yasuní, Orellana (Reid <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136605	threats	Barquez, R. & Diaz, M., 2008	Not known.	eng
136606	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. There are several protected areas within its range.	eng
136606	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species occurs in the Chihuahuan Desert, from south New Mexico and Trans-Pecos Texas (USA) through Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi (Mexico) (Patton 2005).	eng
136606	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is found in association with sandy soils on creosote-scrub flats or in washes bordered by small desert trees such as mesquite or palo verde. Rocky soils are avoided. Prefers sparsely vegetated sandy desert floors and rock-free bottomland soils along rivers and streams (Schmidly 1977). <br/><br/>Sleeps and rears young in underground burrow. Most reproduction occurs in spring or late summer after rains have stimulated production of a new seed crop. Females become reproductive soon after emerging in about March from a brief period of winter inactivity and can produce several litters of 2 to 4 young. Gestation spans 3 to 4 weeks, and the young are weaned after another 3 weeks. When conditions are good, spring-born young breed during late summer of their first year; the populations then increase rapidly, reaching peak densities in the fall (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Dry seeds comprise most of the diet, although insect larvae and some green material are eaten occasionally.	eng
136606	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
136606	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no major threats to this species in Mexico or in the US.	eng
136607	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is not present in any protected areas. Further research is needed into the distribution and ecology of this species.	eng
136607	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species has been recorded from two localities: Nuflo de Chavez, Esperanza, near Concepcion and from 10 km north of San Ramón, La Laguna, both in Santa Cruz Department of southeastern Bolivia (Anderson, 1997).	eng
136607	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It occurs in Cerrado Chiquitano habitat and may be found in areas disturbed by cattle ranching.	eng
136607	population	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
136607	threats	Dunnum, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species can be found in disturbed areas.	eng
136608	conservation	Hammerson, G., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The New Mexico shrew is not known to occur in any protected areas. This species should be sought in the Gallinas and Guadelupe mountains (Frey 2004).	eng
136608	distribution	Hammerson, G., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The known range of this species includes the Capitan and Sacramento mountains, in south-central New Mexico, United States (Frey 2004; Hutterer, in Wilson and Reeder 2005); the range possibly may extend as far east as the Pecos River (Alexander 1996).	eng
136608	habitat	Hammerson, G., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	Referring to <em>S. monticolus</em> in the United States Southwest and Mexico, George (in Wilson and Ruff 1999) described the habitat as "meadows and in leaf litter in canyons of coniferous forests, often along streams." Findley <em>et al.</em> (1975) described the habitat as mesic conifer-aspen forest in sheltered canyons.	eng
136608	population	Hammerson, G., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	The population trend is unknown but, based on habitat considerations, it probably is stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years.	eng
136608	threats	Hammerson, G., Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Matson, J., 2008	It has only a small known range in the Capitan and Sacramento mountains, New Mexico. It may be more widely distributed than currently known but little information is available. Its small range may make this species more vulnerable to significant declines from localized threats, but no major threats have been identified.	eng
136609	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006), which is slated to become a national park soon. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136609	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Daraina region in north-eastern Madagascar, south of the Loky River. Sympatric with <em>L. ankaranensis</em> in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest, but not in Analamerana or Ankarana (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136609	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Present in dry deciduous and semi-evergreen forest.	eng
136609	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136609	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136610	conservation	Molinari, J. & Guttiérrez, E.E., 2008	Needs conservation and fencing of ALL caves (one is fenced) and conservation of habitat - as well as public education.	eng
136610	distribution	Molinari, J. & Guttiérrez, E.E., 2008	Resticted to the Peninsula of Paraguana, Venezuela - but does not occur in the isthmus (J. Molinari pers. comm.). Total area of occupancy on the peninsula is less than 100 km².	eng
136610	habitat	Molinari, J. & Guttiérrez, E.E., 2008	Species uses the densest (xerophytic shrub) forest on the peninsula (which has been severely reducted).	eng
136610	population	Molinari, J. & Guttiérrez, E.E., 2008	Entire population found in only three caves - and with some sexual segregation (J. Molinari pers. comm.)	eng
136610	threats	Molinari, J. & Guttiérrez, E.E., 2008	Narrowly restricted and confined to endangered habitats. Cave exploitation/vandalism is a serious problem (as they are only in 3 caves where people frequently go) - where vandals often kill bats (J. Molinari pers. comm.).	eng
136611	conservation	Rodriguez, B. & Miller, B., 2008	Found in protected areas. Listed as special protection status by the Mexican NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001 (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136611	distribution	Rodriguez, B. & Miller, B., 2008	This species occurs from Nayarit to Chiapas (Mexico), Honduras and Costa Rica (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 1,500 m (Reid, 1997). Also occurs in Nicaragua (Medina <em>et al.</em> in press) and Belize and Guatemala (Miller pers com).	eng
136611	habitat	Rodriguez, B. & Miller, B., 2008	This species can be found in deciduous and evergreen forest and clearings, often near water (Reid, 1997). Small groups roost in hollow branches and buildings. Activity begins soon after sunset. Most records are from individuals caught over streams or ponds (Gardner <em>et al.</em>, 1970; Valdez and LaVal, 1971).	eng
136611	population	Rodriguez, B. & Miller, B., 2008	It is uncommon (Reid, 1997). Need to use acoustic methods to detect, may be more widespread (Miller pers. comm.)	eng
136611	threats	Rodriguez, B. & Miller, B., 2008	Not known, maybe habitat loss.	eng
136612	conservation	Sinaga, U. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
136612	distribution	Sinaga, U. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species is present in western Java, Bali, Lombok, Flores, Timor, Semau, and Roti islands in Indonesia, and Sabah in Malaysian Borneo (Simmons 2005), and has also been collected on Lembata, and Aru Islands (I. Maryanto pers. comm.). It is probably also found on Sumba, Sawu, and Banda islands in Indonesia.	eng
136612	habitat	Sinaga, U. & Maryanto, I., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in primary and secondary forest.	eng
136612	population	Sinaga, U. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136612	threats	Sinaga, U. & Maryanto, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
136613	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is found in several protected areas.	eng
136613	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Argentina (Misiones Province), southeastern Brazil (from northern Rio Grande do Sul to Rio de Janeiro States), and may extend into extreme eastern Paraguay (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136613	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species inhabits moist and dry scrub, and subtropical forests.	eng
136613	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Little is known about populations of this species - it is believed to be a common species.	eng
136613	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Little is known of threats to this species.	eng
136614	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in a small private protected area (100 hectares) called Huitepec, but otherwise it is not known from any other protected areas.	eng
136614	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in highlands above 2,000 m asl in Mexico (Chiapas) and Guatemala (Hutterer, 2005).	eng
136614	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is insectivorous and known to occur in high elevation forests dominated by pine and fir, and oak-dominated cloud forest (Goldman 1951), and can be found even in secondary forest in Guatemala (N. Woodman and J. Matson pers. comm.).	eng
136614	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	No population information is available for this species in Mexico. It is considered common in Guatemala (John Matson and Neal Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
136614	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Habitat loss is a major threat, and in particular it is reported that the deforestation rate in the Chiapas highlands is around 75% (Ochoa-Gaona and Gonzalez-Espinosa, 2000 in Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). Hence this species has a very restricted and fragmented range particularly in Mexico.	eng
136615	conservation	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Kingdon, J., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES and on Class B of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas (e.g., Ngotto Classified Forest, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park in CAR and Nouabale-Ndoki in Congo). It has also been recorded from the proposed Mbaéré-Bodingué National Park in CAR. Studies are needed into the impact of hunting on this species.	eng
136615	distribution	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Kingdon, J., 2008	This species is found to the north of the Congo River. It is present in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, north-east Gabon, northern Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (north of the Congo River to Garamba and Semliki River).	eng
136615	habitat	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Kingdon, J., 2008	This species is generally found in periodically flooded swamp forest (Quris 1975), although in Dzangha-Sangha, Central African Republic, animals spend most of their time in terra firma mixed forest, and were never observed along the Mondika River, nor in swampy forest along the Ndoki (although their ranges went within close range of these areas) (Shah 2003). <br/><br/>In Dzangha-Sangha, where they co-exist with <em>Lophocebus albigena</em>, group size ranges from 8-22, and they spend less time on the ground than other <em>Cercocebus</em> (15-20%) (Shah 2003). Majority of time is spent in lower strata (0-10 m) (Quris 1975; Shah 2003). Strong dietary preference for fruit, seeds, and monocotyledon shoots (Shah 2003). Home range was recorded as ca. 303 ha at Dzangha-Sangha (Shah 2003), and 198 ha in Gabon (Quris 1975).<br/><br/><em>Cercocebus agilis</em> were found to be restricted to the flooded forest of the proposed Mbaere-Bodingue National Park in the south-western part of the Central African Republic (Brugiere <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136615	population	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Kingdon, J., 2008	The population density of this species in Gabon has been recorded at 6.7 to 12.5 individuals per km² (Quris 1975), low densities have also been recorded elsewhere in the range. The subpopulations appear to be stable in some areas.	eng
136615	threats	Hart, J., Butynski, T.M. & Kingdon, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss caused by deforestation for timber and firewood. It is also locally hunted for meat and animals are persecuted for crop raiding.	eng
136616	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to determine the status of this species.	eng
136616	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from the Sierra de Taxco on the border of Guerrero and the Estado de Mexico (Romo-Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2005; Leon-Paniagua <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136616	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in cloud forest at elevation over 1,800 m.	eng
136616	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is considered rare throughout its restricted range.	eng
136616	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation within its restricted range.	eng
136617	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas. More research is necessary to determine its range, extent of possible threats and habitat use of this species.	eng
136617	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	This species occurs in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Gardner 2007).	eng
136617	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Little is known of the ecology of this species. It is found along the foothills of the Andes. Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136617	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Little is known of populations of this species.	eng
136617	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	There are no major threats to the species although some populations are declining due to deforestation.	eng
136618	conservation	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136618	distribution	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is found throughout the Central Cordillera in north central region of Luzon (Philippines). It has been recorded from: Mt. Bali-it (1,950 m and 2,150 m); Magdallao, Barangay Balbalasang, Balbalan Municipality (1,600 m); and Amlicao, Barangay Balbalasang, Balbalan Municipality (1,800 m) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136618	habitat	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species is found in primary montane and mossy forest and secondary growth, at elevations between 1,500-2,700 m, and it is probably fairly habitat tolerant. It is diurnal and feeds primarily on earthworms and other invertebrates (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136618	population	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species was common at the trapping sites. It maintains stable populations in primary montane and mossy forest as well as secondary growth.	eng
136618	threats	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136619	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	The species does not appear to be present within any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest in the montane regions of Cameroon and adjacent parts of Nigeria. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136619	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This little-known species is known only from the type locality of Mount Lefo in the Bamileke Plateau area of western Cameroon, where it has been recorded at 2,550 m asl.	eng
136619	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This species appears to be limited to montane tropical moist forest. There is little additional information available on its natural history, including persistence in degraded habitat.	eng
136619	population	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
136619	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	Although the threats to this species are not well known, the highland region within which it has been recorded is densely populated with corresponding loss of habitat resulting from logging operations, conversion of forest to agricultural land and pasture.	eng
136620	conservation	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N. & Morris, K., 2008	Populations occur on Barrow Island (see Taxonomic Notes), which is a nature reserve. Chevron, however, owns an oil lease to the island. Part of the Cape Range is a National Park (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). More research is needed to resolve the outstanding taxonomic issues.	eng
136620	distribution	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia where it is found in northern Pilbara region, north of the Hamersley Range, into the Great Sandy Desert as far east as the Clutterbuck Hills. An isolated populations exists on the Cape Range Peninsula and another isolated population probably exists on Barrow Island (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
136620	habitat	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N. & Morris, K., 2008	It is found in rocky areas and adjacent spinifex covered sandy areas. It has also been found within termite mounds and in low woodlands (Cooper 2008). Little is known about its breeding, but they appear to breed seasonally and females can carry up to six young (Cooper 2008).	eng
136620	population	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N. & Morris, K., 2008	This species is sparsely scattered within abundant suitable habitat (Cooper 2008). There is no evidence of a current decline.	eng
136620	threats	Burbidge, A., Cooper, N. & Morris, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
136621	conservation	Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas, having been recorded from, for example, Amboseli N.P. and Masai Mara National Reserve (Kenya), and Arusha N.P., Serengeti N.P., Tarangire N.P. and Lake Manyara N.P. (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.). Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136621	distribution	Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This little-known East African species has been recorded from south-western Tanzania northwards to central Kenya. Although not mapped by Kingdon (1971), the species does occur marginally in Uganda, with one confirmed record close to the Uganda/Kenya border at Mount Moroto (T. Davenport pers. comm.). They have been recorded at altitudes from 80-2,135 m asl (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).	eng
136621	habitat	Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	This nocturnal and terrestrial species is found in semi-arid grassland (steppe) habitats, where, like the Southern African species, it shelters during the day in a system of burrows constructed in sandy soils.	eng
136621	population	Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	Absent from large areas within their distributional range. When present, density often <1/km² (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers. obs.). In favoured habitats they can be found in concentrations of 30 or 40 animals within a small area (Kingdon 1971). Densities of 24 individuals/km² were recorded in Cynodon-Balanites Grassland (n=361; Augustine <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
136621	threats	Butynski, T.M. & De Jong, Y., 2008	The threats to this species are not well known. However, it occurs in an area of extensive, suitable habitat which appears not to be under significant threat. Subject to some hunting for meat, like the Southern African Spring-hare.	eng
136622	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not currently known from any protected areas. The remaining forest on the Ampasindava Peninsula should be considered for inclusion within a protected area. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136622	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from the Ampasindava Peninsula in north-western Madagascar. Formerly, the sportive lemurs found on the Ampasindava Peninsula were thought to be <em>L. dorsalis</em>. The precise limits of distribution are unclear, especially relative to <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> and <em>L. dorsalis</em> (Rabarivola <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136622	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of humid rainforest.	eng
136622	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136622	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although charcoal production is a problem on the Ampasindava Peninsula.	eng
136623	conservation	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	No specific conservation measures have been taken, but <em>B. omurai</em> will have been an incidental beneficiary of the area restrictions on pelagic whaling that were originally designed to protect the low-latitude winter breeding grounds of other baleen whale species (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982). The species is on Appendix I of CITES.	eng
136623	distribution	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The range of Omura’s whale is poorly known because to date very few specimens have been confirmed. The type specimen was a stranded individual collected near Oyama in the southern Sea of Japan in 1998 (Wada <em>et al.</em> 2003). Eight specimens taken under scientific permit in the 1970s, identified at the time as Bryde’s whales (<em>B. edeni/brydei</em>), were subsequently re-identified genetically from archived tissue samples as <em>B. omurai</em> (Wada <em>et al.</em> 2003, Sasaki <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Six of the <em>B. omurai</em> specimens were taken in deep water in the Solomon Sea in 1976, and reported as unusually small Bryde’s whales (Ohsumi 1978). Two specimens were taken in deep water near the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1978, and reported as ordinary Bryde’s whales, which were also collected in the same area (Ohsumi 1980).<br/><br/>Genetic identification confirms the presence of <em>B. omurai</em> in the Bohol Sea, Philippines (see above).<br/><br/>Specimens of <em>B. omurai</em> may have been collected elsewhere without being recognized. Bannister (1964) reported eight “Bryde’s” whales taken off Western Australia during 1958-63 that “do not match the published descriptions of specimens from other parts of the world” but their small size (11.2-11.7 m for mature animals) appears consistent with either <em>B. omurai</em> or the small type of <em>B. edeni/brydei.</em><br/><br/><em>B. omurai</em> is at least partially sympatric with Bryde’s whales (<em>B. edeni/brydei</em>), and occurs both in deep water and in inshore areas. The location of the type specimen (Sea of Japan) may not be representative.	eng
136623	habitat	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The diet of <em>B. omurai</em> is not known. Stomach contents apparently were examined for the specimens taken under scientific permit in the 1970s but have not been published separately from those of Bryde’s whales taken in the same expeditions. No prey items other than euphausiids were found (Kawamura 1977). <em>B. omurai</em> occurs in both deep and shallow water, and is at least partly sympatric with Bryde’s whales.	eng
136623	population	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	The only population estimate that may relate to <em>B. omurai</em> is an estimate of 1,800 from sightings data for the Solomon Islands “Bryde’s whale” stock (Ohsumi 1980). However, given the small sample size, the use of methodology that is no longer accepted, and the possibility that some of the animals seen may have been <em>B. brydei/edeni</em>, little reliance can be placed on this figure. The global population size is unknown.	eng
136623	threats	Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urbán, J. & Zerbini, A.N., 2008	Because the range of the species is poorly known and has only recently been described, it may have been subject to catching by commercial whaling operations in the past. It may also be subject to by-catch.<br/><br/>Based on genetic identifications (LeDuc and Dizon 2002), it can be inferred that <em>B. omurai</em> have been taken in the Philippines artisanal whale fisheries (Dolar <em>et al.</em> 1994; Perrin <em>et al.</em> 1996), but more analysis would be needed to determine what proportion of the “Bryde’s whales” taken there were in fact <em>B. omurai.</em>.	eng
136624	conservation	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent potentially occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136624	distribution	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in south central Venezuela eastwards through Guyana, and French Guiana, to Amapá, Brazil and southwards to Amazonas, Brazil, north of Amazon River (Musser and Carleton, 2005). The elevation range of this species is from sea level to 1,100 m of altitude.	eng
136624	habitat	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	In French Guiana, the species has been captured in the understory of swampy primary forest around 1.2 m above the ground (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001). This is an arboreal species known only from primary forest (Weksler pers. comm.).	eng
136624	population	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Information about its population or abundance is unknown.	eng
136624	threats	Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136625	conservation	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136625	distribution	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This species is distributed through much of the Angolan Plateau and adjacent southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
136625	habitat	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	This species is largely associated with grasslands in moist savanna and woodland. Little additional information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
136625	population	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136625	threats	Hoffmann, M. & Cox, N., 2008	There are presumably no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
136626	conservation	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	The range of this species overlaps several protected areas but it has not been confirmed to occur in any. This species needs surveys to establish range, impact of threats and natural history.	eng
136626	distribution	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	T. venustus occurs in the Yungas and associated forests in southern Bolivia and northern Argentina (Braun <em>et al.</em> 2005; Gardner 2007).	eng
136626	habitat	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Transitional and humid forests (Yungas) below 2,000 m; brushlands, riverbank chaparral and agricultural areas.	eng
136626	population	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	Very little is known of populations of this species.	eng
136626	threats	Diaz M. & Barquez, R., 2008	There is little known about threats to this species. It occurs in an area which is being developed and could be threatened, however, more information is necessary to quantify threats.	eng
136627	conservation	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.	eng
136627	distribution	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species occurs in Bahamas, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136627	habitat	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	This species is solitary. It rest among the leaves of a tree and does not take shelter in tree hollows, buildings, or caves. This bat is a swift flier but not highly maneuverable; consequently, it typically forages in open areas (above the canopy, in woodland open areas, and along forest edges). It is insectivorous; its diet has not been studied in detail. Some fecal pellets examined contained moths, winged termites, and flying ants (Rodriguez-Duran and Kunz, 2001; Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136627	population	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	It is rare in Puerto Rico, known from only six individuals (Gannon <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Found in six localities in Dominican Republic (Inchaustegui pers. comm.)	eng
136627	threats	Rodriguez, A. & Incháustegui, S., 2008	Hurricanes, habitat destruction and human population growth.	eng
136628	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The area where the species has been recorded is outside the protected area of the Reserve Naturelle Integrale du Tsaratanana.	eng
136628	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>Microgale jobihely</em> is known only from two sites on the south-western slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif in madagascar across an elevational gradient from 1,420 to 1,680 m (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It appears to be the only member of this genus that is a very localized endemic (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136628	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The holotype was collected in montane forest habitat near Matsaborimena Lake. According to Goodman <em>et al.</em> (2006), the largest trees at the site are about 15 m tall, the canopy is partially open, the sub-canopy contains few lianas, sparse herbaceous ground cover, and on slopes and in valleys a considerable number of downed and rotten tree trunks. The site, which is relatively close to the village of Bemanevika, is partially disturbed, with numerous trails associated with different minor types of forest exploitation, including cattle grazing.<br/><br/>The second locality where the other 11 specimens were taken is the Analapakila Forest, which shows considerable signs of anthropogenic disturbance. At this site the canopy is open, the remaining trees are notably separated from one another, the sub-canopy has a dense growth of small lianas, and the forest floor has considerable fallen and decomposing tree trunks and branches. The site is located next to an extensive marsh, which has been partially converted to rice paddy. Within the forest there are numerous signs of human disturbance, including cattle grazing, wood cutting, hunting of forest animals and coffee cultivation (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136628	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from 12 specimens taken at two sites on the south-western slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif.	eng
136628	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The two sites from which this species has been recorded are in a relatively remote forested region extending off the<br/>south-western flank of the Tsaratanana Massif. In both the foret du lac Matsiborimena and the foret d’Analapakila, there is local human pressure on the forest, mostly in the form of slash and burn agriculture (tavy), as well as non-commercial timber extraction. Furthermore, the marshlands close to the sites from which this species was obtained are being converted to rice paddies (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136629	conservation	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is present in several protected areas.	eng
136629	distribution	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species occurs from west-central Peru to northern Chile along the western coast and contiguous Pacific slopes of the Andes, sea level to 4000 m (Steppan, 1998; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136629	habitat	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in rocky and sandy areas in the desert, in riparian vegetation and gallery forest, in coastal Lomas habitat, and some Puna areas in southern Peru and Chile. It can be found in secondary and disturbed areas.	eng
136629	population	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136629	threats	Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	In coastal areas the species is threatened by loss of habitat, but in the majority of its range there are no major threats.	eng
136630	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
136630	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	From the south of Los Angeles Basin and San Jacinto Mountains of southern California, USA southward through Baja California to near Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Patton 2005).	eng
136630	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species primarily occurs in gravelly and sandy soils in open chaparral and grassland communities in southern California, and in desert to coniferous forest in Baja California. Wiith few exceptions, it occurs in lowland-scrub and coastal mountain habitat below about 800 m.<br/><br/>It burrows within and at the edges of these washes. The entrances of burrows often are closed in the daytime. Apparently it spends only a few hours outside their burrow each night. It primarily eats seeds, but may eat green vegetation and insects during some months of the year. Its diet varies from season to season, depending upon what seeds and other foods are available. Breeding may occur during any month of the year, but peaks occur in winter and spring. One litter of two to four young (average is 2.5) is born each year. Average life span is about 10 months (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
136630	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is common in the United States (Wilson and Ruff 1999). Populations are relatively stable throughout the year, but largest in winter and spring. Maximum densities are 45 per hectare (Wilson and Ruff 1999). In Mexico, this species is not considered to be common.	eng
136630	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known major threats.<br/><br/>This species is threatened by agriculture, as it prefers to live in deep soils where agriculture is prevalent. However, this is not considered to be creating population decline at this time.	eng
136631	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
136631	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species occurs in northern India, Myanmar, and south west China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, and Fujian provinces) (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is also reported from Hubei, Hainan, and Guangdong in China (Wang 2002).	eng
136631	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available for this species. In Myanmar, it has been collected in seasonally dry dipterocarp forest.	eng
136631	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is no information available on the population and abundance of this species.	eng
136631	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136632	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It possibly occurs in Lorentz National Park. Further studies into its taxonomic status are needed (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
136632	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widely distributed through the lower montane forests in the Central Cordillera of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is found from 1,500 to 2,500 m asl.	eng
136632	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded in lower elevation montane tropical forests.	eng
136632	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
136632	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
136633	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136633	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in Argentina near the Paraná River in Corrientes Province (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). It can be found over an area smaller than 100 km² (Bidau pers. comm.)	eng
136633	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The species is found in sand dunes and edges of rivers (Bidau and Ojeda pers. comm.).	eng
136633	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There are only two known populations very close to each other and are considered as one locality (Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136633	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. roigi</span> has a naturally restricted range. Its numbers have been declining for a long time and it is listed as CR in the Red List of Argentina (Ojeda and Bidau pers. comm.).	eng
136634	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. There is very little information available for <em>C. katinka</em>. More research is necessary to be able to determine the status of this species.	eng
136634	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. There is very little information available for <em>C. katinka</em>. More research is necessary to be able to determine the status of this species.	eng
136634	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	<em>Crocidura katinka</em> is recorded from Israel, Palestine and Syria; there is also an unpublished record from southwestern Iran that appears to represent this species (Hutterer and Kock 2002, Hutterer 2005, R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The records from Israel are old and are based on owl pellets; it is likely that the species is now extinct there (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136634	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	<em>Crocidura katinka</em> is recorded from Israel, Palestine and Syria; there is also an unpublished record from southwestern Iran that appears to represent this species (Hutterer and Kock 2002, Hutterer 2005, R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007). The records from Israel are old and are based on owl pellets; it is likely that the species is now extinct there (R. Hutterer pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136634	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Preferred habitat is unknown.	eng
136634	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Preferred habitat is unknown.	eng
136634	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Nothing is known of current population densities or trends. In Syria, the species is known from only two localities; it was originally described from fossil material.	eng
136634	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Nothing is known of current population densities or trends. In Syria, the species is known from only two localities; it was originally described from fossil material.	eng
136634	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Krystufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
136634	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G., Kryštufek, B. & Kock, D., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
136635	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136635	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in the Entre Rios Province of Argentina in three isolated populations. It can also be found in a small areas (50 X 60 km) in the Department of Rio Negro, Uruguay (Wlasiuk <em>et al.</em>, 2003). It is restricted to sand dunes which make up <10% of the area the species range.	eng
136635	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is restricted to sand dunes (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
136635	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	It is found in four disjunct populations. It may be locally abundant (Lessa pers. comm.) occurring at densities of 30-80 individuals per hectare where they are considered abundant (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
136635	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	These sand dunes have been priorities for expansion of pine plantation and Eucalyptus. Many populations were extirpated due to this reason (Lessa pers. comm.).	eng
136636	conservation	Reid, F., Timm, R. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
136636	distribution	Reid, F., Timm, R. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs from central Mexico south to central Costa Rica (Walker, 1964).	eng
136636	habitat	Reid, F., Timm, R. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is nocturnal, mainly terrestrial (but climbs well), and omnivorous - feeding on insects, small mammals, fruit, grain, birds and bird eggs (Reid 1997). The species occurs from lowlands to 300 m (Reid 1997).	eng
136636	population	Reid, F., Timm, R. & Helgen, K., 2008	The Southern spotted skunk is "uncommon but widespread in farmland, open woodland, and brush; open in dry, rocky areas" (Reid 1997). The species is common in Pacific coastal areas of Costa Rica (F. Reid pers. comm).	eng
136636	threats	Reid, F., Timm, R. & Helgen, K., 2008	Habitat conversion to monoculture, fires and road building threaten this species.	eng
136637	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is known to occur in the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, and the Berenty Private Reserve (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). No specimens are reported in captivity at this time (ISIS, 2007). Mahafaly Plateau is currently under review to be included in the Tsimanampetsotsa National Park.	eng
136637	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in southern and southwestern Madagascar, where it ranges from Lamboharana south to the Toliara (= Tuléar) region, to the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve (south of the Onilahy River) in the south-east, and to Tsimanampetsotsa, Berenty, and Petriky in the extreme south (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Sea-level to 250 m.	eng
136637	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	<em>M. griseorufus</em> is found in spiny desert, dry thorn scrub, and gallery forest habitats (Rasoazanabary 2004). Basic aspects of this mouse lemur’s ecology and behavior are being studied at present.	eng
136637	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This is a common species.	eng
136637	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	There are no major threats to the species, although forest loss due to charcoal production and commercial maize production is taking place and may be causing localized declines.	eng
136638	conservation	Anderson, R.P. & Ochoa., J., 2008	The small distribution area that this species occurs in is protected as the Monumento Natural Cerro de Santa Ana and the Reserva Biologica Monte Cano, its habitat on Monte Cano is protected in a nongovernmental biological reserve managed by INFALCOSTA, a partnership between the Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda (in Coro) and local communities (Anderson, 2003).	eng
136638	distribution	Anderson, R.P. & Ochoa., J., 2008	This species is known only from Cerro Santa Ana (550 m asl) and the Fila de Monte Cano on the Peninsula de Paraguana, Estado Falcon, Venezuela (Anderson, 2003). The two known populations are isolated from each other (Anderson, 2003). Its distribution encompasses a 22-25 km² area (the approximate area above 200 m associated with Cerro Santa Ana and Monte Cano); however, it is likely that the area with viable populations is much smaller (Anderson, 2003).	eng
136638	habitat	Anderson, R.P. & Ochoa., J., 2008	Most specimens of Heteromys oasicus derive from cloud forest and mesic vegetation types on Cerro Santa Ana. All specimens known from Monte Cano were captured among terrestrial bromeliads in the bed of a seasonal stream, which was dry at the time. It likely is restricted to small areas of evergreen and semideciduous vegetation, and to be associated with small streams (Anderson, 2003).	eng
136638	population	Anderson, R.P. & Ochoa., J., 2008	It is rare, and known from two localities (Anderson, 2003).	eng
136638	threats	Anderson, R.P. & Ochoa., J., 2008	The greatest threat to the species habitat on Cerro Santa Ana and Monte Cano is grazing by domestic goats, which defoliate native vegetation on the slopes, causing an increase in erosion. Also on Monte Cano, there is small-scale gathering of wood and ornamental plants, the construction of infrastructure for tourism is planned, and small-scale mining projects are forthcoming (Anderson, 2003).	eng
136639	conservation	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is not found in any protected areas.	eng
136639	distribution	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species occurs in the Sierra de Miahuatlan, south Oaxaca, Mexico (Hutterer, 2005). It has been recorded between elevations of 1,060 and 2,600 m asl (Woodman and Timm 2000).	eng
136639	habitat	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is found in humid cloud forest. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136639	population	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It is considered to be moderately common (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
136639	threats	Woodman, N., Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Cuarón, A.D., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Overgrazing and deforestation (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005) in some parts of the lower elevations of its range (Inventario Nacional Forestal de Mexico, 2002) is a major threat.	eng
136640	conservation	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	It is listed on CITES Appendix I. Presently, the Pico da Neblina transboundary conservation area protects the species. The Neblina transboundary preservation area consists of one of the largest protected areas in South America with a total of 3,560,000 ha (2,200,000 ha in Brazil and 1,360,000 ha in Venezuela). The Brazilian Pico da Neblina National Park and the Venezuelan Serranía de la Neblina National Park were created (in 1979 and 1978, respectively) in order to protect the Pico da Neblina massif, its endemic flora and fauna, as well as a large area of the surrounding lowlands (Huber 1995). The Black-headed Uakari is possibly the only medium-sized mammal restricted to the Neblina transboundary area and could be used as a flagship species for the conservation of the area.	eng
136640	distribution	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	The range of this species is delimited to the south and west by the Rio Negro (Brazil, Venezuela), by the Rio Marauiá in the east (Brazil), and the Canal Cassiquiare and Rio Orinoco to the north (Venezuela). The absence of <em>C. hosomi</em> north of the Canal Cassiquiari is speculative at present.	eng
136640	habitat	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	Black-headed Uakaris are found in a variety of habitat types, including terra firme, chavascal, flooded forests (igapós), campinarana or "Rio Negro caatinga" (white sand forests), and montane forest. They are seasonal vagrants and move to different areas of the forest tracking the seasonal variation in availability of preferred fruits. They forage at different levels from the understory to the canopy, but they have never been seen descending to the ground. All uakaris are specialized seed predators and the majority of their diet is made up of immature seeds. The diet can be supplemented by fruit pulp, leaves and arthropods. Group sizes range from 35 to >100 individuals; fission-fusion was never witnessed in this species.	eng
136640	population	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	There are no precise data concerning total numbers. Boubli (1997) estimated a crude density of 7 animals/km² at his study site in Pico da Neblina National Park, Brazil. However, this is probably an overestimate given that these animals are seasonal vagrants (i.e., they move to different areas in times of food scarcity). Thus, overall densities are probably lower than one individual/km².	eng
136640	threats	Boubli, J.-P. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species has a limited distribution and is heavily hunted for its meat, particularly by the Yanomami Amerindians from the Maturacá, Nazareth, Xamatá, Pohoró villages, but also by caboclos along the road from São Gabriel da Cachoeira to Cucuí, Amazons, Brazil. Although the consumption of primates and other game by the Yanomamis might have been sustainable in the past, the advent of permanent (missionary encouraged) settlements, and subsequent population increase and use of shotguns are now drastically affecting primate numbers near indigenous villages. Once abundant along the Canal Maturacá (a natural channel that connects the Cauaburi River in Brazil with Canal Cassiquiari in Venezuela), Black-headed Uacaris are now a rare sight in this area. Lehman and Robertson (1994) reported that Black-headed Uakaris were hunted heavily by both illegal Brazilian goldminers and local people and may have been eliminated from much of their range in southern Venezuela. They claim that surviving populations may be restricted to forests in the Rio Baria and the Rio Manipitari interfluvium.<br/><br/>The threat of goldmining present during the 1980s and 1990s is no longer present in the region.	eng
136641	conservation	Amori, G. & Hadjisterkotis, E., 2008	No conservation measures are known. Surveys are required to determine the status and range of the species, and research is required to confirm or refute the existence of any major threats. The Cyprus mouse is of conservation interest as it is one of just three surviving palaeoendemic mammal species found on Mediterranean islands (the other two being the shrew species <em>Crocidura sicula</em> and <em>C. zimmermanni</em>) (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Most ancient endemic mammals of Mediterranean islands died out after the arrival of man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Mediterranean islands are also home to a number of taxa currently recognised as endemic species and subspecies that are the descendants of mainland taxa introduced by man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006).	eng
136641	conservation	Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis, 2006	No conservation measures are known. Surveys are required to determine the status and range of the species, and research is required to confirm or refute the existence of any major threats. The Cyprus mouse is of conservation interest as it is one of just three surviving palaeoendemic mammal species found on Mediterranean islands (the other two being the shrew species <em>Crocidura sicula</em> and <em>C. zimmermanni</em>) (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Most ancient endemic mammals of Mediterranean islands died out after the arrival of man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Mediterranean islands are also home to a number of taxa currently recognised as endemic species and subspecies that are the descendants of mainland taxa introduced by man (Gippoliti and Amori 2006).	eng
136641	distribution	Amori, G. & Hadjisterkotis, E., 2008	The Cyprus mouse <em>Mus cypriacus</em> is endemic to the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean (Bonhomme <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may be quite widespread in upland areas, and is typically found at altitudes of 300-900 m, although there are some records from 100-150 m (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Among the 15 trapping localities sampled in different biotopes on the southern part of the island, <em>M. cypriacus</em> was captured in eight of them (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further research is required in order to establish the range of this new species.	eng
136641	distribution	Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis, 2006	The Cyprus mouse <em>Mus cypriacus</em> is endemic to the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean (Bonhomme <em>et al.</em> 2004, Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may be quite widespread in upland areas, and is typically found at altitudes of 300-900 m, although there are some records from 100-150 m (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Among the 15 trapping localities sampled in different biotopes on the southern part of the island, <em>M. cypriacus</em> was captured in eight of them (Cucchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further research is required in order to establish the range of this new species.	eng
136641	habitat	Amori, G. & Hadjisterkotis, E., 2008	The species has mainly been found in abandoned cultivation terraces at moderate altitudes (300-900 m), where the vegetation consists of a mosaic of open grassy areas, shrubs and small trees, and cultivated vines (<em>Vitis vinifera</em>).<br/><br/>It can also be found in forested riverine areas at 100-150 m, where it is syntopic with the house mouse (<em>M. m. domesticus</em>). It is apparently absent from lowland (less than 100 m) areas with strong anthropogenic pressure, such as intensive arable farmland, human dwellings and farms, and orchards (orange groves), where the house mouse is almost exclusively dominant (Cucchi 2005).	eng
136641	habitat	Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis, 2006	The species has mainly been found in abandoned cultivation terraces at moderate altitudes (300-900 m), where the vegetation consists of a mosaic of open grassy areas, shrubs and small trees, and cultivated vines (<em>Vitis vinifera</em>).<br/>It can also be found in forested riverine areas at 100-150 m, where it is syntopic with the house mouse (<em>M. m. domesticus</em>). It is apparently absent from lowland (less than 100 m) areas with strong anthropogenic pressure, such as intensive arable farmland, human dwellings and farms, and orchards (orange groves), where the house mouse is almost exclusively dominant (Cucchi 2005).	eng
136641	population	Amori, G. & Hadjisterkotis, E., 2008	Population status and trends are not known.	eng
136641	population	Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis, 2006	Population status and trends are not known.	eng
136641	threats	Amori, G. & Hadjisterkotis, E., 2008	It is not yet known if there are any major threats to this recently-discovered species. It is generally found in abandoned vineyards and terraced fields at moderate altitudes. This type of habitat has increased in Cyprus in the recent past, and is probably now more or less stable, although declines may potentially occur in the future as a result of changes in agricultural policy since Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and as a result of housing and tourism development (Panayides 2004, M. Hellicar pers. comm. 2006). The use of rodenticides as pest control may cause mortality in populations that live close to human habitation.	eng
136641	threats	Giovanni Amori and Eleftherios Hadjisterkotis, 2006	It is not yet known if there are any major threats to this recently-discovered species. It is generally found in abandoned vineyards and terraced fields at moderate altitudes. This type of habitat has increased in Cyprus in the recent past, and is probably now more or less stable, although declines may potentially occur in the future as a result of changes in agricultural policy since Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and as a result of housing and tourism development (Panayides 2004, M. Hellicar pers. comm. 2006). The use of rodenticides as pest control may cause mortality in populations that live close to human habitation.	eng
136642	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species does not occur in a protected area. Surveys are needed for this species, as no comprehensive trapping has taken place in the area of collection.	eng
136642	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Gunung Tokala (02°13'S, 120°04'E) in central Sulawesi, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005). It was collected at 2,400 m. The species has not been recorded from any other mountain areas, however, further surveys are needed.	eng
136642	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species has been recorded only from tropical upper montane rain forest (Musser and Carleton 2005), slightly disturbed by human activities, close to a wooden hut (Musser and Durden 2002). It is not known if the species occurs in modified habitats, but it is presumed to be a primarily forest species. It is gracile, insectivorous, nocturnal, terrestrial, scansorial, and arboreal (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136642	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The population abundance is not known. Only a single specimen has been collected. The species probably has a specialised ecology, which would account for the fact that regular surveys have not encountered it.	eng
136642	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is presumably threatened by deforestation, largely through small-scale firewood collection and clearance of land for subsistence cultivation.	eng
136643	conservation	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II and on the First Category of State Key Protected Wildlife List in China since 2002, and as Endangered (B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)) in the Chinese Red List (Wang and Xie 2004). Measures, are urgently needed to control hunting in this species, and to protect its habitat on Mount Dabie. It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to determine the species population size, natural history, and the extent of threats to the species.	eng
136643	distribution	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	The species is found only in and around the Mount Dabie area of west Anhui province in China (Smith and Xie 2008). It might also occur in the Hubei section of Mount Dabei.	eng
136643	habitat	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	This species is poorly known; however, its natural history is likely similar to that of <em>M. berezovskii</em> and <em>M. moschiferus</em> (Smith and Xie 2008). It presumably therefore inhabits coniferous or broad-leaved forests, or mixed forests at high elevations  According to Smith and Xie (2008), it is more likely than other musk deer to produce twins.  Females mature rapidly and are capable of breeding in their first year of life.	eng
136643	population	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	There is no information available on the population size or trends. It is estimated by Wang Yingxiang (Kunming Institute of Zoology pers. comm., 2008) to have been reduced in geographic distribution by 70% in the 30 years between 1957 and 1977. According to Sheng (1998), the total population was only 700-800 in 1985. In Mazongling Nature Reserve, a survey in 1993 estimated that only 6-8 remained above 1,000 m asl. A 1995 survey suggested that the species was still declining, although Yang <em>et al</em>. (2003) suggested that its status has recently improved. There have been no published surveys since that time.	eng
136643	threats	Wang, Y. & Harris, R.B., 2008	The major threats to this species include habitat loss and hunting, and it is especially at risk due to its limited distribution (Smith and Xie 2008). The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S. $45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means (Harris 2007).<br/><br/>Musk deer appear to require dense vegetation, either in the form of intact forests or shrublands; thus excessive forest clearing or grazing can preclude musk deer from using such lands (Yang <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
136644	conservation	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species occurs in the Kenting National Park (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2007) and may be present in other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. It has been regionally Red Listed in China as Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136644	distribution	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). It occurs in the following counties: Taipei, Hsinchu, Taichung, Hualien, Taitung, Pingtung, and Nantou (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found at low to middle altitudes (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136644	habitat	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	Roosting locations vary from caves, buildings, tunnels, and irrigation conduits (Smith and Xie 2008). It can be found in primary forests located in the central region of Taiwan (Smith and Xie 2008). This species was also recorded during a survey in the Guijiaou Experimental Forest in the Kenting National Park, an area characterized as approximately 450 ha (total area) at 200-300 m asl. (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136644	population	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	It is considered a rare form (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136644	threats	Smith, A.T., Johnston, C.H., Jones, G. & Rossiter, S., 2008	Deforestation as a result of expanding infrastructure development for housing, industry, roads, etc. as well as large scale agriculture, is a threat in the lowlands of Taiwan.	eng
136645	conservation	Olivieri, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N. & Craul, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. The species is present in the recently established Parc National de Sahamalaza – Iles Radama (Aire Protégée Terrestre, Marine et Côtière) which is part of the Malagasy protected area network managed through the Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées (ANGAP). The Sahamalaza Peninsula is also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (declared in 2001). A consortium of AEECL, WCS, ANGAP and the local communities are currently establishing structures to ensure a better protection of the very few remaining forest fragments in the park (Schwitzer <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136645	distribution	Olivieri, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N. & Craul, M., 2008	Restricted to the Sahamalaza Peninsula in coastal north-western Madagascar. The northern boundary of the range is likely to be the Sambirano River (Andriaholinirina <em>et al.</em> 2006), but precise limits, especially with <em>L. dorsalis</em>, remain unclear.	eng
136645	habitat	Olivieri, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N. & Craul, M., 2008	The Sahamalaza peninsula is part of a transition zone between the Sambirano region in the north and the western dry deciduous forest region in the south. The species inhabits both primary and secondary forests.	eng
136645	population	Olivieri, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N. & Craul, M., 2008	One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006. Olivieri <em>et al.</em> (2005) recorded an encounter rate of 4.17 individuals/km in the forest of Ankarafa. This high encounter rate could be due to recent loss of habitat, forcing all animals to concentrate in the few remaining forest fragments.	eng
136645	threats	Olivieri, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N. & Craul, M., 2008	Although much of the known distribution is within a recently declared protected area, forest clearing for agriculture, and timber-cutting for charcoal and construction continue. They are also subject to hunting. Further studies are needed to determine the extent of both threats.	eng
136646	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Even though this species roosts synanthropically in the east and may therefore be expected to be relatively common given the abundance of suitable roosting sites, it is only known from four locations across Madagascar despite the large survey effort on Malagasy bats in recent years (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006; Cardiff 2006; Rakotonandrasana and Goodman 2007). Of the four known localities, all receive some form of active forest management and it is expected that deforestation at these sites has been and will be less than for non-protected forest. Further studies of this species are needed to investigate why it appears to be forest-dependent in the west but not in the east of its range.	eng
136646	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This is an endemic species to Madagascar that is currently known from four localities (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006), two in the west (Mikea forest and Kirindy CFPF) and two in the east (Kianjavato and Tampolo forests), all below 80 m elevation (from 16 - 70 m asl.).	eng
136646	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Individuals from the east have been netted near to disturbed lowland and humid forest but also in proximity to agriculture and there is no evidence that this species requires humid forest vegetation to survive (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the west, <em>P. raceyi</em> was netted inside degraded and relatively intact dry deciduous forest (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the east it is known to roost inside buildings (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006). Nevertheless, all four localities are noteworthy for the presence of lowland forest formations and additional surveys are now needed to determine whether this is a genuine reflection of habitat requirements or an artifact of how biologists select their survey sites. If it is the latter case, then <em>P. raceyi</em> may turn out to be a common species in the low-lying areas across much of Madagascar.	eng
136646	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This recently described species is currently known only from 15 specimens (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006); however, with further survey work, it may be shown to more common.	eng
136646	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	No major threats are documented, but forest degradation may conceivably reduce availability of suitable foraging and roosting habitat in the west where this species presumably roosts in trees and appears to be associated with forest habitats.	eng
136647	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is likely found in protected areas within its range.	eng
136647	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is found in eastern Zacatecas, southern Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosí, Mexico (Wilson and Reeder 1993)	eng
136647	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species' biology and ecology are poorly known. It lives in arid and semi-arid areas with sandy soils and desert-vegetation. It can also be found in degraded lands and agricultural areas.	eng
136647	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is very common.	eng
136647	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is considered a pest in agricultural areas	eng
136648	conservation	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Occurs in Pribaikalskyi National Park.	eng
136648	distribution	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Endemic to Olkhon and Ogoi Islands, Lake Baikal (Russia).	eng
136648	habitat	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Inhabits rocky steppes in Olkhon and Ogoi Islands, Lake Baikal.	eng
136648	population	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	There are no data on population status.	eng
136648	threats	Tsytsulina, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136649	conservation	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	Although this species was only recently described, it is apparently widespread and abundant. However, further clarification of its distribution, population size and trend, habitat preferences, and ecology is required.	eng
136649	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.<br/><br/>Although this species was only recently described, it is apparently widespread and abundant. However, further clarification of its distribution, population size and trend, habitat preferences, and ecology is required.	eng
136649	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It is protected under national law in most range states. It is also protected under international law through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention in parts of its range where these apply, and is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in many protected areas. No specific conservation actions are known.<br/><br/>Adoption of bat-friendly practices in the construction and maintenance of buildings is a proposed action.<br/><br/>Although this species was only recently described, it is apparently widespread and abundant. However, further clarification of its distribution, population size and trend, habitat preferences, and ecology is required.	eng
136649	distribution	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	<em>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</em> was only recently differentiated from <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, and some details of its distribution are still lacking. It is also a western Palaearctic species, occurring from the British Isles through much of Europe (including the islands of Corsica and Sardinina) east to Ukraine and western Russia. Its range may extend much further east, as well as into north Africa (Wilson and Reeder 2005), although it is also possible that the species does not occur outside Europe. It occurs further north in Scandinavia than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</em> was only recently differentiated from <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, and some details of its distribution are still lacking. It is also a western Palaearctic species, occurring from the British Isles through much of Europe (including the islands of Corsica and Sardinina) east to Ukraine and western Russia. Its range may extend much further east, as well as into north Africa  (Wilson and Reeder 2005), however, repeated surveys for it in Morocco have failed to find any records so it may not occur in North Africa at all (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007), although it is also possible that the species does not occur outside Europe. It occurs further north in Scandinavia than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	<em>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</em> was only recently differentiated from <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, and some details of its distribution are still lacking. It is also a western Palaearctic species, occurring from the British Isles through much of Europe (including the islands of Corsica and Sardinina) east to Ukraine and western Russia. Its range may extend much further east, as well as into north Africa  (Wilson and Reeder 2005), however, repeated surveys for it in Morocco have failed to find any records so it may not occur in North Africa at all (J. Juste pers. comm. 2007), although it is also possible that the species does not occur outside Europe. It occurs further north in Scandinavia than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages around woodland and wetlands, and is more closely associated with water than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>. It feeds mainly on small Diptera (especially aquatic midges). Maternity colonies are generally located in buildings. No specific data are available on <em>P. pygmaeus</em> winter roost sites, but presumably they are similar to those used by <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It forages around woodland and wetlands, and is more closely associated with water than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>. It feeds mainly on small Diptera (especially aquatic midges). Maternity colonies are generally located in buildings. No specific data are available on <em>P. pygmaeus</em> winter roost sites, but presumably they are similar to those used by <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	habitat	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It forages around woodland and wetlands, and is more closely associated with water than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>. It feeds mainly on small Diptera (especially aquatic midges). Maternity colonies are generally located in buildings. No specific data are available on <em>P. pygmaeus</em> winter roost sites, but presumably they are similar to those used by <em>P. pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136649	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It generally appears to be less abundant than <em>P. pipistrellus sensu stricto</em>, although it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species. Summer colonies may be larger than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, numbering up to 250 (or occasionally up to 3,000) individuals. It is not known if the species congregates in winter, or what size its winter colonies are.	eng
136649	population	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	It generally appears to be less abundant than <em>P. pipistrellus sensu stricto</em>, although it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species. Summer colonies may be larger than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, numbering up to 250 (or occasionally up to 3,000) individuals. It is not known if the species congregates in winter, or what size its winter colonies are.	eng
136649	population	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	It generally appears to be less abundant than <em>P. pipistrellus sensu stricto</em>, although it is nevertheless a widespread and abundant species. Summer colonies may be larger than <em>P. pipistrellus</em>, numbering up to 250 (or occasionally up to 3,000) individuals. It is not known if the species congregates in winter, or what size its winter colonies are.	eng
136649	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karatas, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	As maternity colonies tend to be found in buildings, the species may be vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However, this is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
136649	threats	Hutson, A.M., Spitzenberger, F., Aulagnier, S., Coroiu, I., Karataş, A., Juste, J., Paunovic, M., Palmeirim, J. & Benda, P., 2008	As maternity colonies tend to be found in buildings, the species may be vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However, this is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
136649	threats	Tony Hutson, Friederike Spitzenberger, Stéphane Aulagnier, Ioan Coroiu, 2006	As maternity colonies tend to be found in buildings, the species may be vulnerable to anthropogenic factors, such as disturbance, timber treatment and building renovation (Battersby 2005). However, this is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
136650	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	In Mexico it is found in some protected areas.	eng
136650	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The range encompasses southeastern California, Arizona (Hoffmeister 1986, Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003), New Mexico (except perhaps extreme northeast; Frey 2004), southern Colorado, and perhaps southern Utah and western Texas (Piaggio <em>et al.</em> 2002; Valdez pers. comm.). In Arizona, this bat is distributed predominantly in the highlands and upper stream reaches (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002). In New Mexico, it is known from low-elevation riparian areas in the Rio Grande Valley and montane highlands. In California, it occurs only along the Colorado River lowlands and in the adjacent desert mountain ranges. The range meets that of <em>M. lucifugus</em> in central Colorado; that species occupies the northern third of the state (Valdez pers. comm.). The only record from Texas is an unusual, perhaps intermediate specimen collected in the early 1900s near Fort Hancock in Hudspeth County (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valdez pers. comm.; Schmidly 2004). <br/>Range limits in northcentral Mexico are uncertain; the species has been recorded from several localities in Chihuahua and a disjunct site near Texcoco in the Distrito Federal (Piaggio <em>et al</em>. 2002; Valdez pers. comm.). In Arizona, this bat is most common at elevations of 1,830-2,806 meters, but it also occurs much lower along rivers in desert regions (Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003).	eng
136650	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Habitats in Arizona include ponderosa pine and oak-pine woodland near water; this bat is also known from wooded riparian areas in desert areas (Hoffmeister 1986). In New Mexico, the species is usually associated with large bodies of water without respect to associated vegetation type; it is known from low elevation riparian areas in the Rio Grande Valley and montane highlands (Piaggio <em>et al.</em> 2002). Maternity colonies have been found in buildings (e.g., the attics of abandoned houses; Hoffmeister 1986; Chung-MacCoubrey 1999), in crevices between timbers of a highway bridge (Arizona Game and Fish Department 2003), and in snags. A few individuals have been found hibernating in mines in California and Sonora (Howell 1989).	eng
136650	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	The total number of occurrences or subpopulations is unknown but is at least a few dozen. Total adult population size is unknown. Stager (1943) estimated that <em>Myotis occultus</em> made up about 40 percent of 2,000 bats in a mixed-species colony roosting under a bridge in May near Blythe, California. Hayward (1963) recorded an Arizona maternity colony that included 67 females in one year and 41 the next year.<br/>Overall trend is unknown, but some subpopulations have apparently declined or been eliminated. One or two of the three or four known maternity colonies in Arizona have been eliminated, and another has been partially excluded from available buildings (AGFD 2003). Populations that were formerly common along the Colorado River in California and Arizona have apparently declined, perhaps drastically (K. Stager, P. Leitner pers. comm.).	eng
136650	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Without citing specific examples, Schmidly (2004) reported that this species has declined as a result of pesticide use, control measures in nursery colonies, and disturbance at hibernation sites.	eng
136651	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species has been recorded from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136651	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species ranges from Yunnan Province in China, southwards extending in to Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.	eng
136651	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is associated with limestone caves in evergreen forest like others in the genus.	eng
136651	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136651	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136652	conservation	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species occurs in the Tapajos National Forest, Brazil (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005)	eng
136652	distribution	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This species is known from only three localities: two in Para State, and one in Amazon State, Brazil (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136652	habitat	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	Its habitat and ecology is poorly known (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136652	population	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	This rodent is known from only three localities (Ximenes <em>et al.</em>, 2005); its population status is unknown.	eng
136652	threats	Percequillo, A. & Patton, J., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136653	conservation	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).	eng
136653	distribution	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil, where it is found in the cerrado and caatinga in northeast and central parts of the country (Gardner 2007).	eng
136653	habitat	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Occurs in open habitats, including open grasslands, shrubby vegetation and dry forest (caatinga), as well as dense savannas with trees in the cerrado (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press) - an area currently targeted for soy bean production. Found from 300-1,100 m (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press). Unlike other mouse opossums, <em>Thylamys</em> are found in the central and southern part of South America in dry habitats, as opposed to the more mesic environments of other genera (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species of this genus are mainly arboreal and crepuscular, with a diet that is mostly insects and small vertebrates (Palma <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
136653	population	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Probably occurs at low densities, although not rare (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).	eng
136653	threats	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is widespread agriculture, mainly soybean plantations, which are removing the species habitats (Carmignotto and Monfort, In press).	eng
136654	conservation	Musser, G., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. This species is in need of further survey work to determine its limits of distribution and current population status.	eng
136654	distribution	Musser, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Tanke Salokko in south eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia (03°35'S, 121°15'E, at 1,500 m) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is possible that it might occur slightly more widely, at high elevations, than current records suggest.	eng
136654	habitat	Musser, G., 2008	This species is found in montane forest, and not likely to occur in degraded habitats.	eng
136654	population	Musser, G., 2008	This species is known only from the type series of three specimens collected in 1932 (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136654	threats	Musser, G., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss, although forest loss in this region of Sulawesi has been less severe than elsewhere.	eng
136655	conservation	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This rodent occurs in the Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136655	distribution	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	So far known from the headwaters of the Rio Juruá, southeastern Peru and extreme west Brazil; range limits require amplification (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136655	habitat	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The habitat of the species is upper tropical forest (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000). Specimens collected from southeastern Peru in July during the dry season were all adults but none were in reproductive condition, the specimen from Brazil taken during the rainy season was pregnant with two near term embryos (Patton <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
136655	population	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance.	eng
136655	threats	Patton, J. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136656	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas within its range.	eng
136656	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from Guerrero, Jalisco, México, and Michoacán states in Mexico (Carraway, 2007). It occurs from 1,875 to 3,048 m asl (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136656	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It occurs in high elevation pine-oak juniper woodlands, and moist montane canyons in pine-oak or Douglas-fir-juniper woodlands in the Transvolcanic belt, in areas where there is a deep layer of humus and leaf litter (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136656	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136656	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation threatens some parts of the species' range.	eng
136657	conservation	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is extinct.	eng
136657	distribution	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species was found on the island of Santa Cruz of the Galápagos Islands. It is known only from late Quaternary and subfossil cave deposits. This species is considered to have very recently become extinct (Steadman and Ray, 1982; Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136657	habitat	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	The species is through to have occurred in shrub forests.	eng
136657	population	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	The chronology of extinction of <em>Megaoryzomys curioi</em> is very speculative. There are no absolute age determinations available as yet for any mammal-bearing fossil deposit in Galápagos. The possibility of the involvement of feral dogs, cats, pigs, and black rats in its extinction is also suggestive of a recent extinction (Steadman and Ray, 1982).	eng
136657	threats	Weksler, M. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is extinct.	eng
136658	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, Z., Vivar E. & Dunnum, J., 2008	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. The skulls were found at Machu Picchu but this may not be the origin of the animals.	eng
136658	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, Z., Vivar E. & Dunnum, J., 2008	This species is known only from Inca burial sites of Machu Picchu, southeastern Peru (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136658	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, Z., Vivar E. & Dunnum, J., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is not known.	eng
136658	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, Z., Vivar E. & Dunnum, J., 2008	The species is known only from two skulls, estimated to be around 400 years old. It is considered probably extinct (Thomas, 1920; Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005). However, Emmons (1999) states that there is no evident reason for<br/><em>C. oblativa</em> to have become extinct since 1500 and it is likely to be still extant. It has not been located during any surveys of the region and the origin of the two skulls collected is not known.	eng
136658	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, Z., Vivar E. & Dunnum, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The presence of the two skulls at an Inca burial site suggests that it was used for food.	eng
136659	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. In Mexico is listed as threatened under NOM - 059 - SEMARNAT - 2001. Also is listed as priority for conservation (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.). USFWS list the species as endangered.	eng
136659	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known from central California (Constantine 1998), southern Arizona, and New Mexico (USA) to Honduras and El Salvador (Simmons, 2005). It occurs from lowlands to 2,600 m (usually below 1,800 m) (Reid, 1997).	eng
136659	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species occurs in thorn scrub and deciduous forest. Its range corresponds closely to the distribution of the mezcal plant (Agave angustifolia) in Mexico (Arita, 1991). This bat roosts in caves and mines, often in colonies of several thousand. It emerges about an hour after sunset to feed on nectar and pollen of agaves and saguaro cactus in Arizona. It lands on the flowers or may hover for short periods to feed. Plant species visited in central Mexico are similar to those for L. nivalis. Some fruit and insects are also taken. Night roosts, including buildings, are used after feeding (Reid, 1997). Northern population migrate south in September and return in May. Young are born in May to June in large maternity colonies (Barbour and Davis, 1969).<br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size likely are stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10 years or three generations.<br/>The habitat in Mexico is primarily tropical deciduous forest and thorn forest (Arita 1991). In the United States, this bat roosts in old mines and caves at the base of mountains near alluvial fans vegetated with agave, yucca, saguaro, and organ pipe cactus (Barbour and Davis 1969). Young are born in maternity colonies in caves and mines.	eng
136659	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is generally uncommon (Reid, 1997). This species is represented by a large number of occurrences or subpopulations. Arita (1991) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Mexico. Arita and Humphrey (1988) reported 269 historical and currently occupied localities in Mexico. Total adult population size is unknown but exceeds 100,000. A single roost in northern Mexico supports probably more than 100,000 individuals. This species is widespread and abundant in Mexico (Arita and Prado 1999). See Cockrum and Petryszyn (1991) for historical and recent population estimates for several sites in Arizona (no decline is evident) and Sonora.<br/>Cockrum and Petryszyn (1991) strongly disputed the reported decline of this species and, in reviewing pertinent data, concluded that little evidence exists to document a long-term decline in Arizona, New Mexico, and Sonora; these authors stated "the various recent reports of disappearance appear to be, at least in part, the result of not looking in the right places at the right times" and further reported that "current populations...are little, if any, decreased from those of a quarter century ago. It even has been suggested that populations have increased in the past century because of more suitable roosts being available as a result of mining activity in the area."	eng
136659	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Miller, B., Reid, F., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	USFWS (1987, 1989) stated that the species was threatened by disturbance of roosts, loss of food sources through land clearing and human exploitation, and direct killing by humans. Overall, however, this species does not appear to be very threatened. Habitat loss, cave issues, as mining and recreation.	eng
136660	conservation	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136660	distribution	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found on the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). It is known from several large drainage basins, including the Fly River and lower Strickland River. It appears to be a lowland species. Elevation range is from sea level to 600 m asl.	eng
136660	habitat	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is believed to be an arboreal species of lowland tropical moist forest (gallery and hill forest). It may be sensitive to habitat disturbance as it is rarely found close to areas inhabited by people. Animals have been collected in a tree hollow.	eng
136660	population	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is considered to be difficult to trap and is not known from many specimens.	eng
136660	threats	Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Wright, D., Allison, A. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are possibly no major threats to this species, as it has a wide range in an area with a low human population density.	eng
136662	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Fandriana Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136662	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Fandriana region, between the Mangoro/Onive and Namorona Rivers in central-eastern Madagascar. The southern and northern extents of the range are unknown (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
136662	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136662	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136662	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but presumably at risk from habitat loss and hunting.	eng
136663	conservation	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There is no information on the conservation status of this species.	eng
136663	distribution	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The type locality for this species is Rio Maranon, Pongo de Rentema in Peru. Its range extends into eastern Ecuador, southern Columbia, southern Venezuela and south of the Amazon, in the Amazonas and Para regions of northern Brazil.	eng
136663	habitat	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This terrestrial species occurs in lowland evergreen tropical forest (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It can exist in altered areas close to natural forest. It scatters and hoards the fruits and nuts it consumes. Captive studies suggest the species could be monogamous (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). Gestation is 99 days after which a litter, usually of two, is produced (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999).	eng
136663	population	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	There is no information on population numbers for this species.	eng
136663	threats	Catzeflis, F., Weksler, M. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The major threats to this species have not been confirmed but <span style="font-style: italic;">M. acouchy</span> is over-hunted within its range. Also, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. acouchy</span> is kept as a pet in some indigenous populations in Brazil, this is probably the case for <span style="font-style: italic;">M. pratti</span> too.	eng
136664	conservation	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There are some protected areas within its range.	eng
136664	distribution	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	This species is known from Hokkaido and Honshu (but not Chugoku District), Shikoku (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005), and Rebun and Rishiri in Japan, and Iturup and Kunashir in the Kuril Islands of Russia. It has been recorded between 700 and 1,700 m asl.	eng
136664	habitat	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	They roost in tree holes in large trees in forests during the day and forage at night. They also roost in caves and houses.	eng
136664	population	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
136664	threats	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
136665	conservation	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in several protected areas.	eng
136665	distribution	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	North Central Argentina (Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe Provinces to the Pampas and Buenos Aires Provinces at South).	eng
136665	habitat	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Grasslands and Espinal (thorn bushes in dry lowlands). It is a carrier of a try of portavirus (Teta, P., comm. Pers.)	eng
136665	population	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	There are good population studies, indicating that is a common species.	eng
136665	threats	Pardinas, U., Teta, P. & D'Elia, G., 2008	Agricultural and cattle farming activates are threats to populations across much of the species range, in fact it has been extirpated from the type locality.	eng
136666	conservation	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	It occurs in protected areas in Arizona in the United States.	eng
136666	distribution	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	This species is known from Arizona, United States to central Sonora, Mexico (McAliley <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136666	habitat	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	Typical habitat is desert shrub, including plant communities dominated by mesquite, agave, cholla, and oakbrush (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999).	eng
136666	population	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	No population information is available for this species. It is probably common in the proper desert habitats (Robert Timm and John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
136666	threats	Timm, R., Matson, J., Woodman, N., de Grammont, P.C. & Castro-Arellano, I., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
136667	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	It occurs in the Rio Biseo National Park (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136667	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and vicinity, in upper montane forest, north central Peru; it has an altitudinal range of 3250 to 3380 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136667	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. It co-occurs with <em>Thomasomys apeco</em> (Gardner and Romo, 1993). This is terrestrial and was trapped in montane forest (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136667	population	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is apparently rare (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136667	threats	Pacheco, V. & Vargas, J., 2008	No major threats currently exist (V. Pacheco pers. comm.).	eng
136668	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S, Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is not known if this species occurs in any protected areas. Field surveys are needed to find this species. Although the area has not been well-sampled, there have been a few visits to the area with no reports of this species.	eng
136668	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S, Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	Known only from a single specimen (an adult male) collected in 1928 by Ernst Mayr in the Wondiwoi Peninsula of Papua (Indonesia). Elevation of specimen: 1,600 m asl.	eng
136668	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S, Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It inhabits mossy montane forest.	eng
136668	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S, Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	The population of this species is unknown.	eng
136668	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S, Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	Presumably hunting is the main threat.	eng
136669	conservation	Bearder, S., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further studies on the taxonomy, ecology and threats to this species are needed.	eng
136669	distribution	Bearder, S., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from mountains in the north-west of Mozambique close to Lake Malawi, and from Chikwawa in Malawi.	eng
136669	habitat	Bearder, S., 2008	Presumably occurs in either tropical montane or lowland forest. Also known to occur in secondary vegetation associated with tea plantations. It is presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.	eng
136669	population	Bearder, S., 2008	No information is available. This species was identified on the basis of six specimens, and it may be synonymous with <em>Galagoides granti</em>.	eng
136669	threats	Bearder, S., 2008	There is no information on the threats to this species, but almost certainly habitat loss due to deforestation (for crops and logging) and expanding human settlement is likely to be a threat.	eng
136670	conservation	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is included in two protected areas, including Torres del Paine National Park.	eng
136670	distribution	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It was found in two localities in southernmost Chile, Punta Arenas and Torres del Paine National Park.	eng
136670	habitat	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in Magallanic steppe shrublands/grasslands.	eng
136670	population	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136670	threats	D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136671	conservation	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Reduce habitat loss. Further studies of basic ecology and threats are required.	eng
136671	distribution	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species occurs throughout Oaxaca and Veracruz (Mexico) to Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, and French Guiana (Simmons, 2005). Also occurs in northern and western Brazil (Tavares pers. comm.). Occurs up to 1,000 m elevation (Molinari pers. comm.) in the Andes. From Mexico to Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela and the Guianas and Amazonian Brazil (Last record - Tavares pers com). There is a record from Chiapas, Mexico (Reid pers. comm.).	eng
136671	habitat	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This bat is found in semi-deciduous and evergreen forest. Its roosts in tents made from philodendron and other heart-shaped leaves; basal nerves and midrib are chewed near the leaf stem, causing the sides and tip of the leaf to fold down. Tents are occupied by 1 to 5 individuals. This species has the greatest activity during the first 2 hours after sunset. Figs and other small fruits are eaten. Reproduction may occur twice annually, with young born late in the dry season and in the middle of the wet season (Kunz <em>et al.</em>, 1994; Reid, 1997). Found in a variety of habitat types. Roosts in tents (Timm, 1984; Kunz <em>et al</em>. 1994) It is a frugivore. As with other members of the genus, ecology is not well known.	eng
136671	population	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is uncommon but widespread (Reid, 1997) in Mesoamerica, but is common throughout its range in South America. Can be locally common (Tavares pers. comm.).	eng
136671	threats	Tavares, V., Muñoz, A. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	None known - adaptable to human land-use. Habitat loss in some parts of the range.	eng
136672	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent can be found within Iporanga State Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136672	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Brazil, São Paulo State, Iporanga (Petar) State Park (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136672	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species inhabits subtropical moist forest areas.	eng
136672	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is known only from the type locality; it was described in 1998 (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136672	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
136673	conservation	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It has been recorded from Manusela National Park. Further studies are needed into the habitat requirements of this species, especially whether it can persist in modified habitats.	eng
136673	distribution	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from the southern coast of Seram island, Indonesia, where it was found at Teloeti Bay (Musser and Carleton 2005; Helgen 2003). It has been collected at close to sea level.	eng
136673	habitat	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	Although the habitat and ecology of the species is poorly known, it appears to be related to <em>Melomy leucogaster</em>, and may be similarly adaptable in lowland tropical forest habitats (Helgen 2003). It is assumed to be highly aroboreal species (Helgen 2003). It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
136673	population	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens collected in 1920 (Helgen 2003).	eng
136673	threats	Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is a lowland species that is believed to be threatened by commercial logging, and presumably also threatened through competition with introduced rodents.	eng
136674	conservation	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It has not been found in any protected area.	eng
136674	distribution	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is found in Northwest Argentina in the Tucuman province.	eng
136674	habitat	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	It is exclusively found in high mountain forest of Yungas (transition between foggy grassland and Aliso forest)	eng
136674	population	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136674	threats	Jayat, J. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Overgrazing and conversion of habitat to agricultural activities.	eng
136675	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species has been recorded from near Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha and the managed forest of Kirindy CFPF (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005), but evidence is lacking that it actually roosts or feeds in these forests.	eng
136675	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There is specimen evidence of this species from two localities: near Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in the west and Sarodrano in the south (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). Photographs and forearm measurements of an individual from Kirindy (CFPF) forest in the west represents the third known locality for this species (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136675	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species is not considered to be a strict forest-dwelling species or known to be synanthropic (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005). There is no information on roosting or foraging habitats, but it appears to be associated with dry deciduous forest (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136675	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There are no data on the population of this species and all existing information is based on two specimens that were collected in 1868 and 2003 (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005; and see Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136675	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
136676	conservation	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Bolivia. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, habitat and ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136676	distribution	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	This species occurs in south central Bolivia between 900 and 2100 m asl, and is assumed to extend into parts of northern Argentina (Musser and Carleton 2005). The species has not been found in Argentina.	eng
136676	habitat	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The habitat requirements are not well-known in Bolivia, although it has been recorded from humid forest, chaco and a dry inter-Andean valley. It is not known if it occurs in modified areas.	eng
136676	population	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The population abundance is not known. It is known only from six localities and ten specimens in Bolivia.	eng
136676	threats	Dunnum, J., Vargas, J. & Bernal, N., 2008	The threats to this species are incompletely known, however, the habitats that it has been recorded from are highly-impacted by human activities (e.g. agriculture).	eng
136677	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). May also be the species present in Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136677	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Beza-Mahafaly region in south-western Madagascar, where thought to occur south of the Onilahy River and west of the Linta and Menarandra Rivers. The northern extent of the range is unknown. Formerly, the sportive lemurs from the Beza-Mahafaly region were thought to be <em>L. leucopus</em>, and it remains unclear how the distributions of these two species relate to each other.	eng
136677	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of spiny forest and dry forest.	eng
136677	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136677	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136678	conservation	Happold. M., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species. There is a need to determine if the species is still present at Grotte du Viaduc à Loudima, and to locate additional populations through directed surveys.	eng
136678	distribution	Happold. M., 2008	This species has only been recorded from type locality of 'Grotte du Viaduc à Loudima, Republic of Congo (04º15'S, 13º00'E) (Happold 2005). Despite extensive surveys of other seemingly suitable localities, it has not been recorded from additional caves in the Loudima-Kimongo region, or from caves in the Mayombe and lower Kouilou regions of Congo, the Haut-Ivindo region of Gabon, or Kikwit in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Happold 2005).	eng
136678	habitat	Happold. M., 2008	The holotype was collected from a cave close to the valley of the Loudima River, and may hunt over water (Adam and Le Pont 1974; Happold 2005). The vegetation zone surrounding the cave is classified as a mosaic of Guinea-Congolian rainforest and grassland by White (1983), this was found to be in a degraded condition by Aellen and Brosset (1968) with primary forest partially replaced by patches of savanna (Happold 2005).	eng
136678	population	Happold. M., 2008	It is known only from the holotype collected by Jean-Paul Adam sometime between 1961 and 1968, from a small number of this species present in the cave (Happold 2005).	eng
136678	threats	Happold. M., 2008	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
136679	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	The species occurs in Araguaia National Park (Bonvincino <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
136679	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species is known from Goias, Mato Grosso and Tocantins States, central Brazil (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
136679	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species is found on the borders of gallery forest, Cerrado (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2003). Fagundes <em>et al.</em> (2000) found the species in transitional areas between Amazonian rain forest and Cerrado. No information available on the reproductive activity (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136679	population	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	No information is available on this species, although other species in the genus are common (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 2003). Although the species has been collected only from three localities, this is due to limited sampling (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136679	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	Habitat destruction is occurring throughout its range (except in protected areas) (Marinho-Filho pers. comm.).	eng
136680	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the species' protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Conservation recommendations include further research on distribution, population status and trends, ecology, habitat requirements, and threats. Measures to increase public awareness of this little-known species are also recommended.	eng
136680	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	It is protected by national legislation in most range states. There are also international legal obligations for the species' protection through the Bonn Convention (Eurobats) and Bern Convention. It is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive, and some habitat protection may be provided through Natura 2000. Conservation recommendations include further research on distribution, population status and trends, ecology, habitat requirements, and threats. Measures to increase public awareness of this little-known species are also recommended.	eng
136680	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	This species was recently described and is poorly known (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001), but current information suggests that it is endemic to central and southern Europe. It is known from Spain, France, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece (Ruedi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, Agirre-Mendi <em>et al.</em> 2004, von Helversen 2004, Helversen <em>et al</em>. 2006, P. Benda <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The species is possibly present for most of Serbia and areas of Montenegro (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136680	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	This species was recently described and is poorly known (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001), but current information suggests that it is endemic to central and southern Europe. It is known from Spain, France, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece (Ruedi <em>et al.</em> 2002, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, Agirre-Mendi <em>et al.</em> 2004, von Helversen 2004, Helversen <em>et al</em>. 2006, P. Benda <em>in litt.</em> 2006). The species is possibly present for most of Serbia and areas of Montenegro (M. Paunovic pers. comm. 2007).	eng
136680	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	According to present scarce knowledge, it is a tree dwelling and forest foraging species. In parts of the range at least it prefers to hunt in small valleys with deciduous trees and flowing water, which is a threatened habitat. The only breeding colony was found in a tree hollow. It may also occur in rural gardens and urban habitats. It probably occurs in underground habitats in winter.	eng
136680	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	According to present scarce knowledge, it is a tree dwelling and forest foraging species. In parts of the range at least it prefers to hunt in small valleys with deciduous trees and flowing water, which is a threatened habitat. The only breeding colony was found in a tree hollow. It may also occur in rural gardens and urban habitats. It probably occurs in underground habitats in winter.	eng
136680	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Its population size and trend is unknown. To date, c.15 localities are recorded in international publications (von Helversen 2001, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, von Helversen 2004). However, new localities continue to be found (EMA Workshop 2006, Mediterranean Mammals Workshop 2007).	eng
136680	population	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Its population size and trend is unknown. To date, c.15 localities are recorded in international publications (von Helversen 2001, Benda <em>et al.</em> 2003, von Helversen 2004). However, new localities continue to be found (EMA Workshop 2006, Mediterranean Mammals Workshop 2007).	eng
136680	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karatas, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunovic, M., 2008	Damage to riparian forest is believed be a threat in parts of range (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001). Wider forest and roost tree loss (especially in wet old growth forests) may also be threats.	eng
136680	threats	Hutson, A.M., Aulagnier, S., Nagy, Z., Karataş, A., Palmeirim, J. & Paunović, M., 2008	Damage to riparian forest is believed be a threat in parts of range (von Helversen <em>et al.</em> 2001). Wider forest and roost tree loss (especially in wet old growth forests) may also be threats.	eng
136681	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136681	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs along the Paraná and San Javier Rivers, Santa Fe Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136681	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136681	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136681	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136682	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	Genetic surveys are required to confirm the species taxonomic status (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136682	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from Ubatuba, on the northern coast of Sao Paulo state, Brazil. The type locality is Estaçao Experimental de Ubatuba, Ubatuba municipality (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136682	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in the Eastern forests. The vegetation in area is broadleaf evergreen rainforest and the elevation is close to sea level (Leite, 2003, Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136682	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is known from only 3 specimens from 1940's, not re-surveyed in recent history (Leite, 2003).	eng
136682	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136683	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only known from one location in the Cañada de Hermita, Dexcani Alto Jilotepec, Estado de México (México) (Carleton <em>et al</em>. 2002; León-Paniagua <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136683	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is only found in cloud forest at elevations above 2,000 m.	eng
136683	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is considered rare throughout its restricted range.	eng
136683	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I., Lacher, T. & Vázquez, E., 2008	This species is threatened by deforestation within its very restricted range.	eng
136684	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. The presence of this species in protected areas has yet to be confirmed, but it may occur in the Manongarivo Special Reserve and the Tsingy de Namoroka National Park. Detailed surveys throughout the Sambirano region are clearly indicated to determine the distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
136684	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Specimens of <em>M. zaza</em> comes from the region of the Ampasindava Peninsula in north-western Madagascar, specifically from Ambato and Pasandava (Kappeler <em>et al.</em> 2005), and the genetic analysis of a specimen from the forests of Ankarafa in the Sahamalaza region also confirms the presence of this species there (C. Schwitzer pers. comm.). Populations from the Befotaka region a bit farther to the south may also represent this species (Randriatahina and Rabarivola 2004), but this remains to be confirmed. The southern limit of the distribution of this species is particularly uncertain; it may range as far south as the Tsingy de Namoroka National Park.	eng
136684	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry and humid forests; also recorded from secondary forest. Mostly solitary, and unlike <em>M. coquereli</em> appears to nest alone. Reproductive activity, based on studies of animals from the Ambanja region, begins in August, several months earlier than <em>M. coquereli</em> (Kappeler <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136684	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Andrianarivo (1981) and Kappeler <em>et al.</em> (2005) both recorded high population densities for <em>M. zaza</em>. Their estimates of 385 individuals/km² and 1,086 individuals/km² are several times higher than those obtained for <em>M. coquereli</em> in the Kirindy Forest. The concentration of animals in more isolated forest fragments and the presence of mango, cashew, and other introduced food tree species in the Ambato region may help explain the higher densities, but further research is needed (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136684	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The major threats to this species are unclear. It is presumably at risk from forest clearance and slash-and-burn agricultural activities; however, they do persist in forest fragments, especially where there are introduced tree species to provide a food source.	eng
136685	conservation	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K. & Pilgrim, J., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. It is poorly-known and field studies are needed to determine the current status of the population. Work is also needed to determine the taxonomic status of <em>Pteropus rennelli</em>. Important sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected. The species might be found within the East Rennell World Heritage Site.	eng
136685	distribution	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K. & Pilgrim, J., 2008	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Rennell in the Solomon Islands (an area of 683 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
136685	habitat	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K. & Pilgrim, J., 2008	The female bears a single young. The lifespan is approximately 8 or 9 years. Because of their size, vocalizations, and mobility, flying foxes are easily detected, and therefore their numbers are often over-estimated.	eng
136685	population	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K. & Pilgrim, J., 2008	It is known from a very few specimens and some site records.	eng
136685	threats	Hamilton, S., Helgen, K. & Pilgrim, J., 2008	The western side of the island is heavily disturbed, and densely populated in some areas. This species is likely to be threatened by opportunistic hunting for food. Although not threatened by large-scale agriculture, subsistence agriculture could significantly impact this species, due to its highly restricted distribution. Cyclones could also be a threat.	eng
136686	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from several protected areas, including the Shimba Hills N.R. and Arubuko-Sokoke Forest. If records from the Usambaras in Tanzania belong to this species, then it probably also occurs in several nature reserves, such as Amani N.R. There is a clear need for improved protection of these reserves. Further survey work is needed to confirm the species identification of records of this species from the Usambaras.	eng
136686	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Restricted to the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania. In Kenya, the majority of confirmed records are from Gedi, south of Malindi in Kenya, but other specimens have been collected in Diani Beach, Shimba Hills N.R., Tiwi, Kwale, Mazeras, and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest; reports of this species from coastal parts of northern Kenya have been reported, including close to the Somali border (Taylor in press). In Tanzania, there are records from the East and West Usambaras, and another unsubstantiated record from the Ulugurus, but these require confirmation since they could very well be the result of confusion with Bushy-tailed Mongoose <em>B. crassicauda</em> (Taylor in press).	eng
136686	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Found predominantly through forested habitats on the coast. Has been observed foraging on roads at night after insects, when individuals may sometimes be injured or killed by vehicles (Taylor in press).	eng
136686	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This mongoose is only locally common, but likely declining.	eng
136686	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	The population in the Arubuko-Sokoke Forest is under threat from habitat loss due to illegal logging and the Shimba Hills population is potentially under threat from afforestation with non-native pine species together with management for Sable Antelope <em>Hippotragus niger</em> (Schreiber <em>et al</em>. 1989, Engel and Van Rompaey 1995).	eng
136687	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Argentinian Red List (Ojeda and Diaz 2000).	eng
136687	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species occurs in northwestern Córdoba Province, central Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
136687	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is restricted to natural grasslands over sand dunes, which are considered as vulnerable habitats. Bidau and Lessa suggest that the species does not occur within grasslands and is restricted mostly to sand dunes (Bidau 2006).	eng
136687	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Average density of this species is approximately 16 individuals/ha. This species breeds all year round, with mean litter size being 2.9 (Zenuto and Busch 1998). Populations are fragmented (Bidau 2006).	eng
136687	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is restricted to natural grasslands over sand dunes, which are considered as vulnerable habitats. Therefore, this species warrants special conservation status (Zenuto and Busch 1998).	eng
136688	conservation	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species probably occurs in the western side of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve in Tamaulipas, Mexico.	eng
136688	distribution	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known from southwestern Tamaulipas, and only from the west side because it is a dry area (Carraway and Timm, 2000). It may occur more widely than is currently known (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136688	habitat	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	it has been found in pine-oak forest, tropical forest and riparian forest (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136688	population	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	It is currently known only from three locations in two isolated mountain valleys. There is no further information on population status.	eng
136688	threats	Castro-Arellano, I., Timm, R., Matson, J. & Woodman, N., 2008	Overgrazing and agricultural activities threaten the habitat of this species.	eng
136689	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas within its range (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136689	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This species occurs in northeast and central Brazil, from Piaui and Ceara southwest through Goias and Minas Gerais States (Musser and Carleton, 2005, Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136689	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	This rodent occurs in open vegetation in cerrado and caatinga formations (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136689	population	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	The species is easy to collect and common (Bonvicino pers. comm.). Its populations can increase rapidly after disturbance to levels where it becomes an agricultural pest (Viera, 1999).	eng
136689	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Geise, L., 2008	Habitat destruction is occurring but it is not a major threat to this species (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136690	conservation	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Not known. Reaserch actions.	eng
136690	distribution	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Southern Argentina, Chile (Simmons 2005).	eng
136690	habitat	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	It is solitary and insectivore, as others .	eng
136690	population	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Nothing is known about population.	eng
136690	threats	Pacheco, V. Aguirre, L. & Mantilla, H., 2008	Not known.	eng
136691	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in a number of protected areas.	eng
136691	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species occurs in the montane forests of Sumatra, Indonesia, and Peninsular Malaysia usually above 1,000 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136691	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is a terrestrial and possibly arboreal, omnivorous species which occurs in primary and degraded tropical moist forest.	eng
136691	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There is little information available for this species, but presumably it is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
136691	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The habitat of this species is being deforested for timber, firewood and conversion to agricultural land.	eng
136692	conservation	Weksler, M. & Costa, L., 2008	Extinct.	eng
136692	distribution	Weksler, M. & Costa, L., 2008	This species is known from late Quaternary fossils, with the type locality given as: Brazil, Territorio de Fernando de Noronha, Ilha Fernando de Noronha, beach dunes (late Quaternary) near Ponta de Santo Antonio (Carleton and Olson, 1999). There is historical archival information from Amerigo Vespucci's 1503 voyage to the New World that this species existed on Fernando de Noronha at that time. The species was likely extirpated soon thereafter (Carleton and Olson, 1999).	eng
136692	habitat	Weksler, M. & Costa, L., 2008	Unknown. Maybe beach dunes and associated habitats.	eng
136692	population	Weksler, M. & Costa, L., 2008	Extinct.	eng
136692	threats	Weksler, M. & Costa, L., 2008	Extinct.	eng
136693	conservation	Langguth, A. & de Oliveira, L.F., 2008	The species occurs in Taim Federal Reserve (Gonzales <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
136693	distribution	Langguth, A. & de Oliveira, L.F., 2008	This species occurs in eastern Uruguay and extreme southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul state) (Musser and Carleton 2005). Species range may extend northward to the southern portion of the Atlantic Forest (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136693	habitat	Langguth, A. & de Oliveira, L.F., 2008	This species occurs in dense subtropical gallery forests (Musser and Carleton 2005). In Taim, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, species were found in abundance in swamp forest habitats, and some specimens were captured in grasslands (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998). Breeding season is thought to occur from spring into autumn (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136693	population	Langguth, A. & de Oliveira, L.F., 2008	This species is collected less frequently than others and has a patchy distribution (A. Langguth pers. comm.).	eng
136693	threats	Langguth, A. & de Oliveira, L.F., 2008	There are no threats affecting the species; its habitat is not being reduced (Gonzalez <em>et al.</em>, 1998). Some populations may be affected by clear cutting in the future.	eng
136694	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136694	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	Southeast Jujuy Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick 2005).	eng
136694	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136694	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population size of this species.	eng
136694	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on any threats to this species.	eng
136695	conservation	Kaneko, Y., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. The control of introduced predators is needed. It is listed as Endangered (En) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
136695	distribution	Kaneko, Y., 2008	This species is known only from Tokunoshima Island, in the Ryukyu Islands, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. It is restricted to the northern and central parts of the island in the vicinity of Mount Amagi and Mount Inokawa (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136695	habitat	Kaneko, Y., 2008	The species prefers secondary broad-leaved forests, although it can also be found in intact forests (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Tokudaia osimensis</em>). It has not been observed in plantations.	eng
136695	population	Kaneko, Y., 2008	The population has been shown to decline with reductions of chinquapin seedlings following some typhoons (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005 as <em>Tokudaia osimensis</em>).	eng
136695	threats	Kaneko, Y., 2008	Habitat destruction has severely decreased the available forest habitat on the island (Japan RDB, 2002). Feral cats and dog are present on the island and are known to predate this species (Japan RDB, 2002; Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136696	conservation	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to survey known localities including the Foja and Prince Alexander ranges for this species and to protect any remaining populations through the development of protected areas, hunting regulations, and local awareness programmes.	eng
136696	distribution	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	This species is now known only for certain from the Torricelli range of Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea. There are fossil records from Vogelkop and other places. It is suspected to occur in the Foja range (there is a sight record) and the Prince Alexander range of Papua New Guinea. It has been extirpated from 99% of its historic range. It has been recorded at between 680 and 1,100 m asl.	eng
136696	habitat	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	It is a montane tropical forest species.	eng
136696	population	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	Jim Thomas (pers. comm.) reports 12 animals killed on Mt. Sapa or close to it in 2004. These records were from the villages of Nunsi (4 animals) and Sibilanga (8 animals). Although there have been more recent surveys in the Torricelli area they have not been undertaken at the known sites. Remaining numbers are likely to very low.	eng
136696	threats	Leary, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Aplin, K., Dickman, C., Salas, L., Flannery, T., Martin, R. & Seri, L., 2008	The species is highly threatened by hunting for food by local people, and additionally by habitat loss through conversion of forest to cultivated land. The lowland areas are earmarked for deforestation and oil palm expansion.	eng
136697	conservation	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	The species is present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to identify and protect important roosting sites and foraging wetlands. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution, as well as abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136697	distribution	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species occurs in Australia where it is present in along to coast from Victoria to south-east Queensland, and near Nildottie on the River Murray in South Australia (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is found in the Kimberley of Western Australia (A. Burbidge pers. comm.). Populations previously identified as <em>Myotis moluccarum</em> (or called <em>M. adversus</em>) in Australia, and at least one of the records from New Guinea, have been shown to be <em>M. macropus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001). Given the disjunct range with <em>M. moluccarum</em> on islands west of New Guinea, it is possible that the Myotis populations in eastern New Guinea, and eastwards in the Melanesian islands may also all be <em>M. macropus</em> (or one or more other species). This species is known from sea level to 840 m, but most records below 300 m in Victoria at least (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
136697	habitat	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	This species is generally associated with wetland habitat ranging from estuaries to forest streams, large lakes, and reservoirs (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008). It roosts in caves, tunnels and mines, tree hollows, under bridges and in similar habitats (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136697	population	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	It is a common species within its limited habitat (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136697	threats	Reardon, T. & Thomson, B., 2008	Although the current threats to this species are not known it is presumably susceptible to changes in water quality caused by sedimentation, chemical pollutants, and altered flow regimes. Roosting colonies may be threatened by disturbance.	eng
136698	conservation	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is not known whether it occurs in any protected areas.	eng
136698	distribution	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is known in Mexico from high elevations in the states of Federal District, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136698	habitat	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It can be found only at high elevations, in montane valleys bordering pine forests and above the treeline in talus slopes (Carraway, 2007). It is tolerant of habitat modification, and has been found in coffee plantations (Sergio Ticul Alvarez pers. comm.).	eng
136698	population	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is not an uncommon species (Neal Woodman pers. comm.).	eng
136698	threats	Álvarez Castañeda, S.T., Matson, J., Castro-Arellano, I., Woodman, N. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136699	conservation	McKnight, M., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
136699	distribution	McKnight, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it occurs from the Star Mountains (Indonesia) in the west through the Central Cordillera to between Wau and the Kratke Mountains in the east (Papua New Guinea). It is also found in the Huon Peninsula and northern coast ranges of Papua New Guinea.	eng
136699	habitat	McKnight, M., 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest. It is the most sexually dimorphic arboreal marsupial in New Guinea. It is highly fecund.	eng
136699	population	McKnight, M., 2008	Flannery (1995) considered it to be abundant in the Telefomin area.	eng
136699	threats	McKnight, M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is hunted for food by local people.	eng
136700	conservation	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species and to better understand its limits of distribution.	eng
136700	distribution	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from the south eastern peninsula of Sulawesi, where it has been recorded at two localities: the type locality, Tanke Salokko at 1,500 m (03°35'S, 121°15'E), and lowlands around Mowewe at 300 m (03°57'S, 121°43'E) (Musser and Carleton 2005). It is quite likely to occur in areas between these two localities, and perhaps further to the north.	eng
136700	habitat	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	The two specimens from Tanke Salokko were collected from montane forest. It is not known whether it could occur in modified habitats, but it seems reasonable to expect that it may be found in plantations adjacent to intact forest.	eng
136700	population	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known only from three specimens, and was last collected in 1932 from Tanke Salokko. There is no recent information on population status.	eng
136700	threats	Musser, G., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It may be threatened by ongoing loss of habitat, although forest loss in this part of Sulawesi appears to be less severe than elsewhere.	eng
136701	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.	eng
136701	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from two mid-montane localities in Papua New Guinea. It ranges in elevation from 2,300 to 2,400 m asl.	eng
136701	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Found in mid-montane moist tropical forest.	eng
136701	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
136701	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	Ongoing habitat degradation is a major threat to this species. Habitat at the only known localities for it could be ruined in the near future by nearby human populations (habitat on Mount Kandy has been destroyed by gold miners and wood cutters).	eng
136702	conservation	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Delgado, C., 2008	This porcupine occurs in several protected areas. Further research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136702	distribution	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Delgado, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Andes Ecuador (Voss, 2003; D. Tirira pers. comm.) and northeast Colombia, from San Vicente de Chucuri, Cordillera Oriental (Alberico <em>et al.</em>, 1999).	eng
136702	habitat	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Delgado, C., 2008	Little is known of the behavior of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus: nocturnal, arboreal, and solitary, feeding on fruits and seeds (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136702	population	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Delgado, C., 2008	It is uncommon to rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136702	threats	Tirira, D., Boada, C. & Delgado, C., 2008	The major threats are deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and agriculture (D. Tirira and C. Boada pers. comm.).	eng
136703	conservation	Happold, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
136703	distribution	Happold, D., 2008	This little-known species has only been recorded from southeastern Kenya at two localities, near the type locality of Voi and at the second locality of Maktau.	eng
136703	habitat	Happold, D., 2008	This species appears to be associated with dry sandy plains with some thorn scrub. No further details on the natural history of this species are available.	eng
136703	population	Happold, D., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
136703	threats	Happold, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136704	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs in privately owned protected area: Reserva Natural Salto Morato, Paraná.	eng
136704	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs from the states of Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro in the southeast to Rio Grande do Sul in the south, Brazil (Leite, 2003). The type locality is Roca Nova, Serra do Mar, Parana state, south Brazil (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136704	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This rodent is found mainly along coast in areas of broadleaf evergreen forest, but extends to west into <em>Araucaria</em> forests in the state of Parana. Northern range records are from above 1,000 m elevation, southern records are from lower elevations suggesting preference for cooler climates (Leite, 2003, Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136704	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known from 15 specimens; it is known from wide range and may be locally common (Leite, 2003).	eng
136704	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136705	conservation	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Not known from any protected areas.	eng
136705	distribution	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	This species has a geographically discrete distribution, with all known individuals from the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. It is known from only three islands: Guahiba, São Lourenço, and Taquara (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136705	habitat	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Unknown. Presumed to occur in subtropical forests.	eng
136705	population	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Poorly known, there are only three known localities.	eng
136705	threats	Costa, L., Astua de Moraes, D., Brito, D., Soriano, P., Lew, D. & Delgado, C, 2008	Habitat destruction is a threat but the impact on the species is unknown. The area where the species occurs is highly altered and only few remnants of forest remain.	eng
136706	conservation	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	Avoid habitat loss. Found in protected areas (Davalos pers. comm.).	eng
136706	distribution	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout Costa Rica south to west Ecuador (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). Record from Peru is erroneous (Davalos and Velazco pers. comm.). Occurs from 0-1,000 m (Muñoz pers. comm.) in Colombia.	eng
136706	habitat	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. Associated with forests, and has been captured in both disturbed and primary forests and along roads. Tolerant of land use change.	eng
136706	population	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	It is rare in Panama, known from few records, mainly in eastern Panama (Reid, 1997). Rare in Costa Rica (Pineda and Bernal Rodriguez pers. comm.)	eng
136706	threats	Dávalos, L., Mantilla, H., Medina, C., Pineda, J. & Rodriguez, B., 2008	No known threats at present.	eng
136707	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It occurs in Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve and Mananara-Nord National Park. Based on its presumed distribution as understood here, it also would be the species in Marojejy and Masoala National Parks and Ambatovaky and Maratondrano Special Reserves. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136707	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Anjanaharibé-Sud region, north of the Antainambalana River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional work is needed to determine the limits between this species and <em>Lepilemur mustelinus</em> to the south. Louis <em>et al</em>. (2006) assigned the <em>Lepilemur</em> from Mananara-Nord (south of the Antainambalana River) to this species, even though the available molecular data suggest that this population will be described as a separate species in the future (Louis <em>et al</em>. 2006). The identity of populations on the Masaola Peninsula also requires investigation; these are provisionally here included in <em>L. seali</em>.	eng
136707	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforests.	eng
136707	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136707	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss and hunting are presumably threats.	eng
136708	conservation	Rossi, R.V. & Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136708	distribution	Rossi, R.V. & Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mazama nemorivaga</span> occurs in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Isla San José (Panamá), Ecuador, Peru, and probably in Bolivia. In Brazil, this species occupies the Amazon forest and transitional areas in its border, where it may be in sympatry with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. gouazoubira</span> as reported by Rossi (2000) for the states of Mato Grosso and Maranhão. It is probably present everywhere in the territory of French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana, but in Venezuela it has a disjunct distribution that includes the evergreen and semidecidual forests south of Río Orinoco in the states of Amazonas and Bolívar, plus the decidual forests and xeric shrublands of the coastal region in the states of Aragua, Carabobo, Falcón, Lara, and Zulia (Bisbal 1991). In Colombia, Alberico <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported the occurrence of the Amazonian brown brocket deer in the Amazon and Caribbean regions in the states of Amazonas, Caquetá, Bolívar, Cesar, and Cundinamarca, from 0 to 500 meters high. Additional information gathered from the literature points the presence of this species also in the states of Antioquia, La Guajira, Magdalena, and Meta (Allen 1904; Barriga-Bonilla 1966; Lydekker 1915; Medellín <em>et al</em>. 1998; Osgood 1912). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nemorivaga</span> does not reach Central America except for the Isla San José in the Archipiélago de las Perlas, Golfo de Panamá, Panamá (Kellogg 1946; Medellín <em>et al</em>. 1998). In Ecuador, it can be found in the entire Amazon region (Tirira 2001). There is no published data regarding the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nemorivaga</span> in Peru, but according to J. Barrio (pers. comm.) this species occurs all over the Amazon region (except for some flooded areas), and reaches sites up to 1500 meters high (J. Barrio pers. comm.). It probably occurs in northern Bolivia, although Anderson (1997) had only reported the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. g. gouazoubira</span> in this part of the country.	eng
136708	habitat	Rossi, R.V. & Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	Most of the localities with records of M. nemorivaga are inside the tropical and subtropical broadleaf moist forests biome of Olson <em>et al.</em> (2001), and are related to the Amazon region. From a total of 114 records, 10 are inside the tropical and subtropical broadleaf dry forest biome, and 7 are inside the desert and xeric scrubland biome. The majority of the localities associated with dry or xeric habitats are those referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. gouzoubira</span> cita by Bisbal (1991). The taxonomic status of Mazama cita Osgood, 1912 still needs to be thoroughly evaluated.<br/><br/>According to the absence or presence of flooding, the Amazonian rain forests are broadly classified into respectively non-flooded (tierra/terra firme) and seasonally flooded (várzea) forests. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mazama nemorivaga</span> inhabits the non-flooded forests and is rare or absent in the seasonally flooded forests. For example, it does not occur in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru, which covers an area of over 2 million hectares of seasonally flooded várzea forests. However, it is found in the adjacent inter-fluvial upland forests of the Yavari valley (Bodmer 2003).<br/><br/>Reproduction biology of the Amazonian brown brocket deer has been studied by Hurtado-Gonzales (2000) in the northeast Peruvian Amazon. Breeding appeared to be year round, and occurred from January to March, July to October, and December. Births occurred in January, March, April, and from July through October. No twinning was observed and the pregnancy rate was 0.50 pregnant females/total numbers of females. Most of the pregnant females were adults between 1 and 2 years old. In northeast Bolívar, Venezuela, Bisbal (1994) found pregnant females in December, January, and April. Births occurred in July, August, and November, apparently associated with the rainy season.	eng
136708	population	Rossi, R.V. & Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	Through the studies of Bodmer (1994), Bodmer <em>et al.</em> (1997) and Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer (2004) we have known of Mazama nemorivaga populations that inhabit the margins of Yavari Miri and Tahuayo rivers, northeastern Peru. Apparently, these populations are not isolated from each other, as stated by Novaro <em>et al.</em> (2000).<br/>In this region, the Amazonian brown brocket has considerably lower population densities than the red brocket. The density of the former is around 0.43-0.55 individuals per km² and its biomass estimates range from 6.5-8.2 kg/km². In contrast, red brocket deer usually have densities around 1.0 individuals per km² and a biomass of around 33 kg/km² (Salovaara <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Populations of Amazonian brown brocket were also reported in Suriname (Branan <em>et al</em>. 1985); in  the Reserva Florestal Imataca, northeast of the state of Bolívar, Venezuela (Bisbal 1994); and in  French Guiana (Gayot <em>et al</em>. 2004). Other populations of this deer are certainly present in many reserves or even private areas with well preserved forests. But the extant to which they are isolated from each other is unknown, due to the lack of knowledge on how this species responds to altered and fragmented habitats.	eng
136708	threats	Rossi, R.V. & Duarte, J.M.B, 2008	Habitat destruction is certainly the main type of threat to this species, at least in Brazil where the deforestation in Amazonia started by the early decade of 1970 and reached 16.2% (forest loss) of the original forest in 2003 (Fearnside 2005). This threat is particularly strong across the “deforestation arch” in the southern Brazilian Amazon, a region that extends from the state of Acre eastward to the southern states of Pará and Maranhão.<br/><br/>Although the Amazon forest has been destroyed for many reasons, the main cause of deforestation is cattle raising, responsible for 70% of forest loss in the Brazilian Amazon (Fearnside 2005). Besides the destruction of forest, the cattle itself may negatively affect deer populations through a variety of parasitic, bacterial or viral diseases that can contaminate them. Indeed, Pinder and Leeuwenberg (1997) mentioned that there are reports of high mortality rates of deer previously in contact with ill cattle in the Brazilian Pantanal region and the states of Maranhão and Minas Gerais. The extent to which the cattle affect populations of <em>M. nemorivaga</em> is unknown.<br/><br/>Fortunately, overhunting appears not to be a threat to <em>Mazama nemorivaga</em>. This species is usually less abundant than the sympatric red brocket deer (M. americana), but also has lower hunting pressure. Branan <em>et al.</em> (1985) reported the harvest of 5 individuals of the former species against 57 individuals of the latter by Surinamese hunters in 1980 and 1981. Similarly, Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer (2004) found a rate of 0.06 individuals hunted/km² for <em>M. nemorivaga</em> in contrast to 0.17 individuals hunted/km² for <em>M. americana</em> in a heavy hunted site in northeastern Peru. In addition to the low hunting pressure, most studies on the sustainability of hunting by Peruvian rural and indigenous people reported that the harvest of <em>Mazama nemorivaga</em> is within sustainable limits (Ascorra 1997; Bodmer 1995; Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1997; Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer 2004; Mena <em>et al</em>. 2000). There are two likely reasons for that. First, brockets (including <em>M. americana</em> and <em>M. nemorivaga</em>) can be categorized as less vulnerable to overhunting because of their fast rates of reproduction and intrinsic rates of population increase, allied to the ability of dispersal and difficulty of capture (see Bodmer <em>et al</em>. 1997, and Hurtado-Gonzales and Bodmer 2004). Second, slightly or unhunted areas adjacent to persistently hunted ones may have been acting as sources of game, as claimed by Novaro <em>et al</em>. (2000). According to them, 47 to 87% of unhunted area close to the catchment site is required to prevent a population decline of Amazonian brown brocket in the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
136709	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Lokobe National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136709	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Confined to the Lokobe region on the island of Nosy Bé, where currently known only from the type locality of Lokobe National Park (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Zinner <em>et al</em>. (2007) found that some specimens from the mainland were identical in mtDNA to the type of <em>tymerlachsonorum</em>. This may or may not be the species that formerly occurred on the island of Nosy Komba as well, but in any case sportive lemurs have not been observed there in recent years (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136709	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Recorded from humid forest habitats on the island of Nosy Be.	eng
136709	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of Lepilemur described in 2006.	eng
136709	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. The type locality is currently a protected area.	eng
136710	conservation	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	None.	eng
136710	distribution	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is known only from the very small area of Los Reyes in northwest Michoacán, México (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136710	habitat	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is found in pine-oak forests (Ceballos and Oliva 2005).	eng
136710	population	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	Within its very restricted range, it is common (Alvarez-Castaneda pers. comm.).	eng
136710	threats	Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Lacher, T., Vázquez, E. & Arroyo-Cabrales, J., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat transformation for cattle ranching.	eng
136711	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136711	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality, Gunung Rorekatimbo (01°16'S, 120°15'E) at 2,230 m asl, in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. It might occur more widely on the island.	eng
136711	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It is found in mossy montane forests on Gunung Rorekatimbo. It likely occurs in similar habitat more widely, but it has not been found at lower elevations nearby, from 1,000 to 1,500 m asl (L. Ruedas pers. comm.), so it may be restricted to higher elevations. This species is a member of the moss forest guild of small mammals described by Musser (1987). There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats.	eng
136711	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136711	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136712	conservation	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. Considered "secure" (S5) in British Columbia, but "critically imperiled" (S1) in Alberta. Not ranked at the species level in Alaska or in other Canadian provinces/territories. One subspecies of concern in North America: L. s. nigripes (S3 in Alaska).	eng
136712	distribution	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Widely distributed in northern North America from Alaska east to Baffin Island and south (in the west) to central British Columbia and (further east) to northern Manitoba. In Old World distributed in tundra to Kolyma in the west (Russian Federation).  Several specimens found outside tundra, in middle Anadyr and Paren' Rivers, and lower Penzhina and Gizhiga Rivers.	eng
136712	habitat	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Inhabit either arctic tundra or subarctic alpine tundra above tree line. Feeds on lings, cotton grass, some cereals and green mosses (Pleurosium, Polythrichum).	eng
136712	population	Linzey, A.V., 2008	Populations highly variable, cycling on a 3-4 year basis. Populations lows may drop to <1/ha and peak densities may reach 150-200/ha.	eng
136712	threats	Linzey, A.V., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136713	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has recently been given species status and requires additional research in the areas of survey studies and life history (Friedmann and Daly 2004).	eng
136713	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	<em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> is endemic to Africa (Happold in press).  It is a widely distributed species that occurs in the southern and eastern regions of South Africa (including portions of Western Cape, Free State, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo Province, and Mpumalanga), as well as Lesotho and western expanses of Swaziland (Friedmann and Daly 2004).	eng
136713	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat preferences for <em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> are considered similar to those of other <em>Pronolagus</em> species (Happold in press).  It prefers rocky hillsides and outcroppings, and "rock crevices and boulders are an essential component of the habitat" (Happold in press).  Habitat loss has been occurring over the last 100 years and is anticipated to continue to decline in total area by <20% over the next 20 years due to commercial plantations (Friedmann and Daly 2004).  <br/><br/>Total length ranges from 38.0-53.5 cm (Happold in press).	eng
136713	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Populations are considered fairly abundant throughout its distribution (Happold in press).  Population for <em>Pronolagus saundersiae</em> has been estimated at >10,000 mature individuals (Friedmann and Daly 2004).  The population is characterized as having declined in the past, and is predicted to continue declining in the future at a rate of <10% over the next 20 years (Friedmann and Daly 2004).	eng
136713	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known major threats for this species; however, loss of habitat has been occurring.	eng
136714	conservation	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	It does not occur in protected areas.	eng
136714	distribution	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is known only from two specimens collected from the type locality at 26 km SW of Quimilo, Dept de Chamical, La Rioja, Argentina (30°43'S, 65°31'W), (581 m asl).	eng
136714	habitat	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	The habitat consists of perisaline shrublands associated with the Salinas Grandes along the edges of thorn scrub islands that rise within the salt flat and provide dense thorn scrub on sandy substrate. It is restricted to a narrow band of halophytic plant habitat that lies between the bare salt flat and the dense thorn scrub habitat of cacti, trees and shrubs that is typical of the Gran Chaco. It specializes in feeding on halophite plants (Mares <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
136714	population	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species. Several field trips have gone to the type locality since the species description but have failed to capture or register any individuals.	eng
136714	threats	Lessa, E., Ojeda, R. &  Bidau, C., 2008	This species is found in an area less than 10 km², all individuals are in a single location, and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat.	eng
136715	conservation	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in Karakelang Utara dan Selatan Wildlife Reserve. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
136715	distribution	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is found on Karakelang and Salebabu in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136715	habitat	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is sympatric with <em>Melomys talaudium</em>. It is thought, due to tail size, that <em>Melomys talaudium</em> is arboreal, and <em>M. caurinus</em> is terrestrial, while other similarities point towards a common ancestor between these two species (Flannery 1995; Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136715	population	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is known only from four specimens (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136715	threats	Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The major threat is likely to be habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to logging. It may also be impacted by competition with introduced murids.	eng
136716	conservation	Maeda, K,  Sano, A., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas.  Further research is needed on the range, taxonomy, population, ecology and threats to this species.  In China, it was regionally Red Listed as Vulnerable A2cd (Wang and Xie 2004).  In Japan, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Endangered (ME 2007).	eng
136716	distribution	Maeda, K,  Sano, A., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is a widespread species known from China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. In China, it is known from the provinces of Sichuan, Fujian, Anhui, Guangxi, Guizhou, Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008), and Guangdong.  In Japan, all records until recently have been of vagrants (prefectures of Hokkaido (Yagishiri Island), Saitama, Kanagawa, Mie, Hyogo, Hiroshima, Ehime, Kumamoto, and Fukuoka); however, recently there have been breeding colonies from the outlying prefectures of Kochi, Miyazaki, and Kyoto Prefectures (Abe <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136716	habitat	Maeda, K,  Sano, A., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is very little information known about this species other than its presence in caves (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136716	population	Maeda, K,  Sano, A., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is characterized as rare in Japan (Funakoshi and Matsumura 1990). Total population size for Japan is unknown, but recently a few breeding colonies have been found.  There are no data regarding the population status for the rest of the species' distribution.	eng
136716	threats	Maeda, K,  Sano, A., Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat loss resulting from cave destruction due to tourism projects and stone quarrying is a threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press).	eng
136717	conservation	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	This species occurs in the following protected areas:<br/><br/>Argentina<br/>Iguazu National Park (Bitteti 2001) <br/><br/>Brazil<br/>Iguaçu National Park (170,036 ha)<br/>Morro do Diabo State Park (34,441 ha) (Coimbra-Filho 1976b)<br/>Serra do Brigadeiro State Park (13,120 ha)<br/>Rio Doce State Park (35,973 ha)<br/>Caparaó National Park (31,853 ha) (part Espírito Santo)<br/>Caratinga Biological Station / RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala (900 ha)<br/><br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136717	distribution	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	<em>Cebus nigritus</em> occurs south of the Rio Doce, in the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, Brazil, and extending south along the coast through Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. It extends into the northernmost tip of the Argentinean province of Misiones (east of the Rio Paraná).	eng
136717	habitat	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Lowland, submontane and montane tropical and subtropical forest of the Atlantic coast of Brazil; also in gallery forest and secondary forests.<br/><br/>Capuchins are frugivores-insectivores, including a wide variety of fruits, seeds and arthropods, frogs, nestlings and even small mammals, supplemented by stems, flowers and leaves. They are extractive, manipulative foragers (see Izawa 1979; Fernandes 1991). Bittetti (2001) recorded an average home range for 3 groups in the Iguazu National Park, Argentina: 161±77 ha (range 81-293 ha). Mean group size (not including infants) varied over two years from 12.4±7.0 to 16.8±9.5 individuals. Group sizes range from 6 or 7 to 20, with numbers of females exceeding the numbers of males. Males disperse. Both sexes take up linear hierarchies, the top ranking male being dominant to the top-ranking female. Subordinate males are often peripheral (Freese and Oppenmheimer 1981; Fragaszy <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
136717	population	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Bitteti (2001) recorded a populastion density of 16 individuals/km² in the Iguazu National Park, Argentina.	eng
136717	threats	Keirulff, M.C.M., Mendes, S.L. & Rylands, A.B., 2008	Although quite wide ranging, the species is nonetheless subject to habitat loss and degradation and to hunting across its range. The species is considered a crop pest in some areas (in sugar cane and pine plantations). Otherwise, generally scarce except in the larger protected areas.	eng
136718	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136718	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known only from the type series (six specimens) collected on Wayland Mountain on the island of New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia). The mapped range is likely larger than the area from which it is actually known. It was collected between 2,000 and 2,600 m asl.	eng
136718	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species has been recorded only in montane forest.	eng
136718	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The population abundance of this species is unknown (only known from the type series).	eng
136718	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Aplin, K. & Helgen, K., 2008	The species has a highly restricted range (consisting of a single location as defined by IUCN). However, it is found in an area that it not threatened by human activities.	eng
136719	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136719	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is endemic to the central mountain ranges from Lake Habbema to the Baliem Valley, Papua Province, Indonesia. It possibly has a greater extent of occurrence than is currently recorded. Elevation ranges from 1,600 to 2,200 m asl.	eng
136719	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from disturbed habitats and grasslands.	eng
136719	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The species is described from a large series of specimens so it is presumably common in places.	eng
136719	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
136720	conservation	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Sandro Lovari, 2006	The mouflon is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention, and on Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats & Species directive (populations on Corsica and Sardinia only). It is protected under national legislation in Sardinia, Corsica, and Cyprus. The Corsican population is being studied as part of an EU LIFE Project. As part of this project they are looking into increasing the population through captive breeding, and improving genetic vigour by mixing the two subpopulations (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136720	distribution	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Sandro Lovari, 2006	This Red List assessment refers to populations of <em>Ovis aries</em> that were introduced to Mediterranean islands  in prehistoric times, known as mouflon. These feral descendants of primitive domestic stock are clearly distinct from modern domestic and feral sheep, and are of conservation interest as "living fossils" and repositories of important genetic diversity (Shackleton 1997). More recent feral populations, and recently-introduced populations of ancient feral forms, are not considered as part of the population for the purposes of the assessment; neither are domestic <em>Ovis aries</em>.<br/><br/>The mouflon was introduced in prehistoric times to Corsica, Sardinia and Cyprus. Since the middle of the 18th Century it has been introduced to many parts of Europe and populations have become established in many countries including Spain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Denmark, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, Ukraine, and the Canary Islands (Röhrs 1999). These introduced mainland populations are patchily rather than continuously distributed. In Corsica it is found from sea-level to above 2,000 m, whereas in Cyprus it is found from sea level to about 500 m.	eng
136720	habitat	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Sandro Lovari, 2006	In Europe, the species inhabits Mediterranean maquis (shrubland), rocky areas, and open coniferous forest and green oak forest. It is absent from dense woodland (Röhrs 1999). Mouflon are hunted for trophies and meat.	eng
136720	population	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Sandro Lovari, 2006	On Corsica it is known from two small isolated subpopulations (one in the north near Massif du Cinto and one in the south in the Bavella Reserve). There are only about 500 animals, and the population is probably stable (after a long decrease, during which the total population dropped below 100 individuals) (S. Aulagnier pers. comm. 2006). On Sardinia there are at least 5,000 head (C. Murgia pers. comm. to S. Lovari). In the western part of Cyprus, the population is more than 2000 animals and increasing (EMA Workshop 2006).	eng
136720	threats	Stéphane Aulagnier, Giorgos Giannatos, Sandro Lovari, 2006	Hunting is the most important threat, although competition and crossbreeding with domestic sheep are also threats (Shackleton 1997, S. Lovari pers. comm. 2006). However, these are not considered to endanger the species at present.	eng
136721	conservation	Tikhonov, A., 2008	Not applicable.	eng
136721	distribution	Tikhonov, A., 2008	<em>Bos primigenius </em>is Extinct. The aurochs had three subspecies: <em>Bos primigenius primigenius</em> from Europe and the Middle East; <em>B. p. namadicus</em> from India; and <em>B. p. mauretanicus</em> from North Africa. Only the nominate subspecies has survived until recent times. Originally the aurochs occurred from the British Isles and southern Scandinavia, through most of Europe to northern Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and India. By the 13th century A.D., the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania, Moldova, Transylvania and East Prussia (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów (Jaktorowka) Forest, Masovia, Poland (Grubb, 2005).<br/><br/>It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as <em>Bos taurus</em>), and feral populations have become established in Australia, New Guinea, the United States, Colombia, Argentina and many islands, including Hawaii, Galápagos, Hispaniola, Tristan da Cunha, New Amsterdam, Juan Fernandez Islands, and the United Kingdom (Chillingham cattle).	eng
136721	distribution	Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	<em>Bos primigenius </em>was Extinct in the Wild, except in Jaktorowka Forest, Masovia, Poland, by the start of the 15th century. The last wild individual is reputed to have died in 1627 (Wilson and Reeder 2005). It is distributed worldwide under domestication (as <em>Bos taurus</em>), and feral populations have become established in Australia, New Guinea, USA, Colombia, Argentina and many islands, including Hawaiian, Galapagos, Dominican Republic/Haiti, Tristan da Cunha, New Amsterdam and Juan Fernandez Islands, and the United Kingdom (Chillingham cattle). Its native range encompassed parts of Europe, Africa and the Middle East (Wilson and Reeder 2005).	eng
136721	habitat	Alexei Tikhonov, 2006	Presumably in grasslands.	eng
136721	habitat	Tikhonov, A., 2008	There is uncertainty about the habitat preferences of the aurochs. The species appears to have preferred swamps and swamp forests, such as river valleys, river deltas, and bogs, but it probably also lived in drier forests, and perhaps in open parkland (The Extinction Website, 2007). In Europe, there might have been an ecological separation between the preferred habitat of the aurochs and that of the European bison (<em>Bison bonasus</em>), with the aurochs lived in somewhat wetter forests and the European bison in the somewhat drier forests (The Extinction Website, 2007), though the niches of these two species almost certainly overlapped (Van Vuure, 2003).	eng
136721	population	Tikhonov, A., 2008	The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted to nobles and gradually to the royal household (The Extinction Website, 2007). As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased but the royal court still required gamekeepers to provide open fields for the aurochs to graze in (The Extinction Website, 2007). The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service and a decree made poaching an aurochs punishable by death (The Extinction Website, 2007), but this was not enough to save the species. In 1564, the gamekeepers knew of only 38 animals, according to the royal survey (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last recorded live aurochs, a female, died in 1627 in the Jaktorów Forest, Poland (The Extinction Website, 2007).	eng
136721	threats	Tikhonov, A., 2008	In central Poland in the forests of the village of Jaktorów for several centuries the managed of the remaining aurochs was well organised (The Extinction Website, 2007). Initially the animals were owned by nobility, but later they became royal possessions (The Extinction Website, 2007). There they were protected and fed during the winter period (The Extinction Website, 2007). However, the Kings Zygmunt I and his successor Zygmunt August had less interest than their predecessors and did little to preserve the animals, and the conservation measures weakened (The Extinction Website, 2007). After 1572, a period of political turmoil lead to a decrease in influence of the King. By 1604 only a few aurochs remained, and a Royal decree was issued stating that everything needed to be done to protect the aurochs and its habitat, but this was not enough (Van Vuure, 2003). The species disappeared because of hunting and competition on its feeding grounds with domesticated cattle (The Extinction Website, 2007). The last aurochs in Poland disappeared through a combination of lack of interest, corruption, cattle diseases, food competition (from domesticated cattle), and to a lesser extent, hunting (Van Vuure, 2003).	eng
136722	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Of the six known localities, this species has been found in five protected areas.	eng
136722	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	So far, <em>Crocidura ramona</em> is known only from Israel (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is found in three regions: Mizpe Ramon and Sede Boqer in the Negev Desert, and Sartaber at the northern edge of the Judean Desert (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is likely that the species occurs more widely in the region than currently known (i.e., in Jordan where similar habitats and <em>Crocidura</em> species have not been well surveyed) (G. Shenbrot pers. comm). The three locations in which the species occur are rocky desert areas at altitudes between 200 and 950 metres above sea level.	eng
136722	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	<em>C. ramona</em> is known from the central Negev desert, Israel (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is caught either in or near to dry river beds with <em>Retama</em> and <em>Tamarix</em> vegetation or near to dry river beds with dense <em>Atriplex</em> vegetation. During surveys no other <em>Crocidura</em> species were found to be co-occuring with <em>C. ramona</em>, the only other shrew which it was found together with was <em>Suncus etruscus</em> (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996). From 1999 to 2006 no specimens have been found; this is likely to be due to poor precipitation leading perhaps to lower populations and/or making the species more difficult to capture as it enters deeper soil layer (G. Shenbrot pers. comm). It is a naturally rare habitat specialist.	eng
136722	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	During general trapping for rodents, lizards and insects in the Central Negev, between 1993 and 1995, seven specimens were collected (Ivanitskaya <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
136722	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Shenbrot, G., 2008	Current threats to the species are unknown.	eng
136723	conservation	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed, other than general research into the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
136723	distribution	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is known only from two localities in the Requena Province, Loreto Department, Peru, close to the Ucayali River: 7 km east of Jenaro Herrera (04°55'S, 73°45'W), right bank of the Ucayali River (type locality, Musser and Carleton, 2005); and San Pedro (V. Pacheco pers. comm.). It has been recorded at around 200 to 300 m.	eng
136723	habitat	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is believed to be a semi-aquatic species. The original type was found in the forest at the edge of a stream. M. H. Valqui, while camping near a lake, was attracted to the site by the splashing of animals apparently diving into the water (Eisenberg and Redford, 1999). It may only be found in primary forest, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
136723	population	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
136723	threats	Pacheco, V., Zeballos, H. & Vivar, E., 2008	There are no major threats to the species. The area that it has been collected from is not under a great deal of human pressure.	eng
136724	conservation	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Mt. Banahao is currently protected as National Park and well managed. Priority for this species' protection is more basic research on their habitat and ecology, abundance and  distribution (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136724	distribution	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>Rhynchomys banahao</em> is known only from Mt. Banahao, Quezon province, southern Luzon island (Philippines) (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136724	habitat	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	This species inhabits primary montane forest at 1,250–1,465 m, dominated by species of <em>Podocarpus</em> (Podocarpaceae), <em>Lithocarpus</em> (Fagaceae), and <em>Syzygium</em> (Myrtaceae). The species appears to be nocturnal–crepuscular, as is the case with congeners (Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1991; Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007). The stomach contents of 1 specimen consisted of earthworms and few fragments of wings and exoskeletons of unidentified insects (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136724	population	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	Current data on the new species suggests that they are not abundant and that they are probably restricted to montane habitats. They may occur on the two other peaks in Mt. Banahao park (Balete <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136724	threats	Balete, D. & Heaney, L., 2008	The montane habitats are not under substantial threat from logging or agriculture, but current levels of use by hikers and religious pilgrims on Mt. Banahao pose some reason for concern (Mallari <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
136725	conservation	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species is found in several protected areas.	eng
136725	distribution	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs from east Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to Rio de Janeiro, southeast Brazil (Bonvicino <em>et al.</em>, 1998).	eng
136725	habitat	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is found in 1,800-2,700 m elevation range of humid montane forest and secondary vegetation (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136725	population	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is common.	eng
136725	threats	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats to the species throughout its range.	eng
136726	conservation	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It occurs in Kinabalu National Park. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history, threats and conservation needs of this species.	eng
136726	distribution	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from Mount Kinabalu (Sabah, Malaysia), at altitudes between 1,600-3,700 m asl (Hutterer 2005), though it could be more widespread in Borneo. A potential record exists for Sarawak, based on a damaged skull at the Natural History Museum, London (Ruedi 1995). However, Mount Kinabalu is by far the highest mountain on Borneo, and so it is not clear that suitable habitat exists elswhere for this species.	eng
136726	habitat	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species occurs in montane forest (Lim Boo Liat and Heyneman 1968). It is replaced at lower elevations by <em>C. foetida</em>. This species seems to be rather tolerant of habitat disturbance, and can be found in both primary forests as well as degraded, secondary forests and scrub.	eng
136726	population	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136726	threats	Lunde, D., Meijaard, E. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, other than its restricted range, and the possible impacts of climate change of a species restricted to high elevations. Its only known location is in a protected area, and it is tolerant of a certain level of habitat disturbance.	eng
136727	conservation	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This rodent occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136727	distribution	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species occurs in southeast Suriname, French Guiana, and Amapá, Brazil (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136727	habitat	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	This species is widely distributed in lowland areas. It occurs in secondary and primary forest (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
136727	population	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There is no information on population or abundance.	eng
136727	threats	Patton, J. & Catzeflis, F., 2008	There are no major threats at this time.	eng
136728	conservation	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas within its range.	eng
136728	distribution	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species occurs in northeast Argentina (Formosa, Chaco, Santa Fe and Corrientes provinces), east Paraguay, and south central Brazil (Goiás to Paraíba States; Bonvicino and Weksler, 1998).	eng
136728	habitat	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species inhabits in open areas (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005), grasslands and gallery forests/shrublands (wet Chaco).	eng
136728	population	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	This species is uncommon (Weksler and Bonvicino, 2005).	eng
136728	threats	Weksler, M., Bonvicino, C., D'Elia, G. & Pardinas, U., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation due to agriculture.	eng
136729	conservation	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	One of the localities where the species was found it is included in one protected area.	eng
136729	distribution	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is found in the Catamarca Province in Argentina.	eng
136729	habitat	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	It is found in Puna, high elevation grasslands.	eng
136729	population	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	There is no information available on the population and/or abundance of this species.	eng
136729	threats	Pardinas, U. & Jayat, J.P, 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but the habitat where the species was found is threat by overgrazing.	eng
136730	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There are a number of protected areas within its range (e.g., Lorentz National Park). Further taxonomic study is needed (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
136730	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is widespread in the mountains of central and western New Guinea (Papua Province, Indonesia). It has been recorded between 2,200 and 4,100 m asl.	eng
136730	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has been recorded from montane moss forest and alpine habitats.	eng
136730	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This is an extremely abundant species above 2,000 m asl.	eng
136730	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
136731	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The species is found in Montagne d’Ambre National Park and in three special reserves (Analamerana, Ankarana, and Fôret d’Ambre), as well as in the Andrafiamena Classified Forest (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Improved management and protection of Analamerana is urgently required, and long-term scientific presence within the existing reserve is encouraged. Andrafiamena should be included within a protected area.	eng
136731	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is found in northern Madagascar in the forests of Montagne d’Ambre, Ankarana, Andrafiamena, and Analamerana, from low elevations to 1,500 m.	eng
136731	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Occurs in dry deciduous forests and also in moist evergreen forest. The natural history of this species remains poorly studied by comparison to that of sportive lemurs inhabiting western and southern Madagascar. Adults seem to remain solitary during nightly bouts of foraging for leaves. Tree holes and vine tangles are preferred daytime shelters.	eng
136731	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Common, though not in Montagne d' Ambre. Population densities have been variously estimated between 150 and 550 individuals/km² (Ratsirarson and Rumpler 1988; Hawkins <em>et al.</em> 1990), the higher figures coming from more humid forest environments such as Ankarana.	eng
136731	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	The major threats to this species are forest loss, particularly for charcoal (such as in Analamerana and Andrafiamena), and hunting (exacerbated by mining in the region for sapphires).	eng
136732	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136732	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea, where it is found in the high elevations of the central mountains of Papua New Guinea. It ranges between 900 and 3,100 m asl.	eng
136732	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is restricted to mossy mid- to  upper primary montane tropical forest. It is suspected to have an 18 month dependency period before the female is ready to breed again.	eng
136732	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	It is generally rare and occurs at low densities. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.	eng
136732	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A. & James, R., 2008	This species is threatened by heavy hunting for food with dogs by local people (it has disappeared from the Schrader Range). It is also threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture (shifting cultivation) and deforestation due to logging.	eng
136733	conservation	Lunde, D., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136733	distribution	Lunde, D., 2008	The exact distribution limits are unknown. This species is known from a small number of specimens from northern and eastern Myanmar, northern and central Thailand, northern and central Lao PDR, northern and southern Viet Nam, and China where it is found in Yunnan, Sichuan and Fujian (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). Records from Fujian have not been located and have not been mapped here. In Viet Nam, the population on the Langbian Plateau (the species' type locality) in the south of the country may, or may not, be fragmented from the others from which the species is known.	eng
136733	habitat	Lunde, D., 2008	In China, <em>C. indochinensis</em> inhabits montane forests from 1,200 to 2,400 m asl (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2008). It is found in primary and secondary forests, and occurs both in broad-leaved and coniferous forests. There is no information on whether or not it can adapt to anthropogenic habitats outside forest.	eng
136733	population	Lunde, D., 2008	There is little information available about the abundance and population size of this species.	eng
136733	threats	Lunde, D., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. If it is dependent on undisturbed forest, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation for agriculture and timber extraction.	eng
136734	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	There are virtually no protected areas within this region, except for Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary and Cutervo National Park, but the species has not been recorded from either. More research is needed to determine the range, population status, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136734	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is only known from elfin forest in northernmost Peru, east and west slopes of the Andes, at 2,050 and 3,150 m asl (Hutterer 2005). The type locality is: La Palma-Sallique trail in Las Ashitas, Chontali, Department of Cajamarca, Peru (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997). The species is not likely to be found further south of the Huancabamba Depression, however, the species may be found further north into Ecuador. The populations of <em>peruviensis</em> are the southernmost occurrence of <em>Cryptotis</em> in South America (Vivar <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
136734	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	The species has been found in cold, humid elfin cloud forest habitat with shrubby trees. The holotype was found at the upper limit of the forest, just below the paramo (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
136734	population	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is currently only known from two specimens (Vivar <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
136734	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Major threats to this species are presently unknown.	eng
136735	conservation	Burneo, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	Research actions.	eng
136735	distribution	Burneo, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Los Pambiles (00 32'N, 78 38'W, 1200 m), Río Piedras, Cordillera de Toisán, Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador. It probably occurs in other areas of similar habitat and elevation in northwestern Ecuador (Albuja and Gardner, 2005).	eng
136735	habitat	Burneo, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	The area where was captured <em>Lonchophylla orcesi</em> is in the foothills of the Cordillera de Toisán, in subtropical rainforest. It cohabits with <em>L. robusta</em> y <em>L. chocoana</em> (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). Further aspects of its natural history probably are similar to other members of the genus. It feeds nectar and insects.	eng
136735	population	Burneo, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	This bat is rare (Davalos pers comm.), known from only one record (Albuja and Gardner, 2005). However, more information is necessary to understand the species.	eng
136735	threats	Burneo, S. & Tirira, D., 2008	Not known.	eng
136736	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	The two localities where this species has been collected are not in protected areas.	eng
136736	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is known to occur on the western slopes of the central part of the eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Hutterer 2005), although there have not been adequate surveys to fully document the species' range. It has been recorded from two localities, one at 1,300 m, and the other at 2,715 m asl (Woodman 2003).	eng
136736	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	The habitat of the two known localities where the species occurs is not known. A closely related species, <em>Cryptotis colombiana</em>, is tolerant of some habitat disturbance (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).	eng
136736	population	Woodman, N., 2008	It is known from only four individuals from two separate localities (Woodman 2003). The last record was from 1925 (Woodman 2003), however, there have not been many recent surveys.	eng
136736	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136737	conservation	Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
136737	distribution	Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species is found in the yungas of Chuquisaca, Tarija, and Southern Santa Cruz, Bolivia. It has an altitudinal range of 600 to 2,700 m.	eng
136737	habitat	Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is found in yungas and Tucumano boliviano forest (a dryer forest in the south of Bolivia). They are often more common in disturbed areas.	eng
136737	population	Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	It is a common species.	eng
136737	threats	Bernal, N. & Vivar, E., 2008	This species does not have major threats at this time. The species is often treated as a pest species, but it is a minor threat.	eng
136738	conservation	Catzeflis, F. & Langguth, A., 2008	This rodent has not been collected in any protected areas, but is likely to occur in some throughout its range.	eng
136738	distribution	Catzeflis, F. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species occurs from southeastern Venezuela to northern Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guyana (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
136738	habitat	Catzeflis, F. & Langguth, A., 2008	This porcupine inhabits primary and secondary forest in French Guyana. It is a nocturnal and arboreal species which occurs mainly in the canopy (Y. Leite pers. comm.). It is frugivourous as well as feeding on ant pupae and cultivated vegetables and roots.	eng
136738	population	Catzeflis, F. & Langguth, A., 2008	This species is not rare, but cryptic (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
136738	threats	Catzeflis, F. & Langguth, A., 2008	The species is hunted locally, but not at levels considered to cause a major threat.	eng
136739	conservation	Richards, G. & Milne, D., 2008	The species is known from two conservation reserves; Litchfield and Kakadu National Parks. It has not been recorded from Litchfield since 1983, however, it is considered to be relatively secure within its currently known range (Milne and Richards 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. Visitation controls should be implemented at known roost sites. Once habitat requirements are better understood, restoration work is needed at previous roosting sites. There is also a need to evaluate the potential of constructing artificial roosts.	eng
136739	distribution	Richards, G. & Milne, D., 2008	This species is currently only found in Kakadu National Park in the top end of the Northern Territory of Australia. It has been recorded from 14 locations in the western Arnhem Land sandstone massif (Deaf Adder Gorge and upper South Alligator River area). It was also previously known from one site (Tolmer Falls) in Litchfield National Park (McKean and Hertog 1979; Woinarski and Milne 2005).	eng
136739	habitat	Richards, G. & Milne, D., 2008	Arnhem leaf-nosed bats are present in monsoon forest, eucalyptus forest and woodlands, and open heath on sandstone plateaus usually close to water. They roost in caves or abandoned mine adits. The largest known roost possibly contains between 20 and 50 individuals. Its diet includes beetles, moths, cockroaches, and leaf-hoppers (Woinarski and Milne 2005).	eng
136739	population	Richards, G. & Milne, D., 2008	It is quite a rare and restricted species, with only three roosting sites (a disused mine adit and two caves) known (Milne and Richards 2008). This species is almost certainly under-recorded as much of the Kakadu escarpment in which it lives has not been surveyed (D. Milne pers. comm.). Although the proven populations of this species are quite small, it is very unlikely that the overall population is >300 mature individuals (D. Milne pers. comm.).	eng
136739	threats	Richards, G. & Milne, D., 2008	It is potentially threatened by loss of suitable roosting sites in mines. Disappearance from Litchfield National Park may be due to human visitation (G. Richards pers. comm.).	eng
136740	conservation	Gongora, J., 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.&#160; Research is needed to determine whether or not this is a valid species.	eng
136740	distribution	Gongora, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from the southern part of Amazonian Brazil. Its geographical distribution is thought to be within the interfluve delineated by the Rio Madeira in the west, the Rio Tapajós-Juruena in the east, the Rio Amazonas in the north and the Rio Guaporé in the south. Since <em>Pecari maximus</em> appears to be confined to terra firme rainforest habitat, its real distribution is much smaller than is mapped and does not extend into the northern part of the Rios Madeira/Tapajós interfluve (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136740	habitat	Gongora, J., 2008	The Giant Peccary occurs in dense terra firme climax forest, in small family groups that contain only an adult pair with or without 1–2 offspring. This species appears to perform little or no uprooting, whereas the gregarious peccary species largely forage for subsoil seed shadows, seedlings, roots and tubers. Instead, it has been seen feeding predominantly on freshly fallen fruits and seeds exposed on the forest floor. It appears that the Giant Peccary has abandoned social groupings, group defense and territorial scent marking (Van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136740	population	Gongora, J., 2008	There is nothing known about populations of this recently described species.	eng
136740	threats	Gongora, J., 2008	The majority of the presumed range of this species is in undisturbed tropical forest. All three of the peccary species which occur in the Rio Aripuanã region are the favourite game of the locals, but only <em>Pecari maximus</em> is hunted with dogs since it does not travel in herds like the other peccaries which are known to defend themselves fiercely. Although human occupation in this part of the Amazon is presently very low, this situation might soon change. In the Rio Aripuanã region unprecedented illegal extraction of timber and gravel is taking place. Recent road building through the area is intended to connect the town of Manicoré on the right bank of the Rio Madeira with the boomtown of Apuí at the border of the Tenharim Savanna and the State of Mato Grosso, areas of large-scale soybean agriculture (van Roosmalen <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
136741	conservation	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A., 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea on Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Additional taxonomic studies are needed to better define the extent of the species range relative to other species of <em>Pipistrellus</em>.	eng
136741	distribution	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A., 2008	This species has been recorded over much of sub-Saharan Africa. It ranges from the Cape Verde Islands, to Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, to Nigeria, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), western Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia, into Kenya and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola being found as far south as eastern and southern South Africa and possibly Swaziland. There are a few records of this species from central western Madagascar (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). The current identity of bats from the Arabian Peninsula formerly allocated to <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em> is unclear and some records might refer to <em>P. hesperidus</em>. Simmons (2005) also indicates that this species is present in the Canary Islands (Spain) however, this distribution needs to be confirmed and is not included here. Animals from North Africa are referable to <em>Pipistrellus kuhlii</em>.	eng
136741	habitat	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A., 2008	Records from Zimbabwe were made in the vicinity of streams and rivers, and their distribution in eastern southern Africa suggests that they prefer well-watered areas (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Animals have been recorded from narrow cracks in rocks and under the loose bark of trees (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Bates <em>et al.</em> (2006) note that 'In the Parc National de Kirindy-Mitea, 14 individuals were captured within two hours of sunset in an open saltpan habitat next to freshwater pools at the foot of coastal sand dunes'.	eng
136741	population	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however, it is not very common in southern Africa (Skinner and Chimimba 2005)..	eng
136741	threats	Mickleburgh, S., Hutson, A.M. & Racey, P.A., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
136742	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	It is likely to occur in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
136742	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The species range covers the islands of Java and Bali, in Indonesia (Hutterer 2005). Among other places, it has been recorded from: Tijbodas, in west Java (Jentink 1890) at altitudes up to 1,500 m (Ruedi 1995) asl; Mount Pangerango at an altitude of 1,000 m asl (Jentink 1890); and Poedjon, in east Java, at an altitude of 1,200 m (Sody 1936). Kitchener <em>et al</em>. (1994) recorded specimens from Bali.	eng
136742	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species. It has been recorded in mid-montane areas, in primary and secondary forest. It is not known whether or not it can adapt to disturbed habitats.	eng
136742	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known. It is known from rather few records.	eng
136742	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, although, if it cannot adapt to anthropogenic habitats, it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss, especially for agriculture, timber and human settlement.	eng
136743	conservation	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species needs further research into its distribution and natural history. The known range of the species is within a previously proposed National Park between Ecuador and Peru, which is now labelled as Santiago-Comaina Reserved Zone. This region was under some conflict in the mid-1990s, but now is settled.	eng
136743	distribution	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is known only from one locality in Ecuador (Achupallas, 03°27'S, 78°21'W, 2,080 m), the Cordillera del Condor on the border of Peru, where is likely also occurs (Albuja and Patterson 1996).	eng
136743	habitat	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	The recorded habitat was heath-like vegetation less than 1.5 m in height (Albuja and Patterson, 1996).	eng
136743	population	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	This species is known from only two specimens collected at the same time (Albuja and Patterson, 1996).	eng
136743	threats	Patterson, B. & Solari, S., 2008	There are no major threats at this time other than the fact that it is known from only one location.	eng
136744	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. It is currently known only from two strict nature reserves (Betampona and Zahamena) and Zahamena National Park. As of 2007 this species was represented in only a single zoological collection (Tsimbazaza, Madagascar) (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136744	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Known only from the regions of Betampona and Zahamena in north-eastern Madagascar; the type locality is at 965 m asl (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
136744	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.	eng
136744	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only discovered in 2003.	eng
136744	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Currently known only from protected areas.	eng
136745	conservation	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	The species is not currently known from any protected areas.	eng
136745	distribution	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Bahia, Brazil (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136745	habitat	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	This species occurs in semi deciduous forest in Cerrado (Gonçalves <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136745	population	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	Nothing is known of populations of this species.	eng
136745	threats	Bonvicino, C. & Marinho-Filho, J., 2008	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
136746	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It may be present in protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136746	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This is an endemic species of China, occurring in southern Xizang (Smith and Xie 2008). The distribution map accompanying this account is a parsimonious alignment that awaits revision.	eng
136746	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Cricetulus kamensis</em>, occuring in high mountain grasslands, shrubby marshes, and open steppe (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136746	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136746	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136747	conservation	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It occurs in Kerinci Seblat National Park and several other protected areas.	eng
136747	distribution	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found in the mountains of western Sumatra (Musser and Carleton 2005). It has been recorded at elevations from 1,250 to 3,500 m on Korinchi peak (the type locality is at 1,432 m) (Robinson and Kloss 1916, 1918).	eng
136747	habitat	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is found primarily in montane forest (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136747	population	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The current population status of this species is unknown. Expeditions in the early 1900s on Korinchi found them to be fairly common at higher elevations, particularly above 2,000 m.	eng
136747	threats	Aplin, K., Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	It may be threatened by habitat loss at lower elevations of its range, but there are no major threats at the more inaccessible higher elevations.	eng
136748	conservation	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	This species is in need of further taxonomic work, as well as surveys for potential areas containing wild populations.	eng
136748	distribution	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, where the holotype and several other individuals were wild-trapped in 1997 in Valle Hermoso, 2,557 m asl, (66°09'W, 17°23'S), south of Cochabamba, Cordillera Oriental, in Cochabamba Province, Bolivia (Solmsdorff <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136748	habitat	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	The habitat requirements of this species are not known. Some behavioural characteristics distinguish this species from other <em>Galea spp.</em> as noted by Solmsdorff <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
136748	population	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	The species is known only from wild caught individuals sent to Germany from the type locality (J. Dunnum pers. comm.).	eng
136748	threats	Dunnum, J. & Vargas, J., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136749	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	This species likely occurs in several protected areas, however, more research is necessary on the natural history, threats and distribution.	eng
136749	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	The species is known only from northern Bolivia (Gardner 2007).	eng
136749	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Some individuals were captured in seasonally flooded grasslands surrounded by forest (Voss <em>et. al</em>. 2005).	eng
136749	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	No information is available on populations.	eng
136749	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D., Soriano, P. & Emmons, L., 2008	Major threats are unknown, however, numerous potential threats could be impacting populations, including agriculture and deforestation.	eng
136750	conservation	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	This species is listed on CITES Appendix I. It is uncertain what conservation measures exist for this species given its taxonomic ambiguity. The high value of the parts in trade mean that conservation requires effective hand-on anti-poaching activity. It is likely to occur in some protected areas in India and Pakistan.<br/><br/>  The Government of Afghanistan has listed <em>M. cupreus</em> on the country’s Protected Species List, banning all hunting and trading of this species within Afghanistan.	eng
136750	distribution	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	<em>Moschus cupreus</em> occurs in the Himalayas of extreme northern India and Pakistan in Kashmir, and northern Afghanistan (Grubb 2005). Habibi (2003) recounts anecdotal reports from the late 1940s and 1970s of the species from Nuristan Province eastern Afghanistan. The author thought that muskdeer “must be regarded as extremely rare” in Afghanistan.	eng
136750	habitat	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Nothing appears to be known of this species’s habitat or ecology, although based on its close taxonomic relationship to <em>M. chrysogaster</em>, it is presumably similar to that species. <em>M. chrysogaster</em> is found on barren plateaus at high altitudes, where it occupies meadows, fell-fields, shrublands or fir forests. It feeds mainly on grasses, shrubs, leaves, moss, lichens, shoots, and twigs (Green 1987). It is generally solitary and crepuscular (Harris and Cai 1993).	eng
136750	population	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	Little is known of the species’s current status. Two recent interview surveys with local communities in the central part of Nuristan province, northeastern Afghanistan, suggest that small numbers of muskdeer may be present in the remnant of the eastern forests (oak and pine). Numbers are likely to be low and perhaps very localised. The results are somewhat equivocal, but during the first survey in 2006/2007 only 7 out of 97 respondents reported hunting of the species. However, a more recent survey in 2008 of over 100 respondents found that muskdeer are commonly known and that they are widely hunted. Camera-trap surveys conducted in the same area between August and December 2007, aimed at base line assessment of large mammal occurrence, did not detect muskdeer, although a range of other large mammals were photographed between 1,150 and 3,010 m asl (WCS/USAID Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Program / Maria Karlstetter pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136750	threats	Timmins, R.J. & Duckworth, J.W., 2008	There is a high trade in musk deer parts, particularly pods, into China and elsewhere in north-east Asia (see accounts for other <em>Moschus</em> species). Many relatively high-volume illicit wildlife trade links pass through <em>M. cupreus</em>’s range, so it is certain to be under some level of threat from trade. The unstable taxonomy hampers abilities to assess threat levels directly to species, especially as parts like pods are not readily identifiable to species anyway.<br/><br/>Besides hunting for meat, which is considered a delicacy locally, hunting of the muskdeer is primarily for trade of musk glands, which reached the area reportedly only 30 years ago and has led to a substantial increase in hunting since then. The musk produced by this genus of primitive deer is highly valued for its cosmetic and alleged pharmaceutical properties, and can fetch U.S. $45,000 per kilogram (2.2 pounds) on the international market. Although this musk, produced in a gland of the males, can be extracted from live animals, most "musk-gatherers" kill the animals to remove the entire sac, which yields only about 25 grams (1/40 of a kilogram) of the brown waxy substance. Such poaching is relatively easy to accomplish and difficult to stop using only legal means. Today local hunters are reportedly able to get ca $200-250 per musk gland from mostly foreign traders (the main market is reportedly in the Middle East). The increased availability of guns over the last few decades and the political instability in the area, which has resulted in a basically uncontrolled trade to bordering Pakistan, have added significantly to the amount of wildlife being hunted for trade. During the summer the species stays in higher mountain regions and is apparently opportunistically hunted by shepherds (almost all of whom carry guns for hunting purposes). Most animals are reportedly hunted in winter when muskdeer distribution and ranging patterns are most predictable. As reported, the species is exclusively hunted with guns; snares apparently are not being used at least in the area surveyed (WCS/USAID Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Program / Maria Karlstetter pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136751	conservation	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	It has been recorded in the Jaú and Mamirua National Parks.	eng
136751	distribution	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species occurs in Brazilian Amazon, in an area around the mid course of Rio Negro, Amazonas State (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136751	habitat	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent occurs in seasonally inundated forests (Stolz <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136751	population	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This rodent is moderately common.	eng
136751	threats	Patton, J. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136752	conservation	Juste, J., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136752	distribution	Juste, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Grand Comore island in the Comoros.	eng
136752	habitat	Juste, J., 2008	There is little information on the natural history of this species.	eng
136752	population	Juste, J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136752	threats	Juste, J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136753	conservation	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is not found in any protected area.	eng
136753	distribution	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	South of the Misiones Province in Argentina.	eng
136753	habitat	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is found in jungle-edge grasslands associated to the Mata Atlantica forest.	eng
136753	population	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	It is not considered a rare species.	eng
136753	threats	Pardinas, U. & D'Elia, G., 2008	The habitat is very threatened due the existence of agricultural activities.	eng
136754	conservation	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Research actions. It is found in protected areas.	eng
136754	distribution	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species occurs in Cuba (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136754	habitat	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	This species is poorly known. Its ecology and biology must be similar to <em>L. intermedius</em>. It has been reported as inhabiting palm groves. It is an extract insect-feeder (mainly Coleoptera, Homoptera, and Diptera).  Some pregnant females have been reported in May (Silva-Taboada, 1979).	eng
136754	population	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Apparently it is solitary roosting.	eng
136754	threats	Mancina, C. & Rodriguez, A., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136755	conservation	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is present in protected areas.	eng
136755	distribution	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Subtropical Antechinus is endemic to Australia, where it ranges from south-eastern Queensland, south from Gympie into north-eastern New South Wales. There is also an isolated population in Dorigo, but the species has thus far not been found within the intervening area despite recent survey work (only <em>A. stuartii</em> has been found here and the two do not occur sympatrically). Elevational range is sea level to 1,000 m asl (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).	eng
136755	habitat	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The Subtropical Antechinus is found in subtropical vine-forest and wet sclerophyll forest (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). This species is not found in mature forest with sparse ground cover or in disturbed areas (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000). It is a terrestrial and arboreal insectivore.	eng
136755	population	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is abundant in vine-forest, particularly in perimeter vegetation, and is rare in sclerophyll habitat (Van Dyck and Crowther 2000).	eng
136755	threats	Burnett, S. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to the Subtropical Antechinus. The species is not losing habitat to development, but its range is on the boundary of highly developed areas, and thus susceptible to predation by domestic cats and dogs and there is some encroachment on its range. Historically, land clearing for forestry, agriculture and urban settlement has resulted in some reduction of its range.	eng
136756	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	It occurs in a sevaral protected areas.	eng
136756	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in westernmost Brazil (Acre and Amazonas States), and contiguous lowlands and Andean foothills of central and east Ecuador, east Peru, and west central Bolivia (see Anderson, 1997; Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000); distributional limits uncertain (Musser and Carleton, 2005). In Ecuador it has an altitudinal range of 200 to 1,250 m (Tirira, in prep.).	eng
136756	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a riparian species occurring in tropical lowland forest (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.). This species is nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial and semiaquatic. It feeds on arthropods, crabs, and other invertebrates, it also eats fruit and fungi. This water rat is adapted for swimming and is almost always found near water. It makes nests under logs or roots or in dense vegetation. It occurs in areas of dense tall grass near water (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136756	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rat is widespread and sometimes common.	eng
136756	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Rivas, B. & Weksler, M., 2008	There does not appear to be any major threats to this species.	eng
136757	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in some protected areas such as El Triunfo (Chiapas) in Mexico.	eng
136757	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs from the eastern highlands of Chiapas, Mexico, east and south into the highlands of Belize and Guatemala (Hutterer 2005).	eng
136757	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	It inhabits high elevation tropical rainforest plains and slopes. This shrew is nocturnal, but sporadically active during both night and day. It is terrestrial and makes tiny runways through grass or uses larger runways made by rodents. The diet includes insect larvae, centipedes and earthworms (Whitaker 1974 as <em>C. parva</em>).	eng
136757	population	Woodman, N., 2008	This species is not well studied, it is known from only a few specimens and localities.	eng
136757	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Agricultural and urban development are potential threats to this species, but this requires confirmation.	eng
136758	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136758	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	C. viperinus is found in northern Tucuman Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136758	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136758	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
136758	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136759	conservation	Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has been found in Manu Biosphere Reserve in Peru. Further research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
136759	distribution	Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs from the westernmost Brazil (Acre State) and lowlands of southeast Peru, perhaps including the valley of the Río Ucayali (Tribe, 1996; Musser and Carleton, 2005). It is known to occur from about 200 to 1,480 m.	eng
136759	habitat	Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It is an arboreal species, which has been collected in undisturbed lowland evergreen forest. It has also been collected in disturbed forest.	eng
136759	population	Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	It seems to be an uncommon species.	eng
136759	threats	Vivar, E., Weksler, M. & Patterson, B., 2008	There appear to be no immediate threats to this species. It may be threatened in the future by general clearance of lowland tropical forest.	eng
136760	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as  Endangered C2a(i,ii) (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136760	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Taiwan, Province of China (Smith and Xie 2008). Specimens have been collected from 1,560-2,438 m asl (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136760	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species occupies broad-leaf forest (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136760	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is considered rare and is only known from five specimens (Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1997 in Motokawa <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
136760	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	Habitat loss due to logging most likely poses a major threat to this species (China Vertebrate Red Data Book, in press)., although the amount of logging occurring at high elevations in Taiwan is decreasing	eng
136761	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in Vombitse National Park; may also be the <em>Lepilemur</em> recorded in Isalo National Park. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136761	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known only from the Zombitse National Park region in south-western Madagascar, north of the Onilahy River and south of the Mangoky River (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Formerly, the sportive lemurs within its geographic range were thought to be <em>L. ruficaudatus</em>.	eng
136761	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
136761	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136761	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136762	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species has been recorded close to the Cajas National Park (D. Tirira pers. comm.) but not inside.	eng
136762	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: south Ecuador, Azuay Province, Bestión, 3078 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136762	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136762	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is rare (D. Tirira pers. comm.).	eng
136762	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
136763	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Determining the degree to which this species can tolerate habitat modification (i.e., the change from forest to grassland) is a particularly important research priority. Further studies are needed also into the distribution, abundance, natural history, habitat status, and threats to this species.	eng
136763	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the D'Entrecasteaux Islands of Papua New Guinea. It has been recorded on the islands of Fergusson, Goodenough, and Normanby (Flannery 1995). It has been collected between 200 and 900 m asl.	eng
136763	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	A specimen was collected at the "oak-rainforest transition" (Flannery 1995). An additional specimen was collected climbing in vegetation close to a village (Flannery 1995).	eng
136763	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	It has been rarely collected and there are few known specimens of this species (Flannery 1995).	eng
136763	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J. & Wright, D., 2008	Forest clearance is a serious problem, the islands are being converted to grassland (perhaps entirely) through subsistence farming.	eng
136764	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The range includes several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
136764	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species is present on the island of New Guinea, where it is found in Papua Province, Indonesia and in Papua New Guinea. It ranges from sea level to 2,200 m asl. Further taxonomic work is required on the <em>M. lutillus</em> to determine the distributional limits of the species.	eng
136764	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is present in savanna, grassland, and in rural gardens and other disturbed areas.	eng
136764	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	The population abundance of this species is not known. It is poorly represented in specimen collections, mostly because it lives in a zone where there is little collecting.	eng
136764	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, Wright, D., Helgen, K. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
136765	conservation	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	It is found in protected areas. It is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
136765	distribution	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There are only a few records of this species from the Iwate and Fukushima Prefectures, on Honshu, Japan (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136765	habitat	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	An inhabitant of primary forests. It roosts in tree hollows; and one hibernating colony was found in a building.	eng
136765	population	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136765	threats	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	Deforestation of the evergreen old-growth forests in warm temperate regions, primarily for agriculture, conversion to conifer plantations, logging and infrastructure development for expanding human settlements, is a major threat.	eng
136766	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. No specific measures in place.	eng
136766	conservation	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	Occurs in some protected areas. No specific measures in place.	eng
136766	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	There is much confusion between <em>A. amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>A. scherman</em> occurs mainly in mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999, Panteleyev 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).	eng
136766	distribution	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	There is much confusion between <em>A. amphibius</em> and <em>A. scherman</em> and the distribution of both taxa should be considered tentative. <em>A. scherman</em> occurs mainly in mountainous areas in southern and central Europe (Saucy 1999, Panteleyev 2001, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the French Alps it occurs to 2,400 m (Reichstein 1982).	eng
136766	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Mainly restricted to the uplands, where constructs extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Predominantly herbivorous, feeding on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Saucy 1999). The species lives in complex burrows that are usually not deeper than 1 m.	eng
136766	habitat	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	Mainly restricted to the uplands, where constructs extensive underground burrows in grasslands (including pastures) or, less frequently, in woodlands. Predominantly herbivorous, feeding on vegetation in the summer and on roots, bulbs and tubers in the winter (Saucy 1999). The species lives in complex burrows that are usually not deeper than 1 m.	eng
136766	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	Pronounced cyclic population fluctuations occur every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). At high densities it becomes an agricultural pest. A main pest in orchards (e.g., in Slovenia (B. Krystufek pers comm. 2007).	eng
136766	population	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	Pronounced cyclic population fluctuations occur every 5-8 years, with densities ranging between 0 and 1,000 individuals per hectare (Saucy 1999). At high densities it becomes an agricultural pest. A main pest in orchards (e.g., in Slovenia (B. Krystufek pers comm. 2007).	eng
136766	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Krystufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P., 2008	No threats known.	eng
136766	threats	Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. & Muñoz, L.J.P, 2008	No threats known.	eng
136767	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not currently known from any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the geographic range and population status of this species.	eng
136767	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	<em>A. betsileo</em> is currently known in the Bemosary Classified forest (Fandriana). The regional distribution is tentatively set from south of the Mangoro River and north of the Mananjary River, until its distribution can be confirmed (Andriantompohavana <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
136767	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern moist rainforests.	eng
136767	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown. Only described in 2007.	eng
136767	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat.	eng
136768	conservation	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,  Walston, J., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Reizl, J.C., Ramayla, S., Sedlock, J., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Ingle, N. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>E. robusta</em> occurs in protected areas and the caves in which the species roosts are given nominal protection under the Cave Management Act, but enforcement of this legislation is weak. There is an important need to gather more information on the ecological requirements and conservation needs to this species. In particular, more study is needed to document the extent of any hunting, to assess its habitat preferences and association, and to determine its distribution in lowland caves.	eng
136768	distribution	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,  Walston, J., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Reizl, J.C., Ramayla, S., Sedlock, J., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Ingle, N. & Heaney, L., 2008	The Philippines dawn bat is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from most large islands except the Palawan Faunal Region and the Batanes and Babuyan group of islands. It has been recorded from Biliran, Bohol (R. Pamaong pers. comm. 2006), Catanduanes, Leyte, Lubang, Luzon (Abra, Aurora, Cavite, Mountain and Rizal provinces), Marinduque, Maripipi, Mindanao (Bukidnon, Cotabatao, Lanao del Norte, Maguindanao, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga del Sur provinces), Negros, Polillo, Samar and Siargo islands (Gomez in litt. 2007; J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006) and has an elevational range from sea level to 1,100 m. However, most specimens of the dawn bat are from the lowlands; in Luzon it has never been taken from high elevations.	eng
136768	habitat	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,  Walston, J., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Reizl, J.C., Ramayla, S., Sedlock, J., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Ingle, N. & Heaney, L., 2008	<em>E. robusta</em> is not a well known species, but appears to be reliant on caves in lowland habitats. It is most common in undisturbed forest though it can occur in secondary forest and some disturbed areas. It is thought to roost primarily in caves, although it is possible that rock crevices and rocky banks along creeks are also used as roosting sites in primary lowland forest and disturbed habitats on limestone on Negros (E. Alcala pers. comm. 2006); there are no reports from agricultural or urban areas.	eng
136768	population	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,  Walston, J., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Reizl, J.C., Ramayla, S., Sedlock, J., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Ingle, N. & Heaney, L., 2008	The population is likely to have undergone a significant decline since the 1960s (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) evidenced by it being captured only rarely in the 1980s and 1990s and it was reported as likely to be quite rare during the 1990s (Heaney <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1998; Mickleburgh <em>et al.</em> 1992; Utzurrum 1992). However, in the past, <em>Eonycteris robusta</em> was commonly misidentified as <em>E. spelaea</em> or <em>R. amplexicaudatus</em> (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006) and the some of the reports of rarity may be attributable to this. It can be easily distinguished by field characters described by Ingle and Heaney (1992). <br/><br/><em>E. robusta</em> was not captured in surveys of many forested areas with lowland forest (for example Mount Makiling, 300-500 m asl) during a 1989 survey (Ingle 2002) and in 1997-1999 by J. Sedlock. Surveys from 1992 to 1999 also failed to find this species, though further netting in the remaining forest patches below 1,000 m are required to confirm absence (Ingle in litt. 2007). On Kitanglad in 1992–1999, surveys below 1,000 m asl failed to capture any specimens (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2006), and a recent survey by The Philippine Eagle Foundation captured a single dawn bat in lowland forest (900 m asl) on Mount Sinaka, Arakan, Cotabato Province, Mindanao (R. Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/><br/>In general, through, during 2000s there have been increased numbers of the dawn bat being reported during surveys (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2007). In undisturbed habitat on Samar it is more common than <em>E. spelaea</em> (J. C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2006). For Mindanao past and ongoing habitat loss due to deforestation has probably caused a population decline in the dawn bat which is estimated to be at least 30% over three generations (D. Balete and N. Ingle pers. comm. 2006).	eng
136768	threats	Ong, P., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B.,  Walston, J., Balete, D., Alcala, E., Reizl, J.C., Ramayla, S., Sedlock, J., Gomez, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Ingle, N. & Heaney, L., 2008	Deforestation and cave disturbance are likely to be the main threats to this species. <em>E. robusta</em> seems to be able to persist in some areas of secondary growth forest, which remains relatively widespread in Philippines (Heaney pers. comm. 2006), but it appears to be absent from other similar areas (for example Mount Makiling, Luzon) (Ingle <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Habitat loss has been high in the past but the species is perhaps less threatened currently than it was 20 years ago (L. Heaney pers. comm. 2006).  <br/><br/>It is probably hunted in parts of its range, along with other cave-roosting bats, although there is no direct evidence of this. If mining operations proposed to occur within the range of the species proceed, then this would cause a particular threat to the species.	eng
136769	conservation	Lumsden, L., Racey, P.A. & Hutson, A.M., 2009	<p>There are serious concerns that<em> P. murrayi </em>is now extinct. Despite the extensive coverage of detector surveys in recent years, there is still a slight possibility that a small colony remains undetected. Should a small population be discovered, these individuals should be captured immediately in order to start a captive breeding program. Such a program has been shown to be the best approach for the recovery of the species once it reached critically low levels and with the cause of the decline unknown (Lumsden and Schulz 2009) </p>  <p>This species is listed as Critically Endangered under Australia's Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act. The last known population of the species roosted within a protected area, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Christmas Island</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National   Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> and foraged just outside the park in leasehold land. A range of management actions from the Recovery Plan (Schulz and Lumsden 2004) had been implemented, including installing protective barriers around the base of the few known remaining roost trees, and establishing bat boxes in an attempt to provide additional roost sites. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Christmas Island</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> staff are continuing the detector surveys in the hope of finding any remaining individuals. It has been recommended that this work continue for six months after the last record of the species (Beeton <em>et al</em>. 2009) </p>	eng
136769	distribution	Lumsden, L., Racey, P.A. & Hutson, A.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Christmas Island (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>), approximately 135 km² in area, located in the eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Indian Ocean</st1:place>. Although the bat was once widespread on the island, the last known individuals were recorded only in the western portion with no records from the rest of the island for a number of years.	eng
136769	habitat	Lumsden, L., Racey, P.A. & Hutson, A.M., 2009	This species roosts under bark, in dead foliage, and in tree hollows. Maternity roosts were discovered in late 2005 under shedding bark of dead forest trees (<em>Tristiropsis acutangula</em> and <em>Inocarpus fagifer</em>) and in a hole in a palm (<em>Arenga listeri</em>), many of which were heavily decayed and collapsed soon after (Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Females form colonies of up to approximately 50 individuals, while males often roost solitarily (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999, 2007).  Generation length of this species is likely to be 4-5 years (L. Lumsden, D.J. James pers. comm.). This species roosts in mature, tropical, evergreen, closed canopy rainforests and mature, tropical, semi-deciduous rainforests (Lumsden <em>et al. </em>1999; James and Retallick 2007; Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). It feeds in and over these forests and also along tracks, and in and over secondary forests and thickets of woody weeds (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999, James and Retallick 2007, Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007).   It feeds on a range of small flying invertebrates, predominantly moths, beetles, and flying ants (Lumsden and Schulz 2009).	eng
136769	population	Lumsden, L., Racey, P.A. & Hutson, A.M., 2009	<p>Because <em>P. murrayi </em>is (or was) the only microbat on Christmas Island, ultrasonic bat detectors are an effective technique for documenting its status, as it is obvious if the species is present or not, since it is readily recorded and can not be confused with, or obscured by, other species. Intensive detector sampling over the last decade (almost continuous since 2004) has provided unusually detailed documentation of its decline, resulting in it being one of the most intensely monitored bat species on the planet. <em>&#160;</em> </p>  <p>This species was widespread and common until the mid 1980s (Tidemann 1985). By 1994 its range had contracted away from the north-east section (which is where the only town is located), and it had a patchy distribution and declining abundance (Lumsden and Cherry 1997). Between 1994 and 1998 there was a further westward range contraction and an apparent mean reduction of 33% in relative abundance, although this was not statistically significant (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 1999; Schulz and Lumsden 2004). Between 1998 and 2004 there was a decline of between 55 and 65% in relative abundance and a continued westward contraction of range in the order of 25 to 50% (James 2005). This decline has continued and the species was considered to be confined to the far west of the island, no longer occurring across more than 90% of its former range (James and Retallick 2007; Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Long-term monitoring using bat detectors indicates this species underwent a 90% decline in abundance between 1994 and 2006 (James and Retallick 2007, Lumsden <em>et al.</em> 2007). Since 2006 this decline continued at an alarming rate with the species disappearing from many of the few remaining sites where it was present in 2006 (Parks Australia North Christmas Island unpublished data) </p>  <p>In December 2008, <em>P. murrayi</em> was thought to be restricted to a single foraging area and a single roost site (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Although the roost site had previously contained as many as 50 individuals, by January 2009 there were only four adults present. The behaviour of these individuals suggested that they were lactating females with four dependent young in the roost. The total population was then estimated to be less than 20 individuals in order to account for the possibility of small undetected colonies (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Lumsden and Schulz (2009) stated that the January findings indicated that </p>  <p>?without urgent intervention there is an extremely high risk that this species will go extinct in the near future. While it can not be precisely predicted when this would occur if there was no intervention, it is highly likely that it will be within the next 6 months, i.e. by June 2009? (pg. 7).</p>  <p>Unfortunately, this predicted decline of the species appears to have been prescient. After the January findings, Dr. Lumsden urgently sought approval to capture the remaining individuals for a captive breeding program, the details of which had been outlined in a feasibility report (Lumsden and Schulz 2009). Rather than acting immediately the Australian government established an Expert Working Group, and waited for its report in July 2009 (Beeton <em>et al</em>. 2009) before approving this intervention. In August 2009 a team led by Lumsden of eight bat experts and captive breeding specialists from Zoos Victoria attempted to take the remaining individuals into captivity. During the four weeks of intensive sampling, which used 30 bat detectors, only one individual could be found, and it evaded all attempts to catch it. On 27 August this individual also disappeared, and all survey work since that night has failed to detect the species. While it is possible that this individual moved to a new area, shifting both its roosting and foraging areas on the same night, this is considered unlikely as both areas had been continually used for at least the last ten years by members of this colony (L. Lumsden pers. comm.). It is quite possible that this is one of the few times that an extinction of species in the wild can be marked to the day.</p>	eng
136769	threats	Lumsden, L., Racey, P.A. & Hutson, A.M., 2009	The reasons for the decline of this species remain unclear. While habitat loss may have caused some declines in the past, 75% of the island is covered by primary or secondary rainforest, with little change to the habitat over the last 20 years. The major threats to the species may include predation or disturbance to bats within their roosts from introduced species, e.g. Common Wolf Snake <em>Lycodon aulicus capucinus</em>, Feral Cat <em>Felis catus</em>, Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Giant Centipede <em>Scolapendra morsitans</em> (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although not considered the primary cause of decline, the recent explosion of Yellow Crazy Ants <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> is likely to have exacerbated the situation. It is also possible that some form of disease may be contributing to the decline, however, individuals appear in good health, with the exception of low white blood cell counts although the significance of these findings is unclear (Lumsden <em>et al</em>. 2007). Even the last known individual appeared to behave normally and looked healthy before it vanished (L. Lumsden pers. comm.).	eng
136770	conservation	Reardon, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is presumed to be present in a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect important roosting sites for this species. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
136770	distribution	Reardon, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is present on the islands of Halmahera, Seram, Ambon, Peleng, and the Kai Islands (all Indonesia). It also appears to be found in scattered localities across the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (Papua New Guinea), and in the Solomon Islands. It ranges between sea level and 1,200 m asl with most records below 300 m asl. <br/><br/>Populations in Australia, and at least one of the records from New Guinea, have been shown to be <em>M. macropus</em> (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 2001). Given the disjunct range with <em>M. moluccarum</em> with islands west of New Guinea, it is possible that the Myotis populations in eastern New Guinea, and eastwards in the Melanesian islands may all be <em>M. macropus</em> (or one or more other species).	eng
136770	habitat	Reardon, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	This species is generally found in lowland areas where it is associated with wetland habitat ranging from large lakes to rainforest streams. It feeds on large aquatic insects and small fish. This species roosts in caves, tunnels, mines, under bridges, rock overhangs, in old buildings, and under foliage. It generally roosts as a few individuals or in small colonies of up to 20 animals. Females may annually give birth to three successive litters of a single young or occasionally to twins (Flannery 1995a,b; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
136770	population	Reardon, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	It is not uncommon.	eng
136770	threats	Reardon, T. & Bonaccorso, F., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
136771	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Anjiamangirana Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136771	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Anjiamangirana region in north-western Madagascar. Louis <em>et al.</em> (2006) gave the range as south of the Mahajamba River and north of the Maevarano and Sofia River, which is presumably a lapsis for "north of the Mahajamba River and south of the Maevarano and Sofia River". Formerly, the sportive lemurs found in this part of Madagascar were thought to be <em>L. edwardsi</em>. More recently, Craul <em>et al</em>. (2007) have described <em>L. otto</em> from between the Mahajamba and the Sofia, making the Sofia River effectively the southerly limit of <em>L. grewcockorum</em>; Craul <em>et al</em>. (2007) also described the species <em>L. manasamody</em> from between the Sofia and Maeverano Rivers, but following Zinner <em>et al</em>. (2007) that species is here considered a synonym of <em>L. grewcockorum</em>. Clearly, the limits between <em>L. edwardsi</em>, <em>L. otto</em>, and <em>L. sahamalazensis</em> remain unclear.	eng
136771	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
136771	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136771	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but habitat loss is presumably a threat.	eng
136772	conservation	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed into the range, habitat, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
136772	distribution	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: southeast Bolivia, Tarija Department, Tapecua (21°26'S, 63°55'W), at 1,500 m (Anderson and Yates, 2000), and from 24°04'S at approximately 63°55'W at 1,200 m in Jujuy Province, Argentina (Ferro <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136772	habitat	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B, 2008	The habitat around Tapecua is a mixture of cloud forest vegetation, patches of columnar cacti and leguminous trees in open areas and broadleaf canopy trees and thick brush on hillsides and in ravines. This type of habitat extends for many kilometers to the south and north, and Tapecomys is likely to occur throughout. It is possible that this species is partially arboreal (Anderson and Yates, 2000). In Argentina it was collected in similar habitat to the type locality. It is not known if it occurs in modified habitats.	eng
136772	population	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B, 2008	It is known only from four specimens (2 in Bolivia and 2 in Argentina). Attempts to collect additional specimens in May 1993 at the type locality were unsuccessful. It is not known whether this is indicative of a general rarity of this species, a low population level at that time, or a poor understanding of the habitat and habits of this species (Anderson and Yates, 2000).	eng
136772	threats	Dunnum, J., Bernal, N. & Patterson, B, 2008	The threats to this poorly known species are not known.	eng
136773	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is not known if this species is present in any protected areas. Further field studies are needed to locate any remaining populations and also to study the natural history of this little-known species.	eng
136773	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	This recently-described species has been recorded from the island of Biak, Indonesia. It was collected close to Biak town in 1963. This area has since been deforested. It is possible that the species may be present also on the island of Supiori, although this requires confirmation.	eng
136773	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	Nothing has been recorded about the natural history of this species. It presumably occurs in tropical moist forest.	eng
136773	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	It has only been collected once (a single specimen) in five expeditions to Biak. The population is believed to be small.	eng
136773	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Allison, A., James, R., Bonaccorso, F. & Aplin, K., 2008	Although this species is poorly-known, it is presumed that hunting for food by local people and habitat loss through deforestation for timber and conversion to cultivated land are threats. At least >50% of the forest on Biak has been cleared. There is still available habitat on the island of Supiori.	eng
136774	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Given the wide distribution of this species and occurrence in heavily disturbed habitats there are no pressing conservation measures. However, it should be noted that prevalence for synanthropic roosts does not automatically indicate a bat species is not of conservation concern. Furthermore, it should be noted that <em>S. marovaza</em> was not found in many of the sites surveyed for bats in western Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005) which included areas from where it is suspected of being present (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Additional field studies are therefore needed to elucidate its range, local abundance and habitat needs, but this is not a conservation priority (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136774	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species is known from a wide area of western Madagascar from near Morondava in the south, to the holotype locality at Marovaza in the north near Mahajanga (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007). Goodman <em>et al</em>. (2006) suspect that <em>S. marovaza</em> is distributed across much of western lowland Madagascar although specimen evidence for this is still lacking (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). Current records are from below 200 m.	eng
136774	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This species roosts synanthropically in dense layers of palms leaves (<em>Bismarckia nobilis</em>) that form roofing material for small huts in western Madagascar (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). It has been suggested that these palms are the natural roosting habitat for this species and the bats have adapted to using the dead leaves on roofs (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005). It is distributed within areas of savanna grassland and dry deciduous forest but knowledge of feeding sites are lacking. Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandrianina (2007) mist netted <em>S. marovaza</em> in degraded forests and near villages in western Madagascar.	eng
136774	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There is very little information on this species. Only singletons are known from two of the four sites from which it has been recorded (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been found in small roosting colonies (< 5 individuals) in huts made from palm leaves (Ratrimomanarivo and Goodman 2005).	eng
136774	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	There are no major threats known. It is a widely distributed species and is tolerant of habitat disturbance (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006; Rakotoarivelo and Randrianandriananina 2007).	eng
136775	conservation	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	The species occurs in Cajas National Park.	eng
136775	distribution	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	This species occurs in the páramo, 3,100 to 3700 m, of the Cajas Plateau, in the Cajas National Park area, south Ecuador (Barnett, 1999; Jenkins and Barnett, 1997).	eng
136775	habitat	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	It is a paramo stream-living species which is probably primarily a predator on aquatic macroinvertebrates, supplemented with fish. This mouse occurs close to small, clear, cold, and fast flowing stream, downstream from a small (2.5 m) waterfall. The water is no more than 40 cm deep at any point and appeared extremely well-oxygened. The examination of the stomach contents showed the remains of fish (scales, bones with attached flesh), along with larvae of aquatic insects (including Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera) (Barnett, 1997).	eng
136775	population	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	This rodent is rare, and has a low population density and restricted range (Barnett, 1997).	eng
136775	threats	Gómez-Laverde, M., Anderson, R.P. & Weksler, M., 2008	Major threats are unknown.	eng
136776	conservation	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is known to occur in Domoga-bone National Park.	eng
136776	distribution	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species occurs in Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is also found in Soloi on Buton island in Indonesia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,120 m asl or probably higher.	eng
136776	habitat	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	It seems to require good forest, but has also been recorded from cocoa plantations. Soloi individuals were caught over a river in undisturbed forest. Roosting habits are not known, but this species is not likely to be a cave dweller.	eng
136776	population	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is not common. In 2002, three individuals were captured at a single locality.	eng
136776	threats	Hutson, A.M., Suyanto, A., Kingston, T. & Helgen, K., 2008	Hunting for sale at market, and forest loss due to expanding agriculture and logging represent major threats to this species.	eng
136777	conservation	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Protecting the cave is the most important priority.	eng
136777	distribution	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from Cuba, Isle of Pines (Simmons 2005). Known from one cave (Turvey pers. comm.)	eng
136777	habitat	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species roosts in caves. It is known from a single cave (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). Copulation in <em>N. primus</em> has been observed to take place in April, and pregnant females of this species have been captured in May (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>N. primus</em> has been found to feed mostly on moths, crickets, and beetles, and less frequently on other insect orders: Hymenoptera (Formicidae), Neuroptera, Diptera, Homoptera, and Hemiptera (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136777	population	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	This species is known from a single cave where occurs at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136777	threats	Dávalos, L. & Mancina, C., 2008	Habitat loss and human intrusion on the cave are threats. In addition the ongoing collapse of the roof of the cave can upset the thermal balance in this hot cave. Climatic changes could also interrupt the thermal cave balance and result in extinction (L. Davalos pers. comm.)	eng
136778	conservation	Pacheco, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	Areas where collected in Bolivia are in protected areas. Review taxonomy.	eng
136778	distribution	Pacheco, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	This species is known only in Venezuela and Bolivia (Sánchez-Hernández <em>et al.</em>, 2005). Its geographic distribution between these point is unknown. Experts consider that the species need revision to clarify distribution and ecology.	eng
136778	habitat	Pacheco, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	Little is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus.	eng
136778	population	Pacheco, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	This is a recently described species and very little is known.	eng
136778	threats	Pacheco, V. & Molinari, J., 2008	Unknown, although status will depend on validity of species.	eng
136779	conservation	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The range of this species includes several protected areas. However, this species has only a small range in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and it is considered rare, conservation measures may be required.	eng
136779	distribution	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, Canada (Stewart <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
136779	habitat	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There is no information specific to this species available, however, <em>Sorex arcticus</em> from which this species was recently split, is most commonly found in grass-sedge marshes, wet meadows, and other moist openings in and adjacent to boreal forest.	eng
136779	population	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is considered to be relatively rare (van Zyll de Jong 1983).	eng
136779	threats	Woodman, N., Reid, F. & Hammerson, G., 2008	The species' habitat is rare and fragmented (Herman and Scott 1992). Its habitat is vulnerable to changes that may result from global warming; and is also vulnerable to flooding, and shrews may be stressed by the absence of snow cover (Herman and Scott 1992).	eng
136780	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	The species has been recorded from at least one protected area, El Tamá National Park, in Venezuela.	eng
136780	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in Páramo de Tamá, west Venezuela, and adjacent highlands in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, between 2,385 and 3,325 m (Woodman 2002; Hutterer 2005). There have not been appropriate surveys in the mountains to the north and south of the known distribution in the Eastern Cordillera, however, the species probably occurs more widely than is currently known.	eng
136780	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	Most individuals of this species were found in cloud forest, though there is at least one record from pasture on the margin of forest (Woodman 2002). A closely related species from the <em>C. thomasi</em> group, occurs in disturbed habitats, including agricultural areas and near human settlements (C. Delgado pers. comm.).	eng
136780	population	Woodman, N., 2008	This relatively newly described species is only known from a few specimens and population trends are still unknown.	eng
136780	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no significant deforestation within the species' known range.	eng
136781	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species occurs in Gunung Leuser National Park, and possibly some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species. In particular it is important to know whether or not it can survivve in transformed habitats, such as oil palm plantations, which are expending rapidly within its range.	eng
136781	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is only known from northern Sumatra, where it appears to e widespread. It might occur more widely across the island (Ruedi 1995).	eng
136781	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs at low elevations, and has been found, for example, in regenerating lowland rainforest at 300 m asl, in dense understory. It has been found at higher elevations in Gunung Leuser National Park. It can clearly tolerate some transformation of its forest habitat, but the level of its adaptability is not known.	eng
136781	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136781	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	<em>C. hutanis</em> is probably threatened to some extent by deforestation, though its adaptability to anthropogenic habitats is not well understood.	eng
136782	conservation	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Occurs in some protected areas in Peru, but not in Bolivia (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).	eng
136782	distribution	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	This species is known from Department of Cuzco, Madre de Dios, and Puno, in southeastern Peru; and the Department of La Paz in northern Bolivia. The elevational range is from 1,300 to 2,250 m (Pacheco <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136782	habitat	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Little is known of the behaviour of this species, but it is probably similar to other members of the genus. Occurs in humid montane forest (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.)	eng
136782	population	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	It is possible that the population is stable (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).	eng
136782	threats	Velazco, P. & Aguirre, L., 2008	Habitat destruction, due to coffee and coca plantations may threaten the species in parts of its range, it occurs in a fragile ecosystem and is sensitive (Velazco and Aguirre pers. comm.).	eng
136783	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. It is probably present in protected areas.  Further studies are needed into the abundance, natural history and threats to this species. In China, it has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136783	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is known from Taiwan, Province of China, and neighbouring islands of Lu Dau (Green Island) and Lan Yu (Orchid Island) as well as southern China, including Hainan island (Smith and Xie 2008). It is also known from northeast India (Jiang and Hoffmann 2001), but the exact locations and the range are unknown and so are not mapped here.	eng
136783	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There is very little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136783	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are currently no data regarding the population status of this species.	eng
136783	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136784	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Inside its wide range it is possible to find several protected areas.	eng
136784	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	British Columbia (Canada) south to Central Mexico and east to west Oklahoma (USA) (Simmons 2005)	eng
136784	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Hibernates in caves for periods of 5 months, starting at the end of November to the beginning of April (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005). It is found in mesic habitats and Conifer forests (Holloway and Barclay, 2001)	eng
136784	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	They are not common. This bat occurs in a wide range (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)	eng
136784	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout the species' range.	eng
136785	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It occurs in the Lorentz National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136785	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	This species has been recorded from a small geographic area (two localities in close proximity) in the mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia. It probably has a larger range within montane areas in Papua Province. Recent surveys have not been conducted for this species, due to difficulty of access to the region. It has been recorded between 2,950 and 3,950 m asl.	eng
136785	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is known from alpine scrub and at lower elevations from shallow marshes above the tree line, and boggy alpine heath.	eng
136785	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
136785	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Wright, D., Lunde, D. & Aplin, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although it could be restricted to just two localities.	eng
136786	conservation	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed on the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136786	distribution	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand (south of the Isthmus of Kra). It is present on some adjacent islands (Koh Samui, Pulau Tioman, and Pulau Mapor).	eng
136786	habitat	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	There is little information available for this species. Presumably, it is found in primary and secondary forest, but its degree of tolerance to habitat degradation is not known.	eng
136786	population	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136786	threats	Lunde, D. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is probably threatened, at least locally, by habitat loss, and human induced habitat degradation. In particular there is a rapid expansion of plantations, including oil palm, taking place within its range.	eng
136787	conservation	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	In Brazil, this species is present in Mapinguari National Park (1,572,422 ha), Abufari Biological Station (288,000 ha), and Piagaçu-Purus State Sustainable Development Reserve (1,008,167 ha).<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136787	distribution	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This red howler monkey extends west from the lower Rio Madeira (left bank) and the Rio Aripuanã across the basin of the Rio Purus to the Rios Juruá and Envira, as postulated by Gregorin (2006). It occurs in northern Rondônia, but the southern limits to its range in Brazil are unclear. It is not clear whether it is the form in north-west Bolivia and far south-eastern Peru in the basins of the upper Purus, Madre de Dios and Tampopata. According to Anderson (1997), only <em>Alouatta sara</em> occurs in Bolivia. Aquino and Encarnacion (1994a) did not consider subspecies or any species other than <em>A. seniculus</em>. Red howlers occur throughout the Peruvian Amazon from the Río Inamabari in the far south-east, along the Rio Urubamba, through the Pachitea to the right (east) bank of the Rio Huallaga, north accompanying the Cordillera to cross the Río Marañón, extending into Ecuador along the Río Santiago (left bank). According to Gregorin (2006), the west (left) bank the Rio Juruá and Envira is taken up by <em>A. juara</em>. For this reason, the Río Inuya may be the northern limit to <em>A. puruensis</em> in Peru.	eng
136787	habitat	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	This species is found in lowland, evergreen rain forest. Along the Rio Juruá, and undoubtedly elsewhere in its range, it tends to be more common in seasonally flooded forest (<strong>várzea</strong>) than in <em>terra firma</em> forest (Peres 1997).<br/><br/>The howler monkeys are the large leaf-eaters of the South American primate communities. The molar teeth are particularly adapted for their chewing leaves through shearing. They spend up to 70% of their day lying and sitting about quietly among the branches, fermenting leaves in their enlarged caecums. Like the spider monkeys, they are prehensile-tailed, with a naked patch of skin on the under surface at the tip. Their most characteristic feature is the deep jaw which surround the enlarged larynx and hyoid apparatus, a resonating chamber. It is with this enlarged and highly specialized voice box that they produce their howls (grunts, roars and barks). Howling sessions, usually involving the entire group, can be heard particularly in the early morning and are audible at distances of 1-2 kms (Drubbel and Gautier 1993).<br/><br/>Red howler groups are usually small, ranging in size from 2-16 animals and averaging 4-10 (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). There is usually only one dominant male in the group (occasionally two), others being sub-adults, or juveniles, along with a harem of two to five females. Unlike the spider monkeys, and related to the large proportion of leaves in the diet (up to 50% of the annual diet), the howler monkeys generally have quite small and broadly overlapping home ranges, of 5 ha up to 45 ha, depending on the type of habitat (Neville <em>et al</em>. 1988). The large groups of <em>A. palliata</em> may have home ranges extending to 60 ha (Estrada 1982), whereas in the llanos of northern Venezuela, home ranges of <em>A. arctoidea</em> can be as small as 4 ha (Sekulic 1982a).  <br/><br/>Howlers are the only New World primates which regularly include mature leaves in their diet, although softer, less fibrous, young leaves are preferred when they are available. Their folivory and ability to eat mature leaves is undoubtedly one of the keys to their wide distribution and the wide variety of vegetation types they inhabit. Mature fruit is the other important food item, especially wild figs (<em>Ficus</em>) in many regions, but they also eat leaf petioles, buds, flowers (sometimes seasonally very important), seeds, moss, stems and twigs, and termitaria.<br/><br/>Oestrus lasts 2-4 days, with intervals between oestrous periods of about 17 days. Interbirth intervals are generally about 16.6 months, although they may be shortened by the death of an infant to about 10.5 months (Crockett and Sekulic 1984). Mean gestation length is 191 days (range 186-194, n=6) (as for <em>A. seniculus seniculus</em> in Crockett and Sekulic 1982)<br/><br/>Size: <br/>As for <em>Alouatta seniculus</em>, Brazil<br/>Adult male 7.62 kg (n=28) (Ayres 1986)<br/>Adult female 6.02 kg (n=34) (Ayres 1986).	eng
136787	population	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	Peres (1997) estimated population densities of howler monkeys at a number of sites on the right (east) bank of the Rio Juruá (presumably <em>A. puruensis</em>): Vai Quem Quer (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 1.0 individuals/km²; Igarapé Jaraquí (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 5.5 individuals/km²; Penedo (<em>terra firma</em> forest), 2.6 individuals/km²; Boa Esperança (<em>várzea</em>), 89.7 individuals/km². Peres (1997) found that populations were higher in <em>várzea</em> (seasonally inundated) forests than in <em>terra firma</em> forests.	eng
136787	threats	Boubli, J.-P., Di Fiore, A., Rylands, A.B. & Mittermeier, R.A., 2008	No major threats across the range, although habitat loss and hunting are no doubt taking place. Aquino and Encarnación (1994a) reported that populations of red howlers have declined in the lower parts of the selva alta in the Peruvian Amazon as a result of colonization by humans, hunting and deforestation, noting particularly the valley of Chanchamayo (Department of Junín) where they have been extirpated.	eng
136788	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	None of the known collecting localities for verified specimens of this species are from within protected areas (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of specimens from north Madagascar requires further study.	eng
136788	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of Madagascar and appears to be restricted to lowland (<550 m elevation) habitats in the south-east (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). The taxonomic status of specimens from the north of Madagascar remain unresolved (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136788	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species has been collected from lowland humid, transitional dry-humid and humid littoral forests, often in areas that have been subject to medium levels of habitat degradation (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is known to occur in sympatry with <em>M. majori</em>. There are no records of it roosting in synanthropic settings and it is assumed to roost in caves in forest formations (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
136788	population	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	This species was only formally described in 2008 and there is no information on its population (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
136788	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B. & Rakotoarivelo, A.R., 2008	Although robust data are lacking and there are still some taxonomic uncertainties of specimens from the north of Madagascar, the information on <em>M. petersoni</em> from the south-east suggests that this species is closely associated with natural forest formations and is therefore threatened by the loss or degradation of these habitats (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2008). Threats to roosting colonies have not yet been documented.	eng
136789	conservation	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are several small protected areas within the range of this species.	eng
136789	distribution	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This Mexican endemic occurs in the Transvolcanic Axis highlands in the Mexican states of Colima, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Michoacán, Mexico, Puebla, Morelos, and in the Distrito Federal (Woodman and Timm, 1999 in Hutterer, 2005). It occurs at elevations from 2,460 to 4,400 m asl (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136789	habitat	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This insectivorous species is found in several temperate forest types; pine, pine oak, pine fir, and has also been collected in bunchgrass meadow. In Michoacán it has also been found in disturbed pine forest (Álvarez and Sánchez-Casas 1997).	eng
136789	population	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
136789	threats	Woodman, N., Matson, J., Cuarón, A.D. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	Deforestation and pesticides are major threats to this species, although it is not known to what degree it can tolerate disturbance of its habitat.	eng
136790	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Need surveys to confirm distribution of the species. Need to review museum specimens of <em>P. macrotis</em> to confirm whether or not actually correspond to this species.	eng
136790	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Trinidad and Tobago; Aruba Isl. (Netherlands Antilles); Grenada; Venezuela; Margarita Isl. (Venezuela); French Guiana (Simmons 2005).	eng
136790	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Very little is known on the natural history of this species. Roosts are in hollow trees and in hollow rotten logs on the ground (Eisenberg 1989) or under overhanging banks (Emmons and Feer 1997). Also found in caves in the Llanos in Venezuela (Lim pers. comm.). This is an aerial insectivore of background cluttered space. Distributional limits are still poorly known (Lim pers. comm.).	eng
136790	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species is poorly known and considered by Emmons and Feer (1997) to be rare everywhere in its geographic range. However, this species may be confused with <em>P. macrotis</em> and so may be less rare than previously thought. It can be common, for example in caves in Venezuela. (Lim pers. comm.) As na aerial insectivore, it may be underrepresented in mistnet sampling, but can be more easily captured at roost sites.	eng
136790	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Not known.	eng
136791	conservation	Davenport, T.R.B. & Jones, T., 2008	The Kipunji occurs entirely within protected areas, 48.4% within Kitulo National Park, 44.9% within Mt Rungwe Catchment Forest Reserve and 6.7% within the Kilombero Nature Reserve (Davenport <em>et al.</em> in press). However, only the national park has any current management activities and they remain limited, especially within the forest (Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). The focus of current Kipunji conservation work is the protection and restoration of the montane habitats of Mount Rungwe, especially the forest connections such as Bujingijila Corridor (Davenport 2005, 2006). Protecting these corridors is of the highest priority for the conservation of this genus/species. In addition, research into the reasons for, and viability of, the extremely small Udzungwa population, conservation education and long-term monitoring of both populations is important (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The Kipunji is being used as a 'flagship species' by the Wildlife Conservation Society's long-term Southern Highlands Conservation Programme in and around Rungwe-Kitulo, especially in education and awareness raising activities, and as part of a long-term monitoring programme.<br/>It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136791	distribution	Davenport, T.R.B. & Jones, T., 2008	A Tanzanian endemic known only from two populations separated by ca. 350 km of non-forested land. One population is at 1,750-2,450 m in 12.4 km² of Rungwe-Kitulo Forest (Davenport <em>et al.</em> 2008) in the Southern Highlands of south-western Tanzania (09.12º-09.18ºS, 33.67º-33.92ºE). The Rungwe-Kitulo Forest includes Mt. Rungwe Forest Reserve (150 km²) and the Livingstone Forest (191 km²), which lies within the 412 km² Kitulo National Park (Davenport 2002; Davenport and Bytebier 2004; Davenport <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2006, 2008). Mt. Rungwe and Livingstone Forest are connected by the Bujingijila Corridor, a two km wide degraded forest connection (Davenport 2005, 2006; Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). The Kipunji inhabits the wetter forest of south Mt. Rungwe and isolated groups are scattered in the north and south of Livingstone Forest (Davenport 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2006, 2008). Anecdotal evidence points to the historical presence of the species in other Southern Highland forests, though this is unconfirmed and recent extensive searches have found no new subpopulations in other forests (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). <br/><br/>The other population of <em>R. kipunji</em> is at 1,300-1,750 m in the Vikongwa Valley, Ndundulu Forest (07.67º-07.85ºS, 35.17º-36.83ºE;  ca. 180 km of closed forest), in the Kilombero Nature Reserve in the Udzungwa Mountains, south-central Tanzania (Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005). The area known to be occupied by the species in the Ndundulu Forest is 8.2 km² (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008; Jones <em>et al.</em> unpubl.).  Previous and more recent research in Ndundulu Forest indicate the animal is absent from large parts of this forest (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The area of occupancy (AOO) achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares is 10.79 km² in Rungwe-Kitulo and 3.18 km² in Ndundulu giving a combined species AOO of 13.97 km² (Davenport in press; Jones <em>et al.</em>. unpubl.). The species? extent of occurrence (EOO) was estimated to be 12.41 km² in Rungwe-Kitulo and 8.19 km² in Ndundulu, with the combined total EOO (species range) just 20.6 km² (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008; Jones <em>et al.</em> unpubl.).	eng
136791	habitat	Davenport, T.R.B. & Jones, T., 2008	Habitat ranges from degraded montane and upper montane forest from 1,750-2,450 m in Rungwe-Kitulo, to pristine submontane forest in Ndundulu (Davenport and Jones 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005; Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2006, 2008). In Rungwe-Kitulo, the canopy is often broken and between 10 and 30 m with emergents to 35 m. The Kipunji prefers steep-sided gullies and valley edges and is rarely found far from streams (Davenport and Butynski in press).  Ridges and open areas are usually avoided. The forest has been greatly reduced by logging (Lovett 1986; McKone and Walzem 1994; Machaga <em>et al.</em>. 2004; Davenport 2005, 2006). Thick undergrowth is typical, with the tree fern <em>Cyathea manniana</em>, wild banana <em>Ensete ventricosum</em>, and large stands of bamboo <em>Sinarundinaria alpina</em> common in the south and south-east of Mt. Rungwe and the north-west of Livingstone (Davenport and Butynski in press; Gereau <em>et al.</em>. in press). The species rarely frequents the bamboo and leaves the forest only to raid nearby crops.  In southern Mt Rungwe, annual rainfall ranges from ca. 185-280 cm and there is a distinct but short dry season from June to October. In Ndundulu, the <em>Parinari  excelsa</em>-dominant forest is undisturbed and the canopy is unbroken, reaching a height of between 40 and 50 m (Jones 2006).	eng
136791	population	Davenport, T.R.B. & Jones, T., 2008	Surveys totalling 2,864 hours and covering 3,456 km of transect were undertaken by Davenport <em>et al.</em> (2008) to determine distribution and group numbers. In addition, 772 hours of simultaneous multi-group observational follows in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu forests enabled 209 total counts to be carried out. Davenport <em>et al.</em> (2008) estimated some 1,042 individuals in Rungwe-Kitulo, ranging from 25 to 39 individuals per group (µ = 30.65; SE = 0.62; n = 34), and 75 individuals in Ndundulu, ranging from 15 to 25 individuals per group (µ = 18.75; SE = 2.39; n = 4). The total Kipunji population was thus estimated to be 1,117 animals in 38 groups (µ = 29.39; SE = 0.85; n = 38). The Ndundulu population may no longer be viable and the Rungwe-Kitulo population is highly fragmented with isolated subpopulations remaining in degraded habitat (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008).	eng
136791	threats	Davenport, T.R.B. & Jones, T., 2008	The threats to the Kipunji are considerable. The Rungwe-Kitulo forests are severely degraded. Logging, charcoal making, illegal hunting and unmanaged resource extraction are common (Davenport 2005, 2006; Machaga <em>et al.</em> 2004). The narrow Bujingijila Corridor linking Mt Rungwe to Livingstone Forest, and the corridors joining the northern and southern sections of Livingstone, are encroached by farmers and degraded (Davenport 2005; Jones <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Mwakilema and Davenport 2005). Without immediate conservation intervention these forests will be fragmented, resulting in isolated subpopulations some of which are unlikely to be viable over the long-term (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. in press). The Kipunji is hunted in the Southern Highlands (Davenport 2005, 2006), mainly as retribution for the crop-raiding of maize and the leaves of beans and potatoes in the first few months of the year. However, the monkey is also occasionally hunted for food.<br/><br/>Mt. Rungwe, while nominally a Forest Reserve, remains unmanaged and unprotected, although there are moves to upgrade its status. Although Ndundulu Forest is in excellent condition, and largely undisturbed (Davenport and Jones 2005; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2005; Jones, 2006), the species is present in low numbers (Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008). The reasons for this are unclear (Davenport and Jones 2005; Jones 2006). The gazettement in August 2007 of Kilombero Nature Reserve incorporating Matundu, Iyondo and West Kilombero Scarp (including Ndundulu) (Marshall <em>et al.</em>. 2007) may serve to further protect the species in Ndundulu. However, whether this population is viable in the long term is debatable (Jones 2006; Davenport <em>et al.</em>. 2008).	eng
136792	conservation	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	Given its wide range, this species is likely to be present in a number of protected areas.	eng
136792	distribution	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Sumatra in Indonesia. It seems to be widely distributed from the hillsides of east and south Sumatra to upper montane rain forest of west Sumatra. It ranges from sea-level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
136792	habitat	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	This species is found up to 2,000 m asl in primary lowland and montane forest, but it is most abundant in highly degraded forest and cultivated lands between 1,500 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
136792	population	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	<em>C. lepidura</em> seems to be an abundant species.	eng
136792	threats	Lunde, D., Ruedas, L. & van Strien, N.J., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
136793	conservation	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range.	eng
136793	distribution	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	From southeast Colorado, eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma and Texas (USA), southward through Chihuahua and Coahuila (Mexico) into central Mexico, as far south as Guanajuato and Queretaro (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136793	habitat	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	<em>N. leucodon</em> is known from a variety of habitat types including scrublands, rocky areas, cactus stands (especially cholla and prickly pear), as well as pinyon-juniper forests. Well adapted to these arid regions, the White-toothed Woodrat is able to obtain much of its food and water needs from cacti. Like other woodrats, <em>N. leucodon</em> often builds elaborate dens of sticks and vegetation, which offer protection from predators and extreme temperatures (Mares 1999).	eng
136793	population	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	Population surveys have not been conducted for this newly established species. Data from investigations of <em>N. albigula</em> and all subspecies indicate that white-toothed woodrats are secure (NatureServe 2006).	eng
136793	threats	Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T. & Lacher, T., 2008	None known.	eng
136794	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species occurs inside a protected area: Parque Nacional de Caparaó.	eng
136794	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais State, Parque Nacional de Caparaó, Pico de Bandeira, 2,700 m (Musser and Carleton, 2005).	eng
136794	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	There is no information on the habitat requirements and ecology of this species. It is known only from the type locality within a National Park (Bonvicino pers. comm.).	eng
136794	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	No information is available on the population status of this species.	eng
136794	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The major threats are destruction of habitat and fragmentation.	eng
136795	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	The species has been recorded from several small reserves near Medellin (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).	eng
136795	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	The species is found only in the Central Cordillera in Antioquia department, Colombia. A second specimen reported from the Cordillera Oriental by Woodman (1996) was later described as a new species, <em>Cryptotis brachyonyx</em>, related to <em>Cryptotis colombiana</em> (Woodman 2003; Hutterer 2005). There have not been further surveys north or south of the known range, where it may occur. It is found from 1,750 to 2,800 m asl (Woodman 2003).	eng
136795	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in montane forest, as well as near pine plantations, disturbed forest, and in agricultural fields (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).	eng
136795	population	Woodman, N., 2008	The species is common in the montane forest in the vicinity of Medellin (Delgado pers. comm. 2005).	eng
136795	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable species. Although it is found in a region with high rates of habitat loss, the species tolerates some degree of disturbance.	eng
136796	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Not known from any protected areas, but based on current understanding of the range it would occur in the proposed 50,300-ha conservation area on the Bongolava Massif. Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136796	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	So far known only from its type locality of Ambodimahabibo in north-western Madagascar. This site is limited by the Mahajamba River in the west and the Sofia River in the north (Craul <em>et al.</em> 2007). This would suggest that the species is bounded by <em>L. grewocki</em> to the north (north of the Sofia), and <em>L. edwardsi</em> to the south (south of the Mahajamba), but this requires clarification.	eng
136796	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of dry deciduous forest.	eng
136796	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this recently described species.	eng
136796	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, but presumably habitat loss is a threat.	eng
136797	conservation	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	<em>Spilogale g. amphialus</em> is considered to be a subspecies of special concern by the state of California (Crooks, 1994).	eng
136797	distribution	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The geographic range of the western spotted skunk extends from central Mexico through the western United States to British Columbia (Rosatte, 1987).	eng
136797	habitat	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	The spotted skunk has been recorded in a big spectrum of habitats varying from open lowlands to mountainous areas (Baker and Baker, 1975), streams to rocky places, beaches to human buildings and other disturbed areas, chaparral among others (Rosatte, 1987; Verts <em>et al.</em>, 2001). The species has been found at elevations of 2,500 m in California (Orr, 1943). Doty and Dowler (2006) reported that <em>M. mephitis</em> and <em>S. gracilis</em> coexist in habitats of west-central Texas that provide sufficient cover for <em>S. gracilis</em>. Its an omnivorous species, feeding primarily on insects and small mammals (Ewer, 1973; Kurten and Anderson, 1980) and carrion, berries, fruits and other (Bailey, 1936; Clark and Stromberg, 1987; Maser <em>et al</em>. 1981).	eng
136797	population	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Populations of western spotted skunks have been known to fluctuate in numbers and the animal is generally not common on the United States plains (Polder, 1968; Choate <em>et al.</em>, 1974). Few studies have been published on the home range, population density, and mortality of spotted skunks (Howard and Marsh, 1982). Crabb (1948) found that the western spotted skunk in Iowa maintained a home range of 64.8 ha at densities of 2.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
136797	threats	Cuarón, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Humans have been the main cause of mortality for spotted skunks, especially as a result of automobile roadkills. Spotted skunks are also trapped, shot, and poisoned during predator control tactics (Rosatte, 1987). The pelts of both eastern and western spotted skunks represent an insignificant fraction of the modern fur trade. Pesticides present a significant threat over portions of the range.	eng
136798	conservation	Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is found in a number of protected areas throughout its range.	eng
136798	distribution	Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	This species occurs throughout Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines. Specimens from Buton e Kab'na (south of Sulawesi) were identified as <em>C. brachyotis</em> but might be <em>C. luzoniensis</em>.	eng
136798	habitat	Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	It is abundant in agricultural areas, and common in lowland and montane secondary forest (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 1998, 1991; Heideman and Heaney 1989; Ingle 1992; Lepiten 1995; Rickart <em>et al</em>. 1993). In the Philippines, it ranges from sea level up to at least 1,250 m asl, but has also been documented in montane forest from 925-1,600 m asl in Balbalasang, Kalinga Province (Heaney <em>et al</em>. 2004). It can also be found in residential and urban areas. It rarely occurs in primary forest, and only when there are few other fruit bats. It is an agricultural pest. In Sulawesi, it mainly occurs in the lowlands in disturbed habitats. It has the second highest reproductive rate among fruit bats in Philippines.	eng
136798	population	Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	The species is locally abundant, stable, and most common in disturbed and residential areas.	eng
136798	threats	Rosell-Ambal, G., Kingston, T. & Maryanto, I., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136799	conservation	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	A number of well-secured protected areas exist within Yellow-striped Chevrotain’s range, within which it is presumed to occur (and is confirmed from some). Perhaps most notable in terms of long-term security is Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area, a World Heritage Site which is actively protected under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Sri Lanka's protected area network is extensive but is least developed in the wet zone. Expansion to cover nearly all forests remaining in the wet zone has been proposed (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Following concerns that existing conservation laws were ineffective, a moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect all wet-zone forests from logging and legal protection of the remaining wet zone forests was shortly afterwards adjudged to be quite effective (IUCN/WCMC 1997). Wet forest conservation within Sri Lanka is the essential foundation to the survival of this species. The National Environment Action Plan (NEAP 1998–2001) gives a comprehensive guidance for achieving this. It is also desirable to determine to what, if any, extent the species extends outside the wet zone along riverine strips.	eng
136799	distribution	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	The Yellow-striped Chevrotain occurs in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6°24′N, 81°25′E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy district (Groves and Meijaard 2005): specific localities are given in Groves and Meijaard 2005: 420). Riverine forests of the intermediate zone support some of Sri Lanka's wet zone endemic forest birds (BirdLife International 2001): no information has been traced on whether the wet zone chevrotain uses such habitats. No published records additional to Groves and Meijaard (2005) and following their suggested taxonomy were traced, although this species persists in the Talangama wetland close to Colombo (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). Objective identification (i.e. not solely on the basis of habitat and location) of further animals at various localities within the island is required to test the hypothesis of Groves and Meijaard (2005) of a strict segregation of habitat between this species and <em>M. memmina s.s</em>.; these authors stressed their “admittedly small sample sizes”. Currently it might be rash for species-level identification to be assigned to individuals under the Groves and Meijaard (2005) taxonomic hypothesis solely on the basis of habitat.	eng
136799	habitat	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Information for the genus is reviewed under <em>M. indica</em> and, given the previous treatment of all forms of <em>Moschiola</em> as conspecific, some of this information may relate to Yellow-striped Chevrotain. Differences in ecology, other than the basic restriction to wet forest of this species, have not been clarified within the genus. Yellow-striped Chevrotain freely enters rice paddies (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008), is more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136799	population	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	Based on localities of confirmed specimens, Yellow-striped Chevrotain appears to be widespread within the wet zone (Groves and Meijaard 2005), which is itself only a small proportion of the island. In the wet zone, chevrotains are common wherever there is relatively undisturbed secondary or better forest, and densities may be in the order of ten per km² or so; in the wet zone, chevrotains are more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occur commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). During extensive spot-light surveys of the wet zone in 2001, chevrotains were the most commonly seen mammal, being seen at many sites and almost every night, but, while they clearly remain common, surveys in subsequent years to 2006 suggested that populations in the survey areas were declining (K.A.I. Nekaris pers. comm. 2008). There are certainly some steep local declines: for example, in the last eight years, the Talangama wetland close to Colombo have probably lost more than half the available cover to housing projects and in peri-urban sites such as this chevrotains also suffer heavy predation by domestic dogs. Unlike the small village dogs, Colombo's sub-urbanites increasingly keep large dogs which make short work of native mammals (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). With increasing fragmentation of wet-zone forests, the proportion of animals in essentially small and spatially constrained areas, and so vulnerable to such localized pressures, increases.	eng
136799	threats	Duckworth, J.W. & Timmins, R.J., 2008	In past centuries, there has been a major loss of habitat available to this chevrotain and thus in its population, reflecting a rise in the human population of Sri Lanka from one million in the 19th century to twenty million now (Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne pers. comm. 2008). There is now, overall, rather little forest habitat left in the wet zone: only 1,440 km² of rainforest were estimated to remain in Sri Lanka by Collins <em>et al</em>. (1991), and only 9% forest cover was estimated to remain in the wet zone (IUCN/WCMC 1997). This situation was caused by logging, fuelwood-gathering (domestic use and for brick-making), agricultural conversion (including for tree crops), mining, urbanisation, and fire (Collins <em>et al</em>. 1991). Legal protection of the remaining wet zone forests is quite effective (IUCN/WCMC 1997) but encroachment of human populations is fragmenting and degrading them (National Environment Action Plan 1998–2001). Even some protected areas have suffered severe degradation (Hoffmann 1996). In the decade up to 2008, there has been a major growth in tea small holdings within the wet zone, which were mostly forest patches until then (P. Fernando pers. comm. 2008). However, the level of threat these activities pose to chevrotains is unclear, because in the wet zone chevrotains are common wherever there is relatively undisturbed secondary or better forest (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). In fact, in the wet zone chevrotains are more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, so habitat "degradation" by itself is unlikely to be a threat, especially as they also occur commonly in rubber plantations and home gardens (R. Pethiyagoda pers. comm. 2008). Sri Lankan chevrotains are hunted, with firearms, for their meat in areas where security broke down during the civil war (Santiapillai and Wijeyamotan 2003), but it there is no reason to suppose that this is at levels sufficient to drive major population declines. Gun-hunting of birds was considered a limited threat, given the strict gun controls wrought by the security situation and the high cost of ammunition by BirdLife International (2001), but for chevrotains snaring and other forms of trapping, not of concern to public order, may be more serious.	eng
136800	conservation	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix I of CITES. At the present time it is not known to occur in any protected areas within what appears to be a restricted range (Mittermeier <em>et al.</em> 2008). Taxonomic work is urgently required to elucidate more clearly the taxonomic and geographic limits of the species.	eng
136800	distribution	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	At present, this species is known only from the type locality, Ambositra, north of Fianarantsoa in east-central Madagascar. Groves (2000) believes that this is also the species recorded from the Bongolava Massif north-west of the type locality (Thalmann and Rakotoarison 1994); however, photographs from this region show that this is not the case and that it is probable that a further, undescribed species exists on Bongolava (C. Groves pers. comm.).	eng
136800	habitat	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Inhabits the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, but other information on its ecology and behaviour is complicated by taxonomic confusion with allied forms of <em>Cheirogaleus</em> in the eastern rainforests.	eng
136800	population	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	This species is currently known only from a single museum specimen.	eng
136800	threats	Andrainarivo, C., Andriaholinirina, V.N., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Ganzhorn, J., Garbutt, N., Golden, C., Konstant, B., Louis Jr., E., Meyers, D., Mittermeier, R.A., Perieras, A., Princee, F., Rabarivola, J.C., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rasamimanana, H., Ratsimbazafy, J., Raveloarinoro, G., Razafimanantsoa, A., Rumpler, Y., Schwitzer, C., Thalmann, U., Wilmé, L. & Wright, P., 2008	Unknown. The type locality, Ambositra, from which the species is only known, is a major city and has been deforested.	eng
136801	conservation	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	It has been frequently collected across a large range including several large protected areas (Leite, 2003). The species has been collected from an area adjacent to Linhares Forest Reserve and Sooretama Biological Reserve; however, its presence there has not been confirmed (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136801	distribution	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The main distribution area is on the coast of Paraiba State, northeastern Brazil to the northeast of Sao Paulo State in the southeast. It occurs inland in Bahia and east Minas Gerais States (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136801	habitat	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species range is relatively large.The species is found mainly in broadleaf evergreen rainforests and associated with habitats such as mangroves from sea level to 1,000 m (Leite, 2003). Apparently it prefers primary forest and areas with dense vegetation.	eng
136801	population	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is poorly known. There is no information on population or abundance (Y. Leite pers. comm.).	eng
136801	threats	Leite, Y. & Patterson, B., 2008	The forest habitat where it occurs is highly reduced and fragmented in some parts of its range (Emmons <em>et al.</em>, 2002).	eng
136802	conservation	Molur, S., 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species (Molur <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136802	distribution	Molur, S., 2008	This species is endemic to northeastern India with a known distribution range in Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland (Hutterer 2005). It has a wide distribution in the region and ranges in altitude from 1,500 to 3,100 m asl (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136802	habitat	Molur, S., 2008	This species has been recorded from a variety of natural and modified habitats. It is found in both subtropical and tropical montane forest, it has been reported from stony escarpments, and has even been found in sewage lines (Molur <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136802	population	Molur, S., 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
136802	threats	Molur, S., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
136803	conservation	Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species has been recorded from Cotapata National Park (J. Vargas pers. comm.). Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
136803	distribution	Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from three adjacent localities in the valley of the Rio Zongo, Departamento La Paz, Bolivia. Based on similarly distributed small mammal species, this species is hypothesized to occur more widely, likely on the eastern Andean slope humid montane forests from central Bolivia through southeast Peru (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). There is a second record near Coroico, which was from disturbed forest. Surveys into the north in Madidi National Park have failed to find this species (J. Vargas pers. comm.). It is known only from montane humid forest, from 1,800 to 3,000 m (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004; J. Vargas pers. comm.).	eng
136803	habitat	Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	The holotype was collected in a disturbed forest area, which consisted of patches of closed canopy with open areas with isolated trees. The other two localities were in primary cloud forest. Throughout its known range in the Valle de Zongo, it occurs sympatrically with Gracilinanus aceramarcae and several sigmodontine rodents. The lower elevations of the Valle de Zongo are inhabitated by a different species, Marmosops noctivagus (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). Further surveys, particularly from 1,000-2,000 m along the eastern forested slopes of the Cordillera Real, are needed to determine where the two congeneric species occur sympatrically or parapatrically (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136803	population	Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is known only from six specimens (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). However, the habitat that this species occurs in is rather poorly sampled, except for where there has been encroachment from humans, and it is likely to be found much more widely (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136803	threats	Vargas, J. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are no known major threats. Within the known area of this species, there is subsistence farming, especially from 1,600 to 1,800 m.	eng
136804	conservation	de Oliveira, M.M., Rylands, A.B., Ferrari, S.F. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This species is recorded from the Samuel State Ecological Station, Rondônia (20,865 ha) (Martins <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
136804	distribution	de Oliveira, M.M., Rylands, A.B., Ferrari, S.F. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The range is reportedly delimited to the north and west by the Rios Mamoré-Madeira and Jiparaná, and to the south by the Serra dos Pacáas Novos, where it may be parapatric with <em>M. melanura</em>, which is “typically found in the savanna-like vegetation, rather than rain forest ecosystems, that predominate in southern Rondônia. Ferrari <em>et al</em>. (1995) failed to find any evidence of the occurrence of marmosets during surveys of the Guajará-Mirim State Park in west-central Rondônia. Likewise no marmosets were recorded at Pimenta Bueno on the upper Rio Jiparaná (Ferrari <em>et al.</em> 1996), although G. R. Monção has recorded this species there (pers. comm. to A. B. Rylands, February 2006). The range of this marmoset, as such, is evidently much smaller than previously thought.<br/><br/>Vivo (1985) argued that the Foz do Rio Castanho specimens, later described as <em>Callithrix argentata marcai</em> by Alperin (1993) were similar, and Vivo (1985) made no mention of the two other localities indicated by Hershkovitz (1977: 214b, mouth of the Rio Jiparaná, upper Rio Madeira; and 214c, Urupá, Rio Jiparaná), but his map would argue that they would also be “<em>C. emiliae</em>”. The discovery of <em>M. nigriceps</em> (Ferrari and Lopes 1992) means that the range of Vivo’s (1985) “<em>C. emiliae</em>” is restricted to the left bank of the Rio Jiparaná.	eng
136804	habitat	de Oliveira, M.M., Rylands, A.B., Ferrari, S.F. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This species is an inhabitant of Amazonian lowland rain forest.<br/><br/>Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates (gums, saps, latex) and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). Marmosets have morphological and behavioural adaptations for gouging trees trunks, branches and vines of certain species to stimulate the flow of gum, which they eat, and in some species form a notable component of the diet (Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier 1976; Rylands 1984). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. The groups defend home ranges 10-40 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches.<br/><br/>Martins <em>et al. </em>(1987), Ferrari and Martins (1992), and Lopes and Ferrari (1994) studied some aspects of the ecology and behaviour of <em>Mico rondoni</em>, especially feeding behaviour. <br/><br/><em>Mico rondoni</em> is syntopic with Weddell's Saddleback Tamarin, <em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em>, possibly as a result of a recent range extension of the saddleback tamarin to the east side of the Rio Madeira (Ferrari 1993; Lopes and Ferrari 1994). Although similar in size, the two species differ in their exploitation of gum: the marmoset gouges holes in tree trunks and branches, and vines, specializing on this resource, whereas its consumption the saddleback tamarin is opportunistic (Ferrari and Martins 1992). Lopes and Ferrari (1994) recorded the marmosets in association with the saddleback tamarins for 40% of their observations of the latter. <em>Mico rondoni</em> tends to forage and travel higher above the ground (10 m or higher) than the saddelback tamarin groups (Lopes and Ferrari 1994).<br/><br/>Size:<br/>Adults mean 326.9 g (n=6 males and two females) (Ferrari and Martins 1992).	eng
136804	population	de Oliveira, M.M., Rylands, A.B., Ferrari, S.F. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	This species is rare and its range evidently very patchy. The reasons for this are not known, but may be related to its sympatry with <em>Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli</em> (see Martins <em>et al</em>. 1987; Ferrari and Martins 1991; Ferrari 1993). Population densities are low when compared with those typical of other Amazonian marmosets.	eng
136804	threats	de Oliveira, M.M., Rylands, A.B., Ferrari, S.F. & Silva Jr., J.S., 2008	The major threat is ongoing habitat loss from the construction of the Samuel Hydroelectric dam, highway BR-364 (a corridor of deforestation in the southern Amazon) and development in its western range limits along the Rio Madeira, all of which resulted from the Polonoroeste Development Project of the 1980s. Two new hydroelectric dam projects have been approved for the upper Rio Madeira in Rondonia near the Bolivian border, which will inundate large areas of land and result in extensive forest loss.	eng
136805	conservation	Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no conservation measures pertaining to this species.<br/>All <span style="font-style: italic;">Bettongia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> spp. are listed on CITES Appendix I.	eng
136805	distribution	Burbidge, A., 2008	This species was known from the Nullarbor Plain in Western Australia and South Australia. This habitat has been surveyed and there is no evidence of current existence of this or most other similar-sized mammal species.	eng
136805	habitat	Burbidge, A., 2008	There is no information about its habitat or ecology.	eng
136805	population	Burbidge, A., 2008	Only known from recent subfossils (McNamara 1997). There is little doubt that this species persisted into European settlement.	eng
136805	threats	Burbidge, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136806	conservation	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It is present in the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area, formally declared in October 1993. Further survey work is needed to understand the limits of distribution of the species and to assess its current population status.	eng
136806	distribution	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species has been recorded only from four localities within the Khammouan Limestone National Biodiversity Conservation Area in central Lao PDR. This tower karst landscape is part of the Quy Dat massif, which outcrops at the same latitude in Binh Tri Thien Province of north-central Viet Nam. Providing that adequate forest cover is still extant, this species could occur in suitable limestone habitats in that part of Viet Nam (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136806	habitat	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	It is likely petricolous, and has been collected only in forested, rocky habitats of the Khammouan Limestone, but comparable environments in the adjacent Viet Namese portion of the Quy Dat limestone massif may harbor these same species specialized for living in forested, karstic landscapes. It is not known whether it actually lives inside cave entrances or only in forested talus outside cave entrances and at the base of limestone towers.It is nocturnal, and the diet probably includes insects (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136806	population	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	This species may be common. It is known from two whole specimens and 14 individuals represented by fragments recovered from owl pellets (Musser <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136806	threats	Lunde, D. & Musser, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species as limestone habitats in general are relatively safe from massive scale destruction. However, tree cover in peripheral and accessible karst areas is very vulnerable to loss due to logging and firewood removal.	eng
136807	conservation	Parnaby, H., 2008	Further studies are needed into the distribution, population, and threats to New Caledonia long-eared bat. Pressure on the Mount Koghis site also occurs in the form of high rates of human visitation (Parnaby 2002) to this remnant tract of undisturbed rainforest that is near Nouméa and "which is surrounded by maquis and grassland" (Flannery 1995).	eng
136807	distribution	Parnaby, H., 2008	This species is endemic to the island of New Caledonia, where it has only been recorded from Mount Koghis, near Nouméa (Flannery 1995; Parnaby 2002). The type locality is at 430 m asl.	eng
136807	habitat	Parnaby, H., 2008	New Caledonia long-eared bat has been recorded from a clearing in tall rainforest; all collected at dusk (Parnaby 2002).	eng
136807	population	Parnaby, H., 2008	It is only known from a few specimens (Parnaby 2002).	eng
136807	threats	Parnaby, H., 2008	Available habitat for this species is threatened by urban encroachment and wild fires originating from human settlements (Parnaby 2002).	eng
136808	conservation	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is present in Kakadu National Park and Litchfield National Park, but both provide only nominal protection for the species. Further research needed on the threats to this species.	eng
136808	distribution	Woinarski, J., 2008	This species is endemic to Australia, where it is known from Kakadu National Park to Litchfield National Park, in the Northern Territory. Surveys indicate that it is likely restricted to the known range.	eng
136808	habitat	Woinarski, J., 2008	It is found in areas of gravelly hills with a tall savanna understorey and a substrate of small stones as opposed to sand, which is preferred by Delicate Mouse <em>Pseudomys delicatulus</em> (Ford and Johnson 2007; Woinarski and Ford 2008). Animals build mounds of pebbles under which a burrow is located. Captive animals have produced seven litters of 22 young over a nine-month period (Woinarski and Ford 2008).	eng
136808	population	Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is patchily distributed. It is probably a common species within specific habitats, existing in localised populations (Lee 1995).	eng
136808	threats	Woinarski, J., 2008	The species is currently patchily distributed over a fairly limited range. It continues to face the threat of changing fire regimes.	eng
136809	conservation	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	Reduce loss of forest habitat.	eng
136809	distribution	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This species has been found in Colombia, northern Bolivia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname French Guyana, and the Amazon basin of Brazil (Engstrom and Lim, 2000; InfoNatura, 2004; Lim and Engstrom, 2000; Marinkelle, 1968).	eng
136809	habitat	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	This bat occurs in evergreen forest in the Amazon Basin. It feeds on large insects (Barquez <em>et al.</em>, 1993), for which the audible echolocation is an adaptation (Emmons and Feer, 1997) and roosts in small groups in tree holes, cliffs, roofs and attics of buildings (Emmons and Feer, 1997). Females form maternity colonies during the breeding season; a single young is born each year (Eisenberg, 1989).	eng
136809	population	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	The species is rarely encountered because it is difficult to capture due to its high flying and roosting behaviors (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136809	threats	Sampaio, E., Lim, B. & Peters, S., 2008	There are no major threats throughout its range.	eng
136810	conservation	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	It is found in at least five protected areas alon Yucatan peninsule (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136810	distribution	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species occurs in Yucatán (Mexico) (Simmons, 2005).	eng
136810	habitat	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	This species is poorly known. It is insectivorous (Nowak, 1999). It occurs in tropical forest, especially at the perennifolious and descidious forest. It is known from localities below 50 masl (Ceballos and Oliva, 2005)	eng
136810	population	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Is a non common species (Arroyo-Cabrales pers. comm.).	eng
136810	threats	Arroyo-Cabrales, J. & Ticul Alvarez Castaneda, S., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
136811	conservation	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in a few protected areas within its range.	eng
136811	distribution	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	This species is widely distributed from Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas along the Cordillera Oriental, to Chiapas, and up to the Sierra Madre Occidental as far north as Durango, in Mexico, from 1,600 to 3,650 m asl.	eng
136811	habitat	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is found in high elevation temperate forest and agricultural fields (corn, oats) (Carraway, 2007).	eng
136811	population	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	It is a locally common species (John Matson pers. comm.).	eng
136811	threats	Matson, J., Woodman, N., Castro-Arellano, I. & de Grammont, P.C., 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
136812	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	It occurs in at least two protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, and natural history.	eng
136812	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it ranges from the Tembagapura area of Papua Province, Indonesia, to the Victor Emmanual Range in western Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995).	eng
136812	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This is a large tree kangaroo that needs primary upper montane tropical forests.	eng
136812	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is rare and occurs at low density, and it is difficult to find. The productivity of its preferred habitat is low, resulting in a natural low population density.	eng
136812	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Flannery, T., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Aplin, K., Salas, L. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is threatened by heavy hunting pressure, this includes hunting with dogs (trophy jaws were still very much in evidence in 2000; T. Flannery pers. comm.). It is hunted for food by local people. A large part of the species' range is in uninhabited areas. Populations in the eastern parts of the range were impacted by the fires during the El Niño period in 1998-1999.	eng
136813	conservation	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species occurs in Itatiaia and Restinga de Jurubatiba Nationals Parks.	eng
136813	distribution	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species occurs in the Atlantic Forest region of southeast Brazil, including Bahia, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo States; see Hoffmann <em>et al.</em>, 2002, Pereira <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
136813	habitat	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	The species has been found in submontane and montane vegetation. It occurs in forest and disturbed areas but on edge of forest, from sea level to 800 m elevation (Geise pers. comm.). It also occurs in wetlands (Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
136813	population	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	This species is relatively common to uncommon across a large range. It is not easy to collect (Bergallo pers. comm.).	eng
136813	threats	Bonvicino, C., Weksler M. & Percequillo, A., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.	eng
136814	conservation	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	More research is required on the range, population, threats and habitat requirements of the species.	eng
136814	distribution	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	The main part of of this species' range occurs in Italy, but it crosses the border into France and Switzerland. It inhabits the southern part of the Alps, the Po lowlands, and the Appenine mountains south to Calabria (Brünner <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further research is required to determine the distribution limits of this species. The northern boundary of its distribution is poorly defined, and in southern parts of its range it is confined to higher altitudes and its distribution is patchy; in general it is more patchily and less extensively distributed than shown on the map.<br/><br/>It occurs from the Po plain to at least 1,300 m  (Brünner <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
136814	habitat	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Occurs in areas with dense vegetation cover.	eng
136814	population	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	There are very poor population data for this species. Population trend is not known.	eng
136814	threats	Hutterer, R., Amori, G. & Kryštufek, B., 2008	Pesticides and habitat loss (resulting from agricultural expansion and intensification) are the main threats.	eng
136815	conservation	Wallace, R.B., de La Torre, S. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	This species occurs in the Madidi National Park and Natural Area of Integrated Management in Bolivia, and the Tambopata National Reserve and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. Providing these protected areas remain intact, the conservation status of this species is not an immediate concern. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
136815	distribution	Wallace, R.B., de La Torre, S. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	<em>Callicebus aureipalatii</em> was recently described from the western lowlands of Bolivia (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 2006) from the piedmont forest at the base of the Andes in the south into lowland humid riverine and floodplain forests. Primate surveys indicate that it occurs on the western side of the Río Beni (Wallace <em>et al</em>. 2006; Martinez and Wallace 2007, unpubl.). The eastern and northern distributional limits require further study. Preliminary data indicate that the species is not a Bolivian endemic, with localities stretching into southern Peru until at least the Tambopata River (Ayala pers. comm. to R. Wallace, November 2007).	eng
136815	habitat	Wallace, R.B., de La Torre, S. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	Found in floodplain forest and piedmont forest on the lower hills of the Andes (less than 500 m asl). More common in more dense forest with a higher density of lianas (R. Wallace, pers. obs.). S. De La Torre (pers. comm.) is currently analyzing the results of a six-month behavioural ecology study on <em>Callicebus aureipalatii</em> at the Hondo River study site within the Madidi protected area. Preliminary analyses suggest home ranges of between 17 and 25 hectares for two study groups with more than 30 plant species consumed (S. De La Torre pers. comm.).	eng
136815	threats	Wallace, R.B., de La Torre, S. & Veiga, L.M., 2008	Occasionally hunted, usually for fishing bait. However, hunting databases from several indigenous communities in the region hardly include this species. There is a general threat of habitat destruction related to road development, planned hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, and proposed biodiesel development. Proposed dams may also affect portions of known distribution.	eng
136816	conservation	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It occurs within protected areas within its range.	eng
136816	distribution	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G., 2008	<em>Apodemus epimelas</em> is endemic to the western and southern Balkans, where it is found in Croatia, west Bosnia and Herzegovina, south Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, west Bulgaria and Greece. It is also found on the Adriatic islands of Korčula and Mljet (Storch 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). It occurs at altitudes from sea level to at least 1,600 m (Storch 1999).	eng
136816	habitat	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It inhabits rocky areas with a sparse cover of grass or shrubs (Storch 1999).	eng
136816	population	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G., 2008	It is abundant in suitable habitats, and European populations are presumably stable (Storch 1999).	eng
136816	threats	Kryštufek, B., Vohralík, V. & Mitsain, G., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136817	conservation	Chanson, J., 2008	This species has been recorded from many protected areas within its range.	eng
136817	distribution	Chanson, J., 2008	This species is currently known from thirteen localities across Southeast Asia in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been collected up to 1,600 m asl in Viet Nam.	eng
136817	habitat	Chanson, J., 2008	It has been collected in lowland and montane, primary and secondary evergreen and deciduous forest, often associated with areas of limestone. It is most likely a forest dependent species. Nothing is known of the roosting behaviour of this species.	eng
136817	population	Chanson, J., 2008	There is no information available on the abundance or population trends of this species.  It has only been recently described, but in the past, specimens of this species had been assigned to other <em>Kerivoula</em> species. Hence its recent description is not an indication or rarity but rather taxonomic revision.	eng
136817	threats	Chanson, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species throughout its range.  Being a forest dependent species, logging and agricultural development may be a threat to some populations.	eng
136818	conservation	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	It is not known if it is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136818	distribution	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it occurs in the central highlands and in the south-east of the country. It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,800 m asl.	eng
136818	habitat	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	This is an arboreal species inhabiting montane tropical moist forest. It occurs in secondary and degraded forest.	eng
136818	population	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	The species is common.	eng
136818	threats	Leary, T., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Helgen, K., Wright, D., Allison, A., Aplin, K. & Dickman, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136819	conservation	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	This species is known only from Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area.	eng
136819	distribution	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	The species has been collected only in a small area at the center of Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Saisombun Special Area, where it appeared to be relatively common, and near Ban Nampe, about 11 km north east of Vang Vieng, Vang Vieng District, Vientiane Province, all in central Lao PDR (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006). The species has been caught between 180 m and 400 m asl (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006).	eng
136819	habitat	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	These bats have been captured in patches of intact and disturbed evergreen forest. In Vang Vieng there were large limestone outcrops with caves in the vicinity. Capture sites in Phou Khao Khouay were not near limestone outcrops or large caves, but the roost sites are not known.	eng
136819	population	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	It is known from only two sites (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006). A few surveys in surrounding areas have failed to locate the species (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136819	threats	Bates, P. & Francis, C., 2008	Habitat loss is a possible threat to this species as Phou Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area is not well managed. One of the locations is affected by deforestation, road work and building associated with the development of the large Tak Leuk dam project (Guillén-Servent and Francis 2006).The type locality has been flooded for the dam (C. Francis pers. comm.).	eng
136820	conservation	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is present in Parc National d’Isalo. Future conservation measures should focus on roosting sites, but further research is needed to investigate the roosting and foraging habitats of this species.	eng
136820	distribution	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is restricted to an area of 1,905 km² around the Isalo Massif (Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been recorded between 450 and 700 m above sea level (Goodman and Ranivo 2004) and is currently known from four localities (Bates <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136820	habitat	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	This species has been found in transitional, gallery tropical dry forest in canyons where it has been netted foraging over water (Goodman and Ranivo 2004; Bates <em>et al.</em> 2006). Its roosting requirements have yet to be described.	eng
136820	population	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
136820	threats	Andriafidison, D., Cardiff, S.G., Goodman, S.M., Hutson, A.M., Jenkins, R.K.B., Kofoky, A.F., Racey, P.A., Ranivo, J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Razafimanahaka, H.J., 2008	The threats to this species are not known, but its habitat is presumably undergoing some decline. It has yet to be recorded from synanthropic settings and probably relies on natural roost sites in trees and other vegetation.	eng
136821	conservation	Timm, R., Lacher, T. & Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas.	eng
136821	distribution	Timm, R., Lacher, T. & Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., 2008	This species is known from the montane region of central Guerrero, Mexico. It occurs at elevations greater than 2,150 m (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is only known from two localities:  Filio de Caballo and Omiltemi de la Sierra Madre.	eng
136821	habitat	Timm, R., Lacher, T. & Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., 2008	The species occurs particularly in pine-oak habitats associated with cloud forests. It may occupy other montane regions in central Guerrero, but appears to be restricted in distribution (Bradley <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
136821	population	Timm, R., Lacher, T. & Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., 2008	No information on population or abundance could be found.  Little is known about this recently described species.	eng
136821	threats	Timm, R., Lacher, T. & Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation and deforestation by logging within its restricted range.	eng
136822	conservation	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	In Ecuador, this species occurs in two protected areas and close to other two (D. Tirira, pers. com).	eng
136822	distribution	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	This species occurs in the Cordillera Oriental, ca. 2,400 to 3,800 m, north central Ecuador (Tungurahua and Napo Provinces) (Musser and Carleton, 2005). It also occurs in Carchi province (D. Tirira pers. comm.) and southern Colombia, Nariño Department, Galeras Volcano (M. Gómez-Laverde pers. comm.).	eng
136822	habitat	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is terrestrial. Five animals were taken in Papallacta area en 1978. Three were trapped among mossy boulders in an old lava flow that impounds the Rio Tambo to form a lake and two were taken on the ground in Subalpine Rain Forest in the valley of the Rio Papallacta (Voss, 2003).	eng
136822	population	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	It is rare to uncommon. The <em>Thomasomys cinnameus</em> reported in 1988 was the first report since the original description based on a single specimen collected at 2,438 m near Hacienda San Francisco, Provincia Tunguragua, Ecuador (Voss 2003).	eng
136822	threats	Pacheco, V., Tirira, D. & Boada, C., 2008	Some populations are threatened by deforestation and habitat fragmentation.	eng
136823	conservation	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	This species is present in protected areas. More information is needed on the species' range, population status, habitats and ecology. It is listed as Endangered (EN) in the Japanese Red List (2007).	eng
136823	distribution	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Japan, and is known from the base of the northern Japan Alps and Mount Fuji, Chichibu Mountains, and Oze (Abe, <em>et al.</em>, 2005). It has mostly been recorded from elevations above 700 m asl.	eng
136823	habitat	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	This species roosts in tree hollows, but sometimes it breeds in buildings and houses.	eng
136823	population	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	There are only around 20 records for this species, and very little information is available. There has been little survey work, but they are probably patchily distributed across Japan. It is thought to be very rare. Colonies can contain over 100 individuals (Abe, <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136823	threats	Maeda, K. & Sano, A., 2008	Human disturbance at roost sites in buildings and homes is a threat (exacerbated by the destruction of habitat resulting in loss of suitable tree hollows).	eng
136824	conservation	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Protected areas are needed for this species (particularly St Clair cave).	eng
136824	distribution	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	This species is known from Jamaica (Simmons 2005).	eng
136824	habitat	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Apparently, this species requires large caves with high humidity to roost ( Genoways <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is known from a single cave (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2005). It occurs in the same cave with <em>Natalus micropus</em> (Hoyt and Bake 1980), and other species.  It occurs in a very dry and arid area with xerophytic vegetation. Its biology is poorly known (Genoways <em>et al</em>. 2005).  It is insectivorous (Nowak 1999). It probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges (Tejedor <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
136824	population	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	This bat is uncommon to frequent (Genoways <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136824	threats	Velazco, P. & Turvey, S., 2008	Habitat loss. Not found in protected areas.	eng
136825	conservation	Barquez, R. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	Not known, maybe some research actions.	eng
136825	distribution	Barquez, R. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay (Simmons 2005). Distribution includes southern Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil (Gonzalez 2003), and Paraguay (Lopez-Gonzalez 2004).	eng
136825	habitat	Barquez, R. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	Found in human habitats and forests (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
136825	population	Barquez, R. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	It is an abundant species (Barquez pers. comm.).	eng
136825	threats	Barquez, R. & Gonzalez, E., 2008	Deforestation affects population in Chaco.	eng
136826	conservation	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about any conservation measures being made to protect this species. Further research is necessary to clarify the true status of this species.	eng
136826	distribution	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality; Sierra Tontal, San Juan Province, Argentina (Woods and Kilpatrick, 2005).	eng
136826	habitat	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
136826	population	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	There is no information available on the population status of this species. The area it is recorded from covers <500 km².	eng
136826	threats	Bidau, C., Lessa, E. & Ojeda, R., 2008	The threats to this species, if any, are unknown.	eng
136827	conservation	Chiozza, F., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
136827	distribution	Chiozza, F., 2008	This species is found on Java, Madura, Lombok, Sumbawa, Moyo, Alor, Wetar, Seralu, Timor (including Timor-Leste), Semau, Roti, and Savu Islands in Indonesia (Simmons 2005).	eng
136827	habitat	Chiozza, F., 2008	There is little information available about the ecology and habitat preferences of this species.	eng
136827	population	Chiozza, F., 2008	The abundance and population size of this species are not known.	eng
136827	threats	Chiozza, F., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
136828	conservation	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species is present in Tiantangzhai, Wuyishan, Dinghushan (Guangdong), Shimenhupingshan, Taibaishan, Foping, Gaoligongshan (Yunnan), Qingliangfeng, Tianmushan, Wawushan, and Zhujiashan Nature Reserves (CSIS 2008).  In China, this species has been regionally Red Listed as Least Concern (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
136828	distribution	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has a wide distribution and is endemic to China, occurring in the provinces of Hong Kong, Taiwan, Beijing, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Liaoning, Jilin, Fujian, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan (Smith and Xie 2008), and Hebei (CSIS 2008).	eng
136828	habitat	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species has been recorded roosting in old temples and under roof tiles, and also include caves, buildings (roof, cellar), ruins, hollow trees, and rock crevices. It forages in the surrounding forest habitat.<br/><br/>In early-mid November, it begins hibernation (Smith and Xie 2008). Ovulation for this species occurs at the end of March through the beginning of April, with delayed fertilization that often produces twins in late June (Smith and Xie 2008). Gestation time is 50-60 days (Smith and Xie 2008).	eng
136828	population	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	This species appears to be common over much of China (Jones, G. pers. comm.).	eng
136828	threats	Smith, A.T. & Johnston, C.H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
136829	conservation	Woolley, P., 2008	It is not known whether this species occurs in protected areas. Further information is required concerning its distribution, population status, and threats to it.	eng
136829	distribution	Woolley, P., 2008	This species is endemic to Papua New Guinea, where it is known only from less than ten specimens collected in the Wau area on the northern side of the Central Cordillera (Woolley 2005). It ranges in elevation from 975 to 1,810 m asl (Woolley 2005).	eng
136829	habitat	Woolley, P., 2008	This species inhabits primary montane forest. Like its congeners, it is thought to be diurnal and largely terrestrial (Woolley 2005).	eng
136829	population	Woolley, P., 2008	There is no population information concerning this species.	eng
136829	threats	Woolley, P., 2008	There is no information concerning possible threats to this species.	eng
136830	conservation	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	Further research is needed into the biology, ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
136830	distribution	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in disjunct populations on montane/tepui formations in the Amazon basin in Venezuela (on Cerro Neblina from 1,400 to 2,100 m), eastern Ecuador and in Brazil, in the lowlands along the Rio Jurua (Patton <em>et al.</em>, 2000; Gardner, 2007).	eng
136830	habitat	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is found in montane cloud forest on a Venezuelan tepuis and lowland evergreen Amazonian rainforest (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136830	population	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	This species is known only from three widely disjunct regions; however, its range is likely to be much larger (Emmons and Feer, 1997).	eng
136830	threats	Weksler, M., Patterson, B. & Bonvicino, C., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136831	conservation	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Indonesian forestry law protects all species of muntjac and so <em>M. montanus</em>, despite its position of taxonomic uncertainty, has unambiguous statutory protection in law. Species protection laws relating to ungulates in many areas of Sumatra have not been widely publicized. A significant percentage of Sumatra’s montane forests are protected either as national parks, nature reserves, or Hutan Lindung (protected watershed forests). Unfortunately, protected areas and the authorities responsible for conservation of catchment forests are often under-funded and almost all are grossly understaffed so that there is little ranger presence in the field. Where there are field ranger teams, these focus generally on flagship species such as elephants <em>Elephas maximus</em>, Sumatran rhinoceros <em>Dicerorhinus sumatrensis</em> or tiger <em>Panthera tigris</em>, although tiger protection rangers do also conduct ungulate protection activities and in 2007 three hunters arrested in the national park with two muntjacs carcasses received custodial sentences at Kerinci district court (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some of the known records come from within protected areas, although the operational conservation significance of that is currently minimal: deforestation occurs at higher rates in state forests, including national parks, than in forests owned by communities (Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>To evaluate conservation measures required, any more precisely than to reiterate the need for protection of Sumatran forest and application of existing wildlife laws, the conservation status of <em>M. montanus</em> needs to be clarified. This must start with taxonomic clarification, using as many specimens as possible, as well as other more modern materials such as camera-trap photographs. Once diagnostic characteristics have been established, surveys are needed across the island to determine actual distribution and status and, if the species is not common, the locations of populations of conservation priority. Such status assessment might be achieved by a camera-trapping project, noting that in external features <em>M. montanus</em> may be very close to <em>M. muntjak muntjak</em>. The collection of body parts from hunters is likely to be a vital component of taxonomic clarification and status assessment.	eng
136831	distribution	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The distribution of <em>M. montanus</em> is uncertain. It is known only from specimens collected from western Sumatra, Indonesia, and has never been suspected to occur anywhere off the island. The known localities are Sungai Kering (spelled as Sungei Kring in the Dutch colonial era), a river draining from the south east massif of Gunung Kerinci); Gunung Kerinci [= Korinchi Peak], Kerinci district, Jambi province; and Sungai Kambang [= Sungai Kumbang], Pesisir Selatan district of West Sumatra province (Robinson and Kloss 1918; D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Miller (1942) described a specimen very likely to be this species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008) from Gunung Leuser [= Mount Löser], Aceh Province, in the north of Sumatra. Van Bemmel (1952) mentioned a specimen from Redelong, Aceh, in the Zoological Museum, Amsterdam, and also gave the distribution as including Gunung Talamau (= Mount Ophir) based on Jacobson (1919; basis for record uncertain) and Gunung Kerinci (= Mount Indrapura) based on reports, as well as the lowlands of Deli, east Sumatra. However, all these localities additional to Kerinchi should be considered provisional, notably Deli, because it is not clear from descriptions in Van Bemmel (1952) that the muntjacs he attributed to <em>M. montanus</em> were in fact this species (see Taxonomic Note). There are several modern records. A female muntjac released from a snare (and photographed) at about 1,920 m asl at Ladeh Panjang on the western slopes of Gn. Kerinci, and a male photographed on the south-eastern side of Mt Gunung Tujuh (about 15 km south-east of Ladeh Panjang) at about 1,900 m asl, both locations being within Kerinci Seblat National Park (Kerinci district, Jambi province), each show at least one character likely to be diagnostic of the species (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on photograph and data provided by D. Martyr and J. Holden). Several other animals photographed in the Kerinci Seblat National Park are either best considered unidentifiable, or most probably <em>M. muntjak</em> (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008 based on photograph and data provided by D. Martyr and J. Holden).<br/><br/>It seems very likely that <em>M. montanus</em> is a montane form. The Bukit Barisan mountain chain runs almost uninterrupted along the length of Sumatra, and there does not seem to be an obvious ecological break for restricting species to southern Sumatran mountains such as Kerinci. However, the area south of Lake Toba (about 2°45′N, 99°35′E) has several passes of somewhat lower land and has been suspected to be a faunal break for some species (Whitten <em>et al</em>. 1987); but survey to date has been insufficient to be sure that it truly comprise a barrier of distribution for any of large mammal (e.g. Meiri <em>et al</em>. 2007). Whether <em>M. montanus</em> occurs the length of the chain is therefore difficult to predict.<br/><br/>This paucity of information is partly the result of the synonymy of <em>montanus</em> with <em>M. muntjac</em> in the lengthy review of Van Bemmel (1952), thereby no doubt dousing subsequent authors’ enthusiasm to differentiate muntjacs in Sumatra. In any case, there are very few specimens of muntjacs from Sumatra in easily accessible western institutions, and at least within the RMNH, NHM, AMNH, NMNH and FMNH, the only specimens of <em>M. montanus</em> found by R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) are those of the type series (the small majority of other identifiable specimens being <em>M. muntjac</em>). Other specimens or records of the species may exist, especially within Indonesia, but there is no confirmation of this.	eng
136831	habitat	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Groves, C.P., 2008	The specimens collected by Robinson and Kloss (1918) came from altitudes of 7,300 and 4,700 feet (2,225 m and 1,430 m asl), and that reported on by Miller (1942) was obtained at 9,300 feet (2,830 m asl); all were presumably in montane forest. The two recent records of the species came from 1,900–1,925 m asl. The species may thus be primarily montane. Robinson and Kloss (1918), who only definitely recorded <em>M. montanus</em> at higher elevations, also acquired “a large number of antlers and frontlets” and two skins from local communities in the ‘Korinchi valley’ and suspected these were identifiable as from both <em>M. muntjak</em> and <em>M. montanus</em>; they did not acquire any <em>M. muntjak</em> specimens themselves from their time in the forest.  There are relatively few specimens of <em>M. muntjak</em> from Sumatra, and R.J. Timmins (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of the altitudinal range from which these animals were taken (many historical specimens lack altitudinal data), thus without a thorough re-evaluation of muntjac records from Sumatra (and collection of new data) the ecological relationship between the two species including their respective altitudinal distributions is little more than speculation.<br/><br/>Local hunters in the Kerinci Seblat National Park recognise two forms of muntjac, each of which has a distinctive local name. One is said to be smaller, darker, with small antlers and occurs only in the mountains (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Caution, however, should be taken in assuming that the local names correspond precisely to the two taxonomically defined species <em>M. montanus</em> and <em>M. muntjak</em>, as local people probably use slightly different ‘diagnostic’ characteristics in their taxonomy from those generally used in ‘scientific’ systematics of <em>Muntiacus</em> (for instance elevation might be used as one of the characters). In Indochina, although in some areas local taxonomies and names appear to be based on nominal species of muntjac, it is clear when such taxonomies are tested against empirically defined species boundaries that there is not 100% congruence (in some instances congruence is very poor) (Timmins <em>et al</em>. 1998; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). This is likely to be especially the case in Sumatra, given the close similarity in general body pelage of <em>M. montanus</em> with Sumatran <em>M. muntjak</em> (Robinson and Kloss 1918; Van Bemmel 1952; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Aspects of ecology are predicted to resemble those of other <em>Muntiacus</em> species of broad-leaved evergreen forests.	eng
136831	population	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Nothing is known of population levels or, directly, trends. There are almost 30,000 km² of land above 1,000 m asl in Sumatra (Meiri <em>et al</em>. 2007) but it is unknown how much of this is actually occupied by this muntjac, nor indeed whether 1,000 m is an appropriate altitudinal cut-off. Hunters describe muntjacs in montane areas as ‘rare’ (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).	eng
136831	threats	Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W. & Groves, C.P., 2008	Poaching pressure in Kerinci-Seblat National Park is fairly high. Ungulates are the main hunting target. Among them, snaring was found to be greatest for muntjacs and lowest for chevrotains and serow; the target species were assessed by the diameter of the cable (Linkie <em>et al</em>. 2003). Muntjacs are almost invariably hunted with snares and primarily for meat, either for household use or for sale in village markets. Unlike sambar <em>Cervus unicolor</em>, there seems no significant market for the antlers of this muntjac (which are small) and there is no recorded market for medicinal purposes (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). A figure of 51 snares (mostly of size suitable for muntjac) were found in a one km² area and this was regarded by Linkie <em>et al</em>. (2003) as indicating very high snaring pressure. It is, however, well within the snaring densities found within various Viet Namese and Lao forests which retain muntjacs after a decade or more of such pressures, although it is likely that populations are declining and their long-term viability is unclear (R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Indeed, J. Holden (pers. comm. 2008), in the unique position of substantial direct field experience in both these areas, stated that “hunting pressure even in the worst affected forests of Kerinci does not come close to that in Indochina”. Caution therefore needs to be drawn in inferring anything about the level of threat, if any, that such snaring poses to this muntjac at the population level. Moreover, without knowing the relative distribution of the two muntjac species in Kerinci it is impossible to speculate meaningfully on the effects of hunting on <em>M. montanus</em> specifically: hunting intensity in montane Sumatra is patchy, and although high on Gunung Kerinci, many other montane areas within Kerinci Seblat National Park are little visited by hunters (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Hunters say that they prefer to trap muntjacs at lower altitudes as these animals are generally larger than are those at high altitudes which, hunters advise, rarely if ever yield more than 14 kg of meat (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The montane forests of Sumatra are generally still in relatively good condition although under increasing pressure (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008).The major threat facing them is, in contrast to much of the rest of the Greater Sundas, not logging but conversion to small-holder and other agriculture, in particular coffee plantations and temperate vegetables. This is accelerating as opportunities for clearance of lowland and lower hill forests decrease because so little is left (e.g. Holden <em>et al</em>. 2003: 39). This forest loss takes place even though most of these forests are under statutory protection for their catchment function or fall within national parks or nature reserves. Pressures are locally very high: almost 40 per cent of one mountain has been cleared in the last 10 years (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). Elsewhere, many other montane areas within Kerinci Seblat National Park are at present relatively safe from habitat conversion (J. Holden pers. comm. 2008). Montane forest is also under threat in some areas from mining interests for gold, silver, copper and other mineral resources while pressure for road-building through protected areas continues to threaten core habitats. Conversion of flatter hill and lowland hill forests, legal or otherwise, along the Barisan mountains has fragmented many forest blocks (D. Martyr pers. comm. 2008). The ability to infer anything about threat levels to <em>M. montanus</em> from the ongoing forest degradation and conversion in Sumatra’s highlands is hindered by the lack of understanding of the adaptability of <em>M. montanus</em> to degradation and fragmentation, although it presumably cannot survive outright conversion to non-forest.	eng
136832	conservation	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	The species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in Australia. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
136832	distribution	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This little-known species has been recorded in coastal areas of Papua New Guinea (Port Moresby and Central Province) and northern Australia (West Australia, Queensland, and Northern Territory). It ranges from sea level to 100 m asl.	eng
136832	habitat	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	This species has been recorded from tropical moist forest, open sclerophyll woodland, and mangroves. It roosts in tree hollows, building roofs, crevices, occasionally caves and similar habitats. Females give birth to a single young.	eng
136832	population	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	It is common in Australia (Milne <em>et al.</em> 2008; Richards 2008), and is known from only a few specimens in Papua New Guinea (Flannery 1995; Bonaccorso 1998).	eng
136832	threats	McKenzie, N. & Reardon, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
136833	conservation	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas, specifically four National Parks.	eng
136833	distribution	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species occurs in Costal Central cordilleras, north central Venezuela (Aragua, Miranda, Distrito Federal, and Carabobo) (Musser and Carleton, 2005) from 1,000 to 2,500 m (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
136833	habitat	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is found in primary cloud forest, it is terrestrial, nocturnal, and omnivorous (M. Aguilera and B. Rivas pers. comm.).	eng
136833	population	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	This species is abundant (M. Aguilera pers. comm.).	eng
136833	threats	Aguilera, M., Ochoa, J., Weksler, M. & Rivas, B., 2008	There are no current threats because the habitat of this species is well protected by national parks.	eng
136834	conservation	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	The only known specimen is from the Danum Valley Protection Forest Reserve. There is a need for additional survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
136834	distribution	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Danum Valley Field Centre in Sabah, north Borneo, at 150 m (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136834	habitat	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species was recorded in "dense viny roadside secondary brush on an abandoned logging road" in what remained of primary lowland dipterocarp forest, which is the dominant habitat in the surrounding region (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136834	population	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	This species is known only from the type specimen, which was a juvenile (Musser and Carleton 2005).	eng
136834	threats	Helgen, K., Aplin, K. & Ruedas, L., 2008	Given its presence in lowland regions, it is likely at least somewhat susceptible to extensive habitat loss and human disturbance, although it has been recorded from degraded habitats so would appear to be somewhat adaptable.	eng
136835	conservation	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	It is known from three protected areas, Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha, Réserve Spéciale d’Ankarana, Réserve Spéciale d'Analamerana (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
136835	distribution	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is restricted to the karstic lowland areas in the western part of the island, extending from the drier areas in the north in Diana Region to Parc National Tsingy de Bemaraha in the west (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2005). A record from Toliara in the extreme south has also been attributed to this species (Peterson <em>et al</em>. 1995), but the specimen was not examined as part of the recent reassessment of <em>Emballonura</em> taxonomy on Madagascar (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). The distribution of this species would be significantly reduced if the Toliara specimen was omitted. It is currently known to range between 10 and 330 m elevation (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
136835	habitat	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	It appears to be associated with relatively intact forest and is believed to be forest dependent (Goodman <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006). It is usually found roosting in the entrances to narrow caves and overhangs on rocks that receive weak sunlight (Cardiff 2006; Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kofoky <em>et al</em>. 2007). At night it has been observed resting on buildings (Goodman <em>et al</em>. 2006). It feeds in forest understorey and over small streams with bank side vegetation (Robinson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Its diet includes Lepidoptera (Razakarivony <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
136835	population	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	Roosting colonies of <em>E. tiavato</em> are usually relatively small (< 20 individuals).	eng
136835	threats	Jenkins, R.K.B., Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H. & Cardiff, S.G., 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss due to slash-and-burn agriculture (tavy) and from charcoal collecting and logging. Other potential threats come from the disturbance of roosting caves from tourists (Kofoky <em>et al.</em> 2007), fire (Jenkins <em>et al</em>. 2007) or mining (Cardiff 2006).	eng
136836	conservation	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	It is presumably present in a number of protected areas. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. Further taxonomic work is needed to elucidate the identification and status of <em>P. tenax</em> relative to <em>P. raptor</em>.	eng
136836	distribution	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This species is presumably present over much of the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and is found on the islands of Waigeo and Salawati (both Indonesia). The type locality is near Wau, Papua New Guinea at 850 m asl. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear. A note in Helgen (2007) states: "<em>Paranyctimene tenax</em> may be widely distributed in the northern lowlands of New Guinea and <em>P. raptor</em> in the south (N. Irwin pers. comm.)." It ranges from sea level to 1,350 m asl.	eng
136836	habitat	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	This highly cryptic species is largely solitary. It can be found in primary and secondary tropical moist forest, rural gardens, and swamps. Animals roost in vegetation, and are not likely to be dependant on water. Females give birth to single young; pregnant females have been reported in January, February, April, May, July, August, and September.	eng
136836	population	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	Individuals of this species are commonly encountered. It may be sympatric with <em>P. raptor</em> throughout much of its range, but, because it is difficult to differentiate between the two species, data concerning the distributional limits of the species are unclear.	eng
136836	threats	Bonaccorso, F. & Helgen, K., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Bonaccorso (1998) commented that its small size, solitary roosting behaviour and broad distribution safeguard Paranyctimene against most factors threatening fruit bat populations.	eng
136837	conservation	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures specific to this species. However, there are several protected areas within its range. On Monserrat Island, this species was considered endangered.	eng
136837	distribution	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	This species is in southernmost California (USA) and in the Baja California peninsula (Mexico). It occurs also on several islands in the Gulf of California (Stapp and Polis 2003), but has been extirpated from Monserrat Island (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003).	eng
136837	habitat	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	Presumed generally similar to habitat and ecology of <em>Chaetodipus baileyi</em>, which is found within deserts, at the interface between sandy flats and rocky slopes, and is associatated with shrubs or small trees. <br/><br/>This rodent forages most often in the shelter of perennial plants and modifies its behavior in response to the risk of predation from owls. In the presence of owls, individuals make furtive, short trips into risky open areas between shrubs, especially when the moon is bright. It is solitary, nocturnal, lives in burrows, eats mostly seeds that it stores avidly against lean times, and does not need to drink water. It also is unusually slow in harvesting seeds from sand. Breeding is controlled by rainfall (Wilson and Ruff 1999).	eng
136837	population	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	It is common (Wilson and Ruff 1999). It is said to be numerous in inland habitats and stable on islands (Stapp and Polis 2003). The population on Monserrat Island in the Gulf of California is extinct (Álvarez-Castañeda and Ortega-Rubio 2003).	eng
136837	threats	Linzey, A.V., Timm, R., Álvarez-Castañeda, S.T., Castro-Arellano, I. & Lacher, T., 2008	No known major threats to the species as a whole. However, on Montserrat Island, this species has been extirpated by predation from feral cats.	eng
136838	conservation	Woodman, N., 2008	It occurs in a few protected areas within its range.	eng
136838	distribution	Woodman, N., 2008	This species occurs in the highlands and mid-elevations from Honduras and El Salvador south to central Costa Rica (Hutterer 2005).	eng
136838	habitat	Woodman, N., 2008	This shrew is nocturnal, but sporadically active during both night and day. It is terrestrial and makes tiny runways through grass or uses larger runways made by rodents. The diet includes insect larvae, centipedes and earthworms (Whitaker 1974). It occurs in marshes and a variety of wooded habitats.	eng
136838	population	Woodman, N., 2008	There is very little information known about this species.	eng
136838	threats	Woodman, N., 2008	Development and pesticides are potential threats to this species, but more research is needed to confirm this.	eng
136839	conservation	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are protected areas within the range, but there is only one collecting record from within a protected area. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy of the species, specifically to see to what degree mainland populations differ from those from the Aru Islands (Westerman <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
136839	distribution	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	Wallace's Three-striped Dasyure occurs in the Aru Islands (Indonesia), and in the southern lowlands on the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) from Merauke in the west to Avera on the Aroa River in the east (Woolley 2005). This species is known from less than 20 museum specimens. It was first collected by A. R. Wallace on the Aru Islands in 1857 and more specimens were collected there by P.A. Woolley in 1992. A few specimens were collected in New Guinea in the late 19<sup>th</sup> and early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries and more recently, in 2006, two specimens were obtained in the Trans-Fly region near Serki village by S. Hamilton. The species ranges in elevation from close to sea level to 923 m asl.	eng
136839	habitat	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	Specimens have been collected in lowland tropical moist forest and gallery forest and in secondary habitats. It is a terrestrial and diurnal species (Woolley 2005). Observations on aspects of the reproductive biology of a small number of wild and captive animals have been made by Woolley (2001).	eng
136839	population	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	There is no population information concerning this species.	eng
136839	threats	Leary, T., Seri, L., Wright, D., Hamilton, S., Helgen, K., Singadan, R., Menzies, J., Allison, A., James, R., Dickman, C., Lunde, D., Aplin, K., Flannery, T. & Woolley, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to the species. Possible future threats could include predation from feral cats, which have recently established a small population in the Trans-Fly region. Introduced Cane Toads also could present a future threat to species in the Trans-Fly region, although this remains speculative given the fact that Cane Toads have not yet arrived and the effects of Cane Toads on this species are unknown.	eng
136840	conservation	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is considered secure and is not of conservation concern. Its range includes some protected areas.	eng
136840	distribution	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found from the eastern bank of the Brazos River in central and southeastern Texas eastward into western Louisiana, and north into southwestern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, just east of Norman. The subspecies <em>breviceps</em> occurs in the vicinity of Mer Rouge, Morehouse Parish, Louisiana, and the subspecies <em>sagittalis</em> occurs across the remainder of range (Sulentich <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
136840	habitat	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	This species is found in fine sandy loam soils where topsoil depth is greater than 10 cm. It is also found in clay loam soils. Habitat is mainly prairie and grasslands with oaks and <em>Ilex</em>. Burrows rarely extend into clay subsoils. It is strictly fossorial, rarely leaving its burrows. The burrow system may include up to 80 m of tunnels, including foraging tunnels and deeper chambers for food storage and nesting. Nests may also be found in mounds that extend 30-61 cm above general ground level, especially in areas prone to seasonal flooding.<br/><br/>This species is an opportunistic herbivore, eating roots, stems and leaves of most plant species encountered in foraging. Caches food underground. Reproduction occurs from February through August, with peaks in June-July and April, the average litter size is about 2.6, with one or two litters per year. Females are sexually mature at about three months (Wood 1949). Pocket gophers are ecologically important as prey items and in influencing soils, microtopography, habitat heterogeneity, diversity of plant species, and primary productivity (Huntly and Inouye 1988). They are primarily nocturnal.	eng
136840	population	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	It is common within its range, the population density in fine-sandy loam soil near College Station, Texas, was estimated at 0.55 per hectare (see Sulentich <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
136840	threats	Linzey, A.V. & Hammerson, G., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. It is often viewed as a pest species. Gophers eat crops, their burrows lessen soil stability and the mounds of soil created at the openings of burrows destroy underlying vegetation. Because of this they are often targets of trapping and rodenticide.	eng
136841	conservation	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	<p>This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, abundance, and status of this species. Protection of roosting sites is a priority for the conservation of this species.</p>	eng
136841	distribution	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species occurs in southern Myanmar (Amherst, near Moulmein) and central Thailand.	eng
136841	habitat	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species has been seen roosting in tall, well-established trees in urban areas. It flies many kilometres to feed on wild and cultivated fruits.	eng
136841	population	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	This species was last recorded in Thailand in 1970 (S. Bumrungsri pers. comm.). Presumably, a small viable population remains in southeast Myanmar (P. Bates pers. comm.).	eng
136841	threats	Bates, P. & Bumrungsri, S., 2008	Major threats to this species are unknown, although it is hunted for food and controlled as a pest in some areas, and is also affected by disturbance of roosts but the significance of these threats is not known.	eng
136842	conservation	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	The species has been recorded from some protected areas.	eng
136842	distribution	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is found in central and eastern Bolivia, east of the Andes mountains, in the lowlands of Santa Cruz Department (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004), as well as southwestern Brazil.	eng
136842	habitat	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is widespread in the Cerrado, in the provinces of Navarro and Maldonado; however, in this region it has only been trapped in closed-canopy forests, not in the typical Cerrado habitat (savanna woodlands or shrubland) (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004). It is believed that this species will be found in the parts of Santa Cruz that receive 1000 to 1500 mm of annual rainfall (Voss <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is nocturnal, arboreal and terrestrial, and solitary. It feeds on insects and fruit. It is found in mature, disturbed, and secondary forests.	eng
136842	population	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	This species is the most commonly trapped small marsupial in Santa Cruz, from the base of the Andes to the Brazilian frontier (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2004).	eng
136842	threats	Solari, S. & Patterson, B., 2008	No major threats.	eng
136843	conservation	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Listed on CITES Appendix I. Present in the Tsiombikibo Classified Forest (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). Further work is now urgently needed to clarify the distribution and taxonomic limits of the recently described <em>Lepilemur</em> species.	eng
136843	distribution	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Currently known from the Tsiombikibo region, west of the Mahavavy River. The southern extent of the range is unknown (especially relative to the recently described <em>L. randrianasoloi</em>), although individuals perhaps representing this species have been obtained from the village of Mitsinjo (Louis <em>et al.</em> 2006). The southerly limit is here rather arbitrarily taken as the Maningoza (with <em>L. randrianasoloi</em> to the south), but obviously this requires further investigation.	eng
136843	habitat	Hoffmann, M., 2008	An inhabitant of the eastern rainforest.	eng
136843	population	Hoffmann, M., 2008	There is no information on the population status of this species. One of 15 new species of <em>Lepilemur</em> described in 2006.	eng
136843	threats	Hoffmann, M., 2008	Unknown, although habitat loss is presumably a threat.	eng
136844	conservation	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Occurs in several protected areas.	eng
136844	distribution	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Atlantic forest region of Brazil up to the northern border of Espirito Santo state, south to Rio Grande do Sul, and east to Nisiones, Argentina and eastern Paraguay (Gardner 2007)	eng
136844	habitat	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Primary and secondary habitat. Insectivorous, omnivorous and arboreal. Several ecological studies exist for this species - especially in southern brazil. Can disperse between fragments up to about 800 m apart from one another in grassland matrix (Pires <em>et al.</em>, 2002).  PVAs available for this species also (Brito and da Fonseca, 2006).	eng
136844	population	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	Locally uncommon.	eng
136844	threats	Brito, D., Astua de Moraes, D., Lew, D. & Soriano, P., 2008	There are no major threats. However, there is habitat loss due to agriculture and urbanization in much of its range.	eng
136845	conservation	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Known from at least two protected areas in Brazil and several others in the range.	eng
136845	distribution	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Northern Argentina and Paraguay as well as in Brazil in Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005). The species could occur in Uruguay but has not yet been recorded.	eng
136845	habitat	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	Seasonally flooded forests and grasslands (Carmignotto, 2004 unpublished thesis). The species seems to be adaptable to disturbed habitats and it there is a possibility that it may be expanding in range with deforestation in the Atlantic forest of Paraguay although there are no data to substantiate this (de la Sancha in litt., 2006). Found from 50-1,800 m (Voss <em>et al.</em>, 2005).	eng
136845	population	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	No local estimate of its abundance but it is known from over 20 localities. Locally rare (Carmignotto 2004 unpublished thesis). Appears to be one of the more commonly captured species of small marsupials in Paraguay (de la Sancha in litt., 2006).	eng
136845	threats	Pires Costa, A. & Patterson, B., 2008	There are not currently any major threats to the species (de la Sancha in litt., 2006).	eng
136902	conservation	IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 2008	Listed in CITES Appendix II (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cephalophus brookei</span>).	eng
136908	habitat	Hart, J., 2008	.	eng
136930	conservation	Oates, J.F., Gippoliti, S. & Groves, C.P., 2008	.	eng
141085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to abundant throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
141086	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhea americana</em> has a large range in north-east and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong>, <strong>Uruguay</strong> and north-east and east <strong>Argentina</strong> south to 40&#176;S<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It typically occurs in pampas, campo cerrado and open chaco woodland, normally in areas with some tall grassland and other vegetation, but also in open grassland and cultivated fields, at elevations up to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,4,5</sup></strong>. For breeding, it prefers areas adjacent to rivers, lakes and marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its status is obfuscated by the presence of feral birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it has declined markedly partly owing to hunting for meat and the colossal export of skins. Over 50,000 skins were traded in 1980, most apparently originating in Paraguay, with Japan and USA leading consumers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In recent years, the large-scale conversion of central South American grasslands for agriculture and cattle-ranching<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> has considerably reduced and fragmented its available habitat, particularly in the pampas and cerrado strongholds. The healthiest populations are now in parts of the Chaco region<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II</p>	eng
141087	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhea pennata</em> occurs in three subspecies: <em>pennata</em> in south <strong>Chile</strong>, west-central and south <strong>Argentina</strong>, with an introduced population in north Tierra del Fuego; <em>tarapacensis</em> in north Chile; and <em>garleppi</em> in south <strong>Peru</strong>, south-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west Argentina. The nominate subspecies inhabits shrub-steppe and grassland of floodplains, up to 1,500&#160;m, generally breeding in upland areas with bunch-grass. The northern subspecies are found in desertic salt puna, pumice flats, upland bogs and tola (<em>Lepidophyllum</em>) heath in altiplano at 3,000-4,500&#160;m, down to 1,500&#160;m in the south. All populations have declined markedly and the northern subspecies are in serious danger of extinction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The combined population of <em>tarapacensis</em> and <em>garleppi</em> is estimated at several hundred birds, with the healthiest populations in Argentina (densities at two sites of 2-5 birds/km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1983, the Peruvian population was estimated at 18 individuals, with very low numbers in north Chile (principally in Lauca National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and on the altiplano in Bolivia. There is still extensive persecution, particularly around Andean mining centres, and egg-collection by Aymar&aacute; Indians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the northern part of its range, it is hunted for meat and feathers and, in some areas, immature individuals are domesticated and bred<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. The principal threat to <em>pennata</em> is habitat conversion to farmland or pastures for cattle-grazing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix I (except nominate race, which is on Appendix II). <br/></p>	eng
141088	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Australia, programmes have been aimed at community education, localised habitat management, protection and revegetation, management plans for populations and high-risk individuals, surveys, survey and translocation methods, and habitat use. Most remaining habitat is within protected areas<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In Indonesia and Papua New Guinea: Monitor populations in protected areas. Quantify the effects of hunting and logging. Promote community-based hunting restrictions. In Australia: Revise monitoring techniques. Research population dynamics. Study effects and role of disease. Prevent habitat clearance. Undertake dog and pig control in dense populations<sup>7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141088	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Casuarius casuarius</em> is found in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), including the islands of Seram (where probably introduced) and Aru, and north-eastern <strong>Australia</strong>. It occurs throughout the lowlands of New Guinea except for the northern watershed from the Vogelkop to the Huon Peninsula<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. In Papua and adjacent islands, its status is unclear, but it may be more common than in Papua New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea, it has declined, and is now absent in some locations, including remote areas<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. In Australia, there are 3 subpopulations in Queensland from south of Jardine River on Cape York Peninsula to the Paluma Range north of Townsville, and the population is estimated at c.2,000 birds and is declining<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141088	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a solitary and sedentary inhabitant of rainforest, occasionally using adjacent savanna forests, mangroves and fruit plantations. Its diet largely comprises fallen fruit, although fairly undiscriminating<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141088	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Queensland Parks and Wildlife Servcie (2002) estimated 1,500-2,500 individuals in 2002. No data are available for New Guinea. <br/></p>	eng
141088	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Australia, it is threatened by ongoing habitat fragmentation. The small subpopulations are susceptible to predation by dogs, road accidents, disease, hunting (for food, sport and to protect crops) and possibly predation by, and competition with, pigs. In Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, the species is heavily hunted close to populated areas, being of high cultural importance, and constituting a major food source for subsistence communities<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>. However, although birds appear to be more common in unpopulated areas<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, they can apparently survive in some hunted areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141089	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Casuarius bennetti</em> occurs in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and, presumably as a long-established introduction, on New Britain. It is a forest species occurring into the mountains and occasionally to the treeline at 3,600&#160;m. Although probably tolerant of moderate habitat degradation, logging opens up previously inaccessible areas to hunters. Despite suffering from heavy hunting pressure, it remains relatively common over a wide altitudinal range<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is judged to have a substantial population and to be declining more slowly than the other larger and more lowland cassowaries <em>Casuarius</em> spp. <br/></p>	eng
141090	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey distribution of this and <em>C. casuarius in Vogelkop. Research and quantify the effects of hunting. Research and quantify the effects of logging. Survey extensive areas through discussion with local hunters. Develop a repeatable monitoring technique in protected areas. Monitor populations in protected areas. Campaign for non-hunting protected areas in Papua New Guinea such as April-Saulemei or Ramu lowlands. Use this species as a figurehead for establishing ecotourism-funded protected areas. Liaise with Australian research and action on C.&#160;casuarius.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141090	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Casuarius unappendiculatus</em> is restricted to the northern lowlands of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Its distribution on the Vogelkop is poorly known, but it is known from Yapen, Batanta and Salawati islands<strong><sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. There are few records as this region is seldom visited. There are recent records from Batanta, Salawati and Waigeo in north-west Papua, but several other surveys in Papua have failed to find it<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong>. It is usually less common where hunted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but large areas of its range are remote with few hunters. Beyond these scattered records, there are no data on population or trends. <br/></p>	eng
141090	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest, including swamp-forest, to 700&#160;m <strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Its ecology is poorly known but presumed to be similar to that of <em>C.&#160;casuarius</em>. <br/></p>	eng
141090	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 18,600 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 9,300, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density estimate extrapolated from qualitative information on local population density of <em>C. casuarius</em>). <br/></p>	eng
141090	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	All cassowaries <em>Casuarius</em> spp. are heavily hunted close to populated areas and this species may be particularly vulnerable as it has a preference for river floodplains which are highly populated<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. As well as constituting a major food source for subsistence communities, it has a major cultural importance, including use as gifts in pay-back ceremonies, the feathers and bones as decoration and bones as tools<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>. Chicks captured on hunts are reared in villages for trade and consumption, but there is no breeding of domesticated birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species can probably survive in selectively logged forest, but logging roads open up previously inaccessible forests to hunting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and thus increase this pressure. Although cassowaries appear to survive in some hunted areas, this is dependent on the local culture and the availability of alternative meat-sources and weapons<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141092	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Monitoring is intensive and nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking. Research is focused on the Haast and Stewart Island populations, and involves taxonomy, investigating the effects of predators and their management, ecology and the social structure of populations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey populations in Fiordland. Clarify taxonomy of Haast population. Evaluate islands for the possible translocation of Haast birds. Intensively manage the Haast population, and at least one other mainland population<sup>5. Determine the status of <em>M. erminea on Stewart Island and, if present, eradicate if possible7. Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation5.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141092	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apteryx australis</em> is restricted to Fiordland and Stewart Island, with a tiny isolated population near Haast, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1996, the total population was estimated at 27,000 (c.&#177;25%) birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is common on Stewart Island (c.20,000 birds) and in localised areas in Fiordland (c.7,000 birds)<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It is inferred that it could be declining on the mainland at a rate of 5.8% per year, like its congener <em>A.&#160;mantelli</em>, except perhaps in high-altitude habitats. It is stable on Stewart Island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141092	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in a variety of habitats ranging from coastal sand dunes on Stewart Island to forest, subalpine scrub and tussock grasslands in Fiordland. It feeds primarily on invertebrates but fallen fruit and leaves are also taken. It lays just one egg, usually in a burrow<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 20 years<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141092	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The impact of introduced predators is the greatest threat: brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> eat eggs, <em>M.&#160;erminea</em> and cats eat chicks and juveniles up to c.1,200&#160;g, and dogs, ferrets <em>M.&#160;furo</em>, and <em>T.&#160;vulpecula</em> kill juveniles and adults<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Predation pressure is least on Stewart Island where mustelids are absent, and dogs are prohibited from most of the island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, footprints of <em>M. erminea</em> were found on the island in early 2000, suggesting it may have colonised<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141093	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Translocations to predator-free offshore islands have done much to secure the survival of <em>A.&#160;owenii</em>. More islands have been examined for further introductions, but given the health of the present island populations, and their geographical spread, no more island transfers are now planned<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A small captive-breeding population is held, primarily for public education purposes<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. All populations are monitored using call-counts, and specially-trained dogs are used to track banded birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue regular monitoring of all island populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apteryx owenii</em> occurred in forested areas throughout <strong>New Zealand</strong> prior to European settlement, but is now restricted to five offshore islands to which it has been introduced. The stronghold is Kapiti Island (20&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), where birds are believed to have been introduced in the early 1900s. In the 1980s, birds were released on Red Mercury (2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Hen (5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Long Islands (2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), and to Tiritiri Matangi Island (2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in 1993 and 1995<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 1,100 individuals (1996), with c.1,000 on Kapiti, 50 on Hen, 15 on Tiritiri Matangi, 30 on Red Mercury, 10 on Long Island and 10 in captivity<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Kapiti, the proportion of juveniles in the population appears to be very high<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and numbers may have reached carrying capacity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The total population is predicted to increase to 1,200 by the year 2006, primarily through increases on the four small islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141093	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is present in all available habitats on Kapiti, including mature broadleaf forest, regenerating forest and grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It eats invertebrates, but also fallen fruits and leaves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It lays just one egg, usually in a burrow. Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It normally begins to breed at around three years of age<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 1995, the oldest bird in the wild was at least 17, and the oldest in captivity was 22<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141093	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Hobertson and Colbourne (2004) <br/></p>	eng
141093	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced predators are absent from all the islands except Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em>, which was introduced to Kapiti prior to <em>A.&#160;owenii</em>. There are conflicting reports as to the extent and effect of predation<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, although the <em>A.&#160;owenii</em> population appears very healthy<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The island populations remain susceptible to accidental or deliberate introduction of mammalian predators. <br/></p>	eng
141094	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Monitoring is intensive and nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking. One small population in the eastern Southern Alps is managed intensively by controlling predators<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Leg-hold traps for predators are routinely raised above the ground in kiwi areas to prevent accidental trapping. <em>A.&#160;haasti</em> is the only kiwi species that has no secure populations on islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine regional variation in population dynamics and management needs in the Southern Alps. Evaluate islands for possible translocations. Intensively manage at least one, preferably two, populations. Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation<sup>4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141094	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apteryx haastii</em> has always been confined to the South Island of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, but its range has contracted and fragmented significantly since European settlement, and several populations have disappeared. The three main populations are: north-western Nelson to Buller River, Paparoa Range, and Hurunui River to Arthur's Pass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1996, the population was estimated at 22,000 (&#177; c.25%) birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was assumed to be declining at a rate of 5.8% per year like its congener, Brown Kiwi <em>A.&#160;australis</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but more recent monitoring indicates that wet, upland areas (which hold approximately half the population) may be stable or perhaps only declining slowly<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141094	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in forested mountains from sea-level to 1,500&#160;m, but mainly in the subalpine zone of 700-1,100&#160;m. It uses a wide variety of habitats including tussock grasslands, beech forests, podocarp/hardwood forests, scrub and pasture. It feeds primarily on invertebrates but fallen fruit and leaves are also taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It lays one egg, usually in a burrow<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 15 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141094	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced predators are the greatest threat, in particular, mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, cats, dogs and pigs. As a result, chick survival is likely to be very low like its congener, Brown Kiwi <em>A.&#160;mantelli</em>, with at least 94% of chicks not surviving to maturity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141096	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tinamus solitarius</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pernambuco to Rio Grande do Sul and inland to south Mato Grosso), south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and extreme north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones)<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It is mostly found in lowland humid forest up to 1,200&#160;m, preferring intact closed-canopy forest with little undergrowth<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. There are two subspecies, with the north-east Brazil race <em>pernambucensis</em> having suffered a marked range contraction: not more than 100 individuals were estimated in 1971<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and there is little more recent information. The nominate race is rare throughout its range owing to hunting pressure and habitat loss, although it is still relatively common in several protected areas<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is supposedly susceptible to forest fragmentation (each bird apparently requiring c.30 ha of primary forest), but there is a notable Paraguayan population in a small area of degraded forest, and it is seen regularly in secondary forest at one site in Argentina<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
141097	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are several records from in and around Manu National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>hershkovitzi</em> has been recorded in Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Park, Huila<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for additional populations, especially in areas unknown to science<sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the taxonomy of the disjunct populations<sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Incorporate the Tavara-Candamo area into Bahuaja-Sonene National Park<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Control tourism in the foothills of south-east Peru<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Support conservation education programmes<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141097	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tinamus osgoodi</em> has been found in three areas separated by over 2,000&#160;km. Subspecies <em>hershkovitzi</em> occurs on the west slope of the East Andes, Huila, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where its current status is unknown (last seen in 1976<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). Two birds, apparently belonging to this species, perhaps a new subspecies, were observed in the northern Central Andes of Antioquia, Colombia, in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 2000, a specimen was collected at San Jos&eacute; de Fragua on the east slope of the East Andes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/>The nominate form occurs on the east slope of the Andes in Cuzco, Puno and Madre de Dios, south-east <strong>Peru</strong>, where it has been described as common (at least until 1958), fairly common and uncommon at three known locations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A sizeable population may exist in Manu National Park, Madre de Dios and Cuzco. A bird was recently reported from Shishicho, just north of Puerto Libre, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, near the border with Colombia<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141097	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a poorly-known species of premontane, humid forest, including "valley cloud-forest" (stunted, moss-enshrouded trees) in Madre de Dios<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and may require primary forest<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. The northern subspecies is known from 1,400-2,100&#160;m, whereas the nominate subspecies is generally found at 600-1,400&#160;m. In Peru, breeding-condition specimens have been taken in March-November and a quarter-grown chick was collected in February. One specimen had its stomach and crop full of nuts. <br/></p>	eng
141097	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further justification. <br/></p>	eng
141097	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most intermontane foothill forest in Colombia has been cleared for agriculture and human settlement, and the rate of habitat loss has increased recently with improvements to the road network in Huila<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Opium plantations are spreading, even within Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Park, Huila<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. In its Peruvian range, human settlement and agricultural development of forests occurs largely below c.900&#160;m. However, oil exploration is taking place in the foothills of south-east Peru, and roads built to facilitate this are being settled<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is hunted for food<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141106	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The known range is entirely within protected areas and the species has been legally protected from hunting since 1996 (C. Sharpe, J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez in litt. 1999).	eng
141106	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was only known from six specimens taken on cerros Ptari-tepu&iacute; and Sororop&aacute;n-tepu&iacute;, in south-east Bol&iacute;var, Venezuela, but is now thought to have a much wider distribution in the east Pantepu&iacute; (Barrowclough et al. 1997). In 1994, it was frequently encountered (and four specimens taken) on Auy&aacute;n-tepu&iacute;, in the more humid northern tepu&iacute;, c.50 km distant from the original sites (Barrowclough et al. 1997), and vocalisations of an unknown tinamou on Chimant&aacute;-tepu&iacute; have also been tentatively assigned to this species (Medina Cuervo 1992). It is believed that the small number of records is more related to low observer coverage and limited awareness of vocalisations than to genuine scarcity (C. Sharpe in litt. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
141106	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	On Ptari-tepuí and Sororopán-tepuí, it was recorded as inhabiting cloud forests at 1,350-1,800 m. More recent observations on Auyán-tepuí have been at c.1,500-1,700 m in forested and more scrubby areas (Barrowclough et al. 1997).	eng
141106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at high elevations on Auyan-Tepui and probably more numerous than the small number of record suggest in other parts of its range (Hilty 2003).	eng
141106	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Fire, subsistence agriculture and hunting may present some threat (D. Ascanio in litt. 2007).	eng
141107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141110	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crypturellus transfasciatus<strong> </strong></em>occurs in arid regions of west <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (on the Pacific slope to Lambayeque) at elevations up to 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,4,9</sup></strong>. It is relatively common in suitable habitat<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>, with the population in the Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) estimated to be in the thousands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although a specialist of tropical dry forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, it appears tolerant of a certain level of habitat degradation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Generally, it keeps to denser undergrowth where it forages in the leaf-litter<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The principal threats are widespread deforestation throughout its range, understorey degradation by grazing goats and cattle, and hunting for food<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141113	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Dari&eacute;n National Park, Panama, and Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park, Colombia, are important areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Los Kat&iacute;os National Park, Colombia, protects c.720&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of apparently suitable habitat in the Choc&oacute; region, but the species has yet to be recorded in the reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas between known localities where feasible<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the ecology to provide an improved understanding of its status and distribution. <br/></p>	eng
141113	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crypturellus kerriae</em> is a poorly-known species occurring in the southern part of Dari&eacute;n province, <strong>Panama</strong>, and Choc&oacute; department, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has rarely been recorded, and only a small number of sites are known. The population size is unknown, but it is heard regularly near Cana, Serran&iacute;a de Pirre, Panama<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> and Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park, Colombia, with 10-15 birds heard from 3&#160;km of trails in the latter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141113	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in humid primary forest. The known sites include steep coastal forest in west Colombia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and ridge-top forest at 1,400-1,500&#160;m in Panama<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with other records at intermediate altitudes.</p>	eng
141113	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-3.6 individuals/km2  x 1,364 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,364 - 4,910 but likely to be even higher as density at Utria National Park may be much higher, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of 15 estimates for eight tinamou species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141113	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Vast areas of seemingly suitable habitat remain, but road construction, human settlement, timber extraction and mining are causing gradual reductions. The recent completion of a new road-bridge has made unprotected areas of coastal plain forest adjacent to Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park accessible to settlement and associated threats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Atrato valley, Colombia, is relatively accessible and, if the species occurs there, the population would probably be the most threatened owing to human settlement, and conversion to farmland and banana plantations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is presumably hunted wherever humans are present. The completion of the Pan-American highway through Dari&eacute;n and the canalisation of the Truand&oacute; and lower Atrato rivers, to make an inter-oceanic fairway, are currently on hold, but could have serious effects on the species<strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141115	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crypterellus noctivagus</em> is rare to locally common in the caatinga and Atlantic forests of east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The nominate race occurs from south Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul, with an apparent stronghold in remnant lowland forest (0-300&#160;m) in south S&atilde;o Paulo and east Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is now restricted to only a few Atlantic forest sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but appears to have always been scarce or rare in the south of its range<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The race <em>zabele</em> occurs from Minas Gerais (common in the north<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) to Piau&iacute; and Pernambuco<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It suffers from widespread and continuing habitat destruction and hunting pressure throughout its range, but can survive in degraded and secondary forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141123	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been surveys of its high-altitude habitats, and measures have been proposed for their conservation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been found in Ampay Forest National Sanctuary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the recent Bolivian records were in Apolobamba National Integrated Management Reserve<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Survey appropriate habitat near the historical Jun&iacute;n locality and the humid slope/dry basin transition zone around the "R&iacute;o Mantaro bend" (Jun&iacute;n, Huancavelica and Ayacucho)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong>Surveys for the species on semi-humid slopes at the treeline ecotone in western Bolivia<strong><sup>5. <br/></sup></strong><strong></strong>Research the species's ecological requirements, including the effects of burning of high elevation pastures<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old high-yielding agricultural techniques<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Restrict grazing<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Facilitate low-impact ecotourism and associated trades that generate income for local people<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Make social and political reforms to deal with existing land-right conflicts, and encourage sustainable use on a large-scale<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141123	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nothoprocta taczanowskii</em> is uncommon and probably local on the eastern massifs of the Andes (Cordillera Oriental) in <strong>Peru</strong>, and adjacent La Paz Department, <strong>Bolivia<sup>5</sup></strong>. In Peru, there are recent records from several sites in Apur&iacute;mac, Cuzco and Puno<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it has not been recorded in the Chincheros/Pampa Valley area, north-west Apur&iacute;mac, since 1970. The Cordillera de Huanzo, southern Apur&iacute;mac, has produced only one specimen (collected in 1977) and those from the northern Cordillera de Carabaya, Cuzco, were taken in 1871. It has been recorded from the Maraynioc area, Jun&iacute;n, but there have probably not been any surveys since the last records in 1939<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species was recorded for the first time in Bolivia in 1999, when one male was collected and three to four juveniles observed in Apolobamba National Integrated Management Reserve, La Paz<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Three further records were obtained at an additional locality within the reserve in 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141123	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mosaics of woodland, scrub, pastures, fields, open rocky or grassy areas, mainly in humid or semi-humid montane areas, but has also been recorded at or just above the treeline<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Scrub or woodland habitats are probably a requisite<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it probably does not nest in cultivated or pastural land. Its known elevational range is 2,700-4,000&#160;m. It frequently feeds on tuber crops, especially potatoes. Eggs and chicks have been collected in April and May (Jun&iacute;n) and October (Puno)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141123	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Temperate woodlands and shrubby grasslands in the Andes have been diminishing for centuries because of human activities, such as frequent burning of grassland, and cutting, burning and livestock-grazing in high-altitude copses and shrubby patches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is also hunted for food.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141132	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Bras&iacute;lia, Emas and Serra da Canastra<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> National Parks, IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve, Itapetininga Experimental Station and Itirapina Experimental Station. It may still occur in Serra do Cip&oacute; National Park and further surveys may find the species in Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat in Serra do Cip&oacute; and Chapada dos Veadeiros National Parks, using tape-playback<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify unprotected areas of suitable habitat in north and west Minas Gerais and Goi&aacute;s and survey for this and other threatened Cerrado species<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong></strong>Conduct surveys in remaining areas of suitable habitat in north-eastern Paraguay to clarify status and range. <strong>Investigate habitat requirements and ecology<sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141132	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nothura minor</em> has been recently recorded from very few sites over a large range in south-central <strong>Brazil</strong>, and one site, recently discovered in north-east <strong>Paraguay<sup>9</sup></strong>. There are post-1980 records from Bras&iacute;lia, Emas and Serra da Canastra<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> National Parks (Distrito Federal, Goi&aacute;s and Minas Gerais), IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve and Taguatinga<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (both Distrito Federal), Itapetininga Experimental Station and Itirapina Experimental Station (both S&atilde;o Paulo), and 1970s records from Luzi&acirc;nia (Go&iacute;as) and Serra do Cip&oacute; National Park (Minas Gerais). In Paraguay, the species was discovered in November 2001 at Laguna Blanca, San  Pedro department, and subsequent surveys have revealed a minimum of 14 calling birds in three different areas<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Even at these known sites, it occurs at relatively low densities (e.g. three calling birds in c.20&#160;ha in Bras&iacute;lia National Park) and is absent from much apparently suitable habitat. There are no recent records from Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul or a number of sites in the states mentioned above, indicating a potentially large contraction in range. <br/></p>	eng
141132	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Brazil it inhabits campo cerrado grasslands at 700-1,000&#160;m<strong><sup>  4</sup></strong>, though the Paraguayan site is considerably lower (about 200 m a.s.l.), generally preferring scrubbier areas (campo sujo) than <em>N.&#160;maculosa</em>. It appears to prefer areas with a continuous cover of tall grasses and sedges, and has not been seen in recently burnt vegetation. Breeding is probably October-February. <br/></p>	eng
141132	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>  x 303 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% EOO as it is absent from much suitable habitat) = 9,090 individuals, i.e. within band 2,500-9,999 (density based on "three calling birds in c.20 ha in Brasilia National Park", and may average lower based on records in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141132	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Suitable campo cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141134	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from three protected areas: Serra da Canastra National Park, Itapetininga Experimental Station and the IBGE Roncador Biological Reserve. Several areas adjacent to the r&iacute;o Bermejo, Argentina, have been surveyed with the aid of tape-playback, but the species has not been found<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Serra do Cip&oacute;, Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Parks specifically for this species with the aid of tape-playback<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further surveys in Argentina and Paraguay in the areas where it was collected<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess abundance in protected areas. Assess precise ecological requirements. Determine best management practices for existing protected areas. Control the burning of cerrado habitats<sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141134	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Taoniscus nanus</em> is currently restricted to the Cerrado region of central and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Distrito Federal, Goi&aacute;s, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, S&atilde;o Paulo and formerly Paran&aacute;. The type-specimen was collected in Misiones, <strong>Paraguay</strong>, and two specimens were taken in <strong>Argentina</strong> (one in 1901 and the other, possibly in the same year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, from near the r&iacute;o Bermejo in either Chaco or Formosa), but there have been no further records from either country. There are historical reports of small flocks, but the few recent records are from scattered areas and have mostly involved singles or pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, up to four calling birds have been found in c.2&#160;ha<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and, with knowledge of its voice, it may prove to be more widespread.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141134	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits campo cerrado with scattered shrubs, including scrubby fields or campo sujo<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The specimens from Paraguay and Argentina were collected in scrub grasslands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has been reported taking invertebrate prey, including termites, and feeding on Graminae seeds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A pair in captivity laid three eggs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141134	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-1.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 5,800 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 5,800-6,960, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from up to lower quartile in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, but may be locally much higher based on densities of four calling birds per 2 ha [Silveira and Silveira 1998]). <br/></p>	eng
141134	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	High-quality cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since the species can only cover c.50&#160;m in flight<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, it is presumably susceptible to fast-moving fires, and is unlikely to disperse between isolated habitat fragments.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141138	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141143	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant populations occur in Machalilla National Park (Guayas/Manab&iacute;) and the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve (Tumbes), but these are affected by illegal settling, hunting, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Several other protected areas in Ecuador hold populations<strong><sup>1,2,6,8,9,12</sup></strong>, and it may occur in the large Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest, which is the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations<sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Research and manage limiting factors<sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct research into its biology<sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Map the forest patches of the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche to identify further sites for protection<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve the effectiveness of protected areas in west Ecuador<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141143	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ortalis erythroptera</em> is confined to the Tumbesian region of west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Manab&iacute;, Guayas, Los R&iacute;os, Chimborazo, Azuay<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, El Oro and Loja), extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Cajamarca) and extreme south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The population has been much reduced, and may number fewer than 5,000 birds<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141143	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dry, deciduous woodland, lowland riparian forest, humid, lower montane cloud-forest, forest edge, degraded forest habitats, scrub, and occasionally uses agricultural land at elevations up to 1,850&#160;m (but there are few recent Peruvian records below 1,000&#160;m)<strong><sup>1,6,9,11</sup></strong>. It has been observed eating leaves and coffee berries<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding probably occurs during the wet season (January-May). <br/></p>	eng
141143	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population justification: A new population has been discovered in eastern Esmeraldas, Ecuador, which due to the size of the potentially available habitat may hold one of the world's largest subpopulations (R&iacute;o Canand&eacute;, Hoja Blanca, &Oacute;nzole, Cayapas, and Santiago drainages)<strong><sup>15,16,17</sup></strong>. However, population densities are usually low, and the population there is currently estimated at only 500-1,000 birds<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>. Its historical range to the south is now extremely fragmented, with viable populations restricted to only a few locations and probably maintaining less than 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/>Population estimate = 0.5-9.0 individuals/km2 x 1860 km2 (10% EOO) = 930-16,740, i.e. best placed in band 2500-10,000 (upper density estimate based on a maximum of 6 calling groups, of at least 3 individuals, in an area of 1-2km2 recorded in Sozoranga area, cited in del Hoyo 1994; lower density estimated for eastern Esmeraldas according to O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007 and P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141143	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In west Ecuador, forest cover below 900&#160;m was reduced from 63% (of 1938 cover) in 1958, to less than 8% in 1988<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1988, only an estimated 4.4% of the original cover remained<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In higher parts of its range, deforestation has been slower, and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. New roads have opened up areas for logging, clearance for agriculture and understorey-grazing by goats and cattle<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Continuing habitat loss will soon remove almost all remaining unprotected forest if effective action is not taken urgently<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Degradation of forest fragments through intensive grazing perhaps explains the paucity of recent records at low elevations in Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is hunted in Ecuador, but largely protected from this threat in Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141144	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A new Biosphere Reserve, Chamela-Cuixmala (covering 131 km²), was decreed in 1994 to help safeguard dry forest habitats (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
141144	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in south Sonora, Sinaloa, north-west Durango, west Nayarit and north-west Jalisco, in north-west Mexico (Sibley and Monroe 1990).	eng
141144	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in a variety of habitats, included some severely altered by humans (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is most common in tropical dry deciduous thorn forest, but also occurs in semi-deciduous forest, secondary growth, palm plantations and dense mangroves (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998). Although seldom found at elevations above 1,300 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994), it occasionally occurs at up to 2,000 m. In south Sinaloa nesting apparently peaks in June, with laying also in May and July. One nest was 1 m above ground in a small spiny tree c.3-5 m tall, and three eggs are usually laid. It feeds on the fruits of trees (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141144	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the west Mexican coastal plain is densely populated and consequently its lower elevational dry forests have been heavily degraded and fragmented (Strahl et al. 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, its tolerance of a variety of habitats (including those that have been degraded) suggests that it is not of immediate conservation concern (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is also hunted for food (Strahl et al. 1994), a threat that is presumably compounded by the continued fragmentation of its habitat. The dry forests of western Mexico have been largely ignored as a key habitat for biodiversity conservation, with no comprehensive plan to conserve them (Ceballos and García 1995). There are few protected areas within its range.	eng
141145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141149	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ortalis superciliaris</em> inhabits deciduous forest, humid forest edge and scrub thickets in north-east Par&aacute;, north Tocantins, Maranh&atilde;o and west Piau&iacute;, south of the Amazon in north <strong>Brazil<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is apparently relatively common around Bel&eacute;m, in Par&aacute;, and scarce in the S&atilde;o Lu&iacute;s area of north Maranh&atilde;o<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but rare elsewhere. Primary threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation, heavy hunting pressure and trade, all of which suggest that it is declining<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141149	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
141150	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon comprises three subspecies, two of which are restricted to single mountain ranges (Strahl et al. 1994). The nominate race is uncommon to fairly common in north Colombia, although there are few recent records (P. G. W. Salaman in litt. 1999), and north and west Venezuela. This subspecies has a population of less than 50,000 individuals, divided into several subpopulations, of which at least two are declining (Hilty and Brown 1986, Strahl et al. 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997). The race albicauda has a population of less than 10,000 individuals in the Sierra de Perijá in north-east Colombia and north-west Venezuela (Strahl et al. 1994). The race colombiana also has a population of less than 10,000 individuals and occurs in the Santa Marta mountains, north Colombia (Strahl et al. 1994).	eng
141150	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species primarily inhabits dense montane evergreen forest in subtropical and upper tropical zones, often nesting in Rubraceae tree species, but is occasionally observed in tall secondary growth, coffee plantations and the upper edges of drier forest, at elevations of 800-2,400 m, and locally from 350-3,050 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Strahl et al. (1994)	eng
141150	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Populations in the Sierra de Perijá in north-east Colombia and north-west Venezuela (race albicauda) are threatened through deforested for cattle-ranching and narcotics cultivation (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Populations in the Santa Marta mountains, north Colombia (race colombiana) are threatened by agricultural expansion, logging, burning, illegal agriculture and retaliatory herbicide spraying by the government (Dinerstein et al. 1995, Stattersfield et al. 1998). Most subpopulations are threatened by hunting for food and habitat loss, with the nominate race hunted for sport, despite virtually all occurring within national parks or forest preserves (Strahl et al. 1994, Strahl and Silva 1997). Only 15% of the sierra's original vegetation remains unaltered, suggesting that the formal designation of protected areas has not provided effective protection (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
141151	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected within Podocarpus National Park, Zona Reservada de Laquipampa<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Tabaconas-Namballe National Sanctuary, Piura/Cajamarca<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey known populations and ornithologically unknown areas within the species's range. Manage Podocarpus National Park such that threatened species are better protected. Establish further protected areas within upper montane forests, both in Peru and Ecuador. <br/></p>	eng
141151	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope barbata</em> has a relatively restricted range in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Azuay, El Oro, Loja) and north <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, Ayabaca, Huancabamba and Ferrenafe). Suitable habitat within its range is estimated at 2,637&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and probably a larger area in Peru. In 1989, the population in Ecuador was estimated at c.3,000 individuals (1,000-6,000) occurring at c.2-4&#160;birds/km<sup>2</sup>, though detailed surveys in the Cordillera de Chilla produced much higher density estimates in three forest patches: 2.3&#160;birds/km<sup>2 </sup>(1.4-3.7), 6.7&#160;birds/km<sup>2 </sup>(4.5-10.1) and 17.1 birds/km<sup>2 </sup>(10.4-27.9), with 55-146 individuals in total<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Montane forest in Podocarpus National Park possibly holds up to 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since 1989, other populations have been found in Ecuador, notably on Lomo Angashcola, Loja<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. In Peru, it is relatively common in the upper Sa&ntilde;a valley, Cajamarca<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and has recently been discovered at several sites in Ayabaca and Cajamarca<sup>e.g.<strong>5</strong></sup>. Extensive unsurveyed areas of habitat exist in north Peru. <br/></p>	eng
141151	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This large frugivore inhabits humid montane forest and cloud-forest at 1,500-3,000&#160;m, and regularly to 1,200&#160;m in Lambayeque. It is usually seen in pairs, or small groups of three or four. Its breeding ecology is poorly known, but adults with chicks have been recorded in March-July, and a recently fledged juvenile in late July. <br/></p>	eng
141151	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141151	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is declining owing to widespread habitat destruction and fragmentation, compounded by hunting in many key areas, e.g. Loma Angashcola and Podocarpus National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Within the latter, illegal gold mining and forest clearance by colonists take place within the park boundary, although large areas of undisturbed forest remain<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141152	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Esmeraldas), Farallones de Cali (Valle de Cauca) and Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a (Choc&oacute;) National Parks<strong><sup>9,18</sup></strong>, and in the small El Pang&aacute;n Nature Reserve, Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>14,16</sup></strong>. Historical specimens from the vicinity of Munchique National Park, Colombia, suggest that fieldwork at appropriate altitudes would probably find the species<strong><sup>14,16</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Survey appropriate habitats, especially in poorly-known areas. <strong>Extend and improve the network of protected areas in Nari&ntilde;o and Esmeraldas<sup>2,11,14.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141152	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope ortoni</em> has been recorded locally along the west Andean foothills throughout west <strong>Colombia</strong> and in <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Naranjal, Guayas<strong><sup>8,17</sup></strong>. In Colombia, recent reports are from Choc&oacute;<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Valle del Cauca<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>7,12,15</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, it occurs in the Mindo-Nambillo area, Pichincha, but the majority of modern records are from Esmeraldas<strong><sup>1,18</sup></strong>. Its range and population have undoubtedly contracted greatly. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141152	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid and wet forest in the tropical zone, up to 1,500&#160;m elevation<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong>. In Esmeraldas and Azuay, specimens have been taken on the coastal plain, but only near the base of the Andes, and it seems to be a bird of the foothills and immediately adjacent lowlands<strong><sup>4,7,10</sup></strong>. A female killed in Nari&ntilde;o in August was close to breeding condition<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141152	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The Ecuadorian population was estimated at 2,500-7,500 mature individuals in 2002<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. On the basis of extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples<strong><sup>24</sup></strong> (1997-2006) in Esmeraldas, Ecuador, extrapolated global population size was estimated at 7,000-21,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>25,26,27</sup></strong>. In remote premontane forest, about 0.5-1.5 territories were counted per transect kilometre<strong><sup>26,27</sup></strong>. However, the species is usually extirpated within about 2-5km around human settlements<strong><sup>26,27</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141152	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is extremely sensitive to habitat modification and hunting<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Large parts of its range have long since been deforested and plans to colonise and develop more remote regions are progressing through the rapid expansion of the road network<strong><sup>11,13,19</sup></strong>. Colonisation is in turn increasing the impact of small-scale agriculture, hunting for food and gold mining<strong><sup>11,12,13,14,19</sup></strong>. Logging and intensive agriculture, especially oil-palm and banana plantations and cattle-farming are major threats<strong><sup>2,3,11,13,19</sup></strong>, and have already transformed over 90% of the Ecuadorian landscape below 900&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup>2,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141156	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the East Andes of south Bolivia (south Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija) and north-west Argentina (Jujuy and Salta) (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). Recent surveys estimated the population in Montes Chapeados, Chuquisaca, at 6,000 adults, with a similar sized population projected to occur in the Río Pilcomayo area, Chuquisaca (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996). Other large populations occur east of Padilla, Chuquisaca, and in Serranía Iñao, and a population was recently discovered in south Santa Cruz, extending its known range northwards (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996). In Argentina, it is locally common in Calilegua National Park, Jujuy, and Baritú National Park, Salta (Chebez et al. 1998), and intermediate records indicate these populations are possibly connected.	eng
141156	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in large tracts of montane evergreen forest. It is particularly associated with forests of Alnus, Tabebuia and Podocarpus, at 1,500-2,500 m, and occasionally 800-2,700 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Fjeldså and Mayer 1996, Rocha and Quiroga 1996, J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999).	eng
141156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common in Argentina. The population in Chuquisaca, Bolivia, is estimated as 3,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141156	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is primarily threatened by hunting for food, especially outside protected areas (Strahl et al. 1994). In Argentina it suffers from the fragmentation of its habitat, with as much as 60% of Argentinian yungas forest having disappeared by the 1970s (Vervoorst 1979, Strahl et al. 1994), largely as a result of logging, conversion to agriculture and plantations of exotic pines Pinus. Road building and human colonisation have further increased habitat destruction (WWF/IUCN 1997), and a new road between Santa Victoria and Baritú, Salta, is likely to increase hunting pressure (J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999). A considerable reduction in its habitat has been reported in Tarija and Chuquisaca, and habitat destruction and hunting pressures appear to be quite high in Alnus-Podocarpus forests throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). However, large populations in Jujuy and Chuquisaca are considerably less threatened, owing to their inaccessibility and isolation (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141158	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ucumar&iacute; is contiguous with Los Nevados National Park, and it also occurs in the adjacent Ot&uacute;n-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Yotoco and Bremen (Quind&iacute;o) Forest Reserves hold small populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has not been found in Munchique area since its detection just outside the national park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and estimate population sizes, especially in Ucumar&iacute;<sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat<sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Provide posters and resources for an educational programme about cracids, particularly aimed at limiting hunting<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141158	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope perspicax</em> occurs on the west slopes of the West and Central Andes (Risaralda, Quind&iacute;o, Valle del Cauca and Cauca), <strong>Colombia</strong>. It was formerly considered mostly an east slope species in the West Andes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the only records on this slope are apparently from Yotoco Forest Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and R&iacute;o Lima (both near low passes in Valle del Cauca), the south-east slope of Cerro Munchique, Cauca, and possibly those collected above Pat&iacute;a, Cauca, and at Clementina (an untraced locality). There are recent records from just a few, widely spaced sites, but these are distributed throughout much of its historical range<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The global stronghold is Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141158	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	At 1,600-2,150&#160;m, it appears mostly dependent on large, humid, primary forest fragments<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but most recent records at 900-1,600&#160;m have been from plantations of exotic broadleaf trees, secondary forest and forest edge<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in forest borders, mature secondary forest and in a <em>Pinus</em> plantation, and, in the north of its range, coincides with rainy periods of the year, September-October and February-March<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141158	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-4.9 individuals/km2 x 252 km2 (45% EOO) = 252-1,235 i.e. within band 250-1,000 (density range is up to the lower quartile of eight estimates for four congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141158	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has suffered from severe loss of suitable habitat (almost total in the middle Cauca valley) over the period of human colonisation. Many of the localities, at least historical ones, are near the Buenaventura-Buga and Buenaventura-Cali roads, and are thus severely threatened by colonisation and associated deforestation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Munchique National Park is subject to the same threats, as well as dam construction. The species is also hunted for food, even in some protected areas, although apparently not in Ucumar&iacute;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. If it does occur in the relatively intact forests of the Pacific slope of Valle del Cauca and Cauca, then logging is a key threat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141159	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Surveys have been conducted over a wide area of north-west Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species and its habitat are legally protected in the Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge, which was established specifically to protect the guan, and supports 22 individuals as well as 8 re-introduced adults, four of which have bred, and the species appears to be reasonably secure at this site<strong><sup>16,17</sup></strong>. A further 10 individuals were planned to be re-introduced at Laquipampa in 2008<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The Chaparri Private Conservation Area nominated by Santa Catalina village community also supports a successfully reintroduced population, with c.54 individuals currently present, including 9 breeding pairs<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. There has been a training workshop for park guards involving members of the Laquipampa and Santa Catalina communities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Reintroductions have contributed c.50 individuals to the current wild population, with successful breeding by captive-raised parents recorded<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>. Efforts are continuing to identify additional sites across its former range to host reintroductions. El Angolo Hunting Reserve was identified in 2004 as a suitable reintroduction site capable of holding c.6 pairs owing to its favourable protection status and floristic composition<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It lies near the centre of the guan's projected former range<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. An education/awareness raising campaign has been designed and was implemented in 2008, with a further awareness campaign planned for 2010<strong><sup>17,20</sup></strong>. Local people provide a level of protection for a site known as 'Limon', stimulated by ecotourism, which holds 25 individuals. A local NGO is working towards formal protection for the site<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. There are formal proposals to create a protected area in the northern part of its range<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor natural and reintroduced populations<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue and expand local awareness campaigns<sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve <em>de facto</em> protection of Laquipampa Wildlife Refuge<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to develop the potential for ecotourism<sup>3,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Asses the genetic status of the species. Create a protected area north of the species's known distribution<sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare a national conservation strategy<sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Involve local communities in the conservation strategy for the species<sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
141159	distribution		<em>Penelope albipennis</em> survives in Lambayeque, Piura<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Cajamarca departments in north-west <strong>Peru</strong>. Historically, the species was probably well distributed across the Tumbesian dry forest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have found guans in 22 localities in a band 200 km long with an average of 1 individual/10 km<strong><sup>2,16</sup></strong>. It was initially discovered in Tumbes in 1876, but there have been no subsequent records<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The population is estimated to number 150-250 individuals, comprising of a northern and southern population separated by up to 30 km<strong><sup>17,18</sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme is underway, comprising 70 birds in 2007<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Individuals have been reintroduced to several areas, however a population of c.50 individuals in the Chaparri Private Conservation Area may not be sustainable as it occurs in habitat which may not be suitable for the species, thus the population may require ongoing management to survive<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
141159	habitat		It inhabits dry wooded slopes and ravines at elevations of 300-1,300 m, and may have formerly occurred in lowland carob (<em>Prosopis </em>spp.) forest. It favours valleys with small permanent streams or waterholes, and dry deciduous forest with dense cover and little human disturbance. Some seasonal movements appear to take place, but the exact nature of these is unclear<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit, flowers, leaves, buds and seeds. It has also been observed in agricultural land, feeding on the leaves of maize, beans and sweet potatoes, and the fruit of coffee plants<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Eriotheca ruizii </em>has been identified as a key plant species for foraging and cover, present at the majority of sites that hold the guan<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in January-August, and two or three eggs are laid<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
141159	population		The number of birds recorded in 2008 was 135 individuals (Angulo 2008). However the complete range was not surveyed, and not all birds will have been counted. A recent estimate places the population nearer to 250 individuals (F. Angulo <em>in litt.</em> 2010) hence a population of 150-249 seems appropriate.	eng
141160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141162	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope pileata</em> occurs exclusively in dense lowland humid forest south of the Amazon, from lower rio Madeira to the rio Xing&uacute; (Gorotire and Altamira), as far as east Par&aacute; (Our&eacute;m and Serra dos Carajas) and Maranh&atilde;o (rio Graja&uacute;, and the Mearim-Pindare river system), in north-central <strong>Brazil<sup>4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Surveys in the late 1980s and early 1990s almost doubled the range of this species, and it is relatively common in Amaz&ocirc;nia (Tapaj&oacute;s) National Park, but scarce around Santar&eacute;m, Par&aacute;<strong><sup>3,7,9</sup></strong>. However, the total population is not considered to be large, and forest destruction has been fairly widespread, especially in Maranh&atilde;o and Par&aacute;<strong><sup>1,4,9</sup></strong>. This is because conversion to pasture and settlement of landless agriculturists are part of government-sponsored land reform<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are additional pressures from hunting for food and its status as a prized aviary bird<strong><sup>2,7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141162	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
141163	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, and has been recorded around the periphery of Pantanal National Park and Araguaia National Park. It is found in Cant&atilde;o State Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess the species's current range and ascertain its occurrence in Pantanal and Araguaia National Parks. Protect populations in Pocon&eacute; from further habitat loss. Consider the development of sustainable forestry practices to supply materials for bridge repairs on the Transpantaneira road.</strong></p>	eng
141163	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope ochrogaster</em> occupies a poorly defined range in central <strong>Brazil</strong>. All recent records have been in south Mato Grosso, and the species was recently discovered in the 90,017.9 ha Cant&atilde;o State Park, western Tocantins, and at Santana do Araguaia, outside the national park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and, on August 2002, in another two further areas outside the park, Fazenda Trindade and rio do Coco. The species seems to be locally common at these sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It presumably occurs south of the rio Cuiab&aacute; in extreme north Mato Grosso do Sul, but there are no confirmed records since 1909. There are no records from north-east and west-central Goi&aacute;s since 1933, or from north-central Minas Gerais since 1913. It is moderately common in Pocon&eacute;, Mato Grosso, but the extraordinary paucity of historical and recent records suggests that elsewhere it is highly localised. Moreover, the concentration of recent records suggests that it may have been extirpated throughout much of its formerly large range. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141163	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In the north Pantanal, it inhabits "cordilheira" (high-ground) forest, and particularly semi-deciduous gallery forest with a continuous canopy of 15-20&#160;m. These forests are rich in woody lianas (mainly Sapindaceae and Bignoniaceae) along the edges, with a relatively open undergrowth except for occasional dense patches of terrestrial bromeliads<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It presumably feeds mostly on fruit, but during the dry season (May-September) is possibly heavily dependent on the flowers of <em>Tabebuia </em>trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141163	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-4.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 682 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 682-3,342, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range is up to the lower quartile of eight estimates for four congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141163	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss for new cattle pastures and small-scale agriculture is the major threat in Pocon&eacute;, where hunting is rare or non-existent<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Tabebuia</em> trees are cut to rebuild bridges along the Transpantaneira road each year after the floods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, it has presumably suffered from massive habitat loss and hunting for food. Large areas of central Brazil have been converted to <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Much of this destruction has occurred since 1950, and has been encouraged by government land reform initiatives<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141164	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent records from a number of protected areas including Raso da Catarina Ecological Station (Bahia),  Serra da Capivara National Park (Piau&iacute;), Serra das Confus&otilde;es National Park, Sete Cidades National Park, Parque Ambiental de Teresina and Pernambuco (Serra Negra Biological Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Mauricio Dantas Private Reserve).  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat. Improve <em>de facto</em> protection of protected areas within its range. Initiate local awareness campaigns to combat hunting in protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141164	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelope jacucaca</em> is confined to Piau&iacute;, Cear&aacute;, Para&iacute;ba, Pernambuco, Bahia and north-east Minas Gerais, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>13,14</sup>. There are apparently three distinct subpopulations: south of the rio S&atilde;o Francisco; north-east of the rio S&atilde;o Francisco; and south-east Piau&iacute; to west Cear&aacute;<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There are recent records from north-western Minas Gerais (Mocambinho<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Jatob&aacute;16), Bahia (Raso da Catarina Ecological Station<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Cura&ccedil;&aacute;<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Chapada Diamantina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and southern Piau&iacute; (Serra de Uru&ccedil;u&iacute;<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, Serra da Capivara National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Serra das Confus&otilde;es National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Sete Cidades National Park<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, Parque Ambiental de Teresina<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>) and Pernambuco (Serra Negra Biological Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Mauricio Dantas Private Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). There are no recent records from near coastal areas of Alagoas, Pernambuco or Para&iacute;ba, as claimed in the past, and the species is considered extinct there.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141164	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a poorly known and scarce resident of dry, lowland stunted forest and caatinga<strong><sup>12,14</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141164	population	BirdLife International, 2008	"Less than 10,000 individuals" in Delacour and Amadon (2004).  <br/></p>	eng
141164	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	North-eastern Brazil is the poorest region in the country and has a strong hunting culture. This large and attractive species is considered either locally extinct or very rare over much of its distribution and is under intensive pressure from hunting even in "protected" areas. Additionally, both Raso da Catarina and Serra Negra are intensively exploited by Indian groups, who have also cut much of the latter forest<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Degradation of dry forests and arboreal caatinga, apparently its favoured habitats, has also been intensive.  <br/></p>	eng
141165	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It has been legally protected since 1963. There were conservation and education campaigns in the 1980s, but new initiatives in 1997-1998 appear to be finally changing attitudes<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Much of the present range is within forest reserves and state forests, but the laws protecting both species and areas are generally not enforced. Matura National Park protects a large area of suitable forest but there is limited law enforcement at the site. There are plans to use radio-telemetry to learn more about the species' biology<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Species-specific ecotourism is having a positive effect in the Grande Riviere, providing financial support for local communities and developing a sense of collective responsibility<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A recent questionnaire survey supported the idea that ecotourism was boosting awareness and attitudes towards conserving wildlife, although hunting behaviour remains unchanged<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Pawi study group may begin a captive breeding programme in the future<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey areas of historic occurrence to determine its status in these areas. Monitor the population in areas of known occupancy. Determine ecological requirements and breeding biology. Enforce the protection of current forest reserves. Formally establish the Matura National Park. Develop further education/public awareness campaigns, in particular working with hunters, to ensure the success of site protection. Study its ecological requirements using radio telemetry. Investigate the potential risk to the remaining population from disease/parasites</strong><sup>6</sup>. Assess feasibility of captive breeding and begin a programme  if appropriate<sup>6</sup>.	eng
141165	distribution		<em>Pipile pipile</em> is endemic to Trinidad (<strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong>), where it was once abundant throughout the Northern Range and the southern Trinity Hills, and also occurred in lowland areas such as the Nariva Swamp and Aripo Savannas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is now extinct in the lowlands, and almost certainly extinct in the Trinity Hills (surveys have failed to find the species since 1994, although there is one credible report from Victoria Mayaro reserve in 2000) and the western end of the Northern Range, east to the Arima-Blanchisseuse road<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The only extant population is in the eastern portion of the Northern Range, where just c.150 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat remains. The population is estimated at 70-200 individuals, but is probably closer to 200<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
141165	habitat		It feeds in the canopy of remote lower and upper montane rainforest, preferring steep, hilly areas with numerous streams, sparse ground-cover, a closed canopy and abundant lianas and epiphytes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is known from elevations of 10-900 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known from secondary vegetation and cultivated land near to primary forest, and formerly occurred in semi-evergreen forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>; it seems to tolerate humans as long as canopy trees are available and it is not hunted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Very little is known about its breeding, but breeding seems to take place in most months and two eggs are laid. It feeds mainly on fruits, but also eats flowers and leaves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
141165	population		The population has been estimated at 70-200 individuals, though it is probably closer to the higher end of this estimate. (R. Ffrench <em>in litt</em>. (1998); F. E. Hayes <em>in litt</em>. 1998, 1999).	eng
141166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Ecuador and southern Peru to rare in French Guiana and north-eastern Peru (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141167	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon occurs as two subspecies: the nominate race in north-central Brazil, south of the Rio Amazon from the lower Rio Madeira to north Pará; and the race nattereri in south and west Amazonia and Mato Grosso, west Brazil, to the border with Bolivia. The nominate race is fairly common in Amazônia National Park, Amazonas, and in parts of Rondônia, but has not been recorded around Belém and Santerém since at least 1960. The race nattereri is fairly common to uncommon in north Mato Grosso and probably throughout most of its range.	eng
141167	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits river-edge and lowland evergreen forest. Flocks of up to 30 have been recorded, but no information on diet or breeding is available.	eng
141167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The two subspecies have populations of less than 5,000 individuals (nominate) and 10,000-20,000 individuals (nattereri) (Strahl et al. 1994)	eng
141167	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by hunting for food, human interference and disturbance, and habitat loss. Although deforestation has been largely restricted to highway corridors in Amazonia, this has impacted severely on the habitat of this species in Mato Grosso and Rondônia. Almost a quarter of the land mass of these two states had been cleared by 1988, principally due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining, hydroelectric development and urban growth (Cleary 1991, del Hoyo et al. 1994, Strahl et al. 1994, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141168	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in Intervales State Park and surrounding reserves<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Serra do Tabuleiro State Park (Brazil)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Iguaz&uacute; National Park, Urugua-&iacute; Provincial Park, Yabot&iacute; and Cu&ntilde;a-Pir&uacute; Provincial Reserves (Argentina)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve and San Rafael National Park (Paraguay)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are several captive-breeding programmes, with four birds released in 1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Ybytyruz&uacute; National Park, Itab&oacute; and Limoy Biological Reserves, the Sierra de San Joaqu&iacute;n, and forests in San Pedro department, Paraguay<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor populations in the Serra do Mar and Mbaracay&uacute;. Ensure protection of key areas in the Serra do Mar<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce anti-poaching measures<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate awareness campaigns. <br/></p>	eng
141168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pipile jacutinga</em> populations have declined very steeply in <strong>Brazil</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, and virtually to extinction in the north and south of its range. Most remaining populations are concentrated in S&atilde;o Paulo and Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong> with some in Santa Catarina, Brazil<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In S&atilde;o Paulo, it is thinly scattered over the eastern mountains of Serra do Mar and Serra de Paranapiacaba, and its stronghold lies in the contiguous Intervales, Carlos Botelho and Alto Ribeira State Parks<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, where the population is estimated at over 2,000 individuals<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Isolated populations may remain in Minas Gerais, but there are no post-1979 records from Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo or Rio de Janeiro. A small population has recently been found in 17,491 ha Turvo State Park, Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  It was widespread in Paraguay, but the population is now estimated at 870-1,515 birds, with c.600 at Mbaracay&uacute; and the remainder at seven additional sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Argentina, 43 birds were recorded at seven or more sites in Misiones in 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and numbers remain high<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, but it is almost certainly extinct in Corrientes. <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141168	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland humid forest (in Argentina almost exclusively riverine forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) but, in Brazil, it occurs in coastal mountains to 900&#160;m <strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, perhaps with some altitudinal and latitudinal movements<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A strong association with the forest palm <em>Euterpe edulis</em> has been postulated but, in S&atilde;o Paulo, it feeds on fruit of 41 species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and occurs where <em>E. edulis</em> is absent<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, the palm <em>Syagrus romanzoffiana</em> may form a seasonal staple<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Misiones, birds possibly supplement their diet by feeding on invertebrates along watercourses<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141168	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Clay <em>et al</em>. (in press), Galetti <em>et al</em>. (1997a) <br/></p>	eng
141168	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Main threats are hunting and extensive habitat destruction. In S&atilde;o Paulo, hunting, continued dam construction and conversion to plantation agriculture have brought it to the brink of extinction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At Tabuleiro State Park, Santa Catarina, poaching levels are extremely high<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Many areas in Brazil are under pressure from the illegal harvesting of palm-hearts, and Intervales has been invaded by Mby&aacute; Indians who hunt, harvest palms and have cleared primary forest formerly used by guans<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Other localities, such as Serra do Mar and Ilhabela state parks suffer from increased poaching because of the dwindling number of park guards<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141169	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aburria aburri</em> inhabits wet montane forest and forest edge on the slopes of the north and central Andes, from north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (where it is now very rare<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) through <strong>Colombia</strong> (locally common but generally scarce) and <strong>Ecuador</strong> to southern <strong>Peru<sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 12,500-15,000 individuals and declining throughout its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In most areas it is described by local hunters as extremely rare<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been recorded at elevations of 500-2,500&#160;m, and may undertake some seasonal altitudinal movements, but the exact nature of these is still unclear<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Deforestation has been most prevalent in the Andes within this altitudinal range, and it is now almost certainly extinct in some parts of its range, notably the west slope of the Andes in Peru<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction, mainly through clearance for agriculture, remains the major threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but its noisy habits and tendency to stay high in the branches make it particularly vulnerable to hunting for food and sport<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In parts of Colombia hunting restrictions enforced by guerrilla groups, and the use of land mines in forested areas, provide a certain amount protection<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141169	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimated at 12,500-15,000 individuals in 1994<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and has presumably declined since. <br/></p>	eng
141170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chamaepetes unicolor</em> is rare to locally fairly common throughout the highlands of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and in Chiriqu&iacute;, Bocas del Toro, Veraguas (Calov&eacute;vora and Sante Fe) and west Cocl&eacute;, west <strong>Panama</strong><sup>5,6</sup>. It is common (estimated density of 7.4 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and large areas of suitable habitat are protected in La Amistad International Park and the Cordillera de Guanacaste<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This suggests that the 1994 population estimate of 800-1,000 birds in Costa Rica<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> is too low. In Panama, it was reported as locally common in the 1930s, uncommon and local in 1971<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and rare to locally fairly common (e.g. in Fortuna Forest Reserve) in the 1980s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This frugivore inhabits montane cloud forest, preferring steep terrain with ridges and ravines<strong><sup>5,6,9</sup></strong>. It typically occurs at elevations of 900-2,250 m but has been recorded to 450 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Highland forests have suffered burning, logging and conversion to intensive agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and in east Chiriqu&iacute; only isolated patches of forest remain above 1,000 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the extent of fragmentation is less than in lowland areas and, where not hunted for food, it persists in forest edge and secondary growth adjacent to undisturbed forest<strong><sup>5,7,8</sup></strong>. In Panama a belt of nearly continuous forest remains along the cordillera from the Costa Rican border to just east of El Cope, although continuity may be lost in future; the species was found to be fairly common at Cerro Pena Blanca, west of El Cope, in 2001<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141172	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>At several private reserves in Guatemala, the species's stronghold, habitat is protected and hunting is prevented<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Hunting of the guan in Mexico is prohibited<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protect remaining forest habitat in existing reserves and by establishing new ones. Encourage local people to exploit sustainable food sources. <br/></p>	eng
141172	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelopina nigra</em> inhabits wet premontane and montane broad-leaved forests of subtropical and temperate zones on Pacific and Caribbean slopes of south <strong>Mexico</strong> (uncommon and local, but moderate numbers in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Guatemala</strong> (still locally common and readily observed at Biotopo Mario Dary<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Honduras</strong>, north-central <strong>Nicaragua</strong> (uncommon and rather local in both) and <strong>El Salvador</strong> (possibly extirpated)<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. It can occur at densities of 30 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and is probably more common than sightings suggest<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. A recent extrapolation estimates that all remaining habitat could support a total population of c. 91,000 individuals, though this figure is declining rapidly and is likely to continue to. Suitable habitat in Guatemala, the apparent global stronghold, has been reduced to under c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup>, which is less than half its original extent<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Since 1990 it has been confirmed from 53 sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141172	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the most humid and densely forested slopes of Chiapas Montane Forest, Chimalapas Montane Forest, Central America Montane Forest and Central America Pine-Oak Forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages singly, in pairs or small groups, often at twilight, on berries and other fruits.  <br/></p>	eng
141172	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recently estimated by extrapolation that all remaining habitat could support a total population of c. 91,000 individuals (Eisermann <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
141172	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat alteration and hunting pressure are the principal threats. The human population is growing rapidly within the species's range increasing both threats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Forest is cleared for agriculture, particularly coffee plantations, and mining. The species is resticted to pristine forest habitats and so will not tolerate plantations, even when the canopy is left for shade<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141173	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and legally protected in Mexico and Guatemala. It occurs in El Triunfo and Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserves, and Atitl&aacute;n National Park. An environmental education programme around El Triunfo has been in progress since 1988<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Small numbers have been bred in captivity<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey potential sites, especially in the Chimalapas area<sup>8 and Honduras. Monitor local populations. Designate further protected areas at key sites. Create an international reserve at Volc&aacute;n Tacan&aacute;. Enforce existing laws.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141173	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oreophasis derbianus</em> occurs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, <strong>Mexico</strong>, and throughout south <strong>Guatemala</strong>. In Mexico, there are recent records from El Triunfo, Cerro Venado, Cerro Toquain Grande and Volc&aacute;n Tacan&aacute;, and birds have been purportedly collected, and a tail feather found, in the Chimalapas area of Oaxaca<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. In Guatemala, there are recent records from: Fuentes Georgina on Volc&aacute;n Zunil; Volc&aacute;ns Tolim&aacute;n, Atitl&aacute;n and San Pedro; Volc&aacute;ns Acatenango and de Fuego; and Sierra de las Minas. There are unconfirmed reports from Cerro Volc&aacute;n Pacayita, Honduras. Numbers decreased severely during the 20th century and nowhere is it better than uncommon. The population was estimated at fewer than 1,000 individuals in the late 1970s, but densities are estimated at 4.5-7.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in El Triunfo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and some populations are remote and relatively secure. <br/></p>	eng
141173	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits cloud-forest at 1,200 -3,500&#160;m in Guatemala<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and 1,600-2,700&#160;m in Mexico. The lack of records from June-August at El Triunfo suggests that it may undertake some altitudinal migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding generally occurs in January-June, when two eggs are laid<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The diet is fruit and, rarely, invertebrates<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141173	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on estimate of 1,000 in late 1970s (Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992) and more recent information that some areas may be secure and hold relatively high densities (4.5-7.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> reported in El Triunfo by Gomez de Silva<em> et al.</em> 1999). <br/></p>	eng
141173	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 1960s, logging, firewood-gathering and agricultural expansion have caused extensive deforestation. If it is an altitudinal migrant, it will have especially suffered from the replacement of lower montane forests with sun coffee. New roads are opening up areas for exploitation. Hunting is mostly for subsistence, and live birds are taken for trade and private collections<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141174	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141176	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in south-central Colombia, east Ecuador and north-east Peru (Strahl et al. 1994). There are few records from Colombia, although it is found regularly in areas well away from human settlements and is fairly common in Macarena National Park. It is present throughout Amazonian Ecuador but in low numbers: a density of 3.8 birds/km2 has been estimated in terre firme forest with low hunting pressure, whereas in forest with moderate hunting levels a density of only 1.6 birds/km2 was calculated. In Peru, it has declined around human settlements and is reported to be rare near Iquitos but fairly common in other areas (Ortiz-Tejada and O'Neill 1997). It is found in Macarena National Park, Colombia, and Yasuni National Park and Jatun Sacha Reserve, Ecuador.	eng
141176	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits humid terre firme forest, apparently avoiding flooded areas (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It is usually found in primary forest with flat or slightly undulating relief at elevations of up to 600 m in Colombia (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Hilty and Brown 1986). In a study in the Macarena Mountains birds associated in pairs all year round, and appeared to have overlapping home ranges with loose territoriality. Two eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1994). It feeds mainly on fallen fruit and seeds, but apparently has a rather diverse diet (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be approaching 50,000 individuals (Strahl et al. 1994).	eng
141176	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers from heavy hunting pressure, mainly for local food consumption, and has been recorded for sale at a market in Iquitos (Strahl et al. 1994, del Hoyo et al. 1994). Habitat destruction and fragmentation is only locally significant (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141178	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. A private captive population, supplemented from the wild, was established in 1977, and divided between two well known aviculturists in 1999 when it numbered 44, with 10 eggs in artificial incubation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A 30 km<sup>2</sup> forest remnant in Alagoas, Usina Serra Grande and Usina Le&atilde;o and another site, Fazenda Petropolis, in Usina Santo Antonio have been identified for potential reintroduction attempts<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Other efforts, in 1983-1985, to capture wild individuals for a captive-breeding population failed. Searches of remaining forest fragments in 2001 failed to find any trace of the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue with the captive-breeding programme in order to reintroduce the species. Ensure the integrity of forest at Usina Serra Grande and Usina Le&atilde;o. Engender pride in the species to lower the risk of hunting once reintroduction is begun. </strong>	eng
141178	distribution		<em>Crax mitu</em> has been almost certainly extirpated from Alagoas and Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. A report from north Bahia is unreliable. It went unreported between the mid-17th century, when found in Pernambuco, and 1951, when rediscovered around São Miguel dos Campos, Alagoas. Since the early 1970s, there are records from four forests in this region. Numbers were probably as few as 20, even in the 1960s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The most recent reports were of hunted individuals in 1984 and perhaps 1987 or 1988. A captive population, initially established in Rio de Janeiro in 1977, numbered 44 in 2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
141178	habitat		It was apparently confined to lowland primary forest, where it was known to take fruit of <em>Phyllanthus</em>, <em>Eugenia</em> and "mangabeira". It lays two or three eggs in captivity, with one female breeding for the first time when she was two years old<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
141179	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In northern Venezuela, almost all remaining forests are now legally protected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but this has not averted threats. There are records from 18 Venezuelan national parks and the ineffectively protected El Cocuy National Park, Arauca, Colombia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Captive breeding and reintroduction in Venezuela has been proposed. In Venezuela, it is legally protected and an education programme draws attention to the species and its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its status in the Colombian East Andes. Enforce existing laws on hunting and habitat protection<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop educational programmes to combat hunting<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crax pauxi</em> occurs in west <strong>Venezuela</strong> and north <strong>Colombia</strong>. Nominate <em>pauxi</em> was formerly common from the Cordillera de la Costa west to the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida, Venezuela, and on the north-eastern slopes of the East Andes in Colombia (Norte de Santander, Boyac&aacute; and Arauca) and adjacent Venezuela (south-west T&aacute;chira). It is also known from three mountain ranges in Falc&oacute;n, Venezuela, but may have recently disappeared from one (in Morrocoy National Park)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It might once have occurred as far east as Monagas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population has declined considerably, and the species is now generally rare and occurs at low densities<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. In Venezuela, there is a strong correlation between its current distribution and national parks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Race <em>gilliardi</em> from the Sierra de Perij&aacute; on the Colombian-Venezuelan border is also believed to be declining. <br/></p>	eng
141179	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to subtropical cloud-forest in steep, mountainous regions at 500 to 2,200&#160;m (mostly 1,000-1,500&#160;m), where it favours humid gorges with dense undergrowth. It tends to avoid forest edges. Nests are built in March, and young hatch around mid-May. Pairs or family parties forage, mainly terrestrially, for fallen fruit, seeds, tender leaves, grasses and buds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may make some seasonal altitudinal movements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141179	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Comments from P. Salaman in litt and C. Sharpe in litt indicate that the population fell below 2,500 individuals during 2007.  <br/></p>	eng
141179	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline results from long-term destruction, fragmentation and modication of its habitat. The Sierra de Perij&aacute; is being progressively deforested in both countries for cattle-ranching at lower altitudes and for narcotics cultivation higher up<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Hunting continues (even in protected areas such as Henri Pittier National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) for food and, at least formerly, for traditional jewellery.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141180	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Large parts of its range are protected by Ambor&oacute; and Carrasco National Parks. Extensive surveys have been conducted in recent years, although they have met with little success in locating the species in many areas<strong><sup>13,14,15,16</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey unexplored and little-known areas<sup>6,9,12</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor known sites in Carrasco National Park<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Include the Tavara-Candamo area within the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a research programme in the Tavara region<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Employ more park guards and other personnel in montane forest protection zones<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct educational workshops and campaigns focusing on this and other restricted-range species<sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141180	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crax</em> <em>unicornis </em>is known from central <strong>Bolivia</strong> and central and east <strong>Peru</strong>. The nominate subspecies is known from the adjacent Ambor&oacute; and Carrasco National Parks, Bolivia<strong><sup>2,6,9,10</sup></strong>. It occurs at densities of up to 20 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>, and is reliably reported along the length of Carrasco's northern boundary<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Only one individual has been encountered outside these protected areas in the last 30 years<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, in Cerros de T&aacute;vara, Puno, Peru, in 1992. East of Madidi, there is an apparent gap in its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>: extensive searches over several years have failed to locate the species in Madidi National Park, Bolivia<strong><sup>13,15</sup></strong> and between the Cordilleras Cocapata and Mosetenes, Cochabamba<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, although local reports have indicated that this area might hold the species<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>koepckeae</em> may still occur on the Cerros de Sira in Hu&aacute;nuco, Peru, but has not been recorded since its description in 1969. Field surveys, including one in 2004, found no birds and few local reports suggesting that it is very rare here<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>. Local knowledge surveys found good evidence that an isolated population remained at this site, but failed to produce similar evidence for the rio Tambopata area near the border with Bolivia<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
141180	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, humid, lower montane forest and adjacent lowland evergreen forest at 450-1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. For much of the year it stays above 550&#160;m, but descends in the dry season<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Its diet consists of fruit, seeds, soft plants, larvae and insects. Display songs and pairing have been noted from August<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, with a nest found during October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The clutch-size is one, and consequently it has a low reproductive rate<strong><sup>1,2,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141180	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Bolivia, forests within its altitudinal range are being cleared for the cultivation of staple and export crops by recent colonists from the altiplano<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Road-building and associated rural development and hunting (for meat and its casque) are likely to have a negative impact and inhibit dispersal<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. In Peru, oil exploration threatens its habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and is opening up the foothills to colonisation and hunting. <br/></p>	eng
141181	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES III in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras and Colombia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Santa Rosa, Rinc&oacute;n de la Vieja and Corcovado National Parks in Costa Rica<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A captive breeding and reintroduction project is taking place in secondary forest on the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica with 94 birds released between 2000-2004<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey populations and ascertain trends at known sites. Effectively protect national parks where the species occurs. Enforce hunting restrictions (and ban hunting in Belize), and introduce educational campaigns to reduce hunting pressure. <br/></p>	eng
141181	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Crax rubra</em> has a wide but now highly fragmented distribution from San Luis Potos&iacute;, Tamaulipas, Quer&eacute;taro, Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chiapas and the Yucat&aacute;n peninsula, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>2,3,6</sup>, south through <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong> to west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Pacific lowlands east to the Gulf of Urab&aacute; and the upper Sin&uacute; valley) and, very rarely, west <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>9,10</sup>. The distinctive race <em>griscomi</em> is restricted to Cozumel Island off Mexico, where an estimated 300 individuals remain<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and it is thought to have declined<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It has undergone a considerable (and continuing) decline, becoming uncommon to rare or locally extinct throughout much of its range. In Ecuador there are perhaps fewer than 100 individuals<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Healthy populations occurred in the Chimalapas region of Oaxaca, but the effects of extensive fires in 1998 on the species are unknown<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, it has recovered or remains relatively common in areas with legal protection or where it is not hunted, and populations are still stable in Guatemala and Nicaragua<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
141181	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is restricted to undisturbed humid evergreen forest (also seasonally dry forest in some areas) and mangroves. It is primarily a lowland species but has been recorded at altitudes of up to 1,900 m in Panama. <br/></p>	eng
141181	population	BirdLife International, 2009	O Jahn <em>in litt. </em>(2009). <br/></p>	eng
141181	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It is widely hunted for food (and legally in Belize<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), and further threatened by severe habitat loss and fragmentation<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong> in Ecuador (annual deforestation rate of 3.8% within the breeding range), Honduras (3.1% per year nationally), El Salvador (1.7%), Colombia (unprecedented deforestation rates in the Colombian Choc&oacute;), Guatemala (1.3% annual deforestation) and Nicaragua (1.3%)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. It rapidly disappears when logging roads are built into previously inaccessible forests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Extensive fires, such as those in Oaxaca, Mexico in 1998, may be a threat, and some birds are captured as pets. Additional potential threats to race <em>griscomi </em>include hurricanes and the introduction of invasive species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141182	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve was established in 2004, covering 848 ha in the Magdelena Valley, Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, and local authorities have introduced penalties for shooting or trapping the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Fundaci&oacute;n ProAves continue to purchase land to expand the reserve and are also engaging in habitat restoration within its boundaries<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. ProAves aims to expand the reserve to c.6,000 ha in the next two years<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Paramillo National Park is vast and holds this species, but no protective measures have been implemented<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The large Bajo Cauca-Nech&iacute; Regional Reserve has recently been declared and probably holds the species<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Los Colorados Sanctuary protects part of the Serran&iacute;a de San Jacinto<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It potentially occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Tayrona National Parks, and Ca&ntilde;on del R&iacute;o Alicante and Los Besotes reserves<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Of all of the reserves listed above, only El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve is thought to receive adequate protection to safeguard this species<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Since 2006 ProAves has been engaged in a variety of awareness-raising initiatives in three villages within the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas buffer zone, including training courses on bird monitoring and for park rangers<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Studies of population density and structure, as well as habitat use and behaviour of the species have been ongoing at the El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve since 2004<strong><sup>17</sup></strong><em>.</em> Further surveys are planned in the south-western limits of the species's range in order to delimit additional IBAs for its conservation.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Determine its population and distribution more accurately and confirm its persistence in the serran&iacute;as de San Jacinto and de las Quinchas, and the upper Sin&uacute; drainage<sup>1,2,7,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect forests on the serran&iacute;as de San Lucas and de las Quinchas<sup>2,7,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement effective conservation measures in existing protected areas<sup>3,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate educational campaigns to limit hunting, and provide resources to replace the need for habitat conversion<sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
141182	distribution		This species historically occurred in northern <strong>Colombia</strong>, from the base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta west to the Sin&uacute; valley and south in the Magdalena valley to northern Tolima. Two of the few large lowland forest areas remaining in its range have produced recent records: two sites on the west slope of the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas, Antioquia<strong><sup>1,2,3,7</sup></strong> and the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, Boyac&aacute;<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Few individuals are thought to remain at Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, and surveys conducted in 2003 suggest that the latter area holds the population stronghold of this species which contributed to the establishment of El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Numbers within this reserve have increased and the density of individuals has increased from 2.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> to 4.7 individuals/km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 2009<strong><sup>19</sup></strong> but remains far below the projected carrying capacity of 1 in 10 acres. In 1993, sightings were reported at La Terretera near Alto Sin&uacute; and in the Serran&iacute;a de San Jacinto, Bol&iacute;var<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The population in the El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve was estimated at 254 individuals in 2009, and based on the same density estimate the population in the surrounding area (including the reserve) is thought to be 509 individuals<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Local reports indicate that there has been a recent and rapid decline throughout its range<strong><sup>1,2,3,7,19</sup></strong>.	eng
141182	habitat		It inhabits humid forest up to 1,200 m. It breeds in the dry season, nesting in December-March, with parties of adults and chicks observed in March-August<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>.  Two breeding seasons have been recorded in the El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve, on from December to March and another from July to September<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit, shoots, invertebrates, and perhaps even carrion<strong><sup>1,2,7,11</sup></strong>. One recent survey recorded the consumption of seeds from a total of 15 different plant species. A terrestrial crab was also consumed.  The species forages directly on the forest floor, and has never been observed foraging in a tree<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Roost sites, situated in foliage in trees, are near feeding areas and are used for several days<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
141182	population		The population in the El Pauj&iacute;l Bird Reserve was estimated a maximum of 254 individuals in 2009, whilst surrounding area (including the reserve) may hold up to 509 individuals. There are several populations elsewhere, but these are thought to be severely declining or already locally extinct (D. Caro <em>in litt.</em> 2010), hence a populations band of 250-999 individuals is appropriate.	eng
141183	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crax daubentoni</em> occurs in north <strong>Venezuela</strong> (north of the r&iacute;o Orinoco), and at a few scattered localities in north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (west foothills of Sierra de Perij&aacute; from Montes de Oca south to Fonseca, and east of the Andes from east Norte de Santander south to north-west Arauca<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>). It was formerly common in the llanos of Venezuela, but was perhaps always locally distributed throughout the remainder of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 10,000-40,000 individuals, divided into more than five subpopulations, each of which is fragmented and declining<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is primarily restricted to gallery forests in the llanos, but also lowland deciduous and evergreen forest, and foothills up to 800&#160;m in Venezuela and 500-1,500&#160;m in Colombia<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is heavily hunted for food and sport and, in Venezuela, parks and reserves are often focal points for local hunting<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Agricultural development has fragmented gallery forests and, in many parts of the llanos, there has been extensive conversion to rice fields<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141183	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
141184	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141185	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mamirau&aacute; Sustainable Development Reserve, Amazonas, Brazil<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> (where it nevertheless continues to be hunted<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>), and Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Loreto, Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  It has also been recorded very close to the newly decreed Piagacu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>.  In Bolivia, a temporary hunting ban to secure the future of local hunting stocks has reportedly contributed to population recovery<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A public education project has focused on conservation presentations to the local Tacuna communities<strong><sup>23</sup></strong> and the local community in San Marcos now protect an area for ecotourism and research where hunting and resource extraction are banned<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Ensure active protection of known populations by working with local communities to reduce or eliminate hunting pressure. Interview local hunters to refine the known distribution and relate this to human and environmental variables<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. Survey and monitor the species's strongholds<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong> and carry out detailed population surveys in Brazil and Peru to allow accurate estimations of the remaining national populations. Research its ecology<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Designate protected sites and promote ecotourism<strong><sup>3,6,12</sup></strong>. Extend education programmes to encourage further uptake of sustainable hunting practices<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>. Conduct a regional analysis of population genetics<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.	eng
141185	distribution		<em>Crax globulosa </em>was formerly widespread in upper Amazonia (west <strong>Brazil</strong>, south <strong>Colombia</strong>, east <strong>Ecuador</strong>, east <strong>Peru </strong>and north <strong>Bolivia</strong>). South Colombia remains remote and poorly known<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but it occurs at Isla Mocagua on the r&iacute;o Amazonas<strong><sup>19,22</sup></strong>, and on the r&iacute;o Caquet&aacute;, near the Brazilian border<strong><sup>3,18</sup></strong>. It was reportedly fairly common on the r&iacute;o Apaporis near Chiriquibete National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but recent surveys have not found the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A few sites are known near the confluence of the r&iacute;os Javari and Amazonas in Colombia, Peru and Brazil<strong><sup>3,13</sup></strong>. In Peru, it occurs on the middle r&iacute;o Napo, the r&iacute;o Yavari (untraced site) and part of the lower r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it additionally occurs at three disjunct sites in the r&iacute;o Juru&aacute; drainage<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, in Mamirau&aacute; Sustainable Development Reserve<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and in the juncture between r&iacute;o Solimoes and r&iacute;o Purus<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, where the species was locally abundant within a small area of v&aacute;rzea forest, with an extrapolated density of 0.56 individuals/km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Bolivia the only known surviving population is along a tributary of the r&iacute;o Beni, where it has been in decline since the 1940s but persists along the r&iacute;o Negro (c. 25 km from the nearest settlement, San Marcos)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2003 surveys of v&aacute;rzea habitat along the r&iacute;o Negro produced an encounter rate of 0.36 individuals per hour, suggesting that there is a reasonably good population in this region<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Its range has contracted greatly, and it has probably been extirpated from Ecuador<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Rond&ocirc;nia, Brazil<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It has been speculated that c. 100 individuals may persist in Bolivia, and <300 individuals in Peru<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.  Likewise it is speculated that the Colombian population could be <100, divided into two completely isolated subpopulations<strong><sup>17,20</sup></strong>.  The most important site for the species globally is Mamirau&aacute; (Brazil), which was estimated in 2005 to hold a population of well over 250 individuals<strong><sup>16,24</sup></strong>. Throughout its range the species has undergone dramatic population declines - at Isla Mocagua alone, the population numbered c. 1000 individuals as recently as the 1950s, but now fewer than 50 remain<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. New information showing a close tie to water edge habitat in the dry season suggests that its Extent of Occurrence, and therefore population, may have been seriously overestimated<strong><sup>26,27,28</sup></strong>.	eng
141185	habitat		It inhabits lowland, riverine, humid forest. Small groups forage on inundated ground for small fish, insects, aquatic crustaceans, other small animals and fruit<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>. In the dry season, birds congregate around rivers<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and studies from Bolivia indicate that in the dry season this species is closely linked to water; no individuals have ever been found more than 300 m from the river edge, despite detailed surveys extending to 3 km from the river<strong><sup>26,27,28</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that it is similarly tied to water in Colombia and Brazil, and this would imply that its population is far smaller than previous estimates based on the total remaining area of varzea forest<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. In the wet season, birds possibly migrate from v&aacute;rzea to terra firme forest<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> to feed on canopy fruit and seeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests in June with chicks observed in July<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
141185	population		Currently, there are an estimated 50-100 individuals in Colombia, 100-150 in Bolivia, less than 300 in Peru, and at least 250, maybe as many as 1,000 individuals in Brazil (R. MacLeod <em>in litt.</em> 2008). This is consistent with population estimates based on an AOO of 366 km<sup>2 </sup>and estimated population densities (H. Aranibar-Rojas in litt. 2008; R. MacLeod <em>in litt.</em> 2008), hence the population is precautionarily estimated at 250-999 mature individuals, though the true population size may be greater.	eng
141186	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon consists of three subspecies: pinima of north-east Brazil, grayi in east Bolivia and the nominate in central and south-west Brazil, Paraguay and north Argentina. The race pinima is extinct around Belem, Pará (Novaes and Lima 1998), and may survive only in western Maranhão at Gurupi Biological Reserve and adjoining territories. The species was not found during extensive fieldwork around Paragominas, eastern Pará (A. Aleixo per. F. Olmos in litt. 2003). Although the nominate race survives in Brazil from Minas Gerais, Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul north to Pará and Mato Grosso, and can be locally common (as in the northern Pantanal and Serra dos Carajás), it is extinct, or nearly so, in Sao Paulo and Paraná (del Hoyo 1994, F. Olmos in litt. 2003). It is considered rare and threatened in Argentina. In Paraguay, the species has been extirpated, or is close to disappearing, from much of its range, although in 1999 the species was still relatively numerous in northern Concepción Department (Clay 2001). In Bolivia the species is widely distributed throughout the llanos de moxos (savannas), with many areas holding protected populations (B. Hennessey in litt. 2003).	eng
141186	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits humid, semi-deciduous and gallery forests, and is often recorded in woodland edges (del Hoyo 1994).	eng
141186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141186	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although the species occupies a relatively large range, it has disappeared from parts of its former range as a result of habitat destruction and hunting (del Hoyo 1994). Hunting pressure is an issue in Goiás, Tocantins and southern Pará, but the nominate form is not considered to be particularly threatened in Brazil (F. Olmos in litt. 2003). The species remains relatively numerous in northern Concepción Department (Paraguay), however, human presence in this area has increased considerably over the past few years, and hunting pressure may now be high (Clay 2001). The species is listed as being of "High conservation priority" in the IUCN Cracid Action Plan, and more information on population size, trends and habitat loss are needed, especially for the core range in Brazil.	eng
141187	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It is largely restricted to five reserves, with Sooretama and Linhares the most effectively protected. A reintroduction programme released birds at a protected site in 1991<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Introduced birds are periodically monitored, have a high survival rate, and there are now second generation offspring<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Monte Pascoal, Una and Rio Doce to assess the species's current status at these sites. Continue to monitor released birds. Ensure the <em>de facto protection of all reserves with known populations, especially Monte Pascoal. Patrol reserves to prevent hunting and trapping. Continue the reintroduction programme. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141187	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crax blumenbachii</em> was formerly widespread in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia south through Esp&iacute;rito Santo and east Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. It is now largely restricted to four or five reserves, with strongholds of considerably more than 60 and over 100 birds in Sooretama Biological Reserve and the adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve in Esp&iacute;rito Santo respectively. Smaller numbers are present in Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, but there are no population estimates from Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais. The last record from Una Biological Reserve in Bahia was in 1986, and there have been no confirmed records from Rio de Janeiro since 1963. A successful captive-breeding and reintroduction programme has boosted numbers in the wild<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but the total population remains extremely small.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141187	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely terrestrial in tall, lowland humid forest. The diet consists of fruit, buds, seeds and arthropods. It may be polygamous, but this observation may result from differential hunting pressure between the sexes. Males boom mainly in September-October with young hatching in the next couple of months. Typically two (range 1-4) eggs are laid. </p>	eng
141187	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Minima of 60 birds in Sooretama Biological Reserve, 100 in Rio Doce State Park and 35 Descobrimento National Park, with recent sightings of small numbers at five other sites in 2003 (Silveira <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/></p>	eng
141187	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has suffered chronic habitat loss and hunting pressure. Virtually all lowland forest north of Rio de Janeiro is within actively protected reserves or has been completely converted to plantations and pastureland. Even in Monte Pascoal National Park, habitat loss continues as a result of conflicts over the land rights of local people. Hunting and capture for the bird trade persist in reserves and are likely to have a severe impact on such fragmented populations.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141190	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cagar Alam Waigeo Barat Nature Reserve was established in the late 1980s, covering 1,530&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, slightly less than half the island<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further extensive village interviews on Waigeo, to gather presence/absence data. Conduct field surveys to establish the species's distribution and population status. Conduct research into its habitat requirements and threats. Research presence and impact of introduced mammalian predators. Determine how much suitable habitat remains on Waigeo. Produce and promote management recommendations for the bird and its habitat. Prevent the introduction of potential predators<sup>5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141190	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aepypodius bruijnii</em> is endemic to Waigeo, West Papuan Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was known only from 21 specimens (most recently collected in 1938)<strong><sup>6,7,8</sup></strong> with the only specified locality being Jeimon, on the east side of Majalibit Bay. None were seen in 1993 (when many islanders did not know the bird at all, although some thought it was uncommon)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or in a 10-day survey in 1996<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The bird was finally relocated in 2002 in hill ridgetop forest on Mount Nok near Majalibit Bay<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and an extensive two-month survey revealed 28 incubation mounds in a relatively small area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Based on the extent of available habitat (comparatively little of Waigeo lies above 600m), it has been suggested that the population may number 100-2,500 individuals<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong> and in 2005 field surveys estimated the population to be 595-1227 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The large number of historical specimens suggests a serious historical decline. <br/></p>	eng
141190	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be a low density inhabitant of mountain forests (the recent sighting was made in forest at 690-715 m<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>), including the extremely rugged karst interior of the island, and is presumably sedentary, although it may shift in elevation or habitat use seasonally<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. There may be some resource partitioning with <em>M.&#160;freycinet</em>, which occurs widely in coastal areas and on the slopes up to 400&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is no information on diet, foraging behaviour or breeding, although like other brush-turkeys it is a mound-builder<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141190	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Mauro (2006). <br/></p>	eng
141190	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Waigeo's rugged relief, lack of infrastructure and apparently entirely intact forest suggest that there are no current threats to the species from logging or agriculture<strong><sup>4,6,9</sup></strong>. A proposed reduction in the size of the existing reserve on Waigeo and the prospect of cobalt mining were concerns in the late 1980s, but have apparently not come to pass<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Selective logging has been reported in the north, and hunting was speculated to be a problem<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, perhaps rendering it unsuitable for the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The introduction of predators, such as feral dogs, represents a potential threat, especially as there is speculation that the species may prove to be flightless<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141194	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. Nesting ground surveys were made in North, Central and South East Sulawesi between 1990 and 2000. Over 50% of known nesting grounds (chiefly inland sites) are located inside protected areas the most important being Lore Lindu National Park, Morowali Nature Reserve, and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park.  Effective conservation programmes have been implemented at the Tambun and Hungayono nesting grounds where hatchery projects and improved guard patrolling have led to greatly increased hatching rates, and at the Pakuli/Saluki complex at Lore Lindu and the Tanjung Matop near Toli-toli<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  A number of field studies and conservation programmes have also been initiated in Central, North and South East Sulawesi<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Strengthen the capacity of conservation agencies and government to prevent illegal activities in formally protected areas and establish new management plans to realistically address conservation issues in National Parks and Nature Reserves. Extend protected area status to forest corridors connecting nesting grounds and non-breeding areas. Expand management activities in protected areas, particularly scrub clearance at nesting sites. Initiate maleo-based conservation activities in Paluki and Saluki, Central Sulawesi. Promote traditional sustainable egg-harvesting regimes and renew community-based protection initiatives. Monitor the effectiveness of hatcheries and other conservation measures and optimize egg protection strategies. Monitor daily numbers of birds laying at as many colonies as possible. Conduct more intensive research to establish its distribution and the extent of gene flow between nesting grounds.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141194	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macrocephalon maleo</em> is endemic to Sulawesi and Buton Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Of the 142 currently or formerly known nesting grounds, 48 have been abandoned, 51 are severely threatened, 32 are threatened, 7 are of unknown status, and only four are not yet threatened<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population is currently estimated to be in the region of 4,000-7,000 breeding pairs, and declining rapidly (in places, by up to 90% since 1950). The viability of many smaller populations is becoming increasingly threatened. <br/></p>	eng
141194	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland and hill rainforest, up to at least 1,065 m, and man-modified habitats when traveling to coastal nesting grounds. It nests communally at traditional sites, typically sandy beaches, lakeshores and riverbanks, heated by solar and/or geothermal radiation. The eggs are left to incubate and hatch with no further parental support. Females lay 8-12 eggs over a 2-3 month period, peaking markedly at some localities during the regionally variable dry season.  The eggs (averaging 16% of adult female body weight) comprise 61-64% yolk, and when laid are left to incubate (for 2-3 months) and hatch with no further parental support.  The young take up to c. 2 days to tunnel to the surface after hatching, emerging ready to fly. <br/></p>	eng
141194	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Butchart and Baker (2000) <br/></p>	eng
141194	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unsustainable harvesting of eggs combined with human disturbance of nesting grounds has caused the abandonment of many nesting colonies (particularly coastal) and remains the major threat to those remaining. Forest destruction and fragmentation increasingly threaten surviving populations. Logging and agricultural, urban and road developments have isolated virtually all coastal nesting grounds from non-breeding habitats, significantly elevating the risk of mortality and natural predation of chicks. In the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park and surrounding area habitats continue to be degraded, the major threats being rattan and timber collection, conversion of forest to agricultural land, gold-mining<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and hunting of adult birds for sport<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Invasive vegetation poses a further threat to nesting grounds. <br/></p>	eng
141195	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972). It occurs in Campbell Bay and Galathea National Parks on Great Nicobar (a Biosphere Reserve), and three wildlife reserves on uninhabited islands. Designation of most of the Nicobars as tribal areas legally prohibits commercial exploitation of natural resources and settlement or ownership of land by non-tribals. Detailed status surveys and ecological studies are ongoing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Permanent monitoring plots have been established to determine population trends<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to monitor inland and coastal populations following the 2004 tsunami; with the aim of reassessing the medium-term impacts after 10 years. Monitor the regeneration of littoral forests. Initiate a conservation awareness programme to reduce hunting. Empower indigenous people to follow alternative livelihood options such as fishing, handicrafts etc. Eradicate and manage invasive species. Include coastal forests free from human settlement into the existing Protected Areas networks and strictly implement the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Continue to lobby for expansion of the existing protected areas system to encompass wider tracts of coastal forest on Great Nicobar, the Nancowry island group and Little Nicobar.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141195	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Megapodius nicobariensis</em> is endemic to the Nicobar Islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it occurs as two races on 13 islands: <em>M. n. abbotti</em> on Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Kondul, Menchal, Treis, Meroe, and <em>M. n. nicobariensis</em> on Camorta, Trinkat, Nancowry, Katchall, Teressa, Bompoka and Tillanchong islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Historical reports from Little Andaman, India, and the Cocos Islands, Myanmar, lack substantiating evidence. In 1994, there were estimated to be 3,190 breeding pairs, but following the tsunami in December 2004 populations disappeared completely from two islands, Trax and Megapode Island, and the total number of breeding pairs was estimated as 788 in 2006, with the majority on Great Nicobar (405) and Little Nicobar (165)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Preliminary assessments since 2006 indicate that although a major interruption to breeding occurred in 2005 and 2006, a natural recovery is underway and breeding success has improved<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141195	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits forests and secondary growth, with greatest concentrations in coastal forests. It incubates its eggs in nest-mounds close to the shore which are built from sand, loam and humus. The species is primarily monogamous, although extra-pair copulations have been observed. In a pair, both the male and female contribute to the mound maintenance. Unpaired mature males build and defend mounds to attract a partner<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Several pairs often share nest-mounds, with a strong hierarchy apparent during egg-laying. Larger mounds tend to have more stable incubation temperatures and the shortest incubation period (c.72 days). Annual hatching success fluctuates widely (e.g. 87% in 1996 cf. 37% in 1997). <br/></p>	eng
141195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population fell to 788 pairs in 2006 following the 2004 tsunami (Sivakumar 2007), however, numbers now appear to be recovering; the species was estimated to number 3,190 breeding pairs in 1994. <br/></p>	eng
141195	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The key threat is loss of coastal forest through conversion to agriculture (coconut, banana and cashew plantations and rice-paddy cultivation), road development projects, which threaten to fragment habitat blocks, particularly on Great Nicobar, and settlement expansion. The devastating tsunami of 26th December 2004 is thought to have affected c. 40% of its breeding habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the aftermath of the tsunami has exacerbated the existing pressures on the species and its habitat, with displaced people raising plantation crops to generate revenue and building houses in littoral forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Snaring and shooting for food, and egg-collecting are localised problems but are also likely to have increased in frequency following the 2004 tsunami. Invasive species including cats, dogs and domestic fowl are a potential threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The proposal to develop Great Nicobar as a free-trade port, a potentially major threat, appears unlikely to be realised in the near future<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141197	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius bernsteini</em> is restricted to the Banggai and Sula Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest, particularly in coastal areas, and dense lowland scrub fringing farmland. There are some 7,000 birds in the Banggai Islands, mostly on Peleng, and as many as 38,000 (22,500-54,000) on Taliabu, but these populations are thought to be experiencing declines and local extinctions owing to habitat loss (through logging and clearance), exploitation (collection of eggs, hunting of adults) and introduced animals (cats and dogs as predators, feral domestic chickens as competitors).  <br/></p>	eng
141198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population has been estimated at 10,000-100,000 individuals or, alternatively, under 5,000 birds. The species is described as common on Halmahera but scare elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141201	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant contributions have been made recently towards the protection and awareness of this species. On Ambrym, several workshops lead to a 4-month annual taboo on egg-collection in the north and west and a 5 year complete ban in the southeast, controlled by local communities. Wan Smol Bag Theatre and the Vanuatu Protected Areas Initiative have continued to raise awareness in support of the taboos through community theatre, workshops and other initiatives. Protocols for monitoring have been tested, and baseline data population gathered for some areas providing the basis for long term monitoring<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On Santo the species breeds in the Big Bay and Loru protected areas and is legally protected from hunting between 1 July and 31 March. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey little-known islands to establish its distribution, status and threats, leading to the production of a national conservation strategy. Regularly review the effectiveness of existing conservation efforts on Ambrym and repeat surveys and awareness measures as appropriate. Produce a comprehensive management plan for Ambrym Investigate the effects of the existing taboo system on population numbers. Assess the scale of egg-collection in more areas and encourage the adoption of sustainable harvesting regimes where appropriate. Repeat the successful workshop format for future education and awareness campaigns. Conduct ecological research focussing on productivity, dispersal and survival at nesting grounds.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141201	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius layardi</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, being recorded from most islands north of Efate<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1995, it was surveyed on north-west Ambrym where 148 burrows were counted in three breeding grounds - local villagers reported a decline in numbers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2001 estimated the population density to be c.7 birds per km<sup>2</sup> around Lake Fantang<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The population density was estimated at c.10 birds per km<sup>2</sup> in the Loru Protected Area on Espiritu Santo<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>, but birds appear less common in other forests on the island<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There are 1970s records from Vanua Lava, Aoba, Malo, Malakula, Lopevi, Paama, Epi, Tongoa and Emae islands, which have not been visited subsequently<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Tanna, its status is uncertain and it may be extinct<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141201	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland hill forest and has been recorded up to c. 800m on Ambrym<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It appears to be more tolerant of habitat degradation than previously thought, and has been recorded in gardens and degraded forest<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It nests in volcanically heated areas, on beaches and in decomposing vegetation such as around rotting trees. As with other congeners, it is believed to be a dispersive species, flying to nesting and roosting sites, and not at risk from population fragmentation. It forages by scratching in the leaf-litter on the forest floor<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141201	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 8.0-12.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,120 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 8,960-13,440, i.e. best placed precautionarily within band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density range from Bowen [1997] in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141201	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Egg-collection on Ambrym is now restricted by a locally controlled system of taboos, which may have significantly reduced human disturbance<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is hunted by rural communities and killed by feral dogs. Large areas of lowland forest across its range are scheduled for logging and other forest areas are degraded by agriculture and cattle-grazing. Coastal forests, where some communal nesting grounds are located, are particularly threatened. Fires and cyclones degrade foraging and nesting grounds<strong><sup>1,4,8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141202	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A recovery plan exists and the species is protected by federal and local laws<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the Marianas, more surveys are planned<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The most significant conservation action to date has been its re-introduction to Saipan in the 1960s and 1970s by local islanders<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 1998 and 1999, feral herbivores were removed from Sarigan<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The uninhabited islands of Asuncion, Maug, Uracus and Guguan are wildlife sanctuaries<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Palau, the Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Reserve protects 50-80 birds<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct detailed censuses (including mapping nesting sites).  Develop a long-term monitoring programme.  Continue ecological research.  In Palau, determine the risk of human disturbance to nest sites.  In the Marianas, preserve remnant forest from development and feral ungulates. Throughout its range, selectively control cats, rats, and monitor lizards, and protect all islands from the introduction of the brown tree-snake.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141202	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius laperouse</em> occurs on <strong>Palau</strong> and the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, and is extirpated from Guam (to USA). In Palau, race <em>senex</em> is locally common on limestone and outlying islands, e.g. Kayangel, but rare on larger volcanic islands, e.g. Babeldaob. In 1991, the population was estimated at 497 birds, excluding Kayangel<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In the Marianas, nominate <em>laperouse</em> is mainly restricted to islands north of Saipan (including Farallon de Medinilla<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). In 1997, the population was estimated at 1,440-1,975 birds (the largest subpopulation being 545-810 on Sarigan)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There is a small population on Aguijan, possibly a persisting reintroduced population (a few birds) on Tinian<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong> and a small reintroduced population (14 birds) on Saipan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141202	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers limestone forest, occasionally occurring in adjacent secondary forest and dense coconut groves<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is omnivorous, taking a wide variety of foods from the forest floor including insects, crabs and plant matter<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Nominate <em>laperouse</em> nests in burrows in sun-warmed cinder fields or geothermally-heated areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Race <em>senex</em> nests in mounds made from leaf-litter and sand<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141202	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring (1988), Engbring and Pratt (1985) for Palau; USFWS (1998a) for the Marianas <br/></p>	eng
141202	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forests are periodically degraded by typhoons and damaged by feral herbivores, sometimes resulting in the complete loss of topsoil, and consequent reduction of food and nesting sites. Volcanic eruptions burying vegetation and nesting areas in fine cinders<strong><sup> </sup></strong>are a continuing possibility<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Birds are hunted, eggs are collected<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>, and both are taken by introduced predators, e.g. monitor lizard <em>Varanus indicus</em>, rats <em>Rattus</em> spp., feral dogs, cats and pigs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The accidental introduction of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> from Guam to other islands is potentially a serious threat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Palau, there is increasing tourist use of beaches<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and possible disturbance to nest-sites. <br/></p>	eng
141203	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected, although in practice there is no enforcement. From 1991 to 1993, 60 eggs were buried at volcanically heated sites on Late<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and an additional 35 eggs and chicks were transferred to Fonualei<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, both uninhabited and rarely visited by humans. Breeding was successful on Fonualei and the population appears to be established<strong><sup>2,4,11</sup></strong>, but surveys suggest the translocation failed on Late<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue long-term monitoring of the nesting grounds on Niuafo'ou.  Complete population survey on Late and establish a long-term monitoring programme. Protect the three crater lake islets as nature reserves, minimise disturbance and regularly survey for introduced predators.  On Niuafo'ou, enforce the ban on egg-collecting or restrict it, preferably through a council of residents endowed with necessary powers.  Investigate obtaining Reserve status for Fonualei.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141203	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius pritchardii</em> is naturally endemic to the island of Niuafo'ou, <strong>Tonga</strong> with an introduced population on Fonualei. On Niuafo'ou it is concentrated around the inner slopes of the caldera and on two cat-free islets in the crater lake. In 1979, the population was estimated at 820 adults<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and, in 1991-1993, at 188-235 pairs occupying 641 ha of 719 ha of suitable habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This represents 52-65% of possible carrying capacity, assuming an average of 0.5 pairs per ha<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Comparisons between individual sites and interviews with local people had strongly suggested an overall decline<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Introductions to the islands of Late and Fonualei have been carried out. A 2003 survey on Fonualei found the species to be common, comprising an estimated 300-500 adult individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but there is no evidence of its existence on Late<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Following the successful introduction the population now appears to have doubled in size<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141203	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits broadleaved forest ranging from secondary to mature<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but needs areas with little ground cover, where it can forage in leaf-litter and top soil mainly for insects and worms, but also small reptiles, seeds and small fruit<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It uses hot volcanic ash to incubate its eggs, a habit which confines its nesting sites to areas of loose soil close to vents, either in forest or in open ash, or beaches of crater lakes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141203	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Dekker<em> in litt. </em>(2003). <br/></p>	eng
141203	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	All nesting sites on Niuafo'ou are harvested and at least 50% of all eggs laid are collected or destroyed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Adults are also hunted on a small scale, and adults and chicks are predated by feral cats and dogs, while pigs may compete for food<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Fonualei is uninhabited so the threats of hunting and human disturbance are less immediate for the population there<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141204	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been legally protected since 1979. Traditional management regimes for sustainable egg-harvesting have been observed for at least 80 years at the two main nesting grounds, reputedly without serious detriment to the species. Surveys of nesting grounds commenced in 1995, including a biological study at the Haruku nesting ground. The gathering of more recent information has been difficult due to political unrest. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the impact of recent civil unrest on population status, particularly at Haruku Campaign for full legal protection of nesting habitats and corridors at and around viable nesting grounds, particularly at Galela and Haruku.  Conduct education programmes and work closely with local people to achieve and maintain sustainable egg-harvest regimes. Monitor breeding success at selected key nesting grounds.  Determine the dispersal, range and movement of adults and chicks through the use of radio-tracking and genetic studies. Conduct surveys of the major historical nesting grounds on Buru</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141204	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eulipoa wallacei</em> is endemic to the Moluccan Islands of Buru, Seram, Haruku, Ambon, Bacan, Halmahera, Ternate, and Misool off Irian Jaya (from where there is only one record), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It has undergone a substantial decline, such that the global population is now estimated at c.10,000 individuals. The vast majority of the population nests at two sites, on Halmahera and Haruku. It is probably extinct on Ambon and Ternate, is apparently rare on Bacan and Seram, and there is no recent information from Buru, where a very large colony of nest-sites existed at the beginning of the 20th century.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141204	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, evergreen rainforest, also occurring in degraded forest and coastal scrub, from sea-level to 2,000 m although perhaps more typically above 750 m, except when nesting. It lays and buries its eggs (which average at least 20% of adult body weight) nocturnally in colonies, chiefly on solar-radiated sandy beaches or other loose, unvegetated substrates. Egg-laying occurs year-round but timing, spacing and depth of burrows and behaviour at nesting sites are influenced by lunar cycles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141204	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Heij <em>et al</em>. (1997) established the total egg-laying population that nests on Haruku Island at 4200 females. 13,000-14,000 egg-laying females were estimated at Galela on Halmahera in 1995 (Heij <em>et al</em>. 1997). Also the coastal strip of North Seram holds c.1500-2500 egg laying females, and several other islands hold small populations. These estimates total c.18,000-20,000 females or 36,000-40,000 mature individuals, hence the total population is perhaps best placed in the band 20,000-50,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141204	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Over-harvesting of its highly nutritious eggs is the main reason for its decline, even in some areas where traditional regulatory management is practiced. Civil unrest in the Moluccas has prevented conservation efforts over the past five years.  It has been suggested that military presence and the disruption of local communities may have led to an increased incidence of egg harvesting and hunting of adult birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Natural predation of eggs and chicks by <em>Varanus</em> lizards, snakes and birds of prey poses an increasing threat as colonies decline. Sand extraction for local road construction and other small-scale development projects potentially threaten nesting grounds. Deforestation (through logging and agricultural encroachment) is presumed to be a threat in its non-breeding habitats. <br/></p>	eng
141205	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species' rapid decline has prompted the production of a national research plan<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and draft recovery plan<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. National monitoring standards have been established and rapid survey techniques using infra-red air-borne scanners developed. Reserves have been declared, some on private lands, and habitats have been fenced to exclude stock. Goats, rabbits and foxes have been partially controlled at some sites. Further habitat has been secured, interconnecting isolated populations, and wildfire response plans prepared. Community initiatives in identifying and supporting research opportunities, on-the-ground project implementation and management have been successful<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Captive breeding is allowing population supplementation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Maintain or establish habitat corridors between fragments. Continue efforts to control goats, rabbits, foxes and wild dogs.  Establish long term conservation covenant agreements to secure privately owned natural vegetation. Encourage adoption of suitable fire regimes. In reserves, close or fence off artificial water supplies and remove livestock. Foster communication with graziers and farmers about malleefowl requirements. Monitor populations in at least 10 sites in each state. Assess the size and distribution of populations in fragments and remoter regions.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141205	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leipoa ocellata</em> was formerly widespread in <strong>Australia,</strong> but its range appears to have contracted by over 50%. There are few data on population sizes, but estimates in the 1980s suggested there were only 750 pairs in New South Wales and less than 1,000 pairs in Victoria. Numbers in South Australia are probably higher, perhaps several thousand pairs. There are no population data in Western Australia but the population there is likely to exceed the total population elsewhere by an order of magnitude. It has not been recorded for several decades (and is probably extinct) in the Northern Territory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141205	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found principally in semi-arid to arid shrubland and woodland dominated by mallee eucalypts <em>Eucalyptus </em>and/or wattles <em>Acacia</em>. It requires a sandy substrate and abundance of leaf-litter for breeding. It occurs in higher breeding densities on better soils with higher rainfall and prefers habitat that has been unburnt for several decades. It feeds opportunistically on locally or seasonally abundant food<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, taking herbs, seeds, flowers, fruit, fungi, tubers and invertebrates, and also in stubble on adjoining agricultural land. Its "nest" is a mound, comprising an inner core of leaf-litter buried under a thick layer of sand. It may lay over 30 eggs in a season but, on average, each breeding pair produces 8-10 chicks each year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141205	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the total population at 100,000 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
141205	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance for agriculture has eliminated much habitat and some patches are affected by raised salinity levels, resulting in fragmented populations and a higher risk of localised extinction from starvation and bushfires<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>. It is highly sensitive to grazing by introduced herbivores such as goats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and sheep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, large-scale wildfire<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and predation by introduced foxes and wild dogs<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Introduced weed species are also affecting habitat quality<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Other threats include infertility, possibly attributable to agricultural chemicals, and road-kills where birds feed on spilt roadside grain<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000-2100 breeding pairs, equating to 3000-6300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
141208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141209	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 32000-67000 breeding pairs, equating to 96000-201000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
141210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	del Hoyo et al. (1994) estimated the global population to number 8,400-11,200 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,500-9,000 breeding pairs, equating to 7,500-27,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 10,000-50,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141215	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is poorly known because its remote habitat is rarely visited. It is considered generally uncommon (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1994), and very rare and local in India (Grimmett <em>et al</em>. 1998), but it is thought to remain widespread in the Chinese part of its range (He Fenqi <em>et al</em>. 1995). <br/></p>	eng
141215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon. It is considered generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994), and very rare and local in India (Grimmett et al. 1998), but it is thought to remain widespread in the Chinese part of its range (He Fenqi et al. 1995). The population in eastern Tibet is estimated as 25,000-40,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 40000-78000 breeding pairs, equating to 120000-234000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
141217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 660,000-1,900,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,980,000-5,700,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 2,000,000-10,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7500-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 22500-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
141221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 2000000-4500000 breeding pairs, equating to 6000000-13500000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
141222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6000-18000 breeding pairs, equating to 18000-54000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
141224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common across much of large range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to quite common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141227	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is legally protected in India and Nepal. It is currently known from at least 14 protected areas in India, the largest populations surviving in North Pilibhit Wildlife Sanctuary, Dudwa National Park and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttar Pradesh), Valmikinagar Tiger Reserve (Bihar) and Kaziranga, Orang and Manas National Parks (Assam). Important populations occur in two protected areas in Nepal. Ecological studies are underway in Nepal<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine impact of grass harvesting and burning on its habitat. Provide management recommendations to protected area managers in India and Nepal. Assess whether habitat outside protected areas has a long-term future. Establish Site Support Groups at Koshi Tappu and Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserves in Nepal and key sites in India. Conduct awareness programmes of the plight of this species and the importance of its habitat at key sites. Produce range-wide management plan for the species to address fragmentation of its habitat.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141227	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus gularis</em> is endemic to the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins, from the terai of western <strong>Nepal</strong> through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, northern <strong>India</strong>, to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Sundarbans, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. In India, populations have been found in all well protected terai grasslands, suggesting it exists in greater numbers than previously thought. In Nepal, where its range covers c.2,400 km<sup>2</sup> with an area of occupancy of 330 km<sup>2</sup>, the population is estimated at <500 birds and perhaps gradually declining. There are no recent records from Sikkim or Meghalaya<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or from Bangladesh<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, where it was once abundant. <br/></p>	eng
141227	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in tall, wet, natural grasslands, particularly those dominated by <em>Phragmites, Arundo, Saccharum</em> and <em>Narenga,</em> and also occurs (at lower densities) in wet agricultural areas dominated by sugarcane and paddy interspersed with natural vegetation. It is predominantly known from the lowlands (generally <250 m), but moves to slightly higher altitudes during periods of high flood. <br/></p>	eng
141227	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141227	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most remaining habitat within its range is subject to intense pressures from drainage for agriculture, human encroachment, fire, grass harvesting, grazing by domestic stock (especially during chick rearing), commercial forestry plantations and dam and irrigation schemes. Hunting and trapping for sport (cock fighting) and food poses an additional threat. Agricultural pesticides may be affecting its numbers, either through direct mortality or reduction in potential food sources (invertebrates). <br/></p>	eng
141228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141233	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs within Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda and Ruvubu National Park in Burundi.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct surveys, including playback, to determine the current population and distribution. Identify the threats that have caused its apparent decline. <br/></p>	eng
141233	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus streptophorus</em> has a disjunct distribution, with populations in <strong>Burundi, Cameroon, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania</strong> and <strong>Uganda</strong>. The stronghold is thought to be in Uganda where the species was thought to be common in suitable habitat. However, a paucity of recent records has raised suspicions that it is not common or widespread. Recent records from Uganda all come from the west<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where it is regularly recorded from Murchison Falls National Park<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is recorded sporadically in western Kenya<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and is reportedly fairly common in Tanzania. There are no recent records from Cameroon and recent attempts to locate it failed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is recorded from Ruvubu National Park in Burundi<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and has apparently been recorded in Rwanda<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
141233	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species inhabits stony hillsides with sparse grass and shrub cover, and wooded grasslands at 600-1,800 m. It is very shy, flushes reluctantly, usually encountered in pairs or small parties, and is most active at dawn.  <br/></p>	eng
141233	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population has not been quantified, but given the paucity of recent records it is thought to be moderately small. <br/></p>	eng
141233	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Previously thought to be common, the reasons for its apparent decline are not known, but habitat modification is the most likely cause. <br/></p>	eng
141234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in optimal habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to locally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141240	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In the DRC, the population in the Semliki Valley is within the Virunga National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in the Bugoma and Mabira Forest Reserves, as well as the Budongo Forest Reserve, which has been sustainably managed for timber since the 1920s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study its distribution in forest remnants, dispersal and predation rates. Monitor the populations in Uganda (Bugoma, Budongo, Mabira). Survey for the bird in eastern DRC (lowland sectors of Maiko National Park, lowland sectors of Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park, lowland sectors of Virunga National Park, Ituri Forest, Itombwe, and Tayna Forest). In DRC, extend Virunga National Park to include the eastern Ituri Forest. Survey forest patches between Bugoma forest and Kibale National Park, Uganda, and within Kibale and Semliki National Parks. Study genetic variation within and among isolated populations. Investigate the impact of the paper mulberry <em>Broussonetia papyrifera</em> invasion in Mabira Forest Reserve and ways of controlling it.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141240	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus nahani</em> is known from a few localities in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) from Yangambi eastwards, and in central and western <strong>Uganda</strong> in Budongo, Bugoma (401 km<sup>2</sup>) and Mabira (210 km<sup>2</sup>) Forests<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Recent surveys estimated the population in Uganda to be 32,800-59,100 individuals<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Its reported presence in Bwamba (= Semliki) and Kibale (560 km<sup>2</sup>) Forests (Uganda) has never been confirmed and is best discounted<strong><sup>1,3,8</sup></strong>. It is known to be uncommon in the still extensive Ituri Forest, DRC, and fairly common in Budongo Forest, Uganda<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141240	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in lowland primary forest, preferring riverine or swampy areas<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in both unlogged and logged forest<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, including mixed forest subject to moderate logging and/or disturbance, or where natural gaps occur<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Records from forest edge and non-forest habitats may refer to dispersing or feeding birds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It prefers to forage in areas of dense understorey<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, searching the leaf-litter for invertebrates, shoots, seeds and bulbs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and probably picking invertebrates from low vegetation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is highly territorial and breeds throughout the year, though mainly towards the beginning of the rainy season<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Most nests are placed on the ground between the buttresses of large trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141240	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Fuller <em>et al. </em>(2004a, 2004b) estimated a population of 44,038 (95% CI: 32,827-59,079) individuals in Uganda. However, the species's distribution also includes localities in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the inclusion of which may double the known population size (R. Fuller<em> in litt.</em> 2007), therefore the population is placed in the range 50,000-99,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141240	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat in Mabira Forest is highly degraded<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and rapid loss of forest here suggests that the francolin population may be declining<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. While logging in Bugoma Forest may not directly threaten the species, increased disturbance and poaching by pit-sawyers may reduce its population<strong><sup>5 </sup></strong>-<strong><sup> </sup></strong>both forests are surrounded by agricultural settlements, industrial development and urban areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Uganda, it is hunted for food and eggs are collected and eaten or used in traditional practices although this appears to be on a small scale<strong><sup>3,11,12</sup></strong>. Hunting in DRC has not yet been investigated but may be a more serious problem<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The exotic tree species <em>Broussonetia papyfera</em> has invaded the eastern part of Mabira Forest and very few francolins were found in this habitat<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and locally distributed (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141245	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Although four or five Game Reserves in the Blue Nile basin have been proposed, none have been established<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to assess the distribution, habitat requirements and importance of different threats. Develop and implement a community-orientated action plan for the conservation of the species and its habitat. With full involvement of all concerned stakeholders, develop a comprehensive species action plan to address the conservation of the species and its habitat. Raise awareness in government of this Ethiopian endemic, encouraging the development of legal structures to prohibit the unsustainable exploitation of the species. Complete population surveys to the north and north-west of the species's currently known range. Protect key areas in collaboration with local communities, possibly concentrating on the Mid-Abbay (Blue Nile) River Basin IBA.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141245	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus harwoodi</em> is restricted to the highlands of central <strong>Ethiopia</strong> around the Blue Nile river and its tributaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. According to local reports its range extends northwards into Southern Wello and north-west into Eastern Gojam Administrative Zones<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Research in 1996 found it locally abundant in the Jemma and Jara valleys and the adjacent valleys and river catchments of North Showa Zone, with an estimated maximum density of 92 birds per km<sup>2</sup> at Jemma valley<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. It is not known if birds move between adjacent valleys but, if not, it is probable that some subpopulations number more than 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1998 found it at a number of new sites within its known range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141245	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species was believed to be almost entirely restricted to <em>Typha</em> (bulrush) beds growing along small, shallow watercourses and <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. However, studies in 1996 found it at a site with no permanent river or <em>Typha,</em> with evidence of birds roosting in extensive thorn-scrub on hillsides<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The breeding season is reported to be from September to December and the clutch-size as 4-7. It may be polygamous<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141245	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141245	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is intense pressure on resources within the species's range and consequently even marginal scrubland (favoured by the species for cover) is being cleared for agriculture and timber for fuel and construction<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1998 found areas between localities had thin and patchy vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Typha</em> beds are burnt annually, so that farmers can plant cotton, and are also cut for thatching<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. The species is heavily hunted for food and is sometimes also caught for sale at local markets<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. Eggs are taken for food<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very locally distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally abundant to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141251	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141252	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A sizeable population was discovered in Qui&ccedil;ama National Park in 2000<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. A protected area of c.20 km<sup>2</sup> at Chongoroi, in Benguela Province, was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not yet been established<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and to identify potential areas of suitable habitat. Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Determine the habitat requirements and impact of hunting on populations. <br/></p>	eng
141252	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus griseostriatus</em> wais thought to be restricted to the escarpment zone of western <strong>Angola</strong>, occurring in two populations separated by 400 km, in Cuanza Sul and southern Benguela Provinces. However, recent evidence shows that it is more widely distributed along the escarpment and northern coastal plain, and that the distribution is likely to be continuous<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. It was first collected in 1957 and was recorded on only a few occasions until recently, when observers have been more easily able to enter the country<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. It appears to be common in some areas<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141252	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in secondary and gallery forest, occurring in thickets and weed-covered areas in the north of its range and in the extensive dry dense forest and thickets that are typical of the northern coastal plain<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Reports suggest that it may be more abundant in the latter habitat and it appears to make use of secondary forest, as long as dense cover is present<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. It feeds, in both early morning and late afternoon, in grassland and abandoned cotton fields adjacent to the forest  on small arthropods, shoots and seeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141252	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (based on P. Vaz Pinto's estimate of 500 in 10,000 ha) x 4,220 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 21,100. Since this population density is from within a national park, and densities can be expected to be lower outside protected areas, this species is best given a banded population estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals until more information is available. <br/></p>	eng
141252	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1992, forest on the escarpment was thought to be slowly but steadily decreasing, and this still appears to be the situation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Some large areas of habitat have been cleared of vegetation for subsistence farming, perhaps up to a fifth of the range overall<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. There is little information on the extent of hunting or the threat it might pose, but it appears not to be serious<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. Previous civil unrest in the species's range has now abated<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141253	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141258	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Part of For&ecirc;t du Day was apparently declared a national park in 1939, but the designation is no longer valid<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> - work is now underway to advance the implementation of full protected area status for For&ecirc;t du Day and Mabla<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Research to clarify the species's range and population numbers is ongoing, including preliminary planning for surveys in other ranges between the two known locations. Meetings have been held with local communities to discuss the establishment of Site Support Groups for For&ecirc;t du Day and Mabla<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Brochures on the Djibouti Francolin and its habitat have been produced and distributed widely including within schools, tourist centres and government departments; meetings have been held with education authorities to discuss the integration of environmental teaching within primary schools,  and a pilot environmental education programme has been trialled at five local schools<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A workshop was held at Djibouti University to discuss the establishment of a Djibouti Francolin Working Group comprised of local academics and students. Plans for a community-based juniper forest restoration project are underway, and in May 2008 an area near Day village was set aside for a tree nursery<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Immediate implementation of protected status of the "For&ecirc;ts de Day et de Mabla" as recently decreed by government. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat limits and reproductive ecology, especially whether there is seasonal dependence upon juniper forest. These will be aided by the use of radio-tagging which requires development of suitable catching techniques. Community-based juniper forest restoration through planting and assisted regeneration, and the maintenance of local plant nurseries. Expand awareness-raising programmes to ensure local people are aware of the value of the species and its habitat to improve participation in other conservation actions. Involve local stakeholders by convening a Protected Area Management Group in the Goda and Mabla areas. Create a working group within Djibouti to promote conservation of the species and its habitat. Develop a long-term integrated management project for the Goda massif, involving socio-economic and agro-pastoral surveys and a conservation education programme (currently being trialled in five local schools by Djibouti Nature).	eng
141258	distribution		<em>Francolinus ochropectus</em> is endemic to <strong>Djibouti</strong>, where it is known from only two sites: For&ecirc;t du Day in the Goda Massif (c.14-15 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and the nearby Mabla Mountains. Available habitat at For&ecirc;t du Day was halved between 1977 and 1983<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with a corresponding decline in the population from 5,600 to 1,500 birds between 1978 and 1985<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The population at For&ecirc;t du Day was estimated at c.500-1,000 in 1998<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Figures released in 2006 indicate that 95% of plateau juniper (the preferred habitat) was either dead or dying<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nevertheless, immature birds continue to be seen and the ability of dead juniper woodland and woodland largely devoid of juniper to support the species remains poorly understood. Survey work by the World Pheasant Association in collaboration with Djibouti Nature led to a population estimate of the For&ecirc;t du Day population of 612-723 adults<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A 2009 survey estimated the size of the Mabla population at 108 individuals<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
141258	habitat		It is found in juniper and other woodland (with records between 700 and 1,500 m) but forest at For&ecirc;t du Day now only occurs above c.950 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been found in secondary woodland and occurs in degraded woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including dead juniper habitat. It is shy, elusive and occurs in small parties in dense vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, hence it is not recorded in dead or dying juniper habitats which are more open<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The presence of a population in the Mabla Mountains where juniper is effectively absent may indicate that habitat structure rather than species composition of woodland may a key ecological factor<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, berries and termites, and also figs from the forest edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The breeding season is from December to February<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is probably monogamous, laying a clutch of 5-7 eggs; the only known nest was a shallow grass-lined depression on an inaccessible mountain ledge<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
141258	population		The species's stronghold, For&ecirc;t du Day, held an estimated 612-723 adults in 2004-2006 (Bealey and Rayaleh 2006). The only other location for the species, Mabla Mountains, had an estimated population of 108 individuals in 2009 (Welch <em>et al.</em> 2009). This gives a total population of 720-831 individuals.	eng
141259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141262	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is an internationally-funded conservation and development project on Mt Cameroon, though efforts to date have mainly concentrated on lowland areas threatened with clearance for plantation agriculture<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Collect detailed distributional information including any evidence of fragmentation. Determine its habitat use more precisely. Control/regulate human-induced burning of grasslands. Investigate its distribution and the effects of threats (e.g. grassfires, hunting) within the Mount Cameroon and Mokoko-Onge IBA.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141262	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Francolinus camerunensis</em> is found on Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it is restricted to the south-east and north-east slopes. During survey work in 1984, it was found to be common, especially on the southern slopes of the mountain. Recent sightings have been irregular and are usually of single pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141262	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense undergrowth in primary forest and clearings between 850-2,100&#160;m. It appears able to tolerate secondary forest and has been observed in savanna-scrub habitat following forest burning<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds on berries, grass seeds and insects and breeds during the dry season, with birds laying between October and December.</p>	eng
141262	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 648-1,134 individuals (4-7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 162 km<sup>2</sup> [85% of EOO]), but it is likely to be at upper end of this range as it was described as 'common' during fieldwork in 1984, and hence is best placed in the range 1,000-2,499. Density range from lower to upper quartile of five estimates for four forest-dwelling congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
141262	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	While fire is a naturally occurring phenomenon on Mt Cameroon and lava-flows occur about every 20 years, it is the regular burning of grassland by hunters that is probably the greatest threat to the species, causing the destruction of both eggs and young birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recurrent bush fires destroy forest, particularly on the south-east slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clearance is an additional problem, notably on the east side of the mountain where it is extensive and could become more serious, with hunting posing a relatively insignificant (but continuing) threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141263	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A protected area of c.60 km<sup>2</sup> at Mt Moco was proposed in the 1970s, but has not yet been established<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of suitable habitat. Design and evaluate a robust survey technique, perhaps based on playback of vocalisations. Conduct surveys to determine the species's distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements.  Initiate long-term conservation at Mt Moco IBA, perhaps though a Site Support Group.	eng
141263	distribution		<em>Francolinus swierstrai</em> is uncommon in western <strong>Angola</strong> and is found from Tundavala in Huila District north to Cariango in Cuanza Sul District, on inselbergs in Huambo District and in the Bailundu Highlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Mt Moco in the Bailundu Highlands (the area with the most forest remaining) only c.15 patches of true Afromontane forest survive (1-15 ha), all in deep ravines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although there are other more extensive patches of sub-montane forest in western Angola<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There were no records of this species between 1971 and 2005, when c.10 individuals were recorded (seven birds were seen and another pair or group were heard)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> at Mts Moco and Soque<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Population estimates are hampered by a lack of data, however it has been estimated at between 465-1,052 pairs and 1,040-2,080 pairs depending on the amount of forest cover left in Angola and how tolerant the species is of non-forest habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
141263	habitat		It is found in montane areas where it is known mainly from forest and forest edge, but it is also recorded from rocky and grassy mountain sides, tall grass savannas on mountain tops and gullies. In August 2005, the seven birds that were seen were in rank growth and bracken<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In forest, it stays within the dense undergrowth of bushes, shrubs, grasses and large ferns. It feeds on grass and legume seeds and insects picked from the leaf-litter. Its breeding ecology is virtually unknown, but juvenile specimens collected in August suggest a breeding season in May or June.	eng
141263	population		The global population has been estimated at between 465-1,052 pairs and 1,040-2,080 pairs. The latter is an over-estimate unless the species is tolerant of a wider range of habitats than is currently known, hence the global population is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals (M. S. L. Mills <em>in litt. </em>2010).	eng
141264	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ndundulu and Nyumbanitu Mountains lie within the West Kilombero Forest Reserve. Half of the Ndundulu forest, including Mt Luhombero, is inside the Udzungwa Mountains National Park<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. The latter protected area is supported by an ongoing conservation project that includes a community outreach component in the Nyumbanitu and Ndundulu area outside the national park<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Evaluate the effects of human disturbance by comparing population densities, habitat use and breeding success in undisturbed parts of the forest with areas where there is logging, pole-cutting and subsistence hunting. Assess the effectiveness of the Joint Forest Management programme in the villages of Udekwa and Ifuaas as a possible model for future resource stewardship schemes. Determine whether existing ecotourism schemes generate significant revenues, and investigate their effects upon the level of exploitation. Determine the population size, distribution and threats to the recently discovered Rubeho population. Encourage beneficial management practices in the Udzungwa Mountains and Udzungwa National Park IBAs, focusing on the control of fires and illegal hunting. Establish the precise altitudinal range and breadth of habitat-types used.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141264	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenoperdix udzungwensis</em> is endemic to <strong>Tanzania</strong>, being known only from the eastern Udzungwa highlands (the Nyumbanitu and Ndundulu Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> including Mt Luhombero<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>) and the forest covered top of Chugu Hill in the northern Rubeho Mountains (a northern outlier of Mafwemiro Forest<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>), c.150 km to the north of the type locality. It seems genuinely absent from the rest of the Udzungwa highlands, except perhaps the Gologolo Mts, and from Image Forest<strong><sup>4,7,10</sup></strong>. Its area of occupancy has been estimated at 160-300 km<sup>2</sup>, within which it is locally common, with an estimated density of c.25 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a total population of c.3,700 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, a recent study in Luhombero Forest indicated that the density there was probably lower<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, so this may be an overestimate, although it has been suggested that this apparent decline is explained by seasonal altitudinal movements<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A four month survey in the Nyumbanitu and Ukami forests (Udzungwa Mts) failed to find any sign of the species, further suggesting its population has been overestimated<strong><sup>8,3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141264	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mature montane and submontane evergreen forest, from 1,340 to 2,200 m <strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, occurring on ridges, steep rocky slopes and flatter ground (especially where the understorey is open with scattered <em>Cyperus</em> sedges and ferns<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>). All locations known for this species are forest with <em>Podocarpus </em>trees, but otherwise its habitat requirements and disjunct distribution remain unclear<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds in the leaf-litter on the forest floor, on invertebrates and seeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding possibly starts with the onset of the rains. Adults have been seen with chicks in late November, early December and early January<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141264	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Dinesen <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimate the population to be 3,700 individuals based on the species's range and density in the Ndundulu forest. Butynski and Ehardt (2003) have recently suggested this estimate may be too high as in other parts of its range it appears significantly less common. The population may be best estimated in the range 3,000-4,000 individuals (L. Hansen<em> in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
141264	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species appears more susceptible to hunting, especially snaring, than previously thought<strong><sup>8,9,7</sup></strong>; although hunting pressure is comparatively low, its demographic effects may be large<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. It seems to be absent from forests where hunting pressure is high<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Snaring of ground-dwelling birds and mammals at Nyumbanitu appears to have affected the population in particular. There is good evidence that disturbance and hunting (pole cutting, honey collection, traps and snares) have increased markedly recently; at least 25 traps and snares were found during recent surveys for the species in the Nyumbanitu Forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The more remote parts of the Udzungwa highlands may provide a hunting-free refuge for the species<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 4,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1,600,000-3,100,000 breeding pairs, equating to 4,800,000-9,300,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 5,000,000-10,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is considered to be common in parts of China (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141268	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhizothera longirostris</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, East and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon in lowland and hill forest and bamboo up to 1,500 m, with an apparent preference for limestone hills on Borneo. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. However, this species has probably not declined very rapidly because it ranges up to elevations where forest loss is less severe. <br/></p>	eng
141270	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known to occur in at least six protected areas: Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Peninsular Malaysia), Kinabalu National Park (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Tanjung Puting National Park and Gunung Palung Nature Reserve (Kalimantan), and Berbak Game Reserve (Sumatra). It also occurs in Pasoh Reserve Forest in Peninsular Malaysia. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Afford the species full protection under Indonesian and Malaysian law. Conduct research into its ecological and habitat requirements. Identify and record its vocalisations to aid field surveys. Identify remaining suitable habitat tracts, and conduct extensive field surveys and village interviews within these areas to clarify its current distribution and population status. Following surveys, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected areas network, and advocate protection of further areas if necessary. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141270	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanoperdix niger</em> is known from Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong> (including both Sabah and Sarawak), and Kalimantan and south Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is described as local and sparse to uncommon in Peninsular Malaysia, and there are recent records from at least three sites in Kalimantan and one in Sumatra. However, its distribution and population status are generally very poorly known across its entire range, and lack of information on vocalisations has hampered the success of searches. It is presumably declining because of dramatic ongoing reductions in its habitat. <br/></p>	eng
141270	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Peninsular Malaysia, it is judged to be a lowland specialist, where it has a proclivity for primary or mature, regenerated, closed-canopy evergreen forest on alluvial soils. In Indonesia, it has been recorded in peatswamp forest, and historically was described as inhabiting brushwood and high bamboo-jungle. Recent evidence from Borneo suggests that it probably extends up to at least 900&#160;m, perhaps 1,200&#160;m.</p>	eng
141270	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141270	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The single overriding threat is habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within protected areas, and widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm. In Indonesia, the full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has still to be fully assessed, but drought fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and Borneo. At current rates of habitat loss, given no change in current forest management policy, dryland lowland rainforest could disappear completely by 2005 on Sumatra, and 2010 in Kalimantan. Hunting for food may pose an additional, more localised, threat. <br/></p>	eng
141271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2800000-4700000 breeding pairs, equating to 8400000-14100000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 35000000-300000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141272	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There are plans to introduce a ban on the hunting of the species in Japan<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Obtain an up-to-date population census. Develop a monitoring scheme to establish population trends. Identify and assess the impacts of known and potential threats throughout its range.	eng
141272	distribution		<em>Coturnix japonica</em> breeds in eastern Asia, including northern <strong>Mongolia</strong>, Sakhalin Island and the Baikal and Vitim regions of <strong>Russia</strong>, north-east <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Some populations in Japan are resident, but most birds migrate south, wintering in southern China, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong> and north-east <strong>India<sup>1</sup></strong>. There are also introduced populations in <strong>Italy </strong>and Hawaii (<strong>USA</strong>). No reliable population estimate exists, and although the species was previously considered to be fairly common in China<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, declines appear to have occurred in Laos<strong><sup>2</sup> </strong>and Japan<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and there are fears that the species has undergone a significant decline<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
141272	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is an annual migrant, though some populations in Japan are resident<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Laying occurs from late April to earily August in Russia, and late May to August in Japan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Clutch size is varied, with larger clutches in Russia (nine to ten) than in Japan (five to eight)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The female is the sole incubator of the egg<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>Little is known about the preferred habitat of this species, though it is thoughtly to prefer open habitats such as meadows, steppes, and dry mountain slopes near water. It has also been recorded in grassland and cultivated land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is thought to include a wide variety of plant materials, and it will also take terrestrial invertebrates in summer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
141272	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was has been reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000). Owing to recent suspected declines, the species is likely to be less common than previously thought.	eng
141273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common in Victoria and New South Wales (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141274	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coturnix novaezelandiae</em> was endemic to open habitats, especially grass-covered downs, on North, South and Great Barrier Islands, <strong>New Zealand<sup>3</sup></strong>. It was considered fairly common until the mid-19th century, but declined rapidly to extinction by 1875<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Extinction was initially thought to have been caused by large-scale burning, predation by dogs, cats and rats, and grazing by sheep<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. More recently, diseases spread by introduced gamebirds have been hypothesised to account for its rapid extinction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141278	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anurophasis monorthonyx</em> is endemic to the highest peaks of the Snow and Star Mountains of Papua, <strong>Indonesia<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It has long been known only from high grassland plateaux and the edge of heavy alpine scrub with trees and scrub, between c.3,000 and 4,200&#160;m on the northern slopes of Mounts Jaya (Carstensz) and Trikora (Wilhelmina), where it appears to be uncommon<strong><sup>2,6,8</sup></strong>. There are recent records from Lake Habbema, below Mount Trikora<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>, and from close to the Freeport mine<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, its recent discovery in the Star Mountains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> suggests that it may be much more widespread in the little-known high mountains of Papua. It has a small and naturally fragmented range, and its population appears to be naturally low. Its relatively inaccessible habitats are generally not threatened but some habitat has been lost around the Freeport mine<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it is actively hunted in accessible areas and the Trans-Irian Highway from Jayapura to Wamena will open up a large area of previously inaccessible habitat to hunters<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141281	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over a wide range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141282	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No conservation measures are known to have been taken. It is not known to occur in any protected areas, and surveys for it in the border regions of Manipur, Nagaland and the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been precluded by security problems.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey (particularly listening for its distinctive call) any remaining suitable habitat in or near known localities in the eastern hills of Manipur, the south Manipur basin, areas around Phalel, Imphal and Goalpara in Assam. Afford protection to any areas of grassland found to support populations at the earliest opportunity. Investigate its occurrence in Bangladesh.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141282	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Perdicula manipurensis</em> is endemic to northern West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya, north-east <strong>India</strong>, its range apparently previously extending into Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet districts, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. Described historically as local, but not very rare, although even by the 1930s it was documented as declining in Manipur. There are no recent records and just one unconfirmed report, from Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, India, in March 1998. If it does survive in Bangladesh, any remaining populations must be small.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141282	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A probable resident, it inhabits damp grassland, particularly stands of tall grass, and sometimes bogs and swamps, from the foothills up to c.1,000&#160;m. Historical records indicate that it was generally encountered in small groups of 4-12, and was shy, reluctant to fly and extremely difficult to observe, although coveys were occasionally seen feeding in the open on recently burnt ground. The little available data indicate that it breeds between January and May.</p>	eng
141282	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-5 birds/km2 x 1,700 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,700-8,500 (density extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet); perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals, but note that this is tentative given lack of records and paucity of information. Following its rediscovery, additional survey efforts have failed to locate other individuals and it appears to be genuinely rare, hence, this estimate may need revising. <br/></p>	eng
141282	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Drainage and destruction of tall grasslands to meet the demands of an expanding human population have been extensive in Manipur and Bangladesh at least, presumably greatly reducing and fragmenting available habitat. Any extensive patches of tall grass that might remain in Bangladesh are inundated for two-thirds of the year and are thus unlikely to support significant populations. Its habit of running in tightly-knit groups when fleeing disturbance made it easy to kill several birds with a single shot, a factor likely to have contributed to its decline, in conjunction with a dramatic rise in hunting levels across its range (particularly in Bangladesh) during the 20th century.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in many places (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141285	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila atrogularis </em>is resident in north-east <strong>India</strong> (locally common in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (very local in the north-east, could still occur in the Chittagong Hill Tracts) and <strong>Myanmar</strong> (widespread, uncommon to common resident) and <strong>China</strong> (local in Yingjiang area of west Yunnan to west of Salween river). It inhabits dense undergrowth of broadleaved primary and secondary evergreen forest, sometimes adjacent scrub, bamboo, grassland and cultivation, most frequently below 750 m in India, but usually between 610-1,220 m in South-East Asia. It is principally threatened by habitat loss and persecution. Within its range, hill forests are diminishing rapidly in extent and becoming fragmented because of shifting agriculture and logging. Hunting and snaring of galliformes is common. However, given the size of its range and the paucity of fieldwork conducted within it, the species is currently likely to be more abundant than records suggest and to exceed the threshold for classification as Vulnerable. <br/></p>	eng
141286	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila crudigularis</em> is confined to the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), where it occurs in broadleaved forest at 700-2,300 m. It was formerly widespread but there have been no surveys and few records in recent years, and its population could now be below 10,000 individuals. Some 11% of Taiwan is protected, in six national parks and in nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, and the species is well represented in these protected areas, where its population is believed to be stable. Elsewhere, it could be declining because of forest loss for timber production and conversion to agricultural land and possibly the use of pesticides. <br/></p>	eng
141287	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from at least three protected areas, Singalila National Park (West Bengal), Thrumshing La National Park (Bhutan) and Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (Bhutan), and has been reported recently from Mehao and Dibang Valley Wildlife Sanctuaries (Arunachal Pradesh). A recent ban has been placed on timber export from forests in Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutan's national policy to maintain forests over 60% of the country potentially goes a long way to ensuring a safe long-term future for this species there, and c. 35% of the country is designated as a Protected Area (26%) or Biological Corridor (9%)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys in promising forested areas throughout its range to determine distribution. Conduct intensive studies at key sites to provide detailed information on habitat use, population sizes and threats. Identify key areas and develop conservation management recommendations for them.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141287	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila mandellii</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas north of the Brahmaputra, and is known from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, West Bengal (Darjeeling only), Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, north-east <strong>India</strong>, and south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from several sites in Bhutan, including the Thrumshing La National Park and Shemgang Dzongkhag, but it may also be found in western Bhutan, which has barely been surveyed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is locally common in the remaining forests of Arunachal Pradesh and perhaps also parts of West Bengal, suggesting it may be evenly distributed right across its range, wherever suitable habitat occurs. <br/></p>	eng
141287	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in the undergrowth of evergreen forest, including bamboo, often close to streams, from perhaps as low as 350 m up to 2,500 m, but invariably 1,700-2,000 m based on recent records. In Bhutan, its known distribution is almost entirely confined to areas with extensive old-growth forest suggesting that the species may be sensitive to habitat degradation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141287	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.2-6 individuals/km2  x 6,700 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,340-40,200, perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 as species reported to be locally common at some sites but rare and local at others  (density range is lower half of three estimates for congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141287	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest degradation and fragmentation as a result of shifting cultivation, timber harvesting and clearance for tea plantations is an increasing problem in north-east India. Hunting in the Mishmi Hills (including within protected areas) is apparently severe. Snares set for mammals are also responsible for the deaths of many galliformes. Singalila National Park suffers high incursion rates from visitors coming to hunt, collect forest products and graze livestock. Extensive grazing across much of its range is a further threat. As Bhutan's population increases, shifting agriculture and grazing are likely to become problems within the species' altitude zone, despite the country's admirable forestry policy<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or localised throughout its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141289	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is a nationally-protected species in China. In 1998, it was recorded in Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, where there was estimated to be 192 km<sup>2</sup> of potentially suitable habitat. Several recent surveys and a radio telemetry study have greatly improved knowledge of its distribution, population density, and ecological and conservation requirements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some forestry practices may be of benefit to its conservation, notably leaving strips of primary forest along ridge tops and replanting with native broadleaf trees. There have been sightings in reserves at Laojunshan (35 km<sup>2</sup>) in Pingshan county and Mamize (380 km<sup>2</sup>) in Leibo county which contain suitable broadleaf habitat. Reserves have been established in both areas to protect the species and have received support to train and equip staff<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A third reserve was recently established at Heigzhugou (over 300 km<sup>2</sup>) in E'bian county<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Expand protected area network by extending Laojunshan and Mabian Dafending, proposing and establishing new reserves, connecting reserves using habitat corridors and assisting existing reserves to attain National Nature Reserve Status. Enhance management capacity at protected areas, including removing fast-growing alien tree species where possible. Develop sustainable wood-cutting, bamboo and medicinal plant collection and alternative livelihoods to provide economic benefits for local people. Encourage controlled ecotourism in selected areas in line with tourism plan for region. Monitor populations to establish the population size and density in all reserves, and to determine the effects of management. Conduct education programmes for local schools about forests and wildlife using the Sichuan Partridge as an ambassador. Develop a range-wide management plan to guide conservation actions in the future.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141289	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila rufipectus</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from south-central Sichuan, with probable records from north-east Yunnan. Surveys in 1996 and 1997 estimated densities of 0.48 and 0.24 calling males per km<sup>2</sup>, respectively. The total area of suitable habitat within its known range was then estimated at 1,793 km<sup>2</sup>, and on the basis of densities recorded, and the assumption that each calling male represents one pair, the total population was estimated at 860-1,722 birds. However, it was recorded at several new sites between 1998  and 2002 and more recent surveys in two locations have found densities of c.0.7 calling males per km<sup>2</sup>, so this population estimate is likely to be too low<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141289	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in temperate broadleaf cloud forest, mainly mixed evergreen and deciduous, at 1,100-2,250 m. Radio telemetry studies have shown that when foraging it favours undisturbed, closed-canopy forest with an open forest floor, sparse bamboo growth and damp leaf-litter. Although it prefers shallow slopes, most of the remaining areas of forest within its range are on steep slopes. It occurs in secondary forest at similar densities, but usually within 1 km of primary forest.  Research has also shown that it occurs in broadleaf plantations after about 15 years of growth provided that native broadleaves are used in the replanting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141289	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys in 1996 and 1997 estimated densities of 0.48 and 0.24 calling males per km<sup>2</sup>, respectively. The total area of suitable habitat within its known range was then estimated at 1,793 km<sup>2</sup>, and on the basis of densities recorded, and the assumption that each calling male represents one pair, the total population was estimated at 860-1,722 birds. However, it was recorded at several new sites between 1998  and 2002 and more recent surveys at Laojunshan Nature Reserve at the eastern edge of its range recorded densities of 4.24 &#177; 0.6  calling males per km<sup>2</sup>. Although reliable, this is the highest density recorded for this species and it is known to occur at much lower densities further west, so it is probable that Laojunshan represents optimal habitat within the bird's preferred altitudinal range (about 1000 to 2000 m).  Nevertheless, the 1996/7  population estimate is likely to be too low, hence it is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141289	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Until recently the main threat was habitat destruction through commercial clear-felling of primary forest, as most remaining primary broadleaf forest within its known range was at risk from logging within 20-25 years. In 1998, a Government imposed ban on logging in the upper Yangtze basin led to a complete halt in deforestation throughout its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is now a major forest plantation scheme in operation aiming to re-forest ridges and steeper slopes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  In some areas, forest is still being cleared for agriculture or illegally logged, though this is on a small scale. Many people enter its forest habitat to collect bamboo shoots and medicinal plants in spring and early autumn, which creates substantial disturbance during the breeding season, and additional disturbance is caused by livestock either grazing in, or moving through, the forest. It is also illegally hunted. Hydroelectric schemes and the resulting reservoirs in the valleys below its mountain forest habitat provide indirect threats in future as the people they displace will be moved to higher locations in close proximity to the remaining forest, putting it under further pressure<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141290	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A game reserve (perhaps embracing 15 km<sup>2</sup> of forest) has existed in the Yang Highlands since 1962, although this has proved an ineffective designation. It also occurs in Meru Betiri National Park and the Kawah Ijen Ungup-ungup Nature Reserve. There is a small captive population (c.20 birds) in Belgium. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct fieldwork to determine the range, altitudinal distribution, population density and ecological requirements of the species, in particular carry out searches in the Gunung Raung and Gunung Maelang complexes and on the Yang Highlands. Establish the protection of the remaining forest on the Yang Highlands.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141290	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila orientalis</em> is apparently restricted to the eastern part of East Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, from the Yang Highlands eastwards, and thus in a range which historically covered only c.7,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and which today covers less than 2,500&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Its population was initially estimated at 1,000-10,000 individuals, but it has subsequently been found at several more sites and may considerably exceed this upper limit. <br/></p>	eng
141290	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	While data on this species are extremely scant, current information suggests that it is similar to its close congeners in that it frequents the interior of montane evergreen forest, from 500 m (but usually above 1,000 m) on mountains whose summits tend to be higher than 1,700 m. It is also probably relatively resilient to habitat degradation and hunting pressure, although this remains to be confirmed. <br/></p>	eng
141290	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141290	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most forest in the Yang Highlands has been cleared while elsewhere in the range of this species degradation occurs along the edges of remaining blocks and clearance of fragments remains commonplace (due to logging and agricultural encroachment), steadily reducing its habitat. Furthermore, partridges are frequently caught and eaten or traded by local people on Java<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The combination of these factors is likely to be reducing its population quite rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
141291	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141293	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but most of these reserves are relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many of them contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. The large Wuyishan Nature Reserve in Fujian (565 km<sup>2</sup>) and Jiangxi (160 km<sup>2</sup>) is likely to be especially important for its long-term survival<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Advocate listing as a nationally protected species in China. Conduct studies of its habitat requirements. Conduct surveys in protected areas throughout its range, to determine which of them support significant populations. Help develop appropriate management practices in protected areas to better protect closed-canopy forest. If required, propose the designation of new protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141293	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila gingica</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from scattered localities in the mountain ranges in the south-east, in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi and Guangdong. There have been few studies of its population size and distribution, but it is now considered to be rare in many parts of its range, and no longer found in some areas, with a total population of probably less than 10,000 individuals. However, it is still locally common in some regions, for example in northern Guangdong, and its population may prove to be larger. <br/></p>	eng
141293	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its typical habitats are broadleaf, mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, bamboo and scrub at 500 m to 1,700 m in the higher mountains of south-east China. It is confined to densely forested areas, where it stays on the ground in thick undergrowth all day, but roosts communally in trees.</p>	eng
141293	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No comprehensive review exists of this species population density across its range, using an accurate assessment of remaining forest cover to generate a global population estimate. Density estimates vary from 0.31/km<sup>2</sup> to 8-10/km<sup>2</sup> in different parts of its range. Until this data is available we retain a precautionary population estimate in the band 2,500-10,000 individuals based on suspected low densities in large parts of the range and an Area of Occupancy estimated at less than 10% of the known range size (i.e. approximately 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>) owing to severe habitat fragmentation. <br/></p>	eng
141293	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is threatened mainly as a result of continuing loss and fragmentation of its habitat, as most forest has been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for agricultural land and timber. Hunting for food and market trading is also a threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141294	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In May 1998, a five-year project began in Cat Tien National Park and Cat Loc Nature Reserve (now administratively integrated), focusing on research, developing a conservation management plan, capacity building, community development and conservation education. The Orange-necked Partridge is one of the project's flagship species, and featured on a national stamp in 2000. Extensive surveys have also been carried out in Bu Gia Map National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The known Cambodian population is within the SBCA, a former logging concession which is being managed to promote biodiversity conservation since 2002, primarily by controlling illegal hunting, encroachment and land conversion<strong><sup>2,5,8</sup></strong>. Snuol Wildlife Sanctuary presumably also holds a population, but receives limited protection, with no external support to the Ministry of Environment<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Following surveys in Binh Phouc Province, Vietnam, the ecological requirements of the species have been refined and recommendations made to extend the boundaries of Bu Gia Map National Park and to create a 'species habitat protection area' for the benefit of Orange-necked Partridge and Germain's Peacock-pheasant <em>Polyplectron germaini</em> within Nghia Trung and Bu Dang State Forest Enterprises<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and implement management requirements for the species within protected areas in Cambodia and Vietnam. Initiate a conservation education programme for the local people who live around selected protected areas. Quantitatively monitor the populations in Cat Tien and Cat Loc. Conduct surveys for further populations in the largest patches of suitable habitat, such as those in southern Lam Dong, Dong Nai and Binh Duong provinces. Conserve any further sites found to support populations, and follow recommendations to extend the boundaries of Bu Gia Map NP. Continue conservation management improvements in Cat Tien National Park. Carry out ecological studies to determine seasonal habitat use and response to disturbance. Assess the threat posed by hunting to this species and determine what levels of hunting pressure it can withstand. Support the conservation management of SBCA and Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia and Cat Loc, Nam Cat Tien and Bu Gia Map in Vietnam</strong>. <strong>Survey the Cambodian population to assess its size and global importance. Improve training and resources for forest rangers.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141294	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Arborophila davidi</em> is known from southern <strong>Vietnam </strong>and eastern <strong>Cambodia</strong>. Recent surveys have expanded its known range in Vietnam: it has now been recorded from Cat Tien National Park (NP), Dong Nai Protected Forest Management Board<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Vinh An State Forest Enterprise (SFE), Nghia Trung SFE, Bu Gia Map NP, Bu Dop SFE, Vinh Cu Natural and Historical Reserve and Tan Phu SFE<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, Da Teh SFE<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Binh Phouc SFE<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and Dak O SFE. It is predicted to occur in a number of other sites and may be widespread in southern Lam Dong, Dong Nai, Binh Duong and Binh Phuoc provinces, where suitable habitat remains<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A single bird was camera-trapped in Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (SBCA), Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia in 2002<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has been recorded subsequently from the same very localised area, but it remains enigmatic in the area with an inexplicably patchy distribution<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Based on current evidence, the area of suitable habitat in Cambodia may be as small as 70 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In 1994, its global population was estimated at <1,000 individuals but this figure is likely to prove to be an underestimate as knowledge of the species improves<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nevertheless, the species is apparently rare (or perhaps just elusive) in some areas. A slow decline is suspected owing to ongoing pressures placed on forest habitats, but the apparent ability of this species (as well as many congeners) to tolerate degraded habitats suggests that current forestry operations are unlikely to represent a major threat. <br/></p>	eng
141294	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is resident in evergreen forest in lowlands and foothills, from 120 m to at least 600 m, particularly hills covered with non-thorny bamboo. It also thrives in a variety of secondary habitats including tall scrub, bamboo, <em>Acacia</em>, logged evergreen and semi-evergreen forest plantations, perhaps preferring bamboo-covered slopes with a thick leaf-litter layer. Thus it appears to be able to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance and modification. Pairs call in duet. Calling reportedly peaks in March but has been recorded in November in Cambodia. <br/></p>	eng
141294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is now known from many sites in southern Vietnam and one in Cambodia. The area of suitable habitat has been found to be more extensive than was previously thought and given the population densities recorded in several congeners and their ability to persist in degraded habitats it seems likely that the population approaches 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141294	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extensive deforestation, particularly from herbicide spraying during the Vietnam war, presumably triggered a historic decline. Habitat loss through commercial logging, unofficial timber collection and clearance of land for cultivation (including cashew nut, cassava, rubber and other crop plantations), compounded by high hunting levels across its restricted range, now represent the main threats. Until recently these factors operated in the Cat Loc and Cat Tien protected areas as a result of ineffective management and regulation enforcement, stemming from lack of resources and staff. Illegal forest clearance by settlers has been prevalent in Snoul Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia in recent years and 120 km<sup>2</sup> of the protected area are in the process of being degazetted to allow further clearance. There is currently extensive legal collection of bamboo in the SBCA, though the impact of this on the species is unknown<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141295	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is afforded full legal protection in both Thailand and Cambodia. It occurs within Namtok Phliu National Park and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. In the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia, the species is protected in the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, Central Cardamom Protected Forest, Southwest Elephant Corridor and the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.  It also occurs in Bokor and probably Kirirom National Parks, Cambodia. Political instability and uncleared landmines in Cambodia have made conservation difficult, but surveys have been carried out and further research is planned. The World Pheasant Association and Forestry Administration of the Cambodian Government have established a Cambodian Galliformes Conservation Programme<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Bird tours and individuals regularly visit Bokor National Park to search for this species, generating revenue for the species's conservation. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Promote public awareness of the species's conservation and protected status in Thailand and Cambodia. Lobby for a moratorium on logging throughout the Cardamom Range, including Bokor and Kirirom National Parks, Cambodia. Identify and implement management requirements for the species within protected areas in Cambodia, especially Bokor National park and Phnom Aural. Encourage community-based conservation groups at key sites. Monitor the Khao Soi Dao population. Monitor, potentially using remote satellite technologies, forest cover in the Cardamon Mountains. Investigate the species's ecology, in particular sensitivity to habitat degradation and disturbance, and altitudinal distribution.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141295	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Arborophila cambodiana</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>Thailand</strong> (subspecies <em>diversa</em>) and the Cardamom mountains of south-west <strong>Cambodia</strong> (subspecies <em>cambodiana</em> and the recently described <em>chandamonyi</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). In Thailand, it is known from Khao Sabap, within the Namtok Phliu National Park, and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, with just three confirmed recent records, all from Khao Soi Dao (the last in 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). In Cambodia <em>cambodiana</em> appears to be relatively common above 200-300 m throughout the Cardamon Mountains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The newly described sub-species <em>chamdamonyi</em> is known only from the Samkos Range of the Cardamom Mountains. The Thailand population is thought to number 100-200 individuals, but in Cambodia it occurs at relatively high densities in several thousand km<sup>2</sup> of essentially unfragmented habitat above the 200 m contour<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Hence its global population likely falls within the band 20,000-50,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141295	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is presumed resident in evergreen forest on slopes and plateaus, and has also been recorded in open areas. It is generally found in mountains from 700-1,400 m in Thailand, and on plateaux (up to 1,000 m) in Cambodia, although it has been recorded down to 300 m and 400 m in both countries, and 200 m in Cambodia<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It commonly forms groups of 5-6, although up to 30 individuals have been observed together. The diet includes ants, termites and other invertebrates which are obtained by scratching in the leaf-litter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been observed feeding in rice-paddies in the foothills between November and January<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	An increase in ornithological surveys within Cambodia has revealed that extensive areas of suitable habitat appear to support this species at relatively high densities. Hence its population estimate has been revised upwards considerably and is probably best placed within the band 20,000-50,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141295	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In Cambodia, logging and hunting are probably the most significant threats. Both Bokor and Kirirom National Parks are subject to heavy (mostly clandestine) logging, which has affected an estimated 80% of Bokor. However, the species is unlikely to be adversely affected by selective logging and large areas of suitable habitat remain essentially unfragmented<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. In Thailand, selective logging and small-scale forest encroachment are minor threats. Levels of hunting are high in areas where the species occurs but this may have neglible impact on species with high breeding productivity like <em>Arborophila</em> partridges<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The use of poisons for fishing in forest streams<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, disturbance through occasional dry-season fires and perhaps the local avicultural trade may be additional threats. Although most forest within the species's range has escaped severe fragmentation to date, there is potential for relatively rapid clearance in the future and this will remain a potential threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally quite numerous (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141297	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is a nationally-protected species in China. Suitable forest habitat is estimated to cover a total of c.660 km<sup>2</sup>, of which c.410 km<sup>2</sup> is in reserves. There are populations in Bawangling, Jianfengling, Wuzhishan, Diaoluoshan Limushan and Nanweiling Nature Reserves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Hainan government has enforced a ban on the logging of primary forest since January 1994, which should have lessened the pressure on its habitats, and is currently considering extensions to Bawangling and other existing reserves. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct public awareness programmes on the plight of the threatened and endemic forest wildlife of Hainan, and attempt to reduce hunting through public education and the enforcement of relevant legislation. Conduct further surveys to determine habitat use and distribution inside and outside protected areas. Assess the ability of the protected area system to safeguard the species in the long term, and add new forests where necessary.  Enhance the protection status of existing protected areas (e.g. from county to provincial level) wherever possible, and establish corridors between blocks of suitable habitat.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141297	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila ardens</em> is endemic to Hainan Island, off the south coast of <strong>China</strong>. In 1997, a preliminary survey of the core area of Bawangling Nature Reserve tentatively estimated a population density of 6-8 birds per km<sup>2</sup>. The total area of suitable habitat on Hainan is estimated at c.660 km<sup>2</sup>, and extrapolating this density estimate to the extent of remaining forest gives a possible population of 3,900-5,200 birds. <br/></p>	eng
141297	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It may be mainly restricted to primary, tropical evergreen forest, both broadleaf and mixed coniferous-broadleaf, usually between 600 m and 1,600 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also found in some evergreen forests which have been previously logged, but are now well recovered. <br/></p>	eng
141297	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). However, following surveys in 2002-2005 which located a number of new populations, which have been incorporated within newly established protected areas, this figure may be an underestimate. <br/></p>	eng
141297	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest-cover has been lost and fragmented very rapidly on Hainan in the past 50 years. In the 1940s, the area of natural forest was estimated at up to 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>, but this had declined to below 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> by the 1990s, mainly as a result of excessive timber extraction, the replacement of forest by rubber plantations, shifting agriculture and the unrestricted cutting of wood. Illegal hunting is also a threat. <br/></p>	eng
141298	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arborophila charltoni</em> has a disjunct, mainly Sundaic distribution ranging (race <em>charltoni</em>) through lowland forest from southern <strong>Myanmar</strong> and southern <strong>Thailand</strong> into Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, present (race <em>atjenensis</em>) in two isolated areas (Aceh and South Sumatra) of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and occupying a wide area of Sabah (Borneo), Malaysia (race <em>graydoni</em>). An outlying population (race <em>tonkinensis</em>, formerly treated under Green-legged Hill-partridge <em>A. chloropus</em>) occurs in east Tonkin and north Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Estimates of numbers are of possibly under 10,000 (100-10,000) (<em>charltoni</em>), 10-100 (<em>atjenensis</em>), >100 (<em>graydoni</em>), with <em>tonkinensis</em> locally quite common and in three protected areas. <em>Graydoni</em> is now known to be very common in Danum Valley. As a bird of lowland rainforest it will have suffered extensive declines. <br/></p>	eng
141299	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caloperdix oculeus</em> ranges from south-east <strong>Myanmar</strong> and south-west <strong>Thailand</strong> through Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> onto Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with isolated populations in Borneo in northern Sarawak and eastern Sabah, Malaysia. It is generally scarce throughout its range and is likely to have been adversely affected by forest clearance and fire in the Sundaic lowlands, as well as hunting. However, it tolerates secondary forest and drier formations up to 1,000 m and is therefore likely to be declining at a slower rate than other primary humid forest specialists. <br/></p>	eng
141301	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rollulus rouloul</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in broadleaved evergreen and dense primary lowland and hill forests and bamboo up to 1,550 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. The species remains common in several areas, is able to persist in selectively logged forest and can utilise early-stage regenerating forest, and it is therefore unlikely to be under any immediate threat. <br/></p>	eng
141302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Fuller et al. 2000).	eng
141305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
141306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
141307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141308	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been a number of official and unofficial attempts to rediscover the species, covering some of the most suitable areas around Mussoorie and Naini Tal. However, none has yet been successful. In 2002 a survey used posters, interviews with locals and habitat analyses to direct field searches, but failed to find evidence of the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in areas supporting Cheer Pheasant <em>Catreus wallichi</em>, which has similar habitat requirements. Conduct interviews with local hunters, involving the state Forest Department, about possible locations for the species. Based on these interviews, continue a comprehensive series of field surveys, including in the vicinity of old sites (Budraj, Benog, Jharipani and Sher-ka-danda), over several seasons and following up recent local reports near Naini Tal.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141308	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Ophrysia superciliosa</em> is known only from the western Himalayas in Uttaranchal, north-west <strong>India</strong>, where about a dozen specimens were collected near Mussooree and Naini Tal prior to 1877. Field observations during the mid-19th century suggest that it may have been relatively common, but it was certainly rare by the late 1800s, potentially indicating a population decline. The lack of confirmed records since then suggest that the species may have gone extinct. However, there have been few well-organised searches, and there were possible sightings near Suwakholi in 1984<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and around Naini Tal in 2003. There is still reason to hope that a small population survives in remoter areas of the lower or middle Himalayan range, especially given the difficulty in detecting similar species. <br/></p>	eng
141308	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It was recorded in long grass and scrub on steep hillsides, particularly south-facing slope crests, between 1,650 m and 2,400 m. Generally encountered in coveys of 6-12 birds, it was extremely elusive, never flying except when almost stepped on. It was unclear whether it is sedentary or a short-distance migrant. It was only recorded around Mussoorie and Naini Tal hill stations during the winter months, suggesting it may breed at higher altitudes.  <br/></p>	eng
141308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population assumed to be tiny based on paucity of specimens and failure of recent surveys searching for this species <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
141308	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species was last seen 60 years before independence, indicating hunting levels during the colonial period contributed significantly to its decline. Widespread land-use changes thereafter, particularly open cast mining for limestone and related disturbance, are other likely contributory factors to its decline. Its contact call was apparently heard frequently in November and appears to have aided hunters to locate them. It is also hypothesised that habitat changes at lower elevations during the post-pleistocene glaciation might have pushed subpopulations to suboptimal higher elevations, causing local extinctions.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in some areas and scarce in others (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141310	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is afforded legal protection in both India and Pakistan. It occurs in three national parks: Machiara (Pakistan), and Kishtwar and the Great Himalayan (India), and also 10 Wildlife Sanctuaries. Discovery of the large Palas population triggered a major conservation initiative in the region for which this bird is the flagship species. Surveys have been conducted recently across most of its presumed range in Pakistan, and in Himachal Pradesh. It is currently the subject of a large conservation breeding programme in Himachal Pradesh<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate public awareness campaigns in and around known sites, highlighting its flagship status for the conservation of moist temperate forests and other pheasant species. Develop monitoring methods and then monitor key populations regularly. Conduct further surveys, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir along the Pir Panjal range, and map known sites. Improve management in key protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141310	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tragopan melanocephalus</em> is endemic to the western Himalayas, occurring from Kohistan district, north <strong>Pakistan</strong>, east through Kashmir into Himachal Pradesh and possibly Uttaranchal, north-west <strong>India</strong>. Although historically described as scarce and local, it has undoubtedly declined. A mid-1980s population estimate of 1,600-4,800 birds was revised in the mid-1990s to c.5,000 birds following the discovery of several significant populations in north Pakistan, the largest of which (tentatively estimated at 325 pairs) is in Palas Valley (Pakistan). <br/></p>	eng
141310	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	During the breeding season (April-June), it inhabits little-disturbed temperate coniferous and deciduous forests, from 2,400-3,600&#160;m. In winter, it makes very local altitudinal or lateral movements, to grassy or shrubby gulleys with less snow cover, between 1,750&#160;m and 2,500&#160;m.</p>	eng
141310	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Gaston et al. (1981b), McGowan and Garson (1995). Recent reports of additional populations in Pakistan, Jammu, Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh may lead to an increase in the estimated global population size in the future. <br/></p>	eng
141310	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat degradation and fragmentation through commercial timber extraction, browsing of understorey shrubs by livestock, tree-lopping for animal fodder and fuelwood-collection are the main threats. Disturbance by graziers and particularly collectors of edible fungi and medicinal plants may seriously interfere with nesting. Hunting and trapping for its meat (especially in winter) and its decorative plumage pose additional threats, throughout Pakistan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and adjacent Kashmir (India). <br/></p>	eng
141311	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tragopan satyra </em>occurs in the Himalayas of <strong>Nepal</strong> (uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (uncommon), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (fairly common) and <strong>China</strong> (local, with a limited range in south and south-east Tibet). It is resident in moist oak and rhododendron forest with dense undergrowth and bamboo clumps, mixed forest, scrub and densely vegetated ravines, usually between 2,200 m and 4,250 m in the breeding season, sometimes moving down to 1,800 m in winter. Major threats include excessive hunting as well as habitat clearance and degradation due to timber harvesting, fuelwood and fodder collection and livestock grazing. Its distribution is now fragmented in the Indian subcontinent. <br/></p>	eng
141312	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in all countries. It occurs in several protected areas, including: two small wildlife sanctuaries and a community reserve in Nagaland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; the Blue Mountain National Park in Mizoram; Mouling National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Sessa Orchid Sanctuary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Eaglenest Mehao and Dibang Wildlife Sanctuaries in Arunachal Pradesh; Thrumsing La National Park, Bhutan; Gaoligongshan National Park in China<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; and Natma Taung National Park, Myanmar. Surveys for the species have been conducted in many areas in north-east India. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Design and implement monitoring projects in Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Initiate a conservation awareness programme with communities in range areas, focusing on the effects of over-exploitation. Continue (or initiate) surveys to establish its distribution, status and habitat requirements in Myanmar, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Yunnan and south-east Tibet. Review the adequacy of the current protected areas system, to evaluate whether new areas in Myanmar, north-east India and south-east Tibet could be feasibly and usefully protected. Promote the careful management of existing captive populations through the use of an international studbook.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141312	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tragopan blythii </em>occurs from <strong>Bhutan</strong> through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur in north-east <strong>India</strong>, north <strong>Myanmar</strong>, and south-east Tibet and north-west Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. Recent information suggests it is locally distributed in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, and uncommon or rare in the Chin Hills/Mt Victoria region of west Myanmar, where it may have declined although good evidence is lacking<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Call counts detected 14 pairs in the 50 km<sup>2</sup> Blue Mountain National Park, Mizoram. <br/></p>	eng
141312	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical and temperate, evergreen oak and rhododendron forests, generally preferring a dense understorey, often dominated by bamboos or ferns, in steep or rocky terrain. Its documented altitudinal range is from 1,400&#160;m (winter) up to 3,300&#160;m (summer), but the majority of records come from a rather narrower band (1,800-2,400&#160;m).</p>	eng
141312	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4 individuals x 4,200 km2 (10% EOO) = 10,080 but Gaston extrapolated an estimate of 400 in Nagaland (Zeliang 1980) to give a global estimate of "at most, a few thousand", suggesting that a band of 2,500-10,000 is most appropriate (population density from mean of two estimates for this species: 0.56 and 4.3 birds/km2 (BirdLife International 2001) <br/></p>	eng
141312	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In north-east India, deforestation is a significant threat, primarily as a result of shifting cultivation. Together with fuelwood-collection and commercial timber extraction, this is rapidly fragmenting suitable habitat, even within protected areas, where enforcement of regulations is often absent or impossible. Hunting for food is the other major threat, particularly in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, where large-scale snaring of pheasants and partridges by local people is an increasing problem. Little data on the exploitation of this species is available from Myanmar, making it difficult to assess the severity of the threat there<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Even in Bhutan, high levels of grazing and slash-and-burn agriculture are potentially significant problems. <br/></p>	eng
141313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has been estimated as over 100,000 individuals. The species is described as widespread and common (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141314	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. Its biology and conservation will be intensively studied during a forthcoming four-year project. There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but these reserves tend to be relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many of them contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. There is evidence that the establishment of protected areas has been effective in preventing forest clearance and hunting within its range. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In degraded areas, promote habitat management such as replanting of conifer areas with appropriate deciduous tree species (e.g. <em>D. macropodum</em>). Ensure that the species' needs are fully reflected in management plans for key protected areas and that staff are adequately trained. Conduct surveys in protected areas throughout its range to determine where significant populations are found and whether additional protected areas are required. Monitor populations annually in selected protected areas. Promote the careful management of existing captive populations through the use of an international studbook. Assess the long-term benefits of experimental provision of artificial nests and promote their use more widely if beneficial.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141314	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tragopan caboti</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from many widely scattered localities in the mountain ranges in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong, with an unconfirmed report from Anhui. A survey in 1985-1986 estimated c.4,000 individuals in the core of its range in Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang and Guangxi. Numbers are believed to be relatively stable inside protected areas, but generally declining elsewhere.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141314	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical, evergreen broadleaf forest and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest at 600-1,800 m, and open areas above the treeline. Its distribution is closely associated with the tree <em>Daphniphyllum macropodum</em>, which is often used for roosting in, and its leaves and fruit are a favoured food.</p>	eng
141314	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001), and the national wildlife survey of China (1995-2000) which estimated the population at 9,300 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141314	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is habitat loss and modification. Most natural forest has been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for agricultural land and timber. The progressive replacement of natural evergreen broadleaf forests with conifer plantations is now a major problem for this species. Illegal hunting for food still occurs in some places, especially outside protected areas.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and reasonably common. Sub-species joretiana and darwini may number fewer than 10,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in suitable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141317	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in the Gaoligong Shan National Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China, although it appears to be rare here and numbers are probably small<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The creation of Dehang-Debang Bioshpere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, which encompasses the Dibang Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Mouling National Park and unclassified state forests, offers further protection<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The remote nature of its habitats and range, to an extent, lessen the level of threat it faces from hunting.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in Yunnan, south-east Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh to determine its population status and range. Carry out detailed studies to assess its habitat preferences and principal threats. Campaign for protected areas in Towang, West Kameng, East Kameng and Lower Subansiri districts, Arunachal Pradesh. Assess the contribution of the protected area network to its conservation and develop appropriate management/policy recommendations  Survey wildlife markets throughout its range to determine the scale and socioeconomic importance of hunting</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141317	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophophorus sclateri</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas, from Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, east through north <strong>Myanmar</strong> and south-east Tibet to west Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from Arunachal Pradesh, where it is locally fairly common, Yunnan, where numbers are thought to be stable, and Myanmar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where it was historically described as local and uncommon. <br/></p>	eng
141317	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits Oak-Rhododendron<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and coniferous forest with a bamboo understorey, subalpine rhododendron scrub, azalea forest, areas of juniper, cotoneaster, open grass and rocky precipitous slopes from 3,000-4,200 m, descending to 2,000 m in winter. Where its range overlaps with <em>L. impejanus</em>, it apparently occurs at higher altitudes although some local reports have described them occurring together<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is solitary during the breeding season (spring), but gregarious in winter. <br/></p>	eng
141317	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.6 individuals/km2 x 9,300 km2 (10% EOO) = 5,580 ie in band 2,500-10,000 (population density is lower of two estimates for Tragopan blythii (BirdLife International 2001), as no estimates are available from Lophophorus spp.) <br/></p>	eng
141317	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting for food is the single main threat across the species's range. In addition, hunting for feathers (to make ornaments and fans) is a localised problem in India. In the Arbor Hills<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Mishmi Hills, India, hunting intensity has significantly reduced population densities. Habitat degradation as a result of logging is a more localised threat. The habitats of the newly discovered taxon in Arunachal Pradesh appear to be little threatened, owing to their inaccessibility. <br/></p>	eng
141318	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. It has been recorded in several nature reserves in the Qionglai Shan and Min Shan ranges, most of which were established for the conservation of Giant Panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em>, including Baihe, Tangjiahe, Wanglang, Wolong, Jiuzhaigou and Fengtongzhai in Sichuan, and Baishuijang in Gansu, but the areas of suitable habitat within some of these are probably relatively limited and there are no protected areas in the western part of its range.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the impacts of human exploitation (including livestock grazing and herb collection) on its subalpine and alpine habitats Conduct intensive ecological studies focussing on habitat preference and altitudinal migrations Conduct further surveys to assess the adequacy of the existing protected area network, particularly in the west of its range. Enforce the existing laws on wildlife protection, with particular attention to hunting</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141318	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophophorus lhuysii</em> is endemic to south-west <strong>China</strong>, where it is recorded from the mountains of west Sichuan, and adjacent parts of east Tibet, south-east Qinghai, south Gansu and possibly north-west Yunnan. Its total population has been estimated at 10,000-20,000 individuals, and is believed to be declining, but not rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
141318	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subalpine rhododendron scrub and subalpine and alpine meadows with exposed cliffs and crags above the treeline, but sometimes moves down into subalpine coniferous forest. It has been recorded between 2,800 m and 4,900 m, but is normally found between 3,300 and 4,500 m. Surveys at Baoxing in Sichuan suggests that this species may take several years to reach maturity and may not breed every year.</p>	eng
141318	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate from He Fenqi (in BirdLife international 2001). Given the uncertainty within this population estimate, the total number of mature individuals is precautionarily assumed to fall below 10,000. <br/></p>	eng
141318	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its subalpine and alpine meadow habitats have been degraded in some areas by an increase in the grazing of wild yaks. The large-scale collection of <em>Fritillaria</em> spp. (a known food of this species) and other herbs for Chinese medicine causes local disturbance, and nests are sometimes destroyed by these activities. Illegal hunting is also considered to be a localised threat, and appeared to be the cause of a substantial decline at Baoxing where this species was surveyed in 1983-1986, and again in 1988. The forests in west Sichuan have been rapidly exploited in recent decades, which has directly affected its subalpine habitats, and logging roads have improved access to alpine habitats for local people.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally plentiful (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat throughout its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and seemingly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141325	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Surveys for the species were conducted in 1988 and 1991. The localities from which recent records derive have been incorporated within two proposed nature reserves, Phong Dien and Dakrong, for which a management feasibility study has been completed. A Site Support Group has been established for Dakrong IBA (Quang Tri province) and there are plans for one at Huong Hoa IBA (Quang Tri province)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Bach Ma National Park lies within the historical range of the species, and a poster campaign to obtain local information was conducted there in 1996, although as yet there have been no confirmed records from this park. In December 2003, the captive population numbered 1033 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The maternal line has been screened and hybrids purged from the captive stock<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys of remaining forest fragments within and to the north of its historical range to clarify its status and ecological requirements. Establish the proposed Phong Dien and Dakrong Nature Reserves and enhance Site Support Groups Promote careful separate management of captive Vietnamese <em>Lophura</em> pheasants through the ISB system, and regularly review ex-situ measures until their taxonomic relationships are clarified Prepare a landscape level management plan to redress genetic problems caused by habitat fragmentation and establish effective habitat protection Assess the level and impact of hunting and campaign for its control, starting with complete cessation in protected areas holding the species. Conduct research to establish the feasibility and effects of using forest corridors to connect forests fragments.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141325	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura edwardsi</em> is endemic to central <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Known historically from at least eight localities in Quang Tri and Thua Thien provinces, it was described as locally fairly common. The first recent records were of birds trapped by local hunters in 1996, in Phong Dien and Dakrong proposed nature reserves. Since then there have been records from western Quang Ninh district, Quang Binh province and in Loc Dien commune (Phu Loc district, near Bach Ma National Park)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/>It appears to have undergone a sharp decline in numbers and range but areas of suitable habitat remain in Thua Thien Hue, Quang Tri and Quang Binh provinces<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1994 its population was estimated at <1,000 individuals, based on extent of remaining habitat.  <br/></p>	eng
141325	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It was said to inhabit exceedingly damp mountain forests up to an estimated 600 m, favouring thick underbrush and lianas. However, all early collecting localities were in the forested level lowlands, and there is no evidence that it can live above 300 m. It is most abundant in areas with thick undergrowth and liana covered hillsides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent records have come from lowland areas which have been selectively logged<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141325	population	BirdLife International, 2008	McGowan <em>et al.</em> (1994). <br/></p>	eng
141325	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its historical range is now almost completely denuded of primary forest through a combination of herbicide spraying during the Vietnam war, logging and clearance for agriculture. The last forest areas known to support the species are subject to continuing degradation by wood-cutters. It has been suggested that habitat disturbance might increase following the completion of the Ho Chi Minh National Highway which bisects the three provinces in which the species is known to occur<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting pressure from various forest-product collectors poses an additional threat and the species may be affected by indiscriminate snaring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141326	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent surveys for the species between 1988 and 1994, in part, led to the drafting a management plan for the Ke Go Nature Reserve, which was gazetted in 1996. A larger project planned for 2000 was cancelled<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The captive population, established at Hanoi Zoo, has now provided individuals to several European collections. A Site Support Group has been established at Khe Net IBA (Quang Binh province) and another is planned for Truong Son IBA (Quang Binh province)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In December 2003, the known captive population numbered 177 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its status and habitat requirements. Support full establishment of a protected area and Site Support Group at Khe Net and enhance the existing Site Support Group at Ke Go Promote food security projects in the communes within Ke Go Nature Reserve that are most dependent on natural resources. Promote the careful separate management of captive Vietnamese <em>Lophura</em> pheasants through the ISB system, and regularly review ex-situ measures until their taxonomic relationships are clarified</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141326	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura hatinhensis</em> is endemic to central <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it was discovered in 1964. There are recent records from localities in Ha Tinh and Quang Binh provinces, most of which are within the Ke Go Nature Reserve. The continued existence of a population in the Net river watershed, where several birds were seen in 1994, may be in doubt because of extensive logging and other degradation of suitable habitat there. Its global population has been estimated at <2,500 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
141326	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary (including logged) evergreen forest in lowlands and hills from sea-level (at least historically) to c.300&#160;m. It may tolerate habitat degradation, but is apparently far more common in closed-canopy forest, and has been trapped in dense streamside vegetation. </p>	eng
141326	population	BirdLife International, 2008	McGowan and Garson (1995) <br/></p>	eng
141326	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most of the coastal lowlands of Ha Tinh and Quang Binh provinces have been completely deforested by expanding human populations clearing land for wet-rice cultivation. Pressure from hunting may still be significant within Ke Go Nature Reserve, particularly from illegal loggers and various forest-product collectors. Shortfalls in household rice production render certain local communities seasonally dependent on forest products to generate income.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141327	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura swinhoii</em> is found in the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), where it inhabits primary broadleaved forest and mature secondary forest at 200-2,300 m. Intensive fieldwork in the early 1970s suggested that there might be 5,000-10,000 individuals, although a recent estimate of c.6,500 in Yushan National Park alone indicates that its total population is likely to exceed 10,000 birds. Heavy hunting pressure was a problem for it in the past, but is no longer a serious threat. The species became extinct at several localities in the 1960s and 1970s, but it apparently remains common in suitable habitat, and it has populations in several protected areas. Its numbers are probably stable where it is protected, but may be declining elsewhere because of a variety of pressures on its habitat. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
141328	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All the known localities fall within the Gunung Leuser National Park, which covers 9,460&#160;km<sup>2</sup> from sea-level to almost 3,500&#160;m. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Advocate full protection for the species under Indonesian law. Conduct extensive surveys (including Gunung Leuser National Park, adjacent regions, e.g. the Batak highlands, and other possible locations) to establish the species' range, altitudinal distribution and habitat requirements Clarify its taxonomic relationship with <em>L. inornata</em> using DNA-sequencing techniques. Assess the nature and scale of key threats affecting Gunung Leuser National Park and advocate the control of illegal tree-felling.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141328	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura hoogerwerfi</em> is endemic to north Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is known historically by two females (both collected) and a male (glimpsed), in the Gayo Highlands, Aceh province, within what is now the Gunung Leuser National Park. In 1979, there were several sightings of family parties in the Mamas valley of this park and, in 1998, a female was observed above the River Jagong in the Beutong region, just north of Leuser. In 1998-1999, five individuals of each sex were recovered from a bird market in Medan, north Sumatra. All are said to have originated from Gunung Leuser National Park. Ongoing contraction of suitable forest habitat must be having an adverse effect on the population. There are currently three pairs (of wild origin) in captivity on Java. <br/></p>	eng
141328	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-specimen was shot in forest (reasonably assumed to be tropical, lower montane rainforest) adjacent to the mountain lake Telaga Meluwak at 1,200-1,400&#160;m. The general area was described as hilly ground covered with heavy primary jungle, but with little undergrowth. The other female was collected at 600&#160;m. The observations in the Mamas valley were of birds feeding on sparsely vegetated, open forest floor on relatively dry mountain slopes, at 1,200-2,000&#160;m.</p>	eng
141328	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km2 x 3,800 km2 (10% EOO) = 3,800-7,600 i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 (population density is lower part of range of estimates for forest pheasants in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and species appears to be uncommon to rare given paucity of records) <br/></p>	eng
141328	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Apparently suitable habitat within its putative range has been reduced and fragmented below c.1,000-1,500&#160;m, owing to agricultural encroachment, large-scale timber extraction and the attendant risk of wildfires, even within Gunung Leuser National Park. Hunting presumably also poses a threat, given the recent discovery of the species in an urban market in north Sumatra.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141329	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is known to occur in at least two protected areas, the large Kerinci-Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also occurs in two other areas currently designated as protection forest, but proposed for upgrading to wildlife reserves, Gunung Singgalang and Bukit Dingin/Gunung Dempu. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Advocate full protection under Indonesian law. Conduct surveys to establish its distribution and habitat requirements, particularly within Kerinci-Seblat and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks. Review the effectiveness of the protected areas system, following surveys, and advocate establishment of new, or gazette proposed, protected areas accordingly. Quantify of the threat from hunting and associated disturbance Clarify its taxonomic relationship with <em>L. hoogerwerfi</em> using DNA-sequencing techniques.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141329	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura inornata</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from at least ten localities in the central and south Barisan mountain range. There are recent records from at least three of these sites, Gunung Kaba and Gunung Kerinci, both within Kerinci-Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan Natinal Park (where it has been camera trapped<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). It was described as fairly common around Kerinci in the early 1900s. <br/></p>	eng
141329	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a resident of lower (and possibly upper) montane humid forest from c.800-2,200 m, most observations coming from above 1,000 m. It appears to prefer primary, unlogged forest, but also frequents disturbed and degraded habitats in close proximity to primary forest. <br/></p>	eng
141329	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km2 x 3,400 km2 (10% EOO) = 3,400-6,800 i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (population density is lower part of range of estimates for forest pheasants in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and this is consistent with the fact that the species now appears to be scarce [BirdLife International 2001]) <br/></p>	eng
141329	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Kerinci-Seblat National Park, the species is declining due to heavy trapping by local people for food. Much of the forest within the lower part of the species's altitudinal range around Kerinci has already been cleared for shifting cultivation, and is vulnerable to further illegal agricultural encroachment and increasingly frequent drought fires. <br/></p>	eng
141330	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in several protected areas, including Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve (Malaysia), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak) and Tanjung Puting National Park (Kalimantan). At the end of 2002 there were 49 individuals in captivity in Europe and a further 43 in Malaysia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The European captive population not thought to be currently viable in the long term due to diminishing genetic diversity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Advocate full protection under Indonesian and Malaysian law. Conduct further research into its ecological requirements, including its relationship with <em>L. ignita</em>. Conduct extensive field surveys to establish its distribution and population status in Sumatra and assess its use of recently burned areas Following surveys and GIS analysis, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected areas network, and advocate protection of further areas if necessary. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99 year concessions of great size). Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia. Promote the careful management of captive stocks including the establishment of a studbook</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141330	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura erythrophthalma</em> occurs in Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. There are few recent records from Borneo, where it appears to be scarce and localised, mainly in the south and west. There are just a handful of recent records from Sumatra, all from Riau and Jambi provinces. However, it has been described as the commonest <em>Lophura</em> pheasant in Malaysia, with densities of up to six birds per km<sup>2</sup>. Continuing forest clearance throughout the Indonesian lowlands must be causing a rapid decline, which is also likely to be the case outside well-protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia.  <br/></p>	eng
141330	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an extreme lowland specialist, inhabiting primary and well-regenerated, closed canopy, evergreen forest. Birds in Malaysia are tolerant of logged forest, and it has been recorded in lightly logged forest on Sumatra. However, precise details of its habitat preferences, and its ecological interactions with its congener <em>L.&#160;ignita</em>, are lacking. Where <em>L.&#160;ignita</em> is present, <em>L.&#160;erythrophthalma</em> appears to avoid valley-bottom habitats.</p>	eng
141330	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141330	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The overriding threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within protected areas, and widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm. In Indonesia, the full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has still to be fully assessed, but fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and Borneo. At current rates of habitat loss, given no change in current forest management policy, dryland lowland rainforest could disappear completely by 2005 on Sumatra, and 2010 in Kalimantan. Hunting for food may pose an additional, more localised threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141331	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura ignita</em> is known from extreme southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and East <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Bangka, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is now rare in peninsular Thailand, and despite there being recent records from Peninsular Malaysian protected areas, its current distribution there is rather poorly known. It is apparently still locally common in Sabah, Kalimantan and on Sumatra, but probably close to extinction on Bangka. There are no recent records from Myanmar. Based on rates of forest loss, it must be declining in lowland Indonesia, and probably also outside well-protected areas in the Thai-Malay peninsula. <br/></p>	eng
141332	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Increase the existing protected area network. Support governments in their efforts to control illegal logging in South-East Asia. Determine the current global population size and trend. Support efforts to tackle the issue of hunting inside protected areas.   <br/></p>	eng
141332	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura diardi</em> is found in <strong>Thailand </strong>(uncommon to locally common resident, principally in the north-east and south-east, c.5,000 individuals estimated), <strong>Laos </strong>(widespread and locally abundant, but heavily snared), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (locally common and widespread) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (locally common and widespread in central and southern regions). It is thought to be declining at a rate approaching 30% over 10 years consistent with current rates of forest loss within the species's range.  <br/></p>	eng
141332	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in evergreen, semi-evergreen and bamboo forest, secondary growth and scrub, often near roads and tracks through the forest, chiefly in the plains and foothills to 500 m, but occasionally up to 800 m, and perhaps 1,150 m. It seems able to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat. Occurs in small groups which are presumed to be family parties.  <br/></p>	eng
141332	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is threatened by continuing extensive lowland forest destruction within its range and, perhaps more severely, by hunting and snaring. However, recent evidence suggests that the species may be able to tolerate a higher level of hunting pressure than was previously thought<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141333	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is afforded protection under Indonesian law and is a protected species in Sarawak, Malaysia. It has recently been recorded in at least six protected areas including Kayan Mentarang National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Bukit Raya National Park (Kalimantan), Gunung Mulu and Lanjak-Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary  (Sarawak) and the Danum Valley Conservation Area (Sabah). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and record its vocalisations to aid field surveys. Conduct extensive field surveys to assess its distribution, status and ecological requirements (focussing particularly on whether is nomadic and reliant on masting events). Promote prohibition of hunting by those living or working within logging concessions. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99-year concessions of great size). Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Support the proposed extension of Bukit Raya National Park, and establishment of further protected areas found to hold populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141333	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophura bulweri</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known from Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. Although apparently rather patchily distributed, it was once described as very common in undisturbed parts of interior Borneo. In 1995, it was estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals. Despite there being no reason to believe that the species was threatened a decade ago, the paucity of recent records, combined with anecdotal information regarding its habits and alarming current rates of habitat loss, indicate that it could now be declining significantly. <br/></p>	eng
141333	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary hill and lower montane forest, from c.300 m up to at least 1,500&#160;m, and at least occasionally down to c.150&#160;m. Limited field evidence suggests that the species is nomadic. It may rely on lowland forest masting events, resulting in feeding concentrations, after which it breeds, later moving back up into the hills. It may not appear again in the same area for years.</p>	eng
141333	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to number 1,000-10,000 by McGowan and Garson (1995) <br/></p>	eng
141333	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through large-scale commercial logging, widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm, and the extensive recent fires pose the primary threats, compounded more locally by hunting for food. If, as suggested, it is dependent on lowland masting events, highways and clearings through mountains and across the lowlands may have cut off potential access routes to important feeding areas, which in turn may be undermining its breeding capacity.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141334	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crossoptilon harmani</em> has been recorded in south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, and at least one locality in extreme northern Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, where it occurs in tall dense scrub in dry river valleys, the borders of mixed broadleaved and coniferous forest, coniferous forest, and grassy hill slopes, from 3,000 to 5,000&#160;m (and rarely down to 2,400&#160;m). It is locally common, and adaptable to disturbed habitats. Recent surveys have indicated that its population must be greater than 10,000 individuals. Deforestation and hunting may, however, be significant threats in Tibet, and it is probably declining. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
141335	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Recent records from several protected areas. This bird is traditionally protected under the umbrella of Buddhist culture. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to obtain a more accurate global population estimate. Consider using the species as a potential flagship for promoting pheasant conservation within Sichuan. <br/></p>	eng
141335	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crossoptilon crossoptilon</em><strong> </strong>is found in <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet.  It has been estimated to number only 10,000-50,000 individuals and to be declining, but given the extent of its range it is unlikely that numbers fall at the lower end of this band.  <br/></p>	eng
141335	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits coniferous and mixed forests near the treeline, plus subalpine birch and rhododendron scrub, at 3,000-4,300 m. Its distribution appears to be determined primarily by water, foraging sites and predation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It can be common around Buddhist monasteries where it receives cultural protection, but it generally occurs at very low densities in small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is monogamous during the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it can occasionally be found in groups of up to 30 individuals in winter. It feeds by pecking at the ground and digging for bulbs. Natural predators include crows and buzzards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141335	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Madge and McGowan (2002). <br/></p>	eng
141335	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by hunting for food and deforestation, but the high-altitude forests that it inhabits are not being lost at a very rapid rate. Completion of a rail link to Tibet is imminent and will lead to increased tourism in the area. It is feared that knock-on effects of this will increase the rate of habitat loss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141336	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China. Its biology and conservation will be intensively studied during a forthcoming four-year project. Four nature reserves (Luyashan, Pangquangou, Wulushan and Xiaowutai Shan) are crucial for the protection of this species and its habitats, and there is evidence that numbers have increased in Luyashan and Pangquangou since the reserves were established. The tree-planting and forest management programmes since the 1980s are likely to have benefited this species in some other areas. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the impact of the logging ban and promote measures to prevent further deforestation within its range Implement the recently completed management plans for the four critical reserves holding this species and develop a plan for the new Wulushan National Nature Reserve Develop population monitoring programmes in the four critical reserves. Conduct additional surveys in Shaanxi and elsewhere in its range, with the aim of identifying suitable sites for the designation of new protected areas. Research habitat preferences to inform protected area forest management Support the establishment of a new reserve at Donlingshan Conduct a feasibility study for translocation into Taiyue Shan (Shanxi), where its habitat has been restored.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141336	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crossoptilon mantchuricum</em> is endemic to northern <strong>China</strong>, where it is now confined to scattered localities in the Luliang Shan of western Shanxi, and the mountains of north-western Hebei, western Beijing and central Shaanxi. Its population within protected areas was recently estimated at c.5,000 birds, but on the basis of potential habitat available for this species both inside and outside protected areas, and assuming the mean population density within protected areas is twice that in unprotected areas, it has been tentatively estimated to number up to c.17,000 birds.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141336	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in coniferous forest or mixed conifer-broadleaf forest at up to 2,600 m. In winter, it moves to lower altitudes (minimum 1,100 m), to scrub at the forest edge on south-facing slopes. </p>	eng
141336	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Li Xiangtao and Liu Rusan (1993), Zhang Zhengwang (1998b) and Zhang Zhengwang (verbally 1999). <br/></p>	eng
141336	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its range has been fragmented by habitat loss and isolated populations are at risk from further forest loss and other pressures. Outside nature reserves, the threats include deforestation for agriculture and urban development, and habitat degradation due to logging and livestock-grazing. Local people collecting fungi may be the cause of high nest failure rates at Pangquangou National Nature Reserve.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141338	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in Nepal and India. It occurs in at least 12 protected areas in Himachal Pradesh, three in Uttar Pradesh and three in Nepal. Many status surveys have now been conducted in Himachal and Uttaranchal, along with research into population ecology and habitat preferences. Reintroduction in Pakistan has been unsuccessful.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations at as many key sites as possible. Develop a species management plan to cover habitat prescriptions, public awareness and the enforcement of hunting bans Study burning and grazing regimes at known sites to monitor their impact. Use it as a flagship species in producing and promoting habitat management recommendations based on these studies. Assess the effects of villagers upon the species and its habitat</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141338	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Catreus wallichii</em> occurs in the western Himalayas from north <strong>Pakistan</strong>, through Kashmir into Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, <strong>India</strong>, and east to central <strong>Nepal</strong>. It has always been reported as uncommon with a patchy distribution owing to its specialised habitat requirements which often brings it into close proximity to human populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Many subpopulations are thought to number fewer than 10 individuals, living in small pockets of suitable habitat. In Pakistan, it may now only persist in the Jhelum valley. In India, it has declined, with most known populations now confined to Himachal Pradesh. In Nepal, it appears to be localised, with few recent records, and is generally declining. <br/></p>	eng
141338	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in precipitous, rocky terrain dominated by scrub, tall grass and scattered clumps of trees, most frequently from 1,200 to 3,250&#160;m. Occupied sites are characterised by a combination of low shrubs subject to regular browsing and cutting, with tall dense grass in spring. Its preference for early successional habitats, often created by traditional grass cutting and burning regimes, has led to an association with human settlements.</p>	eng
141338	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Kaul <em>in litt</em>. (2007). <br/></p>	eng
141338	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Having been widely shot for sport in the early 20th century, it is still hunted for food, and its eggs collected for local consumption. The patchy nature of its specialised habitat may render the smallest isolated populations vulnerable to extinctions, and higher levels of disturbance, grazing and the felling of wooded ravines now pose a substantial threat. Conversion of grassland to permanent arable terraces is reducing available habitat, as are schemes to plant mid-altitude grasslands with forest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141339	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. It is a nationally-protected species in China and is listed as Near Threatened on the China Species Red List. There are many protected areas in or near to its range, but most of these are relatively small and isolated, and it is not clear how many contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support viable populations. Guanshan Nature Reserve (Jiangxi) appears to support a significant population. Other protected areas where it has been recorded include Fanjing Shan, Leigong Shan, Qingliangfeng, Wuyanling, Wuyishan, Gutianshan and Jinggangshan Nature Reserves. Guizhou has recently set up two nature reserves in areas where the species is known to occur; one in Rongjiang county and another in Congjiang county<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Develop a robust population monitoring methodology to allow monitoring of key protected areas. Promote conservation education and better law enforcement to prevent illegal logging and poaching in protected areas. Ensure that the species's needs are fully reflected in management plans for key protected areas and that staff are adequately trained. Conduct research to assess its tolerance to disturbance.</strong>	eng
141339	distribution		<em>Syrmaticus ellioti</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>China</strong>, where it has been recorded from Guizhou, Hubei, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong. It was believed to be declining rapidly within its highly fragmented habitat and to no longer occur at many former localities<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. However, in recent years its known range has been greatly extended to the west<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> and there have been reports that it is locally common. Surveys in Guangxi and Guandong failed to record the species in or Guandong, and a 2004 survey estimated the population density in Guanshan Nature Reserve, Jiangxi to be 0.063 individuals/ha <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but other reports suggest it occurs at densities of up to 6 individuals/km<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Considerable survey effort over 20 years in China suggests that the species is relatively widespread and given recent records that have extended the known range and estimated population densities the global population size may exceed 100,000 (even approaching 200,000) individuals<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Furthermore, there appears to be no evidence indicating that the population has undergone dramatic declines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
141339	habitat		It occurs in a wide variety of subtropical forest-types, and sometimes in scrub vegetation between 200 m and 1,900 m. The most important habitats are broadleaf forest (both evergreen and deciduous) and mixed coniferous and broadleaf forest. Its preferred breeding habitat is forest with a tree cover of more than 90%.	eng
141339	population		Considerable survey effort over 20 years in China suggests that the species is relatively widespread and given recent records that have extended the known range, and estimated population densities the global population size may exceed 100,000 (even approaching 200,000) individuals (J. Fellowes <em>in litt</em>. 2007; He Fen-qi <em>in litt</em>. 2007).	eng
141340	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. The species is legally protected in India, Thailand, Myanmar and China. Populations persist in several protected areas, including: Tongbiguan, Ailaoshan and Wuliangshan Nature Reserves (China); Murlen and Blue Mountain National Parks, Lengteng and Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuarys (India); and Doi Inthanon, Doi Suthep-Pui<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Mae Fang National Parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Doi Chang Dao and Mae Lao Mae Sae Wildlife Sanctuaries<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (Thailand). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites in east Yunnan (China), Myanmar and the border states of north-east India for additional populations. Conduct research into its habitat use and tolerance of habitat degradation. Campaign for improved protected status for sites supporting populations, particularly in north-west Thailand, Myanmar and north-east India. Promote stricter control over hunting and habitat encroachment in protected areas supporting significant populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141340	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Syrmaticus humiae</em> occurs from Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in north-east <strong>India</strong> (c. 4,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) through west, north and east <strong>Myanmar</strong> (c. 6,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>)<strong>,</strong> where it has been described as common in Bwe Pa, Chin State<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, to Yunnan and Guangxi in south <strong>China</strong> (population unknown but thought to number in the thousands), and north-west <strong>Thailand</strong><sup>7,10</sup> (200-500 individuals). In India, it appears to be rare although a recent survey in the north-east confirmed 20 new sites, and 24 others remain unconfirmed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Myanmar, there is no evidence of any recent declines, and the species may have undergone a range extension<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In China, populations are apparently relatively stable inside protected areas, although remaining rare and difficult to see<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but declining rapidly elsewhere. In Thailand the population is probably declining slowly. <br/></p>	eng
141340	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits open, dry, subtropical evergreen (mainly oak), coniferous (chiefly pine) or mixed conifer-broadleaf forests on steep, often rocky hillsides interrupted by scrub and grassy clearings. It appears to favour broken or successional habitats, with adjacent patches of dense forest, and fire may play an important role<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Roosts are often located along ridges, and in other relatively open areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species has been observed to feed on oak nuts and termites<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141340	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Gale <em>in litt.</em> (2005) <br/></p>	eng
141340	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The ease with which it can be trapped has been a major cause of its continuing decline across much of its range, including populations within protected areas. However, the persistence of the species in northern India and in Thailand suggests that it is resilient in the face of heavy exploitation<strong><sup>1,9,10</sup></strong>. Extensive shifting cultivation and uncontrolled annual burning has resulted in substantial fragmentation and loss of suitable habitat in Myanmar, China and India. In north Thailand, it has suffered from agricultural intensification and habitat fragmentation resulting from development projects, and reforestation of large areas with dense conifer plantations may also pose a threat. <br/></p>	eng
141341	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Syrmaticus mikado</em> is found in the mountains of central <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), where it inhabits forest with dense undergrowth and bamboo on steep mountain slopes between 1,800 and 3,300 m and possibly higher. Yushan National Park was recently estimated to hold c.10,000 individuals, and the species is also known from several other protected areas. Heavy hunting pressure was a problem for it in the past, and appears to be returning at some sites, even within protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There may be some decline in its numbers outside protected areas because of habitat loss, due to infrastructure development and landslides, but its high-altitude habitats are relatively secure and it is tolerant of secondary growth. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
141342	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Syrmaticus soemmerringii</em> is found on the islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu in <strong>Japan</strong>, in coniferous, broadleaved and mixed forest from sea-level to 1,800 m. It was once very common, but it appears to have declined substantially because of large-scale hunting and is now considered to be uncommon and difficult to find. During the 1970s, the number of birds shot by hunters declined rapidly from c.800,000 to c.300,000 per year, but appeared to stabilise at c.100,000 per year during the 1990s. The shooting of females has been illegal since 1976. In addition to the effects of hunting and habitat loss, feral cats and dogs may be causing a reduction in breeding success, and hybridisation (of the five subspecies) between wild and captive-reared stock may also be a problem. There is a need for surveys to establish the status of all of the subspecies, and for regulation of sport hunting to ensure that it is made sustainable. <br/></p>	eng
141343	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is a nationally-protected species in China. Habitat preferences have been intensively studied in Dongzhai National Nature Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Continuing research will address its biology and conservation requirements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in several nature reserves, including Fanjingshan (Guizhou), Baotianman and Jigongshan (Henan), Badagongshan (Hunan), Taibaishan, Foping and Zhouzhi (Shaanxi) and Shennongjia (Hubei). In 1992, Tuoda Forest in Guizhou was established as a local nature reserve specifically for this species, but illegal felling has since occurred. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct an awareness campaign, promoting the species as a flagship for forest conservation  Continue to assess the adequacy of the protected area network, focussing on Guizhou, Chongqing, Shaanxi, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan and Gansu Provinces. Assess the ecology of the species in broadleaf/mixed forests Develop appropriate habitat management practices in protected areas. Reduce hunting through education campaigns Promote balanced forest management, with logging prohibited in parts of its range and artificial plantations promoted where they can provide additional habitat. Advocate increasing its legal protection in China by elevating it to first class protected species</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141343	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Syrmaticus reevesii</em> is endemic to central and east <strong>China</strong>, where it is recorded from Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Anhui, Hunan, and possibly Jiangsu. It was formerly reported to be very common, but its range is now highly fragmented, and it has apparently been lost from northern Shanxi and Hebei. More recent evidence indicates that its population must be declining further because of habitat loss. It has been introduced to Hawaii and various parts of Europe. <br/></p>	eng
141343	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in a variety of forest-types in the zone where the temperate forests of north-east China intergrade with the subtropical forests of south China. It is found chiefly in broadleaf forests dominated by oaks, usually with a dense canopy and sparse undergrowth, but also in conifer forest and scrub. It also utilises farmland adjacent to forest edge.</p>	eng
141343	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population has been estimated at c.3,000 and c.5,000, but may be more numerous (BirdLife International 2001) <br/></p>	eng
141343	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat to the species is the continuing deforestation within its range, which is reducing and fragmenting its habitat. Hunting for food is believed to be an important threat, and its eggs are collected. It was hunted in the past for its long tail feathers, which were used as a decoration in the Peking opera costumes, but plastic feathers are increasingly being used for this purpose.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3400000-4700000 breeding pairs, equating to 10200000-14100000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 45000000-300000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat. The species has been introduced to the UK where it now numbers approximately 1,000-2,000 individuals (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141348	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in at least three protected areas, Taman Negara (which encompasses Gunung Tahan, and various other peaks where it could occur), Krau Wildlife Reserve (which incorporates one-third of the flanks of Gunung Benom) and the very small Fraser's Hill Wildlife Sanctuary</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop robust monitoring protocol and monitor populations at known sites. Conduct surveys to assess its habitat preferences, clarify its distribution and population status within its known range, and to establish whether it occurs to the north this range. Use as a flagship species to lobby for a substantial new protected area in the Main Range. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141348	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polyplectron inopinatum</em> is currently only known from central Peninsular <strong>Malaysia, </strong>although there is growing evidence of its presence in extreme southern Thailand<strong>.</strong> In Malaysia it is found in the Main Range from the Cameron Highlands south to the Genting Highlands, in the Larut Range to the north-west, and on eastern outlying peaks Gunung Tahan and Gunung Benom. There are recent records from at least 12 localities, at two of which it has been described as common. Total numbers are likely to be small, owing to its highly restricted range and general relative scarcity within it. At present, the population is believed to be stable, or at worst, declining slightly. <br/></p>	eng
141348	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is sedentary in lower and upper montane evergreen forest, including elfin forest, from c.820&#160;m to at least 1,600&#160;m, and was once found at 1,800&#160;m. It is usually found in steep areas or along ridges with exposed corestones, some bamboo and climbing palms. It is less vocal than other members of the genus, and is hence less easily detectable.</p>	eng
141348	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,270 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 6,350-12,700, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (population density is based on estimate of 7.5 birds/km<sup>2</sup> for <em>P. bicalcaratum </em>in montane forest at 1,160 m in Ba Wang NNR, Hainan Island, China, and the fact that it appears to be common at a number of sites). <br/></p>	eng
141348	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is a considerable danger that a proposed north-south road linking the hill stations of Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Cameron Highlands will result in the further fragmentation and degradation of a substantial area of its montane habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Populations survive in several protected areas in Vietnam, including: Cat Tien, Lo Go-Xa Mat, Yok Don, Nui Chua<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Bu Gia Map<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> National Parks; Cat Loc and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserves; Nghia Trung, Bao Lam, Loc Bac, De Te and La Nga state forest enterprises<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Cambodia there are several records from the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and one from Virachey National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A five-year project, started in 1998, in Cat Loc Nature Reserve and Cat Tien National Park (the two areas are now administratively integrated) is now complete<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It focused on research towards a conservation management plan, capacity building, community development and conservation education. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat blocks in Vietnam, including Bui Gia Map Nature Reserve. Conduct further searches for the species in east Cambodia to clarify its distribution and status there, establishing a protected area if possible. Determine its tolerance of forest degradation and secondary habitats. Establish a protected area in south-west Lam Dong province, where the species occurs in good numbers. Promote more effective control of encroachment and hunting in protected areas supporting populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polyplectron germaini</em> is endemic to southern Indo-China, where it is known only from south Annam and Cochinchina, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and southern and eastern Mondulkiri province and Ratanakiri province, <strong>Cambodia</strong><sup>1</sup>. The largest known populations are found in tracts of forest retained within protected areas<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. There are recent records from numerous localities, including Cat Tien National Park and Cat Loc Nature Reserve, where it is fairly common, the lower slopes of the Da Lat and Di Linh Plateaus and Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Cambodia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1998, it was also frequently heard and seen at six sites in Dak Lak province during surveys.  <br/></p>	eng
141349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to occupy a range of forest types from montane, dipterocarp-dominated evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including logged secondary forest and thorny bamboo brakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found in both damp and dry areas, from sea-level up to at least 1,400 m. <br/></p>	eng
141349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	N. Brickle<em> in litt</em>. (2004) estimated the population to be >10,000 individuals, with single populations over 1,000 individuals. T. Evans <em>in litt</em>. (2005) estimated that the subpopulation in southern Mondulkiri province, NE Cambodia is >1000 individuals, and also estimated the global population to be >10,000 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically it has suffered major declines due to forest loss and fragmentation resulting from commercial logging and resettlement programmes. These activities have exacerbated clearance of land for subsistence cultivation and localised commercial cropping of coffee and cashew nuts. However, in recent times habitat loss has slowed in Indochina<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Hunting with guns and snares, even within protected areas, also represents a threat to the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Shortage of staff and resources in protected areas results in ineffective control of illegal activities, especially hunting, disturbance and small-scale logging. <br/></p>	eng
141351	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Important populations occur in at least two protected areas, Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve, and further populations have been reported at Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve (Selangor) and a number of Forest Reserves that do not qualify as protected areas under wildlife legislation, including Pasoh (Negeri Sembilan). A management study to heighten status and improve protection measures at Krau Wildlife Reserve is currently being undertaken. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its precise habitat requirements and response to habitat alterations. Conduct surveys to clarify current distribution patterns and subpopulation status for all known populations, particularly in and around Taman Negara and Krau Support proposals for heightened status and stricter management guidelines and protection measures at Krau Wildlife Reserve. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141351	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polyplectron malacense</em> is endemic to Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and possibly southern peninsular Thailand. Reports of its occurrence in Sumatra have been refuted, and evidence for its occurrence in Myanmar is flawed. It is possibly already extinct in Thailand, and its range in Malaysia has contracted dramatically - in 1997, it remained in just 54% of localities known before 1970. Remaining subpopulations are now restricted to a few forest blocks in which they are unevenly distributed, although it is apparently still common in several protected areas. <br/></p>	eng
141351	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an extreme lowland specialist, resident in tall primary and secondary (including lightly logged) lowland dipterocarp forest, usually from just 15 to 80&#160;m, and never above c.300&#160;m, on level or gently sloping ground. Studies have found increased calling levels and numbers of display scrapes in mast fruiting years, when there are higher invertebrate densities, suggesting that distribution and reproductive output may be limited by food supply.</p>	eng
141351	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 6.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,170 km<sup>2</sup> (1% EOO) = 7,956 individuals, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 (population density from study at Kuala Lompat; AOO may now be very low percentage of EOO due to sharp declines and severe fragmentation of remaining habitat; see BirdLife International [2001]). <br/></p>	eng
141351	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland forest clearance and modification for cultivation remain the major threats. Only 25% of suitable habitat that was available for the species prior to 1970 remains today. Hunting for food, sport and the bird trade presumably contributed to its probable extinction in Thailand. Whilst it is susceptible to snaring targeted at all ground foraging animals, there is no evidence to indicate it is particularly sought after in Malaysia.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141352	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Central Kalimantan in 1996. It has been recorded in Sungai Wain Nature Reserve, Danau Sentarum National Park and near (if not within) Bukit Raya National Park, all in Kalimantan An increase in the area of protected lowland forest encompassed by the Bukit Raya National Park has been proposed. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah (99-year concessions of great size). Promote prohibition of hunting by logging company employees and others Determine major populations centres, optimal habitat and response to habitat alteration Recommend protected area status or other appropriate management responses for any sites found to support the species Support the proposed extension of Bukit Raya National Park, Central Kalimantan. Develop support mechanisms for key IBAs in peninsular Malaysia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141352	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polyplectron schleiermacheri</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known from Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A 1996 questionnaire survey of 97 villages across central Kalimantan found that two-thirds of these communities described it as rare or very rare, whilst one-third considered that it was fairly common. Feathers of the species were produced at four locations. Eighty-five percent of individual interviewees felt that it had declined. There are single recent reports from Danum Valley and Ulu Tongod (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Nangatayap (near Gunung Palung National Park, west Kalimantan), Muarakarum/Palangkaraya, central Kalimantan, Sungai Wain, south-east Kalimantan and local reports from Sukau (Sabah). <br/></p>	eng
141352	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its ecological needs are poorly understood. GIS analyses indicate that it inhabits lowland plain and lowland dipterocarp forest on moderately fertile soils, probably avoiding wetter substrates in swamp-forest or near water-bodies. A recent study further confirmed the use of closed dry lowland dipterocarp forest habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has been recorded in areas of forest that were burned in the 1997-1998 fires, but its tolerance for regenerating habitats has not yet been properly assessed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Local people in the Danum-Linau area report that the species occurs between 300 m and 1,000 m. <br/></p>	eng
141352	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis of recent records by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
141352	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In central Kalimantan, habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within protected areas, widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm, and hunting with snares, are the main threats. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 was patchy, with many small alluvial areas escaping damage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Such fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity. Together with logging, they could destroy all dryland lowland forest by 2010. In central Kalimantan, most remaining lowland forest is granted to logging concessions, with a mere 1% currently afforded any protected status. <br/></p>	eng
141353	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal. In 1990, the entire island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is extremely difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in two protected areas: El Nido Marine Reserve and St Paul's Subterranean River National Park (the latter may soon be significantly extended to the east, where the species is also known to occur). It recently featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Allocate greater resources towards more effective control of hunting in Palawan forests and initiate conservation awareness campaigns amongst forest product collectors. Continue surveys to assess distribution, status and habitat requirements in remaining lowland forests and secondary habitats, particularly south of Brooke's Point, on the slopes of Mt Victoria and in remaining forests in the north. Formally protect forests at Iwahig. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141353	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polyplectron napoleonis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Palawan. It is known from c.20 localities throughout the island, with records from at least 11 since 1980. Local reports suggest it has a wider distribution. In the early 1970s, despite local extinctions, it was not considered particularly rare. In 1995, its fragmented population was estimated to number less than 10,000. It is evidently still declining. <br/></p>	eng
141353	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mainly inhabits primary and secondary forest on flat and rolling terrain, up to c.800&#160;m, occasionally occurring almost up to mossy forest and in <em>Casuarina</em>-dominated dwarf forest on serpentine rock.</p>	eng
141353	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be <10,000 by McGowan and Garson (1995) <br/></p>	eng
141353	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive, and logging and mining concessions have been granted for almost all remaining forest on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the remaining extensive forest of the south. Forest at Iwahig Penal Colony, regarded as a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. By the late 1960s, it was being extensively hunted and trapped in large numbers for live trade, but exports were much reduced by the late 1980s. In the mid-1990s, it was heavily hunted adjacent to St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. <br/></p>	eng
141354	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including Bach Ma National Park and at least 10 nature reserves in Vietnam, at least two designated and two proposed National Biodiversity Conservation Areas in Laos, and Taman Negara National Park in Malaysia. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat in Laos and Vietnam to clarify its current distribution and assess its abundance in relation to habitat degradation. Regularly monitor the Malaysian population and selected populations in Laos and Vietnam. Promote strict enforcement of hunting regulations in protected areas supporting populations, in combination with locally-targeted conservation awareness initiatives. Conduct taxonomic research into the relationship between the Malaysian and Indo-Chinese populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141354	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rheinardia ocellata</em> is endemic to South-East Asia. The nominate subspecies occurs along the Annamite mountain chain in central and southern <strong>Vietnam</strong> and neighbouring eastern <strong>Laos</strong>, south to the Da Lat Plateau in southern Vietnam. The range of subspecies <em>nigrescens</em> is wider than once thought, including the east flank of the East Coast Range of Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, although it is restricted to a narrow altitudinal band<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Previously it had been known only from eight sites within, or very close to, Taman Negara National Park. Although the species' range and habitat have been reduced and fragmented in Laos and Vietnam, and a substantial population decline has occurred there in the past century, the nominate subspecies is still relatively widespread and locally common.<em> <br/></p>	eng
141354	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Laos and Vietnam, it is resident in primary and secondary evergreen forest from sea-level up to 1,500 m, and from 1,700-1,900 m on the Da Lat Plateau. It has been frequently recorded from degraded forest habitats, including active logging concessions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs at its highest densities in moist primary forest in lowlands up to c.900 m. In Malaysia, it inhabits tall hill dipterocarp/lower montane transitional forest, generally from c.800-1,100 m.  <br/></p>	eng
141354	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141354	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Indo-Chinese population is probably most at risk from continuing forest loss and degradation, both within and outside protected areas. The greatest problems stem from commercial logging, illegal timber extraction, clearance for agricultural plantations, encroachment by shifting cultivators and road-building. Disturbance and snaring at display arenas are more significant threats than deforestation in some areas. The Malaysian population is less threatened, with the main documented threat being limited habitat loss on the periphery of Taman Negara, although its narrow altitudinal range in this country lies mostly outside protected areas, exposing it to disturbance from logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141355	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Argusianus argus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is recorded from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and south-west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Brunei </strong>(extirpated from many areas),<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is generally uncommon in tall, dry, lowland primary and logged forests, up to 1,300 m, but principally occurs below 900 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, this species has probably not declined very rapidly because it ranges up to elevations where forest loss is less severe and occurs in selectively logged sites; it is much sparser in deciduous forest and rare to absent from lowland peat swamp and white-sand heath forests. Excessive trapping occurs in many areas of Borneo. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
141356	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The conservation of this species may depend on populations in protected areas where there is some possibility that hunting can be limited or banned<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Currently, important populations exist in the Maiko and probably also Salonga National Parks, where there is potential for long-term conservation<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. It also occurs in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve and the Kahuzi-Biega National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Several new conservation projects concerning forests within the species range are under development<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and ecological research is being conducted in Salonga National Park<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to assess its distribution and habitat requirements, focusing on the Maiko, Kahuzi-Biega, and Salonga National Parks, and the southern part of the species' range in the Kasa&iuml; Provinces and Opala locality in Kisangani region. Conduct research to assess the socio-economic importance of bushmeat hunting, and evaluate the potential for sustainable use and livelihood alternatives. Continue education campaigns designed to mitigate bushmeat hunting within the region. Improve the protection of nature reserves and national parks where the species occurs.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141356	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Afropavo congensis</em> occurs in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>(DRC). Research in 1993-1995 confirmed its presence in 13 out of 20 survey areas, although it was not abundant in any. This work also identified new sites that significantly extend the species's range north-east into the Ituri Forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Subsequently, it was also located north of the Lomako river and along the Yekokora river<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as further south between the Lukenie and Sankuru rivers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Forest between the Lomami and Congo rivers may also hold significant concentrations, but information from this area remains limited<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141356	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in many different forest types but is often associated with slopes between watersheds with shallow soils supporting dry forest with an open understorey<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its sparse and irregular distribution may correspond in part to the limited availability of this habitat type<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It does not appear to have a specialised diet, and has been recorded eating fruit from common tree species throughout the region<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and also aquatic insects and termites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The breeding season may depend on local rainfall conditions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141356	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. Insufficient evidence obtained in 2005 to warrant downlisting. <br/></p>	eng
141356	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat is being lost to mining, subsistence agriculture and logging at several locations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Mining and associated human settlement result in the opening up of remote areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with a corresponding increase in subsistence and commercial hunting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys and questionnaires have revealed high hunting pressure in the Kisangani region and around Salonga National Park<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Capture in snares set for small mammals and antelope is probably widespread<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The presence of guerilla fighters and huge numbers of Rwandan refugees in the eastern DRC since 1994 also poses a significant threat<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong> because of increased hunting and habitat loss<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141358	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is known from many protected areas, including important populations in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Indonesia<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. These include: Huai Kha Kheng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand); Ujung Kulon and Baluran National Parks (Indonesia); Yok Don National Park (Vietnam); Lomphat, Phnom Prich and Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuaries, Chhep and Eastern Mondulkiri Protected Forests and Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area (Cambodia); and Xe Pian National Protected Area (Laos)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The core zone of Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area has recently been extended<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and increased education and patrolling is likely to improve the prospects for this important population, now known to number several hundred individuals. Extensive public awareness campaigns have been carried out in China and Laos. A captive breeding programme has been initiated in collaboration with the World Pheasant Association as a first step towards reintroducing birds into Penisular Malaysia. The Cambodian Galliformes Conservation Programme through the Forestry Administration and the World Pheasant Association have conducted status surveys at a number of sites within north-west Cambodia. A model was developed to predict peafowl distribution and abundance at the landscape scale based upon distance to and from water and villages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue research into its range, status, habitat requirements and interactions with people to inform management within protected areas. Clarify its status in India. Initiate additional conservation awareness campaigns in Myanmar and Cambodia, while continuing existing ones. Develop landscape-level management recommendations for key areas, including the establishment of new protected areas where appropriate. Promote strict enforcement of regulations relating to hunting and pesticide use within protected areas supporting populations in Indochina. Encourage a total ban on trade in live birds and train feathers in all range countries.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141358	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Pavo muticus</em> has a large ancestral range, across which it was once common and widespread. It has undergone a serious decline and the only sizeable remaining populations are found in dry forests in <strong>Cambodia<sup>5,7</sup></strong>, <strong>Myanmar<sup>11</sup></strong> and west-central <strong>Vietnam</strong><sup>1</sup>. Outside of this region populations persist in west and north <strong>Thailand</strong><sup>4</sup>, the southern portion of <strong>Laos</strong>, Annam in Vietnam, Yunnan in <strong>China</strong> and on Java,<strong> Indonesia</strong>. In <strong>India</strong> individuals are occasionally encountered in Manipur<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it may be extinct elsewhere in north-east India and Bangladesh, and is extinct in Malaysia and peninsular Thailand. The population evidently declined dramatically during the 20th Century causing range contraction and local extinctions; currently pressures remain intense and very rapid ongoing declines are suspected based on rates of disturbance and habitat conversion across South East Asia. However, where protected areas are effectively managed, such as Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, populations are increasing<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The development of an effective survey methodology and increased survey effort within its range has led to an increase in records, especially from Cambodia, Thailand<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and China, and hence the conservative population estimate of 5,000-10,000 individuals generated in 1995 has been revised to 10,000-20,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141358	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Historically it has been reported to occur in a wide variety of habitats, including a range of primary and secondary, tropical and subtropical, evergreen and deciduous forest-types, mixed coniferous forest, swamp forest, open woodland, forest edge, bamboo, grasslands, savannas, scrub and farmland edge, from sea-level to at least 2,100 m. Contemporary records are mostly limited to dry deciduous forests, with the highest densities occurring near undisturbed rivers and wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; access to water and human disturbance have a strong influence on the species's abundance and distribution<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has been hypothesized that the species favours open deciduous forest as it may allow large clutches to be laid to coincide with a seasonal flush of fallen fruit<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Although rare compared with historic numbers, improved survey methodology and increased effort has led to an increase in the reporting rate and thus the population estimate has been revised upwards to reflect this improved knowledge. Nevertheless this remains a coarse estimate and it warrants refinement. <br/></p>	eng
141358	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Widespread hunting for meat and feathers, and collection of eggs and chicks, combined with habitat modification and human disturbance, has caused this species's catastrophic decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Fragmentation has isolated many small populations, increasing their susceptibility to local extinction, but selective logging appears to have no adverse effects on peafowl distribution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Other threats may include trade in the male's spectacular train feathers. It is regarded as a crop-pest by farmers in China and Thailand<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and is consequently poisoned. The spread of human settlement presents the greatest threat; directly through hunting pressure and habitat loss but also indirectly by preventing access to otherwise suitable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
141359	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendragapus falcipennis</em> occurs in far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, from c.120&#176;E to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk and Sakhalin Island, north to c.60&#176;N and south to the lower Amur region and the Sikhote-Alin mountains, and to the Xiao Hinggan Ling mountains in Heilongjiang, <strong>China</strong> It inhabits coniferous forest, mainly of spruce, e.g. <em>Picea jezoensis</em> and fir <em>Abies nephrolepis</em>, and although it uses secondary forest, it avoids open areas and the youngest stages of forest succession. It occurs at low densities of between six and 25 birds per 100 km<sup>2</sup> within this relatively small range, although these densities may be under-estimated because of its elusive behaviour. It is assumed to be declining because of large-scale clear-cutting for timber, forest fires and hunting for food, and has been reported to disappear rapidly from colonised areas, apparently because it does not fear man. <br/></p>	eng
141364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2500000-3200000 breeding pairs, equating to 7500000-9600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 15000000-40000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141365	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue fieldwork (including extensive surveys in Russia) to determine its population status, the availability of habitats and principle threats, leading to a full Red List assessment Encourage the development and implementation of national species action plans Develop public awareness campaigns Identify threats and develop mitigation measures Review the adequacy of the existing protected area network <br/></p>	eng
141365	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tetrao mlokosiewiczi</em> is resident in the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains of <strong>Russia</strong>, where recent estimates of the population are 15,000-50,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (encompassing a further estimate of 25,000-30,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) 30,000-60,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and 30,000-100,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong> (40,000-50,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Turkey</strong> (1,000-1,500 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Armenia</strong> (150 individuals), <strong>Azerbaijan</strong> (700-3,000 breeding individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and <strong>Iran</strong> (110-200 individuals). In 1987, a total of 70,000 birds were estimated in the Greater Caucasus and in 1974, 500 birds in the Lesser Caucasus. Political unrest has hampered the collection of more recent data on either populations or the threats to them. It is found in subalpine and alpine meadows, slopes with <em>Rhododendron</em> and juniper <em>Juniperus</em>, and on the edge of birch forest in spring and winter, at elevations of 2,000-3,300 m. Habitat loss and deterioration are likely to be the major threats with 40% of subalpine meadows within its range suffering from intensive grazing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The density of birds in grazed areas is low. Grazing livestock disturb and trample nests and birds are killed by herders' dogs. Meadows used for hay production are important for breeding birds. Illegal hunting is an increasing threat, particularly in the Lesser Caucasus. In Turkey, opportunistic hunting is known to occur and road construction and changes in land use in the north eastern region of the country are providing easier access for hunters and will likely contribute to increased habitat disturbance<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Large scale conservation projects are underway in Georgia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Turkey<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong> to improve our understanding of the species' biology, develop monitoring and management activities and promote public awareness, and a project to survey the species in Azerbaijan has begun<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Future work to develop a conservation strategy and create a potential distribution map for all range countries is planned. <br/></p>	eng
141365	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on surveys and some habitat mapping there are thought to be 68,000-84,300 individuals spread between Russia (15,000-50,000 individuals), Georgia (40,000-50,000 individuals), Turkey (3,000-4,500 individuals), Armenia (400-800 individuals), Azerbaijan (700-3,000 breeding individuals) and Iran (less than 500 individuals). <br/></p>	eng
141366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 760000-1000000 breeding pairs, equating to 2280000-3000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 5000000-10000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be formerly very common (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
141368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2500000-3100000 breeding pairs, equating to 7500000-9300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 15000000-40000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141369	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bonasa sewerzowi</em> is found in the mountains of south-west <strong>China</strong>, in eastern Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu and western Sichuan, where it occurs in birch and coniferous forest, generally above 1,000 m and at up to 4,000 m in Tibet. Its known range was recently extended to the western edge of the forest zone in Tibet (at c.93&#176;30'E), suggesting that it may occur much more widely in the vast and continuous forests of south-east Tibet than was previously documented. It is common in suitable forest, and recent studies in Gansu found extraordinarily high densities of up to 15 occupied territories per km<sup>2</sup>. Its habitat has been greatly reduced and fragmented by large-scale forest clearance, and illegal hunting and egg-collecting may be a problem in parts of its range. It is believed to have disappeared from eastern Qinghai and central Gansu because of deforestation, and it has also suffered intensive habitat loss in south-west Gansu. A population studied in Lianhuashan Natural Reserve (Gansu Province) between 1995 and 2000 was stable despite egg-collecting by local people at 10-29% of nests each year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
141371	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centrocercus urophasianus</em> inhabits the shrubland ecosystems of south-eastern <strong>Canada</strong> (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and western <strong>USA</strong> (Washington, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah and Colorado)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is closely associated with sagebrush <em>Artemesia</em> habitats during the breeding and non-breeding seasons, although some populations do undergo seasonal movements<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Immense areas of its habitat have been cleared or degraded due to cultivation (for wheat, potatoes and other crops), burning and overgrazing, and the species has been extirpated from various parts of its former range (British Columbia, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although the accurate estimation of trends is difficult, the rangewide breeding population was estimated as 142,000 individuals in 1998, clearly lower than historic levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and decline rates have been estimated at 50% or higher since 1966<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141371	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich et al (2004). <br/></p>	eng
141373	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most management effort has been directed toward improvement of habitat. Effective strategies have included manipulation of grazing pressure, control of burning, provision of thick vegetation for protective cover and establishment of preserves. Population reintroduction may be necessary to expand its distribution, particularly where there are no dispersal corridors between occupied and unoccupied habitats, but so far has had mixed success<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting legislation has frequently been used to protect populations, with mixed success - both <em>T. c. cupido </em>and <em>attwateri</em> were protected. Legislation has been more effective with <em>T. c. pinnatus</em>, perhaps because of its large and diverse distribution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Removal of Ring-necked Pheasants <em>Phasianus colchicus</em> may reduce interspecific competition<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141373	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tympanuchus cupido</em> is restricted to prairie intermixed with cropland, primarily in the mid-western states of the <strong>USA</strong>. <br/>The three recognised subspecies vary dramatically in status: the Heath Hen <em>T. c. cupido</em> is extinct, and the Attwater's Prairie Hen <em>T. c. attwateri</em> is restricted to small portions of south-east Texas (numbering under 1,000 in the mid-1990s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Greater Prairie-chicken (<em>T. c. pinnatus</em>) is extinct or in danger of extinction in 15 states, but numerous enough to be legally hunted in four states<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with the largest remaining populations in Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been in long-term decline for the last 80 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with recent figures suggesting a steep population decline in the period 1989-1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141373	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Once abundant in native prairie intermixed with oak <em>Quercus</em> spp. woodland, as prairie and woodland habitats were converted to cropland it had to adapt to agricultural habitats<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Areas of native vegetation are still required for roosting and breeding, and for displaying males choose lek sites with short grass, usually on elevated ground. Most nest sites are in open, grassy habitats such as ungrazed meadows or hayfields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141373	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Westemeier and Gough (1999). <br/></p>	eng
141373	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of prairie habitat through conversion to cropland was primarily responsible for the extinction of <em>T. c. cupido</em> and declines in the other two subspecies. Grazing pressure and the increase in cropland throughout areas of native prairie is threatening the remaining population of <em>T. c. attwateri</em> in Texas. As habitat fragments, isolating populations, loss of genetic variance and subsequent decreases in fertility will reduce fitness and reinforce negative demographic trends<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In certain states hunting continues<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may suffer from competition with Ring-necked Pheasant <em>Phasianus colchicus<strong><sup>2</sup></strong></em>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141374	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It is legally protected in all range states, and is being considered for listing under the Federal Endangered Species Act<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Numbers of leks and attending males are monitored<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Reintroduction programmes have failed in Texas and Colorado<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, primarily because of habitat shortages<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Some grazing regimes have been successfully manipulated, and croplands have reverted to grassland under the Conservation Reserve Program and other private lands management schemes<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>. <br/>Large areas of land habitat have been purchased by states and the Nature Conservancy and policies are now being implemented that will protect additional habitat from wind energy development<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Research has been conducted on its ecology and conservation which will facilitate the production of recovery plans<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Allow habitat regeneration, reduce grazing stock and construct livestock exclosures. Continue to manage occupied habitats on private lands, and hasten progress towards effective management on public lands. Protect occupied habitats. Develop and promote effective incentives for land-owners to maintain populations.  Continue monitoring leks. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
141374	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tympanuchus pallidicinctus</em> occurs in south-west Kansas, south-east Colorado, the Oklahoma panhandle, west Texas and east New Mexico, <strong>USA</strong>, and perhaps south Nebraska and west Missouri <strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. The occupied range in 1980 was a fragmented 27,300 km<sup>2</sup>, a 78% decrease since 1963 and only c.8% of the original<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. Historically, there were perhaps two million birds in Texas, but the total population may have declined by 97% since the early 1800s. Recent estimates are 60,000 birds in the early 1970s, 42,500-55,500 in 1979, 18,275-25,475 in 1995, and 10,000-25,000 in 1999, most occurring in Kansas and Texas<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141374	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It originally inhabited mid-grass prairie with shinnery oak <em>Quercus havardii</em> or sand sagebrush <em>Artemisia filifolia</em><strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. It is now most common in dwarf shrub-mixed grass vegetation, sometimes interspersed with short-grass and, optimally, with c.25% cropland<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Leks are usually on elevated areas with short vegetation<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs from mid-March to late May<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Food comprises foliage, seeds, grain, insects in the warmer months and acorns in the south<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Birds flock in late autumn and early winter, and feed in croplands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141374	population	BirdLife International, 2008	H. Whitlaw <em>in litt</em>. (2007). <br/></p>	eng
141374	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Market hunting greatly reduced populations in the early 20th century<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Numbers declined more severely in the dust bowl of the late 1930s<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and significantly with droughts in the 1950s and early 1990s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Croplands have expanded since the late 19th century and complete conversion is now the principal threat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>; areas with more than 37% cultivated land are probably unsustainable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Intensive grazing reduces food and cover, and herbicides reduce acorn production<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Restricted hunting produces an annual bag of fewer than 1,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141376	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Meleagris ocellata</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Mexico</strong> (Yucat&aacute;n peninsula), north <strong>Guatemala</strong> (north Pet&eacute;n) and north-west and west-central <strong>Belize<sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It is probably most common in Belize where there are several quite large populations in protected areas and it is locally abundant<strong><sup>2,7,8</sup></strong>. However, it has been extirpated from north Yucat&aacute;n, west Campeche, east Tabasco and north-east Chiapas, Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and numbers and habitat quality are presumably declining elsewhere<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although common in some reserves, it is generally rare<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and breeding season survival rates for females (60-75%) and poults (15%) are low in Tikal National Park, Guatemala<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It occupies non-flooded mature forest, but associates with seasonally flooded habitat and open areas when breeding<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. There is heavy hunting for food (and occasionally sport<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), even within reserves<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Large-scale clear-cutting and agricultural conversion is fragmenting habitat, increasing its susceptibility to hunting<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There are local reports that chicken-born diseases have spread to populations in contact with domestic poultry<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> but this has never been substantiated<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141377	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Sierra Leone, the species is restricted to Gola Forest which has little legal protection<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, Ta&iuml; National Park is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Where possible, conduct education campaigns to address hunting pressure</strong><sup>7</sup>. <strong>In Liberia, conduct surveys and identify key sites</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>In Ghana, carry out population surveys to ascertain its status</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>In Ta&iuml; National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park</strong><sup>4,9</sup>. <strong>Ensure de facto protection of reserves in the Ta&iuml; and Gola forests</strong><sup>9</sup>. <strong>In Ta&iuml; National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land use changes outside the park</strong><sup>4</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
141377	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agelastes meleagrides</em> occurs in <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest region only, population estimated at 5,700-8,700<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (population estimated at more than 10,000 in 1985<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (notably Ta&iuml;National Park, population estimated at 30,000-40,000 in 1990<strong><sup>4 </sup></strong>, and two other new sites<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>) and <strong>Ghana</strong> (population estimated at 1,000 birds, but these could be remnant populations that are not viable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the species may have already been extirpated from small logged forests<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> i.e. up to 100 km<sup>2</sup>). In 1995, the world population was optimistically estimated at 85,000-115,000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141377	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the interior of primary rainforest with thin undergrowth<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, preferring dry, closed-canopy forest in Ta&iuml; Forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and has proved unable to adapt to the denser undergrowth of secondary forest<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, although it is reported to inhabit old secondary forest in Ghana<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has been recorded in logged primary forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but the presence of undisturbed primary forest seems essential<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, small molluscs, berries and fallen seeds of forest trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The breeding season is October-May, possibly year-round<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141377	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1995, the world population was optimistically estimated at 85,000-115,000 individuals (Gartshore <em>et al.</em> 1995), although numbers are likely to have declined since then (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
141377	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat is rapidly receding and where it still occurs in large numbers it is heavily poached. Increased hunting in logged areas may push the species beyond recovery at some sites<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Interspecific competition with the larger Crested Guineafowl <em>Guttera pucherani</em> may be a problem in logged forest<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141383	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and near Pico Orizaba National Park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There are historical records from areas now within Cofre de Perote and Ca&ntilde;on del R&iacute;o Blanco National Parks, but the species's current status in these reserves is unknown. Environmental education in Veracruz has included the development of posters and roadway signs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Implement a conservation awareness programme for the Sierra Gorda, targeting villages near known populations. Document habitat requirements, especially within the Sierra Gorda. Survey for additional populations in San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Veracruz and Oaxaca. Conduct research to determine the level of gene flow between the northern and southern areas of the species's range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141383	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendrortyx barbatus</em> is confined to the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca in east <strong>Mexico</strong>. Surveys in 1994-1998 confirmed its presence in several areas. The total population probably comprises fewer than 5,400 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The largest populations are thought to be found in Veracruz (<2,000 individuals), where it occurs from Coatepec west through the Metlac Basin to Orizaba<strong><sup>8,11,12</sup></strong>, and in Quer&eacute;taro in the Sierra Gorda and adjacent areas<strong><sup>3,10,13,14</sup></strong> (<3,000 individuals), although the extent of suitable habitat here is not known precisely. Small numbers are thought to occur in Hildago<strong><sup>7,8,12</sup></strong> (<100 individuals), San Luis Potosi in the Sierra Gorda<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong> (<200 individuals) and Puebla<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> (<100 individuals). There are also records from the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The spate of recent records suggests that it is more numerous than previously thought, but remaining populations are fragmented and, perhaps with the exception of those in the remote Sierra Gorda, continuing to decline. <br/></p>	eng
141383	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid montane and pine-oak forest at elevations of 900-3,100 m, but has been recorded in older, second-growth forest, and edge and disturbed habitats associated with agriculture including shade coffee<strong><sup>3,9,14</sup></strong>. Many fragmented populations are restricted to vegetation along creeks and rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141383	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population probably comprises fewer than 5,400 individuals (J. Eitniear <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141383	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the result of logging, clearance for agriculture, road-building, tourist developments, intensive urbanisation, sheep-ranching and grazing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Conversion from shade to sun coffee is a serious threat to some areas of habitat<strong><sup>12,14</sup></strong>. Fragmented populations are susceptible to subsistence hunting, predators, genetic retrogression and further human encroachment<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Veracruz, there is widespread conversion of habitat to monoculture crops, human settlement and livestock-grazing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and there have been reports of hunting with dogs with little discrimination between species<strong><sup>12,14</sup></strong>. In Hidalgo, there is little remaining habitat. <br/></p>	eng
141384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141385	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
141391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
141392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight placed the estimate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
141398	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Although it occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve, Colombia, and Perij&aacute; National Park, Venezuela, neither of these formal designations provide adequate protection<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. It is legally protected from hunting in Venezuela.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Detemine more accurately the range, abundance and habitat preferences of this species, particularly in the southern section of Perij&aacute; National Park. Use satellite imagery to assess the extent and rate of habitat loss. Produce and promote management recommendations for Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141398	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus atrifrons</em> has three disjunct populations: the nominate subspecies in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, subspecies <em>navai</em> in the Sierra de Perij&aacute; on the Colombia-<strong>Venezuela </strong>border, and subspecies <em>variegatus</em> in the northern East Andes of Colombia (Norte de Santander and Santander)<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. The only recent records are of the nominate subspecies<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, possibly owing to a lack of fieldwork in the other areas. It appears to be declining, with total numbers likely to be below 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141398	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane humid forests at elevations of 1,200-3,100&#160;m <strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. It is wary and secretive, foraging in dense undergrowth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Two breeding-condition males and one laying female have been found in August, with an immature in July<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141398	population	BirdLife International, 2008	McGowan <em>et al</em>. (1995), P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. (1997, 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141398	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Colombian East Andes have been subject to four centuries of extensive degradation, with progressive deforestation of the lower montane slopes<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. In Boyac&aacute; and Santander, however, where forest loss was gradual until the 1960s and 1970s, some sizeable tracts remain, and habitat is beginning to regenerate owing to land abandonment<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is threatened by agricultural expansion, logging and burning<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the west slopes, marijuana plantations expanded widely in the 1980s, and were sprayed by the government with herbicides in the early 1990s<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. The Sierra de Perij&aacute; is heavily deforested up to 2,000&#160;m, by cattle-ranching at lower elevations and narcotics cultivation higher up<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is hunted at least in some parts of its range<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141399	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus hyperythrus</em> occurs on both slopes of the West and Central Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Cauca and the head of the Magdalena valley in Huila<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and local in montane evergreen forest, forest edge, secondary growth, and there is some evidence that it frequents coffee plantations with shade trees, at 1,600-2,700&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The population is likely to be fewer than 10,000 in three subpopulations, each of which requires taxonomic validation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its forest habitats have suffered widespread and severe deforestation over centuries of human colonisation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, particularly in the Central Andes, with resultant fragmentation and isolation of populations. Further degradation owing to agricultural expansion is projected in the Central Andes, and the slopes of the Cauca and Magdalena valleys are now characterised by remnant (often secondary) forest patches, pasture, coffee, banana and sugarcane plantations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is also evidence of hunting pressure<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141399	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141400	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in R&iacute;o &Ntilde;amb&iacute; and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia, and Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Los Cedros Biological Reserve, Cerro Golondrinas Reserve, Rio Guajalito Reserve, La Otonga Reserve, Cotacachi Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Mashpi Protection Forest, Las Tangaras and Maquipucuna reserves, Ecuador<strong><sup>1,8,10,11</sup></strong>. Both of the protected areas in Colombia suffer severe illegal logging within their boundaries and have significant unresolved land disputes, encompassing over one-third of La Planada and half of R&iacute;o &Ntilde;amb&iacute;<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Map remaining habitat and assess the extent and rate of habitat loss. Conduct a complete distributional survey to determine its range and numbers more accurately. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
141400	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus melanonotus</em> has a small range in the Choc&oacute; (West Andes) of north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha and Cotopaxi) and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o)<strong><sup>1,3,4,5</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 10,000-20,000 individuals and declining<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the wet season (March-June), it is considered that 1&#160;km<sup>2</sup> supports c.2-3 groups (probably a minimum of 2-3 pairs in total)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It seems to be fairly common along its whole range in Ecuador<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and remains common in R&iacute;o &Ntilde;amb&iacute; and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141400	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This wet subtropical forest specialist occurs exclusively in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest at 1,100-1,900&#160;m. It is apparently able to leave dense forest to forage,  and has also being recorded in secondary forest with dense and tangled understorey and fairly open canopy on steep slopes<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>.  It is typically found in groups of 2-10 individuals, which are particularly vocal at dawn during the wet season. Recent hatchlings have been recorded in July and August. It feeds on terrestrial invertebrates and fruit<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141400	population	BirdLife International, 2008	P. G. W. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. (1999). <br/></p>	eng
141400	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation and hunting for food are the major threats to this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation, following the completion of roads, and extensive logging concessions have been the primary causes of habitat loss. Deforestation rates are accelerating within its range, primarily because of intensive logging, human settlement and cattle-grazing. Forests at upper elevations are less threatened than those in the lowland Choc&oacute; region, but habitat loss is occurring below 2,000 m, especially along the Cali-Buenaventura, Pasto-Tumaco highways and new roads<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141402	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Dari&eacute;n National Park, Panama, protects all but the small Colombian part of its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Map remaining habitat and assess the extent and rate of encroaching habitat loss. When the security situation permits, conduct a complete distributional survey to assess status and habitat preferences.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141402	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus dialeucos</em> was discovered in 1963, and is only known from Cerros Mali and Tacarcuna on the Tacarcuna ridge in Dari&eacute;n, extreme east <strong>Panama</strong> and adjacent Choc&oacute;, north-west <strong>Colombia</strong><sup>3,4</sup>. Its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is fairly common in suitable habitat in Panama<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141402	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a very poorly-known, terrestrial bird of humid forests, found at elevations of 1,050-1,450&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141402	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141402	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting for food, and habitat clearance and degradation resulting from mining, agriculture, cultivation of coca and subsistence affect birds in this region<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, these threats are probably not yet factors within this species's altitudinal range. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Dari&eacute;n could lead to severe, long-term damage to forest on the Tacarcuna ridge<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141403	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, protecting 100 km<sup>2</sup> of forest extending from 1,950-2,200 to 3,000-3,900 m, was gazetted in November 1993<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. The species is also protected by the adjacent Cachalu Biological Reserve, with frequent sightings there since 1999<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Surveys are underway by Fundaci&oacute;n ProAves in Cachalu Nature Reserve and Serran&iacute;a de Yarigu&iacute;es, including radio-telemetry studies on population densities and range size<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the Serran&iacute;a de Yarigu&iacute;es to assess population size, and prioritise areas requiring protection. Undertake radio-telemetry studies to assess movements and the species's need for forest connectivity. Estimate and monitor the size of remnant populations in the Cachalu Nature Reserve and Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce. Identify and survey remnant forests outside Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce, including on the Cuchilla del Rama and in national parks such as Sumap&aacute;z in the southern East Andes. Develop initiatives to protect any additional sites discovered, including targeted land acquisition where appropriate.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141403	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus strophium</em> occurs on the west slope of the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has not been reported in Cundinamarca since 1954<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, where it was known from a few sites to the west of and around Bogot&aacute;. It has since been recorded in Santander, on the Cuchilla del Ramo in 1970,  in Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary from 1979 onwards, in Cachalu Biological Reserve from 1999, and in the Serran&iacute;a de los Yarigu&iacute;es in 2003<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. In 2004 it was found in the oak forests of Charal&aacute; (Vereda Virol&iacute;n), Onzaga (Vereda Chaguata), Mogotes (Vereda San Jose, Vereda Vega Grande, Vereda Cabecera) and Coromoro (Vereda Laguna, Vereda Mina)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Overall, it appears to be restricted to the larger oak forest remnants in the eastern Cordillera: Serrania de Yariguies and NorAndino Oak Forest Corridor. Both remnants have decreased considerably in size in the last two decades<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The total population is thought to be very small and is presumably declining.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141403	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid subtropical and temperate forests dominated by oak and laurel. It is only known to occur at 1,750-2,050 m, but may have an elevational range of 1,500-2,500 m. Although probably dependent on primary forest for at least part of its life-cycle, it has been recorded in degraded habitats and secondary forest. It forages for fruit, seeds and arthropods. The breeding season appears to coincide with peaks in annual rainfall in March-May and September-November. <br/></p>	eng
141403	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Turner and Donegan (2006) estimated the population in the Yarigu&iacute;es mountains to be c.1,800-3,300 individuals, there are perhaps 200 - 1,000 elsewhere.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141403	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 17th century, the west slope of the East Andes has been extensively logged and converted to agriculture, including pastures and, at lower altitudes, coffee, plantain and sugarcane plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Forest loss below 2,500&#160;m has been almost complete<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with habitat in many areas reduced to tiny, isolated relicts on steep slopes and along streams<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. These landscape changes accelerated during the 20th century, especially after 1960, although in some areas, habitat regeneration is beginning following the abandonment of marginal land<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Selective logging and hunting affects birds in the lower part of Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce, but the forest is largely intact above 1,950-2,200&#160;m. The small remnants of subtropical forest in Cundinamarca are unlikely to support the species, but less disturbed and ornithologically unknown forests in west Boyac&aacute; and Santander<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong> might retain populations. <br/></p>	eng
141404	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Odontophorus columbianus</em> inhabits humid, montane forest and edge in north and west-central <strong>Venezuela</strong> (south-west T&aacute;chira along the r&iacute;o Chiquito and the Cordillera de la Costa from Carabobo to west Miranda) at elevations of 800-2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>. Foraging birds appear to favour areas with a high frequency of non-palm monocotyledons, high vertical foliage density, and a low frequency of palms (<em>Bactris</em> spp.)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is still extensive forest cover within its range in parts of the Cordillera de la Costa Central, but habitat loss has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have been extensively degraded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In T&aacute;chira, there is pristine forest along the r&iacute;o Chiquito, but deforestation for intensive crop cultivation and pastureland is progressing in adjacent areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here. Previously, Fuller et al. 2000 estimated 500,000 individuals.	eng
141409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight placed the esimtate in the band 50,000-499,999 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
141411	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Survey to assess population size. Investigate the extent of hunting and take appropriate measures, including the use of awareness campaigns, to address these issues. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends. Protect significant areas of suitable habitat in a network of private and public reserves. Investigate the possibility of conservation on land with a lower stock density.	eng
141411	distribution		<em>Cyrtonyx ocellatus</em> occurs from south <strong>Mexico</strong> through <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong> to north <strong>Nicaragua</strong><sup>2</sup>. Guatemala has been identified as a stronghold for this species, and it has been sighted at 11 different sites since 2000. It is considered to be rare at all of these sites and there have been few additional recent records from Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua. Considering this, and given that there have been no recent records from El Salvador, the total global population is now thought to number fewer than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>.	eng
141411	habitat		It inhabits the grassy understorey of open pine-oak woodland and brushy fields at elevations of 750-3,050 m<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
141411	population		Although a full population census is yet to be completed, the species is thought to be rare at all known sites in Guatemala, there are few recent records from Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua, and no recent records from El Salvador. Considering this, the population is thought to hold fewer than 10,000 individuals (K. Eisermann <em>in litt.</em> 2010), hence is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.	eng
141414	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chauna chavaria</em> inhabits lowland marshes, swamps, lagoons, the banks of slow-flowing rivers and seasonally flooded alluvial plains in north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (around Lago Maracaibo in Zuila, M&eacute;rida and Trujillo)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and north <strong>Colombia</strong> (from the lower Atrato valley east to the Ci&eacute;naga Grande de Santa Marta and the Cesar valley, and south in the middle Magdalena valley to south Bol&iacute;var)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The upper Cauca valley holds a tiny, isolated and apparently declining population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Numbers have been estimated at c.2,000 individuals in Venezuela which, with a similar sized population in Colombia, suggests a total population of 3,000-5,000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, this may under-estimate the Colombian population, with c.5,000 or more birds perhaps a more accurate guess<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The global population is estimated to be 2,500-9,999 individuals. Loss of habitat owing to drainage of wetlands for cattle and agriculture is probably resulting in slow population declines<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but is unlikely to affect seasonally flooded and deeper wetlands in the near future<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Collection of eggs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, capture as pets<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and possibly illegal hunting in some areas, are unquantified threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Construction of a pipeline and road through the wetlands of the Ci&eacute;naga Grande de Santa Marta and Isla de Salamanca in the mid-1970s obstructed tidal flow and caused extensive mangrove die-back, continuing until at least 1992<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the same area, there is domestic and industrial pollution and sewage, urbanisation and mangrove cutting. <br/></p>	eng
141414	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rodriguez and Rojas-Suarez (1995); P. G. W. Salaman<em> in litt.</em> (1999). <br/></p>	eng
141416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141419	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species makes irregular local movements within Africa, the periodic appearance of huge numbers in some areas suggesting that it is highly mobile and apt to undertake long-distance movements in search of suitable habitat<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Populations in Madagascar appear to be sedentary, but it is known to be locally migratory in East and West Africa, distributions in these areas varying highly between years according to the water regime (in Cameroon the presence of the species is related to flooding)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season is largely determined by water availability<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>: populations north of the Zambezi River breed during months of low rainfall, while those in the south breed in the wet season<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. This species breeds in single pairs or loose groups and remains in dispersed pairs or small groups whilst undergoing the post-breeding moult<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season congregations of 20-30, several hundreds or even thousands may occur in feeding areas<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>. The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, foraging mainly during the first two hours after dawn and last two hours before sunset<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species inhabits shallow freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall grass<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Such habitats include freshwater lakes, seasonal freshwater pools, slow-flowing streams, marshy areas, swamps in open flat terrain and flooded grasslands<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. It also very frequently occurs in areas of wet rice cultivation<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, and seeks the cover of densely vegetated wetlands while it is vulnerable and flightless during its moulting period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is predominantly vegetarian, feeding on aquatic seeds and fruits, bulbs, leaf shoots, buds and the structural parts of aquatic plants such as grasses and rushes, although it does occasionally take small aquatic insects<strong><sup>1, 2, 8</sup></strong>. It is also shows a preference for cultivated rice grains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nests of this species are predominantly mounds of plant material, often floating on water and well concealed amidst vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. In India however, the species is primarily tree-nesting, utilising hollow trees and even disused stick nests of large birds such as kites or crows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></p>	eng
141419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141419	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is persecuted through hunting in many rice growing areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and there has been a marked decline in numbers due to shooting anf trapping at Lake Alaotra in Madagascar<strong><sup>6, 11</sup></strong>. The species is also often exposed to pesticides used on rice crops, is suceptible to lead poisoning, and suffers mortality through collision with powerlines<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The damming of the Senegal river has markedly decreased the habitat quality in that area, which may be having a negative impact on the population in that area<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Wetland habitat degradation on the east coast of India due to siltation, proliferation of invasive freshwater plant species (such as water hyacinth <em>Eichornia crassipes</em>), increased aquaculture activities and eutrophication may threaten the small proportion of the species that utilises the area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade from Lake Chilwa, Malawi<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is also hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141422	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is subject to upredictable local nomadic movements<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (usually of less than 500 km) in relation to variations in water and food availability<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding commences at the start of the local rainy season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with the species nesting individually<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong> or in loose colonies or small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period lasting for 18-25 days during which they are particularly vulnerable and seek the cover of densely vegetated wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species is gregarious and may forage in flocks of up to several thousands of individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species mainly forages at night<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although it may also feed diurnally during the winter)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> including lakes, swamps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, marshes, large rivers, river deltas, flood-plains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, sewage farms (Africa)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is commonly encountered feeding in rice fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for wetlands in open country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although it is likely to inhabit fresh or brackish waters in more forested areas in South America)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> with mud or sandbars for roosting and rich shoreline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, emergent and surface vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Adults require densely vegetated permanent wetlands for cover during their flightless post-breeding moult period<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>, although breeding birds prefer more ephemeral wetlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of grasses (e.g. <em>Echinochloa</em> spp.), aquatic seeds e.g. of water-lilies <em>Nyphaea</em> and <em>Nymphoides</em> spp., rice<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pondweeds (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em> spp.)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and tubers (especially in the dry season)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as aquatic invertebrates such as molluscs, crustaceans and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the consumption of which is highest during the rains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a depression<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or low construction of vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> placed over or at varying distances from water, usually in stands of dense vegetation (e.g. long grass, sedge or rice)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on dry ground or in reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, occasionally also in open crevices in trees (South America)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species may nest in solitary pairs<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong> with nests placed more then 75 m apart (Africa)<strong><sup>5, 7</sup></strong>, although it may also nest in loose colonies or small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141422	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and avian influenza<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade  in Malawi<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and is hunted in Botswana<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is also hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141423	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected throughout much of its range, but law enforcement is inadequate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The West Indian Whistling-duck Working Group initiated a conservation programme in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are several protected areas in the region but, in general, suitable habitat, especially wetlands, is under-represented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to assess numbers and distribution<sup>5. Assist local authorities in establishing a long-term monitoring programme5. Conserve key sites5. Enforce legal protection5. Initiate public education and awareness programmes5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141423	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendrocygna arborea</em> historically ranged throughout the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong>, <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to USA)</strong>, <strong>St Kitts and Nevis </strong>(only an occasional visitor in the past and future records unlikely due to habitat deterioration<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), <strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong>, and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong>. Breeding populations are known to exist in the Bahamas (at least 1,500 birds), Turks and Caicos, Cuba (possibly more than 10,000 with at least 6,000 in the east), Cayman (1,000 and increasing), Jamaica (500 and declining), Dominican Republic (six populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), Puerto Rico (100 and declining), and Antigua (400) and Barbuda (possibly 2,000)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141423	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This secretive duck is crepuscular or nocturnal and generally considered non-migratory (showing strong site fidelity)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the day, singles, pairs or flocks (up to 100) roost and possibly feed in mangroves and swampy areas<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. At dusk, birds fly to fresh and brackish ponds, ephemeral wetlands, tidal flats and agricultural fields (rice and corn) to feed (usually in small flocks), returning to roost-sites just before dawn<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. The nest is usually in a cluster of palm fronds, a clump of bromeliads, on a branch or in a tree-cavity, but in Antigua it is in a leaf-lined scrape on the ground<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in virtually all months, but peaks in the summer<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141423	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Ottenwalder (1997), L.G. Sorenson<em> in litt.</em> (2007), L. Mugica <em>in litt</em> (2007) Staus (1997) <br/></p>	eng
141423	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has suffered from excessive and under-regulated hunting for subsistence (including eggs) and sport<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Wetlands are a very limited habitat in the Caribbean, with continuing conversion for development and agriculture<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. More than 50% of remaining wetlands are seriously degraded by the cutting of mangroves and swamp-forest, pollution (especially over-use of pesticides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and natural catastrophes such as droughts and hurricanes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Predation is inadequately documented, but may be a factor<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141425	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or semi-nomadic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, making local dispersive movements during the rainy season<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> to take advantage of temporary wetlands<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically although it generally coincides with periods of higher or more stable water levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dispersing after breeding (as water levels drop) to gather in small flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> of 20 to 100 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on more permanent lakes and marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is crepuscular<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and obtains its food almost solely by diving<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits quiet shallow freshwater lakes, pools, lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pans, inland deltas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flood-plains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, marshes and swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> fringed with abundant emergent and floating vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. reeds, papyrus and water-lilies <em>Nymphaea </em>spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, generally avoiding very open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also often inhabits forested lakes in Madagascar<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may frequent farm impoundments or stock-ponds in other areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Although the species is predominantly herbivorous (taking the seeds and leaves of aquatic plants such as water-lilies <em>Nymphaea</em> spp. and <em>Polygonum</em> spp.) the young may feed on Chironomid insect larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of vegetation either floating on or up to 45 cm above water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> amongst reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or papyrus beds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or on the ground in waterside vegetation on small islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species will occasionally use the abandoned nests of grebes or coots as nest bases<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141425	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the modification of wetlands especially where the native aquatic flora is affected, e.g. through the introduction of herbivorous fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the introduction of exotic plants, deterioration in water quality as a result of deforestation and soil erosion in catchment areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and pollution<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species has also declined in Madagascar due to hunting and trapping<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, and its large eggs are especially prized as food by people living near wetlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141427	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range in the Americas, occurring in Canada, the USA, Mexico, the West Indies, and along the Andes from Colombia  to Tierra del Fuego (Chile). An introduced population is established and spreading in the United Kingdom.	eng
141427	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is partly migratory; North American breeders tend to depart from breeding grounds to winter further south or near the coast, whereas other populations are sedentary or make only short-distance movements. Freshwater swamps, lakes, pools, and marshes with emergent vegetation and open water are preferred breeding habitats, although outside the breeding season the species can also be found on larger lakes, brackish lagoons and estuaries (Carboneras 1992).	eng
141427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
141428	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. The species is legally protected in many range countries, and occurs in a number of protected areas. A conservation programme in Spain has resulted in a significant population increase<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>O. jamaicensis</em> are controlled in Spain, Portugal and France, and a program was started in 2005 to eradicate the UK population of around 6,000. Reintroduction schemes are operational in Majorca and Corsica<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A European action plan was published in 1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey breeding and wintering grounds and migration sites. Conduct comprehensive winter monitoring, and tracking studies to improve knowledge of migration routes<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Protect and manage key sites, including monitoring of hydrology and water pollution<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Ensure legislative protection for this species in all range states<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Alleviate hunting pressure and ban lead shot throughout its range. Prevent drowning in nets. Promote policies to control <em>O. jamaicensis</em> and hybrids. <br/></p>	eng
141428	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oxyura leucocephala</em> is resident in <strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong> and <strong>Tunisia</strong>. A larger population breeds primarily in <strong>Russia </strong>and <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, and also <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan </strong>(likely small and declining<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>), <strong>Turkmenistan</strong><sup>14</sup>, <strong>Uzbekistan, Armenia</strong>, and<strong> Mongolia </strong>(believed to be increasing in this latter<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>). Its status in <strong>China </strong>is unclear, but it appears to be rare<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. It occurs on passage/in winter in the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, and central and south Asia. The population was probably over 100,000 in the early 20th century, falling to an estimated 19,000 birds in 1991, since when numbers have probably declined to less than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Concurrently, breeding populations have become extinct in Italy, France, Hungary, Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Israel and <br/>Egypt, and probably also in the Ukraine and Armenia. Exact population trends are difficult to calculate given that numbers on wintering grounds often change dramatically in line with altered water availability<strong><sup>13,14,15</sup></strong>. At the former key wintering site, Burdur G&ouml;l&uuml;, <strong>Turkey</strong>, numbers have steadily declined from 10,927 birds in 1991 to 653 in 2001<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The total Turkish wintering population in 2005 was only 1,006 birds, down from over 9,000 in 1988<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The wintering population in south Asia is mainly concentrated in <strong>Pakistan, </strong>where it has declined from 1,039 individuals in 1968 to less than 10 in 2002<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>, 33 in January 2003 and 24 in January 2004. It is now only rarely recorded in <strong>India</strong><sup>14</sup>. Increases at wintering sites in <strong>Israel</strong><sup>11</sup>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong><sup>5</sup>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong><sup>7</sup> and <strong>Romania</strong><sup>9</sup> and in the Spanish population (22 birds in 1977 to 2,396 birds in 2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) do not compensate for the large declines at Burdur G&ouml;l&uuml;; and in other eastern populations (e.g.,Turkmenistan<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>). Important passage concentrations occur in Uzbekistan<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and Kazakhstan<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. There are also reports of wintering populations in the Ukraine. <br/></p>	eng
141428	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds April-July in freshwater or alkaline, eutrophic lakes, with emergent vegetation. It is a diving duck, feeding on fish, frogs, worms, molluscs and crustaceans.  <br/></p>	eng
141428	population	BirdLife International, 2008	2,500 in Spain and Morocco (J. A. Torres Esquivias and A. Green<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002); 400-600 in Algeria and Tunisia (H. Azafzaf and P. Isenmann <em>in litt. </em>2002); 5,000-10,000 in E Mediterranean and SW Asia (Li and Mundkur 2002); 10 in S Asia (Chaudhry 2002; Li and Mundkur 2002). <br/></p>	eng
141428	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Approximately 50% of breeding habitat has been drained during the 20th century. Remaining sites are vulnerable to pollution. A 1989 study in the main Pakistani wintering lakes showed that suitable habitat had decreased because of lowered water levels due to reduced water supply, and that fisheries had increased disturbance<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The European population is threatened by competition and hybridisation with the introduced Ruddy Duck <em>O. jamaicensis</em>. Further threats include drowning in fishing-nets, hunting and ingestion of lead shot<strong><sup>1,4,10</sup></strong>. Droughts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan may have caused recent poor breeding seasons<strong><sup>6,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141429	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Kenya and Tanzania approximately 80% of the population are thought to occur in protected areas whereas in southern Africa this figure is much lower, with approximately 20% in South Africa and just 10% in Namibia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protect key wetland sites from the threat of drainage or habitat conversion. Determine the impact of pollution on the population. Prevent exploitation of the species. Limit the impact of alien invasive plants on modifying habitat. Determine the damaging impact of competition from alien benthic fish.  <br/></p>	eng
141429	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oxyura maccoa</em> has a large range, with the global population estimated to be 9,000-11,750 individuals and divided into a northern population occurring in <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and a southern population found in <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe<sup>1</sup></strong>. South Africa supports the largest national population with 4,500-5,500 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The total population for southern Africa is approximately 7,000-8,250 individuals. In East Africa and Ethiopia the main populations occur in Ethiopia (500-2,000) and Kenya (1,000), with an estimated 2,000-3,500 individuals in total<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141429	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	During the breeding season it inhabits shallow freshwater lakes bordered by reedbeds, being particularly reliant on <em>Typha</em> for nesting. Post breeding it will wander over larger lakes and brakish lagoons and sometimes occurs in concentrations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is thought to find refuge on the larger lakes while moulting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, hence it is more prone to bio-accumulation of pollutants than other duck species. It is mainly sedentary but carries out small-scale dispersive movements in search of suitable habitat during the dry season. The species appears to be capable of colonising new man-made wetlands, using small farm wetlands in Namibia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141429	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population is estimated to be 9,000-11,750 individuals (Berruti <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>	eng
141429	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Currently the links between the trends and threats facing this species are poorly understood. Primary concerns are from pollution, habitat drainage or conversion and accidental mortality as a result of entanglement in gill nets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting and poaching, competition with alien benthic fish and habitat alteration by introduced plants all pose less serious threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141431	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oxyura australis</em> occupies permanent deep waters in southern <strong>Australia</strong> with the population estimated at 10,000 in eastern Australia and 5,000 in western Australia. During autumn and winter the species aggregates in large flocks but disperses to smaller waterbodies when breeding. Aggregations also occur during drought. It is threatened by drainage of deep permanent wetlands, or their degradation as a result of introduced fish, peripheral cattle grazing, salinisation and lowering of ground water. A small number are probably shot by accident during the duck hunting season. The western population is particularly threatened with predictions that rainfall there will fall as temperatures rise. The population estimate, based on 1990 data, may now be lower and this species may qualify as threatened. <br/></p>	eng
141431	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at c.12,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141433	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in central Chile (Santiago to Valdivia), western Paraguay (Boquerón and Presidente Hayes) and northern Argentina (south to Buenos Aires) (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Madge and Burn 1988, Hayes 1995). It is partially migratory with southern populations moving north to Bolivia, south Brazil and Uruguay in the austral winter; northern breeding populations are largely sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Madge and Burn 1988).	eng
141433	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Kear 2005)	eng
141434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been recorded from wetlands across southern Australia, with major concentrations in the Paroo-Warrego catchment (Currawinya Lakes), Eyre-Georgine-Mulligan catchment (Lake Torquinie) and possibly at Lake Galilee. Other inland sites where substantial numbers have been recorded include Cooper's Creek and Bulloo River catchments, the wetlands of the Barkly Tablelands, and Lake Gregory in the central-north of Western Australia. Outside this area, breeding has also been recorded within the rest of the Murray-Darling catchment, notably along the Lachlan River, and swamps within the Millicent Basin of South Australia and Victoria. During extensive inland droughts, permanent wetlands in several states can become important refuge areas.	eng
141434	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
141434	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	During times of inland drought, when found closer to the coast, birds are at risk of being misidentified as game species and shot by duck-hunters. Although no correlation between S. naevosa abundance and hunting effort has yet been identified. Plans to extract water from the Paroo River and Cooper's Creek, which would affect the flooding of critical inland swamps, constitute the greatest current threat. For the time being these plans have been shelved, however, should they proceed, it is estimated that the resulting reduction in habitat quality could cause a 20% population decline within three generations (c.15 years) (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
141435	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Truly wild populations of this species are migratory (particularly where displaced by cold weather)<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> although European and feral populations are essentially sedentary<strong><sup>1, 4, 5, 6</sup></strong> or only locally migratory or nomadic<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong>. The species breeds during the local spring<strong><sup>1, 2 </sup></strong>as isolated pairs in well-defended territories<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the adults may gather in large concentrations of thousands or more<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> on selected waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (non-breeders in northern Europe migrating to such gatherings<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) between July and August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for 6-8 weeks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although not noticeably sociable in many areas during the winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> the species may flock in groups of several thousands on favoured waters<strong><sup>3, 4, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a variety of lowland freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as shallow lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, ponds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, lagoons, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> and slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (showing a preference for clean, weed-filled streams over larger, polluted rivers)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also common on artificial waterbodies such as reservoirs, gravel-pits, ornamental lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, ditches<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and canals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and will graze on grassland and agricultural land (e.g. arable cereal fields)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Moulting congregations of adults and non-breeders<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> may also utilise brackish or saline habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> including brackish marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, estuaries and sheltered coastal sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. brackish lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and bays<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of leaves and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and grasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as algae<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and grain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally also taking small amphibians<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (frogs, toads and tadpoles)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and aquatic invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, insects and worms)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large mound of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> placed close to or floating on shallow water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or amongst reeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs often re-use nesting sites from previous years if the it was successful<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes and in turn led to an increase in the winter use of the habitat by the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A control of the breeding output of the species (brood reduction) carried out in the Wylye Valley, UK to try to alleviate the species's negative impacts on fisheries (e.g. by overgrazing submergent riverine vegetation) was found to be ineffective as it had an insignificant impact on local population sizes (possibly due to immigration from surrounding areas)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141435	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers heavy losses from lead poisoning due to ingested lead fishing weights<strong><sup>1, 11</sup></strong>, lead shot<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and lead contaminated sediments from mining and smelting activities<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Heavy losses have also been recorded from local incidences of copper poisoning<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The ingestion of or entanglement in fishing lines and/or hooks can also cause severe injury or mortality<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> as can collisions with overhead lines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may be threatened by future oil spills (which can cause death by oil saturation)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>7</sup> </strong>(e.g. strain H5N1)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141438	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is predominantly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travels over land making brief stop overs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It breeds from mid-May in solitary pairs with well-defined territories<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (non-breeders remaining in flocks separate from breeding pairs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a post-breeding moult period between late-July and early-August when they become flightless for c.30 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (5-6 weeks)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, males starting to moult before the females<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Non-breeding individuals moult at the same time as breeders, but whilst breeding pairs tend to moult in their breeding territories non-breeders moult in large congregations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After moulting the species begins to migrate south from late-September to October (the precise timing determined by weather conditions)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and arrives on the wintering grounds by October or November<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species departs for the breeding grounds again from March to April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or early-May<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly sociable, migrating in small flocks or family groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and congregating into flocks of up to 300-400 individuals in the winter<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. The species roosts on areas of open water adjacent to its feeding areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on islands in or along the banks of shallow freshwater pools, lakes, slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, marshes, swamps and bogs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for habitats with abundant emergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and reedbeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in taiga (coniferous forest) zones<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, birch forest zones<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and shrub/forest tundra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (generally avoiding open tundra)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. Non-breeders may also be found in flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> along sheltered coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on estuaries, lagoons and shallow bays during this season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration the species frequents lakes, estuaries and sheltered coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It traditionally winters on freshwater lakes and marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, floodlands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, brackish lagoons and coastal bays<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although low-lying coastal agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and wet pastures<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> are now used increasingly<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is predominantly herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its diet consisting of the leaves, stems and roots<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> of aquatic plants (e.g. algae and <em>Zostera</em>, <em>Ruppia </em>and <em>Potamogeton </em>spp.), grasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sedges and horsetails (<em>Equisetum</em> spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species also takes agricultural grain, vegetables (e.g. potatoes and turnips<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and acorns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and on the breeding grounds young birds often take adult and larval insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. emerging chironomids)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Adults may also supplement their diet with marine and freshwater mussels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large mound of plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> built on dry ground or in reedbeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on small islands in or along the edges of lakes, pools or rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The same nest mound may be used over several years although it is often repaired and new material is added<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A study carried out at a wintering site in Denmark found that large wind turbines (towers 68 m high with blades 66 m in diameter, blades sweeping the heights of 35-101 m) pose less of a collision risk to the species than wind turbines of a medium height (towers 45 m high with blades 48 m in diameter, blades sweeping the heights of 21-69 m)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141438	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss (such as the reclamation of coastal and inland wetlands)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> especially in the Asian part of its breeding range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Threats to its habitats include agricultural expansion<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wetland drainage for irrigation<strong><sup>2, 13</sup></strong>, overgrazing by livestock (e.g. sheep)<strong><sup>2, 13</sup></strong>, vegetation cutting for winter livestock feed<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, the development of roads<strong><sup>2, 13</sup></strong>, mining<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> (e.g. strip mining of sediment)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, hydroelectric dam construction, disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and chronic oil pollution from oil exploration<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, exploitation<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and transportation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species may suffer heavy losses from future oil spills<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, flying accidents<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (such as collisions with overhead lines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or wind turbines<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>), poisoning<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> from lead shot ingestion<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and natural disasters such as droughts or heavy snowstorms<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by hunting<strong><sup>1, 2, 13</sup></strong>, nest destruction and by subsistence egg collecting<strong><sup>8, 9, 13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141440	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels on a narrow front via specific routes using well-known stop-over sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> between its Arctic breeding and temperate wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from early-May to late-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (depending on local conditions)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where it breeds well-dispersed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in single pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally nesting semi-colonially in optimum habitats<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. After breeding the species undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for c.30 days between late-June and early-September, gathering in flocks on open waters<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. Family groups leave the breeding grounds from early-September to late-October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and arrive on the wintering grounds from mid-October onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During this autumn migration some groups may remain at stop-over sites until moved on by cold weather<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The return northward migration occurs from early-March, with the species travelling in small parties that disperse on arrival in the Arctic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season, often gathering into large flocks of hundreds or thousands of individuals on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species forages by day (where undisturbed)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and roosts at night on open water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds near shallow pools, lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and broad slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with emergent littoral vegetation and pondweeds (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em> spp.) connected to coastal delta areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in open, moist, low-lying sedge-grass or moss-lichen<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It rarely nests in shrub tundra, and generally avoids forested areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration the species frequents shallow ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, lowland and upland lakes<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, riverine marshes, shallow saline lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and sheltered coastal bays and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During the winter it inhabits brackish and freshwater marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rivers, lakes, ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and shallow tidal estuarine areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with adjacent grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flooded pastures<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or agricultural arable fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> below 100 m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is predominantly herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its diet consisting of the seeds, fruits, leaves, roots, rhizomes and stems of aquatic plants (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em>, <em>Zostera</em> and <em>Glyceria</em> spp.), grasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sedges, reeds (<em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em> spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and herbaceous tundra vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species complements its diet with agricultural grain and vegetables<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. potatoes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and sugar beet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), and may also take estuarine invertebrates such as molluscs, amphipods (e.g. <em>Corophium</em> spp.) and polycheate worms on tidal mudflats prior to migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a large mound of plant matter positioned on elevated ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as a ridge or hummock, often at some distance from feeding pools<strong><sup> </sup></strong>to reduce to the risk of flooding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species may re-use a nest from the previous year or build a new one, and although it is not colonial, many pairs may nest close together in optimum habitats (e.g. 5-16 pairs per 10 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An experiment carried out in the Sacramento National Wildlife Refuge, California found that in wetland habitats where clay hardpans underlie wetland sediments tilling (plowing) the soil may be an effective means of reducing lead shot availability to waterfowl<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Plowing was found to reduce the amount of shot available to depths of 20-30 cm (below the foraging zone of the species)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141440	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitats due to drainage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. for agriculture)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, petroleum pollution, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth), the burning and mowing of reeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and eutrophication<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its Arctic breeding habitat is also threatened by oil and gas exploration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by mortality from oil pollution (oil spills) in moulting and pre-migrational staging areas, from collisions with powerlines, and from lead poisoning as a result of lead shot<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and fishing weight ingestion during migration and on wintering grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species suffers from poaching in north-west Europe, is hunted for sport in North America<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and is hunted considerably for subsistence throughout its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141442	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia and South Korea and some provinces in China. Several important sites are protected in Russia, Mongolia and China.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the shores of Alexandra, Nikolay, Ul'banski and Tugurski bays (Russia). Study its decline and establish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Protect breeding and moulting habitats in Russia. Protect the area around Chertovo lake and link it to the Orlik Wildlife Refuge (Russia). Expand the Khanka Lake Nature Reserve (Russia). Establish a protected area at the Han river estuary (South Korea). Regulate the hunting of all species of Anatidae in China. Reduce hunting at passage and wintering sites in Russia. Ensure legal protection in range states. <br/></p>	eng
141442	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anser cygnoides</em> has its key breeding grounds in the border area between <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Mongolia </strong>and mainland <strong>China</strong>. Other breeding sites include the lower reaches of the Amur river, north-western Sakhalin Island and Lake Khanka, Russia, western Mongolia and China. A poorly known population also appears to breed in eastern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, around Saisan-Lake and further east<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but its current status is unknown. Breeding is suspected in north-eastern North Korea. It winters in <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, central China, and occasionally in <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). Key wintering sites lie along the coast of Jiangsu and around the lakes of Poyang Hu and Dongting Hu in the Yangtze basin, China. Its population is estimated at 60,000-100,000 individuals, with significant declines in recent decades. <br/></p>	eng
141442	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in wetlands in the steppe and forest-steppe zones, including river deltas, river valleys with meadows, the margins of brackish and freshwater lakes, and in mountainous areas along narrow, fast-flowing rivers. In winter, it occurs in lowland lakeside marshes, rice-fields, estuaries and tidal flats. </p>	eng
141442	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Liu Binsheng <em>et al.</em> (2002), Zhao Jisheng (2002), updated by Barter <em>et al</em>. (2004) and Barter (in prep) who counted 60,886 in the Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004 and 61,178 in 2005. Updated again by Barter in litt. (2007).  <br/></p>	eng
141442	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Russia, the main threats are uncontrolled hunting, and drainage and ploughing of breeding and moulting habitats. In China, agricultural development at breeding grounds has resulted in wetland destruction and increased disturbance. Egg collection on Sanjiang plain (China), coupled with habitat loss to agricultural development, has probably resulted in a decline in the numbers of breeding Anatidae there of 90% in the last 30 years. Hunting of waterfowl remains a serious problem in many parts of China. Its wetland wintering grounds are under increasing pressure from development and pollution.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141443	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, travelling on a narrow front<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> between separate breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from mid-May to late-June or early-July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in territorial pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> which may form loose colonies<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> of not more than c.10 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. After breeding the species undergoes a flightless moulting period in July and August that lasts for c.25 days<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, during which it remains close to open water (such as the sea or early thawing lakes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Icelandic non-breeding flocks migrate to staging areas<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> in east Greenland to moult, whereas breeding birds from Svalbard, Greenland and Iceland remain near their breeding areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. After moulting the species departs from its breeding and staging grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> from August to mid-September<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, most arriving on the wintering grounds in October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains highly gregarious<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, generally forming large concentrations in the autumn (commonly up to 5,000 in the UK)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and in winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. These aggregations are usually loose however, with large roosting flocks dispersing into smaller foraging groups by day<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the winter the species roosts on water by night and forages in nearly all hours of daylight<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on rocky outcrops, crags, steep river gorges<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, cliffs, riverbanks and snow-free hummocks near areas of lush vegetation (Greenland)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in open arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, especially near seabird colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Later in the summer the species forages chiefly on damp sedge-meadows, and while moulting and flightless it remains close to the sea or early-thawing lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species overwinters on extensive areas of saltmarsh<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> in estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and on flat agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. improved or fertilised grasslands, stubble fields, pastures and newly sown cereal fields)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Scotland favoured winter daytime roosting sites include estuarine mudflats, lochs and reservoirs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is hebivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and an opportunistic forager<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season its diet consists of the leaves, stems, roots, berries and seed-heads of sedges, mosses, lichens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <em>Empetrum</em> spp. and grasses<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering areas the species is more reliant on grass, grain, vegetables (e.g. carrots, sugar beet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and potatoes grown on agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a low mound of vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> on cliffs, rocky outcrops or snow-free hummocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> often near seabird colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests in territorial pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> which may from loose colonies<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> of not more than c.10 pairs, with neighbouring nests spaced as little as 5 m apart (usually more than 75 m apart)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on grasslands a minimum of 6 ha in area, managed by livestock grazing or mechanical cutting, with an optimum sward height of 13-20 cm (although the species was also found to use heavily grazed land down to a sward height to 1.5 cm), at a distance of less than 10 km away from roosting sites (the optimum distance was 2-5 km away)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Fertilising the grassland with nitrogenous fertiliser (ammonium nitrate 34.5 % N) in early-March at a rate of 80 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> was also found to double the grazing intensity of geese compared to unfertilised areas (although no further increases were found with higher rates of fertiliser application)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Studies in the Vejlerne nature reserve, Denmark found that wind turbines placed in lines or small clusters cause less disturbance to the species than large clusters (small clusters may be placed in conjunction with existing physical elements such as roads, wind-breaks or buildings, and are therefore less likely to coincide with grasslands areas used for grazing by the species)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141443	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is hunted illegally in the spring in Iceland which may become a threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Disturbance from hunting on spring staging grounds in Norway has major negative impact on breeding success, and persecution (shooting and disturbance) of the species by farmers is likely to increase in the future if populations increase (due to the species's impact on agricultural grassland)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Disturbance from farmers discouraging foraging individuals from their land in the winter has been shown to reduce the species's reproductive success in the spring<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and the species is also threatened by general disturbance (e.g. from helicopters surveying areas for oil exploration)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It may be threatened by land-management changes (such as a reduction in the intensity of management and land abandonment)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and by future habitat loss such as the development of hydroelectric projects on interior rivers in Iceland (which would flood a major moulting area)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nesting success of breeding pairs in Svalbard is greatly reduced as a result of arctic fox <em>Vulpes</em> <em>lagopus</em> predation<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is subject to hunting in Svalbard, Norway and Denmark, although mortality due to hunting does not seem to be a major factor controlling population sizes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141444	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory and travels between breeding grounds in the high Arctic to wintering grounds in the temperate and subtropical zones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations that breed in the taiga nest in early-May, with those breeding in the tundra nesting one month later in early-June<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs, usually with nests well-dispersed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (although it will also nest in loose groups)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the species undergoes a moulting period when it is flightless for c.1 month between July and August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, some populations undertaking extensive northward moult migrations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and most congregating into large moulting flocks near open water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species departs from its breeding grounds after this post-breeding moulting period in early-September, arriving in the winter quarters from late-September through October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It remains gregarious throughout the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (although it occurs in smaller, loose flocks than many other goose species)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and roosts close to feeding areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in mixed-species flocks on lakes, rivers and flooded lands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds near lakes, pools, rivers and streams in high Arctic tundra or the taiga forest zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Taiga nesting populations show a preference for scrubby birch <em>Betula</em> spp. forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and dense spruce forest with bogs or mires<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, whereas tundra-based populations nest on damp tundra of moss, grass, sedge or scrub<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> near river flood-plains (but above flood levels)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, on Arctic islands and in Arctic coastal regions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter and on passage the species inhabits marshes, agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (pastures, arable fields, rice-paddies)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, damp steppe grassland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, flood-lands, rivers and coastal shallows<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in open country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also roosts on lakes, rivers and flood-lands in Europe during this season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its diet consisting of herbs, grasses, sedges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and mosses<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, complemented during the breeding season by berries (e.g. from <em>Empetrum</em> or <em>Vaccinium</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter it feeds predominantly on agricultural land taking grain, beans, potatoes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and sprouting winter cereal crops<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The species builds a nest of vegetation in a shallow scrape on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Taiga breeders nest in bogs or mires within forested regions, placing nests within 400 m of open mire and within 2 km of open water, usually 50-100 cm above bog surfaces on hummocks that are safe from flooding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Tundra breeders nest on dry hummocks and moss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An investigation carried out in one of the species' wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on improved grassland or grasslands grazed by cattle that were a minimum of 5 ha in area, had an optimum sward height of c.20 cm and were at a distance of less than 9 km away from roosting sites<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141444	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species declined in the past due to hunting (resulting in mortality, injury and disturbance)<strong><sup>1, 2, 8</sup></strong> and habitat loss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat degradation due to oil pollution<strong><sup>7, 8</sup></strong>, drainage, peat-extraction, changing management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and forest clearance is a threat to breeding areas in Russia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Norway and Sweden<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species also suffers from human persecution<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and is susceptible to poisoning by pesticides used on agricultural land<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141445	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, travelling in stages via several stop-over sites between separate breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds from late-May or early-June in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with moulting non-breeders and failed breeders gathering on areas of open water separate from the major breeding congregations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After breeding the species gathers in small flocks (less than 30 individuals)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> to undergo a post-breeding moult period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> near the breeding grounds where it becomes flightless for c.25 days<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. After this moulting period flocks gather to migrate south to winter quarters, leaving the breeding areas from late-August through September and arriving late in the autumn<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (large flocks of up to 30,000 individuals are recorded in Europe) although it is more commonly observed in small loose groups due to the patchiness of its favoured habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually forages within 20 km of rooting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although the optimum distance for foraging areas may be less than this (less than 4 km in Scotland, UK)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in open<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, low-lying, shrubby tundra<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> on the coast and inland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in close proximity to marshes, lakes, pools, rivers<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, and willow- and shrub-lined ponds and streams<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It requires dry slopes, banks, mounds, hummocks or patches of sand or clay for nesting sites, especially those commanding good views of the surrounding area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species winters in open country on steppe and agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. improved grassland, stubble fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and wet meadows<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), or in brackish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and freshwater marshy habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (such as upland bogs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, peatlands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and floodlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). It may also roost on tidal marshes, in sheltered bays or in estuaries and frequents inland lakes and reservoirs in North America<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is herbivorous, its diet consisting of the roots, leaves, stems, seeds and fruits of terrestrial plants such as herbs, grasses and sedges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as agricultural grain (e.g. corn, oats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, wheat, rice and barley<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), potatoes and sprouting cereals (especially in the winter)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow construction of plant matter on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> amongst vegetation such as grass or dwarf scrub heath, often on raised hummocks or slopes to reduce the risk of flooding and provide a vantage point of the surrounding area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on grasslands managed with a livestock (cattle) grazing regime, with a sward height of 13-20 cm, at a distance of less than 9 km away from roosting sites (the optimum distance was 4 km away)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Fertilising the grassland with nitrogen in the autumn (mid-October) at a rate of 125 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> was also found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 42 % compared with unfertilised areas<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
141445	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by intense hunting pressure<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> resulting in mortality <strong><sup>2, 11</sup></strong> and disturbance at staging<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and moulting sites<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is also susceptible to poisoning by pesticides used on agricultural land<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Populations in Greenland are threatened by human disturbance at moulting sites from tourists in cruise liners (once displaced from a site birds are unlikely to find unoccupied replacement sites)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and the species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the vius<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Climatic changes are likely to cause range contractions in this species's already highly restricted breeding range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and are already causing other species (e.g. Canada Geese <em>Branta canadensis</em>) to move northward, increasing competition for resources<strong><sup>2, 9</sup></strong>. Oil exploration in the tundra habitat poses a threat to the species's breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and moulting sites<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> by increasing the possibility of oil spills and chronic oil pollution<strong><sup>7, 11</sup></strong>, by direct habitat destruction (influencing breeding site selection and reducing reproductive success)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and through human disturbance<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Wetland habitat degradation due to drainage, peat-extraction and changing management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) is also a problem in areas of Russia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is sustainably hunted for sport in Denmark<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141446	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I and II. It is protected in key range states except Azerbaijan and China. Satellite telemetry studies have improved knowledge of its ecology and the key threats<strong><sup>2, </sup></strong>,10. A reintroduction programme in Sweden recently ended. Public awareness materials have been produced<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A European action plan was published in 1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate, monitor and protect key areas. Continue satellite tracking and other research. Prevent habitat loss and manage habitats in staging and wintering areas. Reduce hunting pressure. Promote international and national legal protection. Promote public awareness. <br/></p>	eng
141446	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anser erythropus</em> breeds in northern Fennoscandia (<strong>Norway </strong>35-45 pairs, <strong>Finland</strong> 0-5 pairs, <strong>Sweden </strong>5 pairs<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) and three areas in <strong>Russia</strong>, the White Sea to Ural/Yamal, the southern Taimyr and north-east Siberia6. Eastern breeders winter in central <strong>China </strong>and<strong> Mongolia,</strong> and European and west Asian breeders around the Black and Caspian Seas, mainly in <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>. Small numbers occur on passage or in winter in <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong><sup>5</sup>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Slovakia, Romania</strong><sup>2,7</sup> <strong>Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania </strong>and <strong>Bulgaria</strong><sup>9</sup>. There are important staging areas in <strong>Kazakhstan</strong><sup>10</sup>, <strong>Estonia</strong><sup>10</sup>, <strong>Lithuania </strong>and <strong>Poland</strong>. The total population is estimated to be 28,000-33,000 individuals. This includes 8,000-13,000 individuals in autumn in its Western Palearctic range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and 20,000 wintering individuals from the East Asian Flyway<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(20,000 recorded in 1997<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; 16,937 counted in Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>). The Russian population has declined from a former estimate of 30,000-50,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The Fennoscandian population has declined from more than 10,000 birds in the early 20th century. <br/></p>	eng
141446	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in the taiga and tundra, and winters in the steppe/semi-arid zone, particularly in grassy, sodic pastures. <br/></p>	eng
141446	population	BirdLife International, 2008	8,000-11,000 autumn individuals in W Palearctic (Yerokhov et al., 2004; Morozov & Syroechkovski, 2005;) plus about 17,000 wintering individuals from E. Asian Flyway ( from 11,800 to 16,800 in 1999(Lei, 2000; Markkola et al., 2000), 16,600 in 2003 (Barter, 2004); 16,937 counted in Lower Yangtze Valley in 2004: Barter <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141446	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	High mortality in autumn and winter, particularly of juveniles, indicates that hunting on the staging and wintering grounds is the primary threat<strong><sup>1, 2, 5, 15</sup></strong>. Habitat deterioration, as a result of land cultivation and increased water-levels in the Caspian Sea, is a further threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 28% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The wintering population at Dongting Lake, China, is threatened by the Three Gorges Dam<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 28% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141447	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is fully migratory although some populations in temperate regions are only sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or locally dispersive<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, occasionally making irregular movements in very icy winters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May or April in loose colonies<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, after which flocks gather to undertake moult migrations to favoured areas (with good feeding opportunities and access to safe roosting sites)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting c.1 month<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with large concentrations forming during the post-breeding moult and before the autumn migration (e.g. flocks of up to 25,000 individuals)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species feeds diurnally, especially during the morning and evening, although non-breeding birds may also feed at night<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It roosts at night and during the middle of the day on open water<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and may fly to feeding areas more than 10 km away from roosting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (optimal distance 2-5 km away)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species inhabits wetlands surrounded by fringing vegetation in open grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sedge or heather moorland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, arctic tundra, steppe or semi-desert from sea-level up to 2,300 m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It nests near streams, saltmarshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, river flood-plains, reedy marshes, grassy bogs, damp meadows, reed-lined freshwater lakes and estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> close to potential feeding sites such as meadows, grasslands, stubble fields and newly sown cereal fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It requires isolated islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or on along the coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> out of reach of land predators for nesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the autumn (before migration) the species also frequents agricultural land (e.g. sugar-beet, maize and cereal fields)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the winter the species inhabits lowland farmland in open country<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is herbivorous, its diet consisting of grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the roots, shoots, leaves, stems, seedheads and fruits of other herbaceous marsh vegetation<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, aquatic plants<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and agricultural grain and potatoes (especially in the winter)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow construction of plant matter<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> placed among reedbeds, on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in or at the base of trees, under bushes or in sheltered hollows on isolated wooded islands on lakes or along coasts<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, as well as on rafts of vegetation in rivers<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although the species is only semi-colonial, nests may be concentrated within a small area (e.g. placed 11 m apart on small islands)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> On the Vejlerne nature reserve, Denmark, it was found that reedbeds left unharvested for 5-13 years supported the highest nesting densities of this species<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Low nesting densities were found in reedbeds in the first four years after reed cutting, and no nests were found in reedbeds cut in the year of study (shoot density may have been too low to provide adequate cover) or in reedbeds left uncut for sixteen years (reed stems may have been too dense)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141447	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by considerable hunting pressures across much of its range<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and is susceptible to poisoning from lead shot ingestion<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is also persecuted by farmers as it can cause considerable crop damage<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The destruction and degradation of wetland habitats due to drainage<strong><sup>1, 3, 8</sup></strong>, conversion to agriculture<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, petroleum pollution, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds is also a threat, especially in breeding areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141451	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chen canagica</em> is restricted to the Bering Sea, breeding in coastal saltmarshes in Arctic and subarctic Alaska, <strong>USA</strong> and extreme north-east coastal <strong>Russia</strong>, and wintering principally along ice-free coasts of the Aleutian Islands and, in smaller numbers, in <strong>Canada</strong> and the Alaska Peninsula, with very few reaching as far south as California. Its population in Alaska declined precipitiously from 139,000 in 1964 to 42,000 in 1986, but was recently estimated at c.84,500 in 2002<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Factors affecting its population fluctuations are poorly understood, but subsistence hunting in Alaska and coastal oil pollution are considered to be contributory. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 54% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141451	population	BirdLife International, 2008	U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (2001). <br/></p>	eng
141452	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Hawai`i Volcanoes and Haleakala (Maui) National Parks, Kilauea Point (Kaua`i) and Hakalau Forest (Hawai`i) National Wildlife Refuges and several state sanctuaries benefit this species<strong><sup>4,14</sup></strong>. Extensive research has been conducted on factors limiting population growth<strong><sup>e.g.1,11,12</sup></strong>. Predators are controlled and supplemental food and water provided at some sites<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Manage habitat and control predators</strong><sup>5,6</sup>. <strong>Ensure Kaua`i remains mongoose-free</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Continue captive breeding and husbandry</strong><sup>6,8,11</sup>. <strong>Optimise genetic diversity in flocks with few founders</strong><sup>11</sup>. <strong>Develop community education programme, particularly with regard to poaching and road-kills</strong><sup>5,14</sup>. <strong>Establish large predator-free reserves in lowland areas with better quality forage in which the above targets can be addressed</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
141452	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Branta sandvicensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). In 2004, the total population was estimated to be over 1,200 individuals, with figures from Kaua`i of 620 in 2003, Maui of 217 in 2003, Molokai of 55 in 2003, and Hawai`i of 349 in 2003<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Since 1960, over 2,300 captive-bred individuals have been released on Hawai`i and Maui, and at least 137 on Kaua`i<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the drought years of 1976-1983, the majority of released birds (c.1,200) perished<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Hawai`i, the population is dependent on continued releases<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, although large numbers are no longer needed to maintain a stable population<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. This is the genetically most diverse population<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. On Maui, average annual production exceeds mortality<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, numbers are gradually increasing<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <em> <br/></p>	eng
141452	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1949, remaining populations on Hawai`i inhabited rocky, sparsely vegetated, high volcanic slopes. However, optimal habitat is apparently pastureland, where there is an abundance of high protein food, adjacent to natural scrubland nesting areas<strong><sup>5,7,8</sup></strong>. Breeding success and productivity are currently very low. In recent studies less than 10% of all breeding-age females successfully bred<strong><sup>4,17</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141452	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population was estimated to be 1,241 individuals in 2004, based on counts in 2003 (USFWS 2004a) and 1,744 individuals in 2006 (A. Marshall, D. Hu and K. Misajon<em> in litt.</em> 2007). However, it is expected that fewer than 1,000 have bred successfully in the wild, and maintenance of the current population relies partly on the regular release of captive bred individuals. Hence the effective number of mature individuals is <1,000. <br/></p>	eng
141452	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lack of suitable habitat is the most important limiting factor, combined with predation by the introduced small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> (except on Kaua`i), dogs and perhaps rats and cats<strong><sup>2,5,7,13</sup></strong>. Other hypothetical threats include disease/parasites, inbreeding depression, loss of adaptive skills in captive-bred birds and dietary deficiencies. Poaching and road-kills are important on Hawai`i<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Indeed road-kills were the most common cause of known adult mortality on Hawai`I during the 1990s<strong><sup>16</sup>.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141453	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, breeding across tundra in much of Canada, Alaska (USA), and parts of the northern USA, and wintering in southern North America, including Mexico. Introduced populations are now resident in much of the USA south of the normal breeding range, as well as in a number of western European countries.	eng
141453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
141453	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although hunting and other direct mortality takes a substantial toll, this species has increased its range and population since the 1940s (Mowbray et al. 2002).	eng
141454	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is fully migratory and travels on a narrow front<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> between extremely localised breeding and wintering areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is present on its breeding grounds from May or June to August or September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where it breeds in small but often closely packed colonies<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> of 5-50 pairs, occasionally singly or in groups of up to 150 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It uses the same nesting sites year after year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and sometimes nests among seabird colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. After the young hatch the adults undergo a flightless moult period near the breeding grounds between mid-July and mid-August that lasts for 3-4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species migrates to autumn staging areas in September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> from which it travels via regular stop-over sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> to the wintering grounds, arriving in late-September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The return migration begins in April or May, the species moving to spring staging areas where it may be present for 20-30 days before migrating northwards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season, often feeding in dense concentrations on coastal grasslands during the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In winter habitats it roosts on water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or on sandbanks near saltmarshes and pastureland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in Arctic semi-desert tundra (fjellmark)<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>on crags, rocky outcrops<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, cliffs, rocky slopes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and coastal islands (Svalbard)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> near wetlands such as lakes, rivers, marshes, the upper parts of fjords, coastlines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, wet meadows and mudflats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In years when the snow is slow to melt the species first forages on grassy vegetation on south-facing mountain slopes fertilised by the droppings of cliff-nesting seabirds before moving down to breeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It also returns to these slopes after the moulting period before autumn migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After the young hatch families may disperse away from rocky ground to more vegetated areas surrounding tundra lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species frequents tidal mudflats, saltmarshes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> and adjacent coastal meadows<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (especially improved<strong><sup> </sup></strong>rough pastures<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and arable land<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>), with agricultural fields becoming increasingly more important as winter feeding areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> its diet consisting of the leaves, stems and seed-heads of grasses, sedges, aquatic plants<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, mosses<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, various herbs (especially white clover <em>Trifolium repens</em> in the winter)<strong><sup>8, 10</sup></strong> and shrubs (e.g. arctic willow <em>Salix arctica</em>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also take agricultural grain and vegetables during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression in a low mound of vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> positioned on rocky ground<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, rocky outcrops<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong>, among rocky crags, on steep cliffs<strong><sup>3, 4, 6</sup></strong>, on the tops of low hills<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, or on low vegetation hummocks and snow-free patches on islands in river channels<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nesting sites accumulate nesting materials as they are often used year after year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the species may sometimes nest among seabird colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on improved grasslands with high abundances of the grass <em>Lolium perenn</em>e and white clover <em>Trifolium repens</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (the growth of which is greatly influenced by the amount of summer grazing, which controls the grass height)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Preferred fields were between 4 and 10 ha in area (the species avoided fields of less than 2-3 ha), and at an optimal distance of less than 5 km away from roosting sites (maximum 7 km away)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species was also found to show a preference for grasslands with swards less than 10 cm in height (optimum 2 cm) in fields that had been cut for silage and then grazed (although there was no major difference in feeding intensity on pastures grazed with different livestock)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Overall winter use of grassland fertilised with large amounts of nitrogen was significantly greater than the use of unfertilised grassland by the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The Barnacle Goose Management Scheme (BGMS) in Scotland, UK recommends fertilising farmland adjacent to reserves containing wintering groups of this species at times when geese are present (e.g. autumn or winter) and grazing stock (sheep or cattle) are absent<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The BGMS also awards payments to farmers who manage pastures outside of established reserves for reducing the level of disturbance (e.g. scaring away feeding flocks) on their land<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
141454	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Today the species is fully protected throughout its range, although adults, eggs and down were once exploited by humans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the species may be disturbed by shooting even though it is not directly hunted<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species faces possible threats from persecution (disturbance) by farmers as in winter it favours grasslands and pastures used for grazing livestock<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species also suffers from nest predation by arctic fox <em>Vulpes lagopus</em> in Svalbard<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141455	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory, the main routes of migration being along Arctic coastlines<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds in early-June<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> where it may breed in small, loose colonies<strong><sup>1, 3, 7</sup></strong> or dispersed in single pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (especially in the high Arctic where the habitat is unsuitable for large groups)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is a high degree of synchrony in egg laying and hatching<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with the adults moulting c.10 days after the young hatch (mid-July to mid-August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) during which they become flightless for c.21-30 days<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. Most individuals moult near the breeding grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> although immatures, unsuccessful breeders<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and some more southerly breeding groups<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> may undertake pre-moult migrations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and form large moulting concentrations well-away from nesting areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. After the post-breeding moult flocks leave the breeding grounds in early-September with some arriving in wintering areas as early as mid-September, others making stopovers on route and arriving later<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It leaves its wintering quarters again from mid-March to mid-April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species remains gregarious, gathering in groups of only a few to several thousands of individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although it is rarely found in very large flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in coastal Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in or close to wet coastal meadows with abundant grassy vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and on tundra-covered flats with tidal streams (only just above the high tide line)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In some parts of its range it shows a preference for nesting on small grassy islands<strong><sup>2, 3, 4</sup></strong> in tundra lakes and rivers, especially if nesting Sabine's Gulls <em>Xema sabini</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Snowy Owls <em>Bubo scandiaca</em><strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>, Peregrine Falcons <em>Falco peregrinus</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong> or large raptors are present to deter predators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. High Arctic nesters may also breed widely dispersed over icy tundra, well-away from water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species becomes predominantly coastal, inhabiting estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, tidal mudlflats<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, sandy shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal saltmarshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (especially in the spring)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and shallow muddy bays<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In recent years the species has taken to grazing on coastal cultivated grasslands<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> and winter cereal fields<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but rarely occurs on freshwater wetlands except on passage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is mainly herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it may take animal matter (e.g. fish eggs, worms, snails and amphipods)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> In its breeding habitat the diet of the species consists of mosses, lichens, aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sedges, tundra grass <em>Dupontia</em> spp., arrowgrass <em>Triglochin</em> spp. and saltmarsh grass <em>Puccinellia</em> spp. (Alaska)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although the young may also take insects and aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species predominantly takes marine microscopic and macroscopic algae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. seaweeds, <em>Ulva</em> spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and other aquatic plants linked with saline or brackish waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the intertidal zone (e.g. especially eelgrass <em>Zostera</em> spp.<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, as well as <em>Ruppia maritima</em>, <em>Spartina alterniflora</em>, <em>Salicornia </em>spp., and arrowgrass <em>Triglochin</em> spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the species often nests close to water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> typically within a few hundred metres of the tideline<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, high Arctic nesters may breed on icy tundra well away from water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (some nearly up to 10 km inland)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> often near boulders where the snow clears first<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>An investigation carried out in one of the species's wintering areas (UK) found that it was most likely to forage on dry, improved grasslands that had high abundances of the grass <em>Lolium perenn</em>e, were between 5 and 6 ha in area, and were at a distance of up to 1.5 km inland or 4-5 km along the coast from coastal roosting sites<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species was found to show a preference for grasslands with short, dense swards c.5 cm in height, a characteristic that can be gained through summer management plans involving either mechanical cutting, livestock (sheep or cattle) grazing regimes, or cutting and then grazing (although over longer periods of time the selective grazing of sheep rather than cattle, and frequent rather than infrequent cutting may be more likely to enhance tillering and produce the short, dense sward favoured by this species)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Fertilising the grassland with nitrogen in the autumn at a rate of 50 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> was found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 21 % compared with unfertilised areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and fertilising at a rate of 75 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> was found to increase the overall species use of the habitat by 9-29 % and to remove any preference the geese showed for short sward heights (between 5 and 11 cm)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In other fertilising experiments grazing intensity of the species was found to increase linearly with increasing levels of fertiliser (from 0 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> to 150 kg N ha<sup>1</sup>), although responses in grazing intensity at fertiliser levels lower than 50 kg N ha<sup>1</sup> were found to be short-lived (c.2 months after fertiliser application)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141455	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by hunting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and is susceptible to disturbance from vehicles in the UK<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> (although it is relatively tolerant of human disturbance, e.g. walkers, compared to other species)<strong><sup>10, 11</sup></strong>. In its winter range the species may be persecuted by farmers, as in recent years it has increasingly taken to grazing on cultivated grasslands and winter cereal fields near the coast<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species may also be threatened in the future by reductions in food supplies following the return of a disease of the eelgrass <em>Zostera marina</em> (a staple food)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The nesting success of breeding pairs in Svalbard is greatly reduced as a result of Arctic fox <em>Vulpes</em> <em>lagopus</em> predation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and the species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141456	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in key states<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Parts of its breeding range and principal wintering roost sites are protected (some qualifying as Ramsar sites), but hunting occurs in feeding areas. A management plan is being implemented for roosting lakes in Bulgaria<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Wintering sites in Bulgaria and Romania are monitored and research and public awareness projects are ongoing<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. A European action plan was published in 1996. Buffer zones of stubbles (essential for winter feeding) have been purchased around some key wintering sites in Romania and Bulgaria<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Expand monitoring and research programmes. Identify and protect key sites including staging areas.  <br/>Monitor and control disturbance and illegal hunting. Monitor changes in agriculture. Promote beneficial agricultural policies. Continue public awareness initiatives. Full designation of qualifying wetlands as Ramsar sites<sup>13</sup>.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141456	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Branta ruficollis</em> breeds on the Taimyr (70% of the population), Gydan and Yamal peninsulas, <strong>Russia</strong>. Prior to the 1950s, most birds wintered in <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>. However, 80-90% of birds now congregate in January/February at five roost sites on the Black Sea at Shabla (32 km<sup>2</sup>) and Durankulak (34 km<sup>2</sup>) in <strong>Bulgaria</strong> and Razelm-Sinoe lagoons (535 km<sup>2</sup>) and Techirghiol (41 km<sup>2</sup>) in <strong>Romania</strong>. Smaller numbers winter in <strong>Ukraine</strong><sup>7</sup> and in severe winters in <strong>Greece</strong>.<strong> </strong>There are five known staging areas in Russia, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and Ukraine. Maximum population counts from wintering or staging areas were 60,000 between 1967-1970, 25,907 between 1976-1990, 75,879 between 1991-1995, 88,000 in 1996<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and 60,444 between 1998-2001 (with a maximum of 88,425 in winter 2000)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is unclear whether these represent genuine population fluctuations. Coordinated censuses in January 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 resulted in totals of 33,600, 52,800, 32,100 and c. 34,000 respectively, with a mean population estimate of 37,300<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Russian data have not identified a negative trend over the past 10 years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
141456	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in tundra, where breeding success may depend on nesting Peregrine Falcon <em>Falco peregrinus</em> and Snowy Owl <em>Nyctea scandiaca</em> providing protection from predators<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Successful breeding seasons are also associated with good lemming years when predators are sated by the lemming population and predation of geese is much lower. Wintering geese feed on winter wheat, barley, maize, pasture grasses and, in Greece, natural grassland.  <br/></p>	eng
141456	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Coordinated censuses in January 2003, 2004 and 2005 resulted in totals of 33,600, 52,800 and 32,100 respectively. Geometric mean of these totals 38,500 (S. Dereliev <em>in litt.</em> to Wetlands International 2005). Re-calculating this including the 2006 count of c.34,000 gives a revised geometric mean of 37,000 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141456	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Following land privatisation in winter feeding areas, reductions in the land area under winter wheat cultivation and the intensification of agriculture are potential threats, and some key feeding-sites have been lost in Bulgaria<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Pressure exists to allow shooting and scaring of geese in Bulgaria and Romania, and disturbance is caused by hunting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Hunting by tourists in Ukraine poses an increasing threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and birds are shot at staging grounds in Russia. Climate change and associated habitat shifts are expected to impact negatively on this species and others dependent on tundra habitat for breeding. Modelling indicates that 67% of the habitat for this species could be lost by 2070<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Other threats include industrial developments at breeding sites in Gydan and Yamal and the use of rodenticides in the wintering grounds. <br/></p>	eng
141458	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanochen cyanoptera</em> is endemic to the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, where it is found above c.1,800 m and remains common and widespread, with the total population probably lying in the range 5,000-15,000 individuals<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. It occurs at marshes, bog pools, swamps and streams with abundant grassland surroundings, also occurring in open Afro-alpine moorland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly by grazing on short riverside grasses and other herbage<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It breeds during the dry season (important breeding areas in the Bale Mountains National Park are protected) and subsequently moves to highland lakes at slightly lower elevations where it congregates in flocks of 50-100 or more, important concentrations occuring at Areket<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and on the Sululta plain area during the rains and post-rains period<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. It is not threatened by hunting (as, for religious reasons, it is not eaten)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, it is now almost certainly under pressure from the rapidly expanding human population and resulting degradation of wetlands and grasslands and increased levels of disturbance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Agricultural intensification (privatisation) and droughts are also possible threats<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141458	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Brown <em>et al</em>. (1982); Callaghan and Green (1993). <br/></p>	eng
141463	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on northern Tierra del Fuego Island (Chile and Argentina) and southern Santa Cruz, wintering in southern Buenos Aires, Argentina; there is also a virtually sedentary population on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
141463	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in open country, frequenting coastal grassland and meadows, often with Upland Goose C. picta and Ashy-headed Goose C. poliocephala (Argentina only). It feeds on roots, leaves, stems and seed-heads of grasses and sedges in natural grasslands, pastures and agricultural lands (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It nests from late September to early November in the Falklands, with nests recorded until January on Tierra del Fuego (Woods and Woods 1997, Chebez 1994).	eng
141463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 43,000-82,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). The population on mainland South America has decreased considerably, with simultaneous censuses in southern Chile and Argentina recording 312 individuals in 1998 (Y. A. Vilina in litt. 1998). Although abundant on Tierra del Fuego in the 1950s, a census in the 1973 breeding season yielded only 30 birds (del Hoyo et al. 1992). However, it is fairly common in the Falklands with 14,000-27,000 pairs estimated in surveys between 1983 and 1992 (Woods and Woods 1997).	eng
141463	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Argentinean federal government declared C. rubidiceps a pest in the 1960s, claiming it fed on wheat and corn crops, and competed with sheep and cattle stocks for grassland resources in Buenos Aires (Chebez 1994). Although there is no evidence to support the latter and its numbers are too few to seriously effect the former, this promoted the active destruction of the species and persecution at its wintering grounds is certainly a factor contributing to its decline. However, this is not true on the Falklands, where 100,000 were killed in the period 1905-1912 and fair numbers are still killed each year, but the mobility of the species apparently renders efforts to reduce its numbers ineffective (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It was also removed from the list of pest species (Schedule I of the 1964 Wild Animals and Bird Protection Ordinance) on the Falklands in 1985 (Woods and Woods 1997). The introduction of Patagonian Grey Fox Dusicyon griseus as a control for the European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus on Tierra del Fuego is perhaps also a contributory factor in the species's decline (Chebez 1994). It is possible that the smaller sized C. rubidiceps is at some disadvantage in interspecific encounters with the larger and perhaps more aggressive C. picta leading to the displacement of  C. rubidiceps from foraging and nesting sites.	eng
141464	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neochen jubata</em> remains relatively widespread in South America east of the Andes, from east <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (possibly vagrants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong>, south through Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong>, extreme east <strong>Peru</strong> (relatively common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), <strong>Bolivia</strong> and west <strong>Paraguay</strong> (two records<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) to extreme north-west <strong>Argentina</strong><sup>2</sup>. Clear declines have been noted in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the population is currently estimated at c.25,000-100,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Its strongholds appear to be the extensive, sparsely inhabited area of lakes, marshland and seasonally flooded savannas in north Beni, Bolivia, where flocks of up to 250 were observed in the early 1980s<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong> and the Isla Bananal, Brazil<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is becoming increasing localised over much of its range and is now scarce, except in remote or protected areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits forest-covered banks of tropical rivers and damp clearings, wet savannas and muddy and sandy margins of large freshwater wetlands, from lowlands to 500 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, occasionally to 2,600 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The current decline is attributed to heavy hunting pressure<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141464	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate the result of discussions on the Threatened Birds Forum <br/></p>	eng
141465	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary over much of its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it may make seasonal nomadic or dispersive movements related to water availability<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. It also undertakes annual post-breeding moult migrations to favoured waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically, with most pairs nesting solitarily in the spring or at the end of the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species may occur in flocks consisting of hundreds or thousands of individuals (e.g. during moult), although it is most common in pairs or small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages diurnally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, mostly in the morning and evening<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits a wide range of freshwater wetlands in open country from sea level up to 4,000 m (Ethiopia)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, including reservoirs, dams, pans, lakes, large ponds, rivers, marshes, sewage works, estuaries and offshore islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (although it is generally absent from coastal regions)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for water-bodies with open shorelines and rich plant growth in close proximity to meadows, grassland and arable land for grazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, generally avoiding densely forested areas<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of vegetable matter such as the seeds, leaves and stems of grasses and other terrestrial plants, crop shoots<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. maize, wheat, oats, lucerne, groundnuts and barley)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, potato tubers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, algae and aquatic weeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as some animal matter (worms, locusts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and termite alates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in plant matter<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> usually placed not far from water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nest sites are highly variable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but include dense vegetation on the ground<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 5</sup></strong>, reedy vegetation near water, the ground under bushes or trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, burrows in embankments<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, holes and cavities in trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, cliff ledges and rural buildings, caves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the abandoned nests of other large bird species<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> up to 60 m above the ground<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141465	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is persecuted by shooting and poisoning in parts of its range (it is regarded as an agricultural pest)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is also hunted for sport<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although not in large numbers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141466	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Asian populations are largely migratory, moving south on a broad front to winter at lower latitudes and altitudes in India and south-east Asia<strong><sup>1, 13</sup></strong>. Other populations are chiefly sedentary or dispersive, undertaking local movements linked to the availability of suitable water (moving away from drought-affected areas or to temporary wetlands)<strong><sup>1, 13</sup></strong>. The species is usually found dispersed in pairs during the breeding season, although it may form small nesting groups when desirable nesting sites are close together<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may congregate into larger flocks (e.g. 4,000 birds at a site in Nepal, > 10,000 at a site in Turkey) during the autumn and winter, but is more characteristically found in scattered small flocks along rivers<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding that leaves them flightless for around four weeks mid-July to September<strong><sup>4, 8</sup></strong>, throughout which they require large open areas of water on or near their breeding grounds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The species is mainly nocturnal<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>This species frequents the shores of inland freshwater, saline and brackish lakes and rivers in open country, particularly those in open steppe, upland plateau and mountainous regions (reaching up to 5,000 m in Himalayas)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>. However, it is less dependent upon large water bodies for resting and feeding than most other Anatidae, and often occurs a considerable distance from water during the breeding season<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In the non-breeding season this species prefers streams, slow-flowing rivers, freshwater pools, flooded grasslands, marshes and brackish or saline lakes in lowland regions, and is also found on artificial reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong> in the vicinity of agricultural lands (Uzbekistan)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It avoids coastal waters and tall, dense vegetation or emergent and floating aquatic plants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, it's diet consisting of tender green shoots and the seeds of terrestrial vegetation, agricultural grains such as millet and wheat, littoral crustaceans such as shrimps, aquatic and terrestrial insects (especially Locusts), aquatic molluscs, small fish, frogs, amphibian spawn and worms<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>.<sup> </sup><strong>Breeding site</strong> Nests are shallow depressions, frequently located far from the water in burrows or holes in sand or clay banks (these can either be natural or excavated by another animal)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Other nest sites include abandoned buildings and farm sheds, hollow trees up to 10 m high, crevices in rocks and cliffs and occasionally nest-boxes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The population in the "Ascania Nova" nature reserve, southern Ukraine, has been restored successfully as a result of artificial nest creation, regular feeding, breaking the ice on ponds to provide constant access to water, and raising broods using conspecific, <em>Cairina moschata</em> and <em>Anas platyrhynchos</em> foster parents<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141466	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Hunting is a threat, especially in south-east Europe<strong><sup>1,3, 8, 10 </sup></strong>(e.g. in Turkey)<strong><sup> 13</sup></strong>, although the species is largely protected in central and eastern Asia by its sacred status<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Other threats to western populations include the loss and degradation of inland wetlands through subterranean water extraction for irrigation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> (leading to decreasing water supplies for seasonal and semi-permanent wetlands)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, widespread drainage of shallow marshes and lakes<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, salt extraction<strong><sup>1, 7, 10</sup></strong>, urban development, pollution, introduction of exotic fish and overgrazing<strong><sup>1, 7, 10</sup></strong>. At the Klingnau Dam in northern Switzerland the species has been known to hybridise with the South African Shelduck <em>Tadorna cana</em> from escaped captive populations, which could pose a threat to the integrity of both species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1) and is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141467	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory over much of its range with substantial numbers of individuals undertaking seasonal movements related to the availability of water and moulting<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Between November and December adult birds migrate short distances to congregate in flocks of around 400<strong><sup>2, 3, 11</sup></strong> to as many as 5,000<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> on large deep water lakes to undergo a flightless moulting period<strong><sup>2, 3, 11</sup></strong>. The species then disperses in single pairs to breed between May and September<strong><sup>2, 3, 11</sup></strong>, although large flocks of non-breeding pairs and single females may also occur at this time<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Outside breeding and moulting seasons the species gathers in smaller flocks of several hundred birds<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits small, permanent, shallow freshwater and brackish lakes, pools in river courses, rivers and exposed inland mud flats, in both upland and lowland areas of open country<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the non-breeding season the species prefers deep freshwater lakes, artificial reservoirs, salt pans, sewage works<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> and shallow brackish pans<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It may also be found away from water in natural grassland, Karoo veld, fynbos, ploughed land, stubble and fields of crops<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. This species requires large, deep freshwater lakes, reservoirs<strong><sup>10, 11</sup></strong> and dense swamps<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> on which to undergo a post-breeding wing-moult<strong><sup>3, 5, 8</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season in South Africa its diet consists entirely of vegetable matter, such as maize seeds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and other ripe kernels and seedlings of grain crops (such as wheat, oats, barley and sorghum), potatoes, peanuts, sunflower seeds, rice and over-ripe figs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species also takes the seeds, leaves and roots of grasses, reeds (e.g. <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em>) and pondweed, as well as filamentous algae. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species is omnivorous<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, feeding on both animals (mainly crustaceans, brachiopods and insect larvae and pupae)<strong><sup>1, 4, 10</sup></strong> and plants (submerged macrophytes)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. During the moulting period the diet of this species is predominantly made up of wheat seeds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> It often nests on the slope of a hill at the end of old mammal burrows (typically those of Aardvark or Porcupine)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or in other cavities that may be up to 2 km from water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141467	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Human recreation (e.g. watersports) poses a threat to this species through disturbance<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In South Africa, the Aardvark is considered threatened so the species's reliance on this mammal for nest sites is a concern<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species may also come under threat through range shifts or contractions as a result of climate change<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and West African populations have already come under threat by the desiccation of the Sahel zone<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>13, 14</sup></strong>. At the Klingnau Dam in northen Switzerland the species has been known to hybridise with Ruddy Shelduck <em>Tadorna ferruginea</em> from escaped captive populations, which could pose a threat to the integrity of both species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted mainly for sport<strong><sup>4, 7, 10</sup></strong>, but there is no evidence that this currently poses a threat.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141470	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. In 1983, three million leaflets on this species were distributed in Russia, Japan, China, South Korea and North Korea. However, there was little response, with the only result the single unconfirmed record from North Korea. A new investigation was made in China from 1986-1990, through a publicity campaign and the distribution of 15,000 leaflets in 25 provinces and autonomous regions. This generated 82 responses, but no confirmed records.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to search for the species within its potential range through publicity campaigns and the distribution of illustrated leaflets. Conduct surveys at historical localities and in those areas where there have been unconfirmed sightings.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141470	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Tadorna cristata</em> is known from a small number of records from Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>, Hokkaido, Japan (single 19th century record) and <strong>South Korea</strong>. The most recent was a sighting of a male and two females in May 1964, on islands south of Vladivostok, Russia. A sighting of two males and four females was claimed in North Korea in March 1971, but serious reservations have recently been expressed about the reliability of this record. There have also been several unconfirmed records from north-east China, in Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning and Hebei. Given the paucity of recent records, it is likely that it has a very small population. <br/></p>	eng
141470	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It has mainly been recorded in pairs or small flocks in coastal localities, often near river mouths. However, several of the unconfirmed reports in north-east China are from inland localities. It has been speculated that it may breed in mountainous areas, possibly away from water or on volcanic lakes, moving to the coast outside the breeding season.</p>	eng
141470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Zhao Zhengjie (1992) <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141470	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	If it still survives, its numbers are likely to be so low that it would be susceptible to chance or accidental extinction. Several of the historical localities are close to the area affected by the implementation of the large-scale Tumangan Development Project. <br/></p>	eng
141471	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are migratory (although European populations are largely sedentary) and undertake extensive moult migrations to favoured moulting sites after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (Asiatic breeding populations may also moult near their breeding grounds)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in single pairs or small groups<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, non-breeders usually remaining in flocks throughout the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After breeding (between July and October) the species moults and becomes flightless for 25-31 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, during which it is highly gregarious<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may aggregate into large flocks of up to 100,000 individuals or more<strong><sup>2, 1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for saline habitats and frequents mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and muddy or sandy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> estuaries<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in coastal regions, and occurs inland on saline and brackish lakes in steppe or semi-desert<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Asiatic populations also occupy freshwater rivers or marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and other populations utilise freshwater habitats on migration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of salt-water molluscs (e.g. <em>Hydrobia</em> spp.) as well as other aquatic invertebrates (e.g. insects, crustaceans and worms), small fish, fish spawn and plant material<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. algae, seeds and agricultural grain)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is commonly positioned in a tree-hollow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 8 m above the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in a mammal burrow (e.g. of European rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Rarely nests may also be placed in the open or in dense vegetation up to 1 km from water<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificial nest-boxes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <strong>Management information</strong> Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the outer archipelago of south-west Finland experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141471	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of tidal barrage schemes in Europe<strong><sup>2, 8</sup></strong>. It also suffers predation from American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> on islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Iran<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141474	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct a full and detailed census of the global population and follow up with monitoring to detect any potential declines. Restrict access to parts of its range from tankers and other large ships which might cause significant pollution events.	eng
141474	distribution		<em>Tachyeres leucocephalus</em> was previously considered to be restricted to the south coast of Chubut province, <strong>Argentina</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. It is now known to have a larger range, with occasional signtings along the coastline from the Valdes Peninsula to the Beagle Channel in Tierra del Fuego<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The population may not exceed 5,000 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and a recent census on the coast of Chubut province recorded a maximum of 4,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with key populations at Bah&iacute;a San Gregorio, Bah&iacute;a Melo and Caleta Malaspina, all located at northern San Jorge Gulf. The population is thought to be stable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to occur at very low densities throughout its range.	eng
141474	habitat		It is entirely coastal in rocky areas and sheltered bays, breeding on offshore islands and peninsulas.	eng
141474	population		S. Imberti <em>in litt</em>. (2003) estimated that perhaps fewer than 5,000 remain.	eng
141476	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in south Chile, extreme southern Argentina, Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).	eng
141476	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs both inland on freshwater lakes, pools and rivers, and, during the non-breeding season, along rocky coastlines.	eng
141476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to number 11,000-26,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). The Falkland/Malvinas Islands population is estimated at 600-1,200 birds, although the population trend appears to be unknown (Woods and Woods 1997). Reports from Argentina suggest that the species is still numerous, particularly in Patagonia (M. Pearman in litt. 2003).	eng
141476	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is hunted for food in the Chilean fjords (S. Imberti in litt. 2003).	eng
141477	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory, making seasonal movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of several hundred kilometres<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> related to the availability of water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds during or near the end of the wet season in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it may also feed in small groups during this period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species congregates after breeding (at the beginning of the dry season)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.50 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (6-7 weeks)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the males moulting before the females<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is commonly found in small groups of up to 50 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally aggregates into larger flocks (e.g. when moulting)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the winter it rests by day and feeds in the early morning, evening or at night<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sometimes perching in trees to roost<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits seasonal and permanent wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> near grasslands or arable land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including lakes, rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, inland river deltas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, swamps, flooded grasslands, pastures<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, farm impoundments<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and sewage works<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, particularly those with emergent and fringing vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and surrounded by scattered trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When moulting it frequents areas with open shorelines, islands and sandbars<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, generally avoiding saline lakes and upland areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consist predominantly of plant matter such as the vegetative parts and seeds of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, agricultural grain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, fruit (e.g. figs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and tuberous crops<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. sweet potatoes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it may occasionally take small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species shows a preference for nesting in hollow trees, tree-cavities or in the abandoned nests of other tree-nesting bird species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. Hamerkop <em>Scopus umbretta</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, African Fish-eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer</em> or Social Weaver <em>Philetairus scoius</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), often between 20 and 100 cm high in trees 3-4 m tall<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Where tree-nesting sites are unavailable<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, it will also nest on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in long grass or reeds near water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, in rock cavities, holes in termite mounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or even in aardvark <em>Orycteropus afer</em> burrows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141477	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by uncontrolled hunting (declines in Botswana have been attributed to hunting outside of protected areas)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation </strong>The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141479	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. In 1993, 21 protected areas were known to support populations. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, Assam, was established because of its importance for this species. Conservation awareness materials depicting it have been widely distributed in Laos and Cambodia. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Instigate regular monitoring of selected key populations. Promote strict enforcement of hunting regulations and minimise encroachment, disturbance and habitat degradation in all protected areas supporting populations. Campaign for increased protection of peat-swamp forest in Sumatra. Campaign against pesticide and oil pollution at key sites in north-east India. Promote widespread conservation awareness campaigns in and around key protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141479	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cairina scutulata</em> was historically widely distributed from north-east India and Bangladesh, through South-East Asia to Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. It has undergone a dramatic decline such that, in 2002, its population was estimated at 800 individuals, comprising 200 in <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Cambodia</strong>, 150 on Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia, </strong>and<strong> </strong>450 in <strong>India </strong>(chiefly Assam and Arunachal Pradesh), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It continues to decline throughout its range, and is probably extinct in Malaysia and on Java. <br/></p>	eng
141479	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits stagnant or slow-flowing natural and artificial wetlands, within or adjacent to evergreen, moist, deciduous or swamp forests, on which it depends for roosting and nesting, usually in tree-holes. Although lowlands (below c.200&#160;m) provide optimum habitat, it occurs up to 1,400&#160;m, especially on plateaux supporting sluggish perennial rivers and pools. Although essentially sedentary, some birds make short dry-season movements in response to low water-levels. <br/></p>	eng
141479	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There has not been a comprehensive analysis of recent records, but estimates of c.450 in India (A. Choudhury <em>in litt</em>. 2007), "low hundreds" in Myanmar and c.100 in Cambodia (J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007) combined with an earlier estimate of 150 in Indonesia (BirdLife International 2001) suggest that the species's population may precautionarily be considered to lie at the upper limit of a band of 250-1000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141479	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is largely attributable to widespread lowland deforestation, compounded locally by drainage and conversion of wetlands. The resultant small, fragmented populations are vulnerable to extinction from stochastic environmental events, loss of genetic variability, disturbance, hunting and collection of eggs and chicks for food or pets. Hydro-power development, inappropriate forest management, and pollution are more localised threats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141480	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	Pteronetta hartlaubii has a widespread distribution in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda and Angola.	eng
141480	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in forested areas, in particular in secluded marshes and pools within dense, swampy, lowland tropical evergreen forest and gallery forest. It is also found along small rivers and streams in well-wooded savanna areas, and is recorded from salt pans in Congo and Cameroon (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005). It requires areas of open water such as large rivers or lakes on which to moult  (Madge and Burn 1988). The species is sedentary throughout its range and only local movements have been recorded (Scott and Rose 1996). It is likely to breed between August and November, although this is not certain as no nest has ever been found in the wild (Scott and Rose 1996). The species is normally encountered dispersed in pairs or small groups during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons, but it is known to aggregate into larger flocks (> 30 birds) on open water whilst undergoing moult (Madge and Burn 1988). The species generally feeds nocturnally (Kear 2005b), its diet consisting of aquatic invertebrates (insects, arachnids, crustaceans and molluscs), seeds and roots (F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt.1999, del Hoyo et al. 1992). No nest has ever been found in the wild, however observations from captive populations suggest that nest sites are most likely to be in tree holes and hollow trees or occasionally on the ground amongst dense cover (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005b). <br/></p>	eng
141480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The total population has been estimated to lie between 26,000 and 110,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). From the limited information available, it would appear to be locally common in Central Africa, west to Nigeria, being most numerous in Cameroon, Gabon, the Congo and DRC (Callaghan and Green 1993, Scott and Rose 1996). In West Africa, it has apparently suffered major declines and is now very scarce, with perhaps fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining (Scott and Rose 1996).	eng
141480	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The primary threat to this species is habitat loss due to forest destruction (Scott and Rose 1996). Other threats include hunting, increases in slash-and-burn cultivation, water pollution from mining and poison-fishing, and hydrological changes owing to logging (Holbech 1992, Holbech 1996, W. R .J. Dean in litt. 1999). However, in Cameroon and Nigeria, it appears to survive even in very disturbed areas (P. Hall in litt. 1999, M. Languy in litt. 2000, H. Rainey in litt. 2003) and the Central Africa populations are not considered to be threatened (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005). The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria (Nikolaus 2001).	eng
141481	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> undertaking poorly-understood<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong> seasonal movements in relation to water availability<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It breeds during the wet season in single pairs or small groups<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (harems)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and outside of the breeding season usually occurs in small parties of up to 30-40 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Large flocks also gather in the dry (non-breeding) season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on suitable waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but these break up and disperse to breeding grounds at the onset of the rains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species inhabits grassy ponds or lakes in savanna, open woodlands along large rivers and lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, marshes, floodplains, river deltas<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, flooded forest, pastures and rice-paddies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and occasionally sandbars and mudflats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists largely of vegetable matter, including the seeds of grasses and sedges, the soft parts of aquatic plants (e.g. water-lilies)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, agricultural grain (e.g. rice, corn, oats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, wheat and groundnuts<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) as well as aquatic insect larvae and locusts<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests close to water<strong><sup>2, 4, 5</sup></strong>, building rough structures of twigs and coarse grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in large hollow tree cavities<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, between 7 and 12 m high<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or in holes in the walls of isolated buildings<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (or other cavities with a floor diameter of c.200 mm<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). It may also use the abandoned nests of other bird species, such as Hamerkop <em>Scopus umbretta</em><strong><sup>2, 4, 5</sup></strong>, or nest on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the shelter of tall grass or on tree stumps<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. When the species is tree nesting, the same cavity may be used from year to year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141481	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. in Madagascar)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, habitat destruction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (e.g. from deforestation)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and indiscriminate use of poison in rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has declined in the Senegal Delta following the damming of the Senegal River (which has resulted in habitat degradation and loss from vegetation overgrowth, desertification processes and land conversion to agriculture)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so is potentially threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141484	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is somewhat nomadic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or partially migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, making local dry-season movements dictated by habitat and water availability<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> or dispersing to favoured moulting areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may be triggered by the rains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> but is commonly found in small family groups outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>3, 6</sup></strong>, large concentrations of 10 to 200 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> also forming during the dry season or at moulting sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits permanent or temporary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> swamps, marshes, inland deltas (e.g. the Okavango), shallow lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pools<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, farm impoundments, flood-plains<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and occasionally coastal lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for deep<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> clear waters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with abundant emergent and aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, especially water-lilies (<em>Nymphaea</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of the seeds of water-lilies (<em>Nymphaea</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although the seeds and vegetative parts of other aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. pondweeds <em>Potamogeton</em> spp.)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, aquatic insects and small fish may also be taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in natural hollows or the disused holes of barbets <em>Megalima</em> spp. and woodpeckers in trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, preferably those standing in or close to water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also nest in other cavities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as holes in cliffs or termites mounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, in the disused nests of Hamerkop <em>Scopus umbretta</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or in ground sites such as papyrus stands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or grass clumps<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Elevated nests are usually up to 10 m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (occasionally 20 m) above the ground<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificially erected nest boxes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In South Africa a breeding pair successfully nested in an artificial nest-log (a stem of <em>Euphorbia ingens</em>) measuring 60 x 21 cm with a horizontal oval entrance-hole measuring 7 x 8 cm and an internal cavity diameter of 12 cm that was fixed to a tree 4.2 m above the ground at the edge of water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141484	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has declined is Madagascar as a result of hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by habitat degradation such as the destruction of aquatic plant communities through the introduction of exotic fish (e.g. cichlids <em>Tilapia</em> spp.), siltation, pollution (e.g. herbicides), drainage and tourist water-sports (which destroy lily beds)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141490	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon is found along the Andes of South America, and occurs in six subspecies: columbiana is found from Venezuela to north Ecuador; leucogenis from central Ecuador to central Peru; turneri in south Peru; garleppi in Bolivia; berlepschi in north Chile and north-west Argentina; and armata throughout most of the Andes of Chile and Argentina.	eng
141490	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits mountain rivers and streams of fast-flowing, clear waters, situated at anything from over 4,500 m in the high Andes to sea level in the south of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
141490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
141491	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A captive population has been established. In 1987 and 1991, 12 birds were released at a location on Mt Taranaki, though breeding has not occurred<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recreational activities have been reduced or stopped in some sensitive areas. Modifications to river flow regimes appear to have improved productivity and increased population sizes in certain areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing to determine factors that most influence distribution. Genetic analyses of population fragments have been completed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the number and sizes of populations. Monitor short-term fluctuations and long-term trends of key populations. Undertake research to assist conservation management. Re-establish at least one population. Protect existing habitat through legal protection and advocacy<sup>1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141491	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos</em> was formerly widespread in <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Since European settlement, its range has become highly fragmented, such that it is largely confined to the forested mountain ranges of central North Island and western South Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, where counts from 1980-1994 indicate populations of c.640 and c.580 pairs respectively. Six populations have been monitored for 5-15 years: sharp declines, gradual increases and stable numbers have been documented, making overall trends unclear<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141491	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is now confined to rivers of medium to steep gradients with partial forest cover overhead, and vegetation to the water's edge<strong><sup>2,5,10</sup></strong>. It nests near steep stream banks, in caves, cavities, or under dense vegetation. It usually lays six eggs, and can breed in its first year. Territorial birds can live for six to seven years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Its diet consists almost entirely of aquatic invertebrates, primarily caddisfly larvae<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141491	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Williams (2205) - the results of a national survey.  <br/></p>	eng
141491	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Grazing and clearance of waterside vegetation has decreased water quality and led to the species's disappearance from lowland rivers. Introduced mammals take eggs, chicks and adults, but the extent of predation is not known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hydroelectric dams have altered the flow of some rivers, reducing available habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Poor dispersal reduces recolonisation and prevents mixing of nearby populations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Introduced trout may compete for food<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Human activities on the rivers often cause significant disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141492	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is protected by law in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess best survey techniques. Survey rivers in areas with varying human population pressure. Assess hunting pressure through discussion with local hunters. Survey rivers upstream and downstream of hydroelectric, mining and logging activities. Survey rivers with high numbers of trout. Research ecology on both lakes and rivers. Address hunting through public awareness programmes.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
141492	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Salvadorina waigiuensis</em> is endemic to the mountains of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is rare and local at lower altitudes, including records at 70 m in Lakekamu Basin, but occurs across the island in suitable montane habitat. There are recent records from few locations, a consequence of the inaccessibility of most of its range and the species's unobtrusive, shy and perhaps nocturnal habits <strong><sup>1,4,7,8</sup></strong>. The population has been variously estimated to be 2,500-20,000 birds and stable or slowly declining<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141492	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Although recorded from 70-4,100&#160;m, this duck is uncommon below 600&#160;m and most common at the highest altitudes<strong><sup>1,6,7,8</sup></strong>. It breeds beside fast-flowing rivers and streams, and alpine lakes, and has also been recorded on slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Breeding territories constituted 1,600&#160;m of stream on the Baiyer River<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> but only 160&#160;m on the Ok Menga River<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It lays clutches of two to four eggs alongside rivers or lakes in the dry season<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is omnivorous, feeding by dabbling and diving<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141492	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Callaghan and Green (1993). <br/></p>	eng
141492	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Some local extirpations and declines have been attributed to hunting<strong><sup>4,3</sup></strong>, predation by dogs, and habitat degradation, largely through increasing human pressure and siltation, especially from hydroelectric projects, mining and logging<strong><sup>5,10,11</sup></strong>, but these have only impacted small areas<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The stocking of alpine rivers with exotic trout species has been suggested as a potential risk to food sources<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141494	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Speculanas specularis</em> is most common in the Andean valleys of south <strong>Chile</strong> and west-central <strong>Argentina</strong> to Tierra del Fuego. It has been suggested that some birds disperse north and east after the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but there are few obvious threats and numbers seem stable. It breeds mostly by fast-flowing rivers in forested regions up to 1,800 m, but also on wetlands, ponds and lakes away from dense forests<strong><sup>1,2,4,6</sup></strong>. Breeding begins in September-October, with egg-laying in October-November, and a c.30 day incubation period in captivity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, leaves and stems of aquatic plants, variable amounts of aquatic invertebrates, and sometimes in the leaf-litter of forests away from water<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Potential threats include predation by <em>Mustela vison</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, increased pressure from tourism (e.g. in Los Glaciares National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), and salmon farming and trout stocking on Chilean rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141494	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Schlatter (<em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002) estimated <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141495	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is known to undertake considerable nomadic movements in response to changing water levels (many of its favoured sites are ephemeral)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and it is an irregular and opportunistic breeder, varying its time of breeding with rainfall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons the species is dispersed in single pairs or small flocks of 3-7 birds; large flocks in the moulting season are recorded rarely, when some gatherings can be as large as 2,000 strong<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is diurnal, with most of its activity occurring between 0700-0900<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and 1300-1700<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although occasionally the species may also forage at night<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species frequents shallow saline lakes, seasonal and permanent brackish or saline pools and vleis, rivers, seasonally flooded wetlands, farm dams, state reservoirs, coastal shorelines, estuaries, lagoons, tidal mudflats and wastewater treatment pools<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 7, 13</sup></strong>. In the East African Rift Valley it occurs from the lowlands up to 1,700 m<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> on small, sheltered alkaline and brackish waters with little or no shoreline vegetation, moving to permanent alkaline waters when nearby temporal pools become dry<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>In the Western Cape of South Africa this species moves to deep, open waters on which to moult, and prefers to breed on bare and grassy pans<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> It has an omnivorous diet, feeding on the stems, leaves and seeds of pondweeds, as well as aquatic insects, crustaceans and tadpoles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Females prefer to locate nests on islands where possible, although nest sites can be some distance from the water. The nest itself is a hollow scrape in the ground, well concealed amongst small trees, thorny bushes or aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141495	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>10, 11</sup></strong>, especially when feeding on sewage and effluent ponds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease. It is also potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation, for example Walvis Bay in Namibia (a key wetland site in southern Africa) is being degraded through changes in the flood regime due to road building, wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is highly valued and commonly shot<strong><sup> 4, 6</sup></strong>, although there is no evidence that the hunting of this species currently poses a threat. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141496	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is strongly migratory in the north of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although breeding populations in temperate regions are largely sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Males leave the breeding grounds in early-July (one month before the females and young), migrating to key waters to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks, after which they continue to the wintering grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The return migration occurs from March to April<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and although the timing of the breeding season varies geographically the species generally nests late in the year (e.g. May-July)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is usually observed in small parties outside of the breeding season, with large concentrations sometimes forming on passage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or during the moulting period<strong><sup>2,</sup></strong> <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits highly productive<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and eutrophic<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> freshwater marsh or lake habitats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in open lowland grassland<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, showing a preference for sheltered, shallow, standing or slow-flowing waters<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> with abundant emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 4, 6</sup></strong> and grass-covered islands providing cover for nesting<strong><sup>1, 4, 6</sup></strong>. It may also be found on permanent, shallow, slightly alkaline marshes<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, as well as on oxbow lakes, channels<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, reservoirs and gravel-pits<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After hatching, females move their broods to deeper marshes or to the edges of large impoundments, sometimes more than 1 mile away from the nesting sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Rarely (e.g. in the winter)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> the species occurs along sheltered coasts<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> at coastal marshes (North America)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>3, 6, 8</sup></strong>, deltas or lagoons<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is predominantly herbivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its diet consisting of the seeds, leaves, roots and stems of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (submerged and emergent) as well as grasses and stoneworts <em>Chara</em> spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, occasionally also taking cereal grains on land<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. In addition, the species may take a small amount of animal matter during the winter (Africa), such as insects, molluscs, annelids, amphibians, amphibian spawn and small fish<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a well-hidden<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> hollow<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in grass and leaves positioned on the ground in thick vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as nettles <em>Urtica</em> spp.<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, grass tussocks, thick bushes, rushes or tall grass<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species shows a preference for dense, dry herbaceous vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and often nests far from water<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. It may nest in dense concentrations on islands<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> (neighbouring nests as close as 5 m apart)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> although it is not a colonial species<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK (leaving small fish for piscivorous birds) resulted in an increase in the winter use of the habitat by the species as result of an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141496	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by pollution<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and disturbance from recreational use of freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>2, 13</sup></strong>. It also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (Spain)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> and nest predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> (Europe)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted throughout most of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> both for recreation<strong><sup>10, 11</sup></strong> and commercial uses<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but is rarely taken in large numbers except where it is particularly abundant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141497	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue to monitor non-breeding populations. Formulate national and local hunting or shooting regulations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Educate people about the plight of waterfowl, and provide alternative employment opportunities for local hunters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Improve management of existing wetland nature reserves on the non-breeding grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141497	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It breeds over much of south-east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, south to northern <strong>Mongolia, China, </strong>and<strong> Japan</strong>. It has a large global population estimated to be 35,000 individuals, with the majority of birds spending the non-breeding season in Japan<strong> </strong>(9,000), <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South</strong> <strong>Korea </strong>(2,000), and China<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It also regularly winters in small numbers in <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal </strong>(rare and irregular<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Taiwan</strong>, and northern <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, and <strong>Vietnam </strong>(very rare visitor<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), with vagrants recorded from <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Canada</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Malta</strong>, the <strong>Netherlands</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Poland</strong>, <strong>Portugal</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, and the Aleutian Islands of the <strong>United States</strong><sup>5</sup>. Escapes from waterfowl collections mask the extent of vagrancy to western Europe. The species appears to be declining in southern China, remaining common only in Dongting Hu, Hunan Province<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Of 14,763 individual counted in a 2005 survey of China, 13,605 were in Hunan Province, and 970 in Hubei Province<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Populations in Japan and Korea appear to have remained stable or declined only slightly<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It also appears to have become less frequent in Nepal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141497	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species breeds by water-meadows and lakes in lowland valleys, both in open and partly wooded areas. It winters on lowland rivers, lakes, flooded meadows, and - less frequently - coastal lagoons and estuaries<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is usually seen in pairs or small parties, with large flocks formed outside the breeding season, mixing with other dabbling ducks (particularly Eurasian Wigeon <em>A. penelope</em> and Northern Pintail <em>A. acuta</em>)<strong><sup> 5</sup></strong>. The breeding season is May to July. Birds dabble and up-end for food in open water near emergent vegetation, or sometimes graze in waterside grassland or crops<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141497	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although the global population was previously estimated to be 35,000 individuals, recent counts indicate that it is considerably higher, with perhaps as many as 89,000 in total (Lei and Barter <em>in litt. </em>2007). The majority of birds spend the non-breeding season in China, (78,000), Japan<strong> </strong>(9,000), North Korea and South Korea<strong> </strong>(2,000) (Wetlands International 2002; Lei and Barter <em>in litt. </em>2007). <br/></p>	eng
141497	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting for food, for subsistence and local markets, is probably the major threat. This is particularly true on the non-breeding grounds in China, with an estimated 33,000-37,000 individuals of this species taken along the lower and middle Yangtze River basins in each of the four winters from 1988-1992<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Since these figures are larger than the currently estimated global population, it is unclear whether hunting has dramatically reduced the global population to the current level over the last twenty years, or whether hunting estimates were too high. In either case, it is clear that hunting poses a major threat. <br/></p>	eng
141498	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is strongly migratory, undertaking significant cold weather movements of varying magnitude<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It leaves its breeding grounds in late summer (September) to arrive in its wintering grounds across Europe and Asia in October and November<strong><sup>1, 16</sup></strong>. Populations leave their winter quarters again between March and April, and arrive in their breeding grounds in northern Russia during the second half of May<strong><sup>1, 16</sup></strong>. Both the males and females of the species undergo a flightless moult period after breeding and whilst still in their breeding range, during which they congregate at moult gatherings<strong><sup>1, 16</sup></strong> (males moult their flight feathers between late May and July, females between late June and early September)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Birds of this species are dispersive during the breeding season and nest in pairs or small groups<strong><sup>1, 3, 11</sup></strong>. On passage to their wintering grounds individuals come together in large numbers, and during the non-breeding season the species is highly gregarious, forming close aggregations (4,200 birds were recorded in one wintering flock in Ethiopia)<strong><sup>3, 11</sup></strong>. It is chiefly a diurnal feeder<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but is sometimes nocturnal (depending on local disturbances and tides, especially in its non-breeding marine habitats)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in lowland freshwater marshes, slow-flowing large rivers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and shallow lakes and lagoons with ample submerged, floating and emerging vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Ideal wetland habitats for this species are those surrounded by sparse open forest, woodland and especially agricultural land<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong>, in the boreal and subarctic zone<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It avoids tundra, densely forested and mountainous country, as well as fast flowing rivers and streams, but tolerates saline or alkaline steppe lakes and wetlands<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In the non-breeding season this species shows a preference for coastal salt-marshes, freshwater, brackish and saline lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flooded grasslands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, estuaries, intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and other sheltered marine habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It  is vegetarian and consumes the leaves, seeds, stems and root bulbs of pond weeds, fine grasses<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> (especially from agricultural land surrounding lakes)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, horsetails<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and eelgrass, as well as algae<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Animal material is taken rarely and usually incidentally along with vegetation or seeds<strong><sup>1, 10</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nests of this species are shallow depressions in the ground lined with vegetation, usually positioned not far from water and well concealed under overhanging vegetation, in grass tussocks, scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and especially in heather<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Removing red foxes <em>Vulpes vulpes</em> and pine martens <em>Martes martes</em> from regions in Finland significantly increased the breeding success of this species<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141498	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is susceptible to disturbance from freshwater recreational activities<strong><sup>5, 14</sup></strong> (e.g. tourists walking)<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>, pollution (including thallium contamination<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, petroleum pollution<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>), wetland drainage<strong><sup>5, 14</sup></strong>, peat-extraction (e.g. in the Kaliningrad region of Russia)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and the burning and mowing of reeds<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Avian influenza virus (strain H5N1) is also a potential threat<strong><sup>7, 13</sup></strong>, as is poisoning from the ingestion of lead shot pellets<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted for sport (e.g. in the UK)<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, and although population numbers in an area decrease significantly after a period of shooting, there is no current evidence that such utilisation poses and immediate threat to the species<strong><sup>12, 15</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. This species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141501	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> It is not a migrant, being territorial and sedentary within a permanent range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although in South Africa some birds move from rivers to large local open waters to roost, returning to the rivers in the early morning<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This species breeds irregularly, the timing of breeding varying with locality<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons the species remains dispersed as individuals or single pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It does not form large aggregations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although roosting flocks may be large<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a flightless moulting period lasting around 25-30 days; males moulting between October and February (numbers peaking in November), females between November and February (numbers peaking in December)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is diurnal, usually resting at night and spending daylight hours feeding, sleeping and preening<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species prefers fast-flowing shallow rivers and streams with rocky substrates, particularly in wooded and mountainous country<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> up to 4,250 m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It can also be found in open, arid habitats and on lakes, reservoirs, lagoons, sandy-bottomed estuaries, stagnant or slow-flowing water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and sewage ponds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During this species' flightless moult period it requires cover near its foraging areas (e.g. lodged branches or undercut banks)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It has an omnivorous diet consisting of waterweeds and other aquatic vegetation, agricultural grain<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, fruits from terrestrial plants overhanging the water, mulberries (<em>Morus</em>), firethorn (<em>Pryacantha</em>) berries, fallen acorns<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, aquatic insects and their larvae, crustaceans, larval amphibians and fish spawn<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Ground cavity nests and elevated tree-nesting sites have been reported for this species, but usually nests are sited close to running water on islands, grassy river banks, in reedbeds or amongst driftwood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Important criteria for suitable nest sites are close proximity to water and near invisibility from above<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141501	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation in Kenya<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and as it is a river specialist it is vulnerable to habitat loss through river degradation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> such as dam building, water extraction<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, siltation, pollution, clearing of riparian vegetation and alien biota<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Hybridisation of the species with Mallard <em>Anas platyrhynchos</em> is also a potential threat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141504	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> In temperate regions breeding populations of this species are sedentary or dispersive, often making local movements during severe weather<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Other populations are fully migratory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with females and juveniles leaving the breeding grounds in the western Palearctic from September<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and returning as early as February<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds between March and June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although the exact timing varies with latitude<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. While the females are incubating<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (from mid-May)<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> the males gather<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in small flocks and migrate to moulting areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> where they undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (females moult near the breeding grounds)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species can be found in small to very large flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> numbering up to several hundreds or even thousands of individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> especially when moulting<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, on migration<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species may also roost both nocturnally and diurnally in communal groups when not breeding<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species occurs in almost every wetland type<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it generally avoids fast-flowing, oligotrophic<strong><sup>1, 5, 7</sup></strong>, deep, exposed, rough, rockbound waters and hard unvegetated areas such as rocky ground, sand dunes and artificial surfacing<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It requires water less than 1 m deep for foraging<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and shows a preference for freshwater habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although it may frequent shallow brackish waters as long as they provide the cover<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> of submerged, floating, emergent or riparian vegetation, dense reedbeds or overhanging branches<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Habitats commonly frequented include flooded swampy woodlands, seasonal floodlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, wet grassy swamps and meadows, oxbow lakes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, open waters with mudflats, banks or spits, irrigation networks, reservoirs, ornamental waters<strong><sup>1, 5, 7</sup></strong>, canals and sewage farms<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the winter the species may also be found in saline habitats along the coast<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> where water is shallow, fairly sheltered and within site of land<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (e.g. brackish lagoons<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, brackish estuaries<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> and bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous and opportunistic<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>, feeding by dabbling in water and by grazing on the land<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its diet consists of seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants (e.g. crops)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates (especially in the spring and summer) such as insects, molluscs, crustaceans, worms and occasionally amphibians and fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or bowl of vegetation that can be situated in many different locations such as within vegetation on the ground, in natural tree cavities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 10 m high (Africa)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, under fallen dead wood, on tree stumps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, under bushes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and even in abandoned nests of other species (e.g. herons or crows)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nests are generally placed close to water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although occasionally they may be some distance away<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> "Extensive" grazing of wetland grasslands (c.0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes, which in turn led to an increased use of the habitat for brood rearing by the species<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificial nest boxes<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141504	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from pollution (e.g. petroleum<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and pesticide pollution<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>), wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the burning and mowing of reedbeds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (e.g. in Spain<strong><sup>21</sup></strong> and France<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>) and poisoning from white phosphorous ingestion (from firearms) in Alaska<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It is also susceptible to duck virus enteritis (DVE)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, avian influenza<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases (although it may be able to withstand sporadic losses due to its high reproductive potential)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species is predated by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in Europe<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted throughout the world<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> mainly for sport<strong><sup>13, 14, 15, 17</sup></strong>, but also for commercial use (food)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141505	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Kaua`i, the Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge is an important area for the species, especially in winter<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Vigorously control <em>A.&#160;platyrhynchos and hybrids<sup>1,5,9. Restore wetlands1. Control predators where feasible, and ensure Kaua`i remains mongoose-free2,10.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141505	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas wyvilliana</em> was once an inhabitant of all the main Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), but is now restricted to Kaua`i and Ni`ihau, and is reintroduced on O`ahu, Hawai`i and Maui. Its population is estimated to number 2,525<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, with c.2,000 on Kaua`i and Ni`ihau, c.300 on O`ahu and c.200 on Hawai`i<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. In 1997, 5-11 were seen on Maui<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141505	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wetlands, including coastal ponds, lakes, swamps, flooded grasslands, mountain streams, anthropogenic water-bodies and occasionally boggy forests, as high as 3,300&#160;m<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Most pairs nest along montane streams, with breeding occurring year-round, with a peak between January and May<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141505	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's population is estimated to number c.2,200 individuals (K. Uyehara, A. Marshall and A. Engilis Jr.<em> in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
141505	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hybridisation with feral <em>A. platyrhynchos</em> is the major problem. On O`ahu and Hawai`i, there may be no pure birds remaining<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with the probable exception (on the latter) of sedentary birds at high elevations on Mauna Kea, where there are no domestic <em>A. platyrhynchos</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Wetland loss and habitat modification by alien aquatic plants are also threats<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. On O`ahu at least, artificial wetlands associated with sugarcane plantations and aquaculture have disappeared as these industries have declined on the island<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Introduced predators (such as the small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>, rats, cats and dogs) are an additional factor, and potential further introductions of alien species are a particular concern, notably <em>H. auropunctatus</em> on Kaua`i<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141506	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Laysan is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. The alien grass <em>Cenchrus echinatus</em> is thought to have been eradicated<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and native bunch grass has responded positively<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Snow fences were installed 20 years ago to reduce the movement of sand and support natural revegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A comprehensive restoration plan for Laysan Island has been developed, some sections of which are underway<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. In 2004-2005, 42 wild birds translocated from Laysan Island were released on Midway Atoll and many bred successfully in their first season. Following the success of the releases on Midway, the next translocation is being discussed for Kure or Lisianski islands in the North West Hawaiian Islands to establish a third population, however currently held captive birds are unsuitable for translocation and this would therefore require the establishment of a new captive population from wild stock<strong><sup>17,21</sup></strong>. Both islands require some habitat restoration prior to duck translocation; this work is currently underway on Kure<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. During the 2008 avian botulism outbreak on Midway 28 sick birds were successfully treated with anti-toxin, rehabilitated and released, and the rapid removal of sick and dead birds was thought to have prevented the impact of the outbreak becoming even worse<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor the population size and health on both Midway Atoll and Laysan Island. Continue to enhance nesting habitat on Midway by planting native bunch grasses. Enhance brood-rearing habitat on Midway Atoll with small fish-free freshwater wetlands with abundant cover. Use translocation and ecosystem restoration to re-establish four additional populations of Laysan Ducks.  On Laysan, continue to stabilise dunes by planting native vegetation<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Restore freshwater wetlands on Lisianski and Kure Islands prior to potential re-introduction. Ensure strict procedures to prevent the accidental introduction of exotic plants, invertebrates and animals<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Control exotic plants likely to negatively impact the species. Conduct further alien predator eradications to create potential for reintroduction to other larger higher elevation islands. After restored predator-free habitat is available, create a new genetically managed captive population within Hawaii to provide birds for reintroductions to other Hawaiian islands<sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
141506	distribution		<em>Anas laysanensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it became confined to Laysan. The birds do not disperse from Laysan today, but sub-fossil remains indicate that it was widespread on the Hawaiian Islands in the past<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, most recently being extirpated from Lisianski Island about 150 years ago. The species was near extinction at the beginning of the 20th century, but the population increased to 500 individuals in 1987<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> following the removal of introduced rabbits from Laysan. In 1993, there was a complete breeding failure and severe die-off owing to drought and disease. Poor monitoring at this time impairs accurate population estimates, but post-hoc analysis suggests that the population dropped to 82-127 adults from a peak of 743 birds prior to the drought. Since then, the population has gradually increased<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; the latest population estimate is 503-682 adult birds on Laysan<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Apparent population fluctuations over the past century were previously attributed to differing methods and seasons of counts<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but are now thought to relate to genuine changes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The Laysan population may currently have reached carrying capacity for the island, but 42 individuals were translocated to the two islands of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge in 2004 and 2005; the birds bred successfully in their first year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the founder population increased in size to a total of 104 individuals in 2006<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, reaching c.200 adult and juvenile (post fledging) individuals by the end of 2007<strong><sup>17,20</sup></strong> and predicted to grow to a total of 380 birds<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Although being hit by an outbreak of avian botulism in 2008, killing over 160 birds (a decline of up to 40-50%)<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, the preliminary estimates from Midway place the population in 2010 at c.350<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.	eng
141506	habitat		The species is non-migratory and characterised by female-only parental care and high adult survival. On Laysan, long-term pair bonds are common, and 3-4 eggs are laid per clutch. The timing of breeding varies significantly between years with the beginning of incubation varying from December to July<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. It selects different habitats during different times of the day. Most adult birds use dense cover and hide in the terrestrial vegetation during the day. During the evening, and at night<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, it uses the central hyper-saline lake on Laysan, but concentrates near freshwater seeps around the shore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, especially when raising young ducklings, which are less tolerant of hypersaline conditions. It nests and rests in dense stands of shrubs and grasses<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds principally on invertebrates, but also grass and sedge seeds, and some algae<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; brine fly <em>Scatella sexnotata </em>is an important prey species whose peak spring abundance is positively correlated with annual brood production of the teal<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Reintroduced birds on Midway Atoll appear to breed successfully at an earlier age and produce larger clutches, probably owing to more food and a low density population. However, duckling survival is low on both atolls.	eng
141506	population		Lincoln Petersen Estimate of 611 (538-714) adult individuals on Laysan in 2005 (Reynolds <em>et al.</em> 2006) and c.350 individuals on Midway in 2010 (M. Reynolds <em>in litt. </em>2010). This gives a global population estimate of 888-1064 individuals.	eng
141508	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected at five localities: Mt Iglit-Baco and Lake Naujan National Parks (Mindoro), Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay Forest Reserve (Luzon), and Olango Island (a Ramsar site). Candaba Marsh was proposed as a Ramsar site in 1994, supported by an environmental workshop and education campaign. A government ban on firearms was imposed in 1972, although hunting continues.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remaining wetland areas, especially around Polillo and Subic Bay. Conduct long-term ecological studies to establish management requirements. Afford protected status to key sites (e.g. Candaba, Polillo). Designate Candaba as a Ramsar site and manage it to recreate natural marsh habitat. Develop a management plan for the remaining wetland habitat at Lake Naujan.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141508	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas luzonica</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, being recorded from all the major islands and eight smaller islands. Records since 1980 derive from c.30 localities, most on Luzon and Mindanao. Records from Siquijor and the Sulus remain unsubstantiated. A steep population decline was evident by the mid-1970s, with high numbers recorded at only a few sites in the following decade, e.g. Candaba Marsh (Luzon) which probably supported many thousands in the early 1980s. Subsequent local extinctions and near-disappearances have occurred in several significant sites, including Candaba Marsh. Important current areas include Polillo Island (240 seen and an estimated 3,000 present in 1996) and Subic Bay (600 seen in 1997), Luzon. In 1993, its population was estimated at 10,000-100,000, but by 2002 fewer than 10,000 birds were thought to remain. <br/></p>	eng
141508	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents most freshwater and saltwater habitats, including mangroves, open sea and watercourses inside forest. It appears to be sedentary although some seasonal aggregation occurs. It feeds on fish, shrimps, insects, rice and young vegetation. <br/></p>	eng
141508	population	BirdLife International, 2008	4,632 were counted in the Asian Waterbird Census in 2004, and 4,428 in 2005 (D. Li in litt. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
141508	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Exceptionally high levels of hunting and trapping have been evident since the 1960s. Thousands were reportedly shot weekly from August-October and January-March in the late 1980s. Conversion of natural wetlands through drainage, adoption of aquaculture and fishpond creation caused its near-extinction at Candaba Marsh and threatens the Polillo population. Mangrove destruction and the recent extensive use of pesticides on rice-fields are also likely to have had serious impacts. <br/></p>	eng
141509	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Indonesia from south Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi, through to Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea (including New Britain and New Ireland), Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia (to France), Australia, Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia), Palau, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and American Samoa, Cook Islands (New Zealand), Society Islands (French Polynesia) and New Zealand. It occurs as three subspecies, with pelewensis found in the south-west Pacific Islands and north New Guinea, rogersi found in the Indonesian region, south New Guinea and Australia, and the nominate superciliosa occurring in New Zealand and associated larger offshore islands (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
141509	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a broad habitat tolerance, breeding and feeding in a wide range of terrestrial and marine wetlands and estuaries. It also utilises artificial habitats such as farm dams and drains. In New Zealand, however, agricultural regions are now largely dominated by the introduced Mallard A. platyrhynchos, and A. superciliosa has become increasingly restricted to undeveloped areas. Nests tend to be built away from water, and are often in tree holes. Ten to 12 eggs are usually laid. Young are capable of breeding in the first year, but about 65% of young die before starting to breed. Adults live 21 months on average in New Zealand, but the oldest bird in the wild was at least 20 years of age.	eng
141509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species currently has a large global population estimated to be 180,000-1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Both superciliosa and rogersi have undergone significant declines in the last 20 years (Marchant and Higgins 1990). In New Zealand, the superciliosa population was estimated at 1.5 million birds in 1970, decreasing to 1.2 million by 1981, and less than 500,000 in the 1990s (Heather and Robertson 1997). A second estimate placed numbers at between 80,000 and 150,000 in 1993 (Rose and Scott 1997). Subspecies pelewensis was estimated at 10,000-25,000 birds and is considered stable (Rose and Scott 1997).	eng
141509	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is believed to be declining throughout its range due to a combination of competition and hybridisation with A. platyrhynchos (Heather and Robertson 1997). This introduced species is most common in developed areas and, in New Zealand at least, numbers are still increasing (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Also in New Zealand, loss of wild habitats is considered to be a leading cause in declines (Heather and Robertson 1997), and there is a slow decline through Melanesia due to hunting and habitat degradation (G. Dutson in litt. 1999). Such habitat destruction is also occuring in Australia, but birds there have proved to be more able to utilise artificial habitats (Marchant and Higgins 1990).	eng
141510	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary, although the southern African population is more nomadic, undertaking considerable local movements (up to 50 km<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) with the availability of seasonal wetlands<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong>. It forms huge colonies in the non-breeding season, but disperses to breed at the onset of the rainy season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a post-nuptial wing moult three or four months after the peak of the breeding season, rendering them flightless for a period of about four weeks<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. The species is mainly nocturnal: typically foraging at dusk and after dark whilst remaining sedentary throughout the day<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species frequents slow-flowing rivers with pools and adjacent flooded grasslands, permanent and seasonal lakes, streams, marshes, brackish coastal lagoons, artificial reservoirs associated with mining, dams, salt pans, sewage works and the open water of estuaries<strong><sup>2, 3, 7</sup></strong>. It cannot tolerate highly acidic habitats or those where sodium chloride concentrations are very high, but can tolerate high concentrations of other salts around pH 10 or more<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also avoids fast-flowing water<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is omnivorous, with a diet consisting of the fruits, seeds, roots, leaves and stems of aquatic and terrestrial plants, aquatic insects and their larvae (including mayflies, water beetles and grasshoppers)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, crustaceans, molluscs and agricultural grains such as maize and sunflower seeds<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is situated on the ground and is made of grass, rushes and reed stems<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It is usually protected and screened from above by dense, overhanging vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and some nests may have tunnel access through the surrounding grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/><strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141510	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Pollution is a threat that still needs to be controlled within the species's range to keep the current population stable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Hybridisation of the species with the Northern Mallard <em>Anas platyrhynchos </em>represents a threat to the integrity of the species<strong><sup>2, 6, 7</sup></strong> because the two species hybridise easily and produce fertile progeny<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Northern Mallard <em>Anas platyrhynchos </em>was introduced both deliberately and accidentally into the Cape Provinces of South Africa and has since become naturalised<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Other exotic ducks may associate with the species (e.g. Laysan Teal at Gauteng Province) and these species pose a further potential threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted<strong><sup>2, 5, 9</sup></strong>, and although there is no current evidence that such activities pose a threat to the species<strong><sup> 9</sup></strong>, hunting levels may still need to be controlled in order to maintain current population levels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is also traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141511	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in at least seven protected areas <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is known from 14 Important Bird Areas (78% of eastern Malagasy wetland IBAs)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. No regular breeding sites are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Change its national status from game species to protected species. Protect remaining areas of least-modified wetlands at Lake Alaotra. Conduct wide-scale status surveys of eastern wetlands. Study its ecology to identify all causes of its decline.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141511	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas melleri</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is found in the east and on the high plateau. Records from the west<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong> probably refer to vagrant or wandering birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. An introduced population on <strong>Mauritius</strong> persists, although it is probably close to extinction<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although previously described as common in many areas of Madagascar, there appears to have been a widespread decline over the last 20 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it is probably no longer common anywhere, except perhaps in the wetlands around Lake Alaotra where there may be up to 500 birds<strong><sup>4,9 </sup></strong>(but see<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>). There are probably no other sites where more than 20-30 individuals are found. All birds seem to be within a single subpopulation<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, which is probably declining rapidly<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141511	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely restricted to freshwater wetlands, occupying lakes, rivers, streams, woodland ponds and marshes, especially in humid forested areas but also occurs in rice-fields<strong><sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. Its diet includes aquatic seeds and plants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is usually found in pairs or small parties (4-12&#160;birds), though much larger gatherings have been observed at Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. It is highly territorial, nesting during September-April<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong> in a tuft of herbaceous vegetation (e.g. papyrus) at the water's edge<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. It especially breeds along small streams and backwaters around lakes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and also probably along undisturbed rivers<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. Clutch size is 5-10. <br/></p>	eng
141511	population	BirdLife International, 2008	H.G. Young<em> in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International (2002). <br/></p>	eng
141511	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>A. melleri</em> is among the largest species of wildfowl found in Madagascar and is widely hunted (for subsistence and for sport) and trapped<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Interviews with hunters at Lake Alaotra suggest c<em>.</em>450 individuals are taken each year, constituting 18% of the global population<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Conversion of marshes to rice-paddies and degradation of water quality in rivers and streams, as a result of deforestation and soil erosion, have probably contributed to its decline<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its decline on Mauritius has been attributed to hunting and to introduced rats and mongooses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141514	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary, but can be somewhat nomadic and dispersive within its southern African range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There may also be some true seasonal north-south migrational movements through central South Africa (South African birds have been recovered in Namibia up to 1,650 km away)<strong><sup>2, 8</sup></strong>. Its movements are poorly understood<strong><sup>7, 8</sup></strong>, although migration appears to be between winter- and summer-rainfall areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and is dependent on water availability, whereas nomadic movements are believed to be responses to food availability<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In much of its range this species breeds throughout the year, although in some areas breeding is more seasonal (for example the breeding peak for birds in the south-west of Cape Province, South Africa is August-December)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in single pairs or loose groups, but may crowd together where suitable nesting sites are scarce<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season the species is usually found in small groups, or very rarely in numbers up to 600<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>. Adult birds undergo a period of moulting after breeding during which they are flightless for around 30 days<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; during this time they seek the refuge of large open waters<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong> rich in natural foods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species shows a preference for shallow freshwater and brackish habitats, such as lakes, marshes and temporary floodwaters<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. It will feed in fertile waters rich in planktonic organisms such as sewage disposal ponds, and will also tolerate highly alkaline lakes (pH 10), tidal estuaries, saline lagoons and salt-pans<strong><sup>1, 2, 4, 7, 8</sup></strong>. It generally avoids deep lakes, fast-flowing rivers, farm dams and reservoirs except as temporary refuges<strong><sup>1, 2, 4, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is omnivorous, commonly consuming the stems and seeds of water plants, snails, insects, molluscs, crustaceans and amphibian larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Animal matter makes up a significantly larger proportion of its diet than does plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The preferred nesting sites of this species are close to highly fertile shallow-water areas that have abundant sources of invertebrate food<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. The nest itself is a shallow scrape in earth, often with sides and a canopy built up from vegetation, and it is generally positioned near the waters edge<strong><sup>2, 4, 6</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141514	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The only known potential threats to this species are the reduction of suitable ephemeral wetland habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and hybridisation with invasive Mallard <em>Anas platyrhynchos</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted, and although hunting is not currently a threat, it has the potential to become one if not managed sustainably<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141517	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly migratory although it may be present all year round in parts of Europe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from March<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>where it breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the northern spring (chiefly from mid-April to June)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Males undergo a post-breeding moult migration from early-May to early-June (females moulting one month later) during which they are flightless for 3-4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The autumn migration chiefly occurs between September and October (western Europe), during which the species is likely to travel on a broad front (e.g. across Arabia and into Africa)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is usually found in pairs or small parties<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> although it often congregates when feeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (flocks of  20 or 30 to several hundred individuals occur in favoured areas in Africa<strong><sup>6 </sup></strong>and large concentrations form at stop-over sites on migration)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally and roosts communally at night<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits permanent<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> shallow freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> from sea level up to 2,900 m (Ethiopia)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, preferred sites being those surrounded by dense stands of reeds or other emergent vegetation whilst being free of overhanging trees or fringing forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Copious submerged aquatic vegetation sheltering abundant planktonic invertebrates is a valuable habitat characteristic<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include well-vegetated lakes and marshes and with muddy shores and substrates in open country<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> (e.g. grasslands)<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong>, as well as oxbow lakes, channels and swamps (former U.S.S.R.)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It also frequents artificial waters bordered by lush grassland<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> such as sewage farms, rice-fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and fish ponds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In the winter it can be found on coastal brackish lagoons<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, tidal muflats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, coastal shorelines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, fresh and brackish estuarine marshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, inland seas and brackish or saline inland waters<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, occasionally occurring (briefly) on marine waters during migration<strong><sup>3, 8</sup></strong> (although it generally avoids very saline habitats)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of small aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. caddisfly larvae, damselfly and dragonfly nymphs, adult beetles, bugs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and flies<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, planktonic crustaceans<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, the seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of emergent and aquatic plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. bulrushes and waterweeds)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, annelids, amphibian spawn, tadpoles, spiders, fish and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (e.g. duckweeds)<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a scrape<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on the ground in tall grass, among hummocks, in the open<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or (rarely) in bulrush marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Usually the species nests close to water but if grass cover is unavailable in the wetland site it may also nest far away from water under bushes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, in hayfields or in meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although it is not a colonial species, several pairs may nest in close proximity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg/ha, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141517	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat loss in Britain and Ireland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, is occasionally killed by collisions with power transmission lines<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>, and suffers from nest predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em><strong><sup>17, 19, 24</sup></strong>. It is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>10, 21</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>18</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. The species may suffer from reproductive impairment as a result of selenium (Se) accumulation in liver tissues (selenium contained in sub-surface agricultural drain-water used for wetland management in California led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain)<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. The species suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (Camargue, France<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> and Spain<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>). <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is a favoured quarry species throughout most of the world, but is rarely taken in large numbers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is hunted for sport in North America<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Denmark<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and the Po delta, Italy<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141518	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from Baly Bay National Park and Tsimanampetsotsa Strict Reserve<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and Analabe Private Reserve. A captive-breeding programme started in 1993<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. Studies on the ecology of the wild birds (including provision of nest boxes<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>) and a conservation programme at Lac Antsamaka (in Manambolomaty Ramsar Site) have also been initiated.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the distribution, abundance and ecological needs of this species<sup>8. <br/>Complete further ecological studies at Ankazomborona. Search for new breeding sites on the west coast, e.g. north of Mahajanga.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141518	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas bernieri</em> is a little-known duck endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong>. Its range encompasses the whole of the west coast and the extreme north-east<strong><sup>5,7,12</sup></strong>. It is known to breed at two sites, Masoarivo on the central west coast, and Ankazomborona on the far north-west coast<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The largest numbers recorded in recent times have been between Mahajanga and Morondava on the west coast: 100-500 were estimated present between Antsalova and Morondava in July-August 1993<strong><sup>6 </sup></strong>and a flock of 67 was seen near Tambohorano<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; however, a new breeding population of 200-300 individuals was recently discovered at Ankazomborona, north of Mahajanga and some 720 km north of the Masoarivo breeding site. The total population is estimated at 1,500-2,500 individuals<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141518	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours shallow, open waters (fresh or saline, perhaps most often brackish) with emergent vegetation and nutrient-rich mud. It usually feeds by sifting invertebrates while wading<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. It breeds during and after the wet season, nesting in tree-cavities, e.g. in mangroves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141518	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at 1,500-2,500 individuals (H.G. Young<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
141518	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is now extremely threatened throughout its breeding range, having suffered extensive habitat loss and disturbance. Conversion of shallow, muddy water-bodies to rice cultivation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> has been so widespread on the west coast that the species now appears to be confined to the few suitable wetlands that are too saline for rice-growing, i.e. some inland lakes and coastal areas such as mudflats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its previous abundance at the freshwater lakes of Bemamba and Masama would seem to confirm this<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Mangroves are under considerable pressure from prawn-pond construction and timber extraction, which also lead to massively increased hunting<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, the newly discovered breeding site at Ankazomborona is not threatened by aquaculture; there is little pressure from subsistence hunters but some pressure from sport hunters<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141522	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby Island, and rabbits from Rose Island, leaving all teal-inhabited islands free of introduced mammals. The eradication of pigs on Auckland Island is planned. The species has bred successfully in captivity as an aid to the Campbell Island Teal <em>A.&#160;nesiotis</em> recovery programme, but no dedicated captive-breeding population is proposed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Maintain wild populations. Promote the recovery of the species and the importance of predator-free island ecosystems. Promote the removal of predators from the Auckland Islands to allow for future reintroductions<sup>3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141522	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas aucklandica</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> where it has permanent populations on Ewing, Enderby, Rose, Ocean, Adams, Disappointment and Dundas Islands in the Auckland Islands group. The total area of the seven islands is 113&#160;km<sup>2</sup> but, with the exception of Disappointment Island, birds are predominantly dispersed along island shorelines<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It formerly bred on Auckland Island itself, where there are records from the 1940s. Three population estimates suggest that total numbers do not exceed 600 individuals, three indicate numbers of more than 1,000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and one suggests a population of more than 2,000 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population appears to be stable. <br/></p>	eng
141522	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It primarily inhabits sheltered coastlines feeding on tideline resources, and uses dense coastal vegetation as escape and nesting cover. Pairs may retreat 100-200&#160;m up small streams or to coastal pools for daytime cover, but forage on the shorelines after dark<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds mostly in washed up seaweed for invertebrates, or in coastal pools, and also eats algae<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has a low breeding rate and low annual productivity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141522	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Heather and Robertson (1997), Moore and Walker (1991) <br/></p>	eng
141522	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced cats and pigs caused its extinction on Auckland Island. The accidental introduction of mammals to the remaining island populations could cause further local extinctions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The introduction of avian disease is also considered a significant potential threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141524	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mostly sedentary or nomadic, but may disperse long distances (up to 1,800 km) in the dry season depending on the extent of flooding<strong><sup>1, 10</sup></strong> (birds ringed in South Africa have been recovered in Namibia. Angola, Zambia and Mozambique)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is a highly social and gregarious species in the non-breeding season, and  towards the end of the dry season or at the start of the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> flock sizes can reach several thousand<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (one flock was estimated at 500,000 on Lake Ngami, Botswana). The species breeds dispersed in single pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in southern Africa breeding takes place between December and April<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  In the dry season after the young have hatched, adult birds go through a flightless wing moult that lasts 24-28 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is largely nocturnal during the rainy season, but at low flood levels birds take aquatic invertebrates by day and graze on aquatic vegetation by night<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preferences for shallow, still, freshwater habitats with large amounts of submerged, floating, emergent and peripheral vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats vary from lakes to marshes, small rivers (in Madagascar)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, seasonal pools (ephemeral pans and dams)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, farm ponds, large dams (if food is available)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and temporarily flooded fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. This species also grazes on land in fields of rice or other crops, especially in fields of stubble<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. During the dry season the species regularly occurs in small numbers at scattered pans in semi-arid regions<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, although whilst undergoing the dry season flightless moult the species favours large open bodies of water and emergent vegetation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of agricultural grain; the seeds, fruits, roots, rhizomes and stems of aquatic plants, grasses (e.g. <em>Panicum schinzii</em>) and sedges<strong><sup>1, 5, 9</sup></strong>; also aquatic molluscs, insects (mainly beetles)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, crustaceans, worms, tadpoles and even fish<strong><sup>1, 2, 9</sup></strong> (although these latter items are unusual)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<em> </em>In South Africa the species breeding diet consists largely of terrestrial seeds (e.g. of <em>Panicum schinzii</em>) with very few invertebrates<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression in a mound of grass on the ground amongst dense vegetation, usually near the waters edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141524	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There are potential threats from the leeches <em>Theromyzon cooperi</em> and <em>Placobdella garoui</em> which can lead to mortality in infested birds<strong><sup>7, 11</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by habitat alteration in Madagascar<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Although this species is extensively hunted and regarded as a favourite sporting target<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, there is no evidence that such activities pose a current threat to the species. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141526	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory throughout its northern range<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although some populations in the Southern Hemisphere are sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> from April to June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with males leaving the breeding areas first from May to early-June to undertake extensive moult migrations (females following later)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During moult, large sexually segregated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> flocks gather in moulting areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. in the Netherlands and Russia), although small gatherings are also possible<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The flightless moult period lasts for around 4 weeks<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong> between July and August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> after which flocks move southwards to winter quarters from mid-August onwards<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious in winter and on passage, often forming enormous concentrations<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> (although the size of flock depends on the size of the wetland)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds nocturnally<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>, flocks roosting by day on open water<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species shows a preference for open lowland grassland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, prairie or tundra habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> containing freshwater, brackish and saline wetlands with shallow water (10-30 cm deep<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) to facilitate dabbling<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Wetland habitats include shallow freshwater marshes<strong><sup>1, 4, 8</sup></strong>, small marshy lakes, slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 3, 4, 8</sup></strong>, wet meadows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, flood-plains and sewage ponds (southern Africa)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, especially favouring ponds with low, dense marginal vegetation and wetlands interspersed with brushy thickets or copses<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During the winter it also frequents large inland lakes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, brackish coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3, 5</sup></strong>, brackish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and saline marshes<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, shallow fresh or brackish estuaries<strong><sup>4, 6, 7</sup></strong>, tidal flats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and river deltas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with adjacent agricultural land (e.g. stubble fields<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) and scattered impoundments<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>This species is omnivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and opportunistic<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, its diet consisting of algae<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, seeds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (e.g. cereals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and rice<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), tubers (e.g. potatoes)<strong><sup>1, 6, 8</sup></strong>, and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants, sedges<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong> and grasses<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>, as well as aquatic invertebrates (e.g. insects, molluscs and crustaceans), amphibians<strong><sup>1, 6, 8</sup></strong> and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a slight hollow on the ground amongst vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. rushes, grass or low scrub) and can be close to or more than 1 km away from water<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>. The species is not normally colonial but neighbours may nest as close as 2-3 m apart<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141526	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat loss on its breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Reclamation of coastal areas for industrial development poses a threat in Europe, and major river diversion and irrigation schemes threaten wintering areas in Niger and Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds in Russia<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species suffers from over-exploitation in Europe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is hunted for sport in North America<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>. It also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion in North America<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, poisoning from white phosphorous (from firearms) ingestion in Alaska<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, and reproductive impairment as a result of selenium (Se) accumulation in liver tissues (selenium contained in sub-surface agricultural drain-water used for wetland management in California led to bioaccumulation of the element in the food chain<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The pecies is predated by feral cats <em>Felis catus</em> and rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> on islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and avian influenza<strong><sup>13, 17</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted recreationally in Denmark<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and the Po delta, Italy<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. The species is also traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141527	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Some of the smaller islands in the Kerguelen Islands and four of the Crozet Islands are included within the Parc National Antarctique Francais and are a Specially Protected Area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Eradicate cats from breeding islands where feasible, e.g. Cochons Island<sup>2. Conduct surveys to establish numbers and monitor to determine trends.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141527	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas eatoni</em> has two island subspecies in the southern Indian Ocean: nominate <em>eatoni</em> is confined to the Kerguelen Islands and <em>drygalskyi</em> to the Crozet Islands, both island groups belonging to the <strong>French Southern Territories</strong>. On Kerguelen, it occurs only around the coast, less than 20% of the total area<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the 1950s and 1960s, <em>eatoni</em> was introduced to Amsterdam Island (also part of the French Southern Territories), but has not been seen there since 1970<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and is assumed to have become extirpated. In 1980-1982, the population was estimated at 1,800-2,100 individuals on Crozet and, in 1982-1985, at 46,800-62,100 pairs on Kerguelen<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but could now be considerably less. Although there is no information on trend, a rapid decline may already be well advanced<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141527	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies small freshwater lakes, as well as pools, marshes, peatbogs and streams, being more frequent on the coast in winter where it is found in coastal lagoons, along the sea shore and especially in sheltered bays<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. It feeds on vegetation, insects and crustaceans<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season, it occurs in small parties, occasionally in concentrations of up to 200 birds on Kerguelen<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The breeding season is from November to the end of January or February<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and clutch size is a minimum of five<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141527	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population on the Crozet Islands was estimated at 600-700 pairs in 1980-1982 and on the Kerguelen Islands the population was estimated at 15,000-20,000 pairs in 1982-1985 (Jouventin <em>et al</em>. 1988), although the numbers on the Kerguelen Islands could have been much lower (Green 1992). The maximum estimate for the total population in the early 1980s is therefore 31,200-41,400 mature individuals, however the population is expected to have declined significantly since (A. Green <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <br/></p>	eng
141527	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It was formerly much hunted by sealers and scientific expeditions, with 200-300 shot each year after the establishment of a base in 1950<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. Today, introduced predators are the greatest threat on Possession, Cochons Island (Crozet) and the Kerguelen Islands<strong><sup>1,6,8</sup></strong>. On Kerguelen, feral cats may prove to be a serious threat in the near future if petrels, their staple prey, reach low levels<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The birds introduced to Amsterdam probably disappeared owing to predation by feral cats and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141529	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory, breeding widely across Western Eurasia and wintering within the northern tropics<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It migrates on a broad front, the autumn migration beginning in late July and peaking in August or early September (in Europe and Egypt), with birds beginning to arrive in East and West Africa in early September, peaking in October<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Once the species reaches Africa it migrates in relation to seasonal flooding, the central point of its occurrence shifting gradually along the course of rivers as the winter progresses<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The spring migration begins in February, with birds beginning to arrive on breeding grounds from mid-March to early-May<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It is a highly sociable and gregarious species<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, and whilst breeding can be found in single pairs or small groups, but regularly forms large congregations of several hundred on passage, and flocks of up to several thousand are common in African and Asiatic winter quarters<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a post-breeding moult period that leaves them flightless for 3-4 weeks, with males moulting between mid-July and mid-August, and females between mid-August and September<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. The Volga Delta, in particular, is a major moulting area for this species<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Birds of this species are both diurnal and nocturnal feeders, and when migrating often travel by night and rest on open water during the day<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>In the breeding season this species frequents small, shallow ponds and lakes with abundant floating, emergent and fringing vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (that is not too tall or dense, such as bulrush - <em>Typha spp.</em>)<strong><sup>4, 10</sup></strong>, in grass dominated environments, like swampy meadows, flooded fields, shallow freshwater marshes<strong><sup>1, 2, 18</sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> During this season the species shows a preference for large freshwater or occasionally brackish lakes, again with abundant floating, emergent and fringing vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, also shallow flood plains, shallow dams, pans and sewage ponds (in South Africa)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species also frequents coastal saltmarshes and lagoons on passage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and may spend the day resting on marine inshore waters when migrating<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding this species is omnivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In spring and summer its diet is dominated by animal matter: chiefly molluscs, aquatic insects and their larvae (waterbugs, caddisfly, waterbeetles, midges), crustaceans (ostracods and phyllopods especially), worms, leeches, young and spawn of frogs, and small fish<strong><sup>1, 11</sup></strong>. Seeds, roots, tubers, stems, leaves and buds of plants such as Hornwort <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, Naiad <em>Najas</em>, sedge, grass and other aquatic plants are also important at this time<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During this season the birds are mainly vegetarian, with a diet dominated by the seeds of pondweeds, smartweeds <em>Polygonum</em>, sedges, dock <em>Rumex</em>, wild rice and grass<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, (with the seeds of <em>Echinochloa colona</em>, <em> Nymphea micranthia</em> and <em> Nymphea lotus</em> being the most preferred food items)<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Meadows are the favoured nesting areas of this species, with nests rarely located more than 150 m from water (usually within 20 m)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The nest itself is a depression in the ground, typically situated under rushes or tall grasses (such as manna grass, <em>Glyceria</em>), but not generally under shrubs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141529	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding</em> The most significant threat encountered by this species on its breeding grounds in Europe is habitat deterioration through the drainage and reclamation of wetlands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the increasing climatic aridity and subsequent lowering of the water table, and the transformation of wetlands to dammed reservoirs<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.  Other threats to this species include the destruction of nests during the early mowing of meadows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, increased human disturbance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, lead poisoning, botulism during hot summers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and hunting disturbance in Africa and Europe<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (> 500,000 are shot annually in Russia, Ukraine, France and Poland)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The invasive species American Mink <em>Mustela vison</em> also poses a threat through nest predation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the species is susceptible to avian influenza (particularly strain H5N1) so is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> On its wintering grounds in Nigeria and Senegal the species is threatened by habitat destruction through dam construction, vegetation overgrowth and desertification<strong><sup>2, 8, 9</sup></strong>, and in West Africa it is threatened by large-scale river diversion and irrigation schemes<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The species is also at risk from avain influenza in its African wintering grounds<strong><sup>21</sup></strong> as well as in its breeding areas<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The proportion of the species which migrates via the West Siberian flyway is susceptible to West Nile Virus, and is therefore threatened by future outbreaks<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted in Denmark , but there is evidence that this may be sustainable<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141530	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong and some provinces in China. Some important sites are protected areas, including Bolob lake and Khanka lake (Russia), and Katano duck pond (Japan). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study its decline and establish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Research its wintering status in China. Draft and implement a management plan for the wintering population in South Korea. Regulate hunting of all Anatidae species in China. Ensure its legal protection in all range states.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141530	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas formosa</em> breeds in eastern Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong> and occurs on passage in <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>North Korea</strong>. It winters mainly in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, which held the largest wintering population during the 1990s, and mainland <strong>China,</strong> and it is a rare winter visitor to <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). In the early 20th century, it was one of the most numerous ducks in eastern Asia and flocks of many thousands were regularly reported. Since the 1960s and 1970s, there has been a significant decline. Wintering counts in South Korea have however increased spectacularly from the c.20,000 first found overwintering in the 1980s to the latest reports of a single flock numbering 265,000 counted in the Haenam area on December 2001<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains to be discovered whether increases in South Korea reflect real population increases or the relocation of birds from unknown sites in the region in response to wetland loss. <br/></p>	eng
141530	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in open tussock meadows near water and in mossy bogs with clumps of willows <em>Salix</em> and larch <em>Larix</em>. It winters on freshwater lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and farmland, often roosting on water during the day and feeding in fields during the night. It feeds on seeds and grain, water snails, algae and other water plants. <br/></p>	eng
141530	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The Asian Waterbird Census 2004 count in Korea was 455,000 birds (D. Li <em>in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006); numbers in other countries tiny by comparison. 658,000 were reported in Korea in 2004 (Hansoo Lee <em>in litt</em>. 2004), but this may be over-estimated (Moores and Keare 2005).   <br/></p>	eng
141530	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting was probably the main reason for its decline and is still a serious threat, particularly as it concentrates in large flocks on wetlands and arable land. In China and South Korea, birds are killed with poisoned grain. Large declines in the numbers of Anatidae have occurred in Sanjiang plain and Poyang Hu, China, as a result of habitat loss to agricultural development and hunting. Wintering sites in South Korea are threatened by the development of wetlands.  <br/></p>	eng
141533	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary in West Africa and Madagascar but partly migratory elsewhere<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, undertaking regular but unpredictable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> short-distance movements (up to 700 km) in southern and eastern Africa in response to changing water levels<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It breeds in single pairs in all months of the year (dependant upon local rainfall)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and remains in small groups even outside of the breeding season, although large aggregations have been recorded rarely <strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Adults undergoing wing moult have been recorded in August-September in Zambia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is crepuscular, being active usually only at dusk and dawn<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. H<strong>abitat</strong> This species frequents shallow, freshwater marshes, swamps, pools and lakes, feeding at muddy edges and amongst submerged, floating (water-lilies) and emergent (Papyrus, reeds - <em>Phragmites spp.</em>, bullrushes - <em>Typha</em> <em>spp.</em>) vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. It may occasionally be seen on more open lakes and reservoirs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or sewage pans<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong>, and will feed on land in flooded fields, rice paddies and waterside areas heavily disturbed by wild ungulates or cattle<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the dry season this species regularly occurs in small numbers on small scattered pans in semi-arid regions<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Throughout the day the species often sleeps on open water or in quiet marshy backwaters<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and may also rest on land<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is omnivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as although its diet consists largely of seeds (especially of the grass <em>Sacciolepis</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, fruits and other vegetable matter, it may take aquatic invertebrates such as crustaceans, molluscs, water insects such as beetles and the larvae of flies (especially if these are super-abundant)<strong><sup>1, 3, 4, 5, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Nests are built from surrounding vegetation and well hidden above water in drowned trees, <em>Phragmites</em> or <em>Typha</em> reeds, <em>Cyperus</em> sedge or in Papyrus clumps<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. Usually this species nests singly, but pairs will sometimes nest close together<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141533	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat degradation (e.g. wetland conversion by commercial and subsistence agriculture in South Africa)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> is the main threat to this species, so the protection of wetlands and waterside vegetation (also deliberately burnt in South Africa)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> is necessary to maintain populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted (e.g. it is hunted for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and although hunting at current levels does not threaten the species<strong><sup>1, 4, 7</sup></strong>, a control of hunting practices may be necessary in the future to maintain population sizes at current levels<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141535	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Bulgaria, Israel, Morocco, Spain, Russia, Tunisia and Turkey. Conservation programmes have been carried out in Spain. Survey and research projects have been carried out in Morocco and Turkey. A European action plan was published in 1996.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct regular surveys and monitoring. Research its ecology. Protect habitat at all sites regularly holding the species. Prevent mortality from hunting and other causes. Increase public awareness.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141535	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Marmaronetta angustirostris</em> has a fragmented distribution in the western Mediterranean (<strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia, </strong>wintering in north and sub-Saharan west Africa), the eastern Mediterranean (<strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Syria, </strong>wintering south to<strong> Egypt</strong>) and western and southern Asia (<strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong> and <strong>China, </strong>wintering in Iran, Pakistan and north-west India). Prior to 1991, the estimated population was 34,000-40,000 birds. Although count data are poor, a more recent estimate of 14,000-26,000 birds indicates a rapid population decline. Numbers wintering in Iran have fallen from 25,000-30,000 (1985-1992) to c.5,000 in 1993 and c.3,700 in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Estimates of a wintering population of 3,000 birds in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and a count of 4,250 in Tunisia in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, suggest the western Mediterranean population is larger than previously thought. <br/></p>	eng
141535	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is adapted to temporary wetlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, favouring brackish waters rich in emergent vegetation. It exhibits large population fluctuations, partly in response to annual variations in rainfall and is capable of dispersal movements in search of suitable habitat. It is less dependent on invertebrates and relies more on small seeds (e.g. <em>Ruppia</em> and <em>Scirpus</em>) than other north-temperate ducks<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141535	population	BirdLife International, 2008	3,000-5,000 in W Mediterranean and W Africa (T. Dodman 2002<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002; Bos <em>et al.</em> 2000); 1,000 in E Mediterranean (Green 1993); 5,000-15,000 in SW Asia (A. J. Green <em>in litt</em>. to Scott and Rose 1996); 5,000 in S Asia (Perennou <em>et al.</em> 1994) <br/></p>	eng
141535	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Over 50% of suitable habitat may have been destroyed during the 20th century. Wetland drainage for agriculture occurs across its range, most significantly in Iraq. Hydrological work has severely affected breeding sites in Tunisia, Turkey, Morocco and Spain. Reed-cutting, reed-burning and grazing commonly reduce the amount of habitat for nesting. Pollution from agricultural, industrial and domestic sources is a threat at many sites. When breeding, it is vulnerable to shooting and egg collection. Further mortality results from birds caught in fishing nets and lead poisoning<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141536	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. Throughout the 1950s there were attempts to clarify its status, culminating in a literature and museum specimen review. It was subsequently searched for in some key areas. Since 1956, it has been legally protected. Since 2003 BirdLife International <em>in Indochina</em> and the Biodiversity and National Conservation Association (BANCA) have conducted a number of searches in Kachin State, Myanmar, the most recent taking place in January 2008<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Locate (provisionally using satellite imagery) and systematically survey any remaining remote and large tracts of suitable habitat within its former range, particularly north Bihar, Assam, India, and Kachin, Rakhine and possibly Chin States, Myanmar, and interview local hunters. Attempt night-time surveys given the species's potential nocturnal habits<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Should it be rediscovered, stringent protection measures should be implemented to ensure the survival of any populations. Where possible introduce formal protected area status or non-formal management by local stakeholders for key wetland sites that may support this species (and which are known to support other Globally Threatened waterbirds)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141536	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Rhodonessa caryophyllacea</em> was locally distributed in the wetlands of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar, and occurred rarely in Nepal, with most records from north-east India and adjacent Bangladesh. It was always considered uncommon or rare and was last definitely seen in the wild in 1949, surviving until around the same time in captivity. Recent "sightings" and positive leads from a series of questionnaires about its possible continued existence in north-east India were the result of confusion with Red-crested Pochard <em>Netta rufina</em>. Five searches in Kachin State, Myanmar between April 2003 and December 2006 gained a possible sighting (in 2004), two credible reports from local fishermen and during the 2006 survey focused at Nawng Kwin and the grasslands and oxbow lakes along the Indawgyi River the team gathered the most convincing reports to date from a local fisherman that the species still occurs in the area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Further searches took place in January 2008 in northern Kachin State, focusing on the three sites from which there had been recent reports or claims, but the team failed to find convincing evidence of the species's continued existence there<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
141536	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is shy and secretive, inhabiting secluded and overgrown still-water pools, marshes and swamps in lowland forest and tall grasslands, particularly areas subject to seasonal inundation and, in winter, also lagoons adjoining large rivers. Outside the breeding season it was usually encountered in small groups and occasionally flocks of 30-40. Some, and possibly all, populations undertook local seasonal movements, resulting in scattered historical records as far afield as Punjab, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh in India. Conjecture from researchers conducting surveys for the species has suggested that it may be nocturnal, explaining the difficulty in locating it, and the reason behind its unique colouration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny based on lack of records and failure of surveys to find it. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
141536	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Its decline likely resulted from habitat loss. Clearance of forest and conversion of wetlands for agricultural land has destroyed much of its habitat. Furthermore, it suffered year-round persecution during a period (the late 19th and early 20th centuries) when hunting levels in India were high. A number of other waterbird species have declined in South and South-east Asia as a consequence of human disturbance and/or hunting pressure and egg collection. However, these species e.g. White-winged Duck <em>Cairinia scutulata</em> do persist in parts of South and South-East Asia suggesting that hunting pressure alone is unlikely to have caused the species's extirpation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. While the species was hunted historically, the role that this has played in its decline remains uncertain<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The invasive alien species water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes </em>may have contributed to its decline by altering wetland habitats to the detriment of this species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141537	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is fully migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> or locally dispersive (e.g. in Europe)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and breeds from mid-April to early-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Males and non-breeders moult and become flightless for four weeks between June and August (females moulting one month later)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> prior to which they may make extensive moult migrations which take them considerable distances from the breeding waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Once this post-breeding moult is complete the species departs for its winter quarters, arriving there from October onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious for most of the year<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and although it is more commonly found in small groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> it often forms large concentrations<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> of several hundred individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in moulting and wintering areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds diurnally, being most active during the early morning and evening<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits inland deep fresh or brackish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> reed-fringed lakes, rivers, or saline and alkaline lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in open country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, also occurring (less often) on estuaries, river deltas and other sheltered coastal habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on passage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or during the winter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists predominantly of the roots, seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Chara</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <em>Hippurus</em> spp., hornworts <em>Ceratophyllum</em> spp., pondweeds <em>Potamogeton</em> spp., milfoil <em>Myriophyllum</em> spp.<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and especially stonewort <em>Nitellopsis obtusa</em><strong><sup>13</sup></strong>), although it will occasionally also take aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. molluscs)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, amphibians and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of roots, twigs and leaves near water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> on the ground in dense vegetation or on floating mats of vegetation amidst reedbeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although the species usually breeds well-dispersed, neighbouring pairs may sometimes nest as close as 30 m apart<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<sup>1</sup>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp or other herbivorous fish species), and systems that include ponds with fish fry are more likely to have high abundances of aquatic vegetation and are therefore more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141537	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The two main threats to this species are habitat degradation<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> (e.g. through land-use changes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and hunting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. the species is hunted in France, Portugal and Spain without any official hunting bag monitoring<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>). The species also suffers poisoning from lead shot ingestion (Spain)<strong><sup>11 </sup></strong>and is occasionally drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Deterioration in the water quality of wetlands can reduce the abundance of stonewort <em>Nitellopsis obtusa</em> (which is an important part of the species's diet)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and it is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted recreationally and for commercial purposes in Iran<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141539	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partly migratory, undertaking both local and long-distance migrations within its southern African range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. South African populations migrate northwards during the dry season, and there is evidence that the species may congregate in the central parts of its range (Zambia, Tanzania) in the middle of the year in order to breed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The exact timing of the breeding season varies according to locality and water levels<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but eggs are often laid towards the end of the wet season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the breeding season Southern Pochard is usually encountered singly in pairs or small parties<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species is relatively gregarious, with flocks of several hundred birds recorded at times (a concentration of 5,000 birds was once recorded)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Such large congregations usually only occur during the dry season however, when the reduction of water areas causes concentrations of birds to develop<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  In South Africa<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> adult birds undergo a total wing-moult period between August and September when they are flightless for around 31 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During this period adult birds seek refuge on open water when they are together in flocks, or remain close to beds of emergent aquatic vegetation such as reeds or sedges if they are solitary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is both diurnal and nocturnal, feeding during the day and sometimes during the night, and is most active in the early mornings and evenings<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species occurs on most still freshwater (and sometimes brackish water)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> habitats with abundant submerged vegetation, from sea level up to 2,400 m in East Africa<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 6</sup></strong>. This includes shallow to deep, large to small, permanent or temporary pools or lakes, with or without emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It has recently been known to colonise reservoirs and rice paddy fields in South America<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but is rarely seen on land<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Generally it avoids rivers, turbid waters, very shallow temporary ponds and flooded areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is primarily vegetarian although it may take animal material<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its diet consists primarily of seeds but also roots and vegetative parts of aquatic or shoreline vegetation (including water-lilies, bladderwort, duckweeds, cattails, bulrushes, grasses, sedges and domestic rice)<strong><sup>1, 2, 4, 5</sup></strong>, as well as aquatic beetles, snails, ants, hemipterans and crustaceans<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a basin-shaped construction of plant material that is usually well hidden in tall emergent vegetation such as papyrus, reeds or sedges, either above the water, along the bank or a little way from the water in tall grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests have also occasionally been reported in exposed positions in sedge, on dam walls, in old antbear holes and in old nests of other water birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141539	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The South American population of this species has gone through a large decline, possibly due to habitat degradation (siltation caused by soil erosion degrades the rich macrophyte waterbodies favoured by the species)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Africa this species is threatened through the transformation of wetlands into agricultural land<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and through entanglement in gill nets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141540	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species are highly migratory<strong><sup>3, 7</sup></strong>, with those breeding in the milder parts of western or southern Europe<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> being sedentary<strong><sup>1, 3, 7</sup></strong> or only making short-distance dispersal movements<strong><sup>1, 3, 7</sup></strong> governed by harsh weather conditions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The spring migration may occur as early as February in mild winters, with the main migration occurring from March to early-April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding grounds are reoccupied from the early-March (in the south) to early May (in Siberia)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with breeding starting from April-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species mainly moults on the breeding grounds before the autumn migration, becoming flightless for a period of 3-4 weeks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The autumn migration to wintering grounds peaks between late-September and November<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, females migrating slightly later than the males (which results in a segregation of the sexes in the wintering range: males further north and females further south)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species breeds in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travels in small parties on passage<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, sometimes gathering in flocks of many thousands during the post-breeding moult period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the winter it becomes highly gregarious, gathering in flocks of many thousands of individuals<strong><sup>3, 4, 7</sup></strong>. The species can be crepuscular in the winter, and often feeds by night<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> by bottom-feeding and diving<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (most foraging being done at depths of 1-3 m)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species requires extensive areas of nutrient-rich open water less than 6 m deep<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that is uncluttered with floating vegetation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> but has abundant submerged macrophytes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, surrounding emergent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> vegetation and/or animal food (e.g. Chironomid larvae)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> In its breeding range the species inhabits base-rich (e.g. saline, brackish or soda) lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, eutrophic freshwater lakes, well-vegetated freshwater or brackish<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> marshes with areas of open water, swamps<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. Although it shows a strong preference for inland wetlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, the species will shift to coastal habitats such as sheltered coastal bays<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> when driven by frost or other compelling factors<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species frequents similar habitats to those it breeds in, including large lakes<strong><sup>1, 3, 6</sup></strong>, slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 3, 4, 6</sup></strong>, brackish waters, marshes, weirs (Africa)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and flooded gravel pits<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. As in the breeding season, the species will shift to coastal habitats such as brackish lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, tidal estuaries<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> and inshore waters<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> (where it associates with sewage outfalls)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> when driven by frost or other compelling factors<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of seeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, roots<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rhizomes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the vegetative parts of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, as well as aquatic insects and larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. midge and caddis fly larvae during the summer)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, molluscs, crustaceans, worms<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>(oligochaetes)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. frogs and tadpoles)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or shallow cup<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in a thick heap of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> positioned on the ground<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (usually within 10 m of water)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, in shallow water<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (c.30 cm deep)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, concealed in thick waterside vegetation<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (e.g. reedbeds)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, or on floating mats of reeds of other vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In years of high water levels when there are few emergent reedbeds or floating mats the species may nest in sedge tussocks, in flooded fields, or under bushes on hummocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>In the Trebon Basin Biosphere Reserve, Czech Republic, it was found that artificial islands and wide strips of littoral vegetation are the most secure breeding habitats that can be created for the species (nest survival in littoral habitats was improved by reduced nest visibility, increased water depth, and increased distance from the nest to the habitat edge, and nest survival on islands was improved with increased distance to open water)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In the UK (Salford docks, Manchester) the species prefers to feed in waters heavily polluted with sewage that are devoid of aquatic vegetation but hold high densities of oligocheates and other pollution-tolerant organisms. The species may therefore suffer from plans to improve water quality in the docks (e.g. modernising sewage treatment systems and oxygenating water)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
141540	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by disturbance from hunting<strong><sup>1, 2, 12</sup></strong>, water-based recreation<strong><sup>2, 9</sup></strong> and from machinery noise from urban development<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by habitat destruction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on its wintering grounds due to eutrophication (partially as a result of nutrient run-off from agricultural land)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species suffers from nest predation by American mink <em>Mustela vison</em> in Poland<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and adults are poisoned by ingesting lead shot (Spain)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation </strong>This species is hunted in Northern Island<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Spain<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and Italy<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, and the eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The species is also hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141544	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aythya nyroca</em> breeds principally in south-western Asia (east to <strong>China </strong>and south to <strong>Pakistan </strong>and <strong>India</strong>), central and eastern Europe, and north Africa<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The wintering range overlaps with the breeding range and extends to the Middle East, north-east and west Africa (mainly <strong>Mali </strong>and <strong>Nigeria</strong><sup>9</sup>) and South-East Asia. Four main populations are recognised and migration occurs from early September to mid-October, whilst breeding grounds are re-occupied from mid-March to early May<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The main part of the population occurs in Asia, where there is much suitable habitat and it remains common, although quantitative data are lacking: Given that this species's range may fluctuate considerably from year to year owing to changing water levels, it is unclear how much one-off high counts from Asian countries represent just one mobile population<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The current global population is estimated at c.163,000-257,000 individuals. An estimate for north Africa and Asia of 10,000 individuals in 1991<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> appears too low. About 600 pairs breed in the El Kala National Park, <strong>Algeria</strong><sup>9</sup>. In Europe the breeding population is estimated at 12,000-18,000 pairs with the largest population in <strong>Romania</strong> (5,500-6,500 breeding pairs, concentrated in the Danube Delta)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Significant populations (between 1,000 and 5,000 pairs) are also found in <strong>Croatia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, and possibly <strong>Turkey</strong>, whilst smaller populations (c.500-1,000 pairs) are found in <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, and possibly <strong>Serbia</strong> and <strong>Ukraine</strong><sup>14</sup>. Sporadic breeding and/or wintering occurs in several western European countries. In Asia recent surveys have found high numbers, perhaps into the tens of thousands, in<strong> </strong>Inner<strong> </strong>Mongolia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (although the accuracy of these counts is unclear, and may refer to non-breeding birds from other areas), 6,000-7,000 breeding pairs in <strong>Kazakhstan</strong><sup>26</sup> (although others have suggested it is uncommon<strong><sup>16,19</sup></strong>) and it is apparently common on the Tibetan Plateau, <strong>China</strong><sup>5</sup>, and in winter in <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(70,000 birds counted at one group of four sites)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>. Other large winter counts have been made in Azerbaijan (9,000 birds), <strong>Turkmenistan </strong>(20,833 birds)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and<strong> Uzbekistan</strong> (7,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but recently less<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>). Small numbers occur on passage in <strong>Lebanon</strong> and <strong>Qatar</strong> and also in winter in <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>. The species has declined markedly in Europe where there have been declines of more than 20% in eight European countries<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The status of the European population (12,000-18,000 pairs, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>, the species continued to decline during 1990-2000, when up to 45% of birds appear to have been lost (particularly in south-east Europe). The European population is believed to have declined overall by <strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There is also some evidence for declines in the number of birds in India<strong><sup>18,23</sup></strong>, Kazakhstan<strong><sup>1,22</sup></strong> (although other evidence suggests that this population is actually stable<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>), Kyrgyzstan<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, Pakistan<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, Uzbekistan<strong><sup>3,22</sup></strong> (but this population now seems to have stabilised<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>) and Vietnam<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>, and to a minor degree in Nepal<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> (but possibly stable there<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>). Winter counts from Israel suggest that population to be generally stable in recent years<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In Ukraine numbers have fallen from an estimated 65,000 in the late 1960s<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> to an estimated 1,500 pairs, whilst declines have also been recorded in Moldova, Albania (from 100-300 pairs to a recent estimate of 0-3 pairs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), Poland,<strong> </strong>Hungary, and <strong>Spain</strong> (from c.500 pairs 100 years ago to five pairs in recent years)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, populations remain stable in a number of other countries and slight local increases may have occurred in parts of Russia and Ukraine since hunting has diminished due to the species's rarity<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The key threat is the loss of its wetland habitat of well vegetated shallow pools through drainage, abandonment or intensification of fishponds, development of dams and building of infrastructure on flood plains. Increased drought due to global climate changes may pose a problem to the species in part of its range. Hunting is also a serious threat and protection may not be effective either because of misidentification or because of poor law enforcement.<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. This species's range has fluctuated considerably over the last c.150 years as it has modified its distribution. Owing to significant local declines it is classified as Vulnerable in Europe. Evidence of declines in the larger Asian populations is sparse, and sometimes contradictory, and so there is insufficient evidence at present to warrant uplisting to Vulnerable globally. One of the highest priorities for this species is to establish systematic annual monitoring of Asian populations to more accurately assess trends. Such monitoring, if it provided evidence of continuing and significant declines across major Asian populations, could provide reason to uplist this species. A European action plan was published in 2000 and an International Single Species Action Plan is being developed under the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement, which will lay out the framework for conservation action throughout the range of the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A restoration project for two key breeding sites on the Danube in <strong>Bulgaria </strong>is planned and has received funding<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. CMS Appendix I and II. <br/></p>	eng
141544	population	BirdLife International, 2008	2,400-2,600 in N/NW Africa (Dodman 2005); 36,000-54,000 in E. Europe (12,000-18,000 pairs equating to 36,000-54,000 individuals: BirdLife International 2004 [Birds in Europe]); 25,000-100,000 in SW Asia And NE Africa (based on counts in 1990s of 9,000 in Azerbaijan, 21,000 in Turkmenistan and 7,000 in Uzbekistan [Carboneras 1992a, Kashkarov and Mukhina 1997]: Delaney et al. 1999, Gilissen et al. 2002); 100,000 in S, E, and SE Asia (based on tens of thousands breeding in Inner Mongolia [Xing Lianlian in litt. 1998], common on Tibetan Plateau [Scott 1993]; >90,000 on hoars of NE Bangladesh in Jan 2002 (Ul Haque and Halder 2002), but S, E and SE Asian population may be considerably larger than 100,000.  <br/></p>	eng
141545	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Peregrine Fund and Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust are conducting further surveys at the site of rediscovery, which is currently permanently guarded, and are now seeking the support of locals to gain formal protection for the area<strong><sup>7,13,14</sup></strong>. Furthermore, together with the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and the government of Madagascar, and with support from with Mitsubishi Corporation Fund for Europe and Africa, the first stages of construction of a conservation breeding facility will commence and a Malagasy warden will be appointed to help protect the breeding site<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. A small number of eggs were opportunistically taken from the wild in 2009, leading to hatching of the first captively-reared individuals. A suitable site for a captive breeding facility has been identified and it is hoped that work will start in 2010<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Efforts are underway to conserve the last vestiges of suitable habitat at Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, and Lake Alaotra became a Ramsar Site in 2003. Searches for the species continue, as do education and awareness programmes on the benefits of maintaining natural wetlands. However, implementation of any conservation policy for the area will be very difficult owing to Alaotra's huge economic importance for agriculture and fisheries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue searches for extant populations, with a particular focus around former high-plateau wetlands<sup>9</sup>. Protect areas of least-modified wetland at Lake Alaotra. Continue community surveys and wetland awareness programmes. Conduct further surveys to determine the existing population size. Continue work to establish a captive-breeding programme</strong>	eng
141545	distribution		This species is endemic to <strong>Madagascar </strong>(although sub-fossil remains of an <em>Aythya </em>duck on Reunion are attributed to <em>A. innotata</em>), where it was found historically in the Lake Alaotra basin in the northern central plateau. It was considered relatively common at Lake Alaotra in the 1930s, but declined dramatically through the 1940s and 1950s<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Until the 1990s, the last certain record was at Lake Alaotra in 1960, with one unconfirmed sighting near Antananarivo in 1970 and several other possible records. Then a single male was captured alive in August 1991. Intensive searches (including major publicity campaigns) at Alaotra during 1989-1990 and 1993-1994 failed to discover more birds. However, in 2006 the species was rediscovered when nine adults and four juveniles were observed at a volcanic lake situated 330 km north of the last known site, Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Reports from local people that the lake was not suitable for rice cultivation round the edge, it contained no fish and that the water was cold suggest that the species may have persisted at this new location because human disturbance has been minimal<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Follow-up surveys in 2006 located c.20 mature individuals with up to nine ducklings observed at the same site<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Five birds were seen at a second lake c.3-4 km from the site but these may be part of the 20 individuals counted previously. 25 mature individuals were counted in 2008, with six pairs nesting in the 2007/08 season<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. However, no chicks fledged in 2008<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
141545	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary and usually occurs singly, or occasionally in pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is not known to flock or to associate with any other species<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Nesting has been observed during the months of October to January<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species was historically only known from shallow freshwater lakes and marshes that combine open water with nearby areas of dense vegetation<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. It probably prefers marshy areas and shallow water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, the site of its rediscovery is a volcanic lake with very little emergent vegetation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. What vegetation does grow at the lake edge may provide suitable nesting habitat.<strong> </strong>The requirement for shallow water may prevent it from using other volcanic lakes similar to the site of its rediscovery<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It is believed to feed on benthic invertebrates and aquatic plants and seeds by diving frequently in shallow waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is unknown<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but is presumably sited amongst lake-edge vegetation.<strong> </strong>Its clutch-size is 6-8 eggs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
141545	population		25 adult birds were counted at the rediscovery site in 2008 - the species may persist elsewhere buy the numbers are likely to be tiny, (R&eacute;n&eacute; De Roland 2008).	eng
141546	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia and Hong Kong (China) and in some provinces in China. Some of its breeding and wintering sites are within protected areas, including Daursky, Khanka lake and Bolon lake (Russia), Sanjiang and Xianghai (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Koshi Barrage (Nepal), and Thale Noi (Thailand).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population, distribution, ecology and threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Establish more protected areas in its breeding grounds. Extend the area of the Khanka Lake Reserve (Russia). Designate the Xianghai Nature Reserve (China) as a restricted area during the breeding season. Regulate hunting of all Anatidae species in China. Ensure legal protection of this species in all range states. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
141546	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aythya baeri</em> breeds in the Amur and Ussuri basins in <strong>Russia</strong> and north-eastern <strong>China</strong>. It winters in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, eastern and southern mainland China, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong> and <strong>Vietnam </strong>and is a rare migrant to <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Its population has been estimated at 10,000-20,000 individuals, but could be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141546	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds around lakes with rich aquatic vegetation in dense grass or flooded tussock/shrubby meadows. In Liaoning, China, it is commonly found in coastal wetlands with dense vegetation, or on rivers and ponds surrounded by forest. The nest is built on a tussock or under shrubs, sometimes floating, and occasionally amongst branches. In winter, it occurs on freshwater lakes and reservoirs.</p>	eng
141546	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Cao Lei and M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. (2007) <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141546	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats are poorly understood, but hunting and wetland destruction in its breeding and wintering grounds are probably the reasons for its decline. <strong></strong></p>	eng
141548	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> In central and north-west Europe this species is mainly sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although other populations are chiefly migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Migratory populations arrive on their breeding grounds from late-April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where they breed in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with hundreds often nesting at the same site (although not colonially)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Once incubation has commenced<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> the males gather in flocks<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> to moult (moult migrations occurring in some areas) between late-June and early-September when they become flightless for 3-4 weeks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (females moult their flight feather 1-2 months later)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The autumn migration begins in September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with a segregation of the sexes occurring in autumn and winter due to the difference in the timing of the moult<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The return spring migration begins in late-February<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is highly gregarious and may occur in flocks of several thousand individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in lowland regions and shows a preference for eutrophic waters 3-5 m deep (avoiding lakes deeper than 15 m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with open water, islands for breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and abundant marginal and emergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is common on large, freshwater lakes, ponds, reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, gravel-pits<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and quiet stretches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of wide slow-flowing rivers during this season<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species frequents large freshwater lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and sheltered coastal locations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as brackish lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, brackish inland seas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. Caspian Sea)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, tidal bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> although it avoids strong wave action and very exposed maritime conditions unless all inland freshwaters become frozen<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> a major part of its diet consisting of molluscs (especially <em>Mytillus</em> and <em>Cardium</em> spp., gastropods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and zebra mussels <em>Dreissena</em> <em>polymorph</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), crustaceans and aquatic insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as grain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is constructed of vegetation and is placed in water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on floating mats or islets<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, or on the ground on islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in rush or grass tussocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, under bushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in the open amidst marsh-nesting gull or tern colonies (for protection against predators)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. Nests are usually placed within 20 m of water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although on islands they may be placed up to 150 m away<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although the species is not colonial hundreds may nest on the same site with neighbouring nests spaced 7-11 m apart (within gull or tern colonies nests are spaced 2-3 m apart)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the UK (Salford docks, Manchester) the species prefers to feed in waters heavily polluted with sewage that are devoid of aquatic vegetation but hold high densities of oligocheates and other pollution-tolerant organisms<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The species may therefore suffer from plans to improve water quality in the docks (e.g. modernising sewage treatment systems and oxygenating water)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland also resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>The species competes for food (e.g. chironomid larvae and molluscs) with fish species such as roach <em>Rutilus rutilus</em><strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<sup>1</sup>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK resulted in an increase in invertebrate food availability and increases in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes, which in turn led to a increase in brood use of the habitat by the species and increased species survival<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141548	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation due to oil pollution, drainage, peat-extraction and changing land management practices<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> (e.g. decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and agricultural intensification<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) in breeding areas<strong><sup>2, 11</sup></strong>. It also suffers decreased reproductive success as a result of disturbance from increased recreational use of inland waterbodies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, machinery noise from urban development<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, hunting<strong><sup>19</sup></strong> and predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> on islands<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation </strong>The species is hunted for sport Denmark<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Italy<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and Iran<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and is hunted commercially in Iran<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141550	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in the high Arctic from late-May or early-June (depending on the timing of the Arctic thaw)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often with colonies of nesting gulls or terns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although it is not itself a colonial species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Males undergo short post-breeding moult migrations<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, often gathering in small or large flocks (up to 4,000 in Iceland)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> while females are incubating<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Females usually moult on the breeding grounds<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, although large concentrations (500-1,000 individuals) of moulting females have been recorded away from breeding areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the moulting period the species is flightless for a period of c.3-4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The autumn migration begins after the moulting period in mid-August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with males tending to remain much further north than females or immatures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> leading to some sexual segregation during the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and is commonly observed in small or large flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> sometimes of several thousand individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The return spring migration generally begins in late-February<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> although flocks of non-breeders may remain in the south, often in winter quarters, during the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in tundra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wooded tundra<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and moorland regions<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in the high Arctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occupying small, shallow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, freshwater lakes, pools and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with grassy shorelines and high densities of invertebrate life<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for water less than 6 m deep (usually 2 m) for diving<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species winters on shallow coastal waters<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> less than 10 m deep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (especially in the vicinity of sewage outlets)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as sheltered bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and brackish coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also found inland on large lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> and reservoirs during this season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, its diet consisting predominantly of molluscs (e.g. mussels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> <em>Mytilus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, cockles <em>Cardium </em>spp. and clams <em>Macoma</em> spp. in coastal habitats, and <em>Hydrobia</em> spp. in brackish habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) especially during the winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquatic insect larvae<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. amphipods<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), worms, small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the roots, seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic plants such as sedges<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and water weeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression close to water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, either in thick vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, in cracks in rocks, under woody shrubs or under perennial herbaceous vegetation less than 50 cm high (Iceland)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is not colonial but it will sometimes nest among gulls and terns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with neighbouring nests being placed as close as 1 m in some areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>In Scotland, UK the introduction of a sewage treatment scheme in the Firth of Forth (a large marine bay) resulted in a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species, with feeding flocks only remaining at outfalls where sewage continued to be discharged in large quantities<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It was unclear whether the changes in the species's distribution were due to reductions in the number of food items borne in the sewage or to reductions in aquatic invertebrate abundance as a result of the new treatment system<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141550	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to oil pollution<strong><sup>2, 14</sup></strong> when moulting and in winter and may be threatened by high levels of organochloride contaminants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its habit of congregating around coastal sewage outlets in the winter also puts it at risk from other pollution types<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and large numbers often drown due to entanglement in fishing nets<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by hunting for sport in North America<strong><sup>7, 8</sup></strong>, and suffers from disturbance from hunting<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted legally for sport in seven countries of the European Union<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. Denmark<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), and is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Iran<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141552	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The majority of this species is migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (although it does not travel great distances)<strong><sup>3, 7</sup></strong>, with some populations e.g. in Europe being largely sedentary<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds from early-April (although the most northerly populations may not breed until mid-June)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and generally nests in colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to or occasionally more than 3,000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species may also nest within colonies of Arctic tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The males and immature non-breeders of some populations may make extensive moult migrations to favoured areas where they form large moulting flocks<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> while the females remain on the breeding grounds<strong><sup>3, 7</sup></strong>. The species passes the winter (from October to March) at sea, congregating in flocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> that may be as large as many thousands of individuals<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on offshore islands and islets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> along low-lying rocky coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, on coastal shores and spits, on islets in brackish and freshwater lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, lakes and rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> close to the sea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or on tundra pools, rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> up to 5 or 6 km inland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for boulder-strewn or grassy islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> with sheltered approaches<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> that are safe from nest predators<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although in the high Arctic where such shelter is unavailable more open sites must be used (in which case the species often nests in closely packed groups for protection)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species typically moults on shallow marine or sheltered coastal waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and winters on shallow seashores, bays and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, especially where there are high abundances of benthic molluscs<strong><sup>9, 12</sup></strong>. It may also occur inland on freshwater lakes when on passage and during the winter (rarely)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of benthic molluscs although crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. amphipods and isopods)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, echinoderms, other marine invertebrates and fish may also be taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the breeding season incubating females frequently complement their diet with algae, berries and the seeds and leaves of surrounding tundra plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a slight hollow in the ground that is usually positioned in the shelter of rocks or vegetation but may also in the open<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a colonial nester, often nesting at densities of up to 250 pairs per hectare, and there may be over 3,000 nests in some colonies<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species may also nest in colonies of Arctic tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em> for protection against predation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A study carried out in Canada found that in order to prevent reductions in nesting success as a result of disturbing and displacing incubating adults (thus increasing the likelihood of nest predation) researchers and wildlife managers should visit eider colonies as late as possible in the incubation period and avoid visiting colonies associated with high densities of eider egg predators<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141552	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to chronic coastal oil pollution<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, especially oil spills<strong><sup>1, 2, 8</sup></strong>, in areas where large moulting and wintering concentrations occur<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also comes into conflict with the shellfish aquaculture industry which depletes the species's food resources<strong><sup>2, 8, 9</sup></strong> and has previously lead to mass starvation events due to the over-fishing of benthic molluscs (e.g. in the Dutch Wadden Sea)<strong><sup>9, 12</sup></strong>. On the breeding grounds disturbance from the development of mineral resources along the coast<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and from local shore-based activities (e.g. angling, dog-walking<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and scientific research<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) increases the likelihood of predation on young<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Unregulated tourism and shipping also cause disturbance to the species on its wintering grounds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species commonly becomes entangled and drowned in monofilament nets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. gillnets)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and it is hunted unsustainably<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (e.g. in Denmark<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and Greenland<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>). <strong>Utilisation</strong> Populations of this species in the high Arctic are subject to shooting, especially in spring, by indigenous peoples for food<strong><sup>2, 14</sup></strong>. This subsistence hunting is likely to be sustainable at current levels<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The species is also shot for sport in North America (this harvest may exceed sustainable levels in some areas)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141553	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-June onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> usually in well-dispersed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although in some areas it may also form loose colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Males gather in vast flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> between July and August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and undertake moult migrations to favoured marine areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> often more than a thousand miles from the breeding grounds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The autumn migration to winter quarters (by both males and females) peaks between August and October, stragglers still leaving the breeding grounds during September<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The timing of the return passage in the spring is determined by the ice conditions and the thawing of inland breeding waters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds generally oversummer south of the breeding range or may remain on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious when not breeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, migrating in groups of up to c.1,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and aggregating into enormous flocks during the moulting period (e.g. 100,000 individuals off  the western coast of Greenland)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and during the winter (e.g. 15,000 individuals)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on dry Artic tundra<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> near freshwater lakes, pools, bogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, streams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and small rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on the coast or up to 50 km (rarely up to 100 km) inland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for shallow fresh waters with emergent vegetation for initial brood rearing, afterwards moving to more saline waters where the young fledge<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species generally moults in sheltered fjords and bays with high densities of benthic fauna<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and winters at sea on deep offshore waters<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> close to the edge of sea ice or in coastal areas with shallow waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of animal matter such as benthic molluscs, crustaceans, larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. caddisflies and midges)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, echinoderms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. sea urchins and sand dollars)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and other marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although the seeds and the vegetative parts of tundra plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sedges and aquatic plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> may also be taken on the breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and algae, eelgrass <em>Zostera</em> spp. and <em>Ruppia maritima</em> may be taken at sea<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a slight hollow on dry ground and is usually positioned near water<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in the open<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> or under the cover of driftwood<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, grass hummocks or rocks<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141553	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by chronic coastal oil pollution<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and future oil spills<strong><sup>1, 2, 7</sup></strong>, especially where it forms large aggregations on the sea during the moult period, on migration or in the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the degradation of food resources as a result of oil exploration and by human disturbance when moulting and on migration, and is threatened by disturbance from uncontrolled shipping (e.g. oil transportation) on its wintering grounds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The population wintering in Greenland is under serious threats from over-exploitation<strong><sup>1, 2, 9</sup></strong> (10-20 % of the winter population is killed annually)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and through being caught and drowned as bycatch in gillnets during the spring migration<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation </strong>Populations of this species in the high Arctic are subject to high shooting pressures, especially in spring, by indigenous peoples for food<strong><sup>3, 8</sup></strong>. This subsistence hunting is likely to be sustainable at current levels<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141554	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 2000 the US Fish and Wildlife Service designated 62,386 km² of critical coastal habitat for the conservation of this species (Anon. 2001a).	eng
141554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds along the coasts of north-east Siberia, Russia and east from the Leni Delta to north Alaska, USA. Its wintering grounds have only recently been discovered in an otherwise unbroken sea of ice halfway between St Lawrence and St Matthew Islands in the Bering sea (Balogh 1996, Petersen 1996).	eng
141554	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on small lakes, pools, bogs and streams of the tundra.	eng
141554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 330,000-390,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Although a massive decline of over 90% in breeding birds has been reported on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska (Stehn et al. 1993), no similar decline has been noted in Russia and 155,000 birds were counted on its wintering grounds in 1995 (Balogh 1996). Surveys in north Alaska during 1993-1995 indicated 7,000-10,000 breeding birds, with no indication of a declining trend. Recent survey work has discovered a huge concentration of this species in the Bering sea south of St Lawrence Island (Petersen et al. 1999). Estimates suggest that at least 333,000 birds winter in single-species flocks in the pack ice of the Bering Sea (Petersen et al. 1999), representing a total population estimate similar to that of c.400,000 individuals made during the 1970s.	eng
141555	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A European action plan was published in 2000, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service successfully proposed the critical habitat designation of 4,528 km<sup>2</sup> of coastal habitat for the conservation of this species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is a protected species in both Russia and the USA. Work has begun in Russia to conduct waterfowl population and subsistence harvest surveys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A captive breeding and research programme is underway in Alaska<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. New protective zones are being proposed around wintering sites on Bearing Island<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. CMS Appendix I and II.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey breeding and wintering grounds (particularly surrounding the Kola Peninsula, Russia) to determine population size and trends. Determine causes of current declines. Work to mitigate threats such as lead poisoning. Ensure subsistence harvest is sustainable.</strong>	eng
141555	distribution		<em>Polysticta stelleri</em> breeds between the Kolyma Delta and the Yamal Peninsula, <strong>Russia</strong>, and on the arctic plain of Alaska, <strong>USA</strong><sup>1,14</sup>. A remnant population breeds in western Alaska. Non-breeding populations summer in Novaya Zemlya, Russia, northern <strong>Norway</strong> and adjacent Russian waters, and south-west Alaska<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds breeding east of the Khatanga Gulf, Russia, winter in the Bering Sea. Small numbers winter in northern <strong>Japan</strong>. Birds breeding west of the Khatanga Gulf winter in the north-east Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. The total current population estimate is 110,000-125,000 individuals. Wintering populations in Europe were estimated at 7,700-20,800 individuals in 2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this did not include all Russian populations: the total for Europe and Russia is estimated at 23,060-36,160 individuals. In Europe, marked declines have been noted in recent years, with numbers falling by an estimated 13% per annum in the Baltic between 1994 until 2003 and by 8% per annum in Norway between 1985 and 2003<strong><sup>3,12</sup></strong>. Birds wintering in Alaska declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 79,022 individuals in 2005<strong><sup>4,10,15</sup></strong>, a decline rate equivalent to 3.8% per annum, or 39.6% over 13 years (three generations). However, the 1992 result may have been an overestimate and counts in 2001 and 2002 may have been underestimates; correcting for these yields a 1.7% annual decline, or 19.1% over 13 years<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>. The poorly known population wintering in east Asia may have declined by 20-40% to c.20,000-25,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, including 10,000-15,000 birds recently estimated to winter in the Russian Far East<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The number of eiders wintering on Bering Island, in the Commander Islands near Kamchatka, Russia, declined from estimates of 10,000 in the 1960s (Marakov 1965) to between  3,356-4,994 in 2005, 2006 and 2007<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.   It is possible that some of these declines reflect population redistribution to unknown areas. It has been speculated that declines in the Baltic could result from the population shifting to waters around the Kola Peninsula, Russia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, although a survey of parts of this area in 2003 did not reveal sufficiently large numbers to confirm this<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
141555	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It begins to breed in June, nesting sometimes in single pairs in very low density (roughly one pair per 100 acres was recorded on the Kashunuk River in the 1960s)<strong><sup> 19</sup></strong>, but occasionally in small colonies of up to 60+ nests<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Around the time of hatching, males gather in large flocks off the coast near the breeding ground<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Shortly after hatching the female moves her brood to the coast where they form 'herds'<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. The species migrates up to 3000km to its moulting sites<strong><sup>19,20</sup></strong>, where it becomes flightless for a period, before some continue migration to more distant wintering sites<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The timing of the moult migration appears to be highly variable, occurring sometimes as early as August, but in some years not until November, in which case the moult occurs prior to arrival<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. On the moulting grounds it forms flocks that may exceed 50,000 birds<strong><sup>20,22</sup></strong>. Congregations of a similar size also occur also in the spring when pair formation occurs prior to departure for the breeding grounds<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Spring migration commences in March in East Asia<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, and elsewhere it begins in April, usually peaking in May<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Arrivals on the breeding grounds begin in early June<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Some small flocks remain throughout the summer in the wintering quarters at Varangerfjiord<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>This species regularly breeds several kilometres inland<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. It inhabits pools of various shapes and sizes in areas that characterise flat coastal belt within open tundra<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. In the Lena Delta and Barrow areas it favours moss-lichen polygonal tundra<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. It forages in areas of fresh, saline or brackish water, and tidal flats<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Following hatching all birds move to coastal habitats<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>It winters mostly at sea, along low-lying rocky coasts, frequenting bays and river mouths<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages in water that is less than 10m deep<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>, and particularly favours areas where freshwater streams enter the sea<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds chiefly on molluscs, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. During the breeding season, some freshwater prey is taken including chironomid and caddisfly larvae<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. During moult, bivalve molluscs are the primary food source<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> Nests are built on small hummocks or in depressions between hummocks, usually within a few metres of a tundra pond, and are often well-concealed by grass<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. The nests are deep and lined with lichens, grass and down<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong>	eng
141555	population		10,000-15,000 estimated to winter in N Norway and SE Baltic (based on 4,297 off Kola Peninsula in April 2003 [Krasnov <em>et al. </em>2004], 2,250 in S Baltic in 2003 (Zydelis <em>et al. </em>2006) and 2,000-4,000 wintering off Norway (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006). 100,000-110,000 estimated to winter in N. Pacific (counts in N. America declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 77,329 in 2003, forming basis of 2003 N American population estimate of 90,000-95,000: K. Laing <em>in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006; 20,000 migrate through Kamchatka Peninsula in spring: Gerasimov and Gerasimov 2003).	eng
141556	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Camptorhynchus labradorius</em><em> </em>probably bred along the Gulf of St Lawrence and coastal Labrador, <strong>Canada</strong>, wintering from Nova Scotia south to Chesapeake Bay, <strong>USA<sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds presumably nested on sandbars and around sheltered bays and, in winter, foraged in shallow bays, harbours and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Shooting and trapping on the winter quarters were certainly proximate factors in the species's extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Overharvest of birds and eggs on the breeding grounds could also have been a factor<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last confirmed specimen was collected off Long Island, New York, in 1875<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (or possibly 1878<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>).</p>	eng
141558	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although its movements are poorly understood<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the males leaving the females soon after the start of incubation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (between late-June and early-September) to gather in small flocks for a flightless moulting period<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Some populations undergo extensive moult migrations of up to 1,000 km, while others moult on waters near the breeding grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Females moult between early-August and early-October on the breeding grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, often abandoning their young at the start of the moult (the ducklings then gather into large parentless groups)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The southward autumn migration occurs from September to October after the post-breeding moult<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and non-breeders may oversummer in the wintering areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in winter gathering into large aggregations of perhaps several tens of thousands of individuals to roost or to feed in inshore and offshore waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species regularly dives to depths of 3-10 m when foraging (maximum depth 50-60 m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and is diurnal<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on marshy grass tundra in the high Arctic<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, especially where habitat mosaics are formed by hummocks and ridges together with moist depressions<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, bogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, slow rivers<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> or pools of standing water<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It generally avoids wooded tundra<strong><sup>4, 7</sup></strong> but is common among willows or dwarf birch in the arctic-alpine zone (Scandinavia)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species also breeds on small rocky islands off mainland Arctic coasts and on larger offshore islands,  using promontories, deltas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, coastal inlets<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and islets in fjords (Greenland)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species winters at sea, generally far offshore<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in waters 10-35 m deep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, as well as in saline, brackish or fresh estuarine waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, brackish lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and inland (very rarely) on large, deep freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species showing a preference for marine foods during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, its diet consisting predominantly of animal matter<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> such as crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. amphipods<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and cladocerans<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), molluscs, other marine invertebrates (e.g. echinoderms, worms) and fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also takes freshwater insects and insect larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as plant material such as algae, grasses, and the seeds and fruits of tundra plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a natural depression on dry ground positioned in the open, amongst vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, partially hidden by overhanging boulders<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or under low shrubs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. willows or dwarf birch)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> usually close to water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although it is not a colonial species some pairs may nest in loose groups, and the species may also nest in association with Artic Terns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141558	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from petroleum pollution, wetland drainage and peat-extraction<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is also threatened with direct mortality from oil pollution<strong><sup>1, 12, 13</sup></strong>, drowning through entanglement in fishing nets<strong><sup>1, 12</sup></strong> and from hunting on migration routes over certain regions of the Arctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has previously suffered heavy losses from an outbreak of avian cholera<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in Denmark<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141559	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and often travels considerable distances over land making brief stop-overs on inland waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It arrives on its breeding grounds between late-April and May and breeds from late-May onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in highly dispersed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After mating (from June onwards) males migrate long distances prior to their flightless moult, most travelling in small groups to inshore or offshore coastal waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Females and juveniles leave the breeding grounds in September<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is highly gregarious when not breeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with males forming large congregations during the flightless moulting period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and large flocks of several hundred to a thousand<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> or occasionally over 100, 000 individuals occurring during winter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Non-breeders often oversummer on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on Arctic dwarf heath<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong> or boggy tundra on pools, small lakes, streams<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for freshwater habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with low banks<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, small islets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and high abundances of aquatic invertebrate and plant life positioned in swampy valleys<strong><sup> </sup></strong>or among mossy bogs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, especially where suitable shrubs (e.g. willow or birch) and herbaceous vegetation are available for nesting cover<strong><sup>2, 4, 6</sup></strong>. It generally avoids areas with steep slopes or wetlands enclosed by forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Although the species may use freshwater lakes on migration<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> the majority moult and overwinter at sea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on shallow inshore waters less than 20 m deep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (optimally 5-15 m)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with abundant benthic fauna<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, generally between 500 m and c.2 km from the shore<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, especially during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it occasionally takes other aquatic invertebrates such as crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. barnacles and shrimps)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, echinoderms, isopods, amphidods<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. midges and caddisflies)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> as well as small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and fish eggs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On the breeding grounds the species may also consume plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as seeds, roots and tubers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape on the ground hidden amongst vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> close to water<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> or placed further away in dwarf heath<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141559	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The large concentrations of this species that occur during the moulting period and in winter are highly vulnerable to oil spills<strong><sup>9, 12</sup></strong>, chronic oil pollution, human disturbance and the degradation of food resources as a result of oil exploration<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species also suffers disturbance from high-speed ferries<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and populations wintering off the coasts of western Europe are threatened by offshore wind farms<strong><sup>2, 13, 14</sup></strong>. The effects of commercial exploitation of benthic shellfish also poses a threat (through competition for food resources)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the species's breeding habitats are threatened by eutrophication in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the vius<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in Denmark<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141561	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and breeds from mid-May onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, occasionally nesting in association with gull or tern colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds spend the breeding season in flocks on open water<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. After breeding (from June onwards)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> the adults migrate to moulting sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(males travelling and moulting before the females)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> where they become flightless for 3-4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. When moulting and overwintering the species is highly sociable and can occur in large flocks<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> of several thousands of individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> although it is more common in small scattered groups of c.100 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species mainly forages by diving and may feed at depths of 30-40 m during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on wooded<strong><sup> </sup></strong>coastlines<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, small freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 7</sup></strong>, pools and rivers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in northern coniferous forests<strong><sup>1, 2, 4, 7</sup></strong>, wooded Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> and alpine zones<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>, especially where there are boulder-covered or small rocky islands available for nesting with extensive herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and low trees<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The majority winter at sea on shallow inshore coastal waters<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, especially in estuaries or inlets where there are large mussel-beds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species may also occur on freshwater lakes and estuaries during migration<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, as well as crustaceans, worms, echinoderms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, amphipods, isopods<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small fish, and (in freshwater habitats) adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also consume plant material on its breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. leaves and shoots)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression positioned on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in tall grass, among hummocks or under bushes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> usually within 100 m of open water (occasionally up to 2-3 km away)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> but it may form loose congregations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. on islands)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with neighbouring nests as close as 3 m apart<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and will also nest in association with gull or tern colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been known to use artificial nestboxes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141561	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Moulting and wintering concentrations of this species are highly vulnerable to oil spills and other marine pollutants<strong><sup>1, 2, 13</sup></strong> (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is also vulnerable to the effects of commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower tundra regions of its breeding range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and by lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is vulnerable to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species suffers predation from American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> on islands<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in Denmark<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141562	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most of this species is fully migratory although it may only travel short distances<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and certain populations in the north-west of Europe may also be sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, after which it undertakes short northerly moult migrations to coastal areas, large lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to undergo a period of flightless moult lasting 3-4 weeks (males leave for this moult migration first while females are still incubating)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Large moult gatherings are common during this period, males arriving at such gatherings in early-June and numbers peaking in late-August when adult females arrive<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The southward autumn migration begins in late-August with most arriving in the winter quarters by early-December<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Females tend to migrate further than males<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong> and juveniles migrate further than adults<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The return migration to the breeding areas occurs as early as mid-February<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the species timing its arrival to coincide with the thawing and appearance of open water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Non-breeders may also oversummer on wintering grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong> usually being observed in small scattered groups<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or in small flocks on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Several hundred individuals may roost together<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and large flocks often gather to feed at sewage outfalls<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> during the winter, although the species rarely occurs in very large flocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species is restricted to water close to the shore and less than 10 m deep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (showing a preference for waters 4 m deep)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> When breeding the species shows a preference for oligotrophic lakes devoid of fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but with abundant invertebrate life<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and requires tree-holes (or artificial nestboxes) for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include freshwater lakes, pools, rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and deep marshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> surrounded by coniferous forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species winters mainly at sea<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> on inshore waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, shallow bays<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, especially in the vicinity of sewage outfalls<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Further to the south and on migration the species may also frequent large rivers, lakes<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of the species consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates such as molluscs, worms, crustaceans, aquatic insects and insect larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. dragonflies, damsel flies and may flies)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as amphibians, small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and some plant material (mainly in the autumn) such as seeds, roots and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The species nests in hollows of mature trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. aspen, spruce or oak)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> formed by woodpeckers or by bacterial or fungal heart-rot invasions<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> that have internal cavity diameters of c.20 cm (although the height of the hollow does not seem to be important)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species will preferentially nest in trees in open stands near water<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> or solitary trees on the edges of marshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, rather than in trees in dense stands (to increase the ease of entry by flying)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificial nestboxes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>In Scotland, UK the introduction of a sewage treatment scheme in the Firth of Forth (a large marine bay) resulted in a considerable reduction in the abundance of the species, with feeding flocks only remaining at outfalls where sewage continued to be discharged in large quantities<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It was unclear whether the changes in the species's distribution were due to reductions in the number of food items borne in the sewage or to reductions in aquatic invertebrate abundance as a result of the new treatment system<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In some areas nestbox erection programmes have been shown to cause significant range expansions and population increases<strong><sup>1, 11</sup></strong>, although an experiment in southern Finland found that even though nestbox provision increased breeding numbers of the species there was a negative density-dependent effect on reproductive output (i.e. the number of fledged young did not increase despite an increase in breeding pairs)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Nesting habitats in general may also benefit from a more extended rotation of timber harvesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141562	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland degradation and loss in North America and is susceptible to atmospheric acid deposition (e.g. acid rain) throughout a large part of its breeding range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The main threat to the species in its wintering range is pollution (e.g. from coastal oil spills or other pollutants from sewage outfalls)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted sustainably in Denmark<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> although the influence of hunting on global populations is unknown<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141565	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is highly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often resting and feeding on inland waterbodies when on passage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or early-May and breeds from mid-May onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Males gather in large flocks close to the breeding grounds after mating to undergo a flightless moulting period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species then leaves the breeding grounds in early-September and October<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious and occurs in small or large flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> usually not exceeding 100 individuals, although larger gatherings may form at major passage waters during migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and flocks of over 10,000 have been recorded during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species feeds diurnally<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> by diving to depths of 1-4 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and forms gregarious nocturnal roosts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on freshwater oligotrophic lakes, pools<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, oxbow lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, backwaters of large slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, muskegs (bogs)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and flooded riverside woods<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong> in the coniferous and mixed deciduous/evergreen forest zones<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for shallow water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> up to 4 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (maximum 6 m) deep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and requires mature broadleaved trees (e.g. oaks, willows and aspens) with holes in which to nest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species overwinters on large freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, ice-free rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, brackish coastal lagoons, estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and sheltered coastal bays<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (although rarely on the open sea)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often resting and feeding on small bodies of water or small streams when on passage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>During the breeding season its diet consists predominantly of benthic aquatic invertebrates such as adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, crustaceans, molluscs and polycheate worms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (seeds, leaves and roots)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter and in early spring however the species mainly feeds on fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in tree hollows<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 10 m or more above the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (especially those excavated by Black Woodpeckers <em>Dryocopus martius</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in mature broadleaved trees (e.g. oak, willow or aspen)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also nest in artificial nest boxes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, especially those erected to attract Common Goldeneye <em>Bucephala clangula</em><strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141565	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Where it occurs in large numbers on coastal waters the species is particularly vulnerable to oil pollution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations declined in Europe throughout the 19th and 20th centuries due to habitat degradation and loss (e.g. the loss of mature trees in river valleys as a result of logging, conversion to agriculture and river canalisation)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species has also suffered local declines as a result of predation by American mink <em>Neovison vison</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is susceptible to a certain amount of hunting pressure when on passage and during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141567	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is legally protected in all three range states. It occurs in three Brazilian national parks, two state parks and one Reserva Particular do Patrim&ocirc;nio Natural (RPPN)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, although there are no recent published records from Emas National Park. A species action plan has been published which outlines in detail its current status, ecology, threats and proposed conservation actions<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. In Argentina, sections of the Arroyo Uruz&uacute; are protected within the Urugua&iacute; Provincial Park<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Regular monitoring of the population in Serra da Canastra National Park is conducted and in 2008 a team from the WWT and Terra Brasilis colour-ringed 14 individuals in the park and fitted five of them with radio transmitters increase knowledge of the species's movements and ecology<strong><sup>13,22</sup></strong>. During one phase of a long-term study in Serra da Canastra National Park four pairs fledged 70 young in five years, representing a considerable contribution to the species's long-term survival and highlighting the importance of the park<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. A Brazilian Merganser Recovery Team has been established with the aim of developing an action plan for its recovery<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. There is a proposal to extend the boundaries of Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park to incorporate the newly discovered population in the rio das Pedras<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The WWT continues to raise funds for this species, and over the next 12 months hopes to continue monitoring and ecological research, develop education work to address the threats faced by the species and carry out a feasibility study for the development of a captive population<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the status of the Tibagi, Arroyo Uruz&uacute; and Novo populations</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Continue to monitor the Serra da Canastra population. Develop and implement a fieldwork strategy using satellite images. Protect the watershed and riverine habitats of populations, especially in Bahia. Install nest-boxes for populations outside Serra da Canastra National Park. Improve local awareness and promote riverbank protection. Conduct surveys in Paraguay to confirm local reports. Advocate for the expansion of the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park in Brazil to include the newly discovered population in the rio das Pedras<sup>18</sup>. Considered captive breeding. </strong>	eng
141567	distribution		<em>Mergus octosetaceus</em> occurs in extremely low numbers at a few, highly disjunct localities in south-central <strong>Brazil</strong>. The strongholds are a recently discovered population on tributaries of the rio S&atilde;o Francisco in west Bahia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and in and (mostly) around Serra da Canastra National Park, Minas Gerais, where a total of 81 individuals was estimated after surveys in 2001-2002<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. It was recently found in Itacolomi State Parque, Ouro Pr&ecirc;to Municipality, Minas Gerais<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. In Goi&aacute;s, there are records from Emas and Chapada dos Veadeiros National Parks; the latter being surveyed in 2003-2004 with birds found just outside the park in the rio das Pedras<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Outside of Bahia and Serra da Canastra National Park, this now represents one of the largest remaining populations<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. In 1995, a small population was discovered on the rio Tibagi, Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but searches in 1998 were unsuccessful<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In 2002, another small population was discovered on the rio Novo, in Jalap&atilde;oState Park, Tocantins<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It is believed extinct in Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio de Janeiro<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, S&atilde;o Paulo, and Santa Catarina. In Misiones, <strong>Argentina</strong>, the species was found on the Arroyo Uruz&uacute;12 in 2002, the first records in the country for 10 years despite extensive surveys<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. In <strong>Paraguay</strong>, it was last recorded in 1984 and there is little (if any) habitat left. However, local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The global population is likely to be lower than the 250 birds estimated in 1992<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
141567	habitat		It inhabits shallow, fast-flowing rivers, requiring rapids and clear waters. It occurs especially in the upper tributaries of watersheds but ranges into small rivers with patches of gallery forest surrounded by <em>cerrado</em> or within Atlantic Forest. It is non-migratory and does not abandon the stretch of river where it establishes its territory<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Pairs have used 8-14 km stretches of river<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. It nests in tree-cavities and rock-crevices<strong><sup>11,17</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in June-August<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>, but timing may vary geographically. Young birds have been observed in August-November<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>. The diet comprises fish, small eels, insect larvae, dobson flies (<em>Corydalis</em> sp.) and snails. In Serra da Canastra it eats mainly lambari <em>Astyanax fasciatus</em>. Territory size is believed to be related to the number of rapids, edgewaters, water speed, fish abundance and conservation of riparian vegetation<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.	eng
141567	population		The population was estimated at 250 individuals in 1992 (Bartmann 1994). Although no complete census has been conducted since this estimate, threats have continued, hence the current population is likely to be lower than this figure, thus the population is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
141568	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> although in temperate regions it only undertakes short distance movements to nearby coasts<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or remains close to its breeding waters throughout the year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds from April or May (later in northern populations)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in single pairs or colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on islands or small islets, adults often assembling in groups on beaches when not at the nest (even when nesting solitarily)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Males leave the breeding grounds in June to moult in small groups along the coast<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, often considerable distances from the breeding areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (although there is no evidence for any major migrations to common moulting sites)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The autumn migration begins in September<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and the species returns from the wintering grounds as early as February<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is gregarious during the winter and on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flocks of up to a hundred or more occurring in suitable sites during the autumn (although it travels in much smaller flocks during the spring)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds along the wooded shorelines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of deep lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small rivers and streams<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with moderate currents<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in the tundra, boreal and temperate forest zones<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>, as well as on more saline waters such as sheltered shallow bays, inlets, straits or estuaries with sandy rather than muddy substrates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for narrow channels rather than open expanses of water, with islands or islets and spits, projecting rocks or grassy banks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The majority of the species winters at sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, frequenting both inshore and offshore waters, estuaries, bays and brackish lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but showing a preference for clear, shallow waters not affected by heavy wave action<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It will also utilise large freshwater lakes on passage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small, shoaling marine or freshwater fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as small amounts of plant material<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as crustaceans (e.g. shrimps and crayfish)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, worms and insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed within 25 m of water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in a variety of locations such as natural cavities on the ground<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> , burrows<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, under boulders<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, amongst tree or scrub roots<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, in tree cavities, artificial nestboxes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, amongst reeds or on floating reed mats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Where tree cavities or artificial nestboxes are utilised, the species shows a preference for those with entrances c.10 cm in diameter and with internal diameters of 30-40 cm<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The breeding density of this species increased on islands in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland as a result of feral American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> removal<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species will also nest in artificial nestboxes with entrances c.10 cm in diameter and with internal diameters of 30-40 cm<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
141568	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is subject to persecution and may be shot<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> by anglers and fish-farmers who accuse it of depleting fish stocks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by accidental entanglement and drowning in fishing nets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Alterations to its breeding habitats by dam construction and deforestation, and habitat degradation from water pollution are other major threats to the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may the threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in North America<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Denmark<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, although it may not be a popular game species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The eggs of the species also used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141569	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Primary forest is protected at some breeding localities in China and at the most important breeding site in North Korea. A small proportion of its breeding and non-breeding populations occurs inside protected areas, notably Sikhote-Alin' State Biosphere Reserve, Lazovskiy State Reserve and Botchinskiy State Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (Russia), and Changbai Shan Nature Reserve (China). An artificial nest programme in Russia has shown positive results, increasing habitat capacity along rivers with logged flood-plains<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. An information and education programme was started in Russia in 2006<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Delineate the breeding range in Russia. Survey breeding populations in the Bikin river basin and locate rivers with a high density of breeding pairs within the main breeding range (Primorye and Khabarovsk Region). Continue to monitor population trends. Carry out research into the impacts of human activities. Identify and protect key wintering areas in China and Korean peninsula. Establish new protected areas at important breeding localities, notably the Bikin and Iman river basins (Russia). Promote forestry management that maintains primary forest along rivers. Implement an artifical nest programme on key rivers. Initiate education programmes to raise public awareness and reduce levels of illegal hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141569	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Mergus squamatus</em> breeds in Khabarovsk, Amur, the Jewish Autonomous Region and Primorye in south-east <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong> and Heilongjiang, Jilin and Inner Mongolia in north-east <strong>China</strong>. Some birds winter in south-east Russia and North Korea, but most winter in central and southern China (the majority of wintering flocks found on the lower branch of the Yangtze River<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), with small numbers in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), <strong>Myanmar</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>. Its population is estimated at fewer than 2,500 individuals and declining. Most breed in Russia where, in the early 1980s, there were c.1,000 pairs in Primorye and c.100 pairs in Khabarovsk but, by 1990, the total number was estimated at c.950 pairs. However, recent survey results revealed that breeding density along rivers in Primorye has more than doubled since the 1960s/1970s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and a total of 173 individuals were recorded along a 20 km stretch of the Iman River in 2003<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Where historical data was available for comparison, breeding populations in Russia showed some increases but this trend seems to have stabilised during 2003-2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The breeding population in China is estimated at 200-250 pairs (now restricted to the Chingbai mountains following extinction in the Xingan Mountains and Wusuli basin) and declining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2003 a population of c.40 individuals was found on the lower Chongchon river in central Korea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. 300 individuals (including one flock of 80 birds) were recorded on a stretch of river not more than 3 km long congregating post-breeding prior to migration at Song Jiang He in Jilin Province, China<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys of c1,000 km of rivers and 11 reservoirs in south-east China in winter 2006 and 2008 found a total of 71 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and wintering birds at four sites in northern Jiangxi between 2002-2007 included a peak of 88 on a 22 km stretch of Xinjiang River<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but the whereabouts of the majority of the wintering population are still unknown<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141569	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It breeds below c.900 m in mountainous areas, along rivers with tall riverine forest, mainly within the temperate conifer-broadleaf forest zone. It is largely confined to primary forests, with an abundance of potential nest-holes. During a study on Russian breeding grounds river size, mountain slope, human population, estimated forest cover and water clarity all failed to explain the observed distribution, but the species showed a marked preference for the middle reaches of rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On passage and in winter it feeds along large rivers. Flocks of up to 20 individuals have been noted on passage or in winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	BirdLife International (2001) estimated 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. Although this estimate is precautionarily retained here, recent extrapolations from the breeding grounds based on increased co-efficients from studied breeding rivers and observations of pre-breeding adult and immature birds led to a population estimate of 8,000-10,000 individuals (D. Solovieva <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
141569	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In the 1960s and 1970s, its decline in Russia coincided with economic development of the taiga. Primary forests in the valleys of all large rivers were greatly altered, but large-scale deforestation in river valleys is now prohibited, however the new Russian Forest Codex (2007) requires a water protection zone (no deforestation) of only 100 m for large rivers (50 m on each side), and 50 m (25 m each side) for rivers shorter that 100 km, which is likely to significantly reduce suitable breeding habitat for the merganser, which nests up to 150 m from the river<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Logging of river sources and adjacent slopes has led to reduced spring water levels and changes in fish abundance; since logging began on the Avvakumovka River in 2004 spring water levels and merganser populations have undergone continuous declines<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Other major threats within the breeding range include illegal hunting, drowning in fishers' nets (a major cause of mortality at Russian breeding sites in 2003-2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), disturbance from motor boats during the breeding season, river pollution and natural predators. Increased hunting of waterfowl for sport together with poor regulation of the spring hunting season (which is intended to coincide with passage migration and avoid targeting locally breeding birds) is a significant and increasing threat; large numbers were reportedly shot in the Kievka River basin, southern Primorye, in spring 2008<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Threats in its Chinese breeding range include dam construction, deforestation, illegal hunting, human disturbance and the use of poisons and/or explosives for fishing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Fine meshed nets were a significant threat to the post-breeding congregations at Song Jiang He in Jilin Province, China, but illegal fishing at the site has been reduced and only large meshed nets are used in legal fish-farming<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The site remains threatened by industrial pollution<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The proposed Korean Grand Canal project, which aims to canalise 3,134 km of the Korean peninsula's river and would radically alter the Han and Nakdong rivers (which currently support an estimated 30-50 birds in winter), was suspended in June 2008 but has not yet been cancelled<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141570	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are fully migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> although breeders in temperate regions are sedentary or only travel short distances<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. The species arrives on its breeding areas between March and May<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, actually breeding as early as late-March (although often considerably later in more northerly regions)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to 8-10 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (especially on islands that provide suitable nesting sites in lacustrine or coastal locations)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The males gather to moult after mating, often undertaking considerable moult migrations to flock on key waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Females also undergo a post-breeding moult on the breeding grounds during which they become flightless for around 1 month<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The main migration to wintering areas largely occurs from October through to December<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, mass departures being linked to the freezing of breeding and moulting areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is typically found in small parties, with groups of up to 70 individuals feeding together on shoals of fish during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Large flocks may also form on roosting waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the largest gatherings occurring during the autumn migration and winter months and numbering up to several thousands of individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (1,000 to 10,000 on suitable waters)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On passage in the spring flocks are usually small however, breeding pairs remaining in flocks until they reach the breeding grounds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on large clear freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the upper reaches of rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and streams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in the boreal, montane<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and temperate forest zones<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It requires waters with a fairly high productivity of fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> surrounded by mature hard-wood trees with holes excavated by woodpeckers or natural cavities for nesting in<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species winters on large unfrozen lakes, rivers, lagoons, brackish waters and marshes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, generally avoiding highly saline waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although it may move to estuaries, coastal lagoons and sheltered sea coasts with waters less than 10 m deep in particularly harsh winters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> less than 10 cm long<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but may also include aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs, crustaceans, worms, and adult and larval insects), amphibians, small mammals and birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in holes excavated by large woodpeckers or natural cavities in mature hardwood trees<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with entry holes more than 15 m above the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for cavities with openings c.12 cm wide and internal diameters of c.25 cm<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in trees close to or up to 1 km away from water<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. When natural tree-nesting sites are not available<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> the species will use artificial nestboxes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or may nest among tree roots in undercut banks, on cliff ledges<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in rock clefts<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or in dense scrub or loose boulders on islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Sometimes several females may nest in the same tree<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, especially on islands that provide suitable nesting sites in lacustrine or coastal locations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Artificial nestboxes commonly used are 85-100 cm high with openings 50-60 cm from the base<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141570	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is subject to persecution by anglers and fish-farmers who accuse it of depleting fish stocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it is occasionally drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the degradation of freshwater lakes through drainage and petroleum pollution in Russia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and as a result of acid rain in North America<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in North America<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Russia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (although it is not a popular game bird)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and its eggs used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mergus australis</em><em> </em>was restricted to the Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, by the time of its discovery in 1840<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but subfossil remains of a <em>Mergus</em> species have also been found on South and Stewart Islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was largely a freshwater species, foraging in inland streams, estuaries and, occasionally, sheltered bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its decline was presumably caused by a combination of hunting and predation by introduced pigs, rats, cats and dogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>&#152;the species's incipient flightlessness made it especially vulnerable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At least 26 specimens were collected in total, the last in 1902<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; there have been no records since, despite intensive searches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. Its status ranges from uncommon in south-eastern Australia to common in the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
141575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common in much of its range. However its status and population trend is very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common as suggested by frequent capture (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141577	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141578	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in northern, western and southern Madagascar and less common in the east and high plateau (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141579	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Management actions completed or underway include surveys in Queensland (excluding Fraser Island), and research to determine habitat use, particularly of <em>A.&#160;cunninghamii</em> plantations and adjacent remnants of native vine thicket.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Confirm size and distribution of Fraser Island population. Determine status of remaining populations in New South Wales. Survey possible habitat before timber harvesting, licensing clearing, burning, roading and grazing. Develop a standard monitoring technique. Determine the impact of fox and cat predation, particularly in small fragments. Determine the extent of movement between habitat patches. Rehabilitate and consolidate habitat fragments. Ensure appropriate conservation management of all remaining breeding habitat, including protection from clearing, burning, timber harvesting, roading and grazing.  <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141579	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnix melanogaster</em> is found in Queensland, from Marlborough to the New South Wales border and up to 300 km inland, and New South Wales, <strong>Australia</strong>. However, it now survives at a much reduced density, particularly in the Dawson and Fitzroy River catchments, and in northern New South Wales. The present population may number c.5,000 birds, and subpopulations may be mostly isolated. Its area of occupancy is estimated to be 750 km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>. Possibly the largest population occurs in a 3 km by 100 km strip along the eastern edge of Fraser Island National Park.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141579	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Queensland, it is commonly found in rainforests with a rainfall of 800-1,200&#160;mm, a largely closed canopy and a deep litter layer. It also occurs in softwood scrubs in the brigalow belt, vine scrub regrowth and early mature to mature hoop pine <em>Araucaria cunninghamii</em> plantations, especially where a shrubby understorey is present. In New South Wales, it occurs in wetter subtropical rainforest, often in association with moist eucalypt forest. Its diet is mainly small seeds and invertebrates from the forest floor. Adults are sedentary, although females tend to roam more widely during breeding season.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141579	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The present population is thought to number c.5,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141579	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At least 90% of its habitat has been cleared for agriculture or plantations of <em>A.&#160;cunninghamii</em>. This undoubtedly contributed greatly to the local extinction from most of the Dawson River valley. Timber harvesting throughout this species's range is also a threat. Surviving populations in vine thickets are affected by grazing and disturbance by cattle, horses, feral pigs and wallabies, which have increased as a result of partial clearing. Such disturbance has greatest impact during droughts when the habitat, particularly the leaf-litter, is susceptible to fire. It is threatened by introduced predators including feral cats.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141580	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnix castanotus</em> has a disjunct distribution in Top End, Northern Territory, and the Kimberley region, northern Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. It could possibly number c.100,000 birds. The species has declined throughout its range, particularly near the McArthur River region, where it was common in 1913. The decline in this latter area, from where the Partridge Pigeon <em>Geophaps s. smithii </em>and Hooded Parrot <em>Psephotus dissimilis</em> have also been extirpated, suggests that large-scale changes in habitat may be affecting the species. Possibilities include grazing by introduced herbivores or inappropriate changes in the fire regime. The spread of annual <em>Sorghum</em> spp., a consequence of changed fire regimes, may be particularly detrimental to ground-dwelling granivores. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141580	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It could possibly number c.100,000 birds, including c.50,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). However, there is effectively no data to support this (S. Garnett<em> in litt</em>. 2007; J. Woinarski <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
141581	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Searches for the species are underway, as is habitat analysis in the Mt Molloy area.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop a reliable technique for finding birds. Search for populations in the northern Atherton Tablelands. Record calls and use to locate other populations. Determine habitat requirements. Determine habitat use and movements in wild populations using radio-telemetry. Determine an effective conservation management strategy for known populations. Capture at least 10 birds to establish a captive population. Determine the optimum habitat structure using the captive population. <br/></p>	eng
141581	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnix olivii</em> is endemic to north-eastern Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>, and is one of the country's least-known birds. Historically, the species has been recorded near Cooktown, Coen, Musgrave, Iron Range, Mareeba, Mt Molloy and Ingham. There are no recent records from sites of early collection at Coen and near Cooktown and, in the last decade, it has only been found sporadically at a few sites. In the last seven years, birds have been found less frequently near Mt Molloy, despite intensive searching. The total population is best-guessed at 500 individuals, and may be restricted to an area of occupancy of 50 km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>. <br/></p>	eng
141581	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Most of the few observations of this species are from within grassland, on ridge-tops or stony rises within areas that are otherwise dominated by rainforest or eucalypt woodland. Its only feeding records are of seeds and insects.</p>	eng
141581	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Within the species's known range there are perhaps c.500 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141581	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Some sites are in danger of being destroyed by clearing. Historical sites near Coen may have been invaded by woody weeds and rendered unsuitable by inappropriate burning and grazing regimes that encourage extensive fires, but promote occlusion of grasslands and grassy woodland by woody weeds.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141582	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141583	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnix worcesteri</em> is endemic to the island of Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from just six localities. Virtually all records have derived from bird-catchers and are assumed to be intra-island migrants. The limited available evidence suggests that it breeds somewhere in northern Luzon in April-June and that at least some birds disperse southwards in the period July-March. Thus its true range (and habitat) remain obscure. It appears to be rare, and may be confined to grasslands in the highlands of the Cordillera Central, although records are from 150-1,250&#160;m, and the possibility that it frequents forested (non-grassland) habitats cannot be discounted. However, buttonquails are a notoriously cryptic and unobtrusive family of birds, and the species could conceivably occur in reasonable numbers somewhere. If it does inhabit grasslands, it cannot be assumed that increases in this habitat on Luzon have benefited the species, which may prove to have specific ecological requirements not met by the creation of pastures or cropland through forest clearance. Hunting evidently poses a threat (e.g. at the migratory funnel and notorious bird-catching area of Dalton Pass, Nueva Vizcaya), but the impact of this on its population cannot currently be gauged.</p>	eng
141584	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent surveys have provided important new information and a conservation project on Sumba has been initiated. While this project has submitted a proposal to gazette a network of seven protected areas on the island, it is unclear to what extent this will benefit this species.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further fieldwork to net and identify buttonquails at a wide range of sites across a variety of grassland habitats, in order to estimate population size, distribution and key ecological parameters. Ensure the Sumba Forest Conservation Strategy incorporates measures tailored to the needs of this non-forest species. Conduct conservation awareness programmes to reduce hunting and trapping.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141584	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnix everetti</em> is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is apparently patchily distributed, but locally frequent, as at Yumbu where up to 17 have been recorded. Locals report it to be common during the maize harvest and unidentified buttonquails are encountered throughout the island. The species may therefore prove to be more widespread and abundant than currently suspected.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141584	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits sparse, dry grassland and scrub, often in a mosaic, from sea-level to at least 220&#160;m, and appears to be less common in cultivated areas. At Yumbu, it was found in sparse natural grassland with occasional bushes on a raised coral limestone plateau, with all definite and possible records coming from areas with a 0.5-0.7&#160;m sward height, interspersed with patches of shorter grass. It associates (and may be in competition) with other <em>Turnix</em> and <em>Coturnix</em> species. It has been postulated that resource partitioning in these species is related to bill morphology, the heavier bill of <em>T.&#160;everetti</em> being an adaptation to its diet of larger seeds. Although probably sedentary, seasonal movements may occur in response to food availability.</p>	eng
141584	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km2 x 400 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,000-4,000 i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (population density is based on lower of two estimates for congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and assessment that the species may be locally common) <br/></p>	eng
141584	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Assessment of the threat posed by burning and clearance of habitat is complicated by the fact that this activity may actually increase habitat availability for the species. Nevertheless, much survey time has been spent in human-made grasslands, and its apparent absence from these areas suggests that it is constrained by an unknown ecological factor. It is quite possible, therefore, that overgrazing and burning are deleterious, and that competition with other species is a problem. Recent evidence suggests that it is often trapped for food, at least seasonally, and this may constitute a major threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
141588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to rare and sporadic (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141589	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141591	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Indicator archipelagicus</em> is very local and sparse to uncommon (although easily overlooked) in peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in broadleaved, lowland evergreen forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. However, the species appears to occur also in open country and secondary forest, in Borneo at least, and in more secure hill-slope forest in the Thai-Malay Peninsula. <br/></p>	eng
141592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sierra Leone, uncommon in Somalia and locally common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but not common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141595	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Indicator pumilio</em> is restricted to the Albertine Rift mountains in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, possibly also occurring in Burundi<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species favours montane forest (1,500-2,400&#160;m) and feeds on beeswax and insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda, it occurs in semi-open forest in drier areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest within parts of its range is highly threatened as a result of shifting agriculture and illicit logging, exacerbated by high population pressure<strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>. The species occurs within the Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park, Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park, Virunga National Park and Nyungwe Forest Reserve. This is an unobtrusive species which appears to lack an advertising song and is thus difficult to detect, so its apparent rarity may be simply a result of under-recording<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141596	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141597	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Indicator xanthonotus </em>occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (possibly a seasonal or nomadic visitor, but there are no recent records), <strong>Nepal</strong> (local and uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (very rare and local), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (local and uncommon), <strong>China</strong> (rare in south-east Tibet) and <strong>Myanmar </strong>(rare resident in the north). It occurs in broadleaved or coniferous forest, usually between 1,450 and 3,500 m, males defending giant rock bee <em>Apis</em> <em>dorsata</em> nests that are usually attached to vertical cliffs. It is generally assumed to be a rare species, although easily overlooked due to its inconspicuous behaviour and it may be more common than the paucity of records suggest. Nevertheless, it has been suggested that over-exploitation of bees' nests for honey by human populations in the Himalayas might have a deleterious impact on its populations. <br/></p>	eng
141598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only occasionally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141599	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melignomon eisentrauti</em> has been collected from <strong>Cameroon</strong> (two records), <strong>Liberia</strong> (near Mt Nimba, the Wonegizi Mountains, the slopes of Mt Balagizi and south of Vahun)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (one sight record from Gola Forest), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml; Forest, Mt Peko, Marahou&eacute; National Park, Cavally and G&eacute;oul&eacute; Forest Reserves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and most recently, Angu&eacute;d&eacute;dou Forest Reserve, plus probably Banco National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Ghana</strong> (Kakum Forest Reserve and Atewa Range) and <strong>Nigeria </strong>(Cross River National Park in 2004<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>). It is likely to occur more widely in West Africa and is probably usually silent and easily overlooked in surveys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is undoubtedly rare and remains very poorly known<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found in the mid-strata and canopy of semi-deciduous forest and primary evergreen lowland forest and appears to survive in secondary forest (though it is unlikely to be well adapted to such habitat). At Mt Nimba, it has been observed along logging roads<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, pollen, small fruits and seeds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is presumably a brood-parasite, but the host species remains unknown<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Although habitat throughout the species's range is under much pressure as a result of logging, agricultural encroachment and mining<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, lack of records and uncertainty over its dependence on primary forest makes it impossible to assess whether its population is declining rapidly due to forest loss. Further surveys are required, but with a better understanding of the species's distribution and habitat requirements, it may well prove to be Least Concern, or perhaps Near Threatened, owing to a small and declining global population<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141600	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare though probably overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but never common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in Kenya and Tanzania (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 580000-1300000 breeding pairs, equating to 1740000-3900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3550000-15600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to not uncommon and irregular in occurrence (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141607	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141608	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141611	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picumnus fuscus</em> has a very restricted range in <em>v&aacute;rzea</em> forest along the r&iacute;o Guapor&eacute; (It&eacute;nez) in Beni and Santa Cruz (Noel Kempff Mercado National Park), <strong>Bolivia</strong> and Rond&ocirc;nia, <strong>Brazil<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is poorly known, but observations suggest that it may be relatively common, and may favour vine tangles and bamboo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The r&iacute;o Guapor&eacute; is largely uninhabited, and almost continuously forested<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but by 1996 there was increasing human colonisation of river banks in the west of the species's range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141612	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141614	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141615	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably uncommon or over-looked (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141617	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, which was designated in 1986 to protect the r&iacute;o Alto Mayo watershed for agricultural sustainability<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, forest clearance has continued unabated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Discussions with local leaders, public talks and media interviews have been conducted to advocate protection of forests in north-west San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys of the isolated east-Andean ridges of this region<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess population status and ecological requirements. Control logging and habitat conversion in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, working with agricultural interests to protect the watershed. Support conservation groups currently working to protect forests in the region<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141617	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picumnus steindachneri</em> occurs in the Andes of north-west San Mart&iacute;n and south-east Amazonas, <strong>Peru</strong>. It is known from five locations<strong><sup>4,5,6,7</sup></strong>, but there are no recent records from the type-locality near Mendoza, and it is likely to have been extirpated from the area. It has been described as fairly common or common in the Abra Patricia area (the best-known location)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141617	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid tropical and subtropical montane forests with many epiphytes and tall secondary growth at elevations from 1,100&#160;m to at least 2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>. It may be seen singly, in pairs or small family groups, and often moves through the canopy with mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141617	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141617	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forests within its range have been logged since 1930 or earlier<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Deforestation for coca plantations was a threat in the early 1980s, but commercial production now appears to have ceased in the area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Continuing population growth and immigration have led to heavy disturbance of (and deep intrusions into) forests where the species occurs, both through clear-cutting and selective logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This situation is particularly concerning in the south-east of its range, where forest is now confined to the highest slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Large areas have been converted to agriculture (especially coffee plantations) and pastures<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141620	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141624	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Pedra Talhada and Serra Negra Biological Reserves, Tapacur&aacute; Ecological Station, Serra da Capivara National Park and Araripe National Forest<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. At Pedra Talhada, significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites in east Pernambuco to ascertain its current status. Survey potentially suitable habitat in the caatinga. Designate a biological reserve at Murici and ensure its <em>de facto</em></strong> protection<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue conservation efforts at Pedra Talhada. Resolve the confusing taxonomic relationship between the <em>saturatus</em></strong> subspecies and <em>P.&#160;limae</em>.</p>	eng
141624	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picumnus fulvescens</em> was, until recently, considered to have a disjunct range in the Atlantic forest and Caatinga of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>.  Recent surveys, however, found it at three new widely distributed sites: Vale do Catimbau, Pernambuco<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>; Fazenda Tamandu&aacute;, Para&iacute;ba<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; and Usina Serra Grande, Alagoas<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The new records suggest that its distribution is not as disjunct as first thought. Observations made at Murici<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> and Usina Serra Grande suggest that, in the Atlantic Forest region, this piculet uses drier second-growth forest and may be colonizing regenerating cleared areas. The species has been recorded in low secondary caatinga, and seems to be adaptable to human disturbance (as other <em>Picumnus</em>). Its occurrence in southern Piau&iacute; seems marginal, as its possible competitor, the Spotted Piculet <em>P. pygmaeus</em> is common there<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The number of localities (13) and extent of occurrence, are now estimated to exceed the B criterion at the Vulnerable level. Similarly the rate of population decline is now not thought to be so rapid, and the species has been reclassified as Near Threatened, and indeed may warrant downlisting to Least Concern. It is scarce, with most records pertaining to one or two birds<strong><sup>1,4,5,10,11</sup></strong>. It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and secondary forest, and is regularly observed in degraded secondary scrub, from the lowlands to c.950&#160;m <strong><sup>3,6,11</sup></strong>. There has been massive deforestation in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s to 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In January 1999,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations<strong><sup>2,11</sup></strong>. The species has not been relocated around Serra da Capivara National Park, and significant areas outside the park have been degraded by cattle raising and wood collection to fuel the local brick factories<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, a problem widespread in northeastern Brazil. Potentially suitable habitat in the Caatinga has been reduced through agricultural expansion, grazing and burning. It occurs in Pedra Talhada, Guaribas and Serra Negra Biological Reserves, Serid&oacute; Ecological Station, Tapacur&aacute; Ecological Station, Serra da Capivara National Park and Araripe National Forest<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. At Pedra Talhada, significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Vale do Catimbau is expected to become a National Park soon. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141624	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and secondary forest, and is regularly observed in degraded secondary scrub, from the lowlands to c.950&#160;m <strong><sup>3,6,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141624	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive deforestation in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in the 1970s to 30&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In January 1999,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations<strong><sup>2,11</sup></strong>. Potentially suitable habitat in the Caatinga has been reduced through agricultural expansion, grazing and burning, but the species's distribution in the region (and consequently potential threats) is poorly known. <br/></p>	eng
141625	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>An environmental protection area was decreed in the Serra do Baturit&eacute; in 1991, but its effectiveness in protecting forest habitat is unclear<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Local hotels protect some habitat in this serra<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Resolve the confusing taxonomic relationship between the<em> saturatus</em> subspecies assigned to <em> P. fulvescens</em> and this species.</strong>	eng
141625	distribution		<em>Picumnus limae</em> is known from the Serra de Ibiapaba, Serra do Baturit&eacute; and Serra do Arataruai in north-central Cear&aacute;, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>.  New information suggests it is far more numerous and widespread than was previously thought, and its range covers the northern half of the State of Ceara and a small part of eastern Rio Grande do Norte.  It persists in degraded and urban habitats, and its population is now estimated at 1,000,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
141625	habitat		The species inhabits a diverse number of environments, from semi-deciduous hillside forests and the adjacent dryer tall caatinga to moist forests at elevations up to 1,000 m <strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>, as well as degraded habitats such as degraded forest edge with exotic bamboo and abandoned orchards<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and urban areas<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>.	eng
141625	population		The global population has been estimated a c.1,000,000 individuals (W. Silva in litt. 2007).	eng
141626	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picumnus nebulosus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Paran&aacute; south to Rio Grande do Sul, in adjacent parts of <strong>Uruguay</strong>, and in Misiones and Corrientes, north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>, where there are few recent records<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It is found up to 1,100&#160;m in lowland evergreen and mixed <em>Araucaria</em> forests with dense undergrowth (often in bamboo areas, despite not directly depending on this microhabitat), forest edge and gallery woodland<strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The proposed Garab&iacute; dam on the r&iacute;o Uruguay could flood the only forest patches from which it is currently known in Argentina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141629	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141630	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141636	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141638	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanerpes herminieri</em> is endemic to <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong>, with 7,920 pairs in 381&#160;km<sup>2</sup> on Basse-Terre, and 2,410 pairs in 135 km<sup>2</sup> on Grande-Terre<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits semi-deciduous forest on igneous and clay ground, evergreen forest, mangroves and swamp forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and excavates nest holes in the trunks of dead trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to the tree-line at 1,000&#160;m, but is most common at 100-700&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Food items taken include a variety of invertebrates, vertebrates and fruit<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Clear-cutting and the removal of dead trees are the main threats, but damage from hurricanes, road construction, airport enlargement and land development are all concerning<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Introduced rats may also be a problem<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141638	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Villard and Rousteau (1998).  <br/></p>	eng
141639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141640	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</em> is found in central and eastern <strong>USA</strong>, from Montana to the Atlantic coast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and in extreme southern <strong>Canada<sup>1</sup></strong>. The northern populations are migratory<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, and historically its movements were influenced by nut crops from the now non-existent northern beech (<em>Fagus</em>) forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is strongly aggressive, particularly in relation to the defence of food storage sites, and is interspecifically territorial against the Red-bellied Woodpecker <em>M. carolinus<strong><sup>3</sup></strong></em>. It has experienced a steady decline of 2.5% annually since 1966<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with decline most severe in Florida and the Great Lakes Plain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat degradation, as a result of the removal of dead trees and branches in urban areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and loss of nesting habitat to firewood cutting, clear cutting, agricultural development and river channelling in rural areas<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, appears to be responsible. Collisions with moving vehicles may be a contributing factor, but persecution as a pest by farmers and utility companies is currently minimal<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141640	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
141642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141648	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141664	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although in some places rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141666	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141667	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campethera notata</em> is a thinly dispersed endemic of the coastal lowlands of <strong>South Africa</strong>, extending north into southern KwaZulu-Natal and west to near Bredasdorp, Western Cape. A range contraction in KwaZulu-Natal in the 19th century has been attributed to the clearance of coastal bush for sugar-cane farming and township development. The total range is less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its total population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, with 1,000-1,500 estimated to be in reserves. It is confined to coastal areas of forest, woodland, dense bush, <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub, or open country with large trees, extending marginally inland in places. A lack of suitable nest-holes may be limiting in some areas. With a small population and a restricted, possibly declining range, it should be monitored carefully. <br/></p>	eng
141667	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Locally common but thinly dispersed within its small coastal range; estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals (Barnes 2000). <br/></p>	eng
141668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally localized and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141672	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141673	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141674	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and sparsely distributed throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141675	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141676	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141677	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Nigeria and locally common in Gabon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendropicos stierlingi</em> occurs in southern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, northern <strong>Mozambique</strong> and adjacent south-west <strong>Malawi</strong><sup>1</sup>. Within most of this small range the species is uncommon to rare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although it has been reported as being common in parts of the Dzalanyama Mountains in Malawi<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland almost exclusively, and its distribution is limited even within this habitat, although the reasons for this are unclear<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and centipedes in the middle strata and canopy, foraging on branches 4-12 cm thick and thus apparently avoiding competition with Cardinal Woodpecker <em>D. fuscescens</em> which feeds more often on twigs and smaller branches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the opening-up of <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland would probably favour Cardinal Woodpecker over Stierling's Woodpecker<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Malawi and possibly also in Mozambique and Tanzania, <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland is being cleared for firewood especially in areas of tobacco cultivation where the tobacco is dried over wood fires<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and locally common but seldom numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141684	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon within its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and the most abundant woodpecker in its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141689	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although the likely benefits to the species are unknown. In 1997, an awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys of all remaining forest tracts to identify further key sites and determine its habitat requirements. Urgently afford formal protection to any sites supporting populations, including Batu-batu. Campaign for rapid designation of further remnant forest patches as protected areas. Seek clarification of the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141689	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendrocopos ramsayi</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known historically from eight islands, including Jolo, Siasi, Sanga-sanga and Sibutu. Formerly widespread and abundant, a major decline was already evident by the early 1970s. It persists with certainty only on Tawitawi, where there are post-1990 records from three localities (Magsagaw, Batu-batu and Suwang Batang), at each of which it is described as not at all common and undoubtedly still declining. <br/></p>	eng
141689	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest clearings, forest edge, mangroves and cultivated areas, in addition to primary forest, although it has been speculated that it avoids dense forest. However, its habitat preferences are poorly understood. Its tolerance of degraded habitats implies that it should be more numerous than is the case.</p>	eng
141689	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 352 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,056-3,520, but perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 because AOO may be a higher % of EOO as the species appears to be tolerant to some degree of habitat degradation (density range is lower half of estimates for three congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141689	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive forest destruction throughout the archipelago presumably precipitated its decline. Jolo has been almost completely deforested and only very small areas of heavily degraded low-stature forest remain on Sanga-sanga and Sibutu. By the mid-1990s, rapid clearance of primary forest on Tawitawi had rendered remaining lowland patches highly degraded, with plans to replace even these with oil-palm plantations. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged mountainous areas, is likely to be followed by uncontrolled settlement and conversion to agriculture. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 450000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 1350000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2760000-13200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141695	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141696	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141698	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141699	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where the vegetation (including trees) is protected by private or communal ownership-rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental feed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve and Asir National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Conduct a comprehensive population census and more extensive survey of potentially suitable sites. Promote the species as a flagship for strengthening the degree of protection of several sites in Saudi Arabia. <br/></p>	eng
141699	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendrocopos dorae</em> occurs locally in the Red Sea foothills and western ramparts of south-west Arabia<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, from 13&#176;N in <strong>Yemen</strong> to 26&#176;N in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong><sup>4</sup>. It is generally uncommon to rare where it occurs -- the few population data<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong> suggest that local densities are probably equivalent to 0.1-1.0 mature individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. The total population is therefore inferred to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
141699	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits woodland, which now occurs only in residual fragments throughout its range, following millennia of settlement, cultivation and livestock-grazing. It occurs in a wide variety of woodland-types, including: groves of fig <em>Ficus</em>, date-palm <em>Phoenix</em> or pandan <em>Pandanus</em> at lower altitudes; subtropical, evergreen riparian forest; traditional shade-coffee plantations and well-developed succulent shrubland at middle-altitudes; woods, groves and parklands of <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Olea</em> and <em>Dracaena</em> at higher altitudes (often on slopes terraced for agriculture); and old-established orchards in the highlands<strong><sup>3,5,6,10</sup></strong>. Breeding records (February-May) are restricted to the highlands (1,450-2,400 m)<strong><sup>3,7,10</sup></strong>. The nest-site is a small hole excavated in the trunk or major branch of a large tree (generally in dead wood or in a soft-wooded species). <br/></p>	eng
141699	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.1-1.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 13,000 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,300-13,000, i.e. probably best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (population density estimated from data in Davidson [1996], Newton and Newton [1996]). <br/></p>	eng
141699	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lopping, cutting and wholesale clearance of trees, for charcoal and firewood (especially in Yemen<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>) and for building/agricultural land (mainly in Saudi Arabia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), are widespread and intensifying within the species's range, are likely to preferentially target nest-trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and are known to have reduced the number of large trees at some sites since the late 1980s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Abandonment of agricultural terraces at mid-altitudes is leading to massive loss of top-soil and degradation of terrace woodlands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A lack of tree regeneration, due to high levels of grazing and browsing by livestock, has been observed at several sites and may be a problem. <br/></p>	eng
141700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon to scarce in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141702	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 140000-310000 breeding pairs, equating to 420000-930000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
141704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180000-550000 breeding pairs, equating to 540000-1650000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
141705	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-18000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-54000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73500000-216000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 530000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 1590000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2150000-6600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141707	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141715	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The emphasis has been on site-specific rather than ecosystem-level management<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Intensive activities include translocating young females from natal sites to groups lacking a female, constructing artificial cavities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and fitting restrictor plates to prevent <em>D. pileatus</em> enlarging cavities<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Habitat is managed (regular burning and understorey clearance) on some federal lands, but not always appropriately<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In South Carolina the "Safe Harbor" scheme offers financial incentives to private landowners who undertake beneficial management prescriptions<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor populations, especially where managed. Implement ecosystem-level management<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Provide incentives for landowners to maintain/enhance habitat<sup>1,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Fit restrictor plates only where cavities are scarce<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Document and monitor translocations<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Adapt management to ecological variations<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Replace even-aged forest management with selective or no cutting<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish habitat corridors (e.g. along highways)<sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
141715	distribution		This species was originally distributed throughout south-east <strong>USA</strong>, but in 1999 was limited to c.30 isolated populations (the largest in South Carolina and Florida), totalling c.4,700 groups or c.11,000 individuals and occupying just 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. Between 1980-1990, it declined by at least 23%, with 50% of groups in just six populations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, the most recent data suggests that the population may now be stable or increasing<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>.	eng
141715	habitat		It inhabits fire-sustained open pine-forest, dominated in half of its range by longleaf pine <em>Pinus palustris</em> and elsewhere by shortleaf <em>P. echinata</em>, slash <em>P. elliotti</em>, or loblolly <em>P. taeda</em> pines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is a cooperative breeder, with each group requiring at least 80 ha of habitat. Nests are in cavities of living old-growth trees (100+ years old) and eggs are laid from late April to early June<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Foraging habitat preferences differ between the sexes and females are negatively influenced by the loss of old-growth trees<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. One study showed that adults were heavier, and both adults and nestlings apparently sourced more food in shortleaf and loblolly pine habitats than in longleaf pine forest<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
141715	population		Guynn (1997), Jackson (1994), and J. A. Jackson <em>in litt</em>. (1999) estimated the population to number 10,000-11,000 individuals, suggesting the number of mature individuals may fall below 10,000. Although more recent data suggests that the population may now be well above 10,000 mature individuals (Department of Defense/US Fish and Wildlife Service <em>in litt.</em> 2006), a figure of 9,000-11,000 mature individuals is precautionarily retained.	eng
141716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141719	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large range across boreal Eurasia, with isolated resident populations in mountains to the south, including the Alps, Altai, and Tien Shan.	eng
141719	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits mature conifer forests, particularly spruce Picea spp., and is somewhat irruptive, being found commonly where disturbance such as fire has caused local outbreaks of insects (Winkler et al. 1995).	eng
141719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 350000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 1050000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4380000-66000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141719	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Large-scale commercial logging and modern forestry management practices, including fire suppression and removal of dead or insect-infested trees, have led to declines of American Three-toed Woodpecker P. dorsalis (Hutto 1995., Leonard 2001), and are also likely to have led to declines of this species.	eng
141721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141727	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141730	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Veniliornis chocoensis</em> occurs on the Pacific coast, from extreme west Antioquia and Choc&oacute;, west <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Esmeraldas, north-west <strong>Ecuador<sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Though poorly known, it has been recorded in lowland evergreen forest and forest edge up to 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation pose threats, with deforestation most severe in its altitudinal range<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141733	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141734	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141740	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Piculus aurulentus</em> inhabits montane and lowland humid forests (but has been recorded in forest edge and dense secondary growth) in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Minas Gerais south to Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north-east Corrientes). It occurs at 750-2,000&#160;m in Brazil, but at lower elevations in Paraguay and Argentina<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. It seems to be rare in Paraguay, and more common in the mountains of south-east Brazil<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. These montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but the isolated forests in the north of its range have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation, and remaining patches are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas. <br/></p>	eng
141741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141749	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The entire Zapata Swamp is a reserve, but there are no available resources to effectively police the area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Design and distribute posters in villages around the Zapata Swamp to raise awareness of the importance and vulnerability of this species and others such as <em>A.&#160;leucocephala<sup>4. Fit nest-boxes to live palms within and around present nesting areas4.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141749	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Colaptes fernandinae</em> was once widespread but never abundant on <strong>Cuba</strong>, and is now very rare and localised. It is currently known from Soroa, Mil Cumbres, Nortey, and Loma del Taburete in Pinar del R&iacute;o province; the Zapata Swamp in Matanzas province (from at least twelve localities); Monte Ramonal, near Corralillo, El Dorado, and Isabela de Sagua in northern Villa Clara province; Aguada de Pasajeros and Rodas in Cienfuegos province; near Gibara (in the Campos de Veloso) and near Velazco (El Recreo), in Holgu&iacute;n province; Jobabo in Las Tunas province; Cienaga de Birama in Granma Province; and Sierra de Najasa (at La Bel&eacute;n and El Chorrillo) in Camag&uuml;ey province<strong><sup>3,5,9,10</sup></strong>. There are also recent records from eight localities in Santiago de Cuba province<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. The largest population persists in the Zapata Swamp, where total numbers are estimated at 300-400 pairs<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, although recent hurricanes may have impacted on this population<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141749	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in palm-savanna, where it nests in dead and live palm trees, especially <em>Palma cana</em><strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, and also inhabits pastures, swamps, forest edge and dense woodland<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nesting takes place in March-June<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and loose "colonies" have occasionally been found at Bermeja in the Zapata Swamp<strong><sup>3,5,7</sup></strong>. However, it is mostly not social, and aggression between conspecifics is common<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There may be an association with palms used as a source of thatch, because fungus invades such trees making them more suitable for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141749	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A. Kirkconnell <em>in litt</em>. (1999), A. Mitchell <em>in litt</em>. (1998). <br/></p>	eng
141749	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging and clearance for agriculture are severe threats. Nest-trees are often shared with the Cuban Parrot <em>Amazona leucocephala</em>, and trappers frequently topple the trees to collect young parrots, causing both the loss of the woodpecker's brood and the permanent destruction of the nest-site<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Hurricanes have a devastating impact on the dead palm trees, as evidenced at Bermeja after Hurricane Lilli in 1996<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, and have recently hit the species's stronghold in Zapata, causing significant destruction<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. West Indian Woodpeckers <em>Melanerpes superciliaris</em> have been observed to prey on the eggs and chicks<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141755	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
141758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141763	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by Brazilian law. Populations occur in numerous protected areas throughout its range: Iguaz&uacute; National Park, Esmeralda Provincial Reserve, Urugua-&iacute; Provincial Park, Caa Por&aacute; Private Reserve, Mocon&aacute; Provincial Park and Campo San Juan Protected Reserve in Argentina<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve, Itab&oacute; Private Reserve, San Rafael National Park, Caaguaz&uacute; National Park, Golondrina Private Reserve, Cerro Cor&aacute; National Park in Paraguay<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; and Intervales State Park, Ilha do Cardoso State Park and Igua&ccedil;u National Park, Brazil<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey, with the aid of tape-playback, historical localities and areas of suitable habitat to clarify distribution and status. Assess population density at sites likely to hold large populations, such as Iguaz&uacute;, Igua&ccedil;u, San Rafael and Mbaracay&uacute;.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dryocopus galeatus</em> is confined to south <strong>Brazil</strong> in S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina (no recent records), Rio Grande do Sul (probably extinct), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> in Amambay, San Pedro, Canindey&uacute;, Caaguaz&uacute;, Alto Paran&aacute;, Caazap&aacute;, Paraguar&iacute; (three old specimens), Itap&uacute;a<strong><sup>6,7,9,12</sup></strong> and north <strong>Argentina</strong> in Misiones. Numerous recent records (at least 60 from Misiones, Argentina and east Paraguay) suggest that it is more common than previously thought. Moreover, it is difficult to locate except when vocalising and, since it is silent for much of the year, is almost certainly under-recorded<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, it is not common at any known site and its status remains unclear, particularly considering the high rates of deforestation within its range. <br/></p>	eng
141763	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in primary and mature, selectively logged, montane and lowland Atlantic forest, but has also been recorded in relatively small and degraded forest patches and gallery forest, though generally in the proximity of large forest tracts<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Birds forage primarily in the middle storey of the forest interior<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in September-October<strong><sup>2,3,5,8,10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
141763	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further justification. <br/></p>	eng
141763	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is at risk from widespread deforestation. Although interspecific interactions with the larger <em>D.&#160;lineatus</em> and <em>C.&#160;robustus</em> appear to be avoided by different foraging techniques, increasing habitat degradation and fragmentation creates forest edge habitat which may favour <em>D. lineatus</em> and presumably increases competition for nest-holes<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141766	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dryocopus schulzi</em> is restricted to the xeric woodland and savannas of the central and southern Chaco and the woodlands of the foothill Chaco in south <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Tarija), west <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Nueva Asunci&oacute;n, Boquer&oacute;n, Presidente Hayes) and north-central <strong>Argentina</strong> (Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero, C&oacute;rdoba, San Luis and Corrientes), and transitional subtropical forest up to 1,500&#160;m in the low Andean foothills of south-central Bolivia (Santa Cruz) and north-west Argentina (Salta, Tucum&aacute;n)<strong><sup>1,3,6,7</sup></strong>. It appears to have always been rare, or perhaps under-recorded, but has declined over much of its former range in Argentina. It survives mainly in two isolated population centres in C&oacute;rdoba and adjacent San Luis, and the central Paraguayan Chaco<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is principally the result of logging of quebracho (<em>Aspidosperma</em> spp., <em>Schinopsis quebrachocolorado</em>) and algarrobo (<em>Prosopis</em> spp.) for charcoal, tannins and railway sleepers, land clearance for agriculture and cattle-ranching, and plantations of non-native tree genera<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong>. Its habitat preferences are not clear, but it has been found breeding in mature horcoquebracho <em>Schinopsis hankeana</em> and <em>Lithraea ternifolia</em> woodland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and has been found in timber plantations. <br/></p>	eng
141766	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
141767	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141768	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dryocopus hodgei </em>is endemic to the Andaman islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it is a common resident in large trees of evergreen forest. Although forest remains fairly extensive on the Andamans, the human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Given the small range of this species, habitat loss and population trends should be monitored. <br/></p>	eng
141769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 740000-1400000 breeding pairs, equating to 2220000-4200000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4530000-16800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141772	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141775	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141776	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campephilus gayaquilensis</em> is restricted to the west slope of the Andes and adjacent lowlands, from south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca) through west <strong>Ecuador</strong> to north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (south to Cajamarca)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is locally relatively common, but appears uncommon to rare over much of its range<strong><sup>1,3,4,6</sup></strong>, with populations becoming highly fragmented owing to habitat destruction. It inhabits dry deciduous and humid forests, as well as tall second growth and mangroves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, from sea-level to 800&#160;m, occasionally higher in the south<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with records to 1,800&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Forest in this region is being cleared for agriculture, and goats and cattle graze the understorey of much of the remaining forest, preventing regeneration. Most remaining forest in the region is highly fragmented, and it seems unlikely that small areas (e.g. Jauneche Biological Reserve Station in Ecuador) can support viable populations of this species, which occurs naturally at low densities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears inevitable that such populations will ultimately become extinct<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141778	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141779	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A number of specific searches have been undertaken since the 1960s, including an extensive 11 month search in 1994-1995<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are no confirmed records from protected areas. Searches are ongoing and anecdotal reports are regularly pursued. The species's range and potential habitat fragments have been comprehensively mapped, and identified areas thoroughly explored.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Prepare to follow-up any further local reports. Continue searching areas of old-growth forest in the former range, especially in small patches now surrounded by managed forest.</strong>	eng
141779	distribution		<em>Campephilus imperialis</em> was formerly distributed throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental of <strong>Mexico</strong> in Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Nayarit, Zacatecas (possibly) and north Jalisco with more isolated populations in west Jalisco and Michoac&aacute;n. It was not historically a rare species within suitable habitat, but the total population probably never numbered more than 8,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last confirmed record was from Durango in 1956 but there have been convincing local reports of sightings after 1965<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The most recent are of a pair in central Durango in 1993, a single male c.20 km from this site in 1995, and a single female in north Sonora in 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A reported sighting in north-central Durango in 1996 was followed up, but no birds were located<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and a bird was reported in November 2005 in the Barrancas-Divisadero region of Barranca del Cobre, Chihuahua, Mexico, but subsequent searches have found neither Imperial Woodpeckers, nor appropriate habitat or recent local knowledge of the species, within a 50 km radius of the locality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are now no un-surveyed old-growth remnants that are large enough for a breeding territory<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Even if a few individuals persist, extensive habitat fragmentation and continued hunting pressure from rural people has made extinction virtually inevitable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
141779	habitat		It requires extensive areas (26 km<sup>2</sup> per pair) of continuous open pine forest on relatively flat plateaus with large numbers of snags for foraging and nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most records are from elevations of 1,920-3,050 m, but there are records as low as 1,675 m. There are many reports of more than four individuals, and this grouping behaviour may be related to its foraging specialisation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main food source, beetle larvae in snags, is probably patchily distributed and peaks within a short period of time<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Consequently, feeding-sites are probably best exploited by "nomadic" groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. If it operated in groups of seven or eight individuals, the minimum area of old-growth forest for a group would have been 98 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded between February and June, and probably 1-4 eggs are laid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
141779	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny based on the lack of confirmed records since 1956, and analyses of remaining habitat indicate that no tracts remain which are large enough to support the species.	eng
141780	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>After the reported rediscovery in February 2004, intensive surveys involving dozens of observers, automatic cameras and recording equipment have been carried out in the Big Woods area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Searches have also continued in other parts of the south-east USA that have historic records of the species, with specific searches taking place in 21 locations across that area in 2006-2007<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. An endangered species recovery team of c.50 members has been appointed<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and a recovery plan has been drawn up. Funds totalling $10.2 million have been allocated by the federal government to the recovery effort. Part of the Big Woods area falls within the Cache River and White River National Wildlife Refuges. In Cuba there have been a number of searches for the species, and further searches are planned for 2010 and 2011<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Carry out further surveys in the south-east USA (particularly near recent reported sightings) to try to locate further individuals, document their continued existence and determine the population size and distribution.  Ensure strict protection of any nests and nesting trees, if found. Continue to carry out searches for the species in Cuba, where c. 80% of suitable habitat has not been explored. Ensure the implementation of appropriate protective measures if a population is found in Cuba. Engage birdwatchers in the search for the woodpecker and raise awareness about the importance of reporting any sightings<sup>16</sup>. Use GIS to remotely identify suitable search sites where the species may occur<sup>16</sup>.</strong>	eng
141780	distribution		<em>Campephilus principalis</em> formerly occurred at low densities throughout the south-east <strong>USA</strong> (nominate <em>principalis</em>) and <strong>Cuba</strong> (race <em>bairdii</em>). Sixty years after the last confirmed North American record in north-eastern Louisiana in 1944, the species was reported to have been rediscovered in 2004 in the Big Woods region of eastern Arkansas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Evidence for the rediscovery comes in the form of seven sightings, a short poor-quality video, over 100 sound recordings indicative of this species from automatic recording stations, and a number of additional 'possible encounters'<strong><sup>3,6,7,8,11</sup></strong>. The sound and video recordings have been analysed in detail. However, some consider that this evidence is not yet conclusive<strong><sup>8,9,10,12</sup></strong>, and intensive searches are currently underway that hope to provide unequivocal documentation of the species's continued existence. There were also unconfirmed reports by researchers working in forests along the Choctawhatchee river in Florida reporting 14 sightings and 41 acoustic encounters heard during 2005-2006 and further sightings and calls in the 2006-2007 field season, but again incontrovertible evidence is still required<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. However a search in the coastal mangrove forests and inland hammock forests of south Florida in 2009 failed to find any sign of the species<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Between the last confirmed sightings in 1944 and the 2004 records discussed above there were a further 20 credible unconfirmed reports from within its historic range<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The species may well survive in Cuba, although searches have not found any new records subsequent to those of the late 1980s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The best hope lies in the Alejandro de Humboldt National Park, in which only a small proportion of the potential habitat has been searched. Calls potentially of this species were heard in 1998 in the Sierra Maestra in south-east Cuba<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, an area from which there had been no historical records and at an elevation higher than the known altitudinal range of the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Follow-up searches in the area found poor habitat and no indications of presence of the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Any remnant population in either the USA or Cuba is likely to be tiny.	eng
141780	habitat		It was originally found in both bottomland hardwood and montane (pine, mixed and broadleaf) forests in the USA and Cuba. Historic accounts indicate that it has a very large home range and occurs naturally at low densities, suggesting that large contiguous tracts of mature woodland would be required to support a viable population<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The Big Woods area comprises several distinct types of swamp and bottomland hardwood forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, covering a total area of c.220,000 ha. In Cuba, extensive habitat loss and degradation in the lowlands mean that any remaining population may be restricted to intact montane <em>Pinus cubensis</em> forests. The primary requirement is for dead trees, which harbour wood-boring beetle larvae, its preferred food source. It forages by stripping bark from dead trees, using its bill like a carpenter's chisel, and also takes fruit, nuts and seeds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The breeding season is March-June in Cuba and February-May in the USA.	eng
141780	population		Given the lack of confirmed sightings since 1944 any remaining population within the USA is likely to be tiny. A tiny population may also remain in Cuba, despite lack of recent sightings.	eng
141781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141783	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common but rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 590000-1300000 breeding pairs, equating to 1770000-3900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1880000-5200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141793	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picus rabieri</em> is known from China<strong> </strong>(one historical record from extreme south Yunnan), <strong>Laos</strong> (widespread and locally fairly common) and <strong>Vietnam </strong>(uncommon in west and east Tonkin and north and central Annam). It is found in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and locally in tall mixed deciduous forest, usually below 700 m, ascending locally to c.1,000. It tolerates, and in some regions even appears to prefer, logged and disturbed forest, provided that some large trees remain. It is nevertheless susceptible to the ongoing destruction and degradation of lowland forest that is taking place within its range. <br/></p>	eng
141794	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180000-320000 breeding pairs, equating to 540000-960000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2250000-19200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
141796	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dinopium rafflesii</em> is found from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(uncommon), in mangroves, lowland and hill forests to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's abundance in hill-slope forest is unlikely to place it at serious risk. <br/></p>	eng
141797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common locally (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141798	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141799	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141800	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally fairly common in India and uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very rare to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141803	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141804	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. It occurs in Yonaha-dake Prefecture Protection Area and small protected areas on Mt Ibu and Mt Nishime and conservation organisations have purchased sites where it occurs. In 1996, Yambaru was designated as a national park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to monitor its population. Designate a special protected area to cover all the mature forest (40 years old or more) on the central ridge of northern Okinawa. Connect fragmented forests in the north with planted forest corridors and ensure all forests of more than 25 years old are protected and logging is prohibited. Provide nest-boxes in young secondary forest. Initiate a conservation education programme using Okinawa Rail <em>Gallirallus okinawae</em> and Okinawa Woodpecker as flagship species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141804	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Dendreocopos noguchii</em><strong> </strong>is endemic to Okinawa Island, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is confined to Kunigami-gun (=Yambaru) with the main breeding areas along the mountain ridges between Mt Nishime-take and Mt Iyu-take. It also occurs in coastal areas. It was considered close to extinction in the 1930s and, in the early 1990s, the breeding population was estimated to be c.75 birds and the total population between 146-584 birds. A density of 12.1 birds per km<sup>2</sup> has been estimated at the US Forces Northern Training Area in north-eastern Okinawa. <br/></p>	eng
141804	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in subtropical, evergreen broadleaved forest at least 30 years old, with tall trees more than 20 cm in diameter, much of which is now confined to hill-tops. Foraging takes place in old-growth forest. Nesting is between late February-May, often in hollow <em>Castanopsis cuspidata</em> trees. There is an extraordinary difference in the foraging niches of males and females<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although both forage on dead and live trunks, males have also adapted to feed on the ground on soil-dwelling arthropods, as well as berries, seeds, acorns and other nuts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Ikehara <em>et al.</em> (1991) in BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
141804	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Its decline is primarily attributable to deforestation, which continues at a significant rate as a result of logging, dam construction and associated road-building, agricultural development and golf course construction. Construction of six new helipads near the village of Takae in the US Marine Corps Northern Training Area began in 2007 and represents a further potential threat to remaining areas of forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species's limited range and tiny population make it vulnerable to extinction from disease and natural disasters such as typhoons.  <br/></p>	eng
141805	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141806	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141807	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or scarce in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141808	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141810	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Meiglyptes tukki</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan (including the north Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including most offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally fairly common in evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland and peatswamp forests (including secondary formations) to 1,250 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's abundance in hill-slope forest is unlikely to place it at serious risk. A recent study shows that it is able to persist in logged forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it cannot sustain populations in areas where closed-canopy forests have been cleared<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141811	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141812	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparsely distributed and locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141814	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141815	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No current action is known for this species, although it does occur in many protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research the status of this species at additional sites across its range<sup>2</sup>. Assess density responses to forest disturbance in the Indochinese forest complex<sup>2</sup>. Investigate whether degraded forests can support viable populations<sup>2</sup>. Promote the protection of large tracts of its range, particularly in Myanmar which is thought to be a population stronghold<sup>2</sup>.</strong>	eng
141815	distribution		<em>Mulleripicus pulverulentus </em>is found in South-East Asia, from northern <strong>India</strong> through the foothills of the Himalayas to southern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>,<strong> Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>, and through peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong> to the western islands of <strong>Indonesia</strong> and the <strong>Philippines<sup>1</sup></strong>. The current population has been estimated at 26,000-550,000 individuals, which according to previous levels of forest cover may be a 90% decline on historical levels, and a significant decline within the past couple of decades<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
141815	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This resident species breeds between March and May in the west of its range and without a distinct season in South-East Asia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Clutch size is two to four eggs. Nest-hole excavation, incubation and chick-rearing are conducted by both sexes, with helpers at some nests. forage in noisy goups of three to six individuals and sometimes more<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Groups occupy large territories. <strong>Habitat</strong> It occupies primary semi-open moist deciduous and tropical evergreen forests, as well as adjacent secondary forest and clearings with scattered tall trees. It prefers dipterocarp and teak forests in certain areas, as well as swamp-forest and tall mangroves. It is most frequent in lowlands and lower hills below 600 m, but does occur up to 1,100 m in the Himalayas and occasionally up to 2,000 m. <strong>Diet </strong>Foraging groups search and exploit nests of social insects (ants, termites, and stingless bees), often in trunks and branches of live old trees. Birds may also take small fruit<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
141815	population		Based on remote sensing and population density the global population has been estimated at 26,000-550,000 individuals. This figure is revised from 260,000-550,000 individuals, as in many countries extrapolation from forest cover exceeds population numbers that appear reasonable based on anecdotal information about the abundance of the species, as large tracts which are classified as 'forest' in remote sensing data are not occupied by the species (e.g. heath forest) (Lammertink <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
141816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141817	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in India and local in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141818	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141825	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalaima rafflesii</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland evergreen forest to 800 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's ability to persist in secondary forest and rubber plantations provides some hope, although it has disappeared from virtually all its range in Thailand and populations are fragmented everywhere. <br/></p>	eng
141826	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalaima mystacophanos</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular (including the Tana Islands)<strong> Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(one record), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally abundant in lowland primary and logged forest, and somewhat rarer in flooded and peatswamp forest, to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of hill-slope forest implies no immediate threat from habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
141827	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalaima javensis</em> is endemic to Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits open evergreen and hill forest, mostly in the lowlands, but locally to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the lowlands of Java and Bali has been extremely extensive, but its ability to persist at higher elevations suggests no immediate substantial threat. It is also sometimes trapped and traded as a cage-bird. <br/></p>	eng
141828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141830	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141831	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141832	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141833	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalaima henricii</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (common) in lowland primary (occasionally secondary) broadleaved evergreen (including swamp) forests to 975 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. However, the species's occurrence in hill-slope forest implies no immediate threat from habitat loss, although loss of fig trees may result in reduced numbers. <br/></p>	eng
141834	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141839	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as less common than G. calvus and G. bonapartei (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and relatively abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141846	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141847	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Short and Horne 2001).	eng
141848	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141849	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141850	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and local in the northern part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141853	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141857	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141858	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141859	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141860	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141863	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and usually uncommon, although more common in the south of its range (Short and Horne 2001).	eng
141866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141868	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lybius chaplini</em> is endemic to <strong>Zambia</strong>, being distributed from the upper Kafue River to Kabanga in the Kalomo District<strong><sup> 1,2,4</sup></strong>. Its range size has recently been estimated as 21,000-27,000 km<sup>2<strong> 5</strong></sup>. It is almost invariably found in very open woodland with high densities of fig trees <em>Ficus sycomorus</em>. Groups of two to six or more habitually roost and forage together, feeding mainly on figs but also on arthropods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Within its small range, it is locally common where there is suitable habitat<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Fig trees are usually left when areas of woodland are cleared for cultivation and <em>L. chaplini</em> appears to be able to survive in partially degraded habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the availability of fig trees for nest-sites may be a factor limiting its population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and there may be a minimum threshold density of fig trees necessary to support these barbets with a year-round supply of figs. Small numbers of this species are found in Kafue National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Field surveys to establish its distribution and ecological requirements should be a priority. <br/></p>	eng
141868	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimated by Roxburgh (2007) after a comprehensive survey of historical sites.  <br/></p>	eng
141869	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lybius rubrifacies</em> is restricted to eastern <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong>, and north-west <strong>Tanzania</strong>, with a single locality (Lake Mburo National Park) in south-west <strong>Uganda</strong><sup>1</sup>. It occurs in hilly areas of <em>Combretum</em>-wooded grassland, mixed woodland of <em>Albizia-Acacia-Commiphora</em> (including riverine woods) and also cultivated areas with scattered trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, generally at altitudes of 1,200-1,500 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in pairs and groups of up to five or more, feeding on figs, berries and seeds as well as insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the species is locally common in Rwanda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, it has a restricted distribution and is presumed to have suffered a population decline as a result of habitat loss after the degazettement of about two-thirds of Akagera National Park (from 2,850 km<sup>2</sup> to 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, habitat for this species is not currently under threat, but it occurs at very low densities, and an ecological study to ascertain the reason(s) for this would be useful<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141870	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to often be local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Senegambia and Nigeria and locally common elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably uncommon or perhaps locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141885	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Capito squamatus</em> is apparently uncommon in lowland evergreen forest, forest edge and second growth on the Pacific slope of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o) and west <strong>Ecuador</strong> up to 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all pose threats, with forest destruction most severe within its altitudinal range<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141886	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The only protected area in which it occurs is the small (c.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) R&iacute;o Claro Nature Reserve, Antioquia. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and protect remaining forests across its range, notably, the interior and higher parts of the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas and both slopes of the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas<sup>2,5,7,8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141886	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Capito hypoleucus</em> is restricted to the north Central Andes and west slope of the East Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>. The nominate subspecies is known from the north tip of the Central Andes and the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas, Bol&iacute;var and north Antioquia. Subspecies <em>carrikeri</em> and <em>extinctus</em> occur successively further south, from the Ponce valley, along the east slope of the Central Andes from Antioquia to Tolima, and on the west slope of the East Andes in Boyac&aacute;<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and Cundinamarca. Since 1950, it has only been recorded in the south of its range. It is locally fairly common, but with a severely fragmented distribution in the Central Andes, and is common to abundant in the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas in the East Andes of Boyac&aacute;<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141886	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lower montane humid forest at 400-1,600&#160;m, using primary, secondary and heavily disturbed forest, and occasionally areas with a mosaic of forest, coffee plantations and pasture. The diet consists of seeds, fruit and insects, and it apparently responds nomadically to local fruit abundance<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Evidence of breeding has been collected from late April<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> to early September.</p>	eng
141886	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.2-8.4 individuals/km2 x 758 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,668-6,367, i.e. best placed within band 2,500-10,000 (density range from lower to upper quartile of four estimates for <em>C. niger</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, compatible with description as 'common to abundant'). <br/></p>	eng
141886	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Vast areas of forest within its range have been cleared and used for livestock-farming, arable cultivation, narcotics plantations, infrastructure development, oil extraction and mining<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. The northern tip of the Central Andes has been progressively settled and deforested since the 19th century, although some extensive forests survive<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. The middle Magdalena valley was rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, although forest regeneration has begun following land abandonment in some areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas was covered by primary forest until 1996, when a gold rush began, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted to agriculture and coca production, with streams polluted by mining and cocaine production<strong><sup>1,2,3,5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141888	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Potentially suitable habitat is present in Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park and Aw&aacute; Ethnographic Reserve, Ecuador, but the species has not yet been found in either (and effective protection at these sites is uncertain). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Effectively protect and manage protected areas where the species occurs. Monitor population at strongholds and search for the species in potentially suitable habitat at new sites.  Study its ecology and particularly its ability to persist in degraded and fragmented habitats. <br/></p>	eng
141888	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Capito quinticolor</em> is known from c.14 sites in the lowlands and foothills up to 575 m in <strong>Colombia</strong> (central Choc&oacute; south to Nari&ntilde;o) and north <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas). It is generally considered uncommon and local<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but is fairly common at two locations in the lower foothills of Esmeraldas and Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, one of which is selectively logged<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
141888	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits wet lowland forest, forest borders and tall secondary growth, foraging for fruits and insects, almost exclusively in the canopy of large trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Based on estimate of 5,000 mature individuals in 2,400 km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador in 2001, extrapolated over an estimated range of 40,700 km<sup>2 </sup>(O. Jahn <em>in litt. </em>(2009). <br/></p>	eng
141888	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extensive areas of lowland forest remain in Colombia, however the rate of forest loss in the lowland Choc&oacute; region of Colombia is presently accelerating at an extraordinary rate, as oil palm plantations (biofuel speculation), timber extraction (Pacific rim exportation), industrial-scale river dredging for gold, and coca production is stimulating immigration and colonisation to the region. Areas in Nari&ntilde;o where the species was frequently seen have in recent years been completely cleared<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, only a few hundred square kilometres of habitat at suitable elevation within the species range are included within the protected area network<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and habitat loss has been taking place at a rate of 3.8% per year in the past decade<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The principal driver has been conversion for oil palm plantations, and rising demand for biofuels means that pressure on remaining forests is likely to increase<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It tends to reach unnaturally high population densities in remaining (secondary) forest fragments in areas where large-scale deforestation has occurred, but it is not known how quickly these will revert to more normal densities, and it is uncertain if the barbet can persist in forest fragments in the long-term or if it will eventually disappear from them altogether<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not rare near Boim (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141895	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Semnornis ramphastinus</em> is uncommon to common in premontane to montane evergreen forest and edge on both slopes of the West Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> at 1,000-2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. Surveys at La Planada Nature Reserve, Colombia, in the mid to late 1980s suggested an estimated world population of c.73,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is trapped for the local and international cage-bird trade<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is low reproductive success owing to competition for nest-sites with, and predation of young by Plate-billed Mountain-toucan <em>Andigena laminirostris<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>. Uncontrolled colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation pose threats to its remaining forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141900	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs within the extensive R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park, but the population in this reserve may be small.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to improve knowledge of its status, distribution and ecology. Assess the population within R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park. Assess the likely impact of current threats. Designate further protected areas encompassing montane forests within its potential range. <br/></p>	eng
141900	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aulacorhynchus huallagae</em> is known from only two localities in north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is uncommon at the type-locality in La Libertad, and apparently very rare in R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park, San Mart&iacute;n. It has also been reported recently from Leymebambe<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is predicted to occur to the north and south, but little of the area between the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, Amazonas, and the Carpish region, Hu&aacute;nuco, is accessible<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, it does not appear to occupy all potentially available forest, since there are no records from the relatively well-surveyed Carpish Mountains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141900	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the canopy of humid, epiphyte-laden montane forest, particularly areas with <em>Clusia</em> trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, at elevations of 2,100-2,450&#160;m. This narrow altitudinal range has been explained by the occurrence of the larger Grey-breasted Mountain-toucan <em>Andigena hypoglauca</em> above 2,300&#160;m, and perhaps the smaller Emerald Toucanet <em>Aulacorhynchus prasinus</em> below 2,100&#160;m. However, its restricted geographic range remains unexplained, and more recent information indicates that both the putative competitors have wider altitudinal ranges that (at least in some areas) completely encompass the known elevational range of <em> A. huallagae<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
141900	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It has a very small range, and appears to be rather scarce. However population estimate requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
141900	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation has been widespread in the region, but mainly below this species's altitudinal range. However, the Huallaga valley, especially the upper reaches, was being taken over by coca-growers in the early 1990s, and it seems likely that forest at all elevations has suffered<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141906	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141910	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Baillonius bailloni</em> occurs in lowland and montane Atlantic forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, it is most common in montane regions (up to 1,550&#160;m) of Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do Sul, but also occurs in Pernambuco, and has been re-introduced into ex-Guanabara, Rio de Janeiro<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It is apparently less common in Argentina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Paraguay, where it is probably most numerous in south-east Paraguay<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A recent survey of 24 forest fragments in the states of S&atilde;o Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Mato Grosso do Sul, only found the species in the largest fragment (Paranapiacaba, 1,400 km2). Surveys showed that the encounter rate at this site had declined by 47.5% between 1987-1991 and 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. If such declines are mirrored in the northern part of its range, and in eastern Paraguay and north-east Argentina, then its status would have to be re-evaluated. It is less conspicuous than other toucans in the same region, and may be more easily overlooked. There is an illegal cage-bird trade, hunting and significant habitat loss<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland forest in Brazil, but isolated forests in the north of its range have been reduced by the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and fires spreading from cultivated areas. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141911	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Andigena laminirostris</em> occurs along the west Andean slope from Nari&ntilde;o, south of the Pat&iacute;a valley, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, to the r&iacute;o Chanchan in west <strong>Ecuador<sup>2</sup></strong>. It is relatively common in humid montane forest and edge with abundant bromeliads and mosses, at 1,200-3,200&#160;m, occasionally to 300&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is primarily threatened by ongoing deforestation, which is largely the result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation, with destruction most severe in the lower half of its altitudinal range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A secondary threat, which may become more significant as habitat loss fragments existing populations, is the large illegal international cage-bird trade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141912	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Andigena hypoglauca</em> occurs primarily on the east slope of the Andes, from Nari&ntilde;o, south <strong>Colombia</strong>, through <strong>Ecuador</strong> south to Cuzco, south-east <strong>Peru</strong>. On the west slope of the Andes it occurs in Caldas and Cauca, Colombia, and Azuay and Loja, south-west Ecuador<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It occurs in montane evergreen forest, forest edge and stunted forest near the tree-line at 2,400-3,350&#160;m, occasionally to 2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. Its habitat in Colombia has been subject to widespread and severe deforestation over a prolonged period as a result of agricultural expansion<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, whereas the east Andes of Ecuador and north Peru are under intense pressure from conversion for agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Peru, there is an alarmingly high rate of deforestation in the north Cordillera de Col&aacute;n for the cultivation of cash crops<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and widespread forest loss on montane slopes in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Montane forests in south-east Peru are perhaps the most intact within its range, but even these have been locally affected by domestic grazing animals, burning, cutting for fuel and clearance for cultivation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141914	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in Colombia on both slopes of the West (south to Cauca), Central (head of the Magdalena valley in Huila and east slope in Putumayo and Nariño) and East (south to Cundinamarca and west Caquetá) Andes; in north-east Ecuador (Napo) on the east slope of the Andes; and in north-west Venezuela (Trujillo and Táchira) (Hilty and Brown 1986, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).	eng
141914	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is relatively common in montane evergreen forest and forest edge at 1,600-3,200 m, and to 1,200 m on the Pacific slope and east slope of the East Andes (Hilty and Brown 1986, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141914	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is becoming increasingly local owing to habitat destruction (Stotz et al. 1996). Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded many of its Chocó forests, and deforestation is accelerating (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Stattersfield et al. 1998); a long history of human colonisation on inter-Andean slopes has left only remnant forest patches, pasture and plantations (Wege and Long 1995); and extensive degradation in the East Andes has largely cleared west slopes for intensive crop cultivation and pasture (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
141915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common in Ecuador (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
141923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141933	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. It is known from Caratinga Biological Station, the environs of Rio Doce State Park, Serra do Brigadeiro State Park, Fern&atilde;o Dias State Park and UFMG Ecological Station, Minas Gerais. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat to clarify distribution, status and ecological requirements. Prevent disturbance of the understorey and earth banks at known localities<sup>5. Protect key sites, especially in south-east Minas Gerais and the rio Para&iacute;ba valley.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
141933	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Jacamaralcyon tridactyla</em> now occurs chiefly in small numbers at few sites in the rio Para&iacute;ba valley in Rio de Janeiro state, and in the dry regions of east Minas Gerais, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are older records from Esp&iacute;rito Santo (known from only two localities and not since 1940), S&atilde;o Paulo (not since at least 1975) and Paran&aacute; (not reliably since 1961). Recent records from Minas Gerais have widened its known distribution<strong><sup>2,4,5,6,7</sup></strong> and suggest that further populations may exist within this area. It was considered very common in the early and mid-19th century and must have suffered a very substantial decline in numbers. It is now local even in the core of its current diminished range. <br/> <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
141933	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is now primarily restricted to small patches of dry forest, possibly associated with streams, but can persist in degraded areas where the original vegetation has been replaced (e.g. by <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>) if a native understorey remains. It is dependent on earth banks (streamsides and roadcuttings) for nesting-cavities<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Individuals are conspicuous, perching in exposed positions in the subcanopy (8-15 m), though also lower<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, from where they sally to take aerial insect prey<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Preferred food items are small cryptic Lepidoptera<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Hymenoptera<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but birds also take Diptera, Odonata, Homoptera, Hemiptera and Isoptera<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Vocalisations and courtship behaviour increase at the start of the rainy season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but decrease during incubation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
141933	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
141933	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread and continuing habitat destruction have been responsible for the significant decline in numbers and range of this species. In addition, its specialised habitat requirements ensure that it is absent from many degraded woodlots. Its resulting highly fragmented distribution is very vulnerable to further habitat loss and the effects of small population sizes, such as local extinctions and inbreeding.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141935	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141936	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141938	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Podocarpus National Park (which may protect quite a large population) and Cayambe Coca and Antisana Ecological Reserves (San Rafael and Cordillera de Guacamayos areas respectively). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further field surveys in forests of the Andean east slope<sup>5</sup></strong> to find new localities and provide population estimates. <strong>Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, and involve local people in the land-use management of this region<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Create other protected areas in the lower montane forest within the species's range. <br/></p>	eng
141938	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Galbula pastazae</em> occurs in the foothills and subtropical zone of the Andean east slope in <strong>Ecuador<sup>2</sup></strong> (Napo, Tungurahua, Morona-Santiago, Zamora-Chinchipe, Loja), two adjacent east-slope valleys in <strong>Colombia</strong> (Putumayo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Nari&ntilde;o), and the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor in <strong>Peru<sup>5</sup></strong>. Except in Podocarpus National Park, Loja, where it is described as fairly common, the species is generally uncommon<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong> and local, and presumably declining as a result of habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
141938	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its main habitat is humid lower montane forest, where it seems to prefer forest edge and second growth near primary forest at 600-1,700&#160;m altitude, generally between 900 and 1,300&#160;m. A specimen from Ambato, Tungurahua, at c.2,600&#160;m is surely mislabelled<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nests with young have been found in December, in holes in earthbanks. <br/></p>	eng
141938	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,310-3,780, i.e. best placed within band 2,500-10,000 (density range is up to the lower quartile of 11 estimates for five jacamar species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
141938	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The lower slopes of the eastern Andes in Ecuador at c.1,000-2,500 are seriously affected by clearance for small-scale agriculture, and for tea and coffee plantations, with forest disappearing at an alarming rate. In Colombia, however, c.80% of this forest remains, and the climate and terrain are unsuited to coffee- or tea-growing. Proposals to build a new Ipiales-Orito road, partly to facilitate exploitation of the heavily forested Guamu&eacute;s and Sucio valleys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (Putumayo and Nari&ntilde;o), represent a further threat. <br/></p>	eng
141939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141950	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bucco noanamae</em> has a moderate-sized range in west <strong>Colombia</strong>, from the west side of the Gulf of Urab&aacute;, south through Choc&oacute;, and from west Antioquia to the r&iacute;o San Juan delta. Although there are confirmed recent records from only two sites<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, few of the c.10 specimen localities have been studied since 1966. It is common in Los Kat&iacute;os National Park, Choc&oacute;<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Humid forest, secondary growth and adjacent non-forest areas in flat lowland areas below 100&#160;m are occupied<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. It is an inconspicuous species, perching motionless on open branches for long periods before stooping on large insects in the understory foliage<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Logging and conversion to banana and oil palm plantations are causing considerable rates of deforestation, with human settlement, infrastructure development, cattle ranching and other agricultural land use also significant threats<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
141951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
141963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
141976	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
141977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common but patchily distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141979	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and commonly heard (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread within its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141985	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141986	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common with patchy distribution (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in Ethiopia and uncommon elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in some small reserves (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141995	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthracoceros coronatus </em>is restricted to central and southern <strong>India</strong> (common in a few areas, but declining and confined to land under 300 m) and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (local and moderately plentiful, but now restricted to more secluded forest of the dry lowlands). It is subject to seasonal movements in open moist broadleaved deciduous and evergreen forests, visiting fruit trees in cultivated areas. Forest on Sri Lanka has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983 and similar losses are occurring in mainland India. The status of this species therefore requires monitoring. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
141996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest Asian hornbill (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
141997	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthracoceros malayanus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra (including the Lingga, Bangka, Belitung islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(common), in lowland primary and logged forests and swamp forests, usually below 500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. It is more tolerant of secondary and regenerating areas than other hornbills, but its dependence on plains-level habitats has removed it from much of its former range, especially in Thailand where it is on the verge of extinction. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
141998	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal, and the island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in the protected areas of El Nido Marine Reserve and St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. The latter may soon be significantly extended to the east, where the species is known to occur. It recently featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests, particularly around Mts Victoria and Mantalingahan, to identify and propose for protection additional key sites. Research its year-round ecological requirements. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. Formally protect forests at Iwahig. Allocate greater resources towards more effective control of hunting in Palawan forests and initiate conservation awareness campaigns amongst forest product collectors.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
141998	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthracoceros marchei</em> is endemic to Palawan and its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It has recently been described as quite common to uncommon and has evidently declined. There have been recent observations from c.10 localities, mostly confined to the northern half of Palawan, including several tiny offshore islands whose small populations appear relatively secure. It appears to be fairly common in St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. The El Nido Reserve and Iwahig penal colony may also be key sites for the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141998	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits all storeys of forests, including secondary growth, up to 900&#160;m, but probably requires large trees in which to nest. It also frequents mangroves, cultivated land and bushlands, all presumably close to contiguous forest. It may make local movements in response to food availability.</p>	eng
141998	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-4 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 1,330 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 665-5,320 but perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000  because described as fairly common at some sites (density range is based on estimates for <em>A. albirostris</em> and <em>A. malayanus</em> in Kemp 1995). <br/></p>	eng
141998	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation in lowland Palawan and on many of its satellite islands (e.g. Culion, Balabac and Busuanga) has been extensive. Logging and mining concessions have been granted for much of the island's remaining forest. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the south, and forest at Iwahig penal colony may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. Hunting for food and sport is also a threat and nest trees may be raided for young birds which appear to have commercial potential.<strong></strong></p>	eng
141999	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to conservation work in the Sulus. There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys in all remaining forest patches in the Sulus to identify key sites. Urgently establish formal protected areas in the south-west of Tawitawi to conserve populations in the main mountain range. Clarify the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Continue environmental awareness programmes.</strong>	eng
141999	distribution		This species is endemic to three islands in the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Described as common to abundant in the late 19th century, it has undergone a drastic decline, and persists with certainty only on Tawitawi. Recent evidence suggests that its population is extremely low, perhaps numbering fewer than 20 pairs in the main mountain range. An estimated 250-300 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remains on Tawitawi, although much of this has been selectively logged<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Fortunately, the rate at which this has been cleared for oil palm plantations is lower than was feared previously. The species is thought to be extinct on Jolo (= Sulu), but this requires confirmation. It is almost certainly extinct on Sanga-sanga. Local reports from 1995 suggested that it may visit the small islands of Tandubatu, Dundangan and Baliungan, though these are unlikely to sustain resident populations.	eng
141999	habitat		It inhabits primary dipterocarp forest, typically on mountain slopes (although this may simply reflect a constraint enforced by forest loss), occasionally visiting isolated fruiting trees over 1 km from the nearest forest. It requires large trees for nesting.	eng
141999	population		Diesmos and Pedregosa (1995); BirdLife International (2001).	eng
142000	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buceros rhinoceros</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of extreme south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(uncommon), in lowland and hill forests and swamp forests, to 1,400 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's presence in hill forest suggests no immediate pressure from outright loss of habitat. In Borneo it is shot for food and hat feathers by local tribes. It returns to customary nest-holes, even after surrounding forest has been disturbed, and studies demonstrate that logging reduces overall numbers. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142001	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buceros bicornis </em>occurs in <strong>China</strong> (rare resident in west and south-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet), <strong>India</strong> (locally fairly common, but declining), <strong>Nepal</strong> (local and uncommon, largely in protected areas), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (fairly common), Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common resident throughout), <strong>Thailand</strong> (widespread, generally scarce but locally common), <strong>Laos</strong> (formerly common; currently widespread but scarce and a major decline has clearly occurred), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare and declining resident), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (rare), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (uncommon to more or less common) and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (uncommon on Sumatra). It frequents evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, ranging out into open deciduous areas to visit fruit trees and ascending slopes to at least 1,560 m. The abundance of this species tends to be correlated with the density of large trees, and it is therefore most common in unlogged forest and threatened by logging. It is particularly susceptible to hunting pressure as it is large, visits predictable feeding sites (such as fruiting trees) and casques are kept or sold as trophies. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
142002	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buceros hydrocorax</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occurs in primary, mature secondary and disturbed forests on 11 islands, Luzon and Marinduque (race <em>hydrocorax</em>), Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Panaon, Biliran, Calico-an and Buad (race <em>semigaleatus</em>), Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao (plus Balut, Bucas and Talicud) and Basilan (race <em>mindanensis</em>). It is still patchily common, notably in the Sierra Madre of Luzon, but continues to suffer from substantial hunting pressure and widespread loss of habitat. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142003	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinoplax</em> vigil is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in semi-evergreen and evergreen lowland forest to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has been less rapid. It is also threatened by hunting, particularly for its casque, and its population should therefore be monitored carefully. CITES Appendix I.  <br/></p>	eng
142004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but only locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142006	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The forest at Siburan is effectively part of the Sablayan penal colony, although it is uncertain how much protection is afforded by this or its inclusion in the F. B.&#160;Harrison Game Reserve. It also occurs in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, where only tiny forest tracts remain. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera. A conservation education programme has also been started at Malpalon.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Mindoro, including localities with local reports, to clarify its current distribution and population status. Establish formal, managed, protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon, Puerto Galera and Manamlay Lake. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity with its role as a prison.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142006	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelopides mindorensis</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was formerly widespread and abundant. Still considered fairly common in the 1970s, it has declined rapidly since. There are post-1990 observations from just five localities, with a maximum count of 20 birds at Siburan in 1994. There are local reports from a further seven localities, suggesting remnant populations exist elsewhere. It evidently only persists in very small numbers.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142006	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary forest, forest edge, secondary growth and occasionally isolated woodlots and single fruiting trees in cultivated areas, in lowlands, rarely up to 1,000&#160;m. Although it is capable of using tiny forest patches and edge habitats, it is probably reliant on nearby larger tracts of closed-canopy forest for nest-sites.</p>	eng
142006	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis of data in BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
142006	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1988, extensive deforestation on Mindoro had reduced forest cover to an estimated 120&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Remaining lowland forest is highly fragmented. In 1991, it was estimated that it would be totally cleared within 10-20 years, although rates of loss may have slowed. Encroaching slash-and-burn cultivation and selective logging threaten forest fragments that still support the species, including Siburan. At Puerto Galera, dynamite blasting is forcing it upslope. In 1993, many hornbill nest-trees were destroyed by a flood, the effects of which were exacerbated by deforestation. It is easily hunted for food. Up to five hornbills could reportedly be shot per week at three localities in 1994. <br/></p>	eng
142007	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been recently recorded in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve, although the latter receives only nominal protection. On Panay, the population is concentrated in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park. This site and Mt Talinis (Negros) have been proposed for conservation funding. Conservation and socio-economic programmes at Mts Talinis and Canlaon have reduced local hunting pressure. Captive stock on Negros is breeding successfully<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Negros and Panay to identify further key sites with a view to establishing further protected areas. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park. Promote the effective protection of the North Negros Forest Reserve.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142007	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Penelopides panini</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Panay, including the offshore islands of Sicogon and Pan de Azucar, Guimaras, Negros, Masbate and Ticao. In the 19th century, it was widespread and common on Panay, Guimaras, Negros and Masbate. However, based on abundance comparisons with <em>A. waldeni</em>, fewer than 900 pairs may remain. On Panay, it is still fairly common within the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park but rare elsewhere. On Negros, it has become increasingly rare. Single records since 1990 from Masbate and Pan de Azucar indicate that tiny populations may remain on these islands. It is thought extinct on Ticao, Guimaras and Sicogon.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142007	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary, evergreen, dipterocarp forest up to 1,100 m, perhaps pushed upslope by deforestation to 1,500 m, sometimes wandering to secondary forest or isolated fruiting trees. It nests in tall trees, frequently in fragments of just a few hectares. Fruit makes up the bulk of the diet but 14% of the prey items brought to observed nests comprises animal matter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142007	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). This estimate is now considerably out of date; if predicted rates of decline have precipitated the population may now fall below 1,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142007	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation and hunting are the major threats. Tiny fragments of forest remain on Masbate, Guimaras, Ticao, Pan de Azucar and Sicogon. In 1988, it was estimated that just 4% forest cover remained on Negros and 8% on Panay. Hunting and trapping of adults and young is widespread and can account for 3-6 birds in a trip of 2-5 days on Negros. Individual birds may be sold for as little as US$1. <br/></p>	eng
142008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in primary forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142011	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aceros comatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and south-west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(apparently rare), where it is generally uncommon in semi-evergreen and evergreen forests to 1,675 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that it is not immeadiately threatened. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142012	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. The following protected areas support important populations: Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China, Thrumshing La National Park, Bhutan, Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Laos, and Um Phang and Maewong National Parks and Huai Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thailand.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its distribution and status. Monitor trends in selected key populations. Protect remaining extensive tracts of forest, extend existing protected areas where appropriate, and strictly control hunting in protected areas. Lobby for improved logging practices that leave patches of old growth or large trees. Design and implement hornbill conservation programmes aimed at reducing hunting levels.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142012	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aceros nipalensis</em> is currently known from <strong>Bhutan</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, southern Yunnan and south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It has declined dramatically and is now very rare across much of its historical range. It is thought to be extinct in Nepal and has disappeared from many areas in Thailand. While still widespread and fairly common in Bhutan, healthy populations elsewhere survive only in Namdapha National Park, India, Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, central Laos and perhaps also Huai Kha Khaeng, west Thailand, and Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, China. It is perhaps locally common in north Myanmar. <br/></p>	eng
142012	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mature broadleaved forests, generally between 600-1,800&#160;m (maximum altitude 2,200&#160;m), but locally down to 150&#160;m. It nests (usually March-June) in tall, wide-girthed trees. Evidence suggests that some populations make seasonal movements between forested areas in response to variations in the abundance of fruiting trees.</p>	eng
142012	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
142012	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its dependence on large trees for feeding and nesting makes it especially susceptible to deforestation and habitat degradation through logging, shifting cultivation and clearance for agriculture. Furthermore, viable populations require vast tracts of forest to survive, exacerbating its susceptibility to habitat fragmentation. These problems are compounded by widespread hunting and trapping for food, and trade in pets and casques.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142013	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aceros corrugatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including the Batu Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread), in lowland, evergreen and swamp forests, to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that it is not immediately threatened, although it appears to be on the verge of extinction in Thailand. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142014	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Mt Talinis, designated for protection, is being managed as a geothermal reserve, and The Twin Lakes Balinsasayao Natural Park benefits from conservation funding. Other sites with recent records include Mt Kanla-on Natural Park (Negros) and Northern Negros Natural Park, which receives nominal protection. There are public awareness campaigns about the species. A nest-guarding scheme by PhilConserve led to a reduction of nest poaching by 95% on Panay<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and that population can be stabilised at its current size if inroads into the forest by small-scale logging can be stopped<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The fledging of nearly 500 broods of 1-3 young each in the Central Panay Mountain Range was the consequence of this nest-protection scheme<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the aim is to expand nest protection into more southerly parts of the CPMR<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Confiscated hornbills have been rehabilitated and released by PESCP/PhilConserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and successful captive breeding has taken place at the Mari-it Wildlife Conservation Park since 2005, with seven breeding pairs in 2008<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Livelihood incentives such as carabao (work animals) are being given to hunters to establish permanent agricultural plots instead of shifting cultivation. Seedlings of fruit trees, basic farm tools, rice seeds and informal training are given to hunters by the Mari-it Wildlife Conservation Park to encourage them to take up alternative livelihoods<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Funds should be allocated primarily to in situ protection along the lines of PhilConserve's guarding scheme<sup>5</sup>. Disseminate and act upon results from recent island-wide surveys on Panay and Negros. Continue community awareness programmes to reduce hunting and illegal logging on both Panay and Negros. Work in partnership at government level to strengthen protected area legislation and improve the network in the long term. <br/></p>	eng
142014	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Aceros waldeni</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is presumed to have occured on three islands: Guimaras, Negros and Panay. It is now absent from Guimaras and survives only on Negros and Panay. By 2006, the population in the Central Panay Mountain Range (CPMR) had been found by PhilConserve (formerly PESCP)  to contain 502 breeding pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with 752 active nest holes located in 2007<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There have been no breeding records since 1997 (one pair) in the north-west Panay Peninsula where, however, no systematic search has been conducted. Due to the small size of the remaining forest in the peninsula (c.5,000 ha) any breeding there may have been sporadic and it has since almost certainly been extirpated, despite pro-active anti-poaching and other forest wardening activities orchestrated by local support groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may be functionally extinct on Negros with no figures being available<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142014	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits closed-canopy forests, also frequenting logged areas and occasionally isolated trees in clearings. It is probably adapted to lower or mid-elevation forest, with records from 400-1,200 m on Panay and 300-950 m on Negros. It is omnivorous, taking some animal matter to its nests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and feeding in the canopy on figs and other fruits. It may make local nomadic movements in response to food availability. It nests in large trees. <br/></p>	eng
142014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	752 active nest holes in Central Panayan Mountain Range in 2007 (E. Curio <em>in litt.</em> 2008). <br/></p>	eng
142014	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Chronic deforestation has led to its extinction on Guimaras and its extreme scarcity elsewhere. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988, although this has reportedly since been reduced to c.3% and c.6%, respectively<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Only 10% (c.110 km<sup>2</sup>) of this is thought to be below 1,000 m. It heavily utilises (at least temporally) forest fruits and thus is adversely affected by deforestation. Hunting has reportedly had severe impacts in the past, with one estimate up to a quarter of the (then estimated) population of north-west Panay shot in a single day in 1997, although the validity of this report is uncertain. Nest poaching, whether for sale of incumbent females and their dependant chicks for human consumption or into local bird trade, is the most serious threat. Poaching affected c.50% of broods before the implementation of a nest guarding scheme which now protects about two thirds of all broods in the Central Panay Mountain Range, but until the nest guarding scheme can be expanded the remaining third are still vulnerable<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/></p>	eng
142015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aceros leucocephalus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines </strong>occurring on three islands, Mindanao and its two small satellites Camiguin Sur and Dinagat. Most distributional data are from between 300 and 1,000&#160;m in original native lowland forest, but despite clearly losing ground to habitat clearance, hunting and trapping for trade, in recent years the species has been judged fairly common. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001). A recent analysis has suggested that this species may be declining at rates approaching 30% over three generations based on recent and ongoing rates of habitat loss on Sulawesi (16.9% forest loss per ten years during 1985-1997; 36.1% loss per ten years during 1997-2001<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>). This would qualify it for Near Threatened (almost meeting criteria A2c;A3c). Further studies are required to determine whether these projected decline rates are accurate. <br/></p>	eng
142016	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in several areas across its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142018	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under the Wildlife Protection Act and Narcondam Island is a wildlife sanctuary. Strict instructions not to hunt the species have been issued to the personnel on the island. A large proportion of the feral goats have been removed. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population regularly. Remove all goats from the island. Provide cooking fuel to the island's inhabitants to eliminate their requirement for fuelwood. Carefully investigate the possibility of establishing a second population on another suitable island in the Andamans in case of a serious population decline or natural disaster. Consider providing nest boxes to increase the availability of nest sites. Plant additional fig trees to encourage forest regeneration. Develop a long-term species recovery plan</strong><sup>3</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
142018	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Aceros narcondami</em> is endemic to the tiny (c.7 km<sup>2</sup>) island of Narcondam, east of the Andaman Islands, <strong>India</strong>. In 1998, the population was estimated at 295-320 birds and stable, including an estimated 68-85 breeding pairs, while during fieldwork in 2000 the population was estimated to be 432 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; these figures may indicate that the number of mature individuals is fewer than 250<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142018	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is resident in fairly open mixed forest, which covers most of the island, from sea-level to the peak at c.700 m. The female is sealed into a nest-cavity for the duration of egg-laying and chick-rearing (the breeding period spanning at least February-April). At this time, the female sheds her flight feathers and is incapable of flight. Each pair generally raise two young. Nine species of fruits have been recorded in the diet<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimated at 320-340 individuals, based on an area of habitat of 6 km<sup>2</sup> (Vivek 2005) and interpreted by Kinnaird and O'Brien (2007) to equate to fewer than 250 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
142018	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	A small police outpost was established on the island in 1969. Two or three hectares of forest have been lost to the creation of the post and a plantation of fruit trees and vegetable plots. At least 10 living trees are cut each year for fuel wood for the camp and further wood is cut periodically for maintenance purposes. The introduction of domestic animals also poses a potential threat. Previously up to 400 feral goats were living on the island and limiting natural forest regeneration, but most have now been removed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A sizeable population of feral cats occurs which may pose a threat to the species. Hunting for food results in an estimated annual loss of 25-40 birds, but given its high levels of recruitment, this is probably not a serious threat, though it should be monitored. Its small population and tiny range make it susceptible to natural disasters and disease. <br/></p>	eng
142019	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Populations occur in the recently established Manupeu-Tanahdaru National Park (MTNP) and Laiwangi-Wanggameti National Park (LWNP) (1,350 km<sup>2</sup> combined), which are now monitored by government-run management authorities set up in 2006. Burung Indonesia has been working intensively on the strengthening the national park management on Sumba since 2002/2003. The project included facilitating local communities and government to develop village conservation agreement and to agree on the demarcation of the MTNP, resulting a reduced external pressure on illegal logging, forest destruction, and better law enforcement<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Population surveys were carried out for the species in the MTNP in 2009<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The illegal wildlife trade has been monitored since 2004, and in four big cities in Sumba there have been no cases of the species being recorded in captivity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct detailed research into the breeding and foraging ecology of the species. Gazette strict nature reserves at Yawila, Puronumbu and Luku Melolo, a wildlife sanctuary at Lulundilo and a forest park at Tanjung Ngunju. Support initiatives to establish and manage further protected areas. Continue to work with local communities to prevent lowland forest clearing, hunting and trapping. Reconcile differences in population estimates.</strong>	eng
142019	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Fieldwork since 1989 previously resulted in a tentative population estimate of 4,000 individuals (based on a density of 2.3 hornbills/km<sup>2</sup>, and an estimated 1,732 km<sup>2</sup> total forest-cover)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent research on the population size needs to be reconciled, as estimates have ranged from 1,650 mature individuals on the whole island (based on delayed maturation and its near absence from small forest patches)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, to 6,400 individuals solely in the Manupeu-Tanadaru National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although some areas of habitat are well protected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the species is likely to be declining overall owing to continued forest loss outside of reserves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and future declines may be extremely rapid<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
142019	habitat		Despite frequenting a variety of forested habitats, it shows a strong association with low altitude semi-evergreen forest containing large trees with a dense canopy. It is rare or absent in patches <10 km<sup>2</sup>, and may only use them if they are within ranging distance of larger fragments<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded up to at least 950 m, at forest edges and in isolated trees or groves in parkland far from closed forest. Nest-cavities tend to be situated within evergreen forest in the trunks of large deciduous trees, especially <em>Tetrameles</em> <em>nudiflora</em>, a species that is important for other threatened species on the island (e.g. Sulphur-crested Cockatoo <em>Cacatua sulphurea</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
142019	population		Recent population estimates are difficult to reconcile, ranging from 1,650 mature individuals on the whole of Sumba, to 6,400 individuals in the Manupeu-Tanadaru National Park alone (T. O'Brien <em>in litt.</em> 2010; D. Mulyawati <em>in litt.</em> 2010). A population size of 2,500-9,999 mature individuals is retained here until the differences between these estimates are accounted for.	eng
142020	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. It occurs in at least four protected areas in Thailand; Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Laem, Bang Lang<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Kaeng Krachan National Parks. Efforts are being made to protect forest in the upper Perak catchment of Malaysia and in the lowlands of Terasserim (at Myinmoletkat Biosphere Reserve), Myanmar, two areas of crucial importance for this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution, status, population size and specific habitat requirements. Establish further protected areas within its range in Myanmar and Malaysia. Consolidate or expand all protected areas supporting populations and enforce strict anti-hunting laws within them. Lobby for improved logging practices that leave patches of old growth or large trees. Promote public awareness and community-based conservation initiatives to reduce hornbill hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142020	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aceros subrificollis</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Myanmar</strong>, west, south-west and extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong> and northern Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>. All previous records from northern Myanmar, India and Sumatra were the result of misidentifications. Historically described as relatively common to very abundant in Myanmar, there have been no recent records and it appears to have undergone a rapid decline, at least in the Sittang valley. In 1993, the Thai population was estimated at <1,000 individuals, although the recent discovery of a single roost of 900 birds in the extreme south suggests that this figure should be revised upwards. Several thousand individuals attend one or two roost-sites in northern Malaysia and this area clearly supports a key population.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142020	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in mixed deciduous, dry and humid evergreen forests, mainly in the lowlands, but also hills to c.1,000 m. It has a varied diet, mainly comprising fruit but also invertebrates and small vertebrates. It nests from January-June, in holes in tall, broad trees.</p>	eng
142020	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). At least 1,000 are known from Thailand as well as strong population centres in northern Peninsula Malaysia and southern Myanmar. <br/></p>	eng
142020	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its size and flocking tendency render it especially vulnerable to hunting, which is a particular problem in Thailand and Myanmar. It is also threatened by rampant deforestation of the lowlands and foothills, a threat exacerbated by its requirement for large areas of forest and large trees for nesting. An additional, more minor threat is posed by the pet trade. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142021	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas of its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be thinly distributed across a wide range, but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common across a wide range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but with a patchy distribution (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142026	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bycanistes cylindricus</em> is restricted to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, where it is found in southern <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (including Loma Mountains, Western Area Peninsula Forest, Kangri Hills and Gola Forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong>, southern <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (where it is common and widespread in Ta&iuml;National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), south-west <strong>Ghana</strong> and <strong>Togo</strong><sup>5</sup>. Its local status varies from uncommon to common<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. It is a species of primary and mature secondary forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has been found in very disturbed forest in Mt Peko National Park, C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but generally prefers undisturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and is often the first large hornbill to disappear following selective logging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is also found in plantations, and has been found to be more common in these sites than other hornbill species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it is not known whether these represent viable breeding populations. As with other large hornbills, it is probably dependent on the presence of large emergent trees and dead standing trees for nest sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages on fruit in the canopy and will also take insects on the wing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It must be threatened by the serious destruction and fragmentation of forest throughout its range, hunting is also a significant threat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and it is, therefore, inferred to be undergoing a decline and may require upgrading to threatened status. <br/></p>	eng
142027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be largely uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142029	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ceratogymna elata</em> is widespread in West Africa from <strong>Senegal</strong> (very small range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Mali,</strong> <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong> (few records<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong> and <strong>Cameroon</strong><sup>4</sup>. In Nigeria, it is not uncommon where it still occurs but has undergone a considerable population decline as a result of forest destruction<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. In Guinea-Bissau, it is not common but is still found in most of the well-forested areas in the south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, it is uncommon to locally frequent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is a bird of lowland primary forest but also occurs in logged and secondary forest, riverine forest and oil-palm plantations<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Hunting is likely to be a major threat throughout its range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and, in Ghana, over-hunting is probably causing a serious decline<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Logging is probably only a threat to the species in small forests where hunting is rampant<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but destruction of forest throughout its range is causing a reduction in its population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142029	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on a calculation of 35,808 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat x a mean population density of 0.35 birds km<sup>2 </sup>= 12,533 individuals (H. Rainey <em>in litt.</em> 2007); here rounded to 12,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common but sparse (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142031	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It may still be protected by tribal lore in many areas, and occurs in several reserves and at least seven national parks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is extensive conservation work being carried out in South Africa, including a re-introduction programme, research into several different areas (population dynamics, tracking, and the feasibility of supplementary feeding, multiple clutching, group supplementation and artificial nest-site provision), and public awareness campaigns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. From 2000-2008 the Mabula Project has attempted 13 soft and hard releases and re- introductions of individuals, and a re-introduced female laid two eggs in 2008 in the Mabula Game Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <strong> </strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct</strong> <strong>population surveys and establish monitoring to assess population trends.</strong> <strong>Begin awareness campaigns to prevent persecution</strong>. <strong>Identify key strongholds of the species and prevent further habitat degredation in these areas.</strong> <strong>Continue to research the effectiveness of artificial nest-sites</strong>.	eng
142031	distribution		<em>Bucorvus cafer</em> is found in southern Africa, ranging from southern <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong>, south-west to <strong>Angola</strong> and northern <strong>Namibia</strong>, and south to <strong>Botswana </strong>and eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is described as widespread and fairly common, and the population in South Africa in 1992 has been estimated at c.1,400 mature individuals - perhaps a 50% decline on historical population numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although data for other range countries is lacking, several threats are also thought to be causing population declines Kenya<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Botswana<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Zambia<strong><sup>6,7,8</sup></strong>, though rates of decline in Zambia are thought to be slower than elsewhere<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
142031	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>It lives in groups of 2-8 members, rarely 11, and is a co-operative breeder, with the dominant pair assisted by adult and immature helpers to defend a territory. Laying occurs in large cavities in trees or cliffs, mainly from September to December, with a clutch of 1-3 (usually 2) eggs, although only one survives to fledging<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. One study in South Africa showed that a family group produced on average only 1 fledgling every 9 years, although birds in the Okavango Delta appear to breed more frequently<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It inhabits woodland and savanna, also frequenting grassland adjoining patches of forest up to 3000 m in parts of its range in eastern Africa. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is mainly made up of arthropods, and, especially during the dry season, snails, frogs and toads, and sometimes larger prey such as snakes, lizards, rats, hares, squirrels or tortoises. It will on occasion feed on carrion, taking scraps and associated insects. Fruits and seeds are also recorded in its diet<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
142031	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common but sparse (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142033	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely widespread and often common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently not rare (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in uncut forest (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142040	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon but widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted area (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142044	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pharomachrus mocinno</em> occurs throughout the montane cloud forests of southern <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and western <strong>Panama</strong> east to Cerro San Antonio in Veraguas<strong><sup>1,3,6,8</sup></strong>. It is common in the Cordillera de Talamanca and protected cloud forests in Costa Rica<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Cerro El Arenal and Cerro Kilambe reserves, Nicaragua<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Sierra de Agalta National Park, Honduras<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but otherwise uncommon to locally common. It is an obligate frugivore, annually feeding on at least 41 species in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. However, it depends mostly on c.18 species of the laurel family (Lauraceae), and the phenologies and habitat distributions of the Lauraceae appear to dictate the timing and direction of seasonal altitudinal movements between c.1,000 and c.3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. Populations continue to decline, owing largely to widespread deforestation throughout its range. The main problem for the Monteverde population is the fragmentation and destruction of forests to which it descends in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and this is probably applicable to many populations. Some direct persecution probably still occurs, particularly in south Mexico, but this appears to have reduced<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. It is an important symbol for conservation in Central America and reserves have been established to facilitate its protection, but these tend to be small and include limited representations of critical habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
142045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142049	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euptilotis neoxenus</em> inhabits montane pine and pine-oak forests, almost throughout the mountains of west <strong>Mexico</strong>, in Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Zacatecas, Jalisco and Michoac&aacute;n states, and even sporadically within Arizona and New Mexico, <strong>USA</strong>. Until recently, it was considered very uncommon and locally distributed, but this probably stemmed from a lack of field studies in appropriate areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1995 showed it to be common in primary habitat, and frequent (including nesting) in disturbed areas and riparian corridors in otherwise largely logged areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is believed to be stable, but widespread forest destruction in the region may adversely affect the species through the removal of trees with suitable nesting cavities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, a problem compounded by uncertainty over seasonal movements. <br/></p>	eng
142050	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142051	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Priotelus roseigaster</em> inhabits rain, dry and pine forests in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, but requires mature trees in rainforest for nesting<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It occurs at 500-3,000&#160;m, but there is apparently some altitudinal migation with birds observed at lower elevations in winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it is still quite common, especially in the relatively undisturbed Sierra de Baoruco<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, rainforest is highly fragmented and continually lost owing to shifting agriculture, dry forests have been considerably altered by charcoal production, and even pine forests have been devastated by indiscriminate logging and clear-cutting<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. In particular, recent habitat destruction along highways has caused a drastic decline of the population in the Cordillera Central, but it is occasionally seen on abandoned coffee farms and old cacao groves in the Cordillera Septentrional<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Haiti, it is much rarer and restricted to the Massifs de la Hotte and de la Selle<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, where habitat loss has been extensive<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142056	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trogon bairdii</em> is fairly common on the Pacific slope of south-west <strong>Costa Rica</strong> where suitable habitat persists, but there are very few recent records in extreme west <strong>Panama<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is restricted to tall rainforest, and adjacent secondary growth on the forest edge, at elevations up to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Extensive forest clearance may almost have extirpated the species in Panama<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but an unexpected record on the Caribbean slope<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> suggests that surveys are required in Bocas del Toro and adjacent Costa Rica. <br/></p>	eng
142058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142062	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142069	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Gunung Halimun and Gunung Gede-Pangrango are both National Parks. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species at all mountains potentially within its range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Work with local authorities and relevant companies to minimise the impact of tourism and development projects on forested mountains within its range.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142069	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalharpactes reinwardtii </em>is known from just six forested mountains in West Java: Gunung Halimun, Gunung Salak, Gunung Gede-Pangrango, Gunung Patuha-Tilu, Gunung Wayang and Gunung Papandayan. There are only recent records from three of these (Halimun, Salak and Gede-Pangrango). The historical range totals 11,600 km<sup>2</sup>. Although it has been stated to occur from 800-2,600 m, little forest remains below 1,000 m away from Halimun, and the species appears to be rarer at higher elevations. The only site where the species appears to be common now is Gunung Halimun, but only at lower elevations. The population size of this species may be as low as a few hundred pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142069	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Appears to favour mid-montane forest where it feeds on a variety of invertebrates taken by aerial sallying or by perch-gleaning. Also feeds on fruit and will occasionally join mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142069	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population size estimated to be 'as low as a few hundred pairs' (Collar and van Balen 2002). <br/></p>	eng
142069	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development (e.g. holiday resorts and geothermal projects), is becoming an increasing threat in the altitudinal range of the species. <br/></p>	eng
142070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142071	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes kasumba</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in many forest types, but most commonly in primary or lightly logged formations, to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo, but it appears to be able to survive, to some extent, in logged forest, a factor that increases its long-term security. <br/></p>	eng
142072	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes diardii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in evergreen forest below 1,300 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo, but the species appears to be able to persist in hill-slope and logged forest, and second growth, provided the canopy is not heavily disturbed. <br/></p>	eng
142073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142074	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes whiteheadi</em> is restricted to Bornean mountains, including Mt Kinabalu, Sabah, and Mt Dulit, Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Gunung Lunjut, Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in hill and lower montane forest at 900-1,500 m. It is apparently uncommon everywhere and reputedly declining on Kinabalu, for unknown reasons. Habitat loss in its lower elevation range may be a factor. <br/></p>	eng
142075	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes orrhophaeus</em> is known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it occurs in the lower storey of humid evergreen forest to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. In southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia its dependence on plains-level, closed-canopy forest places it at more serious risk than its congeners, but it is not considered threatened because it occurs on relatively less threatened forests on slopes. <br/></p>	eng
142076	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes duvaucelii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is generally abundant<strong> </strong>in lowland primary and logged forests (including swamp forest, although there are no records from peatswamp) to 1,065 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, such that the species is likely to be declining. Although intolerant of heavy disturbance to canopy cover, the species's huge population, ability to use regenerated forest and its wide occurrence on slopes suggests that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
142077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142079	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpactes wardi</em> is known from the eastern Himalayas in <strong>China</strong> (three collected in north-west Yunnan, 1973), <strong>Bhutan</strong> (uncommon and local, although recorded regularly in recent years), <strong>India</strong> (small numbers seen recently in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is apparently local and rare), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly locally common in north, but no recent records and thought to be generally uncommon) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously common on Fan Si Pan, north-west Tonkin, but no recent records despite intensive searching). It is found in the lower storey, undergrowth and bamboo of tall broadleaved evergreen forest between 1,500 and 3,200&#160;m, perhaps moving downslope during the cold season to c.1,220 m in some areas. It is threatened by forest clearance and degradation in much of its range, particularly through logging and shifting cultivation. It is also probably susceptible to hunting, at least in South-East Asia. <br/></p>	eng
142080	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracias garrulus</em> occurs as two subspecies: the nominate breeds from <strong>Morocco</strong>, southwest and south-central Europe and Asia Minor east through northwest <strong>Iran </strong>to southwest Siberia (<strong>Russia</strong>); and <em>semenowi</em>, which breeds in <strong>Iraq </strong>and Iran (except northwest) east to Kashmir and north to <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, south <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>and northwest <strong>China </strong>(west Sinkiang). The species overwinters in two distinct regions of Africa, from <strong>Senegal </strong>east to <strong>Cameroon </strong>and from <strong>Ethiopia </strong>west to <strong>Congo </strong>and south to <strong>South Africa</strong><sup>1</sup>. It has a large global population, including an estimated 100,000-220,000 individuals in Europe (50-74% of the global breeding range)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, following a moderate decline during 1970-1990<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the species has contined to decline by up to 25% across Europe during 1990-2000 (including in key populations in Turkey and European Russia)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Overall European declines exceeded 30% in three generations (15 years). Populations in northern Europe have undergone severe declines (Estonia: 50-100 pairs in 1998 to no known breeding pairs in 2004<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Latvia: several thousand to under 30 pairs in 2004<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Lithuania: 1,000-2,000 pairs in 1970s to 20 pairs in 2004<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), and in Russia it has now disappeared from the northern part of its range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, there is no evidence of any declines in Central Asia. Should these populations be shown to be declining, the species may warrant uplisting further to Vulnerable. The species prefers lowland open countryside with patches of oak <em>Quercus </em>forest, mature pine <em>Pinus </em>woodland with heathery clearings, orchards, mixed farmland, river valleys, and plains with scattered thorny or leafy trees. It winters primarily in dry wooded savanna and bushy plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Threats include persecution on migration in some Mediterranean countries and hundreds, perhaps thousands, are shot for food in <strong>Oman</strong> every spring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Use of pesticides reduces food availability, and the species is sensitive to changing farming and forestry practices<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142080	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The European population has been estimated at 100,000-220,000 individuals and this area constitutes 50-74% of the species's breeding range (BirdLife International 2004). Therefore, the global population probably lies within the band 100,000-500,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to frequent throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant, common or frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally frequent, even abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant to common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common in Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142091	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is currently only one protected area in North Maluku, Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan, although this site is seriously threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting. Two areas on Halmahera have been proposed for wildlife sanctuary or national park status: Lalobata/Ake Tajawe and Gunung Gamkonora.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution, quantify population size and elucidate trends. Establish, and subsequently manage, a national park on Halmahera, embracing habitat at Lalobata and Ake Tajawe. Establish a wildlife sanctuary at Gunung Gamkonora. Lobby for reduced logging in North Maluku and conduct awareness campaigns to minimise forest destruction on Halmahera.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142091	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eurystomus</em> <em>azureus</em> is endemic to North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from Halmahera, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Bacan. It was originally considered uncommon, but the paucity of records during recent fieldwork suggests that it is now rare throughout its range, having undergone a substantial decline on Halmahera, where the bulk of the population survives.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142091	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in primary lowland and foothill-forest, including edges and selectively logged areas, occasionally in adjacent coconut groves, up to 600 m. Despite its use of clearings it appears to be sensitive to high levels of degradation. It is being replaced in cultivated areas by its widespread relative <em>E. orientalis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
142091	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,100-4,200, perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (no density estimates available for congeners in forest, but described as rare throughout range, and density range extrapolated from records in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142091	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is primarily threatened by habitat loss. Since the early 1990s (when it was reported that c.90% of the total area of Halmahera remained forested), clearance and fragmentation of forest has accelerated dramatically. Exploitation of economically valuable trees is now widespread and intensive, with most remaining forest under timber concession. In addition, habitat is under pressure from increased settlement and transmigration, conversion to agriculture, plantations, irrigation schemes, fuelwood-collection and mineral extraction. Given the predilection of this species for low elevations, and the fact that it is apparently outcompeted in cleared areas by <em>E. orientalis</em>, these threats are particularly alarming.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142092	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in 23 Important Bird Areas (77% of the total in eastern Malagasy forest) and is found in nine National Parks, two Strict Reserves, three Special Reserves and six Classified Forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Improve the management of the eastern humid forests, especially the control of fires used to in slash-and-burn cultivation. Pursue further ecological studies to determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142092	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Brachypteracias leptosomus</em> is fairly common within its restricted habitat of low- and mid-altitude primary forests in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Daraina forest in the north to Andohahela in the south<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is the most localised of the rainforest ground-rollers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142092	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This secretive species is found solely in undisturbed, primary rainforest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. At the upper part of its altitudinal range it occurs only where trees are large<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It prefers forest with dark, humid areas, a moderate ground cover of herbaceous, mossy vegetation, and deep leaf-litter<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The least terrestrial of the rainforest ground-roller species, it spends much time perched 2-15&#160;m above ground on horizontal branches, searching for prey<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates (90%), often terrestrial, and also small vertebrates (10%)<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. It nests in tree cavities and the root masses of epiphytes, often around 20 m above the ground<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The home range of one pair was 19 ha<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, ranging 5-200 m asl; pairs occupied contiguous territories in this undisturbed habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species appears able to re-nest rapidly after natural nest failure<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142092	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,100-10,500, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (no density estimates available for congeners in forest, but density range extrapolated from similar terrestrial forest species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and compatible with description as 'rare' but possibly overlooked [Collar and Stuart 1985]). <br/></p>	eng
142092	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat to its forest habitat is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Much of the forest on the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is highly degraded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining unprotected forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is also hunted<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142093	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mananara-North National Park, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Midongy-South National Park, Ramanofana National Park, Tsitongambarika Classified Forest, Vondrozo Classified Forest and Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Brachypteracias squamigera</em> is found only below 1,000&#160;m and thus is one of the few true lowland rainforest species in <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It occurs in lowland forest throughout the eastern rainforest belt from Marojejy south to Andohahela. However, there is much less lowland forest in the southern part of this belt<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142093	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species seems to prefer low-altitude areas of undisturbed, primary rainforest with damp soils, dark and tangled undergrowth, low herbaceous vegetation and a layer of leaf-litter and branches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates, chiefly earthworms but also snails, centipedes, spiders, ants and beetles, and more rarely small vertebrates (e.g. frogs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests in a tunnel, dug in a bank or slope in the forest, between October and January.</p>	eng
142093	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,900 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% EOO) = 3,900-19,500, i.e. forest, but density range extrapolated from similar terrestrial forest species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). Note that population may fall at upper end of this band as this species is described as 'fairly common'. <br/></p>	eng
142093	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat to its forest habitat is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Much of the forest on the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is highly degraded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining unprotected forest, especially at the lower altitudes where this species is commoner, will disappear within decades<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Predation by village dogs and hunting for food are possibly threats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142094	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Madagascar.	eng
142094	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in humid evergreen forest in the east, in the Sambirano region of the north-west and on the high plateau, up to 2,000 m (Langrand 1990). It is found mainly in primary forest but there are records from degraded forest and plantations near primary forest. A terrestrial species, it feeds among dead leaves where there is sparse ground cover and takes invertebrates and small chameleons (Langrand 1990).	eng
142094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but patchily distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142094	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The ongoing destruction and fragmentation of its forest habitat (for subsistence agriculture), with attendant increased levels of hunting, is likely to intensify in the future.	eng
142095	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atelornis crossleyi</em> is found in the more humid highland areas of the evergreen forest belt of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, between 800-2,000 m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, from Tsaratanana south to Andohahela. Recent work has found that this species has a larger population and wider distribution than previously thought<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, resulting in its downlisting to Near Threatened. However, any significant decline or loss of habitat, e.g. through slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, combined with increased hunting, could render it Vulnerable. <br/></p>	eng
142096	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The spiny forest of south-west Madagascar has been identified as the biogeographical region in greatest need of additional reserves nationally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The northern part of this region, to which the species is restricted, is entirely unprotected<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong> and is suffering the most rapid degradation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Potential conservation measures have recently been recommended for the area, designed in consultation with local communities<strong><sup>5.</sup></strong> <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a coordinated network of community-based conservation areas, including a large protected area<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve agricultural efficiency and control charcoal production.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
142096	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Uratelornis chimaera</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip, originally 30-60&#160;km wide and 200&#160;km long, in south-western <strong>Madagascar</strong> between the Fiherenana and Mangoky rivers. In its habitat it is uncommon, occurring at population densities of about 0.008-0.1&#160;individuals per ha<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although such habitat is threatened in the north-central, eastern and southern parts of this species's range, there is a fairly large intact block north of Manombo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 2000, the total population was estimated to be 10,000-20,000&#160;individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142096	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This terrestrial species is found from sea-level to 80&#160;m in both sparse, coastal scrub and in deciduous, low-stature (4-6&#160;m) spiny forest. It is tolerant of disturbance by livestock, having been observed in extremely degraded forest close to villages<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It appears to be socially monogamous and defends small territories around the nest-hole during the breeding season. Breeding peaks in November<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142096	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A total population estimate of 21,124 (95% CI: 9,487-32,687) mature individuals was calculated from a tentative estimate of the species's density at 5.7 (95% CI: 2.6-8.8) mature adults km<sup>-2</sup> from transect surveys in 1999 and an estimate of 3,706 km<sup>2</sup> of remaining habitat (Seddon and Tobias 2007). The 95% confidence intervals are taken as the upper and lower range estimates for the population.  <br/></p>	eng
142096	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Overall, primary spiny-forest cover has declined by 15.6% between 1962 and 1999, although in the central part of this species's range, it has declined by c.28%<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Such clearance is mainly for slash-and-burn cultivation of maize and for charcoal production (both are increasing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and more locally for construction material and commercial timber<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Predation by dogs and trappers occurs, and introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> may pose a threat, at least locally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in suitable habitat and elsewhere patchily distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142101	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are several protected areas where it has previously been recorded, but there are very few with recent sightings and information on remaining habitat is often lacking. The exception is Belize where the majority of populations are within reserves<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining forest to assess the species's status. Survey all historical sites and those with recent reports, such as in Guatemala and Honduras, the Honduras-Nicaragua border area, the extensive Atlantic forest areas of Nicaragua and the region around Lake Arenal, Monteverde and Rinc&oacute;n de la Vieja, Costa Rica<sup>4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142101	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Electron carinatum</em> has been recorded at a relatively small number of localities scattered over an extensive range in Central America, generally on the Caribbean slope of south <strong>Mexico</strong>, south <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, north and central <strong>Honduras</strong>, north-central <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, and north-central <strong>Costa Rica<sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. Most records have been of pairs or single birds, and it has been recorded only once at most localities. The exceptions to this are recent observations in Belize, Guatemala and Honduras but, even at these sites, it occurs at very low density and is generally considered rare to uncommon<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Belize, most populations are small and many are significantly isolated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to have declined in range in Mexico and parts of Guatemala, and there is only one recent record in Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A mixed pair of <em>E.&#160;carinatum</em> and Broad-billed Motmot <em>Electron platyrhynchum</em> has been documented in Costa Rica, suggesting that the population is so patchy and small that same-species mates are extremely rare.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142101	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in humid lowland and montane forest up to 760&#160;m, but there are three records at 1,220-1,555&#160;m in Honduras<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Costa Rica, it is restricted to foothill and adjacent lowland forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Belize, it has been recorded most densely in an area of steep terrain intersected by many seasonal streams, and apparently using the stream banks for nesting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142101	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =  1.9-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,600 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 6,840-10.080, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range is up to lower quartile of  five estimates for two species of motmots in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142101	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Mexico, all suitable habitat is being cleared at an alarming rate, and in Costa Rica the foothills have been heavily deforested since 1980<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Most habitat loss is the result of human settlement and conversion to agriculture, especially banana plantations.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142110	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142111	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alcedo hercules</em> occurs in southern <strong>China</strong> (rare), eastern Nepal<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(rare), north-east <strong>India </strong>(rare), Bangladesh<strong> </strong>(vagrant), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(scarce to fairly common in the north, west and south), north-west <strong>Thailand</strong> (very rare visitor), <strong>Laos </strong>(uncommon to locally common in the north and Annamite mountains, scarce further south) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (locally fairly common in west Tonkin and Annam). It is found along streams in evergreen forest and adjacent open country from 200-1,200 m, mainly at 400-1,000 m. It is still widespread at low densities within its historical range, although deforestation is reducing and fragmenting its habitat and human disturbance and river pollution are possibly also threats. Given its linear distribution along rivers, and thus restricted extent of occurrence, the total population size is possibly relatively small. <br/></p>	eng
142113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but seldom common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread in the north of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142117	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct line-transects along rivers of varying size, water velocity, water turbidity, altitude and surrounding habitat. Survey all lowland lakes on New Britain. Investigate ecological separation from <em>A.&#160;atthis. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across the Bismarcks. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Enforce regulations protecting river courses in logging concessions. Encourage designation of large community-based conservation areas. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142117	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alcedo websteri</em> is endemic to New Britain, New Ireland and the nearby islands of Umboi, New Hanover and Lihir in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are few records of this species, all of single birds or a pair, but it was recorded on all five islands in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is also one sight record from Feni<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It appears to occur along most suitable rivers, but many rivers are too fast or too large on these mountainous islands.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142117	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This kingfisher inhabits small relatively slow-flowing rivers in lowland forest, sometimes in patchy degraded forest and logged forest<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. It has been recorded down to sea-level but its upper altitudinal limit may be only a few hundred metres<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It appears to be replaced by <em>A.&#160;atthis</em> along large sluggish rivers, mangroves and most lakes and is replaced by <em>Ceyx&#160;lepidus</em> along smaller streams. It may occur beside forest-fringed lakes - there is one such record from Lake Hargy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but no records from lakes with marshy or reedbed margins. <br/></p>	eng
142117	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.6-6.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,300 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,380-13,800, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range based on estimate for forest stream-dwelling congener <em>A. quadribrachys</em> in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142117	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its dependence on extreme lowland forest render it susceptible to habitat changes from the extensive logging and forest clearance across its range. Large areas of New Britain have been, or are scheduled to be, clear-felled for oil-palm plantations. Although it has been recorded from degraded habitats, it is likely to be affected by sediment run-off from logged and cleared areas into rivers.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142118	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been recorded within various protected areas within its range, including Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, Gunung Palung and Kutai National Parks, Kalimantan, Similajau National Park, Sarawak and Taman Negara, Malaysia. A large population survives at least in the last of these.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys and research where possible to clarify its range and ecological requirements.  Formulate a management strategy for this species and a suite of other Sundaic birds largely reliant on lowland forest. Lobby for effective management of existing protected areas in the Sundaic region and for the expansion of the protected area network. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
142118	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species ranges from southern <strong>Myanmar</strong> (Tenasserim), through peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> to <strong>Malaysia</strong> (including Sabah and Sarawak on Borneo), <strong>Brunei</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and (at least historically) Java (<strong>Indonesia</strong>). It is generally thinly distributed, being locally fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia and on Borneo, rare in Myanmar and Java (with no recent records), and uncommon in Thailand and Sumatra.  <br/></p>	eng
142118	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is generally sedentary on rocky or slow-flowing streams and larger rivers running through forest (usually humid evergreen, but also back-mangroves and mixed dipterocarp-dominated forest), most commonly in the lowlands, but ascending locally to at least 1,250 m. It is predominantly piscivorous, also consuming crustaceans, insects and small reptiles. Breeding has been recorded from February-June. <br/></p>	eng
142118	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142118	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Huge areas of lowland forest were removed from the range of this species during the 20th century. For example, Kalimantan lost almost 25% between 1985 and 1997, and Sumatra lost 30% in the same period, suggesting that virtually all original habitat will have disappeared from these areas by around 2010, unless preventative measures can be implemented effectively. A similar scenario (or indeed worse in the case of Thailand and Java) faces all other range states and islands. Its occupation of hill streams, however, provides some hope that it will survive in this relatively secure habitat. <br/></p>	eng
142119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142120	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are post-1990 records from two protected areas, Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol and Agusan Marsh, Mindanao. There are pre-1980 records from two further protected areas, Siargao Island and Mt Apo Natural Park, Mindanao, and also northern Dinagat Island, which is a priority site for conservation funding.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Investigate factors affecting river pollution and determine its dependency on high-quality watercourses. Establish further protected areas at other key lowland sites (e.g. Mt Cabalantian/Capoto-an on Samar, Mt Lobi on Leyte, and Mts Dapiak, Sugarloaf, Piapayungan, Diwata and Mayo on Mindanao).</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142120	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alcedo argentata</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where its two distinct populations occur on Samar, Leyte and Bohol (<em>A.&#160;a.&#160;flumenicola</em>), and Dinagat, Siargao, Mindanao and Basilan (<em>A.&#160;a.&#160;argentata</em>). Formerly widespread and locally common, a comparison of pre-1970 and more recent records indicates a decline throughout its range. Since 1980, there have been documented observations from only c.10 sites (confined to east Mindanao, Bohol and Leyte). However, it is shy and inconspicuous and very likely under-recorded. Nevertheless, remaining areas of lowland forest with clear streams are very limited, providing further evidence for a decline.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142120	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be reliant upon forested streams below 1,000&#160;m (with one record from 1,120-1,350&#160;m). It will tolerate secondary and selectively logged forest and even streamside vegetation within coconut plantations, close to forest edge. It breeds in riverside banks and is apparently sedentary.</p>	eng
142120	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =0.6-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 12,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 7,260-72,600, perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 (density range based on density of forest stream-dwelling congener <em>A. quadribrachys </em>in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142120	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive lowland deforestation throughout its range is the chief threat. Only 4% forest cover is estimated to remain on Bohol. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Watercourses with high siltation loads, resulting from deforestation, appear not to hold the species, and riverine pollution is likely to have a similar impact. Tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion are all threats to Rajah Sikatuna National Park (Bohol) and forest at Bislig (Mindanao) is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Both are key sites for the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce, although easily overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142130	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce, although easily overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142131	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from several areas offering varying degrees of protection, including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bicol and Quezon National Parks (all on Luzon), and also Polillo Watershed Forest Reserve. There are also pre-1970 records from sites now within Mt Isarog and Mt Makiling National Parks, the Basilan Natural Biotic Area and the watershed reserve at Mt Hilong-hilong (Mindanao), which may confer some protection.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify remaining significant lowland forest tracts throughout its range. Comprehensively survey these sites, particularly those with pre-1980 records, to clarify its current distribution and status and provide data for further designation of key lowland sites as protected areas. Support the designation of central Catanduanes as a watershed reserve. Promote the effective protection of remaining lowland forest in the Northern Sierra Madre Mountains Natural Park.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142131	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ceyx melanurus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Alabat, Catanduanes, Tablas, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao and Basilan. There are records from c.60 sites, with documented observations from c.20 since 1980, mostly on Luzon but also Polillo, Catanduanes, Leyte and Mindanao. It appears to be generally scarce or rare but it is secretive, difficult to observe and consequently may be under-recorded.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142131	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a lowland specialist, inhabiting forest understorey and second growth from sea-level to 750&#160;m. Although it frequents watercourses, mainly small streams, probably for foraging, any association with them appears to be more incidental than obligate.</p>	eng
142131	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142131	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive lowland deforestation on all islands in its range is the main threat. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Most remaining lowland forest that is not afforded protection is leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Specific threats at key sites with recent records include illegal logging at Angat Dam (Luzon) and forest clearance under a concession at Bislig (Mindanao) for replacement with exotic trees for paper production. Typhoons on Catanduanes, in 1987 and 1996, destroyed large areas of forest and augmented flooding and silting of watercourses.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142132	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ceyx fallax</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>fallax</em>) and the neighbouring Sangihe and Talaud islands (race <em>sangirensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits drier primary lowland forest (unassociated with water) up to 1,000 m, chiefly c.600 m. It is generally uncommon and possibly extinct on Sangihe owing to habitat loss. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. <br/></p>	eng
142133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common, although uncommon at the periphery of its range (Fry et al. 1993).	eng
142135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142138	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142142	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cittura cyanotis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>cyanotis</em>) and the neighbouring Sangihe and Talaud islands (race <em>sanghirensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits primary and tall secondary lowland forest up to 1,000 m. Its distribution is apparently fragmented, with no records from south Sulawesi, and it is generally uncommon. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. <br/></p>	eng
142143	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pelargopsis amauropterus </em>has a coastal distribution in north-east <strong>India</strong> (locally common in West Bengal, rare elsewhere), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (locally common), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(fairly common to locally common resident in the south-west and Tenasserim), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (uncommon to locally fairly common on the west coast) and peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (fairly common but restricted to islands of the north-west). It is usually restricted to coasts, favouring mangroves (particularly old growth), creeks and tidal rivers, although it has been recorded occasionally far inland. Despite being locally common, its total population may not be very large within its linear distribution and it is presumably negatively affected by the ongoing clearance and degradation of mangroves in South-East Asia. <br/></p>	eng
142144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and generally sparse but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally sparse but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally rare and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 90-170 breeding pairs, equating to 270-510 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
142149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent and common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142157	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus nigrocyaneus</em> is a little-known species of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and the adjacent islands of Salawati, Batanta and Yapen. It is known from few scattered records from streams, swamps and ponds in forest to 600&#160;m and is inexplicably rare<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. There are only three recent records from Papua New Guinea, from Morehead (Trans-Fly), Madang and Lakekamu<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>, although it may be more common in Papua<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> where it was reported from Nimbokrang near Jayapura<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may be threatened by logging, particularly of lowland swamp forests, and the consequential decline in water quality.</p>	eng
142158	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from areas afforded varying degrees of protection, including Mt Guitinguitin on Sibuyan, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol and the tiny Central Cebu National Park on Cebu. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution and status. Research its ecological preferences to improve understanding of its conservation needs and facilitate development of appropriate protection measures. Seek clarification of the proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142158	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus winchelli</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is widely distributed throughout the Visayas, Mindanao and the Sulus. Formerly described as locally common to fairly abundant, recent records derive from c.15 widely scattered localities, on Sibuyan, Masbate, Biliran, Leyte, Bohol, Cebu, Siquijor, eastern Mindanao, and three of the Sulu islands. Although a comparison of historical and recent records suggests a decline, it was still locally common on the Sulu islands in the mid-1990s and common at Bislig (Mindanao) in 1997. However, it appears rare at other sites, some of which are likely to hold only relict populations. Total numbers seem likely to be small.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142158	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs on small islands and coastal lowland sites and also inland foothills, locally up to 1,000&#160;m (on Mindanao). However, the factors governing its distribution, including its association with freshwater, remain uncertain. Evidence suggests it prefers forest on limestone, which makes it tolerant of open and more degraded forest. Alternatively, it may simply prefer large trees, which are now largely confined to uncultivable limestone areas. </p>	eng
142158	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142158	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive deforestation throughout its range must be the main threat, particularly given its apparent preference for lowland areas. The two sites where it has recently been described as common are severely threatened, Bislig from clearance for re-planting with exotic trees for paper production and Tawitawi and the neighbouring Sulu islands by rapid, near total clearance of primary forests and plans to replace even those remaining with oil-palm plantations. Illegal logging threatens the key site of Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142160	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus lazuli</em> is restricted to Seram, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest (particularly edges), secondary growth and cleared areas with scattered trees (habitat that is gradually increasing in extent). Despite fears that it might be suffering from habitat loss, and although its range remains limited, it appears to thrive in heavily degraded coastal habitats, with an overall density in logged and unlogged forest of 4.0&#177;0.73 birds per&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
142161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142162	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus albonotatus</em> is endemic to New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is a scarce species, restricted to primary and tall secondary forest to about 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. Most accessible lowland and hill forest on New Britain has been cleared for oil-palm plantations, logged or is under logging concessions. This species appears to have a small total population and may be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of logged forest. <br/></p>	eng
142162	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
142163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142164	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Vanuatu law. It occurs in the two protected areas on Santo: Big Bay and Loru<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Malo and Malakula. Survey Santo to ascertain its distribution and abundance. Determine habitat and altitudinal requirements. Determine tolerance of logged forest. Ascertain extent of remaining closed-canopy lowland forest. Monitor numbers at Loru and Big Bay protected areas through annual aural surveys. Assess effects of cattle and pig browsing by monitoring in a large fenced-off sector of Loru Protected Area. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. <br/></p>	eng
142164	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Todiramphus farquhari</em> is endemic to Espiritu Santo, Malo, Aore and Malakula in <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, it was reported to be fairly widely distributed on all these islands in 2004-2005<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. On Santo, the population density was estimated at c.7-17 calling birds per km<sup>2</sup> at Loru Protected Area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but birds appear to be less common at Big Bay Protected Area and perhaps elsewhere<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Though it is not hard to find in suitable habitat, numbers are believed to have declined on the east coast of Santo owing to habitat loss<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142164	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It replaces <em>T. chloris</em> in "dark bush" - the densest parts of closed-canopy forest<strong><sup>2,6,8</sup></strong>, however it also occurs in other forest types, such as dry forest<sup>8</sup>. It is most common in primary evergreen rainforest, from sea-level to at least 800 m, and it has been considered more common in the hills<strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. It appears to be able to tolerate even fairly open secondary and logged forest and forest patches<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It feeds on lizards and insects from a perch low in the forest and nests in arboreal termite nests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	N. Barr&eacute; <em>in litt.</em> (2008).  <br/></p>	eng
142164	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	On Santo, large areas of logged forest have been converted into cattle pasture, and on Malakula and Malo the situation is probably similar. Being an understorey species, it is likely to be affected by habitat degradation of primary and logged forest by feral cattle and pigs<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but sparsely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to absent (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142168	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. A large protected area proposed for Halmahera, encompassing 3,550&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of all representative forest-types on the island, between Lalobata and Ake Tajawe is very likely to support a population of the species. Gunung Gamkonora (from whence old records derive) has been recommended for wildlife sanctuary or recreation forest status. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species to clarify its current distribution, status and ecological requirements (particularly to clarify the importance of intact forest). Determine and implement appropriate conservation actions, including the establishment of key sites as strict protected areas. Initiate conservation awareness programmes to elicit support for reduced forest clearance.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus funebris</em> is endemic to the island of Halmahera, North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon and local, with extremely few site-specific records. During recent censuses on the north-east peninsula of the island, the encounter rate was too low to allow an extrapolation of population size.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142168	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in closed-canopy primary forest (where it perches in shady locations in the lower canopy and middle storey), often overlooking clearings, swamp-forest dominated by sago palms with few tall trees, tall secondary woodland, mangroves and forest edge, from the lowlands up to 620&#160;m (but most frequently below 100&#160;m).<strong> </strong>It<strong> </strong>also<strong> </strong>visits<strong> </strong>cultivated habitats (including coconut-groves and plantations).</p>	eng
142168	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4.0-4.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,820 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 7,280-8,008, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density range from lowest to lower quartile of seven estimates for six forest-dwelling congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142168	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss. Since the early 1990s (when it was reported that c.90% of the total area of Halmahera remained forested), clearance and fragmentation of forest has accelerated dramatically. Exploitation of economically valuable trees is now widespread and intensive, with most remaining forest under timber concession. In addition, habitat is under pressure from increased settlement and transmigration, conversion to agriculture, plantations, irrigation schemes, fuelwood-collection and mineral extraction. Given the predilection of this species for low elevations, these threats are particularly alarming.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very widespread and common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus enigma</em> is restricted to the Talaud islands (Karakelang and Salibabu, with no contemporary records from Kabaruan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occupies the mid-canopy of chiefly undisturbed but also secondary forest, often along streams (being replaced in cultivated and coastal areas by Collared Kingfisher <em>T. chloris</em>). It is common and currently little affected by habitat loss, a key area being the Karakelang Hunting Reserve. This reserve and some other areas of forest on the island are, however, under some logging pressure. <br/></p>	eng
142171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142172	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus australasia</em> is restricted to four Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara; Sumba; Timor and Wetar; and the Banda Sea Islands, the first three with nominate <em>australasia</em>, the last one with races <em>dammeriana</em> and <em>odites</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and<strong> Timor-Leste</strong>, where it is found in monsoon forest at 0-700 m. Its distribution within this fairly wide area is, however, very patchy, and it is generally uncommon, perhaps because it is a closed-canopy specialist, so that habitat loss and degradation seem likely to be considerable negative factors.  <br/></p>	eng
142174	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142175	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> In 1996, a baseline survey and vegetation and rat-trapping studies were conducted. In 1997, this was followed by the first simple census using the Distance Sampling method, and it is hoped that this method will be adopted by a local annual monitoring programme<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further research to determine population trends in the different areas of the island and requirements for long-term survival<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a detailed study of nesting success<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor the population by surveying birds in secondary forest (due to its accessibility)<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Provide nest-sites in appropriate places<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage habitat preservation and augment habitat<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate<em> A. tristis</em></strong><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142175	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todiramphus ruficollaris</em> is endemic to Mangaia, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, where in the early 1980s it was reported to be declining<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1992-1993, the population was estimated at 250-450 birds, with c.50% concentrated in the north-west and an important population in the east<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1996, the population was estimated at 400-700 birds using a different method<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1997, numbers appeared to be broadly similar<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142175	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest growing on the makatea (an encircling, raised coral limestone platform), preferring continuous forest canopy, and is found in highest densities in relatively unaltered tracts, although it also occurs in mature secondary forest and forest patches<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, grubs, cockroaches and spiders, with lizards forming an important part of the diet<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It nests in tree-cavities (preferring coconut and barringtonia <em>Barringtonia asiatica</em>) and clutch-size is 2-3<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>,<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142175	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Baker <em>et al</em>. (1996), Kelly and Bottomley (1998). <br/></p>	eng
142175	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The introduced Common Myna<em> Acridotheres tristis</em> (numbering c.9,000 birds), found in secondary forest and small forest tracts, competes for food and harasses breeding birds causing nest failure<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Cats and rats, both Pacific rat<em> Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em> R. rattus</em>, are present in all forest-types (particularly prevalent in areas with a high abundance of coconut trees) and are potential predators<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Long-tailed Cuckoo<em> Eudynamis taitensis</em>, a winter migrant from New Zealand, may also predate eggs and chicks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, clearance for pine plantations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and browsing by goats cause habitat loss and forest fragmentation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pigs affect forest regeneration<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Human disturbance may have an impact on birds in the south-west<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and abundant to rare and localized (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142177	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A survey of the species and its threats on Tahuata is planned for 2009<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Regularly resurvey the species to determine trends. Investigate the status of <em>R. rattus</em> on Tahuata and the impacts caused by this species and <em>A. tristis </em>through competition and predation; consider eradication if sensible<em>. </em>Take all measures possible to ensure that <em>B. virginianus </em>does not colonise Tahutua. Exclude livestock from the remaining intact forest.  Consider the possibility of translocation to a nearby island.  <br/></p>	eng
142177	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Todiramphus godeffroyi</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where there were 300-500 pairs on Tahuata in 1975<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and more recently 695 birds on the latter island in 2003. It formerly occurred on Hiva Oa, where there were fewer than 50 pairs in 1971 and 1973; it was exceedingly rare on the island in 1990<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and was last seen in February 1997 in the Atuona Valley. Searches in 2001, 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island<strong><sup>7,9,10,12</sup></strong>. Records from Fatu Hiva, Mohotani and Ua Pou are apparently erroneous<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142177	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It prefers dense, humid forest along the courses of mountain streams and remote valleys from low to mid altitude, but has also been seen in coconut plantations, on dry slopes covered with mango and <em>Eugenia cuminii</em> trees, and on peaks covered with groves of <em>Casuarina</em>. It has been found nesting in an old mango tree and in a decayed screw-pine trunk. It feeds principally on insects and lizards<strong><sup>1,2,3,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimated at 693 (Gouni 2004) <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142177	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extensive damage has been caused to upland forest by feral cattle, horses, goats, sheep and pigs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and this is causing the continuing decline on Tahuata<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is thought to have been heavily predated by the introduced Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em> on Hiva Oa, and other alien species such as Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> and perhaps black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> (introduced c.1915 on Hiva Oa and present on Tahuata in 1989, but not certain whether it is currently present on the island<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) may have contributed to the decline<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The introduction of <em>B. virginianus </em>to Tahuata would be disastrous for this species.  <br/></p>	eng
142178	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Niau is included in the Fakarava Man and Biosphere Protected Area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A project studying the species's ecology, behaviour and movements took place in 2006, 2007, and again in September-November 2008.  The entire island was thoroughly surveyed for the birds, which were colour-ringed and radio-tagged to track movements, nesting success and survival. Additional genetic studies have taken place to evaluate heritage and genetic variability that may impact survival. Additionally, a cooperative program to protect nesting habitat was started with resident coconut farmers and an endangered species education program was initiated in the Niau primary school.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research the impact of rats on kingfisher survival and reproduction. Provide nest boxes to increase the availability of nest-sites<sup>8 </sup></strong>. Consider the possible reintroduction of birds to Mangareva island or the establishment of a second supplementary population elsewhere<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>.	eng
142178	distribution		<em>Todiramphus gambieri</em> is confined to the island of Niau in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where the race <em>niauensis</em> was represented by 400-600 birds in 1974, and reported as common in 1990; the nominate <em>gambieri</em> having become extinct on Mangareva, Gambier Islands, probably prior to 1922<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2003 and 2004 estimated the total population as 39-51 individuals, significantly lower than previously supposed<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>, but surveys in 2006-2008 suggested that the total population had remained relatively stable at around 125 individuals<strong><sup>10,11,12</sup></strong>.	eng
142178	habitat		This species prefers semi-open coconut plantation habitats<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, limestone forests, and cultivated areas around villages, and readily uses Niau's ephemeral wetlands and ocean coasts for foraging.  Breeding is from September to January in nest cavities excavated from dead and decaying coconut palms. It feeds on insects (e.g. small coleoptera) and small lizards, and excavates nest-cavities in dead coconut trees (thus its choice of nest-site is limited)<strong><sup>2,9,10,11,</sup></strong>. The main food source for chicks is lizards<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
142178	population		125 individuals were estimated by point count surveys in 2006-2008 (Gouni <em>et al</em>. 2006 ; Gouni and Zysman, 2007, D. Kesler <em>in litt. </em>2008).	eng
142179	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142181	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>On Guadalcanal, search for more readily accessible populations above Gold Ridge. Survey other montane sites, especially from the south coast. Survey prevalence of introduced mammalian predators in mountains. Research population densities and basic ecology above Betilonga. Survey the population on Bougainville. Establish a system of community-based conservation areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142181	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Actenoides bougainvillei</em> has two subspecies: <em>bougainvillei</em> on Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and <em>excelsa</em> on Guadalcanal, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. There are a few specimens from Bougainville, the last taken in 1938, and three from Guadalcanal, the last taken in 1953<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>, and then no definite records until 1994. It is very unobtrusive and crepuscular and is liable to have been overlooked unless the call is known. In 1994 and 1997, it was found to be frequent in montane forest above the abandoned Betilonga village on Guadalcanal. Calls were heard from up to six locations from a camp at 1,500&#160;m. If each call relates to a different bird, then the local density was 75 calling birds per km<sup>2</sup>, but much forest at this altitude is unsuitable for this species<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. No other montane sites have been visited on Guadalcanal. On Bougainville, calls believed to be of this species were heard in 1986 on the edge of lowland swamp-forest near Arawa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and a pair was reportedly watched at a nest-hole in the late 1980s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142181	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Observations and reports from Guadalcanal indicate that it only occurs in closed-canopy forest between 900-1,100&#160;m and at least 1,550&#160;m. Calls were not heard from the many patches of more open forest, damaged by cyclones and land-slides<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. On Guadalcanal, it is reported to nest in holes in the ground, sometimes in forest but usually in riverbanks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It appears to be a lowland species on Bougainville where it is very poorly known, but there is a report of it nesting in an arboreal ant-plant<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142181	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4.0-4.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 100 km<sup>2</sup> (approximate AOO in montane forest on Guadalcanal, excluding lowland forest on Bougainville because there are no confirmed recent records) = c.400 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of seven estimates for six forest species of <em>Todiramphus</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142181	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Guadalcanal subspecies occurs at altitudes above human activity. As a hole-nesting species, it is potentially threatened by introduced rats and cats which are found at high altitudes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Bougainville subspecies appears to occur in the lowlands which have been partially logged and heavy logging is likely to recommence once the island re-opens to commercial exploitation. <br/></p>	eng
142182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Actenoides concretus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra (including offshore islands) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland and hill forest, to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but its presence in hill forest suggests no immediate pressure from outright loss of habitat. However, it is unlikely to survive logging events that heavily disrupt the canopy. <br/></p>	eng
142183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Luzon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142184	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in areas afforded varying degrees of protection, including Mt Kitanglad Natural Park, Mt Malindang National Park and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which has been proposed as a national park. It may still occur at Mt Apo Natural Park and in the area now encompassed by the watershed reserve at Mt Hilong-hilong, from where there are pre-1970 records. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, including mist-netting and use of its vocalisations, to establish its true range on Mindanao, and to assess its current distribution and status. Propose additional key sites (such as Mts Hilong-hilong, Diwata, Sugarloaf, Piapayungan, Mayo and Matutum) for urgent designation as formal protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142184	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Actenoides hombroni</em> is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Formerly widespread, there have been records from just seven localities since 1980. However, three of these represent minor range extensions, suggesting further populations may yet be discovered. Contradictory assessments from the early 20th century considered it quite common and very rare. It is difficult to observe but knowledge of its call recently revealed it to be fairly common at Lake Sebu and this may be the case elsewhere.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142184	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an apparently sedentary inhabitant of primary forest and occasionally secondary and disturbed habitats across a wide altitudinal range (100-2,400&#160;m), although generally above 1,000&#160;m. One anomalous report, of a bird collected in "low thick jungle covered daily by the sea", appears to relate to mangroves. It is unobtrusive and tends to call prior to dawn. <br/></p>	eng
142184	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142184	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive deforestation is the main threat, particularly at lower elevations. In 1988, an estimated 29% of Mindanao remained forested. Even this is considered an overestimate and most remaining accessible tracts are leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Virtually all forest below 1,200&#160;m at the ostensibly protected key site of Mt Kitanglad Natural Park has been felled. Forest burning associated with insurgency is a problem on the Zamboanga peninsula. The recent discovery of gold in the mountains of eastern Mindanao is a potential threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142185	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Actenoides monachus</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>monachus</em> in north and central, race <em>capucinus</em> in east, south-east and south Sulawesi), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon (but highly inconspicuous) in primary and tall secondary lowland forest up to 900 m. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. <br/></p>	eng
142186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but generally scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142189	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tanysiptera hydrocharis</em> inhabits the the Aru Islands and the Trans-Fly region of southern New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It was not recorded during a month-long expedition to the Aru Islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and there are recent records only from the Trans-Fly north of Kiunga<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong> but it may occur throughout the Fly basin<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to common north of Kiunga, where it is sympatric with Common Paradise-kingfisher <em>T. galatea</em> and White-tailed Paradise-kingfisher <em>T. sylvia</em> in undisturbed seasonally flooded alluvial lowland forest<strong><sup>2,4,5,6</sup></strong>. There is no other indication of its population or its tolerance of degraded habitats but it may be threatened by logging.</p>	eng
142190	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142191	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out a major survey of Kofiau to assess the current population size and establish a monitoring programme to assess population trends. Establish a protected area on the island to ensure the ongoing presence of primary forest. Clarify ecological preferences and tolerance of habitat degradation. Clarify its taxonomic status.	eng
142191	distribution		<em>Tanysiptera ellioti</em> is endemic to the 144 km<sup>2</sup> island of Kofiau in the West Papuan islands of <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is abundant in primary and secondary forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
142191	habitat		Previous research suggested it can inhabit "most" habitats in the lowlands, including primary and tall secondary forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Further surveys suggest that it is most abundant in primary and secondary forest, though it can be found persisting in traditional gardens<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is also circumstantial evidence that immature individuals may only occur in tall, closed-canopy forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Individuals perch at 1-12 m and are not thought to venture up into the canopy<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
142191	population		Population estimate = 3-10 individuals/km2 x 86.4 km2 (60% EOO) = 290-860, i.e. in band 250-999 individuals (density range is the lower quartile to median of 41 estimates of congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; described as abundant in suitable habitat, but some habitat has been destroyed so 60% of EOO is used).	eng
142192	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tanysiptera riedelii</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is sometimes considered to be a subspecies of Common Paradise-kingfisher <em>T.&#160;galeata</em> but there are significant morphological differences<strong><sup>7,11,12</sup></strong>. It is reported to be fairly common in primary, secondary and logged forest, up to at least 300&#160;m, and possibly 600&#160;m <strong><sup>2,6,8,10,13</sup></strong>. However, it has also been reported as rare and restricted to tall forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori<strong><sup>3,4,9</sup></strong>. Its reported abundance, tolerance of degraded forest, and presence in the 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggests that it is not threatened. However, there are contradictory reports of its status, and further research may show it to be threatened. <br/></p>	eng
142193	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tanysiptera carolinae</em> is endemic to the<strong> </strong>island<strong> </strong>of Numfor (330 km<sup>2</sup>) in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common and widespread in all lowland habitats, including beach vegetation and highly degraded forest<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Much of the forest on Numfor has already been destroyed or degraded by logging and subsistence farming<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. No protected area currently exists on Numfor, although a reserve has been proposed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although this species appears to be secure in highly degraded forest, the ecological requirements of this species and the current status of forest on Numfor are poorly known and leave cause for concern. <br/></p>	eng
142193	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There is a single subpopulation, restricted to the island of Numfor. <br/></p>	eng
142194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in some areas but common in others (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, scarce or absent  (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142201	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100-200 breeding pairs, equating to 300-600 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
142202	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species has a population density of 20 individuals/km2 in primary lowland forest in Borneo and 10 individuals/km2 in forest on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere very common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142209	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequent throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon and rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common in prime habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but local and generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is regarded as a rarity in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142219	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common, frequent or locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common locally over its entire range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and absent from suitable-looking areas (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and regarded as common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3100-10000 breeding pairs, equating to 9300-30000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
142224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480000-1000000 breeding pairs, equating to 1440000-3000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2940000-12000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its vast range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, absent or sporadic (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common along large rivers throughout its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted area (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to usually be common or fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
142238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common, or at least not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally not uncommon throughout its range. However it is suspected to be rarer towards the east of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 58000-77000 breeding pairs, equating to 174000-231000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-5000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common or fairly common breeder in many parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most parts of its range but rarer in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142246	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cuculus vagans</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, south <strong>Laos</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and, occasionally, west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon in evergreen forest to 915 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. The species's preference for forest edge and secondary forest and use of mid-altitude forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. However, it is commonest in plains-level forest, and thus may become threatened in future. <br/></p>	eng
142247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142251	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4200000-8600000 breeding pairs, equating to 12600000-25800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25000000-100000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142252	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its wide range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142253	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in several parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common, at least locally (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but not rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in Nigeria (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon. However it is locally common in central Kenya and the eastern part of the Arc Mountains (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and abundant in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears to be scarce to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142265	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cacomantis heinrichi</em> is restricted to the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits montane forest at 1,000-1,500 m on Halmahera, lower (800-1,200 m) on Bacan, with recent reports from as low as 100-450 m. It may be vulnerable to forest loss within its range. <br/></p>	eng
142265	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a relatively small range, within which forest habitats have declined and hence, the global population is suspected to be moderately small. <br/></p>	eng
142266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncomon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142270	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142272	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably scarce to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in most of its range. However it is reported to be locally common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Congo Basin but rarer elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142281	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequently recorded at Varirata National Park, Papua New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Thailand and the Greater Sundas, locally fairly common in Malaysia, rare in Singapore and Sri Lanka and widespread in Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although less common in the Greater Sundas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142289	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in Australia and scarce elsewhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142290	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142291	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phaenicophaeus diardi</em> occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits primary or secondary evergreen forest or mangroves to 1,220 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist in second growth and at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has been less rapid than for many lowland primary forest specialists. <br/></p>	eng
142292	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phaenicophaeus sumatranus</em> occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, through peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(uncommon),<strong> </strong>to<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including the North Natuna Islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in primary and secondary forest, including mangroves and peatswamp forest, to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia and Thailand. However, the species's ability to persist in second growth and at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has been less rapid than for many lowland primary forest specialists. <br/></p>	eng
142293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread though not abundant through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally a rather rare species (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common species throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142298	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142299	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142300	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area, Gal-Oya National Park, Senanayake Samudra Sanctuary, Uda Walawe National Park and Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Research its ecology, particularly its habitat requirements and possible seasonal movements. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142300	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, primarily occurring in the wet zone of the south-west of the island and locally in the dry zone. There are unconfirmed records from Tamil Nadu, India. Historical records suggest it was widespread at the end of the 19th century, but its population has since declined, become increasingly fragmented and probably numbers no more than a few thousand individuals. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142300	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is mainly confined to undisturbed, tall, humid forest with dense, tangled undergrowth, although there are scattered populations in dry zone riverine forest. Most records are from below 920&#160;m, although it has been recorded up to 1,540 m. It forages solitarily usually in the canopy and its diet consists primarily of fruit, but includes invertebrates. Breeding has been recorded from January-May, but it may also breed from August-September. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements.</p>	eng
142300	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population unlikely to number 'more than a few thousand individuals' based on available records and survey results (BirdLife International 2001). A recent estimate suggests the population may now be no more than several hundred individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
142300	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. As a primarily canopy dwelling species, it has been particularly badly affected by selective logging. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. Historically, hunting was possibly a threat but is unlikely to be a serious problem today.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142301	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142303	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carpococcyx radiatus</em>, now treated separately from the threatened Sumatran Ground-cuckoo <em>C. viridis</em>, is endemic to the island of Borneo (<strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>), where it inhabits the floor of mostly lowland forest. While this habitat is under severe pressure in Borneo, and although this cuckoo is widely regarded as scarce to very rare, it has proved to be widespread and common in many areas (including secondary habitats and lower hill country) surveyed for pheasants. It is generally regarded as inedible and is not trapped. <br/></p>	eng
142304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142305	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coua delalandei</em><em> </em>is known from 13 specimens, all apparently collected on Ile de Sainte-Marie (Nosy Boraha), <strong>Madagascar</strong>, with the most recent from 1834<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Reports from 1930<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> are unfounded, and it is now considered extinct<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was a terrestrial species of primary rainforest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and therefore, the complete deforestation of Ile de Sainte-Marie was presumably the ultimate cause of its extinction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Snaring for feathers and food and predation by introduced rats may also have contributed to the species's demise<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common where good forest still exists (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its rather restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common where good forest still exists (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in more than 30 localities within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon within its small range but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142313	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coua verreauxi</em> has a relatively small range in south-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>, within the southern part of the spiny forest zone. It is a bird of semi-arid thorn scrub where it forages for invertebrates among trees and bushes, also feeding on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species appears to favour thick coastal scrub on coral rag but also occurs outside this habitat, including within degraded areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Within suitable habitat the species can be fairly abundant. However, wood-cutting for charcoal production is widespread, particularly along roads and near to major towns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Only a very small area of suitable habitat is protected within reserves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in suitable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be common and conspicuous on Halmahera but rarer on smaller islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142317	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
142317	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press <br/></p>	eng
142318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common near the coast, rarer near arid areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
142322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142323	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centropus chalybeus</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori, off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>1,9</sup></strong>. Recent observations indicate that it is probably not uncommon in forest and secondary forest, but elusive and more often heard than seen, and probably more common on Supiori<strong><sup>2,3,5,6,7,10</sup></strong>. On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori<strong><sup>3,4,8</sup></strong>. Its widespread and relatively common occurrence, tolerance of moderately degraded forest, and its occurrence in the 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggests that it is not threatened. However, there is very little recent information on bird and especially forest status on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
142323	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Owing to its restricted distribution on just two small islands the species is thought to have a moderately small population. <br/></p>	eng
142324	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Populations of this species are reported from several protected areas within its range, including Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), Taman Negara (Malaysia), Similajau National Park (Sarawak) and Gunung Palung National Park (Kalimantan).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys by listening for its call to investigate its altitudinal distribution, ecological requirements and the levels of threat it faces and thereby determine whether any specific conservation measures are required. Provide adequate support for the conservation of relevant lowland protected areas. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142324	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centropus rectunguis</em> occurs from extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong>, through Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> to Malaysian Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak), <strong>Brunei</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (Kalimantan and Sumatra). It appears to be rare in Thailand and Sumatra, but apparently locally fairly common in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142324	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Although it has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, such as scrub and rank grassland, it appears to be generally restricted to the undergrowth of lowland evergreen forest, where it appears to live at low population densities.</p>	eng
142324	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142324	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If this bird is an extreme lowland forest specialist, as appears possible, then it must be in steep decline from habitat loss. Logging in peninsular Thailand and Malaysia has been extremely rapid. On Borneo, Kalimantan lost just under 25% of its 1985 lowland forest cover by 1997, resulting in the prediction that this habitat-type could be eradicated from the entire province by 2010, if changes in policy and management are not forthcoming. The equivalent statistic for Sumatra is even more alarming: 30% of lowland forest lost in the same 12-year period, a rate that, if maintained, would result in almost complete clearance of the lowlands by 2005. Furthermore, the major fires of 1997-1998 affected 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo. <br/></p>	eng
142325	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>An education programme has also been started at Malpalon. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera, where hunting has been locally prohibited. The Sablayan Penal Colony recently adopted the Mindoro Bleeding-heart as their flagship species for conservation and established a forest protection and restoration unit within the boundaries of the penal colony inside the Mt. Siburan IBA, which may also benefit the coucal<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme, Species Guardians Haribon Foundation are implementing the following actions for Mindoro Bleeding-heart and Black-hooded Coucal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>: an IBA monitoring team for Mount Siburan has been set up, training and utilising local participants; actions are underway to strengthen the Sablayan Forest Management Board (SFMB), the main function of which is to oversee the implementation of the Sablayan Forest Management Plan; an IEC (Information-Education-Communication) Plan is being developed for use in environmental education, awareness raising and local advocacy; a Sablayan Ecotourism Plan is being developed, including training local bird tour guides; and efforts have been made to strengthen and consolidate the Site Support Group's actions aimed at eliminating logging activities and the accidental snaring of Mindoro Bleeding-heart. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and conduct further surveys in remaining suitable habitat, e.g. at Mt Halcon, to clarify its current status. Establish formal, managed protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon and Puerto Galera. Extend Mt Iglit-Baco National Park to encompass remaining lowland forest tracts. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity with its role as a prison. Raise public awareness about the status and importance of this species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142325	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Centropus steerii</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was formerly widespread and fairly common. However, only a tiny amount of lowland forest remains on Mindoro and its population is now believed to be extremely small, with records since 1980 from just three localities (Siburan, Puerto Galera, Malpalon), two of which are adjacent to each other. At Siburan, probably the key site for the species, no more than four birds per day have been recorded during fieldwork. <br/></p>	eng
142325	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is restricted to primary lowland and transitional (to mid-mountain) dipterocarp forest, up to 760 m, where it frequents dense vegetation, tangled thickets, vine-covered shrubs and bamboo. It appears to be displaced in forest edge and second growth by <em>C. viridis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
142325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate based on detailed analysis of recent records by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142325	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	By 1988, extensive deforestation on Mindoro had reduced forest cover to a mere 120 km<sup>2</sup>, of which only a small proportion is below this species's upper altitudinal limit. The lowland forest that does remain is highly fragmented and and it is believed that at the current rate of deforestation all forest may have disappeared by 2020-2030. Slash-and-burn cultivation, occasional selective logging and rattan collection threaten the forest fragments that still support the species. Dynamite blasting for marble is an additional threat to forest at Puerto Galera. Its genetic viability may be at risk given the small size and fragmented nature of remaining populations. <br/></p>	eng
142326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common almost everywhere throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142328	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been recorded in at least three protected areas, Ujung Kulon National Park, and Segara Anakan and Muara Angke Nature Reserves. However, these are either only partly suitable for the species (Ujung Kulon), very small and isolated (Muara Angke) or subject to high pressure from outside (Segara Anakan). In addition at least four proposed reserves support populations, including Muara Gembong, Tanjung Sedari, Muara Cimanuk, Ujung Pangkah and perhaps Muara Bobos.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to assess the importance of known sites and to locate populations. Research its further habitat requirements and hence the importance of mangrove swamps to its survival. Establish further protected areas where appropriate, either in their own right or as extensions to existing reserves. Investigate the possibility of habitat restoration at heavily disturbed sites. Afford full legal protection and promote public awareness campaigns to reduce snaring of birds in coastal swamps.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142328	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centropus nigrorufus</em> is endemic to <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs on Java, and possibly Sumatra (from where there is one specimen of doubtful origin and recent unconfirmed sight records). It is locally common, but rather sparsely distributed, although it may be under-recorded. The relatively high numbers on sale in markets and displayed in zoos (often exceeding <em>C.&#160;sinensis</em>) suggest it may be more common and well-distributed than records suggest.  <br/></p>	eng
142328	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a sedentary resident of mangroves and associated swamps (particularly comprising <em>Acrostichium</em>, <em>Saccharum</em>, <em>Imperata</em> and <em>Nypa</em> spp.) in the coastal lowlands. It occurs in freshwater swamps and grassland scrub adjacent to brackish water swamps (possibly suboptimal habitats), although it appears to be excluded from mature stands of <em>Rhizophora</em> and <em>Bruguiera</em> by <em>C.&#160;sinensis</em>, occupying fringing habitat instead. It has also been recorded in teak forest and well inland.</p>	eng
142328	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
142328	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat appears to be the destruction and degradation of mangroves and swamps as a result of widespread conversion to fishponds and agricultural land, and reclamation for urban expansion and industrialisation. Suitable habitat on Java is now fragmented. It is also threatened by widespread trapping, giving rise to concern that local population extinctions might ensue. <br/></p>	eng
142329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be patchily distributed and generally scarce over much its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in open country (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142333	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its distribution, abundance and ecology, in particular to improve understanding of its habitat requirements and to identify appropriate forest-management regimes. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Research the possible effects of competition with <em>C. sinensis. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142333	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centropus chlorohynchus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka,</strong> where it is confined to the wet zone in the south-west of the island. Its population is poorly known, but appears to have declined and become increasingly fragmented since the late 19th and early 20th century and it is absent from some sites where it formerly occurred. It is unlikely that its population exceeds a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142333	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in high-stature, undisturbed, wet zone forests with a dense understorey (often of bamboo) mainly below 760 m. There are a few records from man-modified habitats surrounded by forest but it appears generally intolerant of habitat modification. It feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and also frogs, lizards and fruit, and is thought to breed from January-July, and possibly at other times of year. </p>	eng
142333	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population unlikely to number 'more than a few thousand individuals' based on available records and survey results (BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
142333	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation, for example Ingiriya Forest Reseve, where it is declining because of illegal logging. Competition with Greater Coucal <em>C. sinensis</em>, which occurs in logged and disturbed areas, may be contributing to its decline.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common,although rare in Togo and uncommon in Ghana (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be sparsely distributed but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its sizeable range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142339	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142342	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centropus unirufus</em> is endemic to Luzon and its satellites Polillo and Catanduanes, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is uncommon and local: it appears to be a bird of lowland forest and therefore merits particular attention owing to the actual and potential destruction of this habitat, but it persists well in mature secondary growth, selectively logged and degraded forest, and even prefers bamboo areas. <br/></p>	eng
142343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cocos Island has been designated as a national park, but no substantive measures have been taken to reduce populations of introduced mammals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to estimate the population. Study the impact of introduced mammals. Begin to eradicate introduced mammals where feasible.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coccyzus ferrugineus</em> is endemic to Cocos Island, c.500&#160;km from the coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong>. It is widespread and probably under-recorded in suitable habitat, but the extent of such habitat is very limited<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The total population is probably significantly below 1,000 individuals, and it is the least common of the endemic land birds on the island.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents second growth forest, <em>Hibiscus</em> thickets and streamside vine-tangles, feeding on large insects and a lizard <em>Anolis</em> sp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is probably significantly below 1,000 individuals (F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <br/></p>	eng
142349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rats and cats are potential predators, and feral deer, pigs and goats graze suitable habitat. Pigs especially devastate the lower strata and understorey of native forests and inhibit forest regeneration<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. On many other islands, this combination of feral mammals has caused the extinction of numerous endemic plant and animal species. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142353	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It has occurred in four protected areas in the Dominican Republic, but there are recent records from only Sierra de Baoruco National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a thorough, targeted survey using tape-playback throughout its potential range. Effectively protect Sierra de Baoruco National Park. Assess the impact of habitat modification, hunting and agrochemicals.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142353	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hyetornis rufigularis</em> occurs in Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>), and apparently suffered a dramatic decline in range and numbers during the 20th century. It is considered extremely rare in Haiti, and has already been extirpated from Gon&acirc;ve Island. The only recent records are from the northern Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, with a single observation from the east of the sierra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Even there, it is regarded as extremely scarce<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, but six individuals were easily found in April 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, suggesting that the species may be more common than previously thought.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142353	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its choice of habitat appears unspecialised, ranging from arid lowlands through patchy broadleaf woodland to montane rainforest. It is found from the lowlands to 900&#160;m, and sometimes higher<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but seems to prefer rather dry, deciduous environments. It feeds primarily on lizards and insects but also on small mammals. Stick nests are built (3-6&#160;m up) in trees that have concealing epiphytes or leaves, and are active from February-May.</p>	eng
142353	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.4-14.0 individuals/km2 x 396 km2 (45% EOO) = 158-5,544, but probably best placed within band 2,500-10,000, as its choice of habitats apparently unspecialised, and recent observations suggest that it may be "more common than previously thought" (density range based on six estimates for three species of Coccyzinae in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142353	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is probably associated with deforestation for agriculture, high levels of grazing, hunting (for supposed medicinal purposes) and possibly the use of agrochemicals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142373	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neomorphus squamiger</em> is rare in tropical lowland evergreen forest, south of lower Amazonia (the lower rio Tapaj&oacute;s area of Par&aacute;), <strong>Brazil<sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. It is poorly known, has a small range and is highly sensitive to human disturbance<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It suffers from widespread deforestation, which has increased markedly since the 1970s owing to road-building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The principal threat has been the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the rate of forest clearance was predicted to fall throughout its range during the 1990s, in accordance with changes in road-building patterns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, any decrease was temporary, and logging remains a significant threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142374	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from several protected areas, including Los Farallones de Cali and Munchique National Parks and El Pangan Nature Reserve (Colombia), Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Biological Corridor, Protective Forest Los Cedros, Mache-Chindul Ecological Reserve, and Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve (Ecuador)<strong><sup>1,4,6,10,18</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey foothill-forests within its range<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its ecology<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a network of effectively protected reserves in its foothill range<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate the Aw&aacute; Reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi Corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canand&eacute; Reserve, including the R&iacute;o Santiago, Cayapas, &Oacute;nzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve<sup>2,16</sup></strong>. <strong>Sustainably manage the buffer zone to the Aw&aacute; Ethnic Reserve and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve <sup>2,16</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement population monitoring programs<sup>17</sup></strong>. <strong>Consolidate protection of the Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserves through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonization inside the reserves and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones<sup>17</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142374	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Neomorphus radiolosus</em> is found on the Pacific slope of the West Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Valle, Cauca, Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha). It was recorded only rarely until 1988, since when it has been found in three areas in Colombia and at least six in Ecuador<strong><sup>1,4,5,6,14,15,16,18,19,20</sup></strong>. Hunters in the Jun&iacute;n area, Nari&ntilde;o, reported in the 1990s that they saw it every few months, but it is evidently a low-density species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142374	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits wet foothill forests at 30-1,525 m<strong><sup>16,18,19</sup></strong>. It seems to be dependent on continuous primary forest, but also uses adjacent secondary areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Reports and information from local people suggest that it sometimes associates with collared peccaries <em>Tayassu tajacu</em>, and with mixed-species bird flocks attending army ant swarms<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It forages for arthropods from the ground by scouring foliage, stems and tree-trunks, or catching prey disturbed by army ants<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Two recently documented nesting attempts provided the first information on its nesting biology: one took place in March-April and the other in May, and both nests were located c.5 m above ground in understorey trees in primary forest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The clutch size appears to be small and may be only a single egg<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A wide range of invertebrates (particularly grasshoppers) and vertebrates (mainly small frogs) were fed to the nestling<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> (1997-2006) in Esmeraldas, covering an altitudinal range of 5-1,800 m confirmed that the species occurs at extremely low densities of 0.125-0.25 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, or less, in most of its remaining Ecuadorian range; concordant with a radio-tagged adult that was found to have a home range of 5 km<sup>2 <strong>13</strong></sup>. <br/></p>	eng
142374	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 0.125-0.5 individuals/km2 x 3,740 km2 (20% EOO) = 468-1,870, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 (upper density estimate based on estimates for <em>N. geoffroyi </em>in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, lower estimate according to extensive surveys in Esmeraldas <em>sensu</em> O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007 and P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
142374	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Choc&oacute; region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Deforestation is particularly rapid in Ecuador, Nari&ntilde;o, and along the Cali-Buenaventura and other roads<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. By 1996, in western Ecuador the remnant cover of evergreen lowland and premontane forests was only 18% and 40% respectively<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. In the late 1990s, primary forests in Nari&ntilde;o and within 60 km of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas, were selectively logged, and then converted to oil palm plantations at a rapid rate<strong><sup>2,16,23</sup></strong>. Between 1998 and 2007 the area planted with African palms rose from only 3 km<sup>2 </sup>to 225 km<sup>2</sup> (+900% per year)<strong><sup>22</sup></strong> with a further 275-315 km<sup>2</sup> due to be converted in the near future<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. In Esmeraldas, annual deforestation rates in the lowlands (<300 m) were 3.8% and accumulated loss of primary forest >38% during the last decade<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. During the same period, the cover of primary premontane forest (300-1300 m) was reduced by 7%<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Infrastructural improvement in the region, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, is resulting in increased logging, small-scale agriculture, gold mining, and hunting for food<strong><sup>7,8,10,11</sup></strong>, which is already affecting some key protected areas<strong><sup>16,17,18</sup></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca and banana plantations, at lower altitudes, and cattle-farming<strong><sup>3,7,9,11,16,21</sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142375	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142378	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a patchy distribution along the northern coastal lowlands of New Guinea, from the Geelvink Bay in Irian Jaya (Indonesia) to the Astrolobe Bay in Papua New Guinea. It is generally reported to be uncommon (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986), but is locally fairly common in localities such as the Puwani River area south of Vanimo and in incompletely logged forest in the Wapoga River area (A. Mack in litt. 1999, K.D. Bishop in litt. 1999, B. Beehler in litt. 2000).	eng
142378	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It favours a type of primary and tall secondary forest which has only been recorded below 150 m.	eng
142378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be greater than 50,000 individuals (Seal et al. 1992). It is generally reported to be uncommon (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986), but is locally fairly common in localities such as the Puwani River area south of Vanimo and in incompletely logged forest in the Wapoga River area (A. Mack in litt. 1999, K. D. Bishop in litt. 1999, B. Beehler in litt. 2000).	eng
142378	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forests throughout its range are threatened by commercial logging but the species's abundance in secondary forest suggests that it is not threatened (B. Whitney in litt. 2000).	eng
142379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142380	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundnat (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142381	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I, and a protected species in Indonesia. Although 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest has some form of protected status on Karakelang, 250 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>as a Wildlife Reserve, there is, at present, no management of these sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork and conservation awareness programmes, and developing ideas for future land-use. Efforts have been made to promote local support of the species on Talaud, its last stronghold. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor population trends and trapping levels. Enforce legislation (including strict dock controls) to reduce trading to sustainable levels. Conduct further research, provide training and resources for reserve staff and produce a cross-community management plan. Continue conservation awareness programmes to highlight the plight of this species and increase local support for its conservation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142381	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eos histrio</em> is now confined to the Talaud Islands (almost exclusively on Karakelang) off northern Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Further populations (some apparently the result of introductions) disappeared during the 20th century from Sangihe, Siau and Tagulandang. Although it was previously abundant, the population was estimated at only 5,000-10,000 birds in 1997, and thought to be in rapid decline. <br/></p>	eng
142381	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forests, eating fruit and insects, but also visits agricultural areas to feed on coconut nectar and various cultivated fruits. The main breeding period appears to be May-June (although nesting has been suspected in several other months), in holes in tall trees. Flocks regularly make short seasonal movements, and in some cases roost on offshore islands.</p>	eng
142381	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Riley (2003) <br/></p>	eng
142381	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss in the past and trade pressure in the present are key threats. It was widely trapped as early as the 19th century. In 1999, research suggested that as many as 1,000-2,000 birds were leaving Karakelang each year, 80% (illegally) to the Philippines. This is compounded by extensive loss of forest, perhaps the main factor underlying its disappearance from Sangihe. The use of insecticides and the transmission of disease via escaped cage-birds to wild populations, have been identified as a further potential hazards. <br/></p>	eng
142383	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.	eng
142383	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142383	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 99,834 wild-caught specimens have been recorded in international trade, although none since 2000 (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142384	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eos reticulata</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest, coconut plantations and mangroves on Tanimbar (Yamdena and Larat), with populations reported on Babar, Damar and Kai in the late nineteenth century but not since. An average 3,198 birds were traded annually in the period 1983-1989, but fieldwork in 1993 on Yamdena revealed an estimated 220,000 &#177; 52,000 birds, and past catch rates were judged unlikely to have caused any decline. However, habitat loss continues apace in the south of Yamdena and this, combined with continuing trapping, may cause it to decline in the future. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142385	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (covering 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (covering 420&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It was common in Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys on all the Geelvink Islands to clarify its current distribution and population status. Research its ecology and movements to facilitate planning for its conservation. Investigate trade in the species and devise and implement appropriate controls. Control logging on Supiori.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142385	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eos cyanogenia</em> is endemic to the Geelvink Islands of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the islands of Biak-Supiori, and the much smaller islands of Numfor, Manim and Mios Num<strong><sup>1,11</sup></strong>. On Biak, it is fairly common in patchy forest, although it has sometimes been recorded in flocks of 40-60<strong><sup>2,8,9,14</sup></strong> but, on Supiori, it is common, although less so at higher altitudes<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. It is nomadic, making it difficult to assess its true numbers but, on Biak, it appears to have declined notably between 1982 and 1995<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142385	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a gregarious species which apparently feeds chiefly in inland forest, up to 460&#160;m (although becoming less common at altitudes above 200&#160;m on Supiori, at least), and roosts in coconut plantations and nearby coastal forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is common in "flat forest" on Supiori<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and still relatively common in secondary forest on Biak<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but is absent from low scrubby regrowth<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142385	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2-32 individuals/km2 x 592 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,184-18,944, best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range based from lowest to lower quartile of 11 estimates for three congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
142385	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Relatively large numbers have been trapped for domestic and international trade<strong><sup>4,12</sup></strong>, and this species is commonly observed as a pet on Biak<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure<strong><sup>3,5,10</sup></strong>. Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and highly gregarious (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially in coconut plantations and around villages and common in Dumoga-Bone National Park, north Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, especially in montane forest (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142391	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trichoglossus johnstoniae</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs at Mt Kitanglad, near Lake Lanao, Mt Piapayungan, Mt Apo, Mt Matutum, Lake Parker, Luhan, New Dumangas, T'boli, South Cotabato, Lake Sebu and Mt Malindang. It was described as uncommon and local and treated as threatened, but now appears to be moderately secure and numerous in montane forest above c.1,000&#160;m, this being habitat which is relatively unlikely to be affected by human activities in the medium term. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially in lowland plantations (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the centre of its range and rarer towards the northern and southern areas of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142394	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142394	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to northern Australia, where it is found from Kimberley division, Western Australia, east to north-east Queensland. It is common around Mt Isa and still appears to be widespread and abundant over huge areas of the Top End of the Northern Territory (D. Franklin in litt. 2003).	eng
142394	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in wooded areas, being especially attracted to paperbarks Melaleuca and eucalypts bordering streams and waterholes. It feeds on pollen and nectar from the flowers of Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and other tree species, and is nomadic in response to the availability of blossom, which may be responsible for its disappearance from some areas for long periods of time. Breeding chiefly occurs in April-August, but has been recorded all year round. It nests in tree holes, and has a clutch size of 2-5 eggs (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142395	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psitteuteles iris</em> is restricted to Timor and Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs up to 1,500 m in monsoon forest. Although there appear to be no records from East Timor, and the species is sometimes trapped, it still survives in reasonable numbers in West Timor and it is, or at least once was, locally not uncommon on Wetar. It was, nevertheless, judged to be the least common of the three species of lorikeet on Timor in 1995. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common depending on food availability (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142397	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A healthy population occurs in 167,300 ha of forest at Lalobata and Ake Tajawe on Halmahera which was declared a National Park in 2004, although illegal logging and bird trapping have continued<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since August 2007 a project has been aiming to effectively manage the protected area, buiding capacity for effective management, monitoring illegal trade and raising public awareness and support<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct long-term research into its population size, age structure, ranging behaviour and the relative effects of different threats. Monitor trade.  Initiate a conservation awareness campaign.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142397	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Lorius garrulus</em> is endemic to North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from Morotai, Rau, Halmahera, Widi, Ternate, Bacan and Obi. It is locally common, but rare near settlements and plantations. In 1991-1992, the population was estimated at 46,360-295,540 birds, with trappers potentially removing c.10% annually, a clearly unsustainable rate of harvest. However, in 1994, 52,500 individuals (39,600-69,900) were estimated in only 1,060 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Halmahera, suggesting a higher population than initially calculated. Very high densities can apparently be sustained in primary rainforest: this habitat at Miaf yielded an estimate of 149.0 (116.6-190.4) birds per km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
142397	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs up to 1,050 m, most commonly in montane forest, rarely in gardens and coconut plantations, although this may reflect variations in trapping pressure rather than habitat preference. Moreover, while it is tolerant of logging, the highest densities are to be found in primary forest. It is a canopy species, occasionally descending to the lower canopy to feed, and typically nesting in holes in very tall trees. <br/></p>	eng
142397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimated by Lambert (1993a, b); subsequent work in 1994 suggests the population may at that time have been considerably higher.</p> <br/></p>	eng
142397	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat stems from trapping for the cage-bird trade. This is the most popular bird exported from east Indonesia, largely owing to its strong imitative abilities. Several thousand individuals were legally taken from the wild annually during the 1980s and early 1990s, although the true figure was probably much higher. Legal trade declined through the 1990s and ceased in 2003<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, however illegal trade continues: in 2007 around 2,800 were recorded poached and in 2008 60 were recorded in trade in Javan bird markets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Forests within its range were largely intact at the outset of the 1990s, but exploitation by logging companies for economically valuable timber has become intensive. Important nesting-trees are targeted for extraction because of their large size, and with logging roads greatly facilitating access for trappers, this represents an increasingly significant combination of threats. <br/></p>	eng
142398	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected under Indonesian law since 1972. It occurs in one protected area, Manusela National Park, from whence most recent records derive, although the level of protection is unknown. A recently launched programme of local awareness, targeting Salmon-crested Cockatoo <em>Cacatua</em> <em>moluccensis</em> and linked with the promotion of ecotourism, will be of benefit to this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution and status, and to assess more specifically its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor domestic trade and implement current legislation in an attempt to control trapping. Devise and implement a major conservation awareness campaign on Seram designed to reduce trapping and trade pressure (for this and other endemic parrots). Establish a strict nature reserve in the Wae Fufa catchment and adjacent ridges and valleys of north-east Seram.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142398	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lorius domicella</em> is endemic to the islands of Seram, Ambon, and perhaps also Haruku and Saparua, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It appears always to have been uncommon or rare, recent records deriving only from within Manusela National Park in central Seram, where it is scarce, and from the Wae Fufa catchment in the east, where it is fairly common on ridges between 900 and 1,050 m. It is probably distributed thinly throughout the island at appropriate altitudes. There are unconfirmed local reports that it still survives above Hila on Ambon. Historically at least, an apparently feral population also existed on the island of Buru.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142398	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits hill and submontane rainforest, sometimes preferring ridges, within a fairly restricted altitudinal range (between 300 and 1,100 m, but only common between 600 and 1,000 m). In one recent study it was not found in logged forest, suggesting intolerance of degradation. It lives in pairs or scattered flocks and is thought to be largely sedentary.</p>	eng
142398	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-14 individuals/km2 x 1,145 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,863-16,030, perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 (density range based on extrapolation from 10-14 individuals along 1-2 km of ridgetop [Willis 1997], and this seems broadly compatable with 0.7 birds/hour at another site [Bowler and Taylor 1989]) <br/></p>	eng
142398	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is widely trapped and kept as a pet in large numbers in villages on Seram, where it is much admired for its melodious call and skillful mimicry. It is also traded externally, to Ambon at least (for which permits exist legalising trade of 300-600 parrots per week), and is a popular souvenir of Seram for visitors. Its apparent avoidance of logged forest indicates that habitat degradation, and certainly deforestation, poses a serious threat. Widespread commercial timber extraction, oil drilling and hydroelectric projects are thus further pressures within its range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142399	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common but not abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142401	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lorius albinucha</em>, long known only from the montane massif of southern New Ireland, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, has recently been seen on the Lelet Plateau in the middle of the island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to fairly common in forest between 500-2,000 m and has occasionally been seen down to 250 m in logged forest<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Logging is presently in operation up to 500 m on the southern massif but is unlikely to extend into montane forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; logging was not apparent but must also threaten forest on Lelet<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is likely to have a population of less than 10,000 but is probably not declining unless the logging operations expand into steep montane forest. <br/></p>	eng
142402	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest large parrot within its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Makogai island and rare on Ngau island, Fiji (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142404	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142405	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. In Kiribati, the species is fully-protected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>On Rimatara, monitor the population every two or three years<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Confirm the absence of <em>R.&#160;rattus<sup>1</sup></em></strong>. <strong>Launch a major quarantine campaign to prevent the accidental introduction of <em>R.&#160;rattus<sup>1</sup></em></strong>. <strong>If <em>R. rattus</em></strong> is present in small numbers, take steps to eradicate it<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>On Tabuaeran, investigate the species's survival with <em>R.&#160;rattus<sup>6</sup></em></strong>. <strong>In Kiribati, promote greater awareness and enforcement of the wildlife legislation<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>In the Southern Cook Islands, consider reintroduction<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142405	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vini kuhlii</em> is restricted to Rimatara in the Tubuai Islands (and according to local people may have occurred on Rurutu in the past<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, and to Teraina (=&#160;Washington), Tabuaeran (=&#160;Fanning) and Kiritimati (=&#160;Christmas Island), <strong>Kiribati</strong>. There are also early historic and fossil records from the Southern Cook Islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On Rimatara, the population was estimated at c.905 birds (minimum) following survey work in 1992<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and more recently at c.750<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Teraina, the population is estimated at 1,000 individuals (minimum), with 50 on Tabuaeran, possibly fewer, on a single islet in the atoll<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Kiritimati, a few individuals are reported to survive<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142405	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Rimatara, the favoured habitat is mixed horticultural woodlands, followed by coconut and <em>Paraserianthes falcataria</em> plantations. It also occurs in native makatea forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Teraina and Tabuaeran, it is effectively confined to coconut plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar from a wide variety of flowering plants (nearly all recently introduced)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142405	population	BirdLife International, 2008	McCormack and K&uuml;nzle (1996), Watling (1995), D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>(1999). <br/></p>	eng
142405	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Excessive exploitation for its red feathers is the most likely reason for the species's extinction from the Cook Islands<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. A serious threat to all small lorikeets on Pacific islands is nest-predation by rats, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus<strong><sup>3</sup></strong></em>. On Rimatara, preliminary trapping indicated an absence of <em>R.&#160;rattus,</em> although the less destructive brown rat <em>R. norvegicus</em> is present<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>R rattus </em>stills appeared to be absent in 2000<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Teraina, there is no evidence of the presence of <em>R. rattus,</em> although Pacific rat <em>R. exulans</em> is abundant while, on Tabuaeran, <em>R. rattus</em> occurs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Cats may be a threat on Kiritimati. <br/></p>	eng
142406	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Rat eradication has been investigated and is feasible but difficult because of the island's isolation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson. Consider the eradication of rats from Henderson<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Re-attempt the eradication of rats from nearby Pitcairn Island, and consider translocating the species there when it becomes rat-free<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142406	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vini stepheni</em> is restricted to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. In 1987, the total population was estimated at between 720 and 1,820 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and, in 1992, at c.1,200 pairs (but difficult to assess because of the species's mobility and patchy distribution)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142406	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in native forest, showing a preference for forest edge, and in coconut palms along beaches. It is a generalist feeder, consuming nectar, pollen and fruit from a wide variety of plants from beach-level to the plateau, although flowers from the plants <em>Scaevola sericea</em> and <em>Timonius polygamus</em> provide the main sources of nectar<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Arthropods form part of the diet, including lepidopteran larvae found in the sporangia of the fern <em>Phymatosorus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142406	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Graves (1992) <br/></p>	eng
142406	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species appears to have adapted to the presence of the only introduced predator, Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the accidental introduction of a more aggressive predator, such as another <em>Rattus</em> species, could be devastating, and introduced diseases such as avian malaria and pox are another potential threat. The introduction of exotic plant species could have serious consequences for the native vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and therefore for this species too. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142407	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. On Aitutaki, where extensive trapping in 1994 indicated the absence of <em>R.&#160;rattus</em>, the species has been surveyed several times including by local high-school students using a simplified technique<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to ascertain its continuing presence and numbers on known islands. Continue monitoring the population on Aitutaki<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish more basic facts about the species's requirements, particularly those relating to feeding plants, in preparation for the re-establishment of populations on other suitable motus<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Undertake an educational programme on Apataki<sup>3</sup></strong> and on other islands where strong populations persist. <strong>Consider special protection of viable populations<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Prevent the arrival of <em>Rattus rattus</em></strong> on Aitutaki<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
142407	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vini peruviana</em> is widely but unevenly distributed in south-east Polynesia where it has been recorded from c.20 islands, but is now extinct on several of these<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its range includes the Society Islands (formerly all), the northern atolls of the Tuamotu Archipelago (both <strong>French Polynesia</strong>), and Aitutaki (<strong>Cook Islands</strong>). In the Society Islands, there were possibly up to 250 and 350-400 pairs on Motu One and Manuae respectively in 1973<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it has been observed on Maupihaa in 1999, where it was thought to have been extinct (either a rediscovered subpopulation or a recent recolonisation)<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In the Tuamotus, there are relatively recent records from Tikehau, Rangiroa, Arutua<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong> and Tiamanu Motu in Apataki atoll where a minimum 300 individuals were estimated in 1989 (this subpopulation being allegedly smaller than 10 years previously)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Aitutaki, where it was probably introduced, numbers have been estimated at under 500 pairs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and 2,400 birds, but the apparent increase may be attributable to differing census techniques<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142407	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is typically found in lowland forest, mixed stands of native and cultivated trees, flowering plants, particularly <em>Scaevola</em>,<em> </em>coconut, and banana plantations and gardens, where it feeds on nectar, soft fruit and flowers<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
142407	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's extinction from many islands is most likely due to predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and feral cats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and from Makatea in the Tuamotus could have been combined with a particularly violent hurricane<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Its range reduction in the Society Islands correlates with the spread of the introduced Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142408	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. In 1992-1994, 29 birds were translocated to Fatu Hiva<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>and a follow-up survey was conducted in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Consider the possibility of translocation to the nearby island of Mohotani if cats are eradicated from this island<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>On Fatu Hiva, permanently control rats, at least in the Omoa Valley by trapping and poisoning<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>On Ua Huka, monitor the population and take precautions to prevent invasion by rats.</strong></p>	eng
142408	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vini ultramarina</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Ua Pou, it numbered 250-300 pairs in 1975, was rare in 1990<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong> and was not found in 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Nuku Hiva, it numbered 70 birds in 1972-1975 and was not found in 1990<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Recent records - three from Ua Pou (including one pair) in 1999<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and one from Nuku Hiva (at least three birds) in 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> - are likely to be vagrant birds from Ua Huka rather than relictual populations<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It was (re)introduced to Ua Huka in the 1940s (a single captive pair), where the population was c.200-250 pairs in the early 1970s and c.1,300 birds in 1991<strong><sup>1,3,10</sup></strong>. It was further (re)introduced to Fatu Hiva (29 birds) in the 1990s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, where 51 birds were counted in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but, in 2000, fewer than 10 were seen in Omoa Valley<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142408	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It feeds on a wide variety of flowering trees on nectar, pollen, flowers, buds, fruit and insects, and nests in tree-cavities<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142408	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is likely that black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is responsible for its decline, being present on Nuku Hiva since c.1915, on Ua Pou (probably) since 1980, on a motu a few hundred metres from Ua Huka<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and confirmed, for the first time, on Fatu Hiva in February 2000<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. All islands have been devastated by very high levels of grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and extensive damage has been caused even to upland forests<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant to uncommon throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142412	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in Vanuatu and occurs in the proposed Lake Letas Reserve on Guaa. There are plans to research the Solomon Islands population and breeding ecology<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other islands in northern Vanuatu. Estimate population density in Santo mountains. Determine any habitat or altitudinal requirements. Research tolerance of logged and degraded forest. Research breeding success and population cycles on small isolated islands. Investigate the role of malaria in causing population fluctuations. Ascertain genetic isolation of subpopulations on dispersed islands. Relate distribution to that of introduced mammalian predators. <br/></p>	eng
142412	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charmosyna palmarum</em> has a fluctuating range in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> and in <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. In Santa Cruz, it is known from Nendo (relatively common in higher inland forests in 1990), the Duff Islands (where 30 were seen around one village in 1997), Tinakula (which has not been visited recently), Vanikoro (where it recently appears to have become extinct) and Tikopia (where very small numbers have recently colonised)<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>. It has been recorded throughout Vanuatu (except the Torres Islands), but its current range is poorly known away from its stronghold on Espirito Santo<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. In the 1960s, it disappeared from Efate and the southern islands, but birds were seen again on Efate and Tongoa in 1998<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is usually seen in small flocks of 10-30 birds<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong> but its irregular, nomadic distribution renders it difficult to estimate the total population.<strong></strong><p></p>	eng
142412	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Santo, the largest and highest island within the range, it is usually confined to the mountains above 1,000&#160;m but flocks sometimes descend to coastal trees<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. The one nest found was at 1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the low-lying Duffs and Tinakula, most birds seen in 1997 were in coastal village coconut trees<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.<p></p>	eng
142412	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Avian malaria, cyclones and natural cycles are suggested causes of its fluctuating range<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. Lowland forest, especially on small islands with high human populations, is being cleared for agriculture, domestic timber demand and commercial logging.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142414	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charmosyna meeki</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and the islands of Santa Isabel, Kolombangara, Guadalcanal and Malaita in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is locally common in montane forest, with up to 50 seen in a day, and it uncommonly occurs down to sea level, occasionally in coconut plantations<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,6,7</sup></strong>. Flocks forage over large areas and may be reliant on a combination of habitats at different altitudes. A number of congeneric lorikeets have become rare or extinct through unknown causes. Much of the lowland forest in the region has been or is scheduled to be logged but the montane forest is safe. Although this species may have a small total population, there is no evidence of a decline, but it would be threatened by any future large-scale export trade<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142415	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. An area of 1,450 km<sup>2</sup> on Gunung Kelapatmada in the west of the island is proposed as a reserve. It remains to be confirmed whether this site meets the conservation needs of all Buru's threatened landbirds. The Wildlife Conservation Society continues to operate wildlife crime market/trade surveillance and enforcement. This includes the trade hubs of both east and west Indonesia, and the work is set for considerable expansion in the coming years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. They are also exploring the potential for habitat protection-based projects on Buru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct widespread surveys ranging out from the Teluk Bara/Lake Rana area, to establish its current status, distribution, habitat requirements and movements. If key sites for the species are identified, propose their establishment as strict protected areas. Support the establishment of a proposed reserve at Gunung Kelapatmada.</strong>	eng
142415	distribution		<em>Charmosyna toxopei</em> is endemic to the island of Buru, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was known from seven specimens collected in the 1920s, on the west side of Lake Rana. It was recorded by only one of the 24 collectors active on Buru, implying that it is either very rare, localised, nomadic or has specific habitat preferences. However, recent observations of an apparent <em>Charmosyna</em> lorikeet on the island, possibly this species, suggest it may be quite common around Teluk Bara. It was recorded between 1979-1981 with an unconfirmed report in 1989. Further reports by local villagers during the 1990s, a record of birds being trapped in 1998 and three <em>Charmosyna</em> spp. seen in 2006<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> probably all refer to this species. Interviews conducted in the 1990s revealed that only local people living west of the Rana river knew it (or another similar lorikeet). The lack of confirmed records makes it problematic to assess this species's population size, but it has been described as 'quite common', although only from one part of a very small range.	eng
142415	habitat		The original series of specimens was collected between 850 and 1,000 m, and comprised individuals found feeding on nectar and pollen, in trees on apparently level land. There is one aural record from a coconut plantation in the south, at or near sea-level. Recent observations of a <em>Charmosyna</em> species come from plantations, and selectively logged secondary and primary forest around 600 m. Anecdotal information collected from interviews with local people suggest that it is probably a lower montane species, which in some years occurs down to the coastal lowlands. It has been seen in pairs but apparently occurs more commonly in groups of up to 10 individuals.	eng
142415	population		Owing to the considerable loss of lowland forest and the lack of confirmed records this species is suspected to have an extremely small population.	eng
142416	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charmosyna multistriata</em> is a poorly-known New Guinea species, ranging from the Snow Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to Crater Mountain in <strong>Papua New Guinea<sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. It is known from very few localities but assessments of its range and populations are hindered by its presumed nomadic habits. There are no recent records from Papua<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Papua New Guinea, there are recent records from Crater Mountain<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and frequent records of up to 125 birds around Ok Tedi<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It inhabits lower montane forest from 800 to 1,770&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong> which is locally under threat from logging and clearance for agriculture, but it is probably tolerant of degraded and patchy forest and although it may have a small overall population, it is not believed to be declining rapidly. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, but comparitivley rare than sympatric congeners (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142420	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Mt Pani&eacute; massif, one of the most likely sites where it may still occur, is a floral reserve where the habitat is protected but hunting is permitted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Two recent conservation reviews have recommended that this reserve is upgraded to a special faunal and floral reserve and also extended to include Mts Colnett and Ignambi to the north as one contiguous forest block<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. No new records were obtained during 500 man-days of bird censuses between 2002 and 2007. A total of 120 locals interviewed between 2003 and 2006 did not provide any credible reports. Funds have been attained to carry on the search until 2011.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey, if cost effective, other suitable mountains, particularly in the north-east and the Bokoua massif</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Publicise the search for this species among forest workers and villagers</strong><sup>2</sup> through the "Wanted" campaign to maximise reactivity of the unofficial observer network. <strong>Advocate upgrading and extension of Mt Pani&eacute; floral reserve</strong><sup>2,9</sup>.	eng
142420	distribution		<em>Charmosyna diadema</em> is known from two specimens collected in 1859, and another collected, but not preserved, in 1913 on <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong><sup>3,7</sup>. The first specimens are from an unknown locality and the 1913 record from "the forests behind Oubatche" which corresponds to Mt Ignambi. There are unconfirmed reports from the 1880s to the 1920s<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>, and an experienced forester reported two birds in 1953 or 1954 in the central mountains and again in 1976, west of Mt Pani&eacute;<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, in 1998 there were no records during several months of specific searching, including on Mt Ignambi<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>.	eng
142420	habitat		The earliest reports were that it inhabited forest and occasionally fed in <em>Erythrina</em> trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The 1953-1954 and 1976 reports were from <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna/humid forest ecotone, while the 1920s report was from low scrubland<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. Most closely-related species are nomadic and occur primarily in montane forest, but range into lowland forests, for which they may have a seasonal dependence<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
142420	population		Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no reports since 1976, despite recent searches in 1998.	eng
142421	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law. On Viti Levu, it occurs within the Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, but this is not large enough to maintain a resident population and, although the establishment of the proposed Wabu extension would make a reserve of appropriate size, it would not provide any better protection against rats if the reserve remains unmanaged<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Taveuni, the combination of the Ravilevu Nature Reserve and the Bouma National Heritage Park provides an area of adequate size for its conservation but the lorikeet remains very rare<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Two management plans have been prepared for the species and discussions on their implementation are ongoing.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>On Viti Levu, repeat forest surveys around Tomaniivi and assess threats, in particular the degree to which rats have contributed to its decline and what threat they currently pose to remaining populations</strong><sup>4,11</sup>. <strong>If rats are identified as a major threat to a tiny remnant population considerations should be made for establishing a 'safe' population either in captivity or an appropriate rat-free island. Develop local expertise in survey methodology to enable monitoring</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Identify further suitable areas for the conservation of this species</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Survey other islands, notably montane Taveuni</strong><sup>11</sup>. <strong>Conduct surveys between the peak vunga and drala flowering season, between August and October</strong><sup>8,11</sup>.	eng
142421	distribution		<em>Charmosyna amabilis</em> occurs on the islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni and Ovalau,<strong> Fiji</strong>. It has always been regarded as a rare species although 10 specimens were collected during a one-month visit in 1925<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It appears to be patchily distributed, with observations becoming scarcer within the last few years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The last record by observers familiar with this species was in 1993, but one sighting at Mt Tomaniivi (=Mt Victoria) on Viti Levu in 2001 is supported by detailed field notes<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  Nearly all recent records on Viti Levu have been in the Mt Tomaniivi area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but two birds were seen in the Nausori Highlands in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, a recent survey on Viti Levu in 2001-2002 searched for the lorikeet in the central highlands, where it has been seen most frequently since the 1970s. During 49 days in the field no birds were seen or calls heard<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There are unconfirmed records from the 1980s and 1990s from lowland areas of Ovalau, upland Taveuni and from the Natewa peninsula on Vanua Levu<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, a second series of surveys in 2003 also failed to find any birds, suggesting marked declines have occurred<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Given the failure of further surveys to detect this species, it appears to be extremely rare, and its total population may number less than 50 birds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
142421	habitat		It is found in mature forests and may be reliant on old-growth forest above 500 m <strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, its altitudinal restriction on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu is probably artificial, reflecting the absence of 'good' forest, except at higher elevations<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. On Ovalau, it has been observed in mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is usually found in small flocks high in the canopy feeding on nectar and pollen from flowering trees, and probably roams seasonally in search of this food supply<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
142421	population		Two detailed surveys in 2001-2002 and 2003 failed to find any birds at all, so the remaining population is likely to be very small indeed (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005).	eng
142422	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charmosyna margarethae</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and six islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a scarce and localised species which appears to be absent from large areas of potentially suitable habitat<strong><sup>1,4,9</sup></strong>. It is most common on Makira (= San Cristobal) where up to 70 have been seen in a day, perhaps owing to the absence of Meek's Lorikeet <em>C. meeki</em> from this island<strong><sup>1,2,4,6</sup></strong> and the overall population is believed to be small. Although usually found in lower montane forest, it occurs from sea-level to 1,350 m and in coconut plantations<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,7</sup></strong>. It may be nomadic and reliant on a combination of habitats at different altitudes. Much of the lowland forest in the region has been or is scheduled to be logged but this species is probably safe at higher altitudes. There is one licensed export quota for 60 birds, the proceeds to be used to fund conservation programmes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>however this species could be threatened by any large-scale trade<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 2002, 200 birds were imported to Singapore with CITES permits<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142423	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified: the species is reported to be abundant in some areas but scarce in others owing to trade (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse and local through most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142429	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in Australia and New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). In Australia, subspecies macgillivrayi is confined to the northern Cape York Peninsula, from Pormpuraaw on the west coast to Princess Charlotte Bay on the east. In New Guinea, it is widespread and tolerant of degraded forest habitats, mostly in the lowlands and foothills but occasionally up to 1,350 m.	eng
142429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is still recorded relatively commonly and appears to have a large overall population. The subspecies macgillivrayi is believed to have a stable population of c.3,000 individuals.	eng
142429	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In some parts of its range, the woodland habitat in which hollow trees occur is being invaded by rainforest. The fire which maintains the rainforest/woodland ecotone also has the potential to reduce hollow availability if managed incorrectly, particularly where rainforest is stable or contracting (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142430	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Protected under Australian law since 1996. Forest management has now changed so that woodchipping apparently ceased in 2003. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Prevent illegal shooting in and around commercial orchard areas. Develop and implement a feral bee control strategy. Retain mature and over-mature Marri trees as nest and food sources as part of forest management prescriptions<sup>2</sup></strong>.  <strong> <br/></p>	eng
142430	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calyptorhynchus baudinii</em> occurs in the south-west of Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>, mostly between Perth, Albany and Margaret River. Breeding occurs in the far south of the range, from Nornalup north to near Bridgetown, though sometimes further north to Lowden and Harvey<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has disappeared from c.25% of its range, and is thought to have declined in density over at least another 25%. Recent surveys suggest that the population is probably 10,000-15,000 individuals but that only c.10% of those birds make up the breeding population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Many birds thought to be this species in the far south of its range are in fact Carnaby's Black-Cockatoo <em>C. latirostris</em>, which occurs in the forest areas at a ratio of 5:1 with respect to <em>C. baudinii</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Populations are believed to be declining in response to ongoing threats. <br/></p>	eng
142430	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Restricted to moist, heavily forested areas dominated by Marri <em>Eucalyptus calophylla</em>, Karri <em>E. diversicolor</em> and Jarrah <em>E. marginata</em>. Its overall non-breeding range may be determined by distribution of Marri, though it does occur in apple and pear orchards and occasionally in Wandoo <em>E. wandoo</em> woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in large hollows of old Karri and Marri within heavily forested areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although recent work suggests that there are very few nest sites, that breeding occurs very infrequently and that many nest hollows are being taken over by feral bees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species has a strong association with very large (greater than 1.5m diameter) and old (230-300 years) Marri trees, which may exacerbate declines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142430	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The 1995-2004 surveys of the species suggest the total population is probably still 10,000-15,000 individuals but that only c.10% of those birds make up the breeding population, giving an estimate of 1,000-1,500 mature individuals (P. Mawson <em>in litt</em>. 2004). <br/></p>	eng
142430	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Up to a quarter of the species's habitat has been cleared for agriculture, with 8,933,294 m<sup>3</sup> of Marri harvested from 1976-98<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The past and present impacts of logging for Marri, initially for woodchips and now for furniture grade sawlogs, are reducing the availability of food and nesting trees. Although logging of old growth forest in the south-west has now stopped, habitat loss is still likely to be causing population declines, and a sawlog industry based on Marri has now been proposed with a projected minimum bole log harvest of 286,000 m<sup>3</sup> per annum<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Feral bees have been found to occupy many potential nest sites, and are known to have caused the loss of chicks and killed a brooding female<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although the species has been fully protected since 1996, illegal shooting by orchardists still occurs. It is not known whether losses from shooting exceed productivity. Continued loss of forest to mining in some areas is also an issue, since revegetation will have no impact on conservation outcomes within the lifespan of this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Competition for nests from Wood duck <em>Chenonetta jubatta</em> may also be a factor as duck numbers increase in the south-west<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142431	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Management actions completed or under way include the identification and protection of significant breeding areas, particularly stands of <em>E.&#160;salmonophloia</em>, protection and maintenance of known nests, re-establishment of feeding habitat, notably with <em>Banksia</em>, cooperation between conservation authorities and the avicultural industry, including improvement of husbandry techniques for keeping the species in captivity, management of captive-breeding stock and refinement of DNA fingerprinting in order to identify the source of all captive birds.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue restoration of habitat for breeding birds. Satisfy avicultural demand with a collaborative captive-breeding programme.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142431	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calyptorhynchus latirostris</em> is endemic to south-western <strong>Australia</strong>. Between the 1970s and 1990s, the species disappeared from over one third of its range, with both local extinctions and reduced density in occupied areas, although it has recently been expanding into partially cleared forest habitat along the western fringe of its former range. The total population is estimated at c.60,000 individuals, now divided into four subpopulations. The decline is predicted to continue for some decades.  <br/></p>	eng
142431	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It forages in woodland and shrubland, usually breeding in areas receiving 350-700&#160;mm of annual rainfall. Flocks of non-breeding birds then move to coastal areas. It eats seeds of <em>Hakea</em>, <em>Grevillea</em>, <em>Banksia</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em>, but also takes seeds of weeds and exotic pines and insect larvae. It nests in hollows in large eucalypts, primarily salmon gum <em>E.&#160;salmonophloia</em> and wandoo <em>E.&#160;wandoo</em>.</p>	eng
142431	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at c.40,000 individuals (DEC, Western Australia 2007b). <br/></p>	eng
142431	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 1950s, most feeding habitat for breeding birds has been cleared for agriculture. Remnants are fragmented, threatened by rising soil salinity and weed invasion, and are often so far from nesting areas that growth rate and survival of nestlings are affected and eventually breeding ceases altogether. Breeding habitat has also been extensively cleared and, for at least 60 years, there has been little regeneration of nest trees because of grazing by sheep and rabbits. Nest-hollow availability, though not currently limiting, is likely to become so in the future with feral bees and other cockatoo species competing successfully for hollows. Nest-robbing for domestic trade has declined, but damage to nest hollows occurs when birds are taken for illegal export.  <br/></p>	eng
142433	population		The world population is believed to be in excess of 100,000 individuals (Juniper and Parr 1998).	eng
142434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Australia. Subspecies erebus is found in east-central Queensland; subspecies lathami has a patchy distribution in Queensland, Victoria, and King Island, Bass Strait; subspecies halmaturinus is now restricted to Kangaroo Island.	eng
142434	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: 12,000 individuals of subspecies lathami, 70 breeding pairs of subspecies halmaturinus (equating to 140 individuals) and 5,000 individuals of subspecies erebus giving an overall total of 17,140 individuals.	eng
142434	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Most habitat clearance occurred in the 19th century, although, on the mainland, the species remains threatened by clearance of habitat for agriculture and residential development, degradation of habitat by burning, and the suppression of vegetation regeneration by grazing stock and rabbits. Fragmentation of habitat, especially when associated with agriculture, leads to the penetration of other native species from more open habitats which then compete for hollows. Illegal trapping for the bird trade may be a localised problem. However, in some parts of its range the area of mature food trees may be increasing (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142436	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142437	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. The nominate subspecies is very widespread across semi-arid woodland in eastern Australia. It disappeared from the Adelaide and Mt Mary plains by the 1950s, and density has been greatly reduced in north-west Victoria and western New South Wales. Subspecies mollis is found in the central and western arid zone and Nullabor, west of the Eyre basin and Port Augusta.	eng
142437	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). The nominate subspecies is thought to number c.50,000 individuals, whilst the subspecies mollis has a large and stable population.	eng
142437	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Clearance of feeding and breeding habitat has substantially reduced the population of leadbeateri in the southern and eastern parts of its range, and is continuing. Grazing and weed invasion are also impeding recruitment of trees that could be used for breeding in the future. Nest robbing and trapping for aviculture are thought to have been a major cause of decline in South Australia and may be a significant threat elsewhere in the range. Subspecies mollis is probably largely unaffected by these threats (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142438	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I (2005). A cooperative recovery plan has been developed and adopted. Populations occur in several protected areas, the most important being Rawa Aopa Watumohai and Caraente National Parks (on Sulawesi) which supports up to 100 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Suaka Margasatwa Nature Reserve on Pulau Moyo, Komodo National Park and two national parks on Sumba: Manupeu-Tanahdaru and Laiwangi-Wanggameti. The declared Nini Konis Santana National Park in Timor holds an estimated 100 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Moratoria on international trade have been effective at allowing several subpopulations on Sumba to increase in number between 1992 and 2002, although densities remained below those typical of other cockatoo species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct further surveys to identify the most appropriate areas for conservation action and to periodically monitor key populations by repeating surveys conducted 8-10 years ago. Conduct ecological research to clarify options for its management and conservation. Provide support for relevant protected areas and conservation initiatives within its range and protect nest-trees where possible. Strengthen control and monitoring of trade. Improve law enforcement in designated protected areas. Promote widespread community-based conservation initiatives. Recommendations made specifically for the protection of the species in Komodo National Park were to conduct annual monitoring, maintain regular patrols, raise awareness in local communities and study human activities and impacts within the park<sup>3,5</sup>. Additional targets should be to study the abundance and distribution of nest holes and water sources. Providing artificial water sources near nest locations, i.e water ponds, is essential for Yellow-crested Cockatoo on Komodo Island. </strong>	eng
142438	distribution		<em>Cacatua sulphurea</em> is endemic to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was formerly common throughout Nusa Tenggara (from Bali to Timor), on Sulawesi and its satellite islands, and the Masalembu Islands (in the Java Sea). It has undergone a dramatic decline, particularly in the last quarter of the 20th century, such that it is now extinct on many islands and close to extinction on most others. Sumba appears to support the largest remaining population, tentatively estimated (in 1992) at c.3,200 birds (but declining by perhaps 500 birds annually, with just 10% of the island still forested in 34 fragments<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), with other significant (but considerably smaller) populations on Komodo (c.500 individuals), Sulawesi, Buton, Moyo and Timor-Leste<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Tiny populations of just a few individuals also exist in the Tukangbesi Islands, on Oroho Island (a satellite of Wangi Wangi Island) and on Lintea Selatan (a satellite of Tomea Island)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The Komodo population alone (where poaching is virtually absent) declined by an estimated 60% between 2000-2005<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its current status on several small islands is unclear, but surveys of Masakambing on the Masalembu Islands in 2008 found only ten individuals remaining of race <em>abbotti</em><strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A feral population of several hundred birds exists in Hong Kong.	eng
142438	habitat		It inhabits forest (including evergreen, moist deciduous, monsoon and semi-evergreen), forest edge, scrub and agriculture up to 500 m on Sulawesi, and 800 m (sometimes 1,500 m) in Nusa Tenggara. On at least some islands (e.g. Sumba), it appears heavily dependent on closed-canopy primary forest. On others, it survives despite the total clearance of original vegetation, indicating that its habitat requirements are somewhat flexible. Breeding takes place from September to May on Sumba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests in tree cavities with specific requirements.	eng
142438	population		Based on recent surveys within various parts of the species's range C. Trainor (<em>in litt</em>. 2007) has estimated the global population at fewer than 7,000 individuals: 3,200-5,000 on Sumba, 500 on Komodo, 200-300 on Timor Leste, 200-300 on Sulawesi, 20-50 on West Timor, 40-70 on Flores, 50-100 on Sumbawa, 100 on Rinca and c.700 other birds in total.	eng
142440	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been listed on Appendix I and II of CITES since 1989, a measure that effectively curtailed reported trade at the international level. It occurs in Manusela National Park on Seram, although it is not clear what level of protection this affords. Existing protected areas on Seram could support c.9,800 birds, but there is a worrying 30% overlap between these areas and logging concessions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A programme of local awareness, linked with the promotion of ecotourism, has recently been launched. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct detailed research into its population dynamics, local movements and threats. Monitor trade and promote effective enforcement of regulations to control it. *Quickly resolve apparent overlap of logging concessions with Manusela National Park in favour of the park's integrity. Establish a strict nature reserve in the Wae Fufa valley of north-east Seram, and adjoining catchments. Continue and expand conservation awareness campaigns on Seram, using it as a flagship species to reduce trapping pressure and encourage local support.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142440	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cacatua moluccensis</em> is endemic to Seram, Ambon, Saparua and Haruku in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There are no recent records from Saparua and Haruku, and it may only survive at one locality on Ambon, leaving almost the entire population on Seram, where it was once abundant, but has suffered declines, including an estimated 20-40% in one region during the 1990s. It remains locally common in Manusela National Park and, perhaps especially, in east Seram. <br/></p>	eng
142440	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely resident (although perhaps subject to minor local movements) in lowland rainforest up to 1,000&#160;m. Recent studies estimated that densities of 8.3&#177;5.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in primary and secondary forest, declined to 1.9&#177;1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in recently logged forest. Furthermore, highest densities in unlogged forest were encountered below 180&#160;m, clearly illustrating the importance of primary lowland forest. Another recent study found no significant difference between a number of landuse types but found that abundance was positively linked to the presence of strangler figs and suitable large nesting trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142440	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Kinnaird <em>et al</em>. (2003) <br/></p>	eng
142440	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By the 1980s the species was being extensively and unsustainably trapped for the cage-bird market, with an estimated 74,509 individuals exported from Indonesia between 1981 and 1990, and international imports averaging 9,751 per annum between 1983 and 1988. Although reported international trade fell to zero in the 1990s, trappers remain highly active and birds are openly sold within Indonesia. Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation owing to commercial timber extraction, settlement and hydroelectric projects, poses the other major threat. It is predicted that half the current population on Seram may be lost to conversion of forest in the next 25 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most forest has already been lost from Ambon and the coasts and lowlands of Seram. It has also been considered a harmful pest to coconut palms, and, historically at least, was consequently persecuted. <br/></p>	eng
142441	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Indonesian government issues catch quotas and all capture was illegal in 1999. It occurs at only one protected area, Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan, although this site is threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor national and international trade. Conduct research into population dynamics, ranging behaviour and threats, so that appropriate trapping quotas may be devised. Establish and manage a national park on Halmahera, embracing Lalobata and Ake Tajawe. Promote more effective enforcement of trapping quotas. Introduce trapping concessions to increase self-regulation of trade. Initiate a conservation awareness campaign promoting local support for the species and the regulated collection of eggs and young, rather than adults.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142441	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cacatua alba</em> is endemic to the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Mandiole in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Records from Obi and Bisa are thought to reflect introductions. It remains locally common: in 1991-1992, the population was estimated at 42,545-183,129 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although this may be an underestimate, given the subsequent observation of large numbers at some sites, recent observations also indicate that rapid declines are underway. CITES data estimated c. 17% of the global population were harvested in 1991 for the cage bird trade. Annual harvests have declined in actual terms and as a proportion of the remaining population in recent years. <br/></p>	eng
142441	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident (perhaps making minor nomadic movements) in primary, logged and secondary forest up to 900&#160;m. It also occurs in mangroves, plantations (including coconut) and agricultural land, suggesting that it tolerates some habitat modification. The highest densities occur in primary forest, and it requires large trees for nesting and communal roosting.</p>	eng
142441	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lambert (1993) <br/></p>	eng
142441	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unsustainable levels of trapping for the cage-bird trade pose the greatest threat. In 1991, an estimated minimum of 6,600 birds (possibly representing a mere quarter of the actual figure) were taken from the wild. Catch quotas for the species were exceeded by up to 18 times in some localities, indicating that trappers were removing in the order of 17% of the population annually. Although forest within its range remains relatively intact, exploitation by logging companies has become intensive. Habitat and nest-site availability is therefore decreasing, particularly the latter. Furthermore, new logging roads greatly facilitate access for trappers. <br/></p>	eng
142442	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I (1992). It is known from five protected areas: Rasa Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Omoi and Manambaling Cockatoo Reserves in Dumaran, Culasian Managed Resource Protected Area in Rizal and Samar Island Natural Park. It is also known from two sites proposed for major project funding: Dinagat and Tawitawi. Since 1998 an intensive species conservation programme, the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program (PCCP) has been implemented by the Katala Foundation. Three protected areas have been specifically created for the species in Palawan on Rasa Island, Dumaran and Rizal. Conservation efforts on Rasa Island, Palawan, recovered a small population from 25 individuals to over 200 by July 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Poachers have been trained as wildlife wardens and were provided with alternative sources of income. This turned out to be the single most effective activity to prevent poaching and was repeated in three other project sites. Awareness campaigns have been conducted on Mindanao, Palawan and Polillo. Trilingual conservation posters have been distributed nationwide. The Katala Pride Campaign launched on Dumaran Island has focused on raising awareness among students and farmers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1992, an international captive-breeding programme was initiated, with 39 birds kept under the European Studbook in 2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2005, drought caused the starvation of 15 chicks, so ten chicks were hand-reared for an experimental translocation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Currently, sites are assessed and tested for their suitability for translocation. A first attempt on a resort island in northern Palawan indicated that rescued hand-raised birds can adapt well to natural conditions (foraging, predator avoidance), but was terminated owing to problems caused by tameness. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys on all range islands to assess the species's population size and distribution. Monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Quantify levels of trapping, persecution and trade. Designate further protected areas (e.g. Tawitawi and localities on or near to Palawan). Support the proposed expansion of St Paul's Subterranean National Park. Prevent further mangrove destruction. Promote economically viable alternatives to cockatoo-trapping. Continue education programmes. Establish staffed posts at airports and ferry terminals. Conduct translocation into suitable (well-protected, intact) lowland forest or mangrove habitats. <br/></p>	eng
142442	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Cacatua haematuropygia</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>. In 1950, it was common throughout but a rapid decline has left a population of c.1,000 birds. Of these, there are 250-700 on Palawan and its satellite islands, "several hundred" or 100-200 on Tawitawi, possibly extinct on Mindanao and less than twenty in the Polillo group of islands and Samar respectively. Subpopulations away from Palawan and the Sulus are mainly tiny and have few long-term prospects. Conservation efforts are underway at four sites; including on Rasa Island near Narra, Palawan, where the population increased from 20 in 1998 to over 200 in 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and a record breeding season in 2008 saw 48 young banded by May 2008<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; but elsewhere declines have continued. <br/></p>	eng
142442	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It appears restricted to lowland primary and/or secondary forest predominantly below 50 m, in or adjacent to riverine or coastal areas with mangroves. It breeds from July to December and outside the breeding season it frequents both corn- and rice-fields. It depends on seasonally fluctuating food resources and is partially nomadic. Birds fly from the mainland to offshore islands as far as eight kilometres away from the mainland to roost and breed. <br/></p>	eng
142442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Widmann <em>et al</em>. (2001), Widmann <em>et al</em>. (2006). <br/></p>	eng
142442	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	On Palawan, Polillo and Samar, trapping is particularly serious, and the high price fetched per bird (c.US$160 in Manila in 1997 and US$300 in 2006) means that chicks are taken from virtually every accessible nest. High numbers were traded (legally) internationally in the 1980s (e.g. 422 in 1983). Lowland deforestation and mangrove destruction have been extensive throughout its range, and have contributed significantly to its decline. It is also persecuted as a crop-pest and hunted for food. Typhoons are a threat, at least in already declining populations. Very dry breeding seasons may lead to complete breeding failure. The release of captive birds may introduce disease into the wild population. Introduced predators represent a threat at many potential release sites.  <br/></p>	eng
142443	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cacatua goffiniana</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands of Yamdena and Larat (Tanimbar) with an introduced population on Kai, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and agricultural land. In the 1980s the numbers of birds entering trade annually exceeded 10,000 in some years and there were fears for its security, but the total population is estimated to be 300,000-400,000 individuals. Habitat loss continues apace in the south of Yamdena and this, combined with continuing trapping, must be producing a decline. CITES Appendix I (1992). <br/></p>	eng
142444	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout inland and northern Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142445	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. Subspecies pastinator is found in most of south-west Australia, south of Perth from the Swan and Avon rivers in the north, to Augusta in the west and Broome in the east. Subspecies derbyi is found in the northern wheatbelt of Western Australia.	eng
142445	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population size for the nominate subspecies has been estimated as c.3,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142445	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies pastinator declined significantly in range and numbers early in the 20th century, as it was considered an agricultural pest. Extensive shooting and poisoning by farmers caused the population to plummet to c.100 birds in the 1940s. However, both the expansion of agriculture and prohibition of poisoning and shooting has allowed a recovery in numbers (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Clearance for agriculture has reduced the area of breeding habitat for subspecies derbyi, and may be favouring the Short-billed Corella C. sanguinea. Nevertheless, despite a low reproductive rate, the range of this subspecies has expanded in recent decades (Garnett 1992).	eng
142446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population has estimated as 180,000 individuals in 1983 and 'well over 100,000 pairs' in 1987 (del Hoyo et al. 2005) it has therefore been placed in the population band 100,000-499,999 individuals.	eng
142447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142449	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Research is being conducted on its ecology and population dynamics. Advocacy is aimed at informing alpine users of ways to minimise adverse impacts and to change the negative image of the species often held by high-country farmers and ski-field operators<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Census population. Devise a monitoring methodology and instigate. Establish the nature and extent of the threat posed by introduced predators.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142449	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nestor notabilis</em> occurs in Marlborough and from Nelson to Fiordland in the South Island of <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population is a fraction of what it once was. Estimates are: 1,000-5,000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; c.15,000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; and 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. One study illustrated an apparent decrease in numbers over 30 years in one site<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142449	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mostly inhabits high-altitude forest and alpine basins, though birds will often frequent lowland flats. It mostly feeds on berries and shoots, though many have adapted to feeding at refuse dumps and ski-fields. It nests in holes, under logs or in rocky crevasses. It usually lays four eggs. Males feed the females during incubation and after hatching. Chicks breed after three or more years. The oldest recorded bird was over 20 years of age<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142449	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Peat (1994), Heather and Robertson (1997) <br/></p>	eng
142449	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Up until its protection in 1970, over 150,000 were shot in a bounty scheme, established because rogue individuals were found to be attacking sheep as a source of fat. Introduced mammals such as stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em>, cats and brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> have spread into most of the species's range, but the extent of predation is unknown, though it may be significant<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <em>T.&#160;vulpecula</em>, thar <em>Hemitragus jemlahicus</em>, red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em>, hare <em>Lepus europaeus</em>, chamois <em>Rupicapra rupicapra</em> and pastoral farming practices may also be depleting crucial winter foods<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Farmers kill an unknown number of birds each year. It is suspected that some birds are poisoned by toxins and other hazardous material scavenged from rubbish dumps and sites of human occupation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142450	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nestor productus</em><em> </em>inhabited rocks and treetops on <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong> and adjacent Phillip Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was reportedly tame, and hence heavily hunted for food by convicts and early settlers and easily trapped as a pet, leading to its extinction in the wild in the early 19th century<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last recorded living bird was in captivity in London in 1851<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At least seven specimens exist<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142451	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Predator/pest control is carried out in several large areas and around known nest-sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Supplementary foods were trialled where wasps are a major problem, but did not increase productivity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Radio-tracking is used to identify juvenile movements and survival, habitat requirements and important food sources. An ongoing ex situ breeding programme has resulted in the release of 31 individuals to the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary and the Pukaha Mt Bruce Forest, and breeding has subsequently been recorded in at Pukaha with the population there increasing steadily<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but unlikely to be sustainable. A 'stoat-proof' nest box has been developed, but adult mortality remains high<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop effective methods for estimating population sizes. Research diet and habitat use in relation to breeding frequency. Develop long-term, sustainable and cost-effective methods of protecting, augmenting and reintroducing the species. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
142451	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nestor meridionalis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The North Island subspecies <em>septentrionalis</em> survives in large forest tracts from Coromandel to Wairarapa, and is moderately common only in the forests of Pureora and Whirinaki and some offshore islands<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. The South Island subspecies <em>meridionalis</em> is mostly found west of the Southern Alps, Fiordland and south-western Southland, Stewart Island and several offshore islands, and is in low numbers in all areas. The population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and new information indicates that the species has almost disappeared from the mainland except for a few intensely managed sites. Three generations ago over 90% of the population would have been on the mainland, whereas now less than 50% is found there<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Mortality is mainly concentrated on nesting females, so relatively large numbers of males can remain highly visible for a long time after the population reaches a very poor condition functionally<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142451	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in large areas of low to mid-altitude forest. Its diet is diverse, consisting of fruit, seeds, nectar, sap, invertebrates<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, and also "honeydew" in South Island beech <em>Nothofagus</em> forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to depend on infrequently available, superabundant food crops in order to breed<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It nests in natural cavities in old or dying trees. It usually lays four eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and chicks take over seven months to become fully independent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142451	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Heather and Robertson (1997) <br/></p>	eng
142451	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, forest clearance and hunting decimated habitat and numbers<strong><sup>2,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Stoats <em>Mustela erminea</em> kill adults, in particular females incubating eggs, possibly causing the highly skewed sex ratio on the mainland<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> robs nests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, being responsible for the failure of six out of 13 nests in Whirinaki during a single breeding season<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and competes for high-energy foods required for successful breeding<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is also implicated<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Sites with predator control have a nest failure incidence of 16%, compared to 84% in sites without predator control<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Introduced wasps <em>Vespula</em> spp. compete for honeydew, and may be contributing to declines in <em>Nothofagus</em> forests<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142452	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142453	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Micropsitta geelvinkiana</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori and Numfor off Papua, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in forest, secondary forest and forest gardens, up to at least 400&#160;m <strong><sup>1,3,5,10</sup></strong>. Recent visitors to Biak-Supiori have found it to be widespread but only in small numbers<strong><sup>2,7,8,11,12</sup></strong>, although it is also described as "well distributed in good numbers" (in suitable habitat) on Biak-Supiori<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Biak and Numfor, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori<strong><sup>3,4,9</sup></strong>. This species tolerates highly degraded habitats and occurs in the 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggesting that it is not threatened. However, there is very little recent information on bird and especially forest status on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142454	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very uncommon and local in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on both Manus and Lou (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142456	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to New Ireland and Bougainville in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
142456	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in lowland forests to about 1,000 m.	eng
142456	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142456	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although there are reports that it is poorly tolerant of logged and degraded forest (Schodde 1977, Buckingham et al. 1995) and local extirpations may have occurred (Blaber 1990), it is frequently recorded elsewhere in logged forest (B. Beehler in litt. 2000). However, the lowlands throughout the region are subject to extensive logging.	eng
142457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142458	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common. However some subspecies are reported to be very rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142460	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142461	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142462	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Two huge protected areas, Foja Nature Reserve (c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup>) and Jayawija Nature Reserve (8,000 km<sup>2</sup>), are located within the species's range<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Ascertain scale of threats to lowland forest within its range. Investigate domestic and international trade in the species, and devise and implement appropriate combative measures. Assess the effectiveness of the current protected-areas system for conserving populations, and propose further reserves at key sites if appropriate.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142462	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittaculirostris salvadorii</em> is endemic to northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs from the eastern shore of Geelvink Bay to the Cyclops Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including the lowland forest up the tributaries of the Mamberamo River<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Recent records suggest that it is still locally common, including in the lowlands west of Jayapura and at Nimbokrang<strong><sup>4,9,10,11,12</sup></strong>. Available evidence strongly suggests that it is declining<strong><sup>3,4,7</sup></strong>, although much of its range is remote and inaccessible<strong><sup>6,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142462	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Small flocks inhabit the canopy of lowland forests, including forest edge and swamp-forest, from sea-level up to 400&#160;m<strong><sup>2,6,15</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142462	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This was a preliminary population estimate which requires confirmation and refinement. <br/></p>	eng
142462	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Relatively large numbers are trapped for the cage-bird trade, both for domestic and overseas markets, with a total of 1,582 birds known to be exported from Indonesia between 1985 and 1990<strong><sup>1,5,8,14</sup></strong>. Local human population increases, resulting from transmigration (e.g. near Nabire and Jayapura), have increased logging and land clearance for agriculture<strong><sup>7,16</sup></strong>, and have probably increased trade in the species. Additional threats to lowland forests within its range include many large-scale logging and agricultural schemes, and a proposed dam on the Mamberamo River<strong><sup>5,16</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142464	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittinus cyanurus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra (including the Riau, Lingga, Bangka, Simeulue, Mentawai islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(uncommon), to 1,300 m. It inhabits primary, dry-land evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland forest, both mature and selectively logged, and also visits edge vegetation, cultivated areas and gap-phase growth of forest clearings and occasionally mangroves. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist in second growth and at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that it is not immediately threatened. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally scarce, though locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142467	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142468	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142469	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather scarce to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142471	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very uncommon on New Britian and New Georgia, locally common on Santa Isabel and Guadelcanal and uncommon to moderately abundant on Bougainville (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142472	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus montanus</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is almost entirely confined to montane forest regions (above c.700&#160;m) in the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre, with records including Mt Sicapo-o at Mt Simminublak, Liwan, Kenema, Mountain province, Sablan, Mountain province, Massisiat, Abra, Mt Data, Mt Pulog, Mt Polis, Mt Puguis, Paoay, Irisan, Benguet, Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya, and three sites - Dipalayag, Los Dos Cuernos and Mt Cetaceo - in the Sierra Madre, plus Pangil, Laguna. The fact that it escaped detection in the Sierra Madre until 1991 is evidence that it lives in relatively inaccessible areas and its numbers may therefore be quite stable. There is, however, a need for vigilance concerning habitat destruction, hunting and trapping for the cagebird trade. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142472	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lambert <em>et al</em>. (1993) estimated a maximum of 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142473	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus waterstradti</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from nine montane localities, as follows: Mt Hilong-hilong; Mt Mayo; Anakan and Civolig near Gingoog City; Mt Kitanglad; Mt Apo; Mt Matutum; Lake Sebu; and Mt Malindang. The notion that it is local and uncommon, apparently occurring at lower density than some of its congeners appears to be over-cautious, with evidence to the contrary coming from several sources old and new. Moreover, the montane forest where the species lives (extreme elevational records are 820-2,700&#160;m) is relatively secure compared to lower formations. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142473	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lambert <em>et al</em>. (1993). <br/></p>	eng
142474	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The whole of Palawan is classed as a game reserve, where hunting is illegal, and the island was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990. However, the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in one protected area, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be extended by 325&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Iwahig penal colony is managed by the Bureau of Prisons but lacks official protection and management.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests throughout its range, particularly around Mt Victoria and in the north (e.g. in the El Nido Reserve). Seek greater control of the cage-bird trade. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
142474	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus platenae</em> is endemic to Palawan and its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is known from c.20 sites on Palawan, with records from just three since 1980, including St Paul's Subterranean National Park and Iwahig penal colony. Since 1980, there have been records from three, Calauit, Culion and Dumaran, of the seven satellite islands from which it was formerly known. It was formerly relatively abundant but the recent paucity of records indicates that it has declined and become generally uncommon, although it still occurs regularly in small numbers at St Paul's. <br/></p>	eng
142474	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This poorly-known species inhabits lowland forest, forest edge and nearby cultivation, up to at least 300&#160;m. On islands north of Palawan, it has been recorded in ultrabasic forest, bamboo scrublands, mangrove and in natural grassland with scattered trees.</p>	eng
142474	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,370 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 9,590, perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 as now appears to be uncommon (density from lower of estimates of two lowland congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142474	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest destruction and trapping for the cage-bird trade are the chief threats. Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive, and logging and mining concessions cover most of the island's remaining forested areas. Illegal logging persists in the south of the island. Forest at Iwahig penal colony may be threatened by plans to mine chromite, and habitat on the small island of Culion has been irreparably damaged. The re-release of birds confiscated from trade may expose wild populations to diseases acquired during captivity.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142475	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. National legislation exists to protect it from trade and hunting, although this is frequently violated. It is currently known from two protected areas, Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay Forest Reserve and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. It receives nominal protection in the Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to identify further sites supporting key populations, with a view to formally establishing them as protected areas (e.g. Mts Cagua, Cetaceo and the Mariveles Mountains). Research its ecology and year-round requirements, to improve understanding of its management needs. Examine trends in <em>Prioniturus species at all sites to monitor the spread of the apparently invasive P.&#160;discurus. Improve protection measures against logging at Subic Bay Forest Reserve.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142475	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus luconensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Luzon and Marinduque. Formerly widespread and locally abundant, it has declined rapidly. Virtually all recent records have been confined to the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon, where it is still locally common and probably relatively secure. However, at two sites with records since 1980, Quezon National Park and Angat Dam, it now appears to be extinct, having been common at the former in the 1980s. There are no recent records from Marinduque, where it may already be extinct.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142475	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a lowland species on Luzon, with records in the Sierra Madre from 300-700&#160;m. On Marinduque it has been recorded above 1,000&#160;m. Its increasing rarity suggests a dependence on lowland primary forest, although birds do range into scattered fruiting trees in open areas and into secondary and heavily degraded forest.</p>	eng
142475	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent records are almost exclusively derived from a sub-set of potential sites that are visited by birdwatchers so range-wide the population is difficult to estimate. However, the area of habitat still available suggests the population may lie within the band 2,500-10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142475	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Trapping for the cage-bird trade is a significant problem. Local extinctions as a direct result of forest loss are very likely. In 1988, forest cover was just 3% on Marinduque and 24% on Luzon. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre mountains has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Most remaining areas are under logging concession and may suffer further from major road-building plans. A new road development near Subic Bay has increased the incidence of illegal logging and felling is rife at Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park. Habitat modification may have accentuated interspecific competition, with the species having been replaced by Blue-crowned Racquet-tail <em>P.&#160;discurus</em> in Quezon National Park.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142477	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no formal protected areas in the archipelago. However, the species occurs in a 3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> tract of forest at Tarawakan which receives a degree of protection from an agricultural college. In 1997, an awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species is known.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Conduct surveys in all remaining forest and mangrove patches in the Sulus to identify key sites. Urgently establish formal protected areas around Buan and Tarawakan (Tawitawi). Rapidly designate further remnant forest patches in the archipelago as protected areas. Clarify proposal for conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142477	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus verticalis</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from six islands. At the turn of the century it was described as locally abundant but, by the 1970s, it had evidently undergone a huge decline. It is now presumed extinct on Sanga-sanga and Sibutu, with no records for nearly 80 years from the islands of Bongao, Tumindao and Manuk Manka. Very small numbers persisted at three sites (Buan, Tarawakan and Parangan) on Tawitawi in the early 1990s, with the situation apparently continuing to deteriorate.<strong></strong><p></p>	eng
142477	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forests, including mangroves, which provide roosting and foraging (and potentially nesting) sites, and also frequents forest edge, but not cultivated areas away from forest.</p>	eng
142477	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001).<br/><p></p>	eng
142477	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually no forest remains on the islands of Sibutu or Sanga-sanga. By the mid-1990s, rapid clearance of primary forest on Tawitawi had rendered remaining lowland patches highly degraded, with plans to replace even these with oil-palm plantations. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged mountainous areas, is likely to be followed by uncontrolled settlement and conversion to agriculture. The tameness of this parrot, combined with high local gun ownership, have made it an easy target in the recent past.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142478	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prioniturus flavicans</em> is known with certainty only from the eastern two-thirds of the northern peninsula (Minahasa) of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with populations on adjacent islands including the Togian Islands. It has a limited area of occupancy on the peninsula, given that the extent of its lowland forest habitat is c.11,300&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, and the world population is in the order of 45,000 birds. Its numbers are declining in the face of high rates of habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation. The only recorded nest was situated in a cavity in the rootball of an arboreal epiphytic fern<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142478	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Walker and Cahill (2000). <br/></p>	eng
142479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142482	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tanygnathus lucionensis</em> is confined to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from at least 45 islands, plus the Talaud Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and islands off north-east Borneo belonging to <strong>Malaysia</strong>. As a bird of closed and open forest formations, including second growth, coconut plantations, banana patches and mangrove, chiefly in lowland and coastal areas, it was common on many islands in the Philippines a century or less ago, but has suffered from trapping (for both domestic and international trade) and habitat loss on such a scale that it is now rare or extinct on many islands. However, while not a small-island specialist it does survive in small pockets of habitat on the smaller islands, so that its status overall is difficult to assess. Moreover, it is still fairly numerous in some areas of Palawan and on Tawitawi, and high numbers persist in a large tract of forest on Talaud. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142482	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lambert <em>et al</em>. (1993)estimated a maximu of 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142484	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Surveys for Buru's endemic birds were conducted in 1989 and 1995-1996, this species only being recorded during the latter survey. An area of 1,450&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, encompassing Gunung Kelapatmada in the west of the island (where the species is known to occur), is proposed as a reserve. However, it remains to be confirmed that this site is the most appropriate area for the conservation of threatened endemic birds. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys particularly using its vocalisations at night, primarily in montane areas. Research its ecological requirements and movements, and attempt to explain its nocturnality, in order to develop an appropriate conservation strategy. Identify the most appropriate area for the conservation of this and other threatened species on Buru, and promote its establishment as a strict protected area.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142484	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tanygnathus gramineus</em> is endemic to the island of Buru in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There are very few recent records from few localities, although this is doubtless a reflection of the paucity of nocturnal fieldwork at high altitudes. According to early accounts, it was probably not uncommon, and the fact that recent searches have met with little success suggests it may have declined.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142484	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This poorly-known species inhabits montane forest, chiefly above 1,000&#160;m, but at least occasionally down to 600&#160;m, or even the lowlands. It is largely (perhaps almost exclusively) nocturnal, an unusual fact that currently lacks documented explanation. Although assumed to be resident, it perhaps makes altitudinal movements seasonally, or even daily.</p>	eng
142484	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.3-19 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 274 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 355-5,206 but perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 as historical information suggests that it was 'not uncommon' (density range from two estimates for <em>T. megarhynchos</em> in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142484	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss appears to be the main threat. Most forest in the coastal lowlands of Buru has now been cleared, and much of the forest in the northern part of the island has been selectively logged or degraded and fragmented by shifting agriculture, such that only a few small patches of primary lowland forest remain. The island's montane forests are largely undisturbed, although none currently receives formal protection. There is historical documentation of some minor exploitation of the species, but around 1980 there was no evidence of any trade.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon. The population on Sumba is estimated to be 1,900 individuals, although Sumba represents a very small proportion of the species's global range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142486	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Crater Mountain study have published conservation recommendations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to improve accuracy of population estimate. Research the species' basic ecology, especially any feeding specialism. Research the feather trade. Monitor numbers at surveyed sites such as Crater Mountain and Kikori. Monitor numbers traded domestically and internationally. Control transport of threatened species on domestic flights. Run an education programme to disuade tourists to buy feathers and artefacts. Investigate suitability of a programme to substitute artificial or dyed feathers<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142486	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittrichas fulgidus</em> is patchily distributed across New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been historically and recently extirpated from large areas, especially in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>1,3,5,8</sup></strong>. It is generally rare and seen in small numbers, and has shown recent rapid declines in some areas such as Ok Tedi<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. The only population estimate is based on two pairs inhabiting 14&#160;km<sup>2</sup> at Crater Mountain. Extrapolation suggests a total population of 21,000 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, this may be an overestimate as the Crater Mountain birds sometimes foraged elsewhere, the species is atypically common at this site and is absent from many hunted areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Conversely, it may be an underestimate by not accounting for substantial populations at lower altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142486	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to hill and lower montane forest<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. At lower altitudes it appears to occur only in hills and at the base of mountains<strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. It is an extremely specialised frugivore, feeding only on a very few species of fig, and is probably seasonally nomadic. It nests in large, hollow trees and may have a lifespan of 20-40 years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142486	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Pryor <em>et al. </em>(2001). <br/></p>	eng
142486	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat is hunting for feathers<strong><sup>1,5,8</sup></strong>, which are used for ornamentation, particularly in ceremonial head-dresses, in much of the Papua New Guinea Highlands and, in some areas, for skins, which are used as bride prices<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Demand is increasing as the population grows and tourist shows and cultural events increase. Although demand is generally lower in Papua, birds are also hunted for the cage-bird trade and meat<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Nestlings are captured by felling trees or enlarging nest-cavities, and the scarcity of suitable nest-sites could become a limiting factor.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142487	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law, but existing legislation regarding the capture of wild parrots is inadequate and unenforceable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Conservation projects have reduced trade in this species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Review existing legislation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Set standards for the keeping of parrots in captivity to reduce demand<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor numbers trapped and transported to Suva. Determine population densities in various habitats. Research breeding requirements and success. Promote the creation of community-based forest reserves. Use the species as a figurehead to promote ecotourism in Kadavu. <br/></p>	eng
142487	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prosopeia splendens</em> is endemic to <strong>Fiji</strong> where it occurs naturally on the islands of Kadavu and Ono, and is recently reported to be widespread and common on the former<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The birds on Ono island are believed to be the same sub-population as on the nearby main island of Kadavu. Reports of breeding on other islands need to be confirmed and are likely to originate from long-lived escaped cage-birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Although recent fieldwork on Kadavu has not specifically targeted this species, it appears to occur at similar population densities to Masked Shining-Parrot (86 Kadavu Shining-Parrots were recorded in 38 standardised observer-hours on the two BirdLife surveys, similar to the mean of 1.9 Masked Shining-Parrots /hour recorded at 18 sites across Viti Levu). Masked Shining-Parrot was estimated to occur at around 29 birds / km<sup>2</sup> in lowland native forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2 </sup><strong>9</strong>, so a reasonable population estimate for Crimson Shining-Parrot would be 6000 birds. Conservation projects have reduced the numbers trapped for trading off Kadavu, and this species is probably declining at the rate of loss of forest on Kadavu, which is estimated to be 0.5-0.8 % per year across Fiji<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but probably higher on Kadavu which has suffered extensive fires in recent years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142487	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in forest, agricultural lands and around human habitation both in the lowlands and hills<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is not known whether it is restricted to forest when breeding<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but is assumed to be a hole-nester like <em>P.&#160;tabuensis<strong><sup>2</sup></strong></em>. Pairs and small flocks forage widely for fruit and seeds in the forest canopy and in agricultural gardens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142487	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Jackson and Jit (2004). <br/></p>	eng
142487	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although forest on Kadavu was heavily logged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and habitat loss and degradation continues, some 75% of the island remains forested and the species uses degraded habitats extensively<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Fires have been an additional threat in recent years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Most river estuaries and bays still hold large areas of mangroves which are intensively used by <em>P. splendens</em> for feeding (and perhaps breeding), although pressure on mangrove forest can be expected in the near future<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is captured in small numbers, with birds being taken as gifts by islanders returning to the capital, Suva<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and there is at least some illegal trade overseas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142488	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected under Fijian law, but existing legislation regarding the capture of wild parrots is inadequate and unenforceable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs in several protected areas including Tomaniivi Nature Reserve, Koryanitu National Heritage Park, Colo-i-Suva Forest Park and the Garrick Memorial Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Review existing legislation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Set standards for the keeping of parrots in captivity to reduce demand<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Promote the creation of community-based forest reserves. Determine its tolerance of logged forest and secondary growth. Monitor its numbers in protected sites, e.g. Koryanitu and Colo-i-Suva. <br/></p>	eng
142488	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prosopeia personata</em> is endemic to <strong>Fiji</strong>, occurring only on the island of Viti Levu and perhaps formerly on the nearby island of Ovalau. It is not uncommon, and surveys in 2002-2005 indicate that the total population could be in the region of 88,000 birds (95% confidence limits = 65,605-108,270)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142488	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in forest and thick secondary growth at all altitudes (though most remaining forest is in the mountainous interior), frequently venturing into mangroves and fruiting trees in farmland and gardens<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. However, breeding is probably restricted to mature forest only<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on fruit, but also flowers, insects, seeds and berries, and nests in holes or a crack in a large forest tree, or a cavity in the top of a stump<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142488	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys by Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and BirdLife Fiji in 2002-2005 have generated much more data on this species and shown it to occur at higher population densities than previously estimated. WCS surveys estimated parrot numbers in a lowland forest site at Savura. Although there are various errors and biases in extrapolating these densities, dividing the total forest on Viti Levu into native forest, mahogany and pine plantations at various altitudes suggests that the total population could be in the region of 88,000 birds (95% confidence limits = 65,605-108,270; Jackson and Jit 2004). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142488	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat comes from deforestation (less than 50% of Viti Levu remains forested), the resulting forest fragmentation, and the felling of large trees that are used for nesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over the last few decades, native forest was rapidly converted to mahogany plantations, causing significant loss of habitat for the species. This conversion has now largely ended and the rate of native forest loss is estimated to be back to the underlying level of 0.5-0.8 % per year, equating to 9-12% over 15 years<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. There is some domestic traffic, but the "red" shining-parrots (<em>P. spendens</em> and <em>P. tabuensis</em>) are more important, with probably only one in ten species in captivity being this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and conspicuous throughout its range (Watling 2001).	eng
142490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common but lost from cleared and afforested areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142491	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally comon, although rare on Halmahera. The population of the nominate race is estimated to be 70,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142493	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aprosmictus jonquillaceus</em> is restricted to Timor and Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>East Timor</strong>, where it occurs on Timor, Wetar and Roti up to 2,600 m in monsoon forest and acacia savanna. The total population has been estimated at c.10,000 and judged probably stable, but habitat destruction (possibly compounded by trade, with 1,343 birds officially recorded as being exported from Indonesia (1981-1985) appears to be responsible for some declines in the past 15 years. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142493	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lambert <em> et al</em>. (1993). <br/></p>	eng
142494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142495	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. All populations were surveyed in the 1980s, and regular surveys of Barmah State Forest and along Murray, Murrumbidgee and Edward Rivers have been instigated. Annual community based surveys occur in northern Victoria and southern New South Wales<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Guidelines have been developed for forestry in riparian breeding habitat, but these have sometimes been inadvertently ignored. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Refine monitoring techniques. Extend surveys of nest trees. Determine extent of wildlife trade. Protect all known breeding and feeding habitat from clearance. Reduce firewood-collection. Promote good habitat management and revegetation on private land. Develop regional operations groups.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142495	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polytelis swainsonii</em> is endemic to Victoria and New South Wales, <strong>Australia</strong>. It has undergone substantial range contraction. In Victoria, it is now largely confined to the Nathalia area, especially Barmah State Forest, birds having disappeared from central and southern areas in the early 1900s, and has substantially declined in northern Victoria by 1930. In New South Wales, it has declined in the Parkes district since the 1960s. However, the range may have extended to Deniliquin and in northern New South Wales over the same period. The breeding population has been estimated at fewer than 5,000 pairs, and continues to decline.  <br/></p>	eng
142495	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in the New South Wales and Victorian Riverina in loose colonies in riparian woodland of river red gum <em>Eucalyptus camaldulensis</em> and forages in box woodland. On the slopes of the Great Dividing Range, it forages and nests in box woodland. In the Riverina, it feeds on seeds of herbaceous plants, switching to lerp, mistletoe berries, eucalypt flowers and grass seed in winter, and forages up to 15&#160;km from the nest.  <br/></p>	eng
142495	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's population has been estimated at c.6,500 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
142495	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Range contraction is largely the result of clearing for agriculture. Remaining habitat is often fragmented, dividing feeding from breeding habitat. Regeneration is commonly prevented by high grazing levels by stock and rabbits or inappropriate fire regimes. Foraging areas and nest-sites may be scarce. Many nest trees are dead, particularly on the inland slopes, and there may be no replacements when these fall or are cut for firewood. In the Riverina, altered flooding regimes may compromise the health and extent of riparian woodlands where this species nests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Competition with other species for a decreasing number of nest-sites may be fierce. Illegal trapping occurs, but is a far less significant threat than habitat loss. Birds are also killed on roadsides and possibly suffer from pesticide poisoning.  <br/></p>	eng
142496	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in two disjunct populations in southern Australia. Subspecies anthopeplus is found in south-west Western Australia, and monarchoides is found along rivers in south-west New South Wales, north-west Victoria, and south-east South Australia. Subspecies anthopeplus became extinct in 14 of the 66 wheatbelt shires in the central and northern wheatbelt between 1970 and 1990. However, there is evidence of range extentions and an increase in numbers in the wheatbelt in the 1990s and on the Swan Coastal Plain.	eng
142496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 21,500 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). The population of subspecies anthopeplusis is estimated at 20,000 individuals. The population of subspecies monarchoides is estimated at 1,500 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142496	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Clearance of woodland and mallee for agriculture destroyed much wheatbelt habitat, but now occurs at insignificant levels. Remaining habitat, however, is grazed which may be a potential threat. Nesting habitat has been destroyed, and regeneration prevented, by timber logging, firewood collection, ringbarking, increasing salinisation and waterlogging. In some areas, feral honeybees and Galah Cacatua roseicapilla compete for remaining available hollows. A small proportion of the population is exposed to poison, shooting, and when feeding on split grain, traffic accidents (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142497	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polytelis alexandrae</em> is found in the central and western arid zone of <strong>Australia</strong>. At most sites, it appears at intervals of more than 20 years, but around Lake Tobin, Western Australia, birds were seen regularly through the 1990s, although there have been few records since 2000. This may indicate that it is a core area from which birds move to central highlands during droughts in the western deserts. The Great Victoria Desert might contain a second core area. Large-scale movements and sporadic appearances outside the western deserts make it difficult to determine whether there has been any change in distribution or numbers. Paucity of peripheral records after 1950, however, suggests a contraction in range. All recent records, except from near Lake Tobin, have been of small parties and little breeding. It may be affected by a wide range of habitat changes including increased water availability on the periphery of its range (possibly favouring water-dependent taxa), altered fire regimes, introduction of predators such as cats and foxes, and introduction of competitors such as sheep, rabbits and camels. Its population is best-guessed at 5,000 individuals. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142497	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Its population is thought to number c.5,000 mature individuals, although this has little reliability (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
142498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest bird species in the wheatbelt of Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its small range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142501	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142505	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common except at the edge of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142506	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142508	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Northern Territory, Australia. Its historical range extended between about Pine Creek in the west to the McArthur River in the east, and Melville, Banyan and Bathurst islands. However, its range has contracted, and it has not been seen in the McArthur River since 1913, it has been restricted to the mainland since the 1950s, and is now absent from the north coastal plain east of South Alligator River.	eng
142508	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species remains common in areas under Aboriginal and national park management, where grazing is minimal and burning programmes are in place, or around rocky slopes, where food availability into the wet season is relatively assured.	eng
142508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population is estimated to be 20,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142508	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species range has contracted, probably as a result of overgrazing and inappropriate fire regimes. Disappearance from the coastal plains may be reversed by reinstating appropriate burning and grazing regimes. The species may occasionally be illegally taken for the bird trade, but this is unlikely to pose a serious threat as the species is common in captivity and easy to breed (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142509	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. Management actions completed or underway include analysis of threats, changing fire regimes and vegetation change, annual monitoring and supplementary feeding of the population on Artemis Station, surveys of populations and nests in the remainder of the range, fencing and implementation of favourable fire regimes on leasehold land, signing of a conservation agreement with land-holders, inclusion of conservation requirements for the species in property planning in central Cape York Peninsula and initiation of favourable fire management in National Parks. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations in remote areas. Monitor effects of landscape management on nesting and vegetation structure. Refine understanding of wet-season ecology. Provide supplementary food during the wet-season. Develop and refine a pastoral management strategy.  Secure land under conservation agreements.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142509	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psephotus chrysopterygius</em> is endemic to southern and central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>. Historically, there were three confirmed breeding populations: from Coen to Port Stewart where it was last reported in the 1920s, Musgrave-Moorhead River where the population has contracted markedly and continues to decline, and west of Chillagoe where the population persists, but trends have been stable. A further possible breeding population has been reported from Bullaringa National Park. All birds reported outside these areas have been non-breeding. The population is estimated at c.2,000 individuals and is continuing to decline.  <br/></p>	eng
142509	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in termite mounds in grassy areas within savanna woodland. After breeding, it disperses through open woodland, feeding on super-abundant seeds of fire grass <em>Schizachyrium</em> spp. After the first wet-season rains, it switches foods continually. </p>	eng
142509	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The breeding population has been estimated at 2,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
142509	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The continuing range contraction is caused by a change in fire regime, with fewer hot burns, and the arrival of cattle and feral pigs, which reduce the fuel available for burning, the availability of some wet-season foods and the availability of nest mounds. This combination has resulted in the invasion of grassland by woodland throughout the species's former range. The increase in woody vegetation may have favoured predators, principally Pied Butcherbird <em>Cracticus nigrogularis</em>, while grazing may have extended the period during which birds feed on the ground, making them more vulnerable to predation. Predation of adults is a major cause of nest failure, with almost one third of nests losing one or more adults.  <br/></p>	eng
142510	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psephotus pulcherrimus</em><em> </em>was found in open savanna woodland and shrubby grassland in central and southern (and possibly northern) Queensland and northern New South Wales, <strong>Australia<sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was locally common although generally scarce in the 19th century<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but then declined rapidly and was thought to have become extinct as a result of the drought of 1902 until it was rediscovered in 1918<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last confirmed record was in 1927<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, although Kiernan claims to have seen five birds in 1990<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, the species is considered extinct<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its decline was probably caused by a reduction of its food supply (native grass seeds) due to drought, overgrazing, altered fire frequencies and the spread of prickly pears<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with disease, trapping and egg-collecting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, predation of nests by introduced and native species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and clearance of eucalypts by ringbarking<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> also contributing. (Still listed in Appendix I of CITES)</p>	eng
142511	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Antipodes Islands are nature reserves, and landing is strictly by permit only. In 1907, 12 birds were released on Kapiti Island. They survived for c.20 years, but are no longer extant<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is held widely in private aviaries, and adapts readily to captivity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A captive management plan is in place to safeguard the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Commence regular monitoring<sup>4. Eradicate mice2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142511	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus unicolor</em> is endemic to the uninhabited and protected islands of the Antipodes, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is common on the main island (20&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Bollons Island (0.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), and occurs in small numbers on Leeward (0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Inner Windward (0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Archway (0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) islets. In 1978, the population was estimated at 2,000-3,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Population trends are unknown, but numbers are likely to be stable. <br/></p>	eng
142511	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found throughout the island habitats, but is most common in the tall, tussock grassland and sedges. These plants form the main part of the diet, supplemented with seeds, berries and flowers. It nests in underground burrows, often more than one metre long, in tussock or sedge<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In captivity, clutch-size is between five to six, but only one to three fledged young are generally seen with adults in the wild. Young probably start breeding at one year. Birds may be quite long-lived - two recaptures from Antipodes Island were at least 10 years old<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142511	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced mice may compete for food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Accidental introduction of predators such as rats <em>Rattus</em> spp., cats and mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp. is a potential threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142512	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus auriceps</em> is found throughout much of the forested areas of the North, South, Stewart and Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and on several offshore islands, but is uncommon throughout<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is rarely found in secondary forest, and is absent from logged forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers and range are believed to have declined in the last 100 years, probably due to deforestation, habitat modification and the introduction of mammalian predators, particularly cats, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and rats<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. On offshore islands, Red-crowned Parakeet <em>C. novaezelandiae</em> is usually much more common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and may have completely replaced <em>C. auriceps</em> on Solander Island. On Auckland Island, there is an unnaturally high rate of hybridisation between the two species. No population estimates exist, and present population trends are unclear, but the species may be stable, and its range may have expanded in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142512	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has decreased in numbers in the past and the species is now uncommon throughout its range. As a result it is suspected to have a moderately small population. <br/></p>	eng
142513	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus zealandicus </em>is known from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia,</strong> from three specimens (two of which are now in Liverpool and one in Tring) collected on Cook's voyage in 1773, a fourth collected by Amadis in 1842, now in Perpignan<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and a fifth collected by de Marolles in 1844, now in Paris<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Like Raiatea Parakeet <em>C. uleitanus</em>, the species was presumably a forest bird<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its demise could have resulted from habitat loss, hunting or predation by introduced species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142514	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II, and fully protected by New Caledonian law. There are significant populations in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue and Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Nodela<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other forest blocks within its extent of occurrence</strong><sup>2,9</sup>. <strong>Investigate the breeding biology to identify any limiting factors such as nest failures or rat predation</strong><sup>2,9</sup>. <strong>Research ecological dependence on certain tree species for nesting or feeding</strong><sup>2,9</sup>. <strong>Investigate dispersal between isolated forest blocks</strong><sup>2,9</sup>. <strong>Continue to monitor numbers in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue</strong><sup>2,10</sup>. <strong>Start a monitoring programme in Nodela</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Monitor for any evidence of trapping and trade</strong><sup>2,5,6</sup>. <strong>Consider an Action Plan similar to that of <em>E. uvaeensis</em></strong><sup>1,2,5,6</sup>. <strong>Initiate control measures against introduced predators. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. <br/></p>	eng
142514	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Eunymphicus cornutus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It appears to have declined since the 1880s when it was reported from all forested areas, and it has disappeared from Mt Pani&eacute;<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its numbers and trends were poorly known, until 2003-2006 there were only two independent population estimates of 1,000-3,000 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and 720 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> respectively. Recent surveys indicate that the bird has a wider distribution and is more common than previously believed. A rough estimate produced from these recent surveys indicates that the population may be c.8000 individuals, and although this is likely to be an overestimate the total population is still thought to be at least 5,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. During the 2003-2006 surveys the species was recorded from the Ignambi massif in the north to the various massifs of the Grand Sud in the south. It was recorded on 57 % of the massifs in the northern province and 42 % of the massifs in the southern province. It is absent from the Ile des Pins. It is locally common in the center part of the "cha&icirc;ne" (M&eacute; Maoya Massif, Moindou-Farino area, Poindimi&eacute;-Pon&eacute;rihouen area)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Numbers have remained stable in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue in the last 20 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142514	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is patchily distributed in humid forest to 1,500 m, but it also ranges in the valleys and into savannas, low-stature forest and scrub in maquis and high mountains<strong><sup>2,8,9,13</sup></strong>. Pairs or small flocks (family flocks in April-June) feed in the canopy, largely on seeds and nuts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests have been found on the ground, including under rocks and in fallen tree-trunks<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>, and it has recently been recorded nesting in tree holes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It probably migrates seasonally to foraging grounds during the austral winter (June-September)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Birds have been seen crossing scrub between forest blocks, and it is not believed to be fragmented into distinct subpopulations<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Birds have been seen in large groups, feeding in savannah<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and the species is seen every year in the valleys, feeding in close proximity to rural dwellings and in open areas.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population considered to be over 2,500 mature individuals, based on extensive surveys conducted in 2003-2006 by the Institut Agronomique n&eacute;o-Cal&eacute;donien (IAC) (Chartendrault and Barr&eacute;, 2005, 2006). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142514	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Populations may be declining through habitat degradation, both through logging and by an introduced deer, Javan Rusa <em>Rusa timorensis</em><strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It may be susceptible when nesting to predation by introduced mammals, especially rats<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, as there are fewer parakeets in areas with high black rat abundance<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. There is little documented trapping or trade, and although there are captive birds on the island and birds are locally sought by collectors for trade this seems to be marginal - there are no important local traditions in keeping pet birds<strong><sup>1,2,13</sup></strong>. There is occasional illegal hunting<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142519	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A recovery team was established in 1980. Much feeding habitat in Tasmania, Victoria and King Island has been reserved or is managed. Breeding habitat is monitored and maintained through burning. Breeding, migration and winter counts are made annually. A wide range of research projects are ongoing. A captive-breeding programme has been established with the main centre at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, and c.75 birds are released annually<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A method for detecting suitable habitat by remote sensing has been developed.  The South Australian Orange-bellied Parrot Habitat Protection and Restoration Project, funded by the Natural Heritage Trust, has been underway since June 2008, focussed on protecting and enhancing foraging and roosting habitat through a range of on-ground management activities. Activities include: erecting fencing to protect habitat and conduct herbivore exclusion trials; revegetation with foraging and roosting plants; implementation of prescribed fire regimes that enhance habitat; control of weeds and rabbits; and erection of information signs at key sites<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A new initiative aims to re-establish saltmarsh in suitable areas within the Victorian range, starting with trials to determine the best approach<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Awareness-raising and education programmes are conducted.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey all saltmarsh in wintering range using satellite imagery. Monitor genetic heterozygosity. Model breeding and feeding habitat to assess availability. Re-establish saltmarsh in areas where it is likely to benefit the species. Monitor and manage Psittacine Circoviral Disease in the captive population. Control human disturbance at Victorian sites and Melaleuca, Tasmania. Control predators at mainland sites. Control feral cats at King Island site. Create new winter habitats. Protect key wintering sites in South Australia. Develop and implement a media strategy. </strong>	eng
142519	distribution		This species is thought to breed only at Melaleuca and Birch's Inlet in south-western Tasmania, <strong>Australia<sup>1</sup></strong>.<em> </em>Birds migrate to the mainland after breeding, stopping over on King Island, and overwintering at sites scattered from south-eastern South Australia east to south-eastern New South Wales<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Annual winter counts in Victoria, South Australia and Bass Strait from 1979 to 1990 varied between 67 and 122, with no significant change in numbers. Numbers recorded in mainland surveys have since declined, for example 48 birds recorded from 19 sites in 2007<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the breeding population remains relatively stable, suggesting that birds are moving away from counted areas while on the mainland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Slight declines in annual winter survival have led to a slight downwards trend in the overall population, which now numbers probably no more than 150 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over 150 birds are also now held in captivity<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with annual releases occurring of c.75 birds. Released birds have migrated successfully between their breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
142519	habitat		It breeds in a mosaic of eucalypt forest and rainforest bordering extensive moorland plains. It nests in hollows, feeding on the ground on grass and sedge seed from surrounding moorlands. After breeding it disperses to saltmarshes, dunes, beaches, pastures and shrublands close to the coast. It overwinters in mainland Australia and migrates to Tasmania to breed.	eng
142519	population		The population is thought to hold no more than 150 individuals (M. Holdsworth <em>in litt.</em> 2005).	eng
142520	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species was distributed throughout south-east Australia from the Suttor River, inland from Mackay in eastern Queensland through eastern New South Wales, including suburban Sydney, to Melbourne, Victoria. The species's range in Queensland has contracted to south of Maryborough although it is still present on Fraser Island, and its distribution in New South Wales is patchy. In Victoria, the species is largely confined to the north-east and to east Gippsland.	eng
142520	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Current threats include fox and cat predation, loss of hollow-bearing trees in forests managed for timber, and inappropriate burning that may favour a shrubby understorey over the grassy understorey the species requires (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population is estimated to be 20,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142521	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142521	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in the mallee or mulga woodland of southern semi-arid inland Australia. However, the exact nature of its movements and patterns of abundance are not understood. Most records are from the Great Victoria Desert with a small population, apparently resident, on Gluepot Station in eastern South Australia. It appears to have declined historically in the Western Australia goldfields and there has been just one record from the Western Australian coast since 1854 (N. Dymond in litt. 2001). Similarly, there are more records from New South Wales in the 19th than in the 20th century. There is only a single record from Queensland since 1929, and a few recent records from the extensively cleared habitat of Victoria and Eyre Peninsula.	eng
142521	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat clearance has rendered much marginal habitat in western Western Australia, southern South Australia and north-west Victoria unsuitable. However all records away from its core range, where there has been no habitat clearance, may be the result of ephemeral irruptions. Altered fire regimes may have a detrimental effect elsewhere but there is no evidence of decline in the last 20 years. Although provision of permanent water in semi-arid rangelands is said to have favoured Bourke's Parrot Neopsephotus bourkii over Neophema splendida, the two co-occur over most of the range of N. splendida (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
142522	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II.<strong> </strong>Management actions completed or underway include regular population surveys in Tasmania and throughout the mainland range (coordinated by the Swift Parrot Recovery Team and the Threatened Bird Network), addition of areas of critical habitat to the conservation reserve system in Victoria, development and refinement of guidelines for forestry in <em>E.&#160;globulus</em> and box-ironbark forests (at identified priority sites), development of community awareness programmes and revegetation and habitat rehabilitation.   <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and map foraging habitat in Tasmania. Characterise winter feeding habitat. Investigate relationship between breeding biology and <em>E.&#160;globulus flowering. Maintain a captive-breeding colony. Encourage retention, enhancement, protection and monitoring of foraging habitat on private land, local government areas and uncommitted crown land in Tasmania and the mainland. Develop management guidelines for mainland production forests.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142522	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lathamus discolor</em> breeds in Tasmania, <strong>Australia</strong>, mostly along the south-eastern coast from St Helen's to Southport with a small breeding population in the north near Deloraine. After breeding, birds disperse towards the north of the island. The population migrates to the mainland in autumn, most over-wintering on inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range. The range in Queensland and South Australia has contracted, with irregular recent records, all from the far south-east corner of each state. In 1987-1988, the population was estimated at 5,000 birds and 1,320 breeding pairs, and in 1995-1996, at 1,000 breeding pairs. In 2001, the population was estimated to number less than 2500 mature individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142522	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Tasmania, it is almost always associated with blue gum <em>Eucalyptus globulus</em> or swamp gum <em>E.&#160;ovata</em> when breeding. Flowering may be sufficient to support breeding in only three years out of every 10. Most breeding birds are found in remnant forest patches of less than 0.01&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. On the mainland, it lives in eucalypt forest and woodlands, mainly box-ironbark habitats on the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Critical food resources occur within this habitat, principally nectar from prolific flowering species such as Red Ironbark <em>E. tricarpa</em>, Grey Box <em>E. microcarpa</em>, Yellow Gum <em>E. leucoxylon</em> and Mugga Ironbark <em>E. sideroxylon</em>, and lerp. In some years, urban landscapes containing indigenous or non-local flowering eucalypts are also readily used<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142522	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated to number less than 2,500 mature individuals (Swift Parrot Recovery Team 2001). <br/></p>	eng
142522	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Tasmania, breeding habitat is significantly reduced and fragmented through clearance of <em>E.&#160;globulus</em> for agriculture, residential development, plantation timber, sawlog production and clear-felling for woodchips. Competition for remaining nest-sites with Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em> could be a problem along forest edges. Even with protection of remaining habitat (80% private land), maintenance and recovery may be limited by the dependence of breeding on an irregular nectar supply. It also suffers high mortality through collision with windows, vehicles and fences. On the mainland, clearance for agriculture and residential development has destroyed most habitat. Remnants, including much of what currently exists in the conservation reserve system, have been heavily cut-over and degraded, and this practice is continuing in many areas, including hardwood production forests. This practice is considered to result in poor and unreliable nectar-sources through the reduction of large mature trees. Much of the preferred lowland habitat on the most fertile and productive sites has been cleared or substantially modified<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Competition from large nectarivores may be exacerbated by forest fragmentation.  <br/></p>	eng
142523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142525	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Appeals for information leading to the rediscovery of the species have received much publicity in arid Australia, especially in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. A National Night Parrot Network has been formed recently in direct response to the recent Diamantina specimen, to assist with information exchange and to encourage action by relevant organisations. Recent and ongoing searches in the Pilbara have concentrated on developing methods to find birds. A GIS analysis of existing records has been commenced with the aim of identifying ways to focus search efforts spatially and temporally. A survey took place in the Pilbara in November-December 2006 and further surveys were planned here in 2007 and 2008, and possibly also in Queensland. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop alternative detection techniques, particularly the use of a national team of dogs. Complete the current GIS analysis of recent and historic records against habitat to derive a population estimate for the species and identify priority areas to conduct searches. Develop captive-breeding and release techniques using <em>Pezoporus w. wallicus</em>. Encourage individuals or voluntary organisations to follow up any plausible reports providing appropriate logistic support. Develop a contingency plan for any site where birds are found, including a strategy for handling publicity, initiation of ecological studies, capture of birds to establish captive population, and initiation of fire management and predator control.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142525	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Pezoporus occidentalis</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>, where historical records are spread throughout the arid and semi-arid zones. There were comparatively few confirmed records from the 20th century. At least five dedicated searches and two broad-scale publicity campaigns in the 1990s failed to confirm the existence of any population, with only one authenticated record from near Boulia, north-western Queensland, in 1990. However, three birds were reported at Minga Qwirriawirrie Well near the Fortescue Marshes in the Pilbara region of Western Australia in April 2005. Subsequent searches in 2005 and 2006 have failed to relocate the species, but this may have been because there had been recent rain, and so birds were not concentrating at the waterhole<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A dead bird was found by Queensland Park and Wildlife Service Rangers in Diamantina National Park, Queensland in November 2006 having apparently collided with a fence some weeks before<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was positively identified by Queensland Museum. Flood rains in the Channel Country have prevented access to the area for follow-up surveys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It seems quite likely that this cryptic species occurs at a low density elsewhere in its former range as there have been unverified sight records from inland regions of all mainland states and the Northern Territory. However, there has almost certainly been a decline in abundance, most likely as a result of predation by non-native mammals. <br/></p>	eng
142525	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Most specimens have been obtained from hummock grasslands <em>Triodia</em>-<em>Plechtrachne</em> or chenopod shrublands. However, the most recent specimen was from Mitchell grassland <em>Astrebla</em> spp. with scattered chenopods, although this may have been a dispersing bird. It may persist in chenopod shrublands during dry years, moving into grassland after there is sufficient rain to set seed. The recent 2005 record involved birds drinking at a water hole which may have been drawn from their typical habitat to drink<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species has a similar metabolism to rodents as it is active at night. This behaviour may help it retain water, most of which is obtained through its diet. Therefore, drinking may only occur in dry circumstances making the species difficult to locate in wet years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142525	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Its remaining population is assumed to be very small but allowances for fluctuations seem prudent. The only recent records are of three birds in the Pilbara region of Western Australia (M. J. Bamford and B. M. Metcalf <em>in litt</em>. 2005) and one dead bird found in Diamantina National Park, Queensland, despite several dedicated searches and publicity campaigns recently. However, given the broad geographical spread of these records, following further surveys and analysis of available habitat it may transpire that the species is considerably more common. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142525	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Threats are extrapolated from their presumed effects on medium-sized, arid-zone mammals, and include predation by feral cats and foxes, altered fire regimes, competition for food, degradation of habitat near water by stock or rabbits, and reduced availability of water as a result of over-use by feral camels. One early account suggests the decline at Innaminka and Alice Springs coincided with the arrival of feral cats. <br/></p>	eng
142526	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Supplementary feeding has increased the success of breeding attempts, and may be able to be used to trigger breeding: supplementary foods with low macronutrient:calcium ratios may be most effective in supporting increased reproduction<strong><sup>3,10,19,21</sup></strong>. All individuals are radio-tagged, and tracked throughout the year. Each nest is monitored continuously using infra-red video cameras, and heat pads are placed over eggs and nestlings while females forage. In 1998, the Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> (a predator of eggs and nestlings) was eradicated from Codfish<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Extensive research is ongoing<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Methods of hand-rearing chicks are being refined. Reducing supplementary feeding levels has been shown to increase the percentage of female chicks produced and may redress the skewed gender balance<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>. Genetic diversity of the remaining population is managed to improve hatching rates<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Translocations have been carried out to take advantage of locally abundant food supplies and increase the frequency of breeding attempts<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Trials of artificial insemination methods have taken place<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, and in 2009 a female which had been artificially inseminated laid two fertile eggs<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. In 2008 seven chicks hatched on Codfish Island were transferred to specialised facilities to be hand-raised as rimu fruit failed to ripen<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. A search for any remaining birds in Fiordland was completed in 2006 with no birds found and no evidence of their continued existence. A Kakapo Recovery Plan (the third since 1989), produced in partnership between the Department of Conservation, Forest & Bird and Rio Tinto Alcan (formerly Comalco), covers the period 2006-2015.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue research to identify key factors that limit breeding frequency and productivity, and address these urgently</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Maintain existing management practices that have facilitated a recent increase in the population.</strong>	eng
142526	distribution		<em>Strigops habroptila</em> formerly occurred throughout most of the North, South and Stewart Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Although it disappeared from most of its original range in the wake of human colonisation, the species remained abundant in Fiordland and some other higher-rainfall and more sparsely inhabited parts of South Island until the early twentieth century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. By 1976, however, the known population had been reduced to 18 birds, all males, all in Fiordland. In 1977, a rapidly declining population of c.150 birds was discovered on Stewart Island. Between 1980 and 1992, 61 remaining Stewart Island birds were transferred to offshore islands<strong><sup>3,7,8,10</sup></strong>, and are presently located on Codfish and Anchor Islands<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The last accepted North Island record was in 1927, the last South Island record of three males in Fiordland in 1987, and the last Stewart Island record of a female found and transferred to Codfish Island in 1997<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 2009 a male which was one of four transferred from Stewart to Codfish in 1987 was refound after having been missing for 21 years<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. It is likely to be extinct in its natural range, and as of November 2005 birds were present on four islands: Codfish, Chalky, Anchor and Maud<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 1999, 26 females and 36 males survived<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, comprising 50 individuals of breeding age, six subadults and six juveniles. The population stabilised, and has begun to slowly increase<strong><sup>3,4,10</sup></strong> following the implementation of intensive management<strong><sup>3,9,10</sup></strong>. By 2005, the kakapo population stood at 86<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, of which 52 were breeding adults (21 females and 31 males) and 34 were juveniles<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>, and a productive breeding year in 2009 saw the total population increase to 124 birds<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>.	eng
142526	habitat		This large, flightless, nocturnal parrot feeds on leaves, stems, roots, fruit, nectar and seeds and prior to human colonisation it formerly inhabited a range of vegetation types throughout most of the North, South and Stewart Islands. It breeds once every two to five years, coinciding with periodic superabundant seeding or fruiting periods of key podocarp<em> </em>plant species: on Codfish, Stewart and Pearl Islands nesting has only occurred when rimu <em>Dacrydium cupressinum </em>or pink pine <em>Halocarpus biformis</em> fruit has been abundant<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Males cluster in traditional lekking sites and advertise their presence by calling each night for about three months, with mating occurring mainly between January and early March<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. 1-4 eggs are laid, all parental care is performed by the female, and eggs and chicks are left unattended for several hours at night. Female kakapo take nine to 11 years to reach breeding age, and may live at least 90 years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. One productive male is at least 30 years old, and probably much older. Adult survivorship is now more than 99% per year<strong><sup>1,2,3,5,8,9,10</sup></strong>.	eng
142526	population		In 2009, the total post-breeding population was 124 individuals (Merton 2009). However the number of mature individuals (<em>sensu</em> IUCN 2001) is likely to be much lower, with just 55 breeding adults in 2007.	eng
142527	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mascarinus mascarinus </em>was described by numerous early travellers to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>, with several captive birds shipped to France in the late 18th century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last accounts of wild birds were from the 1770s, and birds were not mentioned by Bory writing in 1804, so the species may well have been hunted to extinction in the wild by then<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The captive birds in Paris had also died by this time&#152;three stuffed specimens remained&#152;but a single bird survived in the King of Bavaria's menagerie until at least 1834<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two specimens survive today<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142529	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142530	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>As a result of concerns about international trade, <em>P. e. princeps</em> was put on CITES Appendix I in 1975, and the remainder of the species was put on CITES Appendix II with all Psittaciformes in 1981 at the request of Switzerland and Liechtenstein. In 1994, the <em>P. e. princeps</em> CITES listing was removed due to lack of evidence that it is a valid subspecies. Due to concern about the effects of the large numbers of this species traded, it was the subject of a CITES significant trade review, in which it was listed as of "possible concern"<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Animals Committee of CITES has recommended up to a two-year ban from January 2007 on exports of African Grey Parrots <em>Psittacus erithacus</em> from four West African countries (Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea), where the distinctive (sub)species <em>timneh </em>is found, and in Cameroon, where the more widespread (sub)species <em>erithacus</em> occurs. For a further two countries- Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo-the Committee has recommended that quotas should be halved to 4,000 and 5,000 birds respectively. The species occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Ensure that proposed trade restrictions are implemented. Monitor wild populations to determine ongoing trends.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
142530	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittacus erithacus</em> has a distribution extending from <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong> east through the moist lowland forests of West Africa to <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and thence in the Congo forests to just east of the Albertine Rift (up to the shores of Lake Victoria) in <strong>Uganda </strong>and <strong>Kenya</strong> and south to northern <strong>Angola</strong><sup>8</sup>. Preliminary calculations based on forest cover and country-level population estimates<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,7</sup></strong> suggest a global population of between 680,000 and 13 million individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  Population declines have been noted in Burundi, Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; and Pr&iacute;ncipe, Sierra Leone, Togo, Uganda and parts of Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In all of these declines, trapping for the wild bird trade has been implicated, with habitat loss also having significant impacts throughout West and East Africa.  Global population trends have not been quantified; there is evidence of a population decline through most of its range, but it is unclear if the species approaches the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List Vulnerable category (i.e. declining more than 30% in three generations). Until further clarification on the magnitude of declines is available, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. <br/></p>	eng
142530	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Although typically inhabiting dense forest, they are commonly observed at forest edges, clearings, gallery forest, mangroves, wooded savannah, cultivated areas, and even gardens<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but it is not clear whether these are self-sustaining populations. At least in West Africa, the species makes seasonal movements out of the driest parts of the range in the dry season. It has never been seen in the isolated Marahou&eacute; National Park in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, suggesting that it does not travel large distances between isolated forest blocks, or that some northern semi-deciduous forests are not preferred habitat<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142530	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Gatter (1997) estimated two breeding pairs/ km<sup>2</sup> in logged forest north of Zwedru, Liberia. McGowan (2001) provided similar estimates of nest densities in Nigeria of 0.5-2.1/km<sup>2</sup>, believing the higher end to be more accurate. This would indicate 4.2 breeding birds/km<sup>2</sup> plus non-breeding birds (the remaining 70-85% of the population, as estimated by Fotso 1998b), giving estimates of 4.9-6.0 birds/km<sup>2</sup>. These estimates are substantially higher than those of 0.3-0.5 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in good habitat in Guinea (D&auml;ndliker 1992a) and 0.9-2.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (in evergreen forests) or 0.15-0.45 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (in semi-deciduous forests) in Ghana (D&auml;ndliker 1992b). Using these density estimates, the overall <em>P. e. timneh</em> population was estimated at 120,100-259,000 birds, and the West African population of <em>P. e. erithacus</em> at 40,000-100,000 birds, although Central African populations of this subspecies are much larger (D&auml;ndliker 1992a). Using a global land cover classification (JRC 2000), a digitised map of the species's range from Benson <em>et al.</em> (1988), and estimates of density of 0.15-0.45 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in semi-deciduous forest (including deciduous forest) and 0.3-6.0 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in evergreen forest (including swamp forest and mangrove), supplemented by recent (post-1995) published national estimates where available, an initial coarse assessment of the global population of this species is 0.68-13 million individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142530	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	However, the species has been heavily traded: from 1994-2003, over 359,000 wild-caught individuals were reportedly exported from range states<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is one of the most popular avian pets in Europe, the United States, and the Middle East due to its longevity and unparalleled ability to mimic human speech and other sounds. Demand for wild birds is also increasing in China, and increased presence of Chinese businesses in central Africa (particularly for mining, oil and logging) may increase illegal exports of this species<strong><sup>9,11</sup></strong>. While there has been some domestic demand within range states, most impacts seem to be due to international trade, probably owing to the high value of this species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is also thought to be having significant impacts throughout West and East Africa. <br/></p>	eng
142531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but patchily common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142532	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142532	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1976, 43,358 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142533	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142533	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs through the savanna woodland belt of West Africa, north of the rainforest belt from Mauritania through to south-western Chad, north-eastern Cameroon, and northern Central African Republic. The species undertakes seasonal movements in at least parts of its range, moving into dryer areas during the wet season.	eng
142533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142533	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been heavily traded: from 1994-2003, over 410,000 wild-caught individuals were exported from range states (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, October 2005). It is one of the most popular avian pets, since it is regarded as a small, quiet bird that bonds well. Due to the large numbers of this species traded, it was the subject of a CITES significant trade review, in which it was listed as of "possible concern" (Inskipp et al. 1988). Nonetheless, and despite international exports of vast numbers of birds, trade does not appear to have seriously impacted this species overall, with no significant national population declines reported.	eng
142534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. This species is one of the least known African parrots but is assumed to be frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142535	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common through northern parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142535	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 75,387 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common. It is considered commonest in northern parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142538	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon occurs as two subspecies: subspecies tanganyikae is found in south-east Kenya, Wasiri Island (Juniper and Parr 1998), Zanzibar and Pemba in eastern Tanzania (where common and widespread (N. Baker in litt. 1999)), south Malawi and Mozambique (north of the River Save); and subspecies cryptoxanthus is known from south-east Zimbabwe and Mozambique (south of the River Save) to north-east South Africa (Swaziland, Zululand and Transvaal) (del Hoyo et al. 1997, Wilkinson in litt. 1998, Juniper and Parr 1998)). The only substantial population in South Africa is estimated at 1,500-2,000 birds, and is confined to the Kruger National Park (Wilkinson in litt. 1998). However, south of the River Save in Mozambique, the population is estimated at over 20,000 individuals and may be increasing because it exploits fruit and grain crops and nests in alien coconut trees, despite being hunted and captured for export as a cagebird (Harrison et al. 1997).	eng
142538	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in flocks of 4-12, sometimes up to 40 (Fry et al. 1988), in semi-arid and subhumid bush, thornveld, open wooded savanna and woodland, including areas with large baobabs or figs, riparian forest, coconut and cashew-nut plantations, smallholdings and mangroves up to 1,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It feeds on seeds such as Erythrina and Adansonia, nuts, fruits and berries (particularly figs Ficus and Pseudocadia zambesica), pods of Acacia and Albizia gummifera, nectar and green shoots of trees (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It is known to raid millet and maize crops (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It breeds April-October depending on the locality (Juniper and Parr 1998) and clutch size is 2-3 (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142538	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is increasingly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation (Juniper and Parr 1998), with illegal capture for the bird trade of concern in Mozambique (Wilkinson in litt. 1998).	eng
142539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142540	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142540	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142540	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 107,829 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142541	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather uncommon and never reported as abundant except locally in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequently seen (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Gabon and rare or uncommon elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142544	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in Angola, Namibia and South Africa. There are records from other African countries but the chances of these birds being escapees are high.	eng
142544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or even abundant near water (Fry et al. 1993).	eng
142544	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There has been a historic decline due to trapping and the export of thousands of birds from Angola is believed to have greatly contributed to past reductions in its populations in the southern part of that country (Collar 1997, Juniper and Parr 1998).	eng
142545	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agapornis fischeri</em> is endemic to north-central <strong>Tanzania</strong>, where its historical range includes 14 locations (including three National Parks)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Records from Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya apparently refer to feral birds and not to wild populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits semi-arid thorn woodland, deforested grassland or cultivation with remnant baobabs <em>Adansonia</em>, and <em>Borassus</em> palm savanna<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It was very common in the past but, since the 1970s there has been a major population decline, caused principally by widespread trapping for the wild bird trade, with large flocks perhaps still occurring only around Ndutu and the Serengeti National Park<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It was the most commonly traded wild bird in the world in 1987 and was the most popular wild-caught parrot imported into the then European Economic Community, accounting for c.80% of the psittacine exports from Tanzania<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Legal trapping for export has now been halted, but the population is still much lower than it was, and trade could re-start<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species has hybridised with Yellow-collared Lovebird <em>A. personata</em> in the wild, but not within the species's natural range -- there is range overlap but <em>A. fischeri</em> appears to be a non-breeding visitor to <em>A. personata</em> habitat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> -- so this is unlikely to pose a threat. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142545	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at 290,205-1,002,210 birds (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 1997). <br/></p>	eng
142546	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common and generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142547	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agapornis lilianae</em> occurs along the Zambezi Valley in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and into <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, northwards along the Luangwa River into <strong>Zambia</strong> and southern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and along the Shire River into <strong>Malawi</strong>. Although it has been described as common in most of range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the total population is estimated to number less than 20,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and has been reduced considerably by flooding of a large section of the Zambezi valley by Lake Kariba, and very likely also by the Cahorra Bassa Dam in Mozambique. It is considered a pest by small-scale farmers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In addition to legal trapping of large numbers for the international cage-bird trade (over 10,000 since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), many are captured and sold locally in Mozambique, and the species is also captured and traded in Zimbabwe and Zambia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The global range may be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142547	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated to number less than 20,000 birds (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005). <br/></p>	eng
142548	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix&#160;II. Trapping of birds for trade is now banned<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Approximately 35% of its habitat lies within Kafue National Park and surrounding Game Management Areas<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. A detailed research programme on this species is now underway<strong><sup>2,4,5,8,9</sup></strong> and the first report published<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct regular counts at selected sites to monitor its population<sup>4,5. Encourage its return to former range areas, initially through piloting the provision of undisturbed water sources and strips of sorghum and millet8. Study its breeding behaviour5 to assess factors limiting its population4. Reduce killing of birds by schoolchildren through a programme of school-visits4. Assess its presence in Namibia4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142548	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agapornis nigrigenis</em> occurs patchily in south-west <strong>Zambia</strong> between the Kafue river to the north and the Zambezi river to the south<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with an Extent of Occurrence of c.14,400 km<sup>2</sup>, within which the core breeding areas cover c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It used to occur more widely<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, although some isolated historical records may reflect feral populations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as may unconfirmed records from the eastern Caprivi region of Namibia<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from <strong>Botswana</strong>, and as possibly breeding in <strong>Zimbabwe. </strong>In 1994, the overall population density in presumed breeding habitat was c.2.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (this does not reflect their clumped distribution<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>) and the total population was estimated to be 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Evidence from farmers and bird-trappers suggests that this is a considerably lower total than in the early 20th century<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142548	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits deciduous woodland, dominated by mopane <em>Colophospermum</em> (not <em>Baikiaea<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong></em>, as formerly reported<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), where permanent supplies of surface water exist<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. It needs daily access to water<strong><sup>4,8,9,11</sup></strong>, in the dry season congregating in large flocks of up to 800 or more<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It breeds in holes in mature mopane trees near roosting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, during January-April<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Food largely consists of crop seeds (sorghum, millett, maize etc) and wild tree fruits and seeds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142548	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population, based on surveys in 1994, has been estimated at c.10,000 individuals (Dodman 1995c, 1997), however due to suspected declines in the population since this year, the population is placed in the range bracket 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142548	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Three factors are thought to have caused its decline this century: the partial replacement of sorghum and millet crops, an attractive food source<strong><sup>2,4,10</sup></strong>, with maize between c.1930 and 1950<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, heavy exploitation for the cage-bird trade in the 1920s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and gradual dessication of its habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There is no evidence to suggest that a wild-caught trade currently exists, although it is clear that any international demand would be met eagerly. Some birds are caught for subsistence consumption<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. More recently, there may have been local declines due to loss of surface water supplies in the dry season, perhaps due to long-term climate change<strong><sup>2,4,8,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142549	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extremely rare in China, generally common elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and plentiful in the south-west and almost absent from the north of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142552	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.	eng
142552	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142552	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 75,239 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142553	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142554	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between local people, local government, forestry officials and timber companies. Gunung Sahendaruman is the only protected forest on Sangihe and its <700 ha of natural forest is the last remaining on the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct research into the ecological requirements of the species and determine whether it can survive exclusively in modified habitats. Continue conservation education programmes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island. <br/></p>	eng
142554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Loriculus catamene</em> is endemic to the small island of Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was considered 'not particularly plentiful' as long ago as 1886-1887, but has more recently been found to be distributed throughout the island and locally rather common. A survey in 1998-1999 resulted in a population estimate for Sangihe Hanging-parrot of 10,700-46,200 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and found the species to be widespread on the island and tolerant of degraded and cultivated habitats with a broad diet. In 2004 it was quite common and widespread in a variety of degraded habitats (forest edge, secondary forest, coconut plantations and garden areas)<strong><sup> 3</sup></strong>. Gunung Sahendaruman is the single most important site for the species. <br/></p>	eng
142554	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In recent years it has been encountered most commonly in areas of mixed coconut groves and remnant forest, also occurring in coconut monocultures, up to c.950 m. Survey data have revealed no preference for primary forest over secondary habitats, but it is unclear whether forests may act as a source for the population while secondary habitats act as a sink. The only known nest was recorded in primary forest. Coconut nectar appears to be an important food source. In addition, at least two pairs have been observed on steep, tree-covered volcanic slopes. It is a sedentary species, generally found in small groups of one to four, but occasionally up to 27 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Observations suggest that the species regularly flocks at roosts or favoured feeding sites. <br/></p>	eng
142554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Riley (2002). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142554	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Original forest on Sangihe has been almost completely replaced by cultivation, but the species appears to be tolerant of degraded and cultivated habitats and there is no evidence of a continuing decline. Further potential threats are the widespread clearance of large isolated trees which was linked to declines in the 1980s, disease transmitted by escaped parrots and volcanic activity in the future<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142556	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loriculus tener</em> is endemic to New Britain, New Ireland and New Hanover (=&#160;Lavongai) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is, and appears always to have been, a rare species of lowland forest (to about 500&#160;m) but it is unobtrusive and likely to have been overlooked. The few recent records have been from forest edge, where it is more easily observed, but it is not known whether it can breed in degraded habitats<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Most of the accessible lowland forests in its range have been logged or are under logging concessions. If it proves to be unable to survive in logged forest, it would be threatened on account of its small population and the rate of habitat degradation across its range. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142556	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press <br/></p>	eng
142557	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loriculus exilis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (but not the east or south peninsulas), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits primary lowland and hill forest and mangroves up to 1,200 m. Although it is clearly inconspicuous and easily overlooked, records are so few that it is characterised as generally very uncommon and local. It is apparently nomadic, so that the extensive forest destruction within its elevation range in recent decades may have caused a decline in its population. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142558	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loriculus pusillus</em> occurs in Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland, swamp and montane forests to 2,000 m. It has declined markedly in West Java, but appears to tolerate heavily degraded forest (as long as some tall trees are left) on Bali. Forest destruction in the lowlands of Java and Bali has been extremely extensive. However, the species's ability to tolerate degraded habitats and to persist at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has not been rapid. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142559	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Two recent surveys have targeted endemic birds on Flores. Two sites at which this species occurs are proposed for establishment as protected areas: Tanjung Kerita Mese and Egon Iliwuli (on Gunung Egon). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species to identify important sites, with a view to affording them protection. Conduct research into its status and habitat use (with particular regard to feeding ecology and forest fragmentation) such that long-term management of the species is facilitated. Monitor trade across Indonesia to investigate whether this presents a significant threat. Support the rapid establishment of Tanjung Kerita Mese proposed protected area along with additional intact stretches of forest at Nggorang Bowosie (220&#160;km<sup>2) and Gunung Egon (150&#160;km2). Initiate awareness campaigns to elicit the support of local people in protecting forests.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142559	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loriculus flosculus</em> is endemic to the island of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from eight documented localities, at some of which it is locally common in groups of up to 20 birds. At Tanjung Kerita Mese, population density was estimated at c.10 birds per hectare. However, its overall rarity cannot be disputed, and its apparently restricted habitat and altitudinal range suggest that it must be both numerically constrained and susceptible to further habitat loss.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142559	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It was thought to occur exclusively in primary semi-evergreen forest, particularly with an abundance of fruiting figs (an important food source), but more recently it has also been recorded in moist deciduous forest on limestone. Its range apparently closely equates to that of these two forest-types on Flores, although it also visits degraded roadside habitat. It occurs chiefly in a narrow altitudinal band between 600 m and 1,050&#160;m, less frequently down to 250&#160;m. </p>	eng
142559	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 24 individuals/km2 x 355 km2 (20% EOO) = 8,509 i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 and likely to be at lower end of this range as shows some degree of habitat specialisation (density from lowest of three estimates for congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
142559	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction appears to be the most pertinent threat. Loss and fragmentation of forests is already extensive on Flores, where no semi-evergreen forest below 1,000 m is included within gazetted protected areas. Moist deciduous forest is currently being extensively cleared (e.g. for firewood and construction materials), a factor that is inevitably reducing the range and population of this species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142560	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142560	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan and scarce in India (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142560	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 62,874 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142561	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittacula wardi </em>was endemic to Mah&eacute; and Silhouette, <strong>Seychelles</strong>, with a sight record from Praslin<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was already rare when described in 1867, the last specimens were collected by Warry in 1881, and the last birds recorded in captivity (on Silhouette) in 1883<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species was extinct by 1906 when Nicoll visited the islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for coconut plantations and shooting and trapping (in particular, to protect maize crops) were the main causes of the species's demise<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At least ten specimens exist<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its natural range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142563	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The dramatic increase in the species's population in recent years is undoubtedly due to an intensive programme to manage the wild population combined with a highly succesful captive breeding programme-a collaborative effort of  the World Parrot Trust, the Mauritian Government and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Society<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>-which has released 22 captive-reared individuals (of which at least 13 still survive) since 1997<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Intensive management includes nest site enhancement, provision of nest boxes (not yet used), supplementary feeding of some individuals, predator control around nest sites, control of nest competitors (White-tailed Tropicbird <em>Phaeton lepturus</em>), control of nest parasites, close guarding and monitoring of all nests, rescue of eggs/young from failing nests, clutch manipulations (double clutching, exchanging infertile eggs with fertile ones), and brood manipulations (downbrooding, ie removing extra chicks from large broods and giving to foster parents)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Habitat management has been directed at increasing the productivity of native forest and has included the foundation in 1993 of the Black River National Park in 6,574 ha of remaining native forest<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Conservation Management Areas (CMAs-see "Pink Pigeon" account) are heavily utilised as their trees produce bumper crops<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing into present and historic genetic variation of the species so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and current populations managed to preserve maximum genetic diversity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Non-invasive exotic fruit trees are being planted to provide an extra food source<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Improve nest site management<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. Feed wild birds with supplementary food<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. Increase production of birds for release by controlling disease and improving diet of captive birds<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. Establish new, and improve existing (in part by the use of predator proof fencing<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>), CMAs<strong><sup>9,14</sup></strong>, and establish managed source populations breeding in nest boxes within these areas<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Develop current use of Ring-necked Parakeets <em>Psittacula krameri</em> in the captive-breeding programme<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Establish a wild population of 200 birds by the end of 2003, partly through increasing releases of captive-reared birds to up to 30 birds per year over the next 3-5 years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Establish a wild population of 300 birds by the end of 2010<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Redress the sex ratio through judicious harvesting of surplus male nestlings and releasing mainly young females<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Consider reintroduction to R&eacute;union and introduction to the Seychelles, where <em>Psittacula wardi</em> is extinct<sup>14</sup>. Research the potential impacts of PBFD on the population. <br/></p>	eng
142563	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittacula eques</em> survives in south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong>, having become extinct historically on <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>. From the 1970s to the mid-1980s the 10 or so known birds appeared to suffer almost total breeding failure. However, breeding subsequently began to be successful, and in 1993-1994 there were 16-22 birds (including five pairs, three of which bred but without success) with an additional captive pair which produced one young in 1993. During the 1996-1997 breeding season there were 13 known wild pairs with a total of 50-61 birds present at the end of the breeding season restricted to an area of c.50 km<sup>2</sup> contained within the 65.74 km<sup>2</sup> Black River Gorges National Park in the south-west of the island<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1998 the wild population stood at 59-73 birds, with 14 captive-bred or captive-reared birds having been released at Macchab&eacute;-Brise Fer since 1997<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The rapid increase in population since 1995 is due primarily to intensive management of the wild population, the discovery of previously unknown breeding birds and an increase in the number of breeding groups that attempt to breed each year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There are now 15 known wild breeding groups<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the 1999/2000 season, 19 pairs were known in the wild, 16 pairs laid eggs and 12 pairs were successful in raising 19 young, so that the population in January 2000 stood at 106-126 wild individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There was also a captive population of 33 birds held at this time at the Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Sanctuary, Black River<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Since that time the population has continued to increase to 55 pairs (280-300 birds in the wild) in February 2005<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. This species occupies only c.40 km<sup>2</sup> of remnant native upland forest and uses only around 50% of this regularly<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142563	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species now survives in forest and upland scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with lowland, intermediate and scrub forests being very important feeding areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to be a strictly arboreal forager, feeding mainly on native plants and taking a wide range of parts including buds, young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, twigs and even bark and sap<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds forage singly or in small groups in different areas at different seasons and are known to travel several kilometers to and from feeding areas in search of food, although the dwarf forest and scrublands of the south-west plateau are an important foraging area throughout the year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nesting takes place in natural cavities in native trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch size is 1-4 (but normally 2-3) eggs, which are laid from September-December<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and hatching success is high<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Fledging takes place from the end of October to the beginning of February or later, and fledgling parakeets are reputed to stay with their parents, being fed by them for at least 2-3 months after leaving the nest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. One possible reason for the marked increase in the number of pairs attempting to breed each year is the species's increasing utilisation of exotic plants for food, particularly the very common strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em> and star fruit <em>Averrhoa carambola</em><strong><sup>7,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142563	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2007, the population was estimated at 343 birds in the wild (Raffray 2007), but the number of mature individuals is assumed to be in the range 50-249. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142563	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species's earlier decline and contracting distribution corresponds to the severe destruction and degradation of its native habitat<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Areas of upland native forest remain but these continue to be highly degraded by cyclones, the influences of past forestry practices, the spread of introduced plants such as guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, privet <em>Ligustrum robustum</em> and Jamrosa <em>Syzygium jambos</em> and the effect of introduced feral mammals such as pigs <em>Sus scrofa</em> and Rusa Deer <em>Cerus timorensis</em><strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. The production of native fruit, on which the parakeet feeds, and regeneration of potential nest trees is thus poor<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that food shortage due to deterioration of the native forest is the major cause of nest failure; although exotics can provide an abundant food source it is not available year-round or even throughout the breeding season<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Crab-eating macaques <em>Macaca fascicularis</em> and black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> are amongst a number of introduced arboreal species which pose a threat to parakeets by raiding nests and competing for native fruits<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Bees <em>Apis melifera</em>, White-tailed Tropicbird <em>Phaeton lepturus</em>, and introduced Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> and Ring-necked Parakeet <em>Psittacula krameri</em> are all nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs<strong><sup>7,14</sup></strong>. Surplus male <em>P. eques</em> (there is a male: female ratio of c.3:1) also disrupt some breeding pairs and possibly kill young birds<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Infestations of nest fly larvae can be severe in some years and, without intervention, would kill many young<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. More recently Psittacene beak and feather disease (PBFD) has been recorded but its impacts are not yet known<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Pesticides do not seem to have significantly affected the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142564	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittacula exsul </em>was endemic to forests on Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong><sup>1</sup>. It was said to be abundant by Leguat in 1691<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but Pingr&eacute; noted that it was scarce by 1761, and the last record was a bird collected in 1875<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It seems probable that the last few were wiped out later that year, when the island suffered 'the worst cyclonic season of the 19<sup>th</sup> century'<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two complete specimens survive, plus various subfossil bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species's extinction was presumably caused by a combination of habitat loss and hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142565	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142566	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in China, with a variable status elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142567	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in Nepal and generally common in India (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be of variable status across its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout the core of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142571	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142572	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142572	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 125,965 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142573	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Determine the impact of trade on the species. Calculate rates of forest loss. Protect remaining areas of habitat. Assess the impact of the 2006 tsunami.	eng
142573	distribution		<em>Psittacula caniceps </em>is endemic to the Nicobar archipelago, <strong>India</strong>, where it has been recorded from Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Menschal and Kondul islands. It apparently remains common, although the effect of the large tsunami in the area in 2006 is unknown, and the species may have declined as a result of coastal forest destruction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
142573	habitat		It inhabits tall forest, feeding in small groups in the canopy on the fruit of <em>Pandanus</em> palms. It is perhaps more abundant in coastal forests than in the interior<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
142573	population		The global population is thought to be moderately small because while the species remains relatively common in some areas it occupies a restricted range and hence the population is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-20,000 individuals.	eng
142574	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psittacula longicauda</em> occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, <strong>India</strong>, Coco islands, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands), Sumatra (including the Riau Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread). It occurs in coastal and lowland areas to at least 300 m preferring extreme lowland swamp (including peatswamp) forest in the Thai-Malay Peninsula, although it avoids primary forest in Borneo. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species remains numerous in a number of areas due to its capacity to forage away from forested areas and nest communally. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142575	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II, protected under Brazilian law and banned from export in all countries of origin. Many ranch-owners in the Pantanal (and increasingly in the Gerais) no longer permit trappers on their properties. There are several long-term studies and conservation initiatives.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study the current range, population status and extent of trading in the different parts of its range<sup>8. Assess the effectiveness of artificial nest-boxes8. Enforce legal measures preventing trade. Experiment with ecotourism at one or two sites to encourage donors8.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142575	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus</em> occurs in three areas of <strong>Brazil</strong>: east Amazonia (along the rios Tocantins, Xingu and Tapaj&oacute;s, and possibly persists in Amap&aacute;), the Gerais of Maranh&atilde;o, Piau&iacute;, Bahia, Tocantins, Goi&aacute;s, Mato Grosso and Minas Gerais, and in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and marginally into east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz), and <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Concepci&oacute;n with local reports from Alto Paraguay<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). Population estimates vary from c.3,000 birds to c.5,000 birds in the Pantanal and 1,000-2,500 individuals in the Gerais in 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Populations in the Pantanal may have expanded recently<strong><sup>eg10</sup></strong>, probably in reponse to conservation projects.  <br/></p>	eng
142575	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in v&aacute;rzea and savanna adjacent to tropical forest in east Amazonia, campo cerrado, caatinga and palm-stands in the Gerais, and palm-savannas in the Pantanal. It feeds mostly on the hard fruit of a few regionally endemic palm species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nesting is from July-December in large tree-cavities (primarily in <em>Sterculia apetala</em> in the Pantanal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and on cliffs (in the north-east). Two eggs are usually laid, but only one chick normally fledges<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142575	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Anon (2004) estimated 6,500 in 2003, of which 5,000 were in the Pantanal. <br/></p>	eng
142575	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is massive illegal trade. At least 10,000 birds were taken from the wild in the 1980s, with 50% destined for the Brazilian market<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1983-1984, over 2,500 were flown out of Bah&iacute;a Negra, Paraguay, with an additional 600 in the late 1980s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There is some local hunting for food and feathers. In Amazonia, there has been habitat loss for cattle-ranching and hydroelectric power schemes on the rios Tocantins and Xingu. In the Pantanal, only 5% of <em>S.&#160;apetala</em> trees have suitable cavities<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Young trees are foraged by cattle and burnt by frequent fires<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Gerais is being rapidly converted to mechanised agriculture, cattle-ranching and exotic tree plantations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142576	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p></p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected by Brazilian law. Infiltration of trading networks and improved surveillance at breeding sites has resulted in arrests of poachers, smugglers and collectors<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. The Toca Velha/Serra Branca cliffs are guarded and protection has recently been improved following the acquisition of the 1,450 ha Canudos Biological Station<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and there are plans to grow, plant and fence 50,000 licurí palm seedlings<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. Management agreements with key landowners have been signed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Parrots International and the Lymington Foundation began a corn replacement scheme for the farmers in 2007<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  There is a small captive population but there is no coordinated breeding programme.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p></p><p><strong>Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of all known populations. Continue to liaise with local people to locate additional populations</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Study the nesting ecology to estimate reproductive success, determine home ranges and consider double-clutching</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Continue to compensate farmers for crop losses. Develop a long-term strategy of planting and protecting licurí palms</strong><sup>2,3,4</sup>. <strong>Enforce legal measures, especially through local patrolling to prevent trapping</strong><sup>2,3,4</sup>.  <br/></p>	eng
142576	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Anodorhynchus leari</em> was known to science for 150 years from trade birds before a wild population was found in 1978. It is known from two colonies at Toca Velha and Serra Branca, south of the Raso da Catarina plateau in north-east Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. In 1995, a roosting site holding 22 birds was located at Sento Sé/Campo Formoso, 200 km to the east<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Initially, this was thought to represent a distinct subpopulation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but is now considered to refer to birds from the Toca Velha/Serra Branca population following patches of fruiting licurí <em>Syagrus </em>palms<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. The global population was estimated at 246 birds in 2001<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, 400-500 in 2004<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, 630 in 2006<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and 960 in 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. These figures are likely to include a large proportion of sub-adults<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and it is notoriously difficult to determine the number of mature individuals in the population because sub-adults form pairs and behave like nesting birds for a number of years before they actually breed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Some of this increase may reflect changes in methodology and survey effort<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but there has also been a genuine increase as a result of intensive conservation measures.  <br/><p></p>	eng
142576	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in arid caatinga with sandstone cliffs (for colonial nesting and roosting) and stands of licurí palms. It forages in trees and on the ground, largely for licurí palm nuts (individuals eat up to 350/day), but also <em>Melanoxylon</em>, <em>Atropha pohliana</em>, <em>Dioclea</em>, <em>Spondias tuberosa</em>, <em>Agave</em> flowers and maize. Breeding is in February-April. Two young often fledge. <br/><p></p>	eng
142576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Although the population was estimated at 960 in 2008 (Develey <em>in litt. </em>2009) there is uncertainty over what proportion of this figure relates to mature individuals. The population is growing so this figure is likely to include a large proportion of sub-adults, and in any case it is notoriously difficult to determine the number of mature individuals in the population because sub-adults form pairs and behave like nesting birds for a number of years before they actually breed.  <br/><p></p>	eng
142576	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In 1992-1995, c.20 birds were caught and sold to smugglers from Toca Velha/Serra Branca<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and, in 1996, at least 19 individuals were taken<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Licurí palm-stands formerly covered 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> but have been vastly reduced by livestock-grazing. A major fire could now eradicate most of the food supply for the Toca Velha/Serra Branca population. Birds are occasionally persecuted for foraging on maize crops when palm nuts are scarce. Hunting for food and wildlife products are potential threats. <br/><p></p>	eng
142577	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. There have been various attempts (so far unsuccessful) to rediscover the species. There are ongoing funding proposals to attempt to finance a programme of work aimed at confirming this species's presence in the wild.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct interviews with local people, especially former and active parrot trappers, to assess the likelihood that any populations remain. Prepare to follow-up on any positive data from these interviews.</strong>	eng
142577	distribution		<em>Anodorhynchus glaucus</em> was formerly widespread but clearly very local in north <strong>Argentina</strong>, south <strong>Paraguay</strong>, north-east <strong>Uruguay</strong> and <strong>Brazil</strong> from Paran&aacute; state southwards. It was endemic to the middle reaches of the major rivers (Uruguay, Paran&aacute; and Paraguay) and adjacent areas, with most records coming from Corrientes, Argentina. It became rare before or early in the second half of the 19th century and there were only two acceptable records in the 20th century, one direct observation (in Uruguay in 1951) and one based on local reports (in Paran&aacute; in the early 1960s). Whilst it has been generally treated as extinct, persistent rumours of recent sightings, local reports and birds in trade indicate that a few birds may still survive.	eng
142577	habitat		It was reported mostly along major rivers, but this may reflect travellers' dependence on river transport rather than the species's true habitat requirements. It appears to have been adapted to consume palm nuts as its staple, and therefore presumably wandered into palm-savannas and potentially lightly wooded areas. The only palm in its range with the appropriate size and type of nut is the Yatay (or Chatay) palm <em>Butia</em> <em>yatay</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nested and roosted on cliffs and the average clutch-size was probably two eggs.	eng
142577	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny based on the lack of confirmed records since the 1960s.	eng
142578	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II and is protected under Brazilian law. Ten years of protection, habitat restoration and a variety of on-going community conservation programmes, will pave the way for future reintroductions<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. IBAMA established the Brazilian government's Permanent Committee for the Recovery of the Spix's Macaw and cooperation between holders of birds resulted in annual increases in the captive population. This body is succeeded by the Working Group for the Recovery of Spix's Macaw<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, now overseen by the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio). This group is responsible for coordinating the captive breeding programme and there will be on-site reintroduction facilities later followed by on-site breeding facilities. The official captive population totals 71 individuals, and important proportions of this are currently held by Al-Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP), Qatar and Loro Parque Fundaci&oacute;n (LPF), Tenerife, Spain. Other official holders are in Brazil and Germany. Including birds not registered in the official programme, up to 120 individuals are thought to exist in captivity worldwide. Successful breeding has occurred within some registered facilities, most recently in 2010 at AWWP and LPF. The latter has maintained the species since 1984 and in 2007 opened a new breeding centre for Spix's Macaws<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A captive management and species recovery handbook is in preparation for this species. In February 2009 Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP) announced the purchase of the 2,200 ha Concordia Farm in Bahia state, Brazil, site of one of the last recorded sightings of wild Spix's Macaw, in October 2000<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Concordia Farm was also the base of the Spix's Macaw field project, largely financed by the LPF, which operated throughout the 1990s until completion in 2002, and release site for the only captive Spix's Macaw yet to be released back into the wild, in 1995. Concordia Farm abuts the 400 ha Gangorra Farm, previously purchased by a conservation consortium. It is planned to allow both farms to return to a more natural state by removing domestic livestock, with the long term goal of the sites proving to be a valuable habitat resource for future reestablishment of a wild population.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify a suitable release site for the potential annual release of captive-bred birds starting between 2013 and 2030 depending on the success of captive breeding efforts<sup>6</sup>. Protect and improve habitat at the identified release site<sup>6</sup>. Establish a well-resourced on site re-introduction facility at Praia do Forte under IBAMA ownership<sup>6</sup>. Introduce captive-bred fledglings and ensure protection from trappers. Continue cooperation between holders of captive birds. Continue ecological studies to assess the need for habitat management</strong><sup>3</sup>.<strong> Continue the community programmes.</strong>	eng
142578	distribution		This species was known for over 150 years, from small numbers of traded birds and a hunted bird taken by von Spix, until it was traced in 1985-1986 to near the rio S&atilde;o Francisco in north Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Only three birds remained and these were captured for trade in 1987 and 1988. However, a single male, paired with a female Blue-winged Macaw <em>Propyrrhura maracana</em>, was discovered at the site in July 1990. A female <em>C. spixii</em> was released from captivity in 1995 and initially paired with the male. Unfortunately, the female disappeared from the release site after seven weeks and is suspected to have collided with a power-line<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The wild bird was still paired with the female <em>P. maracana</em> in January 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but neither bird has been seen since the end of that year. In 2000, the total number of publicly declared birds in captivity was 60, but 54 of these were captive-bred<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The official captive population in 2010 totals 71 individuals, and including birds not registered in the official programme, up to 120 individuals are thought to exist in captivity worldwide. There are occasional local reports, including from Serra da Capivara National Park, which provide some hope the species may be extant<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
142578	habitat		It apparently requires gallery woodland dominated by caraiba <em>Tabebuia caraiba</em> trees for nesting, but feeds mainly on two regionally characteristic <em>Euphorbiaceae </em>plant species. Breeding occurs during the austral summer. Two or three eggs are laid in the wild (up to five in captivity). It apparently requires gallery woodland dominated by caraiba <em>Tabebuia caraiba</em> trees for nesting, but feeds mainly on two regionally characteristic <em>Euphorbiacae</em> plant species. Breeding occurs during the austral summer. Two or three eggs are laid in the wild (up to five in captivity). The wild bird and the <em>P. maracana</em> apparently produced infertile eggs<sup>1</sup>, although one experienced very early embryo death, subsequent DNA analysis revealing a hybrid.	eng
142578	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny, based on the disappearance of the last known individual.	eng
142579	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142579	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142579	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142579	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 55,531 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142580	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Asociaci&oacute;n Armon&iacute;a/Loro Parque Fundaci&oacute;n produced a Blue-throated Macaw Recovery Plan in 2003. Live export from Bolivia was banned in 1984, but illegal export continues<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Asociaci&oacute;n Armon&iacute;a/Loro Parque Fundaci&oacute;n parrot trade monitoring project has not recorded the species in trade for the last two years<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, but the large scale illegal trade infrastructure in Bolivia means there is the potential to start trapping again if there is a demand. Agreement has been reached with some landowners to control access and deter potential trappers, and negotiations with other landowners continue<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Based on field surveys recommendations have been made that the Paraparau region, Beni Department, be given greater conservation priority<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Much of the remaining population occurs on private ranch-lands. Many landowners are sympathetic to conservation work on their lands and continued support will benefit the species's recovery. The population in captivity (some of which is held in captive-breeding facilities) is many times larger than the wild population. A nest box campaign has been run since 2004 and has found that there is a great demand for suitable nesting cavities. Work with indigenous people looking for alternatives for headdress macaw feathers is ongoing. There has been a widespread education programme, including pamphlets, posters, T-shirts, and presentations, short-wave radio spots, video programs, TV interviews, travel to the most remote ranches giving presentations on laptops, and creation of interpretation centres in the bottle-neck towns of Trinidad, Santa Rosa and Santa Ana. Other measures include ongoing surveys of potential areas where populations may persist; a pet trade monitoring programme in two main Bolivian cities and land acquisition programs in order to protect key habitat and populations. Asociaci&oacute;n Armon&iacute;a, with the help of the American Bird Conservancy and World Land Trust, completed the purchase of a 3,555 ha private reserve protecting at least 20 Blue-throated Macaws in November 2008<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The reserve will be used for education, research and tourism, and an additional 100 nest boxes will be in place for the 2008/2009 breeding season<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The World Parrot Trust and Bird Endowment are also involved in nest provision and protection, feeding chicks and other manipulation. In 2009 a formal agreement was signed between the Loro Parque Fundaci&oacute;n, Asociaci&oacute;n Armon&iacute;a, the Zoo Fauna Sudamericana and the Noel Kempff Mercado Natural History Museum which formalises the initiation of a managed cooperative breeding programme in Bolivia<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue nest guarding and monitoring. Expand, monitor and improve nest boxes. Illegal pet trade monitoring. Lobby local and national government regarding illegal pet trade. Research and promote the acquisition of land for Blue-throated Macaw long-term conservation, habitat restoration studies and sustainable tourism support. Continue wide-ranging education programmes, especially in Santa Rosa y Santa Ana area - supported by interpretive centres. Develop alternatives and controls to macaw feather headdress usage. Develop tourism infrastructure on private reserve land to sustainably support protecting areas, and to control the negative impact Blue-throated Macaw tourism can have throughout the area. Maintain a low level of population monitoring and occasional new surveys. Field research to identify principal health threats.</strong>	eng
142580	distribution		<em>Ara glaucogularis</em> is known from the Llanos de Mojos in north <strong>Bolivia</strong>, being concentrated east of the upper r&iacute;o Mamor&eacute;, Beni<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, where the wild population was discovered in 1992. The total population is estimated to number 250-300 individuals occupying a range of c.4,000 km<sup>2</sup>, with 70 individuals discovered at a dry season roost site in 2007<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Surveys indicate that the population may now be increasing slowly following dramatic declines during the 1970s and 1980s. An estimated 1,200 or more wild-caught birds were exported from Bolivia during the 1980s, suggesting that the population was formerly much higher<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
142580	habitat		It utilises forest islands and gallery forest found fragmented throughout the Beni Savannas at an 80/20 ratio. Motac&uacute; Palm <em>Attalea phalerata</em> is a principal food of all macaws in the area, abundances variable from 0% to 100% in forest islands in the savannas, and borders of gallery forest. It nests in cavities, hatching 1-3 eggs. The species is most frequently found in pairs, but small groups (7-9), do occur and one large group of 70 is known. It is possible that with a larger population the species would be more gregarious.	eng
142580	population		Herrera and Hennessey (in press) estimate a total population of 250-300 individuals. This is precautionarily interpreted as fewer than 250 mature individuals.	eng
142581	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II, and legally protected in Venezuela. There are reasonably healthy populations in El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, Madidi and Ambor&oacute; National Parks and Pilon Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Bolivia<strong><sup>5,9,11</sup></strong>, with small populations in at least some of the 19 other protected areas in its potential range<strong><sup>1,3,4,5,8,11,12</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its population status and ecological requirements. Monitor the largest known populations. Control capture and trade of wild birds, beginning in reserves<sup>4,12</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve management and awareness initiatives in and around national parks. <br/></p>	eng
142581	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara militaris</em> occupies a massive but fragmented range from <strong>Mexico</strong> to <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Mexico, it occurs from central Sonora to Jalisco on the Pacific slope and east Nuevo Le&oacute;n to San Luis Potos&iacute; on the Atlantic slope<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In <strong>Colombia</strong>, it is known from the Guajira Peninsula and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta through the Sierras de Perij&aacute; and de San Lucas, south along the East Andes, with local populations on the Pacific slope in Choc&oacute;, the Cauca valley, the head of the Magdalena valley and in the Sierra de la Macarena<strong><sup>7,12</sup></strong>. It is very local in north <strong>Venezuela</strong>, and occurs disjunctly in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong> (also in the r&iacute;o Chinchipe drainage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west Argentina. It has been extirpated from many areas, especially in Mexico (west Chiapas along the Pacific slope to Guerrero, and perhaps as far north-west as Michoac&aacute;n and Colima<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) and Argentina (no records since 1991<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), and is very local elsewhere. Populations in Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia face continuing threats, and further extirpations are expected. <br/></p>	eng
142581	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland forest and adjacent cleared areas, wooded foothills and canyons. In Mexico, it is found in arid and semi-arid woodland, and pine-oak, humid lowland and riparian forest, moving seasonally to dense thorn-forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 3,100&#160;m, but the core range is 500-1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nests and large communal roosts are sited on cliff-faces or in large trees<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142581	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142581	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and especially domestic trade are the chief threats, even within reserves<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 1991-1995, 96 wild-caught specimens were found in international trade, with Bolivia possibly the most significant exporter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142582	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. The stronghold is in Dari&eacute;n Biosphere Reserve, Panama, and adjacent Los Kat&iacute;os National Park, Colombia. There are important reserves in all range states, but these provide insufficient protection for seasonal wanderers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Costa Rica, a proposed moratorium on logging <em>D. panamensis</em> has not been implemented<strong><sup>9,13</sup></strong>. A government-backed conservation strategy is being implemented in Ecuador<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Effectively protect reserves in Honduras and Nicaragua<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate the proposed Maquenque National Park, Costa Rica<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Curtail trade through law enforcement and educational campaigns<sup>7,12</sup></strong>. <strong>Acquire private reserves in selected areas<sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara ambiguus</em> occurs as two subspecies. The nominate race occurs from <strong>Honduras</strong> to north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, and the race <em>guayaquilensis</em> in western <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>3</sup>. In <strong>Panama</strong>, it is locally fairly common (near Cana, Alturas de Nique<strong><sup>1,17</sup></strong>) on the Caribbean slope and fairly common in Dari&eacute;n (and adjacent Colombia<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>), and occurs in Serran&iacute;a de Maj&eacute; and south Cerro Hoya<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In Colombia, it is also found in the north of the Serran&iacute;a de Baud&oacute; and the West Andes, east to the upper Sin&uacute; valley<strong><sup>4,13</sup></strong>. In Honduras, it is uncommon near the r&iacute;o Pl&aacute;tano<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and, in <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, it persists in the Bosawas Reserve and around the r&iacute;os Indio-Ma&iacute;z and San Juan<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The Ecuador population has been estimated at 60-90 individuals, but this may be an overestimate<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The largest population in <strong>Costa Rica</strong> is only 25-35 pairs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There are up to 100 birds in Esmeraldas, and very small numbers in the Cordillera de Chong&oacute;n-Colonche, Guayas, Ecuador<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Recent estimates suggest that the global population is less than 2,500 mature individuals (or less than 3,700 in total including juveniles and immatures), with the largest Dari&eacute;n subpopulation at less than 1,700 mature individuals (or less than 2,500 in total)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The species forms non-breeding flocks of 50 or more, with flock attendants coming together from huge areas, possibly leading to inflated local estimates of abundance<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, and within Dari&eacute;n its distribution is quite local, it being absent from several remote areas<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142582	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland, foothill and (in Ecuador) deciduous forest, but occurs in edge habitats and crosses open areas<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It is found mainly below 600 m, but occurs to 1,000 m and occasionally 1,500 m in Dari&eacute;n. In Costa Rica, local movements may reflect the asynchronous fruiting of <em>Dipteryx panamensis</em>, the principal nesting and feeding tree<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, it breeds in June-November, and nests in cavities of dead <em>Cavanillesia plantanifolia</em> trees<strong><sup>2,15</sup></strong>. Orchids made up 71% of the diet of a pair watched in Ecuador, and their feeding range was estimated at 2,000 ha<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142582	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population is estimate at <2500 mature individuals (or <3700 individuals in total, when juveniles and immatures are included) (Olaf Jahn <em>in litt</em>. 2005, 2007). <br/></p>	eng
142582	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Central America, there is conversion to banana plantations and cattle-ranching, and logging<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <em>D. panamensis</em> is selectively logged in Costa Rica<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Annual deforestation rates are very high throughout its range<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, and deforestation in Panama probably exceeds 30% of its original range<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Urbanisation and agriculture have largely extirpated race <em>guayaquilensis</em>, and it is reportedly shot as a crop-pest<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. There is illegal capture for (mostly internal) trade, food and feathers<strong><sup>6,9,12,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142583	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142585	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. Its capture, transport and export is prohibited under Bolivian law<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The only protected site is the r&iacute;o Zapillar in Ambor&oacute; National Park, where only c.8 birds breed. In 1992, 5,000 posters urging the protection of macaws and their habitat were made and apparently well received throughout the region. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveying and monitoring<sup>2,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Fence key patches of gallery forest to limit cattle-grazing and permit vegetation to regenerate<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Eliminate trade in the species<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Provide appropriate technological aid to minimise attacks on maize crops<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Organise awareness campaigns<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142585	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara rubrogenys</em> is endemic to a small area on the east Andean slope of south-central <strong>Bolivia</strong>, from south Cochabamba and west Santa Cruz through north Chuquisaca to north-east Potos&iacute;. It is principally found in the valley systems of the r&iacute;os Grande, Mizque and Pilcomayo. It is locally common but declining, with the population variously estimated at 2,000-4,000 individuals in 1991-1992<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and as few as 1,000 in 1991<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the Caine valley (Cochabamba and Potos&iacute;) 40-100 indivuduals were considered resident and secure in 1989-1992, but only one was seen during five days fieldwork in 1995<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142585	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical, xerophytic thorny scrub with many cacti and scattered trees at 1,100-2,500&#160;m, dispersing locally to 3,000&#160;m. It nests and roosts on undisturbed, steep-sided river cliffs. Its diet includes seeds and fruit, but natural food sources are often scarce and birds feed extensively on crops, particularly groundnuts and unripe maize. Egg-laying has been reported in November-April, with most pairs fledging one offspring annually<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142585	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Clarke and Duran Pati&ntilde;o (1991), Pitter and Christiansen (1995) <br/></p>	eng
142585	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	An estimated 40% of natural vegetation in valleys within its range had been converted to agriculture by 1991, with other areas degraded by intense grazing. Several important food trees are harvested for fuel and charcoal. As food plants are lost, agricultural land is used more, thereby increasing the species's exposure to persecution as a crop-pest, with the use of firearms for pest control a recent and alarming development<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Illegal trapping continues, but is much reduced as a result of legal protection<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142588	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop an appropriate census methodology. Survey for this species throughout its range to obtain quantitative population estimates. Determine the degree to which this species occurs in protected areas, and whether further such areas need gazetting. Support the enforcement of legislation preventing international trade. Raise awareness among local people of the need to conserve this species and its susceptibility to unsustainable exploitation. <br/></p>	eng
142588	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Primolius couloni</em> occurs in eastern <strong>Peru</strong>, extreme western <strong>Brazil</strong>, and north-western <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In some locations within its range it is considered not uncommon, but in other areas it appears to be scarce, or even absent. It has been recorded throughout the year at some locations, but numbers elsewhere seem to vary seasonally and the species may wander in response to food availability, confounding attempts to draw conclusions about population density across its range. Estimating its population size is therefore notoriously difficult, but a recent review of all known records put the population at 9,200-46,000 individuals, considerably higher than previous estimates<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142588	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found on the edge of humid lowland evergreen forest, along rivers and by clearings and other breaks in continuous canopy, locally even on the outskirts of towns, from lowlands to 1,550 m. Young birds have been observed with adults in April. It may be nomadic or wander seasonally in response to food availability<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population is estimated at 9,200-46,000 mature individuals, based on conservative estimates of range size and density (Tobias & Brightsmith 2007). <br/></p>	eng
142588	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is commonly found in markets in Brazil, being valuable and in high demand owing to its perceived rarity. Reported international trade is low (and virtually unknown before 1995), but apparently increasing: three specimens in 1993 increased to 55 birds in 2000, totalling 150 birds for the whole period; as many as 50 were reported to have been seized/traded illegally. The species has a very low reproductive rate and continued illegal harvest is thought likely to pose a serious threat to its survival<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Much of the forest within the species's range is still intact, but the Bolivian forest is threatened by expansion of the logging industry (although the species may benefit from the consequent patchwork clearance), as well as mining and drilling for gas.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142589	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. It has been recorded at numerous protected areas in Brazil, but Serra do Cachimbo is unprotected and Serra Negra Biological Reserve is a mere 10 km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> <strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Twenty birds have been released in Bahia, Brazil, with the intention of correlating differences in ability to survive in the wild with differences of history in captivity<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Collate data on specimen and recent records to provide an improved assessment of distribution and status. Monitor known populations to assess trends. Investigate the impact of trade.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142589	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Propyrrhura maracana</em> formerly occupied a huge range in <strong>Brazil</strong> (Pernambuco, Piau&iacute;, Maranh&atilde;o, Par&aacute;, Tocantins, Goi&aacute;s, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina, Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Concepci&oacute;n, Canindey&uacute;, Amambay, Alto Paran&aacute; and Caazap&aacute;) and <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north Corrientes), but has undergone a decline<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. The species is found in Maraj&oacute; island, Par&aacute; (where it is common in mangrove forest and cerrado), over most of Brazil to Paran&aacute; and adjoining parts of Paraguay. There are no recent records from Misiones, Argentina. In S&atilde;o Paulo state, the species has its stronghold in and around Caetetus Ecological Station. In Brazil, this macaw is found in a broad range of habitats, including mangrove forest in Maraj&oacute;, semi-deciduous and humid forest in southern Par&aacute; and S&atilde;o Paulo, Atlantic forest in Rio de Janeiro, Bahia and Espirito Santo, cerrado in Tocantins, and caatinga in Bahia and Piau&iacute;. Despite declines in the southern part of its range the species remains widespread over most of its Brazilian range, and has even recolonised areas in its historical range in southern Rio de Janeiro, including the environs of Itatiaia National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Some areas considered as strongholds for the species are largely protected (Serra do Cachimbo in Par&aacute; is mostly under care of the Brazilian military, who bar colonists and loggers, although they conduct weapon tests in parts of the range) or not under strong pressure (Maraj&oacute;). Previously unreported populations have been found in the Atlantic forest of Itarana (Barra Encoberta, Santa Joana, Alto Jatiboca e Limoeiro<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142589	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits evergreen and deciduous forest (including Atlantic forest and cerrado savanna) with an apparent preference for gallery forest (especially in the Caatinga region) and forest edge up to 1,000 m <strong><sup>5,12</sup></strong>. There is evidence of breeding from December through February in north-east Brazil<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It apparently feeds on seeds from <em>Cnidoscolus phyllacanthus</em> and <em>Jatropha</em> sp.<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, <em>Guazuma ulmifolia</em><strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and the introduced <em>Melia azederach</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142589	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Seal et al. (1992)	eng
142589	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is only partly explicable by deforestion, since it has disappeared from localities where apparently suitable habitat remains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It suffers from capture for the cage-bird trade, with 183 individuals arriving in the USA from Paraguay between 1977 and 1979<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142592	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142592	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 193,299 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142593	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Some control of feral cats has been undertaken, and the eradication of cats and sheep is now being planned<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme has been instigated for potential reintroduction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro. Implement a vegetation and soil restoration plan<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142593	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga brevipes</em> is endemic to Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. The population was estimated at 400-500 birds within c.35 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat in 1991. Numbers were considered stable and have not declined subsequently<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, there may have been some contraction in range since c.1960. <br/></p>	eng
142593	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forests of <em>Bumelia socorrensis</em>, <em>Psidium socorrensis</em>, <em>Guettarda insularis</em>, <em>Ilex socorrensis</em> and <em>Ficus cotinifolia</em> at elevations of 350&#160;m-850&#160;m. It nests exclusively in natural cavities within <em>B.&#160;socorroensis</em> trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the seeds and fruit pulp of this species comprise over 50% of the diet. The breeding season begins in November, and nests are attended by at least three individuals. After the breeding season, birds tend to form flocks of 7-40 individuals, with larger groups of 50-100 gathering in undisturbed forests on the northern slopes of the island.</p>	eng
142593	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Following surveys in 2006 and 2007, the population has been estimated at c.300 individuals (J. E. Mart&iacute;nez-G&oacute;mez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
142593	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The spread of erosion and, in places, the lack of forest regeneration caused by heavy sheep-grazing has presumably had a deleterious effect on the extent of suitable habitat. There may be some predation by feral cats, but the species is relatively tame and its remains have not been found in cat scats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142594	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142594	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 76,974 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142595	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142595	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142595	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 158,149 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142596	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga erythrogenys</em> occurs from Manab&iacute;, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Lambayeque and Cajamarca, north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, with the high Andes marking its easternmost limit, at least in Ecuador<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. There are very few records from the centre of its range, in Guayas, El Oro and Azuay, Ecuador, which may effectively divide the population into two distinct subpopulations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The total population is unlikely to be smaller than 10,000, with the majority occurring in Ecuador<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Though considered 'common' in parts of its range<strong><sup>1,2,4,9</sup></strong>, there have been severe local declines<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. It occurs in a range of habitats - from humid forest through deciduous forest, dry <em>Acacia</em> scrub to open, sparsely vegetated desert and intensely farmed areas to towns - but principally inhabits arid areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, from sea-level to 2,500&#160;m, but most frequently below 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests in tree cavities, but the extent to which it tolerates logged forest and can breed successfully in small woodlots or even isolated trees is unclear<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It suffers heavily from local trade in Peru and Ecuador, where it is a common and highly sought-after pet<strong><sup>2,3,9</sup></strong>. It is also internationally traded from Peru, but its status is clouded by the misdeclaring of traded birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and pre-trade mortality<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, which both demonstrate the complexities of estimating true numbers taken from the wild<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142596	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
142597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142598	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142598	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142598	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 60,207 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142599	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected. It occurs within seven environmental reserves, including the important Ci&eacute;naga de Zapata National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A study of the species and an intensive public awareness campaign are intended to help establish an effective management programme<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Ecotourism programmes have been initiated in some areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Further research to determine the species's ecological requirements and population<sup>6,7. Conserve additional habitat, especially nesting areas6. Tailor environmental awareness and nest-site protection to local situations6. Continue to plan for the re-establishment of the species on the Isla de la Juventud6,7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142599	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga euops</em> was formerly one of the most common endemic birds on <strong>Cuba</strong>, but is now rare throughout the island. It survives in a few of the more remote regions, remaining fairly common only in the Zapata peninsula, the Trinidad Mountains and the Sierra de Najasa<strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. Suggestions that the species occurred in the Sierra Maestra appear unfounded<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been extirpated from the western provinces (excepting Zapata)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Isla de la Juventud, where it was once abundant. Recent studies of 14 populations have found that four are in serious decline<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Even the population within Ci&eacute;naga de Zapata National Park appears to have declined, with recent surveys finding no flocks larger than 18 birds<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong></p>	eng
142599	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded in semi-deciduous woodland, palm-savanna habitat, trees on cultivated land and the edges of woodland. It nests in tree-cavities or holes in arboreal termite nests, and is mostly restricted to dead <em>Roystonea regia</em> and <em>Sabal palviflora</em> palms<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in late April or early May, coinciding with maximum fruit availability, and runs through to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species seems somewhat nomadic, ranging widely in search of food<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142599	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.5 individuals/km2 x 1,190 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,071-2,975, but probably best placed within band 2,500-10,000 as described as "still locally common" in certain remote regions [Collar et al. 1992] (density from lowest of three estimates for A. leucophthalmus in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142599	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Persecution as a crop-pest, trapping for the cage-bird trade, and habitat loss explain its current rarity. Trapping is now insignificant, with only 10 birds recorded in trade between 1991 and 1995. The most important threat is loss of nesting-trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> as a result of hurricane damage (such as caused in Zapata by Hurricane Lilli in 1996), and tree-felling for Cuban Parrot <em>Amazona leucocephala</em> chicks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142600	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. In the Dominican Republic, it is legally protected against hunting and trapping, but this legislation is not adequately enforced<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. An education strategy with community participation has been launched for the protection of this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify the status of the species in Haiti. Investigate interactions between this species and Olive-throated Parakeet <em>A.&#160;nana because of the recent increase in numbers of A.&#160;nana in the Sierra de Baoruco<sup>2. Study ecology and breeding success to determine natural limiting factors. Enforce existing legislation in the Dominican Republic.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142600	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga chloroptera</em> occurs in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, with feral populations in Puerto Rico (to USA)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong> and possibly Florida, USA<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Guadeloupe (to France)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The extinct race <em>maugei</em> formerly occurred on Isla Mona in Puerto Rico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is now generally rare with isolated populations in the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco and the suburbs of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Recent records from Monte Cristi and Ebano Verde may represent additional local populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its status in Haiti is unclear. It has been suggested that it may be extinct in Haiti<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the species was not recorded in the previously inhabited La Viste National Park in 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but there are also claims that it is common in the Massif de la Selle and la Citadelle area of the Massif du Nord<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142600	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits all kinds of natural habitat from montane forest to arid lowland forest, palm-savanna and open woodland, and ranges into agricultural land and second growth<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occupies a wide altitudinal range from the lowlands to 3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nesting takes place in tree-cavities or arboreal termite nests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142600	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.5 individuals/km2 x 1,900 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,710-4,750, but probably best placed within band 2,500-10,000 (density from lowest of three estimates for A. leucophthalmus in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142600	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and persecution as a crop-pest are the greatest threats to this species. It is exploited for local and international trade, but only 12 wild-caught individuals were reported in international trade in 1991-1995<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142601	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 130,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
142601	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimate based on recent records detailed under population and range.  <br/></p>	eng
142602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142603	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Monte Pascoal, Chapada da Diamantina, Serra da Canastra (common in the south)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Serra do Capara&oacute; National Parks, Rio Doce State Park and Caratinga Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate any major new populations and define the limits of its current range. Study to determine its population dynamics and dispersive capacity, and provide a detailed analysis of its habitat requirements at different sites. Ensure the protection of key reserves. Protect the species under Brazilian law.</strong></p>	eng
142603	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga auricapillus</em> is found in both humid Atlantic coastal forest and inland transitional forests from the Rec&ocirc;ncavo area in Bahia, south to Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Goi&aacute;s and Paran&aacute;, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. In S&atilde;o Paulo and Paran&aacute;, the species has only been recorded in the humid eastern forests. It has apparently vanished from Espirito Santo, and has been recently recorded from single sites in Rio de Janeiro and Paran&aacute;. Despite the loss of habitat and collecting for the pet trade, it is still locally common in Goi&aacute;s, (where it occurs over most of its former distribution), Minas Gerais and Bahia. A recent survey in Bahia found it in 18 out of 30 sites surveyed, including eight protected areas, being recorded in large groups and using secondary vegetation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Like other <em>Aratinga</em>, it seems to adapt well to mosaics of forest fragments, pastures and agriculture, and in Goi&aacute;s and Minas Gerais it also uses areas of cerrado<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The discovery that it is still widespread and has not declined over much of its northern range (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goi&aacute;s), and its ability to cope with habitat fragmentation suggest its status is more secure than formerly thought, so the species is now reclassified as Near Threatened, and may indeed warrant downlisting to Least Concern. Pairs have been seen in November and dependent young in March<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, indicating breeding in the austral summer. It feeds on fruits (such as mango, papaya and orange)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and seeds (such as maize), and was formerly considered a serious pest. There has been extensive and continuing clearance and fragmentation of suitable habitat for coffee, soybean and sugarcane plantations in S&atilde;o Paulo, and cattle-ranching in Goi&aacute;s and Minas Gerais<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Trapping for trade has probably had a significant impact since it was relatively common in illegal Brazilian markets in the mid-1980s, and imported in hundreds into West Germany in the early 1980s. However, the precise effect is obfuscated by high numbers of captive-bred birds, which presumably reduce pressure on remaining wild populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are no records of persecution in response to crop degradation. CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Monte Pascoal, Chapada da Diamantina, Serra da Canastra (common in the south)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Serra do Capara&oacute; National Parks, Rio Doce State Park and Caratinga Reserve. <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142603	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely dependent on semi-deciduous forest, but forages and breeds in forest edge, adjacent secondary growth and agricultural areas. Pairs have been seen in November and dependent young in March<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, indicating breeding in the austral summer. It feeds on fruits (such as mango, papaya and orange)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and seeds (such as maize), and was formerly considered a serious pest. <br/></p>	eng
142603	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
142603	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been extensive and continuing clearance and fragmentation of suitable habitat for coffee, soybean and sugarcane plantations in S&atilde;o Paulo, and cattle-ranching in Goi&aacute;s and Minas Gerais<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Trapping for trade has probably had a significant impact since it was relatively common in illegal Brazilian markets in the mid-1980s and imported in hundreds into West Germany in the early 1980s. However, the precise effect is obfuscated by high numbers of captive-bred birds, which presumably reduce pressure on remaining wild populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are no records of persecution in response to crop degradation. <br/></p>	eng
142604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142607	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142607	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142607	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142607	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 61,311 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142608	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142610	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142610	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 267,246 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142611	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is known from many protected areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, including Los Nevados and Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Parks (Colombia), Podocarpus National Park (Ecuador)<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. Of all these reserves, Ucumar&iacute; Regional Natural Park, Purac&eacute; National Park (Colombia), Huashapamba Protection Forest (Ecuador) and R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park (Peru) are apparently well protected<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its status in Peru<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish the degree of dependence on wax palms in different regions<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a network of protected montane forests. Protect the Nevado del Ruiz-Nevado del Tolima massif and the Cordillera de Chilla<sup>3,5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142611	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptosittaca branickii</em> is widely but locally distributed in <strong>Colombia</strong> (both slopes of the Central Andes, the southern base of the East Andes and one record from Cerro Munchique, Cauca, in the West Andes), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (isolated massifs in the far north and south, but only in the south on the main Andean ridges) and <strong>Peru</strong> (Cordillera de Col&aacute;n and the east Andean slope, with one record on the west slope of the Cordillera Central in La Libertad). It has declined considerably in Colombia and Ecuador, but seems stable in Peru. The Nevado del Ru&iacute;z-Nevado del Tolima massif, Colombia, harbours 1,000-3,000 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In forests of the Cordillera de Chilla, Ecuador, densities of c.2.3&#160;birds/km<sup>2</sup> and c.6.6&#160;birds/km<sup>2</sup> have been estimated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142611	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits temperate cloud and elfin forest at 2,400-3,400&#160;m, occasionally down to 1,400&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Some populations are nomadic, possibly owing to a heavy dependence on <em>Podocarpus</em> cones. It nests in dead wax palms <em>Ceroxylon </em>sp., even where these trees are scarce<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nesting probably corresponds to food availability, and may not be seasonal<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142611	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.3-6.6 individuals/km2 x 5,800 km2 (10% EOO) =  14,500-38,280. However, densities elsewhere in the range may not be this high, and total estimate best placed within band 2,500-10,000 individuals until further estimates are available (density range from Jacobs and Walker [1999]). <br/></p>	eng
142611	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation has been considerable throughout its range, with 90-93% of montane forest lost in Colombia, but less in Peru<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Wax palms are rarely cut, but suffer poor recruitment because cattle browse young trees and logging in adjacent areas increases their susceptibility to parasites and disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Colombia, it is trapped as a maize pest and as a pet<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Many protected areas are affected by the burning and grazing of p&aacute;ramo, settlement, clearance for agriculture, logging, narcotics and gold mining<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142612	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. The traditional roost-site in Ecuador has recently been purchased and is being reforested<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Surveys took place early 2008 in Ecuador to determine the species's status there<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is hoped that an awareness campaign for people living nearby has stopped hunting of parrots for food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Colombia, awareness raising to reduce hunting pressure and the impact of Palm Sunday processions has involved poster campaigns, environmental education, community workshops, school visits and radio<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Combined with on the ground actions such as surveys, fencing of breeding sites to allow wax palm regeneration, habitat restoration and provision of artificial nest boxes<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, the species's population size has increased significantly<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>. In 2009, ProAves, the Loro Parque Fundacion, the American Bird Conservancy and others established a corridor of over 16,000 acres (including the acquisition of over 10,000 acres) for <em>Ognorhynchus </em>and other threatened parrots across the Central Cordillera in Colombia<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Search for additional subpopulations, with a focus on determining status within the Intag valley, Ecuador<sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare habitat maps of the Volc&aacute;n Ruiz-Tolima massif<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Buy and protect further habitat<sup>6,7,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue the current highly successful programme of conservation activities in Colombia and extend these to any sub-population identified within Ecuador in the future.</strong>	eng
142612	distribution		<em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> formerly occurred in all three Andean ranges of <strong>Colombia</strong>, from Norte de Santander and Antioquia to Nari&ntilde;o and in north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>, south to Cotopaxi. It persists in the Central Andes of Colombia<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>, although its whereabouts for much of the year are unknown<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It was once common to abundant, but is now potentially extinct in Ecuador (although there have been unconfirmed reports of flocks of c.20 individuals in the Intag valley since 2000<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>) and when re-discovered in Colombia in 1999 there were only estimated to be 81 birds. Intensive conservation actions have since seen the population dramatically recover. In 2004 the population reached a peak of 660 individuals, although the population declined in 2005 and 2006 to 554 birds, thought to be caused by individuals leaving to establish satellite populations which subsequently failed to establish. However, the population has continued to increase since, and in 2009 was recorded at over 1,000 individuals, with three separate breeding populations on the slopes of the Western, Central and Eastern Cordillera. Although breeding success is good, the species's breeding requirements and highly fragmented habitat will continue to challenge its recovery<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
142612	habitat		It inhabits humid montane forest, elfin forest and partially cleared terrain at 1,200-3,400 m, favouring areas dominated by wax palms <em>Ceroxylon</em> <em>quindiuense</em>, in which it roosts, nests and feeds<strong><sup>1,2,5,7</sup></strong>. Although currently resident at one site<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, other flocks wander seasonally in search of food (bark, buds and fruiting/seeding blooms of <em>Ceroxylon</em>, <em>Citharexylon</em>, <em>Podocarpus </em>and <em>Sapium</em> spp., as well as a variety of fern species)<strong><sup>2,6,7,13</sup></strong>. Two breeding cycles in April-November were noted at one colony<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs enlist the help of 'brood-helpers' during the chick-rearing stage<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
142612	population		The current population is thought to comprise 1,103 individuals. However, a maximum of only 212 individuals have bred in recent years (ProAves Fundacion <em>in litt.</em> 2010), hence this figure is used for the current population of mature individuals.	eng
142613	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected in the USA. Breeding or foraging sites at Tanc&iacute;taro, El Carricito, Monte Oscuro, Mexiquillo, Las Bufas and Cebadillas have varying degrees of protection<strong><sup>2,4,5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. Recently a moratorium on timber extraction was signed with a local community at Bisaloachia (Cebadillas), which will protect 10% of the breeding population for the next 15 years<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. <em>Pseudotsuga menziesii</em> is protected in Mexico<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two captive-breeding facilities in USA have raised 127 chicks to fledging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but reintroduction attempts have failed owing to disease, the inability to develop flocking behaviour, and predation by raptors. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect breeding sites at Mesa Las Guacamayas and Cebadilla/Yahuirachic and Cocono/Cienaga de la Vaca from the exploitation of snags<sup>4. Adopt forestry policies that have longer rotation cycles and retain snags. Study movements using satellite-tracking.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142613	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha</em> is largely restricted to the Sierra Madre Occidental, <strong>Mexico</strong>, in north-east Sonora, west Chihuahua, south and west Durango and Michoac&aacute;n (two collected in April 1987 and 200 birds in April-May 1990<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong> are the first records since 1941). Smaller, occasional or extirpated populations have occurred in Sinaloa and Jalisco. Pre-1960 records of <em>Rhynchopsitta</em> parrots from Coahuila, M&eacute;xico and Veracruz may pertain to wanderers. It formerly occurred in <strong>USA</strong>, and reintroduced birds have bred more recently. The population was estimated at fewer than 5,000 birds in 1992<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and 1,000-4,000 in 1995<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142613	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits temperate conifer, mature pine-oak, pine and fir forests at 1,200-3,600&#160;m, but breeds only above 2,300&#160;m. It nests in tree-cavities (especially in pine snags and <em>Pseudotsuga menziesii<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>), often originally excavated by woodpeckers. Flocks roost on cliffs, but reintroduced birds have used trees. Breeding coincides with peak pine-seed production. Outside the breeding season, it is nomadic in response to variations in cone abundance. <br/></p>	eng
142613	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2004, the population was thought to number 3,000-6,000 individuals, including 2,800 mature individuals (Ortiz Maciel and Cruz-Nieto 2004). However, these figures may represent an over-estimation, as not all of the nest cavities surveyed are used every year (M. A. Cruz-Nieto<em> et al. in litt</em>. 2007), thus the number of mature individuals is assumed to fall within the range 2,000-2,800. <br/></p>	eng
142613	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been extensive modification of old-growth pine forests for timber and woodpulp. In the Sierra Madre Occidental, 80-85% of forest cover remains, but only 0.6% is old-growth<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1994, there was extensive penetration and degradation of habitat in south Chihuahua by drug-growers, loggers and huge numbers of cattle. Illegal trade in the species has fluctuated with peaks in the early 1970s and mid-1980s.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142614	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. The El Taray Sanctuary encompasses 3.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Significant numbers breed in Cumbres de Monterrey National Park, but this is not effectively protected<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect all main colonies<sup>2. Actively control fires. Determine movements using radio-tracking2. Determine precise habitat usage2. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142614	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhynchopsitta terrisi</em> is restricted to the Sierra Madre Oriental in Nuevo Le&oacute;n, Coahuila and Tamaulipas, <strong>Mexico</strong>, where there is no more than 7,000 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat. During winter 1998, some birds were recorded in the Sierra Gorda, Quer&eacute;taro<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, suggesting wanderers reach the south of the Sierra Madre Oriental. By 1998, 21 colonies had been identified<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, but it is still unclear whether it breeds c.25 km south of that range at Cerro Potos&iacute;. There are four main colonies (El Taray, El Condominio, San Antonio de la Osamenta and Santa Cruz)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Population estimates are hampered by its seasonal movements, but numbers were put at 2,500-3,000 individuals in 1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Comparisons with the 1,400 and 1,600 birds estimated in the 1970s indicates that population levels have been relatively stable<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142614	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mature pine, pine-oak and mixed conifer forest at 2,000-3,500&#160;m, and exceptionally 1,300-3,700&#160;m. It nests colonially in solution holes in limestone cliffs. Breeding follows the fruiting pattern of pines, with laying in early July and fledging in October-November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pairs produce 1-3 chicks, and the whole population produces an estimated 95-150 young per year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds almost exclusively on pine seeds, depends on daily access to free-flowing water and groups congregate at clay licks to eat earth<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Seasonal migrations or relatively predictable nomadic movements occur between the northern and southern range limits.</p>	eng
142614	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Following surveys in 2006-2007, the population is thought to number c.2,500 individuals (R. Vald&eacute;s-Pe&ntilde;a <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
142614	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Intensive grazing and agricultural conversion have destroyed and degraded forest<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Annual fires burn large areas (in 1998, 20 km<sup>2</sup> of foraging habitat were lost<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), which regenerate as dense (and unsuitable) 'chaparral' vegetation<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Droughts fuel fires and dry up natural water sources (in 1994, at least 50 birds drowned whilst attempting to drink from a cement-walled water tank<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). <br/></p>	eng
142615	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Conuropsis carolinensis</em><em> </em>was endemic to the eastern <strong>USA</strong>,<strong> </strong>with the nominate race ranging from Florida to Virginia, and <em>ludovicianus</em>, through the Mississippi-Missouri drainage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds were wide-ranging but their typical habitat was cypress and sycamore trees along rivers and swamps<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds were still common at the beginning of the 19th century but, in 1832, Audubon noted their decline, which followed increasing human settlement moving inland from the east<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The last specimens were collected by Chapman near Lake Okeechobee, Florida, in 1904<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (although rumours of its survival persisted into the 1930s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). The last captive bird died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The main causes of the species's extinction were persecution (for food, crop protection, aviculture and the millinery trade), and deforestation (especially of the bottomlands), probably compounded by its gregariousness<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and by competition with introduced bees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142616	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142616	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon occurs as four subspecies: andinus is found in north-west Argentina, conlara is found in San Luis and Córdoba provinces, western-central Argentina, patagonus is found from central to south-east Argentina, ranging occasionally into Uruguay in winter, and bloxami occurs in central Chile.	eng
142616	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits arid lowland and montane grassy shrubland, open dry woodlannd savanna, open Chaco plains along watercourses, and thorny scrub or columnar cacti, often with a sandy substrate, at elevations up to 2000 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997). The species may only breed successfully in fairly large, dense colonies (J. Burton in litt. 2002).	eng
142616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is still common in many parts of its range in Argentina with only small range contractions reported in Córdoba (R. M. Fraga in litt. 2003).	eng
142616	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 122,914 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142617	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and is protected by Brazilian law. It occurs in Chapada da Diamantina and Monte Pascoal National Parks, Barrol&acirc;ndia Experimental Station, Linhares Forest Reserve, Caratinga Reserve, Rio Doce and probably Desengano State Parks, and C&oacute;rrego Grande, C&oacute;rrego do Veado and Sooretama Biological Reserves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate and protect additional undetected populations<sup>1, especially in south Bahia and north-east Minas Gerais. Ensure the <em>de facto protection of key reserves, especially Sooretama, Linhares and Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142617	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura cruentata</em> was formerly common throughout much of south-east Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, east Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Its current distribution is highly fragmented and now mostly restricted to isolated reserves. The stronghold is the Sooretama Biological Reserve and adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve, Esp&iacute;rito Santo. It remains common in Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz (formerly the Porto Seguro Reserve), Bahia. Elsewhere it can be relatively common, but numbers in the large Chapada da Diamantina and Monte Pascoal National Parks, Bahia, appear low.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142617	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the canopy of lowland humid forest and edge, occasionally up to 960&#160;m. It has also been recorded in small clearings and selectively logged forest, and persists (or at least persisted) in agricultural areas where many forest trees are retained (such as shade cocoa plantations). It feeds on seeds and fruit of secondary growth trees such as <em>Trema micrantha</em> and <em>Cecropia</em>. Feeding on agricultural crops has not been observed in the wild. Breeding apparently occurs in the austral spring, when 2-4 eggs are laid in a tree-cavity.</p>	eng
142617	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4.8-41 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,030 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =  4,944-42,230, i.e. best placed precautionarily within band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from Marsden <em>et al.</em> [2000]). <br/></p>	eng
142617	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive and continuing forest clearance is responsible for its current fragmented distribution. Its apparent tolerance of shade cacao plantations provides little hope because shading techniques since the 1980s have involved the use of banana and <em>Erythryna</em> trees, rather than standing forest, and unstable prices have resulted in conversion to pasture. Many remaining populations are now affected by site-specific threats such as conflicts between habitat conservation and the rights of local communities in Monte Pascoal National Park. Trapping for the cage-bird trade is a relatively new phenomenon, but the species is rare in national and international markets.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142618	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Clarify extent of hybridisation with <em>P. frontalis </em>and its taxonomic position. Carry out surveys across the historic range and monitor populations to obtain accurate estimates of range and population size and rates of decline. <br/></p>	eng
142618	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Pyrrhura devillei</em> occurs in southern <strong>Brazil </strong>(Mato Grosso do Sul), northern <strong>Paraguay </strong>(north-western Concepci&oacute;n and south-eastern Alto Paraguay) and south-east <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In Brazil it is only known from Mato Grosso do Sul where it is restricted to the serras of Bodoquena and Maracaj&uacute;, in the ecotone between the planalto and the Pantanal lowlands, and along the Taboco river in the municipality of Aquidauana. It has a very restricted range in Paraguay, from where recent records are limited to the gallery forest along the r&iacute;o Apa.  <br/></p>	eng
142618	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found in deciduous and gallery woodland, ranging into adjacent scrub and savanna, and feeds on fruit, seed, nuts, nectar and flowers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142618	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Its range in Brazil has suffered extensive forest loss and degradation through agricultural expansion and charcoal production. The forests of northern Concepci&oacute;n and those in the easternmost Paraguayan Chaco are coming under increasing pressure and have seen considerable deforestation in the past 10 years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Apparent hybridisation with <em>P. frontalis </em>has been observed on the r&iacute;o Apa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Trade is apparently minimal<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142619	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142619	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 52,523 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142620	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura lepida</em> occurs in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> south of the Amazon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are three recognised subspecies: the nominate in Bel&eacute;m and near the rio Capim, Par&aacute;, east to S&atilde;o Lu&iacute;s, Maranh&atilde;o; <em>coerulescens</em> in north Maranh&atilde;o east of Ros&aacute;rio; and <em>anerythra</em> in the catchment of the upper rio Xing&uacute; and its tributaries, from the rio Pracu&iacute; and the left bank of the rio Tocantins<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is generally uncommon and declining in lowland <em>terra firme</em> humid forest, being reported from forest edge, clearings and second growth<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Despite an apparent tolerance of some habitat degradation, it is perhaps close to extinction in coastal areas of north Maranh&atilde;o, owing to large-scale deforestation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs within protected areas, but their integrity is compromised by illegal logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142620	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
142621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142624	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but this has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estimate current population levels and the area of remaining suitable habitat<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its habitat tolerance and population densities in different forest-types<sup>12,13</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its ecology, movements and conservation status<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies<sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142624	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura viridicata</em> occurs in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Flocks of 5-30 birds are regularly observed (daily or every few days<strong><sup>2,10,13</sup></strong>) on the relatively well-watched San Lorenzo ridge, apart from which it is known only from birds collected at Taquina in 1914. The area of land on the north slope of the massif within its altitudinal range is less than 600&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, within which as little as 200&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest may remain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Until recently it was judged to be fairly common<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>, but it has surely become less abundant. The total population is estimated at 5,000-10,000 birds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, which is perhaps too high if more pessimistic estimates of habitat loss are correct. <br/></p>	eng
142624	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane humid forest and borders, and has been observed flying over adjacent clearings<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. It apparently undertakes some seasonal movements within an altitudinal range of 1,800-2,800&#160;m <strong><sup>1,13</sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in June in a cavity 6&#160;m up a dead tree. Both juveniles and breeding-condition adults have been collected in September<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been observed feeding in fruiting trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142624	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Snyder <em>et al</em>. (2000) <br/></p>	eng
142624	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains, albeit largely on the north slope where this species occurs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The main threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong>, which was compounded by the government spraying herbicides on the sierra<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. It is not known whether this approach is still taken by the Colombian authorities<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Threats that followed human immigration to the area from the 1950s onwards are agricultural expansion (e.g. livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. pines)<strong><sup>3,11,12,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142627	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is not known with certainty from any protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, portions of forest at Buena Ventura have been recently purchased with the aim of ensuring their long-term conservation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and in 2002 and 2003 a futher 260 ha were acquired<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The reserve protects 60 individuals year-round and c.120 birds seasonally<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. An education programme was recently started involving excursions to the reserve and talks in local schools<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species may occur in the extensive Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest, but logging occurs within this reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution and population status<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate its potential occurrence in the Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest and the area's suitability for wildlife conservation. Effectively protect Buena Ventura. Assess threats to the species<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142627	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura orcesi</em> occurs on the west slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Ca&ntilde;ar, Azuay, El Oro, Loja), where it was discovered in 1980. It is apparently confined to an area only 100&#160;km from north to south, and 5-10&#160;km wide<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, containing highly fragmented habitat, and with a population estimated at 2,000-10,000<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Numbers at the type-locality (Buena Ventura) fluctuate, possibly indicating seasonal movements, or a decline owing to further habitat loss<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142627	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits very humid, tropical forest at 300-1,300&#160;m. It has been reported to tolerate some habitat fragmentation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It generally occurs in groups of 4-15, although a flock of 60 has been observed. It feeds on various fruit (including figs <em>Ficus</em> spp.), berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and <em>Cecropia</em> sp. flowers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A pair exhibited pre-nesting behaviour in the cavity of a small Meliaceae tree in 1997<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with nests reported in natural cavities 1.8-24 m above the ground in a variety of tree species by a recent study<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. March-May is thought to be the breeding season, and although pre-breeding activity and copulations in December 1992 and December 1997-January 1998 suggest earlier dates, these may have been a consequence of El Ni&ntilde;o events advancing the breeding season by 2-3 months<strong><sup>2,4,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142627	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Largest single population out of 5-6 known localities is at Buenaventura where 171 individuals estimated in 2005-2006. Garz&oacute;n 2007 <br/></p>	eng
142627	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador was 57% per decade in 1958-1988, although in the higher parts of its range, with steeper terrain and a harsher climate, deforestation is slower and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In particular, rapid rates of logging around Pi&ntilde;as and Manta Real occurred during the late 1980s and 1990s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Typically, these areas were then burnt for cattle-farming. The species is particularly threatened because it does not occur above c.1,300&#160;m. <br/></p>	eng
142628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142629	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Podocarpus National Park is an important site for the species's conservation. A revised management plan for the area has been devised, and a public awareness campaign highlights the importance of the park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Manage Podocarpus National Park such that threatened species are better protected. Designate a protected area within Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, and involve local people in the area's land-use management<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142629	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura albipectus</em> is confined to three areas in south-east <strong>Ecuador</strong>: Podocarpus National Park, Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute; and Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor. Though its numbers appear relatively low, with a total population possibly of only a few thousand individuals, it is apparently common in Podocarpus National Park. There are now also confirmed records from as far south as Panguri in Zamora-Chinchipe. It has also recently been observed in the adjacent parts of the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, <strong>Peru</strong> with a published sighting from Mirador C&oacute;ndor in Morona-Santiago Province<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. These range extensions suggest that it is not as severely threatened as formerly feared<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142629	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This parrot inhabits upper tropical forest at 900-2,000&#160;m. It usually occurs in flocks of 4-20 individuals, foraging in fruiting trees within primary forest or clearings. It also occurs in partially and severely degraded habitat around Podocarpus National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Diet includes fruit, seeds and flowers, mainly taken in the canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A dependent juvenile was seen in September<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142629	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction is the principal concern, as upper tropical zone forests east of the Andes are being cleared at an alarming rate. However, subtropical forests in Podocarpus National Park and Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor are largely intact<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Logging has been extensive at lower elevations within its range (to c.1,000-1,200&#160;m), and is gradually encroaching on core altitudes. In the Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute;, some forest has been cleared for agriculture and to secure indigenous people legal ownership of their land. Illegal gold mining and human settlement occur, even within Podocarpus National Park, particularly at its southern boundary<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is trapped in small numbers for the domestic cage-bird trade<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142630	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is common in Chingaza National Park and the adjacent R&iacute;o Blanco-Olivares Forest Reserve and Carpanta Biological Reserve<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. West-slope records in c.1980 were from forest now protected by Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Santander<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for the species in Sumapaz National Park. Confirm its occurrence at Macizo de Tam&aacute;, Norte de Santander, and search in the adjacent El Tam&aacute; National Park, Venezuela. Study population densities in different forest-types and estimate current population<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Strengthen the effective protection of Chingaza National Park and adjacent protected areas. Formally protect Valle de Jesus Communal Forest. <br/></p>	eng
142630	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura calliptera</em> occurs in the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it was formerly present on both slopes, but has been recorded at only one west slope location (in Santander) in modern times. On the east slope, there are recent records from Norte de Santander (although confirmation is needed), Boyac&aacute; and Cundinamarca. It could occur as far south as P&aacute;ramo de Sumapaz, Meta. Although locally numerous, populations have become fragmented and have declined rapidly, especially in Cundinamarca. The total population has been estimated at 5,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142630	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies upper subtropical and temperate forest (1,850-3,000&#160;m), elfin woodland and second growth (3,000-3,400&#160;m), and adjacent areas of p&aacute;ramo, subp&aacute;ramo and agricultural land. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The diet consists of fruit, seeds and cultivated maize. Breeding condition birds have been taken in August and October. <br/></p>	eng
142630	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Salaman in Snyder et al. (2000) <br/></p>	eng
142630	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Past and continuing forest destruction and fragmentation through logging, conversion to agriculture, human settlement and development of the road network have been extensive<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, especially below 2,500&#160;m on the west slope<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On the east slope, logging is fairly widespread, although some large areas of intact habitat persist<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Low levels of selective logging affect Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary. It is persecuted by local farmers as a crop-pest, a problem which may intensify as further forest is cleared for agriculture. Locally, it is kept as a pet, but it is unaffected by international trade.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Hilty 2003).	eng
142633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142636	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142636	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142636	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 710,686 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142641	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Known populations are within the ineffectively protected Los Nevados and Purac&eacute; National Parks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and monitor the species's population movements, densities and distribution. Clarify its natural history and threats to identify appropriate conservation actions<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Enhance the protection of Los Nevados through fire control, a major reduction in livestock-grazing and agriculture and, where necessary, compensation to farmers. <br/></p>	eng
142641	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons</em> is known from three areas of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>. Most records are from the Volc&aacute;n Ruiz-Tolima massif in Tolima, Risaralda, Quind&iacute;o and Caldas, but there are two specimens and a few observations from Volc&aacute;n Purac&eacute; in Cauca, and it is probably present at low densities along the intervening ridge. The population has recently been estimated at 2,000-4,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, significantly higher than previous estimates. In September 1993, the species was found to be common (over 100 birds seen in eight hours) at El Bosque, below Laguna de Ot&uacute;n, in its stronghold, Los Nevados National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142641	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits temperate sub-p&aacute;ramo and p&aacute;ramo at 3,200-4,000&#160;m, sometimes as low as 2,800&#160;m. It also uses modified shrublands and agricultural areas in the temperate zone, and seems tolerant of heavily modified habitats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is a gregarious species, tending to occur in noisy flocks of 10-100 individuals, and roosting communally on cliffs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages terrestrially, mostly taking grass-seeds (especially <em>Anthoxantum odoratum<strong><sup>8</sup></strong></em>), the fruits of <em>Acaenia elongata<strong><sup>8</sup></strong></em> and flowers, and has adapted to some forms of habitat modification, possibly even preferring to feed in fallow fields and areas altered by grazing<strong><sup>4,5,8</sup></strong>. The nest is reportedly located in rock-cavities in cliffs, and a breeding male has been recorded in January<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142641	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Renjifo <em>et al.</em> (2002) <br/></p>	eng
142641	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Conversion of forest for agricultural purposes has been widespread below 3,300&#160;m in the Central Andes. At higher elevations, the forest is exploited for firewood and grazing, but large areas remain. Given its adaptation to the agricultural environment, the level of threat posed by deforestation is unknown<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Conversely, widespread destruction of p&aacute;ramo vegetation, even in Los Nevados, seems to have seriously affected numbers. This is caused by frequent burning (promoting fresh shooting), intense grazing and, to a lesser extent, conversion to potato cultivation. The Colombian authorities have been unable to purchase pre-existing landholdings within national parks, often rendering the parks ineffective. It is occasionally kept as a pet. <br/></p>	eng
142642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142648	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in Peru but this is poorly enforced. Capture rates have decreased markedly since the ban, and trappers apparently only cature the species to order<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are no protected areas within its range. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the population, especially in the less accessible centre of its range, and between the known ranges of the two <em>Forpus</em></strong> species. <strong>Monitor the population, working with local people to generate the will to conserve the species <em>in situ<sup>1</sup></em></strong>. <strong>Study its biology and ecology throughout an annual cycle. Control trade and enforce laws on trapping. <br/></p>	eng
142648	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Forpus xanthops</em> occurs in the upper Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley, in south Amazonas, south-east Cajamarca and east La Libertad, north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. Most recent records originate from the Balsas area (Amazonas/Cajamarca) and the Chagual/Hacienda Soqui&aacute;n area (La Libertad)<strong><sup>1,3,8,9</sup></strong>, but intervening areas are considerably less accessible. Records formerly assigned to this taxon in the Bagua area of the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n and Utcubamba valleys, north Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, refer to <em>F.&#160;coelestis<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong></em>. It was formerly abundant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but suffered a serious decline, probably during the 1980s, when it became rare in the more accessible areas<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. In 1988, numbers were extremely low, with only 168 individuals counted during extensive surveys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to be recovering somewhat following a ban on trade, and the number of birds traded has fallen markedly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, there is little evidence of a substantial recovery<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142648	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits arid woodland, riparian thickets and desert scrub at 800-2,750&#160;m, but mostly at 1,000-1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on the seeds of balsas trees and cacti. In captivity, 3-6 eggs are laid, and up to three broods are raised per year. In the wild, the breeding season begins in March-April, and nesting takes place in natural dirt and rock walls, in colonies of up to 70 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142648	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on surveys by Begazo (1996) and subsequent small scale recovery. <br/></p>	eng
142648	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Trapping for the local cage-bird trade is probably the sole reason for its recent and drastic decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Trappers estimate that over 17,000 birds were caught in 1981-1994 (a claim verified by dealers), and 1,481 were legally exported in 1981-1984<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but no wild-caught specimens were recorded in international trade in 1991-1995<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The mortality rate between capture and sale is estimated at 40-100%<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, inevitably raising demand. By 1988, trade was reduced, with just 56 birds recorded in Lima's bird market that year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142652	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. International trade is banned in both Ecuador and Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs in several protected areas, of which Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru, are particularly important, with daily counts of over 50 individuals<strong><sup>2,8,9</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys and other research to determine population size<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Determine its habitat requirements and ecology, especially the timing of the breeding season<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce strict trade bans, coupled with conservation education programmes<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142652	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Brotogeris pyrrhoptera</em> occurs in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, from the r&iacute;o Chone valley, Manab&iacute;, south to El Oro and Loja, Ecuador, and Tumbes and Piura in Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The largest populations are in coastal Manab&iacute; and Guayas, and on the Ecuador/Peru border<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A population decrease during the 20th century became marked in the early 1980s<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>, with 59,320 birds reportedly imported by CITES countries in 1983-1988<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1995, the wild population was estimated at 15,000 birds, principally in Ecuador<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This represents a very crude decline of c.70% in 10 years, although it is still locally common in suitable habitat remnants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142652	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is most numerous in deciduous forest dominated by <em>Ceiba trichistandra</em>, but it also occurs in humid evergreen forest, arid <em>Acacia</em>-dominated scrub and semi-open agricultural areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and probably only sporadically in heavily degraded areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It usually occurs in pairs or small flocks, foraging for flowers, seeds, fruit and catkins<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with <em>Ceiba</em> fruit apparently preferred<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Small flocks have also been recorded taking bananas and maize<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Breeding has been noted in February-August, but the main breeding period probably coincides with the wet season (January-March)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, local people in Loja, Ecuador, claim it breeds in September-October<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142652	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Best <em>et al</em>. (1995). <br/></p>	eng
142652	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The cage-bird trade is the principal threat. Numbers imported by CITES countries represent an absolute minimum of those in international trade, and exclude internal trade. Natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed through agricultural conversion, logging and grazing by goats and cattle, which prevents forest regeneration and seriously threatens deciduous forests<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The extent to which the loss of habitat and potential nest-site affects it is unclear<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Persecution as a crop-pest may also be significant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142658	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nannopsittaca dachilleae</em> was recently described<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and is very local in the west Amazon basin of south-east and south <strong>Peru</strong> (Ucayali and Madre de Dios) and north-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz), and probably west Brazil<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. It is common to abundant in river-edge forest, being observed in small <em>Calocophyllum spruceanum</em> and <em>Cecropia membranacea</em> trees adjacent to rivers and in bamboo groves up to 300&#160;m <strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong>. The possible association with bamboo suggests nomadic tendencies<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Improved understanding of its overall numbers and movements suggest that it may be more numerous and less threatened than previously perceived. Although its habitat is relatively intact owing primarily to its inaccessibility, it has been subject to selective logging, and is being opened up for development, oil/gas extraction and mining, with associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142658	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
142659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142660	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142661	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, notably Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, Costa Rica, and La Amistad International Park and adjacent reserves in both countries. However, legal protection of Palo Seco Protection Forest (a large reserve in Panama adjacent to La Amistad) has not prevented clearance for agriculture<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Lowland forests used in the wet season are largely unprotected<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Evaluate the importance of lowland forests in the wet season<sup>8. Survey to determine the extent to which its range is continuous in the Cordillera de Talamanca. Effectively protect Palo Seco Protection Forest.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142661	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Touit costaricensis</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope and locally on upper Pacific slopes of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and west <strong>Panama<sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It is known from Monteverde, Volc&aacute;n Turrialba and Lim&oacute;n, Costa Rica, south to Santa Clara, above Boquete, Cocoplum and from both slopes in the Fortuna area, Panama<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong>. There are few records from east Costa Rica or Panama, but it may occur continuously along the Cordillera de Talamanca (perhaps only on the Caribbean slope)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Panama, there is an outlying sight record from El Cop&eacute;, Cocl&eacute;, in 1986<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is evidently uncommon and local, but perhaps somewhat overlooked, especially in the poorly known south of its range<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142661	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It probably breeds in the dry season in very wet montane forest at elevations up to 3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the wet season, it occurs in lowland humid forest at 500-1,000&#160;m, but sometimes to sea-level especially in south-east Costa Rica<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is occasionally found in patchy secondary areas, and feeds on fruits from trees and epiphytes, including melastomes and ericads such as <em>Cavendishia</em> and <em>Clusia</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142661	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The breeding population in the Important Bird Areas of Costa Rica is estimated at 1,000-4,000 mature individuals (J. Craido <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007; J. Sanchez <em>et al. in litt</em>. 2007), thus the total population is expected to fall within the range 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142661	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The widespread destruction of its foothill and highland forests is primarily the result of burning, logging and other conversion for intensive agricultural use<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Virtually all remaining highland forest in Costa Rica is confined to existing protected areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The importance of lowland forests in south-east Costa Rica is not known, but widespread forest clearance is likely to be affecting this species in the wet season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There are no reports of captive birds and it is apparently not traded<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142664	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in numerous protected areas, with recent records from: Desengano and Pedra Branca State Parks, Itatiaia, Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os and Tijuca National Parks (Rio de Janeiro); Ubatuba Experimental Station, Iguape Environmental Protection Area, Serra do Mar, Ilha do Cardoso and Intervales State Parks (S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat in Bahia and Esp&iacute;rito Santo to clarify distribution and status. Determine seasonal abundance at different elevations. Consolidate protected areas where it occurs.</strong></p>	eng
142664	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Touit melanonota</em> is confined to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo). It is sporadically, but widely, reported in Rio de Janeiro, while in S&atilde;o Paulo, there are records from six sites south to Ilha do Cardoso<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Recent records from three sites in Bahia<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong> are the first since the 19th century. It has generally been considered rare throughout its range, even by 19th century commentators, but with the proviso that parrotlets of this genus occur at very low densities, and their inconspicuous habits result in their often being overlooked. Records from several new sites since the mid-1980s, including the first for Esp&iacute;rito Santo<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, have stemmed from knowledge of the species's calls, after previously fruitless fieldwork in the areas involved.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142664	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Records are principally from lower montane evergreen forest at 500-1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but up to 1,400&#160;m in Itatiaia National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and near sea-level in Bahia and S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. It may undertake seasonal migration or dispersal, in some areas possibly only over quite short altitudinal distances. The only known food items are the seeds of large leguminous forest trees and the fruit of <em>Rapanea acuminata</em>, <em>Clusia</em> sp. and mistletoes<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Breeding presumably occurs in September-October, but this remains unconfirmed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142664	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =  0.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,240 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 744 i.e. best placed within band 250-999 individuals (density from estimate for <em>T. purpurata</em> by Thiollay [1986]). <br/></p>	eng
142664	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantations have historically threatened its habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although the lower montane slopes have suffered comparatively less destruction than adjacent lowlands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, it has not been found at these elevations in S&atilde;o Paulo.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142665	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas: Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve (Alagoas), Monte Pascoal National Park and Una Biological Reserve (Bahia), C&oacute;rrego Grande, Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserves (Esp&iacute;rito Santo), Desengano State Park and Itatiaia National Park (Rio de Janeiro), Borac&eacute;ia Biological Station, and Intervales, Ilha Bela, Jacupiranga and Ilha do Cardoso State Parks (S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey historical localities and suitable habitat to clarify distribution. Research ecology and seasonal movements. Designate Murici in Alagoas as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto protection. Consolidate protected areas in which it occurs.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142665	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Touit surdus</em> occurs in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Cear&aacute;, Para&iacute;ba, Pernambuco, Alagoas and Sergipe), and in the south-east from Bahia south to S&atilde;o Paulo. Recent surveys have found it to be the commonest parrot in the Atlantic Forest of Alagoas (which has been reduced to <2% of its former extent), being present in 5 out 15 sites surveyed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and also in Murici Ecological Station<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It was also recently found nesting in arboreal termitaria in forest fragments in Pernambuco<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species was found in 16 out of 31 surveyed areas in southern Bahia, including the private reserves Ecoparque de Una and Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Veracruz (formerly CVRD Porto Seguro reserve), Una Biological Reserve, and Descobrimento, Pau Brasil and Monte Pascoal National Parks<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded at Intervales State Park, an area within the largest, and best protected, remnant of Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142665	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland evergreen forest and adjacent lower montane slopes, mostly below 500&#160;m, but up to 700&#160;m in Alagoas and 1,000&#160;m in Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. Flocks have been observed moving between distant forest fragments<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Reported foods are fruit of <em>Spondias lutea</em> and <em>Rapanea schwackeana</em>. Breeding is unrecorded. At least in Rio de Janeiro, it may undertake seasonal movements. Recent observations suggest that this species is resilient to habitat alteration. <br/></p>	eng
142665	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive deforestation throughout its range is regarded as the principal cause of its rarity, and the north-east population is most threatened because sugarcane plantations have replaced virtually all lowland forest in Alagoas, leaving just 2% of original forest cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in severely fragmented blocks, averaging 1.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup> or less<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Further south, the situation is little more encouraging: in Bahia, less than 10% of forest is intact, and in the rest of its range suitable habitat has been reduced to less than 20% of its original extent<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Lowland forests were historically threatened by agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Current key threats arise from urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142666	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded in Sumaco Protection Forest, Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute; Protection Forest, Sangay National Park and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Ecuador, with an old specimen collected in Serran&iacute;a de la Macarena National Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its distribution, population status and current threats through field surveys<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Maintain and improve the integrity of national parks in which the species occurs. Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, and involve local people in the land-use management of this region<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142666	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Touit stictopterus</em> occurs disjunctly through <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cundinamarca, Meta, Cauca), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo, Morona-Santiago, Zamora-Chinchipe) and northern <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca, San Mart&iacute;n and Amazonas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). A recent record from Manu Biosphere Reserve was erroneous<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and local throughout its range, and may already be extinct (or nearly so) in Colombia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, where recent surveys in apparently suitable habitat have failed to produce any records<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 1983, 5-25 were recorded daily at Jes&uacute;s del Monte, San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it has been recorded less frequently<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or not at all, by subsequent observers at this site<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, suggesting a decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it appears to occur naturally at low density<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and may sometimes be overlooked and thus more widespread than records suggest. <br/></p>	eng
142666	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the upper tropical and lower subtropical zone, favouring tall, humid, montane forest at 1,050-1,700&#160;m, but has occasionally been reported from savanna-like woodland as low as 500&#160;m, and from stunted ridge-top forest up to 2,300&#160;m. It is often seen in small flocks of 5-12, sometimes more<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but occasionally in pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit, including <em>Ficus</em> spp., and reportedly raids maize crops<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142666	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =  0.6 individuals/km2 x 3,300 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,980, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density from estimate for <em>T. purpurata </em>by Thiollay [1986]). <br/></p>	eng
142666	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its fragmented habitats are affected by continuing deforestation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, especially in Colombia. Improvements to road networks lead to deforestation associated with human settlement of new areas. Habitat loss is also known to be occurring in the Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute; and at Jes&uacute;s del Monte.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142672	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142673	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Extensive, intact habitat is protected in Venezuela and Panama<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. Paramillo National Park, Antioquia, officially protects 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>, but human settlement and associated threats are continuing unabated<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its population size and distribution<sup>9,10,11. Assess range-wide threats10. Study its biology and movements10,11. Protect habitat in the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas and north-west Choc&oacute;9.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142673	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gypopsitta pyrilia</em> occurs in east Dari&eacute;n, <strong>Panama</strong>, north <strong>Colombia</strong> and north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. There is one record of a presumed wandering bird in Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>6,8</sup>, but this may be erroneous<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. It is now rare in accessible areas, but remains common in the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, (Boyac&aacute;), and at Cerro de la Paz (Santander)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, Colombia and is unlikely to have declined significantly in Choc&oacute;, Colombia, or Dari&eacute;n<strong><sup>1,6,13</sup></strong>. There are few recent records, but it may still be numerous at the northern base of the Andes, Cordoba, northern Antioquia and Bol&iacute;var, and in the Magdalena valley, east Caldas and south-east Antioquia, Colombia<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It seems to have declined in Venezuela, where recent records are from the M&eacute;rida area and the south-east slopes of the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida, Barinas<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. The total population may have dropped below 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>6,13</sup></strong>. Indeed, the western population (west of Sinu) is thought to be 2,000-4,000 individuals (most intact habitat), the central population (Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas) is probably much fewer than 1000 individuals, the western slope of eastern Cordillera is estimated at approximately 1000 individuals and the eastern slope of eastern Cordillera and Merida perhaps less than 1000 individuals<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142673	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid lowland forest, forest edge and tall secondary growth to c.1,000 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, moving, probably seasonally, to cloud-forest as high as 1,650 m in Venezuela<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Specimens in breeding condition have been taken during March-June in Colombia, with juveniles seen in July in the Serran&iacute;a de Perij&aacute;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Most records come from mature forest and it is not thought to move far between fragments<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142673	population	BirdLife International, 2008	P. Salaman <em>in litt.</em> (2006).  <br/></p>	eng
142673	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss has been occurring in the Magdalena valley for at least four centuries, but accelerated markedly throughout the 20th century<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and remains the chief threat in Colombia. Most forest on the eastern slopes of the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas has been lost since 1996<strong><sup>3,4,9</sup></strong>. Causes include logging, settlement, agriculture and mining<strong><sup>2,3,4,9,12</sup></strong>. In Colombia, some birds are captured for the pet trade<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. It could be affected by stream pollution caused by mining and cocaine production<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142674	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142675	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142676	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142677	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, notably Guaramacal (Trujillo)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, El Tam&aacute; (T&aacute;chira) and Sierra Nevada (M&eacute;rida) National Parks in Venezuela, Sumap&aacute;z and Chingaza National Parks and adjacent protected areas in Cundinamarca and Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda, Colombia<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The localities in Huila are protected. However, some of these protected areas are insecure, e.g. Valle de Jes&uacute;s Communal Reserve (Cundinamarca), El Tam&aacute; and Sierra Nevada<strong><sup>6,12</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Confirm the identification of the <em>Hapalopsittaca</em> species in Huila and Ecuador. Determine its status in Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary. Research its distribution, ecology and threats<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare management plans and increase protection in protected areas<sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142677	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hapalopsittaca amazonina</em> has three subspecies in the Andes of <strong>Venezuela</strong> and <strong>Colombia</strong>. Subspecies <em>theresae</em> is restricted to the Sierra de M&eacute;rida (Trujillo<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, M&eacute;rida and T&aacute;chira), Venezuela. Nominate <em>amazonina</em> occurs on both slopes of the East Andes in south-west T&aacute;chira, Venezuela, Cundinamarca, and historically Norte de Santander and Santander, Colombia. Subspecies <em>velezi</em> is known from both slopes of the Central Andes in Caldas, Risaralda<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and Tolima<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Colombia. There are recent sightings of <em>Hapalopsittaca</em> species from the head of the Madgalena valley, Huila, Colombia, and northern Ecuador<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, probably all <em>amazonina</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A recent Columbian population estimate of 2,500-10,000 individuals based on a hypothetical density c.1 individual/km<sup>2</sup> and 25% occupancy of the estimated 13,890 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> may be over-generous, but it is likely that the Columbian population numbers several thousand birds<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The Venezuelan population is probably small and declining, although it is encountered regularly along the Humboldt trail in central M&eacute;rida<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142677	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies wet, epiphyte-rich cloud-forest, adjacent subtropical forest and treeline scrub at 2,000-3,000 m, mainly above 2,500 m. It feeds mainly in the canopy on fruit, blossoms and seeds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Migration between seasonal feeding grounds possibly occurs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142677	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Renjifo <em>et al</em>. (2002) estimated that in Colombia the population may number 2,500-10,000 individuals, based on a hypothetical density c.1 individual/km<sup>2</sup>, and 25% occupancy of the estimated 13,890 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat. This may be an over-estimate and the population could stand at "around the few thousand mark" in Columbia (P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2005). Populations also exist in Venezuela and possibly in Ecuador. <br/></p>	eng
142677	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historical localities in the northern East Andes are now wholly deforested<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. Vast areas have been logged, cleared and used for agriculture, illegal drug plantations, infrastructure development and mining<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Frequent burning, intense grazing and, locally, potato cultivation continue to lower the timberline in many areas. If dependent on fluctuating food-resources, it may be particularly sensitive to habitat alteration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142678	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Acaime and Ca&ntilde;on del Quind&iacute;o Natural Reserves. 631 ha of core habitat was recently acquired by Fundaci&oacute;n ProAves with the support of Fundaci&oacute;n Loro Parque, American Bird Conservancy and IUCN Netherlands and will be managed as Loro Coroniazul Bird Reserve: surrounding municipality land is also being managed for the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nest boxes have been very successful at allowing all three eggs to fledge but are increasingly being used by Golden-plumed Parakeet <em>Leptosittaca branickii</em>: additional boxes are being constructed to reduce competition<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A Species Conservation Plan was established in early 2008, and since 2005 the ProAves 'Parrot Bus' has been raising awareness through environmental education programmes in rural communities of the central Andes. There are no known individuals in captivity.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Investigate the possibility that it occurs near Santa Isabel in Los Nevados National Park and the adjacent Navarco Nature Reserve. Research its ecological requirements to enable effective management of remaining habitat. Ensure the effective management of Alto Quind&iacute;o Acaime Natural Reserve<sup>3</sup></strong> and El Mirador Municipality Nature Reserve. <strong>Acquire private properties with core breeding population and protect the species from expanding pasturelands. Work with local community in raising awareness and avoid possible trade of the species. Increase provision of nest boxes. Continue monitoring the population. Acquire and reforest pastureland with native trees.</strong>	eng
142678	distribution		This species has a highly restricted range on the west slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia </strong> near the border of Quind&iacute;o, Risaralda and Tolima. Until 2002 it was known with certainty only from the type-series collected at Laguneta and Santa Isabel in 1911. The species was rediscovered by Fundacion ProAves in montane forest in G&eacute;nova municipality, Quind&iacute;o Department, where the largest group observed consisted of 25 birds and the total population was approximately 60 individuals. Recent searches in apparently suitable habitat surrounding Acaime have not been successful<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In July 2002, the first confirmed sighting was made in the central Andes, close to Los Nevados National Park, when 14 birds were located in a small area of forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The population has increased to 160 individuals thanks to conservation efforts which have resulted in 87% hatching success and 95% fledging success amongst breeding birds in the Central Cordillera<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
142678	habitat		This is a poorly-known inhabitant of cloud-forest at elevations of 2,610-3,600 m, but mostly 3,300-3,500 m. . The species is restricted to mature montane cloud forest with a high occurrence of mistletoe (berries are a key food source of the species). Studies since 2003 have gathered extensive information on the species breeding and feeding ecology, with the nesting period from January to May. The average clutch size is three eggs. Incubation is conducted solely by the female, though post-hatching care is biparental<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
142678	population		The known global population has increased to 160 individuals thanks to ongoing conservation efforts (Anon 2006), hence is placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
142679	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs at low density in Podocarpus National Park, whereas a small population is protected within the community-owned forest at Huashapamba, near Saraguro, Loja<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Direct efforts to conserve remaining cloud-forest around Saraguro. Protect forest betwen Selva Alegre and Manu in the Chilla Mountains. Prevent mining in Podocarpus National Park. Survey in Peru to assess whether viable populations survive<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor the population. Assess the extent to which the species can survive in secondary habitats. <br/></p>	eng
142679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hapalopsittaca pyrrhops</em> is confined to the east Andes in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja) and contiguous ranges of north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura and north Cajamarca<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>). In Ecuador, its range has been estimated at 2,839&#160;km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but this excludes areas of known and projected occurrence in Morona-Santiago and Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute; Oeste. A revised estimate of suitable habitat suggests that its total range is likely to be c.4,050&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. It is generally local and uncommon, and has declined seriously in recent years. A significant population inhabits the Cordillera de Chilla, Loja, where it was present at two of three forest patches surveyed in 1995, at densities of 88 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and 25 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, with an estimated population of c.350 at the former<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142679	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits very wet, upper montane cloud-forest and low, open forest and shrubby growth adjacent to the p&aacute;ramo, at 2,500-3,500&#160;m. It has been reported from fragmented and degraded forest near pasture, and there is some evidence to suggest tolerance of (if not preference for) secondary habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is usually solitary, or in pairs and small groups of up to five, sometimes up to 20<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. It nests in tree-cavities in October-January, with eggs in late November, chicks in early December, and fledglings in late January<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its diet includes shoots, flowers, berries and seeds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142679	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =  25-88 individuals/km2 (Jacobs and Walker (1999) x 405 km2 (10% EOO as distributed very locally within EOO) = 10,125-35,640 i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily within band 2,500-10,000 as density may be lower elsewhere. <br/></p>	eng
142679	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is attributed to habitat destruction and fragmentation, largely through slash-and-burn conversion to agricultural small holdings<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Serious losses can be expected owing to logging and forest degradation, by burning and grazing, in Ecuador's Cordillera de Chilla, Loja, though in 1995, large areas of forest were still extant<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142683	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142683	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 93,234 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142684	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142688	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona leucocephala</em> inhabits dense woodland in <strong>Cuba</strong> (including the Isle of Pines), native broadleaf and pine woodlands in the <strong>Bahamas</strong> (where it was formerly widespread but now restricted to Abaco and Great Inagua), and dry forest on the ridge-top plateau and nearby agricultural land in the <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong> (Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and formerly Little Cayman)<strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded in palm groves, mangroves, plantations and gardens<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Cuba, it was widespread but has declined and is now common in only a few local strongholds<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>. However, surveys on just Isla de la Juventud in 1995 estimated 1,100-1,320 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> indicating that the 5,000 individuals thought to remain on Cuba in 1988<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> was probably an underestimate. This suggests that the total population is more than 10,000 individuals, and all other populations are stable or increasing. There were 1,900 on Grand Cayman in 1995, an increase (from 1,500 in 1992) possibly associated with legal protection from hunting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers on Cayman Brac, Great Inagua and Abaco are apparently stable at c.300-430 birds<strong><sup>2,6,9</sup></strong>, c.400-500, and 1,100-1,200<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> respectively. Declines on Cuba result from agricultural conversion, hurricane damage to nesting trees, trapping of live birds for local and international trade and pushing over nest trees to obtain chicks for trade<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>.<br/><p></p>	eng
142689	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. It has been listed as threatened in Jamaica since 1986<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Since 1995, there has been work to delineate its range, estimate population sizes, identify factors limiting reproductive performance and train local people in research methods and techniques for long-term monitoring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but enforcement and management are weak<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Funding is actively being sought for the conservation of Cockpit Country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to delineate range and assess numbers</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Designate a national park in the forests of Cockpit Country</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Design and implement education programmes in and adjacent to the species's occupied range</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Enforce legal protection.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142689	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona collaria</em> is mainly found in wet areas of <strong>Jamaica</strong><sup>1</sup>. The largest populations occur from Cockpit Country to Mount Diablo and in the John Crow Mountains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it is local in the Blue Mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains fairly common in suitable habitat, but both range and population decreased in the latter part of the 20th century<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Preliminary data suggest that the population in Cockpit Country is not fewer than 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142689	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mid-level, wet limestone forest at elevations up to 1,200 m, flying considerable distances to feeding areas that include sea-level plantations<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place from March to August, in tree-cavities and, occasionally, rock-crevices<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142689	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142689	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent declines are probably attributable to shifting cultivation, forest clearance, bauxite mining, and trapping for the cage-bird trade and local consumption<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The cutting of trees to trap nestlings may significantly reduce available nest-sites<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142690	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. An education strategy with community participation has been launched to protect the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 1997-1998, 49 captive-reared birds were released and radio-tracked in Parque del Este, Dominican Republic<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the current size of the population. Establish a comprehensive monitoring programme. Determine the extent of remaining habitat. Determine the impact of the various threats. Enforce the laws and regulations protecting this species and its habitat<sup>6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142690	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona ventralis</em> is endemic to Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>) and associated islands of Grande Cayemite, Gon&acirc;ve, Beata and Saona<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Introduced populations are established in Puerto Rico (to USA), and St Croix and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands (to USA)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was common on Hispaniola, but declined seriously during the 20th century. By the 1930s, it was mainly restricted to the interior mountains, where it remains locally common in suitable habitat, particularly within several major forest reserves<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, it is now uncommon, rare or absent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The introduced population in Puerto Rico numbers several hundred and is apparently increasing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142690	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits a variety of wooded habitats, from arid palm-savanna to pine and montane humid forest, up to and slightly above 1,500&#160;m<strong><sup> 4</sup></strong>. It frequently forages in cultivated lands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, such as banana plantations and maize fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding is known from February to May, but prospecting pairs have been seen in mid-April, suggesting that the season may extend further into the year<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. Nests are situated in tree-cavities, and sometimes dead tree-stumps<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142690	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142690	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agricultural conversion and charcoal production have destroyed most suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has also been persecuted as a crop-pest, hunted for food and trapped for the local and international cage-bird trade<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142693	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Since 1995, there has been work to delineate its range, estimate population size, identify factors limiting reproductive performance and train local people in research methods and techniques for long-term monitoring<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but enforcement and management are weak<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing, high profile public awareness campaign to prevent bauxite mining in Cockpit Country by having the area declared "closed to mining" by Minister's Discretion<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Proponents remain optimistic that, whilst a large area of habitat will be lost, one big area of habitat will be declared closed for mining<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Discussions have been initiated which may lead to the banning of the importation of psittacines to Jamaica to lower the risk of escapes and hybridisation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey to delineate range and assess numbers</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Establish a long-term monitoring programme. Designate Cockpit Country "closed to mining". Ensure <em>de facto</em> protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Design and implement education programmes in and adjacent to the species's occupied range</strong><sup>1</sup>.	eng
142693	distribution		This species is fairly common in the centre of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, from Cockpit Country to Mount Diablo<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the John Crow Mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population in Cockpit Country was previously thought to number fewer than 10,000 individuals, however, recent surveys estimate that 7,500 - 9,500 territorial pairs are present and the species is fairly common there but is much less common on Mount Diablo<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>.	eng
142693	habitat		This parrot occurs primarily in wet limestone forests and forest edge, mostly at elevations of 100-1,400 m <strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. It also uses cultivated land and plantations adjacent to forest for foraging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Pairs and flocks feed high in the canopy on fruits, blossoms, nuts and seeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place from March to August<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The use of abandoned Jamaican Woodpecker <em>Melanerpes radiolatus</em> cavities has been reported<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but the majority of pairs use tree-hollows that form from processes related to weathering or pathogen and insect attacks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
142693	population		Preliminary population estimates best place the global population in the band 10,000-19,999 individuals (S. Koenig <em>in litt.</em> 2008), but further studies are required to obtain an accurate figure.	eng
142694	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Major intervention to preserve this species began in 1968, involving provision of highly successful artificial nest-sites, control of nest predators and competitors, and captive breeding and reintroduction. The success of newly fledged parrots is monitored using radio-telemetry<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. All remaining habitat is protected in the Caribbean National Forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The population is monitored to help inform management decisions. Trapping of exotic mammalian predators has been shown to be a highly cost-effective way of conserving Puerto Rican Parrots<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Around 200 birds are currently held in captivity at Rio Abajo and Luquillo and these are being managed to preserve as much genetic diversity as possible. A release technique known as 'precision release' was trialled with the release of six birds in 2008. This involves releasing a small number of captive-reared subadult parrots at each active nest site immediately following the fledging of the chicks, and aims to promote immediate and close interaction between the wild parrots and released birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nearly 100 birds have been released from the Rio Abajo aviary in an attempt to establish a second population, which may be aided by lower annual rainfall at the site and a change in management techniques. Although post-release mortality remains high, successful breeding has been recorded and the range of the flock is increasing<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor population trends. Track the fate of released birds. Maintain the integrated conservation management programme. Improve synchronisation of breeding of wild and captive birds to increase the number of captive-bred chicks that can be fostered by wild parents<sup>10</sup>. Integrate exotic predator trapping into the existing conservation management programme.</strong>	eng
142694	distribution		<em>Amazona vittata</em> is endemic to <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, and once occurred throughout the forested parts of the island. An endemic subspecies on Culebra became extinct in 1912. There has been a drastic decline, which reduced the population to c.2,000 by the 1930s and an all-time low of 13 birds in 1975. It has been confined to the Luquillo Mountains since the 1960s, and the present occupied range of 16 km<sup>2</sup> represents only 0.2% of its former distribution<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Conservation action has prevented the species's extinction, although recovery has been slow and the population remains tiny. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo cut the wild population from 47 to about 23. By the beginning of 1992, there were a minimum of 22-23 parrots in the wild and 58 in captivity, with a record fledging success in July 1992 taking the wild total to 39 or 40. In 2000, the parrot numbered 40 wild birds, plus nine recently re-introduced birds and 100 in captivity (in two aviaries)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  In 2001, thieves broke into an aviary and stole a number of captive adults. In 2004, the wild population was 30-35 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and the long-term trend appears to be stable albeit with some fluctuations. In 2006, 20 birds were released in the Rio Abajo State Forest marking the beginning of a second population in the wild<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>: a further release of 26 birds were released here in December 2007 and 19 more were due for release in December 2008<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with the first two active nests recorded in the wild at Rio Abajo in 2008<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Current population numbers c. 50 in two areas, and about 200 captive individuals<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
142694	habitat		Historically, it occurred in montane and lowland forest, and mangroves. It is now restricted to forest at elevations of 200-600 m. The breeding season is late February-July, when it nests in large, deep tree-cavities and lays 3-4 eggs<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Since 2001, all known nesting in the wild has occurred in artificial cavities<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
142694	population		Current population numbers c. 50 in two areas, and about 200 captive individuals (Breining 2009). The global population is placed in the band <50 as some individuals in the current wild population estimate are not mature.	eng
142695	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona tucumana</em> is found in north-west <strong>Argentina </strong>and southern <strong>Bolivia </strong>(where it is known from a few scattered localities in Tarija and Chuquisaca departments<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and from recent records in Santa Cruz department<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). A recent study of the status and distribution of the species in Argentina recorded 5,500 individuals, and estimated the Argentinean population to be approximately 10,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but around 20,000 individuals were exported from Argentina in the mid to late 1980s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> suggesting a substantial population decline may have occurred. After it was placed on Appendix I of CITES in response to this, international trade was effectively cut off, although local exploitation continues<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it does not seem as if populations recovered, and habitat loss is of concern, particularly in Argentina where it is highly degraded and there are only a few, small and isolated remnants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Threats to habitat are less severe in Bolivia, but the species has declined there and is projected to continue to do so<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A dedicated national population census and monitoring initiative is required to provide an estimate of the Bolivian population and to locate, measure and monitor local populations and post-breeding roosts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species inhabits open mountain woodland in Andean yungas forest dominated by pure stands of <em>Alnus acuminata </em>or <em>Podocarpus parlatorei</em>, from 1,600-2,600 m. In winter it is present in several protected areas, including El Rey National Park. <br/></p>	eng
142696	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. There are breeding populations in five reserves and two austral winter feeding sites are protected<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Artificial nests have been provided but not occupied<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A public awareness campaign has been in progress since 1991<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect breeding areas in Ca&ccedil;apava do Sul and Santana da Boa Vista. Improve protected-area management. Enforce the law against collectors and, especially, dealers by searching vehicles in December-February<sup>4. Continue the awareness campaign.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142696	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona pretrei</em> breeds in Rio Grande do Sul, south <strong>Brazil</strong>, with main populations in the Campo de Cima da Serra, Planalto M&eacute;dio, Depress&atilde;o Central, Serra do Sudeste and Alto Uruguai<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Southern (and perhaps northern) breeders move north in the austral winter. Most of the wintering population formerly roosted at Aracuri but, since 1991, there has been a shift to south-east Santa Catarina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1994, there were 15 roost sites in use seasonally, but large roosts at Aracuri and Rinc&atilde;o dos Pereira had disappeared. There has been a startling population decline since the 1950s. In 1971, the Aracuri roost was c.30,000 individuals, but more recent estimates of the total population are 7,500-8,500 individuals in the early 1990s, c.10,000 in 1994, c.12,600 in 1996 and c.16,300 in 1997<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, there is an erroneous 19th century specimen from S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Wandering birds occur in <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Paraguay</strong>,<strong> </strong>but there are only three recent records<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142696	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in open savanna woodland and riverine forest below 1,000&#160;m, with tree-hollow nests recorded in over 30 tree species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in late September-January, with young generally fledging by late December. There is a stronger non-breeding season association with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em>, but there are roosts in <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. The diet includes seeds of <em>A. angustifolia</em> (especially important May-August) and <em>Podocarpus lamberti</em> (important January-February in some areas), but also fruit, seeds or flowers of 25 tree species. <br/></p>	eng
142696	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Snyder <em>et al. </em>(2000). <br/></p>	eng
142696	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1914, 25% of Rio Grande do Sul was forested but, by 1988, this was less than 3% as a result of cutting for timber, building materials and fuelwood, over-exploitation of other forest products (notably <em>Araucaria</em> seeds, which possibly explains shifts to Santa Catarina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), intense grazing and livestock trampling. There is an organised internal trade, with parrots usually taken by cutting at the nesting-tree, resulting in permanent abandonment.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142697	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I (1992). It occurs in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserves<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>, but there are only small colonies in Sierra Gorda and its status in El Cielo is unknown<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Ranchers are increasingly aware of the benefits of maintaining large trees, but this is not reflected in practice. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations to determine the extent of declines. Identify the highest nesting aggregations for protection</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Integrate ranchers in efforts to curtail trapping and regenerate habitat</strong><sup>3</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
142697	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona viridigenalis</em> is locally and seasonally fairly common to common on the Atlantic slope of north-east <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>5</sup>, mostly in Tamaulipas and San Luis Potos&iacute;, with small colonies in extreme north-east Quer&eacute;taro<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It formerly occurred in Nuevo Le&oacute;n and Veracruz, but there have been no records of wild birds since 1945 and 1960 respectively. In 1992-1994, densities in one area were estimated at 5.7 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, indicating a wild population of 3,000-6,500 birds<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. This compares with 25.2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> reported in the 1970s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population recently established in urban areas of the Lower Rio Grande Valley (Texas), <strong>USA</strong> is considered by some to consist of wild birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Introduced or feral populations are also established (and mostly increasing) in Florida and California (USA), Puerto Rico (to USA), O'ahu (Hawaii) and several parts of Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142697	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lush areas in arid lowlands and foothills, especially gallery forest, deciduous woodland and dry, open pine-oak woodland on ridges up to 1,000 m. Smaller numbers occur in agricultural landscapes with a few large trees. Nests are usually in tree-cavities, with breeding from March-May. Clutches of 2-5 eggs are incubated for 25-31 days<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is nomadic in winter, with large flocks moving south (and apparently north) and to higher elevations. It feeds largely on the fruits of dominant tree species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142697	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1992-1994, estimated densities in one area in Mexico indicated a wild population of 3,000-6,500 birds (E. C. Enkerlin-Hoeflich<em> in litt</em>. 1994; Enkerlin-Hoeflich 1995)  <br/></p>	eng
142697	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1970-1982, 16,490 birds (mostly nestlings) were legally imported into the USA. Illegal exports from Mexico and a pre-export mortality of >50% equates to 5,000 birds per year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Trappers damage nests when extracting chicks (sometimes felling entire trees), reducing nest-site availability and leading to permanent site abandonment<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Many gallery forests have been cleared or degraded, with over 80% of Tamaulipas lowlands cleared for agriculture (especially sorghum) and pasture. Habitat is now patchily distributed on cattle-ranches, where trapping pressure is greatest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142698	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1999, the Mexican government established a Plan for the Conservation, Protection and Recuperation of Psittacines in Mexico, within which <em>A. finschi</em> is considered a priority species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  In 2004, the species was upgraded to CITES Appendix  1, and it has been proposed that the species should be upgraded from 'Threatened' to 'Endangered' under Mexican wildlife law. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Implement the strategies regarding trade regulation, outreach and environmental education, habitat conservation and the recovery of wild populations outlined in the 1999 Plan.  Monitor the success of these strategies.   <br/></p>	eng
142698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona finschi</em> is endemic to the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>1,2,3</sup>. Historically, its range extended from southern Sonora and southwest Chihuahua to Oaxaca<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.  The species has been practically extirpated from Oaxaca, as well as parts of Nayarit, Jalisco, Durango, Colima and Michoac&aacute;n, and has undergone significant population declines in many areas of its original range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is most abundant in the states of Jalisco, Michoac&aacute;n and Sinaloa<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  A recent survey, carried out in appropriate habitat in 53 out of 77 50x50 km squares covering the species' entire global range, estimated its population size to be 7,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  The species has disappeared from 37% of the localities where it was historically recorded<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
142698	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is reported to occur in deciduous and semi-deciduous forests along the coast, as well as pine-oak forests up to 2,000 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  However, semi-deciduous forest along more humid valleys at 600-1000 m is optimal breeding habitat<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, and provides key food resources during the dry season<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species makes seasonal altitudinal and latitudinal migrations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and is encountered more frequently in protected than in degraded woodland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
142698	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Renton and Elias (2003) estimate the global population at 7,000-10,000 individuals, based on surveys covering the majority of the species's global range. <br/></p>	eng
142698	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Capture for domestic and international trade is the major threat to wild populations. Illegal trade is intensive and widespread, and <em>Amazona finschi</em> is one of the most frequently confiscated Mexican parrots<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Adults are easily netted in large numbers because of their habit of congregating at communal roosts, and chicks are poached from nests. During interviews with local people throughout the species' range, 75% reported poaching in their area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Habitat loss and degradation is also a serious threat, with semi-deciduous forest along the Pacific coast being lost at a greater rate than any other forest type in Mexico<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>.  The key habitat of semi-deciduous forest now covers only 5,106 km<sup>2</sup> within the species' range<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142699	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142699	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142699	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142699	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 55,329 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142700	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona dufresniana</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Bol&iacute;var with an isolated record in Amazonas), north <strong>Guyana</strong> (north of 5&#176;N), north-east <strong>Suriname</strong> and north-east <strong>French Guiana<sup>4</sup></strong>. There are reports from Par&aacute; and Amap&aacute;, Brazil, where its occurrence seems probable, but no conclusive records<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. The scarcity of records from frequently surveyed areas suggests that this is a low density and rather uncommon species, at least in some parts of its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It inhabits humid and cloud forest in the lower subtropical zone but is known from savanna woodlands in Venezuela<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Most birds in the Guianas have been reported from gallery forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but this may be an artefact of river transport use by observers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are some seasonal movements, apparently in response to food availability, from interior to coastal Suriname in July-August<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It occurs up to 1,700&#160;m in Venezuela and 560&#160;m in Guyana<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has probably declined since the 19th century as a result of trapping for trade and habitat loss, particularly in the Gran Sabana region of Bol&iacute;var and parts of coastal Guianas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was internationally traded in small numbers during the 1980s, especially from Guyana, and some internal trade continues, perhaps most frequently for food and pets in the far east of its range<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142701	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in 14 reserves<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>, but most of these provide minimal habitat protection and none are effective against poaching. The captive population is managed under a European species survival scheme<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate additional populations<sup>5. Protect forests where the species occurs outside reserves in Rio de Janeiro5. Effectively protect habitat and birds within reserves5. Enforce anti-trafficking laws, especially on the roads connecting Monte Pascoal National Park with the rest of south Brazil5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142701	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona rhodocorytha</em> is now rare and local in the isolated Atlantic forest fragments of east <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are recent records from three sites in south-east Bahia, and five in each of Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. It was first discovered in north S&atilde;o Paulo in the early 1990s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A disjunct population at S&atilde;o Miguel dos Campos, Alagoas, has not been recorded since the mid-1980s. It was formerly abundant but, despite the recent accumulation of more records and localities, has clearly declined significantly. It is still fairly common at a few sites, most notably on Ilha Grande<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, at Sooretama and adjacent Linhares, but the total population was estimated at only 845 birds in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142701	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs primarily in lowland humid forests, but presumed seasonally displaced individuals have been found up to 1,000&#160;m. It feeds on fruit, seeds, berries and buds procured in treetops. Eggs possibly hatch in October and pairs with fledglings have been observed in January.</p>	eng
142701	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Less than 10% of original forest cover remains in Bahia and Esp&iacute;rito Santo, and only 2% in Alagoas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, primarily because of conversion to plantations and pastureland. In Rio de Janeiro, many important habitat fragments are being cleared, notably around Desengano State Park. The collapse of the cocoa economy in south Bahia has resulted in increased logging by landowners and the colonisation of reserves by former plantation workers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. If the seasonal displacement of birds is confirmed, this would multiply the problems of habitat loss. In the 1998-1999 breeding season, 174 nestlings were poached, mostly from reserves, for the national and international cage-bird trade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Souvenirs containing feathers have been seen for sale outside Monte Pascoal National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142702	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs within 15 protected areas, but these are not locally enforced<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. The creation of new reserves is hampered by economic interests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Several programmes are raising local awareness<strong><sup>2,5,8</sup></strong>. Conservation projects and the protected areas created in the species range seem to be paying off, although some trapping still occurs. Conservation projects and the protected areas created in the species range seem to be paying off, although some trapping still occurs. There are studbooks and successful captive-breeding programmes in the European Union and Brazil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Enforce laws on trafficking, especially on access routes to breeding islands<sup>1,2. Effectively protect existing reserves1,2. Formally designate Ilha Comprida State Park and Itapanhapina Ecological Station7. Expand Superag&uuml;i National Park to include Ilha do Pinheiro7. Reforest breeding islands2. Continue and expand awareness efforts2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142702	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona brasiliensis</em> occurs in a narrow littoral strip, between the Serra do Mar and coast, from Itanha&eacute;m in S&atilde;o Paulo through Paran&aacute; to extreme north-east Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil<sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding areas are mostly located on small estuarine islands with few on the mainland. Populations were thought to have declined from c.3,500-4,500 birds in the 1980s to fewer than 2,000 individuals by 1991-1992<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent estimates suggest there are 4,000-5,500 individuals, with c.1,550 in S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and c.3,600 in Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although a more recent census of Paran&aacute; found 3,379 birds, suggesting that the population there is either stable or has suffered a small decline<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142702	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Almost the entire population migrates daily between mangrove and littoral forest roosting and breeding areas, and Atlantic forest feeding areas. It feeds primarily below 200&#160;m, but has been recorded up to 700&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At the extremes, breeding occurs from late August to early March, with up to four eggs laid in natural tree-cavities, mostly in Geriv&aacute; palms <em>Syagrus romanzoffianum</em> and Guanandi <em>Callophyllum brasiliense</em><strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Although essentially frugivorous, it also feeds on leaves, flowers and insects within fruit<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142702	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lalime (1997), Lalime (1999) <br/></p>	eng
142702	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is extensive poaching for national and (especially) international trade with 356 birds, mostly nestlings, captured during 1991-1992 breeding season in the municipality of Canan&eacute;ia (a quarter of the species's range)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Of 47 nests monitored between 1990 and 1994, six were naturally predated and the other 41 robbed by humans<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nest-cavities are virtually always damaged when removing nestlings, reducing the number available<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is continuing habitat loss for boat building, banana plantations, cattle- and buffalo-grazing and beach houses<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Palmito palms are cut for processing in Guaraque&ccedil;aba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The proposed construction of a bridge to Ilha Comprida will increase pressure from tourism and habitat conversion<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142704	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs notably in Emas, Bras&iacute;lia, Araguaia, Grande Sert&otilde;es Veredas, Chapada dos Veadeiros and Chapada dos Guimar&atilde;es National Parks and Mangabeiras Environmental Protection Area<strong><sup>4,8,9,13</sup></strong>, but no protected area holds permanent populations. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its current distribution<sup>13, especially in poorly-known reserves such as Uru&ccedil;u&iacute;-Una Ecological Station, Piau&iacute;, and Mirador State Park, Maranh&atilde;o9. Collate data on specimen and recent records to provide an improved assessment of distribution and status. Assess the impact of habitat loss13. Create a network of large reserves in Bahia, Maranh&atilde;o and Piau&iacute;9. Effectively protect Mangabeiras.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142704	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona xanthops</em> is restricted to interior <strong>Brazil</strong> (Maranh&atilde;o, Piau&iacute;, Tocantins, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and formerly S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and north-central <strong>Bolivia</strong> (two records from Beni: San Joaqu&iacute;n, east of r&iacute;o Mamor&eacute;, in 1964 and a captive bird caught north of Santa Ana in the 1990s)<strong><sup>1,11,16</sup></strong>. It has been listed for Paraguay<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but there is no confirmed evidence of its presence<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is occasionally locally common<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but mainly occurs at low densities and is now absent in many parts of its former range. This semi-nomadic Cerrado specialist occurs in wooded grassland (cerrad&atilde;o), spiny arid scrub (caatinga), gallery forest and <em>Mauritia</em> palm-stands<strong><sup>12,15</sup></strong>. Its diet consists of fruit and seeds of trees such as <em>Anacardium</em>, <em>Salacia crassifolia</em> and <em>Astronium fraxinifolium<strong><sup>7</sup></strong></em>. Birds have been reported taking unripe guava <em>Psidium</em> fruit in plantations, and will spend weeks visiting mango trees<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, its semi-nomadism suggests that it depends on unpredictable food resources. By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been either heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. High-quality cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>. Caatinga habitats are less threatened, but still suffer conversion to agriculture, grazing and burning. Nine wild-caught birds were recorded in international trade in 1991-1995<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. It occurs notably in Emas, Bras&iacute;lia, Araguaia, Grande Sert&otilde;es Veredas, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Nascentes do Rio Parna&iacute;ba and Chapada dos Guimar&atilde;es National Parks, and Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station, Jalap&atilde;o State Park and Mangabeiras Environmental Protection Area<strong><sup>4,8,9,13,17,18,19</sup></strong>, but no protected area holds permanent populations. Although only one-third of the cerrado is now considered to have been little impacted by human activities<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, the fact that this species can use fragmented habitats and remains in many protected areas suggests that its decline may not been as severe as previously estimated and it has consequently been down-listed to Near Threatened. <br/> <br/> <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142704	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This semi-nomadic Cerrado specialist occurs in wooded grassland (cerrad&atilde;o), spiny arid scrub (caatinga), gallery forest and <em>Mauritia</em> palm-stands<strong><sup>12,15</sup></strong>. Its diet consists of fruit and seeds of trees such as <em>Anacardium</em>, <em>Salacia crassifolia</em> and <em>Astronium fraxinifolium<strong><sup>7</sup></strong></em>. Birds have been reported taking unripe guava <em>Psidium</em> fruit in plantations and will spend weeks visiting mango trees<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the semi-nomadism of the species suggests that it depends on unpredictable food resources.  <br/></p>	eng
142704	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been either heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. High-quality cerrado grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>. Caatinga habitats are less threatened, but still suffer conversion to agriculture, grazing and burning. Nine wild-caught birds were recorded in international trade in 1991-1995<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142705	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II, but legal protection in Venezuela is not enforced<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It occurs in Morrocoy, Cerro El Copey, Laguna de la Restinga and Washington-Slagbaai National Parks. There is a conservation and awareness-raising campaign on Margarita and La Blanquilla<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The reintroduction programme on Margarita was preceded by five years of environmental education, public awareness and ecological studies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On Bonaire, an awareness campaign was organised in 1998-1999 and supplemental feeding has been carried out during extreme droughts<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine distribution and status throughout range.Monitor key populations. Regulate captive populations and reduce poaching incentives<sup>6. Deploy anti-poaching measures in known breeding areas6. Restore habitat on Bonaire6. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142705	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona barbadensis</em> has a disjunct range in northern coastal <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Falc&oacute;n, Lara, Anzo&aacute;tegui and Sucre) and the islands of Margarita, La Blanquilla and <strong>Bonaire</strong> (this last in the <strong>Netherlands Antilles</strong>). It is now extinct on Aruba (to Netherlands). Although never proven to naturally occur on Cura&ccedil;ao, a feral population apparently now breeds in suburban areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The mainland population seems low, while numbers on the islands (1,900 on Margarita and 80-100 on Blanquilla in 1996<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, 360 on Bonaire in 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) appear to fluctuate, but have increased on Margarita from 750 birds in 1989<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1992, 12 captive-reared birds were reintroduced to Margarita, with some success<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142705	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits xerophytic vegetation, frequenting desert shrublands dominated by cacti and low thorn-bushes or trees. Nesting takes place in cavities in trees, cacti or cliffs, generally from March to May but varies depending on weather conditions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It tends to roost communally in tall trees or rock-crevices, with groups of up to 700 birds recorded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142705	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is widely exploited for trade, which (at least in Venezuela) serves a strong internal pet market. Tourist and associated developments are destroying habitat, especially on Margarita, where the principal breeding, roosting and feeding-sites are threatened by unregulated mining for construction materials<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In some areas, it is hunted for allegedly damaging crops<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. On Bonaire, natural vegetation has been heavily degraded for charcoal production, and through intensive grazing by goats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142706	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142706	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 413,505 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142707	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Sanoval Ranch (Mexico), and seven protected areas in Belize<strong><sup>2,6,9</sup></strong>. There are several country-wide awareness campaigns in Mexico<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is bred in captivity, but the reintroduction of captive-bred birds is unfeasible<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Enforce trade restrictions. Effectively protect key sites such as Las Colorados Ranch, Soto La Marina/La Pesca, (Tamaulipas), and r&iacute;o Naranjo, centred on Las Abritas (San Luis Potos&iacute;). Survey to identify additional important sites. Research habitat use and local movements. Continue and expand awareness campaigns.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142707	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona oratrix</em> has undergone a dramatic population decline, judged at 90% since the mid-1970s, to 7,000 birds in 1994. There are three subpopulations in <strong>Mexico</strong>: the race <em>magna</em> in Tamaulipas, San Luis Potos&iacute;, Veracruz, Chiapas, Tabasco and Campeche; the nominate race from Jalisco to Oaxaca<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; and the race <em>tresmariae</em> on the Islas Mar&iacute;as. The race <em>belizensis</em> was widespread in coastal <strong>Belize</strong>, but is now primarily restricted to central and north-west areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is an old report and a 1993 record from Pet&eacute;n, <strong>Guatemala<sup>1</sup></strong>, and "<em>guatemalensis"</em> occurs from Punta Manabique to extreme north-west <strong>Honduras<sup>4</sup></strong>. Populations in Belize and at the known site in Campeche are healthy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are conflicting reports that <em>tresmariae</em> is stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and under considerable threat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142707	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense thorn-forest, savanna, tall deciduous forest and humid riverine woodland, occasionally up to 500&#160;m. Birds favour semi-arid regions in the northern Atlantic lowlands, but more humid savannas further south. In Belize, it inhabits pine savannas and adjacent evergreen forest patches, and "<em>guatemalensis</em>" occurs in coastal scrub and mangroves<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Food privation and fire cause occasional wanderings. It nests in tree-cavities, with breeding occurring in February-June. Nesting success is only 0.5 fledglings per nest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit from wild and cultivated trees. <br/></p>	eng
142707	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at 7,000 individuals in 1994 (Lousada and Howell 1996). <br/></p>	eng
142707	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Many thousands are illegally exported from Mexico and some from Belize each year, and it is popular in domestic markets<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>. In Belize, it is hunted and persecuted for damaging crops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Habitat loss has been extensive, with 80% of the Tamaulipas lowlands cleared for agriculture and pasture, and increasing settlement along the Western Highway in Belize<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142709	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon comprises 10 subspecies, spread from Mexico south to Peru and Brazil. Subspecies tresmariae is found on the Tres Marías Islands, off west-central Mexico; oratrix occurs in the Pacific and Atlantic lowlands of Mexico, with feral populations present in California, Florida (USA) and Puerto Rico; belizensis occurs in Belize; caribea occurs on Bay Island, Honduras; parvipes occurs in north-east Honduras (140,000 individuals) and north Nicaragua; auropalliata occurs from south Mexico to north-west Costa Rica, and includes two proposed subspecies, both of which number in the low hundreds; panamensis occurs from west Panama (where it is locally common) to north-west Columbia; the nominate ochrocephala occurs from east Columbia east through Venezuela (where it is declining), Trinidad (Trinidad and Tobago), Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana to Pará, Brazil (where it is extremely common); xantholaema occurs on Marajo Island, in the Amazon Delta of north Brazil; and nattereri occurs from south Columbia south through east Ecuador and east Peru (where it is very common, with a density of 0.5pairs/km2 recorded in south-east Peru) to north Bolivia and west Brazil.	eng
142709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits tropical deciduous woodland, tall thorn scrub, humid gallery forest, seasonally flooded forest and secondary riverine growth, mangroves, pine savanna, Mauritia palm stands in wetter open areas, llanos, cultivated land with remnant groves and woodlots, and even suburban areas, always in lowlands (Collar 1997a).	eng
142709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "common" in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142709	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies oratrix and belizensis are threatened by a combination of habitat loss and intensive trapping, and auropalliata was added to CITES Appendix I in 2002 in response to threats from trade.Since 1981, when the species was listed on CITES Appendix II, 103,944 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142710	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142710	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 268,510 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142712	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142712	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was only recently discovered, and appears to be confined to the Amazon basin of Brazil in Amazonas and Pará. However, a previously misidentified specimen labelled Colombia exists, suggesting that the species may be overlooked and have a wider distribution than is reported (Juniper and Parr 1998). A captive bird found on the edge of Amazonas National Park suggests its presence there (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
142712	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits lowland rainforest, with a preference for igapó (permanently flooded forest) and river edge forest. It nests in cavities of trees in flooded forest, and is known to feed on tree seeds and palm fruits.	eng
142712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142713	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
142713	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
142713	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142713	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981, when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 49,600 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
142714	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law. Small populations occur in numerous protected areas<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. In Argentina, two small provincial parks are used by the species, but offer only partial protection because the parrots use habitat outside of the parks for most parts of their life cycle, including, critically, reproduction. In the species' Argentine stronghold between San Pedro and Santa Rosa, environmental education is underway to reduce capture of chicks, and the population has been monitored since 2005 <strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor large populations (in March in Argentina). Study reproductive biology and demography throughout the species's distribution. Protect General Carneiro (Santa Catarina), Itaip&uacute; (Alto Paran&aacute;), RNP Itab&oacute; Rivas (Canindey&uacute;), Estancia Golondrina (Caaguaz&uacute;) and forest outside reserves in Rio de Janeiro<sup>9 </sup></strong>and between San Pedro and Santa Rosa in Misiones. <strong>Invest in permanent trained rangers and resolve land tenure problems in Brazilian and Paraguayan reserves<sup>8,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce anti-trafficking laws on roads connecting Monte Pascoal National Park to south Brazil<sup>9</sup></strong>, at sites where the species is captured, and on the borders and ports of Paraguay and Argentina. <strong>Raise local public awareness to curtail nest-robbing and promote conservation of nest sites. In Argentina, provide technical support to promote soil conservation, to avoid clearing of forest for crops on small-holder farms.   <br/></p>	eng
142714	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Amazona vinacea</em> has become rare throughout its extensive range. In the early 1980s, <strong>Paraguay</strong> was considered the global stronghold, but all remaining subpopulations in Canindey&uacute;, Alto Paran&aacute;, and Caaguaz&uacute; number fewer than c.200 birds<strong><sup>7,10, 11</sup></strong>. The Itaip&uacute; reserves and Reserva Natural Privada Itab&oacute; are key sites and the minimum remaining population in Paraguay has been estimated at 220 birds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There are no recent records from Caazap&aacute; or Concepci&oacute;n, and it has probably been extirpated in Amambay (where its historical occurrence is doubtful), Itap&uacute;a and Guair&aacute;. It is perhaps most common in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paran&aacute; (several populations of more than 100 birds), southern <strong>Brazil</strong>, and low numbers persist in Minas Gerais and S&atilde;o Paulo, within an estimated national total of 1,500-2,000 birds<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It was possibly never common, and must be close to extinction in Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Rio de Janeiro. In <strong>Argentina</strong>, few populations remain in Misiones, and the species's stronghold is the mosaic of small farms and forest remnants between San Pedro and Santa Rosa (San Pedro Important Bird Area)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, with two small additional populations near Campo Viera and Bernardo de Yrigoyen<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A recent census (2007) yielded a minimum of 253 individuals in Argentina<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142714	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits lowland and highland Atlantic forest up to 2,000 m, and ecotones between this forest and grasslands (southern Misiones) and cerrado (Paraguay). There is a strong association with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> in Rio Grande do Sul and some correlation in the historical distributions of bird and tree, but <em>Amazona vinacea</em> was distributed throughout eastern Paraguay and southern and western Misiones, Argentina, where there has been no <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> in historic times, and many other food sources are utilised, including seeds of many native and exotic species, even in areas with Araucaria forest, <strong><sup>6,7,11</sup></strong>. It nests from September to January in cavities in various tree species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Significant movements may occur in Brazil, possibly dictated by intra- and inter-year variations in <em>Araucaria </em>cone-crop production, but these do not affect the Argentinian or Paraguayan populations. During the breeding season, it is found in pairs or small groups (probably non-reproductive individuals); after the breeding season (February to July), the species congregates in large groups and roosts communally<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142714	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Based on estimates of 1,500-2,000 individuals in Brazil (G. Bencke <em>in litt. </em>2009), 220-400 in Paraguay (K. Cockle <em>in litt. </em>2009) and 253 in Argentina (K. Cockle <em>in litt. </em>2009), the total population is believed to lie within the range 1,970-2650 individuals and is placed precautionarily within the band 1,000-2,499. <br/></p>	eng
142714	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In 1984-1991, 38% of Paraguay's Atlantic forests disappeared<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and range contractions in Brazil presumably result from similarly extensive deforestation. There is some correlation with the disappearance of <em>Araucaria</em> forest e.g. in Paran&aacute;, 73,780 km<sup>2</sup> of <em>Araucaria</em> forest was reduced to 15,932 km<sup>2</sup> in 1965<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Selective logging, colonisation and plantation agriculture threaten remaining forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, in Argentina, <em>Amazona vinacea</em> has disappeared from large forest reserves (e.g. the 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> Iguaz&uacute;-Urugua-&iacute; forest complex), remaining mostly in the mosaic of small farms and degraded forest remnants between San Pedro and Santa Rosa. There, where the wild population numbers approximately 200 individuals, 40 individuals were found in captivity in 35 homes between 2003 and 2005<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In 2006 and 2007, from twelve nests identified in this area, only one chick fledged; at least three nests were depredated, at least two were flooded during storms, and at three nests the chicks were captured for sale to Brazil<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In the anthropogenic habitat that <em>A. vinacea</em> selects in Argentina, there appear to be few appropriate nest cavities, and most nests are in large, shallow, cavities which are easily depredated or flooded during storms<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the species appears to be very conservative in selecting nest sites, returning year after year to cavities that continually fail<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Competition with other hole nesting animals may also be important: in the above mentioned nests in Argentina in 2007, <em>A. vinacea</em> apparently lost competitions for nest cavities with exotic honeybees, possums, and several species of hole-nesting birds, apparently during the incubation stage<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Internal trade has probably affected Brazilian and Argentine populations, and one massive bird-smuggling operation was centred in Paraguay and included <em>A. vinacea</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was also shot as a crop pest in certain areas<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>, but this does not appear to be an important threat currently<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142715	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected by domestic legislation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Education and awareness programmes have turned the bird into a national symbol. This has successfully eliminated hunting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, helped by a moratorium on hunting within forest reserves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme was established in 1975, and in 1995 a total of 19 young birds had fledged<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Maintain the hunting moratorium within all forest reserves. Conduct a basic study of the feeding and breeding ecology. Designate remaining habitat as protected areas. Reassess the objectives of the captive-breeding programme.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142715	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona versicolor</em> occurs in the central-southern mountains of <strong>St&#160;Lucia</strong>. In 1950, there were 295&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of available habitat, but this has been reduced rapidly since the mid-1970s. There have been considerable population declines, but these are being reversed by concerted conservation action. Surveys in 1996 estimated the wild population at c.350-500 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and noted some range expansion<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142715	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours montane, moist primary forest, mainly at 500-900&#160;m, but also forages in secondary growth<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It nests in tree-holes, and breeding takes place in February-March or later<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding success is apparently similar to other Caribbean and mainland <em>Amazona</em> parrots<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142715	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Juniper and Parr (1998) <br/></p>	eng
142715	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The human population of St&#160;Lucia is growing at a considerable rate, increasing pressure on the forest and resulting in habitat loss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Selective logging of mature trees may significantly reduce breeding sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and hurricanes, hunting and trade pose further threats. There have been recent efforts to lift the moratorium on hunting within forest reserves, which would seriously threaten this species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142716	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. It is fully protected under domestic legislation. Much remaining habitat is within the Northern Forest Reserve, but adjacent areas of critical importance are not protected<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Of this forest reserve, 33&#160;km<sup>2</sup> has been designated as the Morne Diablotin National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since 1980, it has benefited from joint government and non-government efforts to protect its habitat and sensitise local people to its needs. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Enforce the protection of Morne Diablotin National Park. Monitor the population annually. Investigate the impact of this species on agricultural crops. Investigate the effects of nest-site (and food) competition between this species and <em>A.&#160;imperialis.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142716	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona arausiaca</em> is concentrated around the Morne Diablotin massif in the north of <strong>Dominica</strong>, with birds also occupying habitat in the centre of the island and Morne Trois Pitons National Park in the south<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Many areas have been reoccupied after the species disappeared from them in the aftermath of the destructive Hurricane David in 1979<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Numbers have risen from possibly as few as 150 in 1980 to 750-800 birds in 2003<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142716	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mainly occurs in the canopy of rainforests, generally at 300-800&#160;m, but occasionally to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was formerly a regular visitor to coastal areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and still descends to low elevations in October-December to search for food<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There are an increasing number of records from agricultural land (mainly citrus crops)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in February-June, with nests usually situated in the cavities of large forest trees, such as <em>Dacryodes excelsa</em> and <em>Sloanea berteriana</em><strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. These are usually 11-25&#160;m above the ground and commonly have a protective covering of vines or creepers<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142716	population	BirdLife International, 2008	P R Reillo <em>in litt. </em>(2003) <br/></p>	eng
142716	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss at lower elevations has been mainly caused by conversion to plantations, especially bananas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and hurricane-related damage. Another hurricane of the magnitude of Hurricane David could reverse recent population increases. Hunting and illegal trade are now low-level threats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142717	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. Domestic legislation protecting the species is enforced. The St Vincent Parrot Reserve was established to protect all occupied habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Successful public education campaigns have apparently improved public perceptions of the species and, combined with the above measures, have reversed some of the previous declines. Captive populations exist in St Vincent and Barbados<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Continue existing protective measures. Study the reproductive success, movement patterns and habitat requirements of this species<sup>4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142717	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona guildingii</em> occurs on the upper west and east ridges of St Vincent (<strong>St Vincent and the Grenadines</strong>), where it declined seriously through the 20th century until the early 1980s. Following recent conservation action, numbers increased from 370-470 individuals in 1982 to c.800 in 1994<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142717	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits moist forest, mainly at 125-1,000&#160;m, preferring mature growth at lower levels. It feeds in the canopy, on a wide variety of fruits, seeds and flowers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but sometimes forages in partially cultivated areas. Breeding takes place between January and June, peaking in February-May. Nests are generally in cavities in mature, large trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142717	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Greenwood (1994) <br/></p>	eng
142717	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting for food, trapping for the cage-bird trade and habitat loss were the principal causes of this species's decline. Deforestation has been the result of forestry activities, the expansion of banana cultivation, charcoal production, the loss of nesting-trees felled by trappers seeking young birds for trade, and natural events such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The genetic isolation of the separate subpopulations may present further cause for concern.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142718	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected by domestic legislation. In recent years, there have been considerable efforts to protect suitable habitat and sensitise local citizens to its needs. Successful conservation education programmes have markedly reduced local trade. It is protected in the Northern Forest Reserve, but important areas adjacent to the reserve remain unprotected<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.  Of this forest reserve, 33&#160;km<sup>2</sup> has been designated as the Morne Diablotin National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also present in small numbers in the Morne Tres Pitons National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Enforce protection of the Morne Diablotin and Morne Tres Pitons National Parks. Study the ecology of this species and factors affecting its status (including interspecific competition)<sup>2,5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142718	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona imperialis</em> is endemic to <strong>Dominica</strong>, where it occurs in the Morne Diablotin area (primarily on the north-east and south-east slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), the central forests near the Carib Territory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and has recently reestablished a small popuulation in the Morne Tres Pitons National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is known to have declined significantly and numbered only 80-100 individuals in 1993. Conservation action increased the population to 150 birds by 2003<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142718	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mainly inhabits montane and elfin forest at 600-1,300&#160;m, but forages to 150&#160;m in response to food shortages<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It is highly sensitive to habitat modification, readily abandoning traditional foraging and nesting territories<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests are situated in cavities in tall forest trees (the same species as used by <em>A.&#160;arausiaca</em>), with breeding between February and June (coinciding with the dry season). The nest cavity is heavily festooned with vines and epiphytes, making observation of nesting activity difficult<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Despite the intensive work carried out towards this species's conservation, its ecology remains poorly known.</p>	eng
142718	population	BirdLife International, 2008	P. R. Reillo<em> in litt.</em> (2003) <br/></p>	eng
142718	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A combination of habitat loss (mainly conversion to plantations, especially bananas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and hurricane-related damage), hunting for food and trapping for the cage-bird trade were the principal reasons for this species's decline. Local trade has been considerably reduced as a result of a successful education programme, but foreign bird-collectors may still pose a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Competition for nest-sites from the more numerous <em>A.&#160;arausiaca</em> will presumably become more significant as lowland forest is lost and the two species come increasingly into contact<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142720	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in 14 protected areas in Brazil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and most recent observations outside Rio Grande do Sul have been in reserves. In Rio Grande do Sul, clearance of native forest is prohibited, fuelwood extraction requires a licence and suitable areas for incorporation in a reserve network have been identified<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some preliminary public awareness activities have been undertaken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor large populations. Create a reserve network in Rio Grande do Sul, implemented at the municipal level through land acquisition<sup>1. Initiate a long-term plan for sustainable forest management of tobacco in Rio Grande do Sul1. Expand public awareness activities at appropriate properties and schools1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142720	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Triclaria malachitacea</em> occurs mostly in Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are additional records from south Bahia (none since 1833), Minas Gerais (a few doubtful records), Esp&iacute;rito Santo (recently from four or five sites), Paran&aacute; (three recent records) and Santa Catarina (recently from three sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). Two records from Misiones, Argentina, require confirmation. The population was formerly estimated at fewer than 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but recent surveys suggest that there may be c.10,000 in Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and significant numbers on the east slope of the Serra do Mar. It inhabits lower montane and escarpment forests up to 1,000&#160;m, ranging into lowland forests outside the breeding season. In Rio Grande do Sul, it nests on flat, ridgeline terrain (possibly an artefact of lowland forest destruction)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but, in the Serra do Mar, most records are along valley watercourses. <em>Trichilia claussenii</em> may be an important nest-tree in Rio Grande do Sul, with <em>Eugenia rostrifolia</em>, <em>Alchornea triplinervea</em> and <em>Cupania vernalis</em> frequently possessing suitable natural cavities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs from September (October in Rio Grande do Sul) to January<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has a varied diet, including palmito palms<em> Euterpe edulis</em> and occasionally maize<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There has been extensive habitat loss for agricultural conversion, urbanisation and intensive palmito collecting. Even the moister valleys in the Serra do Mar are under conversion to banana plantations on the lower slopes. In Rio Grande do Sul, cutting for fuelwood to cure tobacco is fragmenting habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the mid-1980s, small numbers were found in international trade. There is some internal trade, but captive birds are rare<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in 14 protected areas in Brazil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and most recent observations outside Rio Grande do Sul have been in reserves. Its presence in Rio Doce state park (Minas Gerais) needs confirmation. In Rio Grande do Sul, clearance of native forest is prohibited, fuelwood extraction requires a licence and suitable areas for incorporation in a reserve network have been identified<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some preliminary public awareness activities have been undertaken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the species is targeted by the cagebird trade and there is some loss of habitat even in some protected areas (mostly due to squatters and Guarani Indians invading the areas), it appears to persists in moderately disturbed habitats and is apparently not declining rapidly, and is therefore down-listed to Near Threatened.  <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142720	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lower montane and escarpment forests up to 1,000&#160;m, ranging into lowland forests outside the breeding season. In Rio Grande do Sul, it nests on flat, ridgeline terrain (possibly an artefact of lowland forest destruction)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but, in the Serra do Mar, most records are along valley watercourses. <em>Trichilia claussenii</em> may be an important nest-tree in Rio Grande do Sul, with <em>Eugenia rostrifolia</em>, <em>Alchornea triplinervea</em> and <em>Cupania vernalis</em> frequently possessing suitable natural cavities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs from September (October in Rio Grande do Sul) to January<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has a varied diet, including palmito palms<em> Euterpe edulis</em> and occasionally maize<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142720	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been extensive habitat loss for agricultural conversion, urbanisation and intensive palmito collecting. Even the moister valleys in the Serra do Mar are under conversion to banana plantations on the lower slopes. In Rio Grande do Sul, cutting for fuelwood to cure tobacco is fragmenting habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the mid-1980s, small numbers were found in international trade. There is some internal trade but captive birds are rare<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142724	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the south Cauca valley, in Valle and Cauca, south-west Colombia (Collar et al. 1992). Since 1990 a spate of records has extended its range south through Ecuador, with localities in Napo (N. Krabbe in litt. 1995, S. N. G. Howell in litt. 1996, López-Lanús 2001), Morona-Santiago (M. Reid in litt. 1997) and perhaps Manabí (López-Lanús 2001), and into Amazonas, north-east Peru (Schulenberg and Awbrey 1997). It has apparently declined in Colombia, where there have been only five records at two sites since 1966, perhaps as a result of overuse of agrochemicals in the Cauca valley, where flocks of 20-25 were reported in the 1950s and early 1960s (Collar et al. 1992). Recent records suggest that it is more common elsewhere within its range, and its apparent preference for degraded habitats implies that deforestation may actually benefit the species (at least) in the short term (Chantler and Driessens 1995).	eng
142724	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in open bushy grassland, pastures and hilly, eroded areas with bare soil and sparse grasses and shrubs (Collar et al. 1992).	eng
142724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142724	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has apparently declined in Colombia, where there have been only five records at two sites since 1966, perhaps as a result of overuse of agrochemicals in the Cauca valley, where flocks of 20-25 were reported in the 1950s and early 1960s (Collar et al. 1992). Recent records suggest that it is more common elsewhere within its range, and its apparent preference for degraded habitats implies that deforestation may actually benefit the species (at least) in the short term (Chantler and Driessens 1995).	eng
142725	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cypseloides rothschildi</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Tucum&aacute;n, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Formosa, La Rioja and C&oacute;rdoba), south-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija), with one record from Cuzco in south <strong>Peru<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It has been recorded in forest and open country at 800-2,000&#160;m, but very little is known of its behaviour or status. It is probably most common in ravines and gorges of wet montane areas with numerous waterfalls for breeding sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Large tracts of the yungas forests in the core of its range have been cleared, particularly in Argentina, owing to logging of valuable timber, conversion for agriculture, plantations of <em>Pinus</em> spp., road-building and human colonisation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142725	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
142726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142727	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cypseloides cherriei</em> has been recorded from the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Talamanca in <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, Cordillera de la Costa in Aragua, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, two sites in Santander and Cauca, <strong>Colombia</strong>, and one site in west Pichincha, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Breeding has only been proven at single sites in Costa Rica, Venezuela and Ecuador, where birds are resident. Consequently, the Colombian records probably represent undiscovered populations rather than migrants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is almost certainly under-recorded, and its status and distribution in areas between the widely spaced known localities should be evaluated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. All records are from montane regions, near streams in forested and open habitats, at 1,000-1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests and roosts in permanently humid areas (e.g. behind waterfalls) in rocky gorges of mountain streams and roosts in similar habitats<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142728	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cypseloides storeri</em> has a restricted range in south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is known only from a few sight records and six specimens taken in Guerrero (Sierra de Atoyac), Michoac&aacute;n (Tac&aacute;mbaro) and Jalisco (Sierra de Manantl&aacute;n and Juanacatl&aacute;n)<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. The most recent published observation is of a single individual in a mixed flock of c.100 swifts, flying over hills and fields bisected by a narrow, steep-sided canyon near Tac&aacute;mbaro in September 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All well documented records are from June, July and September, indicating that the species may be migratory<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. However, similar suggestions have been made for other <em>Cypseloides</em> species only to be subsequently disproven<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The specimen taken in June had enlarged testes indicative of breeding<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142730	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142733	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142734	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hydrochous gigas</em> occurs in the Main Range, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and the mountains of Sumatra and West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in hill and montane forest and over open country at 300-2,400 m, but is strongly associated with waterfalls as nest sites. Records from Borneo, in Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia, and Brunei, involve no specimen evidence and are thus treated provisionally here. The individual populations appear to be small, although one, at Gede-Pangrango, Java, was once fairly large but has seemingly now vanished. The possibility that breeding populations are reliant on the persistence of surrounding forest should be investigated. <em> <br/></p>	eng
142735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Java and satellite islands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142738	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Cave sites on Praslin and La Digue are monitored by Ministry of Environment rangers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue regular monitoring of cave sites<sup>2,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Create protected areas to encompass all known nest-caves and buffer areas<sup>5</sup></strong>, and assign legal protection status<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Conserve rich feeding grounds, such as marshes, by eradication of invasive, introduced aquatic plants<sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142738	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia elaphra</em> is endemic to the <strong>Seychelles</strong> and ranges over the islands of Mah&eacute;, Praslin and La Digue, with one known breeding site on each island. A colony on F&eacute;licit&eacute; has disappeared, as has one on Mah&eacute;<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. The La Digue cave held 35-45 nests in 1996-1997<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but as numbers have fluctuated in the past<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong> it is unclear whether there is a continuing decline at this site. In the Praslin colony, 56 nests and 152 birds were estimated in 1977<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with 60-80 nests from 1980 onwards<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. Studies in 1996-1997 estimated the total population at 2,500-3,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142738	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an aerial, insectivorous species, and feeds over a variety of habitats including forest and wetlands. Flying ants form the majority of prey caught<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Praslin and Mah&eacute;, it is most commonly seen flying over boulder-filled valleys or rocky slopes in the hills, usually in small flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests colonially on the roofs of deep caves - clutch-size is one<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is increasing evidence that it breeds year-round<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142738	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Studies in 1996-1997 estimated the total population at 2,500-3,000 individuals (Rocamora 1997a). <br/></p>	eng
142738	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The past decline of this species has probably been due to collection of nests for bird-nest soup, widespread use of insecticides such as DDT and drainage of wetlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the future, development encroachment could impact upon nest-caves and buffer areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Quarrying may be a threat, and led to the destruction of a Praslin nest-cave in the 1970s<strong><sup>9,6</sup></strong>. Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> can limit the number of potential nest-sites by direct disturbance or occupation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Cats may be a threat where nests are in leaping distance<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Marshes on La Digue have been invaded by introduced plant species and it has been suggested that this has affected invertebrates dependent on the marsh ecosystem, reducing the food supply for swiftlets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, though this is unproven.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142739	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia francica</em> breeds colonially in caves and lava tunnels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong> and <strong>Mauritius</strong>. In the 1970s, the species was much less common on R&eacute;union than Mauritius<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent discoveries on R&eacute;union of several large colonies indicate that the population has since increased substantially<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> to over 10,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>, including a small number of sites with more than 1,500 birds<strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. On Mauritius, numbers have declined markedly in the last century, continuing through the last 20 years, with surveys in the 1990s indicating habitation of 34 caves, but complete removal of birds from a further 19. The population was estimated to be a minimum of 2,244-2,610 birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Collection for birds' nest soup and vandalism of caves are the principle threats on Mauritius<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. In an extreme case, the entrance of one cave has been completely filled in<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On R&eacute;union, proposed development of canyoning and caving tourism may threaten some colonies, and protected areas may be needed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142739	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population on R&eacute;union has been estimated at over 10,000 mature individuals (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt.</em> 1999; M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999) and on Mauritius there is an estimated minimum of 2,244-2,610 birds<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(G. Middleton <em>per </em>C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), thus the total population is expected to fall within the range 10,000-19,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142740	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most abundant swift in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although rare in Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce in lowlands and locally common to abundant in highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142745	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia vulcanorum</em> is restricted to Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it nests in crevices at 2,200-3,000 m, and forages around peaks and ridges of volcanoes. There are records are from four sites in west Java, with likely but unconfirmed records from five sites in west, central and east Java. Taking an average colony size of 25 pairs and assuming only one colony per site, this would give a total of under 400 birds for all localities, but this is thought to be highly precautionary and an additonal 4-5 craters may also contain the species. As the species nests in crater crevices and all known localities are active volcanoes, colonies are believed to be susceptible to periodic extinction. <br/></p>	eng
142746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142747	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (140&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, of which 3,000&#160;ha is primary forest) receives funding from the FPE for conservation-related activities, and has been proposed as a national park. The Natural Parks at Mt Apo (644&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Mt Kitanglad (313&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) are CPPAP sites. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>* Conduct fieldwork using mist-netting to determine identification characters. <br/>* Focus fieldwork on cliffs in montane forest in order to identify further important sites. <br/>* Carry out studies at known sites to lay the basis for appropriate management strategies. <br/></p>	eng
142747	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia whiteheadi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from only four mountains, one on Luzon (nominate <em>whiteheadi</em>) and three on Mindanao (race <em>origenis</em>). On Luzon, it was collected on Mt Data in 1895, but has not been recorded there subsequently. On Mindanao, it is known from Mt Apo in 1904 and Mts Kitanglad and Matutum in the 1990s, with specimens taken recently at an unnamed locality in South Cotabato (the same province as Mt Matutum). Population numbers are entirely unknown, partly as a result of the species's apparent preference for relatively inaccessible areas and partly due to identification difficulties, even with birds in the hand.  <br/></p>	eng
142747	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occupies airspace over forested mountains above 1,200&#160;m elevation. Specimens of <em>origenis</em> were reportedly taken from a hollow tree, presumably when roosting. If several unidentified <em>Collocalia</em> swiftlets mist-netted on a cliff face at Mt Kitanglad in 1997 were this species, as seems likely, then cliffs may be an important component of habitat preferences. Nothing is known about food, but&#152;as an aerial feeder&#152;this swiftlet will take aerial plankton (! invertebrates?). The breeding season is not known, but a nest was taken in July, reportedly from cliffs. Additionally, four nests (undated) thought to have been made by the species were taken from a hollow tree. It is not known whether the species vacates its known haunts for any part of the year, but this is not implausible. <br/></p>	eng
142747	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Restricted range (if genuine) and habitat loss may combine to jeopardise the species. Mt Data is reportedly devoid of forest. Mts Kitanglad and Matutum are under threat from illegal logging operations and, like Mt Apo, clearance for <em>kaingin</em> shifting agriculture. <br/></p>	eng
142748	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia papuensis</em> is known from a handful of specimens from New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Specimens are known from the Idenburg River (where flocks of up to 30 birds were recorded), northern Snow Mountains, around Jayapura and one taken in 1993 from a cave in the Hindenburg Range, ranging from sea-level to 2,400&#160;m. There are unconfirmed sight records across northern Papua New Guinea to the Huon Peninsula but this species may be unidentifiable in the field<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The population, status and threats to this species cannot be assessed on present knowledge.</p>	eng
142749	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia orientalis</em> is known only from three specimens: one each from New Ireland, Bougainville (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and Guadalcanal (<strong>Solomon Islands</strong>)<strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>. Although very similar to Uniform Swiftlet <em>C. vanikorensis</em>, it may be possible to identify in the field but there are no field records except for a series of (unconfirmed) records from Guadalcanal<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and New Ireland<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong> and a possible sight record from New Britain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to be montane and, if so, would be under little threat.</p>	eng
142750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Java (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142755	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population on Yap has not been quantified but the species's population in the rest of its range is estimated to be 83,500 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142756	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys have been conducted and a standardised method for monitoring has been designed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Baiting to eliminate rats is underway by the airport and dock<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Resurvey the population including a detailed study of the breeding biology over a full season so that further actions can be identified/justified<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Exclude crabs from breeding caves<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the possibility of translocation to another suitable island<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor and regulate tourism. Take measures to ensure that alien species, especially black rat<em> Rattus rattus</em></strong>, are not accidentally introduced to the island. <br/></p>	eng
142756	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia sawtelli</em> is restricted to Atiu,<strong> Cook Islands,</strong> although there is an early historic record from Mitiaro<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and a report of swiftlet bones found on Mangaia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. When it was collected in 1973 from the Anatakitaki Cave there were c.60 nests and the local inhabitants reported that there were a few smaller colonies elsewhere on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1987-1988, a detailed survey recorded 190 active nests in two caves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1994 and 1995, further surveys were conducted and, although the numbers of active nests in each cave varied from year to year, the totals were stable at 172 and 175<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142756	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species feeds over fernlands and mixed horticultural areas, and nests colonially in caves in makatea limestone<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142756	population	BirdLife International, 2008	McCormack (1997) <br/></p>	eng
142756	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major causes of chick mortality have been identified as starvation after falling out of the nest and predation by coconut crab <em>Burgus latro</em> and land crab<em> Cardisoma longipes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong></em>. The fledging period is prolonged, perhaps because of lack of food. One of the caves has become a popular ecotourism destination<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and thus disturbance could be a problem, as there does not appear to be any restrictions on noise and the use of torches<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Polynesian rats are present on the island and may be a threat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142757	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect the known breeding sites<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey for other breeding sites. Monitor known populations. Identify nest predators and take protective measures as necessary.</strong></p>	eng
142757	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia leucophaea</em> breeds only on Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was recorded in five valleys in 1971-1974<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in six valleys (out of 39 visited) during the period 1986-1991<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, apparently never having been abundant in the 20th century<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Indeed, in 1923, it was noted that two local hunters travelled for eight days through the valleys without seeing this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1997, a new breeding site, with c.30 nests, was found<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, and the population is estimated to be below 1,000 birds and stable. It was formerly encountered on Huahine and (possibly) Bora Bora, while records from Moorea in 1973 may have referred to vagrants from Tahiti<strong><sup>4,5,8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
142757	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers wet, rocky and forested valleys at high elevations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It nests either in shallow depressions under overhanging rocks and coastal cliffs, or caves<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142757	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be below 1,000 birds based on analysis of available records. <br/></p>	eng
142757	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its rarity is possibly linked to the introduction of the Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other introduced species may also be implicated.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in peninsular Malaysia and abundant elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to vary considerably in status throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142763	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known and the Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct field surveys in the Itombwe Mountains to determine its distribution more accurately and to assess its population size.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
142763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Schoutedenapus schoutedeni</em> is known with certainty from only five specimens to the east and north-east of the Itombwe Mountains in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>(DRC), where it appears to be resident. However, there are possible sightings from Bwindi Forest, Uganda (near the border with the DRC),<strong> </strong>and from Mt Tshiaberimu to the north-west of Lake Edward (DRC)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, which indicates that the species may have a less restricted range than previously thought<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142763	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Until recently, the species was known only from clearings in transitional and lowland forest, at low and intermediate altitudes (c.1,000-1,470&#160;m), but there are now indications that it may also be found over montane forest (up to 2,700&#160;m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in February or March.</p>	eng
142763	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is assumed to be small (<10,000) owing to the lack of confirmed records other than five specimens collected during 1956-1972. <br/></p>	eng
142763	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss is the most likely threat as the Itombwe Forest is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, has increased dramatically in the past few years as corn crops have failed, causing famine<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The human population in the area is increasing rapidly, and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142764	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mearnsia picina</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it has been described as fairly common on Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Cebu and Negros, with a recent record from Tawitawi, but it appears to be scarce and local even in the best sites, presumably as a consequence of its use of lowland forest. <br/></p>	eng
142765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary locally from scarce to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common, especially in eastern Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142767	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on both Sao Tomé and Principé Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142768	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather local and uncommon to sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of east and central Africa and rarest within its limited southern African range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142772	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only locally common, even in areas of greatest abundance, and rare throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142775	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142776	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonly encountered in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142778	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon but locally numerous (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142783	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Listed as a Threatened species in Canada<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Populations continue to be monitored as part of the Breeding Birds Survey.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research potential measures to prevent further population declines. Assess threats in South America.</strong>	eng
142783	distribution		<em>Chaetura pelagica </em>breeds in eastern North America as far north as southern <strong>Canada</strong>, and occasionally in California and Arizona (<strong>USA</strong>). It is a migratory species, wintering in eastern <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, north-west <strong>Brazil</strong> and northern <strong>Chile<sup>1</sup></strong>. The Canadian population, which occupies one quarter of the breeding range, is estimated at just 11,820 breeding individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although the global population has been estimated at 15,000,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Trends have been recorded through North America between 1966 and 2007, with a decline of 5.5% per year in Canada (total decline of 90%) and 1.8% per year in the USA (total decline of 53%). Overall, during this period the population has declined by 1.9% per year, though this decline has accelerated in recent years, reaching a decline of 2.8% per year between 1980 and 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (total decline of 40% over this period)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
142783	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This migratory species is extremely gregarious, and typically nests in chimneys, though other structures such as hollow tree trunks can be used<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Eggs have been recorded from May to July, though the precise timing varies slightly throughout its range. A clutch of two to seven eggs is laid, and extra-parental co-operation is well established. It is present in North America until September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It is readily associated with urban settings, though also forages and breeds over a variety of natural habitats over its wide range. Main habitats include river-edge forest,  the edge of tropical lowland evergreen forest and second-growth scrub. It can also be found along the coast in Peru, up to 3,000 m over irrigated farmland in western Andean valleys, and even in central city zones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Spiders, along with <em>Hymenoptera</em> spp., <em>Diptera</em> spp. and other insects have been recorded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
142783	population		The global population size has been estimated at 15,000,000 individuals (Rich et al. 2004).	eng
142784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142794	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 140000-330000 breeding pairs, equating to 420000-990000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1000000-4000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142796	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142798	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6900000-17000000 breeding pairs, equating to 20700000-51000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 40000000-200000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142799	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 2500-10000 breeding pairs, equating to 7500-30000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
142800	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to abundant throughout the Rift Valley Highlands (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 39000-160000 breeding pairs, equating to 117000-480000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 250000-2000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
142802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in South Africa and locally common in east Africa. Race mayottensis is common and race balstoni is common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142803	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apus sladeniae</em> is known from the Bakossi Mountains in west <strong>Cameroon</strong> (one record only), south-east <strong>Nigeria</strong> (one record only)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Mt Moco in <strong>Angola </strong>(though the Angolan specimens need confirmation)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is also known from Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>, where six specimens were collected in 1903, but with no subsequent records<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is a possible sighting (requiring confirmation) of c.10 birds at Moca in Monte Alen National Park in January 1998-the first record for mainland Equatorial Guinea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species's breeds on Bioko and visits the mainland during the non-breeding season, but its true status (including its taxonomic position relating to African Swift <em>A. barbatus</em>) remains uncertain.<em> <br/></p>	eng
142804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common within its main Socotran breeding site in the Hajhir mountains (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142805	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported  generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142806	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142807	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout most of its breeding range except Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142808	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A presumed breeding site is located within the Blue Mountain National Park, Mizoram, north-east India. Strict forest policy and wildlife protection laws in Bhutan suggest that its future there is secure. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys across north-east India, Bhutan and western and northern Myanmar to establish its breeding range, population status, ecology, seasonal movements, and potential threats. Strict protection should be afforded to all known colonies.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142808	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apus acuticauda</em> is known from just a few breeding colonies in the Himalaya foothills of <strong>Bhutan</strong>, and the hills of Meghalaya and Mizoram, north-east <strong>India</strong>. Its seasonal movements and wintering areas are virtually unknown. There are records throughout the year from India and the non-breeding season from north-west <strong>Thailand.</strong> There are no confirmed records from Myanmar, but it is likely to occur there. At known breeding colonies, the number of birds ranges from a few to 200 and the total population may not exceed 1,000.  <br/></p>	eng
142808	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds colonially in the crevices of rocky cliffs and deep gorges, from 200-1,350&#160;m, generally in the vicinity of forest. Breeding is from March-May usually at the same site each year. Birds apparently remain in close proximity to the nesting colonies while breeding, normally disappearing soon afterwards and reappearing the following year. Away from breeding sites, it has been recorded up to at least 1,500 m. It has been suggested that it may only undertake local movements, but this requires further investigation.</p>	eng
142808	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on estimates of breeding colony sizes ranging from a few to 200 individuals (BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
142808	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There are no known threats, although its reliance on forest as a feeding habitat should be investigated. <br/></p>	eng
142809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 900-2500 breeding pairs, equating to 2700-7500 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
142810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142811	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142812	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100-160 breeding pairs, equating to 300-480 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
142814	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant to very rare and generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142815	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142817	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142818	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142825	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142826	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142827	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142830	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142831	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142832	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142833	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phaethornis koepckeae</em> is uncommon on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> (Amazonas, San Mart&iacute;n, Hu&aacute;nuco and Madre de Dios)<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. It is found in lowland and montane evergreen forest at 500-1,300&#160;m, and at Hacienda Amazonia frequents <em>Heliconia</em> patches<strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>. It is threatened by rapid deforestation within its elevational range. Habitat in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage has been progressively deteriorating under cultivation for many years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, while the spread of oil palm plantations, cattle ranching and logging are all serious threats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142833	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
142834	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps locally common, although poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142839	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142843	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, occurring from Trinidad and north-east Venezuela to French Guiana.	eng
142843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142846	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142847	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142848	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ramphodon naevius</em> is relatively common in lowland Atlantic forest and second growth, in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do Sul), to 900&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forest habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142849	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. It is protected under Brazilian law and survives in Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, and Linhares Forest Reserve, Esp&iacute;rito Santo.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its current status at Monte Pascoal National Park, Linhares Forest Reserve and C&oacute;rrego Grande Biological Reserve. Survey historical localities and other areas of suitable habitat. Study its ecological requirements. Promote the continued protection of forest at Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Veracruz and existing reserves where the species occurs.</strong></p>	eng
142849	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Glaucis dohrnii</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from a few widely scattered localities in Bahia and Esp&iacute;rito Santo. There are historical sight records from extreme east Minas Gerais where its occurrence is supported by records from adjacent Esp&iacute;rito Santo. Rio de Janeiro has been included in the species's published range based on a specimen labelled Rio de Janeiro. In Bahia, there are recent reports from only three sites: Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Veracruz (formerly the CVRD Porto Seguro Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, where it was found relatively frequently during 1993-1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), Monte Pascoal National Park (a few recent records<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>), and adjacent to Serra de Itamaruja (one in July 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). In Esp&iacute;rito Santo, there is just one recent record (in 1988), from Linhares Forest Reserve, but it has not been seen subsequently. Possible records of birds at two further sites (Bralanda and Barrol&acirc;ndia) are being verified<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is likely that the species has never been common, but it has undoubtedly declined significantly in numbers and distribution.  <br/></p>	eng
142849	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs humid forest, particularly along streambeds with flowering <em>Heliconia</em>. It is generally seen in the forest interior, but has been recorded visiting ornamental flowers in areas adjacent to forest. It is reported to breed from September to February.</p>	eng
142849	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 220 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 440 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range lowest of three estimates for <em>G. hirsuta</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142849	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The lowland forests of east Brazil have been fragmented and destroyed, and this is considered to be the principal cause of its decline. Although there are recent records from two reserves, these are under pressure from settlers, suffer from fire and road construction and generally provide inadequate protection. Perhaps most importantly, they protect few watercourses and consequently little suitable habitat for this species. The new owners of Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Veracruz have apparently abandoned plans to clear the forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
142850	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142853	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142854	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylopterus excellens</em> is fairly common in humid and riparian forest, and open woodland in the lowlands and foothills (up to 1,200&#160;m) of south-east Veracruz, north-east Oaxaca and west Chiapas, <strong>Mexico<sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. Most records are from the Sierra de los Tuxtlas area of Veracruz. Extensive clearance for cattle-ranching and agriculture has deforested much of this region and remaining habitat is highly fragmented<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in a number of reserves (such as the Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve), but the extent of protection that some of these provide is questionable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142857	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142858	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142859	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142860	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylopterus ensipennis</em> inhabits mature montane forest, edges of clearings, shade coffee and abandoned plantations and regenerating forest less than 15&#160;m tall in the Cordillera de Caripe (at 760-1,830&#160;m) and Paria peninsula (at 400-1,200&#160;m) in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, and the Main Ridge down to 100&#160;m on Tobago (<strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong>)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In Venezuela, it is relatively common in shade coffee plantations on Cerro Negro<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> and other parts of the Cordillera de Caripe. In 1988, 1.5 pairs per hectare were estimated on Cerro El Olvido in the Paria peninsula and, in 1993, 0.2 males per hectare were recorded in primary forest and 4.5 males per hectare in shade coffee plantations on Cerro Humo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Tobago males lek all year round but there is a prounounced breeding season during February to April<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Tobago, it is recovering from the devastating effects of Hurricane Flora in 1963, but remains absent from the south-west (Hillsborough Reservoir) and north-east (Pigeon Peak) portions of its former range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent surveys suggest that there are between several hundred and in excess of 1,000 individuals on Tobago<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In its Venezuelan range (excepting the east Paria Peninsula), there is clearance for agriculture and pasture, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline on the Paria peninsula is not yet judged economically viable but remains a potential threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Natural disasters, such as the hurricane which destroyed most forest on Tobago in 1963, have resulted in significant population declines. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142862	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but this has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to locate population strongholds<sup>11,13</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect effectively areas harbouring healthy populations<sup>11,13</sup></strong>. <strong>Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies<sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142862	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylopterus phainopeplus</em> is endemic to the Santa Marta mountains, north-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is locally fairly common on the south-east and north slopes<strong><sup>1,5,9</sup></strong>. The few recent records<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> are from two sites on the south-east slope<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and one on the San Lorenzo ridge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the massif's north-western extremity, during the 1990s. The paucity of records is presumably related to a lack of observers in this politically and militarily sensitive region<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although the reason it went unrecorded on the relatively well-watched San Lorenzo ridge until 1999 is unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142862	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an altitudinal migrant inhabiting humid forest borders at 1,200-1,800&#160;m <strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong> during the dry season (February-May), when it feeds particularly on banana flowers in shade coffee plantations, while in the wet season (June-October) it is found in open p&aacute;ramo up to the snowline at 4,800&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Breeding condition birds have been recorded from April to June, and displaying individuals have been seen in June and July<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142862	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 7.2-13.9 individuals/km2 x 312 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,246-4,337 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range taken from middle two of four estimates from three studies for <em>C. largipennis </em>in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as described as "locally fairly common"). <br/></p>	eng
142862	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The main threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong><sup>4,8,10</sup></strong>, which has been compounded by the government spraying herbicides<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. It is not known whether this activity is still undertaken by the Colombian authorities<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. From the 1950s onwards, immigration to the area has been considerable, and agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. pines)<strong><sup>2,6,9,12</sup></strong> have caused extensive forest loss. The high-altitude breeding habitat is not known to be significantly threatened. The species is fairly common in shade coffee plantations when not breeding, but the extent of such plantations is decreasing<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142863	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylopterus villaviscensio</em> occurs on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Ecuador</strong> and at three sites in north-east <strong>Peru</strong> (San Mart&iacute;n, Amazonas)<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. There are also reports from <strong>Colombia</strong> of non-breeding birds. It is relatively common in foothill evergreen and elfin forest, and second-growth woodland at 1,050-1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Much of its montane forests are under intense pressure from conversion for agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction of its habitat also caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142870	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142888	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Atoyac</strong><sup>1</sup> incorporating the range of this species. <strong>Survey to clarify the full extent of this species's distribution. Survey to assess the impact of shade coffee plantations on this species and understand its altitudinal movements.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142888	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Lophornis brachylophus</em> is only known from a 25 km stretch of the Atoyac-Paraíso-Puerto del Gallo road in the Sierra de Atoyac (north-west of Acapulco), and is likely to be confined to the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero, <strong>Mexico</strong>. All records have been near the villages of Arroyo Grande, Paraíso and Nueva Delhi in the months of January-May. At least seasonally, it can be locally fairly common to uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
142888	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits humid to semi-humid evergreen and semi-deciduous forest, forest edge and shade coffee plantations at elevations of 900-1,800 m, where it feeds on the flowers of <em>Inga</em> and <em>Cecropia</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are local reports to 650 m suggesting that it may migrate altitudinally, breeding at higher elevations (possibly November-February), and spending March-August (possibly longer) at lower altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 3.6-18 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 53 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated EOO) = 190-954 individuals, but perhaps likely to be at upper end of this range as described as "locally fairly common to uncommon", i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density from lower to upper quartile of 34 estimates for forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142888	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In the early 1990s, semi-deciduous forest between Para&iacute;so and Nueva Delhi was being rapidly cleared for the cultivation of maize, fruit and coffee. Much of the remaining forest provides cover for illegal drug-growing making an evaluation of habitat quality difficult<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142897	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Popelairia letitiae</em> is known from two specimens simply labelled as from <strong>Bolivia</strong>, and taken prior to 1852 when it was described<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A study investigating the possibility that the specimens represented immature or variant plumages of Racquet-tailed Coquette <em>Discosura longicauda</em> (probably the most closely related species) or a hybrid form validated the original treatment as a separate species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It could occur in the ornithologically poorly known Amazonian lowlands of north or north-east Bolivia, as the only other <em>Popelairia</em> recorded there is Black-bellied Thorntail <em>P. langsdorffi</em> (in extreme north-west Pando) and three of the other four <em>Popelairia</em> and <em>Discosura</em> species have lowland distributions. However, localities for 19th century trade skins, such as these, are often unreliable, to the extent that the two specimens may not have even come from Bolivia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Furthermore, international boundaries have changed in this area since the early 19th century, such that parts of the Amazon previously in Bolivia are now in Brazil. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
142898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142900	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142905	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlorostilbon bracei</em><em> </em>is known only from the type, described in 1877 by Lawrence, from New Providence, <strong>Bahamas<sup>2</sup></strong>, although fossil hummingbird bones found on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> are probably also referable to this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The cause of its extinction is unknown, presumably owing to some kind of human disturbance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142906	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142911	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142916	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There are records from three protected areas: Cerro San Juan Special Biosphere Reserve, Nayarit; Sierra de Manantl&aacute;n Biosphere Reserve, Jalisco/Colima; and Nevados de Colima National Park, Jalisco/Colima<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its precise distribution and ecological requirements. Assess the seriousness of the threat from habitat destruction.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
142916	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thalurania ridgwayi</em> is patchily distributed in south Nayarit, Jalisco and Colima states, west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is uncommon to locally common. Surveys in central and south Mexico have failed to find the species and its restricted range seems real rather than the result of incomplete knowledge.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142916	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in humid, semi-deciduous woodland and shade coffee plantations at elevations of 250-1,200&#160;m. Its ecology is poorly known, but it is often found along streams and generally avoids edge habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142916	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142916	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its patchy distribution and precise ecological requirements are poorly understood. The avoidance of edge habitats indicates that it is probably threatened by habitat destruction, particularly for the cultivation of sun coffee.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in forested parts of pacific slopes in Colombia (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142920	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thalurania watertonii</em> is confined to lowland habitats such as coastal rainforest, cerrado, plantations and parks throughout its range in the Atlantic forests of eastern Par&aacute; (probably erroneous), Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe and northern Bahia, north-eastern <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>1</sup>. It forages in the understorey and middle strata, usually on the periphery of vegetation on nectar and occasional invertebrates. Males defend territories against conspecific intruders and other hummingbirds. Breeding occurs between November and February. It is described as common throughout its range, but widespread and continuing disappearance of lowland forest in north-eastern Brazil is likely to be causing declines, the Atlantic forests north of the Sao Francisco river having been drastically reduced, with less than 4% remaining by 1995. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
142921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142925	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Isla de Salamanca National Park, Magdalena, receives little effective protection and habitat loss has been considerable. Despite a number of searches, there have been very few records within the national park during the 1990s and 2000s<strong><sup>4,7,9</sup></strong>. The Corporaci&oacute;n Sentido Natural and the Fundaci&oacute;n Colibri are researching its taxonomic status and ecological requirements. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct field surveys to clarify its distribution and population. Research its taxonomic status. Study its ecological requirements. Improve active protection of Isla de Salamanca National Park. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <br/></p>	eng
142925	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Lepidopyga lilliae</em> is known locally on the Caribbean coast of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Atl&aacute;ntico, Magdalena and La Guajira), most records originating in Isla de Salamanca National Park or Ci&eacute;naga Grande de Santa Marta<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to be either rare or sporadic at the few known localities. The population size is low and it appears to move locally according to season<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is likely to have declined since the mid-1970s owing to habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
142925	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species shows a preference for forests of <em>Erythrina fusca</em> while they are flowering. At other times it frequents mangroves where it feeds, at least in part, on insects<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 0.9-1.8 individuals/km2 x 72 km2 (45% EOO) = 65-130 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 50-249 (density range lowest to lower quartile of 16 estimates for nine species of similar-sized forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
142925	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Construction of a pipeline and road through the wetlands of the Ci&eacute;naga Grande de Santa Marta and Isla de Salamanca in the mid-1970s obstructed tidal flow and caused very extensive mangrove die-back, continuing until at least 1992<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, although mangroves are now regenerating in some areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Domestic and industrial pollution, sewage, urbanisation and particularly mangrove and forest cutting are further problems. Land is being sold to build a large-scale port in the future, representing a potentially severe threat to the species's remaining habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142935	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142936	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Goethalsia bella</em> is uncommon in the understorey of montane humid forest and edge in the foothills of Cerro Sapo, Cerro Pirre and the Serran&iacute;a de Jungurudo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in east Dari&eacute;n, <strong>Panama</strong>, and the adjacent extreme north-west Choc&oacute; in <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is most common at elevations of 1,050-1,200&#160;m on Cerro Pirre, but has been recorded from 600-1,650&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Much of the highland forest within this very restricted range remains relatively pristine because of its inaccessibility and formal protection, but the proposed Pan-American Highway link through Dari&eacute;n could be highly detrimental to this species<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142953	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The Honduran Air Force property known as Pol&iacute;gono in the r&iacute;o Agu&aacute;n valley is now managed by the American Bird Conservancy and the Fundaci&oacute;n Parque Nacional Pico Bonito as a core for a proposed 7,500 acre thorn forest reserve<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. An impact assessment of the proposed road is planned<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is a conservation target of the Hummingbird Society.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Develop a system of core protected areas and work with neighbouring ranches to ensure that adjacent land is appropriately managed</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Expand the Sierra de Agalta National Park to encompass suitable habitat within the valley</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Survey to locate additional populations. Promote the species as a flagship for local and national conservation</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Complete fencing thorn forest around Pol&iacute;gono to exclude cattle.</strong>	eng
142953	distribution		<em>Amazilia luciae</em> occurs in the arid interior valleys of <strong>Honduras</strong>, where it is currently known from three sites in the northeast, and has recently been rediscovered in the west of the country. It was not recorded between 1950 and 1988, when it was found to be common at two sites, 16 km apart, near Olanchito and Coyoles in the upper r&iacute;o Agu&aacute;n valley, Yoro. In 1991, 22-28 birds were found in 2.5 ha of habitat near Olanchito<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1996, it was found north-east of Gualaco in the Agalta valley, where there was less than 1 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A previously unknown population was identified in the Valle de Telica, Olancho department in February 2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Surveys in November 2008 located the species in six forest fragments along a 33 km transect in Santa B&aacute;rbara department; the first records in the west of the country since 1935<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.	eng
142953	habitat		It inhabits arid thorn-forest and scrub, apparently at elevations up to 1,220 m. The thorn-forest near Coyoles is c.6-10 m high and dominated by Mimosaceae, Cactaceae and Euphorbiaceae, and the species is still found despite heavy grazing of the understorey and an apparent lack of flowers. At Olanchito, birds occur in similar but more cut-over and heavily grazed thorn-forest and scrub. The birds recently rediscovered at Santa B&aacute;rbara were in forest fragments 5-60 ha in size<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Feeding has been observed at several flowering plants and a conspicuous orangepipe cactus. Insect-catching has also been noted. The species is thought to undertake seasonal movements to track resources<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
142953	population		Population estimate = 3.6-18.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 12 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 43-216, but probably better placed in band 250-999, because population likely to be greater than this upper estimate as species can be abundant, at least locally [Collar <em>et al.</em> 1992] (density range from lower to upper quartile of 34 estimates for forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet).	eng
142954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142959	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A small population occurs in Tivives Biological Reserve. Cutting mangroves is illegal in Costa Rica, but this law is widely ignored.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its current distribution and the quality of remaining mangroves. Study to determine the causes of its absence from patches of apparently suitable habitat. Expand Carara Biological Reserve to protect mangroves around the mouth of the r&iacute;o Grande de T&aacute;rcoles. Protect mangroves north of Corcovado National Park around the r&iacute;o Sierpe<sup>1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142959	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazilia boucardi</em> is very local, but sometimes abundant, on the Pacific coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> from the head of Golfo de Nicoya to Golfo Dulce. It is patchily distributed even within the four or five large mangrove forests in this range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, probably reflecting the presence of its preferred food-plant, the Pacific mangrove <em>Pelliciera rhizophorae</em>. Despite tolerating some habitat alteration where <em>P.&#160;rhizophorae</em> remains common, it is absent from many areas of apparently suitable habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142959	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It feeds principally on the flowers of <em>P.&#160;rhizophorae</em>, but is occasionally observed in adjacent, non-mangrove habitats. Nesting has been recorded in October-February.</p>	eng
142959	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.6-18 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 208 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 749-3,744 but best placed in band 2,500-10,000 because it is locally abundant (density range from lower to upper quartile of 34 estimates for forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142959	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The construction of salinas and shrimp ponds, and selective logging for charcoal production are destroying mangrove habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other threats include illegal cutting, dyke and road construction (which have affected the hydrology in a number of places), and pollution (notably around the Golfo de Nicoya port of Puntarenas).<strong></strong></p>	eng
142960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142972	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Chicamocha Project has identified 14 sites that hold the species, concentrating searches primarily in the dry valley system that drains the western slope of the East Andes in Colombia. Fundacion Colibri, Organizacion Ambiental Ocotea and Fundacion Ecodiversidad have worked with <em>Amazilia castaneiventris</em> since 2002, with community involvement at a reserve that supports the species. They intend to start a banding programme to study the species's ecology from December to February. NGOs have conducted activites with school children in elementary schools in four veredas municipalities of Soat&aacute;. Unlike other species found in the Yariguies, the new National Park there is probably not a significant step forwards for conservation of this species; the only known localities fall outside the Yariguies National Park boundary. However, there are localities in the relatively new Chicamocha National Park<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its status in the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas, at politically safe historical sites and in protected areas, such as Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce. Research its natural history and habitat preferences, in particular its dependence on <em>Trichanthera gigantea</em><sup>5,12</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare action plans for conservation of habitat within its range<sup>2,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect areas of suitable habitat found to hold the species<sup>2,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Raise awareness of conservation issues through educational campaigns<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Reforest areas, introducing yatago (<em>Trichanthera</em>) flowers<sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142972	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Amazilia castaneiventris</em> was formerly known from the slopes of the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas, <strong>Colombia </strong>where one specimen was taken in 1947 on the east slope serran&iacute;a in Bol&iacute;var, but this population has not been rediscovered despite rapid assessment searches in 1999-2001<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Today, it appears to be restricted to the dryer parts of the Magdalena Valley, Colombia, with a core known range in the Chicamocha, Suarez and Chucuri valleys. Although there are various sites where the species is now known to be found, it is somewhat unpredictable in occurrence (partly influenced by poorly understood seasonal movements) and, at least in the Yariguies area, not locally abundant. Recent records from the rio Chucurri basin and La Paz are outside of and generally more humid than the dry valley system that forms the core of its range<strong><sup>12,14</sup></strong>. Extensive survey work by Fundacion ProAves has recorded the species at 14 sites. There are historic records from two sites in Santander (in 1962 and 1963), and three in Boyac&aacute; including the 1977 specimen from Tipacoque; recent work has again recorded the species at Tipacoque<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, there was a sighting in 2000 at Villa de Leyva<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it has now been recorded in five municipalities including a rediscovered population in the environs of Soat&aacute;<strong><sup>8,9,10</sup></strong>. Historically, it was locally common, but trends are difficult to assess owing to a lack of baseline data. The species is often inexplicably rare in apparently suitable habitats and may go unrecorded for periods<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>; elsewhere it appears to be resident. The increase in records of the species owes much to increased observer effort, but also may reflect nomadic movements in recent years linked to flowering events on which the species relies to some degree<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The global population has been roughly estimated at 3,780 individuals by extrapolating its known territory size by the area of suitable habitat<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; however, it is unlikely to be evenly distributed throughout suitable habitats and this figure may represent an overestimate. <br/></p>	eng
142972	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits dry valleys and some humid sites at 850-2,200 m, and possibly as low as 120 m in the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas (though the species has not been rediscovered at this site since its collection there, despite rapid assessment of the area in 1999-2001<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>). Many records come from forest borders, bushy canyons and semi-arid areas vegetated with shrubs and low trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; the species apparently shows a preference for rivers and streams, but is regularly recorded at roadside flowering trees<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species is tolerant of habitat degradation, having been recorded in pastures, fruit crops, coffee plantations and xerophytic scrub, where it exploits a wide variety of floral resources, e.g. cactus, guamo (<em>Inga</em> spp), banana (<em>Musa</em> sp), coffee and yatago (<em>Trychanthera gigantea</em>) flowers<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is also tolerant of human activities; fieldwork since 2004 has identified new sites, expanded the range and provided new information that emphasizes the species is adapted to heavily altered landscapes. For example, the Cerulean Warbler Bird Reserve in San Vicente de Chucuri, Santander, has both shade coffee and primary forest areas; three years of surveys by many groups and individuals across these habitats and area have only ever found <em>castaneiventris </em>in shade coffee, hedgerows and pasturelands (never in primary forest), while the species moves between available resources<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The breeding season is December-February<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species benefits from bee-keeping which promotes the planting of melliferous vegetation used by hummingbirds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Movements are not well understood; it is sedentary within parts of its range<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, but in the driest areas it seems to undertake nomadic movements/short-distnace migration in response to dry condistions when key floral resources may be unavailable<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been recorded at a number of new sites in recent years. While still apparently rare in some areas, and nowhere abundant there is a comparatively large area of potentially suitable habitat. Its territory size has been estimated at 3-10 hectares (D. C. Sabogal <em>in litt</em>. 2009). Simple extrapolation of the lower end of this density range suggested a global population of 3,780 individuals. However, as the species may not be evenly distributed thoughout suitable habitat, and it is inexplicably rare in some areas, the population is cautiously assumed to fall within the band 1,000-2,499 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
142972	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Sagamoso and Lebrija valley systems support large human populations and have long been areas of high agricultural production. Natural habitat has been severely fragmented, and generally replaced by coffee plantations, light woodland and, to a lesser extent, pastures and plantain and sugarcane plantations (the latter is used for biofuel production). Semi-arid habitats are less threatened than humid forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but are affected by livestock-grazing and seasonal burning for farming<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas had held the largest tract of intact forest in north-west South America, but a gold rush began in 1996, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted for agricultural and coca production<strong><sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong>. Mining and cocaine production cause stream pollution<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Immigration is continuing as road and oil pipelines extend into formerly inaccessible areas<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It apparently suffers from subsistence hunting for food<strong><sup>8,12</sup></strong>. Logging activities may have a negative impact<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142976	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in only one protected area, the Omiltemi State Ecological Park in Guerrero<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify its distribution and the extent of remaining habitat. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Atoyac<sup>2 encompassing the range of this species. Protect any remaining habitat near Putla de Guerrero.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142976	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eupherusa poliocerca</em> is fairly common to common<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong> but extremely local on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and west Oaxaca, south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>. Most records in Guerrero are from near Omiltemi and along the Atoyac de Alvarez-Teotepec road (<strong><sup>e.g. 4</sup></strong>), but it has been recorded further west, inland from Zihuatanejo. All undisputed records in Oaxaca are from a stretch of road near Putla de Guerrero in the Sierra Yucuyacua. <br/></p>	eng
142976	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits cloud-forest, evergreen subtropical and semi-humid forest, forest edge and adjacent coffee fincas at elevations of 800-2,440&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it is probably marginal or seasonal at the lower altitudes (below 1,200&#160;m) in the ecotone between tropical semi-deciduous forest and cloud-forest. It feeds on a variety of flowering plants, but is subordinate to other hummingbirds in its range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Breeding season peaks are likely to be February-May and September-October.</p>	eng
142976	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142976	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It tolerates some habitat degradation adjacent to suitable forested habitats, but lower montane forests are being widely cleared for corn, fruit and coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with forests at higher elevations being destroyed by cutting for lumber. Areas near Putla de Guerrero are now heavily deforested and further degraded by goats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142978	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess precise distribution and the extent of altitudinal migration. Survey to determine the abundance of the species following Hurricane Paulina. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Miahuatl&aacute;n encompassing the range of this species<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
142978	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eupherusa cyanophrys</em> is endemic to the Sierra Miahuatl&aacute;n, an isolated mountain range in southernmost Oaxaca, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It has been found in two areas of the sierra, separated by c.60-70&#160;km: in the west along the Puerto Escondido road; and to the east along the Puerto Angel road at its intersection with the r&iacute;o Jalatengo. Appropriate habitat appears widespread along the latter road<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and it was locally common until at least 1997<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, but its known range remains highly restricted.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142978	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is primarily restricted to cloud-forest and the upper reaches of tropical semi-deciduous forest at 1,300-1,950&#160;m, occasionally wandering (possibly seasonally) to c.700&#160;m on adjacent mountain slopes. It also occurs up to 2,500&#160;m, but at lower densities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in September-November and May<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142978	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =  3.6-18 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 408 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =  1,469-7,344, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 1,000-2,499 (density range from lower to upper quartile of 34 estimates for forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
142978	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The cloud-forests on the Sierra Miahuatl&aacute;n were essentially unspoilt by human activity until the mid-1960s, when huge areas were cut and burnt for the planting of maize. Lower montane forest in the sierra is still being cleared, largely for the cultivation of citrus fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In October 1997, Hurricane Paulina destroyed large portions of suitable cloud-forest habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but the full impact of this stochastic event on the species is unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142979	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
142980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
142985	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
142989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
142993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142994	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in the very small Alto Quind&iacute;o-Acaime Nature Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The protective designations in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta have been ineffective.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the population, distribution and ecological requirements of subspecies <em>berlepschi<sup>10</sup></em></strong>, and confirm its persistence in Huila<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate protected areas in Central Andes<sup>13</sup></strong>, e.g. in the Toche valley<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142994	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthocephala floriceps</em> has a disjunct range in central and north-east <strong>Colombia<sup>3</sup></strong>. The nominate subspecies occurs on the north and south-east slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, where it has recently been found to remain common<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>berlepschi</em> is found in the Central Andes on Volc&aacute;n Tolima in Quind&iacute;o and Tolima, and south on the east slope to Huila (one record in 1976)<strong><sup>3,8,10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
142994	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in premontane evergreen forest and secondary growth in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at 600-1,700&#160;m (mostly 1,200-1,600&#160;m), and in the Central Andes at 1,200-2,300&#160;m altitude<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. It is usually seen in the forest understorey or in secondary scrub along roads and field edges, but males gather in small song-leks within closed-canopy forest<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. Breeding apparently occurs in September-October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
142994	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
142994	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The main threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong><sup>2,6,9</sup></strong>, which, at least in the past, was compounded by the Colombian authorities spraying these slopes with herbicides<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. From the 1950s onwards, immigration to the area has been considerable, and agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees, e.g. pines<strong><sup>1,7,11</sup></strong>, have caused extensive forest loss. Agriculture has long dominated parts of the east slope of the Central Andes<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in the higher side-valleys has been cleared and used for coffee, sugarcane and banana plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. Mature secondary forest patches are scattered and natural vegetation cover has been reduced to c.15% between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m altitude<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
142995	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phlogophilus hemileucurus</em> is locally uncommon in the Andean foothills of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (west Putumayo and east Cauca), east <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north-east <strong>Peru</strong> (San Mart&iacute;n and Loreto) at 800-1,500&#160;m, but as low as 400&#160;m in Peru<strong><sup>1,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. It occurs in premontane and montane evergreen forest<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, much of which is under intense pressure from agriculture and cattle pasture, low-intensity farming, tea and coffee growing, mining operations and logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
142996	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phlogophilus harterti</em> is rare in the Andean foothills of central and south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (south Hu&aacute;nuco, Pasco, Cuzco and Puno), at 750-1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Its evergreen forests remain relatively intact, although extensive areas are subject to land clearance, agricultural conversion and logging, with associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
142997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
142999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143000	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heliodoxa gularis</em> occurs in the east Andean foothills of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca and Putumayo) and adjacent north-central <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo), with records from north <strong>Peru</strong> (Loreto, Amazonas and San Mart&iacute;n)<strong><sup>1,2,5,7,8</sup></strong>. It inhabits evergreen forest and forest edge at 250-1,050&#160;m, but most records are from higher areas within this elevational range<strong><sup>4,6,10</sup></strong>. These forests are under intense pressure from clearance for agriculture and cattle pasture, low-intensity farming, tea and coffee growing, mining operations and logging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although in north Peru, forests above 500&#160;m are largely intact<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143001	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143008	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Its entire range is formally protected by the Paria Peninsula National Park (375&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), but this has not entirely halted habitat degradation. The species is used as a symbol of conservation in villages adjacent to the park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Improve the protection and management of the national park<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Census populations on cerros Humo, Patao, El Olvido and Azul<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its ecological requirements<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate programmes to develop alternative agricultural techniques for villages adjacent to the national park<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct an impact assessment of the proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline before any construction work begins. <br/></p>	eng
143008	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylonympha macrocerca</em> is endemic to the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, with records from cerros Humo, Patao, El Olvido and Azul. The only post-1980 records are from cerros Humo and El Olvido, but the extent of remaining habitat on cerros Patao and Azul indicates that the species is still present. It remains locally common or even abundant. In 1988, 4-8 birds per hectare were estimated on Cerro El Olvido, suggesting a population of c.1,000 individuals east of Cerro Patao. In 1993, 1.9 birds per hectare were estimated on Cerro Humo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where there are c.15&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of intact habitat and additional areas of second growth. <br/></p>	eng
143008	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lower and upper montane humid forest, where it has been recorded at 800-1,200&#160;m on Cerro Humo, and 530-920&#160;m further east. It appears well-adapted to mature secondary forests and forest edge where its food-plants are present. In primary forest, it feeds mainly at bromeliad flowers and on their insect inhabitants, whereas in secondary forest, feeding is associated with the shrubs <em>Heliconia aurea</em> and <em>Costus</em> sp. It also hawks insects from exposed perches. There may be seasonal movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143008	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143008	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco", since the mid- to late 1980s have resulted in some uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. Cerros Humo and Patao have been worst affected (but this has not resulted in any discernible declines), with the east of the peninsula fairly undisturbed. A proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline on the peninsula is not currently judged economically viable, but remains a potential threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oreotrochilus adela</em> has a restricted range in the high Andes of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potos&iacute; and Chuquisaca, south-west <strong>Bolivia<sup>1</sup></strong>. There are also reports of breeding birds from <strong>Argentina</strong>. It inhabits arid montane scrub, <em>Polylepis</em> forest and disturbed habitats at 2,550-4,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. The main threats are heavy grazing by livestock and the uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation, especially where exotic tree species (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are planted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, are contributory factors. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143016	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
143017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143019	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143021	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to investigate the reported occurrence in the Llanganuco area. Determine the distribution of <em>A. cupripennis</em> to judge whether there are distributional gaps between the two hummingbirds where <em>A. aliciae</em> might occur<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the species's ecological requirements<sup>7</sup></strong>, in particular assessing the suitability of <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations as habitat. <strong>Investigate the species's taxonomic relationship with <em>A. cupripennis.</em> Safeguard the remaining habitat at the only known site. <br/></p>	eng
143021	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aglaeactis aliciae</em> is restricted to a tiny area of c. 1 km<sup>2</sup> in the upper Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage of La Libertad and Ancash, west <strong>Peru</strong>. Historical records come from Succha and nearby Soqui&aacute;n in La Libertad. The only location that has produced regular records in the period 1979-1998 is El Molino in La Libertad<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>, where (at least until 2003) the species was described as 'locally common'<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, there is a recent unconfirmed sighting from the Llanganuco area in Ancash<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, c.140 km south of the La Libertad sites.  In 2000, searches of alder patches in the Pataz area (between Buldibuyo, Tayabamba and Huacrachuco) produced no sightings<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
143021	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is known from the temperate zone (c.3,000 m) with vegetation comprising montane shrubs and <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, where it is found in the understorey of alder woodland<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  It feeds on mistletoe parasitising alders and other trees, e.g. <em>Tristerix longebrachteatum</em><strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It has also recently been reported to feed and roost in introduced <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees, although the species's degree of tolerance of  <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations (especially as breeding habitat) is unknown<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. However, the unconfirmed sighting in the Llanganuco area was in the <em>Polylepis</em> zone at 3,600-4,000 m. Juveniles and immatures have been taken in February, March and June. <br/></p>	eng
143021	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be small as the only known from c.178km2 of habitat.  <br/></p>	eng
143021	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The village of Molino is in a heavily populated area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and, given its extremely restricted range, this species is probably very vulnerable to habitat destruction.  In 2005 less than 1 ha of alder woodland remained in the Molino area, the remainder having been replaced with eucalyptus plantations providing timber for the mining industry<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  Similar habitat loss is occurring throughout the region<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  Alder woodland and montane shrubland is also impacted by cutting firewood and grazing livestock<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143027	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected at Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in relatively inaccessible and well forested parts of the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its ecology and breeding behaviour<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare a management plan for the species<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Augment conservation activities in Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect areas of the favoured habitat holding significant populations<sup>3,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143027	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Coeligena prunellei</em> occurs in <strong>Colombia </strong>on the west slope of the East Andes (Santander, Boyac&aacute;, Cundinamarca). A 1976 specimen of this species was incorrectly labelled as having been collected on the south-west slope of Volc&aacute;n Tolima in the Central Andes of Quind&iacute;o<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is locally common at Laguna de Pedropalo (Cundinimarca), Cerro Carare (Boyac&aacute;) and El Talisman and Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (Santander)<strong><sup>1,6,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143027	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is principally a species of humid montane forest, especially areas with a predominance of oak <em>Quercus humboldti</em> and <em>Trigonobalanus excelsa</em>. However, birds have also been recorded in open parkland and riverine gallery forest. Most observations have been at 1,675-2,500&#160;m, but it is known between 1,000 and 2,800&#160;m <strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Breeding is thought to take place between June and October. <br/></p>	eng
143027	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Velasquez-Tibata <em>et al</em>. (2005) used a habitat model to estimate the population at 4,070-8,720. <br/></p>	eng
143027	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The upper Magdalena valley and the Sagamosa drainage have been undergoing habitat loss, fragmentation and alteration since the 17th century<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The primary causes are human settlement and urbanisation, with associated logging and agricultural land-use including coffee and, to a lesser extent, plantain and sugarcane plantations and pastures<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. As a result, tiny remnant forest patches are restricted to steep slopes and along streams<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with the significant exception of Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, there are still extensive forests that are poorly known to ornithology in the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, west Boyac&aacute;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143030	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 2005, the Dusky Starfrontlet Bird Reserve was established by Fundacion ProAves, protecting over 5,000 acres of humid montane forest to p&aacute;ramo on the P&aacute;ramo de Frontino<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A research and visitor station was established in 2007 with research ongoing on the Dusky Starfrontlet (assessing population and ecological requirements)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are proposals by National Parks Administration (UAESPNN) and Municipality of Urrao to extend Las Orqu&iacute;deas National Park to encompass adjacent P&aacute;ramo de Frontino. However, the benefit such a designation would have is questionable as the park is currently poorly protected and under great pressure from illegal colonists.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue surveys to research the species's range, population size and trends. Support the proposed expansion of Las Orqu&iacute;deas National Park, and the Dusky Starfrontlet Reserve in the P&aacute;ramo de Frontino. Establish a management plan for P&aacute;ramo de Frontino and Dusky Starfrontlet Reserve. Lobby for the adequate protection of Las Orqu&iacute;deas National Park. Mobilise funds to facilitate law enforcement within the National Park and extensions to it.	eng
143030	distribution		This species has a very restricted range, being known from two tiny forest fragments at P&aacute;ramo Frontino and Farallones del Citar&aacute; in north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. There are only five other localities in the entire western Andes that retain suitable habitat. The combined area of all potentially suitable sites is thought to be less than 25 km<sup>2</sup>. Therefore, the species's global population is unlikely to exceed 250 individuals.	eng
143030	habitat		It is apparently tied to elfin forest-timberline-p&aacute;ramo habitats and adjacent tall humid forest. At 3,500 m it was seen feeding on insects in the Ericaceae-clad canopy of elforest. Stomach content analysis has shown that it feeds on parasitic wasps, spiders and dipterans; presumably in addition to nectar. Very little is known about its habits and breeding ecology.	eng
143030	population		Krabbe <em>et al</em>. (2005).	eng
143031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143033	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143038	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began restoring habitat in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Conservation is being led by the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands Conservancy, with support from the American Bird Conservancy, Conservation International, the Hummingbird Society, the Jeniam Foundation, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Key activities which have already taken place are<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>: the hiring of two island residents as project coordinators; control of invasive plants and herbivores<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (including volunteer programmes for island residents to participate in invasive plant removal), which appears to increase nesting success of the species; invasive predator control (including cat control in the town on Robinson Crusoe); habitat restoration in native forest; a community outreach programme aimed at engaging local people<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and including environmental education programmes for local schoolchildren; as well as population surveys and monitoring of active nests, phenology and reproductive success. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to monitor the population using a quantitative census methodology that allows for statistical comparisons between surveys. Remove all introduced mammals, initially within an intensively managed, fenced, feasibility study area<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Replant native flora (including a 10 ha plot with shrubs that flower throughout the year) in areas free of introduced rabbits and cattle, initially within the feasibility study area but also at forest edges<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce grazing restrictions on national park land<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Evaluate feasibility of establishing feeding stations in native forest. Replant fast-growing, soil-binding trees along highly eroded slopes for short-term relief<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement systematic introduced plant control zonally<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to support ongoing efforts to remove alien invasive plants and mammalian predators, and increase awareness. <br/></p>	eng
143038	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Sephanoides fernandensis</em> is endemic to the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>, where the nominate race is confined to c.11 km<sup>2</sup> on Isla Robinson Crusoe. The race <em>leyboldi</em> is believed extinct on Isla Alejandro Selkirk, where it has not been recorded since 1908. Historical records indicate that densities on Robinson Crusoe were formerly much greater than the 684 individuals (varying between 804 birds in the austral summer and 445 in autumn) estimated in 1988-1989. Direct count surveys in 1995-1997 indicated that the population is in the low hundreds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, more thorough surveys conducted in 2005 and repeated in 2006, coupled with quantitative modelling, estimated population densities in different habitats and concluded that the global population is considerably larger: c.2,500-3,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143038	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits remnant native forests, on which it appears to be completely dependent for breeding (there is a strong negative correlation between the presence of non-native vegetation and the location of nests<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>), but also utilises non-native plant communities during the non-breeding season, feeding on introduced plants, such as <em>Eucalyptus</em> <em>globulus</em> and garden flowers. This usage of non-native plants is especially common in the austral autumn and winter when only one native species (<em>Raphithamnus venustus</em>) flowers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is mostly nectarivorous, but small insects are taken from leaves or in flight.  The proportion of insects in the diet increases during the chick-rearing period.  The sex ratio is heavily skewed, with three males to every female<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may experience competition with <em>S. sephaniodes</em>, especially over access to <em>Dendroseris litoralis</em> flowers post-breeding<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Hodum <em>in litt</em>. (2007). <br/></p>	eng
143038	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The clearance and degradation of vegetation by humans since the late 16th century and the impacts of herbivorous mammals (especially rabbits introduced in the 1930s) has limited the availability, quantity and quality of food resources. Habitat quality is also being degraded by the spread and dominance of invasive plants, most prominently by elm-leaf blackberry <em>Rubus ulmifolius</em>, maqui <em>Aristotelia chilensis</em> and murtilla <em>Ugni molinae</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Introduced predators, such as rats, cats and coatis, have been implicated in the mortality of some birds and may be responsible in part for its decline<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Cats have been documented killing firecrowns in town during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. As is true with many island species, firecrowns are easily approached, thus rendering them highly susceptible to predation.  Additionally, during its nocturnal torpor, this species is presumed to be very vulnerable to predation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Males are able to defend territories with highly productive resources, but the smaller females are possibly being indirectly outcompeted by <em>S. sephaniodes</em><strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Preliminary analyses of the population have revealed some genetic variation, but significantly less than in <em>S. sephaniodes</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143040	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143046	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate additional populations. Assess the current status and extent of suitable habitat. Designate reserves in the south Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<sup>6</sup></strong> and Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand (and effectively protect) Alto Mayo Protected Forest to include the Abra Patricia locality<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143046	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heliangelus regalis</em> is known from four disjunct areas in north <strong>Peru</strong>: above San Jos&eacute; de Lourdes in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, Cajamarca; north-east of Jirillo, San Mart&iacute;n; Abra Patricia, San Mart&iacute;n; and north of the village of San Cristobal in the south Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, Amazonas<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. It has been found commonly at the latter site and San Jos&eacute; de Lourdes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has also recently been reported from the Cordillera Azul<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and further surveys may find it on Ecuadorian parts of the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor. <br/></p>	eng
143046	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical elfin forest edge and shrubbery, often in areas of regular fire disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs at 1,750&#160;m-1,950&#160;m in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, 1,800-2,200&#160;m in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, 1,900&#160;m at Abra Patricia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and 1,450&#160;m near Jirillo. In the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, males favour higher altitudes than females, at least during the dry season, and feed on different plant species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The preferred nectar-source for males is apparently <em>Brachyotum quinquenerve</em>, and females in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n feed mainly from ericaceous plants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is partially insectivorous. Specimens taken in July had active gonads indicative of breeding, but no evidence of breeding was found during surveys in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n in August<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143046	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10.0-20.0 individuals/km2 x 412 km2 (20% EOO) = 4,120-8,240 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of six estimates for five species of similar-sized, high altitude hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143046	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland adjacent to elfin forest (to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock) has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and continues to destroy large areas of the species's habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Even the large areas of relatively undisturbed habitat that remain are increasingly under threat<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Most forest in the southern Cordillera de Col&aacute;n has already gone, with remnants being rapidly cleared for cash-crops, particularly marijuana and coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The proximity of cultivated land to the San Jos&eacute; de Lourdes site suggests that other types of agriculture represent a potential threat. <br/></p>	eng
143047	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measure known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search both slopes of the East and Central Andes in appropriate habitat at 1,400-2,200&#160;m.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143047	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heliangelus zusii</em> is known from a single trade-skin purchased in 1909 in Bogot&aacute;, and speculated to have been collected on the East Andes or possibly the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, within a few hundred kilometres of the capital. However, some "Bogot&aacute;" specimens came from as far away as Ecuador<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since no other specimen is known, it is assumed to be (or have been) a relict species of restricted range. <em> </em>However, the validity of this taxon is sometimes questioned<strong><sup>e.g.1</sup></strong>. Much habitat in the Colombian East and Central Andes has been extensively degraded, particularly within the lower limits of this species's presumed elevational range. However, its probable habitat preferences suggest that it is not inconceivable that a remnant population may persist. Although previously treated as Critical, a recent re-evaluation of poorly known, possibly extinct Critical species and Data Deficient species has indicated that this taxon is best treated as Data Deficient at present.  <br/></p>	eng
143047	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heliangelus</em> spp. typically occur in cloud-forest and shrubbery at elevations of 1,200-3,400&#160;m, mostly at 1,400-2,200&#160;m. <br/></p>	eng
143047	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Much habitat in the Colombian East and Central Andes has been extensively degraded, particularly within the lower limits of this species's presumed elevational range. However, its probable habitat preferences suggest that it is not inconceivable that a remnant population may persist.  <br/></p>	eng
143048	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Media coverage of recent research on the species and threats to its habitat has encouraged the authorities to control access and forbid charcoal production at Yanacocha<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The area was subsequently purchased by the Jocotoco Foundation and protects c.1000 ha of key habitat for the species. An additional 26 ha has recently been purchased adjacent to the reserve for reforestation (of native cloudforest) for a carbon offsetting scheme by Bird Holidays, a birdwatching tour company<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The neighbouring private reserve Hacienda Verdecocha protects an additional 1,200 ha of optimal habitat. A large part of the unexplored primary forest of Volc&aacute;n Pichincha's western slopes are protected by Bosque Protector Mindo-Nambillo reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Western slopes of the Cordillera de Tois&aacute;n are protected within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was developed in 2007 and published in 2008<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and actions so far have included a community and stakeholder outreach programme in Pichincha province, the formation of a Local Conservation Group, production and distribution of environmental education materials, reforestation activities on cattle pastures and other degraded lands on the Hacienda Verdecocha and Yanacocha Reserves and initiation of a standardised bird monitoring programme, while project proposals for livelihood alternatives have been developed and presented to potential donors. The species was designated the 'emblematic bird of Quito' in 2005.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Expand awareness campaigns to other areas, particularly the &Iacute;ntag valley and the Volc&aacute;n Atacazo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Implement recently-developed management plans to improve protection of the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and the Protective Forest Mindo-Nambillo through law enforcement against illegal logging, hunting, and colonisation inside the reserves, and sustainable management projects in their buffer zones<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Survey unexplored forest tracts, particularly the western slope of Volc&aacute;n Pichincha, Volc&aacute;n Atacazo and the main massif of the Tois&aacute;n<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>. Identify key sites for new community and private reserves<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Lobby for legislation prohibiting mining in the Cordillera de Tois&aacute;n<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Provide local people with alternative incomes that to do not damage the species's habitat<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, and develop and implement an endowment fund strategy for conservation easements<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Continue to reforest degraded lands and re-establish biological corridors to guarantee connectivity between remnant forest fragments and continuous habitat<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Pre-emptively restore native woody vegetation in at least 30% of grass p&aacute;ramo within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Volc&aacute;n Pichincha, and Volc&aacute;n Atacazo over the next 25 years in anticipation of future climate change<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Monitor changes in habitat on a five-yearly basis<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Carry out studies on feeder-transmitted diseases<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
143048	distribution		This species is found seasonally on the northern and north-western ridge-crests of Volc&aacute;n Pichincha, Pichincha, and in the Cordillera de Tois&aacute;n above the Int&aacute;g valley, Esmeraldas and Imbabura, north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. On Volc&aacute;n Pichincha, the area of suitable habitat where the species is known to occur has been dramatically reduced to c.34 km<sup>2</sup>, and supports an estimated 160 individuals. However, it may also occur on the unstudied western slope of the volcano where additional habitat remains. In 2006, a small population was rediscovered in the Cordillera de Tois&aacute;n above the Int&aacute;g valley. It may still occur on Volc&aacute;n Atacazo, but the only confirmed evidence concerns three specimens from 1898, with a possible sighting in 1983. The global population has been estimated at 250-999 individuals, with a known Extent of Occurrence of just 68 km<sup>2 <strong>12</strong></sup>. Available records suggest that it is an altitudinal migrant, but its movements remain poorly understood and appear to have changed since it was first collected<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The large number of museum specimens (over 100) suggests it was formerly more common, but the only confirmed record between 1950 and 1993 was of three individuals in 1980. It has clearly declined and is now rare within a very limited range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
143048	habitat		It inhabits humid and wet cloud forest, and especially high-Andean montane forest, including elfin forest and forest borders at 1,700-3,500 m<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. It is uncertain whether historical records at up to 4,700 m are due to mislabelling or whether they indicate that habitat structure and plant species composition of p&aacute;ramos has considerably changed over the last century<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. Black-breasted Puffleg historically seemed to be most numerous between 2,400-3,050 m from April to September and above 3,100 m from November to February during the presumed breeding season. In recent years, most records were obtained between 2,850 and 3,500 m, with dispersing immatures occurring as low as 1,700 m<strong><sup>4,5,7,11</sup></strong>. It has recently been recorded along bushy forest edges along road sides, steep slopes with stunted vegetation and from taller montane forest interiors and clearings<strong><sup>4,5,7,10</sup></strong>. Although it is more of a generalist than previously reported, seasonal altitudinal migrations are thought to be determined by the seasonal flowering of specific vines and species such as fuchsias and ericaceous trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It has been recorded using 27 different species of food-plants, thus it is not believed to be restricted in range owing to dietary constraints<strong><sup>4,5,7</sup></strong>.	eng
143048	population		Jahn (2008).	eng
143049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143050	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Searches specifically for this species at a large number of potential sites in the vicinity of the type-locality have been unsuccessful. Further searches are planned for 2010<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey any remnant patches of habitat near the type-locality. Clarify its taxonomic status.</strong>	eng
143050	distribution		<em>Eriocnemis godini</em> is known from only six 19th century specimens, and may be extinct. Only the type-specimen has any locality information, having been taken at Guaillabamba, in ravines of the r&iacute;o Guaillabamba south of Perucho, Pichincha, in north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Two "Bogot&aacute;" trade-skins are the only evidence of its occurrence in Colombia, but it has been suggested that these originated from Pasto in south Nari&ntilde;o. The only subsequent record is an unconfirmed sighting near Quito, in the Chillo valley, in 1976.	eng
143050	habitat		It was recorded at the type-locality between 2,100 and 2,300 m in a (presumably) arid ravine within a valley. It has been speculated that the "Bogot&aacute;" trade-skins may have inhabited temperate zones.	eng
143050	population		Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no confirmed records since the 19th century.	eng
143051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143052	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eriocnemis cupreoventris</em> occurs from the M&eacute;rida mountains, north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, south along both slopes of the East Andes to Cundinamarca, north-east <strong>Colombia<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is apparently uncommon<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong> in montane and elfin forest borders, p&aacute;ramo vegetation with scattered low shrubs and, in Cundinamarca, secondary scrub<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (nesting in dense vegetation), at 1,950-3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its habitats in the Colombian East Andes have been extensively degraded, with forest in its lower elevational range, on the western slope, largely cleared for intensive crop cultivation and pasture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Deforestation is locally severe in M&eacute;rida and T&aacute;chira, Venezuela, primarily owing to agricultural colonisation, with many areas of p&aacute;ramo and forest already cleared for commercial and subsistence cultivation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143055	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The type-locality is in Munchique National Park, but logging occurs within the park boundaries. The replanting of lulo fruits is being encouraged, with workshops targeting local communities located in impact zones. These are designed to involve communities in conservation efforts and enable technology transfers in integrated pest-management practices<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Funding from Swarovski Optik allowed the purchase of 5,000 acres of forest which could potentially hold the species. There are plans to extend the reserve by planting key tree species. The Hummingbird Conservancy is supporting research on the ecology and population dynamics of this species both in Munchique and Serrania del Pinche<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey other areas of suitable habitat in Cauca. Research its status and annual ecological requirements at the type-locality<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to support the establishment and expansion of the newly formed reserve. Designate additional areas of suitable habitat as reserves. Improve the protection of Munchique National Park. Carry out habitat restoration in Munchique National Park.</strong>	eng
143055	distribution		This species was until recently only known from the vicinity of the type-locality, Cerro Charguayaco, north-east of Cerro Munchique on the Pacific slope of the west Andes in Cauca, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. It was known from four specimens (collected in 1967) and two observations (one doubtful), before being rediscovered at the type-locality in 1997. It appears to be uncommon and incredibly localised, and perhaps difficult to detect; despite not being found further than 300 m from the type-locality during extensive searches within a c.3 km radius at various altitudes,<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> it has now been found elsewhere in Munchique National Park<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It has now also been discovered in the Serrania del Pinche (2,800-3,000 m, with c500 ha of suitable habitat), c.30 km south of the type locality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and at El Planch&oacute;n in the Cordillera Occidental, Cauca Department<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Males have been observed in April, June-August and November, and females in February-April, July and November<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Other areas of suitable habitat do exist in less accessible areas of the west Andes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
143055	habitat		Preliminary studies suggest that it favours the understorey to mid-levels (to c.5 m) of lower montane, wet forest, feeding in the forest interior and edges. It is unclear whether the patchy distribution of both sexes throughout the year is due to seasonal altitudinal movements or the paucity of field studies at the type-locality<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has now been recorded from 2,200-3,000 m at least. It feeds on the nectar of <em>Burmeistera killipii, B. ceratocarpa, Clusia spp. </em>and <em>Palicourea angustifolia</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
143055	population		After extensive searches this species has now been recorded away from the type locality. However, it has a small occupied range in montane forest fragments that are threatened with clearance and it occurs at low densities at these sites. Therefore a very small population size is suspected.	eng
143056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143057	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eriocnemis derbyi</em> has a disjunct range in the Central Andes of south <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o), and on both slopes of the Andes in extreme north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Carchi)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and local in humid forest edge, second growth, bushy partially open pastures and ravines at 2,500-3,600&#160;m, but usually above 2,900&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Though tolerant of some habitat degradation, it apparently prefers borders of montane forest and low scrub at the timberline. Within its patchy distribution, these habitats have been severely deforested over several centuries to the extent that most, if not all, forest has been cleared in many areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143058	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haplophaedia lugens</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south to Pichincha)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is locally common to uncommon in premontane to montane evergreen forest, forest edge and occasionally scrub, at 1,100-2,500&#160;m <strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Uncontrolled colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten the remaining forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1984, it was not rare within importations into West Germany<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143062	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143068	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143069	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in three protected areas, Las Cajas National Recreation Area, and Llaviuco<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and R&iacute;o Maz&aacute;n reserves. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for the species in p&aacute;ramos around Cuenca. Research its ecology. Assess the status of known populations. Ensure effective protection of habitat in Las Cajas National Recreation Area<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old, high-yield agricultural techniques<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Educate and encourage local people to take the lead in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143069	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Metallura baroni</em> occurs on both slopes of the inter-Andean plateau west of Cuenca, Azuay province, south <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Its population was estimated at over 2,000 in 1992, when it was considered to be declining. Conservation measures have been implemented within one key area, R&iacute;o Maz&aacute;n, where the population was thought to be stable, at 50-100 birds, in 1986. <br/></p>	eng
143069	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to the edge of the p&aacute;ramo zone in elfin forest and treeline shrubbery, and open p&aacute;ramo, generally near <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, at 3,150-3,700&#160;m. Its ecology is poorly known. A nest with one egg was found in April<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143069	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Collar <em>et al</em>. (1992). <br/></p>	eng
143069	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced by unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning of high-Andean habitats, during the colonial period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland, adjacent to elfin forest, to promote growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and destroyed large areas of this species's habitat, and is ongoing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. For the same reasons, <em>Polylepis</em> forest is one of the most threatened habitats in South America, having been reduced to isolated fragments within its historical range throughout the Andes<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Other threats include firewood-gathering and potato cultivation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143070	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Metallura odomae</em> is relatively common within three areas of southernmost <strong>Ecuador</strong> (including Podocarpus National Park), and on Cerro Chinguela, north <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura), at 2,850-3,350&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,4,5,6</sup></strong>. It occurs in elfin forest, forest edge and scrub where, despite its reasonable numerical abundance, it may be vulnerable owing to its highly restricted distribution<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. The Cerro Chinguela p&aacute;ramo is grazed by small numbers of cattle, and burnt annually by local herders, which must adversely affect various species of grasses and shrubs, possibly affecting population size and distribution<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, no burning or grazing occurs within its known range in Podocarpus National Park. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143070	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
143071	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143074	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143076	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Cerro Tetari is formally protected by Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park, Venezuela, but there is no active management<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Cerro Pintado lies to the north of the park, but the inhabitants of the Villanueva village, Colombia, attempt to protect the natural habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estimate the population size<sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its ecological requirements<sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess habitat availability using aerial photographs<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Manage and effectively protect Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park<sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143076	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Metallura iracunda</em> occurs on the cerros Pintado and Tetari, and probably Sabana Rubia, in the Sierra de Perij&aacute; on the border of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Guajira) and <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Zulia)<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143076	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits small areas of open p&aacute;ramo vegetation near summits<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Cerro Pintado comprises karstic limestone covered by elfin forest, <em>Swallenochloa</em> bamboo and grass p&aacute;ramo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Cerro Tetari is sandstone and supports a different type of p&aacute;ramo vegetation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It occurs at elevations of 2,800-3,200&#160;m <strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but apparently as low as 1,850&#160;m in Venezuela<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143076	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 50-130 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 332 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 16,600-43,160 individuals (density range from one congener in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 20,000-49,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143076	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat on the lower slopes of the Sierra de Perij&aacute; is severely threatened by narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation, which are all facilitated by the many roads approaching the sierra from the Colombian side<strong><sup>5,7,8</sup></strong>. However, Cerro Tetari remains as yet unaffected by these developments<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Only patches of montane forest remain on the steepest slopes of the Cerro Pintado<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Forest is still being lost to burning and cultivation of papaver. Hunting pressure is very high and impacts are crossing the border into Venezuela. Security problems are making access very difficult<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143084	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat between known sites<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the population status at known sites<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the biology and habitat preferences of the species<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect known sites<sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143084	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Taphrolesbia griseiventris</em> occurs in the Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is known from seven localities, two on the Pacific slope in Cajamarca, and five in the r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage in Cajamarca and Hu&aacute;nuco. There have been only five records since 1950: in Cajamarca, two males where the main road from Cajamarca to the coast crosses to the Pacific slope, in the early 1990s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; a female feeding nestlings in February 1999, near the r&iacute;o Chonta, south-east of Cajamarca<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; a female nest-building above Sucre, south-west of Celend&iacute;n in February 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; in Hu&aacute;nuco, near Cullcui in 1983 (where it was also recorded in 1922)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; and three or more seen at the bridge where the Hu&aacute;nuco-La Uni&oacute;n road crosses the r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n, in 1975 (but not subsequently, despite several searches)<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Two collecting localities near Cajamarca and one near Cajabamba have produced the greatest number of specimens, but the species has not been seen at any of these sites recently. <br/></p>	eng
143084	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in semi-arid country, rocky areas and deep canyons mainly at elevations of 2,750-3,170&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In less disturbed areas, it apparently inhabits steep, dry slopes with cacti, agaves, bromeliads, shrubs and other xerophytic plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been observed in areas described as partly cultivated, through to heavily cultivated land with many <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Two nests (one in construction) were found in February 1999, each concealed in the overhang of road cuttings<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143084	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km2 x 413 km2 (10% EOO) = 413-826 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range extrapolated from estimates for other rare hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO as only known to occur very patchily within its range) <br/></p>	eng
143084	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has apparently disappeared from the most heavily populated areas within its range. It seems to tolerate some degree of habitat alteration, but whether it can complete its life-cycle or occur at normal densities in heavily cultivated areas is not known.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143087	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Augastes lumachella</em> is restricted to Bahia, between Morro do Chap&eacute;u, Andar&aacute;i and Barra da Estiva, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, at elevations of 950-1,600 m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is fairly common in areas of arid and semi-arid montane scrub (<em>campo rupestre</em>) that are rich in cacti, bromeliads, Velloziaceae and orchids, but its restricted range renders it vulnerable to any form of disturbance<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in the region in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. The principal threat is now increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143088	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Augastes scutatus</em> is relatively common in the Serra do Espinha&ccedil;o, north Minas Gerais, from Montes Claros, Gr&atilde;o Mogol and Diamantina, to Serra do Cip&oacute;, Belo Horizonte, Ouro Preto and Conselheiro Lafaiete, in east-central <strong>Brazil<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The hundreds of specimens from old collecting expeditions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> suggest that it was formerly more common. There are two distinct races with differing habitat requirements: <em>scutatus</em> in arid montane scrub and on rocky outcrops within undulating grassland at 900-2,000&#160;m; and <em>ilseae</em> in gallery forest at 1,000-1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in the 19th century and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. The principal threat is now increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching, with its restricted range rendering it vulnerable to any form of disturbance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143093	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, but no other measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate additional sites for the species. Survey to investigate its potential occurrence west of the r&iacute;o Utcubamba<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Estimate the population near Florida. Protect remaining forests in the Cordillera del Col&aacute;n<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop initiatives to reduce the impact of hunting. <br/></p>	eng
143093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loddigesia mirabilis</em> is uncommon and restricted to the eastern slopes of the r&iacute;o Utcubamba valley (an affluent on the right bank of the r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n) in the Cordillera del Col&aacute;n, Amazonas, and one locality further east in San Mart&iacute;n, north <strong>Peru<sup>4</sup></strong>. On the slopes above the r&iacute;o Utcubamba, it is known from three areas (north and south-east of Leimebamba, the Chachapoyas area and Florida, on the shore of Lago Pomacochas), but the only recent records are from Florida<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, a male recorded near Jes&uacute;s del Monte, San Mart&iacute;n, in 1987<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> indicates that there is much to learn about the species's distribution. In the 1960s, it was reported to have occurred at c.15 localities west of the r&iacute;o Utcubamba in Luya province, but there is no supporting evidence. It appears to occur at low densities and numbers seem to have dwindled around Florida. <br/></p>	eng
143093	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in forest edge, second growth, montane scrub and, in particular, thorny, impenetrable <em>Rubus</em> thickets admixed with <em>Alnus</em> trees, at 2,100-2,900&#160;m (occasionally 1,700-3,700&#160;m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its preferred food-plant is the red-flowered lily <em>Alstroemeria</em> (<em>Bomarea</em>)<em> formosissima</em>, but it has been observed feeding on at least five species of flowering plant<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The breeding season is thought to run from late October to early May. Adult males (which are greatly outnumbered by females and immature males) gather at leks where they display to attract females. <br/></p>	eng
143093	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10.0-20.0 individuals/km2 x 49 km2 (45% EOO) = 490-980 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range lowest to lower quartile of six estimates for five species of similar-sized, high altitude hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143093	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation is widespread on the mountain slopes of the Cordillera del Col&aacute;n, with much habitat cleared since 1978, and remaining forest under threat of conversion to cash-crops such as marijuana and coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the species's apparent preference for forest edge and isolated woodlots on steep slopes may reduce its vulnerability to habitat alteration. Interviews with Florida's inhabitants and enquiries in a nearby market town have revealed that dried hearts of the males of this species are believed to have aphrodisiac properties<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Hunting with slingshots for this reason may even explain the skewed sexual ratio<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143103	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Doricha eliza</em> occurs in <strong>Mexico</strong> and has two disjunct populations: one in central Veracruz, and one on the northern fringe of the Yucat&aacute;n peninsula. A recent review found no morphological differences between the two populations, but there are distinct ecological differences<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Yucat&aacute;n population is found exclusively in a narrow (c.1 km wide) strip along the coast, mainly in the ecotone between mangroves and tropical deciduous forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but also breeds in gardens and urban areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in three protected areas (Biosphere Reserves R&iacute;a Lagartos and R&iacute;o Celest&uacute;n, and Special Biosphere Reserve Bocas de Dzil&aacute;m de Bravo), and may not be under any immediate threat, although the rapid development of tourism in this area could lead to habitat degradation. The Veracruz population occurs in undisturbed, dry deciduous forest and overgrazed habitats c.25 km inland<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Severe habitat degradation is continuing in this area as a result of livestock grazing and sugar cane cultivation, and the population must be tiny, and declining<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143114	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mellisuga helenae</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba</strong> and formerly Isla de la Juventud, with a patchy distribution including Habana, Sierra de Anafe, Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Zapata Swamp, Moa, Mayar&iacute; and the coast of Guant&aacute;namo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is found primarily in coastal forests and forest edge, but also in mountain valleys, forests of the interior, swamplands and gardens<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although formerly common and widespread, it is now rare and localised<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This is principally the result of habitat modification and destruction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Much of Cuba's natural vegetation has been converted to cultivation and pasture for cattle, with only 15-20% of land remaining in its natural state<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the recent expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production poses a further serious threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143120	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. All exports of hummingbirds from Peru and Chile are controlled.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess whether it breeds in valleys other than Lluta and Azapa. Identify the native plants favoured by the species. Study whether it is adapted to feeding on garden flowers. Research whether it is an altitudinal migrant and, if so, the limits of its seasonal range. Investigate the possibility of protecting important remnant habitat patches in the Lluta and Azapa valleys. Conduct an education campaign to emphasize the importance of native plants, and encourage the planting of appropriate trees and bushes. <br/></p>	eng
143120	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eulidia yarrellii</em> is only known to breed regularly in the Lluta and Azapa valleys, Arica department, extreme north <strong>Chile</strong>. According to satellite images, these are the only two valleys in the region with fairly continuous vegetation from the coast up to the montane region and, if this is an ecological requisite, viable populations would be restricted to the two valleys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Stragglers have been found north to Tacna and possibly Moquegua departments, south <strong>Peru</strong>, and there is a historical record as far south as north Antofagasta province. It was described as very common in the first half of the 20th century, with over 100 seen feeding together. More recent surveys have found the species to be scarce to locally common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it is unclear whether this reflects a serious decline or previous observers finding suitable flowering trees. <br/></p>	eng
143120	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits small remnant patches of native scrub in desert river valleys up to 750&#160;m, and once at 2,600&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is postulated that it migrates altitudinally, and may require fairly continuous vegetation along rivers to undertake such movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has often been reported feeding in gardens, particularly on <em>Lantana</em> and <em>Hibiscus</em> flowers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it is comparatively rare in such habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite the large numbers formerly seen feeding in flowering trees, it is usually a solitary feeder. Nests containing eggs or almost fully fledged chicks have been found in late August. <br/></p>	eng
143120	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estades <em>in litt. </em>2007 estimated 650 individuals in Azapa population and 550 in Vitor. <br/></p>	eng
143120	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining native habitat in the heavily cultivated Lluta and Azapa valleys is confined to small patches, and the indigenous plants favoured by the species may be severely threatened. This is all the more concerning if it is less adapted to feeding on garden flowers than previously thought.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143123	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in R&iacute;o &Ntilde;amb&iacute; Community Nature Reserve (Nari&ntilde;o), R&iacute;o Palenque Reserve (Pichincha), Loma Alta Ecological Reserve, Podocarpus National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Machalilla National Park. Machalilla is the largest of the four, but lacks effective protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for the species, especially in parts of its range where habitat remains, but recent records are few (Peru, central Ecuador, east Andean slopes throughout). Effectively protect Machalilla National Park. <br/></p>	eng
143123	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chaetocercus bombus</em> has historically been recorded from central <strong>Peru</strong> (seven departments from La Libertad and Hu&aacute;naco in the south), on both slopes of the Andes north through Andean and west-central lowland <strong>Ecuador</strong> (14 provinces) to south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o), where it was recently discovered and is thought to be seasonal<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It was once common, but has declined significantly, and very few have been recorded in recent years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although several were reported recently from northern Peru<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. During the 1990s, studies have found it to be uncommon in Machalilla National Park, Manab&iacute;, Ecuador<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and common in the newly established Loma Alta Ecological Reserve (7.5 km<sup>2</sup>), Guayas, Ecuador<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143123	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found between sea-level and 3,050&#160;m, in humid evergreen forest and, more commonly, in the transitional zone between dry and wet forests. It appears to make seasonal or occasional movements, perhaps in response to continental rainfall patterns or El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation events<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143123	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,940 km<sup>2</sup> (2% EOO) = 2,646-5,292 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 16 estimates for nine species of similar-sized forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; AOO taken as low % of EOO, since only a fraction of its severely fragmented range is likely to be occupied). <br/></p>	eng
143123	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in western Ecuador over the period 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. High levels of habitat loss are continuing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest if effective action is not taken urgently. In higher parts of the species' range, rates of habitat destruction are not as great, but logging, conversion of land for agriculture and plantations are causing loss and degradation of forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143126	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Machalilla National Park, but this provides inadequate protection. The 7.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Loma Alta Ecological Reserve receives local community support as a watershed reserve and conservation area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest may support the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remnant moist forest in the Colonche hills. Determine its status on Isla de la Plata. Exclude roaming livestock from Machalilla<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Prevent further loss and degradation of habitat within Machalilla. Map and protect forest within the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche<sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage ecotourism at Loma Alta Ecological Reserve to benefit financially local people<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143126	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chaetocercus berlepschi</em> is restricted to a small area of west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Manab&iacute; and Guayas), where it is very rare and localised (2-3 known sites). Very little suitable habitat remains, and the species's distribution is extremely fragmented. Small numbers persist south of the r&iacute;o Ayampe, Machalilla National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Guayas, in December-March, but it is apparently absent during other months. In 1993, it was found near S&uacute;a, Esmeraldas, in an area severely threatened by logging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and, in 1998, one male was recorded on Isla de la Plata<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. An unidentified <em>Chaetocercus </em>found at Loma Alta Ecological Reserve, Guayas, in the early 1990s is probably this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143126	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	While apparently restricted to lowland, evergreen, moist forest for most of the year, it has been recorded in the canopy of semi-humid second growth (at 50-150&#160;m), in December-March<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, when it apparently breeds. It has not been recorded in this habitat at other times of year, and there is no evidence concerning its long-term ability to survive in such forest. Patchy moist forest occurs in the vicinity of these sightings.</p>	eng
143126	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-1.8 individuals/km2 x 207 km2 (45% EOO) = 186-373, but probably best placed in band 250-999 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 16 estimates for nine species of similar-sized forest hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143126	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	All forest-types within its range have greatly diminished owing to logging and agricultural clearance<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Persistent grazing by goats and cattle damages the understorey, prevents regeneration and is a serious current threat<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Rapid habitat loss continues, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all extant forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Even in Machalilla, its habitat is threatened by illegal settlement, deforestation, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people with land rights<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143133	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Serran&iacute;a de Tabasar&aacute; sites are unprotected, but there are proposals for the legal protection in the Santa Fe area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Cerro Hoya National Park protects the possible population on the Azuero Peninsula<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify its actual distribution, abundance and habitat requirements. Determine the identify of the birds on the Azuero Peninsula. Protect Cerro Colorado and Cerro Tute<sup>9.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143133	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Selasphorus ardens</em> is restricted to west and central <strong>Panama</strong> in the Serran&iacute;a de Tabasar&aacute; (east Chiriqu&iacute; and Veraguas provinces) and possibly the highlands of Azuero Peninsula. In Chiriqu&iacute;, it has been recorded on Cerro Flores and Cerro Colorado (adjacent peaks in the Cerro Santiago massif), but recently only from Cerro Colorado<strong><sup>5,7,9</sup></strong>. In Veraguas, there are records from Cerro Tute (a few sightings in the 1980s), Calov&eacute;vora (presumably Pico Calovevora just north of Santa Fe) and an unnamed locality (possibly Santa Fe itself) in the Santa Fe area<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is poorly known, seemingly uncommon and difficult to locate (perhaps increasingly so<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). In 1994, <em>Selasphorus</em> hummingbirds were mist-netted and a specimen taken on Cerro Hoya, in the Azuero Peninsula, Los Santos<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. These records probably refer to this species, but there is some doubt concerning their identification<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143133	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found mainly in shrubby growth in clearings and forest borders at elevations of 750-1,850&#160;m.</p>	eng
143133	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 300 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 300-600 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range extrapolated from estimates for other rare hummingbirds in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143133	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The known localities are as yet largely untouched by human activities<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, only isolated patches of forest are left in east Chiriqu&iacute; and the Serran&iacute;a de Tabasar&aacute; is generally threatened by clearance for coffee plantations, cattle-grazing, over-use of pesticides and fires<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be plentiful through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143137	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in the Shimba Hills National Park<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On Zanzibar, 44% of the population is found within protected areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys across the species's range to obtain a new total population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to track population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation across its range. Monitor rates of trapping. Monitor levels of trade. Enforce, extend and tighten quotas for trade in the species. Consider uplisting the species to CITES Appendix I. Increase the number of protected areas that incorporate the species's habitat. Enforce existing laws on Zanzibar demanding payment for timber harvesting on public land<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Create plantations as a source of firewood on Zanzibar<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Use<em> T. fischeri</em> as a flagship species in awareness campaigns, at least on Zanzibar<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
143137	distribution		<em>Tauraco fischeri</em> inhabits coastal and riverine forest and woodland in <strong>Kenya</strong>, north-eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong> and southern <strong>Somalia</strong>. In Kenya and Tanzania, it is frequent to common<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong> in coastal forests from Boni south to Tanga, inland along the Tana River, and up to 1,500 m in the Usambara Mountains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> where a population of over 1,000 individuals is thought to reside<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>T. f. zanzibaricus</em>, endemic to Zanzibar<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, was thought to number only 25-50 birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but following surveys in June-July 2001 the population has been estimated at c.1,400 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Somalia, there are now probably fewer than 50 individuals left<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, all in the lower Jubba valley, where up to 80% of the riverine forest has been cleared in less than 30 years<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>; there is thus little hope that the species will persist there. The total population is unknown but assumed to be 2,500-9,999 individuals. Although a limited time series of data suggests the population is Eastern Usambara is stable<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, the population as a whole is probably declining due to trapping and the clearance of coastal forests<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
143137	habitat		This species inhabits forest and wooded thickets, favouring a canopy and sub-canopy of mature fruiting trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Although sometimes recorded in degraded habitats, e.g. cultivated areas with a few remaining trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, it is not clear whether populations can persist without tracts of intact forest<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It primarily feeds on fruit, in particular the berries of <em>Pachystela brevipes</em>, but also takes flower buds, young leaf shoots and insects<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Its nest is a fragile platform of twigs placed in a tree 3-10 m above the ground. It lays two eggs, and the incubation period is 22-23 days<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
143137	population		The total population was thought to be very small, at no more than 2,500 birds (D. A. Turner <em>in litt.</em> 1999), but the recently revised population estimate of c.1,400 individuals for Zanzibar and over 1,000 in the Eastern Usambara, Tanzania (Borghesio and Ndang'ang'a 2003; L. Borghesio <em>in litt.</em> 2010) suggests that the total population estimate should be recalculated. The population is thus assumed to fall within the range 2,500-9,999 individuals.	eng
143138	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143140	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Local communities are actively engaged in conserving montane forest, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project. The condition of the Kilum-Ijim forest and its endemic birds is monitored, as well as the overall extent of forest cover in the Bamenda Highlands. Community-based conservation activities were extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study ecological constraints to its survival including seasonal food requirements, size of forest patches, tolerance of habitat degradation</strong><sup>3</sup> and competition with <em>T. persa</em><sup>1,2</sup>. <strong>Take measures to prevent forest fires and educate communities of the magnitude of the forest fire problem</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Protect as many as possible of the remaining forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Develop strategies for restoring larger blocks of natural forest and connecting corridors</strong><sup>1</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143140	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tauraco bannermani</em> is mainly restricted to the Bamenda Highlands in western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, but small populations exist on nearby Mt Mbam<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and, most  recently discovered, at Fossimondi and Fomenji to the south-west. It is only likely to survive if the Kilum-Ijim forest, the largest remaining montane forest area in the Bamenda highlands, is preserved<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Research in 1994-1995 found the species in several remaining forest remnants in the Bamenda Highlands and seemingly able to survive in very small forest fragments (<1 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, follow-up surveys in 2000 found some of these forest fragments had almost completely disappeared, with <em>T. bannermani</em> either absent or only a few pairs remaining<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Kilum-Ijim, it is unlikely that more than 1,000-1,500 pairs occur<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143140	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is an arboreal frugivore of montane forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It can survive in degraded and secondary forest as long as sufficient tall, fruiting trees remain<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. At lower altitudes, it is replaced by its congener, Green Turaco <em>T. persa</em>, which is found in more open forest or scrub<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It would appear to move to higher altitudes (2,200-2,600&#160;m) during the breeding season, probably to exploit seasonal fruiting patterns<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143140	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals based on data given by Forboseh and Ikfuingei (2001). <br/></p>	eng
143140	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The greatest threats to this species is habitat loss: the Kilum-Ijim forest halved in area between 1963 and 1986. Forest fires are responsible for the greatest proportion of habitat loss<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, for example c.500&#160;ha of forest burnt around Lake Oku in March 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also under serious threat from forest clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood and timber, with birds surviving in forest fragments in imminent danger of extinction<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, particularly due to their reluctance to cross open habitats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Liberia and Gabon, elsewhere uncommon probably owing to confusion with other species (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in many areas of Podocarpus and juniper forest in Ethiopian Highlands above 2,400 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143144	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The woodlands of Anferara-Wadera and adjacent Bore-Anferara have been designated as National Forest Priority Areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protect key sites, especially the area around Sele and Lela Lemu woodlands, but also juniper woodlands north of Arero<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Initiate a scheme for monitoring its distribution and population. Evaluate its habitat requirements in more detail. Investigate the importance of its seasonal use of woodlands. Investigate the possibilities for ecotourism in the area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Investigate the extent of hybridisation between <em>T. ruspolii</em> and <em>T. leucotis</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong><em>.</em> Research use of plantations by <em>T. leucotis</em>, and assess whether natural tree plantations could be established that would not be favoured by this species, but would reduce human pressure on native woodlands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143144	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tauraco ruspolii</em> has a very restricted range in southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, around Arero, Bobela, Sokora, Negele and Wadera<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Fieldwork in 1995 found the species in all previously known localities and in some previously unreported sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The northern part of the species's distribution encompasses the woodlands of Anferara-Wadera and adjacent Bore-Anferara<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It seems likely that these two areas, where it is not uncommon in suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, hold the majority of the species's population. It is more common and widespread than was formerly believed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but may never have occupied a much wider range than today<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, due to its restricted altitudinal distribution. <br/></p>	eng
143144	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is an arboreal frugivore and has been found in juniper woodland, mixed broadleaved woodland, <em>Acacia</em> woodland along streams, and woodland edge. It is most common at mid-altitudes (c.1,500 m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) in habitats with relatively low humidity, and intermediate between lowland thorn-bush and montane forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The diet includes fruits of <em>Ficus</em>, <em>Juniperus</em> and <em>Podocarpus</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds may undertake seasonal movements of a few kilometres<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but rarely venture outside of forest habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Recently, hybrids between <em>T. ruspolii</em> and White-cheeked Turaco <em>T. leucotis </em>have been observed, most commonly in edge habitats<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143144	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1995, the population was estimated at c.10,000 individuals (Borghesio and Massa 2000). However, rapid changes to its habitat between 1995 and 2007 are likely to have caused a decline in the population, and it is now expected to number less than 10,000 individuals (L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143144	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys in 1989 and 2003  revealed habitat loss and a decline in habitat quality at some sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Human pressure is probably to blame for the loss of the species around Arero, with fires being reported in neighbouring woodland areas in March 1994. Agricultural expansion was found to be the main cause of habitat degradation in the north during recent surveys, but overgrazing and uncontrolled bushfires were more important in the south<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Throughout, collection of firewood is degrading habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, the species does seem able to tolerate some human exploitation of its habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> which, being relatively semi-arid, is not as severely threatened by the expanding human population as most other Ethiopian forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the area is wet enough to support coffee, which will likely result in increased settlement<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Many plantations of exotic tree species (<em>Eucalyptus</em> spp, <em>Cupressus</em> spp) have also been created recently<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Not only do these seem to have failed in their aim of reducing pressure on native forests, but have - along with habitat degradation - facilitated a substantial expansion of the range of the forest-preferring <em>T. leucotis</em> into the range of the more woodland <em>T. ruspolii</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Studies seem to indicate that <em>T. ruspolii</em> is not at risk from competition<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, recent observations of hybrids with <em>T. leucotis </em>have raised fears over the genetic integrity of <em>T. ruspolii</em><strong><sup>7,8,10</sup></strong>. In addition, the reluctance of turacos to fly across non-wooded habitat may make isolated populations unusually susceptible to local extinction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common everywhere within its range and locally abundant in some areas up to 2,000 m (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be localised but quite common in most of parts of its southern African range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in several areas, even very common in some places (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range and possibly abundant in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common in most of parts of its range and locally abundant in Senegal and The Gambia (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common in most parts of its range and locally abundant around the lake Victoria basin (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most widespread of all turacos, and seems not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143157	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is known to occur in two protected areas, Bogani Nani Wartabone and Lore Lindu National Parks, which have been described as "two of the largest, biologically most important and best administered parks in Wallacea". In addition, 21 protected areas, with a total area of c.9,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, have been proposed and/or established within the known range of the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct widespread searches for the species in suitable habitat (using playback of its vocalisations if available), to clarify its range, distribution and population status. Reassess its conservation needs following these surveys, recommending further areas for protection where appropriate. Lobby for reduced logging of lower altitude forest in Sulawesi.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143157	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto inexspectata</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known by 11 specimens collected on the Minahasa peninsula and north-central regions of the island, and a few recent records. It appears to be sparsely distributed, and has been described as very uncommon or rare. However, it is shy, easily overlooked, and consequently almost certainly commoner than records suggest. Nevertheless, its numbers will have been steadily declining with the loss of its habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143157	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and lightly disturbed rainforest, rich with lianas, ferns, palms and epiphytic plants, and also, at least occasionally, disturbed riverine forest and forest edge, from 100 m to 1,600&#160;m. It is presumably sedentary.</p>	eng
143157	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,200 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 4,200-8,400 i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density range extrapolated from similar sized forest owls in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet, and is compatible with description of status as uncommon or rare). <br/></p>	eng
143157	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The loss, degradation and fragmentation of forest pose the major threat to the species. It has doubtless contracted in range in the lowlands of Sulawesi, particularly on the Minahasa peninsula, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructural development and large-scale logging. Destruction of lowland forest on the Minahasa peninsula is described as "almost complete", and most primary forest below 1,000 m has been reduced to remnant patches, supplanted by secondary, disturbed and commercially utilised forest. Recent records of the species from higher altitudes provide some hope that healthy populations survive in more secure montane forests. In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000) these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi.  <br/></p>	eng
143158	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A seven week avifaunal survey was conducted on Taliabu in 1991. A strict nature reserve has been proposed for the island, but only c.18% encompasses lowland forest, and it remains to be confirmed that this site is appropriate for the conservation of this rare owl.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct widespread searches for the species (including the neighbouring islands of Mangole and Sanana), questioning local people about its possible presence and clarifying its range, distribution, status and ecological requirements. Reassess its threat status and conservation needs, recommending further areas for protection where appropriate. Ensure effective management of any forthcoming protected area on Taliabu.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143158	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto nigrobrunnea</em> is endemic to the Sula Islands, Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known by just one specimen (collected in 1938) and one recent site record (during a seven-week survey in 1991), both from the largest island in the group, Taliabu. There is no information on its population size, but the paucity of records (even taking into account its inconspicuous nature and the fact that it could easily be overlooked) indicate that it is likely to be very scarce.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143158	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually nothing is known of its ecology. The only specimen was collected in lowland forest and the recent sighting was made in selectively logged lowland forest (perhaps indicating some tolerance of habitat degradation). The bird was observed at night as it perched on a logging track.</p>	eng
143158	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.3-0.5 individuals/km2 x 578 km2 (20% EOO) = 174-289, but population densities taken from two grassland congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and forest <em>Tyto </em>spp. are likely to occur at higher densities, so best placed in band 250-999 individuals <br/></p>	eng
143158	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are probably the only threats. Large-scale logging of lowland forest has taken place, and some areas have been clear-felled for industrial timber production. Most of Taliabu's lowland forest, below 800&#160;m, is designated for logging concessions. Selective logging has already produced a mosaic of different-aged forest stands, with few, if any, extensive tracts of primary lowland forest remaining, except perhaps in the central south-west of the island. The effects of habitat degradation on this species, however, remain unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143159	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A bird thought to be of this species was photographed within Manusela National Park on Seram. Additional protected areas are proposed on Buru (Gunung Kepalat Mada) and Yamdena (a 600 km<sup>2 </sup>reserve). Whether these areas support populations of the species remains to be investigated. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>*Conduct widespread searches for the species, including on other Banda Sea islands, to clarify its distribution, status and broad habitat preferences (including tolerance of habitat degradation) and thereby compile an effective conservation strategy. *Establish protected areas of forest on Buru and the Tanimbar islands, ensuring that habitat is adequately managed and legislation enforced. <br/></p>	eng
143159	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto sororcula</em> is known from the island of Buru (and probably Seram) in South Maluku and Yamdena and Larat in the Tanimbar group, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Most records are of specimens collected in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, and recent observations comprise one photographed individual (probably of this species) on Seram, and one observed on Yamdena. There is no information on numbers, and although it is described as "apparently rare", it is probably often overlooked and consequently almost certainly more widespread and numerous than available records suggest. Nevertheless, it occurs in primary and selectively-logged lowland evergreen forest, a habitat that is being rapidly cleared from islands within its range by loggers and shifting cultivators. One collector was brought two live birds caught in holes in limestone cliffs on Buru, and this habitat type should be revisited and searched for the species. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143159	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent and historical records derive from primary and selectively-logged lowland evergreen forest. One collector was brought two live birds caught in holes in limestone cliffs on Buru. The species is presumably strictly sedentary. <br/><p></p>	eng
143159	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most forest in the coastal lowlands of Buru has now been cleared, and habitat in the northern portion of the island has been selectively logged, degraded and fragmented by shifting agriculture, such that only a few small patches of primary lowland forest remain. The situation is similar in the lowlands of Seram. Forest on Larat may have been seriously degraded by the outset of the twentieth century, and although much forest remains on Yamdena, it is highly accessible, partitioned into logging concessions and cannot be expected to persist. Oil drilling, transmigration and hydroelectric projects pose further potential threats to habitat within its range in south Maluku. <br/></p>	eng
143160	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A large area of uninhabited forest including Mt Dremsel (719 m), has been identified as a very important area of terrestrial biodiversity<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to conduct population surveys on Manus. Study the taxonomy of <em>T. manusi </em></strong>and <em>T. novaehollandiae</em>, and compare their ecology and biology<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143160	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto manusi</em> is known only from two specimens from Manus in the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. Recent surveys have failed to locate this species and there are few if any convincing reports from local villagers<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>.<em> Tyto</em> owls known only from subfossil bones on the adjacent islands of Mussau and New Ireland appear to have become extinct through unknown causes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. As with other <em>Tyto</em> owls, it may have been overlooked, but with further visits to Manus by birdwatchers and a continuing lack of records, its population may be smaller than 1,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
143160	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto manusi</em> is a rare owl of forest interior and is not found in heavily degraded or swamp forest. It is poorly known but is assumed to have similar habits to Australian Masked-Owl <em>Tyto novaehollandiae</em>. This is nocturnal, shy and secretive, roosts in dense folliage, hollow tree trunks and caves. It feeds on small rodents and other small vertebrates and larger insects<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is likely to have large territories, with a home-range size of between 0.04 - 1.8 km<sup>2</sup> per pair<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143160	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.02-0.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO from 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> on basis of suitable habitat) = 30-1,350, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range from congeneric species <em>T. novaehollandiae</em>). <br/></p>	eng
143160	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1987 an estimated 80% of vegetation on Manus was estimated to be primary forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Large areas of lowland Manus are now logged or under logging concessions and in coastal areas the forest is being eroded by shifting cultivation. This is not a major threat but could be important for rare endemics such as <em>Tyto manusi </em>that are presumed to have tiny populations and distributions. Introduced mammalian predators, such as dogs and cats, may be implicated in the species's rarity but the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has decimated birds on Guam, is thought to be native to Manus<strong><sup>5,2</sup></strong>, and therefore might not pose a serious threat.  <br/></p>	eng
143161	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyto aurantia</em> is endemic to New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known from very few specimens and just two recent sightings<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It appears to be a lowland forest species but one specimen was taken at 1,000&#160;m and one bird believed to be this species was heard at 2,000&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Tyto</em> owls have become prehistorically extinct through unknown causes on the adjacent islands of Mussau and New Ireland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and if this is a lowland species, then it may be threatened by logging. However, as with other <em>Tyto</em> owls, it is likely to be overlooked and it may prove to be not uncommon and tolerant of logged forest. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
143161	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>(2007). <br/></p>	eng
143162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143163	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. Six sites where it has been recently recorded are all Important Bird Areas, and include several protected areas - Mantadia National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Montagne d'Ambre National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve and Zahamena National Park - where it probably occurs at low density<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Establish presence or absence at rainforest sites to the south of Mantadia, especially in Midongy-South, Ranomafana, Andringitra and Andohahela National Parks. Determine its habitat requirements for breeding and foraging, to clarify its population size. Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status.  <br/></p>	eng
143163	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	There are records of <em>Tyto soumagnei</em> from the eastern rainforest of <strong>Madagascar</strong>, formerly known from between Amber Mountain in the far north to Mantadia National Park in the centre-east, in particular. Significantly, a further site (Kalambatritra) for the species was recently located 500 km further south of its previously known range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. More recently, the species was found in the extreme south-east of Madagascar, in the lowlands of Tsitongambarika, extending its presumed range considerably<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. It is probably present in all suitably large blocks of humid evergreen forest in the east and north of Madagascar, but its nocturnal habits make it difficult to detect. Future surveys may reveal it to be less rare than currently thought<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143163	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in and adjacent to humid evergreen forest<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>from sea level to 2000 m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but has also been recorded in an area dominated by dry deciduous forest<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. It hunts at night in somewhat open areas in or near primary forest, perching in trees at the forest edge. Although formerly believed to occur only in undisturbed rainforest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it has been recorded in degraded/secondary forest-edge vegetation and also hunts over open, human-altered habitat adjacent to forest, including rice-paddies and slash-and-burn cultivation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, and it may require both forest and open areas (and so may be absent from large areas of forest interior)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In Masoala it ranged over 210 ha<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its diet is predominantly small native mammals, in contrast to <em>T. alba</em> which feeds mostly on introduced rat <em>Rattus</em> species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> outside primary forest. Tsingy tufted-tailed rats <em>Eliurus antsingy </em>constituted almost 50% of total prey mass of birds in dry forest at Ankarana (northern Madagascar), and birds here also consumed insects, frogs and geckos<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Birds have been recorded roosting on rock ledges and in cave entrances<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. The first nest recorded by scientists was found in September 1995, 23 m above ground, in a natural tree-cavity in an isolated native tree <em>Weinmannia</em>, 500 m from the edge of the main forest block<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Clutch-size was probably two (two young successfully fledged)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species may have been overlooked previously for three reasons: a) it is reclusive and strictly nocturnal; b) it is mistaken for <em>Tyto alba</em>; and c) it occurs patchily and at low densities<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	A conservative estimate of primary rainforest cover in Madagascar is c.40,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Harper et al. 2007) so even at 0.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> a low population estimate would be 4,000 individuals (F. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>2009). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143163	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Deforestation, mainly for subsistence slash-and-burn cultivation but also for commercial logging, continues to destroy the species's main evergreen forest habitat. Uncontrolled use of fire, often as a result of poor farming practices, is also a major cause of deforestation. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to very rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143168	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine the range and population of the species<sup>1. Research its ecology1. Facilitate conservation action in collaboration with traditional authorities to limit further habitat degradation4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phodilus prigoginei</em> had not been recorded since the type-specimen was collected in 1951 at Muusi, in the Itombwe Mountains, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), until its rediscovery in 1996, when a female was mist-netted in the extreme south-east corner of Itombwe Forest<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. This rediscovery extends the species's known range southwards by c.95&#160;km and lowers its altitudinal range by approximately 600&#160;m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Itombwe is not the only forest in central Africa with a large area of highland forest/grassland habitat, and it is possible the species occurs elsewhere, especially in Nyungwe Forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is a possible sighting in Burundi from 1974 and, in 1990, calls of an unidentified owl were tape-recorded in Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143168	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The record in 1951 was at 2,430&#160;m, in a grass clearing. The 1996 rediscovery was in montane gallery forest at 1,830&#160;m, where the slopes are covered with grass and bush and the lower slopes and valleys with montane forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species would appear to require a mosaic of grassland and either montane or bamboo forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was netted in a slightly disturbed area, indicating that it may tolerate some human activity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143168	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 9,360 individuals (10 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 936 km<sup>2</sup> [20% EOO]), i.e. within the range 2,500-10,000, and likely to be at lower end due to specific habitat requirements. Density from estimate for congeneric Oriental Bay Owl  <em>P. badius</em>; see BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
143168	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest clearance for smallholder agriculture is a serious threat in Itombwe, where a maize blight since the early 1990s has reduced yields and forced farmers to clear forest for new farms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Gallery forest on the central savanna plateau, including the locality where the species was rediscovered, is being degraded as a result<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for livestock-grazing, particularly at higher altitudes, is also a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is considered to be very rare throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143170	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, including Kaeng Krachan National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng, Khlong Saeng, Hala-Bala and Khao Banthad Wildlife Sanctuaries, Thailand and Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. It probably occurs in the recently established Myinmoletkat Biosphere Reserve, Myanmar. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct mist-netting surveys across its range to establish its distribution, status and habitat requirements. Afford effective protection to all forest in relevant protected areas. Campaign for reduced deforestation of lowlands in southern Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus sagittatus</em> is known from Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, south-west <strong>Thailand</strong> and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>. It appears to be locally distributed and scarce throughout its range. However, its true status is unclear as it is difficult to detect and it may be more common than records suggest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143170	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident and nocturnal in old-growth and regenerating evergreen or mixed deciduous forests of level lowlands and hill-slopes to at least 700&#160;m. Limited mist-netting data indicates that it sometimes frequents dense or open lower storeys of mature forest, but may not inhabit recently logged forest. In Malaysia and Thailand, the breeding season is apparently February-March. Insects, chiefly moths, are its only documented food items.</p>	eng
143170	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143170	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If it is a lowland forest specialist, extensive lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, primarily through logging, development and conversion for agriculture, pose the greatest threats across its range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143171	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus rufescens</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra (including Bangka Island) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>in primary and tall secondary forest, including logged forest, to 1,000 m. It has also been reported from the <strong>Phillipines, </strong>perhaps from islands offshore from Sabah. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist in second growth and at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has been less rapid, but it is likely to be close to extinction in Thailand. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143172	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been reported from 21 sites in eight different countries: Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Fishpool and Evans 2001, Demey and Rainey in press).	eng
143172	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits lowland evergreen forest in which it is very difficult to locate, and feeds on insects including grasshoppers and crickets. Breeding probably occurs in February-March (Fry et al. 1988).	eng
143172	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare throughout its fragmented range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143173	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project aiming to promote long-term conservation through community management<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, only 43&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of the forest is protected as a strict nature reserve, and this area includes hardly any owl habitat<strong><sup>7,8,10</sup></strong>. A two-yearly census of the owls in Arabuko-Sokoke has recently been initiated<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study its breeding biology and the effects of removing <em>Brachylaena. Monitor its subpopulation sizes. Evaluate the effectiveness of nest-boxes as substitute breeding sites<sup>1. Survey Forest Reserves in the East Usambaras to see whether they hold the species11.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143173	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus ireneae</em> was believed endemic to the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in coastal <strong>Kenya</strong>, but was recently found in the East Usambara Mountains of <strong>Tanzania</strong> as well<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Arabuko-Sokoke, a population of c.1,000 pairs (stable between 1984 and 1998)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> occurs in c.220 km<sup>2</sup> of forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, there are c.97 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat and densities range from less than 1.5 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> up to 3-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a population in the low hundreds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species might also occur in the Mundane Range, near the Kenya-Somalia border<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. The recent discovery of a very small population on the edge of Marafa Forest to the north of Arabuko-Sokoke suggests further exploration of the overall area might produce more pockets of habitat holding marginal or remnant populations<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143173	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Arabuko-Sokoke, it occurs solely in primary <em>Cynometra</em> forest (787 pairs in 99 km<sup>2</sup>), and at much lower densities in an additional 120 km<sup>2</sup> of secondary or more disturbed <em>Cynometra</em> forest<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It roosts and forages in the dense lower half of the <em>Cynometra</em> canopy and possibly nests in natural cavities in large or old <em>Brachylaena</em> trees<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, it occurs up to 400 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has a home range of 12-14 ha <strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143173	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In Arabuko-Sokoke, a population of c.1,000 pairs (stable between 1984 and 1998) (Virani 2000a) occurs in c.220 km<sup>2</sup> of forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, there are c.97 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat and densities range from less than 1.5 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> up to 3-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting a population in the low hundreds (Evans 1997b). <br/></p>	eng
143173	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Arabuko-Sokoke, unsustainable (and often illegal) extraction of <em>Brachylaena huillensis</em> for wood-carving and firewood may substantially reduce the owl's breeding success<strong><sup>7,11</sup></strong>. <em>O. irenae</em> is probably long-lived, so the resulting declines might not be observed for some time. In the East Usambaras, all lowland forest outside reserves will soon be cleared for agriculture, while the reserves are being degraded by pit-sawing and pole-cutting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Gold rushes have resulted in massive increases in the human population of the Amani Plateau, East Usambaras, and elsewhere<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. However, they are not thought to significantly threaten this species, as main forest areas around the mined streams generally remain intact<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143174	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus balli </em>is an endemic resident in the Andaman islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it was common, at least early in the twentieth century, in trees in semi-open or cultivated areas and around human settlements. Its current status is unclear, although it appears to be easily found and therefore probably common. There seems little reason to expect its population to be under immediate threat given its tolerance of disturbed areas. However, forest loss is accelerating on the Andamans and further research is required to clarify its ecological requirements, population size and trends. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in places (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143176	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus umbra </em>is endemic to Simeulue Island, off north-west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it favours forest edge and remnants, especially on coasts, as well as clove plantations. Reports as to its status differ, from rare, or possibly rare, to not uncommon. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, but very few data on this phenomenon are available from Simeulue. The tolerance of secondary and edge habitats shown by this species renders it unlikely to be under immediate threat. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143177	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The species has been recorded recently in two protected areas, Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve. These two areas cover over 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest between 500 m and 3,000&#160;m. Nature Reserves exist on Gunung Tangkuban Prahu and Gunung Ijen, from where there are historical records. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive nocturnal fieldwork (including mist-netting) on mountains throughout Java to establish its true range and population status, and discover what vocalisations might aid detection. Support proposals to gazette further montane protected areas, and campaign for the establishment of new reserves (including Gunung Salak and Gunung Ciremai) or extensions to existing reserves. Improve protected-area management. Initiate conservation-awareness programmes at Javan forests.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143177	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus angelinae</em> is endemic to the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is currently known from seven mountains, with recent records from only three. A recent evaluation of records and museum/zoo specimens, coupled with its reputed silence, suggests it may be more numerous and widespread than available evidence shows. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143177	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits tropical upper montane forest between 1,000 m and 2,000&#160;m. Observations suggest a breeding territory size of very roughly 50&#160;ha. Fledged young have been recorded in February, June and July, indicating egg-laying in at least May and December. It is presumed to be resident, perhaps making some altitudinal movements.</p>	eng
143177	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,760 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 7,040 i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 (density range based on inferrence of territory area of 0.5 km<sup>2</sup>; BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
143177	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is from forest loss, degradation and fragmentation through widespread agricultural encroachment by shifting cultivators. Localised development (e.g. for holiday resorts and geothermal projects) is probably becoming an increasing threat in the lower part of its altitudinal range (1,000-1,500&#160;m), particularly on unprotected mountain slopes. The area above this zone is still relatively secure.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus longicornis</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is recorded from moist and pine forest, extending to at least 2,200 m, in the provinces of Ilocos Norte, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Quezon, Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur. Despite its fairly wide distribution and elevation tolerance, the species is generally uncommon and appears to be sensitive to habitat alteration in the lowlands. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143180	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus mindorensis</em> is endemic to Mindoro, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is now judged likely to occur throughout the mountains in the centre of the island, and it appears to be common above c.1,000&#160;m in closed-canopy montane forest. Very recently, the species was commonly observed in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park at 700-900 m, in patches of highly fragmented lowland second-growth forest that are confined to this elevation band. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143180	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although apparently quite common in suitable habitat, the area of remaining habitat is small and as a consequence, the population size is assumed to be moderately small also. <br/></p>	eng
143181	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus mirus</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it has been recorded from Mt Hilong-hilong, Mt Apo, Mt Kitanglad and Lake Sebu. Although described as rare, this is a species of higher elevations and is probably not seriously threatened. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143182	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed but as yet the forest remains unprotected. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining primary forest and maintain areas of mature secondary forest where it occurs. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong></p>	eng
143182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus hartlaubi</em> is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>, where it is relatively widely distributed in suitable habitat<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong> and probably has a population of several hundred birds. Reports of a small owl on Pr&iacute;ncipe, could refer to this species, but recent searches have found no evidence of its presence<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143182	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in primary and undisturbed secondary forest up to 1,500 m, but not in plantations with shade trees. The diet includes invertebrates and probably small lizards. It calls frequently at dusk or dawn and occasionally during the day<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143182	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3-9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 153 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 459-1,377 individuals, i.e. within band 250-999 individuals (density range is up to the lower quartile of the range of five estimates for forest-dwelling <em>Otus</em> spp. in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; note this may be an underestimate as several forest scops-owls occur at higher densities). <br/></p>	eng
143182	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for coffee and cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 210000-440000 breeding pairs, equating to 630000-1320000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 51000-2640000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.1000000-3000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143186	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus elegans</em> is found on the Nansei Shoto islands, southern <strong>Japan</strong>, on Lanyu Island, off south-east <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), and on the Batanes and Babuyan islands off northern Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs in subtropical evergreen forest, and locally in or near to villages, from sea-level to 550 m or higher. It is common wherever suitable habitat remains on the Nansei Shoto, and is presumed to have quite a large population there. It has a population estimated at c.1,000 birds on Lanyu Island, and it has been described as fairly common on the Batanes and Babuyan islands. However, its range must have been much reduced and fragmented in the Philippines by deforestation, although its population it thought to be stable on Lanyu Island and its prospects for survival there are good so long as suitable habitat is protected. It is presumably also relatively secure on the Nansei Shoto. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143187	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus mantananensis </em>is confined to the islands of the central <strong>Philippines</strong> on Romblon, Banton, Tablas, Sibuyan, Tres Reyes and Semirara (race <em>romblonis</em>), eastern Philippines on Cuyo, Dicabaito and Linapacan (race <em>cuyensis</em>), southernmost Philippines on Tumindao and Sibutu (race <em>sibutuensis</em>), and islands off southern Palawan, including Rasa and Ursula (race uncertain). It also occurs on islands off north-east Borneo, including Mantanani, <strong>Malaysia </strong>(nominate race). It is fairly common in coconut groves and other wooded habitats although its total area of occupancy is small. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143187	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is poorly known, but is common on at least some of the islands where it occurs. Overally the population is assumed to be moderately small. <br/></p>	eng
143188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143189	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. The species is protected by law in Seychelles under the Animals and Bird Protection Act<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Much of the highland forest where the species occurs is incorporated into the Morne Seychellois National Park (MSNP). A second protected area of 1000 ha south of the MSNP would protect 80% of the owl's range<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Some other sites are also classified as Sensitive Areas under the Environment Protection Act<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Survey work and a detailed monitoring programme are currently in progress<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. A programme is underway to assess suitable islands to which future translocations could be considered<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A stakeholder agreed action plan recently highlighted key conservation management priorities for this species<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Importantly, there appear to be few realistic options for increasing its range on Mah&eacute; and few options to succeed in translocation programmes, given that the most suitable island (Silhouette) can hold only 20 territories and hosts a suite of alien predators<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Improve management of the Morne Seychellois National Park (MSNP), including implementation of a management plan, control of development, monitoring of ecotourism impacts, new legislation, enhanced institutional capacity, and a review of park boundaries<sup>1,8. Zone MSNP into seven areas of environmental sensitivity to limit disturbance to certain areas and protect the most important habitat above 400 m13. Examine the influence of alien predators on nest success and adult survivorship. Conduct a public awareness campaign to gain better knowledge of the species's occurrence4. Continue survey work to determine its distribution on Mah&eacute;, so that population densities can be monitored5. Continue ecological research, particularly into feeding and nesting requirements1. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143189	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus insularis</em> is endemic to Mah&eacute; in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>. In 1996, it was recorded from previously unsurveyed areas, extending its known range into the extreme north of the Morne Seychellois National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Recent research has refined the population estimate to 124-159 territories (c. 400 individuals) over a 31-33 km<sup>2</sup> range<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. This population may have been more or less stable since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong> or it may have been slowly decreasing. <br/></p>	eng
143189	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours upland (>400 m), often mist-shrouded, mixed forest generally in areas of high rainfall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in valleys and on sheltered slopes. Its previously supposed association with 'boulder fields' is now regarded as ecological meaningless because of the ubiquitous nature of such terrain<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.  Between 250 and 600&#160;m it also inhabits secondary forest dominated by exotics<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Territories are 20-25 ha. It has been observed from low in the understorey up to the lower canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Main prey items discovered from pellet analysis were Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Araneae, but no vertebrates<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.   <br/>Eight nests have been found by scientists, all in two tree species <em>Dillenia ferruginea</em> and <em>Pterocarpus indicus </em>at heights of 7-25 m<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Nests may be found within wooded areas made up mainly of exotic vegetation<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A single egg is laid; scops owl normally lay two but Seychelles land birds characteristically lay a single egg<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Incubation and nestling periods are reportedly both of about one month, there may be two breeding seasons each year, and pairs can initiate renesting soon after nest failure<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Breeding success was low, c.0.5 fledglings/territory/year<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143189	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Currie <em>et al. </em>(2004a) estimated 125-142 territories (i.e. possibly 250-284 individuals) based on modelling altitude and habitat suitability, and 134-159 territories (i.e. 168-318 individuals) based on altitude only. Given the uncertainty in these extrapolations, it is plausible that the population falls below 250 mature individuals (the threshold for Vulnerable under criterion D1), hence the range 249-318 mature individuals is used here.  <br/></p>	eng
143189	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Some lowland habitat destruction is occurring due to housing development<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and highland forest on Mah&eacute; continues to be cleared on a small scale for timber and tea cultivation (but these activities are not threats, providing they are not intensified)<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Promotion of ecotourism in the uplands, resulting in the creation of new trails and increased disturbance, may be a threat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Introduced species including rats, cats and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> are likely predators of nests and adults<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is very likely to have predated two of the few nests so far discovered for this species<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143190	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ngezi and Msitu Mkuu are both Forest Reserves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue studies to determine rates of habitat destruction, and combine these with in-depth population and ecological studies of the species<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. Research ways to control illegal activities within the Forest Reserves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
143190	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus pembaensis</em> is endemic to Pemba, some 55 km off the coast of northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Although occurring over most of the island, it is largely confined to the two small remaining native forests; Ngezi (14 km<sup>2</sup>) and Msitu Mkuu (3 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. The global population size is estimated at c.1,500 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or declining slightly owing to slow habitat conversion. <br/></p>	eng
143190	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occurs in a number of forested habitats, but is much more common in native, primary forest. Surveys in February 2005 found 2.9 owl responses per transect point (primary forest), 1.6 (secondary forest), 0.7 (old growth cloves), and 0.4 (settlements with old trees). No responses were obtained in open farmland, villages, or towns<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding biology is unknown, but it probably breeds from August to October in tree holes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143190	population	BirdLife International, 2008	M. Virani (<em>in litt.</em> 2005) estimated 1,500 breeding pairs, based on preliminary data on extent of various habitats and densities of the species in these different habitats. <br/></p>	eng
143190	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Decreasing world clove prices have led to the conversion of some old clove plantations (which offered suitable habitat) to open farmland growing rice and cassava<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. Some native forest has also been recently converted to rubber plantation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Ras Kiuyu forest has been heavily exploited for building materials, lime burning and fuel wood<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Even Ngezi and Msitu Mkuu Forest Reserves are subject to illegal exploitation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Development of tourism may require infrastructure that passes through remaining forest<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Non-native House Crows <em>Corvus splendens</em> may also pose a threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143191	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Translocation to the neighbouring island of Moh&eacute;li (= Mwali) had been suggested<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but was discounted following the discovery of the previously unknown Moh&eacute;li Scops-owl <em> O. moheliensis</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Long-term, ongoing developments that will benefit wildlife in general include a family-planning programme, environmental education projects, and the formation of a non-governmental environmental organisation (Ulanga)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The UNDP, in partnership with the government, are planning to implement a large-scale reserve covering Mount Ntingrui from around 2009. The Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation are beginning a project in 2010 which will carry out nocturnal surveys, supported by a masters student who will aim to map the distribution of the species and establish a reliable population estimate. The project also aims to open the first protected area on the island in March 2010 in the Moya forest region<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Investigate whether provision of nest-boxes in secondary forest would increase the available breeding area</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Conduct research into the ecology of the species<sup>6</sup>. Implement plans to protect the remaining fragments of primary forest, and instigate management plans for sustainable resource use within them</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Consider establishing a captive population as insurance against loss of this species in the wild. Continue environmental education projects</strong><sup>3</sup>.	eng
143191	distribution		This species was rediscovered on Anjouan (= Ndzuani) in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> in June 1992, after an absence of records dating back to 1886. At least several tens of pairs, probably 100-200 pairs, were estimated to survive in 1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and although a survey in 1995 produced a maximum estimate of only 96 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, differences between these two estimates may be due to sampling techniques. The most recent survey in 2006 similarly found the bird abundant in suitable habitat and encouragingly found individuals in degraded habitats down to 300m, and it has also been sighted at sea level<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. This survey estimates the population to be somewhere between the two previous estimates at 50-100 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
143191	habitat		It survives in remaining fragments of native upland forest, and appears to be dependent on large trees with cavities for nesting and roosting, usually on steep slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, there appear to be no areas of truly pristine native forest left on Anjouan, so this species must be able to tolerate some habitat degradation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Confirmation came when it was recently sighted at 300m and at sea level in highly degraded forest<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. However it still remains to be established whether degraded forest can support a viable population. It has been recorded perching in thick cover, 3-15 m from the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and roosting 3-4m off the ground on the bottom branch of a tree fern<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Insects are believed to form at least part of its diet<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
143191	population		The population has been estimated at 50-100 pairs (C. Marsh <em>in litt</em>. 2007, 2009), hence the population is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
143192	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been suggested, but has not yet materialised<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research the ecology of this species to aid conservation plans. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the remaining native forest, and develop a land-use strategy</strong><sup>2,5</sup>. <strong>Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Develop an environmental education programme on the island</strong><sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143192	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Otus pauliani</em> is found only on Mt Karthala, an active volcano on Grand Comoro (= Ngazidja), in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. In November 1989, studies revealed its presence on the northern, western and southern flanks of the volcano where about 100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat exists, and the population may prove to be over 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In September 2005, the species was found to be abundant on the south-eastern flanks of the Karthala which may increase the population estimate; however the extent of suitable habitat will have been reduced since 1989. <br/></p>	eng
143192	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from 650 m upwards to the tree line<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is territorial, occurring in primary, montane, evergreen forest, favouring areas with old hollow trees, but is also found in "pioneer forest"; (forest that grows on rocky soils)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong> and regenerating forest dominated by <em>Psidium cattleianum</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for edge habitat: either edges along the upper limits of the forest where it is replaced by giant heath <em>Philippia</em>, edges along old lava-flows, or edges of open areas within the forest itself<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are unknown. <br/></p>	eng
143192	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Herremans <em>et al. </em>(1991a). <br/></p>	eng
143192	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Since 1983, intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture, on all but the poorest soils, has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala toward the habitat of <em>O. pauliani</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Secondary forest in the agricultural belt on the mountain is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. Commercial logging occurs in a 50 km<sup>2</sup> concession on the south-western slopes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pioneer forest, although unsuitable for agriculture and of little value for logging, is susceptible to fire and may be burnt to provide grassland for cattle<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Grazing is increasing - even at high altitudes - and could prohibit forest regeneration<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Introduced rats and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may act as competitors or nest predators<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143195	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus mentawi</em> is endemic to larger islands of Mentawai, off west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in lowland forest and second growth, including around villages. Its status is poorly known, but it may be locally common. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, but the situation in the range of this species is poorly known and its ability to persist in human-modified habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143195	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occupies a few small islands and consequently its population is thought to be moderately small. This preliminary estimate requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
143196	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus fuliginosus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is known from Palawan and the adjacent islands of Alabagin and Balabac, with an unconfirmed report from Calauit. On Palawan, there are records from Kinalaykayan and Dicabaitot, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Cleopatra's Needle, Buenavista, Iwahig Penal Colony, vicinity of Puerto Princesa, Quezon at Tabon, Singnapan at Kabasakan, Pinikpikan and Tining-luan, Taguso, Mt Mantalingajan at Pinigisan and Tigwayan, Batarasa. Although described as rare and evidently a bird of lowland forest, the emerging evidence from a knowledge of its voice is that it is much commoner and more widespread than supposed, and can adapt to mixed cultivation and plantations. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143196	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is thought to have a moderately small population as it is a bird of lowland forest restricted to the island of Palawan. However, this is a preliminary estimate that requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
143197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143199	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon locally (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143207	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megascops barbarus</em> occurs in the highlands of the Isthmus de Tehuantepec, south-east <strong>Mexico</strong>, and west <strong>Guatemala</strong><sup>2</sup>. It is locally fairly common to common in montane evergreen and humid pine-oak forest at elevations of 1,800-2,500 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pine-oak forest is disappearing rapidly through logging, firewood-gathering, uncontrolled burning, agricultural expansion and bark-beetle epidemics that are exacerbated by habitat degradation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Civil war in Chiapas, Mexico, accelerated deforestation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143209	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megascops colombianus</em> is known from the Pacific slope of the West Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong> and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Choc&oacute; to Cotapaxi)<strong><sup>2,3,4,5,9</sup></strong>. It is common at La Planada Nature Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but is usually considered uncommon<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It was thought to inhabit montane evergreen forest, but apparently occurs in tall secondary forest, forest edge and open pasture, at 1,250-2,200 m <strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Its overall dependence on forest within its life-cycle is unknown. Deforestation is accelerating within its range, primarily owing to intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, coca cultivation and gold-mining<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. It occurs in a number of small protected areas, and probably in Munchique National Park, Cauca, Colombia and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Esmeraldas, Ecuador<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Further field research is required<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, especially with respect to habitat usage. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
143209	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
143210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143211	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megascops marshalli</em> has a very small range in the north Cordillera Vilcabamba, Cuzco, where it is common, and has been recorded in the Cordillera Yanachaga, Pasco, <strong>Peru</strong><sup>1,3</sup>. It occurs in cloud forest with a naturally broken canopy and very dense understory vegetation at 1,920-2,240 m, either side of which it is elevationally replaced by other <em>Otus</em> species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The north Cordillera Vilcabamba is the most intact area of montane habitat in Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and this subpopulation is considered secure. Unsurveyed and undeveloped ridges in the Gran Pajonal area (between the known sites) may hold further populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Cloud forest in the Cordillera Yanachaga was largely undisturbed when the species was recorded, but threats are unquantified and a more detailed understanding of these could result in an uplisting to Vulnerable. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143218	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. It occurs in several protected areas, including Mt Apo and Mt Kitanglad Natural Parks and Siargao Island. There are older records from Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which has been proposed as a national park. In the 1990s, it featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct nocturnal surveys, using voice playback, to establish presence/absence in poorly surveyed areas of Mindanao (e.g. Mts Three Kings, Diwata and Dapiak) and Samar. Conduct more intensive fieldwork to assess abundance, elevational range and habitat requirements at key sites. Promote improved protection of remaining forest at the sites listed above and campaign for a protected area in south Mindanao to encompass the cluster of sites with recent records.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143218	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mimizuku gurneyi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar (one record), Dinagat, Siargao and Mindanao. It has a relatively widespread distribution on Mindanao, where it has been discovered at eight new sites since 1990. However, its status is uncertain and, although it is likely to be under-recorded, it is considered to be probably uncommon at best.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143218	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary, secondary and selectively logged dipterocarp forests, primarily in the lowlands up to 670&#160;m, with occasional records up to 1,300&#160;m, including in mossy forest.</p>	eng
143218	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143218	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao and in 1992 no more than 724&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest remained on Samar. These figures are likely to be overestimates, with most remaining lowland forest tracts leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Dinagat has been virtually totally deforested as a result of illegal logging and chromite surface-mining. <br/></p>	eng
143220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 19000-38000 breeding pairs, equating to 57000-114000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 250000-2500000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare and very local but more common in some places (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143226	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The East Usambara Catchment Forest Project is curbing forest destruction and incorporating much of the remaining unprotected forest into reserves, e.g. at Mt Nilo Forest Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, the lack of jurisdiction over neighbouring Public Lands Forest threatens the long-term prospects of reserves<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Conservation action in the Ulugurus focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Iwonde Forest in Udzungwa National Park is well protected<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to establish population densities and sizes at known locations<sup>9,11. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis11.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143226	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bubo vosseleri</em> is distributed throughout the Eastern Arc Mountains of <strong>Tanzania</strong>, having been recorded from both the East and West Usambara Mountains (including Mt Nilo Forest Reserve<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>), Uluguru North Forest Reserve (above Tegetero)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Mkungwe Forest Reserve (15&#160;km north-east of the Ulugurus and particularly common)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Iwonde Forest in Udzungwa Mountains National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve (Mt Mufu)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (along the Kihanga and Mpimbili rivers and in the Mbawi sector)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Records from lowland forest in the Usambaras during October-March<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong> suggest that it may be resident there and the total population may thus be higher than the previous estimate of 200-1,000&#160;individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There are also unconfirmed or probable records from three other locations<strong><sup>7,8,9,10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143226	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Most records are from montane and submontane evergreen forest (800-1,500&#160;m), with some from lowland evergreen forest down to 200&#160;m<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is presumed to be a canopy-dwelling species<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It may be able to tolerate some human disturbance of forest structure, since it occurs on the forested borders of tea plantations<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and several young birds have been found in forest where the understorey has been cleared for cardamom cultivation. </p>	eng
143226	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at 200-1,000 individuals (Evans 1997b), however records from lowland forest in the Usambaras (Evans 1997b; D. C. Moyer and E. A. Mulungu <em>in litt</em>. 1999) suggest that the total population is higher. The population is therefore placed in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143226	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unreserved forests in the East Usambaras are under heavy pressure from subsistence agriculture, pit-sawing and grazing livestock<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is also pressure on forest reserves in many areas and this is likely to increase as stocks of fuelwood and timber outside reserved areas are depleted<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143229	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bubo shelleyi</em> is a large, rare forest owl known from scattered locations from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> to northern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is known from the following sites: Gola (Sierra Leone); Lofa-Mano, Mt Nimba, Zwedru, Balagizi Mts (<strong>Liberia</strong>); Ta&iuml;, Mt Nimba (contiguous with Mt Nimba in Liberia) (<strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>); <strong>Ghana</strong> (two old records only<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>); 'south' <strong>Cameroon</strong><sup>1</sup>; Ipassa Strict Nature Reserve (<strong>Gabon</strong>); Dimonika Biosphere Reserve (<strong>Congo</strong>); Okapi Faunal Reserve (DRC). One of the most poorly known owls in Africa, its ecology and behaviour are largely unknown<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; it has been recorded from inside forest, on forest edge and in clearings. Its full range of vocalisations have not been documented<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, which is probably a factor in the paucity of records. <em>B. shelleyi</em> is the largest African forest owl, and may thus require large areas of good quality habitat and thus have a small population, possibly below 10,000 individuals. The Upper Guinea forests are being cleared at a very high rate and the forests of Cameroon and much of Central Africa are also likely to suffer reductions in area and quality over the next few decades. A more detailed review of the species's conservation status is urgently needed. <br/></p>	eng
143229	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species may require large areas of good quality habitat and thus have a small population, possibly below 10,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
143230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread, uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143233	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There are recent records from several protected areas, including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Quezon and Mt Makiling National Parks on Luzon, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo Natural Parks on Mindanao and Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol. In the 1990s, it featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further fieldwork, using voice playback, to establish more clearly its current distribution and status. Propose and designate further key sites as formal protected areas (e.g. central Catanduanes and the Angat watershed). Improve habitat protection measures in existing protected areas, e.g. at Cayapa in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and the U. P. Laguna Land Grant, in accordance with its official status.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143233	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bubo philippensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Luzon, Catanduanes, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Mindanao and possibly Sibuyan. Historically it was uncommon and the paucity of recent records (the majority of which derive from Luzon, with odd records from Bohol, Mindanao and Catanduanes) suggests that it is now rare. This conclusion is supported by results of extensive fieldwork, conducted over two three-month periods in 1991-92, in the Sierra Madre mountains (Luzon), when just three or four birds were recorded at three sites.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143233	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be a sedentary resident of lowland forest, sometimes near watercourses, generally below 650&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,250&#160;m (e.g. on Leyte). It tolerates disturbed, selectively logged and secondary forest and even coconut plantations with patches of thick secondary growth.</p>	eng
143233	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143233	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive lowland deforestation throughout its range will inevitably have had a major and continuing deleterious effect on its population. On Luzon, forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and illegal logging is common at two sites from where there are recent records. A substantial proportion of remaining lowland forest in the Philippines is leased to logging concessions, and mining applications pose an additional threat. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park (Bohol), a key site, include illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. Typhoons on Catanduanes in 1987 and 1996 destroyed large areas of forest. Hunting may be an additional threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143234	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in all range states. It has been recorded from several protected areas including Magadanski, Botchinski, Verkhnekhorskiy and Kuril'ski (Russia), Changbai Shan (China), and Shiretoko and Hattaushi (Japan). On Hokkaido, there is a programme of supplementary feeding and nest-box provision.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys of river basins along the Okhotsk Sea coast, the lower Amur valley (Russia) and in China and North Korea. Designate a national park encompassing three existing protected areas on the Bikin river, Primorye, designate a protected area along the Anyuy river, create a system of specially protected areas in the Khor river basin (Russia). Design and implement a recovery plan for the river systems and forests in Hokkaido (Japan). Provide nest-boxes especially where nest trees have been removed. Draft regulations to restrict human access to key sites during the breeding season and to ban fishing on stretches of river used by the species. Develop methods to reduce mortality due to collision with power-lines and traffic and drowning in nets. Instigate public awareness and education campaigns in all range states. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143234	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ketupa blakistoni</em> is found in the coastal mountain ranges of eastern Siberia, north to Magadan, including Sakhalin Island, the southern Kuril Islands, and the Amur Basin, <strong>Russia</strong>, the mountains of Heilongjiang, Jilin and eastern Inner Mongolia, <strong>China</strong>, and central and eastern Hokkaido,<strong> Japan</strong>. It probably occurs in North Korea. Its population may be just a few hundred birds and it is declining in Russia and China, and possibly in Japan.  <br/></p>	eng
143234	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense forest, with large, old trees for nest-sites, near lakes, rivers, springs and shoals that do not freeze in winter. Fish forms the main part of the diet but small mammals, birds, amphibians, insects and crustaceans are also taken. In winter, it feeds more extensively on small mammals and birds.</p>	eng
143234	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
143234	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging of riverine forest, conversion of forest to farmland, development along riverbanks and the construction of dams are the major threats. Over-harvesting of fish, especially salmonids, has reduced food availability in Russia and Japan. Disturbance is a problem across its range and river pollution and hunting are potential threats. On Hokkaido, birds are killed through collision with powerlines and traffic and drowning in nets on fish-farms.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be very rare and local to uncommon in the west of its range but possibly not uncommon locally elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143239	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in a few protected areas, including Ta&iuml; National Park and Loma Forest Reserve. The AfRap Project plans to conduct a systematic survey of this species in the National Parks of C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in western Ghana, around the three large river systems Tano, Ankobra and Pra and their tributaries<sup>8. Conduct surveys to determine whether the species occurs within other protected areas in West Africa7.   Survey the mangroves of Guinea, Ivory Coast and Ghana12. Upgrade the protected status of Mt Loma (currently a non-hunting forest reserve)10 and carry out ecological studies there2. Enforce the law against fishing with poison, particularly in protected areas. Improve the management and protection of protected areas where the species occurs, particularly riparian forest.</sup></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143239	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scotopelia ussheri</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, occurring in <strong>Guinea</strong> (recorded from Ziama forest in 1951 and more recently in 1992 and 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (four records up to 1969, in 1989 recorded from an area adjacent to Gola Forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and, in 1992, found to be moderately common in one small area on Mt Loma), <strong>Liberia</strong> (fairly widely distributed and not uncommon with recent sight records from the upper Dube River, Zwedru, and near small forest streams in Grand Gedeh and northern Lofa County<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (five sites: Lamto<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and four protected areas: Ta&iuml; NP<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Azagny NP<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Mount P&eacute;ko NP<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and Marahou&eacute; NP<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>) and <strong>Ghana</strong> (poorly studied and may yet be found in suitable habitat in the Western Region<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>). Loma Forest, Sierra Leone, is a prime site for the species's conservation due to the area of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143239	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its preferred habitat is riverine rainforest and mangroves. However, recent records are from a small stream in swampy forest in Ta&iuml; National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and streamside vegetation in a coffee plantation in degraded forest near Gola Forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and thus it would appear that it can survive in secondary forest with small rivers as long as there is suitable gallery forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where branches of trees overhanging streams can be used as fishing posts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The comparative paucity of records suggest it is patchily distributed and generally at low densities<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Pairs may engage in duets, but this requires confirmation<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143239	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143239	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Continuing deforestation outside reserves and the inevitable consequent disturbance are both serious threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is likely to be severely affected by poisoning of small streams and rivers by fishermen<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, an illegal "fishing" method that is apparently becoming more and more frequent<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Increased sedimentation in rivers as a consequence of deforestation causing increased turbidity could adversely affect the species which hunts by sight<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  Birds on low perches are easily shot by day or captured at night by fishermen who dazzle them with spotlights<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The fragmentation (and therefore increased accessibility) of its habitat is exacerbating such hunting pressure<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common near rivers in the Congo basin (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary from uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480000-1000000 breeding pairs, equating to 1440000-3000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2000000-6000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143247	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Strix occidentalis</em> has a population of c.15,000 individuals in four subspecies: <em>caurina</em> has a minimum of 3,778 pairs and 1,001 territorial individuals from south-west British Columbia, <strong>Canada</strong>, to north California, <strong>USA</strong>; the nominate has a minimum of 3,050 individuals in central and south California, USA, and (formerly) Baja California, Mexico; <em>lucida</em> has a minimum of 777-1,554 individuals from Utah and Colorado to Arizona, New Mexico and extreme west Texas, USA, and also occurs in Sonora, Chihuahua and Nuevo Le&oacute;n to Jalisco, Durango, Michoac&aacute;n and Guanajuanto, <strong>Mexico<sup>1,3,4,5,8</sup></strong>; and <em>juanaphillipsae</em> has been recently described from the State of M&eacute;xico<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most populations strongly associate with old-growth conifer or oak forests<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but <em>lucida</em> also occurs in heavily logged secondary pine-oak forest, warmer and drier conditions and even bare rocky canyons<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Mexican populations may be stable because habitat tolerance is combined with forestry activities that typically modify rather than destroy habitat<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Most other populations are declining and, in some, the decline is accelerating because of clear-felling and selective logging<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143247	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
143249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143250	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Strix hylophila</em> is an uncommon species endemic to the southern Atlantic Forest of <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Minais Gerias to Rio Grande do Sul), east and south <strong>Paraguay</strong> and extreme north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. It is found in both lowland and montane forest (to 2,000 m). It appears to naturally occur at low densities, and is considered highly sensitive to disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although some observers report birds present in small (>6 ha), disturbed blocks of habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, the species's range is largely restricted to the Paran&aacute; watershed, where virtually no forest cover now remains outside of a few poorly protected reserves. It is recorded form a number of protected areas including Rio Doce State Park (Minais Gerais), Aparados da Serra National Park (Rio Grande do Sul), Itatiaia National Park, Serra da Cantareira State Park  (S&atilde;o Paulo) and Iguaz&uacute; National Park (Misiones)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Although locally fairly common, the extent of habitat loss throughout its range must have severely affected the species and it is now considered to be Near Threatened.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143251	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 53000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 159000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-8000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143253	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the commonest owl of forest and woodland throughout the whole of sub-Saharan Africa (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143258	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Jubula lettii </em>is known from 14 sites in <strong>Liberia </strong>(Nimba and Zwedru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>C&ocirc;ted'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml;), <strong>Ghana </strong>(old record only), <strong>Cameroon </strong>(Korup, Mt Rata and Rumpi Hills, Mt Cameroon and Mokoko-Onge), <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>, <strong>Gabon </strong>(Gamba, Lop&eacute; and Ipassa), <strong>Republic of Congo</strong> (Dimonika and Lower Kouilou), and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (Okapi Faunal Reserve, Itombwe). It is very poorly known, and although it is reported as very scarce and rare in parts of its range, its call is unknown and this may be leading to under-recording of the species. It is thought to prefer tall closed-canopy rainforest, not semi-evergreen open-canopy forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and has never been recorded outside forest or forest clearings, so may be at some risk from habitat loss through harvesting of timber. Further research is needed to establish its true range and population size, and habitat preferences. <br/></p>	eng
143259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143262	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the southern Atlantic forest of east Paraguay, extreme north-east Argentina (Misiones) and south Brazil (from Espírito Santo south to Santa Catarina). In Paraguay, the species's range is largely restricted to the Parana watershed, where virtually no forest cover now remains outside of a few poorly protected reserves. In Brazil the species is common in Sao Paulo (F. Olmos in litt. 2003), it is also common in Argentina (M. Pearman in litt. 2003), and has been recorded from seven Misiones departments (Chebez 1996) and may occur in others.	eng
143262	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in both lowland and montane humid forest to 1,500 m, but has been recorded from degraded and marginal forest (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996). However, in Brazil the species is common in Sao Paulo (F. Olmos in litt. 2003), it is also common in Argentina (M. Pearman in litt. 2003), and has been recorded from seven Misiones departments (Chebez 1996) and may occur in others.	eng
143262	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Populations may have decreased in Argentina as a result of timber-cutting (Holt et al. 1999). However, in Brazil the species appears to tolerate a significant level of habitat alteration (F. Olmos in litt. 2003).	eng
143264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 47000-110000 breeding pairs, equating to 141000-330000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 300000-1500000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to rare in various parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common in places (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143270	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143272	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be the most abundant owl in Chile (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not rare (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143280	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Glaucidium castanonotum </em>is endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is a rare resident in dense wet forests of the lowlands and hills, also occurring in logged forests, scrub and cultivation. It is shy and retiring, generally keeping to the canopy of large trees, and is therefore probably overlooked. However, while it may be more common than records suggest, its range has diminished dramatically since the 19th century when it was widespread in the lowlands of Sri Lanka to the outskirts of Colombo. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
143280	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population as it is generally uncommon within lowland wet zone forest on Sri Lanka. <br/></p>	eng
143282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143283	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix&#160;II. It occurs in Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park and Nyungwe Forest Reserve. The Itombwe Mountains, perhaps a stronghold, are not protected. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Reassess its taxonomic status. If the taxon is confirmed as a species, survey its distribution and status within the projected range, once the security situation permits this.</strong></p>	eng
143283	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Glaucidium albertinum</em> is known from just 3-5&#160;specimens, collected in the Itombwe Mountains (two specimens) and in forest west of Lake Edward (two at relatively low altitude [1,100&#160;m], and originally identified as <em>G. capense castaneum<strong><sup>7</sup></strong></em>, so may need re-examination<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), as well as in Nyungwe Forest (one), <strong>Rwanda</strong>. There is also a recent sight record from Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park, west of Lake Kivu (DRC). It may be fairly common in parts of Itombwe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> - as a nocturnal species, it may have been under-recorded by past ornithological surveys. <br/></p>	eng
143283	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This bird is found in very open montane and transitional forest, with many clearings<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and a dense understorey, and probably occurs up to 2,500&#160;m at least (based on a <em>Glaucidium</em> sp. heard calling at this altitude at Nyungwe, almost certainly <em>G. albertinum</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). The diet includes invertebrates. Its breeding ecology is unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143283	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,300 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,300-6,600, i.e. within band 2,500-10,000 (density is the lowest of three estimates for congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143283	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation and forest degradation are the most likely threats throughout its range. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The human population in this volatile area is increasing rapidly and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, particularly along the southern and western edges of gallery montane forest, has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In contrast, reports suggest that there has been been very little encroachment at Nyungwe in recent years, due to the conflict-related emigration of local people<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143284	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs near the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Mart&iacute;n, but it is unclear whether the high-elevation forests are protected under this designation<strong><sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. In any case, the protected status appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat on each of the isolated ridges in the region. Determine whether the unidentified vocalisations at Abra Patricia refer to this species<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Effectively protect the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-elevation forest is included within its boundaries<sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a protected area in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143284	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenoglaux loweryi</em> was discovered in 1976, and is known from two localities on isolated ridges in the eastern Andes of Amazonas and San Mart&iacute;n, north <strong>Peru<sup>1,5,8</sup></strong>. It was discovered in the Garcia area north-east of Abra Patricia, San Mart&iacute;n, and was subsequently collected east of Bagua, Amazonas, in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. In total, five specimens have been collected<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In 2002, the territorial call was confirmed and recorded at the type-locality in the Abra Patricia area<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Acquisition of the recording has allowed more thorough searches to take place, but there has been little success to date<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/>  <br/>  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143284	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It apparently inhabits the understorey and mid-storey of very wet elfin forest and tall forest at 1,890-2,350&#160;m (but potentially heard down to 1,800&#160;m), with abundant epiphytes, bamboo thickets and scattered palms and tree ferns<strong><sup>1,5,8,9</sup></strong>. It is conjectured that the species could be almost flightless<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143284	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population assumed to be tiny, based on paucity of records - since its discovery in 1976 - within its extremely small range <br/></p>	eng
143284	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining areas of suitable habitat are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure ownership of the land, gradually around Abra Patricia, but more rapidly in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, where locals estimated in 1994 that all the forest on the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n could be cleared by 2004<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>. More recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements and recent immigration and population growth in the area<strong><sup>4,6,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 560000-1300000 breeding pairs, equating to 1680000-3900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 5000000-15000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143288	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Since its rediscovery in 1997, fieldwork has been conducted into its status, ecology and threats. Interventions have been made to seek the prevention of further forest losses at the site of rediscovery. Over 100 individuals have been seen in the protected Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and it has been recorded in Toranmal Reserve Forest, Khaknar Reserve Forest and Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary. Further surveys in 2009 in the Melghat Tiger Reserve indicate that the park is well protected<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. An education and awareness programme has been initiated.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Prevent illicit wood-cutting and hunting of wildlife in forests within the species's range</strong><sup>5</sup>. Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat, particularly sites not surveyed in 2000, in the 800 km gap between the east/west limits of the historical records, to establish its total range, current distribution and population status, habitat use, and to assess its main threats. Provide support to the education and awareness-raising programme among local communities to promote the value and importance of this species and convey its potential benefits. Control the use of pesticides and rodenticides. Use nest site protection to avoid destruction of nests. Initiate a number of forest management measures and establish protected areas within its range. See Rahmani and Jathar (2004)<sup>6</sup> for full list of recommendations.	eng
143288	distribution		<em>Heteroglaux blewitti</em> is endemic to central <strong>India</strong>. Until its rediscovery in 1997, it was known from seven specimens collected during the 19th century at four localities in two widely separated areas, northern Maharashtra, and south-east Madhya Pradesh/western Orissa. In 2000, a survey of 14 forest areas across its former range located 25 birds at four sites in northern Maharashtra and south-western Madhya Pradesh, including three pairs at Taloda Forest Range and seven pairs at Toranmal Forest Range. Further surveys on the Toranmal Forest Range in November 2009 revealed that only two of the seven territories remain<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. No birds were found in a brief survey of its former eastern range in Orissa, or in north east Andhra Pradesh<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. More recently survey effort in the Satpura Range (Maharashtra) has located another five sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, indicating that the species may prove to be widespread but previously overlooked in the western Satpuda Mountains, and in 2006 birds were found in Burhanpur and Khandawa<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. By 2005, over 100 individuals had been recorded in Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which is now recognised as the species's stronghold. Modelling suggests that its remaining range is severely fragmented, and only c.10% is protected<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Although there is some confusion over its former abundance, evidence strongly suggests it has always been scarce.	eng
143288	habitat		It appears to be a sedentary resident with recent sightings from fairly open deciduous forest dominated by teak <em>Tectona grandis</em>. It was rediscovered at 460 m and other known locations are at 400-650 m. Most historical records came from moist deciduous forest or dense jungle, the altitudinal range of which is unclear, although most specimens were collected in plains forest. This suggests that the recent observations from hill slopes may represent birds in suboptimal habitat. It appears to be quite strongly diurnal and fairly easy to detect, frequently perching on prominent bare branches. Lizards, small rodents, grasshoppers and nestlings of other birds are all prey items<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It appears to partition resources with the similar and widespread Spotted Owlet <em>Athene brama</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds between October and May laying a brood of two eggs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in a hole in a softwood tree, and can relay if its first nesting attempt fails.	eng
143288	population		Estimated based on the number of records from known sites, with c. 100 individuals now recorded from Melghat Tiger Reserve. Given the increasing number of records and sites known within its range it may prove to be more common than previous evidence has suggested.	eng
143292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143295	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in open forest and woodlands in eastern Australia, from south-west Victoria to at least Eungella, and possibly Bowen, Queensland. Large areas of the species' range are now unsuitable as a result of clearing for agriculture and pastoralism, although the species now occupies suburban Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne.	eng
143295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: fewer than 500 pairs (equating to 1,000 individuals) in Victoria,  approximately 1,000-1,500 pairs in north-east New South Wales (approximately 2,000-3,000individuals) and approximately 125 pairs (equating to 250 individuals) in south-east New South Wales. This gives an overall population estimate of between 3,250 and 4,250 individuals.	eng
143295	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although densities in remaining forest may eventually be affected by a reduction in the availability of suitable nest hollows and den sites as a result of intensive forestry practices, studies indicate birds persist in mosaics of unlogged forest, in which they nest, and logged forest, in which they forage. There was no difference in density between heavily logged, lightly logged and unlogged forest. Intense wildfire can result in local loss but, if suitable habitat remains nearby, they may return to forage. Poisoning, disturbance and predation by foxes may also cause nest failure and some mortality, but are unlikely to be significant (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
143296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143297	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox rudolfi</em> is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs up to 1,000 m in primary, disturbed primary and secondary forest and forest edge, in both deciduous and evergreen formations. Although characterised as uncommon or rare, occurring singly, in pairs or small dispersed groups of up to four birds, recent observations have revealed that the species is widespread and moderately common, although still at some risk from steady habitat loss. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143297	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species was reportedly relatively common and widespread in 1998, but may have declined since. Hence, this current population estimate is very preliminary and requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
143298	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143299	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox affinis</em><em> </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar archipelagos, <strong>India</strong>, where it occurs in mangrove forest, lightly wooded areas and forest clearings, apparently hawking insects at dusk. Although its tolerance of degraded habitats gives cause for optimism, the human population on larger islands in the Andaman group is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Given the small range of this species it requires research and monitoring to assess its conservation needs. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
143300	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143301	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143302	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox ochracea</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (but not the south peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon in primary and tall secondary lowland forest, riverine and lower montane forest up to 1,000 m, with an assertion that it is chiefly a species of drier formations. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its population must have declined. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143302	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is generally uncommon throughout its range and hence, the population is not thought to be large. This preliminary estimate requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
143303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143304	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A national park was created in 1980, and has since been extended. A lease agreement has been established with the mining company which prevents clearance of primary rainforest and requires permits to clear regrowth. A draft recovery plan has been prepared. Contingency plans are being developed to establish a captive population on mainland Australia. A control programme for <em>A.&#160;gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and has effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and future outbreaks will be treated. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Establish an insurance captive population of <em>N. natalis</em>. Eradicate exotic sparrows. Rehabilitate rainforests on priority minefields. Negotiate with all landowners to ensure protection of primary forests outside the national park. Form a recovery team and implement the recovery plan. Conduct a community education programme.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143304	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox natalis</em> is restricted to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong> in the Indian Ocean. The species is present throughout the island, with highest densities occurring in primary forest and the lowest in regrowth after mining. The population was estimated at 560&#177;100 pairs in 1995 and c.1,000 individuals in 2004<strong><sup>4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. It is suspected to have declined in the recent past, although numbers are now thought to be more or less stable. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143304	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies permanent territories in all habitats on the island, although it is absent from mined sites. Its diet consists primarily of insects supplemented with small vertebrates, including the introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>.</p>	eng
143304	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at c.1,000 individuals (S. Garnett <em>in litt. </em>2004; D. James <em>in litt.</em>2004, 2005). <br/></p>	eng
143304	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest clearance for phosphate extraction has destroyed 25% of available habitat, but has now been halted. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining, satellite launch pads and refugee transit stations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A possible threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha, but was controlled over about 2,900 ha in September 2002. Once controlled, the ants are not re-establishing supercolonies. If allowed to spread uncontrolled, ant super-colonies prey directly on nestlings, and alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, and by farming scale insects which damage the trees<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Disease is another potential threat, for which two established exotic sparrows could act as reservoirs. <br/></p>	eng
143305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common locally (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be widespread and generally uncommon but locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in forest and forest edges (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143309	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
143309	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al</em>.<em> </em>(2008).  <br/></p>	eng
143310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread within its range and reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143311	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Uroglaux dimorpha</em> is sparsely distributed in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), known only from few localities in the north-west, including Yapen island, near Vanimo and Lae, the south-east and Gulf Province<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>. It is a lowland forest species, occasionally recorded to 1,500&#160;m, and is also found in gallery forest in savanna<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are only records from nine sites in the 1980s and 1990s, including a series of birds captured near Lae<strong><sup>2,4,5,6,7,8,9</sup></strong>. Its tolerance of degraded habitat is unknown and it is potentially threatened by logging of lowland forests. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
143312	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sceloglaux albifacies</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> with the nominate race on the South and Stewart Islands (with bones known from the Chatham Islands) and the subspecies<em> rufifacies</em> on the North Island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species roosted and nested among rocks in open country and on forest edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds were not uncommon until the first half of the 19th century, but were becoming rare by the 1840s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last specimens of <em>rufifacies</em> were collected in 1889 (with reports until the 1930s), and of <em>albifacies,</em> in 1914 (with reports until the 1960s)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Causes of the species's extinction are obscure, possibly habitat modification through grazing or burning, or predation by introduced rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 120,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 380,000-810,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,140,000-2,430,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 1,500,000-5,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to rather rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
143318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143321	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey population densities in primary and logged forest, hunted and unhunted areas and at various altitudes. Monitor population trends around Tirotonga. Research diet and breeding success at Tirotonga. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging, especially on Choiseul. Discuss possibilities of large-scale community-based conservation areas on all three islands. Promote as a figurehead species for community-based conservation and ecotourism initiatives. <br/></p>	eng
143321	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesasio solomonensis</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and Choiseul and Santa Isabel in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is presumed to be a species of low population density as it is rarely seen and no more than one bird has been heard calling from any location. In a well-studied area at Tirotonga on Isabel, three nests were about 2&#160;km apart<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, which would extrapolate to an approximate total population of c.3,000 pairs, but it appears to be unusually common in this area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143321	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This large owl is the top predator along with Sanford's Fish-eagle <em>Haliaeetus sanfordi</em> and is reported to feed mostly on northern common cuscus <em>Phalanger orientalis</em><strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Phalangers were introduced to these islands in prehistoric times; presumably the owl previously fed on the giant arboreal rats which are now very rare across their range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its distribution may now mirror that of <em>P.&#160;orientalis</em> which is heavily hunted for food in some districts<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. All records are from lowland and hill forest to 700&#160;m, usually in primary forest but also in adjacent secondary forest and forest edge<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>. Three nests on Isabel were on ephiphyte-covered branches of huge fig trees, one was in primary forest, the other two in forest edge close to many gardens<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143321	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Dutson pers. obs. (1998), M. Hafe verbally (1998) <br/></p>	eng
143321	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is threatened by large-scale logging and deforestation in the lowlands. It may also be less common in areas where rural communities over-hunt <em>P.&#160;orientalis</em>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Halmahera (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cleere 1998).	eng
143324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in Australia and moderately common over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143325	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The 1998 sighting was in the Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Ni-Kouakoue. This area receives little conservation management but is very remote and hence affords a degree of protection. Between 2002 and 2007, c.500 person-days in the field yielded no sightings and between 2003 and 2006 120 local interviews received no credible reports.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct further intensive field surveys close to the 1998 sighting and on other ultrabasic massifs in the vicinity</strong><sup>2,9</sup>, provided these are cost effective and do not detract from the conservation of other Threatened species. <strong>Publicise the search for this species amongst forest workers and villagers</strong><sup>2,9</sup> within the "Wanted" campaign, to maximise efficiency of the unofficial observer network.	eng
143325	distribution		<em>Aegotheles savesi</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It is known from a specimen collected in 1880 at Pa&iuml;ta, near Noum&eacute;a<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, a second specimen dated 1915 recently discovered in an Italian museum<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, a possible record from the island of Mar&eacute;<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, one found dead (but not retained) in the Tchamba valley in the 1950s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, one shot close to Pa&iuml;ta in 1960<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> and a sighting in 1998 in the Rivi&egrave;re Ni valley<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Calls similar to those of the allopatric <em>A. cristatus</em> were heard in 1996 and 1998. Given that local people do not know this distinctive species and that there have been no other records from recent surveys, it must occur in very low numbers and/or be restricted to the most remote forest massifs such as Kouakoue<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>.	eng
143325	habitat		The records are from <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna and humid forest. The 1998 sighting was of a single bird foraging for insects briefly at dusk, in evergreen riverine forest<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Other owlet-nightjars <em>Aegotheles</em> spp. are territorial and vocal inhabitants of various wooded habitats<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. They nest and roost in holes in trees and are largely sit-and-wait predators of small animals, foraging from perches or from the ground. <em>A.&#160;savesi</em> is larger and has much longer legs than congeners, which may indicate more terrestrial habits<strong><sup>3,7,9</sup></strong>.	eng
143325	population		Population assumed to be tiny, with just a single record (in 1998) since 1960.	eng
143326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143327	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aegotheles wallacii</em> is a hill-forest species in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been recorded from forest below 1,540&#160;m, from the Aru islands and Vogelkop in the far west across to Karimui in central Papua New Guinea. It is known from few specimens and very few recent observations; the paucity of records largely results from the extremely unobtrusive nature of the genus and its call is poorly known<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Although it has an extensive range, some of the forest is threatened by logging and clearance for agriculture. Owlet-nightjars are hole-nesters which have suffered elsewhere from introduced mammalian predators<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and this species's status cannot be assessed from the current data.</p>	eng
143328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be plentiful in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but race salvadorii is reported to be common at least in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Papua New Guinea and common in its Australian restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143333	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batrachostomus auritus</em> occurs very sparsely in south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna and Labuan islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>in evergreen and secondary forest, to at least 250 m, perhaps 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but its ability to persist in regenerating and second growth habitats means it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
143334	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batrachostomus harterti</em> is restricted to the Bornean Mountains Endemic Bird Area in hill and lower montane forest at 300-1,500 m. Discounting its erroneous listing for Tanjung Puting National Park, it is known by only eight specimens from four areas in Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and one in West Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and there is steady habitat loss on Mt Dulit. <br/></p>	eng
143335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143336	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batrachostomus stellatus</em> occurs from central peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the North Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including the Riau and Lingga archipelagos and Bangka Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>,<strong> </strong>where it is fairly widespread and common<strong> </strong>in evergreen and secondary forest to at least 500 m (once to 920 m). Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but its ability to breed in second growth places it at less risk. <br/></p>	eng
143337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon in southern India and common in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143339	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batrachostomus poliolophus</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from a small number of records from the Barisan range, in forest between 660 and 1,400&#160;m, but is presumably greatly under-recorded because it is nocturnal. Deforestation in the lower part of its altitudinal range is a threat, even within the protected areas in its range, such as Kerinci-Seblat National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143340	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batrachostomus mixtus</em> is restricted to Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in lower montane forest at 600-1,675 m. It is thought to be probably not common and may be vulnerable to forest loss within its range. <br/></p>	eng
143342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143349	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but local throughout its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143353	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in one protected area, Lore Lindu National Park, where most recent confirmed observations have been made, and also in Gunung Klabat Proposed Wildlife Reserve. In addition there is an unconfirmed report from Tangkoko-Batuangus Nature Reserve.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Obtain recordings of its vocalisations and use these to facilitate further searches for the species. Conduct extensive surveys to establish its distribution, status, ecological requirements and main threats. Propose further forested areas supporting populations of this, and other threatened species endemic to Sulawesi, for protection.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143353	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eurostopodus diabolicus</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from mountain ranges in the north and centre of the island, with unconfirmed records from the south and adjacent Buton. It appears to be very thinly distributed and genuinely rare, although its nocturnal habits and associated difficulties in identification have probably led to it being overlooked. Although it must have suffered from loss of habitat at lower altitudes, its recent discovery in montane forest suggests that it may be locally secure.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143353	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits tropical lowland and lower montane, evergreen rainforest, from 250 m to 1,750&#160;m, tolerating at least selective logging. It is presumed to be sedentary.</p>	eng
143353	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 482 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,410 individuals, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from estimate for <em>E. temminckii</em>). <br/></p>	eng
143353	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The primary threat to this poorly known species is presumably forest loss and fragmentation at lower altitudes. This has been extensive in the Minahasa peninsula of north Sulawesi, owing to land clearance for transmigration settlements, shifting cultivation, plantation agriculture and large-scale logging. However, much forest remains in hilly and mountainous regions, and is currently relatively secure. <br/></p>	eng
143354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed but generally rare or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143361	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nyctiprogne vielliardi</em> was only described in 1994, and is currently known from just two localities on the rio S&atilde;o Francisco in Bahia and Minas Gerais, central <strong>Brazil<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is presumably more widely distributed along the rio S&atilde;o Francisco and immediately adjacent tributaries (of which there are few in the caatinga zone)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is no information on population but, at least in Minas Gerais, it may not be uncommon<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is crepuscular and presumably nocturnal, having been observed feeding high above the open river in loose flocks of up to 20 birds at dusk<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Roosting birds have been flushed from riverside bushes and the ground<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. No specific threats are known, but it must be threatened to some extent by the loss of riverine forest and scrub within its range. <br/></p>	eng
143365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143369	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey, especially Milk River and the Hellshire Hills, to locate any remaining populations<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143369	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Siphonorhis americana</em> is endemic to <strong>Jamaica</strong>, but has not been positively recorded since 1860. Reference has been made to five specimens, but only four have been located<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Two specimens (one untraced) were taken in the Great Salt Pond area near Spanishtown in 1857, with others collected in the Bluefields area, near Savanna-la-Mar in western Jamaica, (apparently) at Freeman's Hall near Albert Town and from near Linstead<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Three of these localities (excepting Freeman's Hall) are in the lowlands on the southern side of the island, and there is anecdotal evidence that the species could often be found in (what is now assumed to be) the Hellshire Hills<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. However, the specimen information is confused by the practice of labelling skins with the residence of the collector as the location of collection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There have been some recent, unconfirmed reports of caprimulgids from Milk River and Hellshire Hills, which apparently do not refer to other known species on the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143369	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The south side of the island is drier, suggesting that the species is (or was) found in either dry limestone forest, semi-arid woodland or open country at low elevations. It presumably nests (or nested) on the ground. <br/></p>	eng
143369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (<50) based on lack of records since 1860 <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143369	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Introduced mammalian predators are considered primarily responsible for the possible extirpation of this species. The mongoose was introduced in 1872 (after the last confirmed record), but it can be assumed that rats were the cause of any decline prior to this date. As its ecological requirements are not known, the impact of habitat destruction is difficult to assess. However, the loss of at least 75% of original forest, with remaining forest largely secondary, presumably had (and perhaps continues to have) an adverse effect. <br/></p>	eng
143370	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are currently no actions being taken for this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct surveys to obtain more precise range, population and trend estimates. Avoid habitat destruction at key sites. Consider trapping introduced predators at key sites.  <br/></p>	eng
143370	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Siphonorhis brewsteri</em> is found in central and west <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (particularly on the north slope of the Sierra de Baoruco and between Oviedo and Pedernales), <strong>Haiti</strong> (between Arcahaie and Montruis north of Port-au-Prince) and, at least formerly, was numerous on Ile de la Gon&acirc;ve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was previously considered extinct but is now thought to be generally rare. However, it can be locally common and is possibly under-recorded<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Surveys at Las Cruces, Sierra de Bahoruco, in March 1996 revealed 4.5 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, essentially unchanged from 4.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup> during 1976 surveys in the same area.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143370	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in arid or semi-arid lowlands, especially scrubby woodland, and also broadleaf, pine or mixed forest up to 800 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Perches inconspicuously by day on branches close to the ground. Crepuscular and nocturnal, calling at night.  <br/></p>	eng
143370	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is suspected to have a moderately small population based upon its apparent rarity and the limited availability of suitable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
143370	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and introduced predators are thought to threaten the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143371	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is endemic to western Mexico, where it is fairly common in suitable habitat on the Pacific slope from Chihuahua through Jalisco, Colima and Guerrero as far as Oaxaca (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
143371	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits arid to semihumid oak and pine-oak forest on rocky slopes from 1,200 to 2,500 m, and is also found in wooded gullies and overgrown fields with scattered trees, possibly on a seasonal basis (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
143371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143375	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143382	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected. Gu&aacute;nica, Sus&uacute;a and Maricao are public lands designated as state forests, and Gu&aacute;nica is a biosphere reserve. The Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico has acquired lands in the Guayanilla-Pe&ntilde;uelas region, this area includes mature dry forest where nightjars are abundant. The latter constitutes the only protected nightjar habitat in this portion of their range. The population is surveyed regularly and spatial analysis is being used to identify areas of potentially suitable habitat for protection and examine changes in habitat cover over time<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. As part of BirdLife International's Preventing Extinctions programme the Sociedad Ornitol&oacute;gica Puertorrique&ntilde;a, Inc have been designated as Species Guardian and are implementing the following actions: revising a Species Action Plan in collaboration with the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS); planning a research project to be carried out by the Mississippi State University (scheduled to take place from March to May 2009), which will include surveys to determine the current range, suitable habitat and conservation recommendations; and raising community awareness through school presentations and the dissemination of educational materials. The research project to determine current range and suitable habitat has now been completed. The priority conservation actions identified by the Species Action Plan will be implemented through a newly-established Puerto Rican Nightjar Conservation Network and facilitated by the Species Guardian.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey to identify additional areas for protection and conservation potential, particularly in the newly-established regions of its range in south-central and south-eastern Puerto Rico. Assess population size in newly-established regions of its range Monitor to assess population trends and the effects of management. Study movements and dispersal patterns. Research breeding biology and life history parameters to enable use of population viability analyses. Effectively conserve existing reserves</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Reforest disturbed areas with native and selected plantation species</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Acquire privately owned tracts of mature dry limestone forest</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Lobby for priority site conservation through existing initiatives and Site Support Groups.</strong> <strong> Life history parameters (e.g., survival) are also needed to develop population models and viability estimates.</strong>	eng
143382	distribution		<em>Caprimulgus noctitherus</em> probably occupied large areas of <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, and its current distribution was recently thought to be restricted to the south-west, notably Sus&uacute;a-Maricao, Guayanilla-Pe&ntilde;uelas and Gu&aacute;nica-Bermeja. However recent survey work confirms its range extends from Ponce through south-central Puero Rico to Guayama province in the south-east<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There are further recent records from the Parguera Hills and Sierra Bermeja (c.10 km west of Parguera)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Studies in 1985-1987, 1989-1990 and 1992 found 712 singing males in 98 km<sup>2</sup> of fragmented habitat, with 347 in the Gu&aacute;nica area, 177 in the Sus&uacute;a-Maricao area and 188 in the Guayanilla area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population was consequently estimated at 1,400-2,000 individuals, which is similar to the 1984 population estimate of 670-800 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
143382	habitat		The historical range probably comprised moist limestone and coastal forest in northern Puerto Rico, as well as currently occupied dry limestone forest, drier sections of the lower cordillera forest and perhaps dry coastal forest. It is presently more abundant in closed canopy dry forest on limestone soils, composed mainly of semi-deciduous hardwood trees with abundant leaf litter and an open understorey (little or no ground vegetation) at elevations up to 230 m, but more commonly above 75 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs at lower densities in dry, open, scrubby secondary growth, xeric or dry scrubland, open scrub-forest and thorny forest undergrowth, with a few birds in <em>Eucalyptus robusta</em> plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs from late February to early July, but mainly in April-June<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nests are common at elevations above 100 m and are characterised by a deep layer of leaf litter and an open midstorey beneath a closed canopy<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Birds are perhaps permanently territorial, exhibiting strong interannual site fidelity<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Gu&aacute;nica forest, c.87% of nests in one year produced at least one fledgling<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on beetles, moths and other insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
143382	population		The population has been estimated at 1,400-2,000 individuals, based on 712 calling males found within 66% of the suitable habitat within its known range (Vilella and Zwank 1993).	eng
143383	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143385	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143386	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Emas National Park, Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve and (probably) Beni Biological Station, and is protected under Brazilian law. A three-year study of its breeding biology, ranging behaviour and habitat use in Paraguay was completed in 2001<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of suitable cerrado habitat in Brazil, north-east Paraguay and Bolivia. Utilise the survey techniques developed in Paraguay to estimate the population in Emas. Establish fire management regimes at protected sites, to create and maintain mosaics of vegetation ages, and prevent uncontrollable, destructive wildfires. <br/></p>	eng
143386	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eleothreptus candicans</em> is currently known from Emas National Park, south-west Goi&aacute;s, <strong>Brazil<sup>12</sup></strong>, Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve, Canindey&uacute;<strong><sup>3,9,11</sup></strong>, and Laguna Blanca, San Pedro<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong>, and a single male captured at Beni Biological Station, Beni, <strong>Bolivia</strong> in 1987<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There are historical records from Mato Grosso and S&atilde;o Paulo, Brazil, and even older evidence of its occurrence in Paraguay<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Mbaracay&uacute;, there is 10-38&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of habitat holding c.40-150 birds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the Emas population was assumed to number in the hundreds (if not larger), but density estimates from Mbaracay&uacute; suggest that - despite the paucity of recent records<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> - this may be an underestimate. Subsequent searches at Beni have not produced any further sightings<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143386	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Paraguay, home ranges primarily comprise wet grassland and campo cerrado, the latter with a mixture of palms <em>Butia paraguayensis</em> and termite mounds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it has been recorded mainly in campo limpo with abundant termite mounds. When foraging, it prefers areas of younger vegetation, perhaps due to the increased insect prey they support, although it avoids very recently burnt areas<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Known populations are apparently sedentary<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, although there may be local movements in response to fires. Suggestions that it may be migratory in parts of its range<strong><sup>4 </sup></strong>are not supported by current knowledge<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong> or the apparent source of this information<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, the breeding season extends from September to January<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The breeding system, male nuptial display, nest-site, eggs and chicks have all been described recently<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143386	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4.0 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 620 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,480, i.e. best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density based on estimates of average home range size and overlap in Paraguay [Pople 2003]). <br/></p>	eng
143386	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Known populations are relatively well-protected, but two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered by 1993<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The principal threats are grazing, invasive grasses, inappropriate fire regimes and conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, pasture, soybeans and other exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform in Brazil)<strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143389	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus maculosus</em> is known with certainty only from the type-specimen taken in 1917 at Saut Tamanoir on the Fleuve Mana, c.10&#160;km above the confluence of the Rivi&egrave;re Cockioco, <strong>French Guiana</strong>. The locality has two basic habitat types: the many boulder-strewn rapids on the lower reaches of the river are bordered by closed-canopy forest and more open areas characterised by large boulders, sandy or stony river banks and savanna-like clearings. Despite recent, quite intensive mist-netting for nightjars in French Guiana, the only subsequent records are of a possible female caught at Saul airstrip in 1982 and two nightjars, probably of this species, near to the same village in October-November 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its taxonomic status has been questioned, but a re-examination of the type-specimen appears to confirm it as a valid species. <br/></p>	eng
143390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143391	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the Pantepui of south-east Venezuela, where it is only known from cerros Roraima, Ptari-tepuí, Jaua, Urutaní and Duida (Cleere and Nurney 1998).	eng
143391	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is fairly common on the edge of elfin forest and in semihumid/humid montane scrub, preferring areas such as clearings and treefalls with scattered, very dense vegetation, at elevations of 1,280-1,800 m (Stotz et al. 1996, Cleere and Nurney 1998).	eng
143391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143391	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The tepuis are largely inaccessible and remain relatively undisturbed (Huber and Alarcón 1988). However, many of the endemic plants of the tepuis harbour flammable secondary compounds which help to spread fire and this could affect available habitat. Any such habitat loss would be absolute as montane forests on the tepuis tend not to regrow but are replaced by bracken Pteridium (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
143392	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was thought to be endemic to xeric caatinga of north-east Brazil but a population was recently discovered in east-central Brazil (Cleere and Nurney 1998, Ribon 1995, Vasconcelos and Lins 1999). There are three races: the nominate from south Piauí, south-east across Bahia and east to Alagoas; cearae from Ceará south through east Piauí to extreme north Bahia; and the newly described vielliardi from Colatina, Espírito Santo (Cleere and Nurney 1998) and Aimorés, Minas Gerais (Vasconcelos and Lins 1999).	eng
143392	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species largely prefers lowland deciduous forest especially with open sandy areas (Stattersfield et al. 1998), although the newly described subspecies vielliardi occurs in rocky areas (Cleere and Nurney 1998).	eng
143392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known and probably not very common (Cleere 1998).	eng
143392	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Caatinga habitats have suffered markedly from agricultural expansion, grazing and burning since the late 18th century (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The level of general disturbance has further increased in the last 30 years since the arrival in the area of the Brazilian oil company, Petrobrás, which has improved access, permitting an influx of settlers and relocation of many families by government agencies (Hart 1991, Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
143393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 21000-110000 breeding pairs, equating to 63000-330000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 130000-1500000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 470000-1000000 breeding pairs, equating to 1410000-3000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2000000-6000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143398	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143399	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally scarce to common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in many regions (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143401	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus centralasicus</em><em> </em>is known from a single record in Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong>. Several recent surveys of the type locality and other similar sites in this region have failed to locate it, indicating that it is scarce and presumably localised. Its taxonomic status requires clarification as it has been suggested that the specimen may prove to be an immature European Nightjar <em>C. europaeus plumipes</em> which breeds in Xinjiang. The type-specimen was collected in sandy scrub-jungle at 1,220 m and it presumably occurs in desert and semi-desert habitats. There has been widespread degradation of these habitats in the Taklimakan Desert through the intensive grazing of goats and camels, extraction of fuelwood, and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated farmland. In 1990, the habitats at the type-localility, Guma, were found to have been very much altered since the 1920s.</p>	eng
143402	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon and scarce in many parts (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and perhaps even rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143404	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant throughout Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143406	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143407	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but probably not common anywhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common in many parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally quite common (Cleere 1998).	eng
143412	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known and the Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in northern Congo and south-east Cameroon and mistnet the species to confirm whether<em> prigoginei or a new species<sup>4. Conduct surveys in forest in the region using tape play-back to clarify its range4. Conduct surveys in suitable habitat in the Itombwe Mountains. Facilitate conservation action in collaboration with traditional authorities in Itombwe to limit further habitat degradation6.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143412	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus prigoginei</em> remains known from a single female collected in August 1955 at Malenge, in the Itombwe Mountains of the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. A sound recording of two nightjars, in Itombwe at c.1,700&#160;m in 1996, very probably refers to this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Identical tape-recordings were obtained in northern Congo in 1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and south-east Cameroon in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, suggesting that the species may be more widespread.  <br/></p>	eng
143412	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is possible that the species is restricted to transitional (between lowland and montane) forest in which the type was found at 1,280&#160;m<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. However, at this altitude it may equally well be found in either lowland or montane forest<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143412	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population assumed to be small (<10,000) based on the fact that there are no confirmed records since the original specimen was collected in 1955.	eng
143412	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest clearance for smallholder agriculture is a serious threat in Itombwe, where a maize blight since the early 1990s has reduced yields and forced farmers to clear forest for new farms<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for livestock-grazing, particularly at higher altitudes, is also a threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143414	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and widespread throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be of variable status throughout its fragmented range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather common throughout much of its African range and locally common in the Middle East (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143420	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common throughout much of its range and locally abundant in some countries or regions (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143421	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs at Way Kambas National Park, Sumatra, and Gunung Niut Nature Reserve, Kalimantan. Further research is likely to reveal its presence at other lowland protected areas in future.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys throughout the three islands of its distribution using knowledge of its distinctive call as basis. Investigate its altitudinal distribution, ecological requirements and the levels of threat it faces and thereby determine whether any specific conservation measures are required. Support the conservation of relevant lowland protected areas. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143421	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus concretus</em> occurs on Sumatra, Belitung and Borneo (Kalimantan), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei, </strong>and Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is locally common, but rarely recorded. This patchiness of distribution at least partly reflects the ease with which it is overlooked, but it does appear genuinely rare at many localities.  <br/></p>	eng
143421	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to lower elevations (one record from 900 m, but usually below 500 m) where it frequents forest, perhaps particularly clearings and edges, heath forest and secondary growth. The true nature of its habitat use is uncertain, although it has been observed foraging from a perch inside forest.</p>	eng
143421	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143421	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If this bird is an extreme lowland forest specialist, as appears possible, then it must be in steep decline from habitat loss. Kalimantan lost just under 25% of its 1985 lowland forest cover in the subsequent 12 years, resulting in the prediction that this habitat-type could be eradicated from the entire province by 2010, if changes in policy and management were not forthcoming. The equivalent statistic for Sumatra is even worse: 30% lowland forest loss in the same 12-year period, a rate that, if maintained, would result in almost complete clearance of the lowlands by 2005. Furthermore, the major fires of 1997-1998 affected c.50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo, damaged at least 17 of Indonesia's parks and reserves and, following previous major conflagrations in 1972 and 1982-1983, accelerated the dessication of the forest environment that renders regrowth and unburnt adjacent areas ever more vulnerable to fire and ever poorer in biodiversity. <br/></p>	eng
143422	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus pulchellus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (South Barisan Mountains) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in montane forest at 1,350-2,200 m or lower, 800-1,800 m. It is likely to be moderately secure in small numbers at higher elevations but losing habitat and populations at lower ones where encroachment is occurring. <br/></p>	eng
143422	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population because the area of available habitat is not large and it is not common within its range. <br/></p>	eng
143423	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is possibly locally common throughout lowland rain forest (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and frequent to abundant throughout much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant throughout much of its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
143430	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143431	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143433	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143434	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143435	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eleothreptus anomalus</em> is very scarce throughout east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (regular at one site in Misiones and 5-6 other confirmed records)<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong> and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (at least 12 records since 1980), with apparently fragmented populations in central and south-east <strong>Brazil<sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from <strong>Uruguay</strong>. Almost all records are of lone individuals, although six individuals were recorded at a wetland site in Rio Grande do Sul recently<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. However, in most cases, there is only a single record from each locality. Some records refer to southern breeders migrating north in the austral winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Most are from gallery forest, monte (chaco-type woodland) and transitional woodlands, flooded grasslands and patches of chaco-woodland, with islands of <em>Geoffroea decorticans</em> in north-east Argentina. Other noted habitats are in or near savannas and grasslands, marshland, swamps, campo cerrado, lagoon edges with spiny scrub and along streams, pools and flooded palm groves<strong><sup>3,6,9</sup></strong>, but it is not as associated with water bodies as previously thought<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Chaco-type habitats are threatened by intensive grazing, wildfires and seasonal burning and, in some places, agricultural expansion<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by extensive cattle ranching, agriculture, wetland drainage, excessive use of pesticides and afforestation with <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> spp.<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143435	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
143436	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Raphus cucullatus</em><em> </em>is known from numerous bones, specimen fragments, reports and paintings from <strong>Mauritius<sup>5</sup></strong>. It was mainly a species of the dry lowland forests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although possible mutualism with the upland tambalacoque tree <em>Calvaria major</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong> suggests that it may have ranged into the hills<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species was flightless<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, tame<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and very heavily hunted for food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and was last reported from an offshore islet by Iversen in 1662<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. All references to ";dodos"; thereafter refer to Red Rail <em>Aphanapteryx bonasia.</em></p>	eng
143437	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pezophaps solitaria</em><em> </em>was endemic to Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>, from where it is known from numerous historical accounts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with those of Leguat in 1708 providing particularly rich detail<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and many bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds were heavily hunted and predated by introduced cats, and were very rare by 1755 when Cossigny tried to obtain one without success, but was told that the species did still survive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was definitely extinct by the 1760s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often quite common locally (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant within its restricted range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520000-730000 breeding pairs, equating to 1560000-2190000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1700000-3000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143444	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba oliviae</em> is a locally common species endemic to north-east <strong>Somalia<sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been found from 45&#176;E east to Cap Guardafui and south down the east coast as far as 7&#176;30'N<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a ground-feeding, rock-dwelling bird of arid, coastal regions, at altitudes of 75-750 m (though once seen at 1,425 m), within 24 km of the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is generally resident but shows seasonal movements locally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on the ground, on seeds, cultivated grains and berries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Very little is known of its breeding ecology<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. There have been records as recently as 2005 at a few sites, including in areas around Galgalo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A potential threat may come from Speckled Pigeon <em>Columba guinea</em>, which is still expanding its range very rapidly in Somalia and was seen for the first time in the Galgalo area in April 2005<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. How this may affect the Somali Pigeon remains to be seen. No other threats are known. Given its small range and the paucity of recent information, its status remains uncertain, though there is no evidence to suggest that it has changed in the last 60 years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There has been no survey or conservation work carried out in recent years; something that is urgently required to improve existing knowledge of this species's abundance, distribution, ecology and possible threats.<em> <br/></p>	eng
143445	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In China, 15 protected areas have been designated within its range. In India, it occurs around the Harike Lake Bird Sanctuary, Punjab. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its central Asian breeding range to establish the size and distribution of the breeding population, key threats and habitat requirements. Investigate habitat requirements in its wintering grounds. Protect important breeding habitat from further loss and degradation. Protect it from hunting across its range, particularly in China, where it should be listed as a protected species, and in India. Improve management of protected areas holding the species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143445	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba eversmanni</em> breeds in southern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgystan</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, north-east <strong>Iran</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>China</strong>. Its status and distribution within this range are poorly known. It winters in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and north-west <strong>India</strong>,<strong> </strong>historically as far east as Bihar, and southern Xinjiang and western Gansu, China. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was recorded in huge flocks in its wintering grounds, particularly in the Punjab, India. However, it has declined rapidly, from wintering flocks numbering thousands of birds to flocks generally only of tens or a few hundreds of birds, with occasional larger counts, most recently (1995) of up to 2,000 individuals in a single flock. Whether it continues to decline is unclear.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143445	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in holes in trees, buildings, cliffs and earth banks in semi-arid and desert areas, including around human settlement and, at least in Kazakhstan, in<em> </em>woodland. In winter, it occurs in open areas with scattered trees, often with agricultural crops, and in areas with suitable fruiting trees, where it roosts and feeds gregariously. The diet includes grass seeds, arable crop seeds and the fruit of trees and shrubs, including <em>Zizyphus</em> and mulberry <em>Morus alba</em>. </p>	eng
143445	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143445	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting in both its breeding and wintering grounds has been the primary cause of its decline and continues to be a major threat in China. In India, intensification of arable cultivation and a change from the large-scale cultivation of pulses and mustard to wheat and rice has reduced the quality of habitat in its key wintering areas. Destruction of poplar <em>Populus</em> woodland is believed to have had a major impact on the breeding population in eastern Kazakhstan. <br/></p>	eng
143446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 9000000-17000000 breeding pairs, equating to 27000000-51000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30000000-70000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143447	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba trocaz</em> is endemic to Madeira and formerly the neighbouring island of Porto Santo, <strong>Portugal</strong>. It is found predominantly on the island's mountainous northern slopes, but there are a few isolated populations in the south. It was very abundant in the early years of human colonisation, but subsequently declined dramatically to c. 2,700 birds in 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the population has recovered in recent years, probably due to the ban on hunting. There are now an estimated 10,400 birds in approximately 12 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, and well protected within Madeira Natural Park. The species is confined to laurel forest, largely below 850 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is strong evidence that it is highly mobile between different areas at different times of year. It nests in trees in laurel forest, occasionally on the ground or in cavities in cliffs. Normally only one egg is laid. Food consists of the fruit of <em>Laurus azorica</em> and <em>Ocotea foetens</em>, and the leaves and flowers of herbaceous plants. Birds may also feed on agricultural land. Nest predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is likely to be a factor limiting reproduction. Although the area of laurel forest is now increasing, regeneration is adversely affected by grazing and fire. Extinction on Porto Santo and historical declines on Madeira were directly related to forest destruction for wood, agriculture, grazing and human settlements. Hunting and poisoning compounded the effects of habitat loss and continue illegally in a few well-defined areas, especially on agricultural land. This species's unpopularity, as a result of its use of agricultural areas, has a negative influence on conservation and management actions. It is legally protected and hunting was banned in 1986. Madeira Natural Park has a management plan, and an action plan for the species was published in 1996. Research and monitoring should be continued; new areas of laurel forest should be protected; habitat loss (from livestock-grazing) and hunting should be controlled or prevented; an education campaign may overcome the species's unpopularity. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143447	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Oliveira <em>et al</em>. (2007). <br/></p>	eng
143448	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba bollii</em> has an estimated population of 2,200 individuals on the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>, where it inhabits closed-canopy laurel forest. Birds are found on Tenerife (at least 350-400 birds, particularly at Anaga and Los Silos), La Palma (250-300 in a restricted area of the north-west), La Gomera (over 1,000 in Garajonay National Park with some birds outside the park) and El Hierro (over 30). It may formerly have occurred on Gran Canaria, as bones similar to those of a laurel pigeon have been found and there is a possible sight record from the late 19th century. Historical declines resulted from intensive exploitation of laurel forests. The extent of forest loss has slowed, although fragmentation has continued as forests are exploited for poles and tool handles. Illegal hunting occurs at drinking sites. As it is a tree-nesting species, predation by rats is of less significance than for <em>C. junoniae</em> and is unlikely to cause significant declines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite these threats the population seems to be stable, although this requires confirmation. A European action plan was published in 1996. <br/></p>	eng
143448	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimate provided by SEO (BirdLife partner in Spain) in 2007. <br/></p>	eng
143449	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is fully protected under Spanish law. Many protected areas have been established, including Garajonay National Park (La Gomera), El Canal and Los Tiles (La Palma). A project is underway with the aim of conserving this species and <em>C. bollii</em>. An action plan was published in 1996.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a census and initiate monitoring. Investigate factors affecting breeding performance. Purchase important sites. Promote the restoration of laurel forest. Avoid further damage to laurel forest from commercial forestry. Implement alternatives to commercial forestry. Control illegal hunting. <br/></p>	eng
143449	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba junoniae</em> has an estimated population of 1,200-1,480 individuals on the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. A subpopulation is found on La Palma with 1,000-1,200 birds, mainly in the north-east and at El Canal, Los Tilos and Barranco de la Herradura. A second subpopulation occurs on Tenerife with 80-120 birds, the highest densities occurring at Monte del Agua and Laderas de Tigaiga. A third subpopulation is found on La Gomera with 120-160 birds mainly in Garajonay National Park and its surrounds. During 1970-1990, numbers may have been stable, but there are insufficient data to confirm this and continued declines are possible. It has a small extent of occurence, estimated at just 1,240 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143449	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in areas with steep slopes, escarpments and canyons where it prefers mature laurel forest, but also utilises degraded laurel forest, scrub, Canary pine woods, mixed pine stands and cultivated areas. Nests are on the ground within laurel forest. The breeding season extends from March-September and perhaps throughout the year. Breeding success appears to be low as a result of intense nest-predation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143449	population	BirdLife International, 2008	BirdLife International (2004). Population much larger than the 1,200-1,480 individuals estimated by Emmerson (1985), with La Palma alone probably supporting more than this figure (Mart&iacute;n and Lorenzo 2001). <br/></p>	eng
143449	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Tenerife, nest predation may be the most important threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. From a sample of seven nests, two were successful and the remainder were predated, primarily by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Predation of artificial ground nests was also very high<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat loss has been extensive. Laurel forests have been intensively exploited since the 15th century. Although the decline in their area has slowed, laurel forests have been fragmented in recent decades owing to an increase in the demand for wooden poles and tool handles for agriculture. A recent decline in fruit farming, particularly on La Gomera, has reduced food availability. The concentration of birds at a few water sources makes them vulnerable to illegal hunting. Newcastle's disease is a potentially serious threat, but its current impact is unknown. <br/></p>	eng
143450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although locally quite common in Cameroon and Gabon (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143451	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant to not uncommon locally (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143452	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its ecological requirements and key threats, including levels of hunting, in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law<sup>1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143452	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba thomensis</em> is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>, where its range includes Chamico in the north-west, the regions of Lagoa Amelia, Zampalma, Nova Ceil&atilde;o and Bomba&iacute;m in the central massif and Formoso Pequeno southwards along the valley of the rio Io Grande. In the south-west, it extends into the lowlands along the valleys of the Xufexufe and Ana Chaves rivers. In the south-east, it occurs west of Agua Iz&eacute; and on the isolated peak of Maria Fernandes, north of S&atilde;o Jo&atilde;o dos Angolares<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its population is unknown, but given the limited area of habitat is likely to be small.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143452	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most common in primary forest above 1,000 m but also occurs in mature secondary forest, particularly coffee plantations abandoned for more than 20 years, and in lowland primary forest in the south-west and more occasionally in cultivated areas at forest edge. The diet consists primarily of fruit<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143452	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 6-15 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 135 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 810-2,025, but likely to be at lower end of this range because AOO may be lower than 45% of EOO as it favours primary forest, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range is up to the lower quartile of the range of five estimates for montane <em>Columba</em> spp. in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143452	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for coffee and cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest, but may be a threat in the future<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection. Hunting is a threat, particularly in the most accessible areas of primary forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent and locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143454	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba pollenii</em> is endemic to the Comoro archipelago where it is found on all three islands of the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> and on <strong>Mayotte (to France)</strong><sup>1</sup>. On Grand Comoro, it is moderately common on Mt Karthala and La Grille above 500 m, increasing in abundance up to the tree-line at 1,750 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Moheli, it is limited to the island's main forested ridge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Anjouan, it is uncommon and restricted to the few remaining areas of primary forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Mayotte, it remains in a number of widespread remnant pockets of suitable, wet, high-altitude forest and occurs in this habitat at a higher density than on the other islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is largely restricted to primary forest, a habitat which is diminishing as a result of charcoal production and shifting cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting is a threat on all four islands<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. Numbers on each island are low, and the total population may be under 10,000 individuals. It has been suggested that migration between islands must take place for there to be a continuing viable population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143454	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is hunted and little known. It probably numbers less than 10,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
143455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is suspected to be usually uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143456	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba albinucha</em> occurs in dense mid-altitude forests and forested slopes in eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), where it is reported to be locally common, Bangangai Game Reserve in south <strong>Sudan</strong> (on the border with the DRC)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Bwamba and Kibale in west <strong>Uganda</strong> (few records), and <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where until recently it was known from only one locality in the Rumpi Hills<strong> </strong>(three records in 1967)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, since 1992 there have been several sightings from Mt Kupe and the Bakossi Mountains at 1,000-1,450 m often in small coffee farms in farmbush with primary transitional forest nearby<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong> and, in 1999, it was recorded from Santchou Sanctuary south of Dschang<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Mt Manenguba (on the lower slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and at 2,100 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and there is one unconfirmed record from nearby Mt Nlonako<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is generally considered scarce throughout its restricted and fragmented range and is, therefore, at risk from habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
143457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and secretive (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143458	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in India and occurs in at least 16 protected areas, most in Kerala, including three national parks, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, one tiger reserve and two reserve forests. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct research into seasonal movements and identify key sites. Establish protected areas where necessary, ensure these sites are effectively safeguarded, and promote sustainable exploitation of forests throughout the Western Ghats. Campaign for significant reductions in the conversion of natural forest to plantation. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on alternatives to deforestation and restoration of disturbed natural habitats within its range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143458	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba elphinstonii</em> is endemic to the hill-ranges of the Western Ghats, south-west <strong>India</strong>, occurring from north-west Maharashtra south, through Karnataka and Goa, to southern Kerala and western Tamil Nadu. It was once considered common and widespread, but has undergone a major decline. Most recent records come from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where it still appears to be locally common.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143458	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is virtually confined to moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, including densely wooded ravines and hollows ("sholas"), chiefly in foothills and mountains up to 2,000&#160;m, but it has been recorded in the lowlands down to 50&#160;m. It only occasionally visits moist deciduous forest and <em>Eucalyptus</em> and is absent from tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. It appears to make some nomadic movements in response to food availability and perhaps colder weather. It generally breeds from March-July. <br/></p>	eng
143458	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-6 individuals/km2 x 5,000 km2 (= estimate for area of suitable remaining habitat, P. O. Nameer in litt. 2003) =5,000-30,000 individuals,  i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 (density range is lower quartile to mode of 13 estimates for ten rainforest species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, based on description as 'locally common') <br/></p>	eng
143458	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, it was hunted for food and sport, which probably contributed to its decline. Currently, the loss, degradation and increasing fragmentation of forest are a greater concern. In Maharashtra, forest cover is declining because of shifting cultivation and collection of timber for fuel and building. A massive 47% of evergreen/semi-evergreen forest was lost in the Kerala portion of the Western Ghats between 1961-1988, principally as a result of conversion to plantations, cash-crops, and clearance for human settlements and development projects. In certain portions of its range (e.g. Goa) hunting is considered a threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143459	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly seasonal movements in response to food availability. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143459	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba torringtoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it occurs in the mountains of the centre of the island and the adjacent foothills of the wet zone. Its population size and trends are unclear but it appears to have declined and become increasingly fragmented since the mid 20th century, becoming uncommon in the central mountains. It is unlikely that the population is more than a few thousand individuals. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143459	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in hill and montane forest, generally above c.900 m, but sometimes descends as low as 300 m in the lowland forests of the wet zone. It is arboreal and frugivorous, making movements in response to the availability of fruiting trees, and has frequently been recorded at fruiting trees outside forest. Nesting is from January-March and again from August-October, in tall forest trees.</p>	eng
143459	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be unlikely to number more than 'a few thousand individuals' based on recent records and surveys (BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
143459	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. It has also suffered reductions in food supply because of replacement of natural forests, containing fruiting trees, with monoculture plantations. Forest die-back in the montane region, perhaps a result of air pollution, is a potential threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143460	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Although it has been recorded from numerous protected areas, their contribution to its conservation is not known, especially given its seasonal and nomadic movements. Indeed, site-based conservation strategies are unlikely to be successful unless populations are able to follow seasonal patterns of fruit-ripening within secure protected sites.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, particularly in Myanmar, to clarify its current distribution, seasonal movements and population status. Conduct research into its ecological requirements and the relative effects of various threats operating across its range. Identify and protect, where appropriate, sites supporting key populations. Promote improved management and establish/increase buffer zones around protected areas supporting key populations. Enforce strict hunting controls within all protected areas and devise awareness campaigns to reduce pigeon hunting wherever this is possible.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143460	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba punicea</em> is locally distributed across its broad range, which encompasses parts of northern <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It appears to have been locally abundant in the early 20th century, but has declined markedly in many areas. Recent records indicate that it now only occurs rarely and erratically throughout its range. There are no recent records from China, where it was previously recorded on Hainan Island and in south-east Tibet, and it has occurred as a vagrant in Peninsular Malaysia. <br/></p>	eng
143460	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents a wide variety of habitats from the lowlands up to 1,600 m, chiefly primary or secondary evergreen forest, but also open, deciduous dipterocarp forest, bamboo, and agricultural fields, particularly in close proximity to forest. Mangroves, small forested islands and other coastal habitats are probably only frequented in the non-breeding season. It is mainly frugivorous, although seeds and grain form important dietary components in some areas. Its breeding range and seasonal movements are poorly understood, but in places it appears to be semi-nomadic, perhaps in response to food availability.</p>	eng
143460	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to number <10,000 by BirdLife International (2001) based on available records and surveys. <br/></p>	eng
143460	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is mainly the result of habitat loss and fragmentation owing to commercial logging, small-scale timber collection, and clearance of mangroves and evergreen forests for plantation agriculture, cash-crops, charcoal production and shifting cultivation. It also suffers high levels of hunting for food, whilst trade poses an additional, minor threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143461	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A photograph taken in 2008 confirms that the species survives in the wild<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Prior to this recent provisional observations were made in two protected areas, the Berbak Game Reserve and Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve, both in South Sumatra.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys on islands within its historical range (and mangroves and swamp-forest of South Sumatra province) to clarify its current distribution, population status, movements and attendant threats. Formulate a conservation strategy involving protection of key islands, especially those supporting breeding populations.</strong>	eng
143461	distribution		<em>Columba argentina</em> appears to have a highly restricted range, principally confined to islands off Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> (e.g. Simeulue, Mentawi Islands, Riau and Lingga archipelagos), and off the west coast of Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, Indonesia (e.g the Karimata and Natuna Islands, including Burong). There is one confirmed historical record each from mainland Sumatra and Kalimantan. There were previously no confirmed reports since 1931, and recent reports from South Sumatra province and Pulau Talang Besar in the Talang Talang Islands in 2001, have been treated as provisional<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However in 2008 one individual was photographed between the islets of Mastokut Island and Simaimu Islands, off the southern tip of Siberut in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia, confirming that the species survives in the wild. There is also a photograph of two captive individuals in Hong Kong, and pictures of a small flock of birds, potentially <em>C. argentina</em>, from the Sembilang National Park in 2008<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Given difficulty in distinguishing <em>C. argentina</em> from the sympatric <em>Ducula bicolor</em> it is likely that <em>C. argentina</em> has been overlooked in previous surveys for the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Following the documentation of key differences between the two species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, it is likely that further surveys may result in the discovery of remnant populations.	eng
143461	habitat		It inhabits mangroves, woodland and coconut groves in the lowlands and hills of offshore islands, occasionally being found in similar habitats below 100 m on mainland Sumatra and Borneo. Although poorly known, available evidence suggests it wanders seasonally or disperses between islands in response to food supply.	eng
143461	population		Given that there has only been one confirmed sighting of the species since 1931, it is precautionarily assumed to have a tiny population. However, given the probable misidentification of <em>C. argentina</em> in past surveys, and the documentation of key differences between the species and the similar sympatric <em>Ducula bicolor</em>, future surveys may well identify remnant populations and revise the population estimate upward.	eng
143462	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba palumboides </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar (including Great Nicobar, Nancowry, Car Nicobar and Batti Malv) archipelagos, <strong>India</strong>. It is uncommon in the Andamans. Pairs or small parties wander from island to island in search of fruiting figs and other trees in dense broadleaved evergreen forest. Its limited range and preference for dense forest suggest that it is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Indeed, although forest remains fairly extensive on the Andamans and Nicobars, the human population on larger islands is rising and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing, logging and development projects. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands and may affect this species. Research is required to clarify its ecology, population size and trends, and to identify the level of threat that it faces. <br/></p>	eng
143463	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba janthina</em> is an uncommon and local resident in <strong>Japan</strong>, on small islands off southern Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, south through the Nansei Shoto islands to the Yaeyama Islands and south through the Izu Islands to the Ogasawara and Iwo Islands. It occurs locally on small islands off the south coast of <strong>South Korea</strong>, and it has been recorded (presumably as a vagrant) in eastern Russia, Shandong, mainland China and Taiwan (China). It inhabits dense subtropical forest and warm temperate evergreen broadleaf forests, and is heavily dependent on mature forest. Although it is still relatively common on the Izu Islands, it has apparently declined there since the 1950s, it was thought to have declined on Okinawa during the 1980s because of forestry activities, and the subspecies <em>C. j. nitens</em> (which used to occur on the Ogasawara and Iwo Islands) is almost certainly extinct. <br/></p>	eng
143464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare on Bougainville and the Bismarck islands and common on many Pacific islands. Race metallica is rare except on Timor where it is common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce, although locally common in New South Wales and northern Queensland (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143466	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba versicolor</em><em> </em>was endemic to Nakondo Shima and Peel Island (Chichi-juma) in the Bonin Islands (Ogasawara-shoto), <strong>Japan<sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known from four specimens, in Frankfurt, Leningrad and Tring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was last recorded in 1889, with its extinction presumably resulting from clearance of the islands' subtropical evergreen forest, and from predation by introduced cats and rats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Japanese Wood-Pigeon <em>C.&#160;janthina</em> has also become extinct in the Bonin Islands, and on Kita-iwo-jima and Iwo-jima immediately to the south, although survives on other offshore Japanese islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143467	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba jouyi</em><em> </em>was endemic to Okinawa and Kerama, and the Daito Islands, in the Nansei Shoto Islands, <strong>Japan<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was described in 1887 from a type in the Tokyo Educational Museum<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and is also known from three skins in Tring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It apparently declined rapidly (and inexplicably), and was last recorded on Okinawa in 1904, and on Daito in 1936<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143468	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A brief project to investigate the range and ecology of this species and the impact of hunting was undertaken at Hauta, Makira. The Hauta area is subject to an ongoing community conservation and development programme<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct survey work to discover other populations, especially in areas already under discussion for protected status. Discuss its status and population trends with hunters. Monitor numbers seen and killed in Hauta. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging. Advocate creation of wildlife protection areas on major islands. Assess effects of community conservation programmes at Hauta. Extend public awareness programmes to coastal communities on Makira.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
143468	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba pallidiceps</em> occurs in the Bismarck Archipelago, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is known from New Ireland, Duke of York, New Britain, Bougainville, Choiseul, Vella Lavella, Ndai (=&#160;Gower), Nggela (=&#160;Florida), Ramos, Guadalcanal, Makira (=&#160;San Cristobal) and Ugi (=Uki Ni Masi), and may occur on intervening islands. It has undergone a major decline since collections in the 1870s-1930s, and is now rare. Recent records are from New Britain (singles seen in 1995 and 1997, one collected in the 1960s)<strong><sup>4,5,7</sup></strong>, New Ireland (one in 1984)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Guadalcanal (one in 1987)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Makira (several records since 1990)<strong><sup>2,6,8</sup></strong>. Throughout its range, notably on New Britain, many months of searching have failed to record it. On Makira, it is not infrequent around Hauta, but no more than five birds have been seen together<strong><sup>2,6,8</sup></strong>. Its unobtrusive habits, infrequent calls and nomadic behaviour may have led to it being under-recorded.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143468	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded only in primary or tall secondary forest, with nearly all records from hill forest and ridgetops. It appears to be principally a subcanopy species, often seen feeding on fruiting <em>gaivou</em> trees at Hauta<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, but its long stout legs suggest that it is partly terrestrial, and is thought to be partially nomadic.</p>	eng
143468	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>(2007).  <br/></p>	eng
143468	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It may be particularly susceptible to predation by introduced mammals. Although too rare to be targeted specifically by hunters, it featured within bags of mixed large pigeons hunted at Hauta<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. All the islands within its range have suffered logging, particularly some of the small islands, e.g. Duke of York, which now have little or no forest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143469	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Patagioenas leucocephala</em> is found primarily in the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong> and <strong>Antigua</strong>. It breeds in smaller numbers in Hispaniola (<strong>Dominican</strong> <strong>Republic</strong> and <strong>Haiti</strong>), <strong>Puerto</strong> <strong>Rico</strong>, the <strong>Virgin Islands (to USA)</strong>, the <strong>Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, San Andres<strong> </strong>(<strong>Colombia</strong>), Isla de Providencia and the Corn Islands<strong> </strong>(<strong>Nicaragua</strong>), <strong>Cayman Islands</strong>, <strong>Anguilla (to UK)</strong>, <strong>St Barthelemy (to France)</strong>, and more rarely on <strong>St Martin</strong> and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong><sup>1</sup>. Populations extend west along the Caribbean coasts of Yucatan <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong> and north-west <strong>Panama</strong>. It reaches the <strong>USA</strong> only in the Florida Keys and the southern tip of mainland Florida<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In Florida, the Bahamas, the coastal Yucatan islets and the Lesser Antilles it requires isolated offshore mangrove islets with limited disturbance for breeding, and for feeding it flies to humid evergreen or semi-deciduous hardwood forests on adjacent mainland areas<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Elsewhere it generally occupies lower-lying forest habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Degradation of habitat for foraging is a threat to this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Florida removal of poisonwood <em>Metopium toxiferum</em>, which can cause severe human dermatitis, affects the species as it feeds on the poisonwood's fruit<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <em>C. leucocephala</em> is an important game species through much of its range, and although hunting regulations in the Bahamas have been changed, illegal hunting seems to be a threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Collision with man-made objects is a major source of mortality in Florida, and pesticide use and human impact may also have detrimental effects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143469	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	</p>	eng
143469	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich et al (2003) <br/></p>	eng
143470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143471	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143472	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143473	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143474	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143476	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in central and south Chile from Coquimbo south to central Fjordlands, including Isla Mocha, and south-central and south Argentina from Neuquén to west Chubut and southwest Santa Cruz. Although almost extirpated by Newcastle's Disease in 1954, it has recovered well and appears to be expanding in population and range, with some recent records within its former range in Argentina (del Hoyo et al. 1997). There are a high number of protected areas within its range, including some very large national reserves and parks at its southern extent, notably part of Katalalixar (6,745 km²) and Laguna San Rafael (17,420 km²) (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In addition, there are records from six national parks in Argentina: Lanin, Nahuel Huapi, Los Arrayanes in Neuquén, Lago Puelo, Los Alerces in Chubut and Los Glaciares in Santa Cruz.	eng
143476	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits lowland and highland southern temperate forest and woodland at elevations up to 1,500 m, notably where Araucaria araucaria and large Nothofagus dombeyi occur, but also at the forest edge and on cultivated land (del Hoyo et al. 1997, Stotz et al. 1996). It sometimes breeds in large loose colonies, often in bamboo thickets, with nests found in December-March, and also in May (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in parts of Chile (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143476	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by intensive logging and timber plantations (Dinerstein et al. 1995). Large areas of old-growth forest have already been lost to logging concessions, and the industry is still active (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
143477	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It is legally protected, but this is not enforced. Habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains has been declared a national park, but there is little enforcement or management<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Funding is actively being sought for conservation in Cockpit Country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess numbers and precise distribution. Designate a national park in the forests of Cockpit Country, and maintain corridors linking these forests and lowland areas<sup>1. Enforce legal protection. Ensure <em>de facto protection of the national park in the Blue and John Crow Mountains1.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143477	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Patagioenas caribaea</em> is found throughout the wetter areas of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, but most notably in Cockpit Country, and the Blue and John Crow Mountains. It has been greatly reduced in numbers and range since the mid-19th century. <br/></p>	eng
143477	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits relatively undisturbed humid forest and woodland, and wet limestone forest, at elevations of 100-2,000&#160;m. It breeds mostly in the highlands in spring and summer (from late February to August), occurring locally to sea-level on the wetter, north side of the island<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Some birds move to lower altitudes at certain times, but this is poorly understood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds in small flocks on fruits and seeds high in the canopy, and large flocks are sometimes seen moving to different feeding locations<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The nest is constructed high in a tall tree.</p>	eng
143477	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.3-6.3 individuals/km2 x 1,420 km2 (20% EOO) = 426-8,946 but probably best placed within band 2,500-10,000, as counts of 13.3-31.4 birds per 10-hr period (Varty 1991) indicate that density likely to be at upper end of range of estimates (from lowest to the lower quartile of nine estimates for six congeners of forest habitats in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143477	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unabating pressure from illegal hunting, logging and clearance for plantation agriculture is responsible for this species's ongoing decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143480	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are no protected areas within this species's range. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to establish the precise limits of its range, population levels and trends, and conservation requirements<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its ecology. Designate protected areas within the upper r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley, e.g. in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143480	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Patagioenas oenops</em> occupies a restricted range in north <strong>Peru</strong>, principally in the upper Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley (Cajamarca and Amazonas), and regularly at one site in La Libertad<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with one record from Piura. There are also recent sight records in extreme south-east <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>3,5</sup>. It is generally relatively uncommon, but scarce in heavily populated areas in the north of its range, and relatively common in a comparatively inaccessible area near Balsas (upper r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n) in 1975 and 1999, and on the r&iacute;o Comboca, in the south Cordillera de Col&aacute;n in 1994<strong><sup>4,7,9</sup></strong>. Recent surveys of the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, Amazonas, suggest it is tolerant of some forest degradation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this threat must be causing a population decline. <br/></p>	eng
143480	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits riparian woodland, dominated by the willow <em>Salix humbertiana</em>, and adjacent dry forest on steep valley slopes, mainly at 850-2,400&#160;m. It has also been recorded in degraded, humid premontane forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and around mango orchards<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It appears to make limited seasonal elevational movements. Its ecology is very poorly known, with virtually no data on feeding, although it has been seen eating ripe coca seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and singles and pairs have been recorded in fruiting trees<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(including <em>Cordia lutea</em>)<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. The only breeding data refers to a juvenile collected in April. <br/></p>	eng
143480	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.4-6.3 individuals/km2 x 1,200 km2 (20% EOO) = 480-7,560 individuals, but probably best placed in band 2,500-10,000 as is "relatively common" in certain more accessible parts of its range (density range lowest to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143480	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It probably suffers some hunting pressure. The gradual degradation and loss of its already naturally restricted habitat are presumably causing a population decline. Its relative abundance within inaccessible areas, and scarcity in heavily populated regions suggests that these threats have already resulted in significant decreases.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143481	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A recovery programme is underway in Puerto Rico<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Funding is being sought for conservation in Cockpit Country, Jamaica<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is legally protected in Cuba (but this is not enforced), and has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Guanahacabibes Biosphere Reserve, where it has been the subject of an education programme. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess numbers and distribution, especially in Cuba and Jamaica</strong><sup>2,6</sup>. <strong>Assess the impact of illegal hunting</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Conserve the Cockpit Country, and southern dry limestone forests and woodlands, in Jamaica</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Design and implement education programmes in Cuba to reduce hunting pressures</strong><sup>6</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143481	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Patagioenas inornata</em> was once abundant and widespread in the Caribbean, but has undergone considerable declines. In <strong>Cuba</strong>, it was widespread, but is now restricted to six areas: the Guanahacabibes (c.100 pairs, the largest population) and Zapata peninsulas, the sierras de Najasa and del Chorrillo, cayos Romano and Sabinal and possibly the Esteros de Birama<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In <strong>Jamaica</strong>, it was scarce as early as 1840<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is now rare and local. On <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, it numbered less than 100 in the 1970s, but had increased to c.700 by 1996<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and recent information suggests that this population totalled 1497-6106 individuals during 1997-2001<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. This population increase is attributed to increased food and nesting habitat availability following the recovery of second growth forests, resulting from the abandonment of marginally productive pasture and cropland as Puerto Rico gradually became industrialised from the 1940s onwards<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, extensive searches in 1986 failed to find the species, and sites with records in the 1970s had been cleared. However, it has been recently described as locally common<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, especially in the Sierra de Baoruco<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In <strong>Haiti</strong>, there have been reports of birds in significant numbers, although numbers in Hispaniola overall are not reported to be increasing<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143481	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found mainly in lowland forest, mangrove and swampy areas in Cuba, highland pine and broadleaf forest, and occasionally coastal desert and mangroves in Hispaniola, and wet limestone forests in west, and drier woodlands in southern Jamaica<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Puerto Rico, it formerly occurred in primary lowland forests, but now mainly inhabits secondary growth, pasture and farmland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding is during April-July in Cuba and Hispaniola, and year-round in Puerto Rico<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143481	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rivera-Milan et al. (2003) reported 1,497-6,106 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143481	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting, logging and clearance for plantation agriculture, combined with the devastating effects of hurricanes, have reduced populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Few birds are shot in Jamaica and this does not appear to explain the species's current scarcity on the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nest predation may affect reproduction in key areas on Puerto Rico<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and secretive (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common on Principe and frequent to uncommon on Sao Tome (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common. Races rostrata and aldabrana are virtually extinct owing to genetic swamping by introduced Columba picturata (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be secretive and therefore perhaps under-recorded (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143491	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A captive-breeding and reintroduction programme, combined with establishment of Conservation Management Areas, habitat restoration, control of exotic predators, supplementary feeding, nest guarding, clutch and brood (fostering) manipulations, rescue of eggs and young from failing nests, control of disease and monitoring of survival and productivity, has helped this species survive<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Black River National Park covers much of its range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing into genetic variation so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and populations managed to preserve genetic diversity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue research into population genetics and disease<sup>4. Continue rehabilitation of mainland native vegetation7. Extend Conservation Management Areas and surrounding predator-proof fences4. Consider introduction to other Mauritian islets (and R&eacute;union) if ecosystem rehabilitation and predator elimination are successful7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143491	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesoenas mayeri</em> survives in the Black River Gorges of south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong> and on Ile aux Aigrettes, just off the eastern coast. Although once common, it declined to just 10 wild individuals in 1990. Since then, intensive management has resulted in a spectacular increase. In January 2000, the wild population was 364-375, at four mainland sites plus Ile aux Aigrettes - with a target population of 500 within the next five years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. By the end of 2004, the population was 359-395 indviduals, likely nearer the lower estimate<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There is some limited movement between the mainland populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143491	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits native forest and has a diverse diet, including both native and exotic plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the early 1990s, the entire wild population nested in a single grove of introduced Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em>. Research has shown that Mauritius Fody <em>Foudia rubra</em> also prefers exotic trees for nesting, and that its nesting success is highest in <em>Cryptomeria</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, ongoing studies suggest that rat predation in <em>Cryptomeria</em> is higher than in native vegetation, thus the value of <em>Cryptomeria</em> is unclear<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143491	population	BirdLife International, 2008	C. Jones <em>in litt. </em>(2005). <br/></p>	eng
143491	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Severe loss of habitat has been compounded by predation of nests and adults by introduced crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>, rats and feral cats<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. Cyclones destroy nests and accelerate habitat degradation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Disease and late-winter food shortages are also threats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3500000-7200000 breeding pairs, equating to 10500000-21600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20000000-100000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143493	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout the Ethiopian highlands and east Africa and uncommon in Malawi (del Hoyo et al.1997).	eng
143495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 61000-210000 breeding pairs, equating to 183000-630000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
143497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common throughout almost all of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143501	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 8,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,700,000-11,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 14,100,000-33,000,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 20,000,000-50,000,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143505	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Streptopelia reichenowi</em> is restricted to the vicinity of the Jubba and Shabeelle rivers, which flow from <strong>Ethiopia</strong> into <strong>Somalia</strong>, as well as the Daua river (a tributary of the Jubba) along the border between north-east <strong>Kenya</strong> and Ethiopia. In Somalia, the species is found in riparian woodland, usually near water, and has also been seen in towns<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Ethiopia, it has colonised windbreaks planted next to irrigation channels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and is also found in drier vegetation a few kilometres from rivers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, where it replaces other <em>Streptopelia</em> species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>S. reichenowi</em> forages mainly on the ground, berries being an important food item. It appears to be locally common throughout its range, although riverine woodland in Ethiopia is being destroyed owing to conversion to agriculture and to fuelwood collection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and is considered highly threatened in Somalia for the same reasons<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. These widespread threats to the species's natural habitat cause some concern for its future, but its ability to colonise secondary habitats (near water) may be sufficient to ensure its survival. <br/></p>	eng
143506	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in the Mariana islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to frequent, although scarce in the Himalayas (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143508	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macropygia rufipennis </em>is endemic to the Andaman and Nicobar (Nancowry subgroup and Great Nicobar) archipelagos, <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally frequent on the former and scarce on the latter. It frequents dense broadleaved primary and secondary evergreen forest, tolerating some degree of habitat degradation. While forest remains fairly extensive on the Andamans and Nicobars, the human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands, possibly affecting this species, and planned development projects on the Nicobars could seriously affect its habitat. There are few recent data regarding its status and ecology, and these issues require clarification so that its conservation needs may be assessed. <br/></p>	eng
143509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually scarce, although common locally on Borneo and on islands off the west and south coasts of Sumatra (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143511	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce on Timor, frequent on Tanimbar island and common on Kalaotoa island (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143512	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in the northern part of its range and common in the south (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant throughout most of its range, although rare on Karkar island (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on most islands, although rare and local on New Britain and Aneityum, Vanuatu (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually rather scarce, although locally common at higher elevations (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143516	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
143516	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press <br/></p>	eng
143517	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Reinwardtoena crassirostris</em> is a large pigeon endemic to Bougainville (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It occurs at relatively low densities in primary forest in the hills to a maximum of 1,500&#160;m, more usually to 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. The lowland forests across the region are being extensively logged, causing a significant decline in this species; hunting is a minor additional threat. It is most common in steep hills unsuitable for logging and usually feeds on <em>Schefflera</em> fruits which commonly grow in secondary growth<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although the total population is believed to be small, and may be declining rapidly in the lowlands, the hill populations are probably declining only very slowly. <br/></p>	eng
143518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143519	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Several protected areas have been proposed in West Timor, and one on Wetar. The most important for the species are likely to be Gunung Mutis/Timau, Bipolo and Camplong, on West Timor, and Gunung Arnau on Wetar. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its current distribution, status, ecological requirements and threats. Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Support initiatives to establish a protected area encompassing Gunung Mutis and Gunung Timau, West Timor. Initiate conservation-awareness programmes to reduce forest loss and hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143519	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turacoena modesta</em> is restricted to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is generally uncommon or rare. Historical records indicate that it was once fairly common, at least locally on Wetar and in West Timor, even near settlements. A paucity of recent records, despite extensive searching, suggests that a marked decline has occurred in West Timor. However, recent survey work in Timor-Leste revealed it to be frequent in a wide range of habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was seen on a short visit to Wetar in 1990. Extensive forest is reputed to remain in the north-west of the island and an important population might survive there. <br/></p>	eng
143519	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and tall secondary monsoon-forest, often where this habitat is drier or more open, and also vine thickets, thickly vegetated gullies and eucalyptus woodland with dense understorey, from sea-level to 1,770 m<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. As it has been found in "more or less open areas near villages", it probably has a degree of tolerance to habitat degradation, and in Timor-Leste appears to be more common in patchy landscapes (forest edge, secondary forest, woodland with scattered figs, <em>Eucalyptus </em>savanna or non-<em>Eucalyptus </em>woodlands with tropical forest trees in gullies or on scattered rock outcrops)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Singles or pairs forage in the lower-middle storey, with groups congregating at fruiting trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and it probably moves seasonally in response to fruiting patterns.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143519	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km2 x 3,100 km2 (10% EOO) = 3,100-6,200 individuals i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range extrapolated from densities of similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, taking account of description of status as rare) <br/></p>	eng
143519	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of monsoon-forest has been severe in its range. An estimated 50% decline in Timor-Leste's remaining montane forest-cover occurred during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon-forests now cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in around seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to excessive grazing and burning. However, habitat loss may not be a severe threat as the species is highly mobile and presumably able to access necessary fruit resources over a large area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pigeons are hunted intensively on Timor, and the species allows close approach and concentrates at fruiting trees, rendering it susceptible to hunters; local villagers have stated that 20-30 birds/day could be shot by focussing on fruiting trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or abundant throughout much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143522	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143525	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143525	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Since 1984, 158,149 wild individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
143526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common, although scarce on Java and Bali and uncommon on the Ryukyu islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce, although possibly locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143529	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A population occurs in the Poikili Wildlife Protection Area.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess population size. Determine best survey techniques. Identify call through investigation of all unknown pigeon calls. Survey status in logged forest. Ascertain altitudinal range. Investigate impact of hunting through discussion with local hunters. Interview hunters about population trends. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. Discuss enforcement of regulations in Poikili Wildlife Management Area with local landowners.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
143529	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Henicophaps foersteri</em> is endemic to New Britain and Umboi in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is clearly a rare species but is also likely to have been overlooked. Several were seen on Umboi in 1976<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and there are a series of recent records from Pokili Wildlife Management Area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but only one recent record elsewhere<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its population has been estimated as fewer than 5,000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143529	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a lowland forest species, known only from primary and mature secondary forest. On Umboi, it was seen between 500-700&#160;m<sup>2</sup>. It feeds on the ground but flushes up to perch in trees and it may also feed on arboreal fruits<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143529	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
143529	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As a lowland species which is apparently restricted to mature forest, it is threatened by logging. Nearly all accessible lowland forest has been logged or is under logging concession, and large areas are clear-felled for oil-palm plantations. As a terrestrial species, it may suffer predation from introduced cats and dogs. <br/></p>	eng
143530	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143532	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. It is recorded periodically within a broad sweep from Western Australia, north of 24ºS, through the Northern Territory and north-east South Australia, to eastern Queensland and western New South Wales as far south as Booligal. Its range has apparently recently contracted from eastern Australia, although there have been periodic irruptions into western New South Wales, northern South Australia and eastern Queensland.	eng
143532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, with numbers estimated at between thousands and millions (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143532	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Recent range contractions have coincides with the expansion of pastoralism and agriculture, and it is possible that pastoral management, conversion of land to agriculture, and overgrazing by stock and rabbits has rendered much habitat unsuitable. The area of decline also corresponds to the distribution of foxes, and it may be that irruptive flocks cannot persist in areas where foxes are present (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
143533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143535	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geophaps smithii</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. The nominate subspecies disappeared from the west, east and south parts of its distribution, mostly during the early 1900s. It is now only found in half of its former range, in sub-coastal northern Northern Territory. This subpopulation is estimated at c.10,000 birds and is likely to be declining. Subspecies <em>blaauwi</em> is recorded from remote areas of the west and north-west Kimberley region, northern Western Australia. However, there are few recent records, including from Kalumburu where it was common in the 1970s. It may number c.5,000 birds and is also thought to be in decline. The major threat to the species is the change from Aboriginal fire regimes which has resulted in a loss of spatial diversity in vegetation structures. Although early fires burn some nests, extensive, late, dry season fires that result if early burns are neglected promote a uniform vegetation of tall annual sorghum. Most areas in which the species persists are still under Aboriginal management or have a fire regime that promotes a mosaic of vegetation ages. Traditional hunting, predation by feral cats, and degradation of waterholes by cattle and pigs are now considered insignificant causes of death. <br/></p>	eng
143535	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Subspecies<em> smithii</em> is estimated at c.15,000 mature individuals, whilst subspecies <em>blaauwi</em> may number c.5,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).  <br/></p>	eng
143536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143540	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common over most of its range, although scarce in Bali and Java and uncommon in the Philippines and Borneo (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143541	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be adaptable and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in the south of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143545	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ectopistes migratorius</em><em> </em>was found forest in eastern and central <strong>Canada</strong> and the <strong>USA</strong>, occasionally wandering south to <strong>Mexico</strong> and <strong>Cuba<sup>4</sup></strong>. Over the 19th century, the species crashed from being one of the most abundant birds in the world to extinction<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This was ultimately due to the effects of widespread clearance of its mast food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with the proximate causes being Newcastle disease, extensive hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the breakdown of social facilitation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The last wild bird was shot in 1900, and the last captive bird died in 1914 in the Cincinnati Zoo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143547	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. In 1995, the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria recognised a breeding programme for the species, as initiated by Cologne and Frankfurt Zoos (Germany) and the private interest group Wild Pigeons and Doves, as an official European Endangered Species Programme (EEP)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Modern studbook software has been employed to assist with the genetic and demographic management of the captive population. Individuals have been distributed to zoos and bird parks in Belgium, The Netherlands, UK, Poland, Austria, Luxembourg, France, Spain and Germany, at least<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Of 563 individuals listed in the studbook by December 2006, 104 were known to be alive. In 2006, following an extensive survey of the origin of the founding individuals of the EEP population, a major software based population genetic analysis was conducted and recommendations for new pairs were given by the EEP coordinator<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A special breeding unit for the species has been opened at Marlow Bird Park, Germany<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A proposal is currently being developed to reintroduce the species<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, along with a restoration programme for Socorro<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. DNA fingerprinting has revealed extensive hybridisation with <em>Z. macroura</em> in the USA, however it also showed a high degree of relatedness between the European population and pure individuals kept in California<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. As a result, the European population will be used for reintroduction efforts. The construction of breeding aviaries on Socorro began in August 2003<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and was completed by 2005<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The island's columbid populations (<em>Z. macroura</em> and Socorro Gound-dove <em>Columbina passerina socorroensis</em>)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> were screened in December 2003 and January 2004 to assess the presence of pathogens that might affect the reintroduction programme<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Avian malaria and Trichomoniasis were detected in both species, and as a result recommendations were put forward<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. In 2005, plans were outlined to control the locust outbreaks, restore native vegetation and assess the problem of erosion<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The arrival on Socorro of the first captive birds from Germany was planned for June 2005<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with the establishment of a captive flock by June 2006<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, there have been problems with import restrictions and permits<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the face of these restrictions a small insurance population will be established in the USA in 2008<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. Some control of feral cats has been undertaken on Socorro<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and there are plans to eradicate cats in 2009, at the earliest<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Reports that rats have recently colonised Socorro have proved to be unfounded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The sheep population has been reduced to c.300 by the Mexican Navy<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Sheep eradication is planned for 2008-2009<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Import captive birds from Germany and establish a captive flock on Socorro<strong><sup>5,6,9</sup></strong>. Complete the eradication of cats and sheep on Socorro<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Continue to restore native vegetation on Socorro<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Reintroduce the species following satisfactory progress in the mammal eradication<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> and habitat restoration programmes<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong>. Put measures in place to control, but not eliminate, the locust swarm<strong><sup>8,13</sup></strong>.	eng
143547	distribution		<em>Zenaida graysoni</em> has been extirpated from Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was formerly common and observations in 1957 and 1958 gave no indication that it was declining. The last sighting in the wild was in 1972<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and all suitable habitat on the island has been surveyed subsequently without recording the dove<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Several individuals were taken during an expedition to the islands in 1925 and subsequently bred in the USA, with some sent to Europe<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Fortunately, aviculture has prevented the extinction of the species, with captive populations are held in USA and 12 European countries<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The European Breeding Programme for this endangered species has monitored the captive population for more than 30 years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The captive population was thought to total several hundred birds, but hybridisation with Mourning Doves <em>Z. macroura </em>became a major problem in the USA in the 1990s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it now appears that many are hybrids<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
143547	habitat		It was apparently commonest in forested areas above 500 m, dominated by <em>Bumelia</em>, <em>Prunus serotina</em>, <em>Guettarda</em>, <em>Ilex</em>, <em>Psidium</em> and <em>Ficus</em>. It was a highly terrestrial frugivore, and probably depended on an intact understorey of ferns and euphorbias.	eng
143548	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143549	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143550	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon is endemic to the Galápagos islands, Ecuador, where two subspecies are recognised. The race exsul is known from Culpepper and Wenman, while the nominate galapagoensis occurs on all the other major islands. It is rare on some islands but common on others, appearing to be fairly secure away from settled areas and on islands free of predators.	eng
143550	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits dry rocky lowlands with scattered trees, bushes and Opuntia cacti. It feeds mainly on seeds, but during the wet season it also feeds on caterpillars and cacti blossoms. Active nests usually containing two eggs have been found during most months, and the breeding season may vary between islands; the nest may be on the ground, in rock cavities, or in old Galápagos Mockingbird Nesomimus parvulus nests.	eng
143550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143550	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Predation of adults, eggs and young by feral cats and other introduced predators is probably the main threat to this species today. In the past, its confiding nature made it an easy target for hunters with records of 60-70 being killed in a single morning; however the species is now much less tame, and hunting pressure has decreased considerably (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143552	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143557	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143559	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Serra das Araras Ecological Station. National parks encompass relatively large areas of potentially suitable <em>cerrado</em> grassland habitat.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey the Serra das Araras to determine the size of the population and propose measures for its protection. Survey near Cuiab&aacute; and at Campo Grande to determine its status and protect these areas if appropriate. Survey any area with apparently suitable habitat, especially Emas National Park and Iqu&ecirc;-Juruena Ecological Station, </strong>Chapada dos Veadeiros and the still extensive open cerrados along the Tocantins/Goi&aacute;s border, taking care to avoid overlooking the species by confusing it with other sympatric species<sup>7</sup>. <strong>Study its ecology to assess reasons for its historical rarity.	eng
143559	distribution		<em>Columbina cyanopis</em> is known from very few records over a wide range in the interior of <strong>Brazil</strong>. There is a small population in the Serra das Araras, Mato Grosso<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but the only other recent records are from near Cuiab&aacute; (also in Mato Grosso) in the 1980s, and one individual at Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, in 1992<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Historical records are also scarce, with five specimens collected in Mato Grosso in 1823-1825, two from Goi&aacute;s in 1940-1941, and one from S&atilde;o Paulo in 1904. It has been erroneously listed for Minas Gerais, but could conceivably occur in the extreme west of the state.	eng
143559	habitat		It occurs in campo cerrado grasslands<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, and was once observed in a rice-field after harvest. It is terrestrial and occurs singly or in pairs.	eng
143559	population		Population estimate =  1.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 238 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 238, i.e. best placed within the band 50-249 individuals (population density extrapolated from similar species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and compatible with "very rare" status).	eng
143560	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143561	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143562	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law, and has been recorded in a number of protected areas in Brazil, including the Floresta Estadual do Palmito (Paran&aacute;), the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (Espirito Santo), and several sites in the Serra do Mar. It is also reported from Iguaz&uacute; National Park, Argentina. However, numbers observed are small and no population is known to be adequately protected. The small captive population held by a few Brazilian aviculturists has apparently died out. Surveys were planned to take place in March-June 2009 in northern Misiones, Argentina to coincide with a flowering event of takuarusu bamboo, aiming to find and document presence of the species at flowering bamboo, obtain a tape recording and study its biology<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently survey to locate additional populations, using tape-playback if possible, and focusing search on bamboo flowering events. Record and document its vocalisations. Develop a CMS agreement for this and other bamboo specialists. Study basic aspects of its biology (feeding, habitat use, breeding) to determine measures needed to conserve the species. Consider protecting the appropriate species of bamboo through existing legislation (such as Provincial Natural Monuments in Misiones) on all public and private land</strong><sup>15</sup>.	eng
143562	distribution		<em>Claravis godefrida </em>was fairly common at the beginning of the 20th century, judging by the wide scatter of specimen records and reports of flocks of up to 100 birds. At that time it occurred from Bahia (<strong>Brazil</strong>), south through eastern Brazil to northern <strong>Argentina</strong> and eastern <strong>Paraguay</strong>, from sea-level to 2,300 m. In the last twenty years there have been several reports of 1-3 individuals, including one from eastern Paraguay in 1994<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and a few from Brazilian sites such as Itatiaia (2004, possible in 2006); Ubatuba (1997 and 2004) and Intervales (2003 and 2007); and Urubici (1997), these being in the states of Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo and Santa Catarina respectively<strong><sup>4,8,9,14,16</sup></strong>. In Argentina there is a record from Iguaz&uacute;, Misiones Province, in 1991<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and more recently birds were seen twice there in November 2007 and a recording of what is believed to be this species was made there in August 2008<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. These reports are almost certainly reliable, but none are documented. There are also recent Brazilian records from coastal Paran&aacute; and Espirito Santo, the latter involving 3-5 birds<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. The paucity of recent records, and the fact that none describe groups of more than five birds, suggest that extremely severe declines have occurred. Its range is now highly fragmented; this coupled with its specialised habitat requirements appear to render the species highly vulnerable to extinction; however, the species is reportedly unobtrusive and easily overlooked so it may be more common than is realised<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. All known records of the species in Argentina coincide with flowering events of only two species of bamboos: takuarusu <em>Guadua chacoensis</em> and yatevo <em>G.trinii</em><strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Since it depends on bamboo seeds, and most species of bamboos produce seeds synchronously over large areas and only after many years of vegetative growth, the species must travel widely between patches of seeding bamboo<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
143562	habitat		It inhabits humid Atlantic forest, apparently with a preference for edge habitats in rather hilly, broken terrain. Records range from near sea-level to 2,300 m. Its Andean relative Maroon-chested Ground-dove <em>C. mondetoura</em> is rarely found away from patches of flowering or seeding bamboo where it gathers to forage and breed, sometimes semi-colonially<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Assuming their ecological requirements are similar <em>C. godefrida </em>probably undertakes seasonal movements following bamboo flowerings, but it has been recorded eating other seeds (including those of sedges and grasses) and fruit. Breeding apparently occurs in the austral summer, with birds calling from November to February<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Historically it was reported in flocks of up to 100, but no recent records have involved more than five individuals.	eng
143562	population		The population is estimated to number <250 individuals based on the fact that there have been only a small number of sightings of this species over the last 20 years despite a significant amount of fieldwork; none of these sighting has involved groups of >5 individuals (flocks of >100 individuals were reported historically) and the species's range is now highly fragmented. Dedicated surveys and quantified population estimates would be desirable to confirm this.	eng
143563	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143565	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143566	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143567	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143571	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Coiba is a national park protecting nearly 30% of this species's range. On the mainland, it occurs within Cerro Hoya National Park and El Montuso Forest Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess numbers within protected areas and identify additional sites requiring protection. Study the species's ecological requirements<sup>5. Assess the extent of habitat loss within protected areas and the region as a whole.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptotila battyi</em> is restricted to the Pacific coast of west <strong>Panama</strong>, on the Azuero Peninsula and the islands of C&eacute;baco and Coiba. In the 1960s, it was common on Coiba Island and subsequent threats have been minimal<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and likely to be declining throughout the remainder of its range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143571	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits high forest and wooded swamps, and is apparently restricted to hilly areas on the mainland, but not on Coiba<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. This difference is possibly explained by habitat destruction in the Azuero Peninsula lowlands extirpating the species, or the lack of competitors on Coiba, allowing an expansion of its ecological niche<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143571	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143571	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and fragmentation, and hunting for food threaten this species<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Away from Coiba, most lowland areas in its range have already been deforested<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143572	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan was drafted in 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and a four-year GEF/WB funded Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project based on stakeholder input was implemented from 2001-2006. In 2008, and updated 10 year conservation and recovery plan was drafted<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It is legally protected from hunting and egg-collecting, but these threats are insignificant. Grenada Dove is the national bird of Grenada and has been a focus of environmental education in schools and ecotourism and it features on stamps. In 1996, parts of the Mt Hartman and Perseverance Estates were declared a National Park and a protected area, respectively<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Four Seasons resort development on the Mt Hartman Estate has been extensively modified to minimise impacts on the dove, and the National Park has been redesigned and will now comprise one contiguous area of habitat, including 50 of 58 doves known from the Mt Hartman Estate within the new boundaries<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The redesigned park will also include significant opportunities for habitat creation<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. A predator control programme has been agreed to ensure that land disturbance from construction does not also encourage the migration of predators such as mongoose to the Sanctuary. Four Seasons will fund the construction of traps and hire local residents to set and monitor the traps, and the predator control programme will be monitored by the Government of Grenada<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. An upgraded access road has been fenced along the side supporting dove habitat using recommended fencing specifications, and this temporary fencing will be replaced by permanent (dove-sensitive) fencing around the perimeter of the National Park<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Clearance for the golf course is was to begin in 2009, but no construction or clearing has taken place as of February 2010 except for a road constructed across the valley that was supervised by a dove biologist and that did not impact dove territory<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The timing and sequence of hole clearing will be designed to minimise disturbance near dove habitat during the breeding season and allow for the movement of doves into protected habitat before territorial behaviour begins<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.  As part of the mitigation package the government have made a public commitment to designate another national park for the species at Beaus&eacute;jour, with 7 males recorded (2007) and 15 males pre-hurricane Ivan, which will also include land suitable for reforestation/habitat creation<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, though has not yet occurred<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>This site has both crown and private lands. A conservation and management plan for Perseverance Protected Area is in progress, recommending the Beausejour and Woodford Estates (private land), both IBAs, be protected for the dove<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.   <strong> </strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eliminate/minimise further habitat loss. Formally protect habitat at Beausejour and Woodford as one contiguous west coast site with Perseverance. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends and determine the sex ratio (and therefore the actual population) of remaining birds. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Finalise and implement the revised recovery plan. Ensure that the Mt Hartman and Perseverance reserves are effectively protected</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Develop incentives/regulations for protection of dove habitat on private residential lots in the south-west (adjacent to Mt Hartman). Restore habitat at existing and new sites</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Establish two new subpopulations</strong><sup>4</sup>.	eng
143572	distribution		<em>Leptotila wellsi</em> is endemic to <strong>Grenada</strong> in the Lesser Antilles. Historically, it was more widespread in coastal and possibly offshore islands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but may always have been rare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population declined by c.50% in 1987-1990<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and by 1998 numbered only c.100 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with strongholds on the Mt Hartman estate, and on the Perseverance and adjacent Woodford Estates in the west<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The population increased to an estimated 182 individuals by 2003-2004, but in 2004 hurricane Ivan had a devastating impact upon the island and the dove's population. This resulted in declines, particularly severe along the west coast (from 36 calling males to 3-12 calling males), but also within Mt Hartman area (from 55 males to 30-48 males)<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Three years following hurricane Ivan the population has been estimated at 68 calling males with 136 individuals in total<strong><sup>9,11</sup></strong>, however this assumes an even sex ratio, and there is a tendency for such relict populations to be male-dominated<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The total population may therefore be as small as 100 mature individuals or c.30 reproductive pairs<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Of all remaining known territories, 3 are within protected areas, 37 on unprotected crown land and 29 on private land<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. 43% of remaining birds are thought to occur in the Mt. Hartman Estate.	eng
143572	habitat		It inhabits a successional stage of dry, coastal scrub-woodland in the south-west, which comprises a closed canopy of leguminous (often thorny) trees and shrubs c.3-6 m high, a sparse understory of shrubs and saplings, sparse to absent ground-cover and much exposed soil<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the west coast, its habitat includes some mixed deciduous/evergreen vegetation. It may have been always confined to xeric, coastal areas where climax vegetation was deciduous, seasonal forest and thorn woodland, but frequent natural disturbances (particularly hurricanes) kept the vegetation in a sub-climax condition. This temporary occupation of ephemeral patches and recolonisation of developing patches may be the normal life history pattern. Breeding is limited to the rainy season in the south-west, but is more extended on the less xeric west coast<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
143572	population		The global population has been estimated at 136 individuals, based on recording 68 males and assuming an even sex-ratio (Rusk 2007). However, given that such relict population have a tendancy to be male-dominated, this is likely to be an overestimate (N. Collar <em>in litt.</em>2008), hence the population is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
143573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143577	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in several protected areas, including Tumbes Reserved Zone (which protects a large area and range of forest-types and presumably supports a viable population)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Laquipampa Reserved Zone<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Machalilla National Park (Guayas/Manab&iacute;), Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve and Cerro Blanco Protection Forest (Guayas)<strong><sup>5,7,9</sup></strong>. The 776&#160;km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest is the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may support the species.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess seasonal reliance on particular forest-types. Control threats to habitat within protected areas. Expand protected areas to include adjacent forest remnants and connect such fragments. Map forest in the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche to identify sites for protection<sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
143577	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptotila ochraceiventris</em> occurs in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manab&iacute;, Los R&iacute;os, Guayas, Chimborazo, El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque). The population is small and fragmented, and it is common only at Campo Verde in Tumbes Reserved Zone (within the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), north-west Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143577	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This inconspicuous dove inhabits tropical and subtropical forests, mainly at 500-1,800&#160;m (with recent records at 80-200&#160;m in Guayas<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>), but also to sea-level and occasionally 2,625&#160;m. It occurs in dry deciduous, wet lower montane, semi-deciduous cloud-forest, humid cloud-forest, evergreen moist forest and, prior to their destruction, moist forests of the r&iacute;o Guayas basin and Cordillera de Colonche. It is also found in heavily degraded forest, scrub and hedges, but it is unknown whether such habitats support viable populations. Generally solitary or in pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but sometimes in groups of 3-7<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, it favours areas with a dense understorey of small trees and woody vines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Inter-habitat, seasonal movements are apparently undertaken. Its ecology is virtually unknown. <br/></p>	eng
143577	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-2.4 individuals/km2 x 1,300 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,340-3,120 individuals, but probably best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range lowest to lower quartile of five estimates for two species of forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143577	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador, in 1958-1988, was 57% per decade, although in higher parts of the species's range, with a steeper terrain and harsher climate, the process has been slower, and a greater proportion of forest is extant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is continuing, and will soon remove almost all remaining forest. All pigeon species are hunted, but <em>L. ochraceiventris</em> is not specifically targeted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143578	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has not been recorded from any protected areas. However, an integrated conservation programme for the forests around the type-locality should benefit this and other threatened species in the area. Action for the Yellow-eared Parrot <em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> has increased public awareness and community involvement in conservation issues in the r&iacute;o Toche area, Tolima<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which should also benefit <em>L.&#160;conoveri</em>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Evaluate forest cover in its range and follow-up with surveys of larger blocks to determine the current population and distribution<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the ecological requirements of this species, especially the degree to which it tolerates modified habitats. Protect a stronghold area, if found<sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
143578	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Leptotila conoveri</em> occurs on the east slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known only from the valleys of the Coello-Combeima river system, near Ibagu&eacute;, Tolima, and two valleys in the headwaters of the r&iacute;o Magdalena, Huila. However, of the latter two valleys, there are no records from one since 1952. The small number of records suggests that its population is small. It is fairly common at one site in Tolima<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143578	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly in humid forest and bushy forest borders in the subtropical zone at 1,600-2,225&#160;m, and possibly as high as 2,500&#160;m. It has been found in secondary growth, with one record from a valley of coffee groves and secondary forest. Birds collected in Huila in March-April, and in Tolima in June, were in breeding condition.</p>	eng
143578	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4-5.3 individuals/km2 x 436 km2 (45% EOO) = 1,046-2,311, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density range lower to upper quartile of five estimates for two species of forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as descibed as "fairly common" at one site). <br/></p>	eng
143578	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Parts of the upper Magdalena valley have been converted to agriculture since the 18th century<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but, when the type-series was collected in 1942, the higher valleys of the Toche area, Tolima, were heavily forested. Since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in these valleys has been cleared and used for agriculture, including coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Mature secondary forest patches are now fragmented, and natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143579	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in two protected areas: Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve and Los Tuxtlas Biological Station.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Expand existing protected areas, or designate new reserves, to cover more of the remaining forests in the sierra. Survey Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve to determine the species's status within this protected area. <br/></p>	eng
143579	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geotrygon carrikeri</em> is endemic to Sierra de los Tuxtlas in south-east Veracruz, <strong>Mexico<sup>4</sup></strong>. It presumably occurred throughout the sierra, but fragmentation of its habitat may have isolated populations in three areas on the main volcanoes, San Mart&iacute;n and Santa Marta. It was found to be fairly common in surveys between 1951 and 1962<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is now considered fairly common to common in suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, there has been a rapid loss of such habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, indicating that the population has probably declined significantly.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143579	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is partially terrestrial in the understorey of humid evergreen forest at elevations of 350&#160;m-1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The only recorded nest was found in secondary forest in mid-October and contained one egg<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143579	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4-7.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 59 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 118-425, but possibly even commoner as described as fairly common to common, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density range from lower to upper quartile values for nine estimates for four species of <em>Geotrygon</em> and <em>Leptotila</em> spp. in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143579	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Volc&aacute;n San Mart&iacute;n, 84% of the original forest area was lost by 1986, with 56% lost between 1967 and 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1992, it was predicted that only 8.7% of original habitat, restricted to the most inaccessible tracts and protected areas, would remain by 2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At that time, it appeared that similar habitat loss was taking place on Volc&aacute;n Santa Marta<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is unknown whether this prediction has been fulfilled, but it is clear that there has been extensive forest clearance in the Sierra de los Tuxtlas and little evidence that existing pressures are abating.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143580	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143582	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Hunting of the species in the Dominican Republic was prohibited in 1978. Montane forest is poorly represented in the Dominican Republic's protected-areas system, but the wildlife service has recently proposed 15 new areas, including six in montane forest<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. It occurs within a numbers of reserves in Cuba (including the Corral de Santo Tom&aacute;s Faunal Refuge in the Zapata Swamp area, La G&uuml;ira National Park and the Sierra del Rosario Biosphere Reserve), but few are afforded strict protection<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify the species's current status and determine the protected areas within which it occurs. Formally designate the proposed reserves in the Dominican Republic. Devise and implement management plans for protected areas. <br/></p>	eng
143582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geotrygon caniceps</em> has a limited distribution and is very rare throughout <strong>Cuba</strong> (subspecies <em>caniceps</em>), but primarily in the west and centre, and on the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco and Sierra de Neiba in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (subspecies <em>leucometopius</em>)<strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. There are local reports from the 1920s of a rare, grey quail-dove near the summit of Morne La Selle in Haiti, but intensive habitat destruction has probably extirpated any hypothetical populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains locally fairly common on the Sierra de Baoruco<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but there are no recent reports from the Sierra de Neiba<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143582	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Cuba, it inhabits humid lowland forests bordering swamps, and (at least in the Sierra del Rosario) mid-elevation montane forest<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it occurs in dense, montane moist forests and coffee plantations up to 1,800 m, and is known from two localities at sea-level<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds and small invertebrates, foraging on the ground and frequently along tracks, but may perch 10 m above the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143582	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-3.7 individuals/km2 x 2,800 km2 (10% EOO) = 3,080-10,360, i.e. best placed within band 2,500-10,000 (density from lowest of three estimates for G. montana in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143582	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction has reduced this species to near-extinction on the Cordillera Central and Sierra de Neiba<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production seriously threatens suitable habitat in Cuba, and dry-season burning, drainage, agricultural expansion and introduced predators are severe problems in the Zapata Swamp<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. It is heavily hunted for food in Cuba, using drop-traps baited with orange seeds<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143583	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geotrygon versicolor</em> is endemic to <strong>Jamaica</strong>, where it is locally fairly common in the undergrowth of wet limestone and montane forests at elevations of 100-2,200&#160;m, and perhaps most numerous in the Blue Mountains and Cockpit Country<strong><sup>2,3,5,7</sup></strong>. It also occurs in the John Crow Mountains and Mt. Diablo area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite occurring commonly in good, wet secondary forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it suffers from habitat loss and degradation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Habitat loss has been largely caused by the establishment of plantations (mostly coffee and Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>), small-scale farming and clearance for development<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also trapped for local consumption and the cage-bird trade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143583	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No population estimate has been produced.   <br/></p>	eng
143584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143587	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geotrygon goldmani</em> consists of two recognised subspecies within a relatively restricted range. The nominate race occurs in montane forests of east Panama, San Blas and Dari&eacute;n provinces, <strong>Panama</strong>, and extreme north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. The race <em>oreas</em> is uncommon within a minute range on Cerro Chucant&iacute;, but may occur more widely in Serran&iacute;a de Maj&eacute;, east Panama<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. It is very poorly known, but locally common in undergrowth of humid forest at 750-1,600&#160;m in east Dari&eacute;n, Panama, but to 90&#160;m in Colombia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although much of its highland forests are relatively pristine, owing to their inaccessibility and formal protection, some partial deforestation has occurred within national parks on the western fringe of its range, while the proposed Pan-American Highway through Dari&eacute;n could also have detrimental effects<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143589	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143594	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It is protected under national law and in the Zapata Swamp, but neither is enforced and hunting continues<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The only known highland population is protected within La G&uuml;ira National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites, outside Zapata and La G&uuml;ira, where the species may persist<sup>2. Immediately protect any populations discovered during these surveys. Conduct public awareness and education campaigns to highlight the plight of the species and reduce hunting pressure2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143594	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Starnoenas cyanocephala</em> is endemic to <strong>Cuba</strong>, where it was once common and widespread from Pinar del R&iacute;o across to Guant&aacute;namo. It is now extremely rare almost everywhere, and virtually extinct on the Isla de la Juventud<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the late 1980s, reasonable numbers were reported only from Zapata Swamp, and a more recent study found good numbers in the lowlands around Zapata, with a smaller population in the mountains at La G&uuml;ira in Pinar del R&iacute;o province<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Small numbers are also known or presumed to persist in several additional areas throughout the country<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143594	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occurs in the undergrowth of lowland forest including swampy areas, and occasionally in highland forest. It forages for seeds, berries and snails on the ground in dense forest and occasionally on forest tracks. It is generally found in pairs, but also larger congregations, with 18 birds at a water hole during the 1995 dry season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place mainly between April and June, with nests placed on or close to the ground, often amongst tree roots or in stump cavities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143594	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-3.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 500 km<sup>2</sup> (1.5% EOO) = 550-1,850, i.e. probably best placed within band 1,000-2,499 ("total occupied range... likely to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>" [BirdLife International 2000], hence low % of EOO. Density from lowest of three estimates for closely-related <em>Geotrygon montana</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143594	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The combined and chronic effects of excessive hunting and habitat destruction have produced large-scale declines. It has always been regarded as excellent eating, and is still trapped illegally using drop-traps baited with orange seeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Hurricanes may significantly affect the species by felling large areas of forest, such as in Zapata Swamp in 1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143595	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caloenas nicobarica</em> occurs on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, <strong>India</strong>, Mergui archipelago (Myeik Kyunzu), <strong>Myanmar</strong>, islands off south-west peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, islands around Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, islands off southern <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>, islands around Sumatra, Wallacea and Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, possibly also East Timor, many islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and throughout the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, plus <strong>Palau</strong> (race <em>pelewensis</em>). It normally breeds, often in dense colonies, on extremely small, wooded offshore islands and forages <em>in situ</em> or on adjacent mainland (or larger island) areas. Trapping for food, the pet trade and perhaps their gizzard-stones is a serious threat, as is clearance of small islands for plantations and, almost certainly, the colonisation of such islands by rats, cats and other alien predators. The race <em>pelewensis</em> may still number up to 1,000 birds. CITES Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
143596	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba luzonica</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is recorded from a wide range of localities in lowland (below 1,400&#160;m) forest, including selectively logged and otherwise poor secondary growth and even plantations, in the Sierra Madre south to Quezon National Park and Mt Makiling, with a recent report from Mt Bulusan in the south. It is vulnerable to snaring, but remains widespread and locally numerous. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143597	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, where only tiny forest tracts remain. Haribon have been working at the site for over five years and have established a site support group. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera, where hunting has been locally prohibited. The Sablayan Penal Colony recently adopted the Mindoro Bleeding-heart as their flagship species for conservation and established a forest protection and restoration unit within the boundaries of the penal colony inside the Mt. Siburan IBA<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As a result, hunting and trapping by local people and inmates has been totally eliminated in this area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Haribon through the LGU, SPPF and other stakeholders propose to designate the Mt. Siburan IBA as a Municipal Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary in order to conserve the largest lowland forest tract of the entire island and the endemic and threatened species inhabiting therein<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme, Species Guardians Haribon Foundation are implementing the following actions for this species and Black-hooded Coucal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>: an IBA monitoring team for Mount Siburan has been set up, training and utilising local participants; actions are underway to strengthen the Sablayan Forest Management Board, the main function of which is to oversee the implementation of the Sablayan Forest Management Plan; an Information-Education-Communication Plan is being developed for use in environmental education, awareness raising and local advocacy; a Sablayan Ecotourism Plan is being developed, and training has begun for local bird tour guides; and efforts have been made to strengthen and consolidate the Site Support Group's actions aimed at eliminating logging activities and the accidental snaring of Mindoro Bleeding-heart. A 25-year moratorium on mining for the whole of Sablayan has recently been established<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently produce a detailed map of remaining forests on Mindoro, and survey these systematically to clarify its current distribution and population status. Follow up any anecdotal reports of the species. Conduct ecological studies to assess its requirements for breeding and foraging. Regulate hunting of wildlife species and the extraction of forest products within Mt Siburan IBA.</strong>	eng
143597	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there have been confirmed records from only four sites since 1980. These localities are Puerto Galera, MUFRC Experimental Forest, Siburan and Mt Iglit-Baco National Park, with unconfirmed local reports from eight other localities suggesting that remnant populations conceivably exist elsewhere. It was common in the early 20th century and apparently locally common as recently as 1954. Subsequently, unconfirmed reports suggested it was common in the recent past in the extreme south of the island. However, the paucity of reports from hunters and very low encounter rate by fieldworkers suggests that numbers have become very low. The Mount Siburan IBA holds the largest remaining suitable habitat for the species.	eng
143597	habitat		This predominantly terrestrial pigeon inhabits closed-canopy primary and secondary lowland forest, preferring dry forest substrates on gentle slopes up to 750 m. It is not known whether or not it undertakes altitudinal, seasonal or nomadic movements. It has been recorded breeding in May. In Mt. Siburan IBA records of the species area have been made: (1) in an open area of the forest floor under closed canopy forest surrounded with limestone outcrops and boulders, (2) in bamboo thickets with numerous rattans, bounded by primary closed canopy forest, (3) close to a pool in a dry riverbed in closed-canopy forest on flatter, less rocky ground, (4) in shady, level forest with minimal rocky outcrops. These sites were classified as secondary lowland growth forest with varying degrees of canopy gap and human disturbance<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
143597	population		Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001).	eng
143598	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The only recent records are from Mt Canlaon Natural Park, Mantikil, and in the Calinawan Community-based wildlife sanctuary on Negros<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Local reports also derive from the North Negros Forest Reserve, and another area where it was formerly recorded (Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes on Negros) has been receiving funding for conservation actions<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the mid-1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster as part of the "Only in the Philippines" series. It was used also as main logo in a photo exhibit "Wet and Wild" held at the Provincial Convention Center, Oriental Negros in November 2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has been studied as part of the Philippine Endemic Species Project (PhilConserve)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The North Negros Forest Natural Park was declared by Presidential Decree in 2006. Efforts are ongoing to strengthen protected area management and involve Negros Forests and Ecological Foundation, Inc. (NFEFI) and Silliman University - Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management (SUAKCREM) as well as other existing local non-government organizations and people's organizations in the protection of the species. It was bred for the first time in captivity in 2007 at the Center for Tropical Conservation Studies, Philippines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and a very small number of captive individuals have been bred at the A. Y. Reyes Zoological and Botanical Gardens: in 2007, two chicks hatched, though one died<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Three birds salvaged from the illegal bird trade in captivity have produced eight young so far, and the total captive population now numbers 18 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Captive breeding is being orchestrated by the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Foundation, and there are plans for future re-introductions<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct fieldwork in all areas from which the species has been locally reported and all other sites where suitable habitat remains, including the Bulabong Puti-an National Park. Establish the proposed 100 km<sup>2</sup> North-west Panay Peninsula National Park, where the species has recently been discovered. Provide immediate effective protection for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests and law enforcement to stop small-scale yet rampant illegal logging.	eng
143598	distribution		<em>Gallicolumba keayi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Panay and Negros. On Panay, it was recorded in 1997 at two sites on the north-west peninsula, having been reported by locals at five sites earlier in the decade. Since then birds have been recorded nesting in the same area and further observations of the species have been made<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Negros, it was fairly common in the 19th century, but had become extremely rare by the 1930s. Since 1980, it was recorded at just one locality (above Mambucal), despite several weeks of surveys, with unconfirmed local reports from six additional localities. Recent research identified a few small populations in southern Negros, but it may now be extinct in the north<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It seems unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain on each island, although as Panay retains more forest cover, it is likely that this population is larger<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
143598	habitat		This predominantly terrestrial species appears to prefer dense closed-canopy forests from 300-1,000 m, exceptionally to 1,200 m, although reports suggests it tolerates secondary habitats on Panay where it has been recorded from selectively logged forest on limestone, and from open and severely degraded forest with few large trees<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It seems unlikely that it undertakes more than very local movements in response to food patchiness. It has been recorded nesting in May and June with chicks fledging after only 12 days, apparently as an adaptation to the vulnerability of their open and low nests in epiphytic ferns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded nesting in March<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nests appear to be regularly predated<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
143598	population		Population estimate based on assessment in BirdLife International (2001) that "it seems unlikely that there are more than a few hundred individuals...on each island [Panay and Negros], and there may only be a few tens".	eng
143599	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It has been recorded recently in just one protected area, Rajah Sikatuna National Park. Other areas, now afforded protection, where it formerly occurred (and may still occur) include Mt Malindang National Park, Mt Hilong-hilong (which includes a watershed reserve) and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (a proposed national park). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in remaining tracts of suitable habitat and areas with historical records, particularly on Samar and Leyte. Continue to advocate the effective protection of (possible) key sites. Propose remaining forests found to support the species for establishment as protected areas. Promote more effective enforcement of laws relating to hunting and trapping.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143599	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolomba crinigera</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat, Mindanao and Basilan. There are records from c.35 localities, but since 1980 it has been recorded from just two (Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol and Bislig on Mindanao). It always appears to have been rare throughout its range, although its aptitude for self-concealment may mean that it is under-recorded. Nevertheless, a substantial population decline is likely to have occurred. <br/></p>	eng
143599	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and secondary lowland and transitional dipterocarp forest below 750 m. It is highly terrestrial, favouring flat areas with only sparse undergrowth, particularly in dry, coastal areas. There is no evidence of seasonal movements, but a degree of nomadism or altitudinal displacement might be anticipated, perhaps linked to the rains (March-June), when it appears to breed. <br/></p>	eng
143599	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143599	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The near-total loss of lowland forest throughout its range has caused its decline. In the late 1980s forest cover was estimated at just 29% on Mindanao, and as little as 433 km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp remained on Samar and Leyte, with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions, and mining applications. Dinagat has lost practically all lowland forest as a result of illegal logging and, particularly, chromite surface-mining. Bohol is thought to retain only 4% forest cover, with tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion all acting as threats to Rajah Sikatuna National Park. Forest at Bislig on Mindanao is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Trapping for food and trade is a problem for all terrestrial birds in the Philippines. <br/></p>	eng
143600	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no protected areas in the archipelago. A proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, although neither the outcome nor the likely benefits to the species are known. In 1997, a public awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated. In the mid-1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct intensive surveys of all remaining forest tracts on Tawitawi and nearby islands to establish whether the species is still extant. Urgently propose any sites found to support the species for strict protection. Incorporate protective measures relevant to this species within conservation funding proposals for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, as and where appropriate.</strong>	eng
143600	distribution		This species is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is known by just two specimens taken on Tawitawi in 1891, when it was described as extremely rare. The only evidence of its continued existence derives from unconfirmed local reports in 1995. The species has apparently been recently photographed, but no further details are available as of yet<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Local reports claim that the species was quite abundant before the 1970s, but had declined dramatically and is now only rarely seen. Despite apparently being well-forested with secondary regrowth, Tandubatu, Dundangan and Baliungan have a total area of 17 km<sup>2</sup>, and are thought unlikely to support viable populations.	eng
143600	habitat		It might be a small-island specialist; alternatively the prevalence of reports from small islands may be because they retain substantial forest cover and are the last remaining refuges for the species. The species may survive in logged forest, although its close relative <em>G. keayi</em> apparently prefers primary forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
143600	population		The population is assumed to be tiny based on assessment of local reports and area of remaining habitat which concluded that the population "must be extremely small and on the verge of extinction" (BirdLife International 2001). It is reliably known from just two specimens collected in 1891; there have been no confirmed records since and repeated surveys in the 1990s failed to find any direct evidence of the species. However, the species has apparently been recently photographed.	eng
143601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce on New Guinea, although locally common; common on New Britain between 900 and 1,500 m and very rare in the Solomon Islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143604	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Traditional leaders have been encouraged to adopt a programme to plant sakau in the lowlands, but resistance is high because the plant grows best on wet mountain slopes and is less likely to be pilfered in more remote areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Preserve native and mixed forest remnants<sup>5,7</sup></strong>, including atoll islets where human disturbance can be minimised and the introduction of predators prevented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the extent of hunting in both Pohnpei and Chuuk<sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143604	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba kubaryi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, occurring on the islands of Pohnpei, where the population was estimated at 841 birds in 1983-1984, and Chuuk (=&#160;Truk), where it was estimated at 294 in 1983-1984<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A Chuuk population estimate in 2001 indicates a significantly smaller population<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 1994, a repeat survey on Pohnpei recorded a decrease in encounter rate in the lowlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Populations have probably always been low, at least in historical times<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
143604	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Pohnpei, it inhabits brushy ravines, appearing to prefer those where hibiscus <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> forms dense thickets (a highly disturbed habitat, often near settlements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and is also found in lowland forests, mangroves and, less commonly, in montane forest. On Chuuk, it is found in agricultural and native forest at all elevations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surprisingly dense populations have been found on some islets, indicating that coastal strand/forest vegetation is also suitable<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on the ground on seeds, worms and small snails<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests in deep forest, up to 180&#160;m. On Chuuk, nests with eggs have been found in February, April, June and September. Clutch-size is one<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143604	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990), Buden (in prep.). <br/></p>	eng
143604	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Pohnpei, predation by introduced species (mainly rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and cats) and excessive hunting may have caused some depletion<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The progressive loss or alteration of habitat is a further possible contributory factor, given a reduction of 37% in undisturbed upland forest from 1975 to 1995, largely attributable to the cultivation of sakau (=kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em><strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Long-standing tradition and custom have surrounded its use, but now there is a more widespread recreational demand with increasing clear-cutting of 1-2 ha plots, reaching to the edge of cloud-forest at c.600&#160;m in some areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Chuuk, the only remaining semi-original forest remains in tiny remnants on the higher reaches of a few islands. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143605	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Expeditions in June and October 1999 surveyed eight islands of Matureivavao and Tenararo. Follow-up work, including further surveys, rat eradication and captive breeding, took place in 2001. Since then, a successful rat eradication was completed on one island of Rangiroa atoll and now others are proposed with planning by the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Ornthologie de Polyn&eacute;sie "Manu". As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme Manu are currently<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>: working to eradicate rats<strong> </strong>from a further four motu in the Rangiroa Atoll, enabling the ground-dove to re-colonise from neighbouring islets; revising and updating the Species Action Plan; raising awareness through education and signage and providing support for land owners to manage tourist visits in order to prevent rat re-establishment<strong> </strong>on the rat-free islets of Rangiroa; supporting and advocating the development of protected areas<strong> </strong>for Rangiroa, Morane and Tenararo; planning fieldwork to colour-ring the population and undertake enhanced monitoring<strong> </strong>to assess productivity and adult survival (the Rangiroa population will be monitored annually, whilst the populations on Morane and Tenararo will be visited when transport is available) and continuing genetic studies on all three populations; and raising<strong> </strong>awareness through educational activities and working to develop a Site Support Group (SSG). Only a single bird remains in captivity in Tahiti. There is a proposed recovery programme for Vahanga including the eradication of <em>Rattus exulans</em><strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in the central Tuamotus and Acteon group, including showing pictures to local people<sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the remaining wild population on Tenararo, e.g. feeding and breeding behaviour<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect Tenararo from the introduction of predators (especially <em>R. rattus</em>) and human disturbance<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify suitable islands in the Acteon group for translocation, either rat- and cat-free or where eradication is possible, and support similar initiatives in Rangiroa atoll<sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143605	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Gallicolumba erythroptera</em> formerly occurred in the Society Islands and throughout the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. There are also fossil records from the Southern Cook Islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Race <em>erythroptera</em> is known from Tahiti and Moorea in the Society Islands (now extinct) and from the southern Acteon Group in the Tuamotus, while race <em>pectoralis</em> is known from the central and northern Tuamotus (possibly extinct)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent records include Matureivavao (not numerous in 1968, apparently surviving in 1987 according to local people, but not found in 1999)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> and two forested islets in Rangiroa Atoll (12-20 birds in 1990-1991, perhaps a separate subspecies or colour morph of <em>pectoralis</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). In 2005, a rat eradication was conducted on one of Rangiroa's motus (small islands) and follow-up surveys in 2006 found 9 doves in the atoll, including one male on the rat-free island<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. In 2007, another eradication took place on Rangiroa and an additional eradication was planned for another motu in 2008; it is hoped that the species's population occurring on these small islands will begin to expand<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. In 1999, a small population (minimum of 16-30 birds) was found on Tenararo, but it was not seen on a further seven islands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. A 2003 expedition to remote islands in the Tuamotu archipelago discovered a new population of the species on Morane, doubling the known global population to around 100-120 birds<strong><sup>7,11</sup></strong>. In 2007, three birds were seen on Vahanga (nearest island from Tenararo) but no nests were discovered<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143605	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It favours primary forest of <em>Pandanus tectorius</em> and <em>Pisonia grandis</em> on atolls with herbs, shrubs and ferns or dense shrubs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has a varied diet, including caterpillars and other insects, seeds, green leaves, buds and fruit<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Most recently, it was present in dense shrubs under coconut trees (planted in 1977 and never managed or harvested)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Gouni <em>et al</em>. (2005), Gouni <em>et al.</em> (2007). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143605	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It was formerly caught by local people for food but it is more likely that the introduction of cats and rats, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, are the real reasons for its decline<strong><sup>3,10,11,12</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is also likely to have been a factor as the largest atolls with the richest vegetation have been cleared for coconut plantations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143606	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba xanthonura</em> occurs widely in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong> and on Yap in the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, where it inhabits native forest, secondary forest, plantations, introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets and habitat mosaics including fields, but appears more frequent in native forest than in disturbed habitats<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. It has become extirpated from Guam (to USA) owing to predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis,</em> and although single birds turn up once every few years, these are almost certainly individuals dispersing from the island of Rota, 60 km to the north<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The highest population is probably on Rota where c.2,400 birds were estimated in 1982<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is fairly common on Saipan where up to 72 birds/km<sup>2</sup> were recorded in limestone forest in 1991-1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is rare on Yap where the population was estimated at c.195 in 1984<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species can still be legally hunted in the Northern Mariana Islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and must be affected by habitat loss, but the greatest threat would come from the accidental introduction of <em>B.&#160;irregularis</em> to other islands in its range.  <br/></p>	eng
143607	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species occurs in a number of protected areas, including Sovi Basin and Taveuni reserves on Fiji and Aleipata islands on Samoa<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys throughout its range to assess its distribution, population numbers and conservation requirements. </strong></p>	eng
143607	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba stairi</em> has a discontinuous and poorly-documented distribution in central Polynesia including <strong>Fiji</strong> (where it is described as rare on the four larger islands, but common on some small offshore islands<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), <strong>Tonga</strong> (where a healthy population survives on the isolated and largely undisturbed island of Late<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and on a few smaller islands in Vava`u, and formerly, and perhaps still, on a few islands in the Ha`apai and Nomuka groups), <strong>Samoa</strong> (where in recent years it has only been seen on the tiny island of Nu`utele (Aleipata)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including one bird seen in April 1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>American Samoa</strong> (where there is a recent sighting in 1993 on the island of Ofu<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and another in 1996 on Olosega<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) and on the islands of <strong>Wallis and Futuna (to France)</strong>. In 1995, the only population found in a study on Vava'u was six birds in a large forest remnant on Uta Vava`u, but this area was being logged and the species is therefore unlikely to survive there<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have found this species to be widespread but patchy and at low population densities on the larger Fijian islands, recording an average of 0.11 birds/hour equating to c.1 bird per km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. The species was recorded at about 50% of the sites surveyed (16/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest old-growth rainforest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Unlike on Samoa and Tonga, there is no evidence that the species is declining on Fiji faster than the rate of forest loss or degradation which is estimated at 0.5-0.8 % p.a<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. The species remains very rare in American Samoa, Samoa, Tonga and Wallis and Futuna.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143607	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in both scrubby bush and bamboo thickets on smaller islands and lowland and montane forest on larger ones. It feeds on seeds, fruit, buds, young leaves, snails, insects and caterpillars on the forest floor and in the undergrowth<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143607	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent surveys have found this species to be widespread but patchy and at low population densities on the larger Fijian islands. Surveys recorded an average of 0.11 birds / hour (a total of 54 birds). Estimating an average pace 1 km / hour and an effective detection distance of 50 m each side of the trail suggests that about 1 bird was detected per km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked. The species was recorded at about 50% of the sites surveyed (16/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest old-growth rainforest. If it assumed to occur in 50% of the forest, which covers about 40% of the species' Fijian EOO of about 17,500 km<sup>2</sup>, the total population is estimated to be 2,500-10,000 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005; BirdLife International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
143607	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears particularly sensitive to disturbance, usually leaving areas with logging or planting activities within days of occurrence, and not re-inhabiting even five years after the cessation of human activity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The reasons for this may relate to changes in forest characteristics (e.g. leaf-litter, food-resources), structure (e.g. openness) or invasion by ground predators (especially mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143608	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Two lowland forests have recently been protected on Santo but the species has not been found in either.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Tinakula. Survey any predator-free islands within the species's range. Survey Santo to ascertain its distribution, altitudinal range, habitat requirements and abundance. Determine population levels of introduced mammals around current sites on Santo. Assess hunting levels and population trends based on discussions with Santo hunters. Advocate creation of more forest reserves on Santo. Investigate hunting control measures through community discussion and awareness programmes. <br/></p>	eng
143608	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba sanctaecrucis</em> is known from Tinakula and Utupua in Temotu province (=&#160;Santa Cruz Islands), <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, and Espiritu Santo, <strong>Vanuatu<sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It may still persist on Tinakula (8&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) which is only seasonally inhabited and has not been visited by ornithologists for many years. It is probably extinct on Utupua (69&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), which is largely deforested. During a brief visit in 1994 none was seen and the villagers of Nembao had no knowledge of it<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is likely to survive on Santo (3,955&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) which has extensive forest - recent sightings are of some birds seen in 1972 and one in 1985<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Historically, it probably occurred on more islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, such as Vanikoro and the Reef Islands (but no evidence of it during weeks of fieldwork in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), the Duff Islands, Nendo (where there are sight records from the Whitney expedition in the 1930s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and the Banks and Torres islands of northern Vanuatu (which are both poorly known<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). <br/></p>	eng
143608	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is believed to forage exclusively on the ground but often perches on low branches and roosts in trees. It inhabits rainforest and patches of remnant forest isolated by agricultural land at 300-1,000&#160;m<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but may prove to occur down to sea-level. <br/></p>	eng
143608	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.4-4.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 774 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 310-3,096, i.e. probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density range lowest to lower quartile of six estimates for four congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; AOO taken as relatively high % of EOO as extensive suitable forest persists on Espiritu Santo [3,955 km<sup>2</sup>]). <br/></p>	eng
143608	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced rats, cats, dogs and pigs are found throughout Utupua and Santo and may also occur on Tinakula. Cyclones and volcanic eruptions are a risk, particularly on Tinakula where any remaining population must be naturally small. Forest has been and is being extensively cleared and degraded on Utupua and Santo although, on Santo, much of the land is too steep for commercial logging and there are few hill villages and gardens above c.500&#160;m. It may also be hunted, and may be outcompeted by the common <em>Chalcophaps&#160;indica</em> in degraded forest habitats<strong><sup>1,3,4,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143609	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba ferruginea</em><em> </em>is known only from Forster's 1774 painting, from Tanna Island, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, in Tring<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong></p>	eng
143610	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba salamonis</em> is known from just two specimens from the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, one from Makira (= San Cristobal) taken in 1882 and the other from Ramos (c.4 ha) in 1927. Although the Makira locality has been queried, it is thought to be valid<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys looking for this species on Makira<strong><sup>1,3,4,5</sup></strong> were unsuccessful, and recent surveys on Ramos<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> failed to find any individuals and the species was not known to landowners<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There is now no longer any reasonable doubt that the last individual has died, probably some time ago. It is likely that it once occurred on other islands in the region. It may have been a tramp species of small islands with occasional birds occurring on larger islands, or the two specimens may just represent the last individuals of a declining population<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. The Makira bird was collected at 300 m, although congeners occur in forest at all altitudes. Ramos has drier beach forest than inland Makira and this may have been a preferred habitat-type. The species is likely to have declined through a combination of predation by introduced cats and rats, and habitat destruction. On Makira, introduced rats, pigs, cats and dogs are widespread. Most lowland forest has been logged or is in logging concessions, and the larger pigeons are targeted by local hunters. Ramos remains forested and appears to be free of introduced predators, although hunters from the adjacent islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita make regular journeys to harvest the nesting Nicobar Pigeon <em>Caloenas nicobarica</em>, and may have shot ground-doves on these expeditions<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143610	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	</p>	eng
143611	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Hatuta`a is a protected area but there is no active management.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and monitor its population on both islands. Take measures to ensure that the islands remain cat-free. Effectively manage Hatuta`a<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the possibility of translocation to the nearby island of Mohotani if cats are eradicated from this island<sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143611	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba rubescens</em> is restricted to two uninhabited and cat-free islets in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Hatuta`a, the population was estimated at c.225 birds in 1975 and remained stable in 1987<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Fatu Huku, the population was estimated at 10-100 in the 1990s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It probably formerly occurred on Nuku Hiva, where the type-specimen is reputed to have been collected, and subfossils are known from three other islets, suggesting that it was originally distributed throughout the entire group<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143611	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wooded regions, groves of <em>Pisonia grandis</em> and shrubby vegetation<strong><sup> </sup></strong>feeding primarily on seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Hatuta`a, the birds prefer the plateau, rarely descending to vegetation near the sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143611	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Better survey methods in 2007 lead to an estimate of c. 1,000 on Hatuta'a, it is thought that less than 100 persist on Fatu Huku.  <br/></p>	eng
143611	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Predation by cats has probably caused its disappearance from other islets in the group.  <br/></p>	eng
143612	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although common on Makira island and rare on Manus island (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143613	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba canifrons</em> is endemic to <strong>Palau</strong> where it is found in dense forest on all the major islands from Babeldaob (very rare) to Angaur, and on many of the small limestone islands (where it is more common)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is difficult to locate because of its secretive habits, sparse vocalisations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and inaccessible habitat and, during a survey in 1991, too few were counted to record a meaningful population estimate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, although it is rare, numbers are probably stable<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and its rock island habitat is not faced with imminent development, nor is the species hunted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The introduction of alien species (e.g. rats, brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>) is a potential threat. <br/></p>	eng
143613	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species occurs throughout the Palau archipelago but it is rare on most islands.  It is common only on the small Rock Islands where in 1982 there were thought to be 500 individuals (Engbring, 1988).  The population is therefore likely to be at the lower end of the band.   <br/></p>	eng
143614	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Several protected areas have been proposed in West Timor and another (Gunung Arnau) on Wetar. Recent surveys have identified four further areas in West Timor to be of importance to the islands' endemic avifauna, two of which, Camplong and Soe are known localities for <em>G. hoedtii</em>. Another site, Gunung Timau, is currently subject to an initiative to include it within the Gunung Mutis protected area.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys in suitable remaining forest on Wetar, West Timor, and Timor-Leste to establish its current distribution, population status, seasonal movements, ecological constraints and main threats. Propose key sites supporting populations of this, and other threatened species, for establishment as strict protected areas. Strongly support initiatives to protect Gunung Timau. <br/></p>	eng
143614	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba hoedtii</em> occurs in West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>. On Wetar, it is known by less than 20 specimens collected at unspecified localities around 1900. The fact that a series of eight birds was collected in five days in 1902 suggests that it was fairly common, at least locally. No records were made during a brief visit to the island in 1990<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but extensive forest apparently remains. It has been recorded at only three localities in West Timor (including only one record during a nine-week survey in 1993), where it is undoubtedly rare, although possibly overlooked. In 2004, a male bird was confiscated from a bird trapper in Dili<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The trapper claimed to have caught his birds on the south coast of Timor-Leste, in the Natarbora region (Manututo District)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Subsequent surveys in 2005 close to the border with Indonesia, in the vicinity of Desa Foho Lulik (Tilomar sub-district), found at least four, and perhaps five, calling birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143614	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland monsoon-forest, and possibly woodland, up to 950 m. In West Timor two of the three records have been from "forest near a clearing" and "fairly undisturbed hill forest". Its habitat receives highly seasonal rainfall, but it is not known whether it makes any short-distance movements. It is possible that this species is associated with bamboo, and thus partly nomadic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds found recently in Timor-Leste were only found within gallery forest and remnant trees bordering a wide stream, suggesting wet forest - possibly even only that associated with flowing water - is important breeding habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been presumed to be largely solitary and forage on the ground, like its congeners, but it appears to call from, and nest in, the canopy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to be a dry-season breeder<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143614	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km2 x 2,800 km2 (10% EOO) = 2,800-5,600 individuals i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range extrapolated from densities of similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, taking account of description of status as rare) <br/></p>	eng
143614	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction in West and Timor-Leste has been very extensive, and is presumably the primary threat. Three recently identified IBAs contain much of the remaining tropical monsoon-forest in Timor-Leste (approximately 652 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. In addition, pigeons are apparently hunted extensively on Timor, a factor that must have contributed to the decline of this species. The situation on Wetar is poorly known, although extensive forest observed in 1990 gives some hope that an important population might survive there. <br/></p>	eng
143615	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs across New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), but may be absent from some large areas such as the Sepik-Ramu and north-eastern regions (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986). Although there are only three published records since 1990 (de Silva Garza 1993), it is frequently seen in suitable lowland forest; for example, several individuals are seen a week at Lakekamu (B. Beehler in litt. 2000). It appears to occur patchily, usually at very low population densities (Coates 1985, I. Burrows in litt. 1994), but at one site population density was estimated to be one bird per 10 ha (Bell 1982).	eng
143615	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in forest to c.650 m (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1985) but is usually found in primary lowland flat forest (K.D. Bishop in litt. 1999).	eng
143615	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143615	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species' tolerance of logging is poorly known but it persists in some selectively logged forests (B. Whitney in litt. 2000); however, much of the forest at these altitudes is threatened by logging. It is also under localised threat from children stealing eggs and chicks (A. Mack in litt. 1999).	eng
143616	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Microgoura meeki </em>was endemic to<em> </em>Choiseul, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, from where it is known from six skins and a single egg<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has not been recorded since 1904<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> despite searching and interviews with villagers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction was presumably caused by predation by feral dogs and cats, as suitable habitat survives on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often fairly common in hilly areas, but locally scarce (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common throughout its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although very common in the Sierra Madre in northern Luzon (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143620	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Military activity and insurgency continue to present a serious obstacle to general conservation activity in the Sulus. There are no protected areas in the archipelago. However, the species occurs in a 3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> tract of forest at Tarawakan which receives some protection from an agricultural college. A project proposal exists to provide conservation funding for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area. In 1997, a public awareness campaign focusing on the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity on Tawitawi was initiated. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct an intensive survey in remaining forests to identify further key sites. Determine its ecological requirements, particularly tolerance of degraded habitats. Urgently protect remaining forest around Buan and Tarawakan on Tawitawi, and any further sites found to support the species. Incorporate protective measures relevant to the species within conservation funding proposals for the Tawitawi/Sulu Coastal Area, as and where appropriate. Continue and expand environmental awareness programmes in the Sulu archipelago. <br/></p>	eng
143620	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Phapitreron cinereiceps</em> is endemic to the Sulu archipelago in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is restricted to the island of Tawitawi and adjacent Sanga-sanga. On Tawitawi, there are recent records from four sites, including Languyan, Lubbuk and Tarawakan. On Sanga-sanga, it was recorded at one site in c.1987, but is almost certainly extinct there as the island retains virtually no forest. It was common at Tarawakan in 1996. The Tawitawi population is assumed to be very small, but the species is apparently shy and, as such, may not be as rare as feared. An estimated 250-300 km<sup>2</sup> of forest remains on Tawitawi, although much of this has been selectively logged<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Fortunately, the rate at which this has been cleared for oil palm plantations is lower than was feared previously, but it is still being degraded at a very rapid rate. <br/></p>	eng
143620	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest, including beach mangroves with mixed primary and secondary growth. It is unlikely to be altitudinally restricted, except that the maximum elevation on Tawitawi is c.500&#160;m.</p>	eng
143620	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 279 km<sup>2</sup> (45% AOO) = 279-2,790 but perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 250-999 (population density based on lower range of estimates for forest doves in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143620	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1994, remaining primary forest on Tawitawi and adjacent islands was being rapidly cleared, and the remaining areas of forest were highly degraded and recently logged<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1996, there were plans to replace even these with oil-palm plantations. Logging of the few remaining tracts, now confined to rugged, mountainous areas, is likely to be followed by uncontrolled settlement and conversion to agriculture. Only very small areas of heavily degraded low-stature forest remain on Sanga-sanga. Hunting and trapping are no longer considered threats, but may have caused a substantial decline during martial law in the 1970s. <br/></p>	eng
143621	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron fulvicollis</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular Thailand (no recent records), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (non-breeding visitor), <strong>Brunei </strong>(very uncommon) and Kalimantan and Sumatra (including the Riau and Lingga archipelagos, Bangka, Belitung, Siberut and Nias islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It occurs in freshwater swamp forest, peatswamp forest, mangroves, coastal forest, open scrub and second growth, including wooded gardens, to 1,200 m. Non-breeders occasionally visit higher elevation dry land forests. It is threatened throughout its range by the clearance, fragmentation and degradation of lowland forest. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. Although the species has almost certainly declined in the past decade owing to habitat loss, it also occurs in relatively less threatened forests on slopes and appears to be able to survive in secondary forest. <br/></p>	eng
143622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Sumatra and Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143624	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually uncommon, although abundant in parts of Sri Lanka and fairly common in east Java and northern Bali (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon, although locally rare in Thailand and the Philippines (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, especially in lowland areas (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143628	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded recently in the Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and in Keli Mutu National Park, which is protected for its spectacular crater lakes.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution, status and ecological requirements, such that an effective management strategy may be compiled. Promote the establishment of appropriately sited protected areas, including at Ria on Flores, and Selalu Legini and Gunung Olet Sangenges on Sumbawa. Initiate conservation awareness campaigns on Sumbawa and Flores to elicit local support for forest protection and reduced hunting, as part of a broader strategy for conserving endemic fauna and flora on the islands.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143628	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron floris</em> is endemic to Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar and Alor, and may also occur on some other Flores Sea islands. Its absence from Komodo (and therefore presumably the other islands between Sumbawa and Flores) is apparently real, although if nomadic, it may occur there infrequently. Recent records derive from Sumbawa, where it is rare and local, Flores, where it is generally uncommon, but locally numerous around fruiting trees and Alor, where a flock of 40-50 was recently observed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143628	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland, moist and dry, deciduous monsoon-forest, including forest edge and patchy, dry forest/savanna, and more rarely (or at lower densities in) semi-evergreen forest, from sea-level to 1,000&#160;m (on Flores), but only to 550&#160;m on Sumbawa. It is a frugivore, and a key habitat feature may be the presence of certain species of fig (although it is known to take other fruit), particularly as it was absent from moist deciduous monsoon-forest that lacked fig trees. It may be nomadic in relation to the fruiting cycles within (and conceivably between) its island ranges.</p>	eng
143628	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently uncommon on Sumbawa and Flores.  A rough estimate based on recent survey results suggests there are fewer than 2000 birds on Flores. It is frequent on several smaller islands - Alor might have a substantial population, but Besar and probably Lembata would have in the order of hundreds of birds only.  Therefore, the global population is unlikely to exceed 5,000 individuals.   <br/></p>	eng
143628	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although it appears fairly tolerant of forest degradation, and of drier formations, it is basically forest-dependent and habitat loss is the main threat it faces. Forest clearance, as a result of shifting agriculture, and the practice of burning in the dry season, have had a major impact on natural vegetation across its range, while parts of south-west Sumbawa are threatened by a new gold and copper mine. Forest remnants are now largely confined to steep valleys and the highest peaks. Hunting is a further threat, while small numbers have been recorded in trade.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143629	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron teysmannii</em> is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs at all altitudes in open forest, particularly disturbed areas with tall trees (although this might reflect a greater ease of detection in such habitats). The population in the early 1990s was estimated to be somewhat larger than 14,000 birds and presumably declining with forest clearance. <br/></p>	eng
143630	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent surveys have identified several areas in West Timor to be of conservation importance to the islands' endemic avifauna, one of which, Bipolo (though now only c.2 km<sup>2</sup>), supports the species and another, Camplong, did until very recently. Another site, Gunung Timau, is subject to an initiative to include it within the Gunung Mutis protected area. Recent surveys in East Timor have located at two sites; the Sungai Vero Valley and Pantai Valu<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys for the species in remaining monsoon-forest tracts in Timor-Leste (when security problems allow) and West Timor, Roti and Semau, to assess its current distribution, movements, ecological constraints, status and threats. Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Strongly support initiatives to establish a nature reserve encompassing Gunung Mutis and Gunung Timau. Initiate conservation awareness programmes to elicit local support for forest conservation and reduce pigeon hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143630	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron psittaceus</em> is endemic to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor and its satellite islands, Semau and Roti, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to be uncommon or rare, and apparently very local. It has been infrequently recorded during recent fieldwork, although it is perhaps overlooked due to its inconspicuous and very wary disposition. It is thought to have declined recently throughout West Timor, but is more common in Timor-Leste<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are no recent records from Semau or Roti. <br/></p>	eng
143630	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and tall, secondary, lowland monsoon-forest, mostly in the extreme lowlands, straggling up to 600&#160;m. It may be nomadic in response to the fruiting cycle of figs, and is usually encountered in small flocks, sometimes of up to 20 birds.</p>	eng
143630	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species occurs very patchily and is absent from areas of apparently suitable habitat. It's global population is precautionarily estimated to lie within a band 2,000-5,000 individuals (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143630	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of monsoon-forest has been severe in its range, and this is the primary threat to the species, particularly as it favours the extreme lowlands. The mountains of Timor-Leste were heavily deforested early in the 20th century, but habitat destruction has recently accelerated: an estimated 50% decline in remaining montane forest-cover occurred during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in around seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. In addition, pigeons (including this species) are apparently hunted extensively in Timor. <br/></p>	eng
143631	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in several protected areas, including Taman Negara (Malaysia), Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks (Kalimantan), Gunung Leuser and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks (Sumatra).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct comprehensive surveys to establish its current distribution and status, and gather data on its movements and ecological requirements. Formulate a management strategy for Sundaic birds largely reliant on lowland forest. Promote effective management of existing protected areas (including, for this species, maintenance of high fig density) in the Sundaic region and the expansion of the protected area network. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forests throughout its range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143631	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron</em> <em>capellei</em> occurs from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> to Borneo (including <strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>), and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It was once widely distributed and at least locally very common, but serious declines have taken place, such that it is now highly local and scarce. There are no recent records from Myanmar or Java.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143631	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and logged evergreen rainforest, almost exclusively in the lowlands, rarely ascending foothills to 1,500 m. Small flocks visit fruiting trees (usually figs <em>Ficus</em> spp.) and are generally encountered high in the canopy. It is largely sedentary, although populations may fluctuate in response to fruiting cycles, and nocturnal movements have been noted.</p>	eng
143631	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143631	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Massive declines in the population of this species are presumably occurring in the face of habitat loss. Huge areas of lowland forest were removed from its range during the 20th century, chiefly through logging, conversion to agriculture and fire. For example, Kalimatan lost almost 25% of its cover between 1985 and 1997, and Sumatra lost 30% in the same period, suggesting that virtually all original lowland habitat will have disappeared from these areas by around 2010, unless preventative measures can be implemented effectively. A similar scenario faces all other range states. Major fires in Borneo and Sumatra continue to affect enormous areas of forest while industrial-scale illegal logging is rampant in almost all "protected" areas. A secondary threat is imposed by widespread high levels of hunting. <br/></p>	eng
143632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (del Hoyo  et al. 1997).	eng
143636	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ngezi and Msitu Mkuu are both Forest Reserves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Initiate studies to determine rates of habitat destruction, and combine these with in-depth population and ecological studies of the species. Research ways to control illegal activities within the Forest Reserves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143636	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron pembaensis</em> is endemic to Pemba and adjacent offshore coral islets, some 55 km off the coast of northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Although occurring over most of the island, it is most common in the two small remaining native forests; Ngezi (14 km<sup>2</sup>) and Msitu Mkuu (3 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Given the rarity of the species within its range<strong><sup>6,8,9</sup></strong>, the global population size is believed likely to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be declining slightly owing to slow habitat conversion. <br/></p>	eng
143636	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occurs in a number of forested habitats, including secondary growth, clove plantations, and gardens, but is much more common in native, primary forest. It feeds on a variety of fruit high in the canopy. Breeding has been recorded from October to February, with nests found even near human habitation or in plantations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The flimsy nest platform is made of twigs, and contains one or two eggs. <br/></p>	eng
143636	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent visitors to Pemba have struggled to find this species, which now appears to be rather rare (A. Sander <em>in litt.</em> 2004, M. Virani<em> in litt.</em> 2005, J. Wolstencroft <em>in litt. </em>2005, 2007). Population estimate = 5-8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 400 km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO) = 2,000-3,200 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of six congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals at present: this estimate requires validation, and direct information on area of suitable habitat, population densities in various habitats, and total population size may lead to adjustment of this estimate up or down. <br/></p>	eng
143636	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Decreasing world clove prices have led to the conversion of some old clove plantations (which offered suitable habitat) to open farmland growing rice and cassava<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. Some native forest has also been recently converted to rubber plantation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Ras Kiuyu forest has been heavily exploited for building materials, lime burning and fuel wood<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Even Ngezi and Msitu Mkuu Forest Reserves are subject to illegal exploitation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Development of tourism may require infrastructure that passes through remaining forest<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Non-native House Crows <em>Corvus splendens</em> may also predate nests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143639	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron oxyurus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (350-1,800 m) and West Java (600-3,000 m), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in hill and montane forest. Destruction of its preferred habitat has been widespread in the lower parts of its elevation range, and it is now apparently very hard to find on both islands. <br/></p>	eng
143640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143643	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Treron formosae</em>, considered a small-island specialist, nests in the Nansei Shoto islands of <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and the Batanes islands north of Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>; it is uncommon and local on the Batanes, rare in Taiwan and common only in the Nansei Shoto. It inhabits subtropical broadleaved evergreen forest, cultivated fields where there are trees nearby, and even towns where there are gardens, mainly on small islands but at up to 2,000 m on Taiwan. In the Philippines, threats presumably comprise deforestation and hunting while commercial development through tourism is an imminent threat to Mt Irada. <br/></p>	eng
143644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon, although locally abundant in suitable habitat in Sumatra and uncommon in Java and Bali (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143645	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Populations occur in the recently established Manupeu-Tanahdaru and Laiwangi-Wanggameti National Parks (1,350 km<sup>2</sup> combined). These protected areas are the result of recommendations derived from recent surveys for this and other threatened and/or endemic species. Plans to designate further protected areas are underway. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct detailed research into the ecology of the species in order to develop an effective management strategy. Gazette strict nature reserves at Yawila, Puronumbu and Luku Melolo, a wildlife sanctuary at Lulundilo and a forest park at Tanjung Ngunju. Support efforts to establish and manage further protected areas. Conduct conservation awareness programmes to reduce hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143645	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus dohertyi</em> is endemic to the island of Sumba, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is generally scarce, locally moderately common, but unobtrusive and easily overlooked. Fieldwork in 1989 and 1992 yielded density estimates of 6.9 (&#177;1.2) birds per km<sup>2</sup>. Given 1,080&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest on Sumba, this was extrapolated and corrected upwards to a global population estimate of 9,100 birds. <br/></p>	eng
143645	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits both primary and secondary, tropical montane rainforest, sometimes "on the near-vertical walls of limestone gorges", usually at relatively high altitude, but exceptionally down to 160&#160;m. It is tolerant of moderate degradation, and generally found in the canopy and middle storey, often foraging for fruit (being chiefly, if not exclusively, frugivorous) in the outer foliage. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements. <br/></p>	eng
143645	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Jones et al. (1995)  <br/></p>	eng
143645	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat<strong> </strong>destruction and fragmentation, stemming from small-scale logging, fuelwood-collection and clearance for cultivation or pasture, pose the main threat. These pressures are exacerbated by fire resulting from an extremely dry climate and uncontrolled burning of grasslands to encourage new growth for grazing. Since the 19th century, c.60% of forest has been lost. However, the reliance of this species on montane forest and partial tolerance of habitat degradation suggest that it is perhaps secure. Hunting is a potential further threat. <br/></p>	eng
143646	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It is known from two protected areas, Mt Pulog National Park and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. There are also historical records from several areas now afforded national park status, including Maria Aurora Memorial National Park, Mt Bicol and Mt Banahaw/San Cristobal, although it is unclear what protection this classification confers. In the 1990s, the species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct field surveys to identify and prioritise additional key sites supporting important populations. Intensively research its movements and basic ecological requirements to help clarify its conservation needs. Formally propose key sites (e.g. Mts Cetaceo and Polis) for protected status. Extend the boundaries of the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to include Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Promote stricter enforcement of legislation designed to curtail hunting and trade.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143646	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus marchei</em> is endemic to the island of Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs chiefly in the northern provinces. It is known from 17 sites, with records from 11 since 1980. It was considered to be fairly common in the Abra highlands and on Mts Sicapo-o and Data during the 1940s and 1950s. However, it was uncommon or rare in the Sierra Madre mountains, except at Los Dos Cuernos, during surveys in the early 1990s. Familiarity with its call might reveal a greater abundance.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143646	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is known from 450-1,500&#160;m, with a lower limit in the Sierra Madre of 850&#160;m, and one record from 2,300&#160;m. It inhabits lowland and hill dipterocarp forest and mid-montane forest, with occasional records from stunted montane or mossy forest. It probably prefers primary forest above 1,000&#160;m, is apparently unrecorded from secondary forest, and is seemingly unable to survive in selectively logged areas. It undertakes some seasonal movements, probably following fruiting trees.</p>	eng
143646	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143646	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are the chief threats, compounded by hunting for food and probably sport, and collection for trade (e.g. birds were being sold openly in several markets in 1994). Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and most remaining areas are under logging concession and may suffer further from major road-building plans. Little or no undegraded habitat remains at key sites such as Mts Data, Polis and Cetaceo, and quarrying and unregulated seasonal tourism threaten remaining forest on Mt Banahaw.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143647	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus merrilli</em> is endemic to Luzon and to two of its satellites, Polillo and Catanduanes, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is found chiefly in primary and selectively logged forest up to 1,100&#160;m in the Sierra Madre (race <em>faustinoi</em> north of Quiri&ntilde;on and nominate <em>merrilli</em> south of Quiri&ntilde;on). Despite being considered rare, nomadic and under pressure from hunting, the total number of localities for the species is at least 24 and it appears to be fairly common, even in ultrabasic forest, and in 1996 it was found to be abundant on Patnanungan island in the Polillo group. Nevertheless, habitat destruction is a substantial threat. <br/></p>	eng
143648	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in parts of the Sierra Madre and on Bohol island (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143650	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus jambu</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (scarce and irregular non-breeding visitor), Kalimantan, Sumatra and West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It inhabits mangrove and evergreen forests to 1,500m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia. However, the species's ability to persist in second growth and at higher elevations, where forest destruction has been less severe, means that its decline has been less rapid than for lowland primary forest specialists. <br/></p>	eng
143651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143652	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus subgularis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (race <em>epia</em>) (not the south or south-east Peninsulas), the Banggai Islands (race <em>subgularis</em>) and Sula Islands (race <em>mangoliensis</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is a moderately common inhabitant mainly of primary but also some secondary forest from the lowlands up to 800 m on Sulawesi, a little higher (900 m) in the Banggai Islands and Sula Islands. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and is likely to continue, and its populations must be suffering an ongoing decline.<em> </em> <br/></p>	eng
143653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to moderately common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, especially at lower altitudes (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143657	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Effectively protect lowland rainforest. Conduct social surveys to determine the extent of hunting, and consider measures to reduce hunting pressure.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143657	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Ptilinopus tannensis</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong> where it occurs on most islands. In Loru Protected Area on Espirito Santo, its population density was estimated to be 14 birds per km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>, and it was recently found to be very common in all habitats and at all altitudinal levels<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but it may be less common elsewhere, especially in the southern islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
143657	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits old-growth rainforest, and also degraded habitats with large fruiting trees, including open woodland, parkland, plantations and gardens. It is most common in the lowlands and hills, but is also present in mountains to at least 1500 m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on most islands in its range, although rare on Aneityum (Gibbs et al. 2001), and recent observations on Santo found it to be very common in all habitats and at all altitudinal levels. <br/></p>	eng
143657	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	All lowland forests in Vanuatu are threatened by commercial logging and the species is therefore suspected to be slowly declining owing to a loss of large fruiting trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that overhunting is a threat but there is currently no evidence to support this<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143660	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143662	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus monacha</em> is restricted to the North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits at least 13 islands, frequenting lowland forest, mangroves and farmland up to 750 m. Although moderately common, it is mainly a small island and coastal species and is therefore likely to have a small population. It suffers from substantial habitat loss within its range. <br/></p>	eng
143663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143664	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143666	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Control <em>Boiga irregularis </em>population by trapping and monitor its spread on Saipan and Rota. <strong>Take precautions to prevent the introduction of <em>B.&#160;irregularis</em></strong> onto Tinian, such as traps and monitors around the airport and especially the harbour<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Formulate species managment plan and consider introduction to snake-free islands.  <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143666	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus roseicapilla</em> is fairly common on four islands in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, where it is primarily a bird of mature forest although it is also found in some moderately disturbed mixed woodland and second growth habitats<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. It has become extirpated from Guam (to USA) owing to predation by the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis,</em> and although single birds turn up once every few years, these are almost certainly individuals dispersing from the island of Rota, 60 km to the north<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1982, the total population was estimated at 9,443 birds, with 2,541 on Saipan, 3,075 on Tinian, 3,535 on Rota and 292 on Aguijan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A recent "Promoting Protection through Pride" campaign on Rota has resulted in legislation fully protecting the species from hunting and trapping<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the species must be affected by habitat loss and is at risk from the recent introduction of <em>B.&#160;irregularis</em> to Saipan and Rota, and the likely introduction to Tinian.  <br/></p>	eng
143666	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species eats a variety of fruit from the forest canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> particularly from native <em>Ficus </em>spp. and <em>Premna obtusifolia </em>trees. It may also descend to feed in bushes or on the ground, where it takes the fruits of the introduced prostrate vine <em>Momordica charantia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong></em>. It is found in a variety of forest types but appears more common in limestone forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and to prefer mature native forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Aguijan it is found in heavily grazed forest and on Tinian in the scrubland of introduced <em>Leucaena </em>trees. It seems to breed all year round with a peak in breeding activity and consequently population size during April-July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It lays one egg in a nest approximately 2.8 m from the ground<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.    <br/></p>	eng
143666	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1982). Population estimated at 9,443 birds in 1982: 2,541 (Saipan), 3,075 (Tinian), 3,535 (Rota) and 292 (Aguijan). <br/></p>	eng
143666	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Brown tree snake is now well-established on Saipan, and has also reached Rota<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. It is also likely to be introduced onto Tinian as tourism development on the island necessitates the importation of large amounts of building materials<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Unless the snake can be controlled on Saipan and Rota, and prevented from reaching Tinian, the populations on all three islands are likely to be extirpated rapidly. Other threats include the spread of introduced plant species, especially <em>Leucaena</em>, habitat destruction and hunting<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although possibly only a seasonal visitor to New Caledonia  (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its restricted range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143671	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species presumably benefits from conservation measures carried out for the Rarotonga Flycatcher<em> Pomarea dimidiata </em>(classified as Endangered) in the south-east of the island, including intensive rat control. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and monitor the species on both islands to establish numbers and trends. Research its immediate conservation requirements<sup>1</sup></strong>, including foraging and dietary studies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Take measures to ensure that alien species are not accidently introduced, especially<em> R.&#160;rattus</em></strong> on Atiu. <strong>Consider translocation to Mangaia<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143671	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus rarotongensis</em> survives only on Rarotonga and Atui, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, but was once more widespread given early historic records from Aitutaki and Mauke, and fossils from Mangaia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1987, the population on Rarotonga was estimated at fewer than 100 individuals, but it was apparently common on Atui<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It now appears more common on both islands, with the population on Rarotonga exceeding 100 individuals and considerably more present on Atiu<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. There is no evidence of inter-island movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143671	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Rarotonga, it is restricted to hillside and upland forest, avoiding the densely populated lowland areas and, on Atui, it is found in a wider variety of wooded habitats, including the fringes of plantations as well as forest growing on the makatea (a raised coral limestone platform)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is primarily frugivorous but has also been reported to peck small insects from foliage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143671	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Black rat<em> Rattus rattus</em> (present on Rarotonga) and the ubiquitous threat of habitat destruction pose serious problems to all the indigenous birds of the Cook Islands, while the introduction of exotic avian diseases, to which local birds have no immunity, is another possible threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although the introduced Common Myna<em> Acridotheres tristis</em> did not introduce any pathogens, it is aggressive and widespread and is often blamed for the demise of the native landbirds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143672	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Proposals have been made to protect the Hiri Valley and to consider captive breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Discuss with the local community the possibility of establishing a protected area in the upland forests<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>If agreement for a protected area is reached, fence forest remnants to reduce grazing pressure<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Reduce goat numbers<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Exclude fires from upland areas<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider the possibility of translocation to another island to establish a second population<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the impact of cats and rats on the species, and take precautions to prevent invasion by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em></strong>.</p>	eng
143672	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus huttoni</em> is endemic to the tiny island of Rapa in the Tubuai Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was estimated to number 274 individuals in 1989-1990. Although it is probable that the area of available habitat has diminished during the 20th century along with a decrease in population, there has apparently been no serious decline since 1974<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143672	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is now confined to remaining forest fragments in valleys and mountains between 40 and 450&#160;m, and is not found in coastal vegetation, secondary forest or near to habitation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on fleshy fruit and nectar from flowers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143672	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate is from figures published in Thibault and Varney (1991).   <br/></p>	eng
143672	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Destruction and degradation of forest by goats, cattle, fires (used to control fernland and increase grazing land) and felling are the main threats. Predation by feral cats and Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans </em>are possible threats, while hunting for food by local inhabitants is no longer a threat owing to an improvement in the standard of living on the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143673	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143674	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus coralensis</em> has a widespread distribution throughout the islands of the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It is the only fruit-dove in the tropical Pacific adapted exclusively to low coral atolls, where it inhabits forest and abandoned coconut plantations feeding on insects and seeds, usually on the ground<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is likely to occur at low densities throughout its range as food resources are scarce<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) is a threat on a small number of atolls<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and the species is vulnerable to habitat destruction including the exploitation of coconut plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In a recent survey it was found to be uncommon on five out of eight islands visited<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143675	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Assess the threat posed by introduced species. Consider captive breeding and translocation. <br/></p>	eng
143675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus chalcurus</em> is endemic to Makatea in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was found to be common in 1972 and 1986-1987<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143675	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in all wooded habitats as well as dense forest in the south of the island, and is also present near villages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It probably takes fruit from a wide variety of trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143675	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 12.8-53.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 11 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 141-583, but probably best placed in band 250-999 (density range lower to upper quartile of 21 estimates for 15 congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet, in agreement with description as "common"). <br/></p>	eng
143675	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although much forest was destroyed during the period 1917-1964, as a result of phospate mining, the indigenous vegetation has recovered over the last 40 years and it appears that the mining did not change either the distribution or abundance of the species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. There is no hunting or disturbance (given that the human population is low)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) may be a problem<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although the species has coexisted with rats for several decades<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143676	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Rat eradication has been investigated and is feasible but difficult because of the island's isolation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson. Consider the eradication of rats from Henderson<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Re-attempt the eradication of rats from nearby Pitcairn Island, and consider translocating the species there when it becomes rat-free<sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143676	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus insularis</em> is confined to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. In 1987, its population was estimated at c.3,420 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, in 1992, using a different technique, at c.4,000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers may be limited by food supply<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>are assumed to be stable.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143676	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species inhabits interior forest, with dense understorey. It is a specialist frugivore (possibly territorial so that it can exploit fruit as they become available), foraging solitarily or in pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Research in 1992 recorded 19 different plants in its diet, with <em>Procris pedunculata</em> constituting the major food. A preference for fruit with a high water content suggests that the species may rely on its food for obtaining water, especially during dry spells (as there is no permanent water on Henderson)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. From two nests, each with a single egg recorded in March, the breeding season would appear to be at the beginning of the calender year and clutch-size is probably one<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143676	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Brooke and Jones (1995).  <br/></p>	eng
143676	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has apparently adapted to the presence of Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>. However, the accidental introduction of a more aggressive predator, such as another <em>Rattus</em> species, could be devastating, and introduced diseases, such as avian malaria and pox, are another potential threat. The introduction of exotic plant species could have serious consequences for the native vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and therefore for this species too.  <br/></p>	eng
143677	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus mercierii </em>was endemic to forest in the<em> </em>Marquesas, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, with the nominate subspecies on Nuku Hiva and subspecies<em> tristrami</em> on Hiva Oa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. While the former is only known from the type collected during the 1836-1839 voyage of the Venus, the latter is known from at least 11 specimens, the last collected by the Whitney Expedition in 1922<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was reported on Hiva Oa in 1980<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this was probably a mistake<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction has been attributed to predation by the introduced Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, as well as by introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143679	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in parts of the range and possibly vulnerable in part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in parts of the range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143682	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus eugeniae</em> is endemic to Makira (=&#160;San Cristobal) and nearby islets in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a fairly common lowland forest species to 700&#160;m but is less common in logged forest<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. Most of the lowland forest on Makira has been logged or is under logging concessions. It appears to tolerate logged forest well enough not to be threatened but this conclusion is based on relatively little fieldwork. <br/></p>	eng
143683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143684	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. There is a proposed protected area, Pulau Obi, on the island, although it remains to be determined whether this is the most appropriate area for the conservation of threatened and endemic avifauna. There is also a move to protect Danau Saku, a freshwater lake which is quite likely to host numbers of this pigeon in its fringing forests.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify its current distribution, status and ecological requirements (particularly tolerance of habitat degradation). Investigate levels of hunting on Obi. Identify the most appropriate area for designation as a protected area, catering for this species and other endemic fauna.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143684	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus granulifrons</em> is endemic to the island of Obi, North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is widespread, generally scarce, but locally common, although like its congeners it is probably easily overlooked.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143684	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary, lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest and a mosaic of scrub and lightly wooded cultivation, from 40 m up to 550&#160;m, generally frequenting the canopy and subcanopy, where it feeds chiefly on fruit. It is assumed to be resident, but it may perhaps make local movements in response to fruiting events.</p>	eng
143684	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 6.9-12.8 individuals/km2 x 420 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,898-5,376, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 21 estimates for 15 congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143684	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Obi is a small island, and any deforestation would be problematic for this species, particularly given its predeliction for lowland forest habitats. Much of the lower-lying forest has already been logged, much of the remainder is under logging concession, and illegal gold mining is reported to be destroying some areas of forest. Furthermore, areas proposed for protection only include land at 500 m and above.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant on mainland New Guinea, common on Kariru island and scarce on other islands such as Karkar (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in lowland forest and less common at higher altitudes (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce but not rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143689	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The only record derives from Mt Canlaon Natural Park, which supports 115 km<sup>2</sup> of mainly montane forest. No other conservation measures are known to have been taken other than its depiction in the mid-1990s on a bilingual environmental education poster in the "Only in the Philippines" series. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Comprehensively survey all suitable lowland to mid-montane forested habitat on Negros to determine whether the species is extant. Conduct surveys for fruit-doves</strong><em> <strong>Ptilinopus spp. on Panay. Carry out, if possible, biochemical analyses on the type-specimen to confirm its taxonomic validity. <br/></p>	eng
143689	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Ptilinopus arcanus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known only by a single female specimen (one of a pair) collected on Mt Canlaon on the island of Negros in 1953. Its population is unknown and, given the failure of any fieldworker to encounter it since its discovery, it must be extremely rare. However, the recent discovery on Panay of threatened species which, until 1990, were known only from Negros, and sometimes formerly Guimaras (e.g. Negros Bleeding-heart<em> Gallicolomba keayi</em> and White-throated Jungle-flycatcher<em> Rhinomyias albigularis</em>), suggests that it is not impossible that this enigmatic bird may be extant. <br/></p>	eng
143689	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The specimen was shot in a tall fruiting tree in primary forest at c.1,100 m. It is possible that it is a lowland specialist discovered at its upper altitudinal limit (as forest at this site had been cleared up to 1,000 m). <br/></p>	eng
143689	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population assumed to be tiny based on lack of records since the only specimen was collected in 1953. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143689	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	A combination of hunting, which affects all pigeons and fruit-doves on Negros, and habitat destruction are presumably the major threats. Just 4% of Negros remained forested in 1988, and remnant tracts are small, heavily fragmented and under incessant pressure from clearance for agriculture, timber and charcoal-burning. <br/></p>	eng
143690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143692	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilinopus layardi</em> is endemic to the islands of Kadavu and neighbouring Ono in south-west <strong>Fiji</strong>. It is generally found in well-forested areas in the lowlands; on Ono it is restricted to forest remnants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is sometimes found in gardens<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent BirdLife Fiji surveys found this species to be common in evergreen forests, with 53 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours a mixed lowland and montane site and 17 birds in 15 hours at a montane site<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, equating to 23 birds/km<sup>2</sup> and 11 birds/km<sup>2</sup> at these sites, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked and the species's higher abundance at lower altitudes (where calling males can be as little as 100 m apart<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2 </sup><strong>7</strong>, suggesting that the total population is around 10,000 birds. However the species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes a second sub-population (as this and other <em>Chrysoenas</em> doves are rarely seen flying outside forest and have not been recorded from smaller islands), numbering about 5% of the total population<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population trend is estimated to be declining at the same rate as forest loss and degradation on Kadavu, which is estimated to be 0.5-0.8% per year across Fiji<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but probably higher on Kadavu which has suffered extensive fires in recent years. The population may therefore be declining at a rate that approaches 10% in 10 years<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
143692	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent BirdLife Fiji surveys found this species to be common in evergreen forests, with 53 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours a mixed lowland and montane site and 17 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace 1 km / hour and an effective detection distance of 50 m each side of the trail suggests that around 23 and 11 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked and the species' higher abundance at lower altitudes (where calling males can be as little as 100 m apart; G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005). The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2</sup> (National Forest Inventory 1990-1993), suggesting that the total population is around 10,000 birds. However the species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes a second sub-population (as this and other <em>Chrysoenas</em> doves are rarely seen flying outside forest and have not been recorded from smaller islands), numbering about 5% of the total population (G. Duston <em>in litt</em>. 2005).  <br/></p>	eng
143693	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by law, although some hunting still takes place. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Effectively protect lowland forests. Monitor populations in key sites. Intensify awareness campaigns in local communities to inforce the protection of the species. Maintain a quota on cartridges.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143693	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Drepanoptila holosericea</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> where it is common in suitable habitat throughout the main island. Although it is absent from the Loyalty islands, it is present on the Ile des Pins, where it is common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent studies estimate the population to be in the region of 140,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
143693	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occupies a wide range of habitats, including primary and secondary humid forest to 1,000 m and <em>Melaleuca</em> savanna<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It appears to prefer humid forest between 400-600 m and to favour the forest edge<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Based on extrapolation of a mean density estimate of 0.354 individuals/ha, calculated from 281 point counts at seven forest sites in 1998 (Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/></p>	eng
143693	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Hunting levels are currently very low owing to cartridge quotas which mean that hunters save their ammunition for larger targets, particularly New Caledonian Imperial-pigeon <em>Ducula goliath</em><strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. However, the national legislation for cartridge quotas is under review and includes a proposal to reduce or remove quotas; this may lead to an increase in hunting pressure in the near future<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although some forest is being lost to fire, logging and mining, this species has declinedonly very slowly to date, but it may be threatened if hunting levels greatly increase<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in protected areas but less common on the coastal plains (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143695	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be extinct in some localities, common in others and extinct on several small islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143696	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alectroenas nitidissima</em><em> </em>is known only from three skins<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and a number of descriptions and paintings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong><strong><sup>,3</sup></strong>, from <strong>Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was first described by Harmansz in 1602, and persisted for more than two centuries thereafter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Milbert, writing in 1812, noted that he ate many in 1801, and Desjardins reported in 1832 that birds were ";still found towards the centre of the island in the middle of those fine forests which by their remoteness, have escaped the devestating axe";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last specimen was collected in 1826, however, and hunting and habitat loss presumably caused the species's extinction in the 1830s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be less common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula poliocephala</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occurs on at least 16 islands (Basilan, Biliran, Bohol<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Catanduanes, Cebu, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon, Masbate, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Samar, Sibuyan and Tawitawi) but is uncommon, local, perhaps semi-nomadic and certainly declining owing to the combination of heavy hunting and the extensive clearance of its preferred (though not exclusive, as the bird ranges up to 1,500&#160;m) lowland forest habitat.  <br/></p>	eng
143699	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common and widespread in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143700	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I. In 1964, the species was removed from the list of game birds, and soon afterwards was afforded legal protection, although actual enforcement of this legislation is ineffectual. A (presumably tiny) population may persist in the predominantly grassland Mt Iglit-Baco National Park. The species featured on a bilingual environmental awareness poster focusing on pigeons produced as part of the "Only in the Philippines" series in the mid-1990s.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys (using vocalisations as an aid to detection) in remaining submontane and montane forests on Mindoro, to clarify its current status. Research its ecology, including determining food sources, tree phenology and seasonal movements. Propose all remaining forest on Mt Halcon for improved protected status.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143700	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula mindorensis</em> is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from seven localities in the central mountains (although it was presumably once present throughout the highlands), with records from five sites since 1980. It has always been uncommon and local, occurring at low densities. However, 22 individuals were seen or heard over six days on Mt Ilong in 1991, indicating that the species may be under-recorded, particularly if fieldworkers are unfamiliar with its vocalisations.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143700	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	At least formerly it was usually found in forest above 1,000&#160;m, with records spanning 700-1,830&#160;m. However, during fieldwork in 1991, most observations were made in understorey trees of the lowest-altitude forest remaining (between 800-950&#160;m), with only two noted above 1,000&#160;m. It conceivably undertakes seasonal or nomadic movements in response to changes in food supply. </p>	eng
143700	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (density range from up to lower quartile of three estimates for ten congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) x 240 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 240-2,400, but likely to be at upper end of this range because records at one site at least suggest that the species is under-recorded, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 1,000-2,500. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143700	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest destruction and hunting for food (<em>Ducula</em> pigeons are common targets for subsistence hunters throughout the Philippines) are the most significant threats. In 1988, just 120&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of Mindoro remained forested, of which just 25% was closed-canopy. Although it generally occurs above the zone of greatest deforestation, this does not confer security if it periodically depends on fruiting events at lower elevations. Logging and shifting cultivation continue to reduce lower-altitude forests at key sites such as Mt Halcon and San Vicente. <br/></p>	eng
143701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143702	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It has been recorded recently in two protected areas, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (Luzon) and Mt Kitanglad Natural Park (Mindanao). Four others may offer some habitat protection: Maria Aurora Monument and Quezon National Parks (Luzon), and MUFRC Experimental Forest and Siburan Penal Colony (Mindoro).<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify the species's current distribution and population status across its historical range, including Mt Halcon (Mindoro), Mts Canlaon and Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros), Mts Apo, Mayo, Malindang, Matutum and Three Kings (Mindanao). Radio-tag birds to gather information on ecology and movements to enable conservation planning. Promote improved protection of remaining forests at key sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143702	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula carola</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It occurs patchily on Luzon, Mindoro, Sibuyan, Negros, Siquijor and Mindanao. Since 1980, there have been records from 12 sites on Luzon, Mindoro and Mindanao. On northern Luzon, it was fairly common in the late 19th century. By the 1990s, it had become rare and local in the Sierra Madre mountains, although flocks of 20 were still recorded regularly at Angat Dam. There is evidence of a decline on Mindanao and, although common as recently as the 1950s on Negros, it was not found during recent surveys there, and may now be extinct on Sibuyan, Mindoro and Siquijor.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143702	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary and selectively logged forest and forest edge up to 2,400&#160;m, but favours lowlands. It appears confined to closed-canopy forest, although occasionally ventures to fruiting trees outside forest to feed. It is gregarious and nomadic, travelling long distances, both daily and seasonally, in response to food availability.</p>	eng
143702	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143702	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive habitat destruction and hunting have caused its serious decline and range contraction. The species's complex pattern of habitat- and resource-use magnifies the risks it faces. In 1988, forest cover was as low as 4% on Negros, 24% on Luzon and 29% on Mindanao, and just 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of closed-canopy forest remained on Mindoro. Moreover, most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions and mining applications. On Luzon, illegal logging is common at the key site of Angat Dam. On Mindanao, forest is being cleared and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production at the key site of Bislig. Its congregatory habits facilitate hunting, with large numbers caught during the 1950s on Luzon. <br/></p>	eng
143703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common  (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population on Buru is estimated as 382,000 individuals and the population in the proposed Lolobata Reserve in north-eastern Halmahera is estimated as 22,100 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001). However these two areas represent only a small proportion of the species's global range so the total has been put in the band 500,000-999,000 individuals.	eng
143705	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Common to abundant in Vanuatu, uncommon in Tokelau, Niue and American Samoa, rare on New Caledonia and locally common in the Cook Islands (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143707	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula oceanica</em> occurs in the Micronesian islands of <strong>Palau</strong>, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (<strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>), including many of the small offshore islands. It is probably extinct on Kiribati and Nauru, and many or all of the <strong>Marshall Islands<sup>4</sup></strong>. It is a forest species, predominantly in the mountains of Pohnpei and Kosrae, but widespread where not hunted, including secondary forest, beach forest and mangroves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There were estimated to be 13,718 birds on Palau in 1991<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, 572 on Yap, 51 on Chuuk, 822 on Pohnpei and 7,474 on Kosrae in 1983-1984<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers on Pohnpei declined about 70% between 1983 and 1994<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main threat is hunting for meat and as a cultural food item, exacerbated by ongoing forest loss<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Upland forest on Pohnpei has declined by about two-thirds between 1975-1995<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The population is inferred to have declined less severely on Kosrae which retains more forest and has a smaller human population than Pohnpei. The large population on Palau appeared to have increased since a fire-arms ban in 1980<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but there are no more recent data. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143708	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Tahiti, a year-long study in 1998 collected information from the inhabitants of the valleys where it was last recorded<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>On Makatea, resurvey the population<sup>4</sup></strong> in order to assess both numbers and distribution within primary and regenerating forest. <strong>On Tahiti, conduct field surveys to confirm its presence or extirpation. Consider captive breeding and reintroduction.</strong></p>	eng
143708	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula aurorae</em> is known from Tahiti in the Society Islands and Makatea in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. On Tahiti, it is extremely rare and close to extinction, being restricted to Papeno`o and Hitia`a valleys in 1986-1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but with none reported in 1998<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Makatea, the population appears stable, and in 1986-1987 was judged to lie between 100 and 500 birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There are also fossil records indicating that it was once more widespread, including in the Southern Cook Islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143708	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in dense forest with fruiting trees (in the interior of Makatea, between 1,000-1,100&#160;m on Tahiti), where it feeds on fruit from a variety of native and introduced trees<strong><sup>1,3,9</sup></strong>. On Makatea, it was not observed in secondary habitats or near human habitation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143708	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Thibault and Guyot (1987) <br/></p>	eng
143708	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Makatea, much of its habitat was destroyed during the period 1917-1964, as a result of phospate mining and, although the indigenous vegetation has recovered over the last 40 years, it probably remains limited to a small part of the island<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) may be a problem<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although the species has coexisted with rats for several decades<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On Moorea and other formerly inhabited islands, its extinction may have been the consequence of the spread through the Society Islands of the Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans,</em> although hunting and forest destruction or deterioration were probably also factors<strong><sup>1,5,8</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143709	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The bird is revered in local culture and hunting is forbidden (although it continues)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Following recommendations of translocations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, five birds were released on Ua Huka where there are no<em> R. rattus </em>in April/May 2000<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. At least 4 of the 5 introduced birds had survived into June<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Monitoring is continuing and, if deemed successful, further translocation will occur to increase the genetic base and further establish the population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research predation by cats and rats and, depending on the results, set up some control measures<sup>1,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Promote public awareness through publicity materials and schools, especially in relation to legal protection<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure that game is not reintroduced into the wild (which would increase hunting generally)<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure that road development takes account of the species's requirements<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Prevent further accidental introductions of exotic species<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish the absence of avian diseases<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider captive breeding<sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula galeata</em> is endemic to Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it is restricted to valleys in the west and north of the island. In 1975, the population was estimated at 200-400 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1998, a maximum of 85 birds were seen and the population was estimated at c.250, distributed in small subpopulations between which the passage of individuals was not evaluated<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is a late 18th century record from Tahiti in the Society Islands, and fossil evidence indicates that it once occurred on a further four islands in the Society and Marquesas Islands, and also in the Southern Cook Islands and Henderson in the Pitcairn Islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in remote wooded valleys from 250-1,300&#160;m and is also seen in secondary forest and at the edge of banana and orange plantations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruit from trees and shrubs, including large quantities of guava <em>Psidium guajava<strong><sup>3</sup></strong></em>. It only lays one egg suggesting that it is long lived and any population increases would be slow and unclear for several years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143709	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population on Nuku Hiva was estimated at 170 individuals in 2003, and has probably been stable since then (though perhaps slowly increasing due to better public awareness). The recently established population on Ua Huka has already increased to 32 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143709	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Illegal hunting is the main concern<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat has been modified and degraded by introduced vegetation and grazing by feral stock<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. However, cattle have been eradicated, and goats and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>pigs are decreasing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. New roads and tunnels could result in habitat loss, facilitated access and considerable disturbance, although there is currently little traffic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Introduced rats (particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) are increasing and may constitute a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143710	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
143710	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al </em>in press <br/></p>	eng
143711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Geelvink Bay and scarce and local in West Papuan Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on small islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143713	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A national park was established in 1980, and has since been extended. Contingency plans are being developed to establish a captive population on mainland Australia. A control programme for <em>A.&#160;gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and has effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and future outbreaks will be treated. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Establish an insurance captive population of <em>D. whartoni</em>.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143713	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula whartoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>, in the Indian Ocean. Numbers have apparently fluctuated, and perhaps declined, between the time of the island's settlement in 1888 and the mid-1970s, but no hard data are available. In 1975, the population was estimated at 10-100 breeding pairs. The present total population is estimated at c.1,000 birds, and it is widespread and considered very common on the island. At the end of the 19th century, it was unsuccessfully introduced to Cocos-Keeling Islands (to Australia).<strong></strong></p>	eng
143713	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found mainly on the inland plateau in rainforest and, to some extent, in secondary regrowth dominated by the introduced Japanese cherry <em>Muntingia calabura</em>. It nests in the top of rainforest trees and other dense vegetation, and feeds on native and exotic fruits, as well as buds and leaves.</p>	eng
143713	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The breeding population has been estimated at c.1,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). However, it is widespread and considered very common on the island, and the total population probably exceeds this estimate by at least an order of magnitude (D. James<em> in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143713	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	About one third of the species's preferred plateau forest was cleared for phosphate mining before clearance ceased in 1987. This loss has been partly offset by the introduction of <em>M. calabura</em>, which flourishes on many former mine fields and other disturbed areas, and provides a rich food source for much of the year. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining, satellite launch pads and refugee transit stations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Illegal hunting continued after prohibition in 1977, but is now less prevalent. The failure of the introduction to Cocos-Keeling Islands has been attributed to hunting and/or lack of suitable food-trees. A possible threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha, but was controlled over about 2,900 ha in September 2002. Once controlled, the ants are not re-establishing supercolonies. If allowed to spread uncontrolled, ant super-colonies prey directly on nestlings, and alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, and by farming scale insects which damage the trees. <br/></p>	eng
143714	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula rosacea</em> is restricted to <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it occurs in four Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara; Timor and Wetar; Banda Sea Islands; Northern Maluku) and five Secondary Areas (Seribu Islands; Masalembu; Kangean; Salayar and Bonerate Islands; Tukangbesi Islands). It inhabits forest, scrub and farmland up to 600 m. Despite this wide range, the species appears to have become very rare at least in some areas, probably through a combination of habitat loss and hunting. <br/></p>	eng
143715	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> There are recent records from two protected areas: Baguan Island within the Turtle Islands Marine Natural Park (Philippines), and the Tungku Abdul Rahman National Park (off Sabah). The Karakelang Hunting Reserve (Talaud islands) may also offer some protection, but requires evaluation to define boundaries and management needs.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct comprehensive surveys of islands in the species's known range to clarify its current status, movements and ecological preferences. Assess the potential importance of the extensive mangroves along the east Kalimantan/Sabah coast through further surveys. Propose sites/islands supporting key populations for establishment as strict protected areas, as appropriate (e.g. Ursula). Devise and initiate conservation awareness campaigns to control hunting and curb deforestation on key islands.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143715	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula pickeringii</em> is known from c.20 small islands off Palawan, Mindanao and in the Sulu archipelago in the southern <strong>Philippines</strong>, c.13 small islands off the mainland coast of Sabah, <strong>Malaysia</strong> (north Borneo), and the Talaud islands off northern Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Early reports describe it as plentiful at several localities. There are recent (post-1980) records from just five islands in the Philippines (Baguan, Cadiao, Lagen, Tandubatu and Ursula), four islands off Sabah, and Karakelang island (Indonesia), with a maximum count of no more than 30 on the key island of Ursula (Philippines), indicating that its range and population have decreased significantly.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143715	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits a variety of lowland, primary forest-types, also frequenting secondary forest and cultivated areas with trees. Little is known about its movements. It is reportedly resident on some northern Bornean islands, but certainly moves between Philippine islands, and varied in abundance from 1995-1997 on Karakelang, Indonesia. Like other small-island specialists, it presumably wanders in search of food.</p>	eng
143715	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys in BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
143715	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat clearance and degradation are the primary threats, with native forest on small islands being replaced by palm plantations across much of its range. The species's large size and unwary disposition render it vulnerable to hunting whenever it comes into contact with human populations; birds are taken for food, pets and trade. Introduced mammalian and reptilian predators may cause birds to abandon some islands. <br/></p>	eng
143716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143718	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'rare' in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
143718	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
143719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143720	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143721	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> The effects of hunting pressure and the foraging behaviour of large pigeons has been studied briefly at Hauta. The forests around Hauta are part of an integrated conservation and development programme<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Community-based education programmes have started around Komarindi<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other areas of Guadalcanal and Malaita. Interview local hunters across the range. Monitor population trends around Hauta. Determine food source dependence. Investigate effects of logging and clearance for gardens on food source trees. Assess the effects of community-based education programmes. Develop hunting guidelines with local communities. Extend awareness programmes to coastal communities. <br/></p>	eng
143721	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula brenchleyi</em> is endemic to Guadalcanal, Malaita and Makira (=&#160;San Cristobal), including the satellite islands of Ulawa, Ugi (=&#160;Uki Ni Masi) and Three Sisters, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. On Guadalcanal, an expedition in 1953 failed to find it <strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and there are few recent records<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Hunters at Komarindi report shooting just one of this species for every 20 <em>D.&#160;rubricera<strong><sup>9</sup></strong></em>. On the little-studied island of Malaita, it is known from just one specimen and was seen twice in 1990<strong><sup>7,8,10</sup></strong>. On Makira, it was recorded as common from coastal to ridge forest in 1953<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent records include several of single birds and congregations of up to 20 birds around Hauta<strong><sup>2,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. On Ugi and Ulawa, it was recorded as abundant in 1953<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but there have been no recent records there or on the Three Sisters, and it may be extinct on these small islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143721	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually recorded in primary forest but also occurs in fruiting trees in degraded forest and gardens<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Recent records have been from sea-level to 700&#160;m, but it was reported by local villagers on Guadalcanal as occurring in mist-forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It appears to be nomadic<strong><sup>4,6,11</sup></strong>: at Hauta, birds congregate to feed on banyan figs for about a week until the fruit is finished and then disperse, often over large distances<strong><sup>3,6,11</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143721	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-10.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,100-11,000, but likely to be at lower end of this range in the light of the paucity of recent records, hence best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 23 estimates for ten congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143721	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This large pigeon is hunted by villagers around Hauta and elsewhere across its range. Forest is being degraded through logging activities and pressure on land for cultivation is a problem on the over-populated island of Malaita.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143722	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> It is protected by law and may be hunted only between 1 April and 30 June.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other islands within its range. Survey Santo to ascertain its distribution and abundance. Determine habitat and altitudinal requirements. Determine tolerance of logged forest. Assess hunting levels and population trends based on discussions with local hunters. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. Investigate hunting control measures through community discussion and awareness programmes. <br/></p>	eng
143722	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula bakeri</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, where it occurs on some of the larger northern islands: Ureparapara, Vanua Lava and Santa Maria (all in the Banks group), Espiritu Santo, Maewo, Aoba, Pentecost and Ambrym<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The only recent records are from Santo where it appears to be rather uncommon, with a maximum record of 10 birds heard in a day<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Most other islands were visited in the 1970s, but there were records from Aoba and Maewo only<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is rarely seen, but is reported to be very wary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and therefore numbers are difficult to assess. Although the population has been estimated as less than 10,000<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, in fact it may be very much less than this figure.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143722	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a locally nomadic frugivore. It appears to replace the more widespread <em>D.&#160;pacifica</em> in mid-mountain and montane forests<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. On Santo, it occurs above 300&#160;m but is much more common at higher altitudes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143722	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Toone <em>et al. </em>(1994). <br/></p>	eng
143722	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland forest is being extensively degraded by logging and for cattle-ranching, and a significant area of mid-montane forest has been cleared for cultivation, including kava <em>Piper methysticum</em>, for domestic and export markets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. As one of the largest edible birds on Vanuatu, it is a favoured hunting target for hill villagers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, its montane haunts and wary nature serve to lessen the impact of this threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143723	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula goliath</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It is a humid forest species, occurring throughout the island, and ranging to 1,500&#160;m. Recent studies have estimated much higher populations than previously surmised, with 1,500-7,000 for Parc Provincial Rivi&egrave;re Bleue depending on the season<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong> and 100,000 for the entire island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is described as common in both the north and south of the island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. As a nomadic species, it may require large areas of protected forest to survive but there is little threat to humid forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Hunting by indigenous Kanaks is in decline<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong> and recreational hunting is presently significant only in a few easily accessible forests. Although the overall population is considered safe, any relaxation of hunting laws would severely impact some populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in mountain areas (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare on some Islands (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143727	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widely distributed and often the commonest Ducula in its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although poorly known in Nepal and very rare in Java (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143730	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A protected area is currently being established that will encompass Gunung Mutis, and potentially Gunung Timau. Several other montane protected areas are proposed for West Timor and Wetar, although it is not known if these areas support the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining montane and monsoon-forest to establish the current distribution and population status of the species, its habitat requirements and altitudinal preferences, in order to develop an effective strategy for its conservation. Propose key sites for establishment as strict protected areas. Support the gazettement of protected areas at Gunung Mutis (including Gunung Timau) in West Timor and Gunung Arnau on Wetar, and implementation of management activities therein.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143730	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula cineracea</em> is endemic to the mountains of <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>,<strong> </strong>and<strong> </strong>West Timor and Wetar, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with recent reports from only four localities. It is locally common, but presumed to be declining as available habitat continues to shrink. Recent observations have revealed a stable population on Gunung Mutis in West Timor. Recently described as frequent in coffee plantations in the Ermera area of Timor-Leste, although little time has yet been spent surveying at appropriate altitudes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is no recent information from Wetar, but the existence of extensive forest there suggests that an important population may survive. <br/></p>	eng
143730	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is presumably resident, perhaps making local altitudinal movements, in montane forest and monsoon woodland between 600 m and 2,200&#160;m. It is reportedly common in native eucalyptus forest.</p>	eng
143730	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is at least locally common with a population of perhaps 1,000 individuals at one site with c.20 km2 of suitable habitat in East Timor (C. Trainor <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but there are recent records from just three localities and overall the population is precautionarily placed within the band 2,500-10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143730	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The mountains of Timor-Leste were heavily deforested early in the 20th century, but habitat destruction has recently accelerated: an estimated 50% decline in remaining forest-cover occurred during Indonesian rule (1975-1999). Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered around seven unprotected patches that are continually declining in size due to intensive grazing and burning. In addition, pigeons are apparently hunted extensively in Timor-Leste and West Timor, a factor that has presumably contributed to the decline of this species. <br/></p>	eng
143731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population in Australia is estimated to number 500,000 individuals (S. J. Garnett and G. C. L. Dutson in litt. 2008).	eng
143732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to seasonally or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143733	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ducula subflavescens</em> is endemic to New Britain, New Ireland, Manus and nearby small islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is locally common on New Britain in flocks of up to a few tens of birds but on New Ireland there are recent records only from the far south and there are only two recent records from Manus. It is a nomadic forest species, usually seen in lowland forest but recorded sporadically up to 900&#160;m on New Britain<strong><sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong>. It may have a requirement for coastal or lowland riverine forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and most records are from primary forest but it appears not to be threatened by hunting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most lowland forest and especially coastal forest in this species's range is threatened by logging but there are few data to assess the species's habitat requirements and hence population trends. <br/></p>	eng
143733	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
143735	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae</em> is a forest pigeon endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The nominate subspecies breeds on the North, South and Stewart Islands, and several offshore islands. It is in rapid decline in Northland - a 1993 survey indicated a 50% decline within 14 years<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Studies indicate that declines are occurring elsewhere<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>chathamensis</em> is only found in the Chatham Islands. Introduced predators are the primary cause of decline nationwide, in particular, brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em>, black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and cats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>T.&#160;vulpecula</em> and <em>R.&#160;rattus</em> also compete for fruit, reducing the number of breeding attempts, and possibly causing the starvation of adults<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Loss of forest habitat through burning and clearance for farmland, removal of firewood and browsing by herbivores is also a threat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds are illegally hunted for food, particularly in Northland, with perhaps hundreds being shot each year<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. In some small areas, intensive predator control has seen numbers undergo unprecedented increases, while work on the Chatham Islands has reversed the decline of <em>chathamensis</em>, from 40 individuals in the 1980s to c.200 in 1996<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common and seasonally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population on Buru is estimated as approximately 43,000 individuals (Gibbs et al. 2001). Since Buru represents a little under half the species global range, the species has been put in population band 50,000-99,000 indiciduals.	eng
143739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
143740	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The species is afforded some protection in Indonesia from commercial trade and domestic use<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There are single protected areas on all the West Papuan Islands of occurrence<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and three very large proposed nature reserves within its mainland Papuan range, but most are in the mountains<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. There is a captive-breeding programme in some zoos<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its current distribution and population status. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor populations in well-studied protected areas. Investigate hunting, and devise and implement appropriate controls. Investigate international and domestic trade, and devise and implement appropriate controls. Support formal designation of the proposed nature reserves on mainland Papua. Enforce protection in these protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143740	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Goura cristata</em> occurs in the West Papuan Islands (Misool, Waigeo, Salawati, Batanta), the Vogelkop and western Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), west of Geelvink and Etna Bays, <strong>Indonesia<sup>11</sup></strong>, and also on Seram, South Maluku<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>, where it was almost certainly introduced<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It was historically common<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> and remains locally fairly common at several sites on mainland Papua<strong><sup>8,9,15</sup></strong>, Salawati<strong><sup>7,9,15</sup></strong> and Seram<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>, but may be extinct on Batanta<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and has been extirpated from many sites on Papua<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143740	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits marshy and partly flooded forest, usually undisturbed alluvial forest, but also hill forest, dense secondary growth and mangroves, up to at least 350&#160;m<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Pairs incubate a single egg for a month, tend the nestling for a further month and continue to feed the fledgling for several months<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143740	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143740	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is heavily hunted for food and its plumes (although less than the two other <em>Goura</em> species because gun ownership is lower in Indonesia than Papua New Guinea)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is also subject to "significant" levels of trade, being a highly prized aviary bird<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Extensive logging concessions have been granted within its range and habitat has already been lost to substantial transmigration schemes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Logging roads and oil and mineral exploration also increase access to hunters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143741	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There is a captive-breeding programme in some zoos<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Education and research programmes are planned in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat between Astrolabe Bay and Collingwood Bay. Determine populations in study areas such as the Wapoga River. Assess hunting levels through discussion with local hunters. Investigate population trends through discussion with local hunters. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor numbers traded. Establish more wildlife protected areas in lowlands. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Launch public awareness programmes to reduce hunting. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism ventures. <br/></p>	eng
143741	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Goura victoria</em> occurs on Biak-Supiori (where it may have been introduced) and Yapen islands, and northern New Guinea from Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to Astrolabe Bay, and an isolated area around Collingwood Bay in easternmost <strong>Papua New Guinea<sup>1,6,8</sup></strong>. Its absence between Astrolabe Bay and Collingwood Bay may be natural or may indicate a historic extirpation<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. However, it remains locally common in some remote undisturbed areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143741	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is found in lowland forest, including swamp-forest, mostly in the extreme lowlands, but sometimes to 600&#160;m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds on the ground in small groups of 2-10 birds and roosts in trees. Captive birds start breeding from 15 months old, lay a single egg, and tend to the fledgling for some months after hatching<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143741	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143741	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is prized by hunters for meat and, to a lesser extent, for its feathers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nestlings are also taken to be reared for food<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Around populated areas, it has been hunted to local extirpation or survives only in forests many hours or days walk away from the nearest village<strong><sup>1,3,8</sup></strong>. It has become extirpated from the vicinity of some transmigration settlements in Papua where it had survived constant hunting from indigenous people<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Lowland forests, particularly on the flat terrain favoured by this species, are threatened by logging, and logging roads open up access to hunters<strong><sup>5,7,8</sup></strong>. Capture for trade may also be significant<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143742	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There is a captive-breeding programme in some zoos<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Education and research programmes are planned in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey western extreme of range. Determine populations in study areas such as Lakekamu and Kikori Basins. Assess hunting levels through discussion with local hunters. Investigate population trends through discussion with local hunters. Ascertain tolerance of logged forest. Monitor numbers traded. Monitor population in study areas. Establish more community-based conservation areas in lowlands. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Launch public awareness programmes to reduce hunting. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism ventures. <br/></p>	eng
143742	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Goura scheepmakeri</em> occurs in the southern lowlands of New Guinea, (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has not been recorded west of Etna Bay and is absent from much, if not all, of southern Trans-Fly<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> but ranges to the far east of New Guinea at Orangerie Bay<strong><sup>2,7,9</sup></strong>. Although it is rare or extirpated around most villages, it is still locally common in remote regions of Papua and Western and Gulf Provinces in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>3,5,6,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143742	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits undisturbed dry and flooded forest, often alluvial, in the lowlands to 500&#160;m <strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It feeds on the ground in small flocks of 2-10 birds (historically up to 30 birds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>) and roosts in trees. Captive birds start breeding from 15 months old, lay a single egg, and tend to the fledgling for some months after hatching<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143742	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Toone et al. (1994) <br/></p>	eng
143742	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This large species is prized by hunters for meat and, to a lesser extent, for its feathers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been hunted to extinction throughout much of its range in the south-east<strong><sup>7,10,12</sup></strong>, elsewhere it survives only in forests many hours or days walk away from the nearest village<strong><sup>1,2,9,13</sup></strong>. It has become extirpated from the vicinity of some transmigration settlements in Papua where it had survived constant hunting from indigenous people<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Lowland forests, particularly on the flat terrain favoured by this species, are threatened by logging, and although its tolerance of logged forest is poorly known, logging roads open up access to hunters<strong><sup>6,8,9</sup></strong>, as does oil and gas exploration in Papua<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Capture for trade may also be significant<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143743	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is fully protected by law and hunting is banned. It occurs in some proposed and a few existing protected areas, but these have suffered cyclone damage and the O Le Pupu Pu`e National Park on `Upolu is threatened by logging and cattle-farming<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has recently been chosen as a flagship species to promote conservation awareness.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Extend the hunting ban to cover all native columbids to avoid "mistaken" shooting<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution and population numbers<sup>6,9,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Gather further information on its life-history and habitat requirements<sup>6,9,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate threats<sup>9,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify important sites, set up a network of long-term monitoring stations, and establish conservation areas/nature reserves, e.g. on the four small islands off the east coast of `Upolu including Nu`utele (Aleipata)<sup>6,9,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Increase local involvement in its study and conservation<sup>9,11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143743	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Didunculus strigirostris</em> is endemic to <strong>Samoa</strong>, where its total population was estimated at 4,800-7,200 birds in the mid-1980s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the 1990s the population showed a drastic decline owing to the effects of cyclones such that, in 2000, fewer than 2,500 mature individuals were believed to survive. In 1999 and 2000, surveys on Savai`i showed that it had become rare with pairs scattered in suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is concern that these small, increasingly fragmented subpopulations may not be viable<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143743	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in primary forest from sea-level to 1,600&#160;m, also occurring in forest edge, along forest roads and sometimes visiting clearings where native trees remain<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong>. It is specialised to feed on the seeds of <em>Dysoxylum</em> spp. (using its unusual bill to saw through the tough, fibrous pericarp), also feeding on other fleshy fruit<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is probably two<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143743	population	BirdLife International, 2008	U. Beichle <em>in litt. </em>(2000). <br/></p>	eng
143743	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by deforestation for agriculture particularly combined with the severe effects of cyclones, e.g. in 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27%<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Forest quality is further reduced by the subsequent invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Hunting is also a further threat, e.g. in 1985, 400 birds were being shot every year<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although hunting is now illegal, birds are still shot in the seasonal harvest of unprotected pigeon species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143745	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tetrax tetrax</em> has two widely separated breeding populations. In its eastern range it occurs in <strong>Russia</strong> (9,000 displaying males), <strong>Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan</strong> (c.20,000 individuals), <strong>Ukraine</strong> (100-110 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), north-west <strong>China</strong>, northern <strong>Iran</strong> and <strong>Turkey</strong> (20-100 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). Its western range covers <strong>Spain</strong> (100,000-200,000 displaying males) and <strong>Portugal</strong> (20,000 individuals), with smaller populations in <strong>Italy</strong> (1,500-2,200 individuals), <strong>France</strong> (1,087-1,256 displaying males<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and possibly <strong>Morocco</strong>. The global population (excluding Kazakhstan) is estimated at a minimum of 240,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Whilst it remains widespread and numerous, in some parts of its range it has declined dramatically since the 19th century, leading to extinction in 11 European countries, Algeria, Tunisia and probably Azerbaijan. It inhabits dry grassland and, in Europe, it also occurs in areas of low-intensity arable cultivation and pastoral land, selecting areas with a high diversity of ground cover such as mosaics of pasture, long-rotation fallow land and legume crops. The primary cause of its decline has been conversion of dry grassland and low-intensity cultivation to intensive arable agriculture, especially where this has included the planting of monocultures, irrigation or afforestation. This continues to be the primary threat and cause of continuing declines. It also suffers from illegal hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A European action plan will be published in 2000. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143745	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population (excluding c.20,000 individuals in Kazakhstan) has been estimated at a minimum of c.240,000 individuals (C. Mart&iacute;nez <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <br/></p>	eng
143746	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Portugal, Romania (females only), Russia, Slovakia, Spain and Ukraine. A European action plan was published in 1996 and an action plan for east Asian populations in 1998. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research limiting factors. Protect and manage breeding areas. Ensure the availability of winter habitat. Upgrade existing and establish new protected areas in east Asia. Implement agri-environment measures for low-intensity farming. Prevent steppe fires, illegal hunting and collision with power-lines. Raise public awareness.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143746	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otis tarda</em> breeds in <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Portugal</strong> (1,435 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Spain</strong> (23,055 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Austria</strong>, <strong>Germany</strong>, <strong>Slovakia</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong> (1,100-1,300 birds), <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Romania </strong>(nearly extirpated), <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong> (800-3,000 birds), <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong> (8,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong> (1,000 birds), and <strong>China</strong> (2,250-3,300 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). The population may number 31,000-37,000 individuals of which 4,200-4,500 occur in east Asia. Its Palearctic range is becoming increasingly disjunct and there have been rapid declines throughout eastern and central Europe and in parts of Asia, particularly Kazakhstan and Mongolia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Most populations are resident or partially migratory, but 8,000-10,000 birds occur on passage or in winter in Ukraine<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143746	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in steppe, secondary and pasture grassland and open, non-intensive agricultural land. Areas with little or no disturbance are required if breeding is to be successful<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143746	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Alonso et al. in prep. (Proyecto Avutarda) <br/></p>	eng
143746	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Key threats are increased human disturbance and the potential for agricultural intensification following land privatisation in eastern Europe<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and the former Soviet Union, and agricultural intensification in China<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Habitat loss continues as a result of ploughing of grasslands, intensive grazing, afforestation and increasing development of irrigation schemes, roads, power-lines, fencing and ditches. Mechanisation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, fire and predation all contribute to high mortality in eggs, chicks and juveniles. Hunting is a major threat in Ukraine<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and China<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143747	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neotis denhami</em> occurs in southern <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire,</strong> <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Eritrea, Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong> (a stronghold), <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, the extreme southern tip of <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Lesotho</strong> and <strong>Swaziland</strong>. It is found in wooded and open savanna, plus flood-plains and farmland, and feeds on insects, small vertebrates and plant material<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Although very widely distributed, it has suffered population declines through much, if not all, of its range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The Rift Valley in Kenya was formerly regarded as its stronghold, but there are now probably fewer than 300 in all of Kenya<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting is the primary cause of declines across the Sahel<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and throughout west Africa<strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. In eastern and southern Africa, hunting is also a problem<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but the main threat appears to be conversion of grassland and light woodland to agriculture<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143748	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Mitigation measures for power line collisions consisting of visual deterrents have been implemented in South Africa by energy supplier Eskom, but have as of yet proved unsuccessful. There is however anecdotal evidence that there has been some success with new variations of migitation measures at certain sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Namibia, NamPower are also working to implement effective mitigation measures<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Obtain an updated population estimate<sup>5</sup></strong> <strong>Measure bustard collision rates across the whole range of Karoo habitats<sup>5</sup>. </strong>Improve knowledge of annual movements<sup>5</sup>. Improve knowledge of how the species visually perceives power lines<sup>5</sup>.	eng
143748	distribution		<em>Neotis ludwigii</em> has a large range centred on the dry biomes of the Karoo and Namib in southern Africa, being found in the extreme south-west of <strong>Angola</strong>, western <strong>Namibia</strong> and in much of <strong>South Africa<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The global population has been previously estimated at 56,000 to 81,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, this estimate is now approximately 20 years old, and in this time the species is suspected to have declined rapidly as a result of collisions with overhead power lines, for which there is currently no effective mitigation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.	eng
143748	habitat		This species inhabits open lowland and upland plains with grass and light thornbush, sandy open shrub veld and semi-desert in the arid and semi-arid Namib and Karoo biomes. The breeding season spans from August to December, nesting on bare ground with a clutch of 2-3 eggs<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Chick-rearing is conducted solely by females<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its diet includes invertebrates, some small vertebrates and vegetable matter, including the berries of <em>Lycium oxycladum</em>. There is strong evidence that the species undergoes movement with rains in pursuit of <em>Orthoptera</em> hatchlings, though vegetation remains important. Flocks of up to 70 individuals have been recorded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
143748	population		The global population has been estimated at 56,000-81,000 individuals (Allan 1994). However, given the estimated rates of power line collisions since this estimate, the true population size is likely to be much lower, and a full population census is needed to accurately establish current numbers.	eng
143749	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neotis nuba</em> has a disjunct range across the Sahelian and, marginally, Saharan zones of Africa. The western subspecies <em>N. n. agaze</em> has populations in <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Mali, Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, western <strong>Chad</strong> and the eastern subspecies <em>N. n. nuba</em> has a single population in eastern Chad and <strong>Sudan</strong><sup>2</sup>. <em>N. n. agaze</em> was formerly common in Mali and is still widespread in Mauritania, while <em>N. n. nuba</em> is described as rare and little known in Sudan<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It occupies desert fringes, semi-arid scrub and savanna where it feeds on large insects, as well as grass seeds, leaves and fruits<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is little information on the current status of this species or its population trends. However, it apparently suffers from widespread hunting, which may now be causing substantial declines in parts of its range<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Civil war in Chad in the 1980s, and currently in Sudan, is likely to have increased hunting pressure because of the number of weapons available. Other threats to <em>N. nuba</em> may include intensification of land use, disturbance by off-road vehicles, overgrazing, disturbance by livestock, firewood collection and commercial wood collection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in northern Kenya and northern Somalia, uncommon in most of Ethiopia and rare in Eritrea (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in very poorly documented areas, so might still be common in many places (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still common where undisturbed (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143753	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. In India, it is legally protected and there are severe penalties for killing an individual. It has been the focus of several publicity initiatives aimed at reducing poaching. Since 1981, extensive fieldwork has investigated its status, distribution and ecology, and a detailed conservation strategy has been published. Numerous protected areas have been specifically established for the species, some successfully, and populations occur in several others. Rehabilitation of grasslands has also benefited it in some areas.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Investigate seasonal patterns of migration, habitat choice, and breeding, perhaps using satellite tracking. Continue to survey all states within its range to clarify its current distribution and monitor population trends. Establish new protected areas at key sites. Revise the design and management of bustard sanctuaries, maintaining core areas and promoting traditional agricultural practices in buffer zones. Campaign for realignment of the Indira Ghandi Nahar Canal Project in Rajasthan. Devise and promote a conservation strategy for Indian bustards. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143753	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ardeotis nigriceps</em> occurs in Rajasthan (c.500 birds), with smaller populations (<100 birds) in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, and <20 in each of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka, <strong>India</strong>. It is thought to have completely disappeared from the states of Haryana, Punjab, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, India, but some may survive in Sind, <strong>Pakistan</strong>. Its population may be lower than 1,000 individuals, although accurate estimation is hampered by poorly-understood seasonal movements.  <br/></p>	eng
143753	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits arid and semi-arid grasslands with scattered low scrub, bushes and cultivation in flat or gently undulating terrain. Breeding can occur at any time of year if conditions permit and usually coincides with the beginning of the rains. It probably makes local (and possibly long distance) nomadic movements in response to various factors.</p>	eng
143753	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rahmani (2001) <br/></p>	eng
143753	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread hunting for sport and food precipitated its decline, accelerated by vehicular access to remote areas. Some poaching continues. Current key threats are habitat loss, modification and fragmentation as a result of widespread agricultural development and land-use change, particularly conversion of large areas to intensive crop cultivation, irrigation schemes, increased pesticide usage and livestock-grazing, and high levels of disturbance. Inappropriate protected area management and increasing instances of nest-trampling are further problems.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143754	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A study is currently under way to determine causes of decline in northern Australia. Non-traditional hunting is banned in all Australian states and territories. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate vehicle-based bustard counts, such as those that have been conducted for raptors, and relate counts to land use. Assess data available from annual kangaroo counts to give information on numbers in remote areas. Monitor bustard numbers (possibly using technique in 11.1 and 11.2) and model in relation to regional rainfall. Initiate studies of factors affecting bustard breeding success. Quantify traditional hunting pressure and work towards regulation of take as necessary. <br/></p>	eng
143754	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Adeotis australis </em>occurs across continental <strong>Australia</strong> and occasionally in southern <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>and Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. In Australia, the population is thought to number at least 100,000 birds, with the majority occurring in northern Australia. It is rarely recorded on the plains of south-west Papua New Guinea. It has all but disappeared from south-eastern Australia, and is less abundant elsewhere, particularly south of the tropics, but also across northern Australia, where it may be less common in areas invaded by woody weeds. It may be more abundant in parts of northern Australia in response to recent clearing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but this effect dissipates as agriculture intensifies. Local population size varies strongly with rainfall making assessment of trends difficult. Its widespread decline has probably been caused by a combination of intensive agriculture, invasion of pastoral land by woody weeds, hunting and fox predation<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It readily deserts nests in response to disturbance by humans, sheep or cattle<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pesticides, either directly or indirectly ingested, are also held responsible for local extinctions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The area where it has declined corresponds with the distribution of foxes in Australia, a distribution that is slowly expanding north. Traditional and illegal hunting by people is also considerable and may be contributing to the perceived decline in northern and central Australia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143754	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits grassland, including tussock grassland, <em>Triodia</em> hummock grassland, grassy woodland, low shrublands, and structurally similar artificial habitats, such as croplands and golf-courses. It will also use denser vegetation, when this has been temporarily opened up by recent burning. It lays one, or occasionally two, eggs on the ground, where possible along a boundary between open grasslands and more protective shrubland or woodlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143754	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at under 100,000 individuals (S. Garnett<em> in litt</em>. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
143754	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its widespread decline has probably been caused by a combination of intensive agriculture, invasion of pastoral land by woody weeds, hunting and fox predation<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It readily deserts nests in response to disturbance by humans, sheep or cattle<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pesticides, either directly or indirectly ingested, are also held responsible for local extinctions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The area where it has declined corresponds with the distribution of foxes in Australia, a distribution that is slowly expanding north. Traditional and illegal hunting by people is also considerable and may be contributing to the perceived decline in northern and central Australia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143755	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>For the race <em>fuertaventurae</em>: improved protection from poaching, reduction of grazing (agricultural decline) and habitat management within protected areas<sup>7,8,9</sup>. For the race <em>undulata</em>: no specific measures directly conserving the species are known. For the race <em>macqueenii</em>: studies of the status, ecology and migration of the species in various parts of its range, notably Kazakhstan<sup>2,3,4,6,11</sup>. Captive breeding schemes have been established which are intended in part as quarry substitutes for wild birds, and also for certain restocking initiatives in Arabia<sup>6</sup>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Produce a range-wide action and recovery plan, based on agreement under the Convention on Migratory Species.  Monitor and reduce hunting pressure throughout range.  Establish robust, workable systems for the sustainability of hunting throughout range.  Create hunting preserves and other types of managed protected areas.  Reduce grazing and other farming pressures<sup>2,4,5,6</sup>. For the race <em>fuertaventurae</em>:  Designate new and expand existing Special Protected Areas under European law.  Increase wardening of key areas.  Ensure safe powerline positions;  Conduct rigorous census every five years.  Continue conservation-related biological research.  Undertake local awareness campaigns<sup>7,8,9</sup>.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143755	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlamydotis undulata</em> occurs in a wide range across North Africa, the Middle East and western Asia, in three subspecies. Race <em>fuertaventurae</em> is confined to the Eastern Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. Race <em>undulata</em> occupies North African countries as follows: northernmost <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Western Sahara</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong> and <strong>Egypt</strong> west of the Nile with old records from <strong>Sudan</strong>. Race <em>macqueenii</em> extends from Egypt east of the Nile through <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Lebanon</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Yemen</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>UAE</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong>, <strong>Kuwait</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Russian Federation</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong> to <strong>China</strong>, with unconfirmed reports from Azerbaijan and Turkey<sup>1,5</sup>. The population of race <em>fuertaventurae</em> in the mid-1990s was 527, with 18 on La Graciosa, 268 on Lanzarote and 241 on Fuerteventura, but some decline since then, measured as disappearance from known localities and therefore not quantified, is believed to have occurred; an apparently independent assessment put the total population at 700-750 but also indicated a probable decline<sup>7,8,9</sup>. The population of nominate <em>undulata</em> in the mid-1990s was estimated to be at least 9,800 individuals, of which over 50% were in Algeria, 30% in Morocco and 10% in Libya<sup>5</sup>. In recent discussions, however, a reliable estimate for the number of Houbara in North Africa has not been considered achievable (without huge confidence limits). Instead, it has been roughly estimated that the region holds around 30% of all Houbaras on earth, and that the decline in the past 20 years has been in the order of 25%<sup>6</sup>. The population of race <em>macqueenii</em> in the mid-1990s was estimated to be in the range 39,000-52,000, of which over 75% were in Kazakhstan and 15% in Uzbekistan<sup>5</sup>. In recent discussions, however, a reliable estimate for the number of Houbara in the Middle East and Central Asia has not been considered achievable (without huge confidence limits). Instead, the region has been broken into two, "West Asia"-Arabian Peninsula to Pakistan and Uzbekistan-with around 20% and "East Asia"-Kazakhstan to China)-with around 50% of all Houbaras on earth, and that the decline in the past 20 years has been in the order of 25% in "West Asia" and 40-50% in East Asia<sup>6</sup>. If 50% (30% North Africa + 20% West Asia) of the species has declined by 25%, and the remaining 50% by 40-50%, the global population has declined by c.35% over the last 20 years. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143755	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	All subspecies inhabit sandy and stony semi-desert and are specialised to existence in arid conditions where trees are absent and both shrub cover and herb layer are sparse<sup>1,5,7,10</sup>. It is not known what habitat preferences exist within the spectrum of arid environments used by the species, but birds are stimulated to breed by grass growth where local rains have fallen, and therefore probably actively select more rather than less vegetated areas<sup>10</sup>. They feed on invertebrates, small vertebrates and green shoots, and typically lay 2-4 eggs in a scrape on the ground<sup>10</sup>. Eggs and young are vulnerable to ground predators, but breeding success is unquantified<sup>10</sup>. North African and Arabian populations may be sedentary or partially migratory, moving relatively short distances to find recent plant growth; populations from Turkmenistan east to China are migratory, and winter in large numbers in India, Pakistan, Iran and parts of the Middle East<sup>10</sup>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143755	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Goriup (1997)  <br/></p>	eng
143755	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat is from overhunting by Middle East falconers, largely but not exclusively on the species's wintering grounds, Habitat loss and degradation  compound this problem<sup>2,3,5,10</sup>. The race  <em>fuertaventurae</em> is threatened by habitat degradation caused by tourist facilities, off-road vehicles, military exercises, overgrazing, sand extraction, powerlines and road development, and possibly also nest predation by introduced mammals and illegal hunting<sup>7,8,9</sup>.  <br/></p>	eng
143756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. There is Little information available about the species but it is reportedly fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its range except in Sudan where it is generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. There is no detailed information available but this species is apparently common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common and common in coastal Angola (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eupodotis humilis</em> is known only from north and west-central <strong>Somalia</strong> and adjacent areas of eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong> which it apparently colonised in the 1970s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Somalia, it has been considered as "common south to 7&#176;N" and scarcer beyond to 4&#176;N<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Ethiopia, it was not uncommon in the Lower Wabi Shebelle and Warder region from 1969 to 1976<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but was not recorded during field surveys in this region during 1995-1996. It favours light, open thornbush and occasionally also adjacent tussocky plains where it feeds on insects, small reptiles and seeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The breeding season extends from April to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is placed on sandy soil, usually without a scrape<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Clutch size is normally two, but three eggs are also recorded<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Droughts and war in the heart of the species's range during the 1970s and 1980s may have disrupted breeding and caused a sharp population decline. The continuing presence of refugee camps on both sides of the Ethiopia-Somalia border, and of an armed population, is likely to have caused at least local extinctions through the combined effects of hunting, cultivation, firewood collection and overgrazing. Although this species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Las Anod-Taleh-El Chebet, Gaan Libaax, El Hammure)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, it cannot be considered secure. Research and monitoring of populations are urgently required<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143764	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143765	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eupodotis caerulescens</em> is virtually endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, extending only marginally into western <strong>Lesotho</strong>. The total South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, but this may be an underestimate as the population in the former Transvaal alone has been estimated to exceed 10,000 individuals, with between 1,000 and 3,000 in the proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom. It inhabits open, fairly short grassland and a mixture of grassland and karoo dwarf-shrubland, where it feeds on insects, scorpions, small lizards and vegetable matter. It apparently benefits from small-scale agriculture, as it regularly forages in crop fields and planted pastures. It does not appear to have decreased in the west of its range, but seems certain to have decreased to some extent in the east owing to dense human settlement and large-scale agriculture. Habitat loss looks set to continue throughout its range and its populations should thus be carefully monitored<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in at least 15 nature reserves in South Africa but these sites may protect only 100-500 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143767	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Kenya and Sudan, rare and local at the edge of its range in Somalia, and uncommon in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143768	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. Several populations occur within protected areas, the most important being Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and Dudwa National Parks, India. In South-East Asia a tiny population may still remain at Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam, and another at Ang Trapeang Thmor Sarus Crane Conservation Area, Cambodia. A PhD research project investigating movements and habitat requirements in the non-breeding season began in 2007 and a number of birds have been fitted with satellite or radio transmitters<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The Wildlife Conservation Society, BirdLife International and their government partners are currently engaged in a programme of conservation activities in the Tonle Sap floodplain of Cambodia, aimed at reducing habitat loss and hunting pressure on the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent achievements include the designation of over 350 km<sup>2</sup> of Bengal Florican habitat as 'Integrated Farming and Biodiversity Areas' (IFBAs)<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. In total, seven IFBAs have been created, although one was removed from the network by the Kampong Thom IFBA provincial commitee. Work is on-going to establish effective management structures for these areas and build constituencies of support for their conservation among local stakeholders. Official patrol teams are now operating in Kampong Thom and Siem Reap IFBAs, and a monthly patrol reporting system is now in place. An in-depth socio-economic study has been conducted by the <em>Centre d'Etude et de D&eacute;veloppement Agricole Cambodgien</em>. The report highlights the economic benefits local communities derive through the traditional use of grasslands and will be used to build support among key decision makers and local communities. An IFBA awareness programme covering 71 villages and over 3,200 people has been conducted. A series of meetings has been held explaining IFBAs, the Provincial Declaration (<em>Deika</em>), and other relevant laws, such as the Land, Forest and Fisheries laws. Over fifteen thousand exercise books containing information on the Bengal Florican and IFBAs were distributed to children and adults. Training in selected villages was conducted to improve agricultural systems and reduce the immediate pressure on IFBAs from people wanting to convert grasslands into agriculture<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. These activities appear to be having some early success in arresting the rapid decline of the species in Cambodia, but their long-term outcome remains to be seen.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conducted research on Bengal Florican breeding productivity and habitat utilisation. Continue to develop monitoring protocols for florican densities, habitat extent and human use in IFBAs. Introduce a IFBA and protected area management regime, including appropriate rotational burning, grazing and cutting. Advocate support for IFBA conservation and promote grassland conservation awareness initiatives in all range countries. Continue surveys for populations, particularly in Banteay Meanchey, Battambang and Pursat provinces, Cambodia, and Koshi Tappu and Koshi Barrage Wildlife Reserves, Nepal<sup>6</sup>. Monitor known populations. Extend, upgrade and link protected areas in India and Nepal, and establish new ones. Devise and promote a conservation strategy for all bustards in India.</strong>	eng
143768	distribution		This species has two disjunct populations, one in the Indian Subcontinent, the other in South-East Asia. The former occurs from Uttar Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, through the terai of <strong>Nepal</strong>, to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India, and historically to Bangladesh. It has declined dramatically and only survives in small, highly fragmented populations. Declines have apparently continued in Nepal, even inside the protected Royal Chitwan National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but they may have stabilised in India<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A 2007 estimate put the Nepalese population at just 28-36 mature individuals (restricted to a few widespread sites)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, down from 32-60 individuals in 2001<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The South-East Asian population occurs in <strong>Cambodia</strong> and may be extant in southern <strong>Vietnam</strong>.<strong> </strong>The population in the Tonle Sap region, an area which is likely to contain the vast majority of the population of Cambodia, has been estimated at between 666 and 1,004 birds (95% CI range based on surveys 2006-2007), with perhaps as few as 294 adult males remaining<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. More than 50% of this estimated population occurs on seasonally inundated grasslands within Kompong Thom province<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This estimate, based on available habitat in 2005, represents a rapid decline, owing to habitat loss, from a projected 3,000 individuals in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Given accelerating post-2005 grassland loss of 28% within 10 grassland blocks holding >75% of the estimated population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and a further 11% of habitat lost in four areas in 2008<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, projected rates of decline will equate to over 80% during a three generation period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Were this decline to continue unchecked it is conceivable that the species may be extinct in the country by 2012<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
143768	habitat		It inhabits lowland dry, or seasonally inundated, natural and semi-natural grasslands, often interspersed with scattered scrub or patchy open forest. Most Indian populations appear to be resident. In Cambodia it is known to make relatively local seasonal movements, in response to the flooding regime of the Tonle Sap lake: in the dry season, the species breeds in grasslands in the inundation zone of the lake; it then moves to nearby open forest areas during the wet season. During the breeding season males preferentially select habitats related to low-intensity human activity, chiefly burned grassland, whereas females select unburned grassland but also use unburned, uncultivated grassland in dry-season rice head-ponds<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
143768	population		The population in Cambodia is estimated at c.600 individuals in 2007 (T. Evans <em>et al. in litt.</em> 2009), with just 32-60 individuals left in Nepal. No recent estimates are known from India but the total global population for this species is likely to fall in the range 250-999 individuals.	eng
143769	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. In 1983, Rajasthan declared a ban on hunting this species, effective for 10 years, and local people were employed in a scheme to prevent hunting in Madhya Pradesh. In 1994, a conservation strategy was published, which proposed management recommendations for fodder-producing grasslands and increased protection for natural grasslands. In 1996, several sites in Rajasthan were identified for intensive conservation action.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor population size and trends. Identify a network of grassland habitats supporting populations for establishment as strict protected areas. Implement proposals to ensure sustainable use of fodder-producing grasslands. Promote local participation in grassland restoration and continue to employ local people as guardians of floricans and their habitats. Devise and promote a conservation strategy for Indian bustards.</strong></p>	eng
143769	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sypheotides indicus</em> breeds in <strong>India</strong> in Gujarat, south-east Rajasthan, north-west Maharashtra and western Madhya Pradesh, with some dispersal to south-east India in the non-breeding season. It is a rare summer visitor to the terai of <strong>Nepal</strong>. Formerly widespread and common, it has been declining since at least the 1870s. From 1982-1989, its population declined by nearly 60% (4,374-1,672 birds). However, by 1994, it had increased by 32% to 2,206 birds. These population fluctuations are directly correlated with breeding season rainfall patterns. They indicate that it is susceptible to extinction in the event of severe, prolonged drought. <br/></p>	eng
143769	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in productive lowland (below 250&#160;m) and dry grassland, particularly dominated by <em>Sehima nervosum</em> and <em>Chrysopogon fulvus</em>, with scattered bushes and scrub. It has also been recorded in cotton and millet crops. Non-breeding season movements are poorly understood.</p>	eng
143769	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Sankaran (1994b, 1995c) <br/></p>	eng
143769	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Severe hunting pressure, particularly of males for sport and also food, precipitated its decline. More recently, declines have been caused by rapid reductions in the area of grassland owing to conversion for agriculture and overgrazing. In addition, the rapid spread of the non-native <em>Prosopis glandulosa</em> threatens habitat quality. Over the last two decades, unreliable monsoon rains have caused significant population fluctuations.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143770	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Listing under Appendix I has been pursued in the past<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend, distribution and threats, and to draft an action plan for the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This may help to identify key breeding areas which can be protected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns.	eng
143770	distribution		<em>Balearica pavonina</em> occurs in disjunct sub-populations through the <strong>Sahel</strong> and <strong>Sudan-Guinea savanna</strong> zones of Africa, with records from as far south as the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, but was once more numerous and widespread. The western sub-population (<em>B. p. pavonina</em>) was estimated to number 15,000-20,000 birds in 1985 and c.15,000 birds in 2004, suggesting that an alarming rate of decline reported in the 1960s and 1970s may have slowed in recent years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The status of the eastern sub-population (<em>B. p. ceciliae</em>) is less well-known, though it appears to have declined from 65,000-90,000 individuals in 1985 and 65,000-77,500 individuals in 1994 to 28,000-55,000 individuals in 2004 (with at least 80% in <strong>Sudan</strong>)<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. Records also indicate a range contraction in both sub-populations<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
143770	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is largely a resident, but undergoes local daily and seasonal movements of up to several dozen kilometres<strong><sup>2, 3, 6</sup></strong>. It breeds during the wet season months of May to December in West Africa, and July to January in East Africa (subject to local seasonal variation)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, nesting in single pairs in territories 0.5-1 square kilometres<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. During the dry (non-breeding) season it is more congregatory, forming large flocks of up to several hundred individuals<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. In southern Sudan it begins to flock along the Nile in November, reaching a peak in late February and March<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Chad it gathers in concentrations after breeding, and then moves south<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Nigeria it is subject to local movements with seasonal changes in water levels<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It forages singly, in pairs or in small groups<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>This species is found in wet and dry open habitats, but prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, and the peripheries of water-bodies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Sudan it is especially found in areas with water up to 1m in depth, and knee-high to hip-high vegetation dominated by <em>Cyperus, Eleocharis, Scirpus, Setaria, Cynodon </em>and various leguminous and rosaceous plants<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It always remains near wetlands, but is rarely associated with deep, open water<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It often prefers to forage on dry ground with short grass<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and, particularly in West Africa, it will sometimes forage and nest in upland areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, rice fields, wet crop fields and even abandoned fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It prefers to roost in large trees, but will use small trees or shallow water when necessary<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> during the non-breeding season it congregates in larger permanent wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and often forages near herds of domestic livestock<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong> or even in rubbish dumps<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>This species is a generalist omnivore<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Its primary food source is small grain crops (45%)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, with small plants, small invertebrates and small vertebrates also featuring in the diet<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It will take insects (grasshoppers, flies), molluscs, millipedes, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, seed heads, grass tips and agricultural grain (corn, rice, millet)<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>.<strong>Breeding site </strong>Nests are built on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in densely vegetated wetlands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The nest consists of a round, loosely constructed platform of reeds and grasses placed in short grass marsh in several centimetres of water, or occasionally on dry land<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Its base is often over a metre in diameter<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is c.2.5 eggs per nest	eng
143770	population		The western sub-population (<em>B. p. pavonina</em>) was estimated at c.15,000 birds in 2004, and the eastern sub-population (<em>B. p. ceciliae</em>) is less well-known, though estimated at 28,000-55,000 individuals in the same year (Beilfuss <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
143771	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Community-based wetland conservation projects have been undertaken in Kenya. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143771	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Balearica regulorum</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa, with <em>B. r. gibbericeps </em>occurring from the <strong>Democratic Republic of the Congo</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and <strong>Kenya </strong>south through <strong>Tanzania</strong> to <strong>Mozambique</strong>, and nominate race <em>B. r. regulorum </em>found from Mozambique south through <strong>Zimbabwe </strong>to <strong>South Africa </strong>and west in small numbers to <strong>Namibia </strong>and <strong>Angola</strong>. Populations in many areas including Kenya and Uganda have experienced rapid declines<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but other populations appear to be stable or increasing (South Africa and Zimbabwe)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The largest remaining populations are believed to be in Kenya (17,000-20,000 individuals in 2004), Uganda (13,000-20,000 individuals), the Democratic Republic of Congo (perhaps 5,000 birds), and South Africa (4,000-5,000 birds)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
143771	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratory although it may make variable local and seasonal movements depending on the abundance and distribution of food, nest-sites and rainfall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies in relation to the rains, with the breeding of East African populations peaking during dry periods, but with the breeding of populations in the drier parts of southern Africa peaking during wet periods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary territorial pairs<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> but often flocks together<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and roosts communally at night<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in groups of up to 20-200 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> during dry periods in the drier part of its range (e.g. Namibia and South Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The abundance and distribution of food and suitable nesting sites are the key ecological factors determining the size of the home range of this species and the extent of local and seasonal population movements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits wetlands such as marshes, pans and dams with tall emergent vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, riverbanks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, open riverine woodland, shallowly flooded plains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and temporary pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with adjacent grasslands, open savannas, croplands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, pastures, fallow fields and irrigated areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for short to medium height open grasslands adjacent to wetlands for foraging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and breeds within or at the edges of wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> especially in marshes with water 1 m deep and with emergent vegetation 1 m above the water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It roosts in water along rivers or in marshes, or perches on nearby trees<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is a generalist, its diet consisting of seed heads (e.g. of sedges <em>Cyperus</em> spp.), new tips of grasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, agricultural pulses, nuts and grain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, insects (Orthoptera, larval Lepidoptera), frogs, lizards and crabs <em>Potamon</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a circular platform of uprooted grasses and sedges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> concealed in tall emergent vegetation (greater than 1 m in height)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> in or along the margins of wetlands such as marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with water c.1 m deep<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species may also rarely nest in trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Beilfuss <em>et al. </em>(2007). <br/><p></p>	eng
143771	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of wetland breeding areas through drought-related changes in land-use, drainage and overgrazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. uncontrolled cattle grazing)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, as well as through the heavy use of agricultural pesticides<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, declines in fallowing practices, high sedimentation rates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (due to deforestation)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, uncontrolled grass and deep litter fires in the breeding season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and dam construction<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> (for hydroelectric power generation)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and groundwater extraction leading to changes in hydrological regimes<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> (e.g. unseasonal flooding)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by live-trapping (for trade), egg-collecting and hunting<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, and by indirect disturbance from the hunting of large mammals or ducks in wetlands and the activities of fisheries<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also persecuted in some areas (e.g. southern Africa) due to its use of agricultural land for foraging<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143772	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in all range states. Range states have signed a Memorandum of Understanding to help protect key wetland sites and the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Crane Foundation launched the Siberian Crane GEF Project in 2003 to promote, develop and implement the conservation of key flyway wetlands across Asia for this species<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Researchers monitoring breeding sites in the remote Yakutia region aim to incorporate remote sensing given the difficulties monitoring on the ground<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Efforts to manage water levels at migration staging posts are underway in China<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Key protected areas where it occurs include Kytalyk and Chaygurgino (Russia), Poyang Hu and Dong Dongting Hu (China), and Naurzum(Kazakhstan). The North East Asian Crane Site Network has been established. Captive-raised birds are being released in an effort to maintain the central<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and western populations<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Russian scientists plan to replicate the methodologies that have successfully helped to boost Whooping Crane populations in North America<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Small numbers of birds have been released at Fereydoon Kanar since 2002 - most recently a female released at Fereydoon Kanar in Iran in January 2007 did not return the following winter, and a male released in December 2007 migrated with the single wild male in February 2008<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. One sighting in March 2008 in Western Siberia may be that of the released male, though it did not return to winter in 2008/2009<strong><sup>27,28</sup></strong>. Another female was released at this site in 2009 and started migration with a wild individual<strong><sup>28,30</sup></strong>. A set of four national stamps were published in Iran in 2008 to help raise public awareness of the Siberian Crane and the importance of wetland conservation within the country<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify breeding sites in the Kunovat basin and possibly other areas in north-west Russia. Enforce conservation measures to minimise threats from the Three Gorges Dam to wetlands in the lower Yangtze. Expand the Kytalyk and Chaygurgino Resources Reserves (Russia). Expand the area of Poyang Hu Nature Reserve or establish additional reserves to cover all important wintering areas and manage water-levels. Reduce hunting pressure on the central population.</strong>	eng
143772	distribution		<em>Grus leucogeranus</em> breeds in arctic <strong>Russia</strong> in Yakutia and western Siberia. Three regional populations are recognised, one of which may be extinct. The eastern population breeds between the rivers Kolyma and Yana and south to the Morma mountains. Non-breeding birds summer in Dauria, on the border between Russia, <strong>Mongolia<sup>5</sup></strong> and <strong>China</strong>. Birds have also been recorded in summer in central Mongolia<strong><sup>25,26</sup></strong>. The main wintering sites are in the middle to lower reaches of the Yangtze river, especially Poyang Hu lake, China. Surveys of the districts and counties around the lake recorded 2,700 individuals in 2006 and 3,750 in 2008<strong><sup>18,29</sup></strong>. It requires a number of important wetlands during migration: in Liaoning province Huanzidong Reservoir in Shenyang region has had 900 Siberian Cranes recorded during autumn migration<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and 1,100 in spring<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and numbers at Wolong Lake peaked at 1,200 in March 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, while at Momoge Nature Reserve in Jilin province spring totals peaked at 1,156 in May 2007 and 2,183 in April 2008<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. The central population bred on the basin of the Kunovat river, Russia and wintered at Keoladeo National Park, <strong>India</strong>, however none have been seen at Keoladeo in 2002, and this population may now be extinct; unconfirmed reports of the species have continued from West Siberia, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and India however. Passage birds are recorded in <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong> and <strong>Kazakhstan<sup>4,16</sup></strong>. The western population breeds in the Tyumen District, Russia, in areas such as the Lower Ob River Basin<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, and winters in Fereydoon Kenar (recently c.10 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but only one wild bird in 2006/2007 and 2007/2008<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>) and Esbaran in <strong>Iran</strong>. Birds pass through <strong>Azerbaijan </strong>on passage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and use the Volga river delta as a staging post<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population is about 3,750, of which over 95% belongs to the eastern population and winters at Poyang Hu<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
143772	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It arrives on its breeding grounds in late May<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and eggs are generally laid in June<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in territorial pairs at a density estimated in the 1970s to be around one pair per 625 km<sup>2<strong> 9</strong></sup>. The main autumn migration usually begins towards the end of September<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, though birds (thought to be non-breeders<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) have been recorded on passage over the Volga delta as late as October-December<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. This migration was recorded in the 1960s to occur in groups of 12-15 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species arrived on its wintering grounds in Pakistan in October, but seldom earlier than November-December further east<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. The spring migration commences in late-March or early-April<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with birds travelling in pairs or small groups of up to 10<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It is the most aquatic member of its family, breeding and wintering in wetlands, and shows a general preference for wide expanses of shallow (up to 30 cm) fresh water with good visibility. It discriminates strongly in favour of sites that are infrequently visited by man<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds in the lowland taiga and taiga-tundra transition zone<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> where it occurs in moss-covered marshland<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, tidal bogs, marshes and other wetland depressions with unrestricted visibility<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It may also breed on brushland interspersed with woods<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The preferred nesting habitat in Yakutia was found to consist of damp tidal flat with well-developed vegetative cover made up of typical polygonal swamp associations of sedges and cottongrass (<em>Eriophorum</em>) forming sparse, short stands<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In late springs some birds have been known to nest on drier, more hilly areas of polygonal tundra, and non-breeders sometimes occur on high, hilly banks of rivers and lakes and in small depressions between large, elongated hills<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>Resting areas and stopovers on migration tend to consist of large, isolated wetlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It winters in the shallows and mudflats of seasonal lakes of the Yangtze Basin<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, as well as steppes near water, open jheels and swamps<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Those that winter in India and Iran use artificial water impoundments and flooded rice fields<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>This species is omnivorous<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>During the summer its diet is broad, consisting primarily of roots, rhizomes, seeds, sprouts of sedges and other plant materials, but also insects, fish, rodents and other small animals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season it feeds mainly on roots, bulbs, tubers (especially of sedges), rhizomes, sprouts and stems of aquatic plants, and sometimes aquatic animals if these are readily available<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>It builds a large mound of grass and sedge 50-80 cm in diameter emerging above water 25-60 cm deep<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It typically lays two eggs but generally does not fledge more than one chick.<strong> </strong>	eng
143772	population		Four in western subpopulation (E. Ilyashenko 2002); 3,750 counted at Poyang Lake in 2008 (Yu Changhao <em>et al. </em>2008).	eng
143773	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. Key protected areas are Ang Trapeang Thmor, Cambodia, and Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam, which seasonally support the majority of the Indo-Chinese population. Conservation awareness campaigns have been initiated in India, Nepal, Laos and Cambodia. A national census has recently been conducted in India.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in north Cambodia, south Laos and south Vietnam to identify key sites. Regulate access to important nesting-grounds during the breeding season and important permanent wetlands in the dry season. Control pesticide use and industrial effluent disposal around feeding areas. Upgrade to CITES Appendix I, and strictly control international trade. Target further conservation awareness campaigns at communities in and around important sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143773	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus antigone</em> has three disjunct populations in the Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia and northern <strong>Australia</strong>. The nominate race (c.8,000-10,000 birds) inhabits <strong>Pakistan</strong>, northern and central <strong>India</strong>, and <strong>Nepal</strong>, with occasional vagrants in Bangladesh. Subspecies <em>sharpii</em> occurs in South-East Asia where its range has declined dramatically and it is now confined to <strong>Cambodia</strong>, extreme southern<strong> Laos</strong>, south <strong>Vietnam</strong> (c.800-1,000 birds between these three countries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and <strong>Myanmar</strong> (c.500-800 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). The Australian population (<em>gilliae</em>) is estimated at less than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is extinct in Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and probably China. <br/></p>	eng
143773	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wet and dry grasslands, agricultural fields, marshes and pools, either open or enclosed by forest. It prefers a mixture of flooded, partially flooded and dry ground for foraging, roosting and nesting. In the Indian subcontinent, populations make seasonal movements in response to monsoons and droughts. Cambodian breeding populations spend the non-breeding season in the Mekong delta region of Vietnam.</p>	eng
143773	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are thought to be 8,000-10,000 individuals in India, Nepal and Pakistan (Meine and Archibald 1996); 800-1,000 in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, 500-800 in Myanmar (both estimates from unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006), and <10,000 in Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000; R. Jaensch <em>in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
143773	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threats are a combination of loss and degradation of wetlands, as a result of drainage and conversion to agriculture, wetland pollution from pesticides, fertilisers and industrial effluent, siltation owing to catchment deforestation and river basin alterations, and the hunting of adults and collection of eggs and chicks (particularly in Indo-China but increasingly in India) for trade, food, medicinal purposes and, in some areas, to control populations where it is considered a crop pest. The other significant widespread threat is human disturbance of wetlands. Collision with powerlines is a minor threat in parts of the range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143775	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in all range states. Protected areas have been established for its conservation, of which the most important are Khingansky, Muraviovka and Lake Khanka (Russia), Daguur (Mongolia), Zhalong, Xingkai Hu, Xianghai, Horqin, Poyang Hu, Dong Dongting Hu and Shengjin Hu (China), Kumya and Mundok (North Korea), and Izumi-Takaono (Japan). Artificial feeding has resulted in an increase in the population wintering in Japan. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a transboundary protected area at the Tumen estuary, between Russia/China/North Korea. Establish protected areas in the Sanjiang plain (China). Secure the conservation status of Cholwon and the Han river estuary in the Demilitarised Zone. Increase the area of wintering sites in Japan. Enforce conservation measures to minimise threats from the Three Gorges Dam to wetlands along the Yangtze. Control spring fires in the breeding grounds.Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Establish local protection of small nesting and wintering sites. Establish local crane conservation groups in China. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143775	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus vipio</em> breeds in Dauria on the border of <strong>Russia</strong>,<strong> Mongolia </strong>and<strong> China</strong>, the Amur and Ussuri basins on the Sino-Russian border and the Songnen and Sanjiang plains, China. It migrates along the Songnen plain and Gulf of Bohai to its wintering grounds in the Yangtze basin, mainly at Poyang Hu (c.2,500 individuals) and Dongting Hu lakes, along the Korean peninsula to the Demilitarised Zone in <strong>North Korea/South Korea, </strong>mainly Cholwon (c.300 individuals), and to southern Kyushu in <strong>Japan</strong>. The population is estimated at c.6,500 individuals and is probably declining. <br/></p>	eng
143775	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in the wet forest-steppe zone, in grassy marshes, wet sedge-meadows and reedbeds in broad river valleys, lake depressions and boggy upland wetlands. In winter, it frequents freshwater lakes, farmland and occasionally coastal flats. </p>	eng
143775	population	BirdLife International, 2008	3,000 wintering in China (J. Harris in litt. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006; Wang 2002 estimated 4,000); 3,500 wintering in Korea and Japan [Li and Mundkur 2004: 3,094 in Japan and 387 in Korea in Asian Waterbird Census 2000]. <br/></p>	eng
143775	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The loss of wetlands to agricultural expansion, especially in its breeding grounds, is the main threat. Breeding birds are also threatened by steppe fires. In its wintering grounds, the main threats are from development and increasing human disturbance of wetlands in the Yangtze basin, the effects of the Three Gorges Dam on wetlands in the Yangtze basin and the potential development of wetlands in the Demilitarised Zone. Hunting is a minor threat and poisoning from pesticides is a potential threat. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143777	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It migrates on a narrow front via specific routes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and may travel vast distances without alighting to rest or feed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Autumn migration begins in late summer<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (August-September), with the species returning in flocks from its wintering areas to breed in March and April (sometimes as late as early-June in the north)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. On arrival in the breeding grounds the species remains gregarious for a few weeks, before becoming more territorial and eventually nesting in solitary pairs (although the species may still forage in small groups of c.7 individuals during the breeding season)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After breeding (from mid-August)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> migratory flocks as large as 400 individuals begin to form<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and on arrival in its wintering grounds the species often aggregates into huge flocks of up to several thousands or tens-of-thousands<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>In both its breeding and wintering ranges this species shows a preference for grassland habitats in close proximity to streams, shallow lakes and other wetlands, also frequenting desert areas where water is available<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> In its breeding range the species occurs from sea-level up to 3000 m<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, inhabiting grassy steppes of feather grass <em>Stipa</em> and fescue <em>Festuca</em>, and dry areas dominated by wormwood <em>Artemisia</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the essential habitat requirement being access to water (e.g. rivers, streams or wells) for drinking<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It can be found on hilly steppes along wide river valleys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, shrubby steppes and semi-desert<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, forest edge habitats (e.g. meadows)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and occasionally unvegetated alkaline flats, or large expanses of rock or gravel<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It will often forage in damp marshes and swamps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is regularly found in cultivated areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <em>Non-breeding</em> In Africa the species inhabits dry <em>Acacia </em>savanna, grassland, grassy river margins<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and semi-desert (where water is available)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but in India a wider range of habitat types are used, including marshes, freshwater lakes, rivers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, cultivated fields and rice stubble<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sandy riverbeds, the flat and open margins of seasonal pans and farm ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and hot desert (if water is readily available)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It often roosts in shallow water or on sandbars and mudflats surrounded by water<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of this species consists mainly of plant material<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (such as grass seeds)<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, although lizards and small invertebrates such as large insects (especially beetles) and worms<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong> are also taken during the summer<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species will forage in cultivated fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, feeding on ripening cereal crops in its breeding grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, peanuts, beans and other crops on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and wheat, chickpeas, alfalfa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and lucerne<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in India<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> (although often no attempt is made to find or construct a cavity)<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>on dry ground, lined or surrounded by pebbles and plant materials (eggs may be laid directly onto the ground)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest may be placed on gravel<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in areas partially or entirely free of vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or in open patches of grass and cultivation, usually less than 1-2 km away from a source of water<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. Nests are rarely positioned closer than 200-300 m apart<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143777	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat loss and degradation from agriculture (e.g. agricultural conversion of steppe grassland<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, intensification of agricultural methods and changes in agricultural practices such as increased spring ploughing)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> is the primary threat to this species throughout its range. Other threats include disturbance due to rising human populations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, intensive use of pesticides<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>, hunting for sport (along the migration route in Afghanistan and Pakistan)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and shooting and intentional poisoning in some areas where crop damage occurs<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. Many migratory habitats have also been lost through the building of dams and the drainage of wetlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the breeding population in Morocco is threatened by over-grazing and mining<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143778	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. Conservation measures have expanded in scale since the mid-1980s, including efforts to mitigate powerline collisions, the adoption of stricter legal protection, local and national surveys in South Africa, increasing research on the species' biology and ecology, habitat protection and management programmes (especially on private land), establishment of local conservation organisations, and the development of educational facilities, programmes and publications<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Include habitat management in future planning of afforestable regions<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage more responsible use of agrochemicals<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Target awareness campaigns at farm-staff so as to reduce deliberate poisoning of cranes for food<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Make hazardous powerlines more visible with appropriate devices<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Discourage the taking of fledglings from the wild<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143778	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus paradisea</em> is near-endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, with small breeding populations also in northern <strong>Namibia</strong> (c.60 birds at Etosha<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, isolated and rapidly declining) and western <strong>Swaziland</strong> (c.12 birds)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In South Africa, numbers in the south Western Cape have increased as the species has expanded into agricultural areas but, overall, the national population has fallen by half since the 1970s, with dramatic declines in many former strongholds, e.g. of up to 80% in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State and Eastern Cape during the 1980s<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The latest population estimate is of c.25,700 individuals<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143778	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits short, dry, natural grasslands, pastures, cropland and fallow fields, only occasionally using wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most breeding is concentrated in the period September-January<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143778	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at over 25,580 individuals (Beilfuss <em>et al</em>. 2007), with a minimum of 25,520 in South Africa (McCann<em> et al</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143778	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main factors behind its drastic population decline since the 1970s are widespread poisoning on agricultural land (both intentional and accidental<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and the commercial afforestation of large tracts of its grassland nesting habitat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Other major threats include collision with power-lines and fences, and illegal capture of fledglings (for pets or food), while domestic-dog predation and chicks drowning in water-troughs are also problems<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Prolonged dry spells are suspected to be the cause of the decline in Namibia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143779	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix&#160;II. CMS Appendix&#160;II. Protected areas (including Ramsar Sites) have been established in several key wetlands, notably in Zambia, Namibia and Botswana<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. In South Africa, and some other countries, action has included legal protection, marking and relocation of powerlines, awareness programmes, and encouragement of habitat protection and management by private landowners<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. A conservation group is conducting aerial surveys, field research and a community awareness programme in the Kafue Flats<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop a coordinated range-wide action plan<sup>15. Coordinate range-wide surveys and long-term monitoring4, partly in order to understand population movements between sites and countries6. Continue and expand ecological research4,18. Strengthen key protected areas, especially in the Kafue Flats and Bangweulu Swamps (Zambia)4.Improve protection of birds outside of protected areas such as the Jao/Boro rivers of Botswana22 Increase educational campaigns16, targeting landowners with breeding cranes4. Assess viability of artificial nest-platforms8,14. Transfer species to CITES Appendix&#160;I3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143779	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus carunculatus</em> is found in <strong>Ethiopia, </strong>(<200<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>), <strong>Tanzania</strong> (c.850<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (several hundred), <strong>Zambia</strong> (c.5,500<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), <strong>Angola</strong> (c.500, perhaps declining<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Malawi</strong> (c.15 pairs<strong><sup>7,13</sup></strong>), <strong>Mozambique</strong> (c.2,500 in the Zambezi Delta<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (possibly only 250), <strong>Botswana</strong> (c. 111 breeding pairs and total 1,300 individuals<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>), <strong>Namibia</strong> (probably less than 10 pairs and 200 resident birds<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>), and <strong>South Africa</strong> (c.242<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>, declining rapidly). The total population appeared stable from the mid-1980s to mid-1990s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The key Zambian population at the Kafue Flats reportedly fell in the mid-1990s<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong> and was estimated at c. 1,000 individuals in 2002<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Its present world population is estimated to be 7,990 individuals<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143779	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is dependent on wetlands, congregating in large numbers at large wetlands on riparian floodplains, but also requiring pristine or semi-pristine, high-altitude wetlands and grasslands in some places<strong><sup>1,3,12</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143779	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Its present world population has been variously estimated at 7,990 individuals (Beilfus<em> et al.</em> 2005), 7,700 individuals (Pittman 2007) or less (Morrison and van der Spuy 2006; Motsumi <em>et al</em>. 2007), less than 8,000 individuals (Beilfuss<em> et al.</em> 2007) and 6,000-8,000 individuals (Hancock <em>et al.</em> 2003).  <br/></p>	eng
143779	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The primary threat is loss and degradation of wetlands as a result of intensified agriculture, drainage, rice cultivation, and flooding by dam construction<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Other problems include hydroelectric schemes, nest disturbance<strong><sup>11,14</sup></strong>, grass-burning regimes<strong><sup>6,9,17</sup></strong>, poisoning, collision with utility lines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, persecution, and traditional medicine<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143780	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory, although isolated breeding populations east and south of the Black Sea may be resident or only undertake local movements<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It usually migrates on a narrow front, utilising two major migration routes (south-west, and south to south-east passages across Europe) and uses regular staging areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Family groups and non-breeding birds begin to migrate in July, but the majority of the species migrate in early September, arriving in African wintering grounds during October. The species returns to its breeding areas in March<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, where breeding begins in late April or early May, occasionally up to three weeks earlier in southern areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is gregarious for much of the year, migrating in flocks of between 10-50 to 400 birds (Africa) and congregating in groups of few to 1,000 birds in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, exceptionally it gathers in flocks of up to 4,000 during the moulting period<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Whilst breeding, pairs are solitary with large nesting territories, although immature and unmated birds may remain in groups of 6-10 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Every two years adults undergo a complete moulting period, after breeding but before leaving for wintering grounds, throughout which they are flightless for around six weeks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This species is diurnal, feeding during the day and roosting during the night on the ground or in water in large numbers (the same roost is often used every night, and sometimes every year)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species utilises a wide variety of shallow wetlands, including high altitude, treeless moors or bogs (where the main vegetation is <em>Sphagnum</em> moss or Ericaceae) usually with some standing water, and swampy forest clearings, reedy marshes and rice paddies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species requires inaccessible ground nesting-sites, so is commonly associated with quaking bogs and other impassible mires, especially in the vicinity of <em>Alnus</em> carr woodland or seasonally flooded riverine forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Central Asia the species may use drier forested areas (such as pine or mixed birch/pine woodland) if water is readily available<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it generally avoids heavily wooded areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species moults in its breeding habitat after breeding, specifically requiring shallow waters or high reed cover for concealment during this vulnerable flightless period<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The non-breeding wintering and migration habitats of the species include floodland, swampy meadows, shallow sheltered bays, rice paddies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pastures and savannah-like areas (such as open holm oak woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species may also be found roosting on mudflats or sandbanks along rivers, lakes and reservoirs during this season<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> and undertake flights of up to 20 km<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to forage in agricultural fields<strong><sup>6, 4</sup></strong> (due to human encroachment and destruction of its preferred habitats)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous in both breeding and non-breeding seasons, the plant component of its diet consisting of grass roots and shoots, rhizomes, tubers (e.g. potatoes), the leaves of crops and wild herbs (e.g. brassicas, clover, nettle, chickweed), pondweed, the berries of <em>Empetrum</em> and <em>Vaccinium</em>, cereal grain (e.g. wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, rice), peas, olives, acorns, cedarnuts, groundnuts <em>Arachis</em>, and the pods of <em>Cajanus</em><strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Animal matter in this species' diet includes adult (beetles, flies) and larval (Lepidoptera) insects, snails, earthworms, millipedes, spiders, woodlice, frogs, slow-worms, lizards, snakes, small mammals (rodents and shrews), fish and occasionally the eggs and young of small birds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a mound of wetland vegetation (which may be re-used from year to year), generally placed in or near water in inaccessible undisturbed bog, heath, marsh, mire<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, or sedge meadow<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The removal of willow bushes, reeds and bog grass from areas in the "Kremmener Luch" nature reserve, central Germany, has been successful in providing suitable roosting sites with wide panoramic views which have attracted the species to the area<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The vegetation was removed during the winter months: willow bushes being cut off and poisoned with arboricid, bog grass being burnt down and reeds being mechanically cut<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Other management efforts in western Europe include the burial or relocation of utility lines, and programs to encourage the planting of lure crops and the use of waste grain for diversionary feeding (away from agricultural crops)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143780	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In both its breeding and non-breeding ranges this species is principally threatened by habitat loss and degradation through dam construction, urbanisation and agricultural expansion (including changes in land-use, intensification, expanded irrigation systems and conversion of traditional holm oak pastures)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> In parts of its breeding range that are heavily developed the species is threatened by nest disturbance from tourism and recreation which reduces its breeding success by increasing the incidence of successful nest predation by corvids, wild boar and foxes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Egg collecting is also a threat to the breeding population in Turkey<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Along its migrational routes and in its wintering grounds the Common Crane is particularly threatened by habitat fragmentation and the loss of many smaller traditional feeding and roosting sites, leading to increasing concentrations of large flocks in smaller areas, and therefore increased competition<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. Pesticide poisoning may also be affecting cranes along migration routes and in some wintering areas, especially where they depend primarily on grain from agricultural fields<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Collisions with utility lines are frequent in highly developed areas along migration routes and in winter ranges (collisions being the leading cause of adult mortality at wintering areas in Spain)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Hunting is a significant threat to this species on migration (e.g. through Afghanistan and Pakistan)<strong><sup>4, 7</sup></strong> and illegal shooting has been identified as a problem in other areas (including Portugal, southeast Europe, Egypt and Sudan)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143781	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. Key protected areas include Norsky, Daursky and Khingansky (Russia), Daguur and Ugtam (Mongolia), Shengjin Hu, Longgan Hu, Poyang Hu, Dong Dongting Hu and Chen Hu (China), Mundok (North Korea), and Izumi-Takaono and Yashiro (Japan).  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to identify additional breeding areas. Establish strictly protected areas in the Bikin river basin (Russia) and Suncheon Bay (South Korea). Expand the area or number of suitable wintering sites in Japan. Expand protected areas at Chongming Dao and Xinglong Dongsha (China). Enforce measures to minimise threats to wetlands in the lower Yangtze from the Three Gorges Dam. Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Establish local crane conservation groups in China.  <br/></p>	eng
143781	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus monacha</em> breeds in south-central and south-eastern Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>. Breeding is suspected in <strong>Mongolia</strong> and two breeding sites have recently been found in the region of Heilongjiang, <strong>China</strong><sup>6</sup>. Its global population is estimated to be c.11,500 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with 1,460 in China and Russia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, c.114 in Korea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and over 80% wintering at Izumi, southern <strong>Japan</strong> where 10,027 were recorded in 2005-2006<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Other regular wintering grounds include Yashiro, Japan (just 10-15 birds since 2000), Suncheon Bay, <strong>South Korea</strong>, and wetlands along the Yangtze river, particularly Shengjin Hu, Poyang Hu and Longgan Hu, China. 1,088 individuals were counted at the Yangtze floodplain in 2005<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
143781	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in remote, wooded, upland bogs on gently sloping foothills and flat river terraces, mostly within the permafrost zone. It winters in freshwater marshes, wet grassland, coastal tidal flats and farmland. </p>	eng
143781	population	BirdLife International, 2008	6,900 mature individuals estimated (J. Harris <em>in litt</em>. 2006), although the total population is now c.11,600: 1,460 in China and Russia (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006); 10,027 recorded in Japan in winter 2005-2006 (P. Morris<em> in litt.</em> 2006); 114 in Korea in Asian Waterbird Census 2000 (Li and Mundkur 2004). <br/></p>	eng
143781	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are wetland loss and degradation in its wintering grounds in China and South Korea as a result of reclamation for development and dam building, especially the proposed three gorges dam which threatens an important wintering site. Conversion of rice-paddies to cotton fields at Longgan Hu and Dongting Hu has caused declines. A newly discovered wintering site at Suncheon Bay, South Korea, is threatened by development. The artificially high concentration of birds at Izumi, as a result of supplementary feeding, risks a major population reduction from disease or another catastrophe. Other threats in China include pollution of coastal waters, pesticide poisoning, increased levels of human disturbance and over-fishing. Some poaching and hunting of breeding birds occurs. <br/></p>	eng
143782	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. There is a transnational recovery plan, focusing on increasing the captive population for release, ecological research and monitoring, experimental releases, establishing additional wild populations, and teaching captive-bred birds to migrate<strong><sup>6,8,9</sup></strong>. Powerline markers have reduced collisions by 40-60%<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Survey and monitor breeding grounds to determine nesting effort<sup>9. Research food resources and high mortality9. Alleviate threats in Texas. Reduce powerline collisions. Investigate suitable locations for reintroductions, and establish two further self-sustaining populations5,9. Continue raising cranes for reintroduction9. <br/></p>	eng
143782	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grus americana</em> declined from 1,300-1,400 birds before 1870 to 14 adults in 1938<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. The only self-sustaining wild population breeds in Wood Buffalo National Park, on the border of Northwest Territories and Alberta, <strong>Canada</strong>, and winters at and near Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, <strong>USA</strong><sup>5</sup>. It increased at c.5% per year from 1966 to 1998 (but the population has since stabilised<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>), and totalled 216 birds in 2004<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, with 50 active nests in 2000<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A reintroduced flock migrates between Wisconsin and Florida, numbering 42 birds in 2004<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. A reintroduced, non-migratory flock in Florida numbered c.74 in 2004, with more released annually<strong><sup>2,5,6,10,12,16</sup></strong>. An experimental migratory flock in Idaho, wintering south to New Mexico, dwindled to 1-2 birds in 1999 and has been discontinued<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Captive flocks totalled 151 birds in 2001 at four main locations in the USA and Canada<strong><sup>2,6,10,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143782	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in prairie wetlands, preferring small, shallow lakes and ponds, willow communities, marshes, mudflats and perhaps sedge meadows, but this may be atypical considering its historical range<strong><sup>1,11</sup></strong>. Eggs are laid from late April to mid-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It winters in coastal brackish wetlands. <br/></p>	eng
143782	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population in the wild numbers 382 individuals (T. Stehn <em>in litt</em>. 2007). However, the only self-sustaining population breeding in Northwest Territories/Alberta, Canada and wintering in Texas, USA numbers 266 individuals, fewer than 250 of which are mature. Hence we retain a precautionary estimate of <250 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143782	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Over-hunting, habitat conversion and human disturbance were the main causes of the decline. Currently, the most significant known cause of death or injury to fledglings is collision with powerlines<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Birds are depredated by Golden Eagle <em>Aquila chrysaetos</em>, especially on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and drought is deteriorating breeding habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Pollution, boat traffic, wave erosion and dredging threaten the Texan wintering grounds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Aransas NWR can only support a maximum of 150 birds through the winter, forcing remaining birds to use disturbed and suboptimal habitat - this is considered to have stabilised the growth of the wild population in recent years<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The long-term effects of genetic drift after a severe population bottleneck<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> are unknown. There are currently concerns about oil spills and about river flows in Aransas National Wildlife Refuge<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and the spread of West Nile virus may pose a threat to the species<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143783	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in China, India and Bhutan. Major breeding and wintering areas are protected in China. There have been conservation and development programmes in local communities at the important sites of Cao Hai and Dashanbao. The Indian breeding population occurs in the Changthang Cold Desert Wildlife Sanctuary. Shooting of cranes and other wildlife in the region has been substantially reduced due to control of firearms, better enforcement of wildlife protection laws and greater awareness<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to study its migration. Establish a new protected area at Lashi Hai (China). Designate breeding areas in Ladakh (India) as waterbird sanctuaries. Stop drainage of marshes and the use of pesticides and rodenticides at Zoige marshes (China). Maintain water-levels of wetlands at Cao Hai (China) and prohibit encroachment. Leave some harvested fields unploughed in the wintering grounds between November-March.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143783	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Grus nigricollis</em> breeds on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, <strong>China</strong>, with a small population in adjacent Ladakh, <strong>India</strong>. Six wintering areas have been identified at lower altitudes on the Qinghai-Tibet and Yunnan-Guizhou plateaus, China, including counts of 3,562 birds in Yunnan and western Guizhou in winter 2003<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, in Tibet, 4,277 in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> increasing to 6,940 in 2007<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It also winters in <strong>Bhutan </strong>(500 individuals), and Arunachal Pradesh, India (10 individuals) and small numbers have been recorded in <strong>Vietnam</strong><sup>3</sup>. These figures imply a total world population of approximately 11,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although it is estimated that the number of mature individuals is perhaps 8,800<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Evidence from Tibet, and a long term study at Cao Hai, Guihou<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, indicates that the population may be increasing in line with conservation efforts and changing attitudes, but it is not known whether these figures represent short-term population peaks, or long-term trends. <br/></p>	eng
143783	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It breeds in alpine bog meadows and riverine marshes, favouring lacustrine marshes from 2,600-4,900 m. It winters in river valleys and along reservoir shorelines in the vicinity of barley and spring wheat fields.  <br/></p>	eng
143783	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In China, counts of 3,562 birds in Yunnan and western Guizhou in winter 2003 and, in Tibet, of 6,940 in 2007; in Bhutan 500 individuals, and Arunachal Pradesh, India 10 individuals. These figures imply a total world population of approximately 11,000 individuals, although it is estimated that the number of mature individuals is perhaps 8,800. (Harris in litt 2007).  <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143783	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Intensive grazing and pesticide use has caused degradation of grasslands in the Zoige breeding grounds, China. In central Tibet, farmers are increasingly planting high yield winter wheat rather than traditional crops. Ploughing in autumn rather than spring has reduced the availability of grain on cultivated land. The drying-up of marshes and desertification as a result of surrounding development and agriculture is affecting some breeding sites. Mechanised farming and draining of wetlands are threats in Bhutan. A dam planned on the Lhasa river threatens wintering birds. Fish-farming, peat and firewood collection and construction of roads have resulted in increased disturbance and habitat degradation in Qinghai, Sichuan and Yunnan, China. The collection of eggs and poaching are problems in parts of China and India. A small number of birds have been killed after striking power lines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Climate change scenarios suggest that glacier melt as well as changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration are likely to lead to substantially reduced breeding habitat (wetlands) within high altitude breeding range of the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. For example, at the key breeding area of Ruoergai in Sichuan and Gansu, 6 of 17 lakes >6.67 ha have already dried completely during 1985-2000, and the size of the other 11 lakes has decreased to different degrees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143784	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in all range states. Key protected areas include Khingansky, Muraviovka and Lake Khanka (Russia), Zhalong, Xianghai, Shuangtai Hekou, Yellow river delta and Yancheng (China), Kumya and Mundok (North Korea), Kushiro, Akkeshi-Bekanbeushi and Kiritappu (Japan). </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Expand the area/number of wintering sites in Japan. Establish a transboundary protected area at Tumen estuary, between Russia/China/North Korea. Secure the conservation status of the Cholwon and Han estuary in the Demilitarised Zone. Establish protected areas on the Sanjiang plain (China). Halt tidal-flat reclamation along the Yancheng coast (China). Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Control fires in the breeding grounds. Establish interest groups for crane conservation in China. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143784	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Grus japonensis</em> breeds in south-eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, north-east <strong>China, Mongolia </strong>(first record in 2003<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and eastern Hokkaido, <strong>Japan</strong>. The Russian and Chinese populations mainly winter in the Yellow river delta and the coast of Jiangsu province, China, and the Demilitarised Zone, <strong>North Korea/South Korea</strong>. Staging areas exist along the Yellow river between the provinces of Shanxi and Shaanxi. The Japanese population is non-migratory. The population is estimated at c.2,750 birds, although since it has a long generation length (12 years), this figure is likely to include only 1,650 mature individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Trends are difficult to infer from population estimates, because due to habitat degradation wintering sites are becoming more concentrated and counts are therefore likely to be becoming more accurate, but it is likely to be declining on mainland Asia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The wintering population in China totals c.1,000 birds at two sites and declining, with another 600-750 at four locations in North/South Korea<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The resident population in Japan has increased to c.1,000 birds and has now reached carrying capacity and stabilised<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143784	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In Russia and China, it breeds in grass, reed, and sedge marshes. In winter and on passage, it occurs in wetlands, including tidal flats, saltmarshes, rivers, wet grassland, saltpans and aquaculture ponds.  <br/></p>	eng
143784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate is 2,750 individuals, Jim Harris in litt 2007 recommended that this equates to 1,650 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
143784	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The key threat is the loss and degradation of wetlands in its breeding and wintering grounds, principally for conversion to agriculture, but also industrial and economic development<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In China, wetlands are becoming drier as a result of surrounding development<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Russia and China, spring fires destroy suitable nesting grounds, and the proliferation of dams lowers the water level, allowing predators access to nests and destroying suitable breeding sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Rainfall patterns in the breeding grounds appear to follow a 30 year cycle, and the current dry period has meant birds, people and livestock have had to depend on ever smaller areas of wetland, and there has been increased pressure to divert water from rivers and lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Important sites on the Song-nen plain, Shuangtai Hekou and Yellow River delta are on or near major oilfields and pollution is a potential threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is high adult mortality in some mainland wintering areas which is apparently due to poisoning; the species has been found to carry high levels of heavy metal contamination<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In the de-militarized zone of North/South Korea changing to autumn ploughing reduces access to waste grain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and there is uncertainty regarding the long-term fate of the crane habitat, whatever the political future delivers. In Japan, the concentration of birds at feeding stations means there is a risk of disease<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143786	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It nests in solitary territorial pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the timing of breeding corresponding to peaks in water-level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species occurs in forest and wooded savanna along permanent streams<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with thick growths of <em>Syzygium guineese</em>, along secluded reaches of thickly wooded rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, on the edges of pools, lakes and dams with well-vegetated banks (particularly with reeds and overhanging branches)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, on the edges of dense papyrus beds far from the shore<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, creeks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and in flooded forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is rarely found away from shoreline vegetation and generally avoids stagnant or fast-flowing water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (e.g. Ephemeropta, Odonata, Coleoptera and Orthoptera), spiders, millipedes, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crabs, shrimps and prawns)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small snails, frogs, small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, snakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a flat, loose structure of reeds and twigs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> placed 1-4 m high over water either on a mass of flood debris or fallen branches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, on an overhanging tree limb or on a horizontal branch<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143786	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation from increased river siltation, reduced river flow (due to commercial afforestation)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and pesticide contamination (which leads to reductions in prey availability)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143787	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in protected areas in most range states, potentially the most important being the Sundarbans, Bangladesh, and the Chindwin Basin in northern Myanmar. It is depicted on conservation awareness material in Cambodia and Laos. The proposed Hukaung Tiger Reserve in Myanmar covers an area that is considered to be of high national and global significance for the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to clarify its distribution, population status, breeding range and seasonal movements. Investigate its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation and disturbance. Afford protected-area status to key breeding sites, and strictly minimise habitat loss, hunting and disturbance within them. Campaign for increased protected-area representation for riverine habitats, particularly in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
143787	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Heliopais personatus</em> is patchily distributed from north-east <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, through <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong> to Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra and Java (one record), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Populations are apparently in steep decline throughout its range such that its population is now thought to number in the low thousands at most, and possibly fewer than 1,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The last records from Sumatra date back to 1996. Elsewhere it continues to be recorded from the Sundarbans of Bangladesh<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and it was recently recorded in Bharatpur district, India<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>;  there are recent records from Cambodia, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Kachin state, Myanmar is the least known part of its range; the area probably supports the largest remaining population and it was recorded as still relatively common during wetland surveys in the early 2000s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It's movements are poorly known; it appears to occur as a migrant in parts of the range, but breeding has been reported recently from Cambodia, Myanmar and Bangladesh<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and birds are recorded in most seasons in the Sundarbans and Myanmar. No empirical estimates exist for the current rate of decline, but as a species reliant on undisturbed wetlands declines are anticipated across its range given the pressure on riverine and mangrove habitats. Threats in Myanmar (now assumed to be the species's stronghold) remain largely unknown, but several major river systems that have until now remained in a largely natural state, are now threatened by dam development and heavy immigration<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143787	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs principally in rivers in lowland riverine forest including mangroves, but has been recorded in coastal and inland wetlands, such as tidal creeks, flooded forest, swamps and lakes (rarely reservoirs or industrial pools on passage). In the Sundarbans of  Bangladesh all records originate from the fresh and brackish waters with no records from the saltwater zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most breeding appears to occur inland while most records are from lowlands, although it has occurred up to 1,220 m on migration. There is an emerging pattern of non-breeding season records in peninsular Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia and breeding season records in continental South-East Asia, with passage migrants observed between these ranges. It has been observed catching freshwater shrimp, large beetles and small fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but feeds mainly by gleaning insects from overhanging vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is generally shy and retiring but can be extremely tame and confiding at times, particularly while incubating, rendering it susceptible to human predation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species appears to have declined dramatically and is now known from comparatively few sites, occurring at low densities everywhere. The population may now number as low as 1,000 individuals (J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143787	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat is the destruction and increased levels of disturbance to rivers in lowland riverine forest, driven by agricultural clearance and logging operations and increased traffic on waterways. Habitats have been further degraded by the removal of bankside vegetation and changes in hydrology resulting from dam construction, and siltation. Hunting and collection of eggs and chicks have been recorded and although their contribution to population declines is probably minimal this requires clarification<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; indeed the species is easily caught at the nest making it prey to opportunistic human hunters. <br/></p>	eng
143788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
143792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
143794	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Dogs are controlled in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The second largest subpopulation is protected in Reserve Speciale de Faune et de Flore de la Nodela, but without wardening or dog control<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Legislation and education aims to reduce capture by hunting dogs, but incidental killings are difficult to control<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Birds have been successfully bred in captivity since 1978, and reintroduced to protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey poorly-known forest areas. Monitor populations in better-known areas. Investigate dispersal between isolated populations. Determine effects of rat predation at different sites. Ascertain effects of pigs by fencing off experimental areas. Control dogs and cats in key forest sites. Initiate intensive conservation programme in Nodela. Increase public awareness programmes regarding Kagu conservation and responsible dog ownership<sup>3,10,11,12. <br/></p>	eng
143794	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhynochetos jubatus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. The highest densities are in Parc Provincial Rivi&egrave;re Bleue, where the population has increased recently and was estimated at 300 in 1998<strong><sup>3,10,11</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, a survey of calling birds in 1991-1992 recorded 491 adults, 82% in Province Sud, but this is an underestimate<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. It is declining outside Rivi&egrave;re Bleue, most subpopulations are small (<4 birds) and some subpopulations have become extinct<strong><sup>3,4,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143794	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits a variety of forest-types, usually centred in humid forest and sometimes extending into closed-canopy scrub during the wet season<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. It feeds on worms, snails and lizards<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Pairs occupy exclusive territories of 10-28&#160;ha and fledge 0.9 juveniles per year in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds survive over 30 years in captivity, and at least 15 in the wild<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143794	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Ekstrom <em>et al.</em> (2000), Hunt (1996), Y. L&eacute;tocart and C. Lambert<em> in litt. </em>(1999). <br/></p>	eng
143794	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Dogs killed 17 out of 21 birds with radio-transmitters at Pic Ningua in 1993<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Most mortality at Rivi&egrave;re Bleue occurs in chicks under three weeks old, probably by introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Feral pigs occasionally take eggs (two out of 40 eggs in one study) and forest floor rootings may make foraging for worms less easy<strong><sup>2,3,5,8,9</sup></strong>. Forest is being slowly eroded by mining and fires<strong><sup>3,10,12</sup></strong>, and logging aids access for hunters and dogs<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143795	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is non-migratory, although some populations may make local movements in disturbed and unusually dry habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season is poorly known, but in most areas the species breeds during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in permanent territories held by solitary nesting pairs or family groups<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally, its activity peaking in the early morning and late afternoon<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species requires areas of  leaf-litter, mud, sand, gravel or shallow water covered with dense vegetation in which to forage, and is usually found associated with forest swamps, streams, pools and riverbanks in lowland rain forest<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It may also occur up to 400 m away from water on the forest floor<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and although it is rarely found deep inside primary forest, it may follow rivers and streams out into gallery forest, dense thickets of scrubby growth and neglected cultivation, exceptionally being found in papyrus and other vegetation by lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is well adapted to forest disturbance, often remaining along forest streams after forest clearance, and successfully colonising cleared areas and secondary growth as long as suitable cover remains or develops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists chiefly of invertebrates such as insects (including ants, beetles, Hemiptera, flies and small moths), aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae (e.g. those of chironomids, mayflies, beetles and Lepidoptera), earthworms, nematodes, small leeches, small gastropods, myriapods and spiders, occasionally also taking small frogs and vegetable matter<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a mound of dead leaves placed by forest pools, on damp forest floors, or on rotten tree roots standing in shallow swamp water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143796	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is likely to be partially migratory although its movements are poorly known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In some areas its appearance is related to the timing of the rainy season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and there is evidence for regular altitudinal and coastal movements<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species breeds during the rains in southern Africa, although there is little known about the timing of breeding in other regions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in territorial solitary pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, remaining solitary, in pairs or family groups<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> outside of the breeding season if resident in an area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally, mostly in the morning and late-afternoon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, roosting off the ground during the hottest part of the day and at night either in breeding or roosting nests or on low perches in trees and bushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species frequents permanent habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> associated with forest or thick bush from sea level up to 3,200 m<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, requiring dense overhead and ground cover with soft earth, moss or leaf-litter for foraging<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. It inhabits the interiors or edges of more open types of forest<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, particularly favouring clearings, secondary growth and scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or dense evergreen and deciduous thickets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and is often found away from tall trees in bushy ravines or on brush-covered hillsides<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other habitats include banana and arrowroot plantations, neglected cultivation and rural gardens<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Although not typically associated with water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (may be 1-2 km away from it)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the species may be found on the floor of muddy valleys (Gabon)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in swampy forest patches (Sudan)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or along forest streams<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, occasionally feeding in marshes adjacent to forest habitats during the winter (South Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may occur in atypical habitats on migration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of this species consists of invertebrates such as small ants, bugs, flies, small gastropods, cockroaches, Lepidoptera, centipedes, nematodes, Collembolla<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, earthworms, amphipods, isopods, millipedes, spiders, ticks, grasshoppers, crickets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, termite workers and alates, adult and larval beetles, and slugs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as grass and tree seeds (possibly to aid in grinding up other foods)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a domed structure<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> or an open shallow cup with a roof of low vegetation<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, positioned on the ground in a small excavated depression, usually well-hidden in dense ground vegetation, tangled cover or under the leaves of a large plant<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in areas shaded by tall trees or within clumps of bushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143796	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In residential areas the species suffers heavy predation from domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em><strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143797	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is entirely sedentary although immatures may disperse widely after the breeding season and local movements may occur during the non-breeding season when habitat is drastically reduced (e.g. through burning or drying-out)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In equatorial regions the breeding season is indeterminate, but elsewhere (e.g. in southern Africa) the species breeds during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests in solitary pairs and is permanently territorial throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with pairs found at intervals of c.50-100 m in continuous habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a wide range of marshland vegetation types, requiring dense vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> where the overall canopy cover is more than 65 %<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and areas of mud, firm ground or short vegetation for foraging in<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also shows a preference for moist to shallowly flooded ground although it will occupy deeply flooded wetlands including papyrus swamps as long as there is enough dense, matted, emergent vegetation or floating grass available to provide a stable substrate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include seasonally wet hygrophilous grassland and sedge meadows with swards c.55 cm tall to permanently flooded reedbeds up to 3 m tall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>  in isolated wetland patches or in swamps and marshes fringing streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and drainage lines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. For nesting the species shows a preference for damp or shallowly flooded grass at the edge of marshy areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In forested regions of West Africa the species may also occur in dry grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and in South Africa it may occur in dry grass-dominated areas during the non-breeding season whilst foraging in hayfields of <em>Eragrostis</em> spp. and in lucerne fields adjacent to marshes during the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species readily colonises artificial wetlands such as seepage areas below dam walls and shallowly flooded vegetation at dam intakes or along feeder streams, and will inhabit wetland patches surrounded by cultivated fields or close to human habitation as long as the habitat is not greatly disturbed or trampled<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates such as earthworms, small gastropods, spiders, adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. termites, small ants, Diptera, aquatic and terrestrial Hemiptera, and Coleoptera) and crustaceans (e.g. amphipods)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Grass seeds may also form part of diet during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a cup of vegetation placed well hidden in a clump of damp or shallowly flooded grass or herbaceous vegetation 8-30 cm above the ground or the surface of water at the edge of marshy areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Management information</strong> The species readily colonises artificial wetlands such as seepage areas below dam walls and shallowly flooded vegetation at dam intakes and along feeder streams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is also a successful colonist of small wetland patches, even those less than 0.5 ha in extent<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143797	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may be threatened by the destruction of wetland habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143798	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The movements of this species are largely unknown although it is likely to be entirely sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season it may be displaced locally following habitat reduction by burning however<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although the species appears to breed during the rains in the southern part of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is likely to breed in solitary pairs and is solitary (or at least territorial) throughout the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for habitats with dense, lush grass and other vegetation between 0.7 and 1.5 m high<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> in areas with shallow mud and water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include patches of savanna in lowland forest, grassy marshes in savanna and along lake shores<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, rank grass and sedge along wet drainage lines<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> in miombo woodland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, open secondary growth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and moist post-cultivation growth dominated by <em>Aframomum</em> spp. and arrowroot in forest (north-east Gabon)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is little known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may include insects (e.g. small black ants) and seeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nesting characteristics and breeding site of this species are undescribed<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143798	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may be threatened by the destruction of wetland habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143799	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> whose movements are imperfectly known<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds during the rains in the southern tropics<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in solitary, territorial pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> after which it migrates towards the equator during the dry season when much of its breeding habitat dries out and is burnt or grazed<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It is chiefly a grassland species and breeds in temporarily inundated short grassland at the edges of rivers, dambos, marshes, grassy flats and pans<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting in seasonally moist to flooded grassland<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> characterised by grasses such as <em>Setaria anceps</em>, <em>Sporobolus pyramidalis</em>,<em> Eulalia geniculata</em>, <em>Eragrostis</em> spp. and <em>Bothriochloa insculpta</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong> between 30 and 70 cm tall<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and flooded to maximum depth of 10 cm<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or surrounded by pools of shallow water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is poorly known but appears to consist of small seeds (e.g. of grasses) and small insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a pad or shallow bowl of grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed in a tuft of sedge or perennial grass (often built in the crown of a burned tuft of <em>Sporobolus pyramidalis</em>, <em>Setaria sphacelata</em> or <em>Aristida</em> spp. when new blades around the perimeter are 20-35 cm tall)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, usually above wet (though not flooded) ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species may tolerate light grazing of domestic stock on grasslands but does not occur in heavily grazed areas (heavy grazing and trampling by cattle may cause breeding pairs to depart prematurely from otherwise suitable breeding habitats)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143799	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may be threatened in East and southern Africa by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing and the damming, drainage and cultivation of seasonal wetlands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143800	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary, but may make local movements when grassland habitats dry out or are burnt<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also make altitudinal movements in South Africa in relation to seasonal fluctuations in the number of invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species generally breeds during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, nesting in solitary territorial pairs (and remaining territorial even during the non-breeding season)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and forages diurnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits small streams and marshy patches in dry upland or montane grassland with long or short grass, bracken, brambles or <em>Protea</em>, and<em> </em>near forest edges, in fields of crops (e.g. lucerne and millet)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and occasionally in <em>Psoralea</em>-<em>Osmitopsis</em> fynbos in South Africa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It requires dense cover with clear ground for foraging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of insects (such as beetles, cockroaches, adult and larval Lepidoptera, ants, termites, grasshoppers, crickets and flies), earthworms, small spiders and vegetable matter such as grass and sedge seeds<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a bowl of dry grass and rootlets built into a grass tuft<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143800	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by the loss of its grassland habitat through overgrazing, afforestation and too frequent burning<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143801	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a sedentary endemic of Madagascar<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, its breeding season stretching between October and September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is territorial both during the breeding and non-breeding seasons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and lives alone or in solitary pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species frequents a wide variety of habitats, such as grasslands in clearings and on the edges of undisturbed and degraded rain forests, dense cultivation, and large fern, thick grass and <em>Philippia</em> (Ericaceae) scrublands. It is also common in marshes with long grass, reeds and sedges, and in rice paddy-fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species is little known, with only insects and seeds being recorded<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a woven ball of wide grass blades constructed on the ground in dense grass<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143802	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix&#160;I and&#160;II. Some South African sites have some legal protection, and at least four sites are protected by the landowners<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At the new Ethiopian breeding site, the vegetation is not cut for fodder until December, thus giving the birds time to breed without disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Maintain and restore suitable habitat at breeding areas in Ethiopia through sustainable use under community-based conservation programmes<sup>4,8,13. Protect additional sites in South Africa5. Continue surveys in Ethiopia and southern Africa to better define its range, population, seasonal movements and habitat requirements4,5,9. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143802	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sarothrura ayresi</em> occurs in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> (currently two sites in the central highlands, the only known breeding area for this species)<strong><sup>11,12,13</sup></strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (one record in 1988<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, two records in the 1970s<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and a possible breeding record in the 1950s<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>), and <strong>South Africa</strong> (nine main sites since the 1980s)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Claimed records from Zambia and Rwanda are unproven<strong><sup>6,7,13</sup></strong>. The occupied breeding range has been estimated as 250 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In South Africa, the total population is estimated to be 235 birds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In the Ethiopian highlands, 10-15 pairs have bred at Sululta annually since 1996<strong><sup>1,4,13</sup></strong> and c.200 pairs were discovered at a new breeding site in 1997<strong><sup>9,11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143802	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits short, dense marsh vegetation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, shallowly flooded in the wet season and dominated by sedges, grasses and forbs<strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>. It is probably migratory or nomadic in search of such transient habitat<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Birds in Ethiopia are present (at 2,200-2,600&#160;m) between June and October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, while non-breeding birds in South Africa are present (mostly at 1,100-1,900&#160;m) from November to March<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Whether a single population migrates between these two countries, or each country hosts its own subpopulation, is not yet known<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143802	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in South Africa is estimated to be 235 birds (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), with at least a further 210-215 pairs in Ethiopia (Atkinson <em>et al. </em>1996a; Anon. 1997c; A. Shimelis <em>in litt.</em> 1998; Taylor 1998; Taylor and van Perlo 1998), i.e. probably 700 mature individuals in total, which Wetlands International (2002) interpreted to equate to 865-880 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143802	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Seasonal marshes are threatened by drainage (for cultivation and forestry), flooding by dams, catchment erosion, water abstraction, human disturbance, too-frequent burning, and excessive trampling and grazing by livestock and cutting of marsh vegetation for fodder<strong><sup>4,13,14</sup></strong>. The two Ethiopian sites are on state-run farms which are about to be privatised, and which could then be unfavourably modified or drained<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143803	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ranomafana has been a National Park since 1987, but there is no protection specifically for wetlands in eastern Madagascar<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the distribution and population at all known and possible sites of occurrence<sup>3. Evaluate sites suitable for protection6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143803	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sarothrura watersi</em> has been recorded reliably from only three well-separated areas in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>. If 1970-1971 records from the Antananarivo district are discounted as erroneous, the remaining sites are "south-east Betsileo" in 1875, near Analamazaotra in 1928, near Andapa in 1930, Ranomafana/Vohiparara since 1988 and Torotorofotsy marsh since 1997. All sites in, or adjacent to, mid-altitude rainforest. Its marshland habitat is widely but very patchily distributed<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> and it may yet occur at other sites, having been overlooked due to its extremely secretive behaviour<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nevertheless, very little suitable habitat is likely to remain<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and its total population may be considerably less than 1,000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143803	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is largely confined to permanent, montane marshland which is shallowly flooded, at least seasonally, and dominated by dense, short grasses, with scattered clumps of thin-stemmed sedges and rushes (<em>Cyperus, Schoenoplectus</em>)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is incredibly difficult to see, but has a fairly loud and distinctive call, given most frequently between October and February. It may thus breed during the rainy season, but its breeding and feeding ecology are otherwise unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143803	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although the species may be overlooked, owing to its very secretive behaviour (Morris and Hawkins 1998), very little suitable habitat is likely to remain (P.B. Taylor <em>in litt. </em>1999) and its total population may number considerably less than 1,000 individuals (Taylor and van Perlo 1998), thus a range of 250-999 individuals is assigned to the species. <br/></p>	eng
143803	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most grass-dominated marshes on the eastern plateau of Madagascar are heavily used and exploited, especially for cultivating rice, the staple diet of the rapidly increasing human population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143804	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is likely to be non-migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but its breeding habits are very little known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually forages in groups of 2-3 individuals during the day<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, with peaks of activity at dawn and dusk<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, occasionally also observed with parties of other insectivorous species during the dry season, and in mixed-species groups following driver ant columns<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It roosts at night in bushes or low trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits dense lowland primary and secondary rainforest where rank vegetation lines streams, rivers, and swamps or marshy areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also be found in mangrove swamps, or in areas disturbed by logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and generally requires bushes or low trees up to 15 m high in which to roost at night<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of this species consists of snails, millipedes, insects (e.g. ants and beetles), small amphibians (e.g. frogs) and hard seeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Only two nests of this species have been described<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, both being coarse structures of twigs and leaves placed c.1.2 m above the ground (one on a heap of brushwood, another in a tree)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143804	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by forest destruction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is sometimes trapped for food by local people<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143805	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is assumed to be sedentary as no movements have been recorded for it<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds during the rainy season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is presumed to be territorial, although there is very little evidence regarding its social organisation or aggregatory behaviour<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits ravines, creeks and streams in primary and secondary lowland rainforest, especially where these are overhung by trees and bordered by rank undergrowth<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also frequents seasonally flooded and swampy forest in areas with mud, tall arrowroot plants and tree ferns, as well as marshes within forested regions<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, preferring to remain in thickets or patches of fallen branches and avoiding areas of open water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of insects (e.g. ants, beetles, caterpillars and other larvae), small lizards (e.g. skinks), snails, slugs, small crabs and millipedes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Only three nests have been described for this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, two being structures of broad grass leaves placed on stumps in swampy surroundings<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the other being placed among the roots of an uprooted tree over a stream bank<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143805	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat fragmentation<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>from forest destruction<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143806	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a sedentary endemic of Madagascar<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds May-June, or November<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and normally forages in pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or less frequently alone<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Very little is known about this species social organisation or aggregatory behaviour<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for forest habitats characterised by open understoreys and substrates of leaf-litter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It frequents water courses and reedy or papyrus-grown edges of ponds and marshes within primary and adjoining secondary rainforest with sparse herbaceous ground-cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has also recently been observed in dry deciduous forest established on a karst subtratum<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is little known<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but foods such as insects, amphibians and seeds have been recorded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a bowl of grass and leaves placed in a bush or a tangle of creepers (lianas) 2-3 m above the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143806	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by forest destruction from slash-and-burn agricultural practices, timber exploitation for firewood and clearance for rice and coffee plantations<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143807	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in China, South Korea and Japan. It occurs in a number of protected areas including Khanakiski (Khanka) and Khinganski State Reserves (Russia), Mongol Daguur Nature Reserve (single record) (Mongolia), and Xingkai Hu (Lake Khanka), Zhalong National Nature Reserve and Poyang Hu Nature Reserve (China). </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its potential breeding range in Russia and north-east China to identify its population size and distribution. As a result of surveys, identify key areas and recommend protection where necessary. Survey and monitor key non-breeding sites including at Poyang lake and other large wetlands in the Yangtze valley. Research its ecological requirements and identify key threats. Improve protection of its habitat in Russia and in protected areas in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143807	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coturnicops exquisitus </em>is known to breed at a handful of sites in south-east <strong>Russia</strong> and north-east <strong>China</strong>. It has been recorded on passage and in winter in <strong>Mongolia, Japan</strong> (including the Nansei Shoto Islands), <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong> and southern and eastern China. Its breeding and wintering ranges are inadequately known and it is probably very rare and declining. It is considered to be uncommon in mainland China, although surveys at Poyang Hu lake, Jiangxi, in the early 1980s, recorded 5-30 birds per km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143807	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its ecology is poorly known. It has been recorded from wet, grassy meadows and tussock-swamps in the lowlands, reed-swamps, grassy swamps near rivers, rice-fields and around streams and pools with thick cover. </p>	eng
143807	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
143807	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is thought to be destruction and modification of wetlands in both its breeding and wintering ranges. Habitat in south-east Russia, is being reduced as a result of drainage and ploughing. In China, the Zhalong National Nature Reserve is threatened by agricultural encroachment, reed-harvesting, hunting and water extraction for agriculture. The Poyang Hu Nature Reserve is threatened by vegetation cutting, reclamation for agriculture, construction of the Three Gorges Dam and illegal hunting. The over-use of pesticides may affect it.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143808	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon exists in two disjunct populations: the race goldmani is resident year round in México state, Mexico, whereas the nominate race is migratory, breeding locally in Alberta, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick (Canada), and North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Massachusetts and Connecticut (USA), and wintering from coastal North Carolina south to Florida and west along the gulf coast to Texas (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).	eng
143808	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The nominate race arrives in its breeding grounds in late April and leaves in September or October (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The race goldmani winters in both fresh-water and brackish marshes, but breeds only in fresh-water marshes and wet meadows (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). Breeding takes place in the summer, with laying occurring between May and July (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In autumn it is sometimes found in hay and grain fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143808	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Drainage of its wetland habitat is the principal danger to this species throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143809	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is known to occur in three protected areas in Argentina: Bañados del Río Dulce (Córdoba), Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve and Reserva Municipal de Biosfera Mar Chiquita (both Buenos Aires). The Colombian and Bolivian sites, and one Venezuelan site (in Mérida) are also protected (Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Wege and Long 1995).	eng
143809	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been recorded in Colombia (Meta, once in 1959), Venezuela (twice, in 1914 or 1916 in Mérida and 1954 or 1960 in Portuguesa), Guyana (once in 1907), Brazil (three sites in São Paulo state, with recent and repeated sightings at Taubaté, and two in Rio Grande do Sul), Paraguay (three records, in Presidente Hayes, Concepción and Alto Paraná, all before 1945), Uruguay (six localities, from Durazno in 1915 and 1918, Colonia in 1985 when breeding was confirmed, Montevideo in 1985, Maldonado in 1993 and at sea off Rocha in 1875) and Argentina (at least 10 records from Corrientes south to Patagonia, with four recent records of single birds from Reserva Municipal de Biosfera Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires) (Collar et al. 1992, Taylor and van Perlo 1998, Martinez et al. 1997). The only record for Bolivia is a sighting of one bird at the Beni Biological Station in 1997, over 1,000 km from the closest previously known locality in Paraguay (Brace et al. 1998). Its distribution is certainly not fully understood, with birds possibly either undertaking north-south migrations or occasionally erupting large distances in a random pattern from their centres of distribution in north and east South America (Collar et al. 1992). The former is unlikely since the species occurs in east Brazil from April-August and March-June in Paraguay and Uruguay, and Venezuelan specimens taken in August had enlarged gonads (Taylor and van Perlo 1998). The latter is much more likely, but there is no proper evidence to suggest that the centres of distribution are in tropical grasslands, and it is also possible that the species's distribution is wider and more continuous than currently thought (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).	eng
143809	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species habitat is variable, and it has been recorded from dense marshy vegetation (including rushes, reedbeds and floating vegetation), swamps, flooded rice fields, alfalfa fields, wheat fields, flooded pasture and other wet grasslands, open grassy savanna, crop stubble, brackish coastal Spartina species dominated grasslands and humid woodland edge, mainly in the lowlands at elevations up to 1,500 m (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).	eng
143809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is normally described as very rare, but the records from Taubaté have been taken to indicate that it is difficult to find rather than scarce, although further evidence for this is required (Taylor and van Perlo 1998).	eng
143809	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Specific threats are difficult to determine given its poorly known distribution and apparently catholic habitat requirements, but the grasslands of central South America, where it is seemingly most common, are under intense pressure from high levels of grazing and frequent burning (Collar et al. 1992). It suffers particularly from the latter since at one site in Buenos Aires, it disappeared for up to one year after burning (Martinez et al. 1997).	eng
143810	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has an extensive range in South America, occurring in Costa Rica (one record in 1967), south-central Colombia, south and east Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname (Hilty and Brown 1986), extreme southern Peru (Clements and Shany 2001), central and south-east Brazil (locally in Goiás, Mato Grosso, Bahia and São Paulo states (Sick 1993), north and central Bolivia (apparently widespread and numerous (Parker et al. 1991, Pearce-Higgins et al. 1995)) and eastern Paraguay (Lowen et al. 1996), but it is apparently absent from Amazonia, Brazil (da Silva 1995).	eng
143810	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In Paraguay the species is typically found in sparse campo sucio-type habitat on top of ridges and plateaus. Evidence from Paraguay and Brazil suggests that it disappears after grassland fires (Lowen et al. 1996, Calvacanti 1988). However, it apparently occurs in a variety of habitats in Bolivia (Parker et al. 1991, Pearce-Higgins et al. 1995), suggesting that it may tolerate piecemeal habitat degradation more than uncontrolled, widespread fires.	eng
143810	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Threats include human-induced fires (Sick 1993), and predation by Maned Wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus. It is presumably also threatened by conversion of its preferred tall grassland habitat (Collar et al. 1994, Sick 1993).	eng
143812	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallina leucospila</em> is endemic to north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the Tamrau, Arfak and Wandammen mountain ranges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are very few recent records but one was seen and others heard in 1994-1995 and it was reported by local guides to be rare and to have a very patchy distribution<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a terrestrial inhabitant of interior montane forest from 1,450 to 1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The extensive rainforests within its range remain largely undisturbed, owing to their geographical isolation and the low-density and traditional lifestyle of the human population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There are two protected areas within its range, the Wondiwoi/Wandammen Nature Reserve (730&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve, (currently 683&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), and the proposed the Pegunungan Tamrau Nature Reserve (c.4,415&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the Tamrau mountains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The only likely threats to this species are localised forest loss and incidental kills from dogs on hunting trips<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it may be threatened by introduced predatory mammals even in these remote mountains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143814	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallina mayri</em> occurs in the isolated mountain ranges of Cyclops, Bewani and Torricelli of north New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). Unidentified rails in the Foya mountains may also belong to this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It inhabits forest between 1,100-2,200&#160;m in mountains which are very rarely visited, but is likely to prove to be locally common as with other New Guinea congeners<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It was recorded as common in the Bewani and Torricelli<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong> but this was based on seven specimens taken in 1966<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and it has not been recorded (or searched for) there subsequently. In the Cyclops, it is known from four specimens<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and was not found during fieldwork in 1992<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its montane habitat is likely to be safe from logging and there are no known other threats to this species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143816	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallina canningi</em> is endemic to the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from North, Middle and South Andaman and may occur on other islands. Formerly considered very common based on high trapping rates, there have been very few recent records. No reliable population estimates are available and it remains poorly known. It is resident in marshes and along streams within or at the edge of forest, and occasionally mangroves, favouring dense vegetation including tangled thickets of rattan and pandanus. Although specific threats are difficult to identify, it could be declining as a result of increasing habitat destruction and degradation through forest clearance for settlements, cultivation, road construction, and other infrastructural projects. It may be threatened by hunting and introduced predators. <br/></p>	eng
143816	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate based on analysis of information in BirdLife International (2001), but requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
143823	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Yacamb&uacute; and Morrocoy National Parks. However, there are no significant wetland areas in Yacamb&uacute;, where it inhabits a man-made pond. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey (in May-August, when birds are most vocal) to locate additional populations and reassess overall population size<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify specific threats<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor known populations to determine trends<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess its ecological requirements<sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a conservation strategy<sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Manage important wetlands (e.g. Guataparo Lake, Tacarigua and Canoabo dams and San Pablo marsh)<sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143823	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laterallus levraudi </em>occurs on the lower Caribbean slope of north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, in Barinas, Lara, Yaracuy, Carabobo, Falc&oacute;n, Aragua, Distrito Federal and Miranda. Until 1995, the only post-1946 records were from Yacamb&uacute; (Lara), Morrocoy (Falc&oacute;n)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Embalse de Taguaiguai (Aragua). However, surveys in 1995-1996 identified seven new localities in east Falc&oacute;n and west Carabobo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the first record for Barinas was in 1998<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Only small numbers were found at these sites, and the known population is a mere c.35-94 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, this is almost certainly an underestimate, with further surveys likely to find additional sites and a total population probably several times the known figure<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143823	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, aquatic vegetation fringing marshes, lakesides, lagoons, swamps, flooded pastures and sometimes dry grassland, in the lowlands to 600&#160;m, but with records to 1,400&#160;m at Yacamb&uacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In hilly country, it occurs in small ponds at least partly bordered by reeds and grasses and with some fringing vegetation or adjacent forested slopes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In more open country, it has been found in lakes, pools or marshes with rich or very dense, undisturbed aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two known areas are artificial ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It probably breeds in May-July, with young fledging in August-September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143823	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Boesman (1997) <br/></p>	eng
143823	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Industrial waste, pesticides and lowering of water-levels are degrading wetland habitats. Falling water-levels in the mid-1980s are blamed for its disappearance from Embalse de Taguaiguai. Tourist development and pollution threaten the Morrocoy and Cuare areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Agriculture and deforestation are advancing around Canoaba Dam, and plans to increase the water-level at Guataparo Lake would inundate habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143827	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laterallus jamaicensis</em> is widespread, but very local, in fresh and saline marshes, wet meadows and savanna in North, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. The nominate race occurs on the east coast of <strong>USA</strong>, with sporadic records inland to Colorado and Minnesota (but no confirmed nesting since 1932). It is very local in north-east <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong> (only in 1903), <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong> (only in 1963), with an unconfirmed report from Honduras. It is locally rare in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and <strong>Haiti</strong>, but mainly a winter visitor on <strong>Jamaica</strong> and <strong>Cuba</strong>. It was probably extirpated as a breeder from <strong>Puerto Rico</strong> <strong>(to USA) </strong>by introduced mongooses, and is now extremely rare in winter. It is recorded as a non-breeder in the <strong>Virgin Islands</strong> (to USA). There is one recent record from north <strong>Brazil</strong>. The race <em>coturniculus</em> is very local in south-west USA, irregularly to north-west Mexico (one recent record). The race <em>murivagans</em> occurs at few coastal marshes in central <strong>Peru</strong>. The race <em>salinasi</em> is rare and local in south Peru to central <strong>Chile</strong> and adjacent parts of west-central <strong>Argentina</strong>. It may occur (doubtful race <em>pygmaeus</em>) in the Colombian East Andes. In USA, most populations declined drastically in the 20th century, and the breeding range seriously contracted. Inhabiting marsh fringes, it is highly susceptible to grazing and agricultural expansion<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143827	population	BirdLife International, 2008	25,000-100,000 <em>jamaicensis </em>(unpublished report 'Waterbird Conservation for the Americas 2001' cited in Wetlands International 2002); plus <10,000 <em>coturniculus </em>(Eddleman <em>et al</em>. 1994). <br/></p>	eng
143828	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The lake is a national reserve, but this has not influenced mining and dam-building activities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess population size and range. Reduce pollution and regulate water-levels for the benefit of local people and wildlife<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the feasibility of a sustainable habitat management programme<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the species's taxonomic relationship with <em>L.&#160;jamaicensis</em></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143828	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laterallus tuerosi</em> is endemic to the shores of Lago de Jun&iacute;n, Jun&iacute;n, in the Andean highlands of central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is known at two sites (near Ondores and Pari) on the south-west shore, but is likely to occur in other portions of the c.150&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of marshland surrounding the lake, and may be fairly common. <br/></p>	eng
143828	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This secretive waterbird inhabits the rushy marsh vegetation fringing Lago de Jun&iacute;n, at 4,080&#160;m in the Andean highlands. Its habitat preferences are not fully known, but it has been observed in mosaics of <em>Juncus</em> and open marsh with mosses and low herbs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding is reported to occur at the end of the dry season, in September-October, and two eggs are laid. <br/></p>	eng
143828	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived by BirdLife International (2000) from observation that species may be "fairly common" in the c.150 km2 of available marshland habitat <br/></p>	eng
143828	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since at least 1955 the lake has been affected by pollution and human-induced water-level changes, which may adversely affect the fringing vegetation. There has been strong desiccation of reed marshes, caused by drought and unsustainable water management by Electro Peru, and occasional flooding with highly acidic water from the Cerro de Pasco mines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143829	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most of the archipelago is under national park protection, including much of the species's remaining natural habitat. Localised control of introduced predators is ongoing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Goats have been eradicated from Pinta and, on Santiago, a programme to eradicate pigs has been completed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The islands were declared a World Heritage Site in 1979. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Restrict movement of domestic animals on Floreana<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate goats on Santiago and north Isabela<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Acquire plateau areas on San Crist&oacute;bal, and exclude herbivores from these areas<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Confirm eradication of pigs on Santiago<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Restore plant communities on Santiago and north Isabela<sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor the expansion of invasive <em>Cinchona</em></strong> in the highlands of Santa Cruz, and investigate its impact on the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143829	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laterallus spilonotus</em> is endemic to the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, where it occurs on Pinta, Fernandina, Isabela, Santiago, Santa Cruz, Floreana and San Crist&oacute;bal. It is considered common in the highlands of Santiago, Santa Cruz and Sierra Negra (south Isabela). A small, apparently stable population occurs on Fernandina. Small numbers survive on Alcedo Volcano (north Isabela). The Pinta population is recovering after goat eradication. The small populations on San Crist&oacute;bal and Floreana are certainly declining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and recent survey work on Santa Cruz suggests a slight population decline since baseline surveys in 1986-1987<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143829	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits grass and forest of mesic regions in the highlands, where it occurs in deep thickets and dense ground-cover<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to favour areas with freshwater pools, and avoids short, herbaceous vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although historically known from coastal mangroves, it has abandoned this habitat for unknown reasons<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears tolerant of human-modified habitats, such as agricultural land, but avoids grazed, short-grass meadows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates and seeds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143829	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rosenberg (1990); repeat surveys on Santa Cruz island in 2000 gave broadly similar results (Gibbs <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
143829	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is probably vulnerable to introduced predators such as cats, dogs and pigs, given its weak flying ability. Short-eared Owl <em>Asio flammeus</em> and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> may be natural predators<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction as a result of grazing by introduced herbivores (notably goats, cattle and horses) is probably the principal explanation for its rarity on San Crist&oacute;bal and Floreana<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. If populations on San Crist&oacute;bal and Floreana remain small, extinction is likely owing to natural disturbances, inbreeding and population changes of predators and herbivores<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. The invasion of the highlands of Santa Cruz by exotic <em>Cinchona</em> may lead to a reduction in the fern and sedge vegetation types it favours<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143831	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from Itirapina Experimental Station, Bras&iacute;lia National Park and adjacent Norte Bras&iacute;lia State Ecological Park (Brazil), Paso Bravo National Park, Mbaracuy&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve, Tapyt&aacute; Private Nature Reserve, (possibly) Estero Milagro National Park (Paraguay) and Beni Biological Station (Bolivia)<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. However, the drying effects of plantations has affected one part of Bras&iacute;lia, Paso Bravo has yet to be consolidated and large parts of Estancia Tapyt&aacute; have been afforested<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey using tape-playback, concentrating on the large gaps in its distribution in the Brazilian Cerrado, Concepci&oacute;n, Amambay and San Pedro departments, north-east Paraguay, and areas of similar habitat in north-east Argentina<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Effectively protect Paso Bravo National Park.</strong></p>	eng
143831	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laterallus xenopterus</em> has been recorded from widely disjunct areas in east <strong>Paraguay</strong>, central <strong>Brazil</strong> and central <strong>Bolivia</strong>. In Paraguay, there are recent records from seven sites in Concepci&oacute;n, Canindey&uacute;, Itap&uacute;a and Caazap&aacute; and lost specimens from San Pedro and Amambay<strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. All Brazilian records are from Distrito Federal (where relatively frequent), except for a dead bird found at Itirapina, S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The only Bolivian records are from Beni Biological Station<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent records have shown that it is more widespread than previously thought<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> and it may even occur in north-east Argentina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143831	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits low-lying marshes or inundated grasslands in the Cerrado region, where there are dense tussock-grasses (0.3-2&#160;m in height) and usually 0.5-2 cm of standing water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suitable grasslands are often located in areas of undulating terrain adjacent to gallery forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the Bolivian records were in partially flooded savanna and a belt of <em>Cyperus giganticus</em> fringing a lake<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143831	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate interpreted from recent records, the observation that it is relatively frequent in Distrito Federal, Brazil, and the fact that it appears to be more widely distributed that previously assumed. Verification of this estimate is desirable. <br/></p>	eng
143831	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been either heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, especially by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching and afforestation<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, wet valley-bottoms are perhaps the least suitable habitat-type in the region for intensive agriculture and the species appears to tolerate some burning<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The most significant threat is possibly the widespread use of pesticides, fertilisers and other chemicals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143832	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No specific measures have been implemented. It occurs within Queen Elizabeth National Park on Guadalcanal, but there is no enforced protection of this site which is highly degraded.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey with playback of tape-recordings across it range. Survey its status through interviews with local villagers. Determine its occurrence on Choiseul and Malaita. Ascertain its habitat requirements. Monitor numbers around Buala, Garana and Queen Elizabeth National Park. Investigate threats and ecology through discussions with villagers. Reduce levels of trapping though community education programmes. Conduct a population survey on Bougainville and survey areas inland from the coastal road and along west coast of the island to determine whether suitable habitat exists and whether the rail is present here<sup>17</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143832	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesoclopeus woodfordi </em>occurs on Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, Santa Isabel, Guadalcanal and possibly Choiseul in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong><sup>4,11</sup>. Recent sightings include five records from Guadalcanal and a series of records from the vicinity of Buala on Santa Isabel<strong><sup>1,5,8,9,13,14</sup></strong>. On Bougainville there were two sightings<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong> of Woodford's rail in 60 years prior to 1999. However, in 1999 Woodford's rails were reported as common and "thriving" throughout the entire eastern lowlands of Bougainville; a result of a large population increase during the seccessionist uprising of 1989-1997<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. There has also been an increase in numbers in coastal north Guadalcanal<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. On Santa Isabel, it is locally common, notably along the Garana River where three pairs were heard and one seen along a 2 km path, in 1998<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Local reports indicate that it is rather uncommon in other degraded habitats and rare in forest in the vicinity<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>. There are also recent unconfirmed records from Malaita<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong> but records from New Georgia<strong><sup>2,12 </sup></strong>and Kolombanagara<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> refer to Roviana Rail <em>Gallirallus rovianae</em><strong><sup>3,5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143832	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It had been assumed to be a species of lowland forest, as supported by two records from Bougainville in lowland swamp-forest<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong> and from Guadalcanal in patchy forest<strong><sup>5,14</sup></strong>. However, it is reported to be rare in primary forest on Isabel (there is no swamp-forest at this site) where it prefers dense, grassy thickets mixed with forest and secondary forest thickets, including abandoned gardens, especially close to rivers<strong><sup>5,14</sup></strong>. On Bougainville Woodford's rail thrives in 2 m-tall grass and shrub thickets in and around Arawa. These habitats increased greatly during the war as grassed areas and cocnut plantations were abandoned<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. It may nest at any time of the year<strong><sup>15 </sup></strong>and may do so near to streams<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It is said to be omnivorous<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and has been observed wading into streams to feed<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143832	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Hadden (2002) estimated the population to number over 10,000 and to be "common, thriving and encountered everywhere." <br/></p>	eng
143832	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As a flightless species, it may be susceptible to predation by cats and dogs, exacerbated by incidental capture by hunting dogs and in traps, but it appears to survive, at least locally, close to villages and predators<strong><sup>1,13</sup></strong>. Development associated with the progressing peace agreement is likely to lead to grassy habitats disappearing quickly. This may eliminate Woodford's Rail from this coastal area again<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Lowland forest is being extensively logged throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
143833	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Further island translocations are planned<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys of distribution and density are presently being completed in parts of the mainland range considered to be strongholds<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify population distribution and status of all taxa. Conduct research on impacts and management of threats<sup>3. Implement monitoring programmes in appropriate sites for all taxa. Identify the most important threats affecting sites and instigate management programmes to address these. Establish further populations to ensure each taxon has at least one large mainland population and three island populations.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143833	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus australis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subspecies <em>greyi</em> is mostly restricted to the east coast of the North Island, and has undergone significant declines since the early 1980s to c.4,000 birds<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. Three mainland populations remain, including an introduced population at Russell (100 birds)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. More than 100 releases to former mainland habitats have been attempted, but most have been largely unsuccessful<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> due to high predation. Nominate <em>australis</em> remains locally common in north and west South Island<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, but numbers fluctuate dramatically, even in large populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In north-west Nelson, numbers plummeted by c.95%<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in north Westland, counts indicate declines of over 90% in c.20 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but in Fiordland, its numbers are currently increasing<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>hectori</em> is now extinct in its natural range, but was introduced to Chatham and Pitt Islands where it may number between 38,000-58,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and survives a take of 5,000 birds annually<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>scotti</em> became extinct on Stewart Island in the 1990s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but introduced populations survive on surrounding islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and may number less than 25,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Overall, the four races are present (many as introduced populations) on more than 70, mostly tiny, offshore islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Whilst there have been no major declines in the last ten years, future population crashes are predicted, as climate change is likely to increase the probability of such events occuring<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143833	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It utilises most habitats, including forests, grasslands, scrub, inland and coastal wetlands and even semi-urban environments. It is omnivorous, taking mostly fruit and invertebrates, but also vertebrates<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Birds breed in their first year and eggs are laid year-round<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143833	population	BirdLife International, 2008	50,000-100,000 australis (but large fluctuations: Beauchamp et al. 1999, Heather and Robertson 1997); 4,000 greyi (Beauchamp <em>et al</em>. 1999, A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt</em>. 2000, D. King <em>in litt.</em> 1999); 38,000-58,000 hectori on Chatham and Pitt Islands (A. J. Beauchamp<em> in litt.</em> 2000); <25,000 scotti on islands around Stewart Island (A. J. Beauchamp <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <br/></p>	eng
143833	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rapid declines are due to a combination of habitat clearance and degradation, road-kills, a wide range of introduced mammalian predators and competitors, combinations of drought and flood years, poison baits used for possum and rabbit control, and disease<strong><sup>2,3,5,6</sup></strong>. Birds have been eradicated from several islands due to possible risks to other native biota, and removal from Pitt and other islands is a future possibility<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143834	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species may be benefiting from the conservation action for <em>Rhynochetos jubatus</em>, particularly the control of introduced mammalian predators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The only measures of the sort currently being implemented are in the Rivi&egrave;re Bleue Park, where the occurrence of the rail is very unlikely. No new records of the species have been obtained despite 500 man-days spent doing bird censuses in forested areas of the central mountains. 120 locals interviewed between 2003 and 2006 did not provide any credible reports. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further intensive surveys in remote forests<sup>2</sup>, although these should be cost effective and not divert funding away from conservation of other threatened habitats and species. Search other areas with high population densities of <em>R. jubatus</em>, another flightless bird, as these areas may have avoided the pressures that have caused the species's decline elsewhere. Include this species in the predator-control and public awareness programmes for <em>R. jubatus</em> in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue Park. Publicise the search for this species amongst forest workers and villagers</strong><sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143834	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Gallirallus lafresnayanus</em> is known from at least 17 specimens taken between 1860 and 1890 from <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, apparently including Ile des Pins<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are a scattering of later reports from near Mt Pani&eacute; in the north and the headwaters of Rivi&egrave;re Blanche in the south in the 1960s and in 1984 (on Mt Pani&eacute;) suggesting that it may yet survive in small numbers<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. Interviews in 2004 produced credible reports by local hunters who stated they had seen the bird on the western slopes of the Pani&eacute; Massif before the 1980s. These hunters have not observed the bird since<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143834	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is presumed to have inhabited evergreen forest with similar ecological requirements to Kagu <em>Rhynochetos jubatus<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong></em>. Historical records have been from near sea-level to c.1,000&#160;m, but recent reports have been from inaccessible montane forests, presumably as these areas have fewer introduced mammalian predators. Although two recent reports from marshland seem unlikely<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it has been suggested that this habitat may be the last refuge from dogs and pigs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It probably feeds on a variety of invertebrates including earthworms<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143834	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no definite records since 1890, a series of more recent unconfirmed records notwithstanding. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143834	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It is likely to have declined owing to predation by introduced species such as cats, pigs and rats which now occur throughout the island. Many historical records are of birds caught by hunting dogs and it is likely therefore that it remains at risk from village dogs on hunting trips and when straying<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143835	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. The species is successfully bred in captivity. Predation and disturbance by dogs is minimised by community support for conservation efforts. Goats and pigs have been eradicated.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor trends in the population. Control <em>T.novaehollandiae</em>. Establish a remote population to minimise the risk of extinction<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143835	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus sylvestris</em> is endemic to Lord Howe Island (<strong>Australia</strong>). In 1788, it was found from sea-level to the tops of the two mountains on the island, but from the mid-19th century, it became restricted to the summits. In the 1980s, birds were reintroduced to lowland sites, including isolated, steep, coastal palm forest at Little Slope, and lowland palm forests around the settlement. The highest densities are now surrounding the settlement and on Mt Gower, which support over half of the population. The total population has stabilised at c.130 mature birds, and the total carrying capacity of the island is thought to be c.220 birds. <br/></p>	eng
143835	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in closed forest. At high altitudes, it occurs in gnarled, mossy forest which covers, and is unique to, the mountain summits. It is largely confined to megaphyllous, broad sclerophyll forest at lower altitudes, particularly kentia palm <em>Howea forsterana</em> growing on igneous soils. It is rarely found in the rainforest subformation that covers most of the island. It nests on the ground under thick vegetation or in petrel burrows, and forages among the litter on the forest floor, taking worms, molluscs, invertebrates and occasionally petrel nestlings. <br/></p>	eng
143835	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated 130 breeding adults and 200 individuals. Previously, Taylor and van Perlo (1998) estimated 40-50 pairs and 170-200 birds.  <br/></p>	eng
143835	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species was eliminated from the lowlands by predation by feral pigs, cats, people and their dogs, as well as disturbance by pigs and goats. Uncontrolled pet dogs can still be an occasional problem. Natural catastrophes are an additional threat. The only remaining significant threat is the introduced Masked Owl <em>Tyto novaehollandiae </em>which is thought to be responsible for a major decline in the Little Slope population in 1989. Further introductions of exotic predators or the introduction of chronic disease could have serious consequences<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143836	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. Yonaha-dake and parts of Mt Ibu and Mt Nishime are designated as protected areas. Conservation organisations have been promoting the protection of Okinawa's forests since 1970 and have bought some sites on Mt Yonaha to establish private wildlife reserves. In 1996, Yambaru was designated as a national park.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish monitoring and research programmes. Provide full protection for the whole area of Yambaru. Research methods to control introduced predators. Instigate a conservation education programme for Okinawa using this species and Okinawa Woodpecker <em>Sapheopipo noguchii as flagships. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143836	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus okinawae</em> is endemic to Okinawa Island, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is confined to Kunigami-gun (=Yambaru) in the northern quarter of the island, north of Shioya and Higashi-son. Following recent declines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its population is estimated to be 1,200-1,680 birds. <br/></p>	eng
143836	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in a variety of habitats, including primary and secondary, evergreen and broadleaf subtropical forest, often with a dense undergrowth of ferns, near to streams, pools or reservoirs and cultivated areas close to forest. It is almost, but not completely, flightless and feeds on the forest floor, and occasionally in shallow water, where it takes invertebrates and lizards. Nests are made on the ground during the breeding season, from May-July. The usual clutch-size is two to three eggs.  <br/></p>	eng
143836	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys conducted between 1996 and 2004 estimated 717 individuals at the end of the period (Ozaki <em>et al</em>. 2006). Repeat survey in 2006 found no further decrease (Ozaki <em>in litt</em>. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
143836	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging, dam construction and associated road-building, agricultural development and golf course construction are causing forest loss and fragmentation. Feral dogs and cats and the introduced Javan mongoose  <br/><em>Herpestes javanicus</em> are possible predators. Recent research<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> indicates that its range on the island has contracted to the north (resulting in a 25% decrease in extent of occurrence). The research strongly implies that introduced mongoose are the cause of this contraction. <br/></p>	eng
143838	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus insignis</em> is a flightless (or almost flightless) forest rail endemic to New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is generally uncommon in lowland and montane forest to 1,250 m, especially along rivers and in mid-montane altitudes, but less common in tall secondary forest<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. It is sometimes trapped and caught by hunting dogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the forests in the lower altitudes of its range are threatened by extensive logging. <br/></p>	eng
143838	population	BirdLife International, 2008	<10,000 individuals estimated by G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International (2002). <br/></p>	eng
143840	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus rovianae</em> is known from New Georgia and Kolombangara, with reports from Kohinggo, Wana Wana (= Vonavona) and Rendova in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is locally fairly common in thickets and young plantations on Kolombangara but there are few records from other islands<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. As a flightless species, it may be under threat from introduced predatory mammals and village dogs but there is no evidence of decline on Kolombangara, where it has presumably increased to populate the large forestry plantations<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143840	population	BirdLife International, 2008	<10,000 individuals estimated by G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International (2002). <br/></p>	eng
143841	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Captive breeding started in 1984. Since 1987, efforts have been under way to establish a self-sustaining, experimental population on the nearby snake-free island of Rota<strong><sup>2.</sup></strong> In 1999, birds bred there for the first time<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; birds have since been released at four sites and success has been mixed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In late 1998, some captive-reared birds were released in northern Guam, into a small area (24 ha) protected from snakes by a barrier and trapping, and though these birds were breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, this population is now extinct<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue the captive-breeding programme. Control <em>B. irregularis</em> in additional areas on Guam so that more introductions can take place</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Continue to manage the released populations on Rota to maximise the retention of the species's genetic diversity</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Implement stringent measures to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis</em> from Guam to Rota. Before considering another reintroduction to Guam, control feral cats.	eng
143841	distribution		<em>Gallirallus owstoni</em> is endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong>, where it was widely distributed until 1968 when, along with most other indigenous species, it started to decline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1981, the population was estimated at c.2,000, in 1983 it was reckoned to number fewer than 100 and, by 1987, it was extirpated from the wild<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It survives in captive-breeding facilities in Guam and in 14 zoos in the USA (c.180 birds in total)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was reintroduced to Guam in 1998 but a rapid population decline was observed during 2000-2002 and no rails have been detected since, either in the predator free zone (Area 50, 24 hectares) or the snake reduced open landscape<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. From 1989-2007 853 captive reared rails were released on nearby Rota, Northern Mariana Islands (to USA), though this has experienced mixed success, with some populations rapidly declining to extinction, there is currently an expanding population of 40-60 individuals in the Duge area and another of 20 birds at Apanon<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
143841	habitat		This flightless species was widely distributed in most habitats on Guam, including forest, savanna, scrub, secondary grassland, fern thickets and agricultural areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (but not in freshwater wetland habitats<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>). It foraged along field edges and roadsides (never far from cover) for snails, slugs, insects, geckos, vegetable matter, seeds and flowers from low grasses and shrubs, and also the introduced giant African snail <em>Achatina fulica</em> which became an important part of the diet<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It breeds throughout the year (birds attaining sexual maturity at four months) with a peak period during the rains in July-November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests are located on dry ground in dense grass, and clutch-size is 1-4, usually 3-4<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
143842	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus wakensis</em><em> </em>was endemic to scrub on Wake Island in the central Pacific Ocean,<strong> United States Minor Outlying Islands (to USA)<sup>1</sup></strong>. It was not uncommon before the Second World War, but was presumably eaten to extinction by the starving Japanese garrison between 1942 and 1945<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143843	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus pacificus</em><em> </em>is known only from Forster's painting from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, in the British Museum<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, from Cook's second voyage in 1773<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although there were reports from Tahiti until 1844, and from the nearby Mehetia until the 1930s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was flightless, and its extinction was presumably caused by introduced cats and rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143844	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus dieffenbachii</em><em> </em>was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Pitt Islands, <strong>New Zealand<sup>3</sup></strong>. It is known from the type, in Tring<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with one other specimen reported to be in Bremen<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and from abundant subfossil material<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species was already scarce when the type was collected in 1840, and was extinct by 1872, presumably due to predation by introduced rats, cats and dogs, and habitat loss from fire<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143849	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cuare Faunal Refuge is a Ramsar site<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Significant mangrove areas remain in Henri Pittier National Park, and it probably occurs in Morrocoy National Park<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to establish its current distribution<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Re-enforce management plans at Cuare Faunal Refuge<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Control tourism developments at Playa de Cata<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></p>	eng
143849	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallus wetmorei</em> is restricted to a small stretch of the north coast of <strong>Venezuela</strong>, where it is known from, at most, nine localities - and only three in recent years - in east Falc&oacute;n, north Carabobo and Aragua. It is extremely rare and very poorly known, but was probably at least locally common when discovered: 11 specimens were collected at Puerto Cabello/San Esteban in 1944-1945, and 11 at Tucacas in May 1951. It persists at Tucacas where at least six pairs were found in June 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the only other record for Falc&oacute;n since the 1950s was at Cuare Faunal Refuge in 1986. In Aragua, the most recent records are of a pair at Playa de Cata, 15 km east of La Ci&eacute;naga, in April 1991, and a pair at Henri Pittier National Park in 1991 and 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There have been no records from Carabobo since 1945.  <br/></p>	eng
143849	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently sedentary in coastal mangroves, and shallow saltwater or seasonally flooded brackish lagoons and marshes with emergent and halophytic vegetation dominated by saltwort <em>Batis maritima</em>. A breeding condition female was collected in April, a male taken in May had enlarged testes, and a bird collected in September was apparently a juvenile, suggesting a breeding season beginning in April or May. <br/></p>	eng
143849	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population assumed to fall in the range of 250-999 individuals based on rarity of recent records and restricted number of known localities. Verification of this estimate is desirable. <br/></p>	eng
143849	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Housing developments and expanding oil exploration are destroying mangrove habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Cuare Faunal Refuge is threatened by squatters, hotel developments, tourism, illegal hunting, pollution from domestic sewage, pesticides and mercury, a proposed golf course and the restriction of water flow by road-building. Development projects threaten the coastal wetlands of San Esteban and Henri Pittier National Park. The Playa de Cata lagoon has been closed off from the sea by a dyke to facilitate the development of the beach for tourism. <br/></p>	eng
143851	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Some p&aacute;ramo birds occur in protected areas such as Chingaza National Park and Carpanta Biological Reserve, but savanna wetlands are unprotected.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect wetland areas that harbour large populations<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the status of birds in p&aacute;ramo habitats. Assess the taxonomic status of the species. <br/></p>	eng
143851	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallus semiplumbeus</em> occurs on the Ubat&eacute;-Bogot&aacute; plateau in Cundinamarca and Boyac&aacute; in the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. In Boyac&aacute;, it is known from Laguna de Tota and, in Cundinamarca, it has been recorded at a minimum of 21 localities. The Ubat&eacute;-Bogot&aacute; plateau formerly held enormous marshes and swamps, but few lakes with suitable habitat remain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although declining, it is still uncommon to fairly common, with notable populations including c.400 birds at Laguna de Tota, c.50 territories at Laguna de la Herrera, c.110 birds at Parque La Florida<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and those at La Conejera marsh and Laguna de F&uacute;quene<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143851	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the temperate zone, at 2,500-4,000&#160;m (occasionally as low as 2,100&#160;m), in savanna and p&aacute;ramo marshes, but it is unclear whether p&aacute;ramo birds breed locally<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Characteristic wetland habitats are fringed by dense, tall reeds, bulrushes and vegetation-rich shallows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It uses flooded pasture and small overgrown dykes and ponds, but probably not for breeding<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Breeding probably takes place in July-September<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in <em>Scirpus</em> and <em>Typha</em> spp. beds adjoining shallow water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on aquatic invertebrates and insect larvae, but also takes worms, molluscs, dead fish, frogs, tadpoles and plant material. <br/></p>	eng
143851	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Collar <em>et al</em>. (1992); Lozano (1993); F. G. Stiles <em>in litt</em>. (1999). <br/></p>	eng
143851	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Drainage has caused massive habitat loss on the Ubat&eacute;-Bogot&aacute; plateau, and few suitably vegetated marshes remain because of pollution and siltation. All major savanna wetlands are seriously threatened, mainly by drainage, but also by agricultural encroachment, erosion, dyking, eutrophication (caused by untreated sewage effluent and agrochemicals), insecticides, tourism, hunting, burning, trampling by cattle, harvesting of reeds, fluctuating water-levels and increased water demand. The fringing habitat at Laguna de Tota has been reduced to less than 2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, and its continuing decay is reducing food availability<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Laguna de la Herrera is affected by hunting, cattle trampling and irrigation schemes, and La Conejera marsh and Laguna de la Florida are threatened by road construction and illegal settlement<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143852	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Targeted surveys are responsible for recent records<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. One population lies adjacent to Los Glaciares National Park but, since cattle graze inside and outside the reserve, its extension would currently offer minimal protection<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Chile, it occurs in Pali Aike and Torres del Paine National Parks<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, with extensive habitat remaining in the former<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey (with tape-playback) remaining main rivers and marshes throughout possible and historic range<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect key sites such as El Zurdo and Estancia Soledad. Ensure that agricultural development has minimal effects. Raise local awareness of the species and potential threats. <br/></p>	eng
143852	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rallus antarcticus</em> was rediscovered in 1998, and has been subsequently found at six localities in Santa Cruz, <strong>Argentina</strong>, and two in Magallanes, <strong>Chile</strong><sup>5,7,8,9</sup>. The discovery of a pair on the Valdes peninsula (Chubut) has extended the known range far to the north<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is fairly common at three sites, with the largest population holding c.35 birds<strong><sup>5,8,9</sup></strong>. Curiously all recent records fall outside the historical range, despite searches at former haunts<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It was previously known from a few specimens and fewer confirmed sight records, with none since 1959. In addition historical records exist for Buenos Aires, R&iacute;o Negro, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, and Valparaiso, Santiago, Colchagua and Llanquihu&eacute;, Chile. The population is estimated at 2,500 to 9,999 individuals, but recent surveys at the nine locations only added a further 125 individuals to the known total, and there are concerns that the population may actually be below 2,500<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143852	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in marshy Patagonian steppe wetlands<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>, where there are large patches of dense and tall (c.2&#160;m) rushbeds <em>Schoenoplectus</em> (<em>Scirpus</em>) <em>californicus</em>, and open areas, densely covered by <em>Myriophyllum</em> sp. and lush green grass<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. Some northerly post-breeding dispersal or possibly partial migration may occur, at least in southern populations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143852	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
143852	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The most serious threat is the planned development of intensive agriculture in suitable river valleys<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Intensive grazing of the steppes may have affected wetlands, because the resulting bare soil has been deposited in pools and marshes by the wind<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There has been extensive harvesting of aquatic vegetation for cattle<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, this practice is now limited in many areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and rushbeds at the site of the rediscovery (and presumably elsewhere) have increased in recent years owing to the particularly wet climate<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Water extraction for agriculture and other purposes may negatively impact on wetlands<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143853	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Western and southern populations of this species are mainly sedentary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, whereas others are fully migratory, moving overland on a broad front between breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After mild winters the spring migration begins in late-February, otherwise it occurs from March to mid-April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Europe and Russia the autumn migration occurs from August to December<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species breeds in single pairs or small family groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although large concentrations of breeding birds may occurring in extensive wetlands, with nests 20-50 m apart where population densities are high<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After breeding the species may pause on passage in favourable habitats between early-July and early-September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to undergo a flightless wing-moult<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that may last for c.3 weeks<strong><sup>3, 2</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains solitary<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, but may occasionally congregate into small groups of up to 30 individuals during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species regularly uses well-defined paths between favoured food sources within its habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species requires muddy ground for foraging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and shows a preference for shallow still or slow-flowing water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> 5-30 cm deep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, surrounded by dense riparian, emergent, submergent or aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in reedbeds and other emergent vegetation in fresh and saline swamps, fens and marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and at the fringes of open fresh or saline lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. Other habitats include clay pits, gravel pits, peat excavations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, river oxbows and channels, damp meadows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and rice paddy-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Rather than occupying large uniform wet areas in larger habitats, the species shows a preference for wetlands that form a mosaic with drier patches and areas of trees (e.g. willow <em>Salix</em> spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) or other fringing scrub<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration and in the winter the species frequents riverbanks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, canals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, gravel pits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, farm sewage outfalls<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, marshy areas (Iceland)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, bracken on islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, flooded blackberry <em>Rubus</em> spp. thickets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and other very small wetland patches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of animal matter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> such as worms, leeches, molluscs, shrimps, crayfish, spiders, terrestrial and aquatic insects and larvae, amphibians<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. frogs, toads and newts)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, fish, birds and mammals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also takes plant matter (especially during the autumn and winter) including shoots, roots, seeds, berries and fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a substantial cup of vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> that is usually positioned in thick stands of reeds or rushes on the ground in or near water, or rarely on a tree stump or in the open<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Nests placed in water are built up if the water level rises<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143853	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to severe conditions (e.g. ice or severe floods)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143854	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> There is no evidence that this species makes regular migratory movements<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although numbers may fluctuate throughout the year in some locations due to the dispersal of immatures and to nomadic behaviour in response to environmental conditions<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is a strongly territorial breeder<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for c.3 weeks between August and November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits permanent and temporary swamps and marshes often at the edge of lakes, pools, rivers and streams, and also occurs in seasonally wet sugar-cane plantations and paddy-fields adjacent to natural marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It requires shallowly flooded areas with mud and floating vegetation for foraging<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and shows a preference for habitats lined with reedbeds or dense species-rich vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with channels and runways linking patches of more open growth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. For breeding the species shows a preference for seasonally inundated grasslands and sedge meadows<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with robust sedges and grasses c.50 cm or more in height<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of worms, crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish), aquatic and terrestrial adult and larval insects, spiders, small fish, small frogs and some vegetable matter including seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup of plant matter well concealed in aquatic vegetation, usually over water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143855	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is found in several protected areas on the east coast<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. No species-specific conservation action is yet in place. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Promote conservation of its habitats through both  policy changes and community conservation projects. Determine the rate of population decline.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143855	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	Madagascar Rail <em>Rallus madagascariensis</em> occupies suitable habitat in eastern <strong>Madagascar </strong>where it is generally rare but locally not uncommon<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its population is estimated to number 2,500-10,000 individuals. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143855	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species inhabits dense aquatic vegetation of marshes, wet woodlands and river margins from sea level to 1,800 m. It is a secretive bird, usually found alone or in pairs. Prey are mainly invertebrates in muddy substrates. It mainly breeds August-October, nesting on the ground in   thick aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143855	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's population is estimated to number 2,500-10,000 individuals (F. Hawkins<em> in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
143855	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss is the principal threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its aquatic and wet forest habitats are becoming rapidly transformed by agricultural and logging activities. <br/></p>	eng
143856	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lewinia mirificus</em> is known from Luzon and Samar in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, to which it is probably endemic, although as breeding there has not been confirmed, this remains to be proven. The vast majority of records derive from the migration funnel, and bird-catching site, of Dalton Pass on Luzon, where over 200 were recorded between 1965 and 1970, suggesting that it may persist in reasonable numbers, and that it is migratory. Although breeding and non-breeding areas are uncertain, these records infer movements either between the Cagayan valley and Luzon's central plain, or between the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre mountains; if the former is true, the records from south Luzon and Samar may relate to overshooting migrants. Recently an individual was observed in degraded cloudforest at 2,240 m on Mount Data, Luzon in January 2001. The bird was heard to call (a frog-like accelerating series of clicking notes), and the same call was heard in cloudforest at 1,100 m on Mayon Volcano in Southern Luzon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although it has been speculated that it has strict habitat requirements, if these are similar to its congener (and possibly conspecific) Lewin's Rail <em>L.&#160;pectoralis</em>, it may prove to be rather cosmopolitan in its preferences, as the few documented details (cloud-forest, near pine forest, and in a small undisturbed riverside swamp), from 550-2,250&#160;m, imply. The only known threat is hunting (evidenced at Dalton Pass), although the impact of this on its population cannot currently be gauged. <br/></p>	eng
143858	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site declared in 1998.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Eradicate pigs from Auckland Island in the long term<sup>1,5. Transfer birds to other suitable pest-free islands in the Auckland Island group5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143858	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lewinia muelleri</em> is endemic to the Auckland Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It was once thought to be extinct but was rediscovered on Adams Island (100 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1966 and Disappointment Island (4 km<sup>2</sup>) in 1993. On Adams, where suitable habitat may cover as little as 10% of the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the population is estimated at 1,500 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On Disappointment, the population is estimated at more than 500<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its status on Ewing Island is unclear, and it may indeed never have occurred there<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Population numbers are apparently stable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143858	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its preferred habitat consists of coastal and cliff herbfields, <em>Carex</em> grassland, tussock-herbfields and forest. The one clutch seen in the wild consisted of two eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. One juvenile bird caught in the wild lived nine years in captivity, and ate insects and other invertebrates<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143858	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Heather and Robertson (1997), Collar <em>et al.</em> (1994)  <br/></p>	eng
143858	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although both rail-inhabited islands are predator-free, Auckland Island (a few hundred metres from Adams) supports feral cats, mice and pigs, and therefore the introduction of these animals is a possible threat. <br/></p>	eng
143859	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds during the rains in Madagascar or in December on Aldabra Island, nesting in solitary pairs and remaining solitary and territorial throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It occupies a variety of habitats including forest with dense herbaceous ground cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, woodland water courses<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, stream edges with tall, dense, herbaceous vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mangroves, beaches or coral islets and wetlands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> (e.g. marshes with long grass, reeds and sedge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and rice paddy-fields<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>). The species also inhabits rough, heavily dissected coral limestone covered by dense scrub on Aldabra Island, and may forage on sand and pebble beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. gastropods such as <em>Melanoides</em> spp. and <em>Littorina</em> spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small ghost crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Ocypode cordimana</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, insects (e.g. Diptera, Coleoptera, termites, ant eggs and larvae)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and eggs and hatchlings of green turtles <em>Cheldonia mydas</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also associates with tortoises: taking tortoise droppings (in order to extract insects), picking insects from tortoise carapaces and taking insects from decaying tortoise carcasses<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest can be either a loose structure of twigs and leaves placed in a depression in a rock, or it can be a more substantial bowl placed on the ground in dense vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species was successfully reintroduced to Picard Island, an island free of domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> near Aldabra atoll<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143859	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by accidental introductions of feral domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> into otherwise suitable habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143860	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a partial migrant, moving both north and south of the equator to breed during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary territorial pairs, and normally occurs singly, in pairs or family parties<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> outside of the breeding season, with small groups of up to six individuals occurring together on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Newly arrived migrants in both the breeding and non-breeding grounds have also been observed in groups of 3-8 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is most active early and late in the day, especially after heavy rain or during light rain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species shows a preference for a range of grassland habitats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> from seasonally moist or inundated grasslands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. temporary wetlands in the moist grassland of the Okavango Delta)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, grass and rank vegetation at the edges of freshwater swamps, reedy marshes, and open waters<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> (e.g. rivers, streams and farm dams)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, to tall grass savannas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and dry grassland in lightly wooded country<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species also frequents grassy areas in forest clearings and occurs around exotic plantations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in maize, rice and cotton fields<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, in neglected cultivation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and in moist sugar cane plantations adjacent to marshy areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Its grassland habitat is frequently burnt in the dry season, forcing emigration<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of earthworms, molluscs, insects and their larvae (especially termites, ants, beetles and grasshoppers), small frogs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, small fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, grass seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and vegetable matter (e.g. grass blades, green shoots and other leaves)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow cup of grass blades that is usually positioned on the ground in a scrape or depression, often hidden under a tussock or small bush<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, occasionally also 2-15 cm above dry ground, or floating or standing in water in dense grass or other vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143860	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The loss of wetland and grassland habitats due to overgrazing, cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. sugarcane plantations)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and human settlement is a threat to this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is killed for food in some regions<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143861	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS (Bonn Convention) Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. The species is legally protected from hunting in most of the countries in its breeding range<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Conservation measures have been taken in 14 European range states. National action plans have been prepared in Switzerland, Norway, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany, Denmark, UK, and Slovakia. Appropriate habitat management techniques have been researched, and local repeat surveys in Russia show relative stability of the population<sup>14</sup>. A European action plan was published in 1996 and a revised version published in 2006<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and a Corncrake Conservation Team was established in 1998. There is an ongoing reintroduction programme in England, UK<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor numbers through regular coordinated surveys, and improve monitoring in key countries (e.g. Russia, Belarus)<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. Monitor habitat condition and extent<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>.  Ensure that agri-environmental measures for the species in the EU are well targeted and implemented, and focus on mowing date and methods suitable for the species. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status. Restore lost habitat where possible. Conduct further research into the species's ecology and demography<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Work with farmers and land managers to ensure that traditional farming methods are retained, areas of grass are left uncut and harvest times are delayed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Monitor levels of illegal trapping and hunting<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Lobby governments in remaining countries where it is not protected to afford the species legal protection<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
143861	distribution		<em>Crex crex</em> breeds in Europe and central Asia, as far east as western <strong>China</strong>, and winters in sub-Saharan Africa. There were recently estimated to be 1.3-2 million breeding pairs in Europe (including 1-1.5 million pairs in European Russia)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, higher than the 1.1-1.8 million pairs in Europe previously estimated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which were in turn significantly higher than the 92,000-233,000 estimated in 1996, the difference resulting from the completion of the first systematic surveys of national populations in eastern Europe and <strong>Russia</strong>. A further 515,000-1,240,000 pairs are estimated for Asiatic Russia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, yielding a global total of 1.815-3.24 million pairs and 5.45-9.72 million individuals. Given the high level of uncertainty in some of the breeding estimates and the apparent scarcity of the species in its non-breeding areas in sub-Saharan Africa, the total population may fall at the lower end of this range; even in the low millions. Whilst some of these populations may be increasing, population trends are unclear and often show large fluctuations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> in response to changes in agricultural practices or annual rainfall<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Historically, most west European range states have seen major declines, which continued in some countries during 1990-2000 but were reversed elsewhere<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population in the UK recently increased, from 480 calling males in 1993 to 1,245 calling males in 2007, in response to conservation action<strong><sup>9,15</sup></strong>, although numbers have since dipped to 1,098 in 2009<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Many western European states have observed a partial recovery since 1997, but dominated by large fluctuations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Finland the population in 2003-2008 averaged around five times that in the 1990s<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.  Monitoring since 2002 in 13 regions and republics in Russia (which holds the vast majority of the global population) indicates that numbers have remained stable or are even increasing (with some fluctuations due to extreme weather)<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.  Whilst it is difficult to accurately predict future trends owing to the species's extensive range, and differing climatic and agricultural conditions in different regions, it is thought that populations in key parts of the range in Russia and Kazakhstan are unlikely to change dramatically in the near future, although agricultural intensification and abandonment may drive some regional declines, and the species's conservation status in much of the western part of its range remains unfavourable.	eng
143861	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is a long-distance migrant<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It breeds during the months of April-August, with nests generally well separated but sometimes only 20-55m apart from one another<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It is sequentially polygynous, with some males moving a considerable distance to new singing areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A male's territory may encompass several nests<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and local concentrations of breeding birds therefore sometimes occur<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The species normally produces two broods per year. It begins to leave its breeding grounds in August, with a peak in September<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, and arrives on its African wintering grounds in November-December<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It migrates at night, travelling at low altitude<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. During migration it sometimes travels in pairs<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, occasionally forming groups of around 20-40 individuals<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and diurnally resting flocks may contain several hundred birds<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It occurs solitarily during the non-breeding season, individual birds holding territories of 4-9ha<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The return migration begins in late February or March, and the breeding grounds are occupied from mid-April<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>The species breeds in open or semi-open habitats, mainly meadows with tall grass. The original breeding habitat would almost certainly have been riverine meadows of <em>Carex</em>-<em>Iris</em>-<em>Typhoides</em> and alpine, coastal and fire-created grasslands with few trees or bushes present<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is now strongly associated with agricultural grassland managed for the production of hay<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include moist, unfertilised grassland and regularly cut meadows in areas of low-intensity agriculture where vegetation grows tall in summer. Across its European range, hay or silage fields in valleys liable to flooding seem of most importance, but birds also breed in hay and silage fields in subalpine areas. Wetlands and marsh edges may act as important refuges when drier habitats are unsuitable. Males are also found singing in clear-cuts in forest, pastures and young conifer plantations. Singing males can regularly be heard in fertilised meadows or fields sown with cereals, but successful reproduction here is thought to be infrequent<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Bulgaria radio tracking showed that the two broods are produced in different locations, the second brood at a significantly higher altitude than the first one, thus benefiting from delayed vegetation development and later hay mowing at higher altitudes<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It avoids very marshy areas, standing water, river and lake margins and open ground with rocks, stones and gravel<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, and also those areas with a thick layer of dead grass or very dense vegetation above 50cm tall<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Adults move to areas of high herbage along ditches to moult after breeding<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>: embankments or fallow areas adjacent to the breeding habitat are very important as moulting sites<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During migration it occurs in a variety of habitats including wheat fields and on golf courses<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In the wintering grounds dry grassland and savanna are preferred with birds also occurring in rank grass near rivers, sewage ponds and pools and in relatively short grass in wetter areas, moist sedgebeds and reedbeds and in tall grass within young conifer plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also occurs in <em>Eragrostis</em> hayfields, old land and pastures, maize fields bounded by grass, fallow and abandoned cultivation uncut grass on airfields, and the edges of sugarcane<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs where vegetation is between 30cm and 2m in height, and often in areas that are burnt during the dry season<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates, including taxa living on plants, on the soil surface and in the soil<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It takes a large number and wide variety of insects<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, as well as snails and slugs, arachnids, millipedes, earthworms, young frogs, green parts of plants, young shoots and seeds and possibly even small mammals and birds<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is on the ground in dense vegetation and is constructed from dead stems and leaves<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Often surrounding stems are pulled over the top to form a loose canopy<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The average clutch-size is c.10 eggs and two broods may be raised per season<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
143861	population		BirdLife International (2004) estimated 1.3-2 million breeding pairs in Europe (including 1-1.5 million pairs in European Russia). This is higher than the 1.1-1.8 million pairs in Europe previously estimated by Sch&auml;ffer and Mammen 1999). A further 515,000-1,240,000 pairs are estimated for Asiatic Russia (Sch&auml;ffer and Mammen 1999), yielding a global total of 1.815-3.24 million pairs and 5.45-9.72 million individuals. Given the high level of uncertainty in some of the breeding estimates and the apparent scarcity of the species in its non-breeding areas in sub-Saharan Africa, the total population may fall at the lower end of this range; even in the low millions.	eng
143862	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rougetius rougetii</em> is widespread in the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, and much less widespread in those of <strong>Eritrea</strong>, from 1,500 to 4,100 m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It appears to have maintained its distribution but to have suffered a reduction in numbers<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Thus, during field surveys of Important Bird Areas in Ethiopia (1995-1996) it was considered uncommon or present only in small numbers (seven sites) and not uncommon or fairly common (two sites)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This contrasts with earlier records which refer to the species as widespread and common to locally abundant<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>R. rougetii</em> is found in marshy areas within montane grasslands and moorlands, in lush grass, reeds and bushes along streams, around ponds and in <em>Alchemilla</em> bogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also found on dry ground among heaths and <em>Alchemilla</em> and adapts well to man-modified habitats such as lawns, shrubberies and thickets in parks and gardens<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has a wide diet, including seeds and aquatic insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although it can survive even in heavily grazed and highly disturbed wet pasture, intensive grazing and mowing -- for mixing with mud to make building materials -- throughout the densely populated highlands may be the cause of its apparent population reduction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143862	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Dodman (2005) estimated <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143863	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. It is known to occur in two substantial protected areas, Lore Lindu and Bogani Nani Wartabone national parks.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for this species and <em>G. rosenbergi (using tape-playback of their vocalisations if possible), to establish their current distribution and population status, and assess their habitat requirements and main threats. Identify important areas for these species and promote their designation as protected areas where appropriate. Raise public awareness.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143863	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aramidopsis platenae</em> is endemic to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the lowlands and hills in north, central and south-eastern parts of the island, and adjacent Buton. Its secretive habits make assessment of its population status very difficult. It is only known from c.10 specimens and a handful of recent records. It may therefore be genuinely rare, although it was formerly described as common along the Menado river, south of Tondano. It is likely to have declined as a result of widespread deforestation across its range. <br/></p>	eng
143863	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This flightless rail inhabits tropical, lowland evergreen and lower montane rainforest, especially densely vegetated, forest-edge habitats or thick understoreys of primary forest, from sea-level to 1,000&#160;m. Streams, damp gullies and thick secondary growth (in places dominated by rattans, lianas and bamboo) appear to be important habitat features. It has also been found in dense low forest/shrub regrowth on recently abandoned rice-fields and its habitat requirements thus appear more flexible than first believed. Its diet is reported to consist chiefly of small crabs.</p>	eng
143863	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5 individuals/km2 x 7,900 km2 (10% EOO) = 3,950 i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density from lower of three estimates for forest rails and wood-rails in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
143863	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As the exact habitat needs and altitudinal preference of the species are somewhat unclear, the impact of extensive lowland deforestation on Sulawesi, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructure development and large-scale logging, is unclear. However, habitat loss and fragmentation is likely to pose the single major threat to the species. In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000) these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has also been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi. Its flightlessness renders it vulnerable to predation, particularly by introduced predators (e.g. dogs). Hunting (using snares) poses a further threat. <br/></p>	eng
143864	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A management plan for the island was due for comment in 2000<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Minimise the risk of colonisation by introduced species through strict controls on visits and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers<sup>7. Establish a captive-breeding population for research and advocacy. Nominate Inaccessible for World Heritage Site status2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143864	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlantisia rogersi</em> is confined to the South Atlantic island of Inaccessible, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong>. The population has been variously roughly estimated as 1,200 birds in 1938<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, 5,000-10,000 birds in 1952<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and 1,000-2,000 breeding pairs in 1974<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The most accurate survey to date is an estimate of 8,400 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is abundant on the island and may be at carrying capacity given its high population density, delayed maturity, small clutch-size, and lack of major predators or competitors<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143864	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs virtually throughout the island, but is most abundant in tussock grassland away from the cliffs and in open fern-bush on the plateau, where territories are less than 20&#160;m across<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It forages in every available habitat including very short vegetation, boulder beaches and marshy areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The diet comprises a wide range of invertebrates including earthworms and moths, as well as berries and seeds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The breeding biology is not well known, but two eggs are laid between October and January<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143864	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The most accurate survey to date gave an estimate of 8,400 birds (Fraser 1992). <br/></p>	eng
143864	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Predation by Tristan Thrush <em>Nesocichla eremita</em> and wet weather are believed to be the main causes for chick mortality, but pose no real threat. However, there is a permanent risk that the island will be colonised by mammalian predators, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> from Tristan. The colonisation of potential competitors would also be a threat, as well as alien invertebrates which could negatively modify the prey base<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Despite its name, the island is now more accessible to islanders via a fisheries patrol vessel based at Tristan<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
143868	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park (Colombia), and Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve and Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve (Ecuador)<strong><sup>2,3,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Surveys to locate additional sites for the species. Survey to assess its occurrence in Peru. Research its precise ecological requirements<sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143868	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aramides wolfi</em> is known from west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Cauca and Choc&oacute;), west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Los R&iacute;os, Guayas and El Oro) and possibly north-west Peru (Tumbes). There are a few recent records from Ecuador (Quinind&eacute;, Jatun Sacha Bilsa, R&iacute;o Palenque and Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve)<strong><sup>2,3,9,15</sup></strong>, but elsewhere it has become extremely rare<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Colombia, most records originate from the Serran&iacute;a de Baud&oacute;, where the only recent report (March 1996) is from Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park, Choc&oacute;, which holds a potentially large population<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The single (potential) record for Peru was at Puerto Pizarro, Tumbes, in September 1977<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143868	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded most frequently in mangroves, but has also been found in forest, secondary growth, forested rivers, riverine marsh and swampy woodland, up to 1,300&#160;m <strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143868	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
143868	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is attributed to extensive habitat loss, particularly of mangroves. Other lowland forest habitats in Ecuador and Colombia have suffered rapid rates of destruction for over four decades, leaving less than 10% and 60% of original habitat cover in each country respectively<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. It seems likely that riverine forest would suffer above-average rates of destruction. The causes, both past and present, are road construction and associated colonisation and deforestation, commercial logging, mining, conversion to oil-palm and coca plantations, and other agricultural land-uses (arable and livestock), grazing in remnant forest patches and other developments such as dams, pipelines and military installations<strong><sup>1,4,11,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143873	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from three protected areas, Bogani Nani Wartabone, Lore Lindu and Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Parks. In addition, it also occurs in two proposed protected areas: Gunung Klabat and Pengunungan Palu. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for this species (using tape playback of its vocalisations to aid detection), on both Sulawesi and Peleng, to establish its current distribution and status, assess its ecological requirements and identify local threats. Propose further key sites for establishment as strict protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143873	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gymnocrex rosenbergii</em> is known from Sulawesi and the nearby island of Peleng, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Specimen records and sightings suggest that it is relatively widely distributed and locally fairly common. However, it appears to have declined, and has probably disappeared from much of the Minahasa peninsula, and indeed lowland Sulawesi. Recent records derive from few localities, suggesting that it is now rare and local, although its retiring habits undoubtedly result in it being under-recorded. Its current status on Peleng (where it is known from just three specimens) is unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143873	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense primary and old secondary tropical evergreen (sometimes relatively dry) forest, usually between 150 and 900&#160;m. However, recent records from c.1,700&#160;m suggest that its altitudinal range is broad. Records indicate a preference for thick understorey (comprising small saplings, palms, rattans and bamboos), forest streams and pools. It has also been encountered in dense, low forest/shrub regrowth on recently abandoned rice-fields. It is a very poor flier, and is therefore presumably largely sedentary. Its call is potentially a significant aid to detection.</p>	eng
143873	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 14,700 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 7,350 i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density from lower of three estimates for forest rails and wood-rails in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143873	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The impact of extensive lowland deforestation on Sulawesi, as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, agricultural and infrastructure development and large-scale logging, is unclear. However, habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation certainly poses the single main threat to the species. In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000) these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has also been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi. Its near flightlessness renders it vulnerable to predation, particularly by introduced predators (e.g. dogs), and hunting (using snares) may pose a local threat. <br/></p>	eng
143880	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary and a local migrant, its movements related to seasonal rainfall and the filling up of temporary waters<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. Young birds may also undergo extensive dispersal movements that are not linked to rainfall<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species may breed throughout the year when conditions are suitable, with seasonal peaks during or following periods of rain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests territorially<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is usually observed in pairs, but may gather in groups of up to 10 individuals<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. The adults may become flightless for up to 3 weeks between December and March when moulting their fight feathers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, during which time they remain within the cover of waterside vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is active diurnally, with peaks of activity occurring just after rainfall<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits many types of wetland, although it requires moderate vegetation cover, some degree of permanent flooding<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, and tangled vegetation in which it can climb, roost and nest<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include flowing and still inland freshwaters<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> (such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, seasonal pans and temporary flooded areas along rivers)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, the margins of coastal lagoons (Ghana)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and estuarine waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; preferably fringed by rank grass, sedges, reedbeds, papyrus, swampy thickets, bushes or other vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The species also inhabits ponds with floating submergent vegetation (e.g. water-lilies)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and the interior of dense or extensive reedbeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, as well as dense undergrowth in boggy forest clearings<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, or the margins of swampy forest streams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In more open areas it may inhabit broad, grassy marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and will occupy very small streams with little cover in drier regions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of this species consists of worms, molluscs, crustaceans, adult and larval insects, small fish<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, small frogs and tadpoles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the eggs and nestlings<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> of weavers <em>Ploceus</em> spp. and herons (e.g. Rufous-bellied Heron <em>Ardeola rufiventris</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, as well as the seeds and other parts of water plants<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. duckweed <em>Lemna</em> and water-lilies <em>Nymphaea</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally carrion<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a deep bowl of reeds and other aquatic plants that is usually placed floating on or suspended 20-50 cm above the surface of water in vegetation <strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. Nests may also be placed on the ground or in grass tussocks near water, and occasionally up to 3 m high in bushes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143880	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for trade (at traditional medicine markets) in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143881	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands. Several wetland areas where the species occurs, or has occurred, are the subject of planned conservation measures, including Lake Bemamba, Lake Kinkony and the Mangoky River<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  There are new initiatives underway and planned for the conservation of threatened wetlands such as the lower Mahavavy river area, including Lake Kinkony<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to find and census populations between the Mangoky and the Betsiboka rivers<sup>5, such as Lake Amparihy (near Lake Ampandra) which is reported to hold a large population8. Investigate its ecology year-round at (at least one of) Lake Bemamba, Lake Kinkony and Lake Ampandra to identify causes of rarity5. Initiate further wetland-conservation programmes, designed in cooperation with local communities, at its known locations10.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143881	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amaurornis olivieri</em> is known from several widely separated areas in lowland western <strong>Madagascar</strong>, is rare and localised, and all field sightings have been since 1995. Hence, apart from specimens taken in 1930 and 1962<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, there are five records this century: at Lake Bemamba a single bird seen in 1995<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and an adult in 1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, two individual adults at Amboropotsy marsh (near Bekopaka) in 2001<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, a pair with young and two other adults at Lac Ampandra (near Bejofo-Antanandava) in 2002<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and two adults (probably a pair) observed over several days at Lac Kinkony (south-west of Mahajanga) in 2003<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Many searches at former sites have proven fruitless, promoting speculation that it may have disappeared from some sites. However, further undiscovered populations probably survive between Antsalova and Mahajanga<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nonetheless, the overall population is probably small. <br/></p>	eng
143881	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has been found in areas of dense, high, marginal vegetation in streams and lakes, especially in gaps (e.g. pirogue channels) between high <em>Phragmites, Typha </em>and <em>Cyperus</em> beds where patches of short, mixed floating vegetation occur (e.g. water-lilies <em>Nymphaea</em>, floating <em>Salvinia</em> spp., sedges, grasses and the invasive water-hyacinth<em> Eichhornia crassipes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>). Field observations at Lake Kinkony suggest the diet includes both crustaceans (found on the short sub-surface roots of <em>Salvinia</em> sp.) and invertebrates (spiders and insects) found on top of the floating vegetation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is probably two, nesting has been observed in March<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and juveniles in December<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Local knowledge suggests the species may be double-brooded<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species may have been under-recorded in the past because it is very difficult to observe from the shore, preferring hidden alcoves of floating vegetation, most of such sites being difficult to access during the wet-season floods<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In addition, during the dry season there is some evidence that the rails hides in dense beds of <em>Phragmites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
143881	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Survey results from 2003-2004 suggest that the population does not exceed 250 individuals, and is estimated to number 100-200 birds (M. Rabenandrasana <em>in litt.</em> 2004). However, this may be an underestimation as the surveys were brief and the methods were still being developed, thus the species is not necessarily absent at sites where it was not recorded, and the number of sightings is likely to indicate a larger population (R. Safford<em> in litt.</em> 2004), therefore the estimated population range used here is 250-999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143881	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Wetland degradation is a cause of major concern for the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Like the threatened Madagascar Grebe <em>Tachybaptus pelzelnii</em>, it has probably been affected by loss of fringing water-lily habitat following the conversion of wetlands to rice cultivation and by the impact of introduced fish. However, contrary to previous fears, the small size of this rail makes it an unlikely target for hunters<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and in some areas at least the species is taboo and the eggs not collected<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Rice cultivation impinges on its native habitat (such as at Lake Kinkony), and the burning of marshland areas by farmers in the dry season also threatens the species, especially when these fires go unchecked<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. At the Befojo site, the local fishing industry centred on the lakes may make it less likely the lakes will be drained for rice cultivation, as is happening to wetlands across Madagascar<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143883	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Most populations of this species are fully migratory and migrate to wintering grounds from late-August to November, returning north from February-May, and arriving again on breeding grounds between March and April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with breeding occurring between May and August<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in separate territories in solitary pairs or family groups<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, although in favourable habitat nests may be placed as close as 30-35 m apart<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is usually seen singly<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> although it may occur in groups on migration and in the Autumn it sometimes associates with Spotted Crake <em>Porzana porzana</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the lowlands (up to 2,000 m) in temperate and steppe zones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, extending into boreal regions if conditions are favourable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits natural or semi-natural eutrophic freshwater wetlands with still or slow-flowing water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and requires tall stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. <em>Scirpus</em>, <em>Typha</em>, <em>Carex</em>, <em>Sparganium</em> and <em>Phragmites</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in or near fairly deep water in which to breed, preferably with a mixture of dead and living stems and a layer of broken stems at ground or water level<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include the margins of lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, small pools and oxbows in regularly inundated floodplains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, flooded woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as alder <em>Alnus</em> coppices<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and flooded rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season this species inhabits flooded rice-fields<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, seasonally flooded grasslands<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, swamps and small pools overgrown with reeds, bulrushes, sedges and rank grass<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and sewage ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may occur in more atypical habitats on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet of this species consists mostly of insects (especially waterbeetles, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and adult and larval Diptera), as well as the seeds and shoots of aquatic plants (<em>Carex</em>, <em>Sparganium</em>, <em>Polygonum</em> and <em>Nymphaea</em>), worms, gastropods, spiders and water mites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow cup of plant matter<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> placed in thick vegetation on or near water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or occasionally raised on a tussock or platform of dead material, preferably in sites only accessible by swimming<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>The species prefers to breed in tall reedbeds that are not regularly cut or burnt (i.e. with mixtures of dead or living stems)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143883	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and intensive reed harvesting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143884	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> African and Australasian populations of this species are non-migratory or only make local movements in response to seasonal habitat changes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Those populations in Europe and Asia however appear to be fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, most flying southward from late-August to October and returning to the northern breeding areas from March to May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> in the spring, usually nesting during or just after the wet season (where this occurs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is usually a solitary species, but can be found in pairs or family groups, and sometimes forages in small groups of up to 10 individuals in non-breeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally but is most active in the early morning and late afternoon or evening<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species frequents similar habitats throughout its range and throughout the year<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>, although its breeding areas are characterised by low, dense, tussocky or continuous vegetation such as flooded sedges and grasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It inhabits freshwater, brackish or saline marshy wetlands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, both inland and coastal (Australasia)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, permanent and temporary, with dense emergent and floating vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially reeds, rushes, sedges, tall dense grasses and <em>Typha</em> spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Typical habitats include marshes, swamps, peat bogs, flooded meadows<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, damp grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, seasonally flooded pans<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and depressions, tussocky grassland interspersed with patches of mud on the margins of open water<strong><sup>1, 2, 3 </sup></strong>(e.g. lakes and reservoirs)<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, pools in sand-dunes<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, swampy creeks, rivers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and streams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, tall reedbeds (2-3 m high)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with extensive mud, shallow puddles and <em>Sesbania</em> bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally salt-marsh<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. The species also frequents marshy artificial wetlands such as irrigated fields of crops (e.g. rice)<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, sewage ponds<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, salt-works<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, farm ponds<strong><sup>1, 3, 5</sup></strong> and dense grassy vegetation in rural residential areas<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. Although the species shows a preference for shallowly flooded areas, breeding birds may occupy grassland and sedges flooded to a depth of 30 cm and will occur on floating vegetation or in tall shrubs flooded to a depth of 2 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, bugs, Odonata, stoneflies, caddisflies, flies and mosquitos)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, as well as annelids<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (up to 10 cm long)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, molluscs, small crustaceans (e.g. ostracods and copepods), small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (up to 2 cm long)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, amphibians<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and vegetative plant material and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow cup or platform of vegetation placed close to water on a grass tussock or in soft grass, usually 4-60 cm above the water level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Occasionally the nest may be floating or anchored to vegetation in water, or placed in or under low bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Changes in water level during the nesting period should be avoided, cutting and burning of vegetation near the waters edge should be controlled and the maintenance of natural vegetation around fish ponds and rice-fields should be encouraged<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/><strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143884	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by degradation and loss of seasonal and ephemeral wetlands owing to drainage, overgrazing, cultivation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, reed-cutting, reed-burning and sudden changes in water levels caused by discharges from large dams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species also suffers high mortality during migration from collisions with powerlines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143885	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana palmeri</em><em> </em>was found in grass tussocks and thickets on<em> </em>Laysan Island, Hawai'i, <strong>USA<sup>2</sup></strong>, from where it became extinct between 1923 and 1936 as a result of habitat destruction by rabbits and guinea pigs introduced by guano diggers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A similar bird was also seen by Kittlitz on nearby Lisianski Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds were introduced to Pearl and Hermes Reef and to Eastern Island in the Midway Atoll in 1891 and 1913, and from there to Sand Island in 1910, with failed re-introductions also reportedly attempted to Lisianski, Laysan and to the main Hawaiian group<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the Pearl and Hermes Reef colony was destroyed by storms in 1930, and rats, brought in by wartime activities, exterminated the Sand Island colony in 1943 and the Eastern Island colony in 1944<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143886	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its Autumn dispersal to its wintering grounds beginning mid-July<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with the species returning to reoccupy its breeding grounds from April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in Europe from April to July and in the former USSR from May to July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Early migrating birds (mainly juveniles) often moult in August during stops on migration, during which they become flightless for c.3 weeks<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. The species is territorial throughout both breeding and non-breeding seasons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is usually seen singly, in pairs or in family groups, although occasionally small groups of 2-4 individuals may forage together on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It normally roosts at night in thick vegetation and forages by day (although this behaviour is reversed when migrating)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits similar habitats in both its breeding and winter ranges<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, and generally requires very shallow water (less than c.15 cm deep, typically foraging in water less than 7 cm deep) that is rich in invertebrate food and is interspersed with stands of low vegetation cover<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species shows a preference for freshwater wetlands with a range of water depths or where water levels vary seasonally <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, especially where these have a mixture of muddy, moist and shallowly flooded substrates<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and a dense covering of grass, sedges, rushes, <em>Polygonum</em>, <em>Iris</em>, <em>Equisetum</em> and other emergents, as well as trees (e.g. A<em>cacia</em>, <em>Sesbania</em>, <em>Betula</em>, <em>Salix</em> and <em>Alnus</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include seasonal and permanent marshes and fens<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, bogs, damp meadows, the edges of drainage ditches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, swamps, seasonally flooded pans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, pools in flooded grassland, grassy margins of reservoirs and lakes, slow-flowing rivers and sewage settling-ponds<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of small aquatic insect adults and larvae (e.g. Trichoptera, Odonata, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and ants), earthworms, molluscs<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, arachnids<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. spiders and water mites)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and small stranded fish (1-2 cm long)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as algae and the shoots, leaves, roots and seeds of <em>Panicum</em>, <em>Oryza</em>, <em>Carex</em> and S<em>choenoplectus</em><strong><sup>1 ,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a thick-walled cup of plant matter, usually placed in thick vegetation near or over standing water, or alternatively in a tussock, or built up well above the water level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143886	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is vulnerable to changes in water levels, either through artificial wetland modification and drainage, or through climatic changes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Numbers have declined over the past century in Europe due to wetland drainage<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and the species is threatened by wetland destruction in Africa<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143889	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most records are from Mar Chiquita Biosphere Reserve (Buenos Aires), Mar Chiquita Ramsar Biosphere Reserve (C&oacute;rdoba), Punta Rasa Biological Station and the Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve. It occurs in Lagoa do Peixe National Park, Brazil<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is protected under Uruguayan law. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat within its known range in Santa Fe<sup>3</sup></strong> and Rio Grande do Sul. <strong>Record its voice to enable further surveys using tape-playback. Study the effects of cattle-grazing. Expand Otamendi Strict Nature Reserve to encompass larger tracts of habitat. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of Mar Chiquita Biosphere Reserve, Buenos Aires. <br/></p>	eng
143889	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana spiloptera</em> occurs in <strong>Argentina</strong> (Buenos Aires and C&oacute;rdoba, with one collected in Santa Fe in 1906, and unconfirmed historical records from Mendoza and San Luis), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Canelones, Colonia, Maldonado and Montevideo, but none since 1973) and <strong>Brazil </strong>(recent records from two sites in Rio Grande do Sul)<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,8</sup></strong>. Records from La Rioja and San Juan, Argentina, are thought to refer to <em>L. jamaicensis</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is relatively widespread (16 localities in Buenos Aires with recent records from eight), but all records refer to 1-2 birds. It was formerly locally frequent to abundant in Buenos Aires, but is now rare to fairly common. This may be partly attributable to a paucity of observers, but there seem to have been declines (or perhaps birds are just highly mobile in optimum habitat) at the relatively well-watched sites of Punta Rasa and the r&iacute;o Luj&aacute;n<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143889	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in temporary and tidal marshes, swamps, wet marshy meadows, and wet to dry grassland. In Argentina, it associates with cord grass <em>Spartina densiflora</em> (up to 70&#160;cm tall) in areas of permanent, brackish surface water<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has been found in seasonally wet grasslands of <em>Spartina</em> and <em>Juncus acutus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong></em>, and has been flushed from <em>Paspalum</em> grass. <br/></p>	eng
143889	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population assumed to fall in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals based on the low numbers usually recorded at the relatively small number of known localities with recent records, where it is described as rare to fairly common. Verification of this estimate is desirable. <br/></p>	eng
143889	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is land reclamation for agriculture, and high levels of grazing and burning. At Punta Rasa, a recreational development project has resulted in an increase in visitors. Mar Chiquita, Buenos Aires, has been flooded. Birds seem to disappear for up to one year after burning<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the early 1990s, cattle-grazing displaced birds at r&iacute;o Luj&aacute;n<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Crake are regularly trapped in Buenos Aires, but there is no evidence that this species is caught<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143891	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana sandwichensis</em><em> </em>inhabited clearings in upland forest on the east side of Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong>, and may also have also occurred on Molokai<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known from bones and a number of specimens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and was illustrated by Ellis on Cook's third voyage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The last specimen was collected in 1864, and the last report was in 1884 (or possibly 1893)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This makes the suggestion that the species's extinction was caused by mongooses unlikely, as they were not introduced until 1883<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. More probably, it was due to a long process of predation by rats, cats, dogs and people<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143893	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana paykullii</em> is known to breed in the middle and lower Amur Valley and Primorye in south-east <strong>Russia</strong> and Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei and northern Henan in north-east <strong>China</strong>, and is has been reported to breed in both <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong> although this is unproven. It occurs on passage and/or in winter in North Korea, South Korea, China (Inner Mongolia, Shandong and southwards to southern China, including Hong Kong), central <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong> (Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak) and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (northern Sumatra, Java and northern Kalimantan, with one record from southern Sulawesi). It is a vagrant on Sakhalin Island in Russia and in Japan, and there is an erroneous record from the Philippines. It breeds in lowland marshes and meadows with tussocks, thickets or small trees, and is often found near villages and along field edges. It winters in wet grassland, swamps and paddyfields. In Russia, it has a restricted distribution, and although it is still abundant in parts of its breeding range in most areas it appears only sporadically. It is threatened there by the intensification of agriculture and industrial development and other forms of habitat destruction. Very little information is available from elsewhere, and its status and distribution urgently require investigation, especially in the wintering range. <br/></p>	eng
143895	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana monasa</em><em> </em>was endemic to<em> </em>coastal swamps and marshes, taro patches and ";continually wet, shadowy places in the forest"; on Kosrae, Caroline Islands, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia<sup>2</sup></strong>. Kittlitz collected the only two known specimens (now in St Petersburg) in 1827-1828, and regarded the species as uncommon even then<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It declined to extinction over the next half-century following the arrival of rats from missionary and whaling ships in the 1830s and 1840s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Measurements of the carpometacarpii from x-rays of the two specimens suggest that the species was flightless<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143896	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Rat eradication has been investigated and is feasible but difficult because of the island's isolation. In addition, <em>P. atra</em> would require temporary management because it may be vulnerable to secondary poisoning<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson. Consider the eradication of rats from Henderson<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Re-attempt the eradication of rats from nearby Pitcairn Island and consider translocating the species there when it becomes rat-free<sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143896	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana atra</em> is endemic to Henderson in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, a small uninhabited, raised-reef island in the south-central Pacific Ocean. Numbers were estimated at c.3,240 in 1987<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and, using a different technique, c.6,200 birds in 1992<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although recruitment to the breeding population is not known, numbers of surviving chicks probably compensate for annual losses such that the population can be considered stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143896	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in dense to open forest throughout the island plateau, both in forest dominated by <em>Pisonia</em> and <em>Pisonia/Xylosma</em> and in <em>Timonius</em> thicket, also occurring in <em>Pandanus-Thespesia-Argusia</em> embayment forests and coconut groves on the beaches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is omnivorous and appears to be an opportunistic feeder, taking advantage of seasonal increases in prey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages in the leaf-litter, gleaning items such as skink <em>Emoia cyanura</em> eggs from the undersides of fallen leaves, large nematodes, beetles, moths, spiders, dead caterpillars, land snails and small insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding season is long, extending from late July to mid February (double broods are not uncommon) and clutch-size is 2-3<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Helpers may provide extraparental care such as defending eggs and chicks from crabs and rats. Based on a small sample, adult annual survival is at least 43%, and reproductive success is a minimum of 0.95 chicks surviving to one month old per pair, per annum<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143896	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Jones <em>et al.</em> (1995) <br/></p>	eng
143896	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> takes eggs and chicks, there is no indication that the species is unduly threatened by this predation as the two have co-existed on Henderson possibly since the 8th century<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, other possible introductions, such as black rat <em>R. rattus</em> (a more aggressive predator than <em>R. exulans</em>), diseases and exotic plant species, are a potential threat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
143899	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a wet-season migrant, moving between ephemeral habitats in response to seasonal rainfall and drought<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in polyandrous groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with territorial males nesting solitarily<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species forages diurnally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with most activity occurring in the late afternoon and evening<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, roosting at night in grass clumps or on roosting platforms in vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species shows a preference for areas on higher ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with shallow pools, muddy patches and grasses up to 1 m tall<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, generally avoiding tall, dense vegetation in permanent marshes<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, areas with water more than 20-30 cm deep<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and streams liable to heavy flooding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It typically inhabits seasonally inundated tussocky grasslands which dry out and burn in the dry season<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, as well as river flood-plains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, temporary pans, short-grass dambos, old rice-fields, and the edges of marshes, ponds and ditches<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species's habitat requirements on migration and during the non-breeding season are less well known<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although they appear to be similar to breeding season requirements<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Habitats frequented during this season include inundated grassland and pool edges, beds of fine reeds near streams, short sedge and grass clumps fringing shallow water<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> and marshy savanna with small scattered thickets (Ghana)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of earthworms, small snails, spiders, beetles, grasshoppers, flies, moths, insect larvae, small fish and tadpoles<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow bowl or platform of vegetation, typically constructed 10-25 cm above the water in a tuft of grass, or occasionally floating or positioned above damp ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species sometimes builds false nests which it abandons before completion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143899	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of overgrazing<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and the damming, draining<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and cultivation of seasonal and ephemeral wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143900	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Two known sites are in protected areas: the well protected and managed Corral de Santo Tom&aacute;s Faunal Refuge<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and a nature tourism area including the Laguna del Tesoro. The last surveys for the species throughout its range were reported in 1998 and 1999<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently conduct surveys to assess current population size, distribution and status. Assess the impact of introduced species and research ways to mitigate their effects. Conduct research into the ecology of this species Control dry season burning. Survey for any additional threats Investigate current habitat management practices and recommend future strategies</strong><sup>8</sup>.	eng
143900	distribution		This species occurs on the northern side of the 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> Zapata swamp, south-west <strong>Cuba</strong>. Four were collected near Santo Tom&aacute;s in 1927, and the species was found easily in 1931. There were no subsequent records until the 1970s, when its voice was recorded and birds were found in the south-east of Laguna del Tesoro. There are also reliable records from the Santo Tom&aacute;s area<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and Peralta, both within the Zapata swamp<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It may occur elsewhere within the swamp<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and was formerly even more widespread, with fossil bones found in cave deposits in Havana, Pinar del R&iacute;o and on the Isla de la Juventud<strong><sup>1,4,9</sup></strong>. It is now thought to have an extremely small population given the paucity of recent records and threats to the species, with anecdotal evidence suggesting a significant decline since the year 2000<strong><sup>14,15</sup></strong>.	eng
143900	habitat		It inhabits a flooded, tall (1.5-2.0 m) grassland ecosystem comprising dense, tangled, bush-covered swamp with low trees, where 'arraig&aacute;n' <em>Myrica cerifera</em> brush, <em>Salix longipes</em>, sawgrass <em>Cladium jamaicensis</em> and cattails <em>Typha angustifolia</em> are common<strong><sup>1,5,6,11</sup></strong>. <em>C. jamaicensis</em> is the preferred vegetation for nesting and feeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place around September, and possibly in December and January<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Nests are apparently situated on raised tussocks above water-level<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds may disperse during wet-season floods, returning to permanently inundated areas in the dry season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
143900	population		Given the scarcity of recent sightings the population is thought to number fewer than 250 mature individuals (A. Kirconnell <em>in litt</em>. 2009; A. Mitchell <em>in litt.</em> 2009).	eng
143901	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neocrex colombiana</em> consists of two subspecies. The nominate race is considered rare throughout its range, with scattered records across much of north <strong>Colombia</strong>, south on both slopes of the West Andes through west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The race <em>ripleyi</em> is known from two specimens taken in central <strong>Panama</strong> and north-west Colombia, and one site in east Panama<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. It occurs in marshes, swamps, wet savannas, wet grass, pastures and overgrown forest edge up to 2,100 m, and is not restricted to areas with water<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is very poorly known and its status, distribution and natural history demand urgent attention<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143907	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. A large protected area is proposed for Halmahera, encompassing 3,550&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of all representative forest-types on the island, between Lalobata and Ake Tajawe, although it is not clear whether this includes suitable habitat or known localities for <em>H.&#160;wallacii</em>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify all remaining areas of sago swamp and conduct surveys for this species therein (using tape-playback of its vocalisations, if available, to aid detection). Investigate claims that it frequents a variety of other habitats. Determine and implement appropriate conservation action, including establishment of any remnant sago swamps, or other key sites, as strict protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143907	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Habroptila wallacii</em> is endemic to the island of Halmahera in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia </strong>where it is known from only a handful of specimens and confirmed records. Its status is extremely difficult to judge given its skulking behaviour and unwelcoming habitat, and the paucity of records might reflect these factors rather than any genuine scarcity. However, there is danger in assuming this without acknowledging the possibility that habitat reclamation and, in particular, predation have had a serious impact in recent decades.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143907	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a flightless, and thus presumably strictly sedentary, inhabitant of dense, impenetrable, swampy thickets, particularly remote parts of sago swamp, apparently also favouring swamp edges at the interface with deciduous foothill-forest, although not penetrating the latter. Calls attributed (perhaps erroneously) to this species were heard in tall reeds (<em>Saccharum</em> sp.), alang-alang grassland (<em>Imperata</em> sp.), overgrown native plantations and mangrove (<em>Gymnorhiza</em> sp.).</p>	eng
143907	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,820 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 910-5,460 individuals; best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from lower two of three estimates for forest rails and wood-rails in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143907	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation is probably the main threat, and it has possibly declined considerably given that sago swamps on Halmahera have been extensively destroyed through commercial sago extraction, irrigation schemes, conversion for wet rice and, potentially, fishpond development. Moreover, flightless rails confined to single islands have a long history of extinction through predation by introduced species. Indeed, the species is apparently occasionally caught by dogs when local people are hunting deer and pigs.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143908	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megacrex inepta</em> is endemic to the lowlands of central New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It inhabits lowland forest, especially wet thickets, swamp forest and mangroves and although there are very few records, it is reported to be locally common, especially where sago is harvested<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Although flightless, it appears to be able to fight off attacks from dogs and to climb into trees to escape predators<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It is hunted in some areas, sometimes targeted specifically with sago lures, and it may be affected by feral pigs, and lowland forests across its range are under pressure from logging<strong><sup>1,3,4,5,7</sup></strong>. Although its population size is unknown, it appears to be small, but there is no evidence of a significant decline. <br/></p>	eng
143910	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary, nomadic or partially migratory, with many populations making local seasonal movements in response to changing habitat conditions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. the drying of marshes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically (in relation to peaks in local rainfall)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary territorial pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (especially in pastures)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in small communal groups containing several breeding males, breeding females and non-breeding helpers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (especially in swamps)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species occurs in pairs, small groups of 12 or more individuals (Africa) or in larger congregations of 50 to several hundred individuals (India and New Zealand)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is mainly crepuscular and forages in the early-morning and late-evening<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It shows a preference for permanent, fresh or brackish, still or slow-flowing, sheltered, extensive wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with floating mats of water-lilies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, tall, dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds <em>Phragmites</em> spp., <em>Typha</em> spp., sedge <em>Carex</em> spp., papyrus <em>Cyperus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, <em>Scirpus</em> spp. or <em>Eleocharis </em>spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), muddy or sandy shorelines and patches of shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may however occur in saline, eutrophic or turbid wetlands, and may be found on small waters and seasonal or temporary wetlands (e.g. in Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include ponds, lakes, dams, marshes, swamps, rivers, flood-plains, artesian wells, sewage farms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and wet rice-fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species also extends into open habitats adjacent to wetlands including grasslands, agricultural land, parks, gardens, hedgerows and forest margins<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of plant matter including shoots, leaves, roots, stems, flowers and seeds (e.g. of <em>Typha</em> spp., <em>Scripus</em> spp., rice, grasses, sedges, <em>Rumex</em> spp., <em>Polygonum</em> spp., water-lilies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, clover <em>Trifolium</em> spp., fern <em>Salvonia repens</em>, bananas, tapioca and yam <em>Dioscorea</em> spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). It also takes animal matter including molluscs, leeches, small crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (Isopods, Amphipods and crabs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (Coleoptera, grasshoppers, Hemiptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, earthworms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, spiders, fish and fish eggs, frogs and frog spawn, lizards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, water snakes <em>Natrix maura</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, adult birds, bird eggs and nestlings, small rodents and carrion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup in a large substantial structure of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> built on a platform of vegetation floating on or standing in shallow water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> 30-120 cm deep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and concealed in thick vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> There is evidence that the application of rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> control measures may lead to an increase in nest predation on this species by rabbit-specialising predators (New Zealand)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143910	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threats to this species are habitat loss through wetland drainage<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, habitat degradation through the introduction of exotic species (e.g. coypu <em>Myocastor coypus</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, direct mortality from pesticide contamination<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (e.g. brodifacoum, a pesticide applied aerially to exterminate rodents)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins (from dense blooms of cyanobacteria in wetlands)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>3, 8</sup></strong> and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143911	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porphyrio albus</em><em> </em>is known from two skins (in Liverpool and Vienna<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), several paintings, and some subfossil bones from Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia<sup>3</sup></strong>. Although not uncommon when discovered in 1790, the species was rapidly hunted to extinction by whalers and sailors, and had probably already vanished by the time the island was colonised in 1834<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143912	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Since the 1960s, deer have been controlled in the Murchison Mountains. Island populations of the species are managed intensively, optimising breeding success by supplementary feeding, inter-island transfers (also minimising inbreeding), and egg manipulation (primarily removal of infertile eggs to promote re-nesting)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Captive-breeding efforts have increased the rate of survival to one year of age (when birds are released into the wild) by 50-60% to 90%<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A major review of management in 1996-1997 has been completed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue all aspects of intensive management. Establish a second mainland population. Promote public awareness by holding captive birds for public display and visits to islands, and through the media<sup>4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143912	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porphyrio hochstetteri</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subfossils indicate that it was once widespread in the North and South Islands, but when 'rediscovered' in 1948, it was confined to the Murchison Mountains in Fiordland (c.650 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and numbered just 250-300 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This population has fluctuated between 100-160 birds for the last 20 years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Translocated populations (1984-1991) exist on four offshore (predator-free) islands - Kapiti, Mana, Tiritiri Matangi and Maud - but have increased only slowly (55 adults in 1998<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) probably owing to young pair-bonds and the 'quality' of the founding population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143912	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It originally occurred throughout forest and grass ecosystems. Today it is restricted to alpine tussock grasslands on the mainland and feeds primarily on juices from the bases of snow tussock and a species of fern rhizome. It eats introduced grasses on the islands. It usually lays two eggs. Chicks can begin breeding at the end of their first year, but usually start in their second. It is long-lived, probably 14-20 years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143912	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Maxwell (2001); Easons and Williams (2001). <br/></p>	eng
143912	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced red deer <em>Cervus elaphus</em> competing for tussock were a major factor in the post-1940s decline<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, while a series of unusually harsh winters appears important in the recent fluctuations<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> could be significant<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong> but remains speculative<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Other potential competitors or predators are introduced brush-tailed possum <em>Trichosurus vulpecula</em> and the threatened Weka <em>Gallirallus australis<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
143913	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. At the onset of the rains populations in the northern tropics move north and populations in the southern tropics move south<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, although some may remain sedentary all year round in permanent wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in relation to seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the species breeding in territorial solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with nests well spaced even when many pairs share the same area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In favourable conditions the species may occur at high densities and in very large numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although it is more commonly found alone, in pairs, or in family groups<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species undergoes a flightless moulting period shortly after breeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and is mainly diurnal<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, being most active in the early-morning and late-afternoon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for wetlands with water-lilies and other floating vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (such as <em>Nymphaea</em>, <em>Nymphoides</em> and <em>Ottelia</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and frequently occupies and breeds in seasonal or temporary habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include freshwater marshes, inundated grasslands, flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and river deltas (e.g. Okavango Delta)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with grasses and sedges (e.g. <em>Oryza longistaminata</em> and <em>Cyperus fastigiatus</em>), reedbeds, papyrus swamps, rice-fields, and thick vegetation (sedges, grasses and reeds) beside lakes, rivers, ponds and temporary pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of the flowers and seeds of reeds and sedges, the seeds, stems and leaves of grasses and other marsh plants, unripe seedheads of water-lilies, and fruits of thorn bush <em>Drepanocarpus lunatus</em>, as well as earthworms, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic and terrestrial insects, spiders, fish eggs and small fish<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a loose structure of reeds, sedges and other vegetation typically positioned in reeds, grasses or tangled vegetation at the waters edge<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, and also in open marshes and rice-fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143913	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened throughout its range by the destruction and modification of wetlands (especially the loss of seasonally flooded habitats) through drainage, damming and grazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143916	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently conduct a survey to find this species and assess its status and conservation needs<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect foothill and upland forest for this and other species in north-west Savai`i<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Train local people to do bird surveys, generally involve the community and improve awareness of the species<sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess field sites for the study of this and other threatened species on the island<sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
143916	distribution		<em>Gallinula pacifica</em> is endemic to Savai`i, <strong>Samoa</strong>, where it was last recorded in 1873<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1984 there were two possible sightings in upland forest west of Mt Elietoga<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and in October 2003 a possible sighting of two individuals was made at 990 m on Mount Sili Sili<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A recent survey of the island yielded no record of the species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
143916	habitat		It is restricted to primary montane forest and most probably feeds on invertebrates, including insects. It may dig or live in burrows. One nest is described: it was found on the ground, constructed of a few twigs and some grass, and containing two eggs<strong><sup>3,5,8</sup></strong>. It has exceptionally large eyes and may thus be nocturnal<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
143916	population		Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no definite records since 1873, but two possible sightings in 1987 and another in 2003.	eng
143917	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys and interviews with local hunters between 400 m and 1,000 m elevation around Hauta in the central mountain ranges, most recently in 2006, have failed to find evidence of this species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The forests of the Hauta region are presently protected under a community sustainable use programme. A local NGO is collaboratively searching for the bird and spreading awareness of its identification, through distribution of pictures and awareness sessions in the provincial capital of Makira-Ulawa, Kirakira<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Circulate coloured paintings to hunters in inland Makira to gather any information on its survival. Survey uninhabited inland mountains. Encourage tighter controls of commercial logging. Support the continuation and extension of community-based sustainable use programmes in the mountains. <br/></p>	eng
143917	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Gallinula silvestris</em> is known only from the type-specimen collected in 1929, and a subsequent observation of one in 1953 on Makira (= San Cristobal), <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. The 1929 collectors failed to secure more specimens and concluded that the species was already rare<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 1953, it was reported to be well-known to guides from Ghoghe village and to be not uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Hunters in hill villages close to the type locality reported it in 1974, but not in 1990 or subsequently<strong><sup>1,3,5,6,8</sup></strong>. Several weeks have been spent surveying this area without any evidence of the species's survival<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but two unconfirmed reports of birds caught by dogs, in 2001 and 2002, suggest it may still be extant<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Furthermore, unidentified calls heard in 2004 were reported to belong to this species by local people who claimed to see it rarely, while apparently credible reports from the western part of the island in 2008 indicated that villagers were familiar with the species but did not encounter it regularly<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143917	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The specimen was taken at 600 m and the 1953 sighting was at c.450 m in the central ranges of Makira. Hunters reported that it was flightless but climbed into bushes to escape dogs. These records are from rainforest on steep, rocky hills with many small rivers but no standing water<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that it may also inhabit the largely unexplored swamps of north Makira<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but no evidence of it was found there in a very brief survey in 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any surviving population assumed to be tiny, with no confirmed recent reports, despite several weeks of surveys. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143917	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It is likely to have declined owing to predation by introduced mammalian predators. Birds were also caught by village hunting-dogs but this was probably an uncommon and unplanned result of hunting for pigs<strong><sup>2,7,8</sup></strong>. Although most of the lowlands of Makira have been logged or are under logging concessions, forests on steep, rocky slopes are likely to be safe from commercial logging. <br/></p>	eng
143919	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is predominantly sedentary or locally dispersive, but makes partially or fully migratory movements in the northern parts of its range due to its vulnerability to freezing conditions<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most northern populations move south from September to December, returning again from March to May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary territorial pairs during the spring, especially during wet months (the exact timing varying geographically)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains largely solitary throughout the year although juveniles and adults may form diurnal feeding groups of up to 30 individuals in the winter, especially during hard weather<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, often congregating on sheltered lakes and ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits freshwater wetlands, both still and moving, requiring easy access to open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and showing a preference for waters sheltered by woodland, bushes or tall emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, oxbow lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, streams, canals, ditches, lakes, reservoirs, sites with small open water surfaces such as pools and ponds only a few metres across, swamps, marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, seasonally flooded sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as flood-plains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, disused gravel pits, rice-fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sewage ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and occasionally mangroves (Puerto Rico)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and seashores (Azerbaijan)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It generally avoids very open sites (especially those exposed to wind or wave action)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and oligotrophic or saline habitats (although it may be found on brackish waters)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. When foraging the species may range onto drier grassland, agricultural land or meadows, and on migration and in the winter months it can often be observed on damp grassland away from water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, its diet consisting of earthworms, crustaceans, molluscs, adult and larval insects (especially flies, mayflies, caddisflies, bugs, beetles and Lepidoptera), spiders, small fish, tadpoles and occasionally birds eggs, as well as plant matter such as filamentous algae, moss, the vegetative parts of reeds and aquatic plants, the seeds of reeds, rushes, sedges, water-lilies, waterside herbaceous vegetation, trees (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.) and cereal crops, flowers of <em>Eichhornia</em> spp., and the berries and fruits of yew, <em>Rubus</em>, <em>Sorbus</em>, <em>Rosa</em>, <em>Crataegus</em>, <em>Rhamnus</em>, <em>Hedera</em>, <em>Sambucus</em>, <em>Hippophae</em> spp. and various orchard trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest varies between a shallow saucer and a deep cup constructed from twigs and waterside vegetation, and can be floating on or positioned up to 1 m above water in emergent vegetation, or positioned on a solid platform of branches in water. Less often the nest is placed in ground vegetation or in low bushes on the bank near water, or in bushes and trees up to 8 m from the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Early harvesting in rice-fields should be avoided as it harms nests and young broods of this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143919	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. It also suffers nest predation from American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in the UK<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for local consumption and trade in Sumatra<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Malawi<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, for sport in the USA<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> , and for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143921	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant with movements related to seasonal rainfall, although some populations may be resident all year round in permanent habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with the species breeding in solitary well-separated territorial pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits permanent and temporary freshwater wetlands such as papyrus swamps, reedbeds, marshes with rushes and open water, ponds with floating vegetation (e.g. water-lilies), flood-plains and pans with emergent grass, sedges and floating plants, rank vegetation on the edges of ponds, dams, rivers and forest streams, rice-fields, flooded farmland, sewage ponds, seasonally inundated grassland<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, gravel pits (Zimbabwe) and coastal lagoons (Ghana)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; although it shows a preference for temporary waters with abundant emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of molluscs, insects (especially beetles) and vegetable matter such as the seeds and flowers of reeds<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a pad of grass or sedge with a shallow cup that is usually placed on the surface of water or up to 5 cm above it (water typically 20-100 cm deep), alternatively in emergent grass or sedges up to 1.5 m tall<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143921	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat loss through draining, damming and grazing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species was hunted in the past for subsistence in northern Namibia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Currently the species is hunted for trade (at traditional medicine markets) in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and for local consumption and trade at Lake Chilwa, Malawi<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143924	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species formerly occurred on mainland Australia but disappeared around 4,700 years ago, roughly coinciding with the arrival of the dingo Canis familiaris. It is now restricted to Tasmania, Australia, although the species was introduced to Maria Island, off east Tasmania, in 1969.	eng
143924	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in a variety of habitats from open pasture and crops to permanent and seasonal freshwater wetlands. It requires short-grazed pasture for foraging and is currently dependent on swards maintained by introduced species (sheep, cattle and rabbits); swards were formerly maintained by grazing marsupials and by fire. It always breeds near water, usually from August-November, and mostly feeds on seeds and leaves, varying with the availability of plant species. It is flightless, making it very vulnerable to introduced predators.	eng
143924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but is very numerous within its range and is regarded as an agricultural pest.	eng
143924	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The recent spread of foxes Vulpes to Tasmania is of concern, and although they are still scarce it is likely that they will impact upon G. mortierii in the long term.	eng
143925	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is both sedentary and nomadic<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, often making local movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in response to rainfall, water levels and the availability of its favoured foods<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong> (e.g. pondweed <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a solitary territorial breeder<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although it is occasionally observed in family groups<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with flocks of non-breeding individuals also occurring during the breeding season<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. After breeding the species becomes more gregarious<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, forming flocks which range in size from small groups of 10-12 individuals, to larger, loose-knit groups of 20-330<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, occasionally also to large flocks of up to 1,000 or more<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Adults may undergo a flightless moult period that lasts 49-59 days at any time of the year<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. During this time moulting birds remain out on open water among full-winged birds, possibly to avoid predation<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species requires wetlands with submerged aquatic vegetation and still water for foraging, and waters with fringing or emergent vegetation in which to nest when breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During periods of flightless moult adults also prefer more permanent open waters rich in submerged aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include open freshwater or slightly brackish<strong><sup>4, 8</sup></strong> lakes, lagoons, ponds, dams, and permanent or temporary pans, flood-plains<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, sewage ponds, reed, papyrus and <em>Typha</em> swamps<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, and occasionally rivers and tidal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting predominantly of the shoots, fruits and seeds of submerged or floating aquatic plants (such as aquatic ferns <em>Marsila</em> spp., knotweed <em>Aeschynomene fluitans</em>, <em>Polygonum limbatum</em>, saw-weed <em>Najas pectinata</em>, pondweed <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>, ditch grass <em>Ruppia maritima</em> and water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>), filamentous and macroscopic algae<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and grass, as well as molluscs, crustaceans, insects and occasionally carrion<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a platform of reeds and other aquatic plant material<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> built either on open water<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> (sometimes anchored to water-lilies or on rafts of fresh, green reeds)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, or within emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> on a foundation of bent and trampled stems<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. No attempt at concealing the nest is made<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although the site chosen usually facilitates quick and easy access to open water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Adequate wetland management can increase the breeding success of this species (e.g. limiting the areas with grazing livestock, maintaining stable water-levels during the breeding season,<strong><sup>  </sup></strong>providing more vegetation for nesting and reducing disturbance can all have positive effects)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143925	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease. It is also threatened by poisoning, both intentionally (pest control) and unintentionally (pesticides used on crops)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is threatened in Spain and Morocco (the northernmost range extremes) primarily by habitat loss and degradation due to changes in hydrological regime, over-exploitation of catchments and sedimentation (which are altering the periods of wetland flooding), agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution, overgrazing (cattle herds), the burning of reeds, and the introduction of alien species (e.g. Louisiana Swamp Crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em> and <em>Ciprinidae</em> fish which both reduce the availability of food and hence increase competition)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143926	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations in warm and temperate regions are resident<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often making nomadic dispersive movements according to changing water levels and seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>Populations in northern Eurasia are fully migratory however, migrating on a broad front through continental Europe and across the Sahara<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Southward movements occur from mid-August to November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with the return passage occurring from late-February<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in dispersed solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>, although it is largely gregarious<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with flocks (sometimes of several thousand individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) frequently forming during the winter<strong><sup>2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. Adults undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period, with flocks of moulting birds congregating from June-September<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is diurnally active and roosts at sunset solitarily or in flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may feed in flocks on land, especially when winds cause high waves on water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits large, still or slow-flowing waters<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and shows a preference for shallow water with adjacent deeper water (e.g. > 2 m) for diving<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and muddy substrates, marginal, emergent, floating or submergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. Habitats include eutrophic and mesotrophic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, pools, ponds, reservoirs, barrages, gravel-pits, canals, drainage ditches, dykes, oxbow lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, fish ponds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, creeks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and river deltas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as open marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, freshwater meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flood-lands<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, freshwater and saline lagoons<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, salt-pans, clay-pans<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and sewage ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It frequently exploits temporary pools and seasonally inundated marshes when breeding (Africa)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and may extend to quiet estuaries or inshore waters in the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally avoids closely overgrown, narrowly confined and very shallow waters, and those overshadowed by trees or cliffs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. If solitary the species roosts at sunset on small islets, mudbanks, sandbanks, rocks in water, floating mats of vegetation, floating logs, or branches of trees over water, preferring to roost on open water, in shore vegetation or in meadows adjacent to water if in flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>This species is omnivorous, although its diet consists primarily of vegetable matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as algae (e.g. <em>Chara</em>, C<em>ladophora</em>, <em>Spirogyra</em>), the vegetative pasts of aquatic and terrestrial plants (e.g. waterweeds, bulrushes, reeds and grasses), the seeds of waterweeds, sedges, water-lilies, grasses and cereal crops<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, clubmoss <em>Selaginella</em> and aquatic fungi (e.g. <em>Leptomitus</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Animal matter in its diet includes molluscs, adult and larval insects (especially flies, caddisflies, Odonata, Lepidoptera, beetles and bugs)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, worms, leeches, shrimps, spiders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small fish<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, fish eggs, frogs, birds and bird eggs, and small mammals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a platform of vegetation that may be resting on the bottom of shallow water, floating or on a foundation of trampled plant matter in emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also nest on artificial platforms, islands, rafts, tree stumps, tree forks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in bushes up to 3 m above the water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg/ha, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the UK (leaving small fish for piscivorous birds) resulted in increased winter use of the habitat by the species as result of an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143926	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species suffers disturbance<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and mortality (Azerbaijan) from hunting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is poisoned by ingesting lead shot (France)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by oil and petroleum pollution (Azerbaijan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the Kaliningrad region, Russia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), and by habitat degradation and loss due to agricultural drainage schemes (Pakistan)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wetland drainage, peat-extraction, changing wetland management practices (decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over-growth) and the burning and mowing of reeds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is often drowned in freshwater fishing nets with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm (China)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and suffers predation from American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> (Slonsk Reserve, Poland<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and UK<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>). It is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/><strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in the Mediterranean<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Denmark<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Northern Ireland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and Iran<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and for food in the Mediterranean<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Iran<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and neighbouring countries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, especially when it is flightless during the post-breeding moult<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143927	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Hunting was prohibited in 1939, and the species has been fully protected by US law since 1973. Key wetland areas have been, or are being, acquired as refuges or sanctuaries, and other areas are protected by cooperative agreements. Predator control has been effective in increasing the productivity of many wetland species at Kanaha pond, Maui<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Study breeding seasonality and local movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Manage habitats, e.g. prevent ponds from drying out, or becoming overgrown by alien plants and create nesting islands out of the reach of introduced predators<strong><sup>1,3,5,8</sup></strong>. Where botulism is a problem, remove carcasses, manage water-levels and quality, treat sick birds and chase healthy birds from affected areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143927	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Fulica alai</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it is found on all the main islands except Lana`i, with stragglers reaching as far west as Kure in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It declined dramatically during the 20th century<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the current population probably fluctuates between 2,000 and 4,000 individuals, with Kaua`i, O`ahu and Maui supporting 80% of this total<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. Some 30 colonies or concentrations are known<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143927	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It can be expected on virtually any body of water, including estuaries and marshes. Breeding sites are characterised by robust emergent plants interspersed with open, fresh or brackish water, which is usually less than one metre deep. To some extent it is nomadic and irruptive, wandering between islands in response to the availability of water-bodies<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143927	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The current population is thought to fluctuate between 2,000 and 4,000 birds (Pratt 1987; Engilis and Pratt 1993). <br/></p>	eng
143927	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Throughout its range, wetlands have been destroyed by drainage for cultivation and other developments<strong><sup>2,4,9</sup></strong>. Some water-bodies have become overgrown by introduced plants<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. On O`ahu, artificial wetlands associated with sugarcane plantations and aquaculture have disappeared as these industries have declined on the island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Additional threats include introduced predators<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong> and poisoning by insecticides and herbicides used to treat water channels on agricultural land and golf courses<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Outbreaks of avian botulism have also caused high mortality, especially on Hawai`i<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143929	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct a thorough population survey throughout its range.  Conduct a public education campaign to discourage draining of wetlands and hunting of wetland birds. Provide alternatives to taking eggs and adults from the wild. Monitor populations at key sites throughout the region.</strong>	eng
143929	distribution		<em>Fulica caribaea</em> is an uncommon and local resident in northern <strong>Venezuela</strong> (especially eastern Falcon), on <strong>Haiti</strong>, <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (where it has declined markedly during the last century, mirrored throughout the region) and <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, and a rare resident on <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>British Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>US Virgin Islands (to USA) </strong>and <strong>Colombia</strong><sup>3,4,5</sup>. It is a rare wanderer in the Lesser Antilles with a few recent breeding records on <strong>Martinique (to France) </strong>and <strong>Guadeloupe (to France),</strong> regular recent breeding on <strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong> (Antigua)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and breeding is also suspected on <strong>Barbados</strong> and <strong>Trinidad and Tobago</strong><sup>1,3</sup>. It formerly bred on <strong>St Kitts and Nevis</strong>, but is now only an uncommon migrant, and it is a very rare non-breeding transient on <strong>Cuba</strong> with other records from Caicos, <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Montserrat</strong> (<strong>to</strong> <strong>UK</strong>), <strong>St Lucia</strong>, <strong>Grenada</strong>, <strong>Dominica</strong>, <strong>St Vincent and the</strong> <strong>Grenadines</strong>, <strong>Anguilla</strong> (<strong>to UK</strong>), north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> and <strong>Netherlands Antilles</strong> (Cura&ccedil;ao)<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. The population in the Dominican Republic is estimated at a minimum of 5,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, though the global population size is unknown.	eng
143929	habitat		It is found on freshwater lakes, ponds, marshes and less frequently coastal brackish lagoons from lowlands to 500 m in Venezuela<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in similar habitats elsewhere.	eng
143929	population		Although the population in the Dominican Republic has been estimated at a minimum of 5,000-10,000 individuals (D. Wege <em>in litt.</em> 2010), there are currently no estimates for the global population size.	eng
143930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143935	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Fulica cornuta</em> is known from a few high altitude Andean lakes, with dense submerged aquatic plants, in south-west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Oruro in 1903, Potos&iacute;), north <strong>Chile</strong> (Tarapac&aacute;, Antofagasta, Atacama), and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca in 1918, Tucum&aacute;n, San Juan)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, primarily at 3,000-5,200 m, but as low as 2,000 m in harsh weather. Large concentrations have been recorded only occasionally, most notably 8,988 in the Vilama and Pululos area of Argentina in October 1995<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and 2,800 birds on Laguna Pelada, Bolivia, in November 1989<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It normally occurs at low densities, with 1-10 nesting pairs at most sites, and up to 70-90 at a few<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The Chilean population is estimated at 620 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and Bolivia seems to hold a healthy population<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The global population is likely to be in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals. There is no definite evidence of a recent decline<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but local populations are believed to fluctuate greatly between periods of drought and inundation. Its fresh and brackish lakes are susceptible to contamination and vegetation trampling by cattle, and water is pumped from some to coastal towns and mines. It also suffers from hunting, egg-harvesting, and some predation by Andean Gull <em>Larus serranus</em>. <br/></p>	eng
143935	population	BirdLife International, 2008	8,988 were counted in Argentina in 1995 (Anon.1996), 2,800 in Bolivia in 1982 (Cabot and Serrano 1982) and 620 are estimated in Chile (Glade (1988). The total is probabaly in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals, and probably fluctuates greatly.  <br/></p>	eng
143936	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All six sites are Important Bird Areas, and site-conservation programmes are ongoing at four of them<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>: Menabe forest, Ankarafantsika Strict Reserve, Ankarana Special Reserve and Analamera Special Reserve. Ambatovaky, although a Special Reserve, currently lacks conservation activity. The long-term future of Ankarafantsika and Analamera, as reserves, is not certain<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Furthermore the Menabe forest complex is under increasing threats and even areas such as the Kirindy forest are not safe<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The newly elected national government has already re-structured a poorly managed forestry organisation in the Morondava area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. One conservation organisation is building capacity for community managed forests in the Menabe region<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conserving the dry forests in the west, where the species mainly occurs, should be considered a major conservation priority for Madagascar<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Curb illegal logging in the Menabe region<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop community managed forests in the Menabe region to control slash and burn agriculture and bush fires<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Prevent vehicle access to the interior of forests<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143936	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mesitornis variegatus</em> is found at five sites in north and west <strong>Madagascar</strong> - Menabe forest, Ankarafantsika complex, Ankarana Special Reserve, Analamera Special Reserve and Daraina forests - and at one site in the east, Ambatovaky Special Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys have demonstrated its genuine absence from many intervening areas, including some with apparently suitable habitat. Fieldwork in the early 1990s found a minimum of 2,000 birds in the Menabe area and 6,000 at Ankarafantsika, but productivity and density appeared to be low<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and populations at other sites may be relictual. Ankarafantsika, in particular, is threatened by fires, and the forests of the Menabe region are heavily exploited for timber and plantations. <br/></p>	eng
143936	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This inconspicuous, rail-like ground-dweller is found at highest density and with highest productivity in deciduous forest near rivers (in the south of its range) and in undisturbed deciduous forest on sand (in the north)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, from sea-level to 150&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, there is one record from rainforest at 350&#160;m (at Ambatovaky), in sympatry with <em>M. unicolor</em>. It feeds largely on invertebrates, seeds and small insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in family groups of 2-4<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
143936	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Minimum population estimate from Hawkins (1994), based on point counts at the two major sites of Menabe and Ankarafantsika. <br/></p>	eng
143936	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest is under threat from slash-and-burn agriculture (at all sites), uncontrolled bush fires, logging and exploitation for charcoal/firewood<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species appears not to recolonise areas of regenerating forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is hunted opportunistically, especially in the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its stronghold in Menabe is currently highly threatened due to poor management by local forestry organisations of concessions such as Kirindy, continuing legal and illegal logging. The Menabe region has suffered from immigration and the resultant population growth has rapidly expanded slash-and-burn agriculture<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143937	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is known from 14 Important Bird Areas in eastern Madagascar, including seven National Parks, one Strict Reserve, four Special Reserves and one Classified Forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess threat posed by predatory non-native mammals. Protect remaining tracts of rainforest on the east coast through methods such as community reserves and carbon trading. <br/></p>	eng
143937	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mesitornis unicolor</em> has a patchy distribution in the eastern rainforest of <strong>Madagascar<sup>3</sup></strong>, known for certain from as far north as Marojejy and the Masoala peninsula and extending almost as far south as Taola&ntilde;aro (Fort Dauphin). It is thinly distributed and never common, although its status is difficult to ascertain as it is secretive and rarely seen.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143937	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a ground-dwelling species of undisturbed primary, evergreen, humid forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level to 1,200&#160;m but is most frequently encountered below 800&#160;m. It seems to prefer steep slopes and dark areas with much leaf-litter and little herbaceous growth<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It forages on the forest floor for seeds and small insects, often in family groups of two to three<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, also gleaning from leaves and stems at ground-level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest is built 1.0-1.5&#160;m from the ground and clutch-size is one.</p>	eng
143937	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,700 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% EOO) = 3,700-7,400, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (no density estimates available, but density range extrapolated from terrestrial forest species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
143937	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rainforest is under pressure from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, with commercial timber exploitation and hunting in some areas<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Near villages, dogs and rats <em>Rattus</em> entering the forest may threaten the species as it is a reluctant flier<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143938	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The spiny forest of south-west Madagascar has been identified as the biogeographic region in greatest need of additional reserves nationally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The northern part of this region, to which the species is restricted, is entirely unprotected and is suffering the most rapid degradation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Potential conservation measures have recently been recommended for the area, designed in consultation with local communities<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a coordinated network of community-based conservation areas, including a large protected area<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve agricultural efficiency and control charcoal production.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
143938	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monias benschi</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip, originally 30-60&#160;km wide and 200&#160;km long, in south- western <strong>Madagascar</strong> between the Fiherenana and Mangoky rivers. It is common within suitable habitat, occurring at population densities of 0.2-0.3&#160;individuals per ha<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although such habitat is threatened in the north-central, eastern and southern parts of this species's range, there is a fairly large intact block (c.2,500&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) north of Manombo<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2002, the total population was estimated to be 115,000&#160; individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143938	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is restricted to dry, deciduous spiny forest, 5-15&#160;m high, on sandy soil, with an abundance of <em>Didierea</em> trees, also tolerating highly degraded forest<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. Feeds by picking invertebrates (and some seeds) from under the litter layer by a combination of shallow probing, flicking over dead leaves, and digging in sand. It breeds all-year round in cooperative groups of 2-9&#160;individuals, which defend territories of 7-21 (mean of 14.9)&#160;ha<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. The generation span (average age of breeding birds) is probably more than five years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143938	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Tobias and Seddon (2002) provided estimates of the species's population size using five methods, the most reliable of which yielded an estimate of 115,000 individuals. The other methods gave estimates ranging from 98,000 to 152,000 individuals (Tobias and Seddon 2002), and these figures are taken as the species's population range.   <br/></p>	eng
143938	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Overall, primary spiny forest cover has declined by 15.6% between 1962 and 1999, although in the eastern part of this species's range, it has declined by c.28%<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Such clearance is mainly for slash-and-burn cultivation of maize and for charcoal production (both are increasing)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and more locally for construction material and commercial timber<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Predation by dogs and trappers occurs, and introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> may pose a threat, at least locally<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common and widespread in the Tibetan plateau but it is declining in the former USSR (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as irregular over its Chinese range, although common in some areas (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000-21000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000-63000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 130000-1500000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
143943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread throughout most of its range and locally abundant in the Sahel region (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common throughout most of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon and local (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 28000-62000 breeding pairs, equating to 84000-186000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-4000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
143947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in most parts of its range, although uncommon in northern west Africa and common to abundant in Algeria (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in south and west Madagascar and less common in the north (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in Ethiopia, southern Somalia and parts of Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and widespread (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest sandgrouse in west Africa and uncommon in Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in parts of India and generally rare in Pakistan (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to locally common, although uncommon in west Africa, Sudan and Kenya (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in Botswana, locally common in Transvaal state, South Africa; common in eastern Namibia, abundant in Gemsbok National Park and uncommon in Angola (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
143959	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Management actions completed or underway include extensive surveys in New South Wales, Victoria and south-east South Australia, detailed research on habitat requirements, recovery planning in New South Wales and Victoria, and incorporation of habitat in the protected-areas estate in New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria. Locust control spraying is now regulated in Plains-Wanderer habitat.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Refine population estimates in Queensland and northern South Australia. Monitor populations and habitat condition, and provide feedback to land-holders. Survey for suitable habitat in New South Wales and Queensland and identify areas of high conservation value for the species. Negotiate uncultivated, buffered refuge areas, and integrate into regional conservation plans.  <br/></p>	eng
143959	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pedionomus torquatus</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. It is found in high densities only in the Riverina region of New South Wales. Here, the population may be as high as 5,500 birds after good years, but can decline to about 1,000 in poor years. In northern Victoria, there are fewer than 500 individuals. In Queensland, low densities occur in the south-west and central areas, but no recent surveys have been completed. It has become effectively extinct in south-west Victoria, south-east South Australia, eastern New South Wales and south-east Queensland. Numbers may vary between less than 2,500 birds after years with lower than average rainfall, to 8,000 birds in good years. The area of occupancy may be as low as 1,000 km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>. <br/></p>	eng
143959	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours sparse grasslands with c.50% bare ground, widely spaced plants up to 0.1&#160;m high and remaining standing vegetation less than 0.05&#160;m in height. It is sedentary for as long as the habitat remains suitable.</p>	eng
143959	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population varies between 8,000 individuals in good years to fewer than 2,500 mature individuals in times of drought (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
143959	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The cultivation of native grassland has virtually extinguished the species from southern South Australia and Victoria and is increasing across the Riverina. Even if left to recover, habitat remains unsuitable for decades. Where patches survive, they are often too few and dispersed to be suitable. High levels of grazing cause the desertion of an area, possibly because birds become too vulnerable to predators. Pesticides for locust control may kill birds, directly or indirectly. Foxes may be significant predators near crops.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143960	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large global population estimated to be 15,000,000-16,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002).  <br/></p>	eng
143960	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is sedentary on Atlantic islands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and in some areas in south-western maritime countries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but is otherwise strongly migratory<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The spring migration starts at the end of February<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> (the timing of this movement being closely related to temperature), with the species arriving on the breeding grounds between March and mid-May. In Europe, the species breeds from the end of February to July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The autumn migration to the wintering grounds is largely governed by the timing of the first winter frosts (e.g. from October to November)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is typically solitary and usually migrates singly or in groups of 5-6<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Individuals may also become aggregated by topography or weather conditions, especially when migrating overland or where food and shelter are restricted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It typically forages nocturnally during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The distribution of earthworms is an important habitat characteristic for the species throughout the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> For breeding the species requires extensive unfragmented areas<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> of broadleaved deciduous or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> containing a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ground cover<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> (e.g. of brambles <em>Rubus spp</em>., holly <em>Ilex aquifolium</em>, hazel <em>Corylus avellana</em>, gorse <em>Ulex</em> spp., bracken <em>Pteridium</em> spp. or bilberry <em>Vaccinium myrtillus</em>)<strong><sup>1, 10</sup></strong> and with a mosaic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of dry, warm resting places, moist areas for foraging<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> (e.g. streams, springs or damp, swampy patches)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and clearings or other open areas as flight paths<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species may also nest in swampy forests with mossy ground, brooks and other watercourses or alternatively in coniferous forest with moist leaf litter and an undergrowth of broadleaved shrubs and ferns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species's habitats requirements during the daylight hours of the non-breeding season are similar to its breeding habitat requirements but are less restricted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. As well as extensive broadleaved or mixed broadleaved/coniferous forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> the species will also occupy young conifer plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, hedges with high densities of trees and shrubs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, smaller woods, areas of scrub<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and coppiced habitats with coppice of between 7 and 20 years old<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It still shows a strong preference for woodlands with rich (e.g. mull) humus types that have high earthworm biomasses, and a dense shrub strata however<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. At night during this season the species gathers to roost and feed in damp, earthworm-rich, permanent grasslands<strong><sup>1, 3, 9</sup></strong> sometimes 3-4 km away from woodland areas used for cover during the day<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, showing a preference for grazed meadows compared to cultivated fields (as the latter contain higher earthworm biomasses)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species may also feed on intertidal mud during freezing weather<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms, especially during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but the species may also take adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, earwigs and millipedes), spiders, slugs, leaches, ribbon worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and plant material such as seeds, fruit, agricultural grain (e.g. oats and maize), and grass roots and leaves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Small freshwater bivalve molluscs and crustaceans are also taken by migrating birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The composition of the diet may differ between the sexes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression in the ground concealed by shrubs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in open wooded sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, often at the base of a tree or near a dead fallen branch or log<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In France, both wintering and breeding populations have been monitored since the beginning of the 1990s<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>; in autumn-winter, the monitoring is based on indexes of abundance from data collected by hunters (approx. 1,000) and ringers (approx. 400); in spring, the monitoring is based on censuses of roding males in May-June carried out by a network of 400 observers; wintering population seems to be slightly increasing (1992-2007). Annual success of reproduction is estimated from analysis of wings collected by hunters (mainly in France<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and Denmark<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) and from ringing data (5,000 individuals every year in France). Hunting bags are regularly estimated in some Europeans countries, especially in Denmark<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, in the European part of Russia<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, in Finland, in Sweden<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> and in Switzerland. The annual European hunting bag is estimated at 3-4 million birds<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Bag limits are applied in different European countries, especially in France, Italy and Portugal<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In Britain an appropriate method of surveying the species was found using data on seasonal and evening patterns of summer male display<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It was found that in Britain the best months for surveying the species are May and June, and that the detection of 83% of male passes at a fixed point should be possible in a survey lasting 1 hour and commencing 15 minutes before sunset<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There is evidence from France that hunting reserves may be efficient tools for conserving wintering woodcocks, but only if buffer zones at least 1 km wide where hunting pressures are kept low and under-control are in place around reserves<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In France it was also found that forestry management practices should preserve rich humus types and coppices by choosing tree species that ameliorate the soil and by soil tilling<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species may also benefit from set-aside land, grass field-borders and the simplification of farm practices (e.g. by reducing soil tilling and direct sowing)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143960	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding</em> The most significant threat to the species in its breeding range is the increased fragmentation of woodlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is threatened by the disappearance of permanent grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and through the intensification of agricultural practices (e.g. the destruction of hedges, decreases in the number of permanent grazed meadows and the impoverishment of soil fauna as a result of ploughing and chemical application)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (both in its breeding and wintering range) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in Denmark<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143961	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. Yuwandake National Wildlife Protection Area, and Kinsaku-baru Prefecture Protection Area have been established on Amami-ooshima. Yonaha-dake has been designated as a prefecture protection area on Okinawa. On Amami-ooshima, <em>S. rusticola</em> has been given special protection in order to prevent accidental shooting of <em>S. mira</em>. A radio-telemetry study of its home range was completed in the early 1990s. Small Indian mongoose has been actively controlled by the Ministry of Environment since 2002 with benefits to the woodcock. Censuses along mountain roads in the breeding season (twice a year, mainly in March and June), observations with ringed and radio transmitter fitted birds, and automatic camera surveys are now performed. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Restore the remaining areas of forest on the islands where it occurs. Increase control of introduced cats and dogs and continue efforts to control small Indian mongoose. Monitor the status of the population on Amami-ooshima, particularly to determine the impact of introduced predators. Conduct surveys and ecological research on the islands where it occurs.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143961	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Scolopax mira</em> is endemic to the Nansei Shoto Islands in southern <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is recorded from the islands of Amami-ooshima, Kakeroma-jima, Toku-no-shima, Okinawa and Tokashiki-jima. On Amami-ooshima, it was reported to be common in the mid-1980s and is mainly confined to the western half and the eastern tip of the island. Numbers around Nase City have declined markedly. On Tokunoshima, it was reportedly reasonably common in the mid-1980s, but it seems to be uncommon on Okinawa, where its population is believed to be small and confined to the northern part of the island. Its population is estimated to be <10,000 individuals. Declines are thought to have continued until 2002 but following conservation efforts since then it may have begun to increase. <br/></p>	eng
143961	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in subtropical, evergreen, broadleaved hill forest, often with cycads, where it prefers damp and shady areas of the forest floor. It has been suggested that some birds migrate from Amami-ooshima to more southerly islands in winter, but this remains uncertain.  <br/></p>	eng
143961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001); also estimated by Rose and Scott (1997) to number <10,000. Recent surveys suggest that the total population including immature birds may now exceed 10,000 individuals but whether the number of mature individuals is greater than 10,000 requires clarification. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
143961	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	On Amami-ooshima, large areas of mature forests have been clear-cut and replaced by young secondary forests. On Okinawa, the area of forest has declined and there is substantial and continuing deforestation in its range. There have been significant population declines in areas of good habitat where small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus </em>was common, suggesting high levels of predation. Since 2002 there has been some control of mongooses and the predation risk may have decreased. Feral dogs and cats remain potential predators however. On Okinawa, there is a danger of accidental shooting as a result of confusion with <em>S. rusticola,</em> which is a game species. <br/></p>	eng
143962	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scolopax saturata</em> inhabits the damp, primary montane forest of Java and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It occurs in forest between 1,500 and 3,000 m and appears not to tolerate habitat disturbance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although the forests of Java and Sumatra are under a great deal of pressure, montane forests are relatively secure and so this species is currently considered Near Threatened.  <br/></p>	eng
143963	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scolopax celebensis</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (not the south-east peninsula but a recent record from the east peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits montane forest and bamboo thickets at 1,700-2,300 m, possibly down to 1,100 m, with records from very few localities. Although it is possibly fairly common and overlooked, there have been few if any recent records and there must be concern that it is local, possibly affected by habitat disturbance and loss, and even by the spread of feral cats into montane Sulawesi. <br/></p>	eng
143964	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Bacan, it probably occurs in Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve. On Obi, there are two further proposed protected areas, Pulau Obi and Danau Saku (whose fringing forests might support a population). It remains to be determined whether these are the most appropriate areas for the conservation of threatened, endemic avifauna. Given that they are the most mountainous parts of either island, they are probably ideally situated to conserve this species.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys on both islands (particularly within proposed protected areas) to establish its distribution, population status, ecological requirements and main threats. Support the effective management of Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve (Bacan) and the establishment of protected areas at Pulau Obi and Danau Saku (Obi), ensuring that these are suitably designed and situated. Devise and implement further conservation measures on each island.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143964	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scolopax rochussenii</em> is endemic to the islands of Obi and Bacan North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known by eight specimens (the most recent collected in 1980). It was not observed during surveys on both islands in 1991-1992, but a local guide convincingly reported it to inhabit the interior of Obi. Furthermore, historical accounts report a local name ascribed to the species, indicating at least a degree of familiarity with it. Thus, although nothing is known about its population, it may not be as rare as current evidence suggests.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143964	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is assumed, based on good anecdotal evidence, to be a bird of tropical montane forest. A local guide on Obi in 1991-1992 stated that it inhabits interior forests, where it is sometimes flushed (from very close range) on ridgetops above c.500&#160;m during dry periods. It is assumed to be resident, but may make local elevational movements.</p>	eng
143964	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate interpreted from information in BirdLife International (2001): based on small area of hill forest on Bacan and Obi, "the population of this forest wader is unlikely to be high". Verification of this estimate is desirable. <br/></p>	eng
143964	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Bacan and Obi are both small islands, with limited hill and montane forest. There are no gazetted protected areas on either island and any deforestation is likely to cause difficulties for the species. Much lowland forest on Obi has been logged or is under logging concession, and illegal gold mining is reported to be destroying further areas of forest. On Bacan, Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve embraces just over 100&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of upland forest, but its lowland forest (at least) is under pressure from agricultural encroachment and gold mining. It is possible that hunting is an additional threat, although this remains to be confirmed. <br/></p>	eng
143968	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas, but many are remote and lack sufficient resources to provide adequate protection. Amongst the most important are Wolong Biosphere Reserve (China), Langtang, Shey-Phoksundo and Sagarmatha National Parks (Nepal) and Hoang Lien Nature Reserve (Vietnam).<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys throughout its breeding and wintering ranges to establish its current distribution, status, seasonal movements and major threats. Identify key sites and campaign for their protection where appropriate. Research its ecological and habitat requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation in wintering areas. Promote conservation awareness campaigns to reduce hunting in and around protected areas known to support populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
143968	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallinago nemoricola</em> breeds locally in the Himalayas of north-west and north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong> and south-east Tibet, central Sichaun and perhaps Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. In winter, it occurs at lower altitudes in the Himalayas, as a regular visitor in small numbers to north <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and as a vagrant (or perhaps irregular visitor) to the hills of central and southern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, north Thailand and Laos. Historically, it was considered rare and local across much of its range. It appears to have declined in traditional wintering areas in parts of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and Laos, from where there have been few recent records. <br/></p>	eng
143968	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds from April-June, in alpine meadows and marshes with scattered low bushes, or in dwarf scrub in barren, boulder strewn areas, generally between 3,000 and 5,000&#160;m, at least occasionally down to 2,100&#160;m, and with one historical breeding record from 1,200 m. In winter, it frequents swampy ground in and at the edge of evergreen forest and marshy grassland and scrub, below 3,000&#160;m, sometimes down to lowland plains (<100&#160;m). Populations are partially migratory, with some birds travelling from the Himalayas to south India. <br/></p>	eng
143968	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated from analysis of detailed account of recent records in BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
143968	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	During the early 20th century, hunting was probably a major cause of decline. It remains a local threat, particularly in China and South-East Asia. Habitat loss is now the key threat, with substantial losses and degradation of evergreen forest, wooded wetlands, marshes and swamps in its wintering areas as a result of drainage, clearance for tea plantations, and conversion to both commercial and shifting agriculture. <strong></strong></p>	eng
143969	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front between its breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> after which it migrates in small flocks of 5-10 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also overwinters in small groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> It breeds in Arctic and boreal wetlands up to 2,300 m above sea-level on damp meadows along river valleys<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, in grassy and mossy swamps<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, swampy taiga forest<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, sphagnum bogs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and shrub tundra with patches of dwarf birch <em>Betula nana</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species inhabits a wider variety of wetland habitats including flooded paddy-fields, wet grasslands, seepage swamps and marshland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often foraging on the muddy shorelines of swamps and along streams<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of molluscs, adult and larval insects, earthworms and occasionally crustaceans, seeds and other plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup> </sup></strong>usually well-concealed in dense cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143969	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is subject to hunting pressures throughout its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143970	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in scattered solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and forages singly<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> or in dispersed flocks outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is crepuscular and nocturnal in its foraging activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> It breeds in open deciduous or mixed deciduous/evergreen woodland, showing a preference for grassy areas near marshes and streams<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, clearings<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, clear-cut areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, woodland along river valleys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and open regions of forest with meadows, thickets and young stands of aspen <em>Populus</em> spp. or birch <em>Betula</em> spp.<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It generally avoids very wet or boggy sites during this season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but may occur on alpine meadows near the treeline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In it's non-breeding range the species occurs in dense growths of grass and rushes around the edge of fresh and brackish<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> marshes<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, swamps, pools, small streams, rice paddy-fields, sewage ponds<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, rank grassland<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> and dry cultivated areas (e.g. with crops of rapeseed and wheat)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may also be observed foraging among hummocks or on mudflats around seepage areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of earthworms, adult and larval insects (e.g. glow-worms, beetles, ants and grasshoppers)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, terrestrial molluscs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a simple scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed on dry substrates<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with short grass<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on slight elevations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or mounds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in swamps and bogs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, amongst bushes, or in the open in forest meadows<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143971	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>An international action plan has been drafted<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143971	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallinago media</em> breeds primarily in <strong>Russia</strong>, east to 95&#176;E (150,000-250,000 pairs), with large numbers in <strong>Belarus</strong> (12,000-20,000 pairs) and <strong>Norway</strong> (5,000-15,000 pairs). It also breeds in <strong>Poland</strong>, <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Sweden</strong>, <strong>Estonia</strong> (500-700 males<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Latvia</strong>, <strong>Lithuania</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong> and <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>. The total population is estimated at 118,000-1,050,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. From early August, it migrates through central Asia, central and south-eastern Europe (notably <strong>Turkey</strong> and <strong>Cyprus</strong>) and <strong>Egypt</strong>, with birds gathering in wet high-plateau grasslands in <strong>Ethiopia</strong><sup>1</sup>. When these dry out in October, birds follow the rains south and west to <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>. Its range has contracted and numbers have declined since the late 19th century. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143971	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Nesting habitats include flood-plain and tussock meadows, natural fens with scattered bushes and peatlands up to 1,200 m. On migration it gathers on wet high-plateau grasslands in Ethiopia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> before these dry out in October, after which it follows the rains south and west. <br/></p>	eng
143971	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are an estimated 13,000-25,000 mature individuals in Scandanavia  (J. A. K&aring;l&aring;s <em>in litt</em>. 2007) and 450,000-1,000,000 individuals in W Siberia and NE Europe (V. Morozov <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
143971	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rapid declines in the southern forest and forest-steppe zones of Russia and Ukraine are largely a result of the destruction and deterioration of nesting habitats. The main causes of habitat loss are conversion to intensive agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wetland drainage and the submergence of river valleys during the creation of reservoirs. It is also hunted in eastern Europe and in its wintering range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143972	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although it is subject to local movements associated with the drying of temporary floods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sometimes moving several hundred kilometres away from nesting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In East Africa it also descends to lower altitudes after breeding<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species is usually found feeding in small numbers or scattered groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and nesting solitarily (not closer than 30 m)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is also least active during the middle of the day (although it is not crepuscular)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> This species is always found associated with freshwater or brackish wetlands, and is typically found on vleis, marshes, highland bogs, wetlands around artificial water bodies, ditches, inland deltas (e.g. the flood plain of the Okavango River)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, swampy lake edges, seasonally flooded grasslands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and wet moorlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It most frequently occurs at high altitudes (1,500 m in Ethiopia and north-east Africa, occasionally reaching up to 4,000 m)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and typically nests at between 1,800-2,700 m in East Africa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it can also be found on lowland wetlands inhabiting shallow estuaries and lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species also favours soft muddy areas among shallowly flooded vegetation on which to feed<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> The diet of this species mainly consists of the larvae of beetles, dragonflies and flies, annelid worms, small crustaceans, molluscs and sometimes seeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a pad of grass leaves hidden in a tuft of grass or fine rushes, surrounded by flooded or moist ground<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, often where grazing animals have opened up muddy patches and paths<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143972	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation in Kenya (such as decreases in the area of natural pasture, lake-edge and stream-edge marshes; agricultural expansions; and increases in the area of lake mudflats due to increased siltation and reduced water supply) owing to encroachment, overgrazing, burning and the drainage of wetland areas by peasant farmers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A population in Zimbabwe recently crashed after an extreme drought, and the species is may also be threatened by future outbreaks of avian botulism<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143973	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Malagasy government has ratified the Ramsar Convention, which came into force for the country in 1999, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Obtain an up-to-date population estimate, and develop monitoring to establish population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss. Study the impact of hunting on the species. Discourage and control hunting as appropriate. Protect important wetland sites.	eng
143973	distribution		<em>Gallinago macrodactyla</em> is found in the humid eastern half of <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from sea-level up to 2,700 m, being more common above 700 m<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It has been recorded from Tsaratanana in the north to Madena in the south-east, and from the eastern coast to the Sakay river on the western side of the central plateau<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded on Ile Sante Marie<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but may be locally common at some sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and although the total population has been estimated at 1,800-7,500 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the true population size is likely to be at the higher end of this estimate<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
143973	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is presumed to be sedentary<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding has been observed during the months of July-January<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season it is fairly gregarious and often observed foraging in small groups of 4-8 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It inhabits dense vegetation and muddy areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including grassy and sedge-covered marshes and swamps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>,  muddy shores of lakes and watercourses, flooded fields and sometimes rice-paddies<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>Breeding has been recorded in a grassy swamp with dry hummocks<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is placed in a dense tuft of grass in or adjacent to marshland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. One nest has been described, and it consisted of a depression in a dry hummock, scantily lined with grass<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
143973	population		The total population was previously estimated at 1,800-7,500 individuals (F. Hawkins<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). However, the population size is likely to lie in the upper end of this estimate (R. Safford <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010), hence the population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals.	eng
143977	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon exists in two forms: the nominate undulata occurs in two disjunct areas, one in Colombia, and the other from Venezuela through Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana to extreme north-east Brazil; the race gigantea is found in eastern Bolivia, eastern Paraguay and south-east Brazil, and probably also in Uruguay and north-east Argentina (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It occurs in Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú and Golondrina Private Nature Reserve, Paraguay (Lowen et al. 1996), and all recent records for Venezuela have been from Canaima National Park and World Heritage Site (C. Sharpe in litt. 2003).	eng
143977	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	the species has been found in tall vegetation in swamps and flooded grasslands, and occasionally in dry savannas (Hayman et al. 1986), from the tropical zone locally up to 2,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It apparently also occurs in degraded habitat following forest clearance (J. Mazar Barnett verbally 1998). Its diet apparently includes frogs and it may feed only at night (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In Brazil, nests have been found in September and from November to early January; nests are generally placed on a small hillock between swamps, and 2-4 eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The movements of this species are very poorly understood, and it appears to arrive seasonally at some sites, apparently after rain (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is regarded as local and uncommon in Colombia, and is nowhere common, but its nocturnal habits and extremely secretive behaviour might exaggerate the impression of its scarcity (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
143977	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is reported to suffer severe hunting pressure in French Guiana, and may be hunted throughout its range, being apparently easier to shoot than some other sympatric snipes (del Hoyo et al. 1996, van Gils and Wiersma 1996), although it does not appear to be hunted in Venezuela (C. Sharpe in litt. 2003). Habitat loss is presumably a threat, at least in part of its range, as less than 5% of the Brazilian cerrado remained in a virgin state by 1988 (Cavalcanti 1988) with most of the destruction having occurred since 1960 (Collar et al. 1992).	eng
143979	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallinago stricklandii</em> breeds in south-central <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong> south to Tierra del Fuego, with some birds reportedly migrating north in winter to Valdivia, Chile<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It has reputedly bred in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>, but there is only one recent record and the historical documentation is a lost specimen of questionable identity<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. It is found in grassy and forested boggy areas with low scrub or rushes, often in a mosaic of grassy bog, bamboo and lichen-clad dwarf forest and sometimes cushion-plant bogs up to 4,200 m <strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. In the north of Tierra del Fuego, it also occurs in non-forested open grass and scrubby areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population has been estimated at less than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but could be even smaller. There may be some declines in the north of its range and, although reportedly common on islands around Cape Horn, it is to some extent naturally rare<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
143979	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International (2002) estimated <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
143980	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallinago imperialis</em> was considered extinct for over half a century, but has been found at approximately six sites in <strong>Peru</strong> since 1967, and at 12 locations in <strong>Ecuador</strong> since 1988<strong><sup>1,3,4,5,8</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, it probably occurs continuously along the east and west slopes, on massifs from Carchi to Cotopaxi<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Peru, it is perhaps equally widespread on the east slope, though it apparently occurs at very low densities (4-5 displaying within 1.6&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of suitable ridge-top habitat)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and known populations are small and localised<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Also recorded in <strong>Colombia</strong>. If the number of records and known sites continue to increase, it may be downlisted to Least Concern. It occurs around the tree-line at 2,745-3,700&#160;m, where it is probably largely restricted to bogs and moist elfin forest intermixed with tree-ferns and tall grass, but is also found in bamboo-fringed glades with extensive <em>Sphagnum</em> mosses<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Burning, grazing and conversion for agriculture of the p&aacute;ramo has negatively affected areas adjacent to the tree-line, consequently destroying and degrading its preferred habitat mosaic<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143980	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate require further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
143981	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large global population estimated to be 1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
143981	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and crosses Europe on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to early-September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in well-dispersed solitary pairs<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, after which (between August and September) adults undergo a flightless moulting period close to the breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The autumn south-west migration occurs from mid-September to mid-November, with the species departing its wintering grounds again in March to mid-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains largely solitary, usually feeding singly or in groups of up to 5 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most of its activities are carried out nocturnally or in the early morning and late evening<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the northern taiga and forest tundra zones on open grassy marshes and bogs with swampy ground<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> on flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in swampy coniferous forest, willow <em>Salix</em> spp. marshes or wet alder <em>Alnus</em> spp. woods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season it inhabits both fresh and brackish wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> showing a preference for mosaics of moist and waterlogged mudflats with soft, silty mud and dense of tussocks vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include swamps, fens<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, grassy marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the margins of rivers and streams<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, overgrown flood-lands, sewage farms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, rice-fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, flooded arable fields, damp pastures and water meadows<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, annelid worms, small freshwater and terrestrial gastropods and the seeds and vegetative parts of aquatic and shoreline plants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is positioned on hummocks of sphagnum moss or grass tussocks on floating bogs just above the surrounding water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, also on drier ground amongst bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. dwarf birch <em>Betula</em> <em>nana</em> and heather)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The annual success of reproduction is estimated every year by wing surveys in Denmark since the end of the 1970s, and in France since the mid-1990s. Hunting bags are estimated every year in Denmark<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
143981	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its wetland habitats through afforestation, peat extraction and drainage for agricultural intensification<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also suffers from lead poisoning as a result of ingesting lead shot deposited on wetlands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted during the autumn migration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. in Denmark)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143982	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1970 and 1972, the species was successfully reintroduced from South East Island to Mangere Island, after feral cats were eradicated. Captive breeding has been attempted but has failed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Remove all predators from Pitt Island<sup>2 to allow the species to colonise. Develop captive-rearing techniques for snipe, to facilitate transfer and establishment6. Restore sufficient forest area to allow the species to establish self-sustaining populations that require minimal management6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
143982	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coenocorypha pusilla</em> is confined to four small, predator-free islands in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it is common and considered stable. It was once widespread throughout the group. The population is estimated at c.900-1,100 pairs. Most of these, 700-800 pairs, are on South East Island (= Rangatira). The population on Mangere Island (which has been reintroduced from South East Island) is between 200-250 pairs. Birds have recently colonised Little Mangere Island, and a population was recently found on Star Keys (totalling less than 50 pairs)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143982	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds from the shore to island summits, but is most common in <em>Olearia traversi</em> forest. It builds its nests under clumps of tussock, and usually lays two eggs<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It is insectivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its age of first breeding and life expectancy are unknown<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143982	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Higgins and Davies (1996): 700-800 pairs on South East Island; possibly 200-250 pairs on Magere Island; <50 pairs on Little Mangere Island and Star Keys. <br/></p>	eng
143982	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The historical range of the species was reduced as the result of the introduction of predators such as cats, rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Birds attempting to colonise neighbouring Pitt Island are killed by cats and <em>G.&#160;australis</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
143983	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coenocorypha aucklandica</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Nominate <em>aucklandica</em> occurs in the Auckland Islands (excluding the main island), <em>huegeli</em> is known from the Snares Islands (3 km<sup>2</sup>), and <em>meinertzhagenae</em> occurs in the Antipodes Islands (20 km<sup>2</sup>). In 1997, a tiny population was discovered on Jacquemart Island (0.2 km<sup>2</sup>), in the Campbell Island group<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The total population is estimated to number 29,100 birds and is considered stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Auckland Islands hold two thirds of the population. Many local extinctions have occurred in the past, probably caused by various introductions of Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>, cats, pigs and Weka <em>Gallirallus australis</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Such introductions brought about the extinction of two further island subspecies, <em>iredalei</em> and <em>barrierensis</em>, while <em>R. exulans</em> probably caused the extinction of the species from mainland New Zealand around 1,000 years ago<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143983	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Higgin and Davies (1996) <br/></p>	eng
143984	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Listed as Vulnerable (SPEC category 2) in Europe. An EU Action Plan has been drafted. Intensive management of breeding habitat has been carried out in some Western European countries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and a number of agri-environment schemes focus on this species, although results have been mixed<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. It occurs in a number of protected areas.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Obtain more quantitative data on status, population trends and conservation requirements outside Europe. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of current conservation action. In the EU, use a mixture of agri-environment schemes and large reserves to secure protection and appropriate management of breeding habitat. Establish nature reserves on important breeding sites throughout the species's range.  Manage existing reserves appropriately (prescriptions include avoiding drainage of existing wet meadows, raising water tables where necessary, low-level use of organic fertiliser, low intensity grazing, late mowing, and prevention of succession to bushy vegetation; winter flooding is sometimes recommended but may reduce numbers of invertebrate prey<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>). Ensure that migratory staging posts and winter feeding habitats and roosts are conserved and monitored. Place a temporary ban on hunting throughout the EU until there is clear evidence that the population has returned to a favourable conservation status, and effectively enforce it. Collaborate with farmers and hunters, carrying out environmental education and outreach work where appropriate. Prevent afforestation of lowland breeding habitat in Iceland. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143984	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Limosa limosa </em>has a large discontinuous breeding range extending from Iceland to the Russian far east, with wintering populations in Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Australasia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs as three subspecies, <em>L. l. islandica</em>, <em>L. l. limosa</em>, and <em>L. l. melanuroides</em>. <em>L. l. islandica </em>breeds in <strong>Iceland</strong>, the <strong>Faeroe Islands</strong>, Shetland (<strong>United Kingdom</strong>) and the Lofoten Islands (<strong>Norway</strong>). <em>L. l. limosa </em>breeds across a wide area extending from Western and Central Europe to central Asia<strong> </strong>and Asiatic Russia as far east as the river Yenisey.  <em>L. l. melanuroides </em>breeds in disjunct populations in <strong>Mongolia, </strong>northern <strong>China</strong>, Siberia (<strong>Russia</strong>) and the Russian far east.  The species migrates across a broad front and has wintering grounds extending from the <strong>Republic of Ireland </strong>to <strong>Australia</strong>, encompassing the Mediterranean, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of the Middle East, <strong>India</strong>, Indochina, <strong>Taiwan, </strong>the <strong>Philippines, Indonesia, </strong>and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. The global population has recently been estimated at 634,000-805,000 individuals<strong><sup>5.</sup></strong> Population trends vary in different parts of its range. There have been large and well-documented declines in mainland Europe<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong> and in the species's Australian wintering grounds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, which hold c.50% of the wintering population of <em>L. l. melanuroides</em><strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, in Central Asia the breeding population appears to be stable or fluctuating<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and in Iceland numbers are increasing (although this subpopulation is only a small part of the global population)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A recent analysis based on published literature, survey data and expert opinions from throughout the species's range suggests that, overall, the global population may have declined at a rate approaching 30% over the last 15 years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/><em> <br/></em><p></p>	eng
143984	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in lowland wet grasslands, grassy marshland, raised bogs and moorland, lake margins and damp grassy depressions in steppe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Secondary habitats such as wet meadow, pasture, damp areas around fish-ponds and sewage farms, and salt-water lagoons are also used<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Farmland habitats are of critical importance for breeding Western European populations. The species winters in sheltered estuaries and lagoons with large intertidal mudflats, sandy beaches, salt-marshes, salt-flats and inland wetlands such as swampy lake shores, pools, flooded grassland and irrigated rice fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>L. l. limosa </em>tends to winter in freshwater habitats, whereas <em>L. l. islandica </em>and <em>melanuroides </em>mainly winter in estuarine habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143984	population	BirdLife International, 2008	162,000-183,000 in western Europe, 90,000-165,000 in eastern Europe (BirdLife International 2004 [Birds in Europe]); 25,000-100,000 in west-central Asia (Perennou <em>et al</em>. 1994, Stroud <em>et al</em>. 2004); 150,000 in central Asia and Siberia (Asian Waterbird Census unpublished data); 160,000 in the rest of Asia to Australia (Bamford in prep.); 47,000 <em>islandica </em>in Faeroes and Iceland (Gunnarsson <em>et al.</em> 2005) <br/></p>	eng
143984	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of nesting habitat owing to wetland drainage and agricultural intensification is a major threat. Detrimental activities include the conversion of wet meadows to arable land, increased fertilisation and drainage of grassland, artificial flooding of nesting habitats, and earlier cutting<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. On intensively grazed pastures, trampling is a major cause of nest loss. Habitat fragmentation may cause particular problems for this species, which nests in dispersed colonies and sub-colonies as protection against predators and may be unlikely to breed successfully in small areas of habitat. Hunting is another significant threat. In the European Union (EU), only France continues to legally hunt this species, although a small amount of illegal hunting occurs elsewhere<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Annual bag statistics are not currently recorded for individual species, but it is estimated that c.20-30,000 Black-tailed Godwits are shot each year, down from >100,000 per year in 1980-1990<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Outside the EU, for example on the African wintering grounds, hunting is known to occur but its scale and impact is unknown. Water pollution is probably an issue in parts of the species's range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and drought in the West African wintering quarters may have had negative impacts on the mainland European population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Icelandic population is potentially at risk from the policy of the Icelandic government to encourage afforestion of the lowland habitats where they breed<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143986	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full long-distance migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it may also form small colonies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. After breeding adults disperse to coastal moulting sites, the onward migration to wintering grounds then continuing into October and November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species often flies in large flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and forages in groups outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally aggregating into huge flocks of several hundreds of thousands of individuals at favoured sites (e.g. in Mauritania)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in marshy, swampy areas in lowland moss and shrub tundra<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> near wet river valleys<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, lakes and sedge bogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as on swampy heathlands in the willow and birch zone near the Arctic treeline<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, in open larch <em>Larix</em> spp. woodland close to water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally on open bogs in the extreme north of the coniferous forest zone<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species may frequent inland wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sandy beaches with pine <em>Pinus</em> spp. stands, swampy lowlands near lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and short-grass meadows, but during the winter it is more common in intertidal areas along muddy coastlines, estuaries, inlets, mangrove-fringed lagoons and sheltered bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with tidal mudflats or sandbars<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding the species feeds on insects, annelid worms, molluscs<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and occasionally seeds and berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In intertidal areas the species's diet consists of annelids (e.g. <em>Nereis</em> spp. and <em> Arenicola</em> spp.), bivalves and crustaceans, although it will also take cranefly larvae and earthworms on grasslands and occasionally larval amphibians (tadpoles) and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression positioned on a dry elevated site<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as a tundra ridge<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or hummock<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, often between clumps of grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or under a thicket<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the UK there is evidence that the removal of <em>Spartina anglica</em> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143986	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the degradation of foraging sites due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, reduced river flows<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and in some areas the invasion of mudflats and coastal saltmarshes by mangroves (owing to sea-level rise and increased sedimentation and nutrient loads at the coast from uncontrolled development and soil erosion in upstream catchment areas)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143988	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory, travelling from mid-August to October along the coast of eastern Asia on a narrow front with few stop-overs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On its wintering grounds in Australia the species also makes erratic movements in relation to ranifall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to early-August in loose colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 3-30 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and migrates in flocks of up to 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season it occurs in dense flocks of several hundreds or thousands of individuals and gathers in large flocks to roost during the warmest part of the day and at night<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in secondary vegetation growth in open burnt areas or in grassy clearings in northern montane larch <em>Larix</em> spp. or dwarf birch woodland, chiefly along river valleys<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or on well-drained<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> southward-facing mountain slopes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species shows a preference for foraging and resting in swampy meadows near lakes and along river valleys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It overwinters on dry inland grassland, bare cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dry mudflats and coastal plains of black soil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with scattered shallow pools of freshwater<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, swamps, lakes or flooded ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for short grass swards of less than 20 cm tall, and occasionally occurs in dry saltmarshes, coastal swamps, mudflats or sandflats in estuaries, or on the beaches of sheltered coasts<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, beetles, caterpillars, ants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and termites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) and spiders as well as vegetable matter including seeds, rice husks and berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression located on open ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in open burnt areas or grassy clearings in larch <em>Larix</em> spp. or dwarf birch woodland, chiefly along river valleys<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species nests in loose colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with neighbouring nests spaced between 200 and 300 m apart within a radius of 1 km<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143988	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Important migratory stop-over sites for this species in northern Australia are being degraded through colonisation by invasive plants (e.g. <em>Mimosa pigra</em>, <em>Hymenachne amplexicaulis</em> and para grass <em>Brachiaria mutica</em>), saltwater intrusion as a result of rising sea-levels, and damage from feral pigs and buffalo<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The habitats of this species are also potentially threatened by agricultural intensification and pesticide contamination<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143989	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. It is protected in the USA, Canada, Argentina and Mexico. Its status has been fully documented, and identification details publicised<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding and wintering areas have been surveyed, and reported breeding sites investigated<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. An Environment Canada species recovery plan recommends that no recovery action be undertaken other than continued monitoring of reported sightings<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue cooperative international assessments of historical sites<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey heath tundra along the Labrador coast during August-September and historic breeding grounds prior to the initiation of development projects<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate any credible sightings<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand prairie habitat, and employ prescribed burnings<sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
143989	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Numenius borealis</em> bred at (and presumably between) the Bathurst peninsula and Point Lake in Northwest Territories, <strong>Canada</strong><sup>2</sup>, and perhaps also Alaska, USA. Birds migrated across Hudson Bay to Labrador (and New England, <strong>USA</strong>), and through the Caribbean to <strong>Argentina</strong> (especially the Pampas), and possibly <strong>Uruguay</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong><sup>4</sup>, southernmost <strong>Brazil</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> south to Patagonia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The return migration was probably along the Pacific coast, through Central America, across the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coast and northwards through the prairies. It probably numbered hundreds of thousands, but declined rapidly in the 1870s-1890s to become very rare in the 20th century<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last irrefutable record was of a specimen collected in Barbados in 1963, but there is an accepted record of a flock of 23 in Texas in 1981. Since then there have been no confirmed records (none from the wintering grounds in South America since 1939), only several unconfirmed reports during 1982-2006<strong><sup>2,5,6,7,9</sup></strong>. The population (if one persists) must be tiny<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143989	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It bred (May-August) in treeless arctic tundra at 180-335 m, comprising grassy meadows with birch (<em>Betula</em>) and sedge (<em>Carex</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On autumn migration (July-October), it favoured ericaceous heath, crowberries <em>Empetrum nigrum</em>, pastures and intertidal flats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Winter habitat was possibly wet pampas grasslands, intertidal and semi-desert areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On return migration (March-May), it favoured burnt areas in tall grass and mixed-grass prairies, and rocky mountain grasshopper <em>Melanoplus spretus</em> was a key food source<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was gregarious, with traditional autumn migration sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny, as there have been no confirmed sightings since the early 1980s. <br/></p>	eng
143989	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Spring hunting in North America partially explains the species's near-extinction, but there was no recovery after hunting was outlawed and abandoned in c.1916<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The main cause is almost certainly the near total loss of prairies to agriculture, compounded by the suppression of prairie wildfires and the extinction of <em>M. spretus</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The widespread conversion of the pampas began after the main decline, but has hindered any possible recovery<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143990	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on a broad front utilising few staging areas on route (in autumn no known concentrated staging occurs)<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> either in well-dispersed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in loose groups depending on the topography of the land<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The autumn migration occurs from July onwards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with the return passage to the breeding grounds occurring chiefly between March and May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (non-breeders may also remain on the wintering grounds all year round)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species usually forages singly or in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flying in small parties<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or larger flocks on migration<strong><sup>4, 5 </sup></strong>and roosting communally at night in mangrove trees or in shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on dry scrub heathland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, moss and lichen tundra with stunted bushes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, sedge meadows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, wet moorland<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and mossy hummock bogs<strong><sup>4, 3</sup></strong> in open areas, river valleys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, along the shores of tundra lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in birch forest near the Arctic treeline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, burned areas of forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and open montane forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the boreal, subarctic and subalpine zones<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids extremes of cold and wet, steep slopes, bare rock and gravel expanses or tall dense vegetation (e.g. dense forest)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage in the autumn and spring the species frequents wetlands, tidal flats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, short-sward wet and dry grasslands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, farmland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and heathland with <em>Empetrum</em> spp., generally occupying coastal habitats in the winter such as muddy, rocky or sandy beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coral shores<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, exposed reefs, tidal mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sandflats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>,<strong> </strong>tidal marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and lagoons<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> When inland on migration and during the breeding season its diet consists of adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> (e.g. Coleoptera, Orthoptera and cranefly larvae), spiders, millipedes, earthworms, snails, slugs, seeds, leaves and berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. of ericaceous plants)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On the coast during the winter the species takes crustaceans (e.g. crabs), molluscs, large polychaete worms and occasionally fish, reptiles or young birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> often positioned on hummocks or in short heather or grass<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> in dry exposed locations<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> sometimes far from water<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. When the breeding habitat (e.g. tundra or heathland) is flat and open the species nests in solitary pairs, but where irregular features such as hummocks and tall vegetation patches give more visual isolation the species may nest in loose groups<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A study in the Shetland Islands, UK found that when trying to enhance the grazing quality of heathlands by re-seeding (e.g. with high quality grass-seed mixtures) it is better to apply lime, grass-seed and inorganic fertiliser directly to the surface of the ground rather than ploughing and harrowing the ground first, as the latter maintains more natural vegetation hummocks and heather used by the species for nesting<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Re-seeding of heathland with prior ploughing and harrowing may improve feeding conditions for pre-breeding adults however<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143990	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143991	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Most breeding and staging grounds are well-protected<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge protects several wintering and stop-over sites. Protection and management of habitat at Kahuku on O'ahu has facilitated an increase in the local wintering population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey key historical sites<sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor population trends<sup>2,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess harvesting rate<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify sites with high concentrations of wintering birds<sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify migratory stop-over sites<sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect and manage key islands, atolls and other wintering sites<sup>2,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Increase public awareness especially in its winter range<sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
143991	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Numenius tahitiensis</em> breeds on the lower Yukon River and central Seward Peninsula in western Alaska, <strong>USA</strong>. Suggestions that it breeds in Russia are unsupported<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It winters on oceanic islands, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong>, <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, <strong>Marshall Islands</strong>, <strong>Nauru</strong>,<strong> Kiribati</strong>, <strong>Tuvalu</strong>, <strong>Tokelau (to New Zealand)</strong>, <strong>Fiji</strong>, <strong>Tonga</strong>, <strong>Niue (to New Zealand)</strong>, <strong>Samoa</strong>, <strong>American Samoa</strong>, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, and <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, also reaching the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, Kermadec Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong> (notably Oeno) and Easter Island (<strong>Chile</strong>)<strong><sup>1,3,10,11</sup></strong>. The breeding population is c.7,000 birds, but c.3,000 subadults over-summer on Pacific islands<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143991	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in dwarf-shrub tundra at 100-350&#160;m during May-July. Birds congregate in the Yukon-Kuskokwin Delta in August, and migrate south, mostly bypassing the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to make landfall after 6,000&#160;km or more<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. It winters on coral reefs, sandy beaches, intertidal flats, rocky shores and in palm forests and dense vegetated understorey<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is long-lived (15-23 years), forms long-term monogamous pairs, and is highly faithful to breeding and wintering sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
143991	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Morrison <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimated 7,000 breeders and 3,000 immatures. <br/></p>	eng
143991	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced cats, dogs and possibly pigs heavily predate flightless birds on wintering grounds. Hunting for food is localised, particularly previously in the Tuamotus. Breeding birds are predated by several species of raptor, Parasitic Jaeger <em>Stercorarius parasiticus</em>, Common Raven <em>Corvus corax</em> and foxes. Gold mining is a potential future threat in Alaska<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Ingestion of lead paint on Midway Island needs to be investigated (it was recently identified as a problem in seabirds)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143992	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. A Memorandum of Understanding, established under the auspices of the CMS, came into effect in 1994, and a working group was established in 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. An international action plan was published in 1996, and national action plans are in place in Italy<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Bulgaria and Ukraine. Several of the sites within the EU where the species has been recorded are designated as Special Protection Areas. There have been several international initiatives to survey passage and wintering sites<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong> and potential breeding areas<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, collate records<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, protect key sites, raise public awareness<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and educate hunters. Details of a 'last push' to locate any remaining populations (focusing initially on surveys of historical wintering areas) were announced at the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species in December 2008<strong><sup>11,13,14</sup></strong>. The priority is the first ever survey of the potential non-breeding range (from Morocco, perhaps as far as Japan) in 2009-10 with a particular focus on wintering and potential moult sites; volunteers and funding are being sought<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The Slender-billed Curlew Working Group has developed a tool kit to assist people to identify and report Slender-billed Curlew in the field. If any can be found and caught then the sites used during the annual cycle could be determined by satellite tagging. An attempt to narrow down the search for breeding and moulting sites using stable isotope analysis of museum skins commenced in 2002<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This has been expanded to include Strontium analysis, samples of which were being analysed March 2008, and may be written up by August 2009; preliminary results suggest that the main breeding area may have been in Kazakhstan<strong><sup>8,12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor key wintering and passage sites. Search for breeding grounds (taking into account results of stable isotope analysis). Attach satellite transmitters to captured birds. Provide training in species identification along the migration route. Promote protection of habitat. Provide legal protection for this and similar species. Increase public awareness.</strong>	eng
143992	distribution		<em>Numenius tenuirostris</em> has only been confirmed breeding near Tara, north of Omsk in Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, between 1909-1925. It migrates west-south-west from its presumed breeding grounds in Siberia through central and eastern Europe, predominantly <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong> and the former Yugoslavia to southern Europe, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Italy</strong>, and <strong>Turkey</strong>, and North Africa, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong> and <strong>Tunisia</strong>. It has also been reported from <strong>Slovenia</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>,<strong> Saudi Arabia</strong>, and<strong> Yemen</strong>. Reports of birds wintering in Iran persist but require confirmation. Regarded as very common in the 19th century, it declined dramatically during the 20th century. Flocks of over 100 birds were recorded from Morocco as late as the 1960s and 1970s. However, between 1980 and 1990, there were only 103 records involving 316-326 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and from 1990-1999, this dropped to 74 records involving 148-152 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including a flock of 19 in Italy in 1995. Although there have been reports from Bulgaria, Ukraine and Uzbekistan of larger groups, most recent verified records have been of one to three birds, with the last confirmed record coming from Hungary in April 2001<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 1994, the population was estimated at only 50-270 individuals, but the paucity of recent confirmed records suggests it may now be lower than 50 birds.	eng
143992	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is thought to breed in small colonies with nests between 2-3 m and 10-15 m apart<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Eggs have been found in May<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Early records often referred to the species as occurring in large flocks on migration and in winter. However it is now so rare that such flocks do not occur. The peak of the autumn migration appears to occur around September, with the spring migration peaking around March<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The only known nests were recorded in bog-forest transition zones<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> on the northern limit of the forest-steppe zone in habitat more typical of taiga marsh. This may represent either a very specialised breeding habitat requirement, or an unusual use of habitat at the limit of the species's breeding range<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding </em>On migration and in winter, a wide variety of habitats are used, including saltmarsh, steppe grassland, fishponds, saltpans, brackish lagoons, tidal mudflats, semi-desert, brackish wetlands and sandy farmland next to lagoons. Where it winters inland it inhabits marsh areas fed with freshwater, but with areas of <em>Salicornia</em> indicating that the ground has a high salt content<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>There is little information on its diet: birds at Merja Zerga (Morocco) fed on earthworms and tipulid larvae, while elsewhere insects, molluscs and crustaceans have been recorded as prey.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest found by Ushakov in 1914 was constructed of dry grass with a few leaves of rush <em>Scirpus</em> but little or no sedge<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The known nests were situated on dry areas of sedge and bog moss some distance from willow scrub or birch grove<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
143992	population		Population assumed to be tiny (<50) based on small number of recent records, most of which are of just 1-3 individuals.	eng
143993	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be 490,000-660,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The European population (220,000-360,000 pairs, occupying 50-74% of the global breeding range) has declined during 1990-2000 (including key populations in the United Kingdom, European Russia and Finland)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but there is no evidence of declines in Asia, where populations appear to be stable<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. The species is therefore not believed to meet the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations).<br/><p></p>	eng
143993	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Wetlands International (2006); M. Barter <em>in litt</em>. (2007). <br/><p></p>	eng
143994	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. The American bird Conservancy has worked to increase awareness of the species as a flagship for grassland conservation in the Northern Rockies (Anon 2006/2007). Population surveys have been conducted and global population estimates generated. It occurs within a number of protected areas and areas of short grass prairie are being conserved for it and other species's benefit.<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Clarify the global population estimate. Identify the principal threats driving declines and develop and appropriate management plan to reverse these. Protect key breeding and wintering sites.	eng
143994	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was once an abundant breeder over most of the prairie regions of the USA and Canada. Populations have declined throughout this range since the beginning of the 20th century as a result of over-hunting and habitat loss (owing to fragmentation, conversion to croplands, and urban development). It is now extirpated as a breeding bird in Kansas, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Manitoba and south-east Saskatchewan. It migrates to winter in the southern USA and Mexico, with birds occurring irregularly in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Costa Rica (AOU 1998, Hill 1998).	eng
143994	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Breeding habitat is short-grass or mixed-grass native prairie, but varies from moist meadows to very dry grasslands. It generally prefers to nest in large open expanses of relatively low vegetation, and is late maturing, long-lived and has a low reproductive output. In winter it favours intertidal habitats but will feed in adjacent pastures (Leeman and Colwell 2005). <br/></p>	eng
143994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Continental populations were thought to be declining by 2% per year between 1980 and 1996 (equivalent to 16% in ten years) (AOU 1998, Hill 1998); however data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey indicate that these figures were incorrect and in fact annual declines at a rate of 0.6% between 1980 and 2006 are more realistic (Morrison et al. 2006). This equates to a decline of just 5.8% over a ten year period. However, it appears that there are considerably more Long-billed Curlews than previously thought, with a likely global population in the order of 50,000-123,000, based on recent assessments, expert opinion and statistically based surveys (Wetlands International 2006).	eng
143994	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Sea-level rise may reduce the amount of available intertidal wintering habitat in future (Colwell and Mathis 2001). The loss and conversion of large areas of short grass prairie into agricultural land within its range has presumably had a major impact upon the species and is likely to the most important threat at present. Long-billed Curlew are facing increasing threats in the grasslands and prairies of North America, both on their breeding and wintering grounds. In addition, Long-billed Curlew range contractions on the eastern edge of their range continue to cause concerns.	eng
143995	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species, although population trends are being monitored in Australia as part of the Monitoring Yellow Sea Migrants in Australia project.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify key stopover areas and prevent their reclamation. Continue to monitor population trends. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Campaign to stop shorebird hunting in Asian countries. Legally protect it in all range states. Survey the breeding grounds for potential threats.	eng
143995	distribution		<em>Numenius madagascariensis</em> breeds in eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, from the upper reaches of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska river east though the Verkhoyarsk mountains to Kamchatka, and south to Primorye and north-eastern <strong>Mongolia</strong>. It has been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, Hong Kong (China), <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, with most birds wintering in <strong>Australia, </strong>but also in <strong>Taiwan</strong>, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and <strong>New Zealand<sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population has recently been estimated at 38,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The global population is declining, as indicated by reduced numbers at stopover points in South Korea and Japan, and a significant decline in the number of non-breeding individuals wintering in north-west Australia<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>.	eng
143995	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This migratory wader nests from early May to late June, often in small colonies of 2-3 pairs, with an average clutch size of four eggs. It probably delays maturity longer than most shorebirds, perhaps not breeding until 3-4 years old<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species breeds on open mossy or transitional bogs, moss-lichen bogs and wet meadows, and on the swampy shores of small lakes; in the non-breeding season it is essentially coastal, occurring at estuaries, mangrove swamps, saltmarshes and intertidal flats, particularly those with extensive seagrass (Zosteraceae) meadows. It often roosts in salt-marshes, behind mangroves, or on sandy beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet on breeding grounds includes insects, such as larvae of beetles and flies, and amphipods. Berries are also consumed during the autumn migration. In non-breeding areas it feeds on marine invertebrates, preferentially taking crabs and small molluscs but also feeding on other crustaceans and polychaete worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
143995	population		The global population has been estimated at 38,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006). Although this estimate is currently retained, recent documented declines mean that the true population size is likely to be smaller.	eng
143997	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant<strong><sup>1, 9, 10</sup></strong>, breeding in the subarctic and arctic zone of Fennoscandia and Siberia<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On passage to its wintering grounds the majority of the species travels overland on a broad front, although there is also an important route down the west coast of Europe<strong><sup>1, 10</sup></strong>. Females begin to moving south in early-June, the males following during July, and juveniles migrating from August to September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The movements of this species are characterised by long flights between staging areas (such as the Wadden Sea, Dutch delta region, southern Hungary, south-east Greece, central Turkey, the Black and Caspian Seas, central Kazakhstan, Lake Baikal, Chang Lake (Ussuriland), central Yakutia, Sakhalin, Japan and Korea)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, those birds wintering in Sahel and northern savanna zones (e.g. Mali, Nigeria and Chad<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>) also cross the Sahara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Arrival in Africa begins in August and peaks in October<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, the species being present throughout the tropics mainly between October and April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and returning to arctic breeding grounds between late-April and mid-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Few birds remain in the tropics during the breeding season, but non-breeders may spend the summer just south of the breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in dispersed pairs and is often seen singly, although it is also common in parties of up to 20 and exceptionally over 100<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Adults typically moult in large flocks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> in staging areas in their arctic breeding range before moving to wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is both a diurnal and nocturnal feeder<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits lowland and upland (but not montane) regions, in wooded and open tundra<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, marshes, swampy pine or birch forest near the arctic tree-line, and also more open areas such as heathland and shrub tundra<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During migration and on its wintering grounds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> this species frequents a variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands such as sewage farms, irrigated rice fields, brackish lagoons, salt-marshes, salt-pans, sheltered muddy coastal shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and mudflats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, marshes and marshy lake edges<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, small reservoirs, pools and flooded grasslands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting chiefly of aquatic insects and their larvae (especially swimming beetles and hemipterans), terrestrial flying insects (such as craneflies), small crustaceans, molluscs, polycheate worms, and small fish and amphibians up to 6-7 cm long<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow depression<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> positioned in grass tussocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, on sphagnum moss<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, or in fairly dry areas of forest<sup> </sup>amongst low vegetation such as dwarf willows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nest sites are often selected near dead trees or other suitable look-out perches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Intensive grazing of grassland (> 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143997	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss in its wintering range and on migration: wetland sites in Ghana are being degraded through coastal erosion and developments involving drainage and land reclamation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>;  and in China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>7, 8, 12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
143998	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a broad front over land and along coasts, some Icelandic and Western European populations remaining close to their breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from March to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitarily pairs or in loose colonies<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, departing the breeding grounds from June to October, and returning from the wintering grounds again between February and April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species forages singly, in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or occasionally in larger flocks of up to c.1,000<strong><sup> </sup></strong>individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> especially at roosting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or when feeding on fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, inland wet grasslands with short swards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (including cultivated meadows)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, grassy marshes, swampy heathlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and swampy moors<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species may frequent inland flooded grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the silty shores of rivers and lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but during the winter it is largely coastal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occupying rocky, muddy and sandy beaches, saltmarshes, tidal mudflats, saline and freshwater coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, tidal estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, saltworks and sewage farms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding its diet consists of insects, spiders and annelid worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species takes insects, spiders and annelid worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as molluscs, crustaceans (especially amphipods e.g. <em>Corophium</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and occasionally small fish and tadpoles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest s a shallow scrape or hollow<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> on a hummock or at the base of a tuft<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> of grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often well hidden by overhanging leaves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually nests solitarily inland (less than 10 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>) but in loosely colonial groups (up to 100-300 pairs/km<sup>2)</sup> on the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Optimal breeding conditions for this species may be provided by creating a mosaic of unflooded grassland, winter-flooded grassland and shallow pools<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Winter flooding of grasslands is beneficial to the species as it helps to keep the sward height short and open and also creates pools which provide a source of aquatic invertebrates in the spring<strong><sup>9, 13</sup></strong>. Such shallow pools on coastal grazing marshes should be maintained until the end of June<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The number of breeding pairs on improved grassland was successfully increased on a reserve in Wales by the implementation of a two-year rotation of chisel ploughing, as well as a seasonal sheep and cattle grazing regime and a controlled increase in the water-level<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. At Lower Lough Erne in Northern Ireland the breeding population of the species increased considerably as a result of cutting rush beds in mid-winter (although the species nested on uncut areas, chicks benefited from the presence of adjacent short, open areas for feeding)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Low-level grazing of salt marshes (e.g. c.1 cow per hectare) does not appear to affect the species and may even be beneficial to breeding populations<strong><sup>19, 20</sup></strong>, although cattle should not be put onto the marsh until towards the end of the nesting season (e.g. late-May or early-June) to minimise the risk of nest trampling<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. There is also evidence that too heavy grazing can be detrimental<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The species is known to show increased hatching success when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and in the UK there is evidence that the removal of <em>Spartina anglica</em> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
143998	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the loss of breeding and wintering habitats through agricultural intensification, wetland drainage, flood control, afforestation, land reclamation, industrial development<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, encroachment of <em>Spartina </em>spp. on mudflats<strong><sup>1, 18</sup></strong>, improvement of marginal grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and re-seeding)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, coastal barrage construction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and heavy grazing (e.g. of saltmarshes)<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (UK)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and foot-traffic on footpaths<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is vulnerable to severe cold periods on its Western European wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and suffers from nest predation by introduced predators (e.g. European hedgehog <em>Erinaceus europaeus</em>) on some islands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143999	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant, travelling overland on a broad front between its breeding grounds in central Asia (Russia and Siberia), and its wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, Indonesia and Australia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main passage to and from Russia is believed to occur east of the Black Sea<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with only a few birds crossing Europe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (during south-west to south-south-west movements into and out of Russia a small proportion of the species regularly crosses Slovakia, Hungary, the Balkans, Italy and the eastern Mediterranean)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In eastern central Asia the species passes through Mongolia; central, north-eastern and coastal China; Korea (on southward migration only), Japan, Myanmar, Malaysia and Sumatra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species leaves its breeding range between the first half of July and early-September<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, arriving in its wintering grounds in September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. For those birds wintering in West Africa, the Nile valley in Sudan is commonly used as a stop over site before crossing the Sahara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is present in West Africa from September to mid-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and departs again between the second half of March and April, passing through central Asia in early-April to early-May, and reoccupying breeding areas again by mid-April to mid-May<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Most non-breeders remain in the winter quarters or at intermediate sites during the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species forages singly or in groups of less than 20<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although flocks can sometimes exceed 300<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. It usually nests solitarily or in loose colonies with pairs spaced less than 10 m apart<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally (independent of moon phases)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species inhabits warm inland wetlands from open steppe to boreal forest, including shallow freshwater and brackish marshlands, grassy or marshy lake-edges<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, river valleys, flooded meadows<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and occasionally salt-lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species typically occurs on the margins of inland freshwater and brackish wetlands such as rice paddy-fields, swamps, salt-pans, salt-marshes, sewage works and marshy lake-edges, and although it is rare on open coastlines it can occasionally be found on estuaries, lagoons and intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and both aquatic and terrestrial insects<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow depression<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, often on a mound at the marshy edge of a lagoon, lake or pool<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
143999	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding </em>The species has disappeared as a breeding bird from eastern Europe, Belarus, Maldova and Russia as a result of steppe habitat losses due to agricultural intensification (such as increased ploughing<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), and possibly also due to egg-collecting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by industrial pollution from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (organic pollutants) in the Lake Baikal region in Russia, where high levels of pollutants have been recorded in its eggs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>9, 12</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by habitat loss in its wintering range, as wetland sites in Ghana are being degraded through coastal erosion and developments involving drainage and land reclamation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It may be susceptible to future outbreaks of avian botulism<strong><sup>13, 14</sup></strong>, partly due to its choice of habitat (it often shows a preference for sewage works)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144000	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and generally migrates overland on a broad front, although the majority of Western European birds passes through coastal and estuarine sites<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The Wadden Sea for example is used by many Fennoscandian birds as a stop-over and moulting site from late-April to mid-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most palearctic birds are trans-Saharan migrants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the main autumn passage through northern and temperate Europe occurring from the second week of July to late-October<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. One parent (usually the female) leaves the breeding territory first from late-June to early July<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, with the other parent and juveniles following around 3-6 weeks later<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Flocks arrive in southern Africa and Australia from August to September, and depart again in March for the northward return migration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species departs for its breeding grounds during the evening<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and once there it breeds between late-April and June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some non-breeding birds may also remain in the south throughout the summer<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species normally breeds in very dispersed pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but on passage it can occur singly or in small flocks (flocks of 20-25 are common in southern Africa)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although congregations of 100 or more may very rarely occur at high tide or at roosting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This species feeds both diurnally and nocturnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in the boreal forest zone from sea level to 1,200 m in Norway<strong><sup>3, 4 </sup></strong>(although predominantly up to 450 m)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in swampy forest clearings, woody moorland, open bogs and marshes (including raised and blanket bogs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and eutrophic lakes with margins of dead and decaying vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It avoids bare or broken barren expanses, mountain escarpments, and closed forests with very dense, tall vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering grounds this species frequents a variety of freshwater, marine and artificial wetlands, including swamps, open muddy or rocky shores of lakes and large rivers, sewage farms, saltworks, inundated rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, ponds, reservoirs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, flooded grasslands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, sandy or muddy coastal flats, mangroves, estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, lagoons<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and pools on tidal reefs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or exposed coral<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it generally avoids open coastline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On migration this species occurs on inland flooded meadows, dried-up lakes, sandbars and marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is chiefly carnivorous, its diet consisting of insects and their larvae (especially beetles), crustaceans, annelids, molluscs, amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small fish (mullet <em>Liza</em> spp., clinids <em>Clinus</em> spp. and tilapia <em>Oreochromis</em> spp.)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong><em> </em>and occasionally rodents<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on open ground, often in clearings in woods<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and is typically placed next to a piece of dead wood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or beside rocks, trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, fences and sticks (for use as nest markers)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144000	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In the Chinese, North Korean and South Korean regions of the Yellow Sea this species is threatened by the degradation and loss of its preferred wetland habitats through environmental pollution, reduced river flows and human disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144001	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. In Russia, protected areas have been established in northern Sakhalin, along the coasts and islands of Nabilski and in Dagi and Piltun Bays, and it is partially protected on Kamchatka in the Kronotsk Reserve and on the Moroshechnaya river. Key protected and non-hunting areas along its migration route include the Yellow River delta, Yancheng and Chongming Dongtan (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Ko Libong (Thailand), Peam Krasop (Cambodia), and Xuan Thuy (Vietnam). </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to the south-west of Okhotsk and between the Ul'beya river and Cape Onatsevich (Russia). Research its status and conservation at potentially important wintering grounds in the Irrawaddy delta (Myanmar). Establish further protected areas in its breeding grounds, at least at Konstantin Bay in Khabarovsk (Russia). Draft management plans for coastal wetlands to promote their conservation. Ban the hunting of all shorebirds in its breeding grounds. Provide full legal protection. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144001	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tringa guttifer</em> breeds in eastern <strong>Russia </strong>along the south-western and northern coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk and on Sakhalin Island. Its non-breeding range is not fully understood, but significant numbers have been recorded in <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) on passage, and in <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> in winter. It has also been recorded on passage or in winter in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>,<strong> India</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong> (which may prove to be an important part of its wintering range), <strong>Singapore</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong>. There are unconfirmed records from Nepal and Guam (to US). It probably has a population of 500-1,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144001	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its breeding habitat is a combination of sparse larch <em>Larix</em> forest for nesting, wet coastal meadows interspersed with piles of driftwood, and coastal mudflats which are used by the adults for feeding. Wintering birds usually frequent estuaries, coastal mudflats and lowland swamps, and sometimes damp meadows, saltpans and rice-fields. </p>	eng
144001	population	BirdLife International, 2008	BirdLife International (2001) estimated 250-999, but lower limit probably nearer 500 as 100 estimated in Malaysia (Li <em>et al.</em> 2005), 100-200 in Thailand (P. Round <em>in litt. </em>2005 to Wetlands International 2006), c.100 in Myanmar (D. Li <em>in litt.</em> to Wetlands International 2006), plus unknown but low numbers in NE india, Bangladesh and Sumatra. <br/></p>	eng
144001	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are the development of coastal wetlands throughout Asia for industry, infrastructure and aquaculture, and the degradation of its breeding habitat in Russia by grazing reindeer. Pollution in coastal wetlands, hunting and human disturbance are further threats. <br/></p>	eng
144005	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and moves overland on a broad front<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with European populations making well-documented stop-overs in Saharan oases<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Southward movements to the wintering grounds occur between June and early November, with the species being present in the north and equatorial tropics from late-August to early-April, and in southern Africa from October to March<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The return passage to northern breeding grounds occurs between late-February and mid-May<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, where the species breeds between late April and June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In mild winters some birds may also remain in the breeding grounds of southern Scandinavia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species generally occurs in low concentrations during passage and at stop-over sites, although it may occur in small scattered groups of up to 30 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the winter, with aggregations of over 50 being unusual<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits damp areas in swampy, old pine, spruce or alder woodland and montane forest with many fallen and rotten tree stumps, marshy forest floors and heavy carpets of lichens and mosses, generally in the vicinity of rivers, streams, swamps, ponds, lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and bogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season this species shows a preference for a wider variety of inland freshwater habitats such as marshes, lake edges, sewage farms, small dams and ponds, ditches, riverbanks and forest streams, often near villages and cultivation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (although less often in the vicinity of woodland)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also very rarely found in intertidal areas such as creeks and the channels of saltmarches<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, although its diet is predominantly made up of aquatic and terrestrial insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. dragonfly larvae, ants, waterbugs, moth larvae, and the adults and larvae of beetles, Diptera and Trichoptera), annelids, small crustaceans, spiders and fish, as well as plant fragments<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> This species frequently nests high in trees in the abandoned nests of passerine species such as Common Woodpigeon <em>Columba palumbus</em>, thrushes <em>Turdus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, crows, jays and shrikes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but may also nest in squirrel dreys<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, on natural platforms up to 20 m high<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally on tree stumps or mounds of accumulated pine needles, among branches and tree roots, or amongst fallen trees on the ground<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Unfertilised grasslands with low cattle densities (0.5 cows per hectare) were found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144005	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1) so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144006	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a full migrant, travelling overland on a broad front across Europe and the Middle East<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The adults start to move away from the breeding grounds in late-June, with juveniles following in late-August, arriving in tropical Africa from late-July through August to October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On this southern migration many birds frequent stop-over sites to the north of the Mediterranean (especially in France and Italy), after which they overfly the Sahara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Spring departure from the wintering grounds begins in late-March to early-April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with breeding areas starting to be reoccupied from late-April (early June in northern Russia)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and with breeding occurring between May and mid-July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some non-breeding birds may also remain in the south throughout the summer<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests in well-dispersed solitary pairs (from 1-10 pairs per km<sup>2</sup> to 50 pairs per km<sup>2</sup> in forest tundra)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but in winter it may occur in small scattered groups or larger flocks (20-50 individuals), and concentrations can exceed 1,000 individuals on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits open, swampy areas in boreal forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, scrubland between tundra and coniferous forest with willow, dwarf birch or spruce<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wet heathlands, and extensive mossy, sedgy or grassy marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season this species is less associated with woodlands, being more commonly found in open areas such as the margins of inland freshwater lakes and reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, muddy marshlands, grassy stream banks, sewage farms, wet paddyfields, small temporary pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, permanent swamps, flooded grassland and irrigation channels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It rarely occurs in coastal habitats, but may be found along the creeks of saltmarshes and mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Whilst on the breeding grounds this species is chiefly carnivorous, taking small insects (up to 2 cm long), especially the aquatic forms such as dytiscid or hydrophilid beetles, Hemiptera and the larvae of Diptera such as midges<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season the species has a more varied diet consisting of aquatic and terrestrial insects and their larvae, worms, spiders, crustaceans, gastropod molluscs, small fish (up to 2 cm long) and frogs, as well as plant matter such as seeds<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape on the ground amongst dense vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or raised on a tussock or slight ridge, and can sometimes be surrounded by water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species may also nest in trees in the abandoned nests of other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as thrushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Intensive grazing of grassland (> 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144006	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened in some European countries (such as Finland) from exploitation, and peatland drainage and destruction for forestry and agriculture<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The populations in southern Sweden, Germany and Poland have also declined, possibly due to the threats of climatic change<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to both avian botulism<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and avian malaria<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144007	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The East Asian population migrates along the eastern coast of the continent, whereas the populations in western Asia pass south overland through the Caspian region, the Middle East<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or between the Ural and Volga rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Finnish population flies across Eastern Europe and crosses the Mediterranean and Sahara non-stop<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs between May and June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, after which the adults depart in early-July (the juveniles departing mainly in August)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, to arrive in their wintering grounds between August and October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The return movement northward from Africa begins in late-March and continues throughout April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Many one-year-old<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and other non-breeding birds remain in the wintering grounds throughout the northern summer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is known to breed semi-collonially<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (as many as 10 nests have been found within a square kilometer)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is mainly solitary outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Occasionally it occurs in small flocks of 5-25 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or up to 300 at tidal roosting sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is both a diurnal and nocturnal forager, but its nocturnal activities may by restricted to moonlit nights<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in lowland valleys in northern boreal forest and tundra, especially on floodplains with flooded meadows and marshes, and where overgrown moist grasslands alternate with willow scrub<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It also frequents lakesides and marshy banks of streams, and extends to the coasts of sheltered seas in the Baltic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species avoids mountains, fast rocky streams, steep or broken terrain, extensive open spaces and tall dense forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits tropical coasts, especially open intertidal estuaries and mudflats, as well as coral reefs, sandy and pebbly beaches, sandbars and mudlfats at river mouths, coastal swamps, saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons and saltmarsh creeks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It can occasionally also be found up to 10 km inland around brackish pools and riverbeds, and often forms communal roosts in the branches of mangroves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During migration the species may stop-over at inland freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, such as muddy lakes or river edges<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> On its breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of adult and larval midges (Diptera) as well as seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering grounds and on migration the diet of this species is more varied, consisting of a variety of insects, small molluscs, crustaceans (including crabs), spiders and annelid worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression close to water either in the open, or sheltered by short grasses<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144007	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong>. This species is also potentially at risk from exposure to DDT's in southern India<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144008	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant, migrating at night overland on a broad front across both deserts and mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Small numbers may also remain in the northern maritime climatic zone (e.g. the British Isles, Mediterranean and Japan) throughout the year<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The European population that overwinters in West Africa migrates south between mid-July and August (juveniles following one month later), and returns to the breeding grounds from late-March to April<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Immature individuals may also remain in the winter range throughout the summer breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May to June in scattered single pairs 60-70 m apart in optimal breeding habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and migrates singly or in small flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it usually remains solitary in its winter range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages diurnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and may aggregate at night<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> into roosts of over 100 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species shows a preference for pebbly, sandy or rocky margins of fast-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, as well as small ponds, pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and dams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, clear freshwater lake shores, sheltered sea coasts with rocky or sandy beaches, tidal creeks and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and often forages in patches of dry meadow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea level up to 4,000 m or more in the mountains, but generally avoid frozen, snow-clad or very hot areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its winter range this species inhabits a wide variety of habitats, such as small pools, ditches, riverbanks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, streams, dam shores<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, marshy areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, estuaries, freshwater seeps on coastal shores, tidal creeks in mangrove swamps and saltmarshes, harbours, docks<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> and filtration tanks of sewage works<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It will also forage on grassland along roadsides and occasionally in gardens<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, but it generally avoids large coastal mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists of adult and larval insects (such as beetles and Diptera), spiders, molluscs, snails, crustaceans, annelids, and occasionally frogs, toads, tadpoles and small fish, as well as plant material (including seeds)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression, sometimes amongst shrubs and trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144008	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The size of the breeding population in England is threatened by disturbance from recreational anglers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144013	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Information on this species has been collected as a result of expeditions in 1999 and follow-up work in 2001, aimed at identifying and conserving key populations of Polynesian Ground-dove <em>Gallicolumba erythroptera </em>(classified as Critically Endangered). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey islands where historical records indicate that the species may still persist<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify suitable islands for translocation, either rat- and cat-free or where eradication is possible<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a recovery plan<sup>9</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144013	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prosobonia cancellata</em> is extinct on Kiritimati (= Christmas Island), Kiribati, where the type-specimen was collected, but survives in the Tuamotu Archipelago, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it has apparently disappeared from many atolls although surveys are few. There are recent records from (north to south): Rangiroa, Niau (both one individual in the 1990s), Fakarava (reports from fishermen in the 1980s), Tahanea (12-15 birds in 1989), Raevski Group (Hiti, Tuanake, perhaps Tepoto: reports from fishermen in 1984 but none seen in 1999 and probably extinct), Anuanuraro (30-40 in 1990), Nukutavake (1981), Tenararo (177 encounters in 1999 suggesting a minimum of 500 birds on the island), Vahanga, Tenarunga (two birds and one bird respectively in 1999), Matureivavao (very common in 1966, records also in 1970 and 1982), Marutea Sud (moderately abundant in 1965) and Morane (150-200 in 1990)<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,7,8,10</sup></strong>. Records of one or two birds may refer to visiting (rather than established) birds and thus these islands may no longer be significant sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2003 found several hundred birds at previously known localities, and a new population of 50 birds was found<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The total population is estimated to be 250-999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144013	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found on beaches, shores and in scrub, preferring open areas along atoll shorelines, where it feeds on insects among coral rubble and leaf-litter<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is non-migratory but may visit islands where it does not nest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144013	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on surveys by Pierce in 2003, reported on in Pierce and Blanvillain (2006).   <br/></p>	eng
144013	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is becoming increasingly threatened as islands become disturbed by human activity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and as habitat is destroyed for coconut plantations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The introduction of rats, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, is a further serious threat and, combined with cats, has probably eliminated the species from all but the most infrequently visited islands. <strong></strong></p>	eng
144014	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prosobonia leucoptera</em><em> </em>was endemic to Tahiti, in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia<sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known from the type only, collected by Forster and painted by his son in 1773<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The specimen is now in Leiden and the painting in London<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. All that is known of the species's ecology is that Forster noted that the birds occurred along highland streams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its extinction was probably caused by introduced rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144015	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to early-August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although several pairs may nest close together in optimal habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> along coasts or on islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species migrates in large flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is gregarious and sociable when feeding or roosting in winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, often foraging in close flocks of 10-100 or more individuals, especially in tidal areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong>  <br/><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds near the coast or up to several kilometres inland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in the high Arctic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, nesting on coastal plains, marshes and tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and showing a preference for mosaics of bare rock, clay or shingle and vegetation near water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or in areas that remain damp until late summer<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is mainly coastal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although on migration it may occur inland along dykes or on lake shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter it frequents productive rocky and shingle shores<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, breakwaters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sandy beaches with storm-wracked seaweed<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, short-grass saltmarshes, sheltered inlets, estuaries, mangroves swamps, exposed reefs and mudflats with beds of molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> On its Arctic breeding grounds the species takes Diptera<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(especially adult and larval midges) as well as larval Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and spiders, occasionally also taking vegetable matter early in the season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season its diet consists of insects, crustaceans, molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially mussels or cockles)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, annelids, echinoderms, small fish, carrion and birds eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in mud, peat or on dry ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with dense vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often positioned on a slight ridge, hummock or tussock, or in cleft or shallow fissure<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species usually nests solitarily, although neighbouring pairs may nest as little as 15 m apart along coasts or on islands (where abundant feeding habitats are available)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Removing feral American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea had the result of increasing the breeding density of this species in the area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144015	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers nest predation from feral American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in some regions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144019	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Limnodromus semipalmatus</em> has a disjunct breeding range in the steppe regions that extend from west to east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, and south into <strong>Mongolia </strong>and Heilongjiang in north-east <strong>China</strong>. It has been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland China, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It breeds in extensive freshwater wetlands in the steppe and forest steppe zones, and during the non-breeding season it occurs in sheltered coastal environments, primarily estuarine and intertidal mudflats, lagoons, creeks and saltworks. The population size is estimated at 23,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is dependent on rather a small number of wetlands, notably the wintering sites at the Banyuasin Delta on Sumatra, where up to 13,000 were estimated in 1988, and Ujung Pangkah in east Java. It may therefore be particularly vulnerable to habitat loss, hunting, pollution and other pressures on both the breeding and wintering grounds. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144019	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Bamford<em> et al</em>. (in prep) <br/></p>	eng
144021	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species, although population trends are being monitored in Australia as part of the Monitoring Yellow Sea Migrants in Australia project.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify key stopover areas and prevent their reclamation. Continue to monitor population trends. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Campaign to stop shorebird hunting in Asian countries. Legally protect it in all range states. Survey the breeding grounds for potential threats. </strong>Manage roost sites in the species's Australian wintering range to minimise disturbance<sup>6</sup>.	eng
144021	distribution		<em>Calidris tenuirostris</em> breeds in north-east Siberia, <strong>Russia</strong>, wintering throughout the coastline of South-East Asia, and also on the coasts of <strong>Australia</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, and the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population has been estimated at 380,000 individuals, of which 176,000 were thought to pass through <strong>South Korea<sup>10</sup></strong>. Since then the reclamation and development of wetlands in South Korea has led to a decline in the observed counts of non-breeding populations, mostly notably including dramatic declines at the Saemangeum wetland which previously held c.20-30% of the global population on migration<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>. Despite there being no observed declines within the Chinese portion of the Yellow Sea, further declines at smaller staging grounds in Japan and at major wintering grounds in Australia make it clear that the population is declining overall<strong><sup>11,12,16</sup></strong>.	eng
144021	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a long-distance migrant that largely travels along the coast making few stopovers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but utilising different routes in the autumn and the spring<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to late-June, departing the breeding grounds in July and arriving on the wintering grounds between August and October<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The return migration to the breeding grounds takes place from March to April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although juvenile non-breeders often remain in the tropical parts of the wintering range for the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species forages in large flocks of one hundred to several thousand<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> at favoured sites on passage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but during the winter it typically forages in small groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on gravelly areas covered with lichen and patches of herbs, heather<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <em>Empetrum</em> spp., <em>Dryas</em> spp. and <em>Vaccinium</em> spp.<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or alternatively on areas with a continuous layer of lichen and scattered stunted larch <em>Larix</em> spp. or dwarf pine <em>Pinus pumila</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs on plateaus or gentle slopes with montane tundra in the subarctic at heights of 300-1,600 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species occurs in sheltered coastal habitats such as inlets, bays, harbours, estuaries and lagoons with large intertidal mud and sandflats, oceanic sandy beaches with nearby mudflats<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, sandy spits and islets, muddy shorelines with mangroves and occasionally exposed reefs or rock platforms<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It roost in refuges<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> such as shallow water in sheltered sites, on coastal dunes or on saltflats amongst mangroves<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> during high tides<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On passage the species stages in estuaries and on intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>7, 8</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The adult breeding diet consists predominantly of plant material such as berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. of <em>Empetrum nigrum</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and pine kernels of dwarf pine <em>Pinus pumilla</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Small chicks feed exclusively on insects (e.g. larval Diptera and Coleoptera) and spiders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter and on passage the species takes bivalves up to 36 mm long from intertidal mudflats as well as gastropods, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crabs and shrimps)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, annelid worms and echinoderms (e.g. sea cucumbers)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be an open depression in moss<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but very few nests have been found<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144021	population		The global population has been estimated at c.380,000 individuals (Wetlands International, 2006). Following the reclamation of the tidal flats at Saemanguem, c.90,000 non-breeding individuals disappeared from the area. Surveys elsewhere in South Korea confirmed they had not been displaced, and a decline of the same magnitude and timing in Australia suggests that individuals previously using Saemanguem have died (D. Rogers <em>in litt.</em> 2009). Therefore a population of c.290,000 individuals is estimated, though given documented declines elsewhere the true figure is likely to be lower.	eng
144022	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full long-distance migrant that utilises few stopover sites or staging areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from June to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, travelling in flocks on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and remaining highly gregarious in winter often foraging in flocks of 300-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> at select feeding and roosting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the high Arctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on dry upland tundra including weathered sandstone ridges, upland areas with scattered willows <em>Salix</em> spp., <em>Dryas</em> spp. and poppy, moist marshy slopes and flats in foothills, well-drained slopes hummocked with <em>Dryas</em> spp.<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and upland glacial gravel close to streams or ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is strictly coastal, frequenting tidal mudflats or sandflats, sandy beaches of sheltered coasts, rocky shelves, bays, lagoons and harbours, occasionally also oceanic beaches and saltmarshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species's diet consists predominantly of insects (mainly adult and larval Diptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and bees) as well as spiders, small crustaceans, snails and worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When it first arrives on the breeding grounds however, the species is dependant upon vegetation (including the seeds of sedges, horsetails <em>Equisetum</em> spp. and grass shoots) owing to the initial lack of insect prey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species takes intertidal invertebrates such as bivalve and gastropod molluscs, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. horseshoe crab <em>Limulus</em> spp. eggs)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, annelid worms and insects, rarely also taking fish and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is an open shallow depression<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> either positioned on hummocks surrounded by mud and water or on stony or gravelly ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> on open vegetated tundra or stone ridges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144022	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to extensive land reclamation projects that encroach upon staging areas in Western Europe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is threatened by the over-exploitation of shellfish<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> which leads directly and indirectly to reductions in prey availability<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also suffers from disturbance in the non-breeding season as a result of tourism<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, foot-traffic on beaches<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, recreational activities and over-flying aircraft, which together reduce the size of available foraging areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also potentially threatened by industrial pollution and oil exploration (Argentina)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted illegally in New Zealand<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144023	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full long-distance migrant that travels mainly via offshore and coastal routes using a number of favoured stopover sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from June to mid-July in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, departing the breeding grounds between mid-July and early-September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually occurs in small flocks on migration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although it may aggregate into larger flocks at stopover sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and in winter it forages in small to very large flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the high Arctic on barren, stony tundra with well-drained ridges<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, gentle slopes or level alluvial plains supporting scattered vegetation of willow <em>Salix</em> spp., <em>Dryas</em> spp. and saxifrage <em>Saxifraga</em> spp. usually less than 200 m above sea-level<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species may occur on inland freshwater or saline lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but it is largely coastal during the winter, inhabiting open sandy beaches exposed to the sea, the outer reaches of estuaries, rocky and muddy shores, mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coral reefs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding the species takes insects (especially adult and larval Diptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera) as well as spiders and crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On arrival on the breeding grounds the species may also complement its diet with plant matter (e.g. seeds, saxifrage buds, moss and algae)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> before invertebrate prey becomes available<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter its diet consists of small molluscs, crustaceans, polychaete worms and adult, larval and pupal insects (e.g. Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera), as well as occasionally fish and carrion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression on the bare earth<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of stony well-drained ridges, gentle slope or level alluvial plains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144023	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is sensitive to disturbance on beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. from recreational activities and free-running dogs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In the Chinese, North Korean and South Korean regions of the Yellow Sea (East Asian flyway route) this species is threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitats through environmental pollution, reduced river flows and human disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144026	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full long-distance migrant that migrates overland on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (or by utilising a great many routes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> across much of the Western Palearctic<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It is also nomadic in parts of its wintering range (e.g. southern Africa), moving as habitats flood or are overgrown<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Autumn movements to wintering grounds occur between July and November; the return migration occurring mid-May to early-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with breeding occurring between late-June and early-July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Many immatures also remain in the wintering grounds all year round<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and occurs in small groups in its winter range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, often aggregating into larger flocks to roost at high tide or at night<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A typical migratory flock can be as large as 20-30 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs sometimes nest as close as 5 pairs/ha, but more often they are dispersed (around 10 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species inhabits low altitude tundra in the high Arctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although it exceptionally occurs above 1,000 m in the west of its range)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for dry ground among dwarf willows near swampy areas or saltmarshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or areas where mosses and sedges are interspersed with hummocks covered by <em>Empetrum</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It avoids areas where annual rainfall exceeds 250 mm<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration this species is found along the muddy edges of small inland lakes, reservoirs, sewage farms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, riverbanks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and seasonal pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as on coastal mudflats and seashores<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. In its winter range the species mainly inhabits coastal areas such as estuarine mudflats and sandflats<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, enclosed lagoons, tidal creeks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and saltpans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it also occurs at inland freshwater wetlands such as open pools in marshes, paddyfields, jheels (and other small bodies of water covered with vegetation)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small dams, floodwater margins and sandbanks along rinvers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season larval and adult Diptera and small beetles are the primary foods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, particularly the larvae of mosquitoes and craneflies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the diet becomes more varied, with ants, Hymenoptera, waterbugs, annelids, small molluscs, crustaceans, freshwater mites and plant material being taken as well as Diptera and beetles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on the ground in the open<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sometimes covered with vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144026	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened on the south-east coast of India (Point Calimere) by illegal hunting (bird trapping), reservoir and marshland habitat alteration by salt-industries, and habitat degradation by diminishing rainfall (changing the salt regime)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is threatened at Walvis Bay in Namibia, a key wetland site in southern Africa, by habitat degradation (e.g. through changes in the flood regime due to road building, and wetland reclamation for suburb and port development), and disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. This species is also susceptible to avian malaria<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144028	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant, migrating on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> overland across the full width of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Adults leave their young in July before they are fully fledged and migrate south to the wintering grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; juveniles then leave the breeding grounds in early-August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some individuals also winter in Europe as far north as Britain<strong><sup>1. </sup>The species arrives in the wintering grounds in Africa from late-July to October, and departs for the return migration in late-March to April<sup>1</sup></strong>, breeding between late-May and early-July on returning to the breeding range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  The species feeds singly or in groups of up to 30 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and migrates singly or in small parties, although between 100 and 250 individuals have been encountered at some European staging sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in arctic tundra, shrub tundra and forest tundra along flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it avoids extremely cold conditions and exposed coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is mainly found near coastal inlets, fjords, deltas, rivers or streams from sea level to 250 m, but also occurs up to 1,200 m inland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on flat, clear ground with little vegetation, areas covered with short grass and interspersed with patches of scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, areas with grasses, sedges or <em>Empetrum</em>, and scrub willow or birch thickets with sandy or gravelly stretches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Both dry and wet areas are used, but habitats with elevated locations such as boulders or buildings are preferred because of their use as song perches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Scandinavia the species also breeds near fishing huts and houses, and in industrial workings<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inland freshwater wetlands such as flood-lands, irrigated fields, sewage farms, densely vegetated wetlands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, ditches, muddy marshes and lake edges<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and on the coast shows a strong preference for mudflats in sheltered inlets, estuaries and saltmarshes, whilst tending to avoid open and sandy beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> On the breeding grounds and in inland habitats the diet of this species consists primarily of insects and their larvae (especially beetles and Diptera such as craneflies and midges)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, as well as the occasional plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the coasts the species takes annelids, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (such as sand fleas)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and small molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on the ground in the open or amongst low vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, often at the base of small willows, junipers or other shrubs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144028	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by nest predation<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> from Common Gull <em>Larus canus</em> and Ruddy Turnstone <em>Arenaria interpres</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, as well as from Hooded Crow <em>Corvus corone cornix</em>, weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em>, American mink <em>Mustela vison</em> and fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em> in Finland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is also threatened in its Scandinavian breeding range by shrinkage and deterioration of suitable habitats (due to eutrophication and the overgrazing of shore meadows), and by increased human recreational disturbance due to the building up of breeding sites (trampling and disturbance often lead to increased hatchling predation and abandonment of nests)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza and may therefore be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144029	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory and travels largely overland on a broad front between its breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from early-June to July in solitary pairs, usually well-dispersed but sometimes very close together within wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The departure from the breeding grounds starts in July and peaks between August and September, with the return northward migration peaking between April and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is only mildly gregarious outside of the breeding season and usually forages singly or in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 3-7 individuals although it rarely also occurs in flocks of between 15 and 50 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds near pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on open, grassy bogs or swamps<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> or on mountain tundra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in boreal forest (taiga)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for areas with mosses, sedges and dwarf willows <em>Salix</em> spp. for nesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species occupies shallow inland wetlands<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> and although it shows no preference over fresh, brackish or saline waters it does require habitats with soft, muddy shorelines and short grass<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, sedges, floating aquatic vegetation, reeds and rushes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include the edges of permanent and temporary lakes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, ponds, reservoirs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, lagoons, swamps<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> and streams, river flood-plains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sewage ponds, saltpans<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and saltmarshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also less frequently occurs around tidal estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet includes insects (e.g. carabid beetles), small gastropod molluscs, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> amphibians<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on a hummock of sedge<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> well-hidden<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in areas with mosses, sedges and dwarf willows <em>Salix</em> spp. near pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on open, grassy bogs or swamps<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> or on mountain tundra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in boreal forest (taiga)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species shows a high degree of nest site fidelity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144035	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It arrives on the breeding grounds from mid-May to mid-June where it nests in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and forages in small loose groups<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. From July to August the adults undergo a flightless moulting period on the coast close to the nesting areas before travelling to the wintering grounds in September and November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species is gregarious and usually forms small flocks of up to 250 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on Arctic coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and in upland areas<strong><sup>2, 3, 4</sup></strong>, nesting close to the fringes of snow and ice<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on wet moss or barren rocky tundra with patches of lichen and <em>Dryas</em> spp., on rocky islands and islets or on shingle beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It forages on dry tundra or along the moist margins of ponds, at the edges of melting snow-drifts and in areas of thick moss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter and on passage the species shows a preference for tidal rocky shores with strong wave action<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and suitable high-tide roosting areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often utilising artificial structures such as concrete sea defences and breakwaters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In some northern areas (e.g. Svalbard) the species frequents mudflats, shingle beaches and coastal lagoons before and after breeding but before migrating south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season its diet consists largely of insects (e.g. adult, larval and pupal Diptera, Ichneumon wasps and aphids) and Collembola (springtails), as well as spiders, gastropods, annelid worms and some plant material (e.g. leaves, buds, berries and seeds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On the coast the species feeds predominantly upon molluscs (especially gastropods <em>Littorina</em> spp. and mussels <em>Mytilus</em> spp.) as well as insects (e.g. beetles and Diptera), small crustaceans (e.g. amphipods), annelid worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and algae (<em>Enteromorpha</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small scrape positioned in the open on tundra moss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in hummocky tundra<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> close to tufts of <em>Dryas</em> spp. or <em>Arctostaphylos</em> spp.<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or in rocky or pebbly areas between cliffs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144037	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a fully migratory circumpolar breeder with several sub-populations that employ a number of migration strategies, from short coastal flights to long, non-stop flights overland on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The sub-population that breeds in north-east Greenland migrates through Iceland, Britain and western France to arrive in its West African wintering grounds (specifically Banc d'Arguin in Mauritania) from late-July, returning again between March and early-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. European birds may gather in large congregations from the beginning of July in areas such as the Wadden Sea or the Wash to moult<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and some juveniles may remain in the non-breeding range all year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds dispersed or aggregated in loose colonies, and travels in group sizes of up to 1,500 on passage, remaining in large groups (up to hundreds of thousands of birds) throughout the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>The species is active both diurnally and nocturnally<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> In the breeding season this species frequents moist boggy ground interspersed with surface water, such as tussock tundra and peat-hummock tundra in the arctic, as well as wet coastal grasslands, salt marshes and wet upland moorland<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the non-breeding season this species mainly prefer estuarine mudflats, but also frequent a wide variety of freshwater and brackish wetlands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, both coastal and inland, including lagoons, muddy freshwater shores, tidal rivers, flooded fields, sewage farms, salt-works, sandy coasts<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lakes and dams<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. For roosting during high tides and at night this species prefers large fields of naturally fertilised short pasture or soil-based crops with few vertical structures that could be used by predators<strong><sup>3</sup>. Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species is omnivorous during the breeding season, consuming mostly adult and larval insects (dipteran flies, beetles, caddisflies, wasps, sawflies and mayflies), and also spiders, mites, earthworms, snails, slugs and plant matter (usually seeds)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> It is also omnivorous during the non-breeding season, consuming mostly polychaete worms and small gastropods, as well as insects (dipteran flies and beetles), crustaceans, bivalves, plant matter and occasionally small fish<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Its nest is a scrape or shallow depression in the ground, concealed in vegetation and sometimes in a tuft or tussock (and thus raised slightly off the ground)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The provision of well-surfaced paths in breeding areas that recieve > 30 visitors a day has been shown to reduce the impact of human disturbance on this species' reproductive performance<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is also known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144037	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding</em> This species is significantly threatened by the loss of its breeding habitat though afforestation of moorland<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong>. It may also suffer from nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <em>Erinaceus europeaus</em>) on some islands<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the winter this species is restricted to a small number of estuaries, so it is vulnerable to any changes in this habitat for example through land reclamation (drainage)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the invasion of alien plant species (such as the grass <em>Spartina anglica</em> which has spread on British mudflats, resulting in the reduction in size of feeding areas available)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by disturbance on intertidal mudflats from construction work (UK)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and foot-traffic on footpaths<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Important migratory stop-over habitats on the Baltic Sea coastline adjacent to the Kaliningrad region of Russia are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, peat-extraction, reedbed mowing and burning, and abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub and reed overgrowth<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza (strain H5N1 in particular) and is therefore threatened by outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144038	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant, moving long distances by well-travelled routes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. During the autumn migration adults precede the juveniles, with males leaving 3-4 weeks before the females in early-July, and juveniles following 4-6 weeks later<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On this southern migration, the species crosses Europe in July, reaching Africa from mid-July to September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The return migration to the breeding grounds begins late-April to May, with arrival in the Arctic beginning in early-June, and breeding stretching from June to July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Many 1st-year birds remain on the wintering grounds, and non-breeding adults remain just south of the breeding grounds in Central Siberia during the summer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nest density on the breeding grounds in commonly 1-2 pairs/ha<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but pairs will sometimes nest as close as 200-300 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious outside of the breeding season, occurring in small parties or larger flocks of up to several hundreds on the coast, but usually in smaller numbers inland (although gatherings of hundreds can occur locally on passage)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages both diurnally and nocturnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds on slightly elevated areas in the lowlands of the high Arctic<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> especially on southward-facing slopes<strong><sup>4</sup>, </strong>as well as along the coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for open tundra with marshy, boggy depressions and pools<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> from melting permafrost and snow<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the winter the species chiefly occurs on coastal brackish lagoons, tidal mud- and sandflats, estuaries, saltmarshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, exposed coral, rocky shores and tidewrack on sandy beaches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and also inland on the muddy edges of marshes, large rivers and lakes (both saline and freshwater), irrigated land, flooded areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and saltpans<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> On the breeding grounds the diet of this species consists mainly of insects, such as the adults, pupae and larva of Diptera (e.g. midges, craneflies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and beetles, as well as bugs and leeches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In the winter its diet consists of polycheate worms, molluscs, crustaceans (such as amphipods, brine shrimps and copepods), and occasionally insects and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a cup positioned on the margins of marshes or pools, on the slopes of hummock tundra, or on dry patches in <em>Polygonum</em> tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144038	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased environmental pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>5, 7, 9</sup></strong>. The species is threatened on the south-east coast of India (Point Calimere) by illegal hunting (bird trapping), reservoir and marshland habitat alteration by salt-industries, and habitat degradation by diminishing rainfall (changing the salt regime)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is also threatened at Walvis Bay in Namibia, a key wetland site in southern Africa, by habitat degradation (e.g. changes in the flood regime due to road building, and wetland reclamation for suburb and port development), and disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. This species is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>8, 11</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>13, 14</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tryngites subruficollis</em> breeds sporadically along arctic coasts from central Alaska, <strong>USA</strong> to Devon Island, <strong>Canada</strong>, with a relict population on Wrangel Island and west Chukotka, <strong>Russia</strong>. Also reported from St Pierre and Miquelon (to France) as a non-breeder. Birds winter in eastern South America including <strong>Argentina</strong>, <strong>Uruguay</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> and <strong>Bolivia </strong>after passing through the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Originally numbering in the hundreds of thousands to millions (1890s-1900s), the species was brought to near extinction in the early 1920s by hunting. It has not recovered, with the current population estimated at 15,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is difficult to monitor, as it is not faithful to breeding sites (and possibly not to wintering sites), but data from North American migration sites suggests that declines are continuing. Immediate threats are the matter of some conjecture. The breeding grounds may be affected by habitat loss and degradation and environmental contaminants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Previously, ongoing declines were attributed to widespread and continuing destruction of grasslands in the wintering range<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but there seems little evidence to support this, although environmental contaminants may be playing a part there<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to depend heavily upon intensive grazing by livestock<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. CMS Appendix I and II.  <br/></p>	eng
144040	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Morrison <em>et al</em>. (in press). <br/></p>	eng
144041	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. Protected areas in its breeding, staging and wintering areas include Moroshechnaya and several local wildlife refuges on the Chukotsk peninsula (Russia), Yancheng and Chongming Dongtan (China), Mai Po (Hong Kong), Lanyang estuary (Taiwan), Point Calimere and Chilka lake (India), and Xuan Thuy Nature Reserve (Vietnam). Annual surveys are undertaken of breeding sites on Chukotka and over 450 adults and young have been ringed on the breeding grounds since 2000<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Local support groups have been established in some breeding areas and negotiations have taken place to reduce short-term hunting pressure at one of the key wintering sites in Myanmar<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Researchers and a local environmentalist group convinced two villages on Nan Thar Island to agree to a hunting ban of the species, with a view to develop an ecologically and economically sound alternative in the future<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was produced in 2008<strong><sup>10</sup></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor numbers at known breeding sites and carry out searches of suitable habitat in North Kamchatka. Actively prevent collection of eggs and birds for scientific purposes. Take measures to ensure that researcher activity does not increase mortality. Ensure effective legal protection of all known breeding sites. Survey existing and potential wintering sites in Myanmar and Bangladesh. Stop hunting and trapping at key sites. Ensure protection of newly discovered sites and existing sites, especially in South Korea. Restore reclaimed wetland sites. Campaign to stop shorebird hunting in Asian countries. Legally protect it in all range states. Identify and mitigate pressures at breeding grounds</strong>	eng
144041	distribution		This species has a naturally limited breeding range on the Chukotsk peninsula and southwards up to the isthmus of the Kamchatka peninsula, in north-eastern <strong>Russia</strong>. It migrates down the western Pacific coast through Russia, <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China)<strong>,</strong> to its main wintering grounds in <strong>Bangladesh </strong>and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Wintering birds have also been recorded from <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, in the Fujian province of <strong>China<sup>11</sup></strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong>. It occurs regularly at only a few sites within this wintering range, with important countries including Bangladesh and Thailand, and Myanmar, which is potentially the most important wintering country (over 80 recorded in 2007-2008 and 63 in January 2009<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>). Due to its specialised breeding habitat requirements it was probably always a scarce species, but numbers have dropped in recent years and surveys on the breeding grounds have revealed a dramatic decline from 2,000-2,800 pairs in the 1970s to fewer than 1,000 pairs in 2000, 402-572 pairs in 2003, 350-380 pairs in 2005<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and not more than 150-320 pairs in 2008<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. These declines have taken place across all known breeding colonies, and it is unlikely that significant colonies remain undiscovered<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Declines are also being observed at wintering grounds. For example, no birds were sighted wintering in Vietnam in 2009 at a site that supported at least 27 birds in the mid 1990s<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Breeding success is very low: average productivity was 0.66 young fledged per nest in 2005, and much lower in 2007, and this is compounded by a very low rate of juveniles and adults returning to the breeding grounds. The species now has an ageing and rapidly declining population with little recruitment. <em> </em>	eng
144041	habitat		It has a very specialised breeding habitat, using only lagoon spits with crowberry-lichen vegetation or dwarf birch and willow sedges, together with adjacent estuary or mudflat habitats that are used as feeding sites by adults during nesting. During winter it prefers mixed sandy tidal mudflats with uneven surface and very shallow water, mainly in the outermost parts of river deltas and outer islands, often with a higher sand content and thin mud layer on top. In the areas with total coastal conversion it favours certain stages in the management of saltpans<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The species has never been recorded breeding further than 5 km (and exceptionally once, 7 km) from the sea shore. Breeding birds are very site faithful. It breeds either in single pairs or loose aggregations<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Wintering habitat consists of tidal mudflats, and locally saltpans. Feeds by plover-style pecking and occasionally probing<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
144041	population		150-320 breeding pairs, equating to 450-1,000 individuals (Zockler and Syroechkovskiy in prep).	eng
144042	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a full migrant, and migrates on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> by making short flights between a series of stop-over sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Adults breeding in Fennoscandia leave the breeding grounds in July (juveniles departing in August), and stop-over in substantial numbers in Sivash, southern Ukraine, on the Middle Eastern coasts, Caspian Sea and Bulgarian seaboard, before arriving in wintering grounds in Africa, Pakistan and south India between August and early-October<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Eastern breeding populations migrate on a broad front across the taiga, or along the eastern edge of the continent between September and October, and return in April-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  The Fennoscandian breeding population departs the wintering grounds in the spring between mid-April and early-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A few non-breeding birds also remain at the wintering sites during the summer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in early- to late-June in Fennoscandia, and between mid-June and early-July in Russia, pairs nesting in loose colonies of 2-10 nests, usually spaced 80-100 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species migrates singly or in small groups, although during the spring migration flocks of up to several hundred can occur<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in the wettest parts of bogs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and on open peatland; the Scandinavian and north-west Russian populations breeding in the subarctic montane and lowland zones above 200 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (around 1,000 m in Norway)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the Siberian population breeding in wet Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration this species shows a preference for muddy and boggy areas on the shores of ponds and lakes, but it is also found on shallow freshwater, brackish and saline (sometimes hyper-saline) lagoons, temporary swamps, flooded rice-fields, overgrazed wet meadows, inlets of fjords<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species mainly overwinters on large, soft intertidal mudflats, in brackish lagoons, on saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sewage farms and saltmarshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of marine nereid worms, small bivalves and snails, crustaceans (e.g. amphipods), adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, flies, grasshoppers, ants)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as the seeds of aquatic plants<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a cup on top of a wet sedge or moss cushion, well raised above the water level<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144042	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas of this species around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation, and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased environmental pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144043	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	There is evidence to suggest that the European population (200,000-510,000 pairs, occupying 50-74% of the global breeding range) has declined by up to 30% over ten years (three generations)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this may reflect shifts in breeding populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, populations in Asia are not thought to be declining<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong> and wintering populations in Africa appear to be increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144043	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is fully migratory and travels on a broad front across Europe (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It breeds from May to August (Hayman et al. 1986) with males gathering in suitable lekking areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Flint et al. 1984) and females nesting solitarily or in semi-colonial groups (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species departs the breeding grounds between late-June and August, returning from the wintering grounds from March to mid-May (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species migrates in large flocks of hundreds or thousands of individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and forms huge dense groups on its wintering grounds (Hayman et al. 1986). The species inhabits tundra habitats from the coast to the Arctic treeline (Johnsgard et al. 1981, del Hoyo et al. 1996) during the breeding season, requiring adjacent foraging, lekking and nesting areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It shows a preference for dry mounds and slopes with low willow Salix spp. and dwarf birch Betula spp. as lekking areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), and dry patches of tall sedge as nesting sites (Snow and Perrins 1998). Suitable foraging habitats include littoral belts, deltas (Snow and Perrins 1998), coastal saltmarshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981) and extensive lowland freshwater wetlands such as small shallow lakes with marginal vegetation (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), grassy hummocky marshes (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998), and damp swampy grasslands (Johnsgard et al. 1981, Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996), with shallow pools or ditches (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During the non-breeding season the species occupies the muddy margins of brackish, saline and alkaline lakes, ponds, pools, rivers, marshes and food-plains (del Hoyo et al. 1996), as well as freshly mown or grazed short-sward grasslands (Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996) and wheat- or rice-fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996), usually roosting at night in the shallow waters of lake shores (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species rarely utilises intertidal habitats (Hayman et al. 1986) but may frequent tidal mudflats and lagoons in India (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During the breeding season the species's diet consists almost entirely of adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects such as Coleoptera and Diptera (del Hoyo et al. 1996). On passage and during the winter the species takes insects (e.g. caddisflies, water-bugs, mayflies and grasshoppers), small crustaceans, spiders, small molluscs, annelid worms, frogs, small fish and the seeds of rice and other cereals, sedges, grasses and aquatic plants (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The nest is a shallow scrape (del Hoyo et al. 1996) concealed in marsh vegetation or meadow grass (del Hoyo et al. 1996) on damp ground (Johnsgard et al. 1981) usually more than 100 m away from the nearest lek site (Johnsgard et al. 1981). The species nests solitarily or semi-colonially, neighbouring nests occasionally only a few metres apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Management information Intensive grazing of grassland (> 1 cow per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary (Baldi et al. 2005).	eng
144043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144043	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by petroleum pollution (Grishanov 2006), wetland and flood-plain drainage ( del Hoyo et al. 1996, Grishanov 2006) (for irrigation and water management) (Grishanov 2006), peat-extraction, and land abandonment and changing land management practices that lead to scrub and reed overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). The species may also suffer future population declines and range contractions as a result of global climate change (Zöckler 2002), and is susceptible to avian influenza (Melville and Shortridge 2006, Gaidet et al. 2007), avian botulism (Blaker 1967, van Heerden 1974,  Hubalek et al. 2005) and avian malaria (Mendes et al. 2005), so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases.	eng
144045	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels over land on both broad and narrow fronts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> using favoured lakes as staging points on route<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds from late-May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs, occasionally forming loose colonies where suitable habitat is restricted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species leaves the breeding grounds between late-June and early-September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, migrating in gregarious flocks and wintering at sea in flocks of 20-100<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the Arctic on coastal and inland tundra, forest tundra and alpine tundra near lakes, pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, ponds, lagoons, streams or other permanent water-bodies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with marshy margins overgrown with grass, sedge or moss<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in freshwater marshes and bogs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also frequent coastal moorland, flood-plains and islets in large rivers, and in Iceland it commonly nests on sparsely vegetated lava deserts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species frequents inland saline and hypersaline lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as reservoirs, sewage-ponds and coastal marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter it is largely pelagic however, foraging at sea in upwelling zones and marine areas with a high abundance of plankton<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> In its breeding range its diet consists of insects (especially adult and larval Diptera, beetles, caddisflies, ants and Hemiptera) and other small invertebrates (e.g. snails, crustaceans and annelid worms)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, larval amphibians (tadpoles)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species may take larval brine-flies (<em>Ephydra</em> spp.) from saline lakes, but when feeding pelagically during the winter it feeds on zooplankton (e.g. euphausiids and calanoid copepods) and other floating planktonic particles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground or amongst sparse vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in sedge thickets or damp, grassy or hummocky areas close to water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the UK management regimes to benefit the species include increasing the area of open water in mires by digging small pools, controlling water-levels and providing tussocky vegetation suitable for nesting (through grazing by ponies and cattle)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144046	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a full migrant that travels via marine routes and has been observed migrating 80-160 km offshore. Adult females depart from the breeding grounds in early-June, followed by the adult males and juveniles in late-July and August, most arriving in the non-breeding quarters by the end of November. The species departs Chilean and South African seas in March, and West African and south-west African seas in April, migrating along the Arctic coasts and reoccupying breeding grounds from late-May to early-June. It may also wait 2-3 weeks at the edge of sea ice in the High Arctic waiting for the land to thaw before nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Once in the breeding grounds the species breeds between June and July (from mid-June to mid-July in Iceland, and from early-June to early-July in Russia). The species is gregarious at all times of the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and will even breed in loose groups where the habitat is favourable. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds close to the coast on marshy tundra with small pools, on boggy meadows with moss and grass, in marshy river valleys, or on islets in fjords. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season this species is pelagic and frequents upwelling zones in the tropics and subtropics where plankton occurs in high concentrations (e.g. over 50,000 organisms/litre). <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the diet of this species consists chiefly of invertebrates, such as adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, caddisflies, dipteran flies, bugs), molluscs, crustaceans, annelid worms, spiders, mites, jellyfish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and occasionally plant material (seeds) when animal matter is scarce. <em>Non-breeding</em> During this season the species feeds at sea on plankton, including amphipods less than 2 mm long, Hydrozoa and small fish from the water surface or just below. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup or scrape on the ground in short vegetation (e.g. sedges or grasses) and is usually close to or surrounded by water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/><strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144049	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is nomadic in relation to changing water levels with some individuals travelling as far as several kilometres between suitable habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may breed in any month of the year in permanent wetlands but only during the wet season in seasonally flooded areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has a polyandrous mating system, with males holding nesting, breeding, foraging and chick-rearing territories while females mate with several adjacent males<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species forages singly, in pairs or in dispersed family groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may occasionally gather in small, loose flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits permanent or seasonally flooded shallow freshwater wetlands, requiring floating vegetation (especially water-lilies) for nesting on, as well as tall emergent vegetation near the shore for cover<strong><sup>1.</sup> Suitable habitats include swamps<sup>1</sup></strong> and stagnant marshes with open water, flooded grassland, waterways choked with vegetation (e.g. water-lettuce <em>Pistia</em> spp., water-hyacinth <em>Eichhornia</em> spp., water-fern <em>Salvinia</em> spp. or water-weed <em>Elodea</em> spp.), small lakes, dams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the sheltered shores, inlets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and backwaters of broad slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species also forages amongst waterside plants or on dry land along the edge of water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. dragonfly nymphs, bees)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and worms, as well as spiders, crustaceans, molluscs and occasionally seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is usually a simple, partly submerged pad of aquatic vegetation, although on deeper water nests are often placed on small floating rafts of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <strong>Management information</strong> There is evidence that the species is able to switch to nesting on less stable mats of floating aquatic plants (such as the exotic water-fern <em>Salvinia</em> spp.) if water-lilies are destroyed by invasive coypu <em>Myocastor coypus</em> in wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144049	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is locally threatened by wetland degradation and loss through flooding (as a result of hydroelectric projects), drainage and overgrazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144050	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The migratory movements and breeding habits of this species are little known although it appears to make minor local movements in response to water conditions and may breed throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is usually found alone or in pairs, more rarely in groups (one group recorded contained 75 individuals)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for floating vegetation on shallow lake margins, in freshwater marshes, on ponds and on slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects and other invertebrates, as well as the seeds of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a floating heap of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144050	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation (the population on Lake Aloatra has declined as a result of siltation, agricultural development, drainage, over-fishing and illegal hunting)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144051	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>The migratory movements of this species are very little known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a sedentary resident of permanent wetlands throughout its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although some populations appear to be nomadic, appearing at ephemeral wetlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and seasonally flooded pans even after years of absence during drought<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in territorial solitary pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the timing of breeding varying geographically in response to wet seasons and the availability of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species can be observed singly or in loose groups of up to 20 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for shallow water around the edges of permanent and seasonally flooded wetlands, with areas of sparse sedge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (<em>Rhynchosporia</em>, <em>Eliocharis</em>, <em>Cyperus </em>and <em>Juncus </em>spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, aquatic grasses (<em>Leersia </em>and <em>Hemarthria </em>spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and stands of floating vegetation such as water-lilies<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(<em>Nymphaea </em>and <em>Nymphoides </em>spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits lake and dam backwaters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, river flood-plains (e.g. Okavango Delta)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, swampy river edges, pans, coastal lagoons (Natal, South Africa)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, grassy swamps<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and sometimes small ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it generally avoids shorelines with firm substrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists predominantly of insects, although it may take small pieces of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and seeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small floating platform of aquatic vegetation positioned on shallow water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144057	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on the Antarctic Peninsula (Antarctica), and along the Scotia Arc on the South Shetland Islands, Elephant Island, the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) and the South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur); and probably also on the South Sandwich Islands, where breeding has not been confirmed. It is a non-breeding migrant to the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), Tierra del Fuego (Chile and Argentina) and Patagonia (Argentina), with some birds wandering further north.	eng
144057	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is typically found in seabird colonies, especially those of penguins, but occasionally those of cormorants and albatrosses, and also at seal rookeries and haul-outs. In the Falklands it occurs near human settlements. It is omnivorous, and notably feeds on marine prey stolen from penguins (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144059	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pluvianellus socialis</em> is local and partially resident in the extreme south of <strong>Chile</strong> and south <strong>Argentina</strong>, with part of the population wintering north to the Vald&eacute;s peninsula, south-central Argentina, and sometimes as far as Buenos Aires province<strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. The population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It breeds on the open shores of freshwater or brackish lakes and shallow pools in steppe-like regions up to 1,200 m, but generally at lower elevations in the south. Outside the breeding season, it occurs along rivers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and on the coast, mostly in sheltered bays, lagoons and river mouths. It feeds primarily on tiny arthropods during the breeding season, with chironomid larvae apparently forming the staple food in winter, when it forages in small flocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There are few apparent reasons for its scarcity. However, the destruction and degradation of natural grassland in Patagonia by grazing livestock and introduced herbivores must have had some impact on mainland breeding habitat, and numbers are perhaps limited by the carrying capacity of the hostile environment<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144059	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> (2002) to Wetlands International (2002) estimated <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144060	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large global population estimated to be 140,000-330,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The status of the European population (46,000-78,000 pairs, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed, and following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the species continued to decline during 1990-2000, when up to 20% of birds were lost and several national extinctions occurred. Overall, declines in Europe exceeded 30% over three generations (27 years)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, there is no evidence of declines elsewhere in its global range, and incomplete data from Central Asia and southern Russia suggests that there the species is stable or increasing in places<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	It has a large global population estimated to be 130,000-310,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). The European population is estimated to be 46,000-78,000 pairs.	eng
144061	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mostly sedentary but may undertake seasonal movements in parts of West Africa in relation to flooding and drought (both of which cause the species to move out of an area)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Nigeria it undertakes local movements only, corresponding to water level changes, and in other parts of its range it does not migrate<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is commonly found in pairs or small parties of up to six individuals (flocks occasionally exceed 20-60 individuals on the River Nile in Egypt<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), but in the breeding season nesting pairs become territorial and usually disperse to nest singly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the Nile Delta, the species commonly nests in small colonies however, with up to 21 nests recorded on the roof of one house. The timing of the breeding season varies according to locality<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, but it usually occurs before the rains in areas with seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is mainly nocturnal, but is often crepuscular<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, sometimes foraging in the twilight hours of morning and evening<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species occupies a wide variety of open land with sparse or no vegetation, including savanna and woodland clearings, open orchards, sandy or stony ground amidst thorny scrub, gardens in towns and villages<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, gravel roads<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, burnt woodland and semi-arid grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is always found in the close proximity to water, especially on sandy riverbeds, riverside mudbanks, rocks mid-stream<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lake shores, mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, grassy flats beside rivers and irrigated fields<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It avoids steep broken terrain, desert and tall, dense vegetation, either in wetland or forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous and feeds exclusively on land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, its diet consisting mainly of insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers) and crustaceans, but also of molluscs, worms, frogs, tadpoles and small rodents<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape positioned on bare ground, sand-banks, the top of low flat rocks or on rocky islets in rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded nesting on the flat roofs of buildings in Egypt<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong>  <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144061	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation in Ghana wetlands owing to coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144062	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary although some individuals may make local movements to avoid river flooding (returning to exposed riverbanks as the water recedes)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding is variable but generally coincides with the dry season or the early rains, with the species nesting solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in loose associations of several pairs on riverine sandbars<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is usually observed foraging nocturnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in pairs or small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but is also gregarious at times, gathering in flocks of 30 or more individuals during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> It inhabits riverbanks, lake shores, estuaries, mangrove swamps, undisturbed sheltered beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the shores of coastal creeks and islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for habitats with bushes or shrubs providing cover (e.g. light woodland)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally avoids heavily vegetated wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but occasionally forages more than 1 km from water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. aquatic beetles, grasshoppers, locusts and termites)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crabs with carapace widths of up to 50 mm)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, worms, frogs and tadpoles, millipedes and grass seeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape in the ground often positioned close to water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on a sandbank, shoreline<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or a small islet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> near a landmark such as a piece of driftwood or a bush<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144062	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by human disturbance and predation by domestic dogs on beaches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144066	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Fox control has been trialled in Victoria in an attempt to raise productivity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A post-graduate study into the demography and ecology of the species in New South Wales and Victoria has recently been completed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Currently eight conservation projects are underway for the species in Victoria (3), South Australia (2) and New South Wales (3)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Improve fox control. </strong>Develop techniques for monitoring abundance. Develop agreement with landholders to maintain litter layer and fallen timber in remnant woodland.  <br/> <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
144066	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Burhinus grallarius</em> has been recorded from all but the most arid parts of mainland <strong>Australia</strong>, and many offshore islands. A tiny breeding population is also found in southern New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea)</strong>. In Australia, it is now largely absent south and east of the Great Dividing Range, and is scarce elsewhere in southern Australia. The northern Victorian population is apparently declining with counts of 328 birds in 1985 and 141 in 1991. It appears to have dissappeared from 90% of its range in South Australia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, where most recent records are from islands. It has been declining in south-western Australia since the 1920s. It remains common in northern Australia and on many continental islands, even within towns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it has declined in southern Queensland. Island populations may be isolated. The total Australian population has been estimated at 15,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144066	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a resident of open forest and woodland. It prefers a scattering of fallen timber and ground carpeted with dead leaves. Feeds nocturnally on insects taken from the ground; thought to forage primarily in stubble<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is solitary and monogamous.  <br/></p>	eng
144066	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total Australian population has been estimated at 15,000 individuals<strong> </strong>(Watkins 1993). <br/></p>	eng
144066	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its continuing decline in its southern range has been attributed to predation by introduced foxes, habitat clearance for agriculture, habitat degradation by pastoralism, and removal of leaf litter from habitat remnants. Hunting is now illegal but may continue. Other threats include poisoning by ingesting bait set for rabbits and in urban areas, road mortalities and predation by cats and domestic dogs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144068	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory, inland breeders moving to the coast for the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April to July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs or small groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, during the winter foraging singly or in small groups of up to 10 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and with larger flocks often forming in major bays and estuaries and at roosting sites<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on coastal saltmarshes, sand and shingle beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dunes, cliff-tops with short grass<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and occasionally rocky shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as inland along the shores of lakes, reservoirs and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or on agricultural<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> grass and cereal fields, often some distance from water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is chiefly coastal, frequenting estuarine mudflats, saltmarshes and sandy and rocky shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> When foraging on soft intertidal substrates bivalves and gastropods are the most important food items for this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Polychaetes and crustaceans are more important in estuaries however, and molluscs (e.g. mussels, limpets and whelks) are most important on rocky shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When inland, prey such as earthworms and insect larvae (e.g. caterpillars and cranefly larvae) are also taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> often on raised surfaces (e.g. earth banks)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in the open or in short vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on cultivated or uncultivated land, cliff-tops, rocky outcrops or clearings in taller vegetation including woods and moorland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The breeding numbers of this species may decline if cattle grazing regimes are implemented on coastal grassland, possibly as a result of changes in food availability and increased predation risks<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Removing large numbers of gulls (e.g. <em>Larus argentatus</em> and <em>Larus fuscus</em>) from islands may attract higher breeding numbers of the species but may not improve the overall breeding conditions<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. There is also evidence that the creation of large marine protected areas (MPAs) to protect this species from the threat of anthropogenic shellfish over-fishing may not be an effective management or conservation technique on a global scale, especially if over-fishing continues to occur in adjacent areas<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144068	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to the species is the over-fishing of benthic shellfish and the resulting disappearance of intertidal mussel and cockle beds<strong><sup>8, 9, 13</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by habitat degradation on its wintering grounds due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (e.g. from construction work)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, coastal barrage construction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and reduced river flows<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144069	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haematopus meadewaldoi </em>was endemic to Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and their offshore islets in the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was last collected in 1913 and locally reported to have become extinct by the 1940s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is now considered extinct because extensive surveys in the mid-80s failed to find any evidence of the species's survival, despite four convincing reports (two from Tenerife and two from Senegal) between 1968 and 1981<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its decline was probably a result of overharvesting of intertidal invertebrates and disturbance by people<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although predation by rats and cats has also been implicated<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<p></p>	eng
144070	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haematopus moquini</em> has a coastal breeding range which stretches from L&uuml;deritz, <strong>Namibia</strong>, to Mazeppa Bay, Eastern Cape, <strong>South Africa</strong>. The total population is estimated to number 5,000-6,000 individuals <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with about half occurring along the Western Cape (South Africa) coastline, half of these on its near-shore islands. The peak of the breeding season, when pairs rear 1 or 2 chicks, occurs in midsummer and coincides with peak coastal recreational activities and resulting disturbance reduces breeding success. Off-road vehicles are a particular problem as they churn up beaches, run over nests and crush eggs, and kill young hiding in vehicle tracks. In addition, people on beaches can keep adults off nests for extended periods, overheating eggs and killing embryos. Disturbance also leads to predation of eggs and chicks by Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em>. On sections of the coastline undisturbed by humans, natural predators (e.g. mongoose) take many nests. On most near-shore islands, population sizes have been stable or increased recently due to either improved management, e.g. the cessation of guano-scraping during the 1980s, and/or a change in diet from indigenous limpets and mussels to invasive mussels such as <em>Mytilus galloprovincialis </em>(e.g. at Robben Island, South Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The mainland is likely to prove a population sink for surplus birds from near-shore islands, with breeding productivity too low to sustain coastal populations. <br/></p>	eng
144070	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 5,000-6,000 individuals (T. Dodman<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
144075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimate excludes totals for Haematopus chathamsensis, which is not split by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144076	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Nest manipulation may have helped to increase hatching success on Chatham. Nests are moved slowly back up the beach to reduce flooding. Artificial incubation was trialled but did not increase overall productivity. Stock have been fenced from some beaches on Chatham, signs have been erected to reduce human and dog disturbance, and marram is being controlled in some areas. Recently, intensive predator control combined with nest manipulation resulted in a high number of fledglings. A research programme aiming to assess the effects of predators, flooding and management on breeding success has been initiated<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Increase predator control at selected sites. Continue habitat management. Continue nest manipulation. Continue research on population dynamics. Monitor selected nests using video recorders to determine causes of nest failure<sup>1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144076	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haematopus chathamensis</em> is endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1987-1988, the population was estimated at 100-110 birds, including 44 breeding pairs: eight on South East Island (= Rangatira); 25 on Chatham Island; nine on Pitt Island; and two on Mangere Island. In 1998, a census indicated 140-150 birds, representing a significant increase. Numbers on South East, however, appear to have gradually declined since the 1970s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Very small numbers may breed on Star Keys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 2004, a minimum of 266 birds were counted on most of the coast of four islands in the Chathams group, representing a population of 310-325 birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144076	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It builds nests in scrapes on sandy and rocky shores, away from the waterline. Occasionally, it breeds amongst low vegetation or constructs nests out of vegetation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It lays two to three eggs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It starts breeding from three years old. Mean life expectancy is 7.7 years. The oldest recorded bird lived for a minimum of 28 years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds principally on molluscs and marine worms, also taking other invertebrates<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144076	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2004, a minimum of 266 birds were counted on most of the coast of four islands in the Chathams group, represented a population of 310-325 birds (Moore 2005). However, the number of mature individuals in breeding pairs remains below 250. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144076	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced predators are a major threat on Pitt and Chatham, as are cattle and sheep<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. South East and Mangere are free of mammalian predators, but population sizes are still highly variable, and the reason for the decline on South East is unknown<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Predation by native birds may be a potential threat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Chatham, some pairs are forced to nest close to the tideline because introduced marram grass has spread and reduced the open areas it prefers - these nests are more vulnerable to high tides and storms<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Disturbance and trampling of nests by stock and vehicles may affect breeding success<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144081	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species make long-distance migratory movements, travelling southwards to their wintering grounds between August and November and returning to their breeding areas between March and April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In more temperate regions the species is sedentary or only locally dispersive however<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds solitarily or in loose colonies of 2-50 or occasionally up to several hundred pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. It is typically a gregarious species, occurring in small groups<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (up to 15 individuals)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> or larger flocks of several hundred up to a thousand individuals on migration, during the winter<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong> and at nightly roosts<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species typically breeds in shallow freshwater and brackish wetlands with sand, mud or clay substrates and open margins, islets or spits near water level<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include marshes and swamps, shallow lake edges, riverbeds, flooded fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, irrigated areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, sewage ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and fish-ponds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species may also breed around alkaline and high-altitude (montane) lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in more saline environments such as river deltas, estuaries<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>3, 6</sup></strong> and shallow coastal pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, saltpans, coastal marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and swamps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species occupies the shores of large inland waterbodies and estuarine or coastal habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as river deltas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>3, 6</sup></strong> and shallow freshwater or brackish pools with extensive areas of mudflats, salt meadows<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, saltpans, coastal marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and swamps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is strongly seasonal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but generally includes adult and larval aquatic insects (e.g. Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Diptera, Neuroptera and Lepidoptera), molluscs, crustaceans, spiders, oligochaete and polychaete worms, tadpoles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and amphibian spawn<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, small fish, fish eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and occasionally seeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or shallow scrape positioned on hard ground near water on a hummock<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or amongst grass and sedge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Alternatively the nest may be a more elaborate platform of vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> constructed on a floating mass of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests singly or in loose colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for open areas close to foraging sites with good all-round (360 degree) visibility<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144081	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>8, 9</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144083	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent advances in release methods appear to have enhanced the initial survival of released birds from 20-45% to 80-100%, but require further testing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Active management involves double and triple clutching of parents by removing eggs to encourage re-laying. The removed eggs are reared in captivity. Playback calls are broadcast to juvenile birds during captive-rearing to equip them with the behavioural and auditory recognition skills necessary for survival<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Trapping for predators around all wild nests has been ongoing since 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and research is underway to determine the nature of the threat from each predator species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Hybrids, now numbering fewer than 20 within the Black Stilt's range, are controlled<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Water-levels are manipulated in managed wetlands to attract birds to feed, and possibly breed, in areas where predators are controlled<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat restoration is ongoing, involving the removal of exotic weeds from riverbeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The introduction of a second population on a suitable predator-free island is desirable and has undergone a feasibility study<strong><sup>12,17</sup></strong>, but it is unlikely that a suitable release site will be found. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to monitor population trends. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout the species's range. Maintain and improve productivity of the captive population. Establish a self-sustaining population on a predator-free island. Encourage public interest and support</strong><sup>9</sup>. <strong>Seek to maintain predator-free habitat for breeding within the current range. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144083	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Himantopus novaezelandiae</em> was formerly widespread, breeding and wintering across the North and South Islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, but following a long-term decline it is now restricted during the breeding season to the upper Waitaki Valley in the South Island. Approximately 90% of the population are sedentary, but small numbers still overwinter in the North Island. The population may have numbered 500-1,000 birds in the 1940s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, by which time it had ceased to breed in the North Island and was rare as a breeding species in the lowlands. It continued to decline to a low of just 23 birds in 1981 when intensive management began<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In 2001 the wild breeding population consisted of just seven pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but a maximum of 84 adults were recorded in the wild in August 2002<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. By the 2004-2005 breeding season, there were 11 productive pairs<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and during 2007-2008, that figure had climbed to 20 breeding pairs and a total of 78 mature individuals in the wild<strong><sup>17</sup></strong> (although it is not clear how many of these are of captive origin and have not yet bred in the wild). This represents a slight increase overall, but numbers have fluctuated. Fewer than 20 dark hybrids are currently known<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.  The partial recovery of its population is primarily thanks to the annual release of captive-reared subadults and juveniles (77 and 16 respectively in 2007-2008<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>), and the species's survival remains dependent on captive-breeding efforts until predator-free breeding habitat can be maintained<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144083	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It breeds on braided riverbeds, but also occurs in wetlands and swamplands, and some of the population winters along the coastline in inter-tidal habitats. It feeds primarily on insects, but also takes small fish<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It lays four eggs and will usually re-nest if the first clutch is lost early in the season. Most breed for the first time at three years of age. The average age is 6.8 years, and two birds are older than 10 years. <br/></p>	eng
144083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	This estimate is based on 20 productive breeding pairs at end of 2007-2008 season; a total of 78 'mature individuals' were counted in 2008 (R. Maloney <em>in litt.</em> 2008), but it is unclear how many of these were captive bred and have not yet bred in the wild successfully. <br/></p>	eng
144083	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Predators, in particular, introduced mammals such as cats, ferret <em>Mustela furo</em>, stoat <em>M. erminea</em>, hedgehogs <em>Erinaceus </em>sp. and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em>, and the native Australasian Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em> and Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em><strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong> are today the primary threat, but the combined impact of habitat loss has exacerbated declines. Nests are destroyed, and predation is potentially increased, by drainage and hydroelectric development, weed growth and flood-control programmes<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, and nesting birds are disturbed by recreational use of riverbeds. Adverse weather and natural flooding are additional, unpredictable threats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Hybridisation was formerly a threat because the biased sex ratio resulted in single males mating with <em>H. himantopus</em> females or hybrids<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, but the sex ratio is now even and the frequency of hybridisation has decreased<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Adult mortality in the wild remains very high<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144085	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations migrate south between August and October and return to the breeding grounds between March and May, staging on route in large numbers at certain sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is present all year round in much of its African range and in parts of Western Europe however<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It breeds from April to August in large colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually of between 10 and 70 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species remains gregarious on passage and during the winter, migrating in loose flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, foraging in groups of 5-30 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and gathering to roost in large flocks of several thousand individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in flat open areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on shallow saline or brackish wetlands<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong> with islands, ridges, spits or margins of bare sand, clay or mud<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and sparse short vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including inland lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, pools<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>, estuaries, saltpans<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, irrigated land and flood-plains in arid areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The most important characteristics of breeding habitats appear to be water levels which gradually decline over the summer to expose additional feeding areas, and high salt concentrations that prevent the development of excessive emergent and shoreline vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits coastal and inland saline lakes and mudflats<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, lagoons, pools, saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sandy beaches, river deltas and flood-plains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It rarely occurs on inland freshwater lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> but may forage on agricultural land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic invertebrates 4-15 cm long including aquatic insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. small beetles, midges and brine flies)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Corophium</em> spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, oligochaete and polychaete worms, and molluscs, as well and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. sole)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. seeds and small roots)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that may be positioned in a variety of sites including on bare sand<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, dried mud, short grass<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, dead vegetation and built-up mounds of debris<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species nests in large colonies, neighbouring nest usually 1 m apart<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or occasionally as close as 20-30 cm<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Artificially constructed nesting sites in coastal locations such as beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation are successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species responds positively (e.g. breeding numbers increase) to the introduction of cattle grazing on coastal grasslands, possibly as a result of reduced vegetation cover allowing improved predator detection<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144085	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened in Europe by the pollution of wetlands with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), insecticides, selenium, lead and mercury<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Important wintering sites (e.g. in Portugal or the Yellow Sea) are also threatened by infrastructure development<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>6, 9</sup></strong> and avian influenza<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144089	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory but may only move short distances in some regions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, adults leaving the breeding grounds before the juveniles between July and August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The return migration in the spring peaks between April and early-May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species feeds in small flocks during the breeding season, but on passage and in winter feeding flocks of tens to thousands of individuals may occur<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on humid moss, lichen and hummock tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, low-lying marshes in moss tundra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, shrub tundra, open bogs in forest, peatlands, alpine tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, highland bogs , moors<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and swampy highland heaths with high abundances of sphagnum moss and heather<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting on short vegetation less than 15 cm tall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> When on passage and in its winter quarters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> the species frequents freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, moist grasslands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, pastures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, agricultural land (e.g. stubble, ploughed or fallow fields)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and highland steppe<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, also foraging on tidal shores, coastal rocky outcrops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, intertidal flats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and saltmarshes<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> in shallow bays and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of insects (especially the adults, pupae and larvae of beetles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, larval Lepidoptera, locusts and grasshoppers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), as well as earthworms, spiders, millipedes, snails, polycheate worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and some plant material (e.g. berries, seeds and grass)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground in flat, sparse areas with short vegetation (less than 15 cm)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a solitary nester, although in optimal habitats neighbouring pairs may nest only a few hundred metres apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> "Extensive" grazing of wetland grasslands (e.g. c.0.5 cows per hectare) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in Hungary<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and in the UK the species shows a preference for nesting on heathlands and moors managed by rotational burning (a management strategy used to encourage grouse) as this keeps the vegetation short and prevents grasses from being displaced by heathers<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144089	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has suffered minor range contractions due to the cultivation and afforestation of heathlands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to very cold winter temperatures and severe weather conditions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is frequently taken by hunters on its wintering grounds (e.g. France)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144090	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory, with different populations travelling on narrow or broad fronts depending on the location of their breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds between June and July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> after which it departs the breeding grounds from late-August or early-September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may forage singly or in flocks of one hundred or more individiuals, occurring in small groups of 3-7 individuals at stopover sites on the northward passage but in large flocks on the southward passage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on inland Arctic habitats including shrub tundra, montane tundra and stony well-drained uplands with mosses and lichens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species occurs on the shores of lakes and rivers when on passage in the U.S.S.R.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but outside of the breeding season in generally occupies coastal areas, foraging in coastal fields and prairies with short grass, ploughed fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal freshwater pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, beaches, open mud and sandflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and reefs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It roosts on the same habitats used for foraging, as well as on exposed sandy beaches and exposed rocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of insects, molluscs, worms, crustaceans and spiders, although berries are also important during the breeding season on the Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape positioned on a dry site amongst hummocks, lichen, <em>Dryas</em> spp. or moss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species shows a high degree of nest-site fidelity and will return to the same nest cup or to within 100 m of nest-site of previous year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144090	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
144092	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It departs its breeding grounds from late-July to September (southward movements continuing into November)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and returns from late-May to June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary well-dispersed pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and forages alone or in small loose flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> of up to 30 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is gregarious during the winter however, often roosting in large flocks containing up to several thousand individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species nests in the high Arctic in both upland and valley locations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> between the treeline and the coast<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> , utilising dry stony tundra with sedge, moss, lichen<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, grass<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or dwarf birch<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, peat ridges in tundra marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, dry exposed ridges, riverbanks, raised sand or gravel beaches, and rocky slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents intertidal mudflats, saltmarshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sandflats<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of oceanic coastlines, bays and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During migration it may also be found inland on lakes, pools or grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the diet of this species consists largely of adult and larval insects such as beetles and Diptera<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as some plant matter (e.g. grass seeds and stems)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> When on the coast in its wintering range the species takes marine polychaete worms, molluscs and crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crabs, sand shrimps)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, occasionally also taking insects (e.g. grasshoppers and beetles) or earthworms when in inland habitats on passage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on dry ground in exposed, stony sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, neighbouring nests not less than 400 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the UK there is evidence that the removal of <em>Spartina anglica</em> from tidal mudflats using a herbicide is beneficial for the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144093	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On the North Island, nest protection by predator trapping, gull control, signs and wardens have caused local improvements in breeding success - 20% of c.600 breeding pairs were managed in 1998-1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Stewart Island, cats and rodents are intensively controlled in four important breeding sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Captive-breeding trials with <em>aquilonius</em> have been undertaken in case the technique is required for <em>obscurus</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Chicks have been raised successfully<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Complete full census every five to seven years. Monitor breeding and flocking sites. Continue research and experimental management of both subspecies. Continue practical protection of key sites. Obtain statutory protection of selected breeding sites. Increase public awareness</strong><sup>1</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
144093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius obscurus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Subspecies <em>obscurus</em> is restricted when breeding to Stewart Island, but formerly occurred on the South Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Stewart Island, it declined as much as 80% in c.40 years, numbering 62 birds in 1991-1992<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but recovering to 111 birds in 1997 and 150 in 1999<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. In 2004 the population was estimated to be 200 and increasing<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>aquilonius</em> breeds in the northern North Island. The population was estimated at 1,313 birds in 1989, and at 1,452 in 1996, but is likely to have declined since then as population increases at managed sites are likely to have been offset by declines elsewhere. The current population status is management-dependent, and significant declines would begin immediately if intensive management stopped<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144093	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On the North Island, it usually breeds on wide ocean beaches, estuaries and harbours with tidal mudflats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Stewart Island, it breeds inland, usually at high altitudes on bare hilltops and open bog or tussock-grasslands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It lays three eggs. It feeds mostly on terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates. Young generally begin to breed in their second year. The oldest recorded bird lived to at least 31 years of age<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144093	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Latest estimate for <em>aquilonius</em> is 1701 in October 2004. Latest estimate for <em>obscurus</em> is 270 in April 2006 (J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008). Within the northern subspecies if subpopulations are found to contribute to larger metapopulations in excess of 250 individuals with gene flow between them, then the species will warrant downlisting. <br/></p>	eng
144093	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced predators were the primary cause of extinction on the South Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. They remain the greatest threat on the North Island - one study indicated that 60% of nests were lost to predators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Feral cats caused the rapid decline on Stewart Island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On the North Island, housing developments and encroachment by dune-stabilising weeds reduce habitat, and stock, human, dog and vehicle disturbance reduces breeding success<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. Storms and very high tides can cause nest failures<strong><sup>6,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144094	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The majority of this species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and travels either on a broad or narrow front depending on the location of each population's breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species starts to breed from April until June, nesting in solitary pairs or loose semi-colonial groups (especially in undisturbed areas)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a gregarious species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and often roosts communally in flocks of several hundred close to its feeding areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, occurring singly, in small (up to 50 individuals) or large flocks (up to 1,200-1,500 individuals) during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds primarily on sand or shingle beaches either along the Arctic coast<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong> or around coastal tundra pools or lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the south of its range it may also breed inland on the Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> on muddy plains with stones or pebbles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, on shores and sandbars of inland rivers, lakes, gravel pits or reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong>, or on short grassland, farmland<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> and other well-drained sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits muddy, sandy or pebbly coasts in the tropics and subtropics<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> including estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, tidal mudflats, sandflats and exposed coral reefs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It also frequents mudbanks or sandbanks along rivers and lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, lagoons, saltmarshes, short grassland, farmland, flooded fields, gravel pits, reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sewage works and saltpans during this season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small crustaceans, molluscs, polycheate worms, isopods, amphipods, insects (e.g. ants, beetles, flies and fly larvae) and millipedes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> positioned near the high-water mark on shingle or sandy beaches<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species is a solitary nester although it may breed at quite high densities in undisturbed areas, neighbouring nests spaced between 5 and 100 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Removing feral American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species in the area<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144094	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism (so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and suffers predation from feral America mink <em>Neovison vison</em> in some regions<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144097	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory in much of its range. The European and North African populations migrate across the Sahara Desert between late-July and early-September (leaving breeding grounds June to mid-July) to reach wintering grounds in tropical Africa from late-August onwards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. These population return to their breeding grounds from mid-March, where they breed April-June (Europe) or March-May (North Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Siberian and other Asian populations migrate to wintering grounds in South-East Asia and India (only crossing Japan on the northward return migration)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some populations in South-East Asia, India, New Guinea and the Philippines do not migrate but are sedentary or locally nomadic in response to water levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is mainly solitary throughout the non-breeding season and on migration, occasionally occurring in flocks of not more than 10 individuals<strong><sup>1, 4, 5</sup></strong>. It also breeds singly or in loose neighbourhood groups spaced 7-200 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species shows a preference for bare or sparsely vegetated sandy and pebbly shores of shallow standing freshwater pools, lakes or slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 3, 5, 6</sup></strong>, including river islands, dry, stony riverbeds, sand, shingle or silt flats<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, dry wadis and dune slacks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This species may also utilise temporary artificial habitats such as gravel pits<strong><sup>1, 5, 8</sup></strong> , sewage works, industrial wastelands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and refuse tips<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, and may use open arable land on clay soil in exceptional circumstances<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (resident populations in India it can be found on wet grassland and rice paddy-fields)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species prefers lowland habitats and is rarely found above 800 m in Europe<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, but where river banks, dry riverbeds, or islets offer suitable habitat it will penetrate further upstream, reaching higher than 2,000 m in Afghanistan (e.g. in the mountains of Kashmir where it occurs along the pebbly banks of fast-flowing mountain torrents)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and even higher in the east Palearctic<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species generally avoids rough or broken terrain, forest, cultivated land or pastures, and tall or dense vegetation including vegetated margins of inland waters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also very rarely found on the coast, although it may occasionally visit saline inland pools and flats, intertidal areas on the seashore, mudflats, tidal creeks and brackish estuaries or lagoons (in India for example)<strong><sup>1, 5, 6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its African wintering grounds this species favours extensive sandbanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, muddy and sandy shores of rivers and lakes, residual flood waters, short grassy areas on dry ground around villages or near water, airfields and pastures<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>. It less commonly inhabits coastal areas such as saltpans, estuaries, creeks or rainwater pools on dry salt-flats bordering mangroves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species prefers lowland habitats during the winter as well as during the breeding season and is rarely found above 800 m in its wintering range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting mainly of insects such as beetles, flies (especially larvae and pupae), ants, bugs, mayfly and dragonfly larvae, caddisflies, crickets and larval Lepidoptera, as well as spiders, freshwater shrimps and other small crustaceans, mussels, worms and snails<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 5</sup></strong>. Vegetation (such as the seeds of grasses, sedges, <em>Polygonum</em> and Compositae) is taken rarely and is likely to be ingested incidentally along with animal matter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on loose sand, dry mud or on flat, bare rocks surrounded by mud or sand<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, sometimes amongst sparse vegetation<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> in the vicinity of water, and often on small islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or adjacent farmland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nesting pairs have also been recorded on flat gravelled roofs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144097	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened primarily by the degradation and loss of its preferred habitats<strong><sup>1, 9</sup></strong>. Many of the species' breeding sites are also disturbed by human recreational activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Increased flood regulation and pollution from oil and tar along the Mediterranean coast and the River Jordan has resulted in the degradation of the breeding sites in those areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In China and South Korea important migrational staging areas around the coast of the Yellow Sea are being lost through land reclamation and degraded as a result of declining river flows (from water abstraction), increased pollution, unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into the area by the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers<strong><sup>9, 12</sup></strong>. The species may also be susceptible to outbreaks of avian botulism<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and is potentially at risk from exposure to DDT's in southern India<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144100	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is found in three protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, an important site for the species, and Baly Bay National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, in general, mangroves, wetlands and coasts have little legal protection on Madagascar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Investigate the reasons for its rarity and the most important endangering processes. Evaluate the possibility of competition with other <em>Charadrius species<sup>3. <br/></p>	eng
144100	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius thoracicus</em> occurs somewhat uncommonly between Mahajanga on the north-west coast<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Tolagnaro in the south-east of <strong>Madagascar</strong><sup>4</sup>. It is usually found in groups of 3-5, but occasionally up to 50 individuals are seen together<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It favours saline lagoons and sandy coasts and estuaries, for example the Tambohorano wetlands, salt lagoons around Morombe, the Tsiribihina estuary (47 individuals seen in March 1998<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and Lake Tsimanampetsotsa. Sixty-one individuals were seen on the mudflats at Bemoramba in Maintiramo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In January 1971, one was seen near Antananarivo and in 1985 it was infrequently reported from the east coast near Manakara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its total population is believed to number 750-3,100 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144100	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually found in short coastal grassland, at the edges of brackish pools or lagoons, on intertidal mud, sandy beaches and in mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is generally found at, or near to, sea level. Typically this species prefers drier areas than Kittlitz's Plover. Usually found in pairs or small groups, feeding on invertebrates. Its nest is a small scrape made in dry grassland near to the coast or a lake<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144100	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has recently been estimated at 3,100 &#177; 396 (SE) individuals (Long <em>et al.</em> submitted) through the modelling of observed densities at suitable sites across an estimate of the total area of habitat above a defined suitability threshold (Long <em>et al.</em> 2006). The standard error range is rounded to the nearest 100 and used as the population range estimate.  <br/></p>	eng
144100	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It may be vulnerable to egg collection locally, but most of the population lives in remote areas that have low human population densities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Modifications of its wetland habitat on the west coast of Madagascar represent an increasing threat. Competition with Kittlitz's Plover <em>C. pecuarius</em> and/or White-fronted Plover <em>C. marginatus</em> has been suggested as a possible threat, but there is little or no evidence for this<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144101	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All bird species on St Helena have been protected by law since 1894<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The St Helena National Trust (SHNT) has been formed to coordinate the work of environmental NGOs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, including population monitoring, ecological research, habitat restoration and raising public awareness<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. A programme of trapping appears to have formerly reduced feral cat populations in some areas<strong><sup>3  </sup></strong>but has recently become irregular<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and neutering of domestic pets is now infrequent. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Agriculture and Natural Resource Department and the SHNT are currently operating a project titled "St Helena Airport and supporting infrastructure: Mitigation for the Impacts on the Wirebird population" through a Department for International Development grant<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was launched in January 2008 with a ten-year goal that the species should have a stable, relatively large population which does not need continuous conservation intervention, such that it can be downlisted to Vulnerable<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. A PhD studentship, based at the University of Bath which began in October 2007, is investigating the Conservation Biology of the St Helena Plover<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. As part of this project nest exclosures, designed to prevent predation of eggs by cats, are being trialled at present<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor populations regularly, increase research into the effects of pasture management and introduced species</strong><sup>1,2,9,15</sup>. <strong>Maintain pastures as grazing land and manage appropriately</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Monitor changes in habitat quality closely. Restrict vehicle access to significant semi-desert sites</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Ensure that mitigation measures are in place for the proposed airport at Prosperous Bay Plain. Intensify trapping of feral cats and the killing of rats around known sites.</strong>	eng
144101	distribution		This species is the only surviving endemic landbird on <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> and may have declined sharply in the 1970s<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1988-1989 (giving a total of c.450 individuals), repeated in 1998-1999, revealed large declines at all important pastureland sites, and were not compensated by concurrent increases in lower density populations at semi-desert sites. Fieldwork in 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 suggested populations had stabilised at c.350 adults<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>, but survey data from 2005 and 2006 showed further evidence of a decline with an estimated 200-220 mature individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Full January surveys in 2007-2010 located between 397 and 297 (averaging 353) adults<strong><sup>15,18</sup></strong>. This indicates that a population increase has occured and some recovery has taken place<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, however the cause of these apparent fluctuations is still unclear.	eng
144101	habitat		Some 70% of its population occurs in pastureland, with highest densities in relatively dry, flat, short-sward pastures<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Some populations occupy semi-desert habitats<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Extended rain seasons resulting in extensive vegetation growth can delay or prevent breeding<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates. More than one clutch (of two eggs) may be laid each year and replaced if eggs or chicks are lost: the proportion of a clutch that survives to independence is probably less than 20%, although adult survival is most likely high. Juveniles disperse widely in small flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144101	population		The population has been estimated at 200-220 mature individuals (McCulloch 2006; T. Prater <em>in litt</em>. 2006). However, surveys in 2008 and 2010 found 373 and 397 mature individuals respectively, and the population also exceeded 250 mature individuals in 2007 (F. Burns <em>in litt. </em>2008). Therefore, although a population estimate of 50-249 mature individuals is precautionarily retained here, if the number of mature individuals remains above this threshold over the five year period 2007-2011 it is likely to qualify for downlisting.	eng
144102	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is predominantly sedentary, but may make local movements related to seasonal rainfall (with birds leaving during rains and flooding)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the patterns of which are poorly understood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Whilst breeding the species is usually found in pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or nesting in loose neighbourhood groups with nests 20 m apart<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It is gregarious during the non-breeding season however, usually occurring in small flocks of up to 20 individuals, but sometimes in larger groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (during local migratory movements flocks of 100-300 have been reported)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It is diurnal but may feed during moonlit nights<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species primarily inhabits flat, open<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dry ground with very short grass or dried mud, often near the margins of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, or on small permanent and temporary pools, flood plains, dry sandy riverbeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and marshes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also found along the coast on dry salt-flats, tidal mudflats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lagoons, salt-marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries, sandy beaches with kelp wrack<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and offshore islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although it generally avoids rocky coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species less often inhabits airfields, golf courses, overgrazed pastures and ploughed fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small terrestrial and marine invertebrates such as beetles, flies, bugs, grasshoppers (up to 40mm long)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the larvae of Lepidoptera, spiders, molluscs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, polycheate worms and crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in coarse sand or dry mud, often in an exposed positions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as on sand ridges or sand piles, sandy-soil patches in open grassland, or on areas of dried mud devoid of vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nests are usually within 50-100 m of water, although they may be several km away<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and breeding pairs may re-use old scrape nests<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> or utilise natural depressions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144102	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. Walvis Bay in Namibia (a key wetland site in southern Africa) is being degraded through changes in the flood regime due to road building, wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; and Ghana wetlands are under threat from coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The proportion of the species that migrates via the east Atlantic flyway is susceptible to avian malaria and is therefore potentially threatened by future outbreaks<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144103	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The migratory status of this species is poorly known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but some populations may undergo partial intra-African dispersive movements in response to rainfall<strong><sup>1, 4, 5</sup></strong>. The species breeds opportunistically throughout the year although nesting usually peaks between April and September in the tropics, between July and December in the south and between July and September in Madagascar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests in solitary pairs with territories<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> stretching 80-150 m along the shore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and usually forages singly, in pairs or in small flocks of 6-10 up to 20 individuals (very rarely in larger groups of 40 individuals)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It roosts solitarily or in groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally forming loose roosting flocks of more than one hundred individuals in the winter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species requires clear, firm sand, mud or gravel shores for nesting, foraging and roosting<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It inhabits the edges of inland freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, temporary or muddy pools<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, streams with shingle banks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, rice-paddies (Madagascar)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the margins of artificial water-bodies (e.g. sewage tanks)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also occurs along the coast on the edges of intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>, sandy beaches<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, tidal pools<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and mangroves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> where shows a preference for the least saline areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, small molluscs and worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a simple scrape placed on sand, dry mud<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, shingle<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or on rocks close to water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144103	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may be susceptible to future outbreaks of avian botulism<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144104	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that makes seasonal<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> local movements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> between its breeding areas and nearby grassland habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It mainly breeds during the rains in solitary pairs, although the exact timing varies throughout its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is not a gregarious species and usually forages singly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but may occasionally occur in small loose flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of 15-20 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> during the dry season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on rocky, upland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> hills and slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, especially on those with granite outcroppings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Newly fledged broods may also forage in nearby cultivated fields and rice-paddies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> After breeding the species moves to short grassland habitats as well as forest clearings<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, bare ground, recently burnt areas, cultivated fields and the muddy edges of lakes, rivers, pools or reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval beetles, grasshoppers and other insects as well as small molluscs, crustaceans and worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape positioned on top of a granite outcrop or on gravel in a stream bed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may use the same nest-site for several years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144105	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. There were censuses in 1991, 1996 and 2001, with another scheduled for 2006<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. It is considered Endangered in USA and Canada. There is a recovery plan for Atlantic coast breeders<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Predator management has increased hatching success<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Seasonal restrictions and public education have limited disturbance<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Measures to protect breeding and wintering beaches are having mixed results;  $3 mill./yr is being spent in Atlantic USA alone, and this will need to be kept up indefinitely. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the importance of north-west Mexico for wintering birds. Continue breeding and wintering censuses</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Develop action plans for Great Lakes and wintering birds</strong><sup>5,8</sup>. <strong>Protect breeding and wintering beaches, and expand existing measures</strong><sup>1,5,8</sup>. <strong>Manage water sympathetically on the Great Plains</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Designate the Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas as a protected area.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144105	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius melodus</em> breeds in the <strong>USA </strong>and <strong>Canada</strong>, with the total population currently estimated at about 6,410 individuals. Populations occur along the Atlantic coast (a preliminary estimate of 3,350 birds in 2003<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>; 52% of the total), in the Great Plains (2,953 birds in 2001<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>; 46% of the total) and in the Great Lakes region (110 breeding birds in 2004<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>; 2% of the total). Totals in 1991 and 1996 respectively were 1,892 and 2,581 breeding birds on the Atlantic Coast, 2,744 and 3,284 in the Great Plains, and 32 and 48 in the Great Lakes. Extrapolating these data to a ten year period (the relevant trend period under the IUCN Red List criteria) for 1995-2005, these rates of change equate to a total population increase of 9.5% (using the 1996 data) to 32.6% (using the 1991 data), even though the 1996-2001 data indicate a slight decline of the Great Plains population. However, it must be noted that these increases are the result of sustained management initiatives, upon which populations remain dependent. Small numbers also nest on<strong> St Pierre and Miquelon (to France)</strong><sup>11</sup>. Less than 60% of birds are recorded in winter<strong><sup>3,7,8,9</sup></strong>, from the Carolinas, USA, to Tamaulipas (and patchily Yucat&aacute;n), <strong>Mexico</strong>, the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong> and <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong><sup>6</sup>, with records from <strong>Barbados</strong>, <strong>Haiti, Dominician Republic, Bermuda (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Virgin Islands (to USA)</strong>, and <strong>St Kitts and Nevis</strong><sup>2,7,10,11</sup>. Small numbers in Sonora, north-west Mexico, may represent regular winterers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144105	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests on sandy beaches, sandflats, barrier islands, alkali lakes, riverine sand/gravel bars, reservoirs, and sand/gravel pits<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. Ephemeral pools, bay tidal flats and areas of open vegetation are all important brood-rearing habitats<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There is high winter site fidelity<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> in sandy bays, lagoons, and algal-/mudflats<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144105	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Total population currently estimated at about 6,410 individuals; Atlantic coast: a preliminary estimate of 3,350 birds in 2003; 52% of the total (USFWS 2004); Great Plains (2,953 birds in 2001; 46% of the total; Ferland and Haig 2001); Great Lakes region (110 breeding birds in 2004; 2% of the total; Stucker (2004).  <br/></p>	eng
144105	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Drought, inappropriate water and beach management, gas/oil industry dredging operations, development, shoreline stabilisation and beach disturbance (including cat and dog predation) are key threats<strong><sup>4,8,14</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144106	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The three most important sites for this species are designated Ramsar sites and Important Bird Areas. Additionally, Sandwich Harbour is a national park and Lake Natron is a game controlled area.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Determine how resilient the species is to human modification of its habitat. Monitor trends to determine whether the global population is in decline. Protect the key sites for the species and prevent disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and damaging habitat degradation or modification at these sites.  <br/></p>	eng
144106	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius pallidus </em>has a disjunct distribution with two separate populations. The nominate subspecies occurs across southern Africa in <strong>Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, while subspecies <em>venustus</em> is restricted to the Rift Valley of East Africa in <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. The species has a large range. Its global population is estimated at 17,500 individuals. Simultaneous counts indicate that just three sites - Walvis Bay and Sandwich Harbour in Namibia, and Lake Natron in Tanzania - can hold 87% of the world population during non-breeding periods. Nine key sites have been identified, based upon counts between 1990 and 2001, which hold >1% of the global population and between them can hold the entire population during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Namibia, Walvis Bay has held approximately 7,700 individuals, Sandwich Harbour 5,000 individuals, Okondeka 300 individuals and Mile 4 has had 174 individuals counted. Elsewhere in southern Africa the Berg River saltpans in South Afica held 181 individuals and the Nata delta in Botswana has had 277 individuals. The East African population, thought to number 5,000-6,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, is concentrated in the northern Rift Valley with counts from Tanzania of 2,340 individuals at Lake Natron and 520 individuals at Lake Manyara, and 590 individuals at Lake Magadi in Kenya. <br/></p>	eng
144106	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species inhabits exclusively saline wetlands, both inland salt pans and soda lakes as well as coastal lagoons and estuaries. It is rarely found >50 m from the water's edge. There are regular movements within the two subspecies's ranges. It can aggregate into large flocks (>1,000 individuals). Breeding occurs at inland and coastal locations. Numbers at any given site (and perhaps in the global population) fluctuate from year to year, particularly in response to drought at inland breeding sites. Breeding may take place year round in the Rift Valley where the water-bodies it inhabits are permanent. The species has shown itself to be adaptable by colonising new areas and using man-made habitats such as salt ponds. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144106	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population has been estimated at 16,200-17,500 individuals (Simmons <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/></p>	eng
144106	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Two key sites face ongoing threats that may impact negatively upon the population. Walvis Bay on Namibia's central coast is the premier site for this species and also the site of Namibia's largest port, where pollution is a risk. The main threats include concentrations of fish oils and other detritus from ships. Siltation has also been a threat since a salt works was established at the southern end of the lagoon. These threats have the potential to reduce habitat quality. Lake Natron in Tanzania, despite its inhospitable climate and inaccessibility, may suffer reduced water input in future years for two reasons. First, an irrigation project on the Ewaso-Ngiro River was proposed in the 1990s which could also generate hydro-electric power. Secondly, there are more recent plans to expand operations for a soda-extraction plant along the south-western shores, threatening to use much of the water that would otherwise flow into the lake. Canoeing as a tourist activity has been introduced on some Rift Valley lakes within this species's range and may cause disturbance. <br/></p>	eng
144107	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Although some populations of this species are sedentary or only disperse short distances<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, most inland and northern coastal populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> are fully migratory and have distinct separate breeding and wintering ranges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species occupies its breeding grounds chiefly from March to October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, dispersing from late-June immediately after the young fledge, with the southward migration peaking in September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests solitarily or in loose semicolonial groups<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>, usually in densities of 0.5 to 20 pairs per hectare (exceptionally up to 100 pairs per hectare)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and sometimes in association with other species (e.g. Least Tern <em>Sterna antillarum</em>)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> the species feeds singly<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or in small flocks of 20-30 individuals<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, and occasionally in larger flocks of up to 260 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, often roosting in large mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>During all seasons the species is predominantly coastal<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and is usually found on sand, silt or dry mud surfaces<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, generally avoiding very exposed oceanic coastlines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and rocky or broken ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also shows a preference for sparsely vegetated and sandy areas when breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Typical habitats include sandy, pebbly or muddy shores<strong><sup>2, 3, 6</sup></strong>, dunes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal marshes (China)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, tropical shores of coral limestone<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, estuaries and tidal mudflats (Africa)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is uncommon on freshwater, even when migrating<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but frequently occurs on inland habitats not far from the coast such as seasonal watercourses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, open flats near brackish or saline lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, salt-pans<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, salty steppes with scattered grasses<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sandy deserts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, pebbly or muddy plains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, gravel pits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and less frequently sandy riverbanks (Africa)<strong><sup>2, 4, 6</sup></strong>, sandy pond margins<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and barren reservoir shores<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists mainly of insects and their larvae<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. beetles and flies)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, gammarids<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, crabs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, other crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and brine shrimps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, bivalve and univalve molluscs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, polychaete worms<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, spiders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and small pieces of seaweed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> positioned near water on bare earth or in sparse vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often on slightly raised ground<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and partly sheltered by plants<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or near conspicuous objects such as grass clumps or shrubs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests in semicolonial groups, with nests spaced between 2 and 5 m (western Paleartic)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or more than 20 m apart (up to 80 m)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Shallowly flooding a previously dry habitat at Owens Lake, California, was found to attract more breeding pairs to the area and had the effect of extending the nesting season by c.1 month<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. At Batiquitos Lagoon, California, creating new nesting areas from dredging spoils (e.g. coarse-grained sand and shell fragments) attracted more breeding pairs and non-breeding individuals, possibly because the new areas were covered with less debris and a smaller amount of tall vegetation than older sites<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma, there is evidence that nests adjacent to herbaceous and shrub vegetation suffer significantly lower losses to flooding but significantly higher losses to mammalian predation than those 500 or 1,000 m away<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. In the same area artificial nest ridges (made by ploughing) and nest mounds constructed from existing materials (gravel, sand and clay) were found not to reduce nest flooding<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Predator exclusion experiments from nesting areas using electric fences in the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and in Monterey Bay, California were unsuccessful in increasing the number of chicks fledged per male<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> or significantly reducing annual egg predation (this was probably still limited by avian predation)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, although in Monterey Bay the hatching success of nests within the exclosure did increase<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> and the overall nesting success was higher for breeding pairs within the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge exclosures<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. At Monterey Bay the predator exclosures were also not successful in increasing adult breeding numbers, and the mortality of incubating adults was actually higher within the enclosures than outside them<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. On beaches in Santa Barbara, California, erecting protective barriers to direct tourist foot-traffic away from sections of upper beach was found to decrease disturbance of the species by more than half and attracted increased numbers of breeding pairs, although the distribution of the species on the beach contracted to within the protected area<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144107	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the disturbance of coastal habitats (e.g. tourists trampling nests and disturbing roosts on beaches)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by the degradation and loss of wetland habitat through environmental pollution<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>, land reclamation<strong><sup>1, 10</sup></strong>, declining river flows<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong> (from water abstraction), unsustainable harvesting of benthic fauna<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>, urbanisation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and a reduction in the amount of sediment being carried into coastal areas by rivers<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144108	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is both sedentary and partially migratory, with some populations undertaking local seasonal movements<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. In southern and eastern Africa adults of coastal populations are sedentary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although they often move from exposed to sheltered shores in the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Inland populations in central and southern Africa are partially migratory and move to the east coast when rivers flood between December and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (in years of poor rainfall and little flooding these populations remain inland)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other populations also undergo local movements in relation to water levels<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season this species usually remains in pairs or small flocks<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, although it can be more gregarious, occasionally occurring in flocks of up to 375 individuals (Namibia)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs are generally solitary and territorial, although nests can be as close together as 16 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is diurnal but may forage during bright moonlit nights<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species shows a preference for sandy seashores and coastal dunes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but is often found on rocky shores, coastal and inland mudflats, salt-pans, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, saline and brackish lagoons, and offshore islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also occurs along sandy shores of large inland rivers and lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (both fresh water and alkaline)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, feeding on insects (such as sandflies, grasshoppers, termites, mosquito pupae and fairy shrimp larvae), gastropods, bivalves, bivalve siphons, crabs and other small crustaceans, isopods and worms<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in the sand<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> usually more than 70 m above the high water mark<strong><sup>7, 9</sup></strong>, on dunes, sandbars, and occasionally in quarries<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> or on roadside gravel<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144108	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss through wetland destruction and degradation<strong><sup>3, 6</sup></strong>. A considerable contraction of the species' inland range in Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique has already occurred due to altered river morphologies as a result of dam comstruction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; key wetland sites in southern Africa (for example Walvis Bay, Namibia) are being degraded through wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and changes in the flood regime due to road building<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; and Ghana wetlands are under threat from coastal erosion and proposed developments involving drainage and land reclamation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This species is also susceptible to nest disturbance by tourists and off-road vehicles due to its preference for nesting on coastal dunes (negative impacts on nestlings in such areas have been observed)<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144110	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius peronii</em> is a breeding resident in <strong>Vietnam</strong> (scarce in Cochinchina), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (rare), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (local and uncommon), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(scarce to locally common), East Malaysia, <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare), <strong>Brunei</strong> (apparently declining), <strong>Philippines </strong>(widespread but uncommon and suffering from substantial loss of range with human disturbance of its nesting beaches) and <strong>Indonesia </strong>(local around coasts and offshore islands of Sumatra, uncommon on and around Borneo and Bali, very rare on mainland Java; uncommon and sparsely distributed in the Lesser Sundas and the Sulawesi subregion). The global population is 10,000-25,000 individuals. The species is absent from some apparently suitable areas, perhaps for ecological reasons not yet understood, and there is growing concern that it is under pressure from the development and disturbance of coastal habitat. It frequents quiet sandy bays, coral sand beaches, open dunes and artificial sand-fills, where it lives in pairs, generally not mixing with other waders. <br/></p>	eng
144110	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated to be <10,000 individuals by Perennou <em> et al.</em> (1994), but BirdLife International (2001) noted that this may be an underestimate given the number of islands it inhabits. Therefore the population size is probably placed in the band 10,000-25,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144111	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius javanicus</em> is restricted to Java and the Kangean Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it<strong> </strong>occurs on sandy beaches, mudflats and adjacent open areas around the coasts. The taxonomic status of this species is extremely unclear and records attributable to it are therefore sparse; nevertheless, it was recently found common in southern Madura. While it may prove widespread, its population is likely to be small and declining due to human disturbance of coastal habitats within its limited and linear range. <br/></p>	eng
144116	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory, with four definable groups migrating on a broad front to different wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In central Siberia, flocks form in early July and depart for their winter quarters in early-August to early-September (adults leaving first), to arrive in India, south Arabia and East Africa in early-August to mid-September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations breeding in eastern Russia, Kamchatka, the Commander Islands and the Chukitsk Peninsula, winter from Taiwan to Australia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, leaving their breeding grounds late-July to early-September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population breeding in the Himalayas and southern Tibet winters in a range or areas from India to Sumatra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, returning to its breeding grounds between late-February to April (reaching them between mid-April and mid-May)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The fourth migratory group of this species breeds in eastern Tibet and winters from Thailand to the Greater Sundas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Many non-breeding birds may also stay in their winter quarters all year round<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species may occur singly or in flocks of up to 100 or more, but nesting pairs are solitary and territorial during the breeding season<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>This species is mainly diurnal but sometimes forages on moonlit nights<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species mainly occurs above the tree-line on mountains at altitudes of up to 5,500 m in the Himalayas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(Ladakh, Sikkim, and Tibet)<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It inhabits barren valleys and basins in elevated tundra and mountain steppe, mainly near water (bogs) on moist but well-drained gravelly, rocky or sandy surfaces with sparse vegetation such as salt-pans, patches of detritus, dry edges of salt-marshes and places used by herds of cattle<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Siberia and the Commander (Komandorskiye) Islands the species also occurs at sea-level, here inhabiting sand dunes and shingle along the coast<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species is almost strictly coastal during the non-breeding season, preferring sandy beaches, mudflats of coastal bays and estuaries, sand-flats and dunes near the coast<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, occasionally frequenting mangrove mudflats (in Australia)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and feeding on exposed coral reefs (Solomon Islands, Pacific)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Very rarely the species also frequents coastal airfields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and during migration it may be seen on the shores of inland lakes (e.g. the East African Great Lakes)<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong> and rivers, or on cultivated land<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong><em>Breeding</em> The breeding diet of this species includes many beetles, weevils, fly larvae, stalk worms and crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season this species takes insects, crustaceans (such as crabs and amphipods), molluscs (particularly bivalves) and polycheate worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape in bare sand or shingle (nesting pairs may often utilise cattle footprints), sometimes beside bushes and big stones (or amongst lichens and <em>Drias</em> in the Far East)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144116	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss (e.g. agricultural developments reducing the area of coastal and inland habitats, and hydrological changes to estuaries modifying important areas of suitable habitat in Australia ), as well as disturbance from tourism<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144117	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is fully migratory, and is likely to migrate without stopping on a broad front between breeding and non-breeding areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Migratory flocks form after the end of breeding between mid-June and early-August, and arrive in the wintering grounds between mid-July and November (adults and immature birds arriving before juveniles)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Those birds wintering in South-East Asia start moving northwards to the breeding grounds in late-February (the migration peaking in March to early-April), arriving from mid-March to May; whereas those wintering in East Africa and southern Asia depart for breeding grounds from mid-April to early-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most non-adult wintering birds remain in the wintering areas during the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is typically gregarious, feeding in flocks of 2-50, and sometimes congregating in groups of up to 1,000 when roosting<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species is predominantly found in open, dry, treeless, uncultivated areas up to 3,000 m<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>, including dried mud, silt and clay flats, hard salt-pans overgrown with halophytic plants<strong><sup>5, 7</sup></strong>, and rocky plains near mountains in desert or semi-desert<strong><sup>1, 5, 6</sup></strong>. In Turkey the species frequents heavily grazed saline steppe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually breeds near water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but exceptionally it will nest up to 20 km away from it<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong><em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season this species shows a preference for littoral habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with mixed sand and mud substrata<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is found on sheltered sandy, shelly or muddy beaches, large intertidal mudflats, sandbanks, salt-marshes, estuaries, coral reefs, rocky islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, tidal lagoons<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and dunes near the coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it may sometimes feed on coastal grasslands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Whilst on migration the species will occasionally utilise inland habitats such as salt-lakes and brackish swamps, usually roosting on sandbanks and spits<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous: during the breeding season its diet consists mainly of terrestrial insects and their larvae (especially beetles, termites, midges and ants), and occasionally lizards<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>; whereas during the non-breeding season its diet contains mainly marine invertebrates such as molluscs (snails), worms and crustaceans (such as shrimps and crabs)<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> amongst sand-hills, gravel, or on other barren substrates<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144117	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding</em> In some parts of its breeding range this species is threatened by the destruction of wetlands and bordering fallow steppe through drainage and water extraction for irrigation (Turkey)<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss throughout its non-breeding range: in Australia agricultural developments are reducing the area of coastal and inland habitat, and hydrological changes to estuaries are modifying important intertidal areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; key wetland sites in southern Africa (for example Walvis Bay, Namibia) are being degraded through wetland reclamation for suburb and port development, and changes in the flood regime due to road building<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. One of the species' migratory staging areas in China (Chongming Island) is undergoing significant habitat loss and degradation through conversion to aquaculture ponds, farmlands and vegetable gardens, the cultivation of the alien plant <em>Spartina alterniflora</em> on tidal flats (promoting rapid sedimentation with the intention of reclaiming the area), and the Three Gorges Dam on the upper reaches of the Yangtze River reducing the supply of river-borne sediment to mudflats in the area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to disturbance from tourists in its non-breeding range<strong><sup>8, 9</sup></strong>, and commercial hunting (for sale at market or to restaurants) is a major threat in the area of Chongming Island, China<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144118	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It migrates to winter in African between August and October, and once within Africa moves south in a nomadic fashion following the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species departs from southern Africa in late-February to early March, and from East and south-east Africa in late-March to early-April, frequenting stop-over sites in Iran, Iraq, the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea (it over-flies this Middle Eastern region during the Autumn migration), arriving in the breeding grounds again from late-March to early-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On migration the species usually moves in flocks of 5-12 (and sometimes up to 30) individuals, and whilst over-wintering in Africa it moves in Nomadic flocks of 5-20 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When breeding this species may nest singly or in small loose colonies of 10-25 pairs spaced at least 50-60 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in desert and desert steppe near water amongst sparse shrub vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to about 800 m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is primarily associated with saline habitats such as salt-pans, saline soils subject to seasonal flooding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, inland saltmarshes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and alkali flats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species concentrates in flocks after breeding but whilst still in its breeding range on the banks of lakes, rivers, water-holes trampled by cattle<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and cultivated land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its non-breeding range (Africa) the species is often found far from water on recently burnt or heavily grazed grassland, dry floodplains, ploughed cultivated land, coastal dunes (Somalia)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, the dried mud of lake shores<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, salt-pans, saltmarshes,<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> airfields and golf courses (where it is attracted by insects on animal droppings)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During migration the species has been recorded on damp sandbanks and pebble beds along the Zambezi River, Zimbabwe<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is primarily carnivorous throughout both the breeding and non-breeding seasons. <em>Breeding</em> Whilst breeding the species takes mainly adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> such as beetles, ants, grasshoppers, bugs, caterpillars and flies, although it will occasionally take plant material (e.g. grass seeds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season beetles, termites, grasshoppers and small snails are the main contributors to this species diet, and it is often observed hunting for insects in town refuse heaps and cattle dung<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow scrape on open ground or amongst low vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144118	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to this species is the destruction of natural steppe and grassland though overgrazing and conversion to intensive agricultural practices, especially within the European (breeding) part of its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144120	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Pawnee National Grassland, Colorado, and Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana, are important reserves<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. It has been proposed for listing under the Federal Endangered Species Act<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Black-tailed prairie dog <em>Cynomys ludovicianus</em> has also been proposed, partly because it helps to maintain suitable habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The release of Black-footed Ferret in Mexico is helping with prairie dog colony protection<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Define Mexican breeding and winter distribution<sup>2. Monitor USA and Canadian populations. Research movements of birds2. Protect prairie dog colonies, especially at Janos2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144120	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charadrius montanus</em> breeds in south Alberta and south-west Saskatchewan, <strong>Canada</strong>, east-central Montana, Wyoming, south-west Nebraska, east Colorado, south-west Kansas, New Mexico and the Oklahoma panhandle, <strong>USA</strong><sup>5</sup>. It has bred in Texas, east Utah<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and once in eastern Arizona<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. All these birds winter in Sacramento, San Joaquin and Imperial valleys, California<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, south to Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>15</sup>, and irregularly in south Arizona and south Texas in the Blackland prairie<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. Abundant in the 19th century, it declined to 8,000-9,000 birds in 1995, including a 63% decrease in 1966-1991<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but the population is now estimated at between 11,000 and 14,000 individuals<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Breeding was first successful in Nuevo Le&oacute;n, Mexico, in 2004<strong><sup>20</sup></strong> following an unsuccessful attempt in 1998<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>; and in Coahuila in 1999<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. These and/or northern birds regularly winter at Janos in Chihuahua<strong><sup>2,12</sup></strong>, with others reported from Sonora to Tamaulipas south to Zacatecas and San Luis Potos&iacute;<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144120	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in heavily grazed, shortgrass prairie, xeric scrub and fallow fields, typically on prairie dog <em>Cynomys</em> spp. colonies<strong><sup>5,8,10</sup></strong>. It arrives in Canada and northern USA in late March-April and leaves in early August<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is a dietary generalist in winter<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> when it inhabits semi-desert, dry, bare agricultural land and (in Mexico) breeding-type habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the Imperial Valley (California) wintering flocks show a preference for burnt Bermudagrass fields and grazed alfalfa<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It flocks in winter and on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144120	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population estimate has recently been revised upwards to 11,000-14,000 individuals (Plumb <em>et al</em>. 2005, Morrison <em>et al</em>. in prep), but could even be as many as 20,000 individuals when outlying populations are included (V. Dreitz <em>in litt. </em>2007).  <br/></p>	eng
144120	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hunting probably explains the long-term decline. More recently, cultivation and urbanisation have reduced nesting habitat, and intensive grazing has resulted in desertification and a reduced prey base<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Large declines in grazing species, especially bison and prairie dogs, have resulted in unsuitable habitat succession<strong><sup>8,13</sup></strong>. Over 70% of nests on cultivated land are destroyed by farm machinery<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144122	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thinornis rubricollis</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong> and is found in Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland (vagrant), Tasmania and nearby islands. The eastern subspecies <em>rubricollis</em> is restricted to the coastline and numbers 4,500 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its range has contracted in Queensland and New South Wales, and numbers are believed to be declining. These declines are probably driven by low reproductive success<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The western subspecies <em>tregellasi</em> breeds on the coast and on inland lakes and numbers 6,000 birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This population may be stable, although a biased sex-ratio may occur there<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The reason for the range contraction is unclear but coincides with the expansion in range of Beach Thick-knee <em>Burhinus neglectus</em> over part of the same area. On the mainland, fox, cat and dog predation is considered the most significant threat. Around human settlements, artificially high numbers of Silver Gull <em>Larus novaehollandiae</em> and Raven <em>Corvus</em> spp. are responsible for an increasing number of predation events. Human disturbance increases the likelihood of predation and thermal stress<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Oil spills represent an additional threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding success is affected by off-road vehicles, livestock and ill-considered beach erosion management<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Birds remain relatively secure on islands. Significant research is occurring into the management of this species<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144122	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The numbers of mature individuals are 3,000 <em>rubricollis</em> and 4,000 <em>tregellasi </em>(Garnett and Crowley (2000).   <br/></p>	eng
144123	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The population on South East Island is monitored annually, and research is ongoing. Two captive populations are held to provide birds for translocations. Five releases were completed to Motuora Island between 1994 and 1998, totalling 71 individuals. Fifteen birds were released on Portland Island in 1998. In the 1998-1999 season, the first successful breeding occurred in the translocated populations, with two chicks fledging on Motuora Island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Implement measures to detect the arrival of predators on South East Island<sup>6. Continue the captive-breeding and release programme to Portland, and possibly to Motuora Islands2, with further sites proposed for establishment, including New Zealand12. Remove cats and weka from Pitt Island to allow expansion of Rangatira population, and protect Western Reef population12. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144123	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thinornis novaeseelandiae</em> is found on South East Island (= Rangatira) and Western Reef<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, though was once widespread around the coast of at least the South Island. Since 1937, the population has changed little from c.100-140 individuals, and 43 pairs. In 1998, the island supported c.123 birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Releases on islands off the North Island have resulted in a further two populations: two birds (in 2005, having declined from five in 1999 <br/>) on Motuora Island, Hauraki Gulf<strong><sup>10, 14</sup></strong>, and 80 birds (by 2005) at an undisclosed site off the east coast of the North Island<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Attempts to establish a population on Mangere Island are encouraging: two birds transferred in 2001 have bred for the last two seasons, with a further 15 birds released in January 2003<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A previously unknown population of 21 birds was recently discovered on a reef in the Chatham Island group<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144123	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On South East Island, it nests on rock wave-platforms and salt meadows. It feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs and invertebrates<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It lays two to three eggs in a nest set under dense vegetation or boulders, either on the shore or further inland<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. In the wild, breeding begins in the second or third year. In 1986, the average age of the population was six years<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144123	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total mature population is about 200-220 birds, but the effective population is 156-166 birds (78-83 pairs), because the species is still limited by breeding habitat (S, O'Connor <em>in litt</em>. 2008; C. Miskelly <em>in litt</em>. 2008; J. E. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2008). <br/></p>	eng
144123	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Cats and brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> probably caused its extinction from the South Island<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The removal of sheep from South East Island in 1961 has resulted in loss of breeding habitat on the southern coast as previously grazed marsh-turf has reverted to forest. Other threats include fire, expansion of fur seal <em>Arctocephalus forsteri </em>colonies, disease, large seas and storms and predation by Brown Skua <em>Catharacta skua<strong><sup>6</sup></strong></em>. Losses from translocated populations have largely been the result of dispersal to the mainland (where they are quickly killed by predators) and predation by Morepork <em>Ninox novaeseelandiae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
144125	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and travels non-stop on a broad front across Europe, staging first at a number of traditional sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It departs from its breeding grounds from August to September, the return migration in the spring beginning in late-February or March<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May to August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary well-dispersed pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although where suitable habitat is restricted it may also breed in loose groups of 2-5 pairs and adults may roost communally at night<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species migrates in small parties<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> commonly of 3-6 individuals (occasionally up to 20-80 individuals)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and it remains gregarious throughout the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on flat open uplands, on mountain ridges and plateaus with sparse vegetation, and on coastal and inland Arctic tundra of moss, short grass or lichen and bare patches of rock<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species stages in exposed areas with short vegetation, such as heathlands and fallow or ploughed fields, and during the winter its habitats include stony and shrubby steppe, semi-desert, ploughed farmland and the margins of cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of insects (e.g. beetles, adult and larval Diptera, larval Lepidoptera, grasshoppers, crickets, earwigs and ants), spiders, snails and earthworms, as well as plant matter such as leaves, seeds, berries and flowers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. of <em>Empetrum</em> spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground or in short vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a solitary nester but where suitable habitat is restricted it may also breed in loose groups of 2-5 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests are normally placed between 200 m and several kilometres apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144127	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species was shot for sport until 1940, when it became fully protected<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Research on the impact of predation and prey-switching is being undertaken. Predator control for Black Stilt <em>Himantopus novaezelandiae</em> protection benefits a small proportion of the population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Project River Recovery carries out habitat restoration and predator research in the McKenzie basin<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Model demographic data to determine population trends<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144127	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anarhynchus frontalis</em> breeds in Canterbury and Otago, South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is found in over 26 riverbeds, but is only common on 10. It winters mainly north of 38&#176;S in the North Island. In the last 40 years, population counts have varied between 3,000 and 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, probably reflecting the difficulty in surveying the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the current best estimate is 4,500-5,000 birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Analysis of wintering flocks indicates a slow decline over the last 40 years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, which is supported by preliminary results from a long-term demographic study<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144127	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds on braided riverbeds, and frequents sheltered estuaries and coasts over the non-breeding season. Nests are built within 250&#160;m of running water, and are usually hollows in bare shingle, lined with more than 100 small pebbles<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It lays two eggs. Young usually begin to breed at two or three years of age<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Mark-recapture of almost 2,400 birds indicates that many live past 10 years of age<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the average adult life expectancy is c.5.4 years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Diet comprises mostly mayflies and caddisflies, but is more general when rivers are in flood<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144127	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Riegen and Dowding (2003) <br/></p>	eng
144127	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Breeding habitat is deteriorating, primarily from the encroachment of weeds as hydroelectric schemes reduce seasonal flushing of riverbeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The extent of predation by stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> and cats has not been quantified, but is likely to be substantial. The recent illegal introduction of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease has resulted in the localised switching of some predators to a diet consisting of more birds. Predation by Kelp Gull <em>Larus dominicanus</em> may pose an increasing threat as it becomes more numerous in association with human activities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Increasing use of riverbeds for recreational purposes and floods are also threats<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144128	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phegornis mitchelli</em> is poorly known and perhaps naturally rare in the Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (from Ancash south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) through north <strong>Chile</strong> and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> to south-central Chile and south-central <strong>Argentina</strong>. It occurs in the puna zone on waterlogged mossy tundra and bogs with matted cushion-plant vegetation, especially <em>Distichia</em> bogs, with occasional records from gravel or grass on river plains and near lakes. It breeds at 2,850-5,000 m, and in the south of its range descends to 2,000 m in winter<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. The population has been estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals and declining<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but occupation of a harsh environment at high altitude suggests that it may be relatively secure (at least) in parts of its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144128	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Schlatter <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International (2002) estimated <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144131	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory<strong><sup>6, 10</sup></strong> and travel on a broad front out of Europe<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> although some breeding populations in more temperate regions are sedentary<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April to July<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> although pairs may also nest close together<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, even semi-colonially<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>, in optimal habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species may roost communally at night during both the breeding and non-breeding seasons<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and after breeding the species gathers in large flocks for migration<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong> and remains highly gregarious during the winter<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong> in flocks of several thousand<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species shows a preference for breeding on wet natural grasslands<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>, meadows and hay meadows<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> with short swards<strong><sup>7, 23</sup></strong> and patches of bare soil<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> at low altitudes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (less than 1,000 m)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It will also breed on grassy moors, swampy heaths<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong>, bogs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and arable fields<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>Non-</em> <em>breeding</em> During the winter the species utilises large open pastures for roosting<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and forages on damp grassland, irrigated land<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, stubble and ploughed fields<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, riverbanks, lake shores, fresh and saline marshes, drainage ditches, estuaries and mudflats (Africa)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (e.g. beetles, ants, Diptera, crickets<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, grasshoppers, dragonflies, mayflies, cicadas and Lepidoptera)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, spiders, snails<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, earthworms<strong><sup>6, 9</sup></strong>, frogs, small fish (Africa)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and seeds or other plant material (Africa)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape in short grass vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Short swards are the most profitable foraging habitat for the species<strong><sup>23</sup></strong> so the application of cattle-grazing<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, preferably intensively (e.g. > 1 cow per hectare), may be successful in increasing abundances of the species on grasslands<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. On coastal grazing saltmarsh however it may be desirable to exclude cattle from selected areas in the spring where the rate of grass growth is slow<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. In the UK it has been found that a mosaic of unflooded grassland, winter-flooded grassland and shallow pools may provide optimal conditions for this species to breed<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It has also been found that shallow pools on coastal grazing marshes should be maintained until the end of June, as the aquatic invertebrates contained within them can be an important part of this species's diet<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Another UK study found that the species shows a preference for feeding in rills (relict saltmarsh drainage channels) in coastal grazing marshes, especially those with many branches<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. It is possible to attract breeding pairs just by flooding rills during April and May to create water-margin habitats for feeding, rather than extensively flooding the land (i.e. marshes can therefore be managed to encourage lapwing breeding without preventing the grazing of cattle)<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. At Lower Lough Erne in Northern Ireland the species showed a preference for nesting in the spring on open areas created by cutting rush beds in mid-winter<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It is also known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective cages or fences around individual nests or nesting areas<strong><sup>21, 26</sup></strong>. The number of breeding pairs on improved grassland was successfully increased on a reserve in Wales by the implementation of a two-year rotation of chisel ploughing, as well as a seasonal sheep and cattle grazing regime and a controlled increase in the water-level<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144131	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species suffered past declines as a result of land-use intensification, wetland drainage and egg collecting<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Today it is threatened by reduced breeding productivity as a result of intensifying and changing agricultural practices<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, especially the improvement of grasslands (e.g. by drainage, inorganic fertilising and reseeding)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Clutch destruction may also occur during spring cultivation (using machinery) on arable fields<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and may suffer from nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <em>Erinaceus europeaus</em>) on some islands<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for commercial use (to be sold as food) and for recreational purposes in Iran<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and is hunted in France, Greece, Italy and Spain<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144132	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary, although it is known to move between permanent water bodies at the height of the dry season to temporary wetlands during the rains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and to make local movements in Rwanda dependent on water levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the dry season local aggregations can occur on flooded grasslands or at contracting waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (a concentration of nearly 100 birds was recorded from Kafue Flats, SW Zambia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but usually flocks are smaller and of between 10 and 40 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). When breeding however, the species disperses into single pairs on small territories<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; breeding appearing to occur all year round<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although laying dates are likely to be at or immediately following the peak of flooding<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (mainly December-March in central Africa and June-November in southern Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species prefers areas of stagnant water such as lakes, pools, ponds and canals, with floating vegetation (such as <em>Salvinia molesta</em>, <em>Typha latifolia</em>, <em>Ludwigia, Cyperus, Pistia, Leersia, Oryza, Panicum repens, Vossia, Wolfia</em>, <em>Azolla</em> and water-lilies <em>Nymphaea</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It can also be found on marshes, swamps, slow-flowing rivers, grass-covered floodplains, water meadows and flooded rice fields<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. The species is present on both eutrophic and oligotrophic waters up to 2,200 m in Kenya, but is not found on carbonate lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on the surface of floating vegetation rather like Jacanas (Jacanidae), supported by its long toes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but in the dry season it also feeds on exposed mud at the edges of ponds and small gravelly waterways<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic insects, maggot-like insect larvae, dragonfly nymphs, beetles, ants and small snails<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species varies with the habitat: it can be a shallow scrape in the mud up to 100 m from the water's edge, a shallow depression in short grass near water, a cup made from plant material on floating vegetation, or a 5-10 cm high platform of vegetation in swampy areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>.<strong>  <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144132	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144134	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1978, albeit probably rather too late to be of any influence. Several recent searches of historic and potential sites for this species have all drawn a blank but all potential sites have yet to be searched. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Tanjung Air needs surveying urgently, and other coastal wetlands and grasslands should be searched on Java and elsewhere in the Greater Sundas. Initiate immediate habitat protection in the event of its rediscovery.  <br/></p>	eng
144134	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Vanellus macropterus</em> is known with certainty only from the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabited marshes and river deltas in the west (on the north coast) and the east (on the south coast). A specimen and two eggs collected in the 19th century may have derived from Sumatra, and there is an unsubstantiated claim that it occurred on Timor (at least three specimens). It was described as local and uncommon, apparently only ever encountered in scattered pairs, and has not been recorded since 1940. The fact that it was reputedly impossible to overlook suggests very strongly that it is no longer present at any site studied in recent decades by ornithologists. However, there are areas that have not been recently surveyed and recent unconfirmed reports that require investigation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and recently translated observations from the 1920s suggest that its habitat requirements may have been less restricted than previously thought, perhaps providing some further hope for its continued existence<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144134	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabited "wide, steppe-like marshes" in river deltas, keeping to the least flooded areas during the rainy season. It also frequented damp pastures (including those grazed by buffalo) bordering marshes thickly covered in sedges and low aquatic vegetation, open areas near freshwater ponds, and was found in agricultural fields and rice paddy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurred in isolated pairs, often in rather large areas, suggesting that it must have been a naturally low-density species. It was probably resident. <br/></p>	eng
144134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny based on lack of records since 1940 and failure of recent surveys to locate this species. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
144134	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Its decline has been attributed to 'merciless' hunting and trapping. However, it seems far more likely that high levels of human disturbance and conversion of its habitat to aquaculture and agricultural land were the principal agents. The fact that it may have been a naturally low-density species could have exacerbated its susceptibility to extinction in the face of large-scale habitat loss and disturbance. <br/></p>	eng
144137	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and undertakes local movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in relation to seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and flooding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding usually peaks at the start of the local dry season but may occur in any month of the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, well-dispersed pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and usually forages singly or in pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although during the non-breeding season flocks of up to 100 individuals or more<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> congregate in good feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits dry<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, moist or marshy grasslands<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, mudflats<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, saltflats and flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> around freshwater or saline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> lagoons, lakes, dams, water-holes, rivers, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, saltpans and estuaries<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season flocks may also congregate around sewage farms<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the species often travels c.1-2 km from water to forage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on ploughed land, in fields amongst cattle<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in arable fields of vegetables and lucerne<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of molluscs, crustaceans, worms and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape or depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed on bare ground or in short grass very close to water<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary, territorial pairs with neighbouring nests spaced at least 400 m apart<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144137	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144138	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> African breeding populations are largely sedentary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but may make irregular local movements (e.g. to drier areas during the rains) although it does not appear to be very sensitive to seasonal changes in water-level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeders in the eastern Mediterranean region are fully migratory however and disperse south to Africa for the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests from March to September in West Africa and in the eastern Mediterranean region<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the timing of breeding varying geographically elsewhere<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests in solitary pairs or loose colonies and outside of the breeding season flocks of up to 15 (occasionally up to 200) individuals may occur<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species frequents dry ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> close to fresh or saline<strong><sup>2</sup> </strong>pools, lakes, rivers, lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> as well as burnt grassland, cultivated, flooded or irrigated fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. rice-paddies)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, saltflats by alkaline lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, mudflats, sandflats, beaches, dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coastal saltpans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, Diptera, midges, termites and ants)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as spiders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, centipedes, millipedes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally crustaceans, molluscs, small lizards, tadpoles, adult frogs, fish and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is placed in a shallow natural depressions in rock<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or is a shallow scrape on dry bare ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or on mudflats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144138	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has suffered from past declines as a result of the loss of natural and semi-natural saltmarsh habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is locally exposed to hunting pressures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144141	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratory, but it is likely to undertake limited local seasonal movements (large numbers appear north of Gondar, Ethiopia, during the rainy season)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is usually found in solitary pairs or small flocks, and outside of the breeding season it often occurs in parties of 30-40 birds<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, occasionally in larger flocks of more than 100 (Ficha Abbera, Bale Mountains, Ethiopia)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This species breeds in April (Bale Mountains) and in August in the Shoa region<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. It is a diurnally active<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat</strong> This species inhabits highland grassland<strong><sup> 2</sup></strong>, moorland with giant lobelia, giant heath, <em>Alchemilla</em> and tussock grass<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, marshes, damp meadows, streams and particularly cattle pastures (often occurs around domestic stock)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, generally between 1,800 m and 4,100 m above sea level<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is undescribed<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Only one nest of the species has been described: it was a shallow scrape in a patch of grass and moss, situated on a small rocky island in a shallow pool surrounding by giant lobelia moorland<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>.<strong>  <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144141	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although it is regarded as locally common, its very restricted range makes this species somwhat vulnerable<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It has recently been reported to be unevenly distributed in areas where it was once common, probably due to climatological changes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are no other threats recorded for this species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144144	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is essentially sedentary but during periods of flooding it leaves rivers and moves to drier ground or temporary lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is gregarious and can generally be found in groups of 6-12 birds, occasionally in flocks of up to 30<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or more on migration to less flooded areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs mainly during the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and at this time the species is highly territorial and is found in isolated pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In western and equatorial Africa breeding usually begins near the end of April, with exact dates varying with locallity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species inhabits large rivers with sandy riverbanks and islands or sandbanks mid-stream, both in open country and forest<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. During floods it is also found on small streams, pans and lagoons<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, and sometimes occurs on lake shores (e.g. Lake Kariba)<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> foraging for worms in damp grassy places<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> The species is mainly omnivorous, taking insects (including beetles, weevils, ants, mantids and mutillid wasps), worms, molluscs, crabs, other small crustaceans and small fish<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> or frogs<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>; very rarely taking vegetable matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a lined shallow scrape on sand or shingle in riverbeds at times of low water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144144	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened in South Africa by habitat degradation owing to decreasing river flows (resulting from afforestation, invasive plant species and increasing water abstraction)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144145	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant, sedentary in some areas but moving nomadically and opportunistically in others depending on rainfall and flood regimes (although there is no pattern of seasonal movements)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in all months of the year depending on locality and the timing of the rains<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. This species is more solitary than other lapwings, being found singly, in pairs or small groups even outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Occasionally larger flocks of between 20 and 60 individuals (Zambia)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> form in the non-breeding season in newly available habitats such as burnt grassland or temporary waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is diurnally active<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species demonstrates ecological plasticity, in some areas occupying the same habitat all year round, in others changing habitat seasonally and opportunistically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is mainly a lowland species, with the highest altitude of occurrence being 2,200 m in East Africa and Ethiopia<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Habitats frequented by this species include marshes, damp grass and muddy or sandy ground beside lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, inundated grassland, temporary pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and flooded rice fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, as well as drier habitats such as savanna, dry grassland, airports, cultivated land<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (ploughed land and dry, weedy, fallow fields)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, wastelands and burnt grassland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is omnivorous, its diet chiefly consisting of insects such as grasshoppers, locusts, beetles (including dung beetles and weevils)<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, crickets, termites and various aquatic insects, also worms, coarse grass leaves and grass seeds<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest of this species is a shallow depression situated in short grass, on bare ground or amongst weeds in fallow fields, frequently near roads or human settlements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and always within 100 m of water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Rwanda 3-4 pairs were recorded nesting close together in a small colony, but in South Africa pairs are highly territorial<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144145	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss in South Africa as a result of commercial afforestation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144146	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant that may undertake regular seasonal movements or more irregular movements related to the occurrence of brush fires<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some populations also remain largely sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in loosely colonial groups with several pairs scattered over a small area, the timing of breeding varying geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, usually foraging in flocks of 5-10 individuals and migrating in large flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits dry, open habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as lightly wooded savannas, open grassland with bushes and scrub, patches of burnt grass in <em>Accacia</em> spp. woodland and sparsely vegetated short grassland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It shows a strong preference for burnt grassland with newly sprouted grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> especially if this is in the vicinity of water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other habitats frequented include cultivated land, airfields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pastures<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and the margins of lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (especially beetles) and other small invertebrates as well as grass seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape or depression positioned on burnt ground with newly sprouting grass, on bare patches in grassland or on ploughed land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144147	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant; moving to lower altitudes (e.g. 1,500-2,000 m lower) for the winter in East Africa and South Africa, but remaining sedentary in Ethiopia<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It breeds between April and July in Ethiopia, between July and October in South Africa, and in all months of the year in Kenya and Tanzania (generally depending on the rains, although avoiding the wettest periods)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the breeding season the species is found in solitary pairs or small, loose colonies, but during the non-breeding season it gathers in flocks of up to 50 individuals, occasionally thousands, and possibly up to 10,000 prior to migration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This species is chiefly diurnal, but migrates at night as well as by day<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> This species breeds in short-sward grassland on highland plateau and mountain slopes, and at lower elevations on open plains, dry savanna (especially in areas with large wild or domestic ungulates and game animals), and burnt fields with newly grown grass<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>In winter the species is found mainly at lower altitudes, where it occurs on wastelands, cultivated and fallow fields, meadows, airfields, coastal flats<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and golf-courses<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of molluscs, earthworms, adult and larval insects (such as beetles and flies), and occasionally small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Its nest is a scrape in  recently burnt short-sward grassland or on bare or newly ploughed land<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144147	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss in South Africa as a result of commercial afforestation<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144148	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not strongly migratory but does make local dispersive movements related to habitat changes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It moves during the dry season to areas of recent brush fires to breed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and departs again for drier areas after breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> during the rainy season when the grass becomes too high<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds semi-colonially and occurs in loosely associated wide-ranging flocks of 10-40 individuals outside of the breeding season (occasionally up to 100-150 especially just after breeding season)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also form large communal roosting flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits dry, open, treeless or sparsely wooded habitats, and shows a strong preference for nesting amongst newly sprouted grass on recently burnt grasslands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It also frequents pastures, <em>Accacia</em> spp.<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> short grass savanna<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, open patches in bushveld or thornbush<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, mopane <em>Colophospermum</em> spp. shrublands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, cultivated land, fallow fields and artificial grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, avoiding areas where the grass greater than 60 mm tall<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species will tolerate desert conditions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and is occasionally observed on sand-dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and although it generally avoids moist ground it may form communal daytime roosts near the edges of or on islands in lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (e.g. termites, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and ants) and earthworms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape or depression in the ground placed amongst newly sprouted grass on recently burnt grasslands, often close to trees that provide shade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests semi-colonially, with neighbouring pairs usually spaced between 25 and 50 m part<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144149	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a transequatorial migrant, adults migrating to and from breeding grounds through eastern and central Zaire in November-December (returning in July-August with juveniles)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding is assumed to occur during the dry season (January-February in Nigeria and December-January in Zaire)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On migration and in its wintering grounds the species may occur in flocks of up to 30-50 individuals<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>, exceptionally being recorded in a flock of 100 in Rwanda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Throughout the breeding season this species is solitary and nesting pairs are territorial (although they may nest close together on newly burnt ground if this habitat is scarce)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is crepuscular and feeds at dawn and dusk, occasionally remaining active during bright moonlit nights<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species inhabits a wide variety of dry grassy habitats, including open savanna with <em>Accacia gerrardii</em> and <em>Dychrostachys cinerea</em> (in Rwanda), orchard-bush savanna (in Nigeria), recently burnt grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, football fields and lawns<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It often occurs near rivers and lakes on open, bare ground, and on migration in Zaire it occurs in cleared areas within forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, consuming mostly insects (beetles, ants, butterfly and fly larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, bugs, earwigs and termites), but also molluscs, worms and small crustaceans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, preferably positioned in recently burnt grassland (where the nest is safe from new fires)<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. Nests may also be positioned in close proximity to water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in grassy or orchard-bush savanna, and sometimes also near buildings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144150	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. An international species action plan was published in 2004. It is legally protected in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan, but this is generally not enforced<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. An intensive research project at the breeding sites in central Kazakhstan has been running since 2004, and includes surveys in north and east Kazakhstan<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. A survey of historical breeding sites in the South Urals was conducted in 2005<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and another at passage sites in south-west Russia was carried out in 2006<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Coordinated counts were undertaken at key passage/wintering sites in Syria and Turkey in March 2007<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Satellite-tags have been placed on birds in central Kazahstan, one of which was tracked to Turkey in October 2007<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue research in Kazakhstan (and initiate in Russia) on breeding biology, habitat requirements and migration, including colour-ringing and satellite tracking to determine movements. Continue surveys of breeding range in Kazakhstan, potential breeding range in Russia, and wintering/passage sites in Middle East and Africa (including determining periods when birds are present). Continue to monitor trends on breeding grounds and at key passage/winter sites. Identify and evaluate key threats on breeding, passage and wintering grounds. Investigate the importance of hunting on passage/wintering grounds. Review International Species Action Plan in the light of recent research on the breeding grounds and identification of key passage/wintering sites. Develop national species action plans, at least for Kazakhstan and key passage/wintering countries. At breeding colonies sensitive to trampling by sheep during nesting period, work with local shepherds to minimise disturbance. Control hunting on wintering/passage sites.	eng
144150	distribution		<em>Vanellus gregarius</em> breeds in northern and central <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and south-central <strong>Russia</strong>, dispersing through <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Turkey </strong>and<strong> Egypt</strong>, to key wintering sites in <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong> (see below) and north-west <strong>India </strong>(e.g. 45 birds in the Little Rann of Kutch in November 2007 <strong><sup>17</sup></strong> and 30 at Great Rann of Kutch in November 2008<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>). Birds winter occasionally in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka, Oman </strong>and<strong> UAE</strong>. The species has suffered a very rapid decline and range contraction. In northern Kazakhstan, a decline of 40% during 1930-1960, was followed by a further halving of numbers during 1960-1987. Recent fieldwork has shown the population to be larger than once feared. Surveys in 2006 in Kazakhstan counted 376 breeding pairs in an area of 145,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolating this population density across the breeding range yields a possible total population size of 5,600 breeding pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, i.e. 11,200 mature individuals; but work is continuing in order to refine this estimate. A satellite-tagged bird from central Kazakhstan was located in Turkey in October 2007 in a flock of 3,200 individuals<strong><sup>13,22</sup></strong>, even larger than the total of simultaneous counts of over 1,500, maybe as high as 2,000, in northern Syria and 1,000 individuals in south-eastern Turkey in March 2007<strong><sup>1,16,24</sup></strong>. Two tagged birds were then tracked to wintering quarters in Sudan in February 2008<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, indicating that the sites in the Middle East are used for stopping over en route to Africa. Two further individuals, including one in far eastern Kazakhstan, were tagged in 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
144150	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is migratory<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. It breeds semi-colonially in small groups of 3-20 pairs<strong><sup>19</sup></strong> from mid-April until July, and begins the migration south in August or September<strong><sup>19</sup></strong> (occasionally as late as October<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>). Flocks of several thousand birds have been known to gather before migration in Siberia and Kazakhstan<strong><sup>13,20</sup></strong>, but migration itself usually occurs in small groups of 15-20 birds<strong><sup>19,20</sup></strong>. In Syria, it arrives yearly around mid-February to late March, and again in Autumn<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. It arrives on its wintering grounds in India and Pakistan by September-October, and in Sudan by late October<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Small flocks of similar size to those observed on migration are usual on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, although very occasionally larger flocks of over 100 birds have been recorded<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. It departs the wintering grounds in March or early April, arriving on its breeding range from mid April<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds mainly in the transition zones between <em>Stipa</em> and <em>Artemisia</em> grassland steppes where bare saline areas occur near water-bodies. It uses dry wasteland, cultivated, ploughed and stubble fields<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Nests are preferentially placed in areas of <em>Artemisia</em> where there is a high dung abundance and vegetation is short<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Steppes that are densely vegetated may be avoided<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, however areas with a low percentage of bare ground and high percentage of tall vegetation are preferred by chicks, and may be important for providing cover from predators<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has been postulated that it evolved to nest in habitats created by migratory saiga <em>Saiga tatarica</em><sup>e.g. <strong>9</strong></sup>, but this is unlikely given the timing of Saiga movements relative to Sociable Lapwing breeding, the speed with which they pass through areas, and the very short swards favoured by the birds; nevertheless Saiga grazing combined with fires may have promoted optimal habitat<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Suitable habitat probably occurred naturally in sparsely vegetated <em>solonchaks </em>and areas recently burnt by steppe fires, but are now most abundant in the periphery of villages, at least in central Kazakhstan<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Around such villages, there is a strong positive correlation between grazing intensity and the density of nests<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>On migration it uses mainly sandy plains with short grass, dry meadows, fallow land and cultivated fields<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. The wintering grounds are burnt steppe and savannah, dry plains, sandy wastes, harvested millet fields, damp pastures and short grass areas, often adjacent to water<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. In Arabia it often occurs in the desert near the coast<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds chiefly on insects including Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and moth larvae<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. It also takes arachnids and frequently small amounts of plant matter including grains, leaves and flowers<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Small stones are often found in the stomach, occasionally along with the remains of small vertebrate bones and mollusc shells<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. The diet is more varied during the breeding season, being limited mainly to orthopterans and other insects during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape that is unlined or lined with plant material, pebbles and debris<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. It is usually found on bare saline patches or in short vegetation near to water<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Nest survival during the egg stage varies between years, owing to varying levels of predation by fox <em>Vulpes vulpes</em>, polecat, long-eared hedgehog and souslik species, and trampling by cattle, and in particular, sheep and goats<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144150	population		Surveys in 2006 in Kazakhstan estimated 376 breeding pairs in an area of 145,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Extrapolating this  population density across the breeding range yields a possible total population size of 5,600 breeding pairs (Sheldon <em>et al.</em> 2006), i.e. 11,200 mature individuals; but work is continuing in order to refine this estimate. This total is consistent with record counts of 3,200 individuals in Turkey in October 2007 (Anon. 2007).	eng
144151	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory in central Asia although there are some sedentary populations in the Middle East<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (parts of Iraq and Iran)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Migratory populations breed in Russia between mid-April to May and depart on a broad front for winter quarters in north-east Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan and northern India<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> between mid-July and September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, (although individuals occasionally winter in Russia), returning to breeding grounds during March and April<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This species often breeds in loose colonies of between 4 and 24 pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, sometimes up to as many as 100 pairs (Iraq)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season this species occurs singly, in pairs or small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with small migratory flocks of between 1-6 individuals and wintering flocks of 6-25 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>This species is diurnal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for habitats in the vicinity of shallow standing or slow-flowing water with suitable smooth beds permitting unhampered walking and wading<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>In Russia this species breeds in damp, vegetated areas near salt or fresh water, and on small vegetated islets or swampy shores of brackish lakes<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter this species prefers rivers, drainage ditches, ponds, jheels (India), coastal lagoons, marshes<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> and flooded or recently dried out grassland<strong><sup>, 5</sup></strong>. It also occurs on salt-shrub terrain with low, sparse vegetation, on shallow seepage pools by canals and reservoirs, and on irrigated rice fields<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During this season the species also occurs on dry ground near water such as river banks and lake shores<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, but avoids dry, open country<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although it has been known to roost on dry ploughed fields (Pakistan)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has also been recorded feeding in a stream of sewage effluent in Sudan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting mainly of insects (especially beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, fly larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and locusts<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), but also worms, molluscs and crustaceans (including freshwater shrimps)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The nests of this species are shallow scrapes in the open, usually near water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Few observations of nesting sites are available, but one was found on an irrigated but uncultivated field covered with grass, another was observed on a dry ridge near a marsh<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144151	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The loss of wetland habitats in Mesopotamia owing to drainage, and wetland destruction in Iraq (two of the core breeding and wintering areas) poses a threat to this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144155	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Many individuals migrate southwards between August and November and return northwards between March and April, although over much of its range the species is present in fluctuating numbers throughout the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds from April to August in dense colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, nesting in burrows set close together<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in sandy islets or dunes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually feeds singly or in loose groups, flocks occasionally foraging together on mudflats or in shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and gathering at communal high-tide roost sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most of the species's activities occur in the early morning and late afternoon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits sandy coastlines and islands, intertidal sandflats and mudflats, estuaries, lagoons and exposed coral reefs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, specifically requiring sandy islands or extensive dunes up to 1 km inland in which to excavate nesting burrows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of crabs as well as other crustaceans, small molluscs and marine worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is an unlined chamber at the end of a burrow 100-250 cm long excavated into the sandy substrate<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of an island or extensive coastal dune system<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests colonially, with many burrows set close together in a honeycomb arrangement<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144155	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by future oil spills<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and the potential introduction of nest predators onto breeding islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The planting of mangrove stands over bare substrates in some areas may also reduce the availability of nest sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs and young of the species used to be collected from nesting colonies, a practice which may still occur<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144156	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary but does undertake local irregular nomadic movements in response to changes in riverine water levels<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. North of the equator the species breeds from January to April or May when the water levels in rivers are the lowest (the timing of breeding has not been recorded in the southern parts of species's range)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is usually observed in pairs or small groups when not breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, often migrating in flocks of up to 60 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits the middle stretches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of large lowland tropical rivers with bars of sand and gravel (which it uses for nesting)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It often occurs around human settlements near rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and may occasionally use other wetland habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. lakes or ponds)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and be found away from water when not breeding or when rivers are in spate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It generally avoids heavily forested areas and estuarine waters however<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (adult and larval aquatic and terrestrial forms but especially small flies) as well as worms, molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and seeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a deep scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> where the eggs are incubated by being buried in warm sand<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on an exposed sandbank in a riverbed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
144156	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat changes resulting from the damming of rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144160	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The local Yanaadi community have been employed to try to locate it. The Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and Sri Venkateswara National Park have been declared in the Lankamalai, Veliconda and Palakonda hill-ranges as a direct result of its rediscovery. The Telagu-Ganga canal that would have passed through one of these protected areas was realigned in response to lobbying that it would fragment habitat, but in 2005 unauthorised work began again on the canal. In February 2006, India's Central Empowerment Committee ruled in favour of a precise route for the canal that will entirely avoid courser habitat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and 1,200 ha of land was given in compensation to expand the Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 2008 a workshop was held to draft a Species Recovery Plan. The identified priorities included: ensure protection of the species' habitat; to map potential habitat of the species within scrub forest using remote sensing; to capture and radio-tag individuals; to increase effort to identify new sites that may host the species and to raise awareness of the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A final draft has now been submitted to the State Forestry Department and National Government for endorsement<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The development of tracking-strips and camera traps as a survey method should facilitate the discovery of other sites<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. Also, survey methods have been developed to conduct night-time listening surveys for identifying new populations and studying existing ones<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify areas of suitable habitat within its putative range and conduct surveys of these to establish its current distribution, population status, and assess potential threats. Carry out a radio-telemetry study to determine the ecological requirements of this species and enable more effective conservation recommendations to be formulated<sup>3</sup>. Make recommendations for its conservation based on survey findings, including the establishment of sites supporting populations as strictly protected areas. Lobby against quarrying and proposed mining activities that threaten existing habitat. Initiate conservation awareness programmes in and around areas supporting populations to minimise habitat alteration and disturbance.</strong>	eng
144160	distribution		<em>Rhinoptilus bitorquatus</em> is a rare and local endemic to the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh and extreme southern Madhya Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>. Historically, it was known from just a few records in the Pennar and Godavari river valleys and was assumed to be extinct until its rediscovery around Lankamalai in 1986. It has since been found at six further localities in the vicinity of the Lankamalai, Velikonda and Palakonda hill-ranges, southern Andhra Pradesh, with all localities probably holding birds from a single population, the majority of which are contained within the Sri Lankamaleswara WildLife Sanctuary. Two individuals were sighted in 2009 in the Cudaapah District of Andhra Pradesh, the first confirmed sightings for several years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144160	habitat		It inhabits sparse, thorny (dominated by <em>Acacia</em>, <em>Zizyphus</em> and <em>Carissa</em>) and non-thorny (dominated by <em>Cassia</em>, <em>Hardwickia</em>, <em>Dalbergia</em>, <em>Butea</em> and <em>Anogeissus</em>) scrub-forest and bushes, interspersed with patches of bare ground, in gently undulating, rocky foothills. Studies using tracking strips have revealed the species has a strong preference for certain densities of scrub-jungle habitat, favouring areas where the density of large bushes is 300-700/ha and small bushes occur at less than 1,000/ha <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It calls and is active mainly at night.	eng
144160	population		The population at known sites numbers at least eight individuals, but unsurveyed habitat may support 'hundreds' (R. Green in litt. 2002)	eng
144162	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is locally nomadic<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> although few details are known about its movements<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It nests in solitary pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> with breeding peaking in the dry season just before the rains (between August and December)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species occurs in pairs or small loose flocks of up to 10 individuals<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits open short-sward grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dry savannas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, fallow fields, overgrazed or burnt grasslands and pastures, bare or sparsely vegetated sandy or gravelly deserts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, stony areas dotted with small shrubs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of insects such as harvester termites <em>Hodotermes mossambicus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, larval Lepidoptera, beetles, weevils and ants<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but it will also occasionally take seeds<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The eggs are laid directly onto bare ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sometimes between grass tufts<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or on small cleared patches of soil ringed with pieces of dried plant material, animal droppings and small stones<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144162	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened in the south of its range by habitat degradation as a result of poor grazing practices<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and agricultural intensification (especially irrigation and the increased use of pesticides)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by disturbance from domestic livestock<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144165	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species are fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and many African populations are nomadic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests colonially in small groups of 10-20 or up to 100 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is highly gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>2, </sup>foraging in groups and regularly occurring in flocks of more than 1,000 individuals on migration<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species breeds on flat open areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with short or patchy vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as fields, steppe plains near water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> the margins of alkaline lakes and dried mudflats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in Eurasia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Africa it frequents ploughed fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, recently burnt open ground, overgrazed grassland, alkaline flats and sandflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually along the edges of larger rivers and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also forage over water, in rice-fields or in coastal scrubland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occurring along coasts, at reservoirs or desert oases on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of large insects (e.g. Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera and Isoptera), spiders and molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape or depression on the ground on dry mudflats and sandflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144165	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the use of herbicides and insecticides, and by changes to its preferred habitats (e.g. changes in water levels, ploughing of grasslands, artificial irrigation and fertilisation, changes in traditional grazing regimes, increasing urban encroachment and human disturbance)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144167	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. An action plan has been published for this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to clarify its population status and trends in Kazakhstan and Russia. Research the extent and causes of declines on breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Target promotion of low-disturbance agriculture around nesting colonies, and manage grazing and other disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Ensure development and implementation of appropriate regulations on pesticides and hunting in key range states<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144167	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Glareola nordmanni</em> has a very large range, breeding in <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine, Moldova</strong> and <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and sporadically in <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Hungary and</strong> <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>. It migrates to southern Africa, mainly <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe, South Africa</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>, and irregularly to West Africa. It is now rarely recorded in West Africa, possibly indicating a dwindling 'sub-population' of breeding birds from south-east Europe that once wintered in larger numbers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Some birds winter in Ethiopia, as the observation of 5,000 birds at river Baro in January 1973 indicates<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Passage birds are regularly recorded in <strong>Cyprus</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Kuwait, Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong>, <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, west <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, west <strong>Zambia</strong> and <strong>Angola</strong>. Non-breeding birds are also recorded in <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Lesotho</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan </strong>(rarely<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), <strong>Kyrgyzstan </strong>and <strong>Georgia</strong>. The population is estimated at 29,000-45,000 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, this seems to be an underestimate: a flock of 250,000-800,000 birds in Orange Free State, <strong>South Africa</strong>, in 1991<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and a flock of 76,500 birds at Vaal Dam, South Africa, in 2006<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> indicate that the population is substantially larger. Recently, declines have been reported from the South African wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The European population (2,500-5,100 pairs, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) declined by over 50% during 1990-2000, with steep declines in European Russia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Ukraine<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, there is evidence that the European estimate is too low as well. 2006 surveys of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Stavropolskii Krai, SE Russia found a total of 1,800 breeding pairs<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> in an area where only 100-200 pairs were estimated in 2004<strong><sup>6.</sup> <br/> <br/>The species no longer breeds in Romania. It is quite common in Kazakhstan, where numbers appear to have been stable in most areas over the last ten years<sup>5,9</sup></strong>, but anecdotal reports suggest the species may have declined recently. A 2006 survey of 31,500 km<sup>2</sup> in the Akmolinskaya oblast in Central Kazakhstan counted 1,200 pairs and estimated a population of 1,500 pairs at an overall density estimate of 4.7 pairs per 10 km<sup>2 <strong>11</strong></sup>. This area represents c. 1% of the species's known breeding range<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There are limited accurate data for the Asiatic Russian population, but available evidence suggests some declines. For Chelyabinsk oblast' (SE Ural steppes), 2,000 to 4,000 pairs were estimated in 1999 based on surveys over the whole oblast' territory (80,000 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, overall density was suggested to be 1.7 pairs per 10 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/> <br/>A count of 20,000 individuals in 2006 at Chagraiskoe reservoir, Manych, Stavropolskii Krai, SW Russia represents one of the largest flocks in recent times recorded outside the wintering range<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is clear that additional survey work visiting suitable habitat is required, especially in Kazakhstan and Asiatic Russia, but available evidence does not indicate that the global Pratincole population is small or declining rapidly.<em> <br/></p>	eng
144167	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species nests on the ground in large colonies from May to July in short-grass steppes, usually close to water, or - locally - in ploughed fields<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. A study on habitat selection in Central Kazakhstan in 2006 revealed presence of livestock, vegetation height and the availability of water as key habitat features<strong>, </strong>whereas vegetation type and topography were of no influence<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Birds gather to moult after breeding in July and August, and then apparently migrate rapidly at high altitude to non-breeding grounds, where they occupy grasslands, savannas, and sandbanks along large rivers<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. They feed on epigeic and airborne insects. Mortality of eggs and chicks may reach 60-100% annually<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, quantitative data from Kazakhstan indicate high fledging rates with 0.9 to 1.8 (average 1.2) fledged chicks per nesting pair<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144167	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Survey work in Kazakhstan and subsequent re-calculation of bird numbers across the known range of the species would suggest a world population of 68,000-90,000 pairs (Kamp <em>et al</em>. in prep.). This upward revision of breeding numbers is reasonable given the large flocks recently reported on the wintering grounds, e.g. a flock of 76,000 individuals recorded at Vaal Dam in South Africa on the wintering grounds (University of Cape Town 2006).  An  even larger  flock of 250,000-800,000 individuals in Orange Free State in South Africa in 1991 (du Plessis 1995) suggests the population may be (or might have been) even larger. <br/></p>	eng
144167	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats are poorly understood. Where declines are occurring the key factors probably relate to changing land-use practices such as conversion of steppe to arable agriculture in some areas, shifts in arable land versus livestock grazing on semi-natural steppe in others, and agricultural operations, such as harrowing. In some areas, predation by corvids may affect breeding success. In the wintering grounds, agricultural practices and grassland degradation may have reduced the area of available habitat. <br/></p>	eng
144168	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is found in many protected areas across Madagascar. No species-specific conservation action is in place. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Investigate the species's population size and trend, and possible threats.  Determine the species wintering range in E. Africa and the possible threats in this environment. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	Madagascar Pratincole <em>Glareola ocularis</em> is a migratory species breeding in <strong>Madagascar</strong> where it is found in groups of 10-50 in a variety of habitats across most of Madagsacar except the extreme south-west<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It appears to be more resident in eastern Madagascar which probably constitutes its main breeding range, whereas on the west coast it is most often observed as a migrant<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It migrates to E. Africa during the austral winter (May-August)<strong><sup>1,2  </sup></strong>where it is mainly found near the coast between Somalia and Mozambique, although large numbers have sometimes been recorded from inland sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Several wintering sites are very important, holding several thousand birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> whereas only two sites are known on Madagascar holding more than 100 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  Its population is small, recently estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals, and to be declining. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144168	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is known to breed in loose colonies on rocky islets in rivers, saltmarsh and coastal rocky areas. It is also found in short grasslands and on lake edges. Its prey are invertebrates, often caught on the wing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Wetland areas such as river mouths and lakes are important wintering sites. <br/></p>	eng
144168	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's population was recently estimated to number 5,000-10,000 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
144168	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species may be threatened by anthropogenic modification of its habitat, especially its breeding areas on the east coast. Changes to aquatic ecosystems in Madagascar may represent one of the biggest threats to this species survival. <br/></p>	eng
144169	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a intra-African migrant<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>, undertaking post-breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> seasonal movements in relation to water level changes (departing when an area becomes flooded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and arriving when bare rocks are exposed by drought<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). It breeds during the dry season<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in small, loose colonies of up to 26 pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, and often with many attendant non-breeders<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is strongly gregarious even when not breeding<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and is commonly found in groups of 2-10<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sometimes gathering in flocks of more than 100 individuals prior to migration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It is mainly crepuscular, foraging on the wing at dawn and dusk<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species shows a preference for exposed emergent rocks in large rivers and streams<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, sometimes also frequenting mud and sandbars by lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, dams and ponds on migration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. When rivers flood it may move to coastal areas, or other inland waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is insectivorous, its diet consisting chiefly of flies (including tsetse flies <em>Glossina</em>), ants, beetles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, moths, grasshoppers, leaf cicadas and termite alates<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> Eggs are laid directly into shallow depressions, cracks, and on the flat tops of bare rocks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> surrounded by deep and sometimes fast-flowing water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or on rock ledges and under overhangings<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Most nests are found within a metre or two of the water level<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144169	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by dam construction<strong><sup>4, 5, 7 </sup></strong>as it is vulnerable to the fluctuating water levels of dammed rivers, and the loss of suitable habitat through the creation of lakes<strong><sup>1, 4, 5, 6, 7</sup></strong>. Destruction of the species' riverine rocky habitat has occurred in southern Africa through extensive siltation of the southeastern lowveld rivers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Nestlings and eggs may be gathered for human use from breeding areas along the Zambezi River<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144170	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant, dispersing during the rainy season to Lake Chad, small rivers and coastal estuaries when rivers flood<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It breeds during the dry season in loose colonies, with nests a few metres apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is very gregarious when not breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages on the wing during the evening over water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, grassland or woodland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species shows a preference for the sandbanks of large slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and lakes in both forested and open country<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but also frequents reservoirs and coastal habitats (occasionally mangroves and estuaries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) in times of river flooding or high water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is insectivorous, its diet consisting of flies, beetles, small grasshoppers and spiders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape in the sand of a sandbar or on shingle<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, usually within 100 m of water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144170	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat destruction through the building of dams (the creation of Lake Volta in Ghana removed much suitable habitat and caused an exodus of the species from the country)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also subject to human disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 16000-16000 breeding pairs, equating to 48000-48000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
144178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 20000-50000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000-150000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 250000-3000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144179	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 40000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 120000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-10000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000-78000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000-234000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 150000-5000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rynchops flavirostris</em> is widespread in <strong>sub-Saharan Africa</strong>, but is largely confined when breeding to large, dry sandbars in broad rivers and some lakes, below 1,800 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is less restricted in the non-breeding season, dispersing to rivers, lakes and coasts in countries as widespread as Egypt, Gambia and Botswana. Large concentrations (including breeding birds) occur along the Zambezi River<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, e.g. 1,428 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and non-breeding flocks of at least 1,000 individuals have been recorded in Tanzania and Kenya. The population is estimated to number 15,000-25,000 birds (with 7,000-13,000 in West and Central Africa and 8,000-12,000 in East and South Africa)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and the species is thought to be declining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Dam-building has flooded some upstream areas and reduced downstream flows, destroying suitable habitat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Farming practices have also caused siltation of many rivers, raising river levels and swamping breeding islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Egg-collecting, trapping of adults and general disturbance by humans, cattle and recently increased boat traffic can be serious problems in some areas<strong><sup>1,2,5,7</sup></strong>. Food supplies may have been reduced by pollution, overfishing and introduced predatory fish, but it is unclear whether this has affected its prey of small fry (fish)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Large-scale spraying of DDT and general water pollution may result in toxic bioaccumulation of pollutants in these piscivores<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Information is needed to clarify population status and trends by monitoring breeding populations annually and assessing breeding success. The species would benefit from public awareness of its conservation needs, both through ecotourism to areas such as the Okavango delta, and through local grassroots environmental education<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144182	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are 7,000-13,000 in West and Central Africa and 8,000-12,000 in East Africa and South Africa (T. Dodman 2002 <em>in litt</em>. to Wetlands International 2002), giving a total of 15,000-25,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144183	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in National Chambal Sanctuary, India. Active management has reduced key threats at some wetland sites.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in Myanmar, Bangladesh and Cambodia to clarify its current distribution and status. Organise a population census in India and Pakistan during the breeding season. Conduct detailed research into seasonal movements of non-resident populations. Campaign for strict protection of the National Chambal Sanctuary. Promote active management of static wetlands used as feeding areas. Promote strict control of pesticide use near important sites. Reduce threats at important breeding colonies. Campaign for increased representation of large waterways in protected-area systems. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144183	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rynchops albicollis</em> is confined to <strong>Pakistan</strong> and <strong>India,</strong> north of c.16&#176;N, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, where a large proportion of the population winters, principally in the Padma-Meghna delta and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It is a rare visitor to <strong>Nepal</strong>. It was formerly widely distributed across the Indian subcontinent, along the major rivers of Myanmar and along the Mekong in Indo-China. It was common in the 19th century in Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, but there are few recent records from Myanmar, where it is presumed to be declining, and none from Laos, Cambodia or Vietnam. It has declined in India and Pakistan. Its population is estimated at 6,000-10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144183	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent marshes and, in the non-breeding season, estuaries and coasts. It breeds colonially on large, exposed sand-bars and islands.</p>	eng
144183	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be 10,000 individuals by Perennou <em>et al</em>. (1994), but BirdLife International (2001) considered that it may well have fallen below this level given the evidence of declines throughout its range. 5,542 were recorded in Asian Waterbird Census 2001 (Li and Mundkur 2004). S. Balachandran <em>in litt.</em> 2005 to Wetlands International 2006) estimated the Indian population to be 2,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144183	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline is attributable to widespread increases in human disturbance, exploitation and degradation of rivers and lakes through fishing, transportation, domestic use, and pollution from agricultural and industrial chemicals. These factors have reduced reproductive and foraging success. In India and Pakistan, construction of irrigation barrages on major rivers has led to increased encroachment on and disturbance of islands/sand-bars supporting breeding colonies, and conversion of these areas for cultivation. Water release from dams and seasonal floods can destroy breeding colonies. Encroachment of vegetation, especially water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, is an increasing problem at lakes and reservoirs. <br/></p>	eng
144184	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is known from colonies around the coasts of southern Chile and Argentina, Tierra de Fuego, and the Falklands Islands (to UK). Colonies are numerous along the South American coast, but tend to be very small, rarely exceeding 200 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1996). In Argentina, the total population has been estimated at c.700 pairs. On the Falklands, there are 3,000-6,000 pairs which are widely distributed in small colonies (Woods and Woods 1997).	eng
144184	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Cats, rats, mink Mustela vison and Patagonian fox Dusicyan culpaeus have been introduced to the Falklands, but their effect on L. scoresbii is not known (Croxall et al. 1984). Habitat destruction and modification due to introduced rabbits and stock may have had some effect on the distribution on the species. Chiloe Island, an important breeding site for the species in Chile, is heavily populated and many aquaculture farms have been established inshore and along shorelines (Duffy et al. 1984).	eng
144185	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. The subspecies pacificus breeds in Tasmania, on many Bass Strait islands and westward along the Victorian coast from Wilson's Promontory to the South Australian border. The subspecies georgii is found on the coasts of south-western Western Australia and western South Australia. Its range has expanded in recent years northwards along the Western Australian coast.	eng
144185	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	As with other coastal species, L. pacificus is prone to disturbance both while breeding and feeding. Most nest sites are protected, however, by their inaccessibility, and the species has proved adaptable in exploiting new food sources provided by urbanisation (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
144187	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I. The Isla Embudo, Bermeja and Trinidad Reserve protects the Bah&iacute;a Blanca estuary colonies, but this is not enforced and the surrounding intertidal mudflats used for foraging are not included<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Isla Gama colony was within the Bah&iacute;a San Blas Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In winter, it has been recorded in numerous reserves<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for additional breeding colonies. Monitor the population<sup>6. Enlarge the Bah&iacute;a San Blas Reserve to include Islote Colina de los Riachos6,7. Enlarge the Isla Embudo, Bermeja and Trinidad Reserve to include surrounding mudflats6. Designate reserves to protect colonies in Chubut6,7. Integrate management plans and actions through formal cooperative programmes7. Work with oil companies and governments to improve and enforce anti-pollution regulations7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144187	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Larus atlanticus</em> breeds on the coast of <strong>Argentina</strong> between 39&#176;12' and 45&#176;11'S<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There are eight colonies in the Bah&iacute;a Blanca estuary and Bah&iacute;a Anegada, south Buenos Aires, and Bah&iacute;a Melo and Caleta Malaspina, north of Golfo San Jorge, Chubut<strong><sup>6,7,9</sup></strong>. The Bah&iacute;a Blanca estuary holds a very high proportion of the breeding population. In winter, the species disperses north, reaching <strong>Uruguay</strong><sup>1</sup> and <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>3</sup>, with late breeding season records south to Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego and one inland in C&oacute;rdoba<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The population is estimated to be c.7,000 mature individuals (c.10,500 individuals in total)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144187	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It breeds on flat, sandy islands just above the water-level, and frequents beaches, rocky coasts, harbours, coastal and brackish lagoons and estuaries. Eggs are laid in September-October and chicks fledge in November. The diet is thought to consist mainly of crabs in the breeding season, but it has generalist feeding habits (at least) in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144187	population	BirdLife International, 2008	2,806 nests (8418 individuals) were recorded in the Isla del Puerto colony in 2003 (Petracci <em>et al.</em> 2004). P. M. Yorio <em>in litt. </em>2005 to Wetlands International 2006) estimated 3,500 pairs in total (equating to 7,000 mature individuals and 10,500 individuals in total). <br/></p>	eng
144187	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Bah&iacute;a Blanca estuary is subject to intense human pressure from urban development, industry, agriculture, recreation, fishing, and pollution<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Two colonies have been abandoned: Pen&iacute;nsula Verde/Caleta Brightman has been highly modified by development and Isla Gama has farming and ranching activites, several buildings and an airstrip<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Commercial fisheries and petroleum pollution affect non-breeding birds. <strong></strong></p>	eng
144190	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue to take active measures to protect breeding populations on islands, particularly Isla Rasa. Monitor population trends at breeding sites, particularly in response to climatic change or fluctuation.	eng
144190	distribution		<em>Larus heermanni</em> has a population of 525,000 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, 90% of which nest on Isla Rasa, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>2</sup>. There are 150 pairs on George Island, 1,500 on Cholluda<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, 4,000 on Cardonosa and 200 on San Il de Fonso<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with breeding south to Nayarit and islas San Benito and San Roque, and sporadically north to California, <strong>USA</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. Post-breeding dispersal occurs commonly to central California, USA, and in smaller numbers north to British Columbia, Canada, and south to Guatemala<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers on Isla Rasa are similar to estimates in the late 1960s, but there have been significant fluctuations with a low of 55,000 pairs in 1975<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144190	habitat		This coastal species breeds very synchronously and often at high densities (up to 110 nests/100m<sup>2</sup>) on remote rocky coasts and islets<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. It feeds largely within inshore waters and in the littoral zone.	eng
144190	population		Kushlan<em> et al</em>. (2002)	eng
144191	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor population trends. Control the harvest of eggs and chicks. Prevent the introduction of mammalian predators to breeding colonies and control them where this has taken place. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills. Enforce measures to control disturbance. Ensure the majority of breeding colonies are protected.	eng
144191	distribution		<em>Larus leucophthalmus</em> breeds colonially on inshore islands and islets in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, in <strong>Egypt</strong> (2,500 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, mainly on islands at the mouth of the Gulf of Suez<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Sudan</strong> (300-1,000 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Eritrea</strong> (1,400 adults in the Dahlak Archipelago in 1962), <strong>Djibouti</strong> (600-700 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> (more than 1,500 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Yemen</strong> (at least 3,900 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and <strong>Somalia</strong> (1,200-2,200 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), with wintering birds dispersing throughout the breeding range. The total population is estimated as 12,000-13,000 breeding pairs (36,000-39,000 individuals)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, excluding Eritrea, equating to 37,000-44,000 individuals overall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; it is believed to be stable<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144191	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mostly sedentary<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>, although it disperses from its breeding sites to occur throughout the Red Sea during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There may also be some southward and eastward movement during this time, when it is reported to become scarce in the northern part of its range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place during the months of June - August, extending to September in Egypt<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It breeds in loose colonies, usually consisting of fewer than 25 pairs, though occasionally larger colonies of hundreds of individuals are known to occur<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season it is usually found in small groups, but sometimes forms flocks of hundreds or even thousands to forage<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species is mainly coastal. It usually feeds at sea<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but some Egyptian populations have adopted a scavenging role at rubbish tips and harbours<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<em> Breeding </em>It breeds on inshore islands, where it occupies bare rock and sand flats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<em> Non-breeding</em> Outside the breeding season it often occurs further out to sea<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It roosts on rocks, coral reefs, piers and fishing vessels<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The diet consists largely of fish, but also includes crustaceans, molluscs, annelids and offal<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Fish species taken in Egypt include <em>Scarpus </em>species about 110mm in length<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It also feeds on fruits and plants such as <em>Nitraria retusa</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>,<em> </em>and is known to predate the eggs and nestlings of the Lesser Crested Tern <em>Sterna bengalensis</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It scavenges in the northern part of its range, but to a lesser extent than does <em>L. hemprichii</em> with which it often associates<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding Site </strong>Nests occur on bare rock, sand or exposed flats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On sandy substrates the nest consists of a conspicuous ring of twigs, seaweed and debris<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On rocky islands it consists of a small pad of vegetable matter beside rocks<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It may alternatively consist of a scrape among impenetrable <em>Euphorbia </em>clumps<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It lays two or three eggs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144191	population		PERSGA/GEF (2003) estimated 12,000-13,000 breeding pairs (36,000-39,000 individuals), excluding Eritrea, equating to 37,000-44,000 individuals overall (Shobrak <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
144192	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a partial migrant or nomad<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, most populations undergoing southern post-breeding dispersal movements<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in September-November<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Some populations may also be sedentary (many remain in the Red Sea area all year round)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in the Summer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (usually between April and October)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and usually nests colonially (e.g. in small loose colonies on the larger islands in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or occasionally solitarily (e.g. in Africa)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with 1-3 pairs per island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> often amidst colonies of other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually forages alone, but is highly gregarious at times<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits coasts and inshore islands and is hardly ever seen inland<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or at freshwater<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is found at harbours and ports, and forages inshore, in intertidal zones<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and up to 10 km beyond reefs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, rarely extending up to 140 km offshore<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It nests on coastal or inshore coral islands preferring smaller outer islands of old coral that are sparsely vegetated, rocky and sandy, preferably protected from the ocean by live reef<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists mainly of dead fish and fishermen's offal, as well as tern eggs and chicks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the eggs of White-eyed Gull <em>Larus leucophthalmus</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, turtle hatchlings<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, prawns and small fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It poses a threat to other species as it is a serious local predator of eggs and chicks in colonies of other seabirds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a scrape or depression in bare coral (Kenya)<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, under mangrove bushes on a bed of leaves, under <em>Suaeda</em> bushes in loose sand (Somalia)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, or under low hanging coral (Red Sea)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> on exposed promontories<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests colonially but is more of a solitary nester in Africa, with pairs spaced as far apart as possible<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144192	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by oil exploration (e.g. pollution from future oil spills<strong><sup>1, 4, 5, 6</sup></strong>, future land reclamation for oil prospecting in the Gulf region<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and disturbance to breeding birds from future oil drilling in Tanzania)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by human exploitation, in particular egg collection<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> from nesting colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144193	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from May onwards in solitary pairs or in single- and mixed-species colonies of up to 300 pairs<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> or more (e.g. 1,000 pairs in Baltic region)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, foraging in flocks of up to one hundred or more individuals during the winter, flock sizes depending upon the habitat and conditions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds along the coast<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> and inland<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong> in a variety of sites not necessarily close to wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the coast it nests on grassy and rocky cliff-ledges<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, grassy slopes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, inshore rocky islets, islands and stacks<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>, and on sand and shingle beaches, banks and dunes<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> amongst tide-wrack or flood debris<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Inland the species nests on small islands in freshwater and saline lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, shingle bars or small islets in streams or rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, islets, artificial structures and shores of artificial waterbodies with short, sparse vegetation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and on bogs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, meadows<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and grass or heather moorland near small pools<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> or lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. After the young fledge the species often disperses to coasts, tidal estuaries, agricultural land and reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season it occupies similar habitats to when it is breeding, although it may occur more frequently along the coast during this period<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on estuaries with low salinities, sandy beaches and estuarine mudflats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of  earthworms, insects, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. planktonic crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, crayfish and molluscs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the spring the species will also take agricultural grain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and often scavanges<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup of vegetation placed on grass, rock, sand, shingle, earth or floating and marshy vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in a variety of coastal and inland locations<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. The species may also nest off the ground on artificial structures, in nest-boxes and in trees<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species may benefit from the removal of introduced predators such as American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from small breeding islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and has been known to nest on artificial rafts intended to encourage other species (e.g. Common Tern <em>Sterna hirundo</em>) to breed<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144193	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144193	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Breeding</em> In north and west Europe the species is threatened at breeding colonies by predation from introduced ground predators such as American mink <em>Neovison vison</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and by disturbance from tourism, angling and research activities during the laying period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Inland populations breeding in colonies near rivers are also vulnerable to mass outbreaks of black flies (Simuliidae)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the transformation and loss of its breeding habitats through land reclamation, drainage, afforestation (e.g. with conifers) and dam construction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species is potentially threatened by the activities of fisheries (e.g. reductions in fishing effort, increases in net mesh sizes and exploitation of formerly non-commercial fish species) and their effects on competition for prey resources<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Other threats to wintering sites include land reclamation and drainage<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Egg collecting from in colonies occurs in Germany, Scotland, the Russian Federation and Poland, and the species is shot in the Russian Federation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144194	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I and II. A European action plan was published in 1996. The ecology of this species, particularly its breeding and foraging behaviour and demography and population dynamics, has been extensively studied. Lebanon prepared an action plan to restore the breeding population back to Palm Islands Nature reserve. Several LIFE Nature projects have been implemented between 1992 and 2006 in Spain and Italy, contributing to successful recolonisation of breeding islands and development of safe line-fishing techniques. Control of invasive black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> has been effective at some colonies<strong><sup>35</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue to monitor breeding colonies. Identify appropriate actions to mitigate against the key threats. Implement strict fishery management policies in the species's range. Increase the area of suitable coastal habitat that is protected from development and degradation. Enforce laws designed to minimise marine pollution. Implement measures to reduce mortality in fishing gear, perhaps facilitated by legislation. Ensure regulation of the river Ebro benefits the species.	eng
144194	distribution		<em>Larus audouinii</em> breeds in (all data for pairs) <strong>Spain</strong> (20,315<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), mainly the Chafarinas Islands and the Ebro Delta with the latter holding 65% of the global population<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong> (100-600), <strong>Greece</strong> (700-900<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in 65 colonies), and the Sardinia and Tuscan Archipelago, <strong>Italy</strong> (550-650), with smaller colonies in <strong>Portugal </strong>(40), Corsica, <strong>France</strong> (between 54-60<strong><sup>5 </sup></strong>and 80<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Cyprus</strong> (c. 32<strong><sup>40</sup></strong>), islets and rocks in the southern Adriatic Sea near Korcula and Peljesac Peninsula, <strong>Croatia </strong>(65<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> in 5 colonies), <strong>Turkey</strong> (60-90<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Tunisia</strong> (70-115) and <strong>Morocco</strong> (50-300). It winters on the coast of North and West Africa from <strong>Libya</strong> west to Morocco and south to <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong> and <strong>Gabon<sup>13</sup></strong> and there is a small wintering population in the east Mediterranean along the Aegean coast of Turkey. The global population has been estimated at c.21,500 pairs, and a recent assessment put the European population (including some Spanish islands and islets off Morocco) at 20,500-21,000 pairs (encompassing over 90% of the global population) and stable or increasing throughout. This represents a significant increase from an estimated population of 1,000 pairs in 1975 and is thought to be a result of the increased availability mainly of effectively protected areas during the 1980s, and secondly of discarded fish from the trawlers, particularly around the Ebro Delta<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The large expansion of <em>Larus audouinii </em>in the western Mediterranean has probably caused the breeding population in other parts of the Mediterranean to increase and new colonies have been found in Croatia and even out of the Mediterranean in southern Portugal<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. Nevertheless more than 90% of the European breeding population occurs at just four sites<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and only a single site (the Ebro Delta) held 70% of the global breeding numbers in 2006. Recruitment can be extremely rapid when food availability is high, resulting in high population growth rates<strong><sup>15,26</sup></strong>. It is a long-lived species with high adult survival and relatively low fertility. Adult annual survival is estimated at 0.95<strong><sup>15,19,25</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144194	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Audouin's Gull is a medium sized gull largely restricted to the Mediterranean. It is partially migratory and dispersive<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. It breeds in large monospecific colonies ranging from 10 up to 10,000 pairs<strong><sup>30</sup></strong> at a density of up to 1 nest/ sq. m<strong><sup>30 </sup></strong>. Egg-laying takes place in the second half of April until the beginning of May, and peak hatching occurs in late May<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>, with fledging mainly in the first two weeks of July. It has a large foraging range while breeding, and has been recorded up to 200 km from the colony<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. After breeding the birds disperse widely around the Mediterranean coast<strong><sup>13,30</sup></strong>. Almost all juveniles and some adults migrate past Gibraltar during July-October<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>, to winter on the North African coast<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. During the winter it roosts in flocks of several thousand<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. It returns to its breeding sites between late February and mid April<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. First year birds remain in the non-breeding range throughout the summer<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Very high colony-site fidelity is probably related to previous breeding success. However, in the Aegean Islands, birds return to the same "island group" but not necessarily to the same islet. At the Ebro Delta, Spain, c.1,400 breeders disperse to other colonies every year, generating marked fluctuations at those sites<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The Audouin's Gull is one of the few species of Larid to show nocturnal foraging patterns, which may be linked to fisheries activities; arrivals and departures from the Ebro Delta colony are in accordance with the trawling timetable<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. The species scavenges around fishing vessels, and uses discards extensively and very efficiently<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. The species's association with fisheries is more pronounced in the western than in the central and eastern Mediterranean<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. A trawler moratorium off the Ebro Delta has caused decreased food availability to birds and has also negatively affected breeding success, possibly by necessitating increased foraging ranges<strong><sup>36</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are located on exposed rocky cliffs and on offshore islands or islets<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>, normally not more than 50 m above sea level<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. The Ebro delta colony is located on saltmarsh and a sandy peninsula<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. In the Aegean it breeds on uninhabited islands sloping gently to the sea and covered with large stones, eryngo <em>Eryngium</em>, grass and low bushes of <em>Pistacia lentiscus</em><strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Characteristics of habitats used differ from region to region and even within the same areas in different years: altitude ranges from close to sea-level to 100 m, vegetation cover from bare rocks to 85% bush cover, and slope from 0-90<sup>o</sup>. Medium vegetation cover is preferred, and this probably provides chicks with shelter from heat and predators. The concentration of breeding colonies in the western Mediterranean is possibly related to the lower water salinity and higher abundance of clupeids. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season the species prefers sheltered bays, either flat and shingly, sandy or with cliffed margins<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. It sometimes visits seaside resorts and marinas lured by food, and it especially likes areas on beaches where freshwater occurs, such as stream mouths or floods<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. It is a coastal species, rarely occurring inland and generally not travelling far offshore<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>This species was historically thought to feed far out to sea, but more recent observations show that it feeds regularly along the coast. The diet consists mostly of epipelagic fish, especially Clupeiformes, for which it sometimes forages at night, taking advantage of its prey's diel migration patterns<strong><sup>27</sup></strong> and of commercial fishing by purse-seine netting<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. It is also known to take some aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small birds and plant material such as the peanut <em>Arachis</em>, olive <em>Olea</em>, and grain<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. The Ebro delta colony feeds largely on fish waste dumped by boats fishing nearby<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. The species is also known to feed on food discarded at tourist beaches<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>, and during a moratorium on trawling, it was found to forage in marshes, rice fields and occasionally at refuse tips<strong><sup>27,30</sup></strong>. Diet during the breeding season has been found to vary between colonies due to fishing practices that target different species in the respective areas<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nests is a shallow scrape lined with available debris and vegetation<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. It is placed among rocks and vegetation<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range</strong> During the non-breeding season, surveys in Morocco found birds no further than 46 km from the coast<strong><sup>37</sup></strong>, and generally <40 km from the colony seems to be the norm<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. However, the maximum recorded foraging range from a colony was 160 km<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. The species primarily forages in coastal and continental shelf areas between 5 and 15 nautical miles (nm) offshore. A radius of 15 nm from the Ebro Delta would ensure the protection of 30% of the birds (or 30% of the foraging area). A 30 nm radius would protect 80% of birds. These distances could be reduced in colonies where the surrounding continental shelf is narrower<strong><sup>38</sup></strong>. Juveniles tend to forage in upwelling zones, whereas subadults and adults are more independent of these sites<strong><sup>39</sup></strong>.	eng
144194	population		The global population (excluding Europe) is estimated to be 19,200 pairs (Lambertini 1996), with 18,000-19,000 pairs in Europe (BirdLife International 2004), giving a total of 57,600 individuals.	eng
144197	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The migratory movements of this species vary throughout its range, with high Arctic breeders migrating south for the winter but southern breeders only dispersing short distances<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The breeding season starts from early-April or mid-May with the species nesting in solitary pairs amidst colonies of other species or in small mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to 50-100 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. with Herring Gull <em>Larus argentatus</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in favourable locations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The autumn migration occurs between July and November (peaking October-November) and the return migration to the breeding grounds occurs between March and April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is largely gregarious<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits rocky or sandy coasts, estuaries and inshore and offshore waters, breeding on vegetated islands, dunes, flat-topped stacks, rocky shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flat beaches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and islands in saltmarsh<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also breed on undisturbed inland sites including islets in large freshwater lakes and rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, fields and open moorland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous and opportunistic, its diet consisting of fish, adult and young birds, birds eggs, mammals (e.g. rabbits, lemmings, rats and mice), insects, marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs), carrion and refuse<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup constructed from grass, moss and seaweed and is positioned on sand, grass or bare rock substrates on vegetated islands, rocky ridges and outcrops, dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flat beaches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and islands in saltmarsh among scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also nest in undisturbed inland sites such as islets in large freshwater lakes and rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, fields and open moorland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The breeding densities of this species in the Baltic Sea were unaffected by the removal of the introduced nest predator American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from small offshore breeding islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is considered to be a threat to other bird species due to its predatory and opportunistic diet<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144197	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in Denmark<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144198	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Although this species is largely sedentary some southern populations migrate north after the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds between late-September and January<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> in colonies of up to several hundred pairs (occasionally nesting solitarily)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and remains gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits sheltered coastal<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> harbours, bays, inlets, estuaries, beaches and rocky shores<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, usually foraging within 10 km of the shore but also following fishing boats beyond the continental shelf<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It may forage and roost in near-coastal inland habitats including lagoons<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, lakes, swampy basins, rivers, streams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pastures<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, cultivated land, tussock grassland, scrubland and cleared areas in pine plantations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It often also forages around abattoirs, fish- or seafood-factories and at sewage outfalls<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species will form breeding colonies in a number of locations including headlands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, sea cliffs<strong><sup>1, 3, 2</sup></strong>, rocky outcrops, stacks<strong><sup>3, 2</sup></strong>, offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 3, 2</sup></strong>, low sandy, pebbly or rocky beaches, spits or islands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in estuaries and lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, on reefs, peninsulas, mudflats, sandbanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally on the roofs of coastal buildings or in salt and sewage works<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Locally (e.g. in New Zealand) it may also breed inland on flat rocky mountaintops near permanent water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of molluscs (e.g. mussels, cuttlefish <em>Sepia</em> spp. and terrestrial snails), echinoderms<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sponges<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, arthropods (e.g. swarming termites, crabs, isopods, amphipods)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, macrozooplankton<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, fish, worms, reptiles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. snakes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. frogs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small mammals<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and berries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species also scavenges refuse, sewage and carrion<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a bulky structure of dried plants or seaweed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed on bare rock, sand or mud substrates<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in well-vegetated sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (with grasses, sedge, rushes and other herbaceous plants)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> at the base of bushes, trees, rocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, walls<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or other vertical structures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding habitats include headlands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, sea cliffs<strong><sup>1, 3, 2</sup></strong>, rocky outcrops, stacks<strong><sup>3, 2</sup></strong>, offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 3, 2</sup></strong>, reefs, peninsulas, mudflats, sandbanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the roofs of coastal buildings, salt and sewage works, guano platforms, shipwrecks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and above the high water mark on low sandy, pebbly or rocky beaches<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, spits or islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in estuaries and lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Locally (e.g. in New Zealand) it may also breed inland on flat rocky mountaintops near permanent water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Attaching high-visibility plastic cones to trawler warp cables can significantly reduce the mortality and bycatch of this species due to trawler fisheries<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144198	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by future marine oil spills<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian cholera<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. The species also suffers mortality from interactions with trawler warp cables (Argentina)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144202	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species migrate southwards after breeding although some western Palearctic breeders remain on their breeding grounds throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from mid-May to mid-June (the timing depending on latitude and ice conditions) in solitary pairs or small colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, departing the breeding grounds from September to mid-October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is gregarious and occurs in small or large flocks, up to tens of thousands gathering where food is temporarily abundant<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> during the winter (e.g. at fishing harbours)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It breeds on sea cliffs and inshore islands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, particularly near human settlements and often near colonies of other gulls or geese<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also breed on islands in lakes near the coast<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> or on the edges of coastal lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Throughout the year the species forages over coasts, bays, harbours, inshore waters with sewage outfalls, the intertidal zone, land-fill sites, fishing wharves and large inland lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of fish, molluscs, Echinoderms, crustaceans, rodents, adult and young birds, eggs (especially of ducks, auks and shorebirds), insects, berries and carrion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a mound of seaweed and debris<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually placed on the edges of cliffs, rock pinnacles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rocky outcrops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, slopes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and occasionally on ice or snow<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144202	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by organohalogen pollution in its Arctic breeding range<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> (there is evidence that organohalogen contaminants alter the species's basal metabolic rate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and that organochlorines reduce the efficiency of its immune system<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). In parts of its breeding range the species is also being displaced by Herring Gull <em>Larus argentatus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> First year birds are hunted in Greenland, mainly between August and November<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144203	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northernmost populations of this species are strongly migratory whereas others (e.g. in Greenland) only disperse locally along the coast after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from mid-May to July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs or in small single- or mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to several hundred pairs<strong><sup>3.</sup> In late-July after breeding the species may move to coastal feeding areas, the departure from the breeding grounds occurring in August or September<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits rocky coasts and fjords with steep cliffs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, offshore stacks and undisturbed low islands for nesting on<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, also foraging in the intertidal zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the species remains in similar habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but often disperses to harbours, refuse tips, sewage outfalls and inland reservoirs, although it generally avoids freshwater habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. salmon <em>Salmo</em> spp., sprat <em>Sprattus</em> spp. and herring <em>Clupea</em> spp.) and marine invertebrates as well as bird eggs and chicks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially of Black-legged Kittiwake <em>Rissa tridactyla</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, seeds and fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of dry grass, seaweed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and moss on large, flat ledges<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of steep coastal cliffs greater than 100-200 m in height<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, or on offshore stacks or on the ground on undisturbed low coastal islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144203	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is extensively hunted by local people in Greenland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144204	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although populations in the south are nomadic or completely non-migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds between mid-April and late-June<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in colonies of up to several thousand pairs, occasionally nesting solitarily or as single pairs on the edge of other seabird colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is highly gregarious and gathers in large flocks in favoured sites<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits coastal and near-coastal areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may also forage inland on large lakes and reservoirs, fields and refuse dumps<strong><sup>1.  </sup>It has no specific breeding habitat<sup>1</sup></strong> but may show a preference for rocky shores with cliffs, outlying stacks or islets<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, otherwise nesting on rocky and grassy islands, sandy beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, dunes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, gravel bars, saltmarshes, rocky outcrops, buildings, claypits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, tundra with reeds or hummocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, swampy lowlands near lakes and on river islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. When inland on migration the species also shows a preference for large river valleys<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species has a highly opportunistic diet and will exploit almost any superabundant source of food<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It takes fish, earthworms, crabs and other marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, starfish or marine worms), adult birds, bird eggs and young, rodents, insects (e.g. ants), berries and tubers (e.g. turnips)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also scavenges at refuse dumps, fishing wharves and sewage outfall zones and frequently follows fishing boats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a depression in a mound of vegetation<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> placed on the ground, e.g. on a cliff ledge or roof, usually in the shelter of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Preventative and control measures are frequently used against this species as it is regarded as a pest and a threat to many other colonial bird species (it usurps habitats and preys upon bird eggs and young), and also to airports (frequently causes collisions)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/><strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimate includes totals for 'Larus heuglini'.	eng
144204	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by coastal oil pollution<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted in Denmark<strong><sup>6.</sup> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144208	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travel in leapfrog-like stages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, using many stopovers en-route<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Autumn migration is started by the non-breeding birds in late-June, the breeding birds following from late-July to September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The return migration takes place between February and late-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with the species arriving at breeding colonies from March onwards, and breeding from May or late-April to mid-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, often with other gull species (especially Herring Gull <em>Larus argentatus</em>)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, in colonies ranging in size from a few pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> to several tens of thousands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, normally migrating singly or in small groups of less than 10<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and often feeding  in flocks of hundreds of individuals on rubbish dumps or over shoals of fish at sea<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. It may also feed singly or in small groups<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In its African wintering grounds the species may roost communally during the day on salt or fresh waterbodies<strong><sup>7, 11</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on coastal grassy slopes (flat and unbroken)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, sand-dunes<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, cliffs<strong><sup>1, 4, 5</sup></strong>, rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, saltmarshes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and on inland habitats such as the margins of lakes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, high moorland<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, and islands in lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> . It shows a preference for well vegetated sites, with fairly close, short vegetation<strong><sup>6, 4</sup></strong>, and may forage on arable land, pasture land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and on refuse dumps<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species chiefly inhabits inshore and offshore seas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, as well as lagoons, estuaries, harbours and seashores in the tropics<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also frequent inland habitats during this season, such as large lakes and rivers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, in England preferring flooded gravel pits and reservoirs, canals, river weirs, flood-lands and sewage treatment areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. As in the breeding season it is often seen foraging on arable land, pasture land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and on refuse dumps<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is an omnivorous, opportunistic feeder<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that forages extensively at sea. Its diet consists of small fish (especially Baltic herring <em>Clupea harengus</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. beetles, flies and larvae, ants, moths<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, grasshoppers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, crustaceans, molluscs, segmented worms and starfish<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), bird eggs and nestlings, carrion, offal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rodents, berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and grain<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It often follows fishing fleets, feeding on discarded bycatch<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest can be anything between a heap of grass, seaweed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, lichen, feathers (or other local materials)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and a simple sparsely-lined scrape<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, that is usually positioned on open ground on a flat rock or a bare peat hag<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies, showing a preference for level-ground<strong><sup>1, 9</sup></strong> that is well covered with fairly close, short vegetation<strong><sup>5. 6</sup></strong>, often nesting under heather, bracken or other vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (sometimes under pine trees)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable sites include flat, unbroken grassy slopes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, sand-dunes,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>the tops and ledges of coastal cliffs<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, saltmarshes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the margins of inland lakes<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, islands in lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and high moorland<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, although the species will also nest on buildings and rooftops<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144208	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some populations of this species have significantly declined due to decreasing food availability caused by competition and predation from <em>Larus argentatus</em> and <em>Larus marinus</em><strong><sup>1, 2, 8</sup></strong> and by changes in fishing and refuse disposal practices<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> (e.g. closure of landfill sites and the covering of waste)<strong><sup>1, 2, 5, 8</sup></strong>. Population declines may also have been aided by poisoning from organochloride pollution<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and contamination from pesticides<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Colonies have been culled in Britain and Ireland in order to "protect" other breeding seabirds (e.g. terns) from predation and competition<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is exploited on its African wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, is hunted unsustainably in Denmark<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and is threatened by egg-collecting and general human disturbance on the Iberian Peninsula<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Human disturbance occurs at wintering sites, caused by local people checking snare traps set to catch other species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144209	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, although many immatures over-summer in the winter range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species begins to arrive in its breeding grounds from early-May; breeding from early-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in large colonies, usually of more than 10 pairs (often 150-300<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or exceptionally up to 3,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) sometimes near, but not with, <em>Larus argentatus</em><strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It may also breed in single pairs, but never nests solitarily (it will always nest within a colony of other gull species)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species usually remains solitary or in small parties<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> of 2-3 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although it may roost gregariously, and will aggregate into large groups where fish are abundant<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on barren islands or islets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in fresh and saline lakes, on inland seas in warm arid steppe<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, on rivers and river deltas<strong><sup> </sup></strong>where ample surface water is available<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and on suitable mountain lakes up to 1,700 m<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. It nests in reedbeds, in shrubby vegetation or on bare flat surfaces<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> After breeding the species shifts to fish-rich<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> sea-coasts<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, wintering on beaches<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> and in harbours<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. During this season it may also occur inland on beaches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> of major rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or at fish ponds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and refuse dumps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species is omnivorous although its diet is dominated by animal material<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It chiefly feeds on fish (particularly dead fish), crustaceans, insects and small mammals, less often taking birds and their eggs, reptiles, and seeds<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It often flies long distances from colonies in the breeding season to feed aerially on swarms of insects<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, follows fishing boats and scavenges in harbours<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> positioned in the open<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> on bare rock, among reeds or scrub vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or on vegetated sand-dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144209	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by increasing predation from <em>Larus cachinnans</em> in its breeding range, and by nest predation by mammals (e.g. wild boar <em>Sus scrofa</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also still persecuted in some regions due to its depredation on commercial fish, and colonies are often subject to flooding following storms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this disease<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144211	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are sedentary, although inland breeders will disperse short distances to the coast in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>,  from April-May (before the rains) in Africa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and from early-May in South America<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains fairly gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong>, and is typically observed in pairs or small groups of 3-8 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, or feeding in large flocks in harbours and at refuse dumps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species inhabits tropical and subtropical coasts, rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, coastal dykes, coastal dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and harbours (Africa)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, as well as large inland fresh and alkaline lakes (Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, salt-pans<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and marshes (Argentina)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species remains along the shores of coastal habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, coastal dykes, coastal dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>) but also frequents settlements, cattle pens and fishing harbours (in Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of fish<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, as well as invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. insects, molluscs and termites)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the eggs of herons and cormorants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and dead fish and refuse obtained by scavenging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The species breeds colonially, with nests often placed less than 1 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests are positioned on bare ground, in clumps of reeds and papyrus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or on floating vegetation<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, often camouflaged in tall, thick vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The nest itself varies from a shallow scrape to a well built cup of rushes and grasses<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> depending on location, although floating nests are always substantial<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144211	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> There is evidence that chicks of this species are traded in traditional medicine shops<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144212	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is predominantly sedentary<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> although it may disperse short distances along the coast outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Information about the timing of breeding is conflicting, although it appears to vary geographically, with the species breeding in any month of the year in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies of 10-1,000 pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, frequently with Greater Crested Terns <em>Sterna bergii</em> and other colonial species<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. It remains gregarious outside of the breeding season, occurring in large groups (e.g. of 60<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> to several hundred<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> individuals) that forage and roost together<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits coastal areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is rarely seen further than 20 km from land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (usually observed within 3 km)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include shallow inshore waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, where water is less than 50 m deep, estuaries, lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, intertidal zones, beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and harbours<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, also occurring on land at refuse dumps<strong><sup>1</sup>, </strong>abattoirs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and sewage and salt works<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It breeds on low, flat, rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and is strongly associated with kelp beds (a large part of its diet consists of invertebrates associated with stranded kelp)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. kelp fly larvae, amphipods<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, molluscs and crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), especially those associated with stranded kelp<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as terrestrial insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, moths and ants)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, earthworms<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, the fruits of low-growing shrubs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, offal and refuse<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species breeds colonially, with nests spaced 1-2 m<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable sites include low, flat, rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and artificial structures<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> such as dykes in sewage lagoons and saltpans<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and the roofs of buildings<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although it does show a preference for bare or slightly vegetated ground<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. with beach halophytes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, that are associated with sites of more substantial vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is a slight hollow<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or a woven structure of plant stems<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that is typically placed on rocky surfaces<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> or occasionally in reedbeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or up to 20-50 cm high in densely-matted sclerophyllous shrubs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144212	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by a high rate of breeding failure brought about by a number of man-made and natural causes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. For example storms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and changing water levels in artificial breeding sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> may flood colonies, and abnormally high sea-surface temperatures may reduce food availability and lower reproductive succes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Natural predators such as Kelp Gulls <em>Larus</em> <em>dominicanus</em>, African Sacred Ibises <em>Threskiornis aethiopicus</em> and Cattle Egrets <em>Bubulcus ibis</em> eat eggs, chicks and occasionally adults, and Greater Crested Terns <em>Sterna bergii</em> frequently displace incubating pairs, resulting in egg mortality<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. Introduced predators on offshore islands such as mongooses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Galerella</em> <em>pulverulentus </em>and yellow mongoose <em>Cynictis penicillata</em>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, domestic cat <em>Felis catus</em><strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> and cape fox <em>Vulpes chama</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong> threaten breeding colonies<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, and colonies near airports are often deliberately disturbed (by breaking eggs, collecting chicks and shooting adults) to reduce the threat of air strikes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, 5. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144215	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Studies of breeding biology, movements and dispersal are being undertaken. Localised and nationwide counts are ongoing. Habitat restoration and protection in the MacKenzie Basin is undertaken as part of Project River Recovery, including predator research and a public awareness campaign<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor key breeding populations. Initiate nest protection at key colonies if research indicates that breeding success is significantly affected by introduced predators. Initiate riverbed weed control if nesting habitat continues to be lost. Assess possible impact of further hydro-dam, gravel and water extraction proposals<sup>5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144215	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Larus bulleri</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The majority of the population (78%) breeds in Southland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, mostly on the Mataura, Oreti, Aparima and Waiau rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On the Oreti and Aparima, the number of breeding birds appears to have plummeted by as much as 90% in the last one to two decades<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Upper Waitaki catchment populations declined between the 1960s and 1990s, with breeding colonies disappearing from six rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent surveys at one minor colony in the Hunter Valley, Otago, showed numbers had dropped from 581 in 1969 to just 12, with the same trend seen in the nearby Makarora catchment area<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Overall, Southland counts estimated a minimum of 57,000 pairs in 1985-1986<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, declining c.40% to 33,500 pairs in 1996-1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, numbers and range continue to increase in the North Island, but these colonies are small and do not offset the South Island declines<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The most complete nationwide census was carried out in 1996-1997<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and counted 48,000 nests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Some birds remain at colonies throughout the year, others move from inland breeding sites to the coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144215	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In the South Island, it breeds mainly on braided river systems<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. In the North Island, it uses sand-spits, shellbanks, lake margins and riverflats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It often roosts and feeds on farmland, and scavenges in urban areas where refuse is available<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has a varied diet of terrestrial, freshwater and marine invertebrates, fish and shellfish<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Breeding can begin after two years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but many individuals do not start until six years old, and adults may live over 30 years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144215	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Powlesland (1998). <br/></p>	eng
144215	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> takes eggs and chicks in the North Island. Mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., feral cats and hedghogs may be key predators on South Island riverbeds. Recreational use of riverbeds and coastal areas is increasing, causing greater disturbance of nesting colonies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. River modification (including hydroelectric development, and water and gravel extraction) also has a significant impact. The spread of weeds is a major threat, reducing suitable nesting habitat on riverbeds<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144217	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are strongly migratory although populations at lower latitudes tend to be sedentary or locally dispersive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds between April and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in dense colonies of up to several thousand pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> often with other gull or tern species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It generally remains gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and may roost in large flocks during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species chiefly breeds inland and shows a preference for shallow, calm<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, temporarily flooded wetland habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with lush vegetation<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It forms nesting colonies on the margins of lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, lagoons<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, slow-flowing rivers, deltas, estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and on tussocky marshes<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, but may also nest on the upper zones of saltmarshes<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, coastal dunes and offshore islands in more coastal areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species will also utilise artificial sites such as sewage ponds, gravel- and clay-pits, ponds, canals and floodlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and may nest on the dry ground of heather moors, sand-dunes, beaches<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and stony islets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species is most common in coastal habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and tidal inshore waters, showing a preference for inlets or estuaries with sandy or muddy beaches, and generally avoiding rocky or exposed coastlines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also occur inland during this season, frequenting ploughed fields, moist grasslands, urban parks, sewage farms, refuse tips, reservoirs, ponds and ornamental waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and roosts on sandy and gravel sites or on inland reservoirs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of aquatic and terrestrial insects, earthworms and marine invertebrates (e.g. molluscs, crustaceans and marine worms)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it may also take fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (usually dead or sick)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rodents (e.g. voles)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and agricultural grain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species may rely heavily on artificial food sources provided by man, especially in Western Europe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and often scavenges from refuse tips during this period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a rough construction of vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> based on a shallow scrape<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and placed on a floating mat, in broken reeds, on a hummock, or sometimes on dry, grassy or sandy ground<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species shows a strong preference for nesting near vegetation (although vegetation overgrowth can lead to the desertion of colony sites)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests in dense colonies with neighbouring nests placed an average of 1 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144217	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and has suffered local population declines in the past as a result of egg collecting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In some areas of its breeding range the species may also suffer from reduced reproductive successes due to contamination with chemical pollutants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144218	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Populations breeding in central Asia are fully migratory, although other populations are sedentary or only disperse short distances<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. Migratory populations return to breeding colonies in late-February, most using a route along the west coast of the Black Sea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, leaving breeding sites again in July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Many immatures also remain in winter quarters throughout the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds from late-March to May in dense monospecific or mixed-species colonies (e.g. with terns) in numbers ranging from ten to many thousands of pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is gregarious throughout the year, commonly occurring in flocks of up to 200 individuals, occasionally up to 3,000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on the coasts of land-locked seas<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, on sand-spits, beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and islands with mudflats and marshes in shallow tidal waters<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, and on saline inland seas and steppe lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also frequent meadows and moist grassland by tidal inlets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and brackish or freshwater lagoons or marshes near river deltas during this season<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>The species is almost entirely coastal outside of the breeding season, frequenting shallow inshore waters and salt-pans, although it generally avoids harbours<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of the species consists mainly of fish<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (c.50 % of the diet)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as insects and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crustaceans)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species breeds colonially with pairs nesting as close as 20-50 cm<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; large groups often splitting into subcolonies with groups centres 10-50 m apart<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The nest is a deep scrape or shallow depression<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, preferably positioned on open mud, although some pairs may nest in <em>Salsola</em> or <em>Salicornia</em><strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144218	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Eggs and chicks of this species are preyed upon by <em>Larus cachinnans</em> and <em>Larus melanocephalus</em> (especially where colonies are frequently disturbed by humans)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and storms or cold weather may threaten breeding colonies by causing nest flooding and chick mortality<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by pollution form oil<strong><sup>1, 6, 7</sup></strong>, plastic waste and agricultural chemicals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and is exploited by local people (subsistence egg collecting) in the Mediterranean and western Africa<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. It also suffers from disturbance caused by local people and tourists casually visiting breeding colonies, and by habitat loss resulting from tourism development<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8, 9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144220	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. The key nesting sites in China are all nature reserves. Wintering sites at Manko (Japan), Mai Po (Hong Kong), and Xuan Thuy (Vietnam) are all protected areas. The species is classed as Vulnerable in China and therefore receives full legal protection.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys in North Korea for potential breeding sites. Expand the Yellow River Delta Nature Reserve (China), to include additional nest-sites. Establish protected areas at the wintering sites of Wenzhou-Yueqing bays (China), Tutu estuary, Hanpao and Aoku (Taiwan), Suncheon-Kwangyang bays (South Korea), Daijyu-garami, Hakata Bay and Sone (Japan). Provide management plans for coastal wetlands to promote their conservation. Ensure full legal protection for this species.	eng
144220	distribution		<em>Larus saundersi</em> breeds in eastern mainland <strong>China</strong>, and sporadically at sites on the western coast of <strong>South Korea</strong>. The most important breeding grounds are Yancheng and Shuantai Hekou in China. 1,317 Saunder's Gulls were recorded at Shuangtai Hekou National Nature Reserve, Liaoning in October 2001<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds occur in <strong>North Korea</strong>, where it may also breed. It winters in eastern and southern China, from Jiangsu southwards, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Macau </strong>(China), <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), along the western and southern coast of South Korea, in south-western <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>. The key wintering grounds are Bohai Bay (where 866 birds were counted in 2005/2006<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and Wenzhou-Yueqing bays, Guangdong and Guangxi in China and Suncheon-Kwangyang bays (with c.750 individuals recorded at Kum River estuary in Hanuary 2004<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) in South Korea. The global population is estimated to be 7,100-9,600 birds and appears to be declining.	eng
144220	habitat		It nests on the ground in <em>Suaeda-</em>dominated saltmarsh. Wintering birds are found on estuarine tidal flats with regular movements between different sites dependent on weather and food supply.	eng
144220	population		Population estimate derived from analysis of records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001).	eng
144222	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel along coastlines between their breeding and wintering areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (although a minority travel inland across Asian Turkey or follow major river valleys through Eastern and central Europe)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species returns to its breeding colonies from late-February<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to early-April, with most beginning to breed from early-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Autumn migration to the wintering grounds occurs from late-June onwards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies, usually of less than 1,000 pairs and occasionally in single pairs amidst colonies of other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It often breeds near but not among Sandwich Terns <em>Thalasseus sandvicensis</em>, or intermingling with <em>Larus ridibundus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When breeding in coastal areas the species may fly up to 80 km away from the colony to feed on inland grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on the Mediterranean coast at lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and sometimes coastal saltmarsh<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often also breeding inland on large steppe lakes and marshes in open lowland areas<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It nests near water on flood-lands, fields and grasslands<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and on wet or dry areas of islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, favouring sparse vegetation but generally avoiding barren sand<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species becomes entirely coastal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, favouring estuaries<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, harbours<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, saline lagoons and other sheltered waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects, gastropods, small numbers of fish and rodents<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> When not breeding the species takes marine fish, molluscs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. beetles and grasshoppers)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, earthworms, berries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, seeds (e.g. of barley, wheat, sunflowers and ragwort)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, offal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and occasionally sewage and refuse<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a shallow depression, situated on the ground in sparsely vegetated sites, thickets or reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> near water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds in dense colonies, with neighbouring pairs c.60 cm apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Artificially constructed nesting sites in coastal locations such as beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation are successful in attracting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144222	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species sustains heavy losses as a result of tourist disturbance at breeding colonies<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. The species may also be threatened by habitat loss resulting from tourism development, and by marine pollution (e.g. oil spills and chemical discharges)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs and adults are collected from breeding colonies by fishermen in the Mediterranean Sea<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144223	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. It is protected from hunting in Russia. A nature reserve was established to protect breeding sites in Alakol' lake (Kazakhstan). Breeding sites in Russia are protected in the Tsasuchey-Torey Sanctuary and several localities in Mongolia are Ramsar Sites. A poster campaign has been carried out to inform communities on the Ordos Plateau about the importance of the breeding colonies. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to locate breeding sites in Russia, Mongolia and China, with the aim of establishing new protected areas. Conduct surveys to locate wintering areas, possibly including the use of satellite tracking. Study its habitat requirements and evaluate the threat posed by development. Increase wardening at major breeding colonies and conduct education campaigns amongst local communities to minimise disturbance. List it as a protected species in Mongolia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144223	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Larus relictus</em> breeds at two localities in eastern <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(but regularly at only one<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), one in <strong>Russia</strong>, several in <strong>Mongolia</strong> and one on the Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia, <strong>China</strong>. Its non-breeding range is poorly understood, with small numbers known to winter in <strong>South Korea</strong>, and some records that suggest large numbers move to the coast of eastern China, although there is also evidence that some winter inland on the northern flank of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, China. The population was recently estimated as 12,000 individuals, presumably including less than 10,000 mature birds. <br/></p>	eng
144223	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	All known breeding colonies are below 1,500 m, in the arid-steppe zone, on islands in saline and slightly saline lakes with fluctuating water-levels. No nesting occurs if lakes dry up, if the islands become joined to the shore, or if the water-level is too high and the islands become too small or overgrown with vegetation. Some important non-breeding sites are on estuarine mud and sandflats.</p>	eng
144223	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated at 12,000 individuals by Rose and Scott (1997), but species first breeds in its third year, so number of mature individuals likely to be "substantially below this figure" (BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
144223	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Changes in water-level affect breeding success, as does competition for breeding sites and predation by other gulls and mortality from hailstorms and flooding. Human disturbance has caused increased mortality of eggs and chicks in Russia and China, by making them vulnerable to bad weather, predation and desertion. In South Korea, most of the mudflats at the Nakdong estuary have been reclaimed and it is likely that many other coastal wetlands are under similar pressure from development.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144224	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Although much of the island archipelago is protected in the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park, the greatest densities of this species may occur in the three main ports, and these urban areas are not part of the national park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The islands were declared a World Heritage Site in 1979.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Develop and use methodologies for accurate population censuses and long-term monitoring<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Control populations of introduced mammals.</strong>	eng
144224	distribution		<em>Larus fuliginosus</em> breeds only in the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. It is widespread throughout the archipelago, with possibly the most dense populations found at Puerto Ayora (Santa Cruz)<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno (San Crist&oacute;bal) and Puerto Villamil (Isabela)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1963, a survey of 56 km of coastline on the south and east of Santa Cruz found eight territories, which was extrapolated over the remaining coastline in the archipelago to give an estimate of 300-400 pairs. This was considered an overestimate. It has been suggested that the tiny population is probably a consequence of its confinement to linear feeding grounds of restricted range, which provide a limited food supply for much of the year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144224	habitat		It nests solitarily in sheltered places near lagoons, pools and other calm water, usually close to the sea<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is a scavenger, with local concentrations of birds in areas of high food availability, such as harbours, and will associate with boats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it also takes seabird eggs, juvenile marine iguana <em>Amblyrhynchus cristatus</em>, small fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It nests in scrapes on sandy beaches or low outcrops close to water, and lays two eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Territories are large, and adults are extremely wary, leaving the nest when a potential intruder is as far as 1&#160;km away<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144224	population		Snow and Snow (1969) estimated 600-800 mature individuals which Wetlands International (2002) interpreted to equate to 900-1,200 individuals.	eng
144226	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in the USA and Canada, migrates south through Central America and winters in off the west coast of South America, where it is particularly common from Ecuador to Chile.	eng
144226	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in more than 25 colonies on freshwater marshes in inland prairies (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144226	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is sensitive to human disturbance early in its breeding cycle and during hatching, when it may desert colonies. Individual colonies are vulnerable to vagaries of local water levels, and draining of marshes or drought can eliminate colonies completely (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144227	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, usually arriving in its breeding areas from late-April to late-May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and leaving again in late-July<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> (although its movements are poorly documented)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  The species breeds from late-June<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in mixed-species colonies and subcolonies occasionally as large as 2,000 individuals, sometimes also in more solitary scattered pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the species is gregarious<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with groups of 10-20 individuals common at feeding or resting sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and flocks of hundreds or even thousands congregating briefly at favourable sites or during bad weather<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Large groups (thousands of individuals) may also gather on German lakes and wetlands to moult before migrating to wintering areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds inland on shallow freshwater and brackish lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, river basins, marshes and bogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally also at coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for habitats with lush vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and emergent or floating plants in muddy shallow water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration the species occurs at sea, along shores, and on reservoirs, lagoons and lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, wintering along the coast on sandy and muddy beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, mouths of rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and at sea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, especially at stream and sewage outlets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species is mainly insectivorous when breeding, taking e.g. dragonflies, beetles, midges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mayflies and stoneflies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration its diet is the same as during the breeding season (consisting mainly of insects)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although during the winter the species switches to a diet of small fish and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest varies from a shallow depression<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> to a much more substantial structure depending on the situation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nests are sited on the ground in wet vegetation adjacent to or on shallow water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, floating at the edge of emergent vegetation (e.g. in reedbeds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, on grassy islands in freshwater shallow lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and occasionally also on sandbanks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies or subcolonies with nests spaced c.1-1.5 m apart, sometimes also in more solitary scattered pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144228	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A Norwegian-Russian project satellite tagged 20 individuals in 2007/2008 to assess movements at breeding grounds and their dispersal ability.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor population trends throughout the range, with particular emphasis on determining rates of decline in main breeding areas. Research the magnitude of threats facing all populations. Protect colonies from mining action.	eng
144228	distribution		<em>Pagophila eburnea</em> has a near-circumpolar distribution in the Arctic seas and pack-ice, breeding from north <strong>Canada</strong> through <strong>Greenland (to Denmark)</strong>, Svalbard (<strong>Svalbard and Jan Meyan Islands (to Norway)</strong>) and islands off northern <strong>Russia</strong>. The Russian population is estimated to number in the range of 14,500-22,000 individuals, with recent surveys giving estimates of including 1,500-3,000 breeding pairs on Franz-Josef Land (European Russia), 5,000-6,000 pairs on Severnaya Zemlya; and 1,500-3,000 pairs in the rest of the Kara Sea Islands<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Other populations include 500-700 individuals in northeast Canada<strong><sup>13,19</sup></strong>, 500-1,000 in Greenland<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and 350-500 pairs in Svalbard<strong><sup>13,24</sup></strong>. Given these totals, the global population is perhaps best placed in the band 15,000-25,000 individuals. The population is possibly larger: extrapolations based on aerial estimates suggested up to 35,000+ between Canada and Greenland in 1978-1979 <strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The Spitsbergen population is probably decreasing<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and breeding has apparently recently ceased on Victoria Island in Russia<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Other Russian populations are apparently stable, although interannual fluctuations complicate the calculation of trend estimates. Recent surveys have revealed a drastic decline in Canadian populations, falling from 2,400 birds in 1987 to 500-700 birds in 2002-2003<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, representing an 80% decline in that period across the Canadian breeding range in all three known nesting habitat types<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Birds have disappeared from 13 known and three suspected breeding colony sites.	eng
144228	habitat		This species is migratory<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It breeds between late-June and August (although most pairs do not lay until early-July, and some pairs may not breed if food conditions are unfavourable) in colonies of 5-60 pairs (rarely more than 100 pairs)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It departs from the breeding grounds between August and October, returning late-February to early-June<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is weakly gregarious, occurring singly or in flocks of up to 20 individuals<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Larger numbers also gather in the spring at hooded seal <em>Pagophilus groenlandicus</em> whelping sites, where they feed on carrion and discarded placentae<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species also regularly follows polar bears <em>Thalarctos maritimus</em> to feed on scraps from their kill<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in the high Arctic north of the July 5<sup>o</sup>C isotherm<strong><sup>17</sup></strong> on coastal or inland cliffs<strong><sup>6, 17</sup></strong> up to 300 m high<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, on broken ice-fields or on bare, level shorelines with low rocks<strong><sup>6, 17</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season it associates with the edges of pack-ice, showing a preference for areas with 70-90% ice cover<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish, shrimps, shellfish, algae and carrion (e.g. seal placentae)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of moss, straw and other debris on a snow-free area of rock<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nest sites include broad upper ledges of steep, inaccessible coastal or inland cliffs<strong><sup>6, 17</sup></strong> up to 300 m high<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, broken ice-fields and bare, level shorelines with low rocks<strong><sup>6, 17</sup></strong>. On cliffs, pairs usually nest within 10 m of the top in small colonies with inter-nest distances of 1-20 m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
144228	population		14,500-22,000 individuals in the Russian Arctic, of which 2,500-10,000 in European Russia (BirdLife International 2004, updating 8,000 estimated by Dement'ev 1951 and Bangjord <em>et al.</em> 1994), 4,000 on Severnaya Zemliya (Volkov and de Korte 1996),  8,000 on Franz Josef Land and Victoria Island; plus 500-700 in northeast Canada in 2002-2003 (Hess (2004), 500-1,000 in Greenland (BirdLife International 2004), and 50-200 in Svalbard (BirdLife International 2004), giving total of 15,550-23,900, perhaps best placed in the band 15,000-25,000 individuals. The population is possibly larger: Orr and Parsons (1982) recorded aerial estimates of up to 35,000+ between Canada and Greenland in 1978-1979 while del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> (1996) estimated possibly 25,000 pairs (75,000 individuals).	eng
144229	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is migratory<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and travels north after breeding to overwinter in the Arctic Ocean<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It arrives on its breeding grounds in late-May where it breeds from early-June in loose colonies of 2-10 pairs (rarely up to 18 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> often with other species (e.g. Arctic Tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em>)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The departure from the breeding grounds occurs from late-July onwards with the species migrating in small flocks of 2-16 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It forages solitarily or in small loose flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in the upper boreal forest (taiga) and tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> zones of the high Arctic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for nesting on small, low islets in shallow pools (created by snow-melt on tundra underlain with permafrost)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> surrounded by stands of stunted alder <em>Alnus</em> spp. and willow <em>Salix</em> spp.<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and by muddy, boggy or marshy<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong> ground with sedges and moss<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species also breeds on marshy tundra in high Arctic river deltas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and on marshy ground in well-wooded river valleys<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species forages pelagically on the open sea or along the edges of pack-ice<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> On its breeding grounds the species is chiefly insectivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its diet including Coleoptera and dipteran flies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On migration and in the winter its diet consists of small fish and surface-dwelling marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (including plankton, crustaceans, molluscs and priapulid marine worms)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of dry grass, sedge and moss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, usually on a tussock on an island in a pool in tundra or forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in near invisible colonies, often with other species, with an average distance between neighbouring nests of 43 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144229	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by the development of oil extraction in the Beaufort Sea, and also suffers from nest failures as a result of human disturbance in Canada<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is shot whilst on passage by native Alaskan peoples for food<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144230	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a long-distance migrant<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that migrates offshore between its breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It returns to the breeding grounds from late-May to early-June when the Arctic tundra is still snow-covered, and breeds in colonies of 6 to 15 or occasionally up to 60 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also nest solitarily or as single pairs amidst colonies of Arctic Tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the adults and juveniles depart the breeding grounds from late-July to August<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, migrating in flocks of up to a hundred individuals and spending the winter in small flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or as solitary individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on coastal<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> tundra wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the Arctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for swampy, moss and sedge tundra with many lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, floodlands and low-lying shallow brackish pools, especially where these contain islets or narrow peninsulas of grass or moss and have low, moist margins that provide feeding areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is pelagic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occurring in cold water upwelling zones south of the equator<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding its diet consists of adult and larval insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. springtails Collembola), Arachnids, small fish and carrion, as well as small birds and the eggs of Arctic Tern <em>Sterna paradisaea</em> and conspecifics<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also takes seeds and plant matter on its arrival to the breeding grounds before the Arctic ice melts and other prey items become available<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>Outside of the breeding season the species takes marine invertebrates and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or more substantial cup of grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, moss, seaweed and feathers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> placed on rocky, barren<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or damp ground vegetated with moss<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or grass, usually near the edge of water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144232	distribution		The Black-legged Kittiwake nests along coastlines in much of the north Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and also breeds on inlands off the northern coast of <strong>Russia</strong> and on the northern coast of <strong>Norway</strong>. It winters at sea, ranging across much of the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Overall population trends are unknown, though failed breeding seasons in 2008 and in some cases significant population declines have been observed in the United Kingdom by the RSPB.	eng
144232	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that often exceed 100,000 pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. Breeding may occur later after periods of cold weather and many individuals do not remain on the breeding grounds during such conditions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species begins to disperse from the breeding colonies between July and August, often moulting in large flocks of several thousand individuals on beaches between the breeding grounds and the open sea<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species often occurs singly or in pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but may also occur in small flocks or as dispersed aggregations<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species moults on sandy beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and at rich fish banks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g. squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crayfish)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g. aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At sea during the winter it will also take planktonic invertebrates and often exploits sewage outfalls and fishing vessels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a compacted mass of mud<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, grass and feathers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> usually built on a narrow ledge on high, steep coastal cliffs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Occasionally the species may also nest on glaciers or snow banks (where these have covered traditional cliff nesting sites), on buildings and piers, or on flat, rocky or sandy sites up to 20 km inland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in very large colonies with neighbouring nests spaced evenly 30-60 cm apart (where site availability allows)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and generally feeds within 50 km of the breeding colony<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144232	population		Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144233	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is a protected species in both the USA and Russia. The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge and Commander Islands Nature and Biosphere Reserve protect many of the breeding colonies. A rat prevention programme is underway in the Pribilof Islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor breeding populations to assess decline rates. Assess the status of rats at breeding colonies. Assess the impact of commercial fishing. Establish the proposed buffer zone around the Pribilof Islands in which trawl fishing would be prohibited<sup>3</sup>.	eng
144233	distribution		<em>Rissa brevirostris</em> breeds in the Pribilof (St Paul, St George and Otter), Bogoslof (Bogoslof and Fire) and Buldir (Buldir, Outer Rock, Middle Rock) islands, <strong>USA</strong>, and the Commander Islands (Arij Kamen, Toporkov, Bering and Mednyi), <strong>Russia</strong>. In 1990s, small  breeding colonies were also discovered on Unalga, Koniuji and Amak Islands (Aleutians)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  From the mid-1970s to mid-1990s, the known population declined by c.35%. Most of this decline was on the Pribilofs: a precipitous c.44% in breeding numbers on St George, where over 80% of the 1970s population bred. The small population on St Paul declined by 55%. The population on St George has apparently now stabilised at c.123,000 birds<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The second largest colony on Bering Island contained 12% of the population in the mid-1970s but the decline on the Pribilofs had increased this to 18% by the mid-1990s. There is some evidence of a historic decline on the Commander Islands, but no counts are available prior to the late 1980s and numbers have remained stable from the mid 1990s to 2007<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. No other colony holds more than 2% of the population, but the number of nests had increased threefold on the Bogoslof Islands and twofold on Buldir Island by the mid-1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The best current estimate of the total population is 291,000-321,000.	eng
144233	habitat		This species nests in colonies on ledges on vertical sea cliffs, and feeds on small fish (e.g. lampfish), squid and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds arrive at nesting colonies in April and leave around September, dispersing southwards over the north-east Pacific and east to the Gulf of Alaska<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144233	population		There is an estimated 160,000-180,000 breeding adults in Alaska (Kushlan <em>et al.</em> 2002) and 17,000 pairs in the Commander Islands, Russia, (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1996), which gives a global population estimate of 337,000-377,000 mature individuals, and the population is therefore best placed in the band 100,000-499,999 mature individuals.	eng
144234	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are migratory, dispersing widely after breeding before travelling southwards to the wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially in monospecific groups of 5-500 pairs (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs) or as solitary pairs amidst colonies of other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, remaining gregarious outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds in a variety of locations with bare or sparsely vegetated islands, banks, flats, or spits of dry mud and sand<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> including barrier beaches (shoals), dunes, saltmarshes, saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, freshwater lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, estuaries, deltas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, inland lakes, rivers, marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and swamps<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During this season it may also feed on emerging insects over lakes, agricultural fields, grasslands and even over semi-desert regions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species typically forages over saltpans, coastal lagoons, mudflats, marshes and wet fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, overwintering on estuaries, saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and saltmarshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or in more inland sites such as large rivers, lakes, rice-fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, sewage ponds, reservoirs, saltpans and irrigation canals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is an opportunistic feeder and is largely insectivorous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> taking adult and larval terrestrial and aquatic insects<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (such as Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera) as well as spiders, earthworms, small reptiles, frogs, small fish (6-9 cm long), aquatic invertebrates and rarely voles and small birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape in dried mud, sand or gravel<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on beaches, dry mudflats, dykes, sea-wrack on the tideline or on floating vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144234	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the deterioration and loss of habitat, e.g. through wetland drainage, agricultural intensification, pesticide pollution, fluctuating water levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, beach erosion and the development or modification of foraging sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It also suffers from reduced reproductive successes as a result of human disturbance at breeding colonies<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144235	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Although populations breeding near the equator are largely sedentary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, northern populations are strongly migratory and disperse after breeding before migrating southwards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds between April and June (northern Hemisphere) or between September and December (southern Hemisphere)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in large dense monospecific colonies or as single pairs or small groups (2-3 pairs) amidst large colonies of other species<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It is not a highly gregarious species outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but may aggregate into flocks on passage<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and during the winter it may feed in loose congregations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in rich fishing areas or at nightly roost sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The breeding, passage and wintering habitats of this species are similar, although during the winter it is largely confined to the coast<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It frequents sheltered sea coasts<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, inlets, bays, harbours<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>, saltmarshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and saltpans<strong><sup>5, 9</sup></strong>, also occurring inland on fresh or saline wetlands including large lakes, inland seas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, large rivers<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>, creeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, floodlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong> and sewage ponds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. When breeding the species shows a preference for nesting on sandy, shell-strewn or shingle beaches<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, sand-dunes, flat rock-surfaces<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, sheltered reefs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or islands<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> with sparse vegetation and flat or gently sloping margins surrounded by clear, shallow, undisturbed waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It also forms winter roosts on sandbars, mudflats and banks of shell<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish 5-25 cm in length<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> as well as the eggs and young of other birds, carrion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (e.g. crayfish)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, flying insects<strong><sup>6, 10</sup></strong> and earthworms<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression in the sand, gravel, shells, sparse vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or dried mud<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of ridges, beaches<strong><sup>3, 4, 5</sup></strong>, dunes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, flat rocky or stony islets, banks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, islands or reefs in seas, lakes and large rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, dredge spoil piles and islands in reservoirs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species nests in large colonies or as single pairs or small groups amidst colonies of other species, neighbouring nests placed between 0.7 and 4 m part<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may forage up to 60 km from the site of the breeding colony<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Management for this species should include a number of measures such as habitat and vegetation management, the use of artificial nest substrates, predator management (e.g. control of gull populations) and the minimisation of disturbance<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Habitat and vegetation management may include the creation of artificial islands with calm water on their leeward side to allow the growth of submerged vegetation and fish spawning habitats, or alternatively the creation of floating artificial nesting-rafts (e.g. barges covered with sand)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144235	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is currently threatened by the loss and deterioration of breeding habitat through accelerated vegetation succession (possibly through the introduction of exotic plant species)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and may be threatened in the future by habitat loss through inundation as a result of sea-level rise<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> especially during the early-courtship and incubation periods<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and exposure to bioaccumulated contaminants (e.g. organochlorines or methylmercury) in fish could be lowering the species's reproductive success<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Newcastle disease<strong><sup>7, 10</sup></strong> and avian botulism may also threaten concentrated local populations (although these diseases are unlikely to threaten the global population as a whole)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144237	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species undergoes post-breeding dispersive movements northwards before migrating southwards for the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds between April and June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in dense colonies of 100-4,000 pairs often near colonies of Laughing Gull <em>Larus atricilla</em> and Sandwich Tern <em>Sterna sandvicensis</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also nest singly amidst colonies of other tern species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually feeds singly or in small flocks and roosts gregariously even outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> For breeding the species shows a preference for inaccessible sites including barren sandy beaches, islands in saltmarsh, dredge spoil and coral islands surrounded by shallow water and with a high degree of visibility, no mammalian predators and little vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also forages along estuaries, in lagoons and in mangroves during this season, mostly within 100 m of the shore but up to 40 km from the breeding colony<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species forages within 100 m of the land along sheltered coasts in estuaries, harbours and river mouths, sometimes also foraging a short distance inland along broad rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish 3-18 cm long as well as squid, shrimps and crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a simple scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in sand<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in inaccessible sites surrounded by shallow water near the mouths of bays with a high degree of visibility, no mammalian predators and little vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The preferred breeding sites of this species are often vulnerable to flooding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144237	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by the contamination of large prey with pesticides (through bioaccumulation in the food chain)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has also suffered dramatic declines over the past 25 years in California due to the disappearance of its staple prey (the Pacific sardine) through overfishing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Egg-collecting is known to occur at breeding colonies of this species<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144238	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor population trends throughout the breeding range. Research links between climate, fisheries, prey availability and breeding success. Ensure continued effective protection of all breeding colonies.	eng
144238	distribution		<em>Sterna elegans</em> breeds along the Pacific coast from south California, <strong>USA</strong>, to Baja California and the Gulf of California, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>2,4</sup>. The estimated population is 51,000-90,000 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> with up to 95% breeding on Isla Rasa in the Gulf of California<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. At least three other Mexican islands are used at least occasionally<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In addition, small populations breed on Bolsa Chica (50-4,000 pairs, first recorded in 1987) and in San Diego bay (500-800 pairs), California<strong><sup>3,5,6,8</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds summer from California to Costa Rica<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds winter from Guatemala to El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are significant population fluctuations, probably caused by the effects of El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (compounded by over-fishing) on prey abundance and consequently breeding success<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Only the Isla Rasa colony breeds every year<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but fluctuations are considerably less than one order of magnitude.	eng
144238	habitat		This species breeds on flat rocky areas and is strongly tied to the coast. It forages in inshore waters, estuarine habitats, salt ponds and lagoons, with some individuals venturing further offshore in the non-breeding season.	eng
144238	population		Kushlan <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
144239	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The details of this species's movements are poorly known although some breeding populations appear to be migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in large dense colonies of up to 20,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> often with other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is gregarious throughout the year, foraging in single- or mixed-species flocks up to 400 individuals<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits tropical and subtropical<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> sandy and coral coasts and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, breeding on low-lying offshore islands, coral flats, sandbanks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and flat sandy beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, foraging in the surf and over offshore waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small pelagic fish<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and shrimps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on ridges or bare areas surrounded by vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on flat sandy beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, low-lying sandy islands, coral flats, small coral islets and sandbanks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144240	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Many populations of this species remain sedentary in their breeding areas or disperse locally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although some are more migratory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in large dense colonies, or in small groups of less than 10 pairs amidst colonies of other species (e.g. King Gull <em>Larus hartlaubii</em> or Silver Gull <em>Larus novaehollandiae</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually forages singly<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but several hundred individuals may gather at roost sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits tropical and subtropical coastlines, foraging in the shallow waters of lagoons<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, coral reefs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, bays, harbours and inlets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, along sandy, rocky, coral<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or muddy shores, on rocky outcrops in open sea, in mangrove swamps<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and also far out to sea on open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting on offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, low-lying coral reefs, sandy or rocky coastal islets, coastal spits, lagoon mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and artificial islets in saltpans and sewage works<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> within 3 km of the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of pelagic fish 10-50 cm long<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although it will also take cephalopods (e.g. squid), crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and prawns<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), insects and hatchling turtles opportunistically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape in bare sand, rock or coral<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in flat open sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on offshore islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, low-lying coral reefs, sandy or rocky coastal islets, coastal spits, lagoon mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or islets in saltpans and sewage works<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species nests in dense colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with neighbouring nests very close together (rims may be touching)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and usually forages within 3 km of the breeding colony<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144240	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to human disturbance (e.g. tourism) at breeding colonies on offshore islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> which can lead to nest desertion and increased predation of eggs and nestlings by gulls and ibises<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by injury and mortality from entanglement with baited hooks, fishing lines, nets and human refuse (e.g. plastic bags)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Most breeding colonies of this species are subject to subsistence egg collecting<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144241	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Matsu colony and surrounding islands were declared a national nature reserve in 2000 and eight islets have been declared 'preserved areas' with no-one allowed to land during the breeding season<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Taiwanese Coast Guard patrols waters around the Matsu Islands and has recently begun seizing fishermen's nets if they are caught egg-collecting - this appears to be a major deterrent as there has been no recorded egg loss since<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Reclamation at Min Jiang estuary was halted in 2006 and the site is now a county-level reserve<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Thailand, it is nationally protected, and the locality where it was historically recorded is protected as the Laem Talumphuk Non-Hunting Area. . An 18 month 'Critically Endangered Chinese Crested Tern' project began in July 2008, aiming to locate undiscovered breeding colonies and feeding areas in Fujian Province, and is also conducting education and awareness work at schools and local communities around key sites in northern Fujian, and raising awareness of the need for strengthened law enforcement and other actions among stakeholders in Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was published in 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>A CMS action plan has been drafted, with recommended actions including to:</strong> <strong>Conduct surveys at its former localities, both in the presumed breeding and non-breeding ranges, and at other potentially suitable breeding sites in China. Take immediate conservation measures to safeguard any sites found, especially nesting colonies. Upgrade the level of protection afforded to Min Jiang Esturay. Monitor the known breeding colonies, while taking care to avoid disturbance. Enforce a ban on landing on the breeding islands. Stop exploitation of the species, ensuring no eggs are taken - posting a warden at the Matsu Islands would be ideal, however this may not currently be possible for political reasons. Survey wintering and migration sites. Lobby to reduce the amount of pollution from industry. Strengthen the species's legal protection status. Conduct an education/awareness raising campaign to raise the profile of the species. . Implementation of suggested actions is needed by all range countries.</strong>	eng
144241	distribution		<em>Sterna bernsteini</em> is an exceptionally poorly-known species, recorded breeding recently at only two sites on the eastern coast of <strong>China</strong>: Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces and, outside the breeding season, on Halmahera, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and in <strong>Taiwan (China)</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong> and the <strong>Philippines</strong>. In June-July 1937, a total of 21 specimens were collected on islets off the coast of Shandong, where it was presumably breeding, indicating that it was locally not uncommon in the past. Until the rediscovery of the breeding sites on Mazu Islands, Fujian and Jiushan Islands, Zhejiang, the only records were from China, in Hebei in 1978 and Shandong in 1991, with a possible record from peninsular Thailand in 1980. However, in summer 2000 four adults and four chicks were found amongst a colony of other tern species on an island in the Matsu Archipelago off the east coast of mainland China (but administered by Taipei). Birds failed to breed the next year but were present again in 2002<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and sighted again in 2008. In 2003, young and downy chicks were seen with adult birds, and in 2006, 5-7 birds, including a pair of adults and a juvenile were present<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with a total of 20, including three chicks, reported in 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A small group was also found breeding at Jiushan off the Zhejiang coast in 2004<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but none bred here in 2005 or 2006; four pairs were recorded in 2007 but all eggs were collected by local people<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, four adults, considered to be a former breeding group of the Jiushan birds, successfully fledged two juveniles in 2009 from the Zhoushan Wusishan Archipelago nature reserve<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. One to four birds are present from April to September at the Min Jiang estuary, Fujian, and it is thought there may be another undiscovered breeding site in the area. Its movements and wintering grounds remain poorly understood, but raised awareness in Taiwan<strong> </strong>(China) has resulted in several records of 1-2 birds using the Pachang River outside the breeding season since 1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and more recently in 2004 at Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve, Shanghai<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the Xisha Archipelago, indicating that it may winter around islands in the South China Sea. Its current population is unknown, but is presumably tiny given the paucity of recent records.	eng
144241	habitat		Records indicate that it is exclusively coastal and pelagic in distribution. In China (including Taiwan), it has been found on offshore islets (breeding) and tidal mudflats.	eng
144241	population		Based on the paucity of recent records and tiny number of known breeding pairs (c.10 pairs annually) the global population is thought to be tiny.	eng
144242	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is migratory, undergoing post-breeding dispersive movements north and south to favoured feeding grounds before migrating southward<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in dense colonies with other terns or Black-headed Gulls <em>Larus ridibundus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is gregarious throughout the year, often forming feeding flocks where prey is abundant or concentrated (although it may also feed solitarily)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species forms colonies on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes, shingle beaches and extensive deltas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with immediate access to clear waters with shallow sandy substrates rich in surface-level fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents sandy or rocky beaches, mudflats fringed by mangroves, estuaries, harbours and bays, often feeding over inlets and at sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of surface-dwelling marine fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> 9-15 cm long<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as small shrimps, marine worms and shorebird nestlings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on raised, open, unvegetated sand, gravel, mud or bare coral substrates preferably far from upright vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on sandy islands, rocky calcareous islets, sand-spits, sand-dunes and shingle beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species forms very dense colonies during the breeding season in which the eggs of neighbouring pairs may only be 20 cm apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species responds favourably to habitat management such as vegetation clearance, and can be readily attracted to suitable nesting habitats by the use of decoys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144242	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is particularly vulnerable to human disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. from tourists) especially near breeding colonies on beaches early in the breeding season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is also sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is threatened by the loss or degradation of its favoured breeding habitats through inundation, wind-blown sand and erosion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and has suffered previous local declines from to exposure to bioaccumulated organochlorine pollutants in marine fish<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. Egg collecting at breeding colonies also poses a threat to the species throughout the tropics<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted in West Africa during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144243	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Breeding pairs are known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation) (Burgess and Hirons 1992) and nesting-boxes provided (chicks may also use nest-boxes as shelters if adults do not nest in them directly) (Avery et al. 1995, 16, Environment Canada 2000, Newton and Crowe 2000). Increased breeding successes can also be gained through nest-site vegetation management (Casey et al. 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000), landscaping (e.g. creating terraces or infilling flooded hollows), flood prevention (Newton and Crowe 2000), and continuous wardening to minimise unauthorised disturbance (Casey et al. 1995, Newton and Crowe 2000). Non-lethal predator control (e.g. destroying eggs and nests of gull species attempting to nest on islands) can also be successful in increasing the overall breeding success of the species (Casey et al. 1995, Environment Canada 2000, Leonard et al. 2004).	eng
144243	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in widely but sparsely distributed colonies along the east coast and offshore islands of Canada, USA, from Honduras to Venezuela, possibly to Brazil, the Caribbean (including the Bahamas, Greater and Lesser Antilles and the West Indies), UK, France, Ireland, Portugal (Azores, Salvages and perhaps Madeira), Spain (Canary Islands), South Africa, Kenya, Somalia, Madagascar, Oman, Seychelles, St Brandon and the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius), Maldives, Chagos (British Indian Ocean Territory), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Sri Lanka, Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Indonesia, Fiji, Solomon Islands, New Guinea (Papua New Guinea), New Caledonia (to France) and Australia (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998).	eng
144243	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in large, dense single- or mixed-species colonies that may contain several thousands of pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It remains gregarious throughout the year, roosting in large groups (Snow and Perrins 1998, Urban et al. 1986) and feeding singly, in small loose groups (Snow and Perrins 1998) or in flocks of many hundreds of individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998, Urban et al. 1986). The species nests on sand-dunes, sand-spits, shingle beaches, reefs (Snow and Perrins 1998), saltmarshes and rocky, sandy or coral islands (del Hoyo et al. 1996), showing a preference for densely vegetated sites in temperate regions but sparsely vegetated sites in the tropics (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It also shows a preference for nest sites close to clear, shallow, sandy fishing grounds in tidal bays and sheltered inshore waters (Snow and Perrins 1998). Throughout the year the species often rests and forages in sheltered estuaries, creeks, inshore waters and up to several kilometres offshore (del Hoyo et al. 1996), moving to warm tropical coasts after breeding (Snow and Perrins 1998). Diet consists predominantly of small pelagic fish (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Urban et al. 1986), although it will also take insects and marine invertebrates such as crustaceans (Urban et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996). The nest is a bare scrape in sand, shingle or coral rubble (del Hoyo et al. 1996), preferably in sites surrounded by walls and rocks (Newton and Crowe 2000) or, in temperate regions, in the shelter of vegetation (Richards 1990, Snow and Perrins 1998), also in crevices between and under rocks, or in the entrances to rabbit or Puffin burrows (Snow and Perrins 1998).	eng
144243	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by a number of agents of which hunting in the wintering quarters may be the most significant (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper et al. 1984, Avery et al. 1995). Trapping of tern species is still prevalent in Ghana, which has the highest number of wintering S. dougalli of the western African countries (Avery et al. 1995). At the northern European breeding grounds it is not clear which threats are having the most impact. Disturbance and egg-collecting have been stopped in most areas by the use of wardens, but the former still threatens some major colonies in the Azores. Predation by rats, ferrets, red foxes and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus occurs locally, and can have significant effects, including complete breeding failure at some Azores colonies8. Natural predators can often take a great toll on localised colonies, particularly when terns are disturbed from the nest by other birds and humans (Buckley and Buckley 1984, Cooper et al. 1984). Habitat loss in northern Europe is not a major problem but has caused the local extinction of some colonies, as have extreme weather events (Avery et al. 1995).	eng
144246	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on the coasts of southern Peru and Espírito Santo, east-central Brazil south to Tierra del Fuego, Argentina and Chile, and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) (Duffy et al. 1984, Schlatter 1984, Woods 1988, De Tarso Zuquim Antas 1991). In the austral winter, most birds breeding in the extreme south move north to Uruguay (where breeding remains unconfirmed), and the species also winters north to Ecuador and Bahia, Brazil (Antas 1991). There are also large colonies on inshore islands in Guanabara Bay and off the Espírito Santo coast, Brazil (Antas 1991). The population on the Falkland Islands was recently estimated at 6,000-12,000 pairs (Woods and Woods 1997), and a colony exceeding 1,000 pairs was discovered in south Peru in 1995 (del Hoyo et al. 1996), where it is fairly common (Clements and Shany 2001). However, although formerly locally common in Chile, only two breeding sites are now known (Damas Island and Inutil Bay near Porvenir), and extensive searches to locate former colonies between 1994 and 1997 were unsuccessful (Mickstein in litt. 1998).	eng
144246	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is almost exclusively coastal, breeding on rocky or sandy beaches, cliff tops and small islands. Non-breeders frequent coastal waters, beaches, estuaries and harbours. It feeds mainly on small fish and crustaceans and probably also takes insects. Laying occurs in April-June in Brazil, early November in north Argentina and early December in south Argentina. Two to three eggs are laid (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144246	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Tourism may be responsible for the decline of the Chilean population, with a breeding colony at Lake Calafquen apparently deserted due to disturbance from bathing tourists and water bikes (Mickstein in litt. 1998). Tourism has also increased markedly on the Argentinean coast, and this has presumably had a detrimental effect on at least some breeding colonies (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Egg collecting is also a problem at colonies in Espírito Santo, Brazil (Antas 1991), and may have contributed to the decline of the Chilean population (Mickstein in litt. 1998). Commercial fishing and industry are considered potential threats to the Falkland Islands population (Woods and Woods 1997).	eng
144247	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs (inland colonies often smaller and more widely-dispersed than coastal ones)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may moult on arrival in its the wintering grounds (e.g. the Caribbean), during which it may become vulnerable to human exploitation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is gregarious throughout year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and shoals of fish may attract dense feeding flocks, although it otherwise feeds singly or in small loose groups<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. Most individuals forage 5-10 km from breeding colonies, occasionally feeding at sea 15 km offshore<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Along the coast it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in estuaries<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, saltmarshes<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, mainland peninsulas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Inland it may nest in similar habitats including sand or shingle lakes shores<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, shingle banks in rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, sand- or gravel-pits<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, marshes, ponds, grassy areas and patches of dredged soil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species winters on sheltered coastal waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, estuaries and along large rivers, occupying harbours, jetties, piers, beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coastal wetlands including lagoons, rivers, lakes, swamps and saltworks, mangroves and saltmarshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During this season it roosts on unvegetated sandy beaches, shores of estuaries or lagoons, sandbars and rocky shores<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow depression on open substrates with little or no vegetation placed near a vertical object (e.g. rock, shell, plant or artefact) to provide shelter for chicks and to facilitate nest identification<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nest sites include the edges of bare sand amongst vegetation, rocks or logs, open areas on the margins of vegetation on beaches, the edges of mats of vegetation in marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and grassy or rocky substrates on rocky islets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species will also readily nest on artificial rafts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Management techniques used to increase the breeding numbers and reproductive success of the species in the Great Lakes region of North America include creating artificial nesting sites, vegetation management, enhancement of existing nesting habitat, using models and vocalisation to attract breeding pairs and predator control (e.g. mammal-exclusion, destruction of gull nests, direct predator removal, or preventative measures against gull nesting)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Artificial nesting rafts have proved effective in promoting breeding success in areas where there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat or where human disturbance is a particular threat (1996)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Using fire to expose the ground surface in areas where vegetation succession is proceeding too far towards closed vegetation stages has been successful in some areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Culling predatory gulls can be an effective management tool to enhance breeding productivity<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, although some management plans recommend non-lethal harassment techniques that target gulls (e.g. egg and nest destruction, conspicuous human observers, gull displacement walks, and pyrotechnics) to reduce predation on nesting colonies rather then cullling<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144247	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	During the breeding season the species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies<strong><sup>6, 8</sup></strong> (e.g. from off-road vehicles, recreation, motor-boats, personal watercraft and dogs)<strong><sup>1, 9, 10, 11</sup></strong>, and to the flooding of nest sites as a result of naturally fluctuating water levels<strong><sup>1, 8, 11</sup></strong>. On its breeding grounds the species is also threatened by habitat loss as a result of coastal developement<strong><sup>1, 6, 8, 11</sup></strong>, erosion<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, vegetation overgrowth (rapid vegetation succession encroaching upon nesting habitats)<strong><sup>1, 6, 11</sup></strong>, and chemical pollution (which may also result in eggshell thinning)<strong><sup>1, 6, 11</sup></strong>. It suffers predation at nesting colonies from rats (especially on islands)<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong> and from expanding populations of large gull species<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> such as Herring Gulls <em>Larus argentatus</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (gulls may also prevent the species from nesting in the area by colonising it first)<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is harvested semi-commercially on its wintering grounds in the Caribbean<strong><sup>1, 9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144248	distribution		The Arctic Tern has a circumpolar range, breeding in the Arctic and subarctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America as far south as Brittany, <strong>France</strong> and Massachusetts (<strong>USA</strong>). It is a transequatorial migrant, and can be found wintering throughout the Southern Ocean to the edge of the Antarctic ice and the southern tips of South America and Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Overall population trends are relatively unknown, though the 2008 breeding season in the  north of the United Kingdom was reported to be a failure by the RSPB.	eng
144248	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is a very strong migrant and makes exceptional long-distance movements offshore or along western continental coastlines<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> between its high Arctic breeding grounds and Antarctic wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds between May and July (although the exact timing varies with temperature and food availability) in solitary pairs or colonies of a few to several hundred pairs (usually 2-25)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and remains gregarious throughout the year especially when roosting, foraging<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and on passage<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species generally feeds within 3 km of breeding colonies but may occasionally forage up to 50 km away<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On its wintering grounds in Antarctica it may also forage in association with Antarctic Minke Whale <em>Balaenoptera bonaerensis</em> in the open ocean north of the pack-ice zone<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds along northern coastlines<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>and on inshore islands<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> as well as inland on tundra and forest-tundra<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for habitats with a vegetation cover of less than 40 %, nesting on sand or shingle beaches, ridges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and spits<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rocky ground<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and small islands<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> in lakes and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also nest on islets or banks along rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, on swampy tundra<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and peatlands with bog hummocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and reed-covered flats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or on inland heaths, rough pastures<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, meadows<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and sedge grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> not far from water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species also forages offshore, in ice-filled coastal bays or over wet tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage it largely flies over open ocean<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> resting at sea on kelp, logs or flotsam, but may occur inland or along coastlines on beaches, reefs and spits<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is pelagic, foraging at the edges of pack-ice, icebergs and ice-floes near shore (especially in channels between ice-floes)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and up to 24 km offshore<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> often in association with Antarctic Minke Whale <em>Balaenoptera bonaerensis</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It also roosts on ice-floes and icebergs during this season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish<strong><sup> </sup></strong>as well as crustaceans (especially planktonic species), molluscs, insects (e.g. caterpillars, Chironomidae) and earthworms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It will also take berries in the early spring on arrival on its breeding grounds but does not readily switch to other prey items when preferred prey supplies fail<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in sand, shingle or turf<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on beaches, ridges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and spits<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rocky ground<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, small islands<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> in lakes, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, swampy tundra<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and peatlands with bog hummocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and reed-covered flats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or on inland heaths, rough pastures<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, meadows<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and sedge grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> not far from water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It will also nest on artificial structures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Removing feral American mink <em>Neovison vison</em> from a large archipelago with many small islands in the Baltic Sea resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species in the area<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Gull control measures may also be practised successfully at some sites to reduce predation and displacement, especially when carried out in conjunction with the use of recordings and models to induce recolonistion of nesting terns<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144248	population		Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144249	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding populations in the southern part of this species's range are migratory, post-breeding flocks migrating long distances to winter off the southern coasts of South America and South Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Those populations that winter in South America arrive from mid April and depart again from mid-October, during which time the adults moult their flight feathers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some populations around Antarctica remain close to their breeding grounds all year round however and moult on ice-floes or icebergs on open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds between November and December although the exact timing varies depending on climate and food availability<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests in small loose colonies of 5-20 pairs although it may often nest singly and has been known to nest in larger colonies of up to 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It forages in inshore waters singly or in small flocks<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and in the winter communal roosts of 10-1,200 individuals often form<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on rocky areas very near the coast or a short distance inland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, showing a strong preference for nesting sites that are inaccessible to ground predators<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable nesting habitats include vegetated or unvegetated rocky islets, offshore stacks, coastal cliffs, gravel, rocky and sandy beaches and sparse scrubland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species forages in inshore waters up to 200 m from the shore and in coves, bays, inlets, harbours and off estuaries, especially where there are large forests of kelp<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species moves to the nearest area of open water or to pelagic zones far from land<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where it forms communal roosts on ice-floes and icebergs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and forages in patches of unfrozen inshore water or in open water along the edge of ice<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. More migratory populations also winter off the temperate southern coasts of South America and South Africa with adjacent cold water currents<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, inhabiting rocky headlands and beaches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish although it also takes polychaetes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, molluscs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. limpets)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, crustaceans (e.g. euphausiids and amphipods), insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and algae<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in natural depressions in rock or in shallow scrapes in soil, sand or vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that may be positioned on ledges or crevices of sheer cliffs, boulders at the base of cliffs, headlands, stacks, rocky islets, ridges, spits and peninsulas, rock fields by freshwater, and beaches of gravel, coarse shingle and sand<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144249	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to human disturbance and to the introduction of ground-based predators on offshore islands including domestic or feral cats <em>Felis catus</em><strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144250	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The introduction of salmonid fish into rivers on Kerguelen has provided a new source of food.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Reassess the population size on Kerguelen<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Study the species on Kerguelen during a breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Prevent the introduction of feral cats and other predators to breeding colonies.	eng
144250	distribution		<em>Sterna virgata</em> breeds in the southern Indian Ocean on the Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (10-40 pairs on Marion Island during 1996-1999, 20 pairs on Prince Edward Island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), Crozet Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) (150-200 pairs over 1980-1982) and Kerguelen Islands (also French Southern Territories) (1,000-2,000 pairs during 1982-1985). The total population is estimated at 3,500-6,500 individuals<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. There are no recent counts from the main breeding area on Kerguelen<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and thus population trends are unknown, but it is assumed that the species is not undergoing any significant decline.	eng
144250	habitat		This species is apparently sedentary, dispersing only to seas adjacent to its breeding islands outside the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits rocky, volcanic islands<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species feeds on fish and crustaceans in seaweed <em>Macrocystis</em> beds, the surf zone, and in shallow water close to shore, also foraging in terrestrial vegetation for invertebrates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It breeds in scree and sparse vegetation on cliff-tops and river flats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Nests are assembled on moss from stones and twigs and are often lined with plant material<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Egg-laying commences in mid-October, and continues until January, with a peak in breeding from early November to mid-December. One or two eggs are laid. The incubation period is 24 days, followed by a fledging period of 31-39 days and then 20 days of dependence<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144250	population		The total population has been estimated at 3,500-6,500 individuals (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1988; Thibault and Guyst 1993).	eng
144252	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in south-east Brazil and Uruguay, through to Patagonia, though rarely Santa Cruz, Argentina, and in Chile (from Aconcaqua to Llanquihue). In winter, the species moves north as far as southern Peru on the west coast, and Rio de Janiero, Brazil, on the east coast.	eng
144252	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species only nests in large wetlands, suggesting habitat loss may be a potentially serious problem (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144253	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds between May and July<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in solitary pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or small monospecific groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually of 1-15 pairs<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (rarely over 40 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> occasionally amidst colonies of other terns<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Northern breeders depart the breeding grounds from late-July onwards<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, travelling first to moulting sites where they form large roosts before continuing southwards<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and usually feeds singly, in small groups or larger scattered flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and congregating in many thousands on passage in small wetlands where fish fry are abundant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, shell fragments, pebbles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rocks or coral fragments<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on seashores<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or in estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, offshore coral reefs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rivers, lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also nest on dry mudflats in grassy areas<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> but shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for extensive foraging flights<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and saltpans and may foraging at sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 15 km offshore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. <em>Ammodytes </em>spp., roach <em>Rutilus rutilus</em>, rudd <em>Scardinius erythrophthalmus</em>, carp <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and perch <em>Perca fluviatilis</em>) and crustaceans 3-6 cm long as well as insects, annelid worms and molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a bare scrape<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> positioned on the ground in less than 15 % vegetation cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on beaches of sand, pebbles, shingle, shell fragments, coral fragments or rock<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> above the high tide-line and often only a few metres away from shallow clear water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Alternatively in more marshy habitats (e.g. coastal saltmarshes) the species may build a nest of shells or vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in small loose colonies, neighbouring nests usually placed more than 2 m apart, and may forage up to 3 km away from nesting sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches<strong><sup>2, 11</sup></strong>. There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The scheme particularly specifies that small bare islets of 0.1-0.8 ha with very reduced vegetation cover (less than 30 %) and sward heights less than 20 cm should be maintained or created as additional nesting sites for this species<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144253	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat destruction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT)<strong><sup>7, 10, 12</sup></strong> and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success<strong><sup>7, 10, 12</sup></strong>. The species also suffers from local egg collecting<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144254	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This poorly known species breeds along the coasts of the Red Sea south to Socotra (Yemen) and Somalia, and around the Persian Gulf off Saudi Arabia, Iran and Oman, to north-west India, Sri Lanka, Adu Atoll (Maldives), and possibly the Amirantes and Seychelles (del Hoyo et al. 1996). North-east African birds move south as far as Tanzania in winter, and birds around the Red Sea also move south within the breeding range. Birds in south-east Somalia, Sudan and Socotra are resident. Other populations appear to migrate eastwards to the west coast of India, Sri Lanka, Laccadives (to India) and Maldives, Seychelles and Malaysia (Snow and Perrins 1998). The location of its breeding colonies is mostly unknown, but in Iran, c.150 pairs nested in the 1970s in seven colonies, a small population was known to breed in Bahrain which appeared to decrease substantially from 1969-1971 to 1981, and 29+ pairs bred in 1983 on the Farasan Archipelago in Saudi Arabia (Gallagher et al. 1984).	eng
144254	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Behaviour The movements of this species are not well known although many individuals winter outside of their breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species breeds in solitary pairs or small loose colonies of 5-30 pairs (Gallagher et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It inhabits shallow tropical and subtropical inshore waters, estuaries, tidal lagoons and harbours often feeding up to 15 km offshore and nesting up to 2 km inland (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). Diet consists of small fish, crustaceans, molluscs and insects (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The nest is a hollow (e.g. an animal footprint) in bare sand, shingle or dried mud just above the high tide line on beaches, on mudflats or up to 2 km inland (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). It shows a preference for nesting on small mounds of wind-blown sand surrounding plants or other objects, and in breeding colonies neighbouring nests are usually placed between 20 and 100 m apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144254	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats and is highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144257	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In Chile, CONAMA (2006) has recognized the species as threatened with extinction.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct searches for colonies in previously unsurveyed areas or in areas that need confirmation of breeding<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Monitor known colonies to assess trends. Restore abandoned colonies using decoys and playbacks. Uplist the conservation status in Peru from Vulnerable to Endangered and include monthly evaluations for the presence of terns in any project for the construction of roads or other facilities in coastal desert plains (up to 5 km inland). Protect known colonies from habitat destruction, disturbance and pollution.	eng
144257	distribution		<em>Sterna lorata</em> is restricted to the Humboldt Current zone from north Peru to the Peninsula of Mejillones in Chile<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Its movements are poorly known, but it has been recorded north to central Ecuador<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There are now only three known breeding sites in Peru<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> and nine in Chile (all these sites located in the Peninsula of Mejillones and nearby areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). A well-known former breeding site at Puerto Viejo is now heavily developed and no longer supports breeding birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and population declines have been noted in some other localities (Pampa Mejillones and La Portada in Chile<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). One locality was previously reported to have tens of thousands of individuals, but the population is now thought to be significantly reduced, as the numbers at all sites are estimated at 950-1,100 individuals and 150 to 160 pairs<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Some reports suggest that the population may have declined by 50% in the last 10 years<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. However, there are still unsurveyed sandy beaches away from the Pan-American Highway that could be suitable for nesting, and old colonies that have not been visited since their discovery decades ago, so the total is perhaps likely to fall in the range of 1,000-2,500 individuals.	eng
144257	habitat		It breeds either on broad sandy beaches and dunes (100 - 200 m from the high tide mark) associated with wetlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, or in desert plains 1-3 km inland<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. The shallow waters of wetlands are thought to offer optimal conditions for foraging, but within and outside the breeding season<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Egg-laying is asynchronous both within and between pairs, and spread from August to February<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. Post-breeding dispersal occurs from April to July to unknown areas (probably offshore)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Clutch size is one or two eggs, but usually only one chick fledges<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. It nests in small groups (3 -25 nests) in loose aggregations, with inter-nest distances usually >100 m<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. Eggs and chicks are well camouflaged with the bare ground. It generally forages in inshore areas, but occasionally seen 10-70 km offshore<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Main prey include anchovies (<em>Engraulis ringens</em>), South Pacific sauris (<em>Scomberesox saurus scombroides</em>)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, silversides (<em>Odonthestes regia regia</em>) and Mote sculpins (<em>Normanychtis crockeri</em>)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144257	population		Estimates range from 100 pairs (G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. 2005) to 5,000 pairs (M. Plenge <em>in litt</em>. 1999). Given that there are still unsurveyed sandy beaches away from the Pan-American Highway, the total is perhaps likely to fall in the range of 1,000-2,499 individuals.	eng
144258	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Many colonies in Australia are regularly monitored, and intensive management has led to an increase in the population on New Zealand.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor all breeding colonies annually to assess trends. Control introduced mammals and other nest predators at important breeding sites. Oppose developments which would encroach on breeding colonies. Restrict access to important breeding colonies.	eng
144258	distribution		<em>Sterna nereis</em> occurs in <strong>Australia</strong> (subspecies <em>nereis</em>), <strong>New Caledonia</strong> <strong>(to France) </strong>(<em>exsul</em>) and northern <strong>New Zealand</strong> (<em>davisae</em>). In Australia, subspecies <em>nereis</em> may number less than 5,000 mature individuals at up to 170 sites, with less than 1,600 pairs in Western Australia, a few hundred pairs in each of Tasmania and South Australia and just a few pairs in Victoria<strong><sup>5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. Though it may be stable in Western Australia, numbers elsewhere in Australia have declined rapidly during the last thirty years. In New Zealand, <em>davisae</em> plummeted to three pairs in 1983 but, due to intensive conservation efforts has increased and in 1998, totalled 25-30 birds and 8-10 pairs over three sites, and in 2006, 35-40 pairs<strong><sup>1,2,9</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, <em>exul</em> numbers 100-200 pairs, but was formerly much more abundant<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. One small population in the Southern Lagoon of New Caledonia may be increasing<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144258	habitat		It breeds on sheltered mainland coastlines and close islands, usually on sandy beaches above the high tide line but below where vegetation occurs<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs at different times at different locations, but generally occurs from mid to late October until February<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Adults have been observed to conduct post-fledgling parental care in New Zealand<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It feeds almost entirely on fish mainly by following shoals of feeding predatory fish, and are rarely found out of sight of land<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It lays one or two eggs. The oldest recorded individuals are at least 13 (New Zealand) and 17 years (Australia). Observations over one season on New Caledonia revealed a low rate of nesting success, with only one in five nests producing a fledgling<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144258	population		In Australia, subspecies <em>nereis</em> may number less than 5,000 mature individuals at up to 170 sites, with less than 1,600 pairs in Western Australia, a few hundred pairs in each of Tasmania and South Australia and just a few pairs in Victoria. In New Zealand, <em>davisae</em> numbers 35-40 pairs. In New Caledonia, <em>exul</em> numbers 100-200 pairs.	eng
144259	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II. In November 2000, information boards and barriers were used to successfully prevent off-road vehicles entering the breeding site at Caution Reef. This resulted in a slightly increased nesting density and enabled hatching success to increase from 56% to 80%<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor population trends. Designate disturbance-free areas on nesting beaches. Protect important breeding sites.	eng
144259	distribution		<em>Sterna balaenarum</em> is recorded in the breeding season along the coast of <strong>Namibia </strong>(98% of the population nest between the Orange and Cunene rivers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>), south to the Cape provinces in <strong>South Africa</strong> (less than 125 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) and north to Cabinda in <strong>Angola</strong><sup>3</sup>. It disperses north after the breeding season and is recorded regularly from the coastal waters of <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Congo</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong> and <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong><sup>2,3,7</sup>. During 2002, the total population was estimated at 14,000 birds<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>, with peak density in the central area of its range (around 23&#176;S) - apparently the main spawning ground of many fish species - and decreasing density north and south along Namibia's 1,470 km coast<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144259	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a partial migrant<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It breeds between late October and mid-November<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> in small groups usually consisting of 4-10 pairs, although occasionally of up to 60<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. Pre-migratory flocks of tens, hundreds or occasionally thousands of birds gather at the Namibian coast in April<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and then move northwards as far as Nigeria and Ghana<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. The species is most numerous here between July and October<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, coinciding with the arrival of strong upwellings off the Ghanaian coast which bring spawning fish inshore<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. About 100 individuals remain in the breeding grounds year-round. Outside the breeding season it roosts colonially<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> but usually feeds solitarily, with individuals spaced 10-50m apart<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It returns to its breeding grounds in September and October<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is predominantly coastal<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on gravel and stony plains, salt pans and dunes<strong><sup>7,10,12</sup></strong>, sometimes in sheltered bays and shallow reefs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but often several kilometres inland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Recently breeding has been observed up to 11.5 km from the coast in southern Namibia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It will also breed on rocky ledges and at rehabilitated diamond mines, favouring breeding localities that provide good visibility<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It shuns outer beach areas that are frequented by predators<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. There are very few records of breeding on islands<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the non-breeding season it is found on more exposed, high-energy coasts<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>The species usually feeds in the shallow, inshore waters of bays, estuaries, lagoons and salt-pans and in the surf zone<strong><sup>3,10,11</sup></strong>, but occasionally forages in the open ocean, as far as 5km from land<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mainly on small fish (usually less than 50mm in length<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>), including mullet<em> Mugil richardsonii</em> and anchovy <em>Engraulis japonica</em>, as well as small squid<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Eggs are laid in an non-descript scrape<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, sometimes lined with shell chips or small stones<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The clutch-size is usually one, rarely two, and the incubation period is 18-22 days, followed by a fledging period of 20 days and 2.5 months of dependency<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144259	population		The population is estimated at 14,000 individuals (Simmons <em>et al</em>. 1998; du Toit <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
144260	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most of this species is migratory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although individuals breeding in East African may remain in their breeding range throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds with other tern species in well-dispersed colonies of 10-200 pairs (sometimes up to 900 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and remains gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits tropical coasts and inshore waters, foraging mainly within 3 km of land over coral reefs or occasionally up to 10 km offshore<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests on rock, sand, gravel or coral islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, bare and exposed sandflats and sparsely vegetated open ground on sand-dunes and above the high-water mark on beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small fish (average 5 cm long) and invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape on rock, sand, gravel or coral in barren or sparsely vegetated areas on islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sandflats, sand-dunes and beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144260	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In India the species is contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) at levels which may affect embryo development<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is subject to egg collecting from colonies in many areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144261	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from a number of protected areas throughout its range including Harike Wildlife Sanctuary, Keoladeo National Park, Rajiv Gandhi National Park, Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Kaziranga National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Organise a population census in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Nepal during the breeding season. </strong><strong>Conduct surveys in Myanmar to clarify its current distribution and status. </strong><strong>Reduce threats at important breeding colonies. </strong><strong>Campaign for increased representation of large waterways in protected-area systems. <br/> <br/> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144261	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sterna acuticauda</em> is known from southern <strong>China </strong>(previously regular in Yunnan, now very rare), <strong>Pakistan </strong>(frequent in north Sind and Punjab), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally fairly common, but some evidence for localised declines), <strong>Nepal</strong> (locally fairly common, declining in some areas), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (previously common, now a local breeder), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(previously abundant, now a scarce to uncommon resident), <strong>Thailand </strong>(formerly resident in the north-west, now very rare and probably extinct as breeding species), <strong>Laos </strong>(previously bred in large numbers along the Mekong channel, now very rarely recorded), <strong>Cambodia </strong>(in early 1960s the species was apparently fairly common along the Mekong; just two pairs were located in 2003<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and Vietnam (formerly occurred regularly in Cochinchina, and occasionally in Annam, but there are no recent records). There has been a decline in South-East Asia and it is now almost extinct in the region. Nevertheless, the suggestion that the world population could be below 10,000 seems unlikely given its status in South Asian countries. Further information on trends and status is needed from elsewhere in the subcontinent. If it appears that the species may have declined by >30% over the last 27 years (three generations) then the species would warrant upgrading to Vulnerable.  <br/></p>	eng
144261	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found on large rivers (usually breeding on sandspits and islands) and marshes, occasionally on smaller pools and ditches, in lowlands (but not on the coast) up to 730&#160;m.  <br/></p>	eng
144261	population	BirdLife International, 2008	<10,000 individuals estimated by Perennou <em>et al</em>. (1994), but BirdLife International (2001) noted that this is likely to be over-cautious given that it is locally common in South Asia. Population estimate probably best placed in the band 10,000-25,000 individuals <br/></p>	eng
144261	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats include the destruction of breeding habitat (islands and sandspits in larger rivers are increasingly cultivated), the collection of eggs for food, overfishing and the flooding of nests, often caused by dams. Increased disturbance and over-harvesting of wetland products are blamed for the recent complete disappearance of the breeding population within Chitwan National Park (Nepal)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/>Threats include the destruction of breeding habitat (islands and sandspits in larger rivers are increasingly cultivated), the collection of eggs for food, overfishing and the flooding of nests, often caused by dams. Increased disturbance and over-harvesting of wetland products are blamed for the recent complete disappearance of the breeding population within Chitwan National Park (Nepal)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144264	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations are migratory and dispersive<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> and abandon their breeding sites at the end of the breeding season to overwinter at sea<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its detailed migratory movements are largely unknown however<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and some populations in the Indian Ocean are entirely sedentary or only partially migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically, most populations breeding annually in groups of 2-30 pairs (sometimes up to 400-2,000 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that are not strictly colonial but involve solitary pairs congregating in suitable habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. When nesting the species often associates with nesting <em>Sterna fuscata</em> or <em>Sterna bergii</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the adults and newly fledged young leave the breeding colonies in loose flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and migrate alone, in small groups of 10-12 individuals or more rarely in larger groups of up to 200 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species is thought to occur singly<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits offshore tropical and subtropical seas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on the periphery of vegetated coastal and continental<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> coral, rock or rubble islands and beaches<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, volcanic stacks and exposed reefs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, foraging inshore and up to 50 km offshore (although mostly within 15 km of land)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and feeding from the surface of the water or up to 20 cm below it<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Away from the breeding grounds the species is entirely pelagic and often associates with patches of macroalgae (e.g. <em>Sargassum</em> spp.) or flotsam<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> which it uses for perching<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its marine distribution is therefore linked to small- and medium-scale oceanographic features where water circulation aggregates such floating matter into patches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of squid and surface-schooling fish less than 6 cm long as well as crustaceans and occasionally aquatic insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or molluscs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a scrape or depression in shingle or sand<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> that may be freshly excavated or re-used from a previous season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests are placed in a variety of concealed locations<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> around the rim of oceanic islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including natural cavities amongst rocks or coral rubble, in vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (up to 75 % ground cover)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in a crevice or cave up to 1.5 m deep, under a cliff ledge or on the ground beneath low bushes or shrubs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is not strictly colonial but solitary pairs usually congregate in suitable habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with neighbouring nests spaced according to nest-site availability (usually 1-5 m apart, minimum 30 cm)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species will become habituated to human presence in sites exposed to long term visitation, especially where human movements are predictable, groups sizes are kept consistent and human behaviour is reliable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Additional measures to reduce human disturbance of nesting colonies includes the erection of barriers and signs, the provision of walkways, and the supervision and education of vistors<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144264	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to the effects of oil spills and is highly vulnerable to the accidental introduction of domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> to offshore breeding islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has also been known to abandon breeding colonies when subject to severe human disturbance (although at sites exposed to long-term visitation it may become habituated to continuous and predictable human presence and activity)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs are harvested for subsistence in the Bahamas and the West Indies, and eggs and chicks are harvested on some islands in the Pacific by local residents and coastal shipping crews<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144265	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The species is dispersive and migratory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At most colonies adults leave for the open sea after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and become strongly pelagic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> for 2-3 months before returning to the breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On returning to the breeding colonies they continue to forage pelagically by day and settle on land at night for a further 2-3 months before beginning to breed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies throughout the species's range, with nesting occurring all year round at some colony sites but seasonally at others<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in very large colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and remains gregarious throughout the year (congregating in small to large flocks to feed at sea) although it may be observed singly<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on flat, open, sparsely or heavily vegetated, oceanic or barrier islands of sand, coral or rock in productive tropical and subtropical offshore waters rich in plankton, fish and squid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is absent from cold current areas and generally avoids islands with terrestrial predators<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is highly pelagic but generally avoids cold current areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish up to 18 cm long (usually 6-8 cm) and squid, but it also occasionally takes crustaceans, insects and offal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is reliant upon prey driven to the surface by predatory fish (e.g. tuna, Scombidae), especially when breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a slight depression<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or scrape on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting on flat, bare sand, coral grit or shell<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> amongst low vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> on beaches above the high-water mark<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or on coral islands, atolls and sandbanks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Less often it may nest on rock stacks or other offshore islets, and on ledges or terraces of cliffs (although it avoids sheer cliff-faces)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests in dense colonies within which neighbouring nests may be placed c.50 cm apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Higher nesting densities occur in areas where bare ground predominates but which are vegetated with plants greater than or equal to 15 cm tall<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The mortality of the species was significantly reduced on Isla Isabel (a densely forested tropical island off the Pacific coast of Mexico) by the eradication of introduced domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em> using a combination of poisoning, trapping and hunting with firearms<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The nesting density and therefore the number of breeding pairs was increased in colonies on Bird Island by clearing areas of dense native or introduced vegetation and burning existing colony areas annually to prevent the growth of woody plants<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144265	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some colonies (e.g. on Ascension Island)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> are threatened by predation from introduced rats and domestic cats <em>Felis catus</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and the species has been displaced from nesting colonies on Bird Island by invasive ants <em>Anoplolepis longipes</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Persistent large scale egg-collecting in some areas has encouraged the species to move to suboptimal nesting sites, resulting in higher mortality and reduced reproductive success<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by climatic change, as variations in sea-surface temperature have been shown to negatively influence the species's foraging success at breeding colonies (hence lowering reproductive success)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is vulnerable to oil pollution from oil spills and tankers transporting fuel<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is threatened by reductions in the global populations of tuna (a result of over-fishing) due to it's dependence on tuna to force prey to the surface<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The eggs of this species are harvested in many areas (e.g. Caribbean)<strong><sup>4, 1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144266	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Several studies have been completed covering aspects of the species's biology and ecology. Habitat restoration and fauna monitoring is carried out by Project River Recovery in a number of major riverbed habitats in the McKenzie basin, covering part of the range<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census and map all breeding colonies. Census winter flocks. Monitor accessible colonies annually. Examine all proposals for hydro-dams or irrigation projects to identify impacts on the species. Establish nest protection if predation is identified as significantly affecting breeding success. Spray weeds on rivers if required<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Commence trial of establishing islands/rafts in lagoons and tarns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144266	distribution		<em>Sterna albostriata</em> breeds in the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It is found along the eastern riverbeds from Marlborough to Southland, and on the upper Motueka and Buller Rivers in southern Nelson<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds disperse to the coastline and estuaries in winter, mostly from Stewart Island to the southern North Island, feeding at sea within 10 km of the coast<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. The most recent estimate puts the total population at 7,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  All populations of this species that have been studied have been in decline<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Numbers recorded in the Bay of Plenty during winters in the 1980's ranged between 25 and 45. Since 2000, counts at the same site have varied between 10 and 16 (M. Szabo <em>in litt.</em> 2006). Similarly, on the breeding grounds numbers on the Ashburton River declined from over 750 birds in 1981 to less than 200 by 1990 (Maloney 1999, O'Donnell 1992, Taylor 2000). A total of 55 individuals was recorded in the lower 18 km of the Ashley River in 1980 (Wildlife Service surveys) with just 26 and 28 in the same area in 2005-2006 (J. Dowding <em>in litt</em>. 2006). These and other observations indicate that the species may be in widespread decline<strong><sup>4,5,6,9</sup></strong>.	eng
144266	habitat		It breeds on riverbeds, creating simple scrapes in the shingle. It usually lays two eggs. Young fledge at c.30 days old. It feeds on freshwater invertebrates, small fish, earthworms and other terrestrial invertebrates (on pastureland) and, when at sea, mainly crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144266	population		In 2004 the New Zealand Department of Conservation estimated 1,000-5,000 mature individuals of this species (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. 2006). However, an updated estimate puts the total population at 7,000-10,000 individuals (R. Keedwell <em>in litt.</em> 2006).	eng
144267	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern breeding populations of this species are fully migratory whilst tropical breeders are more nomadic or locally dispersive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May to early-June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in monospecific colonies of 10-100 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding it departs for the wintering grounds from late-July to September, returning again between April and May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species sometimes forages singly, but is more common in small groups or larger mixed-species flocks on passage and in the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species utilises a variety of wetland habitats but shows a preference for freshwater marshlands with scattered pools, particularly where the surrounding vegetation is grazed by cattle or horses<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It frequents inland lakes, rivers, marshes, temporary pans (e.g. in Africa), artificial fish-ponds and drainage-ponds covered with water-lilies (e.g. in Italy)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, swamps, river pools, reservoirs, large dams, sewage-ponds, flooded saltmarshes, arable fields (e.g. in Australia)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Australia the species also occurs along the coast on estuaries, coastal lagoons, creeks in mangrove swamps<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and tidal mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. Dytiscidae, adult and larval Odonata, Orthoptera, flying ants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and mosquitoes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), spiders, frogs, tadpoles, small crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, shrimps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a heap of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or dry grass<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, placed either on floating and emergent vegetation over water 60-80 cm deep or resting on the bottom of very shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in colonies, neighbouring pairs spaced between 1 and 5 m apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and may forage up to 9 km away from breeding sites (more usually within 1 km)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144267	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers nest destruction from the invasive rodent species <em>Myocastor coypus</em> in Italy<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Large numbers of eggs are collected for sale and local consumption in India (this may be causing population declines in some areas)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and fishermen collect eggs in Ukraine<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144268	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from April to August in small colonies of between 3 and 100 pairs (mostly 20-40 pairs) that may contain other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Throughout the year the species feeds in flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and migrates and overwinters in large flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to tens of thousands of individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds inland on freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, swampy standing water, rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and shallow naturally flooded grassland<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> with areas of open water bordered by stands of reeds, sedge and other aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids fish-ponds, rice-fields and ornamental waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but may feed over wet fields, dry farmland and steppe grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage and in winter the species frequents a variety of habitats from inland lakes to rocky coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including rivers, flood-plains, lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, impoundments, lagoons and mangrove swamps, also feeding over wet fields, dry farmland and steppe grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It diet consists predominantly of aquatic insects (especially Diptera, Odonata and Coleoptera) as well as adult and larval terrestrial insects, small fish and tadpoles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup in a mound of aquatic vegetation usually placed over water 30-120 cm deep on floating mats of vegetation, or on dry shores or resting on the bottom in shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in single- or mixed-species colonies, neighbouring nests usually widely spaced (i.e. 10-30 m apart) but may be as close as 2.5 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144268	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144269	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travels both over land and over sea<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It breeds between May and June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in colonies, usually of less than 20 pairs (rarely more than 100 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and often close to other species<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. After breeding it departs for its wintering grounds from July onwards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, returning north again from late-March<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, foraging in groups of 2-20 during the breeding season and congregating in large flocks offshore on passage and in the winter over shoals of predatory fish<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on fresh or brackish wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as small pools, lakes, marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, ditches, overgrown canals, quiet reaches of rivers, swampy meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, peat bogs and rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for well-vegetated areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with sparse, open emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Typha</em> spp., sedge or reeds)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and floating water-lilies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and with water 1-2 m deep<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally avoids small marshland areas less than 4 ha in area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage the species frequents inland wetlands including pools, ditches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reservoirs, lakes and sewage farms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as coastal habitats and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In winter it is predominantly coastal however, frequenting estuaries<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, bays<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, coastlines and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as well as marine waters up to 400-600 km offshore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Its breeding diet consists predominantly of insects (e.g. chironomids, Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Coleoptera) as well as small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and amphibians<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. tadpoles and frogs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> On passage and during the winter the species's diet consists largely of marine fish although insects and crustaceans may also be taken<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be a low compressed mound of plant matter<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> placed in very shallow water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or on a floating mat of aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> over water more than 50 cm deep<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest may also be a shallow scrape<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> on the ground amongst marsh vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species breeds in small colonies and may forage up to 2-5 km from breeding sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the Netherlands the provision of anchored artificial nesting rafts has been partly successful as a conservation measure<strong><sup>7, 8</sup></strong>, especially in habitats where unstable nest substrates (such as floating water-lilies) result in poor breeding successes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the Netherlands there have also been successful programmes to reduce disturbance and improve habitat quality in agricultural areas, which has benefited the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The application of glyphosphate-based herbicides to combat and prevent the overgrowth of <em>Typha</em> spp. in wetlands may also benefit the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144269	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	On its breeding grounds the species is threatened by reductions in food availability due to the eutrophication of surface waters (which reduces the diversity of large insects)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, the acidification of lakes (which leads to the death of fish)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, the introduction of exotic fish species (e.g. peacock bass <em>Cichla ocellaris</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and pesticide pollution (which may also lead to direct mortality from poisoning)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When breeding the species is also threatened by fluctuating water levels<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the loss and deterioration of freshwater nesting habitats<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> (e.g. through drainage for agriculture<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and overgrowth of <em>Typha</em> spp. beds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, 11), and human disturbance<strong><sup>1, 4, 7</sup></strong> (especially where this forces breeding pairs to leave the nest before the young are fully fledged)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144271	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Although its migratory movements are poorly known and the species is present all year round at most tropical colonies, it is seasonally absent from subtropical colonies and is known to disperse to the open ocean after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies throughout the species's range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may breed colonially in groups numbering up to 100,000 or more pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although it also nests almost solitarily depending on the availability of nesting sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Even when not breeding the species remains gregarious and can occur in huge flocks in some areas, although it is more usually observed in smaller flocks of 50-100 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species occurs around isolated, bare or vegetated, pantropical and subtropical, inshore or oceanic islands or coral reefs with rocky cliffs or offshore stacks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coral or sand beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages in the inshore waters surrounding such islands, often along the line of breakers or in lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and disperses up to 50 km out into the pelagic zone to forage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially when not breeding)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Out at sea it often rests on buoys, flotsam, ships and on the open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of small fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as well as squid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, pelagic molluscs, medusae and insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be a simple layer of debris or a more elaborate construction of seaweed and sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and may be placed in a number of sites including flat shingle beaches, bare ground, cliff ledges, offshore stacks, low bushes and tall trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests in colonies that can be very dense or more open depending on the availability of nesting sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144271	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Breeding colonies on islands (e.g. Ascension Island) are threatened by predation from introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Predation from the introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> is also likely to have <br/>caused the decline in the breeding population on Guam<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs, chicks and adults (to a lesser extent) are taken from breeding colonies in the Mariana Islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144273	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in the Seychelles, Mascarene Islands and Agalega Islands (Mauritius), Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory), and Houtman Albrolhos Islands and possibly Ashmore Reef (Australia) (Feare 1984, Higgins and Davies 1996). The Australian subspecies melanops may be resident. The nominate race is a winter visitor to Madagascar and the eastern African coast between southern Somalia and Kenya (Higgins and Davies 1996).	eng
144273	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is largely sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1996) and remains at its breeding colonies throughout the year, although it may also forage extensively out to sea (Higgins and Davies 1996) and regularly occurs off the coast of East Africa during the non-breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It breeds from August to October (del Hoyo et al. 1996) in large colonies of up to tens of thousands of pairs (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996) and also forages in vast flocks during this season (Higgins and Davies 1996). When not breeding it remains gregarious and is usually observed in groups of up to 45 individuals (Higgins and Davies 1996), often within larger flocks of Brown Noddy Anous stolidus (Langrand 1990). The species breeds and roosts in mangroves on oceanic coral-limestone islands with shallow lagoons (providing seaweed as nesting material), gullies, sink holes and salt-lakes, and may also occur on shingle or sandy beaches (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996). It largely forages in inshore seas and reefs surrounding these breeding islands during the non-breeding season although it may also forage extensively out to sea (Langrand 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996). Diet consists of small surface-dwelling fish and invertebrates (e.g. squid) that have been driven to the surface by predatory fish (Feare 1984, Urban et al. 1986, Langrand 1990, Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996). Prior to breeding, adults also consume large quantities of coral fragments from beaches as a source of calcium (needed for egg laying) (Skerrett et al. 2001). The nest is constructed of damp vegetation and seaweed in a low bush or on a horizontal or vertical fork of a tall mangrove tree (Higgins and Davies 1996, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Skerrett et al. 2001). It nests colonially, with neighbouring nests spaced between 0.3 and 5 m apart (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
144273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population with an estimated minimum of 1,200,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). In the Seychelles, populations were estimated at 100,000 pairs on Cousin Island in 1974 and 18,000 pairs on Aride Island in 1972, and 250,000 pairs on Serpent Island in 19752 and 5,000 pairs on Lizard Island, Mauritius (Higgins and Davies 1996). In the Houtman Albrolhos, populations were estimated at 7,665, 6,325 and 34,895 pairs on Morley, Wooded and Pelsart Island respectively in 1993 (Higgins and Davies 1996).	eng
144273	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat loss is a threat to tropical Indian Ocean islands where this species breeds, and introduced browsers and predators (e.g. rats) are present on several islands although their current impact is thought to be minimal (Feare 1984, Skerrett et al. 2001). In Australia, eggs, chicks and adults were taken for food last century by people harvesting guano (Higgins and Davies 1996).	eng
144274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimate includes totals for 'Procelsterna albivitta'.	eng
144277	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Some breeding sites lie within managed gunao reserves or protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Identify those breeding sites where introduced predators are a problem and control/remove them from these sites. Determine effects of interactions with fisheries. Monitor population levels at key sites. Establish key locations as Marine Protected Areas.	eng
144277	distribution		<em>Larosterna inca</em> is found along the Pacific coast from northern <strong>Peru</strong> south to central <strong>Chile</strong>. Mass dispersal and breeding failures have resulted periodically from El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, and both fish-stocks and the populations of seabirds that depend upon them are adapted to these fluctuations. Population declines are usually promptly reversed, suggesting that food shortages trigger rapid dispersal not high mortality in adults and high reproduction rates (up to two successful broods in a year). Although fishing for anchoveta has been banned in Peru, and the guano industry adequately regulated, there are concerns that this species might be badly affected by the El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation event of 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Prior to the guano industry (c.1850) there were millions of Inca Terns in Peru (according to accounts from Coker 1919, Hutchison 1950). Current numbers are much lower than two centuries ago, but they are common and breed in some localities. The total population has been estimated at more than 150,000 individuals <sup>2</sup>.	eng
144277	habitat		It breeds on inshore (and occasionally offshore) islands and rocky coastal cliffs. Nests are placed in suitable fissures, burrows, caves and cavities, sometimes the old nest of a Humboldt Penguin <em>Spheniscus humboldti</em>. It feeds, often in large flocks, on schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>, mote sculpins <em>Normanychtic crokeri</em> and silversides <em>Odothestes regia regi</em>a found in the cold water of the Humboldt Current. Additionally, this species scavenges offal and scraps from sea-lions and fishing boats. One or two eggs are incubated for about four weeks, and the chicks leave the nest after seven weeks. Birds feed by plunge diving for fish.	eng
144277	population		The total population has been estimated more than 150,000 individuals (Zavaga <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).	eng
144282	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pinguinus impennis</em><em> </em>occurred in naturally scattered colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> across the North Atlantic until the 19th century, breeding from <strong>Canada</strong> through <strong>Greenland (to Denmark)</strong>, the <strong>Faeroe Islands (to Denmark)</strong> and <strong>Iceland</strong> to <strong>Ireland</strong> and the <strong>UK</strong>, with archeological records from the western coast of Europe from European Russia south to France<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and wintering offshore south to New England, USA, and southern Spain<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Details of how it was driven to extinction by hunting for its feathers, meat, fat and oil are well known<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. As birds became more scarce, specimen collecting became the proximate cause of their extinction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last known pair were killed on Eldey Island, Iceland, in 1844, and the last live bird was seen off the Newfoundland Banks in 1852<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Historically, birds bred only on remote, rocky islands, probably due to early extirpation in more accessible sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds were flightless<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Immatures probably fed on plankton<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> while adults dived for fish<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<p></p>	eng
144286	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/> It is Threatened in all range states except Alaska. Detailed conservation recommendations were made in 1995<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Federal land-use is regulated, areas for management identified, and some temporarily removed from logging<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, though the protected status of old-growth forest in California is currently under review by the USFWS in response to a timber-industry-led petition. In Canada there has been extensive research, a (now outdated) Recovery Plan and interim protection for nest-sites<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The Northwest Forest Plan (2006) is expected to ensure the protection of a large proportion of important habitats in the USA<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. In 1998, the Exxon Valdez Trustee Council protected 179 km<sup>2</sup> of Afognak Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong> Survey potential nesting habitat. Collect data on the ratio of juvenile to adult birds from sites throughout the range, and monitor over time, as this is thought to be a reliable indicator of productivity</strong><sup>26</sup><strong>Research means of improving the abundance of high quality food, e.g. small fish, during the pre-breeding period. Minimise damage to fish stocks and feeding areas</strong><sup>18</sup>. <strong>Update the Canadian Recovery Plan</strong><sup>18</sup>. <strong>Protect nesting habitat</strong><sup>11</sup>. <strong>Move campgrounds away from old-growth areas in Californian State Parks, in order  to reduce predator populations in breeding areas. Reduce oil-spills, gill-net mortality and logging</strong><sup>11</sup>. <strong>List as Threatened in Alaska</strong><sup>11</sup>.	eng
144286	distribution		<em>Brachyramphus marmoratus</em> occurs in the <strong>USA</strong> and <strong>Canada</strong> in California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, south-east Alaska, Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula, Lower Cook Inlet, Barren Islands, Afognak and Kodiak Islands, the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians locally to Andreanof and Near Islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Alaska (85% of the population), historical estimates place the population at c. 750,000 individuals, though when trend estimates are applied to this figure it gives an estimated 2006 population of c. 270,000 individuals<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. The British Columbia population is thought to be in the region of c. 54,000 - 92,500. The greatest historical decreases have been in Washington, Oregon and California, but populations in British Columbia and south-east Alaska are now most threatened<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The current annual decline in Washington, Oregon and California is 4-7%<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, with a c. 70% decrease in Alaska from 1985-2010<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>, and 40% in parts of British Columbia in 1982-1992<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>..	eng
144286	habitat		It nests in old-growth trees (up to 60 km inland) and on the ground (sparsely where trees are absent, suboptimal)<strong><sup>6,11,14,16,19</sup></strong>, with the breeding season stretching between March and September in California, and May and September in Alaska<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. Forest areas with multiple canopy layers and high mistletoe abundance are strongly preferred<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Breeding is mid-March to early September in California, but more compressed further north<strong><sup>6,7,8</sup></strong>. The diet is sandlance, herring and, in winter, invertebrates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Chicks are generally fed large subadult or adult prey rather than juveniles or larvae<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. It feeds in near-shore habitats up to 1.4 km offshore, in sheltered waters, lagoons and sometimes inland lakes<strong><sup>3,4,6,9,27</sup></strong>. Daily movements to feeding areas can be up to 250 km<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Radio-marked birds from Redwood Creek in North California moved a maximum average distance of 99 km alongshore, with males travelling further than females, and non-breeding males travelling further than breeding males perhaps in search of mates or nesting habitats. Average home range size was 505 km<sup>2</sup>, again being greater for males than females<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. Individuals exhibit plasticity in their foraging behavior, foraging closer to shore and increasing dive rates during nesting<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. Marbled Murrelets most often forage in pairs<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. Individuals in the northern part of its range may travel south during the non-breeding season, a movement which likely reflects the availability of prey<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>.	eng
144286	population		Agler <em>et al.</em> (1998).	eng
144287	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In the USA the species is a candidate (listing priority 2) under the Endangered Species Act, and is listed in the Russia Red Data Book<strong><sup>7,16</sup></strong>. Guidelines have been drawn up in the USA to avoid disturbance of nesting birds. From 2005 to 2009 in Icy Bay, Alaska, 340 birds have been banded, and 122 adults and four juveniles have been radio-tracked leading to the discovery of eight nests<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The Pacific Seabird Group established the Kittlitz's Murrelet Technical Committee in 2008 to, amongst other things, act as a technical authority on ecology, distribution and ecology of the species; indentify, encourage and facilitate research; address conservation problems, and; act as a liason between research and management<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor population and trends in Alaska and Russia. Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries. Develop innovative gill-net gear and fishing methods to reduce bycatch. Assess the impact of boat traffic on use of foraging areas. Reduce habitat degradation and human disturbance through private sector codes of conduct. Enforce legislation to reduce the chances of oil-spills and other pollution. Tackle the threat of global climate change through international agreements. Estimate reproductive performance and other important population parameters to determine the most important factors affecting population stability. Identify and protect important courtship and nesting habitats. Identify important non-breeding areas.</strong>	eng
144287	distribution		This species has a distribution that is geographically centred on the Bering Sea where it is rare and patchily distributed in both <strong>Russia</strong> and the <strong>USA</strong>. In Alaska (where c.70% of the total population occurs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) it is found from just east of Cape Lisburne south to the Aleutian Islands and east to LeConte Bay. In Russia it is limited to the eastern Chukotskiy Peninsula in the Chukchi Sea west to Cape Schmidt and south to Anadyr Gulf, as well as Shelikov Bay in the northern Sea of Okhotsk<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Alaskan population is estimated to number 8,190-36,193 birds<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and surveys in much of the Alaskan range indicated that populations may have declined by >80-90% during the past 15 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Prince William Sound the population declined by 84% between 1989 (6,436 birds) and 2000 (1,033 birds) following a possible longer term decline since 1972 when the population was estimated at 63,000 individuals<strong><sup> 2,6</sup></strong>. In the Malaspina Forelands, numbers declined by 38-75% in 1992-2002. In Glacier Bay, density estimates declined by 89.1% in 1991-2000, with c.2,200 birds estimated there in 1999-2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Total abundance in Icy Bay, Alaska, was estimated to be 1,725-2,372 birds in 2002, suggesting a decline of 59% over a three-year period<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are no trend data from other parts of the species's range, but anecdotal information suggests population declines are occurring in at least some of these other areas. The wintering distribution includes records from coastal Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, Hokkaido (Japan) and the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Alaska<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and birds are present year-round at Kodiak Island (Alaska)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144287	habitat		It lays a single egg on the ground amongst unvegetated scree or on cliff faces, but one recently found nest on Kodiak Island, Alaska, was on exposed bedrock<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Breeding was thought to be restricted to sites at or near the tops of mountains in glaciated regions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but twelve active nests were recently found on Agattu in the western Aleutians, indicating that the species can nest at high densities in areas far from glaciers<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Individuals do not breed until 2 - 4 years of age, and may not breed every year<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It generally forages in different water types to the closely related Marbled Murrelet, preferring but not exclusively feeding during the breeding season in turbid waters of glacial origin<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on fish and macro-zooplankton. During winter, recent work suggests that small groups are present in the Bering and Chukchi Sea in spring and autumn, but not in summer. Birds are almost always found in open leads of pack ice during early spring, but not in other times of the year, and birds are often found near Point Barrow in the autumn<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>	eng
144287	population		The population in Alaska is currently estimated at 19,578 individuals (range of 8,190-36,193; USFWS 2009). Data from Russia is scarce, but 5,100 birds are estimated to occur along Kamchatka and the Chukotka Peninsula (USFWS 2009), hence the population is best placed in the band 20,000-40,000 individuals.	eng
144288	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All potential breeding islands in the USA and Mexico have been surveyed, with the exception of the offshore rocks of Cedros Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Over the past 10 years, most invasive mammals, including cats, rats, goats, sheep, rabbits, donkeys and dogs have been removed from almost all islands  that are known current or suspected historical nesting sites in the US and Mexico<strong><sup> 7,11,15,16,19</sup></strong>. The most important remaining conservation action is to eradicate cats from Guadalupe Island.  Because of its large size and lack of native mammals, Guadalupe may have been the largest Xantus's Murrelet breeding colony and was very likely the most important colony for the southern subspecies.  The Xantus's Murrelet is currently listed as Endangered in Mexico and Threatened under the California Endangered Species Act, and is currently a candidate species for federal listing in the USA<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. In 2003, fishing and other extractive uses was banned within important areas of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary in an attempt to reduce light and noise pollution in important near-shore staging areas. However, the exclusion zone covers only a small buffer area around some colonies, and may be ineffective at minimising threats<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Guadalupe Island has just been declared a Biosphere Reserve (thanks to Conservacion de Islas)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The remaining Mexican islands with current or former breeding colonies are either in existing biosphere reserves (Natividad, Asuncion and San Roque) or in a proposed new biosphere reserve. This is the first step to regulating tourism and the more damaging impact of commercial fishers<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A pilot habitat restoration for the species has begun on Santa Barbara Island<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eradicate introduced predators on other small islands<sup>3</sup></strong>, including ground squirrels from Natividad Island, invasive house mice from Coronados Island and recently introduced deermice from the Western San Benito Island<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop strategies to remove predators from larger islands, with a particular focus on removing cats from Guadalupe Island<sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop contingency plans to prevent the establishment of new predator populations<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey remaining potential breeding islands<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to monitor population trends with precision<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate tourism on Baja California islands<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further studies to determine levels of genetic differentiation and the extent of mixing between the two subspecies to clarify their taxonomic status.	eng
144288	distribution		<em>Synthliboramphus hypoleucus</em> breeds off the coast of southern California, <strong>USA</strong> and Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong>.  Based on data from aerial and boat surveys between 1975 and 2003, the world population has been estimated at 39,700, of which 17,000 are likely to be breeding in any given year<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In the USA an estimated 885-2,575 breeding pairs occur, the biggest colony on the island of Santa Barbara holds 500-1,250 pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Small numbers breed on Anacapa (200-600 pairs), Santa Cruz (100-300 pairs), San Miguel (50-300 pairs), and San Clemente islands (10-50 pairs), USA<strong><sup>1,3,4,9</sup></strong>. Nesting is suspected at Santa Catalina Island (25-75 pairs)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The Santa Barbara colony has been stable since the 1980s, but recent surveys suggest a decline<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Mexico, it is known to breed on Los Coronados (750-1,250 pairs), San Jeronimo, San Benito (250-500 pairs), and two islets offshore of Guadalupe Island. Nesting was also recently confirmed on Todos Santos<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, and may also occur on the San Martin islands based on vocalizations heard during the breeding season. There are two distinct subspecies, the southern form breeding on only the three San Benito Islands and two rocks offshore of Guadalupe Island. Other likely former breeding colonies (Cedros, Natividad, Asuncion and San Roque) have been extirpated by invasive animals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Both subspecies breed sympatrically on the San Benito Islands, and the presence of intermediates suggests that some mixing takes place, although most mating is apparently assortive<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Post breeding birds disperse north and have been recorded in some number in late summer off British Columbia, <strong>Canada<sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
144288	habitat		It nests on steep sea-slopes, canyons and cliffs with a sparse cover of herbaceous and shrubby plants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a generalist predator, and may exploit higher prey concentrations around pelagic convergence lines<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Around Santa Barbara, it feeds on larval fish, especially northern anchovy <em>Engraulis mordax</em><strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Breeding effort and performance are lower when anchovy abundance is low<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144288	population		Based on at sea survey data from 1975 to 2003, Karnovsky <em>et al.</em> (2005) were able to estimate a current North American at-sea population of 39,700, of which 17,000 are likely to be mature breeding individuals. Although this estimate is based on extrapolation from survey data, population estimate is perhaps best placed in the 10,000-19,999 category.	eng
144289	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A management plan and implementation strategy for the Gulf of California Special Biosphere Reserve were detailed in 1994<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and work began in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Introduced mammals have been eradicated from a number of islands that are current, past or potential breeding sites<strong><sup>7,10,11,12</sup></strong>. Instructive signs have been placed on many of the islands and there is a general move towards increasing enforcement of existing regulations.  At the same time, human use of the islands is increasing, much of it unregulated<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Other measures include the development of management plans for all known breeding islands, environmental education, the erection of warning signposts on islands and increased enforcement of existing regulations<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eradicate introduced predators on other small islands. Monitor all islands for new mammalian introductions. Develop strategies to remove predators from larger islands. Ensure the full implementation of the management plan. Estimate population sizes with precision. Monitor key populations. Assess the impact of gill-net fisheries</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Regulate tourism on Baja California islands</strong><sup>9</sup>.	eng
144289	distribution		<em>Synthliboramphus craveri</em> has an estimated c.5,000 breeding pairs, scattered throughout the Gulf of California, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>3</sup>. It breeds on Islas Partida, Tibur&oacute;n, San Jorge, San Esteban, Estanque, San Pedro M&aacute;rtir, San Pedro Nolasco, San Francisco, Esp&iacute;ritu Santo and San Ildefonso, and possibly on the Pacific coast of Baja California, north to Islas San Benitos<strong><sup>2,3,8,9</sup></strong>. The population, with pre-breeders, is probably 15,000-20,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, which is similar to an at-sea survey estimate of c.22,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It winters in the Gulf of California and along coasts to south California, <strong>USA</strong>, and Sonora, Mexico, and possibly Guatemala<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.	eng
144289	habitat		Two eggs are usually laid on bare rock or soft substrate at the end of a rock-cavity or crevice, but also in ground-burrows, under dense shrubs and boulders<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Nesting success varies from 12-79%, but chick survival during the first month at sea is only 30-35%<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on larval fish, especially rockfish <em>Sebastes</em>, herring (Clupeidae) and lanternfish <em>Benthosema panamense</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144289	population		Gaston and Jones (1998), Pitman <em>et al</em>. (1995).	eng
144291	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Japan. Several breeding colonies are protected as National Wildlife Protection Areas, including Nanatsu-jima, Kiinagashima, Okino-jima and Danjo-gunto. Gugul Islet (South Korea) has been designated as a Natural Monument. In Japan, educational materials have been produced to inform fishers about the species and the importance of the largest known breeding colony on Biro-jima Island.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct co-ordinated surveys of breeding sites to determine current population size and trends. Establish new protected areas at important colonies that are not officially protected. Restrict human access to islands with breeding colonies. Control predators at breeding colonies. Research and design methods to reduce the bycatch of seabirds by fisheries.	eng
144291	distribution		<em>Synthliboramphus wumizusume </em>is endemic to the warm current regions near central and southern <strong>Japan</strong>, where it breeds on uninhabited islands. The most important breeding sites are in Kyushu, notably the islands of Biro-jima, Koya-jima and Eboshi-jima, and the Izu Islands, notably Onbase-jima and Onohara-jima. Breeding has also been recorded on Gugul Island off the southern coast of <strong>South Korea</strong>, and it may also breed in Peter the Great Bay, Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>. After breeding, birds move northwards to an area south-east of Hokkaido. They also winter along the coasts of Honshu and Kyushu, some birds apparently moving south to the Nansei Shoto Islands. The population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 birds. It is still declining in many localities, particularly the Izu Islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144291	habitat		It frequents rocky islets and headlands during the breeding season (mid-February-early May), nesting in single pairs, small groups and sometimes in large colonies. In the non-breeding season it occurs offshore, occasionally entering bays. Juveniles have recently been sighted outside the breeding season in the Seto Inland Sea, an area previously though unsuitable for the Japanese Murrelet, at least 150 km from the nearest known breeding site<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144291	population		Ono (1996), BirdLife International (2001).	eng
144307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144310	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine best survey techniques. Survey status in logged forest. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Assess levels of hunting through interviewing local hunters. Interview local villagers about population trends. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. Encourage creation of large wildlife management areas on New Britain. Address hunting through public awareness discussions.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
144310	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Henicopernis infuscatus</em> is a little-known endemic of New Britain in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are only c.30 recent records, all of singles or pairs<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6,8</sup></strong>. As a large raptor, it is believed to occur at low population densities and it appears to be much less common than the allospecific New Guinea Long-tailed Buzzard <em>H.&#160;longicauda</em><strong><sup>1,4,5,7</sup></strong>. However, it is an inconspicuous forest species which is likely to be very under-recorded<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144310	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually recorded gliding over primary hill forest to a maximum of 1,300&#160;m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are few records from logged or otherwise degraded forest, but its habitat requirements are poorly known<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. Its feeding ecology may be similar to that of <em>H.&#160;longicauda</em> which hunts above or within the canopy for arthropods, lizards, birds and birds' eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144310	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.4-2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,400-7,000, i.e. probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999, as "likely to be very under-recorded" (density range from six estimates for four species of similar-sized forest raptor in the BirdLife Population Densities Database). <br/></p>	eng
144310	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Nearly all lowland and hill forests on gentle gradients on New Britain have been logged or are under logging concessions and large areas are subsequently converted to oil-palm plantations<strong><sup>1,4,7</sup></strong>. However, much of this species's habitat is on steep slopes and montane forest which is not suitable for logging<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. These striking birds are likely to be shot opportunistically as trophies and for meat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting has rendered <em>H.&#160;longicauda</em> scarce in some areas of New Guinea<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated the population to number 100,000-1,000,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 110,000-160,000 breeding pairs, equating to 330,000-480,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Hence a revised global estimate is 350,000-1,000,000 individuals.	eng
144314	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	Endemic to Australia, this species is found throughout the mainland, though rarely in central Australia.	eng
144314	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a specialised, canopy-dwelling predator inhabiting primarily coastal and subcoastal environments and inland wooded watercourses. There is an assured supply of passerines in those places where it hunts around towns, and it may have even benefited from partial clearance (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
144314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001)	eng
144314	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Half or more of its habitat in southern and eastern Australia has been at least partially cleared for agriculture. Illegal egg-collecting and shooting constitute threats in marginal populations.	eng
144321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144322	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Elanus scriptus</em> occurs in the eastern arid zone of <strong>Australia</strong> but occasionally irrupts to all parts of the continent. Population cycles appear to be linked to those of the principal prey, the plague rat <em>Rattus villossimus</em>, and rainfall. In years when rats are numerous the kite can breed rapidly and be abundant. Little is known about the intervening lean times when kites are rarely seen and populations may approach 1,000 individuals. There are no known threats although intensification of cattle grazing may eventually affect rat numbers and hence kite populations. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144322	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is almost impossible to assess due to its extreme fluctuations. In years when rats are numerous the species can breed rapidly and be abundant. When rat populations crash following the onset of drought, birds are forced into areas that are outside their normal range and eventually most perish (Olsen 1995). Little is known about the intervening lean times when the species is rarely seen and populations may fall near to 1,000 individuals (Marchant and Higgins 1993). <br/></p>	eng
144326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144330	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is the focus of close monitoring and targeted conservation actions across most of its range, including reintroduction to parts of the UK since 1989<strong><sup>18,20</sup></strong>. In 2007, for the first time, three young birds in France were fitted with satellite transmitters, although only one provided regular information<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. In 2005, the species was listed as a priority for developing an EU species action plan; this plan is expected to be developed in 2009<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue to monitor population trends and breeding productivity. Continue to manage reintroduction projects. Regulate the use of pesticides, especially in France and Spain. Reduce persecution through law enforcement, prosecutions and awareness campaigns. Carry out further studies into the impact of changing land-use practices. Lobby for changes in EU and national agricultural policies. Increase the area of suitable woodland and forest with protected status. Work with land-owners to protect habitat and prevent persecution.  <br/></p>	eng
144330	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Milvus milvus</em> is endemic to the Western Palearctic, with the European population of 19,000-23,000 pairs encompassing 95% of its global breeding range<strong><sup>1,17</sup></strong>. It breeds from <strong>Spain </strong>and <strong>Portugal </strong>east through central Europe to <strong>Ukraine</strong>, north to southern <strong>Sweden</strong>, <strong>Latvia </strong>and the <strong>UK</strong> (890 pairs<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>), and south to southern <strong>Italy</strong>. Populations winter within the western breeding range, and formerly in isolated patches south and east to eastern <strong>Turkey</strong>. It's status as a breeding and wintering species in North Africa is now uncertain.  The three largest populations (in Germany, France and Spain, which together hold more than 75% of the global population) all declined during 1990-2000, and overall the species declined by almost 20% over that period<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Eastern German populations declined by 25-30% between 1991 and 1997, but have remained stable since then<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, whereas in the federal state Saxony-Anhalt the decline continued until 2006<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The populations of the northern foothills of the Harz Mountains (the most densely populated part of its range) suffering an estimated 50% decline from 1991-2001<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Spain, the species showed an overall decline in breeding population of 46% for the period 1994 to 2004, and surveys of wintering birds in 2004 suggest a decline of around 50% since 1994<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>; trends that have apparently continued in recent years<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. In France, breeding populations have decreased in the northeast, and in the north and east Massif Central, but seem to be stable in southwest and central France and Corsica<strong><sup>7,21</sup></strong>. Detailed monitoring has not been carried out, but comparing counts from 1980 and 2000 suggests a decline of up to 80% in some areas, during which time the species's range in France decreased by 15%<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. Following surveys in 2000-2002, the breeding population in France has been estimated at 3,000-3,900 pairs<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. A survey in January 2007 indicated that the wintering population in France numbered nearly 6,000 individuals, with most in the Pyrenees<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The Balearic Islands population declined from 41-47 breeding pairs in 1993 to just 10 in 2003<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, conservation actions have since enabled the population to recover, to 38 breeding pairs in 2007<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Populations elsewhere are stable or increasing. In Switzerland, populations increased during the 1990s, and have now stabilised<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The population in Belgium was estimated at 100-120 breeding pairs in 2005, following an increase from 1-2 irregular pairs in 1967<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In Sweden the species has increased from 30-50 pairs in the 1970s to 1,200 breeding pairs in 2003<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. The rate of increase in Sweden has been recorded as 7.1% annually during 1982-2006 or 13% annually during 1998-2006, depending on the survey method used<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>; and a rough calculation suggests that Sweden could support 5,000-10,000 pairs once the species has reached carrying capacity<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. Since an extreme low during the 20th Century the UK population has increased in recent decades and was estimated to number 1,350 breeding pairs in 2008<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. This population is still increasing rapidly and a long-term estimate for future carrying capacity is in the order of 10,000 pairs<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. Overall, the species population has declined in recent years owing to rapid declines in Iberia for resident breeding birds, and migrants that winter in Spain. Previously the majority of the global population wintered in Spain, but increasingly birds are remaining on their northern European breeding grounds. Those populations that winter outside of Spain are generally increasing. Therefore, while serious declines are expected to continue in southern Europe and therefore in the global population as a whole, as northern populations increase, it is anticipated that their growth will eventually outweigh declines in Iberia.  <br/></p>	eng
144330	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in broadleaf woodlands and forests, mixed with farmland, pasture and heathland, to 2,500 m in Morocco<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. In winter it also occupies wasteland, scrub and wetlands. Formerly an urban scavenger, it still visits the edges of towns and cities. It takes a wide range of food, but feeds mainly on carrion and small to medium-sized mammals and birds. Reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are less important prey<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	A review of available data in 2009 concluded the population numbers 21,000-25,500 pairs (Aebischer in press). <br/></p>	eng
144330	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The most pertinent threat to this species is illegal direct poisoning and indirect poisoning from pesticides and rodent bait, particularly in the wintering ranges in France and Spain, where it is driving rapid population declines<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>; there is a strong correlation between rapid declines and those populations that winter in Spain<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. The Spanish government released more than 1,500 tons of rodenticide-treated baits over about 500,000 ha to fight against a common vole plague in agricultural lands between August 2007 and April 2008; records of red kites dying by secondary poisoning in treated areas resulted<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. In France, populations have disappeared at the same rate as conversion from grasslands to cereal crops<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. Other less significant threats include electrocution and collision with powerlines<strong><sup>27</sup></strong> and wind-turbines<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>, hunting and trapping<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>, road-kills, deforestation, egg-collection (on a local scale) and possibly competition with the generally more successful Black Kite <em>M. migrans</em><strong><sup>2,14,17,22</sup></strong>. Another factor implicated in the declines in France and Spain is a decrease in the number of rubbish dumps<strong><sup>21,22</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144336	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is well-known to Solomon Islanders and is often featured in environmental articles and postage stamps. It has legal protection in some provinces. Recent initiatives are promoting its protection in inland community projects<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey inland areas of Guadalcanal, Malaita and Makira to compare populations in areas of variable human impact. Establish a database of known and reported nests to monitor population trends. Ascertain levels of hunting. Research effects of coastal and marine environmental degradation. Promote community-based education programmes, especially in inland villages. Conduct national education programmes to promote its conservation and underline its protected status.  <br/></p>	eng
144336	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haliaeetus sanfordi</em> is endemic to Bougainville and Buka, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where it occurs on most islands, including many tiny islets and reefs<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,7,9</sup></strong>. Highest numbers appear to be in the New Georgia group where a minimum territory size of 10&#160;km<sup>2</sup> was estimated in relatively undisturbed coastal habitat on Kolombangara<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but four pairs were reported on the Three Sisters (12&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) off Makira in the 1950s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds are less common inland and on larger islands, e.g. Guadalcanal and Malaita<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>, where numbers have declined within living memory<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144336	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers forested coasts<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> where it scavenges and kleptoparasitises Osprey <em>Pandion haliaetus<strong><sup>1,4,9</sup></strong></em>. Some pairs also hunt far inland and others, especially on the eastern islands, appear to have entirely inland ranges where they prey largely on northern common cuscus <em>Phalanger orientalis</em> and perhaps arboreal rats and fruit bats<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong>. It also hunts over deforested areas where it is reported to scavange dead mammals including feral dogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144336	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,900 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 980, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 250-999 (density estimate obtained from observation of two pairs in 20km<sup>2 </sup>by Buckingham <em>et al.</em> [1995]). <br/></p>	eng
144336	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by deforestation. Over-fishing and silt run-off from logging and plantations are also likely to adversely affect it. Hunting for food and occasionally sport is a recent threat with a breakdown of traditional taboos, especially in the lowlands of larger islands<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is also killed in some villages to protect poultry, cats and dogs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It may suffer from competition with humans for the favoured prey-species <em>P.&#160;orientalis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
144338	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Since 1991, the species has been studied in the Antsalova region, where an ongoing conservation programme aims to increase the known breeding population to at least 250 pairs. Activities to reach such a target include the enforcement of existing traditional laws at the local community level, and in two cases through the release of captive-reared birds rescued from siblicide<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>, with the latter almost doubling the number of young fledged per nest in one study<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Manambolomaty (the Three Lakes Complex), is a Ramsar Site and official protection was expected to be confirmed for the area in early 2009<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>; this site and surrounding area supported 28 territorial pairs in 2006. A full population survey is planned for summer 2010<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor population size or distribution to detect changes<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Increase awareness within local communities, to reduce persecution and protect habitat around nest sites<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Manage the wild population to increase population size and distribution in suitable habitat<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the factors limiting the number of available breeding territories, survival rates of immatures and adults, and reproductive productivity<sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144338	distribution		This species survives in low numbers along the west coast of <strong>Madagascar</strong>. Surveys during 1991-1995 recorded at least 222 adults and 99 breeding pairs from 105 sites, apparently concentrated into three main regions: the Antsalova region west of Bemaraha Reserve, along the Tsiribihina River, and the coast from Mahajamba Bay to the island of Nosy Hara<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although this estimate is twice of an estimate from the period 1980-1985 it is probably due to more comprehensive surveying, and a decline in some areas was still recorded<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent surveys suggest that the Antsalova district is the main stronghold, with 12 pairs in the Manambolomaty complex and a further 15 pairs elsewhere in the district in 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and the population is currently thought to comprise c.120 breeding pairs<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Immature birds wander widely, making the non-breeding population difficult to assess<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>.	eng
144338	habitat		The species is found predominantly in wooded areas adjacent to waterbodies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It favours sites with large trees by the shoreline suitable for perching<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and feeds mainly on fish<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>, with the majority of prey in one study comprising two species of non-native tilapia<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs are territorial (May-October)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and nest  in a large tree or rock cliff. Annual productivity is low (0.15 young fledged per territory<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>) because clutch-size is one-two (three recorded at one nest in 2005) but only one chick is raised, due to siblicide<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>; and in one third of breeding attempts no eggs are laid<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144338	population		The current population is thought to be around 120 breeding pairs, equating to 240 mature individuals (R. Watson <em>in litt.</em> 2010).	eng
144339	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix II. It occurs in many protected areas across its range.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in central Asia and Myanmar to establish its status, distribution and threats. Establish protected areas for key populations. Encourage sustainable management of wetland resources. Limit the use of pesticides and control of industrial discharges around wetlands. Control water hyacinth at important breeding/feeding-sites. Protect remaining nest-trees and re-establish them around wetlands. Protect nest-sites (and adjacent feeding-sites) from disturbance. Promote rural education programmes concerned with wetland birds. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144339	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haliaeetus leucoryphus</em> occurs across a huge range from <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>(may no longer breed), southern <strong>Russia </strong>(possibly still breeds), <strong>Tajikistan, Turkmenistan</strong> (probably dispersing non-breeders) and <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, east through <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>China</strong>, south to northern <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It is a passage migrant and winter visitor to <strong>Nepal</strong> and non-breeding visitor to <strong>Afghanistan</strong>. The main breeding populations are believed to be in China, Mongolia and the Indian subcontinent. It is believed to have declined significantly during the 20th century in China, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The population is likely to be <10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144339	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is closely associated with wetlands, principally large lakes and rivers, from the lowlands to 5,000 m. It generally nests in trees near water and in upland areas on cliffs. </p>	eng
144339	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals by BirdLife International (2001) based on detailed analysis of available records. <br/></p>	eng
144339	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Key threats are habitat loss, degradation and disturbance. Across the Indian subcontinent, and probably most of its range, wetlands have been drained or converted for agriculture and human settlements. The felling of large trees near wetlands has reduced the availability of nest and roost sites. The spread of water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes </em>is a problem in India, as is the siltation of lakes due to catchment deforestation. Pollution of wetlands with pesticides and industrial effluents reduces breeding success. Habitat loss and degradation are compounded by disturbance of wetlands. Reductions in the prey base, primarily through hunting and over-fishing, are further consequences of increasing human pressure. In Myanmar, the development of oil and gas fields is a threat and, in China, hunting is a localised problem.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144340	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II.	eng
144340	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has its strongholds in <strong>Norway </strong>and <strong>Russia </strong>(which together hold >55% of the European population<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and important populations in south-west <strong>Greenland (to Denmark)</strong>, <strong>Sweden</strong>, <strong>Poland </strong>and <strong>Germany</strong>. Smaller numbers breed in <strong>Iceland</strong>, <strong>United Kingdom</strong>, <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Estonia</strong>, <strong>Latvia</strong>, <strong>Lithuania</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Austria</strong>, <strong>Czech Republic</strong>, <strong>Slovakia</strong>, <strong>Slovenia</strong>, the former Yugoslav states, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong>, and <strong>Japan</strong>. It formerly bred in Algeria and may still do so in Iraq.<em> <br/></p>	eng
144340	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species requires large and open expanses of lake, coast or river valley, within the boreal, temperate and tundra zones, nearby to undisturbed cliffs or open stands of large, old-growth trees for nesting. Its food is vertebrates (fish, mammals and especially birds), from marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. It is mainly migratory in the north and east of its breeding range, but sedentary elsewhere.	eng
144340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5,000-6,600 breeding pairs, equating to 15,000-19,800 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20,300-39,600 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144340	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Threats that affect this species include loss and degradation of wetlands, human disturbance and persecution, environmental pollution, collision with wind generators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and indiscriminate use of poisons. Modern forestry methods reduce the availability of suitable nesting habitat. Although some losses may be taking place in Asian Russia owing to increased logging and oil industry development, these are outweighed by increases in Europe. <br/></p>	eng
144341	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Canada, USA, Mexico, and the French island territories of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. It is considered a vagrant in Belize, Bermuda, Ireland, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands.	eng
144341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Rich et al. 2004)	eng
144341	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Past declines have been attributed to intense hunting, unintentional poisonings (notably use of DDT and lead shot), and habitat destruction in combination with the loss of great herds of bison, a seasonally important food source.	eng
144342	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Russia, Japan, China and South Korea. It is monitored in several protected areas in Russia, including the Magadan State Reserve, Kronotski State Reserve and Kava Wildlife Refuge (Magadan), the Orlik and Udyl' Wildlife Refuges and Dzhugdzhurskiy, Shantarsky and Komsomol'ski Nature Reserves (Khabarovsk), the Poronayskiy Nature Reserve (Sakhalin), and the Kuril'ski Nature Reserve (Kuril Islands). In Japan, the key wintering grounds on Hokkaido, Shiretoko and Furen-ko are designated as National Wildlife Protection Areas.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Minimise the damaging effects of industrial development in its Russian breeding grounds. In some wintering areas, consider establishing special artificial feeding-sites. Ensure regular sampling of the environment and the species for DDT/DDE and PCBs in Khabarovsk and Magadan, and for lead in Japan. Protect important salmon spawning grounds. Encourage sustainable management of key fish stocks. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144342	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Haliaeetus pelagicus</em> breeds on the Kamchatka peninsula, the coastal area around the Sea of Okhotsk, the lower reaches of the Amur river (south to the Gorin river) and on northern Sakhalin and Shantar, <strong>Russia</strong>. A few hundred winter in Kamchatka and the coast of Okhotsk, but most (c.2,000) winter in the southern Kuril islands and Hokkaido,<strong> Japan</strong>. It is an uncommon winter visitor to north-eastern <strong>China</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Its population is estimated at c.5,000 birds and declining. <strong></strong></p>	eng
144342	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds on sea coasts and inland near rivers or lakes, where there are stands of mature trees. In mid-winter, birds in Russia tend to remain on the coast. Wintering birds in Japan mainly stay near water, but some move to mountainous areas. </p>	eng
144342	population	BirdLife International, 2008	M. Ueta verbally (2000) in BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
144342	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Russia, it is threatened by habitat alteration during the development of hydroelectric power projects, proposed large-scale coastal and offshore developments for the petrochemical industry, and logging for timber. Industrial pollution of rivers and high levels of DDT/DDE and PCBs are further threats. Over-fishing has caused a decline of fish stocks in Russia and Japan which has led to an increasing tendency of birds on Hokkaido to move inland and scavenge on sika deer carcasses left by hunters, exposing them to a risk of lead poisoning through ingestion of lead shot. <br/></p>	eng
144343	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ichthyophaga humilis </em>occurs in <strong>India</strong> (restricted to Himalayan foothills and north-east; declining in range and population),<strong> Bangladesh, Nepal</strong> (rare and local in lowlands), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(very rare at lower altitudes), <strong>China</strong> (rare visitor to Hainan), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(widespread, scarce to locally fairly common), <strong>Thailand </strong>(rare in west and south), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (recently recorded - status unclear<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Laos</strong> (small numbers persist in several catchments, although fragmentation of populations and their small size renders them vulnerable to local extinction), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare to locally fairly common in west Tonkin and south Annam), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(previously common; now scarce to locally fairly common but declining) and east Malaysia, <strong>Brunei </strong>(scarce), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (uncommon in Sumatra and Borneo; locally common in south-east Sulawesi, uncommon to rare elsewhere, and in the Sula islands and Buru). It frequents large forested rivers and wetlands in the lowlands and foothills up to 2,400 m, but usually below 1,000 m. Loss of forest habitat along rivers, siltation, over-fishing and increasing human disturbance of waterways are causing widespread declines. It is also declining in Uttar Pradesh, India, partly because of pesticide use and this is presumably relevant throughout much of its range. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144344	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Icthyophagus icthyaetus</em> occurs in <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally frequent in the north-east, scarce and local in the peninsula, <strong>Nepal</strong> (now rare and local, mainly below 250 m), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (rare in the dry lowlands), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (widely distributed but uncommon and local), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(rare to scarce resident), <strong>Philippines </strong>(formerly quite common in the north and east, now rare and apparently declining), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly a widespread resident, now absent from north and centre, rare and local in the south), <strong>Laos </strong>(now rare), <strong>Vietnam </strong>(scarce in south, disappearing from north), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (scarce and declining<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(previously common, now uncommon and sparse, perhaps 40 pairs remaining), east Malaysia, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), <strong>Brunei </strong>(scarce), and the Greater Sundas and Sulawesi,<strong> Indonesia</strong> (widely distributed but uncommon in Sumatra and Borneo, but now very rare in Java). Although widely distributed, the species is local and declining in most parts of its range through loss of forested wetlands. However, historical and even recent records are difficult to interpret, in South-East Asia at least, due to identification difficulties between this species and Lesser Fish-eagle <em>I.</em> <em>humilis</em>. It is found near slow-moving rivers and streams, lakes, reservoirs and tidal lagoons in wooded country, usually in lowlands but ascending locally to 1,525 m. The most pertinent threats are the loss of undisturbed wetlands, over-fishing, siltation, pollution and persecution. <br/></p>	eng
144346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated the population to number 1,000-10,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 610-1,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,830-3,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). A revised global estimate is therefore 2,000-10,000 individuals.	eng
144347	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Occurs within a number of protected areas across its range. Monitoring programs are in place for a number of national populations. The veterinary drug Diclofenac has now been banned by the Indian government. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protect nest sites where persecution is a problem. Research the causes of current declines across the species's range. Establish supplementary feeding sites where appropriate. Lobby for the banning of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes throughout the species's range, and support the enforcement of this ban where it has been adopted. Monitor population trends throughout the range. Where applicable, establish the impact of wind turbines, and lobby for effective impact assessments to be carried out prior to their construction.  <br/></p>	eng
144347	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neophron percnopterus </em>occupies a large range with isolated resident populations in the <strong>Cape Verde</strong> and <strong>Canary Islands</strong> in the west through <strong>Morocco</strong> and parts of <strong>West Africa</strong>. A small resident popualtion persists in <strong>Angola</strong> and <strong>Namibia</strong>. The bulk of the resident population occurs in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and <strong>East Africa</strong>, <strong>Arabia</strong> and the <strong>Indian Subcontinent</strong>. Migratory birds breed in southern <strong>Europe</strong> from <strong>Spain</strong> in the west, through the <strong>Mediterranean</strong>, the <strong>Caucasus</strong> and <strong>central Asia</strong> to <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>northern India</strong> and <strong>Nepal</strong>. These birds winter within the resident range, and in addition throughout the <strong>Sahel</strong> region of Africa. Global popualtion estimates for the species are crude, but combining figures of 3,500-5,600 pairs in Europe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <2,000 pairs in central Asia, just a few thousand pairs now in the Indian Subcontinent,  perhaps 1,000 pairs in the Middle East, and perhaps <7,500 pairs in Africa gives a total of 30,000-42,000 mature individuals. The European population has declined by over 50% in the last three generations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Iberia supports approximately 50% of the European population with an estimated 1,400 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>: a decline of >50% in the last three generations. Similar declines are reported from the Middle East<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, e.g. 50-75% in Israel, although in <strong>Oman</strong> the population is apparently stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and 1,000 birds are resident in a stable population on the island of <strong>Socotra<sup>4</sup></strong>. The resident populations within Africa also appear to have declined, including those in Ethiopia and Djibouti<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and Angola and Namibia (where just 10 pairs remain)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Across much of Africa residents are outnumbered by migrant European breeders<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Most critically, the species has undergone a catastrophic decline in India (>35% per year) since 1999 and numbers detected on road transects declined by 68% between 2000 and 2003<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144347	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Typically nests on low cliffs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and rocky outcrops. Forages in lowland and montane regions over open often arid country. Also scavenges at human settlements. Broad diet including carrion, organic waste, insects, young vertebrates and even eggs. Usually solitary but will congregate at feeding sites e.g. rubbish tips. Performs an energetic display flight with mate. Several resident island populations show genetic isolation. Northern breeders conduct long distance intercontinental migrations.  <br/></p>	eng
144347	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Global population estimates for the species are crude, but combining figures of 2,600-3,100 pairs in Europe, <2,000 pairs in central Asia, just a few thousand pairs now in the Indian Subcontinent, perhaps 1,000 pairs in the Middle East, and perhaps <7,500 pairs in Africa, gives a total of 30,000-40,000 mature individuals. <br/><p></p>	eng
144347	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species faces a number of threats across its range. Declines in parts of Africa are likely to have been driven by loss of wild ungulate populations and overgrazing in some areas by livestock<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Disturbance, lead poisoning (from gun-shot) and collision with powerlines are currently impacting upon European populations<strong><sup>5,12</sup></strong>. In India, it appears that the veterinary drug Diclofenac is driving the recent rapid declines<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusive from carcasses by <em>Gyps</em> spp. vultures<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Morocco at least, it is taken for use in traditional medicine. <br/></p>	eng
144349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a number of protected areas thoughout its range. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Establish a monitoring network for African vultures. Establish legal protection for the species in range states. Determine the most important current threats and identify solutions.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
144349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gyps africanus</em> is the most widespread and common vulture in Africa. It occurs from <strong>Senegal, Gambia</strong> and <strong>Mali</strong> in the west, throughout the Sahel region to <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and <strong>Somalia</strong> in the east, through East Africa into <strong>Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong> in the south. Its global population has been estimated at 270,000 individuals. Consistent with other vulture species it has declined by over 90% in West Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has also declined in Sudan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Kenya<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but is apparently more stable in Ethiopia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Tanzania<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and across southern Africa where an estimated 40,000 individuals remain<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Primarily a lowland species of open wooded savanna. Particularly areas of <em>Acacia</em>. It requires tall trees for nesting. A gregarious species congregating at carcasses, in thermals and at roost sites. Nests in loose colonies. <br/><p></p>	eng
144349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's global population has been estimated at 270,000 individuals (Mundy <em>et al</em>. 1992). <br/></p>	eng
144349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species faces similar threats to other African vultures, being susceptible to habitat conversion to agro-pastoral systems, loss of wild ungulates leading to reduced availability of carrion, hunting for trade, persecution and poisoning. Electrocution on powerlines is also a problem in parts of its range. <br/></p>	eng
144350	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. There has been a proposal to add the species to the protected species list of the 1973 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in Nepal. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian Subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005<strong><sup>13,17</sup></strong>, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac which has been tested on a number of species including <em>Gyps </em>vultures with no apparent ill-effects<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. In 2008 the Indian government ordered a crackdown on companies selling diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. A study of 11 administrative districts in Nepal found diclofenac use dropped by 90% since 2006 following the introduction of measures to reduce its use<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. Vulture restaurants are increasingly used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range, particularly Cambodia, to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research. The exchange of diclofenac with meloxicam near breeding colonies is taking place in Nepal in combination with diversionary feeding with diclofenac-free carcasses. Diversionary feeding has been shown to reduce but not eliminate vulture mortality from diclofenac poisoning, and uncertainty over the movements of Asian <em>Gyps </em>vultures makes the effectiveness of measures such as these uncertain<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., to aid development of suitable conservation strategies for the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that vultures provide<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Captive breeding efforts are ongoing and met with success when two chicks hatched in early 2007 at a breeding centre in Pinjore, Haryana<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive flocks that will ensure the full geographical spread of the species is represented in captive breeding efforts<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. By April 2008 there were 88 in captivity at three breeding centres in India, as well as 11 at a centre established by WWF-Pakistan and 14 in captivity in Nepal<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><strong><strong><br/>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Continue to measure the frequency of diclofenac-treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar and survey southern India where it is hoped vulture populations may not have crashed to the same extent that they have in the rest of the Subcontinent. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres with the aim of holding at least 150 pairs of each species in captivity</strong><sup>25,26</sup>. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.</strong></strong>	eng
144350	distribution		<em>Gyps bengalensis</em> occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Cambodia</strong> and southern<strong> Vietnam, </strong>and may be extinct in<strong> </strong>southern<strong> </strong>China and Malaysia. It has been recorded from south-east Afganistan and Iran where its status is currently unknown. As recently as 1985 the species was described as "possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world"<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, it disappeared from most of South-East Asia in the early 20th century and the only viable populations in the region are found in Myanmar and Cambodia, mainly in the Stung Treng province (both probably in the low hundreds of individuals)<strong><sup>6,7,8,30</sup></strong>. Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in the region is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. Since the mid-1990s, it has suffered a catastrophic decline (over 99%) across the Indian Subcontinent (the majority of its historic range), first noticed in Keoladeo National Park, India<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but mirrored in Pakistan<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and Nepal<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, to the point that the species is highly threatened with extinction. Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), diclofenac, to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse<strong><sup>9,10,11,12</sup></strong>. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure causing visceral gout<strong><sup>10,12,14,15</sup></strong>. Declines in India between 2000-2007 averaged 43.9% per year<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>, and ranged between 11%-61% in Punjab province, Pakistan over the same period<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>, while surveys of 23 known colonies in Punjab province in 2006 found a total of only 37 breeding pairs<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Diclofenac is apparently entirely absent in Cambodia, adding greater importance to that remaining small population (171 counted at vulture restaurants in 2008)<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>.	eng
144350	habitat		It<em> </em>occurs mostly in plains and less frequently in hilly regions where it utilises light woodland, villages, cities, and open areas. It feeds on carrion, both putrid and fresh. While feeding considerable aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks. It breeds in colonies in tall trees, often near human habitation. Movements are poorly known, although satellite-tagged birds have shown that they will forage over a vast range. The degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.	eng
144350	population		Formerly described as possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world, this species global population almost certainly numbered several million individuals. However, following dramatic declines through the 1990's across its range its global population is now estimated to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals.	eng
144351	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species occurs in a number of protected areas across Africa. It was recently included in a CITES Significant Trade Review. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Establish legal protection for this species, particularly in West Africa. Monitor remaining populations including at colonies. Conserve remaining populations within protected areas. Protect breeding colonies. Maintain remaining wild ungulate herds within protected areas. <strong> <br/></p>	eng
144351	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gyps reuppellii</em> occurs throughout the Sahel region of Africa from <strong>Senegal, Gambia </strong>and<strong> Mali </strong> in the west to <strong>Sudan </strong>and <strong>Ethiopia </strong>in the east. Also south through the savanna regions of East Africa in <strong>Kenya, Tanzania</strong> and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. Formerly abundant, the species has experienced extremely rapid declines in much of its range, particularly West Africa. Although in Gambia it is apparently stable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, comparative data have shown some colonies in Mali<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Sudan<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> have declined by up to 96% and 100% respectively. It has also declined in <strong>Uganda</strong><sup>4</sup>, Kenya<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Tanzania<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but may be stable in Ethiopia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Now largely confined to protected areas throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
144351	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents open areas of <em>Acacia</em> woodland, grassland and montane regions, and it is gregarious, congregating at carrion, soaring together in flocks and breeding mainly in colonies on cliff faces and escarpments at a broad range of elevations. It locates food entirely by sight. <br/></p>	eng
144351	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Mundy <em>et al</em>. (1992). <br/></p>	eng
144351	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural conversion, incidental poisoning, persecution and at least historically, the loss of wild ungulates. The West African population has been heavily exploited for trade, with birds commonly sold in fetish markets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144354	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix&#160;II. It is legally protected throughout its range. Some breeding colonies lie within protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Non-governmental organisations have successfully raised awareness among farming communities in South Africa of the plight of this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The national electricity supplier in South Africa has replaced pylons in some regions with a design that reduces electrocution risk to large birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Supplementary feeding at vulture "restaurants" may have helped to slow declines in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Supplementary feeding is known to significantly increase the survival rate of first-year birds<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect breeding colonies<sup>1, and prevent tourists uninhibited access to nesting sites3. Mitigate impacts from poisoning and electrocution1. Increase availability of livestock carcasses to <em>G.&#160;coprotheres in areas where current practices do not allow this. Develop conservation partnerships with the farming community1. Investigate the burgeoning exploitation for traditional medicine1. Monitor food availability, especially through the nestling period. Carry out a complete survey of its breeding sites1. Continue population monitoring and demographic studies1.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144354	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gyps coprotheres</em> is found in <strong>South Africa</strong> (where overall numbers are decreasing<strong><sup>1,2,13</sup></strong>), <strong>Lesotho</strong> (c.552 pairs at c.47 colonies, with a continuing decline at some colonies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), eastern and south-eastern <strong>Botswana</strong> (c.600 pairs<strong><sup>3,14</sup></strong>) and <strong>Mozambique</strong> (10-15 pairs near Swaziland<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>). It formerly bred in Swaziland (declined to extinction<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>), central <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (declined to extinction - an isolated roost of up to 150 non-breeding birds persists<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), and <strong>Namibia</strong> (declined to extinction - just six non-breeding birds remain<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>). The total population was estimated to be 4,400 pairs in 84 colonies in 1994<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and was implied to have declined to c.4,000 pairs by 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144354	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A long-lived<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> carrion-feeder specialising on large carcasses, it flies long distances over open country, although usually found near mountains, where it breeds and roosts on cliffs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
144354	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2006, the total population was estimated at 8,000-10,000 individuals (M. Diekmann <em>in litt.</em> 2006).   <br/></p>	eng
144354	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is assumed to be declining throughout much of its range, in the face of a multitude of threats, which include accidental poisoning on agricultural land, electrocution on pylons, collision with overhead cables and with vehicles, food-stress during chick-rearing, persecution (including collection for traditional medicines), disturbance at colonies, and drowning<strong><sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong>. The collapse of a key colony in eastern Botswana has been attributed to human disturbance, especially insensitive tourism<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144355	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The European Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds has contributed to the recovery and conservation of the species in Europe, particularly Spain, where the  population has increased from an estimated 290 pairs in 1984 to a minimum of 1,511 pairs at present<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Co-operation between Spanish government agencies and conservationists under the 'Antidote Programme' also appears to have been effective in mitigating the effects of poisoned baits. Both the Spanish and the Andalusian Governments have produced anti-poisoning strategies, but the former still remain to be financially supported while the latter need more decisive official endorsement. A reintroduction project in France has resulted in the establishment of a small breeding population with good prospects.  Supplementary feeding programmes have been initiated in Spain and France to provide a safe, poison-free food source, although there are concerns that the species may be not very prone to feed at conventional feeding stations. In eastern Europe and central Asia, fewer conservation actions are known, although the species occurs within a number of protected areas in the region. The Balkan Vulture Action Plan aims to transfer expertise and technology relating to the conservation of the species from western to eastern parts of Europe<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey to determine the species's status and population trends on breeding grounds outside Europe and on wintering grounds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Research threats, particularly the decline in abundance of prey species. Carry out reintroductions to link up the western and the eastern sub-areas of the present range, following the recommendations of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Black Vulture Conservation Foundation. Restore wild rabbit <em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em> populations in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (Spain) as this may help to increase food availability, particularly during the breeding period. Promote cooperation and information exchange among people working on the species, both at a national and international level.  Strengthen and enforce legislation regulating trade in pesticides that are used to poison meat baits. Increase the rate of prosecution and the severity of judicial sentences for illegal poisoning. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144355	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aegypius monachus</em> breeds in <strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyztan</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, north <strong>India</strong>, northern <strong>Pakistan</strong><sup>9</sup>, Mongolia and mainland <strong>China</strong>, with a small reintroduced population in <strong>France</strong>. It may occasionally breed in Portugal, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia and Albania, but it no longer breeds in Slovenia, Italy, Cyprus, Moldova and Romania. There are wintering areas in <strong>Sudan</strong>, Pakistan, north-west India, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan, Myanmar</strong>, <strong>Lao People's Democratic Republic, North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>. Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong> and 5,500-8,000<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> pairs in Asia. In Europe, populations are increasing in Spain (minimum 1,500 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), Portugal and France, and are stable in Greece and Macedonia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, numbers are decreasing in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Turkey and the Ukraine<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Overall, the European population underwent a large increase between 1990 and 2000, possibly >30% overall<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Much less information is available regarding the status and population trends of the species in Asia, where the bulk of the global population resides.  There are probably over 1,000 pairs in the Asian part of the former Soviet Union and a further 1,760 pairs in China<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears that breeding populations are more or less stable in Mongolia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> (where the species is described as common) and Pakistan<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> (where it is described as scarce), although fluctuations in distribution and breeding success occur, and populations within some nature reserves in Mongolia (where there are few domestic livestock) are declining<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.  In Kazakhstan, however, populations of all vulture species are in severe decline, owing to precipitous decline in their main food resource, the Saiga antelope (<em>Saiga tartarica</em>)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. This trend may be mirrored in a number of other central Asian countries where populations of both domesticated livestock and wild ungulates have declined greatly in recent years<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Very little is known about population trends on wintering grounds, although wintering populations appear to be declining in Nepal<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and increasing in India<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144355	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forested areas in hills and mountains at 300-1400 m in Spain, but higher in Asia, where it also occupies scrub and arid and semi-arid alpine meadows and grasslands up to 4500m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It forages over forested areas, and also over many kinds of open terrain from steppe to open grasslands.  Nests are built in trees or on rocks (the latter extremely rarely in Europe but more frequently in parts of Asia), often aggregated in very loose colonies or nuclei.  Its diet consists mainly of carrion from medium-sized or large mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items.  Live prey is rarely taken. <br/></p>	eng
144355	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe (BirdLife International 2004; Anon. 2004b) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia (Anon. 2004b). <br/></p>	eng
144355	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The two main threats to the species are direct mortality caused by humans (either accidentally or deliberately) and decreasing availability of food. The main cause of death is the use of poisoned baits for predator extermination<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although shooting and destruction of nests also occur<strong><sup>7,12</sup></strong>. Hunting for sport is increasing in Mongolia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and many birds are trapped or shot in China for their feathers. There are fears that the vetinary drug Diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinction of several <em>Gyps</em> vultures in India, may have a negative impact on <em>A. monachus</em><strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, particularly as increasing numbers of the species are wintering in northern India<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In Europe, decreased food availability is caused by European Union legislation on carcass disposal<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In eastern Europe and central Asia, particularly in the former Soviet Union, changes in agricultural practices and human migration from the countryside to the cities have greatly reduced numbers of domestic livestock.  Additionally, there have been steep declines in many populations of wild ungulates which provide a major food source for the species. The Saiga antelope (<em>Saiga tartarica</em>), for example, numbered over one million individuals ten years ago, and has now been reduced to a population of 30-40,000<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is also thought to be important<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144356	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix&#160;II. CMS Appendix&#160;II. It breeds in a number of protected areas within its extensive range. Ecological research is ongoing, notably in Saudi Arabia<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Organise coordinated surveys and monitoring throughout its range to clarify population size and decline rates. Formulate an international action plan for its conservation<sup>1,14</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further ecological research<sup>2,10,14</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate farmer-awareness programmes to reduce mortality from persecution and accidental poisoning<sup>1,5,10,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144356	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Torgos tracheliotus</em> breeds in <strong>Egypt</strong>, possibly Libya<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Swaziland</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> (an increasing population, in excess of 500 individuals<strong><sup>9,11</sup></strong>), <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>. It has been extinct in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia since the 1930s, and now only small populations remain in southern Egypt, and possibly Western Sahara and Mauritania<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Nigeria, there has been a major decline since the late 1970s and it may now have been extirpated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It probably previously bred in Jordan<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and no longer breeds in Israel<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There are possibly 1,000 pairs (almost 3,000 individuals) in southern Africa, at least the same in east and north-east Africa, and possibly only c.500 pairs in west Africa and the Sahara, giving a total rough estimate of the African population of at least 8,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is suffering a slow decline in southern Africa<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144356	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It ranges widely when foraging<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and is mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcasses or their remains<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. It builds solitary nests (usually containing just one egg), often in <em>Acacia</em> (its distribution sometimes being limited by these trees' distribution<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>). It does not breed until at least six years old, then fledging c.0.4 young/pair/year<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Ringing studies in Namibia have revealed a very low return rate<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144356	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The African population is at least 8,000 individuals (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992), and there may be 500 in the Middle East.  <br/></p>	eng
144356	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread accidental poisoning, largely due to strychnine used by many farmers for predator control, has contributed significantly to declines<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It is also often mistakenly persecuted as a livestock predator<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>: one major deliberate poisoning incident killed 86&#160;individuals in Namibia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Increasing use of agricultural pesticides may also be a problem<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nest disturbance, to which it is extremely sensitive<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, may be growing with the increasing recreational use of off-road vehicles<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144357	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species currently occurs throughout much of  southern and East Africa's protected areas network<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.   <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Carry out co-ordinated surveys throughout the range of this species to clarify its population size and trends. Raise awareness about the impact of poisoning on this species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144357	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trigonoceps occipitalis</em> has an extremely large range in sub-Saharan Africa (from <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia </strong>and <strong>Guinea-Bissau</strong> disjunctly east to <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia </strong>and <strong>Somalia</strong>, and south to easternmost <strong>South Africa</strong> and <strong>Swaziland</strong>), where it is uncommon to locally common, but generally widespread outside forested regions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has declined rapidly in parts of West Africa since the early 1940s<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, and in southern Africa is now largely confined to protected areas. An extrapolated estimate of the global population suggested there were 2,600-4,700 pairs (7,000-12,500 mature individuals)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144357	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers mixed, dry woodland at low altitudes, avoiding semi-arid thornbelt areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also occurs up to 4,000 m in Ethiopia, and perhaps 3,000 m in Kenya, and ranges across the thorny <em>Acacia</em>-dominated landscape of Botswana<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally avoids human habitation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is thought to be a long-lived resident that maintains a territory<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It may generally fly lower than other vultures, and is often the first vulture species to arrive at carcasses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. While it is often found on the periphery of vulture congregations at large carcasses, it is also often found at small carcasses and is probably an occasional predator<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It nests and roosts in trees, most nests being in <em>Acacia</em> spp. or baobabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Clutch size is one, the egg being laid a couple of months after rains have finished and the dry season is underway<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Pairs that breed have a success rate of 65-75%, however, up to 61% of pairs do not attempt to breed each year<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144357	population	BirdLife International, 2008	An estimate of 7,000-12,500 mature individuals was extrapolated from a number of regional estimates (Mundy <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><p></p>	eng
144357	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Reductions in populations of medium-sized mammals and wild ungulates, as well as habitat conversion throughout its range best explain current decline<strong><sup>1,2,8</sup></strong>. Additional threats are indirect poisoning<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> at baits set to kill jackals in small-stock farming areas, although this species is less susceptible than other vultures owing to its broad diet. Exploitation for the international trade in raptors<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> also poses a threat. <br/></p>	eng
144358	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian Subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>, although it was still in widespread use in 2007 and is likely to remain so for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India in 2008 warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac, which has been tested on <em>Gyps </em>vultures with no ill-effects. Monitoring of vultures has been conducted in a number of protected areas in India, and monitoring of vulture populations combined with supplementary feeding is underway in the northern and eastern plains of Cambodia. There are currently seven vulture restaurants in Cambodia, which are run by The Cambodia Vulture Conservation Project, a partnership between the Royal Cambodian Government and NGOs, led by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and also including BirdLife International, WWF, RSPB and Angkor Center for the Conservation of Biodiversity<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A five-year captive breeding and reintroduction scheme to be run by the Zoological Park Associatin and Kasetsart University was due to begin in 2007 in Uthai Thani, Thailand <strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but captive breeding efforts are not as advanced as they are for Critically Endangered <em>Gyps</em> vultures and these are urgently needed.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternatives to diclofenac. Test other NSAIDs to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144358	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Sarcogyps calvus </em>occurs in Pakistan (previously regular, now a rare straggler with two in Tharparker in 2002 the first record since 1980<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>), <strong>Nepal</strong> (uncommon), <strong>India</strong> (sparsely distributed and declining, now rare or absent from some areas, e.g. parts of Gujarat and the north-eastern states, but still fairly common in the west Himalayan foothills), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (rare in the north-west),<strong> Bhutan, Myanmar</strong> (rare resident; recent records come mainly from Mount Victoria<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>), <strong>China</strong> (unrecorded in Yunnan since the late 1960's<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; possibly occurs in south-east Tibet), <strong>Thailand</strong> (near extinct in the country<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), <strong>Laos </strong>(previously widespread and common, but now extremely rare and restricted to the south), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously regular in central regions, now extremely rare), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (previously common, now rare and restricted to the northern and eastern plains), peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (previously locally common in north, now absent), <strong>Singapore</strong> (formerly occurred, apparently now absent). Historical reports indicate that it was widespread and generally abundant, but it has undergone a population and range decline in recent decades. Recent information indicates that in India the species started undergoing a rapid decline (41% per year) in about 1999, and declined by 94% between 2000 and 2003<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Declines in the Indian Subcontinent have followed widely reported and well-researched declines in <em>Gyps</em> vultures owing to mortality following ingestion of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, used to treat livestock, and it is hypothesised that this same drug has been responsible for the observed trends in Red-headed Vulture. Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in the region is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Given its rarity in South-East Asia, it is unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain there, while the total population seems unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals given the patchiness of its distribution across India and the apparently catastrophic very recent declines.<em> <br/></p>	eng
144358	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It frequents open country (often near human habitation), well-wooded hills and dry deciduous forest with rivers, usually below 2,500 m. Nesting has been recorded in tall trees. It occurs at lower density than <em>Gyps</em> vultures owing to its predominantly territorial behaviour, and movements are poorly known. Vultures play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India. <br/></p>	eng
144358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Given its rarity in South-East Asia, it is unlikely that more than a few hundred individuals remain, while the total population seems unlikely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals given the patchiness of its distribution across India and the apparently catastrophic very recent declines. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144358	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The disappearance of vultures from Asia is linked to a suite of factors: notably the demise of wild ungulates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, the intensification of agriculture, increased sophistication of waste disposal techniques, direct persecution and disease. However, rapid declines over the last eight years are believed to have been driven by the pharmaceutical NSAID diclofenac used to treat livestock, which has proven highly toxic to vultures, causing mortality from renal failure resulting from visceral gout<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusion from carcasses by <em>Gyps</em> spp. vultures<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144360	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circaetus fasciolatus</em> is a secretive raptor feeding almost exclusively on snakes and lizards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is confined mainly to coastal and riverine forest (and adjacent moist woodland) from southern <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> to north-eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>, and extending up the Save River (Mozambique) to south-eastern <strong>Zimbabwe<sup>2</sup></strong>. It is generally found within 20&#160;km of the coast, except in the lower Tana River forests in Kenya, the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania, and in Zimbabwe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is uncommon over most of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but may be locally common in the East Usambara Mountains<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In South Africa, where it has suffered a range reduction (no longer found in the southerly part of its former range), the total population is only 40-50 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been recently recorded in only 16 out of 31 coastal forest blocks in Kenya and Tanzania<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and a more recent survey recorded it in only 24 out of 41&#160;forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Coastal forest is threatened with degradation and fragmentation as a result of the extraction of wood for use as timber, charcoal, poles and firewood<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Mozambique, it probably no longer occurs on the coast between the Limpopo and Save rivers due to human population pressure and deforestation, while the population south of the Save river is probably fewer than 50 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144360	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a limited range (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 1994) and usually occurs at low densities (Seddon <em>et al.</em> 1999); its population is estimated at 1,000-3,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144362	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Implement education and awareness campaigns across its range to reduce the use of poisoned baits. Carry out regular population monitoring across its range. <br/></p>	eng
144362	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Terathopius ecaudatus </em>has an extensive range across much of sub-Saharan Africa (from southern <strong>Mauritania</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, southern <strong>Mali </strong>and <strong>Guinea </strong>east to central <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and west <strong>Somalia</strong> and south to <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong> and northern and north-eastern <strong>South Africa</strong>), and also occurs in south-west Arabia (south-west <strong>Saudi Arabia </strong>and <strong>Yemen</strong>). Its global population is estimated to be 10,000-100,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There have been significant population declines and/or range contractions suspected in many regions, including Botswana<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong><sup>6</sup>, <strong>Kenya</strong><sup>1</sup>, <strong>Namibia</strong><sup>6</sup>, <strong>Nigeria </strong>(an estimated decline of at least 50 % in 30 years and now essentially confined to protected areas)<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>, Somalia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, South Africa<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>, Sudan<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, parts of <strong>Zambia</strong><sup>7</sup>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong><sup>6</sup>, and possibly parts of <strong>Tanzania</strong><sup>9</sup>, in some areas, however, the species is not declining and remains widespread and common<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144362	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits open country, including grasslands, savanna and subdesert thornbush from sea level to 4,500 m but generally below 3,000 m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is generally considered resident but some adults as well as immatures are nomadic<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It takes both live and dead food, mostly mammals and birds but also some reptiles, carrion, insects and occasionally birds' eggs and crabs, foraging over a huge range (55-200 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The nest is built in the canopy of a large tree, and breeding is chiefly September-May in West Africa, throughout the year in East Africa and December-August in southern Africa<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001)<strong> <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
144362	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Putative reasons for declines vary, but include poisoned baits, pesticides, trapping for international trade, nest disturbance from spreading human settlements, and increased intensification and degradation of agricultural land<strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>. The major cause of the decline seems to be almost entirely poisoning by a few large-scale commercial farmers, but poisoning is also a problem in tribal small-stock farming communities. <br/></p>	eng
144363	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common, although locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144364	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It<strong> </strong>occurs within Kinabalu and Mulu National Parks. High-altitude or remote habitat is currently beyond the scope of logging or agricultural activities and therefore it is relatively secure in certain portions of its range.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct fieldwork to determine the range and population size of this species along with the degree of threat it faces from habitat destruction. Propose further sites for establishment as protected areas in the Bornean highlands. Ensure effective management of key protected areas for the species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144364	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizaetus</em><strong> </strong><em>kinabaluensis </em>is confined to the mountains of central and northern Borneo in <strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. From observations in the 1980s and 1990s, it appears to be a genuinely scarce species, with a small total population. However, much of its range is infrequently visited and it may prove to be more common than current indications suggest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144364	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently sedentary in submontane and montane evergreen rainforest where it tends to prefer ridge-top forest between 1,000-2,900&#160;m. In areas where it occurs alongside <em>S. cheela</em> it is separated vertically by a few hundred metres.</p>	eng
144364	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.3-0.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 16650 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO: higher percentage taken because habitat remains relatively intact at higher altitudes) = 4,995-6,660, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from: 1. density estimate for <em>S. cheela</em> in Malaysia [see  BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet]; 2. Density estimate from graph of breeding density vs. mass in Newton [1979]). <br/></p>	eng
144364	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation is the primary threat to the species at lower elevations, where the extent of forest is diminishing fairly rapidly in the face of agricultural expansion and intensification. <strong></strong></p>	eng
144367	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spilornis elgini </em>is endemic to South Andaman island, <strong>India</strong>, where it is a common resident in inland forest clearings and hillsides with scattered trees. It appears to be ecologically separated from Crested Serpent-eagle <em>S. cheela</em>, which inhabits coastal forests on the same island. Although forest remains extensive on the Andamans, loss and fragmentation of cover continues and is perhaps accelerating. The human population on larger islands is rising rapidly and habitat is consequently under mounting pressure from agriculture, grazing and logging. Hunting is also apparently common on the islands and may affect this species. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144369	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The species has been found recently in several protected areas, including four National Parks, one Strict Reserve, two Special Reserves and one Classified Forest, as well as at 10 of the 30 Important Bird Areas in eastern Madagascar<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may occur in other protected areas further south. It is the subject of an ongoing research program in the Masoala peninsula<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish whether it is present in the southern half of the eastern rainforest belt, including Ranomafana and Midongy-South National Parks<sup>6. Refine population estimates6. Improve the management and conservation of protected areas in the east coast rainforest belt.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144369	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eutriorchis astur</em> is a rare inhabitant of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>. Apart from inconclusive reports of its presence in Marojejy Reserve in the 1960s and 1970s, and despite considerable search-effort within its habitat, it was not definitely recorded between 1930 and 1988. Since the clarification of the species's territorial call in 1995, it has been discovered at several new sites. Amongst other localities, it is most commonly observed in Masoala National Park, where at least 16&#160;individuals have been recorded from nine sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species's current range includes at least the northern half of the eastern rainforest belt, from Tsaratanana south to Mantadia, and it may well occur further south<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. For these reasons the population is almost certainly greater than 250 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144369	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	An elusive and wary denizen of lowland and mid-altitude primary rainforest, it rarely, if ever, ventures beyond the forest edge<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. It is known to feed on lizards<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (chameleons and geckos, which make up 83% of its diet), frogs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and is reported by local people to feed on small mammals and chickens, although this is probably confusion with <em>Accipiter henstii<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. It flies between subcanopy perches, hunting for food on the ground, possibly also taking reptiles in the subcanopy. The first nest to be found by scientists was in 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in an epiphytic fern 20 m above the ground. In the only studied nest the clutch size was 1, incubation 40+ days, nestling period 62 days, and the young dispersed at 15 weeks of age. <br/></p>	eng
144369	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 66-1,660 individuals (0.04-1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,660 km<sup>2</sup>), but is perhaps best placed in the band 250-999 individuals. Hawkins <em>in litt.</em>(2003) suggests the total population is certainly not less than 250 individuals. Assuming a body mass of 800-1,200 g, data in Newton (1979) suggests a breeding density of c. 0.04-1 birds/km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
144369	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its forest habitat is being reduced by extensive clearance for subsistence slash-and-burn agriculture and also commercial logging activities. Other threats include uncontrolled bush fires and poor mining practices. The species dependence on pristine lowland forest makes it particularly susceptible to disturbance. Human persecution may also be a problem in some areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 93000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 279000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 500000-2000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144371	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is resident in wetlands from South Africa north to Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan. The extensive Okavango marshes (Botswana) are probably its stronghold (Harrison et al. 1997a).	eng
144371	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in wetlands, foraging primarily over reeds and lake margins (Harrison et al. 1997a). Its diet consists largely of small mammals, particularly striped mouse Rhabdomys pumilio (Kemp and Dean 1988).	eng
144371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still well represented at some wetland sites in both eastern and southern Africa, especially in Uganda, Botswana and Zambia (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). In South Africa, c.3,000-6,000 pairs remain, but populations are declining here (Barnes 2000), as is the case in some other parts of its peripheral range (Brown et al. 1982, Ginn et al. 1989). However, in some huge countries such as Zambia suitable habitat is extensive and the species is still locally common (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. J. Dowsett in litt. 2000).	eng
144371	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Drainage, burning and grazing of wetlands have probably led to general declines, although these have been partly mitigated by adaptation to new wetlands created by dams (Ginn et al. 1989) and sewage-works (Barnes 2000). The Okavango marshes are threatened by water abstraction (R. Simmons in litt. 1999), and there has been massive drainage of wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal (Begg 1986). Accumulation of chemical pollutants in eggs may be responsible for poor hatching success, although it does not appear to have an effect on adult reproductive output (de Kock and Simmons 1988, R. Simmons in litt. 1999).	eng
144372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare in Russia and uncommon in northern Japan (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144374	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including five National Parks, one Strict Reserve, one Special Reserve, one Classified Forest and one Hunting Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sample areas in Madagascar so as to better estimate national population size. Obtain more accurate estimates of nesting success, and investigate relative importance of different mortality factors at nest. Identify and establish protected areas to conserve key nesting sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144374	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circus macrosceles</em> is confined to the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> and <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It has not been seen recently on Mayotte (to France)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is an estimated population of 250-1,000 mature individuals on Madagascar (based on surveys by Rene de Roland who estimated 200 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but may not have covered all areas of suitable habitat throughout the species's large range) plus 50-250 mature individuals on Comoros (Grande Comore, Moheli and Anjouan: three separate subpopulations)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, ie 300-1,250 mature individuals globally. It is suspected to be declining, but population trends have not yet been accurately quantified.  <br/></p>	eng
144374	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Madagascar, it is often associated with wetlands, hunting around the periphery of vegetation-fringed lakes, marshes, coastal wetlands and rice-paddies, as well as over savanna grasslands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including those that are very degraded<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On the Comoros, it uses a variety of open and forested habitats in drier areas. It feeds on small vertebrates (including birds) and insects<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It nests in low vegetation or on the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144374	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in Madagascar has been estimated at 100-200 mature individuals, based on island-wide surveys by Rene de Roland, who estimated <100 individuals (R. Thorstrom and A.-L. Rene de Roland <em>in litt</em>. 2007), but may not have covered all areas of suitable habitat throughout the species's range. The population on Comoros (Grande Comore, Moheli and Anjouan: three separate subpopulations), where its habitat is nearly totally destroyed, is estimated at no more than 50 mature individuals (R. Thorstrom and A.-L. Rene de Roland<em> in litt</em>. 2007). However, owing to the uncertainty surrounding these estimates, the total population is assumed to be somewhere in the range 250-999 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144374	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Madagascar, this species is likely to have very poor nesting success owing to the regular and comprehensive burning of grasslands (to produce fresh grazing) and due to egg-hunting and nest-destruction by local people<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Conversion of wetlands for rice farming is also likely to have a negative impact upon the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144377	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. There are fewer than 100 individuals in protected areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Closely monitor the population. Provide incentives to landowners to manage grasslands beneficially. Instigate education programmes to raise awareness of the value of this species. <br/></p>	eng
144377	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circus maurus</em> is restricted to southern Africa, where it is concentrated in the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Free State in <strong>South Africa</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong> and in <strong>Lesotho</strong>, with a tiny isolated population in <strong>Namibia</strong> (probably no more than five pairs). It is widespread and locally common within its breeding range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with high concentrations of breeding pairs (1&#160;nest/km<sup>2</sup>) at suitable sites, such as West Coast National Park in South Africa<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The total population is probably fewer than 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although there has been some debate on its status and trends, and local population fluctuations and extinctions may be experienced, populations are probably stable overall and its range has not changed markedly during the 20th century. <br/></p>	eng
144377	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a dry-country species, frequenting arid fynbos, Karoo subdesert scrub, open plains with low shrubs and croplands and occasionally marshes with tall grass or reeds, occurring in dry steppe and grassland areas in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It prefers open ground with low vegetation for hunting, where it feeds on a varied diet based on rodents, especially vlei rat <em>Otomys irroratus</em> and <em>Rhabdomys</em> species. Local fluctuations may be related to population cycles in its prey base<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Dry sites, near vleis, marshes or streams, are preferred for breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests are built on the ground and usually hold three to four eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144377	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at 1,000-1,500 individuals (R.E. Simmons<em> in litt</em>. 2007); however, it is thought that the number of mature individuals does not exceed 1,000, thus the range 250-999 mature individuals is retained for the population estimate.  <br/></p>	eng
144377	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss to agriculture is the primary threat, with uncontrolled burning of fynbos and grassland a compounding factor. Direct mortality through cereal harvesting, and low hatching rates as a result of pesticide residues, are increasing threats now that this species is adapting to agricultural habitats<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Disturbance may be a hazard where rural population density is high, as in Lesotho. Drainage, impoundment and inappropriate management of vleis, marshes or streams near breeding grounds could prove detrimental.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144380	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is is classified as a Species of European Conservation Concern (SPEC) Category 3, and as Endangered at the European level<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It is listed in Appendix II of CITES, Annex II of the Bonn and Bern Conventions and in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. It is also listed in the Red Data Books of Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and Turkey<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. It occurs in five State Nature Reserves in Russia and in the Naurzum Nature Reserve in Kazakhstan<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. An International Action Plan for the species has been produced<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Encourage conservation of wetlands and ponds in typical steppe grassland and semi-desert.  Support moderate grazing and conservation of grasslands.  Develop survey methodology (including GIS) and carry out surveys, primarily in the core breeding range and, secondarily, to establish its northern and southern range limits as well as to search for new nesting places outside core breeding grounds.  Carry out research into diet and foraging range size, and their role in the movement of populations.  Lobby for enactment and enforcement of legislation banning the use of harmful pesticides in <br/>the winter range, and in the recovering agricultural economy in the breeding range.  Survey grassland and thorn-forest areas in African and Indian winter range for significant roosting <br/>concentrations, including tracking birds by means of satellite telemetry as soon as feasible.  Review roost site and catchment area management at winter roosts, most urgently in areas where agriculture <br/>is changing due to new irrigation schemes, and pursue any necessary conservation action.  Carry out research into pesticide residues in corpses, and pesticide use in winter roost catchment areas. Encourage full legal protection and education in countries on migration routes and in the winter range<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144380	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circus macrourus</em> breeds primarily in the steppes of Asiatic <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and north-west <strong>China</strong>. Small populations breed in <strong>Azerbaijan, Romania, Turkey </strong>and<strong> Ukraine</strong>. A minority winter in south-east and central Europe, north Africa and the Middle East but most migrate to the Afrotropics (<strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Djibouti</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Somalia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, <strong>Chad</strong>, <strong>Niger</strong>, <strong>Mali</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Guinea-Bissau, Liberia</strong>, <strong>Ivory Coast</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Togo</strong>, <strong>Benin</strong>, <strong>Burkina Faso,</strong> <strong>Nigeria</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Angola</strong>, <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana</strong>, <strong>Swaziland</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong>) and the Indian subcontinent (<strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>).There are also records from the <strong>Maldives</strong>.  The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, having shown marked declines and range contractions. The status of the European population (310-1,200 pairs in Azerbaijan, Romania, Turkey, Ukraine and western Russia, occupying 25-49% of the global breeding range) was recently reassessed<strong><sup>11,6</sup></strong>. Following a large decline in Europe during 1970-1990<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, when up to 30% of birds were lost (particularly from the key population in European Russia), the species continued to decline in 1990-2000, and overall trends exceeded 30% over three generations (18 years)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It appears that the species has been extirpated from Moldova and Belarus, where it bred formerly<strong><sup>6,11</sup></strong>. In Asia, however, the population is presumed to be more stable. Surveys in the Kustanay Oblast region (northern Kazakhstan) from 1997 to 2004 indicate a fluctuating but ostensibly stable population of 1,500-2,000 pairs, nesting at a density of 9.4-25 pairs per 100 km<sup>2  <strong>12,13</strong></sup>. No other detailed surveys are known from the species's Asiatic range, although anecdotal evidence from eastern Kazakhstan (Almaty to Chockpack Bird Station) suggests that it is locally abundant<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Assessment of the status of this species is complicated by the fact that on breeding territories numbers fluctuate in response to environmental conditions, probably numbers of small mammals. Thus, high or low numbers in any given year or two year period may be indicative of change in demographics or they may be indicative of change in local environment (and birds may go elsewhere without their population size changing)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Reliable records from migration routes and wintering grounds are also difficult to obtain owing to the rarity of the species, its broad-front migration strategy, and difficulties in field identification, although important concentrations of birds have been identified in parts of India and Africa<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144380	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in steppe and forest-steppe up to 2000 m, where its favoured nesting sites are wet grasslands close to small rivers and lakes, and marshlands<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>.  A small minority of the population breeds in the boreal forest and forest-tundra zones, north of its main breeding range<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, where it nests in clearings and other open areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Semi-desert, scrub, savanna and wetlands are used in winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144380	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs (Galushin <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
144380	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In its breeding range it is primarily threatened by the destruction and degradation of steppe grasslands through conversion to arable agriculture, intensive grazing of wet pastures and the clearance of shrubs and tall weeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On its wintering grounds it is thought to be negatively affected by the use of harmful pesticides, rodenticides and other toxic chemicals<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, although this requires further research, and by the loss of grassland due to burning, cutting and overgrazing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.    <br/></p>	eng
144393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest African accipiter (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).	eng
144394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in larger tracts of forest (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144396	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protected under Indian Wildlife legislation. No conservation measures are known to have been taken. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>*Investigate its ecological requirements. <br/>*Conduct detailed surveys of the archipelago to determine the true status of this species. <br/>*Develop a protected area on Katchall.  <br/>*Evaluate forest conservation opportunities on Car Nicobar, which is already damaged by human settlement, before it is too late.  <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144396	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter butleri</em><strong> </strong>is endemic to the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>, where it is only known with certainty from Car Nicobar and Katchall. As many islands in the archipelago are poorly studied, it it is possible that it is more widely distributed. There are no confirmed recent records, and there have been no population estimates. <br/></p>	eng
144396	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Apparently restricted to forested habitats. There is very little information available about its breeding and feeding ecology. Lizards and insects have been recorded as food items.   <br/></p>	eng
144396	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Its status and population size are very poorly known. Owing to its apparent scarcity, the species's restricted range and difficulty in identification it is best placed in the band 2,500-10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144396	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The primary threat to this species appears to be habitat loss and degradation, and this has accelerated since the arrival of migrants from mainland India in the late 1960s. Clearance for agriculture and development have increased and have exacerbated soil erosion problems.   <br/></p>	eng
144406	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter haplochrous</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. It appears to be widespread in humid forest but occurs at lower densities in degraded forest and savanna where it coexists with Brown Goshawk <em>A.&#160;fasciatus</em>. The population is estimated to be at least 2,500 pairs. Despite legal protection, a few are killed around inhabitated areas, as it sometimes kills domestic chickens, and habitat loss and degradation are further threats<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. However, it is assumed that it is not undergoing any significant continuing decline. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144406	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Ekstrom <em>et al</em> (2000) <br/></p>	eng
144408	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess population size. Determine best survey techniques. Survey status in logged forest. Ascertain altitudinal range. Confirm occurrence on New Ireland. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain and New Ireland. Research identification through examination of museum specimens. Lobby for a moratorium on forest clearance for oil-palm plantations. Encourage creation of community-run sustainable logging rather than commercial logging. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144408	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter luteoschistaceus</em> is uncommon on New Britain and Umboi with unconfirmed records from New Ireland in <strong>Papua New Guinea<sup>5,7,9,10</sup></strong>. It is only known from c.11 specimens and a handful of recent records, but it is likely to have been overlooked as it appears to be unobtrusive and can be difficult to identify<strong><sup>1,3,4,6,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144408	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded from a number of forest habitats including open forest and cocoa plantations, but is presumed to be a species of tall forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is greatly outnumbered by Grey Goshawk <em>A.&#160;novaehollandiae</em> in all degraded and artificial habitats. Records range to 700&#160;m where it might be replaced by <em>A.&#160;brachyurus</em>. The only documented feeding record is of a specimen with a 15&#160;cm lizard in its stomach<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144408	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,600 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,800-7,200, i.e. probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range from lower end of three estimates for forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
144408	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although its habitat requirements are poorly known, this lowland species is probably dependent on primary forest where Variable Goshawk <em>A.&#160;hiogaster</em> is absent. As such, it is threatened by the extensive logging of all lowland forests across its range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144409	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue searches on Choiseul and, when accessible, Bougainville. Survey population size and trends at Tirotonga. Research basic ecological requirements and interactions with <em>A.&#160;albogularis at Tirotonga. Lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging, especially on Choiseul. Discuss possibilities of large-scale, community-based conservation areas on all three islands.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144409	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter imitator</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul and Santa Isabel, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is rare but may be overlooked because of its unobtrusive forest habits and it perhaps lacks a distinctive call. It is known from just one specimen from Bougainville and a handful from both Choiseul and Isabel<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During many weeks of fieldwork on all three islands in the 1980s and 1990s, it was seen only once on Bougainville<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and a series of records from Tirotonga village on Isabel. One specimen was taken here, but some of the other field records and local reports, including those of all-black individuals, have been queried<strong><sup>3,8,9</sup></strong>. This species's similarity to the polymorphic sympatric <em>A.&#160;albogularis</em> has led to a number of uncertain records, including birds on the distant island of Makira<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Population numbers and trends are difficult to assess from so few recent records, but the species is clearly very rare and appears to have declined, on Choiseul at least<strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144409	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has been collected and sighted in lowland forest or forest edge to at least 400&#160;m and, possibly, 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>3,8,9</sup></strong>. One was seen feeding on a Chestnut-bellied Monarch <em>Monarcha castaneiventris<strong><sup>10</sup></strong></em>. Its ecology is poorly known and its niche separation from <em>A.&#160;albogularis</em> is unknown, but its shorter wings and tail and longer legs suggest that it is better adapted to interior forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144409	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,010 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 505, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density lowest of three estimates for forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as - despite being unobtrusive and hence overlooked - the species is "clearly very rare") <br/></p>	eng
144409	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As a lowland species, it is likely to be threatened by forest loss and degradation. There is extensive logging in the lowlands and hills of Choiseul and some on Isabel. Logging may become a problem on Bougainville when the island opens up to development. It possibly suffers from competition with <em>A.&#160;albogularis</em>, especially in degraded forest. <br/></p>	eng
144411	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of unlogged lowland forest and some large community based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Use local hunters to locate nests so that its breeding biology can be studied. Locate and monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the island.	eng
144411	distribution		<em>Accipiter princeps</em> is endemic to the island of New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known from four specimens and a handful of recent records<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Although the status of the species is difficult to asses, it is undoubtedly scarce and probably declining.	eng
144411	habitat		Most of the recent records have come from lower montane forest to 1,600 m but it was recorded once at 200 m <strong><sup>2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong> and there is one probable record from 50 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144411	population		Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press	eng
144413	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter collaris</em> is known from a few localities on the west and east slopes of the Andes from south-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (M&eacute;rida, T&aacute;chira), through <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Ecuador</strong>, with a recent range extension of 1,500&#160;km to south <strong>Peru<sup>5</sup></strong>. It occurs in forest and forest edge, mostly subtropical and moist or wet, at 1,700-1,950&#160;m in Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and at 600-1,800&#160;m in Colombia<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Although occasionally relatively abundant<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, it is usually rare and highly sensitive to human disturbance<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144418	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter nanus</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (uncommon to rare) and Buton (rare), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits montane forest at 550-2,000 m. It has been recorded from very few localities, although its similarity to the Vinous-breasted Sparrowhawk <em>A. rhodogaster </em>has possibly resulted in it being under-recorded. Forest loss in the lower-lying areas of Sulawesi has been extensive in recent decades and has probably caused this species to decline. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144421	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. No conservation measures are known to have been taken.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess population size. Determine best survey techniques. Survey status in logged forest. Ascertain altitudinal range. Search for presence in northern New Ireland. Employ local hunters to find nests for intensive observation. Map remaining forest and logging concessions across New Britain and New Ireland. Research identification through examination of museum specimens. Lobby for large community-based conservation areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144421	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter brachyurus</em> is endemic to New Britain and New Ireland in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. There are only a handful of historic or recent records on New Britain<strong><sup>2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. It has recently been discovered on New Ireland where it was the commonest (although not very common) raptor in the montane forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its true distribution is clouded by identification problems with the five <em>Accipter</em> species on New Britain, but it is clearly a localised species occurring at low population-densities.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144421	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a very poorly-known forest species. Although there are some lowland records<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong>, most records are from montane forest, including records at 1,200-1,800&#160;m on New Ireland<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. It is probably excluded from degraded forest habitats by the common <em>A.&#160;novaehollandiae</em> and it may be less common in the lowlands through competition with the similar <em>A. luteoschistaceus</em>.</p>	eng
144421	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
144421	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland populations are threatened by the extensive logging of lowland forests, often with conversion to oil-palm plantations, across its range. The montane populations are under no apparent threats, but it remains a notably rare species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144423	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter madagascariensis</em> is found uncommonly in primary forest throughout <strong>Madagascar</strong>, at altitudes of up to 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in rainforest in the east, deciduous forest in the west and also spiny forest in the south-west<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is only rarely recorded in degraded areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds largely on small birds, as well as frogs, toads and reptiles<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The species is little-known, widely misidentified, and dependent on habitat that is declining in many parts of Madagascar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144423	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 10,000-100,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144428	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Populations occur within the Sierra Maestra and Sierra del Cristal National Parks. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Pinar del R&iacute;o province and the Zapata swamp, and re-survey areas in eastern Cuba to determine current populations and assess trends<sup>3. Further define the species's ecological requirements3. Conduct education and public awareness campaigns to highlight the plight of the bird and discourage human persecution3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144428	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter gundlachi</em> has never been common, but formerly occurred throughout <strong>Cuba</strong>. It is now very rare and local, with five main population centres known to remain. The total population was estimated at 150-200 pairs in 1994. There are three centres for the nominate race in west and central Cuba, but two of these held only three and 20 pairs respectively in 1994. There are two further areas for the race <em>wileyi</em> in the east of the island, where the bulk of the population resides. Sightings around Pico Turquino are scarce, but a bird was seen on the north slopes of the Sierra Maestra in early 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144428	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found up to 800&#160;m in a variety of wooded habitats including humid, dry and pine forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It preys mostly on birds, including poultry. The breeding season is February-May, with young fledging by June<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The nest is generally placed close to the trunk of a high tree, but below the canopy. <br/></p>	eng
144428	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Bierregaard (1994a) <br/></p>	eng
144428	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and disturbance as a result of logging and agricultural conversion, and human persecution (because it preys on poultry) are the chief causes of the decline. <br/></p>	eng
144429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here. Previously, Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated 100,000 individuals.	eng
144431	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Accipiter henstii</em> is a forest raptor sparsely distributed throughout most of <strong>Madagascar</strong> but absent from the south-west<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in primary forest, both dry deciduous and humid evergreen, and in some secondary woodlands and large <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, not always near primary forest. It hunts below the canopy for birds and small mammals, probably including some lemurs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is rare throughout its range<strong><sup>1,2 </sup></strong>but appears to be present in almost all adequately large forest blocks that have been surveyed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144431	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 1,000-3,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrotriorchis buergersi</em> is a rare and little-known species, endemic to New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is known only from a handful of records, none in the last five years, in hill forest at 450-1,580&#160;m, all from eastern New Guinea except for a single record from the Foya Mountains in Papua<strong><sup>1,2,4,5,7,8</sup></strong>. Although it is likely to be overlooked, it does soar<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong> and appears to occur at very low population densities. Most of its habitat is unsuitable for logging and it is unlikely to be hunted<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, however its status cannot be assessed from the present few records. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
144435	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. A six-month survey was conducted in north-east New South Wales in 1987-1988. A three-year study was undertaken in northern Australia between 1988 and 1990. Surveys have also been undertaken in south-east Queensland. Surveys have also been undertaken in south-east and north-east Queensland and Cape York Peninsula.   <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Locate and monitor known nest-sites throughout range and develop appropriate management protocols with landholders (all nest-site locations should remain confidential). <strong>Maintain habitat within range of known pairs, particularly open wetlands and riparian forest. <br/></p>	eng
144435	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrotriorchis radiatus</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. Historically, it ranged in northern and eastern Australia, north of c.33&#176;S in the east, and 19&#176;S in the west, but its range has contracted from south of 28&#176;S in the east, and it is now virtually extinct in New South Wales. Recent surveys suggest breeding is continuous across northern Australia. The population was estimated at only 330 pairs, but it is now known to be particularly common on Melville and Bathurst Islands, and there have also been several reliable reports from central Australia, greatly extending its known distribution to the south. The population is thought to be stable.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144435	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in coastal and subcoastal, tall, open forests and woodlands, tropical savannas traversed by wooded or forested rivers and along the edges of rainforest. It builds stick nests in trees taller than 20&#160;m within 1&#160;km of a watercourse or wetland. It hunts in open forests and gallery forests, taking mostly medium to large birds, but also snakes. In winter in eastern Australia, it appears to move from nest-sites in the ranges to coastal plains, where it often feeds on waterbirds taken from open wetlands.</p>	eng
144435	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at only 330 pairs in the early 1990s, but subsequent surveys and records suggest that it is more abundant than this (Garnett and Crowley 2000; S. Garnett<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Nevertheless it may number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000), thus it is estimated to be in the range of 660-1,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144435	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread clearance for agriculture probably caused the historical decline in north-eastern New South Wales. Continuing clearance may be affecting more northerly populations. Even if riparian strips are left uncleared, pairs usually nest in the tallest trees that are then exposed to storm damage and other disturbance. Egg-collecting may result in the failure of some nests as does burning of nest trees or disruption of breeding by fire. Shooting by pigeon and poultry owners, and possibly pesticides, cause some mortality of individuals and may result in temporary local scarcity.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144436	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megatriorchis doriae</em> is a little-known New Guinea endemic (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including neighbouring Batanta island, Indonesia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a forest species, sometimes found in mangrove and semi-deciduous forest to 1,400&#160;m <strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is rarely recorded, partly because of its unobtrusive habits, with for instance only one record in seven years observation at Tabubil<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its general tolerance of logging is poorly known but it has been seen repeatedly in logged forest near Port Moresby<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although it appears to be widespread and not threatened<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, it may be suffering a rapid population decline and more data are required on its population size and tolerance of logged forest. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144438	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant in some areas (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001).	eng
144442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144443	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leucopternis plumbea</em> is considered rare to uncommon in east <strong>Panama</strong>, west <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and extreme north-west <strong>Peru<sup>1,2,3,4,6</sup></strong>. There is a 1995 sighting from Santa Fe in Veraguas, but it has been extirpated from much of west Panama<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It is known from several scattered localities in Colombia, notably in Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>1,4,7</sup></strong>. It largely inhabits the closed-canopy interior of lowland and foothill (up to 800&#160;m) humid forests, but has been recorded in degraded forest<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. Accelerating rates of deforestation are presumably impacting the species, but it is inconspicuous - in part owing to its 'sit-and-wait' predatory behaviour<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> - so is probably under-recorded in remaining habitat. CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144448	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in at least 14 protected areas, but the distances between them, and the low density of the species, means that they do not guarantee long-term security.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat, particularly in the Jequitinhonha valley, Minas Gerais, and central Bahia. Consolidate protected areas where it occurs. Maintain and create habitat corridors between forest fragments. Initiate awareness programmes to address hunting problems.</strong></p>	eng
144448	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leucopternis lacernulata</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Para&iacute;ba in 1949<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Alagoas, central<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and south Bahia, east Minas Gerais, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo and extreme east Paran&aacute; and Santa Catarina). Though considered common around 1830, the paucity of recent records suggest that it is uncommon in isolated forest patches, with a small overall population. <strong></strong></p>	eng
144448	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears largely confined to patches of primary lowland forest up to 900&#160;m (but to 2,890 m in Minas Gerais<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), where it occurs in the midstorey. In Minas Gerais, it has also been recorded in secondary habitats (capoeiras, <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations), but always close to areas of extensive, more pristine, forest cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to specialise in invertebrate prey, feeding on those disturbed by other animals (including <em>Eciton</em> army ants, a human with a lawn-mower, foraging birds and monkeys)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A recent study of prey revealed grasshoppers, stick insects and a gastropod <em>Megalobulimus paranaguensis</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Stomach contents of three individuals also indicate a primarily invertebrate diet, including spiders and insects, although other prey, including birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals, have been reported.</p>	eng
144448	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-0.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 7,260 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,630-4,356, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range from two estimates for <em>L. albicollis</em> and <em>L. schistacea</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
144448	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is primarily at risk from habitat destruction, which is compounded by its low density and highly fragmented range. Unwarranted persecution as a predator of domestic animals remains a problem in S&atilde;o Paulo and Minas Gerais<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
144451	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Apart from Machalilla National Park and the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, only the Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest (which is the nucleus of a reforestation project) may hold a viable population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Census the species in each of the habitat fragments where it occurs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Map the forest patches of the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche to identify further sites for protection<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Effectively protect habitat in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. <br/></p>	eng
144451	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leucopternis occidentalis</em> is confined to west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Manab&iacute;, Pichincha, Los R&iacute;os, Azuay, El Oro and Loja) and adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). Most records refer to one or two pairs per site and, if these fragmented outposts represent "stranded" birds rather than dispersive resilience, viable populations may survive at only a few sites. Notable amongst these are Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), Peru, which is relatively secure owing to its remoteness<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144451	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dry deciduous and humid evergreen forests, but is more frequently recorded in the latter. This species can be found feeding in fairly degraded habitats in the environs of Machalilla National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It mostly occurs at elevations of 100-1,400&#160;m, but occasionally as high as 2,900&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds on lizards, snakes, crabs, rodents, small birds and large insects. The breeding season appears to coincide with the wet season (December-April), but the nest has never been described. <br/></p>	eng
144451	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-0.6 individuals/km2 x 1089 km<sup>2</sup> (30% EOO) = 545-653, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range from two estimates for <em>L. albicollis</em> and <em>L. schistacea</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet).  <br/> <br/>In the last decade, a new population was discovered in Esmeraldas, Ecuador, which due to the areas' potentially occupied habitat may hold one of the world's largest subpopulations (R&iacute;o Canand&eacute;, Hoja Blanca, &Oacute;nzole and Cayapas drainages)<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. However, population densities are seemingly low, reason for which the total population is currently estimated at 100-250 birds<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. The historical range to the south is now extremely fragmented, with viable populations restricted to only a few locations and maintaining only a few hundred individuals.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144451	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been extensive habitat destruction and fragmentation throughout its range, with over 90% of west Ecuador now deforested. Clearance for timber and agriculture, and intense grazing pressure from goats and cattle in the forest understorey, have led to west Ecuador's forests becoming one of the world's most threatened ecosystems<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Even Machalilla National Park is affected by settlement, cutting, livestock-grazing and hunting.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144452	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leucopternis polionota</em> is rare and local in lowland and mid-elevation humid forests of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alagoas to Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Uruguay</strong> and south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (only three records)<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. It is considered hypothetical in Misiones, Argentina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This species is considered less obviously threatened by deforestation than White-necked Hawk <em>L. lacernulata</em> (because of its more upland and extensive range), but it appears to occur at very low densities, and the overall population seems unlikely to exceed the uppermost hundreds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Information is required regarding population size and trends and could result in the species being uplisted to Vulnerable or even Endangered. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144458	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
144460	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpyhaliaetus solitarius</em> has a wide latitudinal distribution, from western <strong>Mexico</strong> to extreme northwest <strong>Argentina </strong>(with other populations in <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>). It is a species of humid, densely wooded foothills and other tropical and subtropical premontane and humid montane forest, mostly between 600 and 2,200 m. Despite its extensive distribution, it is generally rare and exceedingly local<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Serious threats include deforestation, disturbance and shooting, and the population may not exceed 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Information is still required regarding its population size, trends and distribution; it seems likely that the estimate of <1,000 individuals is too low. <br/></p>	eng
144461	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Argentina, and hunting is prohibited in Brazil and Paraguay. There are few records from protected areas, but it has been found in 10 reserves in Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and small populations probably exist in Chapada dos Veadeiros<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, Emas, Bras&iacute;lia, Serra da Canastra<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Chapada dos Guimar&atilde;es<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> National Parks, Brazil, and Beni Biological Station, Bolivia.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to identify key populations, especially in the large Brazilian national parks. Study ecological constraints, breeding success and migration/dispersal patterns, possibly using satellite tracking. Enforce legal protection of the species. Organise awareness campaigns to limit hunting near key populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144461	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpyhaliaetus coronatus</em> has a very large range in <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Maranh&atilde;o and Bahia west to Mato Grosso and south to Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni and Santa Cruz), Uruguay (no records since before 1933 and presumably extirpated), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (throughout, except the dry Chaco), and <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy to south Buenos Aires and La Pampa with an accidental record in Neuqu&eacute;n<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>). Trends are difficult to detect in low density populations but, given the severity of threats, it seems likely that a significant loss of numbers is occurring.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144461	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland areas of semi-open seasonal dry country (palm-savanna, sparse woodland, steppes with bushes), chaco and campo cerrado (from campo limpo to cerrado <em>sensu stricto</em>). It sometimes occurs in moderate altitude hill-ranges in south-east Brazil and Argentina and has also been reported in caatinga, gallery forest, marsh and buriti groves. Reported foods include mammals, birds, reptiles, carrion and fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A large platform nest is situated in trees or ravines and one egg is laid. Its movements are poorly understood, and it may be partially crepuscular. <br/></p>	eng
144461	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001) <br/></p>	eng
144461	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and hunting are the most pertinent threats. In Brazil, campo cerrado habitats are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. The situation is similar in much of Paraguay, but habitat remains fairly intact in Concepci&oacute;n, where direct persecution is probably more significant. Chaco habitats are more intact, but increasing colonisation is destroying wooded areas and grassland.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144462	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144464	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. Los Haitises National Park is an important but very poorly protected site, supporting the majority of pairs in the Dominican Republic<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, recent evidence suggests that the park has been mainly deforested<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.  Intensive research of the species's breeding ecology and conservation genetics are part of an ongoing study initiated in 2005, and annual surveys are conducted to monitor the population within the Park (53 active nests monitored in 2007)<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>. An ongoing publicity campaign was initiated by the Peregrine Fund in 2005 to raise awareness within local communities in the Dominican Republic<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Conservation staff working on this species have received training and financial support from the Peregrine Fund<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Sociedad Ornitol&oacute;gica de la Hispaniola, Wildlife Preservation Canada, York University, and the Smithsonian Institution. Ongoing DNA work is comparing the extent of genetic variation remaining in the current population with the historical population to determine if poor genetic diversity should be a concern for species recovery<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Four juveniles were successfully translocated to the Loma la Herradura private reserve, with further translocations planned for the future<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of remaining habitat in Los Haitises National Park. Continue and expand education and awareness campaigns to reduce direct persecution. Survey remaining forest fragments adjacent to Los Haitises National Park, as well as historical sites that have not experienced significant habitat loss including Isla Beata and Valle Nuevo. Establish a captive population as a safeguard in the event that wild populations become extirpated. Assess potential sites for future relocation to establish additional populations within secure habitat. </strong>	eng
144464	distribution		This species occurs in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and formerly in Haiti, and has historically been reported from the adjacent Haitian islands of Gon&acirc;ve, the Cayemite Islands (reportedly common in 1934 <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), &Icirc;le-&agrave;-Vache (reportedly common in 1962<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> but now apparently extinct<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and the Dominican islands of Isla Beata and Alto Velo. There is a single record from the island of Culebra off Puerto Rico (to USA)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It was formerly widespread, but has declined steeply and is now rare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with c.80-120 pairs estimated in 2006<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. In 2003, 93 individuals were recorded in Los Haitises National Park, north-east Dominican Republic<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, including 37 pairs, 30 of which attempted nesting with eight successful pairs fledging 10 chicks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 2005, 19 fledglings were produced from 11 successful (out of 28) attempts<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, while in 2007 forty fledglings were produced from 22 successful nests<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There have been very few recent records outside Los Haitises National Park, north-eastern Dominican Republic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was also recorded in human-modified habitat on the Saman&aacute; Peninsula in 2003<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species has been reported from Isla Beata and Valle Nuevo in 1981<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; both sites have not been surveyed significantly since then and confirmation of its status at these two sites is a priority. The Peregrine Fund is attempted to establish a new population in the private reserve of Loma la Herradura by translocating individuals from the Los Haitises National Park<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The species is declining rapidly with an annual loss of c.5-10% of pairs recorded at a key study site, Los Limones, within Los Haitises National Park<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Furthermore, forest loss at the same site is estimated at 10-15%<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> annually with no park infrastructure in place to prevent slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
144464	habitat		It occurs up to 2,000 m in a variety of undisturbed forest-types including rainforest, subtropical dry and moist forests, pine forest, limestone karst forest and marshland and is occasionally seen in secondary and agricultural habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Prey consists primarily of lizards, snakes and frogs. Hawks will occasionally prey on small mammals (bats and rodents), centipedes and small birds. Nests have been found in the crowns of tall endemic trees, with Hispaniolan Royal Palms <em>Roystonea hispaniolana</em> particularly favoured<strong><sup>10,11,</sup></strong>. Nest-building occurs in January-March and eggs laid in February-April<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It lays 2-3 eggs and pairs have successfully fledged three chicks, but more typically one or two. Males are known to participate in incubation. The home range of three adjacent breeding pairs was just c.60 ha<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
144464	population		This estimate is based upon densities at Los Limones extrapolated for remaining habitat in the rest of Los Haitises National Park (Woolaver 2005, 2006).	eng
144466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144467	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is widespread throughout south and central America (AOU 1983, Sibley and Monroe 1990, Howell and Webb 1995a). It is resident locally in peninsular Florida (USA), and from Sinaloa and Tamaulipas (Mexico) south through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, to Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil (Sibley and Monroe 1990).	eng
144467	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Tolerant of a wide variety of habitats, it is found in swamps, woodland, forest edge and open country, generally avoiding heavily forested areas (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). It occurs from sea level to 2,000 m, and rarely as high as 3,000 m (Howell and Webb 1995a). The populations in Florida and Central America appear to be partially migratory (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
144467	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Although uncommon through most of its range and rare in Florida (del Hoyo et al. 1994), it is fairly common in Mexico and northern Central America (Howell and Webb 1995a), and has a large global population estimated to be c.2,000,000 individuals (Rich et al. 2004).	eng
144471	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Most of the archipelago is under national park and marine reserve protection and, in 1979, was declared a World Heritage Site. The species has been protected by Ecuadorian law since 1959<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The possibility of reintroduction to previously inhabited islands has been discussed<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, but advised against as prey-supply may have declined, and the effects may be detrimental to other threatened species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Ecological research is ongoing and will result in detailed information on each island population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Minimise illegal persecution. <br/></p>	eng
144471	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buteo galapagoensis</em> was apparently once common on most of the main islands of the Gal&aacute;pagos, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The population is difficult to measure except in terms of breeding territories, of which 130 were estimated in the early 1970s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Following a serious population decline, it is now extinct on five islands, greatly reduced on Santa Cruz (2 territories), and present on Santiago (c.50), Espa&ntilde;ola (10), Isabela (c.25), Fernandina (10), Pinta (6), Marchena (5), Pinz&oacute;n (5) and Santa Fe (17)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The breeding system means that the population is larger than the number of territories suggests, for example, the population on Santiago may number 180 adults in the 50 territories, with a total of c.250 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The total population may number 400-500 adults and 300-400 juveniles<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144471	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in all habitats, from shoreline to bare lava-fields, open, rocky, scrub country, deciduous forests and mountain peaks. It feeds on a wide variety of sea and landbirds, rats, lizards, iguanas, invertebrates and carrion. It breeds throughout the year. It nests on a stick platform on a prominent lava outflow, rocky outcrop or in a small tree<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is cooperatively polyandrous, with one female typically mating with two or three males (up to eight males have been recorded), and all males helping in raising the chicks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144471	population	BirdLife International, 2008	T. de Vries <em>in litt</em>. (2000) <br/></p>	eng
144471	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The most probable cause of the species's historical decline is persecution by humans<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, which still continues on Santa Cruz and south Isabela<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The largest island, Isabela, may support a comparatively small population owing to competition for food with introduced feral cats and other predators<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Similar scenarios may have been partly responsible for the local extinctions. <br/></p>	eng
144475	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buteo solitarius</em> breeds on Hawai'i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), with vagrants recorded on Maui, O'ahu and Kaua'i. The population is thought to be fairly stable with estimates ranging from 1,600 (1,120 adults) to 2,700 birds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It occurs in a broad range of habitats up to 2,700&#160;m, from lowland agricultural areas to all types of forest<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. However, most successful nesting is restricted to native `ohi'a trees <em>Metrosideros polymorpha </em>(which are slow growing and generally in decline)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and preliminary results from new studies indicate that only sub-adults and juveniles use lowland exotic forests<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It benefits from some anthropogenic changes, for example, it feeds on introduced game-birds, passerines and rodents, and uses edge habitat around sugar-cane fields and orchards for hunting<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Continuing threats include forest clearance for agricultural and other developments, logging, the actions of introduced ungulates that degrade native forests and inhibit their regeneration, repeated nest disturbance, and perhaps road-kills<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Nesting habitat in particular has been greatly reduced with virtually no recruitment of <em>M.&#160;polymorpha</em> below 700&#160;m owing to competition from exotic plants<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<em> </em>It formerly suffered extensively from shooting and is currently in conflict with conservation efforts to save the Critically Endangered Hawaiian Crow <em>Corvus hawaiiensis</em> which it eats. The lack of information on historical numbers makes an assessment of this species difficult, and the underlying trend may be of gradual decline as nesting habitat disappears<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A detailed study of the species (including a population estimate) is underway<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and the results of this work may necessitate re-classfication in a threatened category. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144475	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Using a mean density of 0.004 birds/ha observed in 1993, and an estimate of 400,000 ha of suitable habitat on Hawai`i, an estimate of 1,600 birds, including 1,120 adults (560 pairs), was calculated by Hall <em>et al.</em> (1997). A similar estimate of 1,457 individuals was obtained from surveys in 1998-1999 (Klavitter <em>et al.</em> 2003). The breeding population calculated by Hall <em>et al.</em> (1997) is rounded to 1,100 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144477	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buteo ventralis</em> is endemic to the lower Andes of Patagonia in southern <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, where it is rare, occurring at naturally low densities. No data is available regarding numbers or densities, and there is no firm evidence of a decline. However, the species inhabits the ecotone between <em>Nothofagus</em> forest and steppe grassland, and this habitat has being negatively affected by logging and overgrazing since the introduction of sheep and cattle<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Additionally some authorities consider that the total populations is unlikely to exceed 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Further information is required regarding population size, trends and other potential or existing threats. Increased knowledge of identification features may generate more records of this species. <br/></p>	eng
144483	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.	eng
144483	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in North America, nesting in 17 states in the USA and three provinces in Canada. It winters in the south USA and north Mexico.	eng
144483	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	An open-country species inhabiting grasslands, shrub-steppes and deserts.	eng
144483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Rich et al. 2004)	eng
144483	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Threats include cultivation, over-grazing and fire degrading habitat throughout its range, and the controlling of small mammal populations (prairie-dog towns and gopher populations) limiting food resources.	eng
144487	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Morphnus guianensis</em> is sparsely distributed throughout its extensive range from <strong>Guatemala</strong> through <strong>Belize, Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>, and east Andean <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Paraguay </strong>and <strong>Bolivia</strong> to north <strong>Argentina</strong><sup>1,2,5</sup>. It occurs in lowland tropical and subtropical forest, including gallery forest in the south of its range, typically below 600 m but locally up to 1,200 m <strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Its large size and low population densities make it particularly vulnerable to hunting<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Deforestation is a severe problem, with many old records from now deforested parts of the Choc&oacute; region in north-west Colombia<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Similarly extensive deforestation in parts of its Central American range suggest that local contractions of range or serious declines in population have already occurred<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It presumably also suffers from competition with humans for prey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144488	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpia harpyja</em> is sparsely distributed and generally rare throughout its extensive range in south <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Belize </strong>(recently confirmed<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>), <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, <strong>Panama</strong> (including four birds introduced in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Guyana</strong>, <strong>Suriname</strong>, <strong>French Guiana</strong> (perhaps 200-400 pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>), <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, but formerly Formosa, Salta and Jujuy<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>). It is thought to be locally or regionally extinct in large parts of its former range, notably most of central and north Central America and possibly Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, but recent records suggest that the population in the southern Atlantic forests may be migratory<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs in uninterrupted expanses of lowland tropical forest (typically below 900&#160;m but locally to 2,000&#160;m), but will nest where high-grade forestry has been practised, and use forest patches within a pasture/forest mosaic for hunting<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. Nests have been reported only 3&#160;km apart in Panama and Guyana<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although still reasonably common in the Amazonian forests of Brazil and Peru<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, it will only survive in the long term if the escalating rate of forest destruction in the region is brought under control and a network of inviolate reserves established<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. Low overall population densities and slow reproductive rates make shooting the most significant threat over its entire range<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It could perhaps survive in disturbed forests or even forest mosaics if its large size and boldness in the face of humans did not make it an irresistible target for hunters<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It presumably also suffers from competition with humans for prey<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix I and II. <br/></p>	eng
144489	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas, such as the Crater Mountain Wildlife Management Area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is fully protected by law in Papua New Guinea, but these laws are rarely enforced.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine territory size and relate to prey abundance. Locate nests to research basic breeding biology. Research basic ecology of prey-species. Monitor numbers in study sites such as Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project area. Investigate hunting levels and possible regulation though discussions with local hunters. Discourage the use of feathers in head-dresses or find alternatives. Enforce protection in uninhabited reserve areas. Utilise as a flagship species in ecotourism initiatives. <br/></p>	eng
144489	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Harpyopsis novaeguineae</em> is widely distributed on New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It occurs at very low population densities<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. There are no indications of territory or total population size, but it is significantly less common or extirpated in most densely inhabited regions<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. There are only three records in four years from the heavily hunted Ok Tedi area<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but it is relatively common in the Kikori basin where hunting pressure is low<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144489	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most common in undisturbed forest but has been recorded from forest clearings and gallery forest from sea-level to 3,700&#160;m<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on mammals, mostly marsupials and rats, but also pigs and dogs, and sometimes takes birds and snakes<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. It often hunts on the ground but also takes arboreal prey and extracts animals from tree-cavities<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Only one active nest has been examined, containing a single chick, and it is possible that this species breeds less than annually<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144489	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.01-0.04 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 73,400 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 734-2,936, but likely to be at upper end of this range, as reported to be 'common' in at least one area (density range estimated from graph of breeding density vs. mass in Newton [1979]). <br/></p>	eng
144489	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is hunted in much of New Guinea, especially the highlands, for its tail and flight feathers which are used in ceremonial head-dresses. There is most hunting pressure close to densely inhabited areas (most people live in mid-montane altitudes). Guns are becoming increasingly available in Papua New Guinea, locally increasing hunting pressure<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and logging roads also open up previously inaccessible areas to hunting<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may also suffer from competition with human hunters for large mammalian prey<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144490	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. Since 1970, various initiatives have been launched, including the passing of legislation prohibiting persecution and protecting nests, survey work, public awareness campaigns, captive breeding and a socio-economic project to alleviate pressure on an eagle territory whilst increasing local economic prosperity. It occurs in several protected areas including the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park on Luzon, and Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo Natural Parks on Mindanao. A Philippine Eagle Foundation exists which runs the Philippine Eagle Centre in Davao City, Mindanao and oversees captive-breeding efforts and monitoring and conservation of wild populations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; in 2008 there were 32 eagles at the centre, 18 of which were captive bred, and the Foundation are working towards the development of a full reintroduction programme<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further research into distribution, numbers, ecological needs and threats. Extend the protected-areas system to embrace known eagle nests and habitat. Implement habitat management schemes for the benefit of wildlife and local people. Integrate eagle-friendly practices into forestry policy. Launch a campaign to engender national pride and respect for the eagle. Investigate genetic differences between birds on Luzon and those on Mindanao, Samar and Leyte and take findings into account when planning releases of captive-bred and rehabilitated birds</strong><sup>9</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
144490	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Pithecophaga jefferyi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao. Mindanao supports the bulk of the population, with recent research estimating 82-233 breeding pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Estimates from other islands are of six pairs on Samar and perhaps two on Leyte, and Luzon may have very few left; but these should be considered precautionary figures<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. An earlier estimate using 1992 forest-cover data suggested 226 mature individuals, with a total population, including immatures, of c.350-670 birds. Extrapolations across all islands based on the density of nests located on Mindanao suggest a total of 340 pairs, however it is unknown whether the species reaches similar densities on the other islands, particularly Luzon, and this figure should perhaps be treated with caution<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Poor recruitment to the breeding population was previously thought to be a key factor in this species's decline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but recent research suggests that the dispersal and survival of juveniles and subadults is of greater concern<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The first release of a captive-reared bird took place in 2004 when a male was released into the forest of Mount Apo, Mindanao<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Unfortunately this bird was electrocuted nine months after release, and another rehabilitated bird released on Mindanao in 2008 was killed by a hunter four months after release, but further experimental releases are planned<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>, preceeding a full scale reintroduction programme to supplement wild populations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144490	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits primary dipterocarp forest, particularly in steep terrain, sometimes frequenting secondary growth and gallery forest (but not occupying open canopy forest), from lowlands to at least 1,800 m. Estimates based on the distribution of nests in Mindanao suggest that each pair covers an average of 133 km<sup>2</sup>, including an average of 68 km<sup>2</sup> of forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. On Mindanao eagles begin nesting from September to December in primary and disturbed forest, with some differences in the timing of breeding between Mindanao and Luzon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A complete breeding cycle lasts two years with successful pairs raising one offspring<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds form a monogamous bond for life with sexual maturity for females at around five years and for males at around seven years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The young fledge after c 4-5 months, but stay in the nest vicinity for almost a year and a half<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Captive birds have reached more than 40 years of age<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Bueser <em>et al</em>. (2003) estimated the population on Mindanao to number 82-233 pairs. Numbers elsewhere are tiny: perhaps six pairs on Samar, two on Leyte and probabaly very few on Luzon, giving a total population size of perhaps 90-250 pairs, or 180-500 mature individuals. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
144490	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest destruction and fragmentation, through commercial timber extraction and shifting cultivation, is the principal long-term threat. Old-growth forest continues to be lost rapidly, such that as little as 9,220km<sup>2</sup> may remain within the eagle's range. Moreover, most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions. Mining applications pose an additional threat. Uncontrolled hunting (for food and, at least formerly, zoo exhibits and trade) is perhaps the most significant threat in the short term<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Naive juvenile birds are easily shot or trapped, as are adults nesting near forest edges<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds are also vulnerable to accidental capture in traps intended for wild pigs and deer, and there are several records of individuals caught in snares presumably whilst hunting on the forest floor<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Pesticide accumulation is another potential but unproven threat which may reduce its already slow reproductive output. <br/></p>	eng
144492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 14000-19000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000-57000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
144493	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Belarus, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Russia and nominally in Thailand. An International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle Working Group has been established. A European action plan was published in 2000. The first national census was conducted in Belarus during 2000-2. Research into hybridisation and habitat requirements began in Belarus in 2003. A National Action Plan for the species was produced in Belarus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Site protection measures have been initiated at key Belarussian sites, including restricting forestry activities at nest sites during the breeding season. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey range and population. Establish long-term monitoring schemes to improve understanding of population trends. Improve understanding of breeding habitat requirements.</strong> <strong>Protect breeding areas. Maintain traditional wet meadows. Regulate forestry to minimise disturbance and protect potential nesting trees. Investigate potential threat of hybridisation with <em>A. pomarina. Investigate interaction between American mink and A. clanga.</em></strong> <strong>Prevent illegal shooting. Investigate lead poisoning from feeding on quarry. Guard nests where necessary. Raise awareness.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144493	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aquila clanga</em> occupies a fragmented range, breeding in <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Latvia</strong>, <strong>Lithuania</strong><sup>1</sup>, <strong>Estonia</strong><sup>2</sup>, <strong>Poland</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Passage or wintering birds occur in small numbers over a vast area, including central and eastern Europe, north and east Africa, the Middle East, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and south and South-East Asia. Wintering birds have also been reported in Hong Kong (China). The population is probably less than 10,000 mature individuals with Russia holding 2,800-3,000 pairs. The European population is probably no more than 900 pairs (with c.170 pairs in Belarus). Numbers appear to have declined in the western half of its range and in some parts of its Asian range. However, long-term trends are difficult to assess owing to identification problems. <br/></p>	eng
144493	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in lowland forests near wetlands, nesting in tall trees. It feeds on unretrieved quarry, small mammals, waterbirds, frogs and snakes, hunting over swamps, wet meadows and, in Estonia, over extensively managed agricultural land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
144493	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Meyburg <em>et al. </em>(in press), BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
144493	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is some evidence of hybridisation between this species and Lesser Spotted Eagle <em>Aquila pomarina</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is unclear whether this represents a new phenomenon or a conservation concern, but <em>A. pomarina</em> is far more numerous than <em>A. clanga</em> in the zone of overlap, and the range of <em>A. pomarina</em> appears to be spreading east, further into the range of <em>A. clanga</em>. Other key threats are disturbance, habitat destruction and hunting. Suitable habitat mosaics have been lost as a result of afforestation and wetland drainage. In Thailand, habitat has been lost to urbanisation and changes in agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in particular the reduction of fallow periods through earler dry-season rice cultivation, which have dramatically reduced the available area of suitable habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In eastern Europe, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of traditional floodplain management have reduced habitat quality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds are intolerant of permanent human presence in their territories. Forestry operations are a major cause of disturbance. Shooting is a threat in Belarus, Poland, Russia, the Mediterranean and South-East Asia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, together with deliberate and accidental poisoning across much of its range. Introduced American mink <em>Mustela vison</em> have colonised wetlands in Belarus recently, and may compete with <em>A. clanga</em> for food. <br/></p>	eng
144496	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Spain, with 62% of the breeding population occurring in 20 protected areas. Since 1987, national and regional governments have been implementing a coordinated conservation plan for the species. A European action plan was published in 1996 and a national plan is being implemented. A reintroduction project has seen 13 young successfully released at Cadiz<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. From 1991-1999, 14,370 dangerous electric towers were modified, considerably reducing deaths from electrocution<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A supplementary feeding programme has been established to mitigate the effects of rabbit decreases, and has significantly increased breeding success<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Nest monitoring has reduced disturbance and improved reproductive success. Work is ongoing to raise awareness and support on private land where the species breeds (over 70% of the territories), including improving habitat management, and nearly 50% of breeding pairs are covered by such projects<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate action to discourage intentional poisoning</strong><sup>1</sup> and lead shot poisoning. Survey the breeding population annually. <strong>Prepare and approve recovery plans according to national law. Maintain an adequate area of protected habitat. Protect and manage all breeding sites. Increase the rabbit population; restrict rabbit hunting. Modify dangerous powerlines.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144496	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aquila adalberti</em> breeds in <strong>Spain</strong> in the Sierras of Guadarrama and Gredos, the plains of the Tajo and Tiétar rivers, the central hills of Extremadura, Monters de Toledo, the Alcudia valley, Sierra Morena and the Guadalquivir marshes, with occasional nesting in Salamanca and Málaga. In the 1960s, only 30 pairs remained, but recovery began in the early 1980s at a rate of five new breeding pairs per year up to 1994. Since 1994, the population again started to decline from 148 pairs to 131 pairs in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and breeding success in important areas such as the Guadalquivir marshes declined dramatically in the late 1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, this is thought to represent a brief levelling out of a positive trend, and the population is now believed to number 394 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The estimated population size has increased annually in Spain since 2000, and the species has recently recolonised <strong>Portugal</strong> (two pairs). Some of these increases can be attributed to more thorough searches within its range (notably in Andalucía), which is currently split into three subpopulations with relatively little interchange<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
144496	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in alluvial plains and dunes in the Guadalquivir marshes, plains and hills in central Spain, and high mountain slopes in the Sistema Central, where there is an absence of irrigated farmland. The abundance and distribution of rabbits, a favoured prey, influence population density, range and reproductive performance. Data from Donana national park in Spain show that the most important variables explaining nest site selection are height of tree and distance from human activity<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Many recently colonised territories are in marginal areas that are not very suitable, and many of the occupying pairs are formed by at least one immature bird<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
144496	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Around 200 breeding pairs, some of which include at least one subadult bird (Grupo de Trabajo Nacional del Águila Imperial Ibérica, unpubl. data; A. Madroño<em> in litt</em>. 2005). <br/><p></p>	eng
144496	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat fragmentation has occurred as a result of deforestation for agriculture and timber, having negative impacts on nest site preferences in particular. Mortality from intentional poisoning has risen sharply, particularly in hunting reserves where game is commercially exploited. Between 1990-1999, 57 birds died from poisoning and this is thought to be the primary cause of declines in the late 1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In addition, recent evidence has also demonstrated that large numbers of birds die from lead shot poisoning<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Juveniles are frequently killed through electrocution by powerlines, with an increase in mortality due to this in the last few years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Rabbit populations have declined as a result of viral haemorrhagic disease, and this is believed to have reduced <em>A. adalberti</em> breeding success. Recent modelling suggests no subpopulations are currently at risk of extinction, provided the current level of active management is maintained<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
144497	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine. The Eastern Imperial Eagle Working Group was established in 1990. A European action plan was published in 1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to identify breeding and wintering sites, and migration routes. Improve protection of species and sites. Implement beneficial forestry policies. Maintain large trees in open land and protect old slope woodland<sup>4. Prevent mortality from nest robbing, illegal trade, poisoning and powerlines. Increase the availability of prey species. Raise public awareness.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144497	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aquila heliaca</em> breeds in <strong>Slovakia</strong>, <strong>Croatia</strong>, <strong>Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYRO Macedonia</strong>,<strong> Greece</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan, Mongolia,</strong> and mainland <strong>China</strong>. Following expansion of the eastern European population, breeding has been reported in the <strong>Czech Republic</strong> and <strong>Austria</strong><sup>6,8</sup>. Passage or wintering birds from eastern populations occur in the Middle East, east Africa south to Tanzania, the Arabian peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and south and east Asia, and has been reported in Hong Kong (China). Some European birds winter in Greece and Turkey. The population is probably only a few thousand pairs, with a total population of 1,051-1,619 pairs estimated in Europe<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There has been a rapid decline in Europe and probably in Asia. In Europe, the non-Russian population has been estimated at 224-318 pairs, with populations in Hungary<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Slovakia now increasing. The population in European Russia may total 600-900 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (with the entire Russian population estimated at 900-1000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), and in Kazakhstan 750-800 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although currently stable, the Russian population is predicted to decline in the next three to five years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144497	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a lowland species that has been pushed to higher altitudes by persecution and habitat loss. In central and eastern Europe, it breeds in forests up to 1,000&#160;m and also in steppe and agricultural areas with large trees. In the Caucasus, it occurs in lowland and riverine forests and semi-deserts. Birds seem to prefer wetlands for wintering. </p>	eng
144497	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population "probably only a few thousand pairs" (Heredia 1996) in BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
144497	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened primarily by alterations to its habitat as a result of replacement of native forest with exotic species, loss of large trees as a result of forestry and destruction of lowland forest. Other threats are loss and alteration of feeding habitats, human disturbance of breeding sites, nest robbing and illegal trade, shooting, poisoning, shortages of prey species (particularly suslik <em>Spermophilus citellus</em>) and electrocution by powerlines. <br/></p>	eng
144498	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aquila gurneyi</em> is a wide-ranging species of the Moluccas, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, Indonesia and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It appears to be widespread in a variety of forested habitats to 1,000&#160;m, occasionally to 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. There are no estimates of population sizes or trends but in Lakekamu Basin it is sparsely distributed in lowland alluvial forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It clearly occurs at low population densities and is likely to be declining slowly through habitat loss and degradation. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144508	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A system to compensate farmers for stock losses has been initiated in South Africa. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Introduce programmes combining awareness campaigns and compensation to farmers for stock losses across the species's range. Install anti-electrocution devices on electricity pylons.  <br/></p>	eng
144508	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Polemaetus bellicosus </em>has an extensive range across much of sub-Saharan Africa, from <strong>Senegal </strong>and the <strong>Gambia </strong>east to <strong>Ethiopia </strong>and north-west <strong>Somalia </strong>and south to <strong>Namibia</strong>, <strong>Botswana </strong>and <strong>South Africa</strong>. It is generally scarce to uncommon or rare, but is reasonably common in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is suspected to have undergone declines in much of its range, including Namibia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and <strong>Nigeria</strong><sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
144508	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits open woodland, wooded savanna, bushy grassland, thornbush and, in southern Africa, more open country and even subdesert, from sea level to 3,000 m but mainly below 1,500 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main prey is sizeable mammals, birds and reptiles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Ferguson-Lees and Christie (2001). <br/></p>	eng
144508	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers from direct persecution (shooting and trapping) by farmers, indirect poisoning (these two threats by far the most important causes of losses), drowning in sheer-walled reservoirs, electrocution on power poles, and habitat alteration and degradation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  Poisoning is largely carried out by a few large-scale commercial farmers, but is also a problem in tribal small-stock farming communities. Deforestation may be having less of an impact on this species than on other large eagles as it can utilise man-made structures for nesting. Reduction in natural prey may lead to an increase in predation on domestic animals which may in turn lead to increased persecution by farmers. In some areas birds may be taken for use in traditional medicine. <br/></p>	eng
144509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144514	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. Several surveys have targeted the species. Strict legislation protects it from hunting or trading, although this is often ineffective. It occurs in several protected areas, including Gunung Halimun, Gunung Gede-Pangrango and Meru Betiri National Parks, although these still face serious problems. An action plan has been compiled and conservation awareness programmes have been initiated. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Implement the Javan Hawk-eagle Recovery Plan. Conduct detailed ecological studies to allow appropriate management regimes to be devised. Improve management of existing protected areas, and establish further reserves, particularly in central Java, at Dieng Mountains and Gunung Slamet. Search for and guard nests found near human populations. Improve and enforce legislation to control trade. Continue and expand education schemes to elicit public support for the conservation of this and other threatened species on Java.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144514	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizaetus bartelsi </em>is endemic to the island of Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is restricted to remaining patches of forest and is consequently scarce. Until recently, the global population was estimated at 50-60 pairs, but further fieldwork led to this being revised upwards towards 200 pairs, with some evidence suggesting that the true total might exceed 400 pairs. Although there is no direct indication of a decline, the ongoing diminution of forest-cover on Java is certain to have been detrimental.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144514	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents primary humid forest, although individuals and even nests have been recorded in secondary forest, production forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. While it occurs from sea-level to high mountains, it is most frequent at 500-1,000 m. Initially, a single pair was thought to occupy a home range of 20-30 km<sup>2</sup>, but this figure has been recalculated to c.5 km<sup>2</sup> in favourable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
144514	population	BirdLife International, 2008	van Balen <em>et al</em>. (2000) <br/></p>	eng
144514	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are habitat loss and trade. The burgeoning human population on Java brings with it intense pressure on natural resources, one aspect of which has been a massive reduction in forest cover, particularly in the lowlands. This threat continues in the form of conversion to agriculture, development and uncontrolled fire, even within protected areas. It is also sold openly in Javan bird markets, with 30-40 reported in trade each year, and presumably many more undetected. This threat appears to be intensifying, following the elevation of the species to national bird.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144516	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded recently from numerous protected areas, including Mts Isarog and Makiling National Parks, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay on Luzon, Mt Canlaon on Negros, and Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo Natural Parks and Mt Malindang on Mindanao, and Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol. These sites are legally protected through local government decrees, but the efficacy of this legislation is unclear.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in areas from which the species is known (e.g. Mt Los Dos Cuernos on Luzon, Mts Cabalantian/Capoto-an on Samar), which may merit formal protection. If possible, attempt to assess the species's ecological requirements. Promote more effective enforcement of legislation designed to control hunting and trading.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144516	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizaetus philippensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from c.60 sites on at least 12 islands. Since 1980, there have been records from 15 localities on Luzon (primarily in the Sierra Madre mountains), 13 on Mindanao and six on Mindoro, Bohol, Negros and possibly Panay, combined. Historically, the species was rare, and the spate of recent records - most of unconfirmed identification - does not change that impression. Although relatively common at one site on Mindanao, it is uncommon in the Sierra Madre lowlands, very scarce on Mindoro and Negros, and is probably already extinct on some smaller islands within its former range (e.g. Siquijor). Following recent fieldwork, 200-220 pairs were estimated to remain on Luzon and 320-340 pairs on Mindanao. If these estimates are accurate, the overall population must be very low. <br/></p>	eng
144516	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary, selectively logged and disturbed forest, occasionally frequenting open areas, from the lowlands to lower mountain slopes, almost exclusively below 1,000&#160;m. It appears not to tolerate much forest degradation. No migration is known, although unconfirmed reports from the migration funnel of Dalton Pass (Luzon) hint at intra-island movements. <br/></p>	eng
144516	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species strongholds appear to be Luzon and Mindanao where 200-220 pairs and 320-340 pairs respectively were recently estimated. Therefore, the global population is probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144516	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation throughout its extensive, predominantly lowland range is the chief threat. In 1988, forest cover was as low as 24% on Luzon and 29% on Mindanao and these figures are likely to be overestimates, with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions. Habitat loss is exacerbated by considerable hunting and trapping pressure.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144517	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including at least six (four national parks and two wildlife reserves) on Sumatra, at least three (two national parks and one wildlife reserve) in Kalimantan, at least five (one national park and four wildlife sanctuaries) in Thailand, at least three (two national parks and one wildlife reserve) in Malaysia, and one wildlife sanctuary in Myanmar.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to more clearly establish its distribution and status compared with <em>S.&#160;alboniger. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation and its ranging behaviour. Promote the concept of Forest Management Units in Sabah. Assist forest managers in habitat identification and zoning of concession areas. Afford it full legal protection under Myanmar, Thai, Indonesian and Malaysian law.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144517	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizaetus nanus</em> occurs in southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and East (Sabah and Sarawak) <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Although still widespread, it is uncommon or rare throughout its range. It may be nearing extinction in Thailand and is declining everywhere. However, its status is somewhat unclear because of the difficulties of separating it from <em>S. alboniger</em>. <br/></p>	eng
144517	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in evergreen forests, chiefly in the lowlands and on lower hill-slopes, but has occasionally been reported up to 1,000&#160;m. It may tolerate some habitat degradation, having been recorded in heavily logged forest in Kalimantan and Sumatra, and logged forest in Malaysia. However, a study in Malaysia recorded it in primary forest prior to selective logging, but not subsequently. </p>	eng
144517	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
144517	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of large-scale commercial logging, including within protected areas, and widespread forest clearance for plantation agriculture (primarily rubber and oil-palms). Between 1985-1997, nine million and nearly seven million&#160;ha of forest were lost on Kalimantan and Sumatra, respectively. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 have yet to be fully assessed, but fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and Borneo. In Thailand, virtually all lowland forest has now been cleared, and encroachment continues on the lower slopes of almost all mountains. Hunting poses a localised threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
144519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144521	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several national parks and other protected areas in Venezuela and Colombia<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Research its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat fragmentation. Attempt to obtain an accurate global population estimate of this difficult to survey species. Expand network of protected areas to include large core areas of mountain slope primary forest.	eng
144521	distribution		This species has an extensive but narrow and altitudinally restricted linear distribution on the coastal ranges of north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (Carabobo and Aragua) and north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (Santa Marta Mountains), and from the subtropical slopes of the Andes from Venezuela (M&eacute;rida and Perij&aacute; Mountains) through Colombia (Serran&iacute;a de los Churumbelos<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>Ecuador</strong> and <strong>Peru</strong> to west-central <strong>Bolivia</strong> and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. It is thought to be rare and patchily distributed but its status is very poorly known<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. A recent population estimate indicated that the total population may not exceed 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, however, the Venezuelan population is estimated to be in the low hundreds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, a maximum of 200 individuals are estimated to reside in Ecuador<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and a large stretch of suitable habitat on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Colombia, from Huila to Meta department, is also thought to hold a few hundred individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although the population in Argentina may be small<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, there are further populations in Colombia and an unquantified number in Peru and Bolivia, suggesting that, whilst remaining rare, the global population is still larger than 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. However, given habitat loss throughout its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the population is considered to be declining.	eng
144521	habitat		It is found on heavily forested mountain slopes, probably occurring mostly in large valleys, usually at 1,500-2,800 m, but recorded from sea-level to 3,500 m<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has been observed in some partially logged tracts of forest, but this is perhaps as a direct result of extensive primary forest loss in the subtropical zone<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Despite such observations, it is considered that the the species requires some undisturbed primary motane forest in at least part of its large home range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been recorded feeding on a variety of mammals and birds, and its breeding season in Colombia and Bolivia is thought to be between February and September<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144521	population		The population in Venezuela has been estimated in the low hundreds, and one population in Colombia is also thought to support a few hundred individuals (C. J. Sharpe <em>in litt.</em> 2003; T. Donegan <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Furthermore, the population in Ecuador is though to be a maximum of 200 mature individuals (Ridgely and Greenfield, 2001). Given that further populations exist both in Colombia and in other range countries, it is reasonable to estimate a population of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. However, a complete survey of this species throughout its range is needed to accurately quantify its global population.	eng
144528	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phalcoboenus australis</em> is restricted to isolated shores, rookeries and islets off extreme south <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>, including the south and east coasts of Isla Grande on Tierra del Fuego, Isla de los Estados, Navarino and Cape Horn, and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is rare in much of its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but locally numerous on some of the smaller islands in the west Falklands<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. In 1983-1992, the population on the Falklands was estimated at 500-900 breeding pairs, with more recent surveys suggesting 500-650 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs in open lowlands, from the tidal zone perhaps to low coastal mountains, and most typically along rocky coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, feeding on dead adults and chicks of colonial seabirds, and insects and grubs along the tidal zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It will attack weak or stranded sheep and, in groups, wild geese<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was heavily persecuted in the past on the Falklands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is much reduced in numbers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The immature population is probably only capable of replacing losses in the breeding population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but none of the populations seem to be facing any major threats. CITES Appendix II.  <br/></p>	eng
144528	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
144532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144534	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It occurs in Los Farallones de Cali National Park, which could hold a significant population, R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi and El Pangan Nature Reserves (Colombia)<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, and Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve (Ecuador)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey less well-known areas, notably Los Farallones de Cali National Park<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Design and implement an action plan for the species and its habitat<sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144534	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Micrastur plumbeus</em> is restricted to the Pacific slope and lowlands in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Choc&oacute;, Valle de Cauca, Cauca and Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and Pichincha). It was not recorded in Colombia in 1959-1992 but, since then, two sites in Valle de Cauca and four sites in Nari&ntilde;o have been discovered<strong><sup>4,9,10,11</sup></strong>, including four pairs studied in the c.20&#160;km<sup>2</sup> R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi Community Nature Reserve<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, there are single records from three locations in 1987-1998, but no other records since 1959<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It is described as rare<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but is likely overlooked. <br/></p>	eng
144534	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits very wet, lowland, foothill and premontane forest to 1,500&#160;m, and is dependent on undisturbed closed-canopy habitat<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. It preys largely on small, ground-dwelling animals, notably <em>Anolis</em> lizards<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has a relatively small home range during the breeding season (March-August)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nests are placed in tree-cavities<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144534	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population justification: In ideal habitat, continuous primary wet premontane forest, the species has an estimated population density of about 4 adults/km<sup>2</sup>, calculated on the basis of extensive visual and auditory transect-mapping samples<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> in Esmeraldas (1997-2006)<strong><sup> 16,17</sup></strong>. However, it is much rarer in the lowlands and disturbed habitat<strong><sup>16,17</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/>Population estimate: 0.4-4.0 individuals/km2 x 12,400 km2 (20% EOO) =4,960-49,600, i.e. precautionarily placed in band 10,000-20,000 (lower density estimate corresponds to the lowest quartile of six estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; higher density estimates based on surveys in ideal habitat according to Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007 and P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144534	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Choc&oacute; region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Infrastructural improvement, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, in the region has led to logging, small-scale argiculture and gold mining in formerly pristine areas<strong><sup>7,8,11,12</sup></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially oil-palm and banana plantations, and cattle-farming<strong><sup>2,3,9,12</sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The combination of these factors has resulted in a high and increasing rate of deforestation, particularly in Ecuador, Nari&ntilde;o and along new roads<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144541	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polihierax insignis </em>occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (previously widespread and locally abundant; it now appears scarce or uncommon, although the large quantity of suitable habitat remaining suggests that healthy populations may survive), <strong>Thailand </strong>(distributed through north, north-east and western provinces south to Ratchaburi, once widespread and fairly common but now scarce throughout after an apparent decline due to clearance of open deciduous forest habitat), <strong>Laos</strong> (historically very common and locally widespread in the south, but now apparently local and scarce), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (fairly widespread, chiefly in north, with large areas of suitable habitat remaining) and <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously very common locally in south, now scarce; only present in any numbers in Dak Lak province). Populations in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia are potentially large, but few data are available due to a lack of fieldwork in suitable habitat. It is resident in wooded grasslands and open forest, chiefly deciduous dipterocarp and mixed deciduous forest of the plains and foothills up to 915 m, where it uses holes in trees for nesting and roosting. Although dry dipterocarp forest has generally suffered less degradation than evergreen forest in many areas, it is increasingly cleared and disturbed, through wood collection and burning. Given the high levels of hunting in much of its range, and the ease with which this species is shot, persecution presumably poses an additional threat. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144544	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Microhierax latifrons</em> is restricted to Sabah, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it occurs in forest-edge habitats and cultivation with scattered trees up to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo. However, the species has probably not declined very rapidly because it is able to survive in human-modified habitats. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144548	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix I and II. Research and management of the species, its sites and habitats has been carried out in France, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan and South Africa. A European action plan has been published. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Encourage surveys and monitoring. Research limiting factors and habitat management. Promote national action plans. Promote appropriate agricultural policies, control of pesticides, and zoned forestry. Construct artificial nests. Protect colonies. Encourage legal protection.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144548	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco naumanni</em> breeds in <strong>Morocco</strong>, <strong>Algeria</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Portugal</strong>, <strong>Spain</strong>, <strong>Gibraltar </strong>(to UK), <strong>France</strong>, <strong>Italy</strong>,<strong> Croatia</strong>, <strong>Bosnia-Herzegovina</strong>, <strong>FYRO Macedonia</strong>, <strong>Albania</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Palestinian Authority Territories</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>. Birds winter in southern Spain, southern Turkey, Malta and across much of Africa, particularly <strong>South Africa</strong>. The European and north African population is estimated at 17,000-21,000 pairs, 8,000 in Spain, with several thousand pairs breeding outside this range, principally in central Asia. Western Palearctic populations have undergone serious declines, although a few have begun to increase again. The western European population has declined by c.95% since 1950, and the species has disappeared from the Ural region of Russia and from northern Kazakhstan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The South African wintering population probably does not exceed 50,000-60,000 birds, representing a 50% decline since 1971<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144548	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually a colonial breeder, often in the vicinity of human settlements. It forages in steppe-like habitats, natural and managed grasslands, and non-intensive cultivation. </p>	eng
144548	population	BirdLife International, 2008	17,000-21,000 pairs in Europe/North Africa winter in West Africa (where roost of over 28,600 in January 2007), and co-ordinated roost counts of 98,000 in South Africa in 2006/2007 non-breeding season. <br/></p>	eng
144548	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main cause of its decline has been habitat loss and degradation in its western Palearctic breeding grounds, primarily a result of agricultural intensification, but also afforestation and urbanisation. In South Africa, key grasslands have been lost to agricultural intensification, afforestation and intensive pasture management<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The use of pesticides may cause direct mortality, but is probably more important in reducing prey populations. The abandonment or restoration of old buildings has resulted in the loss of nest-sites<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. At La Crau in southern France, where such nest sites are rare, a population increase in the 1990s may be linked to the progressive selection of ground nests in stone piles, reducing inter-specific and intra-specific competition<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144551	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. From 1984 to 1994, an intensive management programme significantly increased population numbers. Activities included captive propagation and restocking, supplementary feeding, nest-site enhancement, provision of nest boxes, nest guarding, control of predators around nest- and release-sites, clutch manipulations, brood manipulations, treatment of parasite infestations on chicks and the rescue of eggs/young from failing nests<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Since 1994, there has been no release of captive-bred birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and little active conservation management<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although provision of nest-boxes and monitoring of survival and productivity continue. A few pairs are still receive supplementary food to enable detailed behavioural studies and for public relations purposes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing into genetic variation so that populations can be managed to preserve genetic diversity<strong><sup>4,7,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue detailed population and ecological studies<sup>8</sup></strong>, particularly using molecular techniques to monitor population size<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Eventually, translocate pairs to islands around Mauritius (including R&eacute;union), once the endangered reptile populations on these islands are secure elsewhere<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144551	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco punctatus</em>, restricted to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, has undergone a spectacular recovery from just four wild birds in 1974<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. At the end of the 1999-2000 season, there were 145-200 breeding pairs and a total population of 500-800 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, divided into three subpopulations on mountain chains in the north, east and south-west of Mauritius<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The  population continues to grow, but remains dependent on conservation measures in the eastern mountain chain<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The latest population estimate is 800-1,000 individuals, but only the east coast population has been monitored since 1988, due to lack of funds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144551	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its primary habitat was native, evergreen, subtropical forests, but captive-bred birds have shown greater tolerance for degraded and open areas<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It preys mainly on endemic arboreal <em>Phelsuma</em> day-geckos, plus small birds, insects, and introduced mice and shrews<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. It traditionally nests in volcanic rock-cavities, and probably tree-holes, within forest territories<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>, but now even breeds in a few suburban areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144551	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2005, the population was estimated at 800-1,000 individuals (Burgess 2005; V. Tatayah <em>in litt. </em>2006). <br/></p>	eng
144551	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation by early colonists initiated declines - less than 3% of original forest now remains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recent declines appear related to organochloride pesticide-use in the 1950s and 1960s in agriculture and to control malaria-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> and feral cats are all introduced predators of eggs, young or adults<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144552	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> CITES Appendix I and II. The Morne Seychellois National Park on Mah&eacute; covers almost 25% of the island and provides a safe refuge<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species was reintroduced to Praslin in 1977<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nature Seychelles is presently introducing predator-proof nest boxes on Praslin and initiating awareness campaigns through the Wildlife Clubs of Seychelles<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research factors influencing its density<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue nest protection and awareness campaign on Praslin<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue habitat protection on Mah&eacute;<sup>4</sup></strong>, possibly through extension of the Morne Seychellois National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure no return to widespread pesticide use<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess translocation possibilities<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Raise public awareness of the kestrel's value, and the need to protect nest-sites in buildings; particularly on Praslin<sup>4,6,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144552	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco araea</em> is found on the granitic islands of the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, with a stable population of 370 pairs on Mah&eacute;<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and a further 10-15 pairs on its satellite islands. Praslin, Silhouette and Ile du Nord were believed to hold at least another 20 pairs between them<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>, but a recent survey found just four pairs on Praslin<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. There are frequent records from La Digue but no recent evidence of breeding<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. At least one pair has also been heard on F&eacute;licit&eacute;<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144552	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits native, evergreen, upland forests, but is now found in secondary rainforest and coconut plantations on Mah&eacute;. It hunts indigenous lizards, insects, small birds and mice<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Nesting is predominantly on cliffs above 200&#160;m, and less successfully - probably due to predation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> -<strong><sup> </sup></strong>at lower elevations on buildings, in holes in trees and in old Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> nests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Small territories are occupied year-round, but only one brood is reared per year<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144552	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A combination of survey results and records (Watson 1981, 2000a; S. Parr<em> in litt. </em>1999) can be used to deduce a total population of at least 800 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144552	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Reduced numbers in the 1960s and 1970s may have been due to pesticide use or to peaks in commercial cinnamon cultivation and logging (which reduced upland forest to its lowest extent at this time)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Introduced nest predators, nest-site competitors and food competitors may be an ongoing threat<strong><sup>1,8,10</sup></strong>. Housing development could be a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although the species has bred in urban areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Fires, and possibly housing developments and alien predators, have nearly halved its population on Praslin in 10 years<strong><sup>3,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144562	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco vespertinus</em> breeds in eastern Europe and west, central and north-central Asia, with its main range from <strong>Belarus </strong>south to <strong>Hungary</strong>, northern <strong>Serbia and Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Moldova </strong>and east <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, eastward through <strong>Ukraine </strong>and northwest and south <strong>Russia </strong>and north <strong>Kazakhstan </strong>to extreme northwest <strong>China </strong>and the upper Lena river (Russia). It winters in southern Africa, from <strong>South Africa</strong> northwards to southern <strong>Kenya</strong><sup>1</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be 300,000-800,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but recent evidence suggests that it is undergoing large declines in parts of its range. The European population of 26,000-39,000 pairs (forming 25-49% of the global population) suffered a large decline during 1970-1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and has continued to decline during 1990-2000, particularly in the key populations in Russia and Ukraine, with overall declines exceeding 30% in ten years (three generations)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Declines have also been reported from eastern Siberia, where the species may have disappeared as a breeder from the Baikal region<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In Hungary estimated populations have declined from 2,000-2,500 pairs in the late 1980s to 800-900 pairs based on surveys in 2003 and 2004<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and in Bulgaria very few active colonies remain<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, populations in central Asia appear to be stable, with the species reported to be common in suitable habitats (especially in forest-steppe zone with Rook <em>Corvus frugilegus </em>colonies) in Kazakhstan, and no evidence of any population declines there<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Populations in western Europe are also stable or undergoing increases<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds in open lowlands with trees and plenty of insects, on which it feeds, including steppe and forest-steppe, open woodland, cultivation and pastureland with tall hedgerows or fringing trees, agricultural areas with shelterbelts and, in the northeast, boggy areas and taiga edge. It is social, breeding in the old nest of another bird (most commonly <em>C. frugilegus</em>), but can be solitary. It is found from sea-level to c.300 m in the west, but to 1,500 m in Asia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Threats include destruction of suitable nest sites and, more significantly, widespread use of pesticides affecting food supply<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. From 1980 to 1999 intensive poisoning of <em>C. frugilegus</em> in Hungary forced the species to change their nest site selection habits, and large colonies have nearly disappeared there as a result, with only 38% of the population breeding colonially<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. As productivity is generally greater in larger colonies, further decreases may occur. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 5900-6200 breeding pairs, equating to 17700-18600 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
144565	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be around 100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001) so the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. <br/></p>	eng
144565	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It is very difficult to estimate accurately the population size, but breeding surveys (Jennings and Sadler 2006) and evidence from the non-breeding grounds (F. Hawkins <em>in litt. </em>2007) suggest there may only be a few thousand; this is placed into a banded range pending new infomation. <br/></p>	eng
144568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144573	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor the three populations and ascertain trends. Evaluate threats if declines are confirmed. Implement control measures against the brush-tailed possum. Raise awareness of the species's status, particularly amongst farmers, in an effort to reduce persecution. Protect areas of suitable habitat.	eng
144573	distribution		<em>Falco novaeseelandiae</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and is separated into three forms - Bush, Southern and Eastern - which vary in plumage, size, range and habitat type<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Bush Falcon (c.650 pairs) breeds in the North Island and north-western South Island. Southern Falcon (c.200 pairs) breeds in Fiordland, Stewart Island and its outliers, and the Auckland Islands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Eastern Falcon (c.3,150) is found in open terrain in the eastern South Island<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It was probably once found throughout the North and South Islands, but may have never been common. Population trends are unknown but it may be declining.	eng
144573	habitat		It occurs predominantly in bush and forest, and Eastern Falcon also breeds in rough farmland and dry tussockland. Adults are mainly sedentary but juveniles wander widely and are seen in farmland, orchards and urban areas. Established pairs remain on territory all year and display during late winter and early spring before nesting in September-December.	eng
144573	population		Fox (1978) esimated the population at 3,700-4,400 breeding pairs, equating to 7,400-8,800 mature individuals. Given this esimate is now over 30 years old, and the population may have declined since, the population is best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.	eng
144574	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco hypoleucos</em> is infrequently seen over much of arid and semi-arid <strong>Australia</strong>. It may have been eliminated from some breeding areas early in the 20th century, particularly those with more than 500&#160;mm annual rainfall in New South Wales, but the present range is believed to be stable. There is evidence of regular seasonal movements between the arid zone and northern Australia, and possibly New Guinea, and from west to east in Queensland. It is always found at very low densities, numbering only 1,000 breeding pairs, and the population may be stable. Continued high levels of grazing in arid zone rangelands and clearance of the semi-arid zone for marginal farming is degrading habitat. Localised DDT-related eggshell thinning of up to 15% was detected when this pesticide was legal, but is no longer considered a problem. Nest site availability, particularly in sparsely-treed inland areas, may eventually become a limiting factor, especially where grazing by introduced herbivores is preventing tree regeneration. All threats are speculative and are largely at the wetter margins of the species's range where it might be out-competed by the more mesic Peregrine Falcon <em>F.&#160;peregrinus</em>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144574	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It numbers only 1,000 breeding pairs, with no more than 5,000 individuals in total (P. Olsen<em> per</em> Garnett and Crowley 2000).  <br/></p>	eng
144577	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco jugger</em> occurs in the Indian subcontinent from extreme south-east <strong>Iran</strong>, south-east <strong>Afghanistan</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, through <strong>India</strong> (from the Himalayan foothills south to northern Kerala and northern Tamil Nadu), <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bhutan</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and north-west <strong>Myanmar</strong>, mainly from sea level to 1,000 m in dry open woodland and open country with scattered trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species's range has been estimated to cover 4.2 million km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the 1960s the species was "the commonest of all [the region's] falcons"<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but is now declining rapidly<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the 1970s a total population of 10,000-25,000 pairs was suggested<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, declines have been noted in Pakistan and north-west India, perhaps from spreading cultivation and pesticides, and the species is scarce in Nepal and Bangladesh. The total population may still number more than 10,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Pakistan at least, the species is threatened by trapping for Saker Falcons (Laggar Falcons themselves are apparently not much prized for falconry<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). The main threat, given the presumed susceptibility of the species to pesticides, is the intensification of pesticide use in the region (e.g. a seven-fold increase in pesticide use in Pakistan between 1981 and 1992<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). <br/></p>	eng
144577	population	BirdLife International, 2008	10,000-25,000 pairs (Cade 1982) <br/></p>	eng
144578	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Saker is a protected and red-listed species in many range states, particularly in the western parts of its range<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is listed on CITES Appendix II, and in 2002 CITES imposed a trade ban on UAE, strongly affecting the unregulated market there<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Intensive wardening and management has produced a steadily rising population in Hungary<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Controls of illegal trade were implemented in various countries in western range in 1990s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Captive breeding has developed strongly in some countries including UAE as a means of substituting farmed for wild-caught birds<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. Clinics have also been set up to improve the longevity and availability of wild-caught birds in various Gulf states<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. New research programmes in many parts of the range have begun to establish baseline data on distribution, population, ecology and threats. In Mongolia the process of erecting 5,000 artificial nests has begun, funded by the Environment Agency Abu Dhabi,  which are predicted to provide nesting sites for up to 500 pairs of Sakers by 2015<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Maintain or implement programmes of population and habitat management throughout the range. Maintain or improve systems of wardening and customs control (including DNA sampling to check provenance of traded birds).  Continue key biological researches<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Enforce CITES regulations, particularly in the Middle East and Asia. Improve exportation standards including meeting IATA transportation specifications. Improve import regulations, staff capacity and practices (quarantine facilities). Monitor markets to quantify falcon trade. Develop existing microchipping schemes to help monitor and regulate trade and quantify its effects. Increase awareness of health and conservation issues among falconers. Continue studying, monitoring and censusing falcons throughout. Maintain ecologically and socially sustainable grazing systems to ensure long-term survival of key prey species. Bring greater protection (against conversion, degradation and pollution) to key breeding environments<strong><sup>1,3,6,7</sup></strong>.	eng
144578	distribution		<em>Falco cherrug</em> occurs in a wide range across the Palearctic region from eastern Europe to western China, breeding in <strong>Austria</strong>, <strong>Hungary</strong>, <strong>Czech Republic</strong>, <strong>Slovakia</strong>, <strong>Serbia & Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Moldova</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Iraq</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Russian Federation</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Tajikistan</strong>, <strong>Kyrgyzstan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>China</strong>, and at least formerly in <strong>Turkmenistan</strong> and probably Afghanistan, possibly India (Ladakh), with wintering or passage populations regularly in <strong>Italy</strong>, <strong>Malta</strong>, <strong>Cyprus</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Libya</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Tunisia</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Yemen</strong>, <strong>Oman</strong>, <strong>UAE</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>Kuwait</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Afghanistan</strong> and <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, with much smaller numbers or vagrants reaching many other countries<strong><sup>3,4,6,9,11</sup></strong>. The historical global population size remains subject to some uncertainty, however a recent analysis of available data resulted in a revised global population estimate of 13,000-27,000 breeding pairs in 1990, with the majority in China (4,000-6,000 pairs), Kazakhstan (2,000-5,000), Mongolia (3,000-5,000) and Russia (3,000-9,000); and a total population of 9,500-17,000 pairs in 2010 (China 3,000-5,000, Kazakhstan 2,000-3,000, Mongolia 2,000-5,000 and Russia (1,854-2,542)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Assuming a generation length of 6.4 years and that the decline of the Saker had already begun (at least in some areas) prior to the 1990s (consumption of Sakers in the Middle East was heavy by mid-1980s), the declines over the 19 year period 1991-2010 equate to 32% (based on median estimates), with a minimum-maximum of 29-62%<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
144578	habitat		The Saker is physically adapted to hunting close to the ground in open terrain, combining rapid acceleration with high manoeuvrability, thus specialising on mid-sized diurnal terrestrial rodents (especially ground squirrels <em>Citellus</em>) of open grassy landscapes such as desert edge, semi-desert, steppes and arid montane areas; in some areas, particularly near water, it switches to birds as key prey, and has recently substituted domestic pigeons for rodents in parts of Europe<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. It uses copses or cliffs for nest sites (sometimes even the ground), occupying the old nests of other birds<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. Clutch sizes varies from two to six, with means from 3.2 to 3.9 in different circumstances<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. Breeding success varies with year (especially in areas where rodents cycle)<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. Birds are sedentary, part-migratory or fully migratory, largely depending on the extent to which food supply in breeding areas disappears in winter<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>.	eng
144578	population		Based on estimates of 9,600-17,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife International unpublished data, 2010).	eng
144581	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The tree-nesting population in central and eastern Europe declined from c. 4,000 pairs to extirpation, before restoration efforts in Germany and Poland returned it to c. 20 pairs. Significant further efforts are needed to fully restore it across its former range, which included Germany, Poland, Russia, Belarus and the Baltic States (European Peregrine Falcon Working Group<em> in litt.</em> 2007). <br/>. <br/></p>	eng
144583	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
144584	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Falco fasciinucha</em> is uncommon to rare throughout its wide range in eastern and southern Africa. Due to variations in observer effort and because 'islands' of suitable rock-face habitat are infrequently visited by ornithologists<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, the distribution of records is patchy. Its range, distribution and population are therefore poorly known, although there are probably more than 1,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is recorded from southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, south-east <strong>Sudan</strong>, eastern <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> (may occur at low densities throughout the country)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong> (scattered records)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, eastern <strong>Zambia</strong> (a few sites), <strong>Malawi</strong> (two recent records), <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> (20-50 pairs)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> (one record of unknown reliability), <strong>Botswana</strong> and north-eastern <strong> South Africa</strong> (one site). It occurs at gorges and escarpments (up to 3,800 m), using associated cliffs for nesting<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong> and roosting, often overlooking river valleys. It is largely sedentary and does not wander far from favoured sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, a review of sightings in Kenya confirms that it occurs in a variety of habitats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is closely associated with cliffs but does not have an absolute fidelity to a 'home cliff' and is sometimes sighted away from cliff environments. A portion of the population is therefore prone to wander away from typical habitat. These findings from east Africa are at odds with studies from southern Africa where the species does not tend to wander into flat areas devoid of cliffs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on small birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The spraying of organochlorine pesticides in northern Zimbabwe may have reduced numbers there, and pesticide-spraying (e.g. through operations to control <em>Quelea</em> and locusts) may pose a significant threat in other areas, including a recorded case in Uganda<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Helicopters and micro-light aircraft appear to have caused considerable disturbance to birds resident along the Victoria Falls gorges of the Zambezi, and the few birds that remain<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> are threatened with flooding by a proposed dam<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Reasons for its rarity in East Africa may include competition for food and nest sites with the larger and more dominant Peregrine Falcon <em>F. peregrinus</em> and persecution of young Taita Falcons by Peregrine Falcon, Lanner Falcon <em>F. biarmicus</em> and owls, e.g. Spotted Eagle-owl <em>Bubo africanus</em>. A systematic, range-wide survey of its distribution and population size is needed, as well as schemes to monitor breeding success<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, to study its ecological requirements and tolerance of disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and to evaluate the potential effects of pesticides, especially in northern Zimbabwe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/>  <br/></p>	eng
144584	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are probably more than 1,000 mature individuals (Thomsett 1998). <br/></p>	eng
144586	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Although some areas are protected, there is currently no action being taken to protect the species or to mitigate the threats it faces. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>*Promote awareness of the plight of the species amongst local communities and encourage involvement in its conservation. *Formulate a Species Action Plan. *Investigate alternatives to gill-netting along reedbed edges. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144586	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rollandia microptera</em> is endemic to open, freshwater lakes on the altiplano of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>. It occurs from lakes Arapa and Umayo in south-eastern Peru, through Lake Titicaca into adjacent Bolivia, and along the Desaguadero River to Lakes Uru-uru and Poop&oacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Temporary populations occur on smaller adjacent lakes in years when Lake Titicaca floods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Strongholds were Lakes Umayo and Arapa. Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s led to population estimates of between 2,000-10,000 individuals, with at least 1,147 on Lake Umayo alone in 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2001 found just four individuals on Lake Umayo, and 156 adults on Lake Arapa, whereas 215 adults and 45 young were recorded from 16 lakes in the Peruvian range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Counts during 1997 in Bolivia found a total of 100 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Further declines were indicated during a brief follow-up survey in 2003<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. At present, the total population is estimated to be 197-700 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144586	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a social species, but usually solitary when feeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in wide reed-marshes in places with easy access to open water, or in open view in floating water weeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144586	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Martinez <em>et al. </em>(2006) estimated around 1,600 mature individuals by summing the adults counted in their study of Lake Titicaca in 2003 and those adults counted elsewhere in the Titicaca watershed by Engblom <em>et al.</em> and Rocha <em>et al</em>. 2,583 individuals of all ages were counted on Lake Titicaca itself which combined with smaller numbers elsewhere in the watershed represents a higher population than previously estimated. <br/></p>	eng
144586	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since at least the early 1990s, there has been unregulated use of 80-100 m long gill-nets in lakes throughout its range. Confirmation that birds are drowned in these gill-nets comes from local fishermen and direct observations. Eggs are also harvested for food, and suitable nesting habitat is destroyed by the widespread practice of cutting reeds. Local, natural fluctuations in water levels seriously impact breeding success<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Lake ecosystems in the area are being affected negatively by the introduction of exotic fish<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144587	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary, locally dispersive or fully migratory depending on the winter temperatures of its breeding grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some dispersive movements in Africa are also related to seasonal rains and the appearance of temporary wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs, the timing of breeding varying geographically and depending on the growth of emergent vegetation and water-levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding the species undergoes a flightless wing-moulting period during which it may assemble in loose groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (up to 700 individuals)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in rich feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is largely solitary or occurs in small groups of 5-30 individuals<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a wide range of small and shallow wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually less than 1 m deep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with rich vegetation (floating, submerged and emergent) and high densities of aquatic invertebrates, generally avoiding waters with large predatory fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include small lakes, ponds, the sheltered bays and vegetated shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of larger freshwater, alkaline or saline lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, canals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flood-plain oxbows, coastal brackish lagoons<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, seasonally inundated areas, swamps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, gravel pits<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, sewage lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and rice-fields<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Outside of breeding season it is common on more open waters and is occasionally observed along the coast in estuaries or sheltered bays protected from strong wave action<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When moulting the species requires rich feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of adult and larval insects, especially mayflies, stoneflies, water bugs, beetles, flies, caddisflies and dragon flies, as well as molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. freshwater snails)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, crustaceans, adult and juvenile amphibians (e.g. small frogs and newts) and occasionally small fish (up to 11 cm)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> during the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a floating platform of aquatic plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> anchored to emergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, submerged branches or bushes close to the edge of shallow wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In France it was found that the presence of aquatic macrophytes was the most important factor in attracting the species to new artificial habitats (such as gravel pits)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144587	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of this viurs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for commercial (sold as food) and recreational purposes Iran<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144589	distribution		<em>Tachybaptus rufolavatus</em> was endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong> and known chiefly from Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. There were no direct observations since 12 were seen at Lake Alaotra in December 1982, and two were seen (in addition to several apparent hybrids) near Andreba on Lake Alaotra in September 1985<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Individuals with some characteristics of the species were also seen on Lake Alaotra in 1986 and 1988<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>A survey in 1999 and visits in 2000 found no individuals (of this or any species of <em>Tachybaptus</em>) on Lake Alaotra or surrounding lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Records outside the Lake Alaotra region were unreliable as species was probably incapable of prolonged flight, so in all likelihood never occurred very far from Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. A recent visit to Lake Amparihinandriamabavy failed to find any grebes, and it is now considered Extinct<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
144589	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species was presumed to be strongly sedentary since its small wings render it unable to fly long distances<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Some movements to highland lakes and ponds other than Lake Alaotra were thought to have occurred as a result of the degradation of its preferred habitat, as opposed to representing habitual movement<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>It was usually found in pairs, sometimes in association with <em> T. ruficollis</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was thought to have a flexible breeding season, with historical records of breeding in April-June and in January-March<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>Lake Alaotra is a large, shallow, brackish lake<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its shores were historically covered with dense vegetation including papyrus and reeds, which may have been important for this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>It fed almost exclusively on fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>Nothing was known of its breeding ecology<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. .	eng
144590	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is recorded from six protected areas, but numbers within them are small. To assess and prioritise wetlands for protection, a monitoring procedure has been proposed using birds, particularly <em> T. pelzelnii</em>, as indicators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands.<strong></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Initiate a monitoring programme<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Conduct studies to evaluate the causes of its decline, especially in relation to changes in wetlands caused by exotic plants and animals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Evaluate the possibility of hybridisation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Increase the number of occupied sites that have protected status. Work with fishermen to develop bycatch reduction measures. Employ measures to control exotic aquatic plants (such has <em>Eichhornia</em> and <em>Salvinia</em> spp.). Target awareness campaigns at farmers in an effort to reduce the use of pesticides and fertilisers. If necessary, control populations of exotic fish species.	eng
144590	distribution		<em>Tachybaptus pelzelnii</em> is still widespread and reasonably common in western and central <strong>Madagascar</strong>, with pairs or individuals on many small lakes. Surveys in the late 1990s recorded the species at 25 Important Bird Areas distributed throughout Madagascar<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but it is suspected to be undergoing rapid declines.  On Lake Alaotra the number of <em>Tachybaptus</em> (including a small proportion of <em>T. rufolavatus</em>) declined from several hundred in 1985 to 10-20 in 1993, to none in 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The current total population may number as few as 1,500-2,500 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although clarification is required. The present decline in the population is expected to accelerate over the next 10 years as increasing wetland conversion and overfishing continues to restrict the species to small lakes that are inaccessible and unsuitable for human use<strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>.	eng
144590	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is sedentary but will disperse in search of suitable habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  Breeding has been observed during the months of August to March<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs are territorial<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> but sometimes nest close to one another, and groups of 150 individuals have been recorded<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>It prefers shallow, freshwater lakes and pools, with a dense covering of lily-pads <em>Nymphaea</em><strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. It occasionally occurs in brackish waters and slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It appears to be capable of breeding in the above-mentioned habitats, including small temporary lakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, where a suitable covering of vegetation exists. <strong>Diet </strong>It probably feeds mainly on insects<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but is also known to take small fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is a floating structure of aquatic plants, anchored to offshore vegetation, particularly waterliles<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is 3-4<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144590	population		The population estimate of at least 5,000 individuals is based on recent records and results of surveys since Collar and Stuart (1985). Although it has been suggested that the population is now lower than this (M. Rabenandrasana<em> in litt</em>. 2007), further surveys are required to confirm this suspicion.	eng
144593	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Podilymbus gigas</em><em> </em>was endemic to Lake Atitl&aacute;n, <strong>Guatemala<sup>4</sup></strong>. Its population dropped from c.200 to 80 as a result of competition and predation by large-mouth bass <em>Micropterus salmoides</em>, introduced into the lake in 1960, but recovered to a high of 232 in 1975 when the numbers of bass plummeted<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, increasing pressure on breeding sites from local reed-cutting and from tourism development, along with the murder of the government game warden for the national park during the political unrest of 1982 and falling lake levels following the earthquake of 1976, drove the population down to 30 by 1983, and extinction by 1986<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Drowning in gill nets and disturbance by increasing boat traffic have also been suggested as contributory factors<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. (Still listed on Appendix I of CITES)</p>	eng
144595	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Infrequent, region-wide surveys have been undertaken to monitor population changes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Regularly monitor population changes throughout range. Determine extent of competition with <em>T.&#160;novaehollandiae<sup>4. Consider reintroductions to the South Island1.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144595	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poliocephalus rufopectus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The remaining population is restricted to the North Island with a wide but fragmented distribution. The last known breeding in the South Island was in the 1940s. The population is estimated at 1,700-1,800 birds, including c.200 in Northland, c.500 in the Volcanic Plateau, c.400 in the Hawkes Bay, c.150 in Wairarapa and c.400 in Manawatu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers may be decreasing in parts of the range, but stable or increasing in others<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The reason for the rapid decline and extinction in the South Island is not known. <br/></p>	eng
144595	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits small bodies of freshwater such as sand-dune lakes and lagoons and larger inland lakes with shallow, sheltered inlets<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It also uses "artificial" habitats such as farm ponds and dams and oxidation ponds. It usually builds its nest at the water's edge, floating but attached to vegetation or overhanging branches; as such, it is easily broken up by wave motion or swamped<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds predominantly on aquatic invertebrates, mostly insects and larvae, but sometimes fish and freshwater crayfish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144595	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Heather and Robertson (1997) <br/></p>	eng
144595	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats include changes in water quality, drying of dune lakes, destruction of nesting habitat, increasing vegetation, increased human activity on waterways, and predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp., especially when nesting<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Very low breeding success is achieved on large waters, maybe due to fluctuating water-levels, wave action and disturbance by other species. Breeding success on dune lakes and farm dams appears to be higher<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The recently-established <em>T. novaehollandiae</em> may be a potential competitor<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144597	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory and breeds from April or May to June or August<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in isolated solitary pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sometimes also nesting in loose colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to c.20 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Post-breeding adults undergo a flightless wing-moulting period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> after which they migrate south either singly or in small loose flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with concentrations of over 2,000 individuals occurring at favoured staging sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter the species typically feeds singly and rarely aggregates into flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on small (less than 3 ha), shallow (less than 2 m deep) inland waters with abundant emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. reedbeds)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and stretches of open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for waters in forested areas or in shrub tundra further to the north<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include small pools and lakes, backwaters of large rivers, pools cut off from the sea in estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In coastal locations the species often makes foraging flights to inland lakes or offshore areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and if foraging at sea it shows a preference for sub-tidal locations down to a depth of 15 m with sand or gravel substrates, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> When moulting, on passage or during the winter the species frequents large inland lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or shallow coastal areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with abundant fish stocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often considerable distances from the shore, amongst islands in archipelagos or over drop-off zones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. When foraging at sea the species shows a preference for sub-tidal locations down to a depth of 15 m with sand or gravel substrates, scattered rocks and patches of seaweed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of invertebrates<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> such as adult and larval aquatic insects (e.g. water beetles, water bugs and dragonfly larvae), crayfish and molluscs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although fish are also be important locally or seasonally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a floating platform of plant matter anchored to submerged or emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species typically breeds in isolated pairs with more than 50 m between neighbouring nests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although in some cases (e.g. on predator-free islands of floating vegetation attached to emergent vegetation beds) semi-colonial nesting may occur<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144597	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In North America the species is threatened by pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other pesticides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. DDT)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> which cause reduced reproductive success due to egg sterility and eggshell thinning<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened by the modification and degradation of lakes and by human disturbance from water-based recreational activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by future oil spills at sea during the winter (although during this season the species is widely scattered along coasts, so the effects of oil spills are likely to be small)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144598	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The majority of this species is fully migratory although some populations may only undergo local dispersive movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds between April and September in Europe, in all months of the year in Africa (peaking during long rainy season) and from November to March in Australasia, nesting either in solitary, dispersed pairs or in loose colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (forming only where safe nesting sites are few and feeding areas are extensive)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. After breeding (from August to October)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> adults may disperse locally to large lakes and reservoirs to undergo a flightless moulting period<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, during which gatherings of hundreds of individuals<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(occasionally even greater than 10,000) may form<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the winter the species largely remains solitary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, especially when feeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but temporary congregations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> of up to 5,000 individuals may form in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on fresh or brackish waters with abundant emergent and submerged vegetation<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, showing a preference for non-acidic eutrophic waterbodies with flat or sloping banks and muddy or sandy substrates<strong><sup>3</sup>, </strong>usually 0.5-5 m deep<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and with large areas of open water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include small pools or lakes, backwaters of slow-flowing rivers and artificial waterbodies (e.g. reservoirs, fish-ponds, gravel pits and ornamental lakes)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Australia the species also utilises swamps, reservoirs, lagoons, salt-fields, estuaries and bays<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in tropical Africa and New Zealand it may breed on montane, subalpine and alpine lakes up to 3,000 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species overwinters on large exposed ice-free<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> lakes and reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, moving to sheltered coastal inshore waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> less than 10 m deep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as brackish estuaries<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, deltas, tidal channels and tidal lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> during cold spells<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In addition it frequents large saline lakes in Australia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of large fish as well as insects, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish, shrimps) and molluscs, occasionally also adult and larval amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species's invertebrate consumption is highest during the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of aquatic plant matter either floating on water and anchored to emergent vegetation or built from the lake bottom in shallow water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Typical nest sites include reedbeds or flooded thickets as well as more open sites such as floating mats of water-weed or kelp fronds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144598	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffered declines in the nineteenth century as a result of hunting for the plume trade (this is no longer a threat)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species was also hunted in the past for food in New Zealand, a threat that although past is still limiting to the New Zealand population when combined with the modern threats of low food availability, modification of lakes for recreational purposes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, hydroelectric development and the introduction of competitors (e.g. trout) and predators (e.g. weasels, cats and rats)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is commonly drowned accidentally in monofilament gill-nets (fishing nets)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> with mesh sizes greater than 5 cm<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It may also be threatened by future coastal oil spills<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for commercial (food) and recreational purposes in Iran<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144599	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travels over land in stages on a broad front, some populations only moving short distances to the nearest ice-free coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April to August<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in solitary isolated pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, small loose colonies occasionally forming on lakes with rich extensive feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season the species usually remains solitary or forages in pairs or small groups<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> although flocks of up to c.500 individuals may gather occasionally on the sea during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and flocks of up to 60 individuals may travel together on passage<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on small, shallow fresh<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, brackish or slightly alkaline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> waters between 0.5 and 2 m deep and between 1 and 20 ha in area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with rich floating<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, submergent and emergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitats include small pools, marshes with patches of open water and secluded sections of larger lakes and rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species frequents coastal inshore waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 10-20 m in depth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> including sheltered bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, lagoons and estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also occur on large lake and river systems south of its breeding range<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish and invertebrates such as adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles, dragonflies, mayflies, water bugs, damselflies and caddisflies), crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. brine shrimp, cladocerans, amphipods, decapods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, crayfish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and crabs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), molluscs and worms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Fish and crustaceans are more important components of the diet during the winter when the species is at sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of aquatic vegetation either floating and anchored to emergent vegetation, built from the lake bottom (where water is shallow) or built on rocks at water level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> At a breeding lake in Scotland (Loch Ruthven) sedge beds are being extended to provide more nesting habitat for the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144599	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threats to the species are human disturbance, forestry operations around breeding lakes (e.g. afforestation leading to hydrological changes and resulting in reduced numbers of invertebrate prey), fluctuating water levels, and the stocking of lakes with rainbow trout <em>Salmo gairdneri</em> (which competes with the species for aquatic insects)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Historical range contractions have also occurred due to acidification and increased humus content of lakes, and the species is vulnerable to hypertrophication<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is commonly caught and accidentally drowning in fishing nets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is particularly vulnerable to oil spills in the marine environment during the winter<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144600	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although the extent of migration varies between populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and some populations remain predominantly sedentary (e.g. in Spain)<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. Autumn movements are often protracted, with dispersal beginning in mid-August and lasting until late-November (peaking in October)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with the return migration beginning in March<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species migratory movements are mainly nocturnal, although diurnal migration is known in the Palearctic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds between May and June in the Northern Hemisphere<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (although laying dates often vary extensively between years and lakes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and nests in reed swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in small or large colonies of up to 2000 nests (although the species may also nest in isolated pairs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages diurnally<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong> and is highly gregarious<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, both on migration and during the winter, forming concentrations of hundreds of thousands at certain sites in North America and Asia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After arrival in autumn staging grounds (e.g. Mono Lake in California) the species becomes flightless for 3 to 4 months due to loss of weight from the pectoral muscles<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season this species frequents permanent and temporary<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> small, shallow, highly eutrophic pools with lush vegetation, such as freshwater marshes and lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with dispersed submergent vegetation and patches of reeds<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, as well as ponds and fish ponds, sewage farms, quiet river backwaters and newly flooded areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In southern Russia and Kazakhstan it shows a preference for variably developed reed swamps and gypsotrophic lakes (alkaline waters with rich submergent vegetation such as <em>Chara</em> and <em>Potamogeton</em> <em>pectinatus</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species moves to salt lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, hyper-saline industrial evaporation ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and reservoirs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, or to coastal estuaries, arms of the sea, and inshore shallows in bays and channels<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of adult and larval insects (such as aquatic bugs, terrestrial and aquatic beetles, damselflies, dragonflies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, midges and brine-flies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), molluscs, crustaceans (e.g. brine shrimps), amphibians (e.g. small frogs and tadpoles)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, nereid worms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, snails<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and small fish<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> It usually nests colonially in thinly spaced, emergent marsh vegetation (such as <em>Scirpus, Typha </em>or sedge <em>Carex</em>), or on dense mats of floating waterweed, sometimes far from the shore<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is a floating platform of aquatic vegetation anchored to emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> such as reeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144600	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Huge mortalities are frequently sustained at Salton Sea in southern California for unknown reasons<strong><sup>8, 9</sup></strong> (possibly an unknown biotoxin, pathogen, impairment of feather waterproofing leading to hypothermia, or a unique manifestation of avian cholera)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The species is also vulnerable to oil pollution as it frequently winters on the coast<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian cholera<strong><sup>4, 7</sup></strong>, Erysipelas<strong><sup>7, 12</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> so is threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. Populations have also been known to crash in winter habitats during ENSO events due to reductions in food availability due to warming sea-surface temperatures, although they afterwards rebound<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Local declines of this species are also attributed to human disturbance (especially recreational activities on lakes)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it is commonly killed by collisions with power transmission lines<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The species is predated by American Mink <em>Mustela vison</em> in the Slonsk Reserve, western Poland<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and was threatened in North America by egg collecting and hunting for the millinery (hat making) industry (although this threat has since been removed)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for commercial and recreational purposes in Gilan Province, northern Iran<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144601	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Podiceps andinus</em><em> </em>was restricted to the Bogot&aacute; wetlands at c.2,600&#160;m in the Eastern Andes of<strong> Colombia<sup>3</sup></strong>. It is known from 18 or 19 specimens collected between 1939-1964<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was still abundant on Lake Tota in 1945<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but numbers crashed in the 1950s as a combined result of wetland drainage, siltation, pesticide pollution, disruption by reed harvesting, hunting and predation by introduced rainbow trout <em>Salmo gairdneri</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The last confirmed record was in 1977<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and because intensive studies in 1981<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and 1982<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> failed to find the species, it is now considered extinct<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144603	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Lake Jun&iacute;n has been declared a national reserve. Hunting and fishing are regulated but little has been done to interfere with the management of the water level, which is controlled by mining companies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. An attempt was made to translocate grebes to a lake north of Jun&iacute;n; capture and transfer were feasible, but that the chosen lake (and others) was unsuitable, because gill-nets are used to fish rainbow trout<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 2002, the Peruvian government passed an emergency law to protect the lake which makes provisions for its cleaning and places greater restrictions on the extraction of water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but this has so far proved ineffective<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Asociaci&oacute;n Ecosistemas Andinos (ECOAN) is working in the area to educate local communities about the lake's two endemic birds. A program involving education, workshops, press releases and a photo exibit is underway with the aim of drawing attention to the problems facing Lake Jun&iacute;n<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 2009 the species was adopted as a symbol of wetland conservation in the high Andes by groups including BirdLife International, American Bird Conservancy, ECOAN and INRENA, who have called for an independent environmental audit and continuous environmental monitoring of the lake<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor the population and reproductive success biannually<sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the species's requirements throughout its life-cycle<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Prepare and implement a species recovery plan<sup>1</sup></strong> and involve local people in a participatory species action plan as well as environmental education and awareness-raising campaigns<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Reduce pollution (and continue monitoring water quality<sup>5</sup></strong>) and regulate water-levels for the benefit of local people and wildlife<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with the agreement and participation of the local mining company<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the feasibility of a sustainable habitat management programme<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify a lake for potential translocation of individuals<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop ecotourism in the area including building a lookout platform for the lake to aid population monitoring<sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144603	distribution		<em>Podiceps taczanowskii</em> is a flightless waterbird confined to Lake Jun&iacute;n in the highlands of Jun&iacute;n, west-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It was extremely abundant in 1938, and the population was probably well over 1,000 birds in 1961. In the early and mid-1980s there were c.250 birds, but only 100 were counted in 1992, falling to around 50 in 1993<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. New extrapolations in early 1995, using a different methodology, estimated 205 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The 1995-1996 and 1996-1997 breeding seasons were unsuccessful, but two broods apparently fledged in 1997-1998<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In August 1998, over 250 <em>Podiceps</em> sp. were found in 4 km<sup>2</sup> of the lake (suggesting a total of 350-400 birds) and all those identified (over 20) were <em>P. taczanowskii</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Counts in 2001, 2002 and 2007 using standardised survey methods estimated the population at 304, 249 and 217 individuals respectively<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The population now appears to be restricted to the south of the lake, though individuals are still seen attempting to colonise the north and north-west<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144603	habitat		Lake Jun&iacute;n is fairly shallow and bordered by extensive reed marshes at 4,080 m. The grebe forages in open water, near the shore in the (wet) breeding season (November-March), and in the centre of the lake in the dry austral winter. It feeds mainly on small <em>Orestias</em> fish (which become scarce when the reedbeds dry out<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and invertebrate larvae and adults. Nests are built in flooded reedbeds; clutch size is two eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is probably long-lived, and invests little in recruitment per season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144603	population		Different surveying methods have made population estimates difficult. However, three surveys in 2001, 2002 and 2007 indicate a population of between 217 and 304 individuals (ECOAN 2009), hence the population is best blaced in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
144604	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The site where the species was discovered in 1974, Laguna Los Escarchados, was declared a reserve in 1979 but is now known to hold only a marginal population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and six individuals were recorded within Perito Moreno National Park, Argentina in 1992. Its key breeding lakes in the core of its range lack any kind of legal protection, but the population stronghold on Meseta de Strobel is afforded some protection from its remoteness and inaccessibility<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue monitoring at key sites at intervals of a few years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Survey upland and coastal sites to identify wintering and staging sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Write and implement a species recovery plan. Work with landowners to raise awareness of the impacts on Hooded Grebes of introducing salmonids to lakes, and identify lakes where salmonids could be introduced without negatively impacting Hooded Grebes. Study the species's ecology to understand population movements. Identify breeding sites. Gather empirical data on population size and trends. Clarify the threats to the species and the reasons behind recent declines. <br/></p>	eng
144604	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Podiceps gallardoi</em> breeds on a few basaltic lakes in the interior of Santa Cruz, extreme south-west <strong>Argentina</strong>, and casually near Torres del Paine, in Magallanes, south <strong>Chile</strong><sup>5</sup>; the only known wintering grounds are the río Coyle and río Gallegos estuaries on the Atlantic coast of Santa Cruz<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. The total population was estimated at 3,000-5,000 individuals in 1997 with half of these on Meseta de Strobel<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Counts on the wintering grounds suggested a decline of 40% over a seven year period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and surveys conducted in December 2006 and January 2009 that revisited key known breeding sites surveyed in 1987 (Lagunas del Sello, del Isolte and Tolderia Grande) and 1998 (Encadenadas) also found sharp declines; numbers fell from 452 to 51 at Laguna del Sello, from 700 to 0 at Laguna del Islote, from 90 to 0 at Tolderia Grande<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and from 198 to 0 at Lagunas Encadenadas<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. While there is speculation that numbers fluctuate dramatically at breeding sites from year to year driven by movements rather than actual population fluctuations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, overall declines detected on the wintering and breeding grounds appear to be real and rapid. Examination of photographs from the 1980s suggests that <em>P. gallardoi </em>was formerly the commonest waterbird on its core breeding grounds, the Buenos Aires, Strobel and San Martin plateaus; the 2009 surveys visited two of these areas and recorded the declines above as well as noting that a number of former breeding sites were completely dry. The global population is now suspected to number well below 2,500 mature individuals. <br/><p></p>	eng
144604	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	During the breeding season, it inhabits basaltic lakes in the arid Patagonian steppes at elevations of 500-1,200 m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; saline and bitter-salt lakes are used by non-breeding flocks and at least some birds wintering on the Argentine coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Aquatic vegetation (mainly <em>Myriophyllum elatinoides</em>) on its breeding lakes is essential material for its floating nest and as habitat for several aquatic invertebrates that form its basic diet<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During the first week after hatching, chicks are fed with aquatic beetles (<em>Limnaea </em>spp.)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It breeds in colonies of up to 130 pairs from October-March<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but has an exceedingly low reproductive rate with an average of 0.2 young reared per adult per year<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, while potential resources for breeding are apparently limited, the resources for adult survival appear to be plentiful and under natural circumstances adult mortality may be extremely low<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It occasionally establishes colonies in areas marginal to its main range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
144604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	O'Donnell and Fjeldsa (1997) estimated the population as 3,000-5,000 individuals. Following recent and rapid declines the population is now assumed to be well below this figure but owing to difficulties in surveying its remote breeding grounds a precise estimate is unavailable. <br/><p></p>	eng
144604	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The two principal threats to the species appear to be climate change and the introduction of salmon and trout to private lakes on the Strobel plateau<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Recently the introduction of trout has been correlated with a decline in breeding numbers at certain lakes<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2006 found a number of lakes completely dry and that water levels at known breeding sites were 2-3 m lower than in previous years<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Anecdotal reports indicated reduced winter snowfall without a corresponding increase in precipitation at other times<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Excessive grazing by sheep (which causes erosion at lakeshores and limits the growth of emergent vegetation), predation by Kelp Gulls <em>Larus dominicanus</em> at some lakes, an inhospitable breeding climate and low breeding potential have been cited as threats<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but the species's life history strategy is apparently well adapted to these conditions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population may be limited by the carrying capacity of rather few lakes with good nest vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Volcanic eruptions in the breeding area may have a negative short-term effect because of heavy ash fall, but a long-term positive effect on the productivity of the wetlands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is oil exploitation on the potential migration route to the Atlantic<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/><p></p>	eng
144605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144610	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. A national park was created in 1980, which has since been extended to cover more than 60% of the island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and includes most breeding areas. A lease agreement with Christmas Island Phosphates Pty Ltd prevents clearance of primary rainforest and requires permits to clear regrowth. A monitoring programme was in place between 1982 and 1993. Since 1984, c.20% of mined areas adjacent to nesting areas have been planted in an ongoing restoration programme. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Monitoring of the problem continues and hand-baiting measures have been ongoing. Aerial baiting was carried out in September 2002 and proved to be successful against major colonies<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, eliminating over 98% of ants<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. However, the ants have since recovered<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The ants remained persistent in 2006, and it was thought that perpetual baiting would be the only means of controlling them<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The bait used so far is known to be toxic to invertebrates, including crabs, and although alternatives have been trialled, an effective replacement has not been found<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Control of the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions has been suggested, in order to reduce this food supply<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. In 2004, 2005 and 2006, surveys were carried out to assess the impact of the construction of an immigration centre on a breeding colony adjacent to the site<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong> whilst continuing to implement control measures. Develop and implement appropriate monitoring techniques<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Monitor impact of rehabilitation efforts on trends and distribution. Identify feeding habitat of breeding adults and juveniles (by satellite tracking studies)<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Negotiate with the mining company to ensure protection of all breeding habitat and appropriate buffers. Minimise and monitor effects of developments such as the launch pad<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Develop a wind turbulence model to guide habitat restoration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Continue to implement weed management strategy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Monitor likely impact of developing fisheries around Christmas Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Address threats from global climate change at national and international levels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Monitor the possible effects of climate change on the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Protect nest cluster (c.30 nests) discovered in 2002<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144610	distribution		<em>Papasula abbotti</em> breeds only on <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>, though it once had a much wider distribution in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. One female was recently observed on Rota Island (Northern Mariana Islands to USA), though it is not known whether it is vagrant or a solitary resident<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 2,300 pairs in 1967, declining to 1,900 pairs by 1983. Newly discovered breeding sites brought the total to an estimated 2,500 active pairs, following a survey in 1991<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, which is regarded as the most accurate and comprehensive to date<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A helicopter survey in 2002 recorded about 1,500 active nest sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but the results were not verified by ground-based surveys<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.  Overall, it seems that the breeding population was more or less stable between 1991 and 2002<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but the survey techniques are not directly comparable<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. The species's breeding cycle takes 15-18 months, meaning that successful pairs nest once every two years whilst unsuccessful pairs may breed in successive years or take 'rest years', thus only a proportion of the breeding population breeds in a given year, and this is dependent on nesting success in the previous year<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Thus in 2000, following on from the 1991 survey, the total population of mature individuals was put at c.6,000. It disperses within the Indian Ocean. Recent records from the Banda Sea indicate either a major extension of its known range or unknown breeding colonies.	eng
144610	habitat		It nests in tall rainforest trees, mostly above 150 m elevation in the western, central and northern areas of Christmas Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and lays one egg. Most successful parents can only breed biennally. It may first breed at eight years of age, and its average lifespan may be c.40 years. It feeds at sea on squid and fish. The at sea distribution of this species is poorly known. It was previously thought that cold water upwellings south of Java could be important feeding areas for breeding boobies<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>, however tracking studies seem to indicate that they simply forage within 40-100 km of Christmas Island and show no association with any clear oceanographic features<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144610	population		Following an estimate of 2,500 active pairs in 1991 (Yorkston and Green 1997), the total number of mature individuals has been put at c.6,000 (Garnett and Crowley 2000). It should be noted that only a proportion breed in a given year owing to a 15-18 month breeding cycle and the possibility that some unsuccessful pairs take 'rest years' rather than breed in successive years (James 2007). Despite a helicopter survey in 2002, the 1991 survey is considered the most accurate and comprehensive (James 2007).	eng
144611	population	BirdLife International, 2009	del Hoyo et al. (1992) estimated the global population to number 526,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 300,000-310,000 breeding pairs, equating to 900,000-930,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 950,000-1,200,000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
144612	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In South Africa, Lambert's Bay and Bird Island are nature reserves and Malgas Island is within West Coast National Park. In Namibia, the three breeding islands are administered by the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources. All six islands have been identified as Important Bird Areas (IBAs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with success in South Africa, and the species is protected by law.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop and implement a sustainable, coordinated fisheries plan for the region. Develop measures to prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144612	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Morus capensis</em> breeds at just six islands: Bird (Lambert's Bay), Malgas and Bird (Algoa Bay), <strong>South Africa</strong>, and Mercury, Ichaboe and Possession, <strong>Namibia</strong>. Outside the breeding season, adults are generally sedentary but young range east to Mozambique and Tanzania, and regularly north as far as Nigeria, but usually within 100&#160;km of land. In 1996, the global population numbered c.173,000 breeding pairs: 153,000 (88.4%) in South Africa, the balance in Namibia. Exchange occurs between breeding localities. Although the numbers breeding at South African islands increased between 1956 and 1996, the Namibian population declined massively. The total breeding population decreased by 31% between 1956 and 1996 (by 15% between 1978 and 1996). The colony at Possession Island now numbers only 750 pairs, and may soon be lost.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144612	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It feeds mainly on anchovy <em>Engraulis capensis</em>, sardine <em>Sardinops sagax</em>, saury <em>Scomberesox saurus</em> and offal discarded by fishing boats. Fluctuations in the contribution of <em>E.&#160;capensis</em> and <em>S.&#160;sagax</em> in the diet match the changing abundance of <em>M.&#160;capensis</em>. Nests are built from guano. There is strong nest-site fidelity. Young birds can disperse great distances at the end of the breeding season. <br/></p>	eng
144612	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total breeding population in 2004-2006 was c.150,000 pairs (Kemper <em>et al</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
144612	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Food shortage, following the collapse of the Namibian sardine fishery, has been the main cause of declines. Oilspills are also a serious threat: c.5,000 <em>M.&#160;capensis</em> were oiled during an incident in 1993. Guano collection may decrease breeding success, inhibit some birds from laying and reduce the effective breeding season. Cape Fur Seal <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em> displaced <em>M.&#160;capensis</em> from Hollam's Bird Island. A programme to discourage seals on Mercury Island was largely effective<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144620	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> but is subject to little known opportunistic local movements related to drought and wetland conditions<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding is seasonal in some areas, but can be at any time of the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually breeds in mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, and roosts nightly in groups of 10 to 50<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (sometimes up to 100) in trees, bushes or reedbeds often in mixed-species groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it is generally a solitary feeder<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. Its moulting habits are little known, but some adults may go through a flightless moult period after breeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for still, shallow, inland freshwater and alkaline lakes and slow-flowing rivers fringed with reeds and trees<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>. It may also occur in swamps<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>1, 3, 5</sup></strong>, river oxbows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and forested streams<strong><sup>2, </sup> typically avoiding marine habitats<sup>3</sup></strong> but occasionally foraging in<strong><sup> </sup></strong>mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 5</sup></strong>, shallow tidal inlets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids fast-flowing rivers, areas with dense floating vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and narrow, steep-banked or seasonally drained habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, preferring to feed in water 1-3 m deep (up to 6 m)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with forested margins or scattered emergent trees and islets with dense vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species requires trees, bushes or reedbeds for roosting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and prefers dead trees, rocks or banks to rest on after feeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists mainly of fish such as Cichlidae and Cyprinidae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it will also take amphibians, water snakes, terrapins, aquatic insects, crustaceans and molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, each pair building a nest platform of sticks and other vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in forks of trees or in reedbeds 1-6 m high<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (often c.2 m )<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> over water or on islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144620	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is persecuted in some areas of southern Africa because of its perceived (actually minimal) impact on trout and other recreational fish species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Burundi it is threatened by disturbance, exploitation at colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, destruction of habitats and environmental pollution<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144621	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anhinga melanogaster </em>occurs in <strong>Pakistan </strong>(fairly widespread irregular year-round visitor to Sind and Punjab, locally resident), <strong>India </strong>(widespread resident, locally common in Assam, current status poorly known but apparently declining), <strong>Nepal </strong>(uncommon resident and non-breeding visitor), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka </strong>(common resident in dry lowlands, scarce visitor elsewhere), <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(local resident in northern and coastal regions), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(previously a widespread resident, now scarce to locally fairly common in south, status uncertain elsewhere), <strong>Thailand </strong>(formerly widespread, now very rare and possibly no longer breeds), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously widespread and numerous but numbers have plummeted with only a few sporadic recent records), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously widespread breeder, once locally common but now almost extinct), Cambodia (scarce visitor, probably still breeds), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (abundant in early 1960s with flocks reported to be totalling several thousand observed on the Mekong; currently a local resident in small numbers), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> (vagrant in west, possibly former resident), <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (locally common breeder on Borneo, Java and Sulawesi, vagrant to other islands in the Lesser Sundas and Moluccas). The species is generally uncommon and declining throughout Asia, with the global population estimated at 4,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It inhabits shallow inland wetlands including lakes, rivers, swamps and reservoirs, as well as estuaries, tidal inlets, mangroves and coastal lagoons, ascending to 1,400 m, at least in India and Java. In common with many other Asian waterbirds, it is primarily threatened by habitat loss, disturbance (at feeding grounds and colonies), hunting and pollution. <br/></p>	eng
144621	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Wetlands International 4th Edition <br/></p>	eng
144623	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a sedentary resident and partial migrant, making irregular movements<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>in response to changes in local water conditions, especially with the rising and falling of flood-levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The breeding season varies geographically, although most breeding peaks are associated with periods of rainfall<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> or flooding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in association with other waterbird species<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, usually nesting in small numbers (1-5 pairs) amid much larger mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. It generally fishes singly<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong> or in small groups in shallow water by day<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, with peaks of activity in the early morning and late afternoon<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, occasionally also hunting cooperatively in loose associations with conspecifics or other species<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. It commutes to foraging areas singly or in loose flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and roosts nightly in large numbers (e.g. several thousands), often in mixed-species groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During droughts the species may concentrate on permanent water-bodies, such as large rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for sheltered waters with fringing vegetation, emergent trees<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and gently sloping shores<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, preferring to fish in shallow water c.2 m deep<strong><sup>2, 3, 5</sup></strong>, and within c.100 m of the shore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is quick to colonise temporary flood-waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and will frequent most freshwater habitats except fast-flowing streams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, commonly roosting in <em>Typha</em> or <em>Phragmites</em> beds, or on partly submerged bushes or trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitats include large and small slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, ponds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, small farm dams, creeks, lakes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> and thickets of scrub or stands of trees within sedge-filled areas of water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is occasionally observed on inland alkaline lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and on freshwater wetlands along the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. coastal lagoons)<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, and sometimes frequents rocky shores<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, inshore islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with rocky outcrops and flats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and sheltered coastal waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is a generalist, taking any slow-moving prey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In estuaries, coastal lagoons and large inland lakes its diet is dominated by fish of up to 20 cm long, especially cichlids (<em>Haplochromis</em>, <em>Pseudocrenilabrus</em> and tilapia <em>Sarotherodon</em>)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, but at smaller water-bodies frogs, crustaceans, aquatic insects<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, molluscs and occasionally small birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> are more important<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site</strong> The species nests in mixed-species colonies, with nests scattered throughout the group, often nearer water than the other species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is a platform of twigs and other vegetation built 0.5-6 m above the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although the height of the nest is influenced by water-levels (it breeds higher in trees when water-levels are low, to reduce the risk of predation)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nesting sites include the forks of trees (often partly submerged, over water or on islands)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, sand<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and tufts of vegetation on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or cliffs and rocky outcrops on coastal islands<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Three artificially constructed heronries in a man-made wetland at Blouvlei (Western Cape, South Africa) attracted a number of nesting pairs of this species which proceeded to breed successfully<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The heronries were erected in open water (the centre of a pond), and took the form of rectangular frameworks anchored by sunken corner posts, with natural poles and branches of dead wood arranged and secured within them to imitate natural thickets<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. No decoy birds or nests were used<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144623	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is persecuted in some areas of southern Africa because of its local (insignificant) impact on trout (<em>Salmo</em> spp.) and other recreational fish stocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species may also be declining at Lake Naivasha, Kenya as a result of increased disturbance by fishermen along the lake shore (this species's primary feeding location)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144624	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Colonies at Mercury, Ichaboe, L&uuml;deritz Bay and Possession Islands are partially protected, while those at Bird Island, West Coast National Park/Saldanha Bay Islands, Dassen Island, Robben Island and Sperrgebiet are fully protected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Management practices at breeding islands currently minimise disturbance. Selective culling of Cape fur seals that are observed killing seabirds has occurred since 1993. This has an immediate but short-term effect on seabird mortality rates<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor the population through regular and simultaneous range-wide surveys. Ensure full protection of all breeding colonies<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Reduce the prevalence of disgarded fishing-line. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills.	eng
144624	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax coronatus</em> is restricted to the west coast of southern Africa, breeding at 48 localities from Walvis Bay in <strong>Namibia</strong> to Cape Agulhas in <strong>South Africa</strong>. During 1977-1981, the population was estimated to be 2,665 breeding pairs. The most recent estimate is of 8,700 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Information from 10 well-monitored islands off South Africa suggests that the population is stable or increasing. However, birds are known to move between breeding sites, and the possibility of duplicate counting cannot be discounted without coordinated simultaneous surveys throughout. With a small global population, and movement between breeding sites, sudden declines may go unnoticed.	eng
144624	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is largely sedentary, with some movement occuring to the north and east of its breeding range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Egg-laying occurs all year round, but with a seasonal peak in late spring and summer - over 60% of nesting activity occcuring between November and January<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It usually breeds in small groups of 4-50 pairs<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>, although colonies supporting up to 280 nests have been recorded<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It usually forages solitarily<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species occurs during both the breeding and the non-breeding season along the coastal cliffs of the mainland and offshore islands in the cold waters of the Benguela Current<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has never been recorded more than 10 km offshore<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, or more than 100m inland<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It forages in shallow coastal waters and estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, often in kelp beds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>,among breaking waves or in tidal pools during periods of high tide<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It does not forage off sandy shores<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Diet consists largely (97%<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) of benthic fish, particularly klipfish (Clinidae) and pipefish (Syngnathidae) of up to 160mm in length<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Shrimps and isopods also form a small part of the diet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>This species commonly breeds in mixed seabird colonies. Nest sites include sheltered areas on rocks, cliffs, bushes, small trees, and kelp wracks, as well as man-made structures including jetties, the supports of guano platforms, wrecked ships and sometimes moored ships<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The construction of the Bird Rock guano platform in Wavis Bay, Namibia, resulted in a range extention of 415km<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The nest is constructed mostly from kelp and sticks, lined with finer material, and they are often used for several years in succession<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A clutch usually consists of two or three eggs, but occasionally of up to five<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. After leaving the nest, chicks form cr&egrave;ches near the colony. In response to disturbance, nestlings and fledgelings will disperse and often enter the water where they are vulnerable to predation by the Cape Fur Seal <em>Arctocephalus pusillus</em><strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144624	population		The most recent estimate of the population was of 8,700 individuals (du Toit<em> et al</em>. 2002).	eng
144625	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 1996.	eng
144625	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in south-east Europe (east from Italy), Russia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzebekistan, and winters primarily in Albania, Greece, the Balkan states, Turkey, Cyprus, Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan and also Israel, Bulgaria, Romania and Syria.	eng
144625	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in reedbeds, transition zones between reedbeds and open waters, extensively grazed or mowed shores and wet meadows and, in winter, in coastal wetlands, along rivers, and sometimes on inland lakes (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Crivelli et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2004). The preferred nesting habitat is willow Salix trees but, in Azerbaijan, birds breed mainly in Tamarix (Crivelli et al. 2000). The nest is a deep cup of sticks and reeds built near or over water in trees, bushes, reedbeds or on floating islets of vegetation (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Johnsgard 1993, Nelson et al. 2005). The species breeds between April and July in large mixed-species colonies, leaving the breeding grounds towards the end of August and returning between March and April (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The species is sedentary over much of its range with some populations migrating over short distances (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Throughout the year it normally feeds singly or in small groups (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Nelson et al. 2005). Diet consists predominantly of fish up to 15 cm long (del Hoyo et al. 1992). <br/></p>	eng
144625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 85,000-180,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006).The estimated European population (75-94% of the global breeding range) is now 28,000-39,000 pairs, considerably higher than the 13,000 pairs estimated in 1996, with an estimated 8,000-12,000 breeding pairs in Azerbaijan and 11,500-14,000 breeding pairs in Romania (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
144625	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the degradation of wetlands through drainage for agriculture (del Hoyo et al. 1992) and changes in hydrological regimes (Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000). It also suffers persecution from the aquaculture industry (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Eken and Magnin 1999, Kazantzidis and Nazirides 1999, Crivelli et al. 2000). The species is hunted for recreation and for commercial use (sold at food markets) in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006). In south-east Europe, conservation measures have ameliorated the most important threats (Crivelli et al. 2000), although concern still exists regarding habitat destruction and persecution in its wintering range (Petkov, Nikolov and Velkov in litt. 2005).	eng
144628	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phalacrocorax perspicillatus</em><em> </em>was restricted to Bering Island, in the Commander Islands, <strong>Russia<sup>1</sup></strong>, and possibly the adjacent coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Steller noted that it was common in 1741<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it was a poor flier<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and was heavily hunted for food by the Aleuts who settled on the island in 1826<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The five known specimens were all collected between 1840-1850, and in 1882, Stejneger was told by the island's residents that the last birds had disappeared about 30 years before<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<p></p>	eng
144630	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All populations are within the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park and Marine Reserve<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A research project investigating the factors behind the species's decline commenced in August 2003<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Invasive species are controlled<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor both island populations annually<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Minimise human disturbance. Stop net-fishing within feeding range. Continue the cat control program<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Reduce or ban fishing activities and hunting (hogs and other animals) with household dogs in Iguana Cove and other places in Zone 8 where the largest growth in penguin and cormorant populations has been detected in the last few years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144630	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax harrisi</em> is endemic to Fernandina and Isabela in the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. It is found around most of the coast of Fernandina (mainly on the east), but only on the north and west coasts of Isabela<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. In 1971-1972, the population was estimated at 800 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Between 1977 and 1985, it remained more or less stable at around 650 to 850 adults<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. However, during the 1983 El Ni&ntilde;o event, the population declined by 50% to 400 birds, but recovered within a season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 1986, it was estimated at 1,000 adults<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1999, a total of 900 individuals was counted during the census<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A total of 1,396 cormorants were counted in 2006, which is 10% less than the population counted in 2005. Nevertheless, the total counted in 2006 is one of the four highest counts among all cormorant surveys conducted since 1977. After the last El Ni&ntilde;o event of 1997-1998, growth in the cormorant population has been higher than ever before in the survey period (1977-2006). Still, results as of 2003 show a decrease in the rate of population growth and a low percentage of juveniles (3% in 2006), suggesting that the population is stabilizing at a new high<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144630	habitat		It usually nests in sheltered areas, on shingle and flat lava outcrops<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, mostly within 100 m of the shoreline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is thought to breed near the coldest and richest waters<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It nests in small groups of just a few pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, mainly during the colder season (July-October) when marine productivity is highest, and the risk of heat stress to chicks and incubating adults is reduced<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some pairs may nest biannually<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is highly sedentary<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and fearless of humans<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It preys on eel, octopuses and fish<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144630	population		In 2006, 1,338 adults were recorded (Jim&eacute;nez-Uzc&aacute;tegui <em>et al. </em>2007). Therefore, the estimate of population size in 2006, according to the Valle (1994) methodology, was 1,679 individuals.	eng
144631	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In South Africa, it is protected by law and the major islands where it breeds are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. However, some of the smaller breeding rocks are not protected and in fact only 11 of the 45 (24%) extant breeding colonies have nature reserve status<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Namibia, breeding islands are administered by the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, but only three are staffed.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Develop and implement management plans to protect breeding islands and cover the effects of introduced predators, alien plant control and human disturbance<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Protect sites accessible to humans from the mainland at low tide. Census the population regularly so that trends can be assessed and use colour-banding to better understand the species movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Develop and implement a sustainable fisheries plan for the Benguela Upwelling Region to avoid over-depletion of fish and lobster stocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Take measures against the illegal cleaning of oil tanks at sea, which causes significant oil spills. Develop a contingency plan for major oil spills off the coast of south-western Africa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Improve the legal protection of Namibian offshore breeding sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Increase public awareness of the conservation problems facing this species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144631	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax neglectus</em> breeds at 45 localities between Hollam's Bird Island, <strong>Namibia</strong>, and Quoin Rock, <strong>South Africa</strong>. About 80-90% of the breeding population is located on Mercury and Ichaboe Islands, Namibia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The non-breeding range extends from just south of Hoanibmond south to Die Walle. Several island populations in the west and north Cape Province have declined in recent years and seven former breeding localities have been vacated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The total number of breeding pairs fell from 7,600 in 1978-1980 to 5,750 by 1990 and to 2,800 by 2006<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The rate of decline was 4.3% per year over 16 years, equivalent to a decrease of 52.9% over three six-year generations. Between 1993 and 1998, the Namibian breeding population is estimated to have declined by 68%, mainly due to a population collapse on Ichaboe Island after 1994-1995. Numbers on Ichaboe have since continued to decline, and although numbers have increased on Mercury Island, the total Namibian population in 2006 was 39% less than in 1993<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144631	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Adults are highly sedentary, and although individuals have been known to move up to 150 km, a capture-recapture survey recovered a large majority of adults within 10km of the point of banding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Juveniles tend to disperse over larger distances. It is a gregarious species, breeding and roosting in colonies of up to 100 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although it forages singly or in loose groups of up to 15 birds<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. Breeding activity occurs year round but is concentrated between May and October in the southern part of its range, and between November and April in the central Namibian colonies at the northern extension of its range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The distribution of this species broadly reflects that of kelp <em>Ecklonia maxima</em> beds and it is rarely found more than 10 km from shore<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It does not use estuaries or inland waters<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on sea-cliffs and rocky offshore islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, sometimes making use of walls or artificial platforms in close proximity to the sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  Its large size makes it difficult to take off, and this may influence and limit its choice of habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>The species has a varied diet which consists principally of marine fish<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> but includes some invertebrates, particularly crustaceans including the commercially fished Cape Rock Lobster, <em>Jasus lalandi</em><strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and various cephalopods. Through most of its range the species prefers to forage on the sea floor - especially among kelp beds at depths of 5 -15m - and preys mainly on klipfish (Clinidae) and blennies (Blenniidae) which are associated with that habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However in the northern part of its range where the largest populations occur, the species forages away from the kelp beds and the majority of its diet consists of Pelagic Gobies <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em><strong><sup> 1,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>Nests are built on exposed rocks, walls or artificial platforms in close proximity to the sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest is very large (up to 6kg)<strong><sup> 6</sup></strong> and constructed mainly from green seaweed with some sticks and feathers incorporated<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A clutch consists of one to three eggs, with a mean of two, but nests are often lost to rough seas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The young leave the nest before they are able to fly properly, and so are particularly vulnerable to predation and disturbance at this stage. Age at first breeding is two to three years and average longevity of breeders is estimated at six years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144631	population		The total breeding population was estimated at 2,800 pairs in 2006 (Kemper <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
144632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The total population probably numbers several 10,000s of birds (del Hoyo et al. 1992)	eng
144633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144638	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Throughout its range the species is sedentary or locally dispersive with northerly populations also making strong migratory movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically, occurring all year round<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or coinciding with the rains in the tropics<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and peaking between April and June in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 10-500 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the size of the colony depending upon the extent of nearby feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is usually a solitary feeder<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but may form large fishing flocks in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also roosts communally at nesting sites or in major feeding areas and flies in flocks of varying sizes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species frequents both coastal and inland habitats<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>. In marine environments it occurs in sheltered coastal areas on estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, saltpans, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, mangrove swamps, deltas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and coastal bays<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, requiring rocky shores, cliffs and islets for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but generally avoiding deep water and rarely extending far offshore<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It also inhabits fresh, brackish or saline inland wetlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> including lakes, reservoirs, wide rivers, flood waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, deep marshes with open water, swamps and oxbow lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, requiring trees, bushes, reedbeds or bare ground for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and avoiding overgrown, small, very shallow or very deep waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, molluscs and nestling birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. At sea the species preys mostly on bottom-dwelling fish from bare or vegetated seabeds, occasionally also taking shoaling fish in deeper waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest varies from a depression<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to a platform of sticks, reeds and seaweed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the coast the species nests on inshore islands, cliffs, stacks, amongst boulders and occasionally on artificial structures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, also nesting inland on trees or bushes, in reedbeds or on bare ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in mixed-species colonies, often re-using sites and nests from year to year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> It may be possible to alleviate conflicts between this species and fisheries by using such strategies as preventing birds from landing on fish ponds through disturbance, or creating unsuitable feeding conditions<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144638	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is often persecuted by the aquaculture industry and may be shot, drowned or poisoned in attempts to control numbers<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It may also suffer from disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and Newcastle disease<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these viruses<strong><sup>6, 11</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for recreation and is sold at commercial food markets in Iran<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144640	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The species is legally protected in most range states<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but not in UAE<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Research on the species has increased during the last 10 years, and specific conservation measures have been proposed and acted upon, including the protection of some breeding sites.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue basic research into its ecology across its range<strong><sup>2,7,9</sup></strong>. Continue monitoring throughout its range<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Protect important breeding colonies<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Adopt breeding islands as priority sites in existing oil-spill contingency plans<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Continue public awareness campaigns<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. Investigate restoration of certain former colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144640	distribution		There are two subpopulations of <em>Phalacrocorax nigrogularis</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The northern one breeds on islands off the Persian Gulf coasts of <strong>Bahrain</strong>, <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong> (UAE), <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong> and possibly <strong>Iran</strong> (breeding not confirmed since 1972)<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>. The southern subpopulation is apparently much smaller and breeds on one or more islands off the Arabian Sea coast of <strong>Oman</strong> and in the Gulf of Aden off <strong>Yemen</strong> (c.60,000 birds in total)<strong><sup>2,3,7,8</sup></strong>. Breeding was confirmed at Socotra for the first time in March 2005, when a colony of c.500 birds was found on the islet of Saboniya<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There is no evidence of birds moving between the two subpopulations, although this could be taking place<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The overall population is estimated at 110,000 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (330,000<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> to <500,000<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> individuals). The species has a very small area of occupancy within its limited breeding range. Only 13 colonies are known to be active at the present time<strong><sup>2,7,10</sup></strong>, equivalent to nine locations. The three largest colonies contain at least 75% of the world population<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>, with that on the island of Suwad al Janubiyah (hereafter Suwad) in the Hawar archipelago being the largest<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In the northern population, c.12 colonies have become extinct<strong><sup>2,7,10</sup></strong> since the 1960s, representing a potential decline of up to c.80,000 pairs (c.26% of the subpopulation). In Saudi Arabia, the number of breeding pairs declined by more than 75% during 1980-1992<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144640	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is highly gregarious, occurring throughout the year in large aggregations<strong><sup>13,14,18</sup></strong>. Some seasonal movements are thought to occur, probably related to fish migrations<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, where the species travels in large flocks<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> within the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. However it is difficult to separate seasonal movements from dispersal<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and there is little conclusive information available regarding patterns of movement<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is vagrant as far east as West India, and west to the African coast of the Red Sea<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The breeding season is variable with laying recorded in most months, but each colony is internally synchronised<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Breeding has been reported to occur on the Kuria Maria islands from June to October<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, on Halne Island in the Persian Gulf from January to March<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, and on the islands off Saudi Arabia in April, May, September, October and November<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It is suspected that breeding occurs irregularly to in response to locally varying food availability<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species is exclusively marine and occurs within the range of productive upwellings<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on offshore islands and islets that have shores of level sand or gravel<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <em>Nonbreeding </em>Outside the breeding season it roosts on coastal cliffs and rocky islets<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Diet consists principally of small pelagic shoaling fish for which it dives from the surface<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Information concerning prey species is scarce<strong><sup>13, 14</sup></strong> although sardines (<em>sardinella sp.</em>), scads (<em>Selar crumenophthalmus </em>and<em> Atule mate</em>), Silverside <em>Atherinomorphus lacunosus</em>, Spotted Half-beak <em>Hemiramphus far</em> and Streaked Rabbit-fish <em>Siganus javus</em> are probably among the species taken<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Foraging occurs offshore in large groups<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and is thought to be communal rather than cooperative<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site</strong> Breeding occurs on shores of level sand or gravel, or gently sloping hills free from vegetation<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, since unimpeded access by foot is essential<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests consist of depressions in the substrate, or in small mounds of substrate, and occur in high density<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> in colonies that range in size from 50 to tens of thousands of pairs<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>.	eng
144640	population		The breeding population is estimated at 110,000 pairs (Jennings 2000).	eng
144641	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Following past declines caused by guano mining, guano platforms have been constructed to increase the extent of suitable breeding grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Strict measures were put in place on Dyer Island in 2004, to control an outbreak of avian cholera<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A selective cull of Cape Fur Seals was instigated in 1993, with immediate but short-term effect on seabird mortality rates<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct simultaneous surveys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Monitor population trends through regular surveys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Monitor trends in the stocks of prey species. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil-spills. Develop emergency plans for the control of disease.	eng
144641	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax capensis</em> is endemic to southern Africa, and breeds at 69 localities between Die Oase, <strong>Namibia</strong>, and Stag Island in eastern Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, although less than 2% of the population breeds east of Cape Agulhas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population numbered 247,000 pairs during 1977-1981 and 72,000 pairs in 1996, with 37% in South Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population experiences fluctuations owing to variations in oceangraphic conditions and consequently food supply<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144641	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is mainly sedentary but shows extensive post-breeding dispersal to the north and east of its breeding range, with birds reaching the mouth of the river Congo and southern Mozambique<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> and individuals moving up to 1430km<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is thought that the birds follow the movements of schooling fish<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It is a highly gregarious species which breeds in vast colonies of up to 120,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Egg-laying occurs throughout much of the year, with a peak usually in September and October<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, continuing to February in Namibia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However the level of breeding activity is highly dependent on food supply: breeding will fluctuate depending on prey availability<strong><sup>8,12</sup></strong> and will even cease if prey becomes scarce<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It usually forages in large aggregations, often co-operatively and in association with other seabirds<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, although solitary foraging is also known to occur<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Birds may fly up to 40km to a feeding location<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.Habitat This species is usually found in the Benguela current less than 10 km from the coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it does occasionally range as far as 70km offshore. During both the breeding and the non-breeding seasons it inhabits cliffs and ledges on the mainland and on offshore islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is occasionally found in the brackish waters of coastal lagoons, estuaries and harbours<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but does not use these habitats for breeding. It occurs in highest densities in areas of suitable habitat near the recruitment grounds for pilchards (Clupeidae) and anchovies (Engraulidae<em>.</em>)<strong><sup> 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists almost entirely of pelagic schooling fish, although it will occasionally take some invertebrates including crustaceans, molluscs and cephalopods<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. South African Pilchards <em>Sardinops ocellata</em> and Cape Anchovies <em>Engraulis japonicus capensis</em> are often reported to be by far the most significant prey species throughout its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but preferences appear to be subject to seasonal variation depending on the relative abundance of different fish species<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Sandeels <em>Ammodytes spp.</em>, Pelagic Gobies <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em> and Maasbanker <em>Trachurus trachurus</em> may comprise the major food source under some circumstances<strong><sup>2,4,5,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding Site</strong> Breeding occurs mainly on cliffs and ledges, and flat inland areas of offshore islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Caves, estuarine sand islands, guano platforms and other artificial structures are also used as breeding sites<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Nests are constructed from seaweed, sticks and stems, and occur in high density (roughly 3 nests per square metre) within large colonies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Normally two or three eggs are laid, although the clutch-size ranges from one to five. The incubation period is 22-28 days, and the chicks fledge after about nine weeks. Post-fledging care is provided for several weeks. The oldest ringed bird was at least nine years old<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144641	population		The population was estimated at 72,000 pairs in 1996 (Barnes 2000), equating to c.144,000 mature individuals (Barnes 2000).	eng
144642	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Several breeding colonies lie within managed guano reserves or in Marine Protected Areas. Closure of the Anvchovy fishery has reduced impact of declining food sources. Education and awareness on the importance of the conservation of this species has helped raise its local profile.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Development of a standardised methodology to estimate the population size throughout the breeding range. Evaluate the human consumption of the species in Peru and Chile. Protect important colonies and regulate, or if neccesary halt, exploitation.	eng
144642	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax bougainvillii</em> is found along the Pacific coast of <strong>Peru</strong> and northern <strong>Chile</strong>. A small population also bred on a short stretch of the Patagonian Atlantic coast of <strong>Argentina</strong>, but this appears to be ecologically extinct<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. From historical times the Guanay Cormorant has been the dominant avian species in the Peruvian Coastal Current in terms of numbers and consumption of marine resources. The population in Peru was estimated as <4 million birds during the period 1909-1920; 21 million were estimated in 1954 and 3.7 million were estimated on the north-central Peruvian coast in 1996<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Mass dispersal, breeding failures and temporary declines have resulted periodically from El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, and both fish-stocks and the populations of seabirds that depend on them are adapted to these fluctuations. Although the species is now protected in Peru, fishing for anchoveta is banned, and the guano industry is adequately regulated, there are concerns that this species has been badly affected by the ENSO event of 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and that declines now approach 30% over three generations (33 years in this species).	eng
144642	habitat		Breeding occurs year round with an egg-laying peak in November-December (on the northern coast of Per&uacute;,breeding starts in June). It breeds on offshore islands and remote coastal headlands and feeds exclusively in the inshore environment usually within 3 km of colonies<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Unlike other cormorants it is not primarily a benthic feeder but preys mainly on the schooling Peruvian anchovy <em>Engraulis ringens, </em>Peruvian silverside <em>Odonthestes regia </em>and mote sculpin <em>Normanichythes crockeri </em>found in the cold water of the Humboldt Current<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>	eng
144642	population		Zavalaga and Paredes (1999) estimated the population at 3.7 million individuals, hence the population is best placed in the band 2,500,000-4,999,999 individuals.	eng
144644	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Campbell Island group is a nature reserve and, in 1998, was declared part of a World Heritage Site. Cattle, sheep and rats have been eradicated in the last 20 years<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Census the entire breeding population in the next five years and compare to the 1975 census. Turn World Heritage Site territorial sea (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing<sup>5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144644	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phalacrocorax campbelli</em> is endemic to Campbell Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and adjacent offshore islands and stacks. In 1975, the population was estimated at c.2,000 pairs and 8,000 birds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, the breeding season may be quite extended and not synchronous, and therefore the census may have underestimated numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, so the number of individuals may be a more reasonable reflection of the breeding population. Birds usually forage in seas within 10 km of the main island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144644	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in inaccessible colonies of up to 150 nests on exposed rocky ledges or in sea caves. The oldest bird known lived for over 13 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144644	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Marchant and Higgins (1990); Heather and Robertson (1997). <br/></p>	eng
144644	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, cattle and sheep may have restricted possible expansion of some colonies. Feral cats are believed to have little impact on the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and recent observations and surveys suggest they may have died out on Campbell Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> has recently been eradicated from the island but was thought to have little or no effect on breeding success<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. The native Brown Skua <em>Catharacta lonnbergi</em> is a predator of eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144645	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All permanent colonies are wildlife sanctuaries, and are sign-posted. Charter boats have to remain 50-100 m from colonies, but it is thought that this may not be sufficient to avoid considerable disturbance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> briefly colonised Duffers Reef and was eradicated by 1983<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census all breeding colonies every five years using established methodology</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Obtain information on the extent of disturbance from vessels</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Develop techniques for establishing colonies at new sites. Establish a code of practise for commercial charter boat operators and fishers to minimise disturbance to the colonies. Obtain protection for all breeding grounds</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Prevent marine farming close to colonies and feeding areas</strong><sup>9</sup>. <strong>Start an advocacy programme to encourage fishers to adopt set-net practises which minimise bycatch</strong><sup>8</sup>.	eng
144645	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax carunculatus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, 92% of the population breeds on White Rocks, Sentinel Rock, Duffers Reef and Trio Islands, in the Marlborough Sounds, with two smaller colonies off D'Urville Island<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. Birds formerly bred at D'Urville Peninsula and Te Kuru Kuru Island<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Surveys between 1992 and 2002 indicate a population of c.645 birds, including 102-126 breeding pairs<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. Numbers are believed to have remained stable over the last 50 years (historical counts are lower, probably because they were conducted at different times of day)<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The maximum feeding distance from the Duffers Reef colony is 24 km<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
144645	habitat		It breeds on small islets and rock stacks, with nests spaced c.1 m apart<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The main dietary item of at least part of the population - witch <em>Arnoglossus scapha</em>, a left-eyed flatfish - is not a species targeted by commercial and recreational fishers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144645	population		The population between 1992 and 2002 has been estimated at c.645 birds, including 102-126 breeding pairs (Schuckard 1998; Schuckard 2002), hence a population of 250-999 mature individuals is assigned here.	eng
144646	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Although only one national census has been completed, many counts have been made at individual colonies, mostly since the 1950s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey distribution to locate and census all breeding colonies. Monitor at least one colony in Otago and Foveaux Strait yearly, and census entire breeding population every 10 years. Develop techniques to establish new colonies. Fence colonies at mainland sites to exclude predators and stock. Develop an advocacy programme to discourage shooting and encourage safe use of set-nets to minimise bycatch, enforcing restrictions if necessary, near Stewart Island colonies</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Prevent marine farming near breeding colonies and feeding areas</strong><sup>7</sup>. <strong>Obtain legal protection for all colonies</strong><sup>4</sup>.	eng
144646	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax chalconotus</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, breeding on the South Island from the coast of North Otago south to Foveaux Strait, and on Stewart Island. In total, it breeds at c.9 localities<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in colonies of 10-500 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Individual island population estimates from the 1950s-1970s indicate a total of c.3,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The only national census dates from 1981, and estimated the population at 1,800-2,000 breeding pairs, 900-1,000 in both Otago and Southland. The Otago population doubled to 1,850 pairs in 1987-1988, and the breeding range also expanded, but numbers then decreased to 1,500 pairs in 1992-1993<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Total numbers may be as high as 5,000-8,000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1914, the population on Kane-te-toe Island was estimated at 400-500 nests but, by 1975, the colony had been deserted<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population on Centre Island declined from 600 to 25 nests between 1955 and 1991<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Colonies on Jacky Lee and Codfish Islands have also been deserted<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It disperses over shallow inshore waters within 15 km of land<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144646	habitat		It breeds on rocky headlands and islands, building a platform nest of twigs, seaweed and guano, 0.5 m in diameter and 1-1.5 m high<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It appears to eventually destroy the surrounding vegetation, probably contributing to the abandonment of colonies until sufficient regeneration has occurred<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds on fish and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144646	population		Population estimates have varied, although the population may be as high as 5,000-8,000 individuals (C. Lalas <em>in litt.</em> 1994).	eng
144647	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The first census of this species was completed in 1997<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with a follow-up census carried out in 2003-2004 under the Chatham Islands Shag and Pitt Island Shag recovery plan (published 2001)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. As yet no conservation action has been specifically directed towards the species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census entire adult population every five years. Monitor a Chatham Island colony yearly to determine trends. Fence colonies from stock and pigs on main Chatham Island if agreement is reached with local owners. Educate dog owners about the possible impact of dogs on breeding grounds. Obtain legal protection for all colonies</strong><sup>6</sup>. Conduct research into the species' population dynamics, breeding biology, movements, foraging, and diet<sup>9</sup>. <strong>Develop a method to prevent bycatch due to crayfish pots.	eng
144647	distribution		This species is restricted to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Three islands support breeding: Chatham, Star Keys and Rabbit<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with a further population on North East Reef<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1997, a census found a total of 842 pairs at 10 sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with the largest colony on Star Keys which, in 1980, had 358 nests containing eggs or chicks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, surveys in 2003-2004 estimated the breeding population to be 271 pairs, distributed at 13 colonies, with the largest colony on Star Keys holding 81 pairs<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. This represents a 67.8% decrease in total breeding pairs since 1997, but a poor breeding season or variability in the timing of breeding within and between seasons may have contributed to this apparent decrease, and further surveys are needed to confirm population trends<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Although colonies are spread over three islands, the species's breeding range totals less than 1 ha<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Feeding range is assumed to be 24 km (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).	eng
144647	habitat		It nests in colonies, usually high on exposed rocks on top of headlands or small islands, or on cliff-ledges<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on small fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144647	population		In 2003 only 270 pairs were counted (R. Hitchmough <em>in litt.</em> 2005).	eng
144648	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1995, feral goats were eradicated from Auckland Island and, in 1993, feral cattle and rabbits were removed from Enderby and Rose<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1998, the Auckland Islands group (already a nature reserve) was declared part of a World Heritage Site. In 2003 the area was designated as a Marine Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census entire adult population once a suitable methodology has been developed. On Auckland Island, survey coastline to locate all nesting sites. On Enderby, monitor breeding population every 10 years. On Auckland Island, eradicate feral cats and pigs<sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144648	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax colensoi</em> is restricted to the Auckland Islands and adjacent waters, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Colonies are present on Auckland, Enderby, Rose, Ewing and Adams Islands. The total breeding population has been estimated at less than 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1988 and 1989 indicated 475 nests in 11 colonies on Enderby, one colony of 62 nests on Rose, and 306 nests on Ewing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Feeding range is assumed to be 24 km (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).	eng
144648	habitat		It nests on the ground on ledges and the tops of steep cliffs. Sites are abandoned when sheltering plants are killed by guano, and waves sometimes destroy nests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on small fish and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144648	population		Although the population was thought to be less than 1,000 individuals (Robertson and Bell 1984), surveys in 1988 and 1989 indicated 475 nests in 11 colonies on Enderby, one colony of 62 nests on Rose, and 306 nests on Ewing (Taylor 2000). Based on these data, a population of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals is estimated, although a more up-to-date population estimate is needed.	eng
144649	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Bounty Islands are nature reserves and are free of introduced predators. In 1998, they were declared part of a World Heritage Site.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete full census of all colonies every 10 years, including a census of nest-sites and breeding pairs<sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Turn World Heritage Site territorial sea (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing<sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
144649	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax ranfurlyi</em> is restricted to the Bounty Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1978, 569 pairs were observed over 11 islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1997, a repeat census was attempted, but proved very difficult because it was not possible to land on the islands. However, colonies were noted on 13 islands, and 120 nests and 368 birds were counted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The islands were surveyed again from land in 2005 when 618 individuals were counted<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Although it is not known whether differences in the estimates are due to differing methods of survey, differences in peak breeding times between years or a true change in numbers comparison with other species surveyed at the same time suggest they show genuine trends<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. The population is likely to fluctuate markedly as a result of weather conditions affecting feeding<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Feeding range is assumed to be 24 km (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).	eng
144649	habitat		It breeds mostly on narrow cliff-side ledges, with nests often as little as 1 m apart<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. It feeds on fish, snails, squid, isopods and crabs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144649	population		R. Hitchmough <em>in litt. </em>(2005).	eng
144652	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although immatures may undergo post-breeding dispersive movements over short-distances<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that can hold more than a thousand well-spaced pairs<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. It often forages alone when away from nesting colonies and in winter<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, but may follow dense shoals of fish in flocks of several hundred individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It occupies marine habitats but does not usually occur far from land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a strong preference for rocky coasts and islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with adjacent deep, clear water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and forages over sandy and rocky seabeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for sheltered fishing grounds such as bays and channels, although it generally avoids estuaries, shallow or muddy inlets and fresh or brackish waters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists almost exclusively of fish such as Gadidae, Clupeidae, Cottidae, Labridae, <em>Ammodytes</em> spp. and <em>Trisopterus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it also takes small numbers of polychaetes, cephalopods, other molluscs and small benthic crustaceans<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of marine vegetation and flotsam<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> just above the high water level to over 100 m high<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> on ledges, in crevices or in caves on sea cliffs, rocks and stacks, and at the base of sea cliffs amongst boulders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144652	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is persecuted (e.g. shot, intentionally drowned or poisoned) at commercial fisheries and fish farms as it is perceived to be a threat to fish stocks<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. It also suffers predation at nesting colonies by introduced American mink <em>Neovison vison</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, is vulnerable to coastal oil pollution<strong><sup>5, 8</sup></strong>, locally suffers from accidental entanglement and subsequent drowning in gill-nets (fishing nets)<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to the Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Eggs, chicks and adults are taken from colonies for food<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144653	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Chile is discussing the creation of a network of Marine Protected Areas along its coastline. Peru and Argentina are improving their coastal marine protected Areas network.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Support the proposal to establish a network of Marine Protected Areas in coastal Chile. Assess the impact of the proposed industrial harbour in Argentina and recommend appropriate action. Monitor populations to identify changing trends. Research ways to minimise fisheries interactions. Identify and monitor key sites for the species, and aim to establish these as MPAs. Determine levels of hunting and bycatch in various parts of its range.	eng
144653	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax gaimardi</em> occurs on the coasts of southern South America: 13,000-15,000 breeding birds in the Pacific from Isla Foca, <strong>Peru</strong>, to Punta Elefante, Peninsula de Taitao, <strong>Chile</strong>; and 1,600-1,800 birds in the Atlantic from Bahia Sanguinetto to the Monte Le&oacute;n National Park, Santa Cruz province and occasionally to the strait of Magellan, <strong>Argentina</strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup>. Populations have declined, particularly in Peru<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A series of surveys in Peru  in 1999-2000 estimated the population to number 1,518-2,082 birds, and reported declines of up to 97.9% (3,229 to 69 birds) at ten localities in northern and central Peru between 1968 and 1999-2000, declines of 97.6% (2,230 to 54 birds) in the Chinchas and Ballestas islands between 1978 and 1999-2000, and declines of 72.6% (580 to 159 birds) at eight southern localities between the first half of the 1990s and 1999-2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Chile, surveys during 1998-2000 produced an estimate of 5,018-5,218 breeding pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events may have led to distributional changes (with southern regions having become particularly important for the species), the population declines reported in Peru do not seem to have been mirrored in Chile<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The main colonies in Argentina are concentrated along the coast of Santa Cruz (Puerto Deseado and Santa Cruz <strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>), where coastal development is increasing rapidly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the last 10 years the Argentinean breeding population has declined by 18% but the causes are unknown<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>The world population is now estimated at 30,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Continued population declines may lead to this species being uplisted to Vulnerable.	eng
144653	habitat		It favours rocky coastline with cliffs for nesting and shallow cold productive offshore waters for feeding. It nests in inaccessible areas rather than the tops of rocky islets. Sometimes nests in loose aggregations approaching colonies. Generally solitary when feeding but may occur in flocks. Red-legged Cormorants are inshore feeders (less than 3 km from the colony) and forage in shallow waters (<15 m) on benthic fish and invertebrates<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>	eng
144653	population		The world population has been estimated at 30,000 individuals (E. Frere<em> in litt. </em>2007).	eng
144655	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1961, sheep and cattle were removed from South East Island and, in 1968, sheep were taken off Mangere Island<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census entire adult population once a suitable methodology has been developed, and at 10-year intervals thereafter. Monitor two accessible colonies annually to determine trends</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Assess impact of rock lobster fishing practices</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Remove feral cats and <em>G. australis</em> from Pitt Island if agreement is reached with residents. Remove sheep, cattle and pigs from parts of Pitt and Chatham Islands that are suitable for colonies. Fence colonies (with owners' permission) if stock are found to be impacting on colonies</strong><sup>5</sup>.	eng
144655	distribution		<em>Phalacrocorax featherstoni</em> is found in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, on Chatham, Pitt, Mangere, Little Mangere, South East (= Rangatira), Star Keys, the Pyramid, Big and Middle Sister, Murumurus, the Castle and Rabbit Islands<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. The population has been variously estimated at c.500 pairs, less than 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and, in 1997-98, at 729 pairs following a complete census over the entire breeding range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, new information suggests that the population has declined by 25% over six years from 1997 to 2003, with 547 pairs counted in the second complete census over the 2003-2004 breeding season<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Feeding range is assumed to be 24 km (cf. New Zealand King Shag <em>P. carunculatus</em>).	eng
144655	habitat		It nests in small colonies of between five and 20 pairs, on rocky shores and islets, headlands and cliffs. Breeding distribution is limited by suitable nesting sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on small fish, supplemented by marine invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144655	population		A total of 547 pairs (=1,094 mature individuals; 1,400 estimated total individuals) were counted in the second complete census over the 2003-2004 breeding season (Bester and Charteris 2005).	eng
144657	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Nineteen of the 39 breeding sites identified on the Pacific coast of Mexico occur in protected areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Ongoing studies are underway on the Caribbean coast of Mexico and the southern USA. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Clarify its population status in Cuba, Belize and other parts of the Caribbean. Monitor populations to determine trends. Identify threats to the species. Implement predator control at key colonies. <br/></p>	eng
144657	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Egretta rufescens</em> occurs in Baha California and disperses south along the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>, but the majority are found in the Caribbean along the southern coast of the USA, through the Caribbean islands and down the Central American coast to northern <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Venezuela</strong>. Surveys in western Mexico identified 39 breeding sites including eighteen nesting sites in Baja California Sur, eight in Sinaloa, six in Baja California, five in Sonora, and only two in Chiapas. The largest Mexican colony supports 258 breeding pairs while the average colony size was 35 pairs. The population estimate for the west coast of Mexico was between 954 and 1,260 breeding pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Numbers have not been collated for the entire Caribbean, but the following figures have been compiled: 1,000 pairs at Green Island, Texas, 200 - 300 pairs elsewhere in Texas, <200 pairs at Tamaulipas, Mexico (Laguna Madre), 50 pairs at Inagua, <strong>Bahamas</strong> and 50 pairs elsewhere in the Bahamas, and up to 200 pairs in Florida<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Accurate data are not available for other sites in the Caribbean, but latest information suggests it is a common resident (and migrant) throughout coastal <strong>Cuba</strong> and on many cays - 23 are listed with one, Cayo Fragoso noted as a breeding colony<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> it is considered a locally common breeding resident, and appears to be more common today than in the 1930's<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; in Puerto Rico it is reportedly very rare<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; 180 individuals were recorded at one site on the Yucatan in March 2006 demonstrating either that there are a lot more birds than previously thought to occur in the region or that it was a previously poorly recorded migrant<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; and finally data from BirdLife International's World Biodiversity Database of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) suggests that there may also be important numbers in <strong>Belize</strong> with up to c.5,000 resident individuals estimated from three IBAs in the country. This suggests a total of c.10,500-11,300 mature individuals with an unknown additional number in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Population trends are not well understood; certainly the species seems to be increasing in parts of its range where it is well protected and has safe nesting sites, but declines are reported at the majority of sites. <br/> <br/> <br/>  <br/> <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
144657	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species frequents shallow coastal waters, salt-pans, open marine flats and shorelines; it is rarely recorded away from the coast. It breeds on islands and in mangroves. It feeds mainly on small fish, frogs, tadpoles and crustaceans, using a variety of feeding techniques. It will breed in almost all months of the year, with seasonal peaks that vary in timings across the range. Most breeding takes place along northern coastlines within its range, with non-breeding birds dispersing to the south in the Caribbean and along the Pacific coast. <br/></p>	eng
144657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimates throughout its range are: 954 and 1,260 breeding pairs on the Pacific coast, 1,000 pairs at Green Island, Texas, 200 - 300 pairs elsewhere in Texas, <200 pairs at Tamaulipas, Mexico (Laguna Madre), 50 pairs at Inagua, Bahamas and 50 pairs elsewhere in the Bahamas, and up to 200 pairs in Florida, up to c.5,000 resident individuals in Belize. This suggests a total of c.10,500-11,300 mature individuals with an unknown additional number in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.  <br/><p></p>	eng
144657	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Populations were heavily exploited for food in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, fluctuations occur at some colonies, apparently relating to predators which can cause rapid declines; recoveries have been observed following predator control. Threats to the species are not well understood, but it is likely to have declined in parts of its range owing to commercial development of the coastline. <br/></p>	eng
144658	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix&#160;II. The main populations in Zambia and Botswana occur within protected areas<strong><sup>1,2,6,11</sup></strong>, although these latter do not necessarily protect against catchment-wide threats to wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further baseline surveys and ecological studies to clarify the factors affecting its range, population and breeding performance<sup>2,6,7,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a coordinated conservation action plan<sup>7. Assign permanent protection to more of the Okavango Delta, especially the northern Panhandle11. Enforce legislation and raise public awareness to curb illegal burning of water-margin vegetation and reed-cutting6. <br/></p>	eng
144658	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Egretta vinaceigula</em> occurs in <strong>Zambia</strong> (perhaps 500-1,000 birds, notably at Liuwa Plain, Kafue Flats and Bangweulu in some years, although breeding not recorded<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>), northern <strong>Botswana</strong> (mostly around the Okavango Delta and Chobe river, where breeding recorded), northern <strong>Namibia</strong> (especially along the Chobe floodplain and Caprivi Strip) and <strong>Mozambique</strong> (Zambezi Delta), wandering more widely when not breeding<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and occurring more sparsely in <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, occasionally <strong>South Africa</strong> and, possibly, Angola. The species is nearly always encountered in small numbers, e.g. never more than c.100 together in Zambia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, suggesting that the world population is more in the order of 3,000-5,000 individuals than a 1985 estimate of 5,000-10,000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144658	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits marshes and floodplains, apparently preferring extensive shallow floodplains, normally in areas with ample vegetation cover<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. It shows some movements in response to rains, and will breed at temporary wetlands. It feeds mainly on young fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding appears to be irregular, coinciding with high flood-levels<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is 2-3<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144658	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A population estimate of 3,000-5,000 individuals follows new surveys and replaces Collar and Stuart's (1985) estimate of 5,000-10,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144658	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The wetlands inhabited by this species face many threats, including: flood regulation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, water abstraction, land-claim for agriculture<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, reed-cutting, fire<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, rice production and tourism development. Breeding success is erratic, and can be significantly affected by human interference, poor floods and predation of nests and adults<strong><sup>8,9,10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144659	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The movements of this species are little known<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, although it is thought to be sedentary, sometimes making local movements in response to seasonal rainfall and the appearance of temporary shallow-water feeding areas<strong><sup>1, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>. The species breeds at the start of the rainy season and in periods of flooding when shallow feeding sites develop<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. It typically breeds in densities of 5 to 50 or up to 100 nests scattered throughout a single- or mixed-species colony. Exceptionally larger breeding colonies are observed, for example 1,500 nests were recorded at Chagana, Tanzania, and huge monospecific colonies used to form in Madagascar (over 10,000 birds where recorded at Antananarivo in 1949/50) although this no longer seems to occur<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When feeding the species may remain solitary and defend territories, or it may form feeding flocks of 5-50 individuals or more<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> (a flock of 250 was recorded at Benamba Lake, Madagascar)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds diurnally<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, particularly at dusk<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and roosts communally in trees or reedbeds in both monospecific and mixed-species groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species mainly inhabits lowlands, but occurs up to 1,500 m in the High Plateau Region of Madagascar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for shallow, perennial<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> freshwater habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as shallow lakesides<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, dams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, ponds, flood-plains, rice-paddies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, seasonally flooded grasslands and the edges of rivers<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. It can also found on alkaline lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in estuarine waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> including mangroves, tidal mudflats<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and tidal creeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although when in such habitats it remains near freshwater inlets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists predominantly of fish, but crustaceans and aquatic insects are also taken<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a solid platform constructed of sticks and twigs, usually between 1 and 6 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> high in trees, bushes or reedbeds, and always near or over water<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144659	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The greatest threats to this species in Africa are human disturbance and avian predation at nest sites, as well as threats to the aquatic habitats on which the species depends<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is highly threatened in Madagascar due to human interference at breeding sites<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144664	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> There is little known about the movements of this species<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, although it apparently disperses widely<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> and may be partially migratory<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. It breeds between April and July or in October<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in solitary pairs, or more usually in small colonies of around 12 pairs (sometimes up to 100)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species is a solitary feeder, although it is occasionally found in small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds diurnally, but also at night depending on the tides, and roosts at night in large numbers of between 500 and 1,000, in mangroves or on rocky cliffs and islets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species shows a preference for rocky or sandy shores and reefs<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>, but will also frequent other coastal habitats such as estuaries, mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves, tidal creeks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and molluscs, but crickets, grubs and earthworms are also taken<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in solitary pairs or small colonies on the ground, or in reedbeds, bushes and mangrove trees up to 20 m high, as well as on ledges or boulders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the nest being a platform of twigs and seaweed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144664	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was  <br/>seriously persecuted and hunted for the plume trade in the past, but has since recovered<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144667	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Russia, China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, and South Korea. Some important breeding, staging and wintering sites are protected, including the Far Eastern Marine Reserve (Russia) and sites in China, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam and the Philippines.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the coast of China, North Korea and South Korea for breeding sites and monitor existing sites. Survey its wintering range for new sites. Create a network of environmentally stable sites for it in the central Philippines. Extend the boundaries of the Far Eastern Marine Reserve to include the coast between the Tumen river mouth and Pos'yet Bay (Russia). Establish as protected areas Thai Thuy in the Red River delta and Bai Boi in the Mekong delta (Vietnam). Incorporate mudflats and mangroves near Krabi within the Hat Nopparat Tara National Park (Thailand). Establish protected areas at Pulau Bruit, Sarawak (Malaysia). Prohibit egg-collecting in the breeding grounds in China and North Korea.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144667	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Egretta eulophotes</em> breeds in <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong> and mainland <strong>China</strong>. It formerly bred in <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), but is now only a non-breeding visitor or passage migrant. It is also a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, the <strong>Philippines</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular and eastern <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong>, <strong>Indonesia </strong>(Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi) and <strong>Brunei</strong>. The Eastern Visayas (Leyte, Bohol and Cebu), Philippines, appears to be the key wintering area. The population is estimated at 2,600-3,400 birds. There has been no significant decline in this species in the last ten years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
144667	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in shallow tidal estuaries, mudflats and bays, occasionally visiting paddy-fields and fishponds. Since 1985, all breeding records have been from offshore islands. </p>	eng
144667	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate from BirdLife International (2001) based on recent records and surveys <br/></p>	eng
144667	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By the end of the 19th century, it had almost been extirpated by trade in its plumes and persecution. Today, the greatest threat is habitat loss and degradation through reclamation of tidal flats and estuarine habitats for infrastructure, industry, aquaculture and agriculture, and through pollution. Fishers in Liaoning, China, collect eggs for food and breeding birds are threatened by disturbance. The rapid decline of a colony at Shin-do, South Korea, in the early 1990s, was apparently a result of disturbance by photographers. <br/></p>	eng
144670	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most Palearctic populations of this species are fully migratory, dispersing widely in September-October after the breeding season and returning to breeding grounds in February<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Further south, populations tend to be sedentary or only partially migratory. Most migratory movements occur nocturnally, with birds moving in small parties or larger flocks of 200-250<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds January-May in the Palearctic Region, and in spring and summer in temperate areas, but mainly during the rains in Africa and the tropics<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(although here it may also breed in any month of the year)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds in mixed colonies of hundreds or thousands of pairs (the largest colony in Europe is 800-1,300 pairs), although it may also nest solitarily or in small groups of 2-10 nests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is typically a solitary feeder but at abundant temporary food sources, or where available feeding areas are restricted, large congregations may occur<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>. It feeds at any time day or night, but is most active at dawn or dusk, typically roosting communally or solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> during the middle of the day and at night<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in trees and on cliffs, low rocks, islets or along shores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species is a generalist in its habitat use, although shallow water, relatively large prey, and four or five months of ice-free breeding season are among the essential characteristics of its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level up to 500 or even 1,000 m, occasionally breeding much higher<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (2,000 m in Armenia, 3,500-4,000 m in Ladakh, north-west India), inhabits any kind of shallow water, either fresh, brackish or saline, both standing or flowing, and shows a preference for areas with trees as it is commonly an arboreal rooster and nester. Some degree of isolation and protection are also typical of places chosen for roosting and nesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is found inland on broad rivers, narrow streams, lake shores, ornamental ponds, fish-ponds, marshes, flood-plains, reeds swamps, rice-fields and other irrigated areas<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong>, river oxbows, reservoirs, ditches, canals, sewage farms, inland deltas, and on islets and emerging rocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On the coast the species also frequents deltas, salt-marshes, mangroves<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, estuaries, tidal mudflats, muddy and sandy shores, and sand-spits<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish and eels 10-25 cm long, as well as amphibians, crabs, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic insects, snakes, small rodents, small birds<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong> and plant matter (although this may be incidental,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>or only to aid in pellet formation)<strong><sup>1, 2, 6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a stick platform that is often re-used over successive years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, usually positioned high in a tall tree up to 50 m, but also on the ground or on cliff edges, in reedbeds or in bushes. In reed-beds nests may be built of reeds, and ground nests may be reduced to a slight scrape, ringed with small stones and debris<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species commonly nests in colonies, and nesting sites are typically situated 2-38 km (convenient flying distance) from preferred feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/><strong> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144670	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe the species was heavily persecuted in the nineteenth century due to its consumption of fish, which resulted in competition with fishermen and fish farmers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although killing at aquaculture farms has not reduced the global population so far (possibly because it is young birds that are mostly killed)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, 800 herons are estimated to have died per year at Scottish fish-farms between 1984 and 1987<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> by being shot, drowned or poisoned by fish farmers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Renewed hunting poses a threat to Bavarian populations by decreasing numbers to levels that inhibit recovery following severe winters (severe winters increase mortality rates for juveniles)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is vulnerable in Madagascar owing to its restricted range, exceedingly high levels of habitat alteration (from siltation and the need for agricultural land for rice and grazing)<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>, hunting, and predation at nesting colonies<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. Timber harvesting is a threat throughout much of the species range by removing trees used by nesting colonies and/or disturbing nearby colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>7 </sup></strong>and avian botulism<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144674	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Although populations of this species breeding in the equatorial zone of Africa are largely sedentary other populations are partially migratory and move in relation to the timing of the dry seasons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in small mixed-species colonies of up to 200 pairs with breeding activities peaking during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is usually a solitary forager, but may occasionally congregate into loose feeding flocks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and commonly roosts in groups of tens to hundreds of individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Individuals may travel over 30 km daily between preferred feeding grounds and roosting sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits marshes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> with reed and papyrus beds<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, the margins of rivers and lakes, estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal creeks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and flats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, temporary pools<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and natural savannas or artificial grasslands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> including damp open pastures, moist grassland and cultivated land<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially Orthoptera), earthworms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, crabs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Arachnids (e.g. scorpions and spiders)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small mammals (e.g. rats, water voles, musk-shrews<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and mice<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), lizards, snakes, frogs, birds and fish<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. Insects are the most important prey item for the species during the rains, although these become less important as grasslands dry out<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a platform of sticks usually positioned high in trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. eucalyptus, baobab, acacia, fig or palm)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or in reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, papyrus beds, floating islands of papyrus or on sandstone ledges<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species nests in colonies with up to 35 pairs nesting in one tree<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In Cameroon the re-flooding of a desiccated flood-plain twinned with an increase in rainfall and colony protection resulted in a increase in the number of breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144674	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144675	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is recorded from Ankarafantsika Strict Reserve, Ankarana Special Reserve and Baly Bay National Park, but generally its habitat is poorly protected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, and this may herald improved conservation measures for wetlands. A survey in 1999 found the species in 20&#160;Important Bird Areas within the West Malagasy Endemic Bird Area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate and protect important breeding colonies. Obtain population estimates for the species<sup>3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ardea humbloti</em> breeds only in <strong>Madagascar</strong> but is recorded also on the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong> (where it possibly breeds) and <strong>Mayotte (to France)</strong>. In 1973, it was reported to have declined alarmingly and to be facing extinction unless completely protected. More recently it has been found to be fairly common (though patchily distributed) in parts of north and west Madagascar, and uncommon in the south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also seen regularly at Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Total numbers are now believed to number 1,000-3,000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144675	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species prefers coastal areas (including coral islets, mangroves, estuaries) but also frequents freshwater lakes and rivers or, more rarely, rice-paddies, fishing in shallow waters, chiefly for large fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is usually seen alone, sometimes with other herons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds mainly in mixed colonies but also solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, nesting in tree-tops or hollows in rocks. Clutch-size is three and nesting has been observed during November-April<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144675	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Survey data from 2003 and 2004 combined with past literature suggests that there are no more than 1,500 individuals (Andrianarimisa <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/></p>	eng
144675	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At the nest it is especially vulnerable to egg-collection and hunting, which are likely to reduce its numbers as the human population of western Madagascar continues to increase<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Cutting of nesting-trees can also be a significant threat, e.g. at Manambolomaty Ramsar Site where this has caused an alarming decline over the last 10 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Wetlands in Madagascar have long been in decline as the climate has become progressively drier<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and this has been compounded by the conversion of remaining wetlands to rice-paddies and by siltation due to watershed deforestation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144676	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is not migratory but may make local dispersive or nomadic movements in response to seasonal habitat changes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding usually coincides with the start of the rains although in some areas the species breed in any month of the year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or only when conditions are most favourable (i.e. not every year)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is not a gregarious species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and usually nests and forages in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Occasionally it may also nest in small single- or mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and has been known to forage in larger flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits both coastal and inland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> freshwater and saline waters<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> shallow water along the shores of lakes, rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other suitable habitats include marshes, tidal estuaries, reefs, mangrove creeks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and waterholes in woodland savanna<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species often forages away from the shore in deep water near floating vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of large fish 15-50 cm long although it will also take frogs, lizards, snakes, rodents, crabs, prawns and floating carrion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of sticks or reeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed less than 3 m high in trees over water, on partly submerged trees, low bushes, mangroves, cliffs, sedges, papyrus, reeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or on bare ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, showing a preference for nest sites that are surrounded by water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. islands or islands of vegetation in lakes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but also utilising on riverbanks and lakeshores<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144677	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It probably breeds in Namdapha Tiger Reserve (last surveyed in 2005-2006)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and it occurs seasonally in several other protected areas, including Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and Manas National Parks, and Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, India. In Myanmar a small population occurs within the Hukaung Tiger Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and Hpon Razi Wildlife Sanctuary. A project studying White-bellied Heron began in Bhutan in 2003, and is run in conjunction with the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature, the World Wildlife Fund, the Felburn Foundation and the International Crane Foundation. Recognising the importance of the riverbed in Punakha-Wangdue as a primary feeding ground for this species, the Royal Government of Bhutan has declared the area as protected habitat for White-bellied Herons.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for the species in north-east India, Myanmar and also south-east Tibet, to establish its distribution, population status and ecological requirements, particularly in breeding areas. Support proposals to provide more effective protection for Namdapha National Park, including creation of buffer zones. Support requests to maintain habitat and minimise disturbance along the Manas river and around Ada lake, Bhutan. Initiate conservation awareness programmes in areas supporting populations, particularly in Myanmar and north-east India, using it as a flagship species. Consider satellite tagging individuals to improve current understanding of the species's movements and habitat preferences<sup>2</sup>. Improve conservation of protected areas in Myanmar.</strong>	eng
144677	distribution		<em>Ardea insignis</em> is known from the eastern Himalayan foothills in <strong>Bhutan</strong> and north-east <strong>India</strong> to the hills of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, north <strong>Myanmar</strong> and, historically at least, across west and central Myanmar. It may also occur in south-east Tibet, China, but is now extinct in Nepal. Birds visit the Brahmaputra lowlands in winter. Although historical reports suggest it was previously common in Myanmar, it has evidently declined throughout its range given the paucity of recent records. Most of the few recent records come from five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India, one or two sites in Bhutan, and parts of Myanmar. In Bhutan, there is a small population of 30 known individuals (with six juveniles) as of July 2007. The birds were observed along the Phochu, confluence of Phochu-Mochu, Punatsangchhu, Kamechu (Digchu), Zawa, Ngagshina and Burichu confluence. Six active nests were recorded in Bhutan in 2007, two from a new site, and by 26 July 2007 they held six chicks in total. Due to the natural forest fire, three nests were abandoned. A further three active nests with five chicks were recorded in 2009, though only three chicks remained on a subsequent visit<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Six breeding sites from two rivers of central Bhutan have been recorded, and the eastern part of the country has not been thoroughly surveyed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Myanmar, the 21,700 km<sup>2</sup> Hukaung Valley tiger reserve (the largest area of suitable habitat within the species's range) is believed to support approximately 30-40 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and Hpon Razi Wildlife Sanctuary and Hkakabo Razi National Park hold small populations. White-bellied Heron has been recorded along rivers elsewhere in Kachin State, such as the Nam Sam Chaung, although little is known about its status in these areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite an increase in survey effort within the species's range in Myanmar there has been no corresponding increase in the number of records and the species was apparently absent from large areas of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. One recent repeat survey failed to record the species in an area where it had been seen in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The findings of field surveys have also been supported by reports from local people which suggest that the species has declined in the region in recent years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This evidence suggests there may be fewer than 250 individuals remaining<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
144677	habitat		It is primarily recorded from small or large rivers, usually with sand or gravel bars, often within or adjacent to subtropical broadleaved forest, from the lowlands up to at least 1,500 m, and it has also been reported from an inland lake<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is generally solitary but may aggregate into small flocks and family groups during winter<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong> and tends to frequent inaccessible and undisturbed areas. The species is known to breed and roost in Chir pine forest<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>; four nests located in Bhutan in 2003-2007 were solitary and located in large Chir pines on ridges or steep slopes at 500-1,500 m, near the confluence of a small forest stream with a larger river<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nesting took place from March-early June<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Birds then moved up to 30 km to feed on sand bars in large braided river systems in winter<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144677	population		Though a complete population census is yet to be conducted, the current population size is though to be best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals (D. Wilson and J. Eames <em>in litt.</em> 2006).	eng
144679	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Populations breeding in the western Palearctic are migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travel on a broad front between breeding and wintering grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. African and tropical-Asian populations are largely sedentary however, occasionally making local dispersive movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April to June in the western Palearctic, during the rains in Africa, and from June to October in the north of India or November to March in the south of India<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a colonial breeder<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong> and although nesting group sizes are usually small (e.g. 2-3 pairs per colony in Africa) and rarely exceed 50 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, colonies of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded in some areas<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. It often also nests on the periphery of colonies of other heron species such as Grey Heron <em>Ardea cinerea</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In migratory populations the autumn migration occurs from August to October<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with the return passage in the spring beginning in March<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On migration the species commonly occurs in small groups (the maximum recorded migratory groups sizes being 300-400 individuals)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and throughout the year it will roost communally by day and by night<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in groups of up to 100 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> although it generally feeds solitarily<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. The species is mainly crepuscular, but may also feed diurnally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits wetlands from sea level to 1,800 m (Madagascar)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for dense, flooded, freshwater reedbeds (<em>Phragmites</em> spp.) in temperate areas (occupying <em>Typha</em>, <em>Scirpus </em>and <em>Papyrus</em> swamps elsewhere)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It also utilises lake shores, river margins<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, ditches, canals, brackish water lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, rice-fields, mangroves and coastal mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists of fish 5-15 cm long<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (occasionally up to 55 cm), salamanders<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, frogs, insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. beetles, dragonflies, hemiptera<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and locusts<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, spiders<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and molluscs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> as well as small birds and mammals, snakes and lizards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of reeds stems or sticks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> positioned over or beside water up to 3 m high in flooded reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, 3-4 m high in thickets or mangroves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or up to 25 m high in trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in loose single- or mixed-species colonies with Grey Heron <em>Ardea cinerea</em>, and although colony sizes are usually small, large groups of up to 1,000 pairs have been recorded<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (the colony size depends on the size of the area of marshland)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Studies in southern France have shown that the overall conservation of this species in Europe is favoured by maintaining large uncut reedbeds with relatively high spring water levels<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144679	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to this species in Europe is the loss of reedbeds though direct elimination (to reduce sedimentation)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, agricultural encroachment<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, water management practices<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. drainage)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and reed cane harvesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144681	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations breeding in the tropics are sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or partially migratory (in relation to rainfall)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, whereas Palearctic and Nearctic populations are migratory<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. The timing of the breeding season varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although temperate breeders tend to nest in the spring and summer (e.g. April to July) and tropical breeders nest in the part of the rain cycle when food becomes maximally available (this may be during the rains or in the dry season)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species typically breeds in colonies of tens, hundreds or even a thousand pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sometimes with other species (e.g. 450 pairs in a mixed colony of over 3,000 nests in Australia)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some populations also show a tendency to breed solitarily or in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species may feed solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in small loose groups<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> (e.g. of 12-50 individuals)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although flocks of hundreds or more individuals may form where food is abundant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a diurnal feeder<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but is most active at dawn and dusk (although in coastal environments it feeding habits are determined by tidal stages)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and roosts at night in trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> alongside lakes or rivers or in mangroves, often with other species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits all kinds of inland and coastal wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although it is mainly found along the coast in the winter (e.g. in the Palearctic Region)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> or during droughts (e.g. in Australia)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It frequents river margins, lakes shores, marshes, flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, oxbows, streams<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, damp meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, rice-fields, drainage ditches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquaculture ponds, reservoirs<strong><sup>2, 9</sup></strong> and sewage works<strong><sup>5, 9</sup></strong> inland, and the shallows of salt-lakes<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, saltpans, mudflats, coastal swamps, mangroves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, seagrass flats, offshore coral reefs, lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and estuaries when in coastal locations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> In aquatic habitats its diet consists of fish, amphibians, snakes, aquatic insects and crustaceans although in drier habitats terrestrial insects, lizards, small birds and mammals are more commonly taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed from sticks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and is normally positioned over water at a height of 1-15 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in reedbeds, bamboos<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, bushes, trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. willow <em>Salix</em> spp.)<strong>, </strong>mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and other plants near water or on islands in sites that are protected from ground predators<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups where nests may be less than 1 m apart or touching, although they are usually placed more spread out in reedbeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs may also reuse nests from previous years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>Breeding site conservation should include colony protection, control of disturbance and vegetation management, and the conservation of feeding areas should include the management of hydrology, salt intrusion, contaminants and disturbance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimate includes totals for 'Ardea modesta'.	eng
144681	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss<strong><sup>1, 9</sup></strong> for example through drainage, grazing, clearing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Breeding colonies in Madagascar may be declining due to egg and chick gathering from colonies by local peoples<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong> and the species previously suffered from intense persecution for the plume trade (this is no longer a threat)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144682	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> North-Asian populations of this species are fully migratory, leaving Japan in September-October to winter in the Philippines and Borneo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and returning to breeding colonies in April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The majority is predominantly sedentary however, with some populations making limited nomadic or partially migratory movements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in response to changing water levels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding season varies regionally<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but is usually centered around the wet season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with birds breeding in mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of between 7, 20<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and hundreds of pairs (sometimes up to thousands)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species is diurnal<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and usually feeds singly, but old records suggest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> that it may form flocks of 15-20 individuals (sometimes up to 250)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, occasionally forming concentrations around permanent water during droughts<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During the night the species roosts communally in trees over water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> in groups of 20 or more<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits lowlands from sea-level to 1,000 m in Sumatra, and 1,450 m in Nepal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for sheltered flood-plains and seasonal wetlands with water less than 80 mm deep and emergent grasses, herbs, sedges, reeds or rushes and abundant aquatic vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (generally avoiding areas where vegetation is too thick for feeding)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Such habitats include seasonally flooded marshes, inland deltas (e.g. Okavango Basin, Botswana)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, ponds, swamp forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, freshwater swamps, pools, rivers, streams, rice-fields, the margins of freshwater, brackish and saltwater lakes<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>, wet meadows, and flooded and dry pasture near water<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It occurs less often in coastal habitats, but may roost in mangrove swamps<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>, and frequents mudflats, tidal estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal lagoons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, saltmarshes, and tidal streams and rivers<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> In aquatic habitats the diet of this species consists predominantly of fish less than 10 cm long<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> (including eels, perch <em>Macquaria</em>, gudgeon and mosquitofish <em>Gambusia</em>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as well as frogs, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish)<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> and aquatic insects (e.g. leeches, water bugs and dragonfly larvae)<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It will also take terrestrial prey in drier habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> including grasshoppers<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, mole crickets, bugs and beetles, snakes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, spiders<strong><sup>,1, 3, 4</sup></strong> lizards<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, and exceptionally birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species breeds colonially with other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but does not concentrate into dense groups; individual nests being typically situated 0.5 m away from each other<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The nest is a shallow platform of sticks and other marshland vegetation<strong><sup>2, 3, 4</sup></strong> usually positioned in trees standing in water or over reedbeds<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> (e.g. in inland swamps or mangroves)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, at heights of 3-6 m and occasionally up to 20 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species may also nest on ledges, in reedbeds or in bushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144682	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has declined markedly in Japan since the 1960s due to pollution and the disturbance of nesting colonies<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. The species is also threatened in the Northern Territory of Australia by the degradation of flood-plain habitats owing to grazing, burning, invasion by introduced plants<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (particularly <em>Mimosa pigra</em> and <em>Salvinia molesta</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), reduced water flows from drainage and water diversion for irrigation<strong><sup>5, 8</sup></strong>, levee breaking by feral buffalo<strong><sup>5, 6</sup></strong> (allowing salt intrusion and accumulation of tidal sediment<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), clearing of swamp forest, and pollution from mineral extraction<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144683	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are partially migratory, making long-distance dispersive movements related to food resources in connection with seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Other populations (e.g. in north-east Asia and North America) are fully migratory<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. The species breeds throughout the year in the tropics with different regional peaks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> depending on food availability<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially, often with other species, in groups that number from a few dozen to several thousand pairs, even up to 10,000 pairs in Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nesting effort of the species is related to rainfall patterns, leading to an annual variation in productivity<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, feeding in loose flocks of 10-20 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and often gathering in flocks of hundreds or even thousands of individuals where food is abundant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nocturnal roosting sites in Africa commonly hold a few hundred to 2,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is a diurnal feeder<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and commonly associates with native grazing mammals or domesticated livestock<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and may follow farm machinery to capture disturbed prey<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits open grassy areas such as meadows<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, livestock pastures<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, semi-arid steppe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and open savanna grassland subject to seasonal inundation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, dry arable fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, artificial grassland sites (e.g. lawns, parks, road margins and sports fields)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flood-plains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, freshwater swamps, rice-fields, wet pastures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, shallow marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and irrigated grasslands (with ponds, small impoundments, wells, canals, small rivers and streams)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It rarely occupies marine habitats or forested areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although in Australia it may enter woodlands and forests, and it shows a preference for freshwater<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> although it may also use brackish or saline habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs from sea-level up to c.1,500 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or locally up to c.4,000 m (Peru)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists primarily of insects such as locusts, grasshoppers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, beetles, adult and larval Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, dragonflies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and centipedes but worms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, spiders<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, crustaceans, frogs, tadpoles, molluscs, fish, lizards, small birds, rodents and vegetable matter (e.g. palm-nut pulp) may also be taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of twigs and vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and is positioned up to 20 m high in reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, marshes, mangroves, dense thickets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, bushes or trees<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, usually over or surrounded by water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups with the nests placed close or touching<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The species can adversely affect the trees and bushes it uses for nesting, which may lead to the abandonment of the colony site if it is not managed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144683	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Large colonies nesting in urban areas are perceived as a public nuisance and may be persecuted (e.g. by disturbance to prevent colony establishment, removal or direct killing)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In its breeding range the species is threatened by wetland degradation and destruction such as lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and in some parts of its range it is susceptible to pesticide poisoning (organophosphates and carbamates)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144684	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> In the Palearctic this species is migratory and dispersive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, travelling on a broad front between breeding and wintering areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. African breeding populations are nomadic or sedentary however and make local dispersive movements to temporary wetlands following seasonal rains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds from April to July in Eurasia and North Africa (the populations south of the Sahara breeding mainly during the rainy season)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. After breeding Palearctic populations migrate south from August to November<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, returning to the breeding colonies between February and May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species feeds solitarily<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in small groups of 2-5 individuals during the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> although in winter and on migration large feeding flocks may form<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and in Africa resident populations may feed in parties of up to 20 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is mainly crepuscular<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, roosting by day and night in large<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> often mixed-species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> groups in sheltered woods and reedbeds (these roosts may draw in herons feeding up to 80 km away)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits permanent or temporary wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> showing a preference for fresh waters with abundant marsh vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reedbeds, nearby bushes, trees and scrub<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitats frequented include swampy plains, river valleys, deltas, lakes, ponds, canals and ditches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although rice paddyfields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> are now the principle habitat throughout much of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> the species may also occur on estuaries, inshore reefs or islets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally avoids dry habitats and those with very high rainfall<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and usually breeds in the lowlands although it has bred on montane lakes up to 2,000 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of larval insects although fish and amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. frogs and tadpoles)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> up to 10 cm long, grasshoppers, beetles, butterflies, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs and exceptionally small birds may also be taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a well-constructed platform<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> usually placed less than 2 m (occasionally up to 20 m) high near or over water in reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in dense thickets of trees or shrubs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. of willow <em>Salix</em> spp. or poplar <em>Populus</em> spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, preferring nesting sites within 5 km of feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds in single- or mixed-species colonies that can be up to 2,000 pairs in size<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, neighbouring pairs building nests 5-10 m apart (occasionally as close as 0.5 m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144684	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The greatest threat to this species is the loss and deterioration of natural and man-made freshwater habitats (e.g. through changes to flood regimes in rice paddyfields) and wet woodlands (e.g. through woodcutting and burning)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144688	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Madagascar has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, which should increase the priority given to wetland conservation. Forthcoming conservation efforts will focus on freshwater wetlands in Madagascar<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct basic surveys on Madagascar to assess population size and provide a baseline for monitoring. Study its ecology to confirm the causes of decline. Locate and protect important breeding colonies. Reduce exploitation pressures through public-awareness campaigns.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144688	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ardeola idae</em> breeds on <strong>Madagascar</strong> (2,000-6,000 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), Aldabra (100 breeding pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, and Europa (to <strong>R&eacute;union</strong>, to <strong>France</strong>). It has a large non-breeding range in Central and East Africa including the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>, <strong>Mozambique, Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Zambia, Malawi</strong>, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. It is present almost throughout Madagascar, but is always uncommon<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is rare in the south and probably commonest in suitable wetlands in the west<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A decline has been reported over the last 50 years, most notably on the high plateau<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. Whilst it remains fairly widespread, populations are low, and increasing exploitation at breeding sites is likely to increase the rate of population decline<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144688	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It principally inhabits freshwater wetlands, particularly shallow waterbodies fringed with vegetation and adjacent trees. Outside the breeding season, it is commonly found along the banks of small streams, including those inside forest. It is also found on rice paddies, and more rarely in mangroves and on the seashore. It feeds on fish, insects and small invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144688	population	BirdLife International, 2008	T. Dodman<em> in litt</em>. (2002) to Wetlands International (2002). <br/></p>	eng
144688	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Exploitation of eggs and young is heavy at many breeding sites and appears to be increasing in intensity<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The introduced fish <em>Micropterus salmoides</em> may compete for food<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144689	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is mainly sedentary, although it may make partial migratory movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in relation to seasonal flooding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of river flood-plains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds during the rainy season, or when flooding is at a peak (which may be in the early dry season)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species nests colonially with other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, typically in small groups of 6-30 pairs, although groups of 60-80 pairs have been reported at Lake Bangweulu, Zambia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species feeds diurnally, and sometimes nocturnally, alone or in small flocks of up to five individuals, exceptionally more than 12<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and when not foraging it roosts in trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits seasonally flooded grasslands, marshes, flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and inland deltas (such as the Okavango Delta)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, shallow water along riverbanks and lake shores, stands of papyrus, reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and rice-fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small fish (<em>Tilapia</em> and <em>Barbus</em>), frogs, crustaceans, aquatic insects and worms<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small platform of vegetation positioned low down<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> in reeds, trees or shrubs that are usually standing in water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It usually nests on the periphery of mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144690	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The majority of this species is sedentary although northern breeding populations are migratory and populations in Africa may perform local movements relating to seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically but often occurs during the rains in the tropics<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species is highly territorial and often forages and nests singly<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, occasionally also nesting in loosely spaced single-species groups of 5-15 pairs, or even in larger breeding aggregations of several hundred (300-500)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for forested water margins<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> such as mangrove-lined shores and estuaries, or dense woody vegetation fringing ponds, rivers, lakes and streams<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. Other suitable habitats include river swamps, canals, artificial ponds, salt-flats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, mudflats, tidal zones, exposed coral reefs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reedbeds, grassy marshland, pastures, rice-fields and other flooded cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet varies considerably over its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but usually consists predominantly of fish<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> as well as amphibians<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. frogs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. water beetles, grasshoppers and dragonflies)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, spiders, leeches, crustaceans (e.g. crabs and prawns), molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, earthworms, polychaete worms, birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small reptiles and mice<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small, shallow structure of twigs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> placed well hidden amongst the branches of trees or bushes (especially mangroves <em>Rhizophora</em> spp. and <em>Avicennia</em> spp., or <em>Allocasuarina</em> spp., <em>Myoporum</em> spp., <em>Callistemon</em> spp., <em>Hibiscus</em> spp., <em>Casuarina</em> spp., <em>Syzygium</em> spp.<em> </em>and <em>Inga </em>spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> 0.3-10 m above the surface of water or above the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144690	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by human disturbance, pesticides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and habitat destruction (e.g. the loss of mangroves)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is taken for food in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144694	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species are migratory, with those breeding in the western Palearctic travelling on a broad front across the Sahara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and those breeding in North American travelling on a narrow front along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Post-breeding southward movements occur from September to October and return northward movements occur from March to May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Tropical populations are not migratory but may undergo seasonal post-breeding dispersive movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In temperate regions breeding occurs in the local spring, with tropical and subtropical nesting generally coinciding with the rains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in small numbers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in single- or mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although sometimes groups may reach several thousand pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When nesting within mixed-species colonies the species tends to form monospecific clusters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species's aggregatory behaviour outside of the breeding season varies much throughout its range, some populations (e.g. in America) remaining highly gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and gathering in flocks of hundreds or even thousands to roost<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, others (e.g. Palearctic breeders) being largely solitary except when roosting or on migration<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (roosting flocks of 2-6 to 200 are known in Africa<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and small flocks occur on migration)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is largely crepuscular and nocturnal, but may feed diurnally especially during the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits fresh, brackish or saline waters with aquatic vegetation and bamboo or trees (e.g. pine, oak or mangroves) for roosting and nesting in<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for islands or predator-free areas for nesting sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occupies the forested margins of shallow rivers, streams, lagoons, pools, ponds, lakes, marshes and mangroves and may feed on pastures, reservoirs, canals, aquaculture ponds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and rice-fields (up to 96 % of a colony's food resources may be taken from nearby rice-fields)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On migration the species may also frequent dry grasslands or marine coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, kelp beds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It breeds up to 4,800 m (Chile)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but is more common at elevations of up to c.2,000 m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is an opportunistic feeder taking fish, frogs, tadpoles, turtles, snakes, lizards, adult and larval insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and dragonflies)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, leeches, small rodents, bats and the eggs and chicks of other bird species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is platform constructed of sticks and vegetation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> placed 2-50 m above water or on dry ground near water<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in trees, bushes, reedbeds, on cliff ledges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (overhanging rivers)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in protected sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests close together in single- and mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with as many as 20-30 pairs in the same tree<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Colony sites may be reused in consecutive years or flocks may move to new sites (usually such movements are a result of nesting trees being destroyed due to the colony's nesting activities)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Colony sites are dispersed throughout the landscape in relation to distance from feeding areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <strong>Management information</strong> A study carried out in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4-10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144694	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland drainage and destruction<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and by drought in wintering areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is highly susceptible to pesticides<strong><sup>1, 2, 12</sup></strong> such as organophosphates, carbamates<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) which negatively affect hatching success<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are also cases of genetic damage to chicks as a result of petroleum contamination<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian influenza<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and Newcastle disease so may be threatened by future outbreaks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is also persecuted (anti-predation killing) at aquaculture facilities due to its depredation on fish stocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and has suffered declines due to the exploitation of chicks from nesting colonies in the past<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Chicks of the species are still taken for food in some areas (e.g. Madagascar)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> and adults are hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144696	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The movements of this species are very little known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although it appears to be sedentary, possibly making partial seasonal migrations related to the onset of the rains<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the breeding season varying geographically, but usually coinciding with the rains or the early dry season when floods are at their highest<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. The species feeds singly or in pairs and is strictly nocturnal<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, requiring secure day-roosting spots such as high trees or very dense marsh and forest vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits densely vegetated forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, frequenting tree-fringed streams, mangroves, islands in large rivers and lakes, the wooded margins of marshes<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and occasionally reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is little known, but may consist of small fish, amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans, flying ants, flies and other insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a stick platform<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, usually well hidden and built low over water in trees or bushes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, occasionally away from water in trees, bushes, reedbeds, mangroves, or on rocks, rock piles on islands<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong> or rocky shores in caves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but very rarely in exposed positions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144696	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened in southern Africa by habitat loss and degradation. Overgrazing, increased water offtake, soil erosion and poor river management are leading to siltation, reduced river flows, and increased water turbidity, and riparian vegetation is being cleared for agriculture<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144697	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is a Class II nationally protected species in China. It has been recorded in or near several protected areas in China, including Shennongjia Nature Reserve (Hubei), Tianmu Shan National Nature Reserve (Zhejiang), Dayao Shan Nature Reserve and Daming Shan Nature Reserve (Guangxi), Chebaling National Nature Reserve (Guangdong), Jianfengling Nature Reserve and Wuzhishan Nature Reserve (Hainan), and Jiulianshan Nature Reserve (Jiangxi)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Special nature reserves were created for the species in Fusui and Shangsi, southern Guangxi<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> of which the former was later merged administratively with the Fusui Precious Animal Reserve protecting the white-headed leaf monkey <em>Trachypitheus poliocephalus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue surveys in south-east China, and extend them to Hainan and Hoa Binh province, Vietnam, with the aim of locating and censusing populations and determining whether additional sites require protection. Study the species's ecology at a known breeding site (preferably also a historical site where long-term presence can be confirmed) in order to estimate population connectivity and the species's likely range<sup>5</sup>. Implement conservation actions for its only known breeding site in Zhejiang. Extend, link, and manage (particularly to control encroachment, logging, tourism and stream damage), protected areas where it occurs. Instigate public-awareness programmes to stop hunting and habitat destruction.</strong>	eng
144697	distribution		<em>Gorsachius magnificus</em> is known from southern <strong>China</strong> and north-east <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Extensive survey effort has recently resulted in records from Hunan, Hubei, Zheijian, Anhui, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Xinping, Guangdong, Yunnan and Fujian provinces and it was last recorded on Hainan in 1962<strong><sup>2,3,4,5,11</sup></strong>. There are also four recent records from north<strong> Vietnam</strong> (including three in Bac Kan province, among them the first breeding record for the country<strong><sup>6,10,13</sup></strong>). The degree of connectivity between populations is poorly understood. The rate of discovery of new sites has led to considerable extension of its known range and suggests the species has been under-recorded and may breed across a wider range in southern China and possibly northern Indo-China<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, significant threats to the species and its habitats remain and as a result a continuing decline is inferred.	eng
144697	habitat		Its ecology is poorly known. It occurs in subtropical and tropical forest, with recent records from sites close to streams, rivers, reservoirs and rice-fields (close to or within forest). Its diet includes small fish, shrimps and invertebrates, and it appears to be almost entirely nocturnal<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The species does not nest in heronries and lays 3-5 eggs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
144697	population		M. Crosby<em> in litt.</em> (2005) plus analysis of information presented in BirdLife International (2001) estimates a population of 250-999 individuals. Although recent records confirm the species occurs in a wider range than previously thought, it is not currently thought to correspond to an increase in the known population (J. Kushlan <em>in litt.</em> 2009).	eng
144698	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan and Hong Kong. Birds may occur in protected areas in Japan and it has been recorded in Quezon National Park, Philippines.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its breeding range in Japan and its wintering range in the Philippines. Establish a monitoring programme of its breeding and wintering populations. Study its home-range requirements using radio-telemetry. Protect and manage forests in its breeding and wintering grounds. Ensure official protection throughout its range and strengthen and enforce legislation to prevent the sale of this (and other threatened) species. Establish public-awareness programmes concerned with its conservation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gorsachius goisagi</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong>, and there has been one report of breeding from <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). It has been recorded in spring and summer in <strong>Russia</strong> (Primorye and Sakhalin) and <strong>South Korea,</strong> and is a passage migrant in coastal mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and also in Taiwan. The main wintering area appears to be in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, but it has also been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and as a vagrant to Brunei<strong> </strong>and Palau. It was apparently locally common in Japan until the 1970s, but by the 1980s and 1990s, had disappeared from many of its former breeding sites. The relative paucity of recent records indicates that the population is now probably less than 1,000 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
144698	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in heavily forested areas, including coniferous, broadleaved and degraded forest, on hills and on the lower slopes of mountains (up to 1,500 m), where there are watercourses and damp areas. It winters in dark, deeply shaded forest near water up to 2,400 m. In addition to forest, it forages in swamps, rice-fields and farmland and is mainly crepuscular. </p>	eng
144698	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent work in Japan suggests the previous assertion that the global population comprises fewer than 1,000 individuals may have been overly pessimistic. Hence, the true figure probably lies within the band 1,000-2,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144698	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is deforestation in both its breeding and non-breeding ranges. The development of dense scrub undergrowth in forest and on abandoned farmland is believed to reduce the suitability of these habitats for feeding. It has probably been hunted in many parts of its range. It declined rapidly on Miyake-jima in the Izu Islands, where it was formerly abundant, following the introduction of Siberian weasel <em>Mustela sibirica</em> in the early 1970s.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144704	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zonerodius heliosylus</em> occurs throughout New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) and on the adjacent islands of Salawati and Aru, Indonesia. It frequents streams, pools and swamps in forest to 1,430 m. There are very few recent records but it is such a reclusive species that it is impossible to assess its true population<strong><sup>1,3,6,7,8</sup></strong>. Although it is not hunted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and there are still huge areas of suitable habitat left, it may be threatened by the extensive logging of lowland forest<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, especially as it occurs along watercourses<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144704	population	BirdLife International, 2008	<10,000 individuals estimated (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006).  <br/></p>	eng
144705	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Tigriornis leucolopha</em> is uncommon to rare through the African equatorial rainforests, with breeding records from the <strong>Gambia</strong>, <strong>Senegal</strong>, <strong>Guinea-Bissau, Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon </strong>and the <strong>Congo</strong>. It is perhaps commonest in parts of Gabon, lower Congo and northern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, and has been described as "widespread" in <strong>Ghana</strong><sup>3</sup>. It is difficult to estimate a total population size due to the secretive nature of this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it is now known from at least 62 sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144705	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is largely sedentary although there are indications of some migratory movements or vagrancy<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies locally but tends to coincide with the rains<strong><sup> </sup></strong>(mostly May-July in West Africa, November-January in East Africa) to synchronise chick feeding with the period when water levels are highest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs (as far as is known)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and remains solitarily when not breeding<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is partly nocturnal and mainly forages around dawn and dusk<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It shows a preference for small shaded streams, marshes or swamps<strong><sup>1, 2, 5, 6</sup></strong> in dense areas of primary rainforest or swamp-forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It also occurs along the banks of forested rivers<strong><sup>1, 2, 5, 6</sup></strong> (although it generally avoids larger waterways)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and inhabits streams<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in tangled mangrove swamps<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> usually well-away from the coast<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small fish, crustaceans<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (e.g. crayfish<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and freshwater crabs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), spiders, insects<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (e.g. winged termites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), frogs, snakes and lizards<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest may be a platform of twigs placed 6 m high in trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144705	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144708	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Palearctic populations of this species undergo extensive post-breeding dispersal movements in all directions and are also fully migratory, travelling southward on a broad front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> between August and October and returning to the north from March to April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other populations (e.g. in the tropics) are resident but may make partial migratory movements connected with fluctuations in water-level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the western Palearctic and India the species breeds mainly between May and July, breeding from October to January in Australia, June to February in South Africa, or in relation to the rains in tropical Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds singly or occasionally in small loose groups in favourable areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. 2-3 nests were spaced 50 m apart at the same pond, Africa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species may be found singly, in pairs (Africa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, in small flocks of 5-15 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (e.g. on migration)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or roosting in groups of 30 individuals (Africa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In most areas it is mainly a crepuscular feeder<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> although it may be diurnal in some regions (e.g. South Africa)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species is most common in freshwater marshes with beds of bulrushes <em>Typha</em> spp., reeds <em>Phragmites</em> spp.<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> or other dense aquatic vegetation, preferably also with deciduous bushes and trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as willow <em>Salix</em> spp. or alder <em>Alnus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It may also occupy the margins of lakes, pools and reservoirs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, wooded and marshy banks of streams and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, desert oases, peat bogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, wooded swamps, wet grasslands, rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, rank vegetation around sewage ponds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in places mangroves, the margins of saline lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and saltmarshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet varies with region and season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but it is essentially insectivorous and takes aquatic adult and larval insects such as crickets, grasshoppers, caterpillars<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and beetles<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other food items include spiders, molluscs, crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. shrimp and crayfish)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, fish, frogs, tadpoles, small reptiles and birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed from reeds and twigs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is normally placed near open pools<strong><sup> </sup></strong>in thick emergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (such as beds of bulrushes <em>Typha</em> spp. or reeds <em>Phragmites</em> spp.)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> close to the surface of the water or up to 60 cm above it<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Alternatively nests may be placed in low bushes or trees (e.g. alder <em>Alnus</em> spp. or willow <em>Salix</em> spp.) up to 2 m above water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Preferred nesting sites are usually 5-15 m out from the shore in water 20-30 cm deep<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species usually nests singly but may nest in loose colonies in favourable habitats with neighbouring nests as close as 5 m apart (solitary nests are usually 30-100 m apart)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests are often reused in consecutive years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144708	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> through direct destruction, pollution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and hydrological changes (e.g. in rivers)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species also suffers mortality as a result of drought and desertification on African staging and wintering grounds (degrades wetland habitats needed by the species)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144710	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ixobrychus novaezelandiae</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>New Zealand<sup>1</sup></strong>. It became extinct before 1900, for unknown reasons, on the South Island, while on the North Island, it is only known from bones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144714	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant, its movements related to changes in water level due to seasonal rainfall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The breeding season is geographically variable but generally coincides with the rains (although the species may also breed early in the dry season)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds solitarily or in small groups of a few dozen pairs, and hunts nocturnally alone or in pairs, sometimes also hunting by day if conditions are cloudy<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It uses a variety of habitats, but shows a preference for thickets and forests characterised by fluctuating water levels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It frequents the margins of freshwater rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and pools overhung with dense foliage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, marshes with grasses or reeds, seasonally flooded areas, mangroves<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, rice-fields, and open grassy swamps with bulrushes or papyrus<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of grasshoppers and frogs, but it will also take water beetles, small fish, crabs, spiders and snails<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a stick platform positioned 0.5-4 m high<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> on horizontal or hanging branches of trees and bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that overhang water or stand in flooded areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144714	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144718	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Populations breeding on the Atlantic coast of Europe, in the Mediterranean and in South Africa are largely sedentary due to the relatively mild winters<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (although they may make local dispersive movements related to rainfall)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Continental populations are mainly migratory however<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong> with a marked post-breeding dispersal of immatures<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species breeds from March to June in Eurasia and during the rains from September to January in South Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests solitarily although males are polygamous and may mate with up to five females nesting on a large wetland site<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species remains solitary throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although migratory individuals may travel in small flocks)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is mainly crepuscular in its activities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species has highly restrictive breeding habitat requirements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It shows a strong preference for quiet lowland marshes around lakes and rivers (less than 200 m above sea-level)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with extensive dense young reedbeds of <em>Phragmites</em> spp. (e.g. with 1- 3 years worth of new growth<strong><sup>3, 11</sup></strong> but still maintaining some old or dead stems<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) that are flooded but are fairly shallow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (less than 30 cm deep)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, have few fluctuations in water-level<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, have low acidity<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>and are surrounded by clear open areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of deeper water is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding adults are more attracted to unfragmented<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (greater than 100 m)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> over a wide area may also be used<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species avoids saline waters<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but is equally abundant in fresh or brackish habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. in estuarine or delta marshes)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and may occasionally nest in stands of rushes <em>Scirpus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or <em>Papyrus</em> spp. if reeds are unavailable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> The species frequents a more varied range of habitats outside of breeding season, foraging on rice-fields, watercress beds, gravel pits, fish farms, ditches, sewage farms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, small ponds and wet grassy areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as well as marshes and reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also forages in running water (e.g. streams) when still waterbodies freeze during the winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet varies depending on the site and season although it predominantly takes fish (particularly cyprinids and eels) and amphibians as well as adult and larval insects, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, snakes, lizards, birds, nestlings and small mammals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a pad of reeds and other vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> constructed close to or floating on water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> amidst dense reedbeds<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Although it is a solitary nester, breeding densities from 2 per 100 ha to 100 per 100 ha may occur depending on the quality of the habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, nests sometimes being placed close together in areas where the species is particularly numerous<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Breeding adults in Europe may be more attracted to unfragmented<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> reedbeds over 20 ha in area, although smaller sites with networks of reed-fringed waterways or open wetland habitats with a number of small reedbeds over a wide area may also be used<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is evidence that females in Britain preferentially nest in locations surrounded by less scrub but more vegetated open water, with a higher proportion of <em>Phragmites</em> spp. than other plant species, and in areas where deeper water is maintained into the driest part of the breeding season<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The European Action Plan for this species recommends raising water levels, harvesting and burning reeds, cutting invasive scrub, or digging out reedbeds on a rotational compartmental basis as methods of slowing reedbed succession<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It also recommends the regular cutting of small areas of reedbed to maintain <em>Phragmites</em> spp. monocultures<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, to provide a range of multi-age reed stands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and to favour the retention of water levels in spring and summer (promoting rapid growth, preventing a build-up of reed litter and providing foraging sites)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Large-scale reed cutting should be prohibited in the late-winter however<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Wetlands should also be managed to enhance the carrying capacity of fish and eel populations (thus increasing food resources for bitterns)<strong><sup>7, 9, 10</sup></strong>. In Britain it was found that suitable habitats should be provided for all fish life stages (including spawning, refuge and overwintering), the movement of fish throughout reedbeds should be promoted (e.g. by changes in hydrological management regimes and sluice design)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and issues relating to water quality, zooplankton and macrophyte community structures should be addressed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144718	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened mainly by the loss of <em>Phragmites</em> reed marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> owing to habitat alteration through drainage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, direct destruction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, changes in traditional management (e.g. changes to reed harvesting regimes)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, sea level rise and salt water intrusion<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, the effects of wave action from boat traffic at the edge of open water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and pollution<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> (either eutrophication which modifies fish populations within reedbeds or pesticides which may reduce the species's survival)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Disturbance from humans during the nesting period is also a threat<strong><sup>2, 3, 6</sup></strong> (e.g. disturbance from reed cutting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, noisy recreation and water-sports<strong><sup>2, 3, 6</sup></strong>, motor vehicles and hunting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). The hunting of adults and collecting of eggs and chicks still occurs in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the species may suffer high mortalities in very cold winters (especially in sedentary populations)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144719	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Australia, Bool Lagoon and Lake Muir are managed specifically for the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Australia, recent initiatives by the Threatened Bird Network to survey Painted Snipe <em>Rostratula benghalensis australis</em> will contribute to the information on the distribution of this species<strong><sup>10, 18</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Complete field surveys to determine current global distribution, status and key sites for conservation</strong><sup>1,5,8</sup>. Develop methods for assessing population trends<sup>5</sup>. In New Zealand, determine factors that may be limiting populations<sup>8</sup>. In New Caledonia, obtain legal protection of representative, low altitude habitats<sup>1</sup>. Protect remaining sites against drainage or salinisation. Rehabilitate former breeding sites<sup>5</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
144719	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Botaurus poiciloptilus</em> occurs in the wetlands of southern <strong>Australia</strong>, <strong>New Zealand</strong> and <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. In Australia the population is now estimated to number not more than 1,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Consecutive atlas censuses in Australia have shown a marked decrease in reporting rate; the species was recorded in 260 10-minute grid squares in 1977-1981, 142 grid squares in 1998-2003, and just 61 in 2003-2008<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The declining reporting rate was particularly pronounced in the Riverina (63%), Tasmania (>90%), and south-west Australia (>90%). This decline in reporting rate is thought to represent a genuine population decline over the period. In Australia, most birds are in the Murray-Darling basin and adjacent coastal areas. In Western Australia, the population was estimated to contain up to 100 pairs in 1980<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but it is now much reduced, with the largest concentration in the Albany and Lake Muir wetlands. There have been no confirmed records from the Swan Coastal Plain since 1992 and surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 found that half the wetlands that supported the species in 1980 now retained no suitable habitat<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. There are now only occasional records from Queensland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and there appears to have been no great influx to remnant wetlands after the recent drought, as might have been expected if they were more common inland. In South Australia, breeding is confined to the south-east, however, loss of suitable habitat at Bool Lagoon, arguably the key site in Australia for this species, and other wetlands in the area due to changes in regional drainage, has probably had a large impact in last 10-20 years<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It is now known from just one site, Hirds Swamp, in Victoria<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. In Tasmania the species is now recorded from only handful of sites and several of the major lakes that it once occupied have been dry for some years. In New Zealand, the estimated population was between 580-725 individuals in 1980<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; numbers may be greater, given the lack of targeted survey work, and the large size of suitable swamps<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia and Uvea, there have been just two recent records of single calling males, and the population is not thought to exceed 50 individuals<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <em> <br/></p>	eng
144719	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It has fairly specific habitat preferences, preferring shallow, vegetated freshwater or brackish swamps where there is a mixture of short and tall emergent sedges and rushes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been recorded in paddies in the Murray Darling basin, but it is not thought to use such habitats for breeding<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It usually lays four eggs. It feeds, mostly at night, on fish, eels, frogs, freshwater crayfish and aquatic insects<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population seems to increase rapidly in good years and decline rapidly in poor ones<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In New Zealand, the estimated population was between 580-725 individuals in 1980 (Heather and Robertson, 1997). The population on New Caledonia is not thought to exceed 50 individuals. Following apparently rapid declines, the Australian population is now thought to number fewer than 1,000 mature individuals (R. Loyn <em>in litt</em>. 2008). <br/></p>	eng
144719	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In Australia and New Zealand, the main threats are wetland drainage for agriculture, as well as changes brought about by high levels of grazing and salinisation of swamps<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. In Australia, the species appears able to adapt to the availability of ephemeral wetlands, but is likely to be particularly sensitive to the destruction of drought refugia. Loss of these habitats may explain its decline in Western and South Australia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Murray-Darling basin, a former stronghold of the species, has suffered consecutive droughts in recent years and over-extraction of water is an ongoing problem<strong><sup>14,15</sup></strong>. Shooting and flying into powerlines are additional contributory causes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but hunting pressure is very low<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144720	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but often makes local movements in semi-arid areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and disperses during the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds all year round in East Africa, but elsewhere breeding peaks mostly late in the rains or in the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and usually occurs in pairs or in small groups of 8-10 individuals outside of the breeding season, sometimes also occurring in social groups of more than 50<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species occupies a wide variety of habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> from forest to semi-desert, wherever water is available<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is commonest in well-watered savanna or woodland and less common in forest, showing a general preference for permanent waters although it will also use temporary wetlands in arid areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species forages in shallow water along sandbanks, in reedbeds or in floating vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and requires trees (e.g. <em>Khaya senegalensis</em>) to nest and roost in<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include the banks of large rivers and lakes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, marshes, dams, temporary seasonal ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, aquaculture ponds, irrigation schemes and estuaries as well as  rocky coasts in Tanzania<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of amphibians (especially <em>Xenopus</em> spp. adults and tadpoles) and small fish as well as crustaceans, worms and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is an elaborate hollow structure of sticks usually built in a fork of a tree<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> overhanging water, but alternatively built on cliff ledges, rock columns, on the ground or on sandbanks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species shows a preference for nesting in dead trees standing in water and usually roosts in or near its nest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144720	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by a deterioration in wetland water quality caused by the excessive use of pesticides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144721	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is regularly seen from West Africa eastward throughout the Mediterranean to South West and South Asia, and throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The Palearctic population (including West Africa, Iran and Kazakhstan) is estimated to number between 205,000 and 320,000, the South West and South Asian populations combined at 240,000, and the sub-Saharan African populations between 100,000 and 120,000<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The Palearctic population appears to be increasing, while the Asian and sub-Saharan African populations appear to be stable<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144721	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Juveniles, and to a lesser extent adults<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, are prone to irregular nomadic or partially migratory movements throughout the species's range in response to water-level changes<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong> or food availability<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Members of the Palearctic population are partially migratory<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong> and regularly travel to warmer regions in the winter via favoured stop-over sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (non-breeders may be present all year round in the wintering areas)<strong><sup>6, 16</sup></strong>. In the Mediterranean and West Africa, breeding colonies appear to be linked by a significant frequency of juvenile and adult dispersal and are thus considered to belong to a single metapopulation<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Members of the Asian populations move from their breeding sites at inland lakes to coastal wetlands during non-breeding periods<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and when not breeding the sub-Saharan African population tends to disperse among the alkaline-saline lakes and wetlands of eastern and southern Africa<strong><sup>18, 19</sup></strong>. The Palearctic population breeds regularly from March to June in large dense single-species colonies of up to 20,000 pairs (occasionally up to 200,000 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in some regions may undergo a post-breeding flightless moult period where adults gather in flocks on inaccessible waters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Asian and sub-Saharan populations breed irregularly following the rains, often in large mixed colonies with Lesser Flamingo <em>Phoeniconaias minor</em><strong><sup>17, 20, 21</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious and commonly occurs in flocks of 100 or more outside of the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with thousands often flocking together<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in areas rich in food or at freshwater inlets of saline or alkaline lakes to drink and bathe<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In sub-Saharan Africa, the species may also join large flocks of non-breeding Lesser Flamingo. The species is a bottom feeder<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and forages both by day and night<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, feeding by filtering particles through tiny platelets in the bill<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It also often roosts at night in large flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits shallow (c.1 m deep over a large area)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> eutrophic waterbodies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> such as saline lagoons, saltpans and large saline or alkaline lakes<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> up to pH 11<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It will also frequent sewage treatment pans, inland dams<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and coastal waters<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, seldom alighting on freshwater but commonly bathing and drinking from freshwater inlets entering alkaline or saline lakes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests and roosts on sandbanks<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or boggy, open shores<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (especially brine shrimp <em>Artemia salina</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, molluscs, annelid worms, larval aquatic insects, small fish, adult terrestrial insects (e.g. water beetles, ants), the seeds or stolons of marsh grasses, algae, diatoms and decaying leaves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also ingest mud in order to extract organic matter (e.g. bacteria)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests in large dense colonies on mudflats or islands of large waterbodies, occasionally also on bare rocky islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with a distance between neighbouring nests of between 20 and 50 cm<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The nest is usually an inverted cone of hardened mud<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with a shallow depression on the top (alternatively it may be a small pile of stones and debris when mud is not available)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> The removal of sand polluted with lead shot from a salt-lake in Cyprus was successful in significantly reducing the numbers of deaths due to lead poisoning<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. At two colonies (one in France and one in Spain) management techniques to counteract erosion and the lack of suitable nesting islands were successfully applied in order to encourage breeding by the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144721	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species suffers from low reproductive success if exposed to disturbance at breeding colonies<strong><sup>2, 7</sup></strong> (e.g. from tourists, low-flying aircraft<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and especially all-terrain vehicles<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), or if water-levels surrounding nest-sites lower (resulting in increased access to and therefore predation from ground predators such as foxes and feral dogs)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The lowering of water levels in lakes can also lead to hyper-salinity which may affect food resources<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Other threats to the species's habitat include effluents from soda-ash mining<strong><sup>4, 8</sup></strong>, pollution from sewage and heavy metal effluents from industries<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species also suffers mortality from lead poisoning (lead shot ingestion)<strong><sup>9, 10</sup></strong>, collisions with fences and powerlines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and from diseases such as tuberculosis, septicemia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and avian botulism<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> In Egypt large numbers of adults are shot or captured to be sold in markets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and egg collecting from colonies occurs in some areas (this may become a threat)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144722	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phoenicopterus chilensis</em> breeds in central <strong>Peru </strong>(apparently erratically, irregularly and in small numbers)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Argentina</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong> and perhaps erratically in <strong>Paraguay </strong>(at least one breeding record)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>,<strong> </strong>with a few wintering in <strong>Uruguay</strong> and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, and vagrants in Ecuador and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). It occurs on coastal mudflats, estuaries, lagoons and salt-lakes at elevations up to 4,500 m. Breeding habitat is typified by the presence of  suitable salinities and islands with extensive surrounding mudflats - conditions that do not occur each year. At Mar Chiquita, birds bred in only nine of the 26 years to 1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In the mid-1970s, the population was estimated at 500,000 birds, but more recent figures of 100,000 in Argentina, up to 30,000 in Chile, and tens of thousands in Peru and Bolivia, suggest that no more than 200,000 individuals persist. Undoubtedly declining, its perceived extent is perhaps misleading, and may partially reflect improved census methods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has probably been subject to intensive egg-harvesting since the arrival of humans in South America and, in recent years, egg-collectors have been responsible for the partial or complete failure of colonies in Bolivia<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Mar Chiquita (Argentina), perhaps the most important breeding site, is threatened by abstraction of water for irrigation projects<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Mining has wrought extensive habitat alteration, and the species also suffers from hunting and tourism-related disturbance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144722	population	BirdLife International, 2008	del Hoyo (1992); Valqui <em>et al.</em> (2000). <br/></p>	eng
144723	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phoenicopterus minor</em><strong> </strong>breeds mainly in the Rift Valley lakes of east Africa in <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Kenya</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Three smaller breeding congregations occur in west Africa, in southern Africa, and in <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Pakistan</strong> in Asia. When not breeding, it occurs in virtually every sub-Saharan country and from the Arabian peninsula to Pakistan. The global population is c.2,220,000-3,240,000, including c.650,000 in Asia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Declines have been suggested for much of Africa<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, but are difficult to clarify due to widescale movement within the continent. It is adapted to respond to local environmental changes in sites by moving elsewhere, and thus depends on a network of suitable areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in huge colonies on large, undisturbed alkaline and saline lakes. Only three main breeding sites exist in Africa, all facing threats and requiring protection<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Proposed soda-ash mining and hydro-electric power schemes affecting the main breeding site, Lake Natron in Tanzania, could cause rapid overall population declines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Other threats include land claim, water pollution, and disturbance<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
144723	population	BirdLife International, 2008	15,000-25,000 individuals in W. Africa (Trolliet & Fouquet 2002, Trolliet<em> et al</em>. 2004, T. Dodman<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002); 1,500,000-2,500,000 in E. Africa (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006); 55,000-65,000 in S. Africa and Madagascar (Dodman 2002); 650,000 in S. Asia (Parasharya and Tere<em> in litt</em>. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
144724	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. Breeding occurs in Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve, Peru<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, Salar de Atacama National Flamingo Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Chile, Las Chinchillas Provincial Natural Reserve, Argentina, and Eduardo Avaroa National Faunal Reserve, Bolivia, with a protected non-breeding site at Laguna de los Pozuelos Natural Monument, Argentina<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Conservation actions, locally including habitat management, prevention of egg-collecting and raising public awareness, are being undertaken<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveying high Andean salt-lakes<sup>1</sup></strong> to monitor known populations and locate additional ones. <strong>Protect more sites and raise the status of existing reserves<sup>10,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Guard unprotected nest-sites<sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144724	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phoenicoparrus andinus</em> occurs on the high Andean plateaus of <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, with a resident population of c.100 at Laguna Mar Chiquita, C&oacute;rdoba, lowland Argentina<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. It breeds at c.10 localities, notably Laguna Colorada and other salt-lakes in south-west Bolivia, Laguna de Salinas (Peru) and Salar de Atacama (Chile)<strong><sup>3,9,11</sup></strong>. Breeding has just been recorded for the first time in Argentina (Laguna Brava), but may only occur during strong El Ni&ntilde;o years<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Population assessments are difficult and vary greatly<strong><sup>3,5,6,12</sup></strong>, but 50,000-100,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> may have been realistic until the mid-1980s. The 34,000 estimated in 1997<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, suggests that it declined rapidly during the preceding 10-15 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding success appears to be consistently low<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and thus declines may continue for many years, because flamingos have a high longevity (20-50 years)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144724	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely restricted to high mountain alkaline and salt-lakes, at 2,300-4,500&#160;m. It may be nomadic in search of temporally patchy food supplies (mainly diatoms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). It breeds colonially, laying only one egg (unless first egg predated), mainly in December-February<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144724	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rocha and Quiroga (1997). Estimate confirmed by surveys in January 2005 (Flamingo Specialist Group and Grupo para la Conservaci&oacute;nde Flamencos Altoandinos <em>in litt</em>. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
144724	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The collecting of eggs to sell as food was intensive in the mid-20th century and the early 1980s, with thousands taken annually<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Mining activities, unfavourable water-levels (owing to weather and manipulation), erosion of nest-sites and human disturbance may also affect productivity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside protected areas in Bolivia, there is a low level of hunting for food, oils and feathers, especially targeting immatures and juveniles<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144725	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phoenicoparrus jamesi</em> occurs on the high Andean plateaus of <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Chile</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, with small numbers occurring around the lowland Laguna Mar Chiquita, Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The only regular breeding sites are Lagunas Colorada and Guayaques, Bolivia, with up to 41,000 birds recorded at the former<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, but another colony has flourished at Salar de Tara, Chile<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population probably declined rapidly during the 20th century<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but has started to increase<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, presumably owing to the success of conservation programmes, and a coordinated census in 2005 estimated the population to be 100,000 birds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Breeding success varies greatly from year to year, with threats mostly impacting on productivity, but the 1999-2000 season was extraordinarily successful, and 18,000 chicks hatched at Laguna Colorado<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is possibly nomadic, and feeds mainly on diatoms in saline lakes, the levels of which may be affected by climate change to the detriment of flamingo food resources. Egg-collecting and hunting were intensive during the 20th century<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, but have been controlled in protected areas, most importantly, Eduardo Avaroa National Faunal Reserve, Bolivia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. International and national conservation programmes have been organised in all four countries<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>, and will hopefully continue to encourage population growth. CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. <br/></p>	eng
144725	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimate based on coordinated census in January 2005 (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006). <br/></p>	eng
144729	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersal movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and are considerably nomadic<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In addition northern breeding populations are fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and may travel on a broad front (e.g. across the Sahara)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Northern and southern breeding populations breed during the local spring, whilst breeding elsewhere coincides with the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in mixed-species colonies, either in small groups (e.g. 5-100 pairs in Africa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or in large aggregations of thousands of pairs<strong><sup>1.</sup> Outside of the breeding season flocks of over 100 individuals may occur on migration (Africa)<sup>3</sup></strong>, and during the winter or dry seasons the species usually forages in small flocks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> of up to 30 indivduals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It often roosts communally at night in large groups (sometimes thousands of individuals) with other species, occasionally in trees far from wetland feeding sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species feeds in very shallow water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and nests in freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes) and low trees or bushes<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for marshes at the edges of lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as lagoons, flood-plains, wet meadows<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>, swamps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reservoirs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, sewage ponds, rice-fields and irrigated cultivation<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. It less often occurs in coastal locations such as estuaries, deltas, saltmarshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Roosting sites are often large trees that may be far from water<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of the species varies seasonally depending on what is available<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It takes adult and larval insects (e.g. aquatic beetles, dragonflies, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and caddisflies), worms, leeches, molluscs (e.g. snails and mussels), crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish) and occasionally fish, frogs, tadpoles, lizards, small snakes and nestling birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of twigs and vegetation usually positioned less than 1 m above water (occasionally up to 7 m) in tall dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reeds or rushes), low trees or bushes over water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144729	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> through drainage<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> for irrigation and hydroelectric power production<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, clearing, grazing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also threatened locally by hunting<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, disturbance and pesticides<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144730	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144731	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found from the highlands of central Peru south to Bolivia, extreme northern Chile and north-west Argentina; it is also a non-breeding visitor to the Peruvian coast (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144731	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found in swampy areas, rushy pastureland, mudflats, pools and streams, but also occurs in bunch-grass on hills, sometimes far from water (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
144735	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon consists of two subspecies: branickii occurs in the highlands of Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile and north-west Bolivia, and is a year-round resident. Melanopis occurs in southern Chile and Argentina, with an isolated population in coastal Peru, and the southern Chile and Argentina populations migrate in the non-breeding season to the Argentine pampas.	eng
144735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Although the species has a large global population estimated to be 25,000-100,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006), subspecies branickii is described as 'uncommon and very local' throughout its range (Matheu and del Hoyo 1992).	eng
144737	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is predominantly sedentary, although it may make local nomadic movements in response to rainfall during periods of drought<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. It forages diurnally in pairs or small groups of between 5 and 30<strong><sup> </sup></strong>individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (occasionally in groups of 50<strong>-</strong>200)<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, and roosts nightly in groups of up to 100<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It often uses the same roost site year-round, year after year, although it will wander several kilometres away to forage during the day <strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with breeding reaching a peak during or just after the rainy season (although in Gambia and Tanzania breeding is restricted to the dry season)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species inhabits wooded streams and river courses in open moist grassland and savanna woodland<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, and is attracted to man-made irrigated habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, such as cultivated land, large gardens and playing fields<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>. It less often occurs in marshes, flooded grassland, the edges of lakes and reservoirs, mangrove swamps, coastal beaches<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, open woodland and at forest edges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> This species is carnivorous, its diet consisting largely of insects (especially weevils, Diptera, the pupae of Lepidoptera and the larvae of Coleoptera), as well as crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes, spiders, earthworms, snails and small reptiles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a basket-shaped platform of sticks and twigs situated 1-12 m (usually 3-6 m) above the ground or above water on a horizontal tree branch, in bushes or on man-made structures such as telegraph poles<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, dam walls or pergolas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The same nest site is usually used year after year (but not necessarily by the same breeding pair)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144737	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by extended droughts (which reduce food availability by causing damp soil to harden, making it more difficult to probe for insects)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population in South Africa declined markedly at the turn of the century due to hunting during colonial expansion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144738	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary but may make local altitudinal movements within its Ethiopian range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds during the short rainy season between March and May, or in the more substantial rains of July (occasionally also breeding during the dry season in December)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually breeds colonially, although it may also nest in solitary pairs or smaller groups of 2-3 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds in flocks of varying magnitudes, sometimes reaching sizes of up to 50 to 100 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species is found in the highlands of Ethiopia between 1,500 to 4,100 m, where it inhabits river courses with rocky cliffs, and open country such as alpine moorland, swamps, cultivated land, plantations and open woodland (typically of olive, juniper and occasionally <em>Eucalyptus</em> stands)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is unknown, but is most likely to consist of worms and insects (such as the adults and larvae of coprophagus beetles), as well as frogs and small mammals (young mice)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> When breeding colonially nests are placed on the eastern slopes of rocky cliffs (to obtain maximum morning sunlight for warmth)<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>, or on bushes protruding from cliff-faces, often up to 3,000 m in altitude<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. When breeding in solitary pairs or small groups however, nests are more likely to be placed on the tops of trees or on ledges of buildings at lower elevations (1,800 to 2,000 m)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. In both cases the nest is a platform of branches and sticks<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144738	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is currently threatened in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia, by overgrazing and tree-cutting, and is also potentially threatened by soil erosion, conversion to agriculture (farmers from the north of Ethopia have been relocated to the area) and extraction of groundwater (small scale extraction and irrigation has started and there are plans to expand the process)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The long periods of recent warfare and drought in Ethiopia also raise concerns for this species due to its very restricted range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144739	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in solitary pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and usually forages alone, in pairs or in small flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 5-12 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, roosting at night in trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits dense lowland forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for stands with little or no undergrowth and with large mature trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with dead tops for roosting in<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It foraging in glades in open sections of forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in swampy or marshy areas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, also occurring along streams and rivers, in swamp-forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mangroves<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, regenerating forest over abandoned plantations in Gabon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in montane forest up to the treeline (c.3,700 m) in Kenya and Tanzania<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is little known but includes adult and larval insects (e.g. beetles), worms, snails, snakes and occasionally plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of sticks constructed on a tree limb<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> c.7.5 m above the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is also said to nest in holes in cliffs although this is unconfirmed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144739	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
144740	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed, but as yet the forest remains unprotected. Research is currently being carried out into the effects of agroforestry and the exploitation of wildlife resources on the island<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Associa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos Bi&oacute;logos Santomenses have begun training local community focal points in the implementation of site-based conservation; implementing an awareness raising campaign and carrying out field research and monitoring into the ecology, population status and threats to the species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Advocacy and awareness raising for species and primary forest protection in S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;. Identification of key sites and training of staff to ensure their protection. Field research on Dwarf Olive Ibis (to improve knowledge on ecology, status and threats) and mapping of protection zone for the species. Formulate species conservation measures based on research findings and seek wider involvement in their implementation. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong>	eng
144740	distribution		This species is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>, where it is confined to the catchments of the S&atilde;o Miguel, Xufexufe and possibly the Quija rivers in the south-west, and along the Io Grande and Ana Chaves rivers in the centre of the island. It was known only from historical records and anecdotal evidence from hunters until a confirmed sighting in the valley of the rio Ana Chaves, in 1990<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More records followed: birds were seen in 1996; two pairs, an individual and two nests were seen near the basins of the Rios I&oacute; Grande (200 m asl) and Martim Mendes (100 m asl) in May 1997 in an area where hunters reported killing 16 of the birds 6 months previously<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; and during survey work in Ribeira Peixe in 2007<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Recent fieldwork has resulted in 57 observations, including two nests with brooding females, in primary forest in the Monte Carmo area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The most recent estimation suggests that the population is >50 individuals but remains extremely small<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is apparently relatively widely, if thinly, distributed in the south. There is one historical record from the north of the island, but no suitable habitat remains there<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144740	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is presumed to be sedentary<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds usually occur singly or in pairs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> but roost together at night and can be identified as they call when flying to and from the roost<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong>The species is confined to primary forest below 450 m, although suitable habitat could extend up to 800 m. However, it has been found most frequently in recent years at the border between primary and secondary forest, sometimes near palm plantations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages on lowland forest floors in areas of bare ground or where there exists a sparse undergrowth of herbaceous plants, bracken and moss, or a covering of rocks and large stones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.It is especially found in areas where the ground has been disturbed by wild pigs or in swampy areas bordering watercourses or small oxbow lakes<strong><sup>1,2,9</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet </strong>Its diet consists of invertebrates, snails and slugs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>A nest was found in 1997 in a tree overhanging water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and a nest found in 2009 was also in a tree<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144740	population		The most recent population estimate indicates that it is extremely small, and is best placed in the band 50-249 individuals (M. Melo <em>in litt.</em> 2006).	eng
144741	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is widespread in west African lowland forests from Liberia east to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.	eng
144741	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species frequents forested streams and wooded swamps, always above or near water, in lowland forest (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The same trees are used for roost sites all year-round. It feeds on aquatic snails, worms, beetles, larvae and grubs, which it probes for in muddy banks and swamps. Nests are situated 1-6 m above the ground or overhanging water, and comprise a circular platform on top of several lateral tree branches, approximately 30 cm across. Two eggs are usually laid (Brown et al. 1982). The species is sedentary (del Hoyo et al. 1992), with individuals remaining in an area all year round and using traditional roosting sites for sleeping (Hancock et al. 1992). It is likely to breed for most of the year (del Hoyo et al. 1992), especially during periods of peak rainfall (Hancock et al. 1992), but it does not breed during the long dry season when water levels are lowest (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The species nests in solitary pairs and forages singly or in pairs throughout the year (del Hoyo et al. 1992), small groups (e.g. 5-8 birds in same tree) often congregating at roosting sites to sleep (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is diurnally active, although it may also forage at night (especially in bright moonlight) (Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 1992. The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of beetles, larvae, grubs, aquatic snails and worms (Brown et al. 1982, Hancock et al. 1992, del Hoyo et al. 1992). <br/></p>	eng
144741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 200,000-510,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006). Although uncommon over most of its range, it is regarded as common in Gabon and Congo (Borrow and Demey 2001)	eng
144741	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Intense forest destruction in West Africa is probably the main threat to this species (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Utilisation Fishermen in Gabon are known to take nestlings from the nests of this species .	eng
144742	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999, an international advisory group IAGNBI was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. An international species action plan was published in 2006. Over 1,000 individuals of the western population exist in captivity worldwide, but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (four Turkish zoos hold 20 birds and participate in an <em>ex situ</em> breeding operation<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>). An international studbook was discontinued in 1998<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. An <em>in situ</em> breeding programme at Birecik aims to establish a partially captive population of 150 birds to provide birds for release to the wild population if this action is agreed in future<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Colour-ringing of young at Birecik has begun and there are plans to attach satellite transmitters to a family party in July 2007<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Other captive breeding schemes exist or are planned in Austria, Spain, Italy and programmes of releasing captive birds are either in progress or in the experimental phase in Bavaria, Spain, and Italy<strong><sup>23,38</sup></strong>. In southern Spain a total of 109 birds were released between 2004 and 2007. Although juvenile mortality has been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008. Further releases were planned for late 2008, and the organisers hoped the project would be continued until 2010<strong><sup>36</sup></strong>. There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. In 1991, the Souss-Massa National Park was designated specifically to protect nesting and feeding areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and in 1994, a monitoring and research programme was set up involving local people<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.The provision of freshwater near the breeding colonies in the national park has been shown experimentally to increase productivity, buffering individuals against the impacts of low rainfall, and is now an ongoing conservation measure<strong><sup>37</sup></strong>. The Palmyra project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities. Three birds were satellite-tagged there in June 2006<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>, and one in 2007; giving an indication of the migratory route of Syrian individuals. Syria's first local conservation society, the Palmyra Society for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife, aims to develop ecotourism in the area<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. The breeding area in Syria was declared a protected area in 2004 by Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. It was also declared as an IBA by BirdLife in 2007. Ecotourism and awareness raising has been promoted throughout the range. Conservation action to date has focused on reducing the negative influences on breeding success, but it is recognised that for such a long-lived bird adult survival is also likely to be an important limiting factor on the population size.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success</strong><sup>7</sup>. <strong>Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development</strong><sup>7</sup><em>. </em><strong>Explore the possibility of reintroducing captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available)</strong><sup>4,6,9</sup>. <strong>Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey</strong><sup>20</sup>. <strong>Better link the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey</strong><sup>20</sup>. <strong>Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds</strong><sup>20</sup>. <strong>Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route</strong><sup>22</sup>.	eng
144742	distribution		<em>Geronticus eremita</em> occurs in <strong>Morocco </strong>at Souss-Massa National Park (Souss-Massa NP) (338 km<sup>2</sup>; three sub-colonies) and at nearby Tamri (one colony, half the breeding population)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with some movement of birds between these two. A tiny colony was discovered at Palmyra, <strong>Syria</strong> in 2002, which consisted of just two pairs which fledged five chicks, plus three subadults in 2007<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, following a severe population decline over the past 30 years<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The population now numbers at only four individuals after one was shot in Saudi Arabia<strong><sup>39</sup></strong>. The Syrian birds have raised 24 young since 2002 but breeding failed in 2008, probably due to predation by Ravens <em>Corvus corax</em><strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Searches in 2003 for further colonies within the Syrian steppes proved fruitless<strong><sup>11,19</sup></strong>. Satellite-tagging has revealed that this population migrates south through <strong>Jordan</strong> and <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>; six birds spent three weeks in Yemen (July-August), then wintering in central <strong>Ethiopia</strong>; migrating back to Syria, through <strong>Eritrea</strong>, <strong>Sudan</strong>, Saudi Arabia and Jordan in February<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>; four adults were also located in Ethiopia in the winters of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Records of untagged birds in Israel and Djibouti in late 2007 may relate to immature birds from the Syrian colony or birds from an as yet undiscovered population<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. In 1995, the Moroccan population was estimated at 300 individuals (74 breeding pairs that laid eggs)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 1998, it had declined to 59 pairs, following the mysterious death of 40 birds in 1996<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>, but by 2006 there were 95 pairs that laid eggs<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. Importantly, since 1980 there has been no overall decline in numbers at Souss-Massa NP<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Growing numbers, and good productivity (over 500 birds in the Moroccan population after the breeding season in recent years) give cause for optimism that former areas may soon be recolonised<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. A semi-wild population numbering 91 individuals in 2006 exists at Birecik, <strong>Turkey<sup>20</sup></strong>, where birds are free-flying for five months, breeding on natural nest sites and nest-boxes on cliffs, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating<strong><sup>15,20</sup></strong>. Three birds from the colony migrated in 2009 travelling via the Palmyra site. However, three were found dead in Jordan<strong><sup>35</sup></strong>. The Turkish population has been shown to be genetically distinct from the Moroccan population<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Historically, the species occurred across parts of southern Europe, and captive populations have been maintained in Austria (at Gr&uuml;nau, 22 birds, now breeding) and Spain, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. Around 30 birds have now been released in the La Janda area, Spain, and in 2008 a released pair laid two eggs, perhaps the first breeding of the species in the wild in Spain for 500 years<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>.	eng
144742	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The small Syrian population is migratory, but the larger western population is dispersive<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in colonies of up to 40 pairs, beginning in mid-February, and eggs are laid in March-April<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. Colonies are vacated in late June or early July, but migration and dispersal do not commence until August, with birds recorded on the breeding grounds as late as November<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. Some reside in Souss-Massa NP and around Tamri throughout the year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Juveniles tend to disperse over the longest distances<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>. Movements appear to be to some extent determined by rainfall<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. Migrating birds do not arrive in their Ethiopian winter quarters before December<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. All return to their breeding colonies in February and March<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. The species forages in loose groups with birds well spread out<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>, but commutes in flocks between the colony or roost and the feeding grounds<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. Winter flocks vary from a few individuals to over 100<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. Breeding performance is highly variable from one year to the next<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but does not appear to be related to rainfall in the vicinity of the colonies as previously reported elsewhere. It is suggested that coastal fogs in the Souss-Massa region may buffer the adverse impacts of low rainfall, and may in part account for the year-round residency of the birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are usually situated in rocky areas, cliffs and escarpments  in remote arid regions<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>. In the past castles, ruins and walls were used as nest sites even in urban areas<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. They are often located near the banks of rivers, along streams or on the coast<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. Birds may feed on dry ground and rocky slopes, as well as in wetlands, on coastal sandy strips, on river beds and in sandy banks on the sea shore<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. Roosts away from the breeding site can be in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes in fields<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>During the non-breeding season it may be found in mountain meadows, stubble fields, short grass, rocky semi-arid ground, and damp ground in lower areas of high plateaus<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>.<em> </em>It prefers areas with very sparse vegetation, but sometimes frequents pastures and cultivated fields<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It avoids tilled fields and pastures where the grass exceeds 25 cm in height<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. Birds that migrate to Ethiopia during the non-breeding season feed on high moors, wet meadows and by fast-flowing mountain streams and lake margins up to 3500 m elevation<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It has a broad diet, feeding on any available animal-life<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> including insects, arachnids, scorpions, earthworms, snails and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, lizards and snakes, small rodents and small birds, whether alive or dead<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. It will also feed on vegetation including berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>.	eng
144742	population		In Morocco in 2006, 102 pairs (ie 204 mature individuals) nested, out of 277 adults. After the breeding season the total number of birds may exceed 500 (C. Bowden <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Only five mature birds remained in Syria in 2006 (G. Serra <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The Turkish population now numbers 86, and is expected to rise to 100 in 2006 but these managed birds are excluded from the total estimate.	eng
144743	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has full legal protection in South Africa where it breeds in several protected areas. In Swaziland, Malolotja Nature Reserve holds a breeding colony. In Lesotho, it is recorded from Setlabathebe National Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to assess its status in Lesotho. Initiate range-wide monitoring to help clarify population trends. Protect as many of the larger breeding colonies and feeding areas as possible. Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than forestry, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144743	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geronticus calvus</em> is restricted to <strong>Lesotho</strong>, north-east <strong>South Africa</strong> and west <strong>Swaziland</strong>. The core range lies in the north-eastern Free State, Mpumalanga and the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. It was widespread in the Eastern Cape until the early 20th century, and possibly bred historically in the Western and Northern Cape, but there is no evidence for range contraction elsewhere. In South Africa, there are over 1,500 breeding pairs at over 100 colonies, although c.25% of the breeding population occurs at just five colonies. In Swaziland, there are three main breeding colonies, supporting at least 10 pairs each, and a total population of c.110 birds. In Lesotho, the population, with several known breeding colonies, is probably in the low thousands. South African populations may have increased between the late 1960s and the early 1980s, but the Lesotho population may be declining. It has been suggested that 8,000-10,000 birds (including 2,000 breeding pairs) exist.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144743	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers high rainfall (>700&#160;mm&#160;p.a.), sour and alpine grasslands, characterised by an absence of trees and a short, dense grass sward. It also occurs in lightly wooded and relatively arid country. It forages preferentially on recently burned ground, also using unburnt natural grassland, cultivated pastures, reaped maize fields and ploughed areas. It has a varied diet, mainly consisting of insects and other terrestrial invertebrates. It has high nesting success on safe, undisturbed cliffs.</p>	eng
144743	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Barnes (2000) estimated a total population of 8,000-10,000 birds (including 2,000 breeding pairs i.e. 4,000 mature individuals). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144743	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats include human interference with breeding colonies and habitat loss through commercial afforestation, intensive crop farming, open-cast mining, acid rain and dense human settlement. Pesticide contamination is a potential threat as is exploitation for traditional medicinal/ceremonial purposes in Lesotho. Several predatory bird species have been recorded raiding colonies for adults and young.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144744	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophotibis cristata</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is widespread and locally common, occurring in all types of native forest from sea-level to 2,000 m, including 44 Important Bird Areas (52% of the national total)<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. In the east it seems relatively adaptable, having been recorded in secondary woodland habitats such as relict trees in and around vanilla and oil-palm plantations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but only where these are close to areas of primary habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It usually feeds in pairs on the forest floor, eating invertebrates and small vertebrates including frogs and reptiles<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it nests in large trees within the forest. A relatively large bird, with probably a rather small total population, it is universally known by hunters and others who live in forested areas, and is a favoured quarry species wherever it occurs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds are caught by traps and snares, and eggs, nestlings and even adults are taken off the nest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over-hunting may therefore threaten this species in the future. <br/></p>	eng
144744	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at 10,000 individuals (Byers <em>et al</em>. 1995). <br/></p>	eng
144745	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African migrant, making nomadic or partially migratory movements of several hundred kilometres to breed during the rains<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Populations north of the equator migrate northwards and those south of the equator migrate southwards<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, both groups returning towards the equator at the end of the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some populations (e.g. in southern Africa) may also be sedentary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species starts to breed during or shortly after the rains, although in flooded areas it also breeds during the dry season, usually nesting in large mixed-species colonies of 50-2,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a very gregarious species<strong><sup>2, </sup> foraging by day in groups of 2-20 birds, and occasionally in flocks of 100-300<sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, often flying more than 30 km away from the colony to feed<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species also roosts nightly in large numbers at breeding sites, on islets in rivers or flood-lands, on trees near dams, or in villages<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species mainly inhabits the margins of inland freshwater wetlands, sewage works<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, saltpans<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, farm dams<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, rivers in open forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, grasslands, and cultivated fields, as well as coastal lagoons, intertidal areas, offshore islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and mangroves<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (especially in the dry season)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also occur in more human environments such as farmyards, abattoirs and refuse dumps on the outskirts of towns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists largely of insects including grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, and aquatic beetles, although it will also take crustaceans, worms, molluscs, fish, frogs, lizards, small mammals, the eggs of Great White Pelican <em>Pelecanus onocrotalus</em> and crocodiles, nestling Cape Cormorants <em>Phalacrocorax capensis</em>, carrion, offal and seeds<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large platform of sticks and branches built in trees or bushes, or placed on the ground on rocky islands<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144745	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The population on Aldabra Island has declined due to hunting and disturbance by temporary workers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The eggs and young of this species are collected by local people in Madagascar<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144746	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Threskiornis</em> <em>melanocephalus </em>occurs in <strong>Japan</strong> (scarce non-breeding visitor), mainland <strong>China</strong> (probably breeds in Heilongjiang, but this is not confirmed; non-breeding visitors are rare along the east and south coasts, occasionally inland to Sichuan and Yunnan), <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) (regular winter visitor in small numbers with occasional summer records), <strong>Pakistan</strong> (scarce resident, principally in the Indus delta region), <strong>Nepal</strong> (frequent resident and summer visitor to the south-east), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally common in the west, scarce in the east; possibly increasing locally due to spread of man-made wetlands), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (common resident in the lowlands, particularly the dry zone), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (local visitor to coastal regions and the north-east), <strong>Philippines</strong> (rare non-breeding visitor to the south), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (uncommon but widespread non-breeding visitor, 730 counted in 1991), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly common resident, now uncommon winter visitor), Laos<strong> </strong>(only one record, a single bird prior to 1950), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (previously abundant breeder, now a few large colonies remaining, <strong>Cambodia</strong> (fairly common resident in early 1960s; now scarce and local with small numbers breeding around Tonle Sap), Peninsular Malaysia (formerly occurred and probably bred in the west, but few recent records), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (scarce non-breeding visitor to Sumatra and north Borneo, possibly breeding in Sumatra with c.2,000 birds estimated, numerous breeding colonies in Java early in twentieth century, but now local and declining. While the East Asian population is extremely small (<100)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, those in South-East Asia and South Asia probably number fewer than 10,000 individuals each<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It inhabits freshwater marshes, lakes, rivers, flooded grasslands, paddy fields, tidal creeks, mudflats, saltmarshes and coastal lagoons, usually in extreme lowlands, but occasionally up to 950 m, tending to be nomadic in response to water levels and feeding conditions. It is vulnerable to drainage, disturbance, pollution, agricultural conversion, hunting and collection of eggs and nestlings from colonies. <br/></p>	eng
144746	population	BirdLife International, 2008	<10,000 in S Asia; plus <10,000 in SE Asia (Byers <em>et al</em>. 1995); plus <100 in E Asia (Q. Wang<em> in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
144748	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144750	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas including Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary (documented breeding population), Preah Vihear Protected Forest, Mekong Ramsar site, Ang Trapeang Thmor, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Srepok Wilderness Area (part of the Mondulkiri Protected Forest), Integrated Farming and Biodiversity Areas, Cambodia, and Xe Pian National Protected Area (NPA), Laos. It is depicted on public awareness material distributed in Laos and Cambodia. The species is considered to be the most threatened large waterbird in South-East Asia and was a priority species during the designation of Cambodian IBAs and priority areas for conservation in the 'dry forest ecoregion' of South-East Asia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Research has been conducted into the species's foraging ecology and nesting in Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary and Western Siem Pang<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, Cambodia, and is planned for other areas. A nest protection scheme with incentives to local people for protecting nest-sites along the Mekong<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in the Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary is being established. A PhD studying the species's foraging ecology began in 2008. A community-managed ecotourism initiative has been established at Tmatboey.  As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Kry Masphal has begun to implement the following actions: 1. A proposal to establish a Protected Forest in Western Siem Pang has been prepared, reviewed, revised and approved by the Provincial Governor and the steering committee of Ministry Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries. The Governor of Stung Treng issued an official letter, and the steering committee of Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries have endorsed a draft sub-decree in support of the proposal to designate Western Siem Pang a Protected Forest<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. 2. The government have been lobbied to complete the notification process, including through producing a poster about the international importance of Western Siem Pang for conservation and distributing this to all relevant governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. Large information boards were placed in five key villages within the IBA to inform local people about development plans and threats to their land from proposed concessions. 3. Research and monitoring<strong> </strong>continues to be carried out, focusing on the foraging ecology of the species and examining the influence of traditional land management practices. 4. A Local Conservation Group<strong> </strong>at Western Siem Pang has been supported since August 2007, and conducts monthly patrols to the most important trapaengs to record key species and any illegal activities. A Site Support Group is being established in Lomphat Wildlife sanctuary in order to support monitoring activities of sanctuary. In 2009, one chain saw, 6.834 m<sup>3</sup> of luxury wood, four guns, and one ox-cart were confiscated and destroyed in Western Siem Pang as result of information provided by the patrol team<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Finalise the establishment of a Protected Forest in Western Siem Pang<sup>1</sup>. Continue monitoring the known populations in Siem Pang, Northern Plains and Mekong channel and in other parts of its range as well as researching the ecological requirements of the species<sup>1</sup>. Conduct further surveys in Borneo, central, northern and eastern Cambodia and the Satay area of Vietnam to quantify remaining populations, only in areas where conservation intervention is considered reasonable and there are grounds for considering a significant population might be found. Establish further protected areas or integrated conservation development projects covering landscape-level habitat tracts supporting populations, particularly in northern Cambodia and along the Mahakam river, East Kalimantan. Enforce strict protection at important sites. Promote widespread conservation awareness programmes aimed at reducing wetland disturbance and large waterbird exploitation in Indochina.</strong>	eng
144750	distribution		This species now occurs in northern and eastern <strong>Cambodia </strong>(at least 90% of the global population)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, extreme southern <strong>Laos</strong> and East Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was previously widely but patchily distributed across much of Thailand, Laos, south and central Vietnam and Cambodia, parts of Myanmar, Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and south-west Yunnan, China, but has declined dramatically during the 20th century. It is extinct in Thailand and there are no recent records from Myanmar; and it has been described as the most threatened large waterbird in South-East Asia based on the widespread declines observed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is almost certainly extinct as a breeding species in Vietnam and now only occurs as a rare non-breeding visitor. In Cambodia significant populations are known from Siem Pang District (173 individuals)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and along the Mekong river channel between Kratie and the Laos border (c.75-125 individuals)<strong><sup> 7</sup></strong>. In 2009, 12 nests were found in Western Siem Pang, 7 successfully, fledging a total of 14 chicks<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Tmatboey, in the Northern Plains, Cambodia, supports a population recorded at 15-20 birds at the end of the 2007 breeding season. Additional groups (1-10 birds each) have been recorded elsewhere, particularly from the south-eastern shore of the Tonle Sap lake, Srepok river and the O Te lowlands. A further 76 individuals were recently recorded at Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary in Ratanakiri<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and in Mondulkiri Province, the latter representing a southern extension of its current known range in the country<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and it might be found further south still in Kompong Cham province along the Mekong<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. Early dry season counts at Siem Pang have increased in recent years, from 23 in January 2003 and 33 in November 2004 to 70 in November 2005, 108 in November 2006<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and 173 in September 2009<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The reasons behind this apparent increase are unknown: it may result from improved survey effort or a greater abundance of feeding locations as a consequence of human habitat modification<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In Kalimantan, the population at the main locality along the Mahakam River was estimated at 30-100 individuals, but recent studies reveal a decline following extensive El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-derived forest fires<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144750	habitat		Wetlands and grassland, such as pools, marshes, open grasslands or watercourses including wide rivers with sand and gravel bars were formerly important for the species, however at least in Indochina deciduous dipterocarp forest (which is usually inundated during the wet season) now appears to be of major importance<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Trapaengs (seasonal pools) are particularly favoured during the dry season, with a shift to matrix sites such as fallow rice fields and the dipterocarp forest itself after rainfall events<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species has been recorded along large rivers such as the Mekong in Cambodia and on the Mahakam in Kalimantan. It is also been recorded from the mosaic of shrub and grasslands on the Tonle Sap floodplain. In Cambodia it has been recorded nesting during the dry season (December-April) on the edges of seasonally abandoned wet season rice paddy and in the Mekong channel. It has been observed feeding in soft substrates on the forest floor as well as at small waterbodies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; also in sediment formations in river channels. Amphibians were the most common prey type consumed by White shouldered Ibis.  Also important were molecrickets, which during the dry season occur in the mud at trapaengs. The other prey such as invertebrate, leeches, snails, and eels<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In South-East Asia the species may be associated with large ungulates which may help to create and maintain seasonal pools within the dry forest landscape<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and its preference for trapaengs with bare substrate and low vegetation supports this theory<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Large wild ungulates have now all but disappeared from the region, and the species may now be more closely associated with domestic livestock<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Available evidence gives no suggestion that the species undertakes major seasonal movements. White-shouldered Ibis aggregate into large flocks (max. count of 173 individuals in Siem Pang District, Cambodia<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>).	eng
144750	population		The Indonesian population was estimated at 30-100 individuals (BirdLife International 2001) but has apparently declined (S&ouml;zer and Nijman 2005). A nationwide coordinated count of the species in Cambodia in 2009 recorded at total of 310 individuals and is thought to be even larger (BirdLife International 2009). Based on this survey data, a minimum population of 330 individuals seems appropriate.	eng
144751	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs at least seasonally in Xe Pian National Biodiversity Conservation Area (NBCA) and Dong Khanthung proposed NBCA, Laos, and Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, Preah Vihear Protected Forest and Kulen Prumptep Wildlife Sanctuary in Cambodia. It is depicted on public awareness materials in Laos and Cambodia as part of an ongoing campaign to reduce hunting of large waterbirds. A predator-exclusion experiment in 2005-2006 found that nests with predator-exclusion devices (a smooth, hard plastic belt fixed around the base of the nest tree) were more likely to survive than those without<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Ecotourism projects in the Tmatboey region should benefit this species as well as White-shouldered Ibis.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct further surveys to locate and quantify remaining populations in Laos and Cambodia. Investigate its breeding requirements, demography and seasonal movements. Establish further protected areas encompassing large tracts of habitat found to support populations of the species, including strict protection of suitable permanent wetlands, especially in the dry season. Consolidate and promote further public awareness initiatives to reduce hunting of large waterbirds and wetland disturbance. At key sites, designate some suitable pools as for use only by ibises. Ensure some pools remain wet during the dry season (e.g. by preventing people from draining them, and potentially artificially managing pools by increasing their depth)</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Protect and install anti-predator belts on all nest-trees, and protect potential nest trees</strong><sup>3</sup>. Monitor abundance of frogs, eels and mole-crickets in the dry season<sup>3</sup>.	eng
144751	distribution		<em>Thaumatibis gigantea</em> is confined to northern <strong>Cambodia</strong>, where it is probably still fairly widespread but extremely rare; with a few birds surviving in extreme southern <strong>Laos</strong>, and a recent record from Yok Don National Park, <strong>Vietnam</strong><sup>1</sup>. Its historical range spanned southern Vietnam and south-east and peninsular Thailand, where it is now extinct. Available data suggests that it has a patchy distribution across Cambodia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some areas of high density exist (Preah Vihear Protected Forest and probably Siem Pang), whilst other areas appear to have relatively low density populations, which may be clustered in some cases (Kulen Prumtep Wildlife Sanctuary, Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area and probably Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Systematic surveys have yet to be done in the Mondulkiri Protected Forest and Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary - the latter in particular may support higher densities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Together, this data suggests a minimum estimate of 100 pairs (20-30 at each of the two high density sites, 5-10 at each of seven low density sites)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Further surveys might be expected to confirm other localities in suitable habitat areas, particularly in Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary, the O Te lowlands and adjacent deciduous dipterocarp forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144751	habitat		Singles, pairs or small parties occur in marshes, pools, wide rivers and seasonal water-meadows in open, predominantly deciduous, dipterocarp lowland forest, although it seems to be dependent on soft mud around seasonal pools (trapaengs). Its diet comprises a variety of invertebrates, crustaceans, small amphibians and reptiles. It frequently feeds in soft mud, but also forages on dry substrates. It nests in trees, with a preference for large <em>Dipterocarpus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, generally more than 4 km from human habitation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Females almost always lay two eggs per clutch<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pools and seasonally flooded grassland with earthworm mounds are important in the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to be largely resident, but apparently wanders widely in response to local disturbance and seasonal water-levels.	eng
144751	population		T. Clements in litt. (2007) has compiled all recent records of this species and has commented "Together, this data suggests a minimum estimate of 100 pairs (20-30 at each of the two high density sites, 5-10 at each of seven low density sites)"	eng
144752	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in China. Since the discovery of nesting birds in 1981, emergency regulations have been enacted to prohibit logging, the use of agrochemicals in rice-fields and the use of firearms for hunting. In 1987, 51 nest trees were declared state property and protected. At Yangxian, nest-sites are patrolled and guarded during the breeding season. Some rice-fields are maintained as feeding-sites in winter and loach are introduced to them.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Support intensive ecological studies of wild birds using radio telemetry. Establish protected areas encompassing wetlands along the Han Shui river, where it has been observed feeding in recent years. Examine the feasibility of reintroduction to some of the former range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144752	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nipponia nippon</em> historically nested in the Russian Far East, Japan, and China, and was a non-breeding visitor to North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan (China), but is now extinct in almost all of its former range. The only known remaining population is in Shaanxi province in central mainland <strong>China</strong>, where it is a localised breeder. In 1981 only seven birds (four adults and three chicks) were known in the wild. By June 2002, the wild population was maintaining a steady increase and numbered 140 birds, and the captive population (in two breeding centres) was over 130 birds. The most recent population estimate is of 360 wild individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it is unclear whether this yet comprises 250 or more mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144752	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in areas with a combination of tall trees for nesting and roosting and wetlands or agricultural land for feeding. In winter, the main feeding habitats are rice-fields, river banks and reservoirs, mainly close to human settlements, and it appears to tolerate human activities in these areas. Current breeding sites are from 470-1,300 m, but historical information indicates lowlands may be optimal. It feeds on crabs, frogs, small fish (particularly loach), river snails, other molluscs and beetles.</p>	eng
144752	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population in 2006 numbered c. 500 individuals (Unshan 2007), but it is unclear whether this yet comprises 250 or more mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144752	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In its remaining range, the area of winter rice-fields has declined with conversion to dry wheat production, reducing the available area of feeding habitat. Most remaining rice-paddies are in mountain areas with poor irrigation facilities. Dissection has shown that 80% of birds found dead in the wild had very little food in their stomachs, and starvation (especially in winter) could be a significant cause of mortality. As the population increases and birds range more widely, controlling the use of agrochemicals at feeding-sites is likely to become more difficult. Birds are occasionally shot by hunters.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144753	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Palearctic breeding populations are fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may only travel short distances<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> while other populations are resident and nomadic or partially migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the north of its range the species breeds in the local spring (e.g. from April) but in the tropics the timing of breeding coincides with the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in monospecific colonies or in small monospecific groups amidst mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species forages singly or in small flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to 100 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and migrates in flocks of up to 100 individuals (Africa)<strong><sup>3, 4</sup></strong>. It is most active during the morning and evening (although in coastal areas it forages at low tide regardless of the time of day)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and often roosts communally up to 15 km away from feeding areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species shows a preference for extensive shallow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (less than 30 cm deep) wetlands with mud, clay or fine sand substrates, generally avoiding waters with rocky substrates, thick vegetation or swift currents<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits either fresh, brackish or saline<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong> marshes, rivers, lakes, flooded areas and mangrove swamps, especially those with islands for nesting or dense emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds) and scattered trees or srubs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (preferably willow <em>Salix </em>spp., oak <em>Quercus </em>spp. or poplar <em>Populus </em>spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also frequent sheltered marine habitats during the winter such as deltas, estuaries, tidal creeks and coastal lagoons<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects (e.g. waterbeetles, dragonflies, caddisflies, locusts and flies), molluscs, crustaceans, worms, leeches, frogs, tadpoles and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> up to 10-15 cm long<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also take algae or small fragments of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although these are possibly ingested accidentally with animal matter)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a platform of sticks and vegetation constructed on the ground on islands in lakes and rivers, or alternatively in dense stands of emergent vegetation (e.g. reedbeds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, bushes, mangroves or deciduous trees (e.g. willow <em>Salix </em>spp., oak <em>Quercus </em>spp. or poplar <em>Populus </em>spp.)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> up to 5 m above the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests in colonies within which neighbouring nests are usually placed 1-2 m apart or touching<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding colonies are sited within 10-15 km of feeding areas, often much less (although the species may also feed up to 35-40 km away)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144753	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat degradation through drainage and pollution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is especially affected by the disappearance of reed swamps due to agricultural and hydroelectric development<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over-fishing and disturbance have caused population declines in Greece<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and human exploitation of eggs and nestlings for food has threatened the species in the past<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144755	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> The migratory patterns of this species are poorly known<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, although it is likely to make nomadic movements in response to local rainfall rather than truly seasonal movements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding season varies throughout the range, and is also variable from year to year, being suspended in sites when the rains do not occur<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds during the dry season from West Africa to eastern Sudan, in the rains (or sometimes in the dry season) in East and central Africa, and in winter or early spring in southern Africa<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It nests colonially with other species<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong>, usually in groups of 5-20 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and occasionally in groups of up to 250 pairs or more<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains gregarious outside of the breeding season, usually in small parties of 3-30 individuals<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, roosting communally in trees or reedbeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and resting along the shores of inland shallow waters, sometimes in large numbers of up to 1000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits large, shallow inland waters such as lakes and rivers, seasonal and permanent pans, marshes, flood plains, sewage works<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, reservoirs and artificial ponds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, less often occurring at coastal lagoons, salt-pans, creeks and estuaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous, its diet consisting of small fish and aquatic invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as crayfish and water beetles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a flat oval platform of sticks and reeds situated over water on partly submerged trees, in bushes or reeds, on the ground on rocky islets<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or on rocky ledges<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species nests colonially in favoured nesting sites such as secluded lakes, river oxbows and islands of vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144755	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In Madagascar the species is seriously threatened by the destruction of breeding colonies at Lake Kinkony, Lake Bemamba, Lake Ihotry and Lake Alaotra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by the drainage of wetlands in some areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144756	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea and Japan. Breeding sites in North Korea, at Taegam-do, Unmu-do, Sonchonrap-do and Tok-do, are designated as seabird sanctuaries and sites in China have been declared as non-hunting areas. Protected wintering sites include Mai Po and Inner Deep Bay (Hong Kong), Xuan Thuy and Tien Hai (Vietnam), and Manko (Japan). An action plan was published in 1995 and workshops involving all major range countries were held in 1996 and 1997. Education material, satellite tracking and field survey results and management recommendation have been produced.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey coastal wetlands in China for additional wintering sites. Ensure full protection of the wintering site at Tainan (Taiwan), new breeding sites in China, important wetland sites along the western and southern coast of South Korea, and wintering sites at Hakata Bay and Ariake Bay, Japan. Develop management plans and education programmes for all sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144756	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platalea minor</em> breeds on islets off the west coast of <strong>North Korea</strong> and <strong>South Korea</strong>, and Liaoning province in mainland <strong>China</strong>. Birds have been reported in the Tumen estuary of <strong>Russia</strong>, but breeding has not been proven. The three major wintering sites are the Tsengwen estuary of <strong>Taiwan</strong>, the Deep Bay area of <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), and the Red River delta, <strong>Vietnam</strong><sup>2</sup>. It also winters in Cheju, South Korea, Kyushu and Okinawa, <strong>Japan</strong>, and Yancheng and Hainan, China, and there are recent records from <strong>Thailand</strong>, the <strong>Philippines </strong>and<strong> Macau</strong> (China). A total of 1,475 individuals were counted by the 2005 International Black-faced Spoonbill Census<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144756	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in mixed colonies on small islands. Breeding success is low. It winters on tidal mudflats. Satellite tracking has shown that birds wintering in Hong Kong and Taiwan migrate along the coast of eastern China to northern Jiangsu, then over the Yellow Sea to the Korean peninsula.</p>	eng
144756	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Yu and Wong (2006). <br/></p>	eng
144756	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction is probably the biggest threat. The main wintering grounds are threatened by industrial development, particularly a key site in Taiwan and also in China, and reclamation, especially in South Korea, Japan and China. Economic development in China has converted many coastal wetlands into aquaculture ponds and industrial estates. Pollution is a major threat to birds wintering in Hong Kong. An outbreak of botulism at one of the major wintering sites killed 73 birds from December 2002 to February 2003<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Increasing levels of disturbance and also hunting are threats in China and Vietnam. Fishers in China collect waterbird eggs at a nesting site. <br/></p>	eng
144759	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The key site in Tanzania (the Moyowosi/Kigosi/Ugalla complex, with c.2,000 individuals seasonally) is now the country's first Ramsar Site<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the Sudd swamps population size and trend<sup>3,9. Identify key areas for monitoring and protection. Create community-based environmental awareness programmes focussed on generating shoebill-pride to discourage hunting.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144759	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Balaeniceps rex</em> is widely but very locally distributed in large swamps from Sudan to Zambia. Approximate national totals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> are estimated to be: southern <strong>Sudan </strong>(5,000+), <strong>Uganda </strong>(100-150), <strong>Burundi</strong> (unknown)<strong>, </strong>western <strong>Tanzania </strong>(200-500)<strong>, Malawi</strong> (unknown) and <strong>Zambia </strong>(<500), <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>DRC (<1,000), <strong>Central African Republic</strong> (irregular), <strong>Rwanda </strong>(<50)<strong> and Ethiopia </strong>(<50). In 1997, the population was estimated to be 12,000-15,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but a more recent review makes a conservative estimate of 5,000-8,000 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. This figure may prove too low, depending on research into the Sudan populations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/>   <br/></p>	eng
144759	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers seasonally flooded marshes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> with dense vegetation and areas of floating vegetation, often formed by papyrus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144759	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A recent estimate puts the total population at 5,000-8,000 individuals (T. Dodman <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). A total population estimate of less than 10,000 individuals is supported by Dinesen and Baker (2006). <br/></p>	eng
144759	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Over most of its range, it is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, disturbance, hunting, and capture for the bird trade<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. In Zambia, fire and drought threaten habitat (especially in Bangweulu, where a decline is apparent)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, there is some evidence for trapping and persecution<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and nests are trampled by large herbivores feeding in the swamps<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Conflict in Rwanda and DRC has disrupted protected areas (e.g. Akagera National Park) that support the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; for example, the proliferation of firearms has greatly facilitated hunting of this species. In Sudan, its stronghold, it has been said to be "very much endangered by destruction of papyrus swamps by cattle and fire"<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Between 1952 and 1980 the area of the Sudd swamps of southern Sudan (its current stronghold) increased<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> from 6,700 km<sup>2</sup> to 19,200 km<sup>2</sup>. This habitat is now threatened by impending drainage due to plans for the Jonglei Canal<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144760	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Northern populations of this species are fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and travel via important stop-over sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other populations are sedentary, dispersive<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> or nomadic, flying over land to seek suitable feeding locations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species nests in large colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 200 to 40,000 pairs<strong><sup>3, 4, 5</sup></strong> (occasionally with other species such as Dalmatian Pelican <em>Pelecanus crispus</em>)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, breeding in the spring in temperate zones, in all months of the year in Africa and from February to April in India<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually fishes in flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 8-12 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (up to 123)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and migrates in large flocks of 50-500 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species regularly flies long distances from breeding or roosting colonies to feed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mostly fishing in the early-morning and early-evening<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species is associated with relatively large, warm, shallow fresh, brackish, alkaline or saline lakes, lagoons<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, broad rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, deltas<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, estuaries and coasts of landlocked seas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species requires secure areas<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong> of extensive reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, wet swamps, mudflats and sandbanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or gravel and rocky substrates<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong> for nesting on<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is entirely piscivorous, preferentially taking fish of between 300 and 600 g in weight<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> It nests on the ground either on a pile of sticks and vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or in a simple shallow scrape<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single- or mixed-species colonies (e.g. with Dalmatian Pelican <em>Pelecanus crispus</em>)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with a distance between neighbouring nests of c.70-80 cm<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for nesting sites that are inaccessible to ground predators<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In the Palearctic Region the installation of floating rafts or wooden platforms as safe nesting sites, and the stabilisation of natural nesting areas by reconstructing islands or installing nylon-encased concrete revetments have been successful measures for increasing breeding success<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Erecting markers on electricity powerlines or (preferably) burying the powerlines has been successful in significantly reducing deaths due to collision<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Installing a series of horizontal strings spaced at intervals over aquaculture ponds is also a successful measure in preventing the species from depredating farmed fish<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/>. <br/></p>	eng
144760	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat destruction through drainage<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 8</sup></strong>, the divergence of rivers for irrigation<strong><sup>2, </sup></strong>7, agriculture development and industry<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also subject to climatic fluctuations that have a strong influence over water-levels in wetlands: floods leading to the inundation of nesting sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and lowering water-levels leading to the death of fish due to increased water salinity<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by persecution<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and hunting for sport because of its (minimal) depredation of fish from fish-farms<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It also suffers mortality due to collisions with electric powerlines during migration, dispersal or on its wintering grounds and is often found drowned in fishing nets<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, 8 (e.g. from tourism) threatens breeding colonies<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and pesticides, heavy metal contamination and disease could have devastating effects on large colonies in the future<strong><sup>1, 8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> Adults of this species are hunted and sold for food at markets in Egypt<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144761	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species makes little known<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> dispersive movements<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> related to water conditions<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It is locally nomadic in southern Africa in response to changing wetland conditions<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and western African populations make northward movements into sub-Saharan steppe during the wet season, returning southwards in the dry season<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>. The species breeds all year round, although most start late in the wet season<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong>. It is gregarious both during breeding and non-breeding<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, nesting in small groups or larger loose colonies of between 20 and 500 pairs<strong><sup>1, 2, 7</sup></strong> (often alongside other species<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>). It roosts nocturnally in groups<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is more of a solitary feeder, preferring to fish singly or in small loose groups of less than 30 individuals<strong><sup>3, 4, 5</sup></strong>. It is chiefly diurnally active, especially during the morning and evening, although it may also fish on moonlit nights<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits a wide range of aquatic habitats, but prefers to feed in quiet backwaters and weed-grown lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> where there is shallow water and emergent vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, generally avoiding steep, vegetated lake margins<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It shows a preference for freshwater lakes, swamps, large slow-flowing rivers, and seasonal pools<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>, but also frequents reservoirs<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, seasonally flooded land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and flood-plains near river mouths<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It may occur on alkaline and saline lakes and lagoons<strong><sup>2, 3, 4, 5</sup></strong>, and can sometimes be found along the coast in bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and estuaries<strong><sup>2, 3, 5</sup></strong> (although seldom on open seashore)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species tends to roost and breed in trees (e.g. mangroves), but will also roost on sandy islands, cliffs, coral reefs and sand-dunes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nesting trees are often killed by repeated nesting, which forces breeding colonies to move (although birds will usually not move far)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet of this species consists entirely of fish (of any size up to 450 g, although usually in the range of 80-290 g)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with cichlids (especially <em>Haplochromis</em> and <em>Tilapia</em>) being preferred<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species nests colonially in trees, reeds or low bushes along waterfronts<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> as well as (less often) on the ground on sandy islands and in mangroves<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. The nest is small and constructed of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and may be situated at elevations of 10-50 m above the ground<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A single tree may contain many nests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> that can be very close together (often touching)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and a single pair will refurbish and re-use the same nest from year to year if it has not collapsed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144761	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss in KwaZulu-Natal, as many suitable pans and flood-plains are being altered through drainage and cultivation, and the natural flooding regime of pans in the Pongolo system has been altered by the Jozini Dam<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In southern Africa disturbance of the species is increasing at estuaries as these areas become more intensively used and developed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to bioaccumulation of toxins in their body tissue, which may lead to a decline in reproductive success<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Destruction of nesting trees due to logging activities may be a local problem<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144762	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. Conservation efforts have reduced the impact of the major threats in Europe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Marking and dismantling of power-lines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the provision of breeding platforms in Turkey and Bulgaria and rafts in Greece, together with wardening<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and education programmes at key sites, have reduced mortality and increased breeding success. A European action plan was published in 1996.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor breeding, wintering numbers and ecological changes at key sites. Survey potential wintering grounds in central and east Asia. Sustainably manage wetlands. Establish wardened non-intrusion zones around breeding colonies. Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cable. Seek alternatives to traditional use of pelican bills in Mongolia<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Legally protect the species and its habitat in range states. Conduct public awareness campaigns. <br/></p>	eng
144762	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pelecanus crispus</em> breeds in eastern Europe and east-central Asia, in <strong>Georgia</strong>, <strong>F.Y.R. Macedonia</strong>,<strong> Serbia and Montenegro</strong>, <strong>Bosnia and Herzegovina</strong>, <strong>Albania</strong>, <strong>Greece</strong>, <strong>Romania</strong>, <strong>Bulgaria</strong>, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Ukraine</strong>, <strong>Azerbaijan</strong>, <strong>Armenia</strong>, <strong>Turkey</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong>, <strong>Turkmenistan</strong>, <strong>Uzbekistan</strong>, <strong>Kazakhstan</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>. European breeders winter in the eastern Mediterranean countries, Russian and central Asian breeders in Iran, Iraq and the Indian subcontinent, and Mongolian birds along the east coast of China<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, including Hong Kong. Following massive declines during the 19th and 20th centuries, numbers have stabilised between 10,000-20,000 individuals (including c.4,000-5,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and several colonies are increasing<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The majority of birds breed in the countries of the former Soviet Union (2,700-3,500 pairs)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, although the largest colony is at Lake Mikri Prespa, Greece, with nearly 1,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Mongolian population continues to decline and is "almost extinct"<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144762	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly at inland, freshwater wetlands but also at coastal lagoons and river deltas<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, where it breeds in colonies on islands in large reedbeds<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong> or in the open<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144762	population	BirdLife International, 2008	4,350-4,800 individuals in Black Sea and Mediterranean; 6,000-9,000 individuals in SE Asia and S Asia (both estimates from Crivelli <em>et al</em>. (2000), updated by unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International (2006); 50 individuals in E. Asia (Mix and Braunlich 2000, Simba Chan <em>in litt</em>. 2005) <br/></p>	eng
144762	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Former declines were primarily caused by wetland drainage, shooting and persecution by fishers<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. Continuing threats include disturbance from tourists and fishers, wetland alteration and destruction, water pollution, collision with overhead power-lines and over-exploitation of fish stocks<strong><sup>3,5,7</sup></strong>. Hunting by herders (for traditional use of bill) continues to threaten the Mongolian population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144763	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In India, several key breeding colonies are in protected areas and some local communities have pelican conservation initiatives. In Cambodia, the breeding colonies at Prek Toal and Moat Khla/Boeng Chhma are core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at Prek Toal have been in place since the late 1990s. 8 out of 15 nesting sites in Tamil Nadu are protected. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey colonies in Cambodia and any remaining in Myanmar. Afford strict protection to important nesting colonies and key feeding-sites. Promote strict control of pesticide use in important feeding areas. Continue and strengthen on-going conservation actions at the Prek Toal colony, Tonle Sap lake. Draft and enforce new legislation pertaining to large waterbird colony conservation around Tonle Sap lake. Expand conservation awareness programmes at key sites. Monitor the population for signs of avian influenza. <br/></p>	eng
144763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pelecanus philippensis</em> was formerly common across much of Asia, but suffered a widespread decline. However, owing to protection and increased knowledge its estimated population has been revised upwards from a low of 5,500-10,000 birds in 2002 to an estimated 13,000-18,000 individuals in 2006. Known breeding populations are now confined to <strong>India,</strong> <strong>Sri Lanka </strong>and<strong> Cambodia</strong>. The Indian population<strong> </strong>is thought to exceed 5,000 birds in the south owing to increases resulting from improved protection of the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, plus c.3,000 in Assam<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In southern India there are 21 known breeding colonies in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. One of these at Kokkare Bellur, Karnataka, has doubled in size in recent years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Sri Lanka c.5,000 birds were thought to breed, possibly overlapping with the southern Indian populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, recent evidence from Sri Lanka suggests a breeding population of fewer than 1,000 pairs (counts from the three known colonies totalled just 400 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). In South-East Asia an estimated 1,000-1,500 breeding pairs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> occur at Prek Toal on the Tonle Sap lake. This population is thought to be increasing following protection of breeding birds at the site beginning in 2002<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It probably breeds in small numbers on Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and may also breed in <strong>Myanmar</strong><sup>5</sup>. There are recent records of migrants in <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Vietnam</strong>, but it no longer occurs in the Philippines and China. Numbers recorded in <strong>Thailand</strong> have increased in recent years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This is thought to be as a result of improved protection of the nesting colonies in Cambodia.<em> <br/></p>	eng
144763	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It inhabits a variety of deep and shallow wetlands, both man-made and natural, freshwater and saline, open and forested. It breeds colonially in tall trees or palms and feeds in open water, primarily on fish. Some populations appear to be sedentary. <br/></p>	eng
144763	population	BirdLife International, 2008	S. Subramanya (<em>in litt.</em> 2006) has suggested that the population in South India now exceeds 5,000 birds owing to increases resulting from improved protection of the species. This would imply a total population of perhaps 7,000-10,000 individuals in South Asia, and 13,000-18,000 individuals globally. <br/></p>	eng
144763	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A crucial factor in its decline was the loss of the Sittang valley breeding colony in Myanmar through deforestation and loss of feeding-sites. Key threats are a combination of human disturbance at breeding colonies and wetlands, extensive felling of nesting trees, hunting and poaching of eggs and chicks. Additional threats include loss of important feeding-sites through siltation, agricultural intensification, aquaculture development, drainage and conversion of wetlands, declines in wetland productivity as a result of pesticide use, and over-exploitation of fisheries. There is some persecution resulting from competition between the birds and fishers. A potential but as yet unqualified threat is posed by avian influenza<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
144766	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Survey to assess population size. Regularly monitor at certain sites throughout its range to determine population trends, particularly after El Ni&ntilde;o years. Restrict access to important breeding colonies. Study the interactions between this species and the fisheries.	eng
144766	distribution		This species<em> </em>is restricted to the coast of central <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>. Although the population may currently exceed 500,000 mature individuals<sup>1</sup>, this is a fraction of former numbers and numbers fluctuate greatly in association with El Ni&ntilde;o, and with numbers of schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>.	eng
144766	habitat		It breeds in large colonies on rocky coasts, feeding in shallow offshore waters along the coast on small schooling fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144766	population		The most recent population estimate places it at 100,000-1,000,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2006).	eng
144769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008). Previously Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001) estimated 100,000 individuals.	eng
144771	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I and II. A large-scale, integrated captive-breeding and reintroduction programme, managed by The Peregrine Fund (at the World Center for Birds of Prey), Los Angeles Zoo, Oregan Zoo and San Diego Wild Animal Park is preventing extinction in the wild. The success of the scheme has seen an increase from one chick hatched in 1988 to an annual hatch of 25-30 birds in recent years<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The genetic diversity of the population has been maintained through careful distribution and representation of founder genotypes at each captive-breeding facility and reintroduction site. Consequently the current population retains 99.5% of the likely heterozygosity of a wild panmictic population<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. "Aversion training" to avoid powerlines and humans is practised<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A total of 154 condors were released into the wild between 1992 and 2003<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Clean carcasses are provided for reintroduced birds to help prevent lead-poisoning, and community education programmes aim to minimise persecution<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. A huge step has been taken towards eliminating the threat of lead-poisong with the signing in 2007 of the "Ridley-Tree Condor Preservation Act" which requires the use of non-lead ammunition within the species's range in California and was implemented on 1 July 2008. As of February 2009, 99% of hunters were compliant with the act. The Arizona Game and Fish Department is now distributing safer lead-substitute bullets free of charge to hunters within the foraging range of the condors, and similar programmes are being initiated in California<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Publicity measures include a website and near-weekly condor articles in local newspapers<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In 2008 an agreement was struck between the Tejon Ranch and five conservation organisations to preserve 240,000 acres of the 270,000 acre property as an open space in return for not opposing the development of the remaining land, providing a vast amount of foraging habitat for the condor. The company were convinced to pull back development on several ridges that condors have historically used for nesting<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor population trends. Continue the recovery plan to achieve two disjunct, self-sustaining populations of 150 individuals comprising 15 breeding pairs</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Identify further potential release sites in southern New Mexico</strong><sup>1,2,6</sup>. <strong>Resume release programme in Mexico. Maintain and increase the productivity of the captive population</strong><sup>1,6</sup>. <strong>Continue releases of captive-bred birds</strong><sup>1,6</sup>. <strong>Maintain suitable habitat</strong><sup>1,6</sup>. <strong>Continue and expand information and education programmes</strong><sup>1,6</sup>. <strong>Continue supplying alternative lead-free ammunition to deer hunters. Advocate strongly for a ban on lead ammunition and lobby the Fish and Game commission to ensure legislation is passed.</strong>	eng
144771	distribution		This species declined rapidly throughout its historic range from British Colombia to Baja California during the 19th century and reportedly disappeared from outside California, <strong>USA</strong>, in 1937<strong><sup>2,25</sup></strong>. The population had dropped to an all-time low of just 22 birds by 1981, and in 1987, the species became extinct in the wild when the last of the six wild individuals was captured to join a captive-breeding recovery programme involving 27 birds<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Due to intensive captive breeding efforts the population increased to 223 birds by August 2003, comprising 138 in captivity, and 85 reintroduced in California and northern Arizona<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Breeding in the wild resumed in 2002, and by February 2009 56 nesting attempts had been recorded, from which at least 19 chicks have fledged and survived<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. By December 2006, there were 130 wild birds at five release sites<strong><sup>15,19</sup></strong>, including at least 44 that were over six years old (the age at which breeding commences at the very earliest)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and in 2009, the total population stood at 149 individuals in captivity and 172 in the wild, primarily in southern California<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. The reintroduction programme continues and has expanded its geographic coverage, with six birds released into the Sierra de San Pedro Martir in Baja California, <strong>Mexico</strong> in 2002<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A new release site in Baja was established in October 2003, and in December 2003 birds were released at another new site in California at the Pinnacles National Monument where one pair were observed raising chicks in 2009<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. Releases in New Mexico have been abandoned due to lack of funding, and release priorities have shifted to identifying sites and partnerships in southern Sierra Nevada, California<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The regular movements of the Arizona birds are confined to Coconnino County (Arizona) and Kane County (Utah), although a one individual wandered north to Flaming Gorge (Wyoming) and localities in Colorado before returning to the Grand Canyon area. The California birds occur regularly in San Bernardino, Los Angeles, Ventura, Kern, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterrey, San Benito, and probably Santa Cruz counties. The Baja California birds are largely confined to the Sierra de San Pedro Martir<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, where efforts are ongoing to increase the population to an anticipated carrying capacity of c.20 pairs<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The first chick born in Mexico for over 75 years hatched in April 2007. It is hoped these birds will range widely enough to be effectively connected with birds in the southern USA, and a recent success was recorded when a bird from the Baja population was seen in San Diego County in April 2007. Currently 19 chicks have fledged in the wild since reintroductions began<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>, though no second generation birds have yet matured to breeding age, hence no population can be deemed sustainable and without a ban on lead-shot within the condor's range none are likely to become so<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>.	eng
144771	habitat		Its range includes rocky, open-country scrubland, coniferous forest and oak savanna<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Cliffs, rocky outcrops or large trees are used as nest sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  It scavenges on the carcasses of large mammals and also feed on the carcasses of small mammals, but perhaps only where there are sufficient numbers at one site<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. Released birds have become increasingly independent in finding food and may range more than 400 km from release sites<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.	eng
144771	population		There are currently 104 adults in the wild that are old enough to be breed, and 44 have produced viable offspring (J. Grantham <em>in litt.</em> 2010). As "mature individuals" as defined by IUCN only includes individuals in the wild that are currently capable of reproduction, and "re-introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals", the current global population <em>sense</em> IUCN is 44 mature individuals.	eng
144772	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vultur gryphus</em> occurs throughout the Andes, in <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, <strong>Peru</strong>, <strong>Bolivia</strong>, <strong>Paraguay</strong> south to <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong><sup>3</sup>. It is found principally over open grassland and alpine regions up to 5,000 m, descending to lowland desert regions in Chile and Peru<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and over southern-beech forests in Patagonia. It is threatened mostly in the north of its range, and is exceedingly rare in Venezuela and Colombia, where a re-introduction programme using captive-bred individuals is in operation<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. A similar project is underway in Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 2000, declines have continued in Ecuador (c.65 birds in five disjunct populations remain<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), Peru and Bolivia. Populations in Venezuela (<30 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and Colombia may be maintained by reintroduction and feeding, but in Colombia at least the population may still be declining. The status of remaining populations is difficult to determine because its mortality, breeding frequency and success are so poorly known<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is clearly adapted for exceptionally low mortality and reproductive output, and is therefore highly vulnerable to human persecution, which persists over most of its range owing to alleged attacks on livestock<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix II. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008).	eng
144775	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Colonies are located in at least five protected areas on Sumatra and one each on Java and Sulawesi. At Tonle Sap lake, large waterbird breeding colonies are designated core areas of the Biosphere Reserve, are proposed as Ramsar Sites, and have received active monitoring and improved enforcement of regulations since 1997. In Cambodia, posters depicting the species are used in promoting public environmental awareness.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys and research to locate additional colonies, monitor seasonal movements and clarify its ecological requirements. Monitor numbers and breeding success at all known important nesting colonies. Establish further protected areas encompassing important nesting colonies and feeding areas, particularly in the Riau, Jambi and Sumatra Selatan provinces of Sumatra. Promote public-awareness initiatives highlighting its conservation importance.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144775	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mycteria cinerea</em> occurs in <strong>Cambodia</strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> and the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Sulawesi and Buton, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Its population is estimated at 5,550 individuals. The majority are in Indonesia, with c.5,000 on Sumatra and c.400 in west Java. There are estimated to be c.10 individuals in Malaysia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and 20-30 at Tonle Sap lake, Cambodia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a vagrant in Thailand and Vietnam. <br/></p>	eng
144775	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a predominantly coastal resident in Indonesia and Malaysia, inhabiting mangroves and adjacent, less saline, swamps. It forages on tidal mudflats, in saline pools, freshwater marshes, fishponds and rice-fields. Birds only occur inland in flooded forest around Tonle Sap lake in Cambodia, from where they disperse in the wet season. </p>	eng
144775	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Silvius and Verheugt (1989) estimated 5,000 individuals in Sumatra in the late 1980s, and M. Silvius (<em>in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002) estimated 100-150 individuals in Java. The total in Indonesia is now likely to be <5,000 individuals (D. Li and Asian Waterbird Census network <em>in litt</em>. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006). Population in Malaysia estimated to be 10 in 2005 (Li in prep.), with 20-30 in Cambodia (H. Chamnan <em>in litt</em>. 2004 to Wetlands International  2006). Overall population therefore likely to total c.5,000 individuals or fewer. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144775	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Indonesia, tidal forests are threatened by agricultural conversion and development schemes, particularly large-scale fish farms and tidal rice cultivation, logging and related disturbance. Hunting for food and trade also exerts a significant pressure throughout its range. In 1989, 40-50 birds were shipped to zoos across South-East Asia. Persecution and disturbance at nesting colonies are thought to be the main threat in Malaysia. In Cambodia, exploitation of waterbird eggs and chicks and snaring of adults, for food and trade, coupled with the increasing likelihood of conversion of flooded forest for agriculture, threaten the suspected Tonle Sap lake breeding colonies. Poisoning may be another significant, as yet unquantified, threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144776	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species makes irregular migratory, partially migratory or nomadic movements within Africa<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> to areas where changing water levels increase fish availability<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Some populations are also largely sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding is seasonal and starts whenever food is most abundant according to local ecological conditions (e.g. when fish become concentrated in small wetlands or marshes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, this may either be towards the end of the rains or during the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially, often with other species<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>, usually in small groups of 10-20 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (exceptionally as many as 50 pairs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a gregarious species but never aggregates into very large flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, being more often observed in pairs or small flocks of up to 50 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. At night it forms communal roosts in favoured roosting sites (e.g. sandbanks or trees), which may attract individuals from a wide area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits a variety of wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with shallow water 10-40 cm deep for feeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and sandbanks or trees for roosting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It frequents large swamps, the margins of rivers and lakes, lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, large marshes, small pools<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flooded grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, alkaline lakes, reservoirs, waterholes and rice-paddies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, less commonly foraging on marine mudflats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in tidal pools along beaches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or in estuaries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species generally avoids areas of large-scale flooding and is rare in forested areas (although it may occur in wooded savanna)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of small aquatic prey such as frogs, small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquatic insects, worms, crustaceans and occasionally small mammals and birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is positioned in small trees over water or high up in larger trees on dry land<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Accacia</em> spp., <em>Bombax</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or baobabs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). The species nests colonially in single- or mixed-species groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with up to 10-20 pairs per tree<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (occasionally up to 50 pairs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, neighbouring nests usually spaced 1-3 m apart<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144777	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mycteria leucocephala</em> occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (scarce; mainly confined to the Indus delta region), <strong>Nepal</strong> (rare in terai; mainly a summer visitor), <strong>India</strong> (widespread and locally common resident), <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (former resident, now a straggler to coastal regions), <strong>Sri Lanka</strong> (locally abundant, particularly in the dry zone), <strong>China </strong>(previously a common summer visitor in south, probably breeding, but now rare and possibly extinct), <strong>Myanmar </strong>(former resident in central region and visitor throughout; current status unknown but clearly rare), <strong>Thailand</strong> (previously common breeder in south, now on verge of extinction, small numbers recorded sporadically elsewhere), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously widespread, now rare), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (formerly widespread resident, now a rare non-breeding visitor), <strong>Cambodia</strong> (local resident, minimum of several hundred pairs breeding at Tonle Sap) and Peninsular Malaysia<strong> </strong>(previously regular, now a vagrant). It frequents freshwater marshes, lakes and reservoirs, flooded fields, rice paddies, freshwater swamp forest, river banks, intertidal mudflats and saltpans. There are an estimated 15,000 individuals in South Asia and fewer than 10,000 in South-East Asia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with populations declining throughout. Although it is considered one of the most numerous and secure of Asian storks, this is more a reflection of the rarity and endangerment of most storks in the region, than the security of this species. The increasing impact of habitat loss, disturbance, pollution and hunting of adults and collection of eggs and nestlings from colonies is cause for concern. <br/></p>	eng
144777	population	BirdLife International, 2008	15,000 individuals in South Asia; <10,000 in SE Asia (both estimates from Perennou <em>et al.</em> 1994). <br/></p>	eng
144779	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African trans-equatorial migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> making movements that are triggered by the rains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds during in the rains when snails (its main prey items) are most readily available and nests in colonies of various sizes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> often with other species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting may only occur in years when local food supplies are plentiful however, so may not occur regularly at the same site<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species feeds in loose groups<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> that may contain up to 50 well-dispersed individuals (flocks of over 7,000 may also occur in some seasons)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It migrates in flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and roosts communally in trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits freshwater wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with shallow waters and a large abundance of aquatic molluscs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> including marshes, swamps, rice-fields, flood-plains, the backwaters and margins of lakes or rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, ponds and streams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also frequent moist savanna or burnt grassland as well as occasionally forest clearings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, coastal mudflats and mangrove swamps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> In many regions the species may depend entirely upon molluscs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as aquatic snails (e.g. <em>Pila</em> spp. or <em>Lanistes ovum</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and freshwater mussels (<em>Ampullaria</em> spp.)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Other prey items taken include frogs, crabs, worms, fish and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. locusts and beetles)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small platform of sticks and vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> positioned in trees and bushes over water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> (e.g. inundated in standing water on flood-plains)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, or alternatively in reedbeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It nests colonially, often in mixed-species groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144779	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat loss, entanglement in fishing lines and environmental pollution (e.g. pesticides applied to water for mosquito control)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It also suffers from hunting, poaching and the destruction of breeding colonies by villagers on Madagascar<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144780	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a narrow front<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> along well-defined routes<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. Some breeding populations (e.g. in Spain) are also sedentary, and southern African breeding birds disperse locally after breeding (often with altitudinal movements)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is a solitary nester, the timing of breeding varying between populations but generally coinciding with the local spring in the Palearctic Region and southern Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On migration the species may travel singly<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> or in small groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of up to 100 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and on its wintering grounds it is normally observed singly or in small groups of less than 30 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (although it may also roost communally in South Africa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits old, undisturbed, open forests<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> from sea-level up to mountainous regions (e.g. 2,000-2,500 m in altitude)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages in shallow streams, pools, marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, swampy patches<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, damp meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flood-plains, pools in dry riverbeds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and occasionally grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> especially where there are stands of reeds or long grass<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids large bodies of water and dense forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but non-breeding birds may frequent the estuaries of tidal rivers in South Africa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is predominantly piscivorous although it may also take amphibians, insects, snails, crabs, small reptiles, mammals and birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large construction of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> positioned between 4-25 m high<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in large forest trees<strong><sup>1, 9</sup></strong> or on cliffs (southern Africa and Spain)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species shows a preference for nesting in trees that have canopies large enough to hold the nest away from the main trunk (e.g. trees 25 m high, 120 years old and with a diameter at breast height of 66 cm)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It nests solitarily, with pairs spread out in the landscape at a distance of no less than 1 km (even where the species is most numerous)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species may occupy the nests of other bird species such as <em>Aquila verreauxi</em> or Hamerkop <em>Scopus umbretta</em> and commonly reuses nests in successive years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> A study in Estonia found that the retention of large older trees during forest management is important in providing nesting sites for the species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Conservation measures aimed at increasing the species's breeding success and population density should cover large territories of predominantly deciduous woodland and should focus on managing the river quality as far as 20 km away from nesting sites, protecting and managing feeding habitats, and improving food resources by establishing shallow artificial pools in grasslands or along rivers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144780	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation<strong><sup>1, 2, 6, 7, 9</sup></strong>. The area of suitable habitat available for breeding is being reduced in Russia and Eastern Europe through deforestation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (particularly the destruction of large traditional nesting trees)<strong><sup>2, 9</sup></strong>, the rapid development of industry and farming<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the building of dams<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species's wetland wintering habitats in Africa are further threatened by conversion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, agricultural intensification, desertification and pollution caused by the concentration of pesticides and other chemicals<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. The species is also occasionally killed by collisions with power-lines and overhead cables<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and hunting in southern Europe and tropical Asia (especially during migration) have caused population declines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144781	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an intra-African trans-equatorial migrant<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, making seasonal movements to coincide with rainfall<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. After breeding in the wet season of the northern tropics (between May and August), it moves east then south (West African populations), or south (East African populations), through the equatorial rain-belt (September-October), and arrives in the southern tropics early in the southern wet season (November-March)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It remains in this southern range until March (when the rains decrease), after which it moves north again through East Africa at the beginning of the long rains (March-April), arriving back in the breeding grounds in April and May before (or just as) the heavy rains begin<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is gregarious and is rarely seen in groups of less than 10<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, often traveling in vast flocks of c.10,000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On migration it lands daily to feed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, both migrating and foraging diurnally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds in widely-scattered colonies, normally not exceeding 20 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (although groups of between 30 and 50 are recorded occasionally)<strong><sup>5, 7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species frequents open grassland, pastures, areas of cultivation<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and savanna woodland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, often near water but also in semi-arid areas, gathering beside pools, water-holes, wells and swamps when not feeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and roosting on trees or cliffs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is primarily insectivorous<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, its diet consisting almost entirely of large grassland insects such as swarming locusts, army worm <em>Spodoptera exempta</em> caterpillars, grasshoppers and crickets, although it will also take mice<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong>, frogs, lizards, small fish, molluscs, crabs<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, millipedes, scorpions, water rats and small birds<strong><sup>3, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species breeds colonially, with nests being built from sticks and vegetation in trees or on cliffs, or on the roofs of huts in villages, and will often be used from year to year unless they collapse (although not necessarily by the same breeding pair)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144781	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is potentially threatened by habitat degradation through urban development and agricultural activities (such as maize farming) which have reduced the available area of natural grassland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Namibia it is threatened by habitat degradation through overgrazing and bush encroachment<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species may also be threatened by the control of its principle food source, locusts, either through direct poisoning<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong> (a mass mortality event in Sudan may have been the result of extensive use of pesticides)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, or through a reduction in the availability of food<strong><sup>4, 5</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144782	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is predominantly sedentary, although it may make migratory north-south movements in Africa<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong>. In India the species tends to breed during the rains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (between July and September in the south and December to March in the north), whereas in Africa it mainly breeds during the dry season<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> (apart from the population in northern Sudan which breeds during the rains)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds in solitary pairs, although these pairs may nest close together in East Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and loose colonies of up to 4-5 nests are occasionally reported<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species is normally seen solitarily or in pairs, rarely in small flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it may collect in flocks of several hundred<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Groups of 20-40 individuals may also gather in communal nightly roosts in trees or on sandbanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, pairs often using the same tree night after night<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for natural wetland habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in savanna and grassland, including rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, water-holes, lagoons, dams, flood plains, marshes, and freshwater and peat swamp forests<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although it will also use artificial habitats such as rice paddy-fields, flooded pastures, cultivated fields<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, golf courses, firebreaks and roads in tree and sugar-cane plantations (particularly when they are flooded)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids forests, but is occasionally found in light woodland or forest clearings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also frequents coastal mudflats or coral reefs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mangrove swamps and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and can be found up to 1,400 m in Sulawesi, 1,250 m in Nepal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and up to 3,000 m in East Africa<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is predominantly carnivorous, its diet consisting of fish, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, large insects and larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. termite alates and army worms <em>Spodoptera exempta</em>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, crabs, molluscs and marine invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large stick platform built 10-30 m (and sometimes up to 50 m) above the ground or over water, on a fork of a horizontal branch in a tall tree<strong><sup>1, 2, 3, 4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144782	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to this species in South East Asia is severe habitat fragmentation<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>. The species has also suffered population reductions as a result of habitat destruction and shooting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144783	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. It has been recorded in numerous protected areas, including at least five (and one proposed) in Kalimantan, at least four (and a further four proposed) on Sumatra (including Way Kambas) and four (including Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve) in Malaysia. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution, population and habitat requirements, particularly in Kalimantan. Establish further protected areas at sites supporting significant populations, including gazetting proposed reserves, particularly on Sumatra. Lobby for the cessation of logging in swamp-forests. Improve effectiveness of protection measures in protected areas in Indonesia.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144783	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ciconia stormi</em> is known from extreme southern <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Sumatra (<strong>Indonesia</strong>), and the island of Borneo, where it occurs in Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), <strong>Brunei,</strong> and Kalimantan (Indonesia). It is probably extinct in Thailand, and has been reduced to one tiny population and scattered individuals in Peninsular Malaysia. The core of the remaining population is in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Brunei, where it still appears to be widespread, but rare. Overall, the population is now estimated to number 250-500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144783	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at low densities in large, undisturbed blocks of level lowland forest, particularly freshwater and peat-swamp forests, on the floodplains of large rivers. It also frequents disturbed, recently burned and logged areas, and occasionally areas subject to tidal movements, although these may constitute suboptimal habitats. It is generally solitary, but is occasionally found in small groups. Two eggs are usually laid and the chicks are able to fly after c.90 days.</p>	eng
144783	population	BirdLife International, 2008	150 in Malaysia (Yeap Chin Aik <em>in litt</em>. 2002 to Wetlands international 2002); <250 in Indonesia ( M. Silvius <em>in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002); <500 in total  (Y. Noor Rusila<em> in litt.</em> 2002 to Wetlands International 2002). <br/></p>	eng
144783	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threats are forest loss and fragmentation as a result of logging and dam construction and conversion to oil-palm plantations, combined with associated increases in disturbance. The impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 on Sumatra and Borneo is still unclear, but they are likely to have been significant. The development of lowland rivers as major transport routes is presumably a considerable threat. Incidental hunting and trade are minor threats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144785	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is a Palearctic migrant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that travels with the assistance of thermal updrafts, the occurrence of which restricts the migratory routes the species can take<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. For example the species must avoid long stretches of open water such as the Mediterranean Sea and must therefore bypass it on narrow fronts to the west or east<strong><sup>5, 9</sup></strong>, after which it crosses the Sahara on a broad front<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Once within Africa the species becomes considerably nomadic in response to changing abundances of food (e.g. locust swarms)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds from February to April in the Palearctic (from September to November in South Africa)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in loose colonies of up to 30 pairs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> or solitarily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main departure from the European breeding grounds occurs in August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with the species travelling in large flocks<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> of many thousands of individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, generally arriving in Africa by early-October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages singly, in small groups of 10-50 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, or in large flocks if prey is abundant and on its wintering grounds it may gather in large numbers (hundreds or thousands of individuals) at abundant food sources (e.g. locust swarms or grass fires)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species feeds diurnally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and roosts communally at night in trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species inhabits open areas, generally avoiding regions with persistent cold, wet weather or large tracts of tall, dense vegetation such as reedbeds or forests<strong><sup>1.</sup> <em>Breeding</em> When breeding the species shows a preference for aquatic habitats such as water meadows, flooded or damp pastures<sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, shallow marshes, lakesides<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lagoons<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, flood-plains, rice-fields and arable land<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> especially where there are scattered trees for roosting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species shows a preference for drier habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> such as grasslands, steppe, savanna and cultivated fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, often gathering near lakes, ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, pools, slow-flowing streams, ditches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is carnivorous and has a varied and opportunistic diet<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It takes small mammals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. voles, water voles, mice, shrews, young rats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), large insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and locusts), adult and juvenile amphibians, snakes, lizards, earthworms, fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds, molluscs and crustaceans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is commonly positioned up to 30 m above the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in trees or on the roofs of buildings, as well as on pylons, telegraph poles, stacks of straw and other anthropogenic sites (including specially erected nesting structures), cliffs and occasionally among rushes on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species nests solitarily or in loose colonies, often using traditional nesting sites (there are records of individual nests being used every year for 100 years)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Nesting sites are usually situated near foraging areas, but may be up to 2-3 km away<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Intensively grazed (> 1 cow per hectare) unfertilised grassland was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and traditional livestock-farming practices such as creating herb-rich meadows for stock grazing and hay production are thought to be beneficial<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A model used to study the impact of different land use patterns on the species found that sequential (asynchronous) mowing of grasslands may increase the food supply for nestlings, thereby increasing reproductive success (as sequential mowing generates a small number of high-quality foraging patches throughout the breeding season)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A report by the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) suggests that habitat management for the species should include the periodic flooding of meadows, the creation of a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows, and the retention or creation of ditches, ponds and lakes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The report also advises management strategies in relation to electricity pylons (e.g. burying or marking aerial cables and preventing disturbance to nests during maintenance) to reduce the threats of electrocution and collision<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Due to the species's habit of defecating on its legs to regulate its body temperature in hot climates it is inadvisable to fit individuals with leg-rings for tracking purposes (dry uric acid builds-up on the legs and hardens around leg-rings, tightening them and leading to injuries)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Other methods of monitoring movements such as satellite telemetry or patagial wing-tags are therefore advised<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144785	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat alteration including the drainage of wet meadows<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, prevention of floods on flood-plains (by dams, embankments, pumping stations and river canalisation schemes)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, conversion of foraging areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, development, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. mechanised ploughing of rough pastures to sow fertilised crops or swards of more productive grass varieties)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is also threatened by a shortage of nesting sites in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as, for example, the roofs of new rural buildings do not support nests and nest structures on pylons are frequently destroyed during maintenance work<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. During the winter in Africa there may be high rates of mortality due to changes in feeding conditions owing to drought, desertification and the control of locust populations by insecticides<strong><sup>2, 6</sup></strong>. The species may also suffer as a result of the excessive use of pesticides (e.g. in Africa)<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> and through eating poisoned baits put out to catch large carnivores<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Another serious threat is collision with and electrocution from overhead powerlines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, especially whilst on migration in Europe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is hunted for food and sport<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mainly on migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and in its winter quarters<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144786	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I, CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Russia, Mongolia, China, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, North Korea, South Korea and Japan. Protected areas in its breeding and wintering grounds include Lake Bolon, Lake Khanka and Khingansky (Russia), and Sanjiang, Honghe, Zhalong, Changlindao, Yanwodao, Xingkai Hu, Horqin, Shengjin Hu, Poyang Hu, Dong Dongting Hu and Chen Hu (China). Reintroduction programmes are underway in South Korea and Japan.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish protected areas on the Sanjiang plain, China. Expand the Khanka State Reserve, Russia, to include all existing and potential nest-sites. Maintain tall trees for nesting and add artificial nest poles to potential breeding sites. Control overfishing in the wintering grounds. Control human activities at nest sites between 25th March-20th July. Campaign against the use of fire by farmers in the breeding grounds. Prevent poisoning from pesticides and poaching. Re-establish viable breeding populations in South Korea and Japan. <br/></p>	eng
144786	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ciconia boyciana</em> breeds in the Amur and Ussuri basins along the border of <strong>Russia</strong> and mainland <strong>China</strong>. It is a summer vagrant in eastern Mongolia. The main wintering grounds are in the lower Yangtze basin and southern China, as far south as <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). Small numbers winter in <strong>North Korea</strong> and<strong> South Korea</strong> and <strong>Japan</strong> and irregularly in the Philippines, north-eastern India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. The population is estimated at 3,000 individuals<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, with significant declines in breeding birds reported in Russia. The 2005 Yangtze waterbird survey recorded 1,194 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144786	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests on tall trees and artificial structures such as electricity pylons. It feeds on fish and small animals in open, usually fresh water, wetlands, and occasionally coastal tidal flats.  <br/></p>	eng
144786	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The previous global population estimate for this species was 3,000 individuals so it is best treated as falling within the bracket of 1,000 to 2,499 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144786	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation and drainage of wetlands for agricultural development are the main causes of decline in its breeding grounds. In Russia, spring fires threaten breeding sites and kill nest trees. Reclamation of wetlands, particularly in the Yangtze basin, has reduced the area of habitat for wintering birds and caused disturbance. Overfishing is a problem at many wintering sites in China. A recent satellite-tracking study indicated very high juvenile mortality on passage and in winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Wintering birds move large distances between sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds are hunted and collected for zoos, in Russia and China, despite legal protection. Dams on the Amur River and the forthcoming Three Gorges Dam in China are likely to have detrimental impacts upon the species, though they may affect this species less severely than others as they feed on fish and are therefore less susceptible to changes in water level<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144787	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Australia the species is listed as rare in Queensland and Endangered in New South Wales. It has been proposed for upgrade to Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. It is a conservation priority in Cambodia. It occurs in a number of protected areas including several national parks in Australia and India. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Carry out coordinated range-wide surveys to determine the total population size and trends. Control hunting of the species in its range outside Australia. Protect remaining habitat, especially in South and South-East Asia.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144787	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus </em>occurs in <strong>Pakistan</strong> (previously frequent in lower Sind, breeding in the Indus delta until 1970s, now a straggler), <strong>Nepal</strong> (rare resident and winter visitor to the terai), <strong>India</strong> (a widespread resident, but now generally rare and local, and may now be absent in many areas in the south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), Bhutan (likely as a non-breeder), Bangladesh (former resident, now a vagrant), <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (fewer than 50 mature individuals resident, principally in the dry lowlands), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly a widespread resident, current status unclear but certainly scarce), <strong>Thailand</strong> (formerly quite widespread, now a rare resident in the peninsula, almost extinct), <strong>Laos</strong> (previously a widespread non-breeding visitor, probably breeding in the south, but now extremely rare), <strong>Cambodia </strong>(previously fairly common; regular recent records, with small numbers breeding), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (apparently once present in the Sundaic region, but now extinct there; population >650 in south Papua, formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> (very local, but occasionally not uncommon) and <strong>Australia</strong> (relatively large population in north, possibly spreading southward). It inhabits freshwater marshes, lakes, pools in open forest, large rivers, occasionally mangroves and rarely coastal mudflats, up to 1,200 m, tending to prefer areas least visited by humans. The combined populations of South and South-East Asia are thought not to exceed 1000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, while the former is in steep decline and the latter has dwindled to the brink of extinction. A population of c.25 pairs studied in Uttar Pradesh (India) had high productivity and low mortality and was judged to be stable however<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is probably stable or even increasing in Irian Jaya and Australia. A recent estimate places the Australian population at up to 20,000 breeding individuals and secure, although it has been contested that this is unduly optimistic and that the figure may not exceed 10,000. An accurate census and long-term monitoring is clearly required. These data have been used to extrapolate a global total of c.31,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144787	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Inhabits extensive freshwater wetlands such as swamps, lakes and flooded grassland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Also man-made features such as sewage ponds and irrigation stores<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Typically occurs singly or in pairs, but very occassionally recorded in flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144787	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are thought to be 1,000 <em>asiaticus </em>(G. Sundar<em> in litt.</em> 2002, 2006), plus possibly up to 20,000 breeding <em>australis </em>(Garnett and Crowley 2000, S. Garnett <em>in litt</em>. 2006), giving perhaps up to 21,000 mature individuals and therefore up to c.31,000 individuals in total (Maheswaran <em>et al.</em> 2004). In light of the uncertainty surrounding this figure, a conservative range estimate of 10,000-21,000 mature individuals is preferred. <br/></p>	eng
144787	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by a variety of factors across its range, including drainage of wetlands, felling of nest trees, development, encroachment of agriculture or aquaculture, overfishing, overgrazing, hunting and excessive capture for zoos. Consecutive years of drought can cause declines in the  population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Sea level rise is projected to have a negative impact upon coastal habitat used by this species in Australia. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144788	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> There is no evidence that this species undertakes any regular long-distance migration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it is not altogether sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> as some populations make local nomadic movements to optimum foraging habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> during periods of drought or when large rivers are in flood<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding starts late in the rains or in the dry season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, timed so that the young fledge at the height of the dry season when prey is concentrated and easier to obtain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary pairs and usually remains solitary when not breeding<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although it may occur in small family parties or in groups of up to 12 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits extensive fresh, brackish or alkaline wetlands<strong><sup>1, 3, 4</sup></strong> in open, semi-arid areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and savanna<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with relatively high abundances of fish<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>and with large trees nearby for nesting and roosting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (although it avoids deeply forested areas)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include shallow freshwater marshes<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, wet grasslands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the margins of large or small rivers<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, lake shores<strong><sup>1, 2, 4</sup></strong>, pans<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and flood-plains<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish 15-30 cm long<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> up to 500 g in weight, as well as crabs, shrimps, frogs, reptiles, small mammals, young birds, molluscs and insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. large water beetles, termite alates)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a large flat platform of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> placed up to 20-30 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in a tree near water isolated from other trees and sources of disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may also nest on cliffs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and in the abandoned nests of other bird species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144788	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is vulnerable to disturbance and to wetland degradation (e.g. pesticide contamination) and conversion to agriculture<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144790	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Important nesting colonies are found in Kaziranga and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks and Lawkhowa and D'Ering Wildlife Sanctuaries, Assam. In Cambodia, the breeding colonies at Prek Toal and Moat Khla/Boeng Chhma are core areas in the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Between 1997-1999, enforcement of regulations at Prek Toal appears to have reduced exploitation of breeding colonies. It is included in conservation awareness material in Laos and Cambodia. Recent initiatives in Assam include nest surveys, a nest-tree replanting scheme and conservation awareness campaigns. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor key colonies, and conduct searches for others. Protect nesting colonies outside protected areas. Promote control of pesticide use around feeding areas. Establish a wildlife protection office at Tonle Sap lake. Investigate alternative livelihoods for people dependent on harvesting eggs and chicks. Draft and enforce laws prohibiting hunting, trapping and poisoning. Expand conservation awareness programme. </strong></p>	eng
144790	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptoptilos javanicus</em> has an extensive range across South and South-East Asia. Formerly common and widespread, it has declined, with a current population estimate of 5,000 birds. Substantial populations remain only in <strong>India</strong> (mostly in Assam, where c.2,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Indonesia</strong> (c.2,000 in 1993, the majority on Sumatra) and <strong>Cambodia</strong> (probably >200 pairs). Smaller breeding populations (<200 pairs) occur in <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong> (probably), <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>. It is thought to be extinct in China and in Singapore. <br/></p>	eng
144790	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Inland, birds inhabit natural and man-modified wetlands, both open and forested. Coastal populations frequent mangroves and intertidal flats. It nests colonially in large trees, and historically on cliffs, often at traditional sites in or adjacent to wetlands. </p>	eng
144790	population	BirdLife International, 2008	5,000 individuals were estimated by Hancock (1993), Choudhury (2000) and during analysis of all recent records by BirdLife International (2001). However, more extensive survey effort in recent years has led to upward revision of some national totals: the Cambodian population can now be placed at 2,500-4,000 individuals rather than the previous estimate of c.1,000 individuals (Bird <em>et al</em>. 2007). Hence, the global population probably numbers 6,500-8,000 individuals or possibly more. <br/></p>	eng
144790	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Several threats are contributing to its decline, with their relative importance varying across its range. The loss of nest-sites through the felling of colony nest trees is a major threat, particularly in Assam. In many areas, drainage and conversion of wetland feeding areas, agricultural intensification, increased pesticide use and disturbance, and hunting and collection of eggs, chicks and adults are major threats. Coastal populations are threatened by large-scale development, including aquaculture and the clearance of mangroves.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144791	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is sedentary or locally nomadic<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Populations in the north and south generally move towards the equator after breeding and other populations making dispersive movements in relation to water availablity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or prey abundance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the tropics the species begins to breed in the dry season, but in the equatorial zone the timing of breeding is more variable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in colonies numbering from 20-60 up to several thousand pairs and often nests with other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species often remains gregarious, feeding in groups and gathering at night in communal roosts of up to 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also associate with herds of large mammals in order to catch insects disturbed by their movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits open dry savannas, grasslands, swamps, riverbanks, lake shores and receding pools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> where fish are concentrated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, typically foraging in and around fishing villages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet consists predominantly of carrion and scraps of fish discarded by humans as well as live fish, termites, locusts, frogs, lizards, snakes, rats, mice and birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. adult flamingoes <em>Phoenicopterus</em> spp.)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is constructed of sticks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is positioned 10-30 m above the ground in trees, on cliffs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or on buildings in towns and villages<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially in single- or mixed-species groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, usually in close proximity (less than 50-60 km) to a reliable food source<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144791	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Utilisation</strong> This species is hunted and traded at traditional medicine markets in Nigeria<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144792	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Assam, it occurs in Kaziranga, Manas and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks. Since 1991, there have been conservation awareness programmes in Assam. In Nagaon district, Assam, Green Guards, a local NGO, are implementing a project to protect nesting trees and rehabilitate chicks fallen from nests. In Cambodia, the breeding colonies at Prek Toal and Moat Khla/Boeng Chhma are core areas of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. Conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at Prek Toal have been in place since the late 1990s. The small population in the Northern Plains is largely protected within Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary. In 1997, c.80% of waterbird egg and chick collection was prevented at Prek Toal. It is included in waterbird conservation awareness material in Laos and Cambodia. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in Cambodia, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Investigate seasonal movements and threats. Protect nesting and feeding-sites outside protected areas; the nest protection approach being piloted by Green Guards may be a suitable model. Promote strict control of pesticide use around feeding areas. Continue and strengthen on-going conservation actions at the Prek Toal colony, Tonle Sap lake. Draft and enforce waterbird conservation legislation at Tonle Sap lake. Expand conservation awareness programmes. <br/></p>	eng
144792	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptoptilus dubius</em> was previously widespread and common across much of South and continental South-East Asia but declined dramatically during the first half of the 20th century. It is known to breed only in Assam, <strong>India</strong> (at least 650-800 birds, or more<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and at the Tonle Sap lake (c. 50 pairs) and in Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary in the Northern Plains (c. 15-20 pairs), <strong>Cambodia<sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent records from <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, and <strong>Thailand</strong> are presumed to refer to wanderers from India and Cambodia, and these suggest that the Indian and South-East Asian populations are effectively connected. Huge numbers once bred in <strong>Myanmar</strong> but there have been just two recent reports from Meinmahla Kyun in 1998 and Kachin State in 2006<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are no confirmed records from Laos in recent years. Breeding success in recent seasons has been extremely poor in Assam: the number of nests in colonies is declining sharply, but for unknown reasons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em> <br/></p>	eng
144792	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wetlands, breeding in the dry season (October-March) in tall trees, bamboo plantations and historically on cliffs. Breeding is though to coincide with the dry season in order to take advantage of abundant prey as water levels recede<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In north-east India, it often occurs close to urban areas, feeding around wetlands in the breeding season, and dispersing to scavenge at rubbish dumps, abattoirs and burial grounds at other times. In Cambodia, it breeds in freshwater flooded forest and some areas of dry forest with ephemeral pools, otherwise dispersing to seasonally inundated forest, tall wet grassland, mangroves and intertidal flats.  <br/></p>	eng
144792	population	BirdLife International, 2008	650-800 in Assam and India plus 150-200 in Cambodia (A. Choudhury 2000; Goes<em> et al. </em>1998; Clements <em>et al</em>. 2007a; Clements <em>et al</em>. 2007b). <br/></p>	eng
144792	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are direct exploitation, particularly at nesting colonies, habitat destruction, including some felling of nest-trees, and drainage, conversion, pollution and over-exploitation of wetlands. Additionally, the Indian population is threatened by reduced use of open rubbish dumps for the disposal of carcasses and foodstuffs. It has been suggested that recent nesting failures in Assam may be due to disease<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which may have a negative impact upon the species in the future. <br/></p>	eng
144794	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A cat eradication programme has been in operation on Ascension for several years under the guidance of the RSPB and has already resulted in the return of some seabird species to the mainland<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Boatswainbird is a bird sanctuary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Complete and monitor the effects of cat eradication on Ascension. Use independent observers on longline vessels to investigate the numbers of this species killed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Instigate measures to prevent future mortalities by long-lining if this is proven to be a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Ensure sustainable use of the fisheries around Ascension Island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Conduct further research on breeding behaviour of marked birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Monitor changes in distribution, productivity and long-term population trends.	eng
144794	distribution		<em>Fregata aquila</em> now breeds only on Boatswainbird Islet, a flat-topped, steep-sided rock, 250 m off the north-east coast of Ascension Island<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the Atlantic Ocean. Since the early 1800s, when it bred on Ascension Island itself, the population has suffered serious declines and, in 1997, was estimated to lie between 5,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The current number of mature females is estimated at 8,587-10,113, based on census data from 2001-2002<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, suggesting there may be c.18,682 mature individuals, assuming an equal sex ratio. Determining the current population trend is problematic due to difficulties in carrying out census work, poor baseline information and the high number of mature non-breeders in the population<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It probably spends much time far from the island and has been recorded as a vagrant on the west African coast from the Gulf of Guinea to the mouth of the Congo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144794	habitat		It is a surface-feeder, feeding on fish, particularly <em>Cypsilurus</em> and <em>Hirundichthyes</em> and Flying-fish <em>Exocoetus volitans,</em> and newly hatched Green Turtles <em>Chelonia mydas</em>. Breeding occurs in four loose colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, mainly on the summit plateau, especially on rougher areas with some groups of birds occupying ledges on the sides of the plateau<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding probably occurs year-round, but there is evidence of some seasonality with laying increasing from May and peaking in October, then declining to a minimum in February-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its clutch-size is one and breeding success is low.	eng
144794	population		The current population of mature females is estimated at 9,341 (95% CI: 8,587-10,113), based on census data from 2001-2002 (Ratcliffe<em> et al</em>. in press), suggesting there may be c.18,682 mature individuals, assuming an equal sex ratio. The confidence intervals for the number of mature females are doubled and rounded to provide a range estimate for the number of mature individuals.	eng
144797	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Listed as vulnerable under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Christmas Island National Park was established in 1980, and has since been extended to include two of the three current breeding colonies (90% of the population)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A recovery plan has been completed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and a study using satellite telemetry to study movements has been underway since 2005<strong><sup>15,18</sup></strong>. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s was initiated after 2000, including aerial baiting in 2002, and effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent)<strong><sup>1,11</sup></strong>. However, the ant population continued to increase, covering upwards of 500 ha by 2006. Despite continued control efforts, ants remained persistent in 2009, and perpetual baiting may be the only means of controlling them<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Efforts are underway to find alternative bait that is not toxic to invertebrates on the island<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Plans have been established to control the scale bugs that the ants tend for their sugar secretions in order to reduce this food supply, but there remains no evidence that they are adversely affecting frigatebird colonies<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. A census of Christmas Island is planned for April 2010<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Implement the species recovery plan. Continue to control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Develop and implement appropriate techniques to monitor the total/breeding population size and population structure<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Analyse existing data on breeding biology and success. Lobby to prevent mining close to colonies. Negotiate protection of all known and potential nesting habitat and appropriate buffers. If necessary, implement appropriate management in feeding habitat in South-East Asia to avoid bycatch etc. Maintain a quarantine barrier between Christmas Island and other lands to minimise the risks of new avian diseases establishing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144797	distribution		This species is endemic as a breeding species to <strong>Christmas Island (to Australia)</strong>. In 2003 it was estimated that there were 1,171 (&#177; 58) breeding pairs. The number of nests was probably between 3% and 16% lower in 2003 than 1985 (one generation; 1985 estimates ranging from 1,320-1,620 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), but this may not be an accurate indication of population trends. Due to biennial breeding, the total breeding population is between one and two times the number of pairs nesting per annum (i.e. 1,200-2,400 pairs). An historical review of the extent and decline of the four sub-colonies suggests that the pre-settlement population was about 6,300 breeding pairs per annum, but declined to 4,500 by 1910, 3,500 by 1945, 2,500 by 1967, and 1,500 by 1978. If this reconstruction is correct, then the population declined by about 66% over three generations between 1945 and 2003<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 2003 there were four sub-colonies (since reduced to three) covering an area of c.49 ha<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The Flying Fish Cove sub-colony probably contained c.50 ha of habitat in 1887; it underwent an almost complete decline in the early 1900s, and in 2003 it contained only c.10 ha of habitat and two nests. The Dryers sub-colony underwent an almost complete decline by the 1970s, and in 2003 contained c.62 ha of habitat and 20 nests. The Golf Course sub-colony lost c.13 ha (25%) in the 1940s, and in 2003 it contained c.25 ha of habitat and an estimated 828 (&#177; 42) nests. The Cemetery sub-colony contained 46 ha of habitat and an estimated 321 (&#177; 15) nests in 2003<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2004 showed a significant increase in number of nests, with 767 nests in 244 nest trees at the largest colony<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> but surveys in 2005 showed a return to 2003 levels, suggesting that inter-annual variation rather than population growth explains the increase in numbers in 2004. Breeding and non-breeding birds have been recorded foraging at low densities in the Indo-Malay Archipelago<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> over the Sunda Shelf to the South China Sea, the Andaman Sea, the Sulu Sea, off south-west Sulawesi, and in the Gulf of Thailand<strong><sup>13,14,16,17</sup></strong>, commuting directly over Java in the process<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species ranges widely across the seas of South-East Asia to Indochina and south to northern Australia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but its status in the Indian Ocean to the west is less well known.	eng
144797	habitat		It nests in tall forest trees. <em>Terminalia catappa</em> and <em>Celtis timorensis</em> trees hold 65.5% of all nests<strong><sup>5.</sup> </strong>It is only capable of raising a maximum of one fledgling every two years. It forages for flying fish, squid and other marine creatures, and is largely dependent on subsurface predators to drive prey to the surface. Most food is captured by plucking it from the sea surface while on the wing, but it is also an accomplished aerial kleptoparasite. Evidence suggests that breeding birds frequently forage hundreds or even thousands of kilometres from the colony. Satellite tracking showed that one female with a large chick undertook a non-stop 26-day 4,000 km return flight from Christmas Island via Sumatra and Borneo<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Replacement rate of pairs is thought to be extremely slow (15-25 years) rendering the population slow to recover following declines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144797	population		The most recent population census indicates a population of 2,400-4,800 mature individuals (D. James <em>in litt.</em> 2003).	eng
144800	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue/extend long-term monitoring of breeding colonies. Prevent disturbance to breeding colonies.	eng
144800	distribution		<em>Pygoscelis papua</em> breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) </strong>and the<strong> South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur)</strong>, the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>, on Martillo Island, Argentina<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, Prince Edward and Marion Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island (Heard and McDonald Islands [<strong>to Australia</strong>]) and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and the Antarctic Peninsula. The total (minimum) population has been estimated at 314,000 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Populations on the Antarctic Peninsula (25% of the total) are increasing at most sites, some (e.g. Signy Island) have doubled in the last 20 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Conversely, populations at sub-Antarctic islands (75% of the total) may have decreased substantially. For example, populations at Bird Island (the only monitored population at South Georgia - 33% of the total) decreased by c.67% over the last 25 years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, at Marion Island (3% of the total) by 11% over the period 1994-1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and on the Falklands (21% of the total) by c.45% from 1932-33 to 1995-95<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. More recent surveys on the Falklands have shown the population to have increased from 65,000 pairs in 1995-96 to 113,000 pairs in 2000<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, whilst a suggested increase at Macquarie needs confirming<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144800	habitat		It is a partially migratory marine species which nests on rocky coasts, sometimes amongst vegetation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
144800	population		The total (minimum) population has been estimated at 314,000 pairs (Woehler, 1993).	eng
144802	distribution		This species has a circumpolar distribution, being found in Antarctica, the <strong>South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkneys, South Shetland and <strong>South Georgia</strong> (<strong>Georgia del Sur</strong>), <strong>Bouvet Island</strong> (<strong>to Norway</strong>) and the Balleny Islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144802	habitat		This species is solely marine and is mostly found in zones with light ice pack. Its diet is comprised almost exclusively of Antarctic krill, but it will also take fish and other species of crustaceans when possible. Prey capture is apparently by pursuit-diving up to a depth of 70 m, but mostly less than 45 m. It breeds on irregular rocky coasts in ice free areas, forming large colonies of hundreds and thousands of birds and beginning laying in November at the earliest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144803	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Open Bay Island population has been the focus of several recent studies. The Department of Conservation had planned to monitor all colonies for five years followed by five years rest, but, owing to difficulties censusing the species because pairs within colonies are well dispersed under tree-cover, and because disturbance by surveyors was thought to be increasing predation rate, only a selection of colonies are partially monitored every two years.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey areas of coastline not included in the 1990s survey. Quantify the effect of predators on island and mainland sites</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Eradicate <em>G. australis</em> from Big Solander Island</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Complete a detailed study on foraging ecology to identify potential competition with commercial fisheries and the effects of climatic variation</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Establish guidelines to control visitor access to colonies. Obtain legal protection for accessible colony sites</strong><sup>6</sup>.	eng
144803	distribution		<em>Eudyptes pachyrhynchus</em> nests on Stewart Island and several of its offshore islands, Solander Island and on the west to south-west coast of the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population is estimated at 2,500-3,000 breeding pairs, mostly nesting on predator-free islands, and divided into 12 major, fragmented breeding sites with c.100 nests or more<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Numbers appear to be declining in some populations, principally those on the mainland where predators have the greatest impact. At Open Bay Island, there was a decline of 33% between 1988 and 1995<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and at Dusky Sound there were "thousands" of birds in 1900 but only a few hundred in the 1990s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Non-breeding dispersal patterns at sea are largely unknown.	eng
144803	habitat		It breeds in colonies, situated in dense, temperate rainforest along shores and rocky coastlines, sometimes in sandy bays. It feeds on fish, squid, octopus and krill<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It first breeds at 5-6 years old<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and birds may live for 10-20 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144803	population		McLean <em>et al.</em> (1997).	eng
144804	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site declared in 1998. Landing is by permit only<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census all breeding colonies during incubation period. Complete regular counts every 10 years to monitor trends in the population</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Turn World Heritage Site territorial seas (out to 12 nautical miles) into a marine reserve and restrict all fishing</strong><sup>7</sup>.	eng
144804	distribution		<em>Eudyptes robustus</em> breeds in the Snares Islands (3 km<sup>2</sup>), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population was estimated at 23,250 breeding pairs in 1985-1986; 19,000 on North-East Island, 3,500 on Broughton and 750 on the Western Chain islets. In 2002, 25,861 pairs were counted on North-East Island and 4,000 on Broughton<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. This indicates that the population is perhaps increasing. However, a more recent estimate in 2008 placed the population at 26,000 breeding pairs. This may represent a population decline, although in the absence of any major threat it may represent a natural fluctuation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Its wintering range is largely unknown, although occasional records from the waters off Tasmania and South Australia suggest a movement towards Australia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144804	habitat		It nests in dense colonies, usually between 50-200 pairs, mostly under the forest on North-East Island, otherwise in the open<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on krill, supplemented by squid and small fish. It may first breed at four years of age and the oldest known bird lived to 20 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The yellow crest of the species may serve as a condition-dependent indicator to conspecifics, thus potentially a signal of social status or attractiveness<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144804	population		The October 2002 joint Department of Conservation and Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust census produced counts of 25,861 pairs on North-East Island and 4,000 on Broughton (M. Szabo <em>in litt. </em>2004).	eng
144805	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Cattle and sheep were eradicated from Campbell Island by 1984 and 1992 respectively<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Introduced brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> have been successfully removed from Campbell Island, although their effect on the colony was never studied<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and part of a World Heritage Site designated in 1998.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census a sample of Antipodes Island colonies every five years, and re-photograph photopoints from 1978 and 1995 expeditions. Census Proclamation Island (Bounty Islands) every five years. Compare aerial and ground surveys of the Bounty Islands to ascertain the viability of using the former method for monitoring colonies<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct detailed studies to determine foraging ranges, commercial fisheries competition, and oceanographic or climatic changes<sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144805	distribution		<em>Eudyptes sclateri</em> breeds on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands (1 km<sup>2</sup> and 20 km<sup>2</sup> respectively), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. In 1978, the population on the Bounty Islands was estimated at 115,000 pairs, spread over nine tiny islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A survey in 1997-1998 estimated a total of 28,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Census methods differed, making comparisons less useful<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but the results suggest that a large decline may have taken place. The population on the Antipodes in 1978 was believed to be of a similar size to the Bounty Islands in the same year. In 1995, ground surveys indicated c.49,000-57,000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, representing a decline of c.50% in 20 years, and there have been further decreases since<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. These declines are supported by photographic evidence. The population on Campbell Island numbered 20-30 pairs in 1986-1987, but no breeding was seen. A few hundred birds bred there in the 1940s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Winter distribution at sea is largely unknown, the only records being from the Cook Strait and off the east coast of the South Island<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144805	habitat		It nests in large, dense, conspicuous colonies, numbering thousands of pairs, on rocky terrain, often without substantial soil or vegetation, from the spray zone to 75 m elevation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It feeds on krill and squid, and occasionally takes small fish<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144805	population		Bounty Islands (1997-1998): 28,000 breeding pairs (J. Amey <em>per</em> A. M. Booth <em>in litt.</em> 1999; Clark <em>et al.</em> 1998). Antipodes (1995): c.49,000-57,000 pairs (Taylor 2000)	eng
144806	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Long-term monitoring programmes are in place at several breeding colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Most breeding islands are protected as reserves of various kinds and Heard and McDonald Islands are a World Heritage Site.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey or resurvey all main breeding populations at major breeding sites, and maintain monitoring programmes at selected sites. Research distribution outside breeding season. Research demography, reproductive performance and foraging ecology</strong><sup>3</sup>.	eng
144806	distribution		<em>Eudyptes chrysolophus</em> breeds in at least 216 colonies at 50 sites<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>, including southern <strong>Chile,</strong> the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>, <strong>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) </strong>and the<strong> South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, <strong>Bouvet Island (to Norway)</strong>, Prince Edward and Marion Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard and McDonald Islands (<strong>to Australia</strong>) and very locally on the Antarctic Peninsula. The total population is c.9 million pairs, with main populations at Ile des Pingouins (Crozet), Heard and McDonald (c.1 million pairs each) Kerguelen (c.1.8 million pairs) and South Georgia (c.2.5 million pairs)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The South Georgia and Bouvet populations probably increased substantially in the 1960s and early 1970s, but have subsequently decreased. Study populations at South Georgia decreased by 65% in 12 years (1986-1998)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and the overall South Georgia population has probably halved over the last 20 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Study populations on Marion have decreased by 50% over 30 years (1979-1998)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations on Kerguelen increased by c.1% per annum between 1962 and 1985, and subsequent data from 1998 indicated that colonies were stable or increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Populations in South America may be stable but data are few. Satellite tracking of individuals during winter revealed that individuals from Kerguelen spent most of their time in a previously unrecognized foraging area, i.e. a narrow latitudinal band (47-49 degrees S) within the central Indian Ocean (70-110 degrees E), corresponding oceanographically to the Polar Frontal Zone<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144806	habitat		It nests on level to steep ground, often walking hundreds of metres across steep screes to nest-sites. Breeding areas usually have little or no vegetation due to erosion by birds. It feeds mainly on small krill<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, though individuals from the Kerguelen Islands foraging in the Indian Ocean during winter do not feed on krill, taking other crustaceans instead<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144806	population		The total population is c.9 million pairs, with main populations at Ile des Pingouins (Crozet), Heard and McDonald (c.1 million pairs each) Kerguelen (c.1.8 million pairs) and South Georgia (c.2.5 million pairs)(Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1998)	eng
144807	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Studies of foraging ecology and breeding biology have been completed. Monitoring of breeding population size and success is ongoing. Feral cats have now been eliminated from Macquarie Island. Tourists on breeding islands are managed to prevent disturbance.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Determine trends in numbers. Monitor rates and effects of marine debris ingestion. Monitor the effects of fishing. Establish demographic parameters, particularly survival of different age classes. Study the potential impacts of climate change. Control rat populations.	eng
144807	distribution		<em>Eudyptes schlegeli</em> is confined to Macquarie Island and nearby Bishop and Clerk Islands, <strong>Australia</strong>. However, small numbers of similar-looking birds appear at other sub-Antarctic islands, indicating that it may breed elsewhere. It was heavily exploited in the 19th century, but has recovered and, in 1984-1985, an estimated 850,000 pairs were breeding on Macquarie, with an earlier count of over 1,000 pairs on Bishop and Clerk. The population is believed to be stable.	eng
144807	habitat		It nests in huge colonies on bare, level, pebbly, rocky or sandy ground. When breeding, it feeds on euphausiids, fish and squid. Its ecology and movements during the winter when away from the island are unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144807	population		In 1984-1985, the breeding population on Macquarie Island was estimated at 850,000 pairs, with an earlier count of over 1,000 pairs on Bishop and Clerk Islands (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
144808	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A wide range of research projects has been completed in the South Island. The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust was formed to raise awareness and funds. Many mainland sites have been fenced to minimise trampling by farm stock. Predator trapping is intensive during the breeding season in several South Island sites, and habitat is being restored<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Obtain accurate census and distribution data for Auckland Islands. Census South Island colonies every five years, and study sites annually</strong><sup>7</sup>. <strong>Eradicate predators from Auckland Islands. Investigate the impact of commercial fishing activity on Yellow-eyed Penguins (set-netting and because of evidence that bottom disturbance by trawling/dredging may influence penguin behaviour and food quality). Regulate tourist access to breeding colonies on South Island.</strong>	eng
144808	distribution		<em>Megadyptes antipodes</em> breeds in <strong>New Zealand</strong> on the South Island's south-east coast (470 pairs), Foveaux Strait and Stewart Islands (220-400 pairs in 1994, dropping to 178 pairs in 1999-2001<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>), Auckland Islands (520-570 pairs) and Campbell Islands (405 pairs)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Two severe mortality events in 1986 and 1990 each halved the number of South Island pairs and in 2004 50% of chicks in South Island were killed by diptheritic stomatisis<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. However, numbers have recovered to 1980 levels<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The Catlins population (south-east coast of South Island) may have declined by 75% since the 1940s<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Numbers of individuals on Campbell Island declined between 1987 and 1998<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Adults are sedentary, but juveniles disperse north as far as the Cook Strait<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was previously thought to have a historic range reaching the northern end of the South Island, however a recent paper revealed this to be a distinct species<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
144808	habitat		On islands it usually nests in forest, while in the South Island it tends to nest in scrub remnants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nests must have surrounding vegetation that conceals them from visual contact with conspecifics for successful breeding<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is a solitary breeder, maintaining a large territory size which can be up to one hectare. Two eggs are laid in mid-September to mid-October, with hatching occurring at the beginning of November. Chicks fledge from mid-February to mid-March<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on red cod, opal fish, sprat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, silversides, ahuru, blue cod and squid, taking prey up to 15 km offshore at the edge of the continental self<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The generation length is 5-7 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144808	population		Moore (1992), Taylor (2000)	eng
144809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population in Australia is estimated as under 1,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144810	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. In South Africa, all breeding localities are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. Collection of guano and eggs is prohibited within penguin colonies<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with great success<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. More than 80% of birds admitted for rehabilitation are returned successfully to the wild<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In one study it was found that the age at first breeding of five oiled and rehabilitated birds did not differ significantly from populations on Robben and Dassen Islands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Since 1995 there has been a captive breeding programme at an aquarium in Cape Town, where around six birds are bred annually, and a total of 14 have been released nearby<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. This programme has contributed to public awareness and education<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Research into feeding behaviour involving the use of satellite-tracking and transponders is ongoing<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. On Dyer Island, the effects of guano collection in the past are being mitigated by the installation of small fiberglass igloos as nest-sites, with 200 put in place by 2006 and an eventual target of 2,000, roughly one for every pair in the colony<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. These artificial nest-sites are used by pairs very soon after installation, and if the programme is successful it will be expanded to other colonies in South Africa<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. A research project into the potential positive impacts of small marine no-take zones surrounding breeding colonies is underway, with results in the first year showing a decrease in adult foraging effort<strong><sup>26,27</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor population trends at all colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Continue and maintain the SANCCOB oil spill rehabilitation centre. Initiate research into the impacts of fishing and predation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Protect Namibian breeding localities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Develop plans to conserve pelagic fish resources<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, namely through management of the purse-seine fishery<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Eliminate feral cats from Bird, Dassen and Robben Islands and implement measures to preclude the introduction of rats to any colonies<strong><sup>2,14</sup></strong>. Investigate reintroduction techniques<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Assess whether climate change is a factor in the shifting of prey populations<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Consider the idea of establishing no-fishing zones around breeding islands<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. Consider translocating birds in reaction to shifts in food availability<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Maintain suitable breeding habitat<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Control the spread of disease<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Establish and then monitor 'trial colonies' close to current concentrations of food resources<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>.	eng
144810	distribution		<em>Spheniscus demersus</em> breeds at 25 islands and four mainland sites in <strong>Namibia</strong> and <strong>South Africa</strong><sup>16</sup>. It has been recorded as far north as Gabon and Mozambique<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Breeding on Neglectus Island, Namibia, was confirmed in 2001, following the absence of confirmed breeding since 1952 at least, and an increase in numbers since 1995<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2003, there were thought to be 11 breeding pairs on the island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the species colonised Stony Point and Boulders Beach on the South African mainland, and recolonised Robben Island<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Immigration to mainland sites in recent years has been attributed to an eastward shift in the species's prey populations<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. Just seven islands now support 80% of the global population. Its population at the beginning of the 21st century had fallen to about 10% of its numbers 100 years before. The total population was estimated at 141,000 pairs in 1956-1957, 69,000 pairs in 1979-1980, 57,000 pairs in 2004-2005 and 36,000 pairs in 2006-2007<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Declines have continued, with the global population in 2009 estimated at just 25,262 pairs<strong><sup>25,28</sup></strong>, equating to a decline of 60.5% over 28 years (three generations).	eng
144810	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The adults of this species are largely sedentary but some movements occur in response to prey movements<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. They generally remain within 400 km of their breeding locality, although they have been recorded up to 900 km away<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. They breed and moult on land before taking to the sea where they remain for four months before returning to land for the next breeding season<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Small cr&egrave;ches of up to five juveniles may form at the breeding site<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. On gaining independence, juveniles disperse up to 1,900 km from their natal colonies<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>, with those from the east heading west, and those from the west and south moving north<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Most birds later return to their natal colony to moult and breed<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, although the growth of some island colonies has been attributed to the immigration of first-time breeders tracking food availability<strong><sup>22,23</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Adults nest colonially<strong><sup>22</sup></strong> and at sea forages singly, in pairs, or sometimes co-operatively in small groups if up to 150 individuals<strong><sup>17,18,22</sup></strong>. It breeds year round with peak months varying locally<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In the north-west part of the range, peak laying occurs during the months of November to January, in the south-west it occurs between May and July and in the East Colonial between April and June<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.  <strong>Habitat </strong>This species is marine, and is usually found in seas within 40 km of the shore, coming ashore on inshore islands or isolated areas of the mainland coast<strong><sup>17,22</sup></strong> to breed, moult and rest<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <em>Breeding </em>Breeding habitats range from flat, sandy islands with sparse or abundant vegetation, to steep rocky islands with practically no vegetation, although the former is preferred<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. It is sometimes found close to the summit of islands and may move over a kilometre inland in search of breeding sites<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding </em>At sea its distribution is restricted to the area influenced by the Benguela Current<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. It usually feeds within 12 km of the coastline<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<strong> Diet</strong> Adults feed on pelagic schooling fish of 50-120mm in length<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Important prey includes sardines (<em>Sardinops sagax</em>), anchovies (<em>Engraulis capensis</em>), pelagic goby <em>Sufflogobius bibarbatus</em>, and herring (<em>Etrumeus teres</em>)<strong><sup> 17,19</sup></strong>. In some localities cephalopods also represent an important food source<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Juveniles tend to prey on fish larvae<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<strong> Breeding site </strong>The nest is often built in burrows that are dug in guano or sand<strong><sup>15,20</sup></strong>. Nests may also occur in depressions under large boulders or bushes<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Nesting in open areas has become increasingly common owing to the past harvesting of guano<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. At some sites artificial nest-burrows made from pipes and boxes sunken into the ground have been regularly used by the species<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The average age at first breeding is thought to be 4-6 years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>	eng
144810	population		The Namibian population was estimated at c.5,000 breeding pairs in 2008, and the South African population at c.21,000 breeding pairs in 2009 (R. Crawford <em>in litt.</em> 2010), thus, the figure used here is 52,000 mature individuals.	eng
144811	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Campaigning has prevented the construction of one coal mine at Punta Choros, though two more may still be built<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor the population throughout its breeding range<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Create marine reserves around colonies<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch<sup>3, 14</sup></strong>. <strong>Reduce fish harvests around major colonies<sup>14</sup></strong> and elsewhere during ENSO events<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve waste treatment in coastal regions<sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144811	distribution		<em>Spheniscus humboldti</em> occurs in coastal <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong> with vagrants recorded north to Colombia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,080<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The 1997-1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 1996<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but had recovered to six by 1999<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the north and central coastal areas in 1999<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Cha&ntilde;aral Island. A repeat visit to Cha&ntilde;aral in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144811	habitat		<strong>Breeding site</strong> It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Reproductive behaviour</strong> Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Migratory range</strong> There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru<strong><sup>2,12</sup></strong>, and occasionally over 600 km<strong><sup>2,12</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on schooling anchoveta <em>Engraulis ringens</em>, squid and other small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders travelling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years<strong><sup> 16</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range</strong> Humboldt Penguins are central place foragers during the breeding season, since they must return to their nests between foraging trips. As a pelagic predator, the Humboldt Penguin is highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal waters near its nesting sites<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. It typically makes short, shallow dives within 30 m of the surface<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. At Isla Pan de Az&uacute;car, Chile, it was found that maximum dive depth was 53 m. Mean distance travelled during foraging trips was 26.5 km, with a minimum and maximum distance of 8.1 and 68.7 km respectively. 90% of the birds remained within 35 km of their breeding colony<strong><sup>17, 19</sup></strong>. At Punta San Juan, Peru, the average maximum distance from the colony of all foraging trips was 19.8 km<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Following breeding failure, non-breeding birds take longer foraging trips, make deeper and longer dives and dive less often per hour at sea than do breeding birds<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Mean and maximum foraging trip duration were both significantly longer in failed breeders than in breeding birds<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
144811	population		Cheney (1998), P. Majluf <em>in litt</em>. (1999)	eng
144812	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Radio-tracking has shown that breeding birds regularly travel long distances, and were found to be frequenting shipping lanes, where many birds were getting oiled. Changes in Chubut provincial law moved the shipping lane after the findings were given significant publicity, and thus the oiling threat has been somewhat reduced<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct a population census in Chile. Monitor effect of the Argentinian anchovy fishery on the Punta Tumbo population. Reduce byctach and oiling incidents.	eng
144812	distribution		<em>Spheniscus magellanicus</em> breeds on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America, in <strong>Argentina</strong> (at 63 sites), <strong>Chile</strong> (at least 10 locations), and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong><sup>1</sup>, with some migrating north to southern <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>2</sup>. A juvenile was discovered in El Salvador in 2007<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The world population is estimated at 1,300,000 pairs: 950,000 along the Argentinian coast, 100,000+ in the Falklands (Malvinas) and 200,000+ in Chile<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Population trends differ between colonies. The two largest colonies in Argentina have both shown decreases during the last decade, but other small colonies have grown<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>In Argentina, the Caleta Valdes colony increased from two pairs in the early 1960s to 26,000 pairs in the early 1990s; the Isla Deseado colony more than doubled between 1986 and 1996; the colony at Punta Tumbo has decreased almost 30% since 1987 owing to higher juvenile and young adult mortality; and the Cabo Virgenes colony has remained stable for at least the last 10 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is reported that the Falkland Islands colonies have declined almost 50% since the 1980s, but data are insufficient to substantiate this<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Overall, trends are uncertain but there are significant declines in some areas and substantial mortality owing to a variety of ongoing threats.	eng
144812	habitat		Magellanic Penguins tracked by satellite and global location sensor tags during incubation typically foraged more than 100 km, and sometimes as much as 600 km from various colonies in Argentina<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Individuals show high site fidelity, with nearly all birds returning to the colony in which they were born, and most adults using the same burrow year after year<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
144812	population		The world population is estimated at 1,300,000 pairs: 950,000 along the Argentinian coast, 100,000+ in the Falklands (Malvinas) and 200,000+ in Chile (Ellis <em>et al. </em>1998).	eng
144813	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The whole Gal&aacute;pagos Penguin population is found within the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park and Marine Reserve. The population is annually monitored and introduced predators are controlled by the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park Sevice. Research projects investigating the marine habitat use, diet, breeding activity and impact of introduced species were carried out between 2003 and 2005<strong><sup>4,16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue long-term monitoring programmes. Improve fisheries management. Increase protection levels within the Gal&aacute;pagos Marine Reserve in areas of penguin breeding sites (fishery exclusion zones should be set up to a distance of 24 km in each direction from a colony along the coast and extending out to sea for 1.5 km). Investigate marine habitat use by non-breeding birds. Monitor and minimise effects of human disturbance in breeding areas. Monitor and minimise penguin mortality from alien species at breeding sites. Develop stronger regulations in the islands to prevent further mammalian predator introductions. Provide nest-boxes in predator-free areas to help monitor reproductive success.	eng
144813	distribution		<em>Spheniscus mendiculus </em>is endemic to the Gal&aacute;pagos Archipelago, <strong>Ecuador</strong> where its population is thought to number fewer than 2,000 individuals. Approximately 95 % of the Gal&aacute;pagos Penguin's population is found on Isabela and Fernandina Islands in the western part of the archipelago, with the remaining 5 % on Bartolom&eacute;, Santiago, Logie and Floreana Islands in the central-south area of the archipelago<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Analysis of mark-recapture results indicates that past population estimates were too high. In 1971, 1,931 penguins were counted, equating to a population of 3,400 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The 1982-1983 El Ni&ntilde;o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population by 77%. After this, the population entered a slow recovery phase. However, the 1997-1998 ENSO induced a further decline of 66%<strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>. Although the annual penguin census shows a relatively stable and even slightly increasing population trend over the last nine years, the current small population size (1,009 individuals counted in 2007) represents only a small fraction of that in the 1970s<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The main breeding range stretches along the coast of the two westernmost islands, encompassing approximately 402 km of coastline, where 96% of all nests are found<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144813	habitat		Located on the equator, the Gal&aacute;pagos Penguin<em> </em>represents the most northerly breeding penguin species. Nonetheless, its distribution is highly linked to the cool and nutrient-rich oceanic waters in the western archipelago that allows for a high density of prey year-round<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It nests at sea-level, and appears to forage close to shore and at relatively shallow depths<strong><sup>7,17</sup></strong>. Gal&aacute;pagos Penguins breed throughout the year, with two marked peaks from March to May and from July to September coinciding with variation in the upwelling<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent studies show that during chick-rearing adult birds move up to 23.5 km from the nest, concentrating foraging within 1 km of the shore<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. While breeding Gal&aacute;pagos Penguins show a high site-fidelity (>80%), non-breeding Gal&aacute;pagos Penguins (adults and juveniles) tend to migrate away from their colony (max. 64 km)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144813	population		Vargas <em>et al.</em> (2005),  Jim&eacute;nez-Uzc&aacute;tegui and Vargas (2007).	eng
144814	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory, with inland populations moving south or to the coast after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May onwards, nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests solitarily on smaller waters but may nest in loosely colonial groups on larger waters (e.g. several pairs nesting a few metres apart on the same lake)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On migration large flocks of 200-1,200 individuals may form, with similar concentrations occurring on rich marine fishing grounds during the winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is most commonly observed singly, in pairs or in small scattered flocks during this season however<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on freshwater pools or lakes in open moorland, blanket bogs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or open and wet peatland habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It will nest on pools as small as 10-20 m long or on lakes up to 5 ha in area, showing a preference for those in treeless areas that have well-vegetated margins and low islets or promontories on which to nest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It generally avoids waters with dense floating or emergent vegetation and steep rocks above the water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and if feeding conditions are inadequate in the pool chosen for breeding the species may fly to the coast or to lakes with higher abundances of fish in order to feed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents inshore waters along sheltered coasts, occasionally occurring inland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on lakes, pools, reservoirs and rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, fish spawn<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, aquatic insects, annelid worms<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and plant matter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small depression<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> or a mound of plant matter<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> built in shallow water up to 10 m from the shore<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> or very near the water's edge<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> on islets or small promontories<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting pairs will often re-use the same site in successive years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In Scotland attempts have been made to implement education schemes for fishermen and land-owners to try to reduce disturbance and mortality of the species on breeding lakes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The introduction of floating artificial nesting rafts may also be successful in increasing the species's breeding success<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144814	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	When breeding the species is threatened by water level fluctuations<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, acidification of breeding waters<strong><sup>1, 6</sup></strong>, heavy metal pollution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the afforestation of peatland or moorland habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is also sensitive to human disturbance from recreational activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and shoreline development (e.g. construction work near breeding lakes)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and will desert sites if there is too much human activity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large concentrations form (e.g. on rich fishing grounds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines) during this season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species suffers mortality at sea and on large lakes due to entanglement and drowning in inshore fishing nets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144815	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. It breeds in isolated solitary pairs<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong> from April onwards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On migration the species often forms flocks of c.50 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, generally occurring singly, in pairs or small flocks during the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and occasionally forming large congregations in rich coastal fishing areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> It breeds on deep, productive, freshwater lakes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or extensive pools with islets, peninsulas and other inaccessible nesting sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is most common on inshore waters along sheltered coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, occasionally also frequenting large inland freshwater bodies<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> such as natural lakes or barrages, lagoons and large rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diets consists predominantly of fish<strong><sup> </sup></strong>although aquatic insects, molluscs, crustaceans and some plant matter may also be taken<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a heap of plant matter placed near the water's edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on islets or hummocks emerging from the water, sometimes also on clumps of grass on the shore<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> In Scotland the construction of floating artificial nesting islands (rafts) on lakes where breeding success was low and/or nests had been flooded succeeded in increasing the breeding success of the species in the area<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Sweden it was also found that nesting islands and areas of surrounding water should be included in sanctuaries for this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144815	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	During the breeding season the species is threatened by the acidification of breeding waters, heavy metal pollution and water level fluctuations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> especially during the incubation period<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. It also suffers from lower reproductive success due to human disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. from tourists or wetland visitors)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and is indirectly affected by breeding habitat alteration (e.g. afforestation)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in rich fishing grounds where large congregation may occur, and is commonly caught and drowned as bycatch in fishing nets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also highly sensitive to disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144817	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is strongly migratory, with inland breeding populations moving south or to the coast after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May onwards in isolated solitary pairs, nesting later further to the north depending on the timing of the thaw<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Adults become flightless for a short time in late-winter when they moult their flight feathers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During the winter the species occurs singly, in pairs or in small loose flocks in marine habitats<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>, occasionally also forming large congregations of c.300<strong><sup>1, 3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on large, deep freshwater lakes in coniferous forest or on open tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, requiring clear water with visibilities of at least 3-4 m and small islands (less than 2.5 ha) for nesting<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> It winters along the coast on exposed rocky shores, sheltered bays<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, channels and sheltered inlets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> showing a preference for shallow inshore waters<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It may also be found inland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on lakes and reservoirs during this season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although this is largely influenced by the weather<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists predominantly of fish as well as crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic insects, annelid worms, frogs, other amphibians<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and plant matter (e.g. <em>Potamogeton</em> spp., willow <em>Salix</em> spp. shoots, roots, seeds, moss and algae)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a mound of plant matter screened by vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and placed near the water's edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on islands, islets or promontories<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> There is evidence that introducing floating nesting platforms on lakes is successful in increasing the reproductive success of the species<strong><sup>5, </sup></strong>7, and that nest losses caused by flooding can be reduced by controlling water levels during the nesting period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Mortality from entanglement and drowning in fishing nets could also be reduced by using fish traps with openings at the top to allow birds to escape, or by checking traps more regularly for captured birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144817	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	When breeding the species is threatened by fluctuating water levels<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. due to the building of dams)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, acidification of breeding lakes<strong><sup>1, 5, </sup></strong>7, heavy metal pollution<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong> (e.g. methylmercury contamination)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and lead poisoning from ingested lead fishing weights<strong><sup>4, 6</sup></strong>. It is also highly sensitive to human disturbance<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> such as shoreline development and human recreation<strong><sup>5, </sup></strong>7, and may desert lakes after increases in human presence and activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During the winter the species is highly vulnerable to coastal oil spills, especially in areas where large congregations form<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and entanglement in monofilament fishing lines (used for sport fishing) and commercial fishing nets causes significant mortality at sea and on larger lakes<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease<strong><sup>1, 7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144818	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 2006 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, working with a variety of native, state and federal partners, developed a conservation agreement to protect the species in northern and western Alaska, with an aim to eliminate or reduce current or potential threats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Update the current population estimate and establish a monitoring programme to elucidate trends. Assess current levels of harvest and initiate control measures should they be unsustainable.	eng
144818	distribution		<em>Gavia adamsii</em> breeds in the Arctic in <strong>Russia</strong>, Alaska (<strong>USA</strong>), and <strong>Canada </strong>, and winters at sea mainly off the coasts of <strong>Norway</strong>, western North America, and the eastern coast of Asia, including the coasts of <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, and <strong>China<sup>1,7</sup></strong>. The population is thought to number 16,000-32,000 individuals, with 3,000-4,000 in Alaska, 20,000 in Canada and 8,000 in Russia<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The breeding range in Russia has possibly contracted<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144818	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds from early June (largely depending upon the timing of the spring thaw) in solitary pairs, after which it travels southwards and towards the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to its wintering grounds, where it is present between October and May<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species occurs singly, in pairs or in small groups<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species may breed on low-lying Arctic coasts and estuaries but is more common on freshwater pools, lakes or rivers in the Arctic tundra<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, showing a preference for deep<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, clear<strong><sup> </sup></strong>lakes with stony or sandy substrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where water levels do not fluctuate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Optimum habitats include lakes where the water does not completely freeze, which have dependable supplies of fish and which have highly convoluted shorelines and aquatic vegetation providing habitats for fish and sites for nesting and brood rearing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species generally avoids forested areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may fly long distances to feed away from breeding waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species inhabits inshore waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, fjords with muddy substrates<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and inlets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> along sheltered coasts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, generally avoiding ice-covered waters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is little known but may consist predominantly of fish (e.g. Cottidae, <em>Microgadus proximus</em> and <em>Gadus morhua</em>) as well as crustaceans, molluscs and marine annelids<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a small depression<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in a mound of plant matter or turf<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> constructed on dry land<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> 1 m away<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> from the edge of water<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, usually on the shores of lakes with deep<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, clear water and stony or sandy substrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> in sites providing good visibility over the surrounding land and water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144818	population		The global population has been estimated at 16,000-32,000 individuals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009).	eng
144819	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored at South Georgia, Marion, Crozet and Macquarie Islands, and at Terre Ad&eacute;lie. Several breeding islands are nature reserves; Gough and Macquarie are World Heritage Sites. The population at Gough Island was censused in 2000-2001, and again in 2003, and a monitoring protocol has been devised<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring. Conduct surveys of major breeding sites. Minimise disturbance at breeding sites. Research movements and migration. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within its range, particularly via existing and proposed intergovernmental mechanisms under auspices of CCAMLR, CMS and FAO. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144819	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Macronectes giganteus</em> breeds on the<strong> Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>, Staten Island and islands off Chubut Province (<strong>Argentina</strong>), <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, the South Orkney (Orcadas del Sur) and South Shetland Islands (Shetland del Sur), islands near the Antarctic Continent and Peninsula, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), with smaller populations on Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> </strong>(<strong>St Helena to UK</strong>), Diego Ramirez and Isla Noir (<strong>Chile</strong>), Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), and four localities on the Antarctic Continent including Terre Ad&eacute;lie<strong><sup>1,5,6,29</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the population was estimated at 38,000 pairs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, declining by 18% to 31,000 pairs in the late 1990s<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Populations at Heard and Macquarie declined 50% between the 1960s and late 1980s<strong><sup>14,28</sup></strong>. Many Antarctic Peninsula populations decreased to the mid-1980s (e.g. >50% at Signy, South Orkneys)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The population at Terre Ad&eacute;lie declined from c.80 pairs in the 1960s to 10-15 pairs in 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, recent data indicate a number of populations have stabilised or increased, e.g. Possession Island (Crozet)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, Gough Island<strong><sup>15 </sup></strong>and Heard Island<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. A comprehensive 2004-2005 survey of all breeding colonies on the Falkland Islands recorded 19,523 breeding pairs<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. This represents a dramatic increase over the previous estimate of 5,000-10,000 pairs in the Falkland Islands, and is thought to represent a combination of improved knowledge and a genuine population increase. Similarly, a comprehensive survey of all known breeding sites in the South Georgia archipelago, between 2005 and 2006, indicates a population increase since the 1980s<strong><sup>30</sup></strong>, and the global population is now estimated at c.54,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>. Data from birds tracked from South Georgia indicate that breeders remain in the same ocean sector during the nonbreeding season<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. By comparison, ringing recoveries suggest that juveniles disperse much more widely<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Males and females have distinct foraging ranges during the breeding season<strong><sup>26</sup> </strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
144819	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It typically nests in loose colonies on grassy or bare ground. However, in the Falkland Islands it can nest in large, relatively dense colonies<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Average age of first breeding is c.10 years, and mean adult annual survival at South Georgia is 90%<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It feeds on carrion, cephalopods, krill, offal, discarded fish and refuse from ships, often feeding near trawlers and longliners<strong><sup>7,25</sup></strong>. Males and females exhibit clearly defined spatial segregation in their foraging ranges<strong><sup>17,18,19</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	A total of  46,800 pairs and approaching 100,000 mature individuals can be estimated from Patterson <em>et al.</em> (in press) and unpublished data from Falklands Conservation and British Antarctic Survey. This consists of an estimated 19,500 pairs on the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (Reid and Huin 2005), 5,500 pairs on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), 5,400 pairs on South Shetland Islands (Shetland del Sur), 3,350 pairs on South Orkney Island (Orcadas del Sur) (British Antarctic Survey unpubl. data), 2,500 pairs on Heard and MacDonald Islands (DPIW unpubl. data), 2,145 pairs on Macquarie Island (Gonzalez-Solis and Croxall 2005), 2,300 pairs in South America (Quintana <em>et al. </em>2006), 2,30 pairs on the Tristan da Cunha Islands (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004), 280 pairs on the Antarctic Continent (Woehler 2006). In addition, Patterson <em>et al. in litt</em> estimate 1,190 pairs on the Antarctic Peninsula, 1,550 pairs on the South Sandwich Islands, 1,800 pairs on Prince Edward Islands, 1,060 pairs on Iles Crozet and 4 pairs in Iles Kerguelen (Patterson <em>et al.</em> undated). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
144819	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	A total of 2,000-4,000 giant-petrels were estimated killed in illegal or unregulated Southern Ocean longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> in 1997-1998<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> and the species has been shown to be killed in trawl fisheries in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. However, improved mitigation in many longline fisheries appears to have reduced bycatch levels of this species around some breeding colonies<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Localised decreases have also been attributed to reductions in southern elephant seal <em>Mirounga leonina</em> (an important source of carrion), human disturbance and persecution<strong><sup>8,13,24</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144820	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct surveys of major breeding sites. Continue monitoring. Minimise disturbance at breeding sites. Research movements and migration. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within its range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
144820	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Macronectes halli</em> breeds at <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes and Chatham Islands and, historically, on islets off Stewart Island (<strong>New Zealand</strong>). The world population in the 1980s was estimated at c.8,600 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A more recent estimate (late 1990s) is 11,500 pairs, an apparent increase of 34%<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, which may be partly attributable to better monitoring, but also probably reflects greater availability of carrion from expanding populations of fur seals <em>Arctocephalus gazella</em> and <em>A. tropicalis, </em>increased waste from commercial fishing operations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and use of measures to reduce seabird bycatch around some breeding colonies, such as South Georgia (Georgias del Sur).<em> <br/></p>	eng
144820	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Where they co-exist at the same location, Northern Giant-petrels<strong> </strong>breed approximately six weeks before Southern Giant-petrels<strong><sup>16,12</sup></strong>. Birds feed on penguin and pinniped carrion, cephalopods, krill, offal, discarded fish and refuse from ships, often feeding near trawlers and longliners<strong><sup>14,15</sup></strong>. Males and females exhibit clearly defined spatial segregation in foraging ranges<strong><sup>8,15,18,19</sup></strong>. During the breeding season, males exploit scavenging opportunities in and around seal and penguin colonies and are coastal in distribution, whereas females are much more dependent on pelagic resources<strong><sup>9,20, 21</sup></strong>. There is significant sexual dimorphism, with female mass approximately 80% that of males<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Ringing recoveries indicate juveniles forage more widely than adults<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. At some sites, its less colonial breeding habit may make it less sensitive to human disturbance than Southern Giant-petrel<em>, </em>though degree of coloniality does not differ on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), the largest breeding colony<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. On the Chatham Islands, regurgitations from the birds on the Forty-Fours indicate a reliance on natural food sources (esp.<em>Gnathophausia ingens</em>) rather than carrion - there being no penguin colonies in the Chatham Islands<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. Average age of first breeding is c.10 years, and mean adult annual survival at South Georgia is 90%<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The largest population is on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), with c.4,500 pairs (Patterson <em>et al.</em> undated). followed by Chatham Islands (c.2000 pairs on the Forty-Fours and 80-100 pairs on Middle Sister) (Taylor 2000), Iles Kerguelen (1,450-1,800 pairs) (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1989), Iles Crozet (1,300 pairs) (Jouventin <em>et al.</em> 1989), Macquarie Island (c.1,300 pairs) (Patterson <em>et al.</em> undated), Prince Edward Island (650 pairs) (Patterson <em>et al.</em> (undated), Antipodes Island (230 pairs) (Wiltshire and Hamilton 2003), Campbell Island (230 pairs) (Wiltshire and Scofield 2000) and the Auckland Group (50 pairs) (Taylor 2000). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
144820	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	A total of 2,000-4,000 giant-petrels were estimated killed in illegal or unregulated Southern Ocean longline fisheries for Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em> in 1997-1998<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Improved mitigation in a number of Patagonian Toothfish longline fisheries around breeding colonies (including South Georgia [Georgias del Sur]) has led to a reduction in observed bycatch of this species in these areas. Secondary mortality (ingested hooks) and mortality associated with IUU fishing may still be a threat. On the Chatham Islands, fisheries bycatch returned by observers from NZ waters 1996-2005 returned only 17 birds (8 from trawl fisheries and 9 from longline)<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2,800,000-4,400,000 breeding pairs, equating to 8,400,000-13,200,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a revised estimate of the global population size is 15,000,000-50,000,000 individuals. del Hoyo et al (1992) estimated the global population to number 8,000,000-32,000,000 individuals. Brooke (2004) estimated the global breeding population to number around 7,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 21,000,000 individuals. Hence a revised global estimate is 15,000,000-30,000,000.	eng
144822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 4,000,000 individuals.	eng
144823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number between 10,000,000 and 20,000,000 individuals.	eng
144824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 2,000,000 individuals.	eng
144825	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 4,000,000 individuals.	eng
144826	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated that the global population numbers around 1,000,000 individuals.	eng
144827	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Since 1996, there has been a campaign to quantify urban light-induced mortality and to rescue as many birds as possible<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. The rescues have been successful, with over 90% of the petrels (of various species) found on R&eacute;union<strong> </strong>being released again<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. From 1996-2002, a public appeal aimed at rescuing downed birds produced eight petrels, of which seven were banded and released<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, no concerted attempts involving supported, coordinated efforts have been made to assess the species's status on R&eacute;union and predator control has not been trialled<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Develop an action plan for known breeding sites, and execute predator trapping, legal protection and monitoring of at least one or two burrows<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue rescue programme of young birds attracted by lights<sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate light-reduction programmes either through light-shielding or light-restriction during the fledgling period<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to search for further breeding grounds and, once found, evaluate population numbers, major threats and conservation action required<sup>5,6</sup></strong>.	eng
144827	distribution		<em>Pseudobulweria aterrima</em> is known from <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong> and by subfossil remains on Rodrigues (Mauritius). The few records include four specimens collected in the 19th century, two birds found dead in the 1970s, and rare observations of birds in the waters south of R&eacute;union since 1964. Recently four more individuals, two of which died, were found attracted to urban lights of R&eacute;union<strong> </strong>towns<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Five breeding sites are known (9-10 pairs in total, including one loose colony with four pairs), all restricted to a small area which is unlikely to harbour more than c.40 breeding burrows in total<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Data collected at sea during the period 1978-1995 indicates that the population is probably c.1,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with perhaps 45-400 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although 50-100 pairs is probably more likely<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144827	habitat		All known breeding sites are on cliffs, presumably in heathy vegetation. Recent information confirms austral summer breeding, with incubation around December, and fledging between February and March<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144827	population		From their at-sea counts, Attie et al. (1997) suggest that the population may be around 1,000 individuals, implying 250 (45-400) breeding pairs (Brooke 2004), although 50-100 pairs is probably more likely (V. Bretagnole in litt. 1999), i.e. 100-200 mature individuals.	eng
144828	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A molecular study of <em>P. becki </em>and <em>P. rostrata </em>is underway<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Scrutinise and photograph all <em>P. rostrata</em> types seen within the region. Survey far-flung atolls and reefs north of New Ireland and the Solomons. Survey high-altitude forest on Bougainville.</strong>	eng
144828	distribution		Until recently <em>Pseudobulweria becki</em> was only known from two specimens: a female taken at sea east of New Ireland and north of Buka, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, on 6 January 1928, and a male taken north-east of Rendova, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, on 18 May 1929<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Three birds probably of this species were seen off New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago in 2003<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong> and in July and August 2007 an expedition recorded the species on seven days and at at least four localities off New Ireland, with at least 30 recorded in a day and a maximum of 16 together, finally confirming the species's rediscovery<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Cape St George, at the southern end of the island, appeared the most favoured locality, where birds outnumbered Tahiti Petrel <em>P. rostrata</em>, recently fledged juveniles and moulting adults were seen close to land, and a freshly dead fledgling was found<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 2008 at least 11 were seen off Western Bougainville and Eastern New Ireland in April<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and an expedition in July-August found a minimum of 160 birds between New Britain and New Ireland. It seems likely that the species breeds in the montane forests of southern New Ireland such as those around Mt Gilaut and the Hans Meyer range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Additionally a possible record was seen and photographed from a boat crossing the Coral Sea east of Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 2006<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and due to the difficulty of reliable identification in the field a number of records of <em>P. rostrata</em> from the Solomons and Bismarck Archipelago<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>, may also refer to <em>P. becki</em>. The extent of its breeding range and at-sea distribution is still unknown.	eng
144828	habitat		Like <em>P. rostrata</em> elsewhere in the Pacific, it probably nests on small islets and/or high mountains on larger islands. The recent records at sea off New Ireland suggest it may well breed in montane forest at the southern end of this island, around Mt Gilaut and the peaks further east and north, including the Hans Meyer range<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although close to the type-locality, the Nuguria Islands seem unsuitable for burrow-nesting petrels<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, while the 2007 expedition found few birds north of New Ireland and local people did not know of the species in the main island in the Feni group, the only island in this group with substantial montane forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Off New Ireland it rarely followed boats for long periods but appeared more tolerant of them than <em>P. rostrata</em>, approaching boats more closely and for longer periods<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, although this should not be assumed to be a general characteristic or means of identifying the two species.	eng
144828	population		Population assumed to be very small, with the species only definitely known from two specimens taken in 1928 and 1929 until its rediscovery in 2007, however estimates of at least 160 birds off New Ireland in 2008 suggest it may be larger than previously suspected.	eng
144829	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In New Caledonia a plan to reduce the impact of mining exploitation on the Koniambo massif has been recently proposed to the KNS Mining Society. On the same island SCO has begun a campaign to collect and release birds that are desoriented by lights. In June 2007, an at sea transect from Noumea to the Chesterfield was established; repeated surveys along this line will be used to monitor long-term population trends.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor key populations. Investigate whether the species nests on Taveuni. Quantify the levels of chick predation by black rats and other nest predators.  Continue to eradicate predators from known breeding islands. Discourage the killing of birds for their feathers for fishing lures, providing white chickens as a substitute. Implement projects to tackle the threat of light pollution.	eng
144829	distribution		<em>Pseudobulweria rostrata</em><strong> </strong>breeds in the Marquesas, Society (race <em>rostrata</em>) and Gambier (recorded in 1995, probably <em>rostrata</em><strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>) Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, <strong>Fiji</strong>, <strong>American Samoa </strong>and <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> (<em>trouessarti</em>). Genetic research may show that the Samoan population is genetically distinct<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It used to breed in Vanuatu<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may breed on Rarotonga, Cook Islands<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, as well as on other islands. In the Marquesas, it breeds on Nuku Hiva, Hiva Oa and Tahuata, totalling less than 500 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and birds have been heard at night (possibly breeding) at Ua Pou, Ua Huka<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> and Fatu Hiva<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the Society Islands, it breeds on Tahiti and Moorea (and perhaps Bora Bora<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>), where the populations were estimated at less than 1,000 pairs and several thousand pairs respectively<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although recent visits suggest a substantial decline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the Gambiers, there are 12-26 pairs on Mangareva, Akamaru and Manui<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In Fiji, it breeds on Gau and Taveuni<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, while, in American Samoa, it breeds on Ta'u and Tutuila<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Hundreds of pairs may nest on Taveuni, where >150 were seen offshore in October 2003 and where the low open forest on steep unstable hill-sides is similar to nesting areas on New Caledonia<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Nesting may also occur on Gau Island, where >20 individuals were seen following chumming in 2008<strong><sup>25</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, it breeds on Grand Terre in unknown numbers, particularly in the high mountains such as Massif du Koniambo where there are at least 200-400 pairs, and it also breeds on 11 (out of 70) islets in the southern lagoon where there are estimated to be less than 100 pairs. There are signs of a substantial decline on at least one of these islets, with 50 pairs in 1986 reduced to less than 10 pairs in 1998<strong><sup>9,23</sup></strong>. However, the extensive Whitney South Sea Expeditions only collected this species in French Polynesia, suggesting that the apparently large populations in New Caledonia and Fiji may have increased in the last few decades<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season it disperses widely, and birds have been recorded as far east as Peru and Mexico<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, and as far west as the Mozambique Channel<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.	eng
144829	habitat		Eggs are laid in burrows on rocky slopes or in open upland forest. Breeding appears to occur throughout the year, although on Tahiti at least there appears to be a peak between March and July<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, most of the recently discovered colonies are small (<10 pairs) and spread over large areas of several thousand square metres<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144829	population		The overall population of the species probably does not exceed 10,000 pairs (i.e. 20,000 mature individuals) and 30,000 individuals (Brooke 2004)	eng
144830	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The rarity and significance of this species has been promoted to local residents and it is featured on a Fijian bank note. It is protected under Fijian law. Repeated surveys in the 1980s attempting to find evidence of breeding failed and no further work was undertaken for 10 years. In 2003, a Recovery Plan for the Fiji Petrel was drawn up with the assistance of the National Parks and Wildlife Dept. of New South Wales. In 2004, the National Trust of Fiji initiated a year-long community awareness programme on the island in association with RARE, and together with the National Parks and Wildlife Dept. of New South Wales initiated a community-based awareness project to procure more information from grounded birds, together with an initiative to protect the Gau highlands where the petrel is believed to nest. Data from landed petrels have been collected in 2005, 2007 and 2009<strong><sup>5,7,12</sup></strong>.  The most urgent priority remains locating the breeding grounds. A comprehensive scientific review of the Fiji Petrel and its conservation has been undertaken and recently published<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme NatureFiji-MareqetiViti have taken on the role of Species Guardian and are implementing the following actions: a full time Project Officer is based on the island charged with implementing activities identified in the Fiji Petrel Recovery Plan; welfare and release procedures for grounded birds and the development of local expertise in the collection of scientific data following such incidents; nocturnal "listening" for Fiji Petrels over the new moon periods with playback of Tahiti and Mascarene Petrel calls; spotlighting and cold searches for  nesting burrows. In addition, standardized surveys of rat species and densities are being undertaken as well as surveys of feral cats and pigs. In 2010 it is planned to bring New Zealand trained 'wildlife search' dogs to Gau to search for nesting Fiji Petrels using feathers from a dead specimen. NatureFiji-MareqetiViti have received a significant grant from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to enable this work to be undertaken<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>On Gau, conduct surveys employing petrel specialists and using spotlighting, radio-tracking and trained wildlife searching sniffer dogs<sup>1,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop local expertise to assist with, or carry out, surveys<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to raise awareness on Gau, and put in place a process for rapid alert to and acquisition of any ground birds<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the breeding success and threats to <em>P. brevipes</em>. Survey seas off other suitable islands.</strong>	eng
144830	distribution		This species was previously known from just one immature specimen collected in 1855 on Gau Island, <strong>Fiji</strong>, but between 1984-2007 there were a total of 17 reports of grounded birds on Gau<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Most records relate to immature birds that have landed on the roofs of houses in Nawaikama, Levukaigua or Nukuloa villages, a number of which have died, and four specimens have been obtained from these fatalities<strong><sup>2,7,12</sup></strong>. One further confirmed sighting concerns a bird that landed in Levuka village in April 2007<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. At sea, the only unequivocal sightings of the Fiji Petrel have been off Gau in May and October 2009<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. It may occur on other islands in the vicinity, e.g. Taveuni<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144830	habitat		It is likely to breed amongst large numbers of Collared Petrel in the rugged terrain of interior Gau (where over 70 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable forest exists up to 715 m)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There have been speculations concerning the length and timing of the breeding season<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, however conclusive data remains to be found.	eng
144830	population		The remaining population is assumed to be tiny (<50 individuals) based on paucity of recent records (although these include eight since 1983).	eng
144831	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>South East Island has been managed as a reserve since 1954, and cattle, sheep and goats were removed in 1961<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Intensive research, ongoing since 1991, helped to identify the impact of <em>Pachyptila vittata</em>. As a consequence, artificial nest-sites have been provided and burrows have been blocked to prevent occupation by <em>P. vittata</em> during the absence of <em>Pterodroma axillaris</em>. <em>P. vittata</em> found occupying <em>P. axillaris</em> burrows are culled<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Since 2001, neoprene burrow flaps installed at burrow entrances have greatly reduced prion impacts during the period February to April<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. These measures have greatly improved breeding success<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, from 10-30% in early 1990s to 70-80% in the past 10 years. Intensive burrow searches have now located over 160 active breeding sites of the estimated 250 pairs using the island. All newly located burrows are converted to artificial nest sites and are safe-guarded from prion interference. In 2002 a second population was created in a predator free enclosure on the 40 ha Ellen Elizabeth Preece Conservation Covenant (EEPCC). Over four years 200 chicks were transferred to this site, and by 2006 four birds had returned with a pair successfully rearing a single chick for the first time<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. In 2006-2007, four pairs nested and four chicks were reared. This included one pair of unbanded birds that have been lured presumably to the site by the sound attraction system. In 2008 seven chicks fledged from the EEPCC and 47 chicks were translocated to Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on Chatham Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor breeding burrows annually and band all chicks.  Continue to protect nesting birds. Continue translocating birds to the Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on Chatham Island until a self-maintaining population is established. Use tiny geolocation tags to investigate the species's at-sea distribution and identify potential threats. </strong>	eng
144831	distribution		<em>Pterodroma axillaris</em> is restricted to South East Island (= Rangatira) in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, although subfossils indicate that it was once more widespread, being present on Chatham, Pitt and Mangere Islands<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. The earliest estimate of 50 birds was later revised to 200-400<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A mark-recapture census in 2004 estimated the global population stands at 1,000-1,100 individuals comprising the 250 breeding pairs, a floater population of adults unable to breed each year owing to loss of partners or nesting sites, and juveniles aged 0-5<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. The increase reflects an improvement in knowledge and since 2000, a marked response to successful management with over 100 chicks now fledging annually and many recruiting back to the island. Significant declines occurred during the 20th century and continued into the 1990s; an annual decline of 1% per annum has been crudely estimated and cautious interpretation suggests a gross decline of 40-50% or more may have occurred over the past three generations<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Trends appear to have stabilised since 2000, prompted by successful conservation measures. Between 2002-2006, 200 chicks were moved to a newly created predator-free site, and successful breeding occurred in 2006<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, 2007 and 2008<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Second and third translocations are underway with 47 chicks moved to the 7.5 hectare Sweetwater Conservation Covenant on the main Chatham Island in 2008<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and 44 moved in 2009<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It may migrate to the north Pacific Ocean like the closely-related <em>P. nigripennis</em>, and has been recorded at sea to the south of the islands<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>.	eng
144831	habitat		It nests in burrows in very friable densely burrowed soils in lowland temperate forest and scrub, on flat to moderate sloping ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its diet is not well known but includes squid and small fish. Some young have returned to the island at two years old<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and breeding has been recorded at age three, though most individuals do not breed until age five<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Much of the life cycle is spent at sea; birds return to land only to breed. Visits to the colony are after dark.	eng
144831	population		A mark-recapture census in 2004 estimated the global population stands at 1,000-1,100 individuals comprising 250 breeding pairs, a floater population of adults unable to breed each year owing to loss of partners or nesting sites, and juveniles aged 0 to five (G. Taylor <em>in litt</em>. 2009). This suggests that just 500 mature individuals are contributing to the population annually; a figure that is likely to continue increasing following two translocations.	eng
144832	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 8,000,000-10,000,000 individuals.	eng
144833	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Goats were removed from Raoul and Macauley in 1984 and 1970, respectively. The eradication of rabbits from Phillip in 1985 may have resulted in the species colonising the island in the following years. A study area on Macauley was established in 1988<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Kermadec Islands are nature reserves with access by permit only.<strong></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Map populations on Macauley and complete a census. Monitor Macauley every five years to ensure that no establishment of predators has occurred. Monitor recovery of vegetation on Macauley and any negative effects on the species. Recapture birds in study area to determine data on survival and longevity every five years. Eradicate <em>R. exulans</em> from Macauley and Raoul, and <em>R. norvegicus</em> and cats from Raoul. Re-establish colony on Raoul<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Survey Mere Lava and assess threats.	eng
144833	distribution		<em>Pterodroma cervicalis</em> breeds on Macauley Island in the Kermadec Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong> (c.50,000 pairs in 1988, possibly increasing), with a second small colony still present on Phillip Island, off <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong> (a few breeding pairs)<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It is also reported to breed on Mere Lava in <strong>Vanuatu </strong>where it is well known to local communities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It bred on Raoul Island, also in the Kermadec Islands, early in the 20th century<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It migrates to the north Pacific Ocean<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with a recent sighting off Gau Island, <strong>Fiji<sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144833	habitat		On Macauley, it nests in burrows, generally on high, gently sloping areas with sedges and grass. On Raoul, it nested below 300&#160;m on high-altitude ridges<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on squid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Little is known of the breeding biology.	eng
144833	population		The total population has been estimated at c.100,000 mature individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144834	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor suitable colonies to assess population trends. Complete pest plan to prevent and enable rapid responses to new species introductions. Eradicate <em>G. australis</em> from Big Solander Island, and <em>G. australis</em> and <em>R. rattus</em> from Big South Cape Island, on agreement with owners. Asses the impact of the <em>P. griseus </em>harvest on populations.	eng
144834	distribution		<em>Pterodroma inexpectata</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It breeds on islands off Fiordland, the Solander Islands, Foveaux Strait islands, islands around Stewart Island (including Titi islands, Codfish, Big South Cape Islands, and islets in Port Pegasus) and the Snares Islands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It once bred throughout the North and South Islands, and possibly the Chatham, Bounty, Antipodes and Auckland Islands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. There are c.10,000+ pairs on each of Big South Cape and Main Islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the Codfish population was estimated at 300,000-400,000 pairs in 1996<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It migrates to the north Pacific as far as the subarctic front and Bering Sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and in summer can range as far south as the pack ice<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
144834	habitat		It breeds in burrows on remote offshore islands and otherwise ranges widely at sea.	eng
144834	population		Brooke (2004)	eng
144835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to approach 1,000,000 individuals.	eng
144836	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Cabbage Tree, <em>Pisonia</em> is being removed, rabbits have been extirpated, <em>S.&#160;graculina</em> and <em>C.&#160;coronoides</em> are controlled, and other predators are monitored. Two hundred fledglings have been translocated from Cabbage Tree to Boondelbah. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine status on Austral Islands. Clarify taxonomy. In New Caledonia, survey other potential breeding areas. Monitor at least two colonies. Assess breeding success and predation levels. Control introduced mammals. Monitor Australian populations biennially.  <br/></p>	eng
144836	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pterodroma leucoptera</em> mainly breeds in <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>. There is also a small colony on Raivavae, Austral Islands, <strong>French Polynesia<sup>2</sup></strong>. In Australia, <em>leucoptera</em> breeds on Cabbage Tree (0.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and adjacent Boondelbah (0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Islands. On Cabbage Tree, population estimates indicated a decline from 2,004 birds in 1970 to 1,157 in 1993<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, conservation action undertaken since 1993 has seen the number of nesting pairs increase annually from <250 to c.1,025 in 2001<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Approximately 20 pairs breed on Boondelbah<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, at least six breeding sites of <em>caledonica</em> of 100-200 pairs are known between Mts Dzumac and Poya, at 400-650&#160;m. The breeding population numbers c.1,000-10,000 pairs<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. Petrels known historically from Vanuatu (possibly still extant) may be this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Australian birds presumably disperse with New Caledonian birds to the Tasman Sea and the far east Pacific<strong><sup>1,5,6,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144836	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in burrows on steep slopes on New Caledonia, and among rocks and debris of cabbage tree palm <em>Livistona australis</em> in Australia<strong><sup>2,8,9</sup></strong>. It may feed on cephalopods in offshore waters<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, but significant numbers are also seen inshore<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Banded adult birds have lived to more than 30 years of age<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144836	population	BirdLife International, 2008	V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt</em>. (1999, 2000), Garnett and Crowley (2000), D. Priddel <em>in litt. </em>(2000). <br/></p>	eng
144836	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Cabbage Tree population declined as a result of predation by Pied Currawong <em>Strepera graculina </em>and Australian Raven <em>Corvus coronoides</em>, and entanglement in birdlime tree <em>Pisonia umbellifera</em> fruit. Introduced rabbits have probably changed the island's vegetation to favour increased populations of <em>S.&#160;graculina </em>and <em>Pisonia</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, as well as making the birds more susceptible to predation. On New Caledonia, introduced pigs excavate chicks from burrows<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and rats and cats may be potential threats. In 1995, egg abandonment on Cabbage Tree suggested unidentified marine threats<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144837	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Cats were eradicated from Little Barrier by 1980, and <em>G. australis</em> was eradicated from Codfish between 1980 and 1985<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>R. exulans</em> was succesfully eradicated from Little Barrier Island in 2004, increasing fledging success from 5% to 70%<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. An eradication operation took place in August 1998 on Codfish - the outcome of which is unknown<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey Codfish to locate new breeding burrows and colonies. Monitor breeding success and recruitment on Codfish, and map burrows at five-yearly intervals. Monitor status of population on Great Barrier: collect dead birds, tag and map active burrows, record locations of display areas. Implement appropriate pest control if a colony (more than five burrows) is found on Great Barrier. Reintroduce to mainland "islands" (areas of the mainland with intensive predator control)</strong><sup>6</sup>.	eng
144837	distribution		<em>Pterodroma cookii</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it breeds on Little Barrier, Great Barrier and Codfish Islands. On Great Barrier, only 12 burrows have been found during the last 25 years; there may be fewer than 20 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and it is extinct as a reproductively viable population. On Codfish the population declined from c.20,000 pairs in the early 1900s almost to extinction before predators were removed in 1982; it is now increasing and was estimated at 5,000 breeding pairs in 2007<strong><sup>1,2,6,9</sup></strong>. The population on Little Barrier is also likely to be increasing<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and modelling and spatial analysis has suggested that as many as 286,000 pairs may breed on Little Barrier Island annually<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds migrate to the east Pacific Ocean, mainly between 34&#176;S and 30&#176;N<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144837	habitat		It breeds in burrows on forested ridges and steep slopes between 300-700 m on Little Barrier and 4-350 m on Codfish; ideal breeding habitat is unmodified forest close to ridgetops with a low and open canopy and many large stems<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It formerly bred in suitable habitat throughout New Zealand<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on squid, crustaceans and small fish<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144837	population		Rayner <em>et al </em>(2007) based on burrow surveys extrapolated through GIS.	eng
144838	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Between 1987 and 1997, eradications of <em>R. exulans</em> were completed on Korapuki, Double, Stanley, Red Mercury, Lady Alice, Whatupuke and Coppermine Islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. As a result, breeding success has improved (as has that of <em>P. assimilis</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). Study populations have been established on Red Mercury and Stanley Islands. Populations on the Chicken Islands group have been studied since 1992<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey Ririwha and Aorangi Islands to confirm breeding status and population size. Survey Fanal, Three Kings and Ohinau Islands for new colonies. Continue monitoring study burrows on Lady Alice, and monitor breeding density and burrow competition. Eradicate <em>R. exulans</em> from Mauitaha and Hen Islands, and Ririwha Island if owners consent. Check all islands at least every five years to ensure that introduced predators have not established</strong><sup>5</sup>.	eng
144838	distribution		<em>Pterodroma pycrofti</em> breeds under forest on 11 offshore islands along the east coast of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, in the Poor Knights Islands, the Hen and Chicken Islands, the Mercury Islands, and Ririwha (= Stephenson). Subfossils indicate that the species once bred on Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands (to Australia)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Red Mercury Island (c.80% of total) supported 1,000-2,000 pairs in 1989-1991, and 2,000-3,000 in 1998. The population at the Hen and Chickens is probably less than 500 pairs. Other populations are tiny. The total breeding population is estimated at 2,500-4,000 pairs, with a total population of 10,000-20,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds migrate to the north Pacific Ocean<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144838	habitat		It digs burrows on flat to steep coastal slopes below 150 m, often interspersed with other petrel colonies<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its diet is not well known, although it is known to take squid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144838	population		The total breeding population is estimated at 2,500-4,000 pairs, with a total population of 10,000-20,000 birds (Taylor 2000).	eng
144839	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys during the breeding season to determine its status on all islands where it is known or suspected to have occurred. Clarify taxonomy.  Assess breeding success and predation levels on Gau Consider controlling introduced mammals.</strong>	eng
144839	distribution		<em>Pterodroma brevipes</em> is presently known to breed only in <strong>Fiji</strong> on Gau,  and possibly Viti Levu, Kadavu, Ovalau and Vanuabalavu. On Gau island, 165 birds were attracted to lights on four nights in April-May 1984<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. However, in recent surveys for this species at two historical breeding sites: Ovalau (July 2004) and Mt Washington (=Nabukulevu) on Kadavu (August 2004), none were seen<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is a cryptic breeder, rarely seen from the coast, returning to land only after dark during the breeding season and often silent after pre-laying displays, so it may have been overlooked. The species may have been extirpated from Viti Levu and Vanua Levu through predation by introduced mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em>. However, on Viti Levu, petrels have been seen flying inland during the day, one freshly killed specimen was found in 1971<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and birds heard in the interior may have been of this species.   The one other Fijian island with a historical specimen record but no mongoose, Vanuabalavu<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, has not been surveyed in recent years, nor have other islands such as Taveuni and Moala which may hold this species<strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>.  There are few at-sea records of this species from Fijian seas, with maximum recorded counts of eight birds<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Outside Fiji, there are historical breeding specimens from Vanuatu and Makira (Solomon Islands). A series of specimens from Vanuatu from 1859 to 1936 include breeding birds from the southern islands of Tanna and Aneityeum (=Anatom), and birds from Efate and at sea off Mere Lava (Banks Islands)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The only recent records from Vanuatu are two off Efate on 11 March 1971<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and some at sea in 2004<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. There have been no recent thorough surveys of the Vanuatu breeding islands but local people on Tanna reported that hole-nesting birds were very rare in 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Extensive work with local communities on Makira revealed no knowledge of the species but nine were seen at sea between Makira and the Santa Cruz islands on 3 October 2004<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species previously nested on Rarotonga (Cook Islands), but only a small relict population remained in 1990, which is now reported to have gone extinct<strong><sup>13,16,17</sup></strong>. It may also breed on the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Moorea and Tahiti, and Samoa, although there are no confirmed records<strong><sup>12,16</sup></strong>. Reports from Tau in American Samoa may refer to the Herald Petrel <em>P. heraldica</em><strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the birds found in the Solomon Islands and French Polynesia may be <em>P. caledonica</em> rather than <em>P. brevipes</em><strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, although this is disputed<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Regardless of the taxonomic status of <em>P. brevipes</em>, it is undoubtedly rare, and its population has recently been estimated at 1,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144839	habitat		It nests on Gau, Fiji, between 100 and 500 m, in burrows on steep, well-forested slopes<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Young have been found in the nest on Fiji from May to August<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, although on Vanuatu small downy young were found in February<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Perhaps relatively sedentary, tending to remain close to the breeding islands, although some are recorded to have dispersed east between about 10<sup>o</sup>N and 15<sup>o</sup>S almost to the Gal&aacute;pagos<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its diet is little known, but is thought to consist chiefly of cephalopods and fish<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144839	population		Unpublished data from Fiji IBA project via G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> (2005).	eng
144840	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a biosphere reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Remove all introduced mammals, initially within intensively managed, fenced, feasibility study areas. Survey to establish population size, local distribution and breeding productivity.</strong>	eng
144840	distribution		<em>Pterodroma defilippiana</em> is an east Pacific seabird, currently breeding on three or four islands off the coast of <strong>Chile</strong>. In the Des Venturadas Islands, 10,000 or more birds occurred on San Ambrosio in 1970, with an additional 150-200 pairs on San F&eacute;lix. In the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, it has possibly been extirpated on Robinson Crusoe, and the population on Santa Clara was suggested at hundreds, possibly thousands, in 1986, but available habitat was found for only 100-200 individuals in 1991. It ranges at sea in the nearby Peru Current, south of the equator<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>.	eng
144840	habitat		It breeds on sheltered cliff-ledges, crevices, caverns and amongst boulders at the foot of lava cliffs. It nests colonially, with eggs apparently laid July-September, chicks hatching in October and colonies abandoned in December-January. However, it has been reported breeding in February on San F&eacute;lix.	eng
144840	population		The world population may be no greater than 20,000 individuals, possibly fewer (Brooke 2004).	eng
144841	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> which included goat control, but it concluded in 2003. The islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Park rangers have been trained in fighting fires, but there is only one ranger on Alejandro Selkirk<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Sheep were removed from Alejandro Selkirk in 1983<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Maintain and expand population monitoring plots<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Determine contemporary breeding population size. Eradicate introduced fauna (feral cats, rats, mice and goats) from Alejandro Selkirk.</strong>	eng
144841	distribution		<em>Pterodroma longirostris</em> breeds on Alejandro Selkirk Island in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. The population is estimated at 131,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but more recent estimates suggest that it may be lower<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and may be declining. It is a migrant to the north-west Pacific off Japan<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Birds appear to move through a corridor south-east of Hawaii in April-June<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with some straying as far south as North Island, New Zealand<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There may be a clockwise movement through the north Pacific in late summer and autumn, with birds recorded off California, USA<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144841	habitat		It nests in burrows on slopes in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern-forest and adjacent grasslands at elevations of 700-1,1120 m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding begins in November. One egg is laid in late November-early December with hatching in late January-mid February. Fledging occurs in May. It forms mixed-species colonies with <em>P. externa</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, typically forming small monospecific clusters of burrows in shallow soils within the larger <em>P. externa</em> colony<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds in pelagic waters primarily on squid and small fish<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144841	population		In 1986, the population was estimated at 131,000 pairs, implying a world population in excess of 400,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144842	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Kiritimati, a cat eradication programme has failed to limit predation by feral cats outside villages<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>. There are plans to attract the species to cat-free Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati) using acoustic playback recorders<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. On Oeno and Ducie, <em>R. exulans</em> was successfully eradicated in 1997<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys of and monitor known colonies<sup>3,17</sup></strong>, especially in the Phoenix Islands<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and search for new ones, e.g. in the Tuamotus<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess risks of rat introduction<sup>17</sup></strong> and effects of island development<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate rats and cats from existing colonies<sup>3,17</sup></strong>, including throughout the Line and Phoenix islands<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Carry out plans to attract the species to cat-free Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati), using acoustic playback recorders.</strong>	eng
144842	distribution		<em>Pterodroma alba</em> breeds in the Line and Phoenix Islands (<strong>Kiribati</strong>), Marquesas Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>), and <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK) </strong>(c.12-20 pairs on Oeno in 1997 and 1998<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>). In the Line Islands, the stronghold is Kiritimati (= Christmas Island) where, in 1967, the population was estimated at c.6,500 adults<strong><sup>18</sup></strong> and, in 1980-1982, 20,000-25,000<strong><sup>9,14</sup></strong>. Since then, it has apparently decreased although previous estimates may have been too high<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 1957, motus Tabu and Upua (islets in the main lagoon) supported c.800 nests each<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, in 1993, 50 and 40 pairs respectively<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and in 1999, 200 and 300<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. In the Phoenix Islands, there were 50+ pairs on Canton in 1987<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, but none were found in surveys in 1995 and 1996 (nor did residents recall seeing them)<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, although, in 1999, it appeared common on Phoenix<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In the Marquesas, it was present on two motus off Ua Pou in 1989 and 1990, on Fatu Huku (five pairs) in 1990<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and more than 250 pairs were recorded on Hatuta'a Island in 2007 (a population which may be increasing)<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. There are no recent confirmed records from the Tuamotus<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> or Tonga<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
144842	habitat		It nests in colonies on islets or islands at low altitude, and feeds mainly on squid, supplemented by fish and crustaceans; it may obtain much food by following cetaceans<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>.	eng
144842	population		While population details are often uncertain, it appears this is now a scarce species, perhaps numbering only 10,000 breeding pairs and 30,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144843	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Since 1967, Brazilian law has afforded protection to all seabirds by forbidding persecution, killing, colony disturbance and the use of bird by-products<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The navy eradicated goats from Trindade by 2005 and are restoring forested natural habitats<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Pigs and cats were eradicated from the island by 1970<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing study on the species's breeding biology<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Designate the majority of Trindade as a federal reserve<sup>1</sup></strong> or national park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Determine the taxonomic status of the unidentified <em>Pterodroma</em> population on Round Island<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct an impact assessment before any construction on Trindade.</strong>	eng
144843	distribution		<em>Pterodroma arminjoniana</em> breeds on Trindade and Martin Vaz Islands off the coast of Esp&iacute;rito Santo, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was considered abundant on Trindade in 1913 and 1986<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Surveys in the mid-1990s have indicated that the Trindade population numbers 2,000-5,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and the global population was recently estimated at 15,000 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, although recent estimates suggest the total may be as low as 1,130 individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Flocks have been noted flying around the Tunel, P&atilde;o de A&ccedil;&uacute;car, Farilh&otilde;es and Crista de Galo peaks, but the most probable nest-sites are inaccessible without specialist equipment<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was first recorded breeding on the Martin Vaz Islands (three small islands and several associated stacks 45 km east of Trindade) in 1924-1925, when it was abundant on the middle island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although there is no recent evidence of breeding at this site<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. A <em>Pterodroma </em>sp. breeding on Round Island, Mauritius, may refer to this species.	eng
144843	habitat		It breeds year-round (all months) in crevices and other cliff-cavities in the highest parts of Trindade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but sometimes down to sea level. The peak times for breeding activities (laying) are October and April<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144843	population		Luigi <em>et al</em>. (2008) have revised the previous population estimate of 15,000 individuals globally (Brooke 2004) to just 1,130 indviduals.	eng
144844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.	eng
144845	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. On Maui, there is a long-term monitoring programme in the Haleakala National Park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and efforts are made to control introduced mammals. In 1976, a perimeter fence was put up around the main colony to exclude feral goats and pigs from the habitat<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The predator exclosures placed around the national park may have facilitated an increase in the number of birds in eastern Maui<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The trapping of rats started in 1968, and since 1997 rodenticides have been used<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Cats and mongooses have been controlled since 1981, and trapping of these species and rats continues to be carried out year-round<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. On  L&acirc;na`i: colony delineation surveys are continuing<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and as burrows are found they are included in basic breeding biology study; feral cats are being trapped and removed; studies on <em>Tyto alba</em> are being designed; a rat population assessment was due to begin in 2007, with control by rodenticide to be carried out subsequently; habitat restoration work may begin in January 2008; and public education projects will be implemented in 2008<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 2006, a fence was completed to encircle a large portion of the breeding habitat on L&acirc;na`i; the purpose was to exclude ungulates that damage the vegetation thus impacting the island's water supply<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Simultaneously, a limited cat-trapping programme has been initiated in the fenced area<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. On Maui, L&acirc;na`i, and Kaua`i, grounded fledglings are collected and released, although the benefit of doing this has yet to be confirmed as very few banded individuals have subsequently been encountered<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Fencing erected for forest conservation has been modified to reduce collisions<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, auditory surveys to detect colonies are ongoing, and have included documenting the first known nesting sites on Kaua`i in the Upper Limahuli Preserve<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Also on Kaua`i, street lighting is shielded in critical areas and lighting on some buildings has been modified to reduce collisions<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. A ruling brought by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2006, under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, has enforced a campaign running since 2005, in which all non-essential lights on Kaua`i are required to be turned off or shielded between 15 September and 15 December when young birds leave their nests<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The island's electricity company is helping by darkening all of its 3,000 street lights, and shielding or turning some of them off. The company has also fitted large balls to power lines in an effort to reduce the number of birds that collide with the cables<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Significant improvements have beem made in reducing light attraction and collision, although there is still a considerable amount of new and existing infrastructure that requires modification<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Methods are currently being developed to quantify the population on each island<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>; surveys for colonies on West Maui are being carried out<strong><sup>17</sup></strong> and surveys on Moloka`i were planned to begin in Spring 2008<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Improve radar sampling for use as a population monitoring technique<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>. Use passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags to study colony attendance by breeding pairs<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Reduce collisions with power lines by making them more visible, burying them or moving them further inland where birds fly higher<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Ensure lighting does not attract petrels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Control predators in known colonies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and improve measures for the declining colonies at Mauna Loa, Hawai`i<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and West Maui<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Monitor breeding success<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Continue to retrieve grounded birds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, but conduct research to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation methods<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Continue to search for additional breeding areas<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Carry out further research into foraging range and feeding behaviour<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Investigate the species's vulnerability to human-induced mortality at sea<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Investigate the impact of the loss of tuna schools that the species depends upon for foraging<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Undertake research into the potential effects of climate change on the species<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
144845	distribution		<em>Pterodroma sandwichensis</em> ranges in the central Pacific and breeds on the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where an estimate, supported by pelagic surveys, put the total population at 19,000 (range 10,600-34,400), including a best estimate of 4,500-5,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. However, the discovery of previously unknown colonies in 2006-2007 may bring the total population closer to the upper estimate of 6,500-8,300 pairs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The observation of birds' movements by radar suggests that the total number on Maui exceeds the current estimate of 1,800 individuals<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Approximately 1,200 burrows are known in Haleakala Crater, Maui, although not all of these are used every year<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and two small colonies are present in the West Maui Mountains<strong><sup>12,17</sup></strong>, but they are so far unquantified<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, with numbers perhaps in the tens or low hundreds<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. On Hawai`i, small numbers breed on Mauna Kea and 40-50 pairs were present on Mauna Loa prior to 1995<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, 1,600 pairs are indicated by observations of birds at a rafting site<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Moloka`i, 5-10 birds were heard calling in 1980, suggesting small numbers<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but there has not been a concerted effort to estimate numbers on this island<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2006-2007 located a colony in the cloud forests of Lanaihale on the north side of L&acirc;na`i<strong><sup>11,21</sup></strong>. This population probably numbers several thousand birds, based on the volume of calling during night time listening surveys in April and May along the Lana`ihale ridge at the highest point in the uplands, although only 14 burrows had been found by October 2007<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Surveys have so far been hampered by weather conditions and the risk of habitat disturbance<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
144845	habitat		On Maui, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, nesting takes place mainly between 2,000 and 3,000 m, in lava cavities with little vegetation nearby<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, for example West Maui<strong><sup>17</sup></strong> and Kaua`i<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, it nests at lower elevations, amongst dense shrubs and ferns<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, or in native grasslands with bracken<strong><sup>1,3,9</sup></strong>. On Haleakala, Maui, birds nest in rock crevices and tunnels that are over 0.5 m deep, often exceeding two metres<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Generally, the nest chamber can be from one to nine metres deep<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Pairs nest in cavities in the volcanic terrain, in burrows beneath rocks or at the base of clay cliffs<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. At lower altitudes, they excavate burrows or nest in cavities often at the base of trees<strong><sup>3,9,18</sup></strong>, although many burrows on L&acirc;na`i are not at the base of trees<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It takes each bird five to six years to reach maturity<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Most eggs are laid in May and June, with most young fledging by December<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The diet comprises mostly fish and squid, with squid constituting c.50-75% of the food ingested<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The species ranges in the north Pacific to around 50<sup> N when foraging for chick provisioning<strong>17</strong></sup>. It has been found that at least some birds nesting on L&acirc;na`i feed in waters around the Aleutian Islands, as shown through the use of tracking devices on several breeding individuals<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The species usually forages in mixed species flocks, typically over schools of predatory fish species<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.	eng
144845	population		Spear<em> et al.</em> (1995) give a best estimate of 3,750-4,500 breeding pairs based on at-sea surveys. However, the discovery of possibly several thousand birds breeding on L&acirc;na`i during terrestrial surveys in 2006-2007 and two small colonies on West Maui (J. Penniman<em> in litt.</em> 2007), probably in the tens or low hundreds of birds (D. Ainley<em> in litt.</em> 2007), brings the estimated breeding population close to the upper estimate of 6,500-8,300 pairs calculated by Spear <em>et al.</em> (1995).	eng
144846	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. In 1982, predator control commenced in the Cerro Pajas colony (c.2,000 pairs), Floreana<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Predator control involving intensive rat baiting around known colonies and petrel monitoring currently continues on Floreana, Santa Cruz and Santiago<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In early 2009, it was confirmed that goats have been successfully eradicated from Santiago<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. A small number of burrows have recently been discovered on Alcedo, Isabela<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The islands are a national park and, in 1979, were declared a World Heritage Site. World Heritage Site designation encourages Ecuador to work carefully to enact suitable conservation laws and implement existing laws to protect the unique fauna and flora of the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands. There were plans to hold a workshop for fundraising for rat eradication on Santiago in April 2007<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. There are proposals to protect more marine key biodiversity areas within the Gal&aacute;pagos Marine Reserve by amending the existing marine zoning scheme to reduce the impact from fishing<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The wind turbine development includes a series of mitigation and enhancement measures that will be instituted during implementation, many focusing on the petrel, and it intended that these measures will not only act to minimise impacts but may actually help increase the population. A long-term monitoring programme is included as part of the project activity and ongoing operations<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor breeding success under various predator control regimes to determine most appropriate management<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue searching for nesting grounds in agricultural areas which are not protected through the park system on Santa Cruz and Isabela<sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a full census for the species as the last comprehensive surveys were in the 1980s and late 1990s (not complete).   Ensure wind-power plants are situated so that they do not affect nesting areas or sites with <em>Miconia</em>, and that power lines are buried to prevent aerial collisions as the birds return to their colonies at night. Determine potential effects of long-line fishing in the Gal&aacute;pagos Marine Reserve and elsewhere in the eastern Pacific and assess how to avoid them.  Create an education program in the agricultural areas to motivate local conservation groups in areas outside of the park<sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a Galapagos Petrel pride campaign with the Galapagos National Park<sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Create a Species Action Plan involving local stakeholders<sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
144846	distribution		<em>Pterodroma phaeopygia</em> is endemic to the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, breeding on Santa Cruz, Floreana, Santiago, San Crist&oacute;bal, Isabela and possibly other islands in the archipelago<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Between 1978 and 1980, populations on the islands were estimated at 9,000 pairs on Santa Cruz<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, c.11,250 on Santiago, and c.6,750 on Floreana and San Crist&oacute;bal<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. By 1985, the Santa Cruz population had plummeted to 1,000 pairs and, on Santiago, to less than 500<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and numbers on Floreana and presumably San Crist&oacute;bal were estimated to have declined to c. 2,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. An extensive survey of Santa Cruz in 2005 located c.300 previously unknown nests, but the island population totalled just 700 pairs<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Estimates for 2008 suggested a total of 4,500-5,000 active nests on all five islands<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Birds forage around the islands, but also disperse east and north towards South America and up to 2,000 km south<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144846	habitat		It breeds in the humid highlands between 300-900 m, in burrows or natural cavities, on slopes, in craters, sinkholes, lava tunnels and gullies usually in close proximity to <em>Miconia</em> plants<strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on squid, fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144846	population		The global population estimate is best placed in the range of 10,000-19,999 individuals, based on an estimate of 4,500-5,000 active nests in 2008 (I. Guzm&aacute;n <em>in litt.</em> 2008).	eng
144847	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 150,000-200,000 individuals.	eng
144848	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a National Park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a Biosphere Reserve in 1977<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Reserve rangers have been trained in fighting fires, but there is only one ranger on Alejandro Selkirk<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Sheep were removed from Alejandro Selkirk in 1983<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A Dutch funded goat eradication programme was unsuccessful.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Establish population monitoring plots<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve sustainable management of yellowfin tuna stocks. Eradicate introduced fauna (goats, cows, rats etc) from Alejandro Selkirk. Monitor effects of flash floods on colonies.</strong>	eng
144848	distribution		<em>Pterodroma externa</em> breeds on Alejandro Selkirk Island in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. It is very numerous, but could be declining<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although there is no firm evidence of this<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is a transequatorial migrant, dispersing over the tropical and subtropical waters of the east Pacific, north to Hawaii, USA, and is regularly seen off west Mexico, with vagrants recorded in New Zealand and east Australia<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>.Further information may indicate declines that would warrant uplisting the species.	eng
144848	habitat		It is highly pelagic, rarely approaching land except at breeding colonies. It nests in burrows on slopes in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern-forest and adjacent grasslands at elevations of 600-1,000 m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. One egg is laid in October-November<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and chicks hatch in Feb-March<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is dependent on subsurface predators, especially yellowfin tuna, to drive prey to the surface<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
144848	population		In 1986 the population was estimated at 1,000,000 pairs, which extrapolates to a world population of at least 3,000,000 individuals.  There is no firm evidence of decline (Brooke 2004).	eng
144849	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The local authorities have taken steps to stop shooting<strong><sup>3,8,12</sup></strong>. Since 1996, there has been a campaign to quantify urban light-induced mortality and to rescue as many birds as possible, with increasing success in finding and rescuing birds: over 604 in 1999<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, 787 in 2001<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; around 90% are successfully released<strong><sup>5,7,8,13</sup></strong>. In 2005, only 252 grounded birds were found and rescued, perhaps owing to poor food availability, predation at colonies, a global decline in numbers or weather conditions that favoured flights at higher altitudes<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Measures to reduce light pollution, especially during the April fledging, have been proposed<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Since 2004, the community of Cilaos, close to the species's colonies, has taken part in efforts to reduce lighting, and there has been a corresponding decrease in the numbers of grounded birds<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The breeding colonies will be classified as a protected area with access authorised for conservation and research purposes only<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The trapping of rats is taking place at <em>P. baraui</em> colonies in an effort to study their population size and diet, and to gather knowledge in preparation for their control<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Control predators, particularly cats, at breeding colonies<strong><sup>4,17</sup></strong>. Ensure that a protected area is declared as soon as possible. Continue rescue programme of young birds attracted by lights<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Investigate light-reduction programmes either through light-shielding or light-restriction during April and May<strong><sup>8,13</sup></strong>, and consider adjusting its direction, intensity and colour, and the use of temporary black-outs<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
144849	distribution		<em>Pterodroma baraui</em> nests on the Massif of Piton des Neiges, <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>. In 1987, the population was estimated at 3,000 breeding pairs based on colony and coastal counts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and 15,000 individuals based on transects at sea<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. More recently, improved knowledge of the colonies indicates that 4,000-5,000 pairs may be a more accurate estimate of breeding numbers<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>, although this could be optimistic<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 1992, it was estimated that up to half the breeding population may have been killed by illegal shooting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although this may have been an overestimate<strong><sup>5,12</sup></strong>, the population appears to have recovered to former levels (because of large numbers of non-breeders) following the cessation of shooting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been observed at sea north of R&eacute;union, from the Oman Sea as far as Sumatra and around the Cocos Keeling Islands, and south-east towards Australia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144849	habitat		It nests on cliff-ledges in volcanic ash soils beneath sparse, heathy vegetation such as <em>Philippia montana</em> associated with upland elfin forest<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It fishes over a wide area, sometimes associated with flocks of feeding seabirds, and occasionally near fishing boats<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. A study of grounded birds in 2005 suggested that most juveniles left their colonies over a period of eight days, beginning four days after the new moon in early April<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
144849	population		The breeding population has been estimated at 4,000-5,000 pairs (Probst <em>et al.</em> 1995, 2000), although this may be optimistic and a range estimate of 3,000-4,000 pairs may be more reliable (V. Bretagnolle <em>in litt</em>. 2007).	eng
144850	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Although the species breeds at a small number of locations and may be declining at some of these, the recent eradication of rats on Ducie<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> secures the largest population.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor the Ducie population. Continue searches for the species in the Tuamotus<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Consider eradicating Pacific rat on Henderson.	eng
144850	distribution		<em>Pterodroma ultima</em> breeds in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, the Tuamotu Archipelago, the Austral Islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and the Gambier Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and perhaps in the Cook Islands. In the Pitcairns, an estimated 2,500 (&#177; 500) breed on Henderson, 12,500 (&#177; 2,500) on Oeno, and 250,000 (&#177; 29,000) on Ducie<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the Tuamotus, colonies occur on Mururoa and Fangataufa<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although these may have disappeared owing to nuclear tests and the recent construction of an airstrip<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. In the Australs, it breeds only on a limited number of islets off Rapa where the population was estimated at 10-100 pairs in 1990<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the Gambiers, proof of breeding was found for the first time on Manui and numbers were estimated at 5-10 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the Cook Islands, a specimen was collected probably from Rarotonga or perhaps one of the other southern Cook Islands, between c.1899 and 1904<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Non-breeding dispersal is poorly known but mostly north as far as north-west Hawaiian chain in west, yet frequently seen in eastern tropical Pacific as far as Californian current.	eng
144850	habitat		Has been recorded nesting in rocky cliffs during March.	eng
144850	population		Brooke (2004)	eng
144851	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Lord Howe Island group was designated a World Heritage Site in 1982. The control of rats has been taking place on Norfolk Island, however in 2006, the control measures were noted to be budget-constrained and limited in effectiveness<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In 2006, a proposal was submitted to eradicate all mammalian predators from all, or at least a significant part, of Norfolk Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Such measures might involve the establishment of an exclosure in the National Park in which all mammals are eliminated, and where chicks are translocated<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census the Lord Howe Island population at least once every five years, and the Phillip Island population every three years. Monitor breeding success on a 1-3 year basis. Eradicate cats and rat species from Norfolk Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, or at least establish an exclusion area<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. Consider translocation of chicks<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. Implement bird-safe fishing practices in the Pacific Ocean fleet. Impose strict quarantine procedures on any vessels visiting Phillip Island and Lord Howe Island.	eng
144851	distribution		<em>Pterodroma solandri</em> breeds in the southern section of Lord Howe Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and on Phillip Island, <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It was exterminated on Norfolk Island itself between 1790 and 1800, where it was once considered numerous. The population on Lord Howe Island was estimated at 20,000 breeding pairs in the 1970s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, however a more comprehensive survey during the 2002 breeding season estimated the population at just over 32,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys also determined that its distribution has likely increased since the eradication of pigs on Lord Howe Island and it appears to be establishing itself in the lower elevations south of Mt Lidgbird<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Phillip Island population was discovered in 1985 and numbered at least 20 birds. Its non-breeding distribution is across the western Tasman Sea and the entire north Pacific Ocean<strong><sup>3,4,5,6</sup></strong>.	eng
144851	habitat		It nests in burrows or under rock cavities and occasionally between tree buttresses from sea level to 900 m<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It predominantly takes squid and fish with crustaceans less important. The most important prey item is bioluminescent fish from the genus <em>Electrona</em>; maximum diving depths have been recorded at 5 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It also scavenges for food taking fish offal and has been recorded scavenging on a Shining Bronze-cuckoo <em>Chrysoccyx basilis</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It only occasionally follows fishing boats<strong><sup>2, 8</sup></strong> but some fishing material has been reported in their diet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144851	population		The population has been estimated at 100,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 1,500,000 individuals.	eng
144853	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Ten years of intensive searching led to its rediscovery in 1978, but no burrows were found<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1987, radio-transmitters attached to the tail-feathers of birds finally led to the discovery of three burrows<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and trapping for predators was immediately commenced<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Ongoing searches located only three more burrows, but in 1999, at least 17 new burrows were discovered<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding areas have been protected by the Tuku Nature Reserve<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Predator control was intensified in 1996<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. All burrows are monitored for breeding attempts<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> and infra-red cameras are deployed at each nest to monitor activity and identify predators<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Egg- and chick-rearing trials have been undertaken on the closely-related Grey-faced Petrel <em>P. macroptera</em>, and its diet analysed, to develop methods for captive rearing of <em>P. magentae</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2006, a 3 ha safe colony with predator-proof fence, wooden burrows, and playback sound system was established at the Sweetwater Secure Breeding Site, and chicks have been transferred here prior to fledging to form a new colony<strong><sup>6,14</sup></strong>. Eight chicks were successfully moved and fledged here in April-May 2007, as were a further 13 in 2008 and 13 in 2009<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>The Chatham Island Taiko Trust was established in 1998 to provide legal status to the continuing work<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The 1200 hectare South Chatham Covenant, adjacent to the Tuku Nature Reserve and containing one known cluster of burrows, is now fenced, and is currently being surveyed to determine its actual area: as at Sweetwater ownership will remain with the existing landowners but the Covenant will ensure protection in perpetuity<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The 2011 target is to establish a self-sustaining population of at least 250 individuals.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue ground searches and telemetry to locate further burrows. Continue night surveys for prospecting birds and to collect data on survival. Continue to use study holes at all active nest burrows to enable active intervention if chicks are undernourished or abandoned. Continue sustained predator and herbivore control. Continue to study the species's ecology, including at-sea distribution (with use of satellite tags), to identify threats. Consider maintenance of genetic diversity when planning future conservation actions</strong><sup>18</sup>.	eng
144853	distribution		<em>Pterodroma magentae</em> was rediscovered in 1978 in the south-east corner of Chatham Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, 111 years after it was first collected at sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its prevalence in Moriori middens suggests it was once common and has undergone a massive historical decline<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 1994, only four breeding pairs were known, although it was suspected that others remained undetected, and that the population was still declining at this time. In 2004, surveys indicated a population of 120 individuals, including 15 breeding pairs<strong><sup>9,10,11</sup></strong>. Just 16 chicks were known to have fledged from 1987-1988 to 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but in 2002, a total of seven chicks were fledged<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. By 2006, there were 35 active burrows, an estimated 25 breeding pairs, and 11 known chicks, taking the total number of chicks fledged since 1987 to 63<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. A total of 17 pairs are believed to have laid in the 2009/2010 breeding season<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Between 2007 and 2009, a total of 34 chicks were successfully moved from the Tuku Nature Reserve in the south of Chatham Island to the nearby Sweetwater Conservation Covenant, where they all successfully fledged<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Inshore waters (1-2 km offshore from the colony) around Otawae Point are thought to be important for non-breeders visiting the colony and during courtship at night<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Its range at sea is probably eastwards into the Pacific Ocean to waters off western South America<strong><sup>13 </sup></strong>and south of the island, with one bird seen at sea in December 2004 between the Chatham Islands and the Bounty Islands, and one individual photographed at sea off the Chatham Islands in 2008<strong><sup>6,13,21</sup></strong>.	eng
144853	habitat		It breeds in a fragmented colony under dense forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, 4-6 km inland. Burrows are up to 5 m long and breeding takes place from September to May<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Males occupy burrows for 1-3 years before pair formation and breeding; non-breeding females rarely visit the colony<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Its diet is not well known, but includes squid<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent ringing returns show that males return to the colony aged 4-5 years, females at 6-9 years, and first breeding is attempted at around 10 years<strong><sup>2, 12</sup></strong>. The pairs form a life-long bond, one egg is laid per year, incubated by both parents, and fledging chicks climb trees from which they launch themselves to fly out to sea<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.	eng
144853	population		The known population as of 2006 was 120-150 mature individuals. (G. Taylor <em>in litt.</em> 2005; Stephenson 2006a; Stephenson 2006b)	eng
144854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 600,000 indviduals.	eng
144855	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Successful predator control and research has been carried out since 1986 by the Freira Conservation Project and the Parque Natural da Madeira, which has led to increases in the productivity of this species<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. This programme was expanded in 2001 with additional funding provided by a multidisciplinary European Union LIFE project, which also enabled the purchase of c.300 ha of land around the main breeding site<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. The species is protected under Portuguese law. The breeding sites have been designated a Special Protection Area (SPA) under the EU's Wild Birds Directive and lie within the Parque Natural da Madeira. A European action plan was published in 1996. A project on the identification of marine IBAs in Portugal may allow the species to be studied at sea<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Investigate novel methods of cat predator control and continue control of rats. Exclude grazing stock from potential breeding areas. Continue research to determine the species's population status and distribution, such as searching for new breeding ledges. Monitor the known breeding population. Establish a management plan for the Parque Natural da Madeira. Control human access and disturbance to breeding sites. Assess the potential impact of the proposed radar station.</strong>	eng
144855	distribution		<em>Pterodroma madeira</em> has an estimated breeding population of 65-80 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in the central mountain massif of Madeira, <strong>Portugal</strong>, though subfossil remains elsewhere in Madeira and on the neighbouring island of Porto Santo<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> suggest that it was formerly more widespread. Currently, birds are only known to breed on six inaccessible ledges - with 53 of the 63 nests surveyed during the 2006 breeding season found to be active - although ongoing surveys may yet reveal more breeding sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Little is known about the species's range outside the breeding season.	eng
144855	habitat		It breeds in burrows on well-vegetated ledges at c.1,600 m. Birds return to their breeding grounds in late March or early April. A single egg is laid mid-May to early June, and young fledge in late September or early October. Breeding success has apparently improved since the 1980s, with a total of 29 chicks fledged in 2004<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its diet probably consists of small squid and fish.	eng
144855	population		Menezes (2004); Menezes <em>et al</em>. (2005).	eng
144856	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A European action plan was published in 1996 and a national park was established at Ch&atilde; das Caldeiras on Fogo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The conservation of <em>Pterodroma feae </em>was incorporated into the park's agenda<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, but the park administration is having to deal with serious financial and operational problems<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Since 2006, an eradication programme for rabbits and mice has been in force, and is ongoing. As a result, their effect on the most sensitive areas is already negligible. A contingency plan for the control of goats is being prepared. The threat from<em> L. cachinnans</em> is being monitored<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct coordinated surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate for the total breeding population. Continue annual surveys to monitor population trends. Study the at-sea distribution of the species. Introduce control measures against goats. Continue control measures against rabbits and mice. Discourage off-take by people on the Cape Verde islands through awareness campaigns. Control cats and rats on the Cape Verde islands. Assess the impact of <em>L. cachinnans</em> through detailed research.	eng
144856	distribution		<em>Pterodroma feae</em> breeds on four islands of <strong>Cape Verde</strong> (<em>P. f. feae</em>), Fogo (minimum 80 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), Santo Ant&atilde;o (minimum 200 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), S&atilde;o Nicolau (c.30 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and small numbers on Santiago. It also breeds on Bugio in the Desertas off Madeira, <strong>Portugal </strong>(<em>P. f. deserta</em>). An estimated 500-1,000 pairs breed in Cape Verde<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, although this must be regarded as an absolute minimum as further colonies probably exist on Fogo and Santa Ant&atilde;o and individuals have also been observed breeding in the central mountain range of Santiago island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds have been trapped on the Azores, but the existence of a breeding colony has never been confirmed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Based on surveys in 2006-2007, a further 150-180 pairs breed on Bugio, where the population appears stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The total population has been estimated at c.3,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing review of the taxonomic status of the populations on Bugio and Cape Verde. If these populations are assigned species status, their threat status will need to be re-assessed. Birds may occur at considerable distances from the Cape Verde islands, even during the breeding season, with some birds moving south after breeding and others remaining in the region throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144856	habitat		The species breeds at 80-300 m, usually in burrows excavated in the soil, although recently nests were found in rock crevices in areas were soil is not present<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds return to their breeding grounds in early June and juveniles fledge throughout December<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144856	population		The total population has been estimated at c.3,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144857	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 5,000,000 individuals.	eng
144858	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The first ever quantitative population survey was undertaken on Gough, 2000/1, coupled to research into breeding ecology and reproductive output<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. During 2003-6, further research on reproductive output and mouse predation was conducted. Searches on Tristan da Cunha have failed to locate any birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eradicate mice from Gough. Minimise the risk of further introduced species establishing on Gough, particularly any rat <em>Rattus</em> species</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Confirm the status of the population on Tristan da Cunha. </strong>	eng
144858	distribution		<em>Pterodroma incerta</em> breeds only on Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha <strong>(St Helena to UK)</strong>. It is absent from Nightingale where there is no suitable habitat, and probably also from Inaccessible, although it is possible that a small number of birds could breed there because there have been no surveys during the winter breeding season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and Tristan, where though the population was estimated to be 100-200 pairs in 1972-1974, there have been no records since then at it is now beleived to be extinct on that island<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. On Gough, the first quantitative population estimate indicates a total of around 1.8 million pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, considerably larger than the earlier estimate of at least 20,000 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent evidence suggests that fledging success is very low, less than 20% during the last five years and perhaps as low as 2% in 2007, and this is likely to be driving a long term decline<strong><sup>6,8,9</sup></strong>. At sea, it is practically restricted to the South Atlantic, occurring off the east coast of South America to the west coast of Africa<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>.	eng
144858	habitat		It feeds mainly on squid with some fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests in burrows dug in peaty soils in fern-bush vegetation from 50-300 m on Gough and formerly, at higher elevations on Tristan. Nothing is known of age of first breeding, breeding frequency or survival<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144858	population		On Gough, Cuthbert <em>in litt. </em>(2001) estimated 1,800,000 breeding pairs, suggesting a world population of around 5,000,000 birds (Brooke 2004).	eng
144859	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix I. Since 1961, there has been management of nesting-grounds, including the creation of artificial burrows, periodic removal of rats and the elimination of nest-site competition from <em>P. lepturus</em> (by installing baffles over burrow entrances). As part of the Bermuda Conservation Programme, potential breeding islands (e.g. Nonsuch) have been reforested with native flora in an attempt to attract nesting petrels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Castle Harbour islands are a National Park and Nature Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 2004 and 2005 efforts were made to attract adult Cahows, displaced from low-lying nest burrows destroyed by hurricane Fabian, on the main breeding islet to a new artificial burrow complex built on a more elevated section of the islet. Using a combination of a sound attraction system set up among the new nests and physical translocation of adult Cahows from the destroyed sites, three pairs occupied burrows in the new complex by March 2005<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A project is now underway to establish a new nesting colony on the Nonsuch Island Living Museum, which is much larger and contains more suitable breeding habitat than the present suboptimal breeding islets. The project involves physical translocation of chicks from the present breeding islets to a new complex of artificial burrows on Nonsuch, so that they will imprint on the new site and return when mature to establish their nests at the new location. In 2004, the trial year of the project took place with 14 chicks moved to Nonsuch, where they were fed and monitored every other day until departure, with all fledging successfully. In 2005, 21 chicks were translocated, with all again fledging successfully by mid-June. This project was scheduled to continue for three more years, with a target of 90 to 100 chicks in total being translocated over a five-year period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 2009, the first adult-fed Cahow for 400 years hatched on Nonsuch Island<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Maintain all management activities at current nesting-grounds. Investigate whether contaminants are increasing egg failure<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to manage the new breeding colony on Nonsuch Island<sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the pelagic and foraging range of the species using new data logger technology<sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144859	distribution		<em>Pterodroma cahow</em> once bred abundantly throughout <strong>Bermuda (to UK)</strong>. It was thought extinct for almost three centuries, until reported (with specimens) during the first half of the 20th century. In 1951, 18 pairs were rediscovered breeding on suboptimal rocky islets (total area 1 ha) in Castle Harbour. Intensive management has resulted in slow but steady increases, and the population was estimated at 250 birds in 2005<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with 70 pairs fledging a record 40 young in 2003<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and 71 pairs fledging 35 young in 2005<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. More recently, 40 young fledged in 2008 and at least 35 chicks hatched in 2009<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Fourteen individuals fledging from Nonsuch Island after translocation in 2005 and 2006 were observed in 2009 returning to the island and entering artificial burrows. One chick was born on the island in 2009<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, birds probably move north into the Atlantic, following the warm waters on the western edges of the Gulf Stream<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are confirmed records off the coast of North Carolina, USA<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, and one bird was captured in the Azores in November 2002<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
144859	habitat		It formerly nested in soil burrows, but such habitat is not available on current breeding islands and it now nests in suboptimal, natural erosion limestone crevices and artificial burrows. The breeding season is January-June, and breeding success has increased from less than 5% per year in the 1950s to more than 25% per year in the 1990s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Ringing recoveries have shown that birds return to birds first return to breed four years after fledging<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The breeding grounds are not visited by birds between mid-June and mid-October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Results from geolocational tags showed that individuals can cover in excess of 5,000 km during a foraging trip, following different courses from Bermuda but generally all foraging over the Gulf Stream<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144859	population		250 individuals, of which 71 breeding pairs, so minimum 142 mature adults (J. Madeiros <em>in litt.</em> 2005).	eng
144860	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It breeds within national parks in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. On Guadeloupe, five surveys for the species have been conducted since the late 1980s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Efforts have been made to define the at-sea distribution off the USA<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey to accurately determine the status and distribution of the species and its habitat</strong><sup>3,5</sup>. <strong>Halt human exploitation. Develop measures to remove introduced predators. Effectively protect the species and its nesting grounds. List the species in the USA under the Federal Endangered Species Act</strong><sup>3</sup>.	eng
144860	distribution		<em>Pterodroma hasitata</em> now breeds in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>. There are an estimated 1,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, mostly in the Massifs de la Selle and de la Hotte, southern Haiti<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but records at-sea suggest that the population is over 5,000 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The area of suitable habitat in the Pic Macaya region of Massif de la Hotte is estimated to be 5 km<sup>2</sup>, with a similar area in La Visite, Massif de la Selle (the majority of colonies are found within a 10 km stretch spanning a 500 m elevational range on the north side of the ridge; two more colonies are located further to the east, span 5 km, again within a 500 m elevation range)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Small numbers have been recently recorded on <strong>Dominica</strong> and in adjacent offshore waters, suggesting that it may still nest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It now seems likely that small numbers breed in Cuba<strong><sup> </sup></strong>based on observation in the Sierra Maestra region (a congregation of 40+ individuals in the vicinity of shoreline, vocalisations heard overhead by landbased observers, and evidence of birds moving inland)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is believed extinct on Guadeloupe (to France) (where common in the 19th century)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Black-capped petrel may have bred on Martinique (to France)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Even during the breeding season it is highly pelagic, with breeding condition birds recorded off the North Carolina coast, USA<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Birds disperse over the Caribbean and Atlantic from the north-east USA to north-east Brazil, with four records in European waters<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but the at-sea range has contracted in the north and west.	eng
144860	habitat		It nests (starting in December) colonially in cliff burrows, often within montane forest at 1,500-2,000 m, but up to 2,300 m in the Dominican Republic<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Nesting birds commute large distances from breeding to foraging sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, feeding on fish, invertebrate swarms, fauna associated with <em>Sargassum</em> seaweed reefs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and squid<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is attracted to localised upwellings, where the mixing of surface and deep oceanic waters produces nutrient-rich areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144860	population		Brooke (2004)	eng
144861	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Jamaica Petrel Research Group initiated searches for the species in 1996, and this effort continued until at least 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but these failed to find any birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A further search including at-sea chumming and an expedition into the Blue Mountains of Jamaica are planned for 2010<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Search systematically above 1,000 m in the John Crow Mountains on Jamaica, coordinating searches at the beginning of the breeding season when the birds are most vocal<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <strong>Search on Dominica and Guadeloupe<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue searches at sea. Photograph any dark <em>Pterodroma </em>petrels encountered in the Caribbean<sup>4.</sup></strong>.	eng
144861	distribution		<em>Pterodroma caribbaea</em> was a plentiful seabird up to the middle of the 19th century, but has suffered a drastic decline in numbers. The last confirmed record is of 22 birds collected in 1879. The only proven nesting was in the Blue and John Crow Mountains of eastern <strong>Jamaica</strong>, where it may conceivably survive. It may also have nested on Dominica and Guadeloupe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Several searches since the mid 1990s have so far failed to locate any birds.	eng
144861	habitat		It nests in cliff burrows and holes under trees, above 1,000 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The courtship, mating and pre-laying period is October-December (when birds are most vocal), and young fledge by May<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It visits nesting burrows nocturnally<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Feeding is expected to be crepuscular and nocturnal in oceanic waters, matching the habits of the closely related Black-capped Petrel <em>P. hasitata</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144861	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny, with the last confirmed records dating from 1879.	eng
144862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 3,000,000 individuals.	eng
144863	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 15,000,000 individuals.	eng
144864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 12,000,000 individuals.	eng
144865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 50,000,000 individuals.	eng
144866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 7,000,000 individuals.	eng
144867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 5,000,000 individuals.	eng
144868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global breeding population to number 50,000-100,000 pairs, equating to 150,000-300,000 individuals.	eng
144869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 500,00-1,000,000 individuals.	eng
144870	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No actions are currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Devise methods for the estimation of the population size. Design and implement regular surveys for population monitoring. Search for other breeding colonies on the coast of Somalia, as and when this is feasible. Enforce measures to prevent and mitigate oil spills. Investigate the impact of introduced predators.	eng
144870	distribution		<em>Bulweria fallax</em> is a poorly known species of the north-west Indian Ocean, occurring widely offshore in the Arabian Sea and Gulfs of Aden and Oman, where it is often the commonest pelagic seabird<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although there are no numerical estimates of total population size or trend. During the summer monsoon (May-September) it congregates off the Socotra archipelago (<strong>Yemen</strong>), where a breeding colony of at least c.50 pairs was recently discovered<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and where c.3,000 pairs are now estimated to nest locally on mainland cliffs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and also off the Halaaniyaat islands (southern <strong>Oman</strong>), where it may nest (or on the Arabian mainland adjacent)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Similar sea-cliffs within its range on the coast of Somalia deserve investigation for breeding colonies<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144870	habitat		It frequents open sea all-year-round, only approaching land during the breeding season, at dusk and after dark<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Its foraging areas are poorly known, but presumably related to highly productive areas of oceanic upwelling<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It flies low, taking food from the surface of sea, probably mainly plankton e.g. fish eggs, ctenophores and polychaete worms<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144870	population		This is not a particularly rare bird at sea, and the total population runs into thousands, if not tens of thousands (Hirschfeld 1992). Based on this judgement, the population is placed in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals.	eng
144871	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging ecology studies are being undertaken at South Georgia, Crozet, Prince Edward and Kerguelen<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Several breeding sites are in protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue and extend monitoring studies. Where feasible, eliminate alien predators from breeding islands. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as CCAMLR. Develop and implement plans to remove reindeer from South Georgia.</strong>	eng
144871	distribution		<em>Procellaria aequinoctialis</em> breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), and in small numbers in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>. Recently revised population estimates give a global population of c. 3.5 million individuals. This is based on estimates of 900,000 breeding pairs on South Georgia<strong><sup>36</sup></strong>, 23,600 breeding pairs (9,800 to 36,800) on Crozet<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>, 186,000-297,000 pairs on the Kerguelen Islands<strong><sup>35</sup></strong> and at least c.100,000 on Disappointment (Auckland) and the Antipodes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. At least 55 pairs breed on the Falkland Islands<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. On Bird Island (South Georgia), the population has apparently decreased by 28% over 20 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, while in Prydz Bay (Antarctica), the number of birds at sea decreased by 86% during 1981-1993<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. White-chinned Petrels forage north to the subtropics and south to the pack-ice edge off Antarctica<strong><sup>3,19,28</sup></strong>, and are distributed widely in all southern oceans<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144871	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong> It is a burrow-nesting annual breeder, laying in mid-October to mid-November<strong><sup>37</sup></strong>. Chicks usually fledge in late April<strong><sup>35</sup></strong>. Outside the chick rearing period, White-chinned Petrels breeding on South Georgia travel to Patagonian Shelf waters to feed<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking and ring recoveries from birds on Crozet Islands show that they spend the non-breeding season off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Individuals from the Kerguelen Islands also winter off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia over the Benguela Current<strong><sup>35</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>White-chinned Petrels feed on cephalopods, crustaceans and fish<strong><sup>2,28</sup></strong> and fisheries processing waste or discarded longline baits. <strong>Foraging range</strong> Birds avoid competition with other seabirds by ranging more widely when searching out food resources, travelling up to 8,000 km on feeding forays in the breeding season<strong><sup>15,19,28</sup></strong>. Individuals breeding at the Crozet Islands display a bimodal foraging strategy, conducting either short trips to the surrounding shelf or long trips ranging from subtropical waters in the north to Antarctic waters in the south<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>.	eng
144871	population		This species has an estimated global population of c.3.5 million individuals, based on the estimated number of breeding pairs extrapolated according to a ratio from Brooke (2004).	eng
144872	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Cats were eradicated on Little Barrier Island by 1980. Between 1986 and 1990, 249 fledglings were transferred from Great Barrier to Little Barrier in an attempt to boost population size. Follow-up monitoring indicates mixed results<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The colony on Little Barrier is monitored every breeding season to assess breeding success<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A long-term population study was initiated on Great Barrier in 1996 to study populations annually to determine trends and assess breeding success<strong><sup> 5,8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Complete an accurate census of both islands. Monitor Great Barrier study populations annually to determine trends, and assess breeding success. Follow-up reports of mainland breeding sites. Develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Continue and expand control at Great Barrier if monitoring indicates that any predators are causing a population decline<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Eradicate <em>R. exulans </em>from Little Barrier<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144872	distribution		<em>Procellaria parkinsoni</em> breeds on Great and Little Barrier Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where the total population is c.1,300<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and 100 breeding pairs respectively, equating to a total population of c.5,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The estimate of 1,300 pairs on Great Barrier Island is lower than previously thought but probably reflects improved information rather than a decline, however it is not a complete survey and although it covers the majority of the island's population further research is needed to assess the true population size. It once bred in the mountains of the North and South Islands, but had disappeared from the mainland by the 1960s. On Little Barrier, it was abundant in the late 1800s but the population was decimated, mainly by feral cats, until predators were eradicated in 1980. The Little Barrier population is now thought to be slowly increasing. On Great Barrier, the population may be stable<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It migrates to the eastern Pacific Ocean between the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, southern Mexico and northern Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144872	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> It is a colonial burrow-nesting, annually-breeding species<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and can begin breeding at six years of age<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most eggs are laid in December, hatch in February and chicks fledge in May at about three months old. Chick provisioning can continue until June<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The youngest recorded bird returning to a colony was three years of age, and the age of first breeding has been recorded at 5 years of age<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Feeding behaviour is characterised by surface feeding and shallow diving in groups of up to 300 individuals, and are frequently seen to associate with fishing vessels and cetaceans. Preliminary geolocator data suggests it preferentially forages on the continental shelf or at seamounts<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, with most foraging trips taking at least 15 days<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Futher data suggests foraging areas are highly variable, though birds travel mainly west and east of northern New Zealand<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It nests in virgin podocarp and mixed broadleaf forest above 500 m. On the mainland, it reportedly bred up to 1,200 m, mostly in tall forest, but also in alpine tussock grasslands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is dominated by squid and supplemented by tunicates, crustaceans and cyclostomes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
144872	population		The total population is c.1,300 pairs on Great Barrier Island and c.100 breeding pairs on Little Barrier Island (Bell <em>et al.</em> 2009), with an estimated total of c.5,000 individuals including non-breeding birds.	eng
144873	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. The breeding site is within the Paparoa National Park. A proposal to designate the colonies as the Westland Petrel Special Area was approved in 1999, and will restrict public access. A long-term study has been in place since 1969, covering social organisation, behaviour, breeding biology and aspects of population dynamics. A demographic study was undertaken between 1995 and 2003 <strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Predator and herbivore control has been carried out in the main breeding colonies since 1990<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A survey of all breeding colonies and a new estimate for the breeding population is planned in 2009-2010. Research on species vocalisations, foraging behaviour and at sea movements is currently in progress<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census all burrows every 10 years. Continue annual monitoring of study burrows, and band chicks and adults. Identify and minimise hazards to birds flying to and from the colony. Continue sustained predator control and monitoring of nests to identify predation events, and respond accordingly. Continue sustained control of browsing mammals, particularly goats and possums. Fence colony boundaries to exclude stock</strong><sup>5</sup>. Minimise impact of tourist infrastructure through planning control<sup>14</sup>.	eng
144873	distribution		<em>Procellaria westlandica</em> breeds in the densely forested coastal foothills at Punakaiki, South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong><sup>1</sup>. In 1958, the population was estimated at 3,000-6,000 birds, in 1972, 6,000-10,000 birds, and in 1982, 1,000-5,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1974, however, only 818 occupied burrows were located<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent estimates put the total population at less than 20,000 birds, and c.4,000 pairs<strong><sup>3,5,12,15</sup></strong>. Population modelling suggests a decline in numbers since 1985<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, none of the population estimates are of high quality.  It migrates in summer to central Pacific and eastern New Zealand waters, east coast of Australia and off South America<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>, and is regularly recorded off the coast of Chile extending into the South Atlantic to the east of Tierra del Fuego<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144873	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The species is a colonial, winter breeder. Most eggs are laid in May, and hatch mostly in the last half of June. Chicks fledge from November to January<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In any given year, a large proportion of the population skip breeding, however, there is no discernable pattern to this behaviour although it maybe linked with El Ni&ntilde;o events <strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Skipped breeders have lower survival rates, possibly due to differences in the 'fitness' of individuals, although this could be biased by emigration. Juveniles return to the colony as young as three years, but the age of first breeding is six to seven years <strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. During chick-rearing, satellite-tracking data indicate foraging principally on the continental slope off the West Coast of South Island, with one trip undertaken through Cook Strait to the Chatham Rise east of South Island<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>They nest on densely forested hills between 20-250 m. Burrows are usually concentrated in areas where the ground is relatively open, and where take-off areas are close by. <strong>Diet</strong> Fisheries waste is an important dietary component, perhaps forming more than half of solid food eaten during the hoki fishing season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Subsequent satellite tracking studies have suggested that dietary analysis over-estimates the amount of food scavenged from trawlers and that the species continues to forage over wider areas than those occupied by the hoki fishery. Even individuals known to forage at fishing fleets take a large proportion of their food elsewhere <strong><sup>8, 9</sup></strong>.	eng
144873	population		The population numbered c.20,000 individuals in 1982 and has remained stable, with c. 2,000 pairs breeding annually (Heather and Robertson 1997; Adams 1998; Taylor 2000).	eng
144874	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Gough Island is a World Heritage Site. In 2001, a study was conducted on the Antipodes Islands on the feasibility of establishing long term monitoring plots. Brown rats were eradicated from Campbell Island in 2001. In 2006, the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO) passed a resolution to require all its longline vessels to use a tori line and to set lines at night. In 2007, the New Zealand government began a five year study of <em>Procellaria</em> petrels on Antipodes Island which will investigate issues such as population size and trends, annual survival rates of adults and breeding frequency. Geolocation loggers and other tracking devices will be applied to birds to determine foraging zones and migration routes<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census the population on all the breeding islands. Conduct regular monitoring of a representative proportion of the population.  Determine if predation by mice is a serious threat on Gough Island. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies and the interaction with longline fisheries. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.	eng
144874	distribution		This species has a circumpolar distribution between 32-58 degrees South, but somewhat to the north in the Humboldt Current and off the east coast of South America<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. It breeds on Gough and other islands in the Tristan da Cunha group (<strong>St Helena, to UK</strong>), Prince Edward and Marion islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet, Kerguelen and Amsterdam islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Campbell and the Antipodes islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>). Its total population size is poorly known. Its largest breeding populations was believed to be in the Tristan da Cunha group: in the early 1970s, hundreds of thousands were guessed to breed at Gough Island<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, the most recent estimate for Gough suggest a population of >10,000 pairs<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, with pairs only sparse in the uplands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and that the population on Gough may be far lower than on the Antipodes<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The largest population is therefore likely to be on the Antipodes Islands, with 53,000 pairs estimated in 2001<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In addition, several thousand pairs are estimated at Prince Edward, Crozet and Kerguelen islands, a few hundred on Campbell Island (up to 100 pairs on the main island, and possibly a few hundred on offshore stacks)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and at least 59-80 pairs on Macquarie<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. One recent estimate on the Kerguelen Islands gave a figure of 1,900-5,600 breeding pairs, though some nesting sites were not sampled. Only c.10 pairs breed on Amsterdam Island<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, although the fossil record indicates that one of the world's largest colonies probably occurred there<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There is no population trend data for most of the sites, but based on a population model and data from fisheries, this population may be in decline due to bycatch<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.	eng
144874	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Birds return to the breeding colonies in the austral autumn, first appearing in February and March and often flying in to land during diurnal hours. Eggs are laid in late March and early April, and chicks fledge in late September to early December. The asynchrony in fledging dates within sites and years is thought to reflect food scarcity and variability during the winter rather than asynchrony in laying. The age of first breeding is not known. The species typically forages alone or in groups of three or four, but also occaisionally in larger flocks over 50 birds<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests in burrows on well-drained areas, often dominated by <em>Poa </em>tussock grass, where the ground may be steep. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet has been documented by once study in which cephalopods were the main prey item, followed by fish remains<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Data obtained from seabird bycatch suggest that during the breeding season (austral winter), females forage further north than males, in waters north of the Subtropical Convergence, up to 1,460 km from their colonies on subantarctic islands<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>.	eng
144874	population		Figures suggest a very tentative world population around 400,000 individuals, a figure that could be incorrect by a factor of 2-3 either way (Brooke 2004).	eng
144875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 270,000-290,000 breeding pairs, equating to 810,000-870,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 900,000-1,200,000 individuals. Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 600,000 individuals.	eng
144876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 3,000,000 individuals.	eng
144877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number more than 5,200,000 individuals.	eng
144878	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The eradication of pigs from Aorangi in 1936 caused a massive increase in the population, the recolonisation probably coming from the nearby predator-free island, Tawhiti Rahi<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Fishing has been banned at the Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve since 1996 and entry onto the island reserve is prohibited<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) established the world's first mandatory "area to be avoided" (ATBA) for large shipping vessels, including oil tankers, around the islands in 2004<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete an accurate population census. Assess current status of breeding on Simmonds Islands. Identify any signs of prospecting on other island groups. Establish monitoring plots on Poor Knights to determine rate and pattern of colony expansion<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Quantify the impact of bycatch during fishing activities. If judged necessary, work with fisheries to develop bycatch reduction measures.</strong>	eng
144878	distribution		<em>Puffinus bulleri</em> breeds only at the Poor Knights Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The species is restricted to two main islands, Aorangi and Tawhiti Rahi, and five other islets and stacks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, one pair was found breeding on the Simmonds Islands, in the far north of New Zealand<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Between 1938 and 1981, the population on Aorangi increased from c.200 to c.200,000 pairs<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The total population is estimated at 2.5 million birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but it is unclear whether the population on Aorangi is still increasing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It migrates to the northern Pacific Ocean, from Japan to North America and east to California, and is occasionally found off South America<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>.	eng
144878	habitat		It nests in burrows or on rock-crevices and ledges, often under dense vegetation. It feeds on krill, small fish, salps and jellyfish<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.	eng
144878	population		Marchant and Higgins (1990).	eng
144879	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on St Paul Island (French Southern Territories), Lord Howe Island (off eastern Australia), south-west mainland Australia, south Australia (at a single isolated colony), and North Island (New Zealand). In the non-breeding season it ranges north through the western Pacific Ocean to the Aleutian Islands with small numbers off North America, north through the Indian Ocean and west to the southern tip of Africa (del Hoyo et al. 1992).	eng
144879	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Recent information from eastern Australia suggests that bycatch from the expanding tuna fishing industry may be significant, with 5,000-6,000 individuals being killed annually (B. Baker in litt. 2002). Fishing effort in western Australia has increased in recent years, with unknown effects on this species.	eng
144879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number c.650,000 individuals. The Lord Howe island population is estimated at c.20,000-40,000 breeding pairs), which anecdotal reports suggest that it may have declined in recent years. The New Zealand breeding populations is estimated at c.25,000-50,000 pairs.	eng
144880	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The distribution on Robinson Crusoe and Santa Clara was determined in 2006. The colony on Mocha is within a national reserve, which has had a management plan since 1998 and two reserve guards<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Harvesting of chicks is illegal<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>although this is unenforced. The species is listed as a Species of Common Conservation Concern by the Commission for Environmental Conservation (CEC). In 2007, Chile and Canada created national conservation plans for the species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Remove all introduced mammals, initially within a feasibility study area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Determine breeding population estimate for Isla Mocha, taking into account burrow occupancy</strong>. <strong>Conduct quantitative assessment of population-level impacts of chick harvesting and reduce chick harvesting<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Replant native flora, initially within the feasibility study area but also at forest edges, using exclosures on Robinson Crusoe<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce grazing restrictions on national park land. Plant fast-growing, soil-binding trees along highly eroded slopes for short-term relief. Assess the threat posed by the fishing industry, especially in Chilean waters<sup>8 </sup></strong>and along migration routes, particularly in Peruvian waters.<strong><sup>  </sup></strong>Establish and maintain a population monitoring programme for Juan Fern&aacute;ndez and Mocha breeding populations. <strong><sup> </sup></strong>Clarify the severity of threats faced in the non-breeding range. <strong><sup> </sup></strong>Build capacity for research and at-sea monitoring in Mexico.	eng
144880	distribution		<em>Puffinus creatopus</em> is an east Pacific seabird that breeds only on Robinson Crusoe (a few thousand pairs in 1986<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>; 2,750 occupied burrows in 2002<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>; 8,459 burrows in 2005-06, of which up to 60% (5,075) may be occupied<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>) and Santa Clara (2,000-3,000 pairs in 1991<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and 3,470 breeding pairs in 2006<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>) in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, and on Isla Mocha (13,000-17,000 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but possibly up to 25,000 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) off the coast of Arauco, <strong>Chile</strong>. Combining these sites there may be around 20,000 breeding pairs, which would imply a maximum of 100,000 individuals <strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It winters in waters off west North America and central Peru from April to November, but a specimen has been taken from the Atlantic coast of Argentina<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and there are records from New Zealand and Australia<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Despite probable declines in the past, populations in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez group appear to have been more or less stable, though they may be declining recently owing to the effects of chick harvesting<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
144880	habitat		Birds arrive at the colonies in late October-November. Eggs are laid in December with fledging and dispersal in late April-early May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Robinson Crusoe, nesting has been recorded in burrows scattered throughout badly eroded, generally sparsely vegetated but occasionally forested habitat at elevations of 150-300 m. On Santa Clara, the species breeds in scattered colonies in eroded terrain at elevations from 15-300m <strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. On Isla Mocha, the colony is in forest (predominant tree <em>Aextoxicon punctatum</em>), with the highest burrow densities along mountain ridges and between the roots of old-growth trees up to 390 m<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily in offshore waters over the continental shelf but also in pelagic waters<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, mostly on fish (sardines and anchovies<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), squid and to a lesser extent, crustaceans<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>.	eng
144880	population		There may be around 20,000 breeding pairs, which would imply a maximum of 100,000 individuals (Brooke 2004).	eng
144881	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds at three main sites: Nightingale and Inaccessible islands in the Tristan da Cunha group, and Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha (to UK) (Snow and Perrins 1998, Carboneras 1992d). Birds also breed in small numbers in the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), where the only confirmed site is Kidney Island (no more than 15 pairs recorded in 1987 (Woods 1988)), though there is a slight possibilty of breeding near Wineglass Hill, East Falkland, where one has been caught (Woods and Woods 1997).	eng
144881	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Adults begin a transequatorial migration in April, moving north-west to South America, up to Canada, past Greenland and onto the north-east Atlantic before returning south in November to the breeding islands (Carboneras 1992d, Harrison 1983). The species breeds on sloping ground, mainly in areas of tussock grass or Phylica woodland. It feeds mostly on fish, squid and fish offal (attending trawlers, sometimes in large numbers), and also on some crustaceans (Carboneras 1992d).	eng
144881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 15,000,000 individuals. A minimum of 5,000,000 pairs are thought to breed at Tristan da Cunha, and 600,000 to 3,000,000 pairs at Gough (Carboneras 1992d).	eng
144881	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Several thousand adults and c.50,000 chicks are harvested every year from Nightingale Island by Tristan Islanders, which could lead to the collapse of the population without research into sustainable harvesting levels (Carboneras 1992d). Although there is no real evidence of threats to the tiny confirmed Falkland breeding population, predation by feral cats at Wineglass Hill would be a threat to any breeding there (R. Woods in litt. 1999).	eng
144882	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is monitored at some sites and has been extensively studied in parts of its range. Some breeding grounds are protected and have benefited from eradications of introduced predators.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue monitoring key colonies and migration bottlenecks. Research the key threats driving declines and assess appropriate responses. Buffer important colonies against invasive species invasions.	eng
144882	distribution		<em>Puffinus griseus</em> is an abundant shearwater, breeding on islands off <strong>New Zealand</strong>, <strong>Australia</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong>, and the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>. In Australia there are colonies on 17 islands (all of less than 1,000 pairs), southern Chile (many colonies, some up to 200,000 pairs and up to 4 million birds on Isla Guafo<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>) and the Falklands (10,000-20,000 pairs) and more than 80 colonies in New Zealand (totalling c.5 million pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1970-71, the Snares Islands colonies were estimated to support 2,750,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The total world population is thought to be over 20 million birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  Although this is an extremely numerous species, there are persistent signs of a current decline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In New Zealand, the number of burrows in the largest colony (on the Snares islands) declined by 37% between 1969-1971 and 1996-2000, and burrow occupancy may also have declined, indicating that an overall population decline may have occurred<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Elsewhere the mainland New Zealand, colonies are in decline and certain offshore colonies have not responded to predator control<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.  In the California Current, Sooty Shearwater numbers have fallen by 90% in the last 20 years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It remains uncertain whether this has resulted from population declines or distributional shifts<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144882	habitat		It nests on islands and headlands in large colonies. Burrows are dug for breeding under tussock grass, low scrub and on the Snares Islands under <em>Olearia</em> forest. Birds typically do not return to their natal colonies until age four. It feeds on fish, crustacea and cephalopods, caught while diving. Short (1-3 days) and long (5-15 days) provisioning trips are made by parents; longer trips allow foraging along the Antarctic Polar Front, reducing competition close to breeding grounds and allowing vast colonies to persist.	eng
144882	population		The population perhaps numbers 20,000,000 individuals (Brooke, 2004)	eng
144883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number 23,000,000 individuals.	eng
144884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.	eng
144885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 350,000-390,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,050,000-1170,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Brooke (2004) also estimated the global population to be at least 1,000,000 individuals.	eng
144886	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>EU Birds Directive Annex I; Annex II of the Bern Convention. An EU Life/BirdLife Malta project aimed at conserving a colony of c. 500 pairs at Rdum tal-Madonna, Malta, is underway.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out population censuses at breeding colonies, particularly those in Sardinia, Sicily and Greece. Search for reported colonies at sites in Turkey and Greece. Research ecological requirements and carry out extensive demographic monitoring. Research the impact of introduced predators across breeding range. Quantify extent of mortality from accidental bycatch. As a precaution, control or if possible eradicate feral cats and rats at breeding colonies.	eng
144886	distribution		<em>Puffinus yelkouan</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean basin, but its precise distribution is not well known and numbers are disputed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is known to breed in <strong>Spain </strong>(Balearic Islands) (100-150 pairs), <strong>France</strong> (395-536 pairs), <strong>Italy</strong> (7,000-14,000 pairs), <strong>Malta</strong> (1,400-1,560 pairs), <strong>Greece</strong> (1,000-2,000 pairs), <strong>Bulgaria</strong> (0-10 pairs), <strong>Albania</strong> (1-10 pairs), <strong>Croatia</strong> (250-300 pairs), <strong>Turkey</strong> (1,000-30,000 pairs) and <strong>Algeria </strong>(8-10 pairs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, giving a global estimate of 10,815-53,574 pairs. However, this may be an over-estimate given the lack of surveys at supposed large colonies (e.g. Turkey) and the imprecision and error associated with at-sea surveys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Further breeding grounds may exist off the coasts of Turkey and Tunisia, where thousands of birds congregate during the breeding season. The populations in Italy, Greece, Albania and Croatia are thought to be stable, but the Maltese colonies are decreasing. The few known colonies are small, and all harbour populations of introduced rats and/or cats, with a total of nine colonies becoming extinct over the last 60 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most worryingly, breeding success at many colonies appears to be extremely low, which suggests significant future declines are likely. The population may have declined by 1,500 - 2,500 breeding pairs over the past 60 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>..	eng
144886	habitat		It breeds on rocky coastal and offshore islets, and on the mainland. In the non-breeding season it disperses widely within the Mediterranean and Black Seas, often congregating in large flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144886	population		Figures point to a total of 14,700-52,000 pairs (Tucker and Heath 1994). In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 13,000-33,000 breeding pairs, equating to 39,000-99,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). This suggests a world population in the order of 100,000 individuals, a figure that will remain little more than speculation until knowledge of any Turkish colonies improves (Brooke 2004).	eng
144887	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1994, the Revillagigedo Islands were declared a Biosphere Reserve. There are plans to conduct surveys on Clari&oacute;n and Socorro, with intensive cat-trapping taking place in 2007, but previous efforts have been poorly resourced<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Pigs and sheep were eradicated from Clari&oacute;n in 2002, but attempted rabbit eradication failed. The installation of an automated playback system to assist the recolonisation of Clari&oacute;n is under consideration<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Mexican Navy has reduced the sheep population to c.300 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eradicate introduced mammals on Socorro and Clari&oacute;n. Determine whether a breeding population remains on San Benedicto. Assist the recolonisation of Clari&oacute;n. Continue to monitor numbers on Socorro and at sea. Conduct high-level lobbying to raise awareness of the effect military operations may have on the species.</strong>	eng
144887	distribution		<em>Puffinus auricularis</em> breeds around Cerro Evermann on Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. In 1981, there were an estimated c.1,000 pairs, with more found in the north of the island in 1990. In 1993-1999, the estimate was c.500 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and fewer than 100 breeding pairs could be located in 2008<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, 46,000 individuals (95% CI = 18,000-89,000), including 10,600 breeding birds, were estimated during at-sea censuses in 1980-1994<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is clear that the breeding range has contracted, and threats indicate that numbers have declined. It formerly bred on Clari&oacute;n and San Benedicto, but was almost certainly extinct on the former by 1988, and there has been no confirmed breeding on the latter since 1952. However, birds seen immediately north of San Benedicto in 1988 and 1990 provide some hope that a population remains. In the non-breeding season, it forages largely in waters over the continental shelf of Mexico<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144887	habitat		On Socorro, it breeds in rocky burrows within dense bushy areas at the forest edge. Breeding is concentrated above 700 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but observations in 1981 suggested that the major breeding sites were at 500-650 m. Birds have been seen roosting in the naval base at Cape Rule<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On Clari&oacute;n, it nested in burrows on grassy and bracken-covered slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144887	population		Surveys in 2008 found fewer than 100 breeding pairs on Socorro, suggesting that even accounting for immature and non-breeding birds the total global population may be as low as 250-999 individuals, and that previous at sea estimates (which were subject to a high degree of error) may have been too large (J. Mart&iacute;nez-Gomez <em>in litt</em>. 2008).	eng
144888	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In the late 1970s, a cross-fostering experiment was carried out at Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge, in which 90 <em>P. newelli</em> eggs were placed in <em>P. pacificus</em> nests<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Subsequently, 30 young were fledged, and the four breeding pairs currently nesting there are believed to be descendents of fostered birds<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.  Colony calls are being played and artificial burrows constructed to attract more nesting pairs to the refuge, where there is a low threat from collisions with artificial structures, and measures are being put in place to control alien species<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. There is an active programme to control lights, and disorientated fledglings are recovered and released, although few of these birds have subsequently been recovered<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Lighting on some buildings has been designed to reduce collisions<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A ruling brought by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2006, under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, has enforced a campaign running since 2005, in which all non-essential lights on Kaua`i are required to be turned off or shielded between 15 September and 15 December when young birds leave their nests<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The island's electricity company is helping by darkening all of its 3,000 street lights, and shielding or turning some of them off. The company has also fitted large balls to power-lines in an effort to reduce the number of birds that collide with the cables<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Significant improvements have been made in reducing light attraction and collision<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. However, there is still a considerable amount of developing and existing infrastructure that needs to be modified. It is not expected that the threat posed by artificial lighting will ever be eliminated<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing programme to identify new colonies suitable for terrestrial conservation efforts (predator control, habitat restoration), further refine ornithological radar and other monitoring methods<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Reduce collisions with power-lines by making them more visible, burying them or moving them further inland where birds fly higher<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Study the affects of artificial lights on the species<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Ensure lighting does not attract petrels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Control predators at a minimum of two colonies<strong><sup>2,18</sup></strong>. Carry out further research into the causes of the decline on Kaua`i<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Use radar observations to monitor population trends<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. Conduct long-term demographic studies<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Develop methods to monitor breeding success<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. Continue to retrieve grounded birds<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Continue to search for additional breeding areas<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. Carry out further research into foraging range and feeding behaviour<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. Initiate studies into the potential effects of the tuna fishery on the species's populations, perhaps by modelling interactions<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. Develop methods to evaluate the survival rates of released birds, and test alternative rehabilitation practices if required<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
144888	distribution		<em>Puffinus newelli</em> nests principally on the mountains of Kaua`i, but small colonies exist on Moloka`i and Hawai`i, and possibly also on O'ahu, Maui, Lana`i and Lehua Islet (near Ni`ihau) in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>)<strong><sup>2,3,19</sup></strong>. There is evidence from radar observations that the species may be present on Maui, possibly being most common in western Maui<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Estimates from pelagic surveys in the mid-1990s indicated c.84,000 birds (95% CI: 57,000-115, 000), from which the breeding population is estimated at 16,700-19,300 pairs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, estimates range from the low thousands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> to c.15,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has undergone rapid historical declines and has been declining steadily on Kaua`i since 1992 (despite the fact that scattered colonies are regularly discovered<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), with the most up-to-date information indicating a sudden drop in numbers<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Radar data from 13 sites indicate a significant (60-62%) decline between 1993 and 1999-2001 in numbers visiting Kaua`i<strong><sup>6,14</sup></strong>, while recoveries of stranded young birds showed a 72% decline between 1993 and 2001<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The decline appears to be associated with the impact of Hurricane Iniki in autumn 1992<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although mitigation measures against the effects of lights may have contributed in part to the decline in stranded juveniles<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Population models incorporating best estimates of breeding effort and success yielded a population decline of 3.2% annually<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. When variables estimating the anthropogenic mortality suffered by the species (predation, light attraction, and collision) were included, these models predicted a population decline of 30-60% over 10 years<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. As well as a decline in numbers, the breeding range may also be contracting potentially as a result of habitat modification by non-native plant species<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Combining this with longer term declines owing to habitat loss, introduced predators, disorientation owing to urban lighting and collision with power-lines, the species is estimated to be declining at rates exceeding 50% over 47 years (three generations). .	eng
144888	habitat		It breeds at 160-1,200 m, apparently exhibiting habitat segregation from the Wedge-tailed Shearwater <em>P. pacificus</em> which is confined to lower altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It usually nests in burrows associated with the root structure of trees, including Ohia lehua <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>, and a dominant understory of densely matted uluhe fern <em>Dicranopteris linearis</em> in montane mesic forests on steep slopes<strong><sup>2,18</sup></strong>, although a minority nest in tussock-grass<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Prior to the introduction of non-native predators, its nesting habitat was not restricted by the gradient of the slope<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The breeding season begins in April, when birds return to prospect for nest sites and, following an exodus in late April, egg-laying in early June is highly synchronised<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Pairs produce one egg, which is incubated for an average of 53-54 days, followed by a fledging period of 81-94 days<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Most young fledge by November<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. The species's diet is not well known, although it is likely to consist of fish and squid<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. It forages for hundreds of kilometres offshore, often in large, mixed species flocks associated with schools of large, predatory fish that drive prey species to the ocean surface<strong><sup>19,21</sup></strong>. The age at first breeding is likely to be around six or seven years<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>.	eng
144888	population		There is a pelagic estimate of 84,000 individuals (95% CI: 57,000 - 115, 000) and from this the breeding population is estimated at 16,700-19,300 pairs (Spear <em>et al. </em>1995).	eng
144889	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Natividad is a core area of the Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve, where there is some active management. In 1997-1998, goats and sheep were removed with the cooperation of the local fishing community<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Cats were controlled in 1998, and eradicated by 2002<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. In 1998-1999, introduced herbivores were eradicated from San Benito<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Guadalupe is designated as a biosphere reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but there is little active management<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor the population. Prohibit future road construction on Natividad and remove rubbish</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Close the middle and west San Benitos Islands to visitors</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Prevent future introductions of non-native predators and ensure all breeding islands remain cat-free</strong><sup>6</sup>.	eng
144889	distribution		<em>Puffinus opisthomelas</em> breeds on six islands or small islets (including Guadalupe, San Benito and Natividad), off the Pacific coast of <strong>Mexico</strong>. Recent censuses have found the population to be much larger than previously thought. On Natividad, the population was estimated at 76,000 pairs in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, compared with 5,000-10,000 pairs in 1991<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On San Benito, there are at least several thousand pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but only 250-500 pairs were estimated in 1991<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Guadalupe, the population was estimated at 2,500 pairs in 1991<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The current world population is estimated between 55,000 and 95,000 pairs, with the vast majority of the world's population (>95%) occurring on one island (Natividad)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Natividad, there was a 15% decrease in habitat and a 13-20% loss in burrows between c.1970 and the mid-1990s, and the estimated population decline was 4% per annum<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Birds disperse mainly to the north reaching central California, USA, and rarely British Columbia, Canada<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144889	habitat		Breeding takes place in burrows in sandy soil and rocky crevices. Birds attend colonies for at least 10 months of the year, arriving nocturnally to reduce predation by Western Gulls <em>Larus occidentalis</em><strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Eggs are laid in March and hatching begins in early May<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144889	population		The total population is around 80,000 pairs (Brooke 2004), and therefore estimated here at 160,000 mature individuals.	eng
144890	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Pacific rat Rattus exulans has been eradicated from at least 14 island colonies in the last 15 years, and rabbits, goats and cats have also been removed from islands. A long-term experiment to establish a new breeding colony by the translocation of chicks was commenced in 1991 (Bell 1995). Pairs have since established and breeding has occurred in consecutive breeding seasons since 1996 (Powlesland and Rickard 1992, B. D. and D. Bell in litt. 1999).	eng
144890	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a common and widespread New Zealand endemic. The larger colonies are found in the Three Kings group, Moturoa group, Motuharakeke (Cavalli Islands), north-west Chickens, Bream Islands, Mokohinau group, Channel Island, Mercury group, Ruamahuanui (Aldermen group) and Trio Islands and many other islands in Cook Strait. Fledglings, and possibly some adults, move towards the east and south of Australia in February, but most remain near to breeding colonies throughout the year (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Powlesland and Rickard 1992).	eng
144890	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on small, vegetated islands and rock stacks. It nests in colonies in burrows under grass, scrub or coastal forest, but occasionally breeds in rocky cavities (Marchant and Higgins 1990). The breeding biology of the species is very poorly known, but laying is believed to begin in early September, and chicks fledge from late January (Powlesland and Rickard 1992). Birds feed mostly on fish and some coastal krill (Marchant and Higgins 1990).	eng
144890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 100,000 individuals.	eng
144890	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Historically, the species has been extirpated from several breeding locations by introduced feral cats, black rats Rattus rattus and brown rats R. norvegicus. The species presently survives mostly on mammal-free islands, but some support populations of Pacific rat R. exulans. These populations are relatively small, and the rats may be having a significant effect on breeding success. Saddle Island supports a R. rattus population. The species is frequently caught on hand and reel-lines in inshore waters, but the impact of this on populations is unknown. Potential threats also include inshore set netting and over-harvesting of inshore fish species.	eng
144891	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Ongoing control of browsing animals has resulted in a substantial improvement in vegetation cover<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and a decrease in the amount of burrows destroyed by trampling. A long-term project to monitor threats, and another to study population dynamics, have been established, and are ongoing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pigs are controlled on the colony boundaries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A third population is being established on the Kaikoura Peninsula: 10 fledglings were transferred there in 2005, 80 in 2006, c.100 in 2007 and a further and final transfer of 100 was planned for 2008<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census population every five years using permanent burrow plots and photopoints. Monitor study burrows annually and correlate results with climatic and marine fluctuations. Commence nest protection if present research indicates predation is having a significant effect. Assess the impact of local fisheries on food availability</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Re-establish colonies at accessible sites along the flight path</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Consult with landowners of the Shearwater Stream colony site to obtain legal protection</strong><sup>5</sup>.	eng
144891	distribution		<em>Puffinus huttoni</em> breeds in the Seaward Kaikoura Range, north-east South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The population comprises two main colonies, sited 10-18 km inland. These were estimated to consist of c.125,000 and c.10,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but reworking of the original data indicates that c.94,000 pairs is more accurate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The  total population is estimated to number 300,000-350,000 individuals<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Numbers and distribution within the Kaikoura Ranges have decreased with eight of 10 known colonies having been extirpated this century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A third population is being established on the Kaikoura peninsular<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. For many years this species has been considered to be in a long-term decline<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, but a major study has indicated that the population was stable from at least 1990-2000<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds migrate to waters off southern, western and north-western Australia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>..	eng
144891	habitat		It digs its burrows on gentle to steep mountain slopes at 1,200-1,800 m, under tussock grass or low alpine scrubland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding is first thought to occur at 4-6 years of age. It feeds mostly on small fish and krill<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144891	population		Cuthbert and Davis (2002) estimated 106,000 breeding pairs, and Brooke (2004) estimated a total population of 300,000-350,000 individuals.	eng
144892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 500,000 individuals.	eng
144893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number over 900,000 individuals.	eng
144894	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<strong></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the timing of breeding seasons and best survey techniques at Kolombangara. Survey all mountainous islands within its range at dawn and dusk for breeding birds. Survey numbers at sea off Bougainville. Monitor numbers off Kolombangara. Assess the presence of introduced mammals in suspected breeding grounds. Investigate breeding grounds for dead birds and other evidence of predation. If appropriate, initiate control measures against introduced mammalian predators.</strong>	eng
144894	distribution		<em>Puffinus heinrothi</em> is known from the Bismarck Archipelago and the seas around Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and Kolombangara in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong><sup>2,4</sup>. The few historic specimens are from Watom near New Britain suggesting breeding there, but there have been no recent records from this island and only a few records of up to 20 birds in the Bismarck seas, ranging to Madang on the north coast of New Guinea<strong><sup>1,3,4,7</sup></strong>. Two individuals, one recently fledged, caught inland on Bougainville indicate breeding there<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This is supported by a number of recent observations in the seas around Bougainville, including one flock of 250 birds between Buka and Kieta<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and a recent sighting of 11 birds off Central Bougainville. It undoubtedly breeds on Kolombangara, where small groups form in the evening offshore before flying inland<strong><sup>2,5,9,10</sup></strong>. It presumably also breeds on the nearby island of Rendova where one bird was seen flying out of the mountains at dawn<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is believed to be a relatively sedentary species and its total population may not be above a few hundred. The population trends are unclear; the only suggestion of any decline is the absence of recent records around Watom..	eng
144894	habitat		The only observations of this species ashore, and a comparison with closely-related species, suggest that it breeds in high mountains.	eng
144894	population		Population estimated not to be above "a few hundred" by BirdLife International (2000), based on analysis of recent records and surveys.	eng
144895	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All colonies are in reserves but only La Vieja has trained guards<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There have been searches for additional colonies in Chile<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Address the complex issue of guano extraction<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Provide artificial burrows<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Control predators on breeding islands. Survey islands close to Corcovado Island, Peru with similar characterisitics for breeding sites<sup>9</sup></strong>. Establish permanent monitoring of the largest colony at La Vieja Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144895	distribution		<em>Pelecanoides garnotii</em> formerly bred on offshore islands from Isla Lobos de Tierra, <strong>Peru</strong>, to Isla Chilo&eacute;, <strong>Chile</strong>. It was numerous (e.g. c.100,000 pairs, and perhaps more, on Isla Cha&ntilde;aral, Chile, in 1938<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), but has declined significantly. In Peru, there were c.12,000-13,000 pairs on San Gall&aacute;n and La Vieja Islands in 1995-1996<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This is considerably higher than the c.1,500 individuals estimated in the early 1990s, probably because of improved information rather than an actual increase. Two small colonies were found on Corcovado Island, Peru in 2005, extending the current breeding distriubtion c.700 km north of La Vieja, its main breeding centre<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A colony may also be present again on the Lobos de Afuera Islands where two individuals were sighted in 2003 and 2004<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Chile, 220 nests were found on Isla Pan de Az&uacute;car in the late 1980s, where 500+ were seen offshore in November 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and 300 nests were reported on Isla Choros in the late 1980s, which had increased to an estimated 1,550 active nests in 2001-2003<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It has been recorded throughout the year near Isla Cha&ntilde;aral, and may still breed there or on small islands to the south<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144895	habitat		It excavates deep burrows in thick guano for nesting, but may also burrow in sandy soils or use natural rock-crevices. Breeding has been recorded throughout the year<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, with least activity in November. There are two breeding periods, with some evidence that individual birds breed twice annually<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it occurs close to breeding islands in the rich upwelling waters of the Humboldt Current. In Peru, it feeds, even in heavily fished areas, on small crustaceans and small fish (mostly larvae)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At La Vieja Island, Peru, Peruvian anchovy <em>Engraulis ringens </em>(33.9%), the small krill <em>Euphausia mucronata</em> (26.8%) and squat lobster <em>Pleuroncodes monodon </em>(24.3%) were the most important prey species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. High monthly variability in the main prey suggests an opportunistic feeding behaviour associated with prey avaliability<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
144895	population		In Peru, there were c.12,000-13,000 pairs on San Gall&aacute;n and La Vieja Islands in 1995-1996 Jahncke and Goya (1998); these numbers are supplemented by additional, though small, colonies off Chile.	eng
144896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of individuals.	eng
144897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 15,000,000 individuals.	eng
144898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 16,000,000 individuals.	eng
144899	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), the Prince Edward Islands, Crozet, Kerguelen and Macquarie. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has introduced measures which have reduced bycatch of albatrosses around South Georgia by over 99%. Recently, other Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, including the tuna commissions, have taken initial steps to reduce seabird bycatch rates. The Prince Edward Islands are a special nature reserve and Macquarie is a World Heritage Site. Large parts of the breeding colonies on the Crozet and Kerguelen Islands are now part of a Nature Reserve.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue population monitoring programs at all sites to allow assessment of population trends, survival and production rates. Continue tracking studies to determine spatial and temporal overlap with fisheries for populations and life stages where these data do not exist. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.	eng
144899	distribution		<em>Diomedea exulans</em> breeds on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) (c. 20% of the global breeding population), Prince Edward Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>) (c. 40% of the global population), Crozet Islands and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) (approximately 40% of the global population) and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>) (approximately 10 pairs breeding per year), with a total global population of c. 8,000 pairs breeding in any given year<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. At South Georgia, the population declined by 1.8% per annum between 1984 and 2004<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. The population on Crozet declined by 54% between 1970 - 1986. From the mid 1980s to late 1990s, the Crozet, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands populations appeared to be stable or increasing<strong><sup>10,19,20,28</sup></strong>, but declines have recently been detected<strong><sup>30,31</sup></strong>. Overall declines are estimated to exceed 30% over 70 years. Recovery is believed to be impeded by a decline in recruitment rate<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Non-breeding and juvenile birds remain north of 50&#176;S between subantarctic and subtropical waters with a significant proportion crossing the Indian Ocean to wintering grounds around the southern and eastern coast of Australia<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. A significant proportion of the Crozet and Kerguelen populations disperse into the Pacific and the western coast of South America<strong><sup>31</sup></strong>.	eng
144899	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> <em>Diomedea exulans </em>is a biennial breeding species, although about 30% of successful and 35% of failed breeders (on average) defer breeding beyond the expected year. Adults return to colonies in November, and eggs are laid over a period of 5 weeks during December and January. Most eggs hatch in March, and chicks fledge in December. Birds usually return to colonies when 5-7 years old, though can return when as young as 3 years old. Birds can start breeding as young as 7 or 8 years old<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. Wandering Albatross typically forages in oceanic waters, however considerable time is spent over shelf areas during certain stages of the breeding season<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking has revealed that juvenile birds tend to forage further north than adults<strong><sup>17,25</sup></strong>, bringing them into greater overlap with longline tuna fleets which may be driving falls in recruitment rates<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Females may also be at greater risk of being caught in tuna fisheries since they tend to forage further north than males<strong><sup>18,23,24</sup> </strong>and show lower survival<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. It is mostly a diurnal breeder, taking most prey by surface-seizing<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Wandering Albatross nests in open or patchy vegetation near exposed ridges or hillocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Adults feed at sea mainly on cephalopods and fish, often following ships and feeding on offal and galley refuse<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Patagonian toothfish <em>Dissostichus eleginoides </em>is the primary fish species in the diet, potentially obtained as discarded offal<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>This wide ranging species has a circumpolar distribution, and both breeding and non-breeding birds have very large foraging ranges. Satellite tracking data indicate that breeding birds forage at very long distances from colonies (up to 4,000 km) and that foraging strategies change throughout the breeding season<strong><sup>33</sup></strong>.	eng
144899	population		In 1998, the total annual breeding population was estimated at 8,500 pairs, equivalent to c.28,000 mature individuals (Gales 1998). Current estimates are 1,553 pairs on South Georgia (Georgias del Sur) (Poncet <em>et al.</em> 2006), 1,850 pairs on the Prince Edward Island (Crawford <em>et al.</em> 2003), c.1,600 pairs on Marion Island (P. Ryan <em>in litt.</em>2008), c.2,000 pairs on Iles Crozet, c.1,100 pairs in Iles Kerguelen (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997), and 10-12 pairs on Macquarie Island (Terauds <em>et al.</em> 2006), making a total of c.8,114 annual breeding pairs. Using the same ratio as Gales (1998) for estimating the number of mature individuals, this would equate to approximately 27,600 mature individuals.	eng
144900	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. All birds are banded and the population is censused and monitored every year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and some birds have been fitted with satellite transmitters. In 1987 the number of cattle was reduced and a fence erected to seal off part of the island. In 1992 a second fence was erected with the aim of providing complete protection for the high plateau from possible incursions by cattle<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A resolution in June 2008 from the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission requiring long-line vessels to use preventative measures to avoid by-catch of seabirds may be important for this species<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A national plan of action for the species is being prepared which should commence in 2011<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Prevent the spread of disease. Continue detailed monitoring of the population. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP,  FAO and appropriate Regional Fisheries Management Organisations.</strong>	eng
144900	distribution		<em>Diomedea amsterdamensis</em> breeds on the Plateau des Tourbi&egrave;res on Amsterdam Island (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) in the southern Indian Ocean. It has a total population of c.130 birds including 80 mature individuals, with c.18-25 pairs breeding annually, showing an increase since 1984, when the first census was carried out<strong><sup>4,8,11</sup></strong>. The population was probably formerly larger when its range was more extensive over the slopes of the island<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking has recently shown that adult birds range from the coast of eastern South Africa to the south of western Australia in non-breeding years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and possible sightings have been reported from Australia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and New Zealand<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144900	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Breeding is biennial (when successful) and is restricted to the central plateau of the island at 500-600 m, where only one breeding group is known. Pair-bonds are lifelong, and breeding begins in February<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Most eggs are laid from late February to March, and chicks fledge in January-February the following year<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Immature birds begin to return to breeding colonies between four and seven years after fledging but do not begin to breed until they are nine years of age<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>Its exact diet is unknown, but probably consists of fish, squid and crustaceans<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>During the breeding season, birds forage both around Amsterdam Island and up to 2,200 km away in subtropical waters<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144900	population		The population on Amsterdam Island in 2001 was estimated at c.130 birds in total, including 80 mature individuals, with c.18-25 pairs breeding annually. (Weimerskirch <em>et al.</em> 1997; Inchausti and Weimerskirch 2001). Between 2001 and 2007 there were c.24-31 pairs breeding annually (Rivalan <em>et al.</em> 2010), so the population is now likely to be around 100 mature individuals for this biennially breeding species.	eng
144901	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Cattle and sheep have been removed from Campbell, and cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby. Rats were eradicated from Campbell in 2001, and an expedition in 1993 found no evidence of them persisting<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Almost 36,000 birds have been banded on Campbell since the 1940s, but since 2006 bands are being removed, except in two study colonies. Two study areas on Campbell were monitored annually in the 1990s<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and, in 1998, were declared a World Heritage Site.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census the Campbell and Enderby colonies at 10-year intervals. Monitor vegetation change on Campbell and Enderby and assess its effect on habitat availability. Eradicate pigs and cats from Auckland Island</strong><sup>6</sup>.	eng
144901	distribution		<em>Diomedea epomophora</em> breeds on Campbell Island (99% of the total population), on Adams, Enderby and Auckland Islands (Auckland Islands group), and on Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The Campbell population is estimated at 7,800 breeding pairs<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. In 2001, 69 pairs were present on Enderby<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and c.20 breed on Auckland and Adams Islands combined<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. No pure-bred <em>D. epomophora</em> are present at Taiaroa Head<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. The species circumnavigates the Southern Ocean after breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but is most commonly recorded in New Zealand and South American waters<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding adults forage from the South Island southwards to the Campbell Plateau<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and north to the Chatham Rise. Non-breeding birds forage on the west and east coast of South America<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, generally between 30-55&#176;S<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Whole island censuses on Campbell Island in 1994-1995 and study plot censuses in 1996-1997 indicate that the population is likely to be stable, or possibly increasing<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144901	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding is biennial if a chick is successfully reared. Birds return to colonies in October and eggs are laid from late November to late December. Chicks hatch from early February to early March, and fledge in early October to early December. Age of first return to colonies is at least 5 years and the age of first breeding is thought to be around 6-12 years old<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests on tussock grassland slopes, ridges, and plateaus<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds primarily on squid and fish, supplemented by salps, crustacea and carrion<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>During incubation, breeding birds from Campbell Island foraged mostly within 1,250 km of the colonies over shallow (<1500 m deep) shelf and shelf break waters of the Campbell Plateau north to southern New Zealand and over the Chatham Rise, commuting directly to locally productive sites<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
144901	population		The Campbell population is estimated at 8,200-8,600 breeding pairs (Moore <em>et al</em>. 1997). In 2001, 69 pairs were present on Enderby (Childerhouse <em>et al. </em>2003), and c.20 breed on Auckland and Adams Islands combined (Croxall and Gales 1998). An estimate of 8,200-8,600 annual breeding pairs is equivalent to c.28,000-29,500 mature individuals, based on the ratio used by Croxall and Gales (1998).	eng
144902	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Espa&ntilde;ola is part of the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park and Marine Reserve. Industrial, but not artisanal, longlining is prohibited in the Gal&aacute;pagos Marine Reserve<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site. Espa&ntilde;ola is well protected and has no alien fauna (goats having been eradicated in 1978<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and tourism is well regulated<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A tortoise breeding programme has released over 2,000 tortoises on the island in the last 30 years; as the only native herbivore these animals may play a key role in vegetation control and maintaining suitable habitat for breeding albatrosses<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Isla de la Plata is part of Machalilla National Park, but is insufficiently protected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels organised workshops in Peru and Ecuador in 2007 and 2008 to develop an Action Plan for Waved Albatross. There are proposals to protect more marine key biodiversity areas within the Gal&aacute;pagos Marine Reserve by amending the existing marine zoning scheme to reduce the impact from fishing<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census the breeding population regularly and establish a baseline to ascertain trends. Further evaluate the threat of incidental and deliberate take in fisheries within the species's range.  Adopt appropriate interim techniques to minimise bycatch. Assess the suitability of Isla de la Plata for breeding</strong><sup>11</sup>. <strong>Improve protection for the Isla de la Plata colony.  </strong>	eng
144902	distribution		<em>Phoebastria irrorata</em> breeds on south Espa&ntilde;ola Island in the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, and (perhaps) on Isla de la Plata off Manab&iacute; province, <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>3</sup>. Breeding adults travel to the Peruvian upwelling region to feed<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>, and in the non-breeding season birds move mainly east and south-east into the waters of the Ecuadorian and Peruvian continental shelf<strong><sup>1,8,12</sup></strong>. On Espa&ntilde;ola, the overall breeding population was considered to have been stable until recently. It was estimated at c.12,000 pairs in 1970-1971<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, 15,600-18,200 pairs in 1994<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong> and at least 34,694 adults in 2001<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Although there has not been a global population estimate since 2001, surveys at two principal breeding sites on Espa&ntilde;ola in 2007 demonstrated a decrease in the number of breeding birds since 2001, an overall population decrease (including non-breeders) at these sites since 1994<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The breeding distribution has changed owing in part to vegetation regrowth following the eradication of goats<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Breeding no longer occurs at two inland sites, perhaps through redistribution to the coast<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. On Isla de la Plata, there are probably fewer than 10-20 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and long-term data are too sketchy to assess population trends<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 2001, three adults were seen there with no evidence of breeding and a further 11 non-breeding adults were found on Isla Genovesa<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Recent evidence has shown a 2-3% reduction in annual adult survival compared with that in the 1960s, which is thought to have driven recent dramatic declines in the breeding population<strong><sup>14,15,20</sup></strong>. Analysis of birds caught as intentional and incidental take in inshore fisheries has revealed that a disproportionate number of males are taken, which will result in further decreases to the effective population size given that this species has obligate bi-parental care<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Even if immediate action was taken to curb adult mortality the population will continue to decline for a decade or so until the current cohort of juveniles reach breeding age<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
144902	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds annually, arriving at colonies in late March and laying from mid-April to late June. Chicks fledge between late December and early January. The age of first breeding is at four-six years of age, but individuals return to colonies, typically late in the season, from two years of age<strong><sup>19,22</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests on sparsely vegetated areas with lava surrounded by boulders<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> but also, more recently, in thick scrub vegetation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on squid, fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but recent studies have shown that scavenging food items that other species (such as cetaceans and boobies) have disgorged may be an important feeding strategy<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>.	eng
144902	population		On Espa&ntilde;ola, the breeding population was estimated at c.12,000 pairs in 1970-1971, 15,600-18,200 pairs in 1994 and at least 34,694 adults in 2001. On Isla de la Plata, there are probably fewer than 10-20 pairs.	eng
144903	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Japan, Canada and the USA. A draft recovery plan has been developed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Mitigation measures have been established in the Alaska demersal longline fishery and in the Hawaii-based pelagic longline fishery<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Streamer lines (both heavy weight lines for large boats and lightweight lines for smaller vessels) have been designed to keep birds from longline hooks as they are set, and these are being distributed free to the Alaskan longline fleet<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, though they are not deployed in near-shore waters. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission passed a measure which requires large tuna and swordfish longline vessels (>24m long) to use a combination of two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. Torishima has been established as a National Wildlife Protection Area. In 1981-1982, native plants were transplanted into the Torishima nesting colony in order to stabilise the nesting habitat and the nest structures. This has enhanced breeding success, with over 60% of eggs now resulting in fledged young. Decoys have been used to attract birds to nest at another site on Torishima and the first pair started breeding at this new site in November 1995. The number of chicks fledged from this new colony has increased from one chick in 2004; four chicks in 2005; 13 chicks in 2006; 16 chicks in 2007. In October-November 2007, 35 eggs were laid at this new site. In 2007, the Japanese government approved a project to translocate chicks from Torishima to Mukojima, 300 km away. All ten chicks of the the first translocations in March 2008 fledged<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. If successful, this project will translocate at least ten chicks per year for five years.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue to promote measures designed to protect this species from becoming hooked or entangled by commercial fishing gear. Re-establish birds within historic range as insurance against natural disasters on primary breeding colony. Promote conservation measures for the Minami-kojima population. Continue research into the at-sea distribution and marine habitat use through satellite telemetry studies. Continue land-based management and population monitoring.	eng
144903	distribution		<em>Phoebastria albatrus</em> breeds on Torishima (<strong>Japan)</strong>, and Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands),<strong> </strong>that are claimed jointly by Japan, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Chinese Taipei</strong>. Historically there are believed to have been at least nine colonies south of Japan and in the East China Sea <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its marine range covers most of the northern Pacific Ocean, but it occurs in highest densities in areas of upwelling along shelf waters of the Pacific Rim, particularly along the coasts of Japan, eastern Russia, the Aleutians and Alaska <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. During breeding (December - May) it is found in highest densities around Japan. Satellite tracking has indicated that during the post-breeding period, females spend more time offshore of Japan and Russia, while males and juveniles spend greater time around the Aleutian Islands, Bering Sea and off the coast of North America<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  The species declined dramatically during the 19th and 20th centuries owing to exploitation for feathers, and was believed extinct in 1949, but was rediscovered in 1951. The current population is estimated, via direct counts and modelling based on productivity data, to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1954, 25 birds (including at least six pairs) were present on Torishima. Given that there are now c.426 breeding pairs on Torishima<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the species has undergone an enormous increase since its rediscovery and the onset of conservation efforts.	eng
144903	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong><em>Phoebastria albatrus </em>is a colonial, annually breeding species, with each breeding cycle lasting about 8 months. Birds begin to arrive at the main colony on Torishima Island in early October. A single egg is laid in late October to late November and incubation lasts 64 to 65 days. Hatching occurs in late December through January. Chicks begin to fledge in late May into June. There is little information on timing of breeding on Minami-kojima. First breeding sometimes occurs when birds are five years old, but more commonly when birds are aged six. It forages diurnally and potentially nocturnally, either singly or in groups primarily taking prey by surface-seizing<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. During the breeding season, individuals nesting off Japan forage over the continental shelf<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Historically, it preferred level, open, areas adjacent to tall clumps of the grass <em>Miscanthus sinensis</em> for nesting.<strong> Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on squid, but also takes shrimp, fish, flying fish eggs and other crustaceans<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has been recorded following ships to feed on scraps and fish offal.	eng
144903	population		At the end of the 2006-2007 breeding season, the global population was estimated to be 2,364 individuals, with 1,922 birds on Torishima and 442 birds on Minami-kojima (Senkaku Islands).  This includes direct observation of breeding pairs on Torishima, an assumption on numbers of non-breeding birds, and an estimate for the Minami-kojima population that is based upon a 2002 estimate and an assumption of population growth rate, which, together, puts the Minami-kojima population at about 15% of the global population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144904	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All Hawaiian breeding localities are part of the US National Wildlife Refuge system or State of Hawaii Seabird Sanctuaries. In 1991, a 50 Nautical Mile Protected Species Zone was established around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. No longline fishing is allowed in this zone. In 2006, the Papah&acirc;naumoku&acirc;kea Marine National Monument was established. Nearly 80% of the breeding population is counted directly or sampled every year. All sites except one have been surveyed since 1991<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  Hawaiian longline fishing vessels are required to use a range of measures to reduce seabird bycatch. In December 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission passed a measure to require large tuna and swordfish longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. The FVOA which represents the longlining captains in the halibut and sablefish fisheries along the US West Coast has instructed its members to use streamer lines when fishing in Washington, Oregan and Californian waters.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue monitoring population trends and demographic parameters. Continue satellite-tracking studies to assess temporal and spatial overlap with longline fisheries. Adopt best-practice mitigation measures in longline fisheries within the species's range. Revaluate the location of the current boundary (23<sup>o</sup> N) for required use of seabird mitigation measures in the U.S. pelagic longline fisheries<sup>18</sup>.</strong>	eng
144904	distribution		<em>Phoebastria nigripes</em> breeds on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), the <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong> and three outlying islands of <strong>Japan</strong>, colonies having been lost from other Pacific islands<strong><sup>3,14</sup></strong>. In total there are estimated to be 64,500 pairs breeding each year<strong><sup>25,30</sup></strong> in at least 14 locations. The largest populations are c.24,000 and 21,000 pairs on Midway Atoll and Laysan Island respectively, which together account for 73% of the global population<strong><sup>25,30</sup></strong>. On Torishima, 914 chicks were reared from 1,219 pairs in 1998, compared with just 20 in 1964<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species disperses widely over the north Pacific Ocean, particularly to the north-east , towards the coastal waters of North America. There have been occasional records in the southern hemisphere<strong><sup>2,19, 21, 23, 24, 27</sup></strong>.	eng
144904	habitat		Black-footed Albatross breed on beaches and slopes with little or no vegetation, and on short turf. They feed mainly on flying fish eggs, squid, fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but also fish offal and human refuse<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During the brooding period, Black-footed Albatross at Tern Island forage predominantly within the vicinity of the island. This foraging range expands during the rearing period to include distant, more productive Californian Current<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>.	eng
144904	population		Counts in the 2006-2007 breeding season produced population estimates of 64,500 pairs, equivalent to 129,000 breeding individuals (Flint 2007) This estimate is based on standardized surveys at Midway Atoll, Laysan Island, and French Frigate Shoals in 2006 (551,940 pairs; 25,780 95% CI; Flint 2007). These three colonies support >90% of the global breeding population. Estimates for the other colonies are the most recent available (1982-2006). There are c. 23 pairs breeding on the Bonin Islands in Japan, and c. 400 pairs on islands offshore from Mexico (primarily Isla Guadalupe, 337 pairs estimated in 2005; Hyrenbach and Dotson 2003).	eng
144905	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>All of the major Hawaiian breeding localities are part of the US National Wildlife Refuge system or State of Hawaii Seabird Sanctuaries and, in 2006, the Papah&acirc;naumoku&acirc;kea Marine National Monument was established, encompassing all of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Three breeding sites, supporting over 90% of the breeding population, are either counted directly or sampled at regular intervals. In 1991, a 50 Nautical Mile Protected Species Zone was established around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (primarily to protect monk seals). No longline fishing is allowed in this zone. Awareness programmes and mitigation trials have been started in several major longline fleets operating within the foraging range of this species. The Hawaiian longline fishing fleet is required to use measures to reduce bycatch of seabirds. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission adopted a measure to require large longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing north of 23 degrees North. Predator control programs are conducted at colonies in Mexico and the Main Hawaiian Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue monitoring population trends and demographic parameters. Continue satellite-tracking studies to assess temporal and spatial overlap with longline fisheries. Adopt best-practice mitigation measures in longline fisheries within the species's range. Continue and enhance awareness programmes in all longline fleets. Re-evaluate the location of the current boundary (23<sup>o</sup> N) for required use of seabird mitigation measures in the U.S. pelagic longline fisheries<sup>18</sup>. Continue and enhance control/eradication programs for <em>Verbesina</em> in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and introduced predators in Hawaii and Mexico.</strong>	eng
144905	distribution		<em>Phoebastria immutabilis</em> breeds at 16 sites (nine with populations of greater than 100 pairs), mostly in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) and <strong>US Minor Outlying Islands</strong>, with additional small colonies in <strong>Japan</strong> and <strong>Mexico</strong>. The population is estimated to be <em>c</em>.590,926 breeding pairs, with the largest colony at Midway Atoll, followed by Laysan Island, both in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Population sizes at monitored colonies increased between 1980 and 1995 but have never reached the densities observed prior to large-scale harvests for feathers in the early 1900s. Data indicated a 32% decline during 1992-2002 (3.2% per annum) of birds breeding on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, where 99% of the global population is found<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>, though data from 2004 and 2006 indicate that the breeding population then rebounded, and that the overall population trend for 1992-2005 is stable<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. A population began nesting in Mexico in the 1980s and has been increasing since then. The current population is about 400 pairs at four sites, though this represents less than 0.1% of the global population<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Breeding populations were extirpated from Wake and Johnston atolls (USA) and Minami Torishima (Japan) in the central Pacific. Ship-based observations, satellite tracking and fisheries bycatch reveal the wide distribution of Laysan Albatross in the North Pacific, ranging from the Bering Sea to tropical waters in the South (15-20 degrees North) <strong><sup>19, 21, 23</sup></strong>.	eng
144905	habitat		Laysan Albatross is an annual breeder though,<strong> </strong>like other albatross species, each year a proportion of birds will skip a breeding season. Nests vary from a simple scoop in the sand to more elaborate nests where vegetation allows. A Laysan Albatross has been recorded breeding aged 55 years (USFWS unpublished data). Diet analysis indicates that it feeds primarily on cephalopods<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, though also on a variety of fish, crustaceans and other invertebrates<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking has revealed the large journeys made even while breeding<strong><sup>18, 19, 22</sup></strong>. Breeding birds at Tern Island switch from a local unimodal foraging strategy during brooding, to a bimodal foraging strategy incorporating more distant, highly productive subarctic waters during the rearing period<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>.	eng
144905	population		The population is estimated to be <em>c</em>.590,926 breeding pairs, equivalent to c.1,180,000 mature individuals (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007). This estimate is based on standardized surveys at Midway Atoll, Laysan Island and French Frigate Shoals in 2006 (551,940 pairs; 25,780 95% CI; Flint 2007). These three colonies support >90% of the global breeding population. Estimates for the other colonies are the most recent available (1982-2006). There are c. 23 pairs breeding on the Bonin Islands in Japan, and c. 400 pairs on islands offshore from Mexico (primarily Isla Guadalupe, 337 pairs estimated in 2005) (Naughton <em>et al</em>. 2007). Data from Hawaiian colonies suggests that a proportion of the breeding population do not breed each year, and as such the population may be greater than estimated here (L. Young <em>in</em> <em> litt.</em> 2009).	eng
144906	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored at South Georgia, Kerguelen, Campbell, Diego Ramirez and the Falkland Islands. Most breeding sites are reserves. Heard and McDonald, Macquarie, and the New Zealand islands are World Heritage Sites. An initial census of Chilean islands has been completed<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue monitoring and research programmes at all sites. Conduct complete censuses at all sites at regular intervals (South Georgia, Chile, Falkland Islands [Islas Malvinas] and French Southern Territories). </strong>Assess the impact of trawl fisheries bycatch . Continue to develop mitigation strategies for trawl fisheries, notably on the Patagonian Shelf and South Africa. Promote adoption of a) monitoring of seabirds bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms under the auspices of ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as CCAMLR and the tuna commissions of the Atlantic Ocean (ICCAT).	eng
144906	distribution		<em>Thalassarche melanophrys</em> has a circumpolar distribution ranging from subtropical to polar waters<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>, breeding in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)</strong>, Islas Diego Ramirez, Ildefonso, Diego de Almagro and Isla Evangelistas (<strong>Chile</strong>), <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard and McDonald Islands<strong> </strong>and Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and Campbell and Antipodes Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong><sup>1</sup>. Two breeding sites are also found in southern Chile on islets in Tierra del Fuego and in the Mallaganes region<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>. One colony was also recorded on Snares Island in 1986<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>. The total breeding population was estimated at c.680,000 pairs in 1998, 80% at the Falkland Islands, 10% at South Georgia and 3% in Chile<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recent data revised this to c.600,853 pairs, 67% in the Falkland Islands, 12% at South Georgia and 20% in Chile<strong><sup>27,28,29</sup></strong>. Populations at Bird Island (11% of the South Georgia total) declined by 4% per annum between 1989-1990 and 2003-2004<strong><sup>29</sup></strong>, and the population on Kerguelen declined by 17% between 1978-1979 and 1994-1995<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Numbers at Diego Ramirez may have decreased during the 1980s and recovered recently<strong><sup>10,19</sup></strong>. Numbers in the Falklands apparently increased substantially during the 1980s<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, probably attributable to abundant offal and discards from trawl fisheries<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. However, two full censuses of the Falkland Islands population has shown declines at most colonies, with a sharp decrease at Steeple Jason and Beauch&ecirc;ne islands (70% of the Falklands total)<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. Currently the Falklands population is declining at 0.7% per annum<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>, though some colonies have increased in size; the trends are not consistent between years and sites, and even between sub-colonies within the sites. In addition, some colonies surveyed using aerial photography have reportedly shown increases between 21 and 141%<strong><sup>41</sup></strong>. The small population on Heard Island (c.600 pairs) appears to have increased over the past 50 years<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. The combination of trends across colonies and, in particular, the declines in the Falklands, South Georgia and Kerguelen, indicate an overall decline of 67% over 64 years (three generations).	eng
144906	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This is a colonial, annually breeding species, although only 75% of successful breeders and 67% of failed breeders breed the following year. Individuals arrive at colonies in September, laying in early October with chicks hatching in December and fledging between April and May. Immature birds begin return to land at the age of two with the numbers of returning birds increasing up to the age of six. The median age of first breeding is 10 years (range 8-13)<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>. During incubation, breeding birds tend to remain in areas adjacent to or to the north of their colonies in the shelf, shelf-break and shelf-slope waters<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>. At Campbell Island, Black-browed Albatross show a unique bimodal foraging strategy, alternating between short trips to shelf areas around the breeding site and long trips to the Polar Front<strong><sup>37</sup></strong>. Birds foraging over the Benguela Current during the winter also showed a bimodal feeding strategy, alternating trips over deep, oceanic waters with trips over the continental shelf<strong><sup>40</sup></strong>. During incubation on the Falkland Islands, satellite tracking reveals males and females forage in different areas with almost no overlap<strong><sup>38</sup></strong>. After breeding, birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) winter on the Patagonian Shelf<strong><sup>36</sup></strong>, whereas birds from South Georgia predominantly migrate to South African waters, spending the first half of the winter in the highly productive Benguela Current<strong><sup>32</sup></strong>. Black-browed Albatross from Chile make use of the Chilean Shelf, the Patagonian Shelf, and some spend the non-breeding season around north New Zealand. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>The species nests colonially on steep slopes with tussock grass, sometimes on cliff terraces, but the largest colonies in the Falklands are on flat ground along the shore line. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on crustaceans, fish and squid, and also on carrion and fishery discards<strong><sup>33,34,35</sup></strong>. The exact composition of its diet varies depending on locality and year<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>.<strong> Foraging Range </strong>During chick-rearing, breeding <em>T. melanophrys </em>initially stay in shelf to shelf-slope areas very close to their colonies (within c. 500 km). Later, birds from Chile and South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) may also travel up to c. 3,000 km from their breeding sites, especially to the Antarctic Peninsula and South Orkney Islands, but birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and Kerguelen continue to remain close to their colonies<strong><sup>43</sup></strong>.	eng
144906	population		The total population of 600,852 breeding pairs (equating to 1,220,000 mature individuals) is made up of 399,416 pairs in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (Huin and Reid 2007), 74,296 pairs in South Georgia (Poncet <em>et al.</em> 2006) 122,000 pairs in Chile (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 2007) and other populations (Antipodes, Campbell, Heard and MacDonald, Crozet, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Snares) (Gales 1998).	eng
144907	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. In 1985, 1,000 fledglings were banded<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but only one has been recovered<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 1995/1996, a long-term population study was initiated on the Snares population<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves, except for The Pyramid and The Forty-Fours, which are privately owned. In 1998, the Snares and Bounty Islands were declared part of a World Heritage Site. In 2006, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) adopted a measure which will require all tuna and swordfish longline vessels to use at least two seabird bycatch mitigation measures when fishing south of 30 degrees South.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census all the Bounty Islands intensively for baseline population estimates. Census two islands in the Bounty and Snares Islands for two consecutive years at 10-year intervals. Obtain information from South African and South American observer programmes on bycatch levels. Further develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch in trawl and pelagic longline fisheries. Remote tracking data is required for both breeding and non-breeding birds to further understand the level of interaction with longline and trawl fishing fleets</strong><sup>11</sup>.	eng
144907	distribution		<em>Thalassarche salvini</em> breeds on the Bounty Islands (nine islands and islets), Western Chain islets (Snares Islands), and The Pyramid and The Forty-Fours (Chatham Islands), <strong>New Zealand</strong><sup>3,8,12</sup> and has bred at least once on Ile des Pingouins (Crozet Islands,<strong> </strong>French Southern Territories), with four pairs recorded<strong><sup> 10,13</sup></strong>. In 1998, the population on the Bounty Islands (99% of total) was estimated at 30,750 pairs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, compared to an estimate in 1978 of 76,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Both estimates were based on counts on Proclamation Island and aerial photographs of all other islands<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, but census methods differed, making comparisons difficult. In 1984, the population on the Snares Islands was estimated at less than 650 pairs. In 1995, two nests on The Pyramid were occupied, and single chicks were observed at The Pyramid in 2006, and the Forty-Fours in 2007<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It ranges widely through the south Pacific<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong> and large numbers of birds are found along the Peru Current<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Recent incidental observations have recorded this species in the Cape Horn region<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and off Argentina<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. One of the individuals nesting on the Crozet Islands had previously been caught and ringed on South Georgia, in 1982, and returned for several years thereafter. These observations indicate that the species has a more extensive range than previously thought, although the core range is believed to be between Australasia and the west coast of South America<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. A vagrant was recorded on Midway Atoll<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. A count on Proclamation Island in November 2004 recorded 2,634 nests, which may indicate a 14% drop since the 1998 estimate<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; however, this island represents only one of the 20 in the Bounty Island group, and further information is needed (including information on the comparability of estimates) before a population trend can be estimated. It is thought that the Snares Island population may have been stable between 1984 and 2009<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. The overall population trend is therefore uncertain.	eng
144907	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>It<em> </em>is a colonial, annual-breeding species. Eggs are laid from August to September, hatching begins in the third week of October and chicks probably fledge in March-April<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds mostly on small, bare rocky islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The nest is a muddy pedestal made of dried mud, feathers and some bird bones<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144907	population		Clark <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated 30,750 breeding pairs on the Bounty Islands (99% of the global population) (Clark <em>et al.</em> 1998), which is equivalent to 61,500 mature individuals.	eng
144908	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. In 1995 detailed population studies commenced, and a five year study funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries began in 2006. The islet is privately owned<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2008 New Zealand government introduced compulsory measures to mitigate the effects of long-lining on seabirds.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue accurate ground census over three consecutive years. Repeat census at five-year intervals. Correlate aerial and ground counts. Resolve issue of chick harvesting with local community. Discuss protection options with the owners of The Pyramid. Develop and effectively implement mitigation techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch, particularly by longliners.</strong>	eng
144908	distribution		<em>Thalassarche eremita</em> breeds only on The Pyramid, a large rock stack in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Aerial photographs indicated that the breeding population was between 3,200 and 4,200 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but ground counts between 1999-2003 and in 2007 revealed c.5,300 occupied sites<strong><sup>8,13</sup></strong>. Counts in recent years and aerial photographs from as 1973, 1974 and 1991 suggest that the population is stable<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking (1997-1999) and other observations indicate that it disperses within the south Pacific Ocean west to Tasmania and east to Chile and Peru. During April-July (the non-breeding season) birds migrate to the south-west coast of South America and transit northwards with the Humboldt Current into Peruvian coastal waters, as far north as 6&#176;S<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Up to 90% of the wintering time (3-4 months) is spent in the territorial waters of Chile and Peru, which, based on at-sea data collected between 1980 and 1995, support c.73% of the estimated global population<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong> (3,900-6,790 birds were estimated to be using the Humboldt Current each autumn, with very few there during the spring)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. An estimated 1,200-1,500 chicks fledged each year between 1993 and 1995, 2,100 of which were banded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144908	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid September-October, hatching November-December and fledging in March-April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The earliest recorded breeding age is seven years, but birds return to the colony at the age of four<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It usually nests on rocky ledges and steep slopes. At sea the species appears to be largely pelagic, showing less preference for waters along the continental shelf than congeners. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet has not been well studied but it is thought to feed mostly on cephalopods and fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
144908	population		Ground counts between 1999-2003 revealed c.5,300 occupied sites (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 2003), and a further count in 2007 gave a similar figure at 5,247 occupied sites (Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008). This gives a total estimated global population of c.11,000 mature individuals.	eng
144909	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at South Georgia, Diego Ramirez, Marion, Macquarie and Campbell Islands. Macquarie and Campbell are World Heritage Sites and the Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue existing monitoring and commence at poorly-known sites</strong><sup>7</sup>. Determine migration patterns in off seasons from other populations and overlap with fisheries, particularly those operating in the southern Indian Ocean. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, CCAMLR and FAO.	eng
144909	distribution		<em>Thalassarche chrysostoma</em> has a circumpolar distribution over cold subantarctic and Antarctic waters<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. It breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>,  Islas Diego Ramirez and Ildefonso<strong> (Chile), </strong>Prince Edward and Marion Islands<strong> (South Africa), </strong>Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands<strong> (French Southern Territories), </strong>Campbell Island<strong> (New Zealand) </strong>and<strong> </strong>Macquarie Island<strong> </strong>(<strong>Australia</strong>). The annual breeding population is c.99,000 pairs, equivalent to a total population of c.250,000 mature individuals in this biennially breeding bird<strong><sup>20, 29</sup></strong>.  Approximately half the global population occurs on South Georgia<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. Its range at sea while breeding lies largely within or south of the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone<strong><sup>12,15</sup></strong>. At South Georgia the population has declined by at least 20.9% between 1985 and 2004, and at a possibly even greater rate due to declines of 2.2% in mixed colonies with <em>T. melanophrys</em>. The trend for Bird Island, South Georgia shows an even greater decline of 2.9% decrease per annum between 1991 and 2004<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. At Marion Island the population increased by 2.5% per annum between 1975 and 2007, increasing at a slower rate of 0.6% from 1988. However, 16 years of continous data now shows that the population decreased at a rate of 0.6% per year between 1991 and 2007<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. At Campbell, the population has declined by 79-87% since the 1940s<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Trends are unknown for the Chilean islands. The small population at Macquarie Island was stable between 1995 and 2007, and is likely to have been so since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. Documented declines to date suggest the population has decreased by 15% since the mid-1980s; if current trends continue into the future, declines can be expected to equate to 66% over three generations (90 years). However, given the uncertainty around these estimates, particularly in the future, and the long trend period, a decline of 30-49% over 90 years is provisionally estimated. During the non-breeding season South Georgia birds have been recorded making one or more global circumnavigations, the fastest in just 46 days<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. All New Zealand banded birds have been recovered west of New Zealand in Australian zone<strong><sup>28</sup></strong>.	eng
144909	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a biennially breeder, although 5.4% and 1% of successful breeders on Marion Island and Bird Island respectively, attempt to breed annually. Birds return to colonies between late September and early October, laying occurs in October and chicks hatch by December. Chicks fledge from April to May, returning to breeding colonies at the earliest at 3 years of age but generally at 6 or 7 years old. First breeding can begin as early as 7 years old, but the average age on Campbell Island is 13.5 years old and the modal age on South Georgia is 12 years old. It feeds by surface-seizing but can also dive up to depths of 6 m<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. Substantial segregation in foraging areas is apparent for male and female Grey-headed Albatross during incubation at South Georgia, with males travelling on average further than females<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. At Iles Kerguelen, Campbell Island and South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur), the species is principally an oceanic forager, concentrating in the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone and associated oceanic upwellings. However, in years of low availability, chick-rearing birds from South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) forage mainly in Antarctic shelf-slope waters around the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. Prey biogeography also indicates some neritic foraging around Iles Kerguelen and Campbell Island during chick rearing<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. On Marion Island, incubating birds foraged in the Sub-tropical Frontal Zone and the Subantarctic Zone in association with what are most likely eddies. In contrast, during chick rearing, foraging was concentrated in the Subantarctic and Polar Frontal Zones to the south-west of the island, also in association with eddies<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on steep slopes or cliffs, generally with tussock-grass. <strong>Diet </strong>Its diet is variable with locality and year<strong><sup>34</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish, but crustaceans, carrion and lampreys are locally important<strong><sup>10,31, 32, 33</sup></strong>. It actively scavenges longline baits<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
144909	population		There are an estimated c.99,000 pairs breeding per year of this biennial species, based on annual breeding population estimates of 48,000 pairs on South Georgia (Poncet <em>et al</em>. 2006), c.6,200 pairs on Marion Island (Crawford <em>et al</em>. 2003, although noting that number of pairs fluctuates between years), 3,000 pairs on Prince Edward Island (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2003), 7,800 pairs on Campbell Island (Moore 2004), 16,408 pairs in Chile (Arata and Moreno 2002), and populations on Macquarie Island, Crozet and Kerguelen as given in Gales (1998) (84, 5,940 and 7,905 pairs respectively). This sums to an estimate of c.99,000 pairs breeding each year, equivalent to at least 250,000 mature individuals (Croxall and Gales 1998, Brooke 2004).	eng
144910	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored on Gough Island. Gough and Inaccessible Islands are nature reserves. Gough Island is a World Heritage Site. A population census was conducted in 2000-2001, and a repeatable monitoring protocol was devised<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Remote-tracking of the Gough population took place during 2004-2005, to determine at-sea distribution. Remote-tracking of the Tristan da Cunha population is being undertaken in 2007-2008. Limited counts were made in a few areas of  Tristan da Cunha during 2004 and limited monitoring is ongoing. In 2006 the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO) passed a resolution to require all its longline vessels to use a tori line and to set lines at night.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Census the population on</strong> all the islands in the Tristan da Cunha group. Conduct regular monitoring of a more representative proportion of the population and continue monitoring on Gough Island. Assess recent population trends, demographic parameters and modelled trajectory of population. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies<sup>13</sup> and the interaction with longline fisheries. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species' range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, including the Atlantic tuna commission (ICCAT) and the South East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SEAFO).	eng
144910	distribution		<em>Thalassarche chlororhynchos</em> breeds on Gough and islands in the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, Tristan da Cunha,<strong> St Helena (to UK)</strong>.  On Gough, the population was estimated at c.5,300 breeding pairs in 2000-2001<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong>In the Tristan da Cunha Island group, the number of breeding pairs per year was estimated to be 16,000-30,000 on Tristan da Cunha Island, 4,500 on Nightingale Island, 100-200 on Middle Island, 500 on Stoltenhoff Island (all data from 1974 <strong><sup>14</sup></strong>), and 1,100 on Inaccessible Island (in 1983)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A count in 2007 on Nightingale Island re-estimated the population at 4,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. These data give a total of 27,500-41,600 breeding pairs per year, equating to 55,000-83,200 mature individuals. However, given that the Tristan da Cunha data are now over 30 years out of date, there is considerable uncertainty around the overall population estimate. Demographic data have been collected from two study colonies on Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha for 20 years and 10 years respectively. Annual variation in the number of breeding birds was strongly correlated between the two islands and over the whole study period both study populations have decreased at around 1.1-1.2% per year<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, population modelling predicts annual rates of decrease of between 1.5-2.8% on Gough Island and 5.5% on Tristan da Cunha<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Inaccessible Island, a partial count in 1999-2000 suggests that the population may have decreased since the late 1980s<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season it disperses throughout the South Atlantic Ocean, mainly between 25&#176;S to 50&#176;S, and has been recorded off the coast of Argentina, Brazil and the west coast of southern Africa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A single bird collected at Middle Sister Island (Chatham Islands) in the 1970s had recently laid an egg.	eng
144910	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is an annual breeder. Nests are a pedestal made of mud, peat, feathers and vegetation. Eggs are laid September to early October, and chicks fledge in late March to April. Young birds return to colonies from five years of age, and experienced breeders will attempt to breed in two of every three years. Breeding success ranges from 62-72% and 62-76% for Gough Island and Tristan de Cunha respectively<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. It usually breeds singly or in loose aggregations. It feeds by surface-seizing and occasionally diving, and also feeds in association with marine mammals or gamefish which bring baitfish to the surface. It is strongly attracted to fishing vessels and studies from shelf waters have shown scavenged food can comprise a large proportion of stomach contents. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It builds nests built on tussock grass, on rocks and under trees. <strong>Diet </strong>When not scavenging, its diet is largely comprised of fish, but also cephalopods<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
144910	population		On Gough, the population was estimated at c.5,300 breeding pairs in 2000-2001 (Cuthbert and Sommers 2004a). In the Tristan da Cunha Island group, the number of breeding pairs per year was estimated to be 16,000-30,000 on Tristan da Cunha Island, 4,500 on Nightingale Island, 100-200 on Middle Island, 500 on Stoltenhoff Island (all data from 1974: Richardson 1984), and 1,100 on Inaccessible Island (in 1983: Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1988). These data give a total of 27,500-41,600 breeding pairs per year, equating to 55,000-83,200 mature individuals. However, given the Tristan da Cunha data are now over 30 years out of date, there is considerable uncertainty around the overall population estimate.	eng
144911	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies are being undertaken at Possession, Amsterdam and Marion. The species is protected in Tristan da Cunha<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Gough is a World Heritage Site and the Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve. Inaccessible and Gough Islands are nature reserves. A population estimate was made at Gough during 2000-2001, and a repeatable monitoring protocol was devised<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Monitoring has been repeated in 2003 and 2006 at Gough. Gough and Tristan birds have also been remotely-tracked to determine at-sea distribution. A project on Tristan da Cunha (2004-2006) is undertaking population counts. In 2007, Crozet, Amsterdam and Kerguelen Islands were declared Nature Reserves.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Repeat standardised population surveys at all key sites, most notably Gough and Tristan da Cunha. Determine foraging distribution of the species and its overlap with longline fisheries. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, CCAMLR, FAO, and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as the tuna commissions in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (ICCAT, IOTC).	eng
144911	distribution		<em>Phoebetria fusca </em>breeds on islands in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The total annual breeding population is estimated at 13,200 - 14,500 pairs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, consisting of <em>c</em>.5,000 pairs on Gough Island<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, 4,125-5,250 pairs in the Tristan da Cunha group<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> (<strong>to UK</strong>), c. 1,200 pairs on Prince Edward and c. 1,200 pairs on Marion Island (<strong>South Africa</strong>)<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, 2,080 - 2,200 pairs on the Crozet Islands<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, and 470 pairs on Amsterdam Island (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The pelagic distribution is mainly between 30&#176;S and 60&#176;S in the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans, with a southern limit of c. 65&#176;S near Antarctica and a northern limit of c. 20&#176;S. Adults move north in winter from sub-Antarctic to subtropical seas, whereas immature birds tend to remain in subtropical seas year round. The species infrequently disperses eastward to the Tasman Sea and New Zealand waters<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. On Possession Island (Crozet), the population declined by 58% between 1980 and 1995<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and continues to decline, although at a slower rate. This equates to an 82% decline between 1980 and 2006<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. On Marion Island, the population declined by 25% between 1990 and 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Gough Island (c. 40% global population), the population appears to have decreased by about half between 1972 and 2000<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, although recent counts of breeding birds on Gough in 2000, 2003 and 2005 indicate no change in breeding numbers. Limited counts have been made on Tristan and Inaccessible, but are not good enough to provide a reliable update on the total population. Overall, these declines equate to 75% over three generations (90 years).	eng
144911	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>It breeds in loose colonies of up to 50-60 nests<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The breeding season extends through summer, eggs are laid in October and November, hatch in early to mid-December and chicks fledge in May<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Successful pairs seldom breed in the following summer<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.  A single egg with is laid, with no replacement laying. Adults make a combination of long commuting flights early in the incubation period, looping searching flights later in incubation and linear searching during chick brooding<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on cliffs or steep slopes where it can land and take off right next to the nest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Squid, fish, crustaceans and carrion all feature prominently in the diet, although proportions of each vary between years and locations<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
144911	population		The total annual breeding population is estimated at 12,500-19,000 pairs, consisting of <em>c</em>.5,000 pairs on Gough Island (Cuthbert and Sommer 2004a), 4,125-5,250 pairs in the Tristan da Cunha group (Richardson 1984), 1,720 pairs on Prince Edward and Marion Islands (Crawford <em>et al. </em>2003;<strong> </strong>Ryan <em>et al. </em>2003), 2,620 pairs on the Crozet Islands, less than five pairs on Kerguelen Island, and 300-400 pairs on Amsterdam Island (Carboneras 1992b).	eng
144912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global breeding population to number 4,000,000-10,000,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000,000-30,000,000 individuals.	eng
144913	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Search for breeding colonies on small rocky islets from Chile north to the Gal&aacute;pagos. Census population on Isla Chungungo and evaluate threats to the colony.	eng
144913	distribution		<em>Oceanites gracilis</em> occupies tropical waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean, where it is numerous. Prior to 2003, only one nest had ever been found, on Isla Chungungo, <strong>Chile</strong> (where rats and fire may have caused a decline). During surveys of the island on 6-11 January 2002 three crevices containing perhaps 11 nests were located in the north-east part of the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable sites are limited on the island, and alternative sites may be too disturbed by nesting Humboldt Penguins <em>Spheniscus humboldti</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. No evidence of rodents or marsupials was found, although the presence of the Short-tailed Snake <em>Tachymenis chilensis </em>may be cause for concern<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A breeding population (subspecies <em>galapagoensis</em>) of several thousands is suspected for the Galápagos, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Trends and total population estimates for the species therefore remain unknown.	eng
144913	habitat		It is numerous in the eastern Pacific Ocean and presumably breeds on small rocky islets from Chile north to the Gal&aacute;pagos<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
144913	population		Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 30,000 individuals.	eng
144914	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct standardised population surveys at all key sites. Determine foraging distribution and overlap with fisheries. As a precaution, eradicate introduced predators at breeding sites.	eng
144914	distribution		<em>Phoebetria palpebrata</em> has a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean. It disperses over cold Antarctic waters in summer as far south as the pack ice<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> but ranges north into temperate and sub-tropical seas in winter. It breeds on <strong>South Georgia (Georgias del Sur)</strong>, Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), Amsterdam, St Paul, Crozet and Kerguelen islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island (<strong>Heard and MacDonald Islands (to Australia)</strong>), Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>), and Prince Edward and Marion islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>). The total annual breeding population is estimated at 19,000-24,000 pairs, equivalent to 58,000 mature individuals in this biennially breeding species<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Population trends are poorly known. On Possession Island (Crozet), there has been a decline of 13% in 15 years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, though the population is now increasing<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The small population on Marion Island appears to now be stable, following a decrease between 1997-2002<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Overall trends are uncertain as the majority of colonies have not been studied, but may be declining owing to bycatch on longline fisheries, plus perhaps the impacts of introduced predators at some sites.	eng
144914	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species is a biennial breeder usually nesting solitarily or in small colonies. Most eggs are laid in October-November, hatch in December-January and chicks fledge in May-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Egg laying is highly synchronous within each colony. Young birds are philopatric, returning to their natal colonies after 7 to 12 years<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Breeding birds from Macquarie Island typically forage in shelf waters around the island; they also utilise sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters south-west of Macquarie<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. During chick-rearing, adults from South Georgia feed in Antarctic shelf and shelf-slope areas along the southern Scotia Arc and to a lesser extent in oceanic waters in the mid Scotia Sea<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It employs a variety of feeding strategies, including surface-seizing, surface filtering and plunging. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It nests on cliff ledges, on a pedestal nest of mud and peat, lined with grass. <strong>Diet</strong> The diet is primarily composed of cephalopods and euphausiids, but birds also take fish and carrion<strong><sup>7, 10</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Five satellite-tracked incubating birds from Macquarie Island foraged south of the Antarctic Polar Front, an average of 1,500 km from their breeding sites. Four breeding birds from South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) followed a typical flight path (38 trips) involving a clockwise route to and from high latitude waters along the southern Scotia Arc, on average travelling 3,800 km, to a maximum range of 920 km from the colony<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
144914	population		Information on population status and trend is most well known on Possession Island (Crozet Islands), where there were 996 pairs in 1995. Elsewhere, there are estimated to be >1,400 pairs on other islands in the Crozet group, 5,000-7,500 pairs on South Georgia, 3,000-5,000 pairs on Kerguelen, c. 5,000 pairs on the Auckland Islands, 2,000 pairs on Macquarie Island, at least 1,600 pairs on Campbell Island, 170 pairs on the Antipodes Islands, 200-500 pairs on Heard Island (Croxall and Gales 1998; Taylor 2000), and 179 pairs on Marion Island and 150 pairs on Prince Edward Island (Crawford <em>et al</em>. 2003). The global population is therefore an estimated 19,000-24,000 pairs - Croxall and Gales (1998) estimated c. 21,600 pairs.	eng
144915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 4,000,000 individuals.	eng
144916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 500,000 individuals.	eng
144917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 300,000 individuals.	eng
144918	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Kiritimati, a cat eradication programme has failed to limit predation by feral cats outside villages<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> but, at Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge (200 miles from Kiritimati), a colonisation programme has been successful and, in March 2000, three <em>N. fuliginosa</em> were observed displaying<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A total of 23 motu in the central lagoon area have been targeted for rat eradication, with more eradication on additional motu planned for the future<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. In New Caledonia, the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Cal&eacute;donienne d'Ornithologie was due to implement a rat eradication program on 18 islets including the site of the only previously known colony in 2007-2008 to restore suitable breeding conditions for the species<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Rabbit and rat eradication occurred on McKean and Phoenix Island in 2008, though the results have not been confirmed<strong><sup>20,22</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey all nesting islets<sup>8</sup></strong> including those off the main Samoan islands<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate rats and cats from key small islets within its breeding range, e.g. Temoe Island<sup>8,15</sup></strong>, and throughout the Line and Phoenix Islands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144918	distribution		<em>Nesofregetta fuliginosa</em> breeds in the Line and Phoenix Islands (<strong>Kiribati</strong>), Austral, Society (formerly Tahiti), Gambier and Marquesas Islands (<strong>French Polynesia</strong>), <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong> (3-4 pairs in 1996-1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although repeated visits in 2007 failed to produce any records and probably extinct there<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>), Sala y Gomez (<strong>Chile</strong>) (100 pairs in 1997<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) and, historically (perhaps even currently), in Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji. In the Line Islands, c.1,000 pairs were present on Kiritimati (= Christmas Island) in the 1960s and early 1970s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> but, in 1993, the population was estimated at several hundred<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, supported by observations in 1999 and 2009<strong><sup>14,20</sup></strong>. In the Phoenix Islands, c.1,400 birds were present on Phoenix and McKean Islands, but the total population on the two islands is now thought to be 40-100 and c.10 individuals respectively<strong><sup>5,20</sup></strong>. In the Australs, tens of pairs occurred on Rapa and surrounding islets<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the situation was unchanged in 1990<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In the Gambiers, 100-200 pairs occurred on Motu Teiku and 100-300 pairs on Manui in 1996, but it may have become extinct on two further islands<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In the Marquesas, one pair was found on Ua Pou in 1989<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. No evidence was found of this species during a survey of the historical nesting site of Mt Washington (=Nabukulevu) on Kadavu (Fiji) in August 2004. There has been only one unconfirmed sighting in Fijian waters in the last three decades, and it is thought to be very unlikely that it still breeds in Fiji<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
144918	habitat		It usually nests in loosely formed colonies throughout the year, peaking at different times on different islands<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Burrows are often dug in sand (and can be extremely fragile)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it also nests under vegetation or in rock-crevices<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds on small fish, cephalopods and crustaceans<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.	eng
144918	population		The current known population is as low as c.1,000-1,600 mature individuals. However given that some surveys date back to the mid-1990s, and significant declines have been observed in previous strongholds, it is possible that the population may be lower than this. It is clear that data is lacking and a comprehensive survey needs to be conducted to assess the true population size.	eng
144919	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	About 90% of the known breeding population is concentrated in the Faroe Islands (Denmark; 150,000-400,000 pairs), United Kingdom (20,000-150,000 pairs), Ireland (50,000-100,000 pairs) and Iceland (50,000-100,000 pairs), with smaller colonies in France (400-600 pairs), Greece (10-30 pairs), Italy (1,500-2,000 pairs), Malta (5,000 pairs), Norway (1,000-10,000 pairs), Spain (1,700-2,000 pairs) and a further 1,000 pairs on the Canary Islands (Spain). The species winters off western and southern Africa.	eng
144919	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species nests on remote islands that are largely free of mammalian predators.	eng
144919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 430,000-510,000 breeding pairs, equating to 1,290,000-1,530,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004); Brooke (2004) also estimated the total population to number around 1,500,000.	eng
144919	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The accidental introduction of predators is the main threat to this species, particularly in southern Europe and the Mediterranean. In some areas, increases in numbers of skuas and large gulls appear to have increased the rate of predation. There may be some risk from eating contaminated food items or taking indisgestible matter but, by feeding in flight, the species is less vulnerable to oil spills than some other seabirds (Newbury et al. 1998, Tucker and Heath 1994).	eng
144920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number hundreds of thousands of individuals, possibly millions.	eng
144921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least 500,000 individuals.	eng
144923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number over 20,000,000 individuals.	eng
144924	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The main breeding colony on Verkhovsky island has been protected since 1984 which has stopped disturbance of nests by tourists.	eng
144924	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds on Verkhovsky Island (7,500 pairs), south of Vladivostok, Russia, and Japan (a minimum of 1,000 pairs). There are little known populations in China, North Korea and South Korea, and records suggest breeding may possibly occur in the North Atlantic. In winter, it migrates south and west to the northern Indian Ocean.	eng
144924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated that the gobal population could exceed 100,000 individuals.	eng
144924	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Threats to the main breeding colony on Verkhovsky Island include predation by crows Corvidae and migrating owls Strigidae.	eng
144925	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Guadalupe is designated as a Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but until recently there was little active management<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nearly 35,000 goats were removed in 1970 and 1971<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but many remained until 2004 when a comprehensive programme was carried out, resulting in the complete eradication of goats from the island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is potential to remove other introduced species by 2010 with fundraising for cat eradication underway<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. A grant has been made available to fund searches for the species on Guadalupe<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey the entire island during the breeding season to ascertain if it is still extant. Eradicate introduced predators and herbivores. Birders on pelagic trips off California should be aware of this species and its identification.</strong>	eng
144925	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma macrodactyla</em> may persist on Guadalupe, <strong>Mexico</strong>, 280 km west of Baja California. It was abundant in 1906, but the last record of a breeding bird was in 1912. Searches in 1922, 1925 and the early 1970s failed to find the species. However, there has been no thorough survey in the appropriate season since 1906. Relatively recent reports of storm-petrels calling at night and the apparent persistence of breeding Leach's Storm-petrel <em>O. leucorhoa</em> on the island raises some hope that it may survive.	eng
144925	habitat		It nested in burrows in soft soil under pines <em>Pinus radiata</em> var. <em>binata</em> and cypress <em>Cupressus guadalupensis</em> groves. Eggs are known to have been laid between early March and late June.	eng
144925	population		Any remaining population assumed to be tiny (<50 individuals).	eng
144926	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Limited research has been carried out into the species's life history and ecology. Most of the known breeding population is protected by the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, which is devoid of human inhabitation, except when researchers are present<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A recent research project has investigated the potential threat from introduced ants<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Expand research efforts into its ecology. Monitor population trends. Improve knowledge of its status on Japanese islands. Quantify the effect of <em>Telespiza cantans</em> and <em>T. ultima</em> on breeding success<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Take every effort to prevent the introduction of predators to breeding sites.	eng
144926	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma tristrami</em> breeds in the Hawaiian archipelago (<strong>USA</strong>), on Nihoa (2,000-3,000 pairs), Necker, French Frigate Shoals (max 280 pairs), Laysan (500-2,500 pairs), Pearl and Hermes Reef (1,000-2,000 pairs), and may also breed on Midway, Lisianski and Kure<strong><sup>2,3,4,5,11</sup></strong>. It also breeds on small predator-free islets of the Bonin and Izu Islands<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. These estimates suggest that the world population is no greater than 30,000 birds, including 10,000 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. This species is difficult to monitor due to its high sensitivity to human disturbance during the incubation phase<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and due to its habit of breeding in the winter months when access to its remote breeding colonies is more difficult. Little is known about its post-breeding dispersal, but some move north to the seas east of Japan<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
144926	habitat		The species feeds while pattering on the sea surface, principally consuming squid and fish<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It nests in burrows in sand or guano, under clumps of vegetation or in recesses in scree<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Hawaii, first egg laying occurs in December with the last chicks fledging in June<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The species has been known to live for at least 14 years<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
144926	population		Population estimates for breeding colonies suggest that the world population is no greater than 10,000 pairs (i.e. 20,000 mature individuals) and 30,000 birds (Brooke 2004).	eng
144927	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None are known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Search for breeding colonies in Iquique region, Chile (especially around Salar Grande) between January-May, listening for adults flying near colonies at night and checking for active burrows during the day<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Monitor the colony at Paracas. Study its ecological requirements and threats.	eng
144927	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma markhami</em> breeds on the Paracas peninsula, <strong>Peru</strong>, and additional colonies are likely on other islands and in the coastal desert of Peru and <strong>Chile</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. It occurs in tropical waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean, spending July-September (and possibly longer) in warm equatorial waters, and January-July in the cooler waters of the Peru Current<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Data on overall numbers, trends and threats are lacking, but a minimum of 2,305 pairs were present on the Paracas peninsula in 1992<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
144927	habitat		Birds on Paracas breed in small, dispersed colonies up to 5 km from the sea on sloping ground, usually where saltpetre deposits offer fissures and holes for nesting<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. While Paracas birds fledge in November, grounded fledglings are mostly found near Iquique, Chile, in March-April<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. They feed opportunistically both inshore and offshore on fish, crustaceans and cephalopods<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
144928	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census and monitor Iwo Islands colonies. Study its ecological requirements and threats. Search for further breeding colonies on Japanese offshore islands.	eng
144928	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma matsudairae</em> is only known to breed on the Iwo Islands, southern <strong>Japan</strong>. It may also breed on the Ogasawara Islands, but this requires confirmation. After the breeding season, it is thought to move south across the equator, perhaps to the Timor Sea off north-west Australia, and then west into the Indian Ocean, where it winters mostly in the equatorial belt around the Seychelles and west to Somalia and Kenya. Some birds may winter off north-east New Guinea. No quantitative data are available on its population, although it is reported to be locally common in its breeding range.	eng
144928	habitat		It is colonial, nesting in burrows on high ground on offshore islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding is thought to begin in January with most fledging taking place in June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season it is generally pelagic, occurring far from the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
144928	population		Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number more than 20,000 individuals.	eng
144929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to exceed 500,000 individuals.	eng
144930	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Most of the Californian population nest on protected and specially managed islands.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Eradicate introduced predators from nesting islands, and ensure they remain free of introduced species. Conduct studies to determine the magnitude of threats posed by native predators, as well as pollution in foraging areas. Investigate effects of artificial lights from commercial and recreational vessels on predation and breeding success at colony sites. Continue long-term population monitoring at the South Farallon Islands, including analysis of recent mist-netting data at Southeast Farallon Island to determine recent population trends. Monitor populations in the Channel Islands. Monitor the effects of global warming on populations at sea and on breeding colonies.	eng
144930	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma homochroa</em> breeds on a small number of island groups and offshore rocks within the California Current System, the northernmost being off Mendocino County, California (~39&#176;N) and the southernmost at Los Coronados Islands off northern Baja California, Mexico (~32&#176;N)<strong><sup>2,8,9,10</sup></strong>.  Breeding has been confirmed at only six major island groups (South Farallon, San Miguel, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, San Clemente, and Los Coronado Islands) and three groups of offshore rocks (Castle Rock/Hurricane Point, Double Point, and Bird Rocks)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Major colonies, containing the vast majority of the world population, occur on the South Farallon Islands in central California and the Channel Islands in southern California, primarily at Prince Island off San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Island, and Santa Cruz Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding is also suspected at one mainland site in California<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. At sea, Ashy Storm-petrels remain within the central and southern California Current System year-round, preferring continental slope waters (200-2000 m deep) that are within a few kilometers of the coast in some areas (e.g. Monterey Bay) and more than 50 km offshore in other areas (e.g. Gulf of the Farallones)<strong><sup>4,8,11</sup></strong>.  High densities are known to congregate in some areas, e.g. the continental shelf-break in the western Santa Barbara Channel, and in the Santa Cruz Basin that separates Santa Cruz, San Nicolas, and Santa Barbara Islands<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Autumn congregations of 4000-6000 birds have been recorded in Monterey Bay<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The breeding population has been estimated at 5,200-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, with about half breeding on the South Farallon Islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and half in the Channel Islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A study on the South Farallon Islands found declines in breeding birds of 42% in 1972-1992<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, equivalent to c.23% in 10 years or 78% over three generations. On Santa Cruz Island, nest-site monitoring during 1995-2006 showed declines in the number of breeding birds at two of five monitored sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Variation in per capita breeding productivity is thought to be related to fluctuating oceanographic conditions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but consistent declines in productivity were noted on Southeast Farallon between 1990 and 2006<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>, suggesting a genuine temporal decline. Recent population trends have not been determined.	eng
144930	habitat		Breeds in rock crevices and burrows in colonies on offshore islands. The breeding season is protracted, and eggs are laid asynchronously, with some pairs laying eggs while other pairs are in the midst of chick-rearing. At Southeast Farallon Island, Ashy Storm-petrels visit the colony year-round, and most breeding activity is concentrated in February through October<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  At Santa Cruz Island, Ashy Storm-petrel nesting activity spans March through December<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Birds feed at sea on planktonic crustaceans and small fish and visit the colony at night. Foraging during the breeding season occurs mainly over continental shelves (92 - 98%), with aggregations coinciding spatially and seasonally with the spawning aggregations of sardines and anchovies<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
144930	population		Ainley (1995), and Carter <em>et al.</em> (1992, unpublished data).	eng
144931	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Search for breeding colonies on offshore islands, coastal cliffs and the arid hinterland of the Antofagasta region in March-July, looking for burrows and signs of nesting, listening for night-time flight calls and following up reports of dead or grounded fledglings inland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144931	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma hornbyi</em> has been observed in thousands in the eastern Pacific Ocean, along the coast of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Chile</strong><sup>2</sup>. Data on overall numbers and trends are lacking, and the breeding grounds have never been found<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. At-sea distribution and observations of grounded birds indicate that it nests between 20° and 25°S in Chile and perhaps north into Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds may breed on offshore islands or mainland cliffs, but the coast of north Chile is distinctly bereft of islands and the cliffs are largely devoid of deep rocky crevices or soil in which petrels might burrow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is most likely to nest in the Atacama Desert, and there are reports of mummified adults and fledglings found up to 50 km inland and 1,500 m above sea level<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
144931	habitat		It may breed on offshore islands or mainland cliffs, but is most likely to nest inland in the arid Atacama Desert.	eng
144931	population		Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number at least thousands of individuals (possibly up to tens of thousands of individuals).	eng
144932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 6,000,000 individuals.	eng
144934	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenicus longipes</em><em> </em>was endemic to the three main islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, with <em>variabilis</em> of Stewart Island last recorded in 1965, <em>stokesi</em> of the North Island in 1949, and the nominate race of the South Island in 1972<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the mainland, it was a species of dense, montane forest, while on offshore islands it was found in coastal forest and scrub<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its decline was presumably caused by introduced predators<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, to which it was particularly vulnerable, being a ground-nester<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144935	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In January 2005, the Department of Conservation relocated 24 individuals from the Murchison Mountains to predator-free Anchor Island in Dusky Sound. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to verify population estimates and identify key sites for this species. Carry out predator control programmes at key breeding sites, especially during plague years. Continue the programme of translocation, including considering translocations to </strong>Secretary Island in Doubtful Sound. <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
144935	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenicus gilviventris</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Once found in the North Island prior to European settlement, it is now restricted to the South Island, where it ranges from north-west Nelson, down through Westland and the Southern Alps, to Fiordland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been described as locally common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but its distribution is fragmented, and a recent analysis of sightings indicates that about 20% of known localities have had no sightings in the past 20 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144935	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Populations are confined to alpine and subalpine habitat, on mountain ranges and in valleys above the timberline, between c.920 m and 2,900 m (mostly 1,200 to 2,400 m). It inhabits rocky slopes, including talus, open scree, glacial moraine, fellfields and rocky outcrops, usually vegetated with alpine and subalpine low shrublands. It nests among loose rock or debris, on bluffs or rocky ledges, always close to vegetation. It is insectivorous, but will occasionally take fruits and seeds from alpine vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Flight is relatively weak, though birds still range over extensive areas of steep mountain terrain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144935	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Hitchmough<em> in litt</em>. (2005). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
144935	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat to this species is predation by introduced mammals, house mouse <em>Mus musculus</em> and stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em>, particularly in years when <em>M. erminea</em> populations are high in response to mouse plagues<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The only study on nesting in this species showed significant levels of egg and chick loss to mice and stoat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144936	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Traversia lyalli </em>is only known from recent times from Stephen's Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong><sup>1</sup>, although it is common in fossil deposits from both of the main islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species was flightless and restricted to the rocky ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Construction of a lighthouse on Stephens Island in 1894 led to the clearance of most of the island's forest, with predation by the lighthouse keeper's cat delivering the species's coup-de-grace<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
144937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare or very rare in most localities though occasionally locally common  (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant (for example in Louang, Laos) to rare (north-eastern Bangladesh). Areas where it is common make up only a small part of its range (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous (north Annam) to very rare, for example in Hainan (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from common (Burma, Malaysia) to very rare, for example in Yunnan province of China (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144941	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. There are recent records from Kerinci-Seblat National Park and the Bukit Dingin/Gunung Dempu Protection Forest. There are over 20 protected areas in the Barisan Mountains, but most of these receive no management.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for the species (ensuring familiarity with its vocalisations to aid detection) to establish its distribution, status and ecological requirements. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Ensure effective management for Sumatran protected areas. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign in the Barisan Mountains aimed at reducing rates of forest loss through shifting cultivation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144941	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta schneideri</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where its known range spans a large part of the Barisan range (from Gunung Sibayak, North Sumatra, to Gunung Dempu, South Sumatra), but includes fewer than 10 localities. Historically it was very common in the Gunung Kerinci area, but a period of over 70 years followed before it was rediscovered on the mountain in 1988.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144941	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of primary and selectively logged, tropical lower and upper montane rainforest, from 900 m to 2,400&#160;m. It is generally unobtrusive, being encountered singly or in pairs (unless with accompanying young) in tangled undergrowth or along forest trails. It is assumed to be resident, although it may perhaps make local altitudinal movements.</p>	eng
144941	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.8-4.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (density range from up to lower quartile of nine estimates for six  congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) x 3,300 km<sup>2</sup> (5% EOO: low percentage taken because much forest at lower part of altitudinal range for this species has been lost) = 9,240-13,200 i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 individuals, but more accurate mapping of EOO desirable. <br/></p>	eng
144941	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main pressure is imposed by habitat destruction. At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. This is affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. Kerinci-Seblat National Park, for example, was cited in 1984 as one of the 10 most threatened protected areas in the Indo-Malayan Realm, owing to illegal encroachment of farming. At Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900&#160;m as early as 1917, and indeed all recent records are from areas of broken forest with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries. In addition, this species may be susceptible to hunting with air-rifles and snares set for mammals and larger ground-foraging birds.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144942	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta caerulea</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (not recorded this century), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in forests and bamboo to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been considerably less severe, and tolerance of second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
144943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from abundant (Bolovens plateau, Cambodia) to very rare, for example in Yunnan province of China (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
144945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon, though very rare in some areas (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144946	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Following its rediscovery in Thailand, a series of breeding season censuses were conducted, from 1987-1989, to locate and quantify populations in peninsular Thailand. The most important of these, Khao Nor Chuchi, was designated a Non-Hunting Area in 1987, and upgraded to a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993. The Khao Nor Chuchi Lowland Forest Project was established in 1990 and engaged the local community in participatory management, education programmes and ecotourism, to help reduce pressure on remaining forest. However, this has met with limited success as economic incentives continue to govern land-use decisions. A project in Myanmar aimed at conserving remaining lowland forest in southern Tenasserim will commence in 2004. There are currently no protected areas in this region<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct comprehensive surveys of remaining populations in southern Myanmar. Extend strict protected area status to all remaining suitable habitat currently outside Khao Nor Chuchi Wildlife Sanctuary boundaries. Establish an <em>in situ protection unit with direct responsibility for safeguarding all remaining habitat, to facilitate cooperation with sanctuary officials and strengthen management and community participation. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
144946	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta gurneyi</em> occurs in peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> and adjacent southern Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Formerly common across much of its range, there were no field observations in Thailand between 1952 and 1986. Since 1986, intensive surveys have found it in at least five localities, although it has disappeared from all but one of these, Khao Nor Chuchi. This population has declined from 44-45 pairs in 1986 to just nine pairs in 1997, most of which are outside protected-area boundaries. A search for it in Myanmar in 2003 was successful and discovered the species at four sites with a maximum of 10-12 pairs at one location<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its future is clearly precarious. <br/></p>	eng
144946	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It occurs in secondary, regenerating, lowland semi-evergreen forest, usually below 160&#160;m, with understoreys containing <em>Salacca</em> palms, in which it nests. Territories are centred on gulley systems where moist conditions prevail year-round, usually with access to water, and often close to forest edge. It breeds during the wet season, April-October.</p>	eng
144946	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In Myanmar, on the basis of previously reported population densities and extent of suitable habitat, the population is estimated to be 5,152-8,586 pairs (Eames <em>et al.</em> 2005), equating to 10,300-17,100 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144946	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key reason for its decline has been the almost total clearance of lowland forest in southern Myanmar and peninsular Thailand through clear-felling for timber, unofficial logging and conversion to croplands, fruit orchards, coffee, rubber and oil-palm plantations. By 1987, only 20-50&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest below 100&#160;m remained in peninsular Thailand and this area continues to decline. Snare-line trapping for the cage-bird trade is also a serious threat.  <br/></p>	eng
144947	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks, Kalimantan, as well as Sepilok (Sabah), Ulu Barito, Tabin, Samunsam, Gunung Lotung/Malimau and Gunung Mulu Reserves.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey lowland forest throughout Borneo to clarify the range, status and ecological requirements of this species, and assess the scale of threats that it faces.</strong> <strong>Formulate a management strategy for birds largely reliant on lowland forest in the Sundaic region. Promote the effective management of existing protected areas and the expansion of the protected-area network in Borneo. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forests.</strong></p>	eng
144947	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta</em> <em>baudii</em> occurs throughout the island of Borneo, in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Although often locally common, it is generally patchily and thinly distributed.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144947	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely restricted to mature, lowland evergreen forest (including regenerating selectively logged forest and old secondary forest), usually extending upslope to 600 m, rarely to 1,200 m. While it occurs in secondary forest, it appears to be most abundant in, and possibly reliant on, primary habitat. It generally keeps to dense cover.</p>	eng
144947	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
144947	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of low-altitude dryland forest is the primary threat to this species. Kalimantan as a whole lost 90,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of this habitat in the period 1985-1997, representing just under 25% of its 1985 cover, and resulting in the prediction that, in the absence of changes in forest-resource policy and management, all such habitat could be removed from the province by the year 2010. Furthermore, protected areas are by no means exempt: Gunung Palung National Park, for example, has been 80% hand-logged in recent years. The scale of lowland deforestation and destruction throughout Borneo, due to logging, drought and fire, suggests that the overall population of this species continues to decline precipitously. <br/></p>	eng
144948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be relatively common in parts of its range but rare or localised in other areas (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144950	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey elsewhere on Manus. Interview local villagers about this species's distribution and population trends. Map territories around Rossun and relate to habitat types. Investigate feeding and breeding ecology around Rossun. Investigate impact of introduced predatory species. Monitor numbers calling around Rossun. Encourage designation of large community-based conservation areas. Use as a flagship species in encouraging ecotourism initiatives with local landowners. Use as a flagship species in general provincial conservation awareness programmes. <br/></p>	eng
144950	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta superba</em> is endemic to Manus in the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has an enigmatically patchy distribution and probably occurs at low population densities. Four pairs have been found in recent years around Rossun village, whilst in 2002 three birds were heard within a small area of forest 10km inland from the northwestern coast<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Whilst most of Manus remains unsurveyed and this bird may be largely silent and thus overlooked, it is absent from several seemingly suitable areas<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. A total of 29 specimens were collected in two months in 1913<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, suggesting either that this species's favoured haunts have not been rediscovered or that it has undergone a steep decline. <br/></p>	eng
144950	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually all recent records of this very shy species are of calling birds. Records are from primary forest and patchy forest with areas of secondary forest and garden regrowth at 100-200&#160;m. It has not been recorded on steep slopes or in the slightly submontane forest of interior Manus. Possible habitat preferences which have been suggested include bamboo thickets or open hilltop forest near a reasonably large river with stones, which are used as anvils to break mollusc shells<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144950	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 368 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,030, but probably best placed precautionarily in the band 250-999 individuals, on basis that it probably "occurs at low population densities" (density lowest of nine estimates for six congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
144950	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large areas of Manus have been logged or are under logging concessions. However, as its habitat requirements are unclear, it is not known whether this species is threatened by habitat degradation<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It is possibly threatened by introduced species such as cats and dogs but the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has decimated birds on Guam, is thought to be native to Manus<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. A proposal to build a space station on Manus is currently shelved<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144951	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, and recent management efforts appear to be minimising the pressures on this park. It may still occur in the Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve, from where there is a pre-1970 record.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Samar, Leyte and in poorly-known areas of Mindanao, to establish its current distribution and population status. Research its ecological requirements, particularly its association with limestone and tolerance of degradation. Formally designate Rajah Sikatuna National Park as a strict protected area and continue management activities there to minimise habitat disturbance. Propose additional key sites (following surveys) for establishment as protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144951	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta steerii</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Bohol and Mindanao. Historical evidence indicates it was always rather local and uncommon but since 1980 it is has been recorded at just three sites, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, where it is locally common, Bislig and somewhere on the Zamboanga peninsula on Mindanao. Its current status on Samar and Leyte, where it was last recorded in 1969 and 1964 respectively, is not known.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144951	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest on limestone karst or forest liberally scattered with limestone boulders, up to 750&#160;m. It has also been encountered in stunted and secondary formations in close association with limestone. The ecological significance of its preference for limestone is not clear.</p>	eng
144951	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
144951	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its whole range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000&#160;m. Most remaining lowland forest is now leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Estimates from 1989 were that as little as 433&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained on Samar and Leyte. Just 4% forest cover is thought to remain on Bohol. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park include limited illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. Forest at Bislig is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. <br/></p>	eng
144952	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in four protected areas, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Mt Isarog and Mt Pulog National Parks and the Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its ecological requirements (to identify its optimal habitat), conduct comparitive studies of breeding regimes in the Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre, and investigate its migratory habits/dispersive capability, to facilitate conservation planning. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Formally protect further key sites (e.g. Mts Cagua, Cetaceo, Polis and the Angat watershed).</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144952	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta kochi</em> is endemic to Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is restricted to the mountains of the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre in the north, and the Bicol region in the south. Formerly judged to be rare and local overall, there have been a number of records, from at least 13 widely spread localities, since 1990. Although recent survey evidence shows it to be locally common, it is presumably declining.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144952	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It chiefly inhabits montane forest, tolerating degraded and selectively logged areas. Records span a wide altitudinal range (360-2,200&#160;m), with highest densities found at 900-1,400&#160;m. It appears to prefer closed-canopy, primary montane, oak dominated forest, frequently on steep slopes. Its movements are poorly understood. Birds caught at the migration bottleneck at Dalton Pass in January and February and winter records from south Luzon suggest that there is some intra-island migration.</p>	eng
144952	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
144952	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The chief threat is habitat loss, compounded locally by hunting with snares. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and most remaining areas are under logging concession. Major road-building plans pose a further threat. Several key sites are suffering serious habitat degradation (e.g. Mt Diapalayag, Maria Aurora Memorial Natural Park and Mt Isarog). Mossy forests of the Cordillera Central are threatened by conversion to agricultural land. <br/></p>	eng
144953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally for example, parts of Luzon, Bacan, Obi and Australia to apparently rare or overlooked on other parts of Luzon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144954	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta dohertyi</em> is endemic to the Banggai and Sula Islands (Peleng, Banggai, Taliabu and Mangole), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is local and generally uncommon in lowland evergreen forest (seriously degraded selectively logged forest), apparently not ascending above 200 m. Clearance, disturbance and degradation of lowland forests is increasing in the small range of this species, and its population is therefore likely to be declining, although at a slow rate given its tolerance of secondary habitats. <br/></p>	eng
144955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rarer than other pittas in Sabah, uncommon or rare in Sarawak and rather rare in Kalimantan (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144957	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1931. It occurs in Kerinci-Seblat and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks, and there are at least 20 protected areas in the Barisan mountain range, although most receive scant protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for the species (ensuring familiarity with vocalisations to aid detection) in remaining tracts of hill dipterocarp and lower montane rainforest in Sumatra to establish its distribution, status and ecological requirements. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Ensure effective management for Sumatran protected areas. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign aimed at reducing rates of forest loss through shifting cultivation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144957	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta venusta</em> is endemic to the highlands of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from few localities. Records are infrequent, and the species appears to be rare or very local, occurring in pockets. Given the destruction of lower altitude forest in Sumatra, it must have declined. <br/></p>	eng
144957	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of hill dipterocarp and lower montane rainforest from 400 m to 1,400&#160;m, frequenting dark, damp areas, in particular ravines under dense cover. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements. In general, it is extremely skulking and difficult to observe.</p>	eng
144957	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.8-4.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (density range from lowest to lower quartile of nine estimates for six  congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet) x 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> (5% EOO: low percentage taken as appears to be very local and have specific habitat requirements) = 9,940-14,200 but perhaps best placed precautionarily in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals as density maybe even lower because decribed as 'rare' and population estimated to be 'low numbers' (BirdLife International 2001). <br/></p>	eng
144957	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are undoubtedly the main threats, as all have been extensive on Sumatra. At least two-thirds to four-fifths of original lowland forest-cover and at least one-third of montane forest have been lost, primarily to agricultural encroachment by shifting cultivators, a factor currently affecting large areas of hill dipterocarp and lower montane forest, even within protected areas. In 1984, Kerinci-Seblat National Park was cited as one of the ten most threatened protected areas in the Indo-Malayan Realm, owing to illegal encroachment of farming. At Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900&#160;m as early as 1917, and indeed most recent records are from areas of broken forest with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries. <br/></p>	eng
144958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144961	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in mainland China, Taiwan, Japan, North Korea and South Korea. It occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, notably Keoje Island Natural Monument, the main breeding site in South Korea.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its breeding range to establish its population size, distribution, habitat requirements and occurrence in protected areas. Research its ecology with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in protected areas where it occurs. Protect remaining areas of forest where this and other threatened species occur and ensure they are suitably managed. Ensure adequate protection of forest in existing protected areas holding this species and prevent hunting and trapping within them. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
144961	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta nympha</em> breeds in north-east Asia in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, mainland <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China), and winters mainly on the island of Borneo in east <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Kalimantan in <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It has been recorded on passage in <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). It appears to be localised in its breeding range, but occurs at relatively high densities at some localities. Its population is unlikely to be more than a few thousand individuals and is probably declining. <br/></p>	eng
144961	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in subtropical forest, where its localised distribution suggests it has specialised habitat requirements. In Japan, it breeds primarily in broadleaved evergreen forest near the coast (mostly <500 m), although breeding has been recorded from plantations. In South Korea, it breeds in dense moist forest and broadleaved forest near the coast, up to 1,200 m. It forages amongst leaf-litter for invertebrates.</p>	eng
144961	population	BirdLife International, 2008	BirdLife International (2001) estimated the total population to be 'not more than a few thousand or tens of thousands of individuals'. This is precautionarily placed in the band 2,500-10,000 <br/></p>	eng
144961	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threat is extensive lowland deforestation in its breeding range. In south-east China, most forest has been cleared or modified through conversion to agricultural land and logging for timber. Uncontrolled fires have further reduced remaining forest cover. The area of forest in Japan is gradually increasing, but mature forest is rare and most is regenerating secondary forest or plantations cut on a 15-30 year cycle. It was extensively trapped for the cage-bird trade in the past in Taiwan and hunting is a threat in China. Human disturbance is a problem in Taiwan and South Korea.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144963	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta megarhyncha </em>occurs in <strong>Bangladesh </strong>(probably a very local resident in the Sundarbans, common at Khulna), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common), Peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong> (uncommon to locally common in west), Peninsular <strong>Malaysia </strong>(locally common; also one record from East Malaysia), <strong>Singapore</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (south from Riau archipelago, through eastern lowlands of Sumatra, to Bangka). It is restricted to coastal mangroves, a habitat that is suffering severe pressure through clearance for fuel-wood, charcoal production and construction materials. Moreover, the linear nature of its distribution suggests that its total population size might be relatively small. <br/></p>	eng
144964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare in New South Wales and locally moderately common in Queensland (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144967	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>An ecotourism facility proposed for Tirotonga will help to underline the importance of conserving this species.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for this species away from Tirotonga with the aid of tape-recordings. Survey Bougainville once the island opens to research. Interview inland villagers across its range. Monitor numbers calling around Tirotonga. Map occurrences around Tirotonga in relation to forest-types. Investigate basic ecology at Tirotonga. Aid establishment and marketing of ecotourism at Tirotonga. Initiate public awareness programmes, initially on Santa Isabel.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
144967	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitta anerythra</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul and Santa Isabel, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It was formerly reasonably common, at least on Bougainville, where 40 specimens were collected before 1938<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was then not recorded until 1994 when it was found to be common at Tirotonga on Santa Isabel<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with up to three birds heard calling simultaneously<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>. Searches and interviews on Choiseul and Bougainville (until the island became closed to visitors) have been unsuccessful<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>. There are unconfirmed reports from Kolombangara and Vangunu<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>; although these islands neighbour Choiseul, they are in a different biogeographic subregion and thus this species is unlikely to breed there.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144967	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	At Tirotonga, it is found in primary forest, and also small forest remnants and regrowth thickets within an area patchworked with gardens between 400-600&#160;m. Here it is more common in the secondary thickets of the gardened areas and less common in large tracts of primary forest. Two nests found in 1998 were in tiny fragments of closed-canopy forest next to gardens and thickets, one in 1999 was in primary forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Whitney expeditions found this species in forested mountain valleys and coastal and alluvial plains<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
144967	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 330 km<sup>2</sup> (2.5% EOO) = 924, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density lowest of nine estimates for six congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; AOO taken as low % of EOO as recent searches and interviews on two of the three islands where it occurs have been unsuccessful). <br/></p>	eng
144967	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At Tirotonga, it shows no evidence of susceptibility to introduced mammalian predators as it occurs beside settlements with cats, dogs and rats<strong><sup>3,5,6,7</sup></strong>. However, the lack of recent records from Bougainville and Choiseul is concerning<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may have a very patchy distribution or it may have declined severely away from Tirotonga. Some of the historical specimens were taken in alluvial valleys<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and this habitat is threatened by the extensive logging of lowland forests.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. the species is poorly known but has been described as frequent to common in well-studied parts of its range (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally frequent to common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144971	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is very well-protected in Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park embraces much habitat west of Lake Kivu, but is under threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the Itombwe Mountains are not protected.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Evaluate its distribution and status within the projected range, once the security situation permits this.</strong></p>	eng
144971	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pseudocalyptomena graueri</em> is known from only two areas in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, the Itombwe Mountains and the mountains west of Lake Kivu, and one in south-west <strong>Uganda</strong>, Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144971	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary rainforest (up to 20&#160;m off ground, but usually in middle strata in Bwindi), and also occurs in forest edge and isolated trees in cleared ground<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, flowers, buds, fruit, beetles, larvae and snails<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The only nest recorded was found 11&#160;m up in a 20&#160;m tree in the outermost branches overhanging a stream, situated in a valley floor with open shrubby vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At Bwindi, fledged young were being fed in March<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
144971	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-5 individs/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,820 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =  1,820-9,100, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 on basis that it is described as 'fairly common' in some areas (Density extrapolated from similar forest species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
144971	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation and forest degradation are the most likely threats throughout its range. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. The human population in this volatile area is increasing rapidly and thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. Clearance for agriculture, particularly along the southern and western edges of gallery montane forest, has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the greater Sundas and northern Thailand. In peninsular Thailand and Malaysia the species is reported to be locally common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144973	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, and recent management efforts appear to be minimising the pressures on this park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining tracts of lowland forest on Samar, Leyte and Bohol to establish its current distribution and population status. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, including tolerance of disturbed habitats. Formally designate Rajah Sikatuna National Park as a strict protected area and continue management activities there to minimise habitat disturbance. Propose additional key sites (following surveys) for establishment as protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144973	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eurylaimus samarensis</em> is endemic to the Eastern Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte and Bohol. It was patchily abundant on Samar in the 19th century and may have remained moderately common there until at least the 1960s. However, there is a very limited area of forest remaining within its range. The only post-1980 records are from Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, where observations are not infrequent. Elsewhere on Bohol it appears to be scarce, although it is unobtrusive and almost certainly under-recorded. Its current status on Samar and Leyte is not known. <br/></p>	eng
144973	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to primary lowland forest, occurring up to 750&#160;m, and appears to tolerate only minimal habitat disturbance. Some, if not all, areas are characterised by limestone outcrops. However, this apparent preference for forest growing on limestone karst may simply reflect the fact that forest remains in such areas because they are too rocky to cultivate and there is no water for drinking or irrigation.</p>	eng
144973	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It was patchily abundant on Samar in the 19th century and may have remained moderately common there until at least the 1960s. However, there is a very limited area of forest remaining within its range. The only post-1980 records are from Rajah Sikatuna National Park on Bohol, where observations are not infrequent. Surveys are urgently required on Samar and Leyte to clarify the species's status. <br/></p>	eng
144973	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The chief threat is lowland deforestation. In 1989, it was estimated that on Samar and Leyte as little as 433&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained. Just 4% forest cover (c.151 km<sup>2</sup>) is thought to remain on Bohol. Much remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions, and mining applications pose an additional threat. Local pressures at Rajah Sikatuna National Park include limited illegal tree-cutting, agricultural expansion and soil erosion. <br/></p>	eng
144974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. the species is reported to be relatively common in the Sunda islands except Java where it is rare. In Indochina the species is reported to be uncommon in the southern lowlands to extremely rare, for example the species has not been seen in northern Thailand since 1945 (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144975	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eurylaimus ochromalus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is recorded from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is locally common in primary and secondary forest, and adjacent plantations, to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of secondary forest and submontane slopes implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
144976	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from two protected areas, Mt Apo Natural Park and Siargao. In addition, there are pre-1980 records from Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve, the Basilan Natural Biotic Area and Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which is proposed for national park status.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts, particularly on Siargao and around Mts Hilong-hilong, Sugarloaf, Matutum and Mayo (on Mindanao) to establish its current distribution and status. Investigate its reported use of mangroves and research its ecological requirements. Propose sites supporting key populations for protection, where appropriate.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144976	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eurylaimus steerii</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Mindanao and neighbouring Dinagat, Siargao and Basilan (including the islets of Poneas and Malamaui). Formerly widespread and fairly common, documented records since 1980 derive from just five sites, three on Mindanao (southern Zamboanga Peninsula, Mt Apo and Bislig) and one on each of Poneas and Siargao, indicating that it is now uncommon and local.<strong></strong></p>	eng
144976	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the lower and middle storeys of primary and adjacent or admixed secondary forest, generally well below 1,000&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. There are occasional records from mangroves and even scrub forest on dry, rocky substrates.</p>	eng
144976	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
144976	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000&#160;m. Most remaining lowland forest is now leased to logging concessions or mining applications. Dinagat has been virtually totally deforested owing to illegal logging and chromite surface-mining and little forest remains on Siargao, Basilan or Malamaui. Forest at the key site of Bislig is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. Forest fires, associated with insurgency, are a problem on the Zamboanga Peninsula. <br/></p>	eng
144977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common in much of its range though in the north-western part it appears to be rarer (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144979	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calyptomena viridis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan (including the Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland and hill forests, principally below 800 m, but occasionally to 1,700 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of secondary forest and submontane slopes implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
144980	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calyptomena hosii</em> is patchily distributed in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong> and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs to 1,000 m. It is apparently quite common in the Baram drainage, very common in Liang Kubung and recorded in upper Telen, but absent or rare on intervening mountains. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been less extensive, implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
144981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Lambert and Woodcock 1996).	eng
144982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
144983	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Philepitta schlegeli</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is commonest in the moist and transition forests of the Sambirano region of the north-west, occurring only locally within the western dry forests, particularly in limestone areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It feeds on small fruits and nectar, often foraging in the canopy but also coming down to the middle and lower strata<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All forest habitats in Madagascar are under intense human pressure. Dry forests within this species's range are threatened by burning and cattle-grazing as well as by the extraction of wood for fuel and construction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Artisanal gold-mining in the Sambirano has destroyed some areas of moist forest and has also led to much increased immigration into the region, thus increasing clearance of forest for subsistence farming<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, its centres of abundance in pinnacle karst massifs, such as Namoroka and Bemaraha, are naturally protected.</p>	eng
144984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
144985	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is known from the following protected areas: Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Ranoma National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve, Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct studies to estimate its population size. Investigate its ability to utilise degraded habitats.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
144985	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neodrepanis hypoxantha</em>, endemic to the higher-altitude parts of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, is difficult to distinguish from its only congener, <em>N. coruscans</em>. It is known from 13&#160;specimens collected before 1933 and from recent observations. Now that identification criteria are known for this species, its true distribution is becoming clear. It is known from the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud massifs in the north to the Andohahela massif in the south and is common above 1,200-1,400&#160;m, up to the limit of woody vegetation, e.g. 2,500&#160;m on Tsaratanana<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is probaby present at all intact sites within the eastern forest block that are higher than about 1,200&#160;m&#160;<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its total population size is very difficult to guess, but is potentially more than 10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
144985	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is found in low, mossy, humid, upper montane, evergreen woodland, preferring areas with shrubby vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; it has also been recorded from rather sclerophyllous forest. It moves hyperactively in the canopy and subcanopy, feeding on nectar from a wide variety of plant genera and on arthropods, also catching flying insects from the tops of low shrubs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and sometimes associating with mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Males display aggressively at intruders (even humans) by bowing low over branch and displaying brilliant yellow throat. Nesting has been observed between November and January<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
144985	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population size is very difficult to guess, but it is potentially more than 10,000 mature individuals, thus a preliminary estimate in the range 10,000-19,999 individuals is used here. Further documentation is required. <br/></p>	eng
144985	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most higher-elevation forests in eastern Madagascar are relatively less threatened than other forest-types on the island, as they tend to occur in the most remote and unproductive areas, and are thus the last cleared for agriculture. In addition, they have no commercially useful timber<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, they are highly fragmented and vulnerable to fire, and thus some areas of the species's habitat burn in dry years. <br/></p>	eng
144986	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
144995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
144998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
144999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145001	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is uncommon and very local in south Madre de Dios and adjacent north-east Cuzco, south-east Peru (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145001	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is strictly confined to dense bamboo thickets in tropical lowland evergreen forest, up to 1,050 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145001	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145001	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species region is subject to some selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining and associated road-building and human colonisation, including poorly planned and uncontrolled ecotourism, resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein et al. 1995, H. Lloyd in litt. 1999).	eng
145002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145008	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is uncommon with a very patchy distribution in the white-sand forests, terra firme and igapó of east Amazonian Brazil and north-east Bolivia up to 450 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). Until recently, it was only known from eight specimens collected at four localities on the east bank of the rio Tapajós, west Pará, Brazil (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), but it has since been found at two localities in Brazil (near Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso and along the rio Negro, Amazonas), and in Bolivia, at Versalles, north Beni and three localities in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, north-east Santa Cruz (Parker et al. 1991, D. Stotz in litt. 1991, Bates et al. 1992, J. Hornbuckle per R. Brace in litt. 1999, Killeen and Schulenberg 1998).	eng
145008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145008	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is sensitive to human disturbance and is suffering from widespread deforestation in Pará, Amazonas and particularly Mato Grosso, which has increased markedly since the 1960s due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Stotz et al. 1996). The principal threat has been the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991). However, as road building patterns have changed in the 1990s, the rate of forest clearance has fallen in some parts of its range.	eng
145009	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemitriccus orbitatus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo, south Minas Gerais and S&atilde;o Paulo to north-east Rio Grande do Sul), typically up to 600 m, occasionally to 1,000 m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is locally uncommon to relatively common in the lower and middle growth of lowland evergreen forest and mature secondary woodland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145012	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in south-east Brazil (south Bahia to São Paulo).	eng
145012	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found at elevations up to 900 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996) in a wide variety of habitats, including forest edge, plantations, gardens, low restinga and degraded second growth (R. Parrini and J. Minns in litt. 1999), mostly in foothills (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145012	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests; current threats are urbanization, industrialization, agricultural expansion, colonization and associated road-building (Dinerstein et al. 1995, Fearnside 1996).	eng
145013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was rediscovered in 1992 (161 years after the collection of the type-specimen) in campina forest on the east bank of the rio Negro, c.45 km north of Manaus, Brazil, extending its range by c.1,000 km east-south-east of the rio Içana type-locality (Whittaker 1995). It has subsequently been found in several other areas further up the rio Negro on two right-bank tributaries, the rio Apuaú and rio Cuieras, c.80 km north-west and 60 km west of the 1992 records (Whittaker 1995), and appears to be relatively common in white-sand and igapó forests on the east bank of the rio Negro (M. Cohn-Haft in litt. 1999).	eng
145015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145016	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145017	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemitriccus rufigularis</em> occurs disjunctly in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo, Morona-Santiago, Sucumb&iacute;os<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Zamora-Chinchipe), <strong>Peru</strong> (San Mart&iacute;n and from Hu&aacute;nuco south to Puno) and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz, extreme south-west Beni and west Santa Cruz)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and very local in vine tangles within humid forest at 800-1,450 m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. In Peru, much of its habitat is relatively intact above 900 m, but there has been widespread destruction of foothill forests elsewhere in its range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, where the effects of extensive agricultural conversion and logging have been amplified by road-building and human colonisation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145017	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
145018	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemitriccus cinnamomeipectus</em> is known only from a few remote and isolated mountain ranges in extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are records from the south Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor in Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador, and Cajamarca, Peru, and from the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n (Amazonas) and Abra Patricia (San Mart&iacute;n), Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This poorly known flycatcher is restricted to undergrowth of dense, mossy montane forest, at 1,700-2,200 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although vegetation in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor is relatively intact, the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n is being deforested very rapidly for cash crops, particularly marijuana and coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145019	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant areas are being reforested with native trees at Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where protection is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The effectiveness of the Serra do Baturit&eacute; Environmental Protection Area is unclear, but local hotels protect some habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also persist in Tapacur&aacute; Ecological Station.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Tapacur&aacute;, upland areas in Cear&aacute; and other potential sites to ascertain the species's presence and status. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of remaining habitat in the Serra do Baturit&eacute;. <strong>Protect habitat in the Serra da Ibiapaba, and at Areia, Garanhuns and Lagoa do Ouro. Continue conservation efforts at Pedra Talhada. <br/></p>	eng
145019	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemitriccus mirandae</em> has an apparently disjunct range in north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is known from Serra da Ibiapaba and Serra do Baturit&eacute; in Cear&aacute;, Areia in Para&iacute;ba<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Garanhuns, Tapacur&aacute; and Lagoa do Ouro in Pernambuco<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Pedra Talhada and Murici<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in Alagoas. It has been described as very common over an extensive range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> but it has also been considered fairly common in Serra do Baturit&eacute;, uncommon at Pedra Talhada<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and there are few documented records from elsewhere within its highly fragmented range. <br/></p>	eng
145019	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly in dense, tall vine-tangles within seasonally dry, semi-deciduous woodlands. These are concentrated on isolated serras at elevations of 600-900&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has also been observed in the understorey of rather humid forest and dry forest with many tall <em>Orbignya</em> palms, and is apparently adapted to secondary formations such as degraded capoeira. It forages at 1.5-10&#160;m above ground, most often at 2-5&#160;m, actively scanning for arthropod prey.</p>	eng
145019	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.6-10.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 362 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 941-3,620, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999, as described as by some authors as "very common" across its range (density range from lower to upper quartile of eight estimates for 3 species of <em>Hemitriccus</em>, <em>Lophotriccus</em> and <em>Myiornis</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as considered fairly common). <br/></p>	eng
145019	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive deforestation within its disjunct and fragmented range. Only 1% of original forest remains in Serra do Baturit&eacute;, largely as a result of clearing for "sun" coffee since the early 1970s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the situation is similar in Serra da Ibiapaba. Remaining habitat is threatened by the construction of holiday homes, and fires<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Only 2% of original forest cover remains in Alagoas and Pernambuco and 6% in Para&iacute;ba<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with most forest replaced by sugarcane plantations. Remnant patches are highly fragmented and threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations. <br/></p>	eng
145020	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by Brazilian law, and is known to occur in one protected area in Paran&aacute;, at APA of Guaratuba, owned by Paran&aacute; state government and one in Santa Catarina, the privately-owned RPPN Volta Velha (15 km<sup>2</sup>). The APA of Guaratuba is the stronghold of this species in Paran&aacute; state and this area shelters the largest known population of the species<strong><sup>9,12,13</sup></strong>. Surveys of potentially suitable localities are continuing<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Slow rates of deforestation. Survey remaining patches of lowland forest in Santa Catarina and adjacent areas of Paran&aacute; to clarify distribution and status</strong><sup>3,4</sup>.<strong> Survey forest within the vicinity of Brusque, which has not been visited subsequently</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Investigate ecological requirements of the species at current localities. Expand the Bracinho State Ecological Station at Santa Caratina, </strong>Reserva Particular do Patrim&ocirc;nio Natural de Volta Velha, APA de Guaratuba and the National Park Saint-Hilare/Lange at Paran&aacute; state to incorporate adjacent patches of the species's lowland forest habitat.  <br/></p>	eng
145020	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Hemitriccus kaempferi</em> is now known from 11 localities in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>15</sup>: Salto Pira&iacute;<strong><sup>3,7,8,9,12</sup></strong>, Brusque<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the RPPN Volta Velha near Itapo&aacute;<strong><sup>4,5,7,8,9,11</sup></strong>, S&atilde;o Francisco do Sul municipality, Barra Velha municipality, Blumenau municipality, Pi&ccedil;arras/Itajuba (Pi&ccedil;arras municipality), Morro do Bau (Ilhota municipality), Sanepar bridge (S&atilde;o Jo&atilde;o river), and National Park Saint-Hilare/Langue<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>; all in Santa Catarina; and at Guaragua&ccedil;u Ecological Station in south-east Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>9,10,12,13</sup></strong>. The species is apparently very rare, but has been recorded in recent years from all of the locations listed above except Brusque. Recent records have extended the known range considerably, though within its range it has never been recorded from c.80% of the area and appears to be severely fragmented<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<em> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145020	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits humid, heterogeneous, lowland evergreen Atlantic forest and secondary growth<strong><sup>3,4,12,13</sup></strong> 4-15 m tall<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. At APA of Guaratuba the species was also observed in forests dominated by <em>Calophilum brasiliensis</em> (Guanadizais) or <em>Tabebuia cassinoides</em> (Caxetais)<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. The favoured habitat appears to be narrow patches of alluvial forest along rivers at 0-50 m<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. It feeds predominantly in the midstorey, from 1-4 m, hover-gleaning and sallying during flights of 0.3-3.5 m and also gleaning and reaching<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. At some sites at APA of Guaratuba, the species forage in dense tangles of lianas, often over small rivers<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It does not join mixed species flocks<strong><sup>3,4,11,13</sup></strong>; instead, pairs appear to remain in well defined territories<strong><sup>3,13</sup></strong>. A nest under construction was found in October 1998, at a height of c.6 m above ground-level, 2-3 m inside primary forest at an elevation of 250 m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	This estimate is based upon survey data (Belmonte-Lopes unpublished data) which estimated 20-40 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> over 460 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of the Extent of Occurrence).  <br/></p>	eng
145020	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Deforestation has been extensive in the Atlantic forest, and lowland forest remaining in the vicinity of all sites continues to be cleared. The main threats for the species are apparently banana, rice and timber plantations and the urbanisation of the coastal plain<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Potential construction of a new road system (BR 101) would lead to further fragmentation of all the remaining areas, and sea level rise is a longer-term threat<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145021	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by Brazilian law, and occurs in seven protected areas: Desengano State Park, Itatiaia National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Serra do Mar State Park, Cairu&ccedil;u Environmental Protected Area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Desengano State Park, and Serra Bonita Private Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat, particularly between the two disjunct populations, to clarify distribution and status. Investigate ecological requirements, especially the purported link to large-leaved bamboo. Consolidate key protected areas, such as Serra do Mar State Park. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest at Boa Nova. Survey historical localities such as Matodentro, S&atilde;o Paulo and the portion of Serra do Mar State Park south of Ubatuba that have significant forest remnants. <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
145021	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemitriccus furcatus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo. A population was only discovered in Bahia in 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, extending its known range northwards by c.1,000&#160;km. Several new localities have recently been discovered, with one in the Serra do Mar south of Ubatuba extending its known range southwards<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The occurrence of the species south of Ubatuba at the Borac&eacute;ia Biological Station<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> has not been confirmed, although there is good and extensive habitat in the entire Serra do Mar.<em> <br/></p>	eng
145021	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the undergrowth of humid forest borders and second growth, especially where there are dense thickets of bamboo (particularly large-leaved species) and vine-tangles. It persists in degraded forest, and often occurs in fairly open places with only scattered trees that barely form a continuous canopy. Territories appear to be small (c.100 m<sup>2</sup>). Birds forage singly in the lower and middle storeys, and rarely join mixed-species flocks. Insects, including small caterpillars and katydids, are gleaned primarily from bamboo leaves during short sallying flights. The only breeding data concerns recently fledged juveniles observed at Boa Nova, Bahia, in November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145021	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,516 km<sup>2 </sup>(20% EOO) = 758-3,941, but probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, as the species is likely to be overlooked owing to its preference for dense habitats (density range from lowest to lower quartile of eight estimates for three species of <em>Hemitriccus</em>, <em>Lophotriccus</em> and <em>Myiornis</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145021	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although some deforestation may lead to a short-term increase in areas with bamboo, forest clearance has been so extensive throughout its range that it is likely to have greatly reduced numbers. Smallholder farms are rapidly encroaching on the remaining forest at Boa Nova, Bahia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145031	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Todirostrum viridanum</em> occurs in coastal Falc&oacute;n and Zulia, north-west <strong>Venezuela<sup>4</sup></strong>. It is fairly common in deciduous and gallery forest, semi-arid woodland, arid lowland scrub and thickets at elevations up to 100&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Although expanses of suitable habitat remain within its limited range<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, substantial areas have been destroyed, principally around Lago de Maracaibo, as a result of burgeoning tourism, development pressures and pollution<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145033	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits the arid interior of east Brazil (south Piauí, south Goiás, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Distrito Federal and east Mato Grosso do Sul) and north-east Paraguay (Concepción and possibly Amambay) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145040	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Although virtually unknown, the species has been found foraging mostly in the canopy and subcanopy (but also the understorey) of gallery and tall dry forest (where it frequently joins mixed species flocks) within the cerrado region at elevations of 700-1,000 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996), and the tropical dry forests of the São Francisco drainage (da Silva 1996).	eng
145040	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and very local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145040	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species may be suffering from the extensive destruction of cerrado habitats for agricultural conversion (especially through overgrazing and Eucalyptus plantations), and may be affected by fire spreading from adjacent grasslands and farms. Its dry forest habitats are also under constant pressure of deforestation mainly for the charcoal industry, agriculture and Eucalyptus plantations.	eng
145041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145043	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phyllomyias griseocapilla</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (east Minas Gerais and Esp&iacute;rito Santo to east Santa Catarina) at 750-1,850 m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to relatively common, but patchily distributed, in the borders of lowland and montane evergreen forest, and shrubby clearings with scattered trees<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145050	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145057	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145062	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cocos has been designated as a national park, but no substantive measures have been taken to reduce populations of introduced mammals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estimate the population. Study the impact of introduced mammals. Eradicate introduced mammals where feasible.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
145062	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesotriccus ridgwayi</em> is common throughout Cocos Island, c.500&#160;km off the coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145062	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in most habitats from sea-level to the highest hills, including the upper understorey and lower canopy of forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, <em>Hibiscus</em> scrub, <em>Annona</em> swamp, and wooded ravines. It is regularly observed in second growth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but degraded habitat may not sustain the species through its life-cycle. The diet consists of insects and, at least seasonally, fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding probably takes place between January and May.</p>	eng
145062	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145062	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rats and cats are potential predators, and feral deer, pigs and goats graze suitable habitat. Pigs especially devastate the lower strata and understorey of native forests and inhibit forest regeneration<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. On many other islands, this combination of feral mammals has caused the extinction of numerous endemic plant and animal species. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145068	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145069	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145071	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145074	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145078	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Fernando de Noronha is a Marine National Park, although the actual protection that this confers is unknown. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to provide a more accurate estimate of population size. Clarify the species's habitat requirements<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Study any problems caused by introduced species and assess methods for their control<sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145078	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Elaenia ridleyana</em> is confined to the Atlantic archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from the main island and Ilha Rata, the largest associated islet<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is reportedly the least common of the three resident landbirds. Population estimates vary between slightly over 100<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and c.1,000 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Probably the most comprehensive survey estimated a population of c.480 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although a more recent estimate has suggested a population of c.750 birds<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145078	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits scrub, woodland and gardens. The diet is insects and small fruit, particularly those of the endemic tree <em>Ficus noronhae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. Breeding presumably occurs between February and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest is constructed with the tendrills of <em>Cucurbitaceae</em> and a few twigs, and located in the bare branches of a <em>Burra</em>, <em>Erythrina</em> or cashew-nut tree<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145078	population	BirdLife International, 2008	T. Mark <em>in litt. </em>(2003). <br/></p>	eng
145078	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It was presumably historically more numerous as the island was reportedly covered in forest when discovered in 1503<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All large trees have been cut and all remaining vegetation is secondary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are proposals to further develop tourism and this would cause yet greater damage to its habitat. It may suffer predation from introduced mammals such as rats and cats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Children target birds with slingshots and presumably kill some individuals of this species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Fire may pose a credible threat, and an introduced vine is reported to threaten remaining preferred habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145110	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is very rare in the actively managed Huascar&aacute;n National Park<strong><sup>1,6,7</sup></strong>. Public awareness campaigns in Cuzco, Peru, have been locally successful<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Small numbers have been found within R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park, La Libertad, and Cotapata National Park, La Paz<strong><sup>2,4,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its distribution around the Choquetanga valley, Bolivia<sup>4</sup></strong>, the Cordillera Vilcanota, Cuzco<strong><sup>2,6 </sup></strong>and Laraos, south Lima<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue management of Huascar&aacute;n National Park. Protect <em>Polylepis</em></strong> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to develop land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145110	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anairetes alpinus</em> occurs locally in the high Andes of <strong>Peru</strong> and <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Subspecies <em>alpinus</em> occurs in the cordilleras Central and Occidental (La Libertad<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Ancash and Lima), Peru. Subspecies <em>bolivianus</em> occurs in the Cordillera Oriental (Apur&iacute;mac and Cuzco), Peru, and the Cordillera Real (La Paz), Bolivia<strong><sup>3,5,6,9,10</sup></strong>. Confirmation is required for a report near Laraos (Lima), Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is relatively common in the Runtacocha highland, Apur&iacute;mac, and the Cordillera Vilcabamba, Cuzco<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with the population at Abra M&aacute;laga estimated as c.20-30 birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The total population is perhaps in the mid- or upper hundreds, but estimates vary, and there have been several recent discoveries that have extended the known range of this species<strong><sup>2,3,5,6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145110	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits semi-humid, mixed <em>Polylepis-Gynoxys</em> woodland at 3,700-4,500&#160;m. In the Runtacocha highland stronghold, <em>Polylepis</em> woodland is mature and has several strata that may provide a richer supply of insects. It typically moves in groups of three individuals, sometimes with other species, searching for invertebrates on the outermost branches<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Immatures have been collected in March and July, and a pair feeding young were recorded in December. <br/></p>	eng
145110	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Engblom <em>in litt</em>. (2000), Fjelds&aring; and Kessler (1996), Maynard and Waterton (1998), G. Servat <em>in litt</em>. (1999). <br/></p>	eng
145110	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threats are heavy grazing (especially in Ancash) and the uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration<strong><sup>3,6,8</sup></strong>, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal also occurs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation, especially where exotic tree species (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are planted<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, are further contributory factors. The extent of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland in Cuzco halved during the 1980s. <br/></p>	eng
145111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145114	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anairetes fernandezianus</em> is endemic to Isla Robinson Crusoe in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <strong>Chile</strong><sup>3</sup>. It is apparently common within this restricted range, and the population was estimated at a stable and secure 5,000 birds in the mid-1980s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found in all wooded habitats: undisturbed forest, luma <em>Nothomyrica fernandeziana</em> parkland (even where the understorey has been heavily degraded by cows), <em>Eucalyptus</em> woodland, and even (although not commonly) among the miscellany of exotic vegetation in Cumberland Bay<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Threats include predation by cats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and possible, but unquantified predation, by introduced Red-backed Hawk <em>Buteo polysoma </em>from Isla Alejandro Selkirk<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a biosphere reserve in 1977. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145117	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study migratory habits of sub-populations in order to devise c</strong>onservation efforts for this species. <strong>Conduct surveys to assess population size and rate of declines.  <br/></p>	eng
145117	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Culicivora caudacuta</em> occurs in east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, La Paz, Santa Cruz), extreme north and south-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Amap&aacute;, south-west Bahia, south Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, central Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal, Minas Gerais, west Paran&aacute;, S&atilde;o Paulo), east and south-west <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (east Formosa, east Chaco, Corrientes, north Santa Fe, Entre R&iacute;os, south Misiones)<strong><sup>1,2,6,13,14,15,16</sup></strong>. In Brazil it is found mostly in the upland cerrado of the Planalto Central, Central, a more restricted distribution compared to other cerrado birds. It is now mostly rare and very localised but there are recent range extensions from Entre R&iacute;os<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and La Paz<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and it was recently rediscovered in east Paraguay<strong><sup>4,7,9</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145117	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Culicivora caudacuta</em> inhabits campo cerrado and open grassland, mainly in dry grassland and occasionally in shorter, scrubbier and wetter areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and sometimes frequents the transitional zone between these habitats<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. However, breeders (October-March) are apparently confined to dry grassland<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>, with nests in Formosa mostly located in clumps of <em>Vernonia chamaedrys<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
145117	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although this species is rare and localised, it has a very large range, and numbers are likely to exceed 10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145117	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Conversion to soybeans, exportable crops and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (encouraged by government land reform) has severely impacted campo cerrado habitats<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, with the greatest impact is in the southern part of the biome. Grasslands in south Paraguay and Argentina are additionally threatened by extensive cattle ranching<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. Observations from Canindey&uacute; department, Paraguay (towards the edge of the species's range), demonstrated an apparent preference for older campo cerrado habitats that had not experienced a spring burn and where <em>Loudetia</em> grass species sprout up to c. 2 m tall during the summer months. This taller vegetation does not occur under an annual (or more frequent) burn regime, as occurs at many cerrado localities<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. This lack of availability of preferred habitat along with the frequent occurrence of fires is a possible threat.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145118	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polystictus pectoralis</em> has a very localised and disjunct distribution in the Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it was known from the upper r&iacute;o Dagua valley (Valle del Cauca), and Bogot&aacute; swamp (Cundinamarca) (race <em>bogotensis</em>); north-east Colombia (Meta), <strong>Venezuela</strong> (from Barinas to Bol&iacute;var in the south; also Carabobo), <strong>Guyana</strong>, south <strong>Suriname</strong> (Sipaliwini), north <strong>French Guiana</strong> (Sinnamary), and extreme north <strong>Brazil</strong> (Roraima, north Par&aacute;, and Amap&aacute;) (race <em>brevipennis</em>); central-south Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, south Goi&aacute;s, S&atilde;o Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, but relatively few sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), <strong>Paraguay</strong> (uncommon in the extreme south Oriente, but generally rare and unrecorded in extreme eastern regions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), south <strong>Uruguay</strong> and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (several old specimens from Santa Cruz) (nominate race)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is an austral summer visitor to central-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (south to Mendoza, La Pampa and west Buenos Aires)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Though widespread and fairly common at a few localities, it is generally scarce with no recent records from Bolivia or of race <em>bogotensis</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits a variety of grassland types, all with varying amounts of shrubby vegetation, with the presence or proximity of water an apparently important factor<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have had a severe impact on its habitat in Brazil<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, where two-thirds of cerrado had been heavily or moderately altered by 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since the 1950s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Grasslands in Paraguay and Argentina face similar threats combined with extensive cattle-ranching<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, intensive grazing and frequent burning has reduced suitable habitat to a few scattered sites<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145119	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polystictus superciliaris</em> occurs very locally in east <strong>Brazil</strong> from Morro do Chap&eacute;u in central Bahia to the Serra do Bocaina in north S&atilde;o Paulo, at 900-1,950 m <strong><sup>1,2,4,5</sup></strong>. Even within this restricted range it is uncommon in arid montane scrub (campo cerrado) and rocky outcrops in savannas and grassland (campo rupestre)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found there in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. Increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching is currently the principal threat, although it persists in partially degraded areas<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145122	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pseudocolopteryx dinellianus</em> occurs within a discrete range in north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Tucum&aacute;n, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, C&oacute;rdoba, and possibly Salta), with presumed wintering records from north Formosa, Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, adjacent <strong>Bolivia</strong> (two specimens collected in Tarija, 1926) and <strong>Paraguay</strong> (seven records, four from the Chaco and three from the Oriente)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is more or less common in C&oacute;rdoba, where the major global stronghold is protected by the Ba&ntilde;ados del R&iacute;o Dulce and Laguna de Mar Chiquita Natural Park, and frequent in Santiago del Estero, but there are no recent records for Tucum&aacute;n. It inhabits periodically flooded rushy and grassy marsh vegetation and shrubbery near watercourses in lowland scrub, with nests found in bushes, rushes and tall grass. Canalisation may affect the wetlands of Ba&ntilde;ados del R&iacute;o Dulce and Laguna de Mar Chiquita<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and there are other modifications to wetlands occurring within its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Where it inhabits drier savanna-type vegetation, it is probably under some pressure from agricultural conversion. However, extensive areas of suitable habitat remain in its breeding and wintering ranges, and the population seems relatively stable. <br/></p>	eng
145122	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
145123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145125	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euscarthmus rufomarginatus</em> was once probably widespread, but is now recorded at scattered areas in central <strong>Brazil</strong> (with an isolated population at Serra do Cachimbo, southern Par&aacute;), north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Serran&iacute;a de Huanchaca in Santa Cruz, and east of Riberalta in Beni<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and north-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (one record from Concepci&oacute;n in 1944). There are outlying populations (race <em>savannophilus</em>) in south <strong>Suriname</strong> (Sipaliwini savanna) and north Brazil (Amap&aacute;)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The global stronghold is probably Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Bolivia (c.3,000-4,000 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with a possibly notable population in the 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> Sipaliwini Nature Reserve. It occurs in pristine, shrubby grasslands, and feeds on insects and fruit. Bamboo scrub may provide some temporary refuge after fires<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Habitat loss in the Cerrado is probably the major factor explaining its current rarity. By 1993, two-thirds of the region had been heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There has been extensive conversion to agriculture for livestock farming, <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and exportable crops, encouraged by government land reform in Brazil<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. However, unlike many other cerrado birds it is not restricted to the upland cerrado of the Planalto Central, and occurs further north and in savanna enclaves in the Amazon. These Amazonian savannas, especially in Serra do Cachimbo and Amap&aacute;, are not as threatened as the southern ones, and it may also occur in other areas such as savanna enclaves in Amazonas and Rond&ocirc;nia, Brazil. It is found in most protected areas in the Cerrado, including recently decreed ones such as Nascentes do Rio Parna&iacute;ba National Park, and Jalap&atilde;o State Park<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It also probably occurs in Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station, an area adjacent to Jalap&atilde;o State Park.<em> <br/></p>	eng
145126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145127	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes venezuelanus</em> occurs in the Cordillera de la Costa in Carabobo and Distrito Federal, and on cerros Golfo Triste and El Negro, Aragua, north <strong>Venezuela</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. It is fairly common in the lower and middle growth of montane humid forest and forest edge at elevations of 850-1,400 m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Although there is still extensive forest cover in parts of its limited range, deforestation has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have also been degraded<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145128	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in the small (c.1-km<sup>2</sup>) R&iacute;o Claro Natural Reserve, which also buffers adjacent forested areas from colonisation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The c.4-km<sup>2</sup> forest at Monte del Diablo has been preserved by local people for hunting, while that at La Victoria is a 0.2-km<sup>2</sup> watershed reserve<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for the species in any potentially suitable habitat, e.g. the interior of the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, and isolated remnants at the northern tip of the Central Andes (and protect such areas if found)<sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct surveys within the known range to clarify its distribution and conservation status. Study its ecological requirements. <br/></p>	eng
145128	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes lanyoni</em> occurs locally on the east and north slopes of the Central Andes in Caldas and Antioquia, and on the west slope of the East Andes in Cundinamarca, Boyac&aacute; and Santander, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known from the type-series, taken in the lower Cauca valley at the northern tip of the Andes in 1948, and a few modern localities in the middle and upper Magdalena valley. It has been seen on several occasions at R&iacute;o Claro Natural Reserve, and recently also at Anar&aacute;<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Antioquia, as well as near La Victoria, Caldas. It is respectively uncommon and common at El Vergel, Cundimarca, and Monte del Diablo, Boyac&aacute;<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>, and in 2003 was discovered 150 km to the north, at Cerro de la Paz, Santander<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145128	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits semi-deciduous foothill-forest at 450-900&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Observations have been made in tall second growth, regenerating, natural tree gaps, and lightly to heavily disturbed remnant forest. It is often in mosaics of these habitat-types and pastural or cultivated land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although this use of habitat may reflect availability rather than preference. Nesting has been recorded in March<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with four birds in a family group seen in June<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It often joins mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145128	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0-6.0 individuals/km2 x 284 km2 (45% EOO) = 852-1,704, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,500, as described as "common" at certain sites (density range from lower to upper quartile of eight estimates for five species of <em>Phylloscartes</em>, <em>Leptopogon</em> and <em>Mionectes</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145128	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging, livestock-farming, arable cultivation, infrastucture development, oil extraction and mining have all played a part in the destruction of habitat in its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The northern tip of the Central Andes has been progressively settled and deforested since the 19th century, although some extensive forests survive<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. The middle Magdalena valley was rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, with nearly 40,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest cleared in little over a decade, although regeneration has begun following land abandonment in some areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145130	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145135	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law but no other measures have been taken. There is a record from Cavernas do Perua&ccedil;u National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Considerable survey effort has occurred within the species range resulting in a revised conservation status assessment and improved knowledge of the species's range and requirements. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue survey work to improve knowledge of the species's range. Urgently protect the known area near Pirapora, as well as other suitable habitat patches. Conduct an environmental awareness campaign directed at landowners, local communities and schools. Reinforce the protection of the region's gallery forests<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145135	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Phylloscartes roquettei</em> is known from the S&atilde;o Francisco and Jequitinhonha valleys, in north and central Minas Gerais, east-central <strong>Brazil</strong>. The type-specimen was collected in July 1926 near Janu&aacute;ria, now Brejo de Amparo, and birds were seen again in 1977 on both sides of the rio S&atilde;o Francisco<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Searches in 1985, 1986 and 1987 were unsuccessful, but the species was located at V&aacute;rzea da Palma, near Pirapora (c.190 km south of the type-locality) in 1993 and found to be very rare at the site in 1998, 1999, 2002 and 2005<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. A male specimen was taken at Francisco Dumont (c.250 km south of the type-locality) in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was recorded at the Projeto Ja&iacute;ba, Mocambinho in September 1996 and there is conjecture that the species may occur in contiguous habitat in south-west Bahia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent surveys discovered the species at several new localities along the S&atilde;o Francisco river valley<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and from the Jequitinhonha river basin<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. These new records increase the known extent of occurrence to 33,500 km<sup>2<strong> 5</strong></sup>. The population size has not been assessed; the only previous estimate was based on extrapolation across the known range at the time of just 50 km<sup>2</sup>, given the revised EOO the population is unlikely to be small. Similarly population trends have not been assessed, but there are a number of severe threats to cerrado habitats within the species's range that suggest a rapid decline is likely. <br/></p>	eng
145135	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been recorded in dry forest, riparian forest and semi-deciduous forest within the cerrado including in secondary growth and forest fragments<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In the dry season of 1977, it was almost always observed in pairs, 10-20 m up in the few green trees and bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds occasionally also descended to the green cotton <em>Gossypium</em> bushes of a plantation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In both dry and gallery forests, it appears to prefer the upper branches of taller, emergent trees, where it sallies for insect prey<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nest building has been observed in October<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs at low densities and can be difficult to detect, even at known sites. Its ability to disperse is unknown; given that cerrado habitats are under threat and increasingly fragmented, it is likely that many populations are increasingly isolated. <br/></p>	eng
145135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	No empirical data is available, however, despite it apparent low population density and ongoing habitat degradation and fragmentation within the species's range, an extensive area of potentially suitable habitat remains that suggests the previous population estimate of 50-250 individuals needed revision. <br/></p>	eng
145135	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Its habitat is probably the most threatened in central Brazil owing to its valuable aroeira <em>Astronium urundeuva</em> wood and relatively fertile soils. Charcoal-burners were fully active at the type-locality in 1986, where there was also extensive forest cutting for pasture and agricultural development. The S&atilde;o Francisco basin is also threatened by limestone quarrying and a large-scale irrigation project that has already resulted in the loss of large areas of forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Cattle ranching has resulted in forest clearance across large parts of the state of Minas Gerais within its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. These same threats are impacting upon recently discovered locations and are exacerbated when remaining forest is highly fragmented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145136	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes paulistus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, it is found in the Atlantic forests of Esp&iacute;rito Santo south to Santa Catarina<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>, and is considered fairly common in some protected areas, including the "Paranapiacaba fragment" (the 120,000 ha mosaic of Alto Ribeira, Intervales and Carlos Botelho state parks) and the Ilha do Cardoso<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> in S&atilde;o Paulo and Igua&ccedil;u in Paran&aacute;. In eastern Paraguay it has been recorded recently from Canindey&uacute; south to Itap&uacute;a<strong><sup>1,6,7</sup></strong>, but is uncommon. All Argentine records are from Misiones, where it is rare in Iguaz&uacute;<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Due to its inconspicuous voice, its presence is likely to be overlooked, and it probably has a continuous distribution along the slopes of the Serra do Mar and Serra de Paranapicaba massifs at least between southern Rio de Janeiro (Parati) and Paran&aacute;. It inhabits the middle storey of the lowland Atlantic forest interior, principally below 400 m, but locally up to 1,000 m <strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. Less than 20% of the original extent of this habitat remains intact<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> owing to agricultural conversion and deforestation for coffee, banana and rubber plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Remaining forest suffers from increasing urbanisation, agricultural expansion and associated road building<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but habitat destruction in the Brazilian range of the species has slowed significantly (although continuing in places), and the prospects of future losses are not as dire as in the last decades. Also, the species is known to use second growth, making it less vulnerable to the loss of mature forest. <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
145137	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes oustaleti</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong> at Boa Nova, Bahia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and Esp&iacute;rito Santo south to east Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Though primarily known from the Serra do Mar, it is locally uncommon to fairly common in the canopy, subcanopy and borders of mid-altitude evergreen forest throughout its range, typically at 500-900 m, but locally to lower altitudes<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145138	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes difficilis</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and south Minas Gerais to north-east Rio Grande do Sul) at 900-2,150&#160;m, where it is uncommon in the lower growth of montane evergreen forest and edge<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but the isolated patches in the north of its range have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pasture and cultivation. <br/></p>	eng
145139	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Land at Murici remains privately-owned and a number of conservation initiatives have so far failed to halt forest loss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recently also recorded at Reserva Privada do Patrim&ocirc;nio Natural Frei Caneca (630 ha) in Pernambuco<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites with any remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em></strong> protection. <strong>Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em></strong> protection at Pedra Talhada. <br/></p>	eng
145139	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes ceciliae</em> has only ever been recorded at two localities on the south-east escarpment of the Borborema plateau in Alagoas, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was discovered at Murici in 1983 and subsequently found at Pedra Talhada in 1987. Forest patches at both these sites are extremely small and severely fragmented. At Pedra Branca, it was considered rather common, but 15 days of observations between 1996-1999 found the species on only three occasions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145139	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in upland humid forest at 400-550&#160;m, often joining mixed-species flocks in the mid-storey and subcanopy, 6-15&#160;m above ground. The diet consists of small insects taken from the surface of leaves and branches. Breeding is likely to take place from September to February. A nest was found in a rather open area in 1990.</p>	eng
145139	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0-6.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 75 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 225-450, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range from lower to upper quartile of eight estimates for five species of <em>Phylloscartes</em>, <em>Leptopogon</em> and <em>Mionectes</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as variably described as "uncommon" through to "rather common"). <br/></p>	eng
145139	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations, and further logging with new roads were evident in January 1999<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145168	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145169	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Monitor all records of the species to gain a clearer picture of its distribution and population size for future conservation work<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145169	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platyrinchus leucoryphus</em> occurs at low densities in primary and old secondary Atlantic forest in lowlands, mountains and interior tablelands of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (central Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, north-east Santa Catarina and north-east Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recent records from four protected areas in Canindey&uacute;, Caazap&aacute;, and Itap&uacute;a<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (four records in Iguaz&uacute; National Park, Misiones<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>). Recent surveys in Paraguay have virtually failed to find new populations of the species and documented populations are now known to be less extensive than originally postulated. The R&iacute;o Iguazu is perhaps a natural barrier to the southward migration of this species and this could account for a continuing lack of records from Argentina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/>  <br/></p>	eng
145169	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Paraguay, <em>Platyrinchus leucoryphus</em> appears to prefer open forest, with small saplings providing a shady canopy but little undergrowth, and numerous lianas providing perches between flycatching sallies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Recent evidence shows that <em>Platyrinchus leucoryphus </em>prefers primary forest.  <br/></p>	eng
145169	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation. <br/></p>	eng
145169	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species appears to be largely dependant on primary forest. There is extensive and continuing loss of Atlantic forest throughout its range, which therefore constitutes a serious threat to this species.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145170	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145171	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in six protected areas: R&iacute;o Palenque Scientific Centre, Jauneche Biological Reserve Station, Machalilla National Park, Cerro Blanco Protection Forest and Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and probably also within Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest, Ca&ntilde;ar, Ecuador<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The 776&#160;km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest forms the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and may support the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of known and potential occurrence<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Exclude roaming livestock from known sites<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Prevent further loss and degradation of habitat within protected areas. Map forest within the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche to identify sites for future protection<sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145171	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Onychorhynchus occidentalis</em> occurs in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (from Esmeraldas south to El Oro) and immediately adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes), where it is restricted to small, isolated forest patches. It is scarce<strong><sup>3,7,8</sup></strong>, apparently naturally occurring at low densities. It appears to be on the verge of extinction in most of its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145171	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in humid and deciduous lowland forest up to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Though recorded in degraded habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, it is possible that it may forage in a wide range of habitats, but is reliant on intact, moister forest during the breeding season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages from the understorey to subcanopy, and is often recorded within low-level mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nests are suspended from branches and vines above shady streams<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and have been found in January and April, with a juvenile collected in May. <br/></p>	eng
145171	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 3,000, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density from estimate for <em>O. coronatus</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and consistent with description as occurring at "low densities"). <br/></p>	eng
145171	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade, although at higher elevations within its range, with steeper terrain and a harsher climate, deforestation has been slower and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is particularly threatened because it only occurs below c.1,200&#160;m. Persistent grazing by goats and cattle prevents forest regeneration, and is a serious threat<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Rapid habitat loss is ongoing, and will soon remove almost all unprotected forest. Threats also apply to protected areas, with logging occurring in Cordillera de Molleturo Protection Forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Machalilla National Park and Tumbes Reserved Zone are affected by illegal settling and deforestation, livestock-grazing, and habitat clearance by people with land rights. <br/></p>	eng
145172	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from several protected areas, including: Monte Pascoal<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Itatiaia and Serra da Bocaina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> National Parks, Intervales State Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Ubatuba Experimental Station<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, the Guaricana Forest Reserves (Guaratuba and Morretes)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Salto Morato private reserve (Guaraque&ccedil;aba)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Pico do Marumbi State Park<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Saint Hilaire-Lange National Park<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Fazenda Monte Alegre private reserve, and a private reserve at Piquete<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remaining suitable habitat within its known range to clarify distribution and status. Study its ecological requirements, with Itatiaia National Park perhaps a suitable locality. <br/></p>	eng
145172	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Onychorhynchus swainsoni</em> is confined to the dwindling forests of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute; and possibly an old record from Goi&aacute;s), where it was very poorly known. However, there have been recent records from at least seven new sites in Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong> and four new sites in S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>10,13,14</sup></strong>, with the spread of records suggesting a fairly continuous extent of occurrence along the Atlantic forest belt in eastern S&atilde;o Paulo and Paran&aacute;, from the border with Rio de Janeiro to at least Guaratuba bay, and inland to the Ribeira valley and Paranapiacaba and Mantiqueira ranges<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A report of its occurrence in south-east Paraguay<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> is erroneous<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Three areas are particularly important: near Estac&atilde;o Vera Cruz, south Bahia, Itatiaia National Park, Rio de Janeiro/Minas Gerais, and a number of sites in the Serra do Mar, S&atilde;o Paulo. <br/></p>	eng
145172	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the understorey of lowland and lower montane Atlantic forest where it often perches motionless for long periods. At Intervales State Park, it is found most frequently in the proximity of small watercourses<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The diet appears to be insectivorous. It sometimes joins mixed-species flocks and has been noted associating with foliage-gleaners<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and fire-eyes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A juvenile has been seen in January in Rio de Janeiro, suggesting breeding in the austral spring. <br/></p>	eng
145172	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 710 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,420, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density from estimate for <em>O. coronatus</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145172	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The widespread clearance, degradation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest are the principal threats to this naturally rare tyrannid. <br/></p>	eng
145173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145174	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiophobus lintoni</em> has a tiny range on the east slope of the Andes in Morona-Santiago, Azuay and Loja, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and on Cerro Chinguela in Piura, extreme north <strong>Peru</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. It is uncommon and local<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in humid montane forest, including elfin forest and second growth along landslides, at 2,250-3,050 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its habitats have been heavily degraded, and suitable forest is still being actively felled, with some areas suffering both forest loss and understorey degradation by grazing livestock<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145181	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145182	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145184	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145189	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in several protected areas, including Machalilla National Park and Jauneche Reserve, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), Peru. The 776&#160;km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest forms the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and may support the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its distribution, particularly in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n and Chinchipe valleys. Research its ecology and seasonal movements. Strengthen protection in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. Identify sites for future protection within the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche<sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145189	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lathrotriccus griseipectus</em> is confined to west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Manab&iacute;, Los R&iacute;os, Guayas, Ca&ntilde;ar, Azuay, El Oro and Loja) and north <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque and Cajamarca), on the Pacific slope of the Andes and in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n and Chinchipe valleys on the east slope. It is apparently relatively common at two localities in Ecuador (Jauneche Reserve and Machalilla National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and two in Peru (near San Jos&eacute; de Lourdes, Cajamarca in 1968, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Tumbes<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>), but is otherwise rare and local<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145189	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to the understorey of tropical deciduous, semi-deciduous and moist forest, from sea-level to 1,750&#160;m. Some seasonal movements may be undertaken and, although their exact nature is unclear, it may move to moister forest in the dry season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is usually found alone or in pairs, perching inconspicuously in shady vine-tangles, from which it makes aerial sallies into sunlit gaps. Immatures have been collected in March, with breeding assumed to take place during the wet season, in January-May.</p>	eng
145189	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4-3.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,380 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,312-4,140, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from lower to upper quartile of seven estimates for seven species of <em>Lathrotriccus</em>, <em>Myiophobus</em>, <em>Empidonax</em> and <em>Contopus</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as described as "relatively common" at some sites). <br/></p>	eng
145189	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss continues, at least in unprotected areas of both Ecuador and Peru, and will soon have removed almost all lowland forest. Disturbance and degradation through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also pose a significant threat to the understorey of deciduous forests. Even protected areas are affected by illegal settling, deforestation and livestock-grazing. <br/></p>	eng
145190	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Rinc&oacute;n de la Vieja National Park and La Selva Biological Reserve, Costa Rica<strong><sup>2,6,12</sup></strong>, and potentially Braulio Carillo National Park, Costa Rica, and R&iacute;o Indio-Ma&iacute;z Biological Reserve, Nicaragua. Rancho Naturalista is an ecotourism lodge where the species receives protection under current management practices<strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess its population and distribution, especially in Nicaragua. Determine the extent to which it can use and maintain a population in unnatural habitats.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
145190	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphanotriccus capitalis</em> occurs on the Caribbean slope in north <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and south <strong>Nicaragua</strong>. All Nicaraguan records are historical specimens collected near Lake Nicaragua or its outflow, r&iacute;o San Juan<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, three specimens taken in 1896 are labelled "R&iacute;o Coco", which, unless there are two Coco rivers, forms the border with Honduras and considerably extends the range northwards<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Costa Rica, it is known from Volc&aacute;n Oros&iacute; (northern tip of the Cordillera de Guanacaste), south to the R&iacute;o Reventaz&oacute;n drainage, in the foothills between the Cordilleras Central and de Talamanca. It is not common anywhere, with most recent observations at Rancho Naturalista (east of Turrialba), La Selva Biological Reserve and their environs<strong><sup>1,2,4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145190	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mature secondary and evergreen forest, usually in dense understorey vegetation on the forest edges, along forest streams and in natural forest clearings<strong><sup>11,12,13</sup></strong>. In La Selva, it has been recorded in cocoa plantations and similar "semi-open" areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but is not known from small forest fragments. It ranges from the low foothills to c.900&#160;m, and locally to 1,050&#160;m <strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The Nicaraguan localities are apparently in the lowlands, but specimens could have been collected in nearby hilly areas. Nests have been found in hollows of fairly large trees and in large, non-native bamboo stems<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145190	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145190	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging, conversion to banana plantations and cattle-ranch expansion have resulted in widespread forest clearance and severe fragmentation, particularly in Costa Rica<strong><sup>3,5,11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145191	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphanotriccus audax</em> is restricted to east <strong>Panama</strong> (Panam&aacute; and Dari&eacute;n) and north <strong>Colombia</strong> (from north Antioquia to Guajira)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, where it is uncommon to locally common. It inhabits humid forest undergrowth near streams and swampy areas, in lowlands and foothills at 100-600&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. In Panama, it is probably declining owing to agricultural conversion<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145192	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenotriccus callizonus</em> is uncommon and locally distributed in south <strong>Mexico</strong> (Chiapas), <strong>Guatemala</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>El Salvador<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found in dense scrubby (and especially oak) woodland at elevations of 1,200-2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat is undergoing widespread clearance throughout the region, principally for coffee cultivation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145193	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenotriccus mexicanus</em> is found in the interior of south-west <strong>Mexico</strong> from central Michoac&aacute;n and Morelos to Oaxaca<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is common at Monte Alb&aacute;n, Oaxaca, in summer, but rare or absent in winter when birds may migrate into the Balsas drainage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is fairly common at 900-2,000&#160;m in arid montane scrub, and particularly mesquite in arid scrub<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Most habitat has been affected by agricultural expansion, including coffee and citrus plantations and cattle-ranching<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are very few protected areas within its restricted range to mitigate these threats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145196	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Contopus cooperi</em> breeds across <strong>Canada</strong> (overlapping into eastern <strong>USA</strong>) and Alaska, and down the west coast of the <strong>USA</strong> as far as northern <strong>Mexico</strong>. There are also isolated populations in several states in the eastern USA<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It winters primarily in <strong>Panama</strong> and the Andes Mountains, from north and west <strong>Venezuela</strong> south through <strong>Ecuador</strong> to south-east <strong>Peru</strong> and west <strong>Bolivia</strong><sup>1</sup>. Casual wintering also occurs in the <strong>Guianas</strong>, <strong>Trinidad</strong>, south <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong> and south <strong>Peru</strong><sup>1</sup>. It breeds along forest edges and openings, semi-open forest, water edges and harvested forest where some structure has been retained. Prominent trees serve as singing and foraging posts, and both sexes are aggressively territorial<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat loss and alteration of forest management practices may limit breeding success<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, numerous studies suggest that several types of harvested forest are beneficial to the species (possibly recreating preferred post-forest fire habitat mosaics)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite this, population declines are occurring throughout the range of this species, which may suggest that populations are affected by loss or alteration of habitat in wintering grounds. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145196	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
145198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145199	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145200	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145204	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a very patchy distribution in northern South America, occurring locally on the eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador and eastern Peru (San Martín, Amazonas, Huánuco and Cuzco (Clements and Shany 2001)), and very locally in southern Guyana and eastern Amazonian Brazil with sightings from south-east Pará, Serra das Carajás and Maranhão (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145204	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits the canopy and borders of humid forest in hilly areas up to 1,200 m altitude, although in its western range birds are restricted to the foothills of the Andes, above 400 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Birds are generally seen in pairs, along streams or in other openings in tall forest, and when feeding make long aerial sallies, usually returning to the same perch (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145204	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Deforestation may threaten this species (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145236	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are no protected areas within the small range of this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey to determine its current range, population size and ecological requirements. <br/>Research threats. <br/>Protect appropriate habitat. <br/></p>	eng
145236	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ochthoeca piurae</em> occurs locally in the Andes of Piura south to Ancash, north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  It has been recorded in Palambla (in Piura), Porculla (Lambayeque), Samne and Sincicap (La Libertad), and Colcabamba, Wi&ntilde;apatun, Noqno and San Damian (Ancash)<strong><sup>5,6,7,8</sup></strong>.<strong><sup>  </sup></strong>However, it is apparently absent from other areas in north-west Peru where appropriate habitat exists, and it has been suggested that the present distribution of the species is limited to relatively good populations in the department of Ancash and southern La Libertad and small populations around Porculla Pass and Amotape, and that the northern populations have nearly disappeared<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145236	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its ecological requirements are poorly known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  It generally occurs on shrubby arid hillsides, at the edge of montane woodland, and in riparian thickets<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, at 1,200-3,000 m, occasionally to 3,300 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  Its diet is unknown, but is presumed to consist of insects<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145236	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is not as threatened as many forest-dependent species in the region<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but ongoing habitat clearance and degradation of montane scrub and riparian thickets, in conjunction with overgrazing, are presumably causing population declines. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145237	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tumbezia salvini</em> is endemic to extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong>, from Tumbes south to La Libertad, where it is usually uncommon<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It inhabits gallery and dry deciduous forest, riparian thickets and arid lowland scrub, usually near watercourses<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, principally below 200&#160;m, although regularly recorded in El Angolo Hunting Reserve at 540-800&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally to 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It perhaps undertakes local seasonal movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction is the principal threat, with logging, understorey clearance and loss of riverine thickets to irrigated agriculture, compounded by its small range and population<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145237	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Angulo <em>in litt </em>states that "Lambayeque department definetly holds more that 100 pairs. If only a 1000 ha area holds at least 5 individuals (we can estimate a rough density of a one individual/200 ha) and the available habitat in Lambayeque (50-700 m) can be roughly estimated in of 250 000 ha, the population would be of at least 1250 individuals. In Quebrada Frejolillo (the famous place to see the White-winged Guan in the wild) in an area of approximately 300 ha, there is at least 6 birds, what gives an estimate of one bird/50 hectares. With this number, the Lambayeque population would be of 5000 individuals and the whole population of 20000 (considering that Lambayeque and Piura together have 1000000 ha of suitable habitat)."  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145242	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is protected by two national designations and is an international Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but this formal legislation has not conserved the massif's ecosystems effectively. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its range to better determine its current population and distribution. Research its ecological requirements<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Strengthen and improve the conservation measures in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve, at least where important populations of this species are found. Work with local communities and regional institutions to identify and prioritise conservation and management strategies<sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145242	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiotheretes pernix</em> occurs on the north slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Magdalena, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is localised and uncommon<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The only area from which there are recent records is the San Lorenzo ridge<sup>e.g. <strong>3,5,10,12</strong></sup>, although there have been few recent surveys near the two historical eastern localities, or in other parts of its projected range. <br/></p>	eng
145242	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most commonly seen in shrubby forest and second growth borders, along road cuts, and on overgrown hillsides, from 2,100 to 2,900&#160;m altitude. It occurs within forest, at tree gaps or forest edge, making aerial sallies to catch insects<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Although it has been observed near pine plantations, it has never been seen feeding at such sites<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145242	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Renjifo <em>et al</em>. (2002). <br/></p>	eng
145242	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Only 15% of the original vegetation in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta remains, albeit largely on the north slope where this species occurs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The main past and continuing threat is the conversion of forest to marijuana and coca plantations<strong><sup>2,6,7,8</sup></strong>, which was compounded by spraying of the slopes with herbicides<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It is not known whether this activity is still undertaken by the Colombian authorities<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Less significant threats, which followed human immigration to the area from the 1950s onwards, are agricultural expansion (e.g. coffee at lower altitudes and livestock), logging, burning and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. pines)<strong><sup>1,10,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145251	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neoxolmis salinarum</em> is locally uncommon to fairly common in semi-open scrub growing in salt-impregnated soil around Salinas Grandes and Salinas de Ambargasta, north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (north-west C&oacute;rdoba, extreme south Catamarca, south-west Santiago del Estero and east La Rioja) at elevations of 100-200 m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. There is small-scale salt extraction in parts of C&oacute;rdoba but this does not directly affect this species's habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its small range is concerning, but no other threats are known.  <br/></p>	eng
145252	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Argentina, it has been recorded in Chaco, Mburucuy&aacute; and El Palmar National Parks, San Juan Poriah&uacute; and Campos del Tuy&uacute; Private Reserves and Ribera Norte Municipal Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but only a few of these protected areas support significant breeding populations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it is known from Aparados da Serra and S&atilde;o Joaquim National Parks, the general area of Serra Geral National Park<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, and Taim Ecological Station<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In Uruguay, it is legally protected, and resident in Ba&ntilde;ados del Este Biosphere Reserve and Laguna de Castillos, Potrerillo de Santa Teresa and Los Indios Reserves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study its ecology to establish appropriate land-management practices. Remove incentives for planting trees on grasslands. Protect key populations in Corrientes and Rio Grande do Sul. Assess the impact of brood-parasitism by <em>M.&#160;bonariensis<sup>1</sup></em></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145252	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xolmis dominicanus</em> occurs in <strong>Brazil</strong> (S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (recently from Paysand&uacute;, Canelones, Lavalleja, Maldonado, Rocha, Treinta y Tres and Cerro Largo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Argentina</strong> (recently from Corrientes, Entre R&iacute;os and Buenos Aires<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>) and there are unconfirmed reports for Paraguay<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has undergone a catastrophic decline since c.1850. The current stronghold is possibly south-east Uruguay, where the population is estimated at 1,500-2,200 breeding birds, mostly in Rocha<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it remains numerous only in south-east Santa Catarina, and north-east and south-east Rio Grande do Sul. It has declined notably in Argentina, especially in Buenos Aires, where it was previously common<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and most records are now in Corrientes and Entre R&iacute;os<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Although populations may still persist in southern Misiones, there are no recent reliable records from Santa Fe, Chaco or Formosa<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145252	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits scrubby grasslands, especially near marshes. In Entre R&iacute;os and Corrientes, it has occurred in old paddy-fields that were unused for over five years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and it occasionally visits cultivations with Saffron-cowled Blackbird <em>Xanthopsar flavus</em>. In Corrientes, it is relatively common in recently burnt areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in vegetation within boggy swales<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Breeding activity in Argentina has been noted during September-December<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145252	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145252	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agriculture, and especially livestock-grazing, has modified grasslands since the 16th century, and intensely since the 1870s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Very recently, afforestation with non-native trees has begun to radically alter remaining grasslands, especially in Entre R&iacute;os and Corrientes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Anthropogenic fires have destroyed nests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Uruguay, one study has shown very high levels of brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145253	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145255	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from Huascar&aacute;n National Park, Peru, and Lauca National Park, Chile.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor known populations. Survey to identify additional populations. Study the ecology to establish threats, perhaps at Lauca, Chile, or in Azuay and Loja, Ecuador. <br/></p>	eng
145255	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agriornis andicola</em> occurs in the high Andes from <strong>Ecuador</strong> to northern <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong>, but the population is small and probably declining. The nominate subspecies occurs in Ecuador (Imbabura, Pichincha, Napo, Chimborazo, Ca&ntilde;ar, Zamora-Chinchipe and Loja provinces), and was found at four new sites in 1995-1999<strong><sup>6,9,11,15</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>albicauda</em> occurs in <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca, La Libertad, Hu&aacute;nuco, Ancash, Pasco, Cuzco, Lima, Arequipa and Ayacucho, with 16 records since 1952<strong><sup>3,15,18,19,20</sup></strong>), <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz in 1941, Oruro in 1967 and 1991, Potos&iacute; in 1967, Chusquisaca in 1991<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Cochabamba in 1997<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), north Chile (Tarapac&aacute; and Antofagasta, with recent records from the precordillera and altiplanos of Arica<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>), and north-west Argentina, (Sierra de Aconquija, Tucum&aacute;n, with one record from Catamarca in 1918<strong><sup>1,2,12</sup></strong>). <br/></p>	eng
145255	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It was thought to inhabit exclusively the p&aacute;ramo and puna zones, high above the treeline at 3,500-4,300 m. However, in south Ecuador, it has been found in semi-arid, bushy country, especially in areas with large <em>Puyas</em>, at 2,400-3,100 m <strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It favours open areas with sparse vegetation and scattered rocks, particularly near old buildings and walls<strong><sup>13,16</sup></strong>, and has been recorded from rocky <em>Polylepis</em> groves<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. There are two records from open farmland with hedgerows and introduced <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>, one from agricultural land (crops and pasture) with introduced pine trees<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, and one from cactus scrub with <em>Eucalyptus</em><strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145255	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is poorly known. It appears to be very rare to rare and very local throughout its range (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Ridgely and Greenfield 2001). Collar<em> et al.</em> (1992) described it as "exceedingly rare". Given this, the total population is estimated to fall below 10,000 individuals, despite its large range. Further information is required to validate this however. <br/></p>	eng
145255	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The reasons for this species's scarcity are unclear. Open (albeit modified) grassland habitats have been expanding for centuries owing to burning and grazing<strong><sup>4,10,14</sup></strong>. It may historically have been outcompeted by <em>A. montana</em> (and this may continue<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>), although the two have co-existed for at least a million years<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, or it could be unusually predator-prone<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. However, such threats provide unlikely explanations for the species's rarity. <br/></p>	eng
145256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145270	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145272	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145281	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Knipolegus franciscanus</em> occurs in <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is known from ten locatities (Pirapora, Janu&aacute;ria, Itacarambi, Manga and Montalv&acirc;nia in Minas Gerais; Iaciara, Serra Geral (untraced) and Nova Roma<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> in Goi&aacute;s; and S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; near Campo Formoso and near S&atilde;o F&eacute;lix do Coribe<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in Bahia)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. All localities, except S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, are in dry forest patches associated with limestone outcrops of the Bambu&iacute; formation. Limestone-derived soils are the most fertile in the region so clearance (including state-sponsored projects in Bahia) for pasture and irrigated cultures has been widespread. Around S&atilde;o Felix do Coribe in western Bahia, remaining dry forest patches are very small (all areas less than 200 ha) and this is the case throughout the limestone region. Remaining forest is exploited for timber, mostly for fence poles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Satellite imagery from the Paran&atilde; valley in Goi&aacute;s has shown that dry forests declined from 15.8% of the region in 1990 to only 5.4% in 1999, and less than 1% of the remaining fragments are over 100 ha, although they make up 48% of the remaining forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Most of the remaining forest is associated with rocky outcrops where cultivation or pastures are not viable, and vegetation make-up there differs to that of forest on flatter ground. The species is associated with rocky outcrops, although seasonal movements to forest areas have been noticed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The only protected area harbouring dry forests where the species may occur, Terra Ronca State Park (57,018 ha near S&atilde;o Domingos, Goi&aacute;s), has yet to be fully implemented. <br/></p>	eng
145282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145289	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Brazil, it is locally common in Emas National Park (Goi&aacute;s), Gama-Cabe&ccedil;a de Veado Environmental Protection Area, Bras&iacute;lia National Park (Distrito Federal), Serra da Canastra National Park and S&atilde;o Miguel Wildlife Sanctuary (Minas Gerais)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, displaying males have been seen in San Rafael National Park and Tapyt&aacute; Private Nature Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify status. Define seasonal abundance within protected areas. Control dry season burning within and close to protected areas. Encourage farmers to set aside areas of tall grass.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
145289	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alectrurus tricolor</em> has become very scarce and local over a large range in north and east <strong>Bolivia </strong>(a few scattered localities in La Paz, Beni and Santa Cruz<strong><sup>1,6,8</sup></strong>, but is inexplicably absent from large areas<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>), south <strong>Brazil </strong>(Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal, Minas Gerais and Esp&iacute;rito Santo south to Paran&aacute; and possibly Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>5,8,12</sup></strong>), east <strong>Paraguay </strong>(recent records from five sites in Concepci&oacute;n<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, San Pedro<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Cordillera<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Caazap&aacute;<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Itap&uacute;a<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>), and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (a few old specimens from north-east Corrientes and south Misiones<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but not recorded since September 1979, despite searches in suitable habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). It remains locally common only in a few scattered protected areas in Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal and Minas Gerais<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145289	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits seasonally wet and dry grasslands (campo limpo and campo sujo)<strong><sup>5,6,11</sup></strong>, favouring areas of taller vegetation (30-100 cm) and, in Bolivia, especially areas of <em>Trachypogon</em> sp.<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although it normally disappears from burnt sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it has been observed feeding on the ground in recently burnt areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, but a female has been observed feeding small fruit to two fledglings<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Serra da Canastra it is migratory, arriving in mid-August-September and departing in December-January<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs at the start of the wet season in September-October<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145289	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate exceeds 10,000 assuming a population density of as little as 1.0 indiv/km<sup>2</sup> (lowest end of estimates for tyrranids), and an AOO of just 2% of EOO. <br/></p>	eng
145289	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Grassland habitats throughout its range are threatened by agricultural development, livestock-farming, plantations and mining<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its dependence on tall grasslands make it especially sensitive to intensive grazing, trampling by cattle and frequent burning<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145290	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I. It is legally protected in Brazil and Uruguay. In Argentina, it is regularly recorded at El Palmar and Mburucuy&aacute; National Parks, and El Bagual, Guaycolec and San Juan Poriah&uacute; Private Reserves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The effects of different management regimes are being studied in Corrientes. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct quantitative censuses in Chaco and Formosa. Assess its status in Paraguay<sup>6. Establish a Biosphere Reserve in the southern grasslands of Paraguay. Remove incentives for planting trees on grasslands.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
145290	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alectrurus risora</em> now occurs primarily in south <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Presidente Hayes, Amambay, Central, Cordillera, Alto Paran&aacute;, Paraguar&iacute;, Guaira, Misiones and Itap&uacute;a) and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes, Formosa, Chaco, Misiones and Santa Fe). There has perhaps been a catastrophic loss of range in <strong>Brazil</strong> (the last record was in Rio de Janeiro in 1974<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with older records from Mato Grosso, S&atilde;o Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (formerly an uncommon breeder but only one unconfirmed record since 1986<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and Argentina (Santiago del Estero, Entre R&iacute;os, C&oacute;rdoba, San Luis and Buenos Aires). In 1993, the population in Corrientes was estimated at c.23,000 birds, but recent records indicate that numbers in Chaco and Formosa are considerably lower<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145290	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wet grasslands near or within marshes. It apparently requires relatively tall grasses, mostly over 1-1.5&#160;m <strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in the austral spring. It feeds on invertebrates. Seasonal movements have been noted in Buenos Aires and several of the Paraguayan records are thought to refer to migrants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but it is apparently resident throughout much of its range. <br/></p>	eng
145290	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Assuming an AOO of 9,900 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of EOO), the population density needs only to exceed c.1.0 indiv/km<sup>2 </sup>(the lowest end of estimates for tyrranids in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet) to give an overall population estimate of >10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145290	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agricultural conversion and cattle-grazing are the principal threats to remaining populations<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. Afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. (encouraged by government incentives)<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong> is even affecting wet valley bottoms since trees are often planted adjacent to, or within, inundated grasslands, regardless of their subsequent poor growth and unsuitability for the market<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its preference for tall grasses suggests that it is intolerant of even biannual burning. Pesticides, fertilisers and other chemicals are widely used<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and must have profound effects on suitable grasslands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145291	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145298	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in two large protected areas, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, and Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, Peru, and two smaller reserves, R&iacute;o Palenque Scientific Centre and Jauneche Biological Research Station, Ecuador. Historical specimens have been taken in the area now protected as Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, and there are possible records from other reserves in north-west Ecuador<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess its population and distribution. Determine its status in the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve. Strengthen habitat protection in the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve and Machalilla National Park. Protect the Cordillera de Celica. <br/></p>	eng
145298	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Attila torridus</em> is known mainly from west <strong>Ecuador</strong> in Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Manab&iacute;, Los R&iacute;os, Guayas, Ca&ntilde;ar, El Oro and Loja<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Tumbes, <strong>Peru</strong>, there are several records from the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve. The only record for <strong>Colombia</strong> is a single individual in Nari&ntilde;o, in 1958<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. There is a concentration of known localities on the west slope of the Cordillera de Celica, Loja<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is rare or uncommon in all but a few areas, and numbers have decreased considerably. <br/></p>	eng
145298	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid and semi-humid forest, also secondary forest and occasionally cocao plantations, from sea-level to 1,000&#160;m, occasionally as high as 2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Some seasonal movements are thought to occur, but the nature of these remains unclear. The diet consists of fruit and arthropods, especially spiders. Breeding is thought to occur in the wet season, between January and March. <br/></p>	eng
145298	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,024 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 3,174, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range lowest of five estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as considered "rare or uncommon" in all but a few areas). <br/></p>	eng
145298	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, only 4.4% of the original forest cover remains in west Ecuador, with most of this destruction since c.1960<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. High levels of habitat loss are continuing, at least in unprotected areas of both Ecuador and Peru, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest if effective action is not taken urgently. In higher parts of the species's range, rates of habitat destruction are not as great, but logging, conversion of land for agriculture and plantations continue<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Disturbance and degradation of remaining forest patches through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also poses a threat, particularly in deciduous forests. Even some of the protected areas are affected by illegal settling and deforestation, as well as livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people with land-rights. <br/></p>	eng
145299	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145300	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145301	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145311	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 42,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
145311	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's density in suitable habitat has been crudely estimated at 1 individual per km<sup>2</sup> in suitable habitat (F. Angulo Pratolongo <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The area of suitable habitat around known sites is c. 2,800 km<sup>2</sup> but may be much larger. Hence, the population is estiamted to fall within the band 2,500-10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A project to discover more about its breeding ecology is currently being carried out in the Sierra de Najasa<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to define the species's precise distribution, especially around Moa and at historic locations in Pinar del R&iacute;o province (including the rarely-visited Guanahacabibes Peninsula)<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue the project in the Sierra de Najasa and make further efforts to better define its ecological requirements<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect remaining habitat wherever it still survives<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tyrannus cubensis</em> naturally occurs at low densities on <strong>Cuba</strong>, but has become increasingly rare for largely unknown reasons. It is now very locally distributed, and is most common (still few recent records) around Moa<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It is also known from the Sierra de Najasa<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with recent records from the mountains south-east of Moa<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, near Trinidad in Sancti Sp&iacute;ritus province<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and near Caimito in La Habana province<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There have been no recent records from historic localities in Pinar del R&iacute;o province or the Zapata Swamp<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are old records from the south Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK), but surveys of the larger uninhabited islands in the Turks and Caicos in 1999 failed to find the species, and it is presumed locally extinct<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This flycatcher is one of the most poorly studied and understood species in Cuba, and its precise ecological requirements remain essentially unknown<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs in woodland, especially pine forest, and the wooded borders of swamps, but the bird seen in the mountains south-east of Moa was in low elevation (c.400 m) cloud-forest on serpentine soils<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds on large insects, lizards, other birds' fledglings, and consumes significant quantities of fruit<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A nest containing eggs was found in May, built on the horizontal branch of a large tree. The breeding season is March-June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.6-3.6 individuals/km2 x 640 km2 (20% EOO) = 384-2,304, but probably best placed within band 250-999, as known to occur naturally at low densities (density is lowest of four estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The precise reasons for this species's decline are unclear, but habitat loss from logging and agricultural conversion is presumably at least a contributory factor. <br/></p>	eng
145350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145363	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number >50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.	eng
145365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number >50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.	eng
145370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145374	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145375	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145380	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145381	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145382	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145383	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145385	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Apart from the Tumbes Reserved Zone (part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve) in Peru where it is uncommon, it has not been recorded from any other protected area that is sufficiently large to support a viable population.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage. Establish its ecological requirements. Effectively protect the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve. Establish additional protected areas for the species. <br/></p>	eng
145385	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pachyramphus spodiurus</em> is rare and very local in the west lowlands of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (from Esmeraldas and Pichincha south to Loja) and extreme north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, north Piura, Cajamarca and Amazonas). There have been very few recent records, particularly in Peru and the north of its Ecuadorian range, and it appears likely that it has suffered a serious decline. <br/></p>	eng
145385	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits deciduous, semi-deciduous and humid woodland, shrubby clearings with scattered tall trees, patches of evergreen shrubbery and second growth within humid forest, mostly below 750 m, but locally as high as 1,100 m<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>.  It forages in the canopy of semi-deciduous forest, where the mean height of trees is c.10 m. Its habits are largely unknown, although its diet is presumed to be insects and fruit and, like other species of the same region, it is believed to breed in the rainy season (January-March). <br/></p>	eng
145385	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.4-4.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 412 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 577-2,019, i.e. probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499, as potentially overlooked (density range lowest to lower quartile of eight estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
145385	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss continues in both Ecuador and Peru, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon have removed almost all lowland forest, unless effective action is taken urgently. Heavy grazing by goats and cattle causes disturbance and degradation of the understorey in remaining deciduous woodland.  However, the species has been reported to persist in some areas that have been subject to a substantial degree of habitat degradation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
145387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145389	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145396	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phibalura flavirostris</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (from Bahia and central Minas Gerais south to Rio Grande do Sul; also in south Goi&aacute;s, perhaps as an austral migrant), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, three sites but no records since 1977), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindey&uacute;, Alto Paran&aacute;, Guair&aacute; and possibly Itap&uacute;a, but only four records and none since 1977) and <strong>Bolivia</strong> (two specimens from the foothills of La Paz and another specimen lacking locality data)<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. It is apparently an austral migrant (at least to some extent), occurring in Rio Grande do Sul only during the austral summer, and an altitudinal migrant, nesting in montane regions and descending during the austral winter<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It is locally uncommon in Itatiaia National Park, on the Rio de Janeiro/Minas Gerais border, at Intervales State Park, S&atilde;o Paulo, and at Cara&ccedil;a, Minas Gerais, but is generally rare and has apparently declined<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> for reasons that are unclear. The first Bolivian observation of <em>Phibalura flavirostris </em>for 98 years was seen at the edge of a small (2-4 km<sup>2</sup>) forest fragment near Pata, north-west of Apolo in Madidi National Park in September 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. 2,200 km separate <em>P. f. boliviana </em>from the nominate race in south-east Brazil and, given the lack of recent records from Argentina and Paraguay, it is likely that the two subspecies are genetically isolated<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. If <em>P. f. boliviana </em>is indeed a separate species it would warrant Critical status according to its small range and small population. However, populations might exist in extensive areas of unstudied, suitable mid-montane forest in Madidi National Park, and possibly in the poorly studied south-east part of adjacent Tambopata National Reserve, Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Extensive deforestation within its range has presumably had some impact, but its preference for forest borders, partially or lightly wooded areas, and clearings and gardens with scattered trees (where it often nests)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> suggests that it can tolerate some habitat degradation. <br/></p>	eng
145396	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
145397	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tijuca atra</em> occurs at 1,100-2,100 m in Rio de Janeiro, extreme east S&atilde;o Paulo and adjacent south Minas Gerais, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. Despite this highly restricted range, habitat destruction of its montane Atlantic forest has been much less extensive than in adjacent lowland areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. As a consequence, it is numerous in the upper reaches of Itatiaia and Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os national parks, and locally fairly common in the canopy and middle levels of montane forest elsewhere within its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145398	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Both populations occur within protected areas: the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os National Park and the Tingu&aacute; Biological Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its status within the protected areas. Survey suitable habitat in the mountains to the north and south of the known sites.Quantify potential threats. Protect the species under Brazilian law.  <br/></p>	eng
145398	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tijuca condita</em> is restricted to the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os and the Serra do Tingu&aacute; in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro city, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it occurs in naturally fragmented habitat. The area is difficult to survey, owing to the inaccessibility of suitable habitat, but only small numbers of birds have ever been recorded and it appears to occur at very low densities. <br/></p>	eng
145398	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in patches of extremely humid, elfin cloud-forest, rich in bromeliads and with a rather even canopy 5-10&#160;m high, both on exposed ridges and sheltered slopes above the main treeline. It has mostly been found at 1,800-2,000&#160;m in the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os, but the one record from Serra do Tingu&aacute; was at 1,370&#160;m. A female caught in mid-November had a well developed brood-patch suggesting breeding at that time. A bird has been seen eating small red berries. <br/></p>	eng
145398	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 670 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 670-1,206, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499, as potentially undersurveyed owing to inaccessibility of suitable habitat (density range lowest to lower quartile of 18 estimates for nine species of medium-sized cotingids in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145398	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although there are no obvious threats to its habitat, both disturbance and fires caused by hikers have been considered potential threats. In September 1993, a major forest fire was noted in or adjacent to Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os National Park, indicating that this threat could be particularly significant. <br/></p>	eng
145399	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carpornis cucullata</em> is uncommon in lowland and montane evergreen forests and palm groves at 400-1,600 m in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo south to Rio Grande do Sul)<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. In the north of its range (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Rio de Janeiro), it is almost entirely restricted to montane forest. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145400	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. It survives in a number of protected areas: Monte Pascoal and Ilha do Superag&uuml;i National Parks, C&oacute;rrego Grande, Sooretama and Borac&eacute;ia Biological Reserves, Linhares Forest Reserve, Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve, Jur&eacute;ia-Itatins Ecological Station, Intervales, Jacupiranga and Ilha do Cardoso State Parks, Sete Barras State Reserve and Guarague&ccedil;aba Special Protection Area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey using tape-playback in areas of suitable habitat to locate additional populations. Investigate its ecological requirements. Ensure <em>de facto protection of all reserves where it is currently known to occur. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its de facto protection.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
145400	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carpornis melanocephala</em> is distributed in the lowlands of east <strong>Brazil,</strong> in Alagoas (Murici), Bahia (recent records from four sites<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>), Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Rio de Janeiro (recent records from two sites), S&atilde;o Paulo and Paran&aacute;. Its range is now fragmented, and remaining populations are largely restricted to protected areas. The population must have declined significantly, but it remains relatively common in a few areas, notably Murici, Linhares Forest Reserve and Intervales State Park<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145400	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This frugivore frequents the mid-storey of primary, lowland Atlantic forest. At Linhares, birds favour areas of dense vegetation with high liana and spiny-palm densities, on dry sandy soils away from water. On Ilha Comprida it also occurs in tall restinga<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Calling birds tend to be aggregated, though individual birds are at least 50&#160;m, often more than 100&#160;m, apart. The diet consists primarily of fruit, mainly of Myrtaceae at Intervales<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with one bird observed eating a stick insect. Breeding is thought to occur in the austral summer, based on vocal activity and the gonad and moult condition of specimens.</p>	eng
145400	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,300 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,300-4,140, i.e. probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range lowest to lower quartile of 18 estimates for nine species of medium-sized cotingids in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145400	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive deforestation is continuing in this region and this species is now largely dependent on a few key protected areas. The harvesting of Palmito palms <em>Euterpe edulis</em> may also be a threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A widespread fire in July 1995 destroyed most of the forest at one site in Bahia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145401	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in Podocarpus National Park, Cotopaxi National Park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and Guandera Biological Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Ecuador, and Ca&ntilde;on del Quind&iacute;o Natural Reserve, Colombia<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. A community initiative aims to protect the forested watershed on Cerro Mongus<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution and annual ecological requirements. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145401	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Doliornis remseni</em> was first recorded in 1989, and is now known from six localities in the East Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> and the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. As yet there are no known records from Peru, but it is likely to occur there. Known localities are: Ca&ntilde;on del Quind&iacute;o Nature Reserve (Quind&iacute;o), Colombia; Cerro Mongus (Carchi), Cajanuma-Podocarpus National Park (Loja/Zamora-Chinchipe), Gualaceo-Limon, Guandera and the Cordillera de Lagunillas (Cajamarca), Ecuador<strong><sup>3,4,5,11</sup></strong>. It occurs at low densities with 0.3 individuals found per 10 km of transect in Colombia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the total Columbian population has been estimated at up to 1,950 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. However, it is probably under-recorded due to its soft call and occurrence in remote areas. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145401	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This secretive species is confined to dense thickets on the p&aacute;ramo-forest ecotone at elevations of 3,100-3,650 m. In Ecuador, most records are from the crown of <em>Escallonia</em> spp., but these trees are not a conspicious element of treeline forest in Peru<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Escallonia</em> seeds and a large, unidentified fruit were taken from specimens, and <em>Miconia chlorocarpa</em> fruit are eaten in Colombia<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145401	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,300, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density estimate for species in Colombia [Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002]). <br/></p>	eng
145401	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing for millennia, primarily through human use of fire<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pre-Columbian sustainable land-use systems were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques during the colonial period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres. Large areas of suitable habitat have been, and continue to be, destroyed in this way<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Colombia, less than 10% of original timberline habitat is estimated to remain, and the degree of human pressure is currently increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Recent estimates of loss of habitat in Colombia are as high as 78% in the last 10 years<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but significant quantities of continuous habitat remain in Ecuador<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Grazing and regular burning take place, even within some of the protected areas in its projected range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Other threats include firewood-gathering and potato cultivation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145402	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145404	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Murales forest is protected as an Archeological Reserved Zone and strict wardening has maintained habitat. However,<strong> </strong>government intervention has been necessary to prevent further sales of land for agricultural conversion<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. A "Save the Algarrobo" (<em>Prosopis</em>) campaign, including regeneration of grazed areas and replanting, is supported by the sugarcane producer at Raf&aacute;n<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Searches for the species have been made at all historical localities, and many other remnant forests have been surveyed<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Ensure the integrity of Murales forest and improve legal protection<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Effectively protect forest in the Raf&aacute;n area. Initiate environmental education and ecotourism at Raf&aacute;n<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Work with oil companies in the Talara region to protect the extensive tracts of habitat<sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145404	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phytotoma raimondii</em> occurs in coastal north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it was formerly known from numerous localities from Tumbes south to Lima. Recently, there have been records from just two areas, near Talara (Piura)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Chiclayo (Lambayeque)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, and searches at other sites have failed to locate the species (or suitable habitat in some cases)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The stronghold is now believed to be around Talara, particularly to the east and south-east of the town, where the local population is estimated to be 400-600 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Lambayeque, there was a single record in 1989 from near Reque, and several sightings from the well-known site at Raf&aacute;n<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Although the latter may support the highest population densities - at least 10 birds were observed in 1.5 hours in 1999<strong><sup>3 </sup></strong>- it supports only c.3&#160;km<sup>2 </sup>of habitat. <br/></p>	eng
145404	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs up to 550&#160;m in desert scrub, riparian thicket and low (dense and open<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) woodland, usually dominated by <em>Prosopis</em> trees, with some <em>Acacia</em>. A shrub layer of <em>Capparis</em> and/or <em>Maytenus</em> is apparently required in areas with <em>Cucurbita</em> and an unidentified yellow Compistaceae. It feeds on leaves of <em>Prosopis</em> and shrubs, and fruit<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is thought to breed between December-January<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145404	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Flanagan and Ch&aacute;vez Villavicencio (2000). <br/></p>	eng
145404	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The near-complete conversion of coastal river valleys to cultivation has extirpated the species from numerous localities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Grazing by goats and burning have removed or heavily degraded the shrub layer in many remaining woodlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Illegal subsistence (and apparently commercial) logging for firewood and charcoal are now highly significant factors<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the roots of older <em>Prosopis </em>tree are also used in wooden art craft<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Land rights to part of Murales forest were sold for agricultural conversion in 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A considerable proportion of habitat close to Raf&aacute;n is degraded, and parts of this area were converted to sugar production in the 1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145405	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145406	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145407	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been surveys of <em>Polylepis</em> and high-altitude habitats and conservation measures proposed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The north of the species' range (but not Oy&oacute;n) is mostly within Huascar&aacute;n National Park, Ancash, but cutting continues, to supply the local furniture industry and firewood for a gold-mining camp<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Pampa Galeras National Reserve, Ayacucho, protects a small population, but is poorly enforced<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Zarate forest, Lima (a non-breeding site), has been proposed as a reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its year-round distribution and population, and the extent of <em>Polylepis</em></strong> in the central Cordillera Occidental<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement the management plan for Huascar&aacute;n<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect <em>Polylepis</em></strong> forests north of Oy&oacute;n and in the Santa Eulalia valley<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Plant <em>Polylepis</em></strong> in degraded areas. <strong>Plant buffer zones of firewood trees below <em>Polylepis</em></strong> and supply coal for industry<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take leading roles in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145407	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zaratornis stresemanni</em> is patchily distributed in the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> (La Libertad, Ancash, Lima and Ayacucho), with most records on the west slope. It has been observed at Tayabamba, La Libertad, in the Cordillera Central, where it may be resident, seasonal or vagrant. It is common north of Oy&oacute;n (estimated 500 birds in this district<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), and in the upper Santa Eulalia valley (250 birds<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, probably many more), and fairly common in parts of the r&iacute;o Ca&ntilde;ete drainage (all Lima)<strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. In 1992, the population was estimated at c.3,000 individuals, with actual numbers probably between 1,500 and 6,000. <br/></p>	eng
145407	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mainly inhabits <em>Polylepis-Gynoxys</em> woodland at elevations of 3,250-4,250&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but, in the dry season (August-November), occurs to 2,700&#160;m in mixed woodland and casually to 2,000&#160;m. It apparently feeds primarily on two genera of mistletoe, for which it is the main seed-dispersal agent. Nest-building has been recorded in March. Nests with eggs and young have been found in May. <br/></p>	eng
145407	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population of 1,500-6,000 estimated by Collar <em>et al</em>. (1992). <br/></p>	eng
145407	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Uncontrolled fires and heavy grazing prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal is locally destructive, but could be sustained if regeneration were allowed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other factors are the change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (in particular the use of exotics)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145412	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145414	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145415	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pipreola chlorolepidota</em> occurs in the east foothills of the Andes from south <strong>Colombia</strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong> to north and central <strong>Peru</strong>, south to Pasco<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is known only from west Caquet&aacute;, Cauca and Putumayo in Colombia<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, and is rare in Ecuador<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Peru<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but locally uncommon at some sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits the lower and middle growth of humid forest, principally at 600-1,200 m, but in Ecuador small numbers have been observed at 250 m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it was recently recorded in the Cerros del Sira of Peru at 1,450-1,500 m <strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Many of its foothill forests are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations, oil exploration and logging, with widespread destruction being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145420	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Iodopleura pipra</em> is found in north-east and south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, in Para&iacute;ba, Pernambuco, Alagoas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo. The species's distribution may be continuous in the forested belt from mid Rio de Janeiro to southern S&atilde;o Paulo at Iguape and Registro. The provenance of two specimens from Demerara, Guyana is problematic, and they may have originated from Brazil. It inhabits the canopy of mainly coastal, lowland and foothill Atlantic forest, and can tolerate secondary and disturbed growth, forest under-planted with cocoa, and clearings with scattered trees. There is some evidence that the species may be associated with a single species of tall, fine-leafed leguminous tree, which is widespread and locally common, and often supports the clumps of mistletoe on which it primarily feeds. Breeding has been recorded in August (with the egg laid in mid-July), September<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and (in Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo) October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with a singing male recorded in December in Esp&iacute;rito Santo. Loss of Atlantic forest is a threat, since this habitat is rapidly being cleared for agricultural and real-estate development. Possible migratory movements to adjacent montane areas in the austral summer will be disrupted by the increasing fragmentation of Atlantic forest. It is protected under Brazilian law. It survives in a number of protected areas: Desengano and Serra do Mar State Parks, Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os National Park and Ubatuba Experimental Station<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and was recently recorded in Augusto Ruschi Ecological Station, Forno Grande and Pedra Azul State Parks. <br/></p>	eng
145420	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145423	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law. The sightings in 1996 were on the edge of the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os National Park. Some areas of apparently suitable habitat are protected within the park, and there are adjacent tracts of forest to elevations of c.50 m. Suitable habitat also occurs within the Reserva Ecologica Guapia&ccedil;u<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Develop and follow a standardised survey protocol involving focal watches at suitable fruiting trees, focusing particularly in suitable habitat in the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os including the Reserva Ecologica Guapia&ccedil;u, and in the Serra do Mar near Ubatuba</strong><sup>3,5</sup>. <strong>Protect all remaining low-altitude forest in the vicinity of the rediscovery site.</strong>	eng
145423	distribution		<em>Calyptura cristata</em> has apparently declined to near-extinction within a very restricted range to the north of Rio de Janeiro city, <strong>Brazil</strong>. From the evidence of skins and one sight record, it was not uncommon, even in secondary habitat, in the mid-19th century. However, although there have been several rumours and unverified reports, the species was unrecorded during the 20th century until two birds were observed in the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os on several days in October 1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Despite much searching, there have been no reliable records of the species since 1996 despite searches in the Reserva Ecologica Guapia&ccedil;u, the Teresopolis area, the foothills of the Serra do Mar, Ubatuba and between Nova Friburgo and Soumidoura in September to November 2006, which investigated several unconfirmed reports<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.	eng
145423	habitat		It is apparently restricted to foothill forest, but tolerates secondary habitats, and the 1996 birds were in secondary growth<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, secondary growth supports far fewer epiphytic plants and bromeliads (which retain quantities of suspended water that significantly alters the microclimate within a forest); hence large areas of secondary forest may be unsuitable for the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Seasonal altitudinal movements are suspected, which might explain the lack of post-1996 records in the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os. This tiny, inconspicuous species is probably easily overlooked, perching in the canopy where it actively explores clumps of bromeliads, apparently avoiding treetops. It has been recorded eating fruit, seeds and insects, though the 1996 sightings suggest that it may specialise on mistletoe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
145423	population		The single known remaining population, rediscovered in 1996 after more than 100 years, is assumed to be tiny (<50 individuals).	eng
145424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145427	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in the extreme north-west of Carrasco National Park, Cochabamba, and in Cotapata National Park, La Paz<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for new localities and population strongholds. Research into habitat requirements and possible seasonal movements<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145427	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lipaugus uropygialis</em> is confined to the subtropical Yungas (east slopes of the Andes) of central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Cochabamba and La Paz) and south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Puno)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. It is known from five or six areas, and has been seen recently in all but one<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. Recent records from Madidi National Park and the north-east side of the Cordillera Cocapata<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> suggest that it occurs in the two largest expanses of previously unexplored Bolivian and Peruvian Upper Yungas. Gaps in its range may reflect observer coverage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or may be genuine gaps in distribution as in e.g. Southern Helmeted Curassow <em>Crax unicornis</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Described as uncommon and local<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, like other Andean pihas it appears to be a naturally low-density species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145427	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in humid, subtropical, montane forest at 1,800-2,750 m<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Old-growth forest may be required at some stage in its life-cycle, although it has been seen in degraded forest at the Peruvian site<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is absent from some areas of former occurrence that have now been affected by forest disturbance associated with road construction<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been seen accompanying mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Stomach contents of one specimen comprised berries and fruit<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and it has been recorded eating fruit<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145427	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,340 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of extent of occurrence) = 1,340-2,680 individuals, i.e. best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range extrapolated from description as uncommon and local [Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994] and as a naturally low-density species [J. V. Remsen <em>in litt</em>. 1986]). However, further information may show this species to have a larger population than currently feared. <br/></p>	eng
145427	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Road construction, low-intensity agriculture, selective logging and, at lower altitudes, clearance for plantations of tea, coffee and coca affect its habitat, although extensive areas of largely undisturbed forest remain<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. These threats are likely to increase. Furthermore, the species may require old-growth forest, making selective and small-scale logging a more serious threat than it is to other birds endemic to the Yungas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Areas near the Peruvian locality have been extensively or completely deforested, owing to thousands of years of human land-use<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145430	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lipaugus lanioides</em> is an Atlantic forest species known to occur in foothill and montane forests from Bahia to Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The species was assumed to be rare and local, and is known to have vanished from areas such as Itatiaia National Park despite the presence of good habitat there. Nevertheless, it is known to occur in logged forest (where it may become more common compared to undisturbed sites), and even in areas of old undergrowth growing in derelict Eucalyptus plantations. In areas such as the Paranapiacaba range of S&atilde;o Paulo, it is fairly easily found and seems to be so in most of the Ribeira de Iguape valley in S&atilde;o Paulo and neighboring Paran&aacute;. In recent years it has been located in a number of unreported localities, and it is likely that the species has a continuous range over most of the Serra do Mar from southern Rio de Janeiro to Paran&aacute; and, perhaps, Santa Catarina. Hence it's extent of occurrence may now be greater than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The larger range, and tolerance of moderate habitat degradation suggest also that the population exceeds 10,000 individuals, and that it is likely to be declining <30% in 10 years/three generations. Therefore, the species has been downlisted to Near Threatened. Birds are most frequently observed 5-25 m above ground-level in the forest shade<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The diet includes more than twenty (commonly palm) fruit species as well as insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, whereas nestlings are fed primarily large insects, and less frequently fruit<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Males sing from September to March at solitary display territories<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or small leks of two or three birds. Altitudinal movements may occur, at least in the south of its range where the species has been recorded near sea-level. The most significant threat is the extensive destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest throughout its range. The harvesting of <em>Euterpe</em> palms may further affect some populations. It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in several protected areas, notably Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, and Intervales and Serra do Brigadeiro State Parks<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145430	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-1.8 individuals/km2 x 20,170 km2 (10% EOO) = 20,170-36,310, i.e. significantly greater than 10,000 individuals (density range lowest to lower quartile of 18 estimates for nine species of medium-sized cotingids in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145431	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145433	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145434	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Carara Biological Reserve and Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the north-west of its range to locate extant populations. Promote sensitive management of habitats in the Santa Clara area, Panama, and (in particular) discourage the conversion of shade coffee plantations to sun coffee<sup>1,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cotinga ridgwayi</em> inhabits the Pacific slope of central and west <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and westernmost <strong>Panama</strong>, where it is generally rare and local. Historically, it occurred from west Chiriqu&iacute;, Panama, west to Pozo Azul de Pirris, westernmost Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Recent records are from the Santa Clara area west of Volc&aacute;n and El Chorogo (singles in 1998-1999, a pair in 2000), Panama<strong><sup>1,2,4,5,8</sup></strong> and in Costa Rica, in the eastern foothills, the Osa Peninsula and Carara Biological Reserve (which is the only modern locality known in the north-west half of its range)<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. However, deducing its current distribution is complicated by its irregular occurrence at some sites<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145434	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the canopy and borders of humid forest, secondary growth, and tall trees in shade coffee plantations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Panama, it occurs mainly below 900&#160;m, but has been recorded as high as 1,850&#160;m in Costa Rica<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Eggs are laid around March<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145434	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,680 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,512-4,032, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500 - 10,000 (density range is up to the lower quartile of ten estimates for five <em>Cotinga</em> spp. in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145434	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agricultural conversion has resulted in near-complete deforestation in its Panamanian range, and there is similar large-scale habitat destruction in Costa Rica. <br/></p>	eng
145435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145436	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145437	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145438	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and protected by Brazilian law. It is present in four protected areas of which the Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz in Bahia and the Sooretama Biological Reserve and adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve in Esp&iacute;rito Santo may be of critical importance. It is also found in the threatened Monte Pascoal National Park, Bahia, and may possibly occur in the Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of suitable habitat within its range to locate further populations. Effectively protect Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz. Continue protection of Linhares and Sooretama, and plant native trees in surrounding areas. <br/></p>	eng
145438	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cotinga maculata</em> occurs in south-east Bahia and north Esp&iacute;rito Santo, with no records from Minas Gerais since 1940 and none since the 19th century in Rio de Janeiro, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It has declined significantly in abundance and distribution and is confined to a few protected areas, notably Sooretama, Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz (formerly Porto Seguro) and Linhares Forest Reserve. It was not common even in the early 20th century and, given its fragmented distribution, overall numbers cannot be high.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145438	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the canopy of primary, humid, lowland Atlantic forest, and is often observed along the edge of clearings, though this may reflect observational bias. The diet has been recorded as seeds, berries and fruit, but also includes caterpillars and other insects. A nest (a small platform of twigs placed in the fork of an almost horizontal branch in the canopy) attended by an incubating female was found in October. It has also been reported nesting inside an arboreal termite nest. Local movements, at least of part of the population, may have occurred in the past, but this is apparently no longer the case.</p>	eng
145438	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 351 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 351-632, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range lowest to lower quartile of 18 estimates for nine species of medium-sized cotingids in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145438	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The extensive and continuing deforestation within its range has isolated populations in a few key protected areas. In the past, birds were collected for feather-flower craftwork by local Indians and Bahian nuns. Capture for the cage-bird trade has also been considered a threat. The apparent scarcity of the species in trade during recent decades is probably a consequence of its rarity. One of the species's strongholds, Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz, was recently purchased by a paper-producing company whose plans to clear the forest have apparently now been abandoned<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145442	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and protected under Brazilian law. It is largely dependent on 13 protected areas, notably those at Pedra Talhada, Una, Monte Pascoal, Sooretama, Desengano and Linhares.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all remnants of forest within its range. Monitor the population. Effectively protect key sites, especially the privately-owned Murici, Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz and Linhares. Plant native trees in areas surrounding Sooretama and Linhares. <br/></p>	eng
145442	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xipholena atropurpurea</em> is now virtually confined to 13 protected areas in east <strong>Brazil</strong>: Para&iacute;ba (old specimens and a few recent records), Pernambuco (a few recent records), Alagoas (recent records from two sites), Sergipe, Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Rio de Janeiro (recent records from two sites). Censuses at Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Vera Cruz (formerly CRVD Porto Seguro), Bahia, estimated a mean of 12.42 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> and a mean population of 748 which, extrapolated to the 13 protected areas (covering an area of 992 km<sup>2</sup>), totals 12,322 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145442	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in primary lowland and adjacent foothill Atlantic forest (up to 900 m), mostly in forests near the coast. In the northern part of its range it is found in dense primary forest, more open forest and semi-deciduous forests, but also occurs in selectively logged primary and secondary forests, as well as fragmented woodlots. The diet consists of fruit, especially Moraceae, Myrtaceae and Lauraceae, taken in the forest canopy or around clearings, and some insects (larval Lepidopterans and Orthoptera). It is mostly solitary, gathering only at fruiting trees, though, in south Bahia, birds have been observed associating with <em>C.&#160;maculata</em> and thrush <em>Turdus </em>spp. Males display between November and February, and nests (placed high in the fork of a branch) have been found in October and November. <br/></p>	eng
145442	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Teixeira and de Almeida (1997) estimated 5,110-19,546 individuals, rounded here to 5,100-19,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145442	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is threatened by extensive and continuing deforestation, with nearly 60% of suitable habitat disappearing in the period 1980-1997. Many of the protected areas in which it occurs are still under threat and inadequately protected, such as Monte Pascoal in Bahia. Thirteen out of 29 fruiting trees included in its diet are exploited for timber. However, the species is rarely found in bird markets, and is only opportunistically hunted. A widespread fire in July 1995 destroyed most of the forest at one site in Bahia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and such instances are a potential threat to many sites. <br/></p>	eng
145443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145444	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Costa Rica, it occurs in Carara Biological Reserve and Golfito Wildlife Refuge, with seasonal wanderers in Corcovado National Park. In Panama, Cerro Batipa is a private reserve and the Playa de la Barqueta Agr&iacute;cola Wildlife Refuge protects a small area of mangroves where the species may occur<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Cutting mangroves is illegal in Costa Rica, but this law is widely ignored. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey mangroves in Panama to assess the species's distribution. Protect major mangroves (e.g. the estuaries of the r&iacute;o Sierpe and r&iacute;o T&aacute;rcoles, and those south of David)<sup>1,3,5,6. Plant vegetation corridors between remnant forest patches in south Chiriqu&iacute;, Panama6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
145444	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carpodectes antoniae</em> occurs on the Pacific coast of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and westernmost <strong>Panama</strong>. The northernmost records are from the mouth of the r&iacute;o T&aacute;rcoles and the nearby Carara Biological Reserve. About 40&#160;km to the south, it has been recorded at Parrita and the nearby estuary of the r&iacute;o Palo Seco. The stronghold is probably the area of the Golfo Dulce and the Osa peninsula. The r&iacute;os Sierpe and Coto and their estuaries are probably the principal nesting areas, and it also occurs at Golfito, Rinc&oacute;n and Puerto Jimenez. In Panama, it has been recorded infrequently on the Burica Peninsula, but these non-coastal records are thought to refer to wandering individuals<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. In 1997, a resident population was discovered at Cerro Batipa and the adjacent David Mangroves, Chiriqu&iacute;,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the species may also occur in other smaller mangrove areas nearby, such as the Playa de la Barquete Agr&iacute;cola Wildlife Refuge<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. In the 1920s, a (now lost) specimen was apparently taken near Aguadulce, Panama, c.200&#160;km east of the currently known range. <br/></p>	eng
145444	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It primarily occurs in extensive mangroves, but also lowland forest or scrub adjacent to mangroves and occasionally isolated trees in nearby clearings or pastures. Post-breeding wanderers have been found in foothill forest, and there is one record of displaying males at 760&#160;m. The breeding season is probably March-June. It feeds on a variety of fruits, including those of the pava tree <em>Schefflera morototoni<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
145444	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 331 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 298-794, i.e. best placed in band 250-1,000 (density range is up to the lower quartile of ten estimates for five <em>Cotinga</em> species in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145444	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Mangroves are being cut down and converted to shrimp nurseries, salt ponds, rice cultivation and ranching, and are used for charcoal production and as poles for light construction. Dyke and road construction have affected the hydrology at several sites. Lowland and foothill forests inland from mangroves have largely been removed, especially in Panama<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145445	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145446	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is known from at least five localities in Madre de Dios and Balta in south Ucayali, and the río Caimisea, Cuzco, south-east Peru (including Manu National Park) (H. Lloyd in litt. 1999, 2000, Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and is reasonably common on the upper rio Tejo and rio Juruá near Taumaturgo, Acre, extreme west Brazil (Whittaker and Oren 1999).	eng
145446	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in the subcanopy of seasonally flooded swamp or floodplain forest, and terra firme forest, up to 300 m, rarely to 450 m and once to 700 m (Snow 1982, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stattersfield et al. 1998, H. Lloyd in litt. 1999, 2000).	eng
145446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145446	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Though its lowland forests are relatively intact (Stotz et al. 1996), the region has been subject to selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road building and human colonisation, resulting in further degradation (Dinerstein et al. 1995).	eng
145447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145449	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145451	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It breeds in several protected areas in Panama and Costa Rica, including La Amistad International Park and Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve<strong><sup>2,3,9,11</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it occurs in the San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a system of lowland protected areas to conserve this species in the non-breeding season<sup>8,11. Survey the Dota mountains and the Cordillera de Tol&eacute; to determine the significance of records in these areas. Monitor the population at key breeding sites to assess population trends.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
145451	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cephalopterus glabricollis</em> breeds locally on both slopes of the Cordilleras de Guancaste, Tilar&aacute;n and Talamanca in <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, and contiguous mountains in <strong>Panama</strong>, east to the Fortuna area, Bocas del Toro and Chiriqu&iacute;. In the non-breeding season, it descends to the foothills and lowlands of the Caribbean slope and, in Panama, it occurs east to Veraguas and Cocl&eacute;<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Records from the Dota mountains, Costa Rica<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the Cordillera de Tol&eacute;, Panama<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> (both outlying ranges on the Pacific side), are of uncertain significance. It is now uncommon to rare and local throughout its range<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. In Panama and lower parts of the Pe&ntilde;as Blancas valley, Costa Rica, it is thought to be declining<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145451	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in subtropical forest at elevations of 800-2,000&#160;m, and spends the non-breeding season in lowland forest<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>, males generally at 100-500&#160;m, and females chiefly below 200&#160;m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the breeding season, males defend display arenas at 'exploded leks'<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A study in Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve found that birds only occupied 20-30% of apparently suitable habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. These birds left the breeding areas in late July or August, and returned in March<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The diet is largely frugivorous, but can also include anoles, frogs and large insects<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. Altitudinal movements of radio-tagged birds in Costa Rica apparently coincided with peaks of fruit abundance<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145451	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,400 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,160-5,760, i.e. best placed in band 2,500- 10,000 (density range is up to the lower quartile of ten estimates for five cotingid species in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145451	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland non-breeding habitat has been greatly reduced and is still severely threatened, especially in the north of Costa Rica where 35% of the remaining forest was removed in 1986-1992<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Primary causes are conversion to banana plantations, expansion of cattle-ranches and logging. In Panama, remaining lowland and foothill forests on the Caribbean slope are threatened by clearance for agriculture, even in legally protected areas such as the San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145452	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Reserve and a new neighbouring reserve hold significant numbers<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Three national parks, Cotacachi-Cayapas (Esmeraldas), Los Farallones de Cali (Valle de Cauca) and Munchique (Cauca) are probably important, owing to their large size<strong><sup>6,8,13</sup></strong>, although there are no modern records from the latter.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey foothill forests in its range, especially the two Colombian National Parks<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Purchase and, with local communities, manage a biological corridor to link Awa and Cotacachi-Cayapas and a surrounding buffer zone<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate Awa, Cotacachi-Cayapas and the biological corridor as a Biosphere Reserve<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145452	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cephalopterus penduliger</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Choc&oacute; to Nari&ntilde;o) and west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and Imbabura to El Oro), and in Ecuador's coastal cordillera (Esmeraldas and Manab&iacute;). Its distribution in lowland Ecuador has contracted greatly. There are concentrations of records in the far north of the known range in Valle de Cauca<strong><sup>5,6,13</sup></strong>, east Esmeraldas and adjacent parts of Imbabura and Nari&ntilde;o. It is otherwise rare and local, with a declining population<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145452	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This lekking species is found in humid forest from 140-1,800&#160;m altitude<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. In some areas, it is believed to make seasonal altitudinal movements<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>, although there are records throughout the year from lowland and foothill locations<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. It feeds on palm-nuts and insects<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145452	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 8,100 km<sup>2</sup> (30% EOO) = 7,290-48,600, (lower density estimate is up to the lower quartile of ten estimates for five species of cotingid in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; upper density estimate according to surveys in remote areas of Ecuador, Jahn in litt. 2007). It is probably best placed in band 10,000-19,999, as the species is intensively hunted in most areas of its range, and thus, often extirpated within about 2-5 km around human settlements. <br/></p>	eng
145452	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1988, only 4.4% of original forest cover remained in west Ecuador below 900&#160;m <strong><sup>4,14</sup></strong>. Rapid deforestation rates have continued to affect Esmeraldas and Nari&ntilde;o during the 1990s<strong><sup>2,10,11,14</sup></strong>. At higher altitudes and in Cauca and south Valle de Cauca, Colombia, deforestation has been slower and more habitat remains<strong><sup>4,12</sup></strong>. Plans to colonise and develop remoter areas are progressing through infrastructural improvements, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, which have increased the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture, gold mining and hunting<strong><sup>2,8,9,10,11,14</sup></strong>. Intensive agricultural development is a major threat, especially oil palm and banana plantations and livestock-farming<strong><sup>2,3,4,14</sup></strong>. It possibly suffers from trade<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145454	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145455	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in several highland reserves, notably Sierra de Agalta National Park (Honduras)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Monteverde Biological Reserve (Costa Rica) and La Amistad International Park (Costa Rica and Panama)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Non-breeding sites include R&iacute;o Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve (Nicaragua<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; and presumably adjacent Barra del Colorado Faunal Refuge and Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica), Corcovado National Park (Costa Rica), San San Pond Sak Wetlands Ramsar Site and Coiba Island National Park (Panama)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to delineate range and numbers<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the ecology, especially seasonal movements<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Confirm breeding status and range in Honduras. Protect forest habitats<sup>4</sup></strong>, especially in the lowlands. <br/></p>	eng
145455	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Procnias tricarunculatus</em> breeds in central <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong> (with a small population on the Nicoya peninsula)<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>, north-west <strong>Nicaragua</strong><sup>5,9</sup>, and almost certainly the Sierra de Agalta, <strong>Honduras</strong><sup>1</sup>. In 1976, it was common on Isla Coiba, Panama<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, where it presumably breeds and is potentially resident. It winters on the Caribbean slope and adjacent lowlands in Honduras and north Nicaragua<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, and in lowland and foothill forests on both slopes in Costa Rica and Panama. In Panama, most birds now winter on the Caribbean slope, presumably because of deforestation in the Pacific lowlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A few recent records in the Canal zone perhaps refer to birds displaced from former wintering areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145455	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in foothill and highland forest at 1,200-2,100&#160;m, and occasionally to 750&#160;m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The breeding season is probably March-September<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but varies between years and locations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, birds undertake complex migrations ranging up to 3,000&#160;m (in Costa Rica), and then descending to the foothills and lowlands<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It can utilise small habitat fragments adjacent to larger forest blocks<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145455	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145455	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is ongoing habitat loss, especially in lowland wintering areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Caribbean lowlands are suffering conversion to banana plantations, cattle-ranches and logging. In north Costa Rica, 35% of remaining forest was eliminated in 1986-1992<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On the Caribbean slope in Panama, even some reserves are threatened by clearance for agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145456	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145458	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Reduce trapping for the cage bird trade through monitoring and awareness campaigns.   <br/></p>	eng
145458	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Procnias nudicollis</em> is known from a wide area of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alagoas south to Rio Grande do Sul and inland to south Mato Grosso), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, with one record in Corrientes) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (west to Concepci&oacute;n)<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. The species is considered extinct from remnant forest patches of north eastern Brazil north of the S&atilde;o Francisco river, where it was formerly known from the Murici area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is locally relatively common in Brazil<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and Paraguay, but rare in Argentina, in the canopy and borders of Atlantic forest up to 1,000&#160;m. The species is believed to be migratory in south-east Brazil, though its migratory patterns are poorly-known and likely to be complex. Similarly, records in Misiones, Argentina, suggest that it is only transient in this country<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Only in north-eastern Paraguay is the species believed to be resident<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, where it is locally common at a few isolated sites. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145458	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Where migratory <em>Procnias nudicollis</em> probably follows a complex migration route that may be linked to fruit production, with males calling, and thus apparently acting territorially, en route<strong><sup>3,6,8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145458	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although locally fairly common, it is rare at many sites; population probably closer to the upper limit of the above band. This population estimate is provisional and requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
145458	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has unquestionably declined owing to deforestation and heavy trapping pressure for the cage-bird trade, particularly in Brazil<strong><sup>2,8,9,10</sup></strong>. Trapping pressure may be particularly heavy in southern Bahia, S&atilde;o Paulo and Santa Catarina and the population size is therefore difficult to assess in these areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In north-east Paraguay deforestation was 20% between 1997 and 2001, and appears to be continuing at a similar rate. The Paraguayan population is also coming under increasing pressure from trapping (historically a localised threat), with both males and females readily available in Asunci&oacute;n every year. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145460	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145461	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145462	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145467	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145468	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145469	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145471	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145472	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145473	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145474	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in two disjunct populations in east Amazonian Brazil: the Belém area of east Pará, east to north-west Maranhão and south to the rio Xingú area, north-east Mato Grosso; and on the eastern side of the lower rio Tapajós, west Pará (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145474	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in the lower growth of humid forest and mature secondary woodland, mainly or entirely in terra firme forest, below 200 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994)	eng
145474	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145474	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by continuing deforestation (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). There have been very high rates of deforestation in Mato Grosso (23.6% of forest cleared by 1988) and Maranhão (19.2%), with large areas also being cleared in Pará (9.6%), due to road building, ranching and land speculation (Cleary 1991).	eng
145475	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type-locality is within an area of 400,000 ha at Serra do Cachimbo, belonging to the Brazilian air force, which is one of the best-conserved areas in southern Par&aacute;<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to establish the species's status, especially within the Munduruc&acirc;nia Forest Reserve. Clarify the extent of forest destruction at, and near, the type-locality. <br/></p>	eng
145475	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lepidothrix vilasboasi</em> was known until recently only from the type-locality at the headwaters of the rio Cururu, a right-bank tributary of the rio Tapaj&oacute;s, in the Serra do Cachimbo, south-west Par&aacute;, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where five specimens were taken in 1957. In 2002, a male was observed and mist-netted on the west bank of the rio Jamunxim, near Novo Progresso, c.200 km north-east of the type-locality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species ranges between the rios Tapaj&oacute;s and Xingu, and that the southern limit of its range lies along the north edge of the Serra do Cachimbo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is no evidence to suggest that it occurs sympatrically with Opal-crowned Manakin <em>L. iris</em> or Snow-capped Manakin <em>L. nattereri</em><strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145475	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-series was collected in primary <em>terra firme</em> forest. The first specimen was seen and collected 6&#160;m up in a thin sapling at the edge of a stream in dense, tall forest. Stomach contents of the specimens contained fruit and insects. The male in 2002 was captured in <em>terra firme</em> forest adjoining a dirt road<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145475	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145475	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The extent of deforestation in the vicinity of the type-locality remains unknown, but the region is being developed for cattle-ranching<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest clearance in the vicinity of the recent record is increasing rapidly, in response to the increasing demand for cattle pasture from colonists<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Current plans to pave the Cuiab&aacute;-Santar&eacute;m road will bring even greater habitat destruction, unless strong government action is taken<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145477	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145481	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Costa Rica and fairly common to common in Panama (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145491	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145493	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145501	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenopipo flavicapilla</em> is locally distributed in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is known from both slopes of the West Andes, in Cauca and Valle del Cauca, the west slope of the north Central Andes in Antioquia, and at the head of the r&iacute;o Magdalena valley in Huila<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It also occurs on the east slope of the Andes in west Napo and, at least formerly, Tungurahua, <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>2</sup>. It is patchily distributed and rare to uncommon in suitable habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are relatively few recent records, though it is very inconspicuous and perhaps overlooked<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is confined to the lower growth of montane forest and mature secondary woodland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, at 1-8 m up in vegetation, occasionally associating with mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Much of its range is within prime agricultural land, some of which has already been cleared, and the rest is probably threatened<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145501	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
145502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
145505	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145506	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145509	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserves in Esp&iacute;rito Santo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and Chapada da Diamantina National Park in Bahia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, only the closely related Pale-bellied Tyrant-manakin <em>N.&#160;pallescens</em> has been recorded at the latter recently<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is likely to occur in Rio Doce State Park, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, as a 1940's specimen was taken there and no good bird inventory for the reserve exists. The Divis&oacute;polis population is near to where the 50,000 ha Mata Escura Biological Reserve has been just decreed.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to identify new localities and provide more recent records from historical localities<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Confirm its presence in Chapada da Diamantina. Estimate populations in Sooretama and Augusto Ruschi. Protect the known site in Rio de Janeiro.</strong></p>	eng
145509	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neopelma aurifrons</em> is found in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with recent records from the vicinity of Salvador (Chapada da Diamantina National Park in 1990<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, though not since<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and Camamu, Bahia, south to Esp&iacute;rito Santo (three localities, including the lower Rio Doce), east Minas Gerais (including Divis&oacute;polis) and Rio de Janeiro (one locality near Anil just north-east of Rio de Janeiro city). It was recently discovered at two new localities: Fazenda Santana in Minas Gerais and Usina Paineiras in Esp&iacute;rito Santo. It is one of the least known Atlantic forest birds, partly as a consequence of being treated as a subspecies until 1995. It was listed as uncommon in Sooretama Biological Reserve during fieldwork in 1981, but there has been only one subsequent sighting, and it is apparently quite local within Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, recent population and trend estimates suggest that the species is not as rare as previously thought.<em> <br/></p>	eng
145509	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the interior of undisturbed and lightly disturbed lowland forest (usually numerous trees greater than 50&#160;cm diameter at breast height nearby), sometimes foraging near forest edges, at elevations below 1,000&#160;m. Singing individuals perch on thin, horizontal branches in relatively open shaded areas in the understorey, usually 3.5-7&#160;m above ground. Its diet is primarily comprised of fruit, but an individual has been seen to take a stick insect (suborder Phasmodea). It may nest beneath banks and under hanging roots, but this has yet to be confirmed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145509	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.1-8.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 360 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 756-2,880, i.e. probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range is lowest to lower quartile of six estimates for three species of Neopelma and Tyrraneutes in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145509	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened since its range is within an area that has been severely deforested over a long period of time<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its lowland forests have been historically threatened by agricultural conversion, deforestation for mining and plantation production<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Current key threats to these forests are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, and colonisation and associated road building<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145511	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145512	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in Brazil and occurs in Itatiaia, Serra da Bocaina and Aparados da Serra National Parks and Campos do Jord&atilde;o State Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey historical localities (especially in Paran&aacute; and Misiones) and other areas of suitable habitat (such as Cruce Caballero Provincial Park, Misiones, and mixed forest with <em>Araucaria</em></strong> in Igua&ccedil;u National Park, Paran&aacute;), with the aid of tape-playback. <strong>Determine precise habitat requirements and whether the species migrates altitudinally.</strong></p>	eng
145512	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Piprites pileata</em> is rare and very sparsely distributed in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with records from Minas Gerais (Itatiaia massif and adjacent areas), Rio de Janeiro (recently only from Itatiaia except for a record from Visconde de Mau&aacute; in 1988), S&atilde;o Paulo (Serra da Bocaina and Campos do Jord&atilde;o), Paran&aacute; (recently from Fazenda Santa Rita<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), Santa Catarina (recently in the S&atilde;o Joaquim area) and Rio Grande do Sul (Fazenda das Amoreiras and Aparados da Serra). There is only one confirmed record for <strong>Argentina</strong>, a specimen collected at Tobuna, Misiones, in 1959, but Iguaz&uacute; National Park has been mentioned without details<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145512	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It largely inhabits the canopy of montane Atlantic forest in the <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> and <em>Podocarpus lamberti</em> domain, but has also been observed in the understorey of a dense <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo thicket. Observations in Itatiaia National Park suggest that it may be an altitudinal migrant<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. If true, it may require continuous tracts of forest within its altitudinal range of 900-2,000&#160;m. Single birds forage in the canopy and subcanopy of dense forest, sometimes accompanying mixed-species flocks. The diet consists of arthropods (gleaned or hover-gleaned) and fruit. A pair displaying in September suggests breeding in the austral spring.</p>	eng
145512	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-1.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,400 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,200-7,040, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range is lowest of five estimates for <em>P. chloris</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145512	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Araucaria</em> forests have been much reduced in extent. In Paran&aacute;, the original extent has been estimated at 73,780&#160;km<sup>2</sup> but, by 1965, only 15,932&#160;km<sup>2</sup> remained<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The increasingly fragmented nature of its habitat may disrupt migratory movements. However, it does not appear to be a true <em>Araucaria</em> specialist, and population declines in the north of its range may be mitigated by forests within its altitudinal range having suffered considerably less destruction than adjacent lowlands. <br/></p>	eng
145513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145522	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145525	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145529	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145530	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in a number of protected areas: Itatiaia, Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os and Igua&ccedil;u National Parks, Jur&eacute;ia-Itatins Ecological Station<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Intervales, Serro do Mar and Desengano State Parks, Brazil; and Iguaz&uacute; National Park, and Urugua-&iacute; Provincial Reserve, Argentina<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, probably only large reserves with an abundance of bamboo at different elevations (e.g. Itatiaia) provide adequate protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to estimate population densities and clearly delineate the distribution of this species using tape-playback. Study its dependence on bamboo throughout the year. Assess the distribution of bamboo habitat. Protect key areas in Santa Catarina and Paran&aacute;. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
145530	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Biatas nigropectus</em> is rare in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. All Argentine records are from Misiones, where the largest series of specimens has been obtained. Recent records suggest small numbers persist in Iguaz&uacute; National Park, Urugua-&iacute; Provincial Reserve<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong> and near Tobunas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Arroyo Alegr&iacute;a, where the species was recorded in 1997 and 1998, has since been logged<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Brazil, most records are from Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo, with Itatiaia National Park and Intervales State Park particular strongholds. There are further records from Minas Gerais (recently from Itatiaia on the border with Rio de Janeiro, and at Itabira and S&atilde;o Domingos do Prata in the mid-1980s), Paran&aacute; (Igua&ccedil;u National Park, Fazenda Santa Rita and the Tibagi river basin<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and Santa Catarina (recently from Ararangu&aacute;<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). Evidence from the 19th century indicates that this was always a rare bird, but it is presumably declining in response to habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
145530	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the bamboo understorey of lowland and montane Atlantic forest up to 1,200&#160;m, occurring primarily in openings and along edges where thickets are most extensive and tall. It may favour one or a few large-leaved bamboo species, perhaps in the genera <em>Merostachys</em> and<em> Guadua</em>. The diet includes spiders, small ants and seeds. Breeding is probably in October-January.</p>	eng
145530	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,890 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 945-5,292, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range is lowest to lower quartile of 11 estimates for seven species of <em>Sakesphorus </em>and <em>Thamnophilus</em> antshrikes in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145530	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been rapid destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest for agricultural conversion, mining, and coffee, banana and rubber plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Remaining forest suffers from urbanisation, associated road-building and agricultural expansion<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Bamboo thicket die-off/regrowth periods create large physical and temporal discontinuities in the distribution of such specialist users, and rapid habitat loss severely exacerbates this problem.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145532	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a restricted distribution in south-west Ecuador and north-west Peru, occurring in El Oro and Loja provinces, Ecuador, and Tumbes, Piura and northern Lambayeque departments, Peru (Sibley and Monroe 1990). The species occurs in the North-west Peru Biosphere Reserve where it is uncommon to rare (Parker et al. 1995), and in the small El Tundo Nature Reserve in Loja province, Ecuador, where it is fairly common (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).	eng
145532	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found mainly in scrub, secondary woodland and forest borders in both arid and semi-humid regions (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and has been recorded from thickets of Chusquea bamboo (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). Most records come from between 500 and 1,500 m altitude, but birds have been seen as high as 2,300 m in Ecuador (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It often joins mixed species flocks, foraging mainly in relatively dense vegetation not far above ground level (Parker et al. 1995, I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). Breeding probably takes place during the wet season (Brown 1941).	eng
145532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145532	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the land within the species's rather restricted altitudinal range has been cleared for agriculture, and destruction of habitat is ongoing (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).	eng
145533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145536	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thamnophilus praecox</em> was known only from the type-specimen until 1991, when it was rediscovered close to the presumed type-locality, along the r&iacute;o Lagarto in east Napo, and subsequently near La Selva on the north and south sides of the r&iacute;o Napo, east <strong>Ecuador<sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In 1991, it was considered quite common, but very local, in lower growth and borders of frequently flooded <em>v&aacute;rzea</em> forest, primarily in thickets along small streams and apparently in blackwater drainages, at 200-250&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Though deforestation is relatively extensive in east Ecuador and the region is threatened by oil exploration and extraction, with all the Ecuadorian portion of the Napo open for oil leasing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the species's habitat is probably relatively secure owing to the area's very limited agricultural potential<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145536	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No data on population size <br/></p>	eng
145537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145540	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145541	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145544	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the Guayana Shield and northern Amazonia, with several apparently disjunct populations that include: along the eastern base of the Andes in western Venezuela and in Colombia; in the the Rio Huallaga drainage of northern Peru; and in the Rio Marañon drainage of northern Peru and southernmost Ecuador.	eng
145544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "fairly common to common" through much of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003), although the subspecies in Peru and Ecuador are relatively rare, and their habitat is under threat.	eng
145545	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145546	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145547	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145548	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145549	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145552	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145553	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Several specimen localities are now within Paramillo (Antioquia and C&oacute;rdoba) and Perij&aacute; (Zulia) National Parks. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for it using tapes of the song and calls, as well as mist-nets, targeting any areas of extensive, well-developed secondary growth at 150-1,750m, especially where bamboo abounds. Assess its status in Paramillo and Perij&aacute;<sup>6</sup></strong> National Parks, particularly the relatively inaccessible and unexplored southern part of the latter.  <br/></p>	eng
145553	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Clytoctantes alixii</em> has been recorded in extreme north-west <strong>Venezuela</strong> and north <strong>Colombia</strong>. A number of skins from the 19th century have uncertain origins, with all other specimens taken during 1914-1917, or a few years either side of 1950. Known localities are the Sierra de Perij&aacute;, Zulia, Venezuela, and in Colombia, the foothills of the Magdalena valley: in Santander and Cesar (north-east); the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas, Bol&iacute;var (north-west); Caldas (south-west); and four foothill sites north of the Andes in Antioquia and C&oacute;rdoba. The latter include both slopes of the Serran&iacute;a de Abibe, where it was collected in 1949, and last seen in 1965. It was once fairly common, judging by the large series of museum specimens and the scatter of reports from a fairly wide area. Several recent searches failed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but survey work has been hampered in this region by the significant security risk, owing to paramilitary factions and narcotics traffickers. Presumably the species's inconspicuousness and the lack of knowledge of its voice also hindered rediscovery. For these reasons there was a long gap in reports after 1965 before it was finally found in April 2004 in the Sierra de Perija, Venezuela, on the third trip specifically planned to relocate it<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Shortly afterwards, in 2005 it was discovered at Oca&ntilde;a, Norte de Santander Department, Colombia<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Here it appeared to be fairly common (6-7 pairs heard along a 2-km stretch of road) between 1,600 m and 1,750 m, much higher than previous records<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145553	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland and foothill forests (185-1,750 m), favouring dense undergrowth, thickets, forest borders and young secondary growth. The recent observations were in mature secondary growth with a strong bamboo component at 1,600 m and 1,750 m<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In the west, breeding occurs during April-May. It is insectivorous and appears to be a bamboo specialist, using its large bill to forage in the inner part of the dry bamboo. <br/></p>	eng
145553	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on the smalll number of birds recorded at the two known locations (e.g. 6-7 pairs heard along a 2-km stretch of road at Oca&ntilde;a: O. Laverde <em>in litt</em>. 2006), the total is probably best placed precautionarily in the band 250-999 individuals. Further surveys may show that the population is larger than this though. <br/></p>	eng
145553	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The lower Magdalena valley had largely been converted to agricultural land as early as the 18th century, and the middle portions were rapidly opened up, colonised, logged and farmed during the 1960s and 1970s, although regeneration is beginning following land abandonment in some foothill areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Similarly, the lower Cauca valley and foothill areas at the northern end of the West and Central Andes have long been deforested, although some extensive forests survive<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This includes Paramillo National Park, where human settlement and activity pre-dates creation of the park and continues to threaten the forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species had been not uncommon in the vast, pristine forest of the Serran&iacute;a de San Lucas. However, a gold-rush began in 1996, and most of the eastern slopes have since been settled, logged and converted to agriculture and coca production<strong><sup>1,2,3,7</sup></strong>. In the Sierra de Perij&aacute;, there has been severe deforestation below 2,000&#160;m for cattle-ranching and narcotics cultivation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145554	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The vicinity of type-locality has been extensively surveyed but the incredible paucity of information makes effective conservation action difficult.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Reassess forest state and species's status at the type-locality. Survey for the species elsewhere in Rond&ocirc;nia and adjacent areas of Mato Grosso and Amazonas. Establish reserves in this area of the Brazilian Shield to protect this and other threatened species. Eliminate incentives for cattle-ranching and other inappropriate forms of agriculture within the region.</strong></p>	eng
145554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Clytoctantes atrogularis</em> is known from a single female specimen and two sightings of males at the type-locality on the west bank of the rio Ji-paran&aacute; in Rond&ocirc;nia, <strong>Brazil</strong>, in 1986, and a possible sight record of a male along the rio Teles Pires, at Alta Floresta, north Mato Grosso, in 1989<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145554	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is very poorly known. Its habitat is mature <em>terra firme </em>forest dominated by dense vine-tangles, where it appears to feed 2-5&#160;m above ground. It may be naturally rare as the three records from the type-locality were the result of several thousand days fieldwork in the area. <br/></p>	eng
145554	population	BirdLife International, 2008	New records have massively increased this species EOO, however it is likely to be very rare within its range.  <br/></p>	eng
145554	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threats are the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (which has declined in the 1990s) and commercial logging (which is increasingly signficantly)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although its range almost certainly includes adjacent parts of Amazonas and Mato Grosso, deforestation in Rond&ocirc;nia proceeds apace<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, at the rate of 4,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> per year. In addition, the type-locality forest is threatened by the construction of a nearby hydroelectric dam.  <br/></p>	eng
145555	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Panama, it has been recorded in Chagres and probably in Portobelo National Parks<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The Kuna Yala Indian Reserve affords some protection around Nusagandi<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey apparent gaps in its distribution and old localities, particularly in the east<sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Estimate population densities. <br/></p>	eng
145555	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenornis setifrons</em> occurs locally in east <strong>Panama</strong> and north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. Twelve sites are known in the Serran&iacute;as de San Blas, Dari&eacute;n, Tacarcuna (Panama) and Baud&oacute; (Colombia)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is also an unverified report from a relatively well-known site in the Serran&iacute;a de Pirre, Panama<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Its distribution is inexplicably patchy, with gaps in apparently suitable areas of habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1992 found it fairly common (although difficult to detect) at Nusagandi, San Blas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has not been reported from east San Blas or Dari&eacute;n since 1964<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, possibly reflecting a dearth of fieldwork. However, in the west, a number of new populations were discovered during the 1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Colombia, two specimens were collected in 1940 in the Serran&iacute;a de Baud&oacute;, but recent surveys on the west slope have not found the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145555	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours the lower growth of humid foothill forest at 120-800&#160;m, but mostly above 350&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most sites are on steep slopes or in ravines, but it has been found in flatter areas where these exist<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is insectivorous and frequently joins mixed-species foraging flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two nests were found in low, tangled vegetation near streams in May<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145555	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2-11 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 600 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO because patchily distributed) = 1,200-6,600, but perhaps in upper part of this range as described as 'fairly common' at some sites, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is from lower quartile to mean of 26 estimates for 12 antshrike species in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145555	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance for agriculture is reducing and fragmenting suitable habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the human population is low over large parts of its range where threats are consequently minimal<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Mining, the completion of the Pan-American highway and the impact of rising human population resulting from such projects are potentially important future threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145557	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dysithamnus stictothorax</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Bahia south to Santa Catarina) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, from where there are only three records) at elevations up to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. It inhabits tropical lowland evergreen and montane evergreen forest with vines, where it can be common<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145557	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to make a current population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145559	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145560	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145561	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145563	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. Its stronghold is probably within Sooretama Biological Reserve. It is much less common in the adjacent Linhares Forest Reserve. There are additional records from Rio Doce State Park, Feliciano Abdalla Private Nature Reserve, Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>and Duas Bocas State Biological Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey known sites to ascertain its status. Survey other forested areas within its range to clarify its current distribution. Monitor known populations, especially those at Sooretama and Rio Doce. Ensure the integrity of protected areas where it does occur.</strong></p>	eng
145563	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dysithamnus plumbeus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (with recent records from Serra do Teimoso Private Reserve at Jussari<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Serra Bonita Private Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) through east Minas Gerais and central Esp&iacute;rito Santo, to southern Esp&iacute;rito Santo (recorded from Cafundo Private Reserve at Cachoeiro de Itapemirim<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and extreme north-west Rio de Janeiro (in forest fragments around Itaperuna and Raposo). It is generally considered uncommon and local, and appears to be common at very few sites (notably at Sooretama Biological Reserve, though possibly in a very limited area). However, its range in southern Bahia may be more extensive than recorded as some large forest remnants remain to be surveyed. <br/></p>	eng
145563	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the lower stratum of tall primary or little-disturbed, lowland Atlantic forest (up to 800 m at Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). Pairs or singles generally forage within 2&#160;m of the ground (occasionally to 4 m when associating with mixed-species flocks) in dense tangles, especially in shaded, old treefalls overgrown with vines and saplings. The diet consists of arthropods, including katydids, stick insects, pupas and insect eggs, gleaned from leaves and twigs. Territories appear to be fairly small (less than 1.5&#160;ha) and fixed, with pairs exceptionally occurring within 75&#160;m of each other. A nest with two eggs being incubated has been found in August. </p>	eng
145563	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,980-3,080, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999, as range may be more extensive than currently known and the species is apparently "common" at certain sites, (density range is from lower quartile to median of ten estimates for six species of <em>Thamnophilus</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145563	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The fragmentation of the species's range by extensive forest clearance has been and remains the one significant threat. It is now primarily restricted to a small number of protected areas, several of which remain to be consolidated, and from where recorded numbers are low.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145564	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Volc&aacute;n Sumaco area is within Sumaco-Galeras National Park, Napo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which protects a large area of pristine habitat above 1,000&#160;m. Remaining forest on the Cordillera de Guacamayos is part of the Antisana Ecological Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most Colombian sites are within or close to protected areas: La Planada Nature Reserve (Nari&ntilde;o)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; Munchique National Park and adjacent Tambito Nature Reserve (Cauca)<strong><sup>3,4,8,9</sup></strong>; and Farallones de Cali National Park (Valle del Cauca), which protects a large area of pristine forest<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in Los Fallarones de Cali National Park<sup>9</sup></strong>, Munchique National Park<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and other areas within its projected range. <br/></p>	eng
145564	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dysithamnus occidentalis</em> has been recorded from four regions of the Andes in south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> and north<strong> Ecuador</strong>. The nominate subspecies occurs on Pacific slope of the West Andes (Valle del Cauca, Cauca and Nari&ntilde;o), Colombia, particularly in Munchique National Park and surrounding areas. In Ecaudor the subspecies <em>punctitectus</em> occurs in the eastern cordillera of the Andes, mainly on the east slope (Napo and Morona-Santiago), but with a single record from the west slope (Carchi)<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. It is generally rare, although it has been found at reasonable densities on Volc&aacute;n Sumaco, Ecuador. It is likely to be declining in numbers. <br/></p>	eng
145564	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the understorey of wet montane forest mainly above 900&#160;m, and up to 2,200&#160;m. Dense growth around tree falls, land slips or other light gaps is apparently preferred, but it has been observed in fragmented woodlots and in mature secondary palm forest in the vicinity of primary forest<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. It forages on or near the ground for arthropod prey. A nest with one nestling was found in undisturbed forest in December<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145564	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-2.8 individuals/km2 x 1,520 km2 (20% EOO) = 2,736-4,256, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range is from lower quartile to median of ten estimates for six species of <em>Thamnophilus</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as although "generally rare", species has been found at "reasonable densities" at some sites). <br/></p>	eng
145564	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has suffered substantial habitat loss to agriculture, especially in Ecuador, where much suitable habitat has been cleared, except on the Cordillera de Guacamayos and Volc&aacute;n Sumaco. Even these areas are being encroached upon gradually, notably by families growing naranjilla. In Colombia, Munchique National Park and adjacent Tambito Nature Reserve are threatened by human settlement, and the construction of a hydroelectric plant<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Widespread deforestation on the west slope in Nari&ntilde;o has left La Planada Nature Reserve largely isolated<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. At altitudes below 2,000&#160;m, south-west Colombia has been transformed by logging, mining and conversion to livestock-farming and crop plantations<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, notably coca<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145565	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145566	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145567	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145569	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmotherula klagesi</em> inhabits the canopy and borders of <em>v&aacute;rzea</em> forest in Roraima, Amazonas and Par&aacute;, <strong>Brazil<sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It is known from only a few areas, and there are no recent records for Par&aacute;, but it is common to abundant on the large and protected Anavilhanas Archipelago in the rio Negro<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. Intensive logging and selective exploitation of the tree <em>Ceiba pentandra</em> are accelerating deforestation of the <em>v&aacute;rzea</em> forests where it may occur, and there appears to be an extensive industrial timber infrastructure to maintain the logging<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145569	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to make a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the Guayana Shield region of South America.	eng
145571	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145577	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145578	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145579	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145580	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145582	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145583	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145585	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Guapi A&ccedil;u Ecological Reserve encompasses 74 km<sup>2</sup> of privately-owned land at an altitudinal range of 35-2,000 m, 10 km<sup>2</sup> of which is within the species's known altitudinal range. The 20 km<sup>2</sup> Fazenda Serra do Mar forms the core of this reserve, and the adjacent seven landowners are expected to sign buffer-zone management agreements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A DNA analysis to determine whether <em>M. fluminensis</em> represents a hybrid between <em>M. axillaris</em> and <em>M. unicolor</em> proved inconclusive<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine whether the type-specimen and birds at Guapi A&ccedil;u represent the same taxon and determine the taxonomic validity of <em>fluminensis. </em>If it is a valid species, assess its status at Guapi A&ccedil;u. Survey suitable habitat in the surrounding areas to clarify distribution and status. Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat requirements.  <br/></p>	eng
145585	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Myrmotherula fluminensis</em> was discovered in 1982, when a single individual was mist-netted near Santo Aleixo, Maj&eacute;, in central Rio de Janeiro state, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It has not been seen there since, and is unlikely to survive. The only subsequent reports come from the Serra do Mar Ecological Reserve (now called the Guapi A&ccedil;u Ecological Reserve, or REGUA), from 1994 onwards<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, but even these remain unconfirmed. Birds matching the description of <em>fluminensis</em> seem vocally indistinguishable from White-flanked Antwrens <em>Myrmotherula axillaris </em>of the eastern Brazil race <em>luctuosa</em>, and it is possible that <em>fluminensis </em>is a local variant of the White-flanked Antwren or perhaps a hybrid between it and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145585	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The type-specimen was collected in a partially isolated and highly disturbed woodlot. The subsequent possible sightings have typically been in young secondary forest (up to 25 years old) adjacent to old clearings, at elevations of 35-200 m<strong><sup> 4</sup></strong>. Birds have most frequently been observed in mixed-species flocks with other insectivorous species, including Unicoloured Antwren <em>Myrmotherula unicolor</em>, but typically forage lower than the latter species, mainly within 2 m of the ground, among dense vine-tangles<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 7.2-18.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 10 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 72-180, i.e. best placed in band 50-249 (density range is lower quartile to median of 34 estimates for 14 species of congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as the species apparently recorded "regularly" at the current known site). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
145585	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The virtually complete loss of all lowland forest on the coastal plain south of the Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os has likely deprived this species of almost all habitat within its probable range. At the Guapi A&ccedil;u, there is a maximum of only 10 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat within the species's known elevational range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145589	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Rio de Janeiro, it occurs in Po&ccedil;o das Antas and Tingu&aacute; Biological Reserves. The unprotected Fazenda Uni&atilde;o<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> is the only site where it occurs with Band-tailed Antwren <em>M. urosticta</em> and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor. </em>In S&atilde;o Paulo, most remaining forest in Serra da Bocaina National Park is at inappropriate altitudes, and Serra do Mar State Park is not adequately protected<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It also occurs in Jur&eacute;ia-Itatins Ecological Station,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>S&atilde;o Paulo<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, and Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve, Esp&iacute;rito Santo<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect Fazenda Uni&atilde;o. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of reserves, especially Serra da Bocaina and Serra do Mar. <strong>Promote environmental awareness in communities near reserves<sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145589	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmotherula minor</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with most recent records in the Serra da Bocaina and Serra do Mar in south Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo. There are also records from Minas Gerais (one site), Esp&iacute;rito Santo and north-east Santa Catarina (one old specimen and one recent record<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), with possible records from Bahia. Although it has been listed for north-east Peru, until there is some undisputed evidence of its occurrence outside the Atlantic forest region, <em>M. minor</em> must be considered restricted to south-east Brazil. Its current range is highly fragmented and it is now rare, with recent records from only a small number of localities<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145589	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the interior of undisturbed and old second growth forest in humid regions where trees are festooned with mosses, bromeliads and other epiphytic growth. Second growth is only tolerated if adjacent to essentially mature forest. It is almost always found near water, either in swampy forest, or close to fast-flowing streams<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Individuals are rarely observed away from mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>1,4,5,7</sup></strong> and forage from ground-level to 12 m, though generally in the range 2-8 m<strong><sup> 7</sup></strong>. Most recent records have been below 300&#160;m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, though it regularly occurs at 800 m in the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145589	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.6-7.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 600-7,200, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range is lowest to lower quartile of 34 estimates for 14 species of congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145589	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been deforested within its historical range, and even some of the protected areas in which it occurs are not secure<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is almost no suitable habitat remaining in Esp&iacute;rito Santo below 700&#160;m, and the lowlands and foothills of south Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo have become easily accessible to humans since the 1970s, with most of the forest below the base of the slopes cleared or heavily degraded<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145591	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A significant proportion of its range is protected in Ambor&oacute; National Park (Santa Cruz), Carrasco National Park (Cochabamba), Isiboro S&eacute;cure National Park (Beni/La Paz), Pil&oacute;n Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory and Madidi National Park (La Paz)<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remaining forests in upper tropical zone in Bolivia. Maintain the integrity of Ambor&oacute; and Carrasco National Parks to ensure their integrity, particularly with respect to encroachment by settlers.</strong></p>	eng
145591	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmotherula grisea</em> is restricted to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong>. It is patchily distributed, even in its apparent stronghold in the adjacent Carrasco and Ambor&oacute; National Parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Generally, it is uncommon to rare, but is locally common in Ambor&oacute;<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145591	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the understorey to the lower canopy of foothill forest, at 600-1,400&#160;m, but is apparently most numerous in a narrow elevational zone above the normal upper limits of its congeners White-flanked Antwren <em>M.&#160;axillaris</em> and Grey Antwren <em>M.&#160;menetriesii</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs in a variety of habitats, having been recorded in extremely wet evergreen forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, vine-tangles in the transitional zone between semi-deciduous or dry forest and riparian forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and in relatively dry, semi-deciduous forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145591	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Herzog <em>et al. </em>(in press) estimated the population to be 70-80,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
145591	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by deforestation within its small geographic and elevational range, especially in La Paz and Cochabamba. Its preferred forest habitats are more accessible and easier to burn than true montane forest, with soils suited to the cultivation of staple food and export crops. Consequently, the region is a favoured target for colonists from the altiplano, and encroachment into protected areas is occurring. Exploration for natural resources takes place in Bolivia's national parks, making mining a potential future threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nevertheless, vast amounts of pristine forest remain in inaccessible areas within the species's elevational range, although it may be excluded by the harsh climate in some of these areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145592	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmotherula unicolor</em> is largely restricted to the lower slopes and coastal plain seaward of the Serra do Mar in Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo, with records also from Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil<sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. More recently, the species has been recorded from a number of new localities, and sites where it is present include: Torres, Itati (Rio Grande do Sul)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; Salto do Pira&iacute;<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, environs of Babitonga bay<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and Serra do Tabuleiro state park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> (Santa Catarina); Guaratuba area (Paran&aacute;)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>; throughout the forests of the Serra de Paranapiacaba and Serra do Mar ranges (S&atilde;o Paulo); Ilha Grande State Park<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, lowlands of Serra da Bocaina National Park and Cairu&ccedil;u Environmental Protection Area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, Tijuca National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Tingu&aacute; Biological Reserve<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Uni&atilde;o Biological Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os National Park<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, Po&ccedil;o das Antas Biological Reserve<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and Desengano State Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (Rio de Janeiro). There are historical records from Paran&aacute; and extreme north Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It inhabits both undisturbed and second growth humid forest, with a canopy height of 8-10&#160;m and an abundance of vines and suspended dead leaves in the undergrowth. It also occurs in coastal restinga woodlands with a canopy of c.8-12&#160;m but, in south S&atilde;o Paulo, it is largely found in the taller, humid forests that replace restinga<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although it reaches elevations of 500&#160;m, most records are below 200&#160;m<strong><sup> 4</sup></strong>. It frequently associates with mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been deforested within its historical range, and even some of the reserves where it occurs are not secure. The lowlands and foothills of south Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo have become easily accessible to humans since the 1970s, with most of the lower forest cleared or heavily degraded<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recreational developments in S&atilde;o Paulo severely threaten the integrity of sand-ridge restingas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Based on the discovery of additional localities and an improved understanding of its range and status, the population is now estimated to exceed 10,000 individuals, and to be declining <30% in 10 years/3 generations (the revised threshold for the A criteria) and this species has therefore been downlisted to Near Threatened. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145592	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on the discovery of additional localities and an improved understanding of its range and status, the population is now estimated to exceed 10,000 individuals (Birdlife International 2007). <br/></p>	eng
145593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145594	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in six protected areas, three of which (Sooretama Biological Reserve, Monte Pascoal National Park and Una Biological Reserve) are afforded the highest legal protection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Appropriate habitat within these reserves is limited, but some secondary growth may regenerate sufficiently<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The unprotected Fazenda Uni&atilde;o, Rio de Janeiro, is the only site where the species occurs with both Salvadori's Antwren <em>M. minor</em> and Unicolored Antwren <em>M. unicolor</em>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect Fazenda Uni&atilde;o. Ensure <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of existing reserves by hiring, training and maintaining guards from local communities. <strong>Actively pursue all measures to stimulate environmental awareness in communities near reserves. <br/></p>	eng
145594	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmotherula urosticta</em> occurs in east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from 25&#160;km north of Valen&ccedil;a, east-central Bahia, south through south-east Bahia, Esp&iacute;rito Santo, to Fazenda Uni&atilde;o, near Rocha Le&atilde;o, east-central Rio de Janeiro, with one old specimen from extreme east Minas Gerais. It appears to be largely dependent on forest at nine or ten sites in south-east Bahia<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, and Sooretama Biological Reserve and Linhares Forest Reserve, north Esp&iacute;rito Santo. Even at these sites its range is restricted but, where present, it is uncommon to fairly common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recently discovered sites in Bahia include: the Serra das Lontras, Helv&eacute;cia - rio Peru&iacute;be, forests between Ituber&aacute; and Camamu (southern Bahia) and the remnant forests of Santo Amaro and Cachoeira (in the Reconcavo area of Bahia)<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145594	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the lower growth of primary or moderately disturbed coastal Atlantic forest (below 100&#160;m), but not second growth with a canopy height of less than c.15-20&#160;m. It is encountered almost exclusively with mixed-species flocks, foraging from 3-9 m above ground, mostly 5-7 m, in live vegetation and vines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is much more common at Sooretama (situated on a plateau with sandy soil and with a variable dry season) than the adjacent Linhares (very slightly lower-elevation forest), but the significance of this is unknown<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145594	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 7.2-18.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 580 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 4,176-10,440, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range is lower quartile to median of 34 estimates for 14 species of congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as species described as "uncommon to fairly common" where present). <br/></p>	eng
145594	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually all lowland Atlantic forest outside protected areas has been cleared within its historical range, and even some of the protected areas in which it occurs are not secure<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its habitats are historically threatened by agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production, and current key threats are urbanisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145595	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145596	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145599	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has recently been discovered in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. However, this designation appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation within its boundaries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to elucidate the species's status near Abra Patricia. Census areas adjacent to the mountain ridge near Jes&uacute;s de Monte to estimate the population and improve knowledge of the species's distribution<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Create a reserve on this isolated mountain ridge. Enforce the protection of habitat in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-altitude forest is included within its boundary<sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145599	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Herpsilochmus parkeri</em> was discovered in 1983, near Jes&uacute;s del Monte, on an isolated mountain ridge between the r&iacute;os Mayo and Paranapura, San Mart&iacute;n, north <strong>Peru</strong>, where it was found to be relatively common in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In July 1999, one individual was found above Afluente, near Abra Patricia, San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the first record away from the type-locality.  <br/></p>	eng
145599	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-locality is a low isolated mountain ridge at 1,350&#160;m, vegetated by a mosaic of humid montane forest and savanna-like habitat with transitional, semi-stunted forest, and edaphic stunted forest. The observation near Abra Patricia was at 1,450&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species favours the mid- and upper-levels of the tallest forest, in areas with a relatively closed canopy and many epiphytes, but is also seen regularly at the savanna-forest ecotone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds move around in pairs, often with mixed-species flocks, feeding on invertebrates. Breeding is most likely to take place from May to September or October. <br/></p>	eng
145599	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.6-9.6 individuals/km2 x 15 km2 (estimated AOO) = 39-144, but probably best placed in band 250-999, as AOO almost certainly underestimated (density range from estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145599	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its tiny geographic range is coupled with widespread deforestation of the adjacent lowlands in the r&iacute;o Mayo valley. Forest clearings are gradually encroaching further up onto the mountain ridge. Coca and coffee are widely cultivated in this region. Around Afluente, remaining areas of suitable habitat are gradually being cleared for timber, agriculture, and to secure ownership of the land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated, albeit more extensively at lower altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements, recent immigration and population growth in the area<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145600	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145602	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Herpsilochmus pileatus</em> is locally uncommon in caatinga scrub and deciduous woodland in interior north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> up to 1,000&#160;m. It has been recorded from Barra do Corda in central Maranh&atilde;o, Serra do Cachimbo in south Par&aacute;, Chapada de Araripe and V&aacute;rzea Formosa in Cear&aacute;, and several localities in central and south Bahia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and north Minas Gerais<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The relatively small number of known localities is combined with general disturbance of its habitat - the extent of agricultural expansion, grazing and burning is testimony to the prevalence of human pressure throughout its range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Pressure has increased since the 1970s: the Brazilian oil company, Petrobr&aacute;s, has built roads into the caatinga providing access for the settlement of new areas, and government agencies have relocated many families to the region<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145602	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population size unknown, and there is currently insufficient information to extrapolate an estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145607	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Serra de Itabaiana Ecological Station, Sergipe, and Chapada da Diamantina National Park, Bahia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Logging trucks were observed extracting timber from the latter in February 1996<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, indicating that protection is inadequate.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to improve knowledge of its distribution and habitat requirements. Survey Serra de Itabaiana for this and other threatened species. Map and ecologically evaluate extant patches of deciduous forest<sup>2</sup></strong>, especially in Bahia. <strong>Conduct long-term studies on the ecology of this species's forests (e.g. succession and selective logging) to develop viable strategies for economic utilisation<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Create a system of conservation units (following surveys and mapping) that adequately protects the species, including the site 23&#160;km from Jeremoaba in Bahia, an area in central Maranh&atilde;o and the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection and expansion of Chapada da Diamantina National Park to include known sites just outside the park's boundaries. <br/></p>	eng
145607	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Herpsilochmus pectoralis</em> possesses an unusual and highly fragmented range in north-east Maranhão (most recently, Axixá in the 1980s, Bacabal in 1974<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and Fazenda do Caimbo in 1972), east Rio Grande do Norte (Natal in 1987), Sergipe (Itabaiana in 1991) and north-east Bahia (eight localities, five with records since 1980<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>), north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is clearly extremely local but, although overall numbers are presumably not high, it is fairly common at some sites in Bahia.<strong></strong><p></p>	eng
145607	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits gallery forest and deciduous forest in Maranh&atilde;o, and tall caatinga woodland and closed, old secondary forest in Bahia. It survives in remnant woodlots characterised by numerous trees over 10&#160;m, and often 15-20&#160;m, but is not found in adjacent habitats with smaller trees. Some of these woodlots are moderately grazed, but it only occurs where there is still a fairly well developed understorey. </p>	eng
145607	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.6-9.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 860 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,236-8,256, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range from estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO owing to the species's highly fragmented range). <br/><p></p>	eng
145607	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is still insufficiently known to determine precise threats, but clearance for irrigated and dry field agriculture has removed extensive tracts of deciduous forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The high biomass of these forests makes them important sources of charcoal for Brazil's steel and pig-iron industries, and supposedly substitute plantations of <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. are being used by the paper pulp industry<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Intensive grazing and extensive burning are widespread throughout its range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145608	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145611	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145612	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Formicivora iheringi</em> is known from nine sites in eastern Bahia (Senhor do Bonfim, Iramaia, Novo Acre, Jagaquara, Boa Nova, Jacobina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Serrinha<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, south of Jequi&eacute; and three localities in the Chapada Diamantina National Park<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>) and six sites in north-east Minas Gerias (Almenara, Divis&oacute;polis, Pedra Azul<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and recently Ara&ccedil;au&iacute;<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Botumirim<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Turmalina<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), east <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent findings in Minas Gerias suggest a larger extent of occurrence than previously thought, and show the species is able to use several types of forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It typically inhabits tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest (250-1,050 m)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, apparently favouring mata-de-cip&oacute; interiors with vine-tangles and patches of terrestrial bromeliads. It forages for invertebrates singly or in pairs, sometimes with flocks, generally 3-8 m above the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Population size is not known, but the species is considered common at Boa Nova and around Vitoria da Conquista, where recent surveys found it common in all forest fragments visited, and it is described as relatively abundant at Aracuai and Botumirim. Its habitats are being rapidly cleared for cattle pasture in central-south Bahia, and much of the forest in north-east Minas Gerais and adjacent south Bahia has been cleared for coffee plantations. At Aracuai, tourmaline miners have disturbed all caatinga vegetation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Natural habitats are reduced to hilltops around Boa Nova<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and remaining forest patches are highly disturbed by livestock and subject to local exploitation of trees for firewood and fenceposts<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, observations at Boa Nova suggest it is able to cope with forest fragmentation, persisting in small areas. The species is protected under Brazilian law. <em> <br/></p>	eng
145613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145614	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145615	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145616	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in the buffer-zone of the Serra da Boca&iacute;na National Park. It may occur in Tamoios Environmental Protection Area, but the limits of this reserve are unclear on the ground<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations. Designate protected areas in Mambucaba and Arir&oacute;. Ensure that the Tamoios Environmental Protection Area encompasses part of this species's range. Devise strategies for habitat management that favour this species. <br/></p>	eng
145616	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Formicivora erythronotos</em> survives in a narrow coastal strip around the Ba&iacute;a da Ilha Grande in south Rio de Janeiro, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Although known from c.20 specimens collected in the 19th century, it was unrecorded for over 100 years until its rediscovery in 1987. It has been subsequently found at a further seven sites<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. The main localities are Arir&oacute; (densities of 89 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>) and Vale do Mambucaba (156 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Smaller numbers have also been recorded at Bracu&iacute;, Frade, S&atilde;o Gon&ccedil;alo, Taquari and Barra Grande<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145616	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It was rediscovered in a swampy patch of secondary forest near the forest-mangrove ecotone. Subsequent records have found the species to occur mostly in the lush understorey of modified restinga, early successional habitats such as second growth and the understorey of old second growth<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, and sometimes abandoned banana plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. These areas are dominated by pioneer species, including <em>Lantana camara</em>, <em>Cecropia</em> sp., <em>Morus</em> sp., <em>Rubus</em>, <em>Vernonia</em> sp. and grasses<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has once successfully colonised fields two months after burning, where there was little regenerating vegetation<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in second growth from mid-August to early February, with eggs producing an average of 0.23 young<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145616	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 40 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 58 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 2,320, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density estimate consistent with status as a [locally] common antwren, which may occur at even higher densities at certain sites). <br/></p>	eng
145616	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It cannot tolerate many of the human activities occurring within its range. Development of the narrow coastal plain for tourism and beachside housing has been extensive and threatens the small remnant patches of suitable habitat, especially at Fazenda Arir&oacute; where there are plans for a large hotel complex<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. There is widespread clearance of <em>Euterpe</em> sp. palms for pasture and plantations, both of which provide unsuitable habitat for this species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Such plantations have reduced available habitat in the Vale do Mambucaba<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145620	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Drymophila genei</em> is common at 1,000-2,200&#160;m in bamboo-dominated lower growth of montane Atlantic forest and secondary woodland in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Esp&iacute;rito Santo, south-east Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and north-east S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It has been recorded at eight sites, most of which are isolated patches of habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, these montane forests have not suffered the same extensive loss as adjacent lowlands, but there has been some clearance for pasture and cultivation, especially in the north of its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145620	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient data to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145621	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Drymophila ochropyga</em> is uncommon to locally fairly common at 600-1,300&#160;m in bamboo-dominated understorey of lowland and montane evergreen forest, second-growth woodland and edge in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and south-east Minas Gerais to south-east S&atilde;o Paulo and Santa Catarina)<strong><sup>3,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145621	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient data to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145624	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145627	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although land at Murici remains privately-owned and vulnerable to clearance, international efforts to effect its conservation are ongoing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting 630 ha of forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Novo Lino, &Aacute;gua Azul, the poorly-known forests at Usina Serra Grande and any other remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas and Pernambuco to ascertain the species's presence, and identify suitable areas for conservation action. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of Murici Ecological Station. <strong>Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em></strong> protection at Pedra Talhada. <strong>Investigate the expansion of Frei Caneca Private Reserve to include adjacent forest. <br/></p>	eng
145627	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Terenura sicki</em> has been recorded at six localities from the south-east escarpment of the Borborema plateau in Alagoas, north along this coastal range to Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is fairly common in the small and fragmented forests at Murici and regularly recorded at Pedra Talhada. There are additional records from Usina Serra Grande in 1996 (where it was uncommon)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Novo Lino in 1986, &Aacute;gua Azul in 1989, and Frei Caneca in 2003<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145627	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the upper strata of upland humid forest at 400-700&#160;m. Despite occurring in forests that have suffered severe selective logging, it is not present in degraded secondary growth. It is usually seen following mixed-species flocks, even during the breeding season, but isolated pairs have been observed. The diet includes insects such as beetles and cockroaches. Breeding probably occurs from November-February. A nest has been found in the dense foliage of a middle-stratum tree, c.10-12&#160;m above the ground. <br/></p>	eng
145627	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 12.0 individuals/km2 x 54 km2 (45% EOO) = 648, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density is median of three estimates for congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
145627	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. Forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations and further logging (new roads were evident in January 1999)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. There is significant (and largely unsurveyed) forest remaining at Usina Serra Grande<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but the current condition of forest at &Aacute;gua Azul and in Novo Lino is unknown. <br/></p>	eng
145628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145629	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145630	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The late 19th century specimen locality in Peru lies within what is now the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone. It probably occurs in Madidi National Park (Bolivia)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and at higher elevations of the serran&iacute;as Beu and Cuchillo in Pil&oacute;n Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory, La Paz. The Chapar&eacute; site is within 20&#160;km of the western boundary of Carrasco National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey forests in areas of the upper tropical zone at and between the known localities. Support and strengthen the effective protection of protected areas in the lower Yungas. <br/></p>	eng
145630	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Terenura sharpei</em> is endemic to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz and Cochabamba) and immediately adjacent <strong>Peru</strong> (Puno, but no recent records). It is recorded extremely rarely: a sighting from the Cochabamba-Villa Tunari road, Chapar&eacute;, Cochabamba, in 1979; a number of sightings and two specimens taken at km&#160;35 and km&#160;47 on the road north-north-west of Cara&ntilde;avi, La Paz, in 1979-1980<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; one male c.15-20&#160;km north-east of Cara&ntilde;avi in 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; and an individual in a mixed-species flock in Chapar&eacute;, Cochabamba, 2000<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There remains the possibility that it has been overlooked to some extent. The "reasonably high density" of this species along the Manu road, and the large expanse of suitable forest towards northern Bolivia, could imply a population estimate exceeding 10,000 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Numbers have almost certainly declined substantially owing to recent deforestation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145630	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid, montane forest, at 1,100-1,700&#160;m, where it forages 10-20&#160;m up in the dense outer edge of the canopy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A male was seen in a mixed-species flock passing through the canopy of a shade coffee plantation adjacent to undisturbed forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145630	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.1-17.0 individuals/km2 x 478 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,004-8,126, but probably best placed in band 2,500-10,000 as possibly overlooked to some extent (density range from estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
145630	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Accessible areas with suitable habitat (including north of Cara&ntilde;avi) are being cleared for cultivation of coffee, citrus fruit and, at lower altitudes, coca and tea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The soils on which its preferred forest grows are relatively rich, and are being exploited for small-scale agriculture by immigrants from the Bolivian altiplano. <br/></p>	eng
145631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145633	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cercomacra brasiliana</em> is known from few localities in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from central Bahia, south through extreme east Minas Gerais and Esp&iacute;rito Santo to south Rio de Janeiro. It is nowhere common, and is generally rare and local<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In common with congeners, it favours thick undergrowth, such as caatinga tangles and bamboo thickets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, within forest and edge habitats up to 950&#160;m. Although presumably threatened by deforestation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its apparent tolerance of secondary habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> may reduce the impact of habitat degradation and fragmentation. <br/></p>	eng
145633	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to estimate population size. <br/></p>	eng
145634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145636	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Much of the range of this species falls within the Araguaia National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The degree of protection afforded by this National Park is unknown. No specific action known.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Undertake necessary surveys to establish range and population numbers.  Undertake research into the natural history of the species in order to identify its ecological requirements.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
145636	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cercomacra ferdinandi</em> is endemic to <strong>Brazil</strong> occurring along the east bank of the Araguaia river from Ilha do Bananal up to at least Araguatins, and the left margin of the Tocantins river between Palmeirante and Baba&ccedil;ul&acirc;ndia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. All localities are in Tocantins state (Central Brazil).  <br/></p>	eng
145636	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is found in riparian thickets and forest undergrowth near water (frequently in seasonally flooded areas and oxbow lakes). Breeding and feeding ecology are poorly known. Feeds individually, in pairs, or in small family groups on a variety of invertebrate prey. Forages in thick vegetation but occasionally pursues flushed prey in flight<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145636	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although restricted in range and extent of suitable habitat, it is common where it occurs, however, this population estimate is preliminary and requires confirmation.   <br/></p>	eng
145636	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The specialized habitat makes the species susceptible to changes in hydrological management, and there are on-going plans to build a series of large hydroelectrical plants along the entire Tocantins river (two have already been flooded and a third is being built) and most of the Araguaia river. These developments are already inferred to be causing population declines<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145639	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys have clearly delimited the species's range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but no other measures have been taken. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the impact of recent fires on the species. Protect river-island habitat, especially Ilha Boa &Aacute;gua and Ilha S&atilde;o Jose with adjacent gallery forest on the mainland.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
145639	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cercomacra carbonaria</em> is limited to middle sections of the rio Branco and some of its tributaries in Roraima, extreme north <strong>Brazil</strong>, and adjacent <strong>Guyana</strong>. It ranges from Caracarai in the south, along the rio Branco and rio Tacutu to the Ireng river in Guyana, less than 2&#160;km from its confluence with the rio Tacutu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been found on the rio Mucaja&iacute;, and was recorded on the rio Uraricoera in 2001<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1994, the estimated extent of available habitat is 250&#160;km<sup>2</sup> or less, and extrapolations from territory sizes on Ilha S&atilde;o Jose indicate that the maximum mainland population was c.3,700 birds, with a further 500-1,000 on river islands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145639	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On the mainland, it apparently only occurs in dense thickets along the river edge, where suitable habitat is restricted to within 0.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of the rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Ilha S&atilde;o Jose, it largely inhabits interior, densely wooded forest, with trees 20-30&#160;m in height<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has also been found in dense second growth, consisting mostly of overgrown manioc plantations with widely scattered, 20-30&#160;m trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The diameter of territories is 100-150&#160;m, and breeding is probably in the wet season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145639	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Vale et al extended the range to 723km2, assuming 80 individuals per km2 gives c.15,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
145639	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been some conversion to agriculture, especially rice cultivation, and some trees in the gallery forest are selective logged<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the major threat may be the burning of habitat. In 1998, c.75% of Ilha S&atilde;o Jose was burnt, and widespread fires in Roraima in 1999 probably had a severe impact on its river-edge habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145643	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect the patches of forest at localities in the vicinity of Santa Luzia de Itanhi. Survey all suitable habitat within range to establish occurrence. Investigate its ecological requirements.  <br/></p>	eng
145643	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyriglena atra</em> is known from the narrow belt of Atlantic forest in the vicinity of Salvador, coastal Bahia (west of the town of Santo Amaro), including forest patches along the "Linha Verde" highway, north to southern Sergipe (in the vicinity of Crasto and Santa Luzia de Itanhi<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent fieldwork has shown that this distribution is not as disjunct as previously thought, as the species occurs in the remaining forest and secondary-growth patches along the northern coast of Bahia at Conde and Janda&iacute;ra<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Substantial habitat loss must have significantly reduced the population, but its preference for dense secondary growth means its range, whilst still small, is likely to have been underestimated.<em> <br/></p>	eng
145643	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the tangled undergrowth of lowland forest, where it appears to favour second growth and other semi-open habitats with horizontal perches near the ground. In 1974, the species was very common at Santo Amaro in tall second growth, uncommon in tall forest, and rare in patches of second growth where most of the undergrowth had been removed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is found in pairs and small groups, rarely joining mixed-species flocks, but regularly following army-ant swarms. Breeding appears to occur in October-November. <br/></p>	eng
145643	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 998 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,098-2,395, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,500 (density from lowest to lower quartile of ten estimates for six species of <em>Cercomacra</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Database). <br/></p>	eng
145643	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss within its known range has been substantial, even of the second growth in which it appears to be most abundant. It has been reported more frequently from larger forest fragments<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and remaining tracts are destined to become ever smaller and more isolated. <br/></p>	eng
145644	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all remaining patches of forest within its range to clarify status. Study its ecological requirements. Establish a protected area at one or more sites where the species occurs, perhaps in conjunction with an experimental agricultural station. Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest patches at Boa Nova and Fazenda Santana. <br/></p>	eng
145644	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhopornis ardesiaca</em> occupies a small range in east Bahia (from Ipaot&eacute; south to Boa Nova) and north-east Minas Gerais (Fazenda Santana, near Salto da Divisa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Although it can be locally common, it is very rare and presumably declining owing to the rapid loss and fragmentation of its restricted habitat. <br/></p>	eng
145644	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dry forest (mata-de-cip&oacute;) between 100-1,000&#160;m, in areas characterised by a fairly open understorey with an abundance of lianas and patches of the huge terrestrial bromeliads <em>Aechmea</em> that typically occur on deep soils. Pairs seem to have small home ranges (barely 50&#160;m across, though this has been questioned<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), but as suitable bromeliad patches are seldom close together, territories are usually separated by 100&#160;m or more. The birds feed on the ground, on low branches and in the bromeliads, where they toss leaves searching for invertebrate prey, including grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches, spiders and winged termites. Breeding occurs primarily in October-December. A nest apparently of this species was found near the ground in a patch of terrestrial bromeliads.  <br/></p>	eng
145644	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 488 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 537-1,171, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499, as can be "locally common" within remaining habitat (density from lowest to lower quartile of ten estimates for six species of <em>Cercomacra</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145644	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Dry forest in east Bahia has been reduced to scattered fragments by rapid and continuing clearance for cattle pasture. Fragments totalled about 965 km<sup>2</sup> in the early 1970s and, by 1990, 5-20% (nearer 5%) of primary dry forest was estimated to remain in this part of Bahia. However, much of what remains is apparently unsuitable for the species since many woodlots are highly disturbed by livestock. Furthermore, it has not been found in several areas of relatively pristine habitat. <br/></p>	eng
145645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145648	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmoborus melanurus</em> is known from a relatively small range along the r&iacute;os Aypena (at its confluence with the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n), Tigre, Samiria, Pacaya, Ucayali and upper Amazonas, in Loreto, north-east <strong>Peru<sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. Appropriate habitat is extensive on these rivers, as well as the Pastaza and Napo, and the species will almost certainly be found at further locations in their drainages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is uncommon, even now its voice and habits are known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in seasonally flooded humid lowland forest<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong> at elevations up to c.200&#160;m. At most sites, it has been recorded in low bushy forest with profuse vine tangles, on river islands, around oxbow lakes, along small rivers and creeks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Along the r&iacute;o Tigre, it has been recorded on the margins of black water oxbow lakes with stunted forest, and in swampy forest dominated by <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em> palm trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Large tracts of suitable habitat remain, but deforestation is occurring within its range, especially near Iquitos. The region is under threat from oil exploration and extraction, while associated road-building has facilitated further human colonisation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been found during recent inventories of Pacaya Samiria Reserve, but this is a multiple-use area, with nature conservation primarily oriented to support economic activities<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145648	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to estimate population size. <br/></p>	eng
145650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145652	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145660	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145664	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, occurs in Pedra Talhada and Sooretama Biological Reserves, and may persist at Saltinho and C&oacute;rrego do Veado Biological Reserves, and Tapacur&aacute; and Serra dos Cavalos UFPE Ecological Stations. There is a reforestation scheme and active protection at Pedra Talhada<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey remnant habitat patches in the north-east, and C&oacute;rrego do Veado. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em></strong> protection. <strong>Effectively protect other forest fragments, especially in north-east Brazil. Continue conservation measures at Pedra Talhada. Investigate protecting the newly discovered site on the rio Mucuri. <br/></p>	eng
145664	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmeciza ruficauda</em> has a disjunct range in north-east and east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The nominate race is known from C&oacute;rrego do Veado (in 1986) and Sooretama (uncommon), Esp&iacute;rito Santo, and the rio Mucuri (first recorded in 1997), Bahia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There have been no other records from Bahia since 1974<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and none from Esp&iacute;rito Santo since 1950. The only record in Minas Gerais was from the rio Doce in 1930, but it was discovered near Salto da Divisa, in extreme north-east Minas Gerais, in 2001<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The race <em>soror</em> is fairly common at Murici and there are recent records from Pedra Talhada, Usina Serra Grande<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Usina Utinga Le&atilde;o, Alagoas. There are other records from &Aacute;gua Azul (pre-1986), Tapacur&aacute; (1979), Serra dos Cavalos (1986) and Saltinho (1986), Pernambuco, and five birds were collected from Para&iacute;ba in 1957. <br/></p>	eng
145664	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The nominate race frequents undergrowth close to the ground, often favouring the interior of tall drier forest near treefall gaps, where vegetation is characterised by an abundance of vines and small tree trunks. The race <em>soror</em> seems largely terrestrial, favouring light gaps and fairly open areas near dense cover in mature forest. It has been found in degraded second growth. A ground nest with two eggs has been found. Territories appear small (<1&#160;ha) but well spaced. Breeding apparently occurs in October-November in the east and March-May in the north-east. <br/></p>	eng
145664	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4-11.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 176 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 422-1,954, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499, as described as "fairly common" at certain sites (density from lower quartile to median of ten estimates for six congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145664	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In the north-east, logging and clearance for sugarcane and pasturelands has reduced remaining forests to isolated and fragmented patches. Murici is severely threatened by logging and fires spreading from adjacent plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Further south, little forest remains because of conversion to plantation agriculture<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145666	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common within its restricted range and habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145672	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145673	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145674	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145675	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145676	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Populations occur in two protected areas, El Tundo Nature Reserve, Ecuador<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve), Peru. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey for the species in suitable habitat within and adjacent to its known range. Protect additional forest within its range. Fence El Tundo Nature Reserve to exclude livestock<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the association with bamboo and what  importance this has to the species's conservation.  <br/></p>	eng
145676	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myrmeciza griseiceps</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque). It is rare to locally uncommon, and overall numbers must be very small.  <br/></p>	eng
145676	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This poorly-known antbird is confined to <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo and dense undergrowth in semi-deciduous moist forest, cloud-forest and, occasionally, deciduous forest, at 600-2,900 m. It keeps to dense vegetation, rarely above 4 m, where it tends to forage in pairs or family groups, often within mixed-species understorey flocks. The diet is unrecorded, but it probably takes invertebrates. Its breeding ecology is virtually unknown, although two juveniles were taken in June, suggesting that it nests during the wet season, in January-May. This is supported by observations that it is much more vocal in the early wet season. <br/></p>	eng
145676	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-2.4 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,790 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,969-4,296, i.e. probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from lowest to lower quartile of ten estimates for six congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145676	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900 m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss is ongoing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all extant lowland forest unless effective action is taken urgently. Intense trampling and grazing by goats and cattle damage the understorey and prevent tree regeneration in closed-canopy forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, and recent information suggests that cattle grazing may have caused a decline in the species at El Tundo Nature Reserve<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. At higher elevations within its range, habitat destruction is not as severe, but logging, agricultural conversion and plantations are destroying and degrading forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Cutting of bamboo for pack-animal food is also a problem. These threats have already led to fragmentation of available habitat. <br/></p>	eng
145677	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pithys castaneus</em> was known from a single specimen collected in September 1937 in the Amazonian forest lowlands, at Andoas on the lower r&iacute;o Pastaza, in what is now <strong>Peru</strong>. It was rediscovered in July 2001 on the r&iacute;o Morona in western Loreto, northern Peru, and field photographs and specimens were obtained<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Searches for it, in 1979 and 1990, were unsuccessful, although the latter expedition may have examined areas that were too high for the species. The type-locality is a source of confusion and the forest state in the relevant area of Peru is poorly known. Further information on the rediscovery of the species may lead to its reclassification. <br/></p>	eng
145679	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Given its relatively small range and specialised habitat requirements, there are thought to be less than 10,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
145680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145684	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145687	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from the east bank of the rio Madeira south and east through Rondônia to west Mato Grosso on the Serra dos Parecís and Serra das Ararasin in central Amazonian Brazil.	eng
145687	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found at elevations up to 300 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and is common in undergrowth of tropical lowland evergreen forest.	eng
145687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145687	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is highly sensitive to human disturbance and is suffering from widespread deforestation, particularly in Mato Grosso and Rondônia, which has increased markedly since the 1960s owing to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996). The principal threats are the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991), which has declined in the 1990s, and commercial logging, which is increasingly signficant (M. Cohn-Haft in litt. 1999).	eng
145688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145689	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in undergrowth of tropical lowland evergreen forest in east Amazonian Brazil (mainly between the east bank of the lower rio Tapajós and west bank of the lower rio Xingu in Pará, south to Alta Floresta in north Mato Grosso).	eng
145689	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found at elevations up to 400 m (Sick 1993, Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145689	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common within its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145689	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is suffering from widespread deforestation in Pará and, particularly, Mato Grosso, which has increased markedly since the 1960s due to road building, ranching, smallholder agriculture, mining and hydroelectric development (Cleary 1991, Stotz et al. 1996). The principal threat has been the expansion of the agricultural frontier as a direct result of highway construction (Cleary 1991). However, as road building patterns have changed in the 1990s, the rate of forest clearance has fallen throughout its range.	eng
145690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145695	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145696	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145698	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded recently in Bras&iacute;lia, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Serra da Canastra and Emas National Parks<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct surveys of suitable habitats within and surrounding the known range, particularly in Paraguay, to determine its true distribution and abundance. Promote the conservation of remaining primary cerrado habitats.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Geositta poeciloptera</em> occurs within interior south-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (from S&atilde;o Paulo, where it is now considered extinct, north to Minas Gerais, Goi&aacute;s and Mato Grosso), north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (north-east Santa Cruz in the Serran&iacute;a de Huanchaca), and a specimen was collected in <strong>Paraguay</strong> in 1938<strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>.<em> </em>Although it may be locally common in places such as Serra da Canastra National Park after late dry-season fires, it is generally uncommon and has declined as large areas of cerrado are converted for agriculture, cattle-ranching and plantations .<em> <br/></p>	eng
145698	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is rare to temporarily relatively common in open campo cerrado, where there are at most a few scattered trees, mainly at 500-1,200 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is often most numerous on recently burnt terrain, even where the ground is still smoking<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>, and has disappeared from some areas of S&atilde;o Paulo owing to a lack of fires in the cerrado<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145698	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996). <br/></p>	eng
145698	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There has been extensive conversion of cerrado habitats to mechanised agriculture, cattle ranching and plantations of non-native tree species<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Two thirds of cerrado habitats had been moderately or extensively altered by 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suppression of fires on cerrado caused the disappearance of this species from some areas of S&atilde;o Paulo. Open cerrados on flat ground (such as plateau tops) are prime sites for conversion so this species may have suffered particularly badly. It does not adapt to artificial grasslands/pastures and is not found in frequently-burned savannas<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145699	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145702	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145705	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145707	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the arid montane scrub and deciduous woodland of west Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, La Paz, Potosí and Chuquisaca, south Bolivia (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Armonía 1995, Herzog et al. 1997).	eng
145709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has an elevational range of 1,450-2,960 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994) but mostly inhabits intermontane valleys below 2,000 m.	eng
145709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145709	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Further human settlement and agricultural expansion seriously threaten remaining woodland fragments, but the species is also found in sparsely vegetated areas with terrestrial bromeliads that are typical of severely overgrazed areas (Herzog et al. 1997).	eng
145710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145713	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145715	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its limited range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145720	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs within Aparados da Serra and Serra Geral national parks and the proposed S&atilde;o Joaquim National Park.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protect remaining temperate grassland within the species's range. Assess the rate of habitat conversion and future proposals for <em>Pinus</em> plantations. Obtain a reliable global population estimate. Research the species's resilience to habitat modification.  <br/></p>	eng
145720	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cinclodes pabsti</em> is confined to south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it occurs in south-east Santa Catarina state and north-east Rio Grande do Sul state. The species is apparently rare in the areas surrounding these two parks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; however, it is reportedly quite common within the proposed S&atilde;o Joaquim National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but its global population size has not been estimated. <br/></p>	eng
145720	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits temperate grassland, pastures and agricultural land in higher areas; open grassland, often rocky and often near houses, usually near water. There are also records from urban areas and along roadsides<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It can persist for over 2 years after an area is planted with <em>Pinus</em>, but it is displaced by the time the trees have reached 7 m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145720	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is threatened by rapid habitat conversion into <em>Pinus</em> plantations across much of its range, with up to 60% of grassland converted in some areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Similarly an increase in the area of vineyards and apple orchards poses a threat. <br/>  <br/></p>	eng
145721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145727	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145729	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded in Jun&iacute;n National Reserve.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to conduct surveys to better determine its current distribution and population size, especially in the highlands east of La Oroya and in Huancavelica. Assess its precise ecological requirements to determine reasons for this species's apparently restricted range and rarity. Designate reserves to provide legal protection for known areas. Monitor changes in habitat caused by increasing peat extraction, and their effects on populations<sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
145729	distribution		<em>Cinclodes palliatus</em> is rare and very local in the high Andes of <strong>Peru</strong> in Jun&iacute;n, immediately adjacent Lima and (at least formerly) Huancavelica. Since 1952, the majority of records have been from six sites, confined within an area of c.24 km diameter, in the Cordillera de Huayhuash (Jun&iacute;n/Lima)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with a single sighting of a stray bird near Lago de Jun&iacute;n (Jun&iacute;n) in 1978<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The type-specimen was collected at Monta&ntilde;a de V&iacute;toc, which is presumably in the large massif east of La Oroya, Jun&iacute;n, drained by the r&iacute;o V&iacute;toc. There have been no subsequent records from this area, nor from the localities in Huancavelica where specimens were collected in the 1930s and 1940s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is rare and local, being absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat, and may be declining. In 2003, 28 individuals were counted at six known sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and given the number of suitable bogs within its range it was suggested that the global population may potentially number as many as 200-1,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Further searches of suitable habitat yielded no new locations for the species, and failed to find any record of the species in Huancavelica, and its population is now thought to number near the lower end of the previous population estimate<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.	eng
145729	habitat		It inhabits boggy terrain from 4,600 m to the snowline at c.5,000 m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to have very specific habitat requirements: mineral-rich, well-watered cushion-plant (e.g. <em>Distichia</em>) bogs with rocky outcrops and stony slopes nearby, often below glaciers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds are usually seen in pairs or small groups of 3-4 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with a maximum of 5 birds at each site<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. When feeding it probes vegetation for worms, small frogs and insects. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but it is likely that the nest is placed in a crevice or under rocks.	eng
145729	population		The population was estimated at between 200 and 1,000 individuals in 2003 (G. Engblom <em>in litt.</em> 2003). Further surveys have failed to find records of the species at additional localities, hence the population is thought to be at the lower end of this estimate or perhaps even lower (J. Barrio <em>in litt.</em> 2009; R. E. Gibbons <em>in litt.</em> 2009). Therefore, the population is best placed in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
145730	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145733	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145734	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145738	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands were designated as a national park in 1935 (protected from 1967) and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1977. Sheep were removed from the island in 1983<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A goat control programme was undertaken from 1998-2003 but has only continued on a sporadic basis since<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The Chilean government began a habitat restoration programme in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but that effort concluded in 2003. The islands have been nominated for World Heritage listing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is one ranger posted on Alejandro Selkirk<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but there are plans to begin having two rangers working on the island. Eighty-one nest boxes were installed in a variety of habitats in 2006<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, with at least three having been used during the 2006-2007 breeding season. Other monitoring work is ongoing and efforts continue to improve current population estimates and knowledge of the species's ecology and habitat requirements, to quantify threats and to develop a conservation plan for the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Educational materials including posters and community talks have been produced by Juan Fernandez Islands Conservancy<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Eradicate goats from Alejandro Selkirk. Establish a continuous monitoring scheme of the species's population and its reproductive success<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Compare with the ecological requirements of Thorn-tailed Rayadito <em>A. spinicauda</em> on the mainland, and other Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands endemics to develop management strategies<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate feral cats and rats from the island (this action has the potential to benefit all bird species breeding on the island). Continue educational programmes to increase awareness of the species, both in the islands and more broadly to the general public. Extend control programme and fully eradicate three important invasive plant species: murtilla <em>Ugni molinae</em>, elm-leaf blackberry <em>Rubus ulmifolius</em> and maqui <em>Aristotelia chilensis</em> (unlike on Robinson Crusoe, the populations of these three species are still quite manageable on Selkirk and could realistically be eradicated).	eng
145738	distribution		<em>Aphrastura masafuerae</em> is endemic to Alejandro Selkirk (M&aacute;s Afuera) in the Juan Fern&aacute;ndez Islands, <strong>Chile</strong>. The population was estimated at c.500 individuals in the mid-1980s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and at c.200 individuals in 1992-1993<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with a repeat survey in 2001-2002 giving an estimate of c.140 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. If confirmed, this would represent a decline of 30% in just under a decade, indicating that the population as a whole underwent a decline of 72% since the mid-1980s. However, surveys in 2006 and 2007 recorded 248 individuals occupying one third to one quarter of all available suitable habitat<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. These figures indicate that the global population may not have declined significantly in recent years and that variation is due to sampling methodology.	eng
145738	habitat		This gleaning insectivore is found primarily in <em>Dicksonia externa</em> fern forest, and has a strong association was with canelo <em>Drimys confertifolia</em>. It is most common along stream courses where luxuriant <em>Dicksonia</em> grows to a height of 5 m. There are records at elevations as low as 600 m, but it occurs primarily at 800-1,300 m in the austral summer<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species has a minimum territory size of 4 ha per pair in optimal habitat, although most are larger due to poorer habitat quality, and it nests in natural and man-made cavities, particularly in small natural holes in steep rocks<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs from early December to late January<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and fledglings have been noted in February<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It is typically skulking and found in pairs.	eng
145738	population		Surveys in 2006 and 2007 estimated c.248 individuals occupying between a third and a quarter of all potentially suitable habitat available. Avoiding upward extrapolation, the overall population is likely to fall within the band 250-1,000 individuals.	eng
145739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145740	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145744	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been some attempts to draw local attention to the plight of <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands in Cuzco, Peru. In the Runtacocha highland, local families have been advised by a Cuzco-based conservation group, and appear positive towards better environmental control<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys of <em>Polylepis</em> and high-altitude habitats have been conducted and suggestions for the conservation of these habitats have been published<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Survey remaining <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect Yanacocha forest and other <em>Polylepis</em></strong> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand the <em>Polylepis</em></strong> planting programme, and plant buffer zones below <em>Polylepis</em> woodland with firewood species to provide an alternative fuel source<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145744	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptasthenura xenothorax</em> has a very restricted and severely fragmented range in the Runtacocha highland (Apur&iacute;mac), the Nevado Sacsarayoc massif and the Cordillera Vilcanota (Cuzco), south-central <strong>Peru</strong>. Significant populations of c.35-70 individuals were estimated at three sites in Cuzco in 1987-1989, but declines have been observed at some of these, and the population density is very low in the Runtacocha highland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The patchiness and scarcity of its habitat, which may now occupy less than 3% of the estimated potential cover in large parts of Cuzco<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggests that the total population must now be very small<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with one recent estimate of 500-1,500 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145744	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in small, often widely scattered, patches of humid <em>Polylepis</em> woodland at elevations of 3,700-4,550&#160;m. An adult was observed attending a nest-hole in a <em>Polylepis</em> tree in November 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but its breeding ecology remains very poorly known. It forages in pairs or small family groups of three or four, picking insects from the bark, moss and lichens on twigs, branches and trunks, often in mixed-species flocks. <br/></p>	eng
145744	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engblom <em>et al</em>. (2002). <br/></p>	eng
145744	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Uncontrolled fires and heavy grazing prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal is locally destructive, but could be sustained if regeneration were not prevented<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Other factors are the change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (in particular the use of exotic tree species)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The extent of <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands in Cuzco halved during the 1980s. <br/></p>	eng
145745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145747	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptasthenura setaria</em> inhabits southern temperate and secondary forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Rio de Janeiro to north Rio Grande do Sul) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) at 750-1,900&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is entirely dependent upon, and relatively common in, <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em>, even occurring in commercially planted groves around buildings and in gardens<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Unsurprisingly, it is threatened by the destruction of <em>Araucaria</em> forest, which in the state of Paran&aacute;, Brazil, alone was reduced from an estimated original cover of 73,780&#160;km<sup>2</sup> to 15,932&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1965 as a result of clearance for pastureland and cultivation<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. In Misiones, afforestation with <em>Araucaria</em> has resulted in the species colonising new areas, but there are fluctuations in area occupied, and <em>Araucaria</em> plantations are now regularly replaced with <em>Pinus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. <br/></p>	eng
145748	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Some of its range is presumably formally protected by Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park, Venezuela, but there is no active management<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Cerro Pintado lies to the north of the park, but the inhabitants of the Villanueva village, Colombia, attempt to protect the natural habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estimate the population size<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess its actual distribution. Study its ecological requirements<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess habitat availability using aerial photographs<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Manage and effectively protect Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park<sup>4</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
145748	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Schizoeaca perijana</em> only occurs in the Sierra de Perij&aacute; (and particularly Cerro Pintado) on the border of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Guajira) and <strong>Venezuela </strong>(Zuila)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145748	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subpar&aacute;mo and shrubbery vegetation at elevations of 3,000-3,400 m<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. There have been suggestions that it may favour bamboo<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but its close relative, the White-chinned Thistletail <em>S. fuliginosa</em>, does not inhabit bamboo stands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Birds are often seen in pairs, foraging for arthropods and occasionally berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Immatures and breeding-condition adults have been recorded in July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145748	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-5.3 individuals/km2 x 108 km2 (45% EOO) = 195-572, i.e. probably best placed in the band 250-999 (density range from three estimates for similarly-sized furnariids in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145748	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat below 2,000&#160;m in the Sierra de Perij&aacute; is threatened by narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation, which are all facilitated by the many roads approaching the sierra from the Colombian side<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. The species's high-elevation habitat was thought to be less affected by these developments, but the area of suitable habitat is now believed to be fragmented and declining as a result of illegal cultivation<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Only patches of montane forest remain on the steepest slopes of the Cerro Pintado. Forest is still being lost to burning and the cultivation of Papaver. Hunting pressure is very high and impacts are crossing the border into Venezuela. Security problems are making access very difficult<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145752	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is relatively common within its range. Many areas of suitable habitat within the area have not been surveyed, and the range and population may be larger than currently thought<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145752	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in chusquea bamboo patches at the forest edge, particualrly at the treeline, at 3,030-3,710 m. It is most common in secondary and degraded forest areas. Little is known of how tolerant this species is of habitat disturbance, but some populations are known to persist in heavily populated areas, e.g. along the Satipo road (H. Lloyd in litt. 2007).	eng
145752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species may be relatively common within this range. Many areas of suitable habitat within the area have not bee surveyed, and the range and population may be larger than currently thought (H. Lloyd in litt. 2007).	eng
145752	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Until very recently, it was not considered to be under threat, but recent searches have failed to locate the species at a number of sites, and found that its preferred habitat is being burnt and converted to potato fields (G. Engblom in litt. 2006). Furthermore, <em>Escallonia</em> woodland at higher elevations is being cut for firewood, and there are no protected areas in the region and no ongoing conservation projects (G. Engblom in litt. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
145753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145755	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145761	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The <em>Podocarpus</em> forest above Abancay, Apur&iacute;mac, is protected as the Ampay National Sanctuary. Reforestation is underway, but threats to the forest are yet to be alleviated<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor the population. Assess the impact of current activities on the status of this species. Develop a conservation education programme at Ampay National Sanctuary<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Erect signposts to discourage damaging activities in Ampay National Sanctuary<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further surveys for the species outside the Ampay National Sanctuary. Complete a full population census.</strong>	eng
145761	distribution		<em>Synallaxis courseni</em> is known from several locations in south-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It was previously thought to be restricted to the Ampay National Sanctuary, where it was thought to have a population of 600-800 mature individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, there have been several sightings outside the sanctuary, including at Huayrapata, Pacaypata, at Cerro Turronmocco (above Quisuar), and above Yanama town in the Vilcabamba Mountains on the way to Toruyocpampa<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The species has been described as common on Ampay massif and on the road leading to Huanipaca<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>, and its current population is thought to be roughly 1,000 individuals within the sanctuary<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The population size in other areas is unknown.	eng
145761	habitat		It inhabits dense undergrowth, vines and bamboo in <em>Podocarpus</em> woodland, as well as adjacent shrubbery, mainly at elevations of 2,450-3,500 m. It is usually found in pairs or family groups, foraging for insects in dense vegetation near the ground. Adults in breeding condition have been recorded in December, and immatures have been seen in March<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Records from highly fragmented cloud forest landscape dominated by agriculture<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> indicate that the species may be tolerant, to a degree, of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation and degradation.	eng
145761	population		The population within the Ampay National Sanctuary has been estimated to number almost 1,000 individuals. Although there are records outside of the sanctuary, it is not thought to be present in significant numbers in these areas (J. Valenzuela <em>in litt. </em>2010). Therefore, a population band of 1,000-2,499 individuals is currently assumed, though a full population census may revise the figure upwards.	eng
145762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145763	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145764	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145767	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve. Land at Murici remains privately-owned and a number of conservation initiatives have so far failed to halt forest loss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are more promising developments at Pedra Talhada, where significant areas are being reforested with native trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Protection at this reserve is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There are recent records from Caet&eacute;s Ecological Reserve and Frei Caneca Private Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and older records from UFPE Ecological Reserve and Saltinho Biological Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites with historical records of this species and any other remnant patches of habitat in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em></strong> protection. <strong>Continue the reforestation programme and <em>de facto</em></strong> protection at Pedra Talhada Biological Reserve. <strong>Resolve the taxonomy of the birds in Maranh&atilde;o and Piau&iacute;. <br/></p>	eng
145767	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis infuscata</em> is found at Murici and Pedra Talhada in Alagoas, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, where it is locally common, and has recently been recorded elsewhere in Alagoas at Usina Serra Grande<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and Mata da Salvia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from a number of localities in Pernambuco, including Frei Caneca Private Reserve, Engenho &Aacute;gua Azul, Taquaritinga do Norte, Mata do Estado, Caet&eacute;s Ecological Reserve and Caruaru/Brejo dos Cavalos<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. These recent findings show the extent of occurrence of the species is not as restricted as has been suggested, and that several populations remain. <em> <br/></p>	eng
145767	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been found in patches of Atlantic forest suffering various degrees of disturbance. There are observations in second growth at the forest edge and in a coffee plantation mixed with second growth near a remnant forest patch. Singles or solitary pairs forage very near the ground in dense tangles and thickets, probing in clusters of dead leaves and perch-gleaning.</p>	eng
145767	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 58 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 307, i.e. probably best placed in band 250-999 (density higher of three estimates for <em>S. cabanisi  </em>in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as apparently common at various sites). <br/></p>	eng
145767	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive clearance of Atlantic forest in Alagoas and Pernambuco, and it is estimated that only 2% of the original forested area remains in the range of the species. Also, most forest fragments the species occur are smaller than 500 ha. The extent of forest at Murici has been reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a mere 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of highly disturbed and fragmented habitat in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. In January 1999, new logging roads were evident and such forest fragments are still severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145768	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145772	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Of the nine recent localities, five are protected: Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru, Machalilla National Park (large but requires stronger protection), Cerro Blanco Protection Forest (recently enlarged to 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Arenillas Military Reserve (the largest intact area of dry forest and thorn-scrub in south-west Ecuador) and Algodonal Reserve, all Ecuador<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The latter is a very small (0.35&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) part of a larger, disturbed dry forest (c.30&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) at Hacienda Jujal, with even larger forested areas in adjacent Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of known and potential occurrence<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the population viability in degraded habitats. Strengthen habitat protection in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. Work with local communities around Hacienda Jujal to enlarge the conservation area and secure extant forest from external threats<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145772	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis tithys</em> occurs in the Tumbesian region of south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manab&iacute;, Guayas, El Oro and Loja) and immediately adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). Extant suitable habitat is highly fragmented, making the species's distribution patchy. It is generally uncommon, but locally relatively common<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145772	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense undergrowth, occasionally the midstorey, of deciduous and evergreen forest, from sea-level to 1,100&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Studies during the dry season have found it in heavily degraded secondary forest and hedgerows within cultivation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It favours vine-tangles, foraging alone or in pairs, and sometimes joining mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to undertake seasonal movements. Insects constitute the majority of its diet. A juvenile was trapped in August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with egg-laying apparently in March.</p>	eng
145772	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-5.3 individuals/km2 x 980 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,764-5,194, i.e. probably best placed in band 2,500-10,000, as can be "locally relatively common" (density from three estimates for <em>S. cabanisi </em>in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145772	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade, but in the higher parts of its range, deforestation has been slower and a greater proportion of forest remains<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It does not occur above c.1,100&#160;m, thus it must be one of the most threatened Tumbesian forest species. All forest-types within its range have greatly diminished owing to agricultural clearance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Persistent grazing by goats and cattle removes understorey, prevents forest regeneration and is a serious current threat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Rapid habitat loss continues, and will soon remove almost all extant forest. <br/></p>	eng
145773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145775	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gyalophylax hellmayri</em> inhabits several types of dry caatinga in extreme north Minas Gerais, north Bahia, west Pernambuco, Piau&iacute;, with an old specimen record from west Cear&aacute;, north-east <strong>Brazil<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Recent records in Bahia and Pernambuco have shown it to be locally common, even in areas disturbed by goats and cattle grazing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was thought to be largely restricted to vegetation with the abundant, large and terrestrial bromeliad <em>Bromelia laciniosa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong></em>, but this is apparently not true<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite being more widespread and less habitat restricted than previously thought, it is still threatened by conversion for agriculture, intensive grazing and burning, and exploitation of woody caatinga for charcoal. <br/></p>	eng
145776	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey for undiscovered populations and determine whether the paucity of recent records in the south of the species's range is caused by lack of observer coverage or local extinctions.</strong></p>	eng
145776	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis maranonica</em> occurs in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage, north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Cajamarca) and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Zumba area of Zamora-Chinchipe)<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. At least formerly, it was uncommon to locally fairly common in suitable habitat within its restricted range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to have declined south of Jaen, Cajamarca<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145776	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the undergrowth of deciduous woodland, forest and forest edge, occasionally venturing into humid forest or regenerating secondary scrub. It has been recorded at 500-1,250&#160;m, possibly higher. Birds usually forage in pairs on or near the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145776	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145776	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Much of its woodland habitat has progressively deteriorated owing to widespread and long-term cultivation of land within the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage. The spread of oil-palm plantations, cattle-ranching and logging all seriously threaten its remaining habitat, with oil extraction a potential future problem<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145778	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145780	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis cherriei</em> has two races: the nominate occurs disjunctly in south Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rond&ocirc;nia, Mato Grosso and south Par&aacute;); and equally disjunct populations of the race <em>napoensis</em> are scattered through the Andean foothills in south-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (Putumayo), east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo) and east <strong>Peru</strong> (two sites in San Mart&iacute;n and Ayacucho) at 200-1,100&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, although a recent record from San Mart&iacute;n was at c.1,450 m <strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is rare to occasionally relatively common, but inexplicably very local, in the undergrowth of secondary woodland and the borders of humid forest and, at least in Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso, appears to be a bamboo specialist<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Relatively extensive deforestation has occurred within its east Ecuador and south-east Colombian range, which is a region threatened by oil exploration and extraction, with resultant habitat degradation and fragmentation from associated road-building<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. In Peru, extensive areas of its habitat are undergoing land clearance, agricultural conversion and logging, the effects of which are amplified by road-building and human colonisation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Brazil, nearly 25% of forest cover in Rond&ocirc;nia and Mato Grosso disappeared in 1975-1988, principally as a result of highway construction, with ranching, smallholder agriculture and mining as contributory factors<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145780	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population size unknown, but assumed to be more than 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145783	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is found within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Research is currently being carried out on the conservation of habitats for birds resident to the sierra<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Increase the limits of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park to include the whole altitudinal gradient within the three departments<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Estimate the population size, particularly in Guajira and Cesar<sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145783	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis fuscorufa</em> is endemic to the Santa Marta mountains of north <strong>Colombia</strong>, with records from Cesar, Guajira and Magdalena departments. It has a small range, and its population size is currently unknown<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is described as common in humid shrubby forest borders, overgrown clearings and forest undergrowth. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
145783	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis fuscorufa </em>is found in the undergrowth of montane forests, as well as along forest edges, in altered habitat and in shrubs in open habitats<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It is principally recorded at 2,000-3,000&#160;m, but occasionally to 900&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its behaviour is similar to that of other <em>Synallaxis </em>species. It feeds as it moves energetically within shrubs and small branches principally 0.5-7 m above the ground. It is observed in pairs or family groups, which accompany mixed-species flocks. Breeding seems to occur between January and June<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145783	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Fairly common within its tiny range, but population estimate requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
145783	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitats are seriously threatened by illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Only 15% of the sierra's original vegetation is currently unaltered<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the species has lost 59% of its habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The best known area, the Cuchilla de San Lorenzo, is not within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145784	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It does not occur in any protected areas. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to identify priority areas for conservation action within its range and further define its current distribution. Assess populations at known sites. Establish at least one protected area to benefit the species. <br/></p>	eng
145784	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis zimmeri</em> has a small range on the Pacific slope of the Andes in west-central <strong>Peru</strong>. There are records from Llagu&eacute;n (La Libertad) and six localities in the Cordillera Negra (Ancash)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been described as fairly common in a 10-ha habitat patch above Chacchan in 1983, but not detected at the site in 1988, uncommon at San Dami&aacute;n forest in 1980 and 1985, but present in 1998 and 1999, and fairly common in Noquo forest in 1988<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145784	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits scrub and dense undergrowth with scattered small trees, at elevations of 1,800-2,900&#160;m. Usually encountered in pairs, birds forage for insects in moss clumps and along vines and branches. Juveniles and an active nest have been collected in May<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145784	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8-5.3 individuals/km2 x 234 km2 (45% EOO) = 421-1,240, but population probably at upper end of this range as described as "fairly common" at a number of sites, and hence placed in band 1,000-2,500 (density from three estimates for <em>S. cabanisi</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145784	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Dense undergrowth habitat within its range is severely threatened by cattle-grazing and clearance for farm expansion. <br/></p>	eng
145785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145789	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to delimit the species's current range. Assess the impact of recent fires on the species. Protect known areas along the rio Tacutu. <br/></p>	eng
145789	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis kollari</em> is known from six specimens and a small number of observations along the rio Cotinga, rio Surumu, rio Tacutu, rio Uraricoera and the upper rio Branco in north Roraima, <strong>Brazil</strong> and adjacent <strong>Guyana</strong><sup>1</sup>. Most records since 1956 have been on the rio Tacutu within 2 km of the Brazil-Guyana border<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>, but it was recorded on the rio Surumu in 1998 and the rio Cotingo in 2001<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was subsequently also discovered on the east bank of the rio Uraricoera, 45 km north-east of Boa Vista, in 2001<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is little reason to believe that it has been extirpated from other areas with records prior to 1956, but it is apparently absent from south of Fortaleza de S&atilde;o Joaquim on the rio Branco<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145789	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Most recent observations have been in seasonally flooded riverine forest with an understorey of dense thickets and vines<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The sightings along the rio Uraricoera in 2001 were from riverine thickets that were not subject to annual flooding<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat is probably restricted to within 0.5 km<sup>2</sup> of the rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A bird was seen entering an apparently incomplete nest in July<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145789	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Vale et al 2007 state that there is 206km2 of suitable habitat, a density of 60 individuals per km2 giviing a population size of c. 5,000 <br/></p>	eng
145789	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been some conversion of suitable habitat to agriculture, especially rice cultivation (which has had a particular impact on river margin habitats in Roraima<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), and there is some selective logging of gallery forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The major threat may be the burning of vegetation, such as the fires that spread through Roraima in 1999<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145794	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145796	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145798	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145799	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145800	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145803	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145806	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145807	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145808	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145811	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145812	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145814	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Asthenes heterura</em> occurs in central Cochabamba and La Paz, with recent records in Potos&iacute;, Tarija and Chuquisaca, <strong>Bolivia<sup>1,2,8</sup></strong>, and there are six records from Jujuy and Salta, north <strong>Argentina<sup>6,8</sup></strong>. It is fairly common to uncommon in dense arid montane scrub and open <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus</em> woodland with grasses and mixed scrub (e.g. <em>Gynoxys</em> and <em>Baccharis</em>), at elevations of 2,500-4,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5,7,8,10</sup></strong>. A specimen collected at 1,600 m in Bolivia in June 1914 suggests that it may descend in altitude during the winter months<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It has probably been overlooked<strong><sup>2,3,4,8</sup></strong>, and in Argentina has almost certainly been confused with Lesser Canastero <em>A. pyrrholeuca</em>,<em> </em>which it resembles morphologically<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It has also been found in tall clumps of <em>Festuca</em> bunchgrass, intermingled with areas of short turf and even patches of bare soil<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and shrubbery and hedgerows away from <em>Polylepis<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. However, although not entirely dependent on <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands, their destruction through clearance for cultivation, firewood-collection and burning for pasture threatens some populations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations are replacing suitable native vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but some populations (e.g. around Alto Calilegua, Argentina) receive protection by their remoteness from human habitation. <br/></p>	eng
145814	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There is insufficient information to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
145815	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145817	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type-locality is adjacent to Serra do Cip&oacute; National Park, but the species was not found within the reserve until 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been recorded in the Parque Estadual do Pico do Itamb&eacute; at Serra Azul. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to provide a better delimitation of its range and more accurate assessment of its status<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand the Serra do Cip&oacute; National Park by 20&#160;km<sup>2 to include the type-locality. Ensure that no known area is intensively grazed. Study the effects of parasitism by <em>M. bonariensis</em></sup></strong> and investigate potential control measures. <br/></p>	eng
145817	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Asthenes luizae</em> was only discovered in 1985, from a tiny area just north-east of Jaboticatubas within the Serra do Cip&oacute;, Minas Gerais, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Surveys in 1996-1998 found the species at four additional localities in south Minas Gerais<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. These are the Serra da Bandeirinha on the central plateau of Serra do Cip&oacute; National Park, the Serra do Intendente (where it is fairly common), the Serra Talhada and the Serra do Gavi&atilde;o<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recently it has also been found in the 4,700 ha Parque Estadual do Pico do Itamb&eacute; at Serra Azul, Minas Gerais, and at Campina do Bananal, Botumirim municipality, in northern Minas Gerais<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, about 170km north of the nearest record. The species's range is therefore larger than previously believed, and there appears to be extensive suitable habitat in the Espinha&ccedil;o range that is not declining in quality or extent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
145817	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits isolated rocky outcrops and associated dry vegetation on tablelands between 1,100 and 1,500&#160;m. It is mainly terrestrial preferring the steepest and most vegetated slopes. Territories of 150-300&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong> are centred on rocky outcrops. The diet consists of invertebrates taken from rocks and crevices. Pairs have been recorded holding territory in July and August, and observed with dependent young in December. <br/></p>	eng
145817	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 838 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 8,380, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density lower of two estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145817	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is low-intensity grazing of suitable habitat by cattle. Periodic burning may represent a threat, unless fires are long-standing features and the species has adapted to cope with them. Brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, which has recently colonised the region (presumably) in response to agricultural expansion, is perhaps most concerning.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145818	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Asthenes berlepschi</em> is apparently common within a restricted range in the semi-arid slopes of the Consata valley and its tributaries in La Paz, north-west <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Its known range is c.200&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, but it is projected to occur in unsurveyed areas north of the r&iacute;o Consata, which would increase its range size to 450&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Recent surveys have recorded the species in open, degraded <em>Polylepis</em> forest, <em>Baccharis pentlandii</em> scrub and completely converted habitat, with fields, large areas left fallow, shrubs and low scrub, scattered <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees and some soil erosion at 2,300-3,700&#160;m<strong><sup> 1</sup></strong>. In December 1991, 3-4 nests were found c.500&#160;m apart in <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees between agricultural fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Despite surviving well in highly modified habitats, it must be considered at some risk owing to its tiny range in one small montane basin, its restricted elevational distribution, and the small amount of available vegetation. <br/></p>	eng
145819	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán, La Rioja, San Juan, San Luis, Mendoza and Neuquén, central-west Argentina (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Parker et al. 1996, M. Babarskas verbally 1998).	eng
145819	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits well developed, semi-arid temperate hillside scrub from 650-3,000 m. Its desert-scrub habitat is characterised by plants such as Larrea species, Cercidium praecox, Geoffroea decorticans and Trichocereus terscheckii (M. Babarskas verbally 1998, Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).	eng
145819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145819	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Settlement and agricultural conversion have altered habitat in small parts of the species range, and grazing by cattle and goats may pose some threat (Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, extensive tracts of suitable habitat remain unaffected and the species occurs in several protected areas (M. Babarskas verbally 1998, Chebez et al. 1998).	eng
145820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145824	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has an apparently disjunct range: a population in north-west Patagonia (west Neuquén, west Río Negro and west Chubut, Argentina, and adjacent Chile in Ñuble, Malleco, Aysén and Concepción) may be geographically isolated from a southern population inhabiting the Patagonian mainland (south Santa Cruz, Argentina and Magallanes, Chile) and north Tierra del Fuego and Gable Island in the Beagle channel (Collar et al. 1992, Vuilleumier 1997, S. Imberti in litt. 1999). It is apparently partially migratory with birds recorded north to Valparaíso in Chile (Collar et al. 1992).	eng
145824	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs most frequently up to 1,500 m in mesic shrub-steppe receiving 350-450 mm of rain per year (but as little as 180-250 mm in the southern parts of its continental range (S. Imberti in litt. 1999)), with an upper stratum of shrubs and a ground stratum of tussock-grasses (Vuilleumier 1997).	eng
145824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145825	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Asthenes urubambensis</em> occurs locally, and probably discontinuously, on the east slope of the Andes. The race <em>huallagae</em> occurs in San Mart&iacute;n, La Libertad, Hu&aacute;nuco and Pasco, north and central <strong>Peru</strong>, with the nominate race in Cuzco and Puno, south Peru, and La Paz and Cochabamba, west <strong>Bolivia<sup>6</sup></strong>. It is rare to uncommon in p&aacute;ramo grassland, <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, elfin forest and mossy slopes with scrub at 2,750-4,300&#160;m <strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Though its grassland habitat in Peru is still relatively pristine<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, in Bolivia it has been extensively degraded by livestock grazing, burning and firewood collection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but a significant population has recently been discovered within Carrasco National Park, which appears to be relatively well protected<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Heavy grazing by livestock and the uncontrolled use of fire also combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145825	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient data to infer a population estimate, although assumed to be higher than 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
145826	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145827	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145830	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Sigapo Forest Reserve encompasses its known distribution, but provides little effective protection for riverside habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess its ecological requirements, distribution and population size.</strong></p>	eng
145830	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thripophaga cherriei </em>is known from just six specimens taken in 1899 and 1970, and observations since 1999 of up to three individuals<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, all along the r&iacute;o Capuana, a low-lying affluent of the upper r&iacute;o Orinoco in <strong>Venezuela</strong>. There are no other records despite surveys in adjacent areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it may occur in adjacent parts of Colombia. <br/></p>	eng
145830	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at c.100 m altitude, in the understorey of riverine and humid forest, adjacent to rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Other aspects of its ecology are very poorly known. <br/></p>	eng
145830	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
145830	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat appears to be loss of habitat through unsustainable, shifting cultivation practices<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A trade and tourist centre is under development c.150 km to the north of the type-locality. <br/></p>	eng
145831	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. Populations exist in four protected areas: Sooretama Biological Reserve, Serra Bonita Private Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Una Biological Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Desengano State Park, though the numbers recorded are low. Its apparent absence from the Linhares Forest Reserve, adjacent to Sooretama, is surprising, and a further indication of its apparent patchy distribution. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat to locate additional populations. Monitor known populations. Ensure continued protection of the four reserves where it occurs. Protect other key sites for the species. <br/></p>	eng
145831	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thripophaga macroura</em> occurs in the Atlantic forest region of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, from Bahia south of Salvador through east Minas Gerais (no records since 1969) to Esp&iacute;rito Santo and north Rio de Janeiro. Formerly known from just seven locations it has recently been found in a number of new localities: forests between Ituber&aacute; and Camamu; Usina Paineiras; Serra Bonita Private Reserve (RPPN)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; and Una Biological Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It may well occur in all the remaining lowland forest in southern Bahia. It is locally not uncommon, but occurs very patchily and is apparently absent from large areas of mature forest where vine-tangles are scarce. <br/></p>	eng
145831	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the interior of humid, primary and little-disturbed forest, but also occurs along forest edge and in degraded and secondary forest up to 1,000&#160;m, where it appears to be closely associated with subcanopy vine-tangles. Although seemingly able to tolerate some degree of disturbance, it appears unable to survive in young secondary growth and other non-forest habitats. Birds forage in dense vine-tangles from c.2.5-7 m above ground, gleaning arthropods from vines, twigs, branches and sometimes leaves. Nesting has been reported in September-October. The relatively small territories (less than 1.5 ha) encompass a number of large, vine-covered trees. <br/></p>	eng
145831	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0-9.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 112 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 224-1,008, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,500, as described as "reasonably common" or even "still abundant" at certain sites (density range from lower to upper quartile of 45 estimates for 20 species of forest furnariid in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO, as species distributed "patchily"). <br/></p>	eng
145831	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread and continuing habitat destruction has severely fragmented this species's range. Although it has been observed in degraded forest, it may be dependent on the presence of dense vine-tangles, which are likely to occur only in little-disturbed and mature secondary forests. <br/></p>	eng
145832	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to improve knowledge of this species's status and distribution. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145832	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thripophaga berlepschi</em> is rare and locally distributed in the Andes of north <strong>Peru</strong>, from east Piura, through west Amazonas and San Mart&iacute;n, to south-east La Libertad. It has been recorded on Cerro Chinguela (Piura), La Peca Nueva, Leimebamba, Atu&eacute;n, Lluy, San Crist&oacute;bal and near Florida-Pomacichas (Amazonas), Abra Patricia and R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park (San Mart&iacute;n) and Mashua (La Libertad)<strong><sup>2,3,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145832	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane and elfin forest, often just below the treeline, at elevations of 1,800-3,350&#160;m <strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>. Pairs and small groups are sometimes seen accompanying mixed-species flocks in the understorey<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, subcanopy and canopy<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Immatures and juveniles have been seen in July and September, and breeding probably takes place during the dry season (June-September). <br/></p>	eng
145832	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0-9.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 230 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 460-2,070, i.e. probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range from lower to upper quartile of 45 estimates for 20 species of forest furnariid in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145832	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the colonial period, sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and continues to destroy large areas of this species's habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Small and fragmented remnant elfin forests are additionally threatened by clearance for agriculture and grazing, with an alarmingly high rate of conversion to cash-crops in the (until relatively recently pristine) Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145833	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145834	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine this species's precise distribution and habitat requirements, and assess the impact of threats. <br/></p>	eng
145834	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Siptornopsis hypochondriaca</em> occurs on the slopes above the upper r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley in south Amazonas, south-east Cajamarca, east La Libertad and north Ancash (one specimen taken in 1932), north <strong>Peru</strong><sup>6</sup>. It is currently known from four locations: around Balsas (Amazonas/Cajamarca)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, above Chagual (La Libertad)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and at two sites near San Marcos (Cajamarca)<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. Near Ichocan, on the Cajabamba-San Marcos road, suitable habitat is apparently available on the 1 km descent of an escarpment as far as can be seen to the east and west<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145834	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits arid/desert scrub, often with <em>Acacia</em> trees, at elevations of 2,000-3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. Stream gullies with running water seem to be preferred at one site, where there were also numerous stacks of cut firewood<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The positive or negative effects of cutting for firewood on the species are unknown<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145834	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145834	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is highly likely that this species's habitat is under pressure<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage has been under cultivation for a long time and habitat in the valley has progressively deteriorated. The spread of oil-palms, cattle-ranching and logging are all serious threats to remaining habitat, with oil extraction a potential future problem<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145839	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145840	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess the species's distribution and population. Research its natural history, including basic information such as vocalisations. Ensure the protection of areas around Hacienda Lim&oacute;n. <br/></p>	eng
145840	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phacellodomus dorsalis</em> occurs on the east slope of the west Andes in the upper Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley, south Cajamarca and La Libertad, north-west <strong>Peru<sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. There is also a sighting on the east slope of Cordillera Blanca in Ancash<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is fairly common around Hacienda Lim&oacute;n in Cajamarca<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but is generally considered uncommon<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145840	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in arid to fairly humid, dense, tangled thorn-scrub, and hedgerows on bushy slopes with scattered <em>Prosopis</em> trees. Most records are at elevations of 2,000-2,800&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but, in the Cordillera Blanca, it was recorded at 3,400&#160;m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Around Hacienda Lim&oacute;n, it occurs in areas with substantial disturbance, including along dry streambeds and eroded gullies adjacent to agricultural areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145840	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145840	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage has deteriorated progressively under a prolonged period of cultivation. The species apparently tolerates some degree of habitat alteration, but whether it can complete its life-cycle or occur at existing densities in heavily cultivated areas is not known. The spread of oil-palms and cattle-ranching are now the principal threats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145843	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Clibanornis dendrocolaptoides</em> was considered very local and scarce throughout its range in south <strong>Brazil</strong>, south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. It was almost certainly previously overlooked, and there has been an increase in records now that its voice is known, and as a result its population is now believed to exceed 10,000 mature individuals. It is also reported to persist in small forest fragments<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, which suggests that it is unlikely to be undergoing a rapid population decline. This new information has led to its downlisting to Near Threatened. It occurs in various forest habitats up to 800&#160;m. Dense bamboo and other vegetation over water is considered by some to be optimal habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but it appears not to be restricted to large-leaved bamboo, and the bamboo relationship may be coincidental. It is presumably threatened by the rapid destruction and fragmentation of Atlantic forest. Depending on its ecological requirements, the cutting of bamboo thickets could have an extremely serious effect. In Argentina, the building of dams has flooded important parts of its former range. It occurs in Caaguaz&uacute; National Park and Ypet&iacute; Private Nature Reserve (Paraguay)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Iguaz&uacute; National Park, San Antonio Strict Nature Reserve, Urugua-&iacute; Provincial Park (Argentina)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Igua&ccedil;u National Park (Brazil). It may also occur in S&atilde;o Joaquim National Park, Santa Catarina. <br/></p>	eng
145844	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spartonoica maluroides</em> occurs in extreme south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong>, and central <strong>Argentina</strong> (east Formosa, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre R&iacute;os and Buenos Aires west locally to C&oacute;rdoba, Santiago del Estero and Mendoza, and south to R&iacute;o Negro)<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to locally fairly common, but probably overlooked, up to 900&#160;m in brackish and freshwater marshes with extensive growths of <em>Eryngium</em> and <em>Scirpus</em>, and may associate with <em>Spartina</em> grass<strong><sup>3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Presumed threats are marsh drainage and the drying effects of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> plantations, particularly in east Entre R&iacute;os and north-east Corrientes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
145845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145846	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145847	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Limnoctites rectirostris</em> occurs in extreme south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), south <strong>Uruguay</strong> and east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Entre R&iacute;os and extreme north-east Buenos Aires)<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is very locally distributed, to 1,100&#160;m, in small marshes and swales, despite its close association with <em>Eryngium</em> spp., which are abundant throughout its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Argentina, and particularly in the heavily populated Buenos Aires province, its habitat is threatened by house-building, rubbish dumps and water pollution<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is presumably also threatened by intensive grazing, marsh drainage, extensive willow <em>Salix</em> plantations and, particularly in east Entre R&iacute;os, the drying effects of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. plantations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145848	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145849	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145850	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common to uncommon' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145853	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145854	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenerpestes singularis</em> occurs in the east Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Napo) south to north Cajamarca, <strong>Peru</strong>, with a disjunct population in north San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is rare and local<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in the canopy and borders of foothill forest with abundant epiphytes and bromeliads, at 1,000-1,700&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its habitats are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145857	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145858	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Gu&aacute;charo National Parks. The latter reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey El Gu&aacute;charo National Park, Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio, Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire, Cerro Azul and other suitable areas<sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop alternative agricultural techniques for areas adjacent to Paria Peninsula National Park<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct an impact assessment of the proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline. <br/></p>	eng
145858	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Premnoplex tatei </em>is restricted to the northern Cordillera de Caripe (on the borders of Anzo&aacute;tegui, Sucre and Monagas) and the Paria Peninsula (Sucre) in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. In the Cordillera de Caripe, it has been recorded on cerros Peon&iacute;a, Turumiquire, Macanillal<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Negro<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, on the Paria Peninsula, on cerros Humo, El Olvido and Azul. There have been few recent records, and none from cerros Peon&iacute;a, Turumiquire or Azul. However, habitat loss (at least in the latter two areas) has not been sufficiently extensive to extirpate the species. In 1988, 2.4 pairs per hectare were estimated on Cerro El Olvido and, in 1993, 0.8 individuals per hectare were found in Cerro Humo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population on the Paria Peninsula has been estimated at 3,600 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145858	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In the Cordillera de Caripe, it is known from 1,200-2,400&#160;m. On Cerro Humo, it occurs at 1,100-1,200&#160;m and, on Cerro El Olvido, at 800-885&#160;m. It inhabits the understorey (up to 2&#160;m from the ground) of montane humid forest, where there is extensive epiphytic growth. <br/></p>	eng
145858	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Evans <em>et al</em>. (1994a), Rodr&iacute;guez and Rojas-Su&aacute;rez (1995) <br/></p>	eng
145858	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe. Even in El Gu&aacute;charo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, and citrus plantations in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire, but extensive forested areas remain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. A proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline on the peninsula remain a potential threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145859	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145860	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Margarornis stellatus</em> occurs on the west slope of the West Andes from west <strong>Colombia</strong> (south Choc&oacute;) south to Carchi, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, with small populations in Antioquia, Colombia, and Chimborazo, Ecuador<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is rare in Ecuador<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and, though formerly considered relatively common in Colombia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, the extent of habitat destruction within its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> suggests that it has declined. It inhabits humid montane forest, especially mossy cloud forest, from the midstorey to the canopy, at 1,200-2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but principally above 1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is primarily threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation in the Choc&oacute; region, largely owing to intensive logging, human settlement, cattle grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation, with destruction particularly severe within its elevational range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145861	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Margarornis bellulus</em> has a restricted distribution in the highlands of east <strong>Panama</strong>, where it is rare on Cerro Qu&iacute;a and in the Jungurud&oacute;, Pirre, Tacarcuna and Maj&eacute; mountain ranges<strong><sup>1,2,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. It inhabits montane cloud forest on summits and higher ridges, mostly at 1,350-1,600&#160;m, but to 900&#160;m on Cerro Qu&iacute;a<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Habitat in the region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American Highway link through Dari&eacute;n could be highly detrimental to this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Serran&iacute;a de Maj&eacute; is unprotected, but the remainder of the species's range falls within the Dari&eacute;n National Park<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. However, this legal designation has not halted habitat loss<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145863	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145870	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145874	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Populations are protected within the small El Tundo Nature Reserve (c.1.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), near Sozoranga, Loja, Ecuador, where it is common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and in two areas in Peru: Chi&ntilde;ama Forest, Lambayeque, and Tumbes Reserved Zone (now part of Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, which lies at the lower end of its elevational range, and where it is uncommon or rare<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect some remaining highland forest in west Loja. Secure continued protection of Chi&ntilde;ama Forest.</strong></p>	eng
145874	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Syndactyla ruficollis</em> occurs on the foothills and slopes of the west Andes in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura, Lambayeque and Cajamarca). Though generally common at some sites, e.g. El Tundo Nature Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and forest patches around Celica, Ecuador, the population has probably declined substantially in recent decades, owing to loss of suitable habitat from a large proportion of its already naturally restricted range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145874	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits evergreen, semi-deciduous and deciduous forests at 400-2,900&#160;m, being most abundant above 1,600&#160;m. It tolerates considerable forest disturbance, tending to forage alone or in pairs (occasionally small groups), often with mixed-species flocks. It generally keeps high in trees, foraging on large branches and probing bases of bromeliads and ferns, but is also occasionally recorded flicking leaves on forest floor. The nest is unknown, but breeding is thought to take place during the wet season, in January-May.</p>	eng
145874	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
145874	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss is ongoing, at least in unprotected areas, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest unless effective action is taken urgently. Intense trampling and grazing of extant forest by goats and cattle prevent tree regeneration, especially in deciduous forest. At higher elevations within its range, rates of habitat destruction are not as great, but logging, agricultural conversion and plantations are replacing and degrading forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Cutting of bamboo for pack-animal food is also a problem. <br/></p>	eng
145875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145879	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in interior south Brazil (south Mato Grosso and Goiás south to west Paraná and south-west Minas Gerais) and extreme north-east Paraguay (Concepción and Amambay), where it has been recently recorded only from San Luis National Park, north-west Concepción (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Robbins et al. 1999).	eng
145879	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in the lower and middle growth of humid and gallery forest and woodland, favouring dense undergrowth and vine tangles.	eng
145879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145879	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is presumably threatened by agricultural conversion of forested areas within the Brazilian planalto, and more information is required regarding population size and trends.	eng
145880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145882	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anabacerthia amaurotis</em> occurs in the Atlantic forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Esp&iacute;rito Santo locally to north Rio Grande do Sul), south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Alto Paran&aacute;, Caazap&aacute;, Itap&uacute;a) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is rare to locally fairly common in the lower growth of montane and lowland evergreen forest at 100-1,600&#160;m&#160;<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is predominantly a montane species in Brazil<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but it is now largely confined to a number of protected areas. <br/></p>	eng
145883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145886	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. International and national efforts to ensure the effective protection of Murici resulted in the creation of the Murici Ecological Station in 2001, encompassing 6,116 ha<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting 630 ha of forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. SAVE Brasil purchased a property adjacent to the Frei Caneca Private Nature Reserve, increasing the area of protected forest at the Serra do Urubu to 1,000 ha<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. A population census of the species at Serra do Urubu was planned for early 2008<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  Efforts to begin environmental education initiatives and to provide local people with a viable alternative to charcoal production are underway.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey any remnant patches of upland Atlantic forest in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco for this species. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Murici Ecological Station and forest on the Serra do Urubu. Estimate the population on the Serra do Urubu (Frei Caneca and SAVE Brasil protected area). Study the species's ecology and breeding biology. Implement environmental education programmes. Monitor population trends at known sites.</strong>	eng
145886	distribution		<em>Philydor novaesi</em> has only ever been recorded at two sites in Alagoas and Pernambuco, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was first discovered at Murici (Alagoas) in 1979, when it was described as relatively conspicuous and easy to locate. Subsequent surveys found the species to be rare, and there were no confirmed records between 1992 and 1998. Single individuals were found in 1998 and 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, four birds in 2000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, a further individual in early 2007 and television footage of one individual in 2009<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, indicating that the species is (barely) extant. It was discovered at Frei Caneca Private Reserve (Pernambuco) in April 2003<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, and at the adjacent Frei Caneca Reserve (recently purchased by SAVE Brasil) where two individuals were observed in 2007/2008<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. These two areas are located on the Serra do Urubu<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
145886	habitat		It inhabits the edges of clearings in interior upland forest at 400-550 m, from the understorey to the subcanopy, and has been observed in selectively logged and old secondary forests. Birds have been found singly, in pairs or small groups, and often join mixed-species flocks. Food is gleaned from leaves, bark, crevices and debris, and consists of insects, including larvae taken from dead wood, beetles, grasshoppers and ants. There is little breeding information, but an immature was collected in January, and birds in February were moulting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. One of the individuals at the Frei Caneca Reserve in 2007/2008 was observed in secondary forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
145886	population		Population estimate = 1.2-4.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 36 km<sup>2 </sup>(estimated AOO) = 43-151, i.e. best placed in the band 50-249 (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 11 estimates for four congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet).	eng
145887	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Simoxenops ucayalae</em> has a fragmented range, with a core population in south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (south Ucayali and Madre de Dios) and extreme north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Camino Mueden in Pando), and three isolated populations in Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> (Alta Floresta, north Mato Grosso, near the east bank of the lower rio Xingu, south of Altamira, Par&aacute;, and at two sites on the upper rio Juru&aacute;, Acre)<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. It is rare to locally uncommon to 1,300&#160;m, in the undergrowth of lowland evergreen, floodplain and river-edge forest, primarily in or near thickets of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. It appears tolerant of small-scale timber extraction and selective logging, and a population of c.2,000 pairs has been suggested for Peru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat within its core range is relatively intact, but the region, including those areas under legal protection, is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road-building and human colonisation, including uncontrolled tourism, resulting in further degradation<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145888	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Pil&oacute;n Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory, La Paz<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Carrasco National Park, Cochabamba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Ambor&oacute; National Park, Santa Cruz<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and is predicted to occur in Madidi National Park, La Paz<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey forests in areas of the upper tropical zone between known localities to locate the species<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Maintain the integrity of Ambor&oacute; and Carrasco National Parks, particularly with respect to encroachment by settlers. <br/></p>	eng
145888	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Simoxenops striatus</em> is restricted to the Yungas (east Andean foothills) of La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, central and west <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Only eight sites are known and, despite recent records indicating that it is not as rare as previously thought<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, the overall population must be small. A large and stable population is presumed to occur in Ambor&oacute; National Park, where at least four (including a territorial pair) were found in a 0.5&#160;km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>area in 1992, and four further observations were made in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145888	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits foothill evergreen forests, favouring dense tangled undergrowth and vine-tangles at middle levels<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it has once been recorded in bamboo forest and once in semi-deciduous forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known from a narrow elevational zone at 650-1,300&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145888	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Herzog <em>et al. </em>calculated the population to be c.100,000 individuals, which is precautionarily placed in the band 50,000-99,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
145888	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by deforestation within its small geographic and elevational range, especially in La Paz and Cochabamba. Its preferred forest habitat is more accessible and easier to burn than true montane forest, and the soils are suited to domestic agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops. Consequently, the region is a favoured target for colonists from the altiplano, and encroachment into protected areas is occurring. Exploration for natural resources is undertaken in Bolivia's national parks, making mining a potential future threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nevertheless, vast amounts of pristine forest remain in inaccessible areas within the species's elevational range, though it may be excluded by the harsh climate in some of these areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145900	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145905	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the interior of Brazil (south Bahia and central Minas Gerais west through Goiás to south Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, and south to south-west and eastern São Paulo (Betini et al. 1998) and north-west Paraná) and north-east Paraguay (scarce to uncommon in north Concepcíon with records for one site in San Pedro) (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Hayes 1995).	eng
145905	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in the undergrowth of gallery forest and patches of deciduous woodland.	eng
145905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145905	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is presumably threatened by selective logging and agricultural conversion of forested areas within the Brazilian planalto, and more information is required regarding population size and trends.	eng
145906	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant populations occur in three protected areas, Machalilla National Park and Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone, Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it was recently discovered in the Laquipampa Reserved Zone, in east Lambayeque<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The 776&#160;km<sup>2</sup> partially forested Chong&oacute;n-Colonche Protection Forest forms the nucleus of a reforestation project<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and may support the species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate additional populations, especially in Piura and Lambayeque. Research its ecology, particularly seasonal movements and the extent to which viable populations can persist in secondary and degraded habitats. Strengthen effective habitat protection in Tumbes Reserved Zone and Machalilla National Park. Map forest in the Cordillera Chong&oacute;n-Colonche to identify sites for future protection<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145906	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylocryptus erythrocephalus</em> occurs in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manab&iacute;, Guayas, El Oro and Loja) and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque). Probably the largest population occurs in Peru, on forested ridges between the r&iacute;o Tumbes and the Ecuadorian border<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is rare to uncommon and very local, being moderately common in only a few areas of suitable habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145906	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits understorey in deciduous, semi-deciduous and moist evergreen forest, at 150-1,350&#160;m, occasionally to 1,800&#160;m<strong> <sup>5</sup></strong>. It frequents secondary woodland and forest edge, occasionally even narrow woodland strips along watercourses and disturbed scrub near forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may undertake seasonal elevational movements. It is insectivorous, and characteristically forages on the forest floor or in dense vine-tangles, tossing dead leaves and twigs and probing leaf clusters. Usually seen alone or in pairs. It nests at the end of a c.1&#160;m-long burrow in an earth bank, principally during the wet season, in January-May.</p>	eng
145906	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.6-2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,400-4,200, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals, as it can be "moderately common" in suitable habitat (density range from lowest to lower quartile of ten estimates for four species of closely-related <em>Automolus</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145906	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Significant habitat loss is ongoing, and will soon remove almost all remaining lowland forest. Disturbance and degradation through heavy grazing by goats and cattle also pose a significant threat to the understorey of deciduous forests. Even protected areas are affected by illegal settlement and deforestation, livestock-grazing and habitat clearance by people seeking land rights. <br/></p>	eng
145907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145911	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
145913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145918	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a caatinga endemic, which occurs in the interior of north-east Brazil in Ceará, Piauí, Pernambuco, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Distrito Federal and Goiás (Collar et al. 1992, Olmos 1993, J. M. C. da Silva in litt. 1993, 1995, Whitney and Pacheco 1994, G. M. Kirwan in litt. 1995, J. Wall in litt. 1995, M. Marini per T. A. de Melo Júnior in litt. 1999, A. Whittaker in litt. 1999).	eng
145918	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may primarily inhabit fairly dense caatinga woodland, often on poor, very sandy soils (Whitney and Pacheco 1994), but is known to tolerate degraded and burnt caatingas, where it can be locally common. It has been found within mixed species flocks (L. Silveira in litt. 2003, F. Olmos in litt. 2003), and has been observed foraging in burnt areas with low bushes in Serra da Capivara (Olmos 1993), and grazed and disturbed caatinga near Lago Grande in Pernambuco (A. Whittaker in litt. 1999).	eng
145918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably fairly common in parts of its range. The species is fairly common in Serra da Capivara National Park, Piauí (Olmos 1993), and Chapada do Araripe National Forest, Ceará, and common at Palmas de Monte Alto, Bahia (J. M. C. da Silva in litt. 1993, 1995). It was common at Coribe, Bahia, in 1987, but habitat loss probably extirpated it from this site by 1993 (da Silva and Oren 1997).	eng
145918	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although the species has a large range, populations are localised, and there has been rapid habitat loss in parts of its range, especially in the Jaíba region of Minas Gerais (M. Marini per T. A. de Melo Júnior in litt. 1999), owing to conversion to irrigated and dry field agriculture, logging for charcoal production and intensive grazing (da Silva and Oren 1997). International financing agencies have accelerated the rate of forest destruction in the south of its range by underwriting irrigation projects (da Silva and Oren 1997).	eng
145919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common, although rare in eastern Bolivia (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145935	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and has been found in the Serra do Baturit&eacute; State Environment Protection Area, Cear&aacute;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and the Perua&ccedil;&uacute; Special Protection Area, Minas Gerais.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey, and seek the creation of new reserves, on the left bank of the rio S&atilde;o Francisco, from Barra in Bahia to Itacarambi in Minas Gerais, including patches along the rios Grande and Preto in north-west Bahia, and in south Piau&iacute; and central Maranh&atilde;o<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Map and ecologically evaluate extant patches of dry forest<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct long-term studies on the ecology of dry forests (e.g. succession and the effects of selective logging) to develop viable strategies for future economic utilisation<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Create a system of conservation units (following mapping) that maximises the representation of the original dry forest fauna and flora<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145935	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xiphocolaptes falcirostris</em> has a wide but highly fragmented distribution in the interior of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>: east Maranh&atilde;o (recent records from Tuntun and Samba&iacute;ba), Piau&iacute; (the only recent record is from Fazenda Bom Recreio, in 1987), Cear&aacute; (only recently from Guaramirang&aacute;, in 1987), west Para&iacute;ba (Coremas, in 1957), Pernambuco (Fazenda Campos Bons, in 1971), Bahia (abundant at Coribe in 1988, but perhaps now extirpated) and north Minas Gerais (Fazenda Olhos d'&Aacute;gua, Brejo do Amparo and Perua&ccedil;&uacute;)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A specimen labelled Posse, Goi&aacute;s, is probably from the rio S&atilde;o Fransisco valley in Bahia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has certainly declined and is now extremely local and uncommon. <br/></p>	eng
145935	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the interior of intact and slightly disturbed dry forests, which grow on relatively rich soils. These forests are wetter and taller than is typical of the Caatinga. It feeds on insect larvae, ants, snails and beetles. Breeding is probably in the austral summer.</p>	eng
145935	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,300 km<sup>2</sup> (5% EOO) = 3,870-8,600, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (AOO probably relatively small % of EOO as a result of its highly fragmented distribution; density range from two estimates for <em>X. promeropirhynchus</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145935	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance for irrigated and dry field agriculture has removed extensive tracts of forest that are also an important source of charcoal for steel and pig-iron industries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. plantations were farmed as a substitute source of charcoal, but the recent rise in the value of these plantations for the paper pulp industry has increased pressure on native forests for charcoal. Forest at Coribe was extensive and undisturbed in 1987, but had been entirely destroyed by 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. International financing agencies have accelerated the rate of deforestation in the south of its range by underwriting irrigation projects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145936	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently fairly common to common, at least in the centre of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
145943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145957	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylorhamphus pucherani</em> is local in the Andes of south <strong>Colombia</strong> (West Andes in Cauca and Valle del Cauca, principally on the west slope, and above the upper R&iacute;o Magdalena valley in Huila), north-west (west Pichincha) and north-east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (few records, including one on the summit of Cerro Sur Pax in Sucumbios province<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), and east <strong>Peru</strong> (rare and local in Amazonas, San Mart&iacute;n, Hu&aacute;nuco, Ayacucho and Cuzco)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Though very poorly known, it is considered rare in open cloud, elfin and humid montane forest at 900-3,250&#160;m, primarily above 2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Within its Colombian range, unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads and massive logging concessions have reduced forest cover by 40% and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten the remaining forest<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Its habitat throughout the east Andes of Ecuador and Peru are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although degradation is most local in south-east Peru<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145964	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Formicarius rufifrons</em> is a rare and rather unpredictably distributed inhabitant of riverine floodplain thickets, where tall forest with shaded understorey lies adjacent to second-growth vegetation with a dense understorey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Formerly known only from the r&iacute;o Madre de Dios and its tributaries, <strong>Peru</strong>, during the 1990s it was found on the upper rio Juru&aacute; in Acre, <strong>Brazil<sup>6</sup></strong>, r&iacute;o Tahuamanu in Pando, <strong>Bolivia<sup>2,5</sup></strong> and r&iacute;o Urubamba in Cuzco, Peru<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, greatly extending its known range. In some areas, it is threatened by actual and impending human settlement and agricultural development, but significant populations are protected within Manu National Park and Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone in Peru<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145964	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No data on population size. <br/></p>	eng
145965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145974	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pittasoma rufopileatum</em> is rare to locally uncommon in the Pacific lowlands of north Choc&oacute;, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south to Esmeraldas and Pichincha, north-west <strong>Ecuador<sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits humid forest up to 1,100&#160;m, where it is usually seen following army-ant swarms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all pose threats, with forest destruction most severe in its elevational range<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145976	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>If the Colombian race <em>lehmanni</em> is extant, it probably occurs in Purac&eacute; National Park, where it was collected in 1941<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Searches for the species at La Planada Nature Reserve in the 1990s were unsuccessful<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>hylodroma</em> is protected in the Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Ecuador, and may occur in other protected areas<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to reconfirm historical, and locate additional, sites for the species<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Estimate population densities at known sites. <br/></p>	eng
145976	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria gigantea</em> has three subspecies in the Andes of <strong>Ecuador</strong> and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>. In Colombia, subspecies <em>lehmanni</em> is known from historical specimens taken on both slopes of the Central Andes in Cauca and Huila, while both recent records (1988 and 1989) are from La Planada Nature Reserve, Nari&ntilde;o (subspecies unknown)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, the nominate subspecies is currently known from Carchi, west Napo and Tungurahua, and the subspecies <em>hylodroma</em> is known from a few localities on the west slope of the Andes in Pichincha and Cotopaxi<strong><sup>1,3,9</sup></strong>. Uncertainty surrounds the origin of two old specimens described as <em>hylodroma</em> from El Tambo and Cerro Castillo. These sites are either located in Loja and El Oro, south Ecuador, or perhaps more likely within the range of the nominate subspecies<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145976	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid montane forest in the upper subtropical to temperate zones, with <em>lehmanni</em> known from 3,000&#160;m, <em>gigantea</em> from 2,200-2,600&#160;m or above, and <em>hylodroma</em> from 1,200-2,000&#160;m. It frequents swampy areas in humid cloud-forest understorey, but has also been recorded in adjacent pastures and secondary forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Observations of <em>hylodroma</em> and <em>gigantea</em> indicate that giant earthworms <em>Rhynodrylus</em> are important dietary components, with beetle larvae and slugs also eaten<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145976	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 388 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 970-2,173 individuals, i.e. best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145976	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At the latitude where subspecies <em>lehmanni</em> occurred, land use on both slopes of the Central Andes has been almost wholly agricultural at lower to mid-elevations since the early 20th century or before, and forest loss continues at higher altitudes where the species may persist. Cloud-forests in the West Andes of Nari&ntilde;o, Colombia, and Pichincha, Ecuador, have suffered extensive deforestation through logging and conversion to agriculture and narcotics plantations, and habitat destruction continues throughout the Pacific slope<strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. The East slope forests in Ecuador are more intact and secure. <br/></p>	eng
145977	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Sierra de Perij&aacute; National Park formally protects one subpopulation (if still extant) but there is no active management<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. It probably occurs in various reserves in the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida and Cordillera de la Costa<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey in April-November to record its voice. Using tape-playback, survey to assess its current distribution and ecological requirements, and identify appropriate conservation measures. Determine whether this taxon is a valid species. <br/></p>	eng
145977	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria excelsa</em> occurs in the Andes of north <strong>Venezuela</strong>: Sierra de Perij&aacute; (north-west Zulia and possibly adjacent Colombia), Cordillera de M&eacute;rida (east T&aacute;chira, east M&eacute;rida, south-east Trujillo and south-east Lara) and Cordillera de la Costa (Aragua)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is virtually unknown in life (many recent records referring to misidentified Undulated Antpitta <em>G.&#160;squamigera</em> and Plain-backed Antpitta <em>G.&#160;haplonota<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>), and is likely to be rare and localised throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
145977	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid montane forest at 1,700-2,300&#160;m, but particularly above 2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145977	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,700 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 4,250-9,520, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
145977	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Some large tracts of forest remain in the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida and Cordillera de la Costa, but deforestation has been locally severe<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Agricultural colonisation represents a significant threat in the Cordillerra de M&eacute;rida, and many areas have already been cleared for cultivation, both commercial and subsistence<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Sierra de Perij&aacute; has been extensively deforested for narcotics cultivation, uncontrolled colonisation, cattle-ranching and mineral exploitation<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145979	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
145980	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Subspecies <em>andaquiensis</em> is known from Maquipucuna Reserve (Pichincha), Mindo Protected Forest, Rio Guajalito and La Otonga Reserves, and Gran Sumaco and Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Parks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The recently created Gran Sumaco should prevent habitat loss from reaching the altitudes inhabited by the species in Napo. Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park holds a population of the nominate subspecies and it may occur in the adjacent Ot&uacute;n-Quimbaya Fauna and Flora Sanctuary and Alto Quind&iacute;o Acaime Natural Reserve, both in Quind&iacute;o<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On the east slope of the Andes in Ecuador its range is almost totally covered by five protected areas (Cofan-Bermejo, Cayambe-Coca and Antisana Ecological Reserves, and Sumaco-Napo Galeras and Llanganates National Parks)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey (with knowledge of its vocalisations) areas of suitable habitat, perhaps especially on the east slope of the Andes from Tungurahua, Ecuador north to Caquet&aacute;, Colombia. Focus efforts to protect montane forests and help local communities to manage the land sustainably on the Pacific slope in Pichincha and northern Cotopaxi<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145980	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria alleni</em> is known from the west slope of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>, and both Andean slopes in north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. The nominate subspecies was collected near Salento, Quind&iacute;o, in 1911, and has been recorded in nearby Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda, Colombia, several times during 1994-2000<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>andaquiensis</em> was described from a specimen taken on the west slope of the southern East Andes in Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Park, Huila, Colombia, in 1971 and, during the 1990s, has been found at single sites in Napo and Cotopaxi and at four sites in Pichincha, Ecuador<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat covers an estimated 3,500 km<sup>2</sup> in Ecuador<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it is unclear how much of this is occupied. There are several new localities where the species has been recorded in Ecuador, mostly concentrated on the western slopes of Pichincha province<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and the species has recently been discovered to be much commoner and more extensively distributed in Columbia than previously thought<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The paucity of earlier records is related to the fact that its vocalisations were unknown until recently. <br/></p>	eng
145980	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in wet, mossy cloud-forest, usually at 1,800-2,500 m in ravines or on steep slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been seen on the ground and perched up to 3 m in the understorey<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests with nestlings have been found in March and November (i.e. during the wet season)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145980	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 17th century, most if not all cloud-forest in the upper Magdalena valley<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and the Central Andes, Colombia, has been logged, settled and converted to agriculture. The west Andean slopes in Ecuador have also been altered, particularly in Pichincha<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. A large area of intact habitat exists on Volc&aacute;n Sumaco in Napo but, in 1990, the human population was growing and forest clearance for agriculture was having an impact at c.1,000 m and above. Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos is increasingly threatened by encroaching human settlement and opium production<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, the species has been shown to use secondary forest freely within parts of its Columbian range<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145981	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type-locality is within El Tam&aacute; National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out further surveys (especially in May-June when it should be most vocal) in the vicinity of the type-locality to attempt to relocate the species and assess its current status and ecological requirements<sup>2,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Reassess the potential impact of deforestation. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of El Tam&aacute; National Park. Determine its taxonomic status. <br/></p>	eng
145981	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Grallaria chthonia </em>is known only from the type-locality, at Hacienda la Providencia on the r&iacute;o Chiquita in south-west T&aacute;chira, west <strong>Venezuela</strong>, where four specimens were collected in 1955-1956. The type locality has since been deforested, although there is still forest in the vicinity; specific searches in September 1990 and December 1996 failed to find the species<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145981	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	All specimens were collected in dense cloud-forest at elevations of 1,800-2,100 m. <br/></p>	eng
145981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Precautionary population estimate for consistency with other species in a similar predicament. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
145981	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In 1990, habitat at the type-locality was reportedly undisturbed above 1,150&#160;m, but deforestation was proceeding rapidly in the area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1996, the r&iacute;o Chiquita valley was entirely coffee plantations below 1,600&#160;m, with much habitat at 1,900-2,200&#160;m converted to grow potatoes and other vegetables<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The next valley to the west had some habitat at c.1,850&#160;m, and there is presumably habitat in between these two valleys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145984	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria eludens</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Peru</strong> in Ucayali (Balta and on the Cordillera Divisor), and probably Madre de Dios (Manu National Park and Cerro Pantiacolla<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and has recently been discovered on the upper rio Juru&aacute;, <strong>Brazil<sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs in <em>terra firme</em> forest up to 500&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is otherwise essentially unknown<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but, although its lowland forests are relatively intact<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, the region is subject to some selective logging and is being opened up for development, with oil/gas extraction and mining, and associated road-building and human colonisation resulting in further degradation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145984	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to estimate population size. <br/></p>	eng
145985	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for the species in suitable habitat throughout its range<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect habitat in the known range<sup>3</sup></strong>, including the realtively intact Farallones de Medina area. <br/></p>	eng
145985	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria kaestneri</em> is restricted to the eastern slope of the East Andes in Cundinamarca, <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is currently known from south-east of Bogot&aacute;, from several sites near Monterredondo and above Medina<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong> and it presumably ranges into Meta department between these sites. It occurs at reasonably high densities near Monterredondo, and may occur along the eastern slope of the East Andes wherever there are still suitable tracts of forest remaining at appropriate elevations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145985	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits very wet primary and secondary cloud-forest, at upper subtropical elevations from 1,800 to 2,300&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is a relatively terrestrial antpitta, preferring dense understorey vegetation below tree gaps (natural or otherwise), where it forages in leaf-litter and on soft ground, mainly for insects, but also spiders and earthworms<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It probably breeds in the latter half of the year, during the mid- to late rainy season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145985	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20-40 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 171 (45% EOO) = 3,420-6,840, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from median to upper quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as species is locally common, occurring at high densities). <br/></p>	eng
145985	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is fairly extensive disturbance of forest at suitable altitudes on the east slope in Cundinamarca, mostly in the form of timber extraction<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, selective logging may even favour the species, in contrast to clear-cutting, which is clearly a threat and has generally occurred up to altitudes of 1,500-2,000&#160;m on the east slope<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Near the type-locality, large areas of primary forest remain away from the Monterredondo-El Calvario road, around which logging and scattered pastures reach their most extensive levels<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Farallones de Medina area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, where the species has recently been found<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, is exceptional in that intact forest remains as low as 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145986	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is found within Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine more accurately its geographic and altitudinal range in the Sierra Nevada<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct censuses to estimate the density and state of the population, thus enabling an assessment of suitable habitat and the design of conservation measures<sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145986	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria bangsi</em> is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, on the borders of Cesar, Magdalena and Guajira, north <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is described as common along the San Lorenzo ridge, but local and uncommon within the San Salvador valley on the northern slope, and the R&iacute;o Frio valley on the western slope<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although accurate population densities are unknown<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
145986	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid montane forest and intervening forest edge at 1,200-2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is most common above 1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is principally terrestrial, sometimes perching on low horizontal branches, and is generally less retiring and easier to see than congeners<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145986	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
145986	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is increasingly being destroyed and fragmented by illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Only 15% of the sierra's vegetation is unaltered, and this species has probably lost 51% of its habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The south-east slope of the sierra is extensively deforested, whilst the west slope has been largely cleared for illegal marijuana plantations, and subsequently sprayed with herbicide by the government<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145988	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a restricted range in south-west Ecuador (mainly El Oro and Loja provinces) and extreme north-west Peru (Tumbes department), with an isolated population on the coastal cordillera of south-west Manabi and western Guayas, Ecuador (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
145988	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species generally keeps to dense vegetation where it usually stays on or near the ground (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). It inhabits semi-deciduous forest (Stotz et al. 1996), forest edge (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998) and regenerating secondary scrub (Ridgely and Tudor 1994), and although it also occurs in areas of dry deciduous forest, it tends to keep to the greener, denser vegetation in narrow ravines (Parker et al. 1995). It may sometimes associate with mixed species flocks of brush-finches and seedeaters (Parker et al. 1995). It has been recorded from 600 to 1,400 m (Stotz et al. 1996), and sometimes as high as 1,700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994). Some seasonal altitudinal movement seems likely to take place, but the exact nature of this is unclear (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998).	eng
145988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145988	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Clearance of forest and scrub for agricultural land, plus the loss of dense understorey through intense grazing by cattle and goats may adversely affect this species (I. Isherwood and J. Willis verbally 1998). However, it is known from several protected areas including Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved Zone which is part of the North-west Peru Biosphere Reserve (Parker and Carr 1992, Parker et al. 1995).	eng
145989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145990	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is well protected in Purac&eacute; National Park (Cauca), Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park and Los Nevados National Park (Risaralda), Navarco and Alto Quind&iacute;o Acaime Reserves (Quind&iacute;o)<strong><sup>6,7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine better its population and conservation status. Assess habitat cover throughout its range and search for additional populations. Protect the significant areas of pristine forest on the east Andean slopes<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure continued effective protection at existing reserves. <br/></p>	eng
145990	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria rufocinerea</em> occurs on both slopes of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (south Antioquia to west Putumayo) and north <strong>Ecuador </strong>(Sucumb&iacute;os). The subspecies <em>romeroana</em> is found in Putumayo and Cauca, Colombia, and was discovered in adjacent Sucumb&iacute;os, Ecuador in 1999<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The nominate subspecies has been found most frequently on the Volc&aacute;n Ru&iacute;z-Tolima massif, but there are also historical records at two localities in Antioquia. In two protected areas on the south-west slope of Volc&aacute;n Tolima, densities were estimated at 1.6-5 birds per 10&#160;km of transect<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and 3.7-5.7 birds per km of transect<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population is presumed to have declined significantly during the 20th century. <br/></p>	eng
145990	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, humid montane forest and secondary growth near the treeline, at 2,200-3,150&#160;m, locally as low as 1,950&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Two studies have found it most abundant in lower parts of its altitudinal range<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Most records are from forest with many small palms, ferns, vines and epiphytes, but it seems to tolerate considerable disturbance as long as forest cover is maintained. It apparently prefers primary to secondary forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and closed-canopy secondary forest (or plantations with an open understorey) to dense vegetation in the early stages of regeneration<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Navarco Reserve, it was found in remnant natural forest patches within conifer plantations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Inspection of mist-netted birds suggests that breeding occurs in March-May<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
145990	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 966 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 2,415-5,410, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, although may occur locally at higher densities). <br/></p>	eng
145990	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread deforestation for agriculture and human settlement has taken place within its range, including the immediate vicinity of known locations. Forest east of Medell&iacute;n, Antioquia, has long since been cleared. In the Toche valley, most forest clearance has taken place since the 1950s, primarily for coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing, leaving scattered patches of mature secondary forest and natural vegetation covering only c.15% of land between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. In west Putumayo, continuing improvements to the road network have attracted many immigrants who have settled, logged and farmed previously uninhabited areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
145991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
145998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
145999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146001	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria blakei</em> is very patchily distributed in the Andes of north and central <strong>Peru</strong> where it is generally uncommon<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Disjunct populations occur in San Mart&iacute;n, Amazonas, Hu&aacute;nuco and Pasco<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It inhabits montane forest and secondary woodland, generally on or near the ground, preferring areas with a dense bamboo understorey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Though largely recorded in a very narrow altitudinal band, 2,150-2,475&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, it occurs at 1,850&#160;m in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and was recently recorded at 2,400-2,900 m at Abra Patricia, San Mart&iacute;n<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is primarily threatened by habitat destruction. In the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, deforestation is proceeding at an alarming rate, with most forest in this area already cleared, and what remains rapidly being converted to cash crops, particularly marijuana and coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146001	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
146002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146004	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant numbers are well protected in Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are several protected areas adjacent to Ucumar&iacute;, but it has not been recorded within them<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the Toche valley, it occurs in La Carbonera, a small private nature reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct additional surveys of the Volc&aacute;n Ru&iacute;z-Tolima massif and adjacent areas of the Central Andes. Protect suitable habitat in the Toche valley<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146004	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria milleri</em> occurs in the Volc&aacute;n Ru&iacute;z-Tolima massif of the Central Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>, (Caldas, Risaralda, Quind&iacute;o and Tolima). Ten specimens were collected in Caldas and Quind&iacute;o between 1911 and 1942. It was next recorded in May 1994, in Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Surveys carried out in 1994-1997 caught and banded 11 birds, and estimated that 106 individuals were present in a 0.63&#160;km<sup>2</sup> area<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Further observations have been made on the south-east slope of Volc&aacute;n Tolima in the r&iacute;o Toche valley during 1998-2000, where it is considered uncommon and local<strong><sup>3,4,5,7</sup></strong>. In 1999 and 2000, it was also found in the r&iacute;o Blanco catchment (Caldas) and near Roncesvalles (Tolima)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146004	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Ucumar&iacute;, it has been recorded from three types of habitat: early secondary growth vegetation with a high density of herbs and shrubs; the understorey of 30-year-old alder (<em>Alnus</em>) plantations; and the understorey of 30-year-old secondary forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with no significant difference in population density between the three. Primary forest in Ucumar&iacute; is inaccessible<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The ten historical specimens were taken at 2,745-3,140&#160;m and, in the Toche valley, it occurs at 1,800-2,600&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. In Ucumar&iacute;, all records in 1994-1997 were in a narrow elevational band of 2,400-2,600&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. A radio-tracked individual in Ucumar&iacute; used a territory of 4.1 ha <strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Vocal activity apparently peaks in May-June in the Toche valley<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146004	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km2 x 135 km2 (45% EOO) = 338-756, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
146004	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most forest below 3,300&#160;m in the Central Andes has long been converted to agricultural land-use. In the Toche valley, this has primarily taken place since the 1950s, mostly for coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Some forest clearance continues and mature secondary forest patches are now scattered. Natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% between 1,900 and 3,200&#160;m, with most remnants occurring above 2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146008	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylopezus ochroleucus</em> is scarce and local in the interior of north-east <strong>Brazil</strong> in Piau&iacute; and Cear&aacute; south to south Bahia and north Minas Gerais<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It occurs in tall, lush caatinga woodland and semi-tropical deciduous forest at 500-1,000&#160;m, where it frequents dense tangles<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but persists in degraded areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Deforestation for agricultural expansion and understorey degradation by intensive grazing must have adversely affected the species. The extent of these threats has accelerated since c.1970, with the Brazilian oil company, Petrobr&aacute;s, building roads in the core of its range and opening up new areas to settlers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaricula loricata</em> occurs in the mountains of Yaracuy east along the Cordillera de la Costa through Carabobo and Aragua to Distrito Federal, north <strong>Venezuela<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is uncommon in the lower growth of montane humid forest at elevations of 1,440-2,100&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although there is still extensive forest cover in parts of its limited range, deforestation has been severe around Caracas, and many other areas have been degraded<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146015	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
146016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaricula peruviana</em> is rare and very local on the east slope of the Andes in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> and north <strong>Peru</strong>. There are recent records from the Cordillera de Cutuc&uacute; (Morona-Santiago) and Podocarpus National Park (Zamora-Chinchipe) in Ecuador, and Chaupe (Cajamarca) and Cerro Chinguela (Piura) in Peru<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It apparently inhabits dense to moderately open undergrowth of montane forest at 1,680-2,100 m <strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>, but all available data are from mist-netted individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its habitats are under intense pressure from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, with widespread destruction caused by peasant farmers, and tea and coffee growers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146016	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There is insufficient information to make a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
146017	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs near the Alto Mayo Protected Forest, San Mart&iacute;n, but it is unclear whether the high-elevation forests are protected under this designation<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. In any case, the protected status appears to have had little or no effect on the rate of deforestation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of suitable habitat on each of the isolated ridges in the region. Conduct basic biological research on the species<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce the protection of habitat in Alto Mayo Protected Forest, and ensure that high-altitude forest is included within its boundary<sup>2,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a protected area in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146017	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaricula ochraceifrons</em> was discovered in 1976, and is known from two localities on isolated ridges of the east Andes in Amazonas and San Mart&iacute;n, north <strong>Peru<sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In the Garcia area below Abra Patricia, San Mart&iacute;n, two specimens were collected in 1976, and a female trapped in 1998, whereas in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, Amazonas, two specimens were collected in 1976<strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>. The Abra Patricia area has since been visited by numerous ornithologists, with nine further specimens collected there in 2002<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146017	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense undergrowth of epiphyte-laden, humid cloud-forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with records between 1,890-2,500 m <strong><sup>5,7,8</sup></strong>. It is extremely poorly known, owing mainly to a complete lack of field observations<strong><sup>4,6,7</sup></strong>, although its voice has now been documented<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146017	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km2 x 212 km2 (45% EOO) = 530-1,187, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 250-999 (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet) <br/></p>	eng
146017	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The remaining areas of suitable habitat are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure ownership of the land, gradually around Abra Patricia, but more rapidly in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. More recent surveys have confirmed that habitat destruction in the region continues unabated, albeit more extensively at lower altitudes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Abra Patricia is under pressure owing to road improvements, recent immigration and population growth in the area<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146018	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaricula lineifrons</em> is known from few localities on the west slope of the Central Andes in south <strong>Colombia</strong> (east Cauca), and on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Ecuador</strong> (west Napo, south-east Carchi, Ca&ntilde;ar and north Loja)<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It occurs in the undergrowth of epiphyte-clad montane evergreen forest, elfin forest and adjacent secondary woodland, on relatively steep slopes, at 2,900-3,400 m <strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. Considered rare to locally uncommon within a limited range, its cryptic habits may disguise its true status<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Though apparently well protected at two sites (in east Cauca and north Loja)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, widespread and severe deforestation of montane forest within its range has occurred owing to agricultural expansion, and further degradation is projected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146019	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Colombia, it is numerous in Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and occurs in Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Tatam&aacute; National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Picachos National Park and Ot&uacute;n-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It may also occur in Farallones de Cali National Park. In Venezuela, it occurs in El Tam&aacute; National Park.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Elucidate the species's range by surveying poorly-known areas of habitat, e.g. in Farallones de Cali<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Quantify the population and research its ecology, especially the poorly-known subspecies <em>venezuelana<sup>3,6</sup></em></strong>. <strong>Strengthen the effectiveness of national parks, notably Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146019	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaricula cucullata</em> is known from a few scattered localities in <strong>Colombia</strong> and west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. The nominate subspecies occurs in Colombia on both slopes of the West Andes, at two sites in Valle del Cauca<strong><sup>7,11</sup></strong>, and one in Cauca, although this latter sighting requires confirmation<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. On the west slope of the Central Andes, it formerly occurred near Medell&iacute;n, Antioquia, and has recently been found in Valle del Cauca<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Risaralda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At the head of the Magdalena valley, all recent records are from Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Park, Huila. Known sites for the subspecies <em>venezuelana </em>are are on the east slope of the East Andes in east Cundinamarca, Colombia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and in Apure and T&aacute;chira, Venezuela. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146019	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the more open parts of otherwise dense cloud-forest, chiefly around 1,800-2,135&#160;m, but perhaps down to 1,500&#160;m and up to 2,700&#160;m. One specimen was coming into breeding condition in May, and others taken in Huila in July and Antioquia in September contained eggs. <br/></p>	eng
146019	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.5-5.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,911 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 4,778-10,702, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range up to lower quartile of 12 estimates for nine species of antpitta in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; revised estimate of EOO in Renjifo <em>et al</em>. [2002]). <br/></p>	eng
146019	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by human settlement, logging and conversion of its habitat to agricultural land use. In many areas, including Medell&iacute;n and the upper Magdalena valley, most forest has been cleared. Human development of land continues, generally following the construction of new roads, and even affects national parks, including Tatam&aacute; and El Tam&aacute;. Opium poppy cultivation results in deforestation of remote areas, chosen to avoid detection<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos is threatened by poppy cultivation and encroaching human settlement<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146021	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146022	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs east of the rio Tocantins in north Brazil, in Pará, Ceará (where it may persist only in Gorupi reserve), Maranhão and Piauí.	eng
146022	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits lowland humid forest and is very common in mature second growth in east Pará (Ridgely and Tudor 1994).	eng
146022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare to uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146022	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extensive deforestation east of the rio Tocantins, including within protected areas (Stotz et al. 1996, M. and P. Isler in litt. 1999), and understorey degradation may be adversely affecting this poorly known species. However, it persists in small woodlots east of São Luís, Maranhão, but it presumably cannot disperse between isolated woodlots and such fragmentation probably has long-term consequences (Collar and Andrew 1988).	eng
146023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146033	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146039	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanopareia maranonica</em> occurs in north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (local in the upper r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n valley of Cajamarca) and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Zumba region of south Zamora-Chinchipe)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and local in dry deciduous forest, arid lowland scrub and riparian thickets at 200-800 m, where it apparently tolerates a degree of disturbance<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. Its habitat in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage has progressively deteriorated during a prolonged period of cultivation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, while the spread of oil palm plantations, cattle-ranching and logging are all serious threats within its small range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Oil extraction is a potential future problem<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psilorhamphus guttatus</em> inhabits lowland humid forest and secondary woodland up to 900 m in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Minas Gerais south to Paran&aacute;), and at lower elevations in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. As its English name indicates, it is mostly confined to large stands of bamboo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but also occurs in vine tangles and other dense vegetation away from bamboo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is rare to locally uncommon<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but probably overlooked because it rarely sings and has retiring habits. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146040	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to calculate a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
146041	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Merulaxis ater</em> occurs in south Bahia (one 19th century record), Esp&iacute;rito Santo (few records), Rio de Janeiro, east S&atilde;o Paulo, east Paran&aacute; and east Santa Catarina (two records), south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, typically at 800-1,800 m but locally to 100 m <strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to locally relatively common in thickets within montane and lowland evergreen forest and mature secondary woodland, but is almost entirely montane in Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Rio de Janeiro<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland forests. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its montane forests have suffered less destruction, but isolated forests in the north of its range have virtually disappeared due to the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and remaining patches are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading from cultivated areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146041	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No data on which to base a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
146042	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected by Brazilian law. The sighting in 1995 was in a privately-owned fazenda adjacent to the 5,400 ha Una Biological Reserve. A reforestation project aiming to create a biological corridor between Una and Serra das Lontras is planned<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. 10% of  the forest tract where the species was discovered in Macarani County in 2005 (the 400 ha Mata da Balbina in Jequitinhonha valley, Bandeira and Macarani municipalities) has been purchased by the Funda&ccedil;&atilde;o Biodiversitas, a local NGO from Minas Gerais, with funds from the American Bird Conservancy, and will be managed as a Private Natural Heritage Reserve<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Within an initial three-year period targets are to create an initial infrastructure, investigate the conservation status of <em>M. stresemanni</em>, and enhance the institutional presence in the area<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A further 194 ha section of forest was purchased in March 2009, along with infrastructure improvement and the hiring of a reserve manager<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. All the remaining forest (c.4,300 ha) is virtually unprotected and needs urgent protection<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Surveys are being carried out to assess the population size of the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out surveys including playback in the Jequitinhonha valley to determine the size and status of this population. Search for additional populations in all fragments of lowland forests in and around Bahia, using the voice cut now available, and determine the size and status of the remaining population. Safeguard the remaining unprotected 4,300 hectares of forest in the Jequitinhonha valley, and all remaining tracts of humid forest in Bahia. Create corridors to connect small tracts of pristine forest currently disconnected from the largest tract on the Bandeira-Jord&acirc;nia-Macarani border.	eng
146042	distribution		<em>Merulaxis stresemanni</em> was known until recently from just two specimens, the type, collected near Salvador in the 1830s, and a second taken near Ilh&eacute;us in 1945, in coastal Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>. In 1995, it was rediscovered in the wild when a male was observed and tape-recorded at Fazenda Jueirana, near Una Biological Reserve, Bahia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subsequent searches there have failed to produce further records<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, the species was subsequently found in the Jequitinhonha valley, Minas Gerais, near the border with Bahia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Here, too, the future of the species seems to hang in the balance: it lives in a strip of humid valley-floor forest, much of which has recently been cleared to make room for agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and pasture<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. At least four birds were found in a 100 ha area, but it was thought unlikely that this density could be extrapolated for the whole 5,000 ha patch of forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
146042	habitat		Very little is known, but its behaviour and habitat preferences appear similar to those of <em>M. ater</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The male in 1995 was observed foraging on the ground and on fallen tree trunks in an area of drier forest between two humid valleys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was found in humid forest at 700-800 metres along the Jequitinonha and Pardo River valleys<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Birds are very responsive to play-back, approaching the observer to 2 m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
146042	population		In the Jequitinhonha valley (the sole currently known population) at least four birds were found in a 100 ha area, but it was thought unlikely that this density could be extrapolated for the whole 5,000 ha partly fragmented patch of forest (R. Ribon <em>in litt</em>. 2006).	eng
146043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally fairly common, although common in the southern part of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
146044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146048	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Dari&eacute;n National Park, Panama, protects all but the small Colombian part of its range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey for the species throughout the Serran&iacute;a de Tacarcuna where feasible. Develop active conservation management schemes to control activities that threaten birds in Dari&eacute;n<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Extend Los Kat&iacute;os National Park to include the high-altitude part of the Tacarcuna ridge in Colombia<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146048	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus panamensis</em> is known from Cerros Tacarcuna and Mali, adjacent mountains on the Serran&iacute;a de Tacarcuna in east Dari&eacute;n, <strong>Panama</strong>, and north Choc&oacute;, <strong>Colombia</strong><sup>2</sup>. It has a very small range, but is common in suitable habitat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146048	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the undergrowth of humid, mossy forest, between 1,020 and 1,460&#160;m altitude<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146048	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
146048	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its small range puts it at inherent risk from any habitat loss or degradation. Habitat in this region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Dari&eacute;n could lead to severe, long-term damage to the forests in Dari&eacute;n and adjacent Choc&oacute;<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146050	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
146054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146055	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus novacapitalis</em> occurs in swampy gallery forest and dense streamside vegetation in Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal and west Minas Gerais, central <strong>Brazil</strong>. It is mostly rare, occurring at low densities, but can be locally common<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is known from six protected areas<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, and suitable habitat has been less affected by clearance for agriculture than adjacent campo cerrado habitats. Nevertheless, the annual burning of adjacent grasslands must limit the availability and extent of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Wetland drainage and the sequestration of water for irrigation schemes is further reducing habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146056	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Reserva Ecol&oacute;gica da Michelin covers 3,000 ha and is patrolled by four forest guards who have been effective in reducing hunting pressure significantly and in stopping cutting and clearing of the forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The Una Biological Reserve has recently been enlarged to 7,100 ha<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue studying the known populations at Ituber&aacute; and Una. Search for the species in other fragments of remaining habitat in the area. Determine its population size and status at the known localities. Study the species's ecology, including habitat requirements, and breeding biology. Effectively safeguard Una Biological Reserve and the habitat at Ituber&aacute;. Initiate sustainable development projects within the species's range.	eng
146056	distribution		<em>Eleoscytalopus psychopompus </em>was, until recently, known only from three specimens taken at two localities in coastal Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>: a male collected in July 1944 at Ilh&eacute;us and a pair obtained in October 1983 at Valen&ccedil;a<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The species is no longer present close to these towns, but it has been found at Reserva Ecol&oacute;gica da Michelin of the Planta&ccedil;&otilde;es Michelin da Bahia, Igrapi&uacute;na municipality, near Ituber&aacute;, Bahia, and Una Biological Reserve, Una municipality where small populations survive<strong><sup>3,4,6,8</sup></strong>. During thorough surveys near Ituber&aacute; following the discovery just four territories were identified<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Surveys by BirdLife/SAVE Brasil have now recorded the species in a further four municipalities: Ilh&eacute;us, Mara&uacute;, Tapero&aacute; and Valen&ccedil;a<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The bird is extremely shy and retiring and difficult to detect during surveys; factors that no doubt influence our perception of its status.	eng
146056	habitat		It apparently requires mature wet lowland forests in Una and Igrapi&uacute;na areas, although recent records from the Reserva Ecol&oacute;gica da Michelin have sighted the bird in degraded pioneer vegetation along waterways<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is restricted to patches in river and stream valleys with small swamps around the main river course or swampy parts of the river itself, up to a maximum of c.50 m from the river channel<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its preferred micro-habitat appears to be areas with dense agglomerates of vines and shrubs, covered by trunks and branches of fallen trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
146056	population		Birds at Itubera are rare and patchily distributed (P. C. Lima <em>in litt</em>. 2006); the population at Una is estimated to number 64-68 pairs (c.125 individuals). Recent records from a number of new locations, and records in degraded habitats, may lead to an upward revision of the total population estimate in the near future.	eng
146057	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus indigoticus</em> is rare to locally relatively common in coastal east <strong>Brazil</strong>: east-central Bahia, west Esp&iacute;rito Santo, east Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, south S&atilde;o Paulo, east Paran&aacute; and Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It inhabits humid forest understoreys, edges and second growth below 1,000&#160;m, but in the north of its range it occurs exclusively in foothill forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It must have suffered from the large-scale destruction and fragmentation of forest within its elevational and geographic range.</p>	eng
146057	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No data on population size. <br/></p>	eng
146058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce to locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146062	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to south-east Australia, where it occurs in south-east Queensland and the east of New South Wales, and it is widespread but scattered in and east of the Great Dividing Range.	eng
146062	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits forests and woodlands, along watercourses and in gullies, to c.1,500 m, and its densities are highest in wet sclerophyll forests in the gullies of foothills and dry sclerophyll forests on ridges in mountainous areas. It is almost entirely insectivorous, and lives in territorial pairs or groups of 3-4 adults that breed co-operatively and forage together loosely (Higgins et al. 2001).	eng
146062	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146062	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has disappeared from several peripheral habitats as a direct result of forest clearing and fragmentation, and has also declined in some wet forest habitats, probably as a result of logging and the progressive collapse of large old trees damaged by previous wildfires. However, in their preferred mature mixed species forest habitat there has been little change in abundance (R. Loyn in litt. 2003).	eng
146063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146066	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A study of the habitat distribution and population density has been completed. Whian Whian State Forest, which was formerly threatened with conversion to Eucalyptus plantations, became protected as part of the Whian Whian State Conservation Area in July 2003. Voluntary conservation agreements on private land have given greater protection to suitable habitat (including Nature Refuge designation in Queensland), several state forests where the species occurs have been converted to national park status in Queensland, and a Border Ranges Rainforest Biodiversity Management Plan has been developed, encompassing the entire distribution of the species and identifying actions to enhance the quality and extent of habitat. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Determine the extent of isolation between forest patches. Undertake habitat restoration to provide greater extent and quality of habitat and improved connectivity between remnants. Protect more habitat on private land through voluntary conservation agreements. Carry out regular population monitoring. Ensure adequate fire protection is in place, particularly in dry years. <br/></p>	eng
146066	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Menura alberti</em> is confined to a relatively small area of rainforest between Blackwall Range, New South Wales, and Mistake Range, Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>. New South Wales is thought to support less than 800 pairs, with highest densities at Whian Whian State Conservation Area in Nightcap Range. Subpopulations are also found along Tweed, McPherson and Richmond Ranges. An isolated group of less than 10 birds persists in the Blackwall Range. In Queensland, the population may be of a similar size, although possibly smaller, and occurs patchily from Lamington National Park around Main Range to Mistake Range, with a small population on Tamborine Mountain. In optimal habitat, territories are widely spaced with a density of approximately five pairs/km<sup>2</sup>.  <br/></p>	eng
146066	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It lives in moist forest, mostly above 300 m with highest densities on poorer soils which develop a deep leaf-litter. It favours areas with Antarctic Beech <em>Nothofagus</em> <em>moorei</em> and wet sclerophyll forest with a dense understorey of rainforest plants, but is absent from some rainforest types, including complex notophyll vine forest on high nutrient soils and from dry sclerophyll forest. It feeds on terrestrial invertebrates.  <br/></p>	eng
146066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Garnett and Crowley (2000). <br/></p>	eng
146066	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the species's habitat was cleared in the 19th century. Until recently, the major threat was intense forest management, particularly in what was Whian Whian State Forest where proposals existed to allow replacement of optimal wet sclerophyll habitat with unsuitable <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations. This area is now protected in the Whian Whian State Conservation Area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Previously disturbed areas may support a dense growth of lantana <em>Lantana camara </em>which reduces habitat suitability. Most subpopulations are now under relatively secure tenure, although the isolated populations at Blackwall Range and Tamborine Mountain are threatened simply because they are so small, and densities are unusually low near areas of closer settlement. Greater protection of suitable habitat on private land is occurring through the establishment of voluntary conservation agreements and this will help secure some subpopulations. Fire could be a threat in exceptionally dry years, especially to outlying subpopulations, although fire at intervals of several centuries is a natural feature of these environments. Nevertheless, the impacts of climate change on fire frequency and intensity, as well as on habitat quality in general, may need to be considered for the species in the future. <br/></p>	eng
146067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common where habitat remains (Morcombe 2000, Higgins et al. 2001).	eng
146068	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atrichornis rufescens</em> occurs in isolated populations in New South Wales and Queensland, <strong>Australia</strong>. Populations are centred on the Gibraltar and Border Ranges (<em>rufescens</em>), and Barrington Tops, Hastings Range and Dorrigo/Ebor (<em>ferrieri</em>). The species is mostly confined to areas above 600&#160;m but an observation at 240&#160;m has been documented. In the early 19th century, the population size was probably c.12,000 pairs, but surveys from 1979-1983 estimated it at c.2,500 pairs, <em>rufescens</em> numbering 730 pairs. Initial analyses from a survey in late 1999 suggest a further decline of <em>rufescens</em>. Though most of the species's lowland habitat was cleared last century, clearance is not a continuing threat. The suitability of remaining eucalypt forest, however, estimated to support 65% of the present population, is potentially threatened by inappropriate burning and logging practices. The remaining population is under relatively secure tenure. There has also been an unexplained retreat of the southern part of the population to higher altitudes, even from uncleared forest, but it is not known if this retreat is continuing. <br/></p>	eng
146068	population	BirdLife International, 2008	T. Holmes (2007) estimated there may be as many as 12,000 pairs. Precautionarily placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
146069	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. The species has undergone 35 years of intense research, monitoring and management, including protection from fire and translocation.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish populations where appropriate habitat persists throughout its former range. Maintain fire protection at all sites. Survey and monitor populations at five-year intervals. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
146069	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atrichornis clamosus</em> is found on the south coast of Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. Between 1961, when it was rediscovered, and 1976, it was largely confined to the Mt Gardner area of the Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve, 40 km east of Albany. As a result of translocations, and recolonisation from the Mt Gardner population, the range has since increased. Five gradually coalescing populations are known, as well as an introduced population at Bald Island (59 calling males in 2004<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and a reintroduced population at Drakesbrook, the type locality, south of Perth. However, breeding at Drakesbrook has not been confirmed, despite the reintroduction of 100 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the Albany management area, the number of singing males has increased from 588 in 1999 to 765 in 2001, despite the impacts of fires in 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146069	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its preferred habitat contains dense clumps of sedges, shrubs or piles of debris for nesting cover, interspersed with small, open areas with a thick accumulation of leaf-litter and a well-developed litter fauna for feeding. It mainly eats terrestrial arthropods. All occupied sites have not been burnt for at least 10 years, the sites on Mt Gardner having a post-fire age of 40+ years. It apparently disperses along corridors of closed vegetation. It crosses roads readily, though not cleared land.  <br/></p>	eng
146069	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at c.1,500 breeding birds by Garnett and Crowley (2000), however a series of fires in the Two Peoples Bay-Mt Manypeaks area between December 2000 and December 2004 has severely impacted this, the species's largest, subpopulation (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
146069	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The disappearance of the species from most of its former range has been attributed to changes in fire regime following the disruption of Aboriginal fire management before the 1880s. In 1976, the single, remnant population survived in an area protected from fire by the terrain. The frequent burning of swamps to make them more suitable for cattle-grazing, as well as their drainage and clearance for horticulture, would have had major impacts. Wildfire is the major threat. In 1994, a fire at Mt Taylor destroyed most of a recently translocated population, with remaining birds disappearing within the subsequent year. Habitat clearance on private land could cut corridors, fragmenting populations and preventing dispersal. Declines at Gardner Lake in 1988 and 1991 followed heavy winter rainfall, and the population has never recovered.  <br/></p>	eng
146070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to moderately common (Coates 1990).	eng
146073	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.	eng
146073	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in rainforests, mainly between 600-1,400 m. It is also found in small remnant pockets bordering agricultural land (Blakers et al. 1984).	eng
146073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146073	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although some of its habitat has been cleared for agriculture, large area remain, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally moderately common (Coates 1990).	eng
146076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common, at least locally (Coates 1990).	eng
146077	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Foya Mountains north of the Idenburg River in northern Irian Jaya, Indonesia.	eng
146077	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Diamond 1982, Beehler et al. 1986, Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
146077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The total population has been estimated at a few thousand or less (Diamond 1982 in Frith and Frith 2004).	eng
146077	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Foya Mountains are uninhabited, and with no record of any human encroachment before 1979 (Diamond 1982, Diamond 1985), they are presumed to be largely secure. In addition, they are entirely encompassed within the huge (10,000 km2) Foya Nature Reserve (Sujatnika et al. 1995).	eng
146078	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is widely if patchily distributed in the Atherton region in north-eastern Queensland, Australia.	eng
146078	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is in rainforests above 700 m, including rainforests that have been selectively logged and others isolated by forest clearance (Garnett 1992).	eng
146078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146078	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146080	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all forest blocks at suitable altitude. Estimate population densities. Ascertain population structure across isolated forest blocks. Assess hunting pressure. Research rate and trends of forest clearance. Investigate whether all occupied locations are suitable for agriculture. Research tolerance of secondary forest. Establish public awareness projects. Support visitor facilities at lodge above Salemben village. <br/></p>	eng
146080	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Sericulus bakeri</em> is endemic to the Adelbert Mountains in central north <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> where it has a very restricted range<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It can be locally moderately common in suitable habitat within its small range<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146080	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It mainly occupies a narrow altitudinal band at 1,200-1,450 m (rarely to 990 m) <strong><sup>1,2,4,5</sup></strong>. It is replaced at higher altitudes by the widespread <em>A. macgregoriae</em>. It forages for fruit, especially figs, and insects in forest canopy, visiting suitable fruiting trees in secondary growth close to forest<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	It is restricted to altitudes of 1,200-1,450 m (rarely to 990 m) (Frith & Frith 2004), and numbers of bowers found per km<sup>2</sup> documented in Frith & Frith for other species in the genus are 15/50 km<sup>2</sup> and 24/48 km<sup>2</sup> (and the max of 23 studies of all bowerbirds = 36 bowers / 2.5 km<sup>2</sup>). It seems likely that the total population is <10,000 mature individuals (G. Dutson <em>in litt. </em>2009). <br/></p>	eng
146080	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although this mountain range is not heavily populated, this species occurs at the optimum altitude for indigenous agriculture and villagers rely substantially on hunting for food<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, the people of Salemben village do not hunt this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and much of its range remains inaccessible and is unlikely to be logged in the near future<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Population pressure (currently 2-3% increase per year in Papua New Guinea) will lead to increasing rates of deforestation but there are few data on current levels and trends of hunting and deforestation, and if most of the resulting clearance is for small-scale garden agriculture the species may not be adversely affected <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be only locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates 1990).	eng
146087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea and locally fairly common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce, local and infrequently seen (Coates 1990).	eng
146089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon within its main altitudinal range, otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in appropriate habitat (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in southern Australia and common to abundant in parts of south-western Australia (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146100	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to northern Australia. Subspecies coronatus is found along seven river systems in Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Its distribution is severely reduced, and it is no longer found on parts of the Pentecost and Fitzroy rivers. Subspecies macgillivrayi is found in eastern Northern Territory and north-west Queensland.	eng
146100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 10,000-28,000 individuals (Higgins et al. 2001). Subspecies coronatus numbers c.12,000; subspecies macgillivrayi numbers c.18,000 across 12 subpopulations.	eng
146100	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Livestock eat and trample the species habitat, seeking access to water. Fires are increasing in frequency since the advent of pastoralism, and have been detrimental in some places. These processes expose soil, leading to erosion and, ultimately, denudation and weed invasion of river banks which are then abandoned by the species. This has been ameliorated along some parts of the Victoria River where several large pastoral stations have excluded stock from riparian areas. The high and increasing densities of weeds along many rivers may eventually have an adverse effect (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but locally patchy (Higgins et al 2001, Coates 1990).	eng
146102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146104	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p></p><p>An extensive reserve system incorporates most of its remaining range, including Hattah-Kulkyne and Wyperfeld National Parks, Murray-Sunset National Park, the Big Desert Wilderness in Victoria and Ngarkat Conservation Park in South Australia.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p></p><p>Determine the current range. Establish monitoring of known populations. Establish a fire management programme that will ensure the conservation of the species within its existing range.  Re-establish the species in areas from which it has been eliminated by fire. <br/></p>	eng
146104	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stipiturus mallee</em> has a severely fragmented distribution in the Victorian and South Australian mallee regions, <strong>Australia</strong>, south and east of the Murray River. In South Australia, birds are found in Ngarkat and associated conservation parks but, in 1989, apparently disappeared from the isolated Billiatt Conservation Park as a result of fire. In Victoria, birds range from Sunset Country, east to Anuello Fauna and Flora Reserve, south-east of Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, and in the Big Desert east to Bronzewing State Faunal Reserve. The population is estimated at c.10,000 individuals and may be declining. The area of suitable habitat is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/><p></p>	eng
146104	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies habitats containing hummock grassland <em>Triodia</em>, usually within low woodland dominated by mallee eucalypts <em>Eucalyptus</em> and cypress pine <em>Callitris</em>. It also occurs in heath containing banksias <em>Banksia</em> or casuarinas <em>Allocasuarina</em>. In Ngarkat, it can disperse at least 6&#160;km into vegetation recovering from fire, 3-4 years after it has been burnt. Highest densities occur 8-10 years after fire, although it persists in vegetation 50 years old. Much apparently suitable habitat is unoccupied.<p></p>	eng
146104	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to have declined heavily in recent years; wildfires have wiped out remnant subpopulations. The actual estimate is 2131-4164, with perhaps 1500-2800 mature individuals (Mustoe 2006).  <br/><p></p>	eng
146104	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Past clearance for agriculture and livestock grazing has fragmented habitat, but the greatest current threat is large-scale wildfires within remnants, such as occurred in Billiatt Conservation Park. Although the species has persisted despite fire in other areas, a series of large fires could put it in danger.<strong></strong><p></p>	eng
146105	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia, Australia. Nominate barbatus has a restricted distribution of c.100 km2 on the floodplain of the Bulloo River on the New South Wales-Queensland border. Subspecies diamantina is found in the Lake Eyre Basin, south-western Queensland and north-eastern South Australia.	eng
146105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be  rare in Queensland and South Australia and vulnerable in New South Wales (Higgins et al. 2001). The nominate barbatus may number c.15,000 individuals.	eng
146105	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Cattle grazing is considered a threat, particularly in dry years, but stock numbers have probably been higher in the past. Diversion of water from the Bulloo River may be a threat in the future but is not currently planned (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Though subspecies diamantina's habitat of swampy shrubland is fragmented, it is extensive, and does not appear to have been degraded by pastoralism, the primary land-use (Garnett 1992).	eng
146106	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Baseline surveys have been completed. Almost the entire population is contained within the Kakadu and Nitmiluk National Parks.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Repeat past surveys at each site, determining the fire history, and make recommendations on appropriate conservation management. Determine the extent of movement between populations, using banding and genetic analysis. Retain all known populations. Continue intensive fire management of Kakadu National Park. Promote and support traditional fire management throughout western Arnhem Land.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146106	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amytornis woodwardi</em> is endemic to the Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. It is found in north-western Arnhem Land, on and around the Arnhem Land escarpment, between Katherine and Maningrida. The small amount of available habitat is severely fragmented and degradation is likely to continue, resulting in a continuing decrease in the number of individuals, currently estimated at c.8,000 within 10 subpopulations. <br/></p>	eng
146106	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found on bare, flat plateaux and stepped or terraced hillsides along broad valleys, with or without narrow rocky gullies. Its habitat is characterised by mature spinifex <em>Triodia microstachya</em>, which is used for nesting, and bare rock, with most sites surveyed containing bare pavement and/or boulders.</p>	eng
146106	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The breeding population is estimated at c.8,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146106	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although the rocky escarpment habitat offers protection from most fires, the change in the fire regime, to a high frequency of extensive hot fires at the end of the dry season, and the progressive replacement of <em>T.&#160;microstachya</em> by annual sorghum, means that this protection may not last.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146107	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No targeted conservation action is known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue monitoring at a selection of known sites. Determine the effect of <em>Cenchrus ciliaris</em> invasion on habitat occupancy in Queensland. Develop and encourage the adoption of fire management that favours the species.	eng
146107	distribution		<em>Amytornis dorotheae</em> has a limited range in the hilly parts of north-western Queensland and eastern Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. Recent systematic surveys have reported a substantial populations decline in the Northern Territory, with extirpation of historical populations due to wildfires at Limmen Bight, Borroloola and Boodjamulla, leaving two populations at Wollogorang and the Calvert Hills which are both very small and vulnerable to fire. The Mt Isa population appears to be persisting under existing fire regimes and has an estimated population of 3,000-10,000 pairs, though it is still at risk from large scale future fires<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
146107	habitat		In the northern part of its range the species inhabits sandstone outcrops in mature <em>Triodia</em> hummock grassland, spinifex, which is highly flammable. Further south it occupies long-unburnt <em>Triodia</em> with stony areas between the hummocks on which grow a range of short grasses, forbs and patchy low trees and shrubs. It shows a preference for long-unburnt hummock grass, which occurs in rugged terrain offering protection from fire. It forages on the ground for insects and seeds.	eng
146107	population		A population of 4,500 (range 3,000-10,000) breeding pairs is estimated based on survey data and an estimated pair territory of 1.5 km<sup>2</sup>, giving a population estimate of 6,000-20,000 mature individuals<sup> </sup>(G. Harrington <em>in litt. </em>2009).	eng
146108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be still common in some areas (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).	eng
146109	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has an extensive distribution in shrublands in Australia. The nominate subspecies underwent a massive decline in the early 20th century that left it restricted to the Shark Bay region, Western Australia. Subspecies myall is moderately common in suitable habitat throughout its historical range in the Gawler Range, South Australia. Subspecies modestus declined substantially in the 19th and early 20th century, but still occurs over most of its former range in the Lake Eyre and From basins, South Australia, extending into the southern Northern Territory, though it has disappeared from the middle Darling River catchment, New South Wales.	eng
146109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be 20,000-50,000 individuals (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).The nominate subspecies has two remaining populations, numbering c.21,500 individuals; subspecies myall may number c.10,000; subspecies modestus could number c.20,000.	eng
146109	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The extirpation of modestus and textilis from parts of their range has been attributed to overgrazing by livestock, and while it is a potential threat to all three subspecies, appears to be having no significant effect at present. The reasons for the patchy distribution of modestus are not understood. Its range is almost all under pastoral management, and it is absent from apparently suitable habitat but can survive in sparsely-covered, degraded habitat (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146111	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia, Australia, from Admiralty Gulf south through the Mitchell Plateau, Roe, Prince Regent, Glenelg and upper Charnley rivers, to Manning Creek. Much of its range occurs in Aboriginal reserves, vacant crown land or conservation reserves including the Prince Regent River Reserve which covers c.6,340 km2. This species was once considered scarce, but this was primarily because few ornithologists visited its remote, largely inaccessible habitat.	eng
146111	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in hummock grassland habitat, being moderately common in dense porcupine-grass on the heavily dissected sandstone areas.	eng
146111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species may be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Higgins et al. 2001).	eng
146111	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There are no threats to this species apart from the occasional large fires which appear to have no lasting effects on its survival (Blakers et al. 1984, Brouwer and Garnett 1990).	eng
146112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146113	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myzomela albigula</em> is a little-known species from the smaller islands of the Louisiade Archipelago (Bonvouloir Islands, Conflict Group, Deboyne Islands, Rossel but not Misima) in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. No ornithologists have visited these islands in recent years and whilst the most closely related myzomelas are common and adaptable species, this species's population, habitat and threats are completely unknown<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to moderately common (Coates 1990).	eng
146117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146120	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myzomela kuehni</em> is restricted to Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in lowland monsoon forest and gardens, with a recent observation in a mosaic of coastal scrub, overgrown cultivation and tall secondary woodland. It remains little known and apparently scarce and, although extensive forest still remains on the island, it must be assumed that Wetar, which is relatively small, is likely to have undergone considerable deforestation in recent decades. <br/></p>	eng
146121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990	eng
146123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as Common throughout its range (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146130	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Fijian law. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a baseline survey of the species. Collect information on its feeding and breeding requirements. Assess populations on all offshore islets. Investigate population interchange between the main island and offshore islets. Advocate strong quarantine controls to prevent the establishment of exotic predators. Promote the species as a figurehead for conservation on Rotuma.</strong></p>	eng
146130	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myzomela chermesina</em> is endemic to Rotuma and offshore islets (including uninhabited Uea), <strong>Fiji</strong>. There are no estimates of its population numbers but, in 1985 and 1992, it was common<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146130	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in all habitats on the main island, including forest edge and plantations. It is primarily nectivorous but is also strongly insectivorous for a myzomela<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146130	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Clunie (1985) and D. Watling <em>in litt. </em>(2000). <br/></p>	eng
146130	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Nearly all native forest on Rotuma has long since been cleared for shifting cultivation and plantations - however, there is extensive secondary bush<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the species appears to tolerate this habitat degradation. Its abundance and wide habitat tolerance should protect it from cyclone damage, but the introduction of exotic predators (other than Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> which is already present<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) is a hypothetical threat.  <br/></p>	eng
146131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146136	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myzomela malaitae</em> is endemic to Malaita in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a scarce inhabitant of forest and is more common in hills and mountains<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is absent from secondary forest habitats in many areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but may be more tolerant in other areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Lowland and hill forest throughout Malaita is extensively being degraded through logging and clearance for gardens for a burgeoning human population. However, much of this species's population is above the altitudes threatened by logging or clearance.</p>	eng
146137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally moderately common and locally very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates 1990).	eng
146142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally fairly common at Biaru (Coates 1990).	eng
146146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally fairly common at Lohiki (Coates 1990).	eng
146147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common, especially in foothills (Coates 1990).	eng
146150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare and local (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common at higher elevations (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, especially at higher elevations (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146160	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lichmera notabilis</em> is restricted to Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in lowland monsoon forest and gardens, with a recent observation in a mosaic of coastal scrub, overgrown cultivation and tall secondary woodland. It remains little known and apparently uncommon and, although extensive forest still remains on the island, it must be assumed that Wetar, which is relatively small, is likely to have undergone considerable deforestation in recent decades. <br/></p>	eng
146161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be infrequently observed (Coates 1990).	eng
146163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common at higher elevations and less common at lower elevations (Coates 1990).	eng
146165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon, though locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Meliphaga vicina</em> is endemic to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is believed to inhabit forest and forest edge in the lowlands to 800&#160;m<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Two were seen on the only recent visit to the island, a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to the remaining lowland forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although most closely related congeners are common and adaptable, this species's habitat tolerance is unknown.</p>	eng
146169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146170	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare (Coates 1990).	eng
146172	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally numerous (Coates 1990).	eng
146179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the rainforests of the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.	eng
146179	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in rainforest.	eng
146179	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146179	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146180	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the rainforests of the Clarke Range in central-eastern Queensland, Australia. Most of its range is included in some form of conservation reserve.	eng
146180	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in rainforest.	eng
146180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146180	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There are no obvious threats (Garnett 1992).	eng
146182	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146184	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse to common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146189	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as common and race cassidix is described as rare (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146190	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146191	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146192	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146193	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant at lower elevations and scarce at higher elevations (Coates 1990).	eng
146198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146199	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146202	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. The Ogasawara Islands are a National Wildlife Protection Area, established primarily for this species. An active conservation programme is underway there, including the propagation and reintroduction of threatened native plants.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey islands in its range to determine which islands still support populations and whether conservation measures are required on them. Establish a monitoring programme on Haha-jima Island. Promote habitat protection and restoration of forest with well-developed undergrowth on Haha-jima Island and other smaller islands where populations persist. Study the reasons for its extinction on some islands. Study the feasibility of reintroduction to other islands in Ogasawara.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146202	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalopteron familiare</em> is endemic to the Ogasawara Islands, <strong>Japan</strong>, where it has been recorded from all three island groups, the Muko-jima, Chichi-jima and Haha-jima Islands, but is possibly extinct in the first two.  <br/></p>	eng
146202	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits low secondary forest, forest edge, bushes, plantations and gardens. On Haha-jima, it favours forest with well-developed undergrowth, feeding mainly 2-6 m above the ground, on the fruit of papaya <em>Acacia farnesiana</em>, bananas, and other fruit and flowers. Nests are situated in tree forks and occasionally in tree cavities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146202	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on Kato <em>et al. </em>(1995) estimate of 3,000-4,000 on Haha-jima island, plus information from the other islands presented in BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
146202	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually all the original subtropical forest has already been cleared from the Ogasawara Islands, and it is now extinct on several of these islands, presumably as a result of the wholesale loss of its habitat. Economic development on Haha-jima Island, including developments for tourism, and a consequent reduction in forest cover is an important threat. Plans to construct a new airport on Ani-jima or the main island of Chichi-jima would cause habitat loss, if it remains extant there, and increase the chance of invasion by exotic species. Predation by domestic and feral cats may pose a minor threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146208	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The first translocations in the 1980s failed, but three island populations were established between 1991 and 1995. Translocated birds are given supplementary food, and nest boxes are usually provided. Research to identify factors limiting the new populations indicates that translocation methods, population establishment and availability of food are not key issues on Mokoia<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but food shortages and competition for food with other endemic honeyeaters may be a problem on Kapiti<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Further islands are being assessed for population establishment. A small captive population is held, but numbers have gradually declined<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect, monitor and, where necessary, enhance populations on existing transfer sites. Eradicate Pacific rat <em>R.&#160;exulans from Little Barrier. Establish at least one more self-sustaining population. Maintain a captive-breeding population for research and advocacy. Raise public awareness<sup>2.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146208	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Notiomystis cincta</em> was once widespread over the North Island and adjacent offshore islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Little Barrier Island (31&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) is now the last natural population, thought to number 4,000-5,000 birds, but recently revised to 500-2,000 birds. Translocated populations of c.40 birds exist on Kapiti (20&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Mokoia (Lake Rotorua - 1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Tiritiri Matangi (2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Islands, but are not yet self-sustaining and not increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146208	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in most forest-types, but requires mature forest for breeding as nesting is in tree-holes. It feeds on nectar, fruit and arthropods, depending on availability<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It has a highly variable breeding system, and is the only bird species known to mate facing each other<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It lays between three to five eggs. Most birds in translocated populations live less than a year, while those on Little Barrier Island appear to live longer, though the reason is unknown<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146208	population	BirdLife International, 2008	S. Boyd <em>in litt. </em>(1999). <br/></p>	eng
146208	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its extinction on the mainland may have been due to the introduction of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> or avian disease<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Factors limiting the translocated populations have not yet been identified<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may require large expanses of mature forest to survive which, if so, will prove a major hurdle to conservation efforts<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146209	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although easily over-looked (Coates 1990).	eng
146210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as patchily fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146211	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146215	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Philemon brassi</em> is endemic to northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was discovered in 1939 on a single lagoon on the Idenburg River which may not have been visited subsequently<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>, and has recently been found along the lower Mamberamo River<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, the Tirawiwa and Logari rivers, 250 km from the Idenburg site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and probably on the Rouffaer river<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This region is very poorly known and it may be widespread, but perhaps localised, along the huge Mamberamo, Rouffaer and Idenburg rivers. On the Idenburg river, it was common in small parties in flooded cane grass and dense second growth around a lagoon at c.50&#160;m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong> but on the Tirawiwa and Logari rivers, it was locally common in trees beside the rivers and other disturbed areas at 80-275 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may be threatened by various large-scale timber and agricultural schemes and a proposed dam on the Mamberamo gorge<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but all the known populations are currently safe, much lowland forest and floodplains of the Mamberamo and Idenburg rivers is encompassed within the c.10,000 km<sup>2</sup> Foja Nature Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and the region remains largely inaccessible and undisturbed. <br/></p>	eng
146216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146217	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No direct measures are known. However, it may occur in the Lalobata and Ake Tajawe proposed protected area, which embraces c.3,550&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of all forest-types on the north-east peninsula of Halmahera, or the Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve on Bacan, although this site is seriously threatened by agricultural encroachment and gold prospecting. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and record its vocalisations to aid its detection (if they differ significantly from those of <em>O. phaeochromus). Conduct extensive surveys (especially within proposed or established protected areas) to establish its distribution, status, ecological requirements and altitudinal limits. Support the establishment and management of a protected area at Lolobata-Ake Tajawi (Halmahera) and Gunung Sibela Strict Nature Reserve (Bacan), should the species be found to occur there. Initiate conservation awareness campaigns to solicit local support for forest conservation.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146217	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Philemon fuscicapillus</em> may be endemic to the island of Morotai (doubts have been raised over previous reports from Halmahera and no records can be traced to Bacan) in North Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It was considered "very common" on Morotai in 1945. Assessment of its true status on Halmahera is severely hampered owing to visual mimicry by <em>O. phaeochromus</em>, and the possibility that it is largely overlooked in the canopy of tall trees.  <br/></p>	eng
146217	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has been recorded in the canopy of primary and logged forest. It has also been found commonly in "secondary vegetation (bush)" and coconut plantations. Most records appear to be from the extreme lowlands (below 120 m), although it ascends rarely to 600 m. It is presumed to be sedentary. <br/></p>	eng
146217	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,200 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% EOO) = 2,200-22,000, i.e. perhaps best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from similar species BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet and is compatible with description of this species as "rare"). <br/></p>	eng
146217	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although it may be tolerant of quite severe habitat degradation, the primary threat is presumed to be forest loss, especially given its predilection for low elevations. It was reported in the 1990s that most of North Maluku, including around 90% of Halmahera and Bacan, remained forested. However, forest loss and fragmentation has accelerated greatly, through exploitation of economically valuable trees, and most remaining forest is now under timber concession. In addition, plans for agricultural development threaten further losses of original habitat. <br/></p>	eng
146218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common on Buru and common on Kai (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146219	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and very common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in its preferred habitat (Coates 1990).	eng
146222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common at lower elevations (Coates 1990).	eng
146224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its preferred altitudinal range (Coates 1990).	eng
146225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare and local, although fairly common on the northern slopes of the Snow Mountains (Coates 1990).	eng
146231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the most abundant bird species within its altitudinal range (Coates 1990).	eng
146232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its preferred habitat (Coates 1990).	eng
146234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146235	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Identify and effectively protect a network of reserves, including some containing large areas of montane forest and some large community-based conservation areas. Continue to monitor trends in forest loss. Research its tolerance of degraded forest. Monitor populations in a number of primary forest and degraded forest sites on the island.	eng
146235	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea </strong>where it is widespread at high altitudes. Although most forest loss has been in the lowlands, it is still thought to have declined in recent years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
146235	habitat		It inhabits montane forest between 1,200 and 1,800 m. Its tolerance of habitat degradation is poorly known.	eng
146235	population		Buchanan <em>et al. </em>(in press) estimated the population at 2,500-9,999 mature individuals.	eng
146236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be less common than M. belfordi (Beehler et al. 1986).	eng
146237	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all forest blocks at suitable altitude. Extend surveys to mountains immediately outside recorded range. Estimate population densities. Ascertain population structure across isolated forest blocks. Establish rate and trends of forest degradation. Investigate whether any occupied locations are threatened by agriculture. Research tolerance of burnt forest. Establish public awareness projects addressing basic forest conservation. <br/></p>	eng
146237	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melidectes princeps</em> has a restricted range in the highlands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is known only from Mt Giluwe, Mt Hagen, the Kubor Range, Mt Wilhelm and Mt Michael. It is reported to be fairly common within this range<strong><sup>1,4,7</sup></strong> but there are no published indications of numbers or population trends.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146237	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded from mossy forest and copses near the treeline and in scrubby forest clumps in alpine grassland, mostly between 3,000-3,800&#160;m, but down to 2,750&#160;m in the Kubor Range<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is probably excluded from adjacent mountain ranges by other congeners<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in June and July, the late wet season and early dry season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Congeneric honeyeaters are noisy, pugnacious birds of the forest canopy, feeding in pairs or small groups on nectar, insects and some fruit.</p>	eng
146237	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10.0-20.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 282 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,820-5,809, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range lowest to lower quartile of 18 [forest] estimates for 12 species of Meliphagidae in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
146237	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is believed to be threatened by habitat degradation<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. This region of the Highlands has a dense human population and although cultivation stops below this species's altitudinal range, there may be some habitat degradation from fires, usually started by hunters<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce, although locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common around areas of cultivation and otherwise rare (Coates 1990).	eng
146246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mountain forests on the central mountain ranges in New Guinea (Coates 1990).	eng
146247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146250	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is protected under Fijian law. It occurs in nearly all protected areas with good forest including Tomaniivi and Ravilevu Nature Reserves, Bouma and Koroyanitu Heritage Parks, Waisali and Colo-i-Suva Forest Parks and the Garrick Memorial Park (D. Watling in litt. 2000).<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>•Develop a monitoring programme for the forest birds of the Fiji Islands as declines in population and the initiation of threatening processes could well be going unnoticed (SPREP 2000). •Develop in-country training in survey techniques (SPREP 2000). •Initiate management in gazetted nature reserves (D. Watling in litt. 2000). •Assess population densities in various forest-types. •Advocate the creation of community-based forest reserves.  •Carry out surveys to determine the status of G. v. viridis on Vanua Levu and Taveuni.	eng
146250	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the three largest islands of Fiji, occurring as subspecies brunneirostris on Viti Levu and viridis on Vanua Levu and Taveuni. On Vanua Levu and Taveuni the species has not yet been surveyed. It may be restricted to western and central Vanua Levu and is apparently absent from the Natewa peninsula ( J. S. Kretzschmar in litt. 2000).	eng
146250	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is usually found in the canopy of mature forest, where it is more often heard than seen (Pratt et al. 1987). Recent studies show that it has a greater degree of tolerance for degraded forest than was previously supposed (G. Dutson in litt. 2005), but appears intolerant of heavily logged forest. Territory size has been estimated at 6.6-7.9 ha (Kretzschmar 2000). It feeds on nectar, fruit, caterpillars, insects, spiders and lizards, and may sally beyond the forest fringe to flowering or fruiting trees (Clunie 1984). There is little information on breeding which occurs at least from June-October (Clunie 1984).	eng
146250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Line transects were surveyed for the species in lowland forest and mahogany plantations at Colo-I-Suva (Viti Levu) in 2003. If the species occurs at similar densities elsewhere on Viti Levu, extrapolation would give a total population of 130,000 calling birds for the whole island (D. Jackson in litt. 2005). Two other recent surveys, based on triangulated point-counts and estimates of territory size respectively, gave extrapolated figures of 25,000 pairs and 50,000 pairs for Viti Levu (Kretzschmar 2000, White in litt. 2005).	eng
146250	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat to this species comes from continuing loss and deterioration of its mature forest habitat. Although industrial logging has ceased on Viti Levu and Taveuni, forests on all three islands are being slowly degraded by logging for domestic use and agricultural expansion, with only c.50% of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu remaining forested (Watling 2000).	eng
146251	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in some proposed and a few existing protected areas, but these have suffered cyclone damage and the O Le Pupu Pu`e National Park on `Upolu is threatened by logging and cattle-farming<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution and population numbers<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Gather further information on its life-history and habitat requirements<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate threats<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify important sites and establish a network of long-term monitoring stations<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Increase local involvement in its study and conservation<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Address the problem of introduced plants<sup>8</sup></strong> and of government reafforestation with exotic species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146251	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gymnomyza samoensis</em> occurs on Savai`i and `Upolu, <strong>Samoa</strong>, and may have occurred formerly on Tutuila, American Samoa (as there is a record from 1977). In 1984, it was common in preferred habitat on `Upolu<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but, more recently, it appears to have become rarer. For example, it was not recorded by two main-island surveys<strong><sup>9,10 </sup></strong>nor by offshore island surveys in 1999<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and only one individual was recorded at the proposed conservation area at Uafato in 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although it may be more common than is documented, there is a lack of verifiable information, and there is concern that small, increasingly fragmented subpopulations may not be viable<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146251	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This large nectarivore occurs in foothill and montane forest, being found in greatest densities in craters at high altitude in the least disturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has also been observed in an area of cinder cone, heathland scrub, at forest edge, in wet forest at 760&#160;m<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and on steep slopes along rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Feeding has been observed in coral trees <em>Erythrina</em> spp. whose blossoms contain nectar with lots of insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146251	population	BirdLife International, 2008	MNRE (2006) Surveys and Tipanaa <em>in litt. </em>(2007) indicate a population of c.500 birds, so best placed in the band 250-999.  <br/></p>	eng
146251	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Slash-and-burn cultivation threatens remaining areas of upland forest, as farmers use forestry roads from heavily logged lowland forests to gain access to formerly inaccessible land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is likely to have suffered following the cyclones in 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27%<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Forest quality is further reduced by the invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees, whose spread is aided by hurricanes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and by the planting of exotic trees like <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Eucalyptus</em> instead of native trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
146252	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Hunting and capture is prohibited. A breeding monitoring project conducted basic ecological research in the protected Parc Provincial Rivi&egrave;re Bleue from 2001 to 2005, including the radio-tracking of adults and video monitoring of nests<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Surveys were conducted in 2003-2006 by the Institut Agronomique n&eacute;o-Cal&eacute;donien (IAC) to establish the status of forest birds across New Caledonia<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other localities within its extent of occurrence and keep searching for the species outside its known extent of occurrence. Urgently research basic habitat requirements, breeding ecology and success at Rivi&egrave;re Bleue. Investigate the presence of the species on Mont Pani&eacute;. Further investigate the possibility of rat predation on nests. Research dispersal and subpopulation structure. Monitor numbers annually in two study sites in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. <strong>Control rats close to nest sites and protect nesting trees from rats (in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue park at least). Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. </strong> <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
146252	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Gymnomyza aubryana</em> is endemic to <strong> New Caledonia (to France)</strong> where it is now restricted to small populations scattered throughout the south of the island. Extensive surveys in 2003-2006 only found it in the Parc de la Rivi&egrave;re Bleue area, the slopes of the Kouakou&eacute;<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Pourina and Ouin&eacute; valleys, Rivi&egrave;re Blanche and Mont Pou&eacute;dihi slopes. The total area where the bird has been recorded now covers less than 400 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The only relatively recent records from the north are from Mt Pani&eacute;<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong> and Pouembout<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, though it may now be extinct in these locations (not found in the north during extensive surveys during 2003-2006, though at Mt Pani&eacute; locals reported knowing the bird)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It appears to be localised and uncommon even in favoured areas, although c.18 pairs known in the study area of Rivi&egrave;re Bleue, each occupying c.1 km<sup>2</sup> of forest, is extrapolated to 160 pairs across this protected area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This estimate has been considered over-optimistic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, particularly if pairs require c.1 km<sup>2</sup>, and may not be representative of the density elsewhere<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The total population was estimated at 1,000-3,000 birds in 2000, based on territorial areas of c.0.25 km<sup>2</sup> and a patchy distribution across c.1,200 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, however in 2007 it was thought to have dropped to a few hundred<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Even allowing for an overestimate in 2000, the species is thought to have undergone a serious decline in recent years. It was last seen at the often-visited Mt Koghis in 1974, and it appears to have declined in Rivi&egrave;re Bleue since 1980<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. While precautionarily a revised population estimate in the low hundreds is now adopted, the species's real population size and trends remain somewhat unclear. There remain large areas of potentially suitable habitat that have not been searched, it occurs outside the forest matrix and reasons behind apparent population declines are not well understood. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146252	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits a humid forest/maquis matrix, usually on ultrabasic soils, in the hills to 1,000 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and has also been recorded in dry forests at Pouembout<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. It can be found up to 2 km from forest in the maquis scrub. It is an unobtrusive species seen singly or in pairs in the canopy or midstorey, feeding on invertebrates and nectar<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Nests are built in open forests and are very poorly camouflaged, leaving them open to predation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Radio telemetry revealed that pairs occupy a territory of 100 ha<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146252	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Surveys from 2003-2006 recorded the species at just 14 of 2,372 point localities conducted across New Caledonia. Using recent sightings (since 2003 based on considerable survey effort) returns an approximate Area of Ooccupancy (AOO) of 21 400 ha in which the forest covers an estimated 10 300 ha (satellite images SPOT 1994). Based upon 100ha/pair (L&eacute;tocart 2006, n=1 pair monitored by radiotracking in the Rivi&egrave;re Bleue Park; a territory in an area of relatively high density for the species), if all potentially suitable forest is occupied the population is likely to number 100 pairs. This suggests the global population supports fewer than 250 mature individuals, which may even be an overestimate given that densities are lower outside the Rivi&egrave;re Bleue valley (the species's stronghold) where the local population was estimated at 18 pairs by L&eacute;tocart in 1998 (pers. comm. in Ekstrom et al. 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146252	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest loss and degradation caused by logging, nickel mining and fires is likely to be a threat<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, potentially having had a considerable impact in the <em>c&ocirc;t&eacute; oubli&eacute;e</em> from where the species now appears to be absent<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The apparent decline at Rivi&egrave;re Bleue must be caused by other factors; with the species apparently subjected to severe predation pressure by introduced rats<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. No successful nests or juvenile birds were seen until 2004 at Rivi&egrave;re Bleue, suggesting that the limiting factor affects its breeding success<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, in 2004 and 2005, 2 chicks fledged successfully and were tracked visually for a few days. Nesting areas were heavily poisoned for rat population control which may explain the nesting success but another nest, found in 2005, and also in an area where rats were controlled failed with the chick disappearing during the first week<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Other possible nest predators include native endemic predators such as New Caledonian Crow and White-bellied Goshawk; nests are poorly camouflaged and presumably easy to locate<strong><sup>9</sup>. </strong>One of the 2 chicks visually monitored after fledging was usually moving between trees on the forest floor, this could mean that the species is also vulnerable to cats, dogs and pigs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146253	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Moho braccatus</em> was endemic to Kaua`i, Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong>. It was common in forests from sea level to the highest elevations in the 1890s, but declined drastically during the early 20th century<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. By the 1970s, it was confined to the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1981, a single pair remained, the female of which was not found after Hurricane Iwa in 1982, the male being last seen in 1985<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last report, of vocalisations only, was in 1987, and the species has not been recorded during subsequent surveys of Alaka'i<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction and the introduction of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, pigs and disease-carrying mosquitoes to the lowlands were the probable causes of this species's extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146254	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Moho apicalis</em><em> </em>was restricted to forest on O`ahu, Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>3</sup></strong>. It is known from only about seven specimens, the last three of which were collected by Deppe in the hills behind Honolulu in 1837<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction was presumably caused by a combination of habitat destruction and the introduction of disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146255	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Moho bishopi </em>was endemic to forest in the Hawaiian Islands, <strong>USA<sup>4</sup></strong>. It was last recorded on Moloka`i in 1904 by Munro<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, who received local reports of its survival until 1915, but could find no more birds despite numerous further searches up until 1949. There is very little historical information about its occurrence on Maui, and although a single bird believed to be this species was observed in 1981 on the north-east slope of Haleakala<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, there have been no further confirmed records despite intensive searching<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction caused by conversion to agriculture and grazing by feral mammals inevitably initiated the species's decline, with introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and the spread of disease carried by introduced mosquitoes blamed for the population crash early in the 20th century<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146256	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Moho nobilis</em><em> </em>was only found in forest on the big island of Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was last collected in 1898 and last seen in 1934<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with its decline to extinction presumably caused by both habitat destruction and disease.</p>	eng
146257	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chaetoptila angustipluma</em><em> </em>is known historically only from the big island of Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong>, although fossil remains are also known from Oahu and Maui<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was restricted to montane plateau forest, and only four specimens were ever collected, between 1840 and 1859<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as commonest in mountain areas (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146270	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146271	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Legislation to prevent the large-scale clearing of woodlands in New South Wales was introduced in 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The ecology of the species has been well studied during a PhD thesis. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Carry out studies into site fidelity and patterns of movement, and acquire a better understanding of its ecology during the non-breeding season. Carry out long-term monitoring. Protect occupied woodland from clearing and monitor compliance biennially. Secure all sub-populations found on public land through conservation management, and use incentives to encourage private land owners to carry out beneficial management. Within the species's range manage woodlands on public or private land maintaining a diverse woodland community with mature trees and adequate mistletoe populations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Control firewood collection from occupied areas and reduce grazing densities. Research the importance of Brigalow and other semi-arid woodlands, and protect as appropriate<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146271	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Grantiella picta</em> is sparsely distributed from southern Victoria and south-eastern South Australia to far northern Queensland and eastern Northern Territory, <strong>Australia</strong>. The species is a vagrant to Western Australia, with the first published record of one in 2002 at West Kimberley<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The greatest concentrations, and almost all breeding, occurs south of 26&#176;S, on the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range between the Grampians, Victoria, and Roma, Queensland. After April, birds migrate to semi-arid regions, including north-eastern South Australia, central and western Queensland and central Northern Territory. The only recent records from South Australia are from Gluepot station in 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the species has also declined in abundance in western New South Wales, central Victoria and probably from north-central Queensland. The species is patchily distributed; collation of figures from known breeding concentrations has identified six key sites that together support 900 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This is assumed to represent approximately half the global population suggesting a total of 1,800 pairs or c. 3,600-4,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. During atlas surveys the reporting rate of this species has actually increased, but this is a result of more targetted searching for the species. The number of 10 minute grid cells from which it was reported has decreased from 164 in 1977-1981 to 142 in 1998-2003 and 90 in 2003-2008<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Queensland much suitable habitat was cleared historically (only 11% of the <em>Acacia harpophylla</em>/<em>cambagei</em> woodland remained in 1999), but annual rates of forest loss remained high at an estimated 5% in the late 1990s and early 2000s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A similar trend is likely in New South Wales, but in Victoria forest has not been cleared as rapidly<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; therefore it is difficult to estimate an overall decline from these figures. <br/></p>	eng
146271	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives in dry forests and woodlands dominated by <em>Acacias</em>. During breeding it requires berries from mistletoe <em>Amyema </em>growing on nitrogen-fixing hosts such as Acacias and Casuarinas<em> </em>(especially<em> Amyema quandang</em>)<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong><em>.</em> It also feeds on nectar and arthropods (the main type of arthropods fed to nestlings have been observed to be orb-weaving spiders)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent evidence suggests that mistletoe nectar is an important food resource in the breeding season or when the birds are moving through sub-optimal habitat<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, especially when fruit is scarce, and may influence habitat choice<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Thus, its breeding distribution is influenced by the presence of mistletoes and the seasonality of mistletoe fruiting; positive relationship has been observed between the abundance of mistletoes per tree and per unit area and the presence of this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It prefers woodland areas that contain a higher number of mature trees, presumably because they also contain a higher abundance of mistletoes, and they also show a preference for woodland areas that have a high density of trees and greater canopy cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. They also prefer wider blocks rather than strips of woodland, although they breed in quite narrow roadside strips if ample mistletoe fruit is available<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. They have been recorded in Brigalow <em>Acacia harpophylla</em> and other woodlands on parts of the northern floodplains region of New South Wales, possibly using this area because the habitat there has been less cleared and fragmented than other parts of the species's range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is patchily distributed; collation of figures from known breeding concentrations has identified six key sites that together support 900 pairs (D. Watson <em>in litt</em>. 2007). This is assumed to represent approximately half the global population suggesting a total of 1,800 pairs or c. 3,600-4,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146271	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of its breeding habitat has been cleared altogether or has been reduced to ageing, widely-spaced trees, particularly box-ironbark and boree woodlands. Its non-breeding habitat is still being cleared for agriculture and habitat remnants in both the breeding and non-breeding ranges continue to be degraded by grazing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Despite legislation to stop the large-scale clearing of woodlands in New South Wales, 640,000 ha was approved for clearing in that state between 1998 and 2005, and although not all of this was cleared, an unknown amount was cleared illegally<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The regeneration of semi-arid woodlands dominated by Gidgee <em>Acacia oswaldii</em> and Rosewood <em>Alectryon oleofolium</em> is threatened by overgrazing by exotic herbivores in parts of western New South Wales<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main woodlands which the species is associated with in New South Wales are dominated by Yarran <em>Acacia homalophylla</em> and Boree <em>Acacia pendula</em>, both of which are also frequently favoured by graziers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The protection of these woodland types may have a greater impact than conservation efforts focused on temperate box-ironbark and box-gum woodlands at the southern edge of its range that are already degraded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is no evidence that the species is suffering through difficulties in foraging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146272	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys of range and abundance are conducted annually. Detailed research has been conducted on breeding biology. Restrictions have been placed on grazing and timber extraction at some important sites. Extensive replanting of habitat trees has occurred. Captive colonies have been established. A recovery plan is being implemented. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate population monitoring in the three main breeding regions. Determine trends using existing sightings database and bird atlas project, largely through assistance of community-based surveys coordinated by the Regent Honeyeater Recovery Team and the Threatened Bird Network. Determine movement patterns and degree of isolation between breeding populations. Determine impact of <em>M.&#160;melanocephala on population stability. Conduct trials of hard release techniques. Prepare regional guidelines for habitat management. Protect all sites on public land. Conduct a public education programme. Determine and monitor habitat quality. Increase number and quality of colonies in Victoria.  </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146272	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xanthomyza phrygia</em> is endemic to south-east <strong>Australia</strong>. Most sightings come from a few sites in north-eastern Victoria, along the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, New South Wales, and the central coast of New South Wales. Birds are regularly reported in small numbers in the Australian Capital Territory and far south-east Queensland. It has become extinct in South Australia and has declined to vagrant status in central and western Victoria, and Gippsland. Birds concentrate at a small number of sites when breeding, but numbers fluctuate greatly between years and sites. Movements outside the breeding season are poorly understood. At two sites in 1997, there were an estimated maximum of 1,300 birds but, in 1998, far fewer birds were seen and no breeding was observed.  <br/></p>	eng
146272	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually observed within box-ironbark eucalypt associations, seeming to prefer wetter, more fertile lowland sites. It also uses riparian forests of river she-oak <em>Casuarina cunninghamiana</em> in New South Wales, especially for breeding. The other major environment used regularly is wet lowland coastal forests dominated by Swamp Mahogany <em>Eucalyptus robusta</em> or Spotted Gum <em>Corymbia maculata</em>. It requires a diet of nectar, principally from a few key species such as Yellow Box <em>E. melliodora</em>, White Box <em>E. albens</em> and Mugga Ironbark <em>E. sideroxylon</em>, as well as insects, particularly when  breeding<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It also feeds on sugary exudates. In poor years, it is not clear whether birds fail to nest or shift elsewhere to breed.   <br/></p>	eng
146272	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The breeding population has been estimated at 1,500 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146272	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	About 75% of its habitat has been cleared for agricultural and residential development. Much of the preferred lowland habitat on the most fertile and productive sites has been cleared or substantially modified and this has resulted in poorer and unreliable nectar-sources through the reduction of large mature trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  Remnants, including much of what currently exists in the conservation reserve system, have been heavily cut-over and degraded, and this practice is continuing in many areas, including hardwood production forests. These remnants are highly fragmented and often degraded by removal of larger trees and ongoing declines in tree health. This fragmentation has apparently advantaged more aggressive honeyeaters, particularly Noisy Miner <em>Manorina melanocephala</em>, which may be excluding the species<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in the north of its range and uncommon in the south (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146279	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Management actions completed or underway include genetic studies, regular surveys and monitoring, the study of habitat preference in Victoria, the purchase of leases within Bookmark Biosphere Reserve, the adoption of a policy of rapid fire suppression within mallee in Victoria and South Australia, research into reproductive biology and ecology, establishment of a captive population, colony translocations, generation of community support and the establishment of a recovery team<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study rate and mechanisms for genetic introgression. Determine and monitor habitat quality. Increase number and quality of colonies in Victoria. Develop and test a population viability model.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146279	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Manorina melanotus</em> is endemic to the Murray Mallee region of South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, <strong>Australia</strong>. Range and numbers have shrunk dramatically during the 1990s. In South Australia, phenotypically pure birds are thought to persist only in the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve, north-west of Renmark, where 120 birds have been banded (total population estimated at 240 birds), and Chapman Bore near Murray Bridge (1-2 birds). In north-western Victoria, five pure birds were recorded in 1986 and eight in 1987. In 1992, only two birds remained and, in 1995, only three hybrid colonies could be found. One colony was captured to establish a captive population. Elsewhere in Victoria, the only known population is in Hattah Lakes (1-2 birds). In south-western New South Wales, the last record was in 1985. More recently five colonies have been translocated successfully<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146279	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It requires large blocks of long unburnt (>50 years), uncleared, 5-8&#160;m tall mallee, usually with an understorey of small bushes, shrubs and chenopods. Its distribution in Victoria is positively correlated with stable dunefields with a relatively high loam level, amount of decorticating bark (from which it obtains much of its insect food), tree density, stem density, canopy cover and litter cover.</p>	eng
146279	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Despite the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve (Bookmark BR) supporting an estimated 3,760 individuals, this is thought to equate to an effective population size of only 390 (210-726) mature individuals owing to a skewed sex ratio and a complex social organisation (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2005). This population represents over 95% of the total effective population, hence, given the broad confidence intervals the population is probably best estimated to fall within the band 250-1,000 individuals. The surveys for the estimates by Clarke <em>et al.</em> (2005) were carried out following a series of good breeding seasons, and the population may now stand at the lower end of the estimates owing to a drought in the region (R. Clarke<em> in litt.</em> 2007).   <br/></p>	eng
146279	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The fundamental reason for its decline is the clearance of the majority of favourable habitat. The result has been replacement in habitat remnants by <em>M.&#160;flavigula</em>. Interbreeding between this species and <em>M.&#160;melanotis</em> is now the greatest threat. <em>M.&#160;flavigula</em> has effectively swamped most remaining populations. Much remaining habitat in Victoria and New South Wales has been burnt within the last 25 years. Isolated colonies have a low rate of recruitment, either as a result of elevated rates of nest-predation or as a result of emigration from the natal colony.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146281	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common except in western Tasmania (Coates 1990).	eng
146285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sometimes numerous (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be normally quite scarce but occasionally numerous (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146287	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found throughout most of tropical Australia. Subspecies macgregori has a tiny population on Curtis Island. It is endemic to the central Queensland coast, though its extirpation from the mainland is unexplained. Subspecies tunneyi is restricted to a small area of coastal and subcoastal floodplains from the Mary to East Alligator rivers, Northern Territory. Nominate crocea is found throughout the Kimberley, northern tableland and gulf country, and the Lake Eyre basin (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007). Subspecies macgregori has a tiny but stable population of 50 birds; subspecies tunneyi may number 500 birds and is probably declining; nominate crocea is regarded as common (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146287	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some parts of subspecies tunneyi habitat have been affected by salt incursion as a result of buffalo damage, but this has now ceased. The major current threat to the subspecies is invasion by the weed Mimosa pigra, which probably renders the habitat unsuitable.	eng
146288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146289	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146290	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in mallee woodland, although less common in the south-west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146291	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys have been undertaken and have identified new colonies. A key site on north Bruny Island has been acquired and declared a state reserve for the species with an approved management plan. Key sites have also been acquired on Flinders Island. Guidelines have been established for production forestry within 5&#160;km of the coast between Bicheno and Southport and for the Maria Island National Park Management Plan. Further <em>E.&#160;viminalis</em> clearance in or near existing colonies is forbidden. A community network has been established on Bruny Island. A recovery plan has been implemented and a new integrated plan prepared. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations at 10-year intervals. Map <em>E.&#160;viminalis communities in greater detail. Determine relationship between site variables and food productivity. Determine juvenile dispersal, home range and colony dynamics. Control cats in known colonies. Re-establish E.&#160;viminalis at sites within 5&#160;km of the coast between Bicheno and Southport, particularly near existing colonies. Manage existing stands by limiting grazing and firewood-collection and managing fuel levels with a mosaic of low-intensity burns. Develop a management strategy for E.&#160;viminalis forest. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146291	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pardalotus quadragintus</em> is endemic to Tasmania, <strong>Australia,</strong> and some larger offshore islands. It is present in all available habitat on Maria and Bruny Islands, which contain 90% of the population. Small remnant colonies remain on Flinders Island, and on the mainland of Tasmania at Tinderbox Peninsula, Howden and Mt Nelson near Hobart. Colonies found previously at Lime Bay and Coningham have not been found in recent times and in 2002 extensive bushfires may have damaged the Flinders Island colonies. In 1986, a census counted 3,520 individuals in 110 colonies in 38 km<sup>2</sup>. In 1994-1997, 3,840 individuals were counted in 121 colonies in 41 km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>. The species is considered stable, with most variation in counts due to the location of several new colonies within historical range.  <br/></p>	eng
146291	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found exclusively in open white gum <em>Eucalyptus viminalis</em> forest or woodland, <em>E.&#160;viminalis</em> providing most of its food in the form of invertebrates, lerp secretions and manna.  <br/></p>	eng
146291	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1994-1997, 3,840 individuals were counted (Garnett and Crowley 2000), thus the minimum estimate for the population is 3,800 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
146291	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	About 60% of occupied habitat is reserved, but on private land, habitat continues to be lost because of clearance, sheep-grazing (preventing <em>E. viminalis</em> regeneration), subdivision and urban development. In the past, these developments on the Tasmanian mainland appear to have allowed the aggressive honeyeater, Noisy Miner <em>Manorina melanocephala</em>, and the introduced Laughing Kookaburra <em>Dacelo novaehollandiae</em>, to invade the species's habitat. Wildfire that retards regrowth of <em>E. viminalis</em> can also be a threat, particularly for isolated populations. <br/></p>	eng
146292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common except in the east of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be in places patchy or erratic and elsewhere locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146294	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I.<strong> </strong>Surveys have been completed over the range of the species, and populations are protected from fire as much as possible, particularly in association with other threatened taxa of Two Peoples Bay/Many Peaks Range. In 1999-2000, 15 birds were translocated to a site west of Albany and at least some were persisting in spring of 2002.   <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and monitor populations at five-year intervals. Maintain fire protection at all sites. Establish populations throughout former range where appropriate habitat persists.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146294	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dasyornis longirostris</em> was formerly found in coastal south-west Western Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>, from Perth to Ravensthorpe. It is now restricted to the Fitzgerald River National Park and to a small area just east of Albany, between Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve and east of Waychinicup River. A small number of birds have recently been translocated to west of Albany. The population is presently stable at 1,500-2,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146294	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is terrestrial and sedentary with a preference for dense, low heaths. In Two Peoples Bay, it occurs in dense, closed heath 1-1.5&#160;m high. Near Waychinicup River and in the Fitzgerald River National Park, it is found mainly in closed heath 0.5&#160;m high, sometimes with scattered patches of mallee eucalypts. Unburnt swampy vegetation, predominantly sedges and thickets, may be important refuges after fires. At Two Peoples Bay, it reoccupies heaths less than 3 years after fire, although breeding may not occur until later. It may not reoccupy heaths in drier areas until 11-14 years after fire. It was found in heaths 5-12 years after fire from Boulder Hill to east of Waychinicup River, and 14-28 years after fire in the northern part of Fitzgerald River National Park.  <br/></p>	eng
146294	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2005, the known breeding population was estimated at 300-450 pairs, probably equating to a total of 1,000 individuals (A. Burbidge <em>in litt.</em> 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
146294	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction or alteration. Wildfire is the principle threat, with fires at less than 5-10 year intervals leading to local extinctions. Such fires are almost certainly the main cause of its historical range contraction. At the other end of the scale, coastal heath (at least at Two Peoples Bay) remains suitable habitat for at least 50 years after fire, though the carrying capacity may be reduced with time. In the past, clearance has affected the species, but this is no longer a threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146295	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The northern population has been the focus of extensive conservation actions. Fences and fire-breaks have been constructed. Some pig and cat control is undertaken. Vegetation monitoring sites are being established. Genetic samples have been analysed. All known territories in Queensland have been mapped. The southern population has undergone surveys and initial ecological research.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Northern population: Investigate causes of mortality. Determine feasibility of translocations and consolidation of small populations. Close Snake Ridge and Green Mountains to reduce disturbance. Southern population: Monitor populations annually. Define and map suitable habitat. Control foxes and weeds. Calm traffic at Budderoo National Park and Bhewerre Peninsula. Develop contingency plans in case of fire. Encourage public participation and provide information to public.  Both: Determine suitable fire management strategy.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146295	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dasyornis brachypterus</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. There are two subspecies, <em>monoides</em> in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales, and <em>brachypterus</em> in eastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria. The northern subspecies has decreased from c.206 pairs in 1988 to c.16 pairs in 1997-1998. The nominate subspecies is stable at c.1,550 birds in four principal locations numbering 120-600 individuals. All subpopulations are probably isolated.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146295	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The northern population usually inhabits grass tussocks in open forest-woodland, close to rainforest which provides fire refuge. The southern population lives in dense, low vegetation, particularly heath, but also in surrounding woodlands. It is eliminated for at least four years after fire, with density increasing for at least a further 10 years.</p>	eng
146295	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The northern subspecies numbered c.13 pairs in 2007 (D. Stewart in litt. 2007), whilst the population size of the nominate subspecies has been estimated at c.1,550 breeding birds (Garnett and Crowley 2000). On the basis that the species's estimated total population is 1,576 mature individuals, rounded to 1,600 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146295	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat to the northern population appears to be a change in the fire regime resulting in unsuitable habitat. Feral pigs uproot tussocks, opening the habitat and possibly disturbing breeding. Extensive fire threatens the southern population. At least 80% of the 10 known sites of occurrence in Victoria were burnt between 1960 and 1995, some several times, eliminating all but one subpopulation. Threats to the species include grazing, invasion of habitat by exotic weeds and predation by foxes and cats. Birdwatching may be a threat to the northern population, with repeated playback of calls having the potential to affect breeding.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146296	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon is endemic to Australia. Nominate broadbenti occurs in near-coastal environments from Port Fairy, Victoria, to the mouth of the Murray River, South Australia. Subspecies caryochrous was thought to be largely confined to the coast between Peterborough and Point Addis east of Anglesea, Western Victoria, but is now known to occur extensively within the Otway Range. Subspecies litoralis, endemic to Western Australia, is extinct, probably as a result of fire, and was last seen in 1906.	eng
146296	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in scrub, heathland and forest.	eng
146296	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Historically, the range of the species has declined as a result of clearance for agriculture; habitat fragmentation has already resulted in the isolation of some subpopulations of broadbenti. On top of this, grazing by rabbits and modification by exotic weeds could have long-term effects for broadbenti, and concern has been expressed about its rates of infertility. Coastal urban development has also destroyed habitat, and is the greatest threat facing caryochrous, which, given its essentially linear distribution, is particularly vulnerable to fragmentation. For caryochrous, effects of fragmentation are likely to be exacerbated by periodic wildfire from which the habitat takes at least six years to become suitable again. The species may also be vulnerable to cat and fox predation (Garnett and Crowley 2000, Seymour et al. 2003).	eng
146297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146298	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon is the only bird species endemic to New South Wales, Australia. It is abundant through a large area of the Hawkesbury Sandstone both north and south of Sydney. A recent decline of 65% in reporting rate for this species in its core bioregion, the Sydney basin, based on atlas survey work, is not associated with a contraction in range and is believed to be an artefact of observer behaviour, as during the second atlas survey birders visited fewer forest fragments where the species occurs.	eng
146298	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146298	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has suffered from urban developments on the edges of its range near Sydney (Blakers et al. 1984), however, most of its habitat is now protected within national parks and reserves (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146299	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.	eng
146299	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives on the rainforest floor above 600 m (Blakers et al. 1984).	eng
146299	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146299	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146300	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common to very common, though scarce in some areas (Coates 1990).	eng
146301	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare, though locally not uncommon within its confined range (Coates 1990).	eng
146302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually common, though scarce in some areas (Coates 1990).	eng
146303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite widespread and fairy common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146306	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the upland rainforests of the Atherton region in north-eastern Queensland, Australia, where it has a disjunct distribution between mountain tops (Garnett 1992).	eng
146306	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is restricted to upland rainforest.	eng
146306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146306	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea and locally common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over a wide area of New Guinea (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather common in the north of its range and scarce in the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mid montane forests in Vogelkop (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146317	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in southern arid and semi-arid habitat from south-western Queensland, western New South Wales and north-west Victoria, through South Australia and southern Northern Territory to the west coast of Western Australia south of North-west Cape.  Habitat clearance has extirpated it from the south-east fringes of its historical range.	eng
146317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to be as large as 3,000,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146317	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened through overgrazing of chenopods by livestock.	eng
146318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and occasionally locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and occasionally locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common above 3,000 m but scarce at lower elevations (Coates 1990).	eng
146323	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the Atherton region of Australia (Blakers et al. 1984).	eng
146323	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in rainforest above 450 m.	eng
146323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146323	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has since stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread, although race archiboldi is possibly extinct, since it has not been seen since 1971 (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146328	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to South Australia and Western Australia, Australia. The nominate subspecies is widespread through the arid and semi-arid regions of both states. Although there has been a recent contraction in the east of its range, its extensive range outside the agricultural zone appears to be unaffected. Subspecies rosinae has a very restricted distribution, with three principle populations along the northern shore of the Gulf of St Vincent, from St Kilda to Ardrossan. Subspecies hedleyi has a fragmented distribution, primarily across Big and Little Deserts, Victoria, and Ninety Mile Plain, South Australia.	eng
146328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Garnett and Crowley (2000) estimated the population size as follows: approximately 100,000 individuals of subspecies liredalei,  approximately 10,000 individuals of subspecies rosinae and approximately 24,000 individuals of subspecies hedleyi, giving an overall total of 134,000 individuals. (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146328	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the chenopod shrublands used by iredalei are degraded by grazing sheep and rabbits. However, a reduction in grazing on the Nullarbor of both sheep and rabbits may be allowing some recovery of habitat. Subspecies rosinae is threatened by recreational and industrial use of saltflats, and future coastal developments. Clearance for agriculture has affected hedleyi in South Australia, particularly in the 1980s, but has now largely ceased, though large-scale fires are frequent and may be affecting abundances. Its populations in the Big and Little Deserts appear fragmented despite large areas of protected, suitable habitat (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
146329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sometimes common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common but often considered scarce in Papua New Guinea and often quite common near the coast in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to locally fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146339	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Coates 1990).	eng
146340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common in most of its range (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is apparently common in most of its range (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Casuarina groves and fairly common but inconspicuous in forest (Coates 1990).	eng
146345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common in Australia and locally fairly common but usually scarce in  Papua New Guinea (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally common in the south-west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146347	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gerygone insularis</em><em> </em>was an abundant endemic to the forests of Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia</strong>, until the island was colonised by rats from a shipwreck in 1918<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It could not be found on a visit in 1936<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and there are no subsequent records<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Presumably its extinction resulted from nest predation by the rats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common in northern parts of its range though often scarce towards the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Norfolk Island National Park was declared in 1986, and encompasses the main remaining stands of native forest on the island. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population through the analysis of birdwatchers' records.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gerygone modesta</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It is widespread and abundant on the island, and is thought to number c.3,000 individuals, though its visibility may lead to an over-estimate of abundance. The population is probably stable.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found only in remnant areas of tree or shrub growth on the island, such as rainforest, thicket, gardens and white oak pasture. Very little is known of its ecology.</p>	eng
146349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is thought to number c.3,000 individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although clearing has removed some habitat, there are no apparent threats that are likely to affect the viability of the population in the foreseeable future, but its restriction to such a small area could make it susceptible to catastrophe such as newly-introduced predators or disease. It coexists with introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and cats, but its behaviour and the siting of its domed nests reduces the probability of predation. <br/></p>	eng
146350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146351	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the forested parts of southern Chatham Island and five smaller offshore islands and islets in the Chatham Island group off the east coast of New Zealand. Subfossils indicate that the range once included several more islands in the group.	eng
146351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant (Heather and Robertson 1997).	eng
146351	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Rats Rattus, feral cats and habitat reduction have caused a decline this century on Chatham Island (Heather and Robertson 1997).	eng
146352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common on most islands (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146354	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphelocephala pectoralis</em> is widely but patchily distributed in central and northern South Australia, <strong>Australia</strong>. A survey in 1990 estimated a population of 6,000 individuals, and indicated a loss of suitable habitat and the associated extirpation of birds from a number of locations. Despite evidence of these past declines, abundances on a repeat survey in 1999 showed no significant change. Grazing by livestock is the primary long-term threat as it reduces the recruitment of perennial chenopod shrubs which are an important part of the species's habitat. Heavy grazing of the chenopod shrubland has almost certainly caused the species to vacate previously used sites. Ironically, the recent reduction in rabbit numbers may have allowed sufficient build up of fuel for fire to be a threat, particularly if occurring over a large area simultaneously. Some patches of habitat area threatened by opal mining.</p>	eng
146354	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A survey in 1999 revealled that abundance was similar to that found in a survey in 1991, from which a population of c.6,000 mature individuals was estimated based on the frequency of observation over northern South Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000). This estimate is still thought to be appropriate (L. Pedler <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
146355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to scarce or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common though often scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be normally scarce or absent from settled areas but locally quite common elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146360	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Microeca hemixantha</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and mangroves in the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena, Loetoe and Larat). It is common within its small range, but there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena. <br/></p>	eng
146361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually fairly common to common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146363	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Coates 1990).	eng
146364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common but sometime scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare (Coates 1990).	eng
146366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146367	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Petroica archboldi</em> is endemic to Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known only from the highest peaks of the Snow Mountains-Mts Jaya (Carstensz) and Trikora (Wilhelmina)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is reported to be a conspicuous inhabitant of rocky habitats well above the tree line, from 3,850-4,150&#160;m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is only one recent report, of a few individuals seen in or close to Gunung Lorentz reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, there has been very little ornithological exploration at these altitudes and it may prove to be locally common. Habitat at this altitude should be safe, especially within the 14,300 km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> Lorentz reserve, but may be threatened locally from mines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and may suffer from global warming which has melted the ice-cap on Mt Trikora in the last few decades<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequently quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146371	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Petroica phoenicea</em> occurs in upland areas of south-east continental <strong>Australia</strong> and in Tasmania. In winter some birds migrate from Tasmania to the mainland and from upland areas to lowland plains. Although still numerous, with a population likely to exceed 1 million individuals, a strong decline in reporting rate has occurred over the last 25 years combined with a contraction from the fringes of its winter range. As much of its breeding range is in uncleared upland forests and it overwinters in agricultural lands, the most likely explanation for the decline is a rise in temperature. This has been greater in south-east Australia than anywhere else on the continent. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146371	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Locally common and probably numbering c.1 million mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be occasionally fairly common in Tasmania but uncommon elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146374	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146375	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1976, following forest deterioration on Little Mangere Island, the seven surviving birds were relocated to Mangere Island. Prior to reintroduction, thousands of trees were planted to provide sufficient habitat. In 1979, after no breeding and the loss of two birds, a regime of supplementary feeding, and the protection of nests from Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em> and seabirds was initiated. In 1980, eggs and chicks were cross-fostered to Chatham Island Warbler <em>Gerygone albofrontata</em>, but proved unsuccessful. In 1981, "Old Blue's" eggs were cross-fostered to Tomtit <em>P.&#160;macrocephala</em>. The three surviving chicks were reintroduced to Mangere Island. This technique was continued, and in 1983, <em>P.&#160;traversi</em> was introduced permanently to South East Island. In 1989, intensive management ceased<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Restore forest habitat on Mangere Island. Protect populations on Mangere and South East Islands. Establish a third population within the Chatham Islands. Reintroduce birds to Little Mangere Island with landowners' support<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146375	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Petroica traversi</em> is endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. It declined rapidly during the late 1800s, and by 1980, the population had fallen to five birds, comprising three males and two females. Intensive management has resulted in a continuous increase in numbers: from seven birds in 1981, to c.116 in 1990, c.170 in 1995<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, 226 in 1998 and 254 in 1999<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, including 178 mature birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population is now restricted to Mangere (1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and South East (=&#160;Rangatira, 2&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Islands. Numbers continue to slowly increase<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146375	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in low-altitude scrub forest remnants. It is entirely insectivorous, and feeds on the forest floor and low branches. It usually lays two eggs, and re-lays if a clutch is lost. Young normally begin to breed at two years. Birds generally pair for life. Survivorship between 1980 and 1991 indicates a mean life expectancy of four years. "Old Blue" (shown here), however, the sole breeding female in 1980, lived for over 12 years<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146375	population	BirdLife International, 2008	H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> (1999), S. O'Connor per H. Aikman <em>in litt.</em> (1999). <br/></p>	eng
146375	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The introduction of rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and cats following human settlement extirpated the birds from all but Little Mangere Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The accidental introduction of mammalian predators to the islands where it currently survives could cause local extinctions. <br/></p>	eng
146376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common or scarce on Papua New Guinea and common  (though very restricted) in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common but more frequent in the north of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146380	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146381	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146382	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146383	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146385	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146388	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poecilodryas placens</em> is very patchily distributed in New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It has been recorded from Batanta Island, Wandammen Mountains, Fakfak Mountains, Kumawa Mountains, Weyland Mountains, Keku near Madang, Lake Kutubu, Mt Bosavi, Karimui, and a number of sites in Central Province<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. There are new recent records from Crater Mountain<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> where it is patchily abundant, and in limestone hill forest from Moro to Gobe, Gulf Province, where it is locally common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may prove to be more widespread through the central mountains but is believed to be absent from many intervening areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is a hill forest species, occurring to 1,450&#160;m, and the one well-known site, at Veimauri, near Port Moresby, is being logged<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although the small total population may be isolated into subpopulations, some of which may be threatened by logging, its extensive and often inaccessible range suggests that there are more, safe subpopulations to be discovered.</p>	eng
146389	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread, although generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common, otherwise scarce or absent (Coates 1990).	eng
146393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce but locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon, although generally scarce. The species is described as common on the Cape York peninsular (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146398	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, although locally uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146399	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146400	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been no records from protected areas since 1966. Prior to this, it was recorded from sites now encompassed within Mt Kitanglad National Park, where most forest below 1,200&#160;m has now been cleared, Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and the Mt Matutum Forest Reserve, which has been proposed as a national park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey remaining lowland forest tracts on Samar, Leyte and in poorly known areas of Mindanao, to establish its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites (following surveys) for urgent establishment as protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146400	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloropsis flavipennis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Samar, Leyte, Cebu and Mindanao. It has been variously considered rare or very rare (historically) to uncommon but secretive (recently). However, there are post-1980 records from just two localities, Bislig, where it appears not uncommon, and Lake Sebu (both on Mindanao). On Samar and Leyte its current status is unknown. It was last recorded on each island in 1970 and 1964 respectively. It is presumed extinct on Cebu where it was last seen in 1920.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146400	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary forest but also frequents secondary forest, forest edge and degraded habitats below 1,000&#160;m, although there are three records up to 1,270&#160;m.</p>	eng
146400	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
146400	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its whole range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000&#160;m. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. In 1989, it was estimated that on Samar and Leyte only 433&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remained. The near-total clearance of forest on Cebu will have caused its extinction there. At the key site of Bislig, forest is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. <br/></p>	eng
146401	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146402	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce. Race zosterops is described as common where habitat remains (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146403	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloropsis cyanopogon</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Banggi Island) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally fairly common in forest to 700 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in second growth and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146404	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in substantial parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146405	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloropsis venusta</em> is restricted to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits hill and lower montane forest at 600-1,500 m. It is judged to be probably not uncommon but upslope forest loss is reducing the lower elevation ranges of several rare Sumatran endemics, and is likely to be causing a decline in this species also. <br/></p>	eng
146406	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146407	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common  (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146412	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in China and Russia, relatively common in Korea, uncommon in Japan and locally uncommon to common throughout its non-breeding range (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146414	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6300000-13000000 breeding pairs, equating to 18900000-39000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 38600000-156000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146420	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north and less common in the south (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146423	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lanius validirostris</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines </strong>where it occurs in clearings within forest in the highlands (above 1,000&#160;m) of Luzon (nominate <em>validirostris</em>, in Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre), Mindoro (race <em>tertius</em>) and Mindanao (race <em>hachisuka</em>, including on Mt Kitanglad, Civolig, Mt Malindang and Mt Apo). Although its area of occupancy must be small, its habitat is apparently secure and it is present throughout this habitat, so that with fuller assembly of information this species may well not be judged to be in any danger. <br/></p>	eng
146424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 620000-1500000 breeding pairs, equating to 1860000-4500000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2510000-9000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although less common to rare in the extreme west of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although less common in the extreme south of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146430	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
146431	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in the far east of its range (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146433	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in Obo Natural Park, though there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species has been ratified<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2008, a training programme with NGOs Associa&ccedil;&atilde;o de Bi&oacute;logos Saotomenses and Monte Pico will aim to involve locals in the study and conservation of S&atilde;o Tomean species. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions Programme Species Guardian Associa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos Bi&oacute;logos Santomenses have begun training local community focal points in the implementation of site-based conservation and implementing an awareness raising campaign<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats, including possible predation by introduced mammals, in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law. Actively manage and protect the recently gazetted protected areas. </strong>	eng
146433	distribution		<em>Lanius newtoni</em> is endemic to the island of S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>. Previously known only from records in 1888 and 1928, it was rediscovered in 1990, with the observation of a single bird near the source of the rio Xufexufe, in the south-west of the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1994, there have been regular records from the Xufexufe catchment<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, a record of two birds from Valverde in the valley of the rio I&oacute; Grande in the centre of the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, five birds from an area of primary forest near the Io Grande<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in the south-east and a single bird south of Formoso Pequeno, in the Bomba&iacute;m area. Surveys in 2007 located birds at Ribeira Peixe and Ana Chaves<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, and at Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Sousa (at c.1500m)<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Its population is unknown, but is likely to be tiny given the limited area of suitable habitat. However, a number of recent sightings have expanded its known range, hence the population may be greater than previously thought<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Anecdotal reports suggest that it has declined in some areas as human disturbance increased<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but these claims need substantiating.	eng
146433	habitat		All records are from primary lowland and mid-altitude (up to c.1,000 m) forest, predominantly under closed canopy, in sites with little or no undergrowth, but with bare ground and rocks<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Many records are from ridgetops<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and along watercourses, so the species may have a linear distribution<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The breeding season is unknown but may be early in the year, prior to the dry season<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
146433	population		A number of recent sightings have expanded its known range, hence the population may be greater than previously thought (A. Gascoigne <em>in litt.</em> 2010). However, given that a full population survey has yet to be conducted, it is precautionarily assumed to have a tiny population given the limited area of suitable habitat.	eng
146435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 480000-1200000 breeding pairs, equating to 1440000-3600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1950000-7200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146436	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 35000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 105000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 142000-600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146437	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146438	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
146440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to very common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
146441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146444	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146445	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146447	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in the El Pangan and R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi Community Nature Reserves, Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Although the population at Alto Pisones remains unprotected, the area may be included in the proposed Caramanta National Park, a management plan for which is in preparation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the montane forests between the known locations. Protect the population at Alto de Pisones effectively. Enforce protection of R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi Community Nature Reserve<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146447	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo masteri</em> is restricted to the Pacific slope of the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is currently known from only three sites in two very wet areas: Alto de Pisones, Risaralda, and two in the Jun&iacute;n area, Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and has an estimated population of 1,000-2,499 individuals. The two areas are 520&#160;km apart, and its habitat is fragmented and declining. The species may occur in appropriate habitat in intervening areas<strong><sup>2,3,8</sup></strong>. However, searches have completely failed to find the species, despite excellent knowledge of its vocalizations and its reliable response to playback<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146447	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has only been recorded in primary cloud-forest, usually on steeply sloping terrain with a rather broken canopy and natural tree-fall gaps<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. Areas with abundant palms, epiphytes, ferns and moss, at 1,100 and 1,600&#160;m are favoured<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. In suitable habitat, up to five territorial singing males have been encountered per kilometre of transect<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Pairs, individuals and, after the breeding season, family parties, forage exclusively in the canopy, occasionally accompanying mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place during the dry season, from June to October, and adults have been seen feeding juveniles in August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a very active forager, feeding on invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146447	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population density estimate = 31.8 &#177;2.8 mature individuals/km<sup>2</sup> in ideal habitat, estimated from study in Ecuador<sup>10</sup>. Population estimate made by assuming that density is lower in poorer occupied habitats within the extent of occurrence (e.g. higher and lower altitudes). Hence, population estimated by multiplying half of the extent of occurrence (20% of full EOO, 786 km2) by 31.8 &#177;2.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> and the other half by 0.25 times the optimal value = 15,600 &#177;1,400<sup>10</sup>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146447	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Choc&oacute; region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s. Plans to colonise and develop the region are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, and are increasing the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining<strong><sup>1,2,6,7</sup></strong>. Coca cultivation is a growing problem at lower altitudes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi Community Nature Reserve is threatened by logging, and disputes over land ownership,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>but the population is currently secure<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Alto de Pisones remains unprotected and largely deforested<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146449	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo bellii</em> summers in central and southwestern <strong>USA </strong>and northern <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it frequents dense, low, shrubby vegetation and is well known and studied<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its winter range extends from south Baja California along the west coast of Central America, through <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong> and <strong>Honduras<sup>1</sup></strong>. However, very little is known about its density, ecology or habitat use in this region. The species has shown a decline of 2.7% per year since 1966<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Habitat loss and modifications, and, secondarily, rates of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (<em>Molothrus ater</em>), have caused reductions in breeding populations in south-west USA<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Trapping cowbirds can significantly reduce brood parasitism<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and is a standard management tool in one California study area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146449	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
146450	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Balcones Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, protects a key population, and a cowbird trapping programme has reduced brood-parasitism<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. These measures have been implemented at other sites in Texas (e.g. Fort Hood) and Oklahoma (Wichita Mountains)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but populations have disappeared from several reserves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing into the wintering, Mexico and Coahuila populations, and in Texas and Oklahoma. The Leon River Restoration Project in central Texas is working on a habitat restoration project with Golden-cheeked Warbler and Black-capped Vireo as the primary focus. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify the distribution in Mexico and estimate breeding numbers. Monitor significant populations. Research ecology and breeding success in Coahuila where habitat remains natural<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the cause(s) of population fluctuations at Big Bend National Park, Texas<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess threats on wintering grounds<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Coordinate a range-wide action plan<sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146450	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo atricapilla</em> once bred from Kansas through Oklahoma to south-west Texas, <strong>USA</strong>, into central Coahuila and southern Nuevo Leon, <strong>Mexico</strong>, wintering in Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima and possibly Oaxaca, Mexico<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. In Oklahoma and northern and central Texas, it is now restricted to a few sites, and elsewhere populations are increasingly fragmented<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population has declined to c.6,000-10,000 individuals, but numbers for south-west Texas and Mexico are uncertain<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This decline is not uniform: numbers are stable in the southern 25-30% of the historic breeding range, and management has arrested declines elsewhere<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146450	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in low, very dense, shrubby deciduous growth in the fire-maintained forest-grassland ecotone<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Oaks <em>Quercus</em> spp. and densely foliaged shrubs (such as <em>Dyosporus texana</em>, <em>Rhus virens</em> and <em>Sophora segundiflora</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) frequently occur in this habitat, but birds apparently prefer areas with very few juniper <em>Juniperus</em> spp. In Mexico, it breeds at elevations of 1,000-2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It winters from the lowlands up to 1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, often in arid deciduous scrub and bushy thickets associated with various woodland-types<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146450	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich et al (2003) <br/></p>	eng
146450	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Fire suppression is probably the most serious threat, but urban development and agricultural conversion (especially to pasture) have caused significant habitat loss<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Intensive grazing has further degraded habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Increasing numbers of Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> has resulted in high rates of brood-parasitism<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The high return rates of birds to breeding territories suggests few threats on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146451	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146456	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146458	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146459	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify its distribution, abundance and ecological requirements. Assess the extent and status of native habitat remaining. Identify realistic plantation management practises that will favour this species. <br/></p>	eng
146459	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo caribaeus</em> is endemic to San Andr&eacute;s, <strong>Colombia</strong>, an island in the west Caribbean, east of Nicaragua. It is apparently now restricted to 17 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is common. A recent study estimated between 8,200 and 14,800 individuals on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146459	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Highest densities occur in cocoa plantations with scattered trees and scrub, dry lowland woodland and inland mangrove swamps, but lower densities occur in mesophytic woodland and brushy pastures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Within this wide range of habitats it has a preference for areas of dense understorey vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding territory size is 0.5 ha. Nests with young have been recorded in June, and are built in, or suspended from, the forks of branches, in both mangroves and shrubby bushes. It gleans actively for caterpillars and other arthropods. <br/></p>	eng
146459	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 400 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 17 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 6,800, i.e. best placed within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from observation of 10 singing males in an area of 5 ha [Collar <em>et al</em>. 1992]). <br/></p>	eng
146459	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	San Andr&eacute;s is densely populated and developed, with little remaining natural vegetation. The northern 20% of the island is urbanised, with tourist developments south of the urban zone. Habitat on most of the remainder of the island has been converted for agriculture and coconut-palm cultivation but, within this area, small and scattered patches of remnant habitat (mostly associated with inland mangroves) and scrub are found. The human population, tourism and agriculture are all expanding. Coastal mangroves are also being destroyed by waste oil and a hot-water outflow, although the extent to which the species is affected is unknown. <br/></p>	eng
146461	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146462	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146464	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Puerto Rico (to USA). It does not occur east of a line betwen Loiza Aldea, Caguas and Patillas (Raffaele 1983).	eng
146464	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs chiefly in forest and undergrowth on limestone hills, and also in coffee plantations (AOU 1983). It also occurs in mangroves at Torrecilla-Piñones, but rather strangely is not found in any other mangrove areas on the island (Raffaele 1983). Breeding takes place from March to June (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
146464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146464	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Nest parasitism by Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus bonariensis has been shown to reduce breeding success to the extent that in 1990-1993 only 5% of active study nests fledged young vireos (Faaborg et al. 1997).	eng
146465	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo osburni</em> is uncommon on <strong>Jamaica</strong>, but occurs singly and is secretive, so may have been largely overlooked in the past<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It inhabits wet limestone and montane forests at 500-2,200&#160;m such as the Blue and John Crow Mountains, Cockpit Country and Mt. Diablo<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Widespread habitat destruction has resulted in significant range contractions, but it has been found in upland woods and coffee plantations, suggesting some tolerance of habitat degradation<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Habitat loss has been primarily caused by the establishment of plantations (mostly coffee and Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>), small-scale farming and clearance for development<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146473	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vireo gracilirostris</em> is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean island of Fernando de Noronha (18.4 km<sup>2</sup>), <strong>Brazil</strong>, with sporadic records on secondary islands<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. An informal census along road systems counted 90 individuals in 2003<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and preliminary censuses along the trail to Mirante dos Golfinhos e Baia do Sancho in 2003 counted 84 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The total population has not been quantified, but is believed to number more than 1,000 individuals. It is common in forest, gardens or scrub, particularly where there are small fig trees, and abundant around Morro do Pico and in the western quarter<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is absent from cleared areas and therefore was presumably historically more widespread as the island was reportedly covered in forest when discovered in 1503<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, all large trees have long since been cut and all remaining vegetation is secondary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> with apparently little effect on this species. <br/></p>	eng
146473	population	BirdLife International, 2008	T. Mark in litt. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
146475	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146477	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146481	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146491	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146492	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Androphobus viridis</em> is a poorly-known species known from only five sites on New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It was collected at, but there have been no recent records from, Mt Goliath, the Lake Habbema/Ibele River region and the Weyland Mountains (all in the Snow Mountains)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are a series of recent sightings at Ambua, near Tari<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, in Wapoga in Papua<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and a distinctive and unknown song recorded in the Star Mountains in 1992 may have been this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As the Snow Mountains and the intervening range is little visited, it may occur more widely. Although it appears to occur at low population densities, it is secretive and likely to be overlooked unless singing<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Records are from montane forest at 1,400-2,700&#160;m which is unlikely to be threatened by extensive logging.</p>	eng
146493	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146494	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Psophodes nigrogularis</em> is found in four isolated subpopulations in south-west and southern <strong>Australia</strong>. Nominate <em>nigrogularis</em> is restricted to a small area east of Albany where the population is c.2,500 individuals and increasing. Subspecies <em>oberon</em> is found in scattered localities in southern Western Australia, numbers c.5,000, and is probably declining. Subspecies <em>lashmari</em> on Kangaroo Island has a stable population of c.5,000 birds. The fourth, <em>leucogaster</em>, has a declining population of c.2,000, which is restricted to a small number of widely scattered localities in southern South Australia and north-western Victoria. Past clearance of mallee for agriculture has been responsible for the substantial contraction and fragmentation of the species's range. Fire is currently the major threat in most areas. Fires are likely to further fragment populations and may have led to local extinctions of <em>nigrogularis</em>. The population increase of <em>nigrogularis</em> at Two Peoples Bay has been attributed to the exclusion of fire from the area since 1970. Many of the relatively widespread populations of <em>oberon</em> are likely to become extinct over time as a result of random processes from which they can no longer recover because they cannot recolonise.  <br/></p>	eng
146494	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The combined total for the populations of each subspecies given in Garnett and Crowley (2000) is 19,500 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and generally scarce (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread but patchy and only locally at all common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the east of its range and locally quite common in the west of its range (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146501	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146505	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eupetes macrocerus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland broadleaved forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's preference for submontane forests and ability to persist in logged forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146506	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common though thinly distributed in many places (Coates 1990).	eng
146507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Australia and uncommon or locally common on New Guinea (Coates 1990, Morcombe 2000).	eng
146510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather rare and elusive, although locally common on Mt Tafa (Coates 1990).	eng
146511	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Kapiti and Little Barrier islands and moderately common in forested areas of the north island of New Zealand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146512	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A monitoring programme, initiated in 1983, covers 14 populations at 12 key sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A range of studies assisting the species's management has been completed and several are ongoing. Key habitats are trapped intensively for <em>M. erminea</em> during years of heavy seeding<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds have been successfully translocated to three mammalian predator-free habitats, including Codfish Island in 2003, where the following breeding season was successful<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A captive population has recently been established<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search for new, undiscovered populations. Improve management techniques for effective control over large geographic areas. Improve understanding of factors that impact on populations. Manage key wild populations. Undertake further island transfers, including re-establishing birds in podocarp/hardwood forest-types. Continue development of captive-management potential</strong><sup>9</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
146512	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mohoua ochrocephala</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong> where it was formerly widespread in the South and Stewart Islands. It has disappeared from 75% of its former range since the arrival of Europeans and introduced predators<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>, and is now extinct on Stewart Island, and has gone from several areas of large, unmodified forest on the South Island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Strongholds are in the Fiordland and Mt Aspiring National Parks, and c.10 other small, fragmented populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The total population numbers 2,000-3,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, mostly in Fiordland, and is declining rapidly and is subject to severe fluctuations<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. From 1982-1993, out of 14 monitored populations, one became extinct, five seriously declined (three to the verge of extinction), one increased and seven did not change significantly. The species was also seriously affected by rat irruptions in 1999-2000, with two populations undergoing local extinction and three more having significant population crashes. However, some populations have now been established on offshore islands<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146512	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its preferred habitat is lowland red beech <em>Nothofagus fusca</em> forest on river terraces<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, though it was once present in podocarp/hardwood forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is primarily insectivorous, but occasionally feeds on fruit when in season. It nests in small cavities in large, old trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It usually lays three eggs in two clutches per season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its life expectancy is five years, though two wild birds are at least 16 years old<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146512	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A. Grant per R. Hitchmough <em>in litt</em>. (2005). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146512	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Approximately every four to six years, <em>Nothofagus</em> trees produce prolific seeds, and insect, then mouse, then stoat <em>Mustela erminea</em> numbers irrupt. <em>M. erminea</em> take eggs, chicks and a disproportionate number of adult females. In such years, breeding success and the number of adult females in some populations can decrease by 50-100%<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. The period between population crashes is generally insufficient for full recovery<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is also implicated<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and was responsible for serious recent population crashes. <br/></p>	eng
146513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in higher parts of its altitudinal range (Coates 1990).	eng
146518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common at higher elevations and otherwise uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although apparently locally quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in the north of its range and commoner in  the south (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146522	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pachycephala rufogularis</em> is restricted to eastern South Australia and adjacent north-western Victoria, <strong>Australia</strong>, with outlying populations in mallee isolates in New South Wales. The population may number less than 10,000 mature individuals, and the area of occupancy has at least halved, mostly during the first half of the 20th century. Clearance of mallee has undoubtedly reduced the range of the species and may continue to do so in New South Wales. In remaining habitat, it prefers a vegetation age of at least five years after fire. Fires made 90% of Billiate Conservation Park unsuitable in 1988, as well as large tracts of Ngarkat Conservation Park and the Big Desert in 1986-1988. Over a period of 20 years, it has been replaced by Gilbert's Whistler <em>P.&#160;inornata</em> at Chapman's Bore and parts of the western Murray Mallee, probably as a result of changes in habitat. The relationship between the two species is not well understood and, because of their similar appearance, interbreeding would be hard to detect. Numbers and area of occupancy may still be declining. <br/></p>	eng
146522	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population may number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
146523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparsely distributed and usually rare (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in India and the Andaman islands and uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia, although scarce in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146525	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant locally and often more common over 1000 m (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon and rare on Mindanao (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be locally fairly common but otherwise scarce or absent (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146529	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common and otherwise scarce (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146530	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range, especially at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common within its very small range, although very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common to common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997, Coates 1990, Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common within its main altitudinal range and scarce at lower elevations (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146540	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Pratt et al. 1987).	eng
146541	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pachycephala jacquinoti</em> is endemic to the Vava'u group of islands in <strong>Tonga</strong>, where it is reportedly common and widespread<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is an understorey omnivore and forest obligate, and occurs in successional habitats only when adjacent to mature forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Only very limited areas of native forest remain, primarily in very steep or inaccessible places, coastal littoral areas and swamps<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A varying set of non-native mammals occurs on each of the 16 islands of Vava'u, including Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em>R.&#160;rattus</em> which are likely predators, and ungulates which overbrowse native understorey vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. If deforestation outpaces forest regrowth, the population of <em>P.&#160;jacquinoti</em> will surely decline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant in the middle to higher parts of its range but scarce at lower elevations (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common on Bougainville and Guadalcanal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
146545	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to very common (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146546	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146547	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Yamdena (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146548	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the western highlands but very local and scarce elsewhere on New Guinea (Beehler et al. 1986, Coates 1990).	eng
146549	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and local but patchily common (Coates 1990).	eng
146550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146553	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
146554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, Australia.	eng
146554	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is usually found in rainforest-covered mountains above 250 m (Blakers et al. 1984).	eng
146554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146554	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
146555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common in some areas and rare or absent in others (Coates 1990).	eng
146559	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146560	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pitohui incertus</em> is known from two tiny areas of New Guinea: about 90&#160;km up the Noord River in Papua, formerly Irian Jaya (<strong>Indonesia</strong>) and 320&#160;km to the east, between Kiunga and the Palmer Junction on the Fly River (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. It may prove to be widespread across the northern Trans-Fly region in seasonally flooded lowland forest in high rainfall areas; there have been no other studies within this habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to be common in the two known localities and this habitat is thought not to be under threat<strong><sup>2,5,6,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146561	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common but otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146563	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to rare (Coates 1990).	eng
146565	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnagra capensis</em>, according to Buller, was common until 1863 in forest undergrowth on the South Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, from where it is known from numerous specimens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the species declined very rapidly in the 1880s, probably mainly due to predation by introduced rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the last sight record was from 1963<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong></p>	eng
146566	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platylophus galericulatus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally uncommon in evergreen forest to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146567	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platysmurus leucopterus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Bangka) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(widespread but uncommon), in evergreen forest and mangrove to 800 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but use of hill forests and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146568	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No new policies are in place, whilst old ones are no longer implemented<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p> Identify suitable areas of pinyon-juniper habitat for protection. Promote suitable land-management practices. Encourage land-owners to take advantage of funding opportunities to create, restore and maintain suitable habitat on thier land. <br/></p>	eng
146568	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus</em> is a permanent resident of the foothills and lower mountain slopes of the western and south-western <strong>USA</strong>.  It is found from central Oregon east to western South Dakota and south to northern Baja California, central New Mexico and western Oklahoma<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In years when pine crops fail it becomes irruptive, with individuals often dispersing far outside their normal range<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Owing mainly to habitat loss, this species has suffered a population decline of 36.9% per decade since 1966 (and 59% per decade between 1993 and 2002, but these trends are less reliable owing to small sample sizes<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146568	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is a highly social co-operative-breeding bird, forming permanent flocks of typically 250 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but which may number over 500<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Many birds spend their entire lives in their natal flocks, and individuals that do disperse (mostly young females) generally travel short distances. Although omnivorous, it has a mutualist relationship with the Pinyon Pine of western North America, dispersing the large wingless seeds long distances and reaping the reward of an energy and nutrient rich food source. Individuals have excellent spatial memories, giving them uncanny recovery accuracy when digging up food stores months after caching, even through snow. It is one of the earliest nesting passerines in the USA, commencing breeding in the winter in areas where the pine-seed crop was abundant the previous autumn. One population in New Mexico breeds in autumn when Pinyon Pine cone crops are available<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146568	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
146568	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat to this species is the destruction of its major habitat type, pinyon-juniper woodland. Land managers have followed a policy to eradicate this woodland, with the U.S. Forest Service classifying it as "non-commercial" and placing it in a "no-value" category. During the 1940-1960s, major programmes to eradicate the entire habitat were carried out, during which possibly millions of <em>G. cyanocephalus</em> died owing to habitat destruction. Currently herbicides, mechanical plowing and fire are used to turn pinyon-juniper woodland into pasture land for cattle. Fire-suppression policies in south-west USA have led to huge, uncontrolled wildfires that have consumed large areas of suitable habitat in the late 1990s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphelocoma insularis</em> is endemic to Santa Cruz Island, the largest (at 250&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of the California Channel Islands, <strong>USA</strong>. It occurs throughout nearly all of the woody vegetation on the island, but is especially abundant in canyons and on north facing slopes dominated by <em>Quercus</em> species. The population has been conservatively estimated at 12,500 individuals, of which 7,000 are thought to be breeders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This estimate suggests that no reason exists for immediate concern regarding the population's viability. However, very little is known about the species's historic status or ecology, and the island has been severely degraded by introduced sheep and pigs. Conservation action is now controlling these animals and in many areas the vegetation is recovering dramatically, but the impact of these ecological changes on the status of this species requires careful monitoring. <br/></p>	eng
146571	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
146573	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been studied since 1969 and this continues, especially at and near the Archbold Biological Station<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. There are now four populations of colour-banded jays that are monitored<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Habitat management by burning is still too site-specific<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population<sup>4,5. Regularly determine the extent of habitat4,5. Research the causes of variation in birth rates, death rates, and spatial/temporal movement patterns, in both natural and human-modified habitats4,5. Maintain the long-term ecological study4,5. Acquire and actively manage a protected-area network4,5. Burn patches of habitat every 8-15 years4,5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146573	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphelocoma coerulescens</em> was known from scattered localities in 39 of 40 peninsula counties in Florida, <strong>USA</strong>, but has declined since the mid-19th century and most rapidly since 1950. The current range is local and fragmented from Flagler, Marion and Levy counties to Collier, Glades and Palm Beach. The breeding population was 4,000 pairs in 1993. As the average group size is three, total numbers were probably c.10,000, a c.25% decline since 1983<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146573	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is entirely restricted to scrub and shrubby flatwoods (a xeromorphic shrub community dominated by a layer of oaks <em>Quercus</em> spp. rarely more than 2&#160;m high). Ground cover is sparse with bare sand patches for foraging and acorn-caching. It rarely uses scrub with more than 15% pine cover. Habitat structure and composition are maintained by frequent fires, and optimal habitat occurs 5-15 years post-fire. It is permanently territorial and territory size is not significantly compressible except through artificial feeding. Dispersal is inhibited by more than 8&#160;km of open, non-scrub habitat or 1&#160;km of forest. First brood eggs are laid from March-May, and true second brood attempts are rare. It feeds mainly on arthropods, acorns and small vertebrates<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146573	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick (1996), G. E. Woolfenden <em>in litt</em>. (1998). <br/></p>	eng
146573	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Housing developments and citrus-groves have replaced much suitable habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The rate of development in Florida has increased markedly since the 1960s as the human population almost doubled between 1960 and 1980<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Direct human disturbance and feral cats affect the increasing number of territories adjacent to housing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and birds in roadside territories are frequently killed by vehicles<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Fire suppression causes scrub to overgrow and pine density to increase, rendering habitat unsuitable. Several species of snake, bird and mammal are native predators<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The recent spread of West Nile virus to Florida may pose a threat to the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146577	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146578	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146579	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146580	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanolyca pulchra</em> occurs along a narrow elevational band of extremely wet foothill and premontane forest on the Pacific slope of west <strong>Colombia</strong> (north to extreme south Choc&oacute;) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south to Pichincha) at 900-2,300 m, but mostly between 1,400 and 1,800 m <strong><sup>1,2,3,5,6</sup></strong>. It is rare and local in pluvial and wet subtropical forests, where it favours dense understorey, particularly along watercourses and in marshy areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi, Colombia, its population is estimated at just 2-3 pairs in 5 km<sup>2</sup>. In Ecuador, it appears to have declined for unknown reasons since the 1970s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is extremely sensitive to human disturbance and appears almost exclusively dependent upon primary forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation, following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions are major threats to its habitat, with cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation also posing problems<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Since 1960, over 40% of Choc&oacute; forests have been cleared or degraded, and deforestation is accelerating<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146582	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cerro San Felipe is officially within Benito Ju&aacute;rez National Park, but the boundaries of this relatively small reserve have never been demarcated<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and it offers the species little protection<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess more precisely the extent of its distribution. Demarcate and effectively protect the boundaries of Benito Ju&aacute;rez National Park. Protect sites where the species has been recently recorded. <br/></p>	eng
146582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanolyca nana</em> is known historically from Veracruz adjacent to the border with Puebla and the Sierras Ju&aacute;rez, Aloapaneca and Zempoaltepec in Oaxaca south-east <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was feared extinct throughout this range except for the Cerro San Felipe in the Sierra Aloapaneca, where it remains quite common. However, it is now known to be more widespread. There are records from Tangoj&oacute; in extreme east Quer&eacute;taro, north Hidalgo, central Veracruz and La Chinantla in north Oaxaca, and it may be locally common where suitable habitat persists<strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146582	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been observed in several humid montane forest-associations, but most abundantly in pine-oak-fir associations and areas with an even mix of pine and oak. Laurel and abundant epiphytic growth are characteristic of these associations. Lower densities occur in oak-dominated forest, and its occurrence in secondary growth depends on the predominance of the preferred tree-associations and nearby tracts of primary forest. Suitable breeding habitat has a sufficiently open canopy to allow the development of a dense subcanopy. It forages mostly from the lower subcanopy to the higher shrub layer, where it gleans invertebrates from and around epiphytes. It occurs at elevations of 1,400-3,200&#160;m&#160;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but only above 1,670&#160;m in the centre and south of its range. This is plausibly a natural altitudinal distribution, but it may have been extirpated from the lower elevations in the south of its range. The breeding season begins at Cerro San Felipe in early April.</p>	eng
146582	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
146582	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging, agricultural expansion, firewood-gathering, road and tourist developments, sheep-ranching, intense grazing and intensive urbanisation have resulted in extensive and continuing destruction and fragmentation of its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is prone to nest-desertion following human disturbance, suggesting that there are few predators of adult birds. The continuing spread of West Nile virus is not thought to pose a serious threat, and no related mortality has been detected in this species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146583	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, the Omiltemi State Ecological Park in the Sierra de Atoyac.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat in the Sierras de Miahautl&aacute;n and de Yucuyacua. Extend the Omiltemi State Ecological Park over the mountains to the lowlands of the Sierra de Atoyac. Designate a protected area in the Sierra de Miahuatl&aacute;n encompassing the range of this species<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146583	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanolyca mirabilis</em> is locally fairly common to common in the Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero and Oaxaca, south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>. In Guerrero, it is common at Omiltemi, fairly common just north of Nueva Delhi and common between Nueva Delhi and Cerro Teotepec. In Oaxaca, it is known from only three localities in the Sierras de Miahautl&aacute;n and de Yucuyacua, but there have been no records from San Andr&eacute;s Chicahuaxtla since 1964<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146583	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely restricted to undisturbed tracts of humid montane forest, favouring cloud (near Cerro Teotepec)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, oak and pine-oak forests, but has been found in disturbed habitats. It occurs at elevations of 1,525-3,500&#160;m in Guerrero and 2,000-2,600&#160;m in Oaxaca, but there is very little suitable habitat below 1,800&#160;m. It tends to forage in pairs or small groups, but sometimes joins mixed-species flocks in non-breeding season. Breeding has been recorded in April-August. <br/></p>	eng
146583	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 750 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) =  4,500, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density from median of three estimates for New World jays in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and compatible with description as common to fairly common). <br/></p>	eng
146583	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Many of the remaining forests within its range are under clearance for timber and large-scale agricultural expansion. Corn, fruit (notably citrus fruit in the Sierra de Miahautl&aacute;n<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and coffee cultivation is replacing lower montane forests, and logging is removing pine-oak forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The continuing spread of West Nile virus is not thought to pose a serious threat, and no related mortality has been detected in this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
146589	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146590	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanocorax caeruleus</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south S&atilde;o Paulo south to Rio Grande do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones and north Corrientes). A small number of records exist for Paraguay<strong><sup>1,2,5,7</sup></strong>, but these are not considered credible<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is rare to locally common up to 1,000 m in lowland evergreen, southern temperate, white-sand and secondary forest and, at least seasonally, is most numerous in <em>Araucaria</em> forest<strong><sup>6,7,8</sup></strong>. Populations have apparently declined substantially, particularly in the west of its range, and is now most common in south-east Brazil<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threaten its habitat, with current key threats from urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146590	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There is insufficient information to make an estimate of population size. <br/></p>	eng
146591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146595	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146596	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanocorax dickeyi</em> is a cooperative breeder, restricted to montane areas of north-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is fairly common on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, from Sinaloa and Durango to north Nayarit<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1994-1995 extended the north-south distribution of the species from 210&#160;km to 295&#160;km by finding it north of the r&iacute;o de Presidio, and probably to the San Lorenzo/Los Remedios river complex<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It largely inhabits humid canyons within semi-deciduous and pine-oak forests at elevations of 1,500-2,100&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Canyon forest is relatively inaccessible and not as susceptible to logging and conversion to agriculture as surrounding areas<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Flocks occasionally wander into the mesa forests at higher altitudes, but do not seem to avoid selectively logged areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is hunted for fun by schoolboys<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146599	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6000000-13000000 breeding pairs, equating to 18000000-39000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 36700000-156000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common, although less so in Nepal (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146606	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. Yuwangatake on Amami-ooshima was established as a National Wildlife Protection Area, mainly for the conservation of this species and Amami Thrush <em>Zoothera major</em>. Several surveys and ecological studies have been completed.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conserve the remaining areas of mature forest on Amami-ooshima. Provide nest-boxes in areas where there is a shortage of natural nest-holes. Control predators on Amami-ooshima. Survey the central mountains of Tokunoshima, where it was reported in the 1920s. Investigate the potential for reintroduction on Tokunoshima.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146606	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulus lidthi</em> is<em> </em>endemic to the islands of Amami-ooshima and Kakeroma-jima, part of the Nansei Shoto Islands, <strong>Japan</strong>. It was previously common in the central mountains of Toku-no-shima but is now extinct there. Its population was estimated at c.5,800 birds in the 1970s, and probably declining.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146606	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs from sea-level into the hills, in subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest, coniferous forest, and in woodland around cultivation and human habitation, showing a significant preference for mature forest, where it feeds on <em>Castanopsis cuspidata</em> acorns. Sweet potato, insects and reptiles, including Okinawa pit-viper <em>Trimeresurus flavoviridis,</em> are also included in its diet. It usually forages on the ground amongst leaf-litter. Breeding takes place from late January or early February until May. </p>	eng
146606	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Nishidi (1974) in Brazil (1991) <br/></p>	eng
146606	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A high proportion of nests are predated by crows and mammals and the Javan mongoose <em>Herpestes javanicus</em> has been reported to prey on young birds. However, it is not known whether this apparently increased predation pressure will have a long-term effect on the population. The numbers of Large-billed Crow <em>Corvus macrorhynchos </em>on Amami-ooshima have recently increased, probably because of increased garbage disposal on the island. The effect of logging on its population is probably relatively small.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146607	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 340000-710000 breeding pairs, equating to 1020000-2130000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2080000-8520000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146608	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has only been recorded from one protected area, Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve in Sichuan. This has an area of 200 km<sup>2</sup>, where the natural habitats are apparently in excellent condition, but are under pressure from large-scale tourism. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status, particularly survey protected areas in or near its known range. Support recommendations to control logging, control fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Strengthen protection and control tourism at Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve and link it to other important protected areas in the Min Shan. List it as<em> a nationally protected species in China.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146608	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Perisoreus internigrans</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from eastern Tibet, south-east Qinghai, southern Gansu and western Sichuan. Most records have involved a small number of individuals and it has been described as rare. Given the relatively small number of documented localities and its apparently low population density, it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146608	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to favour high-altitude (3,000-4,270 m), dry coniferous forest of mature spruce, and mixed fir and rhododendron forest, often with a poorly developed understorey. It forms small flocks in autumn, usually of five or six birds, but sometimes more than 10, and feeds on invertebrates and fruit. Juveniles have been collected between June and September, and a family party was seen in mid-June.</p>	eng
146608	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate <1 individual/km<sup>2</sup> x 14,300 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = <14,300 ie. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density based on description of species's rarity in BirdLife International 2001 and extrapolation from records in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
146608	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest, including substantial areas of the upper temperate and subalpine zone forests in Sichuan, through logging for timber and conversion to agriculture and pasture. Forest cover may also be declining on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau because the climate is progressively becoming drier.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146610	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area, Horton Plains National Park, Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, Morapitiya Forest Reserve and Tangmalai Sanctuary. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly brood-parasitism by <em>E. scolopacea. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146610	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Urocissa ornata</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is restricted to the central mountains and foothills of the wet zone. Its population has apparently been declining and becoming more fragmented since the late 19th century and it is unlikely to be larger than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146610	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in tall, undisturbed, primary forest in the hills and adjoining lowlands of the wet zone, from 2,135 m to below 150 m and has occasionally been recorded from disturbed areas. </p>	eng
146610	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive surveys in 2004-2006 estimated a total population of 10,181-19,765 individuals (Ratnayake 2008). However, the species is a cooperative breeder with a monogamous mating system, so the effective population size and the number of mature individuals may be considerably fewer. Hence we retain a lower bottom estimate here. <br/></p>	eng
146610	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. It has also suffered reductions in food supply because of replacement of natural forests, containing fruiting trees, with monoculture plantations. Forest die-back in the montane region, perhaps a result of air pollution, is a potential threat. Hunting probably contributed to its historical decline but is unlikely to be a major threat today. There is some evidence to suggest that it is prevented from colonising disturbed areas by high rates of brood-parasitism by the Asian Koel <em>Eudynamys scolopacea</em>. In the hill country, biocides may be contributing to its decline.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146611	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
146612	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common or locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common throughout most of its range (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146614	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very rare (Madge and Burn 1993, Robson 2000).	eng
146615	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively uncommon to locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon in Vietnam, rare in China and uncommon and very local in Thailand (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon on Borneo and rather rare on Java (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 260000-460000 breeding pairs, equating to 780000-1380000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3250000-27600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common, though rare in Vietnam (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146620	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common on Sumatra and common on Borneo (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146624	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendrocitta bayleyi </em>is endemic to the Andaman archipelago, <strong>India</strong>, where it is usually found in pairs or parties of up to 20 birds, or in mixed flocks in tall trees in dense broadleaved evergreen forest. It is uncommon to locally fairly common and while habitat on the Andamans remains relatively intact it is probably secure. However, indications that an increase in human populations and habitat loss is occurring in the archipelago suggest that within the small range of this species natural habitats might rapidly shrink and become fragmented.  <br/></p>	eng
146625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146626	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crypsirina cucullata</em> is endemic to the dry zone of central <strong>Myanmar</strong>, on the plains of the Irrawaddy and Sittang Rivers, where it is found in dry dipterocarp forest, dry thornscrub, secondary growth and the edge of agricultural land in the lowlands to 1,000&#160;m. It was formerly common, but the forests of the Irrawaddy plains are now largely cleared for agriculture and a sharp decline was thought to have taken place. However, recent surveys have found it to remain locally common in extensive areas of suitable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
146627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Vietnam (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 3,400,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7500000-19000000 breeding pairs, equating to 22500000-57000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 45900000-228000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146630	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A detailed study of this species's ecology is currently underway and threats will be identified and evaluated in more detail. Yavello Sanctuary (c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup>) was designated in 1985 to protect this species and White-tailed Swallow <em>Hirundo megaensis</em>, but has not yet been gazetted and there is no active management. Responsibility for protected areas has now passed to the Regional Government, so it is hoped that collaboration between Regional and Zonal Governments and local communities may result in more substantive protection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Support the ongoing study of its ecology, distribution and status. Survey areas outside the Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary to determine their importance to the species<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Draw up an action plan for the conservation of the species and its habitat, based on the above study, and implement conservation actions (e.g. protection of large <em>Acacia</em> bushes) in collaboration with local communities and regional authorities. Research the effects of fire and fire suppression on the species's habitat; prescribed fire could be used to check the expansion of dense bush<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146630	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zavattariornis stresemanni</em> is confined to the area around Yavello and Mega, southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>. No population estimate has been made, but brief surveys in 1989 suggested densities had remained constant through the 1980s. Surveys in 1996 found the species to be common within its restricted range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, encounter rates on roadside counts in the Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary (which includes a large part of the range of this species) have declined by 80% between 1989 and 2003, suggesting that the population is very rapidly decreasing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146630	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in open, semi-arid areas of short-grass savanna with scattered low <em>Acacia</em> bushes at c.1,700 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including the vicinity of towns<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and, outside the breeding season, is gregarious<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in February/March, and may involve cooperation with extra-pair individuals. The normal nest-site is in the top of an <em>Acacia</em> bush (c.6 m high) and clutch-size is up to six. It has been recorded breeding in May/June, which would indicate either that birds are double-brooded or have an extended breeding season. <br/></p>	eng
146630	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Following a rapid decline since 1989 (Borghesio and Giannetti 2005), the population may currently number fewer than 10,000 individuals (L. Borghesio<em> in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
146630	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Analysis of satellite imagery between 1986 and 2002 shows that the vegetation in the Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary has become denser, probably as a result of the enforcement of fire suppression<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. As the species prefers more open habitat this is likely to be the primary cause of population declines. Expanding cultivation in the surroundings of Mega is also thought to have caused population decreases<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The partial clearance of dense <em>Acacia</em> scrub to allow grass-growth for cattle does not appear to have affected the species and may even benefit it<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, recent research indicates that tall <em>Acacia</em> bushes, in which this species nests, are being cleared intensively (for both firewood and grazing land), and this may now be having a negative impact on the species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very rare in Kazakhstan, uncommon in Mongolia and probably relatively uncommon in China (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146632	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Podoces biddulphi</em> is known from Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong>, where it is found in sandy desert, scrub and desert poplar in the Taklimakan Desert (and there is a recent sight record well to the east of this area, near Golmud in Qinghai). It was described as being common in 1929-1930, but it was scarce and difficult to locate in the same areas in 1988, and may be declining because of the degradation of desert habitats through the intensive grazing of goats and camels, extraction of fuelwood and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated land. However, it has recently been found to be widespread and locally common in the interior of the Taklimakan Desert. <br/></p>	eng
146633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively numerous in virgin desert (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be  quite common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 400000-860000 breeding pairs, equating to 1200000-2580000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2450000-10300000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43000-110000 breeding pairs, equating to 129000-330000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 263000-1320000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 130000-310000 breeding pairs, equating to 390000-930000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 796000-3720000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5200000-15000000 breeding pairs, equating to 15600000-45000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21100000-90000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146644	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No specific conservation measures have been implemented but populations occur in protected areas such as Rivière Bleue Park (Warner 1947, Hannecart and Létocart 1980, G. Dutson per. obs. 1999).	eng
146644	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to New Caledonia (to France) and has been introduced to the neighbouring island of Maré (Loyalty Islands (to France)).	eng
146644	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Although it is a forest species it has been reported from niaouli savanna. It usually forages in pairs or family parties, but flocks of up to 30 have been seen. It is omniviorous and has a unique habit of using tools to extract food items from holes and crevices.	eng
146644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146644	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The clearance and degradation of forests across New Caledonia is a threat to this species.	eng
146645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally moderately common in hill-forest (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146647	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Searches in 2004, 2006 and 2007 successfully rediscovered the species. A team of local residents are now leading an awareness campaign and promoting the adoption of sustainable agriculture, while hunting of the crow has apparently ceased<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Discussions have taken place with local governments over planned forest protection initiatives<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct a comprehensive search for the species throughout the archipelago (paying close attention to the use of vocalisations to aid detection) to establish its range, distribution, population status, and assess its habitat requirements and potential threats. Identify its conservation needs based on results of this survey, and thereby work towards the establishment of an appropriately sized and situated protected area supporting viable populations of this and other threatened species known to occur on the islands. Closely monitor potential mining activity and begin dialogue with mining companies where appropriate. Continue to work with local communities to promote the conservation of this species.</strong>	eng
146647	distribution		This species was previously known from two specimens taken on an unspecified island in the Banggai archipelago, immediately east of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A sighting of the species on the western slopes of Peleng in 1991 remained unconfirmed until searches of the island in 2004, 2006 and 2007 confirmed this species survived, but only in forest on the mountain slopes of western Peleng and in small numbers at lower levels in the centre of the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Sound recordings were made and two specimens were taken<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Very rough estimates suggest a global population of between 30 and 200 individuals, with the montane forests of Buko and Bulagi districts thought to be the remaining strongholds<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.	eng
146647	habitat		Very little is known. Sightings have been in remnant hill forest to 900 m on the western side of Peleng and at lower levels in the centre of the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
146647	population		This species has been recently rediscovered but there is little published information on its population size. Rough estimates suggest a population of 30-200 individuals in forest on mountain slopes of west Peleng, and, in small numbers, at lower levels in the centre of the island (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2009), perhaps implying two subpopulations, but with >90% in west Peleng. Further surveys need to be conducted to assess the true size of the population.	eng
146648	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Two recent surveys have been conducted on Flores, with <em>C.&#160;florensis</em> being a species targeted for study. It has been recorded in the Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and Wae Wuul Nature Reserve.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in central and eastern Flores (particularly in northern Ende, where moist, deciduous monsoon-forest is reported to be extensive) to establish its current distribution and population status. Conduct ecological research to assess its success in different forest-types and the impact of cuckoo parasitism. Extend Wolo Tadho Strict Nature Reserve and support the establishment of further protected areas in western Flores (including Tanjung Kerita Mese, Golo Bilas and Nanga Rawa).</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146648	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Corvus florensis</em> is endemic to the island of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known chiefly from the lowlands in the western half of the island. It seems likely that it has always been relatively uncommon, although locally frequent in undisturbed habitat. Overall it is acknowledged to occur only at low densities, with most encounters involving single birds, and appears to have declined.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146648	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits semi-evergreen forest and degraded, moist, deciduous monsoon-forest (especially along watercourses) from sea-level to 950&#160;m, where it generally frequents the canopy or subcanopy. In coastal areas it occurs in open bamboo and "open monsoon woodland or scrub" which constitutes "very dry, lightly wooded terrain". It evidently tolerates some forest degradation, but its general absence from small, relict forest patches suggests it may not adapt well to habitat fragmentation. <br/></p>	eng
146648	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.4-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,826 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 730-3,652, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 1,000-2,500 (density range from up to lowest quartile of nine estimates for seven congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; and comments in BirdLife International 2001 that the species occurs at low densities ). <br/></p>	eng
146648	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The primary threat is further habitat loss and fragmentation, which is already extensive on Flores, and has presumably resulted in a substantial decline in numbers and contraction of range. Although it appears fairly tolerant of forest degradation, and of drier formations, it is basically forest-dependent. The large tract of lowland moist deciduous forest at Golo Bilas (one of two sites where the species is described as frequent) is currently being cleared for firewood and construction materials. An additional threat is posed by cuckoo parasitism, as the species is an important host for the Channel-billed Cuckoo <em>Scythrops novaehollandiae</em> and Asian Koel <em>Eudynamys scolopacea</em>, although the former is very rare in western Flores.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146649	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Guam, a National Wildlife Refuge was established in 1993 to preserve remaining forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and birds are being translocated from Rota in an effort to maintain the wild population on the island.  A 40 ha snake-free area created on North-west field is available for the introduction of crows, and an adjacent larger area is being readied for the translocation of Rota crows<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A predation control experiment will soon be starting on Rota, which may include demographic work in the future. A grant has been obtained for a Habitat Conservation Plan for Rota's Agricultural Homesteads, which will increase the amount of land in protected areas<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Biological control for the brown tree snake is also being investigated<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. On Rota, life history studies are currently being conducted and there are proposals to protect vital tracts of forest under a Habitat Conservation Plan<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Implement stringent measures to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis</em> from Guam to Rota<sup>8,10</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue research including study of population biology and health of marked birds<sup>6,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct annual censuses using standardised methodology<sup>6,8,10</sup></strong>.  <strong>Continue nest protection and increase trapping of <em>Rattus </em>spp. and <em>Varanus indicus </em>in adjacent areas<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Begin control of <em>Dicrurus macrocercus. </em>Facilitate the enactment of the proposed Habitat Conservation Plan<sup>6,8,10</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a public education programme to reduce persecution<sup>8</sup></strong>.  <strong>Introduce more stringent controls for construction projects.</strong>	eng
146649	distribution		<em>Corvus kubaryi</em> inhabits <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong> and Rota in the <strong>Northern Marianas Islands (to USA)</strong>. On Guam, it was formerly common but, since the 1960s, declined in numbers and area inhabited<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> with an estimated 350 birds in 1981<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, less than 40 in 1995<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and seven in 1999. Following introduction of birds from Rota the population rose to 16 in 2001<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but has since declined to four (all males)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. On Rota, it was thought to be stable, estimated at 1,318 birds in 1982<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but has since declined to 592 in 1995<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and then to 234 in 1998<strong><sup>6,14</sup></strong>; in 2007 there were c.50 confirmed pairs and a few more suspected<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and the population in 2008 stands at around 85 pairs<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Three birds are held in captivity<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Surveys on Rota between 1982 and 2004 indicated a decline of 93%<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
146649	habitat		It inhabits mature and second growth forest and coastal strand vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> but probably only nests in native forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages in the forest canopy, understorey and occasionally on the forest floor for seeds, fruit, arthropods and lizards<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
146649	population		In 2008 only two males remained on Guam (Berry <em>et al. in litt. </em>2008). On Rota, the population was estimated at 234 mature indiviuals in 1998 by Plentovich (2005) and there were only 60 confirmed pairs recorded in 2008 (Berry <em>et al.</em> <em>in litt. </em>2008), hence the band 50-249 seems appropriate.	eng
146650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively numerous in forest on Halmahera (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146651	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Bougainville and the satellite islands of Buka (Papua New Guinea) and the Shortland Islands (Solomon Islands).	eng
146651	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is restricted to lowland forest at elevations up to 1,600 m but does feed in coconut plantations and degraded habitats close to forest (Schodde 1977, Coates 1990).	eng
146651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in forests (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146651	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species will be under threat from potential large-scale logging operations when Bougainville opens to commercial exploitation (G. Dutson in litt. 1999).	eng
146652	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel and Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.	eng
146652	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in forest and some degraded forest habitats to an altitude of 1,000 m, occasionally 1,250 m.	eng
146652	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread in forests (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146653	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Corvus fuscicapillus</em> is endemic to eastern <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where its known distribution is highly fragmented, presumably related to some unknown habitat specialisation. There are records from the Lower Mamberamo River and Nimbokrang (near Jayapura) in northern Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), where it may prove to be more widespread, Waigeo and Gemien in the West Papuan islands, and the Aru islands<strong><sup>1,4,5,6</sup></strong>. It is widespread, but occurs in low numbers, on the Aru islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and quite common at Nimbokrang<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It primarily inhabits primary forest, but also mangroves, and occasionally second growth, but rarely open habitats and never on the coast or outlying islands, in lowlands and hills up to 500&#160;m <strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Forest within its range is threatened in places by logging, a cobalt mining concession on Waigeo, and a dam proposed across the Mamberamo River, although much of the forest remains intact and relatively secure, and includes some protected areas<strong><sup>2,3,7,8</sup></strong>. Although the paucity of records suggests that this species may be rare and locally declining, it is judged to be safe in the large areas of forest without any immediate threats within its range. <br/></p>	eng
146654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common or abundant but often very localised (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000000-18000000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000000-54000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 61200000-216000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
146662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
146663	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is resident on Cuba and the Isle of Pines, and in the Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK) on North Caicos and Grand Caicos (Bond 1979).	eng
146663	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits forest and wooded areas, but appears to be remarkably tolerant of habitat degradation (Madge and Burn 1993), occurring frequently in semi-cleared forest and sparsely-wooded cultivation, as well as villages and settlements with numerous trees (Bond 1979, Madge and Burn 1993). Birds tend to gather in flocks, separating into pairs in the breeding season (Raffaele et al. 1998). It is omnivorous, eating a variety of fruits, seeds, crops, reptiles, frogs and other items (Raffaele et al. 1998). The nest is built high among palm fronds, and breeding takes place primarily in April and May (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
146663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
146664	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Los Haitises, Jaragua and Sierra de Baoruco National Parks in the Dominican Republic. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess the extent of declines in numbers and range. Effectively protect reserves in the Dominican Republic. Consider reintroducing the species in Puerto Rico<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146664	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Corvus leucognaphalus</em> is now confined to <strong>Haiti</strong>, the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> and the offshore islands of Gon&acirc;ve, Saona and Vache<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It was once abundant on Puerto Rico (to USA), but was extirpated in c.1963. On Hispaniola, it was considered locally common even in the early 1980s, but there has been a subsequent population decline (to less than 10,000 individuals) and range contraction. Sizeable populations are now restricted to Los Haitises and Jaragua National Parks, and the Sierra de Baoruco in the Dominican Republic, and it remains quite common on &Icirc;le-&agrave;-Vache<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146664	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland and montane wooded regions, where it probably favours old, mature forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is intolerant of degraded habitats or areas opened up by forest clearance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The diet is mainly fruit and seeds, but also vertebrates and large insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It nests high in large trees, and eggs and well-grown young have been recorded in March<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146664	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,660 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 8,300, i.e. best placed within band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density is lowest of four estimates for four congeners of forest habitats in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
146664	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The extinction of this species on Puerto Rico, and the more recent decline on Hispaniola, are attributed to habitat loss for timber and agricultural conversion, and hunting for food. <br/></p>	eng
146665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7000000-17000000 breeding pairs, equating to 21000000-51000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 42900000-204000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146666	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be everywhere common if not abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous or abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although more scarce in the arid interior and along the east coast of Australia (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146672	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'frequent' in at least parts of its range (Madge and Burn 1993). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
146672	population	BirdLife International, 2008	S. Chan in litt. (2007) commented "I believe (again, an educated guess) the population of mature Collar Crow exceeds 10,000 - if there are about 200 birds found in Hong Kong." <br/></p>	eng
146673	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Between 1993 and 1999, over 40 birds were hatched in the captive breeding programme<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Captive-raised individuals were released into lightly-managed habitat and monitored<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but releases were stopped after January 1999 due to increasing mortality<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. About 75 birds need to be maintained in the captive flock for future reintroduction attempts to take place<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Introduced mammalian predators were trapped in the Kona Forest Unit and, although this no longer takes place, predators would be managed at any future reintroduction site<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Some areas of its former range are now fenced and free of feral ungulates, and the exclusion of ungulates will be extended into other areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Relocation of problematic <em>B. solitarius</em> failed because the birds homed back from over 32 km<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A recovery plan has been prepared (and revised in 2009), other potential release-sites have been investigated, and site preparations are being planned<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Each year, around 2,000 school children and students attend the environmental education programme and see <em>C. hawaiiensis</em> in captivity at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Centre<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Restore and manage a significant proportion of remaining habitat within the species's historical range. Deal creatively with the problem posed by <em>B. solitarius</em><strong><sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. Reintroduce birds to habitat managed to reduce major threats. Exclude ungulates from more areas of habitat. Control potential predators and vectors of disease in the species's former range.	eng
146673	distribution		<em>Corvus hawaiiensis</em> was distributed historically on Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where the last individuals were found in and around the Kona Forest Unit of Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. Bones of this or a closely related species have been found on Maui, indicating a wider distribution before Western contact<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In 1992, there were only 11 or 12 birds in the wild<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, which had declined to three in October 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the last two individuals were last seen in June 2002: they did not return to their traditional nesting site in 2003 and have not been seen since. Nesting by the last known wild birds was probably confined to higher elevations on Mauna Loa in South Kona<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The last known wild chick fledged in 1992, and the last viable wild egg was laid in 1996<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species persists in captive breeding facilities, with development of a reintroduction programme in progress<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Captive breeding started in the 1970s, but few fledglings were produced until eggs from wild nests were harvested and hatched in captivity during 1993-1996<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A total of 27 captive-reared juveniles, originating from eggs laid either in the wild or in captivity, were released during 1993-1999<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. By 1999, 21 released birds had died and the remaining six were captured to protect them and preserve genetic diversity<strong><sup>1,2,5,10</sup></strong>. In 2006, the captive population stood at 53 individuals (38 at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Centre and 15 at the Maui Bird Conservation Centre), including 28 birds used as breeders<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>., and this had increased to a total of 67 in February 2010<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
146673	habitat		It once inhabited dry to moist `ohi`a-koa forest and woodlands, but it later became confined to high mountain forest. It is omnivorous, but primarily feeds on the fruit of native understory plants<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. As well as fruits and berries, the species feeds on eggs, young birds, insects and carrion<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Captive-reared birds have been observed using twigs as tools to access food<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nest construction usually begins in March and the first clutches are laid in April<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
146676	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range and locally abundant in western Arabia and Ethiopia (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146679	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or locally common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
146681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be seemingly rare and very local. However, the apparent rarity of this species seems to be due largely to its preference for an environment (karst) which is usually avoided by field workers. The species has been found to be locally fairly common in the Fakfak mountains (Coates 1990).	eng
146683	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loboparadisea sericea</em> is patchily distributed along the Central Ranges of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is locally common, for instance in primary montane forest 1,400-2,000 m on Crater Mountain<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but often uncommon or absent from seemingly appropriate habitats for unknown reasons, and may be split into isolated subpopulations. However, it may be overlooked because of its unobtrusive habits and rugged, rarely visited habitat. It inhabits montane forest, rarely visiting secondary habitats, from 600 to 2,000&#160;m but mostly above 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Although locally threatened in sites such as the Ok Tedi mine<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the majority of its range is safe from logging and large-scale habitat degradation<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146684	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common wherever researchers have mist-netted in its habitat (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species appears common and widespread throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146686	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is protected by law in both countries. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey unvisited mountains within range. Estimate range and populations at known sites. Monitor numbers at most accessible sites. Research population structure and dispersal between locations. Investigate population trends through interviews with local hunters. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners. Enforce existing legislation. Use as a flagship species for any high-altitude ecotourism initiatives. <br/></p>	eng
146686	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macgregoria pulchra</em> is distributed in small disjunct populations in the highest mountains of New Guinea, namely the Snow, Oranje and Star Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and the Wharton and Owen Stanley ranges of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It remains common and tame above 3,000&#160;m in the Star Mountains, where the Ketengban people protect the species for cultural reasons<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but is rare on Mt Albert Edward in the Whartons, with only one record since 1933<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There are no population estimates but most records are of only one to three birds. Its occupied range has been estimated at less than 1,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> with minimal interchange between the isolated subpopulations<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146686	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to subalpine forest, including patches within alpine grassland, dominated by its major food-plant, the podocarp <em>Dacrycarpus compactus</em>. Its partial nomadism and its breeding cycle are tied to the unpredictable fruiting of this tree<strong><sup>2,3,4,5,7,10</sup></strong>. Birds also forage for other fruits in low bushes and on the ground, and in epiphytes and foliage, presumably for arthropods<strong><sup>6,7,11</sup></strong>. It is most commonly recorded between 3,200-3,500&#160;m, but occasionally from 2,700-4,000&#160;m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146686	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO; Frith and Beehler 1998) = 1,000-10,000 individuals. Perhaps most likely to be in upper half of this range as common at some sites, and best placed in range 2,500-10,000. Population density extrapolated from review of similar-sized montane frugivores in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
146686	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its absence from great swathes of the central highlands suggests historic extinctions from habitat changes and hunting pressures<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. It is a popular gamebird, being tame, conspicuous and site-faithful, and therefore easy to kill<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. The threat from hunting is exacerbated by its nomadism and its small, fragmented populations. Whilst much of its range is remote and inaccessible to hunters, new roads such as one in Wamena in Papua, are enabling much easier access and it has declined greatly at this site<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in all habitats (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146689	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common over much of its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to abundant (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare at certain localities and locally common in others (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common on Halmahera and Bacan (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146694	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradigalla carunculata</em> is endemic to the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop peninsula of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where there are few records but it is probably not uncommon<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. An undescribed <em>Paradigalla</em> taxon discovered recently in the nearby Fakfak Mountains, and possibly occurring on other mountain ranges in the Vogelkop, may be this species, although it shows some features of Short-tailed Paradigalla <em>P.&#160;brevicauda<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong></em>. It inhabits montane forest and forest edge from 1,400 to 2,100&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The extensive forests within its small range remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although deforestation is occurring in the hills<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is one large protected area in the Arfak mountains, which has been proposed for extension<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This species may be declining locally through forest loss but is probably secure in most of its range. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146695	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146696	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in both countries.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey gaps within known range. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Research rates of forest loss in preferred altitudinal range. Monitor numbers at the most accessible sites such as Ambua Lodge. Monitor effects of hunting bans at Ok Tedi and Crater Mountain. Monitor trade prices and quantities. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness programmes for landowners. Enforce existing legislation. Utilise as a flagship species for ecotourism ventures. <br/></p>	eng
146696	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Epimachus fastuosus</em> is patchily distributed in the mountains of western and central New Guinea, from the Vogelkop of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to the Torricelli and Bewani Mountains in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is unknown from large areas - in some cases these areas have never been surveyed, in others it is definitely absent<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is generally scarce to rare or locally absent, and even where reported to be locally common, for instance on Mt Bosavi, it occurs at low population densities<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Most of its range in Papua has not been surveyed recently but it may prove to be locally common, as in the Arfak Mountains<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146696	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to mid-montane forest at 1,800-2,150&#160;m, occasionally from 1,280-2,550&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is usually found in primary forest, and is less often recorded in adjacent secondary growth and garden edges<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It forages equally for fruit and small animals in the forest canopy, often probing moss and epiphytes for arthropods<strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146696	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
146696	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is hunted for its tail feathers and for food. Skins are becoming increasingly valuable and hunting pressure is increasing with the spread of shotguns. Hunters target adult males and, although the species persists in areas lacking these males, breeding success has not been investigated<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Populations increased at Crater Mountain after an enforced hunting ban<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Forest in the favoured geographic and altitudinal range is under considerable pressure for clearance for agriculture by the large and increasing human population. This species is intolerant of secondary forest, both caused by shifting agriculture and logging<strong><sup>4,5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant over most of its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146698	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146699	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Epimachus bruijnii</em> is a poorly known species which ranges along the north New Guinea coast from the south-east coast of Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, east to Vanimo, just across the border into <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is widespread and usually common within this fairly small range, with one male ranging over 15&#160;ha in a week-long study. It is also relatively common in selectively logged forest, but most records are from forests below 180&#160;m <strong><sup>1,3,5</sup></strong> which are under pressure for development and timber schemes<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146702	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is considered to be reasonably common on the southern slopes of the Bismarck mountains (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common within its preferred altitudinal range (Coates 1990).	eng
146705	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected by law in Papua New Guinea. The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Project is working in and proposing a large conservation area in northern Huon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other mountain ranges on the Huon peninsula which have not been visited recently. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Investigate tolerance of secondary habitats for both foraging and breeding. Assess forest clearance rates between 1,100-1,700&#160;m. Investigate population trends through interviews with local villagers. Discuss creation of locally-managed forest reserves. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
146705	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Parotia wahnesi</em> is known from the mountains of the Huon Peninsula and the Adelbert Mountains in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. Its abundance varies from locally common in the Cromwell range<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong> to rare in the Adelberts<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Most recent records are from Satop where three birds were seen in three days in 1994 (compared to 16 <em>A. rothschildi</em>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
146705	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in mid-montane forest between 1,100-1,700&#160;m on the Huon and between 1,300-1,600&#160;m in the Adelberts. It forages actively and noisily in the subcanopy, probing ephiphytes and moss for arthropods, and also feeds on fruit. One or more adult males display on a cleared arena on the forest floor.</p>	eng
146705	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 856 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 856-8,560 individuals, but probably more likely to fall in upper half of this range - and hence best placed in the band 2,500-10,000 - as described as "locally common" in one area (Population density extrapolated from review of similar-sized montane frugivores in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
146705	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	These mid-montane altitudes are favoured by local people for settlement and agriculture. Whilst this region does not have a high population density, the human population is expanding rapidly and clearing increasing areas of forest in this species's narrow altitudinal belt<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is known to forage near active gardens and appears to be tolerant of human activities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as is the better-known Lawes's Parotia <em>P.&#160;lawesii</em>. However, these observations may just represent feeding excursions from nearby undisturbed forest. There is no evidence that it is hunted for plumes or food<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146707	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be mostly common throughout its range (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common throughout its remaining habitat (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. It is found from the Bunya Mountains southwards along the highlands of the Great Dividing Range, and in the Calliope Range.	eng
146709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives in rainforest that is dominated by Nothofagus and adjacent Eucalyptus forest. It was once found in lowland forest but this has now been mostly cleared for agriculture (Blakers et al. 1984).	eng
146709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be still common in the northern part of its range but would appear to be less abundant in the south (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146709	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the species former lowland habitat has been cleared for agriculture, however all logging has since stopped (S. Garnett in litt. 2000).	eng
146710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146711	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cicinnurus respublica</em> is endemic to the Papuan islands of Waigeo and Batanta off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it reported to be "frequent" in hill forest, generally above 300 m, although it is often heard even at low altitude<strong><sup>1,4,6,9</sup></strong>. Waigeo's rugged relief and lack of infrastructure suggest that there may be no serious immediate threats to its forests, and the Pulau Waigeo nature reserve, established in the late 1980s, covers 1,530 km<sup>2</sup>, but there are reports that it may be substantially reduced in size<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. Selective logging has been reported in the north of Waigeo, the south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, and there are concerns over a cobalt mining concession on the island<strong><sup>2,3,10,11</sup></strong>. Logging on Batanta (where the sole protected area is only 100 km<sup>2</sup>) is resulting in major habitat degradation but this species appears to be moderately common in logged forest and it is probably safe at higher altitudes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. As well as declining slowly through habitat loss, it is hunted in some areas for skins<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146713	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is one relatively substantial protected area in the Arfak and Tamrau mountains, the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve, which currently covers 683 km2 but has been proposed for extension (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In addition there is a huge protected area proposed for the Tamrau mountains, the Pegunungan Tamrau Nature Reserve (Sujatnika et al. 1995).	eng
146713	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Arfak and Tamrau Mountains of the Vogelkop peninsula in north-west Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146713	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is a rather poorly known inhabitant of montane forest, between 1,700-2,250 m (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146713	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at higher elevations near Manokwari (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146713	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The extensive rainforests within the species range remain largely undisturbed owing to their geographical isolation and the low density and traditional lifestyle of the human population, although deforestation is occurring in the hills of the Tamrau and Arfak mountain ranges (Sujatnika et al. 1995). Adult males are hunted locally for their skins (Gibbs 1993).	eng
146714	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread in the area of Okbap (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146715	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Astrapia mayeri</em> has a small range in the central mountains of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, from the Strickland River to Mt Hagen and Mt Giluwe, c.130&#160;km west. Its western limits require further surveying, but previous concerns of genetic swamping through hybridisation with Stephanie's Astapia <em>A. stephaniae</em> in the far east of its range are now discounted. It is generally fairly common in montane forest between 2,400 and 3,400&#160;m, sometimes down to 1,800&#160;m and including degraded forest. At a new site, Kumul Lodge in the west of its range, it is reported to be abundant<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is locally threatened by hunting for tail plumes and by large-scale logging and forest degradation but it is safe in the inaccessible portions of its range<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
146716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in some areas but sparse in others (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in forest at Ogeranang (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146718	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146720	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradisea rubra</em> is endemic to the West Papuan islands of Waigeo, Batanta, Gemien and Saonek off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common in forest and forest edge in the lowlands and hills, up to 600 m <strong><sup>1,4,6,9</sup></strong>. Waigeo's rugged relief and lack of infrastructure suggest there may be no serious immediate threats to its forests, and the Pulau Waigeo nature reserve, established in the late 1980s, covers 1,530 km<sup>2</sup>, but there are reports that it may be substantially reduced in size<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. Selective logging has been reported in the north of Waigeo, the south-east corner of the island was ravaged by fire in 1982, and there are concerns over a cobalt mining concession on the island<strong><sup>2,3,10,11</sup></strong>. Logging on Batanta (where the only protected area is only 100 km<sup>2</sup>) is resulting in major habitat loss but this species's tolerance of logged forest is poorly known. As well as possibly declining from habitat degradation, this species is hunted locally for skins and possibly cage-birds<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and widespread (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Frith and Beehler 1998).	eng
146724	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradisaea decora</em> is restricted to Fergusson (1,340&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Normanby (1,040&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the D'Entrecasteaux archipelago of east <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is fairly common in forest between 300&#160;m and at least 700&#160;m. Despite some observations to the contrary<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, it appears to occur in secondary regrowth and forest edge, suggesting tolerance of logging<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Although there are no imminent plans for large-scale logging on these islands, both have been targeted by multi-national logging companies and there is a proposal to convert large areas of Normanby to cash crops<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146725	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradisaea guilielmi</em> is endemic to the Huon peninsula of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is widespread and relatively common in forest from 670-1,350&#160;m, sometimes from 450-1,500&#160;m, throughout the peninsula. Although it is reported to be tolerant of secondary and degraded forest<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>, forest degradation around Boana village has led to a major decline, coincident with an increase in Raggiana Bird-of-paradise <em>P. raggiana</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Forests at these altitudes are under continuing threat from both commercial logging and cultivation for the rapidly increasing human population<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. There appears to be a small demand for its plumes by local people and traders but leks still survive within villages<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. If it proves to be unable to survive in large areas of logged forest, it could be threatened by any increase in logging, exacerbated by agricultural clearance. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
146726	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected by law in Papua New Guinea.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey western boundary of range. Survey historical sites in north and east of range. Estimate population densities and sizes at known sites. Investigate tolerance of secondary forest for both foraging and breeding. Research rates of forest loss in preferred altitudinal range. Monitor numbers at most accessible sites such as Ambua Lodge. Monitor trade prices and quantities. Investigate hunting levels and attitudes to control amongst hunters. Create large, locally-managed forest reserves with an enforced hunting ban. Run awareness and education programmes for landowners. Enforce existing legislation. Utilise its well-known image as a flagship species for ecotourism and conservation ventures.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
146726	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradisaea rudolphi</em> occurs in the eastern Central Ranges of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, from Mt Sisa south of Tari to the Owen Stanley range. It is patchily distributed and absent in many areas, but locally common<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Advertising males were spaced at about every 200&#160;m along one suitable forest ridge, and 400&#160;m along another, and three radio-tagged birds had home ranges of 5, 17 and 33&#160;ha over c.50 days<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. At another study site, males were less dense, occupying up to 100 ha, perhaps owing to the more patchy forest or the higher hunting pressure at this site<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146726	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to lower montane forest, from 1,400-1,800&#160;m, but occasionally from 1,100-2,000&#160;m, especially female-plumaged birds. Although displaying males usually use patches of primary forest, it may be able to survive in old secondary forest or fragmented primary forest and is often seen in forest edge and nearby disturbed areas. However, it may be excluded from more degraded habitats as a result of hunting of males and competition with the more adaptable Raggiana Bird-of-paradise <em>P.&#160;raggiana</em>. It is largely a canopy species<strong><sup> </sup></strong>feeding mainly on fruit<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146726	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0-10.9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 4,400-21,800, but probably best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from range of estimates for male densities in Pruett-Jones and Pruett-Jones [1988], Whiteside [1998]). <br/></p>	eng
146726	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat is habitat loss combined with hunting for its pectoral and tail feathers<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. Remaining forest is under pressure for clearance for agriculture by the increasing human population. It is poorly tolerant of secondary forest, both caused by shifting agriculture and logging, unless mixed with fragments of primary forest. However, there are still significant areas of its range which are inaccessible and largely uninhabited<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146727	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146730	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cracticus louisiadensis</em> is endemic to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea<sup>4</sup></strong>. Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Otherwise its population and ecology are virtually unknown but it is likely to be similar to the allospecific Hooded Butcherbird <em>C. cassicus,</em> which is a common and adaptable species, occurring in all forest edge habitats including gardens and savanna<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Ten were seen on the only recent visit to the island, during a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Coates 1990, Morcombe 2000).	eng
146733	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in coastal and agricultural areas, although sparse in the arid interior (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146734	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in optimum habitats and uncommon to rare in arid regions (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the east of its range, fairly common in the centre and uncommon elsewhere (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
146738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146740	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to scarce (Coates1990).	eng
146741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally fairly common to common, but mostly scarce or absent (Coates 1990).	eng
146743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
146748	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pityriasis gymnocephala</em> is restricted to Borneo; Sabah and Sarawak,  East <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei </strong>(scarce), principally in peatswamp forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesian Borneo has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo. In addition, peatswamp forest has been severely affected by recent fires. Although the species has therefore almost certainly experienced a population decline in the past decade owing to habitat loss, it is not considered threatened because it occurs in relatively less threatened forests on slopes. <br/></p>	eng
146749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon locally (Coates 1990).	eng
146750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to common though mostly scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Buru and moderately common on Tanimbar (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146755	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates 1990).	eng
146758	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oriolus xanthonotus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan, Sumatra (including Mentawai and Bangka islands) and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Calamian Islands and Palawan, south-west <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is fairly common and widespread in evergreen forest (including swamp forest) to 1,220 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane and secondary forests and forest edge implies that it is not unduly threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146761	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ambabok, where the species was recorded in 2003 and 2004, is located within the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (NSMNP), though there is no active law enforcement in this area. The Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay protected area, which supports up to 50 km<sup>2</sup> of forest, probably encompasses one of the historical localities. Plans are scheduled for exploratory surveys in 2007 of the eastern side of the NSMNP upstream of the Palanan River, although this is above the recorded altitudinal range of the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys, particularly in bamboo forests, around historical sites in Bataan, the Mariveles Mountains and Mt Cetaceo, around Mansarong, and also Diffun (Quirino Province) where it has recently been reported. Propose key sites found for formal protection. Lobby for active on-the-ground protection of the NSMNP. Raise awareness among local people and local government about the species in an effort to implement conservation measures.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146761	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Oriolus isabellae</em> is endemic to Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is known from three localities in Bataan province and five in the north-east of the island. Eleven birds were collected near San Mariano in the Sierra Madre mountains in 11 days in 1961, indicating that it may not have been particularly rare in suitable habitat. However, in the north-east it has been recorded recently at just three localities (in Quirino province and Cagayan province, and in 2003-2006 at Ambabok and nearby Dunoy, Isabela province<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>), despite an increasing number of fieldworkers attempting to locate it. There have been no observations in Bataan since 1947 and surveys in relatively undisturbed forest along the eastern coast of the Sierra Madre in 2006 failed to locate the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This indicates considerable rarity and that its distribution is probably patchy. <br/></p>	eng
146761	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It frequents the canopy and middle storeys of forests, especially thick bamboo forest, but also forest edge, from 50-440 m. Constraints on its distribution and relative abundance are unknown, but it appears to tolerate secondary growth. It was recently observed in mixed-species flocks in fruiting trees. <br/></p>	eng
146761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Precautionary estimate of <250 individuals (van Weerd and Hutchinson 2004). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
146761	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It may be a lowland specialist and lowland forest destruction is assumed to be its primary threat. Since the 1930s, forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% and by the late 1980s only 24% of Luzon was estimated to remain forested, with most remaining areas under logging concession. There is virtually no forest left near Disulap, a key historical site, and one of the recent records was from a degraded forest tract of only 100 km<sup>2</sup>, isolated from the Sierra Madre forests and offering no long-term prospects for the species. Competition with the closely related White-lored Oriole <em>O. albiloris</em> may impact this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3400000-7100000 breeding pairs, equating to 10200000-21300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 20800000-85200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
146763	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in Mauritania (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146764	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Nepal, uncommon in India and locally fairly common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to uncommon in Kenya and common in Tanzania (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146767	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146767	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oriolus crassirostris</em> is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>. It is widely distributed over much of the island, except the north-east, and is most abundant in the south-west and on the central massif, occurring everywhere at low densities, with old estimates of one to two birds per 25 ha<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
146767	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most abundant in primary forest (up to 1,600 m), but also occurs in undisturbed secondary forest. It occurs occasionally in dry forest in the north but is generally absent from cocoa plantations<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong></p>	eng
146767	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4-8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Atkinson <em>et al. </em>1991; Christy and Clarke 1998) x 192 km<sup>2</sup> (40% EOO) = 864-1,728, but likely to be at lower end of this range, or even lower, as favours primary forest, so AOO may be lower than 45% of EOO, i.e. best placed in the band 250-999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146767	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees and may be a threat to this species where it occurs in secondary habitats. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong></p>	eng
146768	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).	eng
146769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to common in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia and common to abundant in southern Ethiopia (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although scarce in south-east Ethiopia (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146772	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).	eng
146773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
146774	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oriolus hosii</em> is apparently endemic to Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it is restricted to montane forest at 900-2,000 m, with records from Murud, Derian, Dulit, Batu Patap, Mt Kalulong and Mt Mulu. It is specialised to moss transitional forest around 1,100-1,200 m on the sandy north side of the Dulit range and seems likely to be declining in some areas as habitat loss encroaches into montane areas. <br/></p>	eng
146775	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on the Malay Peninsular (Wells 2007).	eng
146776	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Grimmett et al. 1998, Robson 2000).	eng
146777	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is legally protected in Thailand. It has been recorded from at least seven protected areas in China and six in Thailand. Some forestry practices, such as leaving strips of primary forest along ridge-tops and replanting with native broadleaved trees, may benefit it. Surveys in southern Sichuan have improved knowledge of its distribution and ecology.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution, habitat and conservation requirements. Protect new important sites revealed by surveys. Establish a network of four protected areas in Sichuan, proposed for Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus</em>, but which would also benefit this species, especially if they include the Erbagou forests in northern Leibo County where there are breeding records. Enforce regulations, link and extend, where possible, protected areas in China where it occurs. Manage protected areas in Thailand and Cambodia, to prevent degradation by the surrounding human population. Encourage beneficial practices in logging areas. List it<em> </em>as a nationally protected species in China.</strong>	eng
146777	distribution		<em>Oriolus mellianus</em> is recorded in summer from south-central Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, northern Guangxi and northern Guangdong, <strong>China</strong>. Surveys in 1988 found it to be locally common in Sichuan, with a notable record of a flock of 40 birds. However, fieldwork since has encountered fewer individuals and despite repeat visits the last record there is from 2005<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is not certain whether this trend represents a genuine population decline. Small numbers have recently been found at several localities in Guangxi, from Ba Bao Shan/Nanling NNR (peak day counts of 20 in 1998 and 10 in 2001), at Nan Kun Shan, Guangdong<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and Yangsiba near Xining in southern Sichua<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is a non-breeding visitor to southern <strong>Thailand</strong> and <strong>Cambodia</strong>. Records of wintering birds in Thailand have declined through the 1990s although survey effort in the far north of the country has been limited. An increase in ornithological surveys in Cambodia has yielded recent records from the Cardamom Mountains and Bokor<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most winter records have involved males, and it may prove to be the case that females winter further north, and possibly occur in southern Myanmar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Given the limited area of remaining habitat, it is likely to have a small and declining population.	eng
146777	habitat		It breeds in evergreen broadleaved forest, mainly between c.600-1,700 m. In Sichuan, it was recorded in 1997 in higher densities in secondary and replanted forest than in primary forest. However, these surveys were early in the breeding season, so some records may have involved newly arrived migrants in habitats where they do not breed, and it may be easier to locate in secondary habitats. In Thailand, it frequents evergreen forest between c.600-1,300 m.	eng
146777	population		Population estimate = 1.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,800 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =4200 i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from estimates in primary forest by Dowell et al. [1997]; note that densities in secondary forest were higher [15.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>]).	eng
146778	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sphecotheres hypoleucus</em> is restricted to Wetar, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occurs in lowland monsoon forest and scrub, with a recent observation in coastal secondary monsoon woodland, disturbed habitat and lightly wooded scrub. It remains little known but probably moderately common; however, although extensive forest still remains on the island, it must be assumed that Wetar, which is relatively small, is likely to have undergone considerable deforestation in recent decades. <br/></p>	eng
146779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the Moluccas and common in Australia (Coates and Bishop 1997, Morcombe 2000).	eng
146780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be erratic and generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the 1990s in north and western mountain ranges in Sumatra and on Borneo from Kinabalu to the Mueller range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146783	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Himalayas of north-eastern Pakistan, uncommon in Bhutan, fairly common to common in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and fairly common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was regarded as widespread and fairly common in the 1990s (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to sparse and very uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common Halmahera and locally common on Seram (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146788	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina fortis</em> is restricted to Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland, montane and monsoon forest up to 1,500 m. In 1921-1922 it was regarded as unobtrusive but not particularly rare, in late 1989 it was sufficiently rarely encountered for no density estimates to be formulated, and in 1995-1996 a mere 14 birds were encountered at three localities, all reinforcing the notion that it is actually very local. Nevertheless it occurs in disturbed habitat and its preferred habitat appears to be higher-altitude primary forest with an open understorey, so that it is probably little affected by current habitat changes. <br/></p>	eng
146789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to rare and local on Bougainville island (Coates 1990, Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
146790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in hill and montane forests in Central Sulawesi and uncommon on the north and eastern peninsulars on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Phillipines (Robson 2000).	eng
146794	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina bicolor</em> is restricted to Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, Muna, Buton and the Sangihe and Talaud islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest with clearings, scrub and mangroves up to 900 m, although in many places much lower. It is uncommon on Buton, and generally uncommon to rare on Sulawesi (apparently absent from large parts of the central and eastern regions), with only two records from Sangihe. Forest destruction within its elevational range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline.</p>	eng
146795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146796	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in lowland areas (Coates 1990).	eng
146797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146798	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Papua New Guinea to uncommon or rare in eastern Indonesia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146799	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146800	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and uncommon in lowland areas but more numerous above 700 m (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146802	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is present in Parc de la Rivi&egrave;re Bleue. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor populations at key sites.  Ensure the protection of significant areas of primary mountain forest.  Research the impact of introduced predators.  Protect important areas from nickel mining. Investigate dispersal between isolated forest blocks. <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146802	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Coracina analis </em>is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France) </strong>where it occurs on the islands of Grande Terre and Ile des Pins. The global population was estimated at 10,000-20,000 individuals, based on surveys from 2003-2006, and it is suspected to be declining<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is frequent in the south of Grande Terre but rarer in the north<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146802	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits dense primary mountain forest primarily above 600 m but also down to 200 m in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and is usually restricted to larger forest fragments. <br/></p>	eng
146802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Chartendrault and Barr&eacute; (2005 and 2006). <br/></p>	eng
146802	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	As an inhabitant of large fragments of primary forest, it is presumably sensitive to habitat modification as well as potential microclimatic changes resulting from climate change. Mining of nickel, chromium, cobalt and iron is suspected to be causing habitat loss and degradation in some areas, and although core areas of habitat in the species's stronghold in the south of Grande Terre are currently unaffected there is an increasing potential threat to these sites in the medium and longer term, especially as population density of the species appears to be twice as high on soils suitable for mining<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Fire is an additional threat to primary forest on Grande Terre<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146803	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to uncommon in the north of its range, rare in Rwanda and Kenya, common in Angola, uncommon south from Malawi and rare in South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the north of its range and uncommon in the south (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146805	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146806	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina graueri</em> is known from the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>where it is restricted to the east of the country from Djugu and Mongbwalu (west of Lake Albert) to south of Lutunguru (west of Lake Edward), also being found on Mt Kahuzi and south to Kitongo. It has recently been recorded from <strong>Uganda. </strong>It is found in montane and transitional forest from 1,150-1,900&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, where it forages in the understorey as well as in the upper branches of canopy trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, feeding mainly on caterpillars<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is extremely local and uncommon and its habitat, particularly transition forest, is threatened by clearance for slash-and-burn agriculture, and unregulated logging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146807	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat in Madagascar and uncommon on the Comoros (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146808	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Black River National Park covers most of its range. It has responded well to rehabilitation of native ecosystems in Conservation Management Areas, which has included exclusion of introduced animals and replacement of exotic plants with native species<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In 2000-2002, conduct a full population census and calculate densities in relation to habitat-types<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue rehabilitation of native forests and development of Conservation Management Areas<sup>2,8</sup></strong>. <strong>In early 2001, start translocating pairs to the Bambous Mountains<sup>2</sup></strong>: an apparently suitable area, too isolated for natural recolonisation<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Eventually, translocate individuals to Mauritian islets, after rehabilitation of islet ecosystems and trial translocations of captive-reared birds over the next few years<sup>2,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146808	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina typica</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, occurring at Macchab&eacute;, Brise Fer, Black River Peak and the southern scarp from Bel Ombre to Combo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1993, the total population was c.260 pairs, with about one third at Macchab&eacute;-Brise Fer. Highest densities (25&#160;territories/km<sup>2</sup>) were estimated on Macchab&eacute; Ridge, and on the plateau 1&#160;km east of Brise Fer Peak<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Currently there are probably c.300-350 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since 1975, the population has increased by expansion into lowland areas in the Black River Gorges and Combo (areas contiguous with the previous range), and by an increase in density in traditional areas<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146808	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the forest canopy and appears to be strictly territorial throughout the year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is mostly found in native, moist, upland, tropical evergreen forest above 460&#160;m<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>, but also in adjacent areas of degraded or altered forest. Its distribution within forest seems to be linked to food availability<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its diet consists mainly of large, arboreal arthropods and geckos<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
146808	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Currently there are probably c.300-350 pairs (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), which is interpreted as indicating a population of 600-700 mature individuals. However, caution may be necessary as the number of pairs is based on counts of singing males, and doubling these numbers may be misleading (R. Safford <em>in litt</em>. 2007). It is possible that the species exhibits a skewed sex ratio, in which case the effective breeding population would be lower than presently assumed (R. Safford<em> in litt</em>. 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
146808	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation, through invasion by exotics and poor regeneration of native plants, has caused this species to decline since human colonisation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and will remain a long-term threat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There is circumstantial evidence that organochlorine pesticide-use in the 1950s and 1960s caused a population decline, from which it is now recovering<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Introduced predators and, to a lesser extent, cyclones take a heavy toll on nests. Introduced Common Mynah <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> eat similar food to <em>C.&#160;typica</em>, and may compete<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146809	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1999, the 38 km<sup>2</sup> reserve of Roche Ecrite was established, incorporating 95% of the current range of <em>C. newtoni</em><strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Habitat management involves a logging ban, control of exotic plants, fire breaks, better control of hunting, curbing of tourism<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and action to reduce deer numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Maturing plantations of <em>Cryptomeria</em> are being progressively replaced with native <em>Acacia</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In 2006, an awareness campaign to reduce littering and promote recycling had been planned<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 2004, a species action plan was published with the aim of reversing the trend towards extinction by increasing the numbers of females in the population, eventually doubling the number of females over the course of 10 years and achieving a viable population of 125 pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Experimental rat and cat control was initiated in the Roche Ecrite reserve prior to the 2005-2006 breeding season<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, through the setting of poisoned baits, accompanied by the trapping of rats and cats to monitor their populations<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In the 2005-2006 breeding season, four out of five pairs in sites with predator control raised young, compared with two out of six pairs in uncontrolled sites<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The control programme was carried out at 11 nest sites during the 2006-2007 breeding season; however three females disappeared, and six out of the eight remaining pairs produced young<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In 2007 the total of young fledged increased to 22, with a breeding success of 91% at sites with predator control (compared to around 30% at those without)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Thoroughly research the ecology of this species. Continue habitat management. Continue and expand predator control by protecting nests from rats using poisoned baits and metallic bands around tree trunks. Control rats, cats and deer<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Assess the conditions needed for successful establishment of a new population. Consider experimental translocation to a suitable lowland site such as Marelongue Nature Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, as well as other areas suspected to have been formerly occupied by the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Ensure that the action plans for the nature reserve and conservation of the species are consistent and compatible<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Study the species's genetics and demography<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. Combat poaching, in part through education campaigns<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Prevent actions by people that exacerbate the predator problem, including the dropping of litter, through awareness campaigns<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Protect additional habitat both presently and potentially occupied by the species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Carry out research into the threat of disease<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Consider supplementary feeding trials<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Control invasive plants<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Restore burnt areas<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Take measures to reduce disturbance<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
146809	distribution		<em>Coracina newtoni</em> is endemic to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>, and restricted to two very small areas in the north-west (Plaine d'Affouches and Plaine des Chicots)<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 120 pairs after surveys in 1991, suggesting that numbers had been stable since 1974. However, the population was estimated at 100 singing males in the 2003-2004 breeding season, indicating that the species had declined<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 2003-2004, surveys revealed a skewed sex ratio, with 27% of males unpaired, and poor reproductive success, with only a third of females producing young<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 2004-2005, the proportion of surveyed males without mates had risen to 48%, with 30% of females producing young<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>, and there was evidence that the species had declined in the east of its range<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, the proportion of surveyed males without mates increased further to 57% in 2005-2006<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and 64% in 2006-2007<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Males are thought to now outnumber females by two to one, and in 2007 there were thought to be as few as 25 breeding pairs, but there are early indications that predator control is proving successful, with an increase in female survival and improved breeding success<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
146809	habitat		It has been conjectured that it primarily occupied lowland forest in the past<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species now occurs between 1,000 and 1,800 m<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and is strictly associated with closed-canopy natural forest, occurring in mixed evergreen subtropical forest that also often includes areas of heath <em>Philippia montana</em> and tamarin <em>Acacia heterophylla</em><strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>. Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> plantations are only rarely visited and seasonal records in the heath forest are attributed to post-breeding dispersal. It is chiefly insectivorous but also eats the fruits of some native trees<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs between September and February, and it has an incubation period of 15-17 days and a fledging period of 20-23 days<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
146809	population		Perhaps as few as 25 breeding pairs in 2007 (T. Gestemme <em>in litt</em>. 2007) .	eng
146810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146811	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though fairly common on Halmahera and in the Trans-Fly region (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146812	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Taliabu lowlands but uncommon in highland areas (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146814	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina dispar</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest, edge and secondary woodland on the islands of Romang, Damar, Tanimbar, Kai, Seram Laut/Watubela and Banda. It is apparently generally uncommon, but may be locally numerous and is easily overlooked. The condition of many of the islands from which it has been reported is wholly unknown. <br/></p>	eng
146815	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Its occurrence in protected areas has not yet been analysed. No species specific action is in place at present. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Tape-record its vocalisations and use playback combined with mist-netting to establish its current distribution and population status in remnant lowland forest tracts. Campaign for the effective protection of important sites and propose further key sites found to support populations for formal protection.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146815	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina mindanensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Five subspecies occur: <em>lecroyae</em> on Luzon (considered very rare), <em>elusa</em> on Mindoro ("not common" in 1954), <em>ripleyi</em> on Samar (rare), Biliran, Leyte and Bohol (rarely recorded in Rajah Sikatuna National Park), nominate <em>mindanensis</em> on Mindanao (fairly common at the PICOP concession, Bislig) and Basilan, and <em>everetti</em> on Jolo, Lapac, Tawitawi and Bongao. There has been uncertainty over its status because although it is generally rare, it is also widespread and elusive, and may be overlooked in the forest canopy.   <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146815	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is probably highly elusive, sitting singly and silently in the forest canopy, but on Mt Malindang in 1956 it seemed to prefer forests of lower elevation, down to the lowland, and indeed throughout its range the great majority of records are from well below 1,000&#160;m. It is known from secondary growth but its degree of tolerance of such habitats is unclear. <br/></p>	eng
146815	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
146815	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its preference for low altitudes suggests that it must have suffered population losses with the loss of lowland forest in the Philippines. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146817	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Buru and Seram to apparently uncommon on Obi (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146818	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the lowlands but uncommon to rare at higher elevations (Coates 1990).	eng
146821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146822	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina holopolia</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and six islands in the <strong>Solomons Islands</strong>. It is generally scarce in forest from sea-level to 950&#160;m and is most common in the hills. Its tolerance of logged and degraded forest is poorly-known<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Lowland forest throughout the region is threatened by widespread logging but as a large proportion of this species's population appears to inhabit forest unsuitable for logging, it is probably declining only relatively slowly.</p>	eng
146823	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina mcgregori</em> inhabits montane-mossy forest at 1,000 to 1,900 m on Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is present in at least eight general localities, namely Mt Mayo; Daggayan; "Claveria" in Misamis Oriental; Mt Kitanglad; Lake Sebu at Sitio Siete; Mt Busa; Mt Malindang; and Mt Lamut. It is described as common within the confines of its range and this is confirmed by the number of specimens obtained in short periods of time at various localities, e.g. 27 in 34 days on Mt Malindang, 1956; and 11 in 19 days on Mt Busa, 1993 . Much forest above 1,300 m is now seriously threatened by clearance at Mt Kitanglad, but in general forest at this altitude is fairly secure. <br/></p>	eng
146824	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which only receives nominal protection. It also occurs in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park, which reportedly contains the largest block of remaining forest in the Western Visayas, and Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros), which both benefit from conservation funding. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay, to identify further key populations. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and propose further key sites on Negros and Panay for urgent establishment as formal protected areas. Promote more effective protection measures for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146824	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coracina ostenta</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Panay, Negros and Guimaras. Formerly widespread on Negros, it is now restricted to seven known localities, although it is still locally common. It appears much scarcer on Panay, where there are recent records from just three localities in the west. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras, where it has not been recorded for over a century. Given that Panay and Negros support only c.1,440 km<sup>2</sup> of forest, much of which is above this species' altitudinal limit, it is inferred that it occupies a small, fragmented range. <br/></p>	eng
146824	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland and mid-montane forest, usually below 1,100&#160;m, but very occasionally up to 2,150&#160;m. It also occurs at lower densities in secondary forest. It frequents the upper storey of large trees. Significant populations are unlikely to persist in montane forest.</p>	eng
146824	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Formerly widespread on Negros, it is now restricted to seven known localities, although it is still locally common. It appears much scarcer on Panay, where there are recent records from just three localities in the west. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras, where it has not been recorded for over a century.  <br/></p>	eng
146824	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Chronic deforestation led to its extinction on Guimaras. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988. Habitat degradation, particularly selective logging of large trees, continues to pose a serious threat to remaining fragments throughout its limited range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146825	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in all parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146826	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare and local in Pakistan, frequent in Nepal, locally fairly common in India, common in Bhutan, fairly common in South-East Asia, and uncommon to locally common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146827	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon although reasonably common in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Nepal, locally fairly common in India and uncommon and local in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but often scarce or absent (Coates 1990).	eng
146830	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146831	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as regular and common on the south and westernern coastal plains of Peninsular Malaysia, locally common to uncommon in southern Thailand, fairly common in the Greater Sundas, uncommon to rare in the nicobar islands and elsewhere local and uncommon to rare. (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146832	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on Sulawesi and common on Taliabu (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146833	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146834	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Halmahera (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Pratt et al. 1987, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates 1990).	eng
146839	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146840	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lalage sharpei</em> is endemic to <strong>Samoa</strong> where it inhabits primary and secondary forest and forest edge above 600&#160;m on Savai'i (race <em>tenebrosa</em>) and at least to 200&#160;m on `Upolu (nominate <em>sharpei</em>). It also occurs (rarely) in cattle pastures where there is undergrowth and trees, and in traditional plantations with few permanent houses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds on fruits and invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In a survey during 1984, it was nowhere common in the O le Pupu-pu'e National Park on `Upolu, which is unmanaged, was severely damaged by recent cyclones and is threatened by logging and cattle farming<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is likely to be a sedentary species and requires the protection of primary forest to secure its survival<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
146846	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ta&iuml; National Park is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine the species's status in Gola Forest<sup>8. Conduct surveys to evaluate its presence and status in Ghana6. Implement the draft management plan for Gola Forest Reserve and upgrade its official protection status8. In Ta&iuml; National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park4. In Ta&iuml; National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park4,8.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146846	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campephaga lobata</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, where it is known from <strong>Ghana</strong> (very few records this century), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml; and Marahou&eacute; National Parks, Mopri and Mt Nimba), <strong>Liberia</strong> (widespread), <strong>Guinea</strong> (several observations in Ziama Forest in 1992<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest, where it would appear to have suffered a serious decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). In Liberia, it has recently been described as a locally rare to uncommon resident, and the population in 1997 was estimated to be a minimum of 20,000 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, recent sightings in Ta&iuml; National Park suggest that the species is secure there<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, in Sierra Leone, re-surveys of Gola Forest in 1988-1989, indicate a population decline and it generally occurs at very low densities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146846	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the canopy of tall trees in lowland rainforest, near to rivers, and also in open swamp-forest<strong><sup>1,4,5</sup></strong>. However, it would seem to tolerate some habitat alteration, as recent observations in Liberia have been in both primary and logged forest (usually at heights of between 30-50&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and, in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, it has been observed in <em>Terminalia ivorensis</em> plantations, natural managed forest and disturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is also known to breed in mature logged forest<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. Diet includes caterpillars, grasshoppers and small black seeds.  <br/></p>	eng
146846	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In Liberia, the population has been estimated at a minimum of 20,000 pairs (Gatter 1997), thus the total population is placed in the range 20,000-49,999 individuals. The overall population may have experienced serious declines over the past decade, and new data are required to refine this population estimate.  <br/></p>	eng
146846	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146847	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Campephaga oriolina</em> is known from the equatorial forests of south <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, the <strong>Congo<sup>3</sup></strong>, south-west <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, east and north-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>but from a very few sightings throughout this range. An unconfirmed sighting in 1988 from <strong>Nigeria </strong>probably refers to this species (though made before it was split from Western Wattled Cuckoo-shrike <em>C. lobata</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found at low altitude, inhabiting the tops of mature trees in primary, secondary, and transition forest, and is also recorded from the edge of logged forest in Gabon<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Despite its potentially wide range, the species is undoubtedly very rare, but the reasons for this are unclear<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is not immediately threatened by habitat loss as it appears to prefer secondary forest. <br/></p>	eng
146848	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in Myanmar and China, genereallyrare in the Indian Subcontinent, very local and rare in Pakistan, rare in Bhutan and fairly common no-breeding visitor to Thailand and Laos (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146849	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in China, locally common to sparse in Thailand and uncommon in its non-breeding range in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146850	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in China, fairly common but local in Japan and uncommon to locally common in its non-breeding range in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in suitable habitat over much of the Indian Subcontinent, widespread and locally common in Bangladesh, local in Pakistan, rare in Bhutan andcommon in much of South-East Asia but uncommon on Java and Bali (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146853	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pericrocotus igneus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>, in coastal mangroves and broadleaved forest to 1,220 m, but principally below 600 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been considerably less wholesale, and second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
146854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very local and uncommon to rare in India and uncommon to rare in Myanmar 9del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range but scarce in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146857	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam and scarce and local in Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146858	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common in Myanmar, north-west Thailand, Laos, and north Vietnam, uncommon in China and scarce in the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146859	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known although quite common in Java and locally common in Sumatra in the 1980s and early 1990s (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146860	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in Nepal, locally common in India, Bangladesh and China, common in Bhutan and Sri Lanka, common in South-East Asia (except central Thailand) common in the Phillipines and scarce in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the Indian subcontinent, common in Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka; locally common in South-East Asia and common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
146863	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146870	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of the Indian Subcontinent and uncommon to fairly common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common in Peninsular Malaysia, although rare in Taman Negara; generally common in Sumatra and Borneo and very rare on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in rainforests and casuaria woodland and less common in other woodland types (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146876	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura fuscorufa</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and mangroves on Babar and the Tanimbar Islands. It is common within its small range, but there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena.  <br/></p>	eng
146877	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura cockerelli</em> occurs on Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and most of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is found at low population densities in primary and old-growth secondary forest to about 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Most of the lowland forests across the Solomons have been logged or are threatened with logging and this species would be threatened by any increase in the rate of logging. <br/></p>	eng
146878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common (Coates 1990).	eng
146879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common but often scarce or absent (Coates 1990).	eng
146881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is reported to be locally common but otherwise scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Flegg and Madge 1995, Heather and Robertson 1997).	eng
146886	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant within its very small range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146887	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura tenebrosa</em> is endemic to Makira (=&#160;San Cristobal) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is relatively uncommon in closed-canopy lowland forest, to a maximum of 700&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. The lowlands of Makira are largely logged or under logging concessions. It is far less common in logged forest and, further research may show it have a small total population in decline or to be threatened by logging<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146890	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by law in Fiji. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue surveys to determine population size and trends. Advocate for strong and long term protection of remaining forest habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
146890	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura personata</em> is endemic to Kadavu and the satellite island of Ono, Fiji. Recent surveys found this species to be fairly common in native forests, with 36 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours at a mixed lowland and montane site and 13 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace of 1 km/hour and an effective detection distance of 25 m each side of the trail suggests that around 31 and 17 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting that the total population falls in the band 2,500-10,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes second sub-population as fantails rarely cross the sea, totaling about 5% of the total population. This species is probably declining at the rate of forest loss and degradation on Kadavu, which is estimated to be 0.5-0.8 % per year across Fiji<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but is probably higher on Kadavu which has suffered extensive fires in recent years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/>  <br/></p>	eng
146890	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	An insectivorous bird of primary and secondary moist forest, it generally forages in the substage or lower canopy, making brief sallies after flying insects or gleaning in the foliage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146890	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent BirdLife Fiji surveys found this species to be fairly common in native forests, with 36 birds recorded (mostly calling males) in 23.5 hours a mixed lowland and montane site and 13 birds in 15 hours at a montane site. Estimating an average pace of 1 km/hour and an effective detection distance of 25 m each side of the trail suggests that around 31 and 17 birds were detected per km<sup>2</sup> at these sites. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, which must be treated as very provisional. The area of dense and medium-dense forest on Kadavu is around 225 km <sup>2</sup>(National Forest Inventory 1990-1993), suggesting that the total population falls in the band 2,500-10,000 birds (unpublished data from Fiji IBA project via G. Dutson in litt. 2005). The species also occurs on the island of Ono which probably constitutes second sub-population as fantails rarely cross the sea, totaling about 5% of the total population. <br/></p>	eng
146890	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation caused by fires and agriculture are the main threats to the species. <br/></p>	eng
146891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on Upolu island and uncommon and more restricted on savai'I island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146896	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura opistherythra</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is found only on the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena, Larat and Maroe). It is moderately common in the interior of primary and secondary forest, but there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena. <br/></p>	eng
146897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on Peleliu, common on most other islands although uncommon on Koror (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common to fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally scarce and locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146900	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura matthiae</em> is endemic to Mussau (400&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the St Matthias Group of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is a fairly common forest species which appears to be able to tolerate degraded habitats<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Most of Mussau has been logged or is under logging concessions and this species may be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of large areas of degraded habitat. <br/></p>	eng
146901	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other mountains in the vicinity. Re-survey the two known locations. Colour-ring birds at these sites to help assess population sizes and longevity. Survey all montane sites for introduced mammalian predators. Assess human impact on forests above 600&#160;m. Discuss the species's status and distribution with local villagers. Negotiate regular access to Arullange with landowners. Use as a figurehead in discussion of island endemism in public awareness programmes. <br/></p>	eng
146901	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura malaitae</em> is endemic to the high mountains of Malaita, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It must have been locally common as the Whitney expedition collected a total of 37 specimens from each of the three mountains visited in 1930<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Subsequently, few ornithologists have visited these mountains but it appears to be very localised and rare. In 1990, one was seen at 750&#160;m on the slopes of Mt Ire<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in 1994, a single bird was seen at 1,100&#160;m above Arullange village<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and in 1997, a pair was seen at 1,160&#160;m above Arullange<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. None was seen in 1997 on the 940&#160;m summit of Mt Alsa'an<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It remains uncertain whether this species has declined or whether it remains locally common on mountains unvisited in recent years. <br/></p>	eng
146901	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The 1930 specimens were recorded as taken at 600-1,200&#160;m but searches in 1994 and 1997 only found it above 1,100&#160;m, the highest altitudes reached. All the recent records have been of singles or pairs in mixed-species feeding flocks in montane forest. It appears to be a typical fantail in all except its rarity<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146901	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> (2000). <br/></p>	eng
146901	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at altitudes where the only human disturbance is from hunters and other people using cross-island trails. Other possible threats are introduced disease, mammalian predators and natural causes.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally very common (Pratt et al. 1987, Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146904	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other small islands in the Admiralties. Interview local villagers about population trends on each island. Confirm status on Lou island. Interview local villagers across Manus about this species's present or historic occurrence. Determine habitat requirements. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance on all occupied islands. Assess distribution, population level and trends on Rambutyo. Assess population size on Tong. Monitor numbers on Tong. Investigate possible causes of decline through comparing distribution with that of various introduced and predatory species. Publicise this species's range and status through public awareness discussions. <br/></p>	eng
146904	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhipidura semirubra</em> is endemic to the Admiralty Islands of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It was historically common on Manus where it was noted to be "common everywhere in true forest and secondary bush" but there are no records from Manus since 1934<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the last few years it has only been seen on a handful of small islands in the archipelago: Rambutyo, Tong, Pak, Anobat (in the San Miguel Islands) and Sivisa (in the Fedarb Islands)<strong><sup>4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. It is likely to occur on other small islands which have not been visited by ornithologists. On Tong at least, it is common (e.g. 40 seen in six hours in 1997)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146904	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Historic records from Manus and recent records from Tong indicate that it is a forest species tolerant of extreme habitat degradation, including overgrown coconut plantations<strong><sup>2,3,4,6</sup></strong>. In all other respects, it is a typical member of the Rufous Fantail <em>R.&#160;rufifrons</em> group<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146904	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
146904	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The reason for this species's disappearance from Manus is unknown. It is likely to be related to an introduced species or disease. The brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>, which has exterminated similar species on Guam, is apparently native to Manus and should not be a threat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Islanders suggest that its absence from Manus is a result of high numbers of White-naped Friarbird <em>Philemon albitorques</em> (this species occurs on Manus only), in the increased area of villages and gardens<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, it seems unlikely that these two species did not coexist historically given that <em>R.&#160;semirubra</em> was so common and widespread. The populations on the smallest islands such as Anobat and Sivisa may be threatened by complete clearance of natural vegetation. <br/></p>	eng
146905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146906	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
146907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Borrow and Demey 2001).	eng
146908	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicrurus aldabranus</em> is found on all four main islands of the Aldabra atoll, <strong>Seychelles</strong><sup>1</sup>, and also on the larger of the lagoon islands including Ile Michel and Ile aux C&egrave;dres<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its extent of occurrence is less than 150 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1983, the total population was estimated at c.1,500 individuals. It is widely distributed but generally uncommon<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and frequents mangroves, mixed scrub and <em>Casuarina</em><strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. It has a high rate of nest failure, probably largely due to introduced predators. There are no known threats to its habitat, but its small range and population put it at risk from catastrophic events. <br/></p>	eng
146908	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1983, the total population was estimated at c.1,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146909	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but is not yet forthcoming<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct more field surveys to establish the current population, range and status of the species, and investigate possible limiting factors<sup>5. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala, extending below the native forest edge in the south, in order to encompass most of the known range of this species2,4. Develop a land-use strategy for the island and consider reforestation of grasslands on the central ridge4. Develop an environmental education programme on the island2. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146909	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicrurus fuscipennis</em> has a highly localised distribution around Mt Karthala, Grand Comoro (=&#160;Ngazidja), <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>, and is rare even there. In 1985, it was estimated that few more than 100 individuals existed. However, more birds are being found: in 1989, three pairs were found displaying in coconut plantations on the south-west coast and, in 1992, seven birds (five singles and one pair) were recorded at c.500&#160;m near Nioumbadjou in the south-west<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146909	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found almost exclusively within a 500-900&#160;m altitudinal zone, although it has also been found recently at lower elevations on the south-west coast. It appears to show a preference for forest clearings, forest edge and adjacent areas, such as plantations and fields with a well developed bush layer but few high trees. It forages singly or in pairs on large flying insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146909	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1985, it was estimated that little over 100 individuals existed, but a few more birds have since been found in the south-west (R. Demey <em>in litt.</em> 1999).  <br/></p>	eng
146909	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most habitat has already been degraded within the known range of this species<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Since it can persist in exotic vegetation it might be expected to be abundant, and therefore the main threat to its survival is probably still unknown<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that some localities from which it is known could be marginal habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The main threats to native forest on Mt Karthala are clearance for agriculture, invasion of exotic plant species and commercial logging on the south-west slopes. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Introduced rats are abundant in the forest and may predate nests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range except the treeless areas of the central plateau in Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
146911	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Although forest cover has declined (6000 ha, 25% of Mayotte's forests, disappeared between 1949 and 2002), a network of forest reserves  totalling c.4770 ha now covers all remaining natural forests<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The most important of these for <em>D. waldenii</em> are probably Combani (3 km<sup>2</sup>), Majimbini (13 km<sup>2</sup>), Dzoumony&eacute; (4 km<sup>2</sup>), Tchaourembo, Voundz&eacute;, and Hajangoua<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A bird monitoring scheme began in 2008 initiated by the Direction de l'Environnement et du D&eacute;veloppement Durable of the Collectivit&eacute; de Mayotte, which should soon provide the first population trend for the species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue field surveys to establish the population, range and status of the species. Monitor the population through regular surveys. Study the species's ecology. Investigate possible limiting factors. Draw up conservation plans. Develop an environmental education programme to alleviate inevitable increases in pressure on remaining native habitat, and use the species as a flagship symbol of the need to preserve forest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Enforce protection of forest reserves.	eng
146911	distribution		<em>Dicrurus waldenii</em> occurs sparsely and locally on <strong>Mayotte (to France)</strong> in the Comoro island group. It is fairly widespread in the humid northern and western parts of the island, but may have a restricted ability to disperse between patches. It is found commonly over 200 m around Mts Hachiroungou, Mtsap&eacute;r&eacute;, Combani and B&eacute;nara, Sohoa Forest, and at lower altitude along the west coast. It is also found at lower densities in areas of degraded habitats between the four mountains, and in mangroves at Dzoumony&eacute;-Bouyouni, Mir&eacute;r&eacute;ni-Chirongui and Tsingoni-Mroale-Soulou. It is absent from the entire southern peninsula, Mt Choungui and the lowland dry forests of Dapani-Sazil&eacute;<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Research up to 1994 showed it to be more abundant than Grand Comoro Drongo <em>D. fuscipennis</em>, with a population of at least 100 individuals<strong><sup>3,4,8</sup></strong>. However, point counts and surveys of density conducted in 2002-2004, indicate a minimum population size of 2,500 pairs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
146911	habitat		It occurs at the margins of evergreen forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in secondary forest, thickets and plantations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and also on the coast in mangroves and littoral woodland<strong><sup>3,5,7</sup></strong>. It also occurs at low densities in areas with forest patches alternating with Ylang-ylang plantations, orchards, forest clearings and agricultural fields<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that the species prefers higher altitude, possibly wet, locations and is more abundant in larger forest patches, and those with a higher percentage cover of tall trees<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, and cicadas make up almost half of the prey items taken<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It may also take small vertebrates, although this is yet to be recorded<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Nesting has been observed between September and February. The nest is a solid round cup made of intertwined plant fibres built on a fork in a variety of tree species. It has a clutch-size of one-three eggs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The incubation period is 19-21 days, followed by a fledging period of 17-25 days<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. Juveniles are dependent for one month after fledging and then remain with their parents until the start of the next breeding season<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
146911	population		Point counts and surveys of density conducted in 2002-2004, indicate a minimum population size of 2,500 pairs (Rocamora 2004).	eng
146912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout the Indian Subcontinent, although uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout the Indian Subcontinent, although uncommon in Bangladesh (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common below 305 metres in Nepal, generally uncommon in India and common in the lowlands in Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to locally frequent throughout the Indian Subcontinent (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and locally common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in India and Bhutan and locally frequent between 915 and 1800 metres in Nepal (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in India and Bangladesh, although uncommon in the western Ghats and fairly common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146919	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicrurus sumatranus</em> is restricted to Sumatra (with race <em>viridinitens</em> on the Mentawai Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in lowland, hill and lower montane forest up to 800 m, and possibly to 1,500 m. It has been recorded (rarely) in Way Kambas National Park (highest point 16 m), but appears to be more common at mid altitudes where it is a fairly common member of mixed species foraging parties. Loss of lowland forest in Sumatra has been extensive and this species may be compromised as a consequence, but further research is needed on its distribution and status. <br/></p>	eng
146920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
146922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
146923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population in Australia is estimated to number 500,000 individuals (S. J. Garnett and G. C. L. Dutson in litt. 2008).	eng
146924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146925	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicrurus andamanensis </em>is endemic to the Andaman archipelago, <strong>India</strong>, and Coco Island, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, where it is a common resident of forests. Although its range is very small, forested habitat is relatively intact on the Andamans and insufficiently disturbed or fragmented to be of immediate concern. However, there are signs that pressure on forests is increasing on the islands through increasing human populations and consequent conversion of habitat to cultivation, grazing, increased logging and development. If this trend continues and its habitats become fragmented, its Near Threatened status might need to be reviewed. <br/></p>	eng
146926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Grimmett et al. 1998)	eng
146927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146935	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146936	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146937	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hypothymis helenae</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is distributed widely but patchily, on Camiguin Norte (race <em>personata</em>), Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes and Samar (nominate <em>helenae</em>), Dinagat, Siargao and Mindanao (race <em>agusanae</em>). It occupies the understorey of forest below 1,000&#160;m and is generally rare (very few records on Luzon and Mindanao) except on Camiguin Norte and Dinagat, although even in these cases there is room for doubt, the records from Camiguin Norte dating from 1907 and those from Dinagat not being confirmed in 1994. It was reported to be common on Samar and locally so on Luzon. <br/></p>	eng
146938	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recently recorded in one protected area, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, and two further sites proposed for conservation funding, on Tawitawi and Dinagat, where a three-year community resource management programme began in 1996.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys in remaining suitable habitat, particularly sites with historical records (e.g. Mts Hilong-hilong, Mayo and Sugarloaf on Mindanao, Mt Capoto-an on Samar and Mt Cetaceo on Luzon) to assess its current distribution and identify further key sites. Promote more effective protection of lowland forest in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and other key sites. Use it as a promotional flagship for lowland forest conservation (e.g. through posters and postcards).</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146938	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hypothymis coelestis</em> is a widespread endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Negros, Sibuyan, Samar, Dinagat, Mindanao, Basilan and Tawitawi. Early collectors generally considered it rare, but comparatively common on Basilan and Sibuyan, as it was on Negros in 1959. It may now be extinct on these three islands. Recent records derive from fewer than 10 sites, on Luzon, Dinagat, Mindanao and Tawitawi. A considerable decline is likely, although its apparent patchy distribution and the ease with which it may be overlooked, suggest that it may be less rare than available evidence suggests.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146938	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the canopy and middle storeys of lowland forest, forest edge and second growth up to 750&#160;m, although generally much lower. It has been postulated that it may be a riverine specialist, particularly in areas with a marked dry season, which could account for its seemingly patchy distribution.</p>	eng
146938	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
146938	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread, continuing deforestation, particularly in the lowlands, had reduced original forest cover to an estimated 4% on Negros by the late 1980s, to 24% on Luzon (where forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s) and 29% on Mindanao. Moreover, much remaining lowland forest throughout its range is under logging concessions or consideration for mining applications. Habitat is also threatened by road development plans in the Sierra Madre and illegal logging (e.g. Angat Dam, Luzon). Forest at Bislig, the site of the only recent records on Mindanao, is being cleared under concession and planted with exotic trees for paper production. The little remaining forest on Tawitawi is mainly young secondary growth and is under increasing threat from uncontrolled settlement. <br/></p>	eng
146939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally widespread and common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146940	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira (which supports several other threatened and endemic species and subspecies) as a wildlife reserve, with core areas as a strict nature reserve. There is now a small bird tourism industry on the island which, it is hoped will provide an economic incentive to island residents to conserve remaining forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the Wildlife Conservation Society began four years of project work on Sangihe in 2007, which will provide further opportunities to protect remaining habitat. The Wildlife Conservation Society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding Gunung Sahengbalira<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct further surveys to quantify the population and monitor trends. Support proposals for the rapid establishment of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest-cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island.</strong>	eng
146940	distribution		<em>Eutrichomyias rowleyi</em> is endemic to the island of Sangihe, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. For over a century it was known only by the type-specimen and was presumed extinct when searches in 1985 and 1986 failed to locate it (although a reported observation in 1978 later came to light). The survival of the species was confirmed in October 1998, followed in due course by the discovery of a population of at least 19 birds at five localities around the base of Gunung Sahendaruman. The total population is thought to lie between 19 and 135 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
146940	habitat		It is a sedentary insectivore, resident in primary forest (less often in old secondary growth) on steep-sided valley slopes and valley bottoms with streams. Observations have also been made in ridge-top scrub close to a steep, forested gully. It generally feeds in the canopy and sub-canopy of c.15 m tall trees but will also descend to feed in the low understorey. Prey is taken in active flight, perch-gleaning, by undertaking looping sallies and by descending to the ground.	eng
146940	population		Riley and Wardill (2001)	eng
146941	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Terpsiphone bedfordi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>where it occurs as two disjunct populations, one in north-east Ituri and the other west of Itombwe<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs in lowland and transitional forest at altitudes of 980-1,500 m and exceptionally in montane forest up to 1,800 m. It prefers primary evergreen forest where it is rare to frequent and is occasionally found in deciduous forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The consequences of the recent warfare within its range is likely to have increased the rate of deforestation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, principally due to clearance for shifting cultivation. This and its apparent inability to survive in secondary forest put it at long-term risk. (Further studies may reveal this species to be conspecific with Red-bellied Paradise-flycatcher <em>T. rufiventer</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; the two are known to hybridize wherever they meet<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). <br/></p>	eng
146942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to frequent throughout its entire range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
146944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on Sao Tome island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common on Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146946	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A 0.1 km<sup>2</sup> area of mature woodland was established as a nature reserve on La Digue in 1991<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Wardening staff have been recruited, a few pools established to increase standing water, an education centre constructed, and public awareness programmes initiated<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. This population was surveyed in 2007 and productivity is routinely monitored. A further 13 ha of marshland was purchased in 2002 increasing the reserve to 21 ha. Pollution monitoring has been ongoing for some time<strong><sup>5 </sup></strong>- a sluice gate was built to protect water quality in the wetland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and the groundwater supply was protected when a new landfill site was established<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The introduced <em>P. stratiotes</em> is routinely removed from marshland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A programme was completed to assess the best islands to which future translocations could be considered<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. Habitat restoration is ongoing on the now predator-free Denis Island<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and this has been accompanied by a 'social marketing' campaign to raise awareness on La Digue<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>. 23 individuals were translocated to Denis Island from La Digue in November 2008, and the first chick successfully fledged in 2009<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. All these efforts will be coordinated by a new three-year project funded by the Darwin Initiative and implemented by a partnership of NGOs and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources titled <em>Investing in island biodiversity: restoring the Seychelles Paradise Flycatcher</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete reintroduction onto Denis. Conserve woodland habitat on La Digue, and consider replanting native forest<sup>12</sup></strong>. Reforestation should focus on large patches to minimise the level of predation<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue population and nest monitoring and research into territory quality and food requirements<sup>5,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the impact of habitat loss, predation and historical changes in land-use<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage placement of new development away from the western plateau or in areas with no existing woodland<sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue removal of invasive water plants on La Digue<sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct field surveys to clarify the status of this species on Marianne, F&eacute;licit&eacute; and Praslin and clarify its existence on Grand Soeur<sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
146946	distribution		<em>Terpsiphone corvina</em> was thought to remain only on western La Digue, <strong>Seychelles</strong>. A few birds have been found on neighbouring Marianne<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, although this, along with birds on Praslin<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, may represent a non-viable overspill<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and birds seem unable to establish populations on these neighbouring islands<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Sightings on F&eacute;licit&eacute; have also been reported<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Comprehensive surveys on La Digue show that the population is increasing: 69-83 pairs (c.150-200 birds) in 1995-1996<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, 104-139 pairs in 2000<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The translocation of 23 adult birds to Denis Island was conducted in November 2008, with the hope of eventually establishing a population of 40-50 birds on the island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The first chick successfully fledged on Denis Island in 2009<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
146946	habitat		It requires mature stands of indigenous badamier <em>Terminalia catappa</em> and takamaka <em>Calophyllum innophylum</em> trees<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It appears to be strictly insectivorous, and birds breed at one year of age<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Nesting was generally believed to be dependent on a proximity to wetland areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> but this relationship appears to be an artefact of its dependence on native woodland<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> which is important for both nesting and foraging: territories are generally smaller where native tree density is high<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species occurs densely (60% of all territories) on the forested plateau areas of La Digue. It is not observed in areas of native dry forest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The reasons for the apparent population increase are not clear but these increases involve the species's utilisation of forest fragments and forest-edge habitat<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
146946	population		Currie<em> et al. </em>(2002).	eng
146947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common on Reunion in the 1970s but no recent data and much less common on Mauritius (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146949	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Terpsiphone atrocaudata</em> breeds in the humid forests of southern Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Nansei Shoto islands in <strong>Japan</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, <strong>North Korea, Taiwan</strong> (China) (including Lanyu Island) and the extreme northern <strong>Philippines</strong>, and has been recorded as a non-breeding visitor to mainland <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, Philippines, <strong>Malaysia, Singapore</strong> and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. A recent survey detected a steep decline in part of the Japanese breeding population, which has presumably occurred because of forest loss and degradation in its winter range. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
146950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon on the Philippines and generally common on Talaud island (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146951	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Terpsiphone cyanescens</em> is endemic to the Palawan group (Palawan, Busuanga, Culion and Bantac) <strong>Philippines</strong>, and appears to be fairly common (100 records, 1964-1970) throughout the island (including St Paul's Subterranean River National Park), but is confined to primary and secondary forest, mostly in the lower-lying areas, and hence remains exposed to population decline with habitat conversion; it does not occur in isolated tracts of secondary growth. <br/></p>	eng
146952	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>For <em>C. s. bryani,</em> the removal of goats and sheep from Mauna Kea has allowed regeneration, and cats and rats are controlled<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. For <em>C. s. ibidis</em>, captive breeding has been suggested<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and rat control during 1997-1999 resulted in a 127% increase in reproductive success stabilising studied populations<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>. Critical habitat has been designated for this species on O'ahu<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>For <em>C. s. bryani, improve fire management, continue control of mammalian predators and herbivores, reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve. For C. s. ibidis, conduct research into disease resistance<sup>10, implement further measures to control introduced predators8. For C. s. sclateri, monitor the population.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146952	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chasiempis sandwichensis</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Hawai`i, <em>C. s. bryani</em> had an estimated population of c.2,500 birds in 1983, and may be declining. The other two subspecies had stable populations estimated at c.63,000 (<em>C. s. sandwichensis</em>) and c.150,000 (<em>C. s. ridgwayi</em>) during 1976-1979<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On O`ahu, <em>C. s. ibidis</em> had an estimated population of 1,973 during 1992-2000, restricted to c.47&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the Ko`olau and Wai`anae mountains, and including six isolated populations of 50-500 birds and several others of 10 or fewer<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, <em>C. s. sclateri</em> had an estimated population of nearly 40,000 during 1968-1973, apparently reduced by c 50%, at least temporarily, in the 1990s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146952	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Hawai`i, <em>bryani</em> occupies arid, mostly high-altitude mamane and mamane-naio woodland, <em>sandwichensis</em> occurs in mesic habitats on western and south-western slopes, and <em>ridgwayi</em> is restricted to wet, eastern slopes<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. On O`ahu, <em>ibidis</em> is most abundant in mesic forest between 200 and 400&#160;m. On Kaua`i, <em>sclateri</em> is most abundant in wet to mesic montane forest, also occurring in woodland, scrub, savanna and drier habitats, at lower densities. It feeds on insects and other invertebrates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146952	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimates for each subspecies are as follows: <em>bryani</em>, c.2,500 birds in 1983;  <em>sandwichensis</em>,<em> </em>c.63,000 birds, and <em>ridgwayi</em>, c.150,000 birds in 1976-1979 (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986);<em> ibidis</em>, 1,973 birds in 1992-2000 (VanderWerf <em>et al.</em> 2001); <em>sclateri</em>, 40,000 birds in 1968-1973, apparently reduced to 20,000 birds, at least temporarily, in the 1990s (Jacob and Atkinson 1995). This gives a total of c.237,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146952	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	For<em> C.&#160;s.&#160;bryani,</em> habitat has been heavily browsed by feral ungulates and introduced grasses suppress regeneration and potentially increase the risk of fire<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. For <em>C. s. ibidis, </em>its lower elevation limit is limited by the extent of mesic forest, and avian pox (spread by introduced mosquitoes) increases the mortality of adults by c.25%, with nest-predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> a further problem<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. For <em>C.&#160;s.&#160;sclateri</em>, Hurricane Iniki, in 1992, drastically reduced all bird populations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146953	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The valleys where the species survives (called the Takitumu Conservation Area) are managed by three landowning families who are developing an ecologically and commercially sustainable ecotourism venture. Intensive rat control is carried out during the breeding season, including weekly poisoning and tree-banding<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring the population. Continue rat control in designated areas. Conduct further research into habitat requirements to facilitate decisions on management options including translocation. Win community support for possible subsequent translocation<sup>4,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146953	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea dimidiata</em> is endemic to Rarotonga, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>, where it is restricted to the Totokoitu, Turoa and western Avana Valleys. It was common until the middle of the 19th century, but thought to be extinct in the early 1900s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A survey in 1983 located only 20 birds and two nests, and estimated a population of 35-50 birds<strong><sup>1,13</sup></strong>. A recovery plan initiated in 1987 has improved breeding success and recruitment, and decreased mortality of adults, resulting in 163 birds in 1998<strong><sup>5,8 </sup></strong>180 in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, 259 in 2002, and 290 in 2003<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In 2001, ten birds were translocated from Rarotonga and released on Atiu, 200 km north-east; similar numbers, consisting of mainly one to two-year-old birds, were translocated in 2002 and in 2003<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Three fledglings were recorded on Atiu in January 2003<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. By August 2004, at least 273 birds were found on Rarotonga, and 16 on Atiu, giving an overall estimated population of 289-300 individuals<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. However, five cyclones passed through the southern Cook Islands in five weeks in summer 2005 and, although the impact on this species is still unclear<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, the population may well now be <250 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
146953	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It prefers steep-sided, wet, forested, small valleys sheltered from south-east trade winds in the headwaters of streams. It feeds mainly on small caterpillars, flies, beetles and bugs. Clutch-size is two, but only one chick is fledged because incubation starts before the second egg is laid and the second hatchling is smaller, weaker and less likely to survive except in exceptional seasons<strong><sup>2,6,7,8</sup></strong>. Before intensive predator control began, annual adult mortality was 24.3% and life expectancy was 3.6-6.0 years for males and 2.4 years for females. Since intensive management, annual mortality has dropped significantly to 6.4% and life expectancy has increased to 15.1-18.1 years for males and 12.7 years for females<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146953	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated at 296-300+<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>  in August 2004, but subsequent series of devastating cyclones in early 2005 lead to a decline, especially on Rarotonga<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. By spring 2007 the total population had begun to increase again, due to good recruitment on Atiu (where 30 birds were transferred in 2001-03) and a stable population on Rarotonga<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.Although the actual figure may be slightly higher than this as more banded birds are recorded (H. Robertson <em>in litt. </em>2007). However, the population is retained in the band 50-249 so as not to trigger a downlisting under D1 to Vulnerable.   <br/></p>	eng
146953	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's highly localised distribution leaves it vulnerable to cyclones, invasion of weeds and forest clearance. It continues to be threatened by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Predation by Long-tailed Cuckoo <em>Eudynamys taitensis</em>, a winter migrant from New Zealand, remains a possibility. The introduction of avian diseases could have a major impact, as could invasion by new predators (e.g. snakes and mongooses)<strong><sup>4,5,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146954	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1998, rat control around known nests (using poisoning and tree-banding) was initiated by the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Ornithologie de Polyn&eacute;sie MANU<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Rat control was successful if conducted throughout the year and over the entire valley. However, if control was confined to monarch territories only, re-invasions occur on a regular basis<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Rat control is ongoing. An action plan has also been produced<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the feasibility of translocation is being assessed. It was planned to protect all known pairs from rats by the end of 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. This has continued into 2009, and will continue in 2010<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Regularly monitor known territories in the four valleys, including searching for nests<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Search for birds in previously known locations and survey possible new areas<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue rat control using a combination of poisoning and tree-banding<sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct experiments to improve the quality of the habitat in a couple of valleys by encouraging the growth of young mara trees and removing African tulip trees<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Confirm the impact of introduced birds and investigate their control<sup>1,5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>If essential, take surviving birds into captivity, increase this population through captive breeding and release once a suitable site/island has been identified/restored<sup>1,6</sup></strong>.	eng
146954	distribution		<em>Pomarea nigra</em> is endemic to Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It was apparently rare throughout the 20th century and, during the period 1986-1991, was noted in only four valleys (several pairs at each locality) out of 39 visited<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In September 1998, 27 birds (12 pairs) were located within these four lowland valleys. This figure has remained stable or perhaps increased slightly and in 2006 there were 12 territories occupied by 19 adult or subadult birds in accessible parts of the valleys, with new pairs even becoming established in abandoned territories, and the total population estimated at 40-45 individuals<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. 19 birds (including 7 breeding pairs) were located in accessible areas in 2007<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In 2009, the known population of birds numbered 23 individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
146954	habitat		It is only found between 80 m and 400 m in altitude where the tree "mara" <em>Neonauclea forsteri</em> is a common feature of the four valleys where it survives<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is highly territorial, foraging both in the canopy and the undergrowth for insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
146954	population		The known population in 2009 was 23 individuals (J. Millett<em> in litt.</em> 2009), and the population is best placed the band <50 mature individuals.	eng
146955	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The population has been regularly checked since the 1970s<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Conservation efforts have been increased owing to the recent rapid decline in the population. Rat control is ongoing within four valleys and this work is being extended gradually to additional areas. A feasibility study is underway to assess the suitability of other islands for translocation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue rat control in areas where this work is already ongoing<sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct surveys elsewhere on the island using the same methodologies and continue to monitor the known population<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a more thorough study over several months into the species's ecology and the threat that rats pose<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider translocation. Continue a public awareness programme<sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146955	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Pomarea whitneyi</em> is endemic to Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. In 1975, the population was estimated at several hundred pairs and, in 1990, it was still common<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. In February 2000, a field survey estimated a mean density of one pair/10 ha in the lower Omoa Valley and, assuming similar densities elsewhere, the total population was estimated at a few hundred pairs (400-1,000 individuals)<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Unlike in 1975, no birds were observed in the groves of mango on the slopes and ridges up the Omoa Valley, and the lack of adults with immatures indicated low breeding success<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Repeat visits in 2003 and 2006 only found the species using three out of eight potentially suitable valleys above Omoa, and just one out seven near Hanavave<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the encounter rate during surveys declined from 0.35 individuals per point count in 2003 to 0.23 individuals in 2006, a decline of 35% in the number of monarchs detected during that period<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is not certain whether the difference in the number of individuals encountered in 2003 versus 2006 represents a genuine population decline across the island because only accessible valleys near to Omoa and Hanavave were visited<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Using the 2006 survey results yields a population estimate for Fatu Hiva of 274 individuals; a decline of 31.5% from the lower population estimate of 400 individuals in 2000<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146955	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in dense, native forest from 50 m to 700&#160;m, with some non-breeding birds found up to 775&#160;m on a crest below the highest summit on Mt Touaouoho in native wet forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects (e.g. coleoptera), spiders and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Gouni (2006). <br/></p>	eng
146955	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Fatu Hiva is a relatively well preserved, well forested island (with no overgrazing or destruction of vegetation by fire). Black rat <em>Rattus rattus </em>was observed for the first time on the island in February 2000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Identified as a serious threat as its presence is strongly correlated with the decline and extinction of monarch populations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, rats already appear to have caused a rapid population decline and represent the principal threat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146956	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Fijian law. Vulaga island is a possible translocation island (as <em>M.&#160;lessoni</em> does not occur there) if a critical situation should arise on Ogea Levu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Resurvey the islands. Assess population densities in forest and degraded forest. Investigate hybridisation with <em>M.&#160;lessoni</em></strong>. <strong>Use as a figurehead species for conservation on Ogea Levu. Advocate strong quarantine controls to prevent the establishment of exotic predators.</strong></p>	eng
146956	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mayrornis versicolor</em> is endemic to Ogea in the southern Lau Group, <strong>Fiji</strong>, occurring on the two principal islands, Ogea Levu and Ogea Driki (13 and 5&#160;km<sup>2</sup> respectively, 2&#160;km apart), and on the smaller island of Dakuiyanuya (immediately adjacent to Ogea Levu). In 1986, it was estimated to have a total population of c.2,000<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146956	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to forest (possibly preferring the more limited successional and edge habitats). It feeds on insects. It has been observed to be territorial, but little is known of its breeding ecology; a recently fledged juvenile has been observed in July and it is possible that breeding was well under way at this time<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its ecological separation from <em>M.&#160;lessoni</em> is unknown. <br/></p>	eng
146956	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Watling (1998).  <br/></p>	eng
146956	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There are no indications that it (or the forests) have been greatly affected by the cyclones of 1973, 1975, 1979 or 1985. Forest clearance is unlikely to occur on these limestone islands since the soil is too poor for agriculture or even coconut plantations. While selective timber-felling for house construction and traditional crafts may increase, this is unlikely to affect the species, which may even benefit from an increase in secondary habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is some evidence of occasional hybridisation with the wider ranging <em>M.&#160;lessoni<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>, though it is unlikely that this is a significant threat. Swamp Harrier <em>Circus approximans</em>, Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> and feral cats are potential predators, with the the latter probably being common in the forest on Ogea Levu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146958	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mayrornis schistaceus</em> occurs on the island of Vanikoro (170&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and its small satellite island of Buma in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a forest species, occurring to 450&#160;m, tolerant of old logged forest but not scrubby or open habitats<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The total population is estimated to be a few thousand birds (based on 90 encounters in 1997) and not currently declining. Although there are no plans for large-scale commercial logging, there is ongoing pressure from multinational logging companies to exploit the forests of Vanikoro<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
146959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known but apparently fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known but apparently fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's status is reported to vary from common to rare in different parts of its range (Watling 2001).	eng
146962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146963	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is the state bird of Chuuk and may obtain some conservation benefit from this recognition. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect forest habitat, including the small patches of native forest remaining on the high islands, the atoll forest on the outer reef islands, and the more extensive stands of mangrove<sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146963	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Metabolus rugensis</em> is widely but sparsely distributed on all, or nearly all, of the high lagoon islands, as well as some of the outer reef islets of Chuuk (=&#160;Truk), <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, with highest densities reported from Tol South. It has probably never been abundant in historic times. In 1984, numbers were estimated at 2,168<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It subsequently appears to have become much rarer according to a recent population estimate in 2001<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Moreover, no birds were found in a visit in 1991 and only 3-4 birds on Tol in 1993. It may have been extirpated from Weno, as a major fire destroyed the patch of forest where it was uncommon in the 1970s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146963	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at highest densities in small patches of upland native forest, but is also found in well-developed stands of mangrove, atoll strand and (rarely) plantations along scrubby slopes, often covered by hibiscus <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> or along steep ridges or cliffs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It favours areas with a thick, leafy understorey where it is found in small family groups gleaning insects, lizards and other prey from the foliage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to be strongly territorial, nesting in trees with dense foliage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded from April to July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146963	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al. </em>(1990), H. D. Pratt <em>in litt.</em> (1994). <br/></p>	eng
146963	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is likely to have declined dramatically in the 1940s, owing to extensive agricultural development during the Japanese administration, and may still be gradually declining, most likely due to the rapidly expanding human population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and consequent further loss of its habitat. <strong></strong></p>	eng
146964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon though locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
146966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
146968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the north of its range and scarcer elsewhere (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146969	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Bougainville and the small islands of Buka (Papua New Guinea) and the Shortlands (Solomon Islands).	eng
146969	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in forest bird up to 1,300 m. It is not known how well it tolerates secondary habitats but it is probably common in degraded forest like the closely-related Chestnut-bellied Monarch M. castaneiventris (Schodde 1977, Coates 1990).	eng
146969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146969	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	All the lowlands of Bougainville are susceptible to logging when the island opens up to commerce (G. Dutson in litt. 1999).	eng
146970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146976	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146978	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Two recent surveys have targeted this species and other threatened birds on Flores. One key site, Tanjung Kerita Mese, is proposed for establishment as a protected area. It has been provisionally reported at Ruteng Nature Recreation Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to clarify it status and habitat use, with a view to formulating an appropriate conservation strategy and proposing effective protected areas. Support the rapid establishment of Tanjung Kerita Mese proposed protected area, along with an additional stretch of forest at Nggorang Bowosie. Initiate awareness campaigns to solicit the support of local people in protecting forests.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146978	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha sacerdotum</em> is endemic to the western half of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to be extremely local and largely uncommon, with very tentative density estimates of 2.3 (&#177;0.8) birds per hectare in suitable habitat, made during fieldwork in 1993. At one site it was apparently amongst the commonest birds in 1998, suggesting locally dense populations.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146978	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary semi-evergreen rainforest from 350 m to 1,000&#160;m, and also occurs in moist deciduous monsoon forest. It has been recorded in old secondary and partially degraded forest, indicating some tolerance of degradation, although the vast majority of records derive from primary forest, implying that it may not adapt well to modified habitats. There appears to be some mutual exclusion between this species and the closely related <em>M. trivirgatus</em>, presumably as a result of ecological overlap.</p>	eng
146978	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 16-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 256 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 4,096-12,800, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from up to lower quartile of 1two estimates of 8 <em>Monarcha</em> and <em>Metabolus</em> monarchs in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; note that this species can be locally common eg 230 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> tentatively estimated at one site by Butchart <em>et al.</em> [1996]). <br/></p>	eng
146978	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss and fragmentation (chiefly as a result of shifting cultivation, dry season burn-off and road-building) is already extensive on Flores, and has presumably resulted in a substantial decline in numbers and contraction of range. No semi-evergreen forest below 1,000&#160;m is included within gazetted protected areas and the large tract of lowland moist deciduous forest at Golo Bilas (also important for the threatened Wallace's Hanging Parrot <em>Loriculus flosculus</em> and Flores Crow <em>Corvus florensis</em>) is currently being cleared for firewood and construction materials.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146979	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further fieldwork to identify the most important areas for this species and its tolerance of habitat degradation. Determine and implement appropriate conservation measures based on these surveys, including establishment of an appropriate protected area if necessary.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146979	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha everetti</em> is endemic to the island of Tanahjampea in the Flores Sea, between the southern peninsula of Sulawesi and the island of Flores in Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Historical records indicate that it was relatively common and widespread on the island, and this was confirmed during a brief survey in 1993. A total of 43 birds were seen in two days in and around Labuhanmarege (including along the road up to the microwave station at the highest point of the island).<strong></strong></p>	eng
146979	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is presumably a sedentary resident. In 1993, it was found to be quite common in logged evergreen forest and less common in scrub and mangroves with scattered big trees, indicating that it is tolerant of some habitat degradation. Often two individuals, rarely up to four, were seen together, and the species was commonly observed associating with mixed foraging flocks.</p>	eng
146979	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 16-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 68 km<sup>2 </sup>(45% EOO) =1088-3400, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 1,000-2,499 (density range from up to lower quartile of 12 estimates of eight <em>Monarcha</em> and <em>Metabolus</em> monarchs in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; note that this species was estimated to be quite common in forest during a brief survey in 1993, so the population  may be higher). <br/></p>	eng
146979	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat probably comes from deforestation. In September 1993, up to half (i.e. c.75&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of the island was still forested, although all the forest seen had been extensively logged. "Relatively large volumes of timber" were continuing to be logged to support the settlement, construction and boat building needs of the island's population (reported to number c.100,000 in 1993). It was thought that any large-scale increase in logging would have serious consequences for the species. <br/></p>	eng
146980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
146981	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No measures have been taken, other than the survey to relocate the species in the early 1990s. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys on Boano (and the neighbouring islands of Kelang and Manipa which may prove to support the species) to establish its range, distribution and status, and assess its habitat requirements and threats. Assess the suitability of Gunung Tahun (the site of rediscovery) as a protected area. Devise and implement a conservation strategy for the species involving the establishment of an appropriate protected area if necessary.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
146981	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Monarcha boanensis</em> is confined to the island of Boano off north-west Seram, South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it appears to occupy a very limited area (probably no more than 20%) of the mountainous part (c.70 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island. Known from just one specimen collected at an unspecified locality in 1918, it was rediscovered in 1991, in a foothill gorge of Gunung Tahun. Observations at the same locality in 1994 led to an estimate of 5-10 birds in a 5 ha patch of forest. Based on the extent of suitable habitat this was extrapolated to give a population estimate of 100-200 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146981	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is presumably a sedentary resident, and is believed to be restricted to the higher parts of the island (c.150-700 m), although recent observations come from dense secondary semi-evergreen forest, comprising trees up to 20 m high, in a gorge between 150 m and 200 m. Foraging was noted low (generally below 2 m) in lush undergrowth consisting mainly of <em>Ficus</em> and <em>Coffea</em> spp. and thickets of bamboo (<em>Dendrocalamus </em>spp<em>.</em>). Individuals also associated with mixed-species flocks in the lower-middle storeys. <br/></p>	eng
146981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Moeliker and Heij (1995, 1996) <br/></p>	eng
146981	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forests on the island of Boano have long been exploited for human needs. Although recent cutting is deemed to have irreversibly affected the island's ecosystem, patches of valley-bottom forest remain wherein the monarch persists. However, its extremely low estimated population size, and the apparent ease with which forest at the single known site could be cleared or burnt, renders it highly vulnerable to extinction. <br/></p>	eng
146982	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha leucurus</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest on the Kai Islands. It is moderately common, but it may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range. <br/></p>	eng
146983	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Study its ecological requirements and tolerance of degraded habitats. Obtain an accurate population estimate and set up population monitoring to assess trends. Protect a core area of remaining lowland forest.	eng
146983	distribution		<em>Monarcha julianae</em> is endemic to the 144 km<sup>2</sup> island of Kofiau in the West Papuan islands off north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is common and widespread in lowland forest, including secondary forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, Kofiau has been largely selectively logged since the 1970s, and currently has no protected area<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The remaining forest declining in area, and although it is tolerant of selective logging, the population is suspected to be declining.	eng
146983	habitat		This species is most common in in primary and closed-canopy secondary forest, where is has been described as abundant. Adults also persist in shaded, traditional subsistence gardens, though the ability of these gardens to support the species is unknown. It can generally be found at heights between 1-30 m, foraging within trees rather than at the tips of branches by hover-gleaning, quick short hops along a branch, and working vertically up a tree or vine<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
146983	population		Population estimate = 76-133 individuals/km2 x 86.4 km2 (60% EOO) = 6,500-11,500, i.e. in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is the lower quartile to median of 11 estimates of congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; described as abundant in suitable habitat, but some habitat has been destroyed so 60% of EOO is used).	eng
146984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce and local (Coates 1990).	eng
146985	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (110&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (420&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys on both islands to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Afford formal protection to further key sites where appropriate. Control logging on Supiori<sup>3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
146985	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha brehmii</em> is endemic to the twin-islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was clearly scarce historically<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and there are only four recent records, of up to three individuals<strong><sup>1,3,7,8</sup></strong>. It took three days to find during one of these visits<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and was not seen during another recent four-day visit<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, there has been no recent ornithological exploration of the forests of interior Biak-Supiori, where it may prove to be more common and widespread<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146985	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The recent observations are from lowland forest, one bird in a lichen-covered limestone riverbed in thick, lowland rainforest at c.60&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, another record from logged lowland forest with a mixture of highly degraded and pristine areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and a third from a tiny patch of tall forest within secondary growth and plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146985	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 16-50 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 508 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 8,128-25,400 but likely to be at the low end of this range based on rarity as judged by recent surveys, and therefore population estimate perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 1,000-2,499 (density range from up to lower quartile of 12 estimates of eight <em>Monarcha</em> and <em>Metabolus</em> monarchs in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
146985	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure<strong><sup>3,4,9</sup></strong>. Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146986	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha infelix</em> is endemic to the Admiralty Islands of Manus, Rambutyo, Tong and Lou in <strong>Papua New Guinea<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is a scarce forest species with a small overall population. It appears to be poorly tolerant of degraded forest and is inferred to be declining in logged areas<strong><sup>1,2,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Large areas of Manus have been logged or are under logging concessions but most forest on this island is presently safe<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146987	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha menckei</em> is endemic to Mussau Island (400&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the St Matthias group of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is a common forest species which appears to tolerate degraded habitats including garden regrowth<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Most of Mussau has been or is scheduled to be logged. This species has a small overall population and may be threatened if it proves to be poorly tolerant of highly degraded habitat. <br/></p>	eng
146988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common, otherwise scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
146989	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha barbatus</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Guadalcanal, Malaita and other small islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a relatively uncommon species of primary and old-growth secondary forest to 1,000&#160;m, occasionally to 1,350&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5,6</sup></strong>. Large areas of the lowland forest across the region have been logged or are under logging concession but as much of the population is in the hills, this species is probably declining at a moderate rate. <br/></p>	eng
146990	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha browni</em> is endemic to the New Georgia group of islands in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is a low-density forest species with a small total population, rarely found in degraded forest habitats, to a maximum of 600&#160;m. Widespread logging across the area is causing a decline, but it has strongholds in forest reserves on Kolombangara and unlogged areas on other islands<strong><sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong> and does not yet have a fragmented distribution. The distinct subspecies <em>ganongae</em> on Ranongga (where there is little remaining forest) and <em>nigrotecta</em> on Vella Lavella (where logging is extensive) are naturally rare and therefore highly threatened<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. Any significant increase in the areas being logged on these islands could render the species threatened.</p>	eng
146991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the lowlands and becoming more common in mountain forests (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
146992	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha godeffroyi</em> is endemic to the islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, occurring on Yap, Gagil-Tomil, Rumung (presumably) and Maap, where it is widespread, inhabiting virtually all forest types including mangroves and secondary growth. In 1984, it was estimated to number 26,961 individuals. No particular threats were foreseen especially as it is able to ultilise the scrubby vegetation which often invades forest-cleared sites. However, given its small range, it is at risk from the accidental introduction of alien species, especially brown tree snake <em>Boiga&#160;irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146992	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) published this population estimate.   <br/></p>	eng
146993	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The northern two-thirds of Tinian are leased to the US Navy who only use it intermittently and this has allowed the regeneration of much of the native flora, which has undoubtedly benefitted the species<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In 1994, a year-and-a-half banding study obtained extensive information on the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1996, a point count survey of the entire island was conducted to obtain an accurate population estimate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Preserve the remaining limestone forest habitat on Tinian<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Attempt to increase the amount of native forest<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Take precautions to prevent the introduction of <em>B.&#160;irregularis</em></strong>, such as traps and monitors around the airport and especially the harbour<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146993	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monarcha takatsukasae</em> is endemic to Tinian in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>. In the 1940s, it was reported as common within its restricted range. In 1982, it was estimated to have a population of c.40,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and, in 1996, over 55,000 birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has also been reported as a breeding bird in the <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
146993	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits all types of forest, including introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucoephala</em> thickets. Although it appears to be adaptable to recovering forest patches, limestone forest remains crucial<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1995 found over 60% of nests in native tree species with far greater nesting success in remnant native forest, probably due to the greater availability of insects and greater protection from fire and storms<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although it is assumed to breed year-round, there appears to be distinct seasonality in nesting activity and success, with little nesting occurring during periods of low rainfall<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146993	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Lusk <em>et al. </em>(2000b).  <br/></p>	eng
146993	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1945, native forest had been reduced to 5-7%, owing to development for sugarcane production and the construction of infrastructure to support military activities in Second World War <strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Most or all remaining forest is now on rugged limestone slopes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Typhoons and fire continue to cause damage to remaining forest habitat, and inclement weather is the main cause of nestling mortality<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The potential introduction of the exotic brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> from the nearby island of Guam is an increasing concern, especially as the development of Tinian for tourism necessitates the importation of large amounts of building materials<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
146994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates 1990).	eng
146996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
146997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
146998	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiagra freycineti</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong>, where it was common in forest until the 1970s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it plummeted to extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in 1983, along with most of the island's native birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, due to the depredations of introduced brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
146999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the larger Palau islands (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in all habitats (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147001	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147002	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiagra atra</em> is endemic to Biak-Supiori, Numfor and Rani in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>1,9</sup></strong>. It is apparently largely confined to the interior hills, inhabiting primary, secondary and logged forest up to c.400&#160;m, but is also occasionally recorded in mangroves<strong><sup>1,7,9</sup></strong>. Observations from recent visits suggest that it may be fairly common on Biak<strong><sup>2,5,6,7,10</sup></strong>. On Biak and Numfor, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori<strong><sup>3,4,8</sup></strong>. Its reported abundance, tolerance of degraded forest, and the fact that it occurs in the 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggests that it is not threatened. However, there is very little recent information on this bird, and especially forest status on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
147003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Halmahera, moderately common on Obi and Seram and uncommon on Buru (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
147004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
147005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon on Bougainville and Buka islands and fairly common and more widespread throughout the Solomon Islands (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147006	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Regularly monitor the populations at certain key sites. Further research its tolerance of degraded forest across an altitudinal gradient. Protect significant areas of remaining primary forest on Makira.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147006	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Myiagra cervinicauda</em> is endemic to Makira (= San Cristobal) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is not uncommon but is inferred to have a relatively small total population. <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
147006	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits lowland forest to 700 m and is very uncommon in degraded habitats<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still quite common on mountains (del Hoyo et al. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
147006	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the lowlands on Makira have been logged or are under logging concessions.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common on New Caledonia and evidently fairly common throughout the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (Watling 2001).	eng
147009	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded from the proposed conservation areas at Sataoa-Sa`anapu and Uafato on `Upolu<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Conduct surveys to update information on density and distribution<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify important sites in native forest<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the home-range size to determine the size of forest patches needed for long-term viability<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147009	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiagra albiventris</em> is widespread on Savai`i and `Upolu, <strong>Samoa</strong>, where it was considered common<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has recently undergone a severe decline and is now uncommon<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147009	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is an insectivore found alone or in pairs at all elevations (but predominantly in the lowlands). It prefers shrubby forest with many young trees, and is also reported from cultivated land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, forest edge and clearings, along roads<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and in the mid-understorey or subcanopy of relatively mature forest<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147009	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10.9-22.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 580 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 6,322-13,108, but best placed precautionarily in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from lowest to lower quartile of nine estimates of four congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147009	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It was apparently affected by the severe cyclones of 1990 and 1991, when canopy cover was reduced from 100% to 27%<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and does not appear to have recovered. It is also threatened by deforestation for agriculture and by the reduction of forest quality owing to the invasion of highly aggressive non-native trees, whose spread is aided by hurricanes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not as common as the Vanikoro flycatcher but quite regularly observed in suitable habitats (Watling 2001).	eng
147011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally quite common in Australia, generally scarce in Papua New Guinea and locally common to moderately common throughout Wallacea (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
147012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonest in the south of its range (especially Tasmania) and scarce in the north (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
147013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
147014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
147015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to New Britain and New Ireland (and the smaller islands of New Hanover, Mussau and Djaul) in Papua New Guinea.	eng
147015	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in primary and tall secondary evergreen forest to 1,500 m (Gilliard and LeCroy 1967, Coates 1990, Clay 1994, K.D. Bishop in litt. 1996, G. Dutson in litt. 1999, Hornbuckle 1999a).	eng
147015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is probably not uncommon locally (Coates 1990).	eng
147015	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Most lowland forest within the species range has been logged or is under logging concessions but this is not the case at higher altitudes.	eng
147016	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is protected under Fijian law. On Vanua Levu, a "silktail" reserve has been proposed<strong><sup>3,6,8</sup></strong>, however, it has not been gazetted and parts of it are being converted to mahogany plantation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On Taveuni, it occurs in the established but unmanaged Ravilevu Nature Reserve and in the Bouma National Heritage Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine population size and trends, incorporating training of people from local communities in survey techniques<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>In the Natewa Peninsula, advocate the cessation of mahogany planting<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement the existing reserve proposal<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Raise awareness of the threat to the species within local communities<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>On Taveuni, initiate management in the Ravilevu Nature Reserve<sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lamprolia victoriae</em> is endemic to<strong> Fiji</strong>, being common and widespread on Taveuni (nominate <em>victoriae</em>; 5,000-8,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) but highly localised on Vanua Levu (subspecies <em>kleinschmidti</em>), where it is restricted to the Natewa Peninsula though not occurring in remaining apparently suitable habitat in the south-east<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1973 and 1975, it was readily found in groups of two to five<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1990, a total of 235 birds were located<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. More recently, its population in the Natewa Peninsula was estimated at 3,000-6,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  On Taveuni, where relatively little forest has been lost, 5,000-8,000 pairs were estimated in 2000<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147016	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wet, mature rainforest, forest pockets, logged forest and plantations close to intact forest (though at lower densities)<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. It feeds on small arthropods and worms in the leaf-litter and insects in the lower canopy<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Vanua Levu, it occupies similar feeding zones to those of Fiji Shrikebill <em>Clytorhynchus vitiensis</em>, this overlap resulting in the larger <em>C.&#160;vitiensis</em> displacing the smaller <em>L.&#160;victoriae</em> and perhaps contributing to its rarity whilst, on Taveuni, it mainly occupies the undergrowth thus reducing competition with <em>C.&#160;vitiensis<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>.  <br/></p>	eng
147016	population	BirdLife International, 2008	J. S. Kretzschmar <em>in litt.</em> (2000). <br/></p>	eng
147016	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Vanua Levu, the Natewa Peninsula is already extensively logged and habitat continues to be lost due to logging, clearance for agriculture and conversion of logged forest to exotic plantations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Exploitation of existing mature mahogany plantations is a further risk<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although the rate of conversion of old-growth native forest to mahogany plantations has slowed significantly,with the rate of forest loss estimated to have returned to the underlying rate of 0.5-0.8 % p.a.<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, it has nevertheless been estimated that c.100-130 km<sup>2</sup> of the existing range could be lost within the next 10 years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On Taveuni, there was some logging during the 1990s and forest continues to be cleared for agriculture, albeit slowly<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Coates 1990).	eng
147018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
147019	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common (Morcombe 2000)	eng
147020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
147021	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in northern India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147023	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aegithina viridissima</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, where it occurs from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in mangroves and forests to 825 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon and only locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon in North Africa and uncommon to locally common in the rest of Africa (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally uncommon in the north of its range to fairly common in the south (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as generally uncommon and the other three races are rare (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147040	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It may occur within the Quicama National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements (however, the military situation in the country currently precludes this). Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest-cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of suitable habitat (so that surveys can start once civil unrest abates). </strong> <br/></p>	eng
147040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laniarius brauni</em> is known from the northern escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong>, from two sites in Cuanza Norte and from Quicama, Bengo Province where it occurs at Dondo, just outside the national park boundary<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is considered rare at all known sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147040	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the undergrowth of secondary and gallery forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147040	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 498-996 individuals (1-2 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 498 km<sup>2</sup> [10% EOO]), i.e. within the band 250-999 individuals. 2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> is the lowest of nine estimates for seven congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, but this species is considered rare at all known sites, so 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> may be more appropriate. <br/></p>	eng
147040	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation on the escarpment has proceeded steadily in recent decades<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the coffee plantations of the area have been neglected in recent years and it is possible the species has benefited from this<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction, through increases in slash-and-burn cultivation and removal of timber trees, is probably the main threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147041	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A protected area of 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the area was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not yet been established<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements (however, the military situation in the country currently precludes this). Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of suitable habitat (so that surveys can start once civil unrest abates). Designate a protected area to preserve the Gabela forest (however, this is currently impractical due to the current political situation)<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147041	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laniarius amboimensis</em> remains known only from a restricted area around Gabela on the escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1960, none were recorded until single pairs were found twice in three days in September 1992, in mixed-species flocks.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147041	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the undergrowth of evergreen forest on the escarpment. </p>	eng
147041	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 350-980 individuals (2.5-7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 140 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. within the band 250-999. Density range is up to the lower quartile of nine estimates for seven congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
147041	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by loss of habitat from subsistence agriculture. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147043	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a bird of the Sudan-Guinea savanna and degraded farm bush to the north-west of the West African forest zone in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone (Dowsett and Forbes-Watson 1993).	eng
147043	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In northern Sierra Leone the species is common in well wooded savanna but also occurs in grassland savanna where there are scattered trees remaining, and even occurs in gardens in urban areas (P. Robertson in litt. 1998). It can apparently withstand a good deal of habitat modification.	eng
147043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, and the species's abundance varies greatly across Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although rare or over-looked in Liberia (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally fairly common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147050	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Laniarius mufumbiri</em> has a local distribution in north-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong>, eastern <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong> and western <strong>Kenya</strong>. Within its range it is restricted to papyrus swamps (up to 1,600 m), where it is locally common in Kenya<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and abundant in eastern Rwanda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species population has been estimated to be approximately 2,000,000 adults<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its highly specialised habitat requirements and the threats to such wetlands (from drainage, burning and over-exploitation) make it a species which requires careful monitoring even if it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although possibly not uncommon in west Africa since it is easily over-looked (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent and locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147062	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is an ongoing conservation and development project at Mt Kupe. Forest in the southern sector of Banyang Mbo is relatively intact and protected due its inaccessability, and the wildlife sanctuary there is the focus of a major conservation programme<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other areas where the species could occur. Conduct research to confirm the altitudinal range and status of the species in the Bakossi mountains<sup>2. Survey the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary to establish the species's status there8. Conduct surveys to clarify the species's ecological requirements3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147062	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malaconotus kupeensis</em> was thought to be endemic to the small forest (c.21 km<sup>2</sup>) on Mt Kupe, western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where only seven pairs were known to be present, but has now been discovered at two additional localities. The first includes two sites in the Bakossi Mountains: one near Kodmin<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and the other near Lake Edib where the area of suitable habitat is about eight times that on Mt Kupe<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The second locality is the southern sector of the Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, where a single bird was seen in May 1999<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. If the altitudinal range and status of the species near Lake Edib are similar to the situation on Mt Kupe, the population in central Bakossi could be in the order of c.50 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1999, the species was not located during surveys on nearby Mt Nlonako, north Bakossi Mountains, or on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>, nor was it located on Mt Manenguba during surveys in March 2000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147062	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in primary forest and, on Mt Kupe, has only been observed in areas where the understorey is relatively open. Its altitudinal range is 950-1,450&#160;m on Mt Kupe, 1,000-1,250&#160;m near Lake Edib<strong><sup>2,4,6 </sup></strong> and the single dead individual found at Kodmin was at 1485 m<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects.  <br/></p>	eng
147062	population	BirdLife International, 2008	If the altitudinal range and status of the species near Lake Edib are similar to that on Mt Kupe, the population in central Bakossi could be c.50 pairs (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d), thus the population is best placed in the range 50-249 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
147062	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Mt Kupe, forest is being cleared for farmland, particularly on the south, south-west and east slopes, in some areas up to 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and up to 1,100-1,200&#160;m on the northern slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest is still open to logging concessions in the Bakossi Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and a road is under construction which would open the area up to small-scale logging activities<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147067	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malaconotus lagdeni</em> has a disjunct distribution across West and Central Africa, from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> in the west and <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) in Central Africa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Sierra Leone it is rare, in Liberia it has been estimated there may be over 6,000 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, while in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire it is rare in Ta&iuml; National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and scarce in Yapo Forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Nyungwe Forest, Rwanda, it is very rare, but is more common in the drier forests of Gishwati to the north and in Bwindi Forest in Uganda<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the eastern DRC it occurs in montane forest from 1,400-3,300 m where it is quite rare<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147068	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Mt Cameroon, there is an internationally funded conservation and development project which aims to protect a large area of forest on the mountain. In the Bakossi Mountains, forests are still waiting to be classified, probably partly as forest reserves (open to timber concessions) and partly as protected areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On the Obudu Plateau, a small patch of forest has been established as a reserve and it is hoped to extend protection to other forest areas on the plateau<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In Cameroon, conserve montane forest sites through legal protection or community forestry<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>In Nigeria, protect additional areas of forest on the Obudu Plateau<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147068	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malaconotus gladiator</em> occurs at low densities in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Mt Cameroon, Rumpi Hills, Bakossi Mountains, southern slopes of Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Mt Kupe, Mt Nlonako, Mt Oku, and at four further localities in the Bamenda-Banso Highlands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Obudu Plateau). The species must be on the verge of extinction on Mt Oku, as there is almost no forest remaining within its altitudinal range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is uncommon on Mt Nlonako and has not been found in the north Bakossi Mountains or the highlands of Banyang Mbo, despite recent searches<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. However, in 1998, it was found to be locally common in central Bakossi Mountains, with six territories located in <1&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and this is undoubtedly the most important site for the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1999 and 2000, it was found on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba, where it was also fairly common<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147068	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This insectivorous species is found in montane forest, both primary and old secondary forest, favouring the edge of natural clearings or gaps<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and forest/grassland mosaic from 950-2,300&#160;m. Altitudes vary with locality, for example, in the Bakossi Mountains it is found down to at least 1,100&#160;m while, on Mt Manenguba, it is mainly found between 1,500 and 2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
147068	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 12.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,440 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 17,280, but density estimate obtained at "most important site for the species", and species less common elsewhere, so best placed precautionarily within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density estimate derived from observation of six territories in < 1 km<sup>2 </sup>[Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d]). <br/></p>	eng
147068	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is already considerable loss of habitat in the Bamenda Highlands, where remaining forest is severely threatened by clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood-collection and extraction of timber, while forest loss on the Obudu Plateau continues at an alarming rate<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147069	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147070	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malaconotus monteiri</em> is found in gallery and coffee forest but is known only from a small number of records from a few sites on the escarpment zone of <strong>Angola</strong> (although surveys in 2005 found it to be more widespread than previously thought, from Dande River south to Gungo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) and <strong>Cameroon</strong> (including a 19th century specimen from Mt Cameroon). In 1992, it was not found during survey work on the Angolan scarp, but a single bird believed to be <em>M. monteiro</em> was seen on Mt Kupe, Cameroon. It may occur in Reserva do Ambriz, north of Luanda, Angola, but no bird lists are available from there<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys are needed to confirm its occurrence on Mt Kupe and its continuous existence on Mt Cameroon<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147071	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The population stronghold of this species is in the Ulguru Forest Reserve. Boundaries have been marked and planted around some parts of this reserve, and some areas outside the reserve have been protected<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Conservation action in the Ulugurus focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania, using funding provided by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, confirmed the species's presence in a section of the reserve previously known as Uluguru South and are involved in follow-up work<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Jasson John is leading implementation of following actions<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>: surveys in the area previously known as the Uluguru South Forest Reserve are underway that will provide a more precise understanding of the species's total population size; monitoring of preferred habitat continues the area formerly designated as Uluguru North Forest Reserve; community sensitisation seminars and workshops have been conducted in order to raise awareness and address illegal activities taking place in the region. Habitat restoration, involving the planting of indigenous trees, will be carried out in collaboration with the Forest and Bee-keeping Division (FBD), Tanzania's forest protection authority.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Publish existing population estimates from 2000 and 2006 and thereafter monitor population status. Increase efforts to reduce firewood collection and timber harvesting within the reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Plant new forest below 1,500 m (this would also be beneficial for watershed management). Estimate the number of individuals within the area previously known as Uluguru South.	eng
147071	distribution		<em>Malaconotus alius</em> occurs only in the Uluguru Mountains, <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Its core habitat is within the newly formed Uluguru Nature Reserve (previusly split into the Ulguru North, Ulguru South and Bunduki Forest Reserves) and an adjacent unprotected forest area, which still holds a good tract of flat forest between 1,200 and 1,500 m. In 1999-2000, a census estimated a population of 1,200 pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; repeat surveys in 2006 and 2007 found that the population had not changed in numbers significantly<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.	eng
147071	habitat		It inhabits the canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> of moist sub-montane and montane forest, seeming to prefer areas where precipitation is highest and the forest least disturbed, but has also been found in degraded forest at the edge of forest reserves or where mature and tall trees still remain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its core habitat is probably the submontane and lowest montane zone (1,200-1,700 m)<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. It probably forages alone and in pairs, possibly joining mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2,11</sup></strong>, feeding on large arthropods<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nothing is known of its breeding ecology<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
147071	population		A survey in 1999-2000 estimated the population at 1,200 pairs (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2001), and repeat surveys in 2006 and 2007 found that the population had not changed significantly (J. John <em>in litt</em>. 2007).	eng
147072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147073	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prionops poliolophus</em>, a social, group-living species, inhabits open woodland, wooded grassland and bushland of <em>Acacia/Tarchonanthus</em> (1,200-2,200&#160;m), in a restricted area of south-west <strong>Kenya</strong> and adjacent areas of northern <strong>Tanzania<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. One study, in one of the best-watched areas of Kenya, indicated that it was genuinely scarce, and that it might have an extremely large foraging range when not breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, other reports indicate that it is quite common in the extreme north of the Serengeti National Park, and that the Rift Valley population is both large and widespread<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Increasing densities of livestock and cultivation of marginal land are degrading its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its range is peripheral to most protected areas, but the buffer zones of the Masai Mara National Park (Kenya), which are currently managed in a similar way to the main reserve, should contain this species. The population around Lake Naivasha should be surveyed, as soon as possible, to assess its ecology, habitat requirements, distribution and numbers<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, and wider surveys should be conducted to determine its overall distribution and population size<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147074	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status. However ARCOS the Albertine Rift Conservation Society has initiated youth education in the area and has facilitated training in biodiversity assessment and monitoring techniques for a local team in Eastern DRC<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Facilitate conservation initiatives in Itombwe, in collaboration with traditional authorities to limit further degradation<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate habitat management and environmental education through the Albertine Rift Conservation Society. <br/></p>	eng
147074	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prionops alberti</em> is known from four mountain ranges (west of Lake Edward, west of Lake Kivu, Itombwe and Mt Kabobo) in the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, a record from Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in Uganda being rejected. Surveys in southern and central Itombwe in 1996 recorded the species on multiple occasions west of the central savanna plateau, but it is apparently absent from similar habitat to the east<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147074	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in montane forest above 1,400&#160;m, being recorded between 1,700&#160;m and 1,900&#160;m in Itombwe in flocks of 5-8 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147074	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,400 km (10% EOO) = 3,400-6,800, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (the lowest to lower quartile of seven estimates for two congeners ranged from 4 to 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, but these are savanna and woodland species, and it is likely that the forest-dwelling<em> P. alberti</em> occurs at lower densities, hence a range of 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> is taken here). <br/></p>	eng
147074	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is  threatened by forest clearance for smallholder agriculture throughout its range. This is a serious threat in Itombwe where human population densities are high and a blight has reduced yields of maize since the early 1990s, forcing farmers to clear new farms in the forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All these problems are exacerbated by domestic and neighbouring civil unrest and large numbers of refugees in the area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for cattle pasture is also a threat in Itombwe, particularly at higher altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Satellite image data suggest that the Itombwe region has lost at least 5-6% of its forest since 1980<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; the true figure may be much higher. <br/></p>	eng
147075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147077	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A protected area of 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the area was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not been established<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution, population numbers and habitat requirements (however, the military situation in the country currently precludes this). Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of forest cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of suitable habitat (so that surveys can start once civil unrest abates). Designate forest at Gabela as a protected area (however, this is currently impractical due to the current security situation)<sup>3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147077	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prionops gabela</em> remains known only from a small area near Gabela, to the south of Mumbondo, on the escarpment of <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (although it may occur elsewhere along the scarp where suitable habitat remains). There have been no records since the mid-1970s.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147077	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the canopy of forest (including forest underplanted with coffee), but is apparently not restricted to escarpment forest as it has also been collected from "dry thicket and cultivation"<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147077	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 1,856-2,784 birds (4-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 464 km<sup>2</sup> [10% EOO]), so is best placed in band 1,000-2,499 individuals. Density range is up to the lower quartile of seven estimates for two congeners, and at lower end of range of 122 estimates of 32 species of shrikes and bushshrikes in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
147077	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by loss of habitat from subsistence agriculture. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
147079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147081	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the eastern rainforests of Madagascar.	eng
147081	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in primary and adjacent secondary forests. It is common in suitable habitat between sea level and about 1,500 m and is usually seen singly or in pairs. It often joins mixed species flocks in the upper strata and canopy where it fly-catches for insects.	eng
147081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as patchily distributed and does not occur in great densities (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147081	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat destruction resulting from clearance for subsistence cultivation and commercial logging (Morris and Hawkins 1998, ZICOMA 1999).	eng
147082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally not uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Niger (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not well known, although probably fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Batis minima</em> is found in <strong>Gabon</strong> where it is known from the provinces of l'Estuaire (western Monts de Cristal), Ogoou&eacute;-Ivindo (Makokou, B&eacute;linga, Mink&eacute;b&eacute;) and Ngouni&eacute; (Mbigou)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong> where it occurs in the lowland Dja area, continental <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong> where there are recent records from Monte Alen National Park and Monte Mitra (now included in the Monte Alen National Park)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and it has recently been discovered in Dzangha-Ndoki National Park in the extreme south of the <strong>Central African Republic</strong>, representing quite a range extension to the east<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its density in Makokou forest is 1.0-1.5 pairs per km<sup>2<strong> 1</strong></sup>. It may prove to be more widespread in Gabon (it is difficult to locate and has possibly been confused with West African Batis <em>B. occulta</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found in lowland forested areas mainly below 800 m, but not primary forest except within 500 m of the edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In north-east Gabon, it favours secondary forest with a dense low understorey and a dense discontinuous canopy, also inhabiting old, uncleared cocoa and coffee plantations where the tree layers are beginning to disappear<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It avoids open cultivated land even with scattered trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A large block of forest at Mink&eacute;b&eacute;, north of Makokou, has recently been proposed as a protected area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It would appear to be rare and forest is being cleared within its small range. <br/></p>	eng
147094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Ituri Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and fairly common in the Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon, although its status is poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147099	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Local communities are actively engaged in conserving the montane forest, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project. More sustainable farming techniques are being used to take pressure off the remaining forest. The condition of the Kilum-Ijim forest and its endemic birds is monitored, as well as the overall extent of forest cover in the Bamenda Highlands. Community-based conservation activities was extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct more intensive surveys at Kilum-Ijim to ascertain population numbers of the species<sup>2,3. Take measures to prevent forest fires3. Protect as many as possible of the remaining forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands1. Develop strategies for restoring larger blocks of natural forest and connecting corridors1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147099	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platysteira laticincta</em> is restricted to the Bamenda Highlands of western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and is only likely to survive if the Kilum-Ijim forest, the largest remaining forest area in the region, is preserved<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Research in 1994-1995 found the species in most remaining forest or forest remnants in the Bamenda Highlands and seemingly able to persist in very small forest fragments (<1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, in 1999 and 2000, follow-up surveys found some of these forest fragments had almost completely disappeared, with <em>P. laticincta </em>either absent or only a few pairs remaining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Preliminary research in 1994 estimated the Kilum-Ijim population at 3,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147099	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in montane forest, dominated by species such as <em>Podocarpus</em>, <em>Schefflera</em> and <em>Prunus</em>, where it inhabits thick forest understorey and seems to favour streams or dry stream courses<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Below 1,800&#160;m, it is replaced by its congener, Scarlet-spectacled Wattle-eye <em>P. cyanea</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds in the early dry season, January-March<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with nest-building starting in November<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147099	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary research in 1994 estimated the Kilum-Ijim population at 3,000 birds (McKay 1994), however the species is also found in most of the remaining forest in the Bamenda Highlands (McKay and Coulthard 1996), putting the population somewhere in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147099	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is under very serious threat from forest clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood and timber, with birds surviving in forest fragments in imminent danger of extinction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Forest-fires in the dry season are the most serious threat, particularly as the species inhabits thick undergrowth and nests close to the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In March 2000, c.500&#160;ha of forest were burnt around Lake Oku<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147100	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Platysteira albifrons </em>is endemic to (and locally common in) <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is found from the mouth of the Congo River in Zaire province south along the coastal plain to Benguela, and also from Cuanza Norte and Cuanza Sul Provinces<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found in dry thicket in woodland, gallery forest and at the edges of mangrove forest and is common in <em>Croton</em> thickets on the plateau in Qui&ccedil;ama National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>It feeds on small arthropods by foliage-gleaning<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Mangrove forest around Luanda is being exploited for building timber by people in informal settlements<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and some forest areas in its range are being cleared for subsistence agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common and common on Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147109	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Philentoma velata</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (very scarce), in broadleaved evergreen forest, including swamp forest, to 1,400 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147110	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (Harris and Franklin 2000). .	eng
147111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Harris and Franklin 2000).	eng
147112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in primary western deciduous forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the nominate race is described as commonest in Western Madagascar and race cetera is common in spiny forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at Ifaty (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147116	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Both Ankarafantsika and Analamera are protected areas (Strict Reserve and Special Reserve respectively), but their long-term future is not certain<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population estimates in different habitats in Ankarafantsika and Analamera. Evaluate extent of habitat loss within key habitats due to human occupation and uncontrolled bushfires.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147116	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenopirostris damii</em> is currently known from only two sites (Ankarafantsika and Analamera) in north-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>. However, there is much suitable habitat between the two sites that has not been thoroughly surveyed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is considered the island's rarest and most threatened vanga<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147116	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found at low altitude only in, or adjacent to, undisturbed, dry, deciduous forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where it forages for invertebrates in dead wood and leaf clumps<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, often joining other vangas (particularly Rufous Vanga <em>Schetba rufa</em>) and other insectivores in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The breeding season  starts in October and extends until January at least<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Clutch size at 3-4 is large for a <em>Xenopirostris </em>vanga, other congeners having 2<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding pairs occupy widely separated, non-contiguous home ranges of 5-8 ha<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, suggesting approximate densities of 4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>.  <br/></p>	eng
147116	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at 2,272 individuals, thus it may lie at the lower end of the range 2,500-9,999 individuals. Mizuta <em>et al.</em> (2001) estimate territories of 5-8 ha, non-contiguous separated by c.200m, thus giving a 100m extra buffer around each territory. Hence an 8 ha territory takes up 24 ha. This is equivalent to 4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>, or 8 indivs/km<sup>2</sup>. Habitat area: 20% of 1420 km<sup>2</sup> = 284 km<sup>2</sup>. Total Population: 8 x 284 km<sup>2</sup> = 2272 indivs. This estimate may be an optimistic minimum because the Jardin Botanique study site of Mizuta <em>et al.</em> (2001) is likely to have been chosen for ease of study. <br/></p>	eng
147116	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's habitat is declining in both extent and quality, due to the clearing and burning of forest for subsistence maize cultivation, uncontrolled bushfires, commercial logging and exploitation for charcoal and firewood<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147117	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenopirostris polleni</em> is patchily distributed in primary humid evergreen forest throughout eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It is fairly common between Andohahela and Ranomafana, from sea-level to 1,950 m, but seems to be much scarcer in the northern half of its range<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It often joins other large vangas in mixed-species flocks, foraging for invertebrates on dead wood, especially under dead bark and in twigs<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The species's forest habitat is threatened by slash-and-burn cultivation for subsistence farming<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and commercial logging<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, much of the remaining forest, especially at lower altitudes, will disappear within decades<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although it has a larger population than previously thought, and so has been downlisted from Vulnerable, extensive habitat loss and its patchy distribution are still of sufficient concern to classify it as Near Threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in or near forests in western Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147122	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is known from Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mangerivola Special Reserve, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park and Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The three National Parks are particularly important for this species as they still contain significant areas of suitable habitat<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Verify presence in lowland forests around Vondrozo and further south, including Midongy-South National Park. Improve conservation awareness and the implications of widepread forest loss among local people. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147122	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oriolia bernieri</em> is known from many sites between Marojejy in the north and Zahamena in the centre-east of <strong>Madagascar</strong> (although there is a single, as yet unconfirmed, record from Vondrozo). It is scarce and patchily distributed throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
147122	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is restricted to undisturbed, primary tracts of humid evergreen forest. Studies in 1988 in Marojejy found it to be remarkably localised, but fairly common in the south-west area of the reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found either in isolated pairs or in mixed-species flocks made up principally of vangas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It forages by searching the leaves, and rooting around in the leaf-bases, of pandanus <em>Pandanus</em>, ravenala <em>Ravenala madagascariensis</em> and palms, also levering rotten bark and moss off large tree-branches with its wedge-like bill, in search of large invertebrates, e.g. beetles, crickets and spiders<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147122	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-5 individs/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,820 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =  1,820-9,100, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density extrapolated from similar forest species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; actual density perhaps likely to be at lower end of this range as described as 'scarce and patchily distributed'). <br/></p>	eng
147122	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat to primary, lowland rainforest is posed by subsistence slash-and-burn cultivation, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest (especially at lower altitudes) will disappear within decades<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147123	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Anjanaharibe Classified Forest, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Betampona Strict Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Tsaratanana Strict Reserve and Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine its home-range size and its dispersal capability across deforested areas, in order to clarify the impact of forest fragmentation on its population structure. Improve conservation awareness and the implications of widepread forest loss among local people. <br/></p>	eng
147123	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euryceros prevostii</em> is restricted to the northern part of the humid evergreen forests of eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Tsaratanana south to Mantadia in the centre-east<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is only known from primary forest, generally below 800&#160;m, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and patchy in distribution.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147123	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a bird of primary, mainly lowland rainforest, occupying the middle stratum in areas with large trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, often occurring in mixed-species groups with other vangas (Vangidae)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on large insects and other invertebrates, sally-gleaning from branches and trunks as well as from the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147123	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147123	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Low-altitude forest in Madagascar is a critically threatened habitat, largely due to clearance for shifting agriculture but also due to commercial exploitation of timber<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species's inability to survive outside this habitat puts it at risk.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147124	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hypositta perdita</em> was discovered and named recently on the basis of two specimens collected in primary forest and grassland in 1931 near Eminiminy, a village north of Taola&ntilde;aro (Fort Dauphin) next to (but outside) Andohahela National Park in south-east <strong>Madagascar</strong><sup>3</sup>. No information is available on the taxon's appearance and behaviour in the field, although it is considered most similar to Nuthatch Vanga <em>H. corallirostris</em>, a tree-climber of humid evergreen forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. From its morphology, it would appear that <em>perdita</em> was not ground-living and was probably confined to trees and scrub, but was seemingly not specialised in climbing<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is therefore probable that this taxon and <em>H. corallirostris</em> were ecologically separate and may have co-existed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A faunal inventory of Andohahela in 1995, which included forest near Eminiminy, found only <em>H. corallirostris</em><strong><sup>1,</sup></strong>2. The principal threat to the forests of this region is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers. It is thus possible that since 1931 <em>perdita</em> may have become extinct<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although forest survives at Eminiminy<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In any case, the taxonomic validity of this form needs to be further evaluated, especially as the type-specimens are both recently fledged juveniles<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and for this reason the taxon is treated as Data Deficient. If it proves to be a valid species, it can be inferred to have a tiny population and range, and thus should be treated as Critical. <br/></p>	eng
147125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
147126	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Most of the remaining habitat is protected and almost all key subpopulations are managed for <em>R. rattus</em> and <em>T. vulpecula</em>. Recent research shows that 'pulsing' poison bait delivery (at least 3 managed years every 10) is likely to be the most effective way of dealing with the predator threat once managed populations have reached a certain size<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Birds have been introduced to four islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Young females have also been introduced to two managed remnant male/predominantly male populations on the mainland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and several new populations (in areas of their previous range) have been established through translocation of adults to sites at which predators are controlled. Two small captive populations are held<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Improve the understanding of the Te Urewera population, and modify management developed in smaller forest blocks, to assist large-scale protection and enhancement. Develop sustainable long-term management practises by research and mathematical modeling, and implement them. Reintroduce birds to newly-managed forest areas</strong><sup>2</sup>.	eng
147126	distribution		This species is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The last confirmed sightings of the South Island subspecies <em>cinerea</em> were in 1967<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The North Island subspecies <em>wilsoni</em> survives in the Hunua Ranges, Mataraua, Kaharoa, Rotoehu, Pureora and Mapara forests, and Te Urewera National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its total adult population is estimated at 1,538 birds, but there is still a predominance of males and the breeding population is now 769 pairs<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Populations are increasing in areas of intensive conservation work including the establishment of translocated populations at Secretary Island and Omaio/East Cape<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but continue to decline elsewhere, with most unmanaged sites now extinct. Observed rates of decline have been as high as 50% in three years in some areas<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Subpopulations are entirely isolated by fragmentation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This species is entirely conservation-dependent, each population requiring ongoing annual pest-management until at least 25 breeding pairs are present, followed by at least 3 years of management every 10 years to maintain population growth. Although the population is now increasing thanks to the intensive management conducted for the species, the number of locations where it is found continues to decline as unmanaged populations disappear, and over the past three generations the global population has certainly shown a very rapid decline.	eng
147126	habitat		The species prefers lowland, tall podocarp/hardwood forests with a high diversity of plant species. It is rarely found in modified forests, including selectively logged forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its diet varies seasonally. It prefers fruit, but also eats leaves, invertebrates, buds, flowers and nectar<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It usually lays three eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In years of high food availability, pairs will raise several clutches. The average age of parents at Mapara is 6.3 years, but this may be an underestimate of the global average as the population is young owing to intensive management<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
147126	population		In 2008 the global population contained 769 breeding pairs (J. Innes <em>in litt</em>. 2009). The number of mature individuals is higher, but the population has a surplus of adult males, thus the effective population size is lower.	eng
147127	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Philesturnus carunculatus</em> was once widespread over the North and South Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, and some offshore islands, but by the early 1900s, was extinct on the mainland. The North Island subspecies <em>rufusater</em> survived only on Hen Island, and the South Island subspecies <em>carunculatus</em> was reduced to three islets off Stewart Island<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Since 1964, <em>rufusater</em> has been introduced successfully to surrounding islands, and its population now numbers over 6,000 birds on 12 islands, with the capacity to increase to over 19,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Since 1964, <em>carunculatus</em> has been established on 15 islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the three original "donor" island populations have become extinct. The population has increased to over 1,200 birds, with the capacity to increase to 2,500 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In June 2002, 39 <em>rufusater</em> were released into the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary, a 250 ha patch of native forest surrounded by a predator-proof fence on the New Zealand mainland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Plans are also underway to release <em>carunculatus</em> into the Rotoiti Nature Recovery area, an intensively managed and pest-controlled beech forest in the Nelson district<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Introduced carnivorous mammals probably caused its extinction on the mainland. The arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the three Stewart Island islets in 1963 caused the rapid extinction of the populations. Both subspecies are unable to coexist with brown rat <em>R.&#160;norvegicus</em>, and <em>carunculatus</em> cannot coexist with Pacific rat <em>R.&#160;exulans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong></em>. The accidental introduction of such species to further islands is an ever-present threat. <br/></p>	eng
147127	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Hooson and Jamieson (2003). <br/></p>	eng
147128	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heteralocha acutirostris </em>was endemic to the southern portion of the North Island, <strong>New Zealand<sup>5</sup></strong>. It was intensively studied by Buller in the second half of the 19th century<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and is known from numerous specimens<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but declined to extinction around the turn of the century with the last confirmed record being in 1907<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The cause of its extinction is unclear but it was probably primarily due to habitat loss, especially of dead trees on which they depended for extracting beetle larvae<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, possibly along with hunting and disease<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147131	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. A proposal has been developed to conduct population surveys in Ghana<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A <em>Picathartes</em> working group has recently been formed, to promote research and conservation action<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <em>Picathartes</em> are protected (on paper) by national law in some states (e.g. Ghana, Sierra Leone, Cameroon)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The species is protected by local religious beliefs in some areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Undertake surveys to estimate population sizes<sup>5. In Ghana, survey areas where formerly known5. Conduct long-term monitoring of known populations6. Protect large breeding colonies, where feasible, through agreements/collaboration with local people9. Conduct genetic studies using samples from different subpopulations to assess effective population size and degree of inbreeding. Expand the potential for ecotourism based around this charismatic species10, taking care to minimise disturbance at the most easily accessible sites11.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147131	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picathartes gymnocephalus</em> is known from <strong>Guinea</strong> (colonies recently confirmed), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (recent records from Gola Forest, Freetown peninsula, Loma Mountains, Kambui Hills, Kangari Hills and Dodo Hills, very small numbers in last four), <strong>Liberia</strong> (most records in northern highlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (four known breeding localities, Mt Ni&eacute;nokou&eacute; in Ta&iuml; National Park, Mt P&eacute;ko, Lamto and Mt Nimba, others suspected), and <strong>Ghana </strong>(many records into the 1960s, none confirmed thereafter<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>). In Sierra Leone, numbers are estimated at c.1,400, with populations in forest reserves close to the minimum for long-term viability, and numbers apparently stable or declining very slowly<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. In Liberia, the minimum population is estimated at 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147131	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in primary and secondary forest, forest clearings, and gallery forest<strong><sup>2,6,7</sup></strong> mainly in rocky, hilly terrain (up to 800 m on Mt Nimba)<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong> but has also survived at highly degraded sites<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and also close to urban centres<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates, usually singly and largely within one metre of the forest floor<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. They frequently follow army ant columns<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It breeds in colonies of up to 40 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (though the majority consist of only 2-5), on rock-faces, cliffs, cave roofs and in large, fallen hollow trees<strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>; rocky sites are the most common, however. In lowland forest breeding follows rainfall and maybe be once or twice yearly as a result<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Clutch size is one or two and breeding success is low<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147131	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 individuals (Gatter 1997; Thompson 1997, 1998). This figure is supported by estimates for range states provided by various sources (Thompson <em>et al.</em> 2004).  <br/></p>	eng
147131	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened throughout its range by forest clearance, trapping (with noose traps and wire snares<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and (up to c.1990) zoo-collecting. In Ghana, it is seriously threatened by mining for gold, manganese and bauxite<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Sierra Leone, abandonment of colonies has been associated with habitat degradation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and low breeding success at some sites with human disturbance<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Nest-predation and competition from conspecifics (e.g. for limited nest-sites)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> are other factors. Small populations near urban centres in Cameroon and Sierra Leone are very seriously threatened by conversion to farmland<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147132	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It occurs in protected areas throughout its range.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey one or more known areas to establish baseline population density<sup>11, and conduct more extensive surveys in south-east Nigeria1. Study genetics using samples from different subpopulations to assess effective population size and degree of inbreeding.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147132	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Picathartes oreas</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Nigeria, </strong>western and southern <strong>Cameroon</strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong>, continental <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>, and south-west Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). It has recently been found on the Boumba river, south-eastern Cameroon, but it is not as yet known from the intervening area, and is unlikely to be found further east as suitable habitat is lacking<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In March 2000, it was discovered on Mt Doudou in south-west Gabon, representing a considerable southern range extension<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Suitable nesting sites have been located across its extensive range, for example, 91 in Nigeria<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, indicating that it is more numerous than once thought<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the majority of colonies comprise no more than 10-15 individuals<strong><sup>8 </sup></strong>and the total population is almost certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>2,8,11</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147132	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits closed-canopy, primary rainforest, but may have a greater tolerance for degraded habitat than previously believed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on invertebrates<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, is a strong follower of ant columns, and also takes small vertebrates, primarily frogs and lizards<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is recorded at 45-2,100&#160;m in Cameroon<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but, on Bioko, at 250-900&#160;m. It nests in caves and on rock-faces and cliffs (though there is a recent report of a nest in the buttress of a large <em>Piptadeniastrum</em> tree<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>) and appears to have very specific breeding habitat requirements, including overhanging rock to protect the nest from rain and sheer rock below to protect it from predators<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially where nest-sites are limited<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
147132	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is almost certainly less than 10,000 mature individuals (C. Bowden<em> in litt.</em> 1999; R. Fotso <em>in litt. </em>1999; H. Thompson<em> in litt. </em>2000). <br/></p>	eng
147132	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It remains seriously threatened by forest clearance and increasing human disturbance throughout much of its range, and at many sites in Cameroon survives only in poor quality habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The lack of suitable breeding sites, particularly of suitable rocks, may partly account for its scarcity, while cannibalism and predation probably contribute to low breeding success<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147139	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bombycilla japonica</em> breeds only in the far east of <strong>Russia</strong>, where it has been found nesting in eastern Yakutia, Khabarovsk and Amur, in coniferous forests. It is locally common on the breeding grounds, but given its limited range its total population must be small. It is a non-breeding visitor to <strong>Japan</strong>, where it is uncommon and sporadic, <strong>North </strong>and <strong>South Korea</strong>, where it is irregular and uncommon, mainland <strong>China</strong>, where it is uncommon in the north and rare in the south, and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). It has presumably been affected by the logging and development of its forest habitat. The species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored. Since 1998, 5,390 wild individuals have been imported into EU countries alone, the majority exported from China<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, a level of trade that might be a significant threat to the species. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170000-330000 breeding pairs, equating to 510000-990000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1040000-3960000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread on suitable watercourses throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147145	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Barit&uacute; and Calilegua National Parks and Portrero de Yala Provincial Park, Argentina, and Tariqu&iacute;a National Reserve, Bolivia<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species's ecology is being studied in Tarija<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a river management system enabling birds to access rivers with high water quality and adjacent alder <em>Alnus</em></strong> areas. <strong>Redesign and implement the planned national park in the Nevados del Aconquija to include part of its range. Survey rivers between known localities and Campo de los Alisos National Park, Tucum&aacute;n<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a public awareness campaign related to land-use and the protection of watersheds. <br/></p>	eng
147145	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cinclus schulzi</em> occurs on the east Andean slope in south <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Tarija and Chuquisaca) and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy, Salta, Tucum&aacute;n, Catamarca). It can be quite local, and most subpopulations appear to be very small. Estimates of the Bolivian population vary from up to 500 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> to over 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The latter figure is based on its widespread occurrence on permanent streams near Tarija, and it being locally common south of Narvaez<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Argentine population has been estimated at no more than 1,000 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147145	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits rivers and streams 5-15&#160;m in width with relatively stable channels, cascades, waterfalls, mid-river rocks, and rocky cliffs or banks<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. It breeds in the alder <em>Alnus acuminata</em> zone at 1,500-2,500&#160;m, descending to larger rivers at c.800&#160;m during frosts<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has been found above and below the <em>Alnus</em> zone, and on streams running through pastureland in Bolivia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, where it may breed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in September-January, with territories of 500-1,000&#160;m in length on suitable stretches of river<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147145	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Ergueta and Morales (1996), Tyler (1994), Tyler and Tyler (1996). <br/></p>	eng
147145	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Argentina, reservoir construction, hydroelectric and irrigation schemes and eutrophication threaten riverine habitats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with pollution, reduced flows and river channel modifications most prevalent at lower altitudes<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. If forest is required for breeding, logging, livestock-grazing and subsequent soil erosion are significant problems<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. The introduction of sport fish (e.g. trout) probably has a negative effect<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, much habitat is protected by its inaccessibility<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and, in Bolivia, these threats have limited effects on few rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147149	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the forests of Madagascar. There are two subspecies: M. s. sharpei occurs in the Sambirano region of the north-west and relict forests of the high plateau (Langrand 1990), whilst M. s. bensoni (formerly considered a separate species) has a relatively broad range in south-central and south-western Madagascar (Langrand and Goodman 1996). Populations are found in numerous protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Betampona Natural Reserve, Bezavona Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Kalambatritra Special Reserve, Mangerivola Special Reserve, Mantadia National Park, Marojejy National Park, Marotandrano Special Reserve, Masoala National Park, Mindongy-South National Park, Onive Classified Forest, Ramanofana National Park, Tsaratanana Natural Reserve, Vondrozo Classified Forest, Zahamena National Park, Isalo National Park and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (Langrand and Goodman 1996, ZICOMA 1999). In 1994 the population density of M. s. sharpei was estimated at 94-216 singing birds per km2 in Ajanaharibe-sud between 1,260 m and 1,950 m (Hawkins et al. 1998), and in 1995 at 38-162 singing birds per km2 in high-altitude forest at Zahamena (Hawkins 1995).	eng
147149	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	M. s. sharpei is found in mid-altitude and montane rainforest where it is fairly common, but it is also found on the edges of forest and in open scrubby areas adjacent to high-mountain forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998, ZICOMA 1999). M. s. bensoni inhabits semi-arid rocky country, e.g. cliffs and gorges (Langrand 1990), with adjacent arborescent vegetation which may be bushy or scant, but which also includes remnant dry deciduous forests in the west of its range (Langrand and Goodman 1996). It appears to be able to re-colonize areas of burned ground and regenerating tree-heath Philippia (Langrand and Goodman 1996).	eng
147149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common, although restricted to eastern Madagascar(del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147149	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Both subspecies are threatened by habitat destruction for commercial logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture, uncontrolled sapphire mining, with concomitant increases in fire frequency, general hunting and disturbance (A. F. A. Hawkins in litt. 2000).	eng
147150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, although limited to a small range within southern Malagasy spiny forest (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in South Africa and Swaziland, although also locally uncommon in South Africa and uncomon in Lesotho (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common above 1,500 m in South Africa and common above 2,500 m in Lesotho (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely common in the southern savannahs of Itombweregion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; locally common thorughout the central plateau of Angola and fairly common throughout Zambia and Mozambique (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100000-320000 breeding pairs, equating to 300000-960000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 612000-3840000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to comon in Ethiopia, very common in Eritrea, locally common in Somalia and uncommon and local in east Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in northern Pakistan and generally common throughout the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common during the breeding season in China and rare in North Korea (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly or locally common (Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
147160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 120000-260000 breeding pairs, equating to 360000-780000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 735000-3120000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147161	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Peak Wilderness Sanctuary and Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its status and produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research the effects of pesticide pollution on this and other species associated with upland streams. Encourage protection of important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147161	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myophonus blighi</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is restricted to the central mountains. It has always been considered scarce and is thought to have a declining, increasingly fragmented, population of no more than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147161	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a secretive, ground-dwelling bird confined to dense mountain forests above c.900 m, usually close to streams, especially in ravines and gorges. Breeding is from January-May, and possibly again in September, on rock ledges next to waterfalls or rapids and also in the forks of trees.</p>	eng
147161	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that 'it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals' <br/></p>	eng
147161	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of montane forests through conversion to timber plantations and agriculture, firewood-collection, particularly around Nuwara Eliya, Maskeliya and Bogowantaalaw, and gem mining. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. It has been affected by reductions in food supply because of replacement of natural forests, containing fruiting trees, with monoculture plantations. Run-off from vegetable farms is polluting streams within its range. Forest die-back in the montane region, perhaps a result of air pollution, is a potential threat. Birdwatchers using tape play-back may adversely affect breeding success at Horton Plains National Park. <br/></p>	eng
147162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147163	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the highlands of the Main Range, central Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, ranging from the Cameron Highlands south to the Genting Highlands. It is known from at least eight localities. There are recent records from at least three: Robinson Waterfall in the Cameron Highlands, Fraser's Hill and the Malayan Nature Society Boh Tea Estate Centre. The species occurs in the very small Fraser's Hill Wildlife Sanctuary.<em> <br/></p>	eng
147163	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is resident in the ground and lower storey of hill and montane evergreen forest, usually near streams, from c.750-1,750 m. It is very shy, occasionally frequenting quiet mountain roadsides at dawn and dusk. Nests with eggs (clutch-size 1-2) and young have been found in March and September.	eng
147163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2005), although common in the Cameron Highlands (D. Wells in litt. 2005).	eng
147163	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Conversion of forest for agriculture around its lower altitudinal limits may be causing some declines. However, plans for a proposed north-south road linking the hill stations of Genting Highlands, Fraser's Hill and Cameron Highlands, which would have caused considerable danger to the species, have now been shelved. Should these plans be raised again, the species would be immediately uplisted.	eng
147164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the Western Ghats, although less so in the Eastern Ghats (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but thinly spread (Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
147166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147167	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geomalia heinrichi</em> is restricted to Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits montane forest (particularly moss forest) at 1,700-3,400 m. It is unrecorded in the east peninsula and from south Sulawesi. A previous statement that its legs and feet are notably weak and small for a large terrestrial bird is mistaken, and it is in fact an agile and wary species of the forest floor; nevertheless, the number of feral domestic cats observed in Lore Lindu at night in 1999 was such as to raise serious concern over the security of the mid-sized and smaller ground-haunting birds endemic to Sulawesi, and it may be that declines have resulted from this additional predation pressure. <br/></p>	eng
147168	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera schistacea</em> is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands (Larat and Yamdena), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest. It is generally common, but there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena and this is likely to be affecting its (presumably relatively small) population. <br/></p>	eng
147169	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera dohertyi</em> is restricted to three Endemic Bird Areas (Northern Nusa Tenggara; Sumba; Timor and Wetar), <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it occurs at higher altitudes in semi-evergreen, lower montane and montane forest. Although considered generally uncommon to rare, and only locally common at higher elevations, it has been traded in very high volume within Indonesia in recent years because of its voice, and is probably already extinct on Lombok and close to extinction on Sumbawa. There is a single village on Sumbawa whose inhabitants have devoted themselves to the capture, to virtual extinction, of the Lesser Sundas population of the Chestnut-capped Thrush <em>Z. interpres</em>, with some birds reaching Singapore. It is feared that the <em>Z. dohertyi </em>and other <em>Zoothera</em> thrushes may already have become victims of this pressure. <br/></p>	eng
147169	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Variably common, the species has declined to near (if not total) extinction on Lombok and Sumbawa. The total population is estimated to fall within the range 24,600-47,300 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
147170	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147171	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and nominal protection is afforded by the national park status of Mts Makiling and Quezon. On Mindoro, it is known from San Vicente, which is targeted for reforestation and rattan plantation by concession holders. Funding has been provided for faunal inventories and environmental education initiatives at Puerto Galera.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct research into its seasonal movements. Propose key sites for designation as formal protected areas (e.g. Angat watershed on Luzon and Puerto Galera on Mindoro). Extend the Sierra Madre Mountains Natural Park to include Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Introduce measures to restrict bird-trapping at Dalton Pass.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147171	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera cinerea</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from north and central Luzon and northern Mindoro. It is considered uncommon overall and was found to be scarce in the Sierra Madre mountains during surveys in the early 1990s. However, 130 birds were trapped at Dalton Pass on Luzon between 1964 and 1970, in addition to which it is tolerant of secondary habitats and is secretive and probably under-recorded, suggesting it could prove to be more abundant than previously thought. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147171	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the floor, particularly open patches, of primary, selectively logged and secondary forests, mainly in the lowlands (e.g. 90-360&#160;m on Mindoro). It has been recorded up to 1,100&#160;m in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon. The large numbers caught at the Dalton Pass (1,560 m) migration funnel suggest either post-breeding dispersal or regular movement between the Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central, in response to differences in the rainy season.</p>	eng
147171	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147171	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation is the chief threat. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested. Forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s and most remaining areas are under logging concession. Major road building plans pose a further threat. Illegal logging is frequent at Angat Dam and Quezon National Park, two key sites for the species. In 1988, an estimated 8.5% (c.120&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of Mindoro remained forested, most at too high an altitude for the species. It may also suffer from hunting with snares in the Sierra Madre and illicit bird-trapping at Dalton Pass may exert a considerable pressure. <br/></p>	eng
147172	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera peronii</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it is generally common on Roti and West Timor (race <em>peronii</em>), Timor-Leste, Wetar and Romang, Babar and Damar (race <em>audacis</em>) at up to 1,200 m in forest (including monsoon forest). Although it has been found in degraded patches, it appears to favour areas with closed-canopy forest, which are constantly diminishing, and there is great concern that so beautiful a songster will be targeted by traders already skilled in trapping <em>Zoothera</em> thrushes out of Lesser Sunda forests. <br/></p>	eng
147172	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Locally common. <br/></p>	eng
147173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
147174	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera everetti</em> is restricted to Borneo, where it is endemic to Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>. It inhabits montane forest at 1,200-2,300 m on Mts Kinabalu, Murud, Mulu, Dulit, Trus Madi and the Kelabit uplands, where, despite its highly secretive nature, it may be genuinely rare and declining in some areas with loss of forest at lower altitudes. <br/></p>	eng
147174	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species appears to be genuinely rare within a restricted range. Hence, its population is provisionally estiamted to number c.10,000-20,000 individuals, but density estimates are needed to inform a more accurate global population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
147175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common in Russia, fairly common in China and relatively common in Japan  (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common and uncommon in Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera tanganjicae</em> is found in <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Uganda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it is known from at least ten forest blocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a species of montane forest, occurring at altitudes of 1,500-2,900 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Nyungwe Forest (Rwanda), the species occurs at densities of up to 0.4 pairs per hectare in optimal habitat (closed forest)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The relatively large number of forest blocks from which this species is known to occur, including at least four National Parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, as well as the relative inaccessibility of its montane habitat, mean that it is probably secure in the immediate future. Its taxonomic status is yet to be fully or satisfactorily resolved<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> -- it is often considered as no more than a subspecies of the widespread Abyssinian Ground-Thrush <em>Z. piaggiae</em>. <br/></p>	eng
147180	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera crossleyi</em> is found in south-eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (on the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaux and Gotel Mountains), <strong>Cameroon</strong> (from Mt Cameroon and the Rumpi Hills in the south-west to Mt Tchabal Mbabo on the Adamawa Plateau<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), southern <strong>Congo </strong>and north-east <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo<sup>5</sup></strong>. In Nigeria, it was found to be common at Chappal Waddi in the Gotel Mountains but less numerous elsewhere in 1988<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it was quite common to very common in the north Bakossi Mountains in 1998 and on Mt Nlonako in 1999<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, and was also discovered on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong><strong><sup> </sup></strong>and seen again there in 2000<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It inhabits mid-altitude forest, from 1,200-1,900&#160;m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, preferring wetter parts of primary forest, particularly ravines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and is susceptible to forest loss within its relatively small and increasingly fragmented range.</p>	eng
147181	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera oberlaenderi</em> has only been recorded in the Ituri Forest, Semliki valley and Itombwe Mountains in <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> and in the Semliki (Bwamba) and Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forests in <strong>Uganda</strong>. It is found in lowland and transitional forest at altitudes of 700-1,600 m where it feeds on insects and slugs on the forest floor<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. At Ituri, the species is uncommon and apparently restricted to mono-dominant forest, not being recorded from mixed-species or secondary forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is sensitive to forest alteration (degradation) and deforestation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which are extensive and ongoing within its range, mainly for cultivation, pasture and timber<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. These processes are therefore the main threat, especially in Semliki and Itombwe<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147183	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in western and central Africa, and occurs as three subspecies. The nominate camaronensis is found in southern Cameroon, discontinuously from Korup National Park and the western Bakossi Mountains, Mt Cameroon, and the coastal forests at Efulen, Kribi, Ndian, Campo and Grand Betange; at Monte Alen National Park in Equatorial Guinea; and also in north-east Gabon. Subspecies graueri is known from Ituri Forest in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo, and Budongo and Bugoma forests in western Uganda. Subspecies kibalensis is only known from two adult males collected in Kibale forest, south-west Uganda (Clement and Hathway 2000, Fishpool and Evans 2001, Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147183	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the dense undergrowth of lowland and temperate forest, up to 1,700 m in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Uganda it is known to occur in low herbaceous ground vegetation in pristine mature forests of ironwood and mahogany. Its nest and eggs are unknown, but it probably nests at the end of the dry season and in the long rains (Clement and Hathway 2000, Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare to rare and very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147183	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Due to its distinct preference for lowland forest, in Cameroon it is threatened by habitat loss, and Kibale forest in Uganda is severely threatened by deforestation. Ituri Forest has also suffered severe deforestation during the last decade of disturbance in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat, and appears to be highly sensitive to habitat disturbance (J. Lindsell in litt. 2005).	eng
147184	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare, although locally common in parts of Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147185	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix&#160;II. In KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), 22 provincial nature and forest reserves include suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but funding is being reduced and many are no longer patrolled<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Malawi, all sites are Forest Reserves, but this confers little protection. In Kenya, a project is aiming to conserve wintering habitat at Arabuko-Sokoke Forest through sustainable use. The two breeding sites in Tanzania (Litipo and Rondo Plateau Forest Reserves) are part of a coastal forest conservation programme.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and protect breeding sites and migration "stepping stones" for <em>Z.&#160;g.&#160;fisheri</em></strong> in Tanzania and Mozambique. <strong>Investigate the current status of its forest habitat in South Africa and improve protection of provincial nature and forest reserves<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves<sup>5,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the current status of the subspecies in Sudan and DRC, when the security situation allows. <br/></p>	eng
147185	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera guttata</em> has a wide but discontinuous distribution<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with two migratory coastal races in <strong>Kenya<sup>2,3</sup></strong>, <strong>Tanzania<sup>2,3</sup></strong>, probably Mozambique, and <strong>South Africa<sup>1</sup></strong>, a resident race in <strong>Malawi<sup>4</sup></strong> and two races known from single specimens, in <strong>Sudan</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC). <strong></strong></p>	eng
147185	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in deep shade in a variety of forest types with deep leaf-litter, from dry <em>Cynometra</em> thicket in Arabuko-Sokoke at sea-level (non-breeding birds) to moist evergreen forest at 1,200-1,700 m in Malawi<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has a home range of at least 0.14 ha<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is 2-3<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147185	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The estimates provided for some known populations (<em>guttata</em> 400-800 pairs; <em>fischeri</em> c.200 pairs; <em>belcheri</em> 30-40 pairs; Ndang'ang'a <em>et al.</em> 2005) suggest that the world population numbers less than 2,500 individuals, therefore it is placed in the range bracket for 1,000-2,499 individuals.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147185	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Tanzania, coastal forest patches that are probably "stepping stones" during migration are under heavy pressure and becoming increasingly fragmented. Wintering habitat in Kenya is also under heavy pressure, particularly the smaller sites<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Malawi, forest is being cleared at all four known sites and there will soon be very little habitat remaining<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In South Africa, mining has destroyed much wintering habitat and may affect more forest in the near future<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, while habitat disturbance is increasing in many protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147186	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera spiloptera </em>is an endemic resident in southern <strong>Sri Lanka</strong> where it is fairly common to common in lowlands and hills of the wet zone from 300-1,220 m. It inhabits the leaf-litter of damp, dense, wooded areas and occasionally gardens near forest, also occurring sporadically in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, although there are no recent records from this part of the island. It is apparently most abundant in primary habitat, although also recorded in selectively logged forest, forest edges or near tea cultivation and scrub, it may be dependent on relatively intact forest remaining nearby. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <br/></p>	eng
147187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Philippines and west java, locally fairly common on Sumatra and Enggano island and generally uncommon to rare in the Lesser Sunda islands (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
147189	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common, although uncommon in Myanmar and China and scarce to uncommon in South-East Asia in the winter (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147190	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera machiki</em> is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands (Yamdena and Larat only) in the Banda Sea, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and scrub. Previously known from just three specimens, in the past 15 years has been found to be locally common in primary forest, occasionally secondary scrub, and sometimes concentrating in recently burned areas. Logging in the south of Yamdena has continued apace since 1992 and is presumably causing a decline in the population of this species. <br/></p>	eng
147191	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is described as common and the population has been estimated as 12,000 breeding individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147192	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in New Guinea, locally fairly common on Mussau and moderately common in Australia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147193	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera talaseae</em> is a very infrequently recorded species of Umboi, New Britain and Bougainville islands in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It has only been recorded once on Umboi, at 1,300&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and from about four mountains between 580-1,430&#160;m on New Britain<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>atrigena</em> of Bougainville, which may prove to be a separate species, is known only from the type-locality at 1,500&#160;m <strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. As with other <em>Zoothera</em> spp., it is a very secretive species and is likely to have been under-recorded. However, it does appear to have a small total population. Although its montane forest habitat is secure, its terrestrial habits may render it susceptible to introduced mammalian predators. <br/></p>	eng
147193	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>in press.  <br/></p>	eng
147194	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera margaretae</em> is endemic to Makira (=&#160;San Cristobal) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. Since 2000 it has been recorded in the Hauta area, including reliable information from local villagers<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. It appears to be widespread but patchily distributed and restricted to mid-montane forest with records from 400-700&#160;m<strong><sup>1,2,4,5,6</sup></strong>, and one report at 200&#160;m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, it is still very poorly known and probably has just one small population. At a well-visited site it appears to be relatively common and not declining<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. It prefers shady gulleys in closed-canopy forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its hill forest habitat is relatively secure and no declines have been recorded from a well-known site<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. However, as a terrestrial species it might be declining as a result of predation by cats and dogs, exacerbated by slow but chronic forest loss. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> appears to have only recently colonised the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and may be an additional threat. A conservation area has been established on the central area of Makira Island, covering approximately 63,000 hectares of largely undisturbed indigenous vegetation and including a large number of villages still engaged in traditional lifestyles and resource use. Assessments of population size and the impact of <em>R. rattus </em>are required. <br/></p>	eng
147194	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	</p>	eng
147195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147197	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera terrestris</em><em> </em>is only known from four specimens (now in Frankfurt, St Petersburg, Leiden and Vienna) collected in 1828 on Ogasawara-shoto (Peel Island, Bonin), <strong>Japan<sup>1</sup></strong>. It could not be found when the island was next visited by an ornithologist, in 1889, nor subsequently<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nothing is known of the species's ecology or extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Presumably it was confined to forest floor, and was driven to extinction by introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147199	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesocichla eremita</em> is endemic to <strong>Tristan da Cunha (to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean, where it is found on Tristan, Inaccessible, Nightingale, Middle and Stoltenhoff islands with distinct subspecies on each of the three main islands. The species uses virtually all available habitats including boulder-strewn shorelines, tussock grassland, fern-bush and wet heath. It feeds opportunistically on dead birds, fish offal, kitchen scraps and the eggs of other birds as well as earthworms and invertebrates taken from leaves and detritus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1972-1974, island populatioon sizes were estimated as follows (in pairs): Tristan 40-60; Inaccessible 100-500; Nightingale 300-500; Middle 20-40; and Stoltenhoff 10-20 <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the Inaccessible population was revised to 850 pairs, and the total population for the group to 6,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recently, the Tristan population has been estimated (very crudely, but conservatively) as at least several hundred birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Tristan, predation by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is a possible threat. Translocations of birds between islands, a common practice in the past, resulting in hybridisation, is another concern<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147199	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1972-1974, island population sizes were estimated as follows (in pairs): Tristan 40-60; Inaccessible 100-500; Nightingale 300-500; Middle 20-40; and Stoltenhoff 10-20 (Richardson 1984). In the 1980s, the Inaccessible population was revised to 850 pairs, and the total population for the group to 6,000 birds (Fraser <em>et al.</em> 1994). More recently, the Tristan population has been estimated (very crudely, but conservatively) as at least several hundred birds (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000).  <br/></p>	eng
147200	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Morne Diablotin National Park on Dominica, Guadeloupe National Park on Guadeloupe and various forest reserves including Edmond on St Lucia. On Montserrat, remaining habitat in the Centre Hills area is protected and highly unlikely to suffer any further anthropogenic habitat destruction<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is monitored quarterly in the Centre Hills, with large-scale censuses in 1997 and 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess the status and seasonal requirements of the species on each island. Implement a specific hunting ban. Conduct an awareness campaign to limit hunting.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147200	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cichlherminia lherminieri</em> is uncommon in the Lesser Antilles, on <strong>Montserrat (to UK)</strong>, <strong>Dominica</strong>, <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> and rare on <strong>St Lucia</strong>, but appears to have declined significantly throughout its range in recent years<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The range on Montserrat was reduced by two-thirds in 1995-1997 by the effects of volcanic eruptions<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, in December 1999, the population was estimated at 3,100 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, representing an increase of c.50% since December 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. On St Lucia, it is uncommon to rare, but was considered numerous in the late 19th century<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, suggesting a notable decline. On Guadeloupe, it occurs at low densities, with no records from Grande Terre since c.1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147200	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mostly inhabits the undergrowth and edge of mid- and high-altitude primary and secondary moist forest, but can be exceedingly shy where hunted<strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. Pairs feed on insects and berries from ground-level to the forest canopy<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On St Lucia, it previously gathered in large numbers in autumn to feed on berries<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in April-May. <br/></p>	eng
147200	population	BirdLife International, 2008	3,100 estimated for Montserrat in Young 2008, considered rather rare elsewhere, this is still a very vague estimate.   <br/></p>	eng
147200	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss has occurred throughout the species's range, but has been particularly acute on Montserrat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Volcanic activity was much reduced during 1998-1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but a further major volcanic eruption in 2001 caused heavy ash falls across large areas of the remaining habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Threats on other islands include brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbirds <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, competition with Bare-eyed Robin <em>Turdus nudigenis</em> and predation by mongooses and other introduced mammals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is still legally hunted on Guadeloupe<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and illegal hunting for food continues on other islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147204	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myadestes myadestinus</em> was endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was probably restricted to dense montane forest. It was the most common of the forest birds in 1891 but, by 1928, had disappeared from the lower altitudes and became restricted to dense montane forest in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. During 1968-1973, its population was estimated at 337 individuals (±122 standard error)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> while, in 1981, an estimated 24 (±20) individuals were present<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last probable sighting was in 1989, since then there have been several unconfirmed reports, but no confirmed detections, despite numerous intensive surveys in areas formerly occupied, particularly in 1995 and 1997<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. It now seems appropriate to reclassify this species as Extinct<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> as there seems little reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. However, it is worth noting that <em>M. palmeri</em> went many years without being seen, but then began to reappear in small numbers<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<em> </em>Disease carried by introduced mosquitoes and the destruction and degradation of forests are likely to have been the chief causes of extinction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The advance of feral pigs into pristine upland forests degraded habitat and facilitated the spread of mosquitoes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Competition with introduced birds may have exacerbated the problems faced by this species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Deprived of lowland forest the species was also exposed to the effects of hurricane damage of upland forest, which severely disrupted portions of native forest and allowed the germination and expansion of noxious weeds<strong><sup>7,9,10</sup></strong>. Also potentially detrimental to the remaining suitable habitat are introductions of new alien invertebrates, such as the two-spotted leafhopper (<em>Sophonia rufofascia</em>), which may threaten many food plants of <em>M. myadestinus<strong><sup>10</sup></strong></em>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
147205	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myadestes oahensis</em><em> </em>is known only from the type, collected on O'ahu, in Hawai'i, <strong>USA</strong>, by Bloxam in 1825, at which time he reported that the form was common in forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The specimen was lost, and subsequently relocated in Tring<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Fossil remains have also been collected on the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The cause of the species's extinction is unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147206	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Kamakou Preserve and neighbouring land have been partially fenced and control programmes exist for feral ungulates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Oloku`i Natural Area, established in 1986, protects pristine native forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> where <em>M. lanaiensis</em> may persist<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Should it be rediscovered, consideration should be given to establishing a captive population at high elevation on East Maui, where the habitat is relatively intact and free of threat from mosquitoes and avian disease<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to locate any remaining populations and, if found, urgently assess action required for its recovery.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147206	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Myadestes lanaiensis</em> is endemic to the central Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it is (or was) known from Maui, Lana`i and Moloka`i. It had been extirpated from Maui before ornithologists arrived, but possibly survived until the mid-19th century<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and was last seen on Lana`i in 1933. Most of the historical range on Moloka`i in Kamakou-Pelekunu has been resurveyed and the species probably has been extirpated from that area<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. However, it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct because the remote Oloku`i Plateau has not been resurveyed recently and could conceivably still harbour some birds. Any remaining population is likely to be tiny. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147206	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is a shy and retiring bird of the montane forest canopy, although in the late 1800s it was reported as ubiquitous in forests from the lowlands to the higher elevations on Moloka`i and Lana`i<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Like its congeners, it is primarily frugivorous<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no records (confirmed or otherwise) since the late 1980s <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
147206	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species's drastic decline is probably attributable to the introduction of disease-carrying mosquitoes and habitat destruction. Mosquitoes were, until recently, restricted to the lowlands, but have followed the penetration of feral pigs into remote native rainforests over the last 25 years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and Moloka`i's uplands are probably too small to provide disease-free refugia. Pigs also modify native forests as they carry alien weeds to new areas and their rooting destroys the shrub layer<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and introduced axis deer <em>Axis axis</em> are an additional problem<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147207	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in a number of important and well managed protected areas, such as the Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the 1990s, efforts have been made to reduce the feral pig population by Hawaiian conservation authorities and private landowners<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and control of mammalian predators is being attempted in some areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Control rats effectively and continuously because of rapid rates of recolonisation and reproduction<sup>7. Eradicate pigs and exclude them from protected areas of forest8.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147207	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myadestes obscurus</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) where it formerly occurred almost throughout the island. It is now restricted to the southern and eastern slopes of the island, largely above 1,000&#160;m, c.25-30% of its former range<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The population may be divided by the deforested rangeland of the Kapapala Tract, and a third possibly disjunct population exists above 2000&#160;m on Mauna Loa<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. In 1976-1979, it was estimated to total c.170,000 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and thought to exceed that figure in 1995<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. At lower elevations there is strong selection pressure for disease resistance, and lineages exhibiting these traits may be expanding<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147207	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours mesic and wet native forests, but is also found at much lower densities in scrub and savanna habitats, especially where `ohi`a and koa trees are present. It occurs in some areas where introduced plants dominate, but is absent in others, its range being negatively correlated with the widespread exotic banana poka. It feeds primarily on fruit and berries, but also on insects (especially caterpillars), snails and fleshy flower bracts of the `ie`ie vine<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
147207	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1976-1979, the population was estimated to total c.170,000 birds (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986), and it was thought to exceed that figure in 1995 (Jacobi and Atkinson 1995). <br/></p>	eng
147207	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat clearance for firewood, timber, croplands and pasture inevitably caused considerable contractions in this species's range, with most forests below 800&#160;m having been converted to agricultural or urban uses. The spread of feral ungulates into native forests has caused habitat degradation, and in some areas non-native plants have replaced the natural habitat<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. Feral pigs are particularly disruptive and facilitate the spread of introduced, disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. Introduced mammalian predators are a further significant limiting factor<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147208	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve. Rat poison bait stations have placed near a few nests with moderate success<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Bait stations are also placed around the release sites for captive-bred individuals at the time of release. Several types of rodent-resistant nest boxes have been installed in nesting habitat, and one pair was documented to nest successfully in one box. Control of feral ungulates has proved difficult in less accessible areas of the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve, which is rarely visited by hunters, and alternatives are expensive and of limited effectiveness<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. An ungulate exclusion fence is planned for a portion of the Alaka'i plateau, which will include 5-10% of the species's range. A captive population was established in 1996, and 14 birds were released into the wild in 1999<strong><sup>2,6,12,13</sup></strong>. In subsequent years, between 5 and 19 birds have been released annually for a total of nearly 180 released as of autumn 2008<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. The captive-bred birds have bred with each other and with wild birds<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Results of the releases have been mixed, with birds released in 1999-2001 surviving better than birds released from 2002-2006. The release strategy for 1999-2001 was highly successful, with 31 out of 34 released birds surviving at least one month after release and confirmed breeding occurring in the wild<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. From 2002 through 2007, roughly half of released birds survived for one month or longer.  Research on the factors limiting the species and the potential of management actions is ongoing. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Conduct research to determine the impacts of predation and habitat degradation by alien species. Protect the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve from the invasion of introduced plants and feral ungulates</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Remove rats and cats from the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve</strong><sup>9</sup>. <strong>Continue captive breeding and release efforts.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147208	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Myadestes palmeri</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where recent records are all from the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve. It has recently been lost from the Waiau and possibly the Halekua drainages<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but may be expanding its range in the Mohihi drainage<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It formerly occurred in lowland habitats, but probably only locally, and was extirpated from these areas by the end of the 19th century<strong><sup>5,10,19</sup></strong>. During 1998-2000, the population was estimated at c.200, possibly up to 300, wild individuals<strong><sup>2,6,10,12</sup></strong>. Few birds were detected after two recent hurricanes, but the current population size is likely similar to pre-hurricane numbers<strong><sup>1,7,10</sup></strong>. A captive-breeding programme began in 1996 and has facilitated the successful reintroduction of individuals into the wild annually since 1999, with almost 180 individuals released as of autumn 2008<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, resulting in successful breeding in the wild by captive-bred birds. <br/></p>	eng
147208	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is now restricted to high-elevation `ohi`a forests. It is a ravine specialist, favouring stream banks with a rich understorey<strong><sup>1,4,8</sup></strong>. Many recorded nests have been placed in cliffs above streams. It is primarily frugivorous, with arthropods (particularly insects) forming an important dietary component<strong><sup>4,8,10</sup></strong>. At least one bird died after malaria infection in the wild, but some birds may be disease resistant<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>. It has potentially high but variable productivity, with pairs producing 0.4 to 4.9 young per year in three years of observation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  It is now the sole native frugivore on Kauai, and probably plays a major role in seed dispersal within its range. <br/></p>	eng
147208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Conrow (1999), Lieberman and Kuehler (1998), Snetsinger et al. (1999), T. Snetsinger in litt. (2000), P. Roberts <em>in litt</em>. (2007). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
147208	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The destruction of the understorey by feral pigs has been implicated in this species's rarity<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Avian pox-like lesions have been observed on a mist-netted bird<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and avian malaria is suspected to cause some mortality<strong><sup>10,14</sup></strong>. Although hurricanes have caused serious damage to its habitat, the species appears to recover relatively well, probably because ravines are better sheltered<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. Predation by native Short-eared Owls <em>Asio flammeus</em> and alien mammals (e.g. rats) suppresses productivity and competition for food with introduced insects, birds and mammals may also have negative impacts<strong><sup>10,16</sup></strong>.  Several plants, including blackberry (<em>Rubus argutus</em>)<em>, </em>Australian tree fern (<em>Cyathea cooperi</em>),<em> </em>Kahili ginger (<em>Hedychium gardnerianum</em>) daisy fleabane (<em>Erigeron annuus</em>) and strawberry guava (<em>Psidium cattleianum</em>) have significantly altered areas currently and recently occupied by Puaiohi, and have the potential to convert the forest canopy, understorey and cliffs used for nesting substrate to unsuitable habitat<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147211	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myadestes elisabeth</em> is locally quite common on <strong>Cuba<sup>2</sup></strong>. In west Cuba, it is found only in Sierra de los Organos, Sierra del Rosario and Sierra de la G&uuml;ira but is more widely distributed in the east<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A race endemic to the Isle of Youth was extirpated in the 1930s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found in dense montane humid forest and seems to nest exclusively on steep limestone cliffs<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Throughout much of its range, forest is under conversion to cultivation and pasture, and there has been a recent expansion of cacao, coffee and tobacco production<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, habitat in the population stronghold of Pinar del Rio province is considered relatively secure<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147219	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally uncommon and rare at the edge of its range at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147238	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus olivaceofuscus</em> is endemic to <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong> with the subspecies <em>xanthorhynchus</em> endemic to Pr&iacute;ncipe and <em>olivaceofuscus</em> to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;. Differences in morphology and song suggest its taxonomic status requires review<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Pr&iacute;ncipe, it was rediscovered in 1997 and appears to be common in primary forest in the centre and south of the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, it is widely distributed at low densities in primary, secondary and shade forest up to 2,024 m <strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The area of remaining primary forest is small on both islands and could be vulnerable to destruction and degradation in the future. Land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. Road developments along the east and west coasts of S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147238	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is thought to have a small global population with fewer than 1,000 individuals on Pr&iacute;ncipe (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/></p>	eng
147239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147240	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No conservation action or fieldwork has been carried out recently, due to the political instability in the area, nor is any likely to occur in the near future. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish how much of its habitat remains. Assess the size and trend of its population.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147240	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus ludoviciae</em> occurs in mountain-top woodlands in northern <strong>Somalia</strong>. It was considered to be locally common in 1979, most notably in Daloh Forest Reserve where it was still very common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147240	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in juniper woodlands and neighbouring open areas of mountain-tops at 1,300-2,000&#160;m<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It often feeds in small parties, sometimes in groups of up to 30&#160;birds when feeding on fruiting juniper<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Four nests have been found, all containing two eggs, and several pairs have been observed feeding young in the nest in May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147240	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,220 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 12,200-36,600, i.e. >10,000 individuals. Density range is up to the lower quartile of five estimates for four montane woodland or forest congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; note however that montane endemic <em>T. helleri </em>has been estimated at up to 150 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>, and <em>T. ludovicae</em> is decribed as locally very common, so population may be even higher. <br/></p>	eng
147240	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Even in 1979 the species's habitat was greatly threatened by forest destruction, including burning, felling and cattle-grazing, against which Forest Reserve status provides no protection in the current political situation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There were unconfirmed reports, in 1998, that the juniper woodlands in the species's range had been completely felled<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Such reports are credible and, if true, imply that the species is likely to have declined drastically and rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
147241	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Forest Department is now safeguarding the remaining forest fragments of the Taita Hills, which have been designated as an IBA. At present, efforts are being undertaken (ban of cattle grazing, enrichment planting with seedlings) to restore indigenous forest fragment Chawia; while it remains to be seen what affect this has on the the thrush population, unringed juveniles have been seen. An ongoing collaborative research project includes a large ornithological component, which aims to provide the necessary ecological data to plan conservation policies for this and other endemic species in the area. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme for this species and Taita Apalis, Species Guardian Mwangi Githiru has begun to implement the following actions: 1. Tree nurseries are being established by local community-led Environmental Committees. Indigenous trees will be used to restore degraded habitat and enhance the connectivity of scattered forest fragments, whilst on adjacent agricultural land fast-growing non-native species will be planted to provide a buffer zone. 2. Income-generating activities, including bee-keeping and butterfly-rearing have been initiated and farmers have been educated in environmentally responsible agriculture practices. 3. In order to secure the long-term survival of the Chawia population a translocation project is being developed. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to remove non-native trees from within indigenous forest</strong><sup>3</sup>, and continue to reforest cleared areas with native trees<sup>2,3</sup>. <strong>Further develop sustainable forest-use schemes, based on ecotourism and harvesting forest products</strong><sup>2,3</sup> and outreach programmes to local communities<sup>2,3,13</sup>. Strengthen the population at Chawia through carefully managed translocations<sup>13</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
147241	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Turdus helleri</em> is confined to four tiny forest patches in the Taita Hills, southern <strong>Kenya</strong>: Mbololo (c.200 ha), Ngangao (c.92 ha), Chawia (c.50 ha) and Yale (2 ha)<strong><sup>2,3,4,8</sup></strong>. Although there have been reported sightings at Mt Kasigau, 50 km south-east of the Taita Hills, survey work in 1998 did not record the species there<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Research in 1997 indicated a total population of c.1,350 birds, with c.1,060 in Mbololo, 250 in Ngangao and 38 in Chawia<strong><sup>8,10,12</sup></strong>, although the effective population size is likely to be lower owing to a male-biased sex ratio. <br/></p>	eng
147241	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is confined to montane cloud-forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, not venturing into secondary growth, scrub or cultivated areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, although the areas where it occurs have been heavily logged in the past<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite much research, very few inter-fragment movements have been recorded<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It prefers well-shaded areas with a dense understorey, high litter-cover and little or no herbaceous cover<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and consequently is found at greater density in Mbolobo, the least disturbed forest area, and is rarest in Chawia, which has a more open canopy and a very shrubby understorey<strong><sup>3,8,10</sup></strong>. It rarely ascends more than 2 m above ground<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The diet is predominantly fruit<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is monogamous and terrestrial, with overlapping home ranges<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and breeding between January and July. The clutch-size is 1-3<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Orange Ground-thrush <em>Zoothera gurneyi</em> often occurs in exactly the same areas as <em>T. helleri</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Waiyaki and Samba (2000) <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
147241	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Most indigenous forest has been cleared in the Taita Hills for cultivation or reforestation with non-native timber, and the remaining tiny area is under serious threat from both clearance and degradation<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>, although habitat quality in the largest two fragments remains good<strong><sup>8,14</sup></strong>. A highly male-biased sex ratio in Chawia (only 10% of birds were female) might have significant negative consequences for the subpopulation's long-term survival<strong><sup>5,8,10</sup></strong>. The species's reproductive rate may thus be lower than expected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Where habitat disturbance leads to deteriorations in body condition, the long-term survival of sub-populations may be put at risk<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147242	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where trees and ground plant cover are protected by private or communal ownership-rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental feed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve and Asir National Park<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Conduct field surveys to estimate its population size. <br/></p>	eng
147242	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus menachensis</em> is endemic to south-west Arabia (<strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong>), north to 21&#176;N<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is strictly montane<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and has a very local distribution, being generally scarce<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> where it occurs (although occasionally numerous in some areas<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>). Given that so much of its range contains unsuitable habitat, its population seems likely to number less than 10,000 mature individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147242	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to areas with a dense cover of native trees and shrubs -- thus occurring in woodlands, thickets, copses, orchards and large gardens -- although foraging in more open habitats if dense wooded cover is nearby<strong><sup>1,2,3,5,7</sup></strong>. At the lowest altitudes, it is restricted to such vegetation along watercourses. At most localities it appears to be sedentary, but there may be altitudinal or latitudinal movements in the north of its range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The diet includes fruit (e.g. <em>Rosa</em>, <em>Juniperus</em>, <em>Ficus</em>) and terrestrial invertebrates<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs from March to June, the nest being 1-2 m above ground in a bush or tree-fork, usually in dense cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147242	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.3-2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,350 km<sup>2</sup> (5% EOO taken as "much of its range contains unsuitable habitat") = 4,355-6,700, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (population density from five estimates for three congeners of similar habitats in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147242	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lopping and cutting of trees and shrubs -- for fuel, fodder and building material -- are proceeding at unsustainable levels in many parts of Yemen<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong> (where the human population is expanding rapidly), and are likely therefore to be causing a net loss of dense wooded cover. Abandonment of wooded agricultural terraces at lower altitudes in the species's range is leading to massive loss of topsoil and further reduction of wooded cover<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Loss of well-wooded land to building, infrastructural and agricultural developments may also be a threat in Saudi Arabia. Altogether, these threats imply that the species's population is likely to be decreasing. A lack of tree regeneration, due to high levels of grazing and browsing by livestock, has been observed at several sites and may be a problem. <br/></p>	eng
147243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common during the breeding season in Russia and China, rare in North Korea, uncommon and local in South Korea, common to abundant in Hong Kong outside of the breeding season and uncommon to fairly common in Vietnam outside the breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the western Himalayas and uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but local (Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
147248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 310000-670000 breeding pairs, equating to 930000-2010000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
147250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its breeding range, rare in China and an uncommon resident in northern Laos and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147251	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 40000000-82000000 breeding pairs, equating to 120000000-246000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 162000000-492000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed. <br/></p>	eng
147252	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147253	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Pakistan, common in China and common to scarce in Myanmar and northern Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather rare, although rare to locally common in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147255	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It has been recorded in several protected areas in its breeding range including Pangquangou National Nature Reserve in Shanxi, Lao Ling Nature Reserve in Hebei and Baihuashan Nature Reserve in Beijing. There are several other protected areas in Shanxi and Hebei where it could occur, notably reserves established for the conservation of Brown-eared Pheasant <em>Crossoptilon mantchuricum</em>. Several wintering sites are protected, including Natma Taung National Park (Mt Victoria-Myanmar), Doi Suthep-Pui and Doi Inthanon National Parks and Om Koi Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), and Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Laos).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine whether it occurs in other reserves established for <em>C. mantchuricum. Research its ecology to establish its breeding habitat requirements and altitudinal range, with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in protected areas where it occurs. Promote the extension of Pangquangou National Nature Reserve, and strengthen protection at Lao Ling and Baihuashan Nature Reserves (China). List as a protected species in China.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147255	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus feae</em> breeds in the mountains of north-east <strong>China</strong>, in Shanxi, Hebei and Beijing, where it is known from only a few scattered records. It has been recorded in winter from West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Manipur, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, north-west <strong>Thailand</strong> and <strong>Laos</strong>. Its relatively small breeding range and the limited area of habitat remaining within it indicate that its population could be small. In the past, it was described as not rare in north-east India in winter, but there is only one recent record, which may indicate that it has declined. However, it is likely to be a fairly frequent visitor to the mountains of north-west Thailand.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147255	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in temperate zone deciduous oak <em>Quercus</em> forest and pine <em>Pinus</em> forest in the mountains, between c.1,000-1,900 m. It winters in evergreen forest, mostly between c.1,500-2,600 m, although there are records down to 600 m.</p>	eng
147255	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis of records by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that 'given the relatively small number of recent records and its apparent low population density, this species could have a small total population' i.e. <10,000 individuals <br/></p>	eng
147255	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by the continued loss and fragmentation of its habitat in both its breeding and non-breeding ranges. In China, deciduous broadleaved forest in Shanxi and Hebei is estimated to cover less than 20% of its original extent. Forests in Thailand and Myanmar are being affected by shifting agriculture, wood-collection and fires. <br/></p>	eng
147256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Russia, common in China, scarce to uncommon in Hong Kong, uncommon to rare in Korea and very common in Japan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147259	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan. The entire Izu Archipelago has been designated as a national park and several important sites as Special Protected Areas. There is a small sanctuary on Miyake-jima.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its ecology, especially the migratory movements of the Tokara Islands population. Maintain and enhance areas of suitable forest and woodland on the Izu Islands. Plan new development on the Izu Islands to minimise their negative effects on the habitats of this and other endemic species. Strengthen the infrastructure and human resources of the national park on the Izu Islands to improve enforcement of habitat conservation measures. Control predators, particularly <em>M. sibirica and C. macrorhynchos. Instigate new controls on the dumping of garbage to reduce the numbers of C. macrorhynchos. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147259	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus celaenops</em> is endemic to <strong>Japan</strong>. The majority of the population is resident on the Izu Islands between Oshima and Aogashima, but a few birds move to adjacent parts of Honshu and the Shikoku Islands during winter. There are also small numbers on the islands of Yaku-shima and Tokara in the northern Nansei Shoto Islands. Given that the total area of the Izu Islands is only c.300 km<sup>2,</sup> it is unlikely that the population ever exceeded more than a few thousands of individuals and is now declining rapidly.  <br/></p>	eng
147259	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits deciduous woodlands with a well developed canopy and sparse shrub layer, avoiding understoreys with bamboo. On Yaku-shima, it occurs in mixed juniper - rhododendron forest. It also feeds outside forest along roadsides, in ploughed fields and undisturbed gardens, foraging for fruit, seeds and, in summer, mainly invertebrates.</p>	eng
147259	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
147259	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Nest-predation by Siberian weasel <em>Mustela sibirica,</em> Large-billed Crows <em>Corvus macrorhynchos</em> and domestic cats is the main threat. Its population on Miyake-jima declined rapidly following the introduction of <em>M. sibirica</em> in the 1970s. The number of <em>C. macrorhynchos</em> on Mikake-jima and the other Izu Islands has increased dramatically as a result of the dumping of raw garbage. During a survey on Miyake-jima in 1992, a total of 22 nests were found containing eggs, all of which hatched, but all nestlings were subsequently predated. The effects of predation are likely to have been compounded by habitat loss.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000000-24000000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000000-72000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1800000-3400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 16000000-21000000 breeding pairs, equating to 48000000-63000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 65000000-130000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 20000000-36000000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000000-108000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 81100000-216000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3000000-7400000 breeding pairs, equating to 9000000-22200000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12200000-44400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147268	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus ravidus</em><em> </em>is known from four collections (21 specimens in total) from Grand Cayman, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)<sup>1</sup></strong>. Its habitat was dense ";knife-edged coral-rock, swamp, and mangroves, with patches here and there of the poisonous manchineel tree and of climbing cactus";<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and it presumably declined as the island's habitat was progressively cleared<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The last specimens were collected (by Brown) in 1916, and the last sight record (by Lewis) was in 1938<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147270	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147272	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147281	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147290	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus haplochrous</em> is known from only a few localities in south-east Beni and west Santa Cruz, north <strong>Bolivia<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It occurs in seasonally flooded riverine forest (<em>v&aacute;rzea</em>) and semi-deciduous woodland at low altitudes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Such habitat is widespread in the Bolivian lowlands and is not subject to particular threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this species's very small and patchy range is of concern.</p>	eng
147290	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population may approach 10,000 mature individuals, given its rarity and patchy distribution. <br/></p>	eng
147291	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147294	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the Sierra de Baoruco and Armando Bermudez National Parks, Dominican Republic, and La Visite National Park, Haiti. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its status in Haiti (especially in La Visite National Park) and the Sierra de Neiba. Effectively protect existing reserves. <br/></p>	eng
147294	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdus swalesi</em> is endemic to Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>). It can be locally fairly common, but is now mostly restricted to isolated habitat patches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The nominate race occurs in the Massif de la Selle, Haiti, and Sierra de Baoruco, Dominican Republic. The race <em>dodae</em> occurs in the Sierra de Neiba and Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It was formerly common in La Visite National Park, Haiti, and appears still to occur at higher densities in the Massif de la Selle than elsewhere within its range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147294	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly above 1,300&#160;m in the dense understorey of moist montane broadleaf forest. It is occasionally found in pine forest, but only where there is a very well-developed broadleaf understorey (a habitat that is now extremely rare in the Dominican Republic)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding has been reported from May-July, and 2-3 eggs are laid<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest is a bulky cup structure constructed principally of moss, and placed low in a shrub, bush or low tree<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It mainly forages on the ground for earthworms, insects and fruit<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147294	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-17.0 individuals/km2 x 818 km2 (20% EOO) = 900-13,906, but probably best placed within band 2,500-9,999, as "locally common in appropriate habitat" [Collar et al. 1992] (density is lowest to lower quartile of 11 estimates for seven congeners of forest habitats in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147294	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been massive habitat loss in Hispaniola, and remaining patches are severely threatened by ongoing deforestation for agriculture and timber. In the Dominican Republic, suitable habitat has generally disappeared except for in the Sierra de Baoruco, remote portions of the Cordillera Central and very small patches in the Sierra de Neiba<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Suitable forest has disappeared from much of the species's range in Haiti, with La Visite National Park containing one of the last significant fragments. <br/></p>	eng
147296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Gunung Dulit (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147298	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and local and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147299	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Namdapha National Park and the Mehao, Dibang and Kamleng Wildlife Sanctuaries in north-east India, and in Hponkanrazi and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuaries in northern Myanmar. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study the ecology and threats that may face this species Identify key areas/important populations and recommend their integration into protected areas if necessary. Support initiatives seeking to reduce levels of forest destruction and degradation. <br/></p>	eng
147299	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Brachypteryx hyperythra</em> is endemic to the eastern Himalayas, where it is currently known from West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (and perhaps Nagaland), <strong>India</strong>, north <strong>Myanmar</strong> and north-west Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>. Data suggest it is scarce and local, but this may in part be due to its remote, inaccessible range, which is also likely to include Bhutan, and possibly Nepal and south-east Tibet. There are a number of recent records from northern Myanmar which suggest that the species may be commoner and more widespread than previously thought<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147299	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In May and June (the presumed breeding season) it has been found in dense undergrowth and <em>Arundinaria</em> ("ringal") bamboo in broad-leaved evergreen forest from 1,800-3,000 m. During winter, it frequents dense reeds, thick secondary scrub, forest undergrowth and well-vegetated gulleys, from foothills at 450 m to at least 2,950 m. It has recently been recorded at much lower elevations down to c. 150 m, inhabiting tall "elephant type" grass<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is probably resident, making seasonal altitudinal movements, although it possibly migrates short distances. <br/></p>	eng
147299	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km2 x 2,000 km2 (10% EOO) = 2,000-20,000 (density range extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; mean density is difficult to estimate as the species appears to be common at some sites, but absent at others). <br/></p>	eng
147299	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Without a more complete knowledge of its habitat preferences and breeding and wintering ranges, it is difficult to identify particular threats. However, forest loss and degradation owing to logging, smaller-scale cutting for fuelwood, clearance for tea plantations, shifting agriculture and livestock-grazing of forest understorey are all problems within its known range, especially at lower altitudes. <br/></p>	eng
147301	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the western Himalayas and China to very common in north-eastern India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common to abundant at higher levels of its elevational range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Nguus, Tanzania (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147307	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Several sites in Malawi are Forest Reserves, but in reality this provides negligible protection. Forest on Mt Namuli and Mt Chiperone is not protected. If access to Mt Namuli improves, it is a potential site for ecotourism-based conservation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main stronghold in Malawi of this near-endemic is undoubtedly Mulanje Mountain, which is now the centre of a major GEF programme which will hopefully ensure the survival of the mist-belt forests circling the mountain<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves<sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect forest on Mt Namuli from logging<sup>8. Assess its status on Mt Chiperone7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147307	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alethe choloensis</em> is known from 15 small patches of forest, 13 of them in south-eastern <strong>Malawi</strong> (east of the Shire river), plus two in adjacent <strong>Mozambique</strong> (Mt Namuli and Mt Chiperone)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its world population is probably in the range of c.2,500-5,000&#160;mature individuals. In Malawi, there were c.1,500&#160;pairs in 1983, mostly on Mt Mulanje (1,000 pairs) and Mt Thyolo (200 pairs)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the population has almost certainly decreased since then<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. Recent reports (2003) suggest that the Malawi population is now confined to five areas and that two historical sites (including Thyolo) have been lost to encroachment by agriculturalists<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. No current estimates are available for Malawi. In 1998, c.1,000&#160;pairs were estimated on Mt Namuli<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, extrapolating from a one-week study that found a much higher density locally (c.8&#160;birds/ha<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) than has been found by more detailed, larger-scale and longer-term studies of <em>Alethe</em> species elsewhere (mostly c.0.4&#160;mature individuals/ha)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147307	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A terrestrial bird of submontane evergreen forest, it breeds at mid-altitudes (mainly above 1,200&#160;m) but can occur lower in the non-breeding season (March-October)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its population density is closely tied to the presence of ant-nests. Pairs can persist in forest patches as small as 0.5&#160;ha if there is an ant-nest, but the density is usually much lower<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147307	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The world population was thought to be in the range of c.2,500-5,000 mature individuals, however in 2005 the species was discovered on Mt Mabu in Mozambique, where the population is conservatively suspected to number c.2000 individuals, and there are other areas of this country that could hold the species (Spottiswoode <em>et al.</em> in prep.). Thus on the basis that further exploration is required before a reliable estimate of the total population can be made, the population is placed in the range bracket for 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147307	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation at its sites in Malawi is intense - between the 1970s and early 1990s, at least three of its localities were completely cleared, e.g. the 40 km<sup>2</sup> Chisongeli Forest (Mt Mulanje)<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. During 1995-1996, severe fires destroyed much of its habitat at Lisau (Mt Chiradzulu) as well as parts on Zomba<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> which hold the second largest population of this species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. At Mt Namuli, selective logging has recently started, and a road passing close to the summit is being built, which could lead to large-scale forest exploitation - the lower slopes are already densely settled<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Encroachment by subsistence farmers and logging is likely to occur in the near future on Mt Chiperone<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Most recently, Thyolo mountain has been virtually entirely deforested, Soche Mountain has lost 30-40% of its remaining mist-belt forest, and Chikala mountain is also being rapidly deforested<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. There will soon be very little habitat remaining for the species<strong><sup>4,9,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common to abundant although scarce at the northern limit of its range in Sudan and Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and abundant or common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon or common to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common in Uganda and frquent and locally common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147320	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Sierra Leone, parts of Gola Forest Reserve are protected legally, but there is little effective implementation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Ta&iuml; National Park in south-west C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population surveys and ecological studies, particularly to learn more of its breeding ecology<sup>7. Implement the draft management plan for Gola Forest Reserve and upgrade its official protection status7. In Ta&iuml; National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park4. In Ta&iuml; National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park4,7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147320	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melaenornis annamarulae</em> is endemic to the Upper Guinea rainforest block of West Africa, where it is known from <strong>Guinea</strong> (one record from Macenta on the Ziama Massif<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>), <strong>Sierra Leone </strong>(Gola Forest c.475-690 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), northern <strong>Liberia</strong> (few records, including the foot of Mt Nimba, Glaro and Wologizi<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml; National Park, La T&eacute;n&eacute; Forest Reserve, Mopri<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Marahou&eacute; National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). In Ta&iuml; National Park, it occurs at an estimated four birds per km<sup>2</sup> (with a record from degraded land at the edge of the park)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is generally rare throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
147320	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the upper strata and canopy of closed-canopy lowland primary forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, in Liberia, occurring up to 600&#160;m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, it is also found in large leafless trees on inselbergs and in clearings planted with maize<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It may be limited by the availability of emergent trees on which it forages, which are characteristic of transitional and deciduous lowland rainforest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and breeding is believed to take place during the wet season in July and August.</p>	eng
147320	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147320	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147324	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias addita</em> is restricted to Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland and montane forest at 500-1,500 m, having been described as a rare bird of the higher mountain regions. It was found to be moderately common in logged and primary forest inland at Fogi. Some deforestation has occurred in Buru's coastal lowlands where large areas have been disturbed and selectively logged, and others are targeted for conversion, but a relatively widespread and common upland species which can use logged forest is probably not threatened by this. <br/></p>	eng
147325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size ihas not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common. There are estimated to be over 86,000 individuals on Sumba island (del Hoyo et al. 2006), so the total is likely to fall in the range of 100,000-499,999 individuals.	eng
147326	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. In its Chinese breeding grounds, it has been recorded in or near 12 protected areas and has been recorded in two protected areas in Thailand. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in south-east China to determine which protected areas are most important for its conservation and to identify any other important areas that should be protected. Conduct surveys in its wintering grounds in Peninsular Malaysia and the Greater Sundas, to help clarify its non-breeding range, determine its habitat requirements and altitudinal range, and identify key sites for its conservation. Research its breeding habitat requirements and altitudinal range with the aim of developing appropriate forest management regimes in the nature reserves where it occurs. Strengthen protection, enforce regulations, and enlarge and link protected areas in China where it occurs. List it as a protected species in China. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
147326	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias brunneata</em> breeds in south-east mainland <strong>China</strong> where it appears to be scarce and locally distributed, but probably under-recorded. Outside the breeding season, it occurs in <strong>Thailand</strong> as a rare passage migrant, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia,</strong> where it is a winter visitor and possibly the whole population occurs on passage, and <strong>Singapore,</strong> where it is a rare passage migrant and winter visitor. There is a single record from Brunei, and it presumably occurs in parts of Indonesia and east Malaysia, on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Its status on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, is unclear. <br/></p>	eng
147326	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in dense bamboo undergrowth or low bushes in subtropical broadleaved evergreen forests between 600-1,200 m and does not utilise logged forest or artificial plantations. In Peninsular Malaysia, it winters in primary lowland forest. In Thailand, passage migrants have been recorded in lowland semi-evergreen rainforest, mixed deciduous forest, and <em>Avicennia</em> mangrove/beach scrub. </p>	eng
147326	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an EOO of 596,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and is reported to be locally common at a few localities (although generally scarce and locally distributed). Six estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet range from 10 to 90 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. Even if this species occurs at much lower densities, and its AOO is <10% of the EOO, it seems unlikely that its total population falls below 10,000 individuals. However because of a continued paucity of records it is retained provisionally at 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147326	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by the continued loss and fragmentation of habitat in both its breeding and non-breeding ranges. In south-east China, most natural forest has been cleared or modified through timber extraction and conversion to agricultural land. Lowland forest has been particularly badly affected. Lowland forest along its migration route and in its wintering grounds has also been extensively cleared and very little now remains. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon although common on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147328	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias umbratilis</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland broadleaved (including peatswamp) forest to 1,160 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane forests, second growth and plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147330	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias colonus</em> is restricted (if one excludes dubious records from East Sulawesi attributed to the race "<em>subsolanus</em>") to Banggai (Peleng: race <em>pelingensis</em>) and the Sula Islands (Taliabu, Seho, Mangole and Sanana: race <em>colonus</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest up to 300 m, and is apparently uncommon on Peleng and generally so on the Sulas. Although it has been found in degraded forest, its preferred habitat appears to be undisturbed forest, and this, combined with its restriction to the lowlands, is a cause for some concern. <br/></p>	eng
147331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147332	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, Mt Pulog National Park, but the recent record from the unprotected Mt Los Dos Cuernos suggests that a population persists in the nearby Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys using mist-nets to determine its current distribution and status in the Cordillera Central and the Sierra Madre mountains. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Propose further known key sites, including Mt Polis, for establishment as formal protected areas. Control habitat degradation, including the expansion of vegetable cultivation, in Mt Pulog National Park.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147332	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias insignis</em> is endemic to the mountains of northern Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from five sites in the Cordillera Central and from Mt Los Dos Cuernos in the Sierra Madre. It appears to be rare and local, although a series of six birds collected in eight days on Mt Data in 1895 suggests that it could have been locally common, and perhaps under-recorded owing to its furtive nature. Mist-netting may reveal it to be less scarce and more widespread than is currently known.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147332	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the understorey of montane or mossy forest above 950&#160;m (principally above 1,900&#160;m), apparently favouring thick, shady patches in areas dominated by oaks. However, it has also been recorded in forest with little undergrowth and also in second growth adjacent to oak-dominated primary forest.</p>	eng
147332	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 980km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 9,800-19,600; the population estimate perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals but may prove to be commoner because of preference for dense undergrowth (density range from up to lower quartile of six estimates for three congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147332	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction is the chief threat. In 1988, an estimated 24% of Luzon remained forested and forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s. Mossy forests of the Cordillera Central are threatened by conversion to agricultural land. Several areas on Mt Pulog are being cleared for agriculture, with occasional selective logging also occurring there. Deforestation is creeping up the slopes of Mt Polis, and Mt Data is reportedly now devoid of forest.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147333	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Panay, it occurs in the tiny (0.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Sampunong Bolo National Park, and two proposed national parks, North-west Panay Peninsula and Central Panay Mountains. The latter reportedly contains the largest block of remnant forest in the Western Visayas. On Negros, it has been recorded recently in Mt Canlaon Natural Park, although it is thought little suitable habitat remains. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, including mist-netting, particularly on Panay (e.g. Bulabong Puti-an National Park on Panay) and also in remaining forest tracts on Negros, to establish its distribution and current status. Establish the proposed Central Panay Mountains and North-west Panay Peninsula National Parks and propose further key sites for designation as formal protected areas. Seek to obtain stronger protection of the lowest areas of forest at Mt Canlaon.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147333	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias albigularis</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from Negros, Guimaras and Panay. Formerly widespread but scarce on Negros, habitat clearance may already have eliminated the local populations at the only two sites (Ban-ban and Mambucal) where it has been recorded since 1980. Its status on Panay, where it was discovered in 1989, is unclear but the spread of subsequent records is encouraging. It has been found at five sites in the west (one on the north-west peninsula and four in the central mountains) and at Hamtang forest in the east. It was last recorded on Guimaras in 1887 and is presumed extinct there. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147333	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the shady lower storeys of lowland and mid-mountain forest, generally at or below c.950&#160;m but occasionally up to perhaps 1,350&#160;m. Although it prefers primary forest, it has been recorded in secondary growth and even in a tree nursery.</p>	eng
147333	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 144 km<sup>2</sup> (estimate of area of remaining forest <1000 m on Negros and Panay; see BirdLife International 2001) = 1,440-2,880; but recent discovery at previously unknown sites suggests that it may be more widespread, and upper end of range taken as more likely, hence placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range from up to lower quartile of six estimates for three congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147333	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat is continuing forest destruction. Chronic deforestation led to its extinction on Guimaras. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988, most of it above 1,000&#160;m. Remaining lowland forest is likely to shrink further through clearance for shifting cultivation, charcoal production and timber extraction. At Ban-ban (Negros), illegal logging and harvesting of forest products (e.g. tree ferns and rattans) was a major problem in 1991 and forest at the site was considered unlikely to last more than a few years.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147334	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhinomyias goodfellowi</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from six upland localities in the centre of the island, as follows: Civolig, near Gingoog City, Daggayan, inland from Gingoog City, Mt Katanglad, Mt Apo, Lake Sebu and Mt Busa. It was regularly encountered in 1992 and 1993 on Mt Kitanglad, and no fewer than 31 specimens were collected in 22 days' fieldwork in 1993. It appears, therefore, to be reasonably numerous within the confines of its range, and as a species of the dipterocarp/moss forest ecotone it is unlikely to be at great risk. <br/></p>	eng
147335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000000-22000000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000000-66000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 85700000-264000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare to uncommon in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in north-eastern China, rare or scarce in Russia and fairly common in most of its non-breeding range, except for north and central Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147339	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147340	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. It has also been recorded recently at Eastern Cuernos de Negros, which lies within the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area. Although not afforded legal protection, this area has been proposed for conservation funding. Recent environmental awareness campaigns have been conducted there. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Comprehensively re-examine museum specimens of <em>Muscicapa flycatchers from the Philippines to check identification, in order to resolve its anomalous distribution. Conduct surveys using mist-nets, to investigate further its true distribution and population status. Extend the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park to incorporate Mt Los Dos Cuernos. Afford formal protection to additional key sites (e.g. Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes on Negros).</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147340	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Muscicapa randi</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it is known from Luzon, Negros and Samar. This unusual biogeographic distribution indicates that it could be more widespread than is currently known. Historically, it was considered very rare. This has been confirmed during recent extensive surveys in the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon and on Negros. However, it is possible that mist-netting may reveal it to be commoner than field observations indicate.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147340	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forests, generally below 1,000&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It probably frequents the understorey and appears to tolerate some habitat degradation, with records from disturbed forest and a clearing in selectively logged forest. Birds caught in August and September at Dalton Pass, Luzon, suggest that it may undertake intra-island movements, but possibly little more than post-breeding dispersal.</p>	eng
147340	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147340	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive and continuing lowland deforestation is the main threat. In 1988, it was estimated that as little as 4% of original forest remained on Negros, 24% on Luzon, where forest cover in the Sierra Madre has declined by 83% since the 1930s, and 33% on Samar. On Luzon, most remaining lowland forest is under logging concession and is further threatened by major road-building plans. Illegal logging is common at Angat Dam (Luzon) and slash-and-burn agriculture is devastating the lower slopes of Eastern Cuernos de Negros (Negros) from both of which there are recent records.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147341	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Muscicapa segregata</em> (split from Asian Brown Flycatcher <em>M. dauurica</em>) is restricted to Sumba, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Previously thought to be rather scarce and local, a more recent assessment considered it uncommon and sparse, perhaps rare, although quiet and unobtrusive. The most recent observations confirm that it is widespread in remaining patches of both primary and secondary forest, albeit declining with steady habitat clearance. <br/></p>	eng
147342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in north-western and northern India, scarce in eastern India, locally common in Pakistan and Nepal, rare or scarce in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and locally common in south-west India during the winter (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce to fairly common and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on Taiwan ( MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000).	eng
147345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147349	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147350	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Its habitat in Bwindi Forest is well-protected by the Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the Itombwe Mountains and Lendu Plateau are not protected<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The northern third of Kakamega Forest is designated as a national reserve and is somewhat better protected than the rest of the forest. A local guides' group in Kakamega, KABICOTOA, has started a programme of environmental education and awareness activities, targeting forest-adjacent schools<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, effective conservation of the species's forests in Kenya will require a major programme<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate a major conservation programme for Kakamega and Nandi Forests in Kenya<sup>1. Survey its population density and status in Kakamega, North Nandi and Bwindi Forests, and evaluate its status in Itombwe when the security situation permits this. Determine its habitat requirements. Confirm whether it occurs in Nyungwe. Re-evaluate its taxonomy, especially in relation to <em>M. olivascens3.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147350	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Muscicapa lendu</em> appears to be rare throughout its fragmented range. It is known from a narrow band in the Itombwe Mountains (subspecies <em>itombwensis</em>) and on the Lendu Plateau (the nominate subspecies) in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>6,7,8,9</sup></strong>. It also occurs in Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in <strong>Uganda<sup>4</sup></strong>, and has been recorded from Kakamega and North Nandi Forests in <strong>Kenya<sup>10</sup></strong>, although there are few recent records from the latter two localities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is one sight record from Nyungwe Forest (Rwanda), but this requires confirmation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147350	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense montane forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the Itombwe Mountains, it occurs between 1,470 and 1,820&#160;m<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, but in North Nandi it has occurred up to 2,150&#160;m. It feeds on insects<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. In Itombwe, it breeds during March-September, and may also lay during January-February<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147350	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,800 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,800-22,800, but species described as rare throughout range, so likely to be lower end of this estimate, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is up to the lower quartile of 42 estimates of 26 flycatchers in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147350	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by forest clearance for agriculture and timber. In the DRC, the Lendu Plateau is now largely deforested<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, while increased forest clearance for cattle-grazing and cultivation is a major threat at Itombwe, driven by political instability and crop failure<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Kenya, the Kakamega and North Nandi Forests are very seriously threatened by encroachment, uncontrolled tree-felling and charcoal making, while intense pressure from cattle-grazing is affecting the structure and regeneration of forest in Kakamega<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally frequent to common over much of its range, although scarce in Zambia and rare in Eritrea (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and common to uncommon and sometimes rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147355	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Muscicapa tessmanni</em> is found in West Africa where it is known from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>,<strong> Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>, <strong>Ghana</strong>, <strong>Nigeria</strong>, (no recent records)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>and mainland <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is reportedly rare throughout its range although it is locally common in at least some areas, e.g. in and around Bia National Park, west Ghana<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has possibly been overlooked owing to its similarities with Dusky-blue Flycatcher <em>M. comitata</em>, the two species often occurring together (though <em>tessmanni</em> has a more restricted range and is much less common)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It occupies mid-levels (5-15 m) of forest edge and small gaps in primary forest<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, and possibly farm bush and the top of secondary growth (7-20 m high) in abandoned tree plantations and very disturbed forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Recent records are from thicket on the edge of a small swamp<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and from a large <em>Raphia</em> swamp<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Although it is wide ranging and occurs in secondary habitats, its apparent rarity is as yet unexplained. With conversion of forest to more intensive farms and plantations, small populations could be disappearing throughout its range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147360	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but has not yet materialised<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research the ecology of this species to assess its ability to adapt to degraded habitats. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the known range of the species, and develop a land-use strategy<sup>2,4. Consider reforestation of grasslands on the island's central ridge4. Develop an environmental education programme on the island2. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147360	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Humblotia flavirostris</em> occurs only on the slopes of Mt Karthala, an active volcano, on Grand Comoro (=&#160;Ngazidja) in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147360	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This insectivorous species is present throughout forest on Mt Karthala over a wide altitudinal range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is limited to areas with remaining tall trees but seems tolerant of shrubby, cultivated or open areas in the forest - it has even been observed in pure <em>Philippia</em> tree-heath above the forest belt<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The only known nest was a cup in the upper branches of a 12-15 m high tree in pioneer woodland where at least two young were seen<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147360	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147360	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	With this island's large, increasing human population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, the major threat to this species is the clearance of forest for agriculture, which is occurring on all but the poorest soils. Since 1983, intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala. Secondary forest in the agricultural belt is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. Commercial logging occurs in a 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup> concession on the south-west slopes. The tree-heath zone is threatened by browsing cattle and by fire used to stimulate growth of palatable shoots. Introduced rats and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may act as nest predators. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-20000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-60000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 38300000-80000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 1400000-2400000 breeding pairs, equating to 4200000-7200000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
147363	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula semitorquata</em> breeds in southeast Europe (<strong>Albania </strong>(less than 100 pairs), <strong>Armenia </strong>(300-800 pairs), <strong>Bulgaria </strong>(1,500-3,500 pairs), <strong>Georgia </strong>(present), <strong>Greece </strong>(1,000-3,000 pairs), <strong>Macedonia </strong>(100-1,000 pairs), <strong>Russia </strong>(10,000-20,000 pairs) and <strong>Turkey </strong>(2,500-25,000 pairs)), totalling 15,000-53,000 pairs (50-74% of the global population), and in the Middle East (particularly <strong>Iran</strong>). It winters in a comparatively small region of East Africa, from southern <strong>Sudan </strong>through western <strong>Uganda </strong>to <strong>Tanzania </strong>(south to Njombe). Following a large decline during 1970-1990<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> the species has continued to decline across most of southeast Europe during 1990-2000 (including in its key populations in Turkey and European Russia). Within its breeding range it favours forest belts, mainly on mountain slopes up to about 2,000 m altitude), occupied by mature deciduous trees (notably oak <em>Quercus</em> and hornbeam <em>Carpinus</em>). On plains it uses deciduous riverine forest, and also occurs in old groves and gardens. In winter it favours evergreen forest, gallery forest, and edges of forest blocks. The species suffers from habitat destruction in some areas, which is likely to be responsible for recent declines. In eastern Turkey habitat is threatened by ongoing dam projects, and rapid loss of other <em>Quercus</em> species forests may also negatively impact on the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Further information on population trends outside of its European breeding range is required. <br/></p>	eng
147363	population	BirdLife International, 2008	European population is estimated as 15,000-53,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife International 2004). Size of population in Iran unknown, but Europe is estimated to constitute 50-74% of the global breeding range (BirdLife International 2004). <br/></p>	eng
147364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally common in far eastern Russia, fairly common in China and an abundant summer visitor to Korea (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or locally abundant on Sakhalin island, common and widespread throughout much of Japan and fairly common in north-eastern China (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common in its breeding areas and locally very common to scarce and uncommon in its non-breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread in the central and eastern Himalayas, although scarce in the western Himalayas; uncommon in Nagaland, and China, fairly common to common in western and northern Myanmar and a rare non-breeding visitor to Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147370	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It breeds commonly in Overa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kashmir. Security problems across much of its breeding range have precluded effective conservation activities for some time. It occurs in a few protected areas in Sri Lanka.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys across its breeding range to establish its current population status, although security issues may currently preclude this. Conduct detailed research into its breeding habitat requirements, particularly its tolerance of habitat degradation. Identify key breeding and wintering sites and campaign for their protection where appropriate. Provide increased support and resources for more effective protected-area management within its breeding range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147370	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula subrubra</em> is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, breeding in the north-west Himalayas, the Neelum Valley and Kaz-i-nag Range in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, Kashmir, and the Pir Panjal range in <strong>India</strong>, migrating south to winter chiefly in the hills of central-southern <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, and also the southern Western Ghats, India. It occurs on passage in <strong>Nepal</strong> and, as a vagrant, in Bhutan. Formerly common within its restricted breeding range, it has declined in many areas. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147370	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds from May-June in temperate, mixed deciduous forests, particularly comprising hazel <em>Corylus</em>, walnut <em>Albizia</em>, cherry <em>Prunus</em>, willow <em>Salix</em> and <em>Perrottetia</em> species, with a dense shrubby understorey, between 1,800-2,700&#160;m. It nests in natural hollows and holes, most commonly low down in <em>Perrottetia</em> trees, and also willows. It winters in gardens, tea estates, forest edge and disturbed areas within forest, generally above c.750&#160;m. Most individuals leave the breeding grounds in September, arriving in Sri Lanka in October and departing again in late March.</p>	eng
147370	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of available records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that "it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals". <br/></p>	eng
147370	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat is loss and degradation of its breeding habitat as a result of commercial timber extraction, conversion of land for agriculture, livestock-grazing which has substantially altered forest understorey structure and composition, and tree-lopping for animal fodder, fuelwood and construction materials. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147374	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula dumetoria</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, north Sumatra and principally west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in bamboo and forest, locally to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of hill and submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147375	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula rufigula</em> is restricted to Sulawesi (but not the east peninsula), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is locally common and widespread in the undergrowth of primary lowland and hill forest up to 600 m, occasionally to 1,000 m. Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades, and its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. <br/></p>	eng
147376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to moderately or locally common on Buru and Seram and uncommon and local on Kai Besar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147377	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded recently in Mts Apo and Malindang National Parks. In addition, there are pre-1980 records from the Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve and the Basilan Natural Biotic Area.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Tape-record its vocalisations and use playback combined with mist-netting to establish its current distribution and population status in remnant lowland forest tracts, particularly in areas from which the species is known historically, including Mt Lobi, (Leyte) and Mts Diwata and Dapiak (Mindanao). Campaign for the effective protection of important sites and propose further key sites found to support populations for formal protection.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147377	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula basilanica</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs on Samar, Leyte, Dinagat, Mindanao and Basilan. It is known from numerous widely scattered records within this range and was considered fairly common on Mindanao and Basilan in the early 20th century. It now appears to be rare, with post-1980 records from fewer than 10 localities, all on Mindanao. However, recent mist-net surveys in eastern Mindanao indicate that it may remain patchily frequent in suitable habitat and is probably under-recorded during observational fieldwork. In addition, there have been very few recent ornithological visits to other islands within its range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147377	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the dense understorey of lowland primary and secondary forest, usually below 900&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It tolerates selectively logged forest and also frequents forest on limestone karst. It is unobtrusive, always remaining close to the forest floor.</p>	eng
147377	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
147377	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its entire range has suffered extensive lowland deforestation. In 1988, forest cover had been reduced to an estimated 29% on Mindanao, most of it above 1,000&#160;m. Most remaining lowland forest is leased to logging concessions or mining applications. In 1989, it was estimated that Samar and Leyte had as little as 433&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of old-growth dipterocarp forest remaining. Dinagat has lost virtually all of its lowland forest through illegal logging and chromite surface-mining. On Mindanao, one recent locality, Samal, is due for conversion to a golf course, and forest at Bislig is being cleared under concession and re-planted with exotic trees for paper production. <br/></p>	eng
147378	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known, although a protected area has been proposed on the island.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys at the earliest opportunity to assess its current distribution, population status, ecological requirements and threats. Evaluate the proposed protected area on Damar in terms of suitability for the protection of this flycatcher, and other threatened species, proposing an alternative area if necessary. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
147378	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula henrici</em> is endemic to the small island of Damar (total area c.200 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Banda Sea, eastern Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from 14 specimens collected at three localities in late 1898. The island was recently visited by an ornithologist for the first time since its discovery, and it was reported to be common and widespread<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Given approximately 150 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat, extrapolation of density estimates gives an overall population estimate of 20,000 to 30,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147378	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent observations indicate that this species is confined to lowland evergreen forest where it frequents the understorey<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It generally perches within 1 m of the ground while feeding. <br/></p>	eng
147378	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estimated based on recent survey data estimating density and area of occupancy (C. Trainor<em> in litt</em>. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
147378	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	About 70-80% of the island is still covered in semi-evergreen and dry tropical forest. Small-scale logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture occurs at low-levels but is expected to increase in future as human population levels rise<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as moderately common within its tiny global range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147380	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The entire island of Palawan was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration and hunting is difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in one protected area, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be significantly extended to the east. The Iwahig penal colony is managed by the Bureau of Prisons but lacks official protection and management. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forests, using mist-netting and tape-playback to aid detection, in order to clarify its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat preferences, including tolerance of degradation. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. Formally protect forests at Iwahig and other key sites in the Victoria and Anapalan ranges.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147380	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula platenae</em> is endemic to Palawan and some of its satellite islands in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Since the late 19th century it has generally been described as uncommon or rare. Since 1980, there have been records from fewer than 10 sites. It may be easily overlooked during brief surveys. Three specimens obtained on Mt Victoria in three days in 1990, and several birds heard at Iwahig penal colony over a few days in 1997, suggest that it may have been under-recorded. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147380	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the lower storeys, up to 10&#160;m from the ground, of lowland primary forest up to at least 650&#160;m, possibly favouring areas rich in rattan and understorey palms. It has also been recorded in secondary growth, although observations suggest it is sensitive to habitat modification.</p>	eng
147380	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147380	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation have been extensive on Palawan and logging and mining concessions have been granted for most remaining forest tracts on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist across much of the south. Forest at Iwahig penal colony, a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. The small populations on the tiny islands of Pangulasian and Lagen appear relatively secure.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147381	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147382	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula disposita</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was considered threatened but is no longer regarded as particularly rare, with records from above Crow Valley, Zambales Mountains, Mt High Peak, Zambales, Minuma, Siagot, Talisis valley, Dinalongan, Aurora, two sites on the coastal road near Debutunan Point, Aurora, and Angat Dam. It has now been found (on voice) to be relatively common, e.g. in forest along the main coastal road between Baler and Dinalongan in Aurora. The species inhabits lowland forest but appears to survive well in selectively logged and degraded areas. <br/></p>	eng
147383	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. However, 200&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Lompobatang (which is heavily disturbed below 1,000-1,700&#160;m, but rises to 3,000&#160;m) has been proposed for establishment as a nature reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys in the Lompobatang massif to identify all remaining forest tracts supporting populations. Establish a strict protected area to encompass as much remaining forest on the massif as possible. Promote effective enforcement of protected-area regulations to minimise alternative land-use development and control further exploitation of the area. Initiate local directives for forest protection and promote a widespread education programme highlighting the importance of the Lompobatang massif as the major water catchment area supplying the large cities of Ujung Pandang and Maros.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147383	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula bonthaina</em> is only known from the Lompobatang massif at the southern tip of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Although only known historically from two localities, it was evidently common until at least the 1930s, when a large series of specimens was collected. Since then, however, there has been just one record (in 1995) of two birds (possibly a pair) at a third locality. The paucity of observations during the remainder of this survey suggests that it may now occur only at low densities, and considering the severe loss of habitat within its restricted range, it must have undergone a dramatic decline.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147383	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits tropical lower and upper montane rainforest above 1,100&#160;m. The only recent observations were in the dense, heavily shaded understorey (below c.4.5&#160;m) of disturbed forest dominated by saplings and <em>Pandanus</em> palms, with a discontinuous canopy caused by tree-falls. It apparently avoided adjacent forest with a more open understorey. It is not known whether the species is subject to any altitudinal movements, but this could be crucial to its survival prospects.</p>	eng
147383	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 30 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 90km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO of 200 km<sup>2</sup> as estimated by van Balen in BirdLife International [2001]) = 2,700, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000; (density is lowest of estimates of three forest dwelling congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and this is consistent with observation of three adults along 1-2 km of trail by Alstrom <em>in litt.</em> [2000] in BirdLife International [2001]). <br/></p>	eng
147383	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The environs of the Lompobatang massif are one of the most densely populated areas of Sulawesi and all forest below 1,000-1,500&#160;m, and locally up to 1,700&#160;m, has disappeared (as a result of land clearance for transmigration settlements, commercial logging and both shifting and plantation agriculture). Remaining forest continues to be threatened by human activities.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in Nepal, locally common in India and Bhutan, scarce in Bangladesh, locally common in Thailand and common in Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147385	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common and widespread to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon in north Indian Subcontinent, rare in China and uncommon in Myanmar, Laos and north Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147388	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula nigrorufa </em>is an endemic resident in the Western Ghats of southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally common from 700 m to the highest summits. It inhabits shola forests with dense undergrowth and plenty of leaf-litter, cardamom and coffee plantations, and moist thickets in ravines. While its range is small, its tolerance for modified habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened. However, an increasing human population has led to increased illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests, livestock grazing and the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes. Furthermore, hydropower development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas. These factors require monitoring as, left uncontrolled, they will threaten the area's endemic avifauna. <br/></p>	eng
147389	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ficedula timorensis</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it occurs up to 1,200 m in the dense undergrowth of monsoon forest, apparently preferring areas with limestone boulders and rocky scree slopes. Although it has been found in degraded patches, it appears to favour areas with closed-canopy forest, which are constantly diminishing. Moreover, the ground vegetation in all such patches of forest is grazed by cattle. <br/></p>	eng
147390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in far eastern Russia and Japan, uncommon in China, an uncommon to rare non-breeding visitor to the Malay peninsular, Singapore and the Philippines and a rare non-breeding visitor to Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common throughout much of its range and uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147392	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eumyias sordidus </em>is an endemic resident in the uplands of <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is generally common from 1,220-1,830 m, but scarce at lower altitudes. It occurs in well-wooded areas, at forest edges and sometimes in shady gardens. While it is resilient to forest degradation because of its preference for edge habitats, total clearance of habitat is a potential threat in its limited range. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <br/></p>	eng
147393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally common to locally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147394	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eumyias albicaudatus </em>is an endemic resident in the Western Ghats of southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is common at forest edges, clearings, thick vegetation near streams, cardomom plantations and sholas, from 600 m to the summits. While its range is small, its tolerance for disturbed habitats suggests that it is not immediately threatened by habitat modification. However, an increasing human population has led to increased illegal encroachment into Western Ghat forests, livestock grazing and the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes. Furthermore, hydropower development and road-building are causing reductions in forest cover in some areas. These factors require monitoring as, left uncontrolled, they will threaten the area's endemic avifauna. <br/></p>	eng
147395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common and locally abundant in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common to common or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147398	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common in south China and uncommon in north Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147399	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce and local in north Pakistan, common in Nepal, fairly common in north India and Bhutan, uncommon in China and fairly common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147401	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common in Taiwan. Race oatesi is described as uncommon in south China and rare in north-east India (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147402	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The eastern part of its known distribution is largely enclosed in Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, covering 280&#160;km<sup>2</sup> between 100 m and 1,970&#160;m. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to establish its true range, distribution and population status, particularly in the unexplored mountains immediately to the west of its current known distribution. Identify areas supporting significant populations and propose their establishment as protected areas. Initiate awareness programmes to reduce shifting cultivation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147402	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyornis sanfordi</em> is endemic to northern Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from four localities in the mountains of the Minahasa peninsula. It is thinly distributed, but may be more numerous in the western part of its range, considering the relatively large number (nine) originally collected. Recent observations at a new site for the species (Gunung Banga) suggested that it was moderately common there<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147402	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a presumed resident (perhaps making very local altitudinal movements), inhabiting primary lower and upper montane rain forest and moss forest above 1,400&#160;m. It is apparently identical in habits, ecology, vertical distribution, behaviour and vocalisations to Blue-fronted Flycatcher <em>C. hoevelli</em>, which is usually unobtrusive but sometimes conspicuous, frequenting the lower storey or forest canopy of medium-sized and tall trees, and occasionally joining mixed-species flocks. Its occurs in disturbed forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147402	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147402	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat stems from habitat loss along the peripheries of the mountain range on the Minahasa peninsula, as a result of clearance for transmigration settlements and shifting agriculture. However, this is only a localised threat at the lower limit of its altitudinal range, with most forest at higher elevations remaining largely untouched. Logging concessions at lower altitudes also pose a threat. In Indonesia new regional autonomy laws were passed in 1999 (and enacted in early 2000) these empower regional governments to determine the licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately there has also been a significant increase in the amount of logging taking place in protected areas since decentralisation, especially in Sulawesi.  <br/></p>	eng
147403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147404	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as widespread and uncommon on Timor and unknown status on Wetar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147405	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as scarce to very locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147406	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. This species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972. The Wildlife Conservation Society is currently actively trying to locate this species in the lowlands surrounding Gunung Leuser National Park, and hope to expand this work in the future once additional funding has been secured<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Examine the two skins in detail to improve understanding of its taxonomic status, and indeed (by consideration of wing length) to determine the likelihood of its being migratory. Conduct surveys (including use of mist nets) for the species between January and April in remaining forest patches ranging out from the two historical locations. Develop a conservation plan for the species, pending results of these surveys, including the establishment of protected areas, where appropriate, at any sites supporting populations.</strong>	eng
147406	distribution		<em>Cyornis ruckii</em> is known from two specimens collected in 1917 and 1918, at Tuntungan and Delitua in the lowlands of northern Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Two further specimens are purportedly from Malaysia, but their provenance has been questioned. The species must have always been very rare or local, given the failure of all but one zoological collector to obtain specimens.	eng
147406	habitat		Its ecology is virtually unknown. Specimens were collected at 150 m and 200 m in "exploited forest", suggesting it may tolerate some habitat degradation. The fact that they were taken in January and April raises the possibility that the species may be migratory. Judging by its morphology, its closest relatives are to be found in the Hainan Blue-flycatcher <em>C.</em> <em>hainanus </em>group of China and South-East Asia: birds of tangled understoreys and secondary forest. However, as the species's taxonomic relationships remain unclear, a broad outlook should be maintained on its likely ecology.	eng
147406	population		Population assumed to be tiny based on lack of records, despite searches, since two specimens collected in 1917-1918	eng
147407	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common or fairly common, although uncommon to rare in Hong Kong and uncommon in Cambodia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to uncommon or scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common, although uncommon in Bhutan and Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon in most of its range, although frequent in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147412	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as a scarce and local summer visitor to Pakistan, locally common in India during the summer and  fairly common to uncommon throughout its South-East Asian range  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147414	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyornis lemprieri</em> is endemic to Palawan, Balabac, Culion and Calauit, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is uncommon to locally common in lowland forest and second growth, with records including St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Iwahig Penal Colony and Mt Mantakinghan, with a breeding record from Mt Mananangob and a good population at Singnapan. <br/></p>	eng
147415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon and very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147416	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in various protected areas throughout its range, including Sepilok Forest Reserve (Sabah), Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Kutai National Park (Kalimantan), Kerinci-Seblat and Way Kambas National Parks (Sumatra).<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to investigate its population size and trends, ecological requirements and determine whether any specific conservation measures are needed. Provide support for the conservation and management of lowland protected areas in Sumatra and Borneo. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forest in the Sundaic region.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147416	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyornis</em> <em>caerulata</em> occurs on Borneo (including <strong>Brunei</strong>, Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) and Sumatra, Indonesia, where it is resident in humid lowland evergreen forest, ascending foothills locally to mid-altitudes. It appears to be rather patchily distributed and generally uncommon.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147416	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents the middle and understoreys of primary, selectively logged and mature secondary dryland rainforest, tending to occur in more dense or tangled areas or at edges of clearings. It is often replaced in riverine forest by Malaysian Blue-flycatcher <em>C. turcosa</em>.</p>	eng
147416	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147416	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Given its preference for lowland forest and restriction to Sumatra and Borneo, it must be in steep decline from habitat loss, primarily through industrial-scale logging (even in protected areas). Kalimantan lost just under 25% of its 1985 lowland forest cover in the subsequent 12 years, resulting in the prediction that this habitat-type could be eradicated from the entire province by 2010 if changes in policy and management were not forthcoming. The equivalent statistic for Sumatra is even more alarming: 30% lowland forest loss in the same 12-year period, a rate that, if maintained, would result in almost complete clearance of the lowlands by 2005. Furthermore, the major fires of 1997-1998 affected 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest on Sumatra and Borneo, damaged at least 17 of Indonesia's parks and reserves and, following previous major conflagrations in 1972 and 1982-1983, accelerated the dessication of the forest environment that renders regrowth and unburnt adjacent areas ever more vulnerable to fire and ever poorer in biodiversity. <br/></p>	eng
147417	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyornis turcosus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in bamboo, swamp and evergreen forest, usually in association with waterways, locally to 800 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of secondary forest and brushwood of abandoned plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout much of its range, although rare on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147420	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although scarce in Nepal and rare in north-west Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147423	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as locally fairly common in the Philippines and variably uncommon to very common on Sulawesi (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in cocoa plantations and forest re-growth and less common in coconut plantations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147426	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In the Udzungwas, the majority of this subpopulation is found within protected areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The species is known to occur in Marimba Forest Reserve, East Usambaras<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The Ndundulu Mountains lie within West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve. Three conservation projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the numbers and distribution of this species in Zimbabwe<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect its habitat in Zimbabwe and on Mt Gorongosa<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate why it is submontane in most areas but occurs only at low altitudes in the East Usambaras<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147426	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Swynnertonia swynnertoni</em> is restricted to a few mountains in eastern <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Mozambique</strong> and <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In Zimbabwe, the nominate subspecies occurs at Chirinda and a few other tiny forest patches on the border with Mozambique. In Mozambique, subspecies <em>umbratica</em> is common<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> on Mt Gorongosa (c.125&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest in 1970<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>). In Tanzania, subspecies <em>rodgersi</em> is found 1,100&#160;km to the north in the Udzungwa Mountains, where it is rare to common locally, with densities as high as 25 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in secondary forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and <em>rodgersi</em> also occurs another 400&#160;km to the north in lowland patches within the East Usambara Mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where the subpopulation is probably small<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147426	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	All subpopulations are found solely in montane forest (850-1,750&#160;m), apart from in the East Usambaras where it probably occurs only in lowland evergreen forest (130-550&#160;m)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The breeding season is October-January<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong> and the clutch-size is two. <br/></p>	eng
147426	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Given that the only estimations for any one of this species's subpopulations are for no more than 1,000 individuals (e.g. central Mozambique, Udzungwa Mountains; Parker 2005; L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007), the total population is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147426	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest is being cleared on Mt Gorongosa<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. The Usambara subpopulation is threatened by pole-cutting, firewood-collection, cultivation and illegal pit-saw logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it will probably disappear from Manga, in the East Usambara lowlands, if current degradation continues<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Forest disturbance, as a consequence of adventure tourism, may also be affecting the species locally in the East Usambaras<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Bvumba, Zimbabwe, the species is threatened by changes in the forest understorey due to the spread of the non-native <em>Hedychium</em>, an ornamental ginger<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant, although rare to locally common in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147430	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147431	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Several Tanzanian sites are Forest Reserves<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. Projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest in protected areas. In Kenya, the Shimba Hills is a National Reserve and in Arabuko-Sokoke an ongoing project aims to promote sustainable forest management<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Malawi, remaining forest on the lakeshore plain is mainly in four small Forest Reserves, while escarpment forest, though not protected, is in a largely uninhabited area<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Some forest sites are protected by virtue of their remoteness or water catchment value<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Help the Malawi Forest Department with the conservation of established reserves on the lakeshore<sup>7,8. Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in both Arabuko-Sokoke and the East Usambaras. Increase protection for Tanzanian coastal forests. Investigate its responses to habitat alteration4. Assess the population size and trend in the Nguu Mountains17. Conduct surveys in southern Tanzania and Mozambique8,15. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147431	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sheppardia gunningi</em> occurs as four subspecies in scattered forests in south-east <strong>Kenya</strong><sup>3,11,13,14,16</sup>, eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong><sup>1,2,9,12,17</sup>, northern <strong>Malawi</strong><sup>6</sup> and <strong>Mozambique</strong><sup>5</sup>. The area of occupied suitable habitat may total less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given that it totals c.470 km<sup>2</sup> outside Mozambique. At least 7,500 pairs occur in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (Kenya) alone<strong><sup>11,13,14</sup></strong>. This population appears to be stable<strong><sup>20,21</sup></strong> and recent records of juveniles (possible dispersers) outside the principal forest block suggest it may be near carrying capacity.  The population at Chinizuia in Mozambique may have been extirpated through deforestation<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. A new population has recently been discovered at Mt Mabu in Mozambique<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. In Tanzania the species is under severe pressure: the largest population is thought to occur in Ruvu South Forest Reserve; a long isolated population in the Nguu Mts is small and under pressure; the population in Jozani forest on Zanzibar occupies a tiny habitat; a recently (2003) discovered population in Nyumburuni Forest Reserve was under severe pressure at the time of discovery despite an IUCN programme in Rufiji District and a plantation of Mvule on the Rondo Plateau which supports a healthy population of akalats may soon be clear felled<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147431	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits closed, moist forest in the Tanzanian mountains<strong><sup>9,17</sup></strong>, lowland and mid-altitude humid forest in Malawi<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, and tracts of mixed woodland and open, dry forest in coastal/lowland areas<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In Kenya, it is not found in degraded forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but in Tanzania and Malawi it can also be found in secondary forest<strong><sup>2,6,9,13</sup></strong>, though it is generally restricted to the forest interior<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>, where males retain year round territories. In Tanzania it largely inhabits coastal forests below 300 m, apart from one newly described montane subspecies in the Nguu mountains<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Food is mainly insects, but it has also been observed to feed on berries and seeds<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Birds typically require dense cover which they retreat into and use to conceal the nest<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147431	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in Kenya is believed to support c.7,500 pairs. Other subpopulations in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique are not thought to be large, hence the global population is best treated as moderately small. <br/></p>	eng
147431	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In coastal forests, extraction of timber and dead wood and clearance for agriculture are major and increasing threats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, while elephant damage is a threat in the Shimba Hills (Kenya)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Lowland sites in Malawi are under increasing human pressure<strong><sup>7,15</sup></strong>. Forest within its range in Mozambique is also under severe and increasing pressure from the expanding human population<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The population at Chinizuia in Mozambique may have been extirpated following forest clearance<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Where joint forest management allows dead wood collection people typically target dead wood thickets that this species relies upon for nesting<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147432	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A protected area of 50&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the area was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not been established<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Record the species's call and conduct surveys to estimate the population size and ascertain its presence in other forest patches (when the security situation permits). Designate the forest at Gabela as a protected area (the only effective conservation action possible, but currently impractical due to the security situation)<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147432	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sheppardia gabela</em> is known only from a few forest patches within 40&#160;km of Gabela, on the escarpment of western <strong>Angola</strong>. A recent brief survey (2003) found that the forest around Gabela has largely been transformed, but this species was recorded at a single, large forest block which survives near the village of Kumbira and in secondary bush near the town of Seles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It may possibly occur in other relict patches of forest on the escarpment, but suitable habitat is severely restricted.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147432	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the dense understorey of a few remaining primary and secondary forest patches. It has been observed in scrubby edges of managed "coffee forest", but is probably dependent on nearby, more intact forest. It is probably exclusively insectivorous, gleaning insects from leaves and branches of undergrowth. Its breeding ecology is unknown although birds in breeding condition have been found in September. <br/></p>	eng
147432	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Using an estimate of the area of available habitat at 327-872 km<sup>2</sup> and assuming a territory size of 3 ha per pair the minimum global population is estimated to number 21,800 mature individuals (Sekercio&#240;lu and Riley 2005). The area of suitable habitat is probably much smaller than the estimate used (M. Mills<em> in litt</em>. 2007), so this may well be an overestimate. <br/></p>	eng
147432	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by loss of habitat from subsistence agriculture. In some areas, 20-70% of canopy trees and all the undergrowth in valley bottoms is being cleared to plant bananas and sweet potatoes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In other areas, up to 95% of the forest canopy is being removed to plant cassava and maize<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147433	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most of its range lies within Forest Reserves. Some forest areas in the west Usambaras have developed community management plans<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> but the outcomes and effectiveness of these is not known. In February 2000 a three-year evaluation of forest health, land-use change and information sharing in the Eastern Arc forests was established<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Satellite imagery, permanent sample plots and stakeholder interviews are being used to evaluate forest health<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct fieldwork to establish its population size. Commence population monitoring. Assess and monitor potential threats, especially the extent and rate of loss or degradation of its habitat. Work with organisations such as Tea Estates to conserve forests in the West Usambaras, such as at Ambangulu<sup>4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147433	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sheppardia montana</em> has a very small range of c. 930 km<sup>2</sup> in the West Usambara Mountains, <strong>Tanzania</strong>, of which it is thought to occupy just c. 140 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat. The total population was conservatively estimated to be 28,000 birds about 20 years ago<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147433	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a largely ground-dwelling bird of montane forest undergrowth, thickets and degraded forest with some remaining canopy, replacing Sharpe's Akalat <em>S. sharpei</em> at higher altitudes and in drier forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It forages on the forest floor (often following driver-ant swarms), as well as on trunks and lianas, and by sallying in mid-air<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but there are indications that the breeding season is from October to March, with a peak in November-December<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147433	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population has been conservatively estimated at 28,000 birds (van der Willigen and Lovett 1981). <br/></p>	eng
147433	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Formerly its habitat was being converted to softwood plantations, although probably no longer<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Encroachment for subsistence agriculture is still ongoing. Although this has been regarded as a minor threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in some forests wood extraction is still a very serious issue<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species's population is therefore assumed to be declining and becoming fragmented. <br/></p>	eng
147434	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A large proportion of the species's range (in the Udzungwa Mountains) is protected in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and in several Forest Reserves. Forest Reserves in the Ukaguru Mountains are reasonably intact due to the steep terrain.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the Rubeho Mountains to see if it occurs there. Conduct a baseline population survey and monitor its population size in the Udzungwa Mountains.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sheppardia lowei</em> is known from only a small number of forested areas in the Ukaguru Mountains, Udzungwa Mountains and the Southern Highlands (Njombe District) of <strong>Tanzania</strong>. Within this range it is fairly common in places, with as many as 15 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in the Udzungwas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It may also occur in the Rubeho Mountains, between the Udzungwa and Ukaguru Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147434	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in montane forest and thickets<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and is tolerant of some habitat disturbance. It is generally more abundant at higher altitudes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Largely ground-dwelling, it forages in leaf-litter and sometimes gleans from trunks, vines and branches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It regularly attends army-ant swarms and feeds on tiny insects flushed by the ants<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but there are indications that the breeding season may run from September to February<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147434	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in the Udzungwas is known from eight localities and is guessed to exceed 10,000 individuals (L. Dinesen<em> in litt</em>. 2007), although the total population of Nyumbanitu and Ndundulu Forests and Udzungwa National Park has been estimated at possibly no more than 2,500 individuals (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The range of 10,000-19,999 individuals therefore remains as a preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147434	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is not threatened in the Udzungwa Mountains, where the majority of the population is found, but may be threatened by forest destruction in the Southern Highlands, where forest patches are smaller and under greater pressure<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43000000-83000000 breeding pairs, equating to 129000000-249000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 137000000-332000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147436	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Japan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147437	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erithacus komadori</em> is the most abundant of the endemic birds restricted to the Nansei Shoto archipelago, <strong>Japan</strong>. Three subspecies are currently recognised: <em>subrufa</em> which occurs on the islands of Ishigaki, Iriomote and Yonaguni (where it is poorly known and may be of doubtful validity); <em>namiyei</em> is endemic to the northern part of Okinawa Island; and <em>komadori</em> which inhabits the southern islands of of Kagoshima and Okinawa. The population is considered to be around 80,000-90,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It remains common on Amami-oshima, Toku-noshima and the northern part of Okinawa. Threats include predation by introduced mongooses (Okinawa) and weasels (Nakanoshima) and habitat loss resulting from commercial logging. It inhabits dense undergrowth in damp areas within riparian broad-leaved evergreen forest and nests in crevices or among the roots of trees. It is a partial migrant and in the winter many birds relocate to the southern islands of the archipelago<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is considered Vulnerable in the most recent national Red Data Book for Japan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147437	population	BirdLife International, 2008	S. Chan <em>in litt</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
147438	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3700000-6900000 breeding pairs, equating to 11100000-20700000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 15000000-41400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4200000-12000000 breeding pairs, equating to 12600000-36000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17000000-72000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 800-1000 breeding pairs, equating to 2400-3000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir Alai mountains and very common in northern Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,500,000-7,800,000 breeding pairs, equating to 13,500,000-23,400,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
147444	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but this species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve and Wanglang Nature Reserve, Sichuan, and Taibai Shan National Nature Reserve in Shaanxi.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status and in particular determine its utilisation of successional habitats and modified forest. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a protected species in China. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
147444	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Luscinia ruficeps</em> is known to breed at four sites in north-central Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, south-west <strong>China</strong>. In Jiuzhaigou National Park, six singing males were heard along 3-4 km of the valley near Nuorilong in 1991, and four singing males and two females were seen along c.400 m of trail in the valley above "Pearl Shoal waterfall" in June 1995. It has been recorded once in winter in peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>. The paucity of records suggests that it probably has a localised distribution and a small population. <br/></p>	eng
147444	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In its breeding range, it occurs in temperate mixed coniferous and deciduous forest and deciduous scrub, particularly associated with narrow river valleys between 2,400-2,800 m, where it may be specialised to areas of successional scrub in valley bottoms which develop following flash-floods. The single winter record is from ericaceous scrub at 2,030 m. </p>	eng
147444	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) who noted that 'it can occur at high densities in suitable habitat, but the paucity of records suggests that it is probably highly localised in distribution and could have a small total population' i.e. <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147444	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through timber production and conversion to cultivation and pasture, and it is assumed that substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost. In one of the valleys where it was recently recorded in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve, limited cutting and lopping of wood had occurred, and in two valleys, flood-control dams have been constructed. The successional habitats it may require could be negatively affected by dams. If it winters in primary lowland forest in the Sundaic region, it is likely to experience intense pressures from habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
147445	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Thailand. A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve and Baihe Nature Reserve (Sichuan) and Taibai Shan National Nature Reserve (Shaanxi). </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a protected species in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147445	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Luscinia obscura</em> breeds in the mountains of south-west <strong>China</strong>, where it is known only from a few scattered records, with presumed non-breeding records from southern China and northern <strong>Thailand</strong>. The paucity of records suggests that it probably has a localised distribution and a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to its habitat. <br/></p>	eng
147445	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat requirements and altitudinal range are poorly known. In Gansu, there are historical records from bamboo thickets on the tops of ridges dividing valleys at 3,050-3,350&#160;m. More recent records in Sichuan, are from temperate zone forest. Outside the breeding season, it has been recorded at 400 m in Thailand. </p>	eng
147445	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) who noted that 'it is probably highly localised in distribution and could have a small total population' i.e. <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147445	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through exploitation of timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture, and substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost. Nong Bong Khai, Thailand, supported significant areas of secondary forest when it was collected there, but the area has since been completely deforested for intensive agriculture and tourism. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147446	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Luscinia pectardens</em> breeds in Sichuan, Yunnan and south-east Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, in dense scrub in valley bottoms, and in mountain forest, at 2,800-3,700 m, and it is a non-breeding visitor to the mountains of Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, northern <strong>Myanmar,</strong> <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It appears to be very rare, with the only recent records on the breeding grounds from Wolong Biosphere Reserve in Sichuan, although it must be greatly under-recorded as much of its range is remote and seldom visited by ornithologists. It has presumably been affected by deforestation on both the breeding and wintering grounds. CMS Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
147446	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is very poorly known andthe only recent records are from one site in China. Although the rest of its possible range has not been well surveyed it is possible that the species is genuinely rare and therefore it is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-20,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, except for northern Vietnam, where it is rare (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147449	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000-21000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000-63000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Pakistan, locally common in the central and eastern Himalayas, common in Bhutan and uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147451	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the eastern Himalayas, uncommon in China and scarce in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147452	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in the eastern Himalayas, rare in China and fairly common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147454	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 410000-920000 breeding pairs, equating to 1230000-2760000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2510000-11000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and commonest at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147456	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, particularly along stream sides (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147458	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on mount Mulanje and the Nyika plateau and scarce elsewhere in its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147460	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147461	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to locally common, although uncommon in Sudan and rare in Korup National Park, Cameroon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147462	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and locally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common throughout its range except at the fringes of its range, for example southern Somali where it is very uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally very common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparse in Angola frequent to common in Ethiopia and locally fairly common in western Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147467	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Bombo-Lumene was established as a Game Reserve in 1968, and in 1976 a Fauna and Forest Reserve was established within its borders. However, the site is poorly staffed and equipped<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine its distribution and the degree to which it is threatened (when the security situation permits). Establish suitable sites as nature reserves.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147467	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cossypha heinrichi</em> is known from only two small areas: c.30&#160;km north-east of Calandula (formerly Duque de Braganza) in northern <strong>Angola,</strong> and from 500&#160;km to the north at Bombo-Lumene Forest Reserve, and nearby Nkiene and Nguma (near Kinshasa) in the western <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nguma is a new locality, where four specimens were collected in May 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Birds have been seen at four other sites within a 15&#160;km radius of Bombo-Lumene and there is an unconfirmed sight record 550&#160;km still further north, near Mbandaka<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species remains very poorly known and the scarcity of records indicates it is rare, though future surveys may prove it to be more widely distributed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147467	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In northern Angola, the species has been found in dense undergrowth of gallery forests along rivers and brooks at 1,250&#160;m, occasionally entering surrounding savanna areas. In the western DRC, it is known from a few isolated, thick (not gallery) forest patches in the savanna. It is insectivorous, feeding especially on driver ants. In Angola, there are possibly two breeding seasons, in February and October. In the DRC, the breeding season is September-November, coincident with the start of the rainy season.</p>	eng
147467	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147467	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In the DRC, forest patches from which it is known are extremely small and deforestation (for charcoal) is widespread at Bombo Lumene due to the proximity of Kinshasa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A large part of the Bombo-Lumene Reserve is currently used for agricultural and pastoral activities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Angola, its habitat may be threatened by clearance for agriculture and uncontrolled fires from slash-and-burn cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147469	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147470	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenocopsychus ansorgei</em> has an extremely localised distribution on the escarpment of western <strong>Angola</strong>, where it is confined to four areas, eastern Namibe and Huila, N'Dalatando in Cuanza Norte, Mt Soque in Huambo and the Gabela area in Cuanza Sul<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is found in caves and on rocky grassland slopes and cliffs with nearby forest, feeding on insects. It is common where it occurs. <br/></p>	eng
147471	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather local and confined to its specific habitat, although often common within that habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147472	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and common throughout the escarpment zone in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147473	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range, especially along dry watercourses (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147474	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147475	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147477	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 32000-96000 breeding pairs, equating to 96000-288000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 196000-1150000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147481	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common across the Sahel, very common across central Sudan and common in central Yemen (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147484	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from extreme south-west Angola south to west-central Namibia (Harrison et al. 1997b). A population of 2,000 birds occurs in Namib-Naukluft Park, Namibia, and there is also a population in Iona National Park, Angola (Harrison et al. 1997).	eng
147484	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits rocky hills, mountains and inselbergs where it is associated mainly with Commiphora-Acacia scrub and occurs from 700-1,100 m, principally on south-facing hillsides (Harrison et al. 1997b).	eng
147484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but in prime habitat the species is abundant, reaching densities of 15 birds per km2, and the Namibian population is estimated at 108,000 birds (Harrison et al. 1997b, Robertson et al. 1995). In parts of its range the species is described as rare  (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147485	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A recovery programme was initiated in 1990<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and, since 1998, has been managed locally. Translocations have taken place to four small, predator-free islands<strong><sup>7,16</sup></strong>; habitat restoration activities are underway on several islands, but it may be several years before they are suitable for further translocations<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Nesting success has been boosted by habitat creation, supplementary feeding<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, nest defence, provision of nest boxes, and reduction of <em>A. tristis</em>. A genetic study is being carried out to investigate inbreeding<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Research on factors affecting territory quality, with implications for habitat management, is underway<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. An integrated pest management programme is being implemented on Fr&eacute;gate<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Project team meetings happen twice a year on Praslin, involving stakeholders in reviewing and planning conservation efforts<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>; this has helped domestic financing, with the islands of Cousine, Cousin and Aride all funding their own monitoring work<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify at least three new islands for future translocations, eradicate introduced mammals and restore natural habitat<sup>3,10</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish self-sustaining breeding populations on at least seven islands by 2006<sup>16</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate rats from Fr&eacute;gate<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Resolve problems restricting establishment of this species on Aride<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue development of local expertise, ownership and management of the recovery programme<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a veterinary holding operation for emergency situations<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147485	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Copsychus sechellarum</em> was found on at least six islands in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>, but in 1965, only 12-15 birds remained on Fr&eacute;gate<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1994, following the advent of a recovery programme, the population had increased to 48, with two birds translocated to Aride. In 2000, following further translocations, the population reached 86, comprising 46 on Fr&eacute;gate, 23 on Cousin, 15 on Cousine and two on Aride<strong><sup>6,15</sup></strong>. By 2003, the total population numbered 110 individuals<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>, and by 2004 numbered 136 birds (including 90 mature individuals)<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The current population is estimated at 150 individuals<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Three of the four populations are now at carrying capacity, with only small population increases anticipated as habitat continues to improve<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. However, one bird emigrated from Aride to Denis Island in August 2004<strong><sup>19,20</sup></strong>, demonstrating that the species is capable of dispersing to peripheral cays. <br/></p>	eng
147485	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its original habitat was mature coastal forest which provided a rich feeding ground in the leaf-litter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Today it forages in mature woodland on central plateaus, plantations and vegetable gardens. It feeds predominantly on small invertebrates, but fruit, fish dropped by tree-nesting terns<strong><sup>22</sup></strong> and vertebrates, including skinks and geckos, are also taken. It breeds year-round, with a clutch-size of one. Nests are sited in holes in large trees or in the crowns of coconut palms. Reintroduced populations have suffered from a male-biased sex ratio, largely because of the higher mortality of adult females, the cause of which is unclear<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147485	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in 2006 was 178 birds (including 82 on Fr&eacute;gate, 46 on Cousin, 32 on Cousine and 18 on Aride) (N. Shah <em>in litt.</em> 2006). <br/></p>	eng
147485	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Fr&eacute;gate, predation by cats may have caused the decline but the population failed to recover after their eradication<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Compounding factors include: other introduced predators and competitors (Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em><strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Brown Rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), the encroachment of dense cover following the abandonment of plantations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, food shortages close to nest-sites, pesticides (used to control insects in hotels and houses)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and, on Aride, infection by pathogenic bacteria<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Future risks potentially include predator reintroduction and sea-level change<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Introduced fungal diseases may have a detrimental effect on forest habitats, but may result in a net habitat gain as affected areas can be replanted with native species (the introduction of a vascular wilt disease to Fr&eacute;gate has not impacted the population there)<strong><sup>20,21</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, although generally uncommon in the Philippines (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although perhaps locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147490	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> During the 1980s, the species was the subject of an intensive population survey and an awareness campaign in the local press. It occurs at Tabunan within the Central Cebu National Park, which was declared a Strict Protection Zone in 1996. The felling of trees is prohibited in the reserve, but this confers little or no effective protection. In 1997, a three-year management plan was produced for the site, aiming to ensure long-term sustainability.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Conduct intensive surveys to establish whether additional subpopulations persist elsewhere on the island, and determine the size of known subpopulations. Conduct detailed ecological research to facilitate conservation planning and management. Immediately cease housing development at Casili, and prevent habitat destruction at other key sites. Initiate a management programme involving wardening, education and tourist development at Tabunan, including resolving the issue of land claims with illegal settlers.</strong></p>	eng
147490	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Copsychus cebuensis</em> is endemic to the island of Cebu in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It has always been considered rare, but recent intensive fieldwork has revealed it to be significantly more widespread than was previously known. There are post-1990 records from at least 15 sites, but it only survives in very small numbers at most of these, with observations usually totalling one to five individuals at each. The single largest subpopulation comprises c.50 birds in c.10&#160;km<sup>2</sup> at Casili. <br/></p>	eng
147490	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary forest and the dense undergrowth of secondary habitats (e.g. along steep ravines), including scrub and cut-over forests, plantations, and bamboo groves.</p>	eng
147490	population	BirdLife International, 2008	New population estimate is based on recent surveys at Nug-as Forest (Jakosalem <em>et al.</em> 2005). Distance sampling was used to estimate densities of 17.5 individuals / ha in valley bottom forest (300 ha in total) and 3.5 individuals / ha in ridge-top forest (400 ha in total), giving an overall population estimate of 6,650 individuals. This was precautionarily scaled to 2,500 individuals. Numbers at the 15 other sites are much lower, in the range of 5-50 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147490	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As early as the 1890s, the small amount of forest remaining on Cebu was being rapidly cleared. A century later, Cebu retained barely 0.03% (or 15&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of its original vegetative cover, and even highly degraded secondary habitats are scarce and under considerable pressure. The only remaining tall forest (at Tabunan) covers just 3&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, of which just 0.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> is closed-canopy. This is threatened by illegal settlement, shifting cultivation and illicit logging by up to 24 families and habitat clearance for mining. The population near Casili is threatened by a nearby housing development, which by 1992 had already destroyed land holding two families of <em>C.&#160;cebuensis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
147491	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trichixos pyrropyga</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it inhabits lowland (including peatswamp) and hill-slope forests to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. Although the species has almost certainly experienced a population decline in the past decade owing to habitat loss, it is not considered threatened because it occurs in relatively less threatened forests on slopes. <br/></p>	eng
147492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the Indian Subcontinent south of the Himalayas, uncommon to rare in Nepal and very common in the dry zone in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147493	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phoenicurus alaschanicus</em> is known from Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia, <strong>China</strong>, with presumed non-breeding records from Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei and Beijing. Its breeding range and habitat requirements remain poorly understood because of the sparse ornithological coverage of much of its range, but there have been recent breeding records on scrub-covered hillsides from c.3,300 m to the treeline. It appears to be rare, and has presumably been affected by habitat loss in its breeding range. It has been recorded in the Helan Mountain Nature Reserve, and in or near to Yanchiwan Nature Reserve. <br/></p>	eng
147493	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is assumed to have a moderately small population because it has a restricted range within which it is not recorded commonly. <br/></p>	eng
147494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally abundant in southern Russia, rare in China and locally frequent in winter in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Afghanistan, locally common in northern Pakistan, northern India and eastern India; less common in Nepal and uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai areas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4000000-8800000 breeding pairs, equating to 12000000-26400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 24500000-106000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6800000-16000000 breeding pairs, equating to 20400000-48000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 27600000-96000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China and scarce in the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its breeding range, although rare on the northern edge of its range and abundant in south-western Transbaikalia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147501	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2100-6000 breeding pairs, equating to 6300-18000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in northern parts of south-east Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147505	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in northern Pakistan, China and India and scarce to locally common in south-east Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147506	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Mt Pulog National Park and the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park on Luzon, and Mt Iglit-Baco National Park on Mindoro. There is also a recent record from the Maria Aurora Memorial National Park, which receives nominal protection.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct comprehensive surveys of suitable mountain streams to clarify its range, distribution and population status. Research its ecological requirements and seasonal movements to facilitate conservation planning. Propose further known key sites, including Mts Cetaceo and Polis for establishment as formal protected areas. Promote stricter enforcement of legislation controlling river pollution through logging, mining and agricultural intensification.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147506	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhyacornis bicolor</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs principally in the southern Cordillera Central and also the Sierra Madre mountains on Luzon. There are two recently discovered 1960s records from central Mindoro. Overall it is uncommon and probably declining, owing to its restricted habitat use within a limited range. Nevertheless, it appears to be locally common, with pairs separated by intervals of only 200-300&#160;m along suitable streams on Mt Polis, although evidence suggests that in some places its occurrence may be spatially and temporally patchy. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147506	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the margins of clear, undisturbed, fast-flowing and rocky-sided mountain streams and rivers, above 300&#160;m. Adjacent habitat includes tropical montane forest, pine forest or just scrub and scattered trees. Records from Dalton Pass, between August and December, indicate that some birds wander post-breeding.</p>	eng
147506	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 720 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% of EOO: low percentage taken despite small EOO because of specific habitat requirements; AOO and population may be even smaller) = 2,880-7,200, i.e. in band 2,500-10,000; (this species appears to favour borders of broad rocky mountain rivers, with pairs separated by 200-500 m along some rivers, i.e. 4-10 individuals/km). <br/></p>	eng
147506	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Stream pollution and siltation caused by mining and logging are threats, as is the increasing use of agro-chemicals, all of which negatively effect water quality and prey abundance. Within Mt Pulog National Park, clearing of forest and cultivation are common, both of which are likely to cause erosion and siltation in due course. There is also increasing use of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides by local farmers. Very few suitable, forest-flanked watercourses remain in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park (Mindoro) and Mt Data (Luzon) is now reported to be devoid of forest, probably resulting in an increased river silt load at both sites.  <br/></p>	eng
147507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in the Himalayas, uncommon to fairly common in China and rare to uncommon in Myanmar, northern Laos and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in Sumatra and uncommon on Java (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147511	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in the Himalayas and uncommon to locally common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147512	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai areas, locally frequent, although generally uncommon in Pakistan and fairly common in Nepal and China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sumatra and much rarer in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147514	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Enicurus ruficapillus</em> is patchily distributed through the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It occurs along rivers and streams in lowland and hill forests to 1,300 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in submontane forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
147515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Nepal and Myanmar and uncommon in north-western Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Sumatra and in parts of Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarce to locally fairly common in Myanmar and northern Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Nagaland, rare in China and scarce throughout its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or rarely seen (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147521	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in two protected areas, Gunung Kerinci/Seblat National Park (which embraces an area of nearly 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>, primarily of forest, between 50 m and 3,800&#160;m), from where there are recent records, and Gunung Singgalang (covering c.96.5 km<sup>2</sup> between 1,000 m and 2,877&#160;m), from where two historical specimen records derive but little suitable habitat remains. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for the species (surveyors should be familiar with its vocalisations to aid detection) in remaining tracts of lower montane rainforest in the Barisan Mountains to establish its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Promote a widespread conservation awareness campaign in the Barisan Mountains, aimed at reducing rates of forest loss.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147521	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cochoa beccarii</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from just four specimens and a few recent sight records (from five sites) along the Barisan Mountains. Very little is known about its population status, but it appears to occur at low densities, in common with its congeners, and was considered very rare by collectors in the early 20th century. It may be that it is more unobtrusive than genuinely rare. However, it is likely to be undergoing a steady population decline owing to loss of habitat in the lower portion of its altitudinal range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147521	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the middle and upper storeys of tropical lower montane forest between 1,000 m and 2,200&#160;m (although two specimens were reportedly collected on or near the ground). It is thought likely to be largely sedentary, but may make some local seasonal movements.</p>	eng
147521	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,900 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of EOO) = 3,900-7,800 i.e. in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density is extrapolated from similar 'rare' forest species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet,  but may be even lower given paucity of specimens and records documented in BirdLife International [2001]). <br/></p>	eng
147521	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost, primarily as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. These factors are affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. At one of the historical localities, Gunung Singgalang, forest had been cleared up to 1,800-1,900&#160;m as early as 1917, and indeed all known localities are in areas with a high pressure from agriculture on their peripheries.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147522	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in two protected areas, Gunung Gede/Pangrango National Park and Gunung Halimun Nature Reserve, both of which provide hope for a range of threatened species endemic to Java. The two areas cover over 500 km<sup>2</sup> of forest between 500 m and 3,000&#160;m. A substantial nature reserve has been proposed for Gunung Slamet (an historical site for the species), and a small nature reserve exists on Gunung Tangkuban Prahu, from where there are also historical records. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species at all mountains potentially within its range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Propose key sites for establishment as protected areas, or as extensions to existing reserves. Cooperate with local authorities and relevant companies to minimise the impact of tourism and development projects on forested mountains within its range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147522	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cochoa azurea</em> is endemic to the mountains of west and central Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from the higher peaks within a range spanning from Gunung Halimun to Gunung Slamet. There are recent records from just four localities. It appears to occur at low densities, although it is perhaps more unobtrusive than genuinely rare. Its population is nevertheless likely to be undergoing a steady decline, and fragmentation as Javan montane forests become increasingly isolated.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147522	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane rain forest between 900 and 3,000&#160;m, where it is rather tame, moving quietly or sitting motionless for long periods, often in the lower and middle storeys, but also in the canopy. It is presumed to be largely sedentary, but may make local seasonal movements.</p>	eng
147522	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
147522	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development (e.g. holiday resorts and geothermal projects), is becoming an increasing threat in the lower altitudinal range of the species (900 m -1,500&#160;m). It has also been recorded in small numbers in the domestic bird trade, and being tame and habitually sitting motionless for long periods may make it more vulnerable to bird hunters.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5400000-10000000 breeding pairs, equating to 16200000-30000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17200000-40000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147524	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Its occurrence has been confirmed in at least four protected areas in recent years, including the Desert (breeding likely) and Keoladeo National Parks and Ranthambore Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan, and Velavadar National Park in Gujarat. Extensive surveys have been conducted throughout its Indian range. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to monitor its distribution, population status and seasonal movements. Conduct further detailed investigations into its ecology, and identify significant breeding populations. Develop a conservation strategy for the species based on these surveys, including the gazetting of strictly protected areas, perhaps in combination with areas designated for the conservation of the Great Indian Bustard <em>Ardeotis nigriceps.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147524	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Saxicola macrorhynchus</em> is endemic to the north-west Indian subcontinent. Its historical distribution included Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat, <strong>India</strong>, adjacent parts of Punjab and Sind, Pakistan (probably now extinct) and Afghanistan (now extinct). Formerly locally distributed but sometimes common or extremely abundant, it appears to have declined. All recent records are from parts of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat. In 1993-1994, four intensive surveys located c.86 birds in 18 localities, including 25 over a 45 km stretch on one day, suggesting that it remains common at certain localities. <br/></p>	eng
147524	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dry, sandy semi-deserts and desert plains with low herbs and scattered shrubs, where ground-cover ranges between 25% and 50%. In Pakistan, it also inhabited arid subtropical thorn-scrub and perhaps irrigated cultivation and tall grass, though these are thought to be suboptimal habitats. Its movements are poorly understood. Most records are from the winter period (November-March), and it is thought likely that birds move to the deserts of central and western Rajasthan to breed with the onset of the rains in June.</p>	eng
147524	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> (5% of EOO: low percentage taken as records documented in BirdLife International [2001] indicate that this species occurs very locally) = 4,500-9,000 i.e. in band 2500-9,999 individuals (density is extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; total estimate consistent with results of intensive surveys by Rahmani 1997). <br/></p>	eng
147524	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threat is agricultural intensification and encroachment, primarily through the introduction of irrigation schemes to semi-arid areas and their subsequent conversion into croplands. Overgrazing by livestock may also reduce the extent of suitable habitat. These trends are expected to continue with the development of the Rajasthan Canal and widespread application of modern agricultural techniques. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147525	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Wintering populations regularly occur in several protected areas, including Kaziranga, Corbett and Manas National Parks, India, and Lumbini Crane Sanctuary, Chitwan National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, the latter site supporting perhaps the highest recorded concentrations.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species across its breeding and wintering range to identify important sites and potential threats. Extend, upgrade and link (where possible) existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland. Promote grassland regeneration. Control livestock-grazing in relevant protected areas. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147525	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Saxicola insignis</em> breeds very locally in the mountains of <strong>Mongolia</strong> and adjacent parts of <strong>Russia</strong>. It has been recorded on passage in northern and western <strong>China</strong> and Tibet<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and winters in the terai of northern <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Nepal</strong>, with one spring record from <strong>Bhutan</strong>. Although once common, it is now rare and local in its wintering range. In 1998, the wintering population in Nepal was estimated at just 110 individuals. Little is known about populations in its breeding grounds. <br/></p>	eng
147525	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds (c.June) in alpine or subalpine meadows and scrub in mountains. It winters (October-May) in wet and dry grasslands, reeds and tamarisks along riverbeds, and also in sugarcane fields, in open terrain below 250&#160;m. On migration, it occurs up to 4,500&#160;m. Optimum grassland habitat appears to comprise a mosaic of disturbed (burned or grazed) and undisturbed habitat, although it is absent from apparently suitable sites. </p>	eng
147525	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
147525	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat appears to be rapid and extensive loss and modification of grasslands in its wintering grounds, as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (although it appears to have partially adapted to sugarcane), overgrazing, grass harvesting for thatch production and inappropriate grassland management within protected areas. Recent heavy flooding in the valley of the Brahmaputra, compounded by forest destruction in its catchment, has destroyed further suitable habitat. <strong></strong></p>	eng
147526	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>An action plan was produced in 1999<strong><sup>2</sup>. </strong>Various studies of the species's habitat usage<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, breeding biology<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and dispersal<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> have been undertaken since 1998.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Develop, approve and implement a national Conservation Plan for the species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Conduct a complete population census and remap the species's distribution<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Develop a monitoring programme<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Identify and protect key areas of optimal habitat for the species, and reduce the number of "coastal goats" in these areas<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. Raise awareness of the species among the resident and tourist populations, particularly the threat from off-road driving and introduced mammals<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Attempt to control predators at key sites where their impact on breeding success is particularly severe<strong><sup> 5</sup></strong>.	eng
147526	distribution		<em>Saxicola dacotiae</em> is endemic to the Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>, where it breeds only on Fuerteventura (with occasional records from southern Lanzarote)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Formerly, it also occurred on the islands of Alegranza (where it was fairly common) and Monta&ntilde;a Clara, but these populations probably went extinct in the first half of the 20th century as a result of a combination of natural factors and predation by introduced mammals<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>. The only census carried out to date estimated a population of 650-850 breeding pairs in 1985<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recent observations indicate that the current figure may be higher, but this almost certainly reflects differing survey methods, rather than a real increase in numbers. Optimal habitat continues to be impacted by rapid development for tourism, and it is likely that the population has declined since 1985, and continues to do so as development, predation by introduced mammals and excessive grazing continues and increases<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
147526	habitat		It is found on rocky hillsides and "barranco" (= ravine) habitats with shrubby vegetation cover<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, typically of aulaga <em>Launaea arborescens</em>, saltwort <em>Salsola vermiculata</em> and box-thorn <em>Lycium intricatum</em>. These habitats support a high abundance of invertebrates, and provide suitable nesting sites and perches from which the species can forage for arthropods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It also occurs on the edge of vegetated "malpa&iacute;ses" (= lava flows), dry and flowing watercourses, cultivated areas and gardens<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Individuals appear to show strong site fidelity, potentially as a consequence of low spatial variance in the habitat characteristics determining reproductive success<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
147526	population		The only census carried out to date estimated a breeding population of 750 &#177; 100 pairs in 1985 (Bibby and Hill 1987), although more recent observations suggest that the true figure is probably higher than this.	eng
147527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2000000-4600000 breeding pairs, equating to 6000000-13800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25000000-276000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147528	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the small Indian Ocean island of Réunion.	eng
147528	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species readily adapts to degraded and secondary growth habitats.	eng
147528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population has estimated as 180,000 individuals in 1983 and 'well over 100,000 pairs' in 1987 (del Hoyo et al. 2005) it has therefore been placed in the population band 100,000-499,999 individuals.	eng
147529	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147530	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very sparse inmost of its range, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147533	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Saxicola gutturalis</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, and its satellite islands of Roti and Semau (nominate <em>gutturalis</em> on Timor and Roti, race <em>luctuosa</em> on Semau) at up to 1,200 m in monsoon forest and scrubby savanna. In West Timor it is present even in very small remnant pockets of woodland but is largely excluded from savanna and open scrub by the Pied Bushchat <em>S. caprata</em>. Forest loss on Timor has been extensive and the total population of this species may not be great. <br/></p>	eng
147533	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although locally common, the species occupies a restricted range and as a consequence its total population size may not be large. <br/></p>	eng
147534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant in suitable habitat, although rare in parts of Tunisia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in Egypt, scarce in south-eastern Israel, where the population is estimated as 100-200 pairs and scarce on the Arabian Peninsular (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarce in Pakistan. The population in the United Arab Emirates is estimated as 1,000-10,000 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4100-16000 breeding pairs, equating to 12300-48000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 25100-192000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147540	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147541	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 3,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4600000-13000000 breeding pairs, equating to 13800000-39000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 28200000-156000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common to abundant in north Africa, although scarce in Morocco and Tunisia and common in Israel and north-eastern and eastern Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100000-310000 breeding pairs, equating to 300000-930000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1250000-18600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147545	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147546	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although scarce in Tunisia and extremely rare in Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147547	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1400000-3300000 breeding pairs, equating to 4200000-9900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 5680000-19800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147548	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 32000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 96000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 400000-8400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 110-1100 breeding pairs, equating to 330-3300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147552	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2100000-6300000 breeding pairs, equating to 6300000-18900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 26300000-378000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147553	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common. Race frenata is described as uncommon in Eritrea and southern Ethiopia and locally common to abundant in the west, central and south-east highlands of Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147557	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but different populations of the species vary noticeably in abundance (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147559	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, although scarce in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147560	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cercomela dubia</em> is a rare and little-known species from east-central <strong>Ethiopia</strong> and <strong>Somalia</strong>. In Ethiopia, there are records from the Awash valley, including Awash National Park, eastwards, while in Somalia there is a single old record from Mt Wagar (it has not been found there subsequently, despite searches)<strong><sup> 5</sup></strong>. The species seems to favour areas of rock and scrub<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, in common with the closely related and very similar Brown-tailed Chat <em>C. scotocerca</em> and Blackstart <em>C. melanura</em>, so it may have been overlooked. There is no recent information on the status of the species in Somalia. Reports that refugee camps may have caused at least local declines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> are erroneous as the camps are not in suitable habitat for this species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147561	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common and very common in desert areas of Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's abundance is reported to vary with altitude, being most abundant at higher altitudes (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147563	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at 1,500 m-3,000 m (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147565	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be commonest in open grassy country (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147566	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common locally and commoner at higher altitudes (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147567	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although abundant in Burundi and rare to uncommon in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147571	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to common in Ethiopia and uncommon in Eritrea and parts of Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147573	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Regularly monitor the population at selected sites. Protect significant areas of primary forest at appropriate altitudes on all the islands throughout its range. Research its tolerance of logged and degraded forest.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147573	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Aplonis zelandica</em> is endemic to Nendo and Vanikoro in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong> and most of <strong>Vanuatu</strong> south to Efate. Its tolerance of degraded forest is poorly known and it appears to be rare<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.  <br/><em> <br/></p>	eng
147573	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is a forest species of the lowlands on smaller islands and uplands on the larger islands on Vanuatu<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but is also often recorded in gardens and degraded forest on Nendo and Vanikoro<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population has not been estimated but there are thought to be over 1,000 individuals on both Nendo (Solomon Islands) and Santo (Vanuatu). <br/></p>	eng
147573	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The lowland and hill forests across the species's range are potentially threatened by logging, however it persists in degraded forest and gardens on Nendo and Vanikoro, and the Vanuatu highland population is presumably safe. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147574	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other mountains in the vicinity. Re-survey the three known locations - local reports that the species is widespread and common in suitable habitat need to be confirmed. Colour-ring birds at these sites to help assess population sizes and longevity. Survey all montane sites for introduced mammalian predators. Discuss the species's status and distribution with local villagers. <br/></p>	eng
147574	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Aplonis santovestris</em> is endemic to Espiritu Santo, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. It has been recorded from three of the highest mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Mt Watiamasan, Mt Tabwemasana and Peak Santo, in 1934, 1961, and 1991<strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong>. Local villagers have reported it to be widespread in the western mountain ranges<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. No more than one pair has ever been seen and several observers have trekked to these altitudes and failed to find the species, an expedition in 2006 failed to find the species on Mt Tabwemasana, although their party did not include an ornithologist<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although some local villagers report the species to be common, it appears to occur at low population densities and to be very localised<strong><sup>1,3,4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147574	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It forages in singles and pairs in the understorey of cloud-forest above 1,200 m on the highest peaks. It is rarely recorded more than 6 m above the ground and is reported to nest in holes low down in trees<strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 16.0-23.7 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 27 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 432-640, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density lowest to lower quartile of ten estimates for five congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
147574	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Man Hill people at Matantas Big Bay report regularly eating this species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, however they rarely visit high altitudes and the validity of this report has been questioned<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Overall, the number of people living at high altitudes on Santo has decreased through the last few decades<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Forest on Santo remains largely intact, and has only partially been altered by clearings for pastures and coconut plantations<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A number of other montane starling species from the Pacific have become extinct, presumably through the introduction of predatory mammals or disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Santo has no native land mammals but cats, dogs and rats are now widespread. <br/></p>	eng
147575	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A four day survey ('Operation Finding Mountain Starling') was carried out in October 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to search exhaustively for this species and investigate any records of its presence</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Protect upland forests</strong><sup>2,4</sup>.	eng
147575	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Pohnpei, <strong>Federated States of</strong> <strong>Micronesia</strong>, where it declined drastically sometime after 1930, when about 60 specimens were collected in a three-month period. It was not located in a survey conducted in 1983<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and has been considered extinct by some authorities. However, since the 1970s, there have been several possible records<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, unconfirmed sightings and reports from local people and, on 4 July 1995, a specimen was salvaged<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In October 2008, surveys apparently produced three records, although these have not yet been documented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
147575	habitat		This is reputedly a species of dark, damp montane forest above 425 m, although it has also been observed in plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and there are records from lower altitudes and unconfirmed reports from local residents that it was formerly more widespread, occurring in the lowlands and possibly on the adjacent Ant and Pakin atolls<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The most recent specimen was taken at 750 m in dwarf forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It usually occurs in pairs, feeding on insects and fruit. Small berries from shrubs form a large part of the diet, although seeds and grubs are also taken from the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest is reportedly placed in the hollows of trees, but this has not been confirmed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. All three reports of the species from the 2008 survey were of birds in a large native tree <em>Campnosperma brevipetiolata</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
147575	population		The population is assumed to be tiny (<50 individuals), with just a few unconfirmed sightings, local reports and a single salvaged specimen since the 1970s.	eng
147576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147577	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis corvina</em><em> </em>was endemic to the mountain forests of Kosrae, Caroline Islands, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is only known from two specimens, both collected by Kittlitz in 1828<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and both now in St Petersburg<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was extinct by the time that Finsch visited the island in 1880, presumably as a result of depredation by introduced rats, which are abundant on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147578	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis mavornata</em><em> </em>is known only from the type specimen, collected on Mauke, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>,<strong> </strong>by Bloxam in 1825<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (not on Cook's voyages<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). The island was not visited by ornithologists until nearly 150 years after Bloxam's collection, by which time the species had become extinct, presumably as a result of predation by introduced rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147579	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species presumably benefits from conservation measures carried out for the Rarotonga Flycatcher <em>Pomarea dimidiata</em> (classified as Endangered) in the south-east of the island, including intensive rat control.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct a baseline survey to establish numbers</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Investigate possible threats.  Ensure the protection of an area of upland forest.  Control <em>R. rattus </em>and <em>A. tristis </em>in key sites.  </strong>	eng
147579	distribution		This species occurs in the rugged interior of Rarotonga, <strong>Cook Islands</strong>. It was regarded as abundant early in the 19th century and still not uncommon in 1973, but conservative estimates made in 1984 put the population at 100 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recently, this figure has been revised upward but, although it remains widespread, birds occupy relatively large territories, and thus the total population may still be only c.500 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although some observers consider it may be more than this<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is likely to have been lost from the lowlands in the last 40 years and, although the population is assumed now to be stable, there are currently few data on numbers and distribution and thus it could be declining undetected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
147579	habitat		This is a shy and inconspicuous inhabitant of undisturbed, native montane forest and fringing disturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> from 150-200 m up to the highest areas of the island at 600 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although a recent survey indicated that they also frequent areas as low as 30 m<strong><sup>6 </sup></strong> they no longer seem to frequent coastal areas as much as they did in the past<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is found either alone or in pairs, foraging in the canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and appears to have a varied diet, feeding on nectar, fruit and insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A nest has been observed in the cavity of an old tree<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and birds seem to prefer to nest in native trees such as koka <em>Bischofia javanica</em>, mato <em>Homalium acuminatum</em> and turina <em>Hernandia moerenhoutiana</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. This bird lays more than one egg per clutch, uses the same nest in subsequent years, breeds between August and December and holds territories<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
147579	population		McCormack <em>in litt. </em>(2007) guessed that the population was now 500+. Due to uncertainties regarding population size, it seems prudent to place in the band 250-999 mature individuals.	eng
147580	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on many islands (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
147582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis fusca</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia) </strong>and Lord Howe Island,<strong> Australia<sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>On Lord Howe Island, the population of subspecies <em>hulliana</em><strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>tumbled to extinction from numbering thousands in 1913-1915&#152;it was not seen after 1918, probably due to the arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the island in that year<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The extinction of the nominate subpspecies on Norfolk Island, last recorded in 1923, is more puzzling, because <em>R. rattus</em> did not reach the island until the 1940s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may have been a result of habitat destruction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147583	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147584	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis crassa</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and mangroves on Tanimbar only. It is common within its small range, but there is significant logging in the south of Yamdena. <br/></p>	eng
147585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147586	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Resurvey small islets across the species's range. Resurvey distribution of this species and <em>A. cantoroides</em> on the Ninigos. Ascertain area of forest and rates of clearance on all occupied islands. Ascertain habitat requirements. Assess distribution, population level and trends on Nissan. Investigate competition and ecological segregation with <em>A. cantoroides</em>. Relate distribution to that of introduced predatory species. Monitor population trends on Nissan. Advocate retention of natural forest reserves on all islands, regardless of their size. Initiate public awareness and education programmes regarding this species and the threats of introducing exotic species. Assess isolation of subpopulations through comparison of specimens. <br/></p>	eng
147586	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis feadensis</em> is an extreme small-island specialist, occurring on a number of tiny atolls in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> and <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It breeds on islands in the Ninigo (3&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Hermit (8&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Tench (less than 1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Nissan (37&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), Nguria (5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Ontong Java groups (10&#160;km<sup>2</sup>). It is fairly common on these islands<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong> with day-counts of c.30 birds on Tench and Nissan in 1998<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and 15 on Tench in 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is no indication of changes in the population. <br/></p>	eng
147586	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a largely frugivorous starling, usually foraging in pairs in the canopy, but also raiding gardens for bananas and other fruit<strong><sup>1,2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. Its dependence on natural forest or tree species is not known. It nests in holes in old and damaged trees and coconut palms. Its dispersal abilities are not well-known beyond flying between islands within a group, but inter-island morphological variation suggests limited gene flow<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147586	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by natural causes such as cyclone damage and colonisation of its islands by <em>A. cantoroides</em>, exacerbated by ongoing habitat changes. It is generally assumed to be unable to compete with <em>A. cantoroides</em><strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, although it coexists with <em>A. metallica</em> on Nissan and apparently with <em>A. cantoroides</em> on some of the Ninigo islands - however, the latter situation may be unstable<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. All the islands except Nissan are tiny and have a high human population pressure on the small and fragmented remaining forested habitats. As well as clearance for agriculture, large areas have been cleared for coconut plantations. It is not known how tolerant it is to habitat change, but its dependence on holes for nesting may be a limiting factor. It is potentially at risk from climate change, as most of the islands it inhabits only rise a few metres above sea-level<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
147588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
147589	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
147590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Mindanao and frequent on Java and Bali (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant, although uncommon or rare on the Tanimbar islands and Sulu Islands in Indonesia (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147595	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis mystacea</em> has a scattered range across New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>) but is easily overlooked and may prove to be more widespread<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. It is a generally scarce and probably nomadic species of lowland forest, usually in riverine or alluvial lowlands, but also hills to 580&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The one known breeding colony (of c.200 birds) was in a sparsely populated area, but the tree was cut down to eat the eggs and chicks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This species may have a naturally small and scattered population threatened locally by a logging and hunting. <br/></p>	eng
147596	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mt. Austen is within the Queen Elizabeth National Park but this area receives no protection and is highly degraded. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys across its range, particularly on Choiseul, Rendova and Bougainville. Search for nesting colonies to study. Interview local villagers about the species and breeding colonies. Assess tolerance of degraded forest habitats. Interview local villagers to investigate consumption of nesting colonies. Research basic ecological requirements at Mt Austen. Advocate re-creation of Queen Elizabeth National Park or equivalent in forest close to the capital. Encourage creation of extensive forest reserves on all major islands.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147596	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aplonis brunneicapillus</em> is endemic to Bougainville, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, and Choiseul, Rendova and Guadalcanal, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is rare and patchily distributed and may yet be discovered on other islands. On Bougainville, single specimens were taken in 1938<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and 1944<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and a colony of at least 10 pairs was found in 1985<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>, but not found in 1987<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Choiseul, it was recorded in 1994 at one site<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. On Rendova, one specimen was taken in 1943<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and there are recent records of two birds in the 1980s and some in the 1990s<strong><sup>4,9,13,14</sup></strong>. On Guadalcanal, 41 specimens were collected in 1953 at Betilonga<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, where it now appears to be extirpated<strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>. There have been a few recent records at Mt Austen<strong><sup>5,14</sup></strong> and Komarindi<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147596	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded breeding colonially in both lowland swamp and hill forest. It is not known whether it usually nests in isolated trees or whether colonies were originally in closed forest<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Foraging birds have been recorded in forest, forest edge and second growth, feeding on fruit, sometimes in flocks<strong><sup>2,11,12</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147596	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population density = 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 159 km<sup>2</sup> (1% EOO) = 1,590, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,500 (density estimate extrapolated from other <em>Aplonis</em> species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, in line with species' "rare" status; AOO taken as low % of EOO based on its fragmented range and "patchy" distribution). <br/></p>	eng
147596	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Villagers at the Guadalcanal colony in 1953 reported that they felled nesting-trees to feast on the fledglings<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This tradition may well continue as wild sources of meat are highly prized in most Melanesian villages. Most lowland forest and much hill forest throughout the species's range has been or is scheduled for logging<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147599	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147600	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the east of its range and common in the west (Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2000).	eng
147602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in most areas (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on the Horn of Africa and Socotra island (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
147606	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to Socotra, Yemen.	eng
147606	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is social, highly mobile and apparently adaptable, being recorded from a broad range of habitats, although it appears to prefer methodical foraging in trees rather than on the ground (Porter and Martins 1996). The diet consists of fruit, seeds and insects (Porter and Martins 1996, Ripley and Bond 1966). It is often seen together with the more abundant Somali Starling O. blythii, which is a more conspicuous generalist and reasonably assumed to be a more recent colonist (Ripley and Bond 1966), but the possibility that the two species may be competing, to the detriment of O. frater, remains unproven speculation (Forbes-Watson 1964).	eng
147606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have found it widespread and locally frequent all over the island (up to 1,500 m), with a mean population density (based on transects) of c.7 birds/km2 in the post-breeding season (Davidson 1996, Kirwan et al. 1996).	eng
147606	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extreme overgrazing and browsing might possibly have an impact on populations, but this seems unlikely to occur in the foreseeable future.	eng
147608	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147611	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coccycolius iris</em> is known from west and south-east <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone </strong>and west-central <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong>. It is found in orchard bush and wooded and open savanna, where it keeps to the tops of tall trees, often using dead trees for perches<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. It avoids forests but is occasionally found at the edge of gallery forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It frequently feeds on fruit, particularly <em>Ficus</em> and <em>Harungana</em> berries and seeds and, less frequently, on insects, particularly ants, foraging in bare ground in areas that have been burnt<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. In 1970, it was described as having a localised distribution, but being quite common where it occurred<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>and, in Sierra Leone, non-breeding flocks of up to 50 birds are recorded<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent reports have included: flocks of up to 100 at Mt Sangb&eacute; National Park, C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, in March-May 2001<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and in June 2002<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; and a single bird plus a flock of 10 in wooded savannah at two sites in Pic de Fon Forest Reserve, Guinea, in November-December 2002<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There are reports of this species being caught for the wild bird trade: from 1981-1984 large numbers, probably from Guinea, were kept by bird traders in Monrovia (Liberia)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and birds have been reported to be in trade at c.&#163;50 per pair<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This relatively low price implies a large volume of the species are in trade and the effects of this on the wild population have not yet been assessed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147612	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lamprotornis cupreocauda</em> is restricted to the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, from southern <strong>Guinea</strong> through south-eastern <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong> and southern <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, </strong>to south-western <strong>Ghana</strong><sup>2</sup>. It is a species of forest, forest edge, and gallery forest<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It has been reported to benefit immediately following forest burning when some emergents remain but to decline in secondary habitats thereafter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is generally common, with 2-4 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> recorded in mature forest in Liberia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire,<strong> </strong>it is abundant in Ta&iuml; National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, in 1985-1990, it was quite common in Yapo Forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Ghana, it appears common and widespread but may occur in moderate numbers only, with only small flocks of 5-10 individuals recorded in recent surveys<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Destruction of forest throughout its range, resulting from commercial logging and clearance for cultivation are likely to be causing widespread declines. <br/></p>	eng
147613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147614	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147615	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and often abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common except in arid areas (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north of its range (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest glossy starling in some areas (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be seasonally abundant (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147624	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147629	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147630	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147633	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Forest Reserves on Mt Kenya cover 1,995&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, including about 1,400&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest and forest/bamboo/scrub mosaic<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Forest Department is able to exert very little control over the management of Kikuyu Escarpment Forest Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although there are National Parks on both Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Kenya, they cover only higher altitudes and protect very little forest. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Study its ecology, especially its nesting and breeding requirements<sup>3. Estimate its population size3. Support existing forest-conservation programmes within its range, and initiate new schemes at other key sites3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
147633	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cinnyricinclus femoralis</em> is found in a few montane forest localities in <strong>Kenya</strong> and northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It is generally scarce and local in forest on Mt Kenya<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but common in Kikuyu Escarpment Forest in the southern Aberdare Mountains (375&#160;km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, where flocks of up to 40 have been seen<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, there have been few recent records from the Kikuyu Escarpment, possibly suggesting a decline in numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded from the isolated Chyulu Hills (old records of flocks of up to 100 birds on fruiting trees<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but no recent records) and Taita Hills (recent records<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), suggesting that it may make substantial movements between forests<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, it is found on Mt Kilimanjaro where it was considered quite common above 1,800&#160;m, in 1977<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but there have been few recent records<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and it was regarded in 1991 as probably rare<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also known from forests on Mt Meru, where it is scarce and may be only seasonal in occurrence<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Flocks of 20-25 were seen at 1,600&#160;m in Kindoroko Forest Reserve in the North Pare Mountains in July 1993<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147633	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This little-known frugivore occurs in the canopy of highland forest, being present throughout the year in at least some locations (e.g. the Aberdares), albeit with seasonal fluctuations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147633	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population density = 1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,020 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,020-5,100 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from similar forest species BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; total is compatible with flock sizes and abundances reported at the known localities). <br/></p>	eng
147633	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss and degradation are likely to pose a threat over most of its range. Illegal logging and agricultural encroachment are major problems in Mt Kenya Forest and the Kikuyu Escarpment Forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest Reserves in the North Pare Mountains did not appear to be under any immediate threat in 1993, though there was some pit-sawing and encroachment by cattle<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. As this species nests in holes in trees, it is probably sensitive to the cutting of mature trees.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Zimmerman et al. 1996).	eng
147636	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in western Angola (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although very localised (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
147642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to rare (Langrand 1990).	eng
147643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147645	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Necropsar rodericanus</em><em> </em>is known only from bones from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>, which are presumably referable to the birds (";<em>Testudophaga bicolor</em>";<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) described by Tafforet from Ile du M&acirc;t in 1726<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The reason for their extinction is unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147646	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Fregilupus varius</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was described by most visitors to the island from 1669 onwards, and was apparently common as late as the 1830s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the last specimen was shot in 1837, and the species became extinct between 1850 and 1860, possibly due to an introduced disease, combined with changing population pressure due to the emancipation of slaves in 1848, forest fires, drought and deforestation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nineteen specimens survive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147647	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly movement between forest patches. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147647	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sturnus albofrontatus</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka, </strong>where it is restricted to the wet zone in the south-west of the island. It appears to have always been scarce, though possibly under-recorded, and is declining, with an increasingly fragmented population of no more than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147647	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to undisturbed moist forest in the lowlands and foothills from 460-1,220&#160;m. There are occasional records from forest-edge sites. It feeds on tree fruit, invertebrates and the nectar of the red cotton tree, commonly foraging in the upper canopy of tall trees in large mixed-species flocks. Little is known of its breeding ecology. It does not undertake seasonal movements, but is believed to cover long distances between its roosting and feeding-sites.</p>	eng
147647	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that "it is unlikely that it currently numbers more than a few thousand individuals". <br/></p>	eng
147647	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. As a primarily canopy dwelling species, it has been particularly badly affected by selective logging. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation.  <br/></p>	eng
147648	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common below 1370 m in Nepal, locally common in India, frequent in Bhutan, common in Bangladesh and rare in Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and erratic in Pakistan, frequent in western Nepal and uncommon in the centre and south, locally common in India and rare in Sri Lanka (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
147652	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be reasonably common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in the Philippines, rare on the Chinese mainland, common on Taiwan and scarce on the Kurile islands and Sakhalin (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 58000-210000 breeding pairs, equating to 174000-630000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 355000-2520000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2100000-3100000 breeding pairs, equating to 6300000-9300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 8510000-18600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in Japan and common in China (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to fairly common , although rare and local in Pakistan (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon in Thailand and rare in western Yunnan, China (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147662	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species has been nominally protected under Indonesian law since 1979. It occurs in at least three protected areas, Baluran National Park and Pulau Dua Reserve (Java)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Bali Barat National Park (Bali, maximum 24 birds)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct intensive research into the year-round ecology of the species to clarify its requirements, and the role of trapping and pesticides in causing declines. Promote widespread, strict and effective enforcement of capture and trade regulations (including CITES listing), focusing activities on protected areas and bird markets. Control use of agricultural pesticides (if these are found to be a significant constraint), especially in key areas for the species.	eng
147662	distribution		<em>Sturnus melanopterus</em> is endemic to the islands of Java and Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, also occurring on adjacent Madura and Nusa Penida, and (perhaps only as a vagrant or escapee) on Lombok. Its range has changed little over recent decades (and may indeed have expanded owing to increased cultivation), but it has undergone a widespread rapid decline since at least the 1960s. It was formerly common in the plains of east Java, and locally common in central and west Java, but is now rare and very localised throughout. A similar decline has also occurred on Bali and Nusa Penida, and there are very few records from Madura or Lombok. a recent survey of 33 historical locations revealed just 32 individuals at three locations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite regular checks of several bird markets in Java this species is rarely recorded, and according to sellers they are now very difficult to find<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and only small numbers have been recently sighted at Pulau Dua, Baluran National Park, Alas Purwo National Park (all Java), and at the Menjangan Jungle Beach Resort and at Uluwatu on Bali<sup>4,<strong>5,6,7</strong></sup>. Regular sightings from Muara Angke in central Jakarta (Java), probably relate to escaped individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
147662	habitat		Small flocks forage on the ground in a variety of habitats, particularly agricultural and livestock-grazed areas, chiefly in the extreme lowlands, although occasionally up to c.1,300&#160;m in west Java and 2,400&#160;m in east Java. It also inhabits primary and secondary monsoon forest, including teak forest (where it was locally abundant), forest edge and open woodland, uncultivated bushy valleys, and even (formerly at least) urban suburbs. Some flocks on Bali were thought to make significant local movements, following the flowering and fruiting of trees.	eng
147662	population		The population is best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals, based on estimated declines of 80% over the past 10 years (three generations), and an assessment of records and surveys listed in BirdLife International (2001). Surveys are urgently required to accurately assess the global population size.	eng
147663	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. The species has been protected under Indonesian law since 1970, while the remaining world population occurs entirely within Bali Barat National Park. Since 1983, the Bali Starling Project has helped to improve the guarding of the park, bolstered the wild population through release of captive-bred birds, and provided the foundation for the development of the Bali Starling Recovery Plan. It also appears to be benefitting from efforts within the Nusa Penida Bird Sanctuary<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Plans are being developed to legalise breeding and trading of Bali Starling to open up the market and undermine illegal trade<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In addition, the Wildlife Conservation Society continues to operate wildlife crime market/trade surveillance and enforcement at key trading hubs in Indonesia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor population trends closely, in particular to determine whether released birds are breeding successfully. Commence strict implementation of the Bali Starling Recovery Plan. Continue to monitor the success of the release on Nusa Penida, in particular investigating interactions with Black-winged Starling <em>Sturnus melanopterus</em>. </strong>	eng
147663	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Bali, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it formerly ranged across the north-west third of the island. It has perhaps long been uncommon (numbers in the early 1900s, the period of discovery, have been retrospectively guessed at 300-900, although this is thought to be a gross underestimate), but has declined drastically in population and range. Illegal poaching reduced numbers to a critically low level in 1990, when the wild population was estimated at c.15 birds. Conservation intervention coupled with the release of a few captive-bred birds raised this to between 35 and 55. However, despite excellent breeding success and continuing conservation efforts, the population continues to fluctuate and fell to six birds in 2001<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Continuing releases have raised numbers in West Bali National Park, such that surveys in March 2005 found 24 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and in 2008 the population here was believed to be around 50 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it is uncertain how many of these released birds have bred successfully inthe wild and therefore can be regarded as 'mature individuals' following IUCN guidelines. A population has been introduced on Nusa Penida island (apparently not part of the native range) derived from captive individuals. The population appears to have adapted to the island and is breeding, with a total of 65 adults and 62 young present in 2009<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. About 1,000 are believed to survive in captivity.	eng
147663	habitat		In the breeding season (usually October-November), it inhabits fire-induced open shrub, tree and palm-savanna and adjacent closed-canopy monsoon-forest (tropical moist deciduous), below 175 m. In the non-breeding season, birds disperse into open forest edge and flooded savanna woodland. In the past they also occurred, and even nested, in coconut groves near villages. Previously thought to rely on cavities excavated and vacated by other birds, released individuals on Nusa Penida have nested in sugar palm, coconut and fig trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
147663	population		There were an estimated c.50 individuals in the West Bali National Park in 2008 (Dijkman <em>in litt</em>. 2008). On Nusa Penida, the population was recorded as 65 adults and 62 juveniles in 2009 (C. Kenwrick <em>in litt. </em>2009). However, given that the population estimate should only comprise of mature individuals, and the IUCN stipulates "re-introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals", the current population of 115 individuals should be considered a maximum, and as such the population is precautionarily assumed to be <50 mature individuals.	eng
147664	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common although uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147666	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Feare et al. 1998).	eng
147667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Robson 2000).	eng
147672	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
147673	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147674	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basilornis galeatus</em> is restricted to the Banggai (Peleng, Banggai) and Sula Islands (Taliabu, Seho and Mangole), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland and montane forest and tall trees in reedswamps up to 1,000 m. While it may be relatively secure in montane regions and it occurs in the Banggai Islands in secondary forest, in the Sula lowlands it is uncommon and increasingly vulnerable to the loss of the least disturbed forest, its preferred habitat. <br/></p>	eng
147676	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally numerous (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
147677	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basilornis mirandus</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is common above 1,250 m in forest and forest edge, even in cut-over areas, including at Daggayan, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo. Although its area of occupancy must be very small, its habitat is apparently secure. <br/></p>	eng
147678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Streptocitta albertinae</em> occurs in the Banggai and Sula Islands (in the latter restricted to Taliabu and Mangole only), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it uses tall trees in lowland forest and agricultural land up to 250 m. It appears to be more tolerant of degraded forest than Helmeted Myna <em>Basilornis galeatus</em>, but it is uncommon and has a smaller total, and narrower elevation, range. <br/></p>	eng
147680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
147681	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gracula ptilogenys </em>is endemic to the wet zone of <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is common to very common in lowlands and hills wherever forest persists. It prefers natural forest and well-wooded country, although visits gardens and plantations if forest is nearby and appears to tolerate habitat degradation. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Closed-canopy forest is estimated to have declined from 29,000 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>(44% of the island's area) in 1956 to 12,260 km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in 1983. It is feared that this loss will continue and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <br/></p>	eng
147682	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India, east and north-east India east to southern China, and south through south-east Asia to Palawan (Philippines), Borneo, and Flores (Indonesia). There are also introduced populations in several places, including Puerto Rico (to USA). The introduced population on Christmas Island (to Australia) has died out.	eng
147682	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in moist or semi-evergreen forest in lowlands, hills and mountains. It is known for its ability to mimic noises including human speech.	eng
147682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Feare and Craig 1998).	eng
147682	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is tolerant of some degree of habitat degradation. However,it has been heavily traded: from 1994-2003, over 170,000 wild-caught individuals were exported from range states (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, October 2005.). It is one of the most popular avian pets in Asia, due to its ability to mimic noises and human speech. Trade, acting in conjunction with habitat loss throughout the species' range, appears to have seriously impacted this species, with significant population declines due to trade noted in China, Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand (all major declines), the Philippines, and parts of India and Laos (Pilgrim et al. in prep.). In all of these cases, the major trade demand has been domestic, rather than international. As a result of concerns about international trade, this species was included in CITES Appendix III at the request of Thailand in 1992 and subsequently included in Appendix II in 1997 on the recommendation of the Netherlands and the Philippines.	eng
147683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
147684	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
147685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in national parks and protected areas (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
147686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
147688	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanoptila glabrirostris</em> inhabits the humid to semi-arid scrubby woodland and forest edge of the Yucat&aacute;n peninsula, <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, and <strong>Guatemala</strong>. It is common to fairly common resident on Cozumel Island and from east Quintana Roo, Mexico, to Ambergris Caye, Belize; common to uncommon on Caye Caulker, Lighthouse Reef and Glover's Reef, Belize; and perhaps seasonal (mainly November-May) in much of the Yucat&aacute;n peninsula, west to Campeche, Mexico, south to Belize and into Pet&eacute;n, north Guatemala<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. There are no records from <strong>Honduras</strong> since the type-specimen was purportedly collected at Omoa in 1855 or 1856, leading to speculation that the specimen may have been mislabelled<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Tourism development and conversion to coconut plantations are causing habitat loss and fragmentation in the core of its range on the Quintana Roo coast, Cozumel, and the cays in Belize<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. The Siwa Ban Reserve was designated in 1998 expressly to protect the population on Caye Caulker but it is unclear whether this has provided adequate protection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147689	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147692	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147695	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147696	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147698	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147699	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147701	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A ten-year action plan was developed in 2007, with plans to take active measures to safeguard existing populations, and to create suitable conditions for reintroduction to Floreana<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. The Reintroduction Plan is supported by an Emergency Plan (to enable rapid response to critical downward population trends)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, the Introduced Rodent Eradication Program initiated in 2007 and the initiation of Project Floreana, aimed at the restoration of the island<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The Gal&aacute;pagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Charles Darwin Foundation is plans to re-introduce the species to Floreana, however no translocation will occur in 2010 as an el Ni&ntilde;o event is expected which would make rat control on the island very difficult<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Monitor populations and environmental conditions on both islands, preferably annually<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Eradicate the Smooth-billed Ani from the two islets. Minimise chance introductions of predators and disease. Reintroduce to Floreana if eradication of rats, pigs, goats and donkeys is successful. Investigate possibility of reintroduction to other islets where black rat<em> </em>is absent<em>.</em>	eng
147701	distribution		This species survives in low numbers on Champion (0.1 km<sup>2</sup>) and Gardner-by-Floreana (0.8 km<sup>2</sup>) islets in the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>3</sup>. It became extinct on the much larger Floreana (173 km<sup>2</sup>) between 1868 and 1888<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1966, the population was estimated to be no more than 150 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Between 1980 and 1991, annual counts showed that there were 8-12 (average 10) territories on Champion, with 24-53 birds in total<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On the same island between 2003 and 2007, numbers of birds varied from 20 to 52, but overall there was a downward population trend with 18 adults left in 2007<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A similar trend was noted on Gardner-by-Floreana during the same period, with the number of birds on that island varying between 67 and 148, and the number of adults in 2007 falling to 30<strong><sup>7,11</sup></strong>. The population recovered in 2008 due to good weather conditions and may have reached record numbers for the last decade, however such population highs are likely only to be temporary as the islands cannot support such numbers and the populations are still extremely prone to climate-induced fluctations<strong><sup>13,14,15</sup></strong>. A population viability analysis of the Champion population suggested that there is less than a 50% chance of the bird persisting on the island for another 100 years.	eng
147701	habitat		It inhabits the large cactus <em>Opuntia megasperma </em>and other stands of vegetation, including <em>Parkinsonia</em>, <em>Croton</em> and <em>Cordia</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on terrestrial insects, but also takes arboreal insects, fruit, nectar, pollen, centipedes, crabs, lizards and regurgitated food of boobies <em>Sula</em> spp.<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a co-operative breeder, with a variable mating system<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
147701	population		Between 2003 and 2007, the population on Champion Island numbered 20-52 indviduals, with 67-148 on Gardner-by-Floreana. Both populations reached lows in 2007 following very bad weather conditions in 2006, with a total population of just 48 mature individuals remaining (Charles Darwin Foundation 2007b; Jim&eacute;nez-Uzc&aacute;tegui 2007). Numbers then recovered in 2008 due to good, wet weather conditions (D. Wiedenfeld <em>in litt.</em> 2010), and the population may have reached as many as 400 individuals on Gardner-by-Floreana (Hoeck, 2009). However, given the population fluctuates, a population band of <50 individuals is precautionarily retained.	eng
147702	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Gal&aacute;pagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estimate population size as a baseline to determine trends. Minimise chance introductions of predators (e.g. rats <em>Rattus</em></strong> spp.) and disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147702	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesomimus macdonaldi</em> is endemic to Espa&ntilde;ola Island and the small adjacent islet of Gardner-near-Espa&ntilde;ola, in the south-east Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is considered common<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, but nothing is known of population trends.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147702	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits arid lowland scrub and deciduous forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on carrion and seabird eggs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a co-operative breeder, with a variable mating system, and territorial groups averaging nine adults<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting is very synchronised, taking place in March and April, with a single egg usually laid<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the non-breeding season, it gathers in groups of up to 40 individuals, which forage together<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147702	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There is no recent information on population size. Gardner-by-Espa&ntilde;ola is a tiny island, a few hectares in size, and is less than 1 km from Espa&ntilde;ola, so the population there may not represent a discrete subpopulation. <br/></p>	eng
147702	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is inevitably threatened by its extremely limited range. It may be affected by the regular and extreme weather events that have been shown to cause significant fluctuations in the population of Floreana Mockingbird <em>N.&#160;trifasciatus</em>. <br/></p>	eng
147703	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Gal&aacute;pagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Monitor population to determine trends.  Research relative importance of different threats in order to identify effective conservation actions.  Avoid further introduction of alien species. <br/></p>	eng
147703	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesomimus melanotis</em> is endemic to the island of San Crist&oacute;bal in the central Gal&aacute;pagos islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong><sup>2</sup>. Its population has recently been estimated at c.8,000 individuals, on the basis that it occupies c.25% of the 552 km<sup>2</sup> area of the island, with occupied areas holding approximantely 0.6 birds/ha<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147703	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies a wide range of habitats from lowlands up to the island summit at 715 m, including arid open lowland scrub, mangroves, scrubby woodland with scattered trees (<em>Bursera</em> spp.) and arborescent cacti (<em>Opuntia</em> spp.), low woodlands of introduced guava (<em>Psidium guajava</em>) and taller patches of forest.  It tends to avoid dense lowland forest, taller, wetter woodland, grassland and urban areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  The species forages on the ground for arthropods, also taking fruit and berries and occassionally picking ticks (Acarina) off marine iguanas (<em>Amblyrhynchus</em> spp.).  It breeds in January to April, apparently not cooperatively, in contrast to other <em>Nesomimus</em> spp.<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147703	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Curry <em>in litt</em>. (2005) estimated that this species occupies c.25% of the 552 km<sup>2</sup> area of San Cristobal i.e. 138 km<sup>2</sup>. The density of birds in occupied habitat is 0.6 birds/ha, giving a total population size estimate of 8,280 birds, perhaps best rounded to c.8,000 birds.  <br/></p>	eng
147703	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Several threats are suspected to be causing population decline, including introduced species (diseases, parasites, and predators), habitat degradation, and human disturbance<strong><sup>3,5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. A number of disease vectors have been introduced, including <em>Culex quinquefascaitus</em> (vector of avian malaria) and  <em>Simulium bipunctatus</em><strong><sup>10,11,12</sup></strong>, and chickens in the growing number of chicken farms have brought in new diseases and may act as intermediary hosts<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The incidence of parasites and diseases could be more important in the future with the increase in frecuency and intensity of El Ni&ntilde;o events and the more humid conditions in the islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Habitat loss and degradation is caused by invasive introduced plants (<em>P. guajava, Eugenia jambos</em>, <em>Rubus niveus)</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, overgrazing by goats, and increased human settlement.  Black rats and feral cats have been introduced and are thought to be responsible for high nest predation rates<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The relative importance and impacts of these different threats are not yet known. <br/></p>	eng
147704	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1994<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing control programme in the region (the Mexican navy has effectively reduced the sheep population to c. 300 heads), and there are plans to eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Eradicate cats and sheep from Socorro<sup>3,6,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement a vegetation and soil restoration plan after sheep have been removed<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a research monitoring station on Socorro<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor the population, especially before and after the proposed eradications. <br/></p>	eng
147704	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Mimus graysoni</em> is endemic to Socorro in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It was the most abundant and widespread landbird in 1925, and was still abundant in 1958. By 1978, it had declined dramatically and was feared on the verge of extinction. Subsequent surveys have estimated the population at 50-200 pairs in 1988-1990<strong><sup>1,5,8</sup></strong> and c.350 individuals in 1993-1994, with the highest densities in the sheep-free dwarf forests of Cerro Evermann<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Of 170 birds ringed in 1994, 56% were subadults<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, suggesting that productivity is high and the population would be capable of increasing if habitat quality improves across the island<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147704	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs principally in moist dwarf forest and ravines with a mixture of shrubs and trees at elevations above 600 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Vegetation in these areas is dominated by the trees <em>Ilex socorrensis</em>, <em>Guettarda insularis</em> and <em>Oreopanax xalapensis</em> and the understorey species <em>Triumfetta socorrensis</em> and <em>Eupatorium pacificum</em><strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is very rare at low and mid-elevations (0-500 m), and absent from areas of <em>Croton masonii</em> scrub near sea-level and sheep-damaged habitat in the south-east half of the island<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but is common within fig <em>Ficus cotinifolia</em> patches in the north-west of the island<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Fig groves may act as regeneration nuclei for the species, supporting birds when a suitable understorey is present<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nesting may occur from November-July with a peak in March-April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Three eggs are laid and the incubation period is no more than 15 days<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Food includes crab remains, small invertebrates and fruit, particularly those of <em>Ilex</em> <em>socorrensis</em> and <em>Bumelia socorrensis</em><strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Mart&iacute;nez-G&oacute;mez and Curry (1996) calculated a total population of 353 &#177;66 individuals based upon comprehensive ringing data. Visits by the author to the same sites during 2006 and 2007 reported a similar populaton. The estimate is best applied to the area of the island where ringing took place. This implies that the total population of the island may be larger (J. E. Mart&iacute;nez-G&oacute;mez <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
147704	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Sheep had intensively grazed almost one third of the island by 1990<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, leaving no suitable nesting or foraging habitat in the south of the island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Predation by feral cats was initially thought responsible for the species's decline, but cats were introduced some time after 1972<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and examinations of cat stomach contents and scats have not provided any substantive evidence<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, they are likely to prey upon dispersing individuals that move into areas with little or no understorey<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Competition with the immigrant <em>Mimus polyglottos</em> is probably not a factor because <em>Mimus graysoni</em> is much larger, has different habitat preferences and is not outcompeted in undisturbed habitats<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Since 1994, c.30 ha of forest have been lost owing to a now permanent locust <em>Schistocerca piceifrons </em>swarm on the island which irrupts twice yearly. Its effects are thought to be more severe owing to the degradation of native vegetation by introduced grazing mammals, and the suppression of native bird populations (which typically exert top-down control of insect populations on the island) by introduced cats. Locusts cut leaves, flowers and fruit from trees and thus represent a serious threat to fruit eaters such as Socorro Mockingbird<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Potential developments on Socorro including enlargements to the airstrip and the possibility of a new federal prison could destroy breeding habitat and increase the risk of accidental introduction of other invasive species. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147708	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There have been several recent searches for the species<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>, and efforts are ongoing to determine the remnant population size and distribution, and to evaluate the threats and reasons behind its decline<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently survey in the breeding season (when it is most conspicuous) to determine whether the species is still extant and identify appropriate conservation measures. Investigate its former status and ecology through interviews with local people to ascertain the reasons for its decline. Conduct an awareness raising campaign to raise the profile of this species and educate visitors about the potential to damage the island's ecosystem<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish formal protection for interior lands on Cozumel<sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
147708	distribution		This species is endemic to Cozumel Island, <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it was formerly fairly common to common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It became rare immediately after Hurricane Gilbert in September 1988<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>, with only four records obtained during monthly visits to the island during August 1994-August 1995<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Only a few sightings were been recorded after Hurricane Roxanne in 1995, the most recent being four observations of what is presumed to have been the same individual during extensive surveys in 2004 and a record from a different site during the same year<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There remains only one possible sighting made in 2006 since two further devastating hurricanes hit the island in 2005<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
147708	habitat		Recent records originate from semi-deciduous forest and deciduous forest away from scrubby areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, it was formerly reported to inhabit scrubby woodland and thick undergrowth bordering fields<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the edges of tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forest<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is typically known to skulk on or near the ground, but often sings from conspicuous perches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding season is May-July<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
147708	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny (<50 individuals), given the low number of records during the past decade.	eng
147709	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been classified as a "Species of Special Concern" by California Department of Fish and Game, and protected from take. No information exists on other management actions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Toxostoma bendirei</em> is found in south-west <strong>USA</strong> and north-west <strong>Mexico</strong>, from southern Nevada, southern Utah and south-western Colorado south to central Sonora. Its status in Baja California is unresolved<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Within this range its distribution is patchy and in some cases poorly known (due to low observer density in desert regions and confusion with other similar <em>Toxostoma</em> species)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Individuals in the northern portion of the range migrate south in the winter and overlap with more southern residents<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, and in the Mojave desert, California, migration begins as soon as breeding finishes, with breeding grounds vacated by late August<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is now so rare that trends cannot be estimated reliably from Breeding Bird Survey data<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but declines between 1966 and 2003 equate to 34.5%. <br/></p>	eng
147709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in sparse desert habitats from sea level in Sonora to approximately 1,800 m in Utah<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Throughout its range, breeders favour relatively open grassland, shrubland or woodland with scattered shrubs or trees, and is not found in dense vegetation. It forages primarily on the ground, probing for insects and other arthropods, but will also eat seeds and berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It also digs with its bill, but less frequently, not as powerfully nor as efficiently as other thrashers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147709	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
147709	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	No quantitative information exists on potential threats to this species. However, populations have been eliminated by dense urbanisation around Tuscon and by large scale agriculture along the Gila River. In California potential threats may include harvesting of Joshua trees and other yuccas, overgrazing and off-road vehicle activity. However, there have been suggestions that clearing and agricultural activities actually favour this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147718	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The well-protected (albeit small) Caravelle Nature Reserve covers part of the species's range on Martinique. It is legally protected on St Lucia, but none of its St Lucian range falls within a protected area. On both islands, studies have been carried out to assess the population and threats, and on Martinique a plan exists to control introduced predators<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. Banding birds has facilitated detailed ecological and population research<strong><sup>2,3,6,7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor both island populations to assess trends. Establish protected areas and effectively protect coastal dry woodland and scrub within the thrasher's range on St Lucia, and prevent further habitat losses on Martinique. Allow adjacent farmland to regenerate into scrub woodland, providing additional habitat and allowing populations to expand.  Conduct further research into the impact of predators on Martinique, and implement the predator control plan if deemed necessary. Enact legislation on St Lucia to protect critical wildlife sites. <br/></p>	eng
147718	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ramphocinclus brachyurus</em> occurs as two subspecies. The nominate race is restricted to the Caravelle peninsula on <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong><sup>1,2,6,7</sup>, an area of c.5km<sup>2</sup>, and race <em>sanctaeluciae</em> occurs on the north-east coast of <strong>St Lucia</strong> between the Marquis river valley and Frigate Island Refuge<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  Until 1993, the thrasher was thought to be restricted to the northern part of this area (Marquis-Dennery Knob), and population estimates and censuses in 1971, 1987, 1992 and 2003 suggested that the population in this northern area may be declining<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. In 1993, thrashers were discovered near the Frigate Island Refuge, and recent research suggests that this site holds the bulk (c.75%) of the global population. A comprehensive programme of searches on Martinique found no new subpopulations anywhere else on the island (G. Tayalay verbally 2004). Surveys in 2003 and 2004 indicate a global population of 1,300-2,600 breeding adults, 1,100-2,400 on St Lucia and c.200 on Martinique<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147718	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On both islands, it inhabits dry and semi-dry woodland and scrub with abundant leaf-litter, often in areas with a clear understorey but sometimes in dense thickets. In the northern part of its range on St Lucia (Petite Anse-Dennery Knob) it tends to occur along ravines and river-valleys, but in the rest of its range on St Lucia and Martinique it also occurs on dry hillsides well away from streams. It tolerates a degree of habitat degradation and is often found in secondary woodland and scrub, but although it is occasionally seen in clearings and smallholder's crop-fields, it does not breed in these man-made habitats<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It typically forages on the ground for invertebrates, small frogs and lizards, also taking berries<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Breeding apparently coincides with the onset of the rainy season, and the bulky open-cup nest is placed 0.5-3 m from the ground, usually in the fork of a thin sapling<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. Eggs (usually two) are layed from May to August, and thrashers may rear more than one successful brood in a season<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. Sometimes breeds cooperatively - around one-third of nests have helpers, which are apparently retained offspring from previous years, and may be either male or female<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Chicks leave the nest before fledging, and continue to be fed on the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On St Lucia, nesting success was 44% in 1997, 55% in 2001,  74% in 2002 and 44% in 2003, suggesting normal levels of nest predation for a tropical passerine<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. It is highly sedentary, and may reside permanently on or near breeding territories<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs at high densities within its restricted range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, suggesting that it may be at carrying capacity, with population increases being unlikely to occur unless more habitat is created<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147718	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Temple (2005). <br/></p>	eng
147718	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat to this species is habitat loss, perhaps compounded by the impact of predation by introduced mammals. On Martinique, habitat loss during the colonial era means that the species now has a tiny population restricted to a very small area<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Most of this is effectively protected, although some losses to agriculture, charcoal-burning and housing development continue<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On St Lucia ongoing habitat degradation and loss is caused by agriculture, charcoal-burning and wood-cutting, and there are potentially devastating plans to build a highway through the centre the thrasher's range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A resort and golf course are being constructed on St Lucia on a site that is estimated to hold c.25% of the global population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  Small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> and rats <em>Rattus </em>spp. have been present on both islands since before 1900, implying that the thrasher is able to coexist with these predators, but they may place an unwelcome additional burden on an already small population. Nest-monitoring on St Lucia suggests that levels of nest predation are not excessive, but the situation could be different on Martinique, where rats and mongoose may be more abundant: further research is required. Because the thrasher is confined to narrow areas along the Windward coast, a major hurricane could have a severe impact<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147720	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7500000-19000000 breeding pairs, equating to 22500000-57000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 45900000-228000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western India and fairly common in Nepal (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in India and Nepal and locally fairly common to common in Indochina (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Himalayas and elsewhere fairly common to rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147726	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mt Victoria falls within Natma Taung National Park, although no management activities have yet been initiated and it is unclear how effective protection is likely to become. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in montane forest in the southern Chin Hills to determine the exact range, status and conservation requirements of this species. Lobby for the protection and management of natural habitat in Natma Taung National Park, particularly at the lower forest fringes occupied by this species. Promote conservation awareness initiatives in Chin Hills communities aimed at reducing habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from shifting cultivation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147726	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta victoriae</em> is only known from the southern Chin Hills of <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Historical records are all from the Mt&#160;Victoria area. There have been recent records from this site where it appears to be scarce, with 14 birds in 1995, and only five records in a two-week period in April 2000, and from nearby Mindat with three birds in 1995.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147726	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Birds exhibit a preference for oak <em>Quercus semicarpifolia</em> and <em>Rhododendron arboreum</em> forest between 2,300-3,000 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, feeding in mixed flocks, generally in the outer branches of large trees. It appears to be most common below 2,500 m. <br/></p>	eng
147726	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 14 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 369 km<sup>2 </sup>(45% EOO) = 5,166, i.e. in range 2,500-10,000 (density from estimate for montane forest-dwelling congener <em>S. oenochlamys</em> in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147726	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest up to 2,000 m has been almost totally cleared on Mt&#160;Victoria and habitat between 2,000-2,500 m has been heavily degraded. Significant threats include therefore habitat loss from logging (both commercial and small-scale) and shifting cultivation. Hunting may be a problem<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147729	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known, though its national status of Near Threatened in France may afford some protection<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Almost the entire global population occurs within the Natural Regional Park of Corse<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Research the minimum size of a Corsican pine stand required to support a viable population. Prevent the logging of mature Corsican pine. Develop a plan to prevent forest fires. Prevent the clearance of dead and rotting trunks in managed forests.	eng
147729	distribution		This species is endemic to Corsica, <strong>France<sup>3</sup></strong>. It has a limited and fragmented breeding range which follows the distribution of Corsican pine <em>Pinus nigra laricio</em>, occuring on inland mountain ridges from Tartagine south to Ospedale and Mt Cagna, with main concentrations around the mountains of Cinto, Rotondo, Renoso and Incudine<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population was thought to number 1,500-4,500 pairs in 2000 and its population and range were thought to be stable between 1970-2000<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. A survey throughout its range between 1997 and 2008 estimated a population of 1,554-2,196 pairs, and estimated that the population had declined by c.10% in the last ten years due to fire and logging<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
147729	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Forages singly or in pairs, though may join mixed-species flocks outside the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Seeds are cached from late autumn to early spring during periods of sunny weather (when the cones are open) and retrieved during wet or cold weather<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its breeding season stretches from April to May, laying a clutch of 5-6 eggs, with mated partners remaining on their territory all year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.It is generally sedentary except for some dispersal of immature and unmated birds to lower altitudes in winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>Optimal habitat for this species is old stands of Corsican pine with abundant dead and rotting trunks for nest sites, at elevations of 1,000-1,500 m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Densities vary between 0.2-3.8 pairs/10 ha, and correlate with tree height, vegetation density and dead tree distribution<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Suboptimal habitats include forests where Corsican pine is associated with cluster pine <em>P. pinaster</em>, balsam fir <em>Abies alba</em> or beech <em>Fagus sylvatica</em>, and younger, exploited stands of Corsican pine at elevations of 600-1,700 m<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.Dispersing birds may be found in holm oak <em>Quercus ilex</em> and sweet chestnut <em>Castanea sativa</em> forests, gardens and orchards<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Feeds largely on insects and spiders during May-August, switching to seeds, especially those of the Corsican pine, during the rest of the year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
147729	population		Thibault <em>et al.</em> (unpublished data) estimated that the population comprised 1,554-2,196 territories/pairs, hence the population is estimated at c.3,100-4,400 mature individuals.	eng
147730	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is well protected in the Taza National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Collaborate with local communities to explore different forest management techniques on Mt Babor. Establish plantations outside the present forest perimeter to alleviate pressure for firewood. Conduct a reforestation programme on the southern slopes of Mt Babor. Control tourism to the area. </strong></p>	eng
147730	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta ledanti</em> maintains a population of c.80 pairs on Mt Babor, <strong>Algeria</strong> (where optimum habitat covers only 2.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>). A population of c.350 birds exists nearby within the Taza National Park on the Guerrouch massif, and two further adjacent populations (uncounted, but evidently not larger) survive at Tamentout and Djimla. Searches elsewhere in the region have been unsuccessful. All four sites are within 30&#160;km of each other, though separated by tracts of unsuitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is possible that the total population does not exceed 1,000 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147730	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in summit forest (c.2,000&#160;m), in oak forest from 350-1,120&#160;m, and in poorly regenerating oak forest between 900 and 1,400&#160;m. In summer, it forages in the twigs and outer branches of oaks, feeding on insects and spiders. In winter, it feeds largely on nuts and seeds of which the four seed-producing trees on Mt Babor appear to ensure a constant supply<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Mt Babor, the breeding season is May-June, depending on weather conditions or possibly abundance of food. In Taza National Park, the breeding season is known to finish by late June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nest-holes are usually located 3-15&#160;m up in dead fir trees and also in cedar and oak.</p>	eng
147730	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population may not exceed 1,000 individuals (Harrap and Quinn 1996), therefore it is placed in the range band 250-999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147730	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The summit forests of Mt Babor (although in a national park) have been reduced by fire, which also changes the habitat from rich mixed forest to a poorer cedar-dominated succession<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Large numbers of livestock cause lack of regeneration and an impoverished understorey<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The construction of a motorable track in the 1970s has led to erosion in the area, an increased risk of fire and fears of disturbance caused by tourists.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147731	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta krueperi</em> is endemic to Europe, where it is found in <strong>Greece </strong>(on the island of Lesbos; 50-200 pairs), <strong>Turkey </strong>(60,000-120,000 pairs), <strong>Georgia </strong>(present) and <strong>Russia </strong>(20,000-50,000 pairs). Its breeding population is fairly large, being estimated at 80,000-170,000 pairs, and was stable between 1970 and 1990. However, the two largest populations (in Turkey and Russia, which together hold >95% of the global population) both declined from 1990-2000. The species remained stable during this time in Greece, and population trends are not known from Georgia, but overall the species has declined by over 20% from 1990-2000 (three generations). In Russia the species is found in two regions, Karachaevo-Circassia (where population declines have been noted over the last ten years), and Krasnodar region where numbers have been relatively stable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species occurs typically between 1,200 and 1,700 m, but is found down to 200 m on Lesbos and has been recorded to 2,400 m altitude. It inhabits pine forest at lower altitudes, and at higher altitudes it is also found in spruce, fir, cedar and occasionally juniper forest. In Turkey it is most abundant in Turkish pine, and in the Caucasus region lives mainly in spruce forest between 1,000 and 2,000 m. In Turkey, tourism has placed great pressure on old coniferous forests, especially in coastal regions where the species was once numerous, and urbanisation and the construction of summer houses is a growing problem throughout the species's Mediterranean range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A law for the promotion of tourism was passed in Turkey in 2003, further exacerbating the problem of habitat loss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147731	population	BirdLife International, 2008	European breeding population estimated as 80,000-170,000 pairs (BirdLife International 2004). <br/></p>	eng
147732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in China though not found at high densities (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147733	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta yunnanensis</em> is known from south-east Tibet, southern Sichuan and northern Yunnan, and the western extreme of Guizhou, <strong>China</strong>. It occurs in open mature pine forest (avoiding other types of coniferous forest) with little undergrowth or scrub, mainly from 2,400 to 3,400&#160;m. It is locally common, but it has disappeared from several of the localities where it was recorded in the early 20th century, and is presumably continuing to decline because of logging and forest fires, although it does appear able to adapt to degraded and secondary forest. <br/></p>	eng
147735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to fairly common in India and Pakistan and rare in China and Tibet (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2000000-6100000 breeding pairs, equating to 6000000-18300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6380000-24400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 22000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 66000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
147739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and even abundant in optimum habitat (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147740	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in several protected areas such as Bawangling and Jiangfengling<strong> </strong>nature reserves, Hainan, Chu Yang Sin and Ngoc Linh nature reserves, Vietnam, and Xe Sap National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Laos.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, as well as assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Effectively protect forest within the protected area network.	eng
147740	distribution		This species is known from three or four widely disjunct areas: the Hoang Lien Son mountains in north-west Tonkin, the Da Lat plateau in southern Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, the Kon Tum plateau of Vietnam and south-east <strong>Laos</strong>, and Hainan island, south-east <strong>China</strong>. There are recent records from Hainan, several localities on the Da Lat plateau, where surveys since 1990 have recorded small numbers, and the Xe Sap region in Laos.	eng
147740	habitat		This species occurs in primary and logged evergreen forest at 900-2,500 m.	eng
147740	population		The global population size has not been quantified. Anecdotal accounts suggest it is not as rare as previously thought in north-west Vietnam, it may be rather common on the Da Lat Plateau, and it is not uncommon in good forest on Hainan. Its status on the Kon Tum Plateau is uncertain (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
147741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147743	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in at least four protected areas, Yulong Xueshan (or Yulongshan) and Wuliangshan Nature Reserves, China, and Doi Chang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary and Doi Khun Tan National Park, Thailand.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys, particularly in Myanmar and China, to establish its distribution, estimate population size and assess the level of threat to its habitat. Establish further protected areas around sites supporting healthy populations and ensure pine stands are maintained. Control large-scale logging of commercially valuable pine species on which it depends. Develop awareness programmes and alternative livelihoods in areas where shifting cultivation and pine felling is damaging habitat.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147743	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta magna</em> is endemic to the mountains of south-west <strong>China</strong>, central and east <strong>Myanmar</strong> and north-west <strong>Thailand</strong>. The majority of records are from Yunnan, China, and Myanmar, with only nine known localities in Thailand, at two of which it is extinct and at others it is declining. There are few recent records from Myanmar, due in part to a lack of observer coverage. Overall, its population is likely to be declining and becoming increasingly fragmented.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147743	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in conifer or open mixed conifer/broadleaf forest, being almost entirely confined to areas with large, mature <em>Pinus kesiya,</em> often with a major component of oak <em>Quercus</em>, at 1,000-2000 m. It is generally found in pairs, usually foraging high in pines, although nests have been found in oaks.</p>	eng
147743	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
147743	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Pine forest habitats are being destroyed or degraded by commercial logging and exploitation for fuelwood and kindling. In addition, shifting cultivation has already cleared substantial tracts of suitable habitat and uncontrolled burning poses a significant threat, as conifers are more highly combustible than other forest trees. Older pines are especially vulnerable to frequent burning. It has also been recorded for sale in wildlife markets, although this is unlikely to represent a significant threat. <br/></p>	eng
147744	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Populations are known to occur in several protected areas, including Thrumshing La National Park (Bhutan), Namdapha National Park and Buxa Tiger Reserve (India), Nakai-Nam Theun, Nam Xam and Phou Louay National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (Laos), and also Huanglianshan Nature Reserve (China). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species in current "gaps" within its broad range to clarify its current distribution and population status. Identify sites supporting key populations of this and other threatened montane species, and make recommendations for their establishment as protected areas, proposing linkage to existing reserves where possible. Campaign against further large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities aimed at reducing habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from shifting agriculture.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147744	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sitta formosa</em> has a broad range encompassing <strong>Bhutan</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, west, north and east <strong>Myanmar</strong>, south-east Yunnan, <strong>China</strong>, East<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and West Tonkin, north <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and north and central <strong>Laos</strong>, with a few records from extreme north-west <strong>Thailand</strong>. It is rare and very locally distributed throughout this range. Recent records suggest that Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh in India, north Myanmar and Laos support the most important populations. <br/></p>	eng
147744	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in mature broadleaved forests, although it has been reported from open country with scattered trees in Myanmar. It frequents the middle and upper canopies of large trees draped in mosses, lichens, orchids and other epiphytes. In central Laos it appears to be associated with <em>Fokienia</em> trees. It is essentially resident, but occurs from 1,500-2,400&#160;m in the breeding season, descending at other times, generally not below 600&#160;m, although it has been recorded as low as 300&#160;m in the eastern Himalayas.</p>	eng
147744	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment of recent records and surveys by BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
147744	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, predominantly as a result of shifting cultivation, but more locally large-scale timber extraction (e.g. logging of the valuable <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em> in central Laos and north Vietnam), and overgrazing, burning and wood cutting (north-east India). High hunting pressure in parts of its range is unlikely to be more than a minor threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 38000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 114000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 233000-1200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147747	population		BirdLife International (2004)	eng
147748	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in Central Asia, fairly common in the western Himalayas and uncommon in China (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common in the Himalayas (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce and patchily distributed in India and northern Africa but sometimes locally common and commoner in the southern African tropics (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147755	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Campylorhynchus yucatanicus</em> is confined to the northern coast of Yucat&aacute;n and the extreme north-west of Campeche in <strong>Mexico<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is found only in a narrow strip of low coastal arid scrub, typically consisting of scattered bushes with occasional <em>Opuntia</em> cacti<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Within its range it appears to be quite abundant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this range is extremely limited, and habitat is being destroyed and fragmented by increasing development<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
147756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147762	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147763	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147764	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147769	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylorchilus sumichrasti</em> is restricted to c.12 sites in west-central Veracruz, north Oaxaca and extreme east Puebla, south <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is fairly common but local<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It has a small range (extent of occurrence c.6,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) within naturally patchy limestone outcrops in steep hilly country covered by lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen forest at elevations of 75-1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. It also occurs in shade coffee plantations and adjacent to quarrying operations, and two pairs are known to have had their territories in less than 0.5&#160;ha of habitat, indicating some tolerance of habitat degradation, disturbance and fragmentation<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. These forested limestone outcrops are poor for cultivation compared with the surrounding flatter land and have been spared complete conversion to maize fields and cattle pasture<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is more threatened by the expansion of limestone-quarrying, although its habitat is increasingly threatened by encroaching cultivation and cattle ranches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some habitat has undoubtedly been lost to the extensive Presa Miguel Alem&aacute;n reservoir in north Oaxaca<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There are no populations within protected areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and given its relatively narrow ecological tolerance, this could be a cause for concern. <br/></p>	eng
147770	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Selva El Ocote Special Biosphere Reserve, but there is very little suitable habitat within this protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. An important area of habitat is within the proposed Chimalapas-Uxpanapa Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey "islands</strong>" of habitat between Selva El Ocote and the Ca&ntilde;on de Sumidero<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Formally designate the proposed Chimalapas-Uxpanapa Biosphere Reserve<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147770	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylorchilus navai</em> has a restricted range in easternmost Veracruz (six sites in the Uxpanapa region, at the mid-point of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), with records from one site in west Chiapas, and two in east Oaxaca, south <strong>Mexico<sup>2</sup></strong>. The total extent of its range was initially estimated at 4,800-4,900&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, within which it is fairly common but local<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. However, further mapping indicates that the known range is likely to be considerably smaller. In 1992, a crude density estimate of c.20 birds/km<sup>2</sup> was calculated at El Ocote in Chiapas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147770	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to limestone outcrops in the shade of primary lowland evergreen forest, mainly at 75-800&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. This habitat is naturally patchy, with outcrops occurring every c.4&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the west and central parts of the Uxpanapa region<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Fortunately, it seems able to survive in patches of forest as small as 8 ha<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It gleans invertebrates from the lichen-covered surface of the limestone and in the cracks and crevices of boulders<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147770	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 198 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) =  3,960, i.e. within band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density estimated by Atkinson <em>et al</em>. 1993). <br/></p>	eng
147770	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Settlement and cattle-ranching following road-building have fragmented forests within its range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although limestone outcrops are generally not suitable for ranching, deforestation has left them isolated and threatened by firewood extraction<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. This has important implications since such small birds with rounded wings are (predictably) poor dispersers<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147773	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in El Cocuy National Park, Boyac&aacute;, and in Sumap&aacute;z National Park, Cundinamarca<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey and monitor known populations. Census and study the poorly-known p&aacute;ramo population<sup>2</sup></strong>, especially within national parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect wetland habitats<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the taxonomic status of the p&aacute;ramo population. Control Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em></strong> populations at breeding sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147773	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cistothorus apolinari</em> is found locally in the East Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Boyac&aacute; and Cundinamarca). Current strongholds are at Laguna de Tota (Boyac&aacute;) and Laguna de F&uacute;quene (Cundinamarca) - the population in each probably exceeding 50 pairs - and several populations of up to 20 pairs are present in the remnant wetlands around Bogot&aacute;<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been extirpated from at least two sites since 1950, and numbers have fallen at several formerly important sites. <br/></p>	eng
147773	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Populations in p&aacute;ramo habitat are poorly known, but elsewhere it inhabits tall, dense, emergent vegetation fringing marshes and lakes (mostly reedbeds), between 1,800-3,600 m, but principally above 2,500 m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It gleans aquatic insects from reed stems, and is usually found in pairs or family groups. Breeding seems to occur between February and October, and eggs have been found in July. <br/></p>	eng
147773	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are no new data on population size. Population estimate = 8.5 individuals/km2 x 157 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,334, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 (AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO, as occurs locally within its fragmented habitat; density lowest of four estimates for four non-forest species of Troglodytidae in the BirdLife Population Densities Database) <br/></p>	eng
147773	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is declining rapidly owing to the drainage and burning of wetlands for agriculture, mainly onion cultivation, but also cattle-farming<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Siltation, because of erosion on deforested hillsides in the region<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and pollution by agrochemicals and sewage alter the wetland vegetation, and insecticide use may reduce food availability or directly poison birds. In the Bogot&aacute; area, several relict wetlands are threatened by human settlement and highway projects<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Reed-harvesting and tourism are possibly minor threats, and nest parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> may increasingly be a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147777	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Troglodytes sissonii</em> inhabits arid lowland scrub and semi-deciduous forest on Isla Socorro (c.150 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>1</sup>. It was described as the second most common landbird on the island in 1991<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and remains very common at all elevations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The proliferation of sheep on the island since the 19th century has led to deforestation of large parts of the southern lowlands, where the species is no longer common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Until sheep are eradicated from the island (which is scheduled to start shortly<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) or effectively controlled, the continuing effect of intensive grazing may reduce its already very small range. There is no direct evidence that it is preyed upon by Socorro Mockingbird <em>Mimodes graysoni</em><strong><sup>2, <em>contra</em></sup></strong> <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147778	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Areas of the Zapata Swamp have protected status, but regulations are often not enforced<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys for this species were undertaken in 1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to accurately determine range, numbers and threats<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147778	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ferminia cerverai</em> is known only from the northern and central parts of the Zapata Swamp, <strong>Cuba</strong>. It was reported as common at the time of its discovery in 1926, but anecdotal evidence suggests that it has subsequently declined. A survey along the Hatiguanico and Guareira rivers in 1998 recorded 24 wrens in three new localities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147778	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies freshwater marshes and lowland savanna-type habitat with grasses, rushes, scattered bushes and low trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, spiders, small snails, lizards and berries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nests are placed in sawgrass <em>Cladium jamaicensis</em> tussocks, and the breeding season is apparently January-July. <br/></p>	eng
147778	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 8.5 individuals/km2 x 188 km2 (20% EOO) = 1,598, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 (AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO, as habitat requirements mean that species probably only occurs locally within EOO; density lowest of four estimates for four non-forest species of Troglodytidae in the BirdLife Population Densities Database) <br/></p>	eng
147778	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Dry-season burning, wetland drainage and agricultural expansion destroy and degrade suitable habitat, and it is possibly predated by introduced mongooses and rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147783	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147787	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147794	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147798	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 2009 Niceforo's Wren Natural Bird Reserve was established by ProAves, covering 1,400 ha of the species' tropical dry forest habitat and protecting a population of 21 individuals discovered in Santander province in 2008. Surveys have been conducted to search for the species in a number of new areas, and more are planned for the future. Analysis of <em>T. nicefori </em>and <em>T. rufalbus</em> songs support their classification as separate species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct field surveys to determine its population size and distribution. Study its ecological requirements and natural history. Assess threats to the species. Use any new data collected to draft and execute a conservation stategy for the species. Raise the profile of this species in Soata and promote an environmental pride campaign to facilitate its conservation<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect areas of dry forest within its range.</strong>	eng
147798	distribution		<em>Thryothorus nicefori</em> occurs on the west slope of the east Andes in Santander, <strong>Colombia</strong>. The only known site was the type-locality at San Gil on the r&iacute;o Fonce south of Bucaramanga, where ten specimens were collected between 1944-1948<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There were no further records until two birds were observed and recorded in 1989, and then again in 2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Subsequently it has been recorded in Soata, Boyaca c.100 km south and in the Yariguies mountains 50 km to the west<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. A 2008 survey in the department of Santander discovered a population of 21 individuals, which is now protected by the Niceforo's Wren Natural Bird Reserve. A further 56 individuals have been recorded in other regions, giving a known global population of 77. An approximate estimate places the population as high as 250 individuals, though its accuracy needs confirming<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
147798	habitat		The species occurs in dry forest habitat, and its presence was found to be significantly correlated with that of <em>Tricanthera gigantea</em>,<em> Acacia farnesiana</em> and <em>Pithecellobium dulce</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded along the edges of shaded coffee and cacao plantations between 1,100 and 1,850 m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. All territories of individuals in the Santander population were located along water courses where vegetation is dense and perennial, and individuals were absent from areas devoid of a dense understory due to grazing by goats<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It constructs an elongated nest in close association with wasps - proximity to wasps' nests has been shown to increase success rate of nests in some tropical passerines<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
147798	population		Surveys between 2004 and 2008 recorded 77 individuals. An approximate estimate based on these surveys and other records gives a total global population of 250 individuals (S. Valderrama <em>in litt</em>. 2010). However, until this is confirmed to be accurate, the population band of 50-249 seems appropriate.	eng
147799	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147800	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147803	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147805	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147806	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 40,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 23000000-40000000 breeding pairs, equating to 69000000-120000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 288000000-2400000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147807	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number >50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.	eng
147808	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Revillagigedo Islands were declared a biosphere reserve in 1994<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is a plan to eradicate introduced herbivores from Clari&oacute;n<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. The Mexican navy restricts access to the island and helps to prevent further introductions<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Eradicate introduced herbivores from Clari&oacute;n. Continue to prevent the introduction of mammalian predators.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
147808	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Troglodytes tanneri</em> is endemic to Isla Clari&oacute;n in the Revillagigedo Islands, <strong>Mexico</strong>. Only 20 individuals were recorded in 1986<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but subsequent visits to the island have found the species to be common<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 170-200 pairs in 1988, with the highest densities around buildings and adjacent areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147808	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in all habitats throughout the island from rocks on the beach to shrubbery at the highest elevations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nests are built in bushes, cacti, buildings and derelict vehicles<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147808	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Howell and Webb (1989) <br/></p>	eng
147808	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced herbivores have extensively modified the native vegetation on Clari&oacute;n<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but this has not impacted upon this species. The introduction of a mammalian predator would have extremely serious consequences. The possibility of a cat introduction is small, but mouse or rat introductions are more likely<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147811	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species's range lies within indigenous reserves and is protected by the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to assess the range and population of the species as soon as possible. Improve the level of protection throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
147811	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Troglodytes monticola</em> is endemic to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it is known from collections made in 1922 and from one recent record in the upper r&iacute;o Fr&iacute;o Valley, at 3,600 m, where a pair was observed and tape-recorded in a small montane forest patch (c.2 ha) amidst heavily burned and overgrazed p&aacute;ramo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Searches at the only other intact forest patch in the area failed to locate the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the lack of recent reports may reflect the fact that the species is not found in the only area of the Santa Marta massif regularly visited<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147811	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is reportedly found in low, thick shrubbery at the timberline and in sheltered spots higher up in the p&aacute;ramo zone, from 3,200 to 4,600 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147811	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
147811	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Less than 15% of the original forest cover remains within the massif, and despite substantive protection status on paper, in reality high rates of habitat loss continue due to human colonisation and cultivation. The wren's habitat within r&iacute;o Fr&iacute;o valley is extremely isolated, due to burning and overgrazing, and more information is required concerning the habitat condition of other p&aacute;ramo and high montane forests elsewhere on the massif<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147812	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147814	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147815	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147817	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147818	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Henicorhina leucoptera</em> has a very restricted range in north <strong>Peru</strong> (La Libertad, San Mart&iacute;n, on the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor in Cajamarca, with a single record from Amazonas)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong> and extreme south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (the north end of the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). It inhabits dense, mossy cloud forest at 1,350-2,450 m, especially favouring the understorey of stunted elfin forest on exposed ridges<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Though its habitats are reasonably intact<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, it has a small, apparently disjunct range, with elfin forest in the south of its range readily accessible from the p&aacute;ramo and clearly vulnerable to grazing and burning<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
147820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147825	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147827	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147833	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147837	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Polioptila lactea</em> inhabits canopy and sub-canopy of the severely threatened lowland Atlantic Forest (up to 500 m) of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, south Mato Grosso do Sul, north Rio Grande do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones, Corrientes) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindey&uacute; south to Itap&uacute;a)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is found mainly in the Paran&aacute; basin, where it most common in south-east Paraguay<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and locally in Argentina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it is now very rare across much of its historical range. There have been no records from S&atilde;o Paulo since 1905<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and, in south-east Brazil, it is only regularly found at a handful of sites<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It also occurs in degraded forest and secondary growth<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production are historically important factors in the destruction of its habitats, and current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147839	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be neither rare nor numerous in Central Asia and scarce to rare in Krasnoyarsk, south-east Russia (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in China, common in Mai Po, Hong Kong and an uncommon to locally fairly common winter visitor to western Japan (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to locally abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon, or even rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147846	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although easily over-looked (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147847	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147848	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in southern Africa, although uncommon in Botswana and scarce in the Transvaal and uncommon and local in east Africa (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147849	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although locally uncommon in Zimbabwe and uncommon to rare in the Orange Free State, South Africa (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147850	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather scarce and uncommon (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 24000000-42000000 breeding pairs, equating to 72000000-126000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 147000000-504000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147859	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be generally uncommon, but may be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147860	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon but very local (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 870000-1700000 breeding pairs, equating to 2610000-5100000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10900000-102000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common, fairly common in Nepal and uncommon in north-western China (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in the Himalayas, Burma and Tibet, and uncommon or rare in other areas (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147870	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Parus amabilis</em> is considered generally uncommon on Palawan, Balabac and Calauit, <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is possibly dependent on primary forest, and its occurrence at higher elevations remains to be confirmed, so that it must be a potential cause for concern in the face of any forest loss. <br/></p>	eng
147872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. However, the species is reported to be fairly common in the eastern Himalayas but uncommon in the western Himalayas, south-eastern Tibet and south-west China although very numerous in northern Sichuan. (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to locally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population in South Africa is estimated as 10,000,000 individuals and the population in Mozambique has been estimated as 500,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common, although rare in south-east Nigeria (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be poorly known (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or common in Guinea, Sudan and Uganda; scarce in Sierra Leone and Cameroon and locally rare in Ivory Coast and Ghana (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common to fairly common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sparse throughout its range (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
147887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147888	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from two protected areas, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu and Anshi National Park, Karnataka.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in remaining suitable habitat, particularly within the range of the southern population (e.g. the Cauveri Valley in Karnataka and neighbouring Tamil Nadu), to clarify its distribution and status. Establish a network of protected areas encompassing tracts of dry thorn-scrub forest supporting significant populations. Promote and integrate conservation initiatives within rural development schemes to reduce exploitation of dry thorn-scrub forest (particularly dead and decaying trees), e.g. through the introduction of fuel-efficient stoves and (in Kutch) the provision of toothbrushes and paste/powder.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
147888	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Parus nuchalis</em> is endemic to <strong>India</strong>, where it occurs in two isolated populations in central and southern Rajasthan, Kutch and northern Gujarat in the north-west, and the Eastern Ghats of southern Andhra Pradesh, northern Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the south. It appears to have declined substantially. Most recent records are from Gujarat and Rajasthan, where it is now patchily distributed and only found at low densities. There are no recent records from Andhra Pradesh, and very few from Karnataka and northern Tamil Nadu.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147888	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits tropical, dry thorn-scrub forests, particularly those dominated by <em>Acacia</em> species, from the lowlands and foothills up to at least 700&#160;m, occasionally straying into gardens, vegetated streambeds and irrigated crop fields during drought years. The southern population also occurs in dry deciduous forest. It breeds in tree cavities during the monsoon (May-August), some populations then dispersing.</p>	eng
147888	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated from analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that the distribution was very patchy, the species occurred at low densities, and 'overall numbers must be very low' i.e. <10,000 <br/></p>	eng
147888	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The most serious threat is loss, degradation and fragmentation of tropical thorn-scrub forest, and reductions in available nest- and roost-sites. This is occurring as a result of lopping and cutting for fuelwood and illegal charcoal making, clearance for agricultural land and settlement construction, and over-grazing. In Kutch, collection of <em>Acacia</em> twigs for toothbrush manufacture is a major threat. Remaining areas of suitable habitat are further threatened by proposed cement factories, stone quarrying and gypsum mining, including within existing protected areas. The spread of the non-native shrub <em>Prosopis glandulosa</em> is also having deleterious effects on dry thorn-scrub.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be from common (various localities in China) to scarce and local in the eastern Himalayas (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147891	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Parus holsti</em> is confined to the mountains of central<strong> Taiwan</strong> (China), where it occurs in primary broadleaved forest and occasionally secondary growth at 700-2,500 m. It is generally found at low densities, and it was one of the species reported to be captured during large-scale netting of wild birds for export. However, much of its habitat is secure, as c.11% of Taiwan is protected in national parks, nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries. <br/></p>	eng
147895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally very common to abundant in southern Japan and the Kuril islands; uncommon in northern Japan, rare in north-eastern China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147896	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Parus semilarvatus</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philipinnes</strong> where it occurs on Luzon (race <em>snowi</em> in the northern Sierra Madre, nominate <em>semilarvatus</em> in the central and southern Sierra Madre and a few other sites to the south and west) and Mindanao (race <em>nehrkorni</em>, known from some eight localities). It inhabits forest, edge and second growth up to around 1,150&#160;m, and is generally characterised as rare and local, possibly as a result of some unidentified biological specialisation, although it is moderately common in the Sierra Madre. <br/></p>	eng
147901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most of its range, although western Himalayas and north-western Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
147902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare in the western Himalayas to quite common in the eastern Himalayan foothills, lower Kachin hills and Hukawng valley in northern Burma (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000000-12000000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000000-36000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30600000-144000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Afghanistan, locally common in Pakistan and scarce or even rare in Kashmir (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to abundant (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147906	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common  in India and rare and local in Nepal and Pakistan (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the Himalayas and northern Myanmar, uncommon in China, although very common in south-western Sichuan province and abundant in Tibet (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rather uncommon (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
147911	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pseudochelidon eurystomina</em> breeds in the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) (middle and upper Congo River and lower Ubangi River)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, <strong>Gabon</strong> (Gamba<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Animba near Port-Gentil and, recently discovered, near Libreville itself; also potentially throughout the coastal areas south of Point Pongara, as far as the border with the Congo)<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>and <strong>Congo </strong>(several hundred birds discovered in 1996 in the Conkouati Reserve)<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong>. It breeds in large colonies (up to c.800 individuals) along forested rivers, on islands with sandy shores and on beach ridges in coastal savanna<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Nest holes are dug into sandbars which are exposed when river levels are low<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season it roosts in reed-beds or riverine vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The total population size is unknown; in the late 1980s, it appeared to be common, if local, and large numbers have been seen on migration in Gabon<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, such as the Ogoou&eacute; River and Makokou where, in 1997, a flock of c.15,000 were observed<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. However it is particularly poorly known in the DRC and it is not known if there is any relationship between the birds breeding in the DRC and those breeding in coastal areas of Gabon and Congo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds from the Congo migrate westwards across Gabon (main passage from June to early September)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, arriving at Gamba on the coast from mid-August onwards and on the coast of the Congo from mid-September<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. After breeding in the coastal areas, they depart from late October-November<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> with the main passage back across Gabon from December to March<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. At Odzala in northern Congo, birds have been observed flying west towards coastal breeding grounds in August, returning in late January, but the numbers involved are much lower than those observed in Gabon<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1994, three or four birds were observed on passage at Ngotto in the Central African Republic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In the 1950s, the species was caught and eaten in large quantities in the DRC by the local population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and this practice could be on the increase<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding colonies in river sandbars are liable to flooding<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
147912	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. Beung Boraphet has been declared as a Non-Hunting Area. Several unsuccessful searches have been made for it at this site since its discovery. In 1969, a survey, based on village interviews, of the Nan Yom and Wang rivers in northern Thailand did not reveal any further information. Similarly, a brief survey in 1996 of rivers in northern Laos was unsuccessful, and in 2008 a BirdLife/RSPB funded project consisting of speedboat surveys and village interviews at the site of the 2004 claim in Cambodia also proved fruitless<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct a poster campaign to trace potential sightings by local people to focus survey efforts. Conduct surveys for the species along all major rivers within its putative range (particularly northern Thailand and Myanmar, but also potentially southern China, Laos, and Cambodia)</strong> and search alternative habitats such as forests and limestone cave systems. <strong>If a population is rediscovered, immediately implement appropriate conservation measures.</strong>	eng
147912	distribution		<em>Eurochelidon sirintarae</em> is only known as a probable non-breeding visitor to one area of central <strong>Thailand</strong>. It was discovered in 1968, at or near Beung Boraphet lake, near the town of Nakhon Sawan. It is known from 12 specimens collected amongst roosts of wintering hirundines, with rumours of many more sold in local markets, one field observation at Beung Boraphet in 1978, and two unconfirmed reports, the last of which was in 1986. Its population must be tiny and the lack of reliable records for over 20 years strongly suggests that it has undergone a decline. The species may be extant within South-East Asia, where survey effort has increased in recent years. There have been unconfirmed reports from Cambodia recently where potentially suitable habitat remains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but searches in the Sre Ambel area in March-April 2008 failed to find the species, and the habitat was degraded and apparently unsuitable<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Myanmar may be a more likely refuge of any remaining population.	eng
147912	habitat		Its ecology is almost totally unknown. It has only been recorded between December and February roosting in reedbeds. By inference from behaviour of the related African River-martin <em>Pseudochelidon eurystomina</em>, it may breed on sand-bars of large rivers and feed over forested country. It has been speculated that, if it nests in Thailand, it would do so from February-April, after which monsoon rains raise water-levels above its postulated nesting habitat. However, there is some evidence that it might breed earlier than this, be partially nocturnal and perhaps not be associated with rivers.	eng
147912	population		Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny based on the lack of confirmed records at the only known site since 1978.	eng
147914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147918	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A nest box scheme was initiated on Grand Bahama in 1995 to remedy the lack of suitable nest-holes<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. A total of 227 boxes were erected at several sites and three were occupied<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all suitable breeding habitat and assess the status of the species and its habitat; gathering empirical evidence to clarify population trends is a priority. Assess winter distribution and habitat requirements. Study the impacts of fire suppression on the species. Maintain natural nest-sites through a pine snag management programme<sup>1</sup></strong>, and potentially fire management. <strong>Assess and monitor the success of the nest box scheme. Protect remaining forest in the Bahamas and minimise the area lost to housing development and logging. Assess the impact of starling and house sparrows on the population and develop appropriate measures to reduce the threat. <br/></p>	eng
147918	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Tachycineta cyaneoviridis</em> breeds on Grand Bahama, Great Abaco and Andros in the northern <strong>Bahamas</strong><sup>2,4</sup>. It may be extinct as a breeding bird on New Providence<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but a few birds are seen each breeding season suggesting the presence of a relict but severely threatened population<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The winter distribution is poorly defined, but there are a number of records from the southern Bahamas and eastern <strong>Cuba</strong>, and small numbers appear to be resident on the breeding islands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On migration, it occurs irregularly in the lower Florida Keys and through southern Florida, <strong>USA</strong><sup>2</sup>. The area of breeding habitat is c.2,000 km<sup>2 <strong>1</strong></sup>, and a population of 2,400 pairs was crudely estimated in the late 1980s<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is no empirical data to confirm population trends, but anecdotal reports suggest that the species has declined considerably in numbers and is now a scarce species even in suitable habitat<strong><sup>8,9,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147918	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It nests in natural cavities and old woodpecker holes in pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em> woodlands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It also occurs locally in towns and around human habitation, where it nests in artificial cavities and other human structures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It tends to feed in open areas such as clearings in woodland, marshes, fields and along coastlines<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in April-July<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Movements are poorly known, but some birds undertake  small-scale migrations during winter. <br/></p>	eng
147918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Smith and Smith (1989) previously estimated a global population of 2,400 pairs, i.e. 4,800 mature individuals. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the population has declined substantially since then and available survey data suggests the species occurs at low densities, even in apparently suitable habitat; consequently we cautiously assume a population of 1,000-2,499 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
147918	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Logging of pines in the northern Bahamas has probably had a major impact<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Logging was terminated in the early 1970s, but much of the secondary forest is now approaching maturity and there are opportunities for renewed logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Planned housing developments could eliminate 8% of remaining breeding habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and there is potential for considerable future building developments on Grand Bahama<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, though in recent decades habitat loss has been modest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There is competition for nest-sites with introduced cavity-nesters such as House Sparrow <em>Passer domesticus</em> and European Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The small area of remaining habitat exacerbates the risk of hurricane-induced habitat loss<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; the only notable habitat loss in recent years has resulted from saltwater intrusion associated with large storm surges following hurricanes in 2004<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The frequency of hurricanes within the species's range may increase in coming years as a consequence of global climate change. Fire management may be important for the species as fire suppression may render areas of forest unsuitable over time<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147919	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Jamaica<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Remaining forest in Cockpit Country is mostly protected, and habitat in the Blue and John Crow Mountains is a national park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. These reserves are not managed and habitat protection is inadequate<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but funding is actively being sought for the effective conservation of Cockpit Country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Montane forest is poorly represented in the Dominican Republic's protected-areas system<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, but 15 new areas have been recently proposed, including six in montane forest. In Haiti, it occurs in both La Visite and Macaya National Parks<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to identify breeding sites throughout its range<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Officially designate the proposed protected areas in the Dominican Republic<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider the provision of nest-boxes<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Design and implement management plans for key reserves. <br/></p>	eng
147919	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tachycineta euchrysea</em> is very rare and local in <strong>Jamaica</strong>, where it is known from Cockpit Country and across the central highlands to the Blue Mountains and surrounding areas<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong>. The race <em>sclateri</em> is locally common in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, especially in the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong> and Massif de la Selle<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Jamaican population was common in the late 19th century, but there are very few recent records and both populations have declined dramatically<strong><sup>4,5,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147919	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It nests in montane humid and pine forests, at elevations of 800-2,000&#160;m on Hispaniola, but (primarily in winter) to sea-level on Jamaica. It has been found in good secondary forest on Jamaica, and sometimes feeds over cane-fields and open country<strong><sup>1,7,10</sup></strong>. Nests are built in old woodpecker and other holes in dead pines, and have been recorded in caves<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, boulders in an old bauxite mine<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and in the eaves of buildings<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It flies in singles or small groups, feeding on small insects<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147919	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,640 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 3,280, i.e. best placed within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density is lowest of seven estimates for seven species of <em>Hirundo</em>, <em>Notiochelidon</em>, <em>Psalidoprocne</em> and <em>Riparia</em> of woodland or forest habitats in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
147919	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Shifting agriculture has caused severe forest loss and fragmentation on Hispaniola<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Reasons for declines in Jamaica are unknown<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but habitat loss is implicated. Suggestions that competition for nest-sites with introduced European Starlings <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em> has been significant<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong> appear unfounded, as starlings only occur at lower elevations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147924	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Progne sinaloae</em> breeds in pine-oak forest and semi-open habitat at nine sites on the west slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Sonora, Jalisco and Michoac&aacute;n states, <strong>Mexico<sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded on migration in Mexico and casually in <strong>Guatemala<sup>1,3</sup></strong> and <strong>Belize</strong> but its wintering range, conservation status and population trends are unknown. <br/></p>	eng
147925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
147930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147935	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common breeding bird in many parts of its range but sometimes only locally so. The species is reported to be common in Pakistan (Grimmett et al. 1997, Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in parts of east Africa and frequent in Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but locally distributed on Madagascar and abundant on Mauritius and Reunion (Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147941	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in west-central Africa where it is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo from Bolobo and Kwamouth, south-east to Kananga, Lubilashi and Lubishi Rivers, near Salonga National Park (Mills and Cohen 2007), Luluabourg and elsewhere in the Kasai (Keith et al. 1992), southern Congo from the Congo River at Nganchu (near Ngabé), Gamakala (north of Brazzaville), and further away from the Congo River at Djambala (F. Dowsett-Lemaire 1997b), and the central highlands of Angola (Keith et al. 1992, Mills and Cohen 2007).	eng
147941	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	the species is found near rivers and, in the non-breeding season, often associates with Lesser Striped-Swallow Hirundo abyssinica feeding over rivers on flying insects, e.g. termites (Chapin 1953). It nests in small groups in tunnels in sandy river-banks, the breeding season being July-October, at the beginning of the wet season before river-levels rises sufficiently to flood the nest-sites (Chapin 1953). It is not known to migrate (Chapin 1953). It appears to utilise open habitats, is suspected to be tolerant of some human-induced alteration of habitat.	eng
147941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147941	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although few large colonies are known and it is almost undoubtedly subject to some human predation (F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt. 1997), its large range and tolerance of degraded habitats probably mean that it is not under any immediate risk.	eng
147942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant, though rare in Nigeria (Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 120000-370000 breeding pairs, equating to 360000-1110000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
147944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common in Jordan, common in Egypt and scarce in Pakistan (Snow and Perrins 1998, Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although scarce in Botswana and Namibia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in India and uncommon in southern China (MacKinnon and Phillipps (Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common and sometimes abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Africa, common in Pakistan and locally common in India (Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent in Africa (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common, for example in Mwinilunga district, Zambia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147958	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix&#160;I and II. In Malawi, Nyika National Park and the Mulanje area are considered secure from agricultural encroachment in the long term, due to the cold climate and poor soils<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Zimbabwe, c.200&#160;pairs breed within Nyanga National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and less than 50&#160;pairs breed in Chimanimani National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A South African working group has been formed to coordinate and encourage conservation of the species<strong><sup>11,18</sup></strong>. One Kenyan site (Ruma) is a National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Swaziland, c.5 pairs breed in Malolotja Nature Reserve<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify key wintering sites and conserve them<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey and monitor breeding population size and trend at less well-studied sites<sup>6,9</sup></strong>. <strong>Control and remove non-native plants at breeding sites<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess effects of grassland fires on spread of non-native plants.</strong></p>	eng
147958	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hirundo atrocaerulea</em> is an intra-African migrant that breeds in <strong>South Africa</strong>, west <strong>Swaziland</strong>, <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>, <strong>Malawi<sup>8,11</sup></strong>, north-east <strong>Zambia</strong>, south-western <strong>Tanzania<sup>3,14</sup></strong>, west <strong>Mozambique</strong>, and south-east <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. It is a non-breeding visitor to north-east DRC, south <strong>Uganda<sup>5</sup></strong> and west <strong>Kenya<sup>13</sup></strong>. It is frequent to common in Tanzania<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and Malawi (the largest population by country)<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>, uncommon in Uganda and Kenya<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, uncommon to rare in Zambia and Zimbabwe, and close to extinction in Swaziland and South Africa<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> where between 81 and 120 breeding pairs remain<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. In 1998, the total breeding population was estimated to be c.2,000 pairs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147958	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species breeds in montane grassland<strong><sup>4,11,13</sup></strong>, preferring high rainfall, undulating areas such as mist belt grasslands of South Africa<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. In its non-breeding range it favours open grassland, often with bushes and trees<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The nest is usually attached to the roof or side of a hole in the ground (free of vegetation)<strong><sup>12,13,17</sup></strong>. Birds are known to return to the same nest-site for up to 30 years<strong><sup>6,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147958	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at c.1,006 breeding pairs, or 2,012 mature individuals, in 2005 (S. W. Evans<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Estimated numbers of breeding pairs should be treated with caution, as when nests are surveyed they are assumed to indicate one breeding pair each, which may not be the case in this facultative cooperative breeder, and it has been observed that some nests are not used after construction (J. Wakelin <em>in litt</em>. 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
147958	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Grassland in many parts of its range is being lost to afforestation<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, intense human settlement, cultivation (especially sugarcane<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>), intensive livestock-farming, intense grazing, intensive grass-burning<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, invasion by non-native trees and bracken<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and (potentially) small-scale mining<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. More than 60% of the South African Grassland Biome Habitat has already been irreversibly transformed<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147960	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Yavello Sanctuary (c.2,500 km<sup>2</sup>) was designated in 1985 to protect this species and Ethiopian Bush-Crow <em>Zavattariornis stresemanni</em>, but it has not yet been gazetted and there is no active management. Responsibility for protected areas has now passed to the Regional Government, so it is hoped that collaboration between Regional and Zonal Governments and local communities may result in more substantive protection<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Better define the species' habitat requirements. Determine why it is restricted to such a small range. Determine whether it is affected by the clearance of thorn-scrub for rangeland development. <br/></p>	eng
147960	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hirundo megaensis</em> has a restricted range around Mega and Yavello in southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>. No population estimate has been made, but while one survey in 1989 suggested densities had remained constant through the 1980s, another established slightly larger geographical and altitudinal ranges but recorded lower numbers. Field surveys in 1996 found it to be fairly common in small numbers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2005 found less than two individuals per 15 minute point count or 500 m transect<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147960	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in open, semi-arid country with short grass and low <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub (dense to sparse) with some clearings<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It occurs less commonly over farmland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds during the main rainy season (April-May), with nests being found in early May, on rafters inside traditional houses in the Yavello area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
147960	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated to number less than 10,000 individuals because the species probably exists at relatively low densities across its range, owing to its dependence on termite mounds in which it nests (N. J. Collar <em>in litt</em>. 2003).  <br/></p>	eng
147960	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is potentially threatened by the conversion of <em>Acacia</em> thorn-scrub to grazing land, and pastoralism to crop agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2005 found it at lower densities in farmland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, suggesting that the species' population is declining in the face of such increases in grazing pressure and conversion to crops. The Ethiopian Bush-crow <em>Zavattariornis stresemanni</em>, which is endemic to a similar area and habitat, declined significantly over the last ten years, probably due to fire supression in Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary leading to increased vegetation cover<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
147961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually scarce, although locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although scarcer in the north and west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147968	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hirundo perdita</em> is known only from the type-specimen, found dead in May 1984 at Sanganeb lighthouse, north-east of Port Sudan, <strong>Sudan<sup>1</sup></strong>. The species's preferred habitat is unknown, but its morphology is similar to the `cliff swallow' group of species, whose other members prefer open country (e.g. grassland or mountainous areas), often near to cliffs and/or water and/or human habitation. It is therefore judged most likely to be found in the Red Sea hills of Sudan or Eritrea, or possibly (because two pale-rumped swallows were seen flying out over the Red Sea towards Jedda, just before the discovery of the type) in the coastal hills of western Saudi Arabia north of Jedda<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Unidentified cliff swallows, possibly of this species, have been seen at Lake Langano (c.20 birds) and in Awash National Park (3-8 birds) in the Rift Valley in Ethiopia, plus three more recent sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although they are more likely to represent an undescribed taxon. There is no other information on the species's range, population size and trend, preferred habitat and potential threats.	eng
147969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to breed commonly (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
147975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
147976	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan and locally common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147979	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon but poorly known (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 9900000-24000000 breeding pairs, equating to 29700000-72000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 60600000-288000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
147981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in China (Turner and Rose 1989).	eng
147982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and fairly common in Nepal and locally fairly common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
147983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to rare, although common in Liberia and locally common in Gabon, Ghana and north -eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147984	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to a small area including Mt Cameroon in Cameroon, the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria and Bioko, Equatorial Guinea (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147984	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in forest interior, clearings and edges as well as montane grassland, farmland and human settlements (Stuart 1986). Records from the Obudu Plateau are from montane forest (Elgood et al. 1994). It does not appear to be limited to forest within its small range (Stuart 1986).	eng
147984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
147985	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although race suffusa is uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147986	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to locally abundant, although not common in the lower Congo Basin, west Sudan, south Zambia and central Zimbabwe (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common, although rare to not uncommon in Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
147989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
147991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in the highlands of Myanmar and northern Thailand and scarce in China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to very common in parts of Taiwan and China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147993	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is protected in Thailand and occurs in numerous protected areas, including at least two on Sumatra, at least four in Kalimantan and several (including Taman Negara) in Peninsular Malaysia.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Advocate increased patrol frequency in and around protected areas supporting populations. Increase policing of bird markets, particularly in Indonesia. Tighten controls on imports and exports of live birds in the region. Extend stronger legal protection to this (and other equally popular) cage-birds. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
147993	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus zeylanicus</em> is known from Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar </strong>(status unknown), south through Peninsular <strong>Thailand </strong>and <strong>Malaysia</strong> and <strong>Singapore</strong> to Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei </strong>and Sabah and Sarawak<strong> </strong>(Malaysia). It was widespread, common, and even locally abundant across much of this range, until as recently as two decades ago. However, it is thought to be extinct in Thailand (feral populations remain) and on Java, and to have declined dramatically on Sumatra and Kalimantan, now being confined to the most remote areas. It may only remain in moderately healthy numbers in peninsular Malaysia. <br/></p>	eng
147993	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It occupies successional habitats bordering rivers, streams, marshes and other wet areas, where seasonal flooding prevents the establishment of climax communities. These include secondary and disturbed primary evergreen forest, plantations, gardens and cultivation fringe, scrub and, locally, reedbeds and mangroves. It is most frequent in lowlands, but has been recorded (historically) up to 1,100&#160;m and, locally (on Borneo and Sumatra), up to 1,600&#160;m. It is sedentary, generally occurring in pairs or family parties of up to five. <br/></p>	eng
147993	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
147993	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The quality of its songs make it a very popular cage-bird, which has resulted in extensive trapping for both domestic and international trade. Its lack of shyness and habit of roosting and nesting in easily accessible locations have compounded its vulnerability to trapping. A single bird cost over US$&#160;20 in 1987, after which prices are reported to have increased rapidly. Despite its tolerance of secondary habitats, clearance of lowland forest along rivers has probably contributed to its decline.<strong></strong></p>	eng
147994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in mid-elevation forests, although generally uncommon in north Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
147996	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus tympanistrigus</em> is restricted to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits hill and lower montane forest at 600-1,400 m. In the early 1990s it was known by few records and appeared to be very local and at risk from deforestation in its lower elevation range (most populations are below 900 m), but it is now known to be relatively common and widespread, albeit still declining with habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
147997	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus melanoleucos</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where is it known from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Mentawai Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (widespread) in forest to at least 1,830 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been considerably less extensive, and scrubby forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. However, its apparently nomadic behaviour suggests dependence on a temporally patchy resource, as yet unidentified. <br/></p>	eng
147998	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It has been recorded from about 33 IBAs, however the majority of them are unprotected non-breeding sites with various levels of degradation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is present in nearly all wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves in Kerala<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Instigate the formation and amalgamation of protected areas throughout its range to ensure that enough suitable habitat is protected<sup>2</sup>. Ensure effective legal protection of protected areas<sup>2</sup>. Prevent the extensive extraction of reed-bamboos (<em>Ochlandra</em> spp.) from lower altitudes, especially during the breeding season<sup>2</sup>. Accurately assess the current population size and establish regular surveys to quantify population trends.</strong>	eng
147998	distribution		<em>Pycnonotus priocephalus</em> is found in the Western Ghats and Palni Hills in south-west <strong>India<sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is patchily distributed, but it is thought to be not uncommon in suitable habitat<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat at lower habitats has largely been cleared, and continued clearance is suspected to be causing ongoing population declines<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
147998	habitat		This species uses two distinct elevation zones during the breeding and non-breeding season. During the breeding season, individuals are restricted to the mid-elevation evergreen forests (700-1,400m). During the non-breeding season, it is present in lower altitude moist deciduous and scrub forests. Reed-bamboos (<em>Ochlandra</em> spp.) are thought to be an important nesting plant, and it is not seen in shola forests and altered habitats such as plantations, suggesting that is is a habitat specialist. Individuals show local migration during breeding and non-breeding seasons in response to the variation in fruit abundance and adverse climatic conditions<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds from March to July and the female lays a clutch of one to two eggs. Its diet consists of berries and other fruit, and also a small proportion of insects. It forages at all levels of forest and in tall vine-laden shrubs, often singly or in pairs, but sometimes in groups of four to eight individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
147998	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the population is thought to occur at low densities in suitable habitat which is patchily distributed throughout its range (Balakrishnan 2007).	eng
147999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range, although very rare in southern China and rare in India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148001	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus squamatus</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (scarce) in lowland and hill forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been considerably less extensive, implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148002	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus cyaniventris</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Mentawai Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland and hill forest to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane slopes, where forest destruction has been considerably less extensive, and use of open wooded country and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas, abundant in south and west India and very common in Hong Kong (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the commonest birds in southern China and abundant in many regions, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148006	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been legally protected in Taiwan since 1995. It is common in Kenting National Park.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research the distribution and spread of hybrids within the wild population, in order to aid the development of conservation measures. Examine the possibility of establishing a refuge for genetically pure individuals with a buffer zone in which all hybrids and <em>P. sinensis are removed. Carefully examine the feasibility of a captive-breeding programme and, if established, closely monitor and coordinate it. Alert the government and the public of Taiwan of the potential for extinction of this species in order to establish support for conservation measures, particularly the maintenance of a refuge, and to discourage further releases of P. sinensis.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148006	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus taivanus</em> is endemic to <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China). It is found in eastern Taiwan in the coastal plains and hills of Haulien county and Taitung county, in the Huatung valley and as far west as Litao and north to Chungta and Hojen, in southern Taiwan at Hengchun and Kenting in southern Pingtung county, and as far north as Fangshan and Fengkang on the south-west coast of Taiwan. Although it is considered relatively common in parts of its range, with recent counts of over 100 at several sites, its population and range are thought to be declining and the genetic purity of several subpopulations in doubt. Indeed, genetically pure birds may be limited to the coastal mountains and Tungho and Luye in Taitung county. <br/></p>	eng
148006	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including secondary forest, scrub, agricultural areas and gardens. Large flocks form in autumn and winter, but it is territorial in the breeding season, which lasts from March-July. Its diet includes fruit and flowers.</p>	eng
148006	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148006	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threat is hybridisation with the closely related Chinese Bulbul <em>P. sinensis</em>. As a consequence of habitat alteration, the ranges of both species increasingly overlap resulting in frequent hybridisation. This process has been accelerated by releases of <em>P. sinensis</em> for religious purposes. It is possible that genetically pure populations will be lost within 20 years. Habitat alteration and urbanisation are threats throughout its range and may have caused its extinction in Ilan county.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population in Liberia is estimated as 3 million individuals and In southern Mozambique, the population is estimated as 5-10 million individuals. However, these countries cover only a small percentage of the species's total range so the global population is likely much higher (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widely distributed (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6000-18000 breeding pairs, equating to 18000-54000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 75000-1080000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common; abundant in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Hong Kong and Java and fairly common in southern China and south-east Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus eutilotus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore<strong> </strong>(formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Bangka Island), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland evergreen forest to 400 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of second growth, forest edge and even scrub implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus nieuwenhuisii</em>  is known from north-east Kalimantan (one specimen collected at 600 m in 1900) and Sumatra (one specimen collected in secondary scrub in pasture land at 700 m in 1937), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where single birds were seen on five occasions in 1992 in Batu Apoi National Park, in lowland dipterocarp forest at c.60 m. It is unusual for a species of bulbul to be widespread but to occur at such low densities, so this form may represent an extremely rare morph of another species or else hybrids, although it could be a genuinely rare habitat specialist that is occasionally forced to search other areas for food<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in northern Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148019	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148020	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Tracts of habitat that support the species at Adichunchanagiri, Anaimalai Hills, Biligiri Rangana Hills, Devarayanadurga, Gingee, Horsely Hills, Ragihalli State Forest, Shevaroys and Tirumala Hills are afforded nominal protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys across its range to identify substantial areas of undisturbed habitat supporting populations, with a view to affording strict protected-area status to representative portions. Lobby against further large-scale granite quarrying operations in areas supporting significant populations. Promote conservation awareness initiatives in these areas, aimed at reducing habitat degradation, integrated if possible with rural development schemes (e.g. through the provision of fuel-efficient stoves, reducing local communities' dependence on fuelwood). </strong> <br/></p>	eng
148020	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus xantholaemus</em> is endemic to southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally distributed in southern Andhra Pradesh, eastern Karnataka, eastern Kerala and northern Tamil Nadu. It is known from 39 localities, with all recent records from hills south of 16&#176;N and east of 76&#176;E. It is still locally common, but appears to be declining. Recent surveys of 18 localities found that it had totally disappeared from six historical sites. <br/></p>	eng
148020	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It is a sedentary resident, frequenting a variety of habitats ranging from open, sparse thorn-scrub and dense scrub jungle to mixed dry and moist deciduous forest with dense undergrowth, generally on boulder-strewn hillsides, around rocky outcrops or on isolated hillocks, from 600 to 1,200&#160;m. It is encountered in pairs or small groups of up to six, and is thought to breed mainly after the onset of the south-west monsoon. Berry-bearing shrubs are an important food source.</p>	eng
148020	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although this species has a large EOO (210,000 km<sup>2</sup>), it is very patchily distributed. Surveys of 18 sites showed it to be common in intact suitable habitat, but this was 'very limited'. The best site was estimated to hold just 60 birds. Analysis of the detailed account in BirdLife International (2001) suggests that the total population may well be below 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148020	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threats are habitat loss and degradation owing to commercial quarrying for granite, cutting and lopping of trees for fuelwood and intensive browsing of berry-bearing shrubs by domestic livestock. Periodic fires are also thought to degrade its habitat. Road widening at Devarayanadurga has caused local loss of habitat in the State Forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148021	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pycnonotus penicillatus </em>is an endemic resident in the wet zone highlands of <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is common in forest and nearby gardens, at middle and higher elevations. Forest on the island has suffered rapid degradation and fragmentation in the past decades through excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. It is feared that habitat loss will continue in the hills and the status of this species therefore requires monitoring. <br/></p>	eng
148022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant throughout much of its range, although locally uncommon at the edges of its mainland range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range and abundant in lowland and mid-altitude areas of Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in most of its range, although rare in southern Myanmar and extinct in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148030	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Andropadus montanus</em> is endemic to the highlands of west <strong>Cameroon</strong> and the Obudu plateau and Mt Gangirwal in eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong>. In Nigeria, it is reportedly still relatively common<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it is reportedly not uncommon on Mt Oku<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, scarce on Mt Cameroon<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, locally common in the Rumpi Hills, common in the Bakossi Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and very common on Mt Manenguba, and has recently been found on nearby Mt Nlonako<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits forest edge, clearings, secondary habitat and scrubby thickets with fruits<strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong>. On Mt Manenguba, it is especially common in scrubby <em>Maesa</em> forest and on Mt Nlonako in thickets of fruiting <em>Harungana</em> on rocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although found in secondary habitat and apparently still common where it occurs, forest within its small range is threatened by exploitation for timber and firewood and agricultural encroachment<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as extremely common across almost all of its range. The population in Liberia has been estimated as 4,000,000 individuals, although this represents only a small proportion of the global population. (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant along the coast and common inland (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be often the most abundant bulbul (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and sometimes abundant across much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148040	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common  (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to rare (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common. The population in Mozambique has been estimated as 40,000 individuals, although the global population is likely to be much higher, since Mozambique represents only a small part of the global range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148050	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known and the Lendu Plateau currently has no protected status. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey known sites to determine the extent of remaining habitat. Conduct surveys to determine its distribution more accurately and to assess its population size.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148050	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlorocichla prigoginei</em> occurs at two sites: the Beni-Butembo area north-west of Lake Edward (14 specimens) and on the Lendu Plateau (1 specimen) in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. In February 1994, the first observations since 1981 were made in Djugu Forest (a known locality) on the Lendu Plateau. <br/></p>	eng
148050	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species occurs in forest patches, thickets and gallery forest along the upper courses of rivers at intermediate elevations (1,300-1,800&#160;m), where it inhabits the dense understorey. More recently, birds have been located in a patch of slightly degraded, damp, montane forest on the Lendu Plateau<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, fruit and small caterpillars<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148050	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 2,352-4,704 (6-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 392 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-9,999. Density from that recorded for congener<em> Chlorocichla flaviventris</em>, and up to the lower quartile of three estimates of eight African greenbuls. <br/></p>	eng
148050	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The status of the Beni-Butembo region is unknown but likely to under serious threat from local encroachment and logging. Similarly,  the Lendu Plateau habitat was reported to be under serious threat from encroachment from surrounding villages, including widespread and uncontrolled local logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1997, only c.20 ha of forest was seen to remain. Now, all forest on the Lendu Plateau is  reported to be gone<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and abundant over much of its range, although possibly extinct in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but sometimes local (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148057	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon, although its status is unclear (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148059	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was previously poorly known, but its call is now known and it has been found in several new locations. It is now known to occur from Guinea, through north-western Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana (where it is probably widely distributed and common) and Togo to south-eastern Nigeria. It seems likely that the species will be found at more localities across its range, and may occur in Benin and the extreme west of Cameroon. It occurs in a number of protected areas .	eng
148059	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species appears to be restricted to mid-altitude forest at c.500-1,100 m, often on hill and mountain slopes, at lower altitudes mostly occurring in gallery forest and thicket on the fringes of the forest zone. It is apparently tied to the forest-savanna ecotone across much of its range, entering more deeply into lowland forest-secondary grassland mosaic habitats only in the far west of its range. It is found in mid-altitude forest and associated clearings and farmbush at 500-1,100 m, often on hill and mountain slopes both within and beyond the limits of the lowland forest zone, and also at lower altitudes down to sea level in gallery forest and thickets, including exotic Lantana and Chromolaena. Despite reports in the literature, there is no evidence that it occurs in lowland rainforest. It is probably often overlooked or misidentified owing to its skulking behaviour, lack of obvious field characters and occurrence in degraded habitats.	eng
148059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare, or rarely recorded (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly widespread and not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in a few forests but generally scarce (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148062	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phyllastrephus poliocephalus</em> is restricted to the montane forests of eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> and western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it has recently been discovered on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but is not found in the Bamenda Highlands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> (earlier records from Mt Oku are now known to be in error<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). It inhabits tall, mature rainforest at intermediate elevations<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and also occurs in secondary forest and secondary growth but always near primary forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although it is common to very common in suitable habitat<strong><sup>3,</sup></strong><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, forest within the species's range is threatened by unsustainable exploitation for timber and firewood, uncontrolled burning and encroachment for agriculture<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in some parts of its range and scarce and rare in others (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148065	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies P. i. lorenzi (formerly considered a separate species) is apparently scarce, and is restricted to the eastern lowlands of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and also at Ntandi in Semliki Forest in Uganda (Keith et al. 1992). In the DRC, there is a somewhat isolated record from Bambesa as well as populations in the Semliki/Ituri Forests and from the lowland parts of the Itombwe Mountains (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148065	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is a species of lowland and transitional forest at altitudes of 700-1,800 m (Stattersfield et al. 1998), where it occurs in mid-levels in small groups and in mixed-species flocks (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148065	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest habitats occupied by the range-restricted subspecies P. i. lorenzi are threatened by clearance for shifting cultivation and degradation through the removal of understorey tree species to create cacao plantations (Howard 1991).	eng
148066	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The civil war prevented research or conservation efforts for a number of years; with the return of stability, further efforts to re-locate the bird and to re-assess the quality and extent of remaining habitat are priorities. Work is underway to clarify its taxonomic status, and funding is currently being sought to search for the species in the near future. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish the extent of remaining habitat and estimate the population and distribution <sup>3</sup></strong>. Carry out more intensive surveys of known sites and adjacent sites (e.g. Cavally and Goin-Debe Forest Reserves in Cote d'Ivoire) to assess habitat quality and species status<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Effectively manage protected areas in range or adjacent to range (e.g. Sapo NP in Liberia)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Review its taxonomic status to establish conclusively whether it is a good species or merely an aberrant form of Icterine Greenbul <em>Pyllastrephus icterinus</em>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148066	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Phyllastrephus leucolepis</em> is a recently described (1985) and obviously very rare species. It is known only from two forest patches 20 km north-west of Zwedru, near Cavalla river, Grand Gedeh County, south-east <strong>Liberia</strong><sup>1</sup>, in the Upper Guinea rainforest. Despite much fieldwork in Liberia before the civil war, and some since, as well as in adjacent countries, there have been no further records. <br/></p>	eng
148066	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This is a rainforest species found in the transition zone between evergreen and semi-deciduous forest, where it joins mixed-species flocks and forages on branches near trunks 4-8 m above ground.  <br/></p>	eng
148066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 4-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 84 km<sup>2</sup> (85% EOO) = 336-1,008, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals. Density range is up to the lower quartile of five estimates for four congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
148066	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest in the region of the type-locality is being logged and cleared for smallholder agriculture and is already highly fragmented<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The recent civil unrest undoubtedly contributed to the short-term exploitation of these resources. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148070	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Zombitse-Vohibasia Forest has recently been gazetted as a National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Analavelona is unprotected but may be included in the activities of the WWF Zombitse-Vohibasia Conservation Project in the future<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct studies to estimate its population size<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148070	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bernieria apperti</em> is a recently discovered species with a very localised distribution in south-west <strong>Madagascar</strong>. It is known with certainty from only two sites: Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park (type locality) and Analavelona Classified Forest, a montane forest 50 km to the west, where it is reported to be common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148070	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is found in family groups of 2-8, sometimes associating with flocks of <em>P. madagascariensis<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. At Zombitse-Vohibasia it is found in the dense underbrush of undisturbed, dry, deciduous forest at about 600-800&#160;m<strong><sup>&#160;2</sup></strong>. Analavelona is a tract of relict evergreen forest on an isolated massif at about 1,300&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species feeds on small invertebrates gleaned from the leaves and branches of low shrubs and on the ground<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148070	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation.  <br/></p>	eng
148070	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest destruction due to clearance for maize and some charcoal production is the main threat to this species though, due to conservation efforts, there has been no new clearance at Zombitse-Vohibasia in the last five years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Analavelona is not managed as a protected area, but is relatively isolated, and forest clearance is not thought currently to present a threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148071	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is known from only three eastern Malagasy IBAs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, including the following protected areas: Marojejy National Park, Masoala National Park, Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate other populations. Establish habitat requirements and other factors limiting its distribution/population, in order to predict better its likely distribution and population size.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
148071	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bernieria tenebrosus</em> is found only in lowland rainforest in eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, where it is apparently extremely scarce<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species has been widely misidentified and only recently have the key identification criteria been elucidated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The only reliable records in recent years have been from Marojejy (800 m), Masoala (200 m) and Zahamena (500 m), but it is probably present in all large blocks of suitable habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. If many apparently spurious reports from Ranomafana and Perinet-Analamazaotra are discounted, it has the most restricted range of the eastern Malagasy rainforest species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Specimens are known from the central-east (For&ecirc;t Sihanaka, near Zahamena, and Mantadia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). During inventories of protected areas at Andringitra, Anjanaharibe-South, Andohahela and Marojejy, the species has been recorded only once and never mist-netted, despite around 10 months of survey effort and substantial mist-netting effort<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148071	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This still-mysterious species is found in the understorey of both lowland and mid-altitude (up to 950&#160;m) undisturbed, humid, evergreen forest. It forages for small insects, larvae and small spiders, both on the ground and in low shrubs<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It often occurs with other ground or low-understorey species, and has been observed recently in mixed-species foraging flocks, where there were usually fewer <em>P. tenebrosus</em> than Spectacled Greenbul <em>P. zosterops</em> or Long-billed Greenbul <em>P. madagascariensis</em><strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148071	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation.  <br/></p>	eng
148071	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat is being reduced in extent, the principal threat coming from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest will disappear within decades<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148072	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bernieria cinereiceps</em> is found in primary montane forests along the entire length of the eastern rainforest belt in <strong>Madagascar</strong>, being rare or completely absent below 800 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Within its high-altitude habitat it is common, especially at higher elevations (1,400 m-1,800 m), although it appears to be absent from slightly drier forests in rain-shadow<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds chiefly in the understorey on small insects gleaned from mossy tree-trunks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species probably has a relatively small population, given its restricted distribution. Any significant decline or loss of its forest habitat, e.g. through slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, could render it Vulnerable. <br/></p>	eng
148073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be secretive and maybe underestimated (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148074	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ta&iuml; National Park in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire is the largest and best-preserved area of Upper Guinea forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone is a protected area, as are the Kangari Hills and the Western Area Peninsular Forest, but the legal protection is not always enforced<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Forests on Mt Nimba are technically protected in strict reserves in Guinea and C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, but there is little protection on the ground and much has been destroyed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In Sierra Leone, conduct population surveys and studies to learn more of the species's ecology when the security situation permits<sup>10. Implement the draft management plan for Gola Forest Reserve and upgrade its official protection status10. In Ta&iuml; National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park and ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and tourism in and around the park4,10.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148074	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bleda eximia</em> is found in the Upper Guinea forests from south-east <strong>Guinea</strong>, <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (localities include Gola Forest, the Western Area Peninsular Forest and Kangari Hills Forest Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (common resident from the coast to the northern border at Voinjama<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml; National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, Yapo Forest where rare in 1993<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Mt Nimba and, in 1999, found in the Bossemati&eacute; area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and southern <strong>Ghana</strong> (common in Kakum National Park and abundant in the Western Region<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). Athough it may be locally common, it is generally uncommon to rare throughout its range. <br/></p>	eng
148074	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be largely dependent on closed-canopy lowland forest up to 1,400&#160;m, in Ghana preferring undisturbed, wet evergreen forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, in Liberia, it is found in high forest and also mature secondary forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It forages mainly on the ground, and is a follower of ant columns<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148074	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148074	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common. The population in Liberia has been estimated as 240,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the population in southern Mozambique has been estimated to number over 10,000 birds (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148082	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Ta&iuml; National Park in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire is the largest and best-preserved area of Upper Guinea forest. In Sierra Leone, parts of Gola Forest Reserve are protected legally, but there is little effective implementation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>In Ta</strong>&iuml; National Park, take measures to mitigate the effects of rapid land-use changes outside the park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>In Ta</strong>&iuml; National Park and Gola Forest, ensure that future studies include support for local people to contribute to research, management and eco-tourism in and around the park<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148082	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Criniger olivaceus</em> is known from <strong>Guinea</strong>,<strong> Sierra Leone</strong> (areas include Gola Forest where locally common, population 750-1,600 birds, Loma Forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and the Kangari Hills<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia </strong>(from the coast to the northern border at Nimba, population c.120,000 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>),<strong> C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Ta&iuml; National Park where patchily distributed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Yapo Forest where common<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>, Mabi Forest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and Mopri), and <strong>Ghana</strong> (rediscovered in the 1980s in the far south-west, and found particularly common to abundant in recent surveys<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). In Ghana, in particular, the species appears to be more common than originally thought<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148082	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the midstorey of lowland primary forest. In Liberia, it is also known from mature secondary forest, forest-grassland mosaic and gallery forest and is found in the northern mountains up to 800&#160;m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, it is found in riverine forest in Ta&iuml; National Park, but is more common in the evergreen forest of Yapo Forest, possibly due to the greater prevalence of dense understorey and epiphytes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is mainly insectivorous. <br/></p>	eng
148082	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is suspected to number somewhere in the region of 100,000-499,999 mature individuals based on a population of c.120,000 pairs in Liberia alone (Gatter 1997). <br/></p>	eng
148082	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The largest remaining area of Upper Guinea forest (43%) is now found in Liberia, where it is under intense pressure, particularly since the end of the civil war in 1996, when there was a sharp increase in commercial logging activities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Large scale deforestation (in 1990 estimated to be c.6% annually) has already taken place in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, particularly since the mid-1970s, and is now encroaching on protected areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rarer than C. calurus (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148084	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alophoixus finschii</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from extreme south peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (one record), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland and hill forest to 760 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to persist in secondary forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range, although rare in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most parts of its range and very common in southern China and Hainan (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout its range and extremely common in southern Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common to very common throughout it range, although sometimes uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout Seram (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148091	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Similajau National Park and Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary (Sarawak), Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks (Kalimantan) and Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve (Sumatra). Nevertheless, only 7% of remaining peatswamp-forest is under actual or proposed protection, whilst almost all protected areas containing this habitat continue to be threatened by logging, drainage and development.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution, status and ecological specialisation, with a view to compiling an effective conservation strategy. Gazette all pristine peatswamp fragments on Borneo (and some on Sumatra) as protected areas, and restrict use of all remaining degraded peatswamps. Ensure relevant protected areas receive strong management. Impose a moratorium on all peatswamp development, pending survey work and research.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148091	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Setornis criniger</em> is confined to Borneo (including Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Bangka. It is locally common on Borneo, perhaps rarer in the north and appears always to have been relatively rare and restricted in range on Sumatra. On both islands it is likely to be in steep decline owing to destruction of its habitat. <br/></p>	eng
148091	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is strongly associated with nutrient-poor vegetation on acid soils. These include peatswamp (lowland evergreen forest characterised by low tree species diversity and strong adaptation to a fluctuating water-table and heath forest (<em>kerangas</em>, dense, low forest of thin-boled, small-leaved and often sclerophyllous trees). It has also been recorded in abandoned rubber plantations, ridge-top heath forest (to 1,000 m), sometimes tolerating secondary forest, but generally avoiding dryland primary forest.  <br/></p>	eng
148091	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148091	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Peatswamp forest on Borneo and Sumatra has been largely ignored as a conservation issue, but is now under extreme pressure through logging and agricultural, industrial and urban development, perturbations to which it is rendered more vulnerable by its restriction to coastal lowlands. In addition, recent forest-fires have destroyed vast swathes of primary peatswamp vegetation. Even in protected areas, such as Tanjung Puting National Park, industrial-scale illegal logging is proceeding at sufficient pace that most peatswamp forest is likely to disappear in the next decade. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as mostly very local and locally rare in India (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148095	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Iole olivacea</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular and west <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (scarce), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan (including the Natuna and Anamba islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally a common bird of lowland and hill forest to 825 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but its ability to survive in second growth and orchards implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common throughout the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka and abundant in Goa (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common or very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148099	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ixos rufigularis</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from around Lake Lanao and the Zamboanga Peninsula, plus Basilan including Malamaui. Although characterised as common in forest and forest edge, recent evidence, an almost fruitless search in the Zamboango City watershed, suggests that it is fairly uncommon within its somewhat restricted range. <br/></p>	eng
148100	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> On Siquijor, the remaining four patches of forest are in state-controlled reserves but the protection afforded in real terms is uncertain. On Romblon, there is one reserve (the Calatrava-San Andres-San Agustin Watershed Forest Reserve) which may offer some protection if a subpopulation remains there. On Tablas, there are no protected areas. The species was rediscovered within the tiny Central Cebu National Park which was declared a Strict Protection Zone in 1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Investigate the taxonomic status of the three subspecies. On Siquijor, Romblon and Cebu, promote improved management of the existing reserves to prevent further habitat deterioration, possibly including the erection of fences around the tiny remaining forest tracts. Designate further protected areas as appropriate, particularly on Tablas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148100	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> Ixos siquijorensis</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it occurs in three subspecific populations on four widely separated islands:<em> cinereiceps</em> on Tablas and Romblon,<em> siquijorensis </em>on Siquijor and<em> monticola</em> on Cebu. This fragmented range suggests that it may be an old, relict species. It was formerly common to abundant, but has evidently declined. Fieldwork conducted during the early 1990s only produced records at single sites on Romblon and Tablas, and four sites on Siquijor. However, it was described as numerous wherever suitable habitat remained, and a population of several thousand birds was estimated for Siquijor. Although considered extinct on Cebu for many years it was recently rediscovered at Tabunan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148100	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest, forest edge and second growth. It tolerates degraded habitat, but at lower densities, and only when adjacent to forest. <em>I.&#160;s.&#160;monticola</em> may be restricted to hill forest, as it was never seen in open habitats. <br/></p>	eng
148100	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on information in BirdLife International  (2001): Siquijor: 'may approach several thousand individuals'; Tablas/Romblon: 'still numerous' in what little habitat remains' <br/></p>	eng
148100	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Despite its tolerance of degraded habitats, deforestation is the principal threat. Interspecific competition with the congeneric Philippine Bulbul<em> I.&#160;philippinus</em> may also be a problem as habitats become more open. In 1992, only a few small tracts of degraded cover remained on Tablas. Siquijor retains only four forest patches totalling less than 8&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, and logging and encroachment continue unabated. Cebu has retained just 0.03% (c. 15 km<sup>2</sup>) of its original cover, and even the most degraded secondary habitats are scarce. <br/></p>	eng
148101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant throughout Japan, locally common in South Korea, uncommon in Taiwan and common in the Philippines and China (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148103	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ixos malaccensis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (vagrant), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in lowland and hill forest to 915 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in secondary forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce and local, although locally common in northern Thailand, Laos and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range, although rare or possibly extinct in Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148108	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant. The population on Aldabra atoll is estimated as 8,000-16,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148110	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148111	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the small Indian Ocean island of Réunion (to France).	eng
148111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population is estimated as 41,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148111	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Illegal trapping still occurs (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148112	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Black River National Park partly covers its range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has also responded well to rehabilitation of native ecosystems in Conservation Management Areas, which has included exclusion of introduced animals and replacement of exotic plants with native species<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population surveys, assessing distribution in relation to habitat-type and quality<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue rehabilitation of native forest<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Eventually, translocate birds to Mauritian islets, after rehabilitation of islet ecosystems and trial translocations of captive-reared birds over the next few years<sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148112	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hypsipetes olivaceus</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, and is widespread at low densities over central and southern parts of the plateau. It was judged to have been reduced to c.200 pairs in the mid-1970s. In 1993, there were estimated to be 280 pairs, with the range and population probably stable since 1975<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148112	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in nearly all native forests, favouring evergreen broadleaved forest<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It also forages in forest margins, degraded forest remnants with exotic trees, secondary scrub and exotic plantations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is largely frugivorous but also takes some insects and geckos<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests have been found in low bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, more recently, 6-9&#160;m up in Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica<strong><sup>5</sup></strong></em>. Densities are low (rarely over 10&#160;pairs/km<sup>2</sup>), and are highest between Mt Cocotte and Combo<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and down into lower Bel Ombre<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This is explained by the presence of wet, evergreen forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148112	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1993, there were estimated to be 280 pairs (=560 mature individuals) (Safford 1997c). <br/></p>	eng
148112	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat degradation, through invasion by exotic plants, is the major threat in the long term<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nest-predation and competition from introduced rats, crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, <em>P.&#160;jocosus</em> and Common Mynah <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> are also threats. Competition may restrict <em>H.&#160;olivaceus</em> to native forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148114	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The whole of Tillanchong island is uninhabited and protected as a wildlife sanctuary. All the islands in the Nancowry group are designated tribal reserves, which legally prohibits commercial exploitation of natural resources, along with settlement or ownership of land by non-tribals. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct regular surveys to monitor population size and trends on each island of occurrence. Conduct research into its ecological requirements, and its interactions with Red-whiskered Bulbul. Support proposals to designate the entire Nancowry island group a Biosphere Reserve and establish strict protected areas on the islands of Camorta and Katchall. Control the population of Red-whiskered Bulbul if competition with that species is proven to constitute a threat.  <br/></p>	eng
148114	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Hypsipetes nicobariensis</em> is endemic to the Nancowry island group, part of the Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>. It occurs on Camorta, Trinkat, Nancowry, Katchall, Teressa, Bompoka and Tillanchong. It is declining locally, although it remains common in some areas of Katchall. <br/></p>	eng
148114	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is a sedentary resident, inhabiting primary and secondary forests and forest edge. It also occurs in gardens, coconut and rubber plantations, around human habitation and occasionally grasslands, suggesting it is tolerant of some habitat degradation. It is usually found singly or in pairs, but one recent observation concerned a loose flock of over 100 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 10-410 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 209 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 2,090-85,690 i.e. best placed precautionarily in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from estimate for congener <em>H. crassirostris</em> in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
148114	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Clearance and conversion of forests for plantation agriculture (particularly rubber, coconut and cashew cultivation) and infrastructure development (including roads, human settlements and defence establishments) are the most serious long-term threats. Over 6 km<sup>2</sup> of forest have been lost on Katchall to rubber plantations. Competition with the introduced Red-whiskered Bulbul <em>Pycnonotus jocosus</em> may have contributed to its decline, but as yet there is no evidence to confirm this. There is no evidence that it was significantly affected by the 2004 tsunami<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
148117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and locally moderately common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as reasonably common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the west of its range and scarce in the south and east (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout much of its range, although scarce in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the south of its range and less common towards the north (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148130	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's abundance varies widely across Africa (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148134	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was described as recently as 1991, and was previously known only from southern Chad, northern Cameroon, north-west Nigeria, northern Côte d'Ivoire (C. Chappuis 1999 per F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt. 2000) and the Gambia (Barlow et al. 1997). However it has recently been demonstrated that the taxon C. ruficeps guinea, whose voice was previously unknown, is conspecific with this species (Dowsett-Lemaire et al 2005). It is therefore now known to also occur in Mali, Togo, Ghana, Niger, Benin, Senegal and Sudan (Dowsett-Lemaire et al 2005).	eng
148134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148134	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is tolerant of habitat degradation.	eng
148135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148138	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cisticola restrictus</em> is known from a small number of specimens, all collected in the lower Tana River basin (at Karawa, Garsen, Ijole, Mnazini and Sangole<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) in eastern <strong>Kenya</strong>, though it may also be found in Somalia. Recent attempts to locate the species in the field have been unsuccessful, and it has not been seen since 1972. Speculation over the validity of the taxon has shifted into rejection, but further examination of the type-material is desirable for a final conclusion. The species inhabits semi-arid, sandy <em>Acacia</em> bushland from the lowlands to 500&#160;m and feeds on invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148145	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Its range in the Aberdare Mountains is entirely within the Aberdare National Park. Elsewhere, its habitat is poorly conserved by the protected-area system<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its status on the Mau Narok/Molo grasslands and initiate conservation measures there<sup>1. Initiate a scheme to monitor its population, distribution and threats. Survey the Kinangop Plateau for its presence.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148145	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cisticola aberdare</em> is found in central <strong>Kenya</strong> where it is locally common in suitable habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> on both sides of the Rift Valley, at Molo, Mau Narok and the Aberdare Mountains. Recent reports from suitable habitat at 2,400&#160;m-2,700&#160;m on the Kinangop Plateau, at the base of the Aberdare Mountains, are unconfirmed - if it does occur there, it appears to be rare<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Simple extrapolation of density figures in the Aberdares indicates a population there of c.50,000&#160;birds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148145	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits moist highland grassland above 2,300&#160;m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although in the Aberdares it occurs only on moorland above c.3,000&#160;m. It is often the most abundant cisticola species present<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with a mean density of 3.2&#160;birds/ha in the Aberdares<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and overlaps with the closely-related <em> C. robustus</em> in several places, at around 2,300-2,400&#160;m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Five clutches (four of two eggs and one of one egg) have been found between early March and mid-June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148145	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Simple extrapolation of density figures in the Aberdares indicates a population there of c.50,000 birds (L. Bennun <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000;<strong> </strong>W. Gatarabirwa <em>in litt.</em> 1999, 2000), thus the population is placed in the range bracket for 50,000-999,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
148145	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In the Mau Narok/Molo grasslands, this species is probably threatened by rapid habitat loss and fragmentation due to expanding cultivation and intensified livestock production<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Fires in the dry season (late January to March), possibly started accidentally by illegal honey-gatherers, sometimes burn large areas of moorland in the Aberdare National Park and may be a further threat, given that densities are much lower in recently burned areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148149	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cisticola melanurus</em> is poorly known in north-east <strong>Angola</strong> from Malanje to western Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul provinces<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>(most recently in February 2005, c.30 km north of Calandula<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and south-eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> from Gungu in Kwango (Pay Kikwanga) and Shaba (upper Lufupa River and Nasondoye)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in climax miombo woodland where it is found in grassy patches and in the canopy of smaller trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and forages in pairs for insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is generally uncommon but it is not clear to what extent it may be suffering from habitat destruction. <br/></p>	eng
148150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 230000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 690000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148155	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Extensive surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have discovered several of the most important areas for the species<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and these have been incorporated into the conservation zoning plan of the Environmental Protection Council's masterplan for the development of the archipelago<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveying coastal and lowland habitats to establish the species's range and population, especially in areas where optimal habitat remains<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Clarify the status of the montane population. Continue to identify and monitor key sites and ensure that these are incorporated in the island's Conservation Zoning Plan. Carry out impact assessments for any development projects proposed at key sites. <br/></p>	eng
148155	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cisticola haesitatus</em> is endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Socotra, <strong>Yemen</strong>. During extensive surveys of the island in 1993, 1999 and 2000, the species was found to be widely but patchily distributed in the lowlands, along the coast and inland. However, it was relatively common where it occurred, with up to 53 birds recorded per locality, and transect-generated population density estimates of c.35-45 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (depending on the survey season/year) in occupied areas<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. An additional 1,000 pairs were discovered at higher altitude on the Plateau of Ma'la above Qalancia during February 2004<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, putting the total population estimate at around 4,000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There is no evidence for recent or current population declines<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148155	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The majority of localities are on plains below 100 m<strong><sup> 2,4</sup></strong>, mainly along the coastal periphery, apart from the recently discovered population on the Plateau of Ma'la<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong> and one record from 850 m in the Hajhir (Hagghier) mountains<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In recent surveys it has been found solely in low, dense dwarf-shrubland on silt or sand, reaching its highest densities along the coastal zone in halophytic vegetation<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Scattered larger shrubs of <em>Tamarix</em> and <em>Suaeda</em> are sometimes present. The distribution of such habitat on Socotra appears to determine the species's distribution, individual habitat patches being small and disjunct, and the total extent of suitable habitat is likely to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>. The only data on breeding is that a family group has been observed in mid-April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148155	population	BirdLife International, 2008	An additional 1,000 pairs were discovered in the Plateau of Ma'la above Qalancia during February 2004 (Omar Al-Sagheir <em>in litt</em>. 2004). The discovery of this new population puts the total population at around 4,000 pairs (Richard Porter verbally 2004). <br/></p>	eng
148155	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	No threats are known currently. In the longer term, land development in the coastal zone and on inland plains (e.g. for infrastructure or agriculture) would pose a threat, if sited incorrectly, through destruction and degradation of the species's habitat. The species's habitat is grazed by goats; it is not known if this is limiting the extent of suitable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
148156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout Madagascar and abundant on Cosmoledo and Astove atolls (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common with up to 1 male per hectare recorded in the Western Cape, South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon but becoming locally common in the Congo, Uganda and northern Ethiopia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148160	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is known from north-east Angola in south Lunda (Missão de Luz) and north Moxico (Lakes Cameia and Dilolo), southern Democratic Republic of Congo in north-west Kasai (near Banda) and Shaba (Dilolo and Kamina to Upemba and the Marungu Highlands) and north-west Zambia in Mwinilunga and Balovale (Minyanya Plain).	eng
148160	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in open, short, seasonally wet grasslands and watershed plains (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon and local (Baker 1997).	eng
148166	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prinia burnesii</em> has two disjunct populations, in the plains of the Indus in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and adjacent north-west <strong>India</strong>, and the plains of the Brahmaputra River, Assam and western Bihar in north-east India and adjacent northern <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, where it is found in long grasslands, sometimes where mixed with acacias and tamarisks, mainly in the vicinity of large rivers and their tributaries and in swamps. The population in Pakistan is locally common or abundant in its restricted habitat in the Punjab and northern Sind, much less so in southern Sind, and the eastern population was also formerly locally common, but with few recent published records. It must be declining owing to the destruction and modification of its grassland and wetland habitat. <br/></p>	eng
148167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally numerous throughout most of its range except for Afghanistan, where it is little known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148168	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).	eng
148169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common but local (Baker 1997).	eng
148170	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from Corbett Tiger Reserve, India, Chitwan and Bardia National Parks, Koshi Tappu and Parsa Wildlife Reserves, Nepal and Manas National Park, Bhutan.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in suitable habitat throughout its putative range to establish its current distribution and status. Research its ecology and habitat requirements. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas to conserve remaining tracts of suitable habitat. Control livestock-grazing, degradation of forest and encroachment in protected areas. Conduct widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland and forest in and around protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prinia cinereocapilla</em> has been recorded in the terai of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam, <strong>India</strong>, and adjacent <strong>Nepal</strong> from Kanchanpur district in the west to Ilam district in the east, and <strong>Bhutan</strong>. It has always been scarce in its Indian range, is currently rare in Bhutan and locally common in Nepal.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148170	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It inhabits scrubby forest, secondary growth and wooded grassland, being more arboreal than other species of its genus. It rarely occurs in purely grassland habitats. It is presumably resident from the lowlands up to 1,350 m, apparently breeding around June, although no confirmed nest has been reported.</p>	eng
148170	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148170	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The key threat is the loss of shrubby grasslands and open forests in the terai through conversion to agriculture, collection of fuelwood, overgrazing of livestock, and burning and harvesting of grass for thatch. As it seems to occur naturally at low densities throughout much of its range the deleterious effects of habitat fragmentation may be more pronounced.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148172	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148174	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000-4000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000-12000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally quite common in India and uncommon and very localised in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common on Java and Bali and not uncommon on Sumatra (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).	eng
148177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148179	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148181	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been found in north-west Senegal, at Lake Guier, Parc National des Oiseaux de Djoudj and the inundation zone of the Senegal River delta (Urban et al. 1997), Niger along the Niger River (although its precise distribution here is unclear (J. Brouwer in litt. 1999)) and in the south-east, possibly also occcurring along the Komadougou Yobé River near Lake Chad, Mali, Chad, at N'Djamena, the shore of Lake Chad and the lower Chari River (Urban et al. 1997), and northern Cameroon, but it is likely to occur throughout the contact area between the Sahelian and Sudanese biogeographic zones, from Senegal to Ethiopia.	eng
148182	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in riverine and swamp vegetation, by permanent water, ponds and old cultivation (Urban et al. 1997), and does not appear to be restricted to primary streamside vegetation (Robertson et al. 1998). In Senegal it occurs in dense, thornless Tamarix senegalensis shrubs 3-4 m high on humid salt soils, and occasionally in reeds but avoiding dense reed-beds (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148182	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148182	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is not believed to be facing any serious threats.	eng
148183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148184	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148186	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Loma and Tingi Mountains are both protected areas, but there is little enforcement of the regulations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The forests on Mt Nimba are technically protected in strict reserves in Guinea and C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, but there is little protection on the ground and much has been destroyed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Forest on the Liberian side of Mt Nimba is unprotected.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population surveys and initiate a monitoring programme.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148186	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prinia leontica</em> occurs in <strong>Guinea</strong> (Mt Nimba<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), north-eastern <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (including Loma Mountains, Tingi Hills and Kambui Hills<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (recently described as a common, but local resident restricted to Mt Nimba, also occurring in other ranges of northern Nimba County, e.g. Mts Kitoma and Bele, and probably Mt Wuteve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and western <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire </strong>(Mt Nimba, Man and Sipilou<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). Recent fieldwork has revealed it to be extremely local and uncommon<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148186	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits thickets bordering streams, mountain gallery forests (apparently being commonest in mountain ravines), forest which has been disturbed by treefalls and fire, and natural forest edge between 700-1,600&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs at the upper forest edge on Mt Nimba, where the forest has become fragmented as a result of mining activities. It feeds on insects<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
148186	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population density = 3-9 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,630 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 4,890-14,640 individuals but likely to be at lower end of this range as described as extremely local and uncommon, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of ten estimates for five woodland/forest-dwelling congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148186	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The largest remaining area of Upper Guinea forest (43%) is now found in Liberia, where it is under intense pressure, particularly since the end of the civil war in 1996, when there was a sharp increase in commercial logging activities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The largest remaining forest blocks in Liberia are being opened up by logging roads, and consequent human settlement and agriculture, and are becoming increasingly fragmented<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Large-scale deforestation (in 1990 estimated to be c.6% annually) has already taken place in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, particularly since the mid-1970s, and is now encroaching on protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Similarly, agricultural encroachment and wood-cutting in the Loma Mountains Reserve, Sierra Leone, is currently moderate, but may intensify and there is no clear reserve boundary<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon with ne group per 15 hectares recorded in Gabon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148189	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148190	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148191	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148192	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148193	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in south-west Cameroon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although uncommon in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148199	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Forest Department is now safeguarding the remaining forest fragments of the Taita Hills. An international collaborative research project is ongoing and includes a large ornithological component, which aims to provide the necessary ecological data to plan conservation policies for this and other restricted-range bird species in the area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Taita Hills have been designated as an IBA and Nature Kenya are committed to conserving the area. Recent conservation work in the Taita Hills has resulted in the reduced attrition of indigenous forests, and with ongoing reforestation and plans to connect forest patches, there is optimism that the habitat will improve. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme for this species and Taita Thrush, the following actions are being implemented<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>: 1. Tree nurseries are being established by local community-led Environmental Committees. Indigenous trees will be used to restore degraded habitat and enhance the connectivity of scattered forest fragments, whilst on adjacent agricultural land fast-growing non-native species will be planted to provide a buffer zone. 2. Income-generating activities including bee-keeping and butterfly-rearing have been initiated and farmers have been educated in environmentally responsible agriculture practices. 3. Data from the first in-depth study on the Taita Apalis is being analysed and should provide valuable insights into the ecology of the species, aiding effective conservation. 4. Nature Kenya has initiated the development of local capacity through catalyzing the formation of a Site Support Group (SSG). The development of SSG enhances the local people to constructively engage in conservation of the IBA.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Study its ecology and assess its population size</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Initiate an outreach programme to local communities, in particular to discuss the benefits of conserving the remaining forests</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. <strong>Draw up management plans based on the results of the ongoing ecological surveys, in close conjunction with the Forest Department and local communities</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. <strong>Remove non-native trees from within indigenous forest and reforest cleared areas with native trees</strong><sup>1,2</sup>. <strong>Initiate sustainable forest-use schemes based on ecotourism and the harvest of forest products</strong><sup>1,2</sup>.	eng
148199	distribution		This species is now restricted to a small number of forest fragments in the in the Dabida and Mbololo massifs, Taita Hills, <strong>Kenya<sup>5</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1996 found the species only in Ngangao (92 ha), Chawia (50 ha), Fururu (5 ha) and Vuria (1 ha) forest fragments<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Point count surveys in 2001 estimated a global population of c.600-930 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, having failed to locate the species in Fururu, and found it occurred at much lower density in Chawia than in Ngangao and Vuria<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Surveys in 2009 located the species on the Mbololo massif (200 ha of forest remaining) and Yale (1.7 ha of indigenous forest with a 98 ha plantation), as well as at Ngangao, Chawia and Vuria.	eng
148199	habitat		The species inhabits the understorey of montane forest, favouring gaps and edges with thick undergrowth, where it gleans insects from vegetation mainly between 0-2 m above ground<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It normally moves singly or in pairs (rarely in small family parties of 3 to 4 individuals), searching leaves, twigs, branches and tree-trunks, sometimes descending to the ground and flycatching, feeding on small invertebrates and occasionally berries and seeds<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It is territorial, with a clutch-size of 2-4<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
148199	population		D. Samba <em>in litt</em>. (2002).	eng
148200	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mt Namuli is one of the most important sites for bird conservation in Mozambique, but no conservation measures are in place yet. If access to the area improves, it is a potential site for ecotourism-based conservation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish and enforce formal protection from commercial logging for forest areas on Mt Namuli, including the more remote southern forest as a core wilderness area<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the possibility of an ecotourism-based conservation programme involving local people for the Ukalini Forest area<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct longer-term ecological studies on the species. <br/></p>	eng
148200	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalis lynesi</em> is known only from the Namuli massif, <strong>Mozambique</strong>, where it was common on Mt Namuli (the main peak) in 1932<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Mt Namuli was not surveyed again by ornithologists until 1998, when a one-week survey estimated this species's total population at more than 5,000 pairs, extrapolating from point-counts that found local densities in excess of 5&#160;pairs/ha<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Longer-term, larger-scale population studies in Malawi have found much lower densities of the related<em> A. thoracica</em><strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148200	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary forest, woodland, remnant forest patches and secondary regrowth, principally along edge habitat and in the lower mid-stratum, occasionally in the canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It moves in pairs or small family parties of 4-6, searching leaves, twigs, branches and tree-trunks, often descending to the ground and frequently fly-catching, feeding on small invertebrates and occasionally berries and seeds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is territorial, building a domed nest of moss, sited one metre or more above ground<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The only breeding record is from late November<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> - <em>A. thoracica</em> breeds during October-March and this species is probably similar. <br/></p>	eng
148200	population	BirdLife International, 2008	A one-week survey of Mt Namuli in 1998 estimated this species's total population at more than 5,000 pairs (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 1999; P. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2000). <br/></p>	eng
148200	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forests above 1,400&#160;m on Mt Namuli are, at present, largely intact, but the slopes lower down have mostly been cleared for smallholder agriculture<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The ability of this species to persist in even small areas of forest and in secondary growth means that forest degradation is unlikely to threaten it in the immediate future. However, a road to the area, which could allow access for trucks and lead to commercial logging, is currently being improved<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148201	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148202	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148203	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Tanzania, conservation action in the Uluguru Mountains is aiming to assist local initiatives and increase involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Udzungwa Mountains National Park is supported by a community forestry programme. Several other parts of its range in the Udzungwas are protected in forest reserves. In Kenya, some lower Tana river forests, where this species may still occur, are part of a major conservation programme.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate a campaign in Malawi of land reform and conservation of water resources through the maintenance of remaining forest reserves<sup>8,9. Survey the lower Tana river forests to clarify whether it still occurs there. Assess its status on Mt Chiperone11. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis in Tanzanian and Malawian forests.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148203	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalis chariessa</em> has a disjunct range in Kenya (possibly extinct), <strong>Tanzania</strong>, <strong>Malawi</strong> and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. In Kenya, the nominate subspecies is known only from the lower Tana river, but has not been seen since 1961<strong><sup>1,4,10</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, subspecies <em>macphersoni</em> is found in the Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains, where a density of 17 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> was recorded at one site, otherwise being uncommon to relatively common at other sites<strong><sup>5,12</sup></strong>. This race also occurs in a small area of forest on Mt Chiperone in Mozambique<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as at nine main sites in south-eastern Malawi (500-1,550&#160;m), where the total population was c.100 pairs in 1983<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but has certainly declined since then<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148203	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a leaf- and twig-gleaning insectivore of the forest canopy and edge. It is most frequent in tall, wet, luxuriant forest, generally below 1,600&#160;m<strong><sup>12</sup></strong> and often feeding in <em>Albizia</em> trees. </p>	eng
148203	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Forests in the Udzungwas contain the largest population of the species, with a best guess of 'a couple of thousand individuals' (Dinesen<em> et al</em>. 2001). In Malawi, the population is thought to be around 100 individuals or more (L. Dinesen <em>in litt</em>. 2007), in Mozambique the species only occupies a small area of forest (Benson 1950), and in Kenya it may be extinct. In light of this information, the species is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148203	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The lower Tana river forests are threatened by encroachment for agriculture and unsustainable tree-felling for poles and canoes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its population in south-eastern Malawi is under severe threat, with forest clearance continuing at all sites-there will soon be very little habitat remaining<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, outside some small patches on private tea-estates<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Forest on Mt Chiperone is untouched at present, but clearance for small-scale agriculture and logging is likely to occur in the near future<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Populations crudely estimated at more than 10,000 individuals in southern Mozambique, 1,000 in Swaziland, in excess of 7,000 in KwaZulu-Natal and 4,750 in the north-eastern Kruger National Park, South Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148209	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148210	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in protected areas throughout its range, e.g. Nyungwe Forest Reserve but, outside Tanzania, these areas are not actively managed, due to regional conflicts and insecurity.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Reassess its taxonomic status. Determine whether it still occurs at localities around Mt Mahale.</strong></p>	eng
148210	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalis argentea</em> has a disjunct distribution, occurring in western <strong>Tanzania</strong>, eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong>. The nominate race is found on Mt Mahale (=Kungwe) inside Mahale Mountains National Park, in western Tanzania. It has also been recorded on two outlying hills, where specimens were taken in 1943, but there have been no recent surveys to confirm whether it is still found there. Subspecies <em>eidos</em> occurs on Idjwi Island in Lake Kivu (eastern DRC), Nyungwe Forest (Rwanda), where it is present in at least 300&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of dense forest in the west, reaching densities of 20-30&#160;pairs per km<sup>2</sup> in warm but less humid areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and in the tiny Bururi Forest and west of Rwegura in Kibira National Park (Burundi). <br/></p>	eng
148210	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in montane forest and forest edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where it keeps to the canopy. Feeds in canopy foliage and at mid-levels in liana-tangles, in pairs or family parties of 3-5<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Idjwi Island, breeding probably takes place in June and July. <br/></p>	eng
148210	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148210	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest on Idjwi is under considerable pressure and its extent is decreasing. In contrast, reports suggest that there has been been very little encroachment at Nyungwe in recent years, due to the conflict-related emigration of local people<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The status of this species in Burundi is unknown as security problems have prevented recent surveys.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148211	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in Cameroon, where recent survey work has found its overall range to be more extensive than previously thought, occurring at more than 100 sites (Bobo et al. 2001). It apparently occurs in two populations: in the west extending from Dschang, north to between Batibo and Bali, and south to Tonga (though it has recently been found on Mt Mbam (Njabo and Languy 2000) and in the Mbam and Djerem National Park (Bobo and Languy 2000), West Province, which extends this population further eastwards); and in the east extending from Matsari (south of Yoko), up through the Adamawa Plateau (where recent survey work found it not uncommon) to Tchabal Gandaba in the north-west (Bobo et al. 2001). The area between the two populations corresponds to an area of lowland forest (500-700 m) where the species is replaced by Buff-throated Apalis A. rufogularis (Bobo et al. 2001). Its range in the east may extend into the Central African Republic (Bobo et al. 2001).	eng
148211	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found from 750-2,050 m (Bobo et al. 2001), where its preferred habitat is gallery forest, typically narrow belts of 10-15 m high trees. It is also found in secondary growth and isolated trees near forest, riverine thickets and forest relicts in farmland (Urban et al. 1997), and in degraded habitat, including farmland dominated by eucalyptus, avocado and mango trees with maize cultivated beneath (Bobo et al. 2001).	eng
148211	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148214	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at least locally (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common through much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148217	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Tanzania, this species is found in Serengeti National Park and Maswa Game Reserve, while in Uganda it occurs in Kidepo National Park. However, there are no conservation or research programmes specifically targeting this species or its habitat. Surveys in Uganda are difficult because of security problems in the north-east.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey its habitat in Uganda (when feasible) and Tanzania to assess its population size and distribution<sup>1. Determine its ecological requirements and evaluate potential threats2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148217	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalis karamojae</em> occurs in north-east <strong>Uganda</strong> and northern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, but is very poorly known. In Uganda, the nominate subspecies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> is known from four sites: Kanatorok (only one bird was seen during survey work in 1998<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), Mt Moroto, Mt Kamalinga (Mt Napak), and Mt Kadam<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It could not be found at a fifth known site, Napianyenya, in August 1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, subspecies <em>stronachi</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong> is known from five sites: from Nzega to Igunga, Wembere Steppe, Ngongoro, Itumba to Ndala, and probably also in the north-east at Ndutu<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1993, it was found still to be common in the southern Serengeti National Park, Maswa Game Reserve and around the Wembere Steppe in 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, by 1997, it was considered rare or uncommon to locally common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat appears to stretch in a narrow belt for 175&#160;km along the Wembere river and along the boundary of Maswa Game Reserve and Serengeti National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148217	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a little-known species. It is encountered exclusively in stands of thorn-scrub of the species <em>Acacia drepanolobium</em>, <em>A. seyal</em> and <em>A. senegal</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, mostly in riverine areas, along seasonal watercourses and in seasonally inundated areas. It forages in small family parties, and often joins mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are unknown.</p>	eng
148217	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys of the Wembere Steppe and Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania suggest a total population in the range 300-1,500 birds (P. Shaw <em>in litt</em>. 2007). No estimates are available for the Ugandan population. The preliminary estimate of 10,000-19,999 individuals is retained pending further information.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148217	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Tanzania, it is at risk from habitat loss as the local human population is expanding greatly and because its restricted range lies largely outside protected areas. The area between the Maswa Game Reserve and the Wembere Steppe is now under great pressure from pastoralists and farmers. Increasing cultivation and livestock-farming may also be threatening the species in Uganda<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148219	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148220	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148224	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally fairly common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148228	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Mt Cameroon, there is an internationally funded conservation and development project in collaboration with the Cameroon Government to protect a large area of forest on the mountain. However, to date conservation action has been concentrated at lower altitudes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to assess the current population size<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Take measures to control forest-fires <sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148228	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Speirops melanocephalus</em> is restricted to Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, where it is common within a narrow altitudinal belt.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148228	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found between 1,800-3,000&#160;m in the canopy and mid-strata of more open parts of the forest and in scattered trees within the grassland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, avoiding denser, closed-canopy areas. At its lower altitudinal limit it is found only in clearings. It is very noticeable at the upper forest-grassland boundary, above this occurring in patches of bush and thicket.</p>	eng
148228	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148228	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	While fire is a naturally occurring phenomenon on Mt Cameroon and lava-flows occur about every 20 years, the regular burning of grassland by hunters, which extend to destroy large areas of forest, is probably the greatest threat to the species within its narrow altitudinal belt<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
148230	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Pico Basil&eacute; is now a restricted area as the radio mast at the summit of the mountain has been designated a security zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Bioko Conservation Project has initiated regular research in the forests of the island and increased its international recognition<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a baseline survey to obtain a population estimate and to map its range more accurately. Monitor the species periodically to ascertain any population and/or range trend.</strong></p>	eng
148230	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Speirops brunneus</em> is known only from Pico Basil&eacute; (formerly de Santa Isabel), on Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>. It is possible that it could also occur on the nearby (much smaller) Caldera de Luba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys in the early 1990s found the species to be common within its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148230	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found on the higher slopes (above 1,900&#160;m), where it inhabits lichen forest and montane heathland. It occurs in groups of four to five, searching for insects amongst the lower branches of <em>Hypericum lanceolatum</em> trees and also takes fruit and seeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148230	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148230	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A visit to the area in 1996 confirmed that habitat at Pico Basil&eacute; remains intact<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The main threat could be fires set by hunters, but no evidence of this was seen in 1996<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148231	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Speirops leucophoeus</em> is endemic to Pr&iacute;ncipe, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe.</strong> It occurs in all forested habitats, including plantations, up to 800 m. There is limited evidence of a possible decline between the 1970s, when it was described as abundant, and the 1990s, possibly as a result of pesticide use in plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it remains common in all habitats where it occurs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Land privatisation is causing an increase in the number of small farms on the island and a consequent reduction in tree cover. This may have an impact on its population in the near future, particularly as secondary forest habitats are encroached. The proposed establishment of an economic free-trade zone would have been a serious threat but it appears unlikely to go ahead<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
148233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
148235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
148236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2000).	eng
148237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
148238	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> A protected area (national park, biosphere reserve or resource management area) on Mt Karthala has been proposed, but has not yet materialised<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor population and habitat trends, and research the ecology of this species to aid conservation plans. Create a protected area on Mt Karthala to encompass the known range of this species, and develop a management strategy<sup>2,4. Develop an environmental education programme on the island2. Encourage locally-organised ecotourism as an alternative source of income for inhabitants of the Mt Karthala area4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148238	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops mouroniensis</em> is restricted to, although common in, the upper reaches of the actively volcanic Mt Karthala, Grand Comoro (=&#160;Ngazidja), <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. In 1988, the population was estimated to be "a few thousand birds at most"<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148238	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to a single small area of <em>Philippia</em> heath woodland around the crater of Mt Karthala. It can be seen in large groups foraging in bushes or flying just over vegetation, and has been observed with <em>Z.&#160;maderaspatanus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a fruit- and insect-eating bird. One nest has been found 4&#160;m above the ground and another 1&#160;m from the top of a <em>Philippia</em> bush.</p>	eng
148238	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The range estimate of 2,500-9,999 is supported by recent surveys that estimated densities of 1,500 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, suggesting the population size is towards the high end of this range (C. Marsh<em> in litt</em>. 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
148238	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large patches of heath near the summit of Mt Karthala were burnt in 1958, probably as a result of volcanic activity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Tree-heath is threatened by browsing cattle and by fire used to stimulate growth of palatable shoots<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. With this island's large, increasing human population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, clearance of forest for agriculture is occurring on all but the poorest soils. Since 1983, intact forest may have declined by over 25% as agriculture has advanced steadily up the slopes of Mt Karthala towards the habitat of this species. Secondary forest in the agricultural belt is dominated by exotic plants, particularly strawberry guava <em>Psidium cattleianum</em>, which could spread into and degrade remaining native forest. If plans to build a road to Mt Karthala's crater are resurrected, exploitation and fragmentation of the forest, and the spread of exotic species, could be accelerated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Introduced rats and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> may act as nest predators or food competitors<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148239	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed, but as yet the forest remains unprotected. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population size, distribution and habitat requirements. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148239	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops ficedulinus</em> is confined to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;<strong> </strong>(subspecies <em>feae</em>)<strong> </strong>and Pr&iacute;ncipe (subspecies <em>ficedulinus</em>), <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>. On Pr&iacute;ncipe, it appears to have always been rare and is confined to the central massif, with a recent record from the south-east<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, its status is unclear. Various surveys have shown it to be patchily common, others that it is rare. Overall, it appears to be uncommon, being most abundant in the central massif and less so in the south-west with a spatially and temporarily variable distribution<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It was thought to have declined between 1970-1990, but there is little evidence for this continuing. <br/></p>	eng
148239	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, it<strong> </strong>prefers mid- to high-altitude forest up to 1,600&#160;m, but also occurs in the lowlands. It utilises primary forest, old secondary growth and shade-forest in former cocoa plantations<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. The subspecies on Pr&iacute;ncipe is confined to primary forest and forest edge<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is usually found in small groups, often in mixed-species parties and is insectivorous. </p>	eng
148239	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 198 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 198-1,188, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals (status described as patchily common in some areas; density range is up to the lower quartile of 22 estimates of 12 congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148239	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of primary forest, on both islands, were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest, but may be a threat in the future<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range on S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts of S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A proposal to develop an economic free zone on Pr&iacute;ncipe would have been a serious threat, but it appears unlikely to go ahead<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148240	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No actions have been taken.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population and ecology and produce conservation recommendations if required<sup>2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148240	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops griseovirescens</em> is endemic to the very small Gulf of Guinea island of Annob&oacute;n (<strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>), where it is abundant and possibly increasing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148240	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs wherever bush or tree cover exists, including primary forest, secondary forest, plantations and cultivated areas. It may have benefited from an increase in the area of secondary habitats. It forages in parties of 2-10 birds, taking invertebrates from the surface of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148240	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation.  <br/></p>	eng
148240	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is vulnerable to decline or extinction through stochastic events because of its very small range. There has been some clearance and modification of habitat for fruit, oil-palm and sugarcane cultivation, particularly in the north, although many plantations have been abandoned<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148241	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population was estimated at 465,000 individuals in 1983 (Barré et al. 1996).	eng
148242	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the Indian Ocean islands of Réunion and Mauritius.	eng
148242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Barré et al. (1996) estimate a population of 150,000 individuals	eng
148243	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has long been protected by law. The Black River National Park partly covers the species's distribution. Habitat around Bassin Blanc may be bought by compulsory purchase in the future<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. A species recovery programme was initiated by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation in September 2005, in which territories identified in the most recent survey were revisited and the breeding behaviour of these birds was closely monitored<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Over the past three seasons (2005-2008) an intensive management plan has been applied, involving wild population monitoring, predator control at nest sites, rescue/harvest of wild nests, artificial incubation and hand-rearing of offspring and a trial release of birds to the predator-free, restored offshore islet Ile aux Aigrettes (December 2006)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The aims of this programme are to increase knowledge of the species and its current threats, and investigate management techniques with a view to designing a long-term management strategy<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Rehabilitation of native vegetation in small plots has been initiated through exclusion of exotic plants and animals, and there is ongoing research to assess benefits to native birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Sixteen individuals, all originating from wild nests were released onto Ile aux Aigrettes in 2006 and this intensive management was continued in 2007 with a further 20 birds released onto the islet<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The Ile aux Aigrettes sub-population is closely monitored and provided with supplementary food and two breeding pairs have so far been identified. Further releases of birds to Ile aux Aigrettes will facilitate the establishment of a small subpopulation. Several individuals from rescued nests were hand-reared by a team from Chester Zoo, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, but captive breeding of the Mascarene Grey White-eye <em>Zosterops barbonicus </em>was unsuccessful and it is now thought that releases to predator-free islets and effective management of upland habitat are more viable options for conserving the Mauritius Olive White-eye<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue population monitoring. Continue rehabilitation of native forest in appropriate areas to improve food sources for the species. Continue releases on Ile aux Aigrettes</strong><sup>5,10</sup> using wild rescued/harvested birds in order to establish a breeding population.<strong> Develop Conservation Management Areas (CMAs) within the species's current range which have high densities of important nectar-producing plants and where predators are strictly controlled<sup>10</sup>. Initiate studies to investigate habitat requirements with view to developing habitat enrichment programmes and future species management techniques.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148243	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Zosterops chloronothus</em> is endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>. It declined rapidly from 350 pairs in the mid-1970s, to c.275 pairs by the mid-1980s. Intensive fieldwork during 1990-1993 indicated a further reduction to an estimated 200 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and fieldwork between 1998 and 2001 concluded that the global population size lay within the range 93-148 pairs<strong><sup>8,9,11</sup></strong> within an area of less than 25 km<sup>2</sup> located in the southwest of the Black River Gorges National Park. It is widespread in upland native forest, but largely absent from the whole Macchab&eacute;-Brise Fer area and Fouge Range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species's core distribution has contracted since 1975 - it has disappeared from three outlying sites (Tamarin Falls, Jouanis and Monvert) and the core area has decreased by 50%<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Its status in central Mauritius (Montagne Lagrave and the central plateau relics) remains unsurveyed<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Highest densities are between Montagne Cocotte and Combo Forest with up to 10 pairs/km<sup>2</sup><strong> <sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds exploit isolated habitats over a wide area of the central plateau, including many relict patches of native vegetation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Following twenty years of conservation work on Ile aux Aigrettes, 16 white-eyes were released on the predator free island between December 2006 and March 2007<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A further release of around 20 birds in December 2007 will further the establishment of a small sub-population on Ile aux Aigrettes. <br/></p>	eng
148243	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is restricted to the wettest native upland forests. It feeds on both nectar and insects, and travels considerable distances to productive flowers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some introduced plant species have become extremely important nectar sources<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. High densities may be associated with mosaics of small plantations of exotic trees, where nest-predation may be low, interspersed with native vegetation for foraging<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. They have large non-exclusive home ranges but aggressively defend a territory around a favoured flower or nest-site against conspecifics and Mauritius Grey White-eye <em>Z. borbonicus mauritianus</em><strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In recent decades pairs have not fledged more than one offspring per nesting attempt and productivity was 7-17% during three study seasons<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In more recent study seasons (2005-2008) productivity has been higher and pairs have often been seen to fledge two chicks per nesting attempt. Harvests/rescues of wild nests have shown that the clutch-size is 1-3 eggs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Nichols <em>et al</em>. (2004); R. Switzer <em>in litt. </em>(2003). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
148243	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Z. chloronothus</em> has suffered chronically from continuing habitat destruction and degradation as a result of invasion by exotic plants. Nest predation by introduced mammals and birds is considered a major threat<strong><sup>3,10</sup></strong>: a study of Mauritius Grey White-eye<em> </em>found only 8% of nests resulted in fledglings, with predation by native Mauritius Black Bulbul <em>Hypsipetes olivaceus</em> and probably the invasive Red-whiskered Bulbul <em>Pycnonotus jocosus</em> the most frequent cause of nest failure<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148244	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None of the species's current sites on Mah&eacute; lie within the Morne Seychellois National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Intensive monitoring and research, particularly in breeding areas, is underway, mainly on Conception, combined with predator control around nest-sites<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. In July 2000, the Ministere de l'Environnement started a 'cat and rat' eradication on several islands including Fr&eacute;gate; subsequently 31 individuals were transferred to Fr&eacute;gate<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, an island which models suggest could support a population of more 500 individuals<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Almost all of the translocated birds have been regularly resighted. Some of these successfully nested and a total of 14 young fledged in 2001<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Further translocations occurred in 2003. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring and protection of nests<sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate reasons for the decline on Mah&eacute;<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the importance of the different threats in order to develop a recovery plan<sup>3,10</sup></strong>. <strong>Create a protected area, and manage the habitat<sup>6</sup></strong>, to preserve the key population on Conception<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage preservation of large garden trees on Mah&eacute; to help short-term survival of white-eyes there<sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider rat eradication on Conception<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Consider translocation to other suitable predator and competitor-free islands<sup>1,6,11,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148244	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops modestus</em> was thought to survive only in three tiny areas on Mah&eacute;, <strong>Seychelles</strong> and appeared to be declining inexorably towards extinction. In 1996, only 25-35 individuals were known<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1997, a previously unknown population was discovered on Conception<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1998, this island was estimated to hold "at least 250" individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, with c.50 more on Mah&eacute;<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The population on Conception is now estimated at 244-336 individuals and is stable<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Recent translocations to Fr&eacute;gate Island in 2001 and 2003 have resulted in the establishment of an estimated population of 60 individuals there<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The species may previously have occurred on Silhouette<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is no evidence that habitat quantity and quality (and hence the population size) are declining<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148244	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Mah&eacute;, it is predominantly found in man-made habitats, such as farms, residential areas, orchards, forest edge and mixed secondary forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, seeming to prefer particular exotic tree and shrub species<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. It principally eats insects, but also berries and nectar<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. On Mah&eacute;, its productivity is poor and recruitment very low, and it is possible that more widely dispersed populations have been lost in the past as productivity has declined<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148244	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated at c.350-450 individuals (R. Bristol <em>in litt</em>. 2004; G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007), thus a conservative estimate suggests there could be <250 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148244	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of native vegetation - particularly large trees - may have been a factor in its decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, there is no recent evidence of a decline in habitat quantity or quality<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Nest-predation, by introduced Black Rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, is the biggest threat on Mah&eacute;<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>, while fire is the main threat on Conception<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Conception still has <em>R. norvegicus</em> and the more arboreal <em>R. rattus</em> is likely to colonise<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Madagascar Fody <em>Foudia madagascariensis</em> and Seychelles Bulbul <em>Hypsipetes crassirostris</em> may compete for food and nest-sites<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>, and <em>H. crassirostris</em> occasionally predates nests<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Given its extremely small and fragmented range, the species is vulnerable to sudden stochastic events. <br/></p>	eng
148245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in China (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148247	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Shimba 2007).	eng
148249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148251	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species was listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act in 2004 and following lengthy and committed court action against the Bush Administration in October 2006 c.1,600 ha of critical habitat was designated for the species. The US Fish and Wildlife Service published a recovery plan<strong><sup>14,16,18</sup></strong>. Funding was acquired in 2003 to start a nest predation study and experimental trapping of predators observed raiding nests; however additional work is still needed<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In addition, funding in 2005 was provided to begin a foraging ecology study on the species to help determine reasons for its limited distribution<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Further work on nesting ecology was conducted in 2009<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Funding for a snake barrier at the Rota port has also been provided but planning and construction are still in their early phases<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. It is hoped that the population will be assessed in 2011<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Control and monitor population of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em>. Control <em>Rattus </em>spp. and <em>D. macrocercus</em> if these are established to present a major threat<sup>5,18</sup></strong>. <strong>Enact the proposed Habitat Conservation Plan, including the protection and replanting of native forest in the Sabana region<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its breeding ecology and life history in order to determine its habitat preferences and reasons for decline<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the need to establish an additional wild population in a predator-free site<sup>18</sup></strong>. <strong>If brown tree snake becomes established the establishment of a captive population will become a priority as an insurance measure against the likely rapid declines that could occur in the wild population. Develop a public awareness and education programme including community outreach activities to involve communities in native forest restoration<sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
148251	distribution		<em>Zosterops rotensis</em> is endemic to Rota in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, where it was once thought to be common and widespread, but is now largely restricted to the upper escarpments of the Sabana plateau<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, where it is found in mature wet forest above 200 m. In 1982, it was estimated to have a population of 10,763 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have estimated 300-1,500 birds (1990)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, 1,165 birds with 94% of the population restricted to four patches of forest covering only 259 ha (1996)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and 1,092 birds (1999)<strong><sup>1,13</sup></strong>. Thus the population has declined by a rate equivalent to 74% over 10 years, whoever there are anecdotal reports that the population has increased since the 1990s<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The draft recovery plan presents a long-term goal of restoring the population to a stable 10,000 individuals.	eng
148251	habitat		Its ecological requirements are poorly known. It may favour native, mature, wet limestone forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, appearing to prefer <em>Hernandia labyrinthica</em> mixed forest and <em>Merrilliodendron megacarpum</em> forest, although this apparent relationship could simply be a factor of its decline in recent decades<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, seeds, and fruit, and perhaps nectar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its absence from some areas of apparently suitable native forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> is unclear, but may relate to prey availability<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded from December to August and clutch-size is one to two eggs<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, though a nest was recently observed with three eggs<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
148251	population		The population was esimated at c.1,100 individuals in 1999 (Willliams 2004).	eng
148252	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops hypolais</em> is endemic to the four islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, where it is found in nearly all forest and vegetation types, including brushy thickets in open savannas and meadows. In 1984, it was estimated to have a population of 86,864 individuals. It appeared to be in no particular danger but, given its small range, it will always be at some risk from, for example, exotic introductions such as the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148252	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated 86,864 individuals, which is rounded to 86,900 individuals here. <br/></p>	eng
148255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the Philippines (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148258	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Christmas Island National Park was established in 1980, and has since been extended. Contingency plans are being developed to establish a captive population on mainland Australia. A control programme for <em>A. gracilipe</em>s has been successfully initiated since 2000 and has effectively eliminated the ant from 2,800 ha of forest (95% of its former extent)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/>Monitoring of the problem continues and future outbreaks will be treated. <br/>  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to control the abundance and spread of <em>A. gracilipes</em>. Establish an insurance captive population of <em>Z. natalis</em>.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148258	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops natalis</em> was confined to <strong>Christmas Island (Australia)</strong>, in the Indian Ocean, until some time between 1885 and 1900, when it was introduced to <strong>Cocos Keeling Islands (to Australia)</strong>. On Christmas Island, it is the most abundant bird species, numbering c.20,000 individuals, and is believed to be stable<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Cocos-Keeling Islands, it apparently persists only around the settlement. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148258	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in all forested habitats on Christmas Island. There is no other species competing for food in its niche between the canopy and the lower-bole zone. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148258	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is abundant and the population has been estimated at 20,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
148258	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Approximately a third of forested habitat has been destroyed on Christmas Island as a result of mining operations, but such clearance ended in 1987 and the species appears to tolerate a degree of habitat modification. Future habitat loss is possible through clearance for mining, satellite launch pads and refugee transit stations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A possible threat is the introduced yellow crazy ant <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> which formed super-colonies during the 1990s and spread rapidly to cover about 25% of the island or about 3,400 ha, but was controlled over about 2,900 ha in September 2002. Once controlled, the ants are not re-establishing supercolonies. If allowed to spread uncontrolled, ant super-colonies prey directly on nestlings, and alter island ecology by killing the dominant life-form, the red crab <em>Gecaroidea natalis</em>, and by farming scale insects which damage the trees<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148259	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops flavus</em> is restricted to Java and southern Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, with one record from Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it occurs in mangroves, coastal scrub, relict coastal forest and scattered trees. The population on Java is restricted in range (but apparently very common where it does occur) while recent records from Kalimantan suggest the species might be locally common in mangrove on the south coast. <br/></p>	eng
148260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common and locally abundant (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common in the Lesser Sundas, although scarce in the Torres Strait Islands (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148262	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops grayi</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest on Kai Kecil only. It is moderately common, but it may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range. <br/></p>	eng
148263	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops uropygialis</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits forest and cleared land with scattered trees on Kai Besar and Tual only. It is moderately common, but it may be vulnerable to forest loss within its small range. <br/></p>	eng
148264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon and poorly known (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very rare on Sangihe (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
148268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common on Halmahera and Bacan and uncommon on Obi (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
148270	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops meeki</em> is confined to Tagula (= Sudest) Island (c.700&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) in the Louisiade Archipelago of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is believed to be a species of lowland forest and forest edge to an altitude of 300&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. None was seen on the only recent visit to the island, during a 10-day trek from the north coast up to Mt Riu in 1992<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over half of the forest on Tagula is already degraded and logging must remain a threat to all the lowland forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, most white-eye <em>Zosterops</em> species are tolerant of degraded and secondary habitats and this species may prove to be relatively common and secure.</p>	eng
148271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce in the lowlands, fairly common from 800 m-1,450 m and uncommon at higher elevations in New Britain, very scarce in lowland areas and abundant at high elevations in New Ireland and fairly common to common in Manus (Coates 1990).	eng
148272	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops mysorensis</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori off Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>1</sup></strong>, where it occurs in forest up to 675&#160;m, including forest edge, secondary forest, and even low secondary growth<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It has been described as "abundant in small flocks" of 3-12 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but other recent visits have recorded it in small numbers<strong><sup>2,5,6,7</sup></strong> or failed to find this species<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. On Biak, forest is under heavy threat from logging and subsistence farming, but there appears to be large areas of forest remaining in interior Supiori<strong><sup>3,4,9</sup></strong>. Its reported tolerance of degraded forest, and its occurence in the 110&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Biak-Utara protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggests that it is not threatened. However, it is clearly locally uncommon or rare, and there is very little recent information on bird, and especially forest status on Biak-Supiori, and further research may show that this species is declining rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
148273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to scarce (Coates 1990).	eng
148274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148275	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops kuehni</em> is restricted to Ambon Island, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it inhabits lowland forest, scrub and gardens up to 500 m, or remnant patches of secondary forest and woodland and lightly wooded cultivation to 300 m. Wooded habitats are diminishing on this densely populated and relatively small island and the population of this species is thus likely to be declining gradually. <br/></p>	eng
148276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
148277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally quite common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
148278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant on Nissan and elsewhere probably fairly common or common (Coates 1990).	eng
148279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148280	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops vellalavella</em> is endemic to the small island of Vella Lavella (630&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It is very poorly known but appears to be common in forest and also in degraded and logged forest<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The only count is 29 birds seen in six hours in 1998 suggesting a small total population. The majority of Vella Lavella has been or is scheduled to be logged and this may cause this species to decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148281	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> There are some community-based conservation projects on Ranongga.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Map forest habitats on Ranongga. Assess rates and causes of forest clearance. Calculate relative population densities in various habitats. Monitor number of singing males in discrete forest blocks or village areas. Assess breeding success in secondary habitats. Support sustainable forest-use programmes. Coordinate all conservation action through public awareness discussions. Publicise this species as endemic to Ranongga. <br/></p>	eng
148281	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops splendidus</em> is endemic to Ranongga (=&#160;Ganongga) in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. It appeared to be fairly common in most suitable habitat on three recent day-trips to this island<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The only count is of 17 birds recorded in six hours in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This approximates to a total population of a few thousand birds if the habitat visited was representative of the overall island.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148281	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be common in most forest and degraded forest habitats<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. As with the allopatric Ghizo White-eye <em>Z.&#160;luteirostris</em>, it may be able to tolerate a wide range of degraded natural habitats. However, observations in 1998 suggested it may not survive in cleared and scrubby habitats far away from forest or without remnant large trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148281	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 59-183 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 67 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 3,953-12,261, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from lower quartile to median of 22 estimates for 12 congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as described as "fairly common" in most suitable habitat). <br/></p>	eng
148281	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest is largely restricted to steep slopes and rocky, hilly areas on Ranongga and is slowly being cleared for gardens. Gardens are used to grow food for the nearby urban market of Ghizo as well as for Ranongga villages. Much of the remaining forest is on terrain unsuitable for gardening, but trees are likely to be felled for local timber demand<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148282	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> No conservation measures are known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Map the species across Ghizo. Map and assess changes to forest habitats on Ghizo. Relate distribution to habitat-types. Monitor numbers along line-transects. Monitor number of singing males in discrete forest blocks. Assess breeding success in various habitats. Improve forest protection laws and enforcement. Support expansion of suitable forestry plantations. Coordinate all conservation action through public awareness discussions. Publicise this species as endemic to Ghizo. <br/></p>	eng
148282	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops luteirostris</em> is endemic to Ghizo in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where the remaining tall or old-growth forest is very fragmented and totals less than 1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Birds are locally common in these forest patches but less common elsewhere<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. A maximum of 14 have been seen in one patch of forest, and 20 from a cross-island transect (extrapolated to a population density of 46 birds per km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has declined with past and ongoing forest clearance. <br/></p>	eng
148282	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most common in mature secondary forest, and less common in scrub close to large trees and in plantations. It is not known whether these latter two habitats support sustainable breeding populations<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148282	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 46 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 16 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 736, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density estimate from Buckingham <em>et al. </em>[1995]). <br/></p>	eng
148282	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The very little tall old-growth forest on Ghizo is still under some threat from clearance for timber (for local use), firewood and gardens. The areas of other secondary growth, suboptimal habitats for this species, are under considerable threat from clearance for agricultural land on this very densely populated island. The area of and future plans for the plantations is unknown<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon above 900 m (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very uncommon below 900 m and fairly common above this altitude (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148289	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148290	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops strenuus</em><em> </em>was endemic to lowland forests on Lord Howe Island, <strong>Australia<sup>3</sup></strong>. It was common before 1918, but plummeted to extinction following the arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> on the island in that year<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and could not be found in 1928<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148291	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Norfolk Island National Park was declared in 1986, encompassing most of the main remaining stands of native trees on the island. Rat baiting and cat trapping is carried out within its boundaries. Responsible cat ownership is being encouraged, through sponsorship of a cat neutering clinic, and support of a ban on the importation of reproductively competent cats. Rabbits have been removed from Phillip Island.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor trends in the population through analysis of birdwatchers' records. Undertake further control of cats and <em>R. rattus. Introduce to Phillip Island. <br/></p>	eng
148291	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops tenuirostris</em> is found on <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, where it is thought to number c.2,000 breeding birds, mostly restricted to the Norfolk Island National Park. It has been declining since the 1960s, particularly outside the park, a decline which has continued in the period from 1987 to 1997.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148291	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in rainforest and tall secondary growth. It uses its long, down-curved bill to probe fissures in bark for insects, although it also takes fruit, including those of exotic species. It forages in parties and appears to have a different ecological niche to that of the self-introduced Silvereye <em>Z.&#160;lateralis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
148291	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is thought to number c.2,000 breeding birds (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
148291	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has gradually disappeared from all parts of the island that have been extensively cleared. Its decline has probably been exacerbated by the arrival of black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Cats are also potentially significant predators.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148292	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I.<strong> </strong>Rat baiting, cat trapping and control of other invasive plants and animals is occurring in Norfolk Island National Park. Responsible cat ownership is being encouraged through sponsorship of cat neutering clinics. The species is being considered in a multi-species management plan for Norfolk Island National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Possibilities of captive breeding and securing additional funding to finance recovery efforts are being pursued<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A predator exclusion fence has been proposed for Norfolk Island National Park to create a predator free 'island' within the park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the proposal is now supported by the WWF and Norfolk Island government<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Australian Government has recently rated Norfolk Island very high on its list of the Australian islands in which they are considering the eradication of invasive rodents, with a possible $20 million investment in the chosen islands over a number of years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Determine a method for finding the birds reliably and conduct thorough surveys to estimate the remaining population size. Establish cooperative rodent control programmes throughout Norfolk Island, with a view to rat eradication. Enhance rat baiting and cat trapping on Norfolk Island and monitor their efficacy. If birds are located, perhaps consider whether establishing a captive-breeding population is feasible. Introduce to Phillip Island following revegetation. Gain support and funding from external sources to facilitate conservation actions.</strong>	eng
148292	distribution		<em>Zosterops albogularis</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. By the 1970s, it had become confined to weed-free indigenous forest in and around the Norfolk Island National Park. Although formal searches have failed to find any in the last two decades, there have been scattered sightings throughout this period, including four in 1978, one in 1979, one in 1981, one in 1987, two in 1991, four in 1994 and one in March 2000. Since then a number of unconfirmed reports have been logged from the Norfolk Island National Park, most recently in 2006<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The remaining population is likely to be very small.	eng
148292	habitat		It appears to occur mostly in weed-free indigenous forest, feeding high in shrubs and trees.	eng
148292	population		The remaining population is assumed to be tiny, with only scattered sightings since 1978	eng
148293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Watling 2001).	eng
148295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148298	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mt Silisili Park, a unique area of montane cloud-forest in central Savai`i, is a refuge for the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Research its population size, distribution and ecology<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148298	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops samoensis</em> is endemic to Savai`i, <strong>Samoa</strong>. In 1987 and again in 1991, it was found to be not uncommon (even though the latter survey was after the severe cyclone "Ofa")<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. However, groups of birds are constantly moving (at least outside the breeding season) and thus numbers could be overestimated - in 1999, it appeared uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148298	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the highlands mainly above 900&#160;m where it has been recorded in flocks of 15-20 birds in the canopy of prime upland forests, but has been recorded as low as 780&#160;m, and also in open scrub-like alpine habitat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It requires a big territory as food-blossoms are very limited and because of competition with other nectarivorous birds (e.g. honeyeaters)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148298	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Slash-and-burn cultivation threatens remaining areas of upland forest, as farmers use forestry roads from heavily logged lowland forests to gain access to formerly inaccessible land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148301	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops oleagineus</em> is endemic to the four islands of Yap, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>. In the 1970s, it could be readily found in any forest area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1984, it was estimated to have a total population of 19,619 individuals and was expected to remain common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. More recently, it appears to have become scarcer<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is widely distributed in all types of forest and woody vegetation, including mangroves, but shows a preference for better-developed forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Loss of habitat from fire is a threat as local people set fire to large areas of savanna during the dry season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is at also at risk from the accidental introduction of alien species, particularly brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extinction of many bird species on Guam (to USA)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148301	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring <em>et al.</em> (1990) estimated 19,619 individuals, which is rounded to 19,600 individuals here; it is thought to have become scarcer since.   <br/></p>	eng
148302	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rukia longirostra</em> is endemic to the island of Pohnpei, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong>, where, in 1983, it was common throughout the uplands but also present in the lowlands. The total population was estimated at 31,623 birds and its previously reported scarcity was thought to be the result of its inconspicuous nature and the inaccessability of its montane habitat<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. However, in 1994, a repeat survey recorded a significant decrease in encounter rate in both the lowland and uplands, with nearly 90% of the sightings on c.10% of the land area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in palm and broadleaf forest, rarely using plantations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds mostly on nectar, but also takes insects and sometimes fruit<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its affiliation with the uplands may be the result of its nectarivorous feeding habits, which have allowed it to subsist on the nectar of the abundant native palm, and it may also be excluded from the lowlands by competition with other native passerines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There has been a reduction of 37% in undisturbed upland forest from 1975 to 1995, largely attributable to cultivation of sakau (=kava) <em>Piper methysticum</em> as a major cash crop<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Long-standing tradition and custom surround its use, but this has given way to more widespread recreational use with the result that clearcutting 1-2 ha plots for sakau has increased in recent years, reaching to the edge of cloud forest at c.600&#160;m in some areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148302	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring and Pratt (1985) estimated 31,623 individuals, which is rounded here to 31,600 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148303	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known, although a stamp featuring the species was issued by the Republic of Naurau in 2005. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conserve native forest above 250 m on Mt Winipot<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify and protect native forest on Polle<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Promote local awareness of this endemic species through an education programme<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Revisit the islands to establish the current population size and trends. <br/></p>	eng
148303	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Rukia ruki</em> has a tiny occupied range (c.4 km<sup>2</sup>) being recorded from four tiny islands in the Faichuk Group of the Chuuk (= Truk) lagoon, <strong>Federated States of Micronesia</strong> (numbers in brackets after each island indicate estimated population in 1984): Tol South (382), Wonei (19), Pata (32) and Polle (93)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent information indicates a population numbering in the hundreds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is no information on trend, but it is assumed to be declining. <br/></p>	eng
148303	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been recorded in old and secondary-growth stands of native forest, particularly the rich and well-developed forest above 400 m on Mt Winipot (Tol South), where fig trees <em>Ficus</em> spp., native palms <em>Clinostigma</em> spp., <em>Parinarium</em>, <em>Randia</em> and the endemic poison tree <em>Semecarpus kraemeri</em> predominate, the latter possibly playing an important ecological role in the species's survival<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It is also found in areas of native trees mixed with plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but densities are much lower<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds by foraging for insects in the foliage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is territorial, breeding has been observed in April, and the only recorded nest was in a <em>S. kraemeri</em> tree, supporting the premise that a commensal and possibly mutual relationship exists between the two species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Engbring <em>et al. </em>(1990). <br/></p>	eng
148303	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The potential introduction of alien species to the islands is a concern, particularly brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although the lack of an airport and major port facilities reduces this possibility<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Deforestation has occurred across much of Chuuk Archipelago, but forests on the plateau of Tol South where this species lives are apparently old-growth and relatively undisturbed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Access to the plateau is difficult and hence the threat posed to the species is low. <br/></p>	eng
148304	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Although not directed solely at the conservation of this species, extensive efforts are underway to determine the status of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> on Saipan and should an established population be identified, to control it immediately<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Efforts are also underway to develop captive breeding techniques for the white-eye and to explore the potential of establishing populations on additional islands<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In 2007 and 2008 a total of 46 birds were taken into captivity as part of the Marianas Avifauna Conservation Plan with the intention of beginning captive breeding in the near future<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. As of 2010 there are currently 38 chicks dispersed throughout six institutions in the U.S., all developing captive breeding protocols. Two chicks were produced in 2009, though only one survived<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor population trends through detailed censuses<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to control <em>Boiga irregularis </em>population by trapping at ports and monitor its spread. Develop and implement techniques to control small incipient populations of <em>B. irregularis</em><sup>14</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to develop techniques for establishing a captive population and establish new wild populations, as appropriate<sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
148304	distribution		<em>Cleptornis marchei</em> is endemic to the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, occurring on Saipan where, in 1982, the population was estimated at 55,522 birds, and on the uninhabited Aguijan (4 km<sup>2</sup>), where the population was estimated at 2,000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Saipan, estimated densities from surveys 1991-1992 are among the highest ever reported for birds (up to 2,095 birds/km<sup>2</sup>), suggesting that numbers are likely to be at carrying capacity for the island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Island-wide surveys on Saipan in 1997 indicated that the population may have been declining but no population estimates were calculated<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  On Aguijan, surveys were conducted in 2000 and 2002 which indicate that the population has increased to over 9,000 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
148304	habitat		On Saipan, it occurs in all wooded habitats, including the native limestone forest (which is restricted to steep slopes and cliffs and covers c. 5% of the island), and introduced tangan tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets on flat lowlands and plateaus (c. 28% of land cover), and also urban areas<strong><sup>1,4,15</sup></strong>. However, it is decidedly more common in limestone forest than in disturbed areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and higher nesting densities are recorded in limestone forest than tangan tangan thickets<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It forages predominantly in the foliage of trees, particularly <em>Cynometra ramifolia</em>, feeding on invertebrates, flying insects, nectar, fruit and flowers and also taking insects from tree bark<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong> and is typically seen in small groups of 2-4 individuals, thought to be family groups<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.	eng
148304	population		Craig (1990) estimated 57,522 individuals, which is rounded here to 57,500 individuals.	eng
148305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common within its restricted altitudinal range (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148306	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>One recent survey on the island accessed suitable habitat for the species. Its entire known range is encompassed within a proposed protected area: Gunung Kelapatmada. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys in hill and montane forest in the west and east of the island to establish its distribution, population status and habitat preferences, and to identify the most important areas for its conservation. Support the gazettement of the proposed Gunung Kelapatmada protected area.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148306	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Madanga ruficollis</em> is endemic to the island of Buru in South Maluku, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known by four specimens collected prior to 1920, and one recent record, from two or three localities in mountains in the western half of the island. Its total population size is entirely unknown. However, given that the area of habitat available is fairly extensive, at least several hundred birds, and very possibly several thousand, would be expected to survive. Nonetheless, its range is very small, and current evidence indicates that it is either highly elusive, very localised, or occurs at very low densities.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148306	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded between 850 m and 1,550&#160;m. The birds seen in 1995 were following a mixed-species feeding flock in montane forest, and climbing up and down mossy tree-trunks in the manner of nuthatches <em>Sitta</em> spp. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements.</p>	eng
148306	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis by BirdLife International  (2001) that the population numbers 'at least several hundred, and very possibly several thousands' <br/></p>	eng
148306	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This bird is primarily at risk owing to its highly restricted range and, based on current evidence, apparent natural scarcity. Thus, although montane forests on Buru are still largely undisturbed, even a small perturbation of its habitat might have serious consequences, and none of its habitat currently receives formal protection.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common at higher altitudes (MacKinnon 1988).	eng
148308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
148310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
148311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be moderately common but local (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in moist primary forest and uncommon to rare in degraded forest, tall secondary forest, lightly wooded cultivation and scrub (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally uncommon and locally moderately common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148315	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heleia muelleri</em> is restricted to Timor, <strong>Indonesia </strong>and <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, where it occurs up to 1,300 m in monsoon forest. It is uncommon and local, occasionally moderately common, and appears to favour lower-lying areas with closed-canopy forest, which are constantly diminishing in extent. <br/></p>	eng
148316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common above 1600 m (Smythies 1999).	eng
148317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Doughty et al. 1999).	eng
148318	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Woodfordia lacertosa</em> is endemic to Nendo (505&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the Santa Cruz islands of the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. The very few observations on this island suggest that it is uncommon in degraded forest<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Whilst there still appears to be large areas of closed-canopy forest on Nendo, this species would be threatened by any large scale logging. There are no current plans for commercial logging on Nendo where the inhabitants presently favour small-scale "ecoforestry" schemes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148319	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megazosterops palauensis</em> has a peculiar distribution in <strong>Palau </strong>occurring on<strong> </strong>the islands of<strong> </strong>Ngeruktabl and Peleliu only<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In 1991, its total population was estimated at 13,876 birds and considering its abundance on these two islands, its absence on similar, nearby islands is puzzling<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found in limestone forest, in dense vines and introduced tangan-tangan <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em> thickets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and could be declining owing to slow habitat loss. Given its small range, it is at risk from the possible accidental introduction of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> which has caused the extirpation and extinction of birds on Guam (to USA). <br/></p>	eng
148319	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engbring (1992) estimated 13,876 individuals, which is rounded here to 13,900 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).	eng
148325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in remaining forest patches on Timor and common on Wetar (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common bird above 2,000 m (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).	eng
148328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and locally abundant (Baker 1997).	eng
148330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and locally abundant. The species is reported to be abundant on Oahu where it was introduced (Pratt et al. 1987, Baker 1997).	eng
148331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common in its breeding range in China, common in south-eastern Russia, Japan and Korea. In its non-breeding range, the species is described as, uncommon to locally fairly common. Race restricta is now considered to be extinct. The introduced populations on Hawai'i are now considered to be common to abundant on Oahu and spreading to other islands (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its single-island range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common but frequently overlooked (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common on Sumatra, uncommon on Borneo, locally not uncommon on Java and Bali, common on Timor, less common on Lombok and locally common on Palawan (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995, Coates et al. 1997, Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally abundant on Sumatra, fairly common to locally common on Borneo, uncommon on Java, Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa; widespread and common on Timor except the east of the island and common on mount Mantalingajan, Palawan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148338	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cettia carolinae</em> is restricted to the Banda Sea Islands Endemic Bird Area, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is found only on the Tanimbar Islands. It is common in primary and secondary forest on Yamdena, but there is significant logging in the south of the island.  <br/></p>	eng
148339	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 600000-1600000 breeding pairs, equating to 1800000-4800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3670000-19200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148345	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus grandis</em> is a bird known from only a few localities in south-eastern <strong>Cameroon,</strong> <strong>Central African Republic</strong> (where it was discovered recently in Dzangha-Ndoki National Park in the extreme south<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), and <strong>Gabon</strong>. It was previously thought rare and restricted but since its vocalisations have become known it has been recorded with greater frequency; in addition its preferred swamp habitat does not appear rare, but rather inaccessible and little visited. In Cameroon, one pair was recently recorded in the Nki Reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and nine territories were identified in Lob&eacute;k&eacute;<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> where a population of at least 100 pairs is estimated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Gabon, it is known from Mimongo and M'Bigou in the Massif du Chaillu<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, from the Lop&eacute; Faunal Reserve (the published site Makokou being in error<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and most recently from Langhou&eacute; where at least eight singing birds were recorded<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It was previously thought rare in Gabon, but recent work suggests the species is more common and widespread in the north of Gabon as suitable habitat there is extensive<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>. This new site for the species at Langoue Bai, brings the number of sites known to currently support the species to five. There are reportedly hundreds of suitable areas of <em>Rhynchospora</em> swamp in the forests of south-east Cameroon, eastern Gabon, northern Congo, and southern Central African Republic, but most are not easily accessible, and this is likely to explain the paucity of records<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is found at 400-800 m and was thought to be a bird of contact zones between forest and open areas such as savannas and river borders, also occurring in tall elephant grass <em>Pennisetum</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, recent research indicates that it is only found in dense sedges of <em>Rhynchospora corymbosa</em>, thus restricting it to small, isolated swamps in the forest zone<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its feeding and breeding ecology are unknown<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is not threatened by forest clearance unless this is accompanied by drainage of adjacent swamps<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its habitat is protected in the Lop&eacute; Faunal Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Both Nki and Lob&eacute;k&eacute; Reserves are likely to receive National Park status in the near future<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Further surveys should determine the extent of suitable <em>Rhynchospora</em> habitat within its probable range and estimate its population densities. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148345	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Fontaine (2003) suggests its population is 'not more than a few thousand individuals'. <br/></p>	eng
148346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in river systems in central and eastern Rwanda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148347	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Uganda, Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park is well protected, but Echuya Forest Reserve is not<strong><sup>1,2,10</sup></strong>. In Rwanda, reports suggest that Nyungwe Forest Reserve has suffered little encroachment recently, due to human emigration following conflict in the area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In DRC, the only protected swamps are in Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park and on Mt Tshiaberimu, and the former area is not secure<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect Rugezi Swamp in Rwanda<sup>8. Assess the current status of the main swamp areas in Nyungwe Forest. Confirm its absence from the Itombwe massif2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148347	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus graueri</em> is found in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, <strong>Burundi</strong>, eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) and south-western <strong>Uganda</strong>. In Rwanda, it occurs in Rugezi Swamp<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> (probably the largest subpopulation), in the marshes between the Virunga volcanos<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and in Nyungwe (Rugege) Forest<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>. In Burundi, in 1984, the national population was estimated at only c.10 pairs. In the DRC, it is known from at least six locations west of Lakes Edward and Kivu<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>. In Uganda, it occurs in Echuya Forest Reserve (large numbers) and Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park (c.400&#160;birds)<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. The species's area of occupancy is probably c.200-250&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. Despite being locally common, its total population is therefore probably small, and possibly less than 20,000&#160;mature individuals<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148347	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in a wide variety of montane marshes, usually dominated by grass or sedge<strong><sup>3,5,10,13</sup></strong>. It feeds on small beetles, caterpillars, spiders and small seeds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It is monogamous and territorial. In Uganda there was some evidence of breeding activity in February-May<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and it may breed in March in the eastern DRC<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148347	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The density at Kamiranzovu Swamp, Nyungwe, is about 13 birds per ha based on surveys of singing birds; the swamp is c.25km<sup>2</sup>, resulting in an estimate of 33,000 birds at this site alone (A. Plumptre<em> in litt</em>. 2007). Therefore the total population is conservatively estimated to be somewhere in the range 20,000-49,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
148347	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rugezi Swamp is not protected and is being encroached by agriculture and progressively degraded by cutting and burning of vegetation during the dry season<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Marsh habitat in Nyungwe Forest was formerly threatened by gold-mining, but by 1989 this threat had disappeared<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In DRC, many parts of the range are densely settled and many montane marshes have been drained for cultivation or pasture<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148348	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This taxon comprises two subspecies. The nominate is known from west Ethiopia at Didessa (Shoa Province), Bulcha forest (Sidamo Province) and Gambela, south Sudan, from Gilo where is was frequent in 1997, the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, from the plateau west of Lake Albert and Rwenzoris south to the mountains north-west of Baraka, Bunia (Ituri District), Nyangabo (South Lendu plateau) and Lwiro and Dipidi in Upemba National Park, although it may also occur in the south-east of the country, and west Uganda, at Bugoma Forest and Mubuku Valley. Subspecies kungwensis occurs in west Tanzania at Mount Kungwe and Mount Mahari, with an isolated population in Mwinilunga District, north-west Zambia, and is rare and localized throughout its range, although the reasons for its rarity remain obscure (Urban et al. 1997, Collar and Stuart 1985).	eng
148348	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in a wide variety of habitats, mainly bamboo but also areas of high grass and dense cover both in and outside forest and in forest edge, from 1,100-2,300 m, and from 525-1,260 m in Ethiopia (Sibley and Monroe 1990, Urban et al. 1997). In the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia it occurs in a complex mosaic of riverine marshland, Combretum/Terminalia savanna, crops, and mixed deciduous woodland, also occurring near villages (Urban et al. 1997). In Sudan it inhabits grassy secondary growth and in Zambia moist evergreen forest (Urban et al. 1997). Its breeding ecology is unknown (Urban et al. 1997). It keeps to the ground stratum, mainly below 1.5 m, feeding on insects (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and localised throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148349	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Table Mountain subpopulation falls within the boundaries of the Cape Peninsula Protected Natural Environment, but a large proportion occurs in suburbia. It is also frequently recorded in the Tsitsikamma National Park, and the scarce Eastern Cape population probably occurs at Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct thorough surveys of singing males in the breeding season to clarify distribution and abundance. Conduct research into its habitat preferences, reproductive capacity and dispersal. Assess genetic divergence between the widely separated Eastern and Southern Cape races. Preserve suitable native habitat. Prevent clearance of non-native brambles, if this will negatively affect core populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148349	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus sylvaticus</em> is endemic to <strong>South Africa</strong>, being restricted to remnant forest patches in coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Cape. The population is highly fragmented, with four main isolated subpopulations. These are concentrated upon: the coast between Port St Johns and Dwesa Nature Reserve, the Southern Cape, from Tsitsikamma to Sedgefield, the south slopes of the Langeberg Mountains, near Swellendam, and the east slopes of Table Mountain. It also formerly occurred around Durban. Estimates of a population of hundreds of thousands in 1992 have been revised by the paucity of atlas records, which strongly suggest that it is far rarer, and probably numbers c.2,500 individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148349	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It typically occurs in thick, tangled vegetation along the banks of watercourses, or covering drainage lines in fynbos forest patches, or on the edges of Afromontane forest. It occurs at the base of vegetation, and appears to frequently forage on the ground. It has adapted well to thickets of non-native brambles <em>Rubus</em>. Despite this, there are absolutely no records of range extension, suggesting that it either has very poor dispersal ability or very poor reproductive capacity.</p>	eng
148349	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The paucity of atlas records strongly suggests that it is far rarer than previously thought, and probably numbers c.2,500 individuals (Barnes 2000). Some of the atlas data may, however, be misleading as the area between Durban and East London in the former Transkei was not well covered, giving the impression of a discontinuous distribution (N. Smith <em>in litt</em>. 2007), thus 2,500 individuals is treated as a minimum estimate.  <br/></p>	eng
148349	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss, which resulted in the demise of the Durban population, is the primary threat and is largely a result of clearance of coastal forests. Burning of fire-breaks adjacent to forests is also causing habitat loss, and may prevent uncontrollable wildfires - like those recently on the Cape Peninsula - which could burn substantial areas of habitat. Removal of non-native brambles, the subject of several eradication campaigns, may ironically have negative impacts. Inbreeding depression may become a problem, particularly in the tiny, fragmented Eastern Cape subpopulation. <br/></p>	eng
148350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most highland areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148354	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus major</em> occurs in the western Himalayas, in Xinjiang, western <strong>China</strong> (very rare, occurring in the Kunlun Mountains of Xinjiang and west Tibet) and the eastern Pamir mountains in Tajikistan (perhaps only a vagrant), northern <strong>Pakistan</strong> (few recent records and distribution imperfectly known) and north-west <strong>India</strong> (fairly common, but extremely local). It breeds from 2,400 to 3,600&#160;m (probably moving downslope in winter to 1,200 m) on open slopes in terraced cultivation, low thorny scrub, rank grass and bracken, often near forest edges. Its range is apparently contracting in Kashmir, possibly owing to changes in agricultural practices. This species is poorly known and infrequently recorded, although this is at least in part due to its highly secretive behaviour and the current inaccessibility of its range. <br/></p>	eng
148355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148357	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus palliseri </em>is an endemic resident in <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it inhabits dense forest undergrowth, particularly along streams above 1,500 m, but also recorded down to 350 m. It occupies a small range, within which it is apparently rare, although suitable habitat remains relatively intact and is disappearing at too slow a rate to assume any immediate threat. Should fragmentation or degradation increase, as seems to be the case at lower altitudes, its threat status should be re-assessed. <br/></p>	eng
148358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a familiar bird between 2,000 m and 3,600 m (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).	eng
148359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its preferred altitudinal range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common though elusive or uncommon (Morris and Hawkins 1998, Sinclair and Langrand 1998).	eng
148361	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to eastern Madagascar.	eng
148361	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in montane rainforest. It feeds on small insects while foraging close to the ground among dense damp herbaceous growth, often running in preference to flying (Morris and Hawkins 1998). Although a very shy, skulking species which can be difficult to detect, it is fairly common in suitable habitat within the altitudinal range of 800-2,500 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
148361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148361	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest destruction, for subsistence agriculture and commercial logging, may cause the population to rapidly decline in the future.	eng
148362	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bathmocercus cerviniventris</em> has a fragmented range from <strong>Guinea</strong> (one record from S&eacute;r&eacute;dou but locally common on the Ziama Massif<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (the Nimini Hills, Kono district, also Sandaru and probably Kankordu, and the Kangari Hills<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but apparently highly local<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>), <strong>Liberia</strong> (from the coast to the northern highlands, being frequent on Mt Nimba)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> (Mt Nimba and Sipilou in the west, Ta&iuml; National Park where its preferred habitat is rare<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Marahou&eacute; National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and Gagnoa and Lamto in the south), and <strong>Ghana</strong> (very few records). In C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire, future surveys may well locate the species in Mt Peko National Park and mountains east of Mt Nimba<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1997, in Liberia, on the basis of survey density estimates, the population was calculated to be at least 60,000 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>; however, throughout much of its range it would appear to have an extremely local distribution. It is found in dense secondary vegetation bordering small creeks and rivers in various forest types (primary and secondary forest, swamp forest, gallery forest, sub-montane forest) and, more rarely, lowland forest<strong><sup>3,4,8</sup></strong>. On the Ziama Massif, Guinea, it occurs in humid, open sites near old clearings within mature forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It forages near the ground, always in pairs, on insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Due to its specific habitat requirements it is probably not at immediate risk from lowland commercial logging activities. <br/></p>	eng
148363	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148364	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The subpopulation in the Udzungwas is contained within a National Park. The Uluguru forests are included in catchment Forest Reserves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and there is also a conservation programme in the Ulugurus which aims to assist local initiatives and increase the involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a survey to estimate its population size. Establish a scheme to monitor the size and trend of its population and range. Clarify the impact on the species of ongoing forest clearance and alteration within its range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148364	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bathmocercus winifredae</em> is found in four mountain forests in eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In the Uluguru and Ukaguru Mountains, it is widespread within a very narrow altitudinal belt<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>, though the density of territories is variable<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, while in the Udzungwas it is known only from Mwanihana Forest, where it is much less common than in the Ulugurus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Ukwiwa Forest Reserve (100&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the Rubeho Mountains, between the Udzungwas and Ukagurus, the species was recently discovered to be fairly common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148364	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the understorey of montane forest, and prefers disturbed areas where there is very dense undergrowth or lush herbaceous vegetation, e.g. natural clearings, near streams, areas disturbed by elephants and buffalo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and even heavily disturbed, low forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is absent from the drier plateau forest of the Udzungwas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. The breeding season is from October to March, but the nest and clutch-size are not known to science.</p>	eng
148364	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148364	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extremely inaccessible terrain has protected the main montane forest block in the Ulugurus, but forest here only covers c.120&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and the lower slopes are being steadily cleared as a result of the increasing human population. Montane forest on Rubeho appears to be visited rarely by people<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Forest Reserves in the Ukagurus are similarly protected by their inaccessibility. While the species depends entirely on forest for its survival, it may tolerate considerable disturbance in the forest interior, since clearings are its natural habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148365	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesillas aldabrana</em><em> </em>was endemic to dense coastal vegetation on Ile Malabar, Aldabra, <strong>Seychelles<sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was only discovered in 1967<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the last records were in 1983<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Intensive searches in 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> confirmed that the species was extinct<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, probably as a result of rat predation and degradation of its habitat by tortoises and goats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout the north tropical Guinean savannah belt and less common and localised throughout the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148374	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 50000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 150000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148375	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 840000-2200000 breeding pairs, equating to 2520000-6600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3410000-13200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common and locally abundant (Baker 1997).	eng
148377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148378	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. One of its wintering sites is protected at the Mai Po Marshes Nature Reserve, which is also included inside the Mai Po Marshes Ramsar Site. A long-term ringing programme at this site has contributed to knowledge of its winter habitat requirements and abundance.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey small islands within its potential breeding range and suitable habitat within its wintering range to clarify its population, distribution, habitat requirements and threats. Extend the boundaries of the Far Eastern Marine Reserve, in Peter the Great Bay (Russia), to include islets where it breeds. Strengthen protection of buffer zones around Mai Po Marshes Nature Reserve and control development where possible.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148378	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Locustella pleski</em> is a localised breeder on small islands in Peter the Great Bay in the extreme south of far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, the Izu Islands and islands off Kyushu, <strong>Japan</strong>, and islands off <strong>South Korea</strong> and probably North Korea. It has been recorded on passage along the coast of eastern <strong>China</strong> and presumably winters in coastal wetlands in south China, although the only confirmed records are from <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China). The population is unlikely to be more than a few thousand individuals, although it is poorly known, as many offshore islands remain unsurveyed and it is relatively difficult to detect. <br/></p>	eng
148378	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in open, wet areas of thick grasses and reeds and in areas of low bushes. In its wintering range, birds have been found in extensive reedbeds, low shrubs near reedbeds and mangroves. It probably holds territories in winter. On the Izu Islands, it breeds from May-June with clutch-sizes ranging from 3 to 6 eggs. It is skulking and reluctant to fly.</p>	eng
148378	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis by BirdLife International  (2001) that the population is 'unlikely to be much more than a few thousand individuals' <br/></p>	eng
148378	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be habitat loss and degradation, although the extent to which this is affecting it is currently unclear. In Russia, and possibly North Korea, the large-scale Tumangan Project could lead to increased human disturbance and pollution, possibly affecting islands where it breeds. A camping ground or marine park is planned for Toga Point on Miyake-jima (Izu Islands), which would destroy an important area of habitat. There is continued extensive loss of wetlands in its wintering range and the reedbeds in Deep Bay, Hong Kong, may be one of the largest areas of such habitat left in south China.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1900000-4600000 breeding pairs, equating to 5700000-13800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6060000-18400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148380	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 530000-800000 breeding pairs, equating to 1590000-2400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2150000-4800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148381	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148382	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 150000-300000 breeding pairs, equating to 450000-900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 918000-3600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148383	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I and II. It is legally protected in Belarus, Germany, Hungary and Poland. Key breeding sites in Belarus, Germany, Hungary and Poland are within protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat is actively managed in Poland. Belarus, Hungary and Poland have monitoring programmes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Studies on halting succession have been conducted in Belarus<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A European action plan was published in 1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in western Siberia. Implement a monitoring programme<sup>1. Protect key breeding sites and develop management plans. Promote protection of the species and its habitat in wintering areas and along the migration route. Ensure full legal protection.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148383	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus paludicola</em> breeds across a highly fragmented range in (numbers are of singing males) <strong>Hungary</strong> (600<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Poland</strong> (2,900-3,000), <strong>Belarus</strong> (7,300-13,000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), <strong>Ukraine</strong> (2,400-3,400<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Russia</strong> (10-500 in European Russia, possibly 2,000-11,000 in western Siberia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), <strong>Germany</strong> (40-50) and <strong>Lithuania</strong> (250-400<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). It is thought to winter in sub-Saharan west Africa, but the wintering range is poorly known. Two-thirds of the known population has been discovered since 1995, and the total population, excluding potential west Siberian breeders, is estimated at 13,500-21,000 singing males<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1970, it is likely to have declined significantly as a result of destruction of 80-90% of its habitat in the river systems of upper Pripyat, Yaselda and Biebrza/Narew. These systems hold approximately 75% of the European population.  <br/></p>	eng
148383	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in lowland marsh habitats (mostly sedge fen mires) with water less than 10&#160;cm deep<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It winters in similar habitats and, on migration, favours low stands of sedge and reed near open water.  <br/></p>	eng
148383	population	BirdLife International, 2008	13,200 singing males (24,000 individuals) estimated 2007 by Lachmann and Flade. <br/></p>	eng
148383	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The most important threats are loss of breeding habitat owing to drainage for agriculture and peat extraction, damming of floodplains, unfavourable water management and the canalisation of rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Habitat degradation is widespread where traditional fen management has ceased allowing succession to unsuitable overgrown reedbed, scrub or woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Uncontrolled fires in spring and summer pose a direct threat to birds and nests, and can burn out the upper peat layer of fens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the wintering grounds, drought, wetland drainage, intensive grazing, succession to scrub, desertification and salinisation of irrigated soils are all potential threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148384	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4400000-7400000 breeding pairs, equating to 13200000-22200000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17800000-44400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148385	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Candaba Marsh has been proposed as a Ramsar Site and education material has been prepared.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Attempt to locate the breeding areas in north-east China, particularly using tape-playback. Survey wetlands in the Philippines to try and locate further wintering sites and initiate a new ringing programme at Dalton Pass. At Candaba, investigate its habitat requirements in order to produce conservation recommendations and educational material, designate the site under the National Integrated Protected-Areas System process and investigate nearby marshland to see if this should be included under the proposed Ramsar designation. List it as a protected species in China and the Philippines.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148385	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus sorghophilus</em> occurs on passage in Liaoning, Hebei, Hubei, Jiangsu, Fujian and Beijing in eastern <strong>China</strong>, and winters in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is local and uncommon, with regular records from Candaba on Luzon and Dalton Pass. It is presumed to breed in north-east China, possibly in Liaoning and Hebei. <br/></p>	eng
148385	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On passage, it has been recorded from millet crops and a marsh and in winter it occurs in reed and grass marsh, often near water. It probably feeds largely on invertebrates and perhaps seeds. Spring passage in China is from late May to early June and autumn passage from late August to early September. All Philippine records are from September to June. </p>	eng
148385	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population assumed to be small (<10,000) based on lack of known breeding records in China, and hence presumed small breeding range. <br/></p>	eng
148385	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction on the wintering grounds is likely to be causing a decline. At Candaba, most marshland has been destroyed through conversion to rice-cultivation, and fishponds. The banks of Laguna de Bay are being occupied by settlers and factories so that the reedbeds are becoming highly fragmented and greatly reduced in area and, at Bukal, Laguna, most reedbed has been drained for conversion to poultry-processing factories. Habitat loss may also be occurring in its breeding grounds.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 470000-880000 breeding pairs, equating to 1410000-2640000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as a locally fairly common breeder in the western Himalayas; a rare summer visitor in Pakistan and uncommon in China and South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148389	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2700000-5000000 breeding pairs, equating to 8100000-15000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10900000-30000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2000000-5000000 breeding pairs, equating to 6000000-15000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12200000-60000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3200000-6800000 breeding pairs, equating to 9600000-20400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10200000-27200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500000-2900000 breeding pairs, equating to 4500000-8700000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9180000-34800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in much of its range, although uncommon in Myanmar and the Philippines (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148394	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Confirm whether <em>Acrocephalus griseldis </em>breeds in the marshes of Khuzestan, Iran<sup>8,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue to monitor migrating birds at Ngulia (Kenya) to assess population trends<sup>8,9,11</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct surveys to assess whether <em>Acrocephalus griseldis </em>now breeds in sub-optimal habitats, e.g. further up the Euphrates/Tigris north of Baghdad<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate possibilities for habitat restoration. <br/></p>	eng
148394	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus griseldis</em> breeds in the Mesopotamian marshes of south-east <strong>Iraq</strong> (between Baghdad and Basra)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and probably in south-west Iran in the Hawr Al Hawizeh marsh complex of Khuzestan<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It winters in <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, south <strong>Somalia</strong>, south-east <strong>Kenya</strong><sup>6</sup>, east <strong>Tanzania</strong>, south <strong>Malawi</strong> (few records) and <strong>Mozambique</strong>. It is regular on passage in <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> and <strong>Kuwait</strong> (where it may breed)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although presumably still common in the breeding habitat that remains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, there has been massive loss of its shallow, marshy wetland habitat within its breeding range since the 1950s. The maximum area of suitable habitat that is estimated to remain within the main Mesopotamian marshlands is 759 km<sup>2</sup> (c.7% of the original marshland area, as of the mid-1970s)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. At Ngulia ringing station (Kenya), the average decadal ringing total for this species has been declining over the last three decades relative to the average decadal total for all Palearctic passerine migrants (by c.20% per decade)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. This suggests that a decline of up to 70-80% may have taken place since the 1970s<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. However, the ringing methodology has changed somewhat during this period<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong> and even fewer birds might be expected in Kenya given the very high rate of destruction of the Mesopotamian marshes<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. If counts in Kenya are sustained at a low level then this scale of decline is probably true.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148394	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus griseldis </em>is found in aquatic vegetation in or around shallow fresh or brackish water, still or flowing, mostly in large, dense reedbeds. It is found in thickets and bushland on migration and when wintering. It occurs mostly singly or in pairs, but during migration it has been recorded in loose groups<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148394	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-50 individuals/km2 x 759 km2 (area of suitable habitat: UNEP 2003) = 7,590-37,950 individuals, perhaps best placed precautionarily in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (population density from up to lower quartile of eight estimates for six congeners in Birdlife Populatoin Densities Database). Further work may show that the total is larger than this. <br/></p>	eng
148394	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 1950s there has been considerable loss of its shallow, marshy wetland habitat due to large-scale hydrological projects throughout the Euphrates and Tigris river-basins<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) resulted in extensive damage to reedbeds in the main Mesopotamian marshes in southern Iraq<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, the construction of upstream dams smoothed out the annual flood pulse from the Zagros Mountains snow-melt which until then was probably an important factor affecting reedbed distribution and growth from year to year<strong><sup>9,11,12</sup></strong>. Large-scale hydrological engineering works in the main Mesopotamian marshes had, by 1993, prevented water from entering up to two-thirds of the area, with huge expanses of lake drying up<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Improvement in access to the region, with consequent increases in settlement, has resulted in increased disturbance and water pollution<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Until 1997 perhaps as much as one third of the original extent of suitable habitat remained on the Iran-Iraq border where the dominant water supply to the area (unregulated rivers from Iran) had not yet been controlled or reduced<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. By 2000, however, the main Mesopotamian marshes had been reduced to just 1,294 km<sup>2 <strong>7</strong></sup>, and by 2003 a further third of this area had been drained, leaving a maximum of 759 km<sup>2</sup> of wetland extant<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The amount of suitable reedbed habitat within this wetland area is probably significantly smaller<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148396	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A recovery plan exists but there has been little or no active management for the species to date. However, provisions to protect habitat and mitigate loss have generally been included in major land development projects. In 1989, a goat removal programme was begun on Aguijan but, by 1995, goat populations had begun to rebound with reduced hunting pressure. Trap lines for snakes are maintained at ports, night searches are conducted and a sniffer dog programme has recently been established. Publicity campaigns aim to raise the general awareness of island residents, including port workers, about the dangers of snake colonisation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Repeat surveys have been conducted on Saipan in 1982, 1997 and 2007.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Monitor the populations on all three islands</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Protect Aguijan, and especially Alamagan from snake colonisation</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Control feral ungulates and predators including <em>B. irregularis</em></strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Identify and protect essential habitat</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Conduct basic research, e.g. on population dynamics and validity of subspecies, to assist in appropriate recovery efforts</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Establish additional populations on other islands</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Clarify the status of <em>B. irregularis</em> on Saipan and mitigate the potential effects should its number increase.</strong>	eng
148396	distribution		This species is historically known from Guam (to USA), Saipan, Alamagan, Aguijan and Pagan in the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>. It was extirpated from Guam in the late 1960s, and from Pagan before 1981. A tiny population perhaps survives on uninhabited Aguijan (1-6 birds) and on Alamagan (c.346), but the majority of the population occurs on Saipan. Abundance (density times the area of Saipan, 115.39 km<sup>2</sup>) with 95% Confidence Intervals declined from 6,658 birds (5,331-8,054) in 1982 down to 4,639 (3,669-5,689) birds in 1997, and has continued to decline to 2,742 birds (1,686-3,956) in the 2007 survey<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. This represents a 59% decline in the species since 1982. Over three generations this equates to an overall population decline of 47%, but this rate of decline has been increasing such that the rate recorded between 1997 and 2007 corresponds to a three generation decline of 60%. The rapid human expansion on Saipan in the 1990s has slowed but the U.S. military is expanding its presence and operations which will likely lead to further habitat conversion and degradation. Furthermore, there is evidence that the brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis</em> has become established on Saipan. This is cause for concern given the catastrophic declines it caused on Guam's birds. The combination of these two drivers is expected to lead to projected declines above 80% over 3 generations in the future.	eng
148396	habitat		On Saipan, it occurs in thicket-meadow mosaics, forest edge, reed-marshes and forest openings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A recent study on Saipan found nests in upland introduced tangantangan forest, a native mangrove wetland and a native reed wetland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. On Alamagan, it inhabits open forest with brushy understorey and wooded edges adjacent to open grassland. On Aguijan, it inhabits formerly disturbed areas vegetated by groves of trees and thickets. On Guam and Pagan, it was almost exclusively found in freshwater wetland and wetland edge vegetation<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>.	eng
148396	population		Three island populations exist: Aguijan (1-6 birds), Alamagan (c.346) and Saipan (2,742 estimated from surveys in 2007 - Camp <em>et al</em>. 2009). This equates to a global population of c. 3,100 individuals. However, given the rapid decline occurring on Saipan and that a proportion of the population will be immature birds this is cautiously interpreted as 2,000-2,499 mature individuals.	eng
148397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in at least part of its restricted range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148398	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a baseline survey to assess population numbers and investigate possible threats<sup>3. Provide training to local people so that an on-going monitoring programme can be established3. Increase the profile of this endemic bird to raise conservation awareness on Nauru3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148398	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus rehsei</em> is endemic to the tiny island of <strong>Nauru</strong>, in the western Pacific Ocean. There is little information on population numbers and none on trends. In 1993, it was found to be widely distributed throughout the island and relatively common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148398	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at highest densities in remnant forest on the steep sides of the island escarpment, but is also frequently found in gardens in coastal areas and also in previously mined, but now regenerating areas of scrub on the central plateau<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In coastal areas, it forages for insects in the crowns of coconut trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148398	population	BirdLife International, 2008	D. Buden <em>in litt. </em>(2007) estimated the population at 5,000, so best placed in the band 2,500-9,999.  <br/></p>	eng
148398	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Nearly 80 years of phosphate mining has caused devastating environmental damage to the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but extraction is now carried out on only a small scale and the species has proved able to colonise regenerating areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is no information on other possible threats, such as predation by introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. which have caused severe declines in other small-island <em>Acrocephalus</em> species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148399	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Nihoa is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument.  Legal access is controlled by a permit system that is restricted largely to biologists, other researchers, and native Hawaiian cultural practitionersNihoa is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Strict protocols are followed to ensure that legal permittees do not accidentally introduce new species via seeds, eggs or insects travelling on clothes and equipment. Visiting scientists make efforts to control alien plants by hand weeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A scoping document for translocations was produced in 2007, identifying Laysan, Kure and Lisianski as the most suitable islands on the basis of island size, elevation and a lack of predators.  Development of detailed translocation, release, and monitoring methods is underway, and a first translocation to Laysan is tentatively scheduled for 2011<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue monitoring Improve monitoring methods<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure strict protocols prevent further accidental introductions of alien species. Carry out translocations to birds to Laysan, Kure and Lisianski as appropriate<sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
148399	distribution		<em>Acrocephalus familiaris</em> is endemic to the steep, rocky island of Nihoa in the North-western Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It previously occurred on Laysan also, where the nominate race was estimated to number 1,500 birds in 1915, but became extinct between 1916 and 1923. On Nihoa, existing monitoring methods, and data recorded intermittently since the late 1960s, do not yield precise population estimates or trends for this species<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. However, the existing data does suggest that millerbird numbers on Nihoa have experienced pronounced fluctuations and have likely ranged between fewer than 50 and more than 800 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with the most recent estimates of 814 &#177; 333 individuals in September 2007<strong><sup>4 </sup></strong>and 641 &#177;295 individuals estimated in September 2009<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The vegetated area of Nihoa measures is just 0.43 km<sup>2</sup> (68% of the island), and millerbirds are distributed patchily within this area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
148399	habitat		It prefers dense cover near the ground, particularly around the shrubs <em>Chenopodium oahuense</em>, <em>Sida fallax</em> and <em>Solanum nelsoni</em><strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Nihoa the main foods include small beetles, spiders, roaches and larvae<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The extinct Laysan population was thought to have fed primarily on moths<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, however the species is thought to be a catholic feeder, feeding on the most readily available prey items<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Forthcoming results of research will include a comparison of potential Millerbird prey on Nihoa and Laysan islands, and give some indication of the potential diet of individuals due to be traslocated to Laysan Island<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Pairs show year-to-year fidelity in specific territories, with nesting apparently correlated with precipitation and most breeding taking place in the winter months (peaking January-March), although the breeding period may be extended in years of high summer rainfall<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Nests are located in dense shrubs (mainly <em>C. oahuense</em>) and two eggs are generally laid<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
148399	population		The population was esimated at 814 &#177; 333 individuals estimated in September 2007 and at 641 &#177;295 individuals in September 2009 (MacDonald 2008; Kohley <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). Considering the population appears to fluctuate, the band 250-999 mature individuals seems appropriate.  with 814 &#177; 333 individuals estimated in September 2007<strong><sup>4 </sup></strong>and 641 &#177;295 individuals estimated in September 2009	eng
148400	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A survey for the species gathered information on baseline population density, habitat preference and threats in 2007. This survey has made a number of recommendations for further conservation work<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Carry out annual monitoring in June-July to determine whether the population is in decline and if so, where and what are the causes, and what contingency plan is best implemented<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Identify suitable habitat that supports the species. Advocate for protection of key habitats from fire, development etc, e.g. by engaging with key landowners, community and Government to identify risks, opportunities, solutions, etc and gaining better community buy-in<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Use external advice to address biosecurity issues, e.g. spread of <em>Pluchea </em>and the potential arrival of invasive ants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. All surveyed sites should have the habitat described and rat trapping surveys completed. Implement rat trapping at important sites. Investigate the feasibility of emergency translocations to another island, e.g Orona in Phoenix Islands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148400	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Acrocephalus aequinoctialis</em> is endemic to Kiritimati (Christmas Island) and Teraina (Washington) islands in the Northern Line Islands, <strong>Kiribati</strong>. It was described as 'common' on Kiritimati in 1966<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but just 400 individuals were estimated there in 1972 and it was 'scarce in the vicinity of settlement' by 1980<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It remained common on Teraina in 1980<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It formerly occurred on Tabueran (Fanning), but was apparently extirpated in 1972,  <br/></p>	eng
148400	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in open areas with scattered dominant <em>Tournefortia argentea</em> trees (growing 4-6 m) mixed with dense brush, and sometimes with introduced coconut palms (<em>Cocos nucifera</em>). It feeds on insects, including flies and dragonflies; and small lizards. It spends much of its time foraging on the ground, in low ground cover, and in dead or low branches close to ground level. It is sedentary and a weak flier. Breeding occurs from at least February-July. It is reportedly monogamous; females incubating 2-4 egss in nests placed just below the canopy of <em>Messerschmidia argentea</em>. The territory size is reportedly 1.8-2.3 ha.. <br/></p>	eng
148400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Pairs reportedly occupy a territory of 1.8-2.3 ha (del Hoyo <em>et al</em>. 2006), which coarsely equates to 100 mature individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. Combined, the islands of Kiritimati and Teraini have a land area of 336 km<sup>2</sup> suggesting they could support a maximum of >30,000 mature individuals. However, the species is absent from considerable areas of these two islands and occurs at lower densities e.g. where invasive predators are present. Consequently a global population of 10,000-19,999 mature individuals is suspected, though this may prove to be an overestimate and further surveys are required. <br/></p>	eng
148400	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The land areas of Kiritimati and Teraina are 322 km<sup>2</sup> and 14 km<sup>2</sup> respectively, and both support introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, though these are unable to access (or at least have not yet) many motus (islets) within the occupied range. Hunting by children with slingshots may also pose a threat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Kiritimati Atoll is also suffering from poorly planned immigration leading to widespread degradation of remaining habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; principal threats include habitat loss from fires, clearing for coconuts, development and habitat modification, e.g. proliferation of the weed <em>Pluchea indica</em> (shrubby fleabane, Asteraceae) following fire<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148401	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys are ongoing in the Papenoo Valley<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Resurvey the species in order to establish trends<sup>1. Monitor numbers in easily accessible key sites. Investigate the effects of rats and <em>A.&#160;tristis and other potential threatening processes.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148401	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus caffer</em> is found on Tahiti in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, having probably formerly occupied all the high islands in the group, including Moorea (extinct between 1973 and 1986), Huahine and Raiatea<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has been rare and local throughout the 20th century, being recorded in six valleys during the period 1920-1923 (out of 14 visited) and 12 during 1986-1991 (out of 39), and estimated to number a few hundred individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148401	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in bamboo thickets and second growth forests in river valleys and hillsides to 1,700&#160;m. It feeds on insects but also takes lizards, small fish, crayfish, snails and nectar<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148401	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to number "a few hundred individuals" by Monnet <em>et al.</em> (1993b). <br/></p>	eng
148401	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Invasion by the neotropical weed <em>Miconia</em>,<em> </em>exploitation of bamboo, construction of roads and micro-dams and access by four-wheel drive vehicles have modified habitat considerably, as well as causing disturbance to birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The introduction of many bird species, including the aggressive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, may also account for its rarity<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong> and rats, particularly black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, may also contribute.  <br/></p>	eng
148402	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant on five of the six major islands in the Marquesas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148404	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus kerearako </em>remains common on the two tiny islands of Mangaia and Miti'aro, <strong>Cook Islands<sup>1</sup></strong>. It inhabits a variety of habitats including reeds, gardens and woodland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. On Mangaia, there are a variety of introduced species including the aggressive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis</em> (numbering c.9,000 birds), cats and rats (both Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and black rat <em>R. rattus</em>), and clearance for agriculture and browsing by goats causes habitat loss and fragmentation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148404	population	BirdLife International, 2008	There are no data on population size, however the species is said to be common.   <br/></p>	eng
148405	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a baseline survey to establish the size of the population so that future trends can be detected. Confirm the absence of <em>R. rattus<sup>2. Implement a programme to ensure that R. rattus is not accidentally introduced2.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148405	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus rimatarae</em> is endemic to Rimatara in the Austral Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. In 1989, it was found to be common and widespread at lower elevations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but its<strong><sup> </sup></strong>population is likely to be small based on the size of the island and the population densities of other small-island <em>Acrocephalus</em> warblers. <br/></p>	eng
148405	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in brushy forest and reedbeds.</p>	eng
148405	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Various population estimates have been made which differ widely depending on methods used.  Thibault and Cibois (2005) estimated the population to be between 1,777 and 2,567 in 2004, in the same publication they report on other recent estimates, notably 740 (in 2002) and 675 (in 2004), without commenting on the relative accuracy of these estimates.   <br/></p>	eng
148405	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat alteration over most of the island does not seem to pose a major threat, but the introduction of alien species is a grave concern given the species' very small range. A preliminary survey revealed that Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and brown rat <em>R. norvegicus</em> are present, but not black rat <em>R. rattus</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, implicated in the decline and extinction of many birds on oceanic islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148406	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1997, feral cats were eradicated from the island, but a programme to eradicate rats in 1997-1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> was unsuccessful, although attempts continue. The increases in numbers of <em>A.&#160;vaughani</em> in 1998-1999 were no doubt the result of temporarily reduced predation pressure. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population using the knowledge of Pitcairn Islanders. Complete the eradication of rats<sup>2. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148406	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus vaughani</em> is endemic to the tiny volcanic island of Pitcairn in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>. In 1998-1999, its population was estimated at c.2,000-3,000 and increasing dramatically<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148406	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most common in patches of tall forest, and present in low numbers around dwellings and in scrubland, being absent from cliffs and patches of open ground<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is insectivorous, rarely foraging at ground-level perhaps because of the presence of cats and humans. It appears to breed only in pairs, unlike Henderson Reed-warbler <em>A. taiti</em> which forms breeding groups, possibly related to the greater disturbance and consequent year-to-year instability of the habitat on Pitcairn<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, more recently, breeding in groups has been noted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148406	population	BirdLife International, 2008	E. Bell <em>in litt</em>. (2007) <br/></p>	eng
148406	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Vegetation on the island has been greatly modified and today only remnants of forest remain with scrub and grassland elsewhere. The species is likely to be predated by black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. <br/></p>	eng
148407	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1998, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. Rat eradication has been investigated and is feasible but difficult because of the island's isolation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Periodically resurvey to monitor numbers and trends. Ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to Henderson. Consider the eradication of rats from the island<sup>1. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148407	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus taiti</em> is endemic to Henderson, an uninhabited island in the <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>. In 1987, it was found to be abundant throughout the island, with an estimated total population of c.10,800 and available habitat apparently saturated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148407	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is a forest species, typically found in family groups, foraging at all levels, and has a varied diet, which is known to include several species of land snails, ants, flies, beetles, cockroaches, large wasps, seeds and fruit pulp<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has a well-defined breeding period from late August to early January, nesting in a wide variety of tree species in the lower canopy of tall forest. The species breeds either in pairs or trios, commonly of unrelated birds, probably a consequence of the island's stable habitat and climax forest, where young birds may be more able to secure a nesting territory when belonging to a trio than a pair<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is two to three<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and, once hatched, most chicks fledge<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148407	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Graves (1992). <br/></p>	eng
148407	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> is common throughout the island, and has been observed in the upper branches of trees, the species has apparently adapted to its presence or is at least able to coexist with it<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the recovery of <em>A.&#160;vaughani</em> on Pitcairn Island, after the removal of feral cats and reduction of rats, indicates that rats probably suppress the population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The accidental introduction of other predators (especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>) and diseases remain a threat as the island, though isolated, is visited by the passengers and crew of passing ships<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148409	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Wildlife Protection Laws, proposed in the late 1980s, have still not materialised and the species still has no legal protection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further searches on Brava to determine whether the species is definitely extinct there<sup>5. Encourage local farmers on S&atilde;o Nicolau to plant stands of <em>A. donax cane amongst their fruit trees, by means of agricultural subsidies, to increase the area of available habitat (however, this would be extremely difficult to implement)5. Carry out large-scale and long-term education and information programmes, directed at both the local authorities and general public3.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148409	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus brevipennis</em> was until recently believed to be confined to Santiago, <strong>Cape Verde Islands</strong>, where it is now only locally distributed, mainly in the interior, with a few isolated sites in the south and west,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>and the population is estimated at c.500 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has apparently died out on Brava (no records since 1969 and formerly scarce) and was believed to have died out on S&atilde;o Nicolau (where formerly numerous). However, a previously unreported specimen collected on S&atilde;o Nicolau in October 1970, was discovered in the collection of the Centro de Zoologia, Lisbon, providing the impetus for a thorough search of the island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and, in 1998, surveys located eight territories confined to the north-west of the island (though its long-term prospects for survival here are poor)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may possibly have occurred formerly on Fogo and Santo Ant&atilde;o, which would make its known distribution in the islands more comprehensible<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148409	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its original habitat was probably scrub on mountain slopes and reedbeds in valleys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is now found in a broad range of habitats up to 500&#160;m (though mostly lower) including well-vegetated valleys (especially with patches of reeds), reedbeds, woodland, agricultural areas, and gardens in villages and small towns, notably near running water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On S&atilde;o Nicolau, it inhabits small, dense stands of cane <em>Arundo donax</em> along dry riverbeds, often with shrubs and fruit trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds mainly August-November, but the breeding season may be extended in response to local rainfall<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
148409	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at c.500 pairs in the early 1990s (Hazevoet 1995), and probably numbers 1,000-1,500 birds based on its known range in 2007 (C.J. Hazevoet <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
148409	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss due to the combined effects of successive droughts and an increasing human population may be responsible for the population decline and restriction of its distribution on Santiago<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This is almost certainly the cause of its decline on S&atilde;o Nicolau and extinction from Brava, where continuing desiccation has restricted agricultural productivity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in southern Sudan, scarce in north-western Lesotho, rare in western Chad and common in Ethiopia, south Somalia, west and southern Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148412	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in the Amur and Ussuri river valleys and common during its non-breeding season in South-East Asia and the Indian Subcontinent (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148413	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Habitat protection and reforestation, spurred by the need for watershed protection, have been a key to the recovery of this species, aided by the recent absence of catastrophic cyclones. However, much reforestation has involved exotic trees, although native ecosystem rehabilitation has been started at some sites, including nearby islands and the two Conservation Management Areas: Grande Montagne and Anse Quitor (both 0.1 km<sup>2</sup>). Sites are fenced to exclude grazing animals and woodcutters, exotic plants removed and native species replanted. There has been an accompanying public awareness campaign<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue consistent long-term monitoring programme. Initiate further research into habitat use and breeding success, including assessment of the effects of nest predation by introduced species</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Continue rehabilitation of the near-shore island reserves of Ile aux Cocos and Ile aux Sables, plus Anse Quitor, and investigate their potential to support this species</strong><sup>3,4</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
148413	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus rodericanus</em>, having once been very common on Rodrigues, <strong>Mauritius</strong>, declined steadily until 1979, when eight pairs and a singleton were counted (but others probably overlooked). Since 1982, there has been a steady increase in range and number of subpopulations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1999, the population was estimated to be at least 150 individuals<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, and surveys up until 2004 suggest there has been no change since<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148413	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a territorial insectivore adapted to dense thickets in remaining, largely exotic, vegetation. Low intensity cutting of vegetation by humans appears to promote such dense growth. In 1999, a survey found 78% of the population in habitat dominated by introduced jamrosa <em>Syzygium jambos </em>where the highest densities (2.3 individuals/ha) are found<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is also known at lower densities (0.5/ha) in plantations of <em>Swietenia</em>, <em>Tabebuia</em> and <em>Araucaria</em> sp. However other factors, incompletely understood, greatly influence its distribution as demonstrated by the areas of apparently suitable habitat as yet uncolonised<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148413	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1999, the population was estimated to be no less than 150 individuals (Showler 1999; Showler <em>et al</em>. 2002), and it remained at this level until 2004 at least (A. Cristinacce and C. Jones <em>in litt</em>. 2005). <br/></p>	eng
148413	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timber harvesting, subsistence farming and feral livestock have reduced the native habitat to savanna with scattered trees. Currently, the main threat is predation and/or competition from introduced animals such as rats and feral cats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Sustained periods of drought (reducing invertebrate levels), cyclones, and the destruction and further degradation of remaining suitable habitat are additional problems<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has survived alongside black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> for a long time<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but nest predation by this species is believed to be a major factor suppressing its population recovery<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In addition the fledging success of undisturbed nests appears low, possibly due to food availability<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Human disturbance may be an additional problem at some localities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148414	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> The spectacular recovery of this species followed management of Cousin as a nature reserve and associated regeneration of the <em>Pisonia</em> woodland. All populations are currently monitored, and research is being carried out into genetic variation, parentage analyses, egg-predation and sex ratio bias<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A new management plan for Cousin has been drawn up, which continues to place a high priority on habitat management<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Aride is also managed as a nature reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue population monitoring, research, appropriate management and habitat conservation<sup>6. Consider additional translocation to other islands, free from introduced predators6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148414	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus sechellensis</em> was confined to the tiny (0.3 km<sup>2</sup>) island of Cousin, <strong>Seychelles</strong>, where its population reached an all time low of 50 in 1965, but has recently been translocated to the small neighbouring islands of Aride and Cousine. In 1997, its population on Cousin was 323 birds and stable, and on Cousine and Aride 137 and 1,600 birds respectively, and increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurred historically on Marianne and Cousine<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and there are unconfirmed reports from Felicit&eacute;<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148414	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to require scrub habitat and tall, scrub-like vegetation dominated by <em>Pisonia grandis</em>. It is insectivorous, gleaning 98% of its insect food from leaves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Males and females form long-term breeding pairs and are highly territorial year-round<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, with a complex system of cooperative breeding and the ability to bias the sex ratio of offspring<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. It usually has a one-egg clutch and high adult survival<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The breeding success of pairs is highly dependent on the quality of territory<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as breeding sometimes continues year-round if insects are abundant<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148414	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 2007, the population probably numbered over 2,500 birds (G. Rocamora<em> in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
148414	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and predation by introduced predators are thought to be the main reasons for its very limited range and extremely small population in the past<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Seychelles Fody<em> Foudia sechellarum</em> and skinks take warbler eggs but it is unlikely that this is having a major impact on population levels<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. Genetic erosion through inbreeding is a possible future threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30000-80000 breeding pairs, equating to 90000-240000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size	eng
148416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as Common to abundant in Central Asia and local in Arabia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000-37000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000-111000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size	eng
148418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 11000-23000 breeding pairs, equating to 33000-69000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000000-3000000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000000-9000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3190000-12000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148420	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3500000-7100000 breeding pairs, equating to 10500000-21300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11200000-28400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148423	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Its ecology is being studied at Yala Swamp in Kenya<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Uganda, there is a substantial area of papyrus within Lake Mburo National Park and part of Lake George is within Queen Elizabeth National Park. Lakes Edward and Bunyonyi, and the Butiaba area on Lake Albert, may be suitable for community-based conservation projects<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its current distribution and status throughout its range</strong><sup>2,12</sup>. Prepare an action plan for the conservation of papyrus-swamp in the Kenyan sector of Lake Victoria<sup>2</sup>. Protect Rugezi Swamp in Rwanda<sup>5</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
148423	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloropeta gracilirostris</em> has a severely fragmented range in the Great Lakes region of Africa. The nominate race occurs in western <strong>Kenya</strong><sup>10</sup>, western <strong>Uganda</strong><sup>4,9,12</sup> and adjacent areas of <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, in <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Burundi</strong> extending just into north-west <strong>Tanzania</strong><sup>13</sup>, and it may also occur in unsurveyed areas of west and north-west Tanzania<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The race <em>bensoni</em> is known only from near the mouth of the Luapula river in <strong>Zambia</strong>, but probably also occurring in the neighbouring DRC<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species can be locally common<strong><sup>6,13</sup></strong>, but seems to be scarce in many areas of apparently suitable habitat (although easily overlooked). <br/></p>	eng
148423	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found mainly in papyrus-swamps but occasionally in other marshy habitats, especially reeds<strong><sup>4,7,8,10</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown, but individuals of the nominate race have been recorded in breeding condition between April and June<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148423	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 590-2,950km<sup>2</sup> (AOO likely to be 1-5% EOO owing to high degree of habitat specialisation) = 2,950-29,500 individuals, but likely to fall at lower end of this range as appears to be absent from many area of suitable habitat, therefore best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from estimates for ecologically similar species in  BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and may represent an underestimate of densities in optimal habitat, but this is likely to be limited in extent). <br/></p>	eng
148423	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Ongoing drainage of Yala Swamp, the most important site in Kenya, will reduce the national area of occupancy by about a third, despite the poor agricultural performance of already drained areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All other papyrus-swamps in Kenya are threatened both by human pressure, due to an expanding population, and by man-made ecological changes in Lake Victoria itself, including infestation by water hyacinth <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Similar problems may affect it in Uganda. In Rwanda, its wetlands are being progressively degraded through cutting and burning of papyrus in the dry season<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and the situation is probably similar in Burundi. Its habitat in Zambia may be at risk from fire<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, while its current status in the DRC is unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148427	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Two current projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. In particular the Amani Nature Reserve has an active conservation programme which attempts to engage with local stakeholders such as plantation owners<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  A population monitoring programme of this species by the Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania and The Field Museum has begun. A Darwin Initiative funded project run by the Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust and working in the mountains of northern Mozambique may visit the Njesi plateau in the future. As part of the BirdLife Preventing Extinctions programme the following actions are underway: 1. Extensive surveys have been carried out in the Amani Nature Reserve and its immediate vicinity and have been extended towards the eastern and northern parts of the East Usambaras to cover the Derema Corridor as well as the Ngua and Ndola areas, with intensive surveys due to have taken place in Nilo Forest Reserve in December 2008. Each known territory of the Long-billed Tailorbird is being monitored every two months. 2. Implementation of an education and awareness scheme for local landowners and other key stakeholders is in progress. Educational materials including posters and leaflets, have been designed in both English and Swahili. 3. Work is currently underway to identify key conservation areas for the Long-billed Tailorbird and incorporate these as part of the Amani Nature Reserve Management Plan. All territories discovered are logged by GPS and their coordinates plotted, and territory marking is taking place in areas with high densities.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Revisit the Njesi Plateau and nearby areas to assess its status and population size. Search for the species at Monte Sanga, the areas between Monte Gatala and Chiconono, the Lupilichi Highlands and the Serra Juzagombe</strong><sup>9</sup>. <strong>Evaluate the effectiveness of selected forest-management techniques that could benefit this species</strong><sup>1,8</sup>. <strong>Engage stakeholders on the Amani Plateau in forest management and raise awareness of this species's status. Protect forest edge wetland habitats from uncontrolled opportunistic agriculture</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Consider methods to reduce disturbance in and around tea plantations</strong><sup>8</sup>. <strong>Conduct ecological surveys to understand why it is apparently so rare and thinly distributed</strong><sup>1</sup>.  <strong>Concentrate searches in new areas using the newly understood habitat requirements, particularly its preference for wet glades or a proximity to water</strong><sup>8</sup>.	eng
148427	distribution		<em>Artisornis moreaui</em> occurs at low density in two widely separated forests, the East Usambaras in <strong>Tanzania</strong> (nominate subspecies) and the Njesi Plateau in northern <strong>Mozambique</strong> (subspecies <em>sousae</em>), where it was recently rediscovered<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, not having been visited since 1945<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. These two subpopulations are 1,000 km apart, and despite much recent fieldwork, there are still no records from any of the intervening forests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras it is more common than previously suggested<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but still somewhat local and infrequent. There are recent records from Mt Nilo and over ten broad localities near Amani<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>; Amani Nature Reserve was conservatively estimated to hold 150-200 individuals in 2000<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and surveys in 2008-2009 found around 80 territories at Amani and in the surrounding area. Only c.110 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat remains in the East Usambaras. Given that it is uncommon, elusive and exists at low densities, it may yet be found in other forests of the Eastern Arc<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> now that the microhabitats and vocalisations are known<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>.	eng
148427	habitat		In the East Usambaras, its primary habitat is forest edge and large canopy gaps<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It has been found in submontane and montane forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, chiefly in open forest edge-type habitat with a high density of vines and climbers<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong> such as clearings and drainage lines<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, in addition to glades on the edge of, or deep inside forest<strong><sup>8,10,11</sup></strong>. It can also be found in degraded forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in habitats buffering tea plantations (e.g. secondary <em>Lantana</em> growth and Eucalypt plantations)<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>, or even at a considerable distance from the forest in forest fragments as small as 31 ha<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. However forest areas consistently disturbed by humans, like agricultural fields that are burned or weeded regularly are clearly not favoured<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is often absent from large areas of apparently suitable habitat. It forages alone but can sometimes be found in mixed-species parties in the lower and middle storeys (up to 18 m)<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>, preferring the tangled vegetation nearer the ground where it searches foliage for invertebrates<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> avoiding sunlit places<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>. It is apparently territorial; one probable male colour-ringed in 2000 has maintained the same territory at the headquarters of Amani Nature Reserve up to 2007<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology remains poorly known<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In an initial population assessment, 26% of records were of pairs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <em>A. m. sousae</em> has recently been confirmed to inhabit the forest canopy<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>.	eng
148427	population		Cordeiro (2000) esimated 150-200 in Amani Nature Reserve. The populations on Mount Nilo and the Njesi Plateau are unknown, but may be small, so the global estimate is placed precautionarily in the band 50-249 individuals.	eng
148428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148430	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Baker 1997).	eng
148431	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148433	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148434	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather scarce and local (Baker 1997).	eng
148436	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Baker 1997).	eng
148437	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at most forested sites (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148438	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Orthotomus samarensis</em> is endemic to Samar, Leyte and Bohol, <strong>Philippines</strong>, inhabiting forest and forest edge in dense undergrowth. Although characterised as the rarest member of the genus in the Philippines, and rare or very rare on Bohol and Samar, it is very shy and is moderately common in Rajah Sikatuna National Park. On voice it should be considered conspecific with Black-headed Tailorbird <em>O. nigriceps</em>. <br/></p>	eng
148439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148441	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poliolais lopezi</em> is restricted to the Obudu Plateau, eastern <strong>Nigeria<sup>2</sup></strong>,<strong> </strong>the mountains of western <strong>Cameroon<sup>5</sup></strong> and the island of Bioko (<strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is found in dense, moist understorey of mid-altitude and montane forest, also in forest edge and clearings<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, occurring always in small numbers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Forest within the species's range is threatened by unsustainable exploitation for timber and firewood, uncontrolled burning and encroachment for agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148444	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon, although common in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148445	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest member of its genus throughout the west African Guinean and Soudanian savannah belts (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common throughout most of its range, although scarce and local in South Africa and parts of Zimbabwe and uncommon to locally common in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as wide-ranging, but nowhere common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148449	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The northern third of Kakamega Forest is designated as a national reserve and is somewhat better protected than the rest of the forest. A local guides group in Kakamega has started a programme of environmental education and awareness activities, and there are moves to begin similar work around South Nandi<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, effective conservation of the forests would require a major project<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Initiate major conservation projects for Kakamega and South Nandi Forests<sup>1. Assess its status in Kakamega1 (using same methods as in South Nandi survey4). Evaluate its distribution and status in DRC and near the Ugandan border, once the security situation permits this.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148449	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eremomela turneri</em> has a patchy distribution which is very poorly known. In western <strong>Kenya</strong>, the nominate subspecies occurs in Kakamega and South Nandi Forests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and there are historical records from the Yala river<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (where the type-specimen was taken) and from near the south of Mt Elgon<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> (no specimen and its presence there has never been confirmed). Subspecies <em>kalindei</em> has been found in east-central <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC) at five locations in the south-eastern corner of the equatorial forest belt<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is also one record of this subspecies from north-east DRC and one from extreme south-west Uganda<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but there are no recent observations from either location, the second of which was probably deforested in the 1960s or 1970s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is locally common in South Nandi Forest (c.13,900&#160;birds)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148449	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in lowland and mid-altitude forest, mostly in the canopy of large trees<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong> but also along streams, at forest edges and in mature trees remaining in cleared areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At South Nandi, more than half of sightings were of groups of four (but groups of up to 15 have been recorded from DRC<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and it showed a very strong preference for one large tree species, <em>Croton megalocarpus</em>, occurring in areas of relatively tall, dense canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148449	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in South Nandi Forest has been estimated at c.13,900 birds (Kosgey 1998), thus as a preliminary population estimate the species is placed in the range bracket for 10,000-19,999 individuals. Further documentation is required. <br/></p>	eng
148449	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Kenya, both Kakamega and South Nandi Forests are very seriously threatened by encroachment, uncontrolled tree-felling and charcoal making<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In Kakamega, intense cattle-grazing is affecting forest structure and forest regeneration<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In South Nandi, commercial logging is extracting large volumes of timber in a highly destructive manner, despite a general Presidential ban on logging of indigenous trees, and is targeting this species's preferred tree, <em>C.&#160;megalocarpus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148451	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148452	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the eastern rainforests of Madagascar (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148452	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in lowland and mid-altitude forest at altitudes up to 1,200 m or, more rarely, to 1,500 m (Morris and Hawkins 1998). It frequents the canopy of undisturbed forest where it is often seen accompanying mixed species flocks (Langrand 1990).	eng
148452	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in rainforests in eastern Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148452	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the species forest habitat is being rapidly lost and fragmented, mainly through subsistence agriculture and commercial logging.	eng
148453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in middle altitude and montane forests in Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148454	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common in native forests throughout Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148456	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>This species is known from the following protected areas: Ambatovaky Special Reserve, Andohahela National Park, Anjanaharibe-South Special Reserve, Ankeniheny Classified Forest, Haute Rantabe Classified Forest, Marojejy National Park and Zahamena National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate other populations. Establish its habitat requirements and other factors limiting its distribution/population, in order to predict better its likely distribution and population size. Improve protection of lowland forest on the east coast through community conservation and management of protected areas.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148456	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Newtonia fanovanae</em> remained known only from the type-specimen, collected in December 1931 near Fanovana, eastern-central <strong>Madagascar</strong>, until its almost simultaneous rediscovery in Andohahela National Park in October 1989 and Ambatovaky Special Reserve in February 1990. It is now known from low-altitude forests between Marojejy and Andohahela, in seven eastern Malagasy rainforest Important Bird Areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It thus seems to be scarce and patchily distributed, only present in large, unbroken tracts of forest. Its density was estimated to be between 38 and 219 singing birds per km<sup>2</sup>, in low-altitude forest in Zahamena National Park, in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148456	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is restricted to areas of tall trees in lowland, humid evergreen forest where it appears to inhabit the middle and upper strata<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to be rare or absent above 800&#160;m and at several sites appears to be absent above 500&#160;m - if this altitudinal preference holds throughout its range, it is the only species restricted to true lowland forest in Madagascar<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is usually seen in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and its breeding ecology is unknown.  <br/></p>	eng
148456	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is placed in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals based on recent data (F. Hawkins<em> in litt. </em>2003). <br/></p>	eng
148456	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat throughout its range is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, which results in progressively more degraded regrowth and leads eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Much of the eastern coastal plain has either already been cleared or is covered by highly degraded forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, remaining habitat is under pressure from the increasing human population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and commercial logging is an additional threat in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. If present trends continue, the remaining forest, especially at the lower altitudes preferred by this species, will disappear within decades<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148457	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally common to fairly common. The species is described as abundant in Liberia where the population is estimated at 400,000 pairs  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148458	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in Liberia, northern Gabon, Congo, Ivory Coast and Ghana and uncommon and local in Uganda (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over most of it range, although locally common to uncommon in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148460	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sylvietta philippae</em> is found in north-west and west <strong>Somalia</strong> and adjacent parts of <strong>Ethiopia</strong><sup>3</sup> upto 80 km from the border<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but may be more widespread in Ethiopia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are also several records in the Bogol Manyo area in south-east Somalia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is a bird of semi-desert, frequenting fairly dense thickets of <em>Acacia</em> and <em>Commiphora</em> on rocky ground and red sandy soil, where it feeds on minute beetles and other insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been noted as fairly common at about 300 m elevation, and ranges up to 900 m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Somalia it has been described as widespread but not particularly common, and given the size of its range it may not be at risk<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At one site in Ethiopia the species is possibly threatened by exploitation of its scrub habitat for charcoal production and extraction of gum and resin<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As it appears to be restricted to denser areas of thicket it could be sensitive to habitat alteration through fuelwood collection or grazing. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148461	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common ,though uncommon in Gabon and Congo (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148462	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in southern Somali and uncommon in northern Somalia and Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon in the north of its range and common in the south (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to fairly common and fairly common at between 1,630 m and 2,300 m in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in much of its range, although locally common in Liberia where the population is estimated to be 300,000 pairs (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148467	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148468	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many areas (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148469	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A protected area of c.20&#160;km<sup>2</sup> at Chongoroi was recommended in the early 1970s, but has not yet been established<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Record its voice and conduct surveys to determine its status (when the security situation permits). </strong></p>	eng
148469	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macrosphenus pulitzeri</em> is known from only two forest areas on the escarpment of western <strong>Angola</strong>. It may possibly occur in other relict forest patches on the escarpment, but suitable habitat is severely restricted. Recent records (2003) come from a single, large forest block which survives near the village of Kumbira and in secondary bush near the town of Seles<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148469	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in both dry evergreen forest and secondary forest from 300-1,030&#160;m, and may possibly be able to survive in coffee plantations. It feeds low down, almost to ground-level, on insects.</p>	eng
148469	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 612-6,120 individuals (1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 612 km<sup>2</sup> [45% EOO]), i.e. may fall in band 250-999 individuals. No density estimates for congeners, but density range is up to the lower quartile of 42 estimates for 18 <em>Apalis</em>, <em>Camaroptera</em>, <em>Calamonestes</em> and <em>Eremomela</em> spp. in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
148469	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	From the 1930s until the 1970s, an estimated 95% of forest on the escarpment was under coffee production (which leaves the canopy mostly intact)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This has now been largely abandoned and subsistence agriculture is a threat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At one locality in particular, Chongoroi, frequent fires from uncontrolled slash-and-burn agriculture threaten the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148470	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mwanihana forest falls within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Two current projects aimed at reconciling conservation and development in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. The forests at Uluguru are included in catchment forest reserves (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148470	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is known from south-east Kenya (one record from Kitovu Forest, possibly a vagrant), east Tanzania, from Mt Kilimanjaro, Moshi and the Usambaras south to the Ngurus, Ulugurus and Udzungwas (Mwanihana and Magombera forests), on the coast in Kiono, Pugu, Kazimzumbwe and Kiwengoma forests and in the south-east at Mikindani, and from north Mozambique at Netia (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148470	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits lowland and intermediate forest up to 1,800 m, where it is found in dense, tangled cover from undergrowth to mid-stratum under tall trees in the forest interior, and also in forest edge and coastal thickets. It occurs singly, in pairs, or in parties of 5-6, also joining mixed species parties with bulbuls, flycatchers, puffbacks and drongos foraging for insects in the leaf litter. It is extremely elusive and hard to see although it sings continuously. Its breeding ecology is unknown, although birds in breeding condition have been found in Tanzania in February and April (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Netia, Mozambique; otherwise uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148470	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Forest destruction is prevalent in parts of the species's range. In the Usambaras the large human population is putting increasing pressure on land and the forests are highly fragmented (Stattersfield et al. 1998). In the Ulugurus the main montane forest block has been protected by its extremely inaccessible terrain, but forest here only covers c.120 km² and the lower slopes are being steadily cleared, again as a result of an increasing human population (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148471	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the valleys of the rivers Mussacav&uacute;, Martim Mendes, Lemb&aacute; and Cantador. Research its ecology, particularly whether it is restricted to river edge habitats<sup>5. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148471	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amaurocichla bocagei</em> is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>, where it occurs in the central and southern parts of the island, excluding the central massif around the Pico de S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, from the Formoso Grande and the banks of the Io Grande and Ana Chaves rivers to the valleys of the S&atilde;o Miguel, Xufexufe and Quija rivers<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Known from only six records prior to 1928, it was rediscovered in 1990, in the valleys of the Xufexufe and Ana Chaves rivers (4.1-6.3 pairs and 5.6 pairs per km of river, respectively)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1997, it was reported to be seen and heard in almost every forested river basin in the Agua Ribeira near Formoso Grande and around S&atilde;o Miguel<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its population is unknown but, given the area of suitable habitat, must be small. <br/></p>	eng
148471	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species appears quite common in humid forest, possibly preferring boulder strewn micro-habitats where it forages for invertebrates on rocks, moss-covered stones and fallen branches<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It was believed to inhabit the undergrowth of lowland riparian forest, up to 600 m<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However recent observations suggest that it is not confined to this habitat, recently being observed flying up to the mid-storey in ridgetop forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. If confirmed, this species should be considered for downlisting to Near Threatened based its relative abundance and the amount of available habitat on S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;. <br/></p>	eng
148471	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 21-105 km<sup>2</sup> suitable habitat (10-50% EOO) = 210-1,050, i.e. in band 250-999 (Atkinson <em>et al. </em>1991 reported 8.2-12.6 individuals/km river. Assume 10-40% of the forest area is suitable habitat as it is also found on ridges away from water). <br/></p>	eng
148471	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of lowland and mid-altitude forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> are potential predators.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148472	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in most of its range and common to abundant in Liberia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148473	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148474	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).	eng
148475	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148477	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at Kakamega (Kenya) and uncommon to frequent elsewhere (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148481	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 56000000-100000000 breeding pairs, equating to 168000000-300000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 343000000-1200000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30000000-60000000 breeding pairs, equating to 90000000-180000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 184000000-720000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000000-22000000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000000-66000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44700000-88000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally scarce (Baker 1997).	eng
148487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148489	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite scarce (Baker 1997).	eng
148490	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148491	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148493	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000-35000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000-105000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 30,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4500000-8000000 breeding pairs, equating to 13500000-24000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 56300000-480000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-15000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-45000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 150000000-900000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Baker 1997).	eng
148499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as a locally common summer visitor to Japan (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common during the breeding season in north India, Nepal and Bhutan; scarce and local in Pakistan, uncommon in central Myanmar and northern China and very common in Sri Lanka (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148501	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscopus tytleri </em>breeds in the western Himalayas in <strong>Pakistan</strong> and Kashmir, <strong>India</strong> (generally between 2,000 and 3,600 m), passes through <strong>Nepal</strong> in small numbers during migration and winters mainly in the Western Ghats of peninsular India. It is scarce to locally common in Pakistan and Kashmir, rare in Nepal, and infrequently recorded in its wintering range, partly due to identification difficulties. During the breeding season it inhabits coniferous forest, also subalpine dwarf willows and birches, while in winter its habitat preferences are less clear, with some records from the middle storey of shola forest. In its breeding range, forests are under constant threat from timber extraction, excessive cutting for fuelwod and animal fodder, livestock grazing and burning. In its wintering range, increasing encroachment into forests, livestock grazing, hydropower development, road-building and the harvesting of fuelwood and huge quantities of forest products such as bamboo and canes are causing reductions in forest cover in the Western Ghats. <br/></p>	eng
148502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in its breeding range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148504	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in Japan. The entire Izu Archipelago has been designated as a national park and several important sites have been designated as Special Protected Areas. However, there are no rangers in the national park, and loss and modification of habitats continues on many islands. There is a small sanctuary on Miyake-jima. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its winter distribution. Study the possible impact of pesticide use on the invertebrate prey of this and other species on the Izu Islands. Designate the Mariveles Mountains, Philippines, as a protected area. Maintain and enhance areas of suitable forest and woodland on the Izu Islands. Plan new development on these islands to minimise their negative effects on the habitats of this and other endemic species. Strengthen the human resources of the national park on the Izu Islands. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
148504	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscopus ijimae</em> is endemic to <strong>Japan</strong>. It breeds on the Izu Islands, between Oshima and Aogashima, and was recently discovered nesting on Nakano-shima in the Tokara Islands. There are non-breeding/passage records from Honshu, Kyushu and the Nansei Shoto Islands, where it probably winters. It may also winter in <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) (two specimens collected) and the <strong>Philippines</strong> (one record [several specimens] from Luzon). It has declined markedly since the 1970s. <br/></p>	eng
148504	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly in the canopy of deciduous, mixed and evergreen subtropical forests, but also in tangled scrub, alder <em>Alnus</em> thickets and scrub around habitation. It arrives in the Izu Islands in late March or early April and leaves in late September and October. </p>	eng
148504	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to number 'a few thousand' based on analysis by BirdLife International (2001). <br/></p>	eng
148504	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by habitat loss in the Izu Islands. On Miyake-jima, large areas of natural forest have been replaced with the fast-growing softwood <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> for timber production. Road construction and developments for tourism are damaging its habitat on Miyake-jima and Mikura-jima. On Mikura-jima, there is a long-term plan to relocate a village, or build a new village at Nango, close to an important nesting area. However, the rate of habitat loss in its breeding range does not appear sufficient to account for its recent decline, suggesting that deforestation in its wintering grounds may also be an important threat. Another contributory factor to its decline may be the increased use of pesticides and other agrochemicals in its breeding range.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148505	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Jianfengling, Baishuiling, Nanweiling, Wuzhi Shan, and Jiaxi Nature Reserves and Limu Shan Forest Park (a proposed nature reserve). Recent surveys have added considerably to knowledge of its distribution and abundance. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys of its distribution, with the aim of determining whether existing protected areas are adequate for its conservation and, if not, to identify additional areas that need to be protected. Research its habitat requirements. Extend and link existing protected areas where it occurs. In particular: at Bawangling National Nature Reserve, extend the reserve to c.120 km<sup>2</sup> to include all remaining natural forests in this area; at Jianfengling Nature Reserve, enlarge the reserve to link up with the rest of the South-west Hainan Conservation Unit, at Baishuiling Nature Reserve, link with Diaoluo Shan if possible; at Wuzhi Shan Nature Reserve, reconstruct forest corridors to link this reserve with Qizhiling Nature Reserve; at Limu Shan Forest Park, gazette it as a nature reserve and consider an extension to join it with Fanjia Nature Reserve; at Jiaxi Nature Reserve, extend the reserve to Mihanling. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
148505	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscopus hainanus</em>, described in 1993, is known from only seven localities in the mountains of Hainan Island, <strong>China</strong>. Although it is locally common, with flocks of up to 40 recorded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, it is absent from some apparently suitable forest sites and is probably declining. <br/></p>	eng
148505	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in primary, selectively logged and secondary forest and scrub from 640-1,500 m. It may previously have occurred at lower elevations where very little forest now remains. Fledged young and a nest have been found in April, with breeding apparently completed by May.</p>	eng
148505	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 12-60 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 600 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of 3000 km<sup>2</sup> remaining forest cover) = 7,200-36,000 individuals i.e. best placed precautionarily in range 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of six estimates for montane forest congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148505	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss and fragmentation is the main threat. The area of natural forest on Hainan decreased from 16,920&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1943 to 3,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1994, mainly as a result of timber extraction, the replacement of forest by rubber plantations, slash-and-burn agriculture and the unrestricted cutting of wood for fuel and other uses. Much of the remaining forest is probably disturbed and modified. <br/></p>	eng
148506	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and thinly distributed (Baker 1997).	eng
148507	distribution		<em>Phylloscopus ricketti</em> is native to <strong>China</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong>. It may be fairly widespread but extremely localised during the breeding season in China<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
148507	habitat		This species primarily inhabits forests, but it has also been recorded in open, somewhat degraded woodland and scrubland with scattered conifers, and in gardens and tea plantations adjacent to close-canopy secondary forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It may inhabitat a fairly narrow altitudinal range (800-1,100 m)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
148507	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather local and thinly distributed (Baker 1997; G. Carey <em>in litt.</em> 2010).	eng
148508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common on peninsular Malaysia, locally abundant in the Greater Sundas and common in the Philippines (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148511	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to very common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148512	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common on Flores and common and widespread on Timor (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in Papua New Guinea, locally moderately common in the Moluccas and uncommon in the Solomon islands (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny global range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148515	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The montane forest has been declared a forest reserve by the company which has logging rights to most of the island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a more accurate population estimate. Compare population densities in forest of variable structure. Map and measure the area of different forest-types. Monitor numbers in the most accessible areas. Investigate the occurrence of and threats posed by introduced predators. <br/></p>	eng
148515	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscopus amoenus</em> is endemic to the extinct volcano of Kolombangara, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where it has been recorded above c.1,200 m and is presumed to occur to the summit at 1,740 m. Its total range is therefore 21 km<sup>2</sup>, although much of this is unsuitable, being open forest. No more than two pairs have been recorded on any one visit, but it is estimated that the population could number 1,000-2,000 individuals. There is no evidence of any long-term population changes<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148515	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits mossy forest and has not been recorded from the large areas of open forest and scrub growing on landslide-damaged areas of the very steep crater. Singles and pairs forage low in the stunted forest, sometimes on moss-covered tree-trunks and on the ground. Its nest is unknown<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148515	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buckingham <em>et al. </em>(1995). <br/></p>	eng
148515	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although the montane forest is under no threat from forestry, it is often damaged by landslides so that the (small) population can be expected to fluctuate with habitat availability. It may be threatened by introduced mammalian predators such as feral pigs and rats which have been recorded from montane forest on Kolombangara<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in the core of its range although uncommon in the west and east of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common in Malaysia, common on Sumatra and Borneo and uncommon in the Philippines (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1995).	eng
148522	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148525	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Two current projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest, including all lowland remnants, in protected areas. However, the high population density and demand for land and timber in the area makes this difficult<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Further investigate the validity of this taxon (should include surveys using canopy mist-netting at Kisiwani)<sup>3. Investigate the species's habitat and altitudinal preferences, its tolerance of habitat alteration and its population density. </sup></strong>  <br/></p>	eng
148525	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hyliota usambara</em> is a little known and probably overlooked species of north-east <strong>Tanzania<sup>2,3,5,8</sup></strong> recorded mainly from the foothills of the East Usambara Mountains (seven or eight records) and from a single sighting at Dindira in the West Usambaras<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong> at 1,000 m. There is one other reference to a specimen taken between 1904 and 1907 along the Ruvu river<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong> but at present insufficient information is available to determine the exact localities or altitudes referred to. Given that there is only c.370&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest remaining in its stronghold of the East Usambaras, and that the species apparently occurs very patchily within forest, and preferring the lowlands, its area of occupancy and population is probably very small. <br/></p>	eng
148525	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species inhabits forest canopy, forest edge and coffee plantations at mid-altitudes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is flycatcher-like in habits, flycatching and gleaning conspicuously in the crowns of the tallest trees, often in trees bare of leaves, keeping to small branches and twigs and feeding on insects<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is found alone, in pairs or in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its breeding ecology is unknown<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although recorded in plantations, it is probably dependent on mature forest for successful breeding. Given that it appears to be associated with the canopy of mature trees, it may well be highly sensitive to habitat alteration<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148525	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (based on estimate for <em>H. australis </em>in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) x 370 km<sup>2</sup> (area of remaining forest) = 2,220 individuals. Given that this species apparently occurs patchily in forest, the AOO may be even smaller, and hence may be appropriate to place the population estimate precautionarily in the band 1,000-2,500 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148525	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threats to forest in the East Usambaras are pit-sawing (outside reserves), and cultivation and pole-cutting (within reserves)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. All are likely to increase in the near future<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Lowland and foothill forest faces much greater and more immediate threats than the comparatively safe submontane and montane forest of the Usambaras. <br/></p>	eng
148526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally not uncommon in Liberia, frequent to common in Ghana and rare to uncommon in most of West Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148529	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon but easily over-looked so possibly under-estimated (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148530	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. It is legally protected in reserves in Japan, where breeding sites at Hachiro-gata and Ogata-sogen are protected, and Hotoke-numa was designated as a RAMSAR Site in 2005<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded from protected areas at Lake Khanka (Russia), and Zhalong, Shuangtai Hekou, Poyang Hu and Dong Dongting Hu (China). A large population occurs within the Nanjishan National Nature Reserve (Jiangxi province, China). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey potential breeding grounds in Russia, China and North Korea. Survey potential wintering grounds to improve understanding of winter range and habitat requirements. Develop habitat management plans in order to maintain suitable breeding habitat at key sites. Maintain and suitably manage known breeding sites. Ensure legal protection of all important sites. Ensure the legal protection of this species in all range countries.  <br/></p>	eng
148530	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Megalurus pryeri </em>is known to breed at six localities on Honshu, in the prefectures of Aomori, Akita, Ibaraki and Chiba, <strong>Japan</strong>, in Jiangxi, Jiangsu and probably in Heilongjiang and Liaoning, <strong>China</strong> and at Lake Khanka, <strong>Russia</strong>. Surveys in 2007 at Poyang Lake, Jiangxi, China indicated the presence of a potentially large population, estimated to be up to 5,000 pairs, 1,500 of which are within Nanjishan National Nature Reserve<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and it has recently been found breeding on the Yangtze estuary (Jiangsu province)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and in the Shanghai area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 2001 it was breeding in Japan at Lower Iwaki-gawa (c37-142 breeding males), Hotokenuma (35-448 breeding males), lower reach of Tonegawa (69-375 breeding males), Byoubusan area (nine singing males) and Ukishima (68-30 individuals in 1998)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Its population at Ogata-sogen (=Hachiro-gata, 58-122 breeding males in the late 1970s) has declined and recently disappeared<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It winters in Honshu and the Shikoku Islands, Japan and the Yangtze basin, China. There are a few records from eastern <strong>Mongolia</strong> and <strong>South Korea </strong>and it almost certainly occurs in North Korea. The population in Japan is estimated to be c.2,500 birds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148530	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Breeding birds prefer dense, mid-height reeds and grasses in shallow water for nesting, with some taller plants for singing posts. It is very sensitive to habitat structure and does not tolerate vegetation that is too short or too tall. Wintering birds favour reedbeds. It is generally very reluctant to fly.</p>	eng
148530	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Survey work in Nanjishan National Nature Reserve has estimated a population of c.1,500 pairs in the reserve and at least 5,000 pairs around the lake as a whole (X. Huang et al. in litt. 2007), giving a global population exceeding 10,000 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148530	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The main threat is the loss and degradation of marshes in its breeding and wintering grounds. Potential breeding sites at Lake Khanka are being converted to agriculture. Wetlands along Nen Jiang river, China, are threatened by oilfield development, reed harvesting for pulp, and alteration of water-levels through irrigation. In the Yangtze basin, wetlands are being destroyed and degraded. In Japan, many breeding sites are in abandoned rice-fields which would be lost if they were brought back into agricultural production. The key breeding site in Japan, Hotoke-numa, is threatened with conversion to pasture. Pollution and hunting are potential threats in China.  <br/></p>	eng
148531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common in uplands but scarce and local in lowland areas of Papua New Guinea, generally uncommon but locally common in Wallacea and locally common but generally uncommon in Australia (Coates 1990, Coates et al. 1997, Morcombe 2000).	eng
148532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Baker 1997).	eng
148533	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the contiguous protected areas of Wasur National Park in Irian Jaya and Tonda Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey unvisited areas of Trans-Fly and Pulau Dolak. Survey other parts of Wasur National Park. Estimate population densities in known sites. Establish rate and trends of habitat degradation. Investigate effect of deer-grazing. Monitor populations at three sites at least. Monitor populations and habitat effects of deer. Include a species-specific component into the management plan for Wasur National Park and Tonda Wildlife Management Area. <br/></p>	eng
148533	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalurus albolimbatus</em> is known from a few localities in the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>), including Wasur National Park, small areas along the Bensbach River and a handful of sites on the middle Fly River<strong><sup>3,6,9</sup></strong>. It is thought to have a patchy, perhaps relict, distribution, but may prove to be more widespread in the largely unsurveyed Trans-Fly or on Pulau Dolak (=&#160;Frederick Henderik Island)<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. It is reported to be locally numerous in tiny scattered areas<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong> but most recent records in Papua New Guinea have been of very few individuals<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148533	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently highly specialised in its breeding habitat requirements. On the Fly River, it inhabits a mixture of reeds, floating grass and lotus lilies growing on deep waterways and lakes<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. On the Bensbach River, it inhabits thick stands of sedge <em>Cyperus</em>, which are absent from the middle Fly sites, on the fringes of the lower river and its bays and inlets<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is replaced by Clamorous Reed-warbler <em>Acrocephalus stentoreus</em> in other habitats such as the much more extensive <em>Phragmites</em> reedbeds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Birds breed during the dry season and may have more catholic habitat requirements in the flooded, non-breeding season.</p>	eng
148533	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 480 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,400-4,800 individuals, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and is consistent with description as 'locally numerous'). <br/></p>	eng
148533	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Introduced rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis</em> overgraze and destroy suitable habitat and are thought to be the cause of its absence from Merauke National Park<strong><sup>1,3,9</sup></strong>. Scrub and swamp woodland is encroaching through unknown reasons, perhaps related to introduced deer and pigs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Grasslands in Irian Jaya suffer from clearance and drainage for agriculture around transmigration settlements<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
148535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Heather and Robertson 1997).	eng
148536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally quite common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
148537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
148538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
148539	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Coates et al. 1997).	eng
148540	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Extensive surveys were conducted in 2003-2006 by the Institut Agronomique n&eacute;o-Cal&eacute;donien (IAC) to establish the status of poorly known and threatened New Caledonian birds including <em>Megalurus mariei</em><strong><sup>4,8,9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the species's status and distribution. Assess the impact of cats and rats. If judged to be apprporiate, implement control measures against cats and rats. <br/></p>	eng
148540	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Megalurulus mariei</em>, endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, is secretive and often overlooked, but recent surveys have found it to be numerous and widely distributed. It is under-recorded by traditional survey methods but it is now considered common in all the massifs of the center from Hiengh&egrave;ne (Todine Gaitada) to the Humbold massif<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, also occurring on 50% of mountain massifs in the north of the island and 37% of those in the south<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. It is absent from the Ile des Pins and the Loyalty Islands. <br/></p>	eng
148540	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is usually very secretive, rarely venturing into the open, but sometimes seen in short flights over vegetation. It is present in the "maquis minier" (mining bush) at high elevations (450-900 m on the Koniambo; 900-1000 m on the Koghis, Mont Mou; 400-500 m in the small talwegs of the Col d'Amos) where it favours habitats composed of a mixture of shrubs, grassy weeds and ferns, including <em>Hibbertia altigena</em>, <em>Knightia deplanchei</em>, <em>Costularia</em> and <em>Gleichenia</em>. The <em>Gleichenia </em>fern produces a dense cover and seems to be well correlated with the presence of the bird. This is apparently a pioneer plant associated with bush fire, which may indicate that the extent of suitable habitat may be increasing. But the bird is much more common in grassy/shrubby areas of non-ultramafique massifs, i.e. <em>Melaleuca</em> savannas and grasslands, and has also been found to be common at lower elevations (< 50 m) around rural dwellings and in secondary bushy (<em>Goyava</em>) vegetation and in tall grass/small trees at 200-300 m.  <br/></p>	eng
148540	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Rats (<em>Rattus rattus </em>and <em>R. exulans</em>) and cats are widespread and common even on remote elevated mountains, but there is no evidence that these are causing a decline and the species remains common in close proximity to villages, suggesting it is not particularly susceptible to predation<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Natural regeneration of forests could locally reduce available habitat but bush fires, grazing and human modification mean the extent of open habitat in New Caledonia is not under threat and is probably increasing, and the species remains common in anthropogenic habitats. <br/></p>	eng
148541	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalurulus grosvenori</em> is known from two specimens from New Britain, <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. These were collected in 1959 from montane forest on karst limestone at c.1,700&#160;m in the Whiteman Mountains; after the first specimen, only one other pair was found during four days of specific searching<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Other historic collectors and recent observers<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong> have failed to find this species. However, very few observers have reached the necessary altitudes and thicketbirds are skulking and rarely seen unless calling. It is likely to be replaced at lower altitudes by Rusty Thicketbird <em>Ortygocichla rubiginosa</em> which has been seen up to 1,400&#160;m<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and it may yet occur on New Ireland although recent expeditions there have failed to find it<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Forest at this altitude is not threatened by logging or clearance but this species may possibly be at risk from introduced predatory mammals.</p>	eng
148541	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al. </em>(2008). <br/></p>	eng
148542	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population surveys in Crown Prince Range and assess the species's distribution. Conduct research into the species's ecology. <br/></p>	eng
148542	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalurulus llaneae</em> is endemic to Bougainville in <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. The only definite records are from c.1,500&#160;m in the Crown Prince Range in the south of the island<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, a song, possibly of this species, has been heard more widely, including on Mt Balbi in the north and down to 900&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Although it has a small range and presumably a small population, this species is not threatened by habitat change but may be at risk from introduced predatory mammals. <br/></p>	eng
148542	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Nests have been observed in niches in a steep sided creek bed. They are constructed of roots and tree fern  fibres with an interior lining of paler fibres<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
148542	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is presumably not threatened by habitat loss, but may be at risk from introduced predators, particularly rats and cats.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148543	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megalurulus whitneyi</em> is endemic to the mountains of Espiritu Santo in <strong>Vanuatu</strong> and Guadalcanal in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. On Santo, it is usually found between 700-1,500&#160;m but occasionally down to 150&#160;m. Although there are few records of this shy species, it appears to be fairly common<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. On Guadalcanal, it is only known from three records at the type locality at 1,200-1,550&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. As a terrestrial species, it may be threatened by feral cats on montane Guadalcanal<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and this may also apply on Santo. <br/></p>	eng
148544	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be usually considered scarce but locally fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
148545	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by Fijian law. The largest known population occurs in the Wabu Forest Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue surveys at likely sites, especially on Vanua Levu. Investigate breeding success at Wabu and a more disturbed area such as the Monasavu roadside to identify any threats and necessary conservation actions. Most important is active long-term conservation of the key sites, notably Wabu Forest Reserve, the Rairaimatuku Highlands and Sovi Basin<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148545	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trichocichla rufa</em> is endemic to Viti Levu and Vanua Levu on <strong>Fiji</strong>, where it is known historically from four old specimens and a handful of unconfirmed sightings on Viti Levu, and one specimen in 1974 from Vanua Levu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In surveys in 2002-2005, 12 pairs were found in Wabu Forest Reserve, three birds near Monasavu Dam, another three pairs just outside the Monasavu catchment, two heard and one seen in Sovi Basin, and one heard on three occasions at Mt Korobaba, all on Viti Levu. At these locations, it was locally common in ideal habitat but very patchy and absent from most forest. None was recorded at any other site, including a visit to the 1974 Vanua Levu site, but it is easily overlooked unless singing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The total population is thought to be very small, although there is no evidence that the species has declined. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148545	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	All recent records have been from old-growth montane forest close to small streams or creeks between 300 and 800 m. Most locations were on steep slopes with unstable land-slide areas where pioneer vegetation, including herbs, <em>Piper</em> spp. and tree-ferns, created a dense understorey. The Wabu birds were on flatter terrain but the climatic and edaphic effects of the altitude may lead to similar habitat on gentle terrain at 800 m as on very steep slopes at 300 m<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Pairs and family groups forage unobtrusively close to the ground and are best located by their song<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148545	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Number of locations estimated at >6 sites (currently known from 5). Population estimate based on fieldwork (surveys): locally common but extremely patchy. Population estimate = 12 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> at Wabu, but 0 pairs at many superficially similar sites. <br/></p>	eng
148545	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As a ground bird it may be suspected to be of higher risk from predation by introduced mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus </em>and black rats <em>Rattus rattus </em>on both islands, but birds were found breeding successfully in Wabu alongside these predators. Montane forest is being logged in some areas which leads to increased numbers of these invasive alien species but probably does not affect the vegetational suitability of the habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148546	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from several protected areas, including Manas and Kaziranga National Parks, Assam, and Chitwan National Park, Sukla Phanta and Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserves, Nepal.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to establish its current distribution and population status relative to its historical range. Investigate its ecology and seasonal movements, both inside and outside protected areas, to clarify how changes in land-use patterns may affect survival. Identify the most important sites for the species and make management recommendations for these localities and, where appropriate, campaign for their gazetting as protected areas. Regulate harvesting of grass, overgrazing and encroachment at key sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148546	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chaetornis striata</em> is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, where it is patchily and locally distributed in <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, and <strong>Pakistan</strong>. Formerly described as common in at least Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal (India) and parts of Bangladesh, it has evidently declined. Recent records come from Pakistan, the terai of Nepal, Uttar Pradesh and Assam, as well as Delhi, Punjab and Maharashtra, India. It is now usually found in small numbers. <br/></p>	eng
148546	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em> </em>It inhabits tall grassland (often dominated by <em>Imperata</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> species) and reed <em>Phragmites</em>, particularly in riverine and swampy areas, and intermixed with low thorny scrub or standing crops of rice. In Nepal, it occurs in relatively open, short grasslands, mostly on dry soils, but also in moist areas with tall reeds and scattered bushes. It is generally encountered singly or in pairs and is difficult to observe, except when song-flighting or breeding (May-September). It makes some nomadic local movements in response to rainfall patterns, often appearing at sites for only a few months then disappearing again.</p>	eng
148546	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population size is difficult to estimate because this species is easily overlooked outside the breeding season. Analysis of detailed account in BirdLife International (2001) tentatively suggests that total population may be <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148546	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large tracts of natural swamp and wet grassland have been destroyed or degraded across its range, as a result of drainage and conversion for agriculture, and most remaining habitat is subject to intense pressure from human encroachment, fire, grass harvesting, grazing by domestic livestock, commercial forestry plantations, dam projects and irrigation schemes.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148547	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Graminicola bengalensis </em>is found in the terai of northern <strong>India </strong>(highly localised but common at a few sites from Uttar Pradesh eastwards to the Brahmaputra lowlands), southern <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (rare and highly local in north), mainland <strong>China </strong>(rare resident in Guangxi, north Guangdong and Hainan), <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (formerly resident in Tenasserim, current status unknown), Thailand<strong> </strong>(former resident in central region, last record in 1923, probably extinct) and Vietnam (former resident in east Tonkin). It occurs in tall emergent vegetation in or bordering freshwater swamps or along banks of rivers in lowlands. Although still common at a few sites, including Chitwan National Park, Nepal, it has apparently disappeared from many previous localities and is possibly susceptible to modification of grassland and wetland habitat. Drainage, over-grazing and conversion to agriculture are the most likely threats. <br/></p>	eng
148547	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Mike Crosby has commented that, nothwithstanding the fact that known populations total just a few thousand birds, "my gut feeling is that it is unlikely that it has a global population of <10,000 individuals. If someone did similar work in the grasslands of northern India and Myanmar to Hem Sagar Baral's surveys in Nepal perhaps they would also find several thousands of pairs (prior to Hem's work there were only a few records from Nepal)? I think the species might also prove to have significant populations in SE China, as there must be a lot of potential sites and it is a skulker that is difficult to find (it was only first identified in relatively well-watched Hong Kong in 1982)." <br/></p>	eng
148548	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common but rather local (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148549	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known to occur in two protected areas, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, although the status of suitable habitat for the species at these sites is unknown.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys to establish its distribution and identify key sites supporting significant populations. Determine its habitat requirements and identify its main threats. Following surveys, make recommendations for its conservation, including the establishment of protected areas, linked to existing reserves where appropriate. Conduct an awareness campaign in the Western Ghats, focused on raising the profile of grassland conservation in the area used by this species and Nilgiri Pipit <em>Anthus nilghiriensis.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148549	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Schoenicola platyurus</em> is endemic to the Western Ghats, <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It was formerly locally common in hills and mountains. There are relatively few recent records, all from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, suggesting that it has declined. There is an unconfirmed record from Sri Lanka. <br/></p>	eng
148549	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, tall grass and reeds, interspersed with patchy scrub and bushes on open hillsides, sometimes on steep slopes, but particularly marshy or damp depressions around hilltops, from 900-2,000&#160;m. It also occurs in dense screw pine <em>Pandanus</em> swamps, lemon grass and dwarf dates and at the edges of forest. It is generally very difficult to detect, except during the breeding season (April-September) when it climbs to prominent perches and performs song-flights. It may be at least partially migratory (one individual was recorded at a coastal site in east Tamil Nadu), but this requires confirmation.</p>	eng
148549	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,980 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,980-9,900 individuals i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; species described as common at several localities, but has fairly specific habitat requirements, and hence mean density may well fall in range used here). <br/></p>	eng
148549	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is probably clearance and modification of grassland as a result of agricultural development. However, montane grasslands are relatively unaffected by this development and it is unclear what factors underlie the apparent reductions in range and population of this species. Nevertheless, grasslands are poorly represented in the protected-area system within its range, giving cause for concern. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148550	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. Research its ecology, particularly the effects of forest fragmentation on its population and distribution. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests. Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148550	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax cinereifrons</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is confined to the lowlands and adjacent hills of the wet zone in the south-west of the island. Little is known of its population, but it appears never to have been abundant and now has a declining, increasingly fragmented population of probably no more than a few thousand individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148550	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at low densities in the undisturbed interior of dense, humid forest, avoiding forest edge, up to at least 1,520&#160;m. It usually forages in monospecific or mixed-species flocks, often with Orange-billed Babbler <em>Turdoides rufescens</em>, on small invertebrates in leaf-litter and seeds. Breeding is probably from April-July. </p>	eng
148550	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that its total population numbers 'no more than a few thousand individuals'. <br/></p>	eng
148550	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood-collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. It may be particularly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation because it is confined to the interior of forest blocks and is probably unable to move between isolated patches. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148552	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax rufifrons</em> is restricted to montane forest at 1,000-2,400 m in west and central Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is fairly heavily exploited as a cagebird, which has rendered it uncommon in otherwise moderately secure habitat. <br/></p>	eng
148553	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148554	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent in much of its range, although uncommon in central Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally frequent in much of its range, although uncommon in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon although common at Bukit Fraser in Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148557	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant and widespread in Bhutan, locally common in Nepal and India and uncommon to locally common in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148559	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax milleti</em> is confined to the Da Lat and Di Linh plateaus, <strong>Vietnam </strong>(locally common), and the Kon Tum plateau of Vietnam (fairly common around Ngoc Linh) and <strong>Laos </strong>(locally<strong> </strong>fairly<strong> </strong>common in Xe Kong and Attapu provinces). It is usually found in flocks in dense undergrowth of broadleaved evergreen forest between 800 and 1,650&#160;m, although it has been found in remnant patches of forest in Laos. As it occurs at relatively low altitudes, it is vulnerable to habitat destruction through agricultural encroachment, charcoal burning and fuelwood collection, particularly as the human population of the area is increasing because of government re-settlement programmes. It occurs in a few protected areas, including Dong Ampham<strong> </strong>NBCA<strong> </strong>(Laos), Ngoc Linh, Kon Ka Kinh and Kon Cha Rang nature reserves<strong> </strong>(Vietnam). <br/></p>	eng
148560	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148561	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax nuchalis </em>is resident in the hills of north-east <strong>India</strong> (apparently rare in Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh) and <strong>Myanmar </strong>(uncommon in the north). It inhabits tall grass or dense bushes in stony scrub-covered ravines and hills, from the lowlands to c.900 m. There have been few recent records and its current status is poorly known, although this is at least in part because much of its range is infrequently visited by ornithologists. Surveys are required to establish its current distribution and population size, the extent of its habitat and the threats it faces. <br/></p>	eng
148562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148563	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common. The population in Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve in Vietnam is estimated to be 34,010 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148565	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148566	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon throughout its large range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148567	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A number of protected areas established for giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Jiuzhaigou, Wanglang and Baihe Nature Reserves (Sichuan).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a nationally protected species in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148567	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax sukatschewi</em> occupies a restricted range in the Min Shan mountains in southern Gansu province and adjacent parts of north-central Sichuan province, south-west <strong>China</strong>. Records indicate that it may occur at moderate densities in suitable habitat, but its localised distribution and the small number of localities from which it is known suggest that it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to its habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148567	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitats and altitudinal range are poorly known. It has been recorded from a variety of temperate zone forest-types, including mixed, evergreen and broadleaved, usually where there is undergrowth of bamboo and scrub. Most records are from c.2,000-3,500 m. It feeds on the ground where it forages amongst moss and leaf-litter for invertebrates, seeds and berries. </p>	eng
148567	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that this species may have 'a small total population' i.e. <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148567	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, through exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture, and it is assumed that substantial areas of temperate forest have been lost.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Myanmar, fairly common in China and uncertain in India, with few recent records (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally frequent in Nepal and rare in parts of India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148571	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has not been recorded in any protected areas. However, there are several reserves in Yunnan which probably contain suitable habitat including Baima Xue Shan National Nature Reserve, Haba Xue Shan, and Bitahai and Yulong Xue Shan Nature Reserves.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range to determine whether in occurs in any of them. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Examine the feasibility of establishing a protected area for it in the Ma Hung Valley (Sichuan). List it as a protected species in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax bieti</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from the mountains of north-west Yunnan and south-west Sichuan. Its population and range are poorly known, but it can occur at quite high densities in suitable habitat. However, the paucity of records suggests that it probably has a highly localised distribution and a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to its habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148571	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitats and altitudinal range are little known. It appears to occur mainly in forest, including mixed forest, thickets, spruce-fir and fir-rhododendron forest, in the upper temperate and subalpine zone from 2,500-4,270 m, and possibly as high as 4,570 m. The diet includes fruit and invertebrates.</p>	eng
148571	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that this species may have 'a small total population' ie <10,000 individuals <br/></p>	eng
148571	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover in Yunnan declined from c.55% of the land area in the early 1950s, to c.30% in 1975, as a result of logging, and has also declined rapidly in Sichuan, since the late 1960s, because of logging for timber and conversion to agriculture and pasture. It is assumed that substantial areas of upper temperate and subalpine zone forests have been lost. Virtually all forest at Kianwu Liangsi, where it was seen in 1989, had been logged. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout most of its range and frequent in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in central and eastern Nepal, frequent in Bhutan, uncommon to fairly common in the Himalayas and uncommon in northern Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to very numerous (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148579	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148580	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in Myanmar to rare in Assam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and local in Nepal, frequently recorded in Bhutan, uncommon in the Himalayas, although more common in the north-eastern hills and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148582	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and frequent in central Nepal to scarce in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148583	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China and probably rare and local in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148587	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148588	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, which was included in the list of protected areas endorsed by the Government of Vietnam for establishment in 1986. However, no protection measures currently exist.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its habitat requirements, population size and local distribution. Gazette an extension to, and initiate management activities in, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. Establish further protected areas containing populations of the species and other Da Lat endemics, including on Mount Lang Bian and Ho Tuyen Lam, where sustainable management of charcoal production and ecotourism could be effectively promoted. Minimise further immigration into Lac and Krong Bong districts on the Da Lat plateau.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148588	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax yersini</em> is endemic to the Da Lat plateau, <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It is known from 11 localities, with recent records from eight of these, the most important of which appear to be Mount Lang Bian, Mount Bi Doup and Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. It is localised and generally uncommon.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148588	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in dense undergrowth of logged and primary montane evergreen forest, secondary growth and scrub bordering forest, occupying a narrow altitudinal band from 1,500-2,440&#160;m. It is generally encountered in monospecific flocks of 4-8 individuals. Juveniles have been collected between April-June, suggesting the main breeding season is probably from March-May.</p>	eng
148588	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-50 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 324 km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO) = 3240-16,200, perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-10,000 (density based on observation that it is less abundant than <em>G. milleti </em>which at one site has been estimated to occur at a density of 70 individuals/km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
148588	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A government resettlement programme has greatly increased human pressure on the Da Lat plateau, increasing problems of forest degradation and fragmentation through logging, shifting agriculture, fuelwood-collection and charcoal production. On Mount Lang Bian, all land below 1,500&#160;m is now logged or under cultivation. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148589	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148592	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is a protected species in Sichuan. Since 1999, the export of wild birds from China has been banned, but this legislation may be difficult to enforce. It occurs in or near several protected areas, including the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site and Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve. Emei Shan is a sacred mountain and has therefore only been subject to limited forest clearance. </p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys and ecological studies of this and other threatened species in its habitat, to clarify its population, distribution and habitat requirements, with the aim of producing management recommendations for forests where it occurs. Support recommendations to establish a network of four protected areas for the Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus, including an extension to Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, as this will also protect habitat for this species. Jointly manage Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve with Meigu Dafengding Reserve. Gazette Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site as a nature reserve, control tourism and strengthen research work. List it as a protected species in China.</em></strong>  <br/></p>	eng
148592	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Liocichla omeiensis</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from mountain ranges in south-central Sichuan, and has recently been found in extreme north-east Yunnan. It has recently been found to be locally common on Emei Shan and in the Xiaoxiang Ling and Daliang Shan ranges. However, it appears to be highly localised within its small range, suggesting its population is small and, given the threats to it, probably declining.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148592	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in pairs or small groups in the undergrowth of subtropical broadleaved forest and in secondary forest, scrub and bamboo, mainly between 1,000-2,400&#160;m in summer, although it has been recorded down to 600 m in winter. Its diet includes fruit and invertebrates.</p>	eng
148592	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occurs at high densities at some sites (mean 60 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> at two localities), but it is 'very local', and the detailed analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) concludes that 'its total population may be rather small' i.e. <10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148592	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the loss and fragmentation of forest within its range, much of which has already been cleared or degraded, through logging and conversion to agriculture. Remaining areas of forest are under intense pressure: almost all primary broadleaved forests in southern Sichuan and north-east Yunnan are scheduled for logging in the next 20-25 years, although there has been a recent ban on logging in this part of China. Disturbance from people collecting bamboo shoots, and from grazing livestock and trapping for export as cage-birds may be minor threats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to abundant and especially numerous at higher elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148595	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambaras has been gazetted and covers 84&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, including forest owned by private tea companies. Two conservation and development projects in the East Usambaras are working to increase the amount of forest in protected areas, including all lowland remnants<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The subspecies <em>sanjei</em> occurs within several protected areas.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect forest on Mt Namuli from commercial logging. Establish whether it occurs in the remote southern forests of Mt Namuli and, if so, designate as a core wilderness area<sup>6. Assess possibility of ecotourism-based conservation programme involving local people at Ukalini Forest on Mt Namuli6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148595	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Modulatrix orostruthus</em> is found on Mt Namuli in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and in the East Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In Mozambique, the nominate subspecies is relatively common, with densities of up to 2-3 singing birds/ha in Ukalini Forest (c.80&#160;ha)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also occur in the southern forests (c.1,220&#160;ha) between Mt Namuli and Gurue<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, subspecies <em>amani</em> had a population between several hundred and several thousand in 1990, possibly nearer the former<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>sanjei</em> is uncommon to fairly common at various locations on the Udzungwa escarpment<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, e.g. at Uhafiwa, where the density was up to 31 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> in 1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The total population is probably over 10,000 individuals, but declining. <br/></p>	eng
148595	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits wet montane forest at mid-elevations (mostly 1,300-1,700&#160;m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), preferring closed-canopy areas with a dense growth of wild ginger (Zingiberaceae) on the ground. Here it moves through corridors of thick growth around light gaps and along streams, foraging for insects in the leaf-litter.</p>	eng
148595	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148595	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest on Mt Namuli is, at present, largely intact, but selective logging has recently commenced and the lower slopes are densely settled. A road passing close to the summit is currently under construction and could lead to large-scale exploitation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In the Usambaras, the large human population is putting increasing pressure on forests both outside and within forest reserves, and forest is now highly fragmented<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species does not currently face any threats in the Udzungwa Mountains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148596	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trichastoma rostratum</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, <strong>Singapore</strong> (rare), Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including northern islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> (widespread and fairly common), near water in mangroves and lowland evergreen forest to 500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in second growth and overgrown plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148599	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably common on all higher mountains in Mindanao (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148600	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in much of its range, although very rare and local in most of Nepal and rare in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common although rare in Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148602	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None are known. Perhaps surprisingly there have been no recent searches for the species, presumably owing, at least in part, to the long period of uncertainty over its taxonomic status. There are two nature reserves in South Kalimantan that are situated near to the (presumed) area of the type-locality, Pleihari Tanah Laut and Pleihari Martapura. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive surveys for the species, ranging out from the probable area of the type-locality (including Pleihari Tanah Laut and Pleihari Martapura Nature Reserves), to establish its range, distribution, population status and level of threat, and assess its habitat requirements. Identify its conservation needs and thereby devise and implement appropriate protective measures, including the establishment and management of protected areas.</strong></p>	eng
148602	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacocincla perspicillata</em> is known by a single specimen of uncertain provenance, but reputedly from South Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. The collecting locality is not known, but most likely to be around Martapura (or, slightly less likely, Banjarmasin), dating from between 1843 and 1848. Nothing is known about its population, except that numbers are likely to have decreased in line with habitat loss in recent decades.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148602	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-specimen appears to have been taken in lowland forest, and the relatively short tarsus suggests that it might be rather more arboreal than its congeners. Nothing further is known.</p>	eng
148602	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Impossible to accurately asses status.  <br/></p>	eng
148602	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The vague type-locality lies within an area of agricultural development and heavy logging, and the original natural habitat may have now disappeared entirely. Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, as a result of large-scale commercial logging, even within protected areas, and widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil-palm are the likely main threats, assuming it is a forest bird. The full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 has still to be assessed, but drought fires appear to be increasing in frequency and severity. Together with ongoing logging, they could remove dryland lowland forest in Kalimantan by 2010.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148603	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacocincla malaccensis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong>, Kalimantan (including Natunas and Anamba islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally very common in lowland evergreen forest, including swamp forest, to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in hill-slope forest and second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Borneo, although uncommon in Sabah; scarce in west Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare over much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148607	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent records come from Dibru-Saikhowa and Kaziranga National Parks, both in Assam, and also West Bhanugach Reserve Forest in Bangladesh, although this is not a strictly protected area.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat, perhaps using tape-playback, to establish its current distribution and status. Conduct research into its habitat use and seasonal movements to clarify the relative importance of different habitats and altitudes. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland. Promote regeneration of suitable grassland habitats wherever possible. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of tall grassland loss and degradation. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148607	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pellorneum palustre</em> is endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplain, its associated tributaries and adjacent hill ranges in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya, <strong>India</strong> and eastern <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It is poorly known, but was formerly described as locally common. There are recent records from just five sites, at one of which it is described as common.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148607	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in extensive reedbeds and tall grass, sometimes mixed with scrub and scattered trees, on marshy ground or adjacent to swamps and rivers, from the plains up to 800&#160;m. It has also been encountered in damp forest scrub. It is very inconspicuous, but has distinctive vocalisations, and is generally found in pairs or small parties, skulking on or near the ground. It breeds during the rainy season from May onwards.</p>	eng
148607	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148607	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, harvesting of grass for thatch production, inappropriate grassland management within protected areas and, recently, heavy flooding in the Brahmaputra valley caused by run-off from its increasingly denuded catchment.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148608	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148611	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in most of its range, although rare in Singapore (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148612	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacopteron affine</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Banyak and Bangka), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is generally common in lowland forest (including freshwater and peatswamp forest) to 700 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in forest edge and secondary formations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148614	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacopteron magnum</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including Bangka), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> and Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is generally common in lowland evergreen forest to 800 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148615	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacopteron palawanense</em> is endemic to Palawan and Balabac in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, with records on Palawan including from Tanabag, Iwahig Penal Colony, Puerto Princesa; Inagauan; Quezon, including Tabon and Bungalon; Taguso; Pulot, Brooke's Point; Singnapan and adjacent areas. It is described as uncommon and may be an extreme lowland forest specialist, and although in the pockets of habitat to which it has become confined it remains at good densities, oddly it appears absent from St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which suggests some ecological feature of some significance which needs to be identified; currently the best protection appears to be afforded by the Iwahig Penal Colony. <br/></p>	eng
148616	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malacopteron albogulare</em> is restricted to Sabah, Sarawak, and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra (including Batu Islands and Lingga archipelago), <strong>Brunei</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong>, in lowland peatswamp and heath forest. Forest destruction in the lowlands of Indonesian Borneo has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo, but the species's ability to survive in second growth, and to some extent in other habitats, implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant to common, although uncommon in the Imatong mountains in south-eastern Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148619	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Illadopsis rufescens</em> is known from the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa, ranging from <strong>Sierra Leone</strong>, <strong>Liberia</strong>, <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</strong> to <strong>Ghana, </strong>and also recorded from <strong>Senegal, Benin</strong> and <strong>Togo</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is widespread in the forest zone, occurring in primary forest, mature secondary regrowth and, less commonly, logged forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is generally common, with a density of 4-8 pairs/km<sup>2</sup> having been recorded in Liberia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, in 1989, was thought likely to be quite common in Ta&iuml; National Park, C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, surveys in Western Region, Ghana, found it to be absent from most small forest reserves (smaller than 100 km<sup>2</sup>) and to be present only in small numbers where it occurred<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It forages on the ground and low down in the understorey<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is threatened throughout its range by forest clearance due to commercial logging and agricultural encroachment and, in Ghana, it may suffer severe reduction in numbers if logging intensifies<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148620	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably overlooked and therefore under-recorded (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common over most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148622	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148624	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Bangladesh, rather uncommon in China and generally fairly common to common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148629	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common on Peninsular Malaysia, uncommon in Sabah and common in Sumatra (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon ,though locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148636	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Jabouilleia danjoui</em> is known from east Tonkin, north, central and south Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where small numbers have been recorded at many sites, and central <strong>Laos</strong>, where a fairly large population survives near the Vietnamese border. In East Tonkin it occurs very close to the border with China and probably occurs in suitable habitat there also<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In south Annam, the subspecies <em>danjoui</em> is found in montane evergreen forest between 1,500 and 2,100&#160;m, but the northern subspecies <em>parvirostris</em> is mainly found in lowland forest between 50 and 900&#160;m, ascending locally to 1,650 m. The species frequents the lower storey, often foraging on the ground. While there is no direct evidence of a decline, it is threatened by deforestation throughout its range, particularly where it prefers forest at lower altitudes. It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, including Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA in Laos, Ke Go, Vu Quang and Pu Mat nature reserves in Vietnam. <br/></p>	eng
148637	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It<strong> </strong>occurs in Similajau (Sarawak) and Gunung Palung (Kalimantan) National Parks, as well as Tabin, Samunsam, Gunung Mulu and Pleihari-Martapura Reserves.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey lowland forest throughout Borneo to clarify the range, status and ecological requirements of this species, and assess the scale of threats that it faces. Formulate a management strategy for this species and a suite of other birds largely reliant on lowland forest in the Sundaic region. Promote the effective management of existing protected areas in this region and the expansion of the protected-area network. Lobby for reduced logging of lowland forests throughout its range.</strong></p>	eng
148637	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilocichla</em> <em>leucogrammica</em> is endemic to the island of Borneo where it occurs in Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, and Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It appears to be generally scarce and local, but occasionally fairly common in favourable habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148637	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species frequents lowland, tropical evergreen forest (apparently avoiding deciduous or semi-deciduous forest) and sometimes peat swamp forest, ascending into the foothills locally to 900 m. It is usually found in pairs on the ground in dark and shady understorey.</p>	eng
148637	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148637	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of low altitude dryland forest is the primary threat to this species. Kalimantan as a whole lost 90,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of this habitat in the period 1985-1997, representing just under 25% of its 1985 cover, and resulting in the prediction that all such habitat could be removed from the province by the year 2010, in the absence of intervention. Furthermore, protected areas are by no means exempt: Gunung Palung National Park, for example, has been 80% hand-logged in recent years. The scale of lowland deforestation and destruction throughout Borneo due to logging, drought and fire suggests that the overall population of this species is declining precipitously. <br/></p>	eng
148638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although fairly common in Rajah Sikatuna National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148639	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The whole of Palawan was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1990, although the legislation controlling habitat alteration is extremely difficult to enforce effectively. It occurs in one protected area, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, which may soon be significantly extended to the east, where it is also likely to occur.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining lowland forest tracts to establish its true distribution and population status, with a view to proposing further key sites for establishment as protected areas. Assess its ecological requirements, particularly its sensitivity to habitat modification. Support the proposed extension of St Paul's Subterranean River National Park. Afford formal protection to forests at Iwahig.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148639	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ptilocichla falcata</em> is endemic to Palawan in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from 11 localities spread across the island and was formerly locally common. There are post-1990 records from just three sites, St Paul's Subterranean River National Park, Iwahig penal colony and the Ilog river. Although this distribution probably reflects observer site-bias, reports indicate that it has become generally rare at these sites. Given that it appears to be reliant upon primary lowland forest, it is likely to have declined substantially. However, undiscovered populations may exist in the largely unsurveyed north of the island.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148639	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the floor and undergrowth of primary lowland forest, particularly near to streams, gullies and ridge-tops, up to 800&#160;m. Recent observations suggest that it may be very sensitive to habitat modification, although it reportedly frequents thickets, which is likely to mean dense secondary undergrowth and bamboo forest.</p>	eng
148639	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148639	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland forest loss, degradation and fragmentation are the major threats. Deforestation in lowland Palawan has been extensive and logging and mining concessions have been granted for almost all remaining forests on the island. Illegal logging is thought to persist in the remaining extensive forest of the south. Forest at Iwahig penal colony, a key site, may be threatened by plans to mine chromite. <br/></p>	eng
148640	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Kenopia striata</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in forest (including swamp forest) to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's presence in hill-slope and logged forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148641	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Napothera macrodactyla</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), and Sumatra and Java (few records), <strong>Indonesia</strong> in evergreen forest to 1,200 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane forest implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148643	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Napothera atrigularis</em> is restricted to Borneo in the Sundaic lowlands of Sabah and Sarawak, <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in broadleaved forest from lowlands to 1,500 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesian Borneo has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysian Borneo, but the species's preference for submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local on Peninsular Malaysia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally locally common across its range, although local and uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Sabah, common in mount Kinabalu National Park and Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common across its range, although Rare in India and Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and fairly common (Grimmett et al. 2000).	eng
148651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in Nepal, fairly widespread at low densities in Bhutan and fairly common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148652	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spelaeornis caudatus</em> occurs in <strong>Nepal </strong>(very rare in the east), <strong>Bhutan </strong>(uncommon) and <strong>India</strong> (where it is locally common in Sikkim, northern West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh). It inhabits dense undergrowth of moist evergreen forest, often in steep gullies, especially where ferns, mossy rocks and fallen trees abound, from 1,500 m to 2,500 m, perhaps occasionally to 3,100&#160;m. Within its limited range, it is threatened by the destruction and fragmentation of forest, chiefly through logging and shifting cultivation. However, as it is a highly skulking species and easily overlooked, further research will probably reveal it to be more widespread and abundant than current records imply. <br/></p>	eng
148653	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None are known. However, the Dibang, Mehao and Walong Wildlife Sanctuaries are close to the type-locality and may support undiscovered populations. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys for the species across Lohit and Dibang districts, Arunachal Pradesh, including Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary, and also adjacent China and north-west Myanmar, to establish its distribution, status, habitat requirements and threats. Make recommendations for its conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas supporting populations of this and other threatened species, linked if possible to existing reserves. Promote conservation-awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture and promoting sustainable exploitation of natural resources.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148653	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spelaeornis badeigularis</em> was known from one specimen, collected at Dreyi in the Mishmi Hills of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>, in 1947. It was rediscovered in 2004 along Mayodia Pass in the Mishmi Hills where it was recorded as common. This remains the only known location for the species, but it may occur more widely in eastern Arunchal Pradesh if not the north-east Indian hills<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its population trends have not been assessed, but given the species tolerance of secondary habitats and the extent of forest within eastern Arunchal Pradesh it is unlikely to be declining rapidly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148653	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-specimen, an adult female, was collected in moist subtropical forest at 1,600 m in winter (January). It has since been recorded in dense undergrowth 1-3 m high in secondary forest, often with a broken canopy, within an altitudinal range between 1,800 and 2,400 m. This vegetation is typical of road-cuts and ravines. It is very active, typically remaining within 1 m of the ground. <br/></p>	eng
148653	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is known from only one locality, where it is reported to be common. It may be more widespread, but a precautionary population estimate of 2,500-9,999 is currently deemed appropriate. <br/></p>	eng
148653	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timber extraction in Dibang and Lohit districts in Arunachal Pradesh, combined with forest loss and degradation as a result of shifting agriculture, are the most significant potential threats. In 1992, an estimated 61% of the state was still forested, but rates of habitat destruction are rapidly increasing in parallel with increases in the tribal population of Arunachal Pradesh, which doubled between 1970-1990. However, given that the species inhabits secondary growth in upland areas, deforestation is unlikely to have a dramatic impact on the population in the near future. <br/></p>	eng
148654	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare and local (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148656	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known, although the Barail and Intanki protected areas might support populations.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct comprehensive surveys for the species in north-east India, to establish its range, distribution and population status, whilst assessing its habitat requirements and identifying threats. Make recommendations for its conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas supporting populations (probably in the Khasi Hills), linked to existing reserves where appropriate. Campaign against further large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Conduct widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture and promoting sustainable exploitation of natural resources.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148656	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spelaeornis longicaudatus</em> is endemic to hills south of the Brahmaputra river, north-east <strong>India</strong>, including the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, Cachar Hills of Assam, and Naga Hills of Nagaland. Formerly, it was quite common and widespread within this limited range (particularly in the Khasi Hills), but there are very few recent records. However, this partly reflects a paucity of ornithological fieldwork because of security problems.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148656	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is probably sedentary in dense undergrowth of moist broadleaved evergreen (particularly oak <em>Quercus</em> and <em>Rhododendron</em> forests) or pine <em>Pinus</em> forests, favouring ravines and steep, rocky, boulder-strewn hillsides covered with moss, ferns and orchids, between 1,000-2,000&#160;m. It is insectivorous, mainly terrestrial, occurring solitarily or in pairs, and is silent and unobtrusive. Breeding is from April-June.</p>	eng
148656	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,510 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of EOO) = 7,550-15,100, i.e perhaps best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from ecologically similar species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; density may be even higher as species described as 'common' and 'very numerous', but only in Mishmi Hills where significant habitat degradation has occurred. <br/></p>	eng
148656	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is presumed to be forest clearance, degradation and fragmentation, primarily as a result of shifting cultivation, but also through burning, cutting for fuelwood collection and, more locally, commercial timber extraction. This occurs both within and outside protected areas, where enforcement of regulations is often absent or impossible. Overgrazing of forest undergrowth by domestic livestock (which is a problem throughout its range) may pose a serious threat, given its reliance on understorey habitats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in much of its range, although uncommon in the south east (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148660	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neomixis flavoviridis</em> is endemic to <strong>Madagascar</strong> where it occurs in most areas of the eastern rainforest (apart from the Sambirano region)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is most common at mid-altitudes, between 600 and 1,400 m, being scarce or absent in most lowland forest and apparently absent from mossy forest at higher altitude<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a frequent member of mixed-species flocks, feeding in the understorey on insects which are gleaned from leaves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Mid-altitude forest is less threatened than most other forest-types in Madagascar, but is still decreasing steadily, due to forest destruction for subsistence agriculture and commercial logging, so the species could become threatened in the near future, given that it has a patchy distribution and is not particularly common within its restricted altitudinal range.  <br/></p>	eng
148661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148664	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare and local in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148666	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris dennistouni</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, in Ilocos Norte and the northern Sierra Madre mountains from Cape Enga&ntilde;o south (including Palanan, Los Dos Cuernos and Minuma) to Aurora province (Dingalan, Maria Aurora and the Talaytay watershed), where it is fairly common in primary forest and adjacent tall grass areas, but only below 1,000&#160;m. It is potentially at risk as deforestation in the region continues. <br/></p>	eng
148667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148669	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Mt Canlaon Natural Park (Negros) and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which only receives nominal protection. It also occurs in the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park, which reportedly contains the largest block of remaining forest in the Western Visayas, and Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes (Negros). Both sites benefit from conservation funding.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay and around Mts Silay and Mandalagan in north Negros, to locate additional important sites. Gazette the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and propose further key sites on Negros, e.g. forest at Ban-ban, and on Panay for urgent establishment as formal protected areas. Promote more effective protection measures for the North Negros Forest Reserve. Encourage careful reforestation activities around remaining forests.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148669	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dasycrotapha speciosa</em> is endemic to the islands of Negros and Panay in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. On Negros, it was formerly fairly common and widespread but is now generally uncommon and declining. Surveys in 1991 yielded tentative estimates of 22 birds per km<sup>2</sup> on Mt Canlaon, although only a few square kilometres of suitable forest remain. In 1987, it was discovered on Panay and is now known from five localities in the central mountains. However, it appears very uncommon and/or has a very patchy distribution.  <br/></p>	eng
148669	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest, forest edge and secondary growth below 1,000&#160;m, occasionally occurring up to 1,180&#160;m. Highest densities have been recorded in the thick undergrowth of degraded secondary forest and observations invariably come from the lower strata (up to 8&#160;m), where birds stay in deep cover and are consequently unobtrusive unless singing.</p>	eng
148669	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 22 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (Brooks <em>et al.</em> 1992) x 144 km<sup>2</sup> (area of remaining habitat (BirdLife International 2001) = 3,168 individuals ie best placed in band 2,500-10,000. <br/></p>	eng
148669	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Continuing forest destruction is the main threat. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988. Habitat degradation, particularly selective logging of large trees, continues to pose a serious threat to remaining fragments throughout its limited range. Very little lowland forest remains at Mt Canlaon, a key site for the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148670	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148671	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris striata</em> is endemic to Luzon, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where there are records from Lamao, Bataan, Mt Mariveles, Cape Enga&ntilde;o, Cagayan, Mt Cagua, Penablanca, Cagayan, Minuma, Siagot, Los Dos Cuernos, Mt Cetaceo, San Mariano ("Molino"), Isabela, Dilalongan, Aurora and Angat Dam. The species has been characterised as rare and local, and a bird of forest understorey although it sometimes occupies the middle and upper storeys too. It mainly occupies forest below 500&#160;m, but in the Sierra Madre it is locally common up to 850&#160;m. It persists in heavily degraded forest and overgrown clearings, nevertheless, the actual and potential habitat loss within its range is substantial. <br/></p>	eng
148672	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris latistriata</em> is endemic to Panay, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from montane mossy forest above 1,100&#160;m on Mt Baloy, Mt Madja-as, and Dagsalan, upper Aklan River. It is common in montane mossy forest on Mt Baloy, where it was the most abundant species and on Mt Madja-as. It is likely to occupy this habitat throughout the estimated 700&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of Panay's remaining closed-canopy high-elevation forest, much of which is on steep slopes greater than 45&#176; and hence relatively safe from both commercial logging and shifting agriculture. <br/></p>	eng
148673	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> The Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area has been proposed for conservation funding. This area includes c.40&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of high-altitude forest afforded nominal protection through the Negros Geothermal Reservation. Environmental awareness campaigns have been conducted near Mt Talinis itself. The Mt Canlaon Natural Park may afford some protection if it persists there. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong> Regularly monitor the status of the species on Mt Talinis. Continue to search for the species on Mt Canlaon. Promote stricter enforcement of existing legislation to curb deforestation at higher elevations on Mt Talinis. Expand environmental education initiatives around Mt Talinis.</strong></p>	eng
148673	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris nigrorum</em> is endemic to Negros in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from the vicinity of Mt Talinis in the south and from Mt Canlaon in the north. It is common around Mt Talinis, where surveys in 1991 recorded 76 individuals in a day, making it the second most frequently recorded species. However, it is likely to be declining within this very restricted range. There is only one (recent) record from Mt Canlaon, despite considerable subsequent fieldwork there, casting doubt over the importance of this site to the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148673	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane forest between 950 and 1,600&#160;m, chiefly occurring above 1,050&#160;m, generally favouring the lower storey. It evidently tolerates degraded habitats, having been recorded in recently degraded forest, secondary forest and dense bushes at the forest edge and in forest opened up for agriculture.</p>	eng
148673	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-11 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 212 km (45% EOO) = 2120-2332, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 individuals (population density from lowest two of nine estimates for six congeners in BirdLife Population Desnities Spreadsheet).  <br/></p>	eng
148673	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1988, it was estimated that a mere 4% of Negros remained forested. Deforestation, owing to agricultural encroachment and logging activities, has reached 1,250&#160;m on Mt Talinis, higher than any other site on Negros. In 1993, a large proportion of the forest was protected by a single guard who, in response to threats from slash-and-burn farmers, was confining his patrol work to the road up the mountain.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148674	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris hypogrammica</em> is endemic to Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from primary montane forest areas (above 1,000&#160;m) in the south of the island, as follows: Mt Victoria, Mt Mataling, Mt Borangbato, Mt Mantalingajan at the peak and at Magtaguimbong. All the evidence, including that of the original and recent observers, points to this species being common within its limited range.  <br/></p>	eng
148675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris grammiceps</em> is restricted to West Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>occurring in lowland and hill forest at 0-1,000 (1,400) m. Despite concerns that it is now fragmented within its limited range, it has been found to be extremely common at Gunung Halimun, with a density calculated at 332 birds per&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in primary and slightly disturbed forest between 750 and 1,100&#160;m. <br/></p>	eng
148676	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in a few protected areas: Hin Nam No, Khammouane Limestone and Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Areas, Laos and Phong Nha Nature Reserve, Vietnam.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct repeated surveys within the range to determine current distribution and abundance, and assess population trends and rates of habitat loss. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, particularly the importance of forests in lower karst areas, where deforestation is proceeding more rapidly. Effectively protect significant areas of suitable forest (particularly in lower parts of karst areas) at key sites, in both strictly protected areas and community led multiple use areas.	eng
148676	distribution		<em>Stachyris herberti</em> was historically known from only two lowland localities in central <strong>Laos</strong>, where it was collected in 1920. However, in 1994 it was found to be not uncommon in primary forest at a single locality in central Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>. Recent observations suggest that it is locally common in central Laos over a fairly wide area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
148676	habitat		This species frequents stunted evergreen forest in limestone gullies, steep cliffs and adjacent rock, at 230-610 m, foraging in small groups for small invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
148676	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148677	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148678	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148679	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The only known substantial population is in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, although it probably occurs in adjacent Kamlang WildLife Sanctuary. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in suitable habitat to establish its range, distribution and population status and to assess its habitat requirements and main threats. Make recommendations for its conservation, based on survey findings, including the establishment of protected areas, linked to existing reserves where appropriate. Campaign against further large-scale montane timber extraction within its range. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives in hill and mountain communities, aimed at reducing shifting agriculture.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris oglei</em> is endemic to the Patkai and Mishmi Hills of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, north-east <strong>India</strong> and adjacent northern <strong>Myanmar</strong>. It is rather poorly known, in part because little ornithological work has been conducted within its range. Historical collectors considered it rare and very local. However, a healthy population has recently been discovered in Namdapha National Park (Arunachal Pradesh), suggesting that it may be locally common.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148679	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds April-May in moist, dense scrub in rocky ravines up to 1,800&#160;m, and winters from 400&#160;m to at least 900&#160;m in bamboo and undergrowth of primary evergreen forest on rocky hillsides. It is generally encountered in winter in monospecific flocks of up to 20 individuals and is quite vocal, but wary and skulking.</p>	eng
148679	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
148679	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its tolerance of habitat degradation is not known making identification of specific threats difficult. However, the most significant is likely to be habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation as a result of commercial logging, clearance for tea cultivation and shifting agriculture. Forest in and around Namdapha National Park is becoming increasingly denuded owing to overgrazing of domestic livestock and collection of firewood. In 1992, an estimated 61% of Arunachal Pradesh remained forested, but rates of habitat destruction have increased along with the tribal population of the state, which doubled between 1970-1990.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common in its South-East Asian range and locally common in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148681	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris leucotis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in hill forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's abundance in hill-slope forests, which have been subject to considerably less destruction, implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148682	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris nigricollis</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong> in forest, including freshwater and peatswamp forest, to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia. In addition, peatswamp forest has been severely affected by recent fires. However, the species's use of submontane forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148684	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stachyris maculata</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in broadleaved forest to 800 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to persist in hill-slope forests implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148685	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148687	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148689	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148690	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148691	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148692	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macronous ptilosus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands, from peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Singapore (formerly), Kalimantan (including Anamba Islands) and Sumatra (including offshore islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is locally very common in lowland evergreen forest (including freshwater swamp forest, second growth and bamboo) to 700 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's ability to survive in second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local in Pakistan, local to fairly common in Nepal and widespread and locally common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148695	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in several protected areas, including Kaziranga, Manas and Dibru-Saikowa National Parks, India, and Chitwan National Park, Nepal.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to establish the species's current distribution and status, particularly in Myanmar and Bangladesh. Campaign for increased representation of swamps and wet grasslands within protected-area systems throughout its range. Identify the most important conservation sites for the species and conduct research into grass burning/harvesting regimes in order to develop optimum management strategies. Regulate harvesting of grass, overgrazing and encroachment at key sites, particularly within protected areas. Conduct education programmes throughout its range to promote grassland conservation and regeneration.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148695	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chrysomma altirostre </em>occurs in three disjunct populations, along the River Indus and its tributaries in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, in the terai of <strong>Nepal</strong> (where it has only recently been discovered), and the Brahmaputra floodplain in north-east <strong>India. </strong>It is known, historically, from the Irrawaddy-Sittang plains of <strong>Myanmar</strong>, and possibly Bangladesh. Recent records from Assam, its stronghold in India, suggest it has declined and in Pakistan it is uncommon and local. There are no recent records from Myanmar or Bangladesh. <br/></p>	eng
148695	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a presumed resident, inhabiting river floodplain tall (2-4&#160;m high) grassland, often seasonally inundated or in close proximity to rivers and pools, and predominantly comprising species of <em>Imperata</em>, <em>Saccharum</em>, <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em>. It prefers dense, contiguous, undisturbed stands of grass and generally avoids drier, semi-open, short grassland habitat with scattered bushes. It is unobtrusive and usually encountered in pairs or small groups. </p>	eng
148695	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,900 (10% EOO) = 3,900-19,500 ie perhaps best placed precautionarily in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from similar species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; total is compatible with detailed analysis of historical and recent records in BirdLife International [2001] e.g. 'very local' in Assam; population in Nepal estimated to be c.30 individuals; unclear if survives in Myanmar). <br/></p>	eng
148695	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large tracts of natural swamps and wet grassland have been destroyed or degraded throughout its range as a result of drainage and conversion for agriculture. This has been exacerbated in Pakistan by the construction of large barrages on the Indus, accelerating rates of land reclamation and conversion to cultivation. Most remaining habitat is subject to intense pressure from further drainage for agriculture, human encroachment, excessive burning and cutting, domestic livestock-grazing, and, more locally, commercial forestry plantations. The political situation in Myanmar has largely precluded intensive surveys for the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148696	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent and fairly widespread (Grimmett et al. 2000).	eng
148698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in south-east Iraq and south-west Iran (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148698	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the reedbeds of the Mesopotamian marshes, and is also found in rural habitats along rivers and irrigation canals (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148698	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common; common in Basra and Baghdad provinces of Iraq (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148698	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	There has been considerable loss of wetlands within its range due to large-scale projects for flood control, drainage and irrigation (Maltby 1994). These apparently prevented water from entering up to two-thirds of the marshes during 1992-1993, and satellite images show huge areas drying up (Evans 1993, Pearce 1993). The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) resulted in extensive burning, heavy bombing and the use of chemical weapons in the marshes (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The increase in settlement and improvement in access to the region has resulted in further disturbance, with levels of pollution increasing substantially through the use of insecticides (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
148699	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148702	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known to occur in two protected areas, Chitwan National Park, Nepal and Kaziranga National Park, India, both of which are thought to support significant populations.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat throughout its range to establish its current distribution and population status. Extend, upgrade and link existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of grassland. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of tall grassland loss and degradation. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on grassland regeneration and sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148702	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdoides longirostris</em> has a fragmented distribution in the terai of central <strong>Nepal</strong> and north and north-east <strong>India</strong>. Although described as locally common in the 19th century, recent records come from just two areas, one in Nepal (where its declining population is currently estimated at <1,000 birds) the other in Assam. There are unconfirmed historical reports from Bangladesh and Myanmar. <br/></p>	eng
148702	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a sedentary resident of tall grasslands in the lowlands, where it is usually found near water, and at least historically on grassy plateaus from 900-1,200&#160;m in Meghalaya, India. It is gregarious, but generally shy and difficult to observe, except during the breeding season, March-June, when it is more vocal and conspicuous.</p>	eng
148702	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis of historical and recent records in BirdLife International [2001]: the largest remaining population (in Chitwan NP) is estimated to number 1,000 individuals; but there have been few recent surveys elsewhere in its range. Estimate is compatible with calculation of 1-5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (extrapolated from similar species in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet) x 2,100 (10% EOO) = 2,100-10,500 i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148702	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat to the species. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, sugarcane, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, over harvesting of grass for thatch production, inappropriate grassland management within protected areas and heavy flooding in the Brahmaputra valley, as a result of run-off from an increasingly denuded catchment.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common Israel (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148705	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent, although rare in Senegal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148707	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the north of its range and fairly common in Kerala and western Tamil Nadu (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148710	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdoides rufescens </em>is endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where it is fairly common to common in the wet lowlands, usually rare on adjacent hills but occasionally common above 700 m. It appears to be almost restricted to primary forest in some areas (usually where Yellow-billed Babbler <em>T. affinis</em> is present), but is sometimes common in selectively logged or secondary forest, scrub or tea plantations. It is a characteristic component of mixed-species flocks, with up to 45 individuals counted in a group. Forest on the island has suffered degradation and fragmentation in recent decades due to excessive gathering of fuelwood, clearance for permanent agriculture, shifting cultivation, fire, urbanisation and logging. Within such a limited range there is a danger that severe clearance of wet zone vegetation would eradicate this species in the long-term, and rates of forest loss and fragmentation should therefore be monitored. <br/></p>	eng
148711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148713	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148714	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148715	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in east Sudan, fairly common in south-east Sudan and frequent to common in the Ethiopian highlands (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148718	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and widespread in Rwanda and Burundi (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148720	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148721	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has recently been recorded from Mwea National Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and rediscovered in Meru National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but only 8% of birds found during surveys in 1994 and 2000-2001 were recorded in these protected areas<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is also known from Wajee Camp, a small private sanctuary in the Mukurweini area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which provides a useful extra focus for conservation efforts. A site support-group has been established at Mukurweini, which actively monitors babbler numbers and breeding success within selected parts of the site<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A draft Species Action Plan has been prepared<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but an Action Plan support group has yet to be convened<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct an awareness-raising campaign in agricultural areas of its range, perhaps through local site support-groups for Important Bird Areas<strong><sup>2, 11</sup></strong>. Manage high-rainfall areas such that thickets cover at least 10% of the land area within a 100 m wide strip along each watercourse, and are relatively evenly distributed; care should be taken to retain thicket cover near the confluence of watercourses, facilitating dispersion between valleys<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Manage low-rainfall areas such that thickets cover at least 30% of the area within a 100 m wide strip along each watercourse<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Fell small patches of woodland in rotation, if scrub matures into woodland<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Monitor abundance and habitat quality at managed sites, and compare these with unmanaged sites<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Search for the species at sites from which it is thought to have been extirpated<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Assess the feasibility of re-establishing groups in suitably prepared areas within its former range<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Refine estimates of the size and distribution of populations, and monitor changes in abundance and productivity<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Conduct detailed ecological research, including food requirements and availability; habitat and fragment size requirements; dispersion; and impacts of group size<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
148721	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turdoides hindei</em> occurs only in central Kenya, near Mt Kenya. Its range is centred on Mukurweini and Kianyaga, with outlying populations in the Nyambeni Hills and Meru National Park in the north, Machakos to the south, and Kitui to the south-east<strong><sup>1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9</sup></strong>. Its continued existence at Athi river and Nziu has not been confirmed recently<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>. Since 1994, it has been recorded from six main sites: Mukurweini; Kianyaga; Mwea National Reserve; Machakos; Kitui; and Meru National Park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In addition, 1-2 groups have been reported each from Thika, Ol Doinyo Sapuk and the Nyambeni Hills<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Surveys at the six main sites during 1994 and 2000-2001 yielded a minimum population of 665 birds in 157 groups, with almost 75% of these found at Mukurweini and Kianyaga<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The overall population is estimated to be towards the lower end of 1,500-5,600 individuals<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. There have been no broad-scale estimates of population trend but, given the extent of its range contraction, its population has almost certainly decreased in the past 30-40 years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148721	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is a group-territorial, cooperative breeder<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In June-July, following the end of the long rains, groups typically comprise 3-4 adults, often accompanied by 1-2 fledglings or immatures<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It occurs in two contrasting habitats: thickets and woodland within semi-arid areas (e.g. Machakos and Mwea); and moist, fertile land largely cleared for agriculture, but with fragments of scrub, mainly of the exotic shrub <em>Lantana camara</em> (Mukurweini and Kianyaga)<strong><sup>4,5, 10</sup></strong>. In both, they are normally found in close proximity to dense vegetation associated with streams and rivers, and seem to be most abundant in higher rainfall (perhaps more invertebrate rich) areas with lots of thicket cover<strong><sup>3,5,10</sup></strong>. Nest records peak in March, May, and September to October, coinciding with main periods of rainfall<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Clutches of 2-3 eggs are laid in nests built at 1-3 m, usually in thickets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Productivity generally appears similar to congeners<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148721	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated to be towards the lower end of 1,500-5,600 individuals, based on surveys in 1994 and 2000-2001 (Shaw<em> et al.</em> 2003). <br/></p>	eng
148721	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A rapidly increasing human population and intensive farming within its range mean that remaining patches of thicket are being cleared rapidly, with little land left fallow or unweeded, and the thickets that remain are becoming increasingly fragmented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Thicket may also have been destroyed by rice irrigation and dams along the Tana river. Loss of thicket may have been partly mitigated by the spread of the exotic <em>Lantana camara</em>, which provides thicket cover in previously cleared areas. Its presence has probably slowed the species' decline, and may even have enabled it to colonise or re-colonise intensively farmed land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Disturbance during the breeding season appears to result in low breeding success<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Inbreeding and competition from Northern Pied-babbler <em>T. hypoleucus</em> do not appear to be threats to this species, although formerly suspected as such<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, hunting for food is a serious threat in some areas (e.g. Kianyaga)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Other potential threats are pesticide use, predation, brood parasitism (from Jacobin Cuckoo <em>Clamator jacobinus</em>) and low genetic diversity<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Angola and uncommon to locally common in Namibia, where the population is estimated as 53,170-104,970 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148727	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Babax waddelli</em> occurs in southern Tibet, <strong>China</strong>, and extreme north-eastern Sikkim, <strong>India</strong>, where it inhabits dense deciduous scrub above the treeline, particularly of <em>Hippophae rhamnoides</em>, and the edge of coniferous forest, at c.2,700-4,400 m. Within its restricted range, it has been described as locally common but, more recently, as rather scarce. It is presumably declining because of deforestation, although extensive pine and mixed coniferous forests with prickly oak and rhododendron still remain to the east of Lhasa. <br/></p>	eng
148728	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Babax koslowi</em> is restricted to the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, in eastern Tibet and southern Qinghai, <strong>China</strong>, where several large valleys cut into the plateau, including those of the Tongtian river (the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang or Yangtze), the Lancang Jiang (the upper Mekong) and the Nu Jiang (the upper Salween). It is known by just a few scattered records in this inaccessible and poorly known area, but it appears to be genuinely rather scarce and localised, in juniper forest and scrub, mixed fir and juniper forest and scrub bordering agricultural land at c.3,650-4,500 m. There is some logging of forest within its range, but it does not appear to be immediately threatened by habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
148728	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Information on population size is lacking, but it is suspected to be small owing to its restricted range and scarcity. <br/></p>	eng
148729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although locally rare in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148730	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148730	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has been heavily traded: since 1997 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 227,517 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
148731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest shrike-babbler (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148733	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Nepal to rare and local in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148734	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in India to generally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148736	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, the boundaries of which were established in 1999. This site is now the subject of a conservation project.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in Laos and Vietnam to determine its total range, distribution, approximate population size and seasonal habitat requirements. Undertake management, monitoring, training and education activities at Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve and support expansion of this protected area into Quang Nam province.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148736	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Actinodura sodangorum</em> is currently known from just seven associated localities in Kontum province in the western highlands of <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and one locality on the Dakchung Plateau, Xe Kong province in south-east <strong>Laos</strong>. It is predicted to occur at other locations in the Xe Kong and Attapu provinces of south-east Laos and Quang Nam province in Vietnam. It appears to be locally distributed, but not uncommon within its known range. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148736	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A presumed resident in Vietnam and Laos, it occurs primarily in evergreen forest and also adjacent secondary growth from c.1,000-2,400&#160;m, including small forest fragments with banana groves amid shifting cultivation and scrub on steeply sloping hillsides. In Laos, it has been found in tall, damp grassland and scrub adjacent to evergreen forest and open pine woodland at 1,150&#160;m, but not in evergreen forest and secondary growth nearby. All sightings have been of single birds or pairs, with one record of association with Black-headed Sibia <em>Heterophasia melanoleuca.</em> <br/></p>	eng
148736	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,200 (20% EOO) = 6,000-12,000 individuals, i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of 16 estimates for Asian forest babblers in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148736	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Further information is required on its habitat utilisation before specific threats can be identified. Shifting cultivation may be the greatest potential threat. In Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Vietnam, 13% of evergreen forest was lost between 1976-1995. However, given that it also occurs in seral forest formations, tall grass and scrub, it is unclear if it is seriously threatened by deforestation. A significant potential threat is a proposed major road development that will improve access to its range in Vietnam.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local in central Nepal, frequent in Bhutan and locally fairly common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common and widespread (Grimmett et al. 2000).	eng
148740	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common in India and very rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be a common resident (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to common (Robson 2000).	eng
148747	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded from several protected areas including Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve, Labahe Nature Reserve, Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site (Sichuan) and Dayao Shan Nature Reserve (Guangxi). Emei Shan is protected as a sacred mountain. Some forestry practices, notably leaving strips of primary forest along ridge-tops and replanting with native broadleaved trees, may be beneficial. Recent surveys have improved knowledge of its distribution, population and ecological and conservation requirements.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys and research with the aim of producing management recommendations for forests where it occurs. Gazette new protected areas where appropriate. Support recommendations to establish a network of protected areas for Sichuan Partridge <em>Arborophila rufipectus, as this will also protect habitat for this species. At Labahe Nature Reserve, reconstruct forest corridors to the Qionglai Shan Conservation Unit. Jointly manage Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve with Meigu Dafengding Reserve. Gazette the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Site as a nature reserve, control tourism and strengthen research work. Control logging and the planting of star anis at Dayao Shan Nature Reserve. Maintain strips of primary forest along ridge-tops, continue replanting with native broadleaved trees. </em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148747	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alcippe variegaticeps</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from south-central Sichuan and the mountains of northern Guangxi, although it presumably occurs in some of the intervening areas. Its population is inferred to be small and declining given the limited area of suitable habitat and the threats to it.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148747	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical broadleaved forest, usually with extensive shrub and bamboo undergrowth, often in small stream valleys, between c.700-2,000 m. It feeds on insects and spiders, foraging on mossy branches. </p>	eng
148747	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,550 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of EOO) = 1,550-15,500 i.e. perhaps best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals  (density derived from analysis of records in BirdLife International 2001 suggesting that this species occurs "at low density", and extrapolated from estimates for small forest passerines in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148747	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the loss and fragmentation of forest within its range, much of which has already been cleared or degraded through logging, conversion to agriculture and, in Guangxi, uncontrolled fire. Remaining forest is under intense pressure: almost all primary broadleaved forests in southern Sichuan are scheduled for logging in the next 20-25 years, although there has been a recent ban on logging in this part of China. Collection of bamboo shoots and grazing of livestock in forests causes disturbance during the breeding season.  <br/></p>	eng
148748	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Robson 2000).	eng
148750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in eastern Bhutan, locally fairly common in India and south-east China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common in the Himalayas in India; uncommon in China and generally scarce to locally common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148754	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in south China and common on Taiwan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148755	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in Bhutan, locally common in north-east India, uncommon in China and generally fairly common to common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148756	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alcippe brunneicauda</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> </strong>Kalimantan (including Natuna Islands) and Sumatra (including Batu Islands), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is fairly common in broadleaved forest to 1,000 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's preference for submontane forests, at least in Borneo, and use of second growth implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally very common to uncommon in India, locally common in Bangladesh and china and generally common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in west Java (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally very common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002).	eng
148761	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lioptilus nigricapillus</em> ranges from the north Eastern Cape, through East Griqualand, the Drakensberg and mistbelt forests of KwaZulu-Natal, the eastern Free State and Mpumalanga to the Northern Province in <strong>South Africa</strong>, as well as western <strong>Swaziland</strong>. The total range is less than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals, with between 500 and 1,000 estimated to be in reserves. Swaziland is thought to hold a resident breeding population of 40 individuals. It prefers major stands of mature forest in ravines fringed with thickets of <em>Leucosidea</em> and <em>Buddleja</em>. This habitat is often surrounded by grassland. Some of its scrub and forest habitat has already been lost to commercial afforestation. With the majority of its habitat expected to become severely afforested, this species may undergo serious declines in the future. <br/></p>	eng
148761	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The South African population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals and Swaziland is thought to hold a resident breeding population of 40 individuals (Barnes 2000).    <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148762	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is an ongoing conservation and development project at Mt Kupe. However, the forest still has no legal protection and there has been a slow extension of farmland on the northern slopes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The forests of Bakossi are still waiting to be classified, probably partly as forest reserves (open to timber concessions) and partly as protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary is the focus of a major conservation programme<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A small area of montane forest is protected on the Obudu Plateau<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Verify if the Foto forest near Dschang still exists and, if so, recheck the status of the population there<sup>3. Designate more protected areas in its range6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148762	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Kupeornis gilberti</em> is restricted to a few localities in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (Rumpi Hills, Bakossi Mountains, Banyang Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Mt Kupe, Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Mt Nlonako, Foto near Dschang), and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (Obudu Plateau). It is common on the Obudu Plateau<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong> and, in 1999, was found to be very common on Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the two most important sites for the species are the Bakossi Mountains and Rumpi Hills, because of the area of suitable forest remaining<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1998, the estimated population in Bakossi was several thousand individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148762	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be dependent on primary montane forest with high rainfall, but has also been seen in mature secondary growth, including 10&#160;m tall, scrubby but mossy <em>Maesa</em> forest on the southern slopes of Mt Manenguba<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and conifer trees around cattle-ranch buildings on the Obudu Plateau<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It occurs between 950-2,130&#160;m, but its distribution (particularly the altitude) seems well correlated with that of thick epiphytic moss<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is mainly insectivorous, searching for food in moss, epiphytes and crevices in bark. It has been recorded breeding in west Cameroon from June to November, and on the Obudu Plateau in April.</p>	eng
148762	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1998, the population in Bakossi, Cameroon, one of the most important sites for the species, was estimated at several thousand individuals (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 1998d), thus as a preliminary population estimate the species is placed in the range bracket for 10,000-19,999 individuals. Further documentation is required. <br/></p>	eng
148762	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Undisturbed forest throughout its range is under pressure from exploitation for timber and firewood, intensive grazing, fire and clearance for agriculture.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Kupeornis rufocinctus</em> is restricted to the Albertine Rift mountains in <strong>Burundi</strong>, <strong>Rwanda</strong> and <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> where it is known to occur in the Itombwe Mountains, Mt Kabobo, Nyungwe Forest and Mt Heha/Ijenda and Teza Forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a species of montane forest and bamboo at altitudes of 1,500-3,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Gregarious, it is found in groups of 3-8&#160;individuals which forage together on the trunks and branches of trees, taking insects and occasionally small fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species prefers very moist areas where the trees are covered in mossy epiphytes; in such favourable habitat it can occur at high density, with each group having a home range of 20-25&#160;ha <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, it is rare or absent from drier areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This is a species with a restricted range and, although it can be locally very common, it is known from only a few sites and the level of threat to these, particularly as a result of clearance for shifting agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, means that its long-term future is far from secure. <br/></p>	eng
148764	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Kupeornis chapini</em> is endemic to the Albertine Rift mountains of the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it is known from the Lendu Plateau, mountains west of Lake Edward, mountains west of Lake Kivu and the Itombwe Mountains. It is a species of transitional forest from 1,000-1,650&#160;m where it occupies the upper stratum<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has a relatively small range and its habitat is under threat as a result of clearance for shifting agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common across its range. The species is described as rare in Gambia and Benin, common in Senegal and frequent on the Freetown Peninsular, Sierra Leone and frequent to rare from Nigeria to the Central African Republic (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148767	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in one protected area, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, which was included in the list of protected areas endorsed by the Government of Vietnam for establishment in 1986. The final boundaries of the reserve have yet to be been agreed and no protection measures exist. However, this site is currently under less pressure from logging and hunting than most other areas on the Da Lat plateau.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in areas likely to support the species. Gazette an extension to, and initiate management activities in, Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve. Establish further protected areas containing populations of the species. Minimise further immigration into Lac and Krong Bong districts. Promote sustainable management of charcoal production on Mt Lang Bian and Ho Tuyen Lam and promote ecotourism there.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148767	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crocias langbianis</em> is endemic to the Da Lat plateau, southern <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it is known from the Lam Dong and Dac Lac provinces. Previously known from only five specimens collected at two localities in 1938-1939, it was rediscovered 1994. It appears to be very locally distributed and is considered fairly common only at Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve, one of three sites with recent records. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148767	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is resident in closed-canopy, tropical montane evergreen forest from 900-1,700&#160;m (most recent observations come from a narrow altitudinal band from 910-1,130&#160;m). Generally encountered in singles, pairs, and occasionally small groups of up to five, it is arboreal and forages with mixed-species flocks for invertebrates, particularly caterpillars, primarily in the outer canopy of broadleaved evergreen trees.</p>	eng
148767	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate, requiring ratification. <br/></p>	eng
148767	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	A government resettlement programme has greatly increased human pressure on the Da Lat plateau, exacerbating problems of forest degradation and fragmentation through logging, shifting agriculture, fuelwood-collection and charcoal production. Frequent use of fire to clear land for cultivation prevents evergreen forest regeneration and promotes unsuitable fire-climax pine-dominated woodland. These activities threaten all known sites for the species. On Mt Lang Bian, all land below 1,500&#160;m is now logged or under cultivation. At Chu Yang Sin, a road has been constructed that virtually reaches the 900&#160;m contour.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148768	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crocias albonotatus</em> is restricted to west Java, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>occurring in montane forest at 900-2,400 m. It is moderately common on Gunung Gede-Pangrango but seemingly rare on Gunung Halimun and is vulnerable to forest loss and perhaps trapping at lower levels. <br/></p>	eng
148769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local in Nepal, uncommon and local in Bhutan, generally scarce but locally frequent in India, uncommon to locally common in China and generally uncommon to fairly common in its South-East Asian range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest and most widespread sibia in the Himalayas (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in India and Myanmar and very local in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148772	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in north-east India, although rare in Nagaland; frequent in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, India and uncommon in Myanmar and China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148775	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range and locally very common at Gunung Niut Nature Reserve (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148776	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest Yuhina in the Himalayas, although locally uncommon to rare at low elevations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148778	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to locally common and scarce to uncommon in west Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in Nepal, abundant in Bhutan and common to uncommon in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in China and locally fairly common in Myanmar and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and China and uncommon to common in India (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148782	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in the central highlands of Taiwan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148783	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148784	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to scarce or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148785	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly scarce, uncommon in Nepal, frequent in the temperate zones of Bhutan, locally common in India, uncommon in Myanmar and rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148786	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in humid forest in east and north Madagascar (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148787	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Crossleyia xanthophrys</em>, a distinctive babbler in its own genus, is a fairly common resident of montane rainforest (900-2,300&#160;m) throughout eastern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, from Tsaratanana in the north to Andohahela in the south<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is mainly terrestrial, foraging for insects in the leaf-litter and among herbs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is usually found in pairs, or as family groups in mixed-species flocks with other small insectivores<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The species has been downlisted from Vulnerable to Near Threatened on the basis of recent research that has revealed a wider distribution and greater abundance than previously known. However, any significant decline or fragmentation of its habitat could render it Vulnerable.</p>	eng
148788	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
148789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 240000-480000 breeding pairs, equating to 720000-1440000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
148790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce throughout its range, although locally not uncommon, particularly in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather scarce; rare in Bhutan and fairly common in parts of China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148793	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from three protected areas in north-east India, Kaziranga and Dibru-Saikhowa National Parks and D'Ering Wildlife Sanctuary.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys in remaining suitable habitat throughout its range to establish its current distribution and status. Research habitat use and seasonal movements. Extend, upgrade and link, where possible, existing protected areas, and establish new ones, in order to adequately conserve remaining tracts of grassland. Promote regeneration of grasslands throughout its historic range. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of loss and degradation of tall grassland. Promote widespread conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland bird species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148793	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradoxornis flavirostris</em> is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, where it is known from the plains and foothills of the Brahmaputra valley in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, north-east <strong>India</strong>. Historically, it was also recorded in Bangladesh and possibly eastern Nepal. Formerly described as locally common, there are recent records from just three sites, one in Arunachal Pradesh and two in Assam, at one of which it appears to be common. <br/></p>	eng
148793	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense reed thickets, mixed tall grassland, wild cardamom and bamboo, predominantly on wet substrates, along lowland river floodplains and adjacent hills, where it also occurs in grassy forest clearings. It is found up to at least 900&#160;m, and locally up to 2,400&#160;m generally in small flocks, except during the breeding season (April- July). It is presumably resident, although there is some indication that it makes local seasonal movements in response to the rainy season.</p>	eng
148793	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,650 (10% EOO) = 3,650-36,500 individuals i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from similar species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148793	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The rapid and extensive loss and modification of tall grasslands and reedswamp throughout its limited range is the main threat. This is occurring as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, mustard and tea plantations), overgrazing by domestic livestock, grass harvesting for thatch production, inappropriate grassland management within protected areas and heavy flooding in the Brahmaputra valley, due to rapid run-off from an increasingly denuded catchment.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148794	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very widespread and generally fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148795	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148796	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and very widespread. Feral populations are becoming established in Italy. (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148797	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148798	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its natural range. The species has recently become established in north-west Italy (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148799	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A number of protected areas established for the giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has been recorded from Emei Shan Protected Scenic Area, Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve and Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserve (Sichuan), and Caohai (Guizhou). Emei Shan is protected as a sacred mountain. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered; in particular gazette as a nature reserve the Emei Shan Protected Scenic Area, link and jointly manage Mabian Dafengding and Meigu Dafengding Nature Reserves and gazette the Washan proposed nature reserve. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. List it as a protected species in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148799	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradoxornis zappeyi</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it is known from the mountains of south-central Sichuan and western Guizhou. It is locally common around the summit of Emei Shan and a flock of 10 was recently reported from a site in Guizhou. Records indicate that it exists at fairly high densities in suitable habitat, but its localised distribution suggests it could have a small population, which is likely to be declining given the threats to it.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148799	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in small flocks in scrub, bamboo and rhododendron in open, temperate zone conifer forest on exposed peaks and ridges near mountain tops, usually between c.2,350&#152;3,450 m, but with one record from c.1,000 m. It may make seasonal altitudinal movements, and movements in response to bamboo die-off.</p>	eng
148799	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,100 (10% EOO) = 4,100-41,000 individuals i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 (density range extrapolated from similar species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; analysis of records in BirdLife International [2001] suggests that locally it may occur at higher densities, but it may be highly locally distributed). <br/></p>	eng
148799	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest, although it is unclear how extensive habitat loss has been at high altitudes. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, as a result of exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture. It is possible that the periodic flowering and die-off of the bamboo, in combination with forest fragmentation, may affect its population. On Emei Shan, suitable habitat was cleared in 1998 for a tourist railway, which may also lead to disturbance as the number of tourists visiting the summit increases. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148800	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A number of protected areas established for the giant panda <em>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</em> contain suitable habitat, but the species's distribution and abundance in these is poorly known. It has only been recorded from one protected area, Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey protected areas in or near to its known range. Research its habitat requirements, altitudinal range and population status. Strengthen protection and link, where possible, protected areas where it occurs and where new populations are discovered. Support recommendations to control logging and fire and restore damaged giant panda habitat where this would benefit this species and other endemic temperate forest bird species. Control tourism in Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve. List it as a nationally protected species in China.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148800	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradoxornis przewalskii</em> is endemic to <strong>China</strong>, where it has been recorded from only four localities in the Min Shan mountains in southern Gansu province and adjacent parts of north-central Sichuan province. In Gansu, it was described as rare in the late 19th century. The only recent records (none since 1988) are from Jiuzhaigou National Park, where up to 15 have been seen, indicating that it may be rather numerous in suitable habitat. However, the paucity of records suggests it probably has a localised distribution and a small population, which is likely to be declining given the potential threats to it.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148800	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its ecology is poorly known. Historical records are from sparse larch woods, tussocks on a steep hillside and a bamboo thicket, at c.2,440-3,050 m. Recent records are from dense bamboo undergrowth in mixed coniferous forest and a bamboo thicket at 2,800 m. Its diet is mainly insects. Given that it appears to be particularly associated with bamboo, it may be forced to move in response to periodic bamboo flowering and die-off.</p>	eng
148800	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,300 (10% EOO) = 3,300-33,000 individuals i.e. perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from similar species in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; analysis of records in BirdLife International [2001] suggests that locally it may occur at higher densities, but it may be highly locally distributed). <br/></p>	eng
148800	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is likely to be the loss and fragmentation of forest. Forest cover has declined rapidly in Sichuan since the late 1960s, as a result of exploitation for timber and clearance for cultivation and pasture. Substantial areas of the temperate zone forests have been lost. It is possible that the periodic flowering and die-off of the bamboo, in combination with the fragmentation of temperate zone forests, may affect its population. <strong></strong></p>	eng
148801	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148802	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148803	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and generally not uncommon; common in China and uncommon to locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148804	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in China and Vietnam and very scarce and difficult to observe in other locations (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148805	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although fairly common at some scattered sites (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148806	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rather uncommon, although fairly common at some scattered sites (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
148807	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paradoxornis heudei<strong> </strong></em>is known from Lake Khanka in Primorye, <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Mongolia</strong>, and Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Shandong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang and Jiangxi, <strong>China</strong>, where it is locally common in reedbeds bordering rivers, lakes and the coast. It is presumably declining, as several of the sites where it has been recorded recently in eastern China are under severe threat, and reedbeds appear to be under pressure everywhere in China. <br/></p>	eng
148808	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148812	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are many traditional rangeland reserves (mahjur) in south-west Arabia, where the vegetation (including trees) is protected by private or communal ownership-rights from excessive exploitation, in order to provide fodder in times of drought<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the management of these areas has been widely neglected or abandoned since the advent of more convenient supplies of supplemental livestock feed<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species occurs in at least two protected areas in Saudi Arabia: Raydah Reserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Asir National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Encourage non-intensive agroforestry practices. Collect more data on its range and distribution, in order to better explain its highly localised occurrence. Conduct a closer study of its strong association with the tree <em>Acacia origena</em>. <br/></p>	eng
148812	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sylvia buryi</em> is a very local resident in montane south-west Arabia from 1,500-2,900 m<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It occurs from 19&#176;30'N in the southern Asir mountains (<strong>Saudi Arabia</strong>) south to 13&#176;55'N at Jiblah (<strong>Yemen</strong>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although the species can be locally common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and population densities<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong> probably fall within the range 1-100 mature individuals per km<sup>2</sup> at the sites where it occurs, such sites are very few and it probably therefore has a very small area of occupancy. On this basis, its population is inferred to number less than 10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148812	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Yemen it is closely associated with woodland dominated by the tree <em>Acacia origena</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which generally occurs as copses, hedgerows and scattered trees in highland landscapes of terraced cultivation, while in Saudi Arabia it also occurs within well-developed <em>Juniperus </em> woodland<strong><sup>4,5,8</sup></strong>. It nests in a bush or tree, with breeding recorded from March to July<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
148812	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 630 km<sup>2</sup> (1% EOO) = 6,300, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (AOO probably very small % of EOO, as species occurs very locally at just a few sites within its range; population density lower end of 10-100 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> derived from estimates of abundance in Newton and Newton [1996]). <br/></p>	eng
148812	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lopping and cutting of trees and shrubs -- for fuel, fodder and building material -- are proceeding at unsustainable levels in many parts of Yemen<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong> (where the human population is expanding rapidly), and are likely therefore to be causing a net loss of dense wooded cover. Loss of well-wooded farmland to infrastructural development and agricultural intensification may also be a threat in Saudi Arabia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Together, these threats imply that the species's population is likely to be decreasing, since woodland regeneration is poor over much of its range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148813	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Ethiopia and more scarce elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148814	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148815	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148816	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common and widespread in favourable habitat throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148817	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Shirihai et al. (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10,000,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 25000000-49000000 breeding pairs, equating to 75000000-147000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 79800000-196000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148818	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Shirihai et al. (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10,000,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 17000000-31000000 breeding pairs, equating to 51000000-93000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 54300000-124000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Shirihai et al. (2001) estimated the population to exceed 10,000,000 individuals, but in Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000000-25000000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000000-75000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 56800000-150000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148820	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4800000-7800000 breeding pairs, equating to 14400000-23400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 29400000-93600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148821	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148822	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably locally common, although poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148823	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000-5000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000-15000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148824	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 460000-1000000 breeding pairs, equating to 1380000-3000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1860000-6000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148825	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170000-480000 breeding pairs, equating to 510000-1440000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
148826	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent in Africa (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
148827	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 200000-610000 breeding pairs, equating to 600000-1830000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148828	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3100000-8100000 breeding pairs, equating to 9300000-24300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12600000-48600000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 70000-140000 breeding pairs, equating to 210000-420000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148830	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1400000-3200000 breeding pairs, equating to 4200000-9600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4470000-12800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148831	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 43000-150000 breeding pairs, equating to 129000-450000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148832	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 180000-440000 breeding pairs, equating to 540000-1320000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
148833	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
148834	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 100,000-1,000,000 km². It has a large global population, including an estimated 3,700,000-7,500,000 individuals in Europe (BirdLife International in prep.). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
148835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 29000-75000 breeding pairs, equating to 87000-225000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
148836	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be numerous in Australia, common in the Lesser Sundas, uncommon in the Philippines and rare in China (Flegg and Madge 1995, Coates et al. 1997, Robson 2000, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Kennedy et al. 2000).	eng
148839	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mirafra cheniana</em> is primarily restricted to <strong>South Africa</strong>, with a few small, scattered populations in <strong>Zimbabwe</strong> and <strong>Botswana</strong>. In South Africa, its range is centred on the northern portion of the Eastern Cape and the Free State, but populations are fragmented and patchy. It also occurs at scattered localities through the Northern Province, North West Province, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal. Atlas data suggest it has a maximum range of 110,400 km<sup>2</sup>. It appears to be sensitive to overgrazing, and has disappeared from heavily grazed areas in the Northern Cape and in KwaZulu-Natal at Matatiele, where it was common in the early 1900s. Crop-farming and industrialisation have also transformed a large proportion of its favoured grassland habitat. Land-use changes in the next 20 years may severely impact this species. <br/></p>	eng
148840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in parts of east Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or rare (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148843	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mirafra williamsi</em> is endemic to northern <strong>Kenya</strong> where it is found in two disjunct populations, one in the Didi Galgalla Desert (north of Marsabit) and the second between Isiolo and Garba Tula<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Marsabit population inhabits scattered short-grass areas with low shrubs growing on rocky desert plains and red lava soils, while the Isiolo population inhabits uniform stands of low <em>Barleria</em> shrubs on rocky lava desert<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> at 600-1,350 m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species was not discovered until 1955 and its ecology, distribution and population parameters remain little known<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects and seeds but nothing is known of its breeding ecology<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or the threats it faces. Williams's Lark is easiest to locate at dawn after the rains, when males engage in very long song flights around their territories<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
148844	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mirafra pulpa</em> is a very poorly known species. In <strong>Kenya</strong>, it is known from six specimens and a few sight records (although these include an observation of at least 150 individuals), principally from Tsavo East and West National Parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The type specimen was collected in <strong>Ethiopia</strong> in 1912<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it has only been seen there once since, in 1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are also several records from Mkomazi Game Reserve in <strong>Tanzania</strong> during 1994-1996<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and a single record from south of Arusha in August 1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that the species is migratory since birds have been found among other migrants attracted to the lights of Ngulia Safri Lodge in Tsavo West, and it is only found at certain times of year (e.g. during the rains in Tsavo)<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but there is no information on the extent or pattern of any movements. It appears to prefer fairly dense grassland with bushes, possibly avoiding drier areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and feeds on grass seeds, small grasshoppers and beetles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are no known threats to the species but it is apparently rare. It is best identified by its characteristic song: a single long drawn-out 'hoo-ee-oo' note, with a slight emphasis on the middle part, repeated at 1-2 second intervals. This is given during undulating display flights, or from the tops of small bushes, and is also often given at night<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is solitary and rather wary. Further information is required about this lark's abundance, ecology, seasonal movements and possible threats. <br/></p>	eng
148845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common within suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148846	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148847	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No conservation action or fieldwork relating to this species has been undertaken for many years, due to the political instability in the area.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify its distribution and population size and trend<sup>1. Study its ecology, including the effects of grazing-levels, to assess potential threats to it.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148847	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mirafra ashi</em> remains known from only one small area just north of Uarsciek (80&#160;km north of Mogadishu) in south-eastern <strong>Somalia</strong>, between 2&#176;00'N and 2&#176;30'N, where it is locally common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has not been reported from the coast to the south-west of this site, where there has been intensive ornithological fieldwork. It is possible that it may occur north along the coast at least to 3&#176;N (increasing its range to c.3,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) as this area is virtually unexplored ornithologically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nine other species of lark occur in the area, and <em>M. ashi</em> could easily have been overlooked among <em>M. hypermetra hypermetra</em> and Somali Long-billed Lark <em>M. somalica rochei</em>. <br/></p>	eng
148847	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Little is known about this species, which is found on semi-arid (350&#160;mm rainfall), open, coastal grassy plains with a few, small, scattered bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Like <em>M. somalica</em>, it often runs across open ground between grass tussocks before perching on top of them<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148847	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 3,460-6920 (10-20 individs/km<sup>2</sup> x 346km<sup>2</sup> [20% EOO]), i.e. in the band 2,500-10,000.  The species is described as "locally common", so use the median to upper quartile of ten estimates of seven <em>Mirafra</em> spp. in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
148847	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If its range is indeed restricted to this single locality, it may be seriously threatened by new coastal developments reported from the area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The ecological relationship of this species with grazing animals is unknown, but it has been suggested that reduced numbers of domestic stock due to drought and loss of wild ungulates due to over-hunting may adversely affect its habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148848	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148849	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in many parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148852	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148853	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in some parts of its range, although generally scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148858	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most areas (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148860	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be sporadic, irregular and local (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148863	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type locality was visited briefly in May 2008 but no birds were located<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. If the bird is found again, then some land could be legally purchased and protected<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to establish its range, distribution and population status: Intensive searches are needed along the Ethiopian-Somali border, perhaps in April-May when it may be singing and more conspicuous. </strong>When it is re-discovered, investigate how it is affected by grazing. Purchase land for appropriate management. <br/></p>	eng
148863	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Heteromirafra archeri</em> is known from a very restricted area from Jifa Medir to Ban Wujaleh, west of Hargeisa in north-west <strong>Somalia</strong>, along the Ethiopian frontier. It was not seen at its original site, or in the area of Ethiopia adjacent to its range in Somalia, during five visits to the region between the 1970s and 1990s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, nor on ten occasions during 1996-2006<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, although a possible sighting was reported from there in 2003<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and another was claimed in Jijiga, extreme eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong> in 2004<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, its secretive habits make it very difficult to observe.<em> <br/></p>	eng
148863	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in an area with 300-400 mm rainfall per year. Habitat at its two known sites varies: one is open grassland and the other fairly open, rocky country with scattered and sparse bush and limited grass cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It avoids open spaces, creeping through grass cover, and flies reluctantly<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its diet is unknown. Nests have been observed in June, and clutch-size is three<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148863	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate based on lack of confirmed sightings since 1955, despite several recent searches, and subsequent changes in habitat at type locality. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
148863	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The original grassland site in Somalia was settled and cultivated by refugees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, resulting in the disappearance of the tussocky perennial grasses described as the species's habitat in 1922<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The refugees left 19 years ago, but the area is now more intensively farmed and grazed than ever before<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. People have staked out land claims on the plain, and these plots are being surveyed and registered, and the owners issued with title deeds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148864	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Fieldwork took place in 2007-2008 to investigate the species's status<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A workshop in 2009 involving key stakeholders resulted in the creation of an intersectoral committee to manage the restoration of the Liben Plain, an agreement to oppose any further agricultural expansion and a willingness to work with conservation organisations to preserve pastoralism<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct further surveys (during the breeding season, when birds are likely to be singing and hence most conspicuous) throughout the Negele Plateau to establish its range and population, and determine whether there is a significantly biased sex ratio. Investigate the causes of bush encroachment in the area<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Urgently determine the most appropriate means to safeguard areas of suitable habitat from further degradation and disturbance. Identify key areas where livestock and disturbance can be kept to a minimum and the natural fire regime is maintained. Raise awareness of the local communities and authorities of this important endemic taxon.	eng
148864	distribution		<em>Heteromirafra sidamoensis</em> was for some time known only from two specimens collected at adjacent sites near Negele in the former Sidamo province (now Guji Zone), southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, in May 1968 and April 1974. Since 1994 there have been subsequent sightings of small numbers (<10 on each occasion) in the Negele area. Analysis of these locations on satellite images and recent fieldwork suggests that the species is restricted to a very specific habitat (tall-grass prairie) in the calcareous plateau east and south of Negele<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Between 1973 and 2002 the area of tall-grass prairie decreased by about 30%, and in 2003 much of it was being rapidly encroached by agriculture and shrubs (<em>Acacia drepanolobium</em> and others) that are probably favoured by excessive grazing pressure and the suppression of seasonal fires<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Remaining grassland is being heavily degraded by overgrazing<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. By 2007-2008 it appeared to be restricted to a single grassland patch 30-36 km<sup>2</sup> in area, and the global population was estimated at just 90-256 mature individuals, with the effective population size perhaps even smaller owing to a potentially skewed sex ratio caused by predation of females on the nest<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Without urgent and concerted intervention global extinction is likely within the next few years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
148864	habitat		All reliable records appear to fall within or near grassland areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Recent sightings have been in grassland with a few scattered <em>Acacia</em> bushes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A possible sighting in 1971 in dense <em>Acacia</em> woodland seems doubtful<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been found to avoid woody vegetation, very short grass and bare ground (all symptomatic of degraded rangelands), and to favour a grass sward of intermediate height (5-15 cm)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. It has never been recorded from croplands<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
148864	population		The total range appears to be a single grassland patch just 30-36 km<sup>2</sup> in area, and its population density is an order of magnitude lower than previously suspected, inferring a global population of 90-256 mature individuals (Spottiswoode <em>ei al </em>2009).	eng
148865	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The only publicly-owned nature reserve supporting this species is Verloren Valei Nature Reserve, which was recently recognised as a Ramsar site<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The developing land stewardship programme centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom is estimated to hold c.85% of the global population<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than forestry, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption. Provide incentives for landowners to manage grassland appropriately. </strong>Prevent the encroachment of invasive aliens that will potentially impact upon threatened habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey the eastern Free State for this species. Continue research into its ecological requirements and the effects of management practices. Investigate the scale and effect of uncontrolled agricultural expansion, and its effect on the species<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148865	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Heteromirafra ruddi</em> is an endemic resident of east <strong>South Africa</strong>. Although records are spread over a large area, its distribution within this area is patchy. The core of its restricted range is centred on south-east Mpumalanga, north-west KwaZulu-Natal and the north-east Free State. Small, isolated populations are found farther north in the Dullstroom-Machadodorp district, farther south at Matatiele in west KwaZulu-Natal, and at Ncora Dam and Molteno in the Eastern Cape. Recent data have contradicted suggestions of a substantial range contraction. However, there is considerable evidence for local population decreases. Specimens from Warden in the Free State and sight records from the Memel-Vrede-Warden-Harrismith arc suggest that there may be a substantial, previously overlooked, population in the eastern Free State. <br/></p>	eng
148865	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found within open, grazed, level grassland without forb invasion, in high rainfall (>600 mm p.a.), sour grassland regions. It prefers hill tops or plateaux, favouring trampled areas with low ground cover. Relatively high abundances are found at severely grazed sites, suggesting that intensive grazing does not necessarily affect this species adversely, provided it does not lead to an invasion of forbs or other non-grasses. It also favours edges of pans and vleis. Recent research indicates that the species would best be conserved under controlled mixed stocking rates of sheep and cattle with burning carried out every second year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148865	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Siegfried (1992) suggested a global population of 1,500-5,000 individuals. Estimates for the proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve (Barnes and Tarboton 1998) suggest that 2,500 individuals is a more realistic lower limit for this species. <br/></p>	eng
148865	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss and fragmentation, as a result of afforestation, agricultural intensification and inappropriate pasture management, have resulted in local population reductions. Further commercial afforestation may become a threat in the future, especially along the Mpumalanga escarpment and in the Wakkerstroom district, but no large scale commercial operations are known to exist currently<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by the encroachment of alien silver and black wattle as a result of earlier forestry operations elsewhere<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Uncontrolled ploughing of pristine/near-pristine habitat as part of agricultural initiatives to alleviate food shortages has also been reported<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other primary threats include mining, dense human settlement and unsuitable fire regimes and grazing practices. Within South Africa as a whole, 60-80% of grassland has been irreversibly transformed. All of South Africa's maize crop and much of its wheat is produced in former grassland areas, illustrating the magnitude of threats this species faces today. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148867	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Consider government incentives to farmers in southeast Botswana to maintain traditional agricultural methods<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Carry out regular monitoring of the core population in Botswana as well as that in South Africa. <br/></p>	eng
148867	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Certhilauda chuana</em> has two disjunct populations: one on the Pietersburg Plateau in the Northern Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, and a larger population in south-eastern <strong>Botswana</strong> and the North-west Province, South Africa. This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>.  The South African population numbers 500-5,000 individuals, and there may be over 20,000 pairs in Botswana, which is thought to hold 80-90% of the total population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species may have undergone a localised range contraction and population reduction in South Africa<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although its distribution may also be influenced by seasonal or eruptive movements and it appears to be stable within its core range in Botswana<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148867	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It prefers open habitat, sparsely vegetated with short grass and scattered trees or bushes, particularly where grass has been severely grazed. In South Africa it is associated with <em>Tarchonanthus</em> bushveld. In Botswana it is restricted to areas under traditional agricultural regimes, especially fallow land with coppiced <em>Acacia tortilis</em> and heavy livestock grazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	>20,000 pairs estimated within core range in Botswana, which is estimated to hold 80-90% of the total global population (C. Brewster <em>in litt. </em>2009). The total global population is therefore estimated to lie within the band 50,000-99,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148867	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Changes in agricultural policies that favour bush thickening or the reduction of open, lightly-grassed habitat could reduce populations significantly<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. In southeastern Botswana Short-clawed Lark is almost completely confined to fallow land that has been cultivated for field crops using traditional agricultural practices. In recent years there has been a large decline in the area of land cultivated with sorghum and maize using traditional practices<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This decline, if it continues, has the potential to have an adverse impact on Short-clawed Lark in southeastern Botswana However, despite large-scale habitat alteration occurring in many areas, the eastern population in Botswana is apparently stable<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and it remains fairly common in suitable habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially in the west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148870	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Important populations are found in private reserves at Black Mountain Mine Nature Reserve (700-900 pairs, including the adjacent Haramoep farm), Mattheus-Gat Conservation Area (200-300 pairs) and Bitterputs Conservation Area (150-250 pairs). None of these areas are protected by the state but all have been recently identified as Important Bird Areas (IBAs)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor grazing pressure, especially in the Koa river valley. Establish managed reserves. Offer incentives to private landowners with important dunes in order to limit grazing . Re-establish suitable grass and forb communities to increase populations in some areas. Ensure conservation plans cover the three main habitat zones - the north-western dunes, the south-central alluvial plains and the eastern dunes.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148870	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Certhilauda burra</em> is confined to the Northern Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, where it occurs from east of Steinkopf, east to Aggenys and south to the Kliprand area. From there, it occurs south to Klein Soutpan, where it is found on sand-dunes from east of Verneukpan and Fortuinkolksepan south and east to Brandvlei and isolated dunes in the Brospan area. Two records from south Namibia are regarded as questionable. It mostly follows the distribution of red sand-dunes south of the Orange river, with the majority of the population found in the fossil Koa river valley. Only c.5% of its range contains suitable habitat, and most (75%) has been overgrazed and degraded, leaving an area of occupancy of c.1,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>. Although there is no evidence to suggest that the limits of its range have contracted, there is evidence for local population declines. <br/></p>	eng
148870	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs on dune ridges and eroded dunes, alluvial plains, and even clay-pans with pebbles. It favours areas where large-seeded tussock-grasses are dominant. It requires territories in multi-layered vegetation, with annual large-seeded grasses for food, perennial grasses with plumed awns for nest material and nest-sites, and taller shrubs and trees to provide perches. It feeds on invertebrates, seeds and fruit.</p>	eng
148870	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population has been estimated at 9,400 individuals (Barnes 2000).  <br/></p>	eng
148870	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species has lost 75% of its habitat in the past 100 years. Domestic livestock, chiefly sheep, have caused loss and fragmentation of sensitive dune vegetation. Extensive ranching may have resulted in trampling and grazing which has changed vegetation structure and reduced plant cover, causing erosion and shifting of dunes. All remaining suitable habitat is under continuing grazing pressure from domestic livestock. <br/></p>	eng
148871	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in central and south-west Angola, where it is sparse and local on the central plateau and common in the arid south-west; Namibia, where it is widespread and common; Botswana, where is is widespread but absent from the north-east; and South Africa, where it is widespread and often common on the Transvaal highveld, local in Natal, widespread and common to fairly common in Orange Free State, widespread in Cape Province, and particularly common in the Karoo, with isolated records from the Pietersburg plateau (Keith et al. 1992). An isolated population occurs in Tanzania near Kingerete, 30-50 km north of Arusha (Zimmerman et al. 1996).	eng
148871	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in a range of habitats from well-grazed high rainfall grasslands (Keith et al. 1992) and overgrazed, treeless plains (Zimmerman et al. 1996), to shrublands in the Karoo, lawns and sports fields, desert margins and gravel plains (Keith et al. 1992). It occurs in pairs or groups of up to 10 birds (more commonly three to five) (Keith et al. 1992). It feeds on ants, termites, beetles, other invertebrates and seeds (Stipagrostis grasses and forbs Monsonia umbellata) (Keith et al. 1992). It has been recorded breeding cooperatively (Keith et al. 1992). The nest is a cup of dry grass and rootlets, placed in a scrape in sandy soil at the base of a grass tuft or shrub, usually on a base of stones, earth or sticks; clutch size is 2-3. The breeding season varies with the region (Keith et al. 1992). Adults are preyed on by the Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range, although scarce at the periphery of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range and locally super-abundant after good rains (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common and can be locally abundant if conditions are favourable (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in Pakistan and common in India (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare on Fogo island, Cape Verde and uncommon in Jordan and abundant on Sal, Boavista, and mayo, Cape Verde and very common in central Saudi Arabia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common in the north of India (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 30-300 breeding pairs, equating to 90-900 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but local (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to sparse (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148886	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000000-24000000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000000-72000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 61200000-288000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000000-2200000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000000-6600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12500000-132000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148890	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in the steppe belt that extends east from the Volga River through Kazakhstan to Mongolia, but winters more widely in the steppe region to the north and west of the Black Sea, with Europe holding more than 50% of the global wintering range.	eng
148890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 20,000-65,000 breeding pairs, equating to 60,000-195,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range.	eng
148891	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large global population, including an estimated 4,000-7,000 pairs in Europe, in south-eastern European Russia, which accounts for less than a quarter of its global range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Populations in the most suitable habitat in central Kazakhstan have been estimated to be in the "hundreds of thousands, and maybe even millions of breeding pairs"<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Interpretation of the limited available information on population trends is complicated by the species's nomadic nature and large interannual fluctuations in abundance and distribution. The European population declined by 20-50% during 1970-1990, and over 50% during 1990-2000, as a result of steppe cultivation and overgrazing<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. In the Volgograd Region (Russia and western Kazakhstan), there has been a steady decrease in the species's numbers from the mid-1960s to 2000<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Spring surveys in the Uzen Limans area (western Kazakhstan) revealed declines exceeding 99% between 1985 and 1995<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In parts of the Kostanay region (northern Kazakhstan), where the species was once widespread and numerous, its distribution and abundance have decreased noticeably over the past 25 years, and in 2005 large numbers were seen in only two areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, in other areas of north-central Kazakhstan, the species was relatively common in 2005, especially in the taller steppe vegetation<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. In summary, in Kazakhstan, the species appears to have a relatively stable population and is common in suitable habitats (although not dispersed evenly, with empty areas)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In wintering areas in Uzbekistan, numbers are weather-dependent, but generally stable<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4,000-7,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000-21,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). However, europe forms only 5-24% of the global range. Populations in the most suitable habitat in central Kazakhstan have been estimated to be in the "hundreds of thousands, and maybe even millions of breeding pairs" (Timothy Barabashin in litt. 2005).	eng
148891	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by the loss of steppe to cultivation and livestock farming (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7300000-14000000 breeding pairs, equating to 21900000-42000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 91300000-840000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant in the south of its range and more local and uncommon in the north (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon in China,  frequent to scarce in Pakistan, common in Nepal, common in Ladakh, not very common in Sikkim and rare in Bhutan ( Grimmett et al. 1998, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
148895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1600000-4000000 breeding pairs, equating to 4800000-12000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9800000-48000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000-30000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000-90000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
148897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in the south of its range and more sporadic in the north (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148900	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	Most records of <em>Spizocorys sclateri</em> come from the Nama Karoo in central and north-western Cape Province, <strong>South Africa</strong>, with relatively few records from southern <strong>Namibia</strong>. Within this range, it is uncommon and local, and appears nomadic at the edge of its range, moving in response to rainfall patterns. Elsewhere, it seems to be a highly predictable breeder, nesting in the same patch and at the same time each year, irrespective of rainfall. It inhabits arid and semi-arid gravel and stony plains with scattered shrubs and grasses on shale soils, and sparse dwarf-shrublands on clays, but is usually found within accessible distance of surface water. There is no actual evidence of range contraction or population decline. However, populations are severely fragmented and monitoring is necessary to assess whether this species is prone to fluctuations in numbers and range. The effect of developments such as increased use of its habitat by livestock are also unknown&#152;it may benefit from the presence of stock water-points, but grazing may have a deleterious impact. <br/></p>	eng
148901	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizocorys obbiensis</em> is restricted to a narrow coastal strip in south-eastern <strong>Somalia</strong>, where it is found in large, fixed and vegetated dunes. It is known to occur along c.570 km of coast, from Halhambe to 47 km south of Jiriiban<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is restricted to a strip only about 1 km wide in the south, but occurs up to 40 km inland in the north<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The most recent sighting was in April 2006, when several pairs were seen in Ceel Dheer and Mareeg<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species has been reported as abundant, being found in pairs, small parties and occasionally flocks of up to 30 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded in May, June and November, with a clutch size of 2-3<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although this species can survive in heavily grazed habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, it is possible that further intensification of grazing and increased demand for fuelwood, particularly in areas close to Mogadishu will lead to the destabilisation of dunes and consequently the destruction of the species's habitat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. However, there have been no recent surveys and therefore its status is uncertain. <br/></p>	eng
148902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148903	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is not known to breed in any protected area. However its preferred habitat is close-cropped grassland as found on livestock farms. The proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom, and particularly the Amersfoort-Bethal-Carolina District (recently identified as an Important Bird Area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), are believed to hold extremely important numbers of this species.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Promote land management practices such as monitored livestock farming in the Moist Clay Highveld Grassland areas. Lobby for the 1 million ha Grassland Biosphere Reserve and engage sound management practices within this protected area. Raise awareness of and involve landowners in management practices for this species outside of protected areas<sup>3. Survey the eastern Free State for this species. Monitor its population trends. Research its ecology, breeding requirements, response to different grazing and burning regimes, and how fragmentation is affecting genetic integrity. Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than forestry, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption. Prevent or minimise deleterious management regimes.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148903	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizocorys fringillaris</em> is an endemic resident of <strong>South Africa</strong>, with a very restricted distribution centred on south Mpumalanga and the eastern Free State. The global population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals. It is generally uncommon, but where it is locally common it can be found at densities of up to 1/km<sup>2</sup>. Habitat loss suggests a concomitant population decline, and there is substantial evidence for local decreases and possibly local extinction events. Sight records from the Memel-Vrede-Warden-Harrismith arc, and near Kroonstad and Wesselbron, suggest that there may be previously overlooked populations in the eastern Free State. Less than 1% of the global population is currently within protected areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148903	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to well-grazed upland grasslands, mostly coincident with black clay soils, known as Moist Clay Highveld Grassland. It prefers short, dense, severely grazed natural grassland on plateaux and upper hill slopes, avoiding rocky areas, taller grass in bottomlands, vleis, croplands and planted pastures. It makes local movements in small parties outside the breeding season, favouring severely grazed, seasonally burnt and trampled patches<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates and seeds, and appears dependent on surface water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148903	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The global population has been estimated at 1,500-5,000 individuals (Barnes 2000). <br/></p>	eng
148903	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Arable agriculture and, to a lesser extent, forestry have transformed nearly 80% of suitable habitat. Commercial afforestation is likely to become a serious threat in the immediate future, especially along the Mpumalanga escarpment, a major target area for forestry. Other primary threats include mining and unsuitable fire regimes and grazing practices. The grassland biome is the least conserved biome in South Africa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Importantly its favoured habitat is intensively grazed areas as found on livestock farms. <br/></p>	eng
148904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant in its core range, although less so towards the periphery of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148906	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chersophilus duponti</em> has two races: the nominate is found in <strong>Spain </strong>(mainly east Castilla y Le&oacute;nand Arag&oacute;n, also west Castilla y Le&oacute;nnear Portugese border, east Castilla-La Mancha and south-east Andaluc&iacute;a), <strong>Morocco </strong>(mostly in north-east, east of Midelt and the river Moulouya, also recent records from south of Great Atlas) and north <strong>Algeria </strong>(Hauts Plateaux); race <em>margaritae </em>is found in Algeria (south slopes of Atlas Mountains east to Biskra), south-east <strong>Tunisia</strong>, northern <strong>Libya </strong>and coastal west <strong>Egypt</strong>. It is sparsely distributed and uncommon in most areas of its relatively small and fragmented range. The size of the North African population has never been quantified, but extrapolations based on censuses in Morocco<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> were used to suggest that up to half of the global population bred in Europe. This Spanish population declined by more than 20% during 1970-1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but this rate of decline was thought to have slowed during 1990-2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with the total Spanish population estimated at 13,000-15,000 pairs following surveys in 1988<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, the original survey may have dramatically overestimated the size of the Spanish population, which may have comprised as few as 1,900 pairs in 1988<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Surveys conducted across the species's Spanish range during 2002-2004 suggest that it now numbers as few as 1,300 pairs, representing a decline of more than 30% since 1988 (using revised data following <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, it typically occupies high steppe dotted with wormwood (<em>Artemisia </em>sp.) and alfalfa (<em>Stipa </em>sp.) on hard or pebbly soils, avoiding sand<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. In Tunisia at least, overgrazing and agricultural development have caused a reduction in its preferred habitats and a considerable decrease in numbers<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. In Morocco the species has a scattered and uneven distribution, and is not recorded in large areas of apparently suitable habitat. A recent estimate suggests a population of 2,000-3,000 breeding pairs in Morocco, with the global population possibly in the region of 13,600-20,000 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, although evidence of a skewed sex ratio suggests this may be an overestimate<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. However, further information on population size and trends from its North African range is needed, and this may lead to the species's reclassification in the future. <br/></p>	eng
148906	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Garc&iacute;a <em>et al</em>. (in press) estimate 15,400 singing males in Morocco and Vicente <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimate 2,500-3,000 singing males in Spain. As the species's range extends patchily across North Africa, the minimum global population is likely to be 35,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3600000-7600000 breeding pairs, equating to 10800000-22800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 22000000-91200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500000-2100000 breeding pairs, equating to 4500000-6300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9180000-25200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148911	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
148913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common and occasionally abundant in Somalia (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1300000-3300000 breeding pairs, equating to 3900000-9900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4150000-13200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 40000000-80000000 breeding pairs, equating to 120000000-240000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 245000000-960000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
148916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Pakistan, locally common in India and fairly common in Nepal (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
148918	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Raso Lark has been officially protected under Cape Verde law since 1955<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and in 1990 Raso was declared a national park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. To date there has been limited enforcement of these laws on the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys have revealed the absence of cats on the island. Collecting of young and eggs has now been halted by the activity of a local NGO, Biosfera<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Annual population monitoring has been carried out since 2001, and future research is planned to understand the conditions needed to enable successful breeding<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The practicalities and desirability of a possible translocation project are being investigated<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct research into other potential nest predators. Investigate the suitability of  Santa Luzia as a potential location for the establishment of a second population by conducting appropriate ecological research</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Investigate reasons for the male biased sex ratio</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Raise awareness amongst tourists and tour operators visiting Raso to ensure precautions are taken to avoid the accidental introduction of alien species and safeguard the fragile island ecology. Maintain good relations with fishers using the island and engage them in conservation activities. Continue regular monitoring of the population and the status of introduced predators. Prevent the establishment of non-native mammalian predators and plants on Raso.</strong>	eng
148918	distribution		<em>Alauda razae</em> is restricted to the very small (7 km<sup>2</sup>), arid, uninhabited island of Raso in the <strong>Cape Verde Islands</strong>, although previously it may have occurred on Branco, Santa Luzia and Sao Vicente which formed a single island during the last glacial low 18,000 years BP. Suitable breeding habitat covers less than half the area of Raso. The lark's population is believed to fluctuate in response to climate and continues to do so. From the mid 1960s to the early 1980s, the population was estimated at only 20-50 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In early 1985, however, a survey showed at least 150 birds to be present. Subsequent day visits resulted in the following estimates: 75-100 pairs in early 1986 and early 1988, c.250 birds in late 1988, c.200 birds in early 1989, c.250 birds in early 1990 and 1992. Complete censuses of the island in 1998 and 2003 found 92 and 98 birds respectively, restricted to the south and west of the islet<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, but following rain in 2004 the population rapidly increased to 130 individuals in 2005<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and 190 in November 2009<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. When the population is low only a third of these are female<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.	eng
148918	habitat		It is found on level plains with volcanic soil and is associated with small vegetated patches along dry stream beds in which it feeds and breeds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is significant difference in bill size between males and females, enabling the species to exploit limited food resources, with both sexes having relatively larger bills than congeners<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. A number of desert-dwelling larks have evolved long bills, apparently to aid digging for food in a sandy environment<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Flocks have also been observed feeding among rocks close to the sea, and the birds (particularly males) excavate holes in sandy soil to extract the small bulbs of nutsedges <em>Cyperus bulbosus</em> or <em>C. cadamosti</em><strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding is erratic and governed by the slight and irregular rains<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. The population changes rapidly in response to rain; a prerequisite for breeding,<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong> and has fallen to extremely low levels during droughts<strong><sup>5,6,8</sup></strong>. At present c.60% (70 of 118 birds sampled) of the population is male, a less extreme bias than in the past<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. During the non-breeding season birds aggregate into flocks<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and can be found in other parts of the island. Adult survival appears to be high and the species is thought to be relatively long-lived<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding success is sometimes very low, due to high predation by the near-endemic gecko <em>Tarentola gigas</em>.	eng
148918	population		The population was estimated at 190 individuals in November 2009. However, as only c.40% of these are female, the effective population size is smaller than it first appears (M. Brooke <em>in litt. </em>2008, 2010).	eng
148920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most parts of its range, although scarce in some parts and locally abundant in Western Sahara (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
148921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare on Sumatra, Java and Borneo, although commoner at higher altitudes on Borneo and uncommon in Thailand (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in Borneo (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148928	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prionochilus thoracicus</em> occurs in the Sundaic lowlands of peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and north Sumatra (including Lingga archipelago and Belitung), <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, where it is widespread and fairly common in forest (including swamp and heath forest) to 1,280 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia, but the species's use of montane and secondary forests implies that it is not immediately threatened.</p>	eng
148929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148932	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum everetti</em> occurs in the lowlands of Sarawak, Sabah (several reports but no specimens) and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan, the Natuna Islands and Riau archipelago, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>, in forest (including swamp forest) and gardens to 1,100 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Malaysia, but the species's use of submontane and secondary forests, gardens and coffee plantations implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148933	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum proprium</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is found in forest, edge and second growth above 800-900&#160;m at Mt Mayo, Mainit, Manticao, Misamis Oriental, Mt Kitanglad on the lower slopes of Mt Nangkabulos, Mt Piapayungan at Saronayan, Lumba-Bayabao, Mt Apo, Lake Sebu, Mt Matutum at Tupi, and Mt Sugarloaf at Burakan Hill. Although previously considered an uncommon, low-density species, and hence as threatened, recent evidence of its occurrence on Mt Kitanglad and on Mt Apo, Mindanao's two largest mountains, suggests that its overall numbers may be moderately high, lending support to the belief that it is locally common.  <br/></p>	eng
148934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in India, uncommon in Myanmar and Borneo and rare in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Bali and Java (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148935	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148936	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Sri Lanka. A moratorium was passed in 1990 to protect wet zone forests from logging. It occurs in several national parks and forest reserves, most notably Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area and Peak Wilderness Area. A survey of the biodiversity of 200 forest sites was carried out from 1991-1996. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>*Carry out a comprehensive survey in order to clarify its distribution and status and to produce management recommendations for this species in conservation forests and other protected areas. *Encourage protection of remaining important areas of forest holding this and other threatened species, including proposals to designate conservation forests, and ensure their effective management. *Research its ecology, particularly the effects of forest fragmentation on its population and distribution. *Maintain the current ban on the logging of wet zone forests.  *Promote programmes to create awareness of the value of biological resources amongst local communities. <br/></p>	eng
148936	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum vincens</em> is endemic to <strong>Sri Lanka</strong> where it is confined to the wet zone in the south-west of the island, with a few records from the intermediate zone. Although it remains locally common and survives in many forest blocks it probably has a declining, increasingly fragmented population of several tens of thousands of individuals. </p>	eng
148936	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is mainly confined to lowland and foothill tall, moist forest up to 2,300 m. It has recently been recorded from disturbed sites close to primary forest probably because of the abundance of fruiting and flowering shrubs, on which it feeds, in such secondary habitats. Observations of birds crossing large forest openings and gaps between forest patches, suggest it may be able to move between forest blocks. <br/></p>	eng
148936	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the extensive clearance and degradation of forests, particularly in the wet zone, through logging, fuelwood collection, conversion to agriculture and tree plantations, gem mining, settlement and fire. Some protected forests continue to be degraded and suffer further fragmentation. <br/></p>	eng
148937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common up to 2,000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148939	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum anthonyi</em> is found on the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it occupies mossy forest above 800&#160;m on Luzon at Mt Polis, Mt Puguis, Mt Tabuan and Dipalayag (race <em>anthonyi</em>), and on Mindanao at Mt Pasian, Daggayan, Mt Kitanglad, Mt Kampalili, Mt McKinley and Mt Apo (race <em>kampalili</em>) and at Mt Malindang (race <em>masawan</em>). It is in relatively secure habitat but appears to be a naturally low-density and hence very uncommon species.  <br/></p>	eng
148939	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is apparently rare, occurring at low densities within a restricted range. Hence, its population is not thougth to be large. Further information is needed to improve this estimate. <br/></p>	eng
148940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148941	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Nug-as Forest is managed and protected by three People's Organisations with Community-based Forest Management Agreements with Department of Environment and Natural Resources. From 1999-2004, the Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation conducted habitat rehabilitation activities using native species and forest protection activities in Tabunan, controlling timber poaching and forest clearing and encouraging regeneration of second growth areas. The initiative also maintained the remaining mature secondary forest cover and increased the native vegetation cover through regeneration of second growth habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat rehabilitation activities are now largely concentrated in the southern part of Cebu where the larger forests of Alcoy lies in close proximity to four other remaining forest patches. The establishment of corridors has been initiated to link up Nug-as forest to Dalaguete and in the Malabuyoc-Alegria area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest cover has been increased by the planting of at least 10 ha each year and protection of second growth areas, and at least six municipalities have conducted habitat rehabilitation activities. Local forest wardens regularly conduct forest patrols in both Nug-as and Dalaguete forest patches, and are supported by the Municipal Government under the Forest and Wildlife Protection Program<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Malabuyoc, which may hold this species, is within the borders of a cement company reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Mt. Lantoy was declared as a Watershed Forest Reserve (Presidential Proclamation no. 414 dated 29 June, 1994) and was considered as part of the initial component of National Integrated Protected Area System Act (NIPAS Act). A Protected Area Management Board was created and manages the protected area. In December 2006, a new Executive Order was issued by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo reducing the watershed reserve area coverage from 7,265 ha to 3,000 ha<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Central Cebu National Park, together with four other Watershed Forest Reserves, was consolidated to form the Central Cebu Protected Landscape (CCPL) under Republic Act 9486 or Central Cebu Protected Landscape Act of 2007. A Protected Area Management Board handles the management of the consolidated protected area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Field research into the species's ecology is ongoing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify all remnant forest tracts on Cebu and urgently survey them for remaining populations. Research the species's ecology, particularly interactions with<em> D. australe</em>. Continue to fund and implement management activities at Tabunan. Support the proposal to designate Mt Lantoy as a national park, and urgently propose all remaining forest tracts on Cebu, including Nug-As, for strict formal protection.</strong>	eng
148941	distribution		<em>Dicaeum quadricolor</em> is endemic to the island of Cebu in the<strong> Philippines</strong>. In the late 1800s it was known from just two localities, where it was considered not uncommon. Early in the 20th century, it was feared to have become extinct because all the island's forest was thought to have been cleared. However, it was rediscovered in 1992 at Tabunan (80 ha, plus another 40 ha of surrounding fragments) where it was seen most recently in 2007<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since 1992 it has been found at three further sites, Nug-As (700+ ha)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Dalaguete (80+ ha)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Mt Lantoy (30+ ha). Three other areas of forest exist, but the species has not yet been reported from them: Caurasan-Mt. Kapayas (100+ ha)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; Tuburan (300 ha including exotic plantations)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>; and Malabuyoc (30 ha)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Population declines are now likely to be fairly slow because so little forest remains, and that which does is on areas difficult to cultivate or without water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The maximum number seen together at any of these four sites is just four birds, and the current population is estimated at c.100 individuals, with 50-60 at Nug-As, 25-30 at Tabunan, and 10-15 at Dalaguete<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
148941	habitat		Historically, it was considered to be strictly confined to forest. Recent observations clearly indicate an association with the tallest remaining forest patches up to c.500 m, most of which are on karst limestone. It evidently frequents secondary and selectively logged areas, but always next to a larger patch of native vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been observed feeding on mistletoe-like plants (<em>Loranthus </em>sp.) and small, ripe <em>Ficus </em>fruits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding is suspected to take place between February and August<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
148941	population		In 2005 the population was estimated at 85-105 individuals. (L. M. J. Paguntalan<em> in litt.</em> 2005).	eng
148942	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from Bulabong Puti-an and the tiny (0.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Sampunong Bolo National Parks on Panay, Mt Canlaon Natural Park and the North Negros Forest Reserve, which receives only nominal protection. It has also been recently recorded in the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area, which has been proposed for conservation related funding. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys, particularly on Panay, to identify additional appropriate areas for protection. Compare its ecology and vocalisations with <em>D.&#160;australe and D.&#160;retrocinctum in order to clarify its taxonomic status. Promote more effective protection of the North Negros Forest Reserve and other remaining lowland forest tracts in the Western Visayas.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148942	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum haematostictum</em> is endemic to the Western Visayas in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. Formerly widespread and common on Negros at least, it appears to have undergone a steep decline, with surprisingly few recorded during a month of fieldwork in 1991, although it was reportedly abundant around Mt Talinis in 1991-1992. Its status on Panay is unclear. Despite a number of recent records, no birds were recorded from Mt Madja during a month of fieldwork in 1991. It is presumed extinct on Guimaras.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148942	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in a variety of habitats in the lowlands and hills, up to 1,250&#160;m but generally below 1,000&#160;m. These include primary and secondary forests, heavily degraded forest, scrubby habitats and even gardens, where it frequents fruiting or flowering trees.</p>	eng
148942	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148942	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Chronic deforestation has led to its presumed extinction on Guimaras and its decline on Negros. An estimated 4% of Negros and 8% of Panay remained forested in 1988, mostly above 1,000 m. However, its ability to tolerate substantial habitat modification may make it relatively secure. <br/></p>	eng
148943	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The forest at Siburan is effectively part of the Sablayan penal colony and is included in the F. B.&#160;Harrison Game Reserve, although it is uncertain how much protection this confers. Funding has been provided for conservation initiatives at Puerto Galera and a conservation education programme has been started at Malpalon. It has been recently recorded in Mt Iglit-Baco National Park (Mindoro), the nominally protected North Negros Forest Reserve, the proposed Central Panay Mountains National Park and the Mt Talinis/Twin Lakes area on Negros, which has been proposed for conservation-related funding.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to establish its distribution and status on Negros and Panay. Establish formal, managed protected areas to conserve remnant forest at Malpalon and Puerto Galera. Extend Mt&#160;Iglit-Baco National Park to encompass remaining lowland forest tracts. Devise and implement a management plan for the forest at Siburan that reconciles biodiversity conservation with its role as a prison.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
148943	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dicaeum retrocinctum</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong> where it was thought endemic to Mindoro until the early 1990s when it was surprisingly discovered on Panay and Negros. On Mindoro it was formerly abundant and still considered fairly common as recently as the 1980s. Data from 1991 surveys show that it remains common in one or two remnant forest tracts on the island but has declined steeply elsewhere. Numbers on Negros, where it is known from just two sites, may be very small. The size of the Panay population is unknown.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148943	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits closed canopy forest, chiefly below 1,000&#160;m but occasionally up to 1,200&#160;m. It also occurs in secondary and logged forest, forest edge and occasionally well-cultivated areas. However, it appears generally intolerant of highly degraded habitat, although it does frequent fruiting or flowering trees in forest patches and scrub.</p>	eng
148943	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
148943	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive lowland deforestation has occurred on all three islands. In the late 1980s, it was estimated that just 120&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest remained on Mindoro, with a very small proportion below 1,000&#160;m. On Negros 4% and on Panay 8% of the land area remains forested. Several key sites on Mindoro are threatened. Siburan suffers from encroaching slash-and-burn agriculture by locally resettled people and occasional selective logging. Dynamite blasting for marble is a threat to forest at Puerto Galera. <br/></p>	eng
148944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally common, although rare in Myanmar (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, not uncommon in Myanmar and locally abundant in India (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very rare on Borneo (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although inconspicuous and easily overlooked (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common at lower altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common to common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although rare at lower altitudes in Myanmar (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread at mid-elevations on Java and Bali, common on Sumba, common at higher elevations on Flores and uncommon on Timor (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to moderately common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although very common in Thailand and rare in Nepal and Bhutan (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Java and Bali and uncommon on Sumatra and Lombok (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Togo and Angola (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148968	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthreptes reichenowi</em> has a disjunct distribution, with one subpopulation in the coastal lowlands of <strong>Kenya</strong> and north-eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>, and another in <strong>Mozambique</strong> and <strong>Zimbabwe</strong><sup>4</sup>. In Kenya, it is uncommon in lowland forest below 500 m, from the lower Tana River south to Tanga and inland to the Shimba Hills, reaching highest densities in Arabuko-Sokoke forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, it occurs up to 1,000 m in the East Usambaras<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and south to Kiono Forest Reserve (where common) and Pande Forest Reserve (where rare)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in dense coastal forest and ironwood <em>Androstachys</em> forests in southern Mozambique, where it is uncommon (total population fewer than 500 birds) and declining due to deforestation<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. In south-eastern Zimbabwe, there are only a few records -- from <em>Acacia</em> bush, riverine thicket and riparian forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> -- which should, however, be treated with caution, as the species is often confused with Variable Sunbird <em>Nectarinia venusta</em>, having very similar markings during some stages of its eclipse plumage<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although it is widely distributed, it remains little-known and nowhere common. It is certainly declining in some areas and may be at risk from clearance of lowland forest throughout its range. Surveys to assess its status in more detail should be conducted soon. <br/></p>	eng
148969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Miombo woodland in Angola, locally common in Zambia, uncommon in Malawi and not uncommon in Tanzania (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common on Borneo and Sumatra uncommon in Thailand and very rare in Myanmar (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148972	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthreptes rhodolaemus</em> is restricted to the Sundaic lowlands of south Tenasserim, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>, Kalimantan and Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong> (uncommon) and Palawan, <strong>Philippines</strong>, in broadleaf evergreen forest to 790 m. Forest destruction in the Sundaic lowlands of Indonesia has been so extensive that all primary formations are expected to disappear by 2010, and the situation is little different in Thailand and Malaysia (see Threats under Crestless Fireback <em>Lophura erythrophthalma</em>), but the species's use of submontane and secondary forests and forest edge implies that it is not immediately threatened. <br/></p>	eng
148973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Thailand, Sabah and the Indian Subcontinent, locally common in Bangladesh, very rare in Nepal, rare in Bhutan and uncommon on Sumatra (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148976	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Kenya (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although common in Gabon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148979	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Arabuko-Sokoke is the focus of a project to promote long-term forest conservation through sustainable management and community participation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, three conservation and development projects are active and the species occurs in three of the focal protected areas (which cover at least 121&#160;km<sup>2</sup>). Its known locations in the Udzungwas are relatively well-protected by their isolation. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in both Arabuko-Sokoke and the East Usambaras<sup>10. Better define its habitat and breeding requirements, in particular its tolerance of habitat alteration. Confirm its occurrence in other forest fragments in the East Usambaras. Enlarge Nilo Forest Reserve and establish clear boundary markers12.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148979	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthreptes pallidigaster</em> is found in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in <strong>Kenya</strong> and in the East Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In Arabuko-Sokoke in 1999, there were an average of 1.4 birds/km of transect<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in its occupied area of c.67&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, where the population was estimated at 2,900-4,700 pairs in the 1970s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, it has been recorded in four areas (totalling 124.5&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) at 200-1,250&#160;m<strong><sup>6,11,12</sup></strong>. In the Udzungwas, birds (possibly a subspecies new to science<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) occur very locally in two areas (totalling 295&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) at 1,350-1,550&#160;m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and are probably absent from the south-western section<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148979	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in pairs or family groups, often joining mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>3,5,11</sup></strong>, in the canopy of mature trees in intact <em>Brachystegia</em> forest, often 30-35&#160;m above ground. However, it has also been recorded outside intact, unlogged forest, visiting flowers only a few metres above ground in clearings, gardens and very degraded forest<strong><sup>5,6,11</sup></strong>. The diet includes nectar (e.g. mistletoes <em>Loranthus</em> and <em>Erythrina</em>), insects and other arthropods<strong><sup>5,10,11</sup></strong>. Aggressive interactions with Collared Sunbird <em>A. collaris<strong><sup>11</sup></strong></em> suggest that competition with this species may contribute to its restricted distribution. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148979	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is known to occur in three areas. Its population in the <em>Brachystegia </em>woodland of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya, has been estimated at 2,818 individuals (95% CI: 1,739-4,565) in an area of 77 km<sup>2</sup> (Davis 2005). The remaining occupied range in the East Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania, totals 420 km<sup>2</sup>, with the population in the Udzungwa Mountains probably numbering 'some hundred' individuals (Dinesen<em> et al</em>. 2001). Its population is therefore suspected to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
148979	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At Arabuko-Sokoke, widespread felling of trees (often illegally) for poles, carving and fuelwood is altering the forest structure<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and probably having a negative impact on the species, since it shows a significant preference for primary forest here<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Throughout the East Usambaras, the main threats to forest extent and integrity are clearance for cultivation, excessive pole-cutting, and pit-sawing outside reserves<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. All are likely to increase in the near future<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. However, the species may be able to tolerate some forest degradation<strong><sup>6,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
148980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148981	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The East Usambara Catchment Forest Project has curbed much forest destruction and much of the remaining unprotected forest has been incorporated into reserves, e.g. Mt Nilo Forest Reserve now contains a significant area of mid-altitude forest, although lack of jurisdiction over the neighbouring Public Lands Forest threatens its long-term prospects. In the Udzungwas, it occurs in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve. In the Ulugurus, conservation projects are aiming to assist local initiatives and increase involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey further areas of the Nguu Mountains to establish its distribution in the Forest Reserves<sup>5. Assess why it is more common in parts of the East Usambaras than elsewhere. Search for it in the Ulugurus7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
148981	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthreptes rubritorques</em> is found in five areas of forest in eastern <strong>Tanzania</strong>: the Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains (the latter including the Ndundulu Mountains). It is only considered common in parts of the Usambaras, being elsewhere uncommon to rare<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. The Uluguru population is known from only five specimens and any remaining population is likely to be found in the North Forest Reserve, since suitable habitat is generally absent elsewhere.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148981	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded in rainforest at mid-altitudes<strong><sup>4,8</sup></strong>, in the canopy and (more frequently) in forest-edge habitats - e.g. large glades, disturbed or secondary forest with some surviving large trees, gardens and exotic plantations - although this is probably because it is easier to see in such open areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it is probably dependent on adjacent primary forest. The diet includes nectar and small berries<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Breeding has been recorded from 300 to 800&#160;m. A nest was 15&#160;m up in the crown of a leafless tree, deep in the forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
148981	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in the Udzungwas might only number c.1,000 birds (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007), with a more conservative guess being 'some hundred' individuals (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001), thus the total population is placed in the range band for 2,500-9,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
148981	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened over most of its range, by forest loss and degradation, as a result of clearance for agriculture, replacement of natural forest with plantations, and tree-cutting for timber and firewood<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In the Usambaras, the large human population is putting increasing pressure on land and the forests are highly fragmented<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In the Ulugurus, extremely inaccessible terrain protects the main montane forest block, but forest here only covers c.120&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and the lower slopes are being steadily cleared, again as a result of an increasing human population. Forests in Nguru are not currently considered threatened because of their precipitous terrain and the low human population. <br/></p>	eng
148982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148985	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148986	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148987	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be overlooked (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148988	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although not uncommon locally in South Africa (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Cameroon, locally very common in the Congo, elsewhere often rare (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148992	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148994	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Protection of primary forest as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and a national park has been proposed but as yet the forest remains unprotected. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species awaits final ratification<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure legal protection of all remaining lowland primary forest. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong></p>	eng
148994	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia thomensis</em> is endemic to S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe</strong>, where it occurs on the central massif, north towards Ponta Figo, south-west to the area around the rivers S&atilde;o Miguel, Xufexufe and Quija and east to Formoso Grande and the Formoso Pequeno and the valley of the Ana Chaves river<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is locally common, but its population is probably small given the area of available habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
148994	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in both lowland and montane primary forest up to at least 2,000 m, with occasional records from forest-edge cultivation. It feeds on invertebrates, both from moss and lichen-covered branches and from probing in bark, and also on nectar from flowers. Nests have been found in late December and early January<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
148994	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-22 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 153 km<sup>2 </sup>(45% EOO) = 153-3,666, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density range is up to the lower quartile of 14 estimates for congeners in forest/habitats in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
148994	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, large areas of lowland and mid-altitude forest were cleared for cocoa and coffee plantations. Land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Limited areas of secondary and primary forest, particularly in the north of its range, are threatened by clearance for cultivation, timber and fuelwood-collection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong></p>	eng
148995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to abundant, although apparently locally scarce (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
148998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
148999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon throughout much of its range, although rare in Togo and widespread and common in Equatorial Guinea (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149000	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Socotra, Yemen. The highest recorded density and numbers (50 individuals) recorded during the 1993 survey of eastern Socotra were at Wadi Ayhaft (Porter et al. 1996) in the northern foothills of the Hagghier (=Haghir) range.	eng
149000	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from sea level to at least 1,370 m in all major habitat types and plant associations, including parkland dominated by the endemic tree Dracaena cinnabari (Showler and Davidson 1996), and is recorded at the highest densities and numbers in mixed subtropical and drought-deciduous mesic-montane woodland and scrub, where it is usually seen in pairs (Porter and Martins 1996, Showler and Davidson 1996, Davidson 1996). There is limited recent information on its breeding biology, although observations of juveniles would suggest eggs are laid at the beginning of March (Showler and Davidson 1996). However, young have been found in a nest as late as May (Forbes-Watson 1964). The nest is dome-shaped, usually hidden in a tree fork, with an oval shaped entrance, constructed of woven grass and cobwebs and lined with silky plant material (Showler and Davidson 1996). Food consists mainly of arthropods with occasional fruit and berries. Nectar seems to be a less important food source than might be expected (Showler and Davidson 1996).	eng
149000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149000	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat degradation and diminishment through grazing may impact upon population levels; much of the climax vegetation on Socotra has been destroyed through intense grazing and wood clearance for timber.	eng
149001	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Suitable habitat, although rare in Nigeria and uncommon in Sudan (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant and widespread in savannah woodland (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common and widespread (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149016	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149019	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common on Mayotte (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149021	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia ursulae</em> is restricted to Mt Manenguba (discovered on the southern slopes in 1999 <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), Mts Kupe and Nlonako, forest near Dschang, the Bakossi Mountains, Rumpi Hills and Mt Cameroon, <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and Bioko, <strong>Equatorial Guinea</strong><sup>4</sup>. On Bioko, the species is known from only a few records from primary forest between 1,000 and 1,200 m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Cameroon, it is a species of intermediate altitudes, from 950-2,050 m, where it is found in mature forest and forest clearings<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1991 and 1992 found it to be common in the Rumpi Hills<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1998, it was found to be common down to at least 1,100 m in the Bakossi Mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In the 1980s, it was recorded as being frequent to common on Mts Cameroon and Nlonako<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and throughout the 1990s it is known to have been common throughout the forest on Mt Kupe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the species is not immediately threatened, it does appear to be dependent on largely undisturbed forest within quite a small range, and so is potentially at risk from further forest clearance. <br/></p>	eng
149022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149023	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be easily overlooked (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although rare and local in Bhutan (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon in Tanzania, locally common in Angola, common in Zimbabwe and uncommon in Zambia (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149034	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia neergardi</em> occurs from just south of Richard's Bay in northern KwaZulu-Natal, <strong>South Africa</strong>, to Inhambane, southern <strong>Mozambique</strong><sup>2</sup>. Atlas data do not suggest any range retraction. It is a sometimes common, but nomadic, species of woodland, especially dry, dense forest on sandy soil. It is found only at low elevations and apparently avoids fragmented coastal forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A large proportion of its range in northern KwaZulu-Natal falls within nature reserves, but in southern Mozambique its coastal forest habitat is highly threatened, particularly by commercial logging and afforestation with non-native tree species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and sometimes abundant (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and not uncommon, although rare in Nigeria and mainland Equatorial Guinea (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149038	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The full range of the species now comes under the protection of the Uluguru Nature Reserve which was created by the government in 2009 and links three former forest reserves, known as Uluguru North, Uluguru South and the Bunduki Forest Reserves. Boundaries in area previously designated as the Uluguru North Forest Reserve have been planted, and some areas outside this area have been protected through agreements with local villages<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Some people who were living inside the area previously designated Uluguru South have been removed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out further surveys to obtain a more accurate estimate of the population. Conduct repeat surveys to monitor the species's population trends. Monitor the clearance and degradation of forest in its range. Conduct research to further clarify the tolerance of this species to habitat degradation. Increase efforts to reduce firewood collection and timber harvesting within the Nature Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
149038	distribution		This species is entirely confined to the Ulguru Nature Reserve (previously split into Uluguru North, Uluguru South and Bunduki) in <strong>Tanzania</strong>, although it occasionally wanders to Shikurufumi and Kasanga Forest Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population size has been estimated at between 21,000 and 166,000 individuals, with a likely figure of 37,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
149038	habitat		This species prefers montane forest between 1,200 and 2,560 m in altitude<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>, and appears to be rather intolerant of habitat degradation<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, although it has been known to wander into, and occasionally breed in, non-forest habitats<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The breeding season is believed to be protracted, lasting from at least August to March<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Closed nests contain two or three eggs, are made of grass and moss, and are hung from branches several metres (mean 3.1 m, range 1.5-10 m) above the ground<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Observations suggest that only the female incubates the eggs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The diet comprises largely of nectar, supplemented with insects<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. The species is often gregarious around flowering plants and trees, but also feeds alone and in pairs, and joins mixed flocks<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
149038	population		The total population has been estimated at between 21,000 and 166,000 individuals, with a likely figure of 37,000 individuals (T&oslash;ttrup <em>et al. </em>2004).	eng
149039	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia moreaui</em> has a small range, being known only from the Nguru, Nguu, Uvidunda, Ukaguru and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It is a bird of montane forest, occurring from 1,300 to 1,850&#160;m at most locations<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>, but up to 2,500&#160;m in the Udzungwas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar from flowering creepers<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Surveys in the Nguu and Ukaguru Mountains suggest that there are healthy numbers present<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong> and the forests in these areas are considered to be not immediately threatened because of their precipitous terrain and low human population density. The species also occurs within the well-protected Udzungwa Mountains National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it does appear to be forest-dependent and is likely to be sensitive to destruction or degradation of forest habitat elsewhere in its limited range<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149040	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species's habitat is protected in the Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park, west of Lake Kivu. The Itombwe Mountains currently have no protected status. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct research to determine what threats, if any, the species faces.</strong> <strong>Investigate the status of Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park. <br/></p>	eng
149040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia rockefelleri</em> occupies a very small range in the northern Itombwe Mountains and mountains to the north and west of Lake Kivu in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>. A record from Rwegura in Burundi requires confirmation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as well as a single, isolated sight record from Nyungwe in Rwanda<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149040	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This is mainly a species of gallery bamboo forest at higher altitudes, apparently preferring thickets along streams rather than bamboo forest itself. It also occurs in montane forest down to 2,050&#160;m and afro-alpine moorland. </p>	eng
149040	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-22 individual/km<sup>2</sup> x 790 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 790-17,380, but population may be at lower end of this range because the degree of habitat specialisation - streamside thickets in bamboo forest - may mean that AOO is <10% EOO, and hence population estimate best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density is up to the lowest quartile of estimates for four congeners in forest/woodland habitats in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149040	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species would presumably be threatened if forest destruction became serious within its restricted range, although this may not be immediately likely given the very high altitudes involved. Armed militia groups mining for Coltan (fuelled mainly through the mobile phone industry) entered Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park in 2001 and have caused disturbance through local deforestation, unregulated mining and illegal hunting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant throughout most of its range, although rare in Mauritania (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149043	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All its known locations are protected within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and various Forest Reserves in Iringa and Mufindi Districts.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct a baseline survey to establish its population size and density. Initiate a monitoring programme.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149043	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nectarinia rufipennis</em> is restricted to the Udzungwa Mountains, in the Iringa, Mufindi and Kilombero Districts of <strong>Tanzania</strong>. It occurs in Mwanihana and Iwonde forests in Udzungwa Mountains National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in forests at Ukami, Ndundulu and Nymbanitu in the West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, and in Katemele, Kiranzi-Kitungulu and Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149043	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the forest interior and at the edge of gaps in natural forest, most commonly between 1,500-1,700&#160;m. It feeds on nectar, especially from tropical mistletoes (Loranthaceae), and small insects, 2-8&#160;m above the ground, but is seen occasionally in the canopy up to 30&#160;m high. It aggressively defends clumps of flowers against other sunbird species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and undergoes marked seasonal movements in response to local food-resource peaks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. During the cold (non-breeding) season (June-August), the majority of birds move to lower elevations (below 1,500&#160;m) and vocal activity and territoriality are greatly reduced<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149043	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in the Udzungwas is estimated at c.6,850 individuals (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001). Therefore, the total population is placed in the range band for 10,000-19,999 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149043	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The forests where this species occurs, within Forest Reserves and the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, are currently well-protected but, if protected-area status was removed, it is likely that they would soon begin to be degraded, especially at lower altitudes.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in montane areas (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in suitable habitat (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149050	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in afro-alpine moorland (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally common at mid-elevations in Tanzania (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be quite common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although locally abundant in Ethiopia (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Uganda (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149057	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although less common at high altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149062	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Kenya, uncommon in Somalia and rare in Ethiopia (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149064	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aethopyga primigenia</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is fairly common to common above 1,000 m in forest and forest edge including on Mt Hilong-hilong (race <em>diuatae</em>), Mt Kitanglad, Civolig, Daggayan, Mt Lamut, Mt Apo and Lake Sebu (nominate race). Although its area of occupancy must be very small, its habitat is apparently secure. <br/></p>	eng
149065	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aethopyga boltoni</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is fairly common generally above 1,500&#160;m in forest at sites including on Mt Malindang (race <em>malindangensis</em>), Mt Kitanglad, Mt Apo, Mt Pasian and Lake Sebu (nominate <em>boltoni</em>), and Mt Busa and Mt Matutum (race <em>tibolii</em>), this latter taxon ranging on Busa from 1,300&#160;m upwards and on Matutum from 820&#160;m upwards. Although its area of occupancy must be very small, its habitat is apparently secure. <br/></p>	eng
149066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149068	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Forest on<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman is nominally conserved, although few measures have been taken. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has conducted fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes and developed ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the 4&#160;km<sup>2</sup> Gunung Sahengbalira "protection forest" as a wildlife reserve. Some forest in the Kentuhang valley is protected as the watershed for a hydroelectric scheme. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys to locate key remnant forests with a view to affording them protection. Investigate the ecological requirements of the species so that an effective conservation strategy can be devised. Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid establishment of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue conservation education programmes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149068	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aethopyga duyvenbodei</em> is currently known from Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, although there is an historical record from nearby Siau. In 1995, it was found to be regular at low densities at seven localities and in 1998-1999 it was the most commonly encountered forest species at Gunung Sahendaruman, suggesting locally high population densities. It is, however, absent from large areas of the island, such that overall numbers are relatively restricted.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149068	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a resident in primary forest, forest edge, adjacent low scrub and plantations (when hardwoods persist in the vicinity and a scrubby understorey is available) from 75-1,000 m. It is usually encountered singly or in pairs, often within mixed-species flocks.</p>	eng
149068	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys carried out in 1998-99 (Riley 2002) found high densities in both primary forest and adjacent secondary habitats. Low densities were also recorded in secondary habitats that were isolated from primary forest. As such, the population estimate was revised to take into account both higer abundance in key habitats, and presence in larger areas of secondary habitat, resulting in an increased estimate of 18,900-43,800 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149068	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Original forest on Sangihe has been almost completely cleared. This species's use of plantations is no guarantee that it can survive without adjacent forest patches, and indeed agricultural intensification is reducing its use of modified habitats. The tiny remaining area of primary forest receives inadequate protection and continues to suffer from agricultural encroachment at its lower fringes. Forest-cover on the volcanically active island of Siau is extremely limited and the species is either extinct there, or survives in tiny numbers. <br/></p>	eng
149069	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in Bhutan, not uncommon in Myanmar, widespread and uncommon in Nepal and generally uncommon in India, although locally common in the east (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149071	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, especially at higher altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China and fairly common in South-East Asia (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Myanmar, widespread and frequent in Nepal, fairly common in India, uncommon in Thailand and possibly extinct in Bangladesh (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149074	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually common although rare to uncommon on Buton island (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common at higher altitudes (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to rare (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Borneo and Thailand and rare on Sumatra (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although common at sea-level on Java (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be frequent to uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon on Sumatra, rare in west Java and very scarce on Borneo (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149083	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and little-known (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to frequent (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
149087	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanocharis arfakiana</em> is known from two specimens and a series of recent unconfirmed sight records from New Guinea (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). The specimens were collected in 1867 in the Arfak Mountains and in 1933 from 950&#160;m near the upper Angabunga River<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The recent sightings have been from 640-1,100&#160;m in the Tabubil area, where it is not uncommon, Boana on the Huon peninsula, where it is common in degraded forest, and the Kokoda Trail near Port Moresby<strong><sup>1,2,3,6,7</sup></strong>. Specimens from Tabubil and Boana differ slightly in plumage but are probably both of this species<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. It may be a genuinely extremely rare species, perhaps compressed into a narrow altitudinal belt between ecologically similar congeners<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Forests in these geographical and altitudinal ranges are under some threat from logging and clearance for agriculture. However, its tolerance of degraded forest and recent discovery in widely scattered sites suggest that it is not threatened<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
149089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce or locally common (Coates 1990).	eng
149090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce to fairly common (Coates 1990).	eng
149091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Coates 1990).	eng
149093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common or abundant, especially at higher altitudes (Coates 1990).	eng
149094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
149095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the most abundant birds in lowland and hill rainforest (Coates 1990).	eng
149096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (Coates 1990).	eng
149097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common within its prefered altitudinal range (Coates 1990).	eng
149098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although abundant at higher altitudes (Coates 1990).	eng
149099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2800000-6200000 breeding pairs, equating to 8400000-18600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 17100000-74400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common, although uncommon in northern Kenya (Clement 1999).	eng
149104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common, although scarce in some parts of its range (Clement 1999).	eng
149105	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or scarce in some areas (Clement 1999).	eng
149106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 900-3000 breeding pairs, equating to 2700-9000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11300-180000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally very common (Clement 1999).	eng
149110	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).	eng
149111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).	eng
149115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not common (Clement 1999).	eng
149116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 20,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 26000000-48000000 breeding pairs, equating to 78000000-144000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 159000000-576000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149121	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 500-2000 breeding pairs, equating to 1500-6000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1700000-3800000 breeding pairs, equating to 5100000-11400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21300000-228000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7000-18000 breeding pairs, equating to 21000-54000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 87500-1080000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520000-1600000 breeding pairs, equating to 1560000-4800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3180000-19200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to generally scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149130	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally very common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
149134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 200,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 13000000-26000000 breeding pairs, equating to 39000000-78000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 163000000-1560000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be less common in central and northern Hokkaido (Brazil 1991).	eng
149136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common , although scarce in Bangladesh (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in much of its range, although common to uncommon in west Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149138	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread, although rare in the south of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 210000-520000 breeding pairs, equating to 630000-1560000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 2630000-31200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7900000-14000000 breeding pairs, equating to 23700000-42000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 48400000-168000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 740000-1600000 breeding pairs, equating to 2220000-4800000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 9250000-96000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent on suitable watercourses throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in north-western and southern Somalia, locally common in Kenya and Tanzania and uncommon in southern Sudan (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon in suitable habitat throughout its range, although scarce in Senegal and the Gambia and rare in Mali (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
149147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range, although uncommon in the lowlands of KwaZulu-Natal (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149148	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macronyx flavicollis</em> is endemic to the highlands of <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, where it is absent only in the extreme north and west<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs from 1,200 to 4,100 m and is commonest between 1,800 and 2,750 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a bird of open grassland, including tussock-grassland on moorland, and has once been found nesting in crops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is widespread, but was described as uncommon at all of the nine sites where it was recorded during a survey of Important Bird Areas during 1995-1996<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Previously it had been described as "locally scarce to abundant"<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and a survey in 1989 suggested that it was less common than in the 1970s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. If its sensitivity to habitat alteration is similar to that of related species such as Sharpe's Longclaw <em>Macronyx sharpei</em>, then it could well be declining as a result of the increasing levels of cultivation and grazing that are a consequence of the continuing expansion of Ethiopia's human population. <br/></p>	eng
149149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Somalia and common in Kenya (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149151	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macronyx grimwoodi</em> is known from the south-western <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong> (DRC), central and eastern <strong>Angola</strong> and extreme north-west <strong>Zambia<sup>3</sup></strong>. It is a species of moist grassland, occurring particularly near streams, rivers, drainage lines and in grassy depressions at 800-1,500&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occupies moister habitats than the sympatric F&uuml;lleborn's Longclaw <em>M.&#160;fuelleborni</em> and is larger than Rosy-breasted Longclaw <em>M.&#160;ameliae</em>. It feeds on small beetles, weevils, grasshoppers and bugs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is common in places in north-west Zambia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. an estimated one pair every 300&#160;m on Chitunta plain<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), where no threats are known<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but there is no recent information on its population or potential threats in the core of its range in Angola or DRC<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149152	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The bulk of its population occurs on private farmland that is outside protected areas<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. A volunteer local environmental group has begun an awareness campaign focused on this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Proposals are also being developed to improve milk-cooling facilities, to decrease the incentives for land conversion<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It may be necessary to preserve a network of critical habitat through land purchase and land-management agreements<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its status at Mau Narok and Uasin Gishu<sup>1. Study the socio-economic factors underlying land-use changes1,6. Evaluate grazing regimes to establish which is optimal for maintaining tussock grassland1,5,6. Raise awareness among farmers within its range6. Improve milk processing facilities to make dairy farming more attractive7. Investigate the economic benefits of maintaining tussock grass habitat7. Establish a network of large pastoral farms (>30ha) to act as longclaw reserves11; well managed reserves could hold up to 85 individuals/km2  12.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149152	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macronyx sharpei</em> is endemic to <strong>Kenya</strong>. The bulk of its population occurs in three locations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>: the Kinangop Plateau (40 birds/km<sup>2</sup> in 1996<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), Mau Narok, and the Uasin Gishu grasslands. It is still locally common in large areas of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is also known from the eastern slopes of Mt Elgon, the northern, drier slopes of Mt Kenya, and the Aberdare Mountains (but with no recent records)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149152	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This very sedentary species is restricted to high-altitude grassland, although it is rare above 2,800&#160;m<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. Tussocks (required for nesting<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>) are an essential feature of its habitat, short grass is preferred to long, and it is absent from cultivation or woodlots<strong><sup>4,5,6,8</sup></strong>. It appears able to coexist with livestock, so long as adequate tussock cover remains (grazing may actually be necessary to maintain optimal habitat)<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It has a mean home range of c.0.5&#160;ha<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149152	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149152	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its grassland habitat (currently estimated to cover between one-third and half of its historical extent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) is being replaced by cultivation and woodlots<strong><sup>1,4,5,7</sup></strong>. Rates of replacement at Kinangop were 6-9% per annum in 1995-1996<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Many remaining pastures are ploughed every few years to remove unpalatable tussock-grass<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The increasing human population density has resulted in subdivision of farms and increasing stocking rates. Consequent heavy grazing leads to open, short-grass fields that are unsuitable for <em>M. sharpei<strong><sup>1,9</sup></strong></em>. The fragmentation of its habitat may result in population decreases that are disproportionately greater than the amount of grassland lost<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. On Kinangop Plateau, cultivation is becoming a more attractive land-use than livestock-rearing<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong> and most farmers plan to convert  their land from a pastoral to an arable system<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. By 2010 only 20% of the Kinangop plateau is predicted to be covered by tussock grasslands<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149153	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in several publicly-owned nature reserves, but only one - Natal Drakensberg Park - holds a substantial population (c.200-500 individuals). The proposed Grassland Biosphere Reserve centred around Volksrust and Wakkerstroom is estimated to hold a highly significant proportion of the global population (500-2,000 pairs). In Lesotho, the Sehlabathebe National Park supports 60-80 pairs. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys and monitoring to clarify population numbers and trends. Research its ecological requirements and the effects of various management practices. Provide incentives to landowners to manage existing grasslands beneficially. Identify uses of grassland with fewer negative impacts than forestry, and provide incentives for their rapid adoption.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149153	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus chloris</em> is a resident and partial migrant of eastern <strong>South Africa</strong> and, marginally, <strong>Lesotho</strong>. The core range is centered on the KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga Drakensberg. Small isolated populations are found farther south in the north-east Eastern Cape to the Drakensberg foothills, and in the eastern Free State. Fewer migrants are now recorded in coastal KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape, suggesting a population decline and a slight range contraction. It also used to occur in the Vaal Basin, west to Potchefstroom, but a local extinction event may have occurred. It is assumed that range reductions are concomitant with population declines, and there is evidence for local population decreases and extinction events, particularly in Lesotho. <br/></p>	eng
149153	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It holds breeding territories in submontane, undulating grasslands, favouring lush, almost meadow-like conditions, where it frequents areas of tussock and grassy slopes. It avoids recently grazed or burnt areas, unlike many <em>Anthus</em> species. Clutch-size is usually three, laid during the rains. After breeding, some remain in the breeding quarters and spend winter on the snowline. Others are found at lower elevations, often in pasture and fallow lands.</p>	eng
149153	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at 2,500-6,500 individuals (Barnes 2000). <br/></p>	eng
149153	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historical population reductions seem due to habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of intense grazing and burning. Present threats, particularly in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, include rapid afforestation of montane grasslands (notably in the Wakkerstroom district, a major stronghold), agricultural intensification, and unsuitable fire regimes and grazing practices.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
149155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent to common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
149156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as apparently rare (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to locally common in Wallacea (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to very common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
149162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
149163	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus melindae</em> has a restricted and relatively small range, being endemic to the coastal strip from Mombasa in <strong>Kenya</strong> north to 3&#176;N in southern <strong>Somalia</strong> and along the lower reaches of the Tana, Jubba and Shabeelle valleys<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits low-lying, short grassland subject to seasonal flooding, where it feeds on insects and other arthropods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Kenya, it is locally common<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, particularly in coastal grasslands, and is widespread but less numerous in riparian grasslands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In southern Somalia, it is common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> around flood-pans and cultivation, with the subspecies <em>mallablensis</em> being restricted to coastal dunes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Demand for arable and grazing land in Somalia is high, placing increasing pressure on diminishing water-resources, with high levels of grazing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is not clear how this species responds to such habitat change, but there is no evidence yet that its population is becoming severely fragmented.</p>	eng
149164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000000-1900000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000000-5700000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 6120000-22800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in its breeding range and locally common in India during the winter (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149168	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to frequent (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as localised and generally uncommon, although not uncommon in Angola (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149170	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Arabuko-Sokoke is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Kiono and Vikindu are targets of current conservation efforts. Another site, Kaya Gandini, is among the coastal "kaya" (sacred) forests targeted by the Coast Forest Conservation Unit (National Museums of Kenya/WWF). This project encourages local communities to re-establish effective national control over forest resources. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Census and monitor the population sizes at different sites<sup>7. Study its response to forest alteration<em> (Brachylaena removal, etc.). Continue to press for Dakatcha Woodland to be gazetted as a Forest Reserve or area of equivalent protected status7. Survey Ruvu South Forest Reserve (Tanzania) for its presence7.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus sokokensis</em> has been recorded from several sites along the East African coast in <strong>Kenya<sup>1,5,7</sup></strong> and <strong>Tanzania<sup>4</sup></strong>, but is extremely rare (and may even be extinct) at some of these. In Kenya, Arabuko-Sokoke Forest was estimated to support c.13,000&#160;individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149170	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Arabuko-Sokoke, it occurs in <em>Brachystegia</em> forest, unevenly and at low densities in disturbed (logged-over) habitat (0.9&#160;birds/ha), but evenly and at high densities in dense, undisturbed forest (2.8&#160;birds/ha)<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. The species in general is highly sensitive to disturbance<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. All records from the Pugu Hills are from the edge of thickets<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It lives mainly on the forest floor, preferring areas with bare ground, high litter-cover, and high densities of ants and termite mounds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, feeding among sparse grass on insects, including termites and beetles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149170	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In Kenya, Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has been estimated to support c.13,000 individuals (Musila <em>et al.</em> 2001). There are no estimates for Tanzanian populations, but the sites where the bird occurs are small, and most are very heavily degraded (N. Burgess <em>in litt</em>. 2007). The total population is therefore placed in the range band for 10,000-19,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
149170	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	One site, Dakatcha Woodland, is being damaged by cutting of <em>Brachylaena</em> trees (in great demand for fuelwood and carving timber) and by extensive clearing of the hilltops for cultivating pineapples<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is particularly threatened because it has no formal conservation status<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Arabuko-Sokoke is suffering continued forest damage from both illegal logging and licensed wood removal. There is also some political pressure for degazettement of the Kararacha-Mpendakula section of the forest, which contains prime habitat for the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its habitat faces similar threats at other sites: breakdown of traditional systems of conservation, encroachment, selective logging, pole-cutting and elephant damage<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 27000000-42000000 breeding pairs, equating to 81000000-126000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 165000000-504000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149172	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 25000-50000 breeding pairs, equating to 75000-150000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149173	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000-10000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000-30000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149174	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7000000-16000000 breeding pairs, equating to 21000000-48000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 22300000-64000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 2,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1000000-3000000 breeding pairs, equating to 3000000-9000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 12500000-180000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although an uncommon non-breeding visitor to Myanmar and Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 110000-290000 breeding pairs, equating to 330000-870000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 640000-2000000 breeding pairs, equating to 1920000-6000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 8000000-120000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common in India, Nepal and China and scarce to rare in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149181	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus nilghiriensis </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, southern <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally fairly common on grassy upland slopes interspersed with bushes and trees, mainly above 1,500 m, but sometimes descending to c.1,000 m. Its range is small and its grassland habitat is gradually being converted to plantations of tea, eucalyptus and wattle <em>Acacia</em> <em>dealbata</em>. If this agricultural encroachment and disturbance of montane grasslands continues, the status of this species may soon require re-evaluation. <br/></p>	eng
149182	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149183	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus antarcticus</em> is endemic to the sub-Antarctic island of <strong>South Georgia (Georgia del Sur)</strong>, with a total population estimated as 3000-4000 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is confined to c.20 small, rat-free offshore islands and islets, and to a few mainland areas (<10% of total habitat), enclosed by sea level glaciers, in which brown rat <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> is currently absent<strong><sup>1,3,4,5</sup></strong>. It breeds in low altitude tussock grassland, wintering mainly on ice-free shorelines<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects in tussock habitat, and insects and crustaceans along tidelines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In typical habitat it is common and productive, but winter survival of juveniles is low. It has almost no natural predators, remains of birds very occasionally turning up at middens of Brown Skua <em>Catharacta lonnbergi</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The projected continuing recession of glaciers at South Georgia threaten its remaining mainland habitats with invasion by rats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Accidental introduction of rats to offshore islands is a perpetual risk, because, although precautions are taken at several important sites, their remote location renders regulation of all visitors to all sites impossible in practice<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149183	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated at 3000-4000 pairs (McIntosh and Walton 2000). <br/></p>	eng
149184	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is listed as Threatened in Canada<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most habitat is unprotected but there are large areas in relatively well-protected military reserves, national parks and on Prairie Farm Rehabilitation lands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Agriculture censuses have provided some information on land-use trends, and breeding distribution is relatively well studied in Canada where monitoring programs underway<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine breeding distribution, centres of winter abundance, population size and decline rates. Monitor habitat conversion rates. Assess threats on wintering grounds. Protect large tracts of native grasslands<sup>2. The size of habitat required is disputed, with a minimum size of 145 HA suggested7. Manage grasslands by removing invading woody vegetation, burning on a 2-4 year rotation and avoiding intensive grazing2. A short burning rotation may be beneficial in more mesic areas or where growing conditions are good, but would have negative consequences in more arid locations/conditions and at sites with unproductive soils7. Delay hayfield mowing until 15 July, allowing >70% of nests to fledge2. Recent evidence suggests that delayed hayfield mowing will have little effect on breeding success, as this species does not seem to breed in 'hayland'7.  Restore non-native uplands to native vegetation2. This assumes that vegetation structure and composition is most important and that the native state can be restored merely by adding native plants to the habitat, ignoring other features of the native prairie that could be selected (like prey community)7.  <br/></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149184	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus spragueii</em> breeds relatively commonly in south-east Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, south-west Manitoba and occasionally southern British Columbia, <strong>Canada</strong>, and north and central Montana, North Dakota, and locally South Dakota, casually to north-west Minnesota, <strong>USA<sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>. It winters throughout the southern USA and northern <strong>Mexico</strong> to Guerrero and Veracruz<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The population has declined annually at 4.2% since 1970<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>, but the most significant declines probably occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In USA, the decline was greatest (7.8% per year) during the 1960s and 1970s, but in Canada, the annual decline rate has increased since 1975 to 8%<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149184	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits well-drained grasslands in patches of at least 190&#160;ha, especially with sparse to intermediate grass densities, moderate litter depths, few visual obstructions and little woody vegetation<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. On migration, it occurs in stubble and fallow fields, arriving late April to mid-May on the breeding grounds, and late September to early November on the wintering grounds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149184	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al.</em> (2003). <br/></p>	eng
149184	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Conversion of prairie to seeded pasture, hayfields and cropland, and intensive grazing are responsible for rapid declines in population and breeding range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Since 1900, c.75% of native Canadian prairies and c.80% of aspen parklands have been converted<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The large-scale introduction of Eurasian plant species has reduced breeding densities<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Grazing, haying and burning can have negative impacts on suitable habitat depending on moisture, soil-types, plant species and frequency<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nests are destroyed by haying prior to the fledging period<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Intensive grazing has led to encroachment by shrubs and trees in the wintering zone<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the preferred short prairie grass in wintering areas such as Texas is not conserved<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> is comparatively low, but is highest in fragmented habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149187	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149189	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149190	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. It occurs in Serra da Canastra National Park (Brazil)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, San Juan Poriah&uacute; Private Reserve (Argentina)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and the nominally protected Yabebyry, Isla Yacyret&aacute; and Tapyt&aacute; (Paraguay)<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. The preference for burnt areas in Brazil means that it disappears from strictly protected reserves such as Itirapina<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey historical Brazilian localities (with knowledge of its voice), especially Carazinho and S&atilde;o Francisco de Paula in Rio Grande do Sul. Monitor populations under different management schemes. Create a reserve network to protect Paraguayan and Argentine populations. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149190	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus nattereri</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Minas Gerais, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), south <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Paraguar&iacute;, Misiones, Itap&uacute;a, Caazap&aacute; and one record from Presidente Hayes) and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes). It was widespread in Brazil, but has declined dramatically with recent sightings from Serra da Canastra, Alfenas and Po&ccedil;os de Caldas (Minas Gerais), and near Itirapina (S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with a possible record from Lages (Santa Catarina). In Paraguay, surveys in 1995-1998 discovered important populations at Yabebyry (Misiones), Isla Yacyret&aacute;<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, &Ntilde;u Guaz&uacute; (both Itap&uacute;a)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and Tapyt&aacute; (Caazap&aacute;)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, with singing males at a further 10 sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. These sites, with San Juan Bautista (Corrientes) and Serra da Canastra, may now represent the species's strongholds.  <br/></p>	eng
149190	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It primarily inhabits dry grasslands, occasionally wandering into inundated areas. Displaying males have been found in a new (but not more mature) <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to tolerate (and may actually prefer) short grass regenerating after grassland burns (in Brazil) or lightly grazed zones (in Paraguay and Argentina)<strong><sup>5,6,10</sup></strong>. However, it cannot tolerate annual burning of grasslands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Breeding is probably biannual, and has been reported in October in Argentina<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149190	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149190	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered, mostly since 1950<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Brazil, intensive grazing, invasive grasses, annual burning and conversion to <em>Eucalyptus</em>, soybeans and exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have had a severe impact<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Argentine and Paraguayan grasslands are similarly threatened, especially by conversion to <em>Eucalyptus</em> and flooding caused by the Yacyret&aacute; dam<strong><sup>6,9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149191	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
149192	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100000-180000 breeding pairs, equating to 300000-540000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 612000-2160000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149193	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not numerous, though in places common in the Southern former USSR, fairly common in northern India and Nepal and uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al) (Flint et al. 1984, Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149194	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local in Pakistan, common in northern India, fairly common in Nepal and uncommon in Bhutan (Grimmett et al) (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally frequent in Pakistan, common in northern India, fairly common in Nepal and common in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 100-500 breeding pairs, equating to 300-1500 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 11000-33000 breeding pairs, equating to 33000-99000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size	eng
149198	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prunella fagani</em> is endemic to the high-altitude western mountains of <strong>Yemen</strong>, where it is very local, being known from only six localities (1,850-3,000 m) during the breeding season: Kawkaban; Manakhah; head of Wadi Bana; Sumara pass; near Ibb; and Jabal Sabir<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its small breeding range lies in a high-rainfall zone that has been densely settled and heavily cultivated for millennia. A few winter records from slightly south of its breeding range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> suggest that some birds may move to lower altitudes in winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs at fairly low density at its known localities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, being relatively common at only one of them. Its habitat is open, stony slopes with a relatively dense cover of short perennial grasses and dwarf-shrubs (e.g. <em>Rumex</em>, <em>Acanthus</em>), frequently associated with near-vertical rocky features such as scree, cliff-faces and field terrace-walls<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. There is no evidence for a decline, nor is one suspected currently. Major reduction of the vegetation cover at its known sites, e.g. by extreme overgrazing or over-collection of dwarf-shrubs for fuel, would threaten the species, as might climate change (e.g. aridification), but there is no evidence for these potential threats in the near future. <br/></p>	eng
149199	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in Central Asia, locally common in winter in Pakistan, locally common in northern India and common in north-western Nepal (Flint et al. 1984, Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149200	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1500-2500 breeding pairs, equating to 4500-7500 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 18800-150000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149201	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as probably rare, although its status is uncertain (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
149202	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 12000000-26000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-78000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Brazil 1991).	eng
149204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally rare in China and scarce in northern India and Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
149205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149209	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149210	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149211	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon and local (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149217	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149218	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Local communities are actively engaged in conserving montane forest at Mt Oku, with support from the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is an ongoing programme to monitor the condition of forest there, as well as the overall extent of forest cover in the Bamenda Highlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Community-based conservation activities was extended to other forest fragments in the Bamenda Highlands in 2000<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A small area of forest is protected on the Obudu Plateau, and the montane area within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park, adjacent to Mambilla Plateau, affords good protection to the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct field surveys on the Mambilla and Obudu Plateaux in Nigeria to ascertain the species's status there<sup>6. Conduct surveys in forest patches and other suitable habitat in the Cameroon mountains which are as yet unsurveyed1,7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149218	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus bannermani</em> occurs in western <strong>Cameroon</strong> (chiefly in the Bamenda Highlands, notably at Mt Oku, also Mt Tchabal Mbabo on the Adamawa Plateau) and eastern <strong>Nigeria</strong> (on the Obudu and Mambilla Plateaux, where 12-40 were seen per day in 1988). In 1999, it was found to be common in suitable habitat on the crater of Mt Manenguba, south-west Cameroon<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and, in 1998, rare or local at Kodmin in the nearby Bakossi Mountains, this latter representing a small range-extension to the south-west<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149218	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at 1,100-2,900&#160;m, occupying forest edge and dense, shrubby habitat in more open parts of montane forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and even farmland, where there are some natural trees and shrubs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On the Obudu Plateau, it occurs along the edges of narrow strips of forest in deep ravines. It would appear to tolerate a certain amount of forest degradation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Breeding has been observed in December and January at Lake Manengouba, and in November in Danko Forest Reserve, Nigeria. </p>	eng
149218	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149218	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is considerable loss of habitat in the Bamenda Highlands due to clearance for agriculture, grazing, firewood-collection and timber-extraction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Forest fires are probably responsible for the greatest proportion of habitat loss<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, for example c.500&#160;ha of forest burnt around Lake Oku in March 2000<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However the status of forest patches in Manenguba Crater is satisfactory and under very little human pressure<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149219	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Dja Reserve, Douala-Edea Forest Reserve and Mt Kupe are all protected areas. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct field surveys to locate populations. Study ecology to determine limiting factors. Protect key areas identified from studies. <br/></p>	eng
149219	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus batesi</em> is a rarely-recorded species from southern and western <strong>Cameroon</strong>, occurring in a narrow belt from Limbe, at the foot of Mt Cameroon<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, east to Moloundou. In recent years, it has only been seen twice near the Dja Game Reserve (at Somalomo on the north-west boundary of the Reserve in 1995, and at Shwani, 12 km from Somalomo, in 1996)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and remains known from only a few localities, including Mt Kupe (two records in 1990, but none since, despite intensive searches). In 1999 and 2000, surveys in south and south-eastern Cameroon failed to relocate the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149219	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in lowland rainforest, although all recent records come from secondary forest and forest edge, particularly degraded forest around villages<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded on Mt Kupe up to 900 m. In 1979, a single bird was observed moving in a zig-zag manner up a creeper-covered tree-trunk<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it has been observed recently foraging under the canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs singly and in pairs, and one record was in a mixed-species flock; it appears to forage on insects, bark-gleaning in the manner of Preuss's Weaver <em>P. preussi</em>, with which it could conceivably compete. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149219	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.2-2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,700 km<sup>2</sup> (5% EOO; low percentage taken as known only from a few localities within its range, and surveys have failed to relocate the species at a number of sites) = 540-5,400 but likely to be at low end of this range as appears to be very rare and local, so population perhaps best placed precautionarily in band 250-999 individuals. Density range from up to lower quartile of 16 estimates for seven congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; note that most of these are not true forest species however. <br/></p>	eng
149219	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since it is a bark-gleaning species it may be in competition with Preuss's Weaver <em>P. preussi</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite the records from secondary habitat, its rarity may be attributable to the loss of some specific habitat feature. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149220	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the Bailundu Highlands of western Angola, on the Batéké Plateau in the Congo and in eastern Gabon around Lekoni.	eng
149220	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits wooded grassland dominated by Hymenocardia acida 6-8 m high. It is mainly found between 500-700 m on the Batéké Plateau, but above 1,500 m in the Bailundu Highlands.	eng
149221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant in most areas (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in the Udzungwa mountains of Tanzania and commoner in the Uluguru and Ukaguru mountains, Tanzania (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common but localized (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149224	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Its habitat is protected in the south of Gabon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A proposal to protect the mangroves north-east of Libreville (Akanda area) would safeguard the colonies found there<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat along the Cabinda coast is well protected<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine the distribution of the species (for example, at Conkouati, Congo, where habitat is suitable) and assess its habitat requirements and numbers. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
149224	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus subpersonatus</em> is known from the coastal strip from <strong>Gabon</strong>,<strong> Congo</strong> and the <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo </strong>into Cabinda <strong>(Angola)</strong>. It has only recently been discovered in the Congo at two small coastal swamps, including one on the edge of Pointe-Noire<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Throughout its range it is rare and occurs at low densities<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149224	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In coastal Cabinda, it is found in rank grass in clearings in secondary forest and at the edge of marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Gabon, it appears to be confined to coastal savanna, between coastal mangrove forest and forest inland, nesting in palms <em>Phoenix reclinata</em> or <em>Caesalpinia bonduc<strong><sup> </sup></strong></em>and has apparently adapted to secondary habitat, including vegetation surrounding small coastal villages<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is generally found within 3 km of the coast<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> but is recorded further inland along major rivers such as Boma in Cabinda, 75 km up the Congo River<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149224	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2-3 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 2,300 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 4,600-6,900, i.e. in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is up to the lower quartile of 15 estimates of eight congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149224	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Gabon, coastal bush around Port Gentil and Cap Lopez is being converted into allotments. There is potential danger from oil-spills from offshore rigs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> which may be set to increase due to new oil interests in the area, particularly from US companies<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to very common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common to uncommon (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002).	eng
149228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common, though uncommon over the greater part of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and sparsely distributed (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the commonest birds on Principe (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon and common on the coast (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149237	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common in coastal areas (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149239	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to south and east Africa, where it occurs in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
149239	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This is a social species which breeds in papyrus, reedbeds and shrubbery overhanging water, at around 1,750 m elevation (van Perlo 1995). Colonies of up to 300 nests have been found in areas of suitable habitat.	eng
149239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149239	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Disturbance of its wetland habitat threatens the species in south Mozambique and Botswana (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149241	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The valley is designated a Game Controlled Area, but this only restricts hunting of large animals, and not land-use (e.g. commercial agriculture) that might be deleterious for this species.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a scheme for monitoring its population. Assess its habitat requirements and evaluate the potential effects of increased pesticide- and fertiliser-use and of dry-season burning.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149241	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus burnieri</em>, first discovered in 1986, has a very small range, being confined to the Kilombero river floodplain in south-central <strong>Tanzania<sup>1</sup></strong>. It has a patchy and restricted distribution within its range, but is abundant in suitable habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149241	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in extensive riverside swamps fringed with tall reedbeds <em>Phragmites</em>, generally in areas away from trees (possibly related to competition with African Golden-Weaver <em>P. subaureus</em>)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been observed foraging in groups on the ground prior to flooding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The diet includes flowering and fruiting grass-heads, as well as dried fish and domestic refuse<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nests are in loose groups of up to 20 (occasionally 30), each being attached to a single reed-stem, frequently overhanging water, in areas of seasonal flooding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is apparently 1-2<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149241	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-22 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 150 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,500-3,300, i.e. in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is the median to upper quartile of 16 estimates of eight congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; described as abundant in suitable habitat, but patchy distribution, so 10% of EOO used even though this is small). <br/></p>	eng
149241	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The extent of dry-season cultivation in the centre of the floodplain is increasing and use of the central portion of the valley by pastoralists is increasing rapidly<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As well as the resulting habitat loss, dry-season burning, to clear fields and to promote growth of new grass for cattle, may have a negative impact<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Up to 200&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of the west Kilombero valley may be converted to sugarcane production in the near future<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This would reduce the extent of suitable habitat. Increases in pesticide- or fertiliser-use in the catchment may have negative impacts on the species and/or its habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although the extent of the impacts on this species are poorly known, it has such a restricted range that threats could affect a large proportion of the population at once and lead to very rapid declines. <br/></p>	eng
149242	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally abundant (Ash and Miskell 1998, Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149244	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant in Sudan, south of Khartoum (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149245	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149246	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149248	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus ruweti</em> is restricted to Lake Lufira in the southern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo,</strong> where it was common in 1960 (when the type-specimen was collected), but there is no recent information on its status. It is found in swamps bordering Lake Lufira where it occurs in reedbeds of <em>Phragmites</em> and <em>Typha</em>, interspersed with bushes and <em>Sesbania leptocarpa</em>. The breeding season is from January to April and colonies vary in size from three to 20 nests. Birds normally raise two broods per breeding season. There is no information on threats to its habitat.</p>	eng
149249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149251	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149252	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149253	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus spekeoides</em> is a poorly recorded species known from a restricted area (probably less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of seasonally flooded wetlands in northern <strong>Uganda</strong><sup>1,2,3</sup>. It has been described as locally common in bushed and wooded grassland in swampy areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has been recorded at two Important Bird Areas, Lake Bisina (250 km<sup>2</sup>) and Lake Opeta (570 km<sup>2</sup>), and is found in the marshland habitat stretching between these lakes. There are also records from Rhino Camp in Arua and from the environs of Lake Kyoga near Nakasongola. Its ecology and breeding habits are largely unknown. In August 1996, 47 nests of this species were counted around Lake Bisina, since when it has not been recorded breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some wetland areas have been drained in this region, including those around Nariam where the type-specimen was collected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Over 20,000 head of cattle move to the Opeta region each dry season (October-February), a factor degrading wooded grasslands upon which the species is dependent for breeding<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The importance of such degradation as a threatening process is unclear. Lake Bisina is poorly known, does not fall within the Karamoja protected-area complex and there are no conservation measures proposed or enacted for the site<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Lake Opeta borders Pian-Upe Wildlife Reserve, set up in consideration of traditional cattle-grazing practices in the area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local and seasonal (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149256	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the focus of a project to promote long-term conservation of the forest through sustainable management and community participation in forest conservation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Gazette Dakatcha Forest as a forest reserve or area with similar protected status<sup>1. Enforce legislation controlling forest-use in Arabuko-Sokoke. Better define its habitat and breeding requirements, in particular its tolerance of forest degradation. Census and monitor its population size. Improve knowledge of its distribution. Continue efforts to conserve Arabuko-Sokoke Forest.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149256	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus golandi</em> is known only from south-east <strong>Kenya</strong>. Most records are from the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (350&#160;km<sup>2</sup> occupied by this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), but it is also recorded from the Dakatcha area near Malindi to the north of the Sabaki river (300&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and from the eastern edge of Galana Ranch east to Marafa and Hadu<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The population was estimated to be not more than 1,000-2,000 pairs in the early 1980s and there has been no more recent assessment. The species may not breed in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, since it appears to be largely absent during April-July, reappearing with young in August and thence regularly seen into November, with few records from December-February<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is believed to have bred north of the Sabaki river in 1994, when many juveniles were observed near Dakatcha in mid-July<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149256	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Outside the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the species is confined to lowland <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Within the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, it has been recorded from all forest habitats, although it is commonest in <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland. Occurs in noisy but somewhat erractic flocks of 5-30 birds and also sometimes observed in mixed species flocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  It feeds high up in the canopy on beetles and caterpillars. It presumably nests at low densities in the tops of tall trees, probably in March, with the onset of the rains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149256	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated to be not more than 1,000-2,000 pairs (2,000-4,000 mature individuals) in the early 1980s (Collar and Stuart 1985), and there has not been a more recent assessment.  <br/></p>	eng
149256	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance of woodland for agriculture is the main threat to the species, e.g. at Dakatcha where hilltops are being extensively cleared for cultivating pineapples, and where woodland is also being damaged by cutting of <em>Brachylaena</em> trees (in great demand for fuelwood and carving-timber)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Forest at Arabuko-Sokoke continues to be degraded by both illegal logging and licensed wood removal. There is also some political pressure for degazettement of the Kararacha-Mpendakula section of this forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon generally though locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149262	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Epulu lies within the Okapi Faunal Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Extend the northern part of the Virunga National Park westwards, to include the eastern part of Ituri Forest. Conduct surveys to ascertain the present status of the species when the security situation permits.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149262	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus aureonucha</em> is only known from a small part of the Ituri Forest, between Mawambi, Irumu and Beni in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it had not been seen since 1926 until encountered several times during 1986, including a flock of 60 at Epulu<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, where a pair feeding two young were also observed in 1994<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There was a recent observation of a pair in Semliki Valley National Park, <strong>Uganda</strong>, in November 2006, extending the species's known range over the border to the east<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
149262	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in the canopy of lowland rainforest, with most records coming from dense primary forest, though it has been recorded from forest edge and old secondary growth with many tall trees remaining. It has been sighted in a flock of up to 60 birds, and it is possible that the species normally occurs in parties. It feeds on fruit and insects. An adult in breeding condition has been collected in September, though juveniles have also been found in the same month.</p>	eng
149262	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.1-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 540 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) =54-3,240 individuals, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 250-999 individuals. Density range is the lower half of estimates for two forest malimbes and one forest-dwelling weaver in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
149262	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat is in serious danger from forest clearance (mainly for agriculture). It is likely that the rate of deforestation has increased in recent years as a result of warfare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in humid forest in the north-west, north and east of Madagascar (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
149266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
149267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka and rare in Nepal and Bangladesh (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to common, although rare in Bhutan (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149270	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus hypoxanthus </em>occurs in <strong>Myanmar</strong> (scarce to locally common in the centre, south, south-west and Tenasserim), <strong>Thailand</strong> (local and uncommon in north and centre), <strong>Laos</strong> (local in south), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (scarce to locally fairly common in south Annam and Cochinchina), <strong>Cambodia</strong> and <strong>Indonesia</strong> (rare resident in Sumatra, previously widespread but now local and uncommon on Java and restricted to the west). It inhabits marshes, grassland, reeds and rice paddies, always close to water in the lowlands where large flocks sometimes form around colonies. It is threatened by conversion of wetland habitat to agriculture and also by persecution. It is commonly trapped (particularly in Java) and colonies are robbed and destroyed. <br/></p>	eng
149270	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is thought to have a moderately small global population owing to its habitat requirements and following declines. <br/></p>	eng
149271	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in India, and trapping and trade of the species has been banned since 1991. It has been recorded from Kaziranga and Manas National Parks, Assam, Jaldapara National Park, West Bengal, Corbett National Park (or at least nearby), Uttar Pradesh, and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct widespread interviews with bird-trappers to identify population centres, followed by field surveys in remaining habitat to establish its distribution and status. Extend, upgrade, link (where possible) existing protected areas and establish new ones in order to conserve remaining tracts of natural grassland across its range. Control livestock-grazing in protected areas to reduce rates of habitat loss and degradation. Promote conservation awareness initiatives focusing on sustainable management of grassland to maximise both thatch productivity for local people and available habitat for threatened grassland birds.</strong></p>	eng
149271	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus megarhynchus</em> is endemic to the terai of the northern Indian subcontinent, where it is known from disjunct populations in Delhi and northern Uttar Pradesh, <strong>India</strong> and adjacent extreme western <strong>Nepal</strong>, and from eastern Nepal to Assam. It has always been very locally distributed, and the disappearance of several colonies in recent decades indicates that it is declining. The recently discovered population in Nepal is estimated at <50 birds and is erratic in occurrence. <br/></p>	eng
149271	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits terai marshes and extensive stands of <em>Imperata, Narenga,</em> and <em>Saccharum</em> grassland, particularly those that are seasonally inundated, with well-scattered trees, and occasionally interspersed with patchy rice and sugarcane cultivation. It is gregarious, foraging in flocks and breeding (May-September) in colonies. Nests are built in trees, reedbeds, or extensive stands of tall grass. Whilst its movements are poorly understood, populations appear to wander erratically.</p>	eng
149271	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) suggesting the population is unlikely to exceed 10,000 individuals and "may well fall well short of this" <br/></p>	eng
149271	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat is the rapid and extensive loss and modification of its habitat. This has occurred as a result of drainage, conversion to agriculture (primarily rice-paddy, sugarcane, mustard and tea), overgrazing by domestic livestock and grass harvesting for thatch production. Recent heavy flooding in the valley of the Brahmaputra, exacerbated by its increasingly denuded catchment, has destroyed suitable habitat and breeding colonies. These threats are compounded by capture for the live bird trade.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149272	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Cameroon and rare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149275	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Conservation action in the Ulugurus focuses on assisting local initiatives and increasing the involvement of local communities in forest management<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Nyumbanitu Mountains fall within the West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish a coordinated management scheme for Mt Nilo Forest Reserve and adjacent forest in the East Usambaras<sup>3. Survey the Rubeho Mountains to confirm previous reports of the species's occurrence.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149275	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus nicolli</em> occurs at low density in the East and West Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains in <strong>Tanzania</strong>. In the West Usambaras, the nominate subspecies occurs in small numbers at Shume, Magamba and Mazumbai<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In the East Usambaras, it is fairly common at two sites within the Nilo Forest Reserve<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong> - probably the subspecies's last remaining stronghold<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <em>P.&#160;n. anderseni</em> is found in the Uluguru Mountains (three records, all from Uluguru North Forest Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) and the Udzungwa Mountains, including the Nyumbanitu Mountains (55&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest), as well as in a tiny patch of forest c.95&#160;km east of Iringa and in the Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. There is a possible record from the Rubeho Mountains, but this has not been confirmed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The population is guessed to be greater than 1,000 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149275	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane evergreen forest, as well as forest edge<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and disturbed forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds have also been seen in plantations and in cultivated areas, but only where mature trees still exist<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It usually occurs in mixed-species parties, often with <em>P. bicolor</em>, feeding in the upper canopy, gleaning insects from epiphyte-covered branches<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149275	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.1-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 790 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 79-4,740, but the species is described as 'fairly common' at some sites. The total population has been estimated by Seddon <em>et al. </em>(1999b) to be over 1,000, and is therefore best placed in band 1,000-2,500 individuals. This estimate may be conservative as the population in the Udzungwas alone might number 1,000-2,000 individuals (L. Hansen <em>in litt</em>. 2007), although a conservative best guess has been made of 'some hundred' individuals in this population (Dinesen <em>et al</em>. 2001). The density range used in the above calculation is the lower half of estimates for two forest malimbes and one forest-dwelling weaver in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
149275	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The increasing human population throughout its range is clearing or altering forest for agriculture, replacing natural forest with plantations, cutting timber and collecting firewood, resulting in loss, degradation and fragmentation of the species's habitat<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Although the main montane forest block (120&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) in the Ulugurus is protected by its extremely inaccessible terrain, the lower slopes are being steadily cleared. In Nilo Forest Reserve, understory cultivation (mainly of cardamom) occurs in c.36% of the forest, and a further 6% is cultivated for arable crops<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149276	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus olivaceiceps</em> is known from scattered areas in <strong>Malawi</strong> (nine main locations, all of which are legally, but not effectively, protected)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, <strong>Zambia</strong> (apparently localised, but perhaps more widely distributed, in suitable habitat along the Malawi border, including at least one protected area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), <strong>Tanzania</strong> (uncommon in Songea District<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and recently recorded from the north [south of Lake Victoria]<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, suggesting that it may occur at low density in a huge area of intervening habitat in west Tanzania<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), and northern and southern <strong>Mozambique<sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>. The total population in 1998 was estimated to be c.20,000 pairs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species is associated with mature <em>Brachystegia</em> woodland (up to 1,700&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) where <em>Usnea</em> lichen is abundant<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is found in the canopy, sometimes in mixed-species flocks. It is considered threatened throughout Mozambique<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, where slash-and-burn agriculture is rapidly transforming woodland into farmland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and its woodland sites in Malawi face the same pressures for land and fuel<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, even though legally protected<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Since similar threats are likely to be affecting its habitat in Tanzania and Zambia, and intensifying, there is a risk that it may suffer a rapid decline in the future. <br/></p>	eng
149277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149281	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the Okapi Faunal Reserve.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Extend the northern part of the Virunga National Park westwards, to include the eastern part of the Ituri Forest. Conduct surveys to ascertain the present status of the species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149281	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ploceus flavipes</em> is known only from central and eastern Ituri Forest in the eastern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, where it would appear to be uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs from Avakubi east to Simbo and Campi y Wanbuti, south to Ukaika, and then east to Lima, Tungudu and Makayobe. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149281	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be restricted to lowland rainforest where it is found in the tops of tall and medium-sized trees. Its diet includes caterpillars. The breeding season may start around September.</p>	eng
149281	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.1-6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 640 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 64-3,840 but species described as 'uncommon' at some sites, so perhaps best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range is the lower half of estimates for two forest malimbes and one forest-dwelling weaver in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149281	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its habitat is in serious danger from forest clearance (mainly for agriculture). It is likely that the rate of deforestation has increased in recent years as a result of warfare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Central African Republic (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149284	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Sierra Leone, parts of Gola Forest Reserve are protected legally, but there is little effective implementation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Ta&iuml; National Park in south-west C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire is one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper Guinea forest. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search rainforest west of Ta&iuml; National Park to determine whether the species occurs there<sup>3. Conduct population surveys and ecological studies particularly to learn more of its breeding ecology6. Implement the draft management plan for Gola Forest Reserve and upgrade its official protection status6. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149284	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malimbus ballmanni</em> is confined to parts of the Upper Guinea rainforest block of West Africa in <strong>Sierra Leone</strong> (Gola Forest), <strong>Liberia</strong> and <strong>C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire </strong>(first found near but not in Ta&iuml; National Park), with a possible record from Ziama Forest in south eastern Guinea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Fieldwork in 1988/1989 in Gola Forest failed to relocate the species and it has not been seen again there, or in Ta&iuml; National Park. However, surveys in Liberia have shown that it survives in two populations, one in western Liberia in an area of 200-300&#160;km<sup>2</sup> (population size unknown) and one in eastern Liberia (Grand Gedeh/Sinoe County). This eastern population extends into western C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Goin D&eacute;b&eacute; and Cavally Forest Reserves) covering an area of at least 18,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, where it is locally common and the population has been estimated to lie in the region of 20,000-50,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1999, two possible sightings from the Krahn-Bassa National forest region in south-east Liberia may extend the known range of its eastern population westward and southward<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149284	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found in lowland primary forest, lightly logged high forest and very old secondary forest between 8-20&#160;m, where it forages for insects<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The breeding season is seasonally adapted, with indications of a minor breeding season in the short, intermediate dry season in July/August and a major breeding season in October/November<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149284	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. The eastern population extends into western C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Goin D&eacute;b&eacute; and Cavally Forest Reserves) covering an area of at least 18,000 km<sup>2</sup>, where it is locally common and the population has been estimated to lie in the region of 20,000-50,000 birds (Gatter and Gardner 1993). However, this estimate is considered optimistic (H. Rainey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). and extrapolated data for the total population must be treated with caution as the species appears to be very rare and localised in the western part of its range (J. Lindsell <em>in litt</em>. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
149284	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Remaining large tracts of forest in Liberia are under intense and increasing pressure from commercial logging and a consequent increase in settlement and smallholder agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Elsewhere in the Upper Guinea region, forest survives in fragmented patches which are under intense pressure for logging and agriculture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Nigeria and not common in Cameroon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149286	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149287	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>200 ha of regrowth forest habitat is protected at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, near Ibadan<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However its habitat requirements are either poorly understood or of little relevance to this species conservation. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further population surveys throughout the species's known range<sup>4. Identify habitat requirements for feeding and breeding, and assess the amount of suitable habitat available1. Assess the determinants of breeding success, particularly the possible competition with other weaver species5. Conduct taxonomic studies into the relationship of the species within the Black-throated Malimbe <em>M. cassini complex.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149287	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Malimbus ibadanensis</em> occupies a small area circumscribed by Ibadan, Ife, Iperu and Ilaro in south-western <strong>Nigeria<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was not seen from 1980 until November 1987<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, when only four birds were recorded in 10 days of intensive searching at Ibadan. Recent records are all from the grounds of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) near Ibadan, as searches have been concentrated in this area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nine birds (two pairs and five females) were seen there between October 1998 and April 1999 (plus one female at Akanran, 15&#160;km east of Ibadan)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A systematic survey of 21 sites within the known range of the species in south-western Nigeria produced records only at IITA and Moniya, 8 km to the north<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A notably small total of 10 pairs and 3 individual males were seen during this survey<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Despite these very low numbers, suitable habitat is apparently widespread in the region<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and the species may not be uncommon at some sites as yet unsurveyed<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149287	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest patches, forest edge, secondary woodland, and possibly even highly degraded farmland and gardens. The forest reserve at IITA is 30 year old regrowth forest in various stages of maturity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Moniya is an disused cocoa farm with some regrowth, subjectively similar to secondary forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Habitat type or degradation does not appear to explain in any way the distribution of this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Birds have usually been observed 5-15&#160;m up in trees, especially oil-palms. It appears to have an extended breeding season, with nesting recorded in February, May, June, July, September, October and December. Notably the species is normally seen in association with several other Malimbe and weaver species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149287	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Data from transect surveys in most forest patches within the majority of the species's known range were used to estimate the population at 2,469 individuals (95%CI: 1,401-4,365), which can be considered a maximum estimate of the world population (Manu <em>et al.</em> 2005). The confidence intervals for this estimate are taken for the species's population range.  <br/></p>	eng
149287	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Reasons for its apparent scarcity remain unknown. Despite its use of secondary habitats, it is possible that these are suboptimal or that some specific environmental constraint is operating. Competition with other malimbe and weaver species is a possibility<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Such species, preferring secondary habitats, may have increased in modern times due to habitat modification. As a result, competition with these weavers sharing a similar niche may be at least partly responsible for the current rarity of the Ibadan Malimbe<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Increased nest destruction by humans has also been suggested as a causal factor in their decline<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149289	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in the Central African Republic and rare in Angola (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149290	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149291	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon though locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149295	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as possibly the most abundant bird in the world (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
149299	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
149300	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p></p><p>Rats and macaques are controlled as part of a programme to rehabilitate plots of native vegetation<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A captive-rearing programme implemented by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Santuary and the National Parks and Conservation Service is proving highly effective and in 2005 produced 47 individuals from captive parents (25) and hand reared wild born chicks (22)<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Protocols for captive husbandry and artificial propagation were developed to facilitate the translocation objectives<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The Black River National Park partly covers its range, and the habitat around Bassin Blanc, not originally included within the boundary, is a priority for compulsory government purchase in the future<strong><sup>3,11</sup></strong>. Research into the species's ecology is ongoing and prospective surveys to assess the suitability of Round Island for translocation have been conducted<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>; a reintroduction is planned for late 2009. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p></p><p><strong>Study fecundity differences between pine plantations, <em>Cryptomeria</em> and native forest. Develop a Conservation Management Area at Combo, stocked with favoured nectar-producing plants and with predator controls. Increase breeding productivity by supplemental feeding, double clutching and captive-rearing of harvested wild clutches</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Continue releases on offshore islands and monitor the population on Ile aux Aigrettes. Advocate for the compulsory purchase of land separating Bassin Blanc from the Black River National Park and ensure that the national park boundary is extended and appropriate management activities implemented. <br/></strong></p>	eng
149300	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Foudia rubra</em>, restricted to south-west <strong>Mauritius</strong>, suffered rapid population declines since 1975, descending from 247-260 pairs to c.108-122 pairs in late 2001<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>; no doubt following long-term historic population declines owing to heavy predation by invasive mammals. Between 1975 and 1993, a 55% decline in both population size and Area of Occupancy occurred<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, and the number of locations fell from six in 1975 to three<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, with the main population covering a range of just 15km<sup>2</sup> in 1993. However, since 1993, the population has been stable<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>, and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation<strong><sup>4,5  </sup></strong>which probably represents dispersing juveniles setting up new territories<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The tiny Mare aux Vacoas subpopulation has remained stable (four pairs), but numbers and range have continued to decline in the Bel Ombre subpopulation (five pairs)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The long term viability of these small subpopulations is in doubt<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 2005, 45 hand reared chicks were released onto Ile aux Aigrettes where two pairs from previous releases have raised chicks<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Following that success, in 2006, c.40 young fledged on Ile aux Aigrettes and the total population on the island now stands at 140 individuals<strong><sup>16,17</sup></strong>, including 47 pairs in late 2008<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. The population is expected to increase further in the coming years as it expands on Ile aux Aigrettes, and a second translocation to Round Island is planned<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
149300	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It holds territories in all types of native forest, including degraded forest, and it shows an increasing reliance on non-native plantations that afford some protection from nest predators<strong><sup>4,20</sup></strong>; its use of exotic vegetation (pine and <em>Cryptomeria</em>) increased markedly during the recent increase in range between 1994 and 2003<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Its diet is comprised primarily of insects, but also fruit and nectar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/><p></p>	eng
149300	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population was estimated at 216-244 individuals in 2002 (Nichols <em>et al</em>. 2002) with a minimum of 108 breeding pairs. It has since increased following the release of birds on Ille aux Aigrettes in 2006 with 43 breeding pairs established in late 2008, but the pre-release population estimate will be retained until the population has sustained itself above 250 mature individuals for five years. <br/><p></p>	eng
149300	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Historically, clearance of upland forest, particularly for plantations in the 1970s, catastrophically affected this species. Introduced predators, notably black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and crab-eating macaque <em>Macaca fascicularis</em>, have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong> and nest predation is regarded as the major cause of present-day decline in this species<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Introduced Madagascar Red Fody <em>Foudia madagascariensis</em> may restrict its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has unexpectedly disappeared from areas of apparently intact habitat, possibly 'sink' regions of severe nest-predation, previously sustained by relatively predator-free 'source' areas which have now been degraded and can no longer supply new recruits<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong>. The species also suffers from the general degradation of native habitats on Mauritius caused by introduced animals and plants<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
149301	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Cousin, encouraging regeneration of natural woodland, dominated by <em>Pisonia grandis</em>, may have allowed the substantial population increase in recent years<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Cousine, habitat management has probably also helped<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In February 2002, Nature Seychelles translocated 64 fodies to Aride Island where the population has at least doubled in the last 13 months<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In February 2003, Nature Seychelles introduced 47 fodies to Denis Island, where a self-sustaining population has now established<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Assessment of the extent of hybridisation on D'Arros through DNA analysis is underway<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue collection of data on population status and threats<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Continue management and habitat conservation on Cousin and Cousine, and extend to Fr&eacute;gate<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Avoid further introductions of <em>F. madagascariensis</em><strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Consider translocation to other predator-free islands, taking account of those with populations of other threatened birds since it predates on eggs and may compete for food resources<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149301	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Foudia sechellarum</em> now occurs on six islands in the <strong>Seychelles</strong>: Cousin, Cousine, Fr&eacute;gate, D'Arros (introduced), Aride (reintroduced) and Denis (introduced). The former range included Marianne, possibly La Digue, and it may have been widespread throughout the Praslin group<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>. Population estimates are: Cousin c.1,000 birds in 1997 and stable since 1985<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; Cousine: 560 birds in 1996<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; Fr&eacute;gate: at least 1,500 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>; D'Arros: c.200-300 birds in 1995<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; Aride: 124 individuals and 27 breeding territories<strong><sup>11,15</sup></strong>; Denis: at least 14 introduced birds and 10 island-bred birds present in May-July 2005<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Several island-bred birds have been seen with fledglings, including a pair of island-bred birds, indicating that the population is now self-sustaining<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In all, the total population of this species is now estimated at c.3,500 individuals<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149301	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It probably originally occupied natural woodland, but has adapted to man-made habitats such as gardens and coconut plantations<strong><sup>6,4</sup></strong>. It has a varied diet including insects and invertebrates, seeds, nectar and fruits<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It also depredates eggs of other species, especially seabirds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It appears largely non-territorial, ranging widely, but occasionally defends a small territory in the breeding season<strong><sup>6,2,1</sup></strong>. They may breed several times a year, and even newly translocated birds to Aride have managed up to three breeding attempts in the 13 months since translocation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149301	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In all, the total population of this species is now estimated at c.3,500 individuals (Wagner 2004). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149301	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Historically, slaves killed these birds as they were thought to pose a threat to crops<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. This persecution, combined with habitat destruction, probably reduced the distribution of the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Today, the main threat may be competition and predation from introduced species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. This species appears to have some degree of tolerance to introduced cats (on Fr&eacute;gate, Cousine and D'Arros) and brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> (on Fr&eacute;gate and D'Arros)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. However, black rats <em>Rattus rattus</em> pose a significant threat<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>, although they are unlikely to become established on islands that this fody inhabits<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. <em>F. madagascariensis</em> is not a major competitor<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. However, an introduced female <em>F. sechellarum</em> produced hybrid offspring with <em>F. madagascariensis</em> on Aride before the bird was removed<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Some colour variation in the D'Arros population may be a result of hybridisation with <em>F. madagascariensis</em><strong><sup>12,17</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
149302	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Habitat protection and reforestation, spurred primarily by the need for watershed protection, have been key to the recovery of this species, aided by the recent absence of catastrophic cyclones. However, much reforestation has involved exotic trees, although native ecosystem rehabilitation has been started at some sites, including the two Conservation Management Areas (CMAs), Grande Montagne and Anse Quitor (both 0.1&#160;km<sup>2</sup>). Sites are fenced to exclude grazing animals and woodcutters, exotic plants removed and native species replanted. There has been an accompanying public awareness campaign. <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> has been bred in captivity, but releases have not been needed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and there are now no captive birds held<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Habitat management to enhance populations should focus on protecting existing wooded valleys to allow forest maturation and expansion of afforested areas<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop further CMAs<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Instigate a long-term monitoring programme<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Collect data on reproductive success<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate long-term possibilities of controlling or excluding rats and cats<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue restoration of native forest as an enduring safeguard<sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149302	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Foudia flavicans</em>, having once been abundant on Rodrigues, <strong>Mauritius</strong>, declined drastically to 5-6 pairs in 1968. By April 1983, it had recovered to c.110 birds on the island's northern slopes. Populations have increased in line with the recovery and expansion of native and exotic woodland<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. In 1999, the population was estimated at a minimum of 334 pairs and 911 individuals<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>, and maximum of 500 pairs and 1,200 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149302	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies most areas of mature canopy, mixed woodland taller than 5 m in height<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Highest population densities are found in forest of greatest tree height, canopy cover and tree species diversity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It may preferentially hold territories close to areas of Norfolk Island pine <em>Araucaria cunninghamii</em>, showing high adaptation to some exotic vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  It feeds on insects, spiders, nectar, seeds and some fruit<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149302	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1999, the population was estimated at a minimum of 334 pairs and 911 individuals (Impey 1999; Impey <em>et al.</em> 2002), and a maximum of 500 pairs and 1,200 individuals (C. Jones <em>in litt.</em> 2000), thus a population range of 668-1,000 mature individuals is taken from these estimates.  <br/></p>	eng
149302	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest destruction, subsistence farming and the impacts of free-ranging livestock have resulted in the complete destruction of native forest such that only scattered individuals of most native trees survive<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Loss of habitat, competition with introduced Madagascar Red Fody <em>F.&#160;madagascariensis</em>, cyclones and a severe drought caused a huge decline in the population by the 1970s<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is a predator of eggs and chicks, but <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> has survived alongside it for hundreds of years. Feral cats are potential predators. Competition with <em>F.&#160;madagascariensis</em> may be significant when food is in short supply (i.e. droughts and cyclones), and probably restricts <em>F.&#160;flavicans</em> to forest habitat. Habitat destruction and degradation are no longer major threats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149306	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149307	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant throughout its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149308	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149310	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to northern and central Angola, where it occurs along the coastal plain from Benguela and Cuanza Sul to Luanda, Bengo and southern Cuanza Norte, and inland along the Cuanza River to Dondo.	eng
149310	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs on floodplains and rank vegetation in savanna woodland on the coastal plain, and also in Acacia scrub and abandoned cotton fields (Traylor 1960). It may make small seasonal movements from wet to drier habitat.	eng
149310	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Borrow and Demey 2001).).	eng
149310	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although the species has a relatively small range, suitable habitat (such as the flood plain of the Cuanza River and other low lying marshes in the area) is extensive and not easily impacted upon. However, during seasonal movements, it could be susceptible to habitat changes at the drier end of its range (Stattersfield et al. 1998, Dean 2001).	eng
149311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare in the middle Zambezi valley (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in east and south-east Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant in south-eastern Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149319	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euplectes jacksoni</em> is a resident of the highlands of west and central <strong>Kenya</strong> and north-east <strong>Tanzania</strong>, where it inhabits open grassland from 1,500-3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It also feeds in agricultural land and is found in tall grassland in some areas. It breeds in drier grasslands than Long-tailed Widowbird <em>E. progne</em>, with which its range overlaps<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is locally common over much of its relatively small range, from Eldoret and Nandi east to Laikipia, Mt Kenya and south to the Aberdares, Loita and Nguruman Hills, north Serengeti National Park, Loliondo and the Crater Highlands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, in a survey of the Kinangop Plateau, Kenya, it was recorded in only 14 out of forty plots<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Tanzania, virtually all its habitat is protected, for example in the Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but montane grasslands are poorly covered by the protected-area system in Kenya<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This and other restricted-range species of the grasslands of the Kenyan highlands are threatened by destruction and fragmentation of montane grasslands, as a result of intensified agricultural development and livestock production<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Fires, started by pastoralists to control ticks, are common in the dry season (September-November), and temporarily destroy most suitable habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or scarce, although locally common in eastern and southern Africa (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to scarce (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149327	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be nowhere common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be difficult to observe. Therefore it may be common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although easily over-looked (Clement 1999).	eng
149337	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although easily over-looked (Clement 1999).	eng
149338	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in protected areas in part of its range, including the Virunga National Park in the DRC, Nyungwe Forest Reserve in Rwanda, and Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Investigate declines or fluctuations in population, to assess threats. Survey extent of habitat.</strong></p>	eng
149338	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cryptospiza shelleyi</em> is known from many parts of the mountains of the Albertine Rift, including the Itombwe Mountains, Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park and mountains west of Lake Kivu in <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, Nyungwe, Gishwati, Makwa and Mukura Forests in <strong>Rwanda</strong>, Bururi Forest and elsewhere in <strong>Burundi</strong>, the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi (Impenetrable) Forest in <strong>Uganda</strong>, as well as the Virunga Mountains (2,200-3,000&#160;m) on the border between DRC, Rwanda and Uganda. It is generally rare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, only being common in a few threatened forests<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and shows unexplained fluctuations in abundance.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149338	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the understorey of closed-canopy moist forest, often in lush valley bottoms near water, as well as low secondary growth at forest edges, forest clearings and glades dominated by large herbs, bamboo thickets and the upper forest/moorland ecotone.</p>	eng
149338	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 birds/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,600 km<sup>2 </sup>(10% EOO) = 4,600-9,200, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range extrapolated from other estrildid finches in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and is compatible with description as rare; status incompletely known though and abundance and population size may vary temporally and spatially). <br/></p>	eng
149338	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Between the late 1970s and the early 1990s, it may have suffered population declines locally<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although it is not a well-known species and there are few baseline data<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Any decline is most likely related to deforestation and forest degradation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, which are prevalent throughout its range, both for agriculture and for timber, and have increased recently as a result of war. Forest in the Itombwe Mountains and Kahuzi-Bi&eacute;ga National Park is under increasing pressure from pastoralists, farmers, pit-sawyers, miners and hunters<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Thousands of refugees from Burundi and Rwanda live in camps at the base of Itombwe's eastern escarpment and to the north<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Clearance of forest for agriculture has increased dramatically in the past few years as maize crops have failed, causing famine<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is also some localised forest loss in Itombwe as a result of gold-mining<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In contrast, reports suggest that there has been been very little encroachment at Nyungwe in recent years, due to the conflict-related emigration of local people<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149339	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Clement 1999).	eng
149343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon though locally abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce and little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149349	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149351	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common and abundant locally (Clement 1999).	eng
149353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Clement 1999).	eng
149355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common within its limited range (Clement 1999).	eng
149356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or local (Clement 1999).	eng
149357	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread, although nowhere common (Clement 1999).	eng
149359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149363	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce and easily over-looked (Clement 1999).	eng
149366	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Estrilda thomensis</em> was originally described in error as being from the island of S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; but is in fact restricted to south-western <strong>Angola</strong> (Namibe Province, north and east to south-west Huila Province and north to Fazenda do Cuito in Huambo)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and extreme north-western <strong>Namibia </strong>(up to 50 km from the lower Cunene or Kunene River)<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. Overall, it has a large Extent of Occurrence of 95,700 km<sup>2</sup>. It is rare in Namibia, probably numbering less than 2,000 birds in total<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but in Angola it is locally common to frequent in thornbush, scrub, open mopane woodland and riverine <em>Acacia</em> woodland from 200-500 m<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In Angola the species occurs in Iona National Park and possibly also Chimalavera Regional Nature Park as well as from proposed protected areas at Chongoroi and Tundavala<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the proposed development of a hydroelectric plant on the Cunene River at Epupa Falls would threaten the species survival in Namibia; covering around half of the species's habitat in the country and - by altering river dynamics - likely changing insect biodiversity relied on by the species during feeding of young<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. The project would also remove habitat on the Angolan side<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its habitat is generally threatened by habitat degradation caused by overgrazing and trampling by cattle and goats<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, and clearance (often using fire) for subsistence agriculture. More pastoral agriculturalists are likely to be attracted by the permanent water that the proposed dam would produce<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the face of these threats, studies are urgently needed to determine accurate population figures and breeding ecology, including finding nesting areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The dam project is currently on hold due to an incomplete Environmental Impact Assessment and a lack of funding from major donors<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The project is also opposed by local people, and suitable sites occur elsewhere<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Due to its severely fragmented habitat, which is undergoing a continuing decline and thus reducing the range of this species, it is listed as Near Threatened. If the dam project is cancelled, the species may merit downlisting to Vulnerable. <br/></p>	eng
149367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149368	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct population surveys to determine its distribution more precisely. Conduct detailed ecological studies to determine the species's habitat requirements and assess any potential threats, starting at the site of the most recent sighting involving a large flock<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its behaviour, voice and DNA to clarify its taxonomic relationship with the closely-related Fawn-breasted Waxbill <em>E. paludicola<sup>2</sup></em></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149368	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Estrilda poliopareia</em> appears to be restricted to a few localities in southern <strong>Nigeria</strong>, and is known with certainty from only five. However, although reportedly common at one locality (Onitsha) in 1954, there have been only two records since 1980 despite considerable search effort. One of 2 (perhaps 5) birds at Onitsha in 1987 and most recently a flock of 40 birds in the grounds of a nursing home at Tombia, south of Yenagoa in 2002. The population would appear to be very small, despite large areas of apparently suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149368	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in long grass along rivers, lagoon sandbanks, swamps and within or on the edges of open deciduous forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It feeds principally on grass seeds taken from seedheads. One bird collected in June was coming into breeding condition. It is a brood host to the parasitic Pin-tailed Whydah <em>Vidua macroura<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. It is likely to make short-distance movements, following flooding in severe rainy seasons. <br/></p>	eng
149368	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Simple extrapolation from the numbers observed in the Niger Delta between March 2001 and April 2002 suggests a total population of at least 500 individuals (Roux and Otobotekere 2005), thus the population is placed in the range bracket for 250-999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149368	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's habitat does not appear to be threatened and no other threats are known<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, the absence of recent records from a heavily inhabited region must raise the concern that an as-yet unindentified factor may be working against the species.  <br/></p>	eng
149369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149372	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Saudi Arabia and Yemen. It occurs in the mesic uplands of the Tihamah foothills (occasionally straying onto the lowland Tihamah proper (Jennings 1995)), including the eastern fringe of the montane plateau in Yemen (Christensen and Porter 1987). It is most frequently recorded in the southern Tihamah foothills and the lower slopes and Wadis of the western escarpments in Yemen. It is also found locally along the south coast of Yemen east to Wadi al-Jahr and, apparently disjunctly, in the extensively irrigated intensive agricultural areas of Wadi Hadramawt between Shibam and Tarim (Martins et al. 1996).	eng
149372	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is highly social, and occurs from 250-2,500 m in fertile cultivated Wadis, plains, rocky hillsides and terraced slopes, usually with a dense cover of trees and bushes (Meinertzhagen 1954). The species roosts communally in this dense vegetation, and recently fledged juveniles have been recorded in May (Martins et al. 1996). It has become closely associated with regularly irrigated agricultural areas (especially cereal cultivation) which provide accessible drinking water. In a survey between July and September 1982-85, 73.5% of observations were in areas with flowing water. Modern irrigation techniques (increasing farmed areas adjacent to surface water) are beneficial to the species.	eng
149372	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in southern Saudi Arabia and southern Yemen and slightly commoner in North Yemen (Clement 1999).	eng
149372	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Recent use of imported agricultural machinery in Yemen has destroyed some traditional sites (Christensen and Porter 1987), particularly those in the Tihamah foothills (an area characterised by seasonally heavy precipitation and with a water table close to ground level for short periods annually) where local environmental factors used to maintain localised small marshes and damp areas with Typha stands until c.1985 when agricultural techniques began to change. Regular roost sites are being destroyed through burning and land-use change.	eng
149373	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and local (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149374	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and common (Clement 1999).	eng
149375	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Estrilda nigriloris</em> is restricted to an area judged less than 2,600&#160;km<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> around the Lualaba River and Lake Upemba in the southern <strong>Democratic Republic of Congo</strong>, with no records since 1950. It is found in grassy plains with tall grasses and bushes, where it occurs in small flocks. Most of the population is probably within the Upemba National Park but it is not clear to what extent habitat here is protected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify its status<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, if it proves to be a good species, surveys are needed to determine its distribution, population and habitat requirements.</p>	eng
149376	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be abundant and uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149377	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some areas (Clement 1999).	eng
149378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149380	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149381	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in India, and trapping and trade have been banned since 1981. The impact of trade was assessed between 1992-1994. There are recent records from four protected areas, the Desert National Park and Taal Chappar Wildlife Sanctuary, both in Rajasthan, Kahna National Park in Madhya Pradesh and Melghat Sanctuary in Maharashtra.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct widespread interviews with bird-trappers to identify locations of remaining populations, followed by extensive field surveys in suitable habitat to establish more clearly its current distribution and population status. Investigate its ecological requirements and tolerance of habitat degradation. Monitor trade and develop more effective measures to combat it. Upgrade the species's legal protective status to Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and CITES Appendix I. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
149381	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amandava formosa</em> is endemic to central <strong>India</strong>, where it is known from southern Rajasthan, central Uttar Pradesh, southern Bihar and West Bengal (historically), south to southern Maharashtra/northern Kerala and northern Andhra Pradesh. Isolated records from Delhi and Lahore, Pakistan, are believed to relate to escaped cage-birds. Formerly locally common, perhaps even abundant, its distribution has apparently always been patchy. However, it is now scarce, very local and erratic, with few recent records. The recent occurrence of up to 2,000 birds in markets indicates that sizeable populations may still occur locally, but are presumably rapidly declining, especially as trappers report that it is steadily becoming more difficult to find. <br/></p>	eng
149381	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits grass and low bushes, sugarcane fields, open, shrubby forest and boulder-strewn scrub jungle, often near water, generally in lowlands and foothills. It has also been seen in sparsely vegetated, stony, arid wasteland and a mango orchard. It nests in small colonies (May-January). </p>	eng
149381	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149381	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been traded since the late 19th century, and was recently found to be one of the most popular cage-birds in domestic markets. An annual minimum of 2,000-3,000 birds are smuggled out of India to Europe and America. It is susceptible to stress, and a high mortality has been noted in trapped birds. Trapping for trade has extirpated several populations and is almost certainly the greatest threat to the species. This is compounded by widespread destruction and alteration of its natural scrub and grassland habitats through conversion for agriculture. Increased application of pesticides and insecticides is a potential threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149382	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally or seasonally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149385	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs southwards from south-east Cameroon (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005), Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo (P. Hall in litt. 2003), through Zambia (where widespread (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005, P. Leonard in litt. 2005)), Angola, Tanzania, Malawi (where widespread and locally common in the Central Region (F. Dowsett-Lemaire and R. Dowsett in litt. 2005)) and Mozambique, to Zimbabwe (where it is uncommon, but may be overlooked) and Botswana (V. Parker in litt. 2003). Recent observations, in need of confirmation, have located at least two pairs breeding on the Jos Plateau in northern Nigeria, representing a very significant range extension (P. Hall in litt. 2003). In Zimbabwe, the moist habitats that it requires still remain, but may be insufficient to sustain a viable population (V. Parker in litt. 2003). In Mozambique and Zimbabwe it occurs only at a handful of localities within its supposed range (V. Parker in litt. 2003).  The range may have contracted as a result of droughts in the 1980s, and populations may fluctuate in response to rainfall (Harrison et al. 1997).	eng
149385	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species may be outcompeted by the Quail Finch O. atricollis in some suitable habitat in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (V. Parker in litt. 2003).	eng
149385	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149385	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species may be threatened by the cagebird trade and by loss of marshland habitat (V. Parker in litt. 2003), partly due to fire in dry periods (P. Leonard in litt. 2005).	eng
149386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149387	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce or rare, although locally common and commoner in Tasmania than on the Australian mainland (Clement 1999).	eng
149388	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the forests and coastal thickets of south-western Western Australia.	eng
149388	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is closely associated with riparian vegetation.	eng
149388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149388	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of this species' habitat has been cleared for agriculture, degraded by salinisation, or destroyed during the construction of water storage dams. It was feared that local extinctions would occur in the fragmented habitat remnants as a result of fire or other random processes as it was a sedentary species. However, it is now known to disperse more widely, and still occurs over most of its former range (Garnett 1992).	eng
149389	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stagonopleura guttata</em> is found in eastern <strong>Australia</strong>, from Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, to south-eastern Queensland, mostly on the slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Overall, there has been a decline in density throughout the range, and many remaining populations may now be isolated. Much habitat has been cleared with remaining fragments gradually becoming unsuitable as a result of competition with invasive species, predation of adults or young, alteration of vegetation structure through over-grazing, weed invasion, salinisation and other flow-on processes. The severity of most degradation is correlated with the area of the fragment. Factors that have been postulated to be adversely affecting this species in particular include the loss of key food plants and habitat as a result of invasion by exotic grasses more suitable for flock-foraging Red-browed Finch <em>Neochmia temporalis</em>, whose expansion in some areas may have disadvantaged <em>S.&#160;guttata</em>. In the north of the range, a change in fire and grazing regimes may have played an important part in the decline. The species may number c.200,000 individuals and is continuing to decline, particularly in the more intensively developed parts of its range.  <br/></p>	eng
149389	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is thought to number c.200,000 mature individuals (Garnett and Crowley 2000). <br/></p>	eng
149390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be probably not uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149391	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149392	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149393	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys were conducted to estimate the population and trends of the eastern subspecies <em>clarescens</em>. An understanding of the natural fire regime is being built up. All three subspecies are listed separately in the Action Plan for Australian Birds: <em>ruficauda</em> as possibly extinct, <em>clarescens</em> as endangered and <em>subclarescens</em> as near threatened. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Determine whether subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> remains extant. Monitor remaining populations in order to detect trends. Manage key sites by maintaining natural fire regimes and preventing overgrazing, which together lead to invasion of grasslands by alien invasive plants and a loss of native seed diversity. <br/></p>	eng
149393	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neochmia ruficauda</em> is endemic to <strong>Australia</strong>. Subspecies <em>subclarescens</em> occurs in three separate subpopulations, from Pilbara, Fitzroy River Valley and Gibb River, Western Australia to the Northern Territory/Queensland border. It may number 200,000 individuals, and is declining in density, particularly in the east of its range. However, the species remains common in the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory and at Kununurra in association with the Ord River Irrigation Scheme. They are patchily distributed in the Pilbara and the lower Fitzroy River valley. Subspecies <em>clarescens</em> has a stable population of c.5,000 individuals located on the Cape York Peninsula. Subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> probably numbers less than 50 individuals and may be extinct, with the last reliable sighting 12 years ago<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
149393	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Principally inhabits low, dense, damp grasslands and sedgelands bordering watercourses, swamps and other freshwater-bodies. Also found in grassy, open savanna type sclerophyll woodland. It probably survives in towns and irrigated areas because seeding, weedy grasses are not grazed. Patterns of burning during the year may be important during the wet season when fallen seed is in short supply, and where these patterns have been altered, <em>subclarescens</em> and <em>clarescens</em> may be less able to survive. It is granivorous, typically foraging in vegetation just off the ground. The species forms large flocks but is sedentary or resident with some local dispersal. <br/></p>	eng
149393	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The eastern subspecies<em> ruficauda</em> may be extinct, recent surveys of <em>clarescens</em> confined to Cape York found the population is c. 5,000 individuals and that <em>subclarescens</em> is very common at Kununurra in association with the Ord River Irrigation Scheme and moderately common in the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Therefore, the global population has been crudely estimated at c. 205,000 individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149393	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Livestock overgrazing grasslands near water is probably the principal threat to <em>subclarescens</em>, removing essential cover, as well as sources of food through. Selective grazing of perennials during the dry season may also remove grasses that are needed for survival during the wet season. While livestock damage habitats through trampling and grazing, they are naturally excluded from some nesting sites in the north by seasonal flooding. Subspecies <em>ruficauda</em> disappeared before the process of decline could be described. The grasslands occupied by <em>clarescens</em> are also being invaded by woody weeds at a rate of c.10% per decade, probably also due to cattle grazing and altered fire regimes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subsistence trade may have occurred in the past or be coninuing at low levels. <br/></p>	eng
149394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common and occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149395	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149398	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149399	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poephila cincta</em> once occurred in grassy woodlands throughout north-east <strong>Australia </strong>from Cape York Peninsula to north-east New South Wales. Substantial declines occurred in the southern nominate subspecies throughout the twentieth century with the last populations in south-east Queensland disappearing in the 1990s. In the last 25 years a decline in density and extent of occurrence has also been noted in the northern <em>P.c.atropygialis</em>. Reasons for the decline are unclear but appear to be associated with the spread of pastoralism, changes in fire regime and increases in the density of native woody weeds in grassy savannas.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (Clement 1999).	eng
149401	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare, although seasonally or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149402	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded from two protected areas, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park and Bataan Natural Park/Subic Bay. Given its nomadic habits, occurrence in protected areas does not necessarily confer continual protection.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct regular fieldwork, including mist-netting, in areas where it potentially survives to assess its current status and attempt to understand its movements. Research the ecology and distribution of the bamboos upon which it relies, particularly their response to deforestation. Afford protection to key sites found to support populations and favoured bamboos.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149402	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrura viridifacies</em> is endemic to the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known chiefly from Luzon and also from two sites on Negros and one on Panay. Since 1980, there have been records from just five localities, four on Luzon and one on Panay. Its status is difficult to assess, although it must have declined as a consequence of habitat destruction. It is nomadic and occasionally irruptive and can therefore seem locally common, with flocks numbering over 100 recorded from Luzon. Its status on other islands is unclear and records may relate to immigrants from Luzon.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149402	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents forested habitat mosaics, including degraded areas, forest edge and even savanna, often above 1,000&#160;m, but occasionally irrupting into the lowlands. It is closely associated with flowering or seeding bamboos, which are a key dietary component. Although its exact movements in relation to food supply are unclear, it is probably normally solitary and sedentary, concentrating in numbers at temporarily rich food patches and suddenly irrupting into new areas when resources are unavailable.</p>	eng
149402	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149402	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction is the key threat as it is dependent on a spatially and temporally patchy resource (bamboo seeds) within forest. Although it benefits from initial forest disturbance, as this improves conditions for bamboo, subsequent clearance to monocultures removes food sources. Forest cover in the late 1980s was estimated to be as low as 24% on Luzon, 4% on Negros and 8% on Panay. The international bird trade may also have had a serious effect on the population. In 1935, the species was caught in large numbers in many districts of Manila and exported by the hundreds to the USA.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149403	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally moderately common (Coates and Bishop 1997).	eng
149405	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrura coloria</em> is endemic to Mindanao in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where until very recently it was documented from only two or three localities but is now known from as many as seven, as follows: Mt Hilong-hilong at Siwod; Mt Pasian, Bislig; Mt Puting Bato, Davao del Norte; Mt Kitanglad at Malaybalay, at Mt Kaatoan, at Mt Nangkabulos, and at Kinubalan, with unspecified sublocalities; Mt Piapayungan at Siwagat; Mt Apo; Mt Parker, T'boli; Mt Three Kings; Mt Busa on the south slope at Binati. The species inhabits forest understorey and edge, second growth and grassy clearings over 1,000&#160;m, and is described as moderately common but very local, but is common inside and near forest, probably being present on every mountain in central Mindanao. It is very unobtrusive and secretive, and its high-pitched call (typical of the genus) is easily overlooked. On voice, however, it appears to be not uncommon at Kitanglad. Unlike the Green-faced Parrotfinch <em>E. viridifacies</em>, it does not appear to be strongly allied to bamboo, and is therefore less irruptive, unpredictable and inherently vulnerable than that species. <br/></p>	eng
149406	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or generally uncommon and very little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149407	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149409	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149410	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> Occurs in the proposed Lake Letas Reserve on Gaua<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A captive conservation breeding programme has been suggested<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey islands with old records. Survey Tongoa and Emae to assess population densities. Survey Santo mountains to assess approximate population densities. Determine tolerance of logged forest and use of fig trees in parkland habitats. Investigate requirement for certain fig species. Investigate feeding and breeding ecology for use in captive-breeding and habitat management plans. Ascertain rate of forest loss across range. Investigate any trapping for trade, especially on Tongoa and Emae. Monitor numbers at known sites on Tongoa and Emae. Advocate creation of forest reserves on each major island. Support establishment and management of Lake Letas Reserve.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
149410	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrura regia</em> is endemic to <strong>Vanuatu</strong>. It has been recorded from most islands in the archipelago but has not been observed for many years on several islands, such as Anatom, and may be locally extinct on these<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. There are recent records, often of single birds, on Gaua, Espiritu Santo, Efate and Epi, but involving larger numbers on the small islands of Tongoa and Emae where it is still common<strong><sup>1,2,5,7</sup></strong>. The only population estimate is of 200-300 birds in upland Tongoa<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149410	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is most common at mid-altitudes on the larger islands such as Santo, usually occurring above 300&#160;m, but descends to sea-level on small islands such as Emae<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Singles, pairs or small groups feed on figs in the forest canopy. It has been recorded only rarely in degraded habitats with fig trees and is excluded from open habitats by <em>E.&#160;trichroa</em><strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that an increased number of fruiting figs has enabled high numbers to survive on Tongoa and Emae<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149410	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.4-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,030 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,472-20,600, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from estimate for <em>E. trichroa</em> in BirdLife Population Densities Database). <br/></p>	eng
149410	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Lowland and mid-altitude forest is under considerable threat from commercial logging and there is significant clearance of forest for gardens on small islands such as Tongoa with high human populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are recent reports of small-scale and erratic trapping for domestic trade<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149411	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Fijian law. It has been recorded in the protected watershed forest near Suva.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct forest surveys and threat assessment<sup>4</sup></strong>, resurveying all known sites. <strong>Develop local expertise in survey methodology<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Identify suitable areas for conservation<sup>4</sup></strong>, and ensure preservation of the watershed forest near Suva. <br/></p>	eng
149411	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Erythrura kleinschmidti</em> is endemic to Viti Levu, <strong>Fiji</strong>, where it has always been considered rare<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All records are from the wetter centre and east of Viti Levu<strong><sup>1,6,7</sup></strong>, where recent surveys suggest that the species is widespread at low densities<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A provisional population density of 2.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup> was recently estimated. The species was recorded at 60% (8/13) of recent survey sites on Viti Levu but these sites were pre-selected to have the densest old-growth forest. A provisional populatoin size of 2,500-10,000 birds has been esitmated<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149411	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is mainly found in mature, wet forest up to 1,000&#160;m, although there are records from secondary scrub and plantations. It has even been recorded breeding at the edge of secondary forest, but is nevertheless regarded as dependent on mature forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds at mid-height along tree-trunks and branches, usually alone or in pairs but also joining mixed-species flocks, feeding primarily on insects, but also flower buds and fruit<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Juveniles have been observed in August-September and January-February<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may be nomadic, as other parrotfinches, but repeated observation in the same spots suggests that it could be sedentary. <br/></p>	eng
149411	population	BirdLife International, 2008	During 108.5 km of standardised transects, six individuals were recorded within 10 m of the observer, giving a density of 2.8 birds/km<sup>2</sup>, but this figure is based on very little data and should be treated with considerable caution. The species was recorded at 60% (8/13) of recent survey sites on Viti Levu but these sites were pre-selected to have the densest old-growth forest, suggesting that the species's area of occupancy may be up to 2,400 km<sup>2</sup> (60% x 4,000 km<sup>2</sup> of high- and medium-density rainforest on Viti Levu; National Forest Inventory 1990-1993). This implies that total numbers of individuals falls in the band 2,500-9,999 (unpublished data from Fiji IBA project via G. Dutson <em>in litt.</em> 2005).  <br/></p>	eng
149411	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Viti Levu, only c.50% of the island remains forested<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and there is ongoing, small-scale logging and clearance for agriculture. The most reliable site, Joske's Thumb, was logged in the early 1980s with a dramatic decline in the number of sightings<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149412	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Management actions completed or under way include the completion and implementation of a recovery plan, the establishment of regional operations groups, detailed research on fire, food and movements at two sites, an extensive programme of protective fencing to prevent damage by herbivores, the collation and maintenance of a database of all known sight records and a review of the patterns of distribution, habitats, potential threats and conservation status of savanna granivorous birds. Attempts at reintroduction have so far proved unsuccessful. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Undertake strategic surveys of suitable habitat. Obtain indices of population sizes at key habitats. Monitor persistence at sites throughout current range. Characterise habitat at a regional level. Continue reintroduction program in eastern Queensland. Analyse feeding and breeding habitat at a regional scale. Develop techniques for habitat rehabilitation. Manage significant sites in an appropriate manner. Develop management guidelines for land-holders. Liase with land-holders about appropriate land management. Promote the recovery programme and evaluate performance. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
149412	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloebia gouldiae</em> is found in northern <strong>Australia</strong>, with scattered records from Cape York Peninsula through north-west Queensland and the northern Northern Territory to the Kimberley region of Western Australia. It is only known with regularity from a handful of sites in Queensland. Birds are more numerous in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. There is strong evidence of a continuing decline, even at the best-known site near Katherine. The population is conservatively estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals at the start of the breeding season.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149412	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives in open, tropical woodland with a grassy understorey, nesting exclusively in tree-hollows. In the non-breeding season, it occurs in a wide variety of woodland habitats. Throughout the year, it feeds almost exclusively on grass seed.</p>	eng
149412	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been conservatively estimated to be fewer than 2,500 mature individuals at the start of the breeding season (Garnett and Crowley 2000). However, it is now thought to be closer to c.10,000 mature individuals (J. Woinarski<em> in litt.</em> 2007). Given the uncertainty surrounding the population size, a range of 2,000-10,000 mature individuals is used here.  <br/></p>	eng
149412	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Grazing and altered fire regimes are thought to be the main threats. Cattle and horses prevent grass from seeding, and the fire history of many sites has become too uniform, obliterating the mosaics of burnt and unburnt habitat the birds require. Trapping may have had a local effect in the past. Infection with the parasitic mite <em>Sternostoma tracheacolum</em> was long thought to be one of the principal reasons for decline. However, it is now considered that it may be indicative of stress to the birds resulting from a broader change at the landscape level that has affected a range of granivore species.  <br/></p>	eng
149413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149414	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).	eng
149418	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149419	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149420	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149422	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149423	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149425	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or locally scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149426	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as abundant, common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149429	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149430	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149431	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or local (Clement 1999).	eng
149433	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149434	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its very restricted range (Clement 1999).	eng
149435	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149436	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. The Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve in the Arfak Mountains may support suitable habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and survey suitable habitat in north-east Papua to establish its range, distribution and population status. Assess its habitat requirements and threats. Investigate habitat threats at Anggi Gigi. Monitor numbers at Anggi Gigi. Incorporate key wet grassland and marshland sites, especially Anggi Gigi, into the protected-areas system. Establish whether the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve supports the species.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149436	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lonchura vana</em> is endemic to the Arfak Mountains in the Vogelkop Peninsula in north-west Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It is poorly known, but could be restricted to a single location - grasslands around the lake Anggi Gigi<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Other reports that it occurs elsewhere in the Arfaks, such as the Tamrau Mountains<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong> appear to be unsubstantiated, and there are no records from around the neighbouring lake, Anggi Gite. Its possible occurrence elsewhere is limited by the scarcity of its habitat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. However, the Arfaks have not been well-explored and it may prove to occur elsewhere<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149436	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a shy inhabitant of mid-mountain wet grassland and marshland, where it has only been recorded between 1,900&#160;m and 2,000&#160;m<strong><sup>1,6,7</sup></strong>. Small flocks have been seen on low weeds in recently abandoned agricultural plots, sometimes near human settlements, but at that time the species was "strangely enough not found on the wide plains covered with high grasses and similar vegetation, round the Anggi Lakes"<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, perhaps suggesting seasonal variation in habitat use. <br/></p>	eng
149436	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its naturally scarce habitat is reported to be suffering some drainage for conversion to agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, it has been recorded on agricultural land and may be able to survive in this habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Although it has been reported in the international cage-bird trade, the Arfaks are very remote and this is likely to have been a misidentification<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149437	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149438	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or common (Clement 1999).	eng
149439	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149440	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149443	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the eastern Kimberley Region, Western Australia and north-west Northern Territory, Australia. Information regarding changes in its range in the Kimberley Region is contradictory, with speculation that it may have contracted, or expanded from arid areas towards the coast. There is no evidence for either scenario, and abundance has not apparently changed.	eng
149443	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in open riparian woodland.	eng
149443	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Hybridisation and competition with Chestnut-breasted Mannikin L. castaneothorax have been mooted as threats, but the species remains common in the agricultural areas around Kununurra with little evidence of intermediate forms. Degradation of habitat by stock has also been suggested as a threat, particularly along rivers, but the effects of degradation have not been translated into range contractions (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Recent reports suggest that slashing and spraying of weeds and long grass along tracks and irrigation channels where the species was common may have cause local declines, for example in Kununurra (I. Rudd in litt. 2003), but there is no evidence to suggest that such trends are more widespread.	eng
149444	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149445	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lonchura stygia</em> is known from a small area of the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, from Mandum (Papua, formerly Irian Jaya, <strong>Indonesia</strong>) to Lake Daviumbu (<strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>). It is reportedly locally common in flocks of up to 20 birds, inhabiting savannas, marshes and riverine grasses, often on floating islands, but sometimes visiting rice crops<strong><sup>1,4,7</sup></strong>. It is however less common than the largely sympatric Grey-crowned Munia <em>L. nevermanni</em> and only one was seen in four months of fieldwork in its Papuan range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may be threatened as a result of destruction of reedbeds by introduced rusa deer <em>Cervus timorensis</em> and by encroachment of woodland on grasslands, possibly promoted by the activities of pigs (although woodlands might also represent suitable habitat for this species)<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. In the dry season, birds concentrate around drinking pools and are susceptible to trapping for the cage-bird trade; 250 were being exported from Merauke Airport in August 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Since 1998 over 1,200 have been imported into EU countries (the species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common within its very limited range (Clement 1999).	eng
149448	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common within its limited range (Clement 1999).	eng
149449	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149450	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in northern Australia, between the Fitzroy River Valley, Western Australia, and the upper Burdekin and central-western Cape York Peninsula, Queensland.	eng
149450	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The age ratio in flocks at Mornington Station ranged from 1 adult to every 20 juveniles to 1 adult to every 40 juveniles highlighting the temporal variability in the species's population size.	eng
149450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999). In 2006 the species was abundant at Mornington Station, central Kimberley (S. Legge in litt. 2006) and large flocks were seen in Nathan River National Park, south-west Gulf of Carpentaria (D.Hooper in litt. 2006).  Numbers have been roughly estimated at c.50,000 individuals but this appears to fluctuate greatly.	eng
149450	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	An increase in the incidence of airsac mite, which also affects the threatened Gouldian Finch Erythrura gouldiae, may be indicative of a decline or of environmental stress from other causes. Changes in the burning regime, and the introduction of stock including cattle, sheep and horses, are likely to have affected the species, but the mechanism by which this has occurred is unknown. Owing to the lack of firm evidence for population trends, further moitoring of population size and potential threats are warranted.	eng
149451	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. An embargo was placed on the capture quota for Java and Bali in 1995. The species occurs in only very few protected areas, with recent records from only four, Cikepuh Wildlife Reserve, Baluran and Meru Betiri National Parks on Java and Bali Barat National Park on Bali.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Investigate the relative importance of current threats (excessive trade, persecution, pesticides, competition). Promote strict enforcement of trade restrictions in wild birds, and devise means of meeting market demands from captive breeding. Develop and initiate programmes to protect remaining populations. <br/></p>	eng
149451	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Padda oryzivora</em> is a native endemic of the islands of Java, Bali, and probably Madura, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, although it has been widely introduced, with feral populations now established in many parts of the world. It was formerly widespread and abundant, but its numbers have crashed disastrously. It is now very difficult to find: a recent survey looked at 64 former locations and only located 109 individuals at 17 sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The majority of documented recent records derive from east Java and Bali. Feral populations (in Indonesia at least) have also apparently declined precipitously. Information from elsewhere is insufficient to estimate its status as a feral species, and all conservation efforts should focus on its original native range. <br/></p>	eng
149451	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is usually a lowland species, chiefly found below 500&#160;m but occurring locally up to 1,500&#160;m. It has been recorded in many habitats, including towns and villages (where it was formerly one of the most common species), cultivated land (particularly rice-growing areas), grassland, open woodland, tree savanna, beach forest and even mangroves. It is gregarious, especially outside the breeding season. Post-breeding flocks appear to make substantial short-distance movements in response to local food supplies.</p>	eng
149451	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and surveys detailed in BirdLife International (2001) <br/></p>	eng
149451	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Trapping for the domestic and international cage-bird trade has probably been extensive for centuries, peaking in the 1960s and 1970s, and is the main cause of the decline. Its flocking tendency, particularly at roost sites, renders it especially susceptible to mass trapping. Ironically, even feral populations, originally introduced through trade, have subsequently been decimated for the same reason. Historically, it was regarded as a rice crop-pest, and consequently persecuted. Hunting for local consumption, and possibly increased use of pesticides and competition with the ecologically similar Tree Sparrow <em>Passer montanus,</em> are additional threats.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149452	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).	eng
149454	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to local (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002).	eng
149455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).	eng
149459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Newman 1983).	eng
149460	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is little known (Borrow and Demey 2001).	eng
149463	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in some years and almost absent in others (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149464	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).	eng
149465	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).	eng
149466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).).	eng
149470	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 130000000-240000000 breeding pairs, equating to 390000000-720000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global	eng
149471	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Fringilla teydea</em> is found on Tenerife and the subspecies <em>polatzeki</em> occurs on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. The total population is estimated to be 1,800-2,740 individuals, with the majority on Tenerife, and 185-260 individuals on Gran Canaria. The latter race occupies a tiny range which is declining: it is restricted to patches of woodland at Ojeda, Inagua and Pajonales with a few pairs thought to occur at Tamadaba. However, as the Gran Canaria race is such a small proportion of the total population, the species's range and population are effectively stable. It is largely dependent on Canary pine <em>Pinus canariensis</em> and will inhabit reforested areas where these fall within the natural distribution of this tree. Although Canary pine seeds constitute its main food source, birds occasionally feed outside pinewoods during severe weather. During the breeding season, it is found in pinewoods at 1,000-2,000 m with a high proportion of broom <em>Chamaecytisus proliferus</em> in the understorey. The breeding season lasts from April to early August. Two eggs are generally laid. It suffers from illegal trade, primarily to Italy, Germany and Belgium, which may have an effect on population levels. Its pinewood habitat has been subject to intense commercial exploitation which has resulted in habitat fragmentation and population isolation, particularly on Gran Canaria. Forest fires have historically been important in the destruction of pinewoods on Gran Canaria. Protected areas are heavily used for recreation and leisure on Gran Canaria and this may cause disturbance. It has been legally protected from hunting, capture, trade, egg or chick collection since 1980. Key areas on Gran Canaria have been protected since 1982 and El Teide forest on Tenerife and six important areas on Gran Canaria were designated as National Parks or Natural Areas in 1987. A conservation programme was initiated in 1991 and a captive breeding programme began in 1992. An action plan was published in 1996. Monitoring and research should be continued and expanded. An official, governmental action plan should be produced to detail conservation requirements such as habitat restoration, prevention of forest fires and eradication of illegal trade. In addition, the species should be included under CITES and adequate protection should be ensured under the Countryside Law and Wildlife Protection Law. <br/></p>	eng
149471	population	BirdLife International, 2008	1,000-2,500 paris were estimated in 2004 (BirdLife International 2004). <br/></p>	eng
149472	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 13000000-22000000 breeding pairs, equating to 39000000-66000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 79600000-264000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149473	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 280000-820000 breeding pairs, equating to 840000-2460000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3500000-49200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149474	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 8300000-20000000 breeding pairs, equating to 24900000-60000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 26500000-80000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149475	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I. The main breeding locations in Jordan and Israel, and three such areas in Lebanon, are protected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Monitoring at the Jordanian breeding area (the only well-studied site) started in 1995. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out baseline surveys of population size and distribution in Syria and Lebanon. Institute monitoring of populations outside Jordan. Monitor, investigate and reverse the population decline in Jordan. Further investigate impact of livestock grazing on its habitat in south-west Jordan<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149475	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Serinus syriacus</em> has a restricted range, breeding in mountains (900-1,900&#160;m) in<strong> Lebanon</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong> (Mount Hermon) and <strong>Jordan<sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong>. The small population (estimated at 4,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) comprises 1,000-1,250 mature individuals in Jordan<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and 100-360 in Israel<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but there are no population estimates for Syria ("local"<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) or Lebanon ("very common"<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). In winter, birds in Jordan disperse locally<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, while the breeding grounds in Lebanon, Syria and Israel are completely vacated<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong> for wintering grounds that probably comprise desert and semi-arid country at lower altitudes (near water) throughout the Levant and as far afield as <strong>Egypt</strong> (Sinai and Nile valley)<strong> Turkey</strong> and <strong>Iraq<sup>1,2,4,5</sup></strong>. The Jordanian breeding population is declining: the Al-Barrah population in the Dana Nature Reserve has declined by c.20% and their area of occupancy has decreased by 25% since 1996. In addition, marginal areas of their breeding distribution in 1996 were unoccupied in 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This suggests a decrease in population size and the population was estimated as 500 pairs, with 480 in Al-Barrah in the 1999 breeding season. Previous population estimates in Jordan were in the range 1,000-1,250 mature individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and this recent estimate therefore represents a decline of c.20%. During the 1999 breeding season no Syrian Serins were recorded in other areas of south-west Jordan (e.g. Al-Hishi woodland) or northern Jordan (Mediterranean woodland) that would have been suitable as alternative feeding sites to avoid the drought. The decline in popuation size therefore does not seem to represent a shift in population distribution.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149475	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in rocky tracts of open or semi-arid Mediterranean woodland, usually dominated by conifers such as <em>Cedrus</em>, <em>Pinus</em>, <em>Abies</em> and <em>Juniperus</em><strong><sup>1,2,3,5</sup></strong>. It is a tree-nester that feeds on the seeds of low annual and perennial grasses and herbs and that requires daily access to drinking water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149475	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Khoury (1999) <br/></p>	eng
149475	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is potentially affected by excessive tree-cutting, grazing and water abstraction. Breeding numbers in 1999 were low<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and the population was estimated to have decreased by c. 20% since 1996 to 500 breeding pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This decline is likely to be partly due to reduced survival rates following a severe drought in the winter 1998-1999, which caused a decline in seed production and in the number of water pools. The drought conditions further enhance declines in habitat quality caused by grazing pressure and wood cutting.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149476	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149477	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 250000-320000 breeding pairs, equating to 750000-960000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to abundant (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149481	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).	eng
149482	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).	eng
149483	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (Clement 1999).	eng
149484	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149485	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as occasionally common and very poorly known (Clement 1999).	eng
149486	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149487	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to scarce (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149488	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149489	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in Awash National Park, but the extent of protection that this confers is limited. No species-specific conservation action or fieldwork is being undertaken at present. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys of its distribution, population numbers, habitat preferences and feeding requirements, in order to evaluate its conservation status<sup>2. Determine whether the population in Awash NP is contiguous with that at Aliyu Amba-Dulecha3.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149489	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Serinus flavigula</em> was known from three century-old specimens (the most recent dating from 1886) taken in one small area (only 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) of Shoa province, eastern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, until its rediscovery within this range in March 1989, when at least seven birds were found and the species judged uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1996, the species was found in two more locations: Awash National Park (an IBA), where it was judged to be not uncommon, with 25+ birds seen on Mt Fantalle; and Aliyu Amba-Dulecha (an IBA) in the eastern lowlands, where it was uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species has also been reported from Aigaber, Ambokarra, and Melka Jebdu, most of them in Shoa province<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; two of these sites are so close together that they should be considered the same locality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is likely that the species is restricted to the present area, as it is an established centre of endemism.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149489	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Little is known of this species's ecology, but it would seem to prefer semi-arid desert scrub, savannah with scattered trees, thick patches of scrub on rocky hill sides, and grasslands especially those with the tussock-grass <em>Cymbopogon</em> and small shrubs like <em>Lavandula</em>, its favourite food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded along the valley of a small stream at 1,400-1,500&#160;m. The species has never been recorded from cultivated or highly degraded land and seems highly susceptible to habitat alteration and human disturbance<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The only reported nest was found on top of a small <em>Acacia</em> bush on the rim of Mt Fantalle crater in Awash NP in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149489	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.7-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 463 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 324-926, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 individuals. Status described as uncommon to not uncommon; density range is up to the lower quartile of 16 estimates of eight congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
149489	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The major threat is habitat alteration and disturbance, for which the species appears to have little tolerance<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Considerable portions of its range are affected by fire and conversion to farmland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The Awash National Park is threatened by increasing human pressure and tribal conflicts<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pastoralists and their livestock have now moved into the park and fires are a regular occurrence<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149490	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Arero Forest, Anferara Forest and Mankubsa-Weleno Forest are protected areas on paper. However, on-the-ground protection is scant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveys to better determine the species's range, population size and trend, and possible threats. Determine the species ecological requirements. Investigate the potential for  a programme promoting community forestry, soil conservation and watershed management within its range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149490	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Serinus xantholaemus</em> is known from central Harar, northern Bale and central Sidamo provinces (central Borena zone), <strong>Ethiopia</strong>. There have been at least 30 reliable records since 1900<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, among which post-1970 records have come from Sheik Hussein, Sof Omar, Arero Forest, Anferara Forest and Mankubsa-Weleno Forest, Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. Although uncommon at presently known sites, it may prove to be fairly widespread and not uncommon in a huge area that is very poorly known in ornithological terms<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149490	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species seems to favour scrubby vegetation (1,000-1,500&#160;m), and has been recorded in <em>Acacia</em>-<em>Commiphora</em> woodland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and juniper <em>Juniperus</em> woodland (including scrubby and degraded areas)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149490	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is placed in the range bracket for 2,500-9,999 individuals based on information from J. Vivero (<em>in litt. </em>2003). <br/></p>	eng
149490	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At nearly all sites, an increasing human population is leading to the expansion of subsistence agriculture into previously uncultivated wooded habitats<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Cutting of trees and bushes (for fuel and building wood) and intense grazing also occur at a number of sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, it is open to question to what extent disturbance as a result of high cattle and human pressure may affect the species, considering its relative tolerance to them<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. While the species's tolerance of such habitat changes is unknown, its population may well be declining. At Anferera, opencast gold-mining is a potential threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, as is hotel construction at Sof Omar and Sheik Hussein (related to popular shrines there)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149491	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to northern Ethiopia and Eritrea (Clement et al. 1993), where it is known from Lalibela, Gonder, Ankober, Tissisat Falls near Bahar Dar, and Jemmu Valley.	eng
149491	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local (Clement 1999) and common in at least parts of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149492	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the south of its range (Clement 1999).	eng
149493	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in southern Malawi, south-east Zimbabwe, and southern Mozambique to Zululand and northern Natal, South Africa. It has also been recorded in Zambia.	eng
149493	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in lowland palm savannas, clearings in dry woodland, Brachystegia scrub, grassland, gardens, road verges and edges of cultivation, invariably below 750 m.  It is gregarious and often forms flocks with Yellow-fronted Canary S. mozambicus, and in the non-breeding season nomadic flocks move at random in search of feeding areas of flowering grasses. It is strongly associated with Ilala palms Hyphaene natalensis over most of its range.	eng
149493	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and uncommon within its limited range, although occasionally abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149493	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	At least 2,000 individuals are exported from the population in south Mozambique annually (Parker 1999). The Ilala palms Hyphaene natalensis, with which the species is associated, are commonly used in furniture manufacture, at least in Zimbabwe (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149494	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Clement 1999, Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149494	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Since 1985, over 2,600,000 wild birds have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005).	eng
149495	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be local (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149496	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149497	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149498	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some coastal areas (Clement 1999).	eng
149499	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149500	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as a common resident in the Great Karoo (Clement 1999).	eng
149501	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149502	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149503	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149504	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (Clement 1999).	eng
149505	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149506	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Simien Mountains National Park offers reasonable protection for the species. Guassa Reserve (c.100&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) is managed by the local community, who control grazing and the timing of grass-cutting within the reserve<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Otherwise there is little relevant conservation work in most of its range.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveys to better determine the species's range, population size and trend, and possible threats. Search for this species in the eastern mountain escarpments from Ankober to Simien, including Abuye Meda, Amba Farit, Mt Guna, and perhaps Choke Mountains<sup>4. Investigate the potential for a programme promoting community forestry, soil conservation and watershed management within its range2. </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149506	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Serinus ankoberensis</em> has a very restricted range in the highlands of central and northern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, being known from four locations in Amhara Regional State, northern Shoa Province: around Ankober, including Goshmeda, Kundi and a ravine south of Debre Sina (up to 60&#160;birds per visit)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>; Deneba Wereda (13&#160;birds in one visit)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; Koreta, a very small area within Guassa Reserve (more than 100&#160;birds in this area alone during a two-week survey of the reserve)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>; and in Chennek Camp and Bhawit in Simien Mountains National Park (up to 50&#160;birds or more per visit)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. In 2002, 300 birds were found in three days between 2,800 and 4,300 m in the Abuna Yosef mountains (Wello region)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species may occur in all ecologically similar habitat throughout the highland massif of Amhara Regional State and parts of Tigray. It is likely the species is found all along the eastern mountain escarpments from Ankober to Simien, including Abuye Meda, Amba Farit, Mt. Guna and perhaps Choke Mountains<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149506	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This gregarious species occurs along the escarpment rim of the Ethiopian highlands<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> in open terrain that includes broken hill-tops, near-vertical cliffs, steep, vegetated slopes and earth banks. It prefers to perch on lichen-covered rocks, bare earth and short-grazed pasture, ploughed land and feeds on seeds of grasses and herbs<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. A nest has been found inside a vertical hole underneath an overhanging earth bank. Very sociable, with birds roosting, perching and feeding together. Often found in company of, or loosely associated with, Streaky <em>S. striolatus</em> or Brown-rumped <em>S. tristriatus</em> Seedeaters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Alights on no vegetation other than grass<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place between October and March, although it possibly breeds during any season following heavy rain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is three.  <br/></p>	eng
149506	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149506	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Much of its habitat is well-protected due to the steepness of the terrain. However, habitat in the Ankober area is under pressure from increased grazing and cultivation<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Habitat encroachment is increasing due to grazing and cultivation of new lands, both aspects closely related to increasing human and livestock population. <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations represent a serious problem in some areas.  <br/></p>	eng
149507	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common (Clement 1999).	eng
149508	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as less common than S. striolatus (Clement 1999).	eng
149509	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149510	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but race thomensis is described as common and the nominate race is described as scarcer than thomensis (Clement 1999).	eng
149511	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Serinus melanochrous</em> is endemic to <strong>Tanzania</strong> where it is confined to the Njombe highlands and the Udzungwa Mountains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is a bird of high forest and bushland, occurring from 1,500 to 3,000 m<sup>2</sup>. It feeds on fruit and hard seeds of trees and shrubs and also forages on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although some montane forest is protected in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and various Forest Reserves, other forest within its range is threatened as a result of clearance for agriculture, replacement with plantations, and selective cutting for timber and firewood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the species's current status is unknown, these threats (combined with its very restricted range) put it at some risk. It may also occur in forests near the Zambian and Malawian borders. A survey of all parts of its projected range should be carried out, to assess its distribution, population size and trend, and the reasons for its restricted range. <br/></p>	eng
149512	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149513	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149514	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or local (Clement 1999).	eng
149515	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149516	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very scarce or rare (Clement 1999).	eng
149517	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Primary forest is protected as a <em>zona ecologica</em> and in Obo Natural Park, although there is no law enforcement within these areas and the lack of data about the species's ecological requirements makes it difficult to assess the benefits of these areas. A new law providing for the gazetting of protected areas and the protection of threatened species has been ratified<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The bird occurs in a relatively remote area used only by hunters who do not represent a threat to the species. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Associa&ccedil;&atilde;o dos Bi&oacute;logos Santomenses have begun training local community focal points in the implementation of site-based conservation and implementing an awareness raising campaign<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its population size, distribution, ecological requirements and key threats in order to produce conservation recommendations. Ensure designated protected areas are actively protected. List it as a protected species under national law.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149517	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Neospiza concolor</em> was, until recently, known from just one 19th century specimen from southern S&atilde;o Tom&eacute;, <strong>S&atilde;o Tom&eacute; e Pr&iacute;ncipe<sup>8</sup></strong>. It was rediscovered in 1991, close to the rio Xufexufe in the south-west of the island<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Since then, there was a possible sighting in 1992, and sightings of adults and a juvenile near the Xufexufe in 1997<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Sightings continue to be reported from the Xufexufe, Ribeira Peixe and S&atilde;o Miguel areas<strong><sup>6,7,9,10</sup></strong>. Given the limited area of suitable habitat and the paucity of records it probably has a tiny population. <br/></p>	eng
149517	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in lowland, closed-canopy primary forest. It is probably a canopy species and is reportedly quite silent, which could partly explain why it has so rarely been seen<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although the call has been recorded and some birds respond to playback<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It seems to move in pairs or alone and comes to the forest understorey to feed on seeds that it crushes with its powerful bill<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149517	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is assumed to have a tiny population because all fieldwork has found it to be very rare and it is regularly recorded from just one area. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149517	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Historically, large areas of lowland forest were cleared for cocoa plantations. Today, land privatisation is leading to an increase in the number of small farms and the clearance of trees. This does not currently affect primary forest but may be a threat in the future. Road developments along the east and west coasts are increasing access to previously remote areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong> </strong>Introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>, Mona monkey <em>Cercopithecus mona</em>, African civet <em>Civettictis civetta</em> and weasel <em>Mustela nivalis</em> are potential predators. <br/></p>	eng
149518	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149519	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 14000000-32000000 breeding pairs, equating to 42000000-96000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44700000-128000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, locally common or very common (Clement 1999).	eng
149522	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149523	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carduelis monguilloti </em>is endemic to the Da Lat plateau of south Annam, <strong>Vietnam</strong>, where it is locally common in open pine forest from 1,050-1,900 m. Much of the Da Lat plateau is being deforested through clearance for shifting agriculture, charcoal production and logging. However, this species may have actually benefited from the increase in <em>Pinus</em> <em>kesiya</em> pine forest (as its growth is stimulated by fire clearance) and is therefore perhaps secure. Most pine forest is nevertheless allocated to production forest where logging is permitted and the potential for rapid clearance of this habitat remains. <br/></p>	eng
149524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000000-18000000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000000-54000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 31900000-72000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149527	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149528	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and legally protected in Brazil and Venezuela. In Brazil, it has been recorded in Pedra Talhada, Serra Negra and Saltinho Biological Reserves, Serra da Capivara National Park and Tapacur&aacute; Ecological Station. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its current range and ecological requirements, especially in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Determine its actual status in Venezuela<sup>4. Investigate the impact of pesticides4. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto protection. Enforce legal measures on trapping and trade.</em></sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149528	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carduelis yarrellii</em> is known from two widely disjunct regions 3,500&#160;km apart in north <strong>Venezuela</strong> and north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. Remaining populations appear to be concentrated in Alagoas, with recent records from Pedra Talhada, Murici and Usina Laginha. There are 1980s records from Saltinho, Caruaru, Ibimirim and Serra Negra in Pernambuco, Serra da Capivara in Piau&iacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and near Jeremoabo in Bahia. There have been no records from Cear&aacute; or Para&iacute;ba since 1958 and 1957, respectively. It was considered locally common in Pernambuco and Alagoas, but rare elsewhere, in the 1980s. The lack of recent records from Pernambuco and the very few birds observed at Murici in 1996-1999<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> suggest a sharp decline in range and numbers. Specimens have been taken from two sites in south-east Carabobo, Venezuela, and there are additional local reports<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, there are no recent confirmed sightings and it has been suggested that these birds refer to escapees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149528	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been found in caatinga, forest edge, second growth, plantations, croplands and even large urban centres at elevations below 550&#160;m. Very little is known of its ecology but it may, like its congener the Red Siskin <em>C. cucullatus</em>, need to utilise forest seasonally or even daily. <br/></p>	eng
149528	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149528	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It suffers from high volume, illegal trade on both national and international markets. In the 1980s, up to 700 birds were seen at the Fortaleza bird market, and 60-100 appeared seasonally at the Caxias market in Rio de Janeiro. It may also be threatened by pesticide applications<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149529	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. It is legally protected in Venezuela. It is reputed to have occurred in Guatopo and Terepaima National Parks but there have been no records for many years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A planned reintroduction project on Trinidad has been suspended because of disease problems<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Some education and control programmes undertaken in the past have led to an increase in pressure from trade<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Much of the known Guyanese range is on a cattle ranch, the managers of which are conservation-minded<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A captive breeding project exists in the US<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess current status in national parks. Survey known range in Venezuela, Colombia and Puerto Rico. Coordinate captive-breeding efforts internationally. Raise public awareness. Develop an effective management plan to ensure the protection of the Guyanese population<sup>6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149529	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carduelis cucullata</em> was common in the early 20th century but has become extremely rare in a now fragmented range. It once occurred throughout the foothills of northern <strong>Venezuela</strong> (15 states), but recent sightings are restricted to just four states<strong><sup>1,2,5</sup></strong>. It has disappeared from Trinidad, where it was never anything other than rare, and a small population persists in Norte de Santander, <strong>Colombia</strong>, where a record in February 2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> was apparently the first since 1986. A population in <strong>Puerto Rico </strong>(<strong>to</strong> <strong>USA</strong>), derived from escaped cage-birds, has undergone a marked decline and there are very few recent records<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. In 2000, a new population was discovered in southwestern <strong>Guyana</strong>, c.950 km from the nearest Venezuelan locality, and estimated to number in the low thousands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The remaining population elsewhere has been estimated in the high hundreds or low thousands, but the paucity of recent records indicates that this may be an overestimate. <br/></p>	eng
149529	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found between 100-1,300&#160;m, moving semi-nomadically and altitudinally (seasonally and daily) between moist evergreen forest, dry deciduous woodland and associated edge habitats, shrubby grassland and pastures. The main breeding period is from April to early June, with a secondary period in November and December. The nest is placed in clumps of <em>Tillandsia</em> bromeliads in tall trees and, in Guyana, in dense terminal clusters of leaves in the crown of <em>Curatella</em> trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Breeding territories in Guyana were densely packed, apparently due to a superabundance of fruiting mistletoe<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The diet also includes fruit (e.g. <em>Ficus</em> spp.), flower buds, and seeds of grasses and herbaceous plants<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149529	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Previous estimate of a population in the low thousands in Guyana<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, based on the observation of 127 individuals, may be too high, with the actual population potentially numbering in the low hundreds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. No new data on the Venezuela population, which may number in the low hundreds to low thousands. <br/></p>	eng
149529	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is subject to enormous, long-term (and since the 1940s, illegal) pressure from trappers, primarily because of its capacity to hybridise with canaries. Although trappers are active in the area of the Guyanese population, they claim that there is no active market for the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Intensive agriculture continues to reduce the extent of available habitat. Captive-breeding programmes are hampered by disease and hybrid stock<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149530	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149531	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149532	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in four protected areas: Machalilla National Park, Manab&iacute;, Cerro Blanco Protection Forest, Guayas, Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve and the Northwest Peru Biosphere Reserve, Tumbes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research its habitat requirements and better determine its conservation status based on its dependence on deciduous forest<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the nature of seasonal or nomadic movements<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure strict management of Machalilla National Park<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149532	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carduelis siemiradzkii</em> is confined to south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Manab&iacute;, Guayas and Loja) and adjacent north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Tumbes). It is uncommon to rare, being considered relatively common in only two areas.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149532	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits semi-arid scrub and dry forest, also forest-edge tall grass and scrub, from near sea-level to 750&#160;m. During fieldwork in July-September 1996, it was not encountered within intact forest, and it is reasonably tolerant of heavily disturbed habitats, with records from central Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, it may depend on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle. Most localities appear to be close to the forest-arid scrub interface<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with the exception of records on the coast of Tumbes, Isla Pun&aacute;, Guayas and a locality about which there is some confusion - Balzar Mountains, Manab&iacute;. Breeding is apparently during the wet season in January-May. It may undertake seasonal or nomadic movements, and may respond to climatic events such as El Ni&ntilde;o<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is generally seen in groups, sometimes as large as 30 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149532	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-10.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,840 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 1,840-18,400, but best placed precautionarily within band 2,500-9,999 individuals as generally considered "uncommon to rare" (density range is lowest end of two estimates for congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149532	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Threats to this little-known species are unclear but, if it is dependent on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle, it is probably seriously threatened by deforestation. Below 900&#160;m, the rate of deforestation in west Ecuador in 1958-1988 was 57% per decade, as a result of clearance for agriculture, and intense grazing by goats and cattle<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Even if the species is not entirely dependent on deciduous forest during part of its life-cycle, the complete loss of forest patches is still likely to be causing local extirpations and ongoing population declines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149534	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149535	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149536	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149537	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149538	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149541	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in central and southern California and western Arizona, USA, and in northwestern Baja California, Mexico (AOU 1983). Its wintering range extends through and beyond its breeding range, into northern California, central Arizona, southwestern New Mexico and formerly extreme western Texas, USA (AOU 1983), and Sonora and probably Chihuahua in Mexico (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
149541	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits arid to semi-arid open deciduous pine-oak woodland, oak woodland, chaparral, and pinyon-juniper vegetation, often near water (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). The species occurs from sea level to 2,500 m (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
149542	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149543	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-29000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-87000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73500000-348000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149545	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 170000-760000 breeding pairs, equating to 510000-2280000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
149546	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 10000000-28000000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000000-84000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 40500000-168000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149547	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149548	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Although Daalo is a Forest Reserve, the current political situation in Somalia means that this provides no legal protection whatsoever. No conservation action or fieldwork has been undertaken in recent years.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Once conditions permit, conduct surveys to establish the species's range, distribution and population status and investigate its habitat requirements and any threats to its existence.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149548	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carduelis johannis</em> is recorded from five sites in two small areas (Daalo and Mash Caleed) of the northern <strong>Somalia</strong> highlands, where it has been described as common but very local<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149548	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species occurs in both open country and juniper woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At Daalo, birds were recorded arriving at the locality an hour and a half after sunrise and leaving by midday, spending the morning feeding on seeds of grasses and sage <em>Salvia</em>, drinking, and also spending much time sitting in elevated dead branches on trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At the Moon/Ragad site, birds have been recorded drinking from a stream and alighting on a vertical cliff-face<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Although this species has been recorded as being associated with junipers, no preference for junipers was observed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At Daalo, all 19&#160;birds netted were males<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Earlier field studies have also found no females at Daalo, suggesting they may be incubating eggs some distance away. The breeding biology of the species remains unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149548	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-10 individual/km<sup>2 </sup>x 470 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 470-4,700, i.e. perhaps best placed in band 250-999. Density lowest of three estimates for congeners in BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; species described as 'common but very local' so density may be higher, but AOO may be smaller. <br/></p>	eng
149548	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unconfirmed but credible reports from 1998 indicate that juniper woodland in this species's range has been completely cleared<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The chronic and continuing political crisis in Somalia may be causing as yet undocumented loss of habitat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149549	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Clement 1999).	eng
149550	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common and abundant in some areas in the non-breeding season (Clement 1999).	eng
149551	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some areas in the non-breeding season and during migration (Clement 1999).	eng
149554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leucosticte sillemi</em> has been described from two specimens collected in 1929 on a barren plateau at 5,125 m in southern Xinjiang Autonomous Region, <strong>China</strong> (in an area under Chinese administration but also claimed by India). Its population is unknown, but it is presumably localised and scarce. One of the birds collected was a juvenile with wings not yet fully grown and the collector considered that the birds had either bred close to where they were collected or on the nearby peaks in the Kunlun Shan range. It is probably resident at the type-locality, as the adult collected was in full moult in September. No threats are known and there are unlikely to be any in the remote area from which it is known.</p>	eng
149555	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149556	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 300000-910000 breeding pairs, equating to 900000-2730000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
149557	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 11000-21000 breeding pairs, equating to 33000-63000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149558	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 520-5000 breeding pairs, equating to 1560-15000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149559	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3000-6000 breeding pairs, equating to 9000-18000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149560	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common, although rare or scarce in some places (Clement 1999).	eng
149561	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or rare and little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149562	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149564	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3000000-6100000 breeding pairs, equating to 9000000-18300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 37500000-366000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149565	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Carpodacus cassinii </em>is found throughout the conifer belts of North America's western interior mountains, from southern British Columbia and southern Alberta in <strong>Canada</strong>, south through the Rocky Mountains of the <strong>USA</strong> to wintering populations in northern <strong>Mexico<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Migration is erratic, dependent on food supply in the breeding range<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Population trends should therefore probably be viewed with some caution, due to apparent lack of site fidelity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but the species has declined by 2.3% annually from 1966 to 2002<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There is little information on potential threats to <em>C. cassinii</em>, but a preference for open forest habitat suggests that selective logging or small-scale clear-cutting will not be deleterious to this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149565	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. PIF North American Landbirds Conservation Plan (2004).  <br/></p>	eng
149567	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common over much of its range (Clement 1999).	eng
149568	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very little known and rare (Clement 1999).	eng
149569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon, although fairly common in Taiwan (Clement 1999).	eng
149571	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or scarce, although locally common in winter (Clement 1999).	eng
149572	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149574	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon, although locally common in winter (Clement 1999).	eng
149575	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149576	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149577	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149578	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149579	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5100-10000 breeding pairs, equating to 15300-30000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149580	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149581	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chaunoproctus ferreorostris</em><em> </em>is only known from specimens collected in 1827 and 1828 on Chichi-jima, Ogasawara-shoto (Peel Island, Bonin), <strong>Japan<sup>1</sup></strong>. It could not be found on Peel by Simpson in 1854, but may have survived until 1890, when it was reported to Holst by locals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nothing is known of its ecology<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> apart from Kittlitz's description, ";this bird lives on Bonin-sima, alone or in pairs, in the forest near the coast. It is not common but likes to hide, although of a phlegmatic nature and not shy. Usually it is seen running on the ground, only seldom high in the trees.";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> It seems likely, therefore, that its extinction resulted from the deforestation of the islands, and the introduction of cats and rats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149584	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149585	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149586	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 260000-1100000 breeding pairs, equating to 780000-3300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149587	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A UK Biodiversity Action Plan is being implemented. A survey was conducted in 2008 to assess the current population size<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out further studies to establish whether <em>L. scotica </em>is best adapted to native Scots pine or to plantations of non-native species (and therefore establish the degree of threat it faces).	eng
149587	distribution		<em>Loxia scotica</em> occurs in Scotland, <strong>UK</strong>, where it is mainly restricted to the eastern Highlands within which core areas are Nairn, Moray and Banff, extending down into lower Deeside, and in Sutherland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is likely that there are shifts in the distribution of the population in response to regional fluctuations in the cone crops of conifers, particularly those of Scots pine <em>Pinus sylvestris</em> <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. The population size was estimated at 1,500 adult birds in the early 1970s and at estimate of 300-1250 pairs in 1988. Surveys during 1995-2003 using an apparently diagnostic excitement call to locate the species found it in 94 woods during the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but as birds are likely to move seasonally and this study was carried out over several years it is hard to be sure how much duplication is involved. Using the same diagnostic excitement call, a recent study has estimated its population to number 13,600 post-juvenile individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
149587	habitat		It inhabits both semi-natural stands of Scots pine <em>Pinus sylvestris</em> and conifer plantations.	eng
149587	population		A survey using playback has estimated the population at 13,600 mature individuals (Summers and Buckland, in press)	eng
149588	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 15,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5800000-13000000 breeding pairs, equating to 17400000-39000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 72500000-780000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149589	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Sierra de Baoruco National Park, but there is no active protection and clearance for agriculture is widespread, especially in the border region<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. It has also been found in Armando Bermudez National Park in the Cordillera Central<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A recovery plan was published in 1992<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine accurately the status and distribution of the species and its habitat<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect large tracts of mature pine forest over a range of elevations and geographic locations<sup>2,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149589	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Loxia megaplaga</em> occurs primarily in <strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, where it was not recorded from 1930-1970<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Several birds were found in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica in the early 1970s, but there have been no subsequent records<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Haiti, it is known from the Massifs de la Selle<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and de la Hotte<strong><sup>9,12</sup></strong>, with a flock of 30 in La Visite in January 2000 testimony to its continuing survival<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it occurs mostly in the Sierra de Baoruco, with occasional records from the Cordillera Central<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Numbers presumably declined between the mid-1920s and mid-1960s in response to habitat loss, but by 1978 the species was thought to be recovering<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The population apparently fluctuates depending on food availability<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, but was estimated as c.3,375 individuals following surveys in the Sierra de Baoruco between 1996-1999<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149589	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to pine <em>Pinus occidentalis</em> forests, mostly at high elevations, and feeds exclusively on pine-seeds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. There is a large pine-cone crop about every three years, but crops in other years are small or fail altogether<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Fluctuations in pine-cone abundance are not synchronous, and birds are nomadic in response to food availability<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds between January and April, with the timing probably depending on the cone crop<strong><sup>7,13</sup></strong>. The nest is usually built high up in the branches of pine trees<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149589	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Benkman (1994), Latta <em>et al</em>. (2000). <br/></p>	eng
149589	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging has been reduced since the mid-1960s, but clearance for small-scale agriculture continues to fragment remaining habitat<strong><sup>3,6,8,12</sup></strong>. This presumably isolates populations, making them susceptible to local pine-cone failures<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> may be a problem<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but this seems unlikely since <em>M. bonariensis</em> is primarily a coastal species in the Sierra de Baoruco<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The principal threat may now be uncontrolled stand replacement fires, which burn more of the remaining pine habitat than can be replaced through regeneration<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149590	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149592	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or very common (Clement 1999).	eng
149593	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149594	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce or locally common, although very rare in Sikkim and Bhutan (Clement 1999).	eng
149595	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7300000-14000000 breeding pairs, equating to 21900000-42000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 44700000-168000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149596	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is protected under Portuguese law. Pico da Vara/Ribeira do Guilherme has been designated as a Special Protected Area, and this was enlarged to 6,067 ha in 2005<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Ecological research was conducted during 1991-1993 and habitat management began in 1995. A short booklet on the species has been distributed to schools in S&atilde;o Miguel. A species action plan was published in 1996, and a new action plan is in the process of being produced<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A number of actions have already been implemented as part of an ongoing EU LIFE-Nature project for the species, including the development of a management plan for the SPA, the clearance of invasive plant species and replanting with native species in over 70 ha in the core of the species's range and the planting of traditional fruit trees at lower altitudes<strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. During 2005 and 2006, 36 and 68 individuals respectively were captured and colour-ringed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and 'visual recapture' monitoring of these birds continues<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian SPEA (Sociedade Portuguesa Para o Estudo Das Aves) are implementing the following actions<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>: habitat management including the creation of fruit tree orchards, clearance of alien invasive plant species and planting native species in the core area and buffer zones; raising public awareness through production of a website, CD-ROM, brochures and school kits, and through collaboration with the regional Ministry of Tourism on nature trails and tourist information; evaluating the economic benefits of the project and analysing the ecosystem services offered by the protected area; establishing an interactive Environmental Interpretation Centre with displays about the species, native laurel forest and the threats both face; and researching and monitoring population size, distribution and habitat quality. The first complete census took place in 2008, involving 48 volunteers surveying all suitable habitat in a single day<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The S&atilde;o Miguel Natural Park, including Pico de Vara SPA, was classified in July 2008, and a management plan is to be developed by the regional government.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue and expand the population monitoring scheme. Investigate the possibility of breeding at Salto do Cavalo. Continue the removal and exclusion of exotic flora. Continue the replanting of native vegetation (particularly key food plants). Monitor the species's response to ongoing habitat restoration. Promote land use changes in the buffer areas around the SPA. Investigate the impact of rat predation on nesting success.</strong>	eng
149596	distribution		<em>Pyrrhula murina</em> is endemic to the Azores, <strong>Portugal</strong>, where it is confined to the east of the island of S&atilde;o Miguel. It was locally abundant in the 19th century, when it was regarded as a pest of fruit orchards, but became rare after 1920 as a result of forest clearance and hunting. It was previously thought that the species was almost entirely confined to c.6 km<sup>2</sup> of native forest on the slopes around Pico da Vara. However, a more complete survey in 2008 revealed that the species is present in 102 km<sup>2</sup> of native forest<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Estimates based on annual point count surveys between 2002 and 2005 range between 203 and 331 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but analysis of ringed birds between 2006 and 2008 gives a total population estimate of 1,608 &#177; 326 mature individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
149596	habitat		This species appears to depend on the native laurissilva forest during the winter and spring (January-April). In the summer and autumn (May-November) its habitat use is more catholic, and birds utilise bare ground, vegetation less than two metres high and also forest margins. Exotic vegetation such as plantations of Japanese red cedar <em>Cryptomeria japonica</em> and copses of <em>Pittosporum undulatum</em> within 200 m of native forest are also used during summer . The diet comprises of at least 37 different plants of which 13 are known to be important. Significantly, the species appears entirely dependent on native trees for food during certain months of the year. Movements of up to 3 km from elevations of 700 m down to 300 m have been recorded as birds move to feed on ripening seeds. Birds breed from mid-June to late August, and nesting has been recorded in <em>C. japonica</em> trees, with a clutch size of 3 eggs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
149596	population		Based on the probability of re-sighting ringed birds and observations between 2006-2008 the population has been estimated at 1,608 &#177; 326 mature individuals, or c. 800 pairs (Monticelli <em>et al.</em> unpublished data), thus a minimum population of c.1,300 individuals is estimated.	eng
149597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2400000-4200000 breeding pairs, equating to 7200000-12600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 14700000-50400000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149598	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, scarce or irregular (Clement 1999).	eng
149599	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common and abundant in some places (Clement 1999).	eng
149600	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or fairly common (Clement 1999).	eng
149601	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common, local or scarce (Clement 1999).	eng
149602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Clement 1999).	eng
149603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
149605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local, fairly common or rare (Clement 1999).	eng
149607	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Nihoa is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and the Papah&acirc;naumoku&acirc;kea Marine National Monument, and legal access is controlled by a permit system that is restricted largely to biologists, researchers and cultural practitioners. Strict protocols are followed to ensure that permitted visitors do not accidentally introduce new species via seeds, eggs or insects travelling on clothes and equipment. Visiting scientists make regular efforts to control one of the three species of alien plant on Nihoa by hand weeding<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. An attempted introduction to French Frigate Shoals in 1967 failed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  A process to evaluate and prioritise potential translocation sites throughout the archipelago for this species (and the other two Northwestern Hawaiian Island passerines) is currently underway.  Disease susceptibility may preclude reintroduction of the Nihoa Finch to the Main Hawaiian Islands, and translocation efforts may focus on the Northwestern Islands. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring. Ensure strict protocols prevent further accidental introductions of alien species. Introduce a population to Kure atoll and (following removal of mice and mosquitos) to Midway atoll. Restore another island for future translocation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149607	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Telespiza ultima</em> once occurred at least on the island of Molokai in the Main Hawaiian Islands, but was extirpated in prehistory probably by a combination of predation by introduced mammals and habitat loss<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  Today, this species is restricted to the steep, rocky island of Nihoa in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>)<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Numbers fluctuate<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, although some variation may be due to differences in survey methods and time of year. Numbers on Nihoa have ranged from 6,686 in 1968 to 946 in 1987<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The most recent population estimate based on surveys in 2007 is 2,807 (&#177; 744, 95% CI) individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149607	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in low shrubs and grasses covering some two-thirds (0.43 km<sup>2</sup>) of the island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds on seeds, invertebrates other plant parts and eggs<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It nests in cavities in cliffs, rock crevices or in piles of loose rock<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149607	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Surveys conducted in March 2007 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recorded 2807 &#177;744 (95% CI) individuals, which is rounded here to 2,060-3,550 individuals. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149607	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It is thought that the presence of the introduced grasshopper <em>Schistocerca nitens</em> on Nihoa, and its periodic irruptions which lead to the virtual defoliation of the island, may be a significant threat to the species. Other potential threats include the introduction of detrimental non-native species and diseases and stochastic events<strong><sup>1,2,4,5</sup></strong>, such as droughts, storms and hurricanes. Fire is a past and potential threat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149608	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Laysan is part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. The alien grass <em>Cenchrus echinatus</em> is believed to have been eradicated<strong><sup>10 </sup></strong>and native bunchgrass is reponding positively<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring on Laysan. Census the population on Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Ensure strict procedures to prevent the accidental introduction of exotic plants and animals by visitors<sup>10. Eradicate exotic plants and invertebrates10. Restore the indigenous plant community10. Establish a third wild population1,10.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149608	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Telespiza cantans</em> is confined to Laysan in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), with small numbers (772 in 1986<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>) persisting on a few, very tiny islands in the Hermes and Pearl Atoll from an introduction in 1967. On Midway Island, an introduced population succumbed to rats during the 1940s<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In 1903, the introduction of rabbits to Laysan led to a serious decline in population size, but the species recovered rapidly after the rabbits were exterminated in 1923. The population numbered 1,000 individuals in 1928, c.5,000 in 1951<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and apparently fluctuated between 5,000 and 20,000 during 1968-1990 (mean 11,044<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), but this may be due, at least in part, to differing methods and seasons of censuses<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of Laysan Finches on Southeast Island, at Pearl and Hermes Reef, since the successful invasion of golden crown beard <em>Verbesina encelioides</em>,<em> </em>which provides sheltered nesting habitat and additional food. The negative impacts of <em>Verbesina </em>on seabirds, which become entangled in the plants when returning to nest sites, dictates however that it be removed from the atoll in spite of its apparent benefits for the finches<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149608	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a primarily herbivorous omnivore<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> feeding on<strong><sup> </sup></strong> insects, flowers, fruits, stems, seedlings, and roots<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Apparently survived the defoliation of Laysan caused by introduced rabbits by feeding on bird eggs, persistent seeds and carrion<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. On Laysan Island it nests almost exclusively in bunchgrass (<em>Eragrostis variabilis</em>) but on Pearl and Hermes Atoll where the bunchgrass is uncommon, the introduced Laysan Finches nest in other plants or in man-made debris that floats ashore<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149608	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population apparently fluctuated between 5,000 and 20,000 individuals over the period 1968-1990 (mean 11,044; M. Morin <em>in litt. </em>1999, 2003), although censuses differed in methods and season (Morin and Conant 1994). <br/></p>	eng
149608	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Today, the primary forces regulating this species are storms and drought, which can cause almost total nest failure<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Global warming is a further cause for concern, given that the maximum altitude on Laysan is only 12&#160;m and that, as well as predicted sea-level rises of 0.5-2.0&#160;m by 2100, the frequency and severity of hurricanes and droughts are expected to increase as a consequence<strong><sup>5,11</sup></strong>. In the past, invasive alien plants have reduced nesting habitat<strong><sup>4,9,10</sup></strong>. Additional potential threats include the accidental introduction of  non-native plants, animals and diseases<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149609	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Recent reports of this species come from three protected areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A Rare Bird Search Project was implemented to find the species and make recommendations for its conservation, but none were located<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Feral pig elimination is being carried out in a number of protected areas in Hawai`i<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> which could hold remnant populations. The Kaua`i Watershed Alliance and The Nature Conservancy are considering fencing (to exclude herbivores and possibly other predators) the north-eastern section of the Alakai Plateau on Kaua`i, where the species was last recorded. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Perform further surveys to locate any remaining populations, following up unconfirmed reports as a priority. Manage ecosystems intensively in areas where the species could still occur</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Plant and encourage food-plants in areas where they have been extirpated</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Remove feral ungulates</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>If birds are found, attempt to increase the population by captive propagation</strong><sup>5,6</sup>. <strong>If found, protect nests</strong><sup>6</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
149609	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Psittirostra psittacea</em> was originally widespread in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>),<strong> </strong>but<strong> </strong>was extirpated from O`ahu, Maui, Moloka`i and then Lana`i between 1899 and 1931<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, it survived in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve into the mid-1970s, with c.62 birds being present during 1968-1973<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but only a few in 1981<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, two in 1989 and none since. On Hawai`i, several populations were present in the early 1980s, with c.394 estimated during 1976-1983<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> but, in 1984, a lava-flow from Mauna Loa passed through the Upper Waiakea Forest Reserve, the species's stronghold<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, and the last confirmed sighting was in 1987<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, since 1995 there have been unconfirmed reports from Koai`e Stream, Alaka`i (Kaua`i) and Pu`u Maka`ala Natural Area Reserve and Kapapala-Ka`u Forest Reserve (Hawai`i)<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. The prognosis is poor, especially given the species's preference for lower elevations where habitat loss and the impacts of introduced disease and predators have been most severe, but it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct until the last areas have been intensively surveyed<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Any remaining population is likely to be tiny.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149609	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is restricted to wet to mesic `ohi`a forest between 800 and 1,900&#160;m, mainly 1,200-1,500&#160;m<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Its bill is adapted to feeding on `ie`ie, an understory vine, and outside the `ie`ie fruiting season, it is nomadic in response to seasonal fruit and invertebrate abundance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population is assumed to be tiny, with unconfirmed reports since 1995, but no confirmed records since 1987. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149609	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat has been lost and modified by logging and agriculture, and `ie`ie has declined because of pressure from introduced rats and ungulates<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Feral pigs, in particular, are pervasive habitat degraders<strong><sup>1,4,5 </sup></strong>and their activity benefits the introduced mosquito vectors of avian diseases which are implicated in the rapid decline of this species<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>, especially given that its nomadic behaviour may increase its exposure to disease<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population has been decimated by hurricanes on Kaua`i and lava-flows on Hawai`i<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149610	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dysmorodrepanis munroi</em><em> </em>is known from only a single specimen collected in 1913, and from single sightings in 1916 and 1918, all in montane dry forest 600-800 m on Lana`i, Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>4</sup></strong>. Much of Lana'i was cleared for pineapple plantations in the 1910s, and this, along with predation by cats and rats, presumably drove the species to extinction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149611	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species's population has been monitored since 1980<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In 1979 and 1986, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges<strong><sup>11,14</sup></strong>. Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Approximately 36% persisted for longer than two months, and as of July 2007 a small colony of about 23 birds remains on the northern slope. Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles have been produced in every subsequent year (2005-2007)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. This translocation programme has been aided by a captive breeding programme initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center in 1996<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. Of 21 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2005, at least ten persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with two males remaining in the north slope colony as of July 2007<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the temporary suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species' conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and managment, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are ongoing<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Hawai`i State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. Goats have been virtually removed from Mauna Kea<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and the plan to build an 87 km long fence enclosing all of the Palala's critical habitat to prevent the ingress of sheep and goats has been completed<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates<strong><sup>1,5,6,14</sup></strong>. Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>. Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. Remove and fence-out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
149611	distribution		This species is restricted to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was abundant, though locally distributed, until the beginning of the 20th century, and evidence from the fossil record suggests that the species occurred throughout the archipelago prior to human settlement<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. In 1997 it occupied an estimated 78 km<sup>2</sup> and numbered 4,396 birds,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>mostly on the west slope of Mauna Kea, where 20.5 km<sup>2</sup> was estimated to hold 72% of the total population<strong><sup>2,3,7</sup></strong>. Comparison of annual counts from 1980-2007 suggests that the population size has historically been subject to fluctuations (1,007-6,356 individuals), but since 2003 it has undergone a consistent and rapid decline (58 % in the core population between 2003-2007 and projected to reach 96.6 % over three generations or 14 years)<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. In 2007, the population was estimated at 3,866 (95% CI, 3,134-4,750) individuals<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and has been declining since with preliminary data from 2008 esimating a population of 2,640 individuals<strong><sup>17</sup></strong> and data from 2009 indicating a population of 2,512 individuals<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The species's range remains centered on the west slope, and it has contracted such that c.96% of the population is found in 3000 ha of forest<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. It has not been found in annual surveys on the east slope since 2004<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>. A small colony of around 23 individuals has been established on the north slope through translocation and release of captive-bred birds, but it is not self-sustaining at present<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
149611	habitat		It is confined to c.2,000-3,000 m, favouring dry mamane and mamane-naio forest. It feeds primarily on mamane seeds, flowers, and insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with the availability of mamane seeds affecting productivity and adult survival. In drought years, most birds do not attempt to breed<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The species exhibits low rates of reproduction<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, laying fewer eggs and taking longer to raise its young compared with mainland songbirds<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
149611	population		Estimate from 2009 indicated a population of 2,512 individuals (95% confidence interval = 1,922-3,156) (G. Wallace <em>in litt.</em> 2009).	eng
149612	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhodacanthis flaviceps</em><em> </em>was probably very rare when discovered and is known from only a handful of skins (now in New York and London) from mountain koa forest in Kona, Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>3</sup></strong>. It was discovered&#152;and last recorded&#152;in 1891<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The cause of its extinction is unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This or a similar species is also known from the fossil record of Oahu and Maui<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149613	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Rhodacanthis palmeri</em> was endemic to koa forest above 1,000 m on Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>3</sup></strong>. It was considered common by Palmer, Munro and Perkins in the late 19th century, but the latter's specimens from 1896 were the last, and even only ten years later it could not be found by Henshaw<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Specimens survive in Cambridge, Harvard, London, New York and Philadelphia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149614	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The East Maui watershed is cooperatively managed with fencing at c.1,070 m and removal of feral ungulates<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In the Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, conservation practices additionally combat the establishment of alien plants and, from the late 1980s, feral pigs have been controlled<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. As a result, the forest understorey has recovered well and non-native plant invasions have slowed<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>. Rats are being poisoned<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although only in a tiny area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A small population exists in captivity, having bred for the first time in 2000<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, and now numbers ten individuals (three males and seven females)<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Progeny from this flock will be used for a pilot release programme in the mesic forests of leeward East Maui where weather conditions may result in higher productivity<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The Leeward Haleakala Watershed Restoration Partnership has been established to restore the south side of Maui's forests, and the State of Hawaii is working on fencing the leeward side which still contains some old growth koa - it is possible this may become a further suitable site for the establishment of a population<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Complete and routinely check ungulate exclusion fences</strong><sup>4,5,10,12</sup>. <strong>Conduct research to assess the impact of ungulate exclusion. Complete ungulate eradication programme</strong><sup>1,5</sup>. <strong>Control alien plants, including outside the three wildlife protection areas</strong><sup>5,10</sup>. <strong>Continue to replant koa forest in areas adjacent to its current distribution</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Improve techniques for successful captive breeding and release.</strong>	eng
149614	distribution		This species is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it is found on the north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, although fossil evidence indicates that it occurred in the lowlands and on Moloka`i. During 1976-1983, it was estimated to number c.500 individuals, of which 71% (c.355) occurred above 1,500 m<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Density surveys in 1997 suggested similar numbers in the 35 km<sup>2</sup> of remaining suitable habitat above 1,525 m<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and the number of birds detected on point counts since 1980 has not altered significantly, but further work is needed to confirm whether the population has genuinely remained stable<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>.	eng
149614	habitat		It is now restricted to montane mesic and wet forest at 1,200-2,150 m (mainly 1,500-2,000 m), and is absent from adjacent areas dominated by exotic trees<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. This habitat is probably marginal (heavy rainfall leads to drastic losses during the breeding season)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. It feeds mainly on the larvae and pupae of wood- and fruit-boring beetles, moths and other invertebrates<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. Range size is c.2.26 ha and territories are defended year-round<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The nest is cup-shaped and placed in the outer canopy forks of mature ohia (<em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em>) - a situation that may afford some protection from introduced predators<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. During the breeding season (November to June), one chick is usually raised per year and young are dependent on parents for 5-8 months<strong><sup>4,8,11,14</sup></strong>.	eng
149614	population		The population was esimated at c.500 during 1976-1983 (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1986), and at a similar number in 1997 (Simon <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
149615	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and the Koke`e State Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct long-term population monitoring<sup>5. Conduct research into its biology and limiting factors5. Control introduced plants, predators, herbivores, competitiors and mosquitoes, especially in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve5,10. Designate more native forests as legally protected5. Reforest some areas with native trees5.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149615	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus kauaiensis</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It is common in the uplands including the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and especially in Koke`e State Park, and an isolated population occurs in the Makaleha Mountains<strong><sup>2,6,13</sup></strong>. During 1968-1973, surveys estimated the population at 10,743 (&#177; 970 standard error), with 76% of the population in the "west of Alaka`i" study compartment<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Subsequent population estimates suggest that the population is greater than 15,000, possibly up to 20,000 birds, and increasing<strong><sup>4,5,10</sup></strong>. In 1992, Hurricane Iniki devastated forests throughout Kaua`i and all bird populations on the island appeared to have been drastically reduced<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. However, population estimates suggest that this species has recovered<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149615	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Originally, it occurred in native forests throughout Kaua`i. Today, it occurs above 600&#160;m in `ohi`a forest, but is commonest in western koa-`ohi`a forest<strong><sup>5,8,10,13</sup></strong>. Preference for koa-`ohi`a may be attributable to koa itself<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, or the abundance of the introduced banana poka in the western parts of its range<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It feeds by gleaning insects from trunks and branches<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>, and takes insects and nectar from flowers, apparently thriving on banana poka nectar<strong><sup>2,5,13</sup></strong>. It is also an active excavator, hammering and flaking off bark to locate arthropods underneath<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149615	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population in the Alaka`i and K&ocirc;ke`e areas alone was estimated at around 42,000 individuals following surveys in 2000 (Foster <em>et al</em>. 2004), thus the population is placed in the range band for 50,000-99,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
149615	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance of the lowland forests on Kaua`i removed most of the habitat used by this species<strong><sup>5,13</sup></strong>. Current threats include introduced predators, competitors (probably), disease (carried by introduced mosquitoes) and ongoing habitat degradation<strong><sup>1,5,11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Douglas Pratt 2005).	eng
149617	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and to some extent in the Koke`e State Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Control and prevent further introductions of non-native animals and plants, particularly in the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve<sup>2,7. Restore habitats2. Identify and encourage disease-resistant lineages (e.g. by translocation, captive propagation2, provision of supplementary resources, nest protection and introduced predator/competitor control). </sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149617	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus parvus</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it occurred almost throughout the island in the 19th century but, by 1900, had become uncommon to rare in lowland forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1968-1973, surveys estimated 24,230 birds, largely restricted to upper elevations<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A recent census revealed a population of 44,359<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 1992, Hurricane Iniki devastated forests throughout Kaua`i and all bird populations on the island appeared to have been drastically reduced<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. However, it would seem that this species has recovered and may even be increasing<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149617	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits `ohi`a and native mixed forest mainly above 600&#160;m, but has been found as low as 100&#160;m (especially in the north-west of the island)<strong><sup>2,6,8</sup></strong>, although it is not known whether this is still the case<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is able to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance, but at lower population densities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on nectar and arthropods (especially caterpillars and spiders) and nests in `ohi`a trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149617	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The current population has been put at 44,359 individuals (USFWS <em>in litt.</em> 2003), and this is rounded to an estimate of 44,400 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149617	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	From the late 1890s, significant declines have been associated with habitat loss and degradation (either due to clearance for timber and agriculture, or to introduced herbivores), and the spread of avian diseases<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Ongoing development in the Koke`e area continues to diminish the amount of habitat available, and the spread of exotic plants into native habitats, although tolerated, is associated with lower densities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Introduced mosquitoes, which spread avian pox and malaria, are now common at 900&#160;m and may breed at 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Feral pigs facilitate the spread of both alien plants and mosquitoes and, with other ungulates, continue to degrade native forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced animals (rats and possibly cats and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em>) is an additional pressure<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, while other introduced taxa (especially <em>Z.&#160;japonicus</em>, wasps and ants) compete for arthropod resources<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149618	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus sagittirostris </em>was restricted to dense, moist forest along the Wailuku river above Hilo on Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong><sup>3</sup>. This forest was cleared for sugar cane, causing the species's extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was discovered in 1892<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and last recorded in 1901<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149619	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Maui, fencing and feral pig eradication has been completed in a c.650&#160;ha area where the male was recorded in 1994<strong><sup>1,11</sup></strong>. In Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, efforts have been made to combat the establishment of alien plants<strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, the Koai`e Stream area has been intensively managed to conserve Puaiohi <em>Myadestes palmeri</em>, and may have helped any <em>H. lucidus</em> that remain in the area<strong><sup>3,13</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to locate any remaining populations.  If any birds are found, attempt to increase the population by captive propagation</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Research competition from exotic bird and insect species</strong><sup>5</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
149619	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Hemignathus lucidus</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>).<strong> </strong>On Kaua`i, it is probably confined to the `Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve<strong><sup>3,10 </sup></strong>where it was apparently recorded a few times 1984-1998, although at least some, if not all, of these sightings appear to refer to <em>H. kauaiensis</em><strong><sup>1,8,14</sup></strong>. Recent surveys on Kauai have failed to find it, and it seems likely to be extinct<strong><sup>15,16</sup></strong>. On Maui, it is found on the eastern and north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, where there have been several unconfirmed detections 1986-1998, although a single male seen in 1995 (seen by more than one qualified observer and backed up by detailed field notes<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>) in the same place as a report from 1994 provided strong evidence of its persistence<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. There have been no other confirmed sightings since then despite extensive effort in a large proportion of the historic range: annual surveys by NPS, two State sanctioned surveys, monthly surveys in Hanawi, TNC surveys and efforts by the Maui Forest Bird Recovery team. Although not all of these programmes surveyed locations where the species was last observed, many surveyed highly likely locations<strong><sup>14,16</sup></strong>. US Fish and Wildlife Service (in review) concluded that in all probability this species is extinct or functionally extinct. However, it should not yet be reclassified as Extinct until further surveys have confirmed that there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. If any population remains, it is likely to be tiny.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149619	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits dense, wet `ohi`a forest and the higher parts of mesic koa-`ohi`a forest<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. On Maui, all recent sightings were between 1,450 and 2,000&#160;m, mostly at the lower end of that range<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, the Koai`e Valley (where it was seen in 1995<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>) is at 1,000-1,300&#160;m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It feeds on wood-borers, spiders and beetles<strong><sup>3,6,9,10</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no confirmed records since 1996 despite surveys. <br/></p>	eng
149619	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The lower-elevation koa forests (possibly the species's key habitat) have been nearly eliminated by cattle-ranching<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Remaining higher-altitude forests are degraded by introduced ungulates<strong><sup>4,9,10,12</sup></strong>. Feral pigs facilitate the spread of alien plants and introduced disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. On Kaua`i, all bird populations appeared to have been drastically reduced after Hurricane Iniki in 1992<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, although some have since recovered. It has been extirpated from the koa-`ohi`a forests of Koke`e, suggesting that it is sensitive to perturbation. Other suggested limiting factors include predation and competition from exotic bird and insect species<strong><sup>1,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149620	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Significant populations occur within Ka`u Forest Reserve and Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Habitat restoration work is underway for this species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Removal of sheep and mouflon from Mauna Kea has permitted regeneration of mamane forest habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Removal of cattle and fencing of the Kapapala Forest Reserve and the Pu`u Wa`awa`a Forest Bird Sanctuary has occurred; although the species does not occur in the latter reserve, it could serve as a site for reintroduction<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct ecological research including habitat use, partly in preparation for reintroduction to unoccupied restored habitat<sup>4. Investigate how to protect and restore habitat effectively at a landscape level, connecting fragmented populations, and publish the results as an action plan. Conduct research into the impact of alien insect competition for invertebrate food resources3. Protect remaining old-growth `ohi`a and koa forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur5. Remove feral ungulates from remaining high elevation forests to allow natural regeneration and possibly increase density of <em>H. munroi populations9. Develop captive propagation techniques to help speed recovery9.</em></sup></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149620	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus munroi</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA)</strong>, where it was formerly widespread. In 1976-1979 and 1983, surveys estimated c.1,500 birds, with 900 in Hamakua, 500 in Ka`u, 50 on Mauna Kea, and 20 in central Kona<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1990-1995, surveys estimated 1,163, representing a decline of c.22.5% over 13 years, with 1,105 in Hamakua (fragmented into two, possibly four, distinct subpopulations at Keauhou-Kulani (c.312 birds) and north Hamakua (c.793 birds)), c.44 in Ka`u, fewer than 10 on Mauna Kea (and only a few males by 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and perhaps fewer than 10 in Kona<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The remnant populations in these latter two areas are on the verge of extinction<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149620	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs mainly in old-growth mesic and wet koa and `ohi`a forest between 1,300 and 2,100&#160;m in Ka`u, Hamakua and Kona, and in dry mamane and naio woodlands from 1,900 to 2,900&#160;m on Mauna Kea<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent research suggests that it occupies secondary growth koa in regenerating forests<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is the only species on Hawai`i to exploit the woodpecker niche, but is rare despite the lack of competition<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pairs occupy very large home ranges (0.25-0.30&#160;km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has a low reproductive rate and long dependency period<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149620	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1990-1995, surveys estimated a population of 1,163 individuals (Fancy <em>et al. </em>1996). This is rounded to an estimate of 1,200 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
149620	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The chief threats are thought to be habitat modification through grazing and logging (particularly of koa), predation by introduced rats, feral cats and native raptors, and avian diseases spread by introduced mosquitoes, which restrict it to high altitude<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Predators may be the primary threat to the Mauna Kea population, while disease may be responsible for declines in protected areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Due to its low reproductive rate this species may be particularly vulnerable to these threats and slow to recover<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149621	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs within the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve but has declined dramatically within this area. The Zoological Society of San Diego is developing techniques for rearing <em>Oreomystis</em> creepers from eggs and breeding them in captivity, using the related Hawai`i Creeper, at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The Hawai`i Creeper has been successfully propagated in captivity, and release of the captive population is planned<strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>. Captive breeding of Akikiki was due to begin in 2008. Starting in April 2007, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources conducted population surveys of forest birds on Kaua'i to determine trends which were being analysed in late 2007. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced in 2005 that the Akikiki should be officially designated an endangered species, but declined to move forward with the listing for budgetary reasons. It has been a candidate species since 1994 and was again proposed in 2007<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The Kaua'i Watershed Alliance and The Nature Conservancy are considering fencing the north-eastern section of the Alakai Plateau on Kaua'i where the species was last recorded to exclude herbivores and possibly other predators.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Protect the Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve from the invasion of introduced plants and feral ungulates</strong><sup>7</sup>, and restore degraded areas. <strong>Continue to monitor its population status and distribution. Develop the programme for captive rearing and release, before the population falls to a critical level.</strong>	eng
149621	distribution		This species was common and widely distributed in the 1890s on Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). During 1968-1973, the total population was estimated at 6,832 (&#177;966 standard error), when it was recorded on the Laau ridge and was fairly widespread in Koke'e<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Since then, the population has declined and the species has retreated from the Koke`e region and the fringes of the Alaka`i region, and is now uncommon to rare in the Alaka`i<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Recent unpublished survey data indicate dramatic declines (85-89% since 1968-1973) and a decline of c.64% in its core area in the Alaka`i Swamp from 1970 to 2000<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Most recently the population was estimated to number 1,312 &#177; 530 birds, based on surveys conducted in April and May 2007<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, occupying an area of just 36 km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
149621	habitat		It is found in high-elevation `ohi`a and koa-`ohi`a forest, but the latter is mainly distributed in the Koke`e region, from where it is retreating<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong>. The Alaka`i stronghold is at 1,000-1,600 m. However, the 1968-1973 surveys found the species at lower altitudes in a few areas, and it may not occur above 1,500 m<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. It feeds on invertebrates<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>, and has been observed excavating rotting wood from the centre of a twig, presumably for insect larvae<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Both parents have been observed bringing food to the nest, with the male providing some food for the female, though the female does also foraging independently. A nesting pair in 2007 had a juvenile from a previous nest, indicating the species will attempt to raise two broods<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.	eng
149621	population		Most recently the population was estimated to number 1,312 &#177; 530 birds, based on surveys conducted in April and May 2007 (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife and USGS, unpublished.data). This is rounded to 780-1,840 individuals here.	eng
149622	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect some of the best remaining habitat for this and other threatened honeycreepers<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It also occurs in the Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park, where fencing and eradication of feral goats began in 1971<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. During the 1990s, efforts have been made to reduce the feral pig population by Hawaiian conservation authorities and private landowners<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Planting of koa and other native plants began in the early 1990s, and at the Kapapala Forest Reserve and the Pu`u Wa`awa`a Forest Bird Sanctuary cattle have been removed and fences erected<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Technology has been developed to allow captive propagation of this species should it become necessary<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect higher-altitude native forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur<sup>5. Expand the programme for fencing and control of feral ungulates in native forests. Rodent control should be pursued and registration for aerial broadcast of rodenticides should be aggressively sought, with studies being undertaken to assess its efficacy and public health implications12.</sup></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149622	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oreomystis mana</em> is endemic to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was formerly widespread, but now occurs as three disjunct populations. Surveys in 1976-1983 estimated the population at c.12,500 individuals with 2,100 in Kau, 10,000 in Hamakua, 75 in central Kona, and 200 on north-west Hualalai<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The small Hualalai population has since disappeared<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, the low elevation (700&#160;m) Hamakua population may have disappeared (or perhaps is just seasonal there)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the two other smaller populations are thought to be declining<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149622	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs principally in wet and mesic koa-`ohi`a forest mainly between 1,000 and 2,300&#160;m, with highest densities mainly between 1,500 and 1,900&#160;m<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Historical and occasional recent sightings in dry mamane forest suggest that some individuals may move seasonally, or that a very small population may inhabit dry forest year-round<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It nests in koa trees (in cavities and open cup nests)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> as well as in in tall `ohi`a trees, and the species has successfully bred in disturbed woodland<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149622	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Surveys in 1976-1983 estimated the population at c.12,500 individuals (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986), however this number has since declined overall (E. VanderWerf <em>in litt</em>. 1999). The population is therefore estimated in the range 2,500-9,999 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
149622	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It may have declined owing to habitat loss and degradation<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>, although its ability to reproduce in some types of disturbed forest suggests that alteration is not the primary factor limiting its current distribution<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Feral ungulates, particularly pigs, have severely degraded native forests and facilitate the spread of alien plants and disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. In 1992, there were pox and malaria epidemics among birds at Hakalau and at mid-elevations<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. Nest-predation by introduced rodents and nest-site limitation are additional threats<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149623	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The core areas where this species reaches highest population densities are within three protected areas: Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, where fencing and control of feral ungulates is already resulting in slow regeneration of native `ohi`a forests<strong><sup>4,5,8,9</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further research, including effect of diseases and, ideally, population dynamics and demography<sup>1. Protect habitat from feral ungulates and rodents1. Extend plant control to areas outside the three wildlife protection areas5 and encourage regeneration of high-elevation forests1. When possible, translocate the species to establish several widely distributed populations1. Complete and routinely monitor the East Maui watershed conservation programme2.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149623	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paroreomyza montana</em> is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), but formerly occurred on Lana`i (until 1937). On Maui, it is now found only in two locations  the east, including Waikamoi Preserve to Kipahulu Valley (abundant), and Polipoli State Park and nearby areas south-west of Haleakala peak (common)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Population densities decline below 1,600&#160;m: in 1980, surveys recorded none below 900&#160;m<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and, in 1997, there was an almost total absence below 1,480&#160;m, with only 40&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of occupied good quality habitat above 1,525&#160;m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1980, the early 1990s and 1997, the total population was estimated at c.35,000 birds<strong><sup>1,3,7</sup></strong> (but <8,550 breeding pairs), suggesting overall stability, although the range has contracted in this time<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, in 2002 it was reported that koa forest in South Haleakala was being degraded by feral goats, and population declines are now suspected<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149623	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense, wet forests dominated by `ohi`a trees, but occurs in a variety of other forest, scrub and savanna habitats dominated either by native or introduced plants. It feeds on invertebrates and nectar<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Live in small family groups of 2-6 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149623	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1980, the early 1990s and 1997, the total population was estimated at c.35,000 birds, including fewer than 8,550 breeding pairs (Scott <em>et al.</em> 1986; Jacobi and Atkinson 1995; Baker and Baker 2000), therefore giving a maximum estimate of 17,100 mature individuals. However, following a fire at PoliPoli State Park (H. Mounce <em>in litt.</em> 2007), the population may have declined further. The estimate is here placed in the band 10,000-19,999 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149623	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance of lowland forest has inevitably resulted in range contraction, but its absence from suitable habitat at lower elevations is attributed to the presence of disease-carrying mosquitoes. Feral ungulates, especially pigs, have also caused extensive habitat loss and degradation<strong><sup>5,7,9</sup></strong> and mosquitoes have followed the spread of feral pigs into upland areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Habitat response models indicate that this species is associated with forest interiors that are less damaged by feral pigs<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A number of introduced mammals, birds and insects are potential predators and competitors. Koa forest in South Haleakala is now being degraded by feral goats, with deer being a further imminent threat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149624	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Paroreomyza flammea </em>was endemic to forest above 500 m on Moloka`i, Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>5</sup></strong>. It was common in the 1890s, but became extinct over the first half of the 20th century, presumably due to habitat destruction and disease<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last record was in the Kamakou Preserve in 1963<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149624	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species was an insectivore, foraging in wet `ohi`a forests<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149625	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Surveys have been carried out during the 1990s to search for this species, but have failed to find any birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A "Rare Bird Discovery Protocol" has been developed which could be applied to this species in the event of its rediscovery<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to conduct intensive and extensive surveys to locate any remaining populations</strong><sup>1</sup>, following similar methods to the Hawaii Rare Bird Search<sup>13</sup>. <strong>If any birds are found, start intensive monitoring, including the collection of data on vocalisations, foraging and breeding behaviour</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>If active nests are found, ensure localised predator control</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Consider captive propagation, following development of specific techniques</strong><sup>1</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
149625	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Paroreomyza maculata</em> is endemic to O`ahu in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where fossil evidence indicates that it once occurred in the lowlands<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In the past few decades, there have only been a few confirmed sightings, with several of these from the area around North Halawa Valley, Ko`olau range<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, many recent records are viewed with doubt because of its close similarity with <em>H. flavus</em>. The last well-documented observation was of two birds on 12 December 1985 on Poamoho Trail during the Waipi`o Christmas Bird Count<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. There have been several reports from different areas since, but details of the observations have been inconclusive and the birds were never relocated. However, it cannot yet be presumed to be Extinct until further surveys have confirmed that there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. If any population remains, it is likely to be tiny. <br/></p>	eng
149625	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In the 1890s, it was reported to eat quantities of carabid beetles, most likely wood-borers, as it was seen feeding on the dead branches of koa trees<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Recent sightings have been between 300 and 650 m in remnant native, lowland mesic to wet forest <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. One nest with two eggs was collected in late January 1901<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with the last probable sighting in 1985, despite recent searches for the species. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149625	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some native forests remain on O`ahu, so habitat loss and alteration cannot fully explain the decline of this species<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Disease spread by introduced mosquitoes is prevalent in the lowlands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and is a likely contributory factor. Circumstantial evidence links declines of some native birds on O`ahu with the spread of introduced birds, but there is no direct evidence for their impact<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong> and, as this species probably feeds primarily on wood-boring insects, introduced birds are unlikely to be significant competitors. The construction of the H-3 freeway (for which the US Congress gave specific exemption from the Endangered Species Act) destroyed habitat around North Halawa Valley, from which some of the most recent confirmed sightings have come<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149626	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Much of the current range is protected by Alaka`i Wilderness Preserve and, to some extent, by Koke`e State Park. In April 2007, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources began to conduct population surveys of forest birds on Kaua`i to verify anecdotal evidence of a recent crash in the species's numbers<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue to conduct population surveys, especially in peripheral parts of its range. Research basic ecology. Prevent further habitat degradation and restore habitat. Control and prevent further introductions of alien species; fence out and remove invasive species<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Identify and translocate disease-resistant birds to parts of the historical range that are affected by disease-carrying mosquitoes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Initiate a captive breeding programme<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. List under the Endangered Species Act as a matter of emergency<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149626	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Loxops caeruleirostris</em> is endemic to Kaua`i in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). It was common throughout upper elevation forests in the late 19th century and was thought to be stable at c.20,650 individuals up until the mid 1990s, although its habitat has declined in extent over this time period<strong><sup>3,6,7,8</sup></strong>. However, in 2000 surveys indicated that the population was 7,839 &#177;704 individuals, this has since decreased to 5,669 &#177; 1,003 individuals in 2005 and to 3,536 &#177; 1,030 in 2007. Even allowing for the large error estimates this indicates a dramatic decline<strong><sup>9,10,11,13</sup></strong>. It occurs at the highest density in the remote Alaka`i region, and also occurs in the upper Waimea and Koke`e regions, and an isolated population persisted in the Makaleha Mountains until at least the early 1970s<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149626	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It inhabits wet `ohi`a, `ohi`a/olapa and diverse mesic forest, appearing to tolerate considerable habitat disturbance if sufficient `ohi`a remains. It is found at 600-1,600 m, mostly above 1,100 m, and apparently never occurred in lowland forests. It feeds primarily on spiders and insects, taking nectar very rarely. Breeding occurs at least in March and April, possibly February to June, and all known nests have been in `ohi`a trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149626	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Results of surveys published in VanderWerf (2007).  <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149626	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Development is reducing habitat availability in the Koke`e region, while the spread of exotic plants and feral ungulates is degrading remaining areas<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Avian pox and malaria probably cause mortality because introduced mosquitoes (vectors for these diseases) are now common at 900 m, may breed at 1,200 m, and appear to be encroaching on the Alaka`i plateau<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. There is concern that rising average temperatures could allow mosquitoes to survive at higher elevations and increase the exposure of birds to disease<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A small increase in temperature is predicted to eliminate much of the mosquito-free zone on Kaua`i<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Food resources may be limited by alien wasps and ants which greatly reduce populations of native arthropods<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Introduced birds may be competitors and introduced predators, especially rats, probably cause some mortality<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Adverse weather may be a significant limiting factor, e.g. prolonged, heavy rains which can result in nesting failure and cause massive mortality among fledglings and juveniles<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Two recent hurricanes resulted in serious damage to Kaua`i's forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149627	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Hawai`i, a large population is protected at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge and, to a lesser extent, in Ka`u Forest Reserve, Kulani Prison, Kilauea-Keauhou forests, Kona Forest National Wildlife Refuge and Pu`u Wa`awa`a State Wildlife Preserve<strong><sup>3,9</sup></strong>. Fencing, removal of feral pigs and cattle, and planting of koa seedlings and other native plants have all been carried out<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Artificial nest-cavities and nest-boxes have been erected<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, in 1999 and 2000, c.10% of 60-70 boxes were used successfully<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Captive propagation techniques have been developed in case they are needed to re-establish wild populations<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The species has been studied continuously at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge since 1987<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Research potential limiting factors. Research response to habitat restoration<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Preserve unprotected native forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Control rodents to reduce competition for nest-sites and to reduce predation of chicks and eggs from artificial boxes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
149627	distribution		<em>Loxops coccineus</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>). On Hawai`i, the only remaining subspecies (<em>L. c. coccineus</em>) occurs in three populations totalling c.14,000 individuals. The core populations have been stable, with peripheral ones declining, and one on Hualalai Volcano has apparently disappeared since 1978<strong><sup>3,5,8</sup></strong>. A comparison of data collected in 1987-1993 and 1999-2005 from Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai`i, suggested a decline in the population, a reduction in nesting success and survival of fledglings and, in birds younger than two years, a very male biased sex ratio (almost 10:1)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. However, annual monitoring data between 1987-2007 from a larger area within Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge indicates stable to increasing trends in the population at the open forest study area, and increasing short-term trend (since 1999) in the closed forest study area<strong><sup>14,15</sup></strong>. On Maui, subspecies <em>ochraceus</em> is extinct<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, it was last recorded in 1988<strong><sup>3,8,10</sup></strong>. On O`ahu, subspecies <em>wolstenholmei </em>is also extinct<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
149627	habitat		It inhabits wet and mesic forest, primarily of koa-`ohi`a at 1,100-2,100 m (mostly above 1,500 m)<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. On Hawai`i, it is an obligate cavity-nester and the highest densities are in old-growth forests, although it is also numerous in some disturbed forests with sufficient large trees. It feeds on small insects (including caterpillars) and spiders<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and forages in the foliage of `ohi`a trees <em>Metrosideros polymorpha</em><strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
149627	population		On Hawai`i, the nominate subspecies occurs in three populations totalling c.14,000 individuals (Scott <em>et al</em>. 1986; Pratt 1993). The other two subspecies are extinct (Lepson and Freed 1997; H. Baker and P. Baker <em>in litt.</em> 2000).	eng
149628	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ciridops anna</em><em> </em>was endemic to `ohi`a and loulu palm<em> Pritchardia </em>forest on both the windward (Hilo District and the Kohala mountains) and leeward (Kona District) sides of Hawai`i, <strong>USA<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is only known from five specimens, in Harvard, Honolulu, New York and Tring<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (the latter has two<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), with a possible sight record in 1937<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, although fossils of the genus have been found on Kaua'i, Molokai and Oahu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The last specimen was collected in 1892<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nothing is known about the causes of its extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149629	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vestiaria coccinea</em> formerly occurred on all the main islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago (<strong>USA</strong>) but is now extinct on Lana'i and only relict populations (probably fewer than 50 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) remain on O`ahu and Moloka`i<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Recent population estimates are: c.385,000 individuals, excluding birds on O`ahu, during 1976-1983<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and more than 350,000 individuals in the early 1990s following recent declines in several populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This species was formerly found in forests at any elevation, and still occurs in a variety of native, disturbed and unnatural habitats from 300 to 2,900&#160;m <strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Greatest densities are found at 1,300-1,900&#160;m and low elevation populations may be sustained primarily by dispersal from mid-elevation populations<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been shown to be highly susceptible to avian malaria which is spread by intoduced mosquitoes, and this may explain its recent disappearance from mid-elevation forests where it was formerly common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Current population trends are unknown but are being analysed, should they reveal widespread declines or if the small populations on Oahu, Molokai or west Maui are lost then the species will almost certainly qualify for Vulnerable<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149629	population	BirdLife International, 2008	An estimate of more than 350,000 individuals was made in the early 1990s (Jacobi and Atikinson 1995).  <br/></p>	eng
149630	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Drepanis pacifica </em>was endemic to forest (especially `ohi`a forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) on the big island of Hawai`i, <strong>USA,</strong> and was last recorded in 1898 above Hilo<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in 1899 near Kaunana<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was heavily trapped by Hawaiians for their feathers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it is more likely that habitat destruction and disease were the ultimate causes of the species's extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149631	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Drepanis funerea</em><em> </em>was only ever seen in forest understorey on Moloka`i, Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong>, although fossils are known from the adjacent Maui<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species was last collected in 1907 and intensive searches in the subsequent few decades could find no sign of it<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Its extinction was probably largely caused by the destruction of its understorey habitat by introduced cattle and deer, and predation by rats and mongooses<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149632	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cooperative management of the East Maui watershed includes fencing at c.1,070 m and removal of feral ungulates<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. In the Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve and Haleakala National Park, conservation practices combat the establishment of alien plants and, from the late 1980s, feral pigs have been controlled<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. Research into captive breeding is underway, and six individuals have been hatched from late-stage wild eggs<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. A banding study investigating productivity and survival began in 2008<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date estimate of the population size. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Preserve remote and ecologically diverse areas, especially on the northern slopes of Haleakala</strong><sup>3</sup>. <strong>Extend plant control to areas outside reserves, especially at mid-elevations</strong><sup>5,10</sup>. <strong>Complete and routinely monitor the East Maui watershed habitat conservation programme</strong><sup>1,11</sup>. <strong>Establish a population in historically occupied habitat to reduce the threat from catastrophes that could wipe out a single population</strong><sup>15</sup>. <strong>Continue monitoring of captive-breeding efforts.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149632	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Palmeria dolei</em> occurs on Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>) and is extinct on Moloka`i (last confirmed observations in 1907). On Maui, it remains moderately common within 58 km<sup>2</sup> on the north-eastern slopes of Haleakala, with a population estimated at c.3,800 birds in 1980<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Surveys in the 1990s to 1997 indicate stability, although areas outside protected areas were not necessarily covered<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149632	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs in mesic `ohi`a-koa and wet `ohi`a forest from 1,100-2,300 m (99% above 1,500 m, mostly below 2,100 m). It primarily feeds on `ohi`a nectar, also taking invertebrates, especially caterpillars. When `ohi`a bloom is at its seasonal low, it feeds on subcanopy and understory flowers and fruit<strong><sup>1,2,8,11</sup></strong>. Average adult male home range is 0.56 ha, giving rise to density figures of 2.9 birds/ha<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. All known nests have been in `ohi`a trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It raises 1-2 young per nest, usually nesting twice seasonally (November to June<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>), and has a relatively high success rate<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. Adult survivorship is similarly high<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Birds, perhaps especially immatures, may disperse to lower elevations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Scott <em>et al. </em>(1986). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149632	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat destruction and modification and the rapid spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes in the lowlands are thought to be responsible for past declines. The species may be particularly vulnerable to mosquito-borne diseases because it migrates altitudinally in response to varying `ohi`a flowering physiology, potentially increasing exposure to mosquitoes at lower elevations<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. From 1945 to 1995, the spread of feral pigs on Haleakala caused chronic habitat degradation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and facilitated the spread of mosquitoes into remote rainforests<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In Hanawi Natural Area Reserve, there was a 473% increase in pig activity, as indexed by ground-cover disturbance, during 1970-1997<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and this reduced alternative food sources to `ohi`a bloom<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats, cats and Barn Owl <em>Tyto alba</em> and possibly small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> is a further limiting factor<strong><sup>3,9,11,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the most abundant Hawaiian honeycreeper (Douglas Pratt 2005).	eng
149634	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1986, the 30 km<sup>2</sup> Hanawi NAR was created to protect this species and, during 1990-1997, all feral pigs were systematically eradicated from three fenced areas<strong><sup>5,7,8,13</sup></strong>. An environmental assessment has been produced and a management plan proposed<strong><sup>9,14</sup></strong>. Two wild birds were briefly united when one was caught and moved into the home range of another. However, after just one day the translocated bird had returned to its own territory<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. One of three known individuals was captured in September 2004 but died in captivity on 28 November 2004<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The 2006 East Maui Forest Bird Survey covered 216 stations on 8 transects within Po'ouli habitat, and failed to locate any birds. In 2006, the East Maui Watershed Partnership (EMWP) completed a c. 5000 ha fenced unit adjacent to and east of Hanawi NAR incorporating the Ko'olau Forest Preserve, Haiku Uka and Waikamoi Forest Preserve, between about 1,000m and 2,400 m elevation. Feral pig control is the next phase, some of which has already been implemented by The Nature Conservancy in the Waikamoi Preserve portion.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey all remaining `ohi`a forest on East Maui</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Extend the new EMWP lower-elevation fence line west and below the existing Hanawi NAR fence-line to help prevent the spread of invasive weeds and mosquitoes into upper elevation forests and abet the restoration of more lower elevation habitat</strong><sup>7</sup>. <strong>Intensify habitat management in areas adjacent to Hanawi NAR including removal of feral pigs from the new fenced unit. </strong> <br/></p>	eng
149634	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Melamprosops phaeosoma</em> is endemic to Maui in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it was discovered in 1973, in the Ko`olau Forest Reserve on the north-eastern flanks of Haleakala<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong>, and estimated to number fewer than 200 birds. During 1975-1985, there was a rapid decline in density in the upper Hanawi watershed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the last area from which it was known. In 1995, only five to seven birds were known but, by mid-1997, only three individuals could be found (two male, one possibly female), each with distinct home ranges in Hanawi Natural Area Reserve (NAR) and the immediately adjacent Haleakala National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. One of three known individuals was captured in September 2004 but died on 28 November 2004<strong><sup>12,14</sup></strong>. The two other individuals may both have been male, but neither have been seen since 2003 and 2004<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and are likely to have now died (if alive, both birds would be a minimum of 12 years old in 2008<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>). No other individuals have been located since 1998 despite almost constant presence of researchers in the field in recent years<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, but it is still possible, albeit unlikely, that a few unlocated individuals may exist in the wild<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149634	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found in remote `ohi`a forest<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> at 1,400-2,100&#160;m, but this may be suboptimal habitat as subfossil evidence indicates that it occurred in much drier habitat at 300-1,500&#160;m<strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on snails, insects, and spiders, and occasionally fruit<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. The two known nests were found in `ohi`a trees<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	One of the last three individuals died in captivity in 2004 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006). The other two known individuals have not been seen since 2003 and 2004 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006). No new individuals have been found since 1998 (K. Swinnerton <em>in litt</em>. 2006). If any birds remain, the population is assumed to be tiny. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149634	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat destruction and modification, and the rapid spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes in the lowlands are thought to be responsible for past declines, and the latter continues to be a threat<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. The precise causes of the recent population decline are unknown<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, although a correlation with a concurrent 473% increase in pig activity within the Hanawi NAR has been hypothesised, as indexed by ground-cover disturbance<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Predation by introduced rats, cats and small Indian mongoose <em>Herpestes auropunctatus</em> is also possible. Rats and the introduced garlic snail (<em>Oxychilus alliarius</em>) have been blamed for the decline of native land snails, an important food source for the Po'o-uli<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare or uncommon and very little known (Clement 1999).	eng
149636	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as perhaps not rare (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 18000000-31000000 breeding pairs, equating to 54000000-93000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73000000-186000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 50-100 breeding pairs, equating to 150-300 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
149641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 2000000-5200000 breeding pairs, equating to 6000000-15600000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
149642	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza koslowi</em> is restricted to the eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, in eastern Tibet and southern Qinghai, <strong>China</strong>, where several large valleys cut into the plateau, including those of the Tongtian river (the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang or Yangtze), the Lancang Jiang (the upper Mekong) and the Nu Jiang (the upper Salween). It is known by just a few scattered records in this inaccessible and poorly known area, but it appears to be genuinely rather scarce and localised, in barren areas, juniper and rhododendron scrub on valley slopes above the treeline at c.3,600-4,600 m. It rather unusually builds a domed nest and appears to breed late, with young hatching in mid-July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  It does not appear to be immediately threatened by habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
149642	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Very rare; this figure requires clarification and may be an overestimate. <br/></p>	eng
149643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1300000-4100000 breeding pairs, equating to 3900000-12300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 7960000-49200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000, Robson 2000).	eng
149645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to locally common (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149646	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected in Russia and North Korea. Part of its former breeding range in Russia is protected within the Khasanskiy Nature Park and a population is protected in Xianghai Nature Reserve in<strong> </strong>China, although there were recent signs of habitat destruction in Xianghai<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys to locate suitable habitat and breeding populations in Russia, North Korea and Heilongjiang (China), with the aim of establishing new protected areas and suitable habitat management regimes for it. Monitor population trends through regular surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation throughout its range. Restore its habitats within the Khasanskiy Nature Park. Implement the management plan for Xianghai Nature Reserve. Consider the designation of new nature reserves to protect breeding populations in Jilin. Seek to influence forestry practices for the benefit of this species. List it as a nationally protected species in China. </strong>	eng
149646	distribution		<em>Emberiza jankowskii</em> breeds in extreme north-eastern <strong>North Korea</strong> and in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Jilin, <strong>China</strong>. In China, it disperses south and west outside the breeding season, when there are records from Liaoning, Hebei and Beijing. In Russia, it was previously locally common in southern Primorye, with a population estimated at several hundred pairs, but had disappeared from its former breeding sites by the early 1970s, and there have been no subsequent records. In the past, it was not uncommon within its small range in North Korea, but there is little recent information. In China, the breeding population at three sites in Jilin province was estimated at 330-430 pairs in 1994, and in the first half of the 20th century it was locally common in Heilongjiang, however there are very few recent records and it appears to have disappeared or drastically declined at most of its known sites. It is believed to be extinct in eastern Jilin, and in 2008 breeding was known from a total of only four sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. At Huichin (south-western Jilin) 350 pairs were recorded in 1994 but none could be found in 2005<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. No birds have been recorded at Xianghai Nature Reserve since 2003, while at Baicheng the population declined from 100 individuals in 2001 to only two in 2008<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At Dagang Forestry, western Jilin, the population crashed between 1999-2002 from c.55 pairs to c.15 pairs and remained relatively constant at around 15 pairs from 2002-2006<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The only other currently known sites are Tumiji (possibly fewer than 50 birds) and Keerqin (43 individuals recorded in a brief survey in 2008)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although it has recently been sighted at two new locations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, the total population is likely to be fewer than 500 pairs, even assuming that there are currently unknown populations remaining elsewhere, but may now be considerably fewer than 200 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
149646	habitat		It breeds in a variety of open habitats at low altitudes, usually grassland with scattered scrub or small trees on a sandy substrate, within a narrow semi-humid transitional zone between the Manchurian deciduous forest and Mongolian steppe-vegetation zones. The breeding season extends from late April to late July<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
149646	population		The total population is likely to be fewer than 500 pairs, assuming that there are currently unknown populations remaining elsewhere, but may now be considerably fewer than 200 pairs (Wang Ruiqing & Li Fei 2008).	eng
149647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6400-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 19200-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 80000-1200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149648	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza cineracea</em> breeds on dry rocky slopes and uplands with shrubby vegetation and sometimes conifers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nominate race breeds on the islands of Chios, Lesbos, Skyros and probably Ikaria and Samos islands, <strong>Greece</strong> (100-250 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and east and south to Develi and Kilis, <strong>Turkey</strong>. <em>E. c. semenowi</em> occurs from the Gaziantep area of south-east Turkey to the border with <strong>Iraq</strong> (breeding unproven but possible) and west <strong>Iran</strong> (less than 100 pairs in the Zagros mountains). It is migratory, wintering in dry open country with short grass, semi-desert, low rocky hills, bare cultivated land and dry scrub, often in coastal areas, in north-east <strong>Sudan</strong>, <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, <strong>Eritrea</strong>, south-west <strong>Saudi Arabia</strong> and <strong>Yemen</strong><sup>2</sup>. Migrating birds are regularly recorded in lowland agricultural land and semi-deserts in <strong>Cyprus</strong>, <strong>Syria</strong>, <strong>Lebanon</strong>, <strong>Jordan</strong>, <strong>Israel</strong>, <strong>Palestinian Authority Territories</strong>, <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>Kuwait</strong>, <strong>Qatar</strong>, <strong>Bahrain</strong> and <strong>United Arab Emirates</strong>. The sizes of historical and current populations are poorly known, but the population is currently estimated at 700-5,350 pairs with no obvious decline in numbers or range. Changes in grazing pressure by sheep and goats could affect population size. High grazing pressure could result in the trampling of nests whilst too little grazing could reduce the area of open feeding sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Remaining habitat in western Turkey is being rapidly developed for tourism. There is very little habitat loss in Greece<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or central and eastern Turkey. An international action plan was published in 2003<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149648	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on estimates of 2,600-7,800 breeding pairs in Europe (BirdLife International 2004) and less than 100 pairs in Iran (Tucker and Heath 1994). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5200000-16000000 breeding pairs, equating to 15600000-48000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 21100000-96000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 140000-230000 breeding pairs, equating to 420000-690000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 447000-920000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as usually uncommon, although locally common or even abundant (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149652	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often common (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common and numerous (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149654	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Extensive surveys in 1993, 1999 and 2000 have discovered several important areas for the species<strong><sup>3,4,6</sup></strong>, and the presumed main breeding area (the higher parts of the Hajhir range) lies within one of the main conservation zones of the Environmental Protection Council's masterplan for development of the archipelago<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out a comprehensive survey of the highlands to better understand its distribution, population and breeding biology<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>In the event of extensive habitat loss or modification in the highlands, appropriate interventions should be made (e.g. impact assessments, increased protection of key areas). <br/></p>	eng
149654	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza socotrana</em> is endemic to the island of Socotra, <strong>Yemen</strong>, where it is known from very few localities. In the highlands, there are records from five localities in the breeding season -- Adho Dimelho (including Adala)<strong><sup>1,2,5,7</sup></strong>, Diksam<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, near Skand<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, near Rookib<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (all in the Hajhir [Hagghier] range) and the Ma'lih plateau<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> -- and in the lowlands it is known from near Qaysuh (near Kallansiya)<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. The species is rare, and the total population may number under 2,500 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149654	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to be restricted to highland areas (700-1,200 m) during the breeding season (November to March at least), dispersing down to sea-level in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1,4,5,6</sup></strong>. The breeding habitat appears to be rocky, grassy slopes and meadows with scattered trees and bushes<strong><sup>1,4,6</sup></strong>, while a flock of c.100 non-breeders at sea-level was on the flat coastal plain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nest and eggs have not been described. It is suspected that the nesting requirements (still unknown) are an important factor in restricting this species to high altitudes when breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may be semi-colonial when breeding (singing males in November were distinctly clumped together)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149654	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Kirwin <em>in litt. </em>(2007).  <br/></p>	eng
149654	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	No threats are known currently. In the future, if grazing and browsing by livestock become more intensive in the highlands (through improved water supply and importation of fodder), there may be consequent loss, fragmentation or degradation of the species's habitat. At the moment, stocking densities in the highlands are strongly controlled by traditional practices (much rangeland is privately owned) and by occasional severe droughts. As an oceanic-island species (probably ground-nesting) with a small or very small population, it is permanently vulnerable to the impact of alien invasive species, and its population may already be limited in some way by well-established invasive predators on Socotra such as feral cat Felis catus, brown rat Rattus rattus or Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica. <br/></p>	eng
149655	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in forest with dense underbrush (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, Robson 2000).	eng
149658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5000000-8000000 breeding pairs, equating to 15000000-24000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30600000-96000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in most of its range (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149660	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 6100000-10000000 breeding pairs, equating to 18300000-30000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 37300000-120000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).	eng
149662	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza aureola </em>breeds<em> </em>in wet meadows with tall vegetation and scattered scrub, riverside thickets and secondary scrub across the northern Palearctic. Its range includes <strong>Finland</strong>, <strong>Belarus</strong> and <strong>Ukraine</strong> in the west, through <strong>Kazakstan</strong>, <strong>China</strong> and <strong>Mongolia</strong>, to far eastern <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Korea</strong> and northern <strong>Japan</strong>. In the autumn, birds stop-over in large numbers to moult in the Yangtze Valley, China before continuing on to their winter quarters. It winters in large flocks in cultivated areas, rice fields, reedbeds and grasslands throughout a relatively small area in southern and south-east Asia which includes eastern <strong>Nepal</strong>, north-east <strong>India</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, southern China, <strong>Cambodia</strong>, <strong>Laos</strong>, <strong>Vietnam</strong> and <strong>Thailand</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is considered to be Near Threatened because of recent severe declines noted in some breeding areas (e.g. Hokkaido<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and concerns over the levels of trapping at migration and wintering sites<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Breeding declines in Mongolia are attributed to the recent dry conditions and its impact on breeding habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Numbers at wintering sites appear to be declining across its range<strong><sup>2,4,5,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common or common (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149664	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as never really common, although one of the most widespread African buntings (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149665	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149666	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon to rare (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149667	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to common (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
149668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2800000-9300000 breeding pairs, equating to 8400000-27900000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 11400000-55800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 250-1000 breeding pairs, equating to 750-3000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149670	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Japan, North Korea and Hong Kong. It occurs in some National Wildlife Protection Areas in central Honshu, Japan, including Asama (Gunma and Nagano prefectures), the North Alps (Toyama, Nagano and Gifu prefectures) and Katano Duck Pond (Ishikawa prefecture). Some of its breeding and staging grounds are also protected as prefecture protection areas, such as Nikko (Tochigi prefecture), Myoko-san (Niigata prefecture), Nojiri-ko (Nagano prefecture), Matsunaga-wan (Hiroshima prefecture) and Kakara-jima (Saga prefecture).</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Research the status of its breeding population. Coordinate a study of the decline and conservation requirements of migratory passerines in Asia. Ensure it is legally protected across its entire range.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149670	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza sulphurata</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong>, and is thought to winter mainly in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, although some birds have wintered in Japan and <strong>Taiwan</strong> (China) in the past. There are non-breeding records, mainly of birds on passage, from <strong>North Korea</strong>, <strong>South Korea</strong>, <strong>Hong Kong</strong> (China) and the coast of mainland <strong>China</strong> and Taiwan. It is generally uncommon in its restricted breeding range in Japan, and it appears to have declined significantly during the 20th century. <br/></p>	eng
149670	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds from c.600-1,500 m, in deciduous and mixed forests, on wooded slopes and in high valleys, around woodland edges and in park-like areas with shrubs and thickets. It nests in bushes or on the ground. On migration, it occurs in shrubby clearings in open woodland, in low secondary growth and open cultivated land with bushes and thickets, and sometimes in open grasslands. In its wintering range, it is found in grasslands, scrub, pine forest and cultivated areas, up to 1,500&#160;m.</p>	eng
149670	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
149670	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its decline has probably been a result of a combination of habitat loss, high levels of pesticide use and trapping for the bird trade.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149671	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in moist shrubby undergrowth (Byers et al. 1995).	eng
149672	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common (Brazil 1991).	eng
149673	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 80000-150000 breeding pairs, equating to 240000-450000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
149674	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 4800000-8800000 breeding pairs, equating to 14400000-26400000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 29400000-106000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberiza yessoensis</em> breeds in wetlands with tall grass and scrub in Primorye in extreme south-east <strong>Russia</strong>, Honshu, Kyushu and formerly Hokkaido, <strong>Japan</strong>, and Heilongjiang in north-east <strong>China</strong>, and it is a passage and/or winter visitor to <strong>North Korea</strong> (where it is also likely to breed), <strong>South Korea</strong> and the coast of eastern China. It is considered to be uncommon or rare in all parts of its range. It is presumably declining because of the loss and degradation of wetland habitat within its breeding range. <br/></p>	eng
149675	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is thought to have a moderately small population owing to its apparent rarity within its range. This preliminary estimate requires confirmation. <br/></p>	eng
149676	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 7900000-22000000 breeding pairs, equating to 23700000-66000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 50-74% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 32000000-132000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
149680	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calcarius ornatus</em> breeds in the Great Plains (north and central <strong>USA</strong>) and the Canadian Prairie Provinces (southern central <strong>Canada</strong>), and winters in south-central and south-western <strong>USA</strong> and north-central <strong>Mexico<sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a native-prairie specialist<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, its breeding range restricted to short- and mixed-grass prairie regions, and its wintering range restricted to dry grasslands and deserts, where it feeds on grains in high density flocks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It prefers native grasslands recently disturbed by fire, grazing or mowing, and will avoid nesting in areas protected from grazing or cultivated fields<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. As a result of conversion of native prairie to croplands and urban developments it has disappeared from much of its historical breeding range (e.g. in Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota).  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149680	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
149682	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Plectrophenax hyperboreus</em> breeds on the Hall and St Matthew islands (totalling 300 km<sup>2</sup>) in the Bering Sea, <strong>USA</strong>, and occasionally on St Lawrence and probably St Paul islands. It winters along the west Alaska coast from Kotzebue to the tip of the Alaska Peninsula, irregularly on the south coast of Alaska, occasionally to the Aleutian Islands and accidentally in British Columbia, <strong>Canada</strong>, and Washington and Oregon, USA. At the mean breeding density for Snow Buntings <em>P. nivalis</em> (4.68 pairs&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), the maximum population on Hall and St Matthew is 2,800 individuals. Even at the highest recorded density for <em>P. nivalis</em> in North America (10.2 pairs/km<sup>2</sup>), the total population would be no more than 6,000 birds at the beginning of the breeding season. The actual population is almost certainly smaller because not all habitat on Hall and St Matthew is suitable. On the breeding grounds, it inhabits vegetated and rocky tundra, mostly in coastal lowlands, and typically nests on shingle beaches. It winters on coastal marshes, shingle beaches and agricultural fields with exposed vegetation. Although under no immediate threat, it is susceptible to devastation by any introduced rats <em>Rattus</em>, weasels <em>Mustela</em> or foxes <em>Vulpes</em>. <br/></p>	eng
149682	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
149688	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149697	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A current project is attempting to develop population and trend estimates for sites that are suspected as being the most important. Using survey data from throughout the species's range this project will estimate the total population size<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop population and trend estimates for the whole species's range. Assess how the population could be monitored<sup>4. Assess the species's status in light of rising sea levels and the threat that they pose to <em>Spartina patens habitat3.</em></sup></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149697	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ammodramus caudacutus</em> is confined to the narrow Atlantic coastal strip from <strong>Canada </strong>to the <strong>USA</strong> from Maine south to North Carolina, with a southward shift in winter as far as Florida and north to Maryland. It is abundant in saltmarshes in the core of its range and numbers approximately 250,000 individuals<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Its highly fragmented range is approximately c.20,000 km<sup>2</sup>, within which it occupies an area of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of appropriate habitat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149697	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ammodramus caudacutus </em>is found in tidal coastal marshes where there is dense cordgrass, blackgrass or saltmeadow grass. Nesting takes place from mid May through to early August and males sing persistently during this time. Nests are placed 6-15 cm above the ground and usually 3-5 greenish white to greenish blue eggs, speckled with reddish brown, are laid. They are not territorial and are not usually found in mixed species flocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
149697	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
149697	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Localised populations have suffered throughout its range from the severe and ongoing loss, degradation and fragmentation of marshes due to urban development<strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. Further threats include chemical spills and other pollutants, invasive species (particularly <em>Phragmites</em>, which makes the habitat completely unsuitable) and sea level rise. It is unclear what role sea level rise will take but the large amount of development along the coast means that there is limited scope for marshes to migrate inland<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A possible change could be that high marsh subsides to low marsh habitat and it is not clear how the sparrows will adapt to <em>Spartina alterniflora</em> (tall form) habitats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149699	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ammodramus henslowii</em> breeds in the eastern <strong>USA</strong>, from Minnesota (primarily in the south-east) east to southern Ontario and New York, and extending south-west to north-east Oklahoma and south-east to north-western Kentucky and West Virginia. Isolated breeding populations also exist in north-east Virginia and north-east North Carolina. It is extirpated or a rare breeder in the north-east US states, from Vermont south to Delaware. It winters in coastal states from south-east North Carolina south to Florida (except for the southern tip) and west to eastern Texas<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. It inhabits open fields of tall, dense grass and weeds, meadows and shrubby vegetation, especially in damp areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but also in dry upland prairies with small shrubs, and in the grassy understorey of open pinewoods<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Mowed or recently burnt fields are generally avoided, as are fields with a lot of woody vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was once common in unploughed, periodically burnt tallgrass prairie, which originally stretched from Illinois west to Kansas and Nebraska<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but wetland draining and destruction of grassland habitat through fire suppression, conversion to agriculture or pine plantations and earlier and more frequent cutting of hayfields<strong><sup>3,4,5,6</sup></strong> have caused populations to decline over the last three decades, with the greatest declines being in the northern and eastern portions of the range<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. However, southern populations have tended to increase<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>, apparently in association with the creation of undisturbed grassland habitat by the Conservation Reserve Program<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the current population is estimated to be 79,000 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149699	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
149700	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in the prairies of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada, and North and South Dakota, Montana and Minnesota, USA, and winters in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, USA, and Sonora, Durango, Chihuahua and Coahuila, Mexico (Jones et al. 1998).	eng
149700	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This is a grassland species.  It is reported to depend on habitat structure rather than species composition, and occurs in non-native habitats, although its breeding success in these habitats is unknown (C. Hyslop in litt. 2000).	eng
149700	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Conversion of prairie to agriculture has drastically reduced the occupied range and population, but it remains abundant where suitable prairie habitat persists (Jones et al. 1998).	eng
149702	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149704	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>La Cima field station provides some protection. Surveys have found new localities, identified the important areas for protection, investigated the breeding ecology and censused the population at La Cima<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor remaining populations<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey suitable habitat in Durango. Integrate local people in developing appropriate grassland management strategies, including fire management<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure that grain storage prevents potential infection by micotoxins<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect remaining habitat fragments. <br/></p>	eng
149704	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenospiza baileyi</em> was known from disjunct areas in south Durango, north Jalisco and around the Distrito Federal-Morelos border, <strong>Mexico</strong>, but is now confined to near M&eacute;xico City. In this area, it was known from just around El Capul&iacute;n-La Cima and Santa Ana Tlacotenco<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, but there are additional records from north-east of Volc&aacute;n Yecahuazac, east and north of Volc&aacute;ns San Bartolito and Comalera, north of Volc&aacute;n Tuxtepec, west of Volc&aacute;n Tulmiac, north of Acopiaxco<strong><sup>1,2 </sup></strong>and north-east of Coexapa<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. There was an estimated 54 km<sup>2</sup> of habitat in this area<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong> and densities of 2.9 territories/ha have been recorded at La Cima<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A record at Los Dinamos, Distrito Federal in 1993<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> refers to a misidentified juvenile Song Sparrow <em>Melospiza melodia</em><strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.<strong><sup> </sup></strong>The species went unrecorded in Durango from 1951 until it was rediscovered there in 2004<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A recent survey concluded that the species is now confined to just four locations: Ejido Ojo de Agua-El Cazador, southern Durango, at least 3 breeding pairs concentrated in an area of 0.5 ha within an 80 ha marsh; La Cima, Distrito Federal, 790 ha of suitable breeding habitat in 1997, 5,380-6,150 adults equating to 2,300 breeding pairs; Milpa Alta, Distrito Federal; 6 km NE of Coexapa, Mexico state: a few individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The northern population was recently found to be restricted to a single locality having disappeared from three historical sites<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Global population trends have not been accurately estimated but the area of suitable habitat at the principle site for the species, where over 90% of the global population occurs, has declined by c. 50% in the last 10 years. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149704	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits medium to tall bunch-grass meadows (zacat&oacute;n) mostly at elevations of 2,800-3,050 m, but populations in Durango were as low as 2,285 m. Specifically, its preferred habitat is primary tall fodder grass areas dominated by <em>Muhlenbergia macroura</em>, <em>M. affinis</em>, <em>Festuca amplissima</em> and <em>Stipa ichu</em> which are subject to agriculture and cattle activities. It feeds in agricultural fields and birds have been seen singing from the tops of zacat&oacute;n clumps in a heavily grazed and poorly drained field. It lays a brood of 2 to 4 eggs. Nesting success is c.36% at La Cima, with nests constructed low down in bunch-grass tussocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149704	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on a 1997 estimate of 5,380-6,150 adults occupying the key site for this species. There were reportedly a small number of individuals at other locations (Oliveras de Ita and Rojas-Soto 2006).  <br/></p>	eng
149704	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is widespread anthropogenic burning of habitat, mostly to promote new growth of grazing pasture for sheep and cattle<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is also conversion to agriculture (mainly oats), bunch-grass is sometimes cut for thatch and brushes and a degree of urban encroachment is occuring. Most remaining habitat is close to volcanic rock outcrops or on slopes where it is difficult to operate a tractor<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, rock extraction at La Cima suggests that many of these areas are likely to be converted to agriculture<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Autopsies on two individuals showed that organ systems had collapsed as a result of mycotoxins from contaminated grain<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. There is a high level of nest failure owing to heavy predation which may be exascerbated by habitat fragmentation<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149709	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The north side of the valley at Tanque de Emergencia is managed appropriately, using a rotational grazing regime to ensure that the grass is always high in several pastures<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to identify additional breeding sites. Monitor known populations. Assess precise ecological requirements and understand local movements<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement rotational grazing regimes at known sites<sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spizella wortheni</em> has suffered a major range contraction and now breeds at Tanque de Emergencia in Coahuila (100-120 individuals found in January 1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and Las Esperanzas in Nuevo Le&oacute;n, north-east <strong>Mexico<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Thorough surveys may find additional sites because suitable habitat remains within its historical range. It was first described from New Mexico, USA in 1884, but has since only been recorded in Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are records from eight states, but it was last recorded in Puebla in 1893, Tamaulipas in 1924, San Luis Potos&iacute; in 1951, Veracruz before 1957, Chihuahua in 1959 and Zacatecas in 1961<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The few records from San Luis Potos&iacute;, Zacatecas, Puebla and Veracruz were in the non-breeding season, and may refer to migrants. However, since birds move only locally in the non-breeding season in Coahuila and Nuevo Le&oacute;n and there has been a large breeding range contraction in the north, it seems more likely that these represent extirpated populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to open, arid shrub-grassland at elevations of 1,200-2,450&#160;m <strong><sup>1.3</sup></strong>. It probably keys-in on certain vegetational structural components, such as open areas with low (grazed) grasses for foraging and a moderate complement of low, dense shrubs for cover and nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Taller shrubs and trees may serve as observation or song perches, but a lack of shrubs over 0.5&#160;m is not a deterrent to habitat occupancy<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are indications that it prefers the open-wooded area ecotone, but this is not the case at Las Esperanzas<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Nests of 3-4 eggs have been found in May-July<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Single-species flocks form after the breeding season<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and are apparently strongly attracted to permanent water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149709	population	BirdLife International, 2008	S. N. G. Howell <em>in litt</em>. (1998) <br/></p>	eng
149709	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Open shrub-grasslands have been greatly reduced by agriculture and grazing. Even on the Coahuila-Nuevo Le&oacute;n border, there has been a progressive loss of habitat, especially in the El Potos&iacute; valley. It seems unlikely that large tracts of habitat remain near the two currently known sites<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149716	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149718	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149719	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aimophila sumichrasti</em> has a small range on the Pacific slope of south-east Oaxaca (west to Las Tejas and through the r&iacute;o Tehuantepec basin to Rancho las Animas) and extreme south-west Chiapas, <strong>Mexico<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is fairly common to common up to 900&#160;m in arid lowland scrub and on the edge of, and openings within, tropical deciduous forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Pan-American Highway has led to fragmentation of habitat within its restricted range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Many forest areas are now degraded or secondary, but whether this has had a detrimental impact on this species is unclear. <br/></p>	eng
149720	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149721	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149722	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aimophila aestivalis</em> breeds in early succession pine woodlands or open habitats with dense grasses and forbs on the coastal plain and Piedmont of south <strong>USA</strong> from extreme south Virginia to central Florida and east Texas. Occasional birds are reported north to south-central Missouri, Kentucky and Tennessee, and it formerly occurred north to south-west Pennsylvania, south Ohio, Illinois and Indiana. Only northern populations are migratory, reaching as far as North Carolina. In 1890-1915, its range expanded dramatically in response to the clearance of old pine forests and the abandonment of mid-west farms. This expansion peaked in 1915-1920, and a gradual decline in the north of its range began in the 1930s, mostly occurring before the 1960s, because of forest succession. It is now absent over most of its northern range and uncommon in most of the south because of timber harvesting practices and fire suppression, with many suitable patches of habitat not occupied. Maximum densities of singing males in South Carolina were 0.41-0.48/ha in occupied patches of suitable habitat, but many populations are isolated and prone to local extinction<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149722	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
149723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149725	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from south-central Arizona (USA) to Sonora and Sinaloa states, Mexico (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
149725	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs mainly in open, flat grassy areas with scattered thorn bush, bunch-grass, mesquite or cholla, between sea level and 1,200 m (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995a). The nest is built in the edge of a bush, and nesting takes place from late April to mid-September, triggered by summer rains (Rising 1996).	eng
149727	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aimophila notosticta</em> is locally fairly common in the interior valleys of Oaxaca and possibly also adjacent Puebla, <strong>Mexico</strong>. It inhabits arid to semi-arid oak-thorn scrub, brushy ravines and adjacent overgrown grassy areas at elevations of 1,600-1,900&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Significant tracts of dry forest and arid scrub remain, but are under pressure from cutting of vegetation for timber and firewood, and clearance for cattle-ranching. </p>	eng
149728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149729	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Each of the three subspecies has been recorded in a protected area, but none receives <em>de facto</em> protection<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to define the range and population of each subspecies<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of existing reserves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the extent of proposed developments and take mitigating measures<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149729	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Torreornis inexpectata</em> occurs in three distinct populations in <strong>Cuba</strong>: the nominate race has a stable population<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong> of more than 250 birds in a small area of the Zapata Swamp; race <em>varonai</em> is numerous within its very restricted range on Cayo Coco in the Camag&uuml;ey Archipelago; and race <em>sigmani</em> totals 110-200 breeding birds on a small stretch of the south-east coast in Guant&aacute;namo. <br/></p>	eng
149729	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The nominate race inhabits scrub grassland as well as xerophytic coastal vegetation and mangroves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The race <em>varonai</em> occurs in semi-deciduous forest, coastal xerophytic thorn-scrub and mangrove, and the race <em>sigmani</em> inhabits dry scrub. Birds are usually seen in pairs or groups of three, but are occasionally seen in larger groups of 10-12<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. During the dry season, it appears to feed primarily on seeds and flowers, but takes insects, spiders, snails and their eggs and even small lizards in the wet season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The nest is constructed in a tussock, and the breeding season is March-June. <br/></p>	eng
149729	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Kirkconnell and Suarez (2005) increased the population estimate of the race inextectata from 100-200 to 600-700.  <br/></p>	eng
149729	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Drainage and dry-season burning affect habitat in the Zapata Swamp. Cayo Coco is under development for tourism. Burning of habitat, subsequent grass invasion and fencing for sheep-rearing threaten the population on the Guant&aacute;namo coast. <br/></p>	eng
149730	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149738	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149740	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149741	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149742	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149744	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149747	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149748	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149750	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149754	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Action for Yellow-eared Parrot <em>Ognorhynchus icterotis</em> has increased public awareness and community involvement in conservation issues in the R&iacute;o Toche area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, which should also help <em>A.&#160;flaviceps.</em> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey potential habitat in the upper Magdalena valley, the La Plata Vieja valley and intervening areas. Determine the extent of dependence on secondary vegetation, and sensitivity to vegetational succession and habitat destruction<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149754	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlapetes flaviceps</em> occurs on the east slope of the Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is has been recorded once in the La Plata Vieja valley, Huila, in 1967. The type-series was collected in Toche valley, Tolima, where it is still locally common<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149754	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	At the only currently known locality, it seems to have adapted well to degraded forest, thick secondary vegetation (especially where vines and remnant forest trees are present) and bushy, overgrown bean-fields at 1,300-2,500&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Observations have been made of a juvenile with parents in June, adults collecting nesting material in October<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and immature birds in November. <br/></p>	eng
149754	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km2 x 34 km (20% EOO) = 680, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density lowest of four estimates for four congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO, as known from only two sites, and natural vegetation cover judged to have been reduced to c. 15% at certain elevations) <br/></p>	eng
149754	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Parts of the upper Magdalena valley have been converted to agricultural land since the 18th century<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, when the type-series was collected, the higher valleys of the Toche area, Tolima, were heavily forested. Since the 1950s, much of the original habitat in these valleys has been cleared and used for agriculture, including coffee plantations, potatoes, beans and cattle-grazing<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Mature secondary forest patches are scattered, and natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c.15% at elevations of 1,900-3,200&#160;m, most of it occurring above 2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Some forest clearance continues in remaining patches<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149755	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlapetes fuscoolivaceus</em> occurs on the west slope of the East Andes and east slope of the Central Andes, south-central <strong>Colombia,</strong> at the head of the upper Magdalena valley in Huila<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is localised and common, but can persist in second growth and degraded forest, and montane evergreen forest edge, at 1,600-2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Though it is tolerant of some habitat degradation, the head of the Magdalena valley is now characterised by unsuitable and extensive coffee, banana and sugarcane plantations<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149756	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149757	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149758	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149760	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149762	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Management for this species has been extremely successful and very probably saved the species from extinction. The remaining 27 ha of suitable habitat, including the area where it was observed in 1998, have been purchased and securely fenced off to remove grazing pressure<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Cowbird removal in 2003 resulted in a strong increase in reproductive output; 16 chicks fledged in Yunguilla reserve in 2003 compared to only five in 2002<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Removal of this parasitic species was still continuing in 2008<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A habitat management scheme was implemented by November 2002, in order to halt vegetation succession and create suitable habitat by selective thinning of dense thickets<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A habitat occupancy monitoring scheme was set up in 2004 to assess the success of this habitat management<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The reserve now encompasses between 150 and 200 ha and holds 98% of the known brush-finch territories. Further land purchases, mainly immediately to the north of the reserve, are planned. There are plans to establish a second reserve and move some birds there, once the present population has reached 200 pairs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue study of the species and its habitat to facilitate successful land management</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Maintain fences to exclude cattle and goats. Continue control of Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em></strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Establish environmental education programmes around known sites.</strong> <strong>Protect second known area and ravines between sites. Establish a fire break at the northern boundary of Yunguilla Reserve. </strong>	eng
149762	distribution		<em>Atlapetes pallidiceps</em> occurs in the R&iacute;o Jubones drainage, in Azuay and Loja, south <strong>Ecuador</strong>. There were no records between 1969 and 1998, when intensive studies found five pairs and two presumed immatures in two habitat patches in the Yunguilla valley, near Gir&oacute;n, Azuay, and a further 1-2 pairs that were suspected to be supported by habitat in small ravines in the 1 km between the two patches<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Despite repeated searches, it is unknown elsewhere within its presumed historical range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The breeding population in 2003 was conservatively estimated at 33 pairs (with 17 pairs in the Yunguilla reserve, four pairs immediately adjacent to it and 12 further pairs in the next valley)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and it has since shown a consistent increase owing to intensive conservation management, reaching a total of 113 pairs in 2009. The population is believed to have effectively reached saturation point within the available habitat<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and further increases may be constrained by high land prices and the difficulty of exercising cowbird control in areas the cowbirds can access from several directions.	eng
149762	habitat		Its habitat is typical of regenerating landslides and fallow fields, with the species occurring in the transition between arid and humid areas with dense low scrub<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> at 1,650-1,950 m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, which is mostly composite and herbaceous with a few <em>Acacia</em> and lauraceous trees lower down (with some 2-3 m tall <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo). Birds have been observed feeding on fruit of a <em>Solanum</em> sp. (Solanaceae), a <em>Morus</em> sp. (Moraceae), an introduced <em>Rubus</em> sp. (Rosaceae) and an unidentified <em>Polygonum</em> sp. (Polygonaceae), and gleaning insects on twigs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. One stomach contained insect and seed remains. It is usually seen in pairs, mainly foraging on and within 2 m of the ground<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Historical records are all from oases in arid intermontane valleys, at 1,500-2,100 m. Nests are placed within dense thickets of small bushes or bamboo<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A single clutch is raised every year, unsuccessful birds relaying. Egg-laying takes place in February-April, with a few as late as May<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Recent studies have investigated its breeding ecology and habitat usage<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It coexists with Stripe-headed Brush-finch <em>Arremon toquatus </em>but is subordinate to that species, and is replaced by Rufous-naped Brush-finch <em>A. latinuchus</em> at higher elevations<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>.	eng
149762	population		There were 113 territories recorded in 2009 (D. Wege <em>in litt. </em>2009), hence the total population appears to number 226 mature individuals.	eng
149763	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlapetes rufigenis</em> has a patchy distribution in the Andes of west <strong>Peru </strong>at elevations of 2,750-4,000 m, mostly in the drainage of the upper r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n, from south Cajamarca to Hu&aacute;nuco and Ancash<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is apparently locally fairly common<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and common near Tantamayo<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the Cordillera Blanca, it is found in c.20 remnant patches of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It also occurs in mixed <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Polylepis</em> groves, montane evergreen forest edge, montane scrub and secondary growth<strong><sup>2,4,8</sup></strong>. It has also been found in park-like surroundings around agricultural fields<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Cutting for firewood and a lack of regeneration caused by burning and intensive grazing are reducing mixed <em>Polylepis</em> woodlands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other factors include the change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification, road construction and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (particularly the use of <em>Eucalyptus</em> and other exotic tree species)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It occurs in Huascar&aacute;n National Park, Ancash, but until recently habitat degradation was continuing even within this reserve<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. However, there is now active management of remaining <em>Polylepis</em> patches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149764	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149767	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149768	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149772	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Fortuna Forest Reserve and Santa Fe National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may also occur in Omar Torrijos Herrera National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its population and distribution, especially in areas between known sites. Research the species's ecological requirements. Enforce better protection of known sites. Monitor the extent and rate of deforestation. <br/></p>	eng
149772	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pselliophorus luteoviridis</em> is restricted to west and central <strong>Panama</strong> in the Serran&iacute;a de Tabasar&aacute; (Chiriqu&iacute;, Veraguas and probably Bocas del Toro and Cocl&eacute;). It has been recorded at Fortuna Forest Reserve, Cerro Flores and Cerro Colorado (adjacent peaks of the Cerro Santiago massif), and above Santa Fe and Chitra (Cerro San Antonio)<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>, where it is scarce and poorly known. It probably also occurs in Omar Torrijos Herrera National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It may be most numerous on Cerro Colorado<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149772	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits highland cloud-forest, borders and clearings, often near water, at elevations of 1,200-1,800 m. <br/></p>	eng
149772	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
149772	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Only isolated patches of forest remain in east Chiriqu&iacute;, and the Serran&iacute;a de Tabasar&aacute; is generally threatened by clearance for coffee plantations, cattle-grazing, overuse of pesticides and fires<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Deforestation is now occurring at the higher elevations favoured by the species, even within the boundaries of protected areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149773	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149774	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149775	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. In Argentina, it occurs in Sierra de las Quijadas, Lihue Calel and El Palmar (where possibly extinct) National Parks and Chancan&iacute; Provincial Reserve<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. In Uruguay, a captive-breeding programme is being established<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to establish the current distribution and ecological requirements. Protect the Montiel area and Pay Urbe<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate protected areas in the core of its Argentine range. Protect <em>Prosopis</em></strong> sp. woodlands in west Uruguay<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Draft and enforce legal measures against trappers. Organise awareness campaigns to sensitise consumers. <br/></p>	eng
149775	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gubernatrix cristata</em> was widespread and common throughout much of <strong>Argentina</strong> and <strong>Uruguay</strong>, with a few records from Rio Grande do Sul, <strong>Brazil</strong>, as a non-breeder. In Argentina, it is now rare except very locally in San Luis, Buenos Aires, La Pampa and R&iacute;o Negro, and especially between General Conesa, San Antonio Oeste and Viedma. There are further important populations in Corrientes (Pay Urbe and Estancia San Antonio), Entre R&iacute;os (recently from Montiel area, Ceibas and Estancia La Choza) and C&oacute;rdoba (recently from Chancan&iacute;<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). There are pre-1975 records from Salta, Tucum&aacute;n, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe and San Juan, and it has been listed without details for Formosa, Chaco, La Rioja and (mistakenly) Misiones<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Uruguay, it was historically known from 13 departments, but recently from only Paysand&uacute;, R&iacute;o Negro, Florida and Rocha<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. In 1999, the Uruguayan population was estimated at fewer than 300 mature individuals, mostly concentrated in the r&iacute;o Uruguay basin<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Two specimens collected from Paraguay in 1905 probably refer to escaped cage-birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149775	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits open woodland (including <em>Prosopis</em> woodland), savanna, scrub and shrubby steppe, up to c.700&#160;m. Breeding occurs in the austral spring, with nests containing three eggs found in November.  <br/></p>	eng
149775	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Martins-Ferreira <em>in litt.</em> (2007). <br/></p>	eng
149775	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Constant and chronic exploitation as a songbird for the cage-bird market remains the most significant threat. It presumably suffers from conversion to cattle pasture, timber extraction for firewood and furniture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and, especially, rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hybridisation with Common Diuca-finch <em>Diuca diuca</em> has been recorded<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149776	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149778	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149781	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There is currently no action being taken for this species. Searches within the large expanses of suitable habitat that remain on the wintering grounds would be costly and most probably futile<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Systematically search the small areas of remaining breeding habitat<sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149781	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Vermivora bachmanii</em> is known to have bred in Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Alabama and South Carolina, <strong>USA</strong>, and there are breeding-season records from various other south-east states. Birds wintered in <strong>Cuba</strong> and occasionally Florida, USA. The last nest was found in 1937, but there have been recent (unconfirmed) sightings<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Small areas of suitable habitat remain, and the species may still survive<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149781	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It bred in seasonally flooded swamp-forest, always near standing water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, apparently showing a strong association with canebrakes of the bamboo <em>Arundinaria gigantea</em>. Winter habitat requirements are much less specific, with records from dry forest, wetlands and urban areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but apparently favouring wooded areas with flowering <em>Hibiscus</em> trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding occurred from March-June, with the nest constructed in the shelter of a dense bush or tangle of vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with last (unconfirmed) sighting in 1988. <br/></p>	eng
149781	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The drainage of river-bottom swamplands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the near-total clearance of canebrakes in the USA, combined with the conversion of much of Cuba to sugarcane plantation, offer the best explanation for the disappearance of this species. <br/></p>	eng
149783	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vermivora chrysoptera</em> breeds from southern Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec (<strong>Canada</strong>), and northern New York, southern Vermont and eastern Massachusetts (<strong>USA</strong>), south through the eastern USA to Tennessee, Georgia and South Carolina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds winter from the Yucat&aacute;n Peninsula (<strong>Mexico</strong> and <strong>Belize</strong>) and <strong>Guatemala</strong> south through <strong>El Salvador</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong> to northern and eastern <strong>Colombia</strong> and northern <strong>Venezuela<sup>2</sup></strong>; wintering birds are occasionally recorded from the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong> and <strong>Puerto Rico<sup>1</sup></strong>. It breeds in open deciduous woodland, secondary growth, brushy pastures and bogs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, apparently favouring a particular stage in woodland succession<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although it had increased and expanded its distribution for more than a century, evidence from the North American Breeding Birds Survey suggests that it is declining in its southern range, from Georgia to New England (where decline has been particularly severe)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has shown a population increase over the last c.30 years in the northern part of its breeding range<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>, but a recent population decline has been identified<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Estimates suggest a current population of c. 210,000 birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Local declines correlate with advancing succession and reforestation, and the invasive range expansion of Blue-winged Warbler <em>Vermivora pinus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. Other possible causes of population declines are loss of wintering habitat (especially forest edge and open woodland), nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbird <em>Molothrus ater</em> and hybridisation with <em>V. pinus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149783	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al.</em> PIF North American Landbirds Conservation Plan (2004). <br/></p>	eng
149788	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Vermivora crissalis</em> is a fairly common but local breeder in pine-oak, oak and pinyon-juniper woodland at 1,500-3,000&#160;m, occurring from Coahuila to north-east Zacatecas and northern San Luis Potos&iacute;, <strong>Mexico</strong>, and extreme south-west Texas, <strong>USA<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It winters in the brushy understorey of humid to semi-humid montane forest at 1,500-3,500&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, in west Mexico from south Sinaloa south to Guerrero and Morelos<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Grazing by goats and sheep, increases in the populations of feral cats and dogs, and nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbird <em>Molothrus ater</em> are potentially severe threats to populations in Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149788	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich et al (2003) <br/></p>	eng
149792	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149793	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149804	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In the USA, it is listed as Endangered and has a recovery plan<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in Balcones Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, where there is a cowbird trapping programme<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong> and a habitat conservation plan has limited deforestation and raised funds for land purchase<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Various small reserves are managed for the species in Texas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1993-1995 improved knowledge of its wintering distribution<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is known or suspected from Rancho Nuevo and Lagunas de Montebello National Parks, Mexico, Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala, and Celaque, Cusuco and Santa B&aacute;rbara National Parks, Honduras<strong><sup>2,9</sup></strong>. Currently there is an ongoing effort involving Pronatura, Defensores de la Naturaleza, and Salva Natura to gather information on the warbler south of the US, including details on its wintering habitat, and a community education initiative is underway. Surveys to monitor breeding populations are ongoing. The Leon River Restoration Project in central Texas is working on a habitat restoration project with Golden-cheeked Warbler and Black-capped Vireo as the primary focus. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify the breeding distribution and population. Document winter distribution and habitat quality<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Monitor breeding populations. Better define ecology and habitat availability<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Control cowbird populations where appropriate. Protect a highland pine-oak corridor in Mexico and north Central America<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement community education schemes in the breeding range<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149804	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica chrysoparia</em> is a local breeder in Edwards Plateau, Lampasas Cut Plain and Central Mineral Region, Texas, <strong>USA<sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs at an average density of 15 males/km<sup>2</sup> in c.350&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of occupied habitat, and the population was 4,800-16,000 pairs in 1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There was a 25% loss in available territories between 1962 and 1981<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and the population has clearly declined. It winters in southern <strong>Mexico</strong> (Chiapas), <strong>Guatemala</strong> and <strong>Honduras</strong>, where it is uncommon to fairly common<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are two 1891 specimens from <strong>Nicaragua</strong>, and unconfirmed records from El Salvador<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Costa Rica<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149804	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in juniper-oak woodlands, where it depends on <em>Juniperus ashei</em> bark for nesting material<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Eggs are laid around April-June<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In winter, it occurs in mixed-species flocks, foraging at sites with a high density of "encino" oaks (and low density of the dominant pines) at 1,500-3,000&#160;m <strong><sup>2,9,10</sup></strong>. It was thought to have a wider winter habitat tolerance (and may be tolerant of moderate levels of logging and grazing<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), but this requires substantiation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149804	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) <br/></p>	eng
149804	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Breeding habitat is under clearance for land development, agriculture and reservoir construction<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Fragmentation has increased the late breeding season problem of brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. Logging, mineral and firewood-extraction, and agricultural conversion are reducing wintering habitat<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149808	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149811	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p></p><p>CMS Appendix I. Management replicating the effects of natural fires has expanded potential breeding habitat to c.516 km<sup>2</sup><strong> </strong><sup>10,11</sup>. Since 1972, a cowbird trapping programme has reduced parasitism from 70% to 3%<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Education and ecotourism initiatives in Michigan include an annual Kirtland's Warbler Festival<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Surveys have been undertaken in the Bahamas, most recently in 1998<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. There is a project in progress to establish the principal wintering habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p></p><p><strong>Ascertain winter habitat requirements. Continue existing initiatives - this will need $1 million per year to maintain<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Research the effects of management on breeding ecology<sup>11</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement prescribed burning for all breeding habitat<sup>11</sup></strong>. This is not possible in many areas, where it has been replaced by commercial clearouts, followed by a replant or reseed<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.  <strong>Increase the area of jack pine - this is difficult to maintain due to the cost, and its future is uncertain because of the loss of the carbon sequestration program<sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate more economical cowbird control<sup>11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149811	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica kirtlandii</em> breeds in north and central Michigan, with small numbers (and occasional breeding) in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and Wisconsin, <strong>USA</strong>. Singing males have been recorded in Ontario and Quebec, <strong>Canada</strong><sup>1,8,11,14</sup>. Breeding habitat has declined by 33% since the 1960s, but is more extensive than the 18 km<sup>2</sup> occupied in 1994<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It has a very small winter range in the <strong>Bahamas</strong> and the <strong>Turks and Caicos Islands (to UK)</strong>, either concentrated in the northern islands or spread throughout the Bahama Archipelago<strong><sup>5,12</sup></strong>. There were major declines in c.1900-1920 and 1961-1971<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with the population just 167 singing males in 1974 and 1987<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numbers have recovered to 1,202 singing males in Michigan in 2003, the highest since surveys began in 1951<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
149811	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Optimal breeding habitat is fire-maintained homogeneous stands of 2-4 m tall jack pines <em>Pinus banksiana</em> on sandy soil<strong><sup>8,11</sup></strong>. Eggs are laid in May-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Wintering habitat is either primarily Caribbean pine <em>P. caribbaea</em><strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, or natural and secondary scrub, and saline/upland ecotone<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
149811	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Assuming equal sex ratio, the global population is likely to number c. 3,000 individuals based on 1,478 singing males recorded during surveys in 2006. Until better data are available this is precautionarily interpreted here as 2,500 mature individuals. <br/><p></p>	eng
149811	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If scrub is the preferred winter habitat, key threats are fire suppression and brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds <em>Molothrus ater</em> in Michigan<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. If Caribbean pine is preferred, habitat loss on the wintering ground is probably more important<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The latter is considered likely because of the failure to occupy all breeding habitat, and changes in population have occurred contemporaneously with the degradation and recovery of the north Bahamas pine ecosystem<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recently however the four-fold population increase between 1990 and 2000, coincident with a tripling of the available habitat through management, would appear to indicate that currently population levels are closely linked to habitat availability<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Consequentially, the current breeding range is too large for fire to affect the whole population rapidly. <br/><p></p>	eng
149813	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica vitellina</em> occurs as three subspecies. The nominate race is common on Grand Cayman, the race <em>crawfordi</em> is very common on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, <strong>Cayman Islands (to UK)</strong>, and <em>nelsoni</em> was (at least formerly) common on the Swan Islands, <strong>Honduras<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The total extent of the range is less than 270 km<sup>2</sup>, but only half of this area holds suitable habitat. It is most common in low scrubby woodland, but is also found in arid mixed woodland, clearings, coastal scrub and thickets, and even urban areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Proposed habitat conversion threatens populations in the Caymans, and the Swan Islands were formerly used for the training of Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries. <br/></p>	eng
149817	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Current activities include planning projects that use estimates of minimum tract size for the species as criteria for habitat acquisition and protection, land protection and acquistion projects to increase the amount of forest in certain areas such as the Interior Low Plateaus and Coastal Plain of Tennessee, and the Cerulean Warbler Atlas Project, an information gathering project managed by Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Understand fully the requirements of the species in terms of ideal or high quality breeding habitat. <strong></strong>Develop and test forest-stand management techniques that result in "ideal" or "high quality" habitat. <strong></strong>Protect intact primary forest ecosystems to maintain wintering populations. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
149817	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica cerulea</em> breeds from Quebec and Ontario (<strong>Canada</strong>), east to Nebraska and south to northern Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia (<strong>USA</strong>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A four year study from 1997-2000 identified several seemingly key sites that support large populations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. These included the Cumberland Mountains northwest of Knoxville, Tennessee; the Montezuma wetlands complex and adjacent areas in central New York; the Kaskaskia River Valley and Shawnee National Forest in south eastern Illinois; the Jefferson Proving Ground of southern Indiana: Queens University Biological Station in south eastern Ontario; the Kalamazoo River of south western Michigan; the Eleven Point and Upper Current rivers in Missouri; the Shenendoah National Park and Blue Ridge Highway in western Virginia; and the Delaware River Valley and adjacent highlands of north western New Jersey. These  areas may represent primary areas for population monitoring and conservation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It migrates south through the south-eastern USA, the <strong>Bahamas</strong>, <strong>Cuba</strong>, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, the Caribbean slope of <strong>Mexico</strong>, <strong>Belize</strong>, <strong>Guatemala</strong>, <strong>Honduras</strong>, <strong>Costa Rica</strong> and <strong>Panama</strong>, and winters from <strong>Colombia</strong> and <strong>Venezuela</strong> south, mainly east of the Andes, to eastern <strong>Ecuador</strong>, eastern <strong>Peru</strong> and perhaps northern <strong>Bolivia<sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding Bird Survey results show declines equating to 26% per decade over the period 1980-2002, but longer-term declines are even more severe<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149817	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Breeds in mature deciduous forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, often in the vicinity of swamps<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Migrating birds are recorded from a variety of forest woodland, secondary growth and scrub habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Wintering birds are found in Andean submontane forest, mainly between 500 and 2,000&#160;m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The nest is built on the branch of a tree, and breeding takes place between May and July<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149817	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
149817	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Degradation of habitat through land use change is the major threat to this species. Conversion of mature deciduous forest to agricultural or urban areas, fragmentation and increasing isolation of remaining mature deciduous forest, the change to shorter rotation periods and even-aged management, and loss of key tree species to disease are all breeding season constraints<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Wintering habitat is also threatened by conversion to other land uses such as pastureland and farms, and is converted into coca plantations which have a detrimental effect on suitable primary forest habitat. Attempts to eradicate coca plantations will also potentially damage forests<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Mountaintop mining constitutes a known but as yet uncontrolled threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149818	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149819	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149820	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All four known areas are protected, and the species is probably secure as long as suitable habitat is maintained in these reserves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the current distribution (especially by surveying away from known sites) and population. Research factors limiting range and population. <br/></p>	eng
149820	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica angelae</em> was only discovered in 1971 and is endemic to <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)<sup>3</sup></strong>. It is uncommon and local at four disjunct localities: in the east, the Sierra de Luquillo (Caribbean National Forest) and the Sierra de Cayey (Carite State Forest) and, in the west, the Cordillera Central (Maricao and Toro Negro Commonwealth Forests). The population is currently estimated at no more than c.300 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it is likely to occur in other parts of the Cordillera Central<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149820	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits elfin or montane dwarf forest on ridges and summits, montane wet forest, and sometimes ranges to lower-elevation wet forest at 370-1,030&#160;m <strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Preferred areas have a dense canopy with vines, high subcanopy and sparse understorey<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It occurs at highest densities in undisturbed forest, but has been recorded in secondary habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place in March-June, and the nest is built in aerial leaf-litter trapped in vegetation or vines, usually close to the trunk<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149820	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estiamte published in Anadon-Irizarry as a result of censusses conducted using playback methods.  <br/></p>	eng
149820	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	By the late 1940s, the natural vegetation of Puerto Rico had been reduced to c.6% of the island's land surface, but rapid regeneration of forest increased this figure to 31% in the early 1980s, a change which will probably benefit this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Natural disasters will continue to be a threat while the species's population and range remain so small. <br/></p>	eng
149821	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The population was surveyed in 1973 and 1986<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Much of the central part of St Vincent was designated as a wildlife reserve in 1987, and an extensive environmental education programme has been developed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Many highland areas outside this reserve comprise very rugged and inaccessible terrain of negligible economic importance, and are not particularly susceptible to human disturbance<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Protect remaining habitat to prevent further reduction and fragmentation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
149821	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Catharopeza bishopi</em> is endemic to St Vincent (<strong>St Vincent and the Grenadines</strong>) in the Lesser Antilles, where it primarily occurs at Colonaire and Perserence valleys, and Richmond Peak<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A total of 1,500-2,500 singing males was estimated in 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The extent of suitable habitat has diminished from 140&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1900s to c.80&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1986<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149821	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense undergrowth and vine-tangles in primary rainforest, palm brake, elfin forest, secondary growth and borders<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Rainforest and palm brake are the most important, holding c.80% of the population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is found at elevations of 300-1,100&#160;m, but probably mostly below 600&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest is built low in a sapling, and eggs are laid between April and July<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149821	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Carr <em>et al</em>. (1990). <br/></p>	eng
149821	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Reductions in habitat have been caused by shifting agriculture, selective logging for charcoal production and illegal cultivation of cannabis<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Mt Soufri&egrave;re has erupted twice since 1900<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149835	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Recent surveys have improved knowledge of the species's distribution<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. The IBA Estero de San Jos&eacute; del Cabo, a 42 ha freshwater coastal lagoon at the southern tip of the peninsula of Baja California, M&eacute;xico incorporates habitat for Belding's Yellowthroat, and was designated as a RAMSAR site in February 2008. Angeles del Estero and Agrupaci&oacute;n Ciudadana Ecologista, two small local NGOs in the adjacent town of San Jos&eacute; del Cabo, have a history of involvement in the conservation of the IBA. As part of the BirdLife International Preventing Extinctions programme Species Guardian Pronatura Noroeste are implementing the following actions: a Conservation Area Plan is being developed identifying key threats and outlining a conservation strategy; research and monitoring is underway to determine current status and threats in the Estero de San Jos&eacute; del Cabo Ecological Reserve and at other sites historically important for the species; educational sign boards are to be erected at the San Jos&eacute; del Cabo reserve and outreach materials are being prepared to distribute to local schools; local bird guides are being trained (86 trained by the end of 2008) to raise the species's profile and strengthen livelihoods links with its conservation; and a local bird festival is planned to take place in 2009.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Use standardized survey techniques to survey all potential nesting habitat in Baja California Sur and adjacent southeastern Baja California, identifying potential new locations using satellite imagery<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct a thorough census of each site by counting singing males in spring in order to ascertain the current population, and repeat at regular intervals to detect local and regional trends<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong> Conduct a formal dispersal study in order to design long-term management actions for the Belding's Yellowthroat metapopulation system<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Undertake genetic studies to address questions concerning such issues as the validity of recognizing two subspecies or the genetic consequences of population patchiness and potential bottlenecks<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Incorporate marsh creation into plans for the development of golf courses and resorts within this species's range<sup>6,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Prohibit burning and cutting of the water-edge vegetation at all sites<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate a public awareness programme. Promote bird tourism to generate income for protecting key sites.</strong>	eng
149835	distribution		<em>Geothlypis beldingi</em> has a fragmented distribution on the Baja California peninsula, <strong>Mexico</strong>. The nominate race is known from at least 14 sites with important concentrations at Punta San Pedro (70 birds) and San Jos&eacute; del Cabo (219-480 birds), and the race <em>goldmani</em> is now known from at least 12 sites including large numbers at San Ignacio (537-648 birds) and Pur&iacute;sima<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. The population at San Jos&eacute; del Cabo increased in 2009 to an estimated 487-700 adults, probably related to a chance increase in the quality of habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is common at most of these sites, but the area of suitable habitat is probably very restricted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It appears to have been extirpated from at least one site (El Triunfo)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
149835	habitat		It occupies oases of reeds, cattails and tule, fringing permanent, lowland, freshwater marshes or rivers, and has been found occasionally in brackish coastal marshes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and recently in at least one newly created marsh in a hotel district and near active agriculture<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Birds are mostly located within 15 m of the water's edge, and never more than 50 m from water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The nest is up to 1.5 m above the ground, in cattails or tule, and eggs are laid between March and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds have been recorded c.200 km from the known breeding range suggesting it is capable of dispersing over reasonably large distances<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
149835	population		The current known population includes important concentrations at Punta San Pedro (70 birds) and San Jos&eacute; del Cabo (219-480 birds), and 487-700 adults at San Jos&eacute; del Cabo (Rodr&iacute;guez-Estrella <em>et al.</em> 1999; Erickson <em>et al. </em>2008; Pronatura <em>in litt.</em> 2009). Although the total population size has not been precisely estimated, it is best placed in the band 1,000 - 2,500 mature individuals.	eng
149836	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey any remaining patches of freshwater marsh within its known range. Protect known sites and any other important sites found during surveys. <br/></p>	eng
149836	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geothlypis flavovelata</em> is resident in central Tamaulipas, extreme east San Luis Potos&iacute; and north Veracruz, north-east <strong>Mexico</strong><sup>1</sup>. It is fairly common to common but is now somewhat localised<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The total population is presumed to be small owing to the patchy distribution and limited extent of its preferred freshwater marsh habitat. The largest known populations are at Presa Vicente Guerrero/Laguna Champay&aacute;n in Tamaulipas, north-east of El Naranjo in San Luis Potos&iacute;, inland from Tecolutla in Veracruz and it has been recently found near Aldama in Tamaulipas<strong><sup>1,3,5,6</sup></strong>. It formerly occurred in the Laguna de Tamiahua area and in the vicinity of Tamu&iacute;n and Ebano, San Luis Potos&iacute;, but has not been recorded from these localities recently<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149836	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits freshwater marshes (not coastal marshes and salt-lagoons <em><sup>contra <strong>3</strong></sup></em>), typically with cattail <em>Typha</em> reedbeds, from small ponds and irrigation ditches (e.g. Presa Vicente Guerrero) to large reedbeds (e.g. Tecolutla)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149836	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is restricted to a specialised habitat (freshwater marshes) within its fairly large range. Many such patches of habitat have been lost. Given the total area of remaining suitable habitat is likely to total only a few hundred km<sup>2</sup>, even densities of up to 20 birds/km<sup>2</sup> (the species is described as common to fairly common) would yield a total population of <10,000 birds, so the global estimate is best placed precautionarily in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. Further surveys are required to validate this. <br/></p>	eng
149836	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of habitat has extirpated several local populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Freshwater marshes have been heavily modified throughout its range, primarily for cattle-ranching<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but the species appears able to persist in small parcels of habitat<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Perhaps more serious is recent industrial development in the region. This has resulted in considerable drainage since the 1970s, making the future of the Laguna Champay&aacute;n uncertain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149837	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the northern Bahamas (Bond 1979). The nominate subspecies rostrata occurs on Andros and New Providence, tanneri is found on Grand Bahama and Abaco, while coryi occurs on Eleuthera and Cat Island (Curson et al. 1994).	eng
149837	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits dense low scrub and bracken (Bond 1979, Curson et al. 1994). The nest is built very close to the ground, either in dense vegetation or a tree stump (Curson et al. 1994).	eng
149837	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is reported to be common on Grand Bahama, Abaco, Eleuthera and Cat Island, uncommon on Andros and rare on New Providence (Raffaele et al. 1998). Therefore, as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (Raffaele et al. 1998), the population is believed to be large.	eng
149838	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149839	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Census populations in the four known areas and produce recommendations of the most suitable areas for protection. Survey any suitable habitat near Lago Zumpango. <br/></p>	eng
149839	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Geothlypis speciosa</em> is currently known from only four areas in the states of Guanajuato, Michoac&aacute;n and M&eacute;xico, central <strong>Mexico</strong>. None of these areas have been censused since the 1980s<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, when it was quite abundant at Lago Cuitzeo, Michoac&aacute;n, and still common on the upper r&iacute;o Lerma around Lerma da Villada, San Mateo Atenco and San Pedro Techuchuco, M&eacute;xico (an area where it was historically abundant). There are further small populations at Lago Yuriria, Guanajuato, and Lago P&aacute;tzcuaro, Michoac&aacute;n. It has been extirpated from Lago Texcoco, M&eacute;xico, and there have been no records from Lago Zumpango, M&eacute;xico, or Presa Solis, Guanajuato, since 1966. <br/></p>	eng
149839	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to lakeshore and river marshes comprising cattails and hard-stemmed bulrushes. It appears to require extensive reedbeds and is not found in degraded habitats like many other <em>Geothlypis</em> species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The nesting period is probably March-June.</p>	eng
149839	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 238 km (45% EOO) = 2,380-4,760 individuals, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density extrapolated from similar undergrowth warblers in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and compatible with description as 'abundant' and 'common'). <br/></p>	eng
149839	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The marshes within its range have been greatly reduced in size, having been drained and planted with crops. The marshes in the upper r&iacute;o Lerma are fragmented as a result of drainage and water extraction to supply M&eacute;xico City and Toluca. The water-levels of Lagos Yuriria, P&aacute;tzcuaro and Cuitzeo are falling through drainage and a natural build-up of organic material. <br/></p>	eng
149840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149845	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149846	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There have been no targetted searches for the species in recent years.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey to locate any remaining population.</strong>	eng
149846	distribution		<em>Leucopeza semperi</em> is endemic to <strong>St Lucia</strong>, where it is extremely rare and there have been no confirmed records for many years. It eluded almost all 20th century efforts to find a population. There are a mere handful of reports since the 1920s and no certain records since 1961. Sightings in 1965, 1989, 1995 and 2003 have not been confirmed<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It was apparently more abundant in the 19th century, and has clearly undergone a significant decline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It possibly remains extant because some suitable habitat remains and searches have not been adequately extensive.	eng
149846	habitat		It is known from the undergrowth of montane and elfin forest. The ecology is virtually unknown, but it is apparently largely terrestrial and possibly even nests on the ground.	eng
149846	population		Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with the last confirmed record in 1961.	eng
149849	population		The global population has been estimated at 1,400,000 individuals (Rich et al. 2004)	eng
149851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149852	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Rancho Nuevo Ecological Protection Zone has been heavily grazed and recently taken over as a military training ground<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Cerro Huitepec Biological Station is very small and surrounding forest is being rapidly cleared, leading to concerns that the reserve itself may not be large enough to support a viable population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey potentially suitable habitat to establish the species's precise distribution and population<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect Volc&aacute;n Tacan&aacute; and its surroundings<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate protected areas within its Guatemalan range. <br/></p>	eng
149852	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ergaticus versicolor</em> is resident in the mountains of central and extreme south-east Chiapas, <strong>Mexico</strong> and western <strong>Guatemala</strong>. Over the bulk of its range in Guatemala and on Volc&aacute;n Tacan&aacute; in south-east Chiapas, it was historically very common and apparently remains locally common<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, in central Chiapas, it was very rare in the mid-1980s, but became slightly more numerous at Cerro Huitepec and Rancho Nuevo from the late 1980s<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Trends in the 1990s are difficult to determine, but it is likely that the populations throughout its range have declined in response to a reduction in available habitat, and numbers in central Chiapas have not increased further<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149852	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid to semi-humid pine-oak, pine, and cypress forest with a dense, undisturbed understorey at 1,800-3,500&#160;m, but is most common above 2,800&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It can tolerate forest edge and disturbed forest with a damaged understorey<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, but this is likely to be suboptimal habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149852	population	BirdLife International, 2008	In Guatemala, the species is common in oak-alder-conifer forest above the elevation of 2300 m, but less common in cloud forests at the same elevation (Eisermann & Avenda&ntilde;o 2007). In high-elevation (2000-2500 m) cloud forest on the Atlantic slope, a density of 0.25 individuals / ha was estimated (Eisermann 1999). A rough GIS-analysis using a national vegetation cover mapping (1:50,000) based on aerial imagery from 2003 (MAGA 2006) indicates that there are about 3,800 km<sup>2</sup> of potential habitat in Guatemala (K. Eisermann, unpub. data). Within this area it has been reported on at least 18 locations within 8 IBAs (currently in the stage of designation by BirdLife). The total population in the recently defined Guatemalan IBAs is assumed to be between 19,000 and 54,000 individuals (K. Eisermann in WBDB). The species occurs also in disturbed forests and adjacent scrub. Data quality is poor, but most likely the total population is larger than previously estimated. Precautionarily placed in the band 20,000-49,000.  <br/></p>	eng
149852	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Cloud-forest habitats in Chiapas and Guatemala have been severely fragmented. Only 400&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of cloud-forest remain in central Chiapas, which is fragmented into 18 widely scattered areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, many at altitudes unsuitable for this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Guatemala, 900&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of cloud-forest remains (3% of the original extent)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but probably only 400&#160;km<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>are occupied<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Much of the remaining habitat in Chiapas has been altered by intense human use such as coppicing for charcoal production, timber extraction, farming, flower production, animal-grazing and subsistence wood-cutting<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and, in Guatemala, road construction is likely to lead to further human disturbance<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The low numbers in Chiapas in the mid-1980s may have been the result of the eruption of Volc&aacute;n Chichon&aacute;l in 1982, which carpeted large areas with volcanic ash<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149854	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149855	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149856	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149857	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most of its range is formally protected by the Paria Peninsula National Park, but this has not entirely halted habitat degradation. The park has apparently been expanded slightly on to the southern slope of Cerro Humo (a critical area for the species), but this has not been confirmed officially<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population on Cerro Humo. Urgently survey cerros Patao, Azul, and El Olvido. Study its ecological requirements<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate programmes to develop alternative agricultural techniques for villages adjacent to the national park<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct an impact assessment of the proposed cryogenics plant and pipeline before any construction work begins.  <br/></p>	eng
149857	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myioborus pariae</em> is endemic to the Paria Peninsula in Sucre, north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. It is apparently fairly to very common on Cerro Humo, with 4-6 birds regularly encountered on one day in the field. However, suitable habitat on Cerro Humo is restricted to c.15&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, and there are relatively few records further east. On Cerro Azul, a specimen was taken in 1948 and, given low levels of habitat loss, the species presumably still occurs here. On Cerro El Olvido, only one bird was recorded in June-September 1988, but a small number of individuals were found relatively easily in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Cerro Patao has been mentioned as a locality, but the evidence for this is uncertain.  <br/></p>	eng
149857	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Cerro Humo, it has been found at elevations of 800-1,150&#160;m, with records further east at 920&#160;m on Cerro Azul, and as low as c.400&#160;m on Cerro El Olvido<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds have been found foraging (alone and in pairs) for insects at 1-5&#160;m in upper and lower montane humid forest, open coffee groves (under the forest canopy), secondary growth and especially at the forest edge. <br/></p>	eng
149857	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 50-80 individuals/km2 x 121 km2 (45% EOO) = 6,050-9,680, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (density lower of two estimates for <em>M. melanocephalus</em> in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149857	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco", since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. Cerros Humo and Patao have been worst affected, with the east of the peninsula fairly undisturbed. A proposed gas pipeline could have disastrous consequences for many of the species endemic to the peninsula<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A new paved road from G&uuml;iria to Macuro will almost certainly lead to increased habitat clearance<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149858	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs on cerros Guanay, Yaví and Sipapo in south Venezuela (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stattersfield et al. 1998, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149858	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in montane humid forest and forest edge at elevations of 900-2,250 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).  Little is known of its ecology.	eng
149858	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably fairly numerous (Hilty 2003).	eng
149858	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Owing to the largely inaccessible nature of the isolated tepuis region, its habitat remains relatively undisturbed (Huber and Alarcón 1988). However, many of the endemic plants of the tepuis harbour flammable secondary compounds which help to spread fire and, given its relatively small range, this could affect available habitat. Any such habitat loss would be absolute as montane forests on the tepuis tend not to regrow but be replaced by bracken Pteridium (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
149859	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myioborus cardonai</em> occurs on the talus slope and summit of Cerro Guaiquinima, west-central Bol&iacute;var, <strong>Venezuela<sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have clarified this species's current distribution and habitat preferences, and assessed potential threats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is an estimated 500-600&#160;km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>of potentially available habitat, within which the species is common<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It inhabits montane humid forest and edge, gallery forest and dense scrub at elevations of 1,200-1,600&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. There has been mining for many years at the base of Cerro Guaiquinima but this has a negiligible (if any) impact on this species<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. There is no agriculture on the cerro<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The wet climate and surrounding large river valleys suggest that the spread of human-induced fire into existing habitat is unlikely<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149859	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Data currently insufficient to make a population estimate. <br/></p>	eng
149860	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149861	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149862	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149863	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myioborus albifrons</em> occurs in the Andes of T&aacute;chira, M&eacute;rida and Trujillo on the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida, west <strong>Venezuela<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is fairly common to common in montane and elfin forest at elevations of 2,200-3,200&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although some large tracts of forest remain within its limited range, deforestation has been locally severe with logging continuing to expand to higher areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The east slope of the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida is being cleared for extensive cattle-ranching. Agricultural colonisation, mining concessions and road-building pose further threats to remaining habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149870	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149872	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Large areas of habitat persist within El Gu&aacute;charo National Park, and the reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey El Gu&aacute;charo National Park, Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio and, especially, Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire. Survey historical localities and any significant tracts of forest remaining in the cordillera. Assess its habitat requirements and tolerance<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149872	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basileuterus griseiceps </em>is currently known from three localities in the Cordillera de Caripe on the borders of Anzo&aacute;tegui, Monagas and Sucre states, north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. On Cerro Negro, no more than ten small patches of suitable habitat remain<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. One patch was only 2&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and probably held 2-5 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1993, one individual was observed on Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1998, the species was found on Cerro Macanilla in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are historical records from several other sites in the north of the cordillera, and the species is likely to be more widespread and numerous than currently known. <br/></p>	eng
149872	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense understorey in the interior or edge of undisturbed subtropical forest and natural clearings<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It apparently survives in disturbed forest if there is a dense understorey (of e.g. <em>Heliconia</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The majority of specimens have been taken at 1,400-2,100&#160;m, but it has been recorded up to 2,440&#160;m, and as low as 1,000&#160;m<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Breeding seems to occur from May to July, with juveniles fledging in August<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149872	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.6-25 individuals/km2 x 410 km2 (45% EOO) = 1,476-10,250, i.e. probably best placed within band 2,500-10,000 (density is from lower to upper quartile of nine estimates for 6 species of <em>Basileuterus</em>, <em>Dendroica</em>, <em>Parula</em> and <em>Vermivora</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and broadly in agreement with estimates of 2-5 pairs in a forest patch of 2 km<sup>2</sup> [Boesman and Curson 1995]). <br/></p>	eng
149872	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Cordillera de Caripe is under severe human pressure, which, through widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture, has resulted in extensive degradation of its montane forests. Even in El Gu&aacute;charo National Park (incorporating Cerro Negro), there is forest clearance, burning and removal of the understorey for coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Shade-coffee cultivation safeguards some trees but destroys the understorey upon which this bird depends<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana and citrus plantations in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire, but extensive forested areas remain<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, on Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio there are only two peaks above 1,400&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149873	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs within Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to establish the state of the population and its ecological requirements<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a management and conservation strategy for the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, particularly for montane forests<sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149873	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basileuterus basilicus</em> occurs in a fragmented habitat in montane habitats in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north <strong>Colombia</strong>, where its abundance varies between sites from rare to locally common<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149873	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the understorey and borders of stunted, humid montane forest and secondary woodland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, frequently alongside small mountain streams and ravines<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is also strongly associated with dense stands of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. All records are from 2,100 to 3,000&#160;m, with the majority above 2,300&#160;m <strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. It is apparently able to tolerate moderate degradation of its habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149873	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.1 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 908 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 1,900 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of three congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 1,000-2,499 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
149873	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Despite possibly tolerating some habitat degradation, it is threatened by extensive deforestation, and has lost 21% of its habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The principal causes of deforestation are the development of cattle ranches and <em>Pinus </em>plantations, for example at La Cuchilla de San Lorenzo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Illegal agricultural expansion, logging and burning<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong> have altered all but 15% of the sierra's original vegetation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The north slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is the most degraded area, and this area corresponds to where the majority of birds are found. Although this species is found in two protected areas, this has not prevented extensive and continuing deforestation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149874	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basileuterus cinereicollis</em> is local and uncommon to rare throughout most of its disjunct range in the Andes of extreme west <strong>Venezuela</strong> (M&eacute;rida and T&aacute;chira) and north-east <strong>Colombia</strong> (south to Cundinamaca and west Meta); it was formerly fairly common in the Sierra de Perij&aacute; on the Colombia-Venezuela border<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, but its habitat on these slopes has now been severely degraded below 2,000&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is found in montane evergreen forest undergrowth, forest edge and secondary growth at 800-2,100&#160;m <strong><sup>2,5,6</sup></strong>. The Colombian East Andes have been extensively degraded with progressive deforestation of its lower montane habitats, largely for intensive agricultural cultivation and pasture<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. In Venezuela, the Sierra de M&eacute;rida is also being cleared as a result of commercial and subsistence agricultural colonisation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149875	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basileuterus conspicillatus</em> is relatively common in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, north <strong>Colombia<sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits humid montane forest, forest borders and well-developed second growth and shade-coffee plantations at 450-2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, where it forages at low to mid-levels, principally in the undergrowth and understorey<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It appears tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. All remaining forest in the Santa Marta mountains is seriously threatened by agricultural expansion, logging and burning. Only 15% of the sierra's vegetation is unaltered, with the south-east slope extensively deforested, and the west slope, between 800 and 1,600&#160;m, largely cleared for coffee and illegal marjuana plantations and subsequently sprayed with herbicide by the government<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149875	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Data are insufficient to estimate current population size. <br/></p>	eng
149876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149877	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149883	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Panamanian part (i.e. the majority) of its range lies entirely within Dari&eacute;n National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at lower altitudes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Colombia, it may be found to occur within Kat&iacute;os National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop active conservation management schemes to control activities threatening birds in Dari&eacute;n<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey the Cerro Pirre area and Serran&iacute;a de Tacarcuna (the Panamanian part has not been studied since the 1970s). Determine its status within Kat&iacute;os National Park<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the creation of a protected area in the Colombian sector of Cerro Tacarcuna<sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149883	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Basileuterus ignotus</em> is confined to a very small range, estimated at c.180 km<sup>2</sup>, on Alturas de Nique and Cerro Tacarcuna in Dari&eacute;n, <strong>Panama</strong>, and north-west Choc&oacute;, <strong>Colombia</strong><sup>2,4,5</sup>. Within this range it is thought to occupy an area of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is generally uncommon<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but was found to be fairly common above 1,400 m on Alturas de Nique (above Cana) in 1985<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149883	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the lower growth of humid elfin forest, where it is mainly recorded between 1,350 and 1,650&#160;m, but sometimes as low as 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The breeding behaviour is virtually unknown, but recently fledged young have been seen in July<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149883	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10-110 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 72 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 720-7,920, i.e. probably best placed within band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density range for two congeners in Ecuador [Cresswell <em>et al</em>. 1999]). <br/></p>	eng
149883	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its small range puts it at inherent risk from any habitat loss or degradation. Habitat in the region is being cleared and degraded for mining, agriculture and cultivation of coca<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but probably not yet within the altitudinal range of this species. Completion of the Pan-American highway link through Dari&eacute;n could lead to severe, long-term damage of forests in Dari&eacute;n and the adjacent Choc&oacute;<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149884	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149886	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149895	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in a number of protected areas including Pic Macaya and (at least formerly) La Visite National Parks, Haiti, and Sierra de Baoruco and Armando Bermudez National Parks, the Dominican Republic. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the status of the population, especially in Haiti<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Determine its precise habitat requirements and the status of this habitat<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure that the protected-areas network adequately protects this species<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149895	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenoligea montana</em> is known from the Massifs de la Hotte and de la Selle, <strong>Haiti</strong>, and the Sierras de Baoruco and de Neiba, and the Cordillera Central in the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>. The population size has been estimated to be approximately 3,300,000 adults<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It is extremely threatened in Haiti, and may already have been extirpated from the Massif de la Selle<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but there are recent records from Pic Macaya National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In the Dominican Republic, it is still locally common, but is presumably declining. <br/></p>	eng
149895	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense stands of montane broadleaved vegetation including low trees, open thickets and humid shrubbery, and sometimes pines. It occurs above 1,200&#160;m, but mostly at 1,300-1,800&#160;m. It forages for insects and seeds in low, dense vegetation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It probably nests on or near the ground in April-May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149895	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.2-3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,320 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,584-4,752, i.e. probably best placed within band 2,500-9,999 individuals as described as "still locally common" in the Dominican Republic (density is lowest to lower quartile of nine estimates for six species of <em>Basileuterus</em>, <em>Dendroica</em>, <em>Parula</em> and <em>Vermivora</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149895	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss for agriculture and timber is probably the principal threat since large areas of montane growth have been cleared on Hispaniola. Predation of nests by introduced mongooses may have contributed to this species's decline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149897	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149900	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is very locally and disjunctly distributed along the upper Amazon in north-east Peru (near the mouth of the río Napo in Loreto) and along the middle Amazon in Brazil from near the mouth of the rio Jamunda to near the mouth of the rio Negro (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Sick 1993).	eng
149900	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the canopy of várzea forest and, at least occasionally, open Cecropia woodland (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996), but is easily overlooked and may occur on river islands along much of the length of the Amazon (M. Cohn-Haft in litt. 1999).	eng
149900	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149900	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Intensive logging and selective exploitation are accelerating deforestation within its várzea forest habitat and there appears to be an extensive industrial timber infrastructure to maintain the logging (Dinerstein et al. 1995, WWF/IUCN 1997).	eng
149901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149902	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Tamarugo was almost extirpated when the Chilean government began a replantation programme in the 1930s. By the 1970s, 146&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been reforested<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding habitat is currently protected and expanding in Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the effects of tamarugo management strategies<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the likely effects of water-pumping<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop management strategies that benefit the tamarugo ecosystem and local communities<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Research alternatives to the control of <em>L.&#160;trigemmatus</em></strong>, and economically assess the cost of not controlling populations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149902	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Conirostrum tamarugense</em> breeds, perhaps entirely, in two populations within Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve in Tarapac&aacute;, <strong>Chile<sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding could occur near Zapiga<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, and in other large areas of forest in Pampa del Tamarugal to the south of its known range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Birds present in lowlands near Arica during the breeding season are probably wandering, non-breeding birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It migrates north to Arequipa, Tacna and Moquegua in south <strong>Peru</strong>. In 1993, the population was estimated at just over 35,000 individuals, breeding in 108&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of habitat, and possibly increasing with the expansion of suitable habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149902	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Chile, it mostly inhabits plantations of mature tamarugo trees <em>Prosopis tamarugo</em> (which are probably important for breeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), as well as riverine scrub, agricultural land and citrus groves, up to 2,950&#160;m. In Peru, it occurs primarily in arid <em>Gynoxys</em> and <em>Polylepis</em> at 3,400-4,050&#160;m, but has been recorded as low as 1,300 m, presumably during migration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in September-December, followed by migration northwards and upwards<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding coincides with the seasonal blooming of tamarugo flowers, which provide food for <em>Leptotes trigemmatus</em> caterpillars and, in turn, this bird<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
149902	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Estades (1996). <br/></p>	eng
149902	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Tamarugo is managed mainly for the production of sheep forage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are ongoing attempts to control <em>L.&#160;trigemmatus</em> with chemicals or parasitoids<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Water for tamarugo plantations comes from aquifers, which also supply the city of Iquique. The consequences of this water removal are not known, but decreases in supply to the plantations could have serious impacts on the species and local communities<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Wintering sites suffer activities such as the widespread cutting of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149906	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149907	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oreomanes fraseri</em> is rare to locally relatively common within a relatively large range in the high Andes<strong><sup>5,9,10</sup></strong> of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but perhaps extirpated), <strong>Ecuador</strong> (three sites in Azuay, Pichincha, and on the Pichincha/Napo border<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), <strong>Peru</strong> (Ancash south to Puno and Tacna<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz, Cochabamba and Potos&iacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), with recent records from north <strong>Chile<sup>7</sup></strong> and Salta, <strong>Argentina<sup>8</sup></strong>. It requires <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, which is now highly fragmented<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It occurs at 2,700-4,850&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, usually above the timberline, but is not numerous even in apparently optimal habitat<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Its decline is attributed to the destruction and fragmentation of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland as a result of uncontrolled use of fire, firewood collection, intense grazing (particularly by sheep and cattle), unsound agricultural techniques and afforestation with exotic tree species (especially <em>Eucalyptus</em>)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149908	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Orchesticus abeillei</em> is uncommon to fairly common at 750-1,600&#160;m in the middle and upper strata of montane evergreen forest and its borders in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Bahia to north Santa Catarina, with an isolated population in central Minas Gerais)<strong><sup>3,4,5</sup></strong>. Birds apparently migrate from Esp&iacute;rito Santo and Rio de Janeiro to south Bahia in the austral winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its montane forests have suffered less destruction than adjacent lowland areas, but isolated patches in the north of its range, particularly within its Bahia wintering grounds, have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pasture and cultivation, and those remaining are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading from cultivated areas<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149910	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149911	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Neothraupis fasciata</em> occurs in the cerrado of east and south <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Maranh&atilde;o and Piau&iacute; south to Minas Gerais and north S&atilde;o Paulo, and west to south Mato Grosso), east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz) and north-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recently from single sites in Canindey&uacute; and San Pedro but historically south to Caaguaz&uacute;)<strong><sup>1,2,4,6</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to fairly common in dense cerrado, and has been found in cerrad&atilde;o, occurring least frequently in savannas and disturbed areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Conversion to soybeans, exportable crops and <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations (encouraged by government land reform in all three countries) has severely impacted cerrado habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with grasslands in Paraguay additionally threatened by extensive cattle-ranching<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149911	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Insufficient information to estimate population size. <br/></p>	eng
149912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149913	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Conothraupis speculigera</em> occurs disjunctly on the west slope of the Andes up to 1,800&#160;m in west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (south-west Pichincha, Azuay and Loja), and north-west <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura south to La Libertad) and very locally on the east slope in east Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, San Mart&iacute;n, Loreto, Ucayali and Madre de Dios)<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. It is rare to uncommon in deciduous woodland, gallery forest and riparian thickets<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, and is nomadic at least in some areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with its occurrence in north-west Peru dependent on whether sufficient rain has fallen for vegetation to develop<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nesting is undocumented on the east slope and it is unknown whether Amazonian records represent trans-Andean migrants or an east slope breeding population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is threatened by deforestation and understorey degradation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, which may be further isolating populations within its already disjunct range.</p>	eng
149914	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is protected under Brazilian law. The species is only known from Emas National Park, located between the states of Goi&aacute;s and Mato Grosso do Sul in the Center-West Region of Brazil, and along the Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso. Emas is reportedly well protected and does not face immediate threats from the surrounding human population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is illegal to clear gallery forest in Brazil but this regulation is poorly enforced on many private lands. A proposal has been submitted to survey the Cone-billed Tanager population in detail in the Bacia do Alto Juruena area, mapping its range, habitat usage and the extent of damage a planned hydroelectric project will have on the species. Surveys were also due to take place in the Noel Kempff National Park in Bolivia in September 2008<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research the status, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements of the species in the Emas National Park and </strong>Alto Rio Juruena. <strong>Survey using tape-recordings of the song in </strong>remnant cerrado woodland and gallery forest in other areas, especially in the Iqu&ecirc;-Juruena Ecological Station, Serra das Araras Ecological Station, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park and elsewhere between Emas and eastern Bolivia. <strong>Conduct surveys in deciduous and semi-deciduous woodland, including those in Mato Grosso do Sul and northern Mato Grosso, including Serra de Ricardo Franco.</strong> <strong>Increase the area of suitable habitat that has protected status. Lobby against the proposed hydroelectric project.</strong>	eng
149914	distribution		Until recently, this species was known only from the type-specimen collected in 1938, c.400 km north-west of Cuiab&aacute;, Mato Grosso, <strong>Brazil</strong>. The type locality was thought to be in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso, but it proved impossible to trace exactly. Searches in this area failed, but a female (or possibly juvenile) tanager seen in 1993 in a nearby Bolivian protected area, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, was thought almost certainly to be this species, although the record remains unconfirmed<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. In 2003, the species was rediscovered in gallery woodlands in Emas National Park, Brazil, and since then there have been six sightings at four different locations in the park<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The total suitable area that may be able to support the species at Emas National Park has been estimated at a maximum of 1,500 km<sup>2 <strong>5</strong></sup>. In 2006 another population, estimated to number perhaps up to 100 individuals, was found 900 km away along the Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species is probably rare, having avoided detection for so long, but new information on its identification and vocalisations may help to aid the discovery of other extant populations.	eng
149914	habitat		The type-specimen was taken amidst bushy vegetation in dry forest in the transitional zone between Amazonian rainforest and central Brazilian cerrad&atilde;o (closed-canopy cerrado). The closely related Black-and-white Tanager <em>C. speculigera</em> is rather nomadic, and this species could have similar tendencies. Evidence from Emas National Park suggests Cone-billed Tanager favours gallery forest and is strongly associated with water<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
149914	population		The population is assumed to be extremely small as the species avoided detection for so long. In Emas National Park it is now known from six sightings at four different locations; given that c. 1,500 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat exists within Emas, it is unlikely that the population is below 50 individuals. In Alto Rio Juruena, Mato Grosso, the population may number perhaps up to 100 individuals (P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Total numbers are precautionarily estimated at 50-249 mature individuals, but further fieldwork may well show that there are more than this.	eng
149915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149917	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149918	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149919	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149920	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149922	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149928	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the Farallones de Cali National Park and El Pangan Nature Reserve, Colombia<strong><sup>4,5,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey Pacific foothill-forests<sup>4</sup></strong>, especially between the three known areas of occurrence, and in unstudied parts of Los Farallones de Cali<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate protected areas in the Pacific foothills<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149928	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlorospingus flavovirens</em> occurs on the lower Pacific slopes of the Andes in north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and, at least historically, Pichincha) and south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o and Valle del Cauca). In Esmeraldas, it is known only around El Placer. In Colombia, there is a cluster of four sites in Nari&ntilde;o and two sites in Valle del Cauca (also close to each other), and there are large areas of mostly intact habitat between these two areas<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is fairly common to common at a few localities<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149928	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid moss-forest, forest edge and tall trees in clearings at 500-1,100&#160;m. It usually occurs in pairs or groups of 3-6 individuals, often associated with mixed-species flocks in the canopy and subcanopy. Nests have been found in March and April, and nest-building has been recorded in August. Its diet consists primarily of fruit, but also includes flowers and insects<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149928	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 4.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,140 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 4,788, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density estimate from surveys of species in Colombia by Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/></p>	eng
149928	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Choc&oacute; region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Infrastructural development, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, in the region is increasing the extent of logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining<strong><sup>2,3,6,7</sup></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca and banana plantations at lower altitudes, and cattle-farming<strong><sup>1,2,7</sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities has been exploited by large businesses, for whom it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Overall, the rate of deforestation is high and increasing, particularly in Ecuador, Nari&ntilde;o, and along new roads, with forest degradation compounding the situation<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149935	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemispingus reyi</em> occurs from west T&aacute;chira and M&eacute;rida to Trujillo on the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida in the Andes of west <strong>Venezuela<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is locally fairly common in <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo and the shrubby edge of montane and elfin forest at elevations of 1,900-3,200&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. Although some large tracts of forest remain within its limited range, deforestation has been locally severe with logging continuing to expand to higher areas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The east slope of the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida is being cleared for extensive cattle-ranching. Agricultural colonisation, mining concessions and road-building pose further threats to remaining habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149936	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149937	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149938	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Most of its range is within Sierra Nevada and P&aacute;ramos del Batall&oacute;n y La Negra National Parks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but neither provides adequate protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey P&aacute;ramos de Aricagua and La Negra to determine its persistence in these areas. Survey tracts of habitat connecting known areas. Survey habitat to the north-east of its known range, e.g. in Sierra de la Culat&aacute; National Park. Study the species's ecology to determine its dependence on bamboo. Assess the current impact of threats to its habitat. <br/></p>	eng
149938	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemispingus goeringi</em> occurs in the south-western half of the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida in T&aacute;chira and M&eacute;rida, west <strong>Venezuela</strong>. It is locally common along the Pico Humboldt trail in Sierra Nevada National Park, and there are records from P&aacute;ramo Zumbador in the 1980s and in 2003<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded from just two other discrete areas, but not since 1950. Nevertheless, habitat loss is unlikely to have extirpated it from these areas, and it presumably also occupies contiguous tracts of habitat. <br/></p>	eng
149938	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits cloud and elfin forest, mainly at elevations of 2,600-3,200&#160;m, but possibly down to 2,400&#160;m. It is most common towards the treeline, and in areas of scattered trees at the edge of humid p&aacute;ramo. It forages for insects and berries on or near the ground, usually under dense cover and apparently closely associated with bamboo. Birds are seen singly or in small groups, sometimes in the company of mixed-species flocks. <br/></p>	eng
149938	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20-30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 350 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 7,000-10,500, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density from median to upper quartile of six estimates for five species of montane tanager in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as described as "locally common"). <br/></p>	eng
149938	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been extensive habitat loss in the Cordillera de M&eacute;rida for agricultural conversion, potentially to be compounded by proposed mining and road construction<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. However, this destruction has been concentrated in areas below the species's altitudinal range, although it may begin to affect its montane forests significantly in the near future. <br/></p>	eng
149939	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It presumably occurs in R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine more accurately its distribution. Confirm existence in R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149939	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemispingus rufosuperciliaris</em> is restricted to the east Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is uncommon and locally distributed in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n, Amazonas, and the Cordillera Central, south to east La Libertad and the Carpish Mountains, Hu&aacute;nuco<strong><sup>2,4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149939	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense undergrowth in humid elfin forest near and just below the timberline, and shows a marked preference for extensive thickets of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. All records are at elevations of 2,500-3,350&#160;m, but mostly above 2,800&#160;m <strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Birds tend to forage in pairs, perch-gleaning berries and insects in the undergrowth and on the ground<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. It occasionally associates with lower-storey, mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149939	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation. <br/></p>	eng
149939	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing since the arrival of humans thousands of years ago, primarily through the use of fire<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. During the colonial period, sustainable land-use systems established by Pre-Columbian cultures were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques, including widespread burning<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland, adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the treeline by several hundred metres, and continues to destroy large areas of this species's habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, the human population-density in large areas of the species's range is low<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, indicating that some of its populations may be relatively secure at present. In more populated areas, small, fragmented remnants of elfin forest are additionally threatened by clearance for agriculture and grazing, with an alarmingly high rate of conversion to cash-crops in the (until relatively recently pristine) Cordillera de Col&aacute;n<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149954	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149956	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. The owners of Fazenda Pindobas IV have expressed interest in protecting the remaining native forest on their property<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The site of the 1941 record in Itarana is listed as an IBA owing to its importance for Atlantic forest endemics. Searches for the species have been conducted in other parts of Esp&iacute;rito Santo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A research project into the species's ecology was recently completed, and there is an Action Plan for the long-term conservation of the species<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the montane region of south Esp&iacute;rito Santo, and adjacent Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, concentrating on elevations between 850 and 1,250 m and those sites which have previously been identified as potentially suitable for the species. Research ecology and seasonal abundance. Promote the creation of a Reserva Particular do Patrim&ocirc;nio Natural at the private farms where the species occurs. Raise awareness of environmental issues among local communities. <br/></p>	eng
149956	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Nemosia rourei</em> is currently known from Esp&iacute;rito Santo, <strong>Brazil</strong>, where small numbers have been recorded in Fazenda Pindobas IV since its rediscovery there in 1998, and in the Mata do Caet&eacute;s area, Vargem Alta municipality, where up to eight individuals were recorded during visits in 2003-2004<strong><sup>1,2,6,7</sup></strong>. Until its rediscovery, it was only definitely known from the 19th century type-specimen collected at Muria&eacute;, Minas Gerais (though it has been hypothesised that this locality was actually Maca&eacute; in Rio de Janeiro<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), and a 1941 sighting of eight birds in Itarana municipality, Esp&iacute;rito Santo. Other sites are Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve (Santa Teresa) and Santa Maria de Jetib&aacute;/Itarana montane areas, and there is a probable sighting from Fazenda Pedra Bonita, Minas Gerais<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, subsequent surveys at the latter site have not been successful<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is evidence that Rio de Janeiro National Museum once held two (now lost) additional specimens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The general paucity of records must be a reflection of this species's incredible rarity and very patchy distribution; for example, during recent research into its ecology, only 11 records were obtained during one year of fieldwork.  <br/></p>	eng
149956	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occurs primarily in the canopy of humid montane forest at elevations of 850-1,250 m<strong><sup>1,6,8</sup></strong>. The type-locality, Muria&eacute; (if correct<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), is at 210 m. Altitudinal movements are plausible but the species is apparently resident at Fazenda Pindobas IV<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in Vargem Alta municipality<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds forage in the interior of the crowns of tall trees, occasionally lower towards the forest edge<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and appear to favour moss and lichen-encrusted branches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Between one and ten individuals are typically found together and it is associated with mixed-species flocks having been recorded with over 30 different species<strong><sup>1,2,6,7,8</sup></strong>. Individual birds have been observed apparently acting as sentries for conspecifics within a flock<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The diet is reportedly arthropods<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nest-building has been observed in late November<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It has been recorded living to over six years of age<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has now been recorded from three locations with a minimum of 14 individuals known from Pindobas IV and Mata do Caet&eacute;s, and confirmation that it occurs in Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve. Additional forest occurs adjacent to these known sites which requires further survey work; hence the population is estimated at 50-249 individuals. However, if further work either locates the species at additional sites or supports the assertion of Venturini <em>et al</em> (2005) that the population may number fewer than 50 individuals, this estimated will require revision. <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
149956	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Extensive deforestation within its range must have had an impact on this species. Forest within Itarana where the species was recorded in 1941 has since been reduced to a number of small fragments. However, the species has been recorded in <em>Eucalyptus </em>spp and <em>Pinus </em>spp plantations using this suboptimal habitat while moving between fragments. <br/></p>	eng
149957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149958	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phaenicophilus poliocephalus</em> is common but local on the southern peninsula of <strong>Haiti</strong> and on the satellite islands of &icirc;le-&agrave;-Vache, Grande Cayemite and Gon&acirc;ve. In the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>, it is rare on the north and south slopes of the Sierra de Baoruco and on the southern part of Loma de Toro and Hoyo de Pelempito<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has relatively wide habitat tolerance in humid forest, forest edge, thickets, mangroves, open areas and gardens up to 2,400&#160;m <strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. Despite this, there has been severe loss of natural habitats (mainly resulting from shifting agriculture) within a very restricted range in the Dominican Republic<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and the situation is worse in Haiti<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149959	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Macaya and La Visite National Parks, Haiti, and Sierra de Baoruco National Park and Ebano Verde Scientific Reserve, the Dominican Republic. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess whether the races <em>abbotti and frugivorus are still extant. Effectively protect existing, and establish new, reserves. Resolve whether this taxon comprises one, two or more species-level taxa.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
149959	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calyptophilus frugivorus</em> occurs in four subspecies in Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>). The races <em>abbotti</em>, from Gonâve Island, Haiti, and <em>frugivorus</em>, from the Samaná Peninsula in the north-eastern Dominican Republic, are on the brink of extinction. The former has not been recorded in recent years and the latter has been unrecorded for decades<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The race <em>neibae</em> in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic has apparently undergone a dramatic decline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and recent records derive solely from the Sierras de Baoruco and de Neiba<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and Ebano Verde Scientific Reserve<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The race <em>tertius</em> occurs in southern Haiti and south-west Dominican Republic, and remains locally secure. <br/><p></p>	eng
149959	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely terrestrial in broadleaf forest and dense thickets, especially in ravines and near water, but inhabits semi-arid scrub on Gonâve Island. It is primarily a montane species, occurring above 1,000&#160;m, but locally to 800&#160;m (e.g. at Las Mercedes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). However, the races <em>abbotti</em> and <em>frugivorus</em> occur(red) in areas below 600&#160;m. Breeding probably occurs in May-July<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds chiefly on invertebrates, rather than fruit as implied by its specific name. <br/><p></p>	eng
149959	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,480 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 7,400, i.e. best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density extrapolated from similar undergrowth tanagers in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, and compatible with description as local and uncommon in parts of its range). <br/><p></p>	eng
149959	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Agricultural conversion and logging are the principal threats to its habitat. <br/></p>	eng
149960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149962	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149964	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149966	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149967	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149968	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149969	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149973	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149974	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149975	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149976	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149977	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149978	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149979	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149980	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149981	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149982	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
149983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149985	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149986	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149987	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Habia gutturalis</em> has a restricted range within north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it occurs in the upper Sin&uacute; valley at the north end of the West Andes, and east along the north base of the Andes to the middle Magdalena valley<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Despite a report that it may benefit from forest destruction<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> it is now adjudged rare<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in (often streamside) undergrowth in tall secondary and patchy woodland at 100-1,100&#160;m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is highly insectivorous<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, with pairs or small family groups following swarms of army ants or joining mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat within its range is unprotected and relatively reduced<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The middle and lower Magdalena valley has been extensively deforested since the 19th century (for agriculture), and clearance of its foothills has been near total since the 1950s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
149988	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Corcovado National Park is a very important site for this species<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>. The Golfito Faunal Refuge also holds a significant population<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but the habitat is disturbed and fragmented<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the Golfito Faunal Reserve to determine the status of this species<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect any remaining habitat outside existing protected areas.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
149988	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Habia atrimaxillaris</em> has a highly restricted range on the Osa Peninsula and around the Golfo Dulce in south-west <strong>Costa Rica</strong>. This range has approximately halved since 1960, and it has become increasingly scarce in the fragmented habitat outside Corcovado National Park and Golfito Faunal Refuge. However, populations appear stable in these protected areas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it remains common in Corcovado<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149988	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the understorey of dense lowland forest, advanced secondary growth, streamside woodland, and occasionally selectively logged forest, palm trees and beach-front scrub<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It occurs in pairs or small family groups, sometimes accompanying mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on insects and probably other arthropods, but also on melastome berries<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
149988	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 17-29 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 446 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) =   7,582-12,934 but probably >10,000 as described as common (density range encompasses two estimates for <em>H. rubica </em>in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
149988	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The vast majority of the forest to the north and east of the Golfo Dulce has been logged<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and habitat loss is continuing outside protected areas.<strong></strong></p>	eng
149989	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
149997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
149998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
149999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150001	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150003	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150012	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Thraupis cyanoptera</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and east Minas Gerais south to north Rio Grande do Sul, mostly on the coastal slopes of the Serra do Mar) at 200-1,200 m, occasionally to 1,600 m <strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. Reports from other localities almost certainly refer to Sayaca Tanager <em>T. sayaca</em><strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is uncommon to fairly common, but local, in the canopy and borders of montane and lowland evergreen forest and second growth<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production are historic threats to its lowland forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150016	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150019	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bangsia arcaei</em> occurs in three disjunct populations: on the Caribbean slope of <strong>Costa Rica</strong> from extreme south-east Guanacaste to Cartago; in central Bocas del Toro, central Chiriqu&iacute;, Veraguas, and Cocl&eacute;, <strong>Panama</strong>; and in the Cerro Jefe/Cerro Brewster area of east Panam&aacute; province and extreme west San Blas, Panama<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Its range may extend east along the serran&iacute;as de San Blas and del Dari&eacute;n, Panama<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and include the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and contiguous mountains in west Panama, but it has yet to be recorded in these areas<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. It is found in lowland and montane evergreen forest, forest edges and gaps at elevations of 300-1,500&#160;m, but mostly at 700-1,050&#160;m <strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. There has been widespread destruction of its foothill and montane forests, primarily as a result of burning, logging and other conversion leading to intensive agricultural use<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and intact habitat is now patchy<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Areas around Cerro Jefe have been partially deforested despite being in national parks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the Caribbean slope in Panama is still extensively forested<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and it occurs in several well-protected reserves in Costa Rica.</p>	eng
150020	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Tatam&aacute; National Park, and two of the three sites with recent records in Antioquia are within protected areas<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A management plan for Alto de Pisiones is in preparation, and a local organisation hopes to execute it, in spite of the paramilitary activity<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Risaralda, studies and monitoring are underway in sites where the species is found, alongside environmental eduction activities for local communities<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey unexplored parts of the population's range to improve the information for distribution and altitudinal extent<sup>8</sup></strong>. In particular, study the Esp&iacute;ritu Santo gorge in Yarumal, which is near to where the species was originally seen, and has one of the few remaining forested areas in the region. <strong>Establish studies to determine its ecological requirements and the state of the population<sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve and enforce the application of protective measures in Tatam&aacute; National Park<sup>4</sup></strong>. Extend the park's boundaries to below 2,000 m and clarify the ownership of land<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <sup> </sup> <br/></p>	eng
150020	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bangsia melanochlamys</em> occurs in two disjunct areas of western <strong>Colombia</strong>. The first is on the north and west slopes of the Central Andes in Antioquia, where it had not been recorded since 1948, until rediscovered in 1999 to the west of the Nech&iacute; river. This recent study found it to be the most common species in the Reserva la Serrana<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The second area is on the Pacific slopes of the West Andes in Choc&oacute;, Risaralda and Valle del Cauca, around Cerro Tatam&aacute; and Mistrat&oacute;, including Alto de Pisones, where it is also common<strong><sup>1,4,5,8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150020	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found at elevations of 1,000-2,285&#160;m <strong><sup>8 </sup></strong>(more recently only 1,400-1,750&#160;m <strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>), and based on seasonal differences in relative abundance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, apparently moves to higher altitudes after breeding. It inhabits subtropical humid cloud-forest, and probably cannot persist without primary forest but, in adjacent areas, it forages in secondary and disturbed habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, forest borders and fragments, and in cultivated land. It is observed individually, in pairs and occasionally in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nest-building has been observed in April, and a juvenile has been recorded in June<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds on a variety of fruit, seeds and (when foraging in mixed-species flocks) insects within the undergrowth and canopy<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Stomachs of collected birds contained 75-100% fruit<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150020	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 30 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 72 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,160, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 individuals (density from median to upper quartile of six estimates for 5 species of montane tanager in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as described as locally "common"; AOO taken as low % of EOO as known from just two areas within an increasingly deforested range). <br/></p>	eng
150020	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Principal threats to this species are those that increase fragmentation and destruction of its habitat, including deforestation, cattle ranching, mining, small-scale agriculture and road building<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Tatam&aacute; have been severely deforested and primary forest, on which the species may be dependent, is disappearing in many areas, particularly below 1,500&#160;m. The species occurs in effectively intact habitat above c.1,500&#160;m in the Mistrat&oacute; area, and in a large forest block at 800-1,000&#160;m upwards to above 2,000 m around Alto de Pisiones<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. However, the species displays altitudinal movements when breeding, and in none of the protected areas where it is found is the full altitudinal variation represented<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A highway is to be built near Alto de Pisiones, opening up the area to logging, mining and human settlement<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Although the region is inhabited by Embera Indians, further colonisation will inevitably lead to deforestation<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>. Paramilitary activity within its range has prevented recent survey work, and renders government action and research difficult<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150021	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150022	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150023	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Tatam&aacute; National Park protects the type-locality, and is just north of Alto de Gal&aacute;pagos<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but the recently discovered populations remain unprotected. It also occurs in Las Orqu&iacute;deas National Park<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. A management plan for Alto de Pisiones is in preparation, and a local organisation hopes to execute it in spite of the political instability<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other mountain ridges of the Caramanta massif<sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect forest at Alto de Pisones effectively. Initiate conservation measures at Alto de los Gal&aacute;pagos<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150023	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bangsia aureocincta</em> occurs on the Pacific slope of the West Andes, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Four specimens were collected in the vicinity of Cerro Tatam&aacute; (Risaralda/Choc&oacute;/Valle del Cauca border) between 1909 and 1946, but it was not found by surveys during the 1990s and may be locally extinct<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. Since 1946, it has been recorded at Alto de los Gal&aacute;pagos (Valle del Cauca/Choc&oacute; border)<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>, the Caramanta massif at Alto de Pisones (Risaralda), where it is common to abundant<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and recently in Las Orqu&iacute;deas National Park (Antioquia)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150023	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The type-specimens were collected in humid, mossy cloud-forest between 2,040 and 2,195&#160;m. At Alto de los Gal&aacute;pagos, it has been recorded between 1,750 and 2,100&#160;m <strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. At Alto de Pisones, it inhabits dense, wet cloud-forest with numerous natural tree gaps breaking the canopy, on steep ridges between 1,600 and 1,800&#160;m <strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. The breeding season is thought to be concentrated in March and April<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on fruit (stomachs of collected birds contained 70-90% fruit), but also insects when foraging in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150023	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 30 individuals/km2 x 66 km2 (10% EOO) = 1,980, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,500 (density from median to upper quartile of six estimates for 5 species of montane tanager in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, as described as locally "common to abundant"; AOO taken as low % of EOO as known from just three localities within an increasingly deforested range). <br/></p>	eng
150023	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation has been severe on Cerro Tatam&aacute;. On the Caramanta massif, the species occurs in a large forest block, which is effectively intact from 800-1,000&#160;m up to 2,000+&#160;m <strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. However, a proposed highway will run within 5-7&#160;km of Alto de Pisiones, opening the area up to logging, mining and human settlement<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Furthermore, Alto de los Gal&aacute;pagos is on the Cartago-San Jos&eacute; road<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Although the region is inhabited by Embera Indians, further colonisation will inevitably lead to deforestation<strong><sup>3,5,6</sup></strong>, through small-scale agriculture and subsistence activities. The presence of guerrillas in the area renders government action and research difficult<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150026	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in the R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park, San Mart&iacute;n. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine better its range between and beyond known localities. Determine the extent to which burning of p&aacute;ramo grassland affects this species. <br/></p>	eng
150026	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buthraupis aureodorsalis</em> is known from five areas within a restricted range on the Cordillera Central in San Mart&iacute;n, La Libertad and Hu&aacute;nuco, north-central <strong>Peru<sup>3</sup></strong>. It presumably occurs in unexplored intervening regions, but has not been found in similar habitat further north in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n. It is an uncommon species, and was recorded only three times during 27 days of fieldwork in R&iacute;o Abiseo National Park, San Mart&iacute;n. <br/></p>	eng
150026	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits elfin forest (especially <em>Escallonia</em> and <em>Clusia</em>) at elevations of 3,050-3,500&#160;m, particularly favouring large islands of forest surrounded by grassland. It tends to move around in pairs or small groups, foraging mainly in the middle storey, where it feeds on berries, fruit and insects. Brooding females have been collected in September, and juveniles and immatures have been taken in July, October and November. <br/></p>	eng
150026	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Engblom <em>in litt. </em>(2003). <br/></p>	eng
150026	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Elfin forests are vulnerable to grazing and fires spreading out of adjacent p&aacute;ramo grasslands, both of which inhibit forest regeneration and lead to a detrimental lowering of the treeline<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The human population-density within the species's range is low<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but its elfin-forest habitat is more seriously threatened than previously thought. Even in remote protected areas such as Abiseo National Park the forest is degraded by fires started to provide grazing areas for cattle; all five known sites suffer from this threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150027	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from six protected areas: Purac&eacute; National Park, Cauca, (which is burnt regularly), near and probably within Galeras Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Nari&ntilde;o, (where there is currently no burning of vegetation)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, Guandera Biological Reserve, Carchi<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve, Napo/Imbabura/Pichincha<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Sangay National Park, Morona-Santiago, and Podocarpus National Park, Loja/Zamora-Chinchipe, (which has one of the few pristine timberline areas in the tropical Andes, because burning does not take place<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution. Regulate the use of fire<sup>1</sup></strong>, and prohibit the burning of p&aacute;ramo in national parks. <strong>Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150027	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Buthraupis wetmorei</em> occurs in the Andes from south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, through <strong>Ecuador</strong>, into north-west <strong>Peru</strong>. In Colombia, there are records from Purac&eacute; National Park and its environs, Cauca, and recently from Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is restricted to the east Andes in Ecuador (Carchi, Napo, Morona-Santiago, Azuay, Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe)<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>, and occurs on Cerro Chinguela, eastern Piura, Peru. It is generally considered rare or uncommon, but is fairly common at Cajanuma, Podocarpus National Park, which may protect a significant population. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the total population exceeds 5,000 birds, and it is inferred to be declining. <br/></p>	eng
150027	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits very humid elfin forest, scattered bushes, bamboo, giant grasses and dense brush, on the p&aacute;ramo-forest ecotone from 2,900 to 3,550&#160;m, and possibly higher before human alteration of the treeline.</p>	eng
150027	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Collar <em>et al</em>. (1992). <br/></p>	eng
150027	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Timberline habitats in the Andes have been diminishing for millennia, primarily through human use of fire<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Regular burning of p&aacute;ramos adjacent to elfin forest, to promote the growth of fresh shoots for livestock, has lowered the timberline by several hundred metres, thereby destroying large areas of habitat, and is a continuing threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In south-west Colombia, the proportion of timberline habitat remaining is estimated at less than 10%, and human pressure is increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Temperate forest has been replaced with exotic pine plantations near the known site in Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and other threats include firewood-gathering and potato cultivation<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150028	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in the upper r&iacute;o Nieva valley<sup>1</sup></strong> and Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor. <strong>Survey foothill-forests in the region and determine whether they are threatened. Research the species's ecology. Designate a protected area in the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor, and involve local people in the region's land-use management<sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150028	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron</em> is a poorly-known species of the Cordillera del C&oacute;ndor in Zamora-Chinchipe, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and north Amazonas, <strong>Peru</strong>. It occurs on the west slopes above the r&iacute;o Nangaritza in Ecuador<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and lower east slopes and foothills above the r&iacute;os Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n and Cenepa in Peru<strong><sup>2,5,9</sup></strong>. According to Aguaruna Indians, it also occurs in forests at the headwaters of the r&iacute;o Nieva, Amazonas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, well south-east of its known range. It appears common in suitable habitat in Peru<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but its abundance in Ecuador has not been estimated<strong><sup>1,4,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150028	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It primarily occupies mature, humid <em>terra firme</em> forest and foothill-forest in the upper tropical zone, at 600-1,000&#160;m, where forested slopes are neither steep nor wet. However, in 1998, four were seen feeding in <em>Cecropia</em> at c.450&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it may occur more widely at this elevation. It also occurs in disturbed mature forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, foraging in pairs or small groups of up to five, occasionally joining mixed-species flocks. Fruit and insects constitute its diet. <br/></p>	eng
150028	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150028	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest clearance, especially along new extensions of the road network, through the activities of settlers attracted to the region, is the only known threat. In areas of north Peru, the foothills have very rapidly been deforested. However, the Aguaruna Indian community is well organised and prevents immigration to their territory<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. Most of the species's range lies within Aguaruna territory, thus, providing their agricultural methods are unchanged, foothill-forests should remain relatively intact<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150032	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150033	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150034	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150035	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Iridosornis porphyrocephala</em> occurs in the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (principally on the Pacific slope north to south Choc&oacute;, and at the north end of the Central Andes in Antioquia) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (where it is definitely known only from Carchi and Imbabura, with an uncertain record from Loja in the south)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It inhabits the lower growth of humid mossy forest and forest borders, principally at 1,500-2,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but has been recorded to 750&#160;m in Cauca, and 2,700&#160;m in Antioquia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation, largely the result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing and mining, with severe destruction in the core of its elevational range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150036	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150040	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150041	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150045	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150050	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150051	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150052	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150053	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150055	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euphonia chalybea</em> is (at least locally) fairly common in the Atlantic forests of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio de Janeiro south to Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (recently in Canindey&uacute;, Alto Paran&aacute;, Caazap&aacute; and Itapu&aacute;, with historical records from Amambay), and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes and Misiones)<strong><sup>1,4,6,7,8</sup></strong>. It occurs sparsely in lowland forest, forest edge and overgrown plantations to 500&#160;m, and has been recorded feeding (perhaps predominantly) on cactus fruits (probably epiphytic)<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong> and mistletoes<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has presumably declined substantially with the extensive loss of Atlantic forest to agriculture and mining, with current key threats from urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150057	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150062	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150063	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150065	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150066	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150068	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150069	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150071	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150074	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150075	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150076	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150077	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recently recorded in the Ucumar&iacute; section of Los Nevados National Park, Yotoco Forest Reserve, Farallones de Cali National Park, Tambito Nature Reserve and Munchique National Park<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. The northernmost site is within a proposed regional park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey poorly-known areas of habitat, e.g. in Farallones de Cali National Park<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce conservation measures in protected areas, specifically in providing non-damaging alternatives to settlers in Munchique National Park<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its ecological requirements and population size<sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150077	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlorochrysa nitidissima</em> occurs in the West and north Central Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Quind&iacute;o, Valle del Cauca and Cauca). There are records from only two sites in the Central Andes since 1951: Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park, Risaralda, in the early 1990s<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and the northernmost locality near Anor&iacute;, Antioquia, in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The great majority of modern records in the West Andes are from accessible sites in Valle del Cauca. It was formerly common, but is now infrequently recorded, although it remains fairly common locally, even in remnant forest fragments. <br/></p>	eng
150077	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid, mossy, montane forest and borders in the subtropical zone at 1,300-2,200&#160;m, exceptionally as low as 1,140&#160;m in the Central Andes, and 900&#160;m in the West Andes. In adjacent areas, it also occurs regularly in mature secondary forest and clearings with a few large trees left standing. The diet comprises insects, mainly taken when foraging with mixed-species flocks, and fruit. <br/></p>	eng
150077	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,690 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 6,084, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range lower quartile of 21 estimates for eight species of <em>Tangara</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and consistent with observation that species occurs at low population densities compared to similarly-sized species [Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002]). <br/></p>	eng
150077	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation has been severe in many parts of its range, notably, the Cauca valley, Cerro Tatam&aacute;, along the Buenaventura-Cali and -Buga roads and around Medell&iacute;n<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. However, large blocks of primary forest remain, e.g. in Farallones de Cali and Los Nevados National Parks, and on the Caramanta massif<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. The rapid expansion of the road network is opening up more remote parts of the species's range to logging, mining and human settlement<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Immigration will inevitably lead to deforestation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, through small-scale agriculture and subsistence activities. <br/></p>	eng
150078	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150080	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, but mostly in the buffer zone which is occupied by several small but expanding communities. The very small Finca El Faro Reserve, Guatemala, comprises only 3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest, mostly at inappropriate altitudes. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey habitat between known areas. Ensure effective habitat conservation in El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Designate a protected area on the south-west slope of Volc&aacute;n Santa Mar&iacute;a. <br/></p>	eng
150080	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara cabanisi</em> occurs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas of south-west <strong>Mexico</strong> and adjacent <strong>Guatemala</strong>. It is known from five localities in Mexico, but the only recent records are from El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. In Guatemala, it has been recorded on the south-west slope of Volc&aacute;n Santa Mar&iacute;a, and recently also at Finca Dos Mar&iacute;as, San Marcos<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Despite this restricted distribution, it is apparently locally common in these areas<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Most records are from the Pacific slope, but it has been found on the Gulf slope where the mountain spine is relatively narrow. <br/></p>	eng
150080	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid broadleaf evergreen forest at 1,000-1,700&#160;m in Mexico, but has been recorded above 1,800&#160;m in Guatemala<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Most sightings are between 1,250-1,650&#160;m, and records on the Gulf slope are between 1,400-1,600&#160;m. It has been recorded in degraded and edge habitats, but never in coffee plantations. Despite on occasions being more visible in edge environments, it mostly forages in the upper strata and canopy of pristine forest, and may undertake local movements in response to the maturing syconia of <em>Ficus</em> trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds in the early wet season, from mid-April to mid-June, with <em>Ficus cookii</em> trees preferred for nesting. A nest has been located in a pine <em>Pinus</em> tree, but the incubating bird always flew to the adjacent humid broadleaf forest to forage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is highly social, and flocks of up to 26 birds have been recorded<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150080	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.6-14.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 342 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,231-4,788, but probably at upper end of this range as described as locally common, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range from lower to upper quartile of 21 estimates for eight lowland congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150080	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its altitudinal range coincides with the optimal land for coffee cultivation. More than one-third of the Mexico's coffee is grown in Chiapas, and production has been centred on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre since the beginning of the 20th century. Agricultural land is expanding because new settlements in the mountains are legally leasing unprotected, national territory land. <br/></p>	eng
150081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150082	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150083	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II and protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in Dunas de Natal State Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Charles Darwin Ecological Refuge, Mata do Pau Ferro Ecological Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, Serra dos Cavalos UFPE and Tapacur&aacute; Ecological Stations, and Saltinho and Pedra Talhada Biological Reserves. Significant areas are being reforested at Pedra Talhada, where protection is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The recently decreed Murici Ecological Station is still ineffectively implemented and forest loss continues through pasture encroachment and charcoal production<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Captive birds have been confiscated and released into reserves, but this can only succeed if the protection of such areas is improved. Forestation schemes being undertaken to create new-forested areas along rivers and on steep slopes may have positive impacts due to the ability of the species to utilise second-growth habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey sites without recent records, especially S&atilde;o Miguel dos Campos, Tapacur&aacute;, Saltinho and Jo&atilde;o Pessoa, and any other remnant habitat fragments. </strong> <br/><strong>Pursue conservation initiatives for the most important previously unreported populations, especially Mata do Estado, Usina Serra Grande, Mata da Macambira, Usina Utinga-Leao and Usina Santo Antonio<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of the Murici biological reserve. <strong>Enforce legal measures to prevent trade. <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150083	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara fastuosa</em> has been recorded at a total of 18 localities in Alagoas, Pernambuco and Para&iacute;ba (only one recent record, from the Mata do Pau Ferro<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, and has possibly been extirpated from several additional sites in these states. Surveys carried out from 1999 to 2001 located the species in 15 forest fragments, 14 of which were probably new sites for the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Two additional localities in Rio Grande do Norte where the species was recently recorded (Capim Macio and Parque das Dunas Costeiras, and Baia Formosa) require more observations to eliminate the possibility of released cagebirds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its range is consequentially larger than previously estimated, but it is still probably less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given the small area of severely fragmented Atlantic forest remaining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
150083	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in Atlantic forest and humid forest within interior Alagoas, Pernambuco and Para&iacute;ba<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, the northernmost locality in Rio Grande do Norte is an area of cerrado known as <em>tabuleiro</em>, potentially broadening the species's known habitat preferences<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Nests are situated in dense mid-storey vegetation, usually in large bromeliads, indicating that it cannot use second growth without epiphytes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It forages in the forest canopy and edge, but also occurs in 1-2&#160;m high second growth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, gardens and orchards with bromeliad-laden trees, and is often seen in mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The diet includes seeds and fruit. It breeds in the austral spring and summer (October-March). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150083	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.6-10.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 320 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,152-3,200, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals as species is more common and widespread than previously thought (density range from lower quartile to median of 21 estimates for eight lowland congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150083	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Heavy trapping for trade results from the high prices commanded by the species's exceptional plumage. There has been massive clearance of original Atlantic forest in north-east Brazil with just 2% remaining<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, largely as a result of logging and conversion to sugarcane plantations and pastureland. None of the remaining forest fragments is larger than 4,000 ha, with most of this still subject to selective logging and poaching<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. For example, forest at Murici reduced from 70&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in the 1970s, to a fragmented 30&#160;km<sup>2</sup> in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The site is severely threatened by fires spreading from adjacent plantations and further logging, with new roads evident in January 1999<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150088	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara johannae</em> is rare to uncommon in the Pacific lowlands, from north Antioquia, <strong>Colombia</strong>, south through north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> to Los R&iacute;os<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been described as the least numerous Pacific lowland <em>Tangara</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but it is common in several areas in Nari&ntilde;o, Colombia<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It occurs at the borders of wet forest and secondary woodland in coastal lowlands and foothills to 1,000&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but very rare above 800 m <strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its Choc&oacute; forests are threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation, largely the result of intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation, with destruction most severe in its lowland habitats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150091	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150092	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150096	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150100	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150101	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150103	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150104	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150105	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Small portions of the species's range occur in six protected areas, none of which is supported by effective protection.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify the species's seasonal movements. Publish the recent record from Rio Grande do Sul and re-evaluate other records from the state. Enforce the protection of coastal areas in Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo. <br/></p>	eng
150105	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara peruviana</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, in Esp&iacute;rito Santo<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, Rio de Janeiro (as an austral winter visitor in April-September), S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina (no unequivocal records since the 1930s) and apparently Rio Grande do Sul (one record south of Torres in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). It is generally considered not rare within suitable habitat, with periodic local fluctuations in numbers owing to seasonal movements, at least in Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo. Records from Pelotas in Rio Grande do Sul were thought to refer to the closely related <em>T.&#160;preciosa,</em> but a well described (but unpublished) record<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> from the state in 1999 suggests that these records require re-evaluation. However, records from Buenos Aires and Misiones, Argentina, can be more certainly attributed to <em>T.&#160;preciosa</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150105	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is largely restricted to coastal sand-plain forest and littoral scrub (restinga), but has also been found in secondary forest, these records perhaps relating to the presence of fruit-bearing plants, notably species of Melastomataceae<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Faecal analyses show a predominance of fruit (67% by frequency) in the diet, with some insects and spiders<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Seasonal displacements occur in Rio de Janeiro, where its arrival coincides with the ripening of aroeira <em>Schinus</em> fruit. It is also more common in S&atilde;o Paulo during the winter months, and scattered birds appear inland at this time<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. All records from Esp&iacute;rito Santo are from the austral winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
150105	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.0-3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 2,600 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,600-9,360, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals (density range from lowest to lower quartile of 21 estimates for eight congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150105	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by the rapid and widespread loss of restinga, largely to beachfront real-estate development and holiday centres. Suitable habitat in both Rio de Janeiro and Paran&aacute; is now largely destroyed<strong><sup>4.</sup></strong> Although it occasionally appears in the illegal cage-bird trade, but this relatively minor threat could eventually compound the problem of habitat loss. <strong></strong></p>	eng
150106	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150107	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150108	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The recent Bolivian records are from within Madidi National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess its range and population size. Survey the biota of valleys in the r&iacute;o Machariapo area<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its ecology and habitat requirements, and hence clarify pertinent threats. <br/></p>	eng
150108	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara meyerdeschauenseei</em> is relatively common at three sites in the arid area at the headwaters of the r&iacute;o Inambari in Puno, south-east <strong>Peru</strong>, and has recently been recorded at Tokoaque, Madidi National Park, west <strong>Bolivia<sup>3</sup></strong>. Published sightings in dry forest along the r&iacute;o Machariapo within Madidi National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, were later retracted<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150108	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The semi-arid habitats in the area of the Peruvian records have already been heavily modified, with the original habitat types unknown<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The recent Bolivian record was in humid Yungas forest, and seasonal movements between habitats have been postulated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Records are from between 1,750 and 2,200&#160;m, but it probably ranges beyond these limits. It is usually found singly or in pairs, foraging in fruiting trees and probably taking fallen fruit from the ground. It probably breeds around November. <br/></p>	eng
150108	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Its usage of semi-open and edge habitats suggests that it may be relatively tolerant of habitat disturbance. However, recent suggestions that it prefers humid forest, or undergoes seasonal movements, need further investigation, and it cannot at present be considered secure. <br/></p>	eng
150109	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150110	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150111	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150112	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150113	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150114	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150115	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150117	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara fucosa</em> is fairly common in the montane evergreen and elfin forests and edge of east Dari&eacute;n (Cerro Pirre, Cerro Mali, Cerro Tacarcuna and the Serran&iacute;a de Junguruda), <strong>Panama<sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>, with a sight record of one bird near the ridge of Cerro Tacarcuna, north Choc&oacute;, <strong>Colombia<sup>3</sup></strong>. Most records are above 1,350&#160;m, but it is known to occur down to 550&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, with a pair observed building a nest at c. 940 m in the R&iacute;o Samb&uacute; drainage of Dari&eacute;n province<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has a very small range and is therefore inherently at risk from any habitat loss or degradation, which is occurring as a result of gold mining operations below this species's altitudinal range<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Completion of the Pan-American Highway link through Dari&eacute;n could be highly detrimental to this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150118	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150119	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150120	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150121	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Tangara phillipsi</em> was only discovered in 1969 and is restricted to the Cerros del Sira in Hu&aacute;nuco, east-central <strong>Peru</strong>. It is apparently fairly common at elevations of 1,300-1,570 m in the canopy and borders of humid montane forest and cloud forest. It is usually found 11-25 m above the ground, but three individuals have been mist-netted nearer the ground. An expedition in 2000 commonly encountered <em>Tangara phillipsi </em>from ridge-top scrub and isolated trees (3-10 m) within the moss-forest zone and the canopy of higher forest below ridge-tops (15-20 m)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <em>Tangara phillipsi </em>occurred in mixed-species flocks of c.50 birds where it outnumbered all other <em>Tangara </em>tanagers by 5:1 <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Threats include gold and copper mining and small-scale logging, which have been ongoing near the base of the Sira for some time<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Within the western 'boundary' of the Sira, by the Pachitea river, there is evidence that logging operations may increase<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The local people are keen to prevent logging on their land but tend to lack land titles<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the area visited in 2000 seems largely pristine<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> and the Sira was designated a Native Reserve in June 2001<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This designation should help to ensure the species's long-term survival and substantial tracts of different habitat types<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
150122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150127	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in Yotoco Forest Reserve (5.6&#160;km<sup>2</sup>), but not by recent surveys<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and occurs in San Antonio de Tequendama Reserve<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The Valle del Cauca localities are close to Farallones de Cali National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further field surveys to better assess its population and distribution, notably in the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas<sup>6</sup></strong>, but also in east Cundinimarca<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Research its ecological requirements to determine the extent to which primary forest is necessary to maintain viable populations and understand its occurrence in some shade-tree plantations. Protect Laguna de Pedropalo, Cundinamarca, and its adjoining forest<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150127	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dacnis hartlaubi</em> has a restricted and disjunct distribution in all three Andean ranges in <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has been recorded from Valle de Cauca, Huila<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Quind&iacute;o, Antioquia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, Risaralda<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Cundinamarca and Boyac&aacute;. The Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas, Boyac&aacute;, may hold a significant population<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but the only other post-1980 records are from several localities in the r&iacute;o Bogot&aacute; drainage, west-central Cundinimarca (although the east slopes of Cundinimarca where it was collected in 1912 are ornithologically poorly known<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), two sites in T&aacute;mesis, Antioquia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and one site in Risaralda<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It is rare and likely to be declining. <br/></p>	eng
150127	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid lower montane forest and edge, but has been found in some shade-tree plantations (especially where <em>Inga</em> spp. and <em>Cordia alliodora</em> are commonest) bordering patches of secondary vegetation in Antioquia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and clearings with scattered trees. On the west slope of the West Andes it has been recorded as low as 300&#160;m, but mostly occurs at 1,350-2,200&#160;m. Fruit and insects probably form the bulk of its diet<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A male in breeding condition was collected in August in Cundinimarca. <br/></p>	eng
150127	population	BirdLife International, 2008	EOO previously estimated as 136 km<sup>2</sup>, but area of potential habitat assessed to be 12,720 km<sup>2</sup> by Renjifo <em>et al</em>. (2002), Assuming an intermediate figure for the EOO and a density estimate of 1.0-3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> (lower end of six estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet), population probably best placed in the band 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150127	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is continuing clearance of suitable humid forests for agriculture, coffee-growing and human settlement. In central-west Cundinimarca and on the upper slopes of the Cauca valley (Quind&iacute;o and Valle del Cauca), centuries of cultivation have left only remnant forest patches<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>. Colonisation and conversion of the Andean slopes in the middle Magdalena valley to cultivated and pastural land reached a peak in the 1970s, probably affecting any subpopulations between west Cundinimarca and the Serran&iacute;a de las Quinchas (itself the largest remaining block of wet forest in the region<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>). However, many areas have since been abandoned and become successional habitats<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The population in Valle del Cauca is bisected by the Cali-Buenaventura highway, and thus threatened by agricultural expansion<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150130	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150131	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law. It has been recorded in Desengano, Intervales, Alto do Ribeira, Ilha do Cardoso and Serra do Tabuleiro State Parks, Itatiaia, Serra dos &oacute;rg&atilde;os and Tijuca National Parks, Tingu&aacute; Biological Reserve, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Canan&eacute;ia-Iguape-Peru&iacute;be Environmental Protection Area, and Artex and Spitzkopf Ecological Reserves<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Investigate seasonal movements.<strong> </strong>Ensure the<strong> <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of reserves in which it occurs. <strong>Implement and enforce a complete ban on the capture of wild birds. <br/></p>	eng
150131	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dacnis nigripes</em> occurs very sparsely in coastal south-east <strong>Brazil,</strong> in Esp&iacute;rito Santo (four specimens in 1942<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute; (the only record is a cage-bird reportedly captured in the state), and Santa Catarina (recent records from three sites and two old specimens<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). A specimen from Minas Gerais is thought to be a labelling error, but it may possibly occur in the extreme south of the state.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150131	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been found in primary and tall secondary lowland and montane Atlantic forest from sea-level to 1,700 m. It appears to move seasonally, or perhaps erratically, between parts of its range, probably the result of irregular wanderings in search of favourite food-plants. The diet comprises berries, seeds, insects and even eucalyptus nectar<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is often seen in association with mixed-species flocks, and birds may concentrate locally during certain periods. A nest under construction in October was in a large leguminous tree<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150131	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Although uncommon, the species has been found in some of the largest protected expanses of Atlantic Forest and it is felt that it may have been unrecorded due to its resemblance to the much commoner Blue Dacnis Dacnis cayana. Given this new information, it seems unlikely that its population is as small as previously estimated. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150131	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It is threatened by widespread habitat loss throughout its range, and is also at risk from the (illegal) cage-bird trade, which prizes it for its rarity. Trapping may be facilitated by the periodic concentration of individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150134	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dacnis viguieri</em> is mostly rare within a small range in north-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (north Choc&oacute;, north-west Antioquia, south-west C&oacute;rdoba) and east <strong>Panama</strong> (east Dari&eacute;n)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. The large number formerly collected on both slopes of the north Serran&iacute;a de Baudo, north-west Choc&oacute;, suggest that it was locally common<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but there have been very few recent records<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It has been recorded most often in foothills up to 700&#160;m, where it may be more numerous than in the flat coastal lowlands<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Although primarily a humid forest species, it uses edge habitat and has been recorded in scrub<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In the Urab&aacute; lowlands and the Sin&uacute; valley, most habitat has been converted to banana plantations and cattle ranches<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Extensive, largely intact forests remain in Panama and Choc&oacute;, but these would be threatened by the completion of the Pan-American highway through Dar&iacute;en<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150135	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi Community Nature Reserve, Colombia, and Awa Forest Reserve Zone, R&iacute;o Palenque Scientific Centre, Jatun Sacha Bilsa Biological Station, Cayapas-Mataje and Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserves, Ecuador<strong><sup>1,8,9</sup></strong>. Land has been purchased for a proposed biological corridor between Awa and Cotacachi-Cayapas<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the tracts of forest that remain in west Nari&ntilde;o<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Clarify its ecological requirements<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a biological corridor to link Awa and Cotacachi-Cayapas<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate Awa, Cotacachi-Cayapas and the biological corridor as a biosphere reserve<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Sustainably manage a buffer zone to the Awa, Cotacachi-Cayapas protected areas<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150135	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dacnis berlepschi</em> occurs on the Pacific slopes and lowlands of south-west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha). In this part of the Choc&oacute; region, habitat, and thus the species's distribution, is now extremely fragmented. Despite numerous field studies, there have been very few recent Colombian records. It has always been considered uncommon to rare. <br/></p>	eng
150135	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is restricted to wet lowland and foothill-forest, forest edge, and tall, second growth from sea-level to 1,200&#160;m. It forages in the canopy, sometimes joining mixed-species flocks<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. An immature was collected in October. <br/></p>	eng
150135	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10.0-40.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 3,540 km<sup>2</sup> (30% EOO) = 35,400-141,600 best placed precautionarily in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals as much of the species's remaining habitat has been converted into sub-optimal secondary forest (density range based on extensive surveys in Esmeraldas according to Jahn in press a, O. Jahn <em>in litt.</em> 2007, and P. Mena Valenzuela <em>in litt.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
150135	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Logging in the Choc&oacute; has intensified since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In the late 1990s, primary forests in Nari&ntilde;o and within 60&#160;km of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas, were selectively logged, and then converted to oil palm plantations at a rapid rate<strong><sup>2,3,7,10</sup></strong>, with a further 500-540&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of oil palm company land in Esmeraldas due to be deforested by 2001-2002<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Two-thirds of known localities, albeit some in protected areas, are within this region, which is further affected by a new mining concession<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Colonisation and land development are progressing through infrastructural improvement, particularly the expansion of road networks, and in turn are increasing the impact of logging, cattle-ranching, etc.<strong><sup>3,5,6,9,10</sup></strong>. New legislation and the transfer of land-rights to local communities have been exploited by large businesses, as it has become cheap and easy to buy land<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>. International investment in the region has been lacking in concern for the environment<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150137	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150138	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150141	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a rather patchy distribution in the Andes of southern Ecuador (Azuay) and Peru (from Amazonas south to Cuzco and Arequipa) (Ridgely and Tudor 1989).	eng
150141	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits shrubbery, low woodland including Polylepis/ Gynoxys groves and forest borders, from just below the timberline to well above it. It has been recorded from 3,000 to 4,000 m altitude (Ridgely and Tudor 1989), and is apparently confined to areas where Gynoxys shrubs are present (Isler and Isler 1987). It is usually encountered singly or in pairs, and forages almost entirely by gleaning from the undersides of Gynoxys leaves, feeding on small insects and sugary secretions produced either by the insects or by the leaves (Isler and Isler 1987). It has also been observed feeding on nectar (Isler and Isler 1987). The nest is a tiny cup placed in a tree; fledglings have been found in May and July (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).	eng
150141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996). Where it occurs it can be extremely abundant (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990), with a record from Ancash of 'dozens' of individuals in an area of Gynox less than one hectare in size (Isler and Isler 1987).	eng
150141	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The widespread destruction of montane shrub and fragmentation of Polylepis woodlands through uncontrolled use of fire, firewood-collection, intense grazing (particularly with sheep and cattle), unsound agricultural techniques and afforestation with exotic tree species (especially Eucalyptus) presumably threatens this species (Fjeldså and Kessler 1996, Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
150142	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150143	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150144	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>As well as Munchique and Cotacachi-Cayapas, it occurs in Farallones de Cali National Park, and Tambito and La Planada Nature Reserves, Colombia, and Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Ecuador<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey poorly-known cloud-forests, notably in Farallones de Cali National Park<sup>6,7</sup></strong>. <strong>Study its ecological requirements, population density and conservation status<sup>3,6,8</sup></strong>. <strong>Fund, support and enforce better protection of national parks, especially Munchique<sup>6</sup></strong>, and, in tandem, compensation of local people. <br/></p>	eng
150144	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oreothraupis arremonops</em> has a patchy distribution on the Pacific slope of the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong> (Antioquia, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, Nari&ntilde;o) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Pichincha and Imbabura). In Ecuador, there are modern records from the Tandayapa area, Pichincha, and Cotacachi-Cayapas National Park, Imbabura<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The population in Munchique National Park, Cauca, is estimated to number 1,000 mature individuals, probably the global stronghold<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Its apparent rarity may in part result from the inaccessibility of its very wet, often steep-sloped environment<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150144	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This poorly-known species inhabits thick undergrowth in primary humid forest (mostly dense, wet, mossy cloud-forest) between 1,200 and 2,700&#160;m altitude. In Cauca, it is most frequently observed between 2,300 and 2,500&#160;m. Juveniles with adults have been seen in June in Cauca, and November in Pichincha<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, where a nest with one egg has been found (also in November)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The nest-site was in fairly disturbed forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150144	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150144	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, notably the Cali-Buenaventura and Pasto-Tumaco highways, and extensive logging concessions have been the primary causes of habitat loss<strong><sup>4,5,7</sup></strong>. Deforestation rates are accelerating within its range, primarily because of logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, coca cultivation and gold mining<strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. Montane forests are less threatened than those in the lowland Choc&oacute; region, but habitat loss is occurring, particularly below 2,000&#160;m altitude<strong><sup>1,5,7</sup></strong>. Munchique is affected by human settlement, and part of the cloud-forest was illegally burnt during exceptionally dry weather in 1997, to make the land grazeable, but this is apparently only rarely a threat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150147	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Charitospiza eucosma</em> inhabits cerrado<em> </em>and caatinga in north-east and central <strong>Brazil</strong> (central Piau&iacute;, south Maranh&atilde;o and south-east Par&aacute; south through Goi&aacute;s, west Bahia and central Minas Gerais to south-east Mato Grosso and central S&atilde;o Paulo)<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, north-east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Serran&iacute;a de Huanchaca in Santa Cruz)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (single records from Misiones in 1961 and, bizarrely, one recently collected in Tucum&aacute;n<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>). It can be uncommon to fairly common, but has a very local and erratic occurrence<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been observed invading recently burned areas<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>, and is likely to engage in local migrations or semi-nomadism in response to fire succession<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have had a severe impact on its cerrado habitats in Brazil<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Caatinga habitats are less threatened, but still suffer from agricultural expansion and grazing. At least in Brazil, it is trapped for the cage-bird trade. <br/></p>	eng
150148	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Bras&iacute;lia and Serra da Canastra National Parks (Brazil)<strong><sup>8,14</sup></strong>, Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve (Paraguay)<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong> and Beni Biological Station (Bolivia)<strong><sup>2,11</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the extensive gaps in its Brazilian distribution and suitable habitat in Paraguay and Argentina. Assess its precise habitat requirements to develop suitable land-management practices and help focus surveys. Protect some of the key populations in Bolivia.</strong></p>	eng
150148	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Coryphaspiza melanotis</em> occurs in extreme south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Madre de Dios), across north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni and La Paz<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) to <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Goi&aacute;s, Distrito Federal<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, Minas Gerais and S&atilde;o Paulo) and south through east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Itap&uacute;a, Caaguaz&uacute; and Canindey&uacute;) to north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes). There is an isolated population on Maraj&oacute; Island in the mouth of the Amazon. It has recently become very local and rare, with a global stronghold in west Beni and adjacent La Paz<strong><sup>2,11</sup></strong>, possibly contiguous with populations in north Beni and Peru<strong><sup>10,12</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it is known from four areas, but potentially notable populations occur in some large national parks. It has recently been recorded from only one site in Argentina<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and two in Paraguay<strong><sup>3,5,9</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150148	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Bolivia and Brazil, it inhabits tall, sometimes seasonally wet, grasslands, to 1,200&#160;m <strong><sup>2,16</sup></strong>. In Beni, immatures have been seen in heavily grazed grassland with numerous trees and bushes<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and areas of tussocky grass 50-125&#160;cm tall with scrubby mounds<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, it has been seen in campo sujo comprising pristine tussocky grasses, with small areas of bare ground, scattered bushes and yata'i <em>Butia</em> sp. palms<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>. There is evidence that it tolerates some grassland burning<strong><sup>9,15</sup></strong>, at least if the grass grows back to its full height<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Breeding is probably September-December<strong><sup>5,9</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150148	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150148	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Suitable grasslands are being rapidly destroyed by mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-ranching, afforestation, invasive grasses, excessive use of pesticides and annual burning<strong><sup>13,16</sup></strong>. By 1993, two-thirds of the Cerrado region had been heavily or moderately altered<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150155	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150158	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150159	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150163	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150164	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in south Chile (south Magellanes) and south Argentina (south Santa Cruz) to Tierra del Fuego, and on the Falkland Islands (S. Imberti in litt. 1999).  Although the mainland population is localised and perhaps declining (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996), on the Falklands it is thriving with 7,000-14,000 breeding pairs estimated in 1983-1992 (Woods and Woods 1997).	eng
150164	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	On the mainland, this species is found in southern temperate dry grasslands of Festuca gracillima and Stipa species, pastures, agricultural land, and around settlements up to 580 m elevation. In the upland (300-400 m) fields of Santa Cruz, it seems common during the breeding season (S. Imberti in litt. 1999). However, its distribution is poorly understood. This may be a function of its possible nomadism, which requires investigation (J. Mazar Barnett in litt. 1999), or simply because of poor observer coverage away from known, accessible sites. In the Falklands, it is found in grass-heath communities, dominated by Cortadeira pilosa (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150164	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150164	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The widespread practice of early spring grassland burning in the Falklands presumably destroys many nests, and introduced predators are probably reducing and limiting the population (Woods and Woods 1997). It is not adversely affected by intensive grazing on the Falklands but this is cited as a major reason for its probable decline on the mainland (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150165	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in central and south Chile (north to Atacama) and south Argentina (north to west Neuquén), south to Tierra del Fuego (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). It formerly occurred on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) but there have been only three specimens collected and an unsubstantiated field sighting since the species was first recorded as 'common' in 1841 (Woods and Woods 1997). The species is known from seven protected areas: Copahue-Caviahue Provincial Park (M. Babarskas and J. Veiga pers. comm.); Lanín and Nahuel Huapi (Neuquén), Los Alerces (Chubut), Perito Moreno (Santa Cruz) and Tierra del Fuego National Parks in Argentina, and Magallanes National Reserve in Chile (Tabilo et al. 1996).	eng
150165	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in southern temperate grasslands, pastures, agricultural land and puna grassland at elevations up to 3,300 m (Stotz et al. 1996), descending to sea level during the winter or at any season when the higher altitudes are briefly covered by snow (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Breeding occurs mostly on ridges at or just above the timberline (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Intense grazing is rapidly degrading its preferred grassland habitats (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150165	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150166	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150168	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150170	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150171	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150172	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site and is uninhabited apart from staff who run a meteorological station<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Territory mapping to investigate pair density in different habitats was conducted in 2000-2001, in addition to an assessment of the potential role of mice as nest predators<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Further investigation of diet overlap with mice, and predation by mice has been undertaken during 2003-2006. Initial results from a feasibility study into the removal of the mice appear promising<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out regular surveys to monitor the population. Eradicate mice from Gough Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Minimise the risk of other alien species becoming established on the island, particularly any rat <em>Rattus</em> species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150172	distribution		<em>Rowettia goughensis</em> is endemic to Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean. Evidence suggests that it was much more common in the 1920s than at present<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Modern population estimates have varied and may not accurately reflect population trends; there were thought to be c.200 pairs in 1972-1974<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (substantially lower than previous estimates), 1,500 pairs in 1991<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, 400-500 pairs in 2000-1<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and similar numbers in 2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Monitoring indicated that the density of territorial pairs roughly halved between 1990 and 2007<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>,	eng
150172	habitat		It is most common in tussock-grassland, wet heath and fjeldmark up to 800 m, and occurs at lower densities in fern-bush and peatbogs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs from September to December, and chicks fledge in November and December. Clutch size is usually two eggs. The female constructs the nest, which is an open cup constructed on or close to the ground, sheltered by overhanging vegetation or a rock. Both sexes are involved in raising chicks<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on invertebrates (80% of foraging time), but also eats fruit<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, grass seeds, and scavenges broken eggs and birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests on the ground amongst or under vegetation, but mostly on steep slopes or cliffs, and usually lays two eggs, rarely one<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Different plumage types suggest that it takes at least three years to acquire full adult plumage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150172	population		The population was estimated at c.1000 individuals in 2007 (Ryan and Cuthbert 2008).	eng
150175	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150176	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150177	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150178	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150179	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xenospingus concolor</em> occurs in 15 scattered river valleys or habitat patches on the Pacific slope of <strong>Peru</strong> (Lima, Ica, Arequipa and Moquagua) and north <strong>Chile</strong> (Tarapac&aacute; and Antofagasta)<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. The range has contracted in the north, with no recent records less than 70 km south of Lima city<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but it has colonised a new area in Antofagasta<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, having not been seen in the province since 1944. In Peru, there are key populations in Ocucaje (Ica), the Yauca valley and near the Mejia lagoons in the Tambo valley (both Arequipa)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Chile, it is common in the Lluta and Azapa valleys<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recent information suggests that it is probably more common than previously estimated, as it is not very confiding, quiet and hard to see<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has quite a large range and occurs in any <em>Prosopis </em>area, dense riparian thickets, and also uses olive groves and areas with <em>Arundo donax </em>and <em>Tessaria </em>(e.g. at Ca&ntilde;ete valley). The subpopulations in the Nazca area and in the Azapa valley, Chile are likely to exceed 1,000 individuals. Hence the species has been reclassified as Near Threatened. The range extension south to Antofagasta may have been related to the planting of ornamental shade trees<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is found mostly at low elevations, but has been recorded to 1,900 m in Peru and to nearly 2,700 m in Chile. The diet consists of insects, seeds or fruit. Two nests have been found, one under construction in <em>Tessaria integrifolia</em> and <em>Baccharis</em> in December, and one recently abandoned in <em>Baccharis</em>, <em>Acacia macracantha</em> and introduced <em>Tamarix </em>in June<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Intensive irrigation and cultivation (e.g. for cereals and cotton) have reduced riparian thickets to narrow and fragmented strips. Rapid declines could result from further changes in land-use at sites where it is common. It occurs in the Mej&iacute;a Lagoons National Sanctuary. Cutting of <em>Prosopis</em> trees in Ica is prohibited<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Landowners have agreed to preserve habitat in Ocucaje, the Yauca valley and at Mej&iacute;a lagoons<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150180	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150181	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150182	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat within intervening areas. Assess the current state of habitat near Huancabamba. Ensure the integrity of known sites.  <br/></p>	eng
150182	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Incaspiza ortizi</em> is very local, but not uncommon, with records from three sites in north-west <strong>Peru</strong>: Palamba, north of Huancabamba, extreme north-east Piura; La Esperanza, north-east of Santa Cruz, on the Pacific slope of central Cajamarca; and Hacienda Lim&oacute;n, east of Celend&iacute;n, in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage, south-central Cajamarca<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150182	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at 1,800-2,600&#160;m in arid montane scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Near Huancabamba, it occurs on a single rocky hilltop covered by dense herbaceous scrub (averaging 1.5&#160;m high), small <em>Acacia</em>, various cacti, and numerous terrestrial bromeliads. Hacienda Lim&oacute;n is characterised by open <em>Acacia</em> woodland, grass and thorny scrub, but no cacti or bromeliads, and it has been observed in dense, thorny hedgerows. It feeds on seeds, plant matter and insects. Breeding appears to last from at least May-July (October), with young observed in July-September. <br/></p>	eng
150182	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Given that the species has been found at just four small sites, the population is thought unlikely to exceed 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150182	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Slopes adjacent to Huancabamba have been extensively cleared for cultivation and pasture, and there appears to be no other suitable habitat in the vicinty. Consequently, if this hilltop were to be burnt, the northernmost population would surely be lost. However, further south, it survives on heavily disturbed, steep slopes, which appear unlikely to be usable to any greater degree<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150183	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150184	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Incaspiza watkinsi</em> has a very restricted range in the central r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage (north Cajamarca and adjacent Amazonas), west <strong>Peru</strong><sup>4</sup>. It is relatively common in undisturbed arid lowland scrub at 500-900 m and, despite tolerating some habitat degradation, has a particular association with terrestrial bromeliads<strong><sup>2,3,4,5</sup></strong>. The Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n drainage has been cultivated for a long time and its habitat has progressively deteriorated<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The spread of oil palm plantations and cattle ranching are serious threats within its limited range, and oil extraction is a potential future problem<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150185	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150186	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150187	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>High-altitude forests have been surveyed and conservation measures proposed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in Huascar&aacute;n National Park, Ancash, but habitat degradation continues, even within this reserve<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to determine its distribution and population size<sup>2,4</sup></strong>, especially on the east slope of the Cordillera Blanca<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Survey the extent and degree of isolation/connectivity of <em>Polylepis</em></strong>-<em>Gynoxys</em> in north-central Peru, and determine the effect of fragmentation on this species<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Implement a management plan for Huascar&aacute;n National Park<sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150187	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poospiza alticola</em> is restricted to the high Andes of north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (south Cajamarca, east La Libertad and east Ancash), where it is largely rare to uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Most reports are from the Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, where it is common at Morococha<strong><sup>4,5 </sup></strong>and within Huascar&aacute;n National Park<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. High-altitude woodlands are now highly fragmented and diminishing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Even in apparently optimal habitat, this species usually occurs at low densities (1-4 individuals per day have been recorded at several sites), and the population is probably very small<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150187	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies shrubby forest and mixed <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> woodland at 3,500-4,300&#160;m (rarely to 2,900&#160;m)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and in some areas it is apparently a <em>Gynoxys</em> (Compositae) specialist, or even dependent on the plant<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species's abundance is apparently not related to forest extent<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, nor to the abundance of Tit-like Dacnis <em>Xenodacnis parina</em>, an apparent competitor. It feeds on sugary secretions (although this is disputed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>) and insects from the undersides of <em>Gynoxys</em> leaves<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and from <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. Breeding probably occurs in December-February. <br/></p>	eng
150187	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km2 x 1,980 km2 (20% EOO) = 990-4,950, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499, as known to occur at low densities, and is largely "rare to uncommon" (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150187	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Cutting for firewood and a lack of regeneration, caused by burning and intensive grazing, are reducing mixed <em>Polylepis</em>-<em>Gynoxys</em> woodlands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Gynoxys</em> itself has been variously described as unpalatable, favoured for grazing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and particularly vulnerable to grazing of shoots, which prevents regeneration<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Other factors include the change from camelid to sheep- and cattle-farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification, road construction and the inadequacy of afforestation projects (particularly the use of exotic tree species)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150188	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150189	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150190	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150192	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There have been surveys of high-altitude forests and conservation measures proposed<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species has been recorded within Huascar&aacute;n National Park on the Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, but habitat degradation is continuing in the area<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Z&aacute;rate forest has been proposed as part of a "Communal Ecological Reserve with high protection rank"<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Remnant forest areas that could hold populations of this species have been identified in the R&iacute;o Supe-Ambar valley, at Chilete-Cosp&aacute;n (a large forest), Sunchubamba, Llagu&eacute;n, Llagueda, Yanac and Huanchay-San Dami&aacute;n<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey dry forests identified as potentially important for the species<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Study the species's ecology to identify beneficial conservation measures. Effectively protect Z&aacute;rate forest. Implement the managment plan for Huascar&aacute;n National Park. <br/></p>	eng
150192	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poospiza rubecula</em> has been found at a few scattered localities in west <strong>Peru</strong> (south Cajamarca, La Libertad, Ancash, Lima and Ica<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>). It is very rare, occurring at low densities even at known sites, and the population is apparently very small. It breeds in the Z&aacute;rate forest, Lima, where six birds have been recorded, which is more than at any other locality<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150192	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is found at elevations of 2,350-3,700&#160;m in composite scrub (especially <em>Eupatorium</em> and <em>Gynoxys</em>), woodland and dry scrub-forest adjacent to <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and, at Z&aacute;rate forest, in bushy undergrowth in the upper parts of mixed, dry woodland (<em>Oreopanax</em>, <em>Myrcianthes</em> and <em>Escallonia</em> dominated)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It forages for young leaf buds, berries and seeds. Immatures have been collected in January, April and May. It may undertake seasonal altitudinal movements<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150192	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km2 x 248 km2 (20% EOO) = 124-620, but probably best placed in band 250-999 (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150192	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Humans have utilised upland areas in Peru for thousands of years, but agricultural intensification, the change from camelid to more destructive livestock (goats, sheep and cattle), and afforestation with exotic trees (e.g. <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em>) are relatively new and highly significant detrimental factors<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. High-altitude habitats are greatly modified by livestock-grazing, with unpalatable and grazing-resistant species favoured, while other species of shrub are lost<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Whether changes in the species-composition have an effect on <em>P. rubecula</em> is not known. The number of goats is possibly rising in the species's range, and heavy grazing has severely limited tree regeneration at Z&aacute;rate forest, a problem compounded by cutting for timber<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150193	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Tunari National Park<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but local pressure is being applied to have this status reduced to departmental park, which would render its (already minimal) levle of protection still less effective<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A project within the park is reducing pressure on <em>Polylepis</em> forest by providing glasshouses and gas stoves to local people, and excluding cattle from the forest<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. Several reforestation programmes are in progress on hills in the Cochabamba area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys of high-altitude habitats have been conducted, and suggestions for their conservation published<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveys of high-altitude habitat and assess the species's ecological requirements in detail<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Ensure the effective protection of birds and habitats within Tunari National Park, and the Cochabamba basin as a whole<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand <em>Polylepis</em></strong> planting programmes, and restore natural habitats in the Cochabamba basin<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150193	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poospiza garleppi</em> is restricted to the montane slopes surrounding Cochabamba city, <strong>Bolivia</strong>. Recent visits to most known localities revealed no more than 1-2 pairs per locality, except within Tunari National Park, where 20 were seen in 1994<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and near Totora, outside Carrasco National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Present distributional knowledge suggests that the population may number between several hundred and a few thousand individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150193	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits ravines with scattered trees such as <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus</em>, and a variety of dense, thorny bushes. It also frequents mixed agricultural and forested land<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It occurs primarily at 2,950-3,800&#160;m, occasionally to 2,700 and 3,900&#160;m. The diet is apparently mainly seeds, but insect parts have also been recorded. <br/></p>	eng
150193	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Collar <em>et al</em>. (1992) <br/></p>	eng
150193	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Settlement and agricultural conversion have already had a dramatic effect on its habitats, and further expansion threatens remaining fragments. The destruction of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland, through clearance for cultivation, firewood collection, replacement with <em>Eucalyptus</em>, and burning for pasture, is a serious threat, even within Tunari National Park<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Its very small range renders it vulnerable to any habitat alteration. <br/></p>	eng
150194	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A reserve holding some ravines inhabited by this species has been created at El Infiernillo, Tucum&aacute;n<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, but this is at the upper limit of its altitudinal range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are recent records from Campo de los Alisos National Park, Tucum&aacute;n<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and Cordillera de Sama Biological Reserve, Tarija<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to locate additonal populations and assess population size. Assess the state and distribution of suitable habitat and subsequently implement protection measures. Officially declare the proposed Aconquija National Park. Undertake public awareness campaigns focusing on sustainable land-use and protection of streamside vegetation. <br/></p>	eng
150194	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poospiza baeri</em> has been found at relatively few localities in the Sierra del Manchao and Sierra de Ambato, Catamarca, on the east slope of Sierra del Aconquija and Sierra de Medina, Tucum&aacute;n, and in adjacent Salta, Jujuy and La Rioja, north-west <strong>Argentina</strong>. There is one record from <strong>Bolivia</strong> of two individuals at Estancia Waykhu, Tarija, in December 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population was estimated at 180-200 birds, with only a few hundred hectares of suitable habitat available in 1985. There have been no estimates since more recent range extensions to the north and south<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but the known population is still small. <br/></p>	eng
150194	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense scrub in semi-humid to semi-arid, steep-sided ravines, gullies and stream shores with mesophytic shrubs. It is occasionally observed in adjacent grassy and rocky habitats<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and may frequent forest edge or shrubbery with patches of grass and trees such as <em>Polylepis</em> and <em>Alnus<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong></em>. It occurs at 2,500-3,300&#160;m in the breeding season, but nearer 2,000&#160;m in the late austral autumn and winter, when it joins mixed-species flocks in riverside scrub and <em>Salix</em> groves and gardens (especially during heavy snowfalls)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. Nests with 2-3 eggs have been found in January and February<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A bird has been seen carrying a grasshopper<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and it probably feeds on seeds. <br/></p>	eng
150194	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,940 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 970-4,850, but probably best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals in the absence of population estimates since recent range extensions to the north and south (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150194	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Human settlement in the region has brought goats and cattle, which have destroyed habitat in some ravines. Potato and strawberry plantations are expanding to areas increasingly close to its known distribution. The use of pesticides during the breeding season has affected other species in the region, and may have an impact if the practice is extended<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Fires in adjacent grasslands could spread into ravines. <br/></p>	eng
150195	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150196	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150197	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150198	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150199	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and occurs in Emas, Bras&iacute;lia, Serra do Cip&oacute; and Chapada dos Veadeiros National Parks, Peti Reserve, Serra do Brigadeiro State Park and Mangabeiras Park<strong><sup>1,4,6,9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas with historical records and any additional habitat fragments. Determine its tolerance of degraded habitats across its range. Study to determine the likely causes of its scarcity. Protect known sites in west Minas Gerais. Reverse the aspects of government land reforms that encourage habitat loss. <br/></p>	eng
150199	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Poospiza cinerea</em> is scarce and local in interior <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are recent records from eight sites in Minas Gerais<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Emas, Alta Paraiso and Mina&ccedil;u in Goi&aacute;s, and near Bras&iacute;lia in Distrito Federal. It may have been extirpated in Mato Grosso (no records since 1904), Mato Grosso do Sul (one record in 1937) and S&atilde;o Paulo (none since 1901). There is evidence that this has always been a rather scarce bird, but the extent of habitat loss indicates suggests that it has probably declined significantly; however recent reports that it is frequent at a number of degraded sites may indicate that it is more numerous than previously believed. <br/></p>	eng
150199	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It was previously thought to inhabit campo cerrado grasslands and possibly open deciduous woodland but recent reports suggest that it favours degraded areas, including burnt areas of campo rupestre, orchards, old pastures and abandoned mines<strong><sup> 8</sup></strong>, mostly at 600-1,400 m. It may be semi-nomadic in response to fire succession and is extending its range towards degraded areas in eastern Minas Gerais<strong><sup> 8</sup></strong>. The only breeding record was in September<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150199	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150199	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The combined effects of grazing, invasive grasses, annual burning and conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pastures for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform)<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong> had heavily or moderately altered two-thirds of the Cerrado region by 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most of the destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Mining activities are reportedly affecting habitat in the south Cadeia do Espinha&ccedil;o<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. However, recent information indicates that this species not only persists in, but may in fact favour, modified habitats such as degraded and burnt cerrado, orchards, old pastures and abandoned mines<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the Atlantic Forest region of eastern Minas Gerais the species appears to be extending its range as the amount of degraded habitat increases<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> has been recorded in the Serra do Cip&oacute; and will presumably increase with conversion to pastures<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150200	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150201	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150202	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150203	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150204	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150205	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150206	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150207	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150208	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150211	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150212	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150213	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150214	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Emberizoides duidae</em> inhabits campo grasslands at 1,300-2,100 m on Cerro Duida in Amazonas, south <strong>Venezuela</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. It is very poorly known but, owing to the largely inaccessible nature of the isolated tepuis region, its habitat remains relatively undisturbed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, many of the endemic plants of the tepuis harbour flammable secondary compounds which help to spread fire and, given its small range, this could have an affect on available habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Any such habitat loss would be absolute as tepuis vegetation tends not to regrow but is replaced by bracken <em>Pteridium</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150215	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150216	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150217	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Embernagra longicauda</em> occurs locally in arid montane scrub, dry savanna and agricultural land with scattered palms and ground bromeliads at 700-1,300 m on the serras of east <strong>Brazil</strong> (interior central Bahia and Minas Gerais)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Much of its range was colonised when diamonds and gold were found in this region in the 19th century, and small operations persist. Quartz crystals and manganese are also mined. Increasing conversion of land for cattle ranching is presumably the principal current threat<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, but deforestation may be permitting it to expand its range southward<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150218	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the global population to number >50,000,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 50,000,000-100,000,000 individuals here.	eng
150219	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, and regularly occurs in (at least) Tijuca, Serra dos &Oacute;rg&atilde;os and Itatiaia National Parks, Serra do Mar, Desengano and Ilha do Cardoso State Parks, Ubatuba Experimental Station, Brazil<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Argentine records are from Iguaz&uacute; National Park and Obraje Esmeralda Provincial Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop a long-term study of bamboo specialist birds in Atlantic forest. Assess the distribution of suitable bamboo stands. Protect stands of even secondary forest outside reserves to facilitate its nomadic movements. Effectively protect existing reserves, especially against trappers during bamboo flowerings. Completely ban the capture of wild birds. Develop a CMS agreement for nomadic bamboo species. <br/></p>	eng
150219	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila frontalis</em> has become very patchily distributed in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, with a few records in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> and east <strong>Paraguay</strong>. In Brazil, the bulk of records are from Rio de Janeiro, with recent records in Minas Gerais and S&atilde;o Paulo. It is rarer in Esp&iacute;rito Santo (records in 1979 and 1984), Paran&aacute; (1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), Santa Catarina (1991 and 1992<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>) and Rio Grande do Sul (no records since the 19th century). There are two records for Misiones, Argentina: Iguaz&uacute; in 1978 and Obraje Esmeralda in 1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The only record for Paraguay is a specimen collected at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century. In Brazil, "hundreds" to "thousands" were noted at single sites in 1883, 1952 and 1985, and it is still periodically fairly common to common at several sites. However, it is not regularly recorded at any one site, and these large counts may represent a high proportion of the population. The population has been greatly reduced since the late 19th century, and it is now more frequently seen in cages than the wild. <br/></p>	eng
150219	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a nomadic bamboo specialist, inhabiting forest interior, borders, second growth and cultivated land adjacent to forest. Breeding has been recorded in the austral spring (September-October) when males are territorial and very vocal in or near bamboo flowerings. <br/></p>	eng
150219	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 7,700 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,850-19,250, but probaby best placed in band 2,500-9,999, as is a nomadic bamboo specialist and is "patchily distributed" (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150219	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The rapid and continuing clearance of Atlantic forest has extended the intervals between major bamboo flowerings and nestings, and its nomadic habits suggest that existing reserves may afford inadequate protection. Persecution for the pet trade is severe, with lots of 100-200 birds recorded on sale at certain times in Rio de Janeiro. <br/></p>	eng
150220	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in Desengano, Serra do Mar, Ilha do Cardoso State Parks, Itatiaia National Park and Ubatuba Experimental Station<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, it occurs in Mbaracay&uacute; Forest Nature Reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and Caaguaz&uacute; National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, in Argentina, Iguaz&uacute; National Park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Develop a long-term study of bamboo specialist birds in Atlantic forest. Assess the distribution of suitable bamboo stands. Protect stands of even secondary forest outside reserves to facilitate its nomadic movements. Effectively protect existing reserves, especially against trappers during bamboo flowerings. Completely ban the capture of wild birds. Develop a CMS agreement for nomadic bamboo species.</strong></p>	eng
150220	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila falcirostris</em> is rare in the Atlantic forest of south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>, east <strong>Paraguay</strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. In Brazil, recent records are concentrated in Rio de Janeiro and S&atilde;o Paulo, with additional records from Bahia (only one recent record in 1987), Esp&iacute;rito Santo (1940 and undated), Minas Gerais (specimen from 1936), and Paran&aacute; (specimen from 1930). The only recent records from Argentina are from Iguaz&uacute; in Misiones. The Paraguayan records are from Salto do Gua&iacute;ra (1977) and Mbaracay&uacute; (1995) in Canindey&uacute;, and Caaguaz&uacute; in Caazap&aacute; (1995)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It has been considered locally common, but never as common as the sympatric Buffy-fronted Seedeater <em>S. frontalis</em>. Most records refer to the collection or observation of a single or a few individuals at any given locality and, to some extent, it may be genuinely rare.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150220	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This nomadic bamboo specialist occurs mainly in the middle and higher strata of secondary or disturbed forest and forest borders. It has been observed in <em>Chusquea</em> and <em>Guadua</em> bamboo. Breeding probably occurs in the austral spring. The only discovered nest was found at the forest edge.</p>	eng
150220	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 4,100 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,050-10,250, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150220	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The continuing clearance of Atlantic forest has extended the physical and temporal distances between bamboo flowerings and nestings, and its nomadic habits suggest that existing reserves may afford inadequate protection. It is relatively scarce in trade, but this is almost certainly a reflection of its rarity rather than a lack of demand.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150221	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150222	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150223	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150225	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150226	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150227	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150228	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150229	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150230	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150231	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A seven day survey in the Araguaia river floodplain in December 2008-2009 failed to find the species<sup>4</sup>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search </strong><em>Sporophila</em> spp. flocks in Goi&aacute;s and adjacent Mato Grosso, including the Pantanal do Rio das Mortes, Mato Grosso, areas along Ilha do Bananal, Tocantins, and perhaps northern Paraguay and eastern Bolivia. <strong>Carry out further wide-ranging surveys of the Araguaia Valley at different seasons to fully discount the possibility that <em>S. melanops</em> is either still extant or a valid taxon. Re-examine the type-specimen to fully establish the diagnostic characters and determine its moult stage, and examine specimens of <em>nigricollis</em> to determine whether any show some or all of the characters associated with <em>melanops</em><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150231	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Sporophila melanops</em> is known from one adult male collected in October 1823. The specimen was taken at a lake 15 km north of Registro do Araguaia, on the east bank of the rio Araguaia in extreme west-central Goiás, <strong>Brazil</strong>. Searches along the floodplain of the Araguaia river, most recently in December 2008-January 2009, have not produced any sightings<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
150231	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The type-specimen was obtained from a flock of other finches in presumably open habitat. It was in heavy moult.<p></p>	eng
150231	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Any remaining population assumed to be tiny, with no records since the collection of the type specimen in 1823. <br/><p></p> <br/><p></p>	eng
150231	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	None are known. Habitat destruction in the region is unlikely to have been sufficiently extensive to extirpate the species. However, the year-round distribution of the species is unknown and therefore deductions regarding threats are somewhat meaningless. <br/><p></p>	eng
150232	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150233	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150234	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150235	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150236	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150237	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado (three sites, Bolivia) and Pantanal Matogrossense (Brazil) National Parks. In 1997, Noel Kempff Mercado was expanded westward and now protects more suitable habitat where the species may occur. Domestic animals have been removed from Flor de Oro<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to elucidate the breeding and non-breeding ranges, and the pattern and nature of movements<sup>2,3,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Remove domestic animals from Noel Kempff Mercado and Pantanal National Parks<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Manage areas beyond the boundaries of Noel Kempff Mercado<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate a protected area in the Campos do Encanto region<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150237	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila nigrorufa</em> is currently known from seven sites in east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Santa Cruz) and three in adjacent west-central <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul)<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Small numbers of <em>Sporophila</em> sp. at three additional sites in Mato Grosso probably refer to austral winter records of this species<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The major breeding site is Flor de Oro in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Santa Cruz. Breeding and several flocks of up to 60-70 birds have been recorded in October-December and several hundred have been estimated in late May, but very few individuals have been found in July-October<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A local density of two birds per km<sup>2</sup> was estimated at Los Fierros, Neol Kempff Mercado, based on numbers of adult males seen in August-September<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A population of around six pairs rearing 6-10 juveniles per year occurs near San Ignacio de Velasco, Santa Cruz, in the wet season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. East of Vila Bela da Santa&iacute;ssima Trinidade, Mato Grosso, 55 presumably breeding birds were counted in January 1988<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and at least 100 non-breeding condition birds were present in July 1997<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150237	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds during the austral summer/wet season in seasonally flooded grassland with scattered bushes and trees, which are frequently clumped on decomposing termite mounds. The diet consists primarily of grass seeds. It may be nomadic and/or migratory since it seems to occur in some areas only in the dry season<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong> and birds recorded near Concepci&oacute;n, Santa Cruz, were thought to be on passage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150237	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Pearce-Higgins (1996); S. Davis <em>in litt</em>. (1995, 1999); L. F. Silveira <em>in litt</em>. (1999); Willis and Oniki (1990). <br/></p>	eng
150237	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The effects of extensive and continuing conversion of grassland habitats to agriculture are intensified by its possibly nomadic and/or migratory behaviour. Satellite images reveal that large areas in west Mato Grosso have been converted to agriculture<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding sites are presumably affected by cattle-grazing and trampling<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150238	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150239	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150240	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150241	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila ruficollis</em> occurs locally up to 1,200 m in the grasslands of <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, Santa Cruz, La Paz and Tarija), south <strong>Brazil</strong> (records from south Mato Grosso, south Goi&aacute;s, west Minas Gerais, west S&atilde;o Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Paraguay </strong>(south-east and even in Chaco), north <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Artigas and Paysand&uacute;) and north <strong>Argentina</strong> (south to Tucum&aacute;n, north C&oacute;rdoba, Santa Fe and rarely to north Buenos Aires)<strong><sup>1,3,9</sup></strong>. There has been a clear decline in north-east Argentina, where it is also found in scrubbier habitats, not necessarily near water<strong><sup>4,8,9</sup></strong>. It is fairly common to common in north Bolivia<strong><sup>2,5,7</sup></strong>, and has been found relatively commonly on migration in Concepc&iacute;on, north-east Paraguay<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There has been extensive conversion of grasslands for agriculture and <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp. plantations, especially in the south of its range. The use of pesticides and annual burning on adjacent agricultural land have detrimental effects on breeding sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Habitat loss compounds the threat from trade by concentrating birds in a few sites easily accessible to trappers<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150242	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Brazil and Uruguay, and trapping is prohibited in Argentina. It breeds at Potrerillo de Santa Teresa Reserve, Uruguay<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Iber&aacute; Provincial Reserve, Argentina<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Emas National Park, Brazil, is possibly an important wintering site, and migrating birds occur in several Paraguayan and Argentine reserves.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey south Paraguay for breeding populations. Develop an action plan for this and similar seedeaters. Protect key sites, especially Arroyo Capilla-Arroyo Sauzal-Puerto Boca, Argentina. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands. Enforce the prohibition of trapping and trade. List on CMS Appendix I. Develop CMS agreement for this and similar seedeaters. Elucidate its taxonomic status.</strong></p>	eng
150242	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila palustris</em> breeds in <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes, Entre R&iacute;os and possibly Buenos Aires), <strong>Brazil</strong> (Rio Grande do Sul), <strong>Uruguay</strong> (200-300 birds in the r&iacute;o Uruguay basin and 400-600 in the south-east wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>) and possibly south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong>. It winters in Brazil (Bahia<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, Minas Gerais, Goi&aacute;s, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul) and perhaps north-east Paraguay, but there are very few records. Migrants are regularly recorded in east Paraguay<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>, and north Argentina. It can occur at high densities, but is extremely local and has declined substantially (at least) in Argentina and (to a lesser extent) Uruguay<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150242	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds during the austral summer in inundated grasslands and marshes. At other times, it inhabits various dry and wet grasslands.</p>	eng
150242	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150242	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Heavy trapping pressure has extirpated the species from parts of Argentina and threatens populations in the r&iacute;o Uruguay basin<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Potential breeding sites are intensively grazed, and some have been completely trampled by cattle. Rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp.<strong><sup>4,8,11</sup></strong> is even affecting wet valley bottoms, regardless of poor tree growth<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Pesticides and other chemicals are carried by drainage and run-off into marshes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In south-east Uruguay, there has been extensive drainage for agriculture and this is continuing at a local scale<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Mechanised agriculture, invasive grasses and annual burning additionally threaten winter and migration habitats<strong><sup>7,10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150243	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150244	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila hypochroma</em> has an apparently disjunct range in north and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, La Paz and Santa Cruz), south-west <strong>Brazil</strong> (Mato Grosso do Sul and Goi&aacute;s), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Buenos Aires, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre R&iacute;os and Formosa) and <strong>Paraguay</strong> (throughout the east and south-east, and Presidente Hayes in Chaco)<strong><sup>1,2,7,8</sup></strong>. Breeding has been proven in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay<strong><sup>3,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Southern breeding populations migrate north to winter in Brazil<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong> and possibly in Concepc&iacute;on, Paraguay<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Populations in Bolivia are apparently sedentary, but there are no data from late autumn and early winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has been reported near marshes, seasonally flooded grasslands, pastures and savanna-like areas to 1,100&#160;m, but breeding appears restricted to low, seasonally wet grasslands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Widespread destruction and modification of grasslands in central South America for mechanised agriculture, intensive cattle-grazing and afforestation with non-native tree genera, and pressure from trappers suggest that the species is declining rapidly. However, it has been claimed that Argentine populations are expanding in range and number<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, but this may be an artifact of improved observer awareness and knowledge. CMS Appendix I. <br/></p>	eng
150245	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix I. In Argentina, trapping is prohibited, and it breeds in El Palmar National Park<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds have only been recorded numerously at Emas National Park, Goi&aacute;s<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Locate the most important breeding and wintering sites. Survey grasslands in Misiones and </strong>&Ntilde;eembuc&uacute;, Paraguay, for breeding populations. <strong>Develop an action plan for this and similar seedeaters. Remove incentives for afforesting grasslands. Manage habitat in the Arroyo Sauzal area<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Establish a reserve network in the southern Paraguayan grasslands. Enforce the prohibition of trapping and trade<sup>12</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop a CMS agreement for this and similar seedeaters. <br/></p>	eng
150245	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila cinnamomea</em> breeds in north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (not uncommon in Corrientes but more local in Entre R&iacute;os<strong><sup>4,12</sup></strong>), west and extreme south-east <strong>Uruguay</strong> (mostly Paysand&uacute;, R&iacute;o Negro and Rocha, but also Artigas, Soriano and Trenta y Tres<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), extreme south-east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Itap&uacute;a<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>) and southernmost <strong>Brazil</strong> (west and south-central Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>). Migrants have been recorded in Argentina (Misiones, Formosa and Buenos Aires)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and throughout east Paraguay (including Presidente Hayes)<strong><sup>5,7,9,10</sup></strong>, with presumed wintering birds in Brazil (Par&aacute;, Goi&aacute;s, Minas Gerais, S&atilde;o Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul)<strong><sup>13,15</sup></strong> and perhaps north-east Paraguay. In 1969, there were c.100 males at Arroyo Bar&uacute; and Arroyo Perucho Verna, Argentina, but only one singing male at Arroyo Bar&uacute; in 1992<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1991-1993 found no more than eight males at any site in Argentina<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 1998, there were 23 males at &Ntilde;u Guazu, Paraguay<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150245	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in periodically inundated grassland and marsh, especially with tall, dense grasses (particularly <em>Paspalum</em>)<strong><sup>12,13</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150245	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.5-2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 5,900 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 2,950-14,750, i.e. best placed precautionarily in band 2,500-9,999 (density range up to lower quartile of 46 estimates for 30 species of Emberizine finch in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150245	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Heavy trapping pressure is compounded by extensive habitat conversion. Rapid afforestation with <em>Eucalyptus</em> and <em>Pinus</em> spp.<strong><sup>6,12,16</sup></strong> is even affecting wet valley bottoms, regardless of subsequent poor tree growth<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Pesticides and other chemicals are carried by drainage and run-off directly into marshes<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Mechanised agriculture, invasive grasses and annual burning additionally threaten winter and migration habitats<strong><sup>11,14</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150247	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sporophila melanogaster</em> occurs in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (west Minas Gerais and south Goi&aacute;s south to Rio Grande do Sul) at 700-1,100&#160;m and lower altitudes in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is locally common in tall southern temperate grasslands, freshwater marshes and scrub, and is seasonally numerous (at least November-March) as a breeder in the highlands of Santa Catarina and north-east Rio Grande do Sul<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Although apparently an austral migrant to the north of its range, its non-breeding range is poorly known<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is presumably threatened as a result of rapid destruction of its habitat by extensive cattle-ranching, agriculture, invasive grasses, wetland drainage and excessive pesticide use<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150248	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150249	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in north and east Colombia (in humid Caribbean lowlands west to Córdoba and locally east of the Andes), where it may be expanding its range following deforestation (Stiles et al. 1999), Venezuela (not recorded from the north-west or from most of the Ilanos region), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Amazonian Brazil (south only to the Amazon), and north-east Peru (Loreto to Huánuco); it may persist in small numbers on Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago (ffrench 1992, Ridgely and Tudor 1989).	eng
150249	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits freshwater marshes, riparian thickets and second-growth scrub, mostly below 500 m but it has been recorded to 700 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1989, Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150249	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150249	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The principal threat is the depletion of local populations by bird trappers (Ridgely and Tudor 1989), although this is not considered a threat in Colombia (F. G. Stiles in litt. 1999).	eng
150250	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (Restall 2006).	eng
150251	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Oryzoborus maximiliani</em> has very disjunct range on the Pacific slope and south-east <strong>Colombia</strong>, south-west and east <strong>Ecuador</strong>, very locally in east <strong>Peru</strong>, north <strong>Bolivia</strong> (one locality), locally in east <strong>Venezuela</strong>, <strong>French Guiana (to France)</strong>, lower Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong> and locally in east and south Brazil; its occurrence in Guyana is uncertain<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. The species is very local and patchily distributed. It occurs in riparian thickets, freshwater marshes and second-growth scrub to 1,100 m<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. At least in Colombia, it can be locally very common, where it also frequents rice plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The principal threat is the depletion of local populations by cage-bird trappers<strong><sup>2,3,4</sup></strong> and this activity has caused it to vanish from most of its former Brazilian range. In fact, several long-term Brazilian ornithologists have failed to find this species in wild during the last 10 years and its remaining wild population must be very small.  The significant captive population in Brazil may be used for future reintroductions but the chances of that happening in the short-term are slim because the birds are very valuable, attaining high market prices. The assessment of the global status of the species is complicated as some subspecies may be actually full biological species (like Amazonian <em>atrirostris</em>) or part of <em>O. crassirostris</em> (<em>occidentalis</em>). The threat posed by trapping has elevated this species to Near Threatened but clarification of species limits within the taxa are clearly required and will undoubtedly result in further re-evaluation in the future. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150252	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150253	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amaurospiza moesta</em> inhabits lowland and montane Atlantic forest up to 1,600&#160;m in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (south Esp&iacute;rito Santo, south-east Minas Gerais, east S&atilde;o Paulo, Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina and north Rio Grande do Sul, with one historical record from south Maranh&atilde;o), east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindey&uacute;, Caazap&aacute;, Itap&uacute;a and Alto Paran&aacute;) and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones)<strong><sup>2,4,8,9,10</sup></strong>. In Brazil, it is relatively common in the Serra do Mar and Paran&aacute;<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but very local elsewhere<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In Argentina, it is locally common, especially in the highlands<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, but it is rare in Paraguay, even at the few sites where it has been recorded<strong><sup>2,4,5,10</sup></strong>. It is particularly found where there is extensive <em>Chusquea</em> or <em>Guadua</em> spp. bamboo stands<strong><sup>4,7,8</sup></strong> but is possibly less dependent on bamboo flowerings than Temminck's Seedeater <em>Sporophila falcirostris</em><strong><sup>4,11</sup></strong>. There are still extensive tracts of montane forest, particularly in S&atilde;o Paulo, but lowland Atlantic forest has been severely degraded and is now threatened by urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150254	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150255	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150256	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150257	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150258	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150259	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150260	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150261	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150262	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150263	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150264	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150265	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150266	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150267	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150268	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150269	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150270	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Gu&aacute;charo National Parks. The latter was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey El Gu&aacute;charo National Park, Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio, Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire and Cerro Humo to assess its precise distribution and estimate populations<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess its habitat requirements and tolerance to degradation and disturbance<sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150270	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Diglossa venezuelensis</em> is restricted to the Cordillera de Caripe (on the borders of Anzo&aacute;tegui, Monagas and Sucre) and westernmost Paria Peninsula (Sucre), north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong>. Collections from the 1920s and 1930s suggest that it was once not uncommon, but there have been relatively few records since. There are recent reports from Cerro Negro and Los Cumbres de San Bonifacio in the Cordillera de Caripe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Cerro Humo on the Paria Peninsula. It has been recorded elsewhere in the Cordillera de Caripe, but searches in 1998 failed to find the species in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Surveys on Cerro Humo in 1990-1991, and numerous subsequent visits, have been unsuccessful, and it has never been recorded elsewhere on the peninsula. <br/></p>	eng
150270	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane, evergreen forest edge, secondary forest and second growth scrub<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, at elevations of 1,525-2,450&#160;m on the Cordillera de Caripe, and c.885&#160;m on the Paria Peninsula. It may have specialised habitat requirements, associating with the ecotone between <em>Clusia</em>-dominated forest and herbaceous vegetation, which would explain its apparently restricted distribution on Cerro Negro. <br/></p>	eng
150270	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10 individuals/km2 x 414 km2 (45% EOO) = 4,410, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density range lowest of three estimates for three congeners in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150270	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe, resulting in extensive degradation of forest. Even in El Gu&aacute;charo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana and citrus plantations in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire, but extensive forest areas remain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture since the mid- to late 1980s have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. A proposed gas pipeline on the Paria Peninsula could have disastrous consequences for the species's habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A new paved road from G&uuml;iria to Macuro will almost certainly lead to increased habitat clearance<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150271	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150272	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been recorded in Paramillo and Munchique National Parks, but these may offer little <em>de facto</em> protection<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine the population size and trends at the sites with recent records. Survey the high peaks of the West Andes, notably in Farallones de Cali National Park<sup>6 </sup></strong> to determine the true extent of the range and overall population size of this species <strong>Support, finance and enforce better conservation measures for the two national parks. Manage protected p&aacute;ramos by increasing the amount of time between fires<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Extend the </strong>Parque Natural Nacional Las Orqu&iacute;deas into the p&aacute;ramo zone<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150272	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Diglossa gloriosissima</em> is local and apparently scarce in the West Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong><sup>6</sup>. Until recently it was known from three well-spaced localities in the West Andes of Colombia: P&aacute;ramo Frontino and Cerro Paramillo, both in Antioquia, and Cerro Munchique, in Cauca<strong><sup>1,4,6,</sup></strong>. The species went unreported for 40 years after a record from the p&aacute;ramo at Frontino in 1965<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but there have been recent reports from three localities. The first, an unpublished record from near Jardin, Antioquia, in October 2003<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, was closely followed by records at the type locality<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, and 70 km further south at Farallones del Citar&aacute;<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>, both in August 2004. At the latter site, three were netted and three others were seen in the field during three days of fieldwork<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. At the type locality, ten were observed and three collected during six days of fieldwork, and the species was described as locally common<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The small number of sightings probably reflects the dearth of fieldwork at these sites and on high mountains between them<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with the exception of the relatively well-known Cerro Munchique.  <br/></p>	eng
150272	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs near the timberline at elevations of 3,000-3,800 m in semi-humid/humid montane scrub and elfin forest edge, apparently ranging only a few metres or tens of metres below the p&aacute;ramo edge<strong><sup>1,4,5,6</sup></strong>.  Like most members of the genus, however, it does seem able to tolerate some habitat degradation and its population density is fairly high<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. An apparent competitor is Black-throated Flowerpiercer <em>D. brunneiventris</em>, territories of the two species being mutually exclusive in the p&aacute;ramo at Frontino<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150272	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Not uncommon in suitable habitat within a very small range. This population estimate is provisional and requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
150272	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Human settlement and extensive deforestation are threats near Cerro Paramillo. A communication facility, and associated military activity, near the top of Cerro Munchique and its timberline may have an impact<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Generally, the key threat to p&aacute;ramo/elfin forest habitats is livestock-grazing and fires set by tourists or to encourage the vegetation to shoot<strong><sup>2,3,7,9</sup></strong>. A study in Ecuador found Black Flowerpiercer <em>D. humeralis</em> to be significantly more abundant in p&aacute;ramo that had been unburnt for eight years than in p&aacute;ramo burnt two months before counts<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is not known whether <em>D. gloriosissima</em> uses the animal-pollinated flowers of herbs and shrubs in less-disturbed p&aacute;ramo (and largely replaced by grasses in frequently burnt p&aacute;ramos<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), but if so, it is likely to be significantly affected by frequent fires. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150273	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150274	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150275	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150276	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150277	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150278	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150279	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150280	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150281	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150282	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150283	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150284	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150285	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150286	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in a number of forest reserves, such as La Sorci&egrave;re and Edmond<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the species's current distribution and population, and use the results to design a conservation strategy. Curtail undergrowth clearing in plantations and other forested areas<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150286	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Melanospiza richardsoni</em> is endemic to <strong>St&#160;Lucia</strong> in the Lesser Antilles, where it is most numerous in the mountains<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1987 failed to find any large populations and noted that much apparently suitable habitat was unoccupied<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150286	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It exhibits considerable ecological flexibility, inhabiting rainforest, forest edge, secondary vegetation, plantations, shrubbery, semi-arid scrub and woodland, up to 800&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2,4</sup></strong>. However, it has a preference for dense undergrowth, which is naturally found in ravines within moist montane forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds feed primarily on the ground on seeds, fruit and insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Nesting has been recorded in April-June. <br/></p>	eng
150286	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.1 individuals/km2 x 131 km2 (45% EOO) = 275 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density estimate derived from results of surveys in 1987, which recorded 30 individuals in 14 occupied 1-km2 map squares). <br/></p>	eng
150286	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The clearing of undergrowth, particularly in timber plantations, renders areas completely unsuitable and is probably the major threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Introduced mongooses and rats may also predate eggs, nestlings and adults<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150287	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150288	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150289	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150290	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150291	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150292	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150293	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150294	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Galápagos islands, Ecuador, with breeding populations on Isabela, Santa Cruz, Santa Fé, Fernandina, Santiago, Floreana, Marchena, Pinta and Rábida (Castro and Phillips 1996, Stotz et al. 1996). It is extinct on Pinzón (Castro and Phillips 1996).	eng
150294	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits lowland deciduous and montane evergreen forest, between 300 and 700 m altitude (Stotz et al. 1996). It feeds on the fruits of native plant species, and on insects for which it forages under leaves and excavates dead branches (Castro and Phillips 1996).	eng
150294	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150295	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Gal&aacute;pagos National Park was gazetted in 1959, and includes almost all the land area of the islands. Although the Park includes most of Floreana, it does not include the agricultural zone of the island, an area which was the prime habitat for the Medium Tree-finch. In 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In December 2006 the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park began the eradication of goats and donkeys on Floreana which successful reduced their population to negligible numbers<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The Gal&aacute;pagos National Park places rat baiting stations around the Critically Endangered Gal&aacute;pagos Petrel breeding colony in the centre of Cerro Pajas, which may also reduce nest predation of Medium Tree-Finches in the immediate area<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Methods to control or eradicate <em>Philornis downsi </em>are currently being trialled by researchers and visiting scientists at the Charles Darwin Research Station<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor the population size. Investigate methods to control or eradicate <em>Philornis downsi</em>. Extend the national park to incorporate the agricultural zone on Floreana. Continue and extend control measures against introduced species.</strong>	eng
150295	distribution		<em>Camarhynchus pauper</em> is endemic to Floreana Island in the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, where has a small to moderate population in the highlands, and is uncommon to rare on the coast<strong><sup>3,6,11</sup></strong>. Recent estimates put the total population at not more than 1,660 individuals, and it has recently begun declining rapidly owing to the effects of the introduced parasite <em>Philornis downsi</em><strong><sup>10,13</sup></strong>. Its largest population can be found around the base of the volcano Cerro Pajas, where its preferred nesting tree: <em>Scalesia pedunculata</em> is dominant<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
150295	habitat		It inhabits montane evergreen and tropical deciduous forest, and <em>Scalesia</em>-zone humid scrub<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> mainly at elevations of 300-400 m<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects, nectar, young buds and leaves, probing crevices in the bark of trees and searching under twigs and foliage<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150295	population		The maximum size of the population was estimated at 1,660 individuals in 2008 (O'Connor <em>et al. </em>in prep.).	eng
150296	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150297	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150298	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The habitat of this species is protected within the Gal&aacute;pagos National Park and, in 1979, the islands were declared a World Heritage Site, although this was classified as threatened in 2007. Predator control is ongoing as is study into the control of <em>Philornis downsi</em><strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. A study of breeding biology commenced in 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and a follow up study started in 2006. Blood samples are being analysed to investigate the genetic structure of the remaining population and to clarify whether hybridisation is occurring, although preliminary results for the latter are negative<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Preliminary results, however, do appear to indicate that the species is highly inbred<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. A Darwin Initiative funded Mangrove Finch project co-ordinated by Gal&aacute;pagos National Park, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Charles Darwin Foundation began in 2007<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> with the aim of clarifying the need and proceedings for a breeding or translocation project. Possible sites for reintroduction have been visited on Isabela and habitat suitability assessments undertaken<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Remote mapping of mangrove has taken place throughout Isabela with the aim of locating suitable sites<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, and captive trials have begun using Woodpecker Finches in order to train personnel and develop husbandry techniques that can be transferred to Mangrove Finch in the future<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The current plan is to take ten young birds per year for three years from the main Tortuga Negra colony on the west coast and release them into mangroves on the east coast at Carthago Bay<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to survey dfor further populations. Establish yearly monitoring at Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue control measures for rats, wasps, anis, cats and fire ants at Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black, and monitor effects on the population<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Further study the impact of <em>P. downsi </em>on adults and nestlings, and develop effective control methods.</strong>	eng
150298	distribution		<em>Camarhynchus heliobates</em> is restricted to the Gal&aacute;pagos Islands, <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Historically, it was known from at least six mangrove patches on east Fernandina and east, south and west Isabela<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Recent surveys have failed to record the species on Fernandina, and it seems likely that it is now extinct as a breeding bird on the island - the last reported sighting may have been in 1971<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1997 and 1998, surveys on Isabela found breeding populations in only two areas, Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black on the north-west coast of the island, with estimated populations of 37 and 21 pairs respectively<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Subsequent surveys have estimated the population at 36 and 16 pairs in 1999<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, 24 and 14 pairs in 2007<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, and perhaps the most thorough surveys to date recorded c.40 pairs in each in 2009<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Surveys in the fairly extensive mangroves on the south-east coast of Isabela found three to five territories which probably contained breeding birds, but further areas of potentially suitable habitat remain unsurveyed<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. In 2008 several other historical sites were surveyed including Punta Espinoza (Fernandina), Bahia Elizabeth, Punta Moreno and Bahia Urbina but the only site at which birds were located was Carthago Bay, where there are thought to be a further 4-5 pairs individuals were seen<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>.	eng
150298	habitat		It inhabits dense mangrove swamps, where it feeds on insects, larvae, spiders and some vegetable matter<strong><sup>1,3,8</sup></strong>. Its breeding season coincides with the beginning of heavy rainfalls, normally in December to January, and lasts until the end of the rainy season, around May. Mangroves used by the species in the north-west appear to be structurally different from areas where it is absent suggesting it has subtle habitat preferences and suffers from habitat degradation<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It appears to favour mangrove with tall trees, relatively low canopy cover and abundant leaf litter and dead wood<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A separation of the mangroves from the sea seems to be crucial as this prevents the washing out of leaf litter etc. (the preferred feeding substrates)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.	eng
150298	population		Perhaps the most accurate surveys to date recorded c.40 territories at Playa Tortuga Negra and Caleta Black, and around five territories at Bahia Carthago. It is thought unlikely that the population varies much from 100 individuals (Fessl <em>et al.</em> 2010), hence a population of 80-120 mature individuals is used here.	eng
150299	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150300	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Cocos Island is a national park.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Assess the size of the population. Study the impact of introduced mammals, and factors that may affect the species's abundance.</strong><strong></strong></p>	eng
150300	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pinaroloxias inornata</em> is endemic to Cocos Island, c.500&#160;km from <strong>Costa Rica</strong>, where it is the most common landbird<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is abundant in the lowlands and sparser at higher altitude.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150300	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occupies every available habitat on the island, including <em>Hibiscus</em> thickets along coasts, woodland, open country and closed-canopy forest<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>, and is common in disturbed vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a generalist<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but individual birds usually specialise in one or a few of the various foraging techniques employed by the species as a whole<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs throughout the year, but is mostly concentrated in January-May<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150300	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150300	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Rats and cats are potential predators, and grazing by feral deer, pigs and goats degrades natural habitats on the island. There is also low-level disturbance from increasing tourism. However, none of these appears to have adverse affects.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150301	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds mainly in central USA, and winters nomadically from west Mexico to northern South America (Ecuador and Columbia east to French Guiana).	eng
150301	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found in open and semi-open areas, especially overgrown weedy fields and tallgrass prairie. It forms huge flocks in the winter, and up to 10-30% of the global population may occur in a single roost.	eng
150301	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is heavily persecuted in its wintering grounds in Venezuela, where roosts are poisoned with toxic agrochemicals, including organophosphates which are applied by crop-duster planes. The concentrations of birds at these roosts means that the species is particularly susceptible to such threats. However, on its breeding grounds the species is tolerant of agricultural activities, and has the ability to move in response to drought.	eng
150302	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150303	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150304	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150305	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150309	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150311	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150312	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150313	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150321	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150327	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Saltator cinctus</em> is known from very few localities on both slopes of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong> (Quind&iacute;o and Tolima<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), and on the east slope in south <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Morona-Santiago, Loja and west Napo) and north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (Piura, Cajamarca, Amazonas and Hu&aacute;nuco)<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>. It is rare and local within this highly disjunct range, in the canopy of montane evergreen and elfin forest, at 1,700-3,100 m <strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>. It has been observed in dense stands of <em>Chusquea</em> bamboo in Peru and Ecuador<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but recent records from Colombia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and Ecuador<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> suggest a much stronger association with <em>Podocarpus oleifolius</em>, which tends to comprise a very small proportion of total primary forest (less than 10% in Alto Quind&iacute;o, Colombia), and is very slow growing and heavily logged<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Ecuador, it undertakes non-seasonal movements, perhaps in response to changes in the availability of <em>Podocarpus</em> cones<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. This association consequently makes the status of <em>S. cinctus</em> extremely uncertain: the only known localities in Colombia are on the most deforested cordillera; the principal <em>Podocarpus</em> forests of Ecuador are in Loja, the most deforested Andean province<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>; and the montane forests of the north Andes are generally under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining and logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150328	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150329	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Saltator rufiventris</em> occurs in the east Andes of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potos&iacute;, Chuquisaca, Tarija, <strong>Bolivia</strong> and Jujuy and Salta in <strong>Argentina</strong>. It is very local outside Cochabamba, but increased field effort has resulted in discoveries at several new sites<strong><sup>1,4,5 </sup></strong>, and it is expected that further surveys will find it at new localities. It is common at some sites in Cochabamba and one area in La Paz<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, with the total population thought to exceed 10,000 birds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It inhabits the temperate zone at 2,500-4,000&#160;m in shrubby or open habitats (including agricultural land) with patches of scrub, <em>Polylepis</em> or <em>Alnus</em> woodland<strong><sup>1,4,5,6</sup></strong> (native species may be essential<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). Scrub and native woodland patches are being fragmented and converted to agricultural and commercial forest land-uses<strong><sup>2,5,6,7</sup></strong>, probably resulting in some population declines.</p>	eng
150330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150339	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Passerina ciris </em>occurs in two geographically disjunct populations: a western population breeding from northern <strong>Mexico</strong> to northern Texas, <strong>USA</strong>, and wintering in south-west <strong>Mexico</strong>; and an eastern population breeding along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina to Florida (<strong>USA</strong>) and wintering in southern Florida and the <strong>Caribbean</strong><sup>3</sup>. The western population breeds in scrub-brush habitat that remains largely intact, and the eastern population inhabits coastal plain agricultural land<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The global population is estimated to be 3.6 million birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Populations have declined since the mid-1960s and the species has been extirpated from parts of its range in south-west and east USA and north-east Mexico<strong><sup>3,4,8,9</sup></strong>. Breeding Bird Survey data from the continental USA (and for five years from north-east Mexico) indicates that the population has declined by 55% over the last 30 years<strong><sup>2,7</sup></strong>, with the steepest declines in the eastern population. Loss of habitat and capture for the cagebird trade are the primary threats<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>, with part of the declines also being attributed to brood-parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbird. Trapping and sale in local markets occurs in Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, and overseas to international markets in Europe, South America and Asia<strong><sup>1,2,6</sup></strong>. <em> <br/></p>	eng
150339	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004). <br/></p>	eng
150340	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Passerina rositae</em> has small range in south-east Oaxaca (Isthmus de Tehuantepec region west to the Chivela, Mat&iacute;as Romero and Juchit&aacute;n areas) and extreme south-west Chiapas (La Trinidad), <strong>Mexico<sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is locally fairly common to common in swamp forest, denser portions of deciduous forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, semi-humid deciduous gallery woodland and forest edge in hilly areas at 150-800&#160;m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Pan-American Highway has fragmented habitat within its restricted range<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Many forests are now degraded or secondary, but whether this has had a significant impact on this species is unclear.</p>	eng
150341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150342	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Passerina caerulescens</em> occurs in the interior of north-east and central <strong>Brazil</strong> (from south-east Par&aacute; and south Maranh&atilde;o to Piau&iacute;, west Bahia, Tocantins, Goi&aacute;s, Districto Federal, west and central Minas Gerais and south Mato Grosso), and east <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Beni, Santa Cruz and possibly Chuquisaca)<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. It is uncommon, patchily distributed and apparently declining at 600-1,100 m in campo cerrado, and particularly campo rupestre<strong><sup>4,6,9</sup></strong>. It has become very rare and local in Brazil but is apparently more numerous in Bolivia, where 5,000 individuals were estimated at Cerro San Sim&oacute;n, west Beni, in 1990<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Conversion to agriculture for <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantations, soybeans and pasture for exportable crops (encouraged by government land reform) have severely impacted its habitat, particularly in Brazil<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Two thirds of cerrado habitat had been extensively or significantly modified by 1993<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with most destruction having occurred since 1950<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150346	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150347	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150348	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150349	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150350	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150351	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park is near the most recent site and one of the old specimen localities, but the closed-canopy forest there may not be favoured by the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A number of natural biotic areas/anthropogenic reserves are located within its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and could contribute to its protection.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys to elucidate its distribution as a priority. Research its ecology, especially aspects related to conservation, such as precise habitat requirements. Ensure effective protection of the two currently known sites. Advocate conservation measures within natural biotic areas/anthropogenic reserves.	eng
150351	distribution		<em>Psarocolius cassini</em> is known from the foothills and lowlands around the serran&iacute;as de los Saltos and de Baud&oacute;, Choc&oacute;, north-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where four specimens were taken in 1858, 1940 and 1945. The only recent sightings are from a nesting colony at the headwaters of the r&iacute;o Acand&iacute; in 1991<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, and north of Ensenada de Utr&iacute;a National Park in 1997 and 1999, when two and six individuals respectively were seen<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its occurrence in the r&iacute;o Jurad&oacute; valley has never been documented, and this area should not be considered a valid locality<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
150351	habitat		It inhabits humid lowland forest and edge at 100-365&#160;m. It has been observed along rivers, and most recently on a sandy-soiled coastal plain<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may exhibit edaphic habitat specialisation and/or prefer primary forests with a naturally broken canopy, including very tall emergents in which feeding has been noted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Groups of 2-10 birds forage for fruit and insects in the canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Two individuals seen in 1997 associated with a flock of c.25 Chestnut-headed Oropendola <em>P. wagleri<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. The breeding season is probably May-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150351	population		Rare and localised but also poorly known, this population estimate should be treated as provisional and requires confirmation.	eng
150352	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150353	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150354	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150355	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common but patchily distrinuted' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150356	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150357	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has now been confirmed to occur in Manu National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to clarify the species's range and population, especially in the headwater regions of the r&iacute;os Alto Manu, Serjali, Mishagua, Cashpajali, de las Piedras, Cujar, Alto Pur&uacute;s, Curanja and possibly into west Brazil<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct further ecological research<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150357	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cacicus koepckeae</em> was long known only from the type-locality, Balta, in Loreto, <strong>Peru</strong>. However, fieldwork in 1998 and 1999 discovered the species on the r&iacute;o Shihuaniro near its confluence with the lower r&iacute;o Urubamba, and on the latter's tributary the upper r&iacute;o Camisea, both Cusco<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There were at least two possible sightings from Manu National Park, Madre de Dios, during the 1980s, but owing to the lack of subsequent records these were often disregarded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, in 2001, three groups were found near Cocha Cashu Biological Station<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, lending credence to the earlier Manu records. It may be genuinely rare, and is apparently highly local<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150357	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits humid forested lowlands and foothills at elevations of 300-575&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. All records are from river-margin habitats, including <em>Gymnerium</em> canebreaks and transitional forest on banks and islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Long periods of time spent within high-ground, <em>terra firme</em> forest adjacent to the recent sites have provided no further records<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs along relatively narrow rivers, but apparently not lower parts of major rivers such as the r&iacute;o Urubamba<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is probably arboreal, with pairs or small groups moving steadily through the canopy of transitional forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been seen foraging among clumps of seed pods, possibly for insects, and ignoring fruiting trees nearby<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The type-specimen was one of a party of six birds that were seen bathing and drinking, and groups of four to six have been recorded elsewhere<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150357	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rare and local, but probably fairly widespread. This estimate should be treated as provisional and requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
150357	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	If it is restricted to riverine habitats, it may be at some risk from actual and impending settlement and agricultural development. Small-scale, low-impact farming appears not to affect the species, and it has been heard calling from mosaics of forest and cultivated land around a village<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150358	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150359	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150360	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150361	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150362	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150364	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150365	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150366	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150367	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150368	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150369	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150370	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150371	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150378	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150379	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150380	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There is a comprehensive programme to monitor the population and breeding success<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and in 2001 a new research programme into the causes of the continuing decline was begun<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During 2003, preliminary tests of management interventions were made, aimed at boosting reproductive success<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In June 1999, eight birds were taken to Jersey Zoo to enable the development of husbandry techniques; initial attempts at captive breeding proved successful<strong><sup>4,9</sup></strong> and captive birds are now also present at several other locations in the UK, but there are currently no plans to augment the wild population with birds from captive stock<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The Centre Hills has been designated a protected area and development is not permitted within its marked boundaries<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A Species Action Plan was published in 2005. Experimental rat control in the Centre Hills commenced in 2006 and work to compare nest success in an area with experimental rat control with nest success in adjacent areas with high rat density was scheduled for 2008<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. A pig eradication programme is also planned for the island.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue the existing programme and research into the causes of the decline. Develop potential management interventions to boost reproductive success<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Continue the close monitoring of the population<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Investigate the reasons for the high densities of nest predators in the Centre Hills<sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
150380	distribution		This species inhabits an extremely small area on <strong>Montserrat (to UK)</strong> in the Lesser Antilles. By the early 1990s, it occurred throughout the three main forested hill ranges on the island (the Centre, Soufri&egrave;re and South Soufri&egrave;re hills), but volcanic activity in 1995-1997 entirely destroyed two-thirds of remaining habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Initially, only the Centre Hills (c.14 km<sup>2</sup>) population was thought to have survived the pyroclastic flows (although even this area was heavily ashed)<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but a remnant population was later discovered in a 1-2 km<sup>2</sup> forest patch in the South Soufri&egrave;re hills, just 1 km from the summit of the volcano<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In December 1997, the estimated population was c.4,000 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but intensive monitoring between 1997-2003 indicated that the Centre Hills population declined by 40-50%, despite reduced volcanic activity<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. In 2001, 2003 and 2006, further major volcanic eruptions caused heavy ash falls on large areas of the Centre Hills, destroying several nests and curtailing breeding<strong><sup>4,7,11</sup></strong>. Recent evidence suggests that the downward fluctuation noted between 1997-2003 may have been reversed and the population is recovering. In 2005 (post-recovery), using point-counts calibrated by territory mapping and the Extent of Occurrence defined by positive census records the population was estimated at 930-3,000 individuals in the Centre Hills (depending on method of extrapolation) and 150-300 individuals in the South Soufri&egrave;re population<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Confidence limits remain relatively wide, and the total population could conceivably be as low as 260 pairs or as high as 1,190 pairs<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
150380	habitat		It occurs in most forest types between c.150-900 m, but reaches highest densities in wetter, higher altitude forests, and is absent from areas of very dry forest<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It is found in all successional stages, and sometimes at the edges of cultivated areas and banana plantations but appears to be an obligate forest species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs in March-August, but the exact timing probably depends on the rainy season<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>. Nests are mainly suspended from the leaves of <em>Heliconia caribbaea</em>, although banana and other broad-leaved trees are also used<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its clutch-size is typically two or three. Unsuccessful pairs may attempt up to five clutches; successful pairs can very rarely rear three broods per year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It forages at all levels, but particularly in the understorey, feeding mainly on insects, but occasionally also on fruit and possibly nectar<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
150380	population		Bealey <em>et al</em>. (in prep.) estimate a total population within the range 460-590 pairs (260-1,190 95% CI) or 920-1,180 mature individuals, though based on 2004 survey data Hilton (2008) had previously estimated 5,200 individuals.	eng
150381	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected by domestic legislation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess and clarify the current status and distribution<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess the impact of brood-parasitism by <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em></strong>, and whether a control programme would be appropriate<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Avoid any further deforestation, as this is likely to result in <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em></strong> range expansions<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Initiate a public awareness campaign promoting <em>I.&#160;bonana</em></strong> as Martinique's only endemic bird<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150381	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Icterus bonana</em> remains common in <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong>. Recent surveys found densities of 2.4 birds/ha in central Martinique<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the population is likely to be above 10,000 individuals. It has declined in recent years<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, but suggestions of a dramatic decline appear unfounded<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150381	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It was originally present in most habitat-types below 700&#160;m, from semi-arid woodland, forest edge and tree plantations to rainforest, but it has been suggested that dry forests and mangroves are the most important habitats. It forages primarily in the canopy for fruit, berries and a variety of insects, either alone, in pairs or in small family groups. Breeding has been recorded from December, but generally occurs in February-July. <br/></p>	eng
150381	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150381	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On average, 75% of nests are parasitised by the recently established Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, but a recent decline in cowbird numbers has allowed a slight population recovery<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are suggestions that the native population of Carib Grackle <em>Quiscalus lugubris</em> has increased dramatically with concomitant increases in nest-predation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but there is little or no evidence of either increases in the grackle population or higher levels of predation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150382	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Icterus laudabilis</em> is a scarce but still widespread endemic on <strong>St&#160;Lucia</strong> in the Lesser Antilles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A total of 53 pairs were located in 1987 in coastal vegetation, dry scrub, edge of banana plantations, plantation forest, secondary and primary forest up to 700&#160;m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Since 1935, it has become less numerous and more local, probably owing to a combination of pesticide spraying, habitat loss, parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> and harassment by Bare-eyed Robin <em>Turdus nudigenis</em><strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
150382	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Temple <em>in litt. </em>(2005) estimated the population to be "more than 1,000, though possibly not dramatically more".   <br/></p>	eng
150383	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150385	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park extends over 800&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and protects a notable population<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. This is part of a system of protected areas comprising 40 or more legally designated forest reserves, some of which also protect the species<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the long-term security, and therefore value, of such reserves is uncertain because management and enforcement are weak, and habitat destruction is not restricted<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. Funding is actively being sought for the conservation of Cockpit Country<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to improve knowledge of the species's status and ecology<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Design and implement management plans for all designated reserves where <em>N.&#160;nigerrimus</em></strong> occurs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150385	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesopsar nigerrimus</em> is decidedly uncommon on <strong>Jamaica<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is widely distributed but local in Cockpit Country, the central hills (e.g. Worthy Park) and the Blue and John Crow Mountains<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150385	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Pairs occupy large territories in mature, wet to very wet montane, mist, elfin and limestone forests, and forest edge, with heavy epiphytic growth of bromeliads or <em>Phyllogonium</em> moss<strong><sup>1,2,4,7</sup></strong>. It occurs at elevations of 510-2,200&#160;m, with some birds moving to 210&#160;m in the wet north-east (John Crow Mountains) outside the breeding season, but it is generally absent from slopes exposed to strong winds<strong><sup>1,2,4,6,7,9</sup></strong>. The diet is animal food, especially insects, foraged for in the canopy among tree-ferns, epiphytes, moss-covered trunks and dead leaves<strong><sup>2,6,7,8</sup></strong>. It is a bromeliad specialist, with c.60% of foraging records noted on this substrate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150385	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20-56 individuals/km2 x 346 km2 (20% EOO) = 6,920-19,376, but best placed precautionarily within band 2,500-10,000 (density estimates from surveys in Blue Mountains and John Crow Mountains by Varty [1991]). <br/></p>	eng
150385	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss has been caused primarily by afforestation (mostly) with Caribbean pine <em>Pinus caribaea</em>, coffee plantations, removal of trees for charcoal-burning, deliberate fires, small-scale farming and development<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. It may have suffered especially from the removal of mature trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150386	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150388	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150389	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150390	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150392	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is currently classified in California as a Species of Special Concern and a Migratory Bird of Management Concern, categories which identify reduced populations but do not include the legal protections offered to species listed as threatened<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Measures have been taken at times to protect the nesting activities of the species, including purchasing portions of crops to preserve some large colonies, or delaying harvest to avoid impacting nests during the active breeding season. These actions and participation by landowners resulted in the survival of an estimated 37,000 to 44,000 first-year adults to the 1994 and 1995 breeding seasons<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the US Fish and Wildlife Service take the position that crop purchases or reimbursements for delayed harvest are not a feasible long-term solution for the species' management on private agricultural lands<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Management guidelines have been produced<strong><sup>6,7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Maintain a viable, self-sustaining population throughout current geographic range<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Avoid losses of colonies and their associated habitats and increase the breeding population on suitable public and private lands managed for this species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Enhance public awareness and support for protection of habitat and active colonies<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Create low-risk nesting substrates such as marshes and blackberries within key dairy regions of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys, to provide alternative nesting sites to grain silage fields, and monitor their use<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Delay harvesting or herbicide applications until after the colony completes the breeding cycle<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Protect and enhance Toledo Pit (Tulare County), an important breeding site<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Conduct regular range-wide censuses to monitor population trends. Initiate mark-recapture and ratio-telemetry studies to determine demographic rates such as survival, reproduction, and population growth, and site fidelity as related to reproductive success<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Conduct studies of foraging ecology to determine key characteristics and possibilities to enhance foraging habitat<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. List the species as Endangered under Federal law<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150392	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agelaius tricolor</em> is near-endemic to California, breeding mainly in the Central Valley and other points west of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, <strong>USA</strong>. It has also been recorded in Oregon, west Nevada<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, Washington<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and extreme northwest Baja California (<strong>Mexico</strong>). It has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 113,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The overall range of species is little changed since the mid-1930s, although numbers have declined markedly. In 1934, systematic surveys estimated >700,000 adults in just eight Californian counties, and found breeding birds in 26 counties, including one colony containing >200,000 nests (about 300,000 adults) covering 24 ha<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Studies in 1969-1972 reported an average of about 133,000 individuals/yr in Central Valley, and estimated that the global population had declined by >50% since 1934<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Intensive censuses conducted throughout California in 1994, 1997 and 2000 gave figures of 370,000, 233,000 and 162,000 respectively<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. This equates to a decline of 56% in six years. The California population is thought to make up >95% of the global population<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and thus the entire global population is now smaller than the size of individual colonies recorded in the 1930s.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150392	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a lowland species, but has bred to 1,300 m in the Klamath area (Oregon) and along the west side of the Sierras<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds in freshwater marshes with tall emergent vegetation, in upland habitats (especially thickets of non-native Himalayan blackberry <em>Rubus discolor</em>), and in silage fields<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.   It forages in agricultural areas, particularly where livestock are present and grass is short, and shows a preference for roosting in marshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. An opportunistic forager, the species takes any locally abundant insect including grasshoppers (Orthoptera), beetles and weevils (Coleoptera), caddis fly larvae (Trichoptera), moth and butterfly larvae (Lepidoptera), dragonfly larvae (Odonata), and lakeshore midges (Diptera), as well as grains, snails, and small clams<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Breeding typically occurs in April-July, when individuals congregate to form massive breeding colonies that are larger than those of any other extant North American landbird following the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon <em>Ectopistes migratorius</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Reproductive success is significantly higher in  non-native upland vegetation (primarily Himalayan blackberry) than it is in native wetland vegetation (cattail <em>Typha </em>spp.<em> </em>and bulrush <em>Scirpus </em>spp.), its predominant historic breeding habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In silage fields, which hold a significant proportion of the breeding population (17% in 2000), reproductive success can be disastrously low, as harvesting can result in the loss of entire colonies with tens of thousands of nests<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  Although it can be found throughout the breeding range during winter, the species is nevertheless partly migratory, with large numbers of birds being seen along the central Californian coast in the winter even though few nest in this area in the summer<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150392	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich et al (2003)	eng
150392	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Loss of upland nesting habitat, combined with low reproductive success in native habitats and complete breeding failure in harvested agricultural fields, are the most likely causes of recent declines<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Additionally, herbicide spraying and contaminated water are suspected to have caused complete breeding failure in several colonies<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Historic declines may have occured because of the loss of native wetlands (which have declined in area by >95% since the arrival of Europeans), loss of grasslands and grasshoppers (a main component of the species' diet), hunting, and large-scale poisoning efforts to control crop depredation that continued until the 1960s<strong><sup>1,4,5 </sup></strong>Because breeding success is so poor in native wetlands, protection of these habitats will not reverse population declines in the species - conservation measures must focus on agricultural land and upland habitats as well<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150393	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150394	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150395	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A programme installing artificial nests, monitoring reproduction and controlling populations of <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>, rats and nest-mites has operated since 1982<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Boquer&oacute;n Commonwealth Forest is a stronghold for the species on the mainland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to protect and manage the species and its habitat<sup>4. Monitor the success of artificial nests4. Integrate the conservation of this species with existing education schemes4.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150395	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Agelaius xanthomus</em> was formerly widespread on <strong>Puerto Rico (to USA)</strong>, where it occurs in two forms. The race <em>monensis</em> is found throughout the offshore islands of Mona and Monito. The nominate race occurs on the mainland, but is now mostly restricted to south-west coastal areas. There is also a population in eastern coastal areas, but this has almost vanished, with no breeding records since 1986<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The south-west population declined by c.80% in 1975-1981 to a low of 300 individuals in 1982, but pre-reproductive season roost counts in 1985-1995 showed an average annual increase of 14%<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In early 1998, the total population was estimated at 1,250 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150395	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It formerly occurred in mangroves, pastures, coconut and palm-stands, cactus scrub, coastal cliffs, and rarely woodland, and has always been commonest near the coast<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Many birds now breed on offshore cays<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages both terrestrially and in trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, feeding on insects (especially moths and crickets), seeds and nectar<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds gather at communal feeding-sites, with large flocks forming during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nests are often built low in mangrove trees, or in large deciduous trees in pastures near to mangroves<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, with several nests being built in close proximity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. On Mona Island, nests are placed in crevices or on ledges on high, vertical sea-cliffs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Three clutches are usually laid per year<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and the breeding season is May-September. <br/></p>	eng
150395	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Jaramillo and Burke (1999). <br/></p>	eng
150395	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Brood-parasitism by Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> has greatly reduced numbers and resulted in most birds breeding on offshore cays. Additional threats are the invasion of nesting areas by Caribbean Martin <em>Progne dominicensis</em>, habitat loss clearance for agriculture, nest-predation by the Pearly-eyed Thrasher <em>Margarops fuscatus</em> and introduced carnivores. <br/></p>	eng
150396	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150397	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150398	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150399	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is protected under Brazilian law and from trapping in Argentina. Studies have clarified its distribution and numbers<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In northern Uruguay, educational visits to schools were carried out in association with surveying in 2003<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Manage agricultural land to ensure that habitat loss does not exceed habitat gain. Survey south C&oacute;rdoba and south-east San Luis to locate any remnant populations. Monitor the population. Assess the impact of inter-specific competition. <br/></p>	eng
150399	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Sturnella defilippii</em> was formerly common and widespread in east-central <strong>Argentina</strong> (Corrientes, Santa Fe, Entre R&iacute;os, C&oacute;rdoba, Buenos Aires, San Luis, Mendoza and La Pampa) and <strong>Uruguay</strong> (Canelones, Paysand&uacute;, Cerro Largo, Flores, San Jos&eacute;, Tacuaremb&oacute; and Montevideo, with a significant wintering population near the r&iacute;o Arapey in 1993<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; in 2003, a minimum breeding population of 78-90 pairs was recorded in the surroundings of Vera town in the Arerungu&aacute; area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), but always rare in south <strong>Brazil</strong> (four winter records from Paran&aacute;, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul). Since 1900, the range has decreased by 90%, with most of this decline occurring between 1890 and 1950<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. In 1992-1993, the extent of occurrence was estimated at 8,000&#160;km<sup>2</sup> (though estimated here at a grosser scale), the area of occupancy at 150&#160;km<sup>2</sup> and the population at c.7,500 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. These are concentrated in south-west Buenos Aires and adjacent La Pampa, with records (perhaps of wintering birds) in Entre R&iacute;os, San Luis and C&oacute;rdoba<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150399	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits natural grasslands (vegetation height of 29-45&#160;cm), including land abandoned for 5-15 (or more) years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Some birds breed and winter in planted pastures and cultivated fields with a similar vegetation structure<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It can co-exist with cattle, but apparently not in planted pasture, where grazing is more intensive and vegetation height is consequently lower<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in November and 3-4 eggs are laid. The diet includes seeds, insects and shoots. There is some northwards movement in winter, but it is primarily resident<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150399	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on recent estimates from studies in Argentina<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and Uruguay<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, the only known breeding areas. <br/></p>	eng
150399	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Conversion to cattle-ranching, arable and plantation agriculture are primarily responsible for long-term declines. It is now restricted to areas least suitable for agriculture but, between 1993 and 1996, 46% of occupied sites were converted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, at the same time, new areas were regenerating<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Other factors may interact with habitat loss such as competition with <em>S. loyca</em> and <em>L. superciliaris<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. Capture for trade is not currently extensive<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but, in 1988, over 100 birds were seen in local markets<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150400	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150404	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150405	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150406	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150407	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from a number of protected areas, including Las Orqu&iacute;deas (Antioquia), Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos (Huila), Cordillera de los Pichachos (Caquet&aacute;) and Tatam&aacute; (Risaralda/Choc&oacute;/Valle del Cauca) National Parks, as well as Ucumar&iacute; Regional Park (Risaralda)<strong><sup>4,5,6</sup></strong>. It is reportedly common in La Forzosa Nature Reserve, Alto San Miguel Ecological Reserve, and La Romera and La Serrana Municipal Reserves (all Antioquia)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Captive birds were released from Santaf&eacute; Zoo into the mountains around Medell&iacute;n during 1997-1998<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys of birds and habitat distribution, particularly in Antioquia<sup>5</sup></strong>, and the poorly known, but relatively intact, forests from Caquet&aacute; to Putumayo. <strong>Protect forest remnants in Antioquia<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Fund and improve the implementation and enforcement of conservation measures in protected areas<sup>4,6</sup></strong>. <strong>Organise a campaign to stop trade in wild-caught birds<sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150407	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hypopyrrhus pyrohypogaster</em> is known from all three Andean ranges of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It has been recorded in the West Andes from Cerro Tatam&aacute; north, in the Central Andes from Antioquia (many historical and a few modern sites), south locally to Putumayo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and in the south of the East Andes in south Huila and west Caquet&aacute;. During the 20th century, it was extirpated from much of its former range and, since 1980, has been recorded very locally in small numbers, although it is quite common in the mountains around Medell&iacute;n, Antioquia<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150407	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the canopy and borders of humid montane forest, including plantations of non-native trees, scrubby areas and old second growth, mostly at elevations of 800-2,400&#160;m. It usually occurs in groups of up to 16, fewer when breeding<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, foraging actively for fruit and insects. Nests have been found during January-April<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong> in the Central Andes of Antioquia, with records of breeding-condition birds, immatures and nestlings between March and August in other parts of Colombia. Cooperative breeding has been recorded<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150407	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.8-6.0 individuals/km2 x 300 km2 (20% EOO) = 840-1,800, but probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499 as EOO and AOO potentially larger than estimated [Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002] (density estimate from lower quartile to median of 21 estimates for 15 species of icterid in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150407	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The historical decline of this species is attributed to the extensive clearance of its habitat, principally through timber extraction and agricultural development, and remaining fragments are subject to continuing human pressure. Tatam&aacute; and Cueva de los Gu&aacute;charos National Parks are affected by settlers, with extensive deforestation in the former, and opium production in the latter<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In addition, it is persecuted as a maize crop-pest, and is trapped for the cage-bird trade<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150408	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150409	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is legally protected in Brazil, and occurs in Rio Doce State Park and Pedra Telhada Biological Reserve. Protection at Pedra Talhada is enforced by guards and apparently welcomed by local communities, but this species mostly occurs outside the reserve<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. At Rio Doce, it is regularly recorded only in a very small area between the park entrance and Lagoa Carioca<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Ecological studies and experiments on destroying <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em> eggs are in progress at Pedra Talhada. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey known sites in Alagoas and Pernambuco. Re-examine museum collections of <em>G.&#160;chopi</em></strong> to disclose additional specimens of this species and identify areas for surveys. <strong>Survey to elucidate the species's status at Rio Doce. Investigate protecting habitat near Pirapora. Study and control parasitism by <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em></strong>.</p>	eng
150409	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Curaeus forbesi</em> is currently known from widely scattered sites in east and north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. The largest numbers have been recorded at Pedra Talhada, Alagoas, where the breeding population was only c.150 birds in the early 1980s, and has subsequently declined. Elsewhere in Alagoas, there have been recent records from Usina Serra Grande<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, near Matriz de Camaragibe<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and Pedra Branca (near Murici) in 1989. There have been recent records from Pernambuco at Usina Trapiche<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and at Mata do Estado (at S&atilde;o Vicente Ferrer and Engenho &Aacute;gua Azul in Timba&uacute;ba)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The ornithological group Observadores de Aves de Pernambuco lists the species for a further nine localities in Pernambuco<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Over 1,400&#160;km to the south, it is known from two sites in Minas Gerais: the confluence of the rio Piracicaba and the rio Doce, where the highest number reported is c.40, and near Pirapora, where the species has only been discovered recently<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite the discovery of new sites, the known range of this species is still thought to be very small and severely fragmented. <em> <br/></p>	eng
150409	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest edge, adjacent marshy areas and (at least formerly) sugarcane plantations. The diet includes fruit and insects. Breeding takes place in the rainy season, usually March-June. Nests are mainly situated in cultivated mango <em>Mangifera indica</em> trees. Mean clutch-size is 2.84 (1-4) and two clutches are laid per season. A 4-10 day delay between finishing nest construction and laying makes the species highly susceptible to brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150409	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150409	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Widespread habitat destruction, particularly in north-east Brazil, has even reduced forest-edge areas. However, the species seems to be able to withstand the conversion of forests to sugarcane plantations to some degree. At Pedra Talhada, the recent decline is also attributed to brood-parasitism by <em>M.&#160;bonariensis</em>. In 1981-1986, 64% of studied nests were parasitised and, in 1987, this was 100%. It has been observed in trade and there is potential confusion with the valued <em>G.&#160;chopi</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150410	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150411	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150412	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150413	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150414	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary protects 100 km<sup>2</sup> of forest at 2,200-3,900 m. The highest elevations of Serran&iacute;a de los Yarigu&iacute;es remain largely inaccessible and fall within the new national park boundaries. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Ascertain the status of birds and habitat throughout its former range, especially areas that have not been visited recently. Conduct studies to clarify the species's ecological requirements and conservation status<sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150414	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Macroagelaius subalaris</em> occurs mainly along the west slope of the East Andes in <strong>Colombia</strong>. There are historical records from south-west Cundinamarca, north to the tip of the East Andes in Norte de Santander, where it also occurred on the west slope south to the upper Zulia valley<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and it may have occurred throughout the east slope. However, the only recent records are from Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Santander, where it has been described as common<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Its range has certainly contracted following complete deforestation in some areas, but less disturbed and ornithologically unknown forests in west Boyac&aacute; and Santander<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>, or above c.2,500 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, could harbour remnant populations. Recent surveys carried out by Fundacion ProAves recorded the species in 22 localities (including one from which the species was historically known) from La Aguadita in Cundinamarca to Surata in Santander<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In surveys of nine sites in Serran&iacute;a de los Yarigu&iacute;es, the species was only recorded from two of them. At one of those sites, it was abundant; at the other it was observed just once<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150414	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits subtropical and temperate forests at elevations of 2,400-2,900 m <strong><sup>2,4,5,9,10</sup></strong>. Observations are invariably of small groups in the middle and upper strata, and breeding-condition birds have been collected in September<strong><sup>2,4,5</sup></strong>. Four individuals observed building a nest in June suggest that the species may breed co-operatively<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Associates with mixed species frugivore flocks. Recorded in flocks of upto 30 individuals in the Yarigu&iacute;es mountains<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150414	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Given that the species is apparently abundant at some sites and a minimum conservative estimate of 1,400 individuals has been provided for the Yarigu&iacute;es population (Donegan <em>et al</em>. 2007), it is likely that the total population lies between 1,000 and 2,499 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150414	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Since the 17th century, the west slope of the East Andes has been extensively logged, cleared and settled and converted to agricultural land-use<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Above 2,500 m, forest cover remains more extensive, with habitat reduced to tiny, isolated relics on steep slopes and along streams in many lower-altitude areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. These landscape changes accelerated during the 20th century, especially after 1960, although in some areas, habitat regeneration is beginning following the abandonment of marginal land<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Pastures dominate the valley below Guanent&aacute;-Alto R&iacute;o Fonce, but the forest is mostly intact from 1,950-2,200 m upwards. However, the lower tracts are affected by selective logging.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150415	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150416	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150417	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150420	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Quiscalus palustris</em><em> </em>had a small distribution in the Lerma marshlands, in the state of M&eacute;xico, <strong>Mexico<sup>1</sup></strong>, and probably also in Xochimilco in the Valley of Mexico<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It was last recorded in 1910<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and presumably became extinct soon after as a result of the draining of its tule-cattail and sedge habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150421	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).	eng
150423	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150424	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150425	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is not currently listed under the United States Endangered Species Act but there is an International Rusty Blackbird Technical Group set up to research trends, threats and actions for this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Identify reasons behind long-term declines. Implement suitable actions to reverse these declines. <br/></p>	eng
150425	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Euphagus carolinus </em>has a large range, breeding across the boreal zone of North America from New England, through <strong>Canada</strong> to Alaska and winters widely across the southeastern <strong>United States</strong>. The population was estimated at 2 million individuals based on data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey collected during the 1980's and 1990's. This figure is now likely to be a considerable overestimate as the species continues to decline. Estimates of the global  decline since 1966 vary between 85% and 99%. This ongoing decline follows a longer term decline that began prior to 1950. The reasons for this dramatic decline remain poorly understood. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150425	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in boreal wetlands, primarily around ponds and streams within the boreal forest. It winters primarily in wooded wetlands and is not strongly associated with open agricultural habitats. <br/></p>	eng
150425	population	BirdLife International, 2008	R. Greenberg <em>in litt</em>. (2006). <br/></p>	eng
150425	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The reasons behind current trends are poorly understood but hypotheses for the cause of decline include: destruction and conversion of boreal wetlands (particularly in the southern boreal forest), boreal wetland drying and chemical change resulting from global climate change, depletion of available calcium resulting from acid precipitation, increase in methyl mercury, loss of wooded wetlands in the southeast U.S. winter range, and mortality associated with past and ongoing blackbird control efforts. All of these remain possible threats. <br/></p>	eng
150427	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150428	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150432	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150434	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pogoniulus makawai</em> is judged to be a rare, relict species which remains known only from the type-specimen, collected in 1964 at Mayau in north-western <strong>Zambia<sup>3</sup></strong>, despite repeated attempts to relocate the taxon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It would seem to favour dense, evergreen <em>Cryptosepalum</em> thicket, dominated by <em>C. pseudotaxus</em>, and there are large areas of apparently suitable habitat in the relevant area of north-west Zambia and adjacent Angola. The <em>Cryptosepalum</em> thickets are sparsely populated by people outside the West Lunga National Park and are difficult to clear for agriculture, so its habitat would appear not to be threatened, although fire is a potential risk as it has affected nearby areas. The most extensive areas of suitable habitat occur within Lukwakwa Game Management Area. Another possibility is that the type specimen was collected in riverine forest along the Mayau River, in which case the species may occupy a more restricted habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Alternatively the type specimen was a straggler from somewhat different habitats in adjacent Angola<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The congener Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird <em>Pognolius bilineatus</em> occurs at the type locality of <em>makawai</em> on the limit of its range. Therefore, it is possible that <em>makawai</em> replaces it to the west in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The voluminous bill of <em>makawai </em>suggests it may specialise on the berries of mistletoe as other tinkerbirds have been found to<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Although it has been treated as an aberrant <em>P. bilineatus </em>by many authorities, the case for its validity as a distinct species has recently been argued again<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There is a need for intensive surveys in the area of the type-locality, and further north and west, covering any slight variations in the structure of <em>Cryptosepalum </em>forest caused by water or topographical features, and paying special attention to mistletoes.<em> <br/></p>	eng
150435	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bradypterus bangwaensis</em> is known from the Obudu Plateau, Mambilla Plateau and Gotel Mountains, <strong>Nigeria<sup>5</sup></strong>, and from Mt Oku, Banso Mountains, Bamenda Highlands, Bamboutos Mountains, Bamileke Plateau, Mt Manenguba, the western part of the Adamawa highlands and Poli, <strong>Cameroon<sup>6,7</sup></strong>. It is a bird of dense undergrowth in small patches of montane forest, at forest edges, secondary growth and thickets under open-canopy forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is found between 2,000 and 2,900&#160;m on Mt Oku, but must have declined there given the loss below 2,200&#160;m of any kind of bush habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, it is still common, or very common, for example, throughout scrubby <em>Maesa</em> forest in the crater of Mt Manenguba and its rims and in forest edge and bracken on the southern slopes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and on the Mambilla Plateau between 1,700-2,300&#160;m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, its range is relatively small and fragmented and it may be threatened by habitat clearance<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150436	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1998, Double and Outer Islands, off Spring Point, West Falkland, were acquired by Falklands Conservation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and rat eradication started in 2000, covering these islands and two others, Top and Bottom Islands at Port William<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue surveys to confirm population estimates and trend. Conduct ecological studies in order to understand the necessary conditions for the species' conservation<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate rats from selected small islands covered with mature tussock-grass to encourage recolonisation<sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150436	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Troglodytes cobbi</em> has a very scattered distribution in the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong>. Surveys in 1983/1984-1992/1993 indicated breeding on 12 offshore islands and islets, and estimated the total population at 1,300-2,400 pairs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Surveys in 1997/1998 indicated breeding on 29 islands, and estimated the total population at 4,500-8,000 pairs<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. Most of the islands are in small groups, separated by up to 64 km of sea, and there is no evidence to suggest an interchange between these island populations<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. However, it is likely that dispersing immatures are able to cross small bays<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1983, sample plots on Kidney and Carcass Islands produced population densities of four territorial males per hectare in optimum habitat and two males per hectare in less suitable conditions<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150436	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Optimum habitat is dense tussock-grassland, growing from the high-water mark behind boulder beaches with accumulated dead kelp in which invertebrates thrive. The species is also found in rushes and among rock outcrops up to 1.6&#160;km from coastal tussock on islands with no introduced predators. The nest is usually well-hidden in a gap amongst tussock stems or a tussock pedestal, or in a rock-crevice. Eggs are laid between early October and December, and there are probably two broods per season<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150436	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No new data on population size. Given estimate is taken from Woods (2000). <br/></p>	eng
150436	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is threatened by the potential introduction of mammalian predators to its breeding islands, especially rats (probably brown rat <em>Rattus&#160;norvegicus</em>) because it feeds at ground-level in exactly the habitat used by foraging rats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its present distribution is inversely related to the presence of such predators, whose impact may have increased with the historic destruction of its habitat<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It can co-exist with a few domestic cats on large islands, but rats and feral cats have probably destroyed entire populations<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150437	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus enganensis</em> is endemic to Enggano Island, off south-west Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it occupies forest edge and wooded areas. Reports as to its status differ, from very rare to quite uncommon. Habitat destruction on Enggano has, thus far, been minimal, but recent tentative proposals for agricultural development suggest the possibility for future radical change, and this may exert pressure on the small population of this species. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
150437	population	BirdLife International, 2008	With a range of not more than 200 km<sup>2</sup>, the population is very unlikely to exceed the band 2,500-10,000 individuals and may fall some way below this. This preliminary estimate requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
150438	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has recently been recorded in the Ruteng Nature Recreation Park, newly established to protect an important remnant tract of montane forest. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct extensive nocturnal surveys (involving mist-netting and use of vocalisations if available), on mountains in the Ruteng massif, and also the ridge forests of Mata Wae Ndeo (north of the Tanjung Kerita Mese peninsula) to establish its range, status and ecological requirements. Identify, and propose for strict protection, an appropriate area of mid-altitude, semi-evergreen forest to conserve a range of upper-elevation endemic taxa. Implement active management of Ruteng Nature Recreation Park to protect this owl and its habitat, and upgrade forest adjacent to Rana Mese within this park to wildlife sanctuary status.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150438	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus alfredi</em> is endemic to the island of Flores, Nusa Tenggara, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is known from just two localities in the western mountains. Originally collected on Gunung Repok in 1896, it was not seen again until 1994, when it was rediscovered around Ruteng. Local reports suggest it may also still occur on Gunung Repok, but information regarding its population is completely lacking. It has a tiny known range, and the puzzling lack of records for nearly a century may perhaps be because it is silent (but still present) in the dry season, when all attempts to locate it have been made.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150438	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane forest from 1,000 m to at least 1,400&#160;m. If it survives on Gunung Repok, as villagers report, then it must either tolerate the highly degraded forest now present below 1,300&#160;m around the type-locality, or occur above 1,500&#160;m in stunted montane forest. One bird was observed perching 15&#160;m up in the subcanopy. It is assumed to be resident, but may perhaps make local altitudinal movements.</p>	eng
150438	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimated to number 'in the low hundreds or the low thousands' based on analysis of historical and recent records and surveys  (BirdLife International 2001). Estimate based on Population density = 11 individuals/km2 x 149 km2 (45% EOO) = 1,633 individuals (density is the lowest estimate for four forest congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). Therefore best placed in band 250-2,499 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150438	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest loss and fragmentation (chiefly as a result of shifting cultivation, dry season burn-off and road-building) is already extensive on Flores, with remaining forest tracts generally confined to steep-sided valleys and higher peaks. This species has a remarkably small known range, and virtually all primary forest has been cleared in the mountains around Ruteng, up to c.1,300&#160;m.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150439	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Local successes include the Runtacocha highland near Cuzco, where local people are reacting positively towards better environmental control<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. High-altitude habitats have been surveyed and conservation measures proposed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The 1997 Bolivian record was within Madidi National Park, but <em>Polylepis</em> is threatened at the site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The Ilampu valley is in the south-west corner of Cotapata National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Since 2004, there has been a <em>Polylepis</em> conservation programme working with local communities on the known sites for the Royal Cinclodes. The project began with detailed mapping of <em>Polylepis </em>forest and key biodiversity areas within the nearly 100,000 acres of land owned by the Keara and Puina indigenous communities, and is now working to protect the forests in this area by implementing community-based conservation activities, including the establishment of communal greenhouses, plantations of native tree species for alternative firewood, and environmental education workshops in local schools and communities<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; and providing more than 400 people with new technologies, such as fuel-efficient stoves that dramatically reduce the demand for <em>Polylepis </em>trees as firewood<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Similar techniques have been used to improve <em>Polylepis </em>forest protection in Peru.  As part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme a number of actions are being implemented through Species Guardian Isabel G&oacute;mez (Asociacion Armon&iacute;a: BirdLife in Bolivia): research on the species's status and distribution is underway, including collating all known published and unpublished records as well as spatial modelling and on-the-ground surveys; a socio-economic study has been carried out for two local communities; a National Strategy for conservation of <em>Polylepis </em>forest has been developed; a workshop to determine human impacts on <em>Polylepis </em>forests and formulate the possible solutions at the regional level was held which involved the Vice-ministry of Biodiversity, Forestry Resources and Environment as well as members of local communities; and environmental education workshops have been held in three local schools to raise awareness of the birds that live in the <em>Polylepis </em>forest and importance of their conservation.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to survey remaining habitat in the relatively inaccessible Cordillera Vilcanota, to determine the species distribution and investigate its ecology<sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect Yanacocha forest and other <em>Polylepis</em> habitat in the Cordillera Vilcanota<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>In the Cordillera Vilcanota, prioritise habitat restoration efforts at five localities - Mantanay, Pumahuanca, Abra Malaga, Yanacocha and Cancha-Cancha. Habitat restoration strategies should focus on patch size maintenance/enlargement, enhancement of within-patch habitat quality, and efforts to safeguard connectivity of suitable habitat. Management of habitat quality in remnant patches should focus on maintaining necessary conditions for resource partitioning amongst insectivorous guilds, which dominate the threatened <em>Polylepis</em> bird community.</strong> <strong>Improve traditional land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Expand <em>Polylepis</em> planting programmes and plant buffer zones below <em>Polylepis</em> woodland to provide an alternative firewood source<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Evaluate conservation problems and socio-economic issues. Encourage local people to develop land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong>Establish private nature reserves in key sites. Encourage creation and participation of PES (Payment for Environmental Systems) schemes with local hotel owners/tour companies in Yanahuara/Urubamaba.</strong>	eng
150439	distribution		<em>Cinclodes aricomae</em> occurs in the Andes of south-east <strong>Peru</strong> (Cuzco, Apur&iacute;mac, Puno and Jun&iacute;n) and adjacent <strong>Bolivia</strong> (La Paz). Historically, it was probably common, at least locally, and distributed along the entire Cordillera Real. Its scarce and patchy habitat now occupies c.10% of the estimated potential cover in Bolivia, and possibly less than 3% in large parts of Cuzco<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where natural habitat halved in extent during the 1980s. The majority of Peruvian records are from near Cuzco city, Cuzco/Apur&iacute;mac, Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, including the Cordillera Vilcanota<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, with numbers estimated at 100-150 individuals in 1990<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was recently recorded in the Pariahuanca valley, Jun&iacute;n, a significant northwesterly extension<strong><sup>11,13</sup></strong>. Surveys in three river valleys of the Cordillera Vilcanota in 2003-2005 confirmed the species's presence at only one of ten sites visited and estimated just two birds in 1.71 km<sup>2</sup> of <em>Polylepis</em> habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A record in 1997, in the Cordillera Apolobamba, La Paz<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, was the first in Bolivia since 1876, but it has since been recorded in the Ilampu valley in 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and near Sanja Pampa in 2003<strong><sup>7 </sup></strong>(both La Paz), and subsequent surveys have found it at 13 localities in the country: eight in the Cordillera Apolobamba and five in the Cordillera La Paz, with the Bolivian population estimated at 50-70 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
150439	habitat		It was thought to be confined to tiny, humid patches of <em>Polylepis</em> woodland and montane scrub, mainly at 3,500-4,800 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but has recently been recorded in <em>Gynoxis</em> woodland in Jun&iacute;n<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It forages, presumably for invertebrates, in moss, leaf-litter and decaying wood, descending temporarily to lower elevations during periods of snow<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. The breeding season probably begins in December but, in the Cordillera Vilcanota, pairs are territorial during the austral winter<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and have been seen carrying nesting material into a hole in a cliff face in September<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Bolivia one individual was seen carrying nesting material in November, and fledglings have been observed in January and March<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Study of one nesting pair suggests that care of juveniles is biparental<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
150439	population		Calculations based on density estimates of the species (Lloyd in press.)place the population in the band 50-249 mature individuals.	eng
150440	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The efforts of conservationists<strong> </strong>resulted in the creation of the Murici Ecological Station in 2001, encompassing 6,116 ha. National and international efforts to ensure the effectiveness of this designation are ongoing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Frei Caneca is a private reserve protecting c.6 km<sup>2</sup> of forest<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; an additional 360 ha of adjacent forest have been purchased by Birdlife/SAVE Brazil<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey other remnant patches of upland Atlantic forest in Alagoas (such as Usina Serra Grande) and Pernambuco, especially the BirdLife/SAVE Brasil forest, for this species. Ensure the <em>de facto</em> protection of Murici Ecological Station. Secure the long-term protected status and conservation of Mata do Estado. Investigate the expansion of Frei Caneca Private Reserve and BirdLife/SAVE Brazil forest area to include adjacent forest. Provide management infrastructure for the area purchased at Serra do Urubu. Implement environmental education programmes at Serra do Urubu and Murici Ecological Station. Conduct research into the species's ecology and breeding biology.</strong>	eng
150440	distribution		This species has only ever been recorded in Alagoas and Pernambuco states, north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was first discovered at Murici (Alagoas) in 1979, when an adult male and two adult females were collected. An additional juvenile male was collected in 1984, and subsequent records throughout the 1990s, in 2000 and in 2009 have only found the species in very small numbers<strong><sup>2,4,5,6,7</sup></strong>. Recently, it has also been discovered in Pernambuco at Mata do Benedito<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, Mata do Estado<strong><sup>7,9</sup></strong> and Frei Caneca<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Although it has not yet been found in Pedra Dantes, the 360 ha forest patch adjacent to Frei Caneca recently purchased by BirdLife/SAVE Brasil, it is expected to occur there<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>. Remaining habitat is very limited and severely fragmented.	eng
150440	habitat		It forages in pairs and small mixed-species flocks in the middle strata of upland semi-humid forest at 400-550 m<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Birds range from 1.5-9 m above ground, keeping mostly at 5-8 m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Foraging flocks reportedly include White-flanked Antwren <em>M. axillaris</em> and a variety of other formicariids, though observers at Mata do Estado failed to locate it in mixed flocks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The diet consists of arthropods, including spiders, beetles, ants and cockroaches. Breeding probably occurs in February, and juveniles have been recorded in May.	eng
150440	population		Population estimate = 0.6-7.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 41 km<sup>2 </sup>(estimated AOO) = 25-295, i.e. probably best placed in band 50-249 (density range is lowest to lower quartile of 34 estimates for 14 species of congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet).	eng
150441	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Small amounts of restinga habitat are protected by three designated areas: the Jacarepi&aacute; and Massambaba State Reserves, and the Massambaba Environmental Protection Area. Access to Ilha do Cabo Frio is restricted by the Brazilian navy, thereby providing some protection. Research into its ecology (in particular reproduction rates, home range and foraging behaviour) is underway and a land ownership assessment has commenced, which should result in the creation of new public protected areas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Awareness campaigns include printing t-shirts and posters and arranging workshops directed at local school teachers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. An Action Plan is being developed, and a workshop in partnership with IBAMA took place in May 2008 - its key aim will be to support the creation of a new public protected area in the Ma&ccedil;ambaba region<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to ascertain and monitor its status, especially in the Massambaba area. Ensure continued support for the protected areas where it occurs. Conduct impact assessments prior to real-estate projects. Continue environmental awareness campaigns in the area.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150441	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Formicivora littoralis</em> occupies a highly restricted range around Cabo Frio in Rio de Janeiro state, <strong>Brazil</strong>. The type-locality, near Arraial do Cabo, is a strip of dunes some 30 km long and up to 400 m wide. It was recorded at two locations on the northern edge of Lagoa de Araruama in 2003-2005<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is found at high densities within suitable habitat and has been considered abundant on Ilha do Cabo Frio. Although no population estimates are available, the species is likely to have declined rapidly owing to habitat loss, and recent assessments have indicated that its occupied range is extremely small. <br/></p>	eng
150441	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occupies restinga (beach-scrub habitat, rich in cacti and bromeliads, growing on sand-dunes) and other scrub vegetation on coastal hillsides, and can persist in tiny areas of habitat around holiday homes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds usually forage in pairs, remaining close to the ground in dense thickets. Nests have been found in June, October and November on Ilha do Cabo Frio, and breeding would appear to be almost year-round, as judged from the state of the gonads of collected specimens. The nest is constructed from fibres attached to horizontal branch forks. The clutch-size is two with both sexes sharing parental duties.  <br/></p>	eng
150441	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate = 17.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 41 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 697, i.e. best placed in band 250-999 (density estimate highest of three estimates for <em>Terenura</em> antwrens in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet, and consistent with observation that species occurs at "high densities" within suitable habitat; AOO taken as relatively low % of EOO as remaining habitat under pressure from coastal development). <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
150441	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species's range is within a major holiday development area, where suitable habitat is under pressure from clearance for real-estate projects and the increasing presence of squatters. The type-locality is severely threatened by the salt industry and the development of beachfront housing and high standard holiday resorts. <br/></p>	eng
150442	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150443	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150444	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Canan&eacute;ia-Iguape-Peru&iacute;be Environmental Protection Area, Ilha do Cardoso State Park (where there is little suitable habitat) and Ilha do Superag&uuml;i National Park<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to ascertain and monitor its status. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of reserves where it occurs, especially in the south-west of Ilha Comprida.  <br/></p>	eng
150444	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes kronei</em> occurs in coastal S&atilde;o Paulo (from the rio Ribeira floodplain south<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>), Parana, Santa Catarina and extreme north-east Rio Grande do Sul (two localities<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>), <strong>Brazil</strong>. Recent fieldwork suggests that it is distributed throughout sandplain forest within its limited range, and that it can be locally not uncommon<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150444	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits woodland edge, second growth and scrubby woodlands in sandy coastal restingas and adjacent riverine forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. At least in the breeding season, it apparently prefers swampy areas with standing water<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds on small insects by sallying and gleaning, often associating with mixed-species flocks. Pairs seem to maintain small territories spaced 100-200 m from their neighbours<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds in the austral spring: one nest has been found in late October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and fledged young observed in December<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The oven-shaped nest, comprised of lichens and moss, was situated 1.3&#160;m from the ground in a low bush: it contained two young<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150444	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0-4.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 3,300-4,400, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density range from lower quartile to median of eight estimates for five species of <em>Phylloscartes</em>, <em>Leptopogon</em> and <em>Mionectes</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as described as locally "not uncommon"). <br/></p>	eng
150444	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is rapid and ongoing clearance of suitable habitat for beachfront dwellings, notably on Ilha Comprida, and future pressure on restingas are likely to be great. Fires, started deliberately or accidentally, are also a threat.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150445	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Plains lie entirely within Nechisar National Park<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> which, although still awaiting gazettement, has been operational since the early 1980s and, up until 1991, was one of the best protected areas in the country, with minimal human use of resources<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, the situation has changed rapidly since then<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization had a programme to rehabilitate the National Parks of southern Ethiopia, including the resettlement elsewhere of illegal settlers, but this is no longer operational<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out field surveys to clarify the species's range, population and ecological requirements<sup>4. Evaluate the status of the taxon using DNA techniques2. Gazette Nechisar National Park4. More directly involve Arba Minch town council and its two educational institutions in Park activities1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150445	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caprimulgus solala</em> is known from a single wing salvaged from a road corpse on the Nechisar Plains, southern <strong>Ethiopia</strong>, in 1990<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The status of the taxon is unknown, but it is unlikely to be widespread or common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150445	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The dead individual was found by the side of a dirt road in a completely treeless area of the Plains, which are a gently undulating 270-km<sup>2</sup> area of natural (edaphic) short grassland on black-lava soil at 1,200&#160;m on the Rift Valley floor<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The Plains are isolated by bushland from any similar short-grass habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150445	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Heavy resource-use is threatening the future of Nechisar National Park, including excessive grazing by domestic livestock, rapid clearance of trees for fuel and construction for the expanding town of Arba Minch nearby, and illegal fishing<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1998, a fire started by illegal settlers within the National Park caused considerable damage to an area of c.12&#160;km<sup>2 <strong>4</strong></sup>. <br/></p>	eng
150446	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rather uncommon (Baker 1997).	eng
150447	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was discovered in 1992 in the Maromiza Forest, close to the Réserve Spéciale d'Analamazaotra in the central area of the eastern rain forest of Madagascar (Goodman et al. 1996). It has subsequently been found to be restricted to, but relatively widespread in, the eastern part of the island from Anjanaharibe-Sud in the north to Andohahela in the south, being recorded from eight localities including six nature reserves, although it may well occur in areas to the north and south of its currently known range (Goodman et al. 1996).	eng
150447	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species would appear to prefer evergreen, humid rain forest between 900-2,100 m, but is found in primary forest, montane forest, along steep ridges, areas of bamboo and also in altered habitats including disturbed and degraded forest, exotic plantations next to native forest and forest fragments (Goodman et al. 1996, Morris and Hawkins 1998). In montane forest it favours areas dominated by Podocarpus, and in ridge-top sclerophyllous forest it favours areas where epiphytic moss and lichens are plentiful (Goodman et al. 1996). It inhabits the canopy and sub-canopy of trees and shrubs from 2-25 m but is found most often between 3-15 m, sally-gleaning insects from foliage, twigs and branches (Goodman et al. 1996). It has been recorded on numerous occasions in mixed species flocks (Goodman et al. 1996). The breeding season is October-December; one nest examined contained three eggs and family groups observed in November have comprised up to four individuals (Goodman et al. 1996). Records of the species in degraded and altered habitats indicate that it is tolerant of disturbance (Goodman et al. 1996).	eng
150447	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150447	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The principal threat to the eastern humid forests is from slash-and-burn cultivation by subsistence farmers, resulting in progressively more degraded regrowth and leading eventually to bracken-covered areas or grassland (Stattersfield et al. 1998).	eng
150448	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea pomarea</em><em> </em>is known only from the type, collected on Maupiti, Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, by Blosseville in 1823<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It presumably became extinct soon after, because it has not been recorded since, and the Society Islands have lost most of their original vegetation and their avifauna has suffered greatly through competition and predation from introduced species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150449	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dromaius baudinianus</em> was endemic to Kangaroo Island, off South Australia, <strong>Australia<sup>5</sup></strong>. Peron, who visited the island in 1802-1803 with Baudin, wrote that the species inhabited ";the innermost recesses of the woods"; but would visit the shoreline in the afternoon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Writing in 1837, Leigh reported that birds had not been seen for 10 years<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species was apparently systematically hunted to extinction by a settler<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although habitat alteration by fire may also have contributed to its demise<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150450	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150451	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There are 20 protected areas in the Barisan Mountains, some of which lie within the current known range of this species. The recent records come from Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park and near Kerinci Seblat National Park. Also, one specimen was collected from within, or close to Kerinci Seblat National Park. Survey effort is likely to increase following the recent recording of its call: knowledge of ground-cuckoo calls has facilitated study of two other Asian species in the past. Efforts to protect habitat and promote tourism are being developed.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Choose potential survey areas by identifying remaining habitat tracts in the Barisan Mountains, particularly near historical localities, and conducting village interviews. Conduct extensive surveys (utilisting recent recordings of the species's call) to establish its true range, current distribution and population, and assess its habitat requirements, threats and conservation needs. Following surveys, review whether key populations are adequately represented within the existing protected-areas network, and if not, advocate establishment of further strategic protected areas. Afford the species full protection under Indonesian law.</strong>	eng
150451	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is only known from eight specimens and a recent series of sightings, the majority of which have come from the Barisan Mountains in the southern half of the island. Unrecorded since 1916, an individual was trapped and photographed in November 1997 at Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (at 500 m)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subsequent records comprise an unconfirmed sighting in 2000 in the Bukit Rimbang-Baling Wildlife Sanctuary from an area of hilly, open secondary forest with dense undergrowth at 700m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, a bird photographed by a camera-trap near Kerinci Seblat National Park in 2006<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong> and a bird caught and brought to conservationists in Bukit Barasan Selatan National Park (BBS) in 2007<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Up to five birds have since been seen and heard in the wild near the site of the original trapped bird in BBS; at Way Titias, near Liwa, in central BBS, and another heard calling, and reported by hunters, in an area north of BBS<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Very little is known about its population status. Its close relative, the Bornean Ground-cuckoo <em>C. radiatus</em>, is unobtrusive, which may partly account for the lack of records. However, it seems likely that it is rare and locally distributed.	eng
150451	habitat		Information noted on specimen labels reveals that it inhabits foothill and lower montane forest, with records from 300-1,400 m. All recent records are from 800-1,000 m<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Brief habitat descriptions from collecting localities and the site of the recent sightings indicate that it occurs in primary or little-disturbed forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All known sites appear to have a relatively dense understorey. It is a ground-dweller, apparently feeding on sinvertebrates, reptiles and small mammals on the forest floor (based on the range of prey captured and eaten by a captive bird in a semi-wild enclosure)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Other than this, there is no information on its ecology and behaviour.	eng
150451	population		Population estimate = 0.05-0.1 individuals/km2 x 2,500 km2 (10% of EOO) = 125-250 i.e. best placed in band 50-249 individuals (density extrapolated from 'rare' terrestrial forest birds in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, but actual numbers may prove to be higher as the species is almost certainly under-recorded).	eng
150452	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150453	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150454	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Proposals for action have been put to governmental agencies but no action has yet been taken<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect key sites, especially in Guaratuba Bay. Conduct further surveys from south S&atilde;o Paulo to north Santa Catarina to help elucidate the species's status and distribution. Estimate the population at known sites. Assess the extent of remaining habitat. <br/></p>	eng
150454	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Stymphalornis acutirostris</em> is known from a discrete area in coastal Paran&aacute; and Santa Catarina, south-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was found in 1995 in the lower third of the rios Guaragua&ccedil;u and Nhundiaquara in Parnagu&aacute; bay. Subsequent surveys have found the species in several areas of Matinhos and Guaratuba municipalities in Paran&aacute;, and in S&atilde;o Francisco bay in Garuva, Santa Catarina<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The stronghold is probably Guaratuba Bay, where it is known from Ilha do Chapeu, Chapeuzinho and the lower thirds of the rios S&atilde;o Jo&atilde;o, Cubat&atilde;o, S&atilde;o Jo&atilde;ozinho, Descoberto, Bogua&ccedil;u, Preto, Parado and Alegre<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All populations are restricted to small patches or narrow tracts of habitat. <br/></p>	eng
150454	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It exclusively inhabits littoral marshes, dominated by <em>Typha dominguensis</em> and <em>Scirpus californicus</em> with other marsh vegetation (especially Asteraceae and Poacea) such as grasses and bushes. It also occurs in riverine marshes, wet fields and mangrove swamps. Most localities are subject to periodic fluctuations in water-levels. It is mostly found in pairs in low, dense vegetation. Stomach contents include arthropods<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150454	population	BirdLife International, 2008	17,700 individuals estimated by Reinert <em>et al. </em>(in press). <br/></p>	eng
150454	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Some patches of habitat, including the type-locality, are under constant human pressure and have been reduced by fires, allotments and landfills. Other threats include land acquisition, erosion owing to water traffic, invasive vegetation (especially <em>Brachiaria</em> spp.) and cattle-grazing<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
150455	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150456	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in Chapada da Diamantina National Park but the latter does not provide <em>de facto </em>protection<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat between Boa Nova and Chapada Diamantina. Assess the population in Chapada da Diamantina National Park. Research its ecological requirements. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of Chapada da Diamantina and surrounding forests. <strong>Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest fragments near Boa Nova. <br/></p>	eng
150456	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Synallaxis whitneyi</em> was discovered in 1992 near Boa Nova, in the Serra da Ouricana, east Bahia, <strong>Brazil<sup>4</sup></strong>. However, no more than 10 pairs have been found in the remnant forests of this serra<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It was subsequently found in three discrete areas of Chapada da Diamantina National Park in central Bahia<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Recently however, it has been discovered in a number of additional localities: Mata Escura; Fazenda Limoeiro<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; Serra Bonita, near Camac&atilde;; southern Chapada Diamantina<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>; and a forest belt 5 km wide running along the coast between Ituber&aacute; and Camamu in southern Bahia<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150456	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at elevations of 750-1,200&#160;m in montane Atlantic forest and apparently tolerates second growth and forest edge<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It gleans for insects (mainly arthropods) in the dense undergrowth where there are high densities of vines and sometimes bamboo<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150456	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.8 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,800, i.e. best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density lower two of three estimates for <em>S. cabanisi</em> in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet; EOO now provisionally estimated as c. 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>). <br/></p>	eng
150456	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In the Serra da Ouricana, forests have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Only a few privately-owned tracts of forest remain, and these are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. By 1999, the largest remaining patch of c.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been largely destroyed and the long-term survival of this species in the area is highly questionable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Illegal charcoal burning and forest clearance has been observed in Chapada da Diamantina National Park, where the sight of logging trucks is not uncommon<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150457	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded in Chapada da Diamantina National Park but this does not provide <em>de facto </em>protection<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey areas of potentially suitable habitat between Boa Nova and Chapada Diamantina. Assess the population in Chapada da Diamantina National Park. Research its ecological requirements. Ensure the <em>de facto</em></strong> protection of Chapada da Diamantina and surrounding forests. <strong>Investigate the feasibility of protecting remaining forest fragments near Boa Nova.</strong></p>	eng
150457	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes beckeri</em> is only known from two disjunct localities in Bahia, <strong>Brazil<sup>2,4</sup></strong>. In 1992, it was discovered near Boa Nova in the Serra da Ouricana but no more than 10 pairs have been found in these remnant forest fragments<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has subsequently been found in two discrete areas of Chapada da Diamantina National Park in central Bahia<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. This reserve clearly holds the bulk of the population but more precise numbers are not available.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150457	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at 800-1,200&#160;m in montane Atlantic forest, perhaps favouring taller forests and mature secondary habitats<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It forages for arthropods in the canopy, where it is found in pairs or small family groups<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150457	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0-4.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 300 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 900-1,200, i.e. probably best placed in band 1,000-2,499 (density range from lower quartile to median of eight estimates for five species of <em>Phylloscartes</em>, <em>Leptopogon</em> and <em>Mionectes</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150457	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In the Serra da Ouricana, forests have virtually disappeared owing to the expansion of pastureland and cultivation<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Only a few privately-owned tracts of forest remain, and these are under pressure from clearance and fires spreading out of cultivated areas<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. By 1999, the largest remaining patch of c.3&#160;km<sup>2</sup> had been largely destroyed and the long-term survival of this species in the area is highly questionable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Illegal charcoal burning and forest clearance has been observed in Chapada da Diamantina National Park, where the sight of logging trucks is not uncommon<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150458	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nyctiphrynus rosenbergi</em> occurs in west <strong>Colombia</strong> (Choc&oacute;, Valle, Nari&ntilde;o and possibly Cauca) and north-west <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Esmeraldas and perhaps Carchi)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is relatively common in lowland evergreen forest and edge, but also occurs in adjacent secondary forest up to 900&#160;m <strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Unplanned colonisation following the completion of roads, and massive logging concessions have cleared or degraded over 40% of its Choc&oacute; forests, and deforestation rates are accelerating<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Currently, intensive logging, human settlement, cattle-grazing, mining and coca and palm cultivation all threaten its remaining forest habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150459	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150460	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to provide a better delimitation of its range and assess numbers. Research its precise ecological requirements. Designate reserves in the Serra das Lontras and the Serra Bonita that include areas with an extensive "cabruca" canopy. Provide incentives for landowners to protect remaining forest.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150460	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrobatornis fonsecai</em> is known from the cocoa-growing district of south-east Bahia, <strong>Brazil</strong>, between the rio Jequitinhonha and slightly to the north of the rio das Contas. Precise numbers are not known, but it occurs at numerous localities within this range and appears to be not uncommon.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150460	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits the thin "cabruca" canopy and subcanopy of moist lowland forest up to 550 m, which shades the extensive cocoa plantations. It is probably absent from coastal forests. Recorded food items include mainly Coleoptera and other insects. Breeding has been recorded between September and October. <br/></p>	eng
150460	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 10 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 472 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 4,720, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 (density is middle of three estimates for most closely-related species of <em>Asthenes</em> and <em>Cranioleuca </em>in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet, as described as locally "not uncommon"). <br/></p>	eng
150460	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Virtually all forest below 400 m has been converted to cocoa plantations or completely cleared. The system of shaded cocoa plantations has secured the survival of a continuous canopy cover in places, but there is no forest regeneration owing to weeding of the understorey. During the 1990s, falls in the price of cocoa and the introduction of a fungal disease resulted in a downturn in cocoa production. Landowners have started to sell timber from the shading forests, and to shift production from cocoa to other crop-types or livestock-grazing. <br/></p>	eng
150461	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara tricolor </em>was endemic to the Isle of Pines and mainland <strong>Cuba</strong>, and probably also Hispaniola (<strong>Haiti</strong> and the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong>)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Its extinction was caused by hunting for food and felling of nesting trees to capture young birds for pets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, with the last specimen collected in 1864<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the last reports in 1885<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. At least 19 specimens exist<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Macaws are known from numerous historical accounts from Hispaniola, but all specimens are now apparently lost<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Ritter, writing in 1836, was the last to record birds, in 1820<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Presumably, the species was hunted to extinction in the early 19th century<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150462	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aethopyga linaraborae</em> is endemic to Mindanao, <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is currently known from (and is common in) mossy forest above 1,200&#160;m on Mts Mayo, Puting Bato (Tagub) and Pasian in the eastern provinces of Davao del Norte and Davao Oriental. Assuming that it occurs in all available remaining habitat above 1,200 m, its total range comprises 770 km<sup>2</sup>, but it is unlikely to be seriously threatened in the present or near future, occurring in rugged and inaccessible mountains that contain few commercial tree species and generally are too steep for agriculture. <br/></p>	eng
150463	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> There are recent records from one protected area, Mt Kitanglad Natural Park, and older records derive from areas now within the Mt Apo Natural Park, Mt Malindang National Park, Mt Matutum Forest Reserve (proposed as a national park) and Mt Hilong-hilong Watershed Reserve. Basilan is ostensibly a national park, but lacks effective protection. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct fieldwork to assess abundance, elevational range and habitat requirements at key sites. Carry out surveys to assess whether the species is (still) present in poorly surveyed areas of Mindanao (e.g. Mts Hilong-hilong, Matutum, Mayo and Three Kings). Ensure the effective protection of remaining forest at (possible) key sites.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150463	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phapitreron brunneiceps</em> is endemic to the islands of Mindanao and Basilan in the <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it is known from 10 localities on Mindanao and three on Basilan. Since 1980, there have been records from four sites (including Bislig and Mt Kitanglad) on Mindanao. It has not been recorded on Basilan since 1937. Its status is considered at best uncommon and at worst extremely rare, although its unobtrusive nature coupled with problems of field separation from <em>P.&#160;amethystina</em> may partially obscure an accurate assessment.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150463	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland, hill and lower montane forests up to 1,500&#160;m, occupying a similar ecological niche to <em>P.&#160;amethystina</em>, and any factors separating the two species are not yet known. It is not clear if the species makes seasonal or altitudinal movements, but both are considered likely on a local scale.</p>	eng
150463	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation <br/></p>	eng
150463	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and intensive hunting are the main threats. Forest clearance within its altitudinal range has been extensive. Just 29% of Mindanao remained forested in 1988 (now considered a considerable overestimate), with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions and mining applications. Forest at Bislig is being cleared as part of a concession, and re-planted with exotic tree species for paper production. Almost all forest below 1,200&#160;m has been felled at Mt Kitanglad. On Basilan, logging operations in the 1960s, followed by clearance for agriculture and increased hunting, have undoubtedly affected the species.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150464	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthus longicaudatus</em> is known from <strong>South Africa</strong>, but is presumed to be a migrant. It has also been recorded from <strong>Zambia </strong>and<strong> Botswana. </strong>It occurs in flocks of 10-40&#160;individuals, sometimes in mixed flocks with resident pipits - Buffy Pipit <em>A.&#160;vaalensis</em>, African Pipit <em>A.&#160;cinnamomeus</em> and Long-billed Pipit <em>A.&#160;similis </em>- on playing fields in the town of Kimberley, and on surrounding farms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There are reports that non-breeding flocks of a plain-backed pipit are commonly found on open savannas in the northern and central Kalahari during the wet season: these could be of the northern race of Plain-backed Pipit <em>A.&#160;leucophrys</em> or may relate to <em>A.&#160;longicaudatus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. Ornithologists in Kimberley and neighbouring regions, and further afield, should be on the alert for the occurrence of migratory or breeding individuals of this very poorly known species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150465	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The Mahafaly plateau includes Tsimanampetsotsa Strict Reserve, the only protected area which holds the species<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The region around Hatokaliotsy has been identified as a site of special biodiversity interest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and warrants protected-area designation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish population-density estimates in different habitats and degrees of forest degradation, especially in <em>Euphorbia scrub around Tsimanampetsotsa and Hatokaliotsy and to the north of the main Toliara-Antananarivo road<sup>2. Carry out sample surveys of suitable habitat in its projected range, to confirm its presence/absence, especially south of Lintsa5.</sup></em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150465	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Calicalicus rufocarpalis</em> was described from two specimens collected in 1947 near Toliara, south-west <strong>Madagascar<sup>1</sup></strong>. It was not seen again until photographed in 1992 and seen in July 1997, when about nine males were located in the same area, on the road between La Table and St Augustin in an area of suitable habitat covering c.30&#160;km<sup>2</sup>, indicating a possible population of 30-100&#160;pairs in the area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Further south, it is now known from Hatokaliotsy, Tsimanampetsotsa and other areas on the Mahafaly plateau, but its density appears to be relatively low<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Most recently its known range has been extended 50km south, with several records at Lintsa and suitable habitat further south of this site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150465	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in dense <em>Euphorbia</em> scrub, where it forages in low, dense bushes, 2-3&#160;m high, feeding on small insects, mostly by gleaning from leaves and branches and also by sally-gleaning<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Often in family groups, it may be difficult to find if not calling.</p>	eng
150465	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population estimate of 250-999 individuals is based on an assessment by Hawkins <em>et al.</em> (1998) that 30-100 pairs occur at the site of rediscovery, and that it occurs at low density at additional sites to the south. <br/></p>	eng
150465	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species's known habitat is being patchily degraded by shrub clearance for charcoal and grazing by goats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; localized timber extraction is also a problem at some sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, much habitat remains intact because the soil is unsuitable for agriculture, and the area is inhabited predominantly by fishermen and goat-herders<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This situation could change rapidly, however, if immigrant agriculturalists with different agricultural techniques move to the area<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>; population densities remain high in most of its scrubby habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150466	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>The remaining deciduous, dry, southern forest and scrubland has been identified as the vegetation type with the most outstanding need for additional reserves in Madagascar (Du Puy and Moat 1996).	eng
150466	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is largely restricted to south-western Madagascar, where it has been recorded from Ankapoky, Petriky, Tolagnaro and possibly Mandena (Schulenberg et al. 1993).	eng
150466	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species was formerly considered a subspecies of Madagascar Brush-Warbler N. typica which is common and widespread in Madagascar (Schulenberg et al. 1993), but was proposed as a full species in 1993. It is restricted to arid areas from sea level to 500 m, typically in Euphorbia forest, low coastal scrub, degraded forest and the edges of lowland, evergreen, humid forest (Morris and Hawkins 1998). It is found alone or in pairs, feeding on insects (Langrand 1990). The nest is built close to the ground in a dense tuft of grass or bush; clutch size is two and nesting has been observed in August-February, peaking in October-December (Langrand 1990).	eng
150466	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (Sinclair and Langrand 1998).	eng
150467	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in areas with adequate vegetation cover (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150468	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. Mangere Island has been substantially revegetated<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. A three- to four-year ecological and genetic research programme is underway to investigate population dynamics, hybridisation and mate selection<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1976, both hybrid birds and <em>C.&#160;n. chathamensis</em> individuals have been culled from the population<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1998, 40 hybrids and six <em>C.&#160;n. chathamensis</em> were killed, leaving c.10 hybrids and <em>C.&#160;n. chathamensis</em> after the operation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Complete ecological, biological and genetic research. Protect and increase numbers on Mangere and Little Mangere Island. Monitor and restore forest habitat on Mangere Island. Work towards the establishment of one or more further populations on Chatham Island<sup>1.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150468	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus forbesi</em> is restricted to Little Mangere and Mangere Islands in the Chatham Island group, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. By 1930, it was extinct on Mangere Island but, by 1973, it had recolonised and numbered 40 birds and a small number of hybrids with <em>C.&#160;n. chathamensis</em> (of which there were 12 on the island)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1996, two estimates indicated the population on Mangere Island was 50-120 pure-bred birds. The Little Mangere Island population is poorly known due to few visits taking place<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1999 the total population was estimated to be about 120 birds, although there have been no accurate counts to verify this number<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Birds have recently been recorded visiting the south of Chatham Island, and were once regular visitors to Pitt Island<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150468	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to prefer dense, unbroken forest and scrub. It feeds on invertebrates, flowers, seeds, leaves, fruit, shoots and bark<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It nests in natural crevices or hollows in dead or living trees<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150468	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population of <em>forbesi</em>-like phenotypes has increased dramatically on Mangere Island with best estimates placing the population at 800-1,000 individuals. However, the proportion that are pure <em>C. forbesi</em> remains uncertain. Surveys are planned for March 2008 and following these the species may warrant downlisting if the population is shown to be continuing to increase. <br/></p>	eng
150468	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It disappeared from Mangere Island owing to a combination of deforestation for pastoralism, decades of burning, the effects of introduced grazing mammals and predation by feral cats<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The greatest present threat is hybridisation with <em>C.&#160;n. chathamensis</em> which, despite culling, continues to establish itself on Mangere Island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The unnaturally high rate of hybridisation is believed to be the result of habitat modification<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150469	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II (1981). Hawdon and Poulter valleys are located within Arthur's Pass National Park and the Hurunui South Branch is in Lake Sumner Conservation Park<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Monitoring and conservation of this species is problematic given the difficulty in separating it from <em>C. auriceps</em>. The Hurunui population is contained within a "Mainland Island" which aims to protect and restore two river valleys through integrated pest management, including minimising numbers of <em>M. erminea</em>. Monitoring of nests will verify whether this is allowing numbers to stabilise and expand. The Hawdon population received <em>M. erminea</em> control only during plague years, which occur, on average, every four years<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. However, following the dramatic decline in the parakeet population after failure to effectively control predators, rat poisoning and stoat trapping are more extensive within the Hurunui 'mainland island'<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. All three valleys are now part of the 'Operation Ark' initiative targetting rat and stoats in South Isand beech forest sites. Every nest found is also individually protected with tin tree wraps (to prevent access by predators) and a circle of traps at the base of the nest tree<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Since 2005 individuals have been translocated to Chalky Island in Fiordland, which is free from predators<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. A reintroduction of birds on to Maud Island has been underway since 2007, and wild-bred birds are now nesting on the island. Population monitoring was due to be formalised in the 2008/2009 breeding season. The Department of Conservation is currently planning further translocations to a third island in Fiordland<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete survey of former/possible populations. Develop a technique to accurately monitor numbers. Study breeding biology and ecology. Stabilise and increase numbers in the Hurunui and Hawdon valleys by predator control, and monitor effectiveness. Train people in the identification of the species</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Following the success of translocations to Chalky Island and Maud Island, establish further populations on predator-free offshore islands.</strong>	eng
150469	distribution		<em>Cyanoramphus malherbi</em> is known from three valleys in the South Island of <strong>New Zealand</strong> which are all known to support small breeding populations: the South Branch Hurunui River valley, the Hawdon River valley, c.25 km apart and the Poulter valley, North Canterbury. Birds were sighted in the North Branch of the Hurunui River valley in 2004 and 2005. A sighting of a single bird from the Eglington Valley, Southland (1990-1991) was reported. Unconfirmed sightings from three further valleys during the 1990s are known. In 1999-2000 the population crashed from perhaps 500-700 birds to a rough estimate of 100-200 as a result of ship rat irruptions in two successive summers<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. The population appeared to stabilise at low levels since then and may now be increasing owing largely to translocations. It was once present in the North, most of the South, and Stewart Islands. Range contraction is apparently ongoing, with searches failing to find populations present in the 1960s and 1980s<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Translocations to Chalky Island in Fiordland began in December 2005 and have proved successful, with birds breeding and the population expanding to utilise all corners of the island<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> with 150+ birds estimated in 2009<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Since 2007 translocations have also taken place on Maud Island with successful breeding already recorded<strong><sup>13</sup></strong> and perhaps 50+ birds in 2009<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Overall, the global population may now number 450+ individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.	eng
150469	habitat		It is restricted to beech <em>Nothofagus</em> forest, though may not have been historically. It requires mature trees with natural hollows or cavities for nesting. Breeding is linked with the irregular seeding of <em>Nothofagus</em> when numbers can increase substantially. It feeds on seeds, fruits, leaves, flowers, buds and invertebrates<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
150469	population		Although the population numbered several hundreds prior to 2000, a prolific increase in the population of rats and stoats within its restricted South Island range induced a rapid population decline and the total population has remained well below its previous levels. Successful translocations on two islands have boosted the population of this species to around 450 individuals, however it is uncertain what proportion of the 200+ now present on Chalky and Maud Islands have bred successfully and can therefore be classified as mature individuals. Accordingly, the number of mature individuals is precautionarily retained as 50-249.	eng
150470	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman "protection forest" nominally conserves some remaining habitat, although few measures have been taken to ensure its efficacy. Further forest is protected as watershed for a hydroelectric scheme in the Kentuhang valley. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties (local people, local government, forestry officials and timber companies). As a result, it was planned to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve, although this process was due to take 2-3 years. The Wildlife Conservation Society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding Gunung Sahengbalira<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island (e.g. Gunung Awu). Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid gazettement of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island.</strong>	eng
150470	distribution		<em>Colluricincla sanghirensis</em> is endemic to the island of Sangihe, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995. It occurs on the mountains Gunung Sahendaruman and Gunung Sahengbalira, where the total population is likely to be extremely low (possibly under 100 birds) given the tiny area of remaining habitat.	eng
150470	habitat		It is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m, occurring singly, and perhaps more frequently in small groups, in the middle and upper forest storeys, and also in dense rattan undergrowth. One boulder-strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger-like plants (possibly Zingiberaceae), and in an area with a high density of large <em>Pandanus </em>sp. palms.	eng
150470	population		Population is likely to be extremely low (possibly fewer than 100 birds) given the tiny area of remaining habitat.	eng
150471	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Monitoring is intensive and nationally coordinated, and uses call-counts, specially-trained dogs searching for banded birds, and radio-tracking. Key populations are managed by controlling predators, or by removing and incubating eggs and returning subadults once large enough to fend off predators. Leg-hold predator traps are raised above the ground to prevent accidental trapping<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Many national and overseas captive populations are held<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify taxonomy of Okarito population. Evaluate islands for possible translocation of Okarito birds. Intensively manage Okarito population, and at least one population of each regional variety. Consider establishing a further population of Okarito birds in North Okarito Forest<sup>10. Promote legislative and policy changes to protect populations7. Educate and inform the public and encourage community involvement in Kiwi conservation7.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150471	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apteryx mantelli</em> was once widespread throughout the North and northern South Islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>. Remaining populations are isolated and fragmented. Birds are locally common in Northland, and mostly sparsely distributed in the Coromandel Peninsula, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne to the northern Ruahine Range, and from Tongariro to Taranaki. Stable populations are present on Little Barrier (c.1,000 birds), Kawau and Pounui Islands<strong><sup>2,8</sup></strong>. Hybrids are present on Kapiti Island<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 1996, the total population was estimated at 35,000 (c.&#177;25%) birds<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Numbers have probably declined at least 90% since 1900, and are declining at 5.8% per annum - halving each decade - in studied sites<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150471	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It favours dense, subtropical and temperate forests, but is also found in shrublands, scrub, regenerating forest, exotic pine plantations and pasture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds primarily on invertebrates<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It normally lays two eggs, two to three times a year. Chicks hatch fully-feathered, and first leave the nest unaccompanied after about a week. It is long-lived, with generation time taken to be 10-15 years<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150471	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	At least 94% of chicks die before reaching breeding age. About half are killed by introduced predators, in particular, stoat <em>Mustela erminea </em>and cats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In one population, a single dog killed c.500 birds in six weeks<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The clearance of habitat fragments continues to threaten small populations<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150472	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix I. In 1998, 35 individuals were held in captivity<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, originating from seven males and three females caught in 1984 and 1990, but nearly all have now been released onto Codfish Island with only around 20 birds retained as backup<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. <em>R. norvegicus</em> was successfully eradicated from Campbell Island during the world's largest rat eradication programme<strong><sup>9,13</sup></strong>. Birds have been successfully reintroduced to Campbell from the temporary Codfish Island population<strong><sup>7,10,11,12,13</sup></strong>. A survey of Campbell Island was carried out in December 2008, confirming the population has established itself<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. All released birds have been screened for disease, but have so far not shown any negative signs<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue to monitor population trends. Continue to track the fate of released birds. Maintain wild population. Establish additional wild populations. Exclude <em>R. norvegicus</em> from Campbell. Monitor the health of birds in all sub-populations to ensure that they are not suffering from disease.</strong>	eng
150472	distribution		<em>Anas nesiotis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it had been confined to Dent Island, an offshore islet of Campbell Island, for many decades. It was first collected in 1886 from the sea near Campbell (just 3 km away from Dent and likely to have been a stronghold for the species), but was not discovered on Dent until 1975. In 1990, a survey of Dent estimated a population of 60-100 birds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and it is likely that no more than 25 breeding pairs were present in 1998<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In 1999 and 2000, 24 captive-bred birds were released on Codfish Island to create a temporary population, and egg-laying occurred in their first year<strong><sup>8,13</sup></strong>. Following the successful eradication of brown rats <em>Rattus norvegicus</em> from Campbell Island in 2001, 50 teal were taken back from Codfish Island for release on the island in September 2004 and a second batch of 55 were released in September 2005<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The majority of birds released in 2004 were believed to have survived their first year on Campbell Island, and successful breeding was confirmed in 2006 when a brood of ducklings were seen in January, followed by sightings of a duckling, three juveniles and two nests containing eggs in February 2006<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A survey in December 2008 confirmed that the species has established on the island<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and the total population (captive and wild) has climbed to >200 individuals<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
150472	habitat		It lives under thick, chest-high tussock (there are no pools or running water on Dent). It has been sighted over most of the island, but is probably more common below 100 m, and in damp areas. It has not been observed feeding on the island, but in captivity it feeds on amphipods, weevils, earthworms, seaweed and other insects. Birds released onto Codfish Island have been observed feeding on invertebrates in piles of rotting seaweed along the shore and foraging offshore at night<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In captivity, females sometimes lay two clutches of between one and four eggs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Reintroduced males on Campbell Island hold territories. Birds have dispersed into open upland areas, <em>Dracophyllum</em> forest, upstream habitats and coastal beaches<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>.	eng
150472	population		Goudswaard (1991) estimated 60-100 birds in 1990 while Gummer and Williams (1999) estimated fewer than 25 breeding pairs. Since that time, the population has increased to over 200 individuals after the reintroduction of birds onto Campbell Island in 2004 onwards, following a successful rat eradication programme. However, as the majority of the population is still the first generation of released birds, and the population has not definitely sustained itself above 50 individuals for 5 years yet, the lower population estimate is retained for Red Listing purposes.	eng
150473	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. The highlands of the island are currently unprotected, but proposals have been made to protect them by extending the R&eacute;serve Marine de Nioumachoua<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation intend to carry out a feasbility study in late 2010/2011 to expand its forest management project from Anjouan to Moheli<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Research the ecology of this species, to aid conservation plans. Create a reserve in the interior of the island to protect suitable habitat</strong><sup>4</sup>. <strong>Develop an environmental education programme to increase local awareness.</strong>	eng
150473	distribution		This species is endemic to Moh&eacute;li in the <strong>Comoro Islands</strong>. It is relatively abundant - its density has been estimated at one individual/5 ha of near-primary forest (c.10 km<sup>2</sup>) and one individual per 10 ha of degraded forest, giving a total population in the order of 400 individuals<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It is thought to be declining due to habitat destruction<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
150473	habitat		It is found in dense, humid forest, which remains only on the central mountain peak and its upper slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is common in intact forest, but less so in forest under-planted for agriculture<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It has also been recently sighted in degraded forest, however it is not known whether this habitat can support a breeding<sup>6</sup>.	eng
150473	population		Lafontaine and Moulaert (1999)	eng
150474	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Targeted searches have resulted in some of the most recent records, but also a number of negative results from apparently suitable habitat<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey dry forests in the three river basins from which it is known<sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Act to prevent further erosion and landslides below Inquisivi<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Support the maintenance of traditional land-use and tenure systems that allow natural woodland habitats to persist<sup>6</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150474	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cranioleuca henricae</em> occurs in dry valleys on the east slope of the Andes in west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (Cochabamba and La Paz). The only viable populations known are in the r&iacute;o Cotacajes basin, with one below Inquisivi, La Paz, where it is common, and one at Cotacajes, Cochabamba, where it is uncommon<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Records of 1-2 individuals come from Churupampa and nearby Sorata in the r&iacute;o Consata basin<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>, and Mecapaca in the upper r&iacute;o La Paz basin, La Paz<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A record of a <em>Cranioleuca</em> sp. in suitable habitat at Saila Pata in the r&iacute;o Cotacajes basin may be attributable to this species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Searches in the Consata basin (where very little suitable habitat remains) and in the lower r&iacute;o La Paz basin have not revealed further localities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Numbers are probably below 3,000 mature individuals, but are difficult to estimate because of the paucity of data<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150474	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in the understorey of dry, seasonally deciduous forest in rain-shadow valleys at c.1,800-3,300&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Low, bushy vegetation in adjacent cleared areas may also be used, and one record was in a plantation of exotic <em>Cupressus</em> sp., but it has not been found in orchards or <em>Eucalyptus </em>plantations<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. A possible juvenile and apparent pairs have been observed in January, while mixed-species feeding parties are joined in the dry season (the austral winter)<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150474	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on assessment by S. K. Herzog <em>in litt</em>. (1999) that numbers "are probably below 3,000 mature individuals", and broadly consistent with estimates based on the extent of its range and the density of other <em>Cranioleuca </em>and <em>Synallaxis</em> spinetails in the BirdLife Population Densities Database). <br/></p>	eng
150474	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Much suitable habitat has long been destroyed or severely degraded<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. Plantations of <em>Eucalyptus</em> in the Inquisivi-Quime area, combined with the destruction of native vegetation and high grazing pressure, have caused hydrological changes leading to massive soil erosion and severe landslides<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The destruction of its stronghold by landslides is predicted by 2050, perhaps considerably sooner, unless action is taken<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Dry woodlands in La Paz and Cochabamba are threatened by cutting for firewood, selective logging and poor regeneration because of grazing by goats and burning<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150475	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to delimit its distribution and estimate numbers. Assess its precise ecological requirements. Assess the impact of existing threats upon the species. Ensure that some populations are adequately protected. <br/></p>	eng
150475	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlapetes melanops</em> occurs in a small area of the Cordillera Central, <strong>Peru</strong>, where it is restricted to five localities north and south of the r&iacute;o Mantaro, in Huancavelica and Jun&iacute;n. Since its discovery in 1996, individuals have been recorded at the following sites: Pariahuanca, Miotambo, the Lampa valley, Huachocollpa<strong><sup>2 </sup></strong>and R&iacute;o Punto<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Specimen material is limited to one individual taken south-east of Huachocollpa<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150475	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to dry, open bushy areas, often with dense thickets in ravines, at 2,480-3,400&#160;m (an elevational zone that receives comparatively high seasonal rainfall)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has also been recorded in adjacent ecotones, e.g. near the edge of elfin forest, grading into humid montane forest. It occurs in groups of 1-3 individuals, foraging from the ground to the subcanopy of trees and shrubs, on epiphyte-covered or bare branches. Its diet appears to include insects and possibly seeds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150475	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km2 x 472 km2 (20% of EOO) = 9,440, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density is lowest of four estimates for congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150475	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction at elevations suitable for this species has been ongoing for several thousand years, but is probably not increasing, as the human population of the region is in decline, owing to migration to larger towns and cities. Nonetheless, burning to maintain and increase available pasture prevents the regeneration of natural vegetation, except in steep, rocky areas and ravines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150476	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been recorded in the small R&iacute;o &Ntilde;ambi and La Planada reserves in Nari&ntilde;o<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A management plan for Alto de Pisones is in preparation, which a local organisation hopes to execute despite political instablity in the area<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Furthermore, the area may be gazetted within the proposed Caramanta National Park<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Significant populations may occur in Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (Imbabura), Los Cedros Biological Reserve (Esmeraldas/Imbabura) and Maquipucuna Reserve (Pichincha) in Ecuador<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, and Farallones de Cali (Valle del Cauca) and Munchique National Parks (Cauca) in Colombia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. There are records in Ecuador from Mindo-Nambillo Protection Forest, Tandayapa Private Reserve, Guajalito Private Reserve, Otonga Private Reserve and Buenaventura Private Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its population and distribution. Gazette Caramanta National Park. Complete and implement the management plan for Alto de Pisones. <br/></p>	eng
150476	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Glaucidium nubicola</em> occurs on the west slope of the West Andes of central and south <strong>Colombia</strong> and north <strong>Ecuador</strong>. From the northernmost known site, at Alto de Pisones in Risaralda, its range extends south along the Andes, with records in Valle del Cauca (one old specimen) and Nari&ntilde;o, Colombia, and Carchi (one site), Pichincha (three sites) and Cotopaxi (one site), Ecuador<strong><sup>3,8</sup></strong>. A tape-recording of a <em>Glaucidium</em> made at Buenaventura (El Oro) in 1985 has subsequently been identified as from this species, representing a significant southward extension of its range in Ecuador<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It may yet be found to occur from south-west Ecuador continuously to the northern tip of the Andes in Antioquia, Colombia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although habitat in the intervening range is highly fragmented<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150476	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in very humid, primary cloud-forest, invariably on steep slopes at altitudes of c.1,400-2,000 m <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It probably breeds principally between February and June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Invertebrates (especially insects) and small vertebrates (including lizards and possibly birds) appear to be the major dietary components<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species appears to be relatively tolerant of habitat loss,<strong><sup> </sup></strong>as it is found in secondary forest and at forest edges<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong>, but it is not thought to be tolerant of severe habitat degradation<strong><sup>10,11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150476	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring clarification. <br/></p>	eng
150476	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Choc&oacute; region has long been a source of timber, but logging has intensified since the mid-1970s<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. When the type-specimen was collected, logging was progressing rapidly, and the area has almost certainly been completely deforested<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. West Ecuador has already lost over 85% of forest cover in the Pacific lowland and slopes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Infrastructural improvement in the Choc&oacute;, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, is resulting in increased logging, small-scale agriculture and gold mining<strong><sup>3,4,5,7</sup></strong>. There is intensive agricultural development, especially coca plantations and cattle-farming<strong><sup> 4,7</sup></strong>. However, extremely high rainfall renders parts of its range fairly inhospitable, and timber extraction is probably the most significant threat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150477	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Herpsilochmus gentryi</em> occurs in the Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n, Tigre, Corrientes, Pucacuro and Pastaza drainages in north-central <strong>Peru</strong> (Loreto) and east <strong>Ecuador</strong> (Pastaza), where it is common at a moderate number of sites since its discovery in the mid-1990s. It is was thought to occur only in two rare and patchy types of <em>terra firme </em>forest, growing on hill-top nutrient-poor soils, but a third type is apparently inhabited in Ecuador. Its overall range is small, and in the Iquitos area, Peru, an increasing amount of its habitat is being cleared owing to human population growth. It is well protected in Ecuador, by the Kapawi Ecological Reserve, and much of its range is remote and subject to little human pressure. <br/></p>	eng
150477	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No data on population size. <br/></p>	eng
150478	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150479	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Restall et al. 2006).	eng
150480	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest hummingbird in its restricted habitat (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150481	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type-locality is within Tapichalaca Biological Reserve, a 22 km<sup>2</sup> area purchased and managed following the species's discovery<strong><sup>2,3,5</sup></strong>. It also occurs in the adjacent Podocarpus National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but only along the southern border, where threats from human settlement and gold miners are most concentrated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A revised management plan for the area has been devised, and a public awareness campaign highlighting the park's importance has been initiated<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey, using tape-playback, to clarify its population and distribution. Research its ecology. Manage Podocarpus National Park for the greater benefit of threatened species. <br/></p>	eng
150481	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Grallaria ridgelyi</em> was discovered in 1997, and is known from Tapichalaca Biological Reserve (formerly Quebrada Honda Reserve), adjacent parts of Podocarpus National Park and nearby Cerro Toledo, Zamora-Chinchipe, <strong>Ecuador<sup>2</sup></strong>. Initially, three specimens were taken and c.12 pairs observed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but two further specimens have since been collected and additional birds noted<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs at an estimated density of six pairs per km<sup>2</sup> at the type-locality<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. That such a distinctive species went unnoticed until 1997 suggests that it has a very limited geographical distribution and/or specific habitat requirements<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its range is estimated as Tapichalaca Biological Reserve environs, east and south-east to the Cordillera de Tzunantza and southern Cordillera del Condor, south-west to the r&iacute;o Isimanchi, and possibly further north and south<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150481	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It apparently inhabits the undergrowth of wet, montane evergreen forest, with bryophyte-clad, generally low trees and bamboo, within the subtropical zone, at 2,300-2,680&#160;m <strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Evidence suggests that it breeds at least in October-November<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Stomach contents comprised invertebrate remains, including insects (beetles and ants) and their larvae, worms and millipedes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150481	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 12 individuals/km2 x 50 km2 (estimated AOO) = 600, i.e. best placed in band 250-999  (density based on observation of estimate of six pairs per km2 at the type-locality [Krabbe <em>et al</em>. 1999]) <br/></p>	eng
150481	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Tapichalaca Biological Reserve is situated near a road that is frequently used for commercial transport, and much of the area is threatened by logging and gold mining, including areas within Podocarpus National Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150482	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. Known and potential nest-sites are identified, monitored and protected, and introduced competitors using these sites are culled. Rat-proof nesting hollows are being installed in the national park, adjacent private land and on nearby Phillip Island<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Between 1985 and March 2000, 325 chicks were banded in the wild. A captive-breeding programme has been operating on the island, and 58 chicks were banded from 1985-1999. Rat baiting and cat trapping is occurring within park boundaries. Responsible cat ownership is encouraged.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Determine constraints on population growth. Investigate feasibility of PCD immunisation. Establish cooperative rodent control programmes throughout Norfolk Island, with a view to rat eradication. Enhance rat and cat control and monitor efficacy. Close captive-breeding facility and establish a breeding population at Taronga Park Zoo. Introduce birds to Phillip Island following provision of sufficient suitable habitat. Investigate establishing a population on the mainland and reintroduction to Lord Howe Island.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150482	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus cookii</em> is endemic to <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It was once found throughout the island, and estimated to number at least 190 pairs. It is now confined to the Norfolk Island National Park and adjacent forested areas and orchards<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1994, the declining population consisted of only four breeding females and 28-33 males. However, conservation management measures have caused the population to grow to a total of 200-300 individuals in 2004, and numbers continue to increase rapidly<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150482	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to forest, but visits orchards to feed on soft fruit. It also feeds on seeds, fruit, flowers and leaves of both native and introduced trees and shrubs. It usually nests in tree-hollows, mostly in ironwood <em>Nestegis apetala</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150482	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is thought to number 200-300 individuals, however it is impossible to give an accurate estimate due to the difficulties of censusing the population as it expands beyond the national park (R. Ward <em>in litt.</em> 2005). A census is required and the new estimate should take into account the possible affects of a bias in the sex ratio when numbers were critically low (M. Christian<em> in litt.</em> 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
150482	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Clearance of forests before 1950 severely reduced suitable habitat. Since then, increasing weed invasion has dramatically altered the structure and composition of remaining native vegetation. Though clearance has stopped, recovery requires new habitat to become available. Nest-site availability has been further reduced by competition with introduced Crimson Rosella <em>Platycercus elegans</em> and, to a lesser extent, Common Starling <em>Sturnus vulgaris </em>and feral honey bees. Most known nest failures have resulted from predation by introduced black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em>. Feral cats are also thought to be significant predators. There is a high level of Psittacine Circoviral Disease (PCD) in the population, which has resulted in some mortality. <br/></p>	eng
150483	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A large area in Murici, Alagoas, is currently legally protected by the Brazilian government<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In Pernambuco, the site where the species was sighted in S&atilde;o Jos&eacute; da Coroa Grande municipality, and the site named &Aacute;gua Azul are well protected, the former being surrounded by many small and medium-sized forest fragments<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Surveys were conducted in Alagoas and Pernambuco states in 2007<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Local NGOs such as the IPMA (Instituto para a Preserva&ccedil;&atilde;o da Mata Atl&acirc;ntica) are working to create reserves in many privately-owned forest fragments in Alagoas and Pernambuco<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Urgently survey all forest patches larger than 10 ha in Pernambuco and Alagoas. Designate Murici as a biological reserve and ensure its <em>de facto</em> protection. Protect any remaining forest at S&atilde;o Miguel dos Campos. Conduct field and museum studies to clarify its taxonomic status including DNA analysis. Conduct prospective surveys in forest fragments in Para&iacute;ba and Sergipe states as the species may also occur there.</strong>	eng
150483	distribution		<em>Leptodon forbesi</em> occurs in Pernambuco (one specimen taken in 1880<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and recent records from &Aacute;gua Azul, Barreiros, Trapiche, S&atilde;o Jos&eacute; da Coroa Grande municipality, Gravat&aacute; municipality, and in the private reserve Frei Caneca in Jaqueira municipality<strong><sup>8,9,10,11</sup></strong>) and Alagoas (recent records from S&atilde;o Miguel dos Campos, Serra Grande and Murici<strong><sup>6,9,</sup></strong>), north-east <strong>Brazil</strong>. It may also occur in the state of Para&iacute;ba<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. It was recorded from six sites surveyed in 2007, with a total estimate of 21 pairs logged<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. However, as survey effort focused on a small fraction of all forest fragments the global population can conservatively be estimated at c.50 pairs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The extent of habitat loss indicates that there must have been significant declines in both numbers and range. Forest cover has been reduced to less than 1% of its former distribution within this species's range. The largest remaining forest fragments in Pernambuco and Alagoas are 45 km<sup>2</sup> and 30 km<sup>2</sup> respectively, suggesting the species is in a precarious position.	eng
150483	habitat		It apparently inhabits humid forest at elevations up to c.600 m, but there are no data on its feeding or breeding ecology<strong><sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>.	eng
150483	population		Recent survey work in Alagoas and Pernambuco states recorded 21 pairs and estimated a total population of c.50 paris or 100 mature individuals (F. V. D&eacute;nes <em>in litt</em>. 2007).	eng
150484	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megascops seductus</em> has a restricted range in west-central <strong>Mexico</strong>, where it is a fairly common resident in Jalisco, Colima, Michoac&aacute;n, Morelas and Guerrero<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It inhabits thorn-forest and arid open to semi-open areas with scattered trees at elevations of 600-1,500 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Significant portions of suitable habitat remain, and surveys are likely to find the species locally common at additional sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, agriculture is expanding in the region, especially for citrus plantations and cattle-ranching<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
150485	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. It is protected under Brazilian law, and occurs in at least one protected area in Brazil, two in Uruguay, and two in Paraguay. Since birds are highly mobile, it is virtually impossible to designate reserves that will provide adequate protection<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. An experimental reintroduction of seven birds from trade in Buenos Aires met with some success<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to assess range and numbers in Brazil. Monitor populations in Paraguay and Argentina. Research the impact of brood-parasitism. Develop an action plan considering the creation of a reserve network and awareness campaigns. Fence and protect traditional colony sites, where locally appropriate<sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Enforce legislation on burning in Paraguay. Legislate for and enforce restrictions on trade. Develop a CMS agreement for this and similar grassland species. <br/></p>	eng
150485	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Xanthopsar flavus</em> has sharply contracted its range in south <strong>Brazil</strong> (Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul), east <strong>Paraguay<sup>1,3,6</sup></strong>, <strong>Uruguay<sup>8</sup></strong> and north-east <strong>Argentina</strong>. There are now only local centres of abundance, but it was probably never abundant in Argentina<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, the population in the Aguapey and Tacuary watersheds in Itap&uacute;a and Misiones is estimated as c.1,500 birds, and the overall Paraguayan population as 2,000-3,000 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. In Argentina, there are disjunct populations totalling 500-1,000 individuals in north-east Corrientes (possibly continuous with populations in west Rio Grande do Sul) and south-east Entre R&iacute;os<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150485	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In Entre R&iacute;os, it has adapted relatively well to agropastoral land but, despite feeding in rice-fields and grazed areas, it only breeds in dense marsh vegetation, characterised by <em>Eryngium</em>, in Corrientes and Paraguay<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It may undertake irregular irruptions and can be highly mobile in the non-breeding season<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Breeding is colonial, beginning in September in Paraguay<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> with eggs laid through to December. The breeding season in Uruguay is October-December<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, whereas in Rio Grande do Sul it is from December-January<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150485	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Fraga <em>et al</em>. (1998), Clay <em>et al</em>. (2003). <br/></p>	eng
150485	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has declined owing to the many different uses (stock-raising, agriculture, pesticides, burning, pine and eucalypt plantations, drainage, settlement) of grasslands<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In Rio Grande do Sul, the greatest threat is the damming of marshy valleys for irrigation<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is trapped for the pet trade. Brood-parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird <em>Molothrus bonariensis</em> can be significant<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, particularly in populations reduced by habitat loss<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In Paraguay, nests of whole colonies have been destroyed by fire<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150486	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Leptasthenura yanacensis</em> is locally relatively common in <strong>Peru </strong>(from the Cordillera Blanca in Ancash and north Lima, on the east slope of the Andes in Cuzco and Puno), west <strong>Bolivia</strong> (from La Paz south to Tarija)<strong><sup>3,6</sup></strong> and north-west <strong>Argentina</strong> (Jujuy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and Salta<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>). In the semi-humid north of its range, it exclusively inhabits highly fragmented <em>Polylepis</em> woodland<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and in some localities it appears to be strongly tied to <em>Polylepis </em>groves<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. In the more arid south, it also occurs in shrubbery and on steep rocky slopes with bunchgrass and low bushes<strong><sup>1,2,4,6</sup></strong>. It occurs at 2,850-4,600&#160;m <strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong>, occasionally to 5,200&#160;m <strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, and remains at high altitude even during snowstorms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The main threats are heavy grazing by livestock and uncontrolled use of fire, which combine to prevent <em>Polylepis</em> regeneration, especially where cutting for timber, firewood and charcoal occurs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The change from camelid to sheep and cattle farming, and erosion and soil degradation caused by agricultural intensification and afforestation (especially with <em>Eucalyptus</em>) are contributory factors<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150487	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes sylviolus</em> is scarce in lowland Atlantic forest (below 300 m) in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo and south Minas Gerais to Santa Catarina), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong> (Canindey&uacute; south to Itap&uacute;a)<strong><sup>2,3,7,8,9</sup></strong>. It principally inhabits forest canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but is encountered in small groups at forest edge, and has been observed in palms and dead trees adjacent to forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. At one site in Brazil, it has been recorded only in edges, secondary and selectively logged forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150488	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phylloscartes eximius</em> inhabits lowland and montane humid forest and forest borders, including forest dominated by <em>Araucaria</em>, to 1,800 m in south-east <strong>Brazil</strong> (Esp&iacute;rito Santo, central Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, S&atilde;o Paulo, Santa Catarina, north Rio Grande do Sul, south Mato Grosso do Sul), north-east <strong>Argentina</strong> (Misiones) and east <strong>Paraguay</strong><sup>1,6,7,8</sup>. It is principally concentrated in the Paran&aacute; basin, having disappeared from S&atilde;o Paulo state (despite tracts of habitat remaining)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but more northerly populations were perhaps historically marginal<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is locally common in Paraguay and Argentina, but suggestions that it favours more open forest and may benefit from selective logging<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> are unfounded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion and deforestation for mining and plantation production historically threatened its lowland habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Current key threats are urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural expansion, colonisation and associated road-building<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. However, montane Atlantic forest has suffered less habitat destruction than adjacent lowlands, and its occurrence at these higher altitudes suggests that large tracts of habitat remain. <br/></p>	eng
150489	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II and protected under Brazilian law, but this legal status may have highlighted its value to dealers. A population is relatively well-protected in Tapaj&oacute;s National Park, and a remnant population may survive in Gurupi Biological Reserve. Jamari National Forest is poorly protected and suffers constant pressure from squatters, loggers and poachers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Conservation of this species in reserves is problematic because of its apparent nomadism.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey to discover new populations, especially in the south and west of its range. Ensure the <em>de facto protection of Gurupi Biological Reserve. Maintain the integrity of Tapaj&oacute;s National Park. Protect and manage intervening areas to facilitate nomadic movements. Enforce legal restrictions on trade, especially in internal markets.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150489	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Guaruba guarouba</em> has mostly been recorded between the Tocantins, lower Xing&uacute; and Tapaj&oacute;s rivers in the Amazon basin of Par&aacute;, <strong>Brazil</strong>. There are additional records from adjacent north Maranh&atilde;o (populations survive around Gurupi and the rio Capim<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>), Rond&ocirc;nia (one record at Jamari in 1989, but not subsequent despite surveys<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>) and Mato Grosso (one record at Alta Floresta in 1991<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>). It may always have been scarce, but overall numbers must have declined very considerably.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150489	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently nomadic in lowland humid forest. In the dry season, it frequents the canopy of tall <em>terra firme</em> forest but, in the breeding season, appears to inhabit clearings with few scattered trees. Tree-cavities are used for nesting and roosting. It feeds on fruit, berries, seeds and nuts and, seasonally, on crops (especially maize, which ripens immediately before fledging). Breeding generally occurs in December-April, but has been noted in October. Breeding is apparently communal, with several females contributing two or three eggs to each nest and several adults caring for the young. Up to nine young have been recorded in a nest in the wild, and up to 14 in captivity. <br/></p>	eng
150489	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-2.5 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,030 km<sup>2</sup> (1% EOO) = 927-2,575, i.e. best placed within band 1,000-2,499 (density lowest of three estimates for closely-related <em>Aratinga leucophthalmus</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet; AOO taken as low % of EOO, as species nomadic within an increasingly deforested and fragmented range). <br/></p>	eng
150489	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction and fragmentation as a result of road construction, subsequent development and settlement, with accompanying illegal logging, is a threat in the east of its range. Mahogany exploitation is particularly concerning in the Tocantins-Xing&uacute; area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is trapped for trade (usually while roosting) and highly desired in both international and national trade. It is hunted for food, feathers, sport and to curtail crop damage.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150490	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara (110&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) and Pulau Supiori (420&#160;km<sup>2</sup>) Nature Reserves<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Identify and record the species's vocalisations to aid detection. Conduct surveys on both Biak and Supiori, using tape-playback of vocalisations, to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Investigate further its taxonomic status and relationship to other <em>Otus species. Afford formal protection to key sites supporting the species, as appropriate.</em></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150490	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus beccarii</em> is endemic to the twin islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia<sup>7,8,9,10</sup></strong>. Its status is unclear, as it is a nocturnal species with poorly-known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species. A 1973 survey of the island found only one pair<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>, it was not recorded during three 1990s visits to Biak<strong><sup>4,5,11</sup></strong> and just one was heard in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, two were heard one morning in 1995<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and<em> </em>it was suspected to be fairly widespread in moderate numbers in 1982, based on vocalisations and local reports, although not actually observed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150490	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits forest, including partially logged forest, up to at least 300&#160;m<strong><sup>1,2,8,14</sup></strong>, including coastal swamp-forest bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It may be poorly tolerant of habitat degradation, as there have been no records from heavily logged or degraded forest.</p>	eng
150490	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 11 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 508 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 5,588, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000  (density is lowest of four estimates for congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150490	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Large areas of forest on Biak have been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, particularly in the southern plains, and the remainder is under pressure<strong><sup>2,3,6</sup></strong>. Furthermore, forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150491	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No specific measures are known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor the population. Perform further research<sup>2, especially on the reasons for its relative scarcity in the Wai`anae Mountains. Protect native habitats by law. Reforest cleared areas.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150491	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus flavus</em> is endemic to O`ahu in the Hawaiian Islands (<strong>USA</strong>), where it originally occurred throughout the island, but is now restricted to the two mountain ranges. In the Wai`anae Mountains, it is uncommon and sparsely distributed, mostly above 500 m elevation. In the southern and central Ko`olau Mountains, it is locally common, occurring from the summits occasionally down to 30 m in valleys, but it becomes increasingly rare northwards and is practically absent from the northern tip of the range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 20,000-60,000 birds<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, but surveys on O`ahu, unlike those on other Hawaiian islands, have not been systematic and these estimates may be too high<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Christmas bird counts indicate a population decline over the period 1958-1985<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but more recent information indicates that the population may be stable and even increasing in some areas<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150491	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has adapted relatively well to forests of non-native trees, but is most abundant in native forests, particularly where koa trees dominate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It nests and forages in urban areas where enough trees grow<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Little is known about its diet, but it probably feeds primarily on small insects and other arthropods, taking nectar and fruit as secondary food sources<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150491	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 20,000-60,000 birds<strong> </strong>(Jacobi and Atkinson 1995; Lindsey <em>et al.</em> 1998), but surveys on O`ahu, unlike those on other Hawaiian islands, have not been systematic, and these estimates may be too high (R. Shallenberger <em>in litt</em>. 1999). <br/></p>	eng
150491	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Feral ungulates and introduced predators are likely to have contributed to historical declines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and to be continuing limiting factors. Diseases spread by introduced mosquitoes were probably also a major factor, but some populations have apparently developed some degree of resistance to avian malaria, and this may explain recent population increases in lowland areas<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong></p>	eng
150492	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I. In 2007 a species recovery plan was produced with the goal of securing in the wild a combined protected population of 2,000 birds at 5-10 managed sites by 2010. Following a major audit of the recovery programme in 2000 the population has begun to increase. Over 200 birds are held in captivity. Though initial mainland releases totalling over 1,000 birds<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> failed, releases are now conducted in combination with intensive predator control and radio-tracking has revealed that this is establishing a breeding population<strong><sup>3,10,11,12</sup></strong>. Hazing fences on roads have been erected to force ducks to either fly or use culverts when passing between favoured feeding sites, these have met with success and are planned for more areas<strong><sup>11,12</sup></strong>. Habitat is being restored in Northland and Coromandel with the co-operation of local landowners, and some wetlands are grazed to create ideal conditions for teal<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Research is ongoing, focusing on management techniques and habitat requirements<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue to implement the species recovery plan. Continue to maintain a viable breeding population at a minimum of two locations on the Northland mainland. Continue measures to increase the population on Great Barrier Island. Continue predator control measures at key sites. Erect more hazing fences in areas where road mortality is greatest. Establish self-sustaining populations on at least five further islands. Establish new populations at a minimum of five mainland locations. Continue the captive breeding programme. Continue to encourage public support and involvement</strong><sup>4</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
150492	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas chlorotis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it was once widespread in the North, South, Stewart and Chatham Islands, but its range is now much reduced. The current strongholds are on Great Barrier Island, where there were 1,300-1,500 birds in the early 1990s, declining to little over 500 in the early 2000s and increasing to over 600 in 2004, and at Mimiwhangata and Teal Bay on the east coast of Northland where the population declined by 65% in the period between 1988 and 1999 to fewer than 100 individuals in 2001 before increasing to nearly 300 by 2004<strong><sup>4,5,6,9</sup></strong>. The re-introduced population in the northern Coromandel numbered c.500 individuals in early 2008, and is increasing. Its estimated area of occupancy is only c.300-500 km<sup>2<strong> 1</strong></sup>. After a study on Great Barrier Island indicated that the population was halving every 4.1 years  and could rapidly decline to extinction intensive management was initiated which has seen populations rising again<strong><sup>8,9,11,12</sup></strong>. Other remnant populations in Northland and Fiordland were nearing extinction but are also now recovering due to management<strong><sup>4,5,6,11</sup></strong>. Small islands where birds have been had previously been introduced and persisted for one to two decades may be too small for long-term survival, and some of these populations appear to be approaching extinction, however overall the trend is now a population increase<strong><sup>5,9,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150492	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It formerly inhabited a wide range of freshwater wetlands and swamp-forests, especially in the lowlands. It is now restricted to coastal streams, wetlands and dams in predominantly agricultural environments<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It nests in bowls of grass, always under dense, low vegetation, and usually lays six eggs. It feeds on aquatic or marine invertebrates and plant detritus<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Peak breeding takes place between May and September, but can occur throughout the year<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Only the female incubates the eggs<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150492	population	BirdLife International, 2008	National survey reported in Williams (2005) <br/></p>	eng
150492	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Between the 1890s and 1930s, wetland drainage and severe hunting pressure (which continued in several areas despite legal protection in 1921) caused widespread local extinctions<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Predation by the introduced mammalian predators, primarily cats, dogs, mustelids <em>Mustela</em> spp. and possums <em>Trichosurus pulpecula</em>, as well as the native Purple Gallinule <em>Porphyrio porphyrio </em>(locally known as Pukeko), were the primary cause of the modern decline<strong><sup>3,8,10,11,12</sup></strong>.  Research has shown that captive bred birds have shorter digestive tracts than wild birds, this may reduce the re-introduced birds' chance of efficiently digesting a wild diet and account for some of the deaths of re-introduced birds which were found with very little body fat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Habitat modification, drought-induced habitat change and traffic-caused road deaths and especially predation continue to endanger remnant mainland populations<strong><sup>5,6,10,11,12</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150493	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. It has been protected since 1966, with protection strengthened in 1974, leading to an increase in numbers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Ongoing public awareness campaigns and conservation action aim to stop poaching and to rescue and release poached birds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Monitor its population trends and continue ecological research to ascertain the effects of forest clearance and aid conservation plans. Continue developing public awareness campaigns to stop poaching and persecution. Protect remaining habitat<sup>6.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150493	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circus maillardi</em> is confined to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>. Current population estimates range from less than 100 pairs to 125-130<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or 130-170 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The range appears to have been stable from the late 1970s to the present<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and numbers are probably increasing as a consequence of protection<strong><sup>3,7</sup></strong>. Most suitable habitat is occupied, albeit with varying densities<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. There are also reports of its presence on Madagascar, Comoros and Mayotte (to France).  <br/></p>	eng
150493	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	When breeding, it largely occupies indigenous and degraded forests<strong><sup>2,4,6</sup></strong> - although rarely tall, dense forest - mostly between 300 and 700&#160;m. It forages in most habitats, but particularly in wooded and forested habitats (65%), as well as cultivated (sugarcane) fields and pastures (20%) and open grasslands and savannas (15%)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its original diet was probably entirely birds and insects, but now c.50% consists of introduced mammals such as rats, mice and Tenrec <em>Tenrec ecaudatus<strong><sup>4</sup></strong></em>. Its fecundity is poor for a member of the <em>Circus</em> genus and is probably related to the lack of natural predators and low benefits of dispersion<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150493	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimates range from less than 100 pairs to 125-130 (Bretagnolle <em>et al. </em>2000) or 130-170 pairs (M. Le Corre <em>in litt.</em> 1999), giving a range of 200-340 mature individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
150493	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Poaching<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and persecution (it is believed to be a predator of chickens)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> continue, despite protective legislation. Increasing urbanisation, road construction and tourism bring disturbance further into the breeding habitat. Below 1,300&#160;m, cultivation and urbanisation have eliminated native forest from all but the steepest of slopes. Cyclones, heavy rains and fires degrade remaining habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> that is already increasingly degraded by exotic plants<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Other possible threats include agricultural pesticide use, silvicultural management of some forests, and human hunting pressure on some prey species (e.g. larger birds and <em>T.&#160;ecaudatus</em>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150494	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. Conservation efforts began in 1969, when the breeding population was first estimated on Antipodes. Many thousands of chicks have been banded, both on Antipodes and Adams Islands. Satellite tracking has identified foraging and non-breeding distribution<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. By 1992, cattle and sheep had been eradicated from Campbell Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. All islands are nature reserves and, in 1998, were declared part of a World Heritage Site.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census total breeding population for 3-4 consecutive years at 10-year intervals. Monitor productivity, survival and recruitment. Check all birds for bands during censuses for survival and recruitment measures. Monitor new fisheries for bycatch. Continue to develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch. Eradicate pigs and cats from Auckland Island<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Further investigate the impact that oceanographic changes in the Tasman Sea may be having on <em>D. a. gibsoni. </em>Obtain seabird bycatch information for distant-water pelagic fleets in the Pacific.	eng
150494	distribution		<em>Diomedea antipodensis</em> is endemic to <strong>New Zealand</strong>, breeding on Antipodes Island (4,565 breeding pairs annually between 2007 and 2009<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>), the Auckland Islands group (Adams, Disappointment and Auckland), where four counts from 2006 to 2009 indicated a mean annual breeding population of 3,277 pairs<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, Campbell Island (c.10 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), and Pitt Island in the Chatham Islands (one pair since 2004)<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The total average annual breeding population of 8,050 pairs on all islands gives an estimated population of 44,500 mature individuals in 2009<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Data from satellite tracking indicate that birds from the Auckland Islands forage mostly west of New Zealand over the Tasman Sea and south of Australia, while those from the Antipodes forage east of New Zealand in the South Pacific, as far as the coast of Chile, and have a larger overall range<strong><sup>5,10,15</sup></strong>.	eng
150494	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid between late December and late January on the Auckland Islands, and between early January and early February on the Antipodes Islands. Hatching takes place between March and April, and chicks fledge after nine months departing in mid-December to early March<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Breeding is biennial if chicks are successfully reared<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Fledglings do not return earlier than the age of three years old, and the youngest age of first breeding is seven years for Antipodes Island birds and eight years old for Auckland Islands birds<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Between 1991 and 2004, average productivity was 74% on Antipodes Island and significantly lower (63%) on the Auckland Islands<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Foraging was most concentrated over pelagic waters and deep shelf slope (up to 6000 m), with peaks of activity at 1000 m corresponding to seamounts and shelf breaks where productivity is high. Foraging trips are longer during incubation (7-13 days) than chick-rearing (average 4 days)<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Breeders and non-breeders have similar core foraging areas, though non-breeding juvenile males from the Antipodes Islands migrate east to the waters off Chile, and non-breeding juvenile males and females from the Auckland Islands forage westward to the south-eastern Indian Ocean<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests from the coastline inland, on ridges, slopes and plateaus, usually in open or patchy vegetation, such as tussock grassland or shrubs. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mostly on cephalopods and fish<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
150494	population		ACAP (2009).	eng
150495	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. All populations are monitored periodically. Annual population data from Taiaroa Head is the most complete for any seabird species in New Zealand<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Predator control at Taiaroa Head  during the breeding season results in comparatively high mean annual productivity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (no predators recorded on Chatham Island colonies). Animal husbandry techniques have been developed from work with this colony. Feral cattle, rabbits and mice have been eradicated from Enderby Island<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Taiaroa Head and Enderby Island are nature reserves.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue to census Chatham populations annually using aerial photography. Continue intensive management of Taiaroa Head colony. Band further cohorts of chicks from all colonies. Obtain legal protection for Forty-Fours and Sisters Islands, and continued access for research<sup>7</sup>.	eng
150495	distribution		<em>Diomedea sanfordi</em> breeds on Forty-Fours, Big and Little Sister Islands (Chatham Islands), Taiaroa Head (Otago Peninsula, South Island) and Enderby Island (Auckland Islands), <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The Chatham Islands population (99% of the total) is estimated at 6,500-7,000 pairs<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, with c. 5,200-5,800 pairs breeding each year. Around 25 pairs breed each year at Taiaroa Head, including five hybrids (descended from cross with female Southern Royal Albatross <em>D. epomophora</em>). Two birds have hybridised on Enderby Island. During the breeding season adults typically forage over the Chatham Rise<strong><sup>9,11</sup></strong>. Non-breeding birds undertake circumpolar traverses in the Southern Oceans<strong><sup>5 </sup></strong>and forage in the Humboldt Current and Patagonian Shelf, off the coasts of South America<strong><sup>12, 13</sup></strong>. Low annual productivity has led tp a projected population decline in this species. In 1985, a cyclonic storm hit the breeding sites on the Chatham Islands, reducing soil cover and destroying most vegetation<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Nests were subsequently built with stones, or eggs laid on bare rock<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. As a result, mean annual productivity plummeted to 8% (1990-1996) on the Forty-Fours, and 18% over all three islands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, due to egg breakage, high temperatures and flooding in temporary pools<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, though there has since been a partial recovery<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. By 2007, annual herb-field vegetation cover had recovered to about 70% of that recorded in the 1970s. The soil base is still minimal, but improving. While productivity has continued to improve, the mean annual chick production from 1995-2003 was still only 66% of the mean annual productivity per annum in the 1970s. It is estimated that for the 20 year period 1985-2005 there was a total 50-60% reduction in productivity for the species. However, it is clear from the annual chick production figures that the annual breeding population is becoming much more balanced than in the 1990s, when as much at 80-90% of the breeding population was attempting to breed annually (rather than the normal 60%).  In 2002, an end of egg-laying count was 5,800 pairs, with a probable 1700 pairs on sabbatical (after breeding in the previous season). This suggests that in spite of the extensive reduction in productivity over a 20 year period, the number of breeding pairs may have remained relatively stable<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Additional data may lead to a review of threat status of this species.	eng
150495	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Eggs are laid in October to December, hatching mostly between late January and early February, and chicks fledge in September-October. It is a biennial breeder, if chick rearing is successful. Juvenile birds start returning to the colony when 3 years old but the mean is 4 years of age. Age of first breeding can be as early as 6 years old, but it is usually 8 years of age. Satellite-tracking of breeding birds shows that they forage close to their breeding sites, over the shallow waters of the Chatham Rise out to the shelf slope (1,500 - 2,000 m deep). Failed breeders and non-breeding birds, including newly fledged juveniles, rapidly traverse the Pacific Ocean to the continental shelf and slope off Chile and the Patagonian Shelf. On the Patagonian Shelf, they are widespread 200-350 km offshore in waters <200 m deep but extending to, and over, the shelf break to 1000 m depth between 36 and 49&#176;S<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>Northern Royal Albatrosses usually nest on the flat summits of tiny islands with herb fields<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and grasses. The nest is typically a low mound of vegetation, mud, feathers, stone chips etc, on flat ground and slopes on islands and headlands. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on cephalopods and fish, but also salps, crustacea and carrion<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>.	eng
150495	population		The largest population (99%) is on the Chatham Islands, with 1% of the population on Taiaroa Head, on the mainland of South Island, New Zealand. There has not been a successful run of annual photographs over the past 8 years to enable updated estimates of the breeding population of this biennial breeder (C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008). However, air photographic counts on the Chatham Islands in the 1970s (1972-1975)and 1990s (1989-1991) recorded a total of 6,500-7,000 total breeding pairs (Croxall and Gales 1998; Robertson 1998). The number of pairs breeding each year was estimated as 5,200 pairs, based on a count in 1995 (Croxall and Gales 1998). This is equivalent to a total population of 17,000 mature individuals (Croxall and Gales 1998). A count in 2002 recorded 5,800 pairs on the Chatham Islands (counted at the end of egg laying), with a probable 1700 pairs on sabbatical (after breeding in the previous season; C. J. R. Robertson <em>in litt.</em> 2008). However, since the estimate of 17,000 individuals is based on data from multiple years, this is the estimate used here. Around.25 pairs breed each year at Taiaroa Head, including five hybrids (descended from cross with female Southern Royal Albatross <em>D. epomophora</em>). Two individuals of <em>D. sanfordi</em>, both breeding with <em>D. epomophora</em> partners have been recorded on Enderby Island (Robertson 1998).	eng
150496	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Long-term studies have been initiated in all main populations<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Most islands are legally protected, but all Chatham colonies are on private land.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete an accurate census on Forty-Fours and Big Sister. Census all colonies for 2-4 consecutive years every 10 years, and Little Sister at least every five years. Develop and effectively implement mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch. Establish observer coverage on fisheries east of the North Island and the Chathams. Eradicate <em>G. australis </em> from Big Solander Island. Obtain legal protection for Forty-Fours and Sisters Islands, and continued access for research</strong><sup>14</sup>.	eng
150496	distribution		<em>Thalassarche bulleri</em> is endemic to<strong> New Zealand</strong>. There are colonies on the Snares (8,713 pairs) and Solander (4,912) Islands in the south<strong><sup>6,10,18</sup></strong>, Forty-Fours (c.14,500) and Big and Little Sister (2,150) Islands in the Chatham Island group<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, and Rosemary Rock, Three Kings Islands (20 pairs) off North Island<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This totals approximately 30,500 breeding pairs. The Snares Islands population has almost doubled since 1969, but the rate of increase has slowed in the 1990s<strong><sup>6,10</sup></strong>. The Solander Islands population appears to have remained relatively stable during 1985-1996, and has increased by around 18% during 1996-2002<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The Chatham Island population is thought to be stable<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Juveniles and non-breeding adults can disperse across the south Pacific Ocean to the west coast of South America<strong><sup>9,12,14</sup></strong>.	eng
150496	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding is annual and colonial. On the Snares Islands most eggs are laid in January, hatch March to April and chicks fledge in August to September. Birds begin to return to colonies at least three years after fledging, and the average age of first breeding is 10-11 years. On the Chatham Islands, eggs are laid in October to November, hatch in January and the chicks fledge in June to July<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. On Little Sister, annual productivity 1994-1996 was 57-60%, and mean annual adult survival 1974-1995 was 93.5%<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On the Snares, annual productivity 1995-98 was 70.8%<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, and mean annual adult survival increased from 92.0% in 1983-85 to 95.5% in 1992-97<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Breeding and non-breeding adults forage between 40 and 50&#176;S from Tasmania eastwards to the Chatham Rise<strong><sup>11,12,13,17,18</sup></strong>. Females from the Snares Islands tend to conduct longer, more distant foraging trips during pre-egg and brood guard periods of the breeding cycle, than males<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Birds usually forage individually but large numbers may gather to feed at concentrated food sources such as swarms of crustaceans, occasionally making surface plunges or shallow dives<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking studies from the Snares and Solander Islands show that the distribution of the breeding birds varies with the stage of the breeding cycle. During incubation (Jan-Mar) birds range along the shelf slope off the east and west coasts of the South Island, New Zealand, and into the Tasman Sea; during the guard stage (Mar-Apr) birds are usually found along the shelf slope and shelf areas east and west of the southern New Zealand, and during the post-guard stage (May-Aug) birds occur along the shelf slopes of both coasts of the South Island. After breeding, birds of all ages (including fledglings) migrate to slopes off Chile and Peru<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em><strong> </strong>It breeds in a variety of habitats including grassy meadows, tussock-covered slopes and cliffs, scrub and under forest canopy<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds mostly on fish, squid and tunicates, also octopuses and crustacea<strong><sup>3,15</sup></strong>.	eng
150496	population		The estimated annual breeding population is 31,939 pairs, made up of 8,877 pairs on the Snares Islands, 4,912 pairs on the Solander Islands (Sagar <em>et al.</em> 1999b; Sagar and Stahl 2005), 16,000 pairs on the Forty-Fours, 2,130 pairs on Big and Little Sister Islands in the Chatham Island group, and 20 pairs on Rosemary Rock, Three Kings Islands off North Island (Croxall and Gales 1998).	eng
150497	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. The species was first studied in the 1940s. Feral sheep were eradicated from the north of Campbell Island, where the nesting colonies are, in 1971, and then from the island itself in 1991. Research includes studies on population dynamics, colony distribution, biology, diet and foraging<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The islands are a national nature reserve, and part of a World Heritage Site, declared in 1998. Rats and cats were eradicated from Campbell in 2001, and an expedition in 2003 found no evidence of them persisting<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Complete ground census of colonies for three consecutive years every 10 years, and repeat photopoints at least every five years. Search intensively for banded birds in two consecutive years at five- year intervals. Complete research to clarify fisheries interactions. Further develop mitigation devices/techniques to minimise fisheries bycatch in trawl and pelagic longline fisheries.</strong>	eng
150497	distribution		<em>Thalassarche impavida</em> breeds only on the northern and western coastline of Campbell Island (111 km<sup>2</sup>) and the tiny offshore islet, Jeanette Marie, <strong>New Zealand</strong>. The total population was estimated to be 19,000-26,000 breeding pairs<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, with the most recent censuses in 1995-1997 giving an estimate of 24,600 pairs<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Numbers decreased steeply between the 1970s and 1980s: one colony declined at a rate of 5.9% per year between 1966 and 1981, and 10.5% per year between 1981 and 1984. However, numbers have been either stable or increasing slightly since 1984<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>,with a 1.8% increase recorded in selected colonies between 1992 and 1997<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Its non-breeding range is confined to southern Australian waters, the Tasman Sea and the south Pacific Ocean<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. Breeding adults forage from South Island, New Zealand, and Chatham Rise southwards to the Ross Sea<strong><sup>11,16</sup></strong>.	eng
150497	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds annually and is present in colonies from April to May. Eggs are laid from late September to early October, hatching mostly in early December and chicks fledge from mid April to early May<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Mean annual productivity was 66% between 1984 and 1994. Mean adult survivorship was 94.5% between 1984 and 1995. Birds return to land at age 5<strong><sup>19</sup></strong> and the average age of first breeding is 10 years<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It feed by surface-seizing and is probably capable of shallow dives<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>Campbell Albatross nests on ledges and steep slopes covered in low native grasses, tussocks and mud<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on fish, also on squid, crustaceans, gelatinous organisms and carrion<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The diet during the chick-rearing period is dominated by juvenile southern blue whiting <em>Micromesistius australis</em><strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Satellite-tracking studies indicated that birds provisioning chicks predominantly foraged over neritic waters during trips lasting less than four days, with some long trips of 8-21 days over oceanic waters. The foraging range during short trips extended 150-640 km from the breeding colony, mainly over subantarctic waters within the 1,000 m depth contour on the Campbell Plateau. Longer trips extended up to 2,000 km from the colony, ranging from subtropical to Antarctic waters, but mainly to the Polar Frontal Zone or to the east of the Campbell Plateau. This plasticity in foraging behaviour is in contrast to the exclusively neritic feeding trips observed in <em>T. melanophrys</em> at some sites, though not others<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
150497	population		Breeding population of 24,600 pairs, based on surveys 1995-1997 (Moore 2004)	eng
150498	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix I and II. A Recovery Plan was agreed in 1997. Forest loss is being addressed through community awareness programmes and trials to mitigate habitat degradation and improve forest quality, particularly with regard to nest-sites. Illegal trade is being successfully tackled by increased awareness and law enforcement. A captive-breeding programme has been discussed but not yet started. A translocation programme to restock the south of Uvea was initiated in 1998, and this population now stands at 82 individuals<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. The need to control predators established on Uvea is being investigated and measures to minimise the chance of colonisation by rats are being strengthened<strong><sup>3,4,10</sup></strong>. A new Recovery Plan was produced in 2003, recommending amongst other things that the translocation program be cancelled, as the population is considered viable and will grow naturally, and seeking to establish an IBA project on Ouvea<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue population monitoring<sup>10. Research interactions with <em>Trichoglossus&#160;haematodus. Investigate non-usage of artificial nest-sites. Review and strengthen measures reducing the risk of rat colonisation. Assess progress and update plans for translocations. Maintain momentum of community and island awareness and involvement4. Control bees and destroy their nests in the forest13. Establish an IBA project on Ouvea and fund a protection programme13. <br/></p>	eng
150498	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Eunymphicus uvaeensis</em> is restricted to Uvea, <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, where most birds occur in c.20&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of forest in the north, although c.60&#160;km<sup>2</sup> remains in total<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Earlier population estimates have been alarmingly low, but thorough censuses estimated c.600 birds in 1993<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and c.750 birds in 1998<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1999, 742 individiuals were estimated to survive in the north, and 82 in the south<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Introductions to the adjacent island of Lifu in 1925 and 1963 failed<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150498	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It feeds in forest and on crops in adjacent cultivated land. It is restricted to areas of old-growth forest with nesting holes, but highest numbers occur close to gardens with papaya. An average of 2.9 eggs are laid in one or two clutches per year, of which 1.7 chicks fledge, but only 0.75 fledglings survive to 30 days<strong><sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150498	population	BirdLife International, 2008	P. Primot <em>in litt.</em> (1999) <br/></p>	eng
150498	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Primary forest has declined in extent by 30-50% in the last 30 years. There is an ongoing illicit pet trade, mostly for the domestic market<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Nesting holes are cut open to extract the nestlings, rendering them unsuitable for future breeding attempts and a lack of nesting sites is believed to be a limiting factor. The invasion of the island in 1996 by bees, which compete for tree holes, is a significant threat, with about 10% of known nests being occupied by bees in 2000-2002<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The native Brown Goshawk <em>Accipiter fasciatus,</em> and perhaps other predators, are believed to take many juveniles<strong><sup>1,3,5,7</sup></strong>. Suitable habitat is patchy and fragmented mainly as a result of coconut plantations, which do not afford protection from predation by <em>A. fasciatus</em> and so act as barriers to dispersal, possibly explaining the lack of recolonisation of suitable habitat in south Uvea<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Experimental egg-predation rates were four times higher on Lifu where black rat <em>R.&#160;rattus </em>occurs (currently absent on Uvea)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150499	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p> None is known.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey other high mountains on Guadalcanal. Use mist-nets and tape-recordings to help locate it. Survey at lower altitudes on the southern watershed. Search for a more readily accessible population above Gold Ridge. Research basic population ecology and habitat requirements of closely related Makira Thrush <em>Z.&#160;margaretae. <br/></p>	eng
150499	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera turipavae</em> has been recorded just three times from the type locality on Guadalcanal in the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, where there appears to be c.100&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat. One specimen was taken in 1953<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and singles were seen in 1994 and 1997<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The 1994 and 1997 records were of singing birds but no others were heard during these visits, which totalled about 10 days in suitable habitat. All other Melanesian <em>Zoothera</em> thrushes appear to be locally common but may be patchily distributed<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150499	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The 1994 and 1997 birds were singing at 1,450-1,500&#160;m at the altitudinal intergrade of montane and mossy forest, where it occurs with Island Thrush<em> Turdus poliocephalus<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong></em>. It is presumably a typical, largely terrestrial, ground thrush<em> Zoothera</em> sp. <br/></p>	eng
150499	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1.1-10.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 97 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated AOO) = 107-970, but probably best placed within band 250-999, as other Melanesian congeners appear to be locally common (density is lowest to lower quartile of 16 [forest] estimates for 11 species of <em>Turdus</em> and <em>Zoothera</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150499	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to occur above the altitudes of logging and other human causes of forest degradation. It may be affected by introduced mammalian predators, especially cats and rats which are relatively common at high altitudes on Guadalcanal<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150500	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough and Inaccessible are nature reserves and Gough is a World Heritage Site. Both islands are uninhabited, apart from a meteorological station on Gough<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking to determine foraging areas during the breeding season was undertaken in 2000-2001<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. Censuses of large chicks and/or incubating adults were carried out during 1999-2003, and a monitoring protocol was devised<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Satellite tracking of non-breeders, further monitoring and demographic work, and an investigation of mouse predation on chicks was initiated during 2003-2006. Initial results from a feasibility study into the removal of the mice appear promising, giving no significant obstacles to the undertaking of an eradication programme.<strong><sup>22</sup></strong><br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Annually survey numbers and assess breeding success on Gough. Continue research of at-sea distribution and foraging behaviour, particularly of non-breeding birds. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations. Use decoys to assist re-establishment of birds on Tristan, and to attract birds to Long Ridge on Inaccessible</strong><sup>13</sup>. Begin an eradication programme for mice on Gough Island as soon possible.</strong>	eng
150500	distribution		<em>Diomedea dabbenena</em> breeding populations are essentially restricted to Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha, <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>, having become extinct on Tristan (although birds were seen prospecting in 1999<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>), and in some years one pair breeds on Inaccessible Island<strong><sup>15,20</sup></strong>. Using consecutive annual accounts of incubating adults and a population model the population has been estimated at 2,700 breeding pairs, giving a total global population of 11,300 individuals<strong><sup>24</sup></strong>. Recent counts suggest that the population on Gough has decreased by 28% over 46 years, whereas population modelling predicts annual decline rates of 2.9-5.3%<strong><sup>14,24</sup></strong>. Predation of chicks by mice has led to very low fledging success; during the last seven years it has averaged 32.4%, roughly half of other studied <em>Diomedea </em>colonies<strong><sup>15,16,20,21</sup></strong>.  In January 2008 1,764 adult albatrosses were incubating eggs on Gough but only 246 chicks survived to fledging<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. Outside the breeding season, it disperses to South Atlantic and South African waters, with numerous recent records from Brazilian waters<strong><sup>8,9</sup></strong> and one from Australia<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, suggesting that birds may occasionally disperse into the Indian Ocean. This is supported by the recent record of a ringed individual washed up on the Indian Ocean coast of South Africa<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>.	eng
150500	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>It is a colonial, biennially breeding species. Adults return in November and December, lay in January and the chicks fledge in November. Immature birds begin returning to their breeding colony at 3-7 years after fledging. Most <em>D. dabbenena </em>recruit in their natal colony, at a mean age of 10 years (range 4-20 years)<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. The oldest recorded bird was at least 38 years old<strong><sup>27</sup></strong>. It catches prey by surface-seizing, and the prevalence of a bioluminescent group of cephalopods in one dietary study suggests that <em>D. dabbenena </em>often feed at night<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. During the breeding season the length and range of foraging trips varies considerably, depending on the stage of the breeding cycle<strong><sup>17,19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It nests at 400-700 m (rarely to 300 m)<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, primarily in wet heath where it is open enough for take-off and landings. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on cephalopods and fish<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and probably follows ships and trawlers for offal and galley refuse.	eng
150500	population		Breeding populations are essentially restricted to Gough Island. The annual breeding population is estimated to be 2,700 pairs, equivalent to a total population of 11,300 birds for this biennially breeding species (Wanless et al. 2009).	eng
150501	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>ACAP Annex 1. Population monitoring and foraging studies have been undertaken at Amsterdam Island. The Prince Edward Islands are a Special Nature Reserve. Vaccination has been tested, but cannot be carried out at a large scale<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. In 2006, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission adopted a measure to require tuna longline fishing vessels to use a bird streamer line when fishing south of 30 degrees South. South Africa requires its longline vessels to use a range of mitigation measures.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue to monitor trends at breeding localities, notably Amsterdam, Prince Edward and Crozet Islands. Conduct further research to explore potential for controlling and limiting impact of disease. Conduct further studies of foraging range and interaction with fisheries. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, particularly via intergovernmental mechanisms under auspices of CCAMLR, CMS and FAO.	eng
150501	distribution		<em>Thalassarche carteri</em> breeds on Amsterdam, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, and St Paul Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>) and on Prince Edward Island (<strong>South Africa</strong>). In addition, two breeding pairs were recorded on The Pyramid in 2007. Colonies on Amsterdam Island are estimated at c.27,000 pairs breeding per year<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Elsewhere, there are an estimated 7,500 pairs on Prince Edward Island (based on counts in 2001-2002)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>, 7,030 pairs per year on Crozet Island<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, as well as 50 pairs on Kerguelen<strong><sup>8</sup></strong> and 3 pairs on St Paul, giving a total of 41,580 pairs per year, equating to 83,160 mature individuals, and perhaps more than 160,000 individuals of all age classes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Colonies on Amsterdam Island declined on average by 58% at between 1982 and 1995. The lowest numbers were recorded in 1995, after which some colonies on the island increased or stabilised between 1996 and 2005. The overall trend on Amsterdam is a decline of over 30% between 1982-2006<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The population on Prince Edward appears stable: in 2001-2002, 4,170 pairs were counted, representing 7,500 pairs in total once early breeding failures are taken into account<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. Decline over three generations is estimated at 55%, assuming a continuing decline at Amsterdam Island and populations elsewhere remain stable. Outside the breeding season, the species disperses throughout the southern Indian Ocean between 30-50 degrees South, and birds are frequently observed off southern Africa and south-western Australia, extending east to the Tasman Sea and north-eastern New Zealand<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
150501	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>It breeds annually, and breeding is either solitarily or in loose groups,. Eggs are laid in September-October and hatch in November-December. Chicks fledge in March-April. It catches prey by surface seizing and shallow diving<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds mainly on fish and squid, and less frequently on crustaceans<strong><sup>2,19</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding </em>It breeds on slopes or cliffs, typically in bare, rocky areas but sometimes in tussock-grass and ferns<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Foraging range </strong>Satellite-tracking of birds from Amsterdam Island has shown that breeding birds forage up to 1,500 km from the colony<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>.	eng
150501	population		The total population is estimated at 41,580 pairs per year, equating to 83,160 mature individuals, and perhaps more than 160,000 individuals of all age classes (using the ratios presented by Gales 1998).	eng
150502	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is formally protected by Paria Peninsula and El Gu&aacute;charo National Parks. The latter reserve was recently expanded to include a further 500&#160;km<sup>2</sup> of largely undisturbed forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey El Gu&aacute;charo National Park, Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire and the Paria Peninsula, and other areas identified from aerial photographs, to assess its precise distribution and estimate populations<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Assess its habitat requirements and tolerance of disturbance and degradation<sup>9</sup></strong>. <strong>Develop alternative agricultural techniques for areas adjacent to Paria Peninsula National Park<sup>8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150502	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Phyllomyias urichi </em>occurs on the northern Cordillera de Caripe (on the borders of Anzo&aacute;tegui, Sucre and Monagas) and the westernmost Paria Peninsula (Sucre) in north-east <strong>Venezuela<sup>5,6,7</sup></strong>. In the Cordillera de Caripe, specimens have been taken from several sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, but there have been few (if any) recent sight records. On the Paria Peninsula, there is a recent record from Cerro Humo<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150502	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to inhabit montane, humid forest, with all records at elevations of 800-1,100&#160;m <strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150502	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-4.4 individuals/km2 x 486 km2 (45% EOO) = 437-2,138, but probably best placed within band 1,000-2,500, as further surveys are likely to find it at additional locations (density range up to lower quartile of seven estimates for two species of <em>Ornithion </em>and <em>Zimmerius</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150502	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been widespread clearance of forest for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe. Even in El Gu&aacute;charo National Park there is clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee cultivation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana, orange and lemon plantations in the Serran&iacute;a de Turumiquire, but extensive forested areas remain<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. On Cerro Humo, increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco" since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. <br/></p>	eng
150503	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. Attempts have been made by both international and national conservation organisations to secure the future of Khao Sam Roi Yot. To date these have been unsuccessful.</p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitat in its breeding and wintering ranges to clarify its population size and distribution. Demarcate and protect Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park and formulate and enact a management plan that incorporates ecological objectives with those of local people. Rehabilitate reed-swamps elsewhere in South-East Asia. Encourage Thailand to ratify the Ramsar Convention.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150503	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Acrocephalus tangorum</em> breeds in south-east <strong>Russia</strong> and north-east <strong>China,</strong> and is only known to winter in <strong>Thailand,</strong> mainly at Khao Sam Roi Yot. It occurs as a scarce passage migrant in <strong>Vietnam</strong>, and possibly also winters there and in <strong>Laos</strong>, from where there is a single record. Recent work in <strong>Cambodia</strong> suggests a significant wintering population probably occurs, but this awaits confirmation. It is likely to have a small population and, although it may have been overlooked, increased mist-netting in its range, and improved knowledge of its identification have not produced an increase in records. <br/></p>	eng
150503	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	In China, it occurs in reedbeds and, in Hong Kong, has been recorded from reeds around overgrown fields and fishponds. At Kho Sam Roi Yot, it is largely confined to <em>Phragmites-</em>dominated reedbeds. Recent observations in Cambodia have come from a variety of habitats, particularly tall grass stands (away from water) and sedge beds (both wet and dry), scrub-fringed lotus swamps, and heterogeneous scrub/grass mixes away from water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150503	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate based on detailed analysis of records in BirdLife International (2001) who concluded that it must have "a fairly small world population" (i.e. <10,000). <br/></p>	eng
150503	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The main threat on its breeding and wintering grounds is habitat loss, including the loss and degradation of <em>Phragmites</em> marsh in Thailand, such that there is now very little suitable habitat remaining in the entire country. At Khao Sam Roi Yot, freshwater marsh has suffered greatly from encroachment with plantations of casuarinas, eucalyptus and coconut palms, and the establishment of prawn farms with salt and brackish water. This situation is likely to continue. Elsewhere in the country, marshes are threatened by reclamation and urbanisation and no freshwater swamp habitat lies within any protected area. <br/></p>	eng
150505	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The type-locality is within the Chapada do Araripe Environmental Protection Area, which is adjacent to Araripe National Forest, but both are designated "sustainable use" and consequently fail to prevent exploitation or disturbance of habitat<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. However, the owner of the land adjacent to the type-locality has decided to protect the forest following the discovery of this species<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. The British Petroleum (BP) Conservation Leadership Programme has supported a <em>Conservation of the Araripe Manakin Project</em> in the Chapada do Araripe region since 2004, conducted by the local NGO Aquasis. In 2007, the project was granted a new award after a few years of intensive research into the species's ecological requirements and conservation status, and the development of a Conservation Plan for the Araripe Manakin; the project team will now focus on establishing a fully protected area in the Chapada do Araripe which encompasses the remaining moist forest habitat and potential areas for habitat restoration<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. This process is ongoing, and collaborations have been formed with several local stakeholders with regard to in several aspects of ongoing conservation action including raising awareness and habitat restoration<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey similar habitats throughout north-east Brazil during September-October between 10h00 and 14h00 when male calling activity is at its peak</strong><sup>1,3,5</sup> to locate additional populations. <strong>Formally protect remaining habitat as a national wildlife refuge or national park. Provide incentives for landowners to establish a network of private reseves as a buffer zone</strong><sup>1</sup>. <strong>Work with environmental and water management authorities to protect springs and streams along the slopes of the Chapada, and their associated gallery forests</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Conduct awareness campaigns in the Araripe region to engender pride in biodiversity and water resources, using the Araripe Manakin as symbol for the conservation of the Chapada</strong><sup>6</sup>. <strong>Promote research on moist forest ecosystem services as well as species composition and ecology, in order to support future conservation actions related to habitat recovery</strong><sup>6</sup>.	eng
150505	distribution		This species was described in 1998 and has now been recorded from three municipalities (Crato, Barbalha and Missao Velha); all on the north-eastern slope of the Chapada do Araripe, south Cear&aacute;, <strong>Brazil</strong><sup>1,6</sup>. Surveys in 2005-2006 have led to a population estimate of c.800 individuals, which is higher than previously thought<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, within a remaining area of suitable habitat estimated at 28 km<sup>2</sup>. A total of 18 nests had been located up to 2005.	eng
150505	habitat		It inhabits the lower and middle storey of tall, second growth forest (where there is an abundance of vines), edge and adjacent clearings, preferring more humid areas of moist forest near springs and streams<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It reportedly feeds on small fruits of <em>Cordia</em> spp.<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>and <em>Cecropia</em> spp., and a study in progress has already identified 15 other plant species as part of its diet<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It occurs in pairs, and immature males have been found in March and January<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Vocal activity among males peaks between 10h00 and 14h00, and is highest during September-October when rainfall is at its lowest; and breeding follows during the wet season when c.76% of tree species bordering gallery forests occupied by Araripe Manakin are fruiting<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>. All nests located thus far have been in vegetation overhanging streams<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. A clutch of two eggs was seen being incubated solely by the female while the male vocally defended the territory<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
150505	population		In 2006, population size was estimated at 800 individuals based on two consecutive years of auditive censuses (AQUASIS, 2006).	eng
150506	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All remaining indigenous forest within the species's range is legally protected within Forest Reserves<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, but this no longer confers much protection<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Examine its taxonomic status in more detail. Initiate a campaign in Malawi to promote public awareness and support for forest conservation. Strengthen protection of remaining forest habitat<sup>8. Conduct surveys to assess its population size and distribution. Establish a programme to monitor its population and habitat on a regular basis.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150506	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Apalis flavigularis</em> is restricted to three massifs (Mt Mulanje, Mt Zomba, Mt Malosa) in south-east <strong>Malawi</strong>, east of the Nyasa-Shire Rift<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1983, it was considered common within its habitat<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It has been suggested that it may occur on Mt Chiperone in adjacent Mozambique<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>, but there are no records from this vicinity<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and the taxon does not occur on similar, smaller mountains in Malawi that are nearer the known range, implying that it is unlikely to occur there<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150506	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to the highest mountains in southern Malawi, spanning 1,000-2,400&#160;m on Mt Mulanje (moving as low as 600-700&#160;m during the non-breeding season, January-August) and 1,400-1,950&#160;m on Mt Zomba and Mt Malosa<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It occurs predominantly in evergreen (but also riparian) forest, and in nearby secondary growth and thickets<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It builds a domed nest of moss<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Clutch-size is 2-3 and egg-laying has been reported from October to December<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150506	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is estimated at 2,320-4,408 individuals (10-19 individuals/km<sup>2 </sup>x 232 km<sup>2 </sup>[45% EOO]), i.e. best placed in band 2,500-9,999 individuals. Density range from lower quartile to mean of four estimates for ten congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet. <br/></p>	eng
150506	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The rapidly increasing human population in south-eastern Malawi, swelled by huge numbers of refugees during the last 20&#160;years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, is posing a serious threat to the survival of mid-altitude forest in the lowest parts of its range - the lower slopes of Mt Mulanje, in particular, are steadily being deforested for agriculture and timber<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 1995-1996, severe fires destroyed some indigenous forest on Mt Zomba<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150507	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Arremon franciscanus</em> occurs disjunctly over a wide area of central Bahia and north Minas Gerais, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It seems to be uncommon to locally fairly common in thick scrub caatinga with nearby arboreal caatinga<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. The general area of the caatinga has suffered the impact of human settlement over a long period, and there has been extensive conversion to agriculture and cattle-ranching, and associated fires. The area around the type-locality is subject to a large irrigation scheme, which will possibly lead to habitat loss and fragmentation<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It occurs in Chapada Diamantina National Park and Perua&ccedil;&uacute; Environmental Protection Area, but neither provide <em>de facto</em> protection<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Surveys are urgently required to delineate this species's range and identify the most efficient sites for protection. Any plans for compensatory protected areas around the type-locality should take into account its habitat requirements.  <br/></p>	eng
150508	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 20,000-50,000 km². The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. </p>	eng
150508	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Buchanan <em>et al </em>in press <br/></p>	eng
150509	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 2000, the Balearic government designated three new Special Protection Areas such that all the Important Bird Areas for nesting <em>Puffinus mauretanicus </em>are now protected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  Rats have successfully been eradicated from Estell Xapat, Esclatasang, Redonda and Imperial (all Cabrera), and are under control on Dragonera, Conills and Malgrats. Other target islands include Eivissa and Espalmador<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Funds have been made available for the removal and control of mammalian predators from various colonies on Mallorca and Formentera<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  A number of actions are currently being implemented through species guardians SEO and SPEA as part of BirdLife's Preventing Extinctions programme. Research is underway on mortality in longline fisheries: SPEA has produced a questionnaire for fishermen and started to carry out individual interviews with fishermen at seven fish ports, and a bycatch report assessment was scheduled for production in 2009. 1,000 copies of a best-practice guide for fishermen, with information on bycatch and seabirds, were produced by SPEA in a calendar format for December 2008-March 2010 for fishermen in Portugal. Action Plans for the species have been published at local, national or international level in 1991, 1999, 2004, and 2005<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. A LIFE project for the species ran from 1991-2001<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>, and Spain and Portugal had a joint LIFE project running from 2004-2008 aimed at identifying marine IBAs, including for this species<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The first inventory of marine Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Portugal was published in 2008, identifying important areas for Balearic Shearwater. The Spanish marine IBA inventory project ended in 2009 with the publication of a book of marine IBAs in Spain. A new continuing LIFE+ project started in 2009 with the aim of integrating the marine IBAs in the Natura 2000 network and developing the appropriate management plans for the Special Protected Areas, and the results of the marine IBA project will be presented to regional governments. Work is underway to identify and delineate breeding and non-breeding foraging and congregatory areas, as well as migratory routes, for designation as SPAs in several European countries<strong><sup>8,9,11</sup></strong>. Coordinated efforts to estimate the global population size are underway, through updated information at the breeding colonies and censuses at sea. Biannual surveys have taken place off the Portuguese coast since 2005, and a network of observers carries out simultaneous counts of birds off the Catalunyan coast. Aerial and oceanographic surveys have been carried out, revealing hotspots for the species along the continental shelf.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Control and eradicate predators in breeding colonies identified to be at risk. Evaluate eradication of rabbits. Thoroughly study the problem of by-catch by long-line fishing and develop awareness campaigns directed at the fishing industry, in order to mitigate this threat. Ensure effective protection for nesting sites and monitor management plans. Raise awareness and stop human exploitation. Study small pelagic fish populations in the western Mediterranean and in the Vizcaya gulf to assess extent of over exploitation and how this affects Balearic Shearwaters. Ensure that bans on trawl fishing are coordinated to avoid the total absence of fishing waste. Assess the impact of pollutants and heavy metals on this species. Develop a rapid response plan for a potential oil spill close to main feeding and breeding areas. Improve understanding of at-sea distribution, including during the non-breeding season. Establish a marine protective zone with strict protection measures in the area of the Ebro river and the sea around the Cap de la Nao<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
150509	distribution		<em>Puffinus mauretanicus</em> breeds in the Balearic Islands, <strong>Spain</strong>. In 2005, the most complete survey to date estimated 2,000-2,400 breeding pairs at 24 different sites, with the islands of Mallorca having 350-550 pairs; Cabrera 50-100 pairs; Menorca 100-175 pairs; Ibiza 200-300 pairs and Formentera <1,000 pairs<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The world population was until recently believed to number 8,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>7,11</sup></strong>, however recent winter at-sea surveys and counts from Gibraltar of post-breeding birds leaving the Mediterranean suggest the total population may in fact lie within in the range 20,000-30,000 individuals<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. This is supported by a count of at least 15,000 individuals from Valencia in 2009<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Reasons for the discrepancy between breeding and non-breeding population estimates are unclear, but it is most likely that this species has a particularly large floating population of immatures and non-breeders. On Cabrera Island, 60% of the colonies have disappeared in the last few decades, while a 2004 survey of Formentera (where c.50% of the world population breeds) did not record any breeding in all 30 suitable caves visited in a single cliff<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Population viability analysis has shown that in the presence of environmental and demographic stochasticities, mean extinction time for the world population was estimated at 40.4 years, and mean growth rate showed a 7.4% decrease each year<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In winter, it occurs in the Balearic Sea and off the north-east Spanish coast with most of the population traditionally concentrated between Valencia and Catalonia from November to February. Some birds migrate north in summer to seas off the British Isles and the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Numbers recorded in the traditional post-breeding quarters have declined since the mid-1990, with a corresponding increase in numbers along the coasts of northern France and south-west U.K<strong><sup>7,16</sup></strong>.	eng
150509	habitat		It breeds on cliffs and small islets, is very philopatric, and lays only one egg. Adult birds do not commence breeding until their third year<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place between February and June. When raising young, adult birds form concentrations on the east coast of Spain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, where they mostly inhabit the productive continental shelf and associated fronts where high prey concentrations occur around the Ebro Delta<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Most birds leave the Mediterranean for a post-breeding moult in the Bay of Biscay, although some remain in the Alboran Sea<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150509	population		Rodr&iacute;guez and McMinn (2005) estimated 2,000-2,400 breeding pairs and 8,000-10,000 individuals in total, however winter at-sea surveys along the Iberian Shelf as part of the LIFE project to identify marine IBAs produced an estimate of 25,000-30,000 individuals (J. M. Arcos <em>in litt.</em> 2008), and counts of >18,000 birds past Gibraltar in May-July 2008 were extrapolated to a total of 20,000-25,000 individuals by Gonzalo Mu&ntilde;oz/Fundaci&oacute;n Migres. These data are difficult to reconcile, but a precautionary estimate of 6,000-10,000 mature individuals is considered appropriate (J. M. Arcos, D. Oro and I Ram&iacute;rez <em>in litt.</em> 2009).	eng
150510	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A repeat of the 1999 breeding bird census on Inaccessible was conducted in 2004. Ongoing studies will attempt to quantify the current level of bycatch in fisheries off southern Brazil.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct repeat surveys of the breeding population</strong><sup>10</sup>. Promote adoption of best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via  intergovernmental mechanisms such as FAO, ACAP and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations including the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). Minimise the risk of colonisation by introduced species through strict controls of visits and promoting awareness of dangers of inter-island transfers<sup>12</sup>. Nominate Inaccessible for World Heritage Site status<sup>2</sup>. Investigate the possibility that the birds may nest at other sites than Inaccessible, particularly Tristan da Cunha. Instigate demographic studies. Investigate at-sea distribution and interaction with longline fisheries.	eng
150510	distribution		<em>Procellaria conspicillata </em>is essentially confined to the South Atlantic Ocean north of the South Polar Front, predominantly between 25-41&#176;S<sup>19</sup>. It breeds only on the high western plateau of Inaccessible Island, Tristan da Cunha, <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>. In 1949-1950, the population was estimated to be at least 100 pairs, probably considerably more<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In 1982-1983, it was estimated at c.1,000 pairs<strong><sup>5,10</sup></strong>. In 1999, 6,000-7,500 burrows were counted (c.60% occupied), but failures prior to this stage and the presence of non-breeders confound an accurate population estimate<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A repeat survey in 2004 counted 11,000-12,000 burrows. Assuming an occupancy of 90% suggests a breeding population of 20,000 individuals<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. An extrapolation from snapshot censuses conducted in waters off Brazil in 1997-1999 suggested a total population of 38,000 &#177; 7,000<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. This population increase over time is thought to have been initiated by the eradication of pigs from Inaccessible Island. Between 1999-2004, the species may have increased by up to 45%<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> but the toll taken by bycatch in longline fisheries is poorly understood. Most birds disperse to the waters off southern Brazil outside the breeding season, with small numbers recorded off the west coast of southern Africa. In the 19th century, it may have occurred throughout the Indian Ocean, possibly breeding at Amsterdam Island (French Southern Territories), and was also collected at sea off Australia<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>.	eng
150510	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong><em>Procellaria conspicillata </em>breeds annually and is active in colonies from September to March. Breeding phenology has not been well studied, but egg-laying commences in October, with hatching in December and the chicks fledge in March<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.<strong> Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>It breeds in wet heath above 380 m<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Burrows are along the banks of river valleys<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> and in adjacent marshy areas<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong>It feeds on cephalopods, decapod crustaceans and small fish<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
150510	population		11,000-12,000 nesting burrows were counted on Inaccessible Island in 2004. Assuming 90% occupancy, this equates to a breeding population of approximately 20,000 birds (Ryan <em>et al.</em> 2006). An estimated 38,000 &#177; 7,000 individuals were present at sea off Brazil based on survey data from 1997-1999 (Leandro Bugoni <em>in litt</em>. 2006).	eng
150511	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 1997, feral cats were eradicated from Pitcairn, but subsequently re-introduced by residents. A programme to eradicate rats in 1997-1998<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> was unsuccessful, although petrels were observed prospecting the island during a period of no cats and low rat numbers<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. In the same year, rats were eradicated on Oeno and Ducie to increase the chance of another population becoming established there<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Several follow-up visits to Oeno and Ducie have not found any signs of rats<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Rat eradication from Henderson has been investigated and is feasible but difficult because of the island's isolation, but should still be pursued<strong><sup>2,10</sup></strong>. In 1988, Henderson was designated a World Heritage Site. A rudimentary monitoring protocol was established on Henderson in 2003<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Another attempt to eradicate rats on Henderson will now take place subject only to funding after recent research removed the last potential obstacles<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Periodically resurvey the species to establish and monitor any trends. Periodically check Oeno and Ducie for rats, and ensure that further alien species are not accidentally introduced to the Pitcairn Islands. Eradicate rats from Henderson.</strong>	eng
150511	distribution		<em>Pterodroma atrata</em> is known to breed only on Henderson Island, <strong>Pitcairn Islands (to UK)</strong>, but may have also bred on Pitcairn Island in the past and has apparently become extirpated from Ducie, also in the Pitcairn Islands<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is likely to breed on other islands in the region too<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, such as the Gambier and Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia)<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In 1991-1992, the breeding population on Henderson was estimated at c.16,000 breeding pairs and it was suggested that the species could be undergoing a long-term decline<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150511	habitat		Like<em> P. heraldica</em> it may feed predominantly on cephalopods, also taking fish and crustaceans<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. On Henderson, it nests exclusively on the plateau, scattered in the dense forest, though nearer to the coast than <em> P. heraldica</em><strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Breeding success is low, with less than 20% of eggs yielding fledglings and failure mostly occurring at the early chick stage<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150511	population		Brooke (2004).	eng
150512	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus alius</em> is known from two specimens collected at Campbell Bay on Great Nicobar, the largest of the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, <strong>India</strong>. It may occur on other islands in the group, particularly Little Nicobar, but equally may be endemic to Great Nicobar, and perhaps restricted in range on that island. The more northerly islands of the group have been well surveyed without evidence of its presence. Virtually nothing is known of its ecology. The paratype was found in coastal forest (presumably at sea level) c.1 km from the shore. It is thought likely to be a sedentary resident. Specific threats are unknown, but loss of coastal forest is a problem on Great Nicobar, owing to clearance and conversion for agriculture (particularly coconut, banana and cashew plantations and rice cultivation), road development projects, and expansion of human settlements. A proposal to develop Great Nicobar as a free-trade port, creating a dry dock and refuelling base for international shipping at the mouth of the Galatea River, potentially threatens further habitat loss and degradation. CITES Appendix II.</p>	eng
150513	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey suitable habitats in north Bolivia<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct research into the species's ecology<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Designate a protected area for the species<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150513	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hylopezus auricularis</em> is currently known from three sites in the lower r&iacute;o Beni drainage, north <strong>Bolivia.</strong> Four specimens were collected at Victoria, Pando, in 1937, one was observed between Lago Tumi Chucua and the r&iacute;o Beni in 1976, and it was frequently seen near Riberalta, on the east bank of the r&iacute;o Beni, Beni, in 1994, where a specimen was collected in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150513	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The site near Riberalta is a matrix of clay-pits (for brick-making), grassy open spaces and low secondary forest, with this species apparently occurring in low-lying, muddy forest and thickets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Most records are from thickets adjacent to open areas, possibly because birds move from the interior to the forest edge to sing<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150513	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation. Its population size may prove to be considerably larger if the species's range is found to be more extensive than was previously thought.  <br/></p>	eng
150513	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has apparently adapted well to heavy habitat disturbance by humans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, knowledge of its distribution and ecological requirements is very limited, and it cannot at present be considered secure<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150514	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aegotheles tatei</em> of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong> is known from four museum specimens and two field reports. Two specimens were taken in 1936 from Palmer Junction close to the Indonesian border, one in 1969 from Nunumai in the far south-east, one unlabelled from the 1920s. One was sighted in 1962 at Brown River west of Nunumai<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. A previously undescribed grey-morph bird was reported in 2003 along the Drimgas Road, c. 17km north of Kiunga in the Western Province<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. These records are all from lowland riverine rainforest at 30-80 m close to hills, a habitat which has been extensively logged or cleared in New Guinea but large areas still remain intact. If <em>tatei</em> proves to be absent from many suitable sites, it may be classified as threatened on the basis of a highly restricted range but given the difficulties of surveying owlet-nightjars, especially given that the call of <em>tatei</em> is unknown, its status is uncertain. <strong> </strong> <br/></p>	eng
150515	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There were two legal interventions regarding the Ira&iacute; dam. First, to postpone plans for the dam and counter irregularities in the environmental impact assessment and, second (following the discovery of this species), to abandon the construction of the dam or create a conservation unit. However, neither intervention was successful, the dam has been constructed and no conservation unit has yet been created. <strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Abandon the planned construction of dams that would flood areas where this species occurs. Cease drainage, fires and all sand extraction operations in such areas. Create conservation units to protect the species. Survey similar habitat in areas of south Paran&aacute; and north-east Santa Catarina. Conduct detailed studies of the species's ecology.  <br/></p>	eng
150515	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus iraiensis</em> was discovered in 1997, and is still only known from a very small area in Paran&aacute;, south <strong>Brazil</strong>. Surveys have located the species in 24 patches of habitat, but these are all very small (varying in size from 1-350 ha) and highly fragmented. It was considered common at the type-locality (but has since been extirpated) and rare to uncommon at the other sites. Given ongoing threats, the population is likely to be declining rapidly.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150515	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in tall, dense grasslands (60-180&#160;cm tall) in the alluvial plains of watercourses, generally flanked by gallery forest. These grasslands are seasonally inundated and dominated by <em>Eleocharis</em> sp. and several other Cyperaceae and Poaceae. The species inhabits the dense vegetation nearest to the ground, and climbs up and down stems and bushes. Stomach contents included small arthropods and insects. It breeds during the late austral spring and possibly also in the summer. </p>	eng
150515	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 220 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 220-440, i.e. probably best placed within band 250-999 (very few data available for population densities of related species, but range appropriate for a "rare to uncommon" species of grassland habitats). <br/></p>	eng
150515	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Ira&iacute; dam has already flooded the type-locality, and urbanisation, industrial development and road-building affect other sites in this vicinity. There is a proposal to construct three further dams to cope with the water demands of Curitiba. The grasslands of the region are being systematically drained owing to canalisation schemes for improved agricultural land and pasture. Subsurface sand extraction and the planting of <em>Eucalyptus</em> trees have altered the landscape and vegetation in several areas. The use of widespread burning is common practice on these lands, which changes the floral composition and promotes the spread of invasive species. <strong></strong></p>	eng
150516	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CMS Appendix II. There is much research activity in the breeding range and, increasingly, the Caribbean. Some important breeding areas and c.50% of sites in the Dominican Republic are actively protected<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>, but recent funding requests for management were turned down. Management and protection of existing reserves and parks is now inadequate<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Funding to investigate migration patterns is also currently lacking<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Clarify distribution and migration details</strong><sup>1,8</sup>. <strong>Refine estimates of population size</strong><sup>1,8</sup>. <strong>Evaluate human impacts on breeding birds</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Clarify winter segregation</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Develop strategies to maintain dense stands of regenerating balsam fir in Quebec. Develop management plans for existing, and designate new, reserves in the Dominican Republic</strong><sup>9,10</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
150516	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Catharus bicknelli</em> breeds patchily in south-east Quebec and the Maritime provinces, <strong>Canada</strong>, and eastern New York and northern New England, <strong>USA</strong><sup>1,5,6</sup>. There are 20,000-50,000 adults in the USA<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong> and 1,000-3,000 birds in the Maritime provinces<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but there have been local extinctions<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It migrates along the coast to winter in the Caribbean<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The stronghold is the <strong>Dominican Republic</strong> (especially the Sierra de Baoruco and Cordillera Central) and possibly <strong>Haiti</strong><sup>7,9</sup>. It also winters in the Blue Mountains of <strong>Jamaica</strong>, with small numbers in <strong>Puerto Rico</strong> and <strong>Dominica</strong>. There are three records from <strong>Cuba</strong>, including one in the Sierra Maestra in 1999<strong><sup>3,10,11</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150516	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It breeds in dense montane forests (above 900 m) of balsam fir <em>Abies balsamae</em> and red spruce <em>Picea rubens</em>, usually near the treeline<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>, but occupies less than 75% of available habitat<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. In Canada, it also inhabits regenerating clear-cuts and coastal areas with spruce-fir at low elevations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In winter, it occurs in moist broadleaved and mixed pine-broadleaved montane forests and secondary woodlands<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. It nests in June-July (present on breeding grounds May-September), sometimes with high failure rates<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It may sexually segregate in winter, with females in "poorer quality" habitats<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150516	population	BirdLife International, 2008	D. Busby <em>in litt</em>. (1999), K. McFarland <em>in litt</em>. (1999), C. C. Rimmer <em>in litt</em>. (1998, 1999). <br/></p>	eng
150516	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Acid precipitation may have damaged breeding habitat in the 1960s and 1970s<strong><sup>6,8</sup></strong>. On a predicted doubling of carbon dioxide by 2050, atmospheric warming is forecast to eliminate montane spruce-fir<strong><sup>4,10</sup></strong>. Ski-resort, communication and wind-power developments potentially threaten local populations<strong><sup>1,8</sup></strong>. In Quebec, the widespread practice of thinning renders habitat unsuitable<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Agricultural conversion, logging and charcoal production are rapidly clearing and fragmenting winter habitat<strong><sup>1,10</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150517	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In 1995 a working group was formed and, in 1998, a conservation plan identified over 200 actions<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. By 2004 over 95% of the population was covered by local working groups' conservation plans<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. While the success of such local efforts may be controversial, hunting has ceased and significant gains have been made in land protection through conservation easements and land acquisitions<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Current actions include lek enhancement, riparian area restoration, nest habitat treatments, improved livestock management, nest predator research, and education<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Education measures include sponsored grouse viewing, information brochures and talks given in local schools and fairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Radio-telemetry and graduate research is helping to determine winter habitat use, and lek sites have been protected<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Hunting of the species has been stopped<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In 2005 state and federal employees drafted a 'Rangewide Plan' and have begun contact with local landowners to present voluntary conservation agreements<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Restore and improve habitat, while continuing work to prevent further loss and fragmentation. Support its listing on the Endangered Species Act. Continue population monitoring at key sites. Conduct further ecological research, focussing on survival, dispersal and habitat use at different life stages. Encourage and facilitate the implementation of local and range-wide management plans. Reduce disturbance, especially at active leks. Investigate the possibility of using translocations to augment small populations. Continue work to raise awareness of key issues among stakeholders.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150517	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Centrocercus minimus</em> is confined to the Gunnison basin in Gunnison and Saguache counties, south-west Colorado, with small, fragmented populations in south-east Utah, <strong>USA</strong><sup>2,3</sup>. Historically, it presumably occurred in Arizona, Oklahoma and New Mexico<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but the occupied range is now less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> in area<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding population is less than 3,000 individuals, mostly in Gunnison and Saguache counties, plus a few smaller disjunct populations<strong><sup>1,3,6,7,8</sup></strong>. There have been long-term declines in lek sites, males at leks and offspring<strong><sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150517	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Various adjacent habitats are required in the 2,300 m intermontane basin<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. These differ seasonally and for age and sex classes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species is totally reliant on sagebrush <em>Artemisia</em> spp. for seasonal cover and winter forage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Lek sites have low vegetation with sparse shrubs, and are often surrounded by the big sagebrush-dominated plant communities required for nesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Broods are reared (May to autumn) in adjacent riparian plant communities and in mesic upland sites<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>. In winter, it associates with watercourses on southerly or westerly slopes and ridge tops where deep snow is less likely<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150517	population	BirdLife International, 2008	J. R.Young <em>in litt. </em>(2005) and C. Braun <em>in litt. </em>(2005) <br/></p>	eng
150517	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation is resulting from conversion to roads, reservoirs, livestock-grazing, hay and other crops, real estate developments, powerlines, land treatments, drought and increased deer populations<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. Many winter sites are directly threatened and being enclosed by urbanisation<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Severely fragmented populations have low genetic variation and the recent reintroduction of the disease West Nile virus to the species's range is a concern<strong><sup>4,7</sup></strong>. Disturbance from scientific study and recreational birdwatchers may cause stress and reduced lek attendance and production<strong><sup>1,7,8</sup></strong>. Severe winters may represent survival bottlenecks (e.g. in 1984, less than 10% of sagebrush emerged above the snow<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), as may other habitat factors influencing chick survival<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150519	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. A project is set to launch in 2010 and aims to improve land protection, determine the number of individuals in the study area and surroundings, improve ecological knowledge and cinrease awareness at a national and local level. Activities will include surveys, icnreasing the limits of the national park to include kite habitat, reintroducing native snails (food source for the kite), control of local pig population and talks with the community to prevent hunting and wood cutting<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Survey to assess distribution and population<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Effectively protect remaining habitat<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect tree snails<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Conduct public awareness and education campaigns to help prevent persecution of the species<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Protect the species under Cuban law<sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
150519	distribution		<em>Chondrohierax wilsonii</em> was formerly fairly widespread on <strong>Cuba</strong>, but is now confined to a tiny area in the east of the island between Moa and Baracoa, and possibly other parts of Holgu&iacute;n and Guant&aacute;namo provinces<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is Cuba's rarest raptor and is apparently on the verge of extinction<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>.	eng
150519	habitat		It is now confined to montane gallery forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, where it feeds chiefly on tree snails <em>Polymita</em> and slugs in the understorey<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Historically, it inhabited xerophytic vegetation and montane forest<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
150519	population		Population estimate = 0.3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 780 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 234, i.e. probably best placed within band 50-249 (density is lowest of five estimates for five similarly-sized forest species of <em>Leptodon</em>, <em>Accipter</em>, <em>Harpagus</em> and <em>Leucopternis</em> in the BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet).	eng
150520	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found from south-west Victoria to central Queensland in south-eastern Australia, mostly on the slopes and tablelands of the Great Dividing Range.	eng
150520	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population is estimated as numbering as many as 400,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
150520	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of the species habitat has been cleared, with remaining fragments gradually becoming unsuitable as a result of competition with invasive species, predation of adults or young, alteration of vegetation structure through over-grazing, timber cutting, weed invasion, salinisation and other flow-on processes.	eng
150521	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150522	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are two protected areas on the islands, Biak-Utara and Pulau Supiori Nature Reserves, which cover substantial areas of lowland and hill forest on Biak and Supiori<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. A further reserve has been proposed for Numfor<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys on all known islands of occurrence to assess fully its distribution and current population status. Devise a list of management recommendations, including ensuring adequate protection of nesting areas if different from non-breeding habitats. Assess habitat requirements and threats. Conduct research into its breeding biology.  Assess status of forest on Biak-Supiori. Prevent potential introduction of ground predators.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150522	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius geelvinkianus</em> is endemic to Biak-Supiori in Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, and its satellite islands, Mios Korwar, Numfor, Manim and Mios Num<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It is not clear whether one specimen, apparently from Manokwari on mainland Papua, represents a straggler from a nearby island or a mislabelled specimen<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Its population size is unknown, but believed to be small and declining. It was formerly common on Biak<strong><sup>10</sup></strong> and it was recorded daily in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> but only "small numbers" were seen recently on Owi (a satellite of Biak) and Supiori<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150522	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is apparently shy and wary but has been recorded in forest, logged forest, secondary growth, dry scrub and scrub near a river. However, there is no information on its habitat preferences, general habits, food or breeding biology, although these are probably broadly similar to other <em>Megapodius</em> spp. It presumably builds nest-mounds or buries its eggs between decaying roots of trees<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150522	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 1-3 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1332 km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO: higher percentage taken as appears to be tolerant to some extent of habitat degradation) = 1,332-3,996 but likely to be at upper end of this range due to apparent tolerance of degraded habitats ie perhaps best placed in band 2,500-10,000  (density range from up to lower quartile of ten estimates for six congeners in BirdLife Population Density Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150522	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Specific threats are undocumented, but are likely to include egg-collecting (though its widely spaced nest-mounds may reduce this risk<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), hunting (which is a documented threat to other species on the islands) and perhaps predation by introduced mammals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Much forest on Biak (particularly the southern plains) and Numfor has been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, and the remainder is under pressure<strong><sup>2,3,8</sup></strong>. Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable forested limestone mountains, which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation. A proposal to develop Biak as a tourist resort could have negative impacts on the species if not carefully planned. <br/></p>	eng
150523	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a single-island endemic restricted to Socotra, Yemen, where it is locally common and apparently extensively distributed throughout the island. In 1964 the species was found to inhabit plains at Ras Kharma and Kallansiya, and up to 1,400 m in the Hagghier (=Haghir) mountains (Forbes-Watson 1964). During a survey of eastern Socotra in 1993 (Porter and Martins 1996), 135 were recorded at 11 sites in eight days, principally below 150 m, although some were found up to 850 m on Jabal Jaaf (Kirwan et al. 1996).	eng
150523	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found from sea level to c.800 m, although it has been recorded up to 1,400 m (Kirwan et al. 1996). It occurs in all types of scrub, most commonly in structurally distinctive Croton socotranus dominated associations, characterised by dense clusters of woody stems 1-2 m high, such as on the scarps of the northern edge of the Hamadiroh (=Hamaderoh) Plateau in east Socotra. This, and structurally similar vegetation, occurs patchily as understorey in areas where climax vegetation persists, such as at lower elevations on the northern foothills of the Hagghier (=Haghir) range and at Wadi Ayhaft (Dymond 1996). A pair have been recorded with three young in early January, and nesting behaviour and females ready to lay (deduced from collected birds) were also noted (Ogilvie-Grant and Forbes 1903). A nest discovered in February was a dome-shaped structure made from grass and lichen, with a side entrance, situated one metre above the ground in a bush (Ogilvie-Grant and Forbes 1903, confirmed by Forbes-Watson 1964).	eng
150523	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The total population has been estimated to be in excess of 5,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2006). Estimates of population densities were 27.5 and 3.9 individuals per km² in the coastal plain and foothills respectively (with no data from the highlands) (Davidson 1996).	eng
150523	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Given the habitat requirements of the species, it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. A substantial proportion of climax vegetation on Socotra has been destroyed through intense grazing and by the cutting of wood for timber and fuel. However, traditional grazing regimes include regular patterns of seasonal elevational movements of stock, as well as a system of spatial rotation, which may favour the species.	eng
150524	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Jos Plateau and its north and eastward extensions, in northern Nigeria (Payne 1998). There is a possible recent sighting of the species in the Mandara Mountains in north-east Nigeria near the Cameroon border, and northern Nigerian sightings of L. rubricata from Ririwai and Aliya may also refer to this species (Payne 1998). Another known site (Panshanu) is within the Magama Forest Reserve, where the vegetation is apparently little changed since 1968 (Payne 1998).	eng
150524	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in bushy and grassy rocky outcrops on the plateau and wooded, grassy inselbergs to the north and east, and is apparently restricted to areas above 900 m. It probably feeds on grass seeds (Clement et al. 1993, Payne 1998). It is parasitised by the Jos Plateau Indigobird Vidua maryae which is found within its range and mimics its song (Payne 1998).	eng
150524	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent in at least parts of its range (Borrow and Demey 2001)	eng
150524	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	One site (Taboru) is intensely grazed and the remaining wooded vegetation is rapidly being removed for fences and firewood (Payne 1998), although there are plans to establish a conservation programme here (P. Hall in litt. 1999). However, habitat on the Jos Plateau is extensive and not at risk (P. Hall in litt. 1999).	eng
150525	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are plans to establish a conservation programme at Taboru<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A study of this species and <em>L. sanguinodorsalis</em> began in 2006<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150525	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Vidua maryae</em> was first discovered in 1968, but has only been considered a distinct species since 1995. It is endemic to the Jos Plateau and its north and eastward extensions, in northern <strong>Nigeria</strong>, where it is known from Panshanu, Taboru near Jos and Kagoro<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 26,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers).  Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable; one site (Panshanu) is within the Magama Forest Reserve, where the vegetation is apparently little changed since 1968<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It may be more common and widespread than records suggest, as it is difficult to identify outside the breeding season<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Therefore, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.  <br/></p>	eng
150525	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It occupies the same habitat as the Rock Firefinch <em>Lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis</em>, bushy and grassy rocky outcrops on the plateau and wooded, grassy inselbergs to the north and east. The species is apparently restricted to areas above 900 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>V. maryae </em>mimics the songs of <em>L. sanguinodorsalis</em> and, whilst there are no direct observations of brood parasitism, their association as host and brood parasite is assumed, as in other species in which indigobird parasitism has been observed the indigobird male mimics the song of the host that is known to rear its young<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150525	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Jos Plateau has a high human population density and has consequently suffered from major agricultural expansion. Most of the original woodland vegetation has been lost, with the remainder restricted to inaccessible areas or river margins. One known site (Taboru) is intensely grazed and the remaining wooded vegetation is rapidly being removed for fences and firewood<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150526	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs from Huancavelica through Apurímac and Cuzco, with one record at Limbani in Puno, south Peru (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Garcia-Moreno and Fjeldså 1999).	eng
150526	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species forages in pairs in the undergrowth of Podocarpus woodland and shrubbery, and fledgings have been reported in May (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990).	eng
150526	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species has been described as common in at least parts of its range (J. Fjeldså verbally 2000).	eng
150526	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Deforestation is a threat, as Podocarpus trees continue to be cut on the Nevada Ampay in Apurímac, north of Abancay (W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). Large numbers of people visit this area at the weekend, some with slingshots, and disturbance is considerable (W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). The Podocarpus forest in the Nevada Ampay is protected as the Ampay National Sanctuary, and reforestation is underway, but threats to the forest are yet to be alleviated (T. Valqui in litt. 1999, W.-P. Vellinga in litt. 1999). The Apurímac Reserve Zone also protects part of its range.	eng
150527	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlapetes terborghi</em> has a very small range in the north Cordillera Vilcabamba, east-central Cuzco, <strong>Peru<sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs in montane evergreen forest, probably at 1,700-2,250&#160;m, where there is a high (but irregular and broken) canopy and dense undergrowth<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The north Cordillera Vilcabamba is one of the most intact areas of Peru, mostly owing to a lack of human habitation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and populations of this species are presumably currently secure. However, a more detailed assessment of its range or evaluation of threats may suggest that there are ongoing declines in numbers or range. Such information, combined with its very small range, would probably result in a reclassification as Vulnerable.</p>	eng
150528	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is mainly found in the Cordillera Vilcabamba in central Cuzco, south Peru (García-Moreno and Fjeldså 1999). Surveys in neighbouring Apurímac would determine whether populations exist within the Apurímac Reserve Zone and Ampay National Sanctuary.	eng
150528	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits the undergrowth of montane woodland between 2,500 and 3000m of altitude (Remsen and Graves 1995). It has been recorded singly, in pairs, and occasionally in mixed species flocks.	eng
150528	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in humid montane forest and shrubs (Clements and Shany 2001).	eng
150529	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>On Guam, snakes have been trapped at the main colony. Colonies have been censused regularly, nesting has been observed and foraging ranges mapped. On Saipan and Aguijan, colonies have been censused periodically and insecticide applied to kill cockroaches<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Continue monitoring. On Guam, facilitate recolonisation of caves historically used by large colonies. On Rota, reintroduce birds<sup>9. On Saipan, prevent cave disturbance.</sup></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150529	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Collocalia bartschi</em> is endemic to <strong>Guam (to USA)</strong> and the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA)</strong>, and was introduced to Oahu, Hawaiian Islands (USA) in the early 1960s. On Guam, it was very abundant but, from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, it underwent a precipitous decline<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. In 1999, only three colonies remained, the largest holding c.700 birds (total population c.800)<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. In the Northern Marianas, populations disappeared from Rota and Tinian in the 1970s, although, on Tinian, it was possibly only nomadic<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 1982, estimates were 9,120 on Saipan and 1,022 on uninhabited Aguijan<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> but, more recently, estimates are c.2,000 (five colonies) and 400-475 (seven colonies), respectively<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. On Oahu, it survives in a single known breeding colony in a small tunnel in the Ko`olau Mountains, although similar irrigation tunnels are common and thus other small colonies may exist<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Observations in 1997 suggest a minimum of 17 breeding pairs (66 birds in total)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150529	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It feeds over coastal and interior forest and grassland (and formerly mangroves), capturing small insects in flight, preferring forest on Guam and Aguijan<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. It breeds and roosts in colonies in caves that typically hold a few to 700 birds<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. Nesting occurs year-round, but is greatest from late January to September or October. One egg is laid per clutch and pairs probably lay more than one clutch per year<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150529	population	BirdLife International, 2008	G. Wiles (unpubl. data), Wiles and Woodside (1999) <br/></p>	eng
150529	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The causes of the decline on Guam may relate to former pesticide-use. Currently, predation by brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis </em>is the primary limiting factor and interactions with introduced mud dauber wasps <em>Vespula</em> sp. may interfere with recovery (the additional weight of wasps nests causing swiftlet nests to fall from cave walls). On Saipan, exotic cockroaches (which also damage and destroy nests by consuming nest material and swiftlet saliva gluing them to cave walls) and possible disturbance by humans and feral mammals are probably the main threats<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150530	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is resident in the Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve and Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve.<strong></strong></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys in Laos and Vietnam to determine its distribution, approximate population size and habitat requirements. Initiate and expand management, monitoring, training and education in Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve and gazette the adjoining Ngoc Lihn (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150530	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax ngoclinhensis</em> was only described in 1999. It is only known from Mt Ngoc Linh and Mt Ngoc Boc<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> on the Kon Tum plateau of central <strong>Vietnam</strong>. At Mt Ngoc Linh it has been recorded from the Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve, and Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve. The population is unknown, but it is likely to occur in the neighbouring Attapu and Se Kong provinces of Laos. <br/></p>	eng
150530	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	All observations have been between 2,000-2,200 m in the herb and shrub layers of primary, upper montane, evergreen forest. It is presumed to be resident. The holotype specimen had enlarged testes suggesting breeding activity in May. </p>	eng
150530	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Uncommon within a very small range, so placed in the band 1,000-2,499. This is a provisional estimate that requires confirmation. <br/></p>	eng
150530	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve, 13% of evergreen forest was lost between 1976-1995. Forest at Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) proposed nature reserve is threatened by clearance for agriculture, a process that is accelerating in response to natural population growth and settlement of migrants in the area. <br/></p>	eng
150531	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed in Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations and therefore EU import levels are monitored. The species occurs in Kateri Wildlife Sanctuary, West Timor. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its distribution and ecological requirements, and its population size and trends, so that effective conservation measures can be developed and implemented. Monitor and regulate trapping and trade, devising and enforcing effective legislation. Establish appropriate protected areas to support viable populations.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150531	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Padda</em> <em>fuscata</em> is restricted to <strong>Timor-Leste</strong>, West Timor, and its outlying islands, Semau and Roti, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is widespread, but generally sparsely and patchily distributed. It is locally moderately common, being described as uncommon to abundant in Timor-Leste<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> where recent surveys at two sites along the Laivai River located several groups of 30-50 birds within a few hectares in a short period at both sites, suggesting a likely population total in the thousands for the entire river region<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Local reports have suggested that flocks of hundreds to thousands may form<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150531	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It mainly frequents the extreme lowlands, sometimes ascending hills to around 700 m, where it regularly occurs as individuals or in small groups of three to five birds, occasionally mixed with other granivorous birds, and can form larger flocks with groups of 30-50 recently recorded<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It forages on or near the ground in grassland, lightly wooded cattle-pasture, scrub, overgrown gardens, deciduous or degraded monsoon-forest and the margins of cultivation, and in Timor-Leste was found in <em>Eucalyptus alba</em> savanna, ricefields, severly degraded coastal shrublands and riparian woodland dominated by <em>Casuarina</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Considered a considerable rice predator in Timor-Leste<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it has undoubtedly benefitted from land conversion to ricefields, allowing access to grains and water over long periods<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150531	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150531	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction in West Timor and Timor-Leste has been extensive. Three recently identified IBAs contain much of the remaining tropical monsoon-forest in Timor-Leste (approximately 652 km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Monsoon-forests now only cover an estimated 4% of West Timor, scattered in and around seven unprotected patches that continue to decline in size due to intensive grazing and burning. Use of slingshots and throwing stones to disturb the species from ricefields is unlikely to cause serious mortality, although little is known of local hunting success<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Large numbers of birds are captured for the international cage-bird trade (e.g. over 4,000 imported by EU countries since 1997<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), and this may be the key threat in the future. <br/></p>	eng
150532	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. In October 1998, five days were spent on the island of Tagulandang, just south of and almost as large as Siau, but only a few hectares of forest were found to remain, all above 600 m. The Wildlife Conservation Society is providing financial and technical support to the North Sulawesi local NGO 'PALS' to conduct extensive surveys of Siau Island to locate the species. If found, immediate conservation measures will be implemented<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Survey the remaining forest on Siau and Tagulandang at different times of year, investigating any patch of trees, however remote the possibility of success may seem. In the event of its survival, initiate conservation measures at the site of rediscovery.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150532	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Otus siaoensis</em> is only known from the holotype collected on the island of Siau, north of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>in 1866. Given the small size of this island, and its generally unvegetated volcanic upper reaches, the original population was probably always modest in size, and any surviving population must be tiny, given that little forest remains. There is some suggestion that the species might survive on the basis of accounts given by local people; however, a recent survey of nocturnal birds in northern Sulawesi spent 32 days on Siau Island and failed to confirm that the species still occurs on the island, but semi-structured interviews revealed that small owls do occur and one unidentified call was heard; these reports remain unconfirmed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but a recent sound recording possibly relates to this species, and further searches are planned<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150532	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	There are no ecological data, although it is reasonable to assume that the species was a forest dweller in common with its close congeners.</p>	eng
150532	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate based on analysis of recent searches and reports and extent of habitat destruction within its range and conclusion that 'it seems likely that...any surviving population will prove minute' (BirdLife International 2001)  <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
150532	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Siau is currently experiencing rapid deforestation. In 1995, there was some lowland forest around Lake Kepetta in the south of the island, but this had been felled by 1998. In August 1998, the island was judged to have been largely converted to mixed plantation and scrub, but small patches of low trees survived. In October 1998, a five-day survey determined that only 50 ha of forest remained, all above 800 m on Gunung Tamata, in the centre of the island.<strong></strong></p>	eng
150533	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The<strong> </strong>Gunung Sahendaruman "protection forest" nominally conserves some remaining habitat, although few measures have been taken to ensure its efficacy. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been working for biodiversity conservation in Sangihe and Talaud, conducting fieldwork, conservation awareness programmes (including village and school meetings, distribution of leaflets etc.), and developing ideas for future land-use through agreements between interested parties. As a result, plans are in progress to reclassify the existing 4 km<sup>2</sup> of "protection forest" on Gunung Sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve (with core areas as a strict nature reserve), although this process is likely to take 2-3 years. Furthermore, the Wildlife Conservation Society began four years of project work on Sangihe in 2007, which will provide opportunities for protecting remaining habitat and a basis for further work. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island (e.g. Gunung Awu). Ensure effective protection of habitat on Gunung Sahendaruman. Support proposals for the rapid gazettement of remaining forest on Gunung Sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve. Continue conservation education programmes. Encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150533	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to Sangihe, <strong>Indonesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>where until 1996<strong> </strong>it is known from only a single historical specimen and was thus quite possibly already rare by the 19th century. It was seen twice in 1996 and sound-recorded once out of 148 point counts in 1999<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> from one location (Gunung Sahendaruman and adjacent Sahengbalira), but despite a number of trips in the last five years to this small patch of forest it has not been seen since<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, suggesting that it is extremely rare and infrequently encountered in the remaining 8 km<sup>2</sup> of appropriate habitat. While there has been no population estimate, it is likely that fewer than 50 individuals survive. <br/></p>	eng
150533	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It frequents the mid-storey to upper canopy of primary broad leaved ridgetop forest, often with a high density of <em>Pandanus</em> sp., where it gleans insects from leaves and presumably also forages on fruit. It appears to be strictly confined to altitudes between 750 m and 1,000 m. <br/></p>	eng
150533	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Population estimate derived from analysis of recent records and area of remaining habitat (BirdLife International 2001) <br/></p> <br/></p>	eng
150533	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Virtually<strong> </strong>the entire island of Sangihe has been deforested and converted to agriculture. The very small population of this species in the area of habitat remaining suggests that it is constrained by some unknown specialism or threat, potentially the requirement for large ranges in which to search for fruit, or perhaps the depredations of introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. Whatever the reason, the clear indication is that it is extremely vulnerable to continuing habitat loss at the lower fringes of forest. <br/></p>	eng
150534	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. The species occurs within three protected areas: Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Gunung Ambang Strict Nature Reserve and Lore Lindu National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish the calls and calling periods of this species as a prerequisite to full surveys, by which its true status and needs can be determined. Provide full support for the management and protection of protected areas where it is known to occur.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150534	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox ios</em> is apparently restricted to the highlands of Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where there have been only four confirmed records<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, three from the Minahasa peninsula and a recent record from Lore Lindu National Park (Central Sulawesi)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The latter record greatly extends its known range. <br/></p>	eng
150534	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The four known records are from forest (between 1,120 m and 1,700 m), and it is assumed that the species is sympatric with, but probably at higher elevations than, the Ochre-bellied Hawk-owl <em> N. ochracea</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150534	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150534	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest at middle elevations on Sulawesi is relatively intact at present. However, deforestation is having a major impact in many areas, and until it is demonstrated that the species occurs more widely than its current three localities, it is precautionary to regard it as at risk simply on the basis of its possible restricted range, and potentially restricted population. <br/></p>	eng
150535	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No measures have yet been taken. Although 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest has some form of protected status on Karakelang, 250 km<sup>2 </sup>as a Wildlife Reserve, there is, at present, no management of these sites<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Since 1995, the "Action Sampiri" project has been conducting fieldwork and conservation awareness programmes on the island. Introducing adequate protection measures to the newly gazetted Wildlife Reserve is the focus of a forthcoming four-year GEF project. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Search other islands in the Talaud group (e.g. Salibabu and Kabaruan). Conduct comprehensive surveys of Karakelang within the Wildlife Reserve, to clarify its distribution, status, ecological requirements and attendant threats, and to identify appropriate areas wherein populations might be effectively protected.  Continue conservation awareness programmes to highlight the plight of this species and increase local support for its preservation.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150535	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gymnocrex talaudensis </em>is apparently endemic to Karakelang, in the Talaud Islands, north of Halmahera, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. According to local reports, it is widespread and fairly common on the island, but absent from others in the archipelago. Despite prolonged fieldwork, however, only one sighting has been made in the four years subsequent to its discovery, and evidence suggests that it is either genuinely scarce or extremely elusive. <br/></p>	eng
150535	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It appears to favour long wet grassland patches and rank vegetation at the edge of forest in the lowlands. Within 150 m of the site of its discovery there was littoral swamp-forest, small remnant patches of forest, two permanent marshy areas, several streams and wet roadside ditches with lush grass, suggesting that it prefers a mosaic of wetland habitats. Five records of calling birds in 2003 attributed to this species were all from primary riverine forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The extent of its reliance on forest is unclear. <br/></p>	eng
150535	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate interpreted from information from F. R. Lambert (<em>in litt</em>. 2000) who cautioned that it would be best to assume that 'its total numbers are low'. The subsequent lack of records despite survey work appears to confirm this suspicion. <br/></p>	eng
150535	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In 1996, Karakelang still retained "a diversity and abundance of wetland habitats, in particular rank grasslands bordering forest". Meanwhile, land-use changes (e.g. agricultural development, transmigration), trapping for food and rat predation were not thought to represent significant problems for the species. Given the paucity of sightings, it may be numerically constrained and under unidentified threat (probably involving factors listed above). The Karakelang Wildlife Reserve, where it is likely that this species occurs, is threatened with clearance for agriculture, small-scale local logging, unsustainable hunting and commercial mineral and timber extraction, although mainly at low levels at present. <br/></p>	eng
150536	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Esacus giganteus</em> is widespread around coasts from the Andaman Islands, <strong>India</strong>, Mergui Archipelago, <strong>Myanmar</strong>, islands off peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong> through <strong>Indonesia</strong>, <strong>Brunei</strong>, the <strong>Philippines,</strong> <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>, the <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>, <strong>Vanuatu</strong>, <strong>New Caledonia (to France) </strong>and <strong>Australia</strong>. Its population in Australia may number c.5,000 birds and is probably stable. It is very rare on and around Sumatra, Vanuatu and New Caledonia, where it has not been seen for six years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It appears to be threatened by extensive human disturbance of beach habitats in many areas. <br/></p>	eng
150536	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population is thought to number c.5,000 individuals in Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000), 1,000 individuals in the Melanesian islands (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2002), and 10-20 individuals in New Caledonia (Barre and Dutson 2000). <br/></p>	eng
150537	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dromaius ater</em> was endemic to King Island in the Bass Strait, <strong>Australia<sup>4</sup></strong>. It was reported to prefer the shady margins of lagoons and the shoreline<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Numerous skeletal remains have been found, but only one skin exists, collected by Baudin in 1802, and now in Paris<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction must have followed shortly thereafter, presumably a result of being hunted by sealers for food<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150538	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Argusianus bipunctatus</em> is known only from a single portion of a primary feather described in 1871 from a shipment imported into London<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and now in the British Museum<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It has been suggested to have occurred on Java<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, Indonesia, or on Tioman Island, off peninsular Malaysia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, because of the absence of the genus from these islands. The cause of its extinction is unknown.</p>	eng
150539	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alopochen mauritianus</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>Mauritius<sup>1</sup></strong>. Although the only specimens of the species are two carpometacarpii<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, it is known from numerous travellers' reports<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1681, it was noted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to be plentiful ";in the woods or dry ponds";, but it was presumably heavily hunted because it was described as ";not large, but fat and good";. By 1693, the species was rare and, by 1698, it was extinct<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150540	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas theodori</em> was endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong>, and is known from a number of explorers' accounts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In 1681, the ";gray teal"; was found in ";great numbers"; on lakes and ponds in the woods, but it was presumably hunted to extinction, becoming rare by 1693, and last mentioned as extant in 1696<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. There are also numerous travellers' reports of <em>sarcelles</em> and <em>canards</em> from R&eacute;union, and so presumably this or a similar species also occurred there, where they were extinct by 1710 at latest, although no bones have been found<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150541	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anas marecula</em> was endemic to Amsterdam Island, <strong>French Southern Territories<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is only known from bones ";no more than a few hundred years old";. It was flightless, and presumably driven to extinction by whalers stopping off on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A report of ";a small brown duck, not much larger than a thrush"; from Barrow's 1793 visit to the neighbouring St Paul Island presumably refers to the same or a similar species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150542	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Upupa antaois</em> was a giant, flightless hoopoe, endemic to <strong>St Helena (to UK)<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is known only from bones and the causes of extinction are unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but presumably it was hunted to extinction by people and introduced predators soon after the discovery of the island in 1502.</p>	eng
150543	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus ulietanus </em>is only known from two specimens from Raiatea, <strong>French Polynesia<sup>1</sup></strong>, collected on Cook's voyage in 1773, and now in Vienna and Tring<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was presumably a forest species, as this was the native vegetation of all of the Society Islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction was probably the result of the subsequent clearance of this vegetation, hunting, or predation by introduced species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150544	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara erythrocephala</em><em> </em>was described by Gosse in 1847 as occurring in the mountains of Trelawny and St Anne's, <strong>Jamaica</strong>, based on a bird ";procured by Mr White, proprietor of the Oxford Estate";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was presumably hunted to extinction in the early 19th century.</p>	eng
150545	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara gossei </em>is known only from the work of Gosse in 1847 based on "specimen shot about 1765, by Mr Odell" in the mountains of Hanover Parish, about 10 miles east of Lucea, <strong>Jamaica<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was presumably hunted to extinction around the end of the 18th century. <br/></p>	eng
150546	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara guadeloupensis </em>was described in detail by Du Tertre in 1654 and 1677, and by Labat in 1742, amongst others, but no specimens exist<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was endemic to <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)</strong> and <strong>Martinique (to France)<sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds were heavily hunted and trapped and were rare by 1760<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and presumably became extinct soon after. <br/></p>	eng
150547	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ara atwoodi</em><em> </em>is known only from the writings of Atwood in 1791, and was endemic to <strong>Dominica<sup>2</sup></strong>. Atwood notes that birds were captured both for food and pets<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and presumably this persecution led to their extinction in the late 18th or early 19th century.</p>	eng
150548	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aratinga labati</em><em> </em>is not known from any specimens, but was well described by Labat in 1724 from <strong>Guadeloupe (to France)<sup>1</sup></strong>. Little is known of the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, but it must have declined to extinction through hunting in the second half of the 18th century. A suggestion that parakeets on Guadeloupe may have been escaped Cuban Parakeet <em>A.&#160;euops</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong> is unlikely because the birds were not noted to have any red in the wing<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, unlike <em>A.&#160;euops</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150549	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona violacea</em>, although not known from any specimens, was described in detail from <strong>Guadeloupe (to France) </strong>by, amongst others, Du Tertre in 1654 and 1667, Labat in 1742, and Brisson in 1760<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was named by Gmelin in 1789<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was heavily hunted and noted by Buffon in 1779 to be very rare<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and presumably became extinct soon after.</p>	eng
150550	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amazona martinicana</em><em> </em>was described from <strong>Martinique (to France)</strong> by Labat in 1742, and by Buffon in 1779, and named by Clark based on these descriptions<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Labat wrote that ";the parrot is too common a bird for me to stop to give a description of it";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and so the species must have declined very rapidly to extinction in the latter half of the 18th century.</p>	eng
150551	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chlorostilbon elegans</em>, described from a single specimen (in Tring) by Gould in 1860, was recently shown by Weller to be a valid species, presumably extinct, and possibly (by inference) from Jamaica or the north Bahamas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150552	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Columba duboisi</em><em> </em>is based on Dubois' 1674 description of rusty-red Pigeons from to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)<sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150553	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallicolumba norfolciensis</em>,<strong> </strong>from<strong> Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>, was painted by Hunter in 1790<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and described by Latham in 1801 based on this and on correspondence from 1788-1790<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subfossil remains have subsequently been found and referred to this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It presumably became extinct in about 1800, due to overhunting and predation by introduced cats and rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150554	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Alectroenas rodericana</em><em> </em>is known from subfossil bones from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>,<strong> </strong>and descriptions from Leguat in 1708 and from Tafforet in 1726<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> . It presumably became extinct in the first half of the 18th century, possibly due to the depredations of introduced rats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150555	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porphyrio coerulescens</em><em> </em>was endemic to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France) </strong>from where it was described as <em>oiseau bleu</em> by six early travellers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was probably not flightless, but was nevertheless easily hunted, presumably leading to its extinction by around 1730<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150556	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porphyrio kukwiedei</em> is known only from subfossil remains from <strong>New Caledonia (to France)<sup>1</sup></strong>. However, a passage from Verreaux and des Murs written in 1860 notes the presence of birds the size of turkeys in marshy areas, and so it is possible that the species survived into the 19th century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150558	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nesocolpeus poecilopterus </em>is known from 12 19th century specimens from Vitu Levu and Ovalau<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and reports from Taveuni<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in 1971 and Waisa, Vitu Levu, in 1973<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, <strong>Fiji</strong>. However, two other (non-endemic) rails have become extinct from the islands due to predation by introduced mongooses and cats, and so it seems very likely that <em>N. poecilopterus</em> is also now extinct<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There have been no convincing recent reports from Ovalau or Taveuni which remain mongoose-free and where other rail species were recorded during field surveys and other fieldwork in 2002-2005, and so it seems very likely that <em>N. poecilopterus</em> is extinct<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150559	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlantisia elpenor</em><em> </em>was endemic to<em> </em><strong>Ascension Island (to UK)</strong> from where it is known from numerous bones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and Mundy's description and sketch from 1656<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It presumably lived in the near-desert interior of the island, feeding primarily on Sooty Tern <em>Sterna fuscata</em> eggs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its extinction was probably caused by the introduction of rats to the island in the 18th century, although it may have survived until the introduction of cats in 1815<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150560	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Atlantisia podarces</em> was described from fossils by Wetmore as a <strong>St Helena (to UK) </strong>endemic genus, <em>Aphanocrex</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but re-assigned to <em>Atlantisia</em> by Olson<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was large and flightless, and presumably became extinct soon after the discovery of the island in 1502<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150561	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana nigra</em><em> </em>is known from two illustrations, one by Forster from Tahiti, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>,<strong> </strong>from Cook's second voyage (1772-1775), and the other by Miller from 1784, and by subsequent descriptions by Latham and Gmelin<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It presumably became extinct soon after<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. </p>	eng
150562	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porzana astrictocarpus</em> is only known from fossils from <strong>St Helena (to UK)<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was driven to extinction by introduced predators soon after the island was discovered in 1502<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150564	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Fulica newtoni</em> is known from numerous travellers' reports<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> from <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>, and also probably occurred on <strong>Mauritius</strong> from where there were reports of <em>poule d'eau</em>, the contemporary name used for the birds on R&eacute;union<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds were last reported on R&eacute;union (by Dubois) in 1672, and on Mauritius (by Leguat) in 1693, and were presumably hunted to extinction despite the fact that they were ";not good to eat";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150565	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Prosobonia ellisi</em><em> </em>is known only from two paintings (both in London), by Ellis and Webber, each based on a specimen (both now lost) collected by Anderson on Moorea, in the Society Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, during Cook's third voyage in 1777<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Like Tahitian Sandpiper <em>P. leucoptera</em>, it presumably lived along streams and was driven to extinction by introduced rats in the late 18th century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150566	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nycticorax mauritianus</em><em> </em>was described from seven fossil bones (of which only a coracoid and a tarsometatarsus are available today), from <strong>Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>. Leguat's description of ";great flights of bitterns"; in 1693<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> probably refers to this species, given that the only two other species of Ardeidae known from the island are Dimorphic Egret <em>Egretta dimorpha</em> and Green Heron <em>Butorides striatus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, which could in no way be described as ";bitterns";.</p>	eng
150567	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	R&eacute;union Night-heron <em>Nycticorax borbonensis</em> was endemic to <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong>, and is known only from an incomplete tibiotarsus collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Fran&ccedil;ais in 1974<sup>1</sup>. The only historical record of the species is Dubois' (1674) description of "bitterns or great egrets, large as big capons, but fat and good. They have grey plumage, each feather tipped with white, the neck and beak like a heron and the feet green, made like the feet of the "Poullets d'Inde". This bird lives on fish."<sup>1</sup>. The specimens are deposited in the Mus&eacute;um National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris<sup>1</sup>. * TAXONOMY Rothschild<sup>2</sup> described <em>Ardea duboisi</em> based on Dubois' description, but Cowles<sup>1</sup> dismisses this name nomen nudum. <br/></p>	eng
150568	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nycticorax megacephalus</em><em> </em>is known from a number of bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and from Leguat's 1708 and Tafforet's 1726 accounts<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>. Leguat mentioned that they were easily caught<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (although they were not quite flightless<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>), and this hunting presumably caused their extinction. In 1761, Pingr&eacute; specifically noted that there were no longer any <em>butors</em> on the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150569	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Threskiornis solitarius </em>is known from bones recently discovered on <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)</strong><sup>4</sup>. It seems likely that the `solitaire' known from numerous early accounts from R&eacute;union<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> was in fact this ibis<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, vindicating arguments for independent evolution of the Mascarene `solitaires'<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, in which case the last account is that of Abb&eacute; Gui Pingr&eacute; (1763)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> a French astronomer who visited Rodrigues in 1761 to observe the transit of Venus and reported the bird to be near extinction. He had been told by the Commander, Marl&egrave;ne de Puvign&eacute;, that it was found only in remote corners of the island. This statement was the last mention of the bird<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150570	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pterodroma rupinarum</em> was one of three petrel species known only from the fossil record of <strong>St Helena (to UK)<sup>1</sup></strong>. It presumably became extinct due to predation by people and introduced species after the island was discovered in 1502<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150571	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bulweria bifax</em> was a large petrel, known only from fossils and endemic to <strong>St Helena (to UK)<sup>1</sup></strong>. It probably became extinct due to the arrival of people on the island in the 16th century, unlike <em>Puffinus pacificoides</em>, which is only known from very old deposits on the island and probably became extinct naturally in the Pleistocene<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150572	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species may have already benefited from rat-eradication programmes on offshore islands. In the summer of 2005-2006 four birds were captured, and attempts made to follow them to their breeding grounds with the aid of radio telemetry. This was unsuccessful, and further attempts to capture birds in November and December 2006 failed<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. Three birds captured in October-November 2007 were not fitted with transmitters as they did not appear to be in breeding condition<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. Location of the breeding grounds of this species is critical in determining population size and providing protection for the site, and searches are underway.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue ongoing work to clarify the taxonomic position of this taxon. Carry out further surveys at sea in the vicinity of the recent observations and elsewhere. Continue searches for the breeding grounds, adopting a variety of suitable methods. If it is found to breed on an island with introduced predators, eradicate these as an urgent priority.</strong>	eng
150572	distribution		<em>Oceanites maorianus </em>was known only from putative fossil material<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and from three specimens collected in the 19th century, two from the East Coast of the North Island <strong>New Zealand<sup>13</sup></strong>, and one of unknown provenance, but suggested to be Banks Peninsula, South Island<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. However, one individual was observed and photographed off the Mercury Islands, North Island in January 2003<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and subsequently a flock of 10-20 were observed and photographed north of Little Barrier Island, North Island in November 2003<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Since then birds have been observed in the Hauraki Gulf each summer (October to April)<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. It is thought to be a summer-breeding visitor to the Hauraki Gulf, although a nest site has yet to be found<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. An bird apparently of this species was seen well and photographed off the southern end of New Caledonia in April 2008, which may represent a bird in, or migrating to its non-breeding range<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. In 2005-2006 four birds were caught at sea, with DNA samples collected and transmitters attached, although this has not yet led to the discovery of breeding sites<strong><sup>7,8,9</sup></strong>. A further three birds were caught and banded in late 2007 but these were not fitted with transmitters as they were not in breeding condition<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. A review of previous petrel sightings and specimens suggests the New Zealand Storm-petrel may have been present in the Hauraki Gulf for at least the past four decades<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>.	eng
150572	habitat		The species seems to occupy warmer waters which move into the Hauraki Gulf during summer. It probably feeds on small crustaceans and plankton associated with this water, and it is readily attracted to chum slicks<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The breeding season is possibly late November (egg-laying) through to May (fledging). It is thought to be migratory owing to its absence from Hauraki Gulf from June to September each year<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>.	eng
150572	population		Population assumed to be tiny based on small number of records since 2003. Most have been of small numbers, but flocks of 10-20, 11 and 10-30 birds have been recorded.	eng
150573	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anthornis melanocephala </em>was endemic to forest on Chatham, Mangere and Little Mangere Islands, <strong>New Zealand<sup>2</sup></strong>. The reasons for its decline are obscure, but were probably a combination of habitat destruction, predation by introduced rats and cats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and over-collection for the Museum trade<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The last records were in 1906 from Little Mangere<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
150574	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Turnagra tanagra</em> was endemic to the North Island, <strong>New Zealand<sup>1</sup></strong>. Buller described them as common in the 1870s, but there were few specimens ever collected (specimens are only known to exist in Chicago, Tring, Philadelphia and Wellington), the last being from 1900<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Occasional sight records persisted until 1955<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Presumably both habitat destruction and direct predation by people, cats and rats caused the species's extinction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150575	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Chloridops kona </em>was endemic to naio forest on lava flows at 1,000-1,800 m on Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong><sup>4</sup>. The species was already very rare when discovered, being restricted to only about four square miles, and was last collected in 1894<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Reasons for its extinction are unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The genus is known from fossils from Kauai, Oahu and Maui<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150576	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Porphyrio mantelli </em>was flightless and endemic to North Island, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, from where it is known from subfossils from a number of archeological sites<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and from one possible late 19th century record<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The decline of the species has generally been attributed to the increasing incursion of forest into the alpine grasslands through the Holocene<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although hunting by the Maori probably also played a role<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150577	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Nannococcyx psix</em> was described from <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong> from a single fragment of a humerus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was presumably a small forest cuckoo, which would account for its scarcity in the fossil record, and would explain its extinction as having occurred as a result of the deforestation of the island in the 18th century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150578	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophopsittacus bensoni</em><em> </em>was described from a lower mandible, palatine and tarsometatarsus found in caves near Port Louis, <strong>Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>, and was almost certainly the small grey parrot described by numerous early writers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. In 1764, Cossigny noted that ";the woods are full of parrots, either completely grey or completely green. One used to eat them a lot formerly, the grey especially...";<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but this was the last mention of the species, and presumably it declined rapidly to extinction through overhunting. There are also a number of reports of small grey parrots from R&eacute;union which probably refer to this or a closely related species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150579	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lophopsittacus mauritianus</em><em> </em>is known from numerous bones and travellers' reports and sketches from <strong>Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>. Birds were large and were poor fliers (but not flightless<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>) and consequently heavily hunted<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hoffman, writing in 1680 based on observations in 1673-1675, gave the last definite reports of the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150580	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Necropsittacus rodericanus</em><em> </em>is known from Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius</strong>, from several early travellers' reports<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and a number of subfossil bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Pingr&eacute; wrote the last report in 1763 based on observations from 1761<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the species was presumably hunted to extinction soon after.</p>	eng
150581	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mascarenotus murivorus</em> was described by a number of early travellers (with the last being Tafforet in 1726) as endemic to Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius<sup>1</sup></strong>. The reports have been corroborated by the discovery of a number of bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but the species has only recently been assigned to a genus<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150582	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mascarenotus sauzieri</em> is only known from subfossil bones from <strong>Mauritius<sup>2</sup></strong>, and was described and sketched by a number of early travellers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Desjardins reported that it was fairly common in the island's woods even as late as the 1830s, but his 1837 reports were the last, and Clark specifically wrote that it was extinct in 1859<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150583	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mascarenotus grucheti</em> is only known from fossils<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> found on <strong>R&eacute;union (to France)<sup>2</sup></strong>, and presumably became extinct soon after the island's colonisation in the early 17th century.</p>	eng
150584	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos </em>is known only from fossil remains from <strong>St Helena (to UK)</strong>, where it presumably became extinct following the island's colonisation in 1502<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The "small kind of blue dove" reported by Forster in the 1770s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> was Zebra Dove <em>Geopelia striata</em>, probably introduced to St Helena in the 16th century, and not <em>D. dekarchiskos</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150585	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cabalus modestus</em><em> </em>was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Pitt Islands, <strong>New Zealand<sup>1</sup></strong>. It was first discovered on Mangere in 1871, and 26 specimens collected there are known from museum collections. It became extinct on the island between 1896 and 1900<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its extinction was presumably caused by predation by rats and cats (which were introduced in the 1890s), habitat destruction to provide sheep pasture (which destroyed all of the island's bush and tussock grass by 1900), and from grazing by goats and rabbits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is also known from 19th century bones from Chatham and Pitt Islands, where Olson<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> has suggested that its extinction resulted from competition with the larger Dieffenbach's Rail <em>Gallirallus dieffenbachii</em> (also extinct), but the two species have been shown to have been sympatric on Mangere<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150586	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphanapteryx bonasia </em>was endemic to <strong>Mauritius</strong> from where it is known from a number of travellers' accounts and illustrations<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and from numerous bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was mentioned to have become rare by Leguat in 1693, and there were no further reports, so the species, which was flightless and palatable, was presumably hunted to extinction around 1700<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong> </strong> <br/></p>	eng
150587	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aphanapteryx leguati</em><em> </em>was restricted to<em> </em>Rodrigues,<strong> Mauritius<sup>1</sup></strong>. It is known from a number of bones<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and from several travellers' reports, the last of which was that of Tafforet in 1726<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It was flightless and apparently excellent eating, and was heavily hunted, presumably becoming extinct in the mid-18th century&#152;Pingr&eacute; reported that it was extinct in 1761<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150588	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Caracara lutosus</em><em> </em>was endemic to Isla Guadalupe, <strong>Mexico<sup>1</sup></strong>. The island was once heavily vegetated, but grazing by goats has almost entirely denuded it<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the primary cause of the species's decline was direct persecution by settlers, and it was last recorded in 1900<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150589	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Bowdleria rufescens</em><em> </em>was endemic to the low brushland of Pitt and Mangere Islands in the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand<sup>2</sup></strong>. It was last recorded in 1900<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, presumably declining to extinction due to habitat loss caused by burning and overgrazing by introduced goats and rabbits, and to predation by cats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.</p>	eng
150590	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Hemignathus obscurus</em> was endemic to mountain koa-`ohi`a forest (500-2,000 m)<strong><sup> </sup></strong>on Hawai`i, <strong>USA</strong><sup>2</sup>. It was apparently not uncommon until 1895, but declined rapidly, with the last report being in 1940<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, possibly because of deforestation and introduced disease-carrying mosquitoes in the lowlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150591	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 71000-320000 breeding pairs, equating to 213000-960000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 888000-19200000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
150594	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Colinus virginianus</em> is resident throughout east North America (from south <strong>Mexico</strong> and west <strong>Guatemala</strong> through the <strong>USA</strong> to extreme southern <strong>Canada</strong>)<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Populations of subspecies <em>cubanensis</em> on <strong>Cuba</strong> and the <strong>Isle of Pines</strong> may be natural, but many introduced populations exist across the world<strong><sup>1,3,4</sup></strong>. It is found in early successional vegetation in a variety of habitats, created by disturbances from fire, agriculture and timber-harvesting<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has suffered a steady, long-term decline in most states in the USA<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>, with the exception of Texas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Declines are greatest in the south-east<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. Mexican populations are poorly known and some subspecies could be threatened<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Changes in agricultural land use (weed removal and herbicide use), forestry (high-density pine plantations), and lack of use of prescribed fire have resulted in widespread habitat fragmentation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Subspecies <em>ridgwayi</em> is on CITES APPENDIX I<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150594	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Rich <em>et al</em>. (2004) <br/></p>	eng
150595	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150596	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very abundant regionally (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150597	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150600	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species a long-distance migrant<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> that migrates south and west after breeding<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It arrives on its wintering grounds between late-October and December and remains there until April<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding is inadequately known but laying has been recorded in early-June, with the species nesting in small colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of 20 to 200 pairs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> often near nesting <em>Larus hyperboreus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is gregarious throughout the year<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> and may occur in large flocks at favoured sites<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> during the winter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, although it usually occurs in small numbers amongst larger flocks of other gull species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It may also forage behind fishing boats with other species of gull<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> For breeding the species requires steep<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, coastal cliffs<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong> up to 3 km inland<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> along Arctic shores and rocky islands<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species frequents a variety of habitats surrounding coastal shores and estuaries<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, often foraging around fishing harbours, refuse dumps and settlements<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. It may also occur on inland freshwater lakes<strong><sup>2, 5</sup></strong>, rivers<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, flooded land and occasionally agricultural fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> especially when on migration<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Non-breeders are known to take refuse and offal from around settlements during the breeding season, but the diet of nesting pairs and nestlings is largely unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During the winter the species takes fish, marine invertebrates and offal<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a cup<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> of grass or other available vegetation placed on a rocky cliff ledge<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> usually on the coast<strong><sup>1, 2, 5</sup></strong> or surrounding a near-coastal freshwater site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species shows a preference for large cliff ledges 920 cm<sup>2</sup> in area (on average), and often nests on cliffs below colonies of <em>Larus hyperboreus</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150601	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys to improve knowledge of the breeding and wintering grounds. Regularly monitor the population at important sites on both the breeding and wintering grounds. Ensure sufficient safeguards are put in place and inforced to prevent pollution in important parts of the at sea range. Protect large areas of unlogged forest in important breeding areas.	eng
150601	distribution		<em>Brachyramphus perdix</em> breeds in <strong>Japan</strong> through the Sea of Okhotsk to the Kamchatka peninsula, <strong>Russia</strong>. It was split from Marbled Murrelet <em>B. marmoratus</em> (which breeds in California to the Aleutian Islands) in 1996<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. In Japan, it is rare in eastern Hokkaido, but commoner on the Sea of Okhotsk coast, especially near the Shiretoko peninsula. There are few areas in Russia where the species is considered common: the lower Amur River area, particularly between Baydukov island and Aleksandra bay; near Magadan along the Khmitievsky peninsula, Tauyskaya bay, and the Koni peninsula; and on the Kamchatka peninsula. It appears to be uncommon in the Primorye region and on Sakhalin island (where its distribution is patchy), and it is rare on the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
150601	habitat		It breeds in old-growth coniferous forests within 100 km of the coast, wintering in sheltered coastal waters.	eng
150601	population		The population has not been accurately quantified, however it is said to number in the 'tens of thousands' (Konyukhov & Kitaysky 1995).	eng
150602	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150603	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150604	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150605	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150606	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150607	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150609	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150610	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout most of its range, although uncommon to rare at higher altitudes, in north-west Costa Rica and in northern Honduras (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150611	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150612	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150613	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150614	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150616	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
150617	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in mountains and less common on the coast (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
150618	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
150619	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150621	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).	eng
150623	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150625	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
150627	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to potentially number over 200,000 individuals.	eng
150628	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150629	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150630	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150631	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150632	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as local and possibly not common (Cleere 1998).	eng
150633	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150634	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known, although probably uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150635	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as poorly known, although probably uncommon to rare (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150636	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150637	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150638	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150639	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150640	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150641	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150642	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150643	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150644	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150645	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150646	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150647	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150648	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common around Bogota and fairly common in Chingaza National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150649	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150650	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150651	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150652	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150653	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150654	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Abiseo National Park, although there has been a serious loss of habitat at this site owing to the invasion of high altitude habitats by cattle. Deliberately started fires also still occur, but they have become less frequent in recent years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to clarify its status, distribution and annual ecological requirements. Improve land-use management by segregating agricultural, grazing and forest areas<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Regulate the use of fire<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Reintroduce old, high-yielding agricultural techniques<sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land-use management and restoration schemes<sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150654	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Doliornis sclateri</em> occurs locally on the east slope of the Andes in <strong>Peru</strong> at: Puerto del Monte, San Mart&iacute;n; near Tayabamba, east La Libertad; the Carpish Mountains, Hu&aacute;nuco; Pozuco-Chaglla trail, Pasco; and Maraynioc, Jun&iacute;n. It may also occur in suitable intervening areas, but grazing and fire management may have rendered these unsuitable<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is apparently very rare within its habitat in Peru<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but <em>Doliornis</em> cotingas are renowned for being difficult to detect, because they are relatively inactive and have soft, easily overlooked calls. <br/></p>	eng
150654	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Its principal habitat is the p&aacute;ramo/cloud-forest ecotone at 2,500-3,450 m. Complex unburnt, treeline habitat seems to be favoured, but is now rare, occurring only as small islands at most localities. Stomach content analysis has revealed a diet of fruit, berries, seeds and some invertebrate matter<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It remains poorly known ecologically, but it is likely that its requirements are similar to its congeners. <br/></p>	eng
150654	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 3.0 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,307 km<sup>2</sup> (10% EOO) = 3,921, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 (density estimate for <em>D. remseni</em> in Colombia [Renjifo <em>et al</em>. 2002]). <br/></p>	eng
150654	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The p&aacute;ramo/cloud-forest ecotone habitat favoured by this species has been seriously reduced and degraded throughout its range, owing to the use of fire to maintain pastureland. Sadly, pre-Columbian sustainable land use systems were largely replaced with unsustainable agricultural techniques during the colonial period<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Such land management practices occur even inside protected areas in the region. Habitat losses in some areas have been estimated at 50% within the last 25 years<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150656	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150657	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150658	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150659	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150660	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150661	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Newman 2000).	eng
150662	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the western race s described as rare (Morris and Hawkins 1998).	eng
150663	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
150665	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is protected by law and unauthorised entrance to both Raso and Branco is officially illegal, but there is no real control<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. In 1991, the government declared Santa Luzia, Branco, Raso, Cima, Curral Velho and Baluarte as natural reserves<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. However, the regulation of human activities has not been published and no wardening has been put in place<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Re-assess the population size to acquire an up-to-date estimate. Monitor the harvest of the species. Employ wardens in protected areas<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> to control human activities and enforce existing legislation. Carry out an education programme to discourage the consumption of shearwaters<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Promote and encourage the use of other sources of protein.	eng
150665	distribution		<em>Calonectris edwardsii</em> is now considered a full species, having been split from Cory's Shearwater <em>C. diomedea</em><strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It is considered locally common in <strong>Cape Verde</strong><sup>1</sup>, with large numbers frequently seen off the island of Raso<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. The largest colonies are on Brava, Branco and Raso. Breeding is sparse on Santiago and Sao Nicolau, has never been fully established on Santo Ant&atilde;o (where the species is recorded as 'common' and the populations on Sal and Boavista amount to a few pairs only)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The total population has been estimated to number c.10,000 pairs since 1988-1993<strong><sup>1,7</sup></strong>; Branco and Raso together hold the majority of the population, with 5,000-7,500 pairs estimated in 1988-1993<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150665	habitat		Arriving at colonies in late February to March after an absence of some three months, the birds nest in hollows in cliffs and offshore rocks, and under large boulders<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. Egg-laying and incubation takes place from May to July, and the young fledge from late September to November. Its non-breeding pelagic range in the south Atlantic is poorly known<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150665	population		The total population has been estimated to number c.10,000 pairs since 1988-1993 (Hazevoet 1995; Nunes and Hazevoet 2001).	eng
150666	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Survey the island to determine the species's true distribution and population status. <strong></strong>Assess the species's ecological requirements and the extent to which it is threatened. <br/></p>	eng
150666	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Dendroica subita</em> is endemic to Barbuda (<strong>Antigua and Barbuda</strong>) where it is more or less common in western parts of the island<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. For reasons unknown the warbler is less common on the eastern half, and even less so on the eastern third<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150666	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Exact habitat needs are unknown<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but assumed to be subtropical/tropical dry shrubland<strong><sup> </sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150666	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although most current development is confined to the Codrington area, proposed unplanned housing development and poor landuse practices (e.g. land clearance for agriculture, garbage dumping, and unmanaged livestock) may be increasing threats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Natural habitats on the island are already much altered by free-ranging grazing animals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150668	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.  <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Monitor populations at key sites. Ensure the protection of significant areas of forest to provide suitable trees for nesting. Research the impact of introduced predators. Protect important areas from nickel mining.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150668	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Cyanoramphus saisetti</em> is endemic to <strong>New Caledonia (to France)</strong>, where it occurs in scattered locations across the main island Grand Terre<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It has been observed from Colnett massif in the north to the extreme south of the Goro region<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is absent from the Ile des Pins<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. It is most abundant in the centre of the chain (north of La Foa to Thio and Canala) and the southern tip of New Caledonia, and is scarce in the north<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150668	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It has a scattered range, as <em>E. cornutus</em>, but has a wider habitat tolerance, including niaouli savanna, maquis scrub and humid forest to 1,500 m, although it is known from fewer locations<strong><sup>3,5</sup></strong>. It is most abundant in <em>Gymnostoma</em> preforests and in wet forests from 400-800 m<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150668	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Data from over 2300 point counts at 82 massifs in New Caledonia collected during 2003-2006 suggest that this species has a similar population to Horned Parakeet <em>Eunymphicus cornutus</em> (around 8,000-10,000 birds) (V. Chartendrault and N. Barr&eacute; <em>in litt. </em>2007), and is therefore estimated to lie within the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150668	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It is only common in the south in sites at risk from nickel mining so may suffer significant habitat loss in the near future. As a hole-nester and ground-forager, it may be susceptible to predation by introduced mammalian predators.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150669	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in Bolivia and Chapada dos Guimar&atilde;es National Park in Brazil<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, as well as &Aacute;guasEmendadas Ecological Station, Brazil. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue to monitor population trends at Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Ecol&oacute;gica de &Aacute;guas Emendadas. Effectively protect further areas of <em>cerrado</em> within its range. <br/></p>	eng
150669	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Suiriri islerorum </em>is resident in central and south-western <strong>Brazil </strong>(Maranh&atilde;o,Tocantins, Mato Grosso, Goi&aacute;s, Mato Grosso do Sul) and eastern <strong>Bolivia </strong>(Santa Cruz). It is rare to locally fairly common (e.g. in shrubby areas with much grass and scattered trees along the Agua Fria road near Chapada dos Guimar), with an average of 1-2 pairs/km in limited roadside surveys<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150669	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is a resident of <em>cerrado</em>, <em>campo cerrado</em> and <em>campo sujo</em>, reaching highest densities in moderately closed shrubby areas with a relatively high grass component and scattered 2-5 m tall trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is known from 250-750 m but may ascend as high as 1,200 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<em> </em>It feeds on small arthropods and fruit, and forages in the middle and upper branches of trees, rarely descending near the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.The primary breeding and fledging period is thought to be October, but little is known about its breeding behaviour<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
150669	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare to locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150669	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The primary threat to <em>cerrado </em>habitat is habitat conversion for <em>Eucalyptus</em> and pine plantations, livestock farming and large-scale cultivation of soybeans, rice and other crops. Repeated annual burning during the dry season may be an additional threat and some areas may be threatened by urbanisation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Unexplained declines of 13% per year were noted in the adult population at Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Ecol&oacute;gica de &Aacute;guas Emendadas, Brazil between 2003 and 2007 at an apparently well-protected reserve of 100 km<sup>2</sup> which has suffered little modification<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150670	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myiopagis olallai</em> is known from four areas along the eastern slopes of the Andes: three sites on the slopes of Volc&aacute;n Sumaco, Napo; near Zamora; at 1200 m above Bermejo in Sucumb&iacute;os province<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, <strong>Ecuador</strong>, and in Apur&iacute;mac in southern <strong>Peru</strong><sup>1</sup>. It occurs between 890 and 1,500 m within and at the edge of very humid to wet primary submontane forest<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. This habitat is being destroyed at an alarming rate in certain places along the eastern slope of the Andes. The true extent of the species's distribution, and the extent to which habitat loss threatens it, need to be determined. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150671	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs within the recently created Allpahuayo-Mishana Reserved Zone (c.580 km<sup>2</sup>). <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Search for this species (or close relatives) in sandy soil forests in the Tarapoto-Moyobamba region of Peru, and perhaps in eastern Ecuador and Colombia. <strong></strong>Determine the extent of occupied or suitable habitat, and estimate the population size. <strong></strong>Determine the extent to which current threats are impacting the species. <br/></p>	eng
150671	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zimmerius villarejoi</em> is known only from an extremely limited habitat type in the R&iacute;o Nany drainage near Iquitos, Loreto, and a 1912 specimen taken from Moyobamba, San Mart&iacute;n, <strong>Peru</strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150671	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is confined to 'varillal' habitat - poorly drained, 12-18 m tall forest on white sand soils. The species's distribution seems to coincide with that of two or three tree species. It is uncommon and very patchily distributed. The diet includes small arthropods and fruit, notably the berries of the mistletoe <em>Oryctanthus alveolatus</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150671	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 8-12 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 346 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 2,770-4,152 individuals, i.e. best placed in band 2,500-10,000 individuals (population may be smaller, as species described as "uncommon" and appears to be patchily distributed; density estimate for <em>Z. gracilipes </em>at Manu, Peru [Munn 1995]). <br/></p>	eng
150671	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Most of the known range is within a protected area. However, the limited extent of appropriate varillal habitat, and the continuing extraction of trees for building materials and posts, means that much of the population is threatened or at least compromised. Outside the protected area, the few varillales in which the species is known to occur (on the upper Rio Nanay) are completely unprotected, and are currently being heavily exploited for timber and other products. <br/></p>	eng
150672	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are no large protected areas supporting this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, La Reserva Natural La Forzosa, a fragment of pristine forest of 4.5 km<sup>2</sup> between 1,500 and 1,820 m, has been designated following an ornithological exploration of the area<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong></strong>Conduct detailed surveys to determine the extent of its distribution, population status, and genetic variation and exchange between the Amalfi and Anor&iacute; populations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong>Develop a management plan for the species. <strong></strong>Pursue the protection of remaining pre-montane forest fragments in the region, particularly those persisting in the Riach&oacute;n river valley in Amalfi<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Control exploitation of palms and other forest resources. Encourage the local government to aquire land between 1,200 and 1,600 m for future protected areas. Encourage alternative technologies for the use of the land, and campaign to prevent the conversion of forests to pastures<sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong></strong>There remains some large intact and potentially suitable subtropical forest areas in eastern and southeastern Antioquia. Conservation efforts in these areas may prove more practical and probably reveal healthy populations of this and other threatened species<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150672	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Lipaugus weberi</em> is confined to a small area of forest (c.800 km<sup>2</sup>) on the northern slope of the Central Andes in <strong>Colombia<sup>1</sup></strong>, where it is known from five locations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The area lies between the Porce and Nech&iacute; river valleys, where it is presently known from four localities in the Municipality of Anor&iacute;<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is locally common at the known localities in Anor&iacute;, especially between 1,600 and 1,750 m <strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It is much less common near Amalfi, presumably because the forests in this area have been subjected to exploitation for a longer period of time<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
150672	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits primary pre-montane, wet forest between 1,500 and 1,820 m <strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been seen at forest borders and in secondary vegetation near mountain gorges, but not usually within secondary forest<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Birds occur singly within the midstorey to lower canopy, and are sometimes observed in mixed-species flocks in the higher levels of the canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on small to medium-sized berries and, occasionally, large invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150672	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Cuervo <em> et al</em>. (2001) estimated that the population numbered <2,500 individuals, fragmented into small subpopulations of <250 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150672	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The Central Andes have undergone almost complete ecological change - surviving forested areas are now highly fragmented and isolated. Pre-montane forest cover is estimated to be 3-4% of its original extent<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the species is presumed to have been extirpated from a large part of its range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Forest loss is driven by mining and agriculture, in particular coffee, plantain and cattle<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Moreover, current high rates of colonization will increase deforestation in the area. High acidity and poor soil drainage reduce vegetation succession and accentuate problems of soil erosion<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Afforestation with exotic species is an increasing problem in the area<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150673	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian Subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005<strong><sup>13,14</sup></strong>, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and maufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac which has been tested on a number of species including <em>Gyps </em>vultures with no ill-effects<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Vulture restaurants are used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research - in Cambodia these are run by The Cambodia Vulture Conservation Project, a partnership between the Royal Cambodian Government and NGOs, led by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and also including BirdLife International, WWF, RSPB and Angkor Center for the Conservation of Biodiversity<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., in order to develop suitable conservation strategies for the species<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that they provide<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Captive breeding efforts began in 2006 when 18 Slender-billed Vultures were captured for the captive-breeding facility in Pinjore, India. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. In April 2008 there were 28 birds at the three Indian breeding centres<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Two individuals bred in captivity for the first time in 2009<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive breeding efforts that represent the full geographical spread of the species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other NSAIDs to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.</strong>	eng
150673	distribution		<em>Gyps tenuirostris</em> is found in <strong>India</strong> north of, and including, the Gangetic plain, west to at least Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, south to southern West Bengal (and possibly northern Orissa), east through the plains of Assam, and through southern <strong>Nepal</strong>, and north and central <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It formerly occurred more widely in South-East Asia, but it is now thought to be extinct in Thailand and Malaysia, and the only recent records are from <strong>Cambodia</strong>, southern <strong>Laos</strong> and <strong>Myanmar</strong>. Considerable confusion over the taxonomy and identification of <em>Gyps </em>vultures has occurred, making it difficult to be sure of claims for this species. However, it appears to be allopatric or parapatric with Indian Vulture <em>G. indicus</em> where their ranges abut (or potentially do so) in northern India. It was once common, but in South-East Asia populations declined through the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, and are now probably very small and restricted in distribution and limited mainly to Cambodia (where the first nests recorded in the country were recently found and surveys in 2008 recorded a total of 51 individuals at vulture 'restaurants'<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>) and Myanmar (small numbers seen recently on surveys in Shan State<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>). Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in the region is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>. In India and Nepal, the species was common until very recently, but since the mid 1990s, it has suffered a catastrophic decline up to 99%, with a combined average decline in India of this species and <em>G. indicus</em> of over 16% annually between 2000-2007<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse<strong><sup>9,10,11,12</sup></strong>. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure causing visceral gout<strong><sup>10,12,14,15</sup></strong>. Probably owing to the effects of diclofenac breeding success in parts of its Indian range is reportedly low; of 14 nests found in Assam just four had chicks<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Diclofenac is apparently entirely absent in Cambodia, adding greater importance to that remaining small population.	eng
150673	habitat		It inhabits dry open country in the vicinity of human habitation, but also breeds in open country far from villages. In South-East Asia it was found in open and partly wooded country, generally in the lowlands. This species feeds almost entirely on carrion, scavenging at rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses. It has only been recorded nesting in trees, usually large ones, usually at a height of 7-14 m, often near villages. While feeding considerable aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks, interacting with other vultures at carcasses. Movements are poorly known, and the degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services. They were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.	eng
150673	population		Considerable confusion over the taxonomy and identification of <em>Gyps </em>vultures has occurred, making it difficult to be sure of the population size.	eng
150674	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Spilornis klossi </em>is endemic to the islands of Great Nicobar (including Pulo Kunji), Little Nicobar and Menchal in the South Nicobar island group, Nicobar islands, <strong>India</strong>, where it is most frequently found in the canopy of forest. There is some confusion over records in 1993, when it was reported to be "probably one of the rarest raptors in the country" and "rarely seen in the Great Nicobar island", but this has not been the impression of other fieldworkers. Increased settlement of the islands has led to increased pressure on natural resources, and planned development projects could severely affect the habitat of this species.  <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150675	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The isolated ridge is currently unprotected. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Search remaining peaks along the isolated ridge. Assess the size of its population. Gather more information on its ecology and life history. Seek protected status for the isolated ridge. <br/></p>	eng
150675	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Capito wallacei</em> is known only from an isolated, unnamed ridge system to the east of the Cordillera Azul, Ucayali Department, <strong>Peru<sup>1</sup></strong>. The ridge is on the east bank of the upper R&iacute;o Cushabatay, 77 km west-north-west of Contamana in Loreto. The ridge is  long (>50 km) and narrow<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, in spite of searches at suitable elevations in the adjacent Cordillera Azul, this species remains known only from Peak 1538<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was found to be common, with up to eight individuals recorded daily<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Thirteen specimens were collected from this mountain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150675	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is known only from on, or near, the summit of one mountain, where a relatively flat plateau is cloaked in cloud forest between 1,200 and 1,540 m. Epiphytes, especially bryopytes, bromeliads and orchids, cover most of the trunks and large branches of the short trees (10-20 m). The predominant trees near the summit are melastomes and clusias. The forest floor has a deep (up to 1 m) spongy cover of mosses intermixed with leaf litter and soil. The wet, epiphyte-covered montane forest changes abruptly to taller and drier subtropical forest below 1,250 m. <br/></p>	eng
150675	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate =1-2.2 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 186 km<sup>2</sup> (currently known range) = 372 individuals, perhaps best placed in band 250-999 individuals (density estimate from up to lower quartile of seven estimates for three for other New World barbets in BirdLife Population Densities Database). It may well occur at higher densities, with up to eight recorded daily at the type-locality, where it was described as common (O'Neill <em>et al</em>. 2000) This estimate is very preliminary, and further work is required to validate the mean population density and determine the species's true range. It may well prove to have a larger population than precautionarily esitmated here. <br/></p>	eng
150675	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There is little human habitation in the watershed, and none above 300 m. Only a small amount of hunting is conducted by infrequent visitors. However, deforestation is extensive on the west slope of the adjacent Cordillera Azul, especially in the drainage of the R&iacute;o Biabo. <br/></p>	eng
150676	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Few protected areas exist for this species but Monte Pascoal National Park and the Porto Seguro/Florestas Rio Doce SA Forest are important<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Secure the adequate protection of a number of sites for this species. <br/></p>	eng
150676	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Herpsilochmus pileatus </em>is confined to 10 localities along the coast of southern Bahia, <strong>Brazil<sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs from Ba&iacute;a de Todos Santos near Salvador in the north to the Trancoso area in the south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is common/abundant in suitable habitat. <br/></p>	eng
150676	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occupies forests, forest fragments, second growth, cabrucas and restinga vegetation. Forages by gleaning invertebrates from vegetation in the mid-storey and canopy. Sometimes sallies and hover-gleans<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.   <br/></p>	eng
150676	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 2.6-9.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 270 km<sup>2</sup> (45% EOO) = 702-2,592, i.e. probably best placed in the band 1,000-2,499 as described as common in suitable habitat (density range from estimates for two congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150676	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Coastal forests in southern Bahia have suffered tremendous reduction in size during the last few decades. Logging companies, pastures, and social pressure from native peoples and landless people movements are some of the factors that have contributed to the deforestation process. The species has a very limited range, and although common, remaining vegetation is still being destroyed. Planned large-scale tourist resort development along the coast of southern Bahia may also have a large negative impact<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Designated protected areas where the species could be safe are under threat themselves<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150677	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The type locality, Mount Kon Ka Kinh, was recently gazetted as a 41,710 ha nature reserve. If successfully established, it is believed that the future of this population of the species will be secure. <br/> <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>*Conduct further surveys in central Vietnam and Laos to determine its distribution, approximate population size and habitat requirements. *Initiate and expand management, monitoring, training and education in Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150677	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax konkakinhensis</em> is known only from Mount Kon Ka Kinh, one of the highest peaks in the Central Highlands of <strong>Vietnam</strong>. It is likely to occur to the north in adjacent Kon Tum province, and could conceivably occur in Laos, because forest habitat within the species' known altitudinal range extends across the provincial and international borders. Three specimens were collected there in April 1999, including one from a group of at least three individuals. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150677	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The three specimens were collected between 1,600 and 1,700 m, in the undergrowth of primary upper montane evergreen forest, dominated by tree species from the families Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Magnoliaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Theaceae, Ericaceae, Myrtaceae and Araliaceae. On Mount Kon Ka Kinh, from c.1,600 m to the summit (at 1,748 m), the forest canopy height was c.10-15 m, with 20 m trees in flatter areas of the summit plateau. The species may occur at elevations below 1,600 m, but determination of this was difficult because the species was not heard making any vocalisations during March and April. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150677	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
150677	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The forests within Kon Ka Kinh Nature Reserve comprise a mosaic of primary and seral forest formations, and, on the evidence of shifting cultivation, indicate a long history of human utilisation. The forest around the type locality was being logged for large, emergent <em>Fokienia hodginsii</em> and in many places the canopy was broken and there were many clearings. Its presence in logged forest indicates some tolerance of disturbed habitat. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150678	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Motacilla samveasnae</em> is known, in the breeding season, from a substantial length of the River Mekong and several of its tributaries in <strong>Cambodia</strong>, extending upstream from Kampi into southern <strong>Laos</strong>, and there is a record from the non-breeding season in <strong>Thailand</strong>. In optimal habitat, linear densities may reach many pairs per kilometre, and its numbers are certainly healthy in Cambodia. It breeds in riverine "channel mosaic" habitat, typically in broad, lowland rivers, where the streambed is exposed to provide rocky outcrops and bushland, gravel shoals and/or sandbars, tufted grasses and annual dicotyledons. It avoids wooded areas. It is highly tolerant of human presence, and its habitat is not particularly vulnerable to human-induced changes. However, the many dams currently proposed for the Mekong, particularly those on sections where the river has a low gradient, have the potential to disrupt long stretches of its riverine range by flooding the river channel. Short sections of its habitat occur in several protected areas, but this is unlikely to afford much protection from dam development. Active conservation for this and other riverine wetland species will centre on holistic review and modification of proposals for large dams, and will necessitate international cooperation.  <br/></p>	eng
150678	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This preliminary population estimate assumes that the species's population is moderately small owing to its highly specialised habitat requirements and restricted distribution.  <br/></p>	eng
150679	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Mascarenachen kervazoi</em> is known only from subfossil bones collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Fran&ccedil;ais on <strong>R&eacute;union</strong> <strong>(to France)</strong> in 1974<sup>2</sup>. Nontekoe mentioned finding geese on the island when he visited in 1619, as did Dubois in 1671-2, but as early as 1667 Martin recorded destruction of the wildfowl and habitat of the Etang de Saint-Paul, and the species was specifically mentioned to have become extinct by Boucher in 1710<sup>1</sup>. The specimens are deposited in the Mus&eacute;um National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
150680	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be very common (Baker 1997).	eng
150681	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe (which covers >95% of the breeding range), the breeding population is estimated to be 360000-530000 breeding pairs, equating to 1080000-1590000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
150682	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 20000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 60000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
150683	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 19000-85000 breeding pairs, equating to 57000-255000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
150684	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	The Large-billed Reed Warbler <em>Acrocephalus orinus</em> is known only from one specimen, collected in the Sutlej Valley near Rampoor, Himachal Pradesh, India in 1867. Its taxonomic status has been uncertain for more than a century, and it was treated as synonymous with Clamorous Reed Warbler <em>Acrocephalus stentoreus<strong><sup>1</sup></strong></em>. However, a recent study re-evaluated the status of this taxon, and confirmed its specific status based on morphology and mtDNA evidence<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its morphology, with a relatively rounded wing, suggests that it represents a resident or short-distance migrant. Given the lack of information, and the previous confusion over the status of this taxon, it is best treated presently as Data Deficient.  <br/></p>	eng
150685	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>1,820 km<sup>2</sup> of forest at Abra Patricia and the upper r&iacute;o Mayo, San Mart&iacute;n, is classed as Bosque de Protecci&oacute;n del Alto Mayo at the request of local leaders in Rioja, to protect the watershed of the Rio Mayo from logging<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Estabish a protected area containing areas of forest on the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n. Survey areas of suitable habitat to locate further populations. Determine its ecological requirements, particularly its response to edge habitat creation. <br/></p>	eng
150685	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Poecilotriccus luluae</em> is known from six localities in north-east <strong>Peru</strong>: at Wicsocunga, near Lonya Grande, in the northernmost extension of the Cordillera Central<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>; two sites in the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n (30 km east of Florida<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and south-east of Bagua<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>); and three areas to the east in an unnamed range in the Eastern Andes (the Garc&iacute;a area north-east of Abra Patricia; 6 km south-east of Corosha; and 33 km north-east of Ingenio)<strong><sup>1,5</sup></strong>.<em> <br/></p>	eng
150685	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It has been recorded between 1,800-2,550 m elevation, and occurs in shrubby second growth, bamboo thickets and forest undergrowth<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, possibly with a preference for edge habitat (created by logging<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or roads in some case<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>), but with occurrence also in bamboo thickets within undisturbed forest<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It forages almost exclusively through sally-gleans, mostly to the undersurface of live leaves, and is nearly always encountered in pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been reported as fairly common to the east of Abra Patricia<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150685	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring further documentation. <br/></p>	eng
150685	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The remaining forests within the documented range of the species are being cleared for timber, agriculture and to secure land ownership, particularly rapidly on the Cordillera de Col&aacute;n (where local people estimated that all remaining forest might be cleared in the ensuing decade). The forest near Abra Patricia is under increased threat since the road was rebuilt in 1998<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, the species may benefit from edge habitat created by timber clearing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150686	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occupies dry to moist deciduous forest, frequenting thorn scrub, open woodland and some grassland areas with few trees.	eng
150686	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'frequent' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150686	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	In parts of the range it is threatened by deforestation and hunting.	eng
150687	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. Currently disturbance and access issues prevent studies on Pedra Branca and the Mewstone.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Analysis of aerial census data and maintenance of current programme for Pedra Branca and the Mewstone (due to logistic difficulties demographic studies of populations on Pedra Branca and the Mewstone population are not feasible). Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline and trawl fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and FAO. Mewstone birds appear to travel more extensively than Albatross Island birds and are therefore exposed to interactions with a range of fishing fleets.	eng
150687	distribution		<em>Thalassarche</em> <em>cauta</em> is an endemic breeder in <strong>Australia</strong>,<strong><em> </em></strong>with colonies on three islands off Tasmania. Data submitted to ACAP in 2005 estimated the total breeding population to be approximately 12,750 breeding pairs: Albatross Island (5,100 pairs), Pedra Branca (270 pairs) and the Mewstone (7,380 pairs). <em>T</em>. <em>cauta</em> was historically killed for the feather trade and the Albatross Island population was reduced to c.300 pairs in 1909<strong><sup>,1,14</sup></strong>. Since then, the population on Albatross Island has been slowly recovering<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reaching approximately 25% of the pre-exploited population in 2004<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. The historical population size and trend of Mewstone and Pedra Branca are unknown. The population on Pedra Branca may have always been small but it appears competition for nesting space with Australasian Gannets <em>Morus serrator</em> may steadily be reducing the number of fledglings produced on the island each year. Chick production on Pedra Branca dropped from over 100 to 31 between 1993 and 2007, representing a decrease of approximately 9% a year<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. Understanding the at-sea distribution of <em>T. cauta</em> is confounded by its similar appearance to other 'shy-type' albatrosses, particularly <em>T. steadi</em><strong><sup>11,18</sup></strong><em>.</em> During the breeding season, adults are relatively sedentary and are concentrated around Tasmania and southern Australia<strong><sup>,9,12,13,17</sup></strong>. However, juvenile birds from Mewstone (Tasmania) are known to migrate to South Africa<strong><sup>13,17</sup></strong>. One banded bird from Albatross Island has been recovered in northern New Zealand<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
150687	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Shy Albatross breeds annually in colonies. Eggs are mostly laid in the second half of September<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. They hatch in December and chicks fledge mostly in April. Immature birds return to their breeding colony at least 3 years after fledging, mostly beginning breeding when at least 5 to 6 years old, nearly always in their natal colonies. <em>Thalassarche cauta</em> usually forage singly and have been observed taking prey from the surface or occasionally making surface plunges or shallow dives. However, a study using time-depth recorders revealed <em>T. cauta</em> commonly plunge-dive within 3 m of the surface and can swim down to over 7 metres<strong><sup>23</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> Nests are a mound of soil, grass and roots, and are located on rock islands.<em> </em><strong>Diet </strong>The main foods are fish and cephlapods<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>, with crustaceans and tunicates also forming a part of the diet. It is a ship-follower and fish processing discharge comprises a significant proportion of its diet.	eng
150687	population		The global population of Shy Albatross is estimated to be 12,000 to 13,000 pairs. Data submitted to ACAP in 2005 estimated a total population of 12,750 pairs, made up of 5,128 pairs on Albatross Island (2004), 7,258 -7,458 pairs on Mewstone (1996), and 268 pairs on Pedra Branca (1996). Data from Albatross Island in 2006-2007 indicate 5,017 pairs (ACAP 2006). The number of mature individuals is therefore estimated at c.25,500. The global population including non-breeders is estimated to be 50,000-60,000 individuals (Gales 1998).	eng
150688	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. A five-year aerial survey program of the Disappointment Island population commenced in 2006-2007. The New Zealand Department of Conservation has recently contracted the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research to conduct demographic and tracking study of the Auckland Islands populations.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Census populations on all New Zealand islands. Conduct regular monitoring of a representative proportion of the population. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies<strong> </strong>and the interaction with longline and trawl fisheries<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline and trawl fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and FAO.	eng
150688	distribution		<em>Thalassarche steadi</em> is endemic to offshore islands of <strong>New Zealand</strong>, with an estimated breeding population of approximately 95,000 pairs<strong><sup>26</sup>. </strong>Populations are distributed predominantly on Disappointment Island (91,500 pairs)<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>, Auckland (5,000 pairs)<strong><sup>26</sup></strong> and Adams Islands (100 pairs)<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong> in the Auckland Island group, and Bollon's Island (c.100)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> in the Antipodes Island group. The population is estimated to comprise approximately 350,000-375,000 birds and limited information available suggests that some populations may be increasing<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. 'Shy' type albatrosses have been recorded in the south-west Atlantic for many years <strong><sup>18,.19</sup></strong>. Most of the birds recorded are immature, which has hindered specific identification. However, genetic evidence from a bird on South Georgia confirmed the species was <em>T. steadi</em><strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. In addition, tracking studies<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>, bird band recoveries<strong><sup>24</sup></strong> and DNA-based identification of bycatch specimens<strong><sup>16</sup></strong> have confirmed that this species forages in Tasmania and Southern Africa/Namibia<strong><sup>24</sup></strong><em>,</em> and immature birds are thought to occur regularly throughout the South Atlantic and south-west Indian Ocean. <em> </em>The first tracking studies have commenced on Auckland Island in 2006 and are ongoing <strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. Although global counts of <em>T. steadi</em> have increased from 75,000 breeding pairs in 1993 to a current estimate of 97,089 pairs, the estimates are not based on comparable methodologies and therefore population trends cannot be calculated. The need for accurate trend information is highlighted by the report of an estimated 8,000 albatrosses of this species killed annually as a result of longline and trawl fisheries<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>.	eng
150688	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>The White-capped Albatross breeds annually in colonies, though recent studies suggest it may breed biennially<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. However, the breeding frequency and season for this species is poorly known<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Eggs are usually laid mid-November and hatch in February. Chicks are thought to fledge in mid-August, though a fledging period of June-July may be more likely. Some adults remain near the colonies year-round<strong><sup>26</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding </em>Colonies are generally located on rock islands. <strong>Diet </strong>The main foods include, fish, cephalopods, crustaceans and tunicates. It is a ship-follower and fish processing discharge comprises a significant proportion of its diet. Birds are generally surface feeders, but may undertake shallow surface dives.	eng
150688	population		The global estimated breeding population is approximately 95,000 pairs (Petersen <em>et al.</em> 2009)	eng
150690	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour </strong>Northern breeding populations of this species are highly migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> although populations in more temperate regions are sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or locally dispersive<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species breeds from May onwards<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in single pairs or loose groups<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Once females have started incubating<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (from June or early-July)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> males congregate<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and undertake extensive moult migrations or remain near the breeding grounds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> to undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c.4 weeks<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (the females moult on the breeding grounds)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. After the post-breeding moult migratory populations of the species migrate south, the peak of the autumn migration occurring between October and November<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It returns to the breeding areas from late-February onwards (peaking March-April)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species forms large concentrations, with large flocks of 30-40 and sometimes hundreds of individuals gathering at winter roosting sites<strong><sup>3, 6</sup></strong>. The species forages at night during the winter (especially during the hunting season) but forages by day during the breeding season<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> The species shows a preference for shallow<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> permanent waters<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in the breeding season<strong><sup>3, 7</sup></strong>, especially those in the vicinity of woodlands with fairly dense herbaceous cover available nearby for nesting<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Small freshwater lakes and shallow marshes with abundant emergent vegetation<strong><sup>1, 4</sup></strong> are preferred to open water<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, as are small waterbodies forming part of a larger wetland, lake or river system, especially in the valleys of small forested rivers<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Other suitable habitats include small ponds, pools<strong><sup>3, 7</sup></strong>, oxbow lakes, lagoons<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and slow-flowing streams<strong><sup>6, 7</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species frequents similar habitats to those in which it breeds<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, including marsh and lake habitats and other sheltered waters with high productivity and abundant vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as well as flooded fields and artificial waters (e.g. reservoirs)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. During the winter the species also occurs along the coast<strong><sup>1, 5</sup></strong> on saline<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> or brackish lagoons with abundant submergent vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, saltmarshes<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, tidal creeks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, intertidal mudflats<strong><sup>2, 4</sup></strong>, river deltas<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, estuarine waters<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> and even sheltered coastal bays<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, although it does show a preference for marshes with mud flats for foraging rather than more saline or open-water habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet </strong><em>Breeding</em> In spring and summer the diet of the species consists predominantly of animal matter such as molluscs, worms, insects and crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> During winter the species mainly takes the seeds of aquatic plants<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. emergent and submerged macrophytes)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, grasses, sedges and agricultural grain<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (cereals and rice)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is a hollow in the ground placed amongst dense vegetation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or under bushes close to water (rarely more then 100 m away)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Neighbouring pairs may sometimes nest only 1 m apart although the species is not colonial<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information </strong>A study in the Czech Republic found that fish ponds with a fish stock density of less than 400 kg ha<sup>1</sup>, water transparency of more than 50 cm, mixed fish stocks (e.g. tench and pike or perch) rather than monospecific stocks (e.g. of carp), and systems that include ponds with fish fry (to provide areas with low fish competition and high invertebrate availability) are more successful in supporting breeding pairs of this species<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterfowl species diversity<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150690	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by lowland habitat loss and degradation (e.g. through wetland drainage)<strong><sup>11</sup></strong> and by upland habitat loss due to afforestation and other land-use changes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion (France)<strong><sup>23</sup></strong> and from poisoning by white phosphorous ingestion (from firearms) in Alaska<strong><sup>21</sup></strong>. It is also intensively hunted in its winter quarters<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is threatened by disturbance from human recreational activities<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>, hunting<strong><sup>20</sup></strong> and construction work (UK)<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. The species is susceptible to avian botulism<strong><sup>9</sup></strong> and avian influenza<strong><sup>10, 17</sup></strong> so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these diseases. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport in North America<strong><sup>8, 12</sup></strong>, Denmark<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>, France<strong><sup>14</sup></strong> and Italy<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and is hunted commercially and recreationally in Iran<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The eggs of this species were (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland<strong><sup>22</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150691	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005<strong><sup>9,10</sup></strong>, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India in 2008 warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'<strong><sup>17</sup></strong>. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac, which has been tested on <em>Gyps </em>vultures with no ill-effects. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs<strong><sup>15</sup></strong> - ultimately at least 150 pairs of the three species should be held in captivity to ensure sufficient birds are available to re-establish wild colonies in the future<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Captive breeding efforts are ongoing and as of April 2008 there were 71 individuals in captivity at three conservation breeding centres in India<strong><sup>20</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Measure the frequency of diclofenac treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular, survey southern India where it is hoped vulture populations may not have crashed to the same extent that they have in the rest of the Subcontinent. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative2  to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.</strong>	eng
150691	distribution		<em>Gyps indicus</em> breeds in south-east <strong>Pakistan</strong> and peninsular <strong>India</strong> south of the Gangetic plain, north to Delhi, east through Madhya Pradesh, south to the Nilgiris, and occasionally further south. It was common until very recently, but since the mid 1990s has suffered a catastrophic decline (over 97%) throughout its range. This was first noticed in Keoladeo National Park, India<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> where the population fell from 816 birds in 1985-1986 to just 25 in 1998-1999. Just one tiny population in the Ramanagaram Hills of Karnataka remains in inland southern India, and it is rare elsewhere within its former range. Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse<strong><sup>5,6,7,8</sup></strong>. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure causing visceral gout<strong><sup>6,8,10,11</sup></strong>. Itt is now rare in Pakistan, although a 200-250 pair colony was discovered in 2003 in Sindh Province<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. In 2007 the total Indian population, based on extrapolations from road transects, was estimated at 45,000 individuals, with a combined average annual decline for this species and <em>G. tenuirostris </em>of over 16% between 2000-2007<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>.	eng
150691	habitat		It is found in cities, towns and villages near cultivated areas, and in open and wooded areas. This species feeds almost entirely on carrion, and often associates with White-rumped Vulture <em>G. bengalensis</em> when scavenging at rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses. It nests almost exclusively in small colonies on cliffs and ruins, although in one area, where cliffs are absent, it has been reported nesting in trees. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.	eng
150691	population		Population estimate extrapolated from 2007 survey results by Prakash <em>et al</em>. (2007) who recorded 337 individuals along >18,000 km road transects.	eng
150692	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>There are recent records from a number of protected areas including Keoladeo National Park, Kaziranga National Park, Corbett National Park<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, Ranthambore Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>*Conduct national breeding surveys throughout its range to determine number, distribution and status. *Undertake research to establish its ecological requirements. *Survey suitable habitat in Cambodia to ascertain whether the species is present. <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150692	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	This eagle appears to be a widespread species that has always been recorded at very low density throughout the lowlands of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, occurring in <strong>Pakistan</strong>, <strong>Nepal</strong>, <strong>India</strong> and <strong>Bangladesh</strong><sup>1,2</sup>.  A recent unconfirmed sighting in Cambodia could hint at the possibilty of an undiscovered population in the open, dry deciduous dipterocarp forest mosaics in northern Cambodia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Ascertaining its true status and distribution is hampered by identification problems, and many recent records of this species are thought to actually relate to Greater Spotted Eagle <em>A. clanga</em>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150692	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A powerful predator that siezes its, mostly mammalian, prey from the ground whilst quartering over areas within, or near, forest. Also preys on frogs and birds. Tree-nesting<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150692	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species apparently occurs at very low density and nowhere is it common, so, despite its large range, the global population is believed to fall below 10,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150692	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Although poorly known this species is undoubtedly threatened by conversion and disturbance of forested habitats within its range.  <br/></p>	eng
150693	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil.	eng
150693	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a range of habitats in the lowlands and foothills, including thickets, grassy slopes, palm groves, forest edge and secondary growth, from sea level to 2,700 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
150693	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150694	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be not uncommon (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993).	eng
150697	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large global population estimated to be >5,400,000-7,500,000 individuals<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150697	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory although some populations only migrate short distances<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It breeds from April to August<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in solitary territorial pairs and after breeding it moves to moulting areas before migrating south to the wintering grounds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is not a truly gregarious species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> although it usually forages in small groups<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, occasionally also gathering in larger flocks of several hundred during migration or in the winter<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species is also generally crepuscular in its activities<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> <em>Breeding</em> The species breeds on fresh or brackish marshland with rich or tussocky vegetation<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> including grassy or marshy edges of lakes and rivers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, marshy bogs and moors<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, marshy tundra, wet meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, peat bogs, fens, swamps (North America)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> and swampy forest<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> In its wintering range the species frequents similar habitats to those it breeds in<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong> including permanent and temporary swamps, the marshy edges of lakes and dams, flooded sedge and grassland<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, also utilising more artificial habitats such as damp farmland<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> (e.g. cattle pastures, sugar-cane fields<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, rice-fields<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), sewage farms<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and drainage ditches<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. The species may also move to more coastal areas such as the upper reaches of estuaries and coastal meadows<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> during periods of frost<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of adult and larval insects, earthworms, small crustaceans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. isopods and amphipods)<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, small gastropods, spiders<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, small amphibians (Africa)<strong><sup>7</sup></strong> and occasionally plant fibres, seeds and grit<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow scrape<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> positioned on dry ground in marshes, fens, swamps and bogs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> (e.g. on a mound or sedge tuft)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> in the cover of grass, rushes, sedge or sphagnum moss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species nests in solitary territorial pairs at densities of between 10 and 38 or up to 110 pairs per kilometre<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> Studies in Danish coastal wetlands found that the spatial restriction of shore-based shooting was more successful at maintaining waterfowl population sizes than was the temporal restriction of shooting, and therefore that wildfowl reserves should incorporate shooting-free refuges that include adjacent marshland in order to ensure high waterbird species diversity<strong><sup>13</sup></strong>. The species is known to show increased hatching successes when ground predators have been excluded by erecting protective fences around nesting areas<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>. At a reserve in the UK management strategies such as reseeding grasslands to be dominated by rushes <em>Juncus </em>spp. and purple moor-grass <em>Molinia caerulea</em>, mechanical cutting and grazing, digging small scrapes and maintaining high water-levels succeeded in attracting an increased number of breeding pairs to the area<strong><sup>16</sup></strong>. The annual success of reproduction is estimated every year by wing surveys in Denmark since the 1970s and in France since the mid-1990s<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. Hunting bags are estimated every year in Denmark<strong><sup>18</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150697	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).	eng
150697	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by habitat changes such as wetland drainage<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and grassland improvement<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> (e.g. through drainage, inorganic fertilising and reseeding)<strong><sup>14</sup></strong>. Important migratory stop-over habitats in the Kaliningrad region of Russia are also threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland and flood-plain drainage (for irrigation and water management), peat-extraction, reedbed mowing and burning, and abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub and reed overgrowth<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The species suffers from lead poisoning as a result of ingesting lead shot deposited on wetlands<strong><sup>10, 11, 12</sup></strong>, suffers nest predation by introduced mammals (e.g. European hedgehog <em>Erinaceus europaeus</em>) on islands<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the viurs<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>. <strong>Utilisation</strong> The species is hunted for sport (e.g. in Denmark)<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150698	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pionopsitta aurantiocephala</em> is known only from a few localities encompassing the Lower Madeira and Upper Tapaj&oacute;s rivers in Amazonian <strong>Brazil</strong>. Individuals have been seen in gallery forest and in 'campinarana' forest (on white-sand soils). This region is under threat from logging<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Given that the species is currently known only from two habitat types and from a relatively small area, the population is unlikely to be much larger than 10,000 individuals, and it is therefore considered to be Near Threatened. More records are likely to be forthcoming now that it has been formally recognised as a species, and these may clarify its exact status. <br/></p>	eng
150698	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
150699	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox sumbaensis</em> was recently formally described, although the taxa has been known to ornithologists since the late 1980s<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is currently very poorly known and has only been recorded from three localities on Sumba, <strong>Indonesia<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It appears to be limited to patches of primary, disturbed primary and secondary forest from 600-950 m on Sumba. Survey work is required to ascertain the distribution and status of this poorly known owl which is undoubtedly at some risk from ongoing habitat loss. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150699	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is very poorly known but it is thought to be uncommon given that it escaped detection for many years and there are few records available. This preliminary population estimate requires clarification. <br/></p>	eng
150700	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and the most common swift in lowland Costa Rica (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150701	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150702	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150703	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is listed under CITES Appendix II.	eng
150703	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened. It is endemic to Isla Escudo de Veraguas in the Caribbean, off the coast of Bocas del Toro, Panama (S. Olson per G. Graves in litt. 1996). It was glimpsed occasionally in March 1958, and five specimens were collected during five days in March 1962 (S. Olson per G. Graves in litt. 1996).	eng
150703	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies handleyi has been observed feeding on the flowers of low bushes in coastal areas (Wetmore 1968).	eng
150703	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008). The subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened, however, more recent surveys have found the species to be abundant, albeit within an extremely small range (S. Olson per G. Graves in litt. 1996).	eng
150703	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The small size of Isla Escudo de Veraguas makes the subspecies handleyi inherently susceptible to extinction. There are many potential threats, including hurricanes, fire, establishment of non-native species and development for tourism.	eng
150704	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150705	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in South and Central America, from  Mexico south to Argentina.	eng
150705	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in a range of habitat types from sea level to 3100 m, including lowland and montane humid forest and temperate woodland, semi-arid open woodland, plantations and clearings with trees; in Tobago (Trinidad and Tobago) found frequently in gardens and even sandy beaches and open pasture with large trees.  Feeds on fruit, invertebrates, small reptiles and mammals, and occasionally on small birds and nestlings (Snow 2001).	eng
150705	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150706	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally common (Davison and Fook 1995, Robson 2000).	eng
150707	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range extending from northern Colombia to western Ecuador  and south-east Brazil through Bolivia, Venezuala, and Guyana.  The species is found in a number of protected areas.	eng
150707	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a variety of habitats, including scrub, pastures and arable fields, gallery forest, and urban areas, often (but not always) near water, mainly from sea level to 800 m, but locally to 2700 m in Ecuador and Peru. It benefits from moderate anthropogenic habitat alteration. It forages on the ground, feeding on termites, ants and other invertebrates (Remsen 2003).	eng
150707	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996), and 'very common' in some areas (Remsen 2003).	eng
150708	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150709	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the uplands of southern Peru, western Bolivia and north-west Argentina.	eng
150709	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits southern temperate grassland and rocky puna grassland, and is sometimes found in Polylepis woodland with bunch-grass as ground cover, typically from 2000-4000 m but locally as low as 1800 m. It feeds on arthropods, gleaning food items from the ground or from clumps of grass, and it breeds during the austral spring and summer, laying a clutch of 2-3 eggs in a domed nest made of interwoven dried leaves and stems (Remsen 2003).	eng
150709	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150710	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the uplands of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.	eng
150710	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits montane evergreen forest, preferring relatively open areas, between 700 and 3000 m (Remsen 2003).	eng
150710	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150711	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150712	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil.	eng
150712	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species main habitat is the understorey of lowland and foothill evergreen forest, although it sometimes frequents the understorey of deciduous or gallery forest; dense, tangled thickets are always preferred over more open areas. It feeds on a variety of arthropods, and also takes small lizards (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150712	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150713	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The establishment of the Zona Reservada Allpahuayo-Mishana in 1999, which includes much of the known range of <em>P. arenarum</em>, was a critical step in the protection of this species. This must be followed by the resources required to back up this action<strong><sup>1 </sup></strong>and enforce existing legislation. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect in practice as well as legally the areas of habitat in which it is found from destruction and heavy exploitation. Assess the full extent of range and size of  population of this species.  <br/></strong> <br/></p>	eng
150713	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Percnostola arenarum</em> is known only from Loreto in <strong>Peru</strong>, from the drainage of the Rio Nanay west to the Rio Tigre, including Nauta on the bank of the Rio Maranon between those two rivers<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The Nauta specimen, at the Museum of Natural History, had previously been tentatively assigned to <em>P. rufifrons jensoni</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150713	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>P. arenarum</em> is found in dense, stunted <em>terra firme</em> forest on white sandy soil (a habitat named 'varillal' by local people), with an understory dominated by the saplings of white sand specialists. It appears to be restricted to this habitat type, although it was also found, albeit extremely locally, in a nutrient-poor habitat termed 'irapayal' comprising taller forest with a dense understorey of irapay palm, which grows on very old, weathered clay soils as well as sandy soils<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150713	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 0.9-3.6 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,538 km<sup>2</sup> (20% EOO) = 1,384-5,537, but probably best placed precautionarily in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals since its AOO may in practice be a smaller percentage of its EOO as habitat is very localised (density range is lowest to lower quartile of 7 estimates for 3 congeners in the BirdLife Population Densities Spreadsheet). <br/></p>	eng
150713	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Based on current knowledge about this species, it has a very specialised habitat niche and a very small geographic range. The habitats in which it is found are subject to intense human activity in a region of rapid population growth. Varillal is heavily exploited for poles for building houses, and the leaves of the irapay palm are extensively harvested to make thatched roofs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The impact of these threats is exacerbated by the fact that the species has only been found in certain 'varillales', and even fewer 'irapayales', despite intense ornithological surveying<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Despite protection, 200 people have entered the reserve (see Action) and carved out homesteads, illegal hunting occurs and illegal road building and logging destroys habitat<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150714	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150715	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range from central Chile and western Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego.	eng
150715	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "generally common to fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Krabbe and Schulenberg 2003).	eng
150717	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150718	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150719	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range in east Africa. Race alfredi, sometimes considered a separate species, is a restricted-range taxon and is found in the Tanzania-Malawi Mountains EBA. The species is present in numerous forest reserves and other protected areas (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).	eng
150719	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occupies lowland, mid-altitude and montane forest, riverine forest, thick bush and bamboo thickets from sea-level to 3000 m, where it feeds primarily on arthropods but also on fruit, usually foraging in the middle and upper strata. A noisy and conspicuous bird, it is often seen in small groups and mixed-species flocks (Fishpool and Tobias 2005).	eng
150719	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150720	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich et al. (2004) estimated the global population to number 1,000,000 individuals. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 250000-400000 breeding pairs, equating to 750000-1200000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 3130000-24000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
150721	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No species specific action known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>* Identify species's ecological requirements.</strong> <br/></p>	eng
150721	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Monticola erythronotus</em> is restricted to a single mountain, the Amber Mountain massif in northern <strong>Madagascar</strong>, and it probably has an extent of occurrence of less than 400 km<sup>2</sup>. The total population is estimated to number less than 5,000 individuals, which occur in a single block of forest on the upper slopes of one mountain, and may be declining, although so far there has been relatively low levels of habitat loss<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150721	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Poorly known. Inhabits mid-altitude and montane humid, evergreen forest from 800-1,300 m. Forages inconspicuously in the understorey and on the ground. Nests in tree hollows or in crevices under overhangs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150721	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The total population is estimated to number fewer than 5,000 individuals (F. Hawkins <em>in litt</em>. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
150721	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Currently few. Habitat destruction through commercial logging and clearance for subsistence agriculture are widespread threats in Madagascar and may ultimately threaten this species. <br/></p>	eng
150722	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies S. e. sanghensis is currently only known from the Dzanga-Sangha Rainforest Reserve (3,359 km2) in the Sangha-Mbaèré Prefecture in south-western Central African Republic, where it is common on both sides of the Sangha River.  Its range may prove to extend into eastern Cameroon, northern Congo and north-western Democratic Republic of Congo (Beresford and Cracraft 1999). It was only collected in 1996 and 1998, and further studies are required to confirm its conservation requirements and distribution.	eng
150722	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits the lower strata of primary forest, mature secondary forest and riparian forest.	eng
150722	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Keith et al. 1992).	eng
150722	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and predation by introduced species.	eng
150723	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies A. p. kaboboensis (formerly considered a separate species) is known only from Mt Kabobo, west of Lake Tanganyika, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where suitable habitat covers no more than 2,000 km2.	eng
150723	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in montane forest, gallery forest, edge habitats and secondary growth, at 1,600-3,400 m. It is generally found in pairs or small family parties, occasionally of 6-8, and feeds on insects and spiders (Urban  et al. 1997). The subspecies A. p. kaboboensis is found in the canopy of montane forest where it has been recorded between 1,600 and 2,480 m.	eng
150723	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150724	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in four disjunct populations in central and East Africa. Subspecies chapini is a restricted range taxon found on the Lendu Plateau in the DR Congo where it is very rare or possibly extinct (Pearson 2006).	eng
150724	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to very rare (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150725	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 1400000-3500000 breeding pairs, equating to 4200000-10500000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 4470000-14000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
150726	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally fairly common to uncommon (Grimmet et al. 2000).	eng
150727	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common (Morcombe 2000).	eng
150728	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>The following actions have been recommended in order to conserve remaining populations of G. m. hypoxantha: Conduct surveys on both islands to establish its current distribution, population status and assess its habitat requirements. Afford formal protection to further key sites, particularly mangrove habitats. Control logging on Supiori.	eng
150728	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is widespread in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea, including satellite islands, and in northern and north-east Australia. Subspecies G. m. hypoxantha (formerly treated as a separate species) is endemic to the twin-islands of Biak-Supiori in Geelvink Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), Indonesia. There are very few historical records of this form (Mayr and Meyer de Schauensee 1939), and just four subsequent records: three records at Warafri, eastern Biak, in 1991-1994 (Gibbs 1993, P. Gregory, I. and R. Burrows in litt. 1994, N. Bostock in litt. 1999) and several records in and around Biak-Utara Reserve in 1997 (S. van Balen in litt. 2000). It was not recorded during three visits to the islands during the 1980s (K. D. Bishop in litt. 1987), nor three visits during the 1990s (Poulsen and Frolander 1994, Eastwood 1996b, M. Van Beirs in litt. 2000).	eng
150728	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits mangroves and other riparian or littoral habitats in the lowlands.	eng
150728	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to very common in Papua New Guinea and locally quite common in Australia (Coates 1990, Flegg and Madge 1995).	eng
150728	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Whilst the species is not at imminent threat overall, the localised subspecies G. m. hypoxantha  is threatened as a result of habitat destruction on Biak (particularly the southern plains). Much of the forest cover has been destroyed or damaged by logging and subsistence farming, and the remainder is under pressure (Bishop 1982, K. D. Bishop in litt. 1996,D. Holmes in litt. 2000). Much of Supiori comprises virtually impenetrable, forested limestone mountains, which are likely to be safe from habitat degradation.	eng
150729	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, across the moist lowland forests of West and Central Africa. The subspecies smithii (previously recognised as a separate species) is endemic to the Gulf of Guinea island of Annobón (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
150729	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in moist lowland forests.	eng
150729	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be uncommon to abundant (Urban et al. 1997).	eng
150729	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies smithii could be affected by clearance and modification of its habitat for fruit, oil-palm and sugarcane cultivation (BirdLife International 2000).	eng
150730	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Two of the five known sites are within protected areas - Labahe Natural Reserve and Wolong Biosphere Reserve. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>* Conduct surveys to establish its distribution and status in Sichuan, especially on the Wawu Shan. *Campaign for protected area designation for the Wawu Shan. *List it as a protected species in China. <br/> <br/></strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150730	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Certhia tianquanensis</em> is known from five sites: Labahe Natural Reserve, Tianquin County; Dayi County; Shuanghe town, Ebian County; Wawu Shan, Hongya County, and Wujipung, Wolong Biosphere Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Within this small area, the species may be patchily distributed because it seems to be confined to stands of old conifers (Emei fir <em>Abies fabri)</em>. <br/></p>	eng
150730	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This poorly-known treecreeper appears to be a relict species breeding in open stands of old-growth Emei fir <em>Abies fabri</em> at high altitude (2,500-2,830 m). It forages for invertebrates in the upper storey of large trees by creeping along branches and trunks. Appears to undertake localised altitudinal migrations in the winter (dropping down to at least 1,600 m). <br/></p>	eng
150730	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Intensive logging of primary coniferous forests in the last century, even at high altitudes in the mountains of western China, has seriously reduced the potential range of this species. The Wawu Shan table mountain has steep slopes which are inaccessible to lumberjacks in the absence of extensive road construction, but it is not yet formally protected, and there are plans to open up the regions for tourism by building a cable railway. <br/></p>	eng
150731	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
150732	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the East African highlands, from Eritrea to north-east Tanzania. Subspecies kulalensis is restricted to Mt. Kulal, northern Kenya, and winifredae occurs in the South Pare Mountains, Tanzania.	eng
150732	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common to abundant in much of its range (Fry and Keith 2004).	eng
150732	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species may be threatened to some extent by habitat destruction and fragmentation	eng
150733	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Implement stringent measures such as traps and monitors to prevent the spread of <em>B. irregularis </em>onto Tinian, particularly around the airport and the harbour<sup>7</sup></strong>. <strong>Avoid introduction of brown tree snake onto Aguijan. Control the spread of <em>B. irregularis </em>on Saipan.  <br/></p>	eng
150733	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zosterops conspicillatus</em> is restricted to the <strong>Northern Mariana Islands (to USA) </strong>where it occurs on the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Aguijan. It is very abundant and, on Saipan, is estimated to occur at a population density of approximately 5,950 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> <strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This very high density suggests that the species exists at the maximum density allowed by resources available in the habitat and the total population is likely to number in excess of 100,000. It is more abundant in native limestone forest (c. 5,950 birds/km<sup>2</sup>) than in disturbed habitats (c. 4,000 birds/km<sup>2</sup>)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150733	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in a wide range of habitats from native limestone forest to scrubby secondary growth of disturbed habitats and even urban areas. It is less common in swordgrass savannah<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It commonly forages in large flocks in the upper canopy of native limestone forest, but also feeds in other habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Its food consists of insects, seeds, fruits, caterpillars and berries and it is not strongly nectarivorous<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It seemingly competes for food with the larger, dominant Golden White-Eye <em>Cleptornis marchei</em>,<em> </em>probably because of the extremely high densities<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Breeding occurs in January, February and August, October<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It is not territorial but birds remain in the home range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150733	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Craig (1996) estimated a population size of approximately 5,950 in limestone forest and of 4,000 in disturbed sites during surveys conducted in 1991 and 1992. Native habitats (including limestone forest) cover approximately 30% on the island. Thus a total population estimate on Saipan is likely to be of the order of 200,000. A similarly sized population probably exists on Tinian and the total population count would therefore be in the band 100,000 to 499,000. In 2002, the population estimated for the island of Aguijan was 18,576 individuals (Esselstyn et al. 2002). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150733	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The biggest threat on Saipan comes from the now well-established population of brown tree snake <em>Boiga irregularis<strong><sup>5,8</sup></strong></em>. The snake has already caused the extinction of the nominate subspecies from Guam<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> and unless it can be controlled, the population is likely to be extirpated rapidly, even though it is currently abundant. The development of Tinian for tourism  requires the importation of large amounts of building materials and increases the likelihood of accidental introduction of brown tree snake<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150734	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150735	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies A. c. relicta (formerly considered a separate species) is restricted to the Pacific slope and in the interior of south-west Mexico, recorded from Jalisco, Colima, Morelos, and the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guererro and Oaxaca (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
150735	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in a variety of habitats from brushy woodland to evergreen forest at elevations of 1,200-2,500 m, but is essentially a bamboo specialist (Howell and Webb 1995a).	eng
150735	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight estimated the population to number <50,000 individuals (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008), which is placed in the band 20,000-49,999 individuals here.	eng
150735	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Much of its habitat is being cleared for large-scale agricultural expansion (notably maize, fruit and coffee: Navarro 1992, Stattersfield et al. 1998) and resulting fragmentation may have severe implications considering its apparently nomadic movements in search of bamboo (A. G. Navarro in litt. 1998).	eng
150736	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150737	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150739	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies modestus (previously recognised as a separate species), is endemic to the island of Príncipe, São Tomé e Príncipe. Increased use of pesticides would reduce the abundance of its invertebrate prey and might lead to its disappearance from cultivated areas. The number of small farms on Príncipe is increasing as land is privatised, which is in turn leading to a reduction in tree cover. It is not known how this will affect the subspecies.	eng
150739	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies modestus is widespread in open and forested habitats, with the exception of primary forest on the central massif, and is commonest in open plantations and in edge habitats (Atkinson et al. 1991, J. Baillie and A. Gascoigne in litt. 2000).	eng
150739	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Hall and Moreau 1970, Roberts 1993, Zimmerman et al. 1996, Borrow and Demey 2001, Stevenson and Fanshawe 2002). The subspecies modestus (previously recognised as a separate species), was considered Near Threatened, although its population size is unknown numbers are assumed to be small.	eng
150739	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies modestus could be adversely affected by an increase in the use of pesticides, which would reduce the abundance of its invertebrate prey and might lead to its disappearance from cultivated areas. The number of small farms on Príncipe is increasing as land is privatised, which is in turn leading to a reduction in tree cover. It is not known how this will affect the subspecies.	eng
150743	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150744	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The company responsible for the construction of the BR-10 are supporting a monitoring study<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Research continues to elucidate some aspects of the species's biology. Research will measure the home range of the species and try to estimate the total population considering the range and suitable habitats<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct further surveys to ascertain the species's range, numbers, population trends and the threats it faces. In particular, survey existing Protected Areas within the species's range (Jalap&atilde;o National Park, Jalap&atilde;p State Park, Lageado State Park and Indigenous Reserve Craos) to confirm its presence.	eng
150744	distribution		This species was rediscovered in October 2006 after a gap of 80 years since the type specimen was collected in 1926. It was refound during surveys near Goatins in Tocantins state<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, central <strong>Brazil</strong>, c.350 km from the type locality at Uru&ccedil;ui<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in the state of Piau&iacute;. Repeat visits to the site of its rediscovery have identified eight individuals with a further four at a second site<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and a record has emerged from 2004 on the right bank of the Rio Tocantins, S&atilde;o Pedro da &Aacute;gua Branca municipality, Maranh&atilde;o<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. By 2007, a total of 23 different individuals have been observed between S&atilde;o Pedro da &Aacute;gua Branca, Maranh&atilde;o State in the north, and the municipality of Dian&oacute;polis, Tocantins State in the south;and Serra da Raposa in Maranh&atilde;o State in the east, and the municipality of Miracema do Tocantins in Tocantins State in the west<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. It has also recently been documented that two inviduals were collected in the state of Goi&aacute;s in 1967<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. These new records extend the Extent of Occurrence of this species to 280,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it occurs discontinuously through this area<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A number of searches have failed to locate the species in the area where the type locality was collected. However, suitable habitat can also be found in the states Tocantins, Piau&iacute;, Maranh&atilde;o and Bah&iacute;a, all in the eastern part of central Brazil<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Given that it went unrecorded for many years it was assumed to have a tiny population in an extremely small range. However, recent surveys have already confirmed it has a large range and the estimated population size is likely to be revised upwards in the future.	eng
150744	habitat		The type specimen and a recently mist-netted bird were from <em>cerrado</em> woodland with open gallery forest and baba&ccedil;upalm forest. Within this habitat it shows strong association with the bamboo <em>Gadua paniculata</em><strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. All recent records relate to sightings of single individuals or pairs/family groups. The species's habits are unknown and it seems to occupy markedly different habitat to its sister species, Rufous-headed Woodpecker <em>Celeus spectabilis</em>.	eng
150744	population		This species was assumed to have a tiny population because it went undetected for many years. However, since its rediscovery over 30 individuals have been recorded across a large range (P. Develey <em>in litt</em>. 2007). Therefore, it seems likely that in the near future it will be confirmed that the species's population is large. However, until better data exist we retain a precautionary population estimate of 50-250 mature individuals.	eng
150745	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150746	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150747	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150748	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None are known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Conduct surveys to determine the population size, trends and distribution. Research the ecology of the species to increase understanding of potential threats. <br/></p>	eng
150748	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Progne murphyi</em> is known from coastal west <strong>Peru </strong>and extreme northern <strong>Chile </strong>(Arica). It has a small range, within which it is uncommon and poorly known. There are recent records from San Dami&aacute;n in Ancash<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>, Mej&iacute;a in Arequipa<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>, and the Chao and Corcovado islands<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> (Peru), and from the Lluta and Azapa valleys<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> in Chile. Birds are recorded in very small numbers, with the most populated sites being Chao and Corcovado islands (resident population of up to 40 individuals<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>) and the Lluta valley (where it has been recorded frequently in Oct-Nov<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>).<sup> <br/></sup><em> <br/></p>	eng
150748	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Very little is known of this species's biology and ecology. It was thought to nest in holes in cliffs, trees or buildings, but recently discovered colonies were typified by nests built on a substrate of saltpetre or on dry-stone walls. Nests are similar to those of Markham's Storm-petrel <em>Oceanodroma markhami</em> and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrel <em>O. tethys</em>, and the colony-holding islands have a low density of guano birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The species may undergo local post-breeding movements, as numbers in south Peru increase in Jan-Apr. <br/><p></p>	eng
150748	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Sightings usually involve small numbers of individuals, from a very small number of sites. Population size is therefore expected to be low. <br/></p>	eng
150748	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	No threats are known. <br/></p>	eng
150749	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs on the lower eastern slope of the Andes in extreme western Venezuela (south-west Barinas and south-east Táchira), east Colombia (north Boyacá and apparently west Meta), east Ecuador, east Peru (Amazonas to Pasco, probably also further south), and west Bolivia (La Paz)5,6. Subspecies L. e. elegans is endemic to south-east Brazil, where it is known from Bahia2, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais1,4, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina11 and is likely to occur all along the forested belt of the Serra do Mar from southern Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina. Widespread destruction of forest within its altitudinal limits is being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers all along the east slope of the Andes10. Many of the foothill forests of the northern portion of the Andes are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, the effects of which are intensified by road building and human colonisation9. In La Paz, Bolivia, large areas of its foothill forests have already been deforested by colonists from the altiplano for subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops such as coca and coffee10. In Brazil, extensive and ongoing deforestation is evident, which led subspecies L. e. elegans to be classified as Near Threatened when it was recognised as a separate species. However, much of the species's habitat in central Peru remains relatively intact, especially above 900 m10, and it occurs in a number of protected areas. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.	eng
150749	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits montane and lowland evergreen forest at elevations of 400-1,800 m (Ridgely and Tudor 1994, Stotz et al. 1996), but as low as 200 m in Venezuela (Meyer de Schauensee and Phelps 1978) and below 100 m on Ilha do Cardosa (Brazil). It is unknown why it does not extend much more widely into the lowlands, but its narrow range at the base of the East Andes may be related to a seasonal migration to higher altitudes, perhaps to breed (Snow 1982). In the Andes, breeding is thought to begin in late August to early September (Snow 1982), whereas in Brazil gonad data suggests breeding occurs in the austral spring and summer, though birds have also been recorded in moult at this time of the year. It frequents both canopy and understorey, at times associating with mixed-species flocks. The diet is reported to be mainly small insects, supplemented by pulpy fruit in season (Snow 1982).	eng
150749	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150749	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Widespread destruction of forest within its altitudinal limits is being caused by peasant farmers and tea and coffee growers all along the east slope of the Andes (Collar et al. 1992). Many of the foothill forests of the northern portion of the Andes are under intense threat from conversion to agriculture and cattle pasture, mining operations and logging, the effects of which are intensified by road building and human colonisation (Dinerstein et al. 1995). In La Paz, Bolivia, large areas of its foothill forests have already been deforested by colonists from the altiplano for subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of cash crops such as coca and coffee (Collar et al. 1992). In Brazil, extensive and ongoing deforestation is evident, which led subspecies L. e. elegans to be classified as Near Threatened when it was recognised as a separate species. However, much of the species's habitat in central Peru remains relatively intact, especially above 900 m (Collar et al. 1992), and it occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
150750	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Coastal sites are poorly protected in western Madagascar. No species-specific conservation action has taken place on Madagascar. New wetland conservation intiatives include this species as a conservation target<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>. The Aldabra atoll is a Special Reserve of the Republic of Seychelles, providing the strongest level of wildlife protection where the only permitted human activities are nature conservation and restricted ecotourism<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Protect nest sites from poaching. Generate awareness of this species's rarity and local significance through community awareness programmes. Monitor key breeding sites in Madagascar to provide accurate data on population trends. <br/></p>	eng
150750	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	The specific status of <em>Threskiornis bernieri</em> as distinct from <em>T. aethiopicus </em>has been discussed for some time<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong> and now accepted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Two races are known: <em>T .b. bernieri</em> in western <strong>Madagascar</strong> (fewer than 2,500 individuals and declining<strong><sup>5,7</sup></strong>) and <em>T. b. abbotti</em> on Aldabra, <strong>Seychelles</strong> (300-750 individuals<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>), giving a total populatoin of 1,500-3,250 individuals<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.   <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150750	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is believed to be ecologically more restricted than its African counterpart, being largely confined to lowland (<150 m) saline and brackish coastal zones, mainly mudflats, estuaries, mangroves and shallow brackish coastal lakes. Although there are some observations from inland freshwater lakes within forested areas, such as the Manambolomaty complex<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, these areas are in quite close proximity to brackish habitats and therefore probably do not represent a major habitat for this species. Its diet is probably varied, but mainly invertebrates and some small vertebrates such as frogs and reptiles. Breeding is colonial, often in mixed heron colonies which are frequently near to foraging grounds<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. The clutch of two is laid in a small twig nest placed in a tree. On islands it may also nest on the ground<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150750	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population data for Madagascar and the Seychelles, from a number of sources, suggests a population range of 2,300-3,250 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
150750	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is threatened in particular by poaching of eggs at nesting sites<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>, with drastic declines observed over widespread areas.  <br/>However, all large waterbirds appear to be in serious decline in its brackish coastal habitat due to several factors including habitat modification.  <br/></p>	eng
150751	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally scarce over much of its range, rare and little known in China and locally common in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
150752	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common over much of its range (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
150753	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150754	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Archboldia papuensis</em> is very patchily distributed in the Central Ranges of New Guinea, from the Weyland Mountains of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya), <strong>Indonesia</strong>, to the highlands provinces of <strong>Papua New Guinea</strong>. It is generally rare but locally moderately common, inhabiting forests, often with <em>Pandanus</em> on high frost-disturbed plateaux from 2,300-3,660&#160;m, rarely as low as 1,750&#160;m <strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Subpopulation sizes and inter-site dispersal is unknown; it may be at risk of population fragmentation<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is threatened by logging on two mountains in its tiny range of only c.800&#160;km<sup>2<strong> </strong></sup>in Papua New Guinea<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong> but the larger Papuan populations are judged to be safe. <br/></p>	eng
150755	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A captive breeding programme has been established on Norfolk Island. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Preserve areas of habitat important to remaining populations. Carry out research to determine current population size and trends. Research impact of introduced predators on populations, and carry out control measures if appropriate. <br/></p>	eng
150755	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae </em>is known from <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where it was historically extremely abundant on the mainland but is now effectively extinct (recent records are now believed to be cage escapes/releases or vagrants from offshore island populations). Populations currently exist on the Kermadec islands, Three Kings, some Hauraki Gulf islands, Kapiti Island, Stewart Island and surrounding islands, Chatham Islands, Snares, Antipodes Islands, and as a hybrid swarm (with Yellow-crowned Parakeet <em>C. auriceps</em>) on Auckland Islands, and <strong>Norfolk Island (to Australia)</strong>. It is now extinct on Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Islands. Past population estimates suggest the total population was in excess of 20,000 individuals, but historically the island populations were part of an effectively panmictic population. When the mainland linking populations became extinct, the island populations became isolated, and their effective population sizes are now much reduced. Declines are likely to be taking place on Stewart Island (by inference from measured declines of other species owing to rat and cat predation). <br/></p>	eng
150755	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in a wide variety of habitats, including dense temperate rainforests, coastal forest, scrubland, forest edges and open areas. It usually only breeds in native vegetation, preferring larger trees, particularly <em>Metrosideros</em>, <em>Vitex</em>, <em>Nothofagus</em>, <em>Olearia </em>and <em>Plagianthus</em>. It nests in hollow limbs, holes or stumps of trees, but will also use holes in cliffs, holes or burrows in the ground, and holes and tunnels in tussocks, particularly where there are no trees or trees are small. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on plant material but also on invertebrates, and will occasionally scavenge animal carrion. It prefers to feed in the canopy, but in open habitats feeds on the ground. Birds regularly move between islets in island groups, and can cross wide expanses of sea. <br/></p>	eng
150755	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population has been estimated to number 21,300-25,300 individuals (Higgins 1999).  <br/></p>	eng
150755	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is adversely affected by forestry operations: clear-felling and burning have drastically reduced available habitat, and selective logging may reduce the number of trees with suitable nesting holes and foraging opportunities. Irruptions in the 19th century may have been caused by increased cultivation of crops by European settlers. It was hunted for food by Maori, and was formerly persecuted because birds damaged crops and gardens. It may be suffer through competition for food or breeding sites with introduced species (such as Common Mynas <em>Acridotheres tristis</em>, Common Starlings <em>Sturnus vulgaris</em>, Eastern Rosellas <em>Platycercus eximius</em>, Crimson Rosellas <em>P. elegans</em>, Common Brushtail Possums <em>Trichosurus vulpecula </em>and honey bees <em>Apis mellifera</em>). Introduced predators such as cats, rats and stoats may also impact the species. <br/></p>	eng
150756	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	R&eacute;union KESTREL <em>Falco buboisi</em> is known only from subfossil bones collected by Bertrand Kervazo in the Grottes des Premiers Fran&ccedil;ais on <strong>R&eacute;union</strong> <strong>(to France)</strong> in 1974<sup>2</sup>. The only historical record of small falcons is of the <em>emerillons</em> reported by Dubois in 1671-2 as distinct from <em>pieds jaunes</em> and <em>papangue</em>, both of which probably refer to R&eacute;union Harrier <em>Circus maillardi<sup>1</sup></em>. The specimens are deposited in the Mus&eacute;um National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris<sup>2</sup>.  <br/></p>	eng
150757	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anorrhinus austeni </em>occurs in <strong>China</strong> (rare; recorded in southern Xishuangbanna, south Yunnan and south-east Tibet), <strong>India</strong> (a small population is resident in hills bordering the Brahmaputra valley), <strong>Myanmar</strong> (uncommon to locally common in the west, north and east), <strong>Thailand</strong> (generally uncommon in centre and north), <strong>Laos</strong> (historically numerous, currently widespread and locally common but declining), <strong>Vietnam</strong> (rare to uncommon in Tonkin and Annam) and <strong>Cambodia</strong> (scarce). It inhabits evergreen broadleaved forest in foothills up to 1,000 m in India, 1,500 m in South-East Asia and 1,800 m in China. It is threatened by forest loss through intensive shifting agriculture and widespread logging activities, and because of high levels of hunting in many parts of its range. CITES Appendix II. <br/></p>	eng
150758	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Anorrhinus tickelli</em> is found in southern <strong>Myanmar </strong>(in mountainous areas of Tenasserim) and southeast <strong>Thailand </strong>(at Huai Kha Khaeng and historically south from Hue Nya Pla to Petchaburi River, with a recent sighting in Cumporn Province). It inhabits dense evergreen and deciduous forest from foothills to 1,500 m, favouring the tallest primary forest, including stands of <em>Hopea odorata</em>. Generally uncommon, it is most abundant on the Thai side of the peninsula ridge, although it does not occur on the southern Thailand plains and has been described as 'endangered' elsewhere in the country. Within its relatively small range habitat loss is occurring, therefore this species has been evaluated as Near Threatened. However, more information is needed on the extent of habitat loss and of hunting pressures. <br/></p>	eng
150758	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Data urgently required on population size. Given the dwindling area of suitable primary forest habitat within the range, population size could be small. <br/></p>	eng
150759	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	</p>	eng
150759	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in south-west China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
150760	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Trichastoma buettikoferi</em> is endemic to Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it has been described as an uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and local resident throughout mainland Sumatra in lowlands and hills, up to 800 m in the Gayo Highlands and 900 m in the Padang Highlands<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It inhabits the undergrowth of primary forest and forest edge, although will sometimes forage up vine-covered trees to the canopy, hunting insects<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Given the rapid rates of primary forest degradation and destruction in Sumatra, this species has been inferred to be undergoing a fairly rapid population decline and has therefore been classified as Near Threatened. However, the species has been observed in dense young re-growth<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, which suggests that it may be tolerant to some degree of habitat degradation, and it may be that further information on the habitat preferences and population of this species will lead to its reclassification. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150761	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in many national parks and other protected areas throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150761	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150762	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Carry out surveys for this species throughout its range, visiting all known or suspected strongholds, to develop accurate population estimates and trends. Carry out research to determine the reasons for its small population and any declines. Carry out actions to reduce any threats to this species (e.g. control of nest predators). <br/></p>	eng
150762	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Progne modesta</em> occurs on the central and southern islands of the Gal&aacute;pagos Archipelago, <strong>Ecuador</strong> (on Fernandina, Isabela, Santiago, Pinz&oacute;n, Daphne, Baltra and Seymour, Santa Cruz, Santa F&eacute;, San Crist&oacute;bal, Espa&ntilde;ola (no breeding recorded) and Floreana)<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It has been described as uncommon<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and the population is likely to number fewer than 1,000 individuals, and may be lower than 600 individuals<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. No more than 50 birds have been recorded at any one site<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. The population is likely to have undergone a decline over the last 200 years<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, but current population trends are uncertain. <br/></p>	eng
150762	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It frequents forested areas, mountain tops (up to 970 m), shore and coastal lagoons, and feeds around houses on Isabela<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. However, recent information suggests that it is more restricted, with pairs or small groups seen around the highest peaks, but only occasionally in the lowlands (at sites with special characteristics, such as sheer sea cliffs)<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It nests between August and March, laying two or three white eggs in holes and crevices<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> lined with feathers<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It feeds on insects caught in flight<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. It is not known to migrate<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150762	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Likely to be <1000, and possibly even <200, individuals (D. Wiedenfield <em>in litt</em>. 2004); c.600 birds (A. Tye<em> in litt</em>. 2005). <br/></p>	eng
150762	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Little is known about the threats to this species. Past declines are likely to be due to introduced diseases and parasites, and introduced nest predators (e.g. rats <em>Rattus</em>)<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150764	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>All five known sites are protected as Forest Reserves or Proposed Reserves, administered by the Forestry Department<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Complete surveys for this species in other wet zone forests<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and smaller patches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Protect any other sites where it is found. Continue research into the ecology of, and threats to, this species. Estimate its population size. <br/></p>	eng
150764	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Otus thilohoffmanni</em> is endemic to the wet zone of <strong>Sri Lanka</strong>, where it is known only from Kitugala, Sinharaja, Morapitiya-Runakanda, Kanneliya and Eratna-Gilimale, despite investigation of c.75% of suitable habitat<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. It escaped detection until 1995 due to its unobtrusive and rather ventriloqual call. Less than 100 individuals have now been located in the five known sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it is likely that others remain undetected<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and it may well occur at additional sites in the wet zone rainforests. <br/></p>	eng
150764	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in larger areas of lowland rainforest, at 30-530 m altitude<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It appears to be generally rare, but locally common<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and pairs occupy large territories<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All locations where the bird has been found so far have been disturbed areas with tall, dense secondary growth<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It roosts around 1 m above the ground<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. For the two hours after dark, it hunts for prey in the undergrowth, later foraging higher; between the undergrowth and subcanopy<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The breeding behaviour of this species is not yet known. <br/><p></p>	eng
150764	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Extensive surveys have located 100 individuals and led to a global population estimate of 200-250 individuals (Warakagoda, 2006). However, given the species's elusive nature and its ability to remain undiscovered for so long the true population size is likely to be somewhat higher. Therefore, it is probably best placed in the band 250-1,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150764	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	It has not been found in forest patches smaller than 8.2 km<sup>2</sup> in extent, indicating that it is sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation, which has been severe in Sri Lanka<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Habitat loss is still continuing, but at a slower rate since most lowland forest is now gone or under protection. <br/></p>	eng
150765	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
150766	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant in its breeding range and locally rather common in Thailand during its non-breeding season (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150767	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Conservation is already being promoted in the Babuyan islands, with environmental awareness being promoted in schools since 2001, and work is in progress to declare the islands of Calayan municipality and the surrounding waters a protected area. However, no specific conservation actions currently exist. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Further research is needed to clarify the habitat requirements, range size and population size of the species. Support the bill seeking to declare the islands of Calayan municipality and the surrounding waters a protected area. Raise local awareness of the importance of this species.</strong> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150767	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Gallirallus calayanensis</em> is endemic to Calayan island in the Babuyan islands, northern <strong>Philippines</strong>, where it was recorded and a specimen collected from Longog, Barangay Magsidel, in May 2004. It was found to be common within its preferred habitat (at an estimated density of one pair per 1-2 ha), and its population has been estimated at 100-200 pairs in the area surveyed. There is no evidence to suggest the population is undergoing a decline. Information on the total extent of suitable habitat is not available, but it is likely to have a very small range, possibly lower than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
150767	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species seems to be restricted to primary and secondary forest on areas of coralline limestone that is permeated with sink-holes and caves. Within this habitat it was recorded in degraded areas with young secondary growth of low trees. It appeared to prefer areas near streams, but the strength of the association is unknown. It was not recorded in other habitats on the island, including rice-fields or open clearings, or along trails in the primary forest block on the south of the island. The type specimen was collected at an altitude of 300 m. The species forages by pecking at the ground, occasionally overturning leaves, and appears to be flightless, or nearly so. <br/><p></p>	eng
150767	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Allen <em>et al</em>. (2004), estimated 100-200 pairs. It has since been found to be locally common, with an estimated area of occupancy of 36 km<sup>2</sup> (Espa&ntilde;ola and Oliveros 2006). <br/></p>	eng
150767	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	In those parts of the island with forested coralline limestone outcrops, the soil is often very thin or absent, and hence unsuitable for agriculture. The species seems tolerant of degraded habitat, and the human population of the area is very low. The species is occasionally caught in traps set for Red Junglefowl <em>Gallus gallus</em>, but is not directly targeted. Introduced predators such as dogs and cats are largely absent. However, the construction of a road round the periphery of the island, and a link to its centre, have already been started. These roads may encourage the spread of settlements, and hence dogs, cats and rats, and could threaten the species. <br/></p>	eng
150768	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150769	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to uncommon (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).	eng
150770	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It has been recorded from Rinjani National Park on Lombok. Work is underway to inform local people of the importance of this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Ensure the survival of the species by securing further protected areas within its range. Reduce persecution and exploitation levels through local education programmes. Conduct further research on the species's population size, trends and range. Verify records from additional islands. Study movements and determine population structure. <br/></p>	eng
150770	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Spizaetus floris</em> is found in <strong>Indonesia</strong>, on the islands of Flores, Sumbawa and Lombok (on the borders of Rinjani National Park) as well as on two satellite islands, Satonda near Sumbawa and Rinca near Komodo. Records from Paloe<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and Komodo<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> have not been verified. Its population size has been estimated at fewer than 100 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, based on the extent of suitable habitat and a territory size estimate of c.40 km<sup>2</sup>. The lack of records obtained during fieldwork within its range suggest it occurs at low densities, supporting this population estimate. Population trends are not known, but it is assumed to be declining owing to ongoing forest loss in the Lesser Sundas. <br/></p>	eng
150770	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It is found in lowland and submontane forest up to 1,600 m, with the majority of observations being made in lowland rainforest. It has been sighted over cultivated areas, but always close to intact or semi-intact forest; these records may relate to dispersing, immature or floater individuals rather than breeding adults. These records of birds outside core habitat suggest that the species may be able to disperse across the relatively narrow straits between islands so mixing between island subpopulations is inferred. Evidence suggests that breeding takes place during the dry season. Display flight and copulation have been observed on Flores in June-July. A territory size of 40 km<sup>2 </sup>per pair has been estimated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150770	population	BirdLife International, 2009	On the basis of distances between three neighbouring territories, the species's territory size was estimated at c.40km<sup>2</sup>. Given that it is primarily dependent on forest, this implies that the total population size for the species is probably less than 100 pairs (Gjershaug <em>et al</em>. 2004) or 200 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150770	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat degradation and destruction are the most important threats to <em>S. floris</em>; records are infrequent and it has rarely been recorded during trips to several large forest tracts suggesting extreme low density and casting some doubt on the assertion that it may be able to survive in a partly cultivated landscape. Protected areas in its range are currently too small to ensure its long-term survival. Persecution, due to its habit of stealing chickens, and capture for the cagebird trade pose additional threats. <br/></p>	eng
150771	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common, although rarer in Primary forest and commoner in secondary forest (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
150772	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout it range (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
150775	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Philippines.	eng
150775	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, forest edge, scrub and secondary growth from sea-level to 2000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
150775	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
150776	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest remains on Karakelang, within two protected areas. An initiative is underway to establish and build capacity for management<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Survey neighbouring islands, in particular Salibabu (=Salebabu) and Kabaruang. Prevent illegal logging and hunting in the two protected areas within which this species occurs. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150776	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Amaurornis magnirostris</em> was only recently described, and is currently known only from Karakelang (=Karakelong) Island in the Talaud Archipelago, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it is sympatric with<strong> </strong>Rufous-tailed Waterhen <em>A. moluccana</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is estimated at 2,350-9,560 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may also occur on neighbouring islands, in particular Salibabu (=Salebabu) and Kabaruang<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but less than 20 km<sup>2</sup> of forest occurs on these two islands, much of it degraded<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150776	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a forest species, but also occurs at lower densities in rank vegetation, scrub, and overgrown plantations up to 3 km from the forest edge<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/><p></p>	eng
150776	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Adapted from Riley (2003). <br/></p>	eng
150776	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Approximately 350 km<sup>2</sup> of primary forest remains on Karakelang, within two protected areas, but there has been no management and these areas are threatened by agricultural encroachment, illegal logging, and fire<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. Rails are also trapped for food, but mainly outside forests<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Introduced rats, probably Ricefield Rat <em>Rattus argentiventer</em>, are present on Karakelang, and may also pose a threat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150777	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is patchily distributed in south Australia (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
150777	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits rocky hillsides covered with clumps of spinifex Triodia.	eng
150777	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has been estimated at 5,000 breeding birds (Garnett and Crowley 2000).	eng
150779	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to mountainous areas in northern and central Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
150779	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is reported to be common in upper dipterocarp, lower montane and tall upper montane forest from 500-2,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
150779	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common, although poorly known (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
150779	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is currently under limited threat from logging or development, and as such is thought unlikely to be suffering significant declines.	eng
150780	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a long-distance migrant, having a relatively large breeding range in the taiga zone of Russia and north-eastern China and wintering in Indochina. It is considered to be locally common in suitable areas both in the breeding and non-breeding range (particularly in Thailand, Myanmar and northern Laos).	eng
150780	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in thickets by streams and in clearings in taiga forest up to 1,200 m (del Hoyo et al. 2006). In the non-breeding season it is found in a variety of scrubby habitats in lowlands and foothills.	eng
150780	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150780	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is considered unlikely to be imminently threatened by habitat loss.	eng
150781	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is restricted to mountainous regions in eastern and central Java and on Bali, Indonesia.	eng
150781	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in bushy and open scrub habitats at forest edges, including cleared areas with scattered Causaria trees (del Hoyo et al. 2006.).	eng
150781	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread on volcanic slopes in central and eastern Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150789	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from northern India to Sri Lanka.	eng
150789	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits open woodland, secondary growth, orchards, wooded gardens, coffee and pepper plantations and road edges, favouring relatively dry areas, from the lowland plains to 1,200 m. Its diet includes arthropods, fruit and nectar (Wells 2005).	eng
150789	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common and more common on slopes than at plains level (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150789	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	It has been suggested that trapping for the wild bird trade keeps many populations below their natural maximum density (Wells 2005).	eng
150790	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in northern Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia).	eng
150790	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits the canopy and edge of mature or well-regenerated montane moist forest, from 2200 m occasionally to as low as 550 m (Wells 2005). Relatively little is known about its diet or breeding ecology, although it is recorded as taking berries and dragonflies (Odonata), and nest-building was recorded in mid-November.	eng
150790	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150791	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Sumatra (Indonesia).	eng
150791	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the middle and upper strata of lowland evergreen forest, secondary forest, planatations and village orchards from 600-1000 m (Wells 2005).	eng
150791	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as previously common in Sumatra but poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150791	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction. It has been recorded recently in the European bird trade, but the scale of the threat posed by economic exploitation is unknown (Wells 2005).	eng
150792	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a number of protected areas across the region which are of increasing importance for it and other large raptors in West Africa. They currently cover just 0.85% of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso and Benin. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further coordinated surveys to establish population estimates and global trends for the species. Establish protection for remaining habitat where gazing and wood-cutting can be kept to a minimum. <br/></p>	eng
150792	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Circaetus beaudouini</em> occupies a relatively narrow band of sub-Saharan Africa, from <strong>Senegal, Gambia</strong> and south <strong>Mauretania</strong> in the west to southern <strong>Sudan</strong> in the east and south to <strong>Burkina Faso, Nigeria,</strong> <strong>Cameroon</strong>, and <strong>Central African Republic.</strong> Recorded from <strong>Uganda</strong> but its status is uncertain in Kenya<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Occurs at low density within its range, so its global population is not thought to exceed 10,000 individuals. It is known to have decreased by over 86-93% over the last 30-35 years based on comparitive roadside counts conducted across its range between Senegal and <strong>Niger<sup>2</sup></strong>. This equates to declines in the region of 30-50% over a ten year or three generation time period. <br/><strong> <br/></p>	eng
150792	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dry savannah but favours more open areas of grassland and even cultivated areas. It is a seasonal migrant moving between the Sudan zone (and northern Guinea zone) in the dry season and the Sahel (and northern Sudan) zone in the rainy season. Thinly distributed and territorial. Generally solitary. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150792	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs at low densities and survey data suggest there are a minimum of 1,000 individuals (J. M. Thiollay <em>in litt</em>. 2006), but in the context of the species's large range the population is estimated at 2,500-9,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150792	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	West African raptors have declined owing to a number of threats associated with a three-fold increase in the human population within the region over the past 30 years<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitat destruction has resulted from agricultural intensification, overgrazing and woodcutting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Agricultural intensification has led to aerial and ground spraying of insecticides to control insect outbreaks<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. These insect swarms were previously an important source of food for raptors directly, or their prey. Livestock are virtually ubiquitous, especially in the Sahel where overgrazing is a major cause of desertification<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Woodcutting for fuelwood, timber and charcoal has caused conversion of woodland into shrubland<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Also urbanisation, hunting and incidental mortality following pest control have all exacerbated the decline. <br/></p>	eng
150795	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2009).	eng
150796	population		There is little information on population size (del Hoyo et al. 1996).	eng
150799	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>A number of small Special Protected Areas were established by Wuyuan County Jiangxi Province, local government and supported by the German NGO ZGAP, Leeds Castle, Chester Zoo and WWF-China, following the signing of several Memoranda of Understanding with local villages. A European studbook is maintained to co-ordinate the captive population held in zoos and private collections (66 birds at the end of 2007), and the US captive zoo population (35 in 2006) is also managed. A Conservation Action Plan for the species was established in October 2007 and reviewed in June 2008<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Searches have taken place in counties borderring Wuyuan, north-east Jiangxi, and <em>G. c. simaoensis</em> has been searched for in the vicinity of the type locality in southern Yunnan. Awareness and education work has been conducted in five local schools in summer 2009, establishing a bird monitoring group in each<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct further surveys in an attempt to identify the wintering range and any additional breeding sub-populations. Establish formal protection for the species against infrastructure development. Continue education work to raise awareness of the conservation status of this species, particularly in local schools in villages where breeding has been recorded<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
150799	distribution		<em>Garrulax courtoisi </em>is endemic to <strong>China</strong>. It occupies an extremely small known breeding range in Jiangxi Province. The entire known wild population is restricted to five or six fragmented sites during the breeding season with a population thought to number around 200 individuals<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. In addition, there are now 110 individuals known in captivity<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. The wintering grounds are not known but are thought to be near to the breeding sites<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>. Current trends in the wild have not been estimated. The species had been unrecorded in the wild since specimens were collected in Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province in 1919 and near Simao, Yunnan Province in 1956. Then birds of Chinese origin arrived in captivity in Europe in 1988<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. Following this revelation, the species was rediscovered in Wuyuan County in 2000<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Three birds collected near 22&#176;47' N and 100&#176; 57' E at Simao belong to a separate subspecies <em>G. c. simaoensis</em> which has not been seen in the wild for ten years following heavy trapping pressure during 1988-1993<strong><sup>7,8</sup></strong>.	eng
150799	habitat		It breeds in trees adjacent to villages and human habitation, also near rivers. This habitat has been termed <em>fung shui </em>wood and includes camphor and maple trees<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. At one location it nests in shrubs close to human habitation. Most chicks appear to hatch in May, though some may hatch in early June<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. Nest guarding appears to be biparental, and junviles have been observed to be fed by adults other than their parents<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. It forages in trees and on the ground in vocal groups, and its diet include loquat fruit and dragonflies<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.	eng
150799	population		The popuplation is thought to number around 200 individuals (H. Fen Qui <em>in litt</em>. 2006; L. Gardner <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Given that mild population fluctations are known, the population band of 50-249 seems appropriate.	eng
150807	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A large protected area covering a representative range of habitats of Yamdena was proposed in 1995<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Prevent hunting and forest clearance within protected areas. Repeat surveys to the Tanimbar Islands to estimate the species's population size and assess its status. <br/></p>	eng
150807	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Megapodius tenimberensis</em> is endemic to the Tanimbar Islands in <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It is sparsely distributed throughout the lowlands, and is thought to be declining owing to habitat loss and exploitation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
150807	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in primary, old selectively logged and tall secondary, semi-evergreen forest. <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
150807	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	This megapode is threatened by forest loss on the island of Yamdena. There is also evidence of hunting in the southern part of the island where forest clearnace is most prevalent<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150809	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in south-east India and Sri Lanka.	eng
150809	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats, including scrub-covered rocky ground, fallow fields with bushy margins, bamboo thickets, forest edges and scrubby glades within open forest, up to a maximum altitude of 1500 m (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
150809	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
150810	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in central Myanmar.	eng
150810	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats with scattered bushes and trees, including arable land and sandy fallow fields (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
150810	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally common to very common (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
150829	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), where it is known only from widely scattered localities on the Vogelkop and central ranges, and in the Tari area, although it may prove to be more widespread.	eng
150829	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits upper montane forest typically between 2,000 m and 2,850 m, probably up to 3,450 m and locally as low as 1,200 m in Irian Jaya (Coates 1990). It is often shy and secretive, and may easily be missed. Its presence may be revealed by its song, a simple descending series of four to six pleasantly whistled, clear notes (Coates 1990).	eng
150829	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally common in the north-west of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
150830	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Mayotte in the Comoros.	eng
150830	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
150835	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Gansu and Qinghai provinces, China. Its wintering grounds are unknown but are likely to lie to the south given the harsh winter conditions in Gansu province.	eng
150835	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species breeds in deciduous forest up to an altitude of 3,200 m.	eng
150835	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150835	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Existing threats to the species have not yet been evaluated.	eng
150836	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>This species occurs in the Danum Valley Conservation Area and Sepilok Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct repeated surveys across the range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the range.	eng
150836	distribution		<em>Pitta ussheri</em> is confined to Sabah, <strong>Malaysia</strong>, where it has been described as locally common throughout its range<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
150836	habitat		This species inhabits dense primary forest and secondary to heavily logged forest. It breeds from early February to August with a clutch of 2 eggs. Its diet comprised of insects, small snails and seed from fruit, probing the leaf litter and damp soil, and sometimes foraging on logs.	eng
150836	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as common in logged and unlogged forest edges throughout its range (F. Lambert <em>in litt.</em> 2010).	eng
150840	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150841	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in eastern China.	eng
150841	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest and secondary growth up to 1500 m (Robson 2000).	eng
150841	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150842	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from south-east China to north-east India and northern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.	eng
150842	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth and bamboo, breeding from 1,400-2,500 m but found as low as sea-level in the winter (Robson 2000).	eng
150842	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150843	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in eastern China and northern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam.	eng
150843	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest and secondary growth, typically breeding from 1,750 up to at least 1,900 m, and wintering down to 450 m (Robson 2000).	eng
150843	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150844	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending across the Himalayas of north-west Pakistan, northern India, southern China, Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
150844	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth and bamboo from 2,000-2,750 m (Robson 2000).	eng
150844	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150847	population		The global population size has not been quantified.	eng
150848	population		The global population size has not been quantified.	eng
150849	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No specific conservation measures have been put in place for this species, but it has been recorded in the Sinharaja Rainforest Sanctuary. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Follow up on the first record of this species from the Intermediate Zone by conducting further survey work in remnant forest blocks in both the Wet Zone and Intermediate Zone that might support this species. <br/></p>	eng
150849	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera imbricata</em> occurs in the Wet Zone of south-west Sri Lanka. Its population is thought to be moderately small as it is reportedly uncommon. <br/></p>	eng
150849	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Resident in moist evergreen forest from 400 to 2,200 m within the 'Wet Zone' of Sri Lanka. A recent record suggests the species also inhabits forest in the 'Intermediate Zone'. Also recorded from plantations, copses and parks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
150849	population	BirdLife International, 2008	While the population size has not been properly estimated, owing to the species restricted range and declines in the area of available habitat in preceeding decades, the population is thought to be moderately small, hence it is perhaps best placed in the band 10,000-20,000 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150849	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation leading to habitat fragmentation is the major threat to this species. Forest loss is driven by mining, clear-cutting, selective logging and subsistence use. <br/></p>	eng
150851	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Seram in Indonesia.	eng
150851	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in forest and is reportedly common in lowland areas, including in secondary growth and around villages (Rasmussen et al. 2000).	eng
150851	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reportedly common in lowland areas on the island (Rasmussen et al. 2000).	eng
150851	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is to some extent tolerant of habitat degradation but widespread forest clearance does pose a threat.	eng
150853	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, extending south-west across China from the Bo Hai gulf to the Himalayas, and possibly extending into northern Myanmar and north-east India (Reindt 2006).	eng
150853	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and secondary growth from 450-2300 m (Robson 2000).	eng
150853	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150854	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A Togian Islands National Park was declared by the Ministry of Forestry in 2004, and includes over 250 km2 of terrestrial habitat, including areas in which this species is known to occur. <br/> <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to establish the full extent of the species's range and how large its current population is. Determine what threats to the species exist. <br/></p>	eng
150854	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Ninox burhani</em> is only known from the islands of Malenge, Togian and Batudaka in the Togian archipelago off central Sulawesi, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Aural encounters, on Waleabahi Island to the east, believed to relate to this species imply it is widespread in moderate numbers throughout the archipelago. It may be declining but current trends have not yet been studied.  <br/></p>	eng
150854	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	A resident of lowland and hill forest it has been recorded in scrubby woodland surrounded by evergreen forest and also in mixed gardens and sago swamp, at elevations from sea level to 400 m.  <br/><p></p>	eng
150854	population	BirdLife International, 2008	M. Indrawan <em>in litt</em>. (2006) <br/></p>	eng
150854	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	As the species is largely forest-dependent, continuing forest clearance represents a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150856	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea fluxa</em> was endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, where it was restricted to the small, uninhabited island of Eiao.<strong> </strong>Despite a number of searches, it has not been seen since 1977, and is considered to be extinct<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. Introduced predators including feral cats, Polynesian rat <em>Rattus exulans</em> and possibly black rat <em>R. rattus </em>were present on the island at the time of the species's demise, and may have contributed to declines. The introduction of Chestnut-breasted Munia <em>Lonchura castaneothorax</em> coincided with its extinction on the island, implying that an avian disease may have been transmitted to this population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Native low-elevation dry forest has drastically decreased due to intense grazing by sheep introduced c.1880<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>, and<strong><sup> </sup></strong>this may have been an additional factor. <br/> <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
150857	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea mira</em> was formerly endemic to the island of Ua Pou in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. The last record was in MArch 1985, wehn two birds in immature plumage were seen in Hakahetau valley<strong><sup>6</sup></strong> It was not located during 1989, 1990 or during intensive searches in 1998 and 1999<strong><sup>4,6</sup></strong>, and is considered extinct. This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed). All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. Introduced species are also likely to have played a role in the species's demise, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus.</em> <br/></p>	eng
150858	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea nukuhivae</em> was formerly endemic to the island of Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>. It was conisidered not common in 1922 and was considered rare in the 1930s, the last confirmed sightings. It was not seen in 1972 or 1975 despite several weeks of intensive searches. There were unconfirmed sightings in 1975 by two hunters of a passerine bird matching this species's description, but the species was not seen in the 1990s, 1997 or 1999<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and is considered extinct. This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed). All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. Introduced species are also likely to have played a role in the species's demise, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus. <br/></p>	eng
150859	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it has been described as common in most of its range (Sangster and Rozendaal 2004).	eng
150860	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
150861	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No conservation measures are currently known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct surveys to assess the population size and status of this species. Assess current agricultural impacts, and attempt to mitigate future plans. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150861	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera leucolema</em> is endemic to the small island of Enggano, 100 km off the south-west coast of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, where it has been described as "common"<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150861	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest, but it is unclear if it is tolerant of degraded forest. There is little information on its breeding or ecology. <br/><p></p>	eng
150861	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 180 km<sup>2</sup> (45% of EOO) = 3,600 individuals (density range from lower of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). However, it is described as common and so perhaps best placed in population band 10,000-19,999 until further information is available. <br/></p>	eng
150861	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction on Enggano has, thus far, been minimal, but recent tentative proposals for agricultural development suggest the possibility for future radical change, and this may exert pressure on the small population of this species. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is possible that this threat is also impacting this species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150862	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>No conservation measures are currently known. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to assess the specific habitat requirements and overall population size of this species. Verify the appearance and taxonomic status of the taxon on Taliabu. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150862	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera mendeni</em> is known from Peleng, in the Banggai Islands, and Taliabu, in the Sula Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong><sup>3</sup>. It was described as "extremely scarce" on Taliabu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150862	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is known from lowland forest at 50-300 m altitude, including selectively logged and degraded forests with bamboo stands on Taliabu<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is usually recorded alone or in pairs on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is no information about breeding. <br/></p>	eng
150862	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,600 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 31,400 individuals (density range from lower of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 20,000-49,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150862	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Habitat destruction is a potential threat, but the species appears able to tolerate at least a degree of habitat degradation. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150863	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a number of protected areas but law enforcement within these is often poor and deforestation continues.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Establish current population trends. Increase capacity for law enforcement within protected areas. Establish new protected areas to conserve existing forest fragments. <br/></p>	eng
150863	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Myophonus castaneus</em> is endemic to the island of Sumatra in <strong>Indonesia</strong> where it occurs in the foothills and mountains. It was recently split from Bornean Whistling-thrush <em>M. glaucinus</em> and Javan Whistling-thrush <em>M. borneensis</em>, formerly all lumped under Sunda Whistling-thrush <em>M. glaucinus</em>. The two other species are the only <em>Myophonus</em> endemic to their respective islands and are both widespread. <em>M. castaneus</em>, however, is scarce on Sumatra, apparently occupying a narrower niche, possibly owing to competition with Shiny Whistling-thrush <em>M. melanurus</em>. It is thought to be declining owing to habitat loss, as deforestation is widespread and continuing on Sumatra. <br/></p>	eng
150863	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is found in hill and mountain forest between 400 and 1,500 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in the subcanopy and middle-storey along watercourses (including dry ones)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150863	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation is the principal threat to this species. At least a third of montane rainforest on Sumatra has already been lost, primarily as a result of agricultural encroachment and logging. These factors are affecting large areas of lower montane rainforest, even within protected areas. <br/></p>	eng
150864	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic Borneo, Indonesia and Malaysia.	eng
150864	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in forest from sea level to 2,400 m altitude, occasionally to 2,700 m on Mount Kinabalu (Clement and Hathway 2000, Collar 2004). It is most often found along gullies and streams (Collar 2004).	eng
150864	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common and widespread (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150864	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
150865	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and is at least partly migratory, with records from Panama, Colombia, Suriname, Venezuela and French Guiana in the austral winter.	eng
150865	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species' main habitats are lowland evergreen forest edge, secondary forest, and second-growth scrub (Chantler 1999).	eng
150865	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in its breeding range and less common in its wintering range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150866	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as one of the rarer South American swifts (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150867	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in western Colombia and Ecuador.	eng
150867	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given that it is described as fairly common to locally common in at least parts of its range, and appears to tolerate at least a degree of habitat degradation (Ridgeley and Greenfield 2001).	eng
150868	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in the 4.8 km<sup>2 </sup>Reserva Biol&oacute;gica de Saltinho. Approximately 240 km<sup>2</sup> of the remaining 1,900 km<sup>2</sup> of Pernambuco Atlantic Forest are protected within 52 reserves but these almost exclusively support small fragments. Legal restrictions exist to attempt to curb the rate of forest loss. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Protection of remaining lowland forest fragments in the area is urgently needed, along with more effective law enforcement to prevent illegal deforestation. Further surveys are required to locate other populations outside the known range; erecting nest boxes in potentially suitable forest fragments should be considered<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as well as using playback. <br/></p>	eng
150868	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Glaucidium mooreorum </em>was newly described from the Reserva Biol&oacute;gica de Saltinho (which covers just 4.8 km<sup>2</sup>) in Atlantic coastal forest in Pernambuco, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It was tape-recorded in the same locality in November 1990. The species was also found in a 100 ha forest patch at Usina Trapiche (08 35'S, 35 07'W) in November 2001. It occupies a tiny and severely fragmented range. Playback surveys in lowland forests elsewhere in Pernambuco and Alagoas states since 2004 have failed to locate this species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and there are no records from other well-surveyed forest sites in the region. Its population has not been estimated accurately but is assumed to be tiny based on the lack of records outside its tiny range and continuing deforestation within the area.<em> <br/></p>	eng
150868	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	It has been recorded in the canopy of old secondary forest where it was observed eating a cicada. An unconfirmed report suggests the species is vocal during the rainy months of April and May<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been recorded in forest up to 150 m but has not been found in other well-surveyed forests in the region at elevations between 400 and 600 m. <br/></p>	eng
150868	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Playback surveys in lowland forests of Pernambuco and Alagoas states since 2004 have failed to locate this species (S. A. Roda <em>in litt</em>. 2006). Its known distribution is tiny and the extent of habitat in the region has been dramatically reduced, the remainder is severely fragmented. <br/></p>	eng
150868	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The Pernambuco Center where this species was described is by far the most modified region of Atlantic Forest having declined in extent from c.39,500 km<sup>2</sup> to c.1,900 km<sup>2</sup> by 2002. The remainder is severely fragmented and legal restrictions have proven inadequate in halting deforestation from fire and illegal logging. Some suitable habitat does remain at the type locality<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Hunting is also reported to pose a threat to this species. <br/></p>	eng
150869	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia.	eng
150869	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common. Common in Manu National Park and Tampopata-Candamo Reserved Zone, Peru (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150870	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is known from two protected areas: Munchique National Natural Park (where forest clearance still occurs) and Mirabilis-Swarovski Bird Reserve on Cerro Munchique, which encompasses the majority of the species's range and was formerly threatened by forest clearance but was purchased in 2004 by Fundaci&oacute;n ProAves with the support of the American Bird Conservancy and Swarovski Optik<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Continue monitoring existing populations and survey new areas for additional subpopulations. Lobby the government to adequately protect known sites, which support this and other threatened species, by directing resources more effectively. Support local organisations seeking to protect key sites.	eng
150870	distribution		This species is restricted to the western Andes of <strong>Colombia</strong>, and is found where the departments of Choc&oacute;, Antioquia and Risaralda meet, in Munchique massif (Valle de Cauca)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, in extreme eastern Choc&oacute; and south-west Antioquia department, and in extreme south-eastern Choc&oacute; near the town of El Cairo where a population of at least 5 individuals was discovered in 2008<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It appears to have very specific habitat requirements, being restricted to the Pacific slope of the very peaks of the highest mountains/ridges on the Western Cordillera. The Western Cordillera is the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's three Andean ranges<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. As a result this species's global area of occupancy is tiny. A total of 5-8 territorial pairs or males were registered along a 2-km transect (equating to 10-16 pairs per km<sup>2</sup>). This represents a much lower density than parapatric populations of Grey-breasted Wood-wren (c.10-14 territorial pairs per 2 km transect)<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Extrapolating the estimated population density across the known range gives a population estimate of 180-288 pairs<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. This extremely small population is likely to be declining owing to ongoing forest clearance. There have been many surveys of the high peaks along the Western Cordillera (both historically and in the past decade) that have failed to record this species, suggesting there are unlikely to be many undiscovered populations remaining<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
150870	habitat		It is very specific in its habitat requirements, occurring in extremely wet, stunted cloud forest where it occurs in naturally disturbed forest with patchy successional habitat on steep slopes, typically preferring an extremely dense understorey smothered in epiphytes at forest borders, landslides and along stream gullies. This forest is characterised by almost continuous cloud or fog cover<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It has been recorded between 2,250 m and 2,640 m. It feeds on arthropods gleaned from near to the forest floor, typically below 2 m. It associates briefly with passing multi-species flocks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150870	population		Densities could be as high as 1 pair per 1-2 ha. Extrapolating the estimated population density to the Cauca and Antioquia area of occupancy - gives a global population as few as 180 pairs or as many as 288 pairs. Whilst this may prove to be overly conservative, it is based on the data available (Salaman <em>et al</em>. 2003; and P. Salaman <em>in litt</em>. 2006).	eng
150871	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range from north-east Colombia east to northern Brazil.	eng
150871	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common and especially common on Venezuelan llanos (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150872	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, occurring from the coastal cordillera of Venezuela along the Andes south to south-east Peru and central Bolivia.	eng
150872	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as uncommon to fairly common, and locally common in at least parts of its wide range (Marantz et al. 2003).	eng
150873	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This little known species has a large range in the eastern slopes of the Andes, and western Amazon, from extreme south-east Ecuador to north-east Peru.	eng
150873	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given its relatively wide range.	eng
150874	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia.	eng
150874	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common throughout most of its extensive range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150875	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, occurring in south-east Brazil, eastern Paraguay, and north-east Argentina.	eng
150875	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is presumed to be large given its wide range.	eng
150876	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the east Andes and adjacent lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.	eng
150876	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon in Ecuador and locally frequent in Colombia (Restall et al. 2006).	eng
150877	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range across boreal North America, and into the Rocky Mountains of the USA.	eng
150877	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits mature conifer forests, particularly spruce Picea spp., and is somewhat irruptive, being found commonly where disturbance such as fire has caused local outbreaks of insects (Winkler et al. 1995).	eng
150877	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Large-scale commercial logging and modern forestry management practices, including fire suppression and removal of dead or insect-infested trees, are likely to have led to declines of this species (Hutto 1995, Leonard 2001).	eng
150878	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Bolivia, south-west Brazil, and northern Paraguay.	eng
150878	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Remsen 2003).	eng
150879	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1992	eng
150880	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon, although locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150881	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon, although common in Rio Abiseo National Park (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150882	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although uncommon in Peru (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150883	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This recently described species has a restricted range in southern Ecuador and northern Peru.	eng
150883	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally fairly common in Ecuador; uncommon in Peru and numerous in Podocarpus National Park and in Tapichalaca Biological Reserve, in Ecuador (Krabbe and Schulenberg 2003).	eng
150884	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs in a protected area at Buenaventura where it is apparently rare and has declined in the past 12 years<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct playback surveys in September and October in Buenaventura and within the species's altitudinal range at Azuay to monitor population numbers and trends. Encourage SE Guayas and El Oro banana companies to protect remaining forest within their catchments<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. Establish protected areas within the species's range to help protect remaining forest fragments. <br/></p>	eng
150884	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus robbinsi </em>occupies a small known range at Azuay and El Oro on the Pacific slope in south-west <strong>Ecuador</strong>. Its population size has not been estimated but it is reportedly rarer than El Oro Parakeet <em>Pyrhura orcesi</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, which occupies a very similar range and whose population has been estimated at 2,000-10,000 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and declining. The species is inferred to be declining rapidly based on estimates of habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. <br/></p>	eng
150884	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is a forest dependent species, occuring in the undergrowth of wet forest apparently favouring the most humid areas<strong><sup>1,6</sup></strong>. It has been recorded between 700 and 1250 m above sea level<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
150884	population	BirdLife International, 2008	This species occupies a similar range to El Oro Parakeet, the population of which has been estimated at 2,000 to 10,000 individuals. Ecuadorian Tapaculo is more patchily distributed within this range and comparisons suggest that it is less common (R. Ridgely <em>in litt</em>. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
150884	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation within its small range. As a forest dependent species intolerant of significant habitat modification it is reportedly more susceptible to these threats than El Oro Parakeet <em>Pyrhura orcesi</em>, which occupies a very similar range and is considered to be Endangered. The main threats to remaining habitat are posed by intensification of agriculture, forest clearance for livestock and conversion to plantations. <br/></p>	eng
150885	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a moderately small range in the Andes of east-central Peru in southern Cordillera Vilcabamba.	eng
150885	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is not strongly dependent on forest, favouring Ichu grassland with heath bushes.	eng
150885	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150885	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species grassland habitat is under moderate pressure from burning but its rate of decline is not rapid and reportedly vast areas are inaccessible. Its habitat has changed little since Incan times. The species is recorded around houses and in disturbed areas so despite its small range it appears tolerant of some habitat modification and human pressures are not strong where it lives, though fires may continue to threaten its habitat.	eng
150886	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as widespread and fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150887	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally not uncommon (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
150888	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150889	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in coastal south-east Brazil, extending inland in Minas Gerais along the Rio Doce Valley.	eng
150889	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as fairly common in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150890	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was recently described from within the Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor, Acre, Brazil. This large and relatively well protected area contains the sole known locality for this species, the Serra da Jaquirana, the easternmost of a series of narrow ridges in the Serra do Divisor, part of the Acre Arch. It may occur on physiognomically similar ridges within the Acre Arch perhaps extending to the continuous Aierra Contamana in Ucayali, Peru. Given that the species is conspicuous, the lack of records from structurally favourable "Amazon Caatinga" habitats c. 100 km east-southeast of the type locality suggests it is absent from that area.	eng
150890	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species favours stunted ridge woodlands with a broken canopy and thick understorey growing on very thin soils.	eng
150890	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is believed to be common despite its restricted known range.	eng
150891	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in central and eastern Brazil.	eng
150891	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common throughout most of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150892	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia; from extreme north Bolivia north-east to coastal Pará in Brazil.	eng
150892	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as locally fairly common in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150893	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in central and eastern Bolivia, and adjacent Brazil and northern Paraguay.	eng
150893	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common throughout its small range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150894	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in far western Amazonia, from south-east Colombia through eastern Ecuador to north-east Peru.	eng
150894	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150895	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
150896	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150897	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi</em> was endemic to the Chatham Islands, <strong>New Zealand</strong>, where its remains have been found on the main Chatham Island and Pitt Island, frequently associated with middens of the islands' initial Polynesian inhabitants, the Moriori. The species was flightless, stood approximately 40 cm tall and weighed an estimated 2 kg. It is thought to have been a ground-dwelling insectivore, also feeding on fern root and capable of preying on small ground-nesting species. Recent evidence, including a letter from Sigvard Jacob Dannefarerd to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild in 1895 describing the species's appearance, behaviour and Moriori hunting method, suggests that this species survived into at least the late 1800s.<strong> <br/></p>	eng
150898	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
150899	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in north-west Australia and uncommon in south-east Australia (Morcombe 2000).	eng
150901	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
150902	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as frequent to common (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
150903	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II.	eng
150903	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant on New Guinea and surrounding islands, abundant in northern Australia, common on Timor and Flores and rare on Bali,Sumbawa and Tasmania (del Hoyo et al. 1997).	eng
150903	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has been heavily traded: since 1981 when it was listed on CITES Appendix II, 100,388 wild-caught individuals have been recorded in international trade (UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005)	eng
150904	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to rare, although common on Tasmania (Morcombe 2000).	eng
150905	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not uncommon in New Zealand (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
150907	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in north-east Australia, in the Atherton region (Blakers et al. 1984), and on New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea).	eng
150907	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in upland rainforest above 200 m	eng
150907	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common, although often scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
150907	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of the species habitat in Australia has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains, and all logging has ceased. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat in Australia, but in other areas rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
150908	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
150909	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (Gibbs et al. 2001).	eng
150911	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Restall 2006).	eng
150912	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large range, breeding across the tundra of Canada, Alaska (USA), and wintering in southern North America including Mexico, and formerly Japan.	eng
150912	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
150912	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although hunting and other direct mortality takes a substantial toll, this species has increased its range and population since the 1940s (Mowbray et al. 2002).	eng
150913	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150914	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150915	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very rare in Ecuador and very local in Colombia (Restall et al. 2006).	eng
150916	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the islands of Java and Bali, Indonesia.	eng
150916	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in forest at 800-2,400 m altitude, slightly lower in parts of Bali (Clement and Hathway 2000). It is not as tied to water as Bornean Whistling-thrush M. borneensis or Chestnut-winged Whistling-thrush M. castaneus, occurring mostly on the ground, often on ridges and paths (Collar 2004).	eng
150916	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150916	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is threatened by ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation.	eng
150917	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Gunung Kelapat Muda Game Reserve presumably contains a population of this species. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to assess the full extent of occurrence of this species, its specific habitat requirements, and its overall population size. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150917	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera dumasi</em> is endemic to the island of Buru, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Little is known about the species, but it has been described as "not uncommon"<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150917	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane forest, most commonly at 800-1,500 m altitude. It has been suggested that the species is largely restricted to limited areas of level forest within this range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, but it has certainly been seen on steep slopes<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It feeds alone or in pairs on the ground in deep forest undergrowth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Eggs have been recorded in February, and young in early April<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/><p></p>	eng
150917	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,700 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 34,400 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 20,000-49,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
150917	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hill forest on Buru is considerably more secure than lowland forest, and indeed remains almost intact. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150918	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It was recorded in Manusela National Park in 1987<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to assess the full extent of occurrence of this species, its specific habitat requirements, and its overall population size. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150918	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera joiceyi</em> is endemic to the island of Seram, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It has been described as "extremely rare"<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and there have been very few records<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. However, large areas of habitat on the island remain to be surveyed<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150918	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits montane forest at 800-1,280 m altitude<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It is possible that the species is restricted to limited areas of level forest within this range<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It feeds alone or in pairs on the ground in deep forest undergrowth<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is no information about breeding. <br/><p></p>	eng
150918	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 1,880 km<sup>2</sup> (10% of EOO) = 37,600 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). However, described as "extremely rare" (Isherwood <em>et al. </em>1997, Clement and Hathway 2000), so perhaps best currently placed in population band of 10,000-19,999 individuals. It may prove to be rarer still. <br/></p>	eng
150918	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Hill forest on Seram is considerably more secure than lowland forest, and indeed remains almost intact, with very low levels of human disturbance<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150919	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species occurs within a number of protected areas. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150919	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera interpres</em> is found discontinuously from southern peninsular <strong>Thailand </strong>and <strong>Malaysia</strong>, through Borneo (including <strong>Brunei Darussalam</strong>) and Java, to Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores, in <strong>Indonesia</strong>. It may also be a rare resident on several of the south-west Sulu Islands and Basilan in the central southern <strong>Philippines</strong>. This species has an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 100,000-1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as "generally rare and scarce"<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). <br/></p>	eng
150919	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland primary deciduous and evergreen forest, often with a dense understorey, but has also been found in partially degraded forest and forest fragments<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Usually forages for invertebrates on the ground, but occasionally seen in fruiting trees<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Breeding takes place from April or May to about late July or August, but probably with regional variation<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Nest with 2-3 eggs placed up to 4 m above the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150919	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Significant habitat loss is ongoing throughout the lowland forest range of this species. In recent years very heavily exploited for the cage-bird trade, raising fears of its extirpation from some islands in Nusa Tenggara<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150920	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A number of protected areas occur within the range of this species on Sulawesi. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to assess the specific habitat requirements and overall population size of this species. Assess the extent to which bird trade is a threat. <br/></p>	eng
150920	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Zoothera erythronota</em> is restricted to Sulawesi and neighbouring Buton (race <em>erythronota</em>) and Kabaena (race <em>kabaena</em>), <strong>Indonesia</strong><sup>3,4</sup>. It is uncommon but easily overlooked on Buton, locally common on Kabaena<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and generally uncommon on Sulawesi (although population estimates are often dramatically increased once mist-netting is undertaken). Although there is not enough information to accurately assess its population size, since it appears to be somewhat patchily distributed throughout its range - often absent from apparently suitable habitat - it may prove to be quite low. <br/></p>	eng
150920	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits lowland forest below 1,000 m. It seems to strongly prefer primary forest on Sulawesi and Buton, but on Kabaena, it is found in a wide range of closed canopy habitats, including shady plantations, secondary forest and bamboo stands as well as native forest<strong><sup>2,4</sup></strong>. It is usually recorded alone or in pairs on the ground<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. A nest was found in April in the fork of a low tree-stump<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150920	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Population estimate = 20 individuals/km<sup>2</sup> x 17,000 km<sup>2</sup> (20% of EOO) = 340,000 individuals (density range from up to lower quartile of two Asian congeners in BirdLife Bird Population Density Spreadsheet). Perhaps best currently placed in population band of 100,000-499,999 individuals, but population may prove to be much lower given its extremely patchy distribution. <br/></p>	eng
150920	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest destruction within its elevation range has been extensive in recent decades. Since it does not appear tolerant to habitat degradation through much of its range, its populations must have suffered a commensurate decline. Fires in the long dry season are a threat to remaining forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <em>Zoothera </em>species are heavily traded elsewhere in Indonesia, because of their abilities as songsters, so it is likely that this threat is also impacting this species<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150921	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species predominantly breeds across Siberia and the Himalayas, and winters in the northern Indian Subcontinent, northern south-east Asia, southern China, and southern Japan, but there are also some resident subspecies, including neilgherriensis in the hills of south-west India, and horsfieldi from Java to Sumbawa, Indonesia. Subspecies major was previously considered specifically distinct and Critically Endangered, with only c.58 breeding birds estimated to remain in 1996. It is confined to the islands of Amami-ooshima and Kakeroma-jima in the northern Nansei Shoto Islands, Japan.	eng
150921	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The taxonomy of the species has been in flux, and much more research and analysis is needed on variations in song and measurements to resolve this situation (Collar 2004).	eng
150921	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. The species is variously described as "uncommon" to "fairly common" across much of its range (Clement and Hathway 2000), In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 25000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 75000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
150921	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Subspecies major is threatened by deforestation and invasive alien predators (BirdLife International 2000, Clement and Hathway 2000).	eng
150923	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This recently described raptor has a large range in two disjunct areas: in the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil; and in southern Amazonia from north-east Bolivia, north-east to Pará, Brazil.	eng
150923	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species's overall population is presumed to be large given its wide range.	eng
150924	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
150925	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the Guayana Shield region of South America.	eng
150925	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as "fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Hilty 2003).	eng
150926	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in South America.	eng
150926	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
150927	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in south-west Costa Rica and western Panama.	eng
150927	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150928	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in south-central Colombia.	eng
150928	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather scarce and local throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
150929	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in eastern Brazil.	eng
150929	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150930	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common to common in humid foothills, although uncommon in some areas (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150931	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150932	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
150933	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and the far west of Brazil.	eng
150933	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits humid tropical forest, especially along rivers and on river islands, in lowland areas up to c.300 m (Winkler and Christie 2002).	eng
150933	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'rare' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150934	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150936	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in montane forest borders and scrubs (Clements and Shany 2001).	eng
150937	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species continues to be a focus for research by the Colecci&oacute;n Ornitol&oacute;gica Phelps (COP), and following the destruction of habitat at the type locality four organizations (the hydro-electric company Edelca, COP, Conservation International and the Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela) designed a two-year project to identify, locate and survey potential habitat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The spiny bamboo habitat from which the species was described is not only extremely challenging/dangerous to survey in, it also lies beneath the forest canopy and hence aerial survey methods cannot be used to detect habitat.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Survey potentially suitable spiny bamboo forest along the Caron&iacute; and Orinoco rivers in Venezuala and Colombia. Monitor the loss and degradation of potentially suitable habitat. Designate areas of potentially suitable habitat as protected.	eng
150937	distribution		<em>Amaurospiza carrizalensis</em> was recently described following collection of the holotype on Isla Carrizal in the R&iacute;o Caron&iacute;, <strong>Venezuela</strong>. Since then habitat at the type locality on the island has been destroyed in the development of Guri Dam. Surveys in late 2007 and 2008 recorded the species in seven areas in the Caron&iacute; basin<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, but it is assumed to have an extremely small population and to be declining as other potentially suitable habitat continues to be destroyed. However, the low number of records may be partly due to the difficulty in surveying its habitat, which as a result has rarely been explored.	eng
150937	habitat		It has been found in stands of spiny <em>Guadua latifolia</em> and <em>Ripidocladus</em> spp. bamboo forest, and at least four of the recent localities the birds were in or next to stands of <em>Guadua angustifolia</em><strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its bill shows some degree of specialisation for feeding<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. From stomach content analysis of collected specimens it is known to feed on weevil spp. which may be specific to its spiny forest habitat<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
150937	population		Although it has now been refound at several localities since destruction of the type locality, the global population is nevertheless assumed to be tiny.	eng
150938	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150939	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common at some locations, although generally poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150940	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
150941	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150942	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in northern Amazonia, from south-east Colombia, eastern Ecuador, and north-east Peru east to Amapá, Brazil. It also occurs disjunctly in north-east Brazil.	eng
150942	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150943	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Amazonia, from south-east Colombia and southern Venezuela east to Pará, Brazil. It is also known from isolated areas in north-east Bolivia, and may well occur from here north to the rest of its range.	eng
150943	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150944	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in southern Amazonia, and the east Andean slopes of Peru and north-east Bolivia.	eng
150944	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "fairly common to common" through most of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150945	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in two disjunct areas: coastal eastern Brazil; and coastal north-east Brazil through southern Amazonia to the Andes of central and southern Peru and northern Bolivia.	eng
150945	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "locally fairly common" in at least parts of its wide range (Zimmer and Isler 2003).	eng
150946	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range on the east slopes of the Andes from north-central Colombia to north-east Peru.	eng
150946	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to fairly common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150947	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, from northern Mexico to western Panama.	eng
150947	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150948	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in eastern Brazil.	eng
150948	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as "common" and occurring at high density in at least parts of its wide range (Remsen 2003).	eng
150949	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level. It is endemic to Coiba Island (493 km2), Panama.	eng
150949	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level. It is fairly common in dense undergrowth and vine tangles in forest and forest edge (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989).	eng
150949	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150949	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The race dissita was previously treated at the species level, and was classified as Near Threatened. Its small range makes it vulnerable to predation by introduced species, and natural disasters such as hurricanes (Alvarez-Cordero et al. 1994).	eng
150950	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
150951	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150952	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, from southern Mexico to western Ecuador and across much of Amazonia, including northern Bolivia, Brazil, and north-east Venezuela.	eng
150952	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as very common to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
150953	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.	eng
150953	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs from 900 up to 3000 m in a range of habitats including scrubland, clearings and gardens; it is sometimes found in grasslands and humid forest edge, but rarely in mature forest. Andean populations make seasonal altitudinal migrations (Schuchmann 1999).	eng
150953	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150954	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species may be present within the Peninsula da Paria National Park. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Determine whether the species occurs on the Peninsula da Paria. Conserve remaining habitat within its restricted range. Research trends, population size and threats. <br/></p>	eng
150954	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Aglaiocercus berlepschi </em>occupies a restricted range in north-east <strong>Venezuela</strong> on the Cordillera de Caripe at the borders of Sucre, Anzoategui and Monagas states and in the Cerro Negro in Monagas. It may also occur on the Peninsula de Paria but records from this area are unconfirmed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is locally fairly common within its small range<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.  <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150954	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It lives on coastal slopes in scrub and forest in the subtropical montane zone up to 1,800 m. The species is thought to be less susceptible to removal of undergrowth from forest for coffee growing than other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150954	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Locally fairly common in suitable habitat, and considered less vulnerable than e.g. Grey-headed Warbler to removal of undergrowth for coffee plantations (Boesman <em>in litt. </em>2006) <br/> <br/></p>	eng
150954	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	There has been widespread clearance for agriculture and pasture in the Cordillera de Caripe, resulting in extensive degradation of forest. Clearance, repeated burning and understorey removal for coffee<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> are the main causes. The slopes of Cerro Negro are largely bare, with the more obvious forest patches actually shade-coffee plantations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. There is conversion to coffee, mango, banana and citrus plantations in parts of the region<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Increases in cash-crop agriculture, especially the cultivation of "ocumo blanco", since the mid- to late 1980s, have resulted in uncontrolled burning and forest degradation. A proposed gas pipeline on the Paria Peninsula could have disastrous consequences for the species's habitat<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A new paved road from G&uuml;iria to Macuro will almost certainly lead to increased habitat clearance<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150955	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, from south-east Panama through the Andes south to Ecuador.	eng
150955	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150956	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in the Andes of Peru and north-west Bolivia.	eng
150956	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150957	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, extending from central Mexico south to Peru, and also into the Guianas.	eng
150957	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150958	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in south-east Brazil.	eng
150958	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150959	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in two disjunct areas: along the lower Amazon in Brazil; and from easternmost Colombia, through Venezuela to western Guyana and adjacent Brazil.	eng
150959	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although very poorly known (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
150960	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150961	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon and patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150963	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150964	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs from Venezuela east to the Guianas and up the Amazon River in Brazil to the confluence with the River Tapajos. It is considered rare in Venezuela and scarce to locally uncommon in Guyana, but remains common in Surinam and French Guiana.	eng
150964	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in open areas, including heavily disturbed agricultural habitats, and is restricted to very low lying areas (below 50 m in Venezuela).	eng
150964	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is trapped for the bird trade in many parts of its range (N. de Pracontal in litt. 2007, O. Ottema in litt. 2007).	eng
150965	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Restall 2006).	eng
150967	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In Brazil it is nominally protected in parts of Bahia (Esta&ccedil;&atilde;o Veracruz private reserve, and Descobrimento, Pau Brasil and Monte Pascoal national parks)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Monte Pascoal faces an uncertain future as it has been invaded by Patax&oacute; Indians who have extensively cleared their neighbouring area. Elsewhere the species is known from the Linhares-Sooretama reserves (Espirito Santo), Rio Doce State Park (Minas Gerais) and Tingu&aacute; Biological Reserve (Rio de Janeiro). In Venezuela it survives in several national parks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Continue monitoring this species in the field and in trade. Strengthen the protected area network within the Atlantic Forest of Brazil to conserve key sites. <br/></p>	eng
150967	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura leucotis</em> has a disjunct distribution with widely separate subpopulations in Atlantic Forest of <strong>Brazil</strong> and in <strong>Venezuela</strong>. The two subpopulations appear to have different status making an accurate assessment of the species's global level of threat problematic. In Brazil it is restricted to lowland and foothill (up to 500 m) forest from Bahia south of the Jequitinhonha river, south to Espirito Santo, parts of eastern Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. The southernmost population now occurs in Serra do Tingu&aacute; (2243<strong><sup>1,2,</sup>. In southern Bahia it has been recently found in only 4 of 30 surveyed areas, and seems associated with the now very reduced "matas de tabuleiro". In contrast, in Venezuela it is rather common in forested areas of the coastal cordillera (incl. NE Venezuela)<sup>4</sup></strong>. The species has declined significantly within its Brazilian range but faces fewer threats in Venezuela. <br/></p>	eng
150967	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It occurs in Atlantic Forest in Brazil and foothill forest of the coastal Cordillera in Venezuela. <em>Pyrrhura</em> parakeets typically spend most time foraging (typically in groups) in the canopy and are reliant on their forest habitat. <br/></p>	eng
150967	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate (no data). <br/></p>	eng
150967	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Forest clearance has been extensive in its Brazilian range, affecting most of the "matas de tabuleiro" in Bahia and Espirito Santo. Trade for the cage bird industry has adversely affected other species within this genus, but has not been documented for this species. <br/></p>	eng
150968	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is listed as Critically Endangered on the Brazilian official Red List<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It occurs within the Baturit&eacute; Mountains Environmental Protection Area, but this area is designated for sustainable use and has not traditionally been managed for conservation. Land management by a private landowner in the area has led to an increase in one small known population<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Since 2007, the Brazilian NGO AQUASIS has been conducting two research projects: one sponsored by the Brazilian "Funda&ccedil;&atilde;o O Botic&aacute;rio de Prote&ccedil;&atilde;o &agrave; Natureza", surveying the Baturit&eacute; Mountains to monitor its status and research its biology; and another sponsored by the Loro Parque Fundacion, searching for additional populations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Surveys in historical sites and areas of potential habitat in 2007-2008 failed to locate the species, although there were strong indications from locals that it still occurs or occurred until recently in the degraded Serra do Estev&atilde;o, Quixada municipality, Cear&aacute; state<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>, and at Serra Negra Biological Reserve, Pernambuco state, however a combination of marijuana cultivations and hostile local culture makes survey work in the latter area difficult<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. At least 11 private reserves (RPPN) are in the process of being created in the Serra de Baturit&eacute;<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. A Loro Parque-sponsored nest box scheme is taking place, and so far 19 have been installed on sites with sympathetic landownders, with a view to eventually install 60<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. A large scale education and awareness campaign took place in the Serra de Baturit&eacute; in 2008<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, and a principal objective of AQUASIS is to promote it as a flagship species, work which is being supported by local NGO AGUA and ecotourism business Parque das Trilhas<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. AQUASIS also aims to build capacity for bird-watching and in the process develop awareness and create alternative livelihoods<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds well in captivity and populations are held both in Brazil and abroad. Provided these are well managed and coordinated they could be used for reintroductions.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out further surveys in similar areas to the Baturit&eacute; Mountains in north-eastern Brazil, such as the serras de Aratanha, Maranguape and Machado, for the presence of addtional extant populations. Continue monitoring the known population in the Serra do Baturit&eacute;. Improve conservation management practised in the Guaramiranga Ecological Park. Provide incentives for landowners to increase the network of private reserves in the Baturit&eacute; Mountains. Monitor and control trade at local, national and international levels. Investigate the feasibility of using artificial nests to increase reproductive success. Continue to conduct awareness campaigns to promote the Grey-breasted Parakeet as a symbol for the conservation of the moist forests and associated biodiversity in the Baturit&eacute; Mountains. Investigate ex situ conservation measures.	eng
150968	distribution		This species is known historically from four areas in north-eastern <strong>Brazil</strong>, but currently from just one of these: the Serra do Baturit&eacute; in Cear&aacute;<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Here it seems to be very uncommon and to have been extirpated from several areas, but there are recent records of groups in the Baturit&eacute; Mountains Environmental Protection Area; surveys on 2007 of half the remaining habitat at this site revealed c.80 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The forests of the Baturit&eacute; Mountains have been greatly reduced to make room for shade and sun coffee and only 13% of the forest remained in 1996. The species was formerly known from three other areas: the eastern slope of the Serra de Ibiapaba and the municipality of Quixad&aacute;, both in Cear&aacute;, and the tiny Serra Negra in Pernambuco where it was very common in 1974, with flocks of 4-6 individuals regularly seen in the early 1980s, but there are no recent records. There are also unconfirmed reports from 1991 in Murici Ecological Station in Alagoas which possibly refer to released individuals; recent fieldwork there failed to locate the species. Its known range is very small, and the species has declined dramatically in the past, a trend which may be ongoing.	eng
150968	habitat		It occurs in montane (above 500 m) humid forest enclaves in the otherwise semi-arid north-east Brazil. These wet 'sky islands' are known locally as 'brejos'. Humid forests grade into semi-deciduous forest and eventually dry, xeric caatingas in lower areas. The forests are restricted to upland granite or sandstone areas which receive up to four times the annual rainfall of lower altitudes. The humid forests atop the Baturit&eacute; massif form a continuous canopy c.20 m tall, with some emergents. Birds feed on fruit and seeds in the canopy of humid and semi-deciduous forest.	eng
150968	population		Despite recent surveys in its historic range the species is now known from a single area largely denuded of suitable habitat. The total number of recent sightings (resulting from 6 years of non-systematic observations) comprise four encounters from three localities. Therefore, the species is thought to have an extremely small population.	eng
150969	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It occurs within the proposed Terra Ronca State Park but this is yet to be fully implmented, and Mata Grande National Forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. Other parts of the range are poorly protected. The species appears on the Brazilian Red List as Vulnerable and IBAMA (Brazilian Federal Agency for Environment) is about to create a "Small Parakeet Conservation Group" to comprise all <em>Pyrrhura</em> spp. and establish conservation efforts. Brasilia Zoological Garden started a captive breeding program in 2001 with 10 individuals<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Determine the extent of remaining habitat and current rates of deforestation. Monitor the species in trade.  <br/></p>	eng
150969	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pyrrhura pfrimeri</em> is an endemic restricted to the narrow dry forest belt of the Serra Geral, in the states of Goi&aacute;s and Tocantins <strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>, <strong>Brazil</strong>. It occupies a small range within which much of its forest habitat has been (and continues to be) logged<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The global population was estimated in 1998 to be c. 162,000-202,500 individuals, although the authors conceded that this figure may have been an overestimate as habitat is severely degraded in parts of the species's range<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Furthermore, although population trends have not been estimated, the population may have declined owing to ongoing deforestation. <br/></p>	eng
150969	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It is restricted to deciduous or semi-deciduous dry forest growing on limestone outcrops or limestone derived soils. This <em>caatinga</em> type habitat is an isolated island within surrounding <em>cerrado</em> savannah. <em>Caatinga</em> forest typically has a closed canopy and dense understorey with lianas and some cacti, particularly in disturbed areas. The species has been seen in recently fragmented forest patches<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> but reportedly does not occur far from the forest edge. It feeds on flowers, fruits and seeds, sometimes on the ground and typically in groups. <br/></p>	eng
150969	population	BirdLife International, 2008	C. A. Bianchi <em>in litt</em>. (2006, 2007).  <br/></p>	eng
150969	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat to this species is deforestation driven by selective logging, fires and habitat conversion to pasture<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Rapid deforestation is occurring within the species's range to create pasture. Widespread burning to improve poor pasture is destroying dry forest habitat. Logging mainly targets durable woods that are commonly used to make fence poles. The species is rarely recorded in trade or exotic bird collections but this poses a potential threat<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. As it favours forest restricted to limestone outcrops cement companies may exploit these areas in the future<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Population pressure will increase as its range lies close to the capital city, Brasilia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
150970	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the Americas, breeding along the Pacific coast from California (USA) to Chile and along the Atlantic coast from South Carolina (USA) through the West Indies to Venezuela, ranging as far as Canada and Tierra del Fuego (Chile) in the non-breeding season.	eng
150970	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits shallow inshore waters, estuaries and bays.	eng
150970	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Wetlands International 2006)	eng
150971	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species is protected within reserves in many areas throughout its extensive range, for instance in Cordillera Azul, Apurímac (Peru), and Beni (Bolivia).	eng
150971	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in the Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.	eng
150971	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found predominantly in wet and humid montane forests (couldforest and elfin forest), and to a lesser extent in forest-edge, bushy second growth, open bushy terrain along streams and humid grassy slopes, from 1800-3200 m (Schuchman 1999). It forages in the low and middle strata, feeding on nectar and insects.	eng
150971	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150972	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
150983	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Spain and north-west Africa; it winters in West Africa.	eng
150983	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (BirdLife International 2004). For example, the Spanish population is estimated at 5,200 pairs while it is described as 'rather common' within much of its North African range (Svensson 2006).	eng
150984	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia).	eng
150984	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in open forest, woodland, scrub and savanna, and over rainforest, from sea-level to 1950 m (Thiollay 1994).	eng
150984	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large, even though the species is described as well distributed but scarce (Coates 1985).	eng
150989	population		Little recent information on population size. It was formerly regarded as widespread and common over much of its non-breeding range in India and Pakistan, though irregular to rare in the rest of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
150990	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range in the Americas. It occurs from Alaska (USA) and Canada south to Panama, and populations are also found in the West Indies, in hills and mountains from Venezuala and Colombia through Ecuador and Peru to western Bolivia, and from southern Brazil through Uruguay and Paraguay to south-east Bolivia and northern Argentina.	eng
150990	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a wide variety of habitats, depending on the region, including boreal coniferous forests, temperate deciduous woodland, tropical and subtropical cloud forest, gallery forest and semi-open savanna woodland, from sea level to 2,700 m. Outside the breeding season, North American birds can be found in almost any terrain, including urban areas with trees.	eng
150990	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Rich et al. 2004)	eng
150990	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat alteration, especially removal of forest, is thought to affect some populations.	eng
150991	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, western Uganda, and Minziro Forest, Tanzania.	eng
150991	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits moist primary and logged forest, typically near to water. It feeds on ants and small insects, and some seeds.	eng
150991	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce and relatively little known (Clement 1999).	eng
150992	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Poorly known, but Kirwin and Greive (2007) suggest it is less than 10,000 individuals.  <br/></p>	eng
150993	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range, extending from Colombia in the north to Argentina in the south, and from the Andes to the Atlantic coast.	eng
150993	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species typically inhabits cerros, cliffs, rocky outcrops, canyon walls, landslides and steep banks bordered by secondary or mature forest, as well as similar man-made habitats such as cuttings, bridges and quarries, although it is also found in drier, more sparsely wooded areas in Bolivia and uses ledges and building facades in Brazil. It feeds on insects, which it hawks for in spectacular, long aerial sallies, swooping like a swallow (Fitzpatrick 2004).	eng
150993	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150994	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150995	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from Mexico to north-east Argentina and from the Pacific to the Atlantic in South America.	eng
150995	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species primarily inhabits humid and evergreen forest in the lowlands and foothills to 2000m, although generally below 1300 m, and is found less frequently in gallery and deciduous forest, and occasionally in mangroves. It is mainly insectivorous, although other invertebrates and small vertebrates are also taken (Marantz et al. 2003).	eng
150995	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150995	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is considered highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation and human disturbance in at least parts of its range, and is likely to have suffered declines owing to deforestation (Marantz et al. 2003).	eng
150996	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from Guatemala to Brazil.	eng
150996	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species chiefly inhabits humid lowland forest, although habitat preferences vary geographically, and in some areas it can also be found in semi-deciduous and gallery forests, palm swamps, cerrado woodland, mature mangroves, clearings with scattered trees and plantations. It is most abundant below 900 m, although it occurs in small numbers at high altitudes, locally to 2400 m in Venezuela. It feeds primarily on arthropods, but also on small vertebrates, taken by gleaning, pecking or probing into bark crevices, dead leaves, clumps of moss or knotholes. It is a regular associate of mixed-species flocks frequenting the mid-levels and subcanopy (Marantz et al. 2003).	eng
150996	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150997	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
150998	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
150999	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, extending from the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia across the Amazon basin to the east coast of Brazil and the Guianas.	eng
150999	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits tropical lowland and montane evergreen forest, where it forages mainly in the subcanopy, gleaning arthropods from dead leaves. It frequently associates with mixed-species flocks (Remsen 2003).	eng
150999	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
151000	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, occurring in parts of north-eastern India, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.	eng
151000	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is a partial migrant, moving from breeding grounds in foothill and montane areas into lowlands and coastal plains during the non-breeding period. It is found in a variety of scrub and open woodland habitats, including margins of terraced cultivation and tea plantations (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151000	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as quite numerous in north-eastern India, common in parts of China and locally common in South-East Asia (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151002	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in Mexico, although it is sometimes found in the extreme south of the USA outside the June-August breeding season. Subspecies graysoni, sometimes considered a separate species, is range-restricted, found only in the north-west Mexico Pacific Slope EBA.	eng
151002	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits arid to semi-humid deciduous and semi-deciduous forest, thorn-forest, inland riparian woodland and edge, plantations and gardens, where it tends to forage on the ground for fruit (Collar 2005). It typically occurs from sea level to 1500 m, although a feral population exists in Mexico City at 2200-2500 m.	eng
151002	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
151004	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 8400-13000 breeding pairs, equating to 25200-39000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 51400-156000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
151005	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, which extends from east Sudan and Ethiopia south to South Africa.	eng
151005	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits open areas of savannah and steppe, deserts, and clearings in woodland (Thiollay 1994).	eng
151005	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce in some areas and common in others (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).	eng
151006	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to the Philippines.	eng
151006	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest, forest edge, scrub and secondary growth from sea-level to 2000 m (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
151006	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Cheke et al. 2001).	eng
151007	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from southern China to Java (Indonesia). It occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
151007	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species favours humid forest edge and secondary growth, and is also found in evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland forest, peatswamp-forest, well-grown secondary forest and nearby mixed orchards, from the lowland plains to 1,800 m (Wells 2005).	eng
151007	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as relatively common throughout much of its range, although scarce in Singapore and rather rare in Java (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151008	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	Turdus nigriceps occurs as two subspecies: nigriceps in the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina; and subalaris in eastern Paraguay, Brazil and northern Argentina.	eng
151008	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the canopy and borders of subtropical humid forest, and in secondary woodland and eucalyptus plantations with native undergrowth, where it tends to be found in dense shrubbery along streams and in wooded ravines (Collar 2005). Subspecies nigriceps occurs mainly from 500-2000 m, locally to 2550 m in Bolivia, whereas subalaris is found in lower areas from sea-level to 1000 m and inhabits araucaria groves, gardens with scattered large trees and park-like areas in addition to the aforementioned habitat types (Collar 2005).	eng
151008	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
151008	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The nominate subspecies is suspected to have been affected to some degree by the extensive deforestation of recent decades (Collar 2005).	eng
151009	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range extending across Central and South America from Costa Rica to south-east Brazil. It inhabits humid tropical and subtropical evergreen forest, sometimes venturing into forest adge and mature secondary growth, from 475-1850 m. It occurs in many protected areas within its large range, including at least three national parks in Brazil (Fitzpatrick 2004).	eng
151009	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits humid tropical and subtropical evergreen forest, sometimes venturing into forest adge and mature secondary growth, from 475-1850 m. It feeds on arthropods and small berries, typically foraging in the middle and upper strata (Fitzpatrick 2004).	eng
151009	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
151010	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a moderately large range extending across eastern Myanmar, northern Thailand, southern China and north-western Laos and Vietnam. The northern and western limits of its range are poorly known (Reindt 2006).	eng
151010	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and pine forest from 900-2550 m, possibly making altitundinal migrations to as low as 50 m in the winter. It breeds in February to May, building a ball- or dome-shaped nest on or near the ground (Robson 2000).	eng
151010	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in most of its range, although very common in Thailand (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151011	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending across south-east China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and possibly north-east Myanmar (Reindt 2006).	eng
151011	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen and pine forest from 900-2550 m, possibly making altitundinal migrations to as low as 50 m in the winter. It breeds in February to May, building a ball- or dome-shaped nest on or near the ground (Robson 2000).	eng
151011	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151012	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from northern India, Nepal and southern China south to Sri Lanka and Indonesia.	eng
151012	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits lowland tropical moist forest, swamp forest, overgrown tree plantations, secondary jungle, mangroves and forest clearings, from sea-level to 1500 m in Thailand, but more usually to 500-600 m. It tends to prefer undergrowth and shady ravines, where it forages on the ground and in the lower strata for arthropods, also taking worms and berries (Collar 2005).	eng
151012	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Robson 2000).	eng
151012	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is exploited for the cage-bird trade and has declined to near-extinction in some countries within its range (Collar 2005).	eng
151013	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, apparently disjunct range in eastern China. The southern limits of its range are poorly known (Reindt 2006).	eng
151013	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2550 m, usually breeding above 1,500. The breeding season is February to June, when a clutch of 4-5 eggs is laid in a ball-shaped nest built in a recess in a bank, tree-trunk or stump (Robson 2000).	eng
151013	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151014	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in south-east China, possibly extending east into northern Vietnam (Reindt 2006).	eng
151014	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151015	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, extending from north-west India to southern Vietnam. It inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2,550 m, usually breeding above 1,500 m.	eng
151015	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits broadleaved evergreen forest up to 2550 m, usually breeding above 1,500. The breeding season is February to June, when a clutch of 4-5 eggs is laid in a ball-shaped nest built in a recess in a bank, tree-trunk or stump (Robson 2000).	eng
151015	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151016	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range along the west coast of Australia and on New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea). Subspecies multipunctata, sometimes treated as a separate species, is a restricted-range taxon, being found only in a substantial area of rainforest in north-east Queensland (Australia), between Shiptons Flat (south of Cooktown), south to Bluewater range (north of Townsville), and inland to Mt Carbine, Atherton and Ravenshoe. Its range may extend to south of Townsville, to Mt Elliott.	eng
151016	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	In Australia, it prefers deep, wet gully forest dominated by eucalypts, occurring in drier forest only when hunting; in New Guinea it occurs in lowland and montane rainforest and Araucaria pine forest, emerging into subalpine grassland and alpine boulderfields and ridges at altitudes of up to 4000 m to hunt (Bruce 1999).	eng
151016	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably rare (Konig et al. 1999). Subspecies multipunctata, a restricted-range taxon, has been estimated to number 2,000 breeding pairs (Higgins 1999).	eng
151016	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some of subspecies multipunctata habitat has been cleared for agriculture, but a large area remains (Garnett 1992), and all logging has now stopped. There is some fragmentation of its former habitat, but in other areas, rainforest is rapidly expanding.	eng
151017	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos.	eng
151017	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits a variety of open habitats with scattered bushes and trees, including cultivation, as well as forest edges and bamboo thickets, to 900 m (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
151017	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as widespread and locally common throughout range (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
151018	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large, discontinuous range across western, central and southern Australia.	eng
151018	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occupies a range of open and semi-open habitats in arid and semi-arid zones, often in association with spinifex Triodia (Higgins et al. 2001).	eng
151018	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151019	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia.	eng
151019	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in a range of habitats from sea-level to 1,800 m, including lowland and montane rainforest, swamp forest, mangroves, and more arid bushy or wooded country near the coast. It is typically more frequent at lower altitudes, and seems to adapt well to secondary scrub (Jones et al. 1995).	eng
151019	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species has a large global population estimated to number 100,000-1,000,000 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
151020	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in eastern Australia.	eng
151020	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in subtropical and temperate rainforests and adjacent wet sclerophyll forests, tending to prefer areas with a dense canopy and an accumulation of leaf-litter on the ground (Higgins and Peter 2002).	eng
151020	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in the north of its range, becoming rarer towards the south (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151021	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>A programme to eradicate <em>R. rattus</em> from Teuaua was unsuccessful, although in 1998 trapping indicated that <em>R. rattus</em> is still absent from Ua Huka<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>On Ua Huka, resurvey the population to ascertain any trends. Take precautions to prevent the establishment of <em>R. rattus</em>. Continue to survey for black rat <em>R. rattus</em><sup>3</sup></strong> and assess any other threats. <strong>On Teuaua, attempt to eradicate <em>R. rattus</em> again.  <br/></p>	eng
151021	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea iphis</em> is endemic to the Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>.<strong> </strong>It is restricted to Ua Huka, where several hundred pairs were estimated in 1975<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and 500-1,250 in 1998, at a mean density of 2-5 pairs/ha<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
151021	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	On Ua Huka (c.30% forested), breeding birds were found from 30 m to 650 m (non-breeders to 840 m) in all native low- to mid-elevation moist and wet forest in the south and locally in lowland dry forest (with <em>Pisonia grandis</em>) on the eastern coast<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It forages in dense brush, gleaning insects from branches or hawking them in dark, shaded areas beneath brush-covered canopy<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
151021	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Several hundred pairs were estimated in 1975 by Holyoak and Thibault (1984), and 500-1,250 pairs were estimated in 1998, at a mean density of 2-5 pairs/ha <strong>(</strong>Thibault and Meyer 2001). <br/></p>	eng
151021	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Ua Huka, no threats are known although black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> is established on, Teuaua, a nearby motu<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
151022	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Mohotani has been protected since 1968. However, the banning of hunting has resulted in serious degradation by an increasing population of feral sheep<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p><strong>Consider possibilites of translocation. On Mohotani, eliminate or control feral sheep if socially acceptable<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>If it is not possible to reduce sheep, fence part of the island to prevent grazing and allow habitat regeneration/restoration<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Eradicate cats<sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Take precautions to prevent invasion by black rat <em>R. rattus</em>. <br/></p>	eng
151022	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Pomarea mendozae</em> was formerly widespread in the central Marquesas Islands, <strong>French Polynesia</strong>, occurring as two subspecies on three islands. On Hiva Oa, nominate <em>mendozae</em> was common in 1921 and 1922, and was last seen in March 1975, when only one individual was seen despite several weekly field searches. It was not seen in 1990, 1996 or in 2000<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, and two recent records of single birds<strong><sup>5</sup></strong> are considered erroneous<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The subspecies also occurred on Tahuata. It was apparently common in 1922 but it was not found in 1975 or 1990. It is considered extinct on both the islands where it formerly occurred<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The species survives only on Mohotani, where the population of subspecies <em>motanensis</em> was estimated at 200-350 pairs in 1975<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and, although only 80-125 pairs in 2000, considered stable at 4-5 pairs/10 ha in <em>Pisonia</em> forest (the apparent difference being due to discrepancies in estimates of island size and forest-cover)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/> <br/></p>	eng
151022	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This mainly insectivorous species occurred in forested valleys at high elevations and in degraded forest at all altitudes (probably originally preferring lowland forests which are now destroyed). On Mohotani, it is found in dry forest with <em>Pisonia grandis</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Adults apparently prefer areas of dense, luxuriant vegetation while immatures often frequent shrubby vegetation in dry areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
151022	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The population was estimated at 80-125 pairs in 2000, with  4-5 pairs/10 ha in <em>Pisonia</em> forest (Thibault and Meyer 2001) i.e. 160-250 mature individuals. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
151022	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	On Mohotani, feral cats are a threat and, to a lesser extent, Pacific rat <em>Rattus exulans</em>, as well as intense grazing by feral sheep<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. All the Marquesas Islands have been devastated by intense grazing and fire, and much of the original dry forest has been reduced to grassland, and upland forest to relict forest patches. On all islands, introduced species have been a threat, especially black rat <em>Rattus rattus</em> and, on Hiva Oa, introduced birds such as the predatory Great Horned Owl <em>Bubo virginianus</em> and the very competitive Common Myna <em>Acridotheres tristis.  <br/></p>	eng
151024	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs throughout Australia and has a large range.	eng
151024	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits open forest, woodland, scrub and savanna, from sea-level to 1500 m (Thiollay 1994).	eng
151024	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001)	eng
151025	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in north-east India, north-west Myanmar and eastern Bangladesh.	eng
151025	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is typically found in open areas with tall grass and scattered trees and bushes, and is also reported from forest edge and heavily cut-over secondary forest, from c. 800 to at least 1,800 m (Long et al. 1994).	eng
151025	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally not uncommon, although scarce and local in Myanmar (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151026	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs across the Indian subcontinent and South-East Asia.	eng
151026	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species inhabits deciduous woodland, evergreen broadleaf forest, forest edge, secondary growth (including bamboo), wooded stands in coffee and tea estates and wooded gardens, from plains level to 1,200 m (locally to 1,800 m in Sri Lanka). It tends to be found in the canopy where it forages, often acrobatically, for arthropods, fruits and nectar (Wells 2005).	eng
151026	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size is unknown, but the species is described as common to fairly common throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151026	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Some populations may be depressed by heavy harvesting for the cage-bird trade (Wells 2005).	eng
151027	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range extending from north-east Pakistan eastwards along the Himalayan chain to Bhutan and north-east India. It winters in the plains in the Calcutta area, Bihar, east Madhya Pradesh and the north Eastern Ghats.	eng
151027	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is generally scarce but locally common in conifer, deciduous and warm temperate evergreen forest in lush undergrowth and bamboo, wintering in open forest (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005), breeding from 1,000-3,800 m but wintering as low as 250 m (Grimmett et al. 1998).	eng
151027	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to abundant, although scarce in some parts of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151028	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range in northern India, southern Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and western Myanmar.	eng
151028	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species inhabits open grassland and fields in plains, generally (but not necessarily) with scattered bushes and trees, where it is largely terrestrial (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
151028	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as widespread and locally common (de Juana et al. 2004).	eng
151029	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151030	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151031	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151033	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Regular monitoring is, or will be, undertaken on Tristan da Cunha, Gough, Amsterdam and St Paul Islands<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. Several ecological and demographic studies have been undertaken<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Many islands with breeding colonies are reserves.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue or start to monitor all populations to assess trends. Conduct studies to assist in interpreting population changes and assessing interactions with commercial fisheries</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Investigate the impact of the introduced house mouse <em>Mus musculus </em>on chick survival on Gough. Eradicate introduced predators where possible</strong><sup>5</sup>. <strong>Investigate impact of egg harvest on Nightingale</strong><sup>10</sup>. <strong>Obtain new population estimate for Middle Island.</strong>	eng
151033	distribution		<em>Eudyptes</em> <em>moseleyi</em> breeds on Gough Island<strong> </strong>and islands in the Tristan da Cunha group<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong>, and Amsterdam and St Paul Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>). The large population at Gough Island appears to have been stable between 1982 and 2000<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>, although it suffered large declines prior to the 1980s. The majority of the population is in the Atlantic Ocean (c. 80%)<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Early records indicate that millions of penguins used to occur on both Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The most recent population estimates indicate declines in excess of 96% for Gough and 98% for the main island of Tristan that have occurred over at least 45 and 130 years, respectively<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Numbers breeding at Inaccessible Island (Tristan da Cunha) may also have declined, albeit modestly, whereas numbers on Tristan appear to have been stable over the last few decades<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. Current population estimates are 32,000-65,000 breeding pairs at Gough, 18-27,000 at Inaccessible and 3,200-4,500 at Tristan<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>. The population on Nightingale Island decreased from an estimated 25,000 pairs in 1973 to 19,500 in 2005<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Although 100,000 breeding pairs were estimated on Middle Island in 1973, an observed decrease in the area of the colony due to fur seal encroachment suggests it has also decreased<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. Overall, declines at Gough, Tristan, Nightingale and Inaccessible indicate an annual decline rate of c. 2% and a three-generation decline of 52%<strong><sup>19</sup></strong>. In the Indian Ocean, the Amsterdam Island population decreased by 57% between 1971 and 1993 to 25,000 pairs, whereas on St Paul Island the population increased from 4,000 to 9,000 pairs over the same period, following cessation of exploitation as crayfish bait<strong><sup>11</sup></strong>. Population trends during the last 10 years in the Indian Ocean are unknown.	eng
151033	habitat		Rockhoppers breed in colonies, from sea-level to cliff-tops and sometimes inland. They are seasonal visitors to breeding colonies, arriving in late winter, laying in September, and fledging chicks in December and January. They feed on krill and other crustaceans, squid, octopus and fish<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
151033	population		R. Cuthbert <em>in litt. </em>(2007) gave current population estimates of 32,000-65,000 breeding pairs at Gough, 18-27,000 at Inaccessible and 3,200-4,500 at Tristan. Nightingale and Middle Islands were estimated to support 125,000 pairs in the 1970s, but recent observations suggest that the main colony on Nightingale has decreased in size. Jouventin <em>et al </em>(2006) detail the following: Amsterdam Island 25,000 pairs, St Paul Island 9,000 pairs (both 1993 counts).	eng
151035	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in southern and central Tanzania and extreme north-western Malawi, where it is patchily distributed in montane areas.	eng
151035	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in evergreen forests at 540-2,160 m, moving to miombo woodlands and other wooded areas in lower foothills in the non-breeding season. It is also known to persist in degraded forest and small forest patches (Fjeldså et al. 2006).	eng
151035	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as often highly abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151037	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
151038	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
151039	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is endemic to Taiwan.	eng
151039	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found at 850-2,300 m elevation, in the lower to mid-strata of primary oak, fir and cedar forest, as well as open secondary growth and scrub. It is occasionally found in fields. It may be entirely dependent on primary or closed-canopy forest during the breeding season (L. Severinghaus in litt. 2007).	eng
151039	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparse to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151040	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Known from Kerinici Seblat National Park. The species currently receives no legal protection within Indonesia. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Review the species's status in trade and consider listing under CITES. Support measures to regulate the cage bird industry nationally in Indonesia and internationally. Conduct further surveys to identify additional subpopulations. <br/></p>	eng
151040	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Garrulax bicolor</em> was originally distributed along the length of the montane spine of Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong>, from Aceh in the north to Lampung in the south<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and was reportedly common. Recent evidence suggests that it has undergone a considerable decline since that time as it is now known from just one locality in Kerinci Seblat National Park<strong><sup>4,5</sup></strong>, and it is rare in bird markets trading wild bird species including its sister species White-crested Laughingthrush <em>G. leucolophus</em><strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Local traders report that the species has become rarer<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
151040	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	This species is known from montane forest (with unsubstantiated reports of a lowland population in Berbak Game Reserve, Jambi). It lives in flocks in the middle and lower storeys of forest sometimes coming to the ground. <br/></p>	eng
151040	population	BirdLife International, 2008	The species was reportedly common and widespread in 1988 (van Marle and Voous 1988) but is now known from only one location (J. C. Eames <em>in litt</em>. 2006; F. R. Lambert <em>in litt</em>. 2006) and is rare in bird markets trading wild caught birds. Local traders report that the species is now rare (Shepherd 2006). For these reasons it is believed to have a small population. <br/></p>	eng
151040	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	The principal threat to this species is believed to be illegal trade for the cage bird industry at a national and possibly international level<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. This species has reportedly become rare and as a result is rarely caught by local traders. It is now vastly outnumbered in bird markets on Sumatra by its continental sister species White-crested Laughingthrush <em>G. leucolophus</em>. The vast majority of this trade is illegal and unregulated<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It may also have declined owing to deforestation within its range. <br/></p>	eng
151041	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estiamte requiring documentation.  <br/></p>	eng
151042	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151043	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to scarce, although locally fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151044	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs within the Dal Lat Plateau EBA in southern Annam, Vietnam.	eng
151044	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in secondary forest, edge habitats and undergrowth, even in cultivated habitats adjacent to forest patches (J. Eames in litt. 2007, R. Craik in litt. 2007). It occurs singly, in pairs or in small groups, but apparently never in large groups like other members of the genus (J. Eames in litt. 2007, R. Craik in litt. 2007).	eng
151044	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151044	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is evidently tolerant of habitat degradation, and is therefore unlikely to be at imminent risk from habitat loss.	eng
151045	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Simba Chan in litt 2007 <br/></p>	eng
151046	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in Bhutan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151047	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151048	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in a wide variety of submontane and montane forest habitats, including secondary growth and scrub (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151048	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although rare in Yunnan, China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151049	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151054	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151055	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the Batak Highlands and south-central Barisan range of Sumatra, Indonesia.  It is present in Gunung Leuser and Kerinci Seblat National Parks. It is relatively common at Gunung Kerinci.	eng
151055	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found on the floor and in the understorey of lower montane oak-laurel forest at 1,200-2,850 m.	eng
151055	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but although the species is described as very rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007), it is possible that the very few records result from low observer coverage within the altitudinal range of the species, rather than genuine rarity (N. Brickle in litt. 2007, J. Eaton in litt. 2007).	eng
151055	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	A considerable area of montane forest remains on Sumatra, and this species is unlikely to be at serious risk from habitat loss.	eng
151056	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151057	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is present in the Quezon and Mount Isarog National Parks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish its ability to persist in degraded habitats. Identify and assess threats. Ensure that the Quezon and Mount Isarog National Parks are effectively protected.</strong>	eng
151057	distribution		<em>Robsonius sorsogonensis</em> is found in southern Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is considered uncommon, although numbers may be higher than is suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits. The population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151057	habitat		This species inhabits broadleaf evergreen forest, forest edge, secondary growth, and can be found in the vicinity of limestone rocks and outcrops and amongst moss-covered rocks and boulders. It ranges from the lowlands to 1,000 m, presumably feeding upon many types of invertebrates, foraging in the leaf litter. Breeding occurs from February to August, laying a clutch of two eggs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151057	population		The global population size has not been quantified. It has been described as uncommon, though it may be more common than suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
151058	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151059	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in east Arunachal Pradesh, India, north and east Myanmar, north-west and west Yunnan, China, and west Thailand.	eng
151059	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in thick undergrowth of broadleaved evergreen forest, wet luxuriant ravines and damp gullies, including in secondary and degraded forests, at 1,400-2,800 m in SE Asia and 1,200-3,000 m in China.	eng
151059	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common in Myanmar and generally rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151059	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is unlikely to be at serious risk from habitat loss owing to its wide altitudinal range and tolerance of forest degradation (J. Eames in litt. 2007, B. Anderson in litt. 2007).	eng
151060	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in Mizoram (Lushai Hills), India and the Chin Hills of Myanmar.	eng
151060	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the understorey of broadleaved evergreen forest, forest edge, secondary growth, scrub, fern clumps, bamboo thickets, and tangles of grass and scrub on steep slopes near forest, at 1,300-2,800 m.	eng
151060	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151060	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Given its broad altitudinal range and tolerance of degraded habitats, this species is unlikely to be at imminent risk from habitat loss.	eng
151061	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in the Fan Si Pan Mountains, Vietnam. Reports of this species from Guanxi, China, require further confirmation, but suggest that the range could be much larger than currently thought.	eng
151061	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in high elevation forests.	eng
151061	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common, although rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151061	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Due to occurring at high elevations, this species' habitat is not thought to be at significant risk of deforestation	eng
151062	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation. <br/></p>	eng
151064	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across most of its range and abundant in the lowlands of Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151067	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in a variety of forest types at elevations from 500-1,800 m, and is found in secondary growth, scrub and grassland (del Hoyo et al. 2007), suggesting that it is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss.	eng
151067	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151068	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to southern Annam, Vietnam, where it is recorded from the Southern Vietnamese Lowlands, Da Lat Plateau and Kon Tum Plateau Endemic Bird Areas.	eng
151068	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the understorey of broadleaved evergreen forest, secondary growth, and forest edge at 1,510-2,100 m elevation. It has also been found in lowland semi-evergreen forest, lowland evergreen forest and lower montane forest, with records from elevations down to 50 m in the northern part of the range (del Hoyo et al. 2007). It is known to persist in forests that have been logged, burnt and suffered defoliant spraying during the Vietnam War. It occurs in early successional stages of re-growth and may occur in higher densities in second growth than primary growth (J. Eames in litt. 2007).	eng
151068	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common within its tiny range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151068	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Although its habitats are at risk from forest conversion to cashew and to coffee, this species' tolerance of degraded habitats and wide altitudinal range suggest that it is not at immediate threat.	eng
151070	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally scarce to rare, although locally common in China and Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151071	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151072	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common across its range and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151073	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in China, generally common in its South-East Asian range, although uncommon in Vietnam. In Chu Yang Sin, the population is estimated to be 2,640 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151074	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is reported to make irruptive winter movements in parts of the range, particularly in <strong>China</strong>, and therefore may fluctuate in abundance on a local scale.  <br/></p>	eng
151074	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is reported to make irruptive winter movements in parts of its range, particularly in China, and therefore may fluctuate in abundance on a local scale. It is found in hill and submontane forest habitats, and is known to tolerate secondary and degraded forests (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151074	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as the commonest Yuhina in south China, and generally common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151076	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>The species has been described from  within the Bugun community forest area adjacent to Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary. Between them, Eaglenest and Sessa sanctuaries protect a microcosm of the wider Kameng protected area. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to improve understanding of the species's range, population, ecology and possible threats. <br/></p>	eng
151076	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Liocichla bugunorum</em> was recently described from Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunchal Pradesh, <strong>India</strong>. This is the only known locality for this species at present, which may prove to range further east in central and eastern Arunchal Pradesh and also into neighbouring Bhutan. However, given its striking plumage and distinctive vocalisations it is unlikely that the species could have escaped detection for so long if it were relatively common and widespread. The species was not recorded during bird surveys involving many visits between 1997 and 2001 at Eaglenest.  <br/></p>	eng
151076	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	Little is known. Other <em>Liocichla spp</em>. occur in evergreen primary and some secondary habitats, typically singly or in pairs. They tend to be unobtrusive. The area where this species has been recorded is part of a wider area of contiguous closed canopy forest.  <br/></p>	eng
151076	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Only known from 14 individuals, but population probably higher. This estimate is provisional and requires confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
151076	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Little is known, but the species has been recorded from logged forest which may well be sub-optimal habitat. Logging for fuel wood continues at the one known locality for the species, as local Bugun people rely heavily on local timber for fuel. A proposed road development at the same site poses a serious threat as it would bisect the area where all existing records come from.  <br/></p>	eng
151077	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs within the Himalayan range in Pakistan, north-western India, Nepal, and Bhutan, as well as in montane areas across western China and in extreme northern Myanmar.	eng
151077	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species primarily inhabits high-altitude coniferous forests, as well as mixed conifer forests and birch stands. During the breeding season it is generally found at 3,000-4,200 m elevation, moving marginally lower in non-breeding periods.	eng
151077	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common.	eng
151079	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This South American species is represented by three distinct forms occurring in parapatry: (1) S. s. suiriri to the southwest in the Chaco/Pampas; (2) S. s. affinis located centrally in the Cerrado/southern Amazonia; and (3) S. s. bahiae to the northeast in the Caatinga.	eng
151079	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
151079	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by widespread habitat conversion to pine and eucalyptus plantations and soy-bean and rice crops as well as habitat clearance for livestock farming (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
151080	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range from Mexico and Central America to Amazonia and south into Argentina.	eng
151080	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Rich et al. 2004)	eng
151081	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species was recently described from Colombia where it is found in the northern half of the Cordillera Central in the Colombian Andes in Antioquia, Caldas and Risaralda Departments.	eng
151081	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is found in cloudforest at 1,420-2,130.	eng
151081	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in remnants of unspoilt habitat (Restall et al. 2006).	eng
151081	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Within the species former range an estimated 63% of forest cover has been lost, a decline which has occurred over centuries. However, it is unlikely that it will decline by a further 30% during the coming decade.	eng
151082	conservation	BirdLife International, 2008	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>It is known from the Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve. However, forest within this reserve continues to be degraded and cleared. The species's stronghold, Serran&iacute;a de las Minas, is unprotected, but a joint partnership between the national parks authority and Fundaci&oacute;n ProAves aims to establish a protected area here. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Conduct further surveys to confirm the species presence on the East Andes side of the valley. Provide further protection against forest clearance within the existing Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve. Continue lobbying for Important Bird Area status for the area and the establishment of a protected area at Serran&iacute;a de las Minas. <br/></p>	eng
151082	distribution	BirdLife International, 2008	<em>Scytalopus rodriguezi</em> was recently described from the head of the Magdalena Valley on the east slope of the Cordillera Central mountains of <strong>Colombia</strong>. It is known from two locations, the Finca Merenberg Natural Reserve, San Agust&iacute;n municipality, Huila department, and Serran&iacute;a de las Minas, a ridge 15 km SSE of Finca Merenberg. It was hypothesised that the species may also occur on the East Andes side of the valley; this seems to be supported by the recent re-examination of a museum specimen collected at La Palma, Huila, which is consistent with <em>rodriguezi</em> based on plumage and biometrics<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species's range is believed to be very small, with its stronghold centred on Serran&iacute;a de las Minas. Much habitat at suitable elevations has already been cleared with an estimated 169 km<sup>2</sup> remaining and deforestation continues, suggesting that the species may be declining rapidly. <br/></p>	eng
151082	habitat	BirdLife International, 2008	It inhabits dense understorey of primary humid forest at elevations of 2,000-2,300 m. It is frequently heard but rarely seen. Individuals move inconspicuously within 50 cm of or on the ground. It feeds on small insects. <br/></p>	eng
151082	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Krabbe <em>et al</em>. (2005). <br/></p>	eng
151082	threats	BirdLife International, 2008	Deforestation is the principal threat to the species, at least in the short term. Selective logging, forest clearance to create pasture, and habitat degradation owing to trampling by free roaming livestock are the main drivers of its decline. Clearance in places of hundreds of mature oak and other hardwoods has drastically changed the forest physiognomy. <br/></p>	eng
151083	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The entire known population occurs within the boundaries of the recently established Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana. There is now increased awareness of the bird in villages surrounding its known range. It has been adopted as the official bird of Iquitos ('La Perlita de Iquitos') and an Iquitos Gnatcatcher festival has been held<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Efforts are being made to pass control of private properties inside the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana to reserve authorities, helping to protect the habitat of nearly half the known population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Despite significant effort, no new individuals were located in 2009<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Attempt to purchase private property within the Allpahuayo-Mishana reserve in appropriate habitat. Conduct natural history research (especially foraging flock dynamics, microhabitat requirements, and breeding behaviour) to improve survey methods and protection actions. Conduct further surveys for the species in suitable habitat during its vocal period (when there is increased detectability)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Enforce protection of remaining habitat within the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana. Review the possibility of purchasing adjacent disturbed properties outside of reserve with reforestation plan and buffer zone.	eng
151083	distribution		This species has recently been described from the Reserva Nacional Allpahuayo-Mishana just west of Iquitos, Department of Loreto, <strong>Peru</strong>. Surveys of available habitat within the reserve have only located 15 pairs. Since its discovery, the species has apparently become more difficult to locate each year.	eng
151083	habitat		It is rare within white-sand forest with a canopy height of 15-30 m, and is consistently found in tall, humid <em>varillal</em> forest. The species is most vocal during September-December<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
151083	population		Whitney and Alvarez (2006) and Alvarez <em>in litt</em>. (2006).	eng
151084	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range from Brazil south of the Amazon to eastern Peru and northern Argentina and Uruguay.	eng
151084	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in open forests, woodlands and some human modified habitats.	eng
151084	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
151085	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This poorly known species has a large range from northern Colombia to north-west and central-eastern Venzuela.	eng
151085	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in open forests, woodlands often in hilly terrain, and in some human modified habitats including suburban parks.	eng
151085	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to locally abundant (Cleere 1998).	eng
151086	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the Lesser Antilles.	eng
151086	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'common' in at least parts of its range (Raffaele et al. 1998).	eng
151087	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is confined to the island of Barbados.	eng
151087	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but within its very small range it is described as common.	eng
151088	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occupies three separate areas in southern Brazil and adjacent north-eastern Argentina.	eng
151088	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in forest and forest edge habitats, apparently more numerous in second-growth and disturbed forests.	eng
151088	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified.	eng
151089	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, which spreads from northern Canada to California across the internal western United States and Canada.	eng
151089	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3,600 m close to the tree line.	eng
151089	population	BirdLife International, 2009	(Rich et al. 2004)	eng
151090	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, which spreads from northern Canada to California across the Pacific states of the United States and Canada.	eng
151090	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3,600 m close to the tree line. Its populations apparently fluctuate more markedly than inland populations of Dusky Grouse D. fuliginosus owing to more regular disturbance of its habitat providing an open canopy which leads to a boom in numbers that gradually declines once the canopy grows anew.	eng
151090	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as still common in most of its range (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
151091	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in the USA and Canada. The nominate subspecies breweri occurs in the arid intermountain west of the USA (stretching north into south-east Alberta and south-west Saskatchewan, Canada) (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995).  Further north it is replaced by the subspecies S. b. taverneri (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995), which occurs into south-eastern Alaska.	eng
151091	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on sagebrush flats and other open scrubby areas.  It winters from just south of the breeding range in south-western USA to central Mexico (Rotenberry 1999, Byers et al. 1995), though the wintering grounds of S.b. taverneri remain largely unknown.	eng
151091	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Habitat loss has accelerated owing to the invasion of exotic plants, particularly cheatgrass Bromus tectorum, which has increased fire frequency and altered post-fire successional pathways (Rotenberry 1998).	eng
151093	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is widespread, breeding in the Himalayas from northern Pakistan through Nepal and northern India to South-East Asia, southern China, Taiwan and Hainan (Payne 2005). Birds migrate through South-East Asia and winter in Indonesia and the Philippines.	eng
151093	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives in a range of forest types at high densities of c.1 calling male per km2 on the breeding grounds (Payne 2005).	eng
151093	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but is thought to be large as the species is described as 'common and widespread' in at least parts of its range (Payne 2005).	eng
151094	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has an extremely large range, breeding from Finland in the west to Japan and northern Siberia in the East. During winter, birds occur throughout Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and in northern and eastern Australia.	eng
151094	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives in a range of forest types.	eng
151094	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 250,000-500,000 breeding pairs, equating to 750,000-1,500,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004), but Europe forms <5% of the global range.	eng
151095	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is a widespread resident of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, the Lesser Sundas, Borneo and Seram.	eng
151095	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species lives in a range of forest types.	eng
151095	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but is thought to be large as the species is described as common in at least parts of its range (Payne 2005).	eng
151097	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the mountains of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
151097	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in the upper dipterocarp zone, as well as in montane evergreen forest and tall upper montane forest.	eng
151097	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as sparsely distributed (Madge and McGowan 2002).	eng
151097	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	As a result of the inacessability of much of its range the species is thought unlikely to be affected by habitat loss, although further studies are required in order to determine whether any population declines are occurring.	eng
151098	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in North Africa, south-east Europe, parts of the Arabian Peninsula and central Asia; it winters south of the Sahara to East Africa.	eng
151098	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in much of its range and locally abundant (del Hoyo et al. 2006), with estimates of 130,000-160,000 pairs in Europe and 1,500,000 pairs in Turkey (Svensson 2006).	eng
151099	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151100	population	BirdLife International, 2008	No. locations estimated at >10 sites (but currently known from 1) <br/>Population estimate based on area of suitable habitat = 50% island area (=250 km2) and population density = lowest density for congeners and estimate from 2004 fieldwork (2 pairs on a 10 km x 50 m transect) = 2000 birds. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
151101	population	BirdLife International, 2008	It is generally scarce and difficult to locate even at known sites (with the exception perhaps of Yemen: R. Porter in litt. 2006), with an approximate population estimate of c.3,000 pairs (i.e. c. 6,000 mature individuals, and c.9,000 individuals including juveniles and non-breeders), comprising 500 pairs in Saudi Arabia, 500 pairs in Oman (although this may be optimistic: J. Atkins in litt. 2006), and c.2,000 pairs in Yemen (M. Jennings in litt. 2006; information from Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia).  <br/></p>	eng
151102	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds in north-east Turkey, Armenia, northern Iran east to southern Tadjikistan, Afghanistan and extreme west Pakistan. During the non-breeding season it is found across the Arabian Peninsula, southern Iraq, Iran, eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west India.	eng
151102	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species breeds on arid rocky slopes and screes from 1,200 m to 4,000 m. In winter it is found down to sea level in dry steppe, rocky hill slopes and semi-desert. Breeding density varies from 10-20 pairs/km2 on rocky hillsides up to 20-70 pairs/km2 on river terraces and the sides of large gorges in southern Tadjikistan.	eng
151102	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly rare, although scarce to locally common in Afghanistan and Pakistan and locally common in Oman (del Hoyo et al. 2005).	eng
151104	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>This species is known from three natural reserves on Hainan, though their effectiveness in terms of protecting the population is uncertain; at least one, Ba Wang Ling, is probably not effective<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct a population census to assess the true population size, and develop monitoring techniques to establish populations trends. Assess the extent of habitat loss and hunting on the island, and develop measures to mitigate both threats. Establish further protected areas and ensure effective enforcement within their boundaries. Enforce regulations within current protected areas. Raise awareness for the current conservation status of the species.</strong>	eng
151104	distribution		This species is endemic to the island of Hainan, <strong>China<sup>1,2,3,4</sup></strong>. As a result of habitat loss and hunting, both its range and population have dramatically declined since the 1950s, with the remaining population fragmented into small, partially isolated subpopulations<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The total population was estimated at 2,700 individuals in 1990, and at only 300 individuals in 2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Although the latter is probably an underestimate of the true population size, the population is likely to have declined rapidly owing to habitat loss and hunting<strong><sup>5,6</sup></strong>.	eng
151104	habitat		This species inhabits dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests from 600-1200 m, and can also survive in secondary habitats, but presumably only in mature secondary habitat<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
151104	population		The population was estimated at 300 individuals in 2000 (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, this is considered to be an underestimate (Z. Zhang <em>in litt.</em> 2010; W. Liang <em>in litt.</em> 2010). Based on an estimated population of 2,700 individuals in 1990 (Chang <em>et al.</em> 2008), and assuming the population has declined at 50-79% over the past 15 years (three generations), the population is best placed in the band 250-999 individuals. However, further surveys are urgently required to assess the true population size.	eng
151115	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species was reported as uncommon in 1981 (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
151116	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The breeding population, which is confined to Europe, is estimated to number 10000-20000 breeding pairs, equating to 30000-60000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004).	eng
151117	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3300000-6700000 breeding pairs, equating to 9900000-20100000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 75-94% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 10500000-26800000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
151120	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>In the context of J. h. insularis, Guadalupe is designated as a biosphere reserve (S. N. G. Howell  in litt. 1998), but historically there has been little active management (Mirsky 1976. 5. Stattersfield et al. 1998). Nearly 35,000 goats were removed in 1970 and 1971, but in the late 1990s numbers were still estimated at 10,000 individuals (Stattersfield et al. 1998). There is apparently governmental interest in eradicating introduced predators and herbivores (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999), and non-governmental organisations in the region are developing the capacity to undertake eradication programmes on such large islands (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999). There is potential for the removal of these introduced species by 2010 (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999).<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>The following measures have been proposed for the conservation of J. h. insularis: Eradicate goats and cats from the island (B. Tershy and B. Keitt in litt. 1999). Survey to provide a more recent assessment of the population size and remaining habitat.	eng
151120	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	The subspecies insularis is endemic to Guadalupe Island, 280 km west of Baja California, Mexico, where it was once common and among the island's most abundant birds. It is now patchily distributed in the north of the island.	eng
151120	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	As a whole, the species is not under immediate threat, but the subspecies J. h. insularis has been threatened by extremely intense grazing by goats. The largest tract of remnant cypress forest on Guadalupe Island was c.3 km long in 1971, but only c.1 km by 1988. Smaller forest patches presumably experience similar intense grazing, leading to a total lack of regeneration. Feral cats were common in 1988 and presumably prey upon this species.  Numbers have increased in recent years owing to habitat management and the culling of goats.	eng
151121	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Recent surveys on Fiji recorded an average of 0.1 birds/hour (a total of 49 birds) equating to 1 bird/km<sup>2</sup>, mostly calling males. There are a number of likely errors in this estimate, especially the number of silent birds overlooked. The species was recorded at 55% of the sites surveyed (19/34 sites) which were pre-selected to be the densest wettest old-growth forest. Very few were recorded in logged or degraded forest. If it assumed to occur in 50% of the forest, which covers about 40% of the species's Fijian EOO (c.17,500 km<sup>2</sup>), the total population is likely to be in the range of 2,500-9,999 birds (G. Dutson <em>in litt</em>. 2005; BirdLife International 2006). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
151122	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151123	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151124	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>None is known.<strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>There is an urgent need to carry out further surveys to determine whether this species is genuinely rare, or is in fact more widely distributed and previously overlooked. Studies of its habitat associations and tolerance of secondary and degraded habitats are also urgently needed.	eng
151124	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This extremely poorly known species occurs only on the island of Luzon, Philippines. Until very recently, the only record involved the type specimen, taken in 1894 at 1,800 m in the mountains of Lepanto, north-western Luzon. However, in 2000 the species was rediscovered at Bay-yo, near Mt Polis, where up to five singing individuals were recorded from 850-1,300 m (Dickinson et al. 2000). It was also recently found to be common in rough grasslands above 1,200 m around Sagada (D. Allen in litt. 2007), close to Mt Polis. It is  highly unobtrusive, and better knowledge of its vocalisations may reveal it to be more widespread and common within the Cordillera Central of northern Luzon, as considerable areas of potentially suitable habitat exist in surrounding areas (S. Harrap in litt. 2007).	eng
151124	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	Little is known of the habitat requirements and ecology of this species, but all records come from steep grassy valleys in mountainous areas, from 800-1,800 m (del Hoyo et al. 2006). It appears to be limited to drier areas, and has been found in areas both with and without stands of pine (S. Harrap in litt. 2007).	eng
151124	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably not uncommon, although very elusive (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
151124	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Lack of information on precise habitat requirements makes it difficult to assess threats, but burning and overgrazing of montane dry grasslands could potentially be affecting the area and quality of habitat available. Forest clearence could, however, be leading to increases in the area of suitable habitat.	eng
151125	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 5700000-11000000 breeding pairs, equating to 17100000-33000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 34900000-132000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
151126	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common in suitable habitat in the Himalayas, uncommon in Nepal, very rare in north-east India, not uncommon in Myanmar, uncommon in Thailand and very rare in north-west Vietnam (Harrap and Quinn 1996).	eng
151127	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2002).	eng
151128	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151129	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151130	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring documentation.  <br/></p>	eng
151131	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare and local, possibly even extinct in Pakistan; common and widespread in Nepal, abundant in Bhutan, frequent to very rare in India, fairly common to locally common in China and locally uncommon in Vietnam (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151132	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally fairly common in its South-East Asian range and apparently rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151133	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common to uncommon (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151134	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151135	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rather uncommon to scarce (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151136	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common, although extinct in Pakistan (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151139	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151140	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally rare (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151141	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common, although uncommon in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151142	population	BirdLife International, 2008	Preliminary population estimate requiring confirmation.  <br/></p>	eng
151144	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151145	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as scarce to fairly local (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151146	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151147	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common in central and eastern Nepal and Bhutan, locally common in north-eastern India, generally common throughout its South-East Asian range, locally common to abundant in Myanmar and uncommon to rare in China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151148	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and widespread in southern China (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151149	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range and very common in Laos. In Chu Yang Sin, the population is estimated to be 28,190 individuals (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151150	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common across its range (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151151	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as not very common in Bhutan, locally common in India, China and Myanmar and fairly common in the Himalayan foothills (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151152	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally uncommon to fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007).	eng
151153	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
151154	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008)	eng
151155	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the two formally split races have been described as uncommon to local (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
151156	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
151157	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
151158	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Regular monitoring is undertaken on the Falklands, Marion, and Campbell Islands<strong><sup>8,10</sup></strong>. Several ecological and demographic studies have been undertaken<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>. Many islands with breeding colonies are reserves. Recent research attempts to determine the cause of historic declines using stable isotope analysis of museum skins<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Continue or start to monitor all populations, to assess trends</strong><sup>3</sup>. Investigate the possible impact of oil exploitation<sup>3</sup>. <strong>Conduct studies to assess interactions with commercial fisheries</strong><sup>2</sup>. <strong>Study the potential impacts of climate change. Assess the threat from introduced predators. Reduce disturbance from ecotourism through the use of codes of conduct.</strong>	eng
151158	distribution		<em>Eudyptes chrysocome </em>occurs as two similar subspecies. <em>E. c. chrysocome </em>breeds on the <strong>Falkland Islands (Malvinas)</strong> and a number of offshore islands in southern <strong>Chile</strong> and <strong>Argentina</strong> (Staten Island:173,793 pairs in 1999<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>, Isla Ildefonso: 86,400 pairs in 2002, Diego Ramirez : 132,721 pairs in 2002, Isla Noir: 134,000 pairs in 2003, Isla Pinguino: 414 pairs in 2000<strong><sup>15</sup></strong>). Subspecies <em>E. c. filholi </em>breeds on Prince Edward and Marion Islands (<strong>South Africa</strong>), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (<strong>French Southern Territories</strong>), Heard Island (Heard and McDonald Islands [<strong>to Australia</strong>]), Macquarie Island (<strong>Australia</strong>) (32 000-43 000 pairs in 2006/07 - much lower than previous estimates) and Campbell, Auckland and Antipodes Islands (<strong>New Zealand</strong>), where declines have been noted on all islands and now perhaps only a couple of hundred thousand birds remain. Other than the populations in Chile and Argentina, where population trends are unclear (although there have been declines at least locally<strong><sup>12</sup></strong>), all other subpopulations have undergone severe declines<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>: for example, 90% in 60 years in the Falklands (declined from 1.5 million pairs in the 1930's to 210,418 pairs in 2007), 40% in 13 years (1985-1998) on Marion (150,000)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and 94% since the 1940s on Campbell (51,500 in 1985)<strong><sup>1,14</sup></strong>.	eng
151158	habitat		It breeds in colonies, from sea-level to cliff-tops, and sometimes inland. It feeds on krill and other crustaceans, squid, octopus and fish<strong><sup>7</sup></strong>.	eng
151158	population		There are perhaps 210,418 pairs on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and large populations on a number of offshore islands in southern Chile and Argentina (Staten Island: 173,793 pairs in 1998, Isla Ildefonso: 86,400 pairs in 2002, Diego Ramirez: 132,721 pairs in 2002, Isla Noir: 134,000 pairs in 2003). As well as on Prince Edward and Marion Islands (150,000) (South Africa), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (French Southern Territories), Heard Island (Heard and McDonald Islands [to Australia]), Macquarie Island (Australia) (32,000-43,000 pairs in 2006/07 - much lower than previous estimates) and Campbell (51,500 in 1985), Auckland and Antipodes Islands (New Zealand), where declines have been noted on all islands and now perhaps only a couple of hundred thousand birds (at most) remain.	eng
151160	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is restricted to the island of Socotra.	eng
151160	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Kirwan and Grieve (2007).	eng
151160	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	This species's habitats do not appear to be under any threat at present.	eng
151161	population	BirdLife International, 2009	In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 2100-7000 breeding pairs, equating to 6300-21000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is	eng
151162	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Estimate includes totals for 'Himantopus melanurus'.	eng
151167	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species occurs in lowland and submontane broadleaved forests, particularly in sloping areas.	eng
151167	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (Restall et al. 2006).	eng
151168	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common but patchily distributed' (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
151169	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species occurs in forest edge habitats, including degraded forests, secondary habitat and open woodland (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).	eng
151169	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to locally common (Jaramillo and Burke 1999).	eng
151169	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The habitats used by this species are relatively secure across large parts of its range.	eng
151170	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in south eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, north-eastern Peru and adjacent parts of Brazil.	eng
151170	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is found in scrub, forest edge, deciduous and secondary forest and other open degraded habitats, from lowlands up to 1,500 m.	eng
151170	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (Restall 2006).	eng
151170	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is unlikely to be affected by habitat loss. In some parts of its range it is likely to be targeted by trappers for the pet trade.	eng
151171	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Baker 1997).	eng
151174	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'common' throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).	eng
151175	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation action is known for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa, including soil pathogens that could affect important plant species, by strict controls on visits, and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
151175	distribution		<em>Nesospiza questi</em> occurs on Nightingale Island, and the smaller nearby Middle and Stoltenhoff Islands, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK), </strong>in the south Atlantic Ocean<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Numbers on Middle and Stoltenhoff are unlikely to exceed 500 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population on Nightingale Island is likely to be c.4,000 pairs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
151175	population		Whilst numbers on Middle and Stoltenhoff are unlikely to exceed 500 pairs, the population on Nightingale island is likely to be c.4,000 pairs, giving an overall estimate of 9,000 mature individuals (Ryan, 1992; Ryan, 2008).	eng
151182	population		The global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits.	eng
151183	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to fairly common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).	eng
151186	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct ecological studies to determine the precise habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Protect areas of suitable habitat.</strong>	eng
151186	distribution		<em>Strophocincla fairbanki </em>is endemic to the Western Ghats of southern Kerala and southern Tamil Nadu, <strong>India</strong>, where it is locally common in suitable montane habitats<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It occurs in four distinct areas, with the Ashambu Hills potentially holding the largest population<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
151186	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds between December and June. Nest building, incubation and nestling feeding is conducted by both sexes, with a clutch of two eggs. It forages in parties of 6 to 14 individuals (sometimes in groups of up to 30) in undergrowth and in low bushes, occasionally descending  to the ground to search among leaf litter. <strong>Habitat </strong>It can be found in thickets lining streams through tea and cardamom plantations, scrub and secondary forest, occasionally in gardens, and on the edges of broadleaf evergreen forests. Its range apparently coincides with the occurence of wild raspberry. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on insects, berries and fruit, including brambles (<em>Rubus</em>), <em>Maesa</em>, <em>Luvunga</em>, and <em>Trema</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151186	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally fairly common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
151187	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mukurti National Park in Tamil Nadu and a rather small part of its range is encompassed by the upper reaches of the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala. Some sholas in the Upper Nilgiris are afforded partial protection as reserve forests and are included in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, although these receive considerably less protection than national parks<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. There have been some moves to stop further conversion of natural forests and grasslands into plantations in Tamil Nadu. A new protected area in the Muthikulam-Elival-Palamala Range, Muthikkulam Wildlife Sanctuary, has been proposed.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Support extension of the boundaries of Mukurti National Park. Campaign for a moratorium on conversion of remaining natural forests to plantations in the Nilgiris. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on restoration of natural habitats in the Nilgiris, including protection of undergrowth and shrubs in existing old plantations. Initiate conservation awareness programmes in the Nilgiris. Designate suitable parts of the Muthikulam-Elival-Palamala Range as protected areas.</strong>	eng
151187	distribution		<em>Strophocincla cachinnans</em> is endemic to the north-west Tamil Nadu, north-east Kerala and south-west Karnataka in southern <strong>India</strong>. <em>S. c. cachinnans </em>is predominantly found in the Nilgiri Hills, and a smaller disjunct population (200-250 individuals) was recently discovered in the Elival-Muthikkulam-Palamala range of Palakkad-Siruvani Hills, Kerala<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. <em>S. c. jerdoni</em> is restricted to high elevations in the districts of Wayanad (Kerala) and Coord (Karnataka), possibly being found at only six fragmented locations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It was generally common or abundant across its range at the start of the 20th century, while recent observations clearly indicate it to be locally common, but otherwise uncommon or rare. One record from Munnar (south of the Palghat Gap) is now considered erroneous<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
151187	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Nesting occurs between January and July with a clutch of two or three eggs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong>It is a sedentary resident, inhabiting dense undergrowth and moist, shady lower storey vegetation of evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, especially densely wooded ravines and hollows ("sholas") and forest edge, always above 1,200 m, but generally higher than 1,900 m. It also occurs in gardens, patches of natural scrub, and hill guava trees <em>Rhodomyrtus tomentosa</em> in Kerala, and is absent or uncommon in <em>Eucalyptus</em>, tea and <em>Acacia</em> plantations. Population densities are high in intact forest, but are roughly halved in disturbed forest<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on invertebrates, nectar, flowers, fruits and berries<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
151187	population		Population estimate = 20-210 individuals/km2 (see BirdLife International 2001) x 324 km2 (20% of EOO) = 4,360-45,780 individuals. Densities are lowest in exotic plantations and highest in undisturbed shola habitat. Areas of remaining habitat need to be determined to calculate population size, but currently best placed precautionarily in range 2,500-10,000	eng
151188	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It occurs in Mukurti National Park.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Campaign for a moratorium on conversion of remaining natural forests to plantations in the Nilgiris. Promote community-based conservation initiatives focusing on restoration of natural habitats in the Nilgiris, including protection of undergrowth and shrubs in existing old plantations. Initiate conservation-awareness programmes in the Nilgiris.</strong>	eng
151188	distribution		<em>Myiomela major</em> is restricted to the Nilgiri Hills and South Wayanad Hills, Kerala, and to three peaks in south-west Karnataka in southern <strong>India<sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Although the species is described as moderately common, its range is highly restricted and declining due to habitat destruction<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>.	eng
151188	habitat		This sedentary species can be found in the undergrowth of sheltered woods ("shola") between 900-2,100 m, but more typically between 1,000 and 1,500 m<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>. It breeds in April and May, laying a clutch of two to three eggs. It is secretive and shy, creeping through vegetation and around fallen timber, presumably foraging for small insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151188	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but evidence suggests that it is moderately common within suitable habitat (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
151189	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>None is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct ecological studies to clarify the habitat requirements of this species, as well as its response to disturbance and fragmentation. Regularly monitor populations at selected sites and develop a database of information for formulating conservation management strategies for different areas. Protect areas of suitable habitat.</strong>	eng
151189	distribution		<em>Myiomela albiventris </em>is found in southern Kerala and western Tamila Nadu, southern <strong>India</strong>, with three strongholds located in the Palni Hills, Pandalam Hills and Ashambu Hills<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. Surveys suggest that it is locally common at Kodaikanal in the Palni Hills, perhaps being the third most common passerine, but it may be much scarcer in other suitable areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151189	habitat		This species is found between 1,000 and 2,200 m in streamside vegetation and wet areas of undergrowth within forest patches ("sholas") and densely wooded ravines. It is also found in much lower numbers in wattle (<em>Eucalyptus</em>) and old pine plantations contiguous with sholas, and has been recorded in gardens. Its breeding season stretches from March to July, but most activity occurs between April and May. There is no information on its diet, but it presumably feeds on small insects and other invertebrates. It is a sedentary species, though some altitudinal movement is suspected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
151189	population		The global population size has not been quantified. Evidence suggests that it is locally common in the Palni Hills, but that it may be much scarcer in other apparently suitable areas (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
151194	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
151194	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, to the state of Durango occurring at elevations from about 1800 to 2400 m altitude.   The species appears over a 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.	eng
151194	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species grows among volcanic rocks in semi desert.	eng
151194	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species has an estimated population >10,000 individuals.	eng
151194	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Illegal<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>collecting, agricultural use and housing expansion pose some small threat. Temperature extremes have reduced some subpopulations.</p>	eng
151200	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
151200	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Species endemic to Mexicon, found in the states of   Coahuilla, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas  </p>	eng
151200	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>In semi desert on calcareous soil among pinon and juniper trees and in open meadows.</p>	eng
151200	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The estimated population size is of more than 50,000 individuals.	eng
151200	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
151805	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
151805	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Appears to be confined to the area around the   Rio Nazas in Durango state, Mexico.	eng
151805	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry grassland on hills and slopes, often under bushes or Oaks. The soils are volcanic and plants are usually solitary.	eng
151805	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The population numbers several thousand plants.	eng
151805	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No threats known.	eng
151833	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
151833	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas at elevations of 1,800 m.   The species appears over a more than 40,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.	eng
151833	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On calcareous rock in semi desert.	eng
151833	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Estimates population of more than 500,000 individuals.	eng
151833	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.	eng
151840	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
151840	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to Mexico where it occurs on the western slopes of the Sierra Madre Orientál from Monclova in Coahuila to Monterey in Nuevo León state.	eng
151840	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in semi-desert shrubland on limestone gravels or alluvial soils, usually at the foot of hills but also on ridges. Plants can be solitary or form clumps.	eng
151840	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Appears to be abundant with very dense subpopulations.	eng
151840	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
151882	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Occurs within the Biosphere reserve of La Michilia (González-Elizondo and González-Elizondo 1993).	eng
151882	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Species endemic to northwestern Mexico occurring on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the states of Durango and Chihuahua.	eng
151882	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Found in pine forests and grasslands (González-Elizondo and González-Elizondo 1993). Grows on plains and ridges of low hills in volcanic soils. Plants are usually solitary.	eng
151882	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Appears to be very abundant.	eng
151882	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Land use change for agriculture may be a threat in places, but this is not having a significant impact at present.	eng
151962	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is distributed in the USA in Texas, and in Mexico in the sates of   Coahuila, Nuevo León and San Luis Potosí.	eng
151962	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	In semi desert in calcareous soils.	eng
151962	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals.	eng
151962	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
152003	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Even though the species is here listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152003	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to the Mexican state of Nuevo León, occurring    over a range of 50 km<sup>2</sup> .	eng
152003	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Semi desert, on gypsum and limestone cliffs.</p>	eng
152003	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The estimated population is >1,000,000 individuals.	eng
152003	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is illegally collected.	eng
152077	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152077	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Durango and Zacatecas at elevations of   about 2,200 to 2,600 m.   Widely distributed over a range of 25,000 km<sup>2 </sup>.	eng
152077	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.	eng
152077	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Population estimated in excess of 10,000 individuals.	eng
152077	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	These plants seem to be little threatened by illegal collecting although the habitats are known to both commercial and amateur collectors.	eng
152140	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152140	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Recorded from the Big Bend area in western Texas (USA), and from the states of Chihuahua and Coahuila in Mexico.	eng
152140	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The plants are often solitary but can sometimes form large clumps. Grows in very dry shrubland or degraded grasslands on alluvial plains covered with limestone gravel. Also recorded on or near igneous hills and benches, growing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Larrea</span>.<br/><br/>Flowers in late spring early summer (April to July). <span id="lblTaxonDesc">"The showy flowers of <em>Coryphantha echinus</em> are among the most ephemeral in the Cactaceae. They are fully expanded at high noon (if in brilliant sunlight) and wilt after only an hour or two. By mid afternoon, when most Chihuahuan Desert cacti are at the peak of anthesis, the flowers of <em>C. echinus</em> are tightly closed." (from <span style="font-style: italic;">Flora of North America</span> 4: 227)	eng
152140	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The subpopulations are very scattered, but it occurs in large numbers in places forming dense subpopulations.	eng
152140	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No major threats are known.	eng
152180	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152180	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to the Mexican states of    Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.	eng
152180	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The solitary plants grow in dry Oak forests on volcanic soils of plains and slopes. The forest understorey is often grassy.	eng
152180	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Although fairly widely distributed, this species is not that common, usually only a few plants are found in each locality where it occurs.	eng
152180	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The habitat is being impacted by deforestation for expanding agriculture (conversion to pastures for livestock), harvesting for wood, and increased use of fires.&#160; Some of these threats are leading to increased soil erosion. However, the species appears to be able to survive after deforestation.	eng
152219	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Protected by International trade legislation.	eng
152219	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species is endemic to Mexico but fairly widespread, occurring in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas.	eng
152219	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The species grows on grasslands and sandy soils (Sivinski 2007, Cartron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recorded growing on the lower slopes of limestone and volcanic hills, usually growing under other shrubs, e.g., agaves and hechtias. Plants are usually solitary.	eng
152219	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The species is abundant and frequently encountered in the Rio Grande Valley (Sivinski 2007, Cartron <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">stipitata </span>appears to be a bit scarcer.	eng
152219	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Use of fire to improve grazing may be a threats in parts of the range, but overall there are no major threats.	eng
152234	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152234	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, found in the states of Nuevo León, Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosí	eng
152234	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert, among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.	eng
152234	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals, and the species reproduces well.	eng
152234	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collection is the major threat for this species, this is sometimes done   with the aid of indigenous people.	eng
152292	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152292	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-US">Species endemic San Luis Potosí state, in the Sierra Alvarez at elevations of 2,000 to 2,400 m, <span lang="EN-US">there are many subpopulations, extending over 200 km<sup>2&#160;</sup>.<br/></p><span lang="EN-US"><p></p>	eng
152292	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Among calcareous rocks in sloping terrain in semi desert at about 2,000 to 2,400 m altitude.	eng
152292	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are many subpopulations, extending over 200 km<sup>2</sup> in the Sierra Alvarez with a total population estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.</p>	eng
152292	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">These plants are somewhat threatened by illegal collecting, commercial or amateur. </p>	eng
152295	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Durango and Zacatecas at elevations of about 1,900 m.   <em>M. sinistrohamata </em>appear over a 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.	eng
152295	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.	eng
152295	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Estimated population size of more than 10,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
152295	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat.	eng
152324	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152324	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
152324	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry shrubland (often with agaves and various trees) on calcareous gravels. The plants branch basally to form clumps.	eng
152324	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is extremely abundant.	eng
152324	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	There are no major threats.	eng
152398	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152398	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, to the states of Durango, occurring at elevations of 2,000 to 2,800 m.   The species appears over 60,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.	eng
152398	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Among volcanic rocks in semi desert.	eng
152398	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Estimated population of more than 10,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
152398	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting poses some small threat.	eng
152438	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152438	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Recorded mainly from the state of   Querétaro but also found in the neighbouring areas of San Luis Potosí, Mexico.	eng
152438	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry shrubland on limestone rocks.	eng
152438	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The population numbers several hundred plants.	eng
152438	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Despite the human activities in the surrounding areas, there are thought to be no threats to this species.	eng
152492	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002)</p>	eng
152492	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico occurring in the states of San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas at elevations of around 1,800 m (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
152492	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">On volcanic rock in semi desert.<strong></strong></p>	eng
152492	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species has an estimated population of 30,000 individuals.	eng
152492	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">There is some illegal collecting by tour groups and individuals. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. The plants are collected for sale in the local market for nativity scenes.</p>	eng
152493	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of San Luis Potosí State, in the Sierra Alvarez at elevations of   2,000 to 2,400 m. It occurs in an area of ca   600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
152493	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On sloping calcareous rocky terrain in semi desert.	eng
152493	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There are many subpopulations, extending over the southwestern portion of the range of the calcareous Sierra Alvarez, 600 square kilometers with a total population estimated to be more than 5,000 individuals.	eng
152493	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>These plants are little threatened by illegal collecting, commercial and amateur. </p>	eng
152518	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152518	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert, in both volcanic and calcareous soil.	eng
152518	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species has an estimated population size of more than 1,000,000 individuals.	eng
152518	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting.	eng
152538	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152538	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Recorded from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oreintal occuring in Texas (US) and in the Mexican states of Coahuila and Nuevo León.	eng
152538	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in semi-desert shrubland on the edge of the Chihuahuan Desert. Often found on limestone outcrops or in alluvial soils at the foot of hills and ridges. Usually grows under other bushes.<br/><br/>Plants may be solitary or may have many stems forming low mats. Flowers in summer (August to September).	eng
152538	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is abundant in places where there has not been any disturbance.	eng
152538	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Habitat has been lost in some areas, e.g., around Monterey, due to urban expansion (settlaments and roads).	eng
152565	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152565	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species is confined to the state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. The species was reportedly first described from a collection supposedly made inthe state of Durango, but its occurrence in that state has not been confirmed.	eng
152565	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Solitary plants grow in dry grassland areas, usually on the lower slopes of hills in limestone gravel.	eng
152565	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is fairly widespread and there are sizeable populations which have not been impacted by human activities.	eng
152565	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No major threats known.	eng
152572	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Even though the species is listed here as Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152572	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurs throughout much of the semi desert in the states of Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas.	eng
152572	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert on calcareous soil. Usually the plants occur singly, often growing in clumps of <em>Agave</em> or <em>Hechtia</em>.	eng
152572	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The population size is estimated to be of more than 500,000 individuals.	eng
152572	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegally collecting of individuals.	eng
152599	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152599	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to Mexico and found in the states of Chihuahua, Durango and Coahuila (Dicht and Lüthy 2003).	eng
152599	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows on alluvial soils in plains that are only sparsely used for farming.	eng
152599	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is a very abundant species with plants growing in clusters comprising hundreds of plants.	eng
152599	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	There is some farming for crops, but this is not a major threat.	eng
152601	conservation	Dicht, R., Lüthy, A, Hernández, H. & Gomez-Hinostrosa, C., 2002	The species occurs in several protected areas across its range, for example Tehuacan-Cuicatlan and Mapimí Biosphere Reserves (Golubov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
152601	distribution	Dicht, R., Lüthy, A, Hernández, H. & Gomez-Hinostrosa, C., 2002	This species is endemic to Mexico and occurs in several states. It has been reported from herbarium records from Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Querétaro, San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas and doubtfully records from the State of Mexico, Chihuahua and Veracruz and from the literature in Durango (Dicht and Lüthy 2003, Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Records from the Texas and Arizona in the USA likely pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. difficilis</span> (H. Hernández and C. Gomez-Hinostrosa pers. comm. 2009).	eng
152601	habitat	Dicht, R., Lüthy, A, Hernández, H. & Gomez-Hinostrosa, C., 2002	The species grows in limestone gravel on low hills and plains in xerophyllous scrub and grasslands. Plants are usually solitary.	eng
152601	population	Dicht, R., Lüthy, A, Hernández, H. & Gomez-Hinostrosa, C., 2002	This species is generally abundant where it occurs.	eng
152601	threats	Dicht, R., Lüthy, A, Hernández, H. & Gomez-Hinostrosa, C., 2002	Some populations are being reduced by grazing of goats and cattle, as well as expanding agriculture, but generally these are not causing major declines.	eng
152618	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152618	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí, occurring north and northwest at elevations of 1,800 to 2,400. The species is spread over and area of more than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
152618	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert among calcareous rocks.	eng
152618	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The estimated population size is more than 100,000 individuals.	eng
152618	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collection, and road construction&#160; affect some of the populations.	eng
152643	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Even though the species is here listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152643	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to the Mexican state of Nuevo León.	eng
152643	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert, on gypsum and limestone cliffs.	eng
152643	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The estimated population of the species is over 1,000,000 individuals.     <p>Early observations indicated that this species was restricted to one or two localities in the Valley of Rayones. In the 1960s and 1970s collectors removed large numbers of plants, though steep cliffs prevented the destruction of entire subpopulations. More recently several additional subpopulations have been found and evaluated. Large numbers of plants occur in these several sites, many of which are largely inaccessible. The species totals more than 1,000,000 individuals in a number of known, quite disjunct, subpopulations. </p>	eng
152643	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting, however the species grows on inaccesable cliffs and as a result it is protected.	eng
152646	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152646	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	A Mexican endemic with a fairly wide range in the central states of   Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas.	eng
152646	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry grasslands on limestone gravel or in alluvial soils on plains. Also recorded on the slopes and tops of hills.	eng
152646	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is an abundant species, often forming clusters with hundreds of plants.	eng
152646	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No major threats are known.	eng
152655	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No conservation measures are needed as the species has no major threats and is not targeted by collectors.	eng
152655	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This Mexican endemic has a fairly restricted range being found in the area around the Sierra de la Paila in Coahuila State.	eng
152655	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows as solitary plants in shrubland on alluvial plains and in limestone gravel on the slopes of the Sierra Paila and adjacent localities.	eng
152655	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Subpopulations are fairly scattered, but it is common where it occurs. These long-lived species only start reproducing after 15 years.	eng
152655	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	There are no major threats.	eng
152728	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Guanajuato, Querétaro and San Luis Potosí at elevations of   1,600 to 1,800 m.   The species appears over a 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> area.	eng
152728	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	On volcanic rock in semi desert.	eng
152728	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Estimated population size of   more than 100,000 individuals.<strong></strong>	eng
152728	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>There is little interest in collecting and small consequent threat. Increased agricultural use and housing expansion pose a small threat. Temperature extremes such as the 100 year freeze on the Altiplano in Dec 97 present a serious but unpredictable threat.</p>	eng
152733	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p><p>Occurs in the&#160; Cumbres de Monterrey National Park (CMNP), Nuevo Leon, Mexico. </p>	eng
152733	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	This species is endemic to Mexico, but is widely distributed and common in the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas (Hunt <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>  The original range of this subspecies extended from Coahuila and Nuevo León in the north to San Luis Potosí in the south. However, much of this range has been modified by agricultural development. The plants occur in many locations.	eng
152733	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species tends to favour limestone and rocky slopes (Goettsch and Hernández 2006) in semi-desert vegetation.<br/>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. retusus</span> is a perennial and obligate gypsophile, occurring regularly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Muhlenbergia </span>grassland and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bouteloua </span>grassland in Central Mexico (Meyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992). In the <span style="font-style: italic;">Muhlenbergia </span>grassland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ariocarpus </span>species are the only succulents present (Meyer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992).	eng
152733	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Although <span style="font-style: italic;">A. retusus</span> has a relatively extensive area of distribution, it has a very low density (Hernández and Godinez 1994).	eng
152733	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Threatened by illegal collecting and agricultural development, however, they are not major threats.	eng
152792	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>Even though the species here is listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152792	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.<br/>    <p>The original range of this subspecies extended from north of Monterrey, southward on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental to approximately Ciudad Victoria. It is also found commonly in the Valley of Jaumave, west of Ciudad Victoria. However, much of this range has been modified by agricultural development, particularly that area east of the Sierra. The plants occur at numerous localities throughout the Valley of Jaumave.</p>	eng
152792	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert among outcroppings of calcareous rocks.	eng
152792	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It has an estimated population size of more than 100,000 individuals.	eng
152792	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collecting and agricultural development	eng
152799	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Even though the species here is listed under Least Concern, is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).	eng
152799	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occurring in the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León.	eng
152799	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	It occurs throughout much of the mountainous grassland and pine forests of the states of Coahuila and Nuevo León, on limestone soil at above 2000 m altitude.	eng
152799	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>It is estimated that there are more than one million plants.</p>	eng
152799	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	There is some illegal collection but this is not a major threat.	eng
152803	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152803	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to the Mexican states of   Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.	eng
152803	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The solitary plants grow in shrubland on hill slopes in calcareous gravels, sometimes protected by other bushes such as Agaves and Opuntias.	eng
152803	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	A very common species with many thousands of plants.	eng
152803	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No major threats are known.	eng
152811	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lűthy, A., 2002	Recorded from Big Bend National Park (Texas, US).	eng
152811	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lűthy, A., 2002	This species has a wide range in the Chihuahuan Desert occurring in the states of   Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas (Mexico); and in New Mexico and Texas (USA). The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">runyonii </span>has a small disjunct range along the lower river-course of the Rio Grande, at sea level, between Brownsville and Rio Grande City (Texas) and a parallel range on the opposite river side in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas.	eng
152811	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lűthy, A., 2002	Grows in semi-desert shrubland in sandy alluvial soils or clay, especially in dry river lagoon areas. Has also been recorded growing in pure gypsum and in gravelly soils. The species commonly forms large clumps up to one metre wide. Grows out in the open or under bushes.	eng
152811	population	Dicht, R. & Lűthy, A., 2002	The typical subspecies has an enormous population comprising many thousands possibly hundreds of thousands of individuals. The subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">runyonii </span>on the other hand appears to be much scarcer.	eng
152811	threats	Dicht, R. & Lűthy, A., 2002	Given the wide range of this species it is likely to be impacted in parts of its range by human activities, however, this is not likely to have any significant impacts.	eng
152819	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152819	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	This species, only described in 2000 (Dicht and Lüthy 2002) is confined to the Mexican states of   Guanajuato and San Luis Potosí.	eng
152819	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry grassland on slopes and tops of hills and mountains and in calcareous gravels. The plants usually grow from large underground stems and form clusters of several stems.	eng
152819	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The population is fairly small but is likely to number more than 1,000 mature individuals. All the subpopulations are healthy and untouched by human activities.	eng
152819	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	There are no major threats at present.	eng
152870	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in Mexico by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “threatened” (A; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>	eng
152870	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<span lang="EN-US">Species endemic to the Mexican state of Coahuila, occurring at elevations between 1,000 to 1,800.  <span lang="EN-US">The species appears over a 16,0<span lang="EN-US">00 km<sup>2</sup>.<strong></strong>	eng
152870	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	The species grows on steep calcareous rock in semi desert.	eng
152870	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p><span lang="EN-US">The estimated populations size of&#160; 5,000 individuals.<strong></strong></p>	eng
152870	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-US">There is some illegal collecting.</p>  <span lang="EN-US"><br/><p></p>	eng
152918	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Given its wide range it probably occurs in protected areas, but none have been specifically recorded.	eng
152918	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Endemic to Mexico, reported to be present in the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajauto, Hidalgo and Querétaro (Hernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). Dicht and Lüthy (2003) also report it as occurring rarely in the states of San Luis Potosí and in Tamaulipas.<br/><br/>Given the wide range of this species and its striking appearance, it was collected and sent to Europe very early.	eng
152918	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Plants are solitary or branch basally to form clumps. Grows in dry grassland on limestone gravel or alluvial soils at the foot of hills and on ridges.	eng
152918	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Is fairly common, with dozens of plants being found at each known locality, and in remote areas forming huge groups (Dicht and Lüthy 2003).	eng
152918	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Although there is some illegal collection, this does not appear to be a major threat. The main threat to the species is increasing frequency of fires to create grazing for livestock.	eng
152928	conservation	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The species is legally protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region> by the national list of species at risk of extinction, NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, where it is listed under category “subject to special protection” (Pr; SEMARNAT 2002).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
152928	distribution	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Species endemic to Mexico, occirring in the states of Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas and reported from the literature from Durango. It occurs throughout much of the northern portion of the Mexican Altiplano.	eng
152928	habitat	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Semi desert on various soil types.	eng
152928	population	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	<p>The estimated population size is more than 1,000,000 plants.</p>	eng
152928	threats	Fitz Maurice, W.A. & Fitz Maurice, B., 2002	Illegal collection of individuals form wild populations. Removal of floral buds for human consumption could be affecting the populations, however studies are needed (Goettsch).	eng
152960	conservation	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Unknown.	eng
152960	distribution	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Known only from a small area (two locations) in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico.	eng
152960	habitat	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	Grows in dry grassland on flat ridges on or in between hills in calcareous soils. The plants are usually solitary, but may occasionally branch and form small clumps.	eng
152960	population	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	The population comprises thousands of plants. The two subpopulations are both healthy and stable.	eng
152960	threats	Dicht, R. & Lüthy, A., 2002	No threats are known.	eng
153534	conservation	Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. & Duarte, C., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica </span>is protected by EU legislation (Habitat directive), the <st1:place w:st="on">Bern</st1:place> and Barcelona Conventions and national legislation (<st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place>, <st1:place w:st="on">Algeria</st1:place>, etc.). Fishing regulations limit trawling activities near the shore (either above 50 m or a certain distance from the coast), which constitute an indirect protection measure for the species (EC Council Regulation N° 1967/2006 and national regulations). </p>          <p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> oceanica</span> is present in various marine parks in the countries along the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place> (Green and Short 2003). Efforts have been made to prevent physical damage caused by trawler-fishing by placing artificial reefs, consisting of spiked concrete blocks, along certain stretches of the coast, and also by mounting a coastal watch to prevent illegal trawling.</p><p>Research into potential species conservation plans is needed, as is site protection and management, habitat restoration, increased awareness, and legislation at local, national and international levels.<br/></p>	eng
153534	distribution	Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. & Duarte, C., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica</span> is endemic to the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean  Sea</st1:place>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia </span><span style="font-style: italic;">oceanica</span> is the dominant  seagrass in the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place> covering about 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> of coastal to offshore sandy and rocky areas to depths of 45 m.</p>	eng
153534	habitat	Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. & Duarte, C., 2009	<em>Posidonia oceanica</em> is the most abundant seagrass species in the Mediterranean. This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean bioregion (Peres and Picard 1964, Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 1990, Short <em>et al</em>. 2007), from the surface to the maximum depth of 45 m. It is common on different types of substrate, from rocks to sand (Bethoux and Copin-Motegut, 1986), except in estuaries where the input of fresh water and fine sediments is high. It is more commonly found on sand.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is a large, long-living but very slow-growing seagrass. Its shoots, which are able to live for at least 30 years, are produced at a slow rate from rhizomes which grow horizontally by only 1-6 cm each year. Over centuries the rhizomes form mats which rise up into reefs that help to trap sediment and mediate the motion of waves, thus clarifying the water and protecting beaches from erosion (Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is a monoecious species, with male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. The biological characteristics of <em>P. oceanica</em> are not conducive to a rapid recolonization of dead matte: sexual reproduction is rare, natural reestablishment is not common, and horizontal growth of rhizome edges from a contiguous bed is very slow (Meinesz <em>et al</em>. 1991). For more detailed information, a synthesis of the current knowledge is available in Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. (2006).<br/><br/>The meadows composed of this species are considered the basis of the richness of Mediterranean coastal waters, due to the surface area they occupy and to the essential part they play at biological level in maintaining the coastal equilibrium and their concomitant economic activities (Boudouresque <em>et al</em>. 2006). The role of <em>Posidonia oceanica</em> meadows in marine coastal environments is often correctly compared to that of a forest.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is an important habitat forming species and provides habitat for many species. Nursery grounds for the juveniles of many commercially important fishes and vertebrates, such as several species of the family Sparidae (e.g., <em>Diplodus annularis</em>), Serranidae (e.g., <em>Serranus cabrilla</em>), Labridae (e.g., <em>Coris julis</em> and <em>Crenilabrus maculatus</em>) and Scorpaenidae (e.g., <em>Scorpaena scrofa</em> and <em>Scorpaena porcus</em>), and the sea urchin <em>Paracentrotus lividus</em>. <em>Posidonia</em><em> oceanica</em> is also grazed on by the Green Sea Turtle (<em>Chelonia mydas</em>). A recent study by Thomas <em>et al</em>. (2005) found that urchins have a relatively minor impact on the seagrass, while grazing by the fish <em>Salpa salpa</em> can outstrip locally the plants' leaf production.	eng
153534	population	Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. & Duarte, C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia oceanica </span>is abundant in the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>, however there is evidence that the population is declining in the western Mediterranean. Several local studies have shown serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica </span>meadows. However, accurate data are generally very localised and are lacking for many parts of the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>. Therefore, cases of observed regression are not representative of the region as a whole. Relatively healthy <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> meadows, whose limits have changed little since the 1950s, can thrive in highly developed areas. In some areas, there is evidence of recolonization by <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> after the human impact ceased or was reduced, but the process of recolonization is extremely slow, i.e. a few centimetres per year (Pergent-Martini <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). Considering all Mediterranean seagrass species area combined, Jackson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) estimated total losses at 446 km² over the last 100 years. A recent study looking at the population status of six Mediterranean <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> areas showed positive population dynamics in some localities for all studied parameters (González-Correa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is estimated that the overall decline in area for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. oceanica</span> is less than 10% (Thomas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) over three generation lengths (100 years), and declines have mainly occurred near urban areas (Boudouresque <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153534	threats	Pergent, G., Semroud, R., Djellouli, A., Langar, H. & Duarte, C., 2009	<em>Posidonia oceanica</em> is threatened at depth by mechanical damage from trawling, boat anchoring, and turbidity. Coastal development including shoreline hardening, urban and harbour infrastructure, and sand mining&#160; affect the upper limit of&#160; <em>Posidonia</em> meadows. <br/><br/>Eutrophication (fertilizer from agriculture and urban waste) and pollution, especially in coastal regions that are heavily populated, is a problem. Fish farm activities and aquaculture affect surrounding <em>Posidonia</em> meadows. Only meadows greater than 800 m away from the fish farms showed no impact from the fish farming activity and meadows up to one km from large fish farms may be affected (Marba <em>et al</em>. 2006). Invasive species also compete for habitat (e.g., seaweeds species such as <em>Caulerpa taxifolia</em> and <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em>). Climate change will be an additional threat through warming of waters (in excess of 28°C) and erosion from sea level rise.<br/><br/>The lack of genetic variability and slow growth makes <em>Posidonia</em> <em>oceanica</em> less resilient to disturbance.	eng
153535	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is protected in various marine parks in different countries of the Mediterranean.	eng
153535	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea and extends into the Atlantic Ocean north to mid-Portugal and south to Madeira and to the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, as well as to Mauritania and Senegal on the coast of Africa.	eng
153535	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In the western Mediterranean, <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> commonly occurs in shallow water (from a few cm to a depth of 2.5 m) but can reach a depth of 30-40 m, usually found in sandy substrate and sheltered sites. This species is a common seagrass in the eastern Mediterranean, frequently occurs in small sandy pockets that accumulate in crevices or small depressions on rocky flats. In beds, occasionally it is accompanied by <em>Caulerpa prolifera</em>, which may reach 20% of the plant cover. This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean Bioregion (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007) but also occurs in meadows with <em>P. oceanica</em> (it is out-competed by this species). <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> provides important habitat for seahorses.<br/><br/>In Israel, <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is found on sandy bottoms at sheltered sites. Populations are subject to large seasonal and year-to-year fluctuations in size, on occasion disappearing completely, eventually to renew from the seed stocks in the sediment. <em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> can survive a moderate level of disturbance.	eng
153535	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is common throughout the Mediterranean. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
153535	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Cymodocea nodosa</em> is threatened locally by mechanical damage from trawling and anchoring from boats and coastal development. Eutrophication is also a problem. This species is found in coastal regions where there is a high level of human disturbance. It is however, a relatively resistant species.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is threatened due to competition from seaweed species like <em>Caulerpa taxifolia</em> and <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em>. In the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, increased amounts of domestic and industrial pollutants are impacting the species (Green and Short 2003).	eng
153538	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it has general protection under coastal habitat conservation laws and where it occurs in protected areas.	eng
153538	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera marina</em> is widespread and circumglobal in northern latitudes, found throughout the north Atlantic and north Pacific and in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. <em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> extends into the Arctic in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and northern Europe and to the tropics in Baja California, Mexico.	eng
153538	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In Scandinavia and UK, this is the most widely distributed seagrass, dominates sandy and muddy sediments in coastal areas of low to moderate wave exposure. In southernmost Sweden it flourishes on stony and sandy bottoms at 2-4 m depth. It has a wide salinity tolerance of 5-35 ppt. In the western Baltic Sea it occurs along exposed sandy shores and in long bays and shallow lagoons with reduced water exchange and muddy substrate. Has a facultative mutualism with blue mussels (<em>Mytilus edulis</em>) in shallow waters (1-3 m depth).<br/><br/>This species is commonly grazed by isopods (<em>Idotea</em> spp.) and snails (<em>Hydrophobia</em> spp., <em>Littorina</em> spp.). It is also consumed by birds, especially Mute Swans (<em>Cygnus olor</em>) in shallow lagoons.<br/><br/>This is a relict species in the Mediterranean, where it forms perennial meadows distributed from the intertidal to a few meters deep. In the Black Sea, <em>Z. marina</em> is found in pure and mixed stands from 0.5-15 m depth on silty-sandy substrates. It has 80-100% cover in its beds and shoot density of 988/m². It has 115 species of macroalgae associated with it (Milchakova 1999). <em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> occurs regularly in coastal lagoons of the western Mediterranean (Laugier <em>et al</em>. 1999) where it is often found with <em>Z. noltii</em>.<br/><br/>In Japan, occurs in the shallowest parts of subtidal beds, mostly between 1-5 m deep, but in some places down to 10 m. Flowering and fruiting seasons vary by 2-4 months across Japan, with early flowering and fruiting observed at lower latitudes. In South Korea, appears at the intertidal and subtidal zones, where the water depth is usually less than 5 m, and forms relatively large meadows and can be observed in both muddy and sandy sediments. It accounts for about 90% of total seagrass coverage in Republic of Korea.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> marina</em> is the dominant species in terms of biomass and habitats in the Pacific coast of North America, where it grows in the shallow waters of the continental shelf, the Gulf of California, coastal lagoons, estuaries and coastal fjords. Can co-mingle with <em>Zostera japonica</em> in the Pacific Northwest and <em>Ruppia maritima</em> in Baja California. Overwhelmingly dominant seagrass in coastal and estuarine areas of the western North Atlantic, found in both intertidal and subtidal areas, from a depth of +2 m to -12 m mean sea level. Distribution ranges from the protected low-salinity (5 ppt) waters of inner estuaries and coastal ponds to high-energy locations fully exposed to the Gulf of Maine and the North Atlantic with salinity of 36 psu (Green and Short 2003).	eng
153538	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are regions of large scale decline for <em>Zostera marina</em> (wasting disease and major pollution threats), areas where there has been no decline and the population is thriving, and areas of complete disappearance. This species is a widespread and dominant species, usually monospecific meadows. It has declines mostly in developed and populated areas in Europe and North America.<br/><br/>Ongoing restoration efforts since the 1940s in Europe and North America transplanted to re-establish populations of eelgrass in part of their former range from which they had been extirpated.<br/><br/>There has been a global decline of area covered by <em>Zostera marina</em> by 1.4% per year based on 126 documented changes in area that have been conducted over a 10 year period from 1990-2000.	eng
153538	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There have been local declines in many regions due to loss of water clarity from sedimentation, coastal development and wasting disease. Nutrient loading from runoff has also resulted in some local declines.	eng
153567	conservation	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in protected areas. There have been some reintroductions in Ibiza, and some habitat restoration (restoration of water tanks) has been carried out. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the Habitats Directive (as <em>Bufo viridis</em>).	eng
153567	distribution	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species ranges through much of Italy, including the island of Sardinia and the easternmost parts of Sicily; it also is present on the island of Corsica (France), and the Balearic Islands of Spain (where it was probably introduced in prehistoric times). Found from sea level to 1,330 m asl in central Italy (Romano <em>et al</em>. 2003; Spilinga 2007).	eng
153567	habitat	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It is generally a lowland species. It occupies coastal areas (typically but not exclusively sand dunes), cultivated areas, and suburban and urban areas where it is found in gravel and sand pits, ponds and ditches; also in water tanks in the Balearic Islands.	eng
153567	population	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	Common with stable populations in suitable habitats in Italy. Within the Balearic Islands it is common except for on Ibiza. It is declining slowly on Majorca and more rapidly on Ibiza as a result of loss of breeding habitat.	eng
153567	threats	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	In the Balearic Islands, loss and degradation of breeding habitat has resulted from excessive water abstraction, urbanization, decline of traditional agricultural practices and pollution with agrochemicals. Fragmentation as a result of road construction is also a problem.	eng
153568	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan.	eng
153568	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	In view of the species wide range it is presumably present in some protected areas. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan.	eng
153568	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This largely North Africa species occurs as fragmented populations from Western Sahara and Morocco in the east through Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, to Egypt. It has been recorded from the island of Lampedusa in Italy. The status of fragmented populations recorded from western Arabia, southern Israel and Jordan is unclear and they may be assignable to this species or possibly to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>.	eng
153568	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This largely North Africa species occurs as fragmented populations from Western Sahara and Morocco in the east through Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, to Egypt. It has been recorded from the island of Lampedusa in Italy. The status of fragmented populations recorded from western Arabia, southern Israel and Jordan is unclear and they may be assignable to this species or possibly to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>.	eng
153568	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is found as often fragmented populations in forested areas, scrubland, dry grassland, semi-deserts and deserts. It inhabits both wetland areas as well as different dry desert types (usually found close to oases). It is presumably able to adapt to some habitat modification, especially where irrigation schemes increase the availability of suitable spawning habitats.	eng
153568	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	This species is found as often fragmented populations in forested areas, scrubland, dry grassland, semi-deserts and deserts. It inhabits both wetland areas as well as different dry desert types (usually found close to oases). It is presumably able to adapt to some habitat modification, especially where irrigation schemes increase the availability of suitable spawning habitats.	eng
153568	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
153568	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
153568	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	The main threat over much of the range appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural).	eng
153568	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2009	The main threat over much of the range appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural).	eng
153569	conservation	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is presumed to occur in protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
153569	distribution	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This species is endemic to Italy, where it has been recorded from Sicily as well as the islands of Favigana and Ustica. The precise eastern distribution limit on Sicily needs to be clarified. Altitudinal range is from sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
153569	habitat	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	It is generally a lowland species. It occupies coastal areas (typically but not exclusively sand dunes), cultivated areas, and suburban and urban areas where it is found in gravel and sand pits, ponds and ditches.	eng
153569	population	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	This is a common species.	eng
153569	threats	Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, 2008	Habitat fragmentation as a result of road construction is a threat. Loss of breeding habitat as a result of water abstraction may also be a problem. The species is, however, not considered to be seriously threatened at present.	eng
153570	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi, Natalia Ananjeva & Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Turan Protected Area of Iran (Theodore Papenfuss and pers. comm., September 2008), and might be present in the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve in Turkmenistan (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
153570	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi, Natalia Ananjeva & Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species appears to be an endemic species of the Kopet-Dagh mountain range and a little of the eastern Elbourz mountain range in northern Iran and southern Turkmenistan. It is possibly present in adjacent Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, although this requires confirmation.	eng
153570	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi, Natalia Ananjeva & Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species is found in an area of arid mountains and hills, and breeds in slow moving streams and ponds. Populations can be found close to villages and in disturbed habitats.	eng
153570	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi, Natalia Ananjeva & Nikolai Orlov, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
153570	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi, Natalia Ananjeva & Nikolai Orlov, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
153571	conservation	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	Additional taxonomic studies are needed for populations currently indicated as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck<em> et a</em>l. (2006), as are studies into the natural history of these populations. Further details of the distribution are desirable. It seems probable that if <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is widespread that it will also be present in some protected areas, although this requires confirmation. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan. The entire range of the morphologically distinct Kavir Desert population is within the very well-protected Kavir National Park. There is a need to ensure that no development of the limited habitat of this locality is undertaken.	eng
153571	conservation	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2009	Additional taxonomic studies are needed for populations currently indicated as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck<em> et a</em>l. (2006), as are studies into the natural history of these populations. Further details of the distribution are desirable. It seems probable that if <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is widespread that it will also be present in some protected areas, although this requires confirmation. Further studies are needed to confirm the identity of green toad populations in Israel and Jordan. The entire range of the morphologically distinct Kavir Desert population is within the very well-protected Kavir National Park. There is a need to ensure that no development of the limited habitat of this locality is undertaken.	eng
153571	distribution	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is mapped by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as ranging from Greece, eastwards through Turkey, Cyprus to Syria and Lebanon (and possibly south as fragmented populations through Israel and Jordan through western Saudi Arabia (although these populations are current unassigned to species by Stöck <em>et al</em>. [2006] and might represent <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>). It is mapped in Iraq and Iran, and is recorded as being distributed through the Caucasus and Russia to Kazakhstan. Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) records a seemingly isolated population in Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany. There is a morphologically distinct population in the Kavir Desert known only from the type locality of 'Cheshmeh-ye Sefied Ab, situated about 10 km southwest of Kuh-e Ghal'e-ye Sard mountains and about 30 km south of Siah Kuh mountains in the southern part of the Kavir Protected Region about 200km south of Teheran, Iran' (Andrén and Nilson 1979). The total range of this population consists of a single brackish spring and surrounding grass covered areas of less than 1km2 in total (Andrén and Nilson 1979; Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). The distribution of<em> Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is considered to be incompletely known with further surveys needed.	eng
153571	distribution	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2009	This species is mapped by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as ranging from Greece, eastwards through Turkey, Cyprus to Syria and Lebanon (and possibly south as fragmented populations through Israel and Jordan through western Saudi Arabia (although these populations are current unassigned to species by Stöck <em>et al</em>. [2006] and might represent <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>). It is mapped in Iraq and Iran, and is recorded as being distributed through the Caucasus and Russia to Kazakhstan. Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) records a seemingly isolated population in Denmark, southern Sweden and northern Germany. There is a morphologically distinct population in the Kavir Desert known only from the type locality of 'Cheshmeh-ye Sefied Ab, situated about 10 km southwest of Kuh-e Ghal'e-ye Sard mountains and about 30 km south of Siah Kuh mountains in the southern part of the Kavir Protected Region about 200km south of Teheran, Iran' (Andrén and Nilson 1979). The total range of this population consists of a single brackish spring and surrounding grass covered areas of less than 1km2 in total (Andrén and Nilson 1979; Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). The distribution of<em> Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> is considered to be incompletely known with further surveys needed.	eng
153571	habitat	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	Although additional details of natural history are needed for populations recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>, it seems plausible that it can be found in similar habitats to those populations indicated by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, including grassland, meadows and steppe habitats, forests and shrubland, and a range of wetland areas or waterbodies. The isolated Kavir Desert population is restricted to the area of a single brackish spring and surrounding grassland within this highly arid environment.	eng
153571	habitat	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2009	Although additional details of natural history are needed for populations recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>, it seems plausible that it can be found in similar habitats to those populations indicated by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as belonging to <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, including grassland, meadows and steppe habitats, forests and shrubland, and a range of wetland areas or waterbodies. The isolated Kavir Desert population is restricted to the area of a single brackish spring and surrounding grassland within this highly arid environment.	eng
153571	population	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There is little information available for populations recognized by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>. The isolated population indicated by Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2006)  from Denmark, Sweden and possibly northern Germany are considered to be rare and declining. Populations in Israel my be expanding their range with increasing irrigation of arid areas. The isolated population in the Kavir Desert is very small, possibly only 100 mature individuals, but certainly less than 1,000 animals (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
153571	population	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2009	There is little information available for populations recognized by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006) as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em>. The isolated population indicated by Stöck <em>et al.</em> (2006)  from Denmark, Sweden and possibly northern Germany are considered to be rare and declining. Populations in Israel my be expanding their range with increasing irrigation of arid areas. The isolated population in the Kavir Desert is very small, possibly only 100 mature individuals, but certainly less than 1,000 animals (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
153571	threats	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The threats to the species are poorly known, but in view of the widely reported distribution for <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> it is probable that there are no overall major threats. The key threats to this species in parts of its range are likely to be similar to that of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, namely the loss (for instance through agricultural expansion) or degradation (pollution) of wetland breeding habitats. The Kavir Desert population is found in an extremely remote area, although there are buildings of the Game Guard Post surrounding the single spring. Although there are no current threats to this population, it is plausible that any alteration of the stream flow (for example through the creation of watering troughs for game animals) could lead to the rapid decline of this morphologically distinct population.	eng
153571	threats	Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2009	The threats to the species are poorly known, but in view of the widely reported distribution for <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> it is probable that there are no overall major threats. The key threats to this species in parts of its range are likely to be similar to that of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em>, namely the loss (for instance through agricultural expansion) or degradation (pollution) of wetland breeding habitats. The Kavir Desert population is found in an extremely remote area, although there are buildings of the Game Guard Post surrounding the single spring. Although there are no current threats to this population, it is plausible that any alteration of the stream flow (for example through the creation of watering troughs for game animals) could lead to the rapid decline of this morphologically distinct population.	eng
153601	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008).&#160;&#160;     <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008). </p>	eng
153601	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species<em> </em>is known from small gullies and creeks feeding a few creeks in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Coughran 2005). It is known from eight localities, and has an extent of occurrence of approximately 48.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coughran 2007). The species is restricted to rainforested headwater streams and gullies above 570 m above sea level. The isolated sites thus constitute a fragmented overall distribution, due to the effective barrier to dispersal by intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
153601	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species occupies a range of habitat types including gullies, tributaries and headwater streams. Individuals were taken from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks. All sample sites were within closed forest cover. Many of the sites lacked standing water (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse. pers. comm. 2008).</p><p>  The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).  </p>	eng
153601	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It is uncommon at the sites at which it is found (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153601	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Although this species occurs within a national park it is still susceptible to threats such as climate change (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). This species will be significantly impacted by climate change in two ways; first the increase in temperature may restrict this species to higher altitudes, where the habitat is more thermally suitable. Second, climate change may result in the upper extremities of their montane habitats becoming drier. This could cause the lowering of superficial water tables upon which they appear to rely, thus restricting their upper altitudinal range (Coughran 2007). This will potentially lead to a population and distribution decline (Coughran 2007).<br/><br/>As this species does occur in an area of high visitation there is a very real risk of pollutant or infectant introduction (Coughran 2007). Wildfire or management burns may also lead to siltation and deoxygenation of habitats. Although illegal collecting for personal collection and preserved material is relatively low-level, it may pose a considerable threat to this species given its extremely restricted distribution (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In recent years, the Cane Toad has been found in high altitude rainforest habitats, including sites inhabited by this species and is of direct concern (DEH 2004b; Coughran 2007). Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e). Given the highly restricted distribution of this crayfish, these exotic species could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted  range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),  global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This  species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats,  feral pigs, foxes and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be  significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J.  Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).<p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153602	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>The apparent disjunct distribution between populations of this species<em> </em>at Dandenong and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mornington</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place> needs to be investigated (Horwitz 1990). Further monitoring is required to detect if the population is declining in peri-urban areas as they expand beyond the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city> metropolitan area (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Research should include the investigation of habitat status, and potential threats. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153602	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is found in the foothills to the north-west, west, and south of the Dandenong Ranges, from Panton Hill in the north to Flinders in the south on the Mornington Peninsula. There is a  disjunct distribution between populations at Dandenong and the Mornington Peninsula. (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 2,891 km².	eng
153602	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	At Olinda, this species<em></em> can be found in   large cavernous burrows in grey, clay-dominated soils in temperate, wet sclerophyll forest at the foot of the Dandenong Ranges. The largest male found was 30.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 24.2 to 38.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 29.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153602	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>There is no population information for this species, although large burrows can contain high numbers&#160;of free living juveniles, sometimes exceeding 100 (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153602	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>Early reports of this species&#160;refer to the species being found in what are now the suburbs of Melbourne (i.e. Box Hill, Croydon and Ringwood) (Smith and Schuster 1913, Clark 1936); these populations may have been slowly eliminated (Horwitz 1990), although their burrows are still periodically reported from urban areas. The most likely reason for this apparent decline in urban areas is destruction of burrows during infrastructure works, and even poisoning of crayfish to prevent them from undermining building structures (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, the wide range of this species (with an EOO exceeding 2,800 km²) means that these local effects are not likely to be a major threat for the species as a whole. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153603	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, along with monitoring of the population trends. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153603	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to north-eastern Tasmania, Australia. Its range extends from Port Sorell eastwards to near St. Helens where it can be found at predominantly low altitudes (less than 200 m) (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  5,954 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153603	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species burrows in a variety of habitats, including temperate, wet, sclerophyll forests in the region of Mt. Horror and Lilydale; buttongrass plains in the region of Floyds Creek; and ephemeral creeks and swamps in the open, temperate and dry sclerophyll forests of the Mt. Direction-Georgetown region of north-east Tasmania. Spawning takes place in late spring or early summer after females moult. The largest male found was 25.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 13.4 to 24.1 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 17.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153603	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is considered to be abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153603	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species' range overlaps with areas of development for agriculture and urbanization, which is likely to have driven localized declines, although this is not believed to be impacting this species on a global scale. Broad scale habitat alteration and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153604	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although part of its range falls within several national parks. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species<em> </em>does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and connectivity, and whether this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). &#160;</p><p></p>    <p><br/></p>	eng
153604	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species is endemic to Australia, it is found at altitudes above 75 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). It ranges from near Elands, southwest of Comboyne, 100 km southwest to the Barrington Tops area (New South Wales), it also inhabits the Myall  Range near Bulahdelah (Morgan 1997).   This species has a distribution of approximately  5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153604	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits small steams with temperate rainforest along the banks and sclerophyll on elevated ridges (Morgan 1997). The species co-occurs with the much larger <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus spinifer</span> (Morgan 1997). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages and may represent fragmented populations; Morgan (1997) included this species in his "highland" grouping of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, though&#160; this species occurs at altitudes as low as 75 m above sea level. </p>	eng
153604	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153604	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species are either restricted to fragmented highland habitats, or are widespread extending to near sea level, with little crossover (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is unusual as it does not fit into either group, it could therefore be fragmented across its range, separated by mountain ridges and/or lowlands (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It inhabits various vegetation types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153607	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is vulnerable due to its highly restricted distribution and relatively strict habitat requirements. This species requires further research into its range, monitoring, and investigation of any potential threats which may cause habitat degradation. The Collingwood and Franklin Rivers should also be given protection to ensure no land is cleared in the vicinity.</p>	eng
153607	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the catchments of the Collingwood and Franklin rivers and streams. The estimated range of this species is 6 km<sup>2</sup>, although this is likely to increase with further collecting (Hansen and Richardson 2006). This species has been collected at an elevation of 500 - 600 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>  <p></p>	eng
153607	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in plains and creeks. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath (Hansen and Richardson 2006).	eng
153607	population	Richardson, A., 2010	<em></em>  This species may reach densities of 0.25 m<sup>-2</sup>, though locally densities of this species seem lower than some other sedgeland species (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153607	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	This species could be threatened by its restricted distribution, estimated to be 6 km<sup><em>2</em></sup> at present (although this is likely to increase with further collecting) (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Although this species is found in a national park, its highly restricted distribution and relatively strict habitat requirements mean that disturbance (most likely to be land clearance) to the Collingwood or Franklin river catchments could cause a significant population decline.   Furthermore, too frequent or too intense fires are a possible threat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153608	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species is currently listed as 'vulnerable' under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act (1995) and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (Doran 2000). It is also included in the <em>Engaeus</em> group Recovery Plan, which was adopted by both state and federal governments (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species is currently incorporated in a notification and conservation prescription system established by the Forest Practices Board (FPB) and the Threatened Species Unit (TSU) to advise forestry operations within sensitive areas (Doran 2000). It was identified as a Category 1 fauna species (requiring protection of all populations and habitat within its known range) under the Tasmanian comprehensive regional assessment process (Tasmanian Public Land Use Commission 1997). It has ultimately been identified as a Priority Species 'requiring recovery action' under the Tasmanian Regional Forest Agreement (Attachment 2, Part A.1) signed between the Commonwealth of Australia and the State of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state> in November 1997 (Doran 1999). Long-term monitoring programs have been put in place to provide feedback information on the effectiveness of conservation measures currently in place.<br/> <br/> This species has a limited and patchy distribution, so all habitat in which the species is found must be considered essential for species survival. None of its distribution occurs within formal reserves and it is considered to have a particularly poor reservation status (Doran 2000). Furthermore, the impacts of forestry activities on this species are unclear. Its restricted range combined with limited availability of good quality forested habitat, demands that it be treated with caution until we have a better understanding of this species (Doran 2000). Assessment and prioritisation of Crown, public and private land for both formal and informal reservation are required to protect relevant catchments. Conservation measures that are required include rehabilitation of habitat within urban Burnie, by developing a program with the Burnie City Council to address water quality/ pollution issues and promote native streamside revegetation (Doran 2000). Future decisions about catchment-based refuse sites should be made with consideration for threatened species and community health (Doran and Richards 1996). Landholders should be informed about the presence of the species and its importance, and encouraged to conserve the crayfish habitat on their land (Doran and Richards 1996). Community involvement and monitoring are also essential conservation measures. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153608	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Burnie, in north-western Tasmania, Australia. This species was thought to be restricted to three creeks, namely the catchments of Shorewell, Romaine and Cooee Creeks (Doran and Richardson 1996, Horwitz 1994). More recent survey work has also found populations in Camp and Distillery Creeks and related catchments (Doran 1999). The extension to the additional catchments expanded the known extent of occurrence (EOO) from only 9 km<sup>2</sup> to over 107 km<sup>2</sup> (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   It is no longer considered to be as severely fragmented as previously believed, and only the urban populations remain fragmented (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153608	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species prefers well-covered, slowly draining strips of fern-dominated native riparian vegetation. It is known from stream banks and seepages retaining remnant riparian vegetation within Burnie, and outside the city, in open and grassy sheep pasture, farm dams, roadside seeps and culverts, sedgey marsh, and some moderately disturbed stream sides (Doran 1999). This species feeds mainly on rotting vegetation and insects (Bryant and Jackson 1999). It is likely that it burrows under structures such as fallen logs, consuming <em>Dicksonia sporangia</em> and other vegetation. Burrows are either connected to the water table or are directly connected to the creeks. At sites where the burrows are adjacent to creeks it is probable the species supplements its diet with aquatic invertebrates (Doran and Richardson 1996). The breeding season for this species has been inferred from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaeus</span>; this generally occurs from July to December (Bryant and Jackson 1999). Large numbers of berried (egg-carrying) females have been found in early December, all carrying eggs in early developmental stages (Doran 1999).	eng
153608	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	This species, following recent investigation has been found to be quite abundant in the western portion of its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). The eastern portion of its range, however, is patchy&#160;where suitable habitat exists, is separated by channelized creeks and is being impacted by urban development. It is thus very reasonable to assume that populations in this eastern distribution have declined significantly in extent and number (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153608	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2010	Due to the restricted distribution of the species, it is impacted by a number of threats. The greatest threats to this species are water pollution, water diversion and habitat removal (Doran 2000). There is some evidence that declines in population numbers and distribution have occurred due to decreasing water quality and increasing urban and industrial water pollution (Doran 2000). In Burnie, it appears that this species<em></em> shows no tendency to colonise areas which have previously been cleared of native vegetation along Shorewell Creek (Doran and Richards 1996). The Cooee Creek subpopulation could potentially be threatened by the Burnie Municipality refuse site impacting water quality and resulting in habitat loss (Doran and Richardson 1996). This species is absent from sites downstream of a disused refuse site on the Shorewell Creek (Doran and Richardson 1996). Effective dispersal and breeding between the Shorewell and Cooee Creek subpopulations is thought to be limited, therefore increasing genetic depression (Horwitz 1994).<br/><br/>Agricultural and forestry activities also impact on populations through changes to the hydrology and water quality of the area due to water abstraction, road building, dam building, streamside land clearance, soil compaction, and sedimentation. Stock access can be especially detrimental, causing disruption of colonies by soil compaction, sedimentation and loss of water quality. Widespread streamside land clearance over many years has left few of the smaller streams with this species preferred riparian vegetation, particularly tree ferns.   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/><br/><p></p>	eng
153609	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with the <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Yabbra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">national parks</st1:placetype></st1:place><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm   orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, population genetics, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160;   <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153609	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is found in some tributaries of the Clarence and <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Rivers</st1:placetype> in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Richmond</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype> of northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1997, Coughran 2006). It is found only in headwater streams, usually at altitudes over 200 m above sea level (Coughran in press). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 985 km<sup>2</sup>, but its distribution consists of three distinct, severely fragmented populations separated by unsuitable habitat in intervening lowlands or steep mountain ranges (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">in press</span>, Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
153609	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is found in rivers and streams along gullies in wet and dry sclerophyll forest on exposed ridges (Morgan 1997).   The surrounding lower country has been extensively cleared for agriculture and is inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (Morgan 1997). Further information on the ecology of the species has been documented by Coughran (2000, 2006 <span style="font-style: italic;">in press</span>).	eng
153609	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for this species. Its distribution consists of three distinct, severely fragmented  populations separated by unsuitable habitat in intervening lowlands or  steep mountain ranges (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">in  press</span>, Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>	eng
153609	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007. <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153610	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Lake Paniai is included within the Enarotali Nature Reserve, however Lake Tage and Tigi are unprotected. Further research is needed to determine if this species' range does in fact extend beyond the Wissel Lakes and how it has been impacted by threats within its range.</p>	eng
153610	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2010	This species has been collected from the Wissel Lakes (Paniai, Tage and Tigi) in the Sudirman Range of New Guinea, Indonesia. The lakes are located at an altitude of 1,750 m (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153610	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2010	<em></em>This species is confined to lakes (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153610	population	Austin, C.M., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153610	threats	Austin, C.M., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The shorelines of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Wissel</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lakes</st1:placetype> are surrounded by one of the densest concentrations of agricultural land within the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New Guinea</st1:place></st1:country-region> highlands. There has been extensive land clearance for sweet potato plantations, t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ber, and livestock ranching. Changes in land use are known to be <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the water quality in the lakes, through sed<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>entation and eutrophication (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). The local villagers harvest this species for food.&#160; While the precise effects of these <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacts are not yet well understood, they are believed to be having a significant <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pact on habitat quality and population size (C. M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153612	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Targeted surveys are required to determine if this species has become extinct. <br/></p>	eng
153612	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been recorded from the catchment of a creek near the King River and has an approximate distribution of 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006), and is known to occur at an elevation of 200 - 300 m above sea level. Furthermore, the range of this species has probably been severely reduced by the creation of the Lake Burbury hydroelectric impoundment in the early 1990s (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153612	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows located in creeks (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides professorum</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153612	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153612	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is possibly facing extinction due to the construction of the Crotty hydro-electric dam on the King River (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Invertebrate surveys of the King River in 2001/02, 2004/05 and 2006 have shown all three sample sites fall well below historical reference site abundance and diversity (Davies and Cook 2006). The construction of the dam, combined with the restricted distribution and strict habitat requirements of this species mean that this species is at a high risk of extinction (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153613	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Euastacus gamilaroi</em>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus gamilaroi</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>	eng
153613	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from a single locality, Hanging Rock near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Nundle</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place> (Morgan 1997). The altitude of hanging rock is approximately 1,100 m above sea level. This species extent of occurrence is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008)	eng
153613	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no specific habitat and ecology information available for this species<em></em>, although given its restriction to a single, highland locality (more than 1,000 m above sea level), it is likely that it requires cool, montane river habitats as has been noted for other <em>Euastacus</em> spp.<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>	eng
153613	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153613	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. Given its highly restricted range (i.e. one location), the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2.  </span>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007).; 3. There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species; 4. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given this species highly restricted distribution, these exotic species could have serious impacts on <em>E. gamilaroi</em>, and lead to serious declines in distribution and/or </span>abundance	eng
153614	conservation	Parkyn, S., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, the impact of subsistence level fishing and the impacts of surrounding land use change.</p>	eng
153614	distribution	Parkyn, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to New Zealand. It exists in the southeastern corner of the South Island from Otago, Southland, to Stewart Island. Recently, this species is rarely encountered in Canterbury (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;40,700 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
153614	habitat	Parkyn, S., 2010	<em></em>This species inhabitats streams, small ponds, and lakes, with a gravel-bedded and muddy substrate. It predominantly prefers native vegetation for shelter and sometimes burrows. The maximum age for this species is estimated at over 20 years (Whitmore and Huryn 1999)	eng
153614	population	Parkyn, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, there is anecdotal evidence that this species has declined over the years from land use change to pastoral farming and predation from introduced species such as trout (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
153614	threats	Parkyn, S., 2010	<em></em>This species has been harvested at a subsistence level for many years, but this is not considered to be a major threat as it is not having a significant impact on population levels. There has been recent interest in commercial harvesting, and this could be a significant threat in the future (Whitmore <em>et al</em>. 2000). It was calculated that the Powder Creek, Otago population of <em></em>this species would not be able to withstand commercial harvesting due to the effects of low reproductive success, slow recruitment, and slow development to sexual maturity (Whitmore and Huryn 1999). Legislation currently prevents commercial harvesting for sale, although aquaculture of crayfish can be permitted (with approvals required).  Minor threats also present are erosion and habitat loss through the draining of wetland habitat for urban and industrial uses, though these are not, as yet, causing severe losses in numbers (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). In addition, future threats include climate change leading to stream warming, as survival is reduced when temperatures exceed 16<sup>o</sup>C&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/><em></em>	eng
153615	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance.</p>    <p>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.</p>	eng
153615	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. Its range is known to extend from the Brown Mountains area west of Bemboka, 25 km south along the mountains to near Mount Darragh, northwest of Wyndham in New South Wales (Morgan 1997). A specimen found near Timbillica, a further 60 km south indicates that the species extends to near the Victorian border, though the distribution may be patchy (Morgan 1997). It has been collected from streams between 240 m and 1,000 m above sea level. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the vicinity of 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it is known from only four localities within that range, representing headwaters of various different drainages. The species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>	eng
153615	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is found in highland streams in granite dominated country. Light temperate rainforest or tree ferns are found along the stream banks, with dry sclerophyll on ridges above providing good shade (Morgan 1997). The species is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus yanga</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus claytoni</span> at some sites (Morgan 1997).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153615	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population data available for this species however as this species is extremely susceptible to over exploitation (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153615	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	The species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors.<br/><br/>Climate change, including increasing temperature, alteration to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rain forest and increased potential for bushfires also threaten this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/><p></p>    <p>Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007), also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d). These exotic species could have localised impacts on this species which given the fragmented distribution of this species, could contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.</p>  <p><br/> </p>	eng
153616	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parkland. Currently, regulations for forest practices stipulate that logging activity should not occur in the riparian zones of a creek (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Monitoring of population numbers and threats, such as logging, is required to determine how these are impacting the population .	eng
153616	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is found in eastern Victoria and south-eastern New South Wales, Australia. It is widely distributed in East Gippsland, Victoria, predominantly east of the Snowy River and has been found on the New South Wales side of the Victorian border, in two distinct regions (Craigie and Timbillica) (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 6,547 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>	eng
153616	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is frequently found in burrows in flood beds of creeks in wet sclerophyll forest or warm temperate rainforest (e.g. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Lind</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National   Park)</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It has also been found in burrows near creeks in dry sclerophyll forest (Murrungowar) and in a tea-tree swamp (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). The largest male found was 26.9 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.2 to 24.2 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 20.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153616	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153616	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no evidence to suggest that the species is, or could be, experiencing significant population declines at present. However, forestry activity (in the form of logging of native forests) continues across its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009) and could be&#160; resulting in sedimentation of streams. In addition, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153617	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research has been conducted investigating how well this species would adapt to being bred in aquaculture. Out of the four harvested Chilean species of crayfish it was found to survive the best, as it can survive well in captivity and has high fecundity (Rudolph 2002).  In the future, harvest levels will need to be monitored and controlled to ensure that there are no significant declines in numbers. The establishment of new protected areas should be considered to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and if it is being impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale. <br/></p>	eng
153617	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is found in the region of Talcahuano, south towards the Taitao Peninsula and the Island of Chiloé, Chile. It is known to occur in the rivers and streams of Maipo River basin to the north, and was found in most of the Aconcagua River and tributaries. In addition, it is also found in Lake Nahuel-Huapi, Argentina (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).   This species has distribution of approximately 13,813 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153617	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in tranquil waters between vegetation on the river bank, where it digs shallow burrows. In lakes it is normally found in the littoral and sublittoral regions, beneath rocks or submerged logs and digs burrows in the soft soil (Rudolph 2002).	eng
153617	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for<em> </em>this species.	eng
153617	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em> This species is impacted by several threat processes. It has been strongly exploited for human consumption and for use as bait in salmon fishing. It is easy to catch and there are no guidelines stopping the harvesting of juveniles or fertile females (Rudolph 2002). Its habitat is also being altered by contamination from surrounding industry and livestock agriculture, modification of river vegetation and aquatic macrophytes, and physical alterations of the river channel by the extraction of groundwater (Rudolph 2002). These threats are not present throughout the entire range of the species and so are only affecting local populations and are not at present affecting the species at a global level (L. Buckup pers. comm 2008).	eng
153618	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species, however its distribution coincides with the Otway Ranges National Park.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population and habitat trends) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153618	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. This species has been found in Western Victoria where it can be collected from some of the creeks south or south east of the Otway Ranges; abundantly between the Otway Ranges and Warrnambool; in creeks south and south-west of Ballarat (north of Lake Corangamite); and between Port Fairy and Portland. Populations west and east of Warrnambool appear to be disjunct but this gap will probably be closed with further collecting. The region around Lake Corangamite was searched extensively without finding evidence of freshwater crayfish and the gap in the distribution around this lake therefore appears to be a real absence rather than an artefact of lack of collections (Horwitz 1990).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 11,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153618	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Burrows of this species are found in creeks. They are found at greater densities in areas of temperate forest or mature riparian vegetation (March and Robson 2006). In this same study the crayfish demonstrated an aversion to highly compacted soils.	eng
153618	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153618	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no known significant threats currently impacting the population. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153619	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.	eng
153619	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is found from Brisbane to Maryborough in Queensland, Australia. It is also found on the sand islands off the coast of southeast Queensland, including North Stradbroke Island (Bywater <em>et al</em>. 2008) and Fraser Island. This species is reported to be widespread in the permanent small streams of southeastern Queensland (Reik 1969).   This species has a distribution of approximately 11,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153619	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species inhabits swamps and creeks. Furthermore, it is reported to be highly territorial and aggressive (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
153619	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is thought to be disappearing from the Brisbane area, though can be easily collected (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153619	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species has been extirpated from Sandy Creek, Brisbane where a waste water treatment plant now releases into this creek, which has resulted in dark anaerobic sediments down stream from the plant (Lawrence 1998). This species was however, found to occur in small numbers in Oxley Creek 7 km away. At the time of sampling, this creek was being mined for sand and there were variations in the water chemistry upstream and downstream of the mining. This species was found both upstream and downstream of the mining activity (Lawrence 1998), suggesting that this species may be tolerant of moderate changes in environmental parameters. This species is likely under threat from expanding urbanization around the Brisbane area (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008), however relative to the range of this species urbanization is not likely to be a significant threat at the present time.	eng
153621	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
153621	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Until recently, this species <em></em> was known from the type locality, Ojo de Carbonera spring, 4.3 km south of Ejido Rancho Nuevo, approximately 57.6 km west of Villa Ahumada, Chihuahua, Mexico, and three other springs within 3 km of Ojo de Carbonera (Hobbs 1980). These springs were highly discontinuous, meaning the distribution of this species was highly fragmented (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). A recent survey for this species found the type locality of this species,&#160;and several other former locations, to be completely devoid of water in 2009 (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). A single spring in the area still contained water but was not found to support any crayfish after&#160;extensive&#160;searches (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153621	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The type locality was a clear shallow spring, 10 cm deep and 1 - 2.5 m wide, which flows at a moderate rate over sand and gravel substrate, with sparse vegetation consisting of filamentous algae and submerged grass (Hobbs 1980). There is no suitable habitat surrounding the type locality, as the region is very arid   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species was thought to co-occur with the Endangered pupfish&#160;<em>Ciprynodon fontinalis </em>(C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010)<em>.</em>	eng
153621	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Fewer than 100 specimens have been collected of this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009). After targeted surveys of this species, no new specimens were found, and it is believed to be Extinct (F. Álvarez pers. comm 2010) .	eng
153621	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Ojo de Carbonera spring is threatened by increased pumping of groundwater for irrigation, which has already resulted in the failure of other spring flows in nearby areas (Echelle <em>et al.</em> 2003). An increased level of dessication has also been reported from the area once occupied by this species (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). This seems to have led to the complete dessication of most, if not all, of the springs which formerly supported populations of this species&#160;(F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010), while the agricultural industry responsible for this water abstraction has now collapsed in the area owing to a lack of groundwater.	eng
153622	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species,   though part of its range lies within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">South</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">West</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Hansen and Richardson (2006) have identified <em>Ombrastacoides dissitus</em> as rare and vulnerable due to the construction of dams throughout its range, and this species requires research into its abundance, full range, and the impact that threats have had on the population.	eng
153622	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. This species has been recorded in Lake Pedder, and the catchments of the following rivers and streams: Florentine, Derwent, Gordon, Huon, Serpentine, Weld.   It is known to occur at an elevation of 400 - 600 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). In addition,   the range of this species was possibly substantially reduced, by up to 20 %, by the inundation of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Pedder</st1:placename></st1:place> hydroelectric dam in 1973 (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>, but this is likely to increase with further collecting. (Hansen and Richardson 2006).	eng
153622	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in swamps and seepages. The burrows are usually found in peat or gravel, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath and moss (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides decemdentatus</em> and <em>O. huonensis</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).	eng
153622	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is thought that it may have a similar abundance to   <em>Ombrastacoides huonensis.</em>     <em></em>Densities measured at one typical site of   <em>O. huonensis </em>ranged from 0.2 - 1.1 animals m<sup>-2 </sup>(Hamr and Richardson 1994), each burrow probably containing a single adult crayfish. However, extrapolation to an overall population size is complex because of the mosaic of drainage and soil types within the species range for   <em>O. huonensis</em>.	eng
153622	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	This species has an estimated range of 120 km<sup>2</sup> and is considered rare. This species is at risk from a relatively restricted distribution, combined with the construction of several hydro-electric dams on the rivers within which<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>it inhabits. Pollution also affects certain rivers inhabited by this species. The Upper Derwent is affected by agricultural run-off, particularly from land clearing. The Lower Derwent suffers from extremely high levels of heavy metal contamination in sediments. Levels of mercury, lead, zinc and cadmium exceed national guidelines and the state recommends against consuming shellfish. A large proportion of the heavy metal contamination is derived from an electrolytic zinc and a paper mill (Green and Coughanowr 2003).<br/>    <p>Furthermore, this species was preyed upon heavily by the introduced Brown Trout, <em>Salmo trutta</em>, after the creation of the impoundment, and the lake-dwelling population is probably extinct. On land the main threat to this species is excessive fire, which removes the peat soil (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153624	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with the Jardine National Park and the Tonda Wildlife Management Area.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.	eng
153624	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known from Wepeia, Wicheura, North Cape York, Andoon Swamp, Mapoon, Jardine River, Lake Wichera and Lake Boranto, Australia, and the Fly River and Bensbach in Papua New Guinea and Badu Island, Torres Strait (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008)   This species has a distribution of approximately 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153624	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This is a burrowing species which is found in acidic coastal swamps, perched lakes and in burrows connected to open water or the water table. It is found in pristine environments (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153624	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153624	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the population of this species. It is located in areas of relatively low human population density, and protected areas indicating that it is unlikely to be impacted by anthropogenic threats. Significant portions of the Fly River are at risk from high levels of acid, from mining in the tributaries (Chatterton 1996), though it is unknown what impact this is having on this species.	eng
153625	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153625	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia, and has an estimated range of approximately 200 km<sup>2</sup>. Its range appears to border near Lake Eildon, near Hoddles Creek, Lilydale and Healesville (Horwitz 1990).  Taxonomic clarifications are required to be more precise about the distribution of this species (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p>	eng
153625	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<em></em>This species burrows in clay-dominated hillsides or deep soil-filled flood plains. The largest male found was 36.2 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 16.5 to 39.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 30.1 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153625	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species can be locally abundant, but its distribution is described as patchy throughout its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>  <em></em>	eng
153625	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no known major threats impacting this species, however it may be undergoing localized declines due to changes in land use where significant soil disturbance occurs, or local developments where drainage is an issue (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change, could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153626	conservation	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specifc conservation measures in place for this spcecies. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether there are any major threats impacting upon it.	eng
153626	distribution	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the type locality, which is Cuevas de Santo Tomas, Sierra de los Organos, Pinar del Rio, Cuba (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153626	habitat	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits subterranean waters.	eng
153626	population	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153626	threats	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats impacting this species.	eng
153628	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe, and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153628	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species was first found in a ditch near Bay City in Matagorda County, Texas. It has since been found in the Colorado River, Fort Bend County, and Waller County. It is thought that the range is bound by the Lavaca River and Bay on the west, though the northward and eastward range limits are not known (Albaugh and Black 1973).	eng
153628	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from roadside ditches and rivers (Albaugh and Black 1973), in shallow water with aquatic plant cover (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). During the summer it is known to burrow when some of its habitat becomes dry (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153628	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been collected from 31 sites and is believed to be common at most sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153628	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known major threats affecting the population of this species.	eng
153629	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, in the future it will be important to establish protected areas to ensure some habitat is preserved for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and what extent threats such as habitat degradation and subsistence harvesting are having upon it. <br/></p>	eng
153629	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile. It is known only from the type locality, Corral.   This species has distribution of approximately  315 km<sup>2</sup> (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).	eng
153629	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is a burrowing species. It has been found in swamps, cascading streams, and peatlands (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153629	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.	eng
153629	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is suffering from a decline in habitat quality. The current habitat is being deforested to provide areas for agriculture (Rudolph and Crandall 2007). The peatlands in southern Chile support the extraction of <em>Sphagnum</em> moss for commercial purposes. It is also harvested at a subsistence level for human consumption and for use as salmon bait. Harvesting levels are not known but do not appear to be causing severe declines in numbers and so is not considered a major threat (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153630	conservation	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although this species has been found within the Alpine National Park and the Mount Buffalo National Park in recent surveys (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Further research should include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, in Victoria, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) applies to spiny crayfish (DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughhran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
153630	distribution	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	This species is endemic to Australia. It inhabits streams in central Victoria from the Dandenong Mountains, east of Melbourne, north-east to Eildon and Dandongadale, east to Woods Point and Erica and southeast to the region of Thorpdale. Included in this range are tributaries of the Yarra, Murray and Latrobe Rivers and some small coastal streams. This species usually occurs at altitudes greater than 200 m above sea level, and specimens have been collected at altitudes greater than 1,400 m above sea level, habitat that is snow covered in winter (Morgan 1986).   This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 7,901 km<sup>2</sup>. Recent searches within many of these areas have not been successful, although a population has been found on top of Mount Buffalo, which is a national park (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153630	habitat	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>    <p>Much of the range of this species has been cleared, and this species is most commonly found where vegetation is intact (Morgan 1986). Natural vegetation in the region includes mountain ash and tree ferns, with some dry sclerophyll forest at lower altitudes (Morgan 1986). This species is restricted to cool headwaters of streams and rivers (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160; </p>	eng
153630	population	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species (J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). There is some evidence that this species is being replaced by<span style="font-style: italic;"> Euastacus armatus</span> in at least part of its range (the Buffalo River). Indeed, searches in the area where this species was found by Horwitz (1980) have only found <span style="font-style: italic;">E. armatus</span> (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153630	threats	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	This species is susceptible to threats such as climate change, over-exploitation and the introduction of exotic species. This species is particularly susceptible to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006). <br/><br/>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this species attains a relatively large size and may be susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Morgan (1983) observed evidence of heavy fishing activities in the Latrobe River system, and noted that populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> could be heavily impacted in a single weekend of heavy fishing pressure. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure, such as the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>There is also the potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Other exotic species, such as cats, foxes, pigs, goats, that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and could have localized impacts on this species. Invasion of habitat by other crayfish species has also been noted as a threat, along with pollution and habitat alteration (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).<br/><p><br/></p><br/><p><em></em></p>	eng
153631	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution may coincide with a number of national parks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Research is required to clarify the population genetics of the species, and should also include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Furthermore, in New South Wales and Victoria, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007, NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153631	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. This species ranges from the Robertson and Bundanoon areas (New South Wales) to just inside the Victoria border West of Genoa, a distance of 400 km. The region is drained by many coastal streams including Shoalhaven, Clyde, Tuross, Towamba, Wonboyn and Genoa Rivers (Morgan 1997). This is a lowland species that can be found close to sea level, although has typically been collected from altitudes above 60 m (Morgan 1997, Coughran 2008a, J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009). </p>	eng
153631	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species inhabits small, coastal streams in southern New South Wales and far eastern Victoria (Morgan 1997). The vegetation along streams is predominantly temperate rainforest or ferns, occasionally dry sclerophyll (Morgan 1997). The species appears to prefer smaller streams with rainforested banks (Morgan 1997).	eng
153631	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>There is no population data available for this species. <br/><br/>Morgan (1997) noted the species to be extraordinarily variable across its range, both within and between populations. He acknowledged the possibility that more than one species was regarded as this species in his revision, but on morphological grounds treated them as a single polytypic species. Coughran (2008b) also discussed the possibility that the species may represent several taxa, and discussed the unusual variation in the cuticle partition for the species (a character generally considered to be the most reliable morphological character for the genus). Examination of population genetics is required to clarify the taxonomic status of the species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm 2009).	eng
153631	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is susceptible to the threats of climate change, with particular regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change modelling      predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a      warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture      (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This species is also susceptible to threats from over exploitation. This is a large species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, colloquially referred to      as 'Southern Lobster' in southern New South Wales, and is susceptible to fishing      pressure (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults)      has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population      structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist      1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008),      including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Exotic species (cats, foxes pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species.&#160; </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><br/><p></p>	eng
153632	conservation	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. The spiny crayfish fishery was closed in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place> from 1983 until 1991 (Barker 1992). The current fishery for spiny crayfish is managed through a minimum size limit of 90mm OCL, closed seasons and areas, and a bag limit of five per person per day (only one of which can exceed 120mm OCL) (DPI 2007). Only three of the 11 Victorian species (<em>E. armatus</em>, <em>E. bispinosus</em> and <em>E. kershawi</em>) attain 90mm OCL, so the regulations may increase pressure on these species. Barker (1992) found considerable variation in catch rates and sizes across different sites, and failed to record any specimens above the minimum size limit at one site. Research should be extended to include an assessment of population genetics, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p></p><p>This species is found in the Alpine National Park, south of the Great Divide (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;</p>	eng
153632	distribution	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from Gippsland, Victoria, to 80 km east of Melbourne, a distance of approximately 320 km (Morgan 1986). In addition this species is found south of the Great Divide, from just south of Mt. Hotham in the Wongungarra and Wonangatta Rivers, to the coast (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). This&#160;is a lowland species that can be found from close to sea level up to altitudes of 250 m above sea level, and its long, narrow distribution cuts across several drainages in eastern Victoria (Morgan 1986). However, the species is morphologically invariable across its lowland range, and there is no information to suggest any level of fragmentation across its range. The estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species is around 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153632	habitat	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in southerly flowing streams in eastern Victoria. The vegetation along the banks is commonly wet or dry sclerophyll forest, and the species also persists in areas cleared for agriculture providing riparian vegetation remains intact (Morgan 1986). It is a very slow-growing species (Morey 1998). This species is regarded as very tolerant of disturbed or absent riparian vegetation (S. Lawler pers. com. 2008).	eng
153632	population	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	In a study conducted from 1987 to 1996, 1063 individuals (with 102 individuals recaptured at least once) were collected in the Bunyip and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Latrobe</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> systems (Morey 1998). This species is regarded as common within its range, and there is no evidence of increase or decline (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).&#160;  Barker (1992) recorded variable catches, a lack of reproductively active specimens, and variation in maximum size across different sites.<em></em>  <p><em></em></p>	eng
153632	threats	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>  This species is susceptible to the effects of climate change, particularly with regard to altered      hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modeling      predicts that southeastern mainland <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> will experience a      warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture      (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).   This is a large species of <em>Euastacus</em>, which is susceptible to fishing pressure (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). Heavy amateur fishing and land development have severely reduced its range in rivers near human settlement, such as the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Latrobe</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;(Morgan 1996). Closures on the recreational fishery appear to have had no effect, and evidence of illegal poaching is common (Morey 1998).&#160; Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure, such as the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008), and impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008). Failure to adhere to fishing regulations has resulted in this decline (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008). Furthermore, some exotic fishes such as the Brown Trout and Redfin Perch are prevalent throughout the region and might pose a potential threat (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).&#160;<br/><br/>Land clearing is regarded as the biggest threat to this species, although this species is much more resilient than other species of the genus (S. Lawler pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153633	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread, does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a major national park, which will provide a certain amount of protection. Monitoring is required to determine the abunance of this species, and if there are any threats likely to cause a population decline in the future (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009) <br/></p>	eng
153633	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Albert, Andrew, Birches, Bird, Davey, Denison, Franklin, Gordon, Hardwood, King, Landing, Manuka, Maxwell, Nora, Olga, Orange, Sorell, and Wanderer catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 400 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). Hansen and Richardson (2006) have assessed this species as secure, with estimated distribution of 3230 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153633	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains and swamps, and in seepages and creeks. The burrows are found in peats, clays, mud, silt or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides asperrimanus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides catinipalma</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. insignis</span>, where<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occupies deeper, wetter burrows (Hansen and Richardson 2002). <br/><br/>Although there is no life history information for this species, observations suggest it may be less fecund than <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis.</span> In addition,   like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate (pholeteros) fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/>    <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153633	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no formal estimates of density for this species, but in the most suitable habitat (graminoid heath on peat) 1-2 burrows m<sup>-2</sup> are known to occur (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009).	eng
153633	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. Potential threats include processes that remove vegetation cover or the peat soil layer such as excessive fire, roading or mineral exploration. However, these are not considered to be major threats because this species occupies a wide range of vegetation types, and much of its range is within the Franklin  Gordon Wild  Rivers National   Park which will provide a certain amount of protection. The conservation status of this species is believed to be secure (Hansen and Richardson 2006).	eng
153634	conservation	Austin, C.M. and Bunn, J., 2009	Fishing regulations of this species, such as legal size limits, fishing licences, length of fishing season, and gear restrictions have been imposed to address the declines in the catch rate of this species over the last decade (Beatty<em> et al.</em> 2005). It is managed under Western Australia Fisheries legislation which are currently addressing the declining catch per unit effort, through temporary closure of the fishery, rotational closure of certain water bodies, revision of the management controls to assess their effectiveness, total reduction in fishing effort, improvements to habitat status, and stocking in areas where recruitment and over-fishing are known to be a problem (Molony and Bird 2002).<br/><br/>Further research is required to identify populations of genetic and morphological significance that may be at risk through the introduction of strains of this species used in aquaculture (J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>  <em></em>	eng
153634	distribution	Austin, C.M. and Bunn, J., 2009	This species is endemic to South-west Australia. Originally, it had a restricted distribution in the southwest of Western Australia, but has since naturally expanded its range from Esperance to Geraldton (Department of Fisheries 2008). However, it has been widely transplanted in both natural and artificial water bodies and is now widespread throughout the South-west of Western Australia. It has been introduced to South Australia, New South Wales, Kangaroo Island off the coast of Adelaide, Queensland, and Victoria, where feral populations have become established (Austin and Ryan 2002, J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008). Two self-sustaining populations are known in Victoria, on the Mornington Peninsular, southeast of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city>. Both populations occur in artificial waterbodies namely Devilbend reservoir and O.T. Dam (Bryant and Papas 2007).<br/><br/>In addition, this species has been translocated to North America (Merrick and Lambert 1991, Lawrence and Morrissy 2000), South Africa (Lawrence and Morrissy 2000), New Zealand (McDowall 1988), Japan, Zimbabwe, China, Chile and the Caribbean (Lawrence and Morrissy 2000).<p>    </p><p>This species has a distribution exceeding&#160; 243,600 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
153634	habitat	Austin, C.M. and Bunn, J., 2009	This species inhabits deep pools of clear, flowing rivers (Merrick and Lambert 1991, Mosig 1998, Wingfield 1998). They are more commonly seen on sandy stretches with shelter (snags and rocks). Whilst it has a higher tolerance for more saline waters than <em>Cherax destructor</em> and <em>Cherax quadricarinatus</em> (likely due to the naturally high salinity of Western Australia rivers), it is not tolerant of low dissolved oxygen concentrations (Bryant and Papas 2007). It has an optimal water temperature of between 17.5°C and 24.5°C (Bryant and Papas 2007). This species is not known to be a burrower, although it has been observed excavating short burrows under roots and instream branches. The populations in the Devilbend Reservoir and O.T. Dam are thought to make more use of burrow systems where refugia are limited (Raadik pers. comm. 2008). This is a K - strategist species (Beatty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). Unlike other species of <em>Cherax</em> occupying the same distribution, the is species does not have the potential for multiple spawning (Beatty <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/> They can reach a length of 38 cm and can weigh up to 2.7 kg (Merrick and Lambert 1991). Maturity under favourable conditions can be reached in two years, although it is commonly three years (Merrick and Lambert 1991).&#160;It has been noted, however, that there can be large differences in the sizes of individuals present due to fishing and habitat pressures&#160;(J. Bunn pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>This species is predated upon by cormorants, water rats, tortoises and fish (Tay<em> et al</em>. 2007). However, it is capable of outcompeting a number of other crayfish species such as <em>Euastacus</em> species due to rapid breeding succession (Bryant and Papas 2007). In a recent study of breeding patterns of a population found in an impoundment dam, the majority of females released their broods form mid-November to mid-December. Furthermore, spawning occurred in late August and September (Beatty et al. 2003).&#160;It has&#160;recently&#160;been posited, through stable isotope analysis, that this species&#160;may&#160;be a&#160;keystone&#160;species&#160;in&#160;the Hutt River, playing a key role in nutrient cycling and aquatic food web structure (Beatty 2006). This species and <em>C. destructor</em> were found to have similar diets and trophic position in summer months, although this seemed to diverge during the winter (Beatty 2006). Juveniles and adults of this species maintain a predatory strategy during both summer and winter, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">C. destructor</span> is only predatory during summer months&#160;(Beatty 2006). &#160;<br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; <em></em></p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
153634	population	Austin, C.M. and Bunn, J., 2009	This species can be locally abundant in habitats that are not overly degraded (J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). Populations have increased in the Margaret River to the detriment of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax tenuimanus, </span>and decreased in the upper reaches of the Blackwood River due to increased salinity and general habitat degradation (Nickoll and Horwitz 2000).	eng
153634	threats	Austin, C.M. and Bunn, J., 2009	In areas such as Western Australia, this species has been replaced by <em>Cherax destructor</em> which is posing a threat to the recreational fishery of this species (Bryant and Herbert 2007). There have been noted declines in the catch per unit effort (CPUE) within the recreational fishery for this species. The recreational season has been reduced from 55 to 16 days and gear restrictions have been imposed (Molony and Bird 2002, Beatty <em>et al.&#160;</em>2004). This is not considered a major threat at present, because it is still currently widespread in Western Australia. <br/><br/>In a 2002 report by Molony and Bird, it is noted that, due to high fishing pressure on the dam sub-populations, there is now evidence of over-fishing. In 2000, approximately 44.8 tonnes of this species were taken by recreational fisheries (Molony and Bird 2002). Between 1990 and 2000, catches of this species decreased from approximately 8 per person to 5 per person (Molony and Bird 2002). Current population trends for this species are not fully understood.<br/><br/>This species is also being impacted by general habitat degradation to waterways which are acting at the local scale&#160;(J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). The impacts of climate change which would increase aridity and reduce the amount of water in rivers, could impact recruitment as temperatures exceed this species tolerance levels (J.Bunn pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153635	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been assessed by the American Fisheries Society as CS and G4 (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, threats and habitat and ecology.&#160;<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cambarellus ninae</em>.<br/>Further research is needed into the abundance of this species and its threats.	eng
153635	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in Aransas, Calhoun, Kleberg, Nueces, Refugio, Victoria and probably San Patricio Counties, Texas, USA (Hobbs 1950, Albaugh and Black 1973). This species has an approximate distribution of 8,453 km², and is known to occur in 19 sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009), though given further survey work, this species may be found to occur in more locations (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153635	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Albaugh and Black (1973) found all specimens of this specie<em>s</em> in roadside ditches, indicating a degree of tolerance to pollution particularly heavy metals. This species is also known to occur in irrigation diversions, less than 1 ft in depth (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is sometimes found in association with <em>Fallicambarus hedgpethi</em>, <em>Procambarus acutus</em>, <em>P. clarkii</em> and <em>P. simulans</em> (Penn and Hobbs 1958; Albaugh and Black 1973), and has a longevity of 1.5 years, and an age of maturity of less than 1 year (S. Adams pers. comm 2009).	eng
153635	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to be common within suitable habitat throughout its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153635	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Within the state of Texas there is considerable agricultural irrigation for rice fields, which is likely to have resulted in decreases in crayfish populations within these areas. This species appears to have a tolerance to pollution as a number of specimens have been collected in roadside ditches. It is unknown what impact threats such as habitat degradation and loss have had on the global population (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153636	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parks.&#160;Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). This species should also be assessed for listing under State/ Federal listing, and management plans should be developed for known sites of occurrence (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153636	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania, and has the widest distribution of all Tasmanian endemic <em>Engaeus</em> species (Horwitz 1990). This species has been recorded from most of the western half of the north coast and from the north-western coast (Riek 1969).   This species has a distribution of approximately  7,800 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
153636	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is typically found below the water table in drainage channels on the floodplain of streams (Richardson <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is found in association with a wide variety of vegetation; in swamps dominated by blackwood (<em>Acacia melanoxylon</em>), tea-tree swamps associated with small creeks, buttongrass plains, temperate wet sclerophyll forest, and the Myrtle Beech<em> (Nothofagus cunninghammi)</em> rainforest (Horwtiz 1990). This species feeds in streams under rotting logs, or in the root system of buttongrass clumps (Suter and Richardson 1977). <br/><br/>The largest male recorded is 24.9 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged form 20 to 24.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 21 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/><p></p>	eng
153636	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is considered to be very common and abundant throughout its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153636	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no known major threats currently impacting this species. Threats to a single habitat type are unlikely to significantly impact this species as it is known from a range of habitat types. Some minor localized threats to this species include drainage of swamps, inundation of flood beds of creeks, channelization and cattle trampling (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153637	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance, distribution, ecology and threats impacting upon this species. <br/></p>	eng
153637	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is found in the Santa Catarina region of Brazil and in Uruguay, though specifics of where in Uruguay are not known. Unusually, it has not been found in the Rio Grande do Sul region of Brazil, but this is likely the result of unsatisfactory surveying programs (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153637	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for&#160;<em></em>this species. Within the genus <em>Parastacus</em>, many species live in burrows in marshes, pools and streams (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153637	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.	eng
153637	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153638	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with several National Parks. Research should be extended on aspects such as population assessment and monitoring, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A detailed study into the population genetics of this species is urgently required.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the >35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in NSW attain that size (<em>E. sulcatus</em>, <em>E. spinifer</em>, <em>E. valentulus</em>, <em>E. armatus</em>), so the regulation may in fact increase   fishing pressure on these four species. All ‘spiny crayfish’ (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Queensland</st1:state></st1:place> are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed across its range.	eng
153638	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is endemic to Australia. It is a high altitude species that ranges from Mount Tamborine to the Lamington Plateau, southern Queensland, and West along the McPherson Range in both Queensland and New South Wales. Other populations have been recorded on Mount Warning and the Tweed, Richmond and Yabbra ranges (Coughran 2006). The range is drained by Nerang, Albert, Logan, Brisbane, Condamine, Clarence, Richmond, Tweed Rivers and Currumbin and Tallebudgera creeks (Morgan 1988, Furse and Coughran in prep., Coughran 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  8,000 km², although it is restricted to high montane areas above 300 m, in rainforest and occasionally wet sclerophyll forest (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Importantly, there are clearly several fragmented populations within the species' distribution that are geographically isolated due to mountain ridges and/or intervening lowlands that constitute a barrier to dispersal (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). Several of these populations (e.g. Mt Warning, Mt Tamborine, Springbrook, Nightcap, Koreelah) are restricted to areas less than 100 km² (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153638	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species occurs in streams at altitudes above 300 m above sea level, in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to streams where suitable riparian vegetation remains intact (Furse and Wild 2002). As is the case for most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species, this species prefers well oxygenated, heavily shaded sites (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Individuals inhabit rock crevices and burrow under rocks and logs or in stream banks (Furse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). The species is extremely slow growing and takes at least 4-5 years for females to reach sexual maturity (Furse and Wild 2004, Wild and Furse 2004, Coughran 2006, Furse and Coughran in prep.).</p>	eng
153638	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species may be locally abundant within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). The activity of the species is highly seasonal, with adults rarely encountered in the cooler months (April to September), for unknown reasons (Furse and Coughran in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).  The different populations are well noted for displaying locality-specific colouration differences, and also in developments of spination and setation.	eng
153638	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Although this species occurs within national parks across a relatively wide area, it also occurs extensively on private land. The highly fragmented populations are susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).  Land use management on private properties situated at the top of the catchments and within national park properties (e.g. on the Springbrook Plateau, Tamborine and Lamington), could lead to declines in habitat/water quality due to pesticides, pathogens, pollution, siltation and eutrophication (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Given the isolated nature of these areas, these factors could lead to significant population declines, or extinction of distinct populations (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/><br/>This species is a relatively large species that would be appealing to recreational fishers, and its striking colouration forms renders it a sought-after species for aquarium displays. Illegal harvesting is known to occur at several sites, even within national parks, and over-exploitation is a potential threat given the slow growth and fragmented distribution of the species. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<p>Furthermore, climate change, presents a potential threat to this species including; increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/></p>Additionally there is a potentially large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153639	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution range may coincide with a number of national parks, however its distribution also coincides with  a heavily populated and developed area (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In Victoria, a minimum recreational fishing size of 90 mm occipital carapace length (OCL) applies to spiny crayfish (DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
153639	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em> </em>This species is endemic to Australia. The species inhabits a roughly semicircular area around the State of Victoria's capital city, Melbourne. It is found in all the larger southern flowing streams of Victoria between the Gellibrand River and the Bunyip/Tarrago River systems at elevations below 300m above sea level (Riek 1969, Morgan 1986). The distribution of the species appears to be severely fragmented, primarily into eastern (east of Melbourne) and western (south-west of Geelong) components, with some outlying records to the north-west (O'Brien 2007). Morgan (1986) discussed some variation in morphology and size at maturity between populations. The estimated extent of occurrence is 9,000 km², although this area has been very heavily developed (i.e. includes Melbourne and other cities) and the area of occupancy of this is likely to be much less than the extent of occurrence   (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153639	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species inhabits creeks, streams and rivers. The vegetation in the species range includes dry sclerophyll forest and acacia, blackberry in semi-cleared areas and tree ferns in some sheltered valleys. This species is present in some cleared areas, especially if vegetation persists along streams (Morgan 1986). The species is sometimes sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus kershawi </span>(J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009). </p>	eng
153639	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers.comm. 2009). </p><p>    </p><p><br/><em></em></p>  <p></p>	eng
153639	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	The main threats to this species are the effects of climate change, over exploitation and the introduction of species, including exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change threatens this species, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modelling predicts that southereastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003). This alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006). <br/><br/>Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this restricted range species is susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure (O'Brien 2007). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/><br/>Exotic or introduced species can cause potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout of Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Exotic introduced species such as cats, foxes, pigs and goats, that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and therefore could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, trout, perch, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <br/><br/>  <p></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
153640	conservation	Hamr, P., 2010	<em></em>This species is not listed under either the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act or the Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by potential threats within its range.	eng
153640	distribution	Hamr, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is found in the western half of <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state>, from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Huon</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> in the South through the western edge of the Central Plateau to the <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Gog</st1:place> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Range</st1:placetype></st1:placename> in the North and is relatively widespread (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Hamr 1990). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 28,229 km².	eng
153640	habitat	Hamr, P., 2010	This species is   found in rivers, streams and lakes. It constructs burrows in rivers and streams. In addition, it constructs extensive burrow networks in the soft bottoms of lakes (Horwitz and Richardson, 1986, Hamr 1990).<br/><br/>Secondary sexual characters are more numerous in females and perform important functions in spawning and incubation of eggs (Hamr 1990). Females show sexual dimorphism by the presence of cement (or glair) glands in their abdominal segments and pleopods, heavier abdominal setation, elongation and decalcification of uropods, presence of long filamentous oosetae (for egg attachment) on pleopods, broader and deeper abdominal segments as well as greater total length of the abdomen (Hamr 1990). The secondary sexual characters observed in males are greater total weight and larger chelae. Secondary sexual characters are reliable indicators of sexual maturity in females of <em>Astacopsis. </em>The complete acquisition of the full set of these characters accurately mirrors the onset of sexual maturity. Females in the process of maturing can be identified by partial acquisition of some or all of these characters (Hamr 1990). Females mature between 62 and 101 mm carapace length while in males spermatophore production occurs in individuals with a carapace length greater than 37 mm (Hamr 1990).      <p>The male gonopores (or external copulatory structures) consist of a raised genital papillae on the ventral surfaces of the coxae of the fifth pereiopods while the the female gonopores are a pair of oval openings on the ventral surfaces of the coxae of the third pereiopods (Hamr 1990). Female gonopores undergo significant changes at the onset of sexual maturity. These changes consist of increased setation around the gonopore as well as the decalcification of the gonopore cover (Hamr 1990). The setal cover is lost and regained through a moult during the two year reproductive cycle of mature females. The position in the body cavity of male and female gonads of <em>Astacopsis </em>is similar to that observed in other Astacidea. The ovaries consist of a pair of sac-like lobes connected by a single commissure while the testes consist of two cylindrical lobes joined anteriorly by a small transverse bridge (Hamr 1990). The largest collected to date was a male from the lower Gordon River with a carapace length of 14 cm and weighing 1 kg (Hamr 1990).</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
153640	population	Hamr, P., 2010	This species is   common and abundant throughout its range, with many populations occurring within various national parks and world heritage areas (Hamr 1990).	eng
153640	threats	Hamr, P., 2010	General threats to crayfish in Tasmania are likely to affect this species. These include the conversion of native forest to plantation, fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts, habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelisation) and illegal fishing (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007). However, this species is relatively widespread throughout eastern Tasmania so these threats are unlikely to cause a significant population decline at present.	eng
153641	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the abundance and population trends of this species.<br/></p>	eng
153641	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is found in eastern parts of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and regions of Maldonado and Rocha, Uruguay (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).   This species has distribution of approximately  1,127 km².	eng
153641	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in lotic habitats such as streams, but has also been reported in fish culture ponds. It builds subterranean habitat and has morphological characteristics adapted to this way of life. The subterranean tunnels are normally inhabited by one animal, but some may contain two. The low density of the animals may represent a barrier to reduce the possibility of dispersion (da Silva-Castiglioni <em>et al</em>. 2008).<br/><br/>Furthermore, this species provides several ecosystem services from soil aerification by their burrows, sheltering of a variety of highly specialized comensal subterranean macro invertebrates inside the galleries, and as a food source for species of fish, mammals and reptiles ((L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153641	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153641	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is impacted upon by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are specially important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153642	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species occurs within several protected areas, including&#160;Broadwater and Richmond Range National Parks, Tyagarah Nature Reserve, and Camira, Cherry Tree, Lower Bucca, Mount Pikapene, and Sugarloaf State Forests (Coughran <em>et al. </em>2008). This species is regarded as being of low conservation concern (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008), pending a more thorough investigation into distribution, threats and trends in population. Continued monitoring of the effects of invasive species, is advised.	eng
153642	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is found only in coastal areas south of the Brunswick Heads, to Port Macquarie New South Wales, Australia. A subpopulation in Kingscliff is now thought to be extinct as repeated surveys have failed to find any individuals (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).&#160;In a recent study this species was recorded from 26 sites, from the Brunswick, Clarence and Richmond River catchments, in addition to some minor coastal drainages (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). It is further suggested this species may also be present within the Tweed River catchment where it was historically recorded (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). Other&#160;historical&#160;records of this species further South toward Port Macquarie&#160;failed to yield any specimens in this recent study (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008), suggesting the range of this species may be contracting.<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 29,000 km<sup>2</sup>, although it must be noted this is based on a river basin assessment. Thus the Area of Occupancy (AOO) of this species is thought to much more restricted.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153642	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species has been collected from a variety of areas including sclerophyll forest, heathland and agricultural pasture (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008). Collection sites varied from dry gullies with sub-surface moisture to swamps, lakes and streams.&#160;&#160;This species seems very tolerant of anthropogenic disturbances,&#160;particularly&#160;those caused by agriculture, such as vegetation clearance, habitat&#160;disturbance&#160;and eutrophication (Coughran <em>et al. </em>2008). Water temperatures of the habitat containing this species were recorded from 15 - 30<sup>o</sup>C (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).This species was noted as being tolerant of drought, with some specimens surviving in locations which had been dry for over 12 months (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008).&#160;In fact, the majority of specimens were found in moist depressions under rocks or woody debris, devoid of standing or flowing water (Coughran&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).&#160;Individuals&#160;dig multi-chambered burrows, although it is noted that these burrows are not vital for survival, although availability of&#160;suitable&#160;borrow-digging&#160;substrate does not seem to limit population size or distribution (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).Some individuals were collected from sites not connected to the water table or to a water course, and survived by burrowing into moist clay (Coughran<em> et al.</em> 2008).	eng
153642	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although the highest densities of this species were recorded from&#160;heathland&#160;drains with high&#160;acidity (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
153642	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is threatened by coastal development (C.M. Austin, pers. comm. 2008). The coastal area in which this species is found has been heavily urbanised. Conversely, further inland this species is regarded as tolerant to&#160;disturbance&#160;and widespread, with no threats associated with habitat destruction (Coughran <em>et al.</em> 2008). In addition no threats associated with pesticides or pollution have been identified. The most prominant threat to populations of this species is the presence of invasive native and alien species, including the Cane Toad <em>Bufo marinus, </em>the carp <em>Cyprinus carpo</em>&#160;and the plague minnow <em>Gambusia holbrooki. </em>In addition, an introduced crayfish,&#160;<em>Cherax quadricarinatus, </em>has demonstrated aggressive behaviour toward this species (McGrath 2005) and ha the potential to extirpate this species from several sites.	eng
153643	conservation	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species<em> </em>has been listed as endangered by the China Species Information Service (CSIS). Further research is needed into the distribution, population status and threats affecting this species (Y. Maschino pers. comm. 2009). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance, threats and life history and ecology.	eng
153643	distribution	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species is known from East Asia across China, Russia and Korea (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).<br/>.	eng
153643	habitat	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	Koba (1942) described this species as inhabiting mountain creeks though it is also known to occur in still water, such as the freshwaters of Amurskii Liman around Pronge (Birstein and Winogradow 1934, Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). An ovigerous female of this species was collected during spring months (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153643	population	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153643	threats	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species has been found in a market place (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008), and may be threatened by crayfish plague and water pollution (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153645	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with a national park. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction ( J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, additional investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to and presence of exotic species at its locality are warranted.	eng
153645	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region>. It is known only from the headwaters of Tianjara Creek (a tributary of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Shoalhaven</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype>), <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state> (Morgan 1997); at an elevation of 480 m above sea level. Furthermore, it has an approximate extent of occurrence of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008); it's area of occupancy must be less than or equal to the extent of occurrence.</p>	eng
153645	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is known only from the type locality, which is a small stream with sandstone bedrock, lined by dry sclerophyll and heath forest. The site was open and poorly shaded, and crayfish were commonly found under rocks (Morgan 1997).	eng
153645	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered to be extremely rare having been described from only six specimens (Morgan 1997).<em></em><br/><p></p>	eng
153645	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>Furthermore, an exotic crayfish species, <em>Cherax destructor</em>,<em> </em>is being increasingly recorded throughout the Shoalhaven region (Daley and Craven 2007, McCormack 2008), and may pose a serious threat to this species if present at the locality. <em>Cherax destructor</em> is aggressive, and likely far more prolific and faster growing than this species. As such, it may outcompete native species in a short period of time (<st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> 1995). Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153646	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the Whian Whian and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Nightcap</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">national parks</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research is needed on the possible threats impacting this species.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This crayfish species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>	eng
153646	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to New South Wales, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is currently known from only three localities, Tuntable Creek in <st1:placename w:st="on">Nightcap</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, Gibbergunyah Creek, and a gully in the Cooper's Creek catchment, both within the <st1:placename w:st="on">Whian</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Whian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>). All individuals were collected between 460 m and 580 m above sea level. Extent of occurrence is estimated to be 396 km² and area of occupancy has been estimated at 6.5 km² (Coughran 2007). The localities are rainforested headwaters of different streams, and should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barrier to dispersal by the intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
153646	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species<em> </em>occupies different habitat types at each site, including a gully and headwater streams. Individuals were collected from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks. All sample sites were within closed forest cover (Coughran 2007).	eng
153646	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no population data available for this species, however it is uncommon at the sites it inhabits (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153646	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Despite being found in a national park and a state conservation area, this species may also be adversely affected by pesticides and pollution associated with the maintenance of the areas. These could be herbicides or pesticides, or as a result of visitation. e.g. vehicle pollution, or infected trapping gear. As this species occurs in an area of high visitation there is a very real risk of pollutant or infectant introduction (Coughran 2007). Wildfire or management burns may also lead to siltation and deoxygenation of habitats.<br/><br/>  Although this species occurs within a National Park it is susceptible to the following potential threats: 1. Given its highly restricted range, the species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors; 2. Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007); 3. There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species; 4. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given this species highly restricted distribution, these exotic species could have serious impacts on <em>E. girurmulayn </em>and lead to serious declines in distribution and/or abundance.  Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted    range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments),    global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This    species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral  pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish  and  degrade  riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these  threats  on this  species are not yet well understood, they are believed  to be   significantly impacting the long term viability of the  population (J.   Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-US">	eng
153648	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>;&#160;however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. This species is highly adaptable, widespread throughout the world, invasive and is a vector of the crayfish plague. This species is generally regarded as a threat to native species and does not require any conservation measures.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</span>: NatureServe G5T5, AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>.&#160;2007).	eng
153648	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada, and in California, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington in the USA. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada, Idaho and south to central California in the USA. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</em> is distributed throughout British Columbia in Canada and California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington in the USA, and has been introduced into California and Nevada in the USA, and also introduced into Japan. Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in Greece (Koutrakis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/><em>Pacifastacus leniculus</em> has been introduced into many countries throughout Europe, as well as to California, Nevada and Utah in the USA. This species was introduced during the 1970s and 1980s, is widely cultivated and is established in the wild, from where it is harvested (Harlio?lu and Holdich 2001).	eng
153648	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus leniusculus leniusculus</em> generally prefers cool water with current over a rocky bottom; does not burrow; is highly adaptable and can be found in a wide variety of habitats including coastal and mountain streams and lakes, reservoirs, and the saline waters in river deltas (Hogger 1988). <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus klamathensis</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats including cold swift streams. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus trowbridgii</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats.<br/><br/>Tolerance experiments indicated that O+ juveniles and adults are well adapted for surviving salinities of at least 21 in the long term and of being transferred directly back into freshwater. However, their ability to colonize the estuarine environment may be restricted to areas of low salinity (i.e. 7) due to the adverse effects of seawater on egg development and hatching (Holdich <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
153648	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information for <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>;&#160;however the signal crayfish is an important invasive species, which has a wide distribution and is likely to exceed 1 million mature individuals in the wild.	eng
153648	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no known threats to <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>.	eng
153649	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153649	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It has a very wide distribution south of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Victoria, stretching from north of Melbourne to Mallacoota, near the Victorian-New South Wales border. The populations in the region to the north of Melbourne appear to be separate from the remainder (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution thought to exceed 27,400 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p>  </p>	eng
153649	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This is a lowland species and reaches its highest altitude (approximately 250 m above sea level) in the Mirboo North region of the Western Strzelecki Ranges. It has been found in burrows in a wide variety of vegetation types including that approaching warm temperate rainforest (near Lake Tyers), ferny gullies in either wet or dry sclerophyll forest, in swamps or creeks flowing through tea-tree (often in coastal areas) or along the banks of creeks or larger rivers. In addition this species has been found&#160;in a channelized stream in urban areas (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;The largest male found was 33.2 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.3 to 31.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153649	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species can be locally abundant and may be found within urban areas (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153649	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Currently there are no known threats to this species<em></em>. The species appears to be able to tolerate urban and peri-urban changes to its habitat; it has been recorded from channelized sections of creeks, and in burrows in creeks systems in urban <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Melbourne</st1:place></st1:city> (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153651	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes</p>	eng
153651	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is found along the shorelines of Aitinjo Lake in the Kais River Drainage on Irian Jaya (West New Guinea), Indonesia, situated about 20 km southeast of Ajamaroe. This species is known only from the type locality (Lukhaup and Pekny 2006).	eng
153651	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known from a single lake, which consists of two parts separated by strong rapids and small cataracts. The water is clear, and has a pH 6.5. It flows strongly in the narrower parts of the lake, including the upper reaches. The substrate of the lake is rocky, and mostly covered with sand, stones and large rocks. The aquatic and terrestrial vegetation is dense (Boeseman 1963, Lukhaup and Pekny 2006).	eng
153651	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153651	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	It is unknown if there are any major threat processes impacting this species.	eng
153652	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however a large portion of this species range falls within the Otway National Park Given the altitudinal range of the species, monitoring of population trends and habitat status is required due to temperature increases and declining rainfall, as predicted under some scenarios of climate change (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <em> </em>	eng
153652	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is found only in the Otway region of southwestern Victoria, Australia.   This species has a distribution of approximately  1,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153652	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is usually found above 100 m above sea level, though may occasionally be found at sea level (e.g. Johanna River Reserve). It typically occurs in temperate wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus obliqua, E. regnans, Acacia melanoxylon</em> and Myrtle Beech (<em>Nothofagus cunninghamii)</em> in the Otway Ranges (Horwitz 1990). This species constructs type 3 burrows (burrows independent of the water table) in yellow-brown soils with a high clay component, or more usually type 2 burrows (burrows connected to the water table but not connected to surface water bodies) adjacent to water-courses. However, it has also been found in burrows in tea-tree swamps, or next to creeks in scrubby vegetation or in burrows along the banks of larger river systems (such as Aire, Cumberland and Gellibrand Rivers). The largest male found was 26.4 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 19 to 27.3 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153652	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species can be locally abundant where habitat is in good condition, such as&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place> or national parks (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153652	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species has a distribution which is restricted to the Otway region of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state>. A large proportion of its range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Otway</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which will afford this species protection from development and so the relatively limited range of this species is not in itself considered a threat at present. Some populations may be threatened by cattle trampling or where banks of creeks are eroding due to loss of riparian vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="place"></u1:smarttagtype><u1:smarttagtype namespaceuri="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name="State"></u1:smarttagtype>	eng
153653	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with protected areas. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements and investigations into the threats impacting upon this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153653	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is found at altitudes as low as 70 m above sea level, although typically above 480 m above sea level (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008). It ranges from the coastal mountains 20 km North of Coffs Harbour, South and West through the Dorrigo region to New England National Park and Mount Killiekrankie area (New South Wales), a distance of approximately 65 km on a North to South axis (Morgan 1997). The main river systems include the Orara and Nymboida Rivers to the north and the Bellingen and Nambucca rivers flowing east (Morgan 1997).  This species has a distribution of approximately  5,000 km<sup>2</sup>( J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153653	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in small, cool creeks, fringed by rainforest and frequently with sclerophyll forest on the higher more exposed ridges in the eastern areas of its range. In the west of its range it occurs in streams in areas largely cleared for agriculture, bearing at most a sparse border of eucalypts, wattles and raspberry along the banks (Morgan 1997). Although this species occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages, and may represent fragmented populations, Morgan (1997) included this species in his "highland" grouping of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span>, though it has has been collected from altitudes as low as 70 m (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008).	eng
153653	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species appears to be relatively common across its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>	eng
153653	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. In parts of this species' range, forest is being cleared for agriculture, although this is localized and not thought to pose a major threat to the entire population (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Most <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species are either restricted to fragmented highland habitats, or are widespread extending to near sea level, with little crossover. This species is unusual as it does not fit into either group; it could therefore be fragmented across its range, separated by mountain ridges and/or lowlands. This species inhabits various vegetation types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153654	conservation	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place to protect <em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> however there is a national law officially preventing harvesting of crayfish less than 10cm total length. <br/><br/>Further collections of this species are needed to determine range.	eng
153654	distribution	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is endemic to Madagascar and known from four specimens (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005). The type locality is the Andranofotsiorana effluent of the River Ranomadio, Fianarantsoa province, Madagascar.	eng
153654	habitat	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is found in lotic habitats. This species prefers cooler waters at high altitudes, which may reflect a physiological need to avoid the warm-water habitats typical of lowland tropical aquatic ecosystems (Boyko <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
153654	population	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	There is no population information <em>Astacoides hobbsi</em>.	eng
153654	threats	Jones, J.P.G., 2010	<em>Astacoides hobbsi</em> is more vulnerable to threat processes because of its restricted distribution (Boyko<em> et al.</em> 2005). This species is likely to be threatened by habitat loss through the conversion of forest to rice fields, introduction of non-native species such as eels, rats and trout (Boyko<em> et al.</em> 2005), and intense harvesting by both commercial and subsistence fisheries (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2006). The recent introduction of <em>Procambarus</em> ‘marmorkrebs’ crayfish to Madagascar poses a new threat through competition and spreading of crayfish plague (Jones<em> et al.</em> 2008a). However, this is a recently documented species and so the precise threats to this species are not yet known.	eng
153656	conservation	Johnston, K. & Schultz, M., 2010	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is not listed by State or Federal governments in Australia as being of conservation significance, nor is this species specifically protected by legislation (Yen and Butcher 1997).	eng
153656	distribution	Johnston, K. & Schultz, M., 2010	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is endemic to Victoria and Tasmania, Australia, and has a limited distribution within its range. Within Tasmania, this species is restricted to the far north west, occurring between Rocky Cape and Temma on the Tasmanian mainland and also on islands of the Hunter group and King Island (DPIWE 2003). In Victoria, it is restricted to the Otway Region (M. Schultz pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated&#160; extent of occurrence of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153656	habitat	Johnston, K. & Schultz, M., 2010	<em>Geocherax gracilis</em> is commonly found in lowland coastal areas, inland areas, and highland freshwater lagoons, along with blackwood and tea-tree swamps (DPIWE 2003, Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This species&#160;is more widespread in native forest areas. IT is a burrowing species found in burrows connected to the water table (Richardson, Doran and Hansen 2004).	eng
153656	population	Johnston, K. & Schultz, M., 2010	There is no population information regarding this species.	eng
153656	threats	Johnston, K. & Schultz, M., 2010	<em>Geocharax gracilis</em> is becoming increasingly threatened by habitat loss. Areas in which land is used for agriculture appear to have lowered crayfish populations below those present in native forest, and simple fencing of thin strips of vegetation does not seem sufficient to ameliorate these effects (March and Robson 2006). The higher densities of crayfish burrows in forest blocks were associated with lower soil compaction, more vegetation overhanging the stream, higher water quality and intact riparian vegetation (March and Robson&#160;2006).<br/><br/>March and Robson (2006) found that areas with pasture/cattle access to the stream edge displayed significantly fewer burrows. Areas with thin riparian vegetation also had a much lower abundance of burrows. Water temperture and salinity was lower, and dissovled oxygen levels were found to be higher in areas with native vegetation. <br/><br/>Phosphate run-off may severely reduce the number of burrowing freshwater crayfish. Pesticides and high concentrations of these chemicals have been known to eliminate populations of freshwater crayfish (Holdich 1991). Native forest areas had lower mean levels of phosphate. Areas with cattle/pasture to the edge of the stream had the highest phosphate levels and this could largely be attributed to drainage from agricultural land and cow faeces (March and Robson 2006).<br/><br/>It is likely that populations of this species have declined in areas of pasture (March and Robson 2006). However, this species is known from a broad geographic range and is unlikely to be suffering significant declines across its entire range at the present time.	eng
153657	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is unlikely to require protection as it is relatively widespread across north eastern Tasmania, and its range overlaps with national parkland, including the South West Wilderness World Heritage Area.    Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/>    <p><strong></strong></p><p></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
153657	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It can be found from the Castra Falls in the northern region of Tasmania to the Gordon Dam in the southwestern region (Suter 1977). It has an estimated range of approximately 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Furthermore, this species may be undergoing range expansion to the south where there is suitable habitat (Richardson 1990).	eng
153657	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species typically forms burrows in clay soils within temperate rainforest, above the water table and away from creeks (Richardson and Swain 1980). Soil type appears to be a more <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant factor affecting the presence of this species than vegetation type; since the turn of the century mining activity converted areas of rainforest to sedgeland where this species may also be found (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Richardson</st1:place></st1:city> 1990). The burrows of this species never connect with the water table; the water in these burrow systems is derived from surface run-off or percolation of water through the soil (Horwitz and Richardson 1986). This species is able to tolerate low oxygen concentrations (Suter and Richardson 1977). </p>  <p>The size of mature individuals of this species<em></em> shows little variation between the sexes. The largest male found was 31.4 mm carapace length, and females ranged from 16.7 to 30.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.8 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).</p>	eng
153657	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is considered to be common and abundant throughout its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153657	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) might be a localized threat, however a sufficient part of this species' range occurs within national parkland (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). Though, it is possible that rainfall decline and deforestation might together cause a change in quality of the habitat (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153658	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution coincides with several national parks (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace lenght (OCL ) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four (including this species) of the more than 35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in New South Wales attain that size, so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these species (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). All 'spiny crayfish' (<em>Euastacus</em>) species in Queensland are officially no take species under the <em>Fisheries Act 1994</em> and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed across its range (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is being impacted upon by threat processes within its range. <br/></p>	eng
153658	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from Currumbin Creek, South-East Queensland, 90 km South to the Ballina area of New South Wales and West to Woodenbong, a distance of approximately 100 km (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). The range is drained by the Tweed, Richmond and Clarence Rivers, and small coastal streams (Morgan 1997). This species is found in an altitudinal range from close to sea level, up to 600 m above sea level.   This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000&#160; km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153658	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species occurs within rivers and streams from close to sea level to 600 m above sea level in rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and in cleared pasture (Morgan 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>	eng
153658	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species may be locally abundant within its range (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153658	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is susceptible to threats such as climate change, over exploitation and the introduction of exotic species. This species is susceptible to climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). A large scale flood event in the Numinbah Valley (Queensland) in January 2008 resulted in a mass crayfish kill of this species, several hundred small and medium sized (approximately 40mm orbital carapace length (OCL)) crayfish had apparently been overwhelmed by the large volume of storm induced flow and had been buried in the alluvium, up to 50 m away from the stream channel (Furse in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). More recently a similar event (involving greater than 10000 crayfish) has been documented in the United Kingdom (Lewis and Morris 2008). If climate change increases the frequency of large scale flood events, mass crayfish strandings and kills may become more common (J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>This species is susceptible to over exploitation through fishing pressure, and there is recent data to suggest the size and abundance of the species appears to be declining at key recreational fishing spots in New   South Wales (Coughran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> J.Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). However, the species? overall distribution includes many areas that are inaccessible to recreational fishers. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p><p>Other threats to this species include the potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osborne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) which also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species. <br/></p>	eng
153660	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is indirectly protected by a number of other conservation measures. Lake Kutubu has RAMSAR designation as a "Wetland of International Significance". The lake is also located within the Lake Kutubu Wildlife Management Area (240.57 km<sup>2</sup>) and the Kikori River Basin - Great Papuan Plateau World Heritage Site. Furthermore, the WWF Kikori Integrated Conservation and Development Project aims to promote sustainable use of natural resources within the catchment.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and threats to this species is needed to determine if it is in fact more widespread, and what impact threats have had on the population numbers.	eng
153660	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Kutubu in Papua New Guinea. The area of the lake is approximately 49.24 km<sup>2</sup>. This species may be more widespread, although it is not thought to occupy a significantly greater area (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153660	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2010	<em></em>This species occurs in Lake Kutubu, which is located at an altitude of 850 m above sea level. The area of the lake is 49.24 km<sup>2</sup>. The water of Lake Kutubu is clear, and the lake reaches a depth of 70 m. It is fed by several streams, but much of the inflow water comes from underground sources (WWF 2001). The lake is famous for its high level of endemic fish species, and the water quality within the lake is good (D'Cruz 2008).	eng
153660	population	Austin, C.M., 2010	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.	eng
153660	threats	Austin, C.M., 2010	The development of the Lake Kutubu Oil Project has undoubtedly impacted the water quality within the region. Siltation as a result of mining activity, road construction and deforestation are likely to pose a threat to <em></em>this species. Furthermore, potential oil spills and introduced species could pose a significant threat to the lake species (WWF 2001). In a programme monitoring the subsistence fishery on the lake,&#160;<em></em>crayfish were found to comprise 35% of the total catch (approximately 5,800 individuals a day) (D'Cruz 2008). It also notes a decline in the fish stocks of the lake, however it is unclear whether this is a result of the petroleum development or over-fishing. There is some concern over increasing human population pressures upon the lake's resources, though local awareness projects have been established to teach the local villagers the importance of sustainable harvest (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153661	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure, and it does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. </p>	eng
153661	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. This species has been reported from the Arthur, Catamaran, Crossing, Davey, D'Entrecasteaux, Esperance, Huon, Lune, Moth, New, Picton, South Cape, Salisbury, and Weld catchments.   Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 1000 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately  3,310 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).	eng
153661	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes, in swamps, seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, clay, mud or gravel substrate, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests, wet sclerophyll, moss, coastal and alpine (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>In addition, this species may be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides</em> <em>decemdentatus</em>, <em>O. huonensis</em>, <em>Spinastacoides insignis</em> and <em>S. catinipalma</em>. In most cases this species is found in shallower, better-drained soils than the other species (Hansen & Richardson 2002).</p>	eng
153661	population	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>At one surveyed site this species had a much lower density than the sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis</span> (<0.25m<sup>-2</sup>), but it was restricted at that site to better-drained soils. In some situations (gravely rainforest seepages, lake shores) densities of this species may exceed 1m<sup>-2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153661	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in southern Tasmainia, a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153662	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring of the population trends and habitat status. Surveys and taxonomic work should be conducted to clarify the status of this species (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
153662	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is confined to South Gippsland, being found in the triangular area bordered by Wilsons Promontory, Kongwak and Boolarra (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of  2,430 km².<p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
153662	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	This species has burrows that occur in the extensive flood plain region of Lilly Pilly Gully on Wilson Promontory. The flood plain has surface water in very shallow but extensive pools (seen in October 1982 and 1983) on silts and loams with a very high organic content, received from the many rotting logs and input from falling leaves of the Lilly Pilly and other remnants of warm temperate rainforest. The creek flows slowly, with a bed of coarse sands and with fern covered banks approaching 1 m height in some places. The largest male found was 25.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.6 to 28.5 mm carapace length. (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153662	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153662	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2010	The species occurs within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wilsons</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Promontory</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, although not exclusively (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). A possible threat to this species could be that its range largely overlaps with an area of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Victoria</st1:place></st1:state> which has been altered by agriculture, although the extent of specific habitat degradation is unknown. Pollution to rivers, and changes to the hydrological regime caused by dams and water extraction are likely to occur in these areas (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future, in particular within&#160;Victoria, which has been subjected to an extended drought of late (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153663	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. This species does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and threats impacting upon this species. <br/></p>	eng
153663	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia and has been reported from the Crossing, Davey, Gordon, Huon, Serpentine, and   Weld catchments, at an elevation of 300 - 700 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<sup></sup> Though it has probably lost 50 % of its range with the completion of the Lake  Pedder hydro-electric scheme in 1973 (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately of 1,770 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153663	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps, seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, they are semi-permanent and out-live their occupants; larger burrows are occupied by larger crayfish (Growns and Richardson 1988, Richardson and Swain 1990) The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests and wet sclerophyll (Hansen and Richardson 2006). <br/><br/>Adults mainly feed on roots and decayed plant material; juveniles take a larger proportion of animal food (Growns and Richardson 1988). Furthermore, it is found in sympatry with <em>Spinastacoides inermis</em>, where this species occupies deeper, wetter soils. Also it may have a parapatric boundary with <em>Ombrastacoides decemdentatus </em>(Hansen and Richardson 2002).<br/><br/>In addition, this species has a biennial breeding pattern. Adults mate in autumn (March), and the eggs are carried over winter and hatch in early summer. The female does not release the young until late summer and they remain in the maternal burrow in close association with the female for another year, after which the female mates again (Hamr and Richardson 1994). This pattern may be typical of Tasmanian freshwater crayfish. Its life span may be up to 10 years and age at first reproduction 3-5 years; females produce 20-80 eggs in a brood (Hamr and Richardson 1994).<br/><br/>Furthermore,   like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate ?pholeteros? fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153663	population	Richardson, A., 2010	Densities of this species, measured at one typical site, ranged from 0.2 - 1.1 m<sup>-2</sup> (Hamr and Richardson 1994), each burrow probably containing a single adult crayfish. However, extrapolation to an overall population size is complex because of the mosaic of drainage and soil types within the species? range (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153663	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. This species is realtively widespread in southern Tasmainia, with a large proportion of its range overlapping with national parkland, and it does not have strict habitat requirements.   Though the area surrounding its known habitat is impacted by roading, drainage of soils, and excessive fire   (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153664	conservation	Burnham, Q., 2009	Horowitz and Adams (2000) suggest this species is well represented and no significant population declines are known,   however its distribution range coincides with the D’Entrecasteaux and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Shannon</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">National Park</st1:placename></st1:place>, therefore this species does not require conservation measures at present (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153664	distribution	Burnham, Q., 2009	<em></em><em></em>This species is endemic to tributaries in the vicinity of Walpole, Western Australia. This species is distributed from the Windy Harbour region to Denmark (Morgan and Beatty 2005).&#160;<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 13,000 km².	eng
153664	habitat	Burnham, Q., 2009	<em></em>This species is a primary burrower.  They are generally found in seasonal wetlands where the water table often does not reach the surface (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). This particular species is generally found in sandy soils in which they dig expansive burrow systems (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153664	population	Burnham, Q., 2009	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it&#160;is known to be abundant in many of the areas that it inhabits (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153664	threats	Burnham, Q., 2009	This species could be threatened by rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas, which have affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). Horowitz and Adams (2000) suggest this species is well represented and no significant population declines are known. This species is known to be abundant and is unlikely to be threatened in the near future (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153665	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>	eng
153665	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Australia, and is found in the Northern Territory. It has a patchy distribution and has been recorded in the Blythe River, Maningrida, Arafwa swamp, Blue Mud Bay and Wessel Island (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008). However, its distribution is likely to be greater (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008). This species has an approximate distribution of 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153665	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This is a burrowing species, that can be found in coastal streams, swamps, and freshwater pools and streams (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153665	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	In areas where it is located this species is usually locally abundant (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).<em></em>	eng
153665	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species<em></em>. However, nearly half of the Northern Territory's land is used for livestock grazing&#160; (cattle), with most of the remaining land being classified for indigenous use. It is possible that loss riparian vegetation through grazing is resulting in sedimentation and therefore reduced water quality in parts of this species range. At present this is considered a localized threat to this species. This species is also potentially threatened by competitive fish species and freshwater crabs which occur within its range (C. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153666	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no conservation measures in place specifically for <em>Euastacus clarkae</em>. However, its distribution is within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, so there is the potential for some degree of habitat protection within the species limited range. In the future, the threat processes affecting localised populations of this species need to be monitored to ensure they do not become more widespread and result in significant losses. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species, susceptibility to forest management and logging impacts. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South   Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus clarkae</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;  </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153666	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species has been collected from two nearby tributaries in Mount Boss State Forest, near Mount Werrikimbe in New South Wales (Morgan 1997). The species is restricted to rainforest habitat above 600 m above sea level. The extent of occurrence is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008), and area of occupancy is almost certainly less than this.</p>	eng
153666	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is found in cool, shaded streams more than 670 m above sea level. Rainforest is found along the banks and dry sclerophyll on exposed ridges (Morgan 1997).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>	eng
153666	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species<em>.<br/></em>	eng
153666	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is susceptible to localized impacts, including logging (resulting sedimentation), bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors. It is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>This species may also be potentially threatened by Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004b,c,d,e). Given the highly restricted distribution of this crayfish species, these exotic species could contribute to serious declines in distribution and/or local abundance. Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153667	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed into the abundace of this species, and potential threats in the area.	eng
153667	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type locality, Mazatlan in Sinaloa County as well as Nayarit County, Mexico (F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species occurs in an area of approximately 300 - 400 km².	eng
153667	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in lakes, ponds and swamps (Hobbs 1989), and has been described as a physiologically tolerant species (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153667	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Some survey work has indicated that this species is not abundant, and other surveys have reportedly collected 80 specimens per hour (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153667	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
153668	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the population abundance and range of this species, and whether threats occuring within its range are having animpact upon it.	eng
153668	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is endemic to Chile. It is restricted to the western slopes of the Coastal Cordillera from Rucapihuel to Estaquilla. It has been found in the Los Kakanes homestead of Rucapihuel, and also 105 km South, in Estaquilla, Llanquihue Province (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).	eng
153668	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This is a burrowing species. It inhabits peatland that is loosely compact and highly saturated with water throughout the year. The burrows of this species are simple and not deep with few chimneys, that are not high. Unlike other burrowing parastacid in Chile, this species has been found outside of its burrow and consequently has been described as a 'secondary burrower' (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).	eng
153668	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153668	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	It is likely that this species<em> </em>is being significantly impacted by habitat degradation. The habitat of this species is being deforested to clear land for agricultural purposes, and the peatlands of southern Chile are suffering from the extraction of <em>Sphagnum</em> moss for commercial purposes. These activities are a major threat towards the decline of this species' habitat (Rudolph and Crandall 2007).	eng
153669	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, the distribution, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes at a global scale. <br/></p>	eng
153669	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species has been reported from Montevideo, Uruguay, but is principally very abundant in east central Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153669	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is a burrowing species of crayfish. It lives in swamps and lakes, where it digs sloped subterranean tunnels. Sexually mature males and females, and juveniles are frequently found occupying the same burrow (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
153669	population	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is very abundant in east central Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).<em></em>	eng
153669	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is impacted by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008). These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are particularly important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio  Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153670	conservation	Burnham, Q., 2010	There are no conservation measure in place to protect&#160;<em></em>this species at present.&#160;<em></em>It is state-listed as 'vulnerable' and protected under the Western Australia Wildlife and Conservation Act (1950). Horwitz and Adams (2000) have recommended that this species should be classed as Endangered using B criteria. Further research into the abundance and appropriate conservation measures are required for this species. This species is likely to occur within the Haag Nature Reserve which is roughly 10 km south of Dunsborough (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). A recovery plan is in the process of being formulated, as this species is listed within the state and is currently under federal review (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153670	distribution	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is endemic to the Dunsborough region in Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution. This species is known from several swamps between Dunsborough and Margaret River. It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 465 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153670	habitat	Burnham, Q., 2010	<em></em>This is a primary burrowing species which digs expansive burrow systems in sandy soils and is found in seasonal wetlands where the water table may or may not reach the surface (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).    <p><br/></p>	eng
153670	population	Burnham, Q., 2010	Historical records show that some populations which existed 20 - 40 years ago, no longer exist (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). It is thought to be common in relation to other species in sites where it is found (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153670	threats	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is known only from a few swamps, it is absent from the type locality, and the habitat of this species is isolated and severely fragmented. Other threats include cattle grazing and hydrological change due to damming of water courses for vineyards (Horwitz and Adams 2000). Rapid changes in land use within this species range, has affected surface and ground water conditions in the south-west, destroying natural habitat (Naturebase 2007).&#160;Any large-scale perennial extraction of groundwater falls into one of the major  categories of threats posed to the freshwater crayfish of the region (Morgan and Beatty 2005).	eng
153671	conservation	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is state listed as 'endangered' and protected by the Western Australia Wildlife Conservation Act (1950) (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). A recovery plan should be formulated as this species is listed within the state and is currently under federal review&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008)<p></p>	eng
153671	distribution	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is found at only three or four localities in the vicinity of Walpole, Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution. It is unknown how or if these sites are connected.<br/>The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been inferred as 28 km²,&#160;but is unlikely to be more than 100 km² if other subpopulations are located (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153671	habitat	Burnham, Q., 2010	<em></em>This is a primary burrower and is found in swamps and peatlands and other habitats where the water table either reaches or nearly reaches the surface and there is a suitable substrate for burrowing (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). It is not found in significant water bodies (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153671	population	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is now extirpated from the type locality. &#160;It is thought to be abundant in sites where it is currently found (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153671	threats	Burnham, Q., 2010	Threats to this species include habitat disturbance by feral pigs, land use change for agriculture, cattle grazing, logging, urbanization, water extraction and dams, sand mining, and water pollution (Naturebase 2007, Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153672	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research should be initiated to include population assessments and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).This species occurs within national parks.<br/></p>    <p>All <span style="font-style: italic;">'</span>spiny crayfish' species in Queensland are officially 'no take' species under the Fisheries Act 1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching is frequently observed. It is also noted that species such as this are not spiny (Morgan 1988; Coughran 2008b), and thus may be easily confused with smooth <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> (unprotected species) and inadvertently taken by recreational fishers (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
153672	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is endemic to Australia. It is known from the Atherton Tablelands and Bellenden Ker Range in North Queensland. The species inhabits highland rainforest areas (Morgan 1988), more than 700 m above sea level (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153672	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species inhabits waterways in cool, rainforested areas (Morgan 1988), including gullies and small streams (Coughran 2008a unpublished data). Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, on different mountain ranges, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).<br/><br/>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).	eng
153672	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It is not an abundant species. Morgan (1988) was only able to collect 6 specimens from across its entire range. A recent (October 2008) targeted survey in one area (the type locality) only produced a similar number of specimens (Coughran 2008a <span style="font-style: italic;">unpublished data</span>). </p>	eng
153672	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Although this species occupies a relatively wide distribution (including national parks), it is susceptible to over-exploitation, climate change, predation by Cane Toads and other exotic species. Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this rare species may be susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Climate change, through increasing global temperatures, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires could alter this species distribution (Hilbert <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001; Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003; Hughes 2003; Pittock 2003; Hennessy 2006; Westoby and Burgman 2006; IPCC 2007; Laurance and Curran 2008). This species is potentially under large scale threats from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004a) although there are no specific data on this threat. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997; ACT Government 2007; O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004b,c,d), and could be causing localised declines as a result of predation and habitat destruction.	eng
153673	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153673	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	This species is endemic to Australia. It is known from the Hastings Range (northwest of Port Macquarie), New South Wales (Morgan 1997). This species is restricted to small, upland (more than 680 m above sea level) sections of streams that occur in several different drainages including the Apsley, Hastings and Manning rivers (Morgan 197). Given the barriers to upland, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> presented by mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006), this species range can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160; 488 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153673	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits small streams vegetated by temperate rainforest and wet or dry sclerophyll forest. It appears tolerant to clearing, and populations have been recorded in areas where even the banks have been cleared for pasture (Morgan 1997).</p>	eng
153673	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.</p>	eng
153673	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is susceptible to a number of threats given its highly restricted range. In particular, it is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of suitable highland habitat and increased potential for bushfires pose a threat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). There is also the potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species restricted distribution, could have impacts<em> </em>by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p>	eng
153675	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and better understand the scale of threats.<br/></p>	eng
153675	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Brazil. It is known only from the east-central part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, occurring in the basins forming the Guaiba estuary in the central depression of the state (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2005).   This species has distribution of approximately  of 6,536 km².	eng
153675	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is found in lotic habitats among plant detritus that accumulates, and shoals. Like other species of the genus, it builds burrows in ravines in small brooks (Noro <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
153675	population	Buckup, L., 2010	In most of the rivulets where this species was found, the estimated population density is approximately one specimen per square meter and a standing crop of 613.32 kg/ha (Ferreira-Fontoura and Buckup 1991, L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153675	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is impacted upon by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are, however, localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing confirmed or significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are especially important on the surface waters around the main metropolitan areas of <st1:city w:st="on">Rio  Grande</st1:city> do <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sul</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">State (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008)</st1:placetype></st1:place>.	eng
153676	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Warning</st1:placename> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Parks</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm   orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><p></p>	eng
153676	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is currently known from Korrumbyn Creek in <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Mount</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Warning</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Palmer</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Creek</st1:placename></st1:placename> in <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> and two other un-named gullies in <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Wollumbin</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place></st1:state></st1:place>. All individuals were collected between 320 - 440 m above sea level.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 80 km² and an area of occupancy of 7.5 km², with sites ocurring within remnant rainforest pockets in headwater streams, and thus should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barrier to dispersal by intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). <br/><p> &#160;    </p>	eng
153676	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>This species occupies a range of habitat types including gullies, tributaries and headwater streams. Individuals can be collected from both shallow excavations under rocks, and complex burrow networks (Coughran 2007). All sample sites were within closed forest cover. Further information on the species' habitat and ecology has been documented by Coughran (2007).&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;   <p>&#160; </p>	eng
153676	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however it is considered uncommon within sites it inhabits (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153676	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Furthermore, the upper extremities of its montane habitats may become drier. This could cause the lowering of superficial water tables upon which it appears to rely, thus restricting its upper altitudinal range (Coughran 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, foxes, goats Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p><p></p>  <p>.</p>	eng
153677	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, and it is not listed under any state or Federal Act (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, its range does overlap with national parkland. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
153677	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species can be found in <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state>, northern <st1:state w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:state> and several Bass Strait islands, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is estimated to have a distribution of approximately 291,000 km<sup>2</sup>. Horwitz (1988) proposed that this species responds to sea level fluctuations by staying close to the coast in coastal freshwater wetland systems.</p>  <p></p>	eng
153677	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is predominantly located at low altitudes, except in the area around Korumburra where it can be found at altitudes of up to 350 m. Its habitat<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is typically creeks 1.5 - 2 m wide, and up to 0.5 m deep (at mean level), with vertical banks at least 0.5 m high. The burrows are found in close proximity to the junction of the bank and the creek (Suter 1977). This species is able to occupy a wide variety of habitats, and is generally found in lowland, coastal regions. On the Bass Strait islands, this species is mainly found in lowland swampy areas. The largest male found was 32.6 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 16.6 mm to 30 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).<br/>  <strong></strong>	eng
153677	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is considered to be very abundant throughout its range, especially in the flat lowland areas of some Bass Straight islands, such as Flinders, Cape Barren and King Island (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It is less common in northern Tasmania, where it is only found in the northern coastal areas  (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<strong></strong>	eng
153677	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Currently there are no major threats to this species<em></em>. However, coastal development might be a minor threat in some areas of northern Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).  Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future. As this species is most abundant on lowland islands and coastal habitats, future sea level rise might also be a potential threat (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
153678	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Furthermore, no conservation actions are required at present as there is no immediate threat to this species, and parts of its range coincide with national parks.&#160;  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><em> </em>	eng
153678	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has one of the largest geographical distributions of all <em>Engaeus</em> species, occuring mainly north of the Great Dividing Range. It is also found above 1000 m in altitude (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 250,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153678	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<em></em>This species occupies a wide variety of habitats, but is usually found in creeks and seepages in either dry or wet sclerophyll forests. The largest male was 24.1 mm carapace length, with mature females ranging from 16.5 to 26.6 mm carapace length. The smallest non-reproductive female was 23 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153678	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>This species can be locally abundant over parts of its range, but subpopulations are only rarely encountered, suggesting a more widespread distribution in the geological past (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153678	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There are no known major threats currently impacting this species. Local population declines will occur as cattle and horses are allowed to graze in wetter seepage areas in higher altitude locations. These can trample burrows and compact the land making burrowing difficult (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153679	conservation	Schultz, M., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is&#160; needed and should focus on determining aspects of the reproduction of this species, including its fecundity, size of eggs, exact longevity and size at sexual reproduction. Future study should also investigate microhabitat use in seasonal habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">G. falcata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> are known to co-exist, in order to determine the mechanism allowing them to do so and enhance future conservation management activities. In addition, all study of the ecology and biology of this species to date has occurred in the Grampians National Park in southwest Victoria, Australia. Therefore, future studies should incorporate sites/areas from elsewhere throughout the range of this species in order to confirm whether the trends observed in the Grampians National Park are true of populations elsewhere.<br/><br/>To conserve this species, future management strategies will need to consider both perennial and seasonal habitat types and incorporate the small non-burrowing crayfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> which is commensal with it. The habitat needs of each of these species warrant consideration when hydrological or fire regimes are manipulated for water supply and national park management, respectively. Further, routine or control burns should be avoided throughout the range of this species in autumn when water tables are lowest and this crayfish is most exposed to radiant heat from fire. Instead, fires for management should occur during the wettest time of year (late winter and spring), when crayfish are protected by surface waters.	eng
153679	distribution	Schultz, M., 2010	This species is endemic to the North Grampians in Victoria, Australia (Schultz 2007). This species can be found in the headwaters of the Glenelg River and also throughout the north of the Grampians National Park in southwest Victoria (McCormack 2006, Johnston and Robson 2009, Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153679	habitat	Schultz, M., 2010	<em></em>In the Grampians National Park region this species is found predominately in floodplain wetlands and flooded vegetation, which are both seasonal habitat types (Johnston and Robson 2009). Similarly, Zeidler (1982) reported this species inhabits small streams, marshes, riverbanks or hilltop areas, drains, creeks and swamps throughout its range (Schultz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species burrows in materials ranging from sandy clay to fine gravel to depth of 1-1.5 m (Mills <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1976), and while juveniles do not burrow they are abundant in surface waters during spring (Zeidler 1982). This species has been found in flooded vegetation, floodplain wetland habitat and soft sediment channel habitats within the Grampians National Park and co-exist with <span style="font-style: italic;">Gramastacus insolitus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> frequently and <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus bispinosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. lyelli</span> occasionally throughout this area (Johnston and Robson in press). There is a commensal relationship between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Gramastacus insolitus</span>, whereby the second smaller, non- burrowing crayfish species inhabits natural cracks and shallow depressions off to the side of the main burrow tunnel of the former species (Johnston and Robson in press). This species appears unaffected by the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> in its burrows and indeed <span style="font-style: italic;">G. insolitus</span> co-occurs with this species at almost all sites at which this larger crayfish species occurs in the Grampians National Park region (Johnston and Robson 2009).<br/><br/>The presence of this species at any given location is associated with a mud substrate devoid of boulders, a high percentage cover of submerged, and emergent vegetation and moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and compared to other habitat types, a low total alkalinity and moderate level of water colouration. These parameters are characteristic of the flooded vegetation and floodplain wetland habitats in which they predominantly occur (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). In addition, the occurrence of this species in these seasonal habitats, suggests these species to be somewhat opportunistic, taking advantage of surface waters when they are present with the capacity to tolerate a range of levels of environmental and physicochemical parameters in these habitats as they go through their annual filling and drying cycle (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species has the life history characteristics of a summer brooder, including a potentially asynchronous spawning regime, short breeding period, relatively short life span, and the ability to grow rapidly. Adults attain a maximum adult size of 39.9 mm OCL. Gravid females are seldom sighted because they remain in their burrows but a single gravid female has been measured to be 15.6 mm OCL (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Individuals likely take two years to attain this size.	eng
153679	population	Schultz, M., 2010	All prior information on the population numbers of this species from Robson and Johnston, were in fact relating to <span style="font-style: italic;">Geocharax</span> sp. 1 and not <span style="font-style: italic;">G. falcata </span>(except from Troopers Creek). This has been confirmed by DNA evidence from Robson's samples (M. Schultz pers. comm. 2010).<br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153679	threats	Schultz, M., 2010	Populations of this species are thought to have suffered a reduction in the range of available habitat, due to drainage activities in western Victoria (Horwitz 1990). In the Grampians National Park region, any habitat modification or disturbance arising from park management activities will likely affect the abundance of this species (Johnston and Robson 2009). Climate warming is predicted to increase the frequency and duration of drought and the frequency and intensity of wildfire in western Victoria, and both of these changes are likely to have negative impacts on this species, and active management may be required to minimize the effects of these events. In particular, prolonged drying of seasonal wetlands will increase the duration of time spent over summering in burrows, lengthening the period of exposure to fire impacts and potentially reducing the time available for surface feeding and reproduction   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/>    <p><em></em><br/></p>	eng
153680	conservation	Coughran, J., Dawkins, K.L. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>T. glypticus</em>. Research should be urgently initiated to establish the species’ Area Of Occupancy, and should also include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements (including salinity tolerance), investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In addition, genetic and/or morphological analysis should be undertaken to elucidate any distinction between populations from the two extant localities, <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (on the mainland) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran, K.L.Dawkins, J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153680	distribution	Coughran, J., Dawkins, K.L. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em><em></em>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species was described from specimens collected in Brisbane (Mt. Gravatt) and Caloundra (Riek 1951). However, the species has not been recorded in metropolitan <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city> for over 60 years (Davie 2007), although it has been recorded at <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (to the southeast of <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city>) (Davie 2007), and on <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> to the northeast (Harding and Williamson 2003). Recent research (Dawkins 2008, Dawkins <em>et al.</em> in press) has revealed additional populations of <em>Tenuibranchiurus</em>&#160;further north and south of the distribution of <em></em>this species. However morphological and genetic information suggest that most, if not all, of these populations are distinct taxa (Horwitz 1995, Dawkins 2008, Dawkins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press). As such the distribution of this species is considered to extend from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city></st1:place> to Caloundra, a distance of approximately 100 km north-south.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. However, this area has been very heavily developed (i.e. includes <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>) and the actual area of occupancy is likely to be a small fraction of this. This species is now only known from two sites (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153680	habitat	Coughran, J., Dawkins, K.L. & Furse, J., 2010	This species has a maximum length of 25 mm, and is the smallest known species of crayfish found in Australia. It inhabits coastal wallum swamps and is found among sedges rather than in more open water (Harding and Williamson 2003). There is very little suitable habitat remaining within its range, as most has been cleared for the development of <st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane</st1:city> and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Sunshine</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Coast</st1:placetype></st1:place> (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).   The habitat of other <em>Tenuibranchiurus </em>species has recently been recorded (Dawkins et al. in prep) and the biology of this genus is poorly understood.	eng
153680	population	Coughran, J., Dawkins, K.L. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species.<em>&#160;Tenuibranchiurus spp.</em>&#160;are extremely rare and this species appears to have been extirpated at two of the sites it was known from (one of which was developed for housing) and one of the two remaining sites is at <st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename> (Davie 2007), a heavily urbanized area with some light industry on the outskirts of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Brisbane (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008)</st1:city></st1:place>.</p>	eng
153680	threats	Coughran, J., Dawkins, K.L. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>  Given its highly restricted distribution, the species is extremely susceptible to disturbance events and localized impacts, including bush fires, land management practices, groundwater extraction, habitat destruction, weed incursion, pollution and pesticides, and exotic species. The&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Victoria</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Point</st1:placename>&#160;locality could conceivably be eliminated from the range of this species by any number of localized anthropogenic influences in a very short time frame (i.e. a single industrial accident). Although probably less susceptible, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bribie</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place> locality could also be affected by a single factor (i.e. groundwater extraction from the perched freshwater aquifer leading to saltwater intrusion to the wallum habitat). In addition, there are several threats associated with climate change including, increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, elevated sea levels (i.e. saltwater intrusion), severe weather events, loss of suitable coastal habitat, and increased potential for bushfires (IPCC 2007). Potentially large scale threats from introduced species Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>), Plague Minnow (<em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>), and Swordtail (<em>Xiphophorus helleri</em>) are likely given the very small size of this species, although there are no specific data on impacts from these species (J. Coughran, K.L. Dawkins and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153683	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further information is first needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if it is in fact part of <em>Cherax quadricarinatus</em>.	eng
153683	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species<em></em> is found in Irian Jaya, and the low-lying populated regions in West New Guinea, Indonesia (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153683	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is found in streams. It is a predatory omnivore/detritivore that tolerates a wide variety of water parameters (pH 6.5 to 8.5, medium to hard water). The optimum temperature for this species is between 22 and 28<sup>o</sup>C (Werner 2003). This species varies from 15.05 to 61.15 mm in carapace length and from 1.8 to 121 g in mass (Tapilatu 1997).	eng
153683	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	In a study by Tapilatu (1997), a total of 774 individuals of this species were collected from the Klasafet watershed.	eng
153683	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	It is unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threats at the present time.	eng
153685	conservation	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution, threats and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
153685	distribution	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	<em></em>This species is known to occur in China, North Korea and South Korea. It inhabits mountain valleys from South Korea, most areas of North Korea, and Liao-dong Peninsula in China (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153685	habitat	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species is known to occur in lotic habitats, including small streams which are surrounded by trees with a large quantity of fallen vegetation, but may also occur in small brooks or puddles. This species prefers clear water, has a biological oxygen demand of <1 parts per million, a dissolved oxygen demand of >7.9 ppm, a pH range of 6.4-6.7, and turbidity range of 0.4-1 NTU. Water temperature is usually 7°C during spring, 16°C during summer, 13°C during autumn, and frozen from December to March. Maximum carapace lengths of females and males <em></em>are approximately 3 and 4 cm, respectively (Nisimura and Masanobu 2008).	eng
153685	population	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.	eng
153685	threats	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	Recently, the abundance of this species in Korea has declined, probably as a result of environmental change and water pollution. Moreover, it is confirmed that the red swamp crayfish <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, has been introduced in Korea, which poses a threat due to its ability to outcompete native species. At present, protection of this species is needed in Korea. (Nisimura and Hirata 2008).	eng
153686	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However its distribution coincides with national parks. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and the impacts of threats occuring within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>	eng
153686	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from 25 km West of Dorrigo, 90 km to the Armidale and Guyra areas of New South Wales and one individual was found near Yarro, which suggests the species extends south along the Botumbella Range for a similar distance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Major drainage systems include the Nymboida, Styx, and Guy Fawkes Rivers in the North and the Hastings River in the South (Morgan 1997). It is a high altitude species, restricted to sites above 1100 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
153686	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is found in small to medium sized open streams with banks vegetated by sclerophyll forest and heath, or largely cleared for pasture at elevations between 1,100 m and 1,380 m above sea level. The water within its known habitat is clear and cool with brown algal growth (Morgan 1997).</p>	eng
153686	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is known to be relatively abundant within sites it is known from (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153686	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is fairly tolerant to clearing (Morgan 1997); it is relatively widespread and occurs within some national parks but is susceptible to threats such as climate change and the introduction of exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Climate change poses a threat through increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002; Howden 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus simplex </span>is restricted to very high altitudes, and it is probable that this reflects a requirement for cool conditions.  </p><p>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bufo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.   Other exotic introduced species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and these exotic species could have localized impacts on this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  </p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><br/><p></p>	eng
153687	conservation	Hamr, P., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Horwitz (1990) suggests this species has a high conservation significance. Further research is needed on the population status of this species <br/></p>	eng
153687	distribution	Hamr, P., 2009	<em></em>This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is found east of the Wellington Range, in the south through the midlands, to the Asbestos Range in the north, and has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of 22,379 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2006, Hamr 2008).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>	eng
153687	habitat	Hamr, P., 2009	<em></em> This species is found in rivers and streams and is a burrower (Hamr 2008). It is also known,&#160;in at least one location on the&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Freycinet</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula,</st1:placetype></st1:place>&#160;to construct burrows well away from permanent water bodies&#160;(Horwitz and Richardson 1986).<br/><br/>Females <em></em>begin to acquire secondary sexual characters between 36 and 46 mm carapace length (CPL), but most do not mature until 46 mm CPL. Males apparently begin to produce sperm at approximately 30 mm CPL but 100% maturity is not reached until size classes reach a CPL of 38 mm (Hamr 2008). In addition, this species<em> </em>mates and spawns in April-May, eggs are carried over winter, hatch in January, and young stay attached until well into the following autumn (April-May) (Hamr 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">Astacopsis franklinii</span> from Mt. Wellington matures at a smaller size than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gouldi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tricornis</span> (Hamr 1992a).	eng
153687	population	Hamr, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as relatively widespread and common in eastern Tasmania (Hamr 2008).&#160;</p>	eng
153687	threats	Hamr, P., 2009	General threats to crayfish in Tasmania are likely to affect&#160;<em></em>this species. These include the conversion of native forest to plantation, fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts, habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelization) and illegal fishing (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007). In addition, climate change may present a threat to this species in the future through warming the cool, high altitude habitat required for this species (Hamr 2008). At the present time these ae not considered significant threats to the population.	eng
153688	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known to occur within <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Franklin-Gordon</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Wild</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Rivers</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>  Further research is needed into the abundance and habitat requirements of this species, as well as the extent to which threats such as land clearance are impacting upon it.     <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><br/></st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>	eng
153688	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to western Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Andrew and Franklin river catchments (Hansen and Richardson 2006), at an elevation of 200 - 400 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from five locations, with an extent of occurrence of 18 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153688	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in creeks. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>O. leptomerus</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).	eng
153688	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153688	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	E<span lang="EN-AU">xcessive fires and mineral exploration within its range may remove suitable habitat for this species, including peat soils (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009), however it is not known if these threats are impacting this species.	eng
153690	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is likely to be found in a number of national parks including the D'Entrecasteaux National Park (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.	eng
153690	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species<em> </em>is endemic to south-west coastal areas of Western Australia and has a relatively uniform distribution due to its ability to tolerate a range of habitat types (Morgan and Beatty 2005). This species ranges from Cannington near Perth, to Albany. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 50,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153690	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This is a burrowing species and is found in a range of habitat types including rivers, streams, ponds and swamps indicating that it is a habitat generalist. It occurs in both permanent and temporary freshwater systems (Morgan and Beatty 2005). It has an active dispersal rate and is able to survive extended periods out of water (Gouws, Stewart and Daniels 2006).	eng
153690	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is relatively common (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008) and has been found in "considerable numbers" by Morgan and Beatty (2005) on the Blackwood River.	eng
153690	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is locally threatened by competition from both <em>Cherax destructor</em> and <em>Cherax quinquecarinatus</em> to a lesser degree (Lynas <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is also likely to be impacted by drought in areas of water abstraction, urbanization, and land conversion for agriculture (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). However, this species is widespread and common throughout much of its range implying it may only be locally threatened. This species is undergoing more significant declines in the northerly extent of its range, around Perth, where it is threatened by intense urbanization (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153691	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153691	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in eastern Uruguay and southern Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153691	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is a fossorial seasonal burrower, which constructs tunnel systems that reach the groundwater table in swampy areas in Uruguay, and in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Furthermore, this species provides several ecosystem services from soil aerification by burrowing, sheltering of a variety of highly specialized comensal subterranean macro-invertebrates inside the galleries, and as a food source for species of fish, mammals and reptiles (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153691	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for <em></em>this species.	eng
153691	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>This species is impacted by stream channelling and liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry and/or agriculture. These are however localized threats and do not extend over the entire range of this species, and are not causing significant declines at a global level. The weight of these threats are particularly important on the swampy habitats in the South Brazilian and Uruguayan 'pampas', where this crayfish occurs (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153692	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Border</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Ranges</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South   Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; <em></em></p>	eng
153692	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	k<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from four proximal sites at one locality in Sheepstation Creek, in the Border Ranges National Park, New South Wales. All individuals were collected between 330 - 430 m above sea level.   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 m² and an area of occupancy of 2.5 km² (Coughran 2007).	eng
153692	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species occupies shallow waters at the edge of minor tributaries (i.e. side-streams of Sheepstation Creek). At some sites, surface water was minimal or absent. The species forms complex burrows around underlying rocks and tree roots, or can be found in shallow excavations under rocks (Coughran 2007).	eng
153692	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however it is exceedingly rare in the small area it occupies (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153692	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153693	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, with particularly focus on the genetic relatedness of disjunct populations. Monitoring of the population is required in order to detect more widespread declines as a result of habitat loss. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153693	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is most commonly found north of the Great Dividing Range from the Grampian Ranges in the west to near Myrtleford in the east, and it does not appear to extend far from the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria (although its northwards range has not been thoroughly investigated). The distribution is characterized by distinct gaps in its range, with gaps occurring between Moyston and Beaufort, in the Lerderderg River drainage region, between Ballarat and Daylesford, and in the Seymour-Yea region (although this gap may be due to insufficient sampling) (Horwitz 1990).&#160;<br/>  This species has a distribution of approximately 11,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153693	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is usually found in the banks of creeks or small lakes in dry, temperate, sclerophyll forest. On occasion it can burrow very extensively, but it has also been found out of burrows in surface waters, particularly in spring (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). The largest male found was 28.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 18.8 to 32.4 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153693	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species<em></em>.	eng
153693	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	Parts of this species range overlaps with areas which have undergone agricultural development. While activities associated with this type of development   may be detrimental to the populations locally, it is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153695	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. NatureServe ranked it as G5 (Least Concern)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society considers it to be Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007).</p><p></p>	eng
153695	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This widespread species' range centres around the Great Lakes-Ohio River drainages in northeastern America (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2005). It is found in Ontario, Quebec, and New York, down south to Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). &#160;In the southern portion of its range the species is found along the strike of the Appalachian Mountains (R. Thoma pers.comm. 2010). It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 650,406 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153695	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species can be found in large rivers and lakes, and prefers to burrow under large rocks (Bouchard 1974). It has a preference for larger (greater than 2 m wide) fast flowing streams on sandy or gravelly substrate, but can also be found in roadside ditches (Jezerinac 1991) indicating a tolerance to some level of pollution. This species has some tolerance to water acidification (Berrill <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1985) and copper pollution (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1995). This is a large and aggressive species that has been found to be dominant over other native crayfish such as <em>Cambarus bartonii</em> (Guiasu <em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 1996).</p><p>Reproduction takes place in summer and the young hatch in August (Hamr and Berrill 1985). Individuals normally mature after two years, however some may not reach maturity until three years of age (Hamr and Berrill 1985). The maximum life span of this species is 4 years (Hamr and Berrill 1985). This species has a carapace length of 34 mm to 45 mm. This species is known to competitively exclude other species of crayfish.</p>	eng
153695	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is considered to be abundant in at least parts of its range (Jezerinac 1991, Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em style="font-style: italic;">et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005).	eng
153695	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There are no known major threats to this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation and loss, however its tolerance to a certain level of sedimentation and pollution makes it less vulnerable to such threats. The introduced Rusty Crayfish might be able to compete with this species, however due to its high tolerance to acidification and pollution this species should be able to survive in at least parts of its distribution (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Both NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) have described this species as stable.</p>  <p>  </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
153696	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the ecology, distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
153696	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known from Indooroopilly in Brisbane, Australia (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153696	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
153696	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is only known from a single specimen which was found in a concrete drain (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153696	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153697	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by threats such as habitat degradation and harvesting. In addition, protected areas should be established to ensure there is some suitable habitat for the preservation of this species.	eng
153697	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile, and is found in the Valdivia region   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009). There is still some question over the exact range of this species.   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  9,623 km².	eng
153697	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is a burrowing crayfish. It inhabits swampy grounds, where it builds burrows converging into a living chamber at the level of underground waters (Kilian 1959, Rudolph 1995).	eng
153697	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153697	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is facing loss of habitat due to high deforestation pressure to clear lands for agricultural purposes (both livestock grazing and crops) (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).The degree to which this is affecting the entire population is unclear.	eng
153698	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. Furthermore, this species does not require any conservation measures at present, though further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
153698	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to south eastern Tasmania, Australia. It is reported from the Coffin, Cracroft, Davey, De Witt, Frankland, Fulton, Giblin, Gordon, Hardwood, Huon, Melaleuca, Moth, Mulcahy, North, Olga, Passage, Spring, Race, Wanderer, and White Horse catchments. Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 700 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately 3,312 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).	eng
153698	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps, seepages and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, sand, mud or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest, wet sclerophyll, moss, coastal and alpine (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>Furthermore, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em>, <em>Spinastacoides inermis</em> and <em>S. catinipalma</em>. In these situations, it is usually found in deeper, wetter soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002).</p>	eng
153698	population	Richardson, A., 2010	Burrow densities for this species are known to sometimes be very high in favourable habitat (deep water-logged peats, >1m<sup>-2</sup>) (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153698	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in South eastern Tasmainia, and a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements.	eng
153699	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread, does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a national park, which will provide a certain amount of protection. Monitoring of the eastern boundary of the species; range is required in the face of climate change (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). In addition, further survey work is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the impact of potential threats. <br/></p><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153699	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to central Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Derwent, Florentine, Gordon, Huon, Tyenna, and Weld catchments, and has an estimated distribution of 430 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Furthermore, it has been collected at an elevation of 400 - 900 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153699	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes, and in seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, and vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath and melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides pulcher</span> (no habitat partitioning identified) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides inermis</span>, where this species occupies wetter burrows (Hansen and Richardson 2002). Furthermore, the life history of this species is likely to be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides huonensis</span>, but apparently breeds earlier in the season (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>    <p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-AU">In addition, like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate ?pholeteros? fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).</p>  <p></p>  <br/><br/><br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153699	population	Richardson, A., 2010	Observations of this species suggest densities of less than 1 m<sup>-2</sup> in optimum habitat; graminoid heath on peat. ( A.Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153699	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting on this species. Potential threats include processes that remove vegetation cover or the peat soil layer such as excessive fire, roading or mineral exploration. However, these are not considered to be major threats because this species does not have strict habitat requirements, and is found in a national park in central Tasmania, which will provide a certain amount of protection (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The conservation status of this species is believed to be secure (Hansen and Richardson 2006). As one of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species occupying the warmer, drier eastern end of the genus range, this species will be most vulnerable to climate change if, as seems likely, this involves warming and drying of their habitat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153700	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.<br/></p>	eng
153700	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species is endemic to Brazil. It is known from only two localities, Estrada da Cidra and Chácara dos Ipes (Joinville). Both localities are in the extreme northeastern part of Santa Catarina   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153700	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species. Within the genus <em>Parastacus</em>, many species live in burrows in marshes, pools and streams   (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153700	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<em><br/></em>	eng
153700	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153701	conservation	Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. However, the range, abundance and potential threats to this species requires investigation to determine if it could be threatened. This species has been given a NatureServe status of G3G4, while the American Fisheries Service regards this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
153701	distribution	Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em></em> This speceis is found in unpopulated areas of Idaho and Oregon in the USA.	eng
153701	habitat	Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in lotic habitats.&#160; It is known from streams in unpopulated areas of Idaho and Oregon.	eng
153701	population	Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species. <em><br/></em>	eng
153701	threats	Taylor, C.A., Schuster, G.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no known threats to this species<em></em>. The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable in 1996 (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, this classification was made over a decade ago and this species may have declined in this time.<br/><br/>This species is sensitive to stream quality, urbanization and agriculture activities, which impact the habitat requirements for this species.	eng
153702	conservation	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	<em>Astacus pachypus</em> is listed as a species in 'danger of extinction', in the Red Data Book of the Region of Rostov in Russia (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). <br/><br/>Monitoring of population numbers is needed to determine at what rate this species is declining globally. Further research on current threats is needed.	eng
153702	distribution	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is indigenous to Russia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan (Machino and Holdich 2006; Holdich <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Azerbaijan it is known from the coastal waters off Baku (Holdich 2002); in Kazakhastan this species is known from the coastal waters of the Caspian Sea (Sokolsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999); in Turkmenistan it is known from coastal waters (Cherkashina 1999a); in the Ukraine this species is known from the Dneiper-Bug Lagoon of the Azov-Black Sea Basin (Cherkashina 1999b). This species appears to be absent from the northern Caspian Sea which may be as a result of&#160; oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>This species was once reported from Bulgaria (Skurdal and Taugbøl 2001) however this is believed to be an error and there have since been no further reports of this species (A. Zaikov and G. Grozev pers. comm. 2002 cited in Holdich 2002).	eng
153702	habitat	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species can be found in both fresh and brackish waters including rivers, estuaries and lagoons. It can be found on a range of substrate types (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In brackish water, salinity ranges from 13‰ (in southern part of its range) to 12‰ (in northern part of the range).<br/>This species cannot withstand sharp increases in water temperature (Cherkashina 1974). The thick-clawed crayfish prefers rocky bottoms with water plants and avoids very warm water (more than 22-26<sup>o</sup>C) and areas where sharp declines in temperature occur. This species is very sensitive to oxygen concentration. According to Rumyantsev (1974), crayfish mortality was observed at average oxygen concentration of 2.23 mg/l and a water temperature of 11° C (Ushivtsev and Kamakin 2000). This species is a heterotrophic feeder.	eng
153702	population	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	A higher abundance of <em>Astacus pachypus</em> was observed in the Caspian sea every third year, increasing from 1.5 million in non-productive years to 14 million in the third year (Cherkashina 1999). During investigations undertaken at offshore banks, crayfish were found at Zhdanov Bank, the average density of the population was 0.02-0.06 ind./m<sup>2</sup> , at Livanov Bank 0.05-0.08 ind./m<sup>2</sup> . Many crayfish were found at the nameless bank 20 miles north-west of Livanov Bank. The average density of the population was 1 ind./m<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> , and ranged from 0.5 to 3 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. A high biomass of red algae and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mytilaster</span> was recorded at that bank (Ushivtsev, Kamakin, 2000)<br/><br/>This species is absent from the northern Caspian Sea which may be as a result of oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Western subpopulations are said to be threatened, while subpopulations are thought to be good owing to a lack of predators and good quality habitat (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
153702	threats	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species has been affected by a range of threats. It is commercially harvested in the Eastern Caspian Sea where approximately 100 tonnes was landed in 1990 (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species has also been impacted by oil and toxic pollution: it is said to have disappeared from the River Don in the 1980s due to toxic pollution; its scarcity in the northern and western parts of the Caspian is attributed to oil pollution (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There are no records of this species being affected by crayfish plague  (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153703	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although some of the subpopulations in the Blue  Mountains do exist within national parks (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).     </p><p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus australasiensis</span> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). </p><p></p>	eng
153703	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species is endemic to eastern Australia. It is found at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1,100 m above sea level (Morgan 1997). Its range extends 120 km north-south along the coast from Ourimbah, south through Sydney to Wollongong, and approximately 150 km west into the Blue Mountains, New South Wales (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Its range is drained by small coastal streams including tributaries of the Hawkesbury and Port Hacking Rivers, and in higher country by tributaries of the Grose and Coxs  Rivers (Morgan 1997). The species Extent Of Occurrence (EOO) is less than 20,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153703	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species is found in lotic situations, ranging from small streams to large rivers (Growns and Marsden 1998). The geology of the area is mostly sandstone and granite and the vegetation is primarily eucalypt and heath forest with occasional patches of temperate rainforest, however, some areas have been largely cleared of vegetation (Morgan 1997).<br/><br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>species&#160;renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>	eng
153703	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population data available for this species, although it has been recorded from numerous localities within its distribution (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). Merrick (1995) suggested that large scale urban and industrial developments might be a factor in local declines in abundance of this species	eng
153703	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is found in national parks in the Blue Mountains region of its distribution and so is unlikely to be affected by habitat destruction within national park boundaries. However, due to increasing human population and urbanisation in the region there is an increased risk of fire, habitat loss and pollution (Merrick 1995; Growns and Marsden 1998). Recreational fin-fish angling poses a two-fold threat, the direct impacts of the introduced trout (i.e. predation of crayfish) and the potential introduction of an exotic species of crayfish as bait (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span>, i.e. competition) (Merrick 1995, Merrick 1997, Growns and Marsden 1998).  <p>Other exotic species (foxes, goats, cats, pigs) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localized impacts on this species and contribute to declines in distribution and/or abundance.</p><p>Although this species occurs over a wide altitudinal range, it is probably susceptible in the long run to climate change, as are other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus </span>(Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).<br/></p>	eng
153704	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research should be urgently initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A captive breeding program should also be considered.</p><p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus dharawalus</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. However, the site is a popular tourist recreational spot, and there are signs of heavy crayfishing activity (e.g. claws in the carparks and around picnic tables). Given that the introduced <em>Cherax </em>species is more prolific and faster growing, it is predicted that recreational fishing pressure will exacerbate the on-going competition between the exotic and native species.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153704	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is known only from a small area in and near the northern section of Morton National Park, southwest of Robertson, New South Wales which is drained by tributaries of the Kangaroo and the Shoalhaven rivers (Morgan 1997). This species was collected in 1981 from only a single site, to the north east of Fitzroy Falls from where most specimens have been collected. The extent of occurrence is approximately 80 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran). <br/></p>	eng
153704	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in areas with some Eucalypts along the stream banks. They inhabit burrows in the soft stream bed (Morgan 1997). The site at which this species was found has been largely cleared of Eucalypts (Morgan 1997).</p>	eng
153704	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no population data available for this species, although the species appears to be rare. The species is considered to be in rapid decline due to several factors such as habitat clearing and water impoundment (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153704	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	The species is restricted to a small plateau above a steep cliff. The overall stream length is in the order of a few kilometers, and has been altered dramatically by the establishment of a water impoundment. An exotic crayfish species, <em>Cherax destructor</em>, has invaded the stream (likely after being deliberately stocked in the impoundment). This exotic crayfish is aggressive, and far more prolific and faster growing than <em>Euastacus dharawalus</em>. As such, it may outcompete the native species in a short period of time. An exotic species of trout also occurs in the stream which is likely to further impact the native species (Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995). The area is within a National Park, adjacent to a well developed information centre and picnic area that receives heavy tourist traffic. The area appears to be heavily fished by recreational fishers, and this fishing pressure is likely to be having a major impact on the species, particularly in light of the competition from the invading <em>Cherax destructor</em>. A recent hour-long survey (Coughran 2008 <em>unpublished data</em>) collected only three <em>E. dharawalus</em> and 75 (5kg) of exotic <em>Cherax destructor</em>. All three <em>E. dharawalus</em> specimens were heavily wounded.   <p>Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d). These exotic species could have additional impacts on <em>E. dharawalus </em>which given its highly restricted distribution, and other known threats, could exacerbate the current rapid decline in abundance.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
153705	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed into the abundance of this species, as well as the affects of threats such as water abstraction, pollution, non-native species, habitat destruction and degradation   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153705	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type locality, Lake Chapala, Jalisco and Michoacan states, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). Specimens have been collected from two tributaries joining the lake, and it is also known from small lakes/ large ponds around Lake Chapala, and the eastern and northern parts of the lake. This species has an Extent of Occurrence of 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153705	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in lakes, ponds and swamps (Hobbs 1989), as well as in a variety of habitats surrounding the lake (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). Lake Chapala is thought to be undergoing natural fluctuations in water levels (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153705	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however this species has been found in abundance in numerous places throughout its range (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153705	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Freshwater systems in the states of Jalisco and Michoacan are known to be threatened by pollution, water abstraction, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of non-native species (Contreras-Balderas 2003).  Water abstraction is believed to be the main threat to this species (   M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009); however this species is able to tolerate areas which are polluted and disturbed and is still found in abundance throughout its range (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The recovery of Lake Chapala is thought to occur as a natural cycle, and water levels have fluctuated a lot, historically (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). Lake Chapala has refilled to an extent that it cannot be explained by restoration efforts that have redirected water to the lake.	eng
153706	conservation	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kosciuszko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, resilience to exotic species. Given that <em>E. rieki</em> is the highest altitude species of crayfish in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, further exploration of its aquatic requirements is warranted. In particular, closer examination of bogs may increase understanding of its alpine ecology. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007; NSW DPI 2007). <em>Euastacus rieki</em> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. Apart from a ban on <em>Euastacus armatus</em>, there are no recreational fishing regulations in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Australian   Capital Territory</st1:state></st1:place> (TAMS 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153706	distribution	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in New South Wales within the vicinity of the Snowy Mountains (around Mount Kosciusko), north to Kiandra and Yarrangobilly, southwest of the Australian   Capital Territory (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to highland sites above 560 m, and usually above 1,000 m above sea level; it has been found as high as 1,520 m (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Its narrow distribution thus incorporates highland reaches of streams in several different drainages, including the Snowy, Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers, thus its range can be considered as severely fragmented due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat of the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of&#160; approximately 322 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153706	habitat	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in creeks and streams, but is more commonly associated with bogs (ACT Government 2007). Shade on the streams is moderate to poor, and water is clear with very little algal growth, while the riparian vegetation consists of dry sclerophyll forest, heath or tussock grass (Morgan 1997). This species is found under rocks and in burrows in the stream beds, and the preferred substrate is largely gravel with some loose rocks (Morgan 1997).&#160;<em></em>	eng
153706	population	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009)	eng
153706	threats	Coughran, J., Furse, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	Habitat modification is the main threat to this species; its habitat has been impacted by agriculture, burning, river regulation and in-stream structures, such as the Snowy River Hydroelectric Scheme (O'Brien 2007). Other potential large-scale threats include predation by exotic fishes such as Brown Trout, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996). Other exotic species such as cats, foxes, pigs and goats have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) and also occur in this species range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by climate change. Climate change poses a threat through increased temperatures, altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Climate change modelling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased run-off and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003).	eng
153707	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with numerous national parks. Research should be initiated to include population genetics, thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). Only four of the >35 <em>Euastacus</em> species in NSW attain that size (<em>E. sulcatus</em>, <em>E. spinifer</em>, <em>E. valentulus</em>, <em>E. armatus</em>), so the regulation may in fact increase fishing pressure on these four species. There is no information available on the levels of compliance. The current recreational fishing regulations are inconsistent with the specific recommendations for the species provided by <st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> (1997). </span></p>	eng
153707	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia. The species has been collected at altitudes ranging from near sea level to 1200 m above sea level (Morgan 1997, McCormack 2008). Its range extends from the upper reaches of the Hastings River northwest of Port Macquarie, South through Sydney and the Blue Mountains to the vicinity of Clyde Mountain near Brooman, a range of approximately 550 km North to South and approximately 100 km East to West (Morgan 1997). The range is drained by a number of eastward flowing coastal streams (Morgan 1997). Recent surveys in the western drainages (Murray-Darling Basin) have recorded specimens that appear to be this species (Coughran 2008 unpublished data).   This species has a distribution of approximately  55,000 km<sup>2</sup>, the second most widespread species in the genus (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160; </p>	eng
153707	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>    </p><p><em>Euastacus spinifer</em> is found in creeks, streams and rivers. The inhabited areas are moderately well shaded by dry sclerophyll and heath vegetation, occasionally with wet sclerophyll and temperate rainforest along the banks (Morgan 1997). Much of the species habitat&#160; around <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city></st1:place> has been dramatically altered. The pressures of fishing and development have concentrated populations in relatively undisturbed areas of national parks, state forest and water catchments (Morgan 1997). Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen <em>et al.</em> 2008).</p>  <p>&#160;</span> </p>  <p></p>	eng
153707	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>Numerous aspects of the species’ biology, distribution, abundance and ecology have been documented (Turvey and Merrick 1997a,b,c,d,e) rendering this species one of the best understood in the genus <em>Euastacus.</em> With regard to the <st1:city w:st="on">Sydney</st1:city> region <st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> (1995) suggested that large scale urban and industrial developments might be a factor in local declines in abundance of this species. Although the species is very widespread and occurs in a number of streams, these are in different drainages and may represent fragmented populations.</p>  <p></p><p></p>	eng
153707	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>In areas of this species range, it has undergone habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization, however this threat does not apply across the entire range of this species and so is not considered significant to the species in general. Although widespread and less specific in its habitat requirements that most <em>Euastacus </em>species, it could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <em>Euastacus</em>, e.g. climate change, exploitation and exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
153708	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether threat processes occuring within the range of this species are having an impact upon it.	eng
153708	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from Isla de la Juventad, Cuba (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153708	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in permanent streams and other lotic habitats (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153708	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from the type specimens   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153708	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Fisheries within the range of this species may be a threat (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153709	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, protected areas may need to be established to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is on the scale of threats.<br/></p>	eng
153709	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Chile and ranges from Valparaíso southward to the Taitao Peninsula (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 60,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153709	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This is a burrowing species, and like other members of its genus, it inhabits swampy ground (Rudolph 2002).	eng
153709	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153709	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This species is facing population declines as a result of deforestation for agricultural land (livestock grazing and crops) causing reductions in habitat quality through sedimentation. There are also some localized populations that have been harvested at a subsistence level for human consumption and for use as bait in salmon fishing. This species is easy to catch, and there are no guidelines stopping the harvesting of juveniles or fertile females (Rudolph 2002). However the scale of these threats is not certain. Further work is needed to determine if these are widespread declines.	eng
153710	conservation	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is listed as threatened under Western Australian state legislation. This species is also present in a nature reserve (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008) which may afford some protection. Horwitz and Adams (2000) recommend this species should be listed as Critically Endangered. Further research into the abundance and appropriate conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
153710	distribution	Burnham, Q., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Western Australia, and has a restricted distribution being found only in one locality in two creeklines (Q.Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The type locality for this species has been altered and no longer contains any individuals of this species (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). This species is found in fragmented sites on the edge of a nature reserve (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). The distribution of this species is unlikely to be significantly greater, due to other crayfish species being present in close proximity, but not overlapping (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008).&#160;It is unknown whether altitude is potentially a limiting factor in the distribution of this species. It appears this species is limited to the clay soils found in the Treeton area (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to be&#160;less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153710	habitat	Burnham, Q., 2010	This species is generally found in heathlands dominated by myrtaceous shrubs, and where the level of the water table never comes above the surface (Horowitz and Adams 2000).&#160;More precisely,&#160;this species usually burrows in silty, sandy-clay soils, where the water table may or may not reach the surface (Q. Burnham pers. comm. 2008). This species appears to be closely associated with certain hydrological processes and potentially soil types, while responding poorly to disturbance. They are limited to habitats that constitute a small component of the range through which they are found&#160;(Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em></em><br/></p>	eng
153710	population	Burnham, Q., 2010	Populations of this species are estimated to have been higher before anthropogenic disturbance. According to Q. Burnham (pers. comm. 2008), this is the most difficult <span style="font-style: italic;">Engaewa</span> species to find.	eng
153710	threats	Burnham, Q., 2010	<em></em>This species has a highly restricted geographical range and is presumed to be susceptible to agricultural practices (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). The swampy headwater creek habitat of the only known population has been substantially altered by clearing of native vegetation, cattle grazing, draining, afforestation practices and small dam construction (Horwitz and Adams 2000). Any alterations to the natural condition of the soil, for example soil compaction by cattle grazing, is a major threat to this species due to its close relationship with clay soils in this area (Q. Burnham, pers. comm. 2008). Rapid changes in land use within their combined distribution areas have affected surface and ground water conditions in the southwest, destroying their natural habitat (Naturebase 2007). Any large scale perennial extraction of groundwater therefore falls into one of the major categories of threats posed to this crayfish of the region (Morgan and Beatty 2005).	eng
153711	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincide with national parks. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population numbers, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153711	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It has been collected from Hunter Island in the northwest, from Rocky Cape along the north coast, and from Birchs Inlet in the south (south of Macquarie Harbour). The disjunct distribution between the Frankland River and just north of Macquarie Harbour is probably an artefact of insufficient collections rather than a real distributional gap (Horwitz 1990). This species has a distribution of approximately&#160; 4,100 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>	eng
153711	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species has been found in coastal swamps or creeks surrounded by Tea Tree and Blackwood (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia melanoxylon)</span>, and in swamps dominated by Huon Pine (<em>Lagarostrobus franklinii)</em>. This species has also been found at the mouth of the Gordon River, in buttongrass plains (Birchs Inlet), and by creeks either in temperate wet sclerophyll forest (Smithton), or true rainforest (near Arthur River). This species can co-occur with <em>Engaeus fossor</em>, even within the same burrow system (Horwitz 1990). The largest male found was 16.1 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 10.2 to 17.4 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 11.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153711	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is believed to be abundant in at least part of its range (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153711	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is not thought to be affected by any major threats at the present time (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153712	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>.  Further   surveys are needed to confirm if the population has since become extirpated as a result of flooding of the freshwater spring.	eng
153712	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<em></em>This species is known only from the type locality, near Parras, Coahuila, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). The area in which this species is distributed is less than 100 km² (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153712	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species was previously known to occur in spring habitat, which was subsequently flooded for swimming and is now artificially managed. The region within which this species was known to occur is very arid, and it is thought that dispersal to new sites would be very difficult (M.&#160; López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153712	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Surveys undertaken in 2006 failed to find any specimens (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Further survey work is planned for this species throughout its range (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153712	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Freshwater systems in the state of Coahuila are threatened by water abstraction, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of non-native species (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al.</em> 2003).  However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>. Furthermore, the spring habitat within which this species was known to occur has been flooded for swimming, and is now artificially managed (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153713	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, to protect this species.	eng
153713	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia.	eng
153713	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species occurs in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em> and with abundant ferns at ground level; microhabitats can be divided into flood-bed and clay-dominated hill-slopes. In western populations, it occurs in sympatry with <em>Engaeus urostrictus</em> and the two species divide the habitat finely, with <em>E. tuberculatus</em> occurring in type 3 burrows (independent of the water table) on the slopes above the creek bed. In easterly populations<em></em>, this species is not found in sympatry with any other species of <em>Engaeus</em>, and it can be found in both these microhabitats. The largest male found was 33.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.9 to 34.6 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 27.7 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153713	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153713	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no known significant threats currently impacting this species.	eng
153714	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Perez-Arteaga <em>et al.</em> (2002) identified Lake Chapala as a high priority to qualify for designation as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.  Although not yet protected, the site is reported as likely to receive official designation as a natural area covered under the Ramsar Convention. Further research on the population status and impact of threats is needed.	eng
153714	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from Lake Chapala, Jalisco, Mexico (Hobbs 1989).  This lake has a surface area of 1,100 km<sup>2</sup> (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981) and is at an altitude of approximately 1,520 m above sea level (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs (1981) mapped the distribution of this species within Lake Chapala, and from this, the species is estimated to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 40 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153714	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from Lake Chapala, where it occupies the marginal and sub-marginal zones (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).  It usually occurs at depths of 3 - 4 m, but individuals have been found down to 8 m (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).  The water temperature in these regions is 18.0 to 20.5<sup>o</sup>C with transparency of 1.2 to 1.4 m, oxygen concentrations of 4.44 to 4.66 ml/L, and a pH of between 8.3 to 8.6 (Villalobos-Figueroa and Hobbs 1981).	eng
153714	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	At a depth of 3 - 5 m this species has been described as relatively common   (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153714	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Lake Chapala is severely threatened by water abstraction, sedimentation and pollution.  Over the last 20 years, the lake has experienced a 3 m drop in surface level, a 42 % reduction in water volume and an 8 % reduction in surface area (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  This has occurred largely as a result of increased water abstraction for agriculture, and to meet the needs of the growing population in Guadalajara, Mexico's second-largest city, which uses the lake as its primary water source (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  In addition, the depth of the lake has been further reduced by increased sedimentation caused by changes in land-use in the surrounding valley (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Increased sediment flow into the lake has also resulted in reduced light availability, limiting photosynthetic production (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  However, due to the large amount of domestic and agricultural waste it receives, the lake is nutrient-rich, so in shallower areas, where light is less limiting, algal blooms are common (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  The lake also receives a considerable amount of  industrial waste (Lind and Davalos-Lind 2002).  Concentrations of cadmium and lead above the freshwater chronic criteria values recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for protection of aquatic ecosystem health, have been recorded, and the lake also contains significant concentrations of arsenic, chromium, zinc, nickel and copper (Shine<em> et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>A study by Lyons <em>et al.</em> (1998) revealed that, of the 44 species of fish endemic to Lake Chapala and the Lerma drainage basin, 3 are now extinct and 23 have greatly reduced ranges and population sizes.  Although there have been no studies of the impact of these threats on crayfish, it is likely that the population of this species has been greatly reduced by severe habitat degradation. Furthermore, occasionally this species is used as a bait source by fishermen (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153716	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is recognised as a Priority Species by the Forest Practices Authority (FPA) and as such must be taken into account in the preparation of the mandatory Forest Practices Plans that are drawn up for any substantial forestry activity in Tasmania. Prescriptions include the establishment of permanent reserves around watercourses, and given the fact that this species is restricted to the edges of watercourses and swamps, they should provide protection to its habitat.  Monitoring of the species' range is required in the face of climate change (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153716	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to south western Tasmania, Australia. It is known only from the Little Denison River catchment, at an elevation of 100 - 300 m above sea level and has an estimated range of 10 km<sup>2</sup>, but this is likely to increase with further collecting (Hansen and Richardson 2006). It is likely that the range of this species has declined in the last 50 years due to land clearance for agriculture and drainage of swamps on existing agricultural land (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species is known only from a single location based on the widespread threat of land clearance for forestry and agriculture.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153716	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	<em></em>This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on swamps in clay substrate, beside forest streams and seepages and in roadside ditches. Burrows range from very shallow in wide silty drainages to 1.8 m in clayey swamps. The vegetation recorded in the vicinity of burrows is melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006) and wet sclerophyll forest. This species has not been found in sympatry with any other burrowing crayfish (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  <br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153716	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no formal density estimates for this species, but most colonies seem to be small (less than 100 individuals) and very isolated (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153716	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	The main threats to this species arise from its restricted distribution, estimated to be 10 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Richardson 2006). Further collecting (Forest Practices Authority (FPA), Hobart; Huon Valley Environment Centre) has only increased the range by a few square kilometres. Almost the entire range of this species is in state forest. Land clearance, mostly for forestry and agricultural purposes, is the most likely threat to this species (Hansen and Richardson 2006). As one of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species occupying the warmer, drier eastern end of the genus' range, this species will be most vulnerable to climate change if, as seems likely, this involves warming and drying of their habitat (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  <p></p>  <br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153718	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range coincides with national parkland. Further research should be initiated to clarify the population genetics of the species and should extend to population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.</p>    <p>In <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish. This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (DPI 2007; NSW DPI 2007). </p>	eng
153718	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It is distributed from the Craigie area, near the New South Wales and Victorian border, north through the Nimmitabel type localities to the vicinity of Captains Flat (a distance of 160 km along the Great Dividing Range) (Morgan 1997). The long, narrow range of the species cuts across several different drainages on both sides of the Great Dividing Range including the Snowy, Tuross, Murrumbidgee and Shoalhaven  Rivers (Morgan 1997). It is restricted to the highland reaches (more than 800 m) of these different drainage's, and can be considered as severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153718	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	The species was described from the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">MacLaughlin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> in 1969. The MacLaughlin River is narrow with deep pools (less than 2 m), and shallow rocky stretches. Morgan (1997) revisited the area in 1981 and found the habitat to be largely cleared and characterized by grass and some sclerophyll forest, and could not locate any specimens. Other areas where the species occurs support poor temperate rainforest and tree ferns along the banks, and dry sclerophyll on ridges (Morgan 1997).<br/>    <p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>	eng
153718	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. Crayfish holes were noted as relatively common at the sites investigated by Morgan (1997).<p></p>	eng
153718	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Due to its restricted range, the species is susceptible to localized impacts, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).&#160;       <p>It is also potentially under large scale threat from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) as well as other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) and occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d).</p>  Climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events, loss of apparently required rainforest habitat and increased potential for bushfires could have a detrimental affect on this species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, cats, goats, trout and perch) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly impacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153719	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range fall within national parks.   A survey to confirm, or otherwise, the possible extirpation of the species from the state of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tasmania</st1:place></st1:state> is urgently required (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008, N. Doran pers. comm 2010) as well as information on the extent to which it is impacted by possible threats within its range.	eng
153719	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania and Victoria, Australia. In Victoria it is found in Gippsland, south of the Great Dividing Range and occupies two largely disjunct regions, namely South Gippsland from Bunyip River in the west, to the south of Sale (with a record of specimens from Meeniyan from the southern side of the Eastern Strzelecki Range), and East Gippsland from Orbost to Genoa. In Tasmania it has been found in the rivers and creek systems flowing into the Bass Strait in the northeast only (Horwitz 1990) although it has not been seen there recently (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008).&#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 12,309 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; <br/><p> </p>	eng
153719	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is always found in lowland areas in either close proximity to standing or permanent water, or in areas which are reliably inundated. The burrows of this species are usually simple, short, and straight-shafted tunnels in the banks of creeks or pools of water. The largest male found was 21.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 13 to 20 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 20.4 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153719	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is believed to be very rare in Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009) but potentially locally abundant in Victoria (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008). Heavy development of in-stream farm dams that permanently inundate or disturb potential habitat, are the most likely causes of its rarity in Tasmania (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153719	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	The range of this species overlaps with areas of urbanization. The apparent disappearance of the species from northern Tasmania could be attributable to the drainage of swamps, channelization of creeks and rivers, and application of pesticides, all in agriculture areas, although no concrete evidence exists (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009, P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). Modification of waterways are a significant threat to this species; not only for the change in water movement, but also for subsequent high levels of sedimentation associated with their manipulation (N. Doran pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Similar threats to its habitat in Victoria are likely, but here its broader distribution and occurrence in a large coastal national park afford it protection from the effects of agriculture (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2008).&#160;Heavy development of in-stream farm dams that permanently inundate or disturb potential habitat may be impacting populations of this species (P. Howritz pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153720	conservation	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Euastacus bidawalus</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of National Parks. In New South Wales and Victoria minimum recreational size limits of 90mm OCL are in place for any spiny crayfish (DPI 2007, NSW DPI 2007), <em>Euastacus&#160;</em><em>bidawalus </em>does not attain that size, so is indirectly protected by this restriction.  <p>Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153720	distribution	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges from near Mount Imlay south of Eden, New South Wales to Lind National Park near Cann River, Victoria, a distance of 90 km (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008). It is a highland species known from altitudes between 150 and 400 m above sea level (Morgan 1986). The extent of occurrence for the species is 2,087 km<sup>2</sup>. Although the species occurs in a number of streams, these are headwaters of various different drainages, on different mountain ranges, and therefore the species distribution is clearly fragmented (Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).</p>	eng
153720	habitat	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in streams bordered by sclerophyll forest, with dry sclerophyll and heath on ridges (Morgan 1986). The species inhabits some cleared areas providing that riparian vegetation is present along creeks (Morgan 1986).</p><p>    </p><p>The slow growth rate and low fecundity of many <em>Euastacus </em>renders them less resilient to reduction in population numbers through habitat destruction and catastrophic events (Van Praagh 2003).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153720	population	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153720	threats	Furse, J., Coughran, J. & Lawler, S., 2010	The species is susceptible to the following threats: 1. Climate change, particularly with regard to altered hydrological regimes and severe weather events. Climate change modeling predicts that southeastern mainland Australia will experience a warmer and drier climate, leading to decreased runoff and soil moisture (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007); 2. The alteration of hydrological regimes is likely to impact environmental flows, particularly in areas of increasing demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies (Hennessy 2006); 3. Over-exploitation. Although technically protected by recreational fishing regulations, this restricted range species is susceptible to over-exploitation by collectors and illegal fishing pressure (O’Brien 2007); 4. Exotic fish. Potentially large scale threats from exotic fishes such as Brown Trout or Redfin Perch, which are prevalent throughout the region (Davies and McDowall 1996, Rowe <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008); 5. Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1997, ACT Government 2007, O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,b,c,d), and could have localised impacts on <span style="font-style: italic;">E. bidawalus</span> and contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153722	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, part of its range occurs within the Franklin Gordon Wild Rivers National Park. The range of the species needs to be better-defined, but the region is remote and difficult to access (A. Richardson pers.comm. 2009) Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. <br/></p>	eng
153722	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia, and has been reported from the Birches, Braddon, and Landing catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 50 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Hansen and Richardson (2006) have assessed this species as rare with an estimated range of 70 km<sup>2</sup>, but have also stated this is likely to increase with further collecting.	eng
153722	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows located on slopes and in seepages. The burrows are usually found in peat or gravel, with surrounding vegetation types including graminoid heath and melaleuca scrub (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   <br/><br/>It may be found sympatrically with <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastcoides brevirostris</span>, and in these situations this species occupies shallower, better-drained soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002).   There is no life history data, but it is expected to be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastcoides huonensis</span>. This species has a biennial breeding pattern, adults mate in autumn (March), the eggs are carried over winter and hatch in early summer. The female does not release the young until late summer and they remain in the maternal burrow in close association with the female for another year, after which the female mates again (Hamr and Richardson 1994). This pattern may be typical of Tasmanian freshwater crayfish. Its life span may be up to 10 years and age at first reproduction 3-5 years; females produce 20-80 eggs in a brood (Hamr and Richardson 1994).<br/>      <p>In addition, like several <em>Ombrastacoides</em> species it can be said to provide ecosystem services in two ways: by aerating and draining peat soils (Richardson 1983, Richardson and Wong 1995), and by providing habitat for the invertebrate 'pholeteros' fauna that lives in its burrows (Lake 1977, Horwitz 1989, Horwitz and Knott 1991).</p>	eng
153722	population	Richardson, A., 2010	No formal estimates of density have been carried out for this species, but in suitable habitat (graminoid heath on peat) 1 - 2 burrows m<sup>-2</sup> are known to occur (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153722	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	The only known major threat to this species is its restricted distribution. Potential threats include mining and mining exploration, and over-frequent fires, both of which can remove the peat layer (A. Richardson, pers.comm. 2009). Other localized potential threats include fragmentation of populations by barriers to movement such as poorly constructed or raised road culverts and habitat disturbance (removal of riparian vegetation, bank erosion, de-snagging, channelization) (Australian Natural Resources Atlas 2007).	eng
153724	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place to protect this species.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends and habitat status) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153724	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia. Its distribution in not clearly defined; at present it is known from the region between Port Macdonnell in South Australia to Warrnambool in Victoria. The most extensive collections come from the Dartmoor-Heywood area of western Victoria (Horwitz 1990). This species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of 12,360 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153724	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species constructs burrows on flood-plains, in creeks, swamps, and in drainage channels. On some flood-plains, formerly tea tree swamps but now cleared and partially drained, the burrows are constructed in silty or sandy black organic soils. Burrows in these soils are easily searched; however, burrows are more usually found in hard soils with a heavy clay component (clays brown or grey) and these burrows are almost impossible to explore without a small bulldozer and a handful of dynamite. The largest male found was 24.3 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 20.1 to 31.9 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153724	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153724	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Currently there are no known threats to this species<em></em>. Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Like other members of the genus <em>Engaeus</em>, fire, clearing and loss of riparian vegetation, cattle trampling and urban development would be regarded as the most likely threatening processes for this species (Yen and Butcher 1997), but due to the widespread nature of this species they are likely to be resulting in localised declines only.	eng
153725	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with the Barrington Tops World Heritage site. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).&#160;&#160; <br/></p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
153725	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia, it is found in the Barrington Tops area (60 km West of Taree) in New South Wales (Morgan 1997); the range falls across two different coastal drainages: the Manning and Hunter rivers (Morgan 1997). It is found at altitudes greater than 1,000 m above sea level, and due to its restriction to upland sections of the streams it inhabits, it can be considered as severely fragmented across its range, due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately  750 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Courghran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). </p>	eng
153725	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits streams at altitudes over 1,000 m above sea level. Stream banks are vegetated by dry sclerophyll forest and tree ferns, sub-alpine grassland with snow gums and negrohead beech forest (Morgan 1997).</p>	eng
153725	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153725	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change,  including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 20070. <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153726	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however parts of its range coincides with national parks. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, distribution and threats) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153726	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Victoria, Australia. It is widespead and abundant in southern Victoria, occurring on both sides of the La Trobe River Valley, usually above an altitude of 100 m, in the Western and Eastern Strzelecki Ranges and in the southwestern parts of the Australian Alps (Horwitz 1990).   This species has a distribution of approximately  14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153726	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This is the only species in the genus which exclusively occupies burrows in habitats which are usually situated in the yellow-orange clay-dominated soils of South Gippsland, often in what was formerly dense, temperate wet sclerophyll forest dominated by the mountain ash <em>Eucalyptus regnans</em>. This species' burrows are independent of the water table, and reliant on surface run-off (Horwitz and Richardson 1986). The largest male found was 42 mm carapace length, and mature females ranged from 20.1 to 36 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 33 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153726	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no population information for this species, however it is considered to be widespread and abundant throughout much of its range (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153726	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	<p>  There is no evidence to suggest that the species is experiencing significant population declines at present. The only concerns for local populations might be where pesticides are applied for crops or where gully and tunnel erosion are occurring on hillsides due to clearing of vegetation (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009), as this species' ability to burrow does not seem to be affected by forest&#160;clearance. However, broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153727	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution range coincides with several national parks (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for all spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). All <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus</span> species in Queensland are officially no take species under the Fisheries<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Act<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1994 and must be released if captured (DPIF 2007). There is no information available on the levels of compliance, although evidence of illegal poaching has been observed for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p>Further research should include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species. A detailed study into the population genetics of this species is urgently required (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153727	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to Australia. Its range extends from the Stanthorpe area, southern Queensland, 120 km south to Dundee near Glen Innes, New South Wales, and east along the Gibraltar Range into Washpool and Gibraltar Range national parks (Coughran 2008 unpublished data, J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It has also recently been recorded in Ewingar State Forest, north of Washpool  State Forest (Leckie and Coughran 2005). The range is drained by tributaries of the Severn, Dumaresque and Clarence rivers (Morgan 1997). This species is typically collected at altitudes greater than 680 m above sea level (usually above 1,000 m) (Morgan 1988). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 10,000 km² ( J.Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153727	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species inhabits headwater streams (Morgan 1997). Most of the areas are in dry eucalypt forests, alpine heath swamps, and rainforest with this species favouring granitic soils mixed with extruding bedrock, and cobble and boulders (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). Specimens inhabit large water bodies and have also been found in shallow water beneath rocks (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). In general, they do not appear to make burrows in sandy streams, but do however in marshy areas away from the main stream channel (Leckie and Coughran 2005). Permanent water is not an essential habitat requirement for this species, and neither is access to the water table (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species has been found burrowed under ground near ground water. Although not dependent on permanent water, the species is restricted to highland sites of appreciable altitudes, indicating a requirement for cool conditions (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153727	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Though, it is thought that it may be locally abundant in some of the highland sites it occurs in (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
153727	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is fairly tolerant to minor clearing, and has been recorded in lightly disturbed areas such as those adjacent to roadworks, low density cattle farming and largely intact riparian zones (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It has not, however, been recorded from sites that have been appreciably cleared for agriculture (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). For example, this species is absent from areas where cattle are farmed at high density, in particular where cattle have access to the creeks, and riparian vegetation has either been largely cleared, or replaced through weed infestation (Leckie and Coughran 2005).</p><p>This species occurs within some national parks but is susceptible to potential threats such as climate change, exploitation and the introduction of exotic species (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006,Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). Furthermore, it is restricted to very high altitudes, and it is probable that this reflects a requirement for cool conditions (J. Coughran and J.M Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>   There has been some evidence of poaching in some protected areas that coincide with the species range (i.e. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Bald</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Rock</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>). As this is a slow growing species, there is the potential for localised depletion as a result of a single fishing trip (Leckie and Coughran 2005). As yet this is not considered a major threat but if recreational fishing of the species intensifies it may be. Recreational fishing (in particular the taking of large adults) has the capacity to lead to serious and far reaching impacts on population structure (i.e. the stunted population phenomenon (Huner and Lindqvist 1985, Tulonen<em> et al.</em> 2008)), including impairment of reproductive success in females (Tulonen<em> et al. </em>2008). The streams in several areas are also heavily modified by anthropogenic activities such as fossicking for mineral and gemstones, which may adversely impact on water quality.  </p><p>This species is also susceptible to the threat of introduced exotic species; there is a&#160;potentially&#160;large scale threat from Cane Toads (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bugo marinus</span>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific data on impacts for this species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Large areas of stream habitat have been totally rooted by feral pigs (Coughran 2008 unpublished data<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). In addition, other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995; Eyre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and could have localized impacts on the species distribution and abundance (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). <em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p><p><em><br/></em></p>	eng
153728	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.  Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and to identify potential threats.	eng
153728	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is endemic to Mexico (Lopez <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known from the type locality at Cascada del Arroyo de Atezca, 5 km Northwest of Molango, Hidalgo, where it is found at an altitude of 1285 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It <em></em> is also known from Xochicoatlan and Chalma in the Atlapexco River basin, and Chalma in the Claro River basin, which are within&#160; 20 km of the type locality (Lopez <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
153728	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from Lake de Atezca, and a stream at Cascada del Arroyo, which has a water temperature of between 17.0 and 26.1 oC (López-Mejía <em>et al.</em> 2003), as well as streams at Xoachicatlan and&#160; rivers at Chalma and Calnalli   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153728	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is relatively abundant within its range (M. López-Mejía pers. comm.2009).	eng
153728	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Subsistence fishieries exist within the range of this species, but these are not believed to be a major threat to this species (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153730	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species. It was given a heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to determine if this species is currently undergoing significant population declines due to habitat loss and degradation.	eng
153730	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is known from two seperate, disjunct subpopulations. One is found on the Appalachian Plateau in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, and the other population is found in the Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia and Virginia, USA (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153730	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is a primary burrowing species and can be found on wooded hillsides and hilltops, in springs and seeps. This species collects leaf litter in autumn and young are born in February and March, remaining in the burrow until September/October (Western Pennsylvania Conservancy 2004). This species prefers upland wooded areas, with clean water and is unlikely to be able to tolerate habitat loss or degradation   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153730	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is rare throughout its range (Western Pennsylvania Conservancy 2004), though this may reflect the difficulty in locating burrowing crayfish in Pennsylvania. It is known from 21 counties is West Virginia, while its range in Virginia is somewhat unknown (Jezerinac<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995).&#160; Populations are thought to be stable throughout its range (T. Jones, R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
153730	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is critically imperlled in Virginia (Roble 2003) at the edge of its range. Threat information is not yet known.	eng
153731	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is included in a mixed bag limit of 4 L per fisher, however this includes other crayfish species. Furthermore, this species range is likely to coincide with national parkland (e.g. D'Entrecasteaux National Park).<br/><br/>Monitoring of populations in intensely fished locations is suggested to ensure levels of exploitation do not intensify and result in regional extirpations.	eng
153731	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This specie<em>s </em>is endemic to south-west coastal areas of Western Australia. It ranges from Perth to the Denmark region (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately  77,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153731	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is found in both permanent and temporary freshwater systems and in a range of habitat types from drainage dams and temporary swamps, to large river systems (Austin and Knott 1996). It is most commonly seen in freshwater systems with a high flow velocity and dissolved oxygen concentration (WRM 2005). This species constructs burrows and uses in-stream structures such as rocks for shelter. Beatty, Morgan and Gill (2005) noted the <em>r</em> and <em>k</em> life history strategies displayed by the species, allowing it to proliferate in a range of habitat types and withstand a number of threats.	eng
153731	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is widespread and abundant throughout much of its range (C.M. Austin pers. comm. 2008). It is the most abundant crayfish species in the Blackwood River and associated tributaries (Morgan and Beatty 2005).	eng
153731	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	<em></em>This species is impacted by a number of localized threats. It is harvested as a food source by both recreational fishers and Aborigines (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005, Clarke and Spier-Ashcroft 2005). In areas of its range it is likely to be in direct competition with <em>Cherax destructor</em> or predated upon by fish predators such as Red-fin Perch and Trout (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005). Declines in subpopulations are also attributed to habitat loss and degradation from urbanization and water abstraction, especially around major urban centres such as Perth. However, this species is recorded in high numbers and is capable of re-populating numbers following periods of decline (Beatty, Morgan and Gill 2005). At present, threats are considered localized and unlikely to be causing significant declines in the global population of this species.	eng
153733	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:place></st1:state>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carpace length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).    Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.&#160;&#160;   &#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p><p></p>	eng
153733	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species is endemic to New South Wales, Australia. It ranges from Mount Keira near Wollongong, south and west to just northeast of Nowra, a distance of 55 km (Morgan 1997). The range is drained by small eastern flowing creeks and some larger streams, including Minnamurra and Cambewarra creeks and Shoalhaven River (Morgan 1997).   This species has been collected at an altitude range of 200 to 600 m above sea level. Given its restriction to the upper reaches of the streams it inhabits, it should be considered severely fragmented across its range (due to the isolating effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat) (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,200 km<sup>2</sup>   (J. M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153733	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<em></em>  This species has been collected from sedimentary sites (mostly sandstone). Light temperate rainforest borders the streams it occurs in, with wet or dry sclerophyll forest surrounding the creeks. Furthermore, the sites were described as moderately to well shaded (Morgan 1997).	eng
153733	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species should be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the  isolating effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable lowland habitat  (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).	eng
153733	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>An exotic crayfish species (<em>Cherax destructor</em>)<em> </em>is being recorded with increasing frequency throughout the Shoalhaven region (Daley and Craven 2007, McCormack 2008) and may pose a serious threat to this species if present within its range.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>Cherax destructor</em> is aggressive, far more prolific and faster growing than this species. As such, it may outcompete native species in a short period of time (<st1:place w:st="on">Merrick</st1:place> 1995). Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have a serious impact by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) and the introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax destructor</span> which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153734	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or currently needed, for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). NatureServe has given this species a heritage rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and the American Fisheries Society considers it currently stable (Taylor et al., 2007).	eng
153734	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The range of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species is unclear, but appears to extend from southwestern Pennsylvania and southern Maryland and Kentucky, USA, through the Allegheny Mountains into southwestern Virginia, northwestern North Carolina and as far south in Tennessee as the junction of the Clinch and Holston rivers. The western edge of the range for this species extends to headwaters of the South Fork of the Cumberland and Caney Fork rivers in Fentress and Cumberland Counties (Cumberland Plateau), Tennessee (Hobbs 1989). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 150,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153734	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species can be found in burrows, in seepage areas near streams (Cooper and Braswell 1995), in addition to wet areas such as springs, seeps, roadside ditches, stream and creek banks, and run-off areas (Jezerinac<em> et al.</em> 1995). This species is a primary burrower that builds large and complex chambers (Jezerinac <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
153734	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153734	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species faces few threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009) &#160;Some undescribed taxa within the species complex may be threatened by mining activities (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010).<em><br/></em>	eng
153735	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> received protection under the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) and classified as species of concern by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department. The abundance of this species is largely unknown, and little life history information is available. In addition to this the sources of pollution and siltation are yet to be precisely identified  (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002). Further research into the causes of potential threats are needed.<br/><br/>NatureServe G4G5<br/>AFS Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).	eng
153735	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> is common and wideranging across the Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountains. It is distributed along the Pacific slope and in the Missouri River drainage in California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, with a suspected introduction into California. <br/>The pilose crayfish is widespread and often abundant in the Bear and River drainages.	eng
153735	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> is found in lentic and lotic habitats and is likely to breed during the spring. This species is believed to be an opportunistic feeder that breeds in the springtime and has a home range estimated to be no more than 50 meters (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002). The pilose crayfish is belived to be intollerable of warmer waters or of the warmer water fish populations (Johnson 1986).	eng
153735	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The pilose crayfish is widespread and often abundant in the Bear and River drainages (Johnson 1986) and also abundant in Salt Creek.	eng
153735	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<em>Pacifastacus gambelii</em> has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, the government of Wyoming has stated that potential threats to this species include the requirement of high quality water coupled with a low tolerance for pollution and siltation. In addition, the sources of pollution and siltation are yet to be precisely identified (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2002).<br/><em>Pacifastacus gambelii </em>is believed to be extirpated in Montana due to introduced species (Montana Natural Heritage Program 2008). Hubert (1988) believed that introduced species were having a negative affect on the pilose crayfish in the Snake and Bear River areas.	eng
153736	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range coincides with protected areas. Furthermore, in New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007); this species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>  Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and resilience to exotic species (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153736	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is endemic to Australia, it is found at altitudes between 330 - 850 m above sea level, in some tributaries of the Clarence River in northern New South Wales (Coughran and Leckie 2007). Although this species inhabits a number of streams that eventually connect, it is restricted to high altitude reaches and the overall distribution can, therefore, be considered severely fragmented, due to the barriers to dispersal created by mountain ridges and the unsuitable habitat of intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153736	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>    <p>This species is found in rivers and streams in a variety of forest types, and specimens were collected from burrows or under rocks and debris (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). It appears that this species does not require flowing or standing water, and at some sites burrows were not connected to the water table (although the soil was moist) (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is tolerant to a variety of land uses including low level grazing and upstream mining, but not to broad scale clearing of vegetation for broadacre agriculture (Coughran and Leckie 2007).</p>	eng
153736	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>  There is no population information available for&#160;this species, though it may be locally abundant within its distribution (Coughran and Leckie 2007).</p>	eng
153736	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (goats, feral pigs, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153737	conservation	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several national parks and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">state</st1:placetype> <st1:placetype w:st="on">forests</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance and resilience to exotic species.<br/><p>In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm Orbital Carapace Length is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction. </p>	eng
153737	distribution	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Australia. It ranges through the coastal mountains of New South Wales from immediately north of Coffs  Harbour, to Rollands Plains west of Port Macquarie, a distance of 150 km. The distribution includes the Clarence, Nambucca and Bellingen drainages (Morgan 1997). It inhabits both lowland and highland sites (Morgan 1997). The Extent of Occurrence is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153737	habitat	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	This species inhabits streams in rainforest with wet or dry sclerophyll forest on higher ridges (Morgan 1997).	eng
153737	population	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	<p>There are no population data available for this species. It may be abundant at sites at which it is found (J.M. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2008).</p>	eng
153737	threats	Furse, J. & Coughran, J., 2010	It is currently unknown if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2008). It has an unusual distribution, that includes both highland and lowland sites, yet is restricted to a narrow range that cuts across several drainages, close and parallel to the coast. It could therefore be fragmented across that range, separated by mountain ridges (<em>sensu</em> Morgan 1997; Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   <p>It inhabits various forest types and appears to be locally abundant within its range, but could be threatened by similar factors impacting on other <em>Euastacus</em>, e.g. climate change and exploitation (Chiew and McMahon 2002; IPCC 2007; O’Brien 2007), and potentially large scale threats from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there are no specific data on impacts for this species.</p>  <p>Other exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (e.g. Green and Osbourne 1981; Horwitz 1990; Merrick 1995; Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997; ACT Government 2007; O’Brien 2007) also occur in this species’ range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e), and could contribute to declines in distribution and/or local abundance.</p>	eng
153739	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) have identified this species as rare and vulnerable due to land clearance. Animals within the South  West National   Park will gain some protection, and those in forestry areas will gain protection from the mandatory buffer strips required along watercourses (Forest Practices Code 2000). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent threats within its range are impacting upon it. <br/></p><p>&#160;</p>	eng
153739	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to southern Tasmania, Australia. It is reported from the   D'Entrecasteaux, Catamaran, Cockle, Donnellys, and Lune catchments, at an elevation of 0 - 100 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The range of this species is likely to have decreased in the last 100 years due to land clearance for forestry (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 218 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153739	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	<em></em>  This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in plains, creeks and seepages. The burrows are found in clays and peats (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heaths, rainforests and wet sclerophyll forest (Hansen and Richardson 2006). This species has not been found in sympatry with any other burrowing crayfish, but may have a parapatric boundary with <span style="font-style: italic;">Spinastacoides inermis</span> (Hansen and Richardson 2002).	eng
153739	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no formal assessments on population for this species, however densities appear to be lower than population densities of other sedgeland <span style="font-style: italic;">Ombrastacoides</span> species; estimated as less than   0.5 m<sup>-2</sup><sup></sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153739	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	<em></em>  This species is vulnerable to land clearance and excessive fires, which might lead to drying or loss of soil. A small part of its range falls within the South West National Park, within which it gains some protection (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153740	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Richardson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure, and it does not require any conservation measures at present. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this speices, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
153740	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to North East Tasmania, Australia. This species has been reported from the Alma, Andrew, Anthony, Baxter, Blythe, Collingwood, Cuvier, Derwent, Dove, Emu, Forth, Franklin, Hellyer, Henty, Inglis, King, Leven, Mersey, Murchison, Marcissus, Navarre, Newton, Nive, Penguin, Que, Wey, Wilmot, and Yolande catchments (Hansen and Richardson 2006), at an elevation of 100 - 1200 m above sea level (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009). This species has the largest range of all the<em> Ombrastacoides</em> species, with an approximate distribution of 7,500 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
153740	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded on slopes and ridges, in plains, swamps and seepeages, and in lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peats, clays or gravel. The vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, rainforest, wet sclerphyll, spagnum moss and alpine (Hansen and Richardson 2006).   In addition, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>O. professorum</em>, but no habitat partitioning has been recorded (Hansen and Richardson 2002).	eng
153740	population	Richardson, A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, densities of this species are known to decrease towards the northern end of its range where animals become increasingly restricted to the edges of watercourses, becoming stream-dwellers at the northern-most sites (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009)	eng
153740	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be impacting this species. It is realtively widespread in North eastern Tasmainia, a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements (A. Richardson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153741	conservation	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place to protect this species.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends and habitat status) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153741	distribution	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is restricted to the northeastern region of Tasmania, Australia.&#160;Richardson&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;(2004)&#160;estimated range of this species as 1,559 km<sup>2</sup>, although more recent estimates are closer to 1,630 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153741	habitat	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	Information regarding the habitat of this species<em></em>&#160;comes only known from the type locality, where individuals were found in type 2 burrows (connected to the water table) in the flood-bed. The soils in the flood-bed were predominately sandy and silty with a high organic matter component. Several individuals have also been collected from type 3 burrows (independent of the water table) on the hill-slope beyond the flood-bed, in soils with a slightly higher clay component. The vegetation at most sites was comprised of temperate, wet sclerophyll forest, with abundant ferns. The largest male found was 24.5 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 14.3 to 24.6 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153741	population	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no population for this species, however it is considered to be abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009), no reports of declines in the abundance of this species have been made (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>	eng
153741	threats	Doran, N. & Horwitz, P., 2009	The range of this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is not extensive, which could pose a threat in future. Maps show that the area in which this species is found in north-eastern Tasmania has undergone relatively little urbanisation, however there have been some plantation developments and modification of streams due to dam development (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009). It is unlikely that threat processes are acting upon the population as a whole, despite the reasonable chance that localised disturbance has occurred in some areas. This species is not believed to be threatened (J. Coughran, unpublished). Where creek and wetland systems have been exposed to these types of development, populations may have been affected, but no specific evidence for this has been presented (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009).&#160;Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
153742	conservation	Johnston, K., 2010	<em></em><em></em>This species is protected under the (VIC) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. This species will require monitoring to detect any further population declines, and conservation measures to prevent further land drainage within its range are also needed. Avoidance of the use of herbicides/pesticides, providing education, and incorporating this species into the Grampians National Park Environment Action Plan have also been suggested as suitable conservation measures.    <p>Future study should investigate microhabitat use in seasonal habitats where<em> </em>this species<em> </em>and <em>G. falcata</em> are known to co-exist, in order to determine the mechanism allowing them to do so and enable the success of future conservation management activities. In addition, all study of the ecology and biology of this species to date has occurred in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in south-west <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Victoria</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place> (which covers approximately one fifth of its reported range). Therefore, future studies should incorporate sites/areas from elsewhere throughout the range of this species (particularly those sites in <st1:state w:st="on">South Australia</st1:state> from which has been previously recorded) in order to confirm whether the trends observed in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> are true of populations elsewhere   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).  </p>  <p>To conserve <em></em>this species future management strategies will need to consider both perennial and seasonal habitat types and incorporate the larger burrowing crayfish<em> G. falcata </em>which is commensal with it. The habitat needs of each of these species warrant consideration when hydrological or fire regimes are manipulated for water supply and National Park management, respectively. Further, routine or control burns should be avoided throughout the range of this species in autumn when water tables are lowest when this crayfish is most exposed to radiant heat from fire. Instead, fires for management should occur during the wettest time of year (late winter and spring), when crayfish are protected by surface waters   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153742	distribution	Johnston, K., 2010	<em></em>This species<em> </em>has a distribution restricted to southwest <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state> and southeastern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">South Australia</st1:state></st1:place> (Riek 1972, Zeidler and Adams 1990). In <st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state>, this species is found throughout the Grampians National Park Region (10 sites)   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009),  and also at Ledcourt near the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> (SWIFFT 2007). This species has a distribtuon of approximately 2,900 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>.	eng
153742	habitat	Johnston, K., 2010	<em></em>This species inhabits permanent swamps or creeks and drains connected to swamps (Zeidler and Adams 1990). Unlike many other freshwater crayfish, this species does not burrow (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009), although under laboratory conditions, individuals have been observed to make shallow burrows when the water level is reduced (Ziedler and Adams 1990). <br/><br/><em></em>  In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> region this species<em> </em>has been found in flooded vegetation, floodplain wetland and soft-sediment channel habitats and co-exists with <em>Geocharax falcata</em> and <em>Cherax destructor</em> frequently and <em>Euastacus bispinosus</em> occasionally throughout this area (Johnston and Robson, in press). The presence of this species<em> </em>at any given location in this region has been determined to be associated with a mud substrate devoid of boulders, a high percentage cover of submerged vegetation and moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and compared to other habitat types, a low total alkalinity and moderate level of water colouration. These parameters are characteristic of the seasonally present flooded vegetation and floodplain wetland habitats in which they predominantly occur (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). In addition, the occurrence of&#160;<em></em>this species in high abundances in these seasonal habitats, suggest this species is somewhat opportunistic in nature, taking advantage of surface waters when they are present (winter to late summer), with the capacity to tolerate a range of levels of environmental and physicochemical parameters (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species displays the life history characteristics of a summer brooder, including a potentially asynchronous spawning regime, short breeding period, relatively short life span, and the ability to grow   rapidly. These traits demonstrate the flexibility required to inhabit seasonally-dry wetlands where the timing and duration of inundation is unpredictable (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Preparatory moulting, spawning, brooding of eggs and release of juveniles (lasting 2-3 months) occurs over the period late winter to late summer, with the exact duration of this period determined by the duration of the presence of surface waters (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em></em>This species attains a maximum adult size of 13.2 mm OCL, while the minimum size at sexual maturity for females of this species is <st1:metricconverter productid="7.2 mm" w:st="on">7.2 mm</st1:metricconverter> OCL and gravid females are captured in the highest abundances in spring.     <p>Most&#160;<em></em>individuals probably only live for one year (due to the seasonality of the habitats they occur in), but some survive for at least two by aestivating in the burrows of the larger crayfish species <em>Geocharax falcata</em> (Johnston and Robson in press). This trait enables this species to survive the summer to reproduce and ensure the continued survival of populations. The relationship between this species and <em>G. falcata</em> is commensal, in which the former small and non-burrowing crayfish species inhabits natural cracks and shallow depressions off to the side of the main burrow tunnel of the larger burrowing<em> G. falcata </em>(Johnston and Robson, in press).&#160;<em></em></p>    <p>Stable isotope and gut content analyses suggest that this species is an obligate plant eater, but it is not clear whether detritus or living plant material is more important in their diet. However, this species appears to derive the majority of its dietary organic carbon requirements from eucalyptus leaf litter (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153742	population	Johnston, K., 2010	<p>Within the region of Grampians National Park this species has an average population range of between 869 - 2,322 individuals, with the highest population density observed being 8.76 m² (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). This species<em> </em>is relatively common throughout this region and occurs at 10 sites. Furthermore, its distribution has increased by at least one site over the last five years. In this region higher abundances of this species<em> </em>are generally recorded in spring and summer than other times of year, with sex ratios almost always favouring females (2 - 5 times more females than males)   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009). Sex ratios favouring females are likely to be an opportunistic trait that enables this short-lived species, that relies on the appearance of surface waters, to find mates and breed in the seasonal habitats in which it occurs. Likewise, fewer males (than seen in a 1:1 male to female ratio) are probably required to fertilize the eggs of a larger female population in a temporary habitat within a relatively small period of time   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153742	threats	Johnston, K., 2010	<p>This species is considered threatened primarily because of its restricted distribution, the lack of ecological and biological information about the species and the disturbance of habitat occurring through habitat modification - particularly wetland drainage (Johnston and Robson in press). In addition Ziedler and Adams (1990), showed there was little or no gene flow between neighbouring populations of this species, posing a future threat to the species and serious management difficulties, if localized extinctions were to occur. In its final recommendations the Scientific Advisory Committee determined that this species is prone to future threats which are likely to result in extinction. </p>  <p>In the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Grampians</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place> region any habitat modification and disturbance arising from park management activities will likely affect<em></em> populations (Johnston and Robson in press). These activities may include, the construction or upgrading of roads, fire dams and visitor facilities and fuel reduction burning of wetland vegetation and the draining of wetlands themselves. Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and duration of drought and the frequency and intensity of wildfire in western <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Victoria</st1:state></st1:place>. Both of these changes are likely to have negative impacts on this species and active management may be required to minimize the effects of these events. In particular, prolonged drying of seasonal wetlands will increase the duration of time spent by this species over-summering in the burrows of <em>G. falcata</em>, thus lengthening the period of exposure to fire impacts and potentially reducing the time available for surface feeding and reproduction   (K. Johnston pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  </p><p><br/><em></em></p>	eng
153743	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>  There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution range falls within the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Toonumbar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>, a minimum recreational size limit of 90 mm orbital carapace length (OCL) is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007).&#160;<em></em>This species does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.   Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, and resilience to effects of exotic species.  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153743	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<em></em>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is known from tributaries and headwaters of Iron Pot Creek in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Toonumbar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype>, and minor headwater gullies in <st1:placename w:st="on">Yabbra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">New   South Wales</st1:state></st1:place>). The species is restricted to highland (>425 m), rainforest pockets in headwater streams in two drainage basins, and thus the distribution should be regarded as severely fragmented due to the effective barriers to dispersal of mountain ridges and the unsuitable habitat of intervening lowland areas (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 42.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Coughran 2007).	eng
153743	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is found in shallow streams, minor tributaries, headwater streams and wet soaks. It constructs burrows in stream channels and the forest floor. At some sites, surface water was minimal or absent. Further information on the species' habitat and ecology has been documented by Coughran (2006, 2007). </p>	eng
153743	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species is known to be uncommon within its range (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153743	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).    Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153745	conservation	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is partially protected in Uzbekistan where it is listed in the  The Red Data Book of Uzbekistan but under the name <span style="font-style: italic;">Pontastacus kessleri.</span> It is also listed in the Red Data Book for Moscow. Harvesting of this species in Turkey during the spawning season is prohibited. In the western parts of this species range where it has been introduced, there is no protection in place. In fact measures are often taken to try and eradicate it. This species is being reintroduced into areas of its former range (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153745	distribution	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This is a widespread species and can be found throughout Europe, eastern Russia, and the middle east. However it is absent from some of the northern European countries such as Norway and Sweden, and the southern European countries Spain and Portugal (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is considered indigenous in the eastern part of its range, but has been introduced into many of the western European countries (Machino and Holdich 2006, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153745	habitat	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	This species is found in both fresh and brackish waters, e.g. lagoons, estuaries, as well as running freshwater rivers in the Ponto-Caspian Basin. Across Europe it is found in lakes, canals and rivers. It is tolerant to changes in temperature, low oxygen content, and low water transparency, and is known to occur in saline conditions such as estuaries. Tolerance experiments indicated that O+ juveniles and adults are well adapted for surviving salinities of at least 21ppt in the long term, and will tolerate being transferred directly back into freshwater. However, their ability to colonize the estuarine environment may be restricted to areas of low salinity (i.e. 7ppt) due to the adverse effects of seawater on egg development and hatching (<span style="background-color: white;">Holdich, Harlioğlu and Firkins </span><em style="background-color: white;"></em>1997).<br/><br/>In addition, this species is active during the day and during winter. These features and the high fecundity and fast growth suggest that it can outcompete <em>Astacus astacus</em>. Furthermore<em>, </em>it is an omnivorous species, but demonstrates a preference for zoobenthos, which makes up to 97.2% of the weight of its food in the first year of life in the Caspian Sea.	eng
153745	population	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	Declines have been noted in some parts of this species range as a result of competition with the crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, and the crayfish plague (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>). Declines are most notable in the western part of this species range where it has been introduced. <br/><br/>Austria: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Azerbaijan: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Belarus: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/>Bosnia and Herzegovina: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Bulgaria: This species is widespread and of commercial interest (Zaikov and Hubenova 2007).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Croatia: This species is dense in parts of its range and is expanding its range size (I. Maguire and G. Klobučar pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Georgia: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Greece: This species is </span>found in the Evros River (Perdicaris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>  <span style="background-color: white;">Hungary: It is usually present in lowland waters and fish ponds, and is most common in the southern and eastern part of the country (Puky </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2005). It has been wiped out from different habitats by several factors e.g. the introduction of the European eel (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Anguilla anguilla) </span><span style="background-color: white;">to Lake Balaton leading to its extinction in the 1960s there and in the lower stretch of the inflowing River Zala; the spread of </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">Orconectes limosus</span><span style="background-color: white;"> along the southern part of the Hungarian Danube stretch at the turn of the 1990s and 2000s. However, previously unknown populations are also being described for the first time, as such at a national level its status is indeterminate;&#160; it appears stable in some areas, with declines in others (P. Miklós pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/>  <br/><span style="background-color: white;">Iran: There are good stocks of this species in this country (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2006).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Israel: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Kazakhstan: This species is described as abundant in countries such as Kazakhstan (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2006).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Moldova: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Romania: There have been significant historical declines in the population numbers of this species, however attempts are being made to re-stock it into former parts of its range (M. Miron and L. Miron pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/>    <p>    </p><p>Russia: This species is described as widespread and abundant in countries such as Russia (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Pollution has affected crayfish species in Russia (Fedotov, Bykadorova and Kholodkevich 1998) especially in the lower River Don where abundance is reported to have declined 4-17 fold since the 1980s (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006)</p>    <span style="background-color: white;">Serbia: Spreading in some regions, but declining in others as a result of</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"> Orconectes limosus</span><span style="background-color: white;"> (Holdich </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al</span><span style="background-color: white;">. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Slovakia: Though this species is listed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia, the population is thought to be currently stable (P. Manko pers. comm. 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Turkey: There have been fluctuations in the harvest of this species over the years, though is said to have shown an increasing trend since 1995. However, since 2005 there has been a decline in the catch from 2,317 tonnes in 2004, to 809 tonnes in 2005, to 797 tonnes in 2006, and to 750-760 in 2007. The reason for this apparent decline is not clear and there is no indication that it is related to crayfish plague, though over-harvesting is thought to be contributing (Harlioğlu and Harlioğlu 2009).</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Turkmenistan: There is no information on the status of this species in this country.</span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Ukraine: Widespread and abundant (Souty-Grosset </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">et al.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> 2006).</span>	eng
153745	threats	Gherardi, F. & Souty-Grosset, C., 2010	There are a number of widespread threats impacting this species. Due to the commercial quantities in which it is found in some countries, it has been extensively harvested for food within a number of countries. In Turkey this species suffered significant declines as a result of overfishing and crayfish plague (<em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;">).</span> <span style="background-color: white;">The harvest of this species showed a gradual increase between 1977 and 1984, after which is underwent a significant decline from between 3,885 - 7,936 tonnes, to less than 2,000 tonnes up to 2002. Between 1991 and 2002 a gradual increase in the harvest has been observed, though it is still at 20% of the 1980s level (Harlioğlu and Harlioğlu 2005).</span> Two of the greatest threats to this species are invasive species such as the Signal Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pacifastacus leniusculus</span>) and the Spiny-cheek Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes limosus</span>), and crayfish plague (<em style="background-color: white;">Aphanomyces astaci</em><span style="background-color: white;">)</span> (Lózan 2000).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;">Dredging of waterways in localised areas has further threatened this species as it leaves the water cloudy and disturbs the habitat. </span>Pollution of waterways (domestic, agricultural and industrial) has also resulted in significant declines, particularly in the River Don where abundance is said to have declined 4-17 fold since the 1980s (Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/><br/><span style="background-color: red;"><br/></span>	eng
153746	conservation	Buckup, L., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In the future protected areas should be established to preserve some habitat for this species. Further research is required on the impact of threats on the population.	eng
153746	distribution	Buckup, L., 2010	This species<em> </em>was initially recorded only at the type locality at Los Kakanes farm of Rucapihuel in the Coastal Cordillera,&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Osorno</st1:placename> Province, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Chile</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Subsequently, it has been found in the localities of Coihuer´a, Carrico, Contaco, and Loma de la Piedra; which are also located in the Coastal Cordillera at 4.0, 5.3, 7.4, and 16.7 km southeast of Rucapihuel, respectively (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<em> </em>	eng
153746	habitat	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>This is a burrowing species that was described from the semi-marshland area of Rucapihuel on the coastal Cordilera, Osorno Province in southern Chile (Rudolph and Crandall 2005, L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153746	population	Buckup, L., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species.	eng
153746	threats	Buckup, L., 2010	<em></em>The area in which this species is known to occur is heavily impacted by forest clearance for agricultural land, and the construction of canals to drain the 'hualves' (L. Buckup pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153747	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>      </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Within Canada this species is thought to be 'Threatened'  (Hamr 2005).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  <em></em></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
153747	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">United   States of America</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from southern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Ontario</st1:state></st1:state> to <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Arkansas</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Texas</st1:state></st1:state>, and East to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Appalachicola</st1:placename></st1:place>  <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place> (Hobbs and Robison 1989). It has a distribution of approximately 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and is the most widespread species in its genus (Guiasu 2007).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153747	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This species is a semi-terrestrial burrower that can be found in a range of habitats such as wetlands (marshes and swamps), roadside ditches, creek banks and among rooted semi aquatic plants and grasses (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2005, Hamr 2005). It is mostly found in fine clay soils (Hamr 2005), and is unable to tolerate fast-flowing streams (Bouchard 1974).</p><p>Little is known on the life history of this species. Captive individuals were observed to mate in June, while reproduction is thought to occur throughout most of the year in the southern parts of its range (Hamr 2005). This species may live for up to five or six years (Norrocky 1991, Guiasu and Dunham 2002). It shows little aggression to conspecifics and several members of the same species are able to inhabit the same burrow (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 2005).</p>	eng
153747	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This is by far the most widely distributed species within its genus (Guiasu 2007), however it is not found to be locally common and it is usually restricted to isolated patches (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Canadian populations of this species are found at an average density of 1.3 m<sup>2</sup> in areas of suitable habitat (Hamr 2005).<br/></p>	eng
153747	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to habitat degradation and loss. This species seems to be fairly resilient to a number of contaminants (Simon and Morris 2008). However, the amount of suitable habitat has been decreasing due to urban, industrial and agricultural development (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 1996). For example, this species was found to be absent from the rice growing region in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:place></st1:state> (Hobbs and Robinson 1989). Furthermore, population numbers were found to be much higher in protected areas compared to unprotected areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Canada</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hamr 2005). Competition from introduced crayfish species (<em>Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii</em> and <em>Cambarus robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species' in this genus (Guiasu 2007), but is not thought to be a major threat to this species at present.</p>  <p></p>	eng
153748	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Hamr, P., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species<em></em>. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) ranked it as Currently Stable. It has a NatureServe G-rank of G5 (Least Concern)   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2008).	eng
153748	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Hamr, P., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found along the eastern part of North America&#160;from the New River north and the Mississippi and Atlantic basins from the New River south following the strike of the Appalachians (R. Thoma pers. comm. 2010). It is found from New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario in Canada, south to Georgia, South Carolina, and Alabama in the USA along the Atlantic coast (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has an estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) exceeding 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153748	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Hamr, P., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is usually found in fast flowing, rocky areas (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007), but is occasionally seen in ponds (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1989) and lakes (Jezerinac 1985). Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) noted that it is found in the high elevation lakes in the Canadian Shield, where pH values can be as low as 5.0.&#160;Its burrows are often found in gravel and sand under larger rocks (Mar 1983) and along streams (Williams and Bivens 1996).Burrows have been known to be as deep as 1 m (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;Spring to autumn delineates the period of reproduction with&#160;the offspring hatching in July and August&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;&#160;The species has a life span of three to four years (Hamr and Berrill 1985). The carapace length ranges between 25 mm and 30 mm (Hamr and Berrill 1985).	eng
153748	population	Cordeiro, J., Hamr, P., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is abundant and common in parts of its range (Jezerinac 1991, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
153748	threats	Cordeiro, J., Hamr, P., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species faces few threats, although localised disturbance may exist. The introduced Rusty Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oroconectes rusticus</span>) might be able to compete with this species (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore, the closely related <em>Cambarus robustus</em> has been found to competitively exclude this species from some of its range in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:state u1:st="on">Ontario</st1:state></st1:place></st1:place></st1:state> (Guiasu <em>et al</em>. 1996). Localised declines can also be attributed to general habitat degradation and loss.&#160;</p><p>At a greater scale, one significant pressure is the acidification of streams that it lives in; although it has developed a tolerance to low pH levels it has been noted that juvenile and moulting crayfishes are at risk from the changing pH levels (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).</p>	eng
153749	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the current range and abundance of this species is required, including monitoring to detect if any population declines are occurring. Potential threats also require investigating as currently these are unknown.   Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153749	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to the Geelong-Ballarat region, Victoria, Australia. It has been found in the upper reaches of the Werribee River and just across the Great Dividing Range in the upper reaches of the Loddon and Tullaroop drainages (Horwitz 1990).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 5,292 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153749	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	Information on this species' ecology is only known from the type locality, which is in the headwater region of a small creek in a cleared paddock at Mount Moriac near Geelong. The soils were yellow-grey and appeared to contain a heavy clay component; consequently the burrows ramified along the banks of the creek. Pools of water could be found in small chambers above the water table. At Werribee River, individuals could be found in very short burrows beneath rocks in a dry creek bed, and in dry burrows on the banks. The largest male found was 27 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 15.4 to 28.9 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153749	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
153749	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There is no evidence to suggest that the species is, or could be, experiencing significant population declines (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009). However, the range of this species overlaps with areas which have undergone extensive development for agriculture; this may have reduced population numbers in the past due to cattle trampling and habitat loss.  Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153750	conservation	Parkyn, S., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although legislation is in place which bans the capture of wild crayfish for sale&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). Monitoring of population numbers and harvest levels should be carried out because significant population declines may occur in the future if threats persist. In addition, this species should be widespread in most national parks (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.&#160;</p>	eng
153750	distribution	Parkyn, S., 2010	This species is endemic to New Zealand. It extends from the far north of New Zealand, south to Marlborough, Nelson, and the West Coast districts of the South Island (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 45,200 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153750	habitat	Parkyn, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in lakes and streams, and is most commonly associated with cover habitat such as undercut banks, leaf litter, tree roots, and woody debris. Habitat preferences are for still or slow flowing water and depths of 0.2-0.3 m in streams (Jowett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In lakes, this species generally stays below the photic zone during the day (presumably out of cormorant diving range) but travel up to the littoral zone to feed at night. It has been seen to occur at great depths (180 m in Lake Taupo) and in streams on Mount Ruapehu at 1,260 m above sea level. This species is an omnivore, feeding on benthic invertebrates and leaf detritus predominantly (Parkyn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). <em><br/><br/><br/></em>	eng
153750	population	Parkyn, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. There is anecdotal evidence of declines in the abundance of this over time in both streams and lakes, but there are no systematic long term records of this (Parkyn <em>et al.</em> 2002, S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
153750	threats	Parkyn, S., 2010	This species is impacted by a reduction in habitat (due to channelization and dredging of streams, and drainage of wetland for urban and industrial use), water pollution, and a loss of riverbank vegetation leading to erosion (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008,&#160;Department of Conservation 2006). Predation by introduced species such as perch, trout, catfish and possibly rats and stoats, and harvesting at a subsistence level for human consumption have also played a role in their gradual population decline (Department of Conservation 2006). This species has been resistant to the dominant land use change as they are generally tolerant of warmer water temperatures in pastoral streams as long as water quality remains generally good&#160;(S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008). These do not qualify as major threats however, as they are only localized and do not appear throughout this species' range. However, once crayfish have been made locally extirpated, they find it difficult to recolonize as their mode of dispersal is limited to instream movement (S. Parkyn pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153751	conservation	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	<em></em>This species has been listed as an endangered species by the Japanese Fisheries Agency in 1998 and the Environmental Agency in 2000 (Nakata, Tsutsumi,  Kawai and Goshima 2005, Usio 2007). Protection measures, such as education and awareness, particularly in schools, have been initiated; however further efforts are necessary, such as new  protection measures and policy to prevent further declines (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2010). Further research on the threat from the Signal Crayfish, and monitoring of populations trends is recommended.	eng
153751	distribution	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	<em></em>This species is indigenous to northern Japan, and is found in Hokkaido, Aomori, Akita, and Iwate Prefectures (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153751	habitat	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species inhabits swift or high gradient streams without fish, and is associated with abundant cover in dense broadleaf forests. This type of habitat serves as a conservation area, and consideration of riparian composition may facilitate conservation efforts (Usio 2007). This species will carry 30-100 eggs and grow to approximately 8 cm (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153751	population	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There is no current population information available for this for this species. This species was considered common in Hokkaido until the twentieth century; however following the introduction of the Signal  crayfish in the 1920s and habitat  destruction&#160;since the 1960s <em>C. japonicus</em> populations have continued to decline, and the species is thought to be rare in Hokkaido (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153751	threats	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species is threatened by interspecific competitor from the invasive Signal Crayfish <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em>. <em>Pacifastacus leniusculus</em> is competitively advantageous, and has a markedly higher reproductive ability <em></em>in terms of egg numbers (Nakata, Tanaka and Goshima 2004). Fewer eggs, more larval stages, slower growth, smaller pereopods, and poor disease resistance all contribute to the displacement of indigenous&#160;<em></em>populations of this species by introduced competitors such as <em>P. leniusculus</em>. The fecundity of<em></em> this species is an order of magnitude lower than that of<em> P. leniusculus</em> (Yamanaka, Kuwabara and Shio 1997).<br/><br/>In the past,&#160;<em></em>this species had a widespread distribution in Hokkaido (Kawai 1996), but the population has drastically declined, prompting the Japanese Fisheries Agency in 1998 and the Environmental Agency in 2000 to declare it an endangered species (Nakata, Tsutsumi,  Kawai and Goshima 2005, Usio 2007). Crayfish plague may be a factor in species displacement in some Hokkaido rivers and lakes, though there is yet no evidence of infection in this prefecture but it should be investigated further (Usio, Motoharu and Shigeru 2001).	eng
153752	conservation	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the population status of this species, and if there are any major threats impacting it.	eng
153752	distribution	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in scattered localities throughout Cuba except in the southwestern mountains (Hobbs 1989). This species has a distribution of approximately 15,000km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153752	habitat	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in lotic and lentic habitats, mountain streams (Hobbs 1989) as well as lowland streams   and lakes (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Laboratory experiments have shown that this species can tolerate temperatures in the range of 18-23   ºC , and do not require water to be artificially oxygenated when kept in shallow tanks (Shuranova and Burmistrov 2002). This species grows to 5-7cm   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153752	population	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is reasonably common within suitable habitat in Pinar del Rio (C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2009), and generally thought to be widespread and abundant   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
153752	threats	Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is some development within its range, though the scale of threats is unknown   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153753	conservation	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em></em>this species. The China Species Information Service has classified&#160;<em></em>this species as endangered, but the reasons for this are unknown. Introduction of invasive species needs to be controlled (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Further research on the distribution and taxonomy of this species is needed.	eng
153753	distribution	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	<em></em>This species is known to occur in China and Russia   (T. Kawai and Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153753	habitat	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	This species seems to be restricted to lentic water in flats and open rivers, lakes, or dead channels, to a depth of approximately 1 m.   It is also known to occur in brackish water such as coastal areas of the Amurskii Liman (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).   On Sakhalin Island, its optimal water temperature is around 19ºC and pH is 6.5-7.0 (Labai 2005). It inhabits mesotrophic or oligotrophic conditions, silt or sand substrate, usually covered by detritus and vegetation snags (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008). Floating plants may also occur on the surface of the habitat, and emergent plants or sub-emergent plants dominate in shallow areas (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008). Gammarid amphipods and snails are known to cohabit with this species. Adult females and males mate during October, females are ovigerous laying 200-240 eggs in spring (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153753	population	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There is no population information available for&#160;<em></em>this species. However, it has been suggested that the density of juveniles is less than 50 per m<sup>2</sup> and adults are 3-7 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (T. Kawai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153753	threats	Kawai, T. & Machino, Y., 2010	There are no known threats to <em></em>this species. The sister species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cambaroides japonicus</span>) has no resistance to crayfish plague  (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanomyces astaci</span>) so it is likely that this species also has no resistance. Exotic crayfish species are not known from this area, but measures must be taken to prevent their introduction (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009). Water pollution from major industry may also pose a threat to this species (Y. Machino pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153754	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007) and was given a heritage ranking of G2G4 by NatureServe (Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). However, as there are a number of potential threats within its range further research is needed to see if these are impacting this species. There are some conservation goals outlined for the Cumberland River basin, however it has been stated that these are not being met for crayfishes and snails (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2002). This suggests that crayfish species, endemic to this basin,<em></em> are affected by the activity in this area and are not sufficiently protected. However, as this species is not specifically known to be affected, its threat status is unknown   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153754	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in Louise Creek, in Montgomery County, Tennessee. It has since been found in tributaries of the Cumberland River in three places in Montgomery and Dickson counties on the western Highland Rim (Hobbs Jr. 1953). The Smithsonian Museum (USNM 2009) has a few additional records from Montgomery Bell State Park and an unnamed stream east of Charlotte, and Yellow Creek&#160; in Dickson County Houston. Additionally it has been found in a tributary of Hurricane Creek, Humphreys County, and Saline Creek, Stewart County. The Duck River sites are of questionable validity (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153754	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in streams. At the type locality of this species the stream width varied between 3 m and 7.5 m, and was between 0.3 m and 1 m deep (Hobbs Jr. 1953). It had a rocky bed and was clear. This species was very abundant in the riffle areas, where it was found digging shallow holes below rocks (Hobbs Jr. 1953).	eng
153754	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Hobbs Jr. (1953) found this species<em></em> to be very abundant at the riffle areas of its type locality in Louise creek. It can be abundant where suitable habitat exists.&#160; However, there is no other population information available for this species. All occurrence records are old (1950s and one from 1974), although&#160; D. Withers (TN NHP, pers. comm., 2009) surveyed this species in June 2009 and found 3 females and 1 non-reproductive male tentatively identified as this species.	eng
153754	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no threats known to be affecting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.<em></em> It is known however, that throughout the Cumberland Basin threats have been identified, including hydrological alterations, channelisation and land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural run-off, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, which may be having an impact on freshwater systems (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). The impact this is having on this species is currently unknown as its environmental tolerances are not known.	eng
153756	conservation	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>. Future research should focus on establishing a broad scale audit (population trends, threats and distribution) and monitoring program across this genus and other burrowing crayfish as they are likely to be very sensitive indicators of habitat and climate change (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153756	distribution	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is distributed through northeast Tasmania. Its range can be outlined by the triangle between Upper Blessington, St. Helens and Mt. William (Horwitz 1990).   This species has a distribution of approximately  2,903 km<sup>2</sup> (Richardson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
153756	habitat	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This burrowing species occupies a wide variety of habitats, including buttongrass plains, dry temperate sclerophyll forests (near Upper Blessington and Mathinna) and rainforest (near Weldborough) (Horwitz 1990).   <span class="msoIns">It occupies a wide altitudinal range, from lowland areas to subalpine conditions (over 700 m). Some burrowing systems are very extensive and occupied by large numbers of individual crayfish (Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985). This species constructs both type 2 and type 3 burrows, meaning some burrows are connected to the water table whilst other burrows are connected to water only through surface run-off&#160;<span class="msoIns">(Horwitz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985).<span class="msoIns"> The largest male found was 32.7 mm carapace length. Mature females ranged from 21.8 to 33.5 mm carapace length. The largest non-reproductive female was 24.2 mm carapace length (Horwitz 1990).	eng
153756	population	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	This species is considered to be very abundant within its range (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153756	threats	Doran, N. and Horwitz, P., 2009	The habitat of this species has undergone substantial modification, though it is unknown to what extent this has impacted this species (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).   Broad scale habitat change and changes in weather, water and drainage patterns due to climate change could become a major issue in the future (N. Doran pers. comm. 2009).<span class="msoIns"> Their occurrence in or near agriculture makes them vulnerable to the effects of cattle trampling, drainage, application of pesticides and other agricultural practices (P. Horwitz pers. comm. 2009), however at present these threats are probably affecting localised populations.<span class="msoDel">	eng
153757	conservation	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Hansen and Robinson (2006) suggest that the conservation status of this species is secure. Furthermore, this species does not require any conservation measures at present, though further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153757	distribution	Richardson, A., 2010	This species is endemic to eastern Tasmania, Australia. It has been reported from the Albert, Andrew, Baxter, Bird, Davey, Denison, Derwent, Franklin, Gell, Gordon, Hardwood, Hibbs, Jane, King, Maxwell, Nora, Olga, Orange, Pokana, and Wanderer catchments. Furthermore, it is known to occur at an elevation of 0 - 1100 m above sea level. This species has a distribution of approximately 5,950 km<sup>2</sup> (Hansen and Robinson 2006).	eng
153757	habitat	Richardson, A., 2010	This is a burrowing species, with burrows recorded in seepages, lakes and creeks. The burrows are usually found in peat, clay, sand, mud or gravel, and the vegetation types recorded in the vicinity of burrows include graminoid heath, melaleuca scrub, rainforest, wet sclerophyll forest and moss (Hansen and Robinson 2006).<br/><br/>    <p>In additon, this species can be found in sympatry with <em>Ombrastacoides brevirostris</em> and <em>Spinastacoides insignis</em>, where it is found in shallower, better-drained soils (Hansen and Richardson 2002). </p>	eng
153757	population	Richardson, A., 2010	In sedgelands this species is known to have a density of usually below 0.2m<sup>-2</sup>, though in gravelly rainforest seepages they may exceed 1m<sup>-2</sup> (A. Richardson 2009).	eng
153757	threats	Richardson, A., 2010	There are no major threats known to be acting upon this species. It is realtively widespread in eastern Tasmainia, and a large proportion of its range overlaps with national parkland and it does not have strict habitat requirements.	eng
153763	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This indicates that Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007) consider this species to be apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)</p>	eng
153763	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> in habits the Vidalia Upland District between the Oconee and Ogeechee rivers in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). A single specimen held at the U.S. National Museum has only "South Carolina" on the label. This record was not considered by Hobbs (1989). This is an approximate extent of occurrence of 10,000 km².	eng
153763	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus</span> is found in seepage areas in colonies where each member digs its own complex burrow (Hobbs 1954; Hobbs 1981).	eng
153763	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus truculentus.</span>	eng
153763	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus truculentus. </span>	eng
153764	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), meaning the species is apparently secure, widespread and abundant<em><em>.<br/></em></em>This species is a carrier of the crayfish plague and poses a great threat to native crayfish species in Europe (Holdich and Black 2007).<em><em><br/></em></em>Further research is required on the population abundance of this species and its life history.<em><em><br/></em></em>	eng
153764	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is widespread in North America occurring in the Atlantic watershed in Connecticut, District of Columbia, Delaware, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Québec, Rhode Island, Virginia, Vermont and West Virginia (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1974, Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species was introduced to Europe in the 1890s where it is now widespread (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995, Souty-Grosset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species was originally introduced into Europe to replace diminished  populations of the Signal crayfish, but due to its small size that  replacement failed (Black and Holdich 2007).    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed XXXX</p>	eng
153764	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clear streams that are 10 - 100 m wide, with silt, cobble, gravel and sand substrates (Jezerinac 1995, Aiken 1965). This species has also been found in lakes (Aiken 1965). Individuals are often found in shallow depressions in pools and have rarely been captured where silt is absent from the substrate (Jezerinac 1995).	eng
153764	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>However, it is known to be abundant in sites of suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153764	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. Hybridization is known to have occurred between&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> at a single locality in Massachusetts. However, this is not having a major impact on the global population of this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It is likely that this species is experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009), but these are very unlikely to be threatening the species.	eng
153765	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153765	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the vicinity of Córdoba in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mexican</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153765	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153765	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This is a rare species, which is only known from the type specimens collected in the 1950s (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>	eng
153765	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Cordoba is a fast growing city, and urbanization could be a significant threat to this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153766	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Part of this species range lies within a national wildlife refuge, however it is not known what the subpopulation size is here nor is the abundance trend known.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution is required for this species, especially in the coastal plain tributaries of the Savannah River to determine how widespread this species is (Hobbs 1958). Information on the current and future impacts of threats for this species are required.	eng
153766	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hirsutus</span> is known the Edisto, Salkehatchie, and Savannah drainage systems in South Carolina (Hobbs 1958). Currently it is found in nine counties in South Carolina within the following drainages:&#160;Edisto, Salkehatchie, Savannah, Conagree, Lake Marion and Four Hole Swamp (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). &#160;It may also be found in Georgia but this is not confirmed (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>See page 54 of Eversole and Jones (2004) for species distribution map.	eng
153766	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hirsutus</span> inhabits permanent creeks and rivers which have sandy or mud substrates (Hobbs 1958).	eng
153766	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is abundant in the Salkehatchie drainage system (Hobbs 1958).	eng
153766	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species specific major threats have been identified for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. hirsutus</span> although it is likely to be undergoing some localised declines due to urban development and surface water abstraction occurring in South Carolina.	eng
153767	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153767	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality at Cueva de Rio S. Domingo, near the <st1:placetype w:st="on">village</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Bochil</st1:placename> in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">Chiapas</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, at an altitude of 1250m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153767	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from subterranean waters (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This species does not appear to be a cave adapted species, though it was collected from a cave   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153767	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><em></em>	eng
153767	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
153768	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>	eng
153768	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species was first found in prairie grassland at <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Angelina County Airport</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1987). It has since been found in <st1:placename w:st="on">Houston</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Trinity</st1:placename><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype>, <st1:placename w:st="on">Tyler</st1:placename><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Polk</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Counties</st1:placetype>, <st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state> and occupies the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Neches</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Hobbs 1990, Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). It has been reported, but not confirmed from four other counties in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Texas</st1:place></st1:state> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). In addition, recent surveys conducted by Dan Johnson have found this species to occur at 59 sites across five counties (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153768	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found predominantly in roadside ditches or grassland (Hobbs and Whitemand 1991). It is a burrowing species that creates turrets or mounds that can reach as high as 30 cm. Within the burrows, the water table can range from the surface, to 1 m below the surface (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991).&#160; Furthermore, the burrows of this species are very large and occur away from ditches (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153768	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	At <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Angelina</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename></st1:place> Airport, as many as 100 individuals can be seen in an area of 90 m<sup>2</sup> (Hobbs and Whiteman 1987).&#160; Further more, recent surveys by Dan Johnson have found this species to occur at 59 sites across five counties, and found this species to be abundant at most of these sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). &#160;<em> <br/></em>	eng
153768	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. However, it is known to be a pest species within <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Texas</st1:place></st1:state>, as the mounds created by its burrows can cause damage to farm machinery. They are also known to cause injuries to livestock, as the burrows weaken the ground causing it to give-way (Hobbs and Whiteman 1991). In some areas this species is being 'controlled' by farmers to prevent it inhabiting farmland (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153769	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>      <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153769	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens</span> is found in the Coastal plain of Georgia, between the Ocmulgee-Altamah and Satilla rivers, intergrading with the nominate subspecies in the extreme upper and lower Satilla. One locality of this species is situated immediately North of the Altamaha River in Montgomery County (Fetzner 2008).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae</span> is found from the Satilla River in Georgia, South to Alachua and Flagler Counties, Florida, intergrading with <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens</span> in the extreme upper and lower Satilla and in the upper Suwannee basins (Hobbs 1942).<br/><br/>    <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 15600 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
153769	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Both<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae</span> and&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae deficiens </span>are found in lentic and sluggish lotic situations, and are secondary burrowers (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153769	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>	eng
153769	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubischelae pubischelae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus publischelae deficiens </span>are impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153770	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153770	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in southern Indiana and Ohio, and northern Kentucky, USA (Hobbs 1989) in the middle and lower Ohio River drainages (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).	eng
153770	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing crayfish that burrows in springs and rarely ventures into larger water bodies (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). This species has also been found in ditches, roadside ditches, temporary pools and small streams (Norrocky 1989).	eng
153770	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	A population increase can be inferred from the recent range expansion <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species has experienced (Thoma and Jererinac 2000).	eng
153770	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is unlikely to be any major threats impacting this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153771	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range, habitat destruction, and natural or anthropogenic factors affecting this species continued existence (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, Nature  Serve 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and the extent to which it is impacted uipon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
153771	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is found in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, and Forest, Hancock, Harrison, Jackson, and Pearl River  counties in southern Mississippi eastward to Baldwin County, Alabama (Fetzner 2008).&#160;Theses species look very similar and there is a possibility of misidentification (S. Adams pers. comm. 2010).&#160;species has a distribution of approximately 13,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153771	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	This species is found in permanent ditches and is a primary burrower (<span class="copy">Schuster and Taylor 2004)	eng
153771	population	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153771	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Jones, R.L., 2010	Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus</span> crayfishes (NatureServe 2009). Also, the more widely distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification for agriculture and wetland destruction. The second greatest threat is pollution (including air, water and soil pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary waters). Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes far removed from permanent waterbodies, they are often prevented from expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the effects of global warming. In addition, competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007).	eng
153772	conservation	Adams, S., DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'currently stable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
153772	distribution	Adams, S., DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species inhabits the northern draining river systems in upper White River from Madison and Washington counties, Arkansas, to Barry County, Missouri, USA (Pflieger 1996). In Arkansas it extends down the Arkansas River drainage in streams that drain to the south into Washington County.&#160; It is also found in the Elk River drainage in Arkansas and Missouri (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010).&#160; This species was found to be absent from two of its historical sites in 2006 (Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;11,700 km² .	eng
153772	habitat	Adams, S., DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species&#160;inhabits fast flowing, shallow streams with substrates of gravel or cobble (Pflieger 1996, Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
153772	population	Adams, S., DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common at sites with suitable habitat in first to third order streams.	eng
153772	threats	Adams, S., DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species&#160;has become fragmented in recent years due to the development of reservoirs (Westhoff <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also the potential impact of invasive species from bait release in this popular fishing area<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In the White River portion of its range in Missouri, lead and gravel mining and urbanization continue to threaten species that inhabit this river system (Westhoff <em>et al.&#160;</em>2006)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; However, in the Arkansas part of its range, which is the majority of this species range, there is much less development, and therefore the threats referred to in Missouri are considered localized&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153773	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
153773	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seven cave localities in Hernando and Marion counties, to Alachua, Citrus and Suwannee counties, Florida (Franz and Lee 1982). Franz and Lee (1982) suggest that this is the most widespread Florida cave crayfish. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 11,500 km².	eng
153773	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean caves in the shallow portions of pools (Franz and Lee 1982). Furthermore, this species is usually found clinging to the sides of pools (Franz and Lee 1982).	eng
153773	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	In 1942, Hobbs recorded 42 individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>at the type locality, but in a study by Doonan (2001), only two were recorded. Two individuals were recorded at a second cave also studied by Doonan (2001).	eng
153773	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Karst regions within West-Central  Florida are impacted upon by a number of threats, including urban development, quarrying and waste water treatment plants (Tihansky and Knochenmus 2001), though it is not known to what extent these are impacting this species.	eng
153774	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range and existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range&#160; (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153774	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the Blood River drainage, an eastern flowing tributary of the Tennessee River on the border of <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Sabaj 1998). In Tennessee it occurs in the Coastal Plain province in the Blood River system in Henry County (Williams and Bivens 2001). The Blood River is a relatively small tributary of the Tennessee River, with its headwaters originating in Henry County, Tennessee. Furthermore, within Kentucky, the Blood River drainage and the range of this species are contained entirely within the boundaries of Calloway County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).   This species has estimated extent of occurrence of 1,200 km².	eng
153774	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits small to medium-sized streams with sand and gravel substrates. Furthermore, this species is frequently found in woody debris or vegetation along stream banks (Taylor and Sabaj 1998).	eng
153774	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common in appropriate habitat with high accumulations of woody debris (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153774	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is potentially threatened by the introduction of invasive crayfish species which are used as bait for fishing in the area. There is heavy recreational fishing pressure in the area and the nearby Kentucky Lake is a popular destination for fishing. Furthermore, there is a lot of channelization in Kentucky and if the decision was taken to re-channelize this drainage, there could be negative impacts on the species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153775	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153775	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the drainage systems of the Arkansas, Ouachita, and Red rivers in Louisiana and Arkansas (Penn 1953).   This species has a distribution of approximately 81000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153775	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in temporary lakes, ponds and rivers, and is a secondary burrower (Penn 1953).	eng
153775	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153775	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153776	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
153776	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in the Cumberland River system from Jellico Creek, Scott County, Tennessee, downstream to and including Roaring River in Jackson County, Tennessee, Jackie Branch and Hatchell Branch streams and the Green River system in Adair and Metcalf counties, Kentucky, USA. This species has also been introduced into Caney Fork River system in DeKalb (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Hobbs and Bouchard 1973). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as approximately 34,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153776	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<em></em> This species is found among debris and under rocks in waterways ranging from streams of about a metre in width to large rivers (Fetzner 2008). Larger examples of this species are found more commonly in the middle part of the stream. This species is often found together with crayfish species from the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes</span> (Hobbs and Bouchard 1973).	eng
153776	population	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153776	threats	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown. <em></em>This species has been given a tolerance value of 4.54 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet (1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant). The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution. (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
153777	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species,<em> </em>although the source of the River Camécuaro falls within the Camécuaro  Natural Park. Monitoring of population trends is needed.	eng
153777	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is endemic to the Mexican Central-Occidental Plateau and is found only in certain parts of the Duero and Camécuaro rivers (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; The Duero River is 10 km long, whist the river Camécuaro is just 2 km long (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; The two rivers meet at Las Adjuntas (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Furthermore, this species is known to occur in Lake Chapala, though samples were collected 40 to 50 years. This species is believed to have naturally disappeared from some locations, though these local extinctions may in fact be unnatural (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of approximately 2,300 km².	eng
153777	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the Duero and Camécuaro rivers (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The Duero River is slow-flowing during the dry season and fast-flowing during the rainy season (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The river Camécuaro is slow-flowing and originates from a spring in the Camécuaro Natural  Park (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; At Las Adjuntas, where the two rivers meet, the dominant aquatic vegetation is common hornwort and water-hyacinth and the main predators are Rainbow Trout and Black Bass (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The water depth is 1.5-1.8 m, with a mean temperature of 17.7-21.0 °C, mean dissolved oxygen content of 7.3-7.5 mgl<sup>-1</sup>, and alkalinity of 138.8 and 145.5mgl<sup>-1</sup> CaCO3 in the cold and warm seasons respectively (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Mean turbidity is 40-20 cm visibility in the River Duero, and 100% transparency in the River Camécuaro (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).	eng
153777	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is widespread and abundant, however there are believed to have been some local extinctions (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009) .	eng
153777	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is threatened by over-exploitation, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of exotic species (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). These processes have already resulted in reduction in abundance of this species, and the extinction of some populations (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Much of the natural habitat of this species has been altered by chemical pollution or by human activities such as canalization, clearing, dredging and embanking of rivers, construction of reservoirs, and the regulation of water levels and stream flows (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Furthermore, this species is also threatened by the introduction of exotic crayfish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> species from Australia, which compete for food resources and refuges, and also alter the total production of the native ecosystems (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).<br/><br/>The Duero River basin is highly disturbed, being impacted by fertilizers and pesticides used for agriculture. This species is also harvested in large numbers for human consumption   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>	eng
153778	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This speciess has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
153778	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is almost endemic to the Cumberland Plateau, and is found in the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Kentucky River drainages in Kentucky and eastern Tennessee (Hobbs 1989).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 39,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153778	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found amongst rock litter and in burrows in streams of low alkalinity and limited vegetation (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1968).</p>	eng
153778	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153778	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The <st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee river</st1:place> system, where this species is found, has been impacted upon by a number of human activities, including toxic spills, agriculture, dam building and the introduction of non-native species (Neves and Angermeier 2006). However it is not known if and how these threats might be impacting this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153779	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as endangered (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), critically imperilled, due to the restricted distribution of this species. No significant conservation accomplishments had been achieved for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species by 2005 (Price 2005). Further research is required to give an accurate estimation of the EOO for this species and which threats are impacting this area. As there is planned construction in this county a conservation plan to protect the habitat of this species is required.	eng
153779	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is confined to a very limited portion of the Saluda drainage in Saluda County, South Carolina, USA. Extensive searches have failed to find any more occurrences (Fitzpatrick and Eversole 1997). This represents an extent of occurrence (EOO) of&#160; less than 1,100 km<sup>2</sup>. The type locality of this species has been noted as run-off drainages.	eng
153779	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower which inhabits run-off drainage and creates burrows around tree roots under the water table (Fitzpartick and Eversole 1997). The type locality for this species is wet sandy soils with a relatively high water table in a forest with an overstory of pine, red maple, willow oak and American Elm (Price 2005).<br/><br/>  It is thought this is a long-lived slow growing species similar to <em>D. crockeri.&#160; </em>If that is the case, it would reach maturity at 4-6 years of age (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153779	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a very rare endemic to South Carolina (Price 2005). This species is not known from many localities or collections.   This species is known from only 2 - 3 localities and follow up surveys did not expand the range. The most recent survey’s third site was close to the type locality, and may not be a real expansion of the species' range (Welch 2008, A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>Many attempts have been made to collect this species with only limited or no luck. In the autumn of 2005, A. Eversole twice visited near the type locality but was unsuccessful in finding a specimen. In 2007 Shane Welch made 4 attempts to collect the species near the type locality and also found nothing. Shane Welch (2008), using a GIS-based habitat model to identify survey areas with high probabilities of occurrence for species of<em> Distocambarus</em> in Lexington, Laurens, Fairfield, and Chester counties, South Carolina did not find any <em>D. hunteri</em> populations (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153779	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There are no known current threats to this species. There is, however, intended urban and commercial construction in the county of Saluda which would seriously impact this species (Bristol <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). There are already urban areas close to the rivers in Saluda County.<br/>    <p>A building was structured near the type locality but the effects of this on the type locality population have not been determined (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). Activities that influence soil conditions are expected to impact <em>D. hunteri.&#160; </em>If similar to<em> D. crockeri </em>then<em> </em>it would be expected that increased forestation (i.e. loss of open prairie - type habitats) and ground water contaminants (e.g. pesticides, nutrients, and industrial pollutants) would also impact <em>D. hunteri</em><span lang="EN-GB"> (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153780	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). The species has at least one population which is located in a wildlife refuge and is likely to be protected even if indirectly (Biernbaum 1989). Further research is required to assess the degree of threat impacting upon populations of this species which do not occur within the wildlife refuge, and to determine the population status of this species.	eng
153780	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species can be found in the coastal plain from the Pee Dee River system in South Carolina and southern North Carolina, South towards the Santee River basin in South Carolina (Hobbs 1989). This species has a distribution of between 20000 to 200000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153780	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a generalist primary burrower which can be found in ditches, impoundments, lakes and swamps. In other areas this species has been reported from other lentic and lotic sites (Biernbaum 1989).	eng
153780	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is commonly encountered and usually abundant when present (Biernbaum 1989).	eng
153780	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species specific threats have been reported for this species, and as at least part of its range occurs within&#160; a wildlife refuge.&#160; Furthermore, this species is unlikely to be affected by the creation of dams as it flourishes near one at present (Biernbaum 1989).	eng
153781	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the Americna Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/>This species continues to increase its distribution, particularly in the Canadian Shield area, suggesting that unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, this species can spread into other regions despite possible environmental constraints (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>In some of the watersheds surveyed in Ontario, this crayfish was the only species present, suggesting that it may have eliminated native crayfish species (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2005). This may be the result of direct competition but it is also believed that hybridization between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes propinquus </span>can occur (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Although it does not appear to be as invasive and prolific as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, it is still important to monitor the spread and impact of this species in Ontario (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This is particularly crucial in the Canadian Shield where <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> appears to have had little impact (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine the impact that <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has had on this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>abundance and whether it is impacted by water pollution.<em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153781	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is occurs in New York, Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, West Virginia, northern Virginia, and western Maryland, USA (Hobbs 1989, Fetzner 2008). In addition, this species has been introduced to Ontario, Canada, and Maine, Vermont, Tennessee and Massachusetts, USA (Jezerinac 1986).<br/><br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 187,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/><br/>.	eng
153781	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in pools and streams with rocky substrates (Fetzner 2008, Daniels 1998). It is usually found underneath rocks, gravel and boulders and is not normally found in fast flowing portions of streams (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
153781	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is regarded as common and abundant in much of its range (Jezerinac 1986).	eng
153781	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been displaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>in areas where this invasive crayfish has encroached, as <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> is less vulnerable to predation than this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> (Kulmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> has been replaced entirely by <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> in the Sunfish Creek watershed, Ohio (Jezerinac 1986,   S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This is known to have occurred within a 30 year period   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). It is also impacted across large areas of its range by acid mine runoff from strip mining, which is causing localized population decline   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <br/>There are still large portions of the range which have not been invaded, and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. obscurus</span> has strong holds in small, forested headwater streams (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Kulmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
153782	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its ecology and whether it is being impacted upon by any threat processes.	eng
153782	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species can be found from the Wateree, Congaree, Edisto and Savanna drainages in South Carolina and in the Ogeechee and Ocmulgee drainages in Georgia (Hobbs 1962).&#160; It is found in upper coastal plain streams from Richland and Calhoun Counties. in the Wateree River system to Aiken and Barnwell Counties. bordering the Savanna River in South Carolina into Georgia (Eversole and Jones 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 5000 to 20000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153782	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known to inhabit small permanent creeks and streams (Hobbs 1989). Additionally, it has been observed that when surveyed across a major flood plain&#160;<em>P. chacei</em>&#160;were found in the more permanent water areas as opposed to depressions and sites that dry once annual flooding conditions receded (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153782	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153782	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species, however, this species is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to agriculture and urban development (M.   López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153783	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a heritage rank of G4G5 NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153783	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is currently found from the Patapsco Basin in Maryland, to Saluda Basin in South Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Members of this species' complex were recently identified from the Catawba River and tributaries in North Carolina and South Carolina (Alderman 2005).&#160; Also, collections from several habitats were made from Valley Creek in southeastern Pennsylvania and are attributable to this complex, with some speculation that they may warrant a new state endemic species (Lieb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated as 245,304 km².	eng
153783	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It inhabits permanent freshwater streams, pools and riffle, shallow lateral areas and main-channel areas (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153783	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is common in shallow littoral areas (Lieb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
153783	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	A possible threat to this species is the introduction of exotic species into the Catawba River Basin   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The degree of this threat is currently unknown.	eng
153784	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153784	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in the Tennessee and Black Warrior River systems in northern Alabama and western Tennessee (Fetzner 2008).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 33,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153784	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in permanent streams in areas where there are rocky bottoms in riffle areas and along margins of streams (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153784	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species although it&#160;is regarded as&#160;common to abundant in areas of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153784	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. There may be localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but nothing that is thought to be significant to its global range&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153785	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by AFS (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the threats impacting upon it.	eng
153785	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in southern Louisiana in the Mississippi River drainage and East of the Brazos River in Harrison, Liberty and Jefferson Counties, southeastern Texas (Penn and Hobbs 1958).	eng
153785	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in pools and roadside ditches (Penn and Hobbs 1952) as well as in muddy and silty permanent or near permanent waters (Walls 2009).	eng
153785	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. Though, Penn (1958) recorded 39 specimens from Harrison , Liberty and Jefferson Counties.	eng
153785	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
153786	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by thre American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whther it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153786	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located mostly on coastal plain in southeastern Alabama, from Lee and Macon Counties South between the Alabama and Chattahoochee rivers. Its range has recently extended it range into Stewart and Chattahoochee Counties, Georgia (Stanton 2003), which is thought to be a new record, rather than a genuine expansion of its existing range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153786	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is present in permanent, slow flowing streams with sandy substrates (Hobbs 1952). It is also found in backwaters and woodland seeps (Stanton 2003).	eng
153786	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>This species is known to be uncommon<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>though this could be an artifact of lack of collection effort across much of its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153786	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species may be impacted on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale.	eng
153787	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em>&#160; </em>Further research is needed to confirm the range of this recently described species, and to determine whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153787	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from three ponds at Nacimiento de Dejigui, 4 km East of Huayacocotla, in the Municipo   de Huayacocotla, Veracruz, Mexico (López-Mejia <em><em>et al. </em></em>2004).<em><em> &#160;</em></em>The ponds are at an altitude of 1675 m and the largest has a surface area of 8 m<sup>2</sup> (López-Mejia<em><em> <em>et al. </em></em></em>2004).<em><em><em> </em></em></em>The area in which this species is found borders a deep ravine, which is difficult to access. However, even if it was found from other streams and ponds it is thought to have a very restricted range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em></em></em></em>	eng
153787	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from three small ponds next to a spring (López-Mejia et al. 2004).&#160; The largest of these has a surface area of 8 m<sup>2</sup> and the deepest, a depth of 0.4 m (López-Mejia et al. 2004).&#160; The temperature of these ponds was recorded as 18.9-20.4 °C (López-Mejia et al. 2004). The area in which this species is found is in good condition   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153787	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available fro this species, though it has been collected several times from known locations   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em><em></em>	eng
153787	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Furthermore, the only human development within its range consists of a small village   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153788	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine whether this species is still present within its known range.	eng
153788	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known only from its type locality at Los Estajos, 6 km northeast of Zihuateutla, in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).	eng
153788	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from its type locality, which is a stream habitat (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), within a mountainous region, which is humid   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153788	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from the type specimen. The type locality was recently re-visited and no specimens were found, though it is thought to still be present   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153788	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>The habitat where this species is known to occur is within a town and drained for drinking water (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153789	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160;This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, habitat requirements, its current distribution and any major threats that are impacting upon it.	eng
153789	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been collected from the Canoochee, Ogeechee, Newport, and Savannah river basins in southeastern Georgia (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153789	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been collected from unknown lentic habitat (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153789	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is insufficient population data&#160;available&#160;for this species.	eng
153789	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	The threats to this&#160;species&#160;are unknown.	eng
153790	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the popualtion trends and distribution of this species.	eng
153790	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is only known from its type locality at Cueva de Los Camarones in the Rio Tecolutla Basin, 3 km northwest of Xochitlan in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1989). Specimens have been collected from Sumidero de Atepolihuit de Nauzontla, 32 km north of Cuetzalan, and Cueva de Guayateno no. 2 near Cuetzalan, both in Puebla (Hobbs 1982), but it is unclear whether these have been confirmed as this species, and they may in fact be <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus cuetzalanae</span>   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em><em><em></em></em></em>	eng
153790	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from subterranean pools (Hobbs 1975, 1989), which are small though is not thought to be a troglobytic species  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153790	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is rare and difficult to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
153790	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The area in which this species is known is impacted by urbanization and urban pollution, though it is not known if these threats are impacting upon this species. In addition, this species has a restricted range and is, therefore, susceptible to changes in habitat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). More recently it has emerged that the type locality of this species is now completely surrounded by urban areas (M .López-Mejía pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153791	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, and was given a heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153791	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species is found in the Clinch and Powell River watersheds in northeastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994) and is less common in parts of the lower Holston River basin (Williams and Bivens 2001). It was first found in Caney Valley Creek in Claiborne County, Tennesse, but has since been found elsewhere within northeastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994). In Tennessee it occurs in the Ridge and Valley Provinces in caves draining into the Tennessee River from Walden Gorge west to Franklin County (Williams and Bivens 2001).&#160; </p>	eng
153791	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species is found in most lotic habitats in the Clinch and Powell watersheds (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994), although this species is predominantly found in moderate to swift flowing waters (Williams and Bivens 2001). The type locality of this species (i.e. Caney Valley Creek) was a rapid flowing stream with slightly turbid water and a sandy substrate devoid of vegetation. Throughout its range, this species is most commonly found amongst rapids. It has also been found in subterranean streams (Hobbs and Bouchard 1994) and parts of streams where sediment and soft mud are absent.<br/></p>	eng
153791	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There are insufficient population data available for this species. <br/></p>	eng
153791	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats affecting this species. It is possible that this species is undergoing localized declines within its range as a result of habitat degradation and modification, and water contamination from mining   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). However, as this species is found in most lotic habitats in two watersheds, it is likely that these threats will be acting on a localized scale only, and therefore they do not pose a major threat to the global population.	eng
153792	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to establish the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153792	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality at Rincón de la Doncella Park Lake, Ciudad Mendoza, Municipio de Camerino Z. Mendoza, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found at an altitude of 1,400 m (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 10 km².	eng
153792	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in a permanent, spring-fed lake (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1999). Furthermore, this species has a slow rate of reproduction and therefore slow population growth rate (M.   López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153792	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, however this species has been collected in the hundreds and it has been collected many times over the last 60 years   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153792	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species. There is some pollution in the lake, though it is unknown to what extent this is impacting this species   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em><br/></em>	eng
153793	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153793	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<em></em>This species is known to occur within the tributaries of the Papaloapan River, including Rio Atoyac and Rio Jamapa (Hobbs 1987). It is also known to occur at Acatlan, Cozolapa and Buenos Aires near Cerro Mojarra, boundaries of Miguel and Aleman Dam in Oaxaca State, as well as Tezonapa in Veracruz State. This species has a distribution of approximately 500 km<sup>2 </sup>  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153793	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in streams and ponds at a depth of between 20 - 50 cm, within clear water and under rocks   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>Furthermore, this species has been found at altitudes ranging from 800-1600 m (Hobbs 1987).	eng
153793	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153793	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species, though there are moderate levels of agricutluture within its range   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153794	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage Global rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research on the abundance and range of this species is needed   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153794	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in the Coosa River basin from Polk and Bradley counties, Tennessee; Murray, Pickens, and Paulding counties, Georgia; Bibb, Calhoun, Cherokee, Chilton, Clay, Coosa, Shelby, and Talladega counties, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1981). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to exceed 32,300 km².	eng
153794	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in shady streams with sandy, rock-littered bottoms and clear, with swiftly moving water (Hobbs 1981). This species uses rocks as cover&#160; in both large rivers and shallow brooks (Hobbs 1981, Schuster and Taylor 2004).	eng
153794	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is described as being abundant in several different localities (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
153794	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>Evidence suggests that this species has a low tolerance to changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, with a lower tolerance level of 3.6 mg/l (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This means that this species is sensitive to oxygen level changes as a result of pollution. This is thought to have reduced the range of this species in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Conasauga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> where there is a high level of industrial pollution (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1981). However, this is a localised threat and unlikely to significantly impact the global population of this species.<br/></p>	eng
153795	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153795	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur at Tuexla Gutierrez, Chiapas   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153795	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species is known from rivers, where the landscape is a mix of mountains, waterfalls and ravines   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
153795	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is easy to find, but is not described as abundant. Furthermore, there have been a number of collections of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153795	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species. Furthermore, the area in which this species is known to occur is fairly remote and so unimpacted by urbanization   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153796	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the Amercian Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007. NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the population stauts of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any threats.	eng
153796	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known from the Escambia River drainage in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, Florida, to the Pearl River drainage in Pearl River County, Mississippi, and St. Tammany and Washington parishes, Louisiana (Penn 1959).	eng
153796	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent large and small streams, sloughs, sand bottomed creeks with clear water&#160; (Hobbs 1942).&#160; It is also known to occur in well oxygenated rivers and streams including overflow areas (Walls 2009).	eng
153796	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> A recent survey found it to be wide spread and abundant, from the Alabama part of its range in the Tensew drainage, (C. Taylor pers. comm.2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153796	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. Local impacts may include urban development, including sedimentation and pollution   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153797	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, as well as a more precise distribution, habitat preferences, and any major threats efftecting it.	eng
153797	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is endemic to Mississippi, and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been located in the Pascagoula and Tombigbee river basins, between the 31st and 34th parallels (Hobbs and Walton 1957). This species has a distribution of approximately 20000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153797	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a secondary burrower and is found in ditches (Hobbs and Walton 1957). Furthermore, it is known to burrow up to a depth of 5 ft (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153797	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. This is a burrowing species, which makes it difficult to collect (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153797	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species is impacted by urbanization and agriculture, which occur within its range (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153798	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p><p></p>	eng
153798	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is considered to be widespread in southern Arkansas (Robison and Allen 1995). Collections of this species since its description have greatly expanded its known range (NatureServe 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately13000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153798	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in roadside ditches with a high water table, and clay-gravel substrates (Hobbs 1975).	eng
153798	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></span>	eng
153798	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153799	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	All subspecies of this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>have been given a heritage rank&#160;of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor&#160;<em>et al. 2007).&#160;</em><em><br/></em>Further research on this species is&#160;recommended&#160;to clarify taxonomy and morphological differences between this species<em>&#160;</em>and <em>O. hobbsi.</em>	eng
153799	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species, in its three subspecies is a very wide ranging species, found in the&#160;<st1:city w:st="on">Pearl</st1:city>&#160;and&#160;<st1:city w:st="on">Pascagoula</st1:city>&#160;Rivers and Lake Pontchartrain in&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana (Hobbs 1974, Fetzner 2008),&#160;the&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:state>&#160;Rivers in&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Texas</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Oklahoma</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Kansas</st1:state>,&#160;<st1:state w:st="on">Arkansas</st1:state>&#160;and&#160;<st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:place></st1:state>&#160;(Metcalf and Distler 1963, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008) and&#160;the Lower Mississippi Valley in western Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mississippi and in eastern Missouri and Arkansas (Hobbs 1974, Burr and Hobbs 1984, Fetzner 2008).</st1:place></st1:state></p><p><st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:state></p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 450,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;</p>	eng
153799	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits flowing waters in ditches and steams (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153799	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, but it is believed to be abundant in large parts of its range&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153799	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153800	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe<em></em> and vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). In addition, most localities mentioned within its distribution are within the Ozark National Forest   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153800	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from springs in the Boston Mountains, in at least 7 counties across northern Arkansas, USA (Robison and Allen 1995, Robison <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been identified in 8 watersheds (Upper White River, Buffalo River, Mulberry River, Upper Mulberry River, Spadra Creek, Little Piney Creek, Big Piney Creek, Middle Fork Illinois Bayou) and it is speculated that the species is present in 10 more watersheds in the Ozark National Forest (Robison and Leeds 1996). The distribution of this species is estimated to exceed 13,100 km².	eng
153800	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species burrows near spring and run-off areas, and sometimes on adjacent hillsides, and is believed to be restricted to seeps, springs, and habitats immediately adjacent to these areas (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153800	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153800	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, although it occurs in the Ozark region which is regarded as 'good' in terms of habitat quality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153801	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>.&#160;</em>	eng
153801	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is found in the tributaries of the Rio Tecolutla, Puebla and Rio Nautla, Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). Furthermore, it is also known from Tenango de las flores, Puebla (  (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153801	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from streams (Hobbs 1974). It has an average total length of 57 mm   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
153801	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Populations of this species are large, and it is easy to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>	eng
153801	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is moderate human presence within the range of this species, with a town 5 - 6 km away from known sites. There is a small risk of water contamination from neighbouring towns, but no immediate threat.	eng
153802	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however Lake Pátzcuaro is a RAMSAR site (Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Further research is needed to look at population trends and how it has been impacted by the range of threats.	eng
153802	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known from its type locality in Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).&#160; This lake has a surface area of 130 km<sup>2</sup> (Torres 1993) and is at an altitude of 2,035 m above sea level (Bradbury 2000). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in springs in Chapultepec, Opopeo and Tzurumutaro, Mexico   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Although the basin is 982km<sup>2</sup>&#160;this species is probably&#160;restricted&#160;to a limited area around the lake (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm 2010). It has been estimated that this species occurs in an area of approximately 200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153802	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known from its type locality in Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico (Hobbs 1974).&#160; This lake has a surface area of 130 km<sup>2</sup> (Torres 1993) and is at an altitude of 2,035 m above sea level (Bradbury 2000). It is a warm polymictic lake, with a mean depth of 4.9 m and a maximum depth of &#160;12 m (Torres 1993). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur in springs in Chapultepec, Opopeo and Tzurumutaro, Mexico (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). These are usually to be isolated populations (Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<em></em>	eng
153802	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is thought to be abundant; in the1950s 400 individuals were collected during survey work. Furthermore, survey work conducted surrounding Janitzio Island within Lake Patzcuaro describes this species as abundant   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153802	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Lake Patzcuaro is under threat from increasing siltation rates and inputs of raw sewage (Torres 1993). The lake basin is highly developed, with cattle ranching, water abstraction and deforestation occurring. Furthermore, this species is occasionally taken as by-catch and consumed (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160;However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on this species&#160;(M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009)&#160;.	eng
153803	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><em></em>This species was assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al.&#160;2007) and was given a heritage rank if G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This suggests that this species is not known to be undergoing any significant population declines and is not being impacted by any major threat process. &#160;However, further research is needed to ensure no unknown threats are causing significant declines to the global population.</p>	eng
153803	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in a boggy area along a tributary of Turnbull Creek. This species is now known to inhabit the Nashville Basin and Highland Rim provinces in Stones river, Yellow Creek and <st1:placename w:st="on">Harpeth</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River and</st1:placetype> in the <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city> and <st1:placename w:st="on">Duck</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in middle <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970). In addition this species is found in the Elk River headwaters (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). The Extent of Occurrence of this species has been estimated as exceeding 18,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153803	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em> This species is a burrowing crayfish found in streams and rivers. In some areas of its range, the water table is almost the same level as the bank and the banks are covered in mosses and liverworts (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1970).	eng
153803	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
153803	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting this species. It is known however, that throughout the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> the major impacts are hydrological alterations, channelization, land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural runoff, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, and this is having an impact on the freshwater systems (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002). &#160;However, it is not known what effect these threats may be having on this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span><em></em> This species is also found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Duck</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype>, so any threats it may face in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> will be localized, rather than persistent throughout the entire species range.</p>	eng
153804	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153804	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known from the tributaries of the Río Pantepec in the vicinity of Tenango de Doria, Hidalgo, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). It is also known from three localities in San Cornelio, San Juan, Acaxochitlan, Hidalgo   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153804	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), and is an adaptable species that is likely to re-build numbers following flooding   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153804	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153804	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been impacted by flash flooding; since this occurred in 2000 only one specimen has been collected, though generally the habitat conditions within the range of this species are thought to be good   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153805	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given a heritage Global rank of G3 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
153805	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in headwater tributaries of the Conasauga (Hobbs and Hobbs 1962), Coosawattee, and Etowah rivers in Dawson, Fannin, Gilmer, Murray, Lumpkin, and Pickens counties, Georgia, and in the Hiwassee Basin in Bledsoe and Polk counties, Tennessee, USA (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to exceed 10,300 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153805	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found on the stream bed under large stones. It is found in close association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus asperimanus</span> (Hobbs and Hobbs 1962). It occurs at elevations above 400 m, in clear, cool water, with many rocks under which the animals might take cover.&#160; It has been found beneath rocks and in rather complex burrows in seepage areas, in small cascading mountain brooks, and in swiftly to moderately flowing streams ranging in width from less than one metre to approximately eight metres, at a depth range of 3 cm to some 60 cm deep.&#160; In the larger streams it occurs with other crayfishes, but in seepage areas it is the only species (Hobbs 1981).	eng
153805	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153805	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Southern populations of this species are threatened by development in the Atlanta metropolitan area. In addition, there is reported range fragmentation by nearby reservoir construction (i.e. Carters Lake). The Chattanooga metropolitan area also borders the range of this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). It is unclear how these threats have affected the global population.	eng
153806	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 (critically imperilled) by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This has been given due to the very restricted distribution of this species and the potential of rapid extinction due to introduction of invasive species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population status, and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
153806	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in the Linville River of North Carolina and is presently known to exist at about 8 - 16 km above the falls of the Linville River (Thoma 2005). Thus, this species has an extremely small extent of occurrence of 128 km². Area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 16 km².	eng
153806	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species inhabits permanent streams, under rocks in riffle areas (Thoma 2005).<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>	eng
153806	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species	eng
153806	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from a single locality on Linville River, which has numerous impoundments on its mainstem that create the possibility of bait bucket introductions of non-native crayfish species. Because of the placid nature of this species, it is believed that the introduction of any mainstream dwelling species could result in extinction of the species (Thoma 2005). There are no major cities or industries located close to the river however there are a few small towns to the north which could be polluting the river with urban waste   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153807	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus chaenodactylus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G5T3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).</em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/><em><em></em><em><em><em><em>Orconectes neglectus neglectus</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em> has been given the heritage rank of G5T5 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em> and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
153807	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus </span>is a widespread, invasive crayfish (Flinders and Magoulick 2005, Magoulick and DiStephano 2007). This species has been recently introduced into the Spring River drainage, Missouri; the Rogue River basin, Oregon and streams in southeastern New York (Flinders and Magoulick 2005, Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008, Daniels <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in the White River in Arkansas as far south as Sylamore Creek in Stone County, Missouri, and the Arkansas River in Missouri, Oklahoma and Arkansas  (Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008). In addition, isolated populations of this species are found in tributaries of the Kansas River in Colorado, Nebraska, and in east central Kansas (Pflieger 1996, Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>&#160;</p>  <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,436 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153807	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>generalist, occurring in clear, rocky streams of varying sizes (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153807	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is the most abundant crayfish in its range with the most general habitat requirements (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153807	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153808	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153808	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in only a few localities in the Red and Ouachita watersheds in Caldwell, Grant and Lincoln parishes, Louisiana, and Columbia and Union counties, Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1989). This species has a distribution of approximately 9,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153808	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, forming moderately complex burrows, approximately two feet deep, in roadside ditches. The substrate of the ditches consists of sandy clay (Hobbs and Robison 1989).	eng
153808	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information avaliable for this species.	eng
153808	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species but this is as a result of no investigation into possible threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153809	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as threatened (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It has also been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, due to the existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of a species' habitat or range and the restricted range in which it already exists.<br/>Further research is required to record the abundance of this species and the threats impacting upon it. Also research is required to clarify the habitat requirements and to state whether this is a specialist species only capable of living in pristine prairie habitat or whether it is a tolerant generalist which lives in ditches.	eng
153809	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from the Savannah and Saluda river basins in Abbeville, Edgefield, Greenwood, McCormick, and Saluda Counties, corresponding to a geographically limited portion of the piedmont section of South Carolina and Georgia, USA (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153809	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower. This species exhibits a high degree of specialization and is largely limited to open canopied terrestrial habitats maintained along roadsides, utility rights-of-way, and agricultural field edges within a portion of Piedmont, South Carolina. As a primary burrower this species is rarely found in surface water (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). &#160;This species has been described as a prairie (temperate grassland) specialist although this habitat has mostly been lost (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>The soils in which this species lives undergo dramatic shifts in condition from extremely wet in the dormant vegetative season to extremely dry during the growing season (Welch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The species current distribution is largely dependent on anthropogenic disturbances (Welch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).<br/>A recent habitat study (Welch and Eversole 2006) in the Sumter National  Forest in South Carolina, indicates the presence of this species is most  strongly associated with a terrestrial habitat.&#160; The species was found  at 48 locations (16 in burrows in intermittend streams and colluvial  valleys and 32 in terrestrial burrow habitats often beneath leaf  litter). Prior to this study, very experienced collectors records  recorded only 6 sites, most likely due to sampling improper habitats (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm.  2009).	eng
153809	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
153809	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is largely dependant on anthropogenic disturbances and is capable of living in both extremely wet and dry conditions (Welch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This would suggest that few major anthropogenic associated threats would impact this species, although this species restricted distribution would cause it to be susceptible to stochastic mortality. Habitat destruction has been quoted as a threat to this specialist species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153810	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
153810	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the vicinity of its type locality at Zapoapan de Cabaña, 11 km southeast of Catemaco in the Mexican state of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153810	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from small, rocky temporary streams, and has been collected from burrows in fields. Furthermore, the climate within its range is humid providing the moisture this species requires. It has a high population doubling time, a high fecundity, and a longevity of&#160; 2 - 3 years   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153810	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There have been a number of subsequent collections since the collection of the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>	eng
153810	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The region within which this species is known to occur is impacted by agriculture and pollution, both of which negatively effect the habitat of this species and are thus assumed to impact the population of this species. Though this species has been found in the vicinity of cattle, which occur in low densities, it not thought to pose a significant threat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153811	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Due to the recent description of this species,<span class="copy"><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>no conservation measured have been put in place. <span class="copy">This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span class="copy"><span class="copy"> and Vulnerable, provided by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This classification has been given due to the restricted range occupied by this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span>More research is required for this species as little is known about its population size and threats associated with its type locality habitat.<br/><span class="copy"></span>	eng
153811	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is a North Carolina endemic known from 12 creeks in the Rockfish Creek and Little River subdrainages, and one creek that forms an independent subdrainage of the Cape Fear River basin in and near the Sandhills District, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Cooper 2003). NCSM records include specimens from Cumberland, Hoke and Moore Counties, North Carolina.     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 7,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153811	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in permanent freshwater rivers and streams. This species inhabits rivers with sandy substrate and detritus covered beds. Individuals were found to be most abundant in areas of the greatest current (Cooper and Cooper 2003). This species is best suited to a pH of 4.9, a temerature of 22<sup>o</sup>C, and dissolved oxygen of 6.9 ppm. The type location was covered with&#160; several large submerged logs, and dense growths of long, slender submerged vegetation in which the crayfish were found in areas of greatest current (Cooper and Cooper 2003).	eng
153811	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species as it is newly described with only the original survey completed, with 25 known occurrences   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153811	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Due to the recent description of this species there are no known major current threats.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is, however, likely to be impacted by large scale localized residential development occurring in and around the Cape Fear River   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are many small farms adjacent to the creeks in the Cape Fear River Basin which will almost certainly has some nutrient run-off and transportation corridors such as shipping lanes and roads have been created which may have also caused a decline in population size. Furthermore, the main river has been, and is still used for, recreational activities such as sailing which may be impacting this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153812	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research is needed to determine whether this species is still located in the cave, while other surveys should be undertaken in other surrounding caves again to record if it has spread elsewhere   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153812	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is restricted to one cave in Limestone County, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008). In 2007, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. conducted a survey of 27 caves in the surrounding area, including<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species' only known location, and none were recorded.&#160; It is only known from a single location with an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 1 km² and an inferred area of occupancy of less than 0.4 km² (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153812	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is only known from subterranean pools (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).&#160; It co-occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus jonesi</span> at White Spring Cave in Alabama (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).	eng
153812	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In 1968, only seven individuals of this species were recorded (Buhay 2006). In a survey conducted in 2006, none<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found (Buhay 2006). The species was only recently described   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153812	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown what threats are impacting this species (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153813	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153813	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from the Navasota and Trinity river watersheds in Texas, and the Red River basin in southwestern Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma (Reimer 1975).   This species has a distribution of approximately 86,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153813	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a primary burrower which inhabits permanent rivers, temporary and permanent pools, and ditches (Reimer 1975, Hobbs 1990). It burrows in sandy soil but can inhabit much harsher environments (Hobbs 1990).	eng
153813	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153813	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species may be locally impacted upon by urbanization, but there are no known major threat processes impacting upon it at a global scale.	eng
153814	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Part of this species' range occurs within a federally protected area (Long Point National Wildlife Area Canadian Wildlife Service) (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).&#160;However, further research should be implemented to establish the life history of this species.	eng
153814	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is wide ranging in the southern half of North America. It is found in Ontario, Canada (the extreme edge of its northern most range), Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Kentucky; Delaware, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Indiana, Maryland, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana , USA (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2 million km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153814	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower and is found in coastal wetlands, mudflats, wet meadows and marshes (Hobbs 1989, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is mainly found in clay substrates (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is host to the Ostracod <span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylocythere cryptoteresis</span> (Hobbs and Peters 1993). It can be excavated almost anywhere where the water table is near the surface (Pflieger 1996).<br/>Their burrows usually have mud&#160;chimneys, but they are not as deep as the burrows of <em>Fallicambarus fodiens</em>&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).	eng
153814	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been described as one of the mo<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>t widely distributed and successful crayfish species in North America (Rhoades 1944, Pflieger 1996).	eng
153814	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is threatened by agricultural and recreational activities which cause wetland habitat degradation and alteration (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).Other threats include<strong> </strong>water fluctuation in reservoirs and lakes, litter from anglers, roadside pollution, gas station runoff, channelization, habitat alteration, erosion due to wave action from boats, lawn mowing, fertilization and pesticides (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).  Given the wide dsitribution of  this species, however, it is unlikely to be impacted by these processes   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)  . <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153815	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename></st1:place> is incorporated within the Lagunas de Zempoala National Park which falls within the Sierra del Chichinautzin Corredor Biologies which covers an area of 4,724 hectares. Monitoring of potential threats to this species habitat is needed.	eng
153815	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality at <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename>, <st1:city w:st="on">Morelos</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). This lake is at an altitude of 2,800 m above sea level and its surface area varies seasonally between 1,234 km² and 1,056 km² (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002).	eng
153815	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala</st1:placename> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), which is a shallow, monomictic lake of volcanic origin (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002).&#160; Water temperatures in the lake fluctuate from 3 to 22 °C annually, with a mean temperature of 12 °C (Garcia-Rodriguez and Tavera 2002). This is a littoral species   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153815	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been collected many times from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zempoala, where it has been described as </st1:placename>abundant (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153815	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Illegal deforestation occurs within the surrounding area, however this is not on a large scale. Tourism is present but not on a large scale   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). However, the state of Morelos is affected by pollution, eutrophication and introduced species, with an estimated 64 % of the fish species present having been introduced (Contreras-MacBeath <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
153816	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
153816	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has a relatively wide distribution across Mexico (Alvarez and Rangel 2007). It is found from Lake Chapala in Jalisco, east towards the crater lakes of Puebla (Alvarez and Rangel 2007).	eng
153816	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits rivers, lakes, reservoirs and canal banks, and is associated with the roots of riparian vegetation, up to a depth of 0.5 m. It feeds on a wide variety of organisms, including macrophytes, and is predated upon by vertebrates.&#160; Furthermore, it is a burrowing species and berried females can be found between October and March. Each female will produce between 12?120 eggs. In addition, temperature, pH and oxygen concentrations are not thought to have a significant effect on the abundance of this species, and it has been found at oxygen concentrations of 5 to 7.5 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, at a pH range of 7.6?9 and at temperatures of 10?25 °C, though only rarely above 20 °C (Alvarez and Rangel 2007). It has also been described as a physiologically tolerant species   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em>	eng
153816	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	In the canals of Xochimilco, near Mexico   City, this species is abundant and is the dominant native invertebrate. It is regularly fished at a subsistence level for human consumption (Alvarez and Rangel 2007), but there is no evidence that this is having a significant adverse effect on the overall population size and status.<br/><br/>A reduction in the abundance of this species has been observed in shallow ponds within which <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span> have been introduced (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004), which is likely to be as a result of carp increasing the turbidity of the water and thereby reducing the amount of light available to submerged macrophytes on which the crayfish are dependent for food and shelter (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). Although carp introductions may be causing localized declines in some areas, given the wide distribution of this species and its ability to utilize a wide range of habitat types, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153816	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is regularly fished at a subsistence level for human consumption (Alvarez and Rangel 2007), but there is no evidence that this is having an adverse effect on the overall population size.&#160; The introduction of the Common Carp (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cyprinus carpio</span>) for aquaculture, may however pose a threat to this species (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). A reduction in the abundance of this species has been observed in shallow ponds within which carp have been introduced, which is likely to be as a result of the carp increasing the turbidity of the water and thereby reducing the amount of light available to submerged macrophytes on which the crayfish are dependent for food and shelter (Hinojosa-Garro and Zambrano 2004). Although carp introductions may be causing localized declines in some areas, given the wide distribution of this species and its ability to utilize a wide range of habitat types, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population<em><em><em><em>.</em><em><em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153817	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which indicates that this species is apparently secure (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007). Further research is needed on the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
153817	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known to occur in the Ocmulgee-Oconee-Altamaha and Satilla watersheds in the coastal plain of Georgia (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This species has a distribution of approximately of 20000 200000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
153817	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>This species is a primary burrowing species,&#160; and is known to occur in streams within rolling pine woods and pine flatwoods (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>	eng
153817	population	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153817	threats	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats on a global scale   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009).  </p>	eng
153818	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 or Globally Secure by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), though it may be quite rare in parts of its range, especially in its periphery (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153818	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This crayfish is known from the Tennessee, Cahaba, Pascagoula, Perdido, Escambia and Alabama  Basins in Alabama, USA. In addition this species is found in southeastern Tennessee (in the southern half of the Cumberland Plateau, Blue Ridge, and Ridge and Valley Provinces), and northwestern Georgia; the Coosa Basin from its headwaters in Georgia to Chilton County, Alabama, and in headwaters of the Black Warrior River in Blount and Tuscaloosa counties, Alabama; the Chattahoochee Basin from Walton and De Kalb counties, Georgia, to Russel County in Alabama; and in the upper Ocmulgee Basin in Georgia (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is also known from the Hiwassee River basin in North Carolina (Cooper and Braswell 1995).	eng
153818	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been collected from streams and rivers  (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is a primary burrower in wetlands and can be found in many places where the water table is near the surface (Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Furthermore, LeGrand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2006) has found this species in small creeks and pools. <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:state><span class="MsoCommentReference"><a class="msocomanchor" id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language="JavaScript" name="_msoanchor_1"></a>	eng
153818	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has no specific population data although it is thought to be widespread through its range (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)	eng
153818	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, as well as hydrologically altered and heavily polluted systems (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153819	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether this species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, and whether it is in fact threatened.<br/></p><p>An assessment of freshwater biodiversity in Latin America and the Caribbean by the World Wildlife Fund and Wetlands International classified <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place> as Regionally Outstanding and Vulnerable, with high priority for conservation at a regional scale (Olsen <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, there is little evidence that any conservation measures have been taken.</p>	eng
153819	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality on the northern shore of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename> in the Mexican state of <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This lake is at an altitude of 335 m and has a surface area of 72.5 km² (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 2000, Komarkova and Tavera 2003).	eng
153819	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been found under rocks along the <st1:placetype w:st="on">shore</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Lake</st1:placename> Catemaco (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153819	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The status of the population is not clear as there have not been many collections of this species (F. Alvarez, M. Lopez-Mejia and C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2010).<em><br/></em>	eng
153819	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>Over the last few decades, there has been extensive deforestation of the tropical rainforest surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). This deforestation has taken place mainly to clear land for agriculture, and run-off of fertilizers from farmland has resulted in eutrophication (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). The lake is also under considerable pressure from fishing, with more than 10,000 people, mostly fishermen and their families, living along the shores (Komarkova and Tavera 2003). There is an intense fishing activity in the lake, but it is mainly focused on  fish and snails. Fishermen were observed catching crayfish although they said  this was only ocassional, and they don't search especially for them (C. Pedraza Lara pers. comm. 2010). </p>	eng
153820	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153820	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in central Ohio in the Scioto and Little Scioto Rivers and in direct tributaries of the Ohio River in south-central Ohio, USA (Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).&#160; In West Virginia and Virginia, it is restricted to the Big Sandy, Guyandotte, and New Rivers.&#160; In Kentucky, it is restricted to the Big and Little Sandy River drainages in the far eastern part of the state (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 53,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153820	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits clean water in riffle areas of small to large streams under flat boulder sized rocks (Thoma and Jereinac 2000).	eng
153820	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	&#160;There is insufficient population data available for this species, although   3.2 g m<sup>-2</sup> of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species were produced in New River,West Virginia, in 1992 (Roell and Orth 1992).	eng
153820	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The harvesting of this species for bait only represents a very localized threat   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153821	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153821	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from southern Illinois, eastern Arkansas, and northeastern Louisiana East towards the northward flowing segment of the Tennessee River in Kentucky and Tennessee, and through Mississippi to Tuscaloosa County, Alabama (NatureServe 2009). This species also exists in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153821	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> permanent sluggish streams and creeks, lentic situations such as pools and seasonally flooded swamps and sloughs (NatureServe 2009).&#160; It is also found in seasonally flooded roadside ditches   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153821	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, though it is found to be locally abundant in suitable habitat   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153821	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species may impacted on a local level by urbanization, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale&#160;  (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153822	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, as well as the impact of localized threats upon it.	eng
153822	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is widely distributed from the states of <st1:state w:st="on">Chiapas</st1:state> and Quintana Roo in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>, to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Guatemala</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Belize</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974).	eng
153822	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from lentic habitats such as lakes and ponds (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), as well as streams (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153822	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Due to the locations where this species is known to occur, it is difficult to collect. However, it is thought that this species could be locally abundant   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>	eng
153822	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species may be impacted locally by deforestation (resulting in deforestation) in Chiapas and water pollution in Monte bello, but it is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153823	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the range and abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
153823	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality at Villa Juarez in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mexican</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype> of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Puebla</st1:place></st1:state>, where it was collected at an altitude of 1069 m (Villalobos 1958). It has also been collected from Tenargo de las Flores, Puebla and in the vicinity of&#160; (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153823	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in small streams, and has also been known to occur in the vicinity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hoffmani</span> (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153823	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is believed to be reasonably abundant, and there have been a number of collections of this species over the last three years (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153823	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is some agriculture, for apples and flowers within the range of this species, however, it does not appear to driving declines in this species (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153824	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research into the abundance, distribution, trends and ecology of this species as well as the threats impacting upon it is required.	eng
153824	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus raneyi</span> is known from the Savannah River drainage in Georgia and South Carolina and headwaters of the Ocmulgee River in Dekalb, Gwinnett, Newton, and Walton Counties, Georgia (Hobbs 1953). &#160;More recently this species is found in at least seven counties, in the Savannah and Saluda river drainages. Most of the collections are from small streams (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153824	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	All of the specimens collected for this species have been from small permanent streams.	eng
153824	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153824	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	No species specific major threats have been reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus raneyi </span>and due to the lack on information on this species it is difficult to infer any.	eng
153825	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>. <br/><br/><br/></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153825	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to the spring of Ejido El Potosi, Galeana, in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Rodriguez and Campos 1994).&#160; It is only known from a single pond with a surface area of approximately 0.01 km<sup>2</sup> (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). In 2006, the type locality&#160;Ejido El Potosi was found to have no water in it, which was subsequently confirmed in 2009 (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010): This means there have been as many as 15 continuous years of dessication at the only location this species is found.</p>	eng
153825	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from a single pond with an area of approximately 0.01 km<sup>2</sup> (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). Miller and Walters (1972) described this pond as having clear water of varying depth and abundant vegetation. Furthermore, this species was most commonly found in the southeastern part of the pond, in association with plants of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum </span>genus(Rodriguez and Campos 1994). However, this location is now known to be completely dry (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></p>	eng
153825	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been surveyed for on 10 occasions, over a period of 4-5 years within the spring of Ejido El Potosi, Galeana, in the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, but no specimens have been found (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em></em>	eng
153825	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The pond habitat of this species is thought to have been relatively stable between 1960 and 1989 (Rodriguez and Campos 1994). However, since then, intensive pumping of groundwater for agriculture has led to a dramatic reduction in the size of the pond and the amount of aquatic vegetation that it supports (Rodriguez and Campos 1994, Contreras-Balderas and Lozano-Vilano 1996). Furthermore, this location is now known to be completely dry (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara<strong> </strong> pers. comm. 2009), confirmed in 2006 and 2009 (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><em><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><br/><br/><br/><br/></em>	eng
153826	conservation	Bergey, E., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on    to determine the full distribution, habitat characteristics, and associated crayfish species, of this species.</p><p></p>	eng
153826	distribution	Bergey, E., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species has recently (1992-2002) been found from Atoka, Muskogee, Haskall, Hughes, and Choctaw Counties in Oklahoma. It is most abundant in the Muddy Boggy Creek an Atoka County tributary of the Red River, but it also occurs occasionally in the Canadian River and Arkansas  River drainages (the mainstem and a couple of tributaries) (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153826	habitat	Bergey, E., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species is a generalist species, which inhabits a wide variety of stream types from small to moderate streams with clear water and white sand bottoms, to large streams with mud bottoms and very silty water. This species was encountered under embedded rocks and debris (Walls 1985). Individuals of this species were collected from polluted water in Beckwick Creek and Little Indian Bayou (Walls 1985).   The habitat also includes moderate steams with muddy bottoms (Muddy Boggy  River), and sandy rivers (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153826	population	Bergey, E., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species appears to be common in the Muddy Boggy River   (380 were collected in 1997; other years have 5 to 18 specimens). Of the other known sites, the two streams (14 and 30 specimens) have more than the three rivers (1 to 4 specimens)   (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153826	threats	Bergey, E., Adams, S., Taylor, C.A. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	The type locality of this species, Bayou Santabarb, was dammed to produce a cattle pond and the flow was greatly reduced. The impact on the species is not known. Furthermore, this species is absent from seemingly suitable habitats possibly due to competition from the closely related&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes palmeri</span> (Walls 1985). Though, one specimen of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">O. palmeri </span>was collected from Muddy Boggy Creek, where this species is abundant. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. palmeri </span>is found in stone filled steams, so there may be little overlap in habitat between it and this species (E. Bergey pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
153827	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Urgent conservation action is needed to protect this species and to prevent further destruction and degradation of its habitat. In addition, further research is required to determine the abundance and current distribution of this species.	eng
153827	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is endemic to the Mexican Central-Occidental Plateau (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). Its current distribution is patchy (Amaya Tapia et al. 1999) and restricted to just two or three small ponds, though it was previously more widespread over the state of Michoacán (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).<br/><br/>This species has an extent of occurrence of 234 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153827	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species is now only known from lentic habitats (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). It has been studied in Cuitzitan Pond, which is shallow, with a maximum depth of 1.6 m (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160; This pond is flooded from March to July, then retains water between August and February, before becoming desiccated (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The reduction in water level is accompanied by a reduction in food availability and the crayfish spend almost all of the cold, dry season inside burrows, where they can lower their metabolism to conserve energy (Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).  </p><p>The dominant aquatic vegetation in Cuitzitan Pond is jungle rice and bladderworts, and there are no crayfish predators present (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). The pond has a mean temperature of 18.70 to 20.17°C, mean dissolved oxygen content of 6.20 to 6.53 mgl<sup>-1</sup>, mean turbidity of 25 to 40 cm visibility, and alkalinity of 21.5 and 5.5 mgl<sup>-1</sup>CaCO3 in the cold and warm seasons respectively (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).</p>	eng
153827	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is thought to have been greatly reduced in abundance, with several populations having been extirpated (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).	eng
153827	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is threatened by over-exploitation, habitat destruction and degradation, and the introduction of exotic species (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999; Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). These processes have already resulted in reductions in the abundance of this species, and the extirpation of some populations (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999; Amaya Tapia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Much of the natural habitat of this species has been altered by chemical pollution or by human activities such as canalization, clearing, dredging and embanking of rivers, construction of reservoirs, and the regulation of water levels and stream flows (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999). It is also threatened by the introduction of exotic crayfish such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> species from Australia. These compete for food resources and refuges, and also alter the total production of the native ecosystems (Gutiérrez-Yurrita and Latournerié-Cervera 1999).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>&#160;</em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>In addition this species' distribution lies on the outskirts of the rapidly growing city of Uruapan, Michoacan, the expansion of which is predicted to soon envelope this species remaining locations.&#160;Furthermore, it is predicted that&#160;the springs at Presa Calzonzin (Calzonzin Dam), where one of the main  populations of this species&#160;occurs, will be compromised through use as a water source for the city (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153828	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, in Florida it is known to occur in Big Cypress National Preserve and the Everglades National Park, where there are plans to restore the hydological conditions. Furthermore, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153828	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in East of St. Johns River, throughout peninsular Florida, in and South of Levy and Marion Counties, as well as on some of the Keys (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 80000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153828	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both permanent lentic and lotic situations such as ditches, marshes and lakes, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1989). Acosta and Perry (2000) suggest that this species is one of the most ubiquitous inhabitants of the seasonally flooded marl prairies wetlands of the eastern Everglades. Hobbs (1989) indicates that this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is tolerant of a wide variety of water quality parameters, and also describes this species as 'robust and well-adapted to seasonal habitats'.	eng
153828	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This is a common species within the everglades (Acosta and Perry 2000). Though, as a result of anthropogenic impacts such as water management, there has been an increase in dry seasons which has resulted in increased mortality of this species (Acosta and Perry 2000).	eng
153828	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The main threat to this species is alterations to the hydrological regime (abstraction of water) of its habitat within the Everglades National Park. A study by Acosta and Perry (2002) found that crayfish density has declined but stabilized, over a period of 20 years to 13% of the saturated population size. There are plans to restore the hydrological regime of the Everglades, and a 7-month hydroperiod would be enough to increase the density of this species by 7 fold (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153829	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).</em>Furhter research on this species is required to clarify its abundance, life history and ecology and threats.	eng
153829	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits two tributaries of the Lost River drainage, above and below the Orangeville rise, from Lost River and Stampers Creek, and from Blue Creek in the east fork of the White River, an adjacent drainage to the north, south central Indiana, USA (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 68 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153829	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits creeks and small rivers with substrates of limestone bedrock, slab boulder, cobble and large gravel substrates (Simon <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).&#160; It is most commonly encountered along rock substrates in shallow riffle areas or among slowly flowing runs&#160;(Simon&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).	eng
153829	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153829	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unknown whether any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153830	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
153830	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basin</st1:placetype> in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, southeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state>, and northeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state>, where it was found in the Ridge and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Hobbs 1981).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has  been estimated to exceed 17,700 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153830	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks in riffle areas of clear, moderately to swiftly flowing streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>	eng
153830	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153830	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>The Coosa River basin area has experienced a large increase in residential development in recent years. Furthermore, 116,300 acres of forest has been allocated for residential building to be completed by 2030 (White 2009). However, it is unknown if this is impacting upon<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species now or how it will in the future   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153831	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
153831	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found widely in Canada. It is found from Alberta to Quebec&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160;It is also widespread&#160;in North America, where it occurs from New York in the north to Texas in the south (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;Its&#160;most&#160;western reach is Utah&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;<br/>This species has also been introduced to other areas in the US including, but also Mexico and Europe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).The native Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11 million km<sup>2</sup>, not including the wide ranging introduced regions.&#160;<p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
153831	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a generalist species, found in a wide variety of freshwater habitats, primarily streams and lakes, but not in swift flows or rapids (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Aiken 1965).&#160;<br/>It is commonly found on rocky substrates, however in slower rivers it is found on a variety of material such as: mud, silt, and sand&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). Sometimes it constructs burrows in river banks, which have been found to occur at up to 10 m deep&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005).	eng
153831	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is widespread and abundant (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Aiken 1965).	eng
153831	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are localised threats from competition and pollution in some Canadian watersheds&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). In Ontario it has to compete with&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, </span>an introduced species&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). Other declines have been attributed to air and water pollution associated with run-off from surrounding watersheds.&#160;<br/>Reduced fecundity has been attributed to acidification of water bodies(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;</span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/> <br/><br/></span>	eng
153832	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis </span>has been given a heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by AFS due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It was placed on the North Carolina watch list in 1999.<br/><br/>Population trends need to be monitored to ensure that the species receives the most accurate conservation assessment.	eng
153832	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> is endemic to the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico river basins in the coastal plain of Halifax County, North Carolina. "More thorough sampling of isolated lentic waters and burrows might reveal a wider distribution pattern for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. medialis" </span>(Cooper and Braswell 1998)	eng
153832	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> inhabits lentic and sluggish lotic locations as well as ditches with very slow to nil flow, with sandy mud bottoms (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153832	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis</span> is believed to have a global population size of 2,500-10,000 mature individuals. There are no known declines in this species.	eng
153832	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus medialis </span>may be affected by urbanization and development as this occurs in much of its range. It is unclear what the effects are as the species seems relatively tolerant of a variety of habitat conditions (NatureServe 2008).	eng
153833	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This indicates that this species is apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)</p>	eng
153833	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>is found from the <st1:placename w:st="on">Ashepoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage, <st1:city w:st="on">Colleton County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:state> to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">McIntosh County</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>, including Saint Simons and Sapelo islands (Hobbs 1958; Hobbs 1981). This is an approximate Extent of Occurrence of 13,000 km². More recently this species has been collected from six counties&#160;(Aiken, Bamberg, Colleton, Beaufort, Hampton and&#160;Jasper) within the Savannah, Salkahatchie and Broad-St. Helena river drainages (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153833	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi </span>can be found in habitat from streams to lowland wetlands (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010), including&#160;ponds, lakes, swamps and roadside ditches. This species is a secondary or tertiary burrower (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
153833	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi</span>; however in some of the locations where it is found, it is abundant (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153833	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There are no major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lunzi.</span>	eng
153834	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em><span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span></em> 2007).	eng
153834	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits the Lower Ohio, Cumberland, Duck, and Tennessee drainage systems in southern Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee and northern Alabama, USA (Poly and Wetzel 2003). There were reported to be small, very localised<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>populations of this species in Missouri, although these were found to be misidentified&#160;specimens&#160;of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. luteus</span>&#160;(C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 128,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153834	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a stream dwelling species found in streams of all water course from second order to sixth order, on substrates of gravel and rock (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153834	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species&#160;is considered to be abundant in suitable habitat (Poly and Wetzel 2003).	eng
153834	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
153835	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).&#160;</em><em><br/></em><em><br/><br/><em></em></em>	eng
153835	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is native to the Ohio river system, which spreads through the states of: Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, and Indiana(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;It has an introduced range which includes: Ontario, Illinois, Tennessee, Missouri, West Virginia, Iowa, Minnesota, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire and New Mexico (Taylor<em> et al.</em> 2005).<p>Thus, the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 604,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>	eng
153835	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a generalist species that inhabits permanent streams and lakes with a range of substrates such as clay, silt, sand and gravel (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). It prefers areas which consists of rocks, logs or other debris which they use to construct shallow excavations underneath (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been shown to breed very early in spring (March - April) before most other crayfish species (Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). Juveniles feed heavily on benthic invertebrates and, in some parts of its range, it has been estimated that this species can consume twice as much food as the native and similarly-sized Virile Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span>) because of a higher metabolic rate. This&#160;severely&#160;increases competition between the two species (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005). In addition, this species is tolerant to pollution such as septic tank discharge and organic pollution (Jezerinac<em> et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>This species has a high rate of reproduction&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). In Ontario alone it has displaced the local species in numerous waterways throughout the region&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;<br/>Not only is it a larger species, but its breeding patterns also account for its &#160;for its dominance due to:earlier breeding season, higher fecundity, and faster larval and juvenile development (Taylor<em> et al.&#160;</em>2005).	eng
153835	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is a common species and has become the dominant crayfish in much of its range in recent years (Kulhmann 2008).	eng
153835	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no major threats to this species currently known.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/><br/><br/></span>	eng
153836	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further surveys are needed to determine how it is being affected by possible threats.	eng
153836	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from Santa Rosa County, east toward the Suwannee River drainage system in Florida, USA (Hobbs 1989, Fetzner 2008). This species is believed to have a distribution of approximately 35,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153836	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits clear streams and springs (Hobbs 1989). Specifically, this species is most abundant in cypress ponds and river floodplain swamps (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153836	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153836	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Anecdotal&#160;evidence suggests excess nutrient through groundwater discharge may be&#160;adversely&#160;affecting this species habitat (P. Moler pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153837	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population status of this species is needed.	eng
153837	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the headwater tributaries of the Rio Nautla in the Mexican states of <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153837	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from headwater streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153837	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153837	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Increased urbanization within the range of this species is thought to pose a serious future threat, through impacts such as pollution   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Current threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153838	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
153838	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in Okaloosa County, Florida, West to Bay St. Louis, Hancock County, Mississippi (Hobbs 1974, Hobbs 1989), and in Alabama, it is known from 17 records from the Tombigbee, Alabama, Pascagoula, and Escatawpa River systems (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, appendix 1.2 pub. separately).   This species has a distribution of approximately 19000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153838	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974).	eng
153838	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153838	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
153839	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Its distribution is known to be close to Albany Nursery Wildlife Management Area but not within it (Cooper and Skelton 2003). Further research on the abundance and threats faced by this species is needed.	eng
153839	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has only recently been described from a single location: the western boundary of Albany Nursery Wildlife Management Area, about 12.8 km west of Albany, Kiokee Creek subdrainage, Flint River basin, Georgia, USA (Cooper and Skelton 2003). The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153839	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a burrowing species found in swamp forest that is flooded seasonally. The burrows of this species are found amongst roots of small trees in standing water (Cooper and Skelton 2003).	eng
153839	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is no population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153839	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. However, as this species is only known from one location it is at risk from stochastic perturbations.	eng
153840	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning this species is regarded as apparently secure.	eng
153840	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Ohio and Big Muddy basins in the counties of&#160; Alexander, Hardin, Jackson, Johnson, Massac, Pope, Pulaski, Union, and Williamson in Illinois, USA (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1974).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as just over 6,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153840	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams ranging form first order to forth order streams with substrates of gravel, cobble and mud (Hobbs 1974). Although usually found under cobbles, this species can be found under weeds and debris piles   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153840	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Page (1985) noted that many populations of this species are large, especially in upland streams in Pope County.	eng
153840	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153841	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153841	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in southern Georgia, and Florida from the Choctawhatchee Basin east and south to Flagler, Marion, and Hillsboro Counties (Hobbs 1942). This species has a distribution of approximately 96,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153841	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in both permanent and seasonal lentic and lotic situations such as ponds, ditches, flatwoods forest, streams, rivers and small spurges, and is a tertiary burrower (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153841	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	In Hobbs (1942) examined 1304 specimens of this species, though there is no recent population information available.	eng
153841	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
153842	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus</span> has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due its restricted range (Criteria 5) (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
153842	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, inhabiting the tributaries of the Ogeechee and lower <st1:city w:st="on">Savannah</st1:city> rivers in southeastern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hobbs 1958, Hobbs 1981). This species has an approximate distribution of 10,000 km².	eng
153842	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus</span> inhabits streams of varying sizes with sand and clay substrates. It is unknown whether this is a burrowing species (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).</p>	eng
153842	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	A very experienced collector found the species at 16 locations (Hobbs, 1981). It has only been collected in Bryan, Bulloch, Chatham, Effingham, Jenkins and Screven counties. This species is uncommon in Georgia , but can be fairly common when it is found within portions of its limited range (GA NHP, pers. comm., 2009). There is no other population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus epicyrtus. </span>There is nothing known about trend for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153842	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	Expansion of Savannah, Georgia metropolitan area could affect downstream most populations.&#160; Habitat destruction and water quality degradation are probably the most immediate threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus epicyrtus</span>.	eng
153843	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153843	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Florida parishes of southeastern Louisiana and Harrison, Forrest, Jones, Stone, Jackson, Perry, Pearl River, and Winston Counties, Mississippi (Penn 1953). This species has an approximate distribution of 31,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/>.	eng
153843	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and roadside ditches, and streams and bogs and is a secondary burrower (Penn 1953). Furthermore, it is often found in temporary habitats with muddy bottoms with little or no aquatic vegetation. The typical habitat of this species is in pine forests and flatwoods (Walls 2009).	eng
153843	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153843	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be impacted by localized threats, but is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153844	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
153844	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> is widespread across the coastal plain of the <st1:city w:st="on">Flint</st1:city> and Altamaha river basins, Georgia (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
153844	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae </span>is a tertiary burrowing species. This species is found in a wide range of habitat types but is most commonly found in submerged dense vegetations in slow to moderately fast flowing streams (<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> 1981).</p>	eng
153844	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae </span>is described as being abundant in several areas of its wide range (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
153844	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus howellae</span> is known to be infected by the parasitic worm <span style="font-style: italic;">Alloglossidium dolandi</span> (Turner 2007). However, the effects of this parasite are unlikely to impact the global population of this species.</p>	eng
153845	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/><br/>Further reseach is needed to determine the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>and whether there are any threats currently impacting.	eng
153845	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	It is found in Perdido, Escambia, and Yellow drainage systems in Alabama and Florida (Hobbs 1942; Mirarchi <em>et al</em>. 2004, appen. 1.2, pub. separately). This species has a range of 120 km (east to west) and 64 km (north to south) (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153845	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>is found in a wide ranging variety of habitats such as small streams, roadside ditches, river backwaters and small flatwood pools (Hobbs 1942). This species is usually found covered with vegetation or under stones with sandy substrates (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153845	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	In 1942, Hobbs examined 137 specimens. There is no recent population data available.	eng
153845	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus okaloosae </span>is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.	eng
153846	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153846	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Red River Basin in Columbia, Lafayette, and Miller Counties, Arkansas, and Webster and Sabine parishes, Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 14,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153846	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent lentic (pools) and sluggish lotic (rivers) situations (Hobbs 1975).	eng
153846	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153846	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153847	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   has assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.	eng
153847	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known from the Tennessee, Elk, and Coosa river systems in southwestern Virginia, Mobile, Black Warrior, Alabama Cahaba and Tallapoosa River systems in eastern Tennessee, northwestern Georgia, and northern Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989, Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 123,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153847	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known to inhabit streams where it resides under rocks and woody debris (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153847	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is considered common in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153847	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species, although it is likely to be affected by common threats such as urban development, agriculture and surface water abstraction in localized patches   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153848	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/> <br/> Further research on this species is required to clarify its taxonomy and threats posed.</p>	eng
153848	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in the Lake Pontchartrain watershed in <st1:state w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> , USA (Hobbs 1989, Walls 2009). The Mississippi Museum of Natural Science crayfish database indicates<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em></em>this species occurs in 15 counties in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> with the range extending far north of the Ponchartrain drainages (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Until the relationship with <em>O. palmeri</em> is better defined, it is not possible to accurately define the range of this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em><br/>Morphologic characters, especially the slightly open areola, seem to  indicate that this species is widespread throughout much of southwestern <st1:place w:st="on">Mississippi (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). </st1:place>	eng
153848	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is found in rapidly flowing, sand-bottom, permanent streams that are relatively cool and well-oxygenated (Walls 2009).&#160; It is more associated with woody debris and rocks than with aquatic vegetation (Walls 2009).</p>	eng
153848	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p>  There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as widespread in streams of the <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state> parishes, east of the <st1:place w:st="on">Mississippi River</st1:place> (Walls 2009).&#160;<em></em></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153848	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153849	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
153849	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Mud</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> system, and the adjacent Muddy Creek in the Green River drainage, in west central <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000). A disjunct population has just been discovered in Perry County, Indiana, and is awaiting final confirmation, but appears to be a new population of this species&#160;(C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,900 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153849	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species can be found in open water and under boulders in creeks and small rivers with cobble, gravel, and mud substrates and woody debris (Taylor 2000). In addition, this species has been collected from sections of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mud</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> of widths ranging from 6 - 8 m and at an average depth of 0.4 m (Taylor 2000). &#160;</p>	eng
153849	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153849	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
153850	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been assigned a heritage Global rank of G4 by NatureServe    (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153850	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from the upper Broad River basin in the northern part of South Carolina westward into North Carolina and Tennessee (south of the French Broad River) almost to the Tennessee River, USA (Dewees 1972).&#160; It also exists in the Little Tennessee River basin (Cooper and Braswell 1998). Hobbs (1989) and Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1996) both list the range as South Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Eversole and Jones (2004) include the upper Broad River basin in northern South Carolina westward into North Carolina and Tennessee almost to the Tennessee River. Furthermore, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia records are assigned to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus dubius</span>, a former subspecies (Hobbs 1989). Although not yet collected in Georgia, further collecting effort may reveal occurrences in the extreme northeastern part of the state   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be almost 39,000 km².	eng
153850	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from bogs close to rocky streams. This species is a primary burrower (Cooper and Braswell 1995). It is known from swampy areas with some flowing water and has a much more restricted habitat than one of its congeners, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. latimanus</span> (Hobbs 1983).&#160; It also occurs in spring fed small streams along the banks or under rocks (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153850	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153850	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known current threats to this species although as it is dependent on a high water table. As such, activities such as major road construction and ground water abstraction for suburban development would threaten this species (Price 2005).	eng
153851	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species was assessed as G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whther it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153851	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known to occur between the Altamaha and Pee Dee rivers, in Georgia and South Carolina (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153851	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a tertiary burrower which inhabits lentic and lotic environments (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153851	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known to be abundant at sites of suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153851	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153852	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/>Further research is required to determine its habitat ecology and life history and monitoring on its population distribution and fluctuations.	eng
153852	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in the upper Sequatchie Valley, Tennessee, southward to Blount County, Alabama, USA (Cope and Packard 1881). In Alabama it is known from Blount, Jackson, and Marshall Counties in the Black Warrior and Tennessee drainages (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; In Tennessee, it is known from Sequatchie, Marion, Bledsoe, Franklin, and Cumberland Counties. in caves draining into the Tennessee River from Walden Gorge west to Franklin County (Williams and Bivens, 2001). A questionable record from the Black Warrior system has been verified using genetic data and voucher specimens exist for two confirmed cave sites in Blount County, Alabama.&#160; In Tennessee, Lewis (2005) includes one cave in Bledsoe County, one in Franklin County, nine in Marion County, and two in Sequatchie County. The number of caves may increase as more caves are surveyed (Spanjer and Cipollini 2006, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004). According to Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) the greatest concentration of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is in Jackson County, Alabama and Marion County, Tennessee. This species was originally found in 2007 in 20 caves, but in a more conclusive study, it was found in 40 caves (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, Buhay and Crandall 2009).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 8,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153852	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is usually found in subterranean pools and does not attempt to escape when habitat is disturbed.&#160; This species is stygobitic, preferring aquatic cave environments with high dissolved oxygen, low ammonia, and low water temperature. Furthermore, it holds a preference for those caves with externally originating streams (Spanjer and Cipollini 2006). The only crayfish species that co-occurs with this species is <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus tenebrosus </span>(a facultative cave dweller) (Buhay<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153852	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	From a study by Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), 103<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>specimens of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found in 20 caves. In 2008, 357 specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were found in one cave (Huryn <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; Several new caves have recently been discovered and the caves within the range have been surveyed extensively (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153852	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is threatened by cave flooding in a very small number of caves due to dam construction and lake building (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153853	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as 'threatened' (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). NatureServe has assigned a Heritage Status Rank of G2 due to its very restricted range (NatureServe 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). Part of this species range is contained within a national park. There is also a basin-wide water quality plan for the Little Tennessee water basin which was completed in 1998 and is reviewed every five years (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2008). Further research is required on the abundance and distribution of this species as it is believed to exist in other areas of the basin but no dedicated surveys have been completed so far (NatureServe 2009). Monitoring of the population of this species is suggested.	eng
153853	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is only known from the Oconaluftee River, Soco Creek, and Raven Fork, within the Tuckasegee River subdrainage of the Little Tennessee River basin, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). Similarly, LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) cite streams in the Tuckasegee River subdrainage of the Little Tennessee River drainage in Jackson and Swain counties, North Carolina. The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 1,600 km² .	eng
153853	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species can be found in high gradient, fast flowing permanent  freshwater streams dominated by a boulder or cobble substrate. Stream width is usually 10 - 14 m with well developed algal communities. Individuals have been located beneath boulders at stream margin although some have been located in the mid-stream channel (Cooper and Scholfield 2002). This species' habitat is in good condition, and there are no known associations with other crayfish species (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153853	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from only 5 occurrences, although decent viability at all localities is reported (Cooper and Schofield 2002).	eng
153853	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species. The Tuckasegee River, however, runs through Bryson City and therefore there is a high likelihood that urban development and urban waste water are having localised impacts. Recreational activities such as fishing, hiking and paddling all occur in or around the crayfish localities   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153854	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine whether this species is impacted by any major threats, its population size and distribution, and its ecology.&#160; Also, taxonomic uncertainty exists for some populations   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153854	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was originally thought to be confined to small tributaries of the Powell River in Lee County, Virginia and Clairborne County, Tennessee, USA (Thoma, 2000). Thoma and Fetzner (2008) modified this range to include a much wider distribution to encompass the waters of the Cumberland River upstream of the confluence of Clear Fork, Williamsburg, Kentucky; the upper reaches of the Kentucky River adjacent to Pine Mountain; and the Powell River basin in Lee County, Virginia and Claiborne County, Tennessee including the adjacent Cumberland Mountain. Kentucky populations, now differentiated from <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus parvoculus</span>, are found in the upper Cumberland River above Pine Mountain and Kentucky River headwaters (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009, Thoma and Fetzner 2008).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 5,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153854	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species prefers first and second order, spring-fed streams of high altitude and high gradient. Within this habitat, this species occupies a secondary burrower niche (Thoma 2000).	eng
153854	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although there are some declines in Virginia populations (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009) </p>	eng
153854	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are some declines in Virginia populations due to forestry activities as well as decline in the Tennessee/Virginia line due to mining (R. Thoma, pers. comm., 2009). It is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to climate change, water pollution and alterations to the hydrological regime. Even though it has a semi-restricted range, the species probably occurs in many high gradient head-water streams which are not immediately threatened with mining activities.	eng
153855	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). </em><br/>Crandall (1998) recommended that this species be placed on the Missouri Rare and Endangered Species Watch List, due to its relatively small range. <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153855	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the headwaters of the Big and Meramec Rivers in eastern Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, Crandall 1998, Pflieger 1996).<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 14,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153855	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>clear, permanent<span style="font-style: italic;"> s</span>treams in cavities that it has dug underneath rocks (Pflieger 1996). Crandall (1998) stated that this species has a broad habitat specificity.	eng
153855	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	In many creeks within its range <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is the most abundant crayfish (Pflieger 1996). Crandall (1998) estimated that<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species has a population size of 11,457.	eng
153855	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;&#160;</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
153856	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em></em></em></em>	eng
153856	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is confined to the tributaries of the Big, Black and Meramec Rivers in Reynolds and Washington Counties in southeastern Missouri, USA (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996). This species range has recently been introduced into the St. Francis River drainage, Missouri (Rahm <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,800 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153856	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks in streams and pools with rocky and gravelly substrates (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996).	eng
153856	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is more abundant and widely distributed in the Black River than the Big and Meramec Rivers (Pflieger 1996). In addition, this species is found to be common to abundant in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153856	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153857	conservation	Elliott, R & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
153857	distribution	Elliott, R & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species is known from a cave in the Caney Mountain Conservation Area, as part of the Missouri Department of Conservation, in Ozark County, Missouri, USA (Hobbs 2001).&#160; This species is only known from the holotype and allotype collected in 1999 in Mud Cave.&#160;This is a well studied region of the USA for karst biology, therefore it could be inferred that if the species was present in other systems, it might have been found by now&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).The extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of this species are likely to be less than 10 km² and 1 km² respectively, as it is only known from a single cave. Mud Cave at first appears to be quite an extensive cave if one only considers the 135 meters total length (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010). It  is possible that a thorough survey of small, local springs could find <em>O.  stygocaneyi</em>, especially during t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>es of   high groundwater (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).<p>Cave crayfish were not found in 1979 when an experienced cave biologist, Gene (James E.) Gardner, visited the cave. The pool is easily muddied with the first step, and the crayfish population is small. In 1998 two biologists from the Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, entered the cave with a local person who knew of the crayfish, and they collected several live spec<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ens in a bucket, as documented in a video tape they sent to the Missouri Department of Conservation (MDC), along with an application for a wildlife collector permit. The permit was denied because they reported it was an <em>Orconectes</em>, which would have indicated a possible new species since there were no cave-adapted <em>Orconectes</em> known in Missouri at that t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>e. In 1999 a team from MDC collected the new species, and it was described by Hobbs in 2001 as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes stygocaneyi </span>(W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p><em></em>  <p><em></em><em>O. stygocaneyi </em>is a relict of a t<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>e dating back to before the Mississippi River took its modern form. Probably there was a widespread ancestral species on the surface that became isolated in caves in the central highlands. The river developed a few hundred thousand years ago and isolated the crayfish further. It is possible that other such <em>Orconectes</em> species survive in isolated caves on hillsides in the Ozark region. Searches of likely habitat in wet caves in Ozark County in May 2001 by William R. Elliott, Horton H. Hobbs, III, and Toby Dogwiler, failed to find <em>O. stygocaneyi</em> anywhere but in Mud Cave (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p>	eng
153857	habitat	Elliott, R & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>inhabits a subterranean stream (Hobbs 2001). The floor of the stream was reported to be knee deep in mud, and was thought to be a failing spring (Hobbs 2001). Mud Cave is a failing  cave spring, that is, it functioned as a local spring long ago but no longer. A small  wet-weather spring make exist nearby. The cave is perched on a hillside high above  the surrounding terrain. The cave is at 1220 ft. elevation, and local springs are at  1000-1200 ft. or lower. No water well records are known for Caney Mountain  Conservation Area, but based on physiography, it is remarkable that this small,  perched aquifer has survived hydrogeologically for so long (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010). <br/><p> Finding a new species of cave crayfish is a rare event (the last one  in Missouri was in 1952). Some species of cave crayfish have an  extremely slow growth rate, low reproductive rate, and long life span,  so it is <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>portant to  carefully study and conserve cave crayfish populations. In an Alabama  species the males mature after the age of 40, and individuals may live  to 100 years, as opposed to surface crayfishes, which live just a few  years (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).  </p>	eng
153857	population	Elliott, R & DiStefano, R., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
153857	threats	Elliott, R & DiStefano, R., 2010	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160;</span> The area is rural and the cave is in a conservation area. There is no reported reduction in the quality of habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The site from which this species is known is now protected by a steel gate to prevent collectors accessing it (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  <p>The long-term fate of the cave and the crayfish species is  drying out and extinction, but the cave is well-protected with no  threats from collectors, intruders, land development, chemicals,  pesticides, or anything obvious. Prescribed burning has been used in the  area to thin out cedar (juniper), which is thick on some hillsides.  Soil and water retention are management goals of the Missouri Department  of Conservation, and that should serve to delay the cave drying out (W. Elliott pers. comm. 2010).</p>	eng
153858	conservation	Bergey, E. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153858	distribution	Bergey, E. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Neosho River basin in Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, USA (Williams 1952). In 2005, it was found in the Illinois River (Bergey<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005), and into the White River drainage in Arkansas (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). This species distribution is not currently regarded as being severely fragmented (C. Taylor pers comm. 2010) &#160;The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 10,442 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153858	habitat	Bergey, E. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in clear, flowing permanent streams with substrates consisting of limestone gravel and cobbles (Williams 1952).	eng
153858	population	Bergey, E. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Williams (1952) found 113 specimens of this species at certain sites. In addition, it has been found to be locally common in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153858	threats	Bergey, E. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Non known.	eng
153859	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p>	eng
153859	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from the Coastal Plain of Georgia (from Tifton upland to the coast), between the Ogeechee and Suwannee basins, and from Florida (Gulf, Liberty, Leon, and Wakulla Counties) (Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1976).&#160; Hobbs <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1976) documented it in the Savannah River Plant Park (on the Savannah River) in southwest South Carolina, but these records are questionable (NatureServe 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153859	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both permanent lentic and lotic situations amongst vegetation, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153859	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153859	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153860	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Vulnerable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), vulnerable to extirpation, due to the restricted range in which this species lives.<br/>The Mississippi Species of Greatest Conservation Need has categorised this species as "in need of timely conservation action and/or research because of rarity, restricted distribution, unknown or decreasing population trend, specialized habitat needs or habitat vulnerability or significant threats."<br/>Further research is required on the abundance of this species and on the impact that historical and current threats. The current distribution also requires confirmation&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153860	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	This species is known from two localities in Haralson County, Georgia, a reasonable distribution in the Tallapoosa Basin in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Ratcliffe and DeVries (2004) found this species in 11 of 35 surveyed sites in the Tallapoosa River drainage. In general, this species is restricted to the Tallapoosa River system and known from 16 records in 5 counties (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Schuster and Taylor 2004, Schuster<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as exceeding 6,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153860	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	This species is found in the riffle areas of freshwater streams and other lotic habitats (Ratcliff and DeVries 2004). This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004).	eng
153860	population	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153860	threats	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	Large dams have been build in the Tallapoosa river which are likely to have caused localized declines in this species abundance   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153861	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of&#160; G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153861	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<em></em><em></em>This species is found in the western tributaries of the Tennessee River from <st1:placename w:st="on">Robinson</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Creek</st1:placename> northward to Snake Creek in <st1:placename w:st="on">Hardin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype>, and in the Forked Deer, Hatchie, and Loosahatchie drainage systems in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976) . In addition, several specimens from headwaters of the Little Tallahatchie River drainage in the Yazoo basin) and the Town Creek drainage in the <st1:place w:st="on">Tombigbee</st1:place> basin,. both in Mississippi, have been tentatively assigned to<em> </em>this species based on morphology and preliminary genetic analyses (Adams 2008). Thus, to date, <em></em>this species has been collected from Alcorn, <st1:city w:st="on">Benton</st1:city>, Prentiss, Tippah, Tishomingo, and <st1:place w:st="on">Union</st1:place> Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008), and may also be present in Lee and Marshall Counties. <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160; 23,200 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
153861	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species occurs in permanent flowing streams, often occurring in leaf litter in pools and runs (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976) or among woody debris. Water clarity supproting this species ranges from clear to turbid and substrate ranges from sand or clay to gravel and cobble (Adams 2008).</p>	eng
153861	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>    </p><p>There is insufficient population data available for this species although it can range from uncommon to common   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153861	threats	Adams, S., 2010	<p>It is unknown whether <em></em>this species is impacted by any major threat process, although concievable threats may include sedimentation, channelization, and reduced&#160; water quality and quantity from urbanization   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009). This is thought to primarily effect the lower ends of applicable drainages.</p>	eng
153862	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures inplace for this species. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance and ecology of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153862	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	Thi species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Pearl and Pascagoula drainage systems in eastern Louisiana and south-central Mississippi (Penn 1959). Walls (2009) comments that this species occurs only in stream tributaries to the western side of the Pearl River, being replaced by the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clemmeri</span> in streams draining into the eastern side of the Pearl. Considering how often the Pearl overflows its banks and creates a large flood plain, this situation dserves more research (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fitzpatrick (1977) noted that all records of this species from the east bank of the Pearl River&#160; and eastward should be assigned to the sibling species<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. clemmeri.</span> Thus this species is restricted to streams draining from the west bank of the Pearl river in Copiah, Lincoln, Marion, and Walthall Counties; the Lake Pontchartrain watershed in Amite, Pike and Walthall Counties; and in Franklin County it is in the Homochitto drainage (Fitzpatrick 1996). Furthermore. in Mississippi, it is known to occur throughout the southern third of the state (USFS 2009).	eng
153862	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, overflow ponds with clear water and sand and gravel substrates (Penn 1959).	eng
153862	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. Though, there have been a large number of collections of this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153862	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153863	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/>Further research is required on the abundance and trends of this species as it is likely to have declined. More accurate knowledge about the habitat requirements of this species would enable a suitable management plan to be created as it is likely that this species is threatened. A more specific understanding of the threats impacting this species would also be required for a management plan   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153863	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was originally described as largely restricted to the Cumberland Plateau where it occurred in the Cumberland River basin in eastern Tennessee, southeastern Kentucky, and northwestern Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989). Virginia records and upper Kentucky River drainage,records have recently been attributed to another species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus jezerinaci</span>) (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009, Thoma and Fetzner 2008). This  Virginia population in the South Fork Powell River of Wise County,  Virginia, is morphologically similar somewhat to this species but is  far separated from nominal populations of this species and has not been  analyzed genetically. Therefore it is currently placed tentatively in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus  jezerinaci </span>(Thoma and Fetzner 2008). Thoma and Fetzner (2008) have modified the distribution to be confined to waters of the Big South Fork Cumberland River in northern Tenenssee (and possibly southern Kentucky), and the Cumberland Plateau regions of the Tennessee River basin from the Sequatchie River to the Emory River basin. Taylor et al. (2007) have also recorded this species in Alabama. <br/>There are 78 localities known as of March 1992.&#160; In the Cumberland  Plateau it occurs in the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems in  Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee as well as a tributary of Lookout  Creek in Tennessee on the Georgia border (Bouchard 1974). In Kentucky,  it is known sporadically from the Big South Fork of the Cumberland  drainage, the upper Cumberland River drainage above Cumberland Falls,  and upper Kentucky River drainage (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; It has  been recorded from Dade County, Georgia; Bell, Letcher, McCreary Counties,  Kentucky; Pickens County, South Carolina; Anderson, Campbell, Claiborne,  Cumberland, Hamilton, Marion, Morgan, and Rhea Counties, Tennessee; and Lee and Wise  Counties, Virginia. A single USNM record exists for  Dade County, Alabama (Tennessee River drainage) (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2004) believe  that <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species was once more  widespread than it is now due to the intolerance of the species to  habitat alteration and pollution.<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 18,400 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153863	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in rocky streams (Fetzner 2008).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is a specialist as its arbitary tolerance values of water quality were 2.5 - 3.5 with other more generalist species have values of 2.2 - 6.8. These values also show that<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species requires more pristine water than other more tollerant species (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It&#160; is known to prefer small headwater streams with hemlock and rhododendron cover; a  habitat that is presently drifting toward more woody adelgid habitat (R. Thoma, pers. comm.  2009).	eng
153863	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153863	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is thought to be more susceptible to interspecific competition as conditions change (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> It is likely to be affected by urban development, road building, and pollution which is caused by both of these (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). As this species is regarded as a specialist, the water quality is likely to have a very large impact, although this has yet to be verified.	eng
153864	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153864	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Choctawhatchee drainage system in Alabama and northern Florida (Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).	eng
153864	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams with sandy substrates with no preference for pool or riffle habitats (Baker<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).	eng
153864	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>Many specimens exist for this species, so it does not appear difficult to collect, suggesting it is abundant in suitable habitat   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153864	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160; There is some timber harvesting in the Alabama portion of its range, which could lead to local impacts from sedimentation, but these are not thought to be significant across the species range   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153865	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species&#160;has been given the heritage rank of G4, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p><p>Monitoring of the emerging potential threats of introduced invasive species and the impacts of urbanization is recommended&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
153865	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species&#160;has historically been described from the Coosa and Tennessee River drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Virginia</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">North  Carolina</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">USA</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). However, after examining morphological data <st1:city w:st="on">Taylor</st1:city> (2000) considers the range of this species to be restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage in northwestern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and southeastern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee, as well as small portion of northeastern Alabama (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</st1:place></st1:state></p><p>Pending further investigation, the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 12,600 km<sup>2</sup></p><p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
153865	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species&#160;inhabits higher gradient cobble and gravel-bottomed second to forth order streams (Hobbs 1981).</p>	eng
153865	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;it is regarded as common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153865	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species&#160;is potentially undergoing localized declines due to the impacts of urbanization resulting in polluted run-off and channelization of natural streams&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; There are three large reservoirs, namely Carters Lake, Lake Allatoona and Weiss Lake, in the species' range which receive a lot of fishing pressure, giving the potential for introduction of invasive species from fishing bait.&#160; It is not thought that these localized threats constitute a major threat to the species at present&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153866	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 assigned by NatureServe, demonstrably widespread abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153866	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a widespread in the United States and is found from South Carolina in the east to Alabama in the west and down to Florida in the south (Hobbs 1962, Hobbs 1969, Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). This species has a distribution of between 10,0000-10,000,00 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153866	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a habitat generalist which is restricted to lotic waters although these may be small brooks or sizeable rivers (Hobbs 1981, Ratcliff and DeVries 2004). This species prefers deep water sites but adults can be found in shallow sandy bottomed streams. In addition, this species is not tolerant of temperature changes and is susceptible to dessication during droughts (Caine 1978). It is is sympatric with many crayfish species including, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus versatus, Cambarus latimanus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. englishi</span> , although it may be outcompeted by larger crayfish (Ratcliff and DeVries 2004).	eng
153866	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Caine (1978) collected 500 individuals from Georgia to use in ex situ experiments and large densities of large individuals had been recorded in deep water by Taylor (1983), however this subpopulation was reduced to near extinction after the 1981 drought. Ratcliff and DeVries (2004) collected this species from 21 sites in the Tallapoosa and Coastal Plain river drainages in Alabama. This species can be extremely abundant in suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153866	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species may be impacted by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be threatened on a global scale.	eng
153867	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a G-rank of G3G4 by NatureServe due to its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). At least one site is known from the Fire Creek Wildlife Management Area (Cooper 2006). Further research is needed on the distribution, threats and population status of this species.	eng
153867	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This newly described species is known only from the Hiwassee River basin in Cherokee and Clay counties, North Carolina, USA (Cooper 2006). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is estimated to be greater than 1,700 km².	eng
153867	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known small creeks in the Hiwassee River basin in North Carolina (Cooper 2006).	eng
153867	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is quite common where it occurs, despite being a local endemic (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153867	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The small range of this species and heavy sedimentation from development and poor land management may pose a threat to this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Skelton 2008). The introduction of exotic species may also pose a threat, but this is speculative.	eng
153868	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for this species. Furthermore, the American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required on the abundance of this species as it has not been surveyed since Albaugh (1975), and a comprehensive current distribution is also required.	eng
153868	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species can be found in southeastern Texas in Lavaca, Jackson, Matagorda, Brizoria, Fort Bend, Austin and Brazos (Albaugh 1975). The distruibution of this species is bound to the southwest by the Lavaca River and Bay, to the East by the lower San Barnard River and North by the Braznos River (Albaugh 1975). This species has a distribution of approximately 38000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153868	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in pools on the flood plains of rivers and in creeks and potholes (Reimer and Clark 1974). Furthermore, this species is also known to occur near permanent waterbodies,&#160; in ditches and overflow pools (Johnson 2008).	eng
153868	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species is known from 37 sites within 10 Counties in Texas, and further surveying of this species is planned (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is known to be abundant at some sites, however other sites have a single or few specimens present (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153868	threats	Adams, S., 2010	There are no species specific threats reported for this species (NatureServe 2009), but development throughout the distribution of this species could reduce the available suitable habitat (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153869	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009) and a conservation status of Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
153869	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in the Cumberland and Upper Tennessee River drainages in Tennessee and Kentucky, USA (Williams<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007), with anecdotal reports from Virginia (Winston <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Based on taxonomic uncertainty, however, it may be confined to the Cumberland River basin upstream of Pine Mountain with questionable records from Tennessee and Virginia as potentially an alternate and as yet undescribed species of this genus<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated around 5,700 km².	eng
153869	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species is found in small creeks to large streams with sand, gravel, clay or silt beds (Taylor <em>et al</em> 2007, Bouchard 1973b). In addition, this species has been collected from under rocks and in leaf litter (Bouchard 1973).	eng
153869	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153869	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given a tolerance value of 5.14 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet (1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant). The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). <br/><br/>There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species.	eng
153870	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed on the population trends and threats impacting this species.	eng
153870	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the tributaries of the Río Cazones and the Río Tecolutla, in the vicinity of Zihuateutla, Agua Fría and La Union, Puebla, Mexico (Villalobos 1955). Furthermore, it is known from Mesa de San Diego and Arroyo de San Diego within the Agua Fria, La Magdalena,&#160; La Union, Cumbres de Cuanepixca, Arroyo del Coyular and San Cornelio, Mexico, though these locations are believed to be severely fragmented (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 500 km².	eng
153870	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from small streams and ponds, typically at high altitudes. It has an average total length of 55 mm   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153870	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is difficult to collect, though there have been a number of collections. The last collection of this species was in 2005, and there has been a slight decline in the presence of it (  M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153870	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is impacted by cattle farming at La Union, but this is not thought to be a major threat. Draining of ponds for drinking water occurs within its range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153871	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153871	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is known from 11 localites in Angelina, Jasper, Newton, Panola, San Augustine, Trinity and Tyler Counties (Hobbs 1990), 355 sites in 34 Counties, Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009) and from central and southwestern Louisiana (Walls 2006).	eng
153871	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is believed to inhabit permanent well aerated streams and open water outside of its burrows, although its type locality is a roadside ditch (Hobbs 1990). The soil in which this species lives is clay or sandy-clay with a overlay of sand. This species constructs simple burrows and is not a primary burrower (Fitzpartick and Suttkur 1992).	eng
153871	population	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is common at most sites (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153871	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species. As it inhabits ditches, and co-exists with two invasive species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. zonangulus</span> (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992) this species is likely to be tolerant of inter-specific competition and poor water quality.	eng
153872	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
153872	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species<em> </em>is found from South Veracruz in Mexico eastwards through the states of Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. The presence of this species in Quintana Roo is in question (Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).<em><em></em></em></p>	eng
153872	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species inhabits small streams, drainage ditches and agricultural fields (sugar cane) (Hobbs 1974).&#160; It spawns between two and four times annually, between January and September, with a maximum rate during June and July (Carmona-Osalde et al. 2002).<em><em></em></em></p>	eng
153872	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species has been described as abundant in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, although it is less abundant in northern Yucatan and Quintana Roo (Rodriguez-Serna et al. 2002).<em><em></em></em></p>	eng
153872	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Habitat destruction and degradation, water abstraction and pollution are all known to threaten the freshwater habitats of the Yucatan Peninsular (Conteras-Balderas et al. 2003).&#160; It is unknown what impact these may be having on this species, but it is likely that they will be acting at a localized scale only.&#160; Furthernmore, this species forms part of the diet in some rural communities of the Yucatan Peninsula, but there is no evidence that this seriously impacts its population size (Rodriguez-Serna et al. 2000).&#160; <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153873	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on the abundance and population trends of this species are required, as well as any threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153873	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is known from the Lower Alabama and Tombigbee drainages in Green county Alabama and Mississippi, and from Lafayette and Lee counties in the north to Kemper County in the south of Mississippi (Busack and Belk 1988, Hobbs and Walton 1960). Furthermore,&#160; is also known to occur in the Upper Yazoo, Tomigbee, Black Warrior, and Cahaba drainages (Busack and Belk 1988). This species has a distribution of approximately 41000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153873	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is a secondary burrower, occupying temporary ponds and pools, burrows, roadside ditches and very small, intermittent streams, burrowing as habitats dry (Hobbs and Walton 1957, Hobbs 1962, Hobbs1989). This species can also be found in streams and roadside ditches (Busack and Belk 1988), and the type locality was a roadside ditch with a clay and mud bottom, with 10-15 cm of clear water (Hobbs and Walton 1957).	eng
153873	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been described as common (Busack and Belk 1988), and widespread and abundant (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, Hobbs and Walton (1957) examined 238 specimens when they described the species.	eng
153873	threats	Adams, S., 2010	There are no species specific threats recorded for this species. This species was found in a roadside ditch and is likely to be reasonably tolerant of poor water quality. Furthermore, many of the streams and river from which this species was found are tributaries of the Mississippi river any large damage to this river could impact this species (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153874	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4,&#160;apparently secure,&#160;by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
153874	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits an area extending southwestward from <st1:placename w:st="on">Hart</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> to <st1:city w:st="on">Trigg  County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state>, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Montgomery County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place> (Hobbs and Barr 1972).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;23,000 km<sup>2.&#160;</sup>	eng
153874	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species is a subterranean cave dwelling species from flowing subterranean streams (Jegla 1961).</p>	eng
153874	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this&#160;species is regarded as abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153874	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has a specialized habitat requirement of cave systems, although part of its range lies within Mammoth Cave National Park.&#160; Therefore whilst subject to the threats that most cave species are, this species&#160;appears to be relatively well protected&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153875	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required to identify whether this species is present in North Carolina or not and if so what its distribution within the county is. Threats to this species need to be identified and research into the impacts the threats are having is required.	eng
153875	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lepidodactylus</span> can be found in the Santee, Black, Wateree and Pee Dee drainage systems in eastern South Carolina and extreme southeastern North Carolina (Hobbs 1962). Cooper (1998) has disputed the occurrence in North Carolina. It is currently found in nine counties in South Carolina within the PeeDee, Black, Lynches, Wateree and Lake Marion water systems (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153875	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus lepidodactylus</span> can be found in small, clear, moderately swift, sand-bottomed permanent streams (Hobbs 1947). Hobbs (1962) stated that as a group <span style="font-style: italic;">Pictus</span> was not affected by water quality or size of stream, however no species specific information was presented.	eng
153875	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species specific abundance data is available for this species although Hobbs (1962) described the Pictus subgroup as 'abundant in beds of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vallisneria</span> and other aquatic plants'.	eng
153875	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species specific threats have been recorded for this species however it is likely to be undergoing some localised declines due to surface water abstraction and land conversion due to urban development.	eng
153876	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. An assessment of freshwater biodiversity in Latin America and the Caribbean by the World Wildlife Fund and Wetlands International classified Lake Catemaco as Regionally Outstanding and Vulnerable, with high priority for conservation at a regional scale (Olsen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1998). Part of the range of this species is being protected through eco-tourism, which may provide indirect protection of this species (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and how it is being affected by threats within its range. </p><p><br/><em><em><em></em></em></em></p><p><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></p>	eng
153876	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from Lake Catemaco, in the Municipio de Catemaco, Veracruz,  Mexico (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This lake is at an altitude of 335 m and has a surface area of 72.5 km<sup>2</sup> (Rojas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, Komarkova and Tavera 2003). Further surveys in neighbouring habitats suggest that this species is restricted to this single lake   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, this species is restricted to the eastern shore of the lake, which is approximately 10 km<sup>2</sup> (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153876	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known only from Lake Catemaco.&#160; This warm, polymictic lake is one of the most productive in Mexico and is permanently blue-green from phytoplankton, with low transparency (Komarkova and Tavera 2003, Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).&#160; The lake has a mean depth of 7.6 m and a maximum depth of 11 m (Komarkova and Tavera 2003).&#160; The bottom of the lake is formed of clay and silt clays, and is covered with a deep layer of organic matter, although there is a transition to course sand, pebbles and gravel towards the shore (Komarkova and Tavera 2003).<em><em><em></em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></p>	eng
153876	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153876	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>Over the last few decades, there has been extensive deforestation of the tropical rainforest surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Catemaco</st1:placename></st1:place>, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003), though this is not believed to be a major threat to the lake habitat (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The lake is also under considerable pressure from fishing, with more than 10,000 people, mostly fishermen and their families, living along the shores of the lake (Komarkova and Tavera 2003), though this species is not targeted as a food source (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). </p><p><br/></p><p><br/><em></em></p>	eng
153877	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153877	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is wide-ranging from northern Mexico, to Escambia County in Florida, North to southern Illinois and Ohio. It has been widely introduced in the United States and elsewhere; Huner (1986) recorded the following introductions: Arizona, California, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah and Virginia. This species has also been introduced to Europe, Africa, East Asia, South and Central America (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153877	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is found in a range of habitat types including wet meadows, subterranean karst systems, seasonal swamps and marsh, permanent lakes and streams, rice paddy fields, and irrigation channels and reservoirs (Global Invasive Species Database 2009). This species is able to tolerate a range of environmental conditions including low oxygen levels and high temperatures (Global Invasive Species Database 2009)<span class="Info">.	eng
153877	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	"The population at the Granville County site is extremely large, both in numbers and biomass. There is a very dense population distributed throughout the small ponds along Ledge Creek and in shallow areas of the creek itself" (Cooper and Braswell 1998).&#160; This is typical of this species in its native range (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153877	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is highly invasive, and is not impacted upon by any threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153878	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G4 by by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Current Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>This species was recently collected from an intermittent stream in Walter B. Jacobs Memorial Nature Park, southwest of Blanchard, Caddo Parish, Louisiana (Walls 2006), which may bestow some further protection to this species.	eng
153878	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is known from the Sabine basin from Harrison to Newton Counties in Texas (Johnson and Johnson 2008), and from north western Louisiana, generally in the Red River drainages, best known from DeSoto, Natchitoches and Caddo parishes (Walls 2009). Recent collections from Vernon and Sabine parishes may be assignable to this species (Walls 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 32,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153878	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in lentic habitats such as roadside ditches and temporary pools which are static, unshaded, and have mud substrate in shallow and slightly turbid water (Penn 1950). Aquatic plants were present at the type locality, indicating the probability that the habitat is at least semi permanently wet (Penn 1950). More recently, this species was described as being found often in pools under or near hardwood trees (Johnson & Johnson 2008).&#160; When habitats dry, this species burrows deeper (Walls 2009).	eng
153878	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species. Where present, numbers of this species are usually abundant, although occurrences are spotty across its range.	eng
153878	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is distributed in a relatively rural area which is not undergoing rapid development&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009). Potential threats could be alteration to hydrological regimes for drainage or timber extraction, although these are not thought to be major threats to the species&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153879	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'vulnerable' based on its restricted range and ongoing habitat degradation (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is needed on the population status of this species. <br/></p>	eng
153879	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters from the northwestern part of Alachua County and northeastern part of Levy County, to the Suwannee River basin in southern Suwannee County, Florida (Franz<em> et al.</em> 1994). This species was originally known from only seven localities, but has since been found in 82 caves across its range (Hobbs 1942, Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994) and is listed as occurring in the following counties in Florida: Alachua, Columbia, Gilchrist, Hamilton, Lafayette, Levy, Madison, and Suwannee (NatureServe 2010).&#160;This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately 3,000 km².	eng
153879	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in subterranean waters (Franz <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is reported to be found in cave systems with high flow in newly emerging karst areas (NatureServe 2009).	eng
153879	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Although this species is widespread in Florida, population numbers are considered low (NatureServe 2010).	eng
153879	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by urban development, groundwater pollution and human disturbance. A large number of individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>were killed by a flood from an unconfined aquifer (Abell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Furthermore, one site that this species is known to occur in is threatened by the construction of a proposed industrial park (Abell <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and some of the caves in which this species is found are recreational dive sites<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Florida Caves 2008).	eng
153880	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to existing or potential destruction, modification or reduction of species habitat or range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p><p>Monitoring the presence of invasive species establishment in Rough River Lake is recommended.<br/></p>	eng
153880	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the State of Kentucky, USA. Within the state the species has a limited distribution in the lower Ohio and Green River drainages.&#160; It occurs throughout the Rough River drainage and sporadically in Green River tributaries downstream of the mud river in Muhlenberg County. It also occurs in some Ohio River tributaries from Breckinridge to Henderson Countries (Taylor & Schuster 2004).&#160;The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just under 7,600 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
153880	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species is found under rocks or debris in streams, although if there is no cover available it may make shallow burrows in muddy substrate (Rhoades 1944).</p>	eng
153880	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is common to abundant in suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153880	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Currently this species has&#160;no known threats. This species&#160;is subject to a potential threat from invasive specie<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>.&#160; It is present in the Rough River Lake which is under intensive fishing pressure.&#160; If bait escape leads to the establishment of an invasive species, this narrow range<em> Orconetces</em> crayfish could suffer displacement and population decline&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153881	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153881	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is restricted to Ouachita Mountain Province, to the tributaries of the Red River drainage in Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma, USA (Fitzpatrick 1965).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 13,056 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153881	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in small to medium, clear, rapidly flowing permanent streams either on or near shoals, with rocky substrates (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1948).	eng
153881	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In a study conducted by Williams (1954) 323 specimens were examined. There is no recent data available for its current population, however it is described as common at suitable sites (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153881	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
153882	conservation	Taylor, C.A., DiStefano, R., Crandall, K.A., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009). It has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153882	distribution	Taylor, C.A., DiStefano, R., Crandall, K.A., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a restricted range in the Meramec River basin in eastern Missouri, USA (Pflieger 1996). This is an approximate extent of occurrence (EOO) of just over 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153882	habitat	Taylor, C.A., DiStefano, R., Crandall, K.A., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the clear, fast flowing creeks and small rivers of the Meramec Basin.  It is rarely seen in the open, it is usually found in its burrow, under rocks and boulders (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153882	population	Taylor, C.A., DiStefano, R., Crandall, K.A., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>     <p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is far less abundant than other crayfish with which it associates, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes punctimanus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. luteus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. medius</span> (Pflieger 1996). <span class="copy">While this species has a restricted range, W. L. Pflieger (pers. comm. cited in NatureServe 2009) says it is widespread and fairly common in the Meramec River drainage and does not have any immediate threats.</p>	eng
153882	threats	Taylor, C.A., DiStefano, R., Crandall, K.A., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Land use practices within the range of this species have not changed in the last 50 years (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010). This species is not thought to face any major threat at the present time.	eng
153883	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007), while a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, apparently secure, has been assigned by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required into the abundance and the ecology of this species as this may indicate what effects the inferred threats may be having.	eng
153883	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is known from the Chowan drainage system and lower Roanake basin in North Carolina and Virginia, USA (Fetzner 2008). Specifically, it is found in&#160;Brunswick, Dinwiddie, Greensville, Isle of Wight, Lunenburg, Nottoway, Southampton, Surry, Sussex, Emporia City, Franklin City, Petersburg City, and Suffolk City Counties, Virginia (Hobbs 1974, McGregor 2002). LeGrand <em>et al. </em>(2006) further cite streams and rivers in the Chowan and Roanoke drainages of Bertie, Granville, Halifax, Hertford, Martin, and Northampton Counties, North Carolina.<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 19,100 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153883	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits sluggish streams or swamps on sand or gravel substrates (Fetzner 2008).&#160; Collections have occurred in rivers up to 200 m wide, with potentially brackish water (Cooper & Braswell 1995) and in areas with many pieces of dead wood on the bottom.	eng
153883	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;Cooper and Braswell (1995) report it to be one of North Carolina's rarest crayfish. The abundance and range of this species in Virginia is unknown&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153883	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no major threats reported for this species, however, it is likely that this species is being impacted by urban development and non point source pollution from&#160; housing around the drainage&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). As this drainage is so close to the coast it is likely to be a major transport corridor for the towns further upstream. Thus, channelization may have occurred and shipping lanes may have been created&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Further information may be obtained from the following sources, if access is possible.&#160;<span style="background-color: white;"><br/></span><ul><li><span style="background-color: white;">Stinson, M C</span><span style="background-color: white;">. (1997) On the type locality of Orconectes virginiensis Hobbs (Decapoda: Cambaridae).</span>&#160;Banisteria Volume: 10: 28-29&#160;</li></ul><br/><ul><li>Hobbs, H. H., Jr. (1951)&#160; A new crayfish of the genus Orconectes from. Southwestern Virginia (Decapoda, Astacidae).&#160;Virginia J. Sci. N.S. Volume: 2: 122-128</li></ul>	eng
153884	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153884	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species , inhabits the upper Arkansas (Neosho) River system in southwestern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas, USA (Pflieger 1996). The range of this species is now known to extend into Oklahoma (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004) and Kansas (Ghedotti 1998).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 22,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153884	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the shallow, fast flowing areas of clear steams with gravel and rock substrates (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). This species is often found in shallow burrows or beneath rocks or boulders (Pflieger 1996). This is a generalist species with a broad habitat specificity (Crandall 1998).	eng
153884	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Based on geographic distribution, habitat specificity and local population size Crandall (1998) estimated the total population size for this species to be 22,791 individuals. There is no reason to believe that this might have altered significantly over the past decade (K. Crandall, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153884	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153885	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as vulnerable, with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, due to the restricted range of this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and the impact any threats are having on it.	eng
153885	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known only from the Waccamaw and the Lumber-Little Pee Dee River basins in North and South Carolina (Fullerton and Watson 2001). &#160;It is currently known from one county in South Carolina as it is a relatively new species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). This species has a distribution of approximately 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153885	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known to occur in rivers and creeks (Cooper 1998), and has been found in rivers in close proximity to dams (Cooper 1998).	eng
153885	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153885	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species-specific threats have been recorded, however, many of the streams and rivers in North Carolina have been invaded by the Red Swamp Caryfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii, </span>and this species is likely to reduce the abundance of this species. This species may also suffer from localized declines due to habitat destruction and alteration (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153886	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>	eng
153886	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio and Tennessee, USA (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). This species has an unusually large distribution encompassing the interior lowlands and Cumberland Plateau (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species is the most widespread crayfish species in Kentucky and is only found in unglaciated sections of Ohio (Finaly <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In 2006, 233 individuals were recorded from 84 caves and 20 surface locations in the Cumberland Plateau (Finlay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153886	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in both subterranean environments and surface streams   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Its occupation of subterranean environments is not recent, and is usually found under rocks with shallow excavations   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). On permanent surface streams, it prefers mud substrates   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153886	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153886	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting the population of this species.	eng
153887	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe, and assessed as 'vulnerable' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on appropriate conservation measures is needed.	eng
153887	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from only 19 localities in the Yalobusha River drainage in Calhoun, Montgomery, Webster, Yalobusha and Grenada counties, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). The sites that this species has been collected from are severely fragmented (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009), and are distributed over approximately 1,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153887	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in permanent sluggish streams, with substrates consisting of sticky mud and woody detritus (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971).	eng
153887	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species has recently been collected during surveys, and population numbers were found to vary according to site. Sites with channelised streams and no riparian strip were found to have few individuals (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). Busack (1988) suggested that the species' range was contracting due to habitat degradation, including hydrologic and stream channel alterations and loss of cover, resulting primarily from agriculture. Though, Fitzpatrick and Suttkus (1992) discounted this idea, noting that "populations are vigorous in reproduction and under no immediate threat", but that the species is rare due to its "restricted range and comparative scarcity where found". <br/><br/>Busack (1988) proposed that another Pennides species, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ouachitae</span> (originally identified as<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. vioscai</span> but corrected by Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992), appeared to be replacing or displacing this species in degraded habitats. In 2008, revisitation to three of Busack's sites that had this species coexisting&#160; with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ouachitae</span> 20 years ago, found all still contained both species, suggesting that the latter is probably not actively displacing the former (USFS 2009). In the most agriculturally impacted site, this species density was extremely low, and only juveniles were captured so identification was not definitive (USFS 2009). An additional conservation concern is that the already limited range is fragmented by the Grenada Reservoir and probably by channelized portions of the Yalobusha River and its major tributaries, presumably isolating populations in the tributary systems from one another (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153887	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is threatened by hydrological alterations such as stream channelization (Fitzpatrick and Hobbs 1971). Its range is fragmented due to water management uses including the construction of the Grenada Reservoir and the channelized portions of the Yalobusha River and its tributaries (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992), which is isolating <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>sub-populations of this species from one another. In areas where there is intensive agro-industry,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>populations of this species are extremely low (Fitzpatrick and Suttkus 1992).	eng
153888	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153888	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from its type locality at Hoya de las Guaguas, near the town of Xilitla in the Mexican state of San Luis Potosi (Hobbs and Grubbs 1986).	eng
153888	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in subterranean waters, and is a troglobytic species. Furthermore, there are many caves and springs within its range   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153888	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type specimens.	eng
153888	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Though, it is unlikely as the area in which thias species is known to occur is remote   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153889	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>	eng
153889	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from four localities in Calcasieu, and Lafayette parishes, and has recently been found in Jefferson Davis, Acadia and St. Laudry parishes, Louisiana and Brazoria, Galveston, Chambers, Jefferson, Liberty and Orange counties, Texas (Reimer, Johnson and Marcello 1975, Johnson 2008).&#160; Recent surveys by Johnson report 86 sites across nine counties in Texas for this species (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).   This species has a distribution of approximately 17000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153889	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in temporary road side ditches with heavy alluvial clay substrates (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153889	population	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is abundant at most sites where it is found<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153889	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	Urbanization, oil mining, agriculture, pollution, and wetland destruction are of potential threat to this species' habitat. Habitat destruction and degradation are the main threats to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Fallicambarus </span>crayfishes. Competition from introduced crayfish species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus, Procambarus clarkii, Cambarus robustus</span>) is also considered a threat to the species in this genus (Guiasu 2007). However there is no information on how these possible threats are impacting upon this species.	eng
153890	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to establish whether this species is impacted by threats occurring within its range.	eng
153890	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Gabriel</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Cave</st1:placename>, near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Buenos Aires</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Oaxaca</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Mejia-Ortiz<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003).&#160; The cave is in the Mojarra Hill, at an altitude of 110 m above sea level (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).&#160; This species was mainly collected within 1000 m of the cave entrance (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), and so is likely to have an extent of occurrence (EOO) less than 100 km². Surveys in surrounding areas have failed to find this species (M. Lopez-Mejia pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153890	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found only in pools of the dark zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gabriel</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Cave</st1:placename></st1:place> (Mejia-Ortiz et al. 2003.&#160; It is most common within 1 km of the entrance of the cave, where the substrate is soft soil and mud with occasional rocky patches (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).&#160; There are two permanent water bodies in this area; a small basin 1 m deep, and a small, shallow pool approximately 10 m from the basin (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003.&#160; The mean water temperature of the pools is 19.5-23.0°C, the dissolved oxygen concentration ranges from 1.59-6.64 mgl<sup>-1</sup> and the mean pH is 7.2-8.1 (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003.&#160; This species is found alongside copepods, mysids, isopods, caridean prawns and alpheid shrimps (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153890	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is quite common, but only within a very restricted range (Mejia-Ortiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).	eng
153890	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<em> </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes, however, sugar cane plantations outside of the cave pose a future threat, and tourism may be having an impact   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153891	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe have given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009),   demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of this species and the threats that it is facing throughout its range.	eng
153891	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a widely distributed species, found from the Savannah and Ochlockonee basins in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida westward into Mississippi and northward through Tennessee into the Green watershed in Kentucky, USA (Hobbs 1989, Eversole and Jones 2004). It occurs throughout most of Kentucky except for the Mississippi Alluvial Plain ecoregion (Adams 2008). <br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 456,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153891	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be a primary, secondary or tertiary burrower depending on the population (Bouchard 1978). This species is also found in streams (Hobbs 1989). Taylor and Schuster (2004) also found this species in rivers and creeks of all sizes. It has also been reported that juveniles in Mississippi are common in streams which dry seasonally (Adams 2008).<br/>Bouchard (1978) also found a female in a subterranean cavern in Alabama.	eng
153891	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is extremely common in Tennessee, Alabama and northern Mississippi. Globally there are most likely millions of individuals   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153891	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats currently impacting on this species although due to the wide distribution there is likely to be localized declines due to urban development, agriculture, surface and ground water extraction and road contruction   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153892	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Though, part of the range of this species is a biosphere reserve (Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra Gorda). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as agriculture.	eng
153892	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species was previously known from the type locality at southern Tamaulipas and southeastern <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). Lopez-Mejia<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2005) show that it is currently known only from  <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region>. Though it is also known to occur at Queretaro and Cueva de Tenango in Hidalgo, Mexico   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  Furthermore, clarification is needed to Hobbs (1989) reference to Tamaulipas, as this record cannot be confirmed   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153892	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).&#160; Its type locality at Puente de Xilitla is a small, slow flowing, clear, rock bottomed stream (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943). Furthermore, the area in which it is known to occur is humid and at the foot of mountains   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153892	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species was originally described as 'very rare' at its type locality, Puente de Xilitla (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943). However, this species is reasonably easy to collect and is known to be quite common, with a stable population   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153892	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Sugar cane plantations and the exapsnion of some farms are thought to be having a impact upon this species. Though, due to the mountain locality of this species, this is not considered a significant threat. Furthermore, this species is occassionally harvested as a food source but not in significant quantities   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153893	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>Further research should be initiated to determine the impact of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>on this species as this may pose a larger threat in the future.	eng
153893	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. In Canada it primarily occurs in Ontario and Quebec(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). In the former it occurs from Moose River drainage in the north to Lake Huron in the South(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). For the latter it is uncertain where its range lies, however there have been collections of this species in the St&#160;Lawrence&#160;river and Ottawa River&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160;Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) noted that it has been introduced in north western Ontario. In the United States it is found in: New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,Wisconsin and Minnesota (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 218 million km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153893	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a habitat generalist, and has been found in habitats such as:&#160;small streams, &#160;large rivers, ponds, and &#160;lakes (Taylor <em>et al.&#160;</em>2005). The substrates it dwells on range from sandy to rocky&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). Under detritus, such as rock or wood, this species creates small depressions in the substrate(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2005). In streams without shelter and clay substrate. It is also able to create &#160;extensive burrow networks in clay substrate streams, when cover is scarce (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
153893	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was once one of the most dominant crayfish species in much of its range. However, the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconects rusticus</span> has replaced this species as the most dominant species in some parts of its range (Olden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
153893	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>By far the biggest threat to this species is the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, which has replaced&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in parts of its range and taken it over as the dominant crayfish species in other locations (Olden <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006, Kuhlmann 2008). In Wisconsin, for example,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> has gone from being 7% of crayfish records to 36% in 20 years (Olden<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). However, this species&#160;has stronghold areas where there is good forest cover, such as Conneaut Creek in Ohio (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In Illinois, <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus</span> has replaced this species  in 10-15% of its range, particularly in the Rock River drainage (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). It is known to be losing ground to <span style="font-style: italic;">O. rusticus </span>in Ohio (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009).Two forms of competition include, "hybridisation and reproductive interference" (Taylor <em>et al.</em>&#160;2005). The increase of the range of &#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">O.rusticus </span>has caused declines in this species, and in some places they are thought to be locally threatened&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2005).&#160;This species is also threatened by water acidification and pollution (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
153894	conservation	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>	eng
153894	distribution	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species was first found on a grassy highway within Loblolly Pine forest in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hardin County</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Texas, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. It is now known from 17 sites in two Texan counties, namely&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Hardin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Tyler</st1:placename>  <st1:placename w:st="on">County</st1:placename></st1:place>. The targeted surveying level of this species is 50% complete (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 1,640 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153894	habitat	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a primary burrower, with all adults sampled being collected from burrows. Juveniles are commonly found in open water during the cool season. Burrows of this species have multiple entrances and are often plugged (Johnson 2008). This species is described as a nuisance in the towns of Silsbee, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Lumberton</st1:place></st1:city> and Kountze (Johnson 2008).	eng
153894	population	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	The species is abundant within its limited range and colonies are apparently a nuisance in the towns of Kountze, Silsbee, and Lumberton (Johnson 2008).	eng
153894	threats	Johnson, D. & Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. In addition, it is not thought to be subject to urbanisation (D. Johnson, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153895	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>The American Fisheries Society assessed this species&#160;as Currently Stable&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2007)&#160;and it has a heritage rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This species is therefore considered to be stable and not undergoing any significant population declines.</p>	eng
153895	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species was first found in Otter Creek in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Davidson County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. However, its range is now known to include the <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city>, Duck, and <st1:placename w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River basins</st1:placetype> in central <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153895	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in small to medium sized slow to moderately flowing streams, sometimes collected in shallow burrows, more common in leaf litter and under banks than under rocks (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153895	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although&#160;in suitable habitat, this species can be described as common&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153895	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There are no known major threats affecting this species.   </p><p>It is possible that within its range, it is affected by habitat degradation and destruction, such as water course alteration, or water contamination as a result of agricultural or industrial run-off&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). However, as this species&#160;is found in several river basins, it is likely that these threats will be localized and therefore will not result in significant declines in the global population.</p>	eng
153896	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been assigned a global heritage rank of G3 and American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al., 2007) listed it as Vulnerable. Research to determine if there are any threats impacting this species is recommended.	eng
153896	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus petersi </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, inhabiting only a few localities from the headwaters almost to the tidewaters of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Ogeechee</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River  basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981).	eng
153896	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	It occurs in lotic systems of various sizes (Hobbs, 1981).	eng
153896	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	Hobbs (1981) found the species at 18 localities in Bryan, Bulloch, Burke, Glascock, Hancock, Jefferson, Taliaferro, Warren, and Washington Cos. Occurs in low numbers in most localities but a few localities have yielded several specimens (Hobbs, 1981).	eng
153896	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
153897	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this speceis. Further targeted surveys are needed to determine if this species is in fact Extinct.	eng
153897	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from the area of its type locality at Tetela de Ocampo y La Canada, 35 km northeast of Zacapoaxtle, in the state of Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1974). The species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 km².	eng
153897	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known from stream habitats (Hobbs 1974), which occur within a humid, forested region   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153897	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from the type specimens, collected in the 1940s. Attempts have been made to search for this species within its habitat but no individuals have been found   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em></em>	eng
153897	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Water quality within the nearest town to the type locality of this species is poor, though within mountainous regions conditions are better. Furthermore, this species is known to occur within Puebla State, and is, therefore, likely to be impacted by urbanization and urban water pollution   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153898	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of the range of this species coincide with protected areas. In addition, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p>  Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p>	eng
153898	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Ouachita River basin in Clark, Hot Spring, Montgomery, and Pike Counties, Arkansas (Hobbs 1973).&#160; Recent surveys have not extended the range of the species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).   This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 8,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153898	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower, and is found in roadside ditches and low-lying seepage areas in sandy to clay soils (Hobbs 1973). It is usually found in herbaceous wetland in the vicinity of creeks (NatureServe 2009).	eng
153898	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Subpopulations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are typically low in number (less than 50), and the populations are severely fragmented in occurrence (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009)	eng
153898	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span class="copy">Habitat destruction and degradation are the main  threats to all <em>Fallicambarus </em>crayfishes.  Also, the more widely  distributed species can be vulnerable to loss of suitable habitats or  habitat fragmentation at range edges; as well as habitat modification  for agriculture and wetland destruction.  The second most important  cause for imperilment is pollution (including air, water and soil  pollution as these species spend time burrowing and in temporary  waters).  Because burrowing crayfish tend to prefer warmer climates and  the milder and shorter winters currently found in southeastern areas of  the U.S. and because they live in semi-terrestrial habitats sometimes  far removed from permanent water todies, they are often prevented from  expanding their ranges and, theoretically may be susceptible to the  effects of global warming.  Lastly, competition from introduced crayfish  species (<em>Orconectes rusticus</em>, <em>Procambarus clarkii</em>, <em>Cambarus  robustus</em>) is considered a threat to the species in this genus  (Guiasu, 2007).	eng
153899	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153899	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus</span><span style="font-style: italic;">. vioscai paynei</span> is widespread East of the Mississippi River, occurring in the Wolf system in Tennessee in the North, the Tombigbee basin of Alabama in the East, South as far as the middle Pearl and upper Pascagoula drainages of Mississippi and in the West it can be found as far as the upper Pascagoula, upper Bogue Chitto and upper Homochitto drainages in Mississippi (Fitzpatrick 1990).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. v. vioscai</span> can be found to the West of the Mississippi river, in tributaries of the Red River in Arkansas and Louisiana, eastward to the Pascagoula River in Mississippi and the lower Tombigbee River in Alabama (Hobbs 1962).	eng
153899	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species can be found in permanent stream and rivers with sandy silt or gravel substrates (Penn 1946, Fitzpatrick 1990). It prefers cool running water (Schuster and Taylor 2004).	eng
153899	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>There is no population information available for&#160;this species. Though, this species complex has been described as widespread throughout the southeastern United States (Fitzpatrick 1990).</p>	eng
153899	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species.	eng
153900	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153900	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from the Trinity, Neches, and Sabine drainage systems of Texas and Louisiana (Walls and Black 2008), and <span class="copy"><span class="copy">has been recently documented from Oklahoma. However, specimens recorded from the <span class="copy">Calcasieu River <span class="copy">are in fact the newly described&#160; species<span class="copy"><span class="copy"><em> Procambarus pentastylus</em> <span class="copy"><span class="copy">(Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/><span class="copy"><span class="copy"></span></span>	eng
153900	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species inhabits clear to coffee-coloured creeks and streams (Hobbs 1990).	eng
153900	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153900	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	No species-specific threats have been recorded, however, this species imay be impacted locally by urban development and by the presence of invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii </span>(K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153901	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153901	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found on the Coastal Plain of the Savannah through Santee River basins in Georgia and South Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1981, Eversole and Jones 2004).	eng
153901	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower found in seepage areas. Burrows are often in root mats and have two openings (Hobbs 1981).	eng
153901	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153901	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether there are any major threats impacting on this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
153902	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153902	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is confined to the tributaries of the Ouachita River in Garland, Hot Spring, Montgomery, Perry, Pike, Polk, Saline (Fitzpatrick 1965) and Clark Counties, Arkansas (INHS Crustacean Collection).   This species has a distribution of approximately 14995 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153902	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams with rapidly flowing water as well as spring outflows (US Forest Service 2008).	eng
153902	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is thought to be locally abundant (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; At 125 sites across Arkansas, a total of 1, 258 specimens of this species were collected (US Forest Service 2008).	eng
153902	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species. Furthermore,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>it is distributed in a sparsely populated area, and so is unlikely to be undergoing any major habitat change.	eng
153903	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Eight of the sites at which this species occurs are on public land.	eng
153903	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is endemic to part of the Salem Plateau of southeastern Missouri, mainly in the east/central Ozark region, from Camden and Crawford Counties south to Howell and Ripley Counties (Pfleiger 1996).	eng
153903	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species inhabits cave streams where it appears to prefer deep water pools and siphons fed by submerged passages. It has been observed in a wide variety of habitats, including cave streams over rock, sand and bat guano substrates, the margins of deep, subterranean lakes over organic debris; and the orifices of large springs near the limit of daylight at depths of 12 to 40 m deep. Specimens have also been collected in daylight from the outflow of a small spring, a pool in the bottom of a large, deep sink and the ruts left by a truck that became stuck in an Ozark fen (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153903	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.   Gardner (1986) reported several observations of this species, with the largest number noted being two to three crayfish at any given time.	eng
153903	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been seriously affected in one locality by an acute pollution episode. This crayfish remains susceptible to this kind of threat as urban encroachment into its habitat proceeds.&#160; In 1981 a pipeline break caused ammonium fertilizer to leak into the Maramec Spring causing a massive decrease in oxygen levels, resulting in the death of thousands of individuals (Pflieger 1996).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153904	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rnak of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <br/>Further research is required to determine the abundance, habitat, ecology and a more accurate distribution of this species, in addition to the the existence of any major threats.	eng
153904	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from the Black Warrior River system and Buttahatchee Creek of the Tombigbee system, Alabama, USA (Mirarchi et al., 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 18,400 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153904	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams under rocks (Hall 1959).	eng
153904	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153904	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydroloigcal regime and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153905	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5,&#160;widespread, abundant and secure,&#160;by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
153905	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in the <st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state> drainage system in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky, USA</st1:place></st1:state>. Its distribution also extends to southern <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state> and northern <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alabama</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;58,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153905	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species inhabits creeks and streams, perfers riffle habitat under large cobble (McNeely <em>et al.</em> 1999, Fezner 2008).</p>	eng
153905	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is common in areas of suitable habitat (Taylor & Schuster 2004).	eng
153905	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153906	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure) by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153906	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Tombigbee and Tallahatchie river basins in Alabama and Mississippi, and the Hatchie drainage in Tennessee (Payne 1972).	eng
153906	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish streams and lentic situations such as ponds. The highest densities are found in streams which are upstream or downstream of small impoundments. Juveniles are found in masses of fine root systems along stream margins (US Forest Service 2008). In ponds, adults use deeper water by day moving into shallow waters or even terrestrial habitats by night (Payne 1972). This species is also a secondary burrower (Payne 1972).	eng
153906	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species is believed to be widespread and abundant (S Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153906	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be impacted by urbanization on a local level, but is unlikely to be being impacted upon by any major threat processes on a global scale.	eng
153907	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and the impact of potential threats.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
153907	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the Neuse and Tar-Pamlico river basins of North Carolina . It is known from the Coastal Plain and the eastern edge of the Piedmont Plateau. Within the Neuse River basin this species type locality is the Trent River in Jones County, North Carolina, with a range from Willow Springs, Wake County Southeast to the upper reaches of the Trent River, Jones County to Swift Creek between Pitt and Craven Counties. This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>appears to be absent from some of the Coastal Plain and most of the Piedmont Plateau. In the Tar-Pamlico River basin this species occurs in the headwater streams East to western Halifax County and Southeast to Pitt County (Cooper and Cooper 1995).   This species has a distribution of approximately 21865 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153907	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits clear, shallow permanent rivers with little or no visible flow. The type locality stream had substrate of limestone covered with fine silt and organic debris. The specimens collected were found under rocks (Cooper and Cooper 1995).	eng
153907	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population data available for this species, although 200 specimens of this species were collected in a survey by Cooper and Cooper (1995).	eng
153907	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is likely to be localy impacted upon by nutrient loading within river habitat, from agricultural activites activites occuring cloase to the river, as well as urbanization. However, there is no information as to how these activites are impacting upon this species, and it is unlikely that it is not threatened on a global scale   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153908	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Gloabl Heritage Status Rank of G5 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153908	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Nashville Basin, Highland Rim, and western edge of the Cumberland Plateau in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, USA (Bouchard 1978). In Kentucky, it is commonly encountered in the upper Green River drainage basin and sporadically in the Cumberland, Rolling Fork and Dix River drainages   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 69,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153908	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commonly found in permanent streams under rocks (Bouchard 1978). It is also a secondary burrower (Bouchard 1978).	eng
153908	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
153908	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats. However, it is likley to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regimes and water pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153909	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. <span class="copy">This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)<span class="copy">, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction, provided by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This classification has been given due to the restricted range occupied by this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/><br/></span>More research is required for this species as little is known about its abundance and threats associated with its type locality   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)<span class="copy"><span class="copy">.</span>	eng
153909	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was recently described from the eastern Blue Ridge foothills and western Piedmont Plateau of North Carolina, USA, where it occurs in streams in the Upper Broad, Catawba, and Yadkin-Pee Dee River basins (Cooper 2006). It is described from about 50 sites in this region. The known distribution appears to be limited to a system of streams and  rivers derived from multiple stream capture of elements of the White's  River region by backcutting headwaters of high-gradient, southeast  flowing streams (Cooper 2006)   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to be just under 12,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153909	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from small to medium permanent freshwater streams (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).<span class="copy">	eng
153909	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Due to the recent description there is no accurate population data available for this species. This is a rather rare species in terms of comparative numbers that show up in samples, but appears to have a broad distribution in the upper sections of the Catawba, Yadkin, and Broad basins as a North Carolina endemic (J. Cooper, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
153909	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species may be impacted by localized residential development occurring in the Piedmont Plateau river basin. There are some small-holding farms adjacent to the creeks in the Piedmont Plateau river basin which will almost certainly result in nutrient loading which may have caused a decline in population size (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). At present, however, it is not known what impact these threats are having upon this species.	eng
153910	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by &#160;the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).<br/><em><em>Bait regulation would help to prevent the spread of&#160;O. rusticus in parts of this species range where it is currently not present&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></em></em>	eng
153910	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits the Little Kanawha River system in West Virginia, southern Ohio and adjacent areas of Kentucky, USA (Fetzner 2008, Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Jezerinac <em>et al.</em> 1995).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 232,000 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153910	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species&#160;can be found amongst rubble or underneath undercut banks in small, medium and large sized streams and pools (Jezerinac <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
153910	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been found in densities ranging from 0.2 ? 1.8 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Jezerinac <em>et al.</em>1995).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is described as common in suitable habitat although, where it is coming in contact with the invasive species <em>Orconectes rusticus,</em>&#160;it is showing large declines in population size.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153910	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	In parts of the Ohio and West Virginia&#160;range of this species, populations&#160;are declining as the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus </span>expands (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, T. Jones pers. comm. 2009). At present this is not a major threats to this species, but may become problematic in the future.	eng
153911	conservation	Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	<p>NatureServe assessed this species with a heritage ranking of G4, stable,&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and the American Fisheries Society &#160;lists it as Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p><p>Removal of woody debris from channels is locally impacting this species, so control of this practice would benefit the species (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153911	distribution	Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	<em></em>This species was first found in <st1:placename w:st="on">Morris</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Creek</st1:placename> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Carroll County</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA. It is known to be confined to streams draining the McNairy Sand and Coon Creek, which is in Carroll, Henderson, Henry and Benton Counties, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). In general,&#160;it is restricted to the headwater streams of the White Oak Creek and Beech River Drainages due to its tendency to inhabit streams with pure sand substrate (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). It has also been found in the middle fork of the Obion river which drains to the Mississippi (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 5,500 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
153911	habitat	Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	This species inhabits streams. Its type locality is a stream 5 - 8 m wide, with an average depth of 0.4 m. There were piles of woody debris occurring commonly in the stream (Taylor and Sabaj 1997). Throughout its range, this species shows a preference for pure sand substrates, restricting its range to these sections of streams (Taylor and Sabaj 1997).	eng
153911	population	Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
153911	threats	Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Schuster, G.A., 2010	<p>&#160;There are no major threats known to be affecting this species.&#160; It seems to be somewhat tolerant of channelization as long as there is sand and woody debris present (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Therefore if channelization is combined with debris removal, which is a common practice, it can pose a localized threat (G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
153912	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status and threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153912	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located from the Pearl River to the Escatawpa River basin in southern Mississippi and Alabama (Hobbs 1975). This species is thought to be expanding its range into eastern parts of the Pearl river, and replacing <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus penni</span> in eastern tributaries of the Pearl river (Walls 2009). This species has a distribution of approximately 23800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153912	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in permanent streams (Hobbs 1975), that are clear, shallow and flowing&#160; with a strong current. In addition, it inhabits streams that contain woody debris and detritus, that have clay, sand and gravel substrate (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153912	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no poulation information available for this species. However, it is known from a number of collections, though it is thought to be undersampled in Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153912	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be effected by logging (resulting in sedimentation), agriculture and urbanization on a local level, but is unlikely to impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153913	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 (Currently Stable) by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Further research on the abundance, range and threats is needed.	eng
153913	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is found in the Tennessee River drainage system from northeastern <st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state> to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and northward to the vicinity of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Knoxville</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:state></st1:place>, USA   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). This species is also found in <st1:city w:st="on">Chickamauga</st1:city> creek and various creeks in Dade, Walker, Catoosa and Whitfield counties in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). This is possibly the dominant species of this subgenus in the upper <st1:placename w:st="on">Coosa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype> in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Alabama</st1:place></st1:state> (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153913	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in fast moving streams. It is also found in slower streams when cover is available, such as rocks, roots or leaf litter (Fetzner 2008, Hobbs 1981).	eng
153913	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153913	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
153914	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
153914	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	This species is found across southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas (Pflieger 1996). However, this species has disappeared from parts of its former range, particularly in the Spring River drainage. This is thought to be due to displacement by the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007).&#160; In Missouri, it occurs commonly in all principal drainages on the  southern slope of the Ozark Uplands, from the St. Francis River west to  Eleven Point River and adjacent Spring River and has been collected in  the James Rvier, Beaver Creek, and Little North Fork of the White River  system, but is rare there (Pflieger 1996).<br/>Reports for this species in the Mississippi are in error (T. Mann, MS  NHP, pers. comm. January 2008).&#160; Despite this   the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 52,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153914	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	It inhabits permanent-flowing, clear, high-gradient, rocky streams, ranging in size from small creeks to moderate-sized rivers (Pflieger 1996). Flinders and Magoulick (2007) found both small and large individuals predominantly occupied riffles and runs.	eng
153914	population	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	This species has been found in densities of up to 12 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Flinders and Macoulick 2007). A population decline can be inferred, however, from the reduction caused by the recently identified invasive species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153914	threats	Cordeiro, J., Thoma, R.F. & Jones, T., 2010	Interspecific competition with the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> is thought to be causing a reduction in the range of this species, in addition to changes in land use causing a decline in stream habitat quality (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). The causes of this decline, however, have yet to be confirmed. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153915	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>	eng
153915	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from the Little and Red River basins in Arkansas, and McCurtain County, Oklahoma and Texas (Johnson and Johnson 2008).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Though, the range of this species has not been clearly defined (Hobbs, 1989). A recent survey in Arkansas indicates that this crayfish is far more widespread and much more common than formerly believed. Searches throughout southwestern Arkansas revealed the presence of 36 new populations of this crayfish in Little River and Sevier Counties, Arkansas (Robison and Crandall 2007).	eng
153915	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in ditches and woodland swamps (Hobbs 1990). It is most common along highways where woodland areas are adjacent to roadways (US Forest Service 2008).	eng
153915	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known to be typically very abundant where found (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153915	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species. However, it is likely that this species is undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution.	eng
153916	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 (demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure) by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). In addition, part of the range of this species is known to occur within National Forest parkland. Further research is needed to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153916	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Ouachita and Arkansas river systems in southwestern Arkansas, and the Yazoo river basin in Mississippi (Penn 1954). This species has a distribution of approximately 93000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153916	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	In Arkansas this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in permanent streams with a strong current, and a substrate consisting of mixed sand and gravel, either with or without flat rocks. Where the water is clear, shallow (<38 cm) and cool (19<sup>o</sup>C) with a moderate presence of vegetation (Penn 1954). However, clear, colourless water is not present within Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). This species is nocturnal, foraging near stream banks at night. During the day, juveniles hide in plant cover near banks whilst adults hide in burrows (Penn 1954).	eng
153916	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species is easy to collect and often abundant at sites at which it is found (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153916	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be impacted locally by channelization and loss of in-stream cover (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153917	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, its current distribution and any major threats that are impacting upon it.	eng
153917	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Barbour, Bulloch, Lowndes, Macon, Montgomery, and Russell Counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1989).&#160; There is one recent record for this species, from March 2008, but all other records for this species are over 35 years old (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153917	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in sluggish streams and roadside ditches, and is present in muddy water conditions with abundant filamentous algae (Hobbs 1959).	eng
153917	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information is available for this species.	eng
153917	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is not clear   whether there are any major threats impacting this species. There are a number of potential threats   including change in hydrological regimes occuring within its range (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153918	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007, NatureServe 2009). One site where this species is located, is within a military reserve in Georgia (Stanton 2008). At present, this species is under no impact from any military activities, but there is the possibility of disturbance due to the commencement of more intense military activities (Stanton 2008). However, the reserve has a natural resource management plan inplace to protect species which occur within the reserve (Stanton 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by threats within its range.	eng
153918	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is generally distributed in the coastal plain region of Alabama from the Mobile system as far north as Choctaw, Tuscaloosa, Blount, and Tallapoosa Counties, East to the Chattahoochee system in Georgia where it is only known form a couple of sites, and the Florida pan handle West of the Apalatchicola system (Fetzner 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 115,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153918	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in permanent clear flowing streams, found amongst debris, on sandy, mud and silty substrates (Stanton 2008).	eng
153918	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	According to Baker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) this species is common to abundant in suitable habitat at most locations.	eng
153918	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a widespread and adaptive crayfish species which is unlikely to be under any major threats across its range.&#160; On a local scale, it is potentially threatened by military activities at one locatility, and two of the best sites have been impacted by highway construction in Georgia, which is at the edge of its range (Stanton 2008).	eng
153919	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p><em></em> This species has been assessed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and was given a heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). This means this species is considered secure.</p><p>Further research is needed to determine the abundance and the full range of this species, as currently it is only known from two localities.</p>	eng
153919	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is restricted to small streams of the Highland Rim in DeKalb and Smith Counties, and Cannon, Humphreys, and Stewart Counties, Tennessee, USA. In Kentucky, it is rare, occurring in the upper reaches of the Barren River drainage in Allen County and the Little River, a tributary of the Cumberland River in Trigg County (Taylor and Schuster 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 17,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153919	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The type locality of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was a small roadside stream. It was 1.2 - 1.8 m wide and 0.1 - 0.3 m in depth. The substrate was rocky, with clear fast flowing water. There was an accumulation of rubbish and debris on the rocks and in the eddies in the faster flowing areas (Hobbs 1953).	eng
153919	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153919	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There are no threats known to be affecting this species<em></em>. It is known however, that throughout the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> the major impacts are hydrological alterations, channelization and land use change, pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural runoff, excessive sedimentation and rapid urban expansion. Nearly 25% of the region is agricultural land, and this is having an impact on the freshwater systems (Smith <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, this species is found in a roadside stream, with an accumulation of rubbish, which suggests it is tolerant to pollution and other such disturbances. Therefore, the threat processes currently found in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> are likely not to be having a significant impact on this species.</p>	eng
153920	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species has been given&#160; a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and is widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153920	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee River drainages in Kentucky and Tennessee southward to Sand Mountain in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 84,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153920	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent freshwater streams. The mountains of eastern Kentucky, southwestern West Virginia, and along the northwestern border of Virginia interlock allowing the crayfish to cross the drainage divides (Rhoades 1944).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has the widest variability of water quality tolerance in the family Cambaridae, however, as a species it is not tolerant of pollution (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
153920	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>     <p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is estimated to have had a decline in population size due to anthropogenic impairments (Peake&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p>	eng
153920	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is impacted by many agricultural threats such as production of non-timber crops and pollution through nutrient loading. Urban recreational activities such as swimming occur as well as urban pollution in the form of sewage which damages the water quality. There has been surface water abstraction for domestic use from the Kentucky river system. In parts of the habitat channelization has occurred removing much of the rocky substrate needed for this species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Some of the impacts are so strong that no aquatic life can be sustained in these areas (Kentucky River Authority 2009). Given its wide distriubtion, however, these threats are not likely to impact this species in te near future   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153921	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, whether it is restricted to its type locality, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153921	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from its type locality; a cave 4 km west northwest of the Hacienda at Potrero Viejo, Paraje Nuevo, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1943). Collection attempts are being made in surrounding suitable habitat, to try and determine the range of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153921	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been found in the shallow water of a subterranean stream system consisting of pools joined by shallow narrows (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1943).	eng
153921	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from the type specimens (M. Mejia-Lopez and F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153921	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Cordoba is a fast expanding urban area which may pose a threat to this species in the near future (M. Mejia-Lopez and F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153922	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>	eng
153922	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from the Apalachicola River westward to the Choctawhatchee Bay drainage basin in Walton County, Florida (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 6500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153922	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both lentic and lotic situations, and is a tertiary burrower (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153922	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153922	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes. However, it may to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution, but this is unlikely to be impacting it on a global scale (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153923	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p><p>It is likely that aquatic management plans in western <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky are</st1:place></st1:state> going to have an effect on the global population of this species,<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>as the plans cover the majority of the range of this species (Burr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).</p>	eng
153923	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the state of Kentucky, USA, and is found in the <st1:city w:st="on">Lower Tennessee, Lower Cumberland and Pond River drainages. In Tristan and Todd County regions, the species occurs in the headwaters of three river drainages; the Little River (Cumberland River drainage), the Pond River (Green River drainage), and Whipperwill Creek (Red and&#160;</st1:city>Cumberland River drainages) (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6,200 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153923	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species is common in small to large creeks ranging in width from 2 - 8 m with bottom substrates of bedrock, cobble or large gravel.&#160; In larger creeks the species can occur in slower flowing runs with mud and scattered cobble substrates (Taylor & Schuster 2004).</p>	eng
153923	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as&#160;relatively common in streams of suitable habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153923	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species. Further, as it largely resides in areas with high levels of endemic crayfish, it is likely to benefit from aquatic management plans, aimed at the conservation of other species in this area (Burr<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004).	eng
153924	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em>&#160; </em>Further taxonomic work is needed to distinguish between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus acutus</span>, and to confirm the ranges of these two species.&#160; Furthermore, information on the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as water abstraction and pollution are also needed.	eng
153924	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>The exact range of this species<em> </em>is unclear, due to taxonomic confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus acutus</span> (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The type locality of this species is La Cueva Chica, a limestone cave about 1.6 km northeast of Pujal in the Mexican State of San Luis Potosi (Hobbs 1989).&#160; Its presence has also been confirmed in the states of Hidalgo, Puebla, Tamaulipas and Veracruz, Mexico (Hobbs 1989).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>In addition, this species has been extirpated from Atlapesco river, though this is only a small part of its range   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em> </em></em></em></em></em></em></em>This species has a distribution of approximately 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153924	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This is not a cave adapted species, and is known to occur in rivers in the lowlands. It is known to be a tolerant species, which coexists with prawn species, and where the climate is humid   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153924	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to be easy to collect, and has been collected a number of times   (M.López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em></em>	eng
153924	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Freshwater systems in central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> are known to be threatened by water abstraction and pollution, as well as by other forms of habitat destruction and degradation (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al. 200</em>3).<em>&#160; </em>However, it is unknown what impact these threats may be having on this species.&#160; In 1995, the Australian redclaw crayfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax quadricarinatus</span>, was introduced to the region for aquaculture, and it has subsequently spread and established in the wild (Bortolini et al. 2007).&#160; There is currently no evidence that this has impacted native crayfish populations, but its spread may potentially become a threat in the future (Bortolini et al. 2007).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153925	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given a Global Status Heritage Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant, and secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009). It has also been described as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the native population size and the population trends of this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels and trade of this species should be undertaken   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153925	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This is a widespread crayfish species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found from Maine and Connecticut in the east to eastern Colorado and Wyoming in the west, and from Kentucky in the south to southern Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec in the north. Its presence in New England, including New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont and Massachusetts are probably the result of introductions. The presence of this species in Connecticut is questionable (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Hobbs 1974, Hobbs 1989, Williams 1945, Aiken 1965, Simon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Since this species was introduced into Europe in the early 1990s is has steadily spread along the Rhine in Germany (Gelmar 2006). The native Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 6 million km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153925	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This is a generalist species often found in roadside ditches, as well as ponds, flood plains, drainage ditches and small sluggish streams. It also occurs in higher gradient gravel bedded streams (Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954). The substrate in the habitats of this species is generally soft mud or clay with abundant aquatic vegetation (Crocker and Barr 1968, Berrill 1978). &#160;This species is also not an obligate burrower and so can also travel across dry ground, especially in wet weather and is thus able to move from pond to pond (Crocker and Barr 1968). This species is found to occur with other crayfish species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus bartonii, Fallicambarus fodiens, Orconectes propinquus, Orconectes rusticus rusticus, Orconectes virilis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes obscurus</span> (Berrill 1978, David <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996, Hamr unpublished data).<br/>Although this species has a broad ecological niche it is unable to colonize fast flowing streams of more than 26 cms<sup>-1</sup> which restricts its distribution (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
153925	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is abundant in much of its range, particularly Indiana (Simon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Pflieger 1996).	eng
153925	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in habitats vulnerable to human activity&#160;(Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span>&#160;2005). Unlike other crayfish, it has a better tolerance to pollution and low oxygen levels&#160;(Taylor&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">et al.</span>&#160;2005). &#160;Due to these tolerances this species is unlikely to be impacted greatly by the threats reported.	eng
153926	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153926	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in western Ohio and Kentucky, all of Indiana (except for the most northwest corner), southern and east-central Illinois, southern Michigan, and western Tennessee near its northern border with Kentucky, USA (Thoma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).  It is widely distributed in the western part of Kentucky from  Louisville to the Mississippi River embayment (Taylor and Schuster  2004).&#160; In Ohio, it occurs in the western part of the state west from a  line running from Sandusky to Cincinnati (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).&#160; In  Alabama, it is only known from the Tennessee River drainage (Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
153926	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower that thrives in disturbed environments, for example, ditched streams surrounded by pastureland, irrigation channels, in farm fields and partially drained wetlands (Thoma<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005).	eng
153926	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commonly found throughout its wide distribution (Thoma <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
153926	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
153927	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153927	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is widespread and known to inhabit Counties in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas (Williams 1954). Although not listed in McLaughlin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005), the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus simulans </span><span style="font-style: italic;">regiomontanus</span> extends into Texas from Mexico (Johnson and Johnson 2008), and within Mexico it is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>known from Nuevo Leon (Moles and Tistler 1995).	eng
153927	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a primary burrower which constructs burrows in or at the edge of temporary pools, sometimes far from permanent water, although it has been described as inhabiting streams, ponds (Williams 1954) and lakes (Young 1971). <br/><br/>Furthermore, this species has been described from burrows in a slough (marsh) near a spring-fed pool in Kansas. In New Mexico, this species burrows into the banks of lakes and rivers as well as inhabiting quiet pools (Williams and Leonard 1952). In addition, irrigation channels and ditches have also been inhabited by this species. As a primary burrower this species is capable of existing in burrows with no surface water (Williams 1954).	eng
153927	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species was reported to occur infrequently in Kansas even though more than 20 localities were recorded. In Texas, it is common in ditches and irrigation channels (Johnson and Johnson 2008).	eng
153927	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153928	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).&#160;</em> This species is listed as State Endangered in Illinois   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153928	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits tributaries of the Patoka River in the Wabash Basin in southern Indiana and the Saline River, Honey and Rock Creek watersheds and small tributaries of the Ohio River in southern Illinois, USA (Hobbs 1989, Page and Mottesi 1995, Simon and Thoma 2006). This species is absent from the north fork of the Saline River where historical records document its presence (Page and Mottesi 1995), which comprised about 25% of its range in Illinois.<br/>  The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 11,100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153928	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to medium sized streams with coarse rocky substrates. This species prefers a slow to moderate current and is often found in association with woody debris (Simon and Thoma 2006). Most specemins collected by Page and Mottesi (1995) were from less than 30 cm deep and all were from less than 50 cm deep.	eng
153928	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common in southwestern Indiana and is regarded as common in the restricted area where it is found in Illinois (Page and Mottesi 1995). The relative abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is 0.76 individuals m<sup>-2</sup> in its perferred habitat. However, this species has been found at lower densities ? only one or two individuals per stream ? in less suitible streams that are heavilty sedimented&#160; (Simon and Thoma 2006).	eng
153928	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Habitat degradation due to strip-mining actives in the north fork of the Saline River area of Illinois are thought to be responsible for the extirpation of<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species at localities where this species was historically found (Page and Mottesi 1995). Simon and Thoma (2006) consider <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species habitat in Indiana to be under similar pressures as those in Illinois.<br/>The coal mining that occurs around streams around the middle and south forks of the Saline River seems not to be resulting in detectable impacts on the species (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The remainder of the area is relatively rural and there are not considered to be any effects from urbanization.&#160; In the eastern portion of its range where its habitat coincides with a national forest, it was collected in more than 30 locations, in many different tributaries (Simon & Thoma 2006).	eng
153929	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153929	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Escambia River basin in Conecuh, Escambia, and Monroe Counties, Alabama, and Escambia County, Florida (Hobbs 1971).     <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 5300 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
153929	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1971). This species could be considered to be a habitat generalist (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153929	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153929	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153930	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, as well as its abundance and possible threats.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
153930	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the western tributaries of the Tombigbee River in Chickasaw, Clay, Lowndes, and Monroe Counties, Mississippi (Cooper and Hobbs 1980). Furthermore, Cooper and Hobbs (980) noted that it probably also ranges northwestward at least into Lee, Pontotoc, and Union Counties. Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) included this specie<em>s </em>in a species list for <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Alabama</st1:state></st1:place>, with the caveat that the taxonomy and distribution of the taxon is unclear. Fitzpatrick (2002) included these additional <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Mississippi</st1:state></st1:place> Counties in the range: Calhoun, Choctaw, Itawamba, Oktibbeha, Prentiss, and Tishomingo. The Mississippi crayfish database lacks records from Prentiss and Tishomingo Counties, but includes records from many counties West of the published range (Adams 2008).&#160;  This species has a distribution of approximately 50000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153930	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species<em> </em>occurs in sluggish and moderately flowing streams and ditches with or without emergent vegetation. Stream substrate is sand, silt, or rock, and they often occur in areas where rock is added at road crossings.&#160; Furthermore, it is known to occur in streams that completely dry out in the summer months (Adams 2008), and<em> </em>constructs small burrows near to the water line (Cooper and Hobbs 1980).</p>	eng
153930	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Although uncommon in some sites, it is common or abundant in many localities   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153930	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>In experimental tanks, this species<em> </em>were preyed upon by catfish; more so in the absence of shelter, suggesting that the loss of cover in many incised streams within its range may limit its abundance or distribution (Adams 2007). However, at present this species is not considered to be impacted upon by any major threat process.<br/></p>	eng
153931	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which is due to the species being believed to be secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153931	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from Brazos and Brazoria counties, Texas, eastward through the coastal plain to the Mississippi basin and from the lower part of the delta to Johnson County, Illinois (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2004, Fetzner 2008, Burr and Hobbs 1984, Hobbs 1990). In addition, this species is a native of the Mississippi River lowlands in Missouri (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010)	eng
153931	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits well vegetated swamps, ditches (including roadside ditches), ponds and lowland streams with muddy substrate (Taylor, Jones and Bergey 2004, Fetzner 2008, Pfelieger 1996).	eng
153931	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been described as abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153931	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153932	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>Part of the range of this species is located within a wildlife management area (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009). The American Fisheries Society assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Threatened (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and it was given a heritage Global rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), meaning it is imperilled due to its restricted range on the one peninsula of limestone where it is found. Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) suggested that additional collections should be conducted in the Caney Fork River drainage north and east of the current known range of this species to determine whether it is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">De Kalb</st1:city></st1:place> and Cannon counties.&#160; Monitoring of logging activity is needed.<br/></p>	eng
153932	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species was first found in a tributary of Dry Creek, at Pea Ridge Wildlife Management Area in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">De Kalb County</st1:city>,  <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee, USA</st1:state></st1:place>. It has since been found to occur in a portion of the Eastern Highland Rim in central <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tennessee</st1:place></st1:state>. It appears that this species is restricted to a narrow peninsula (14 km) of elevated limestone that extends southwards throughout the counties of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">De Kalb</st1:place></st1:city> and Cannon (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Samples made in several high gradient, seep-fed, creeks in nearby Eastern Highland Rim sites surrounding the peninsula previously described did not record this species (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153932	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found only on one peninsula of limestone, with chert and shale formations, in seep fed creeks. Creeks can range from 0.25 m - 0.6 m wide with gravel and small cobbles and shale substrates. Water depth can be 1 - 5 cm, flow is not constant in all stretches. Specimens were found under pieces of flat rock and in shallow burrows dug into the stream bank (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species can be found in two types of burrow; winding burrows into the stream bank, or in shallow burrows under mid-channel shale or gravel (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
153932	population	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. However, a total of 68 specimens have been examined from five locations in the Caney Fork River drainage (5 sites) and one site in the East Fork Stones River drainage in Cannon County, Tennessee (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).</p>	eng
153932	threats	Cordeiro, J., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>Much of the species' habitat is found in an agricultural  setting and many of the small streams occupied by this species are subjected to  cattle grazing. Large numbers of cattle can trample streams destroying habitat  and reducing the abundance of this species (R. Thoma pers. obs. 2010), However at present this is not considered a major threat to this species.&#160;Furthermore, as the known range of this species is restricted to parts of only two counties it may be vulnerable to any future habitat alterations. Though, in central Tennessee this type of habitat usually occurs far from roads on privately held property where access can be restricted (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006). There is a potential future threat from timber harvest on neighbouring hillsides which would significantly impact the quality of this species habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153933	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed the global population of this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In addition this species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>Further research is required on the current abundance of this species which would enable a more comprehensive conservation status to be assigned.	eng
153933	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species occurs in the Piedmont region from Orange County, North Carolina, to Richland County, South Carolina, USA (Eversole and Jones 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Within this it is nearly restricted to the Piedmont Plateau (Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). It is found in the Haw River subdrainage in the Cape Fear basin in Alamance and Guilford Counties, in the northern and northwestern parts of the Yadkin-Pee Dee and Catawbe River basins, and in the eastern Broad River drainage. In addition, several populations are now known in the Sandhills of the North Coastal Plain (Cooper <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 65,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153933	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrower and can be found in small streams and burrows although it is not confined to either (Hobbs 1956).<br/>This species type locality has been described as the flood plain pools of Little River, Fairfield County, South Carolina. The pools were 1.5 - 4.5 m in width with clay banks and bottom,  turbid water and a temperature of 20<sup>o</sup>C. No vegetation was found in these pools.<br/>This species can survive in seepage areas where there is no permanent standing water. This species has been collected in both lotic and lentic habitats as well as relatively clear water and water laden with silt, and on neither occassion has this species shown preference   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153933	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In 1956 it was reported that this species was abundant at 1 locality but it was believed that there was additionally a colony of some size in a seepage area in Rowan County (Hobbs 1956).<br/>There is no recent abundance data for this species.	eng
153933	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats acting upon this species although it is likely to be impacted upon by the urban development occurring in the Carolinas and from urban non point-source pollution   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In some areas of this species range invasive species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>, have been found which could impact the species (Fullerton and Watson 2001).	eng
153934	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G3/G4 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance, habitat ecology and threats impacting this species.	eng
153934	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Pascagoula, Escatawpa and Mobile river basins in Mobile and Washington Counties, Alabama, and George, Jackson, Perry, and Stone Counties, Mississippi (Hobbs 1952). Furthermore, it is also known from the from lower Tombigbee river systems, Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153934	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in permanent streams (Hobbs 1952).	eng
153934	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species is thought to be uncommon throughout its range (Fitzpatrick 1996).	eng
153934	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species is impacted upon by urbanization in part of its range, but this is not believed to be a major threat (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153935	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al. 2007).	eng
153935	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species occurs in most of Ohio, western West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, southwestern Pennsylvania and northwestern Tennessee, wherever suitable habitat occurs. (Jezerinac 1993).<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 172,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;</p>	eng
153935	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is a primary burrower that burrows near streams or swamps near streams. This species is rarely seen outside of its burrow (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000, Jezerinac <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).	eng
153935	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In Kentucky, this species occurs sporadically from the Big and Little Sandy River drainages in the far eastern part of the state west to the uppermost Salt and Green River drainages and south to the upper Cumberland River drainage (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; In Ohio it is found from the eastern side of the state west up to the eastern side of the Great Miami River basin and can also be found in the Appalachian Foothills of Kentucky and West Virginia and a small area of Tennessee just west of the Smoky Mountains (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In addition, this species was collected in 2007 in the headwaters of the Youghiogheny in Garrett County, Maryland which may represent an invasion of robust populations from along the Ohio River floodplain leading to possible invasion of the Monongahela River, which the Youghiogheny River ultimately joins (Loughman 2007).	eng
153935	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>	eng
153936	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required on the taxonomy of this species.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
153936	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is <span class="copy">known from Ouachita and Red River drainages in Nevada, Howard, and Sevier counties, Arkansas. It was recently documented in northeast Texas in Fannin County (Johnson and Johnson 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 4,600 km<sup>2</sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range and is known from fewer than 20 sites each of which had fewer than 50 individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153936	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is found in simple burrows and temporary pools (Hobbs and Robison 1988).&#160; It is a primary burrower, i.e. it burrows all year long in one place and rarely exits except during the breeding season when males search for females. This species was never collected in static open water, in fields or in ditches with standing water. Burrows are generally simple in construction, and depths of capture ranged from 1-2.5 feet. Soils where burrows were found tend to be of a sandy clay without standing water. Roadside ditches, because of their propensity to hold water seasonally, are a favourite habitat type for this species (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153936	population	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	In each population examined, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish.&#160; No formal estimates of population size have been conducted for this species, though, it can occur in 'extremely large' colonies (Robison and Allen 1995). Searches have found fewer than 50 individuals at each site (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2010).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153936	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	The major threat to this species is conversion of land for agriculture and resulting pollution (sedimentation, eutrophication, herbicides and pesticides) (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153937	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species as a species of Special Concern (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and NatureServe has given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2G3, imperilled and vulnerable to extirpation   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>Further research is required into the population trends and abundance of this species as well as the effects of any threats impacting them.	eng
153937	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species is only known from the Saluda River basin in Abbeville, <st1:city w:st="on">Anderson</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Greenville</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Greenwood</st1:city>, Laurens, Newberry, and Saluda, counties, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South Carolina</st1:place></st1:state>. The type locality is <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Anderson</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> and the county with the most number of records (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153937	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species type locality is a swampy area bordering an unnamed  tributary of the Saluda River (Hobbs 1983). This species is a primary burrower which creates burrows in sandy clay rich in humus with a relatively high water table, but static water flow   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>Other members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Distocambarus</span>, most notably <em>D. crockeri</em>, are associated with soils characterized by a near surface (< 2 m deep) soil horizon that restricts vertical water movement and results in a perched water table that ensures free water in the burrow during periods of high rainfall (Welch and Eversole 2006, Welch <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; However, this might not be the case with <em>C. carlsoni</em>, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> (1983) gives the impression that the water table was closer to the surface than has been observed in <em>D. crockeri</em> colonies; he described the habitat as swampy and that is not the case for <em>D. crockeri.</em> Another major difference is that <em>D. crockeri</em> lives in open-canopy, prairie-types habitats whereas <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> (1983) found <em>D. carlsoni</em> in more forested area with matted roots, decaying leaves littering the ground.&#160; Note also that <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:city></st1:place> (1983) type locality for <em>D. carlsoni</em> was near a stream and that is clearly not the case for <em>D. crockeri</em> colonies (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153937	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There is no data to indicate a decline in this species (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species has proven difficult to collect owing to its burrowing nature and there have been a number of droughts (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153937	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	In the Savannah River Basin surface water abstraction from the Savannah river provides drinking water for the municipalities. There are also 183 facilities, including municipalities and industry, authorized to discharge waste water into the Savannah River Basin (Georgia River Network 2002). Habitat destruction and alteration have been stated as 'challenges' to this species (South Carolina Department of Natural Resources 2005). &#160;  <p>Alteration of soil hydrology should be considered a major threat to all the <span style="font-style: italic;">Distocambarus</span> species including <em>D. carlsoni.</em> </p>	eng
153938	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'endangered' based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Ite protection is urgently needed with measures to address water quality issues. Monitoring of the poulation trends is needed to determine if the population is in decline.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153938	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in a single creek in Caddo Parish, Louisiana. It is only known from its type locality and is endemic to Louisiana (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 6.5 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153938	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in an intermittent stream, with a substrate consisting of loamy soils. The Jacob's Memorial Park is a relatively undisturbed pine, oak and hickory forest (Walls 2006).Walls (2006) reported that significant habitat still remains for this species in this area, but that it has not been recorded in any other creeks in the park, aside from Fordney Creek.	eng
153938	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Only ten specimens of this species have been collected from Fordney Creek (NatureServe 2009). Searches have been conducted in the remaining creeks in Jacob's Memorial Park, and even though similar habitat has been found, no other individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>have been recorded (Walls 2006).	eng
153938	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is impacted by tourism, and declining water quality upstream of its type locality. Both public access and upstream water problems urgently need to be addressed as this species occurs in a single location, and could become extinct by a single pollution event (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
153939	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153939	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the northern tributaries of the westward flowing segment of the Tennessee River, between Shoal Creek and the Paint Rock River,  in Alabama and Tennessee, USA (Fetzner 2008).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 10,900 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153939	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, mianly in riffles and under rocks (Outdoor Alabama 2008).	eng
153939	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, however in suitable habitat it is found to be common to abundant (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153939	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153940	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether it is still present within its known range.	eng
153940	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type locality, within the tributaries of the Rio Nautla, in the vicinity of <st1:city w:st="on">Tlapacoyan</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). However, survey work is needed to determine whether this species is still present within this location, as flash flooding has submerged this town   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153940	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from streams (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153940	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153940	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. Though, flash flooding has submerged its type location   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153941	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153941	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found from the Altamaha River drainage in Georgia to Marion County, Florida. A few localities are known in Bryan, Montgomery, and Toombs Counties, Georgia (Hobbs 1942; Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 34000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153941	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in clear, swift streams, stagnant pools, roadside ditches, flatwood ponds and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942). This species is a habitat generalist.	eng
153941	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153941	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is not impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153942	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and a rank of Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<br/></em>  Further research on the threats to this species is required.	eng
153942	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Big and Meramec rivers in St. Francis, St. Genevieve, and Washington Counties, Missouri, USA (Williams 1954, Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974, Pflieger 1996). <br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,200 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153942	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits medium to large sized streams with coarse rock substrates and is most commonly found beneath rocks in areas of permanent but moderate flow (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153942	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>but it is believed to be fairly common within its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>	eng
153942	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species. This species has been collected in degraded habitat, in areas which had active cattle grazing, no riparian vegetation and high flocculant algal growth. Despite these perturbations, this species was still found in good numbers (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153943	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abunance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153943	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is widely distributed throughout the states of <st1:city w:st="on">Veracruz</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Oaxaca</st1:state> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1987). This species has distribution of approximately<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>10,000km<sup>2</sup>, though this may be an underestimate. <em><br/></em>	eng
153943	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from a variety of lotic and lentic habitats (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1987). In addition, it is known to occur in subtropical climates and is typically found at an altitude of 300 - 1000 m   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153943	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is widespread, but not found in large numbers, though there have been a number of collections made of this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>	eng
153943	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160; However, it may be suffering localized declines in parts of its range, as a result of habitat destruction and degradation, as this species occurs in both urban areas and inaccessible remote areas   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153944	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007), meaning this species is apparently secure.	eng
153944	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs from the Marais des Cygnes River, Kansas, eastward through southern Missouri in the Osage River, and into the Black and Black Rock Rivers, Arkansas, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954). Recent work shows that this specis also extends into Iowa and Southern Minnesota, while this species presence in Wisconsin is uncertain   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 85,0000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153944	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found under rocks or debris in clear to moderately turbid, swiftly flowing streams and rivers of any size with firm cobble or gravel substrates (Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).	eng
153944	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is easily found throughout its range (Wetzel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Poly and Wetzel 2003), and is abundant in Missouri (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153944	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticu</span>s has encroached on the range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species in Iowa (Wetzel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), although there is no evidence to suggest this is having a negative impact upon populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, apart from this, there are no major threats to the species.	eng
153945	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no species specific conservation measures inplace for this species. Though, this species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure, and assessed as Currently Stable by the&#160; American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153945	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Alabama drainage system in Clarke County, Alabama, to Chattooga and Whitfield Counties, Georgia, and the Tennessee river basin in Walker and Catoosa Counties Georgia, and Polk County, Tennessee (Fetzner 2008).	eng
153945	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a tertiary burrower, which has a type locality of a roadside ditch which passes through pastureland (Hobbs and Walton 1960). This species can be found in other lentic and lotic situations (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153945	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153945	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is widely distributed across the southern part of Alabama. There are no species specific threats recorded, but as a tertiary burrower it is likely to be impacted by surface water abstraction and water pollution on a local scale, however, these are not considered to be major threats to the species   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153946	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Threatened based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153946	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known to occur in Wetappo Creek, Gulf County, and St.Marks River in Leon and Wakulla counties, Florida (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153946	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent, clear flowing streams (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153946	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>when found is locally abundant, but no formal census estimates have been made nor is there any historical information to infer population stability or decline (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153946	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153947	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the two remaining subpopulations is needed to determine if this species is in decline.	eng
153947	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from two localities in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). These are La Media Luna, 6.6 km south of Rioverde, and El Venado, 105 km southwest of Matehuala City (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). These sites are approximately 60 km apart. It is unlikley to be found at other sites as there is very little water in the area   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 5,000 km².	eng
153947	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	At El Venado, this speices is found amongst scarce grass in a spring pool with clear water and a rocky bottom (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1996). At La Media Luna, it has been found in a wide ditch (8-35 feet) with clear water and a moderately strong current (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974). The bottom of the ditch consists of rocks, boulders, gravel and deep mud, with dense beds of submergent aquatic plants and a few water lilies (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974).&#160; The water temperature is approximately 26 °C (Villalobos and Hobbs 1974), and the surrounding area is very arid with no or little suitable surrounding habitat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153947	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is not abundant at La Media Luna (C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>	eng
153947	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Freshwater systems in the state of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">San Luis   Potosi</st1:state></st1:place> are known to be threatened by water abstraction and other forms of habitat degradation and destruction (Contreras-Balderas <em>et al</em>. 2003).&#160; However, the effect of these threats on this species are unknown. La Laguna is a popular dive site, and there is a thriving tourism industry at this lagoon. The spring habitat that this species is known to occur in is now shrinking in size, and water is taken for agriculture from the area surrounding La Media   Luna; tourism and water abstraction are very likely to be impacting this species (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153948	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4G5, apparently secure and widespread, by NatureServe,&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007)<em>.</em>	eng
153948	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs between the White, St. Francis, and Missouri Rivers in Arkansas and Missouri, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed&#160;82,400 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
153948	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits vegetated areas of streams of varying size and often uses detritus and rocks as cover (Pflieger 1996). This species is aggresive and can therefore exclude others such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes luteus</span>. It does not have a broad tolerance of habitat type and so is restricted in its distribution (Rabeni 1985).<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>	eng
153948	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been noted as often the most abundant crayfish in much of its range (Pflieger 1996, Flinders and Magoulick 2005).	eng
153948	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>There are other introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>species (<span style="font-style: italic;">O. hylus</span> in the St. Francis River and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. neglectus </span>into the Spring River) in the range of this species, however there are currently no reports of a negative impact on this species&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153949	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153949	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	The species occurs along the Gulf Coastal Plain in Oklahoma and eastern Texas, East to the Florida panhandle and North through Georgia to the upper coastal plain in South Carolina; and also in the lower Mississippi Valley West of the Mississippi River, from Louisiana to southeastern Missouri (Hobbs 1989, Pflieger 1996). Pflieger (1996) believed that this species was probably more widely distributed in Missouri before the area was ditched and drained. Furthermore, the range of this species has not been clearly defined. Research is needed to ascertain whether or not current records for Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma are based on correct identification (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 540,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153949	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is a tertiary burrower inhabiting slow or sluggish streams, marshes, swamps and ditches (Mobberly and Pfrimmer 1967). In Missouri, it occurs in small intermittent creeks and shallows of seasonally flooded sloughs and swamps, when not in burrows (Pflieger 1996). This species prefers relatively undisturbed habitat (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153949	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Recent surveys in Arkansas found this species to be locally abundant when encountered (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153949	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
153950	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
153950	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in Arkansas, Ouachita, and the Red river basins in southwestern Arkansas (Hobbs and Robison 1982). Originally, it was described by Hobbs and Robison (1982) from 12 localities in the Red and Ouachita River basins in Clark, Grant, Hot Spring, Nevada, Ouachita, Pike, and Sevier Counties.&#160; Hobbs and Robison (1988) added 21 additional localities from Clark, Franklin, Hempstead, Hot Spring, Howard, Montgomery, Nevada, Pike, Polk, Saline, and Sebastian Counties.   This species has a distribution of approximately 32,561 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153950	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary pools and backwater pools of small streams on floodplains (Hobbs and Robison 1982).	eng
153950	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are difficult to find and there are few individuals associated with local populations when they are found. In every instance, it is found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish (K. Crandall pers comm. 2009). However, Hobbs and Robison (1988) found this species to be common when found.	eng
153950	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
153951	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> has been given the heritage rank of G4/G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009), which is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed to determine the population status and threats impacting this species.	eng
153951	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species occurs from streams of the lower Oconee and Ohoopee drainages in Georgia to South Carolina Counties below the fall line from the Savannah River to the Santee River basin (Eversole and Jones 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 45,000 km².	eng
153951	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits small, moderately flowing, clear stream tributaries with a sand substrate (Hobbs 1946, Hobbs 1958).	eng
153951	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species.	eng
153951	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting this species. The <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Altamaha</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> watershed and surrounding areas are relatively undeveloped (Weston<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2003).	eng
153952	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance and threats impacting upon this species.	eng
153952	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a wide ranging species found in Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Oklahoma and Nebraska (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985).	eng
153952	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower and has been recorded from a variety of habitats including wet meadows, ditches, lowland pools, roadside berms, prairies and ephemeral ponds in woodlands (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985). This species disperses using contiguous drainages (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985). Juveniles are primarily found in open water areas (Hobbs and Rewolinski 1985).	eng
153952	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, though this species is thought to be common for a burrowing species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153952	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.&#160; Furthermore, this species is known to occur in degraded urban areas where there is mud for burrowing   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153953	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of   Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153953	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Tennessee River basin, from Shoal Creek in Lawrence County and Hardin County, Tennessee, to Lauderdale County, Alabama (Fetzner 2008).     <p>This species has a distribution of approximately 14951 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
153953	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams (Fetzner 2008), usually under woody debris and leaves along stream margins (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153953	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is thought to be relatively common. There are 72 records of this species in the Smithsonian Institute, and one record comprises more than 240 specimens (Buffler Spring, Lauderdale County) (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153953	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>Furthermore, this species exists in the tributaries of the Tennessee River, rather than in the main river channel, and therefore is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as dam building which is present in this area   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153954	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007). <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153954	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Thisa species inhabits central Kentucky with its most northerly population just entering southern Indiana, USA (Taylor 2000). In addition, in 2005&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species was discovered to have been introduced into eastern France (Chucholl and Daudey 2008).	eng
153954	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits streams and creeks with gravel, cobble and mud substrates (Taylor 2000).	eng
153954	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> considered abundant in suitable habitat   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153954	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
153955	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153955	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality at Cueva del Agua, 75 km East of Valles in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
153955	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2009	This species is known from a cave stream (Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, this is a troglobytic species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153955	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimens.<em></em>	eng
153955	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2009	The region in which this species is found is dominated by agricultural land, though it is currently not known what impact this is having on this species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153956	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe, 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>Further research is required to determine abundance and the existence of any major threats, especially in the light of a recent decline in site occupancy   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153956	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from caves in the Tennessee River basin between Florence and Guntersville, Alabama, USA (Hobbs 1989, Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). According to Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), this species is currently known from 12 caves in Alabama.&#160; Previous cave localities in Marshall County actually represent two distinct species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus speleocoopi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus laconensis </span>(Buhay and Crandall 2009). As such, this species only occurs in Colbert, Limestone, Lauderdale, Madison, and Morgan Counties, Alabama. It was previously recorded from 14 sites along the Highland Rim region of northern Alabama (six counties on both sides of the Tennessee River) and is now known from 12 (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/>This range is severely fragmented, with an extent of occurrence of approximately 11,000 km<sup>2</sup> and an inferred decline in the quality of cave habitat (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153956	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a cave dwelling species inhabiting subterranean water (Hobbs and Barr 1960). This species is known to co-occur with other cave crayfish species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes sheltae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pecki </span>(Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153956	population	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data for this species. All populations of this species are, however, composed of very few individuals and fecundity of these is low (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153956	threats	Cordeiro, J., Crandall, K.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is unknown whether<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution. As this species has documented habitat declines, further research should be initiated to determine the cause of this decline (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153957	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153957	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Mobile River drainage in Choctaw, Clarke, Dallas, Hale, Marengo, Perry, Sumter, and Webster Counties, Alabama., USA.&#160; This species is also present in Kemper and Chikasaw Counties, Mississippi (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 31,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153957	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in permanent lotic habitat predominantly, with clay and sand substrates (Fitzpatrick and Busack 1989), and is a secondary burrower associated with ditches and ponds   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153957	population	Adams, S., 2010	&#160;  There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it has been annecdotally described as&#160;relatively common at some sites, but not abundant   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153957	threats	Adams, S., 2010	Few threats have been identified to be impacting this species. The area it occupies is impacted by localised urbanisation, with possible effects from logging (sedimentation) and agriculture   (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153958	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the population status and the threats to each pond.	eng
153958	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality at El Coyular, 7 km northeast of La Union, in the <st1:city w:st="on">Municipio de  Zihuateutla</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). It is uncertain whether this species is still present at the type locality   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  This species has an approximate extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>²</sup>.	eng
153958	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from a stream habitat and small ponds (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974). Furthermore, this species is known to coexist with<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus zihuateutlensis</span>, and the pond habitat it is known to occur is very small   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153958	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, and it is uncertain as to whether this species is still present the type locality at El Coyular   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153958	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The ponds where this species is known to occur are within a town, and are drained for drinking water   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153959	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153959	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Big Black and Pearl river basins in Attala, Carroll, Hinds, Montgomery, Rankin, and Scott Counties, and the Upper leaf river drainage, Mississippi, as wel&#160; as Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana (Hobbs and Walton 1957).	eng
153959	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in seasonal lentic situations and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs and Walton 1957). Furthermore, it seems to be relatively tolerant of development (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153959	population	Adams, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species	eng
153959	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be impacted on a local level by threats such as channelisation, development and industry, which occur in the Pearl River, but is unlikely to be being impacted on a global scale.	eng
153960	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by AFS (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance and ecology of this species, and whether there are any major threats impacting upon it.	eng
153960	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Alabama River basin in Dallas, Hale, Monroe, and Perry Counties, Alabama (Hobbs 1975).&#160; This species is only known from 7 sites in 4 localities, though only one of these collections is recent, April 2008, the remainder are over 35 years old (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species has a distribution of approximately 1000-5000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153960	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent lentic and sluggish lotic situations with silt or clay substrates, littered with plant debris (Hobbs 1975).&#160; It is also found in roadside ditches   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
153960	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153960	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is not clear whether there are any major threats impacting upon this species. There are a number of potential threats that occur within its range, including changes in hydrological regimes (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153961	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153961	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the tributaries of the Satilla River, Georgia, and southward through peninsular Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 87000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153961	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a burrowing species found in lentic and lotic situations (Hobbs 1942). Hobbs (1942) indicates that this species has a very variable habitat range, and will occur in any freshwater habitat providing there is sufficient vegetation to provide protection from predators.	eng
153961	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Hobbs (1942) recorded 1844 specimens and stated that it is one of the most common species in the North-central part of the Florida peninsular.	eng
153961	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no major threat processes imapcting upon this species.	eng
153962	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). <br/><br/>The cave within which this species&#160;is located, has been protected by the NSS since 1967. Protection measures include a cave fence surrounding the cave's entrances and the surrounding&#160;area.&#160;Buhay and Crandall (2008) assessed the species using IUCN criteria and recommended a Critical (CR) listing be imposed, owing to a decline in EOO, found at a single location, and an inferred decline in number of mature individuals.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>Monitoring of the population trends is urgently needed.	eng
153962	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is endemic to one cave, Shelta cave, in Madison County, Alabama, USA (Buhay 2006), where it co-occurs with <span style="font-style: italic;">O. australis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Camberis jonesi</span> (Cooper and Cooper 1997). Within this cave, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is found in a 283 m² subterranean lake, down a 762 m long passage (Cooper and Cooper 1997). The extent of occurrence of this species has been estimated to exceed 2,100 km², although the inferred area of occupancy (AOO) is thought to be less than 1 km².	eng
153962	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is found in a subterranean lake and passage, where it is dependent on external nutrients entering the cave, such as leaf litter. In addition, the guano of the Gray Bat <span style="font-style: italic;">Myotis grisescens &#160;</span>provides nutrient input&#160;(Cooper and Cooper 1997).	eng
153962	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The species is known from 17 specimens, held in the Smithsonian Natural History Museum (holotype and the allotype) and the North Carolina State museum.&#160; Another 97 individuals were examined and released during a study between 1968 and 1975 (Cooper and Cooper 1997, Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
153962	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species&#160;is impacted by a variety of threats, namely land development, vandalism, cave abandonment by Gray Bats, insecticides and water level fluctuations. In the 1960s, there was extensive vandalism in the cave while the surrounding land was developed with residential housing (Cooper and Cooper 1997). In 1967, the cave was purchased by the National Speleological Society (NSS) which owns the entrances and controls access to the cave. The Headquarters of the NSS has been built above the cave (Mississippi State University 2003). In an attempt to curb vandalism, cave gates were built at the entrances to the caves in 1968, but these were not conducive to Gray Bat colonization. By 1970, the bats had abandoned the cave, reducing the amount of nutrients available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Overall cave biodiversity has declined since the Gray Bats left the cave (Cooper and Cooper 1997). In 2002, a fence was erected 20 feet around the cave to encourage the bats to return, and to continue to deter vandalism (Mississippi State University 2003). Some water chemistry analysis has been conducted at the cave, which found high levels of the insecticide Heptachlor epoxide in 1989 presumably from surrounding residential gardens (Mississippi State University 2003). Additionally, this area of Alabama, due to geological circumstances, is prone to having high levels of radon gas. Levels in the cave were very high at 400 - 500 pCi/L, although the impact of this on this species is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Finally, this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is sensitive to water level fluctuations, common at this site as a result of droughts.&#160;The NSS is controlling the number of visitors to the cave, but still allows school groups to visit, thus continuing to cause disturbance to&#160;this species suitable<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153963	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable within its range and have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apperently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research on population abundance and the impact the threats are having on this species are required. Also a monitoring program to assess the decline in quality of the habitat should be initiated.	eng
153963	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> is known from Samson and Cumberland counties potentially in extreme southwestern Johnston county, North Carolina, south to Horry and Marion counties, South Carolina (Hobbs 1989, Cooper and Braswell 1995).	eng
153963	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> is a secondary burrower which frequents ditches, borrow pits, temporary bodies of standing water and small sluggish streams (Hobbs and Walton 1958).	eng
153963	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153963	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	No species specific threats have been reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pearsei</span> although the water quality in the Cape Fear River basin is poor with 35% of the streams in the basin considered threatened and 18% are impaired by pollution (North Carolina State University 2006). The pollution recorded is from large scale animal farming, with nutrient loading and sedimentation a result of this.	eng
153964	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and G4 by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Further research is required to determine abundance, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153964	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in tributaries of the Tallapoosa drainage system in Alabama and Georgia, USA (Ratcliffe and DeVries 2004), specifically the Piedmont Plateau province of the Tallapoosa drainage (Ratcliffe and DeVries 2004).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 10,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153964	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Tis species is found in permanent pools and streams consisting of sand substrates littered with rocks, where the water is slightly cloudy (Hobbs 1968).	eng
153964	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153964	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be expereincing declines due to alterations of the hydrological regime, water pollution and climate change   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153965	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the Global Heritage Rank Status of G4G5 by NatureServe (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153965	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species&#160;is widespread in the Tombigbee and lower Alabama River basins in Alabama, and in Clay and Lowndes Counties, Mississippi, USA (Walls 1972).&#160; Additional records of this species in the Mississippi Crayfish database from the&#160;Yazoo River drainage in&#160;Montgomery County, the&#160;Chickasawhay River drainage in&#160;Lauderdale County, and the&#160;Bayou Pierre River drainage in&#160;Copiah County represent range extensions outside of the Tombigbee River basin and warrant further investigation to confirm&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Fitzpatrick (1996) also included&#160;Clarke, Itawamba, Neshoba, and Noxubee Counties,&#160;Mississippi, in the range of this species but did not specify the location of accompanying voucher specimens.</p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 60,000 km<sup>2.&#160;</sup></p>	eng
153965	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in permanent streams and rivers (Walls 1972).	eng
153965	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is regarded as relatively widespread and common, especially in the Tombigbee River drainage (Hobbs 1989)</p><p>  </p>	eng
153965	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species&#160;is impacted by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines in areas of urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153966	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; However, part of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rio</st1:placename> <st1:placename w:st="on">Necaxa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River   Basin</st1:placetype></st1:place> is designated as a Natural Resources Protection Area (Zona Protectora Forestal Vedada Cuenca Hidrográfica del Río Necaxa), and is a recognized Ramsar site (Ramsar 2008). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes.</p>	eng
153966	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<em> </em>is known from the headwater tributaries of the Rio Cazones, Rio Necaxa and Rio Tecolutla, in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla, Mexico (Hobbs 1982).	eng
153966	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1974), and is able to occupy habitats with a temperature range of 7  ºC  - 15  ºC&#160; and is known to be adaptable   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153966	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is believed to be common with a strong population, and is easy to collect   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153966	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species may be impacted by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes on a global scale   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><span class="MsoHyperlink"></p>	eng
153967	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153967	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species inhabits the tributaries of the Cheat, Greenbrier, and Tygart rivers in West Virginia, the Allegheny and Monongahela river basins in Pennsylvania and New York, and is widespread in eastern Ohio, USA (Fetzner 2008, Thoma and Jezerinac 1999). In recent years this species has extended its range to the basin of Lake Erie and can now be found in the tributaries of the Grand River, Ohio and Gennessee River, New York (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).&#160; It extends into a small portion of Virginia in the East River in Tazewell and Bland Counties (R. Thoma, pers. comm. 2009). It has recently been documented in the Monongahela River in Maryland (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009). The extent of occurrence of this speceis has been estimated to exceed 116,000 km 0178.	eng
153967	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a secondary burrowing species that inhabits cool pools and riffles of small streams fed by springs (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). This species is occasionally found in non-permanent streams in very low densities (Thoma and Jezerinac 1999).	eng
153967	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population information available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153967	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	Sedimentation caused by forest removal has greatly reduced the size of subpopulations of this species in Ohio<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Furthermore, strip mining and acid mine drainage can extirpate this species from affected areas (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000).	eng
153968	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is affected by any major threat processes.	eng
153968	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from five localities in the vicinity of <st1:city w:st="on">Cuetzalan</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Puebla</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160; The type locality for this species is Cueva de Tasalolpan, 5 km southwest of Cuetzalan, in the Rio Tecuantepec watershed (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160; It has also been found at a spring 6.1 km North of Cuetzalan, at Sumidero de Atepolihuit de San Andrés, at Sima Zoquiapan (1.1 km north of Cuetzalan) and at Sumidero de Chichicasapan (0.8 km South of Cuetzalan) (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1982).&#160;In addition, this species has been recently collected from the&#160;Cuichat River and caves in Zapotitlán (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).&#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153968	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species occurs in subterranean habitats and springs (Hobbs 1982). It is also found in water storage tanks (  M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009), and the biggest specimens are known to occur in these water tanks. Furthermore, it is known to occur in rainforests at altitude, streams that pass through towns and rivers   (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <em><br/></em>	eng
153968	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is thought to be reasonably common, though the population size is thought to be small    (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Most recent collections of this species have found it to be abundant in streams and rivers int he&#160;vicinity&#160;of Cuetzalan (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><em></em>	eng
153968	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	As this species is predominantly found in the region south of the city of Puebla, urbanization is not thought to be an imminent threat to this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). Water use and deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) around small mountainous towns is a more likely threat to this species (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). This species is not harvested for food     (M. López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). The type locality of this species is know completely surrounded by the nearby town (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><em></em>	eng
153969	conservation	Eversole, A.G., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5 by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<br/><br/>Further research is required on the distribution of this species as well as the abundance and the threats impacting upon it.	eng
153969	distribution	Eversole, A.G., 2010	This species can be found in the Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannah river systems in eastern Georgia and South Carolina (Hobbs 1962). Hobbs <em>et al.</em> (1976) documented it in the Savannah River Plant Park (on the Savannah River) in southwest South Carolina.&#160; Range includes tributaries to the Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannaah Rivers; eastern Georgia, western South Carolina (Eversole and Jones, 2004).&#160; In South Carolina, it occurs in Aiken, Allendlae, and Hampton Cos. (Eversole and Jones, 2004). This&#160;species&#160;is also found in the Edisto and Broad-St. Helena drainages (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010). The extent of occurrence is estimated at 3,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153969	habitat	Eversole, A.G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus pubescens</span> is a tertiary burrower which inhabits streams (Brown 1981; Hobbs 1989)	eng
153969	population	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
153969	threats	Eversole, A.G., 2010	There are no specific threats reported for this species however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat alteration for urban development and agriculture. Surface water abstraction would also have a major impact on this species as it is a tertiary burrower.	eng
153970	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by trhe American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007), meaning the species is apparently secure, widespread and abundant.	eng
153970	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species extends from the western Gulf Coastal Plain from extreme southern Illinois to Louisiana and west to eastern Texas, including the state of Oklahoma (Hobbs 1989, Pflieger 1996). It is considered likely that this species' range is wider in Oklahoma than currently known (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 380,800 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153970	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits deep, permanent waters of oxbows, bayous, and slow-moving lowland streams, shallow streams and associated flood plains with mud or mixed mud and sand substrates (Pflieger 1996, Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160; It is also found in shallow burrows   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153970	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> On the extreme northern edge of its distribution in northern Illinois, this species has declined in one study of an oxbow lake (C. Taylor pers. comm.). This species is not found to be particularly common but it is difficult to sample. Low counts in collecting trips is most likely an artifact of this<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>  (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/></span></p>	eng
153970	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>The amount of suitable habitat available to the species is large   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153971	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and currently stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em style="font-style: italic;">et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 2007).	eng
153971	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from seven counties in north central Tennessee, USA, in the Obey and Big South Fork Cumberland River drainages (Hobbs 1989). In Tennessee it occurs in the Cumberland Plateau province in the East Fork Obey River system, Emory River system, and Big South Fork Cumberland River system in Cumberland, Fentress, Morgan, Overton, Putnam, and Scott Counties (Williams and Bivens 2001, Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Recently Rohrbach and Withers (2006) also reported this species for the first time from Bridge Creek in the Calfkill River drainage. The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated as 2,461 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153971	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<em></em>This species can be found on the bottom or in the banks of small streams, under rocks, in leaf litter, in algal mats or in short burrows (Fetzner 2008, Bouchard 1973a). This species is also found in pools with sandy or silty bottoms (Bouchard 1973a).	eng
153971	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153971	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
153972	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and is listed as Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
153972	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is endemic to the upper Green River basin in Kentucky and Tennessee, USA (Hobbs 1989).&#160; In Kentucky it is found most commonly in the Batten River drainage, the mainstem of the middle section of the Green River, and in the Nolin Rover above Nolin Lake (Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160;&#160;<p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 19,500 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
153972	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is a tertiary burrower found in streams or riffles (Burr <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is also commonly found under large boulders and in association with limestone or rubble, and along creek margins where there is current (Hobbs 1974, Rhoades 1944, Taylor and Schuster 2004).&#160; It is occasionally found in shallow riffles if there are large boulders present. This is the largest species of<em> Cambaridae,</em> reaching a maximum size of 135 mm.	eng
153972	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as&#160;uncommon.&#160; It is best described as sporadic, as the habitat which it prefers (large flat rocks), is not a common habitat&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153972	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The main threats to<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>this species&#160;are fragmentation of the range preventing gene flow&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is possible that populations in the Green and Nolin Rivers have become isolated due to reservoir construction.&#160; These were built in the late 1960s to the early 1970s&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It is unlikely that invasive species introduced to these lake systems by bait release from fishing will impact this species due to their large size, and different habitat preferences&#160;(S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153973	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been described by the American Fisheries Society as Currently Stable in its range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). In addition, this species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3G4, vulnerable to extirpation or extinction and apparently secure according to NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).<br/>There are no conservation plans in place for this species currently as it has only recently been classified. <br/>More research is needed for this species before any accurate assessment can be made. Population size, trends and life history must be established. Furthermore,&#160; threats need to be accurately identified in order to assess the number of locations and sub-populations of this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153973	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is only known from Cape Fear and Yadkin-Pee Dee River basins in North Carolina, USA, but may have a wider distribution (Cooper 2001). Its range is likely to increase to other river basins in central North Carolina following further surveys. This species is also recently reported from South Carolina in Fishing Creek in the Catawba River basin in Chester County   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). The type locality of this species is Bearskin Creek (Cooper 2001).    The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 24,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153973	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent streams   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153973	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known from 22 localities in the Cape Fear River basin and 36 localities in the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin (Cooper 2001). Arnie Eversole (Clemson University) reported species from two sites in South Carolina, including Fishing Creek in the Catawba River basin in Chester County (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2008). There have been&#160; 291 vouchers taken of this species from 58 localities (all in NCSM) (Cooper 2001)	eng
153973	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153974	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).&#160;<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
153974	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the tributaries of the White and Little Red rivers in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, USA (Fetzner 2008, Pflieger 1996).<br/><br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 16,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153974	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs under large slabs of rock or rocky outcrops in clear streams, pools and lakes (Williams 1954, Pflieger 1996).	eng
153974	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is regarded as fairly common throughout its range (Pflieger 1996).	eng
153974	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is captured for human consumption in one lake within its range (Pflieger 1996). This is unlikely, however, to cause global population declines.	eng
153975	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G1G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Endangered based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153975	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is known from 29 sites in 11 counties in Texas (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). A targeted survey has not yet been done, but will likely increase the number of occurrences significantly (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153975	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is a primary burrower which lives in grassy pastureland with a sand and clay substrate. The type locality is agricultural pastureland which has been used for horses and cattle for the last 10 years. There are temporary pools which form after rain, but the entire area dries out in the summer (Fitzpatrick and Wicksten 1998). It has also been suggested that this species will also occupy stream or puddle habitats (Fitzpatrick and Wicksten 1998).	eng
153975	population	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species is abundant at sites at which it is found (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153975	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Johnson, D., 2010	This species' habitat is not subject to significant development, and so it is not thought to be threatened at present (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153976	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage status rank of G4 and G5, it is apparently secure or demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to ascertain the abundance and current distribution of this species, as well as the threats impacting upon it.	eng
153976	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is known from the Cape Fear River basin in Columbus and Bladen Counties, North Carolina. It is also known from the in the lowermost portions of the piedmont and the coastal plain to the Santee River system in Colleton County, South Carolina (Hobbs 1958); it occurs in nine counties and the lower coastal plain drainages from the North Carolina border south to the Savannah River (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
153976	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a generalist species which can be found frequenting swamps, ponds, lakes, roadside ditches, springs and streams. It occurs in lentic and lotic habitats and burrows (Hobbs 1962).	eng
153976	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This speceis is believed to be widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
153976	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species may be threatened locally by urban development and watercourse alteration, but it is not known to what extent (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153977	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153977	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been found in a tributary of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Pánuco</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> at Camino a Olotla, 2 km East of Tlanchinol in <st1:state w:st="on">Hidalgo</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region></st1:place>, at an altitude of 1,375 m (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; Most of the rivers and streams surrounding Tlanchinol have been surveyed for crayfish, but this species has only been found at this single location (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
153977	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits a cloud-forest stream, where the water temperature rarely exceeds 15°C (Lopez-Mejia <em>et al</em>. 2005). The habitat of this species is in good condition, though near to a small town. Furthermore, this species inhabits clear water, has a total length of 57 mm and is not vulnerable to predation   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153977	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species. However, 20 or more specimens can be collected in a survey, and hence this species is neither considered rare nor abundant   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153977	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats to this species within its range	eng
153978	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	The American Fisheries Society has assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 assigned by NatureServe, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research on the precise habitat requirements and abundance of this species is required as well as identifying any threats impacting upon it.	eng
153978	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species has a wide distribution and is known from the Escambia River drainage in Florida westward to the Pearl River basin in Mississippi (Hobbs 1989) and Louisiana (Penn 1959).	eng
153978	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is a secondary burrower which can be found in permanent streams, marshes and ditches (Penn 1959, Hobbs 1989). Furthermore, it is known to occur in shallow, slow, or still waters such as ponds, ditches and overflow areas of streams, and is generally found over soft substrate with little vegetation. Though it is also known from leaf beds (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153978	population	Adams, S., 2010	From 1936 - 2007 there have been six records of this species from Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). and it is rarely collected in Louisiana (Walls 2009). Though, despite the fact there have been few records for this species, there has been little directed sampling effort (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153978	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species may be impactd by threats on a local level, but is unlikely to be impacted on a global scale. Within Louisiana, this species is is only known from ditches, and is, therefore, susceptible to changes in habitat.	eng
153979	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has a heritage rank of G5 from NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and is Currently Stable according to the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) due to its large extent of occurrence.	eng
153979	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species occurs in the Atlantic watershed from the James drainage in Virginia and West Virginia south to the Yadkin Basin in North Carolina, USA, in both mountains and Piedmont   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 122,400 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153979	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is highly restricted to rocky areas of permanent freshwater streams and rivers. They live in moderately to swiftly flowing rivers, with cool to cold water (James 1966)	eng
153979	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been reported as 'abundant' in Reed Creek, Wythe County, Virginia   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153979	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	In parts of its range this species is susceptible to sedimentation from logging and is sensitive to pollution from mining and quarrying (T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153980	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>	eng
153980	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal flatwoods within Calhoun and Gulf Counties, East and South to Levy County, Florida (Caine 1978).   This species has a distribution of approximately 11500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153980	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, and is a secondary burrower (Caine 1978).	eng
153980	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153980	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
153981	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been assigned a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and assessed as 'endangered' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007<em>).<br/><br/></em>Monitoring of the population trend is needed.<em><br/></em>	eng
153981	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species has been collected only in the main channel of the Ohio River between Illinois and Kentucky, USA (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005). The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at under 370 km².	eng
153981	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in areas of the Ohio River where the substrate has been anthropologically altered by adding more rocks, gravel and riprap (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
153981	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
153981	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Zebra mussels (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>) have been found on this species (Wetzel <em>et al.</em> 2005). In addition, the invasive crayfish species&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span> has invaded the range of this species and is thought to be having an impact, displacing this species. Dredging for channel maintenance may also be a problem for this species, by destroying habitat (G. Schuster pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153982	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). This is due to the species being apparently secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).   This species has also been given a tolerance value of 4.62 by the Kentucky Environmental and Public Protection Cabinet. The tolerance value is calculated by assessing the individual tolerance of a species to human threats such as water pollution; 1 being the least tolerant, 10 the most tolerant (Peake <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
153982	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in the Green, Barren and Cumberland rivers drainages in Kentucky and the Ohio River in southern Illinois (Hobbs 1989) with records from the Tennessee River system (Paint Rock River and Harpeth River) in Alabama, USA (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).&#160; It was also recently reported from Mississippi for the first time from Bear Creek in the Tennessee drainage (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Page (1985) reported a collection from the Ohio River, about 42 river  miles below the outlet of the Cumberland on the Illinois side (right  bank).&#160; In Alabama, it is known only from a single record from the Paint  Rock River drainage within the Tennessee River system, which might be a  possible introduction (Mirarchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> 2004, Schuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2008).&#160; It was also recently reported from Mississippi for the first  time from Bear Creek (Tennessee drainage) (S. Adams, pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  In Kentucky, it is known from the Barren, upper Green, Nolin, and Rough  River drainages, and is also widespread in the Cumberland River system  from eastern Kentucky to creeks draining into Lake Barkley in western  Kentucky (Taylor and Schuster 2004).<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 38,400 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
153982	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	It inhabits cool, fast flowing streams in riffle areas (Rhoades 1944).	eng
153982	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
153982	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
153983	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (2008) has placed<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species on the invasive species watch list as it was introduced into South Carolina via a bait bucket. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe 2009), and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor et al., 2007), as it has a wide distribution and no major threats are currently acting upon it.	eng
153983	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in the Tennessee River basin upstream from below the mouth of the Sequatchie River, in Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, USA (James 1966). This species has been introduced into headwaters of the Savannah River in South Carolina (Hobbs 1989). It has also recently been found in Alabama (Schuster and Taylor 2004). The Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health (2008) has placed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species on the invasive species watch list as it was introduced into South Carolina via a bait bucket.    The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species is est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated to exceed 58,100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153983	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species lives in streams under rocks (Schuster and Taylor 2004). It has a broader ecology than either of its close relatives, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus longulus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cambarus chasmodactylus</span>, and is by far the least ecologically restricted of the three (James 1966). It inhabits large and small freshwater permanent streams, usually found in the riffle areas (James 1966).	eng
153983	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it has been found in six different counties in the United States. Although likely a species complex, even using the most conservative taxonomy, the range is still widespread enough such that populations likely number in the millions (R. Thoma, T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
153983	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as an invasive species (Fuller 2009) and is not currently impacted by any major threats.	eng
153984	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	NatureServe has assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Currently Stable, with a Global Heritage Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure&#160;  (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153984	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been reported from the Tennessee River drainage, chiefly above Walden Ridge, from southwestern Virginia to Wayne County, Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989, Poly and Wetzel 2003).  <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to 56,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153984	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small streams to large rivers, especially in riffle areas under rocks (Williams and Bivens 2001).	eng
153984	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although this species is regarded as common to abundant in suitable habitat (G. Schuster pers. comm 2009).</p>	eng
153984	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The Tennessee River has been dammed many times and this is likely to have an impact on this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). In addition, several fossil fuel power plants are within the river drainage which is most likely affecting water quality within this catchment. Recreational activities have also been reported to occur, although the extent and effect of this is unkown   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). However, the species is much more prominent in the tributaries and is widespread.&#160; Thus these threats are not thought to be significantly reducing populations of this species   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153985	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 assigned by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe 2009) and Threatened by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Research on<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> population size and threats impacting upon this species is required   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153985	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as endemic to streams in the First Broad River sub-drainage of the upper Broad River basin of North Carolina, USA (Fullerton and Watson 2001). North Carolina currently maintains 5 occurrences of this species in Cleveland (possibly extirpated) and Rutherford counties (LeGrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).    The extent of occurrence of this species is est<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ated to be 3,265 km².	eng
153985	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent freshwater streams and prefers deeper sections of the river which have rocks or vegetation for cover (Cooper 2000).	eng
153985	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>	eng
153985	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is currently threatened by two non-indigenous crayfish species; namely<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ortoconectes rusticus</span>, the Rusty Crayfish, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>, the Red Swamp crayfish (Fullerton and Watson 2001). There are some small-hold farms close to the First Broad River which could be polluting the river via nutrient loading, and herbicide and pesticide run-off. The human population is expected to increase by 23% by 2020 which would cause a reduction in viable habitat area through urban development (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2003). One of the four main reservoirs in the Broad River basin is used for drinking water supply which means that surface water abstraction must occur (N.C. Division of Water Quality 2003).	eng
153986	conservation	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Furthermore, this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the Global Hertiage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
153986	distribution	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the central Arkansas River drainage and parts of the White River and Elk River drainages in the extreme northwestern parts of Arkansas and LeFlore County, Oklahoma (Robison and McAllister 2006, Fetzner 2008, Crandall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
153986	habitat	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in clay and sandy substrates, and is known to occur in seepage areas and roadside ditches (Fitzpatrick 1978).	eng
153986	population	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Populations of this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>can be large or small, with hundreds to very few individuals observed in a particular area.&#160; However, no formal population census has been conducted for this species   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153986	threats	Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are not thought to be any major threats to this species. Furthermore, this species seems to be somewhat tolerant, as it found in roadside ditches near sizable towns   (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. Comm. 2009).	eng
153987	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this speceis.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153987	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur at Paso Largo, Maria de la Torre, near Nautla in Veracruz (Villalobos 1957). This species has a distribution of approximately 100 to 200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153987	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in lentic habitats with low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (Villalobos 1957).&#160; It has also been found in roadside water tanks and in small pools which shrink during droughts, leaving very cloudy, muddy water (Villalobos 1957). This is a physiologically adaptable species   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153987	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is thought to be reasonably abundant. This species was last collected three years ago, though at that time it was commonly found   (M. López-Mejía pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>	eng
153987	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, cattle ranching occurs within its range, but this is not considered to be a significant threat   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153988	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<em><em></em></em></em>	eng
153988	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> This species inhabits the White and Black River systems in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, USA (Pflieger 1996, Hobbs 1989, Hobbs 1974, Williams 1954).&#160;    <br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 45,721 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153988	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species can be found in burrows beneath rocks and boulders in silt-free substrates in streams, and can also be found in pools and riffles. In addition this species is able to survive in dry stream beds by living in moist burrows (Flinders and Magoulick 2007, Pflieger 1996, Williams 1954).	eng
153988	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is regarded as very common, and abundant at most sites (Pflieger 1996)	eng
153988	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known to hybridize with <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes eupunctus</span> at two localities within its range in parts of the Eleven Point River (Pflieger 1996, C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). However, this is unlikely to be a major threat to this species.	eng
153989	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<em></em> This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)  and is considered vulnerable due to limited range by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
153989	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is found in the Teche-Bayou Boeuf system in Rapides parish near Elmer and Woodworth and from <st1:placename w:st="on">Cotile</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, the Mermentau system in Allen Parish, and the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Calcasieu</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system south to Vermillion Parish, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Louisiana</st1:place></st1:state>, USA (Walls 2009).</p><p>    </p><p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of both subspeceis of this species combined has been estimated to exceed 24,500 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
153989	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species is found in small, clear and shallow permanent streams with a sand and gravel bottom, with no aquatic vegetation and shaded banks (Penn 1952).	eng
153989	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is regarded as quite common in many spots, especially where protected in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kisatchie</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Such protected areas do not, however, include the range of the<span style="font-style: italic;"> O.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">hathawayi blacki</span> subspecies (J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009)</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
153989	threats	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is impacted by major habitat degradation in the <span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. blacki</span> portion of the range, but there are relatively secure areas within the <span style="font-style: italic;">O. h. hathawayi</span> portion of the range (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009). Localized declines result from reduction in the water level due to logging, water pollution from oil and gas exploration and agriculture. In addition, urbanization and watercourse damming have been highlighted as threats to this species   (S. Adams, J. Walls, pers. comm. 2009). </p>	eng
153990	conservation	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>has been given a Global Heritage Rank Status of G2 by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)&#160;and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the scale of threats.	eng
153990	distribution	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>is so far only recorded between the Ouachita and Red Rivers in Caldwell, LaSalle, Rapides, Winn and Jackson Parishes, in&#160;north-central Louisiana, USA&#160;(Walls 2009). Reports from Arkansas and Missouri (Hobbs 1989)&#160;have not been substantiated.&#160; It is likely to to occur more widely in north-central and northwestern parts of the state, towards the range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Faxonella beyeri</span> (Walls 2009).   The LA Natural Heritage Program has 12 extant occurrences (plus two extirpated) in five counties and two major watersheds in the state (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at 2,830 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153990	habitat	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>occurs in temporary pools and roadside ditches which are shallow with a mud and sand substrate (Walls and Black 1991).	eng
153990	population	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p><p>This species can be abundant (J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p><p></p>	eng
153990	threats	Adams, S., Cordeiro, J., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The main threats to this species<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>are chemical pollution and sedimentation from surrounding agricultural farmland (Walls and Black 1991). Changes in hydrology throughout the drainage in which this species is found is a further potential threat&#160;(C. Taylor, G. Schuster, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153991	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
153991	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Choctawhatchee and Yellow river drainages in Alabama and Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 15000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153991	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in temporary ponds, pools, roadside ditches and is a secondary burrower (Hobbs 1942).	eng
153991	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	Hobbs (1942) examined 300 specimens. There is no recent population data available for this species.	eng
153991	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
153992	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambaurs hagenianus hagenianus </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5T4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus hagenianus vesticeps </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4G5T3 by NatureServe and Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this speceis and whether it is impacted by any major threats.	eng
153992	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species is known to occur<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> North of Tibbie Creek in Tombigbee drainage in Chickasaw, Clay, Monroe and Pontotoc Counties and South and East of Tibbie Creek in the Tombigbee drainage in Lowndes, Noxubee and Oktibbeha Counties, Mississippi. Furthermoe, it also occurs in Marengo, Pickens and Sumter Counties, Alabama. (Fitzpatrick 1978). This species has an approximate distribution of 27,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153992	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species are primary burrowers, and are known to occur in prairie soils, idependent of surface water and reliant on ground water. Furthermore, it is known to occur at high elevations and 4.5-4.7 m below the surface (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153992	population	Adams, S., 2010	This speceis was considered to be abundant prior to persecution by farmers, though it is now considered to be rare. Furthermore, in 1937, 37000 burrows per hectare were known to occur for this species (Fitzpatrick 1976).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153992	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species was persecuted by farmers for ruining crop fields and was poisoned using arsenic, cyanide other pesticides in the 1920's (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153993	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further work is needed to clarify the taxonomic status of this species, as well as to determine its abundance and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p><p></p>	eng
153993	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. Owing to taxonomic problems with this species, the range is not clearly delineated.&#160; It has also been introduced into Maryland and Virginia (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; Fitzpatrick (2002) considers this species more restricted to eastern Louisiana, very southern Mississippi, and very southern Alabama.&#160; Recent surveys in Alabama have not found this species. Johnson and Johnson (2008) describe this species distribution as the flat coastal plain from Texas to Louisiana, but midway along the Texas flat coastal plain, individuals have features of both this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. texanus</span>.	eng
153993	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species can be found in permanent streams and in aquaculture ponds (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153993	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from a large number of collections (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153993	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is harvested as a food source, used for scientific research and collected for the pet trade. Though, without understanding the exact distribution of this species, it is difficult to determine if it faces any significant threats (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153994	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
153994	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as widespread throughout Veracruz, Chiapas, Mexico (  M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153994	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from creeks, lagoons, and marshy habitats, and has a rapid population doubling time (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em></em>	eng
153994	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species has been described as abundant   (M. López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
153994	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is harvested as a food source, though this is not considered a major threat at present (M.   López-Mejía., F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). <br/><em></em>	eng
153995	conservation	DiStefano, R., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of 'currently stable' (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007). At present, 10 of the 50 known sites in Arkansas, are owned by conservation organisations. A further 14 sites have restricted access. Current conservation measures include the acquisition of land to restrict traffic access (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Further conservation measures are needed to protect the remaining sites and prevent ongoing habitat degradation.<br/></p>	eng
153995	distribution	DiStefano, R., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The majority of this species range occurs in Missouri in Christian, Dade, Greene, Jasper, Lawrence, Newton, and Stone counties (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, Koppelman and Figg 1995). There have recently been new discoveries of this species in Benton and Independence counties in Arkansas (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). Historic accounts in northeast Oklahoma are now believed to be erroneous (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In total this species is know from 164 localities. The extent of occurrence is estimated to exceed 18,400 km².	eng
153995	habitat	DiStefano, R., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits subterranean hydrological systems (Koppelman and Figg 1995).	eng
153995	population	DiStefano, R., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The largest known population of this species comprises at least 47 individuals (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). This species was reported to be more abundant during the first half of the 1900s, than the second half of the century (Hobbs and Barr 1960), however there have not been systematic surveys at any of the localities where this species is found.	eng
153995	threats	DiStefano, R., Thoma, R.F. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is threatened by habitat degradation (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). A single population in a cave in Missouri was thought to have been extirpated due to sewage pollution from a nearby city, however specimens were found there several decades later (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Another cave population in Arkansas might currently be threatened by nutrient loading. The entire population at the type locality is thought to have been collected by scientists leaving just 2 individuals by 1992 (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). At other caves individuals have been inadvertently trampled by pedestrian traffic, and drowned by flooding (Graening <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). However, these are thought to be localised threats and do not pose a significant threat to the global population   (R. Thoma, T. Jones and J. Cordeiro pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153996	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
153996	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is known from tributaries of the Bayou Teche, Red, and Calcasieu rivers in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas (Fetzner 2008).   This species has a distribution of approximately 46,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
153996	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>inhabits creeks and streams with a moderate current and sandy and rocky substrate, as well as pools and roadside ditches. This species lives in clear to slightly cloudy water (Hobbs 1990).	eng
153996	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
153996	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species is likely to be impacted upon by pollution and habitat alteration through urban development on a local scale, though there are no known threats impacting upon it on a global scale.	eng
153997	conservation	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G1 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and endangered by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).&#160;</p><p>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.<br/></p>	eng
153997	distribution	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in southeastern tributaries of Guntersville Lake, an impoundment on the Tennessee River in DeKalb and Marshall Counties, Alabama, USA (Fetzner 2008). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated not to exceed 92 km².	eng
153997	habitat	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found in permanent streams under rocks (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976); in clear, sluggish streams flowing over bedrock and sand, usually at depths of less than 0.6 m.	eng
153997	population	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species was only found recently at one site; it was formerly known from seven sites (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153997	threats	Cordeiro, J. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The impoundment of the Tennessee River represents the major historical and present threat to this species. Reasons for decline (based on current versus historic records) are not known but the species is absent from nearly all historical sites where it was formerly known (G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). This has resulted in a reduction of over 80% of its historical range, assuming it was equally distributed across all known sites, and a decline that has been noted over the last 20 years. However the actual rate of decline over the last 10 years is not as high as 80% and more likely in the range of 50-70% (assuming a linear rate of decline).	eng
153998	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has a heritage rank of G4 from NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009).	eng
153998	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is found in North America. Its range includes the states of: Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and&#160;Tennessee(Nature Serve 2009)in higher elevations of the Appalachian Mountains (R. Thoma &#160;pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/>Hobbs (1989) highlights that this species is found in particular river headwaters throughout the region, including: "French Broad, Little Tennessee, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Savannah River." It is also found in the Watuga Basin in Tennessee (Hobbs 1989).	eng
153998	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species has been collected from seepage areas associated with mountain streams, and first order streams   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It has also been found in quieter headwaters of North and South Carolina, and Georgia. It is a secondary burrower, and is often found in tunnels of rock debris&#160;(R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009; NatureServe 2009).	eng
153998	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no population data available for this species, although it has been described as 'the most common of the other crayfish' found associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chaugaensis </span>'(North Carolina Crayfishes 2010; Nature Serve 2009). It is abundant within the southern Appalachian Mountains of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and parts of Tennessee. It is considered the most common species in first order streams (R. Thoma and T. Jones, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153998	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T., Skelton, C. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
153999	conservation	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). Further research on this species is recommended to clarify causes of decline and threats posed.	eng
153999	distribution	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has a very localized distribution in the Spring River and Eleven Point drainage systems in Arkansas and Missouri, USA (Hobbs 1989) and the Strawberry River drainage, near Evening Shade. The occurrence of this species in the Spring River drainage, however, appears to have been reduced due to displacement by the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). Currently a distribution and population genetics survey for this species is under way (B. DiStefano pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 7,893 km².	eng
153999	habitat	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is found on coarse gravel substrates of cool, shallow, fast flowing streams (Pflieger 1996) and deeper pools of 2.5 - 3 m under large pieces of cobble (C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
153999	population	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is regarded as very localized where found in Missouri, but is considered the most abundant crayfish in the Eleven Point River and most common crayfish in the Greer Spring Branch and West Fork of Spring River (Pfleiger 1996). Thus, this species has a highly restricted range with large local populations. The population size of this species has been estimated to be smaller than 10,000 individuals (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
153999	threats	DiStefano, R., Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species is in decline due, predominantly due to inter-specific competition with the invasive crayfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes neglectus</span> and changes in land use causing a decline in stream habitat quality (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007) where there has been a documented decline in at least one drainage (Magoulick and DiStefano 2007). The precise causes for the decline have not been confirmed (Rabalais and Magoulick 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
154000	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154000	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from one location at Cueva del Guano, 10 km northeast of Valle Nacional, Oaxaca, three sites near Acatlán (approximately 200 km from Cueva del Guano), and one site 40 km northwest of Acatlán (Mejia-Ortiz <em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>et al. </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>2003<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em>). </em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>There are a number of other caves between these sites in which this species may be found, though they have not been surveyed for this species&#160; (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2009).<em><em><em><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
154000	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from caves (Mejia-Ortiz <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
154000	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is likely to be stable at present (F. Alvarez and M. Lopez-Mejia pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
154000	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no known threats impacting upon this species.	eng
154001	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).    Further research is required to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
154001	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from six localities within Le Flore County, Oklahoma and Polk County, Arkansas (Robison and Crandall 2005).   This species has a distribution of less than 10000 km<sup>2</sup>, though the exact limits of its range are not known.	eng
154001	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found burrowing both in and adjacent to freshwater springs and clear cool permanent streams and under rocks (Jones and Bergey 2007).	eng
154001	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>was found to be a highly localized and a locally uncommon crayfish (Robison and Crandall 2005).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; </span>Though, no population census studies have been performed on this species.	eng
154001	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154002	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further targeted surveys are needed for this species.	eng
154002	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from El Pozón 8 km west of Cuatatalapan; El Tular San Simón, north of San Andrés Tuxtla; Nacimiento de Actopan, Actopan; Laguna de Apaxtla, Acayucan; 8 km southwest of Cuautotolapan, Cuautotolapan; La Ladrillera, San Andrés Tuxtla. All  these sites are in or around Los Tuxtlas region in southern Veracruz and cover a linear distance of 40 km (F. Alvarez pers. comm. 2010). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 100 km².	eng
154002	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is a secondary burrower that inhabits temporary ponds and pools (Hobbs 1989), as well as streams with clearwater (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154002	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is rare and not easy to collect. Furthermore, it has has not been collected recently, including during surveys that have been under way for six months (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009). The last sample of this species was collected in 1957 by Villalobos Senior, though it is thought that specimens could be found with further survey work (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154002	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is impacted by pollution from sugar cane plantations (M. Mejia-Lopez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154003	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries society has assigned a conservation status rank of Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), while NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al. </em>2007, NatureServe, 2009) have   assigned a heritage rank of G5 to this species, <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>as it has a wide range and EOO.	eng
154003	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is common in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and North Carolina, USA (Hobbs 1989). Eversole and Jones (2004) list the distribution of this species as the Piedmont and Coastal Plain from the Tar and Cape Fear systems in North Carolina south to the Altamaha and Appalachicola systems in Georgia and Florida, and west to the Coosa River system in Georgia and Alabama.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><sup></sup>	eng
154003	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small to moderately large permanent streams and burrows (Fetzner 2008). In addition, this species can tolerate a wide range of ecological conditions (Hobbs 1983).	eng
154003	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is commom and widespread in the Piedmont Plateau and much of the Coastal Plain (Cooper and Baswell 1995)	eng
154003	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The Harris Dam is a large dam on the Tallapoosa River which affects much of this catchment   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). From the dam to Martin Lake is the only streatch of large river left in Alabama. Large commercial agriculture is the major economic driver in the Tallapoosa River basin, involving both livestock farming and agro-industry farming on an industrial scale. There is also much river commerce from Wetumpka downstream to Mobile. This means shipping lanes have been created for barges down the canal by dredging. In addition, droughts have severely affected the area in the past. Traffic on the Alabama River is almost entirely related to forest products and pulp   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). Finally, forest replacement has occurred in much of the Piedmont area (Noss<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995), although the threat posed to this species by this is unknown.	eng
154004	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given a Global Heritage Stauts Rank of G4 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009) and apparently secure, by the American Fisheries society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). More research is required on this species before an accurate assessment can be made as the threats are uncertain, there is no population knowledge, or life history, or ecology and the distribution is continually changing   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154004	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is limtied to parts of the eastern Piedmont Plateau in the Neuse and Cape Fear River basins, North Carolina, USA (Cooper and Schofield 2002). More than 20 collecting localities are listed in the Neuse, Cape Fear and Tar/Pamlico drainages by Cooper and Schofield (2002).&#160; In the original description (Cooper 2000), all speciemens were collected from the eastern Piedmont Plateau in two endemic river basins of North Carolina.&#160; LeGrand et al. (2006) cite the Neuse and Cape Fear drainages of Alamance, Caswell, Chatham, Durham, Harnett, Orange, Rockingham, and Wake Counties, North Carolina.	eng
154004	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits permanent freshwater streams. This species is also a primary burrower (Cooper 2000).	eng
154004	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although new occurrences are being discovered continually (Cooper 2000, Cooper and Schofield 2002).</p>	eng
154004	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has not been reported to be impacted by any major threats, although this is most likely due to a lack of knowledge about this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). It is likely that this species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is affected by nutrient load pollution coming from swine farms in the Neuse River Basin (Waterkeeper Alliance 2003), although its affect on this species survival is unknown.	eng
154005	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for thi species.&#160; However, 70 % of the water entering Lake Yojoa now originates from the Cerro Azul Meambar National Park, which was established in 1987 (Pfeffer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as water pollution.	eng
154005	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is only known from two localities; Lake Yojoa in Honduras, and Los Amates, approximately 7 km South of the Rio Motagua, in the Province of Izabal, Guatemala (Hobbs 1989).&#160; These two localities are approximately 120 km apart, and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> has a surface area of 89 km<sup>2</sup> (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
154005	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits still waters, including a lake (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
154005	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is only known from type specimens, and there have been no further surveys in the surrounding area   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em></em>	eng
154005	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>Until relatively recently, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> received wastewater from the mining operations of El Mochito mine, to the northwest of the lake (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; A survey in 1993 found sediment samples to contain high concentrations of copper, zinc and lead (De Vevey <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; There has also been extensive deforestation (resulting in sedimentation) of evergreen broadleaved forest in the area surrounding <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Yojoa</st1:placename></st1:place> (House <em>et al.</em> 2002).&#160; However, it is unknown what impact these threats may be having on this species.&#160;</p>	eng
154006	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, apparently secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) although no species specific conservation measures are in place for this species. In addition, this species has been placed on the South Carolina State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Management Plan (South Carolina Department of Natural Resources 2008).&#160; <br/><br/>Further research is required on the abundance of this species and the threats facing it before a more accurate assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
154006	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	This species is known to occur in headwaters of the Savannah, Hiwassee, and Chattahoochee River drainages in Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, USA (Hobbs 1989).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 14,200 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154006	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a primary burrowing crayfish which is found in pools, seepage areas and occasionally in the riffle areas of streams. This species can also be found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum </span>bogs. The substrate of the river is sand and mica with stretches of bed rock and scattered small to large rocks (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976). This species is probably a generalist as females with eggs and young has been found in ditches next to roads in more than one locality (Bouchard and Hobbs 1976).	eng
154006	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
154006	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	As<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is able to tolerate with, and breed under, all of the associated threats of living in a ditch it is likely that this species is not currently impacted by any major threats   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). No major threats have been reported for this species.	eng
154007	conservation	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The American Fisheries Society have assessed this species as Currently Stable with a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species and the threats associated with it.	eng
154007	distribution	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species can be found in the Coastal Plain from the Altamaha River in Georgia, to the Edisto River in South Carolina (Fetzner 2008). It is found in&#160;Jasper, Beaufort and Hampton counties and the Lower Savannah and Broad-St.Helena drainages in South Carolina (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
154007	habitat	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a secondary burrower which can be found in lentic situations and rivers (Fetzner 2008). This species can also be found frequently in inundated upland depressions that dry in summer (drier periods); these often contain live crayfish without water during these dry periods (Welch and Eversole 2006).	eng
154007	population	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been described as widespread and abundant (NatureServe 2009).	eng
154007	threats	Eversole, A.G. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no species specific threats associated with this species, although it is likely to be undergoing some localized declines due to urban development and habitat alteration due to agriculture and ground water abstraction   (J. Cordeiro, T. Jones and R. Thoma pers. comm. 2009, A. Eversole pers. comm. 2010).	eng
154008	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M., Pedraza Lara, C. & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, NatureServe 2009), due to the species being believed to be secure, widespread and abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
154008	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M., Pedraza Lara, C. & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species is known to occur in the Gulf Coastal Plain of the USA, which includes the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas. This species is also found in Georgia, however, this is a suspected introduction (Taylor 2005).	eng
154008	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M., Pedraza Lara, C. & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species inhabits swamps, ditches, lakes, ponds, oxbow lakes and sluggish streams. This species is able to burrow into the water table as water disappears from its habitat (Fetzner 2008, Peterson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Pfilieger 1996).	eng
154008	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M., Pedraza Lara, C. & DiStefano, R., 2010	This species has been described as abundant (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
154008	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M., Pedraza Lara, C. & DiStefano, R., 2010	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting this species.	eng
154009	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p>	eng
154009	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known from the Tennessee River basin, below Walden Ridge, in Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee; Cumberland River basin in Tennessee and Kentucky; and the Barren River watershed in Tennessee and Kentucky (Hobbs 1949).   This species has a distribution of approximately 79000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154009	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is associated with clear, rock or gravel bedded streams (Hobbs 1949).	eng
154009	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Rhoades (1944) stated that this species was common in the lower Tennessee and its tributaries.&#160; Furthermore, it is found to be abundant in areas where the correct gravel substrate exists (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154009	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known threats to this widespread species which inhabits a relatively rural area   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154010	conservation	Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2006, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154010	distribution	Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Tombigbee River basin in Mississippi, Eastward to the middle Chattahoochee River basin in Georgia (Fetzner 2008). This is a wide ranging species (S. Adams and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154010	habitat	Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish streams, ponds, and seasonal roadside ditches (Turner 2007).	eng
154010	population	Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This is a reasonably common species (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009), though not particularly abundant. (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
154010	threats	Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species may be effected by threats locally, but it is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting upon it on a global scale.	eng
154011	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further targeted surveys are needed for this species.	eng
154011	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is only known from its type locality, 24 km east of Ciudad Valles in the state of <st1:city w:st="on">San Luis Potosi</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).	eng
154011	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in a small, clear, spring-fed stream with a maximum width of about 5 m (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).&#160; The stream flows with a moderately swift current over a rocky bed with pools of up to 1.5 m in depth alternating with rapids (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1977).	eng
154011	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type specimens   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<br/><em></em>	eng
154011	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
154012	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine its abundance, current distribution and whether it is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154012	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is located in the Ouachita drainage system in southern Arkansas and Claiborne and Union parishes, Louisiana, and in the Pearl River basin in Montgomery and Simpson Counties, Mississippi (Hobbs 1969). Most records of this species are from Saline County, Arkansaw, and the Mississippi accounts are thought to be questionable. There are no records of this species ocurring in Mississippi held within the Smithsonian Institute, and no individuals have been collected during surveys within Mississippi (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154012	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent streams, with brown water that flows from sluggish to moderately swift through multiple channels in an eroded clay substrate (Hobbs 1969).&#160; In addition, this species is also known to occur in larger rivers, deep low-flowing channels behind dam structures with many cypress knees. It has also been collected in shallow, sandy, cool streams during droughts (Walls 2009).	eng
154012	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been referred to as a rare. Furthermore, not much suitable habitat is available for this species in Louisiana (Walls 2009).	eng
154012	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is being impacted upon by any major threat process. However, it could be experiencing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime and water pollution (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154013	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5, apparently secure, by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al. 2007).<em></em></em>	eng
154013	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits the Great Plains in Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, USA (Fetzner 2008). The species is also found in the extreme south west of Missouri and the extreme north west of Arkansas.<br/>    <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 793,000 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
154013	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is a generalist that can be found in a wide variety of habitats ranging from farm ponds to fast flowing streams (Williams 1954).	eng
154013	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although it is very abundant in many locations where it has been collected   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
154013	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>	eng
154014	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
154014	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the Hatchie River system in Hardeman, Hardin, and McNairy Counties, Tennessee, and Alcorn, Tippah, Tishomingo and Union Counties, Mississippi (Adams 2008). This species has a distribution of approximately 14500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154014	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a permanent stream dweller, using sluggish to moderatly flowing streams and rivers (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). It prefers a substrate of clay, sand, gravel, woody debris and large rocks (Bouchard and Bouchard 1976). Additionally,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species is a secondary burrower (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154014	population	Adams, S., 2010	This species is believed to be reasonably common (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
154014	threats	Adams, S., 2010	It is unknown whether this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is being impacted upon by any major threat process. However, it is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to urbanization, alterations to the hydrological regime, water pollution and channelisation (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154015	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
154015	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found along the St. Johns River and its tributaries, from Putnam County South to Seminole County, Florida (Hobbs 1942), including southern St. Johns County and Marion County. It is also known from the <span class="copy">Oklawaha Rivers in Florida <span class="copy">(Franz and Franz 1990).	eng
154015	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower in flatwoods forest, seepage areas, and in springs (Hobbs 1942).	eng
154015	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154015	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is impacted by any major threats.	eng
154016	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the spring pool at El Sabinal, Cerralvo, is contained within the El Sabinal National Park   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). Monitoring of remaining populations is needed.	eng
154016	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	Prior to 1985, this species was distributed relatively widely over the state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, with a distribution of approximately 20,000 km² (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). However, this species is now only known from two disjunct localities in Nuevo Leon: Canoas Park (<1 km<sup>2</sup>), near Monterrey, and the spring pool, El Sabinal (<1 km<sup>2</sup>), at Cerralvo (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994).&#160; The current extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 2,000 km² (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). The area of occupancy is approximately 2 km<sup>2</sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range with a large area of unsuitable habitat existing between localities, and the presence of exotic species which have displaced this species throughout much of its range.	eng
154016	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species occurs in small streams and pools (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Furthermore, it is known to occur in lowland and arid regions, between mountains and coastal plains, and within a semi-closed valley   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).<em><br/></em>	eng
154016	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	During a survey of Rio San Juan, near Presa de la Boca in 1985, over 98% of the crayfish collected were this species<em> (</em>Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994).&#160;<em> </em>However, during 1987 to 1989, a significant collapse of the population of this species was observed (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Surveys in Monterrey, Guadalupe, Villa de Santiago and El Cercado in 1992 found 95-100% of crayfish to be the exotic species<span style="font-style: italic;"> Procambarus clarkii</span> (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). This species is believed to have undergone an 80 - 90% decline in population in 10 years   (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  <em><em><em><em><em><em></em></em></em></em></em></em>	eng
154016	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>This species is threatened by the introduction of the Red Swamp Crayfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span>) into central Nuevo Leon (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). <span style="font-style: italic;">Procambarus clarkii</span> was first introduced into the region in 1985 in the hope of starting commercial fisheries, although no economic profit has since resulted (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). Repeated introductions, and the high dispersal ability of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. clarkii</span> (Campos and Rodríguez-Almaráz 1992), mean it is now well established in the area and is thought to be responsible for the observed reduction in the range and abundance of this species, through outcompeting the endemic species (Rodriguez-Almaraz and Campos 1994). In addition, the expansion of Monterrey City is attributed to the ongoing decline in this species (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).  </p><p><br/></p><p><em><em><em><em><em><br/></em></em></em></em></em></p>	eng
154017	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
154017	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is found in the <st1:placename w:st="on">Barren</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> drainage in <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on">Tennessee </st1:state>(Rhoades 1944), and Green River system in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor and Schuster 2004). This species has a distribution of approximately 15409 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154017	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is usually found in moderately flowing water (Rhoades 1944), and is known to occur under cobble sized rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154017	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; <br/></span>	eng
154017	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
154018	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been assigned the Global Heritage Status Rank of G2 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009)   and 'threatened' by the American Fisheries Society, due its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2007). Monitoring of the progression of the invasive species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconecte</span>s<span style="font-style: italic;"> rusticus</span> into the range of this species is recommended.<br/></p>	eng
154018	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from small tributaries of the extreme lower <st1:city w:st="on">Cumberland</st1:city> and Ohio River drainages in Livingston and Crittenden Counties, <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:state>, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2002).   The extent of occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated at just over 1,700 km<sup>2</sup>. It is known from only 5 locations (based on the threat of the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes rusticus</span>): Fergasson, Sandy and Claylick Creeks, which are all tributaries of the Cumberland River; and Buck and Coefield Creeks, which are all tributaries of the Ohio River (Taylor 2002).	eng
154018	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species inhabits small, moderately flowing streams with substrates of cobble and gravel intermixed with mud and is sometimes found amongst woody debris (Taylor 2002). This species feeds on the eggs of the Fringed Darter,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Etheostoma crossopterum</span>, but not exclusively (Knouft and Page 2004).</p>	eng
154018	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species. </p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
154018	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is threatened by the invasive species <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span><span style="font-style: italic;"> rusticus </span>which has been collected in Smithland pool (T. Jones, pers. comm.2009), 16 km from the nearest downstream distribution of this species.&#160; This invasive species has outcompeted several other <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes </span>species, and is likely to cause declines in population number and extent of occurence in the future   (S. Adams, G. Schuster, C. Taylor, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154019	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Further surveys are needed for this species to confirm it still exists at previous known sites, or in surrounding suitable habitat. Further research on the impact of threats is also needed.	eng
154019	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is found in the headwater tributaries of the Rio Tecolutla, in the vicinity of Zihuateutla, <st1:city w:st="on">Puebla</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Mexico</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). It is uncertain whether this species is still present at the type locality (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009). This species has an approximate extent of occurrence of 100 km², and is likely to occur in five locations.	eng
154019	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species inhabits headwater streams (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1989).	eng
154019	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154019	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	The area within which this species is known to occur is impacted by urbanization and domestic pollution. Furthermore, water abstraction is a major threat within Puebla. (M .López-Mejía, F. Alvarez. and C. Pedraza-Lara pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154020	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, but has not been assessed by the American Fisheries Society as it is newly described (NatureServe 2009). The limited distribution of this species is well established, as the caves in a much broader area were extensively surveyed and this species was not found to occur in them (Buhay and Crandall 2008). Further research is needed to establish the abundance of this species and how inferred threats have impacted the population. <br/></p>	eng
154020	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is known from the subterranean waters of nine caves in Wayne and Clinton Counties, Kentucky; Pickett and Fentress Counties, Tennessee (Buhay and Crandall 2008). Furthermore, it is considered to have a fragmented distribution (Buhay and Crandall 2008).   This species has a distribution of less than 4000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>There are records from another seven caves in Wayne County, Kentucky and Fentress County, Tennessee which are formerly identified as <em>Orconectes australis australis</em> or <em>O. a. packardi </em>and<em> </em>are now considered of unknown identity, these await molecular identification and could be this species<em> </em>or <em>O. packardi</em> (Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
154020	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>This species is found in subterranean streams and pools  (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; It is found in open water in caves, and up on the pool banks and cave walls.&#160; This species does not appear to hide itself away under rocks   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009). Furthermore, it is known to coexist with Cambarus (Erebicambarus) tenebrosus (Buhay and Crandall 2008).<br/></p>	eng
154020	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Multiple individuals of this species have been found at each cave locality, including a female with eggs which is highly unusual for a cave crayfish (Buhay and Crandall 2008).&#160; No formal census surveys have been performed for this species, but genetic diversity has been measured and is low for the species (Buhay and Crandall 2008).	eng
154020	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	Like many cave species, this species is heavily influenced by ground water discharge.&#160; There is urban development at the extreme southern portion of the species range, where urbanization is a potential threat through pollution. However, in the more northerly reaches of its range on the eastern edge of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cumberland plateau</st1:place>, there are no known threats as development in this region is not rapid   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154021	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and to what extent it is impacted upon by threats within its range.&#160;  </p><p></p>	eng
154021	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in New Mexico, Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas (Jester 1967). It has been intentionally introduced to the Colorado River watershed in New Mexico and North Eastern Arizona (Dean 1969, New Mexico Register 2006). Though, the precise limits of its range are not well understood   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  This species has a distribution of approximately 1,837,982 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154021	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a habitat generalist, and is found in a variety of habitats such as streams, ponds and reservoirs (Dean 1969). It is found in relation to a range of substrates including rocks, sand and mud (Loring and Hill 1976). This species is a tertiary burrower, of which the most common type of burrow is a tunnel under rocks embedded in the substrate. Furthermore, it<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has a range of temperature tolerances from 33 to 90<sup>o</sup>F (Dean 1969).	eng
154021	population	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species is likely to be relatively abundant across its range   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154021	threats	Schuster, G.A., Adams, S. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is likely to be experiencing localized declines due to water pollution, diversion and loss through irrigation   (S. Adams, G. Schuster and C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154022	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to clarify the taxonomy of this species, as well as to determine its abundance, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes</p><p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
154022	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the coastal plain and piedmont from Maine to Georgia, and from the Florida panhandle to Texas, and Minnesota to Ohio (Ghedotti 1998, Loughman 2007). Furthermore, this species has been introduced to many areas of the US, including California, Maine and Kentucky (Loughman 2007).	eng
154022	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in permanent sluggish, to moderately flowing streams and most permanent lentic (lakes, swamps, ponds) water bodies (Thoma and Jezerinac 2000). In West Virginia, this species has been found in ephemeral wetland habitats (Loughman 2007). It is considered to be a habitat generalist (US Forest Service 2008).	eng
154022	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is often rare when it is found, but on occasion occurs in high numbers (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154022	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species. .	eng
154023	conservation	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G3, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, its distribution, and the extent to which it is impacted upon by threats within its range. <br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
154023	distribution	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is found in eight counties in Texas: Liberty, Brazoria, Fort Bend, Montgomery, San Jacinto, Grimes, Harris, and Walker counties (Johnson 2008; D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). This species has been collected from 120 sites, and targeted surveying has been completed (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010). The collection spacing is on the order to 3-5 miles (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2010).This species has a distribution of approximately 10,000 km<sup>2 </sup>(D.Johnson pers.comm. 2010).	eng
154023	habitat	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a primary burrower, with all adult specimens being collected from burrows. Juveniles of this species can be found in temporary pools (Johnson 2008).	eng
154023	population	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been described as abundant in its range (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154023	threats	Johnson, D., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Although this species is widespread within its range, the entire range is in the Houston area and is all subject to development.&#160; Much of its distribution is now highly fragmented (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009). It does not face an immediate threat of extinction, but could undergo a very significant decline over the next 50 years (D. Johnson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154024	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>    <p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G2, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Vulnerable based on its restricted range (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Due to the restricted nature of this species, further research is required on its abundance and threats impacting upon it. <br/></p>	eng
154024	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is known from the Bodcaw and Dorcheat bayou basins, and LaFayette, Nevada, Hempstead and Columbia counties, southwestern Arkansas (Hobbs 1977, Robison and Allen 1995). This species has a distribution of approximately 250 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154024	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been collected in shallow, sluggish backwaters and small intermittent streams with a sandy substrate (Robison and Allen 1995). In this study, individuals appeared to be associated with the presence of vegetation such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ludwiga </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Utricularia</span> sp. It was collected from burrows over 3 m deep (K. Crandall pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><span class="copy">	eng
154024	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This is a rare species (NatureServe 2009).	eng
154024	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is unlikely to be undergoing a significant decline as much of the catchment in which it occurs is forested with very little urbanization, or agricultural land (Arkansas Water 2009).	eng
154025	conservation	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been given the heritage rank of G5 by NatureServe   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), indicating this speceis is widespread, abundant and secure. In addition, this species has been given a status of Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Service (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).</p>	eng
154025	distribution	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known from a wide area of the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Green River basins in  Middle Tennessee and nearby Kentucky, USA (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995, Fetzner 2008).   This species is also known from Lauderdale County, Alabama ( Tyalor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009).     <p>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 37,600 km<sup>2</sup>. <br/></p>	eng
154025	habitat	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	This species inhabits high gradient streams with a cherty gravel substrate and can also be found among leaf litter and in root mats (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995, Fetzner 2008).	eng
154025	population	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is described as abundant in large parts of its range (Bouchard and Bouchard 1995), with some of the highest densities recorded for species from this <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>genus (C. Taylor pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154025	threats	Adams, S., Schuster, G.A. & Taylor, C.A., 2010	The threat to this species are unknown.	eng
154026	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G4, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>	eng
154026	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers, spanning 10 counties in Florida (Hobbs 1942).   This species has a distribution of approximately 17000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154026	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in both lentic and lotic situations, and burrows (Hobbs 1942). This species is a&#160; habitat generalist (Hobbs 1942).	eng
154026	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154026	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known major threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
154027	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G4 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154027	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is known to occur in Okaloosa county, Florida to the Pearl River in Hancock County, Mississippi (Hobbs, 1989). This species is known from seven collections from Mississippi and seven from Alabama (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154027	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in small creeks and sluggish streams, with clear water and a substrate consisting of sand, dead leaves and twigs (Hobbs 1942). Furthermore, it is known to occur in simple burrows in drying creek beds (Hobbs 1989).	eng
154027	population	Adams, S., 2010	Hobbs (1942) examined 80 specimens from a range of sites in within the distribution of this species. It is thought to be uncommon from most records, and the most recent record is from 1994 and was a juvenile record (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
154027	threats	Adams, S., 2010	This species is impacted upon by urbanization and channelization. It is restricted to the Gulf coast where considerable development occurs (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154028	conservation	Crandall, K.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Though, this species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009). <br/></p><p></p>	eng
154028	distribution	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is found in the coastal plain from the Satilla River system to Tift and Thomas Counties, and Cumberland Island, Camden County, Georgia.&#160; As well as Alachua and Putnam Counties, Florida (Hobbs 1981).   This species has a distribution of approximately 37,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154028	habitat	Crandall, K.A., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a primary burrower (Hobbs 1981) and is frequently found in seepage areas adjacent to streams. It has also been found in flatwoods, semi-permanent pools and roadside ditches. Burrows have been found in a range of soil types including clay, sandy clay, loam, and hummic soils (Hobbs 1981).	eng
154028	population	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154028	threats	Crandall, K.A., 2010	There are no known threat processes impacting upon this species.	eng
154029	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species has been given a NatureServe Global Heritage Status Rank of G5, and was assigned an American Fisheries Society Status of Currently Stable (Taylor <em>et al</em>. 2007, NatureServe 2009).   Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
154029	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>This species occurs from the Upper Cumberland River drainage in southwestern <st1:state w:st="on">Kentucky,</st1:state> East to the upper New River drainage of western <st1:state w:st="on">North Carolina</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Virginia</st1:place></st1:state>. This species is also found in the Little Scioto drainage, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Ohio</st1:state></st1:place> and Big Sandy, Guyandotte, upper New, and Elk drainages in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">West   Virginia</st1:state></st1:place> (Taylor 2000).   This species has a distribution of approximately 67189 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
154029	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>This species inhabits creeks and small to medium-sized rivers with cobble and gravel substrates. This species uses large pieces of gravel and cobble as shelter (Taylor 2000).</p>	eng
154029	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>has been described as common to abundant in most locations in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Kentucky</st1:place></st1:state> (Taylor 2000).	eng
154029	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A., Adams, S. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting upon this species.	eng
154030	conservation	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There are no species specific conservation management practices for this species, although some of this species distribution occurs within national forests and parks (Adams 2008). The American Fisheries Society have assessed<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> this species as Currently Stable (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), and NatureServe have given it a Global Heritage Status Rank of G5   (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007, NatureServe 2009), demonstrably widespread, abundant and secure.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
154030	distribution	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs in the Lower Mississippi drainage in Arkansas, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, and in eastern and central Texas with its type locality in New Orleans, Louisiana (Marlow 1960, Reimer and Clark 1974).<br/>This species has also been found in Alabama, Kentucky, Missouri and Oklahoma (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).   The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of this species has been estimated to exceed 251,700 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154030	habitat	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species has been described as probably the most secretive crayfish in the Mississippi drainage. It is a primary burrower which lives in lotic habitats and only leaves its burrows at night or during rainy conditions (Reimer and Clark 1974).	eng
154030	population	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	<p>There is insufficient population data available for this species, although NatureServe (2009) has stated that this species can be found in almost any habitat where the water table is near the surface.</p>	eng
154030	threats	Cordeiro, J., Jones, T. & Thoma, R.F., 2010	There is no species specific threats recorded. However, due to the wide distribution of this species it is likely that there are no major threats impacting this species   (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009). There are likely to be localized declines occurring due to pollution in areas of urban development and also in agricultural practice due to nutrient loading and herbicide run off    (R. Thoma, T. Jones, J. Cordeiro, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154031	conservation	Cordeiro, J., 2010	<p>This species has been given the heritage rank of G3 by NatureServe and Currently Stable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, NatureServe 2009). Further research is needed to determine the population status of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.<br/></p>	eng
154031	distribution	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a regional endemic in Georgia, and occurs in three drainages with a total range of between 5000 to 20000 km<sup>2</sup> (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009). This species inhabits the lower coastal plain of Georgia, between the <st1:city w:st="on">Savannah</st1:city>, Oconee and Altamaha rivers (<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hobbs</st1:place></st1:city> 1981). It is generally restricted to North of the Altamaha River (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154031	habitat	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is a primary burrowing species, spending the major part of its life in complex burrows.&#160; Most of the tunnel systems have at least three potential surface exists marked by low, carelessly constructed chimneys, one or more may be plugged.&#160; In as much as the tunnels are largely confined to flatwoods or boggy areas where the water table is near the surface, few of the deep passages extend downward for more than 1.5 m (Hobbs, 1981).	eng
154031	population	Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is believed to be common (A. Eversole pers. comm. 2009), furthermore, Hobbs (1981) reported to have collected it from 24 sites. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
154031	threats	Cordeiro, J., 2010	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.	eng
154612	conservation	Acero, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paracaesio caerulea</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, harvest levels and biology of this species.	eng
154612	distribution	Acero, A., 2009	The Japanese Snapper<em>, Paracaesio caerulea,</em> has been reported from southern Japan, more recently Taiwan (Shen 1993), and the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
154612	habitat	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Paracaesio caerulea</em> occurs over rocky bottoms at depths greater than 100 m.	eng
154612	population	Acero, A., 2009	There is no population information for <em>Paracaesio caerulea</em>.	eng
154612	threats	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Paracaesio caerulea</em> is an important food fish, which is often seen in markets. This species is caught with handlines and bottom longlines, and is marketed fresh (FAO 1985). There are no seperate catch statistics available for this species.	eng
154613	conservation	Smith, D. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for the Grey Cutthroat Eel.	eng
154613	distribution	Smith, D. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	The Grey Cutthroat Eel, <em>Synaphobranchus affinis,</em> is found in all oceans. In the eastern Atlantic this species is distributed from Liberia to South Africa, and in the western Atlantic this species is known from Cuba and Trinidad and Tobago. In the Indian Ocean it has been recorded from Madagascar, the Comoros and Reunion.  In the Pacific, this species is known from Hawaii, Japan, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and Chile.	eng
154613	habitat	Smith, D. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	This bathydemersal species is found on the upper continental slope, at a depth range of 290-2,400 m.  This species spends much of its time over rocky substrata.	eng
154613	population	Smith, D. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154613	threats	Smith, D. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it <em></em>is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species. This species is not likely to be taken as by-catch in significant quantities as it most often found over rocky substrata at bathyl depths, a habitat that is not favourable for trawling.	eng
154614	conservation	Gomon, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em>.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and by-catch of this species is needed.	eng
154614	distribution	Gomon, M., 2009	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> has been found around southern Australia and New Zealand.&#160; It has also been found in the southern Atlantic Ocean.	eng
154614	habitat	Gomon, M., 2009	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 37–604 m.&#160; It is typically found on the continental slope in waters deeper than 300 m, but it has occasionally been seen at shallower depths.	eng
154614	population	Gomon, M., 2009	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> is reported to be common; it makes up a dominant element of the fauna of the region, reflected by high levels of abundance in one or more biomes (CSIRO Marine Research 2001).	eng
154614	threats	Gomon, M., 2009	<em>Pentaceros decacanthus</em> forms an important component of the Western Australian trawl fishery catch at depths of 300–600 m, generally south of 25°south <em></em>(Australian Fisheries Management Authority 2003).&#160; This species is also taken as by-catch in the southeast Australian otter trawl fishery, where it has been assessed as a medium risk species (Wayte <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
154615	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Günther's Flounder.<br/><br/>Further research is needed into the population numbers and by-catch levels of this species.	eng
154615	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Günther's Flounder (<em>Laeops guentheri</em>) has been found in the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesia.	eng
154615	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Günther's Flounder is a demersal species that has a depth range of 15–329 m.&#160; It is found over sandy, muddy substrates, and sometimes over shell rubble.&#160; It feeds on benthic animals.	eng
154615	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for Günther's Flounder.	eng
154615	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Günther's Flounder is of no commercial importance, however it is taken as by-catch by commercial trawlers (FAO 2001).	eng
154616	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Crown Lanternfish.	eng
154616	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Crown Lanternfish <em>(Diaphus diadematus</em>) is found between 18°S and 23°S in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, but west of the thermal front which occurs from Benguela Water, Angola, to the south Atlantic central water. This species has a disjunct distribution in the the Indian Ocean; it is known from Sumatra, the Mozambique Channel, and in the Agulhas Current. In the Western Pacific, this species is found in southeast Asian seas and around northern Australia to 20°N.	eng
154616	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Crown Lanternfish is a bathypelagic, oceandromous species that migrates to the upper 100 m of the water column at night.	eng
154616	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no known population information for Crown Lanternfish, however species from the Myctophidae family are reported to be very common oceanic fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
154616	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no known commercial fishery for this species. Due to the depths at which this species can be found, it may be taken as a by-catch species of prawn fisheries operating within its range; however due to its small size it will pass through the nets of many trawlers.	eng
154617	conservation	Sorensen, M., Rojas, P.A. & Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on population, distribution, habitat requirements, and potential threats for this poorly known species.	eng
154617	distribution	Sorensen, M., Rojas, P.A. & Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama, including Gorgona, Malpelo, Galapagos and the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
154617	habitat	Sorensen, M., Rojas, P.A. & Acero, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit soft substrata between 3 and 20 m deep. It has been found in the stomachs of yellowfin tuna (Lourie <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).	eng
154617	population	Sorensen, M., Rojas, P.A. & Acero, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154617	threats	Sorensen, M., Rojas, P.A. & Acero, A., 2007	There is little known about the major threats for this species. In addition, given its relatively restricted range and shallow water habitat, this species may be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from future ENSO and global climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) including increased frequency of storm events.	eng
154618	conservation	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Oman Gunard.&#160; However, it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas. Further research on its abundance and ecology, and monitoring of the extent of harvest and harvest levels is needed.	eng
154618	distribution	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Oman Gurnard (<em>Lepidotrigla omanensis</em>) is found in the Arabian Sea from the mouth of the Red Sea to south India, but is not present in the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea.	eng
154618	habitat	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	Gurnards are benthic species found on the continental shelf of tropical and warm temperate regions. This species has been found at a depth range of 56?329 m. Species in the genus <em>Lepidotrigla</em> are typically found to occur on sandy, muddy, rubble or reef-type substrates.	eng
154618	population	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Oman Gunard.	eng
154618	threats	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no interest in the Oman Gunard as a food source, probably due to its small size.&#160; It is taken by bottom trawlers and treated as a trash fish.&#160; This is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the population of this species.	eng
154619	conservation	Nelson, J., Neely, D., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154619	distribution	Nelson, J., Neely, D., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The distribution of <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em> ranges from the Iwate and Shimane Prefectures of Japan, northwards, in both the Sea of Japan and the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
154619	habitat	Nelson, J., Neely, D., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Alcichthys elongatus</em> is a demersal species with a depth range of 15 - 269 m and inhabits temperate waters. It has been observed to aggregate in winter in the Gamov drop-offs in the western part of the Peter the Great Bay (Izmyatinskii 2006).  Maximum size about 30 cm; found primarily on rocky reef habitats (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154619	population	Nelson, J., Neely, D., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It has been observed to aggregate in winter in the Gamov drop-offs in the western part of the Peter the Great Bay (Izmyatinskii 2006).  Common around Hokkaido (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009).	eng
154619	threats	Nelson, J., Neely, D., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known threats for <em>Alcichthys elongatus</em>. This species is not targeted directly by any fishery.  It is incidentally caught in gill netting on rocky reefs (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). The Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk are subject to heavy shipping traffic and its associated threats: bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals; it is unknown if this species is affected by these threats.	eng
154620	conservation	Hulley, P.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em>.&#160; Further research on the distribution of this species is needed.	eng
154620	distribution	Hulley, P.A., 2009	<em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em> is distributed in the Southern Indian Ocean. Froese and Pauly (2006) report that this species possibly has a circumglobal distribution between 34°S and 48°S.	eng
154620	habitat	Hulley, P.A., 2009	<em>Protomyctophum luciferum</em> is a meso-/bethypelagic, oceanic species that is found at depths below 140 m at night.&#160; This species is oceanodromous.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).	eng
154620	population	Hulley, P.A., 2009	There is no species-specific population information available for<em> Protomyctophum luciferum</em>.&#160; Some species of the Myctophidae are known to be abundant in some areas (FAO 2002).	eng
154620	threats	Hulley, P.A., 2009	There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Protomyctophum luciferum</span>.	eng
154621	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Aldabra Special Reserve in the Seychelles.	eng
154621	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is found from the Island of Rodrigues, the Seychelles, the Chagos Archipelago and from the coast of Mozambique.	eng
154621	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is a demersal species that has been found at depths up to 200 m and occurs in coastal areas. It is more commonly seen at depths above 50 m, on sandy flats near coral reefs, and in lagoons.	eng
154621	population	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em>.	eng
154621	threats	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblygobius tekomaji</em> is not under any major or widespread threat process.  This species is not known for any commercial trade. However, due to the coastal nature of this species it may be locally impacted by threats affecting its habitat, including destructive fishing practices, coastal development and water pollution.	eng
154622	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found in at least one of the five marine protected areas around Madagascar.  Further research on the taxonomy of this species is required with further collections being made at the type locality (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154622	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Foa madagascariensis</em> is only known from the type locality, Saradrano, Tulear, Madagascar.	eng
154622	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Foa madagascariensis</em> has been collected at a depth range of five to six m in coastal waters.	eng
154622	population	Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Foa madagascarensis</span> is only known from two specimens.	eng
154622	threats	Gon, O., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Foa madagascariensis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154623	conservation	Allen, G.R., Kwok Ho, S., Min, L. &  Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	<em></em>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Cheilinus trilobatus</em>. However, this species distribution includes a number of marine protected areas within its range. For example, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus </span>was recorded in 5 marine protected areas off Africa: Malindi, Watamu, Mombasa, Kisite and Chumbe Island (McClanahan 2000). More species-specific information on harvest and trade is needed for this species.	eng
154623	distribution	Allen, G.R., Kwok Ho, S., Min, L. &  Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> is broadly distributed in the Indo-Pacific, from East Africa to Tuamoto and from Japan to New Caledonia.	eng
154623	habitat	Allen, G.R., Kwok Ho, S., Min, L. &  Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	Juveniles of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> are found on algae reefs and usually around stinging hydrozoans (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), while adults inhabit coral lagoon, coastal reef-flats, seaward reefs and along shallow reef margins with high coral cover (Lieske and Myers 1994; Allen 2000; Kuiter 2006). It is also occasionally observed in grassy areas at depths of 1–30 m (Carpenter and Niem 2001; Gell and Whittington 2002). <span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> feeds on hard-shelled benthic invertebrates, including sea urchins, molluscs, crustaceans and occasionally small fishes (Myers 1991; Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
154623	population	Allen, G.R., Kwok Ho, S., Min, L. &  Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cheilinus trilobatus</span> has been commonly observed on recent surveys throughout Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009.). This is a common species throughout its range (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154623	threats	Allen, G.R., Kwok Ho, S., Min, L. &  Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	<em></em>There are no major threats known for <em>Cheilinus trilobatus</em>. This species is caught in multi-species fisheries and marketed both alive and dead, and is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. At present these are not considered major threats to the population of this species due to the small size of these fisheries.	eng
154624	conservation	Haedrich, R.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the American Harvestfish<em>.&#160;</em> However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154624	distribution	Haedrich, R.L., 2009	The American Harvestfish <em>(Peprilus paru</em>) is known from Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the coasts of Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Antilles.&#160; It may infrequently be found in the western Caribbean, but is absent from the Bahamas.&#160; Along the Atlantic coast, it extends from its northerly limit of Chespaeake Bay, south to Uruguay and Argentina (R. Haedrich pers. comm. 2008)	eng
154624	habitat	Haedrich, R.L., 2009	The American Harvestfish is a pelagic species, found to occur all year round in large schools within coastal bays.&#160; Juvenile forms are found in shallow coastal waters under floating weeds or in association with the Scyphomedusae, <em>Chrysaora quinquecirrha</em> (Mansueti 1963).&#160; Adults will feed on jellyfish, small fish, worms, and crustaceans, while juveniles are primarily plankton feeders.&#160;  This species is found at depths of 50–70 m.	eng
154624	population	Haedrich, R.L., 2009	There is no population information available for the American Harvestfish.	eng
154624	threats	Haedrich, R.L., 2009	The American Harvestfish is commercially harvested in the inshore waters of eastern Florida, the northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico, western Venezuela, the Guianas, and occasionally the Campeche Bank.&#160; All fishing activity uses otter trawls.&#160; This species is marketed fresh and frozen and exported predominantly to Japan.&#160; With the exception of a period in the 1960s, landings of this species were historically low until the 1990s, when the fishery off Venezuela developed.&#160; At present, harvesting of this species as a food source is not considered to be a major threat to the overall population.	eng
154625	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology, distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
154625	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em> is known from a single specimen found off the western coast of Tasmania.	eng
154625	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis plagiostomus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been collected at a depth range of 987–993 m.	eng
154625	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis plagiostomus</span>, as it is only known from a single specimen.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154625	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown if&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis plagiostomus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154626	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tropical Striped Triplefin. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its habitat status should be carried out.	eng
154626	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Tropical Striped Triplefin, <em>Helcogramma striatum,</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from Sri Lanka and India, east to Kiribati, north to Japan and south to northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
154626	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Tropical Striped Triplefin, <em>Helcogramma striatum</em>, is found resting on live coral at a depth range of 0-30 m. This species feeds on zooplankton that drifts past in the current.	eng
154626	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154626	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines in abundance due habitat degradation as a result of coral bleaching, destructive fishing practices, sedimentation, coastal pollution & development, and Crown of Thorns starfish invasions.	eng
154627	conservation	Acero, A., 2009	During this species spawning season, some estuaries are closed to netting (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). The Western Australian Fisheries Department has set a minimum length of capture at 43 cm, which is above the size of maturity of this species (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Conservation measures need to be specific to each estuarine location, as each subpopulation is genetically distinct. Further research is needed to establish if subpopulations interbreed or if they are genetically isolated. If they are in fact genetically isolated then regional extinctions may occur if harvesting is not regulated, and spawning grounds protected.	eng
154627	distribution	Acero, A., 2009	The Estuary Catfish (<em>Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</em>) ranges from southern Queensland, to southern Western Australia including Tasmania (McGrouther 2005).	eng
154627	habitat	Acero, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</span> occurs in estuaries and silty bays of temperate marine waters (McGrouther 2005) to a depth of 30 m. It prefers sandy areas which have weeds that can be used as protective cover. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cnidoglanis macrocephalus</span> spawns and nests in burrows which the males guard. Each estuary's population is genetically distinct (Blaber <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/><br/>The breeding habitats of this species has made them vulnerable to over-fishing as they spawn and nest in burrows and the males remain nearby to guard eggs and rear the young. Unlike many fish that spawn prolifically and several times a year, Cobbler spawn only once a year and produce a relatively small number of eggs (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). Recent studies suggest that Cobbler populations do not move far away from their home estuary and there is little interbreeding (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005).	eng
154627	population	Acero, A., 2009	This species has shown a decline in abundance throughout most of its range since the 1970s (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003).	eng
154627	threats	Acero, A., 2009	This species is one of the most important commercially important species in Australia's estuaries (Blaber<em> et al.</em> 2000).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The Estuary Catfish<em></em> declined in abundance during the 1970s–1980s due to over-fishing (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/> <br/>This species has failed to recover to pre-1970s abundance levels, and several estuaries have recently experienced historically low annual catches <em></em>(Fisheries Research Division Western Australia 2003), including the Swan-Canning, Peel-Harvey and Leschenault estuaries. The annual commercial catch has fallen from more than 400 t in the 1960s to less than 10 t in 1993 (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). However in 2003, Wilson Inlet on the southern coast of Western Australia, reported its highest annual catch since 1985 (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2003). However the overall trend seems to be for a decline in abundance, with larger fish becoming scarcer (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2005). It has also been suggested that the low levels of catch in the Swan-Canning and Peel-Harvey estuaries could be partly due to a shift in target species, away from the Estuary Catfish (Fisheries Research Division Western Australia 2003).<br/><br/>Breeding stock size for this species is determined as 'inadequate' (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2008). Subpopulations within estuaries are said to be genetically distinct, making this species even more vulnerable to exploitation.At all known locations size at maturity is said to be below the age at maturity (Department of Fisheries Western Australia 2008).	eng
154628	conservation	Acero, A., Fricke, R., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Uropterygius fuscoguttatus , however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), including several in New Caledonia, all of which are "no-take" zones.&#160; Monitoring of the coral habitat status should be carried out and steps taken to ensure that further coral reef degradation does not occur.	eng
154628	distribution	Acero, A., Fricke, R., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</em> is distributed from the Maldive Islands and Chagos Archipelago, east to the Pitcairn Islands, and north to the Hawaiian and Johnston Islands.&#160; It has also been recorded from South Africa (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154628	habitat	Acero, A., Fricke, R., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is associated with coral reefs in lagoons and seaward reefs.&#160; The species is found among rubble with algae cover, at depths of 3–25 m.	eng
154628	population	Acero, A., Fricke, R., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is relatively common and widespread (D. Smith pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154628	threats	Acero, A., Fricke, R., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius fuscoguttatus</span> is being affected by any major threats across its entire range. This species' coral reef habitat has been threatened in some areas by coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, water pollution (sedimentation) and other human pressures.&#160; However, these threats are localised, rather than occurring over its entire range, and in some regions the reefs are still healthy.	eng
154629	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154629	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Siokunichthys nigrolineatus</em> is distributed in the western central Pacific, from southern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea to the Philippines. In Indonesia it is known from the Moluccas Islands, Flores, the Raja Ampat Islands and Sangalakki Island (Dawson 1983; Kuiter 2000).	eng
154629	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	This species inhabits tropical waters and is reef-associated. It is found in coastal reefs, usually along the bottom of shallow drop-offs, and in small groups on solitary coral. These groups comprise mixed sex and sized individuals. <em>S. nigrolineatus</em> is commensal with solitary corals, notably <em>Fungia echinata</em> and <em>Heliofungia actiniformes</em> (Kuiter 2000). The reefs this species inhabits are often adjacent to large lagoons which discharge large volumes of water over reefs on outgoing tides, carrying plankton. Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch, located under the tail.	eng
154629	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There is currently no available population information for this species.	eng
154629	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	This particular pipefish is not likely to be harvested for medicinal trade and the only potential major threats are from the habitat specificity of fungiid corals (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).  However, corals of the family that includes Fungia are considered the one of the least threatened of scleractinian corals (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  This species could potentially be harvested for the aquarium trade but there is no evidence that this species is currently exploited for that purpose (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154630	conservation	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Canthigaster inframacula</em>.	eng
154630	distribution	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> is known from only a few specimens found at Johnston Atoll, Ogasawara Islands, Japan, Oahu Island, Hawaiian Islands, and Tonking Bay, Viet Nam.	eng
154630	habitat	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> is typically found low in the water column over rock and sand substrates, at depths ranging from 100 - 157 m.	eng
154630	population	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Canthigaster inframacula</em>. It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
154630	threats	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster inframacula</em> has no known threats and never likely to be harvested for food owing to its small size.	eng
154631	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Anglefin Whiff, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on possible threats impacting this species is needed.	eng
154631	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Anglefin Whiff (<em>Citharichthys gymnorhinus)</em> ranges from the Florida Keys to Guyana, including the Bahamas and the Antilles. Larvae have also been collected off the coast of North Carolina, suggesting that the distribution of this species may extend further north than previously thought.	eng
154631	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Anglefin Whiff is a demersal species that has a depth range of 35-200 m, but it commonly occurs at 30-90 m. The larvae occur offshore off the west coast of Florida, usually between 50 and 200 m. This species is found on the continental shelf (FAO 2002) over sand and mud substrates.	eng
154631	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for the Anglefin Whiff.	eng
154631	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Anglefin Whiff is not specifically targeted by the fishing industry but areas in which it is found, such as the Antilles and Bahamas, have been affected by overfishing; this species may be taken as by-catch (WWF 2003).  These threats however are unlikely to be causing significant declines in the population of this broad ranging species.	eng
154632	conservation	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Yves Merlet Special Marine Reserve off New Caledonia.	eng
154632	distribution	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em> is distributed from the Bali Strait to Timor.&#160; It has also been reported from Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Mauritius and Sri Lanka.	eng
154632	habitat	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The stargazer, <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 1–150 m (FAO 2001, Froes and Pauly 2006).&#160; The Uranoscopidae family are nocturnal, and during the day, bury their bodies into sand or mud, with only the eyes and mouth left protruding (FAO 2001).	eng
154632	population	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>.	eng
154632	threats	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known threats to <em>Uranoscopus oligolepis</em>.	eng
154633	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Malacocephalus luzonensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the possible threats and ecology of this species, to determine if it is being impacted by deep-sea shrimp fisheries.	eng
154633	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Malacocephalus luzonensis</em> is a western central Pacific Grenadier, known only from the Philippines.	eng
154633	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malacocephalus</span> <em>luzonensis</em>is a benthopelagic species and has been found at a depth of 315 m.&#160; Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on upper continental slopes (FAO 1999), feeding on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish, and cephalopods, and are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154633	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information available for<em> Malacocephalus luzonensis</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154633	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no known commercial fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Malacocephalus luzonensis</span>, however it may be taken as by-catch by shrimp trawling fisheries, which are common in the Philippines.	eng
154634	conservation	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Johnsonina eriomma</em>.	eng
154634	distribution	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> is known from the Northwest Providence Channel of the Bahamas, south through the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and the western Caribbean off Panama and Nicaragua (Tyler 1968).	eng
154634	habitat	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> is caught in trawls and therefore found over soft bottoms.&#160;  One unconfirmed report lists this species at 70 m, although it is mostly reported from depths of 225 to 720 m (Tyler 1968).	eng
154634	population	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em></em>Tyler (1968) examined 115 specimens of <em>Johnsonina eriomma</em> from numerous locations across the Caribbean.	eng
154634	threats	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Johnsonina eriomma.</span>	eng
154635	conservation	Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lestidiops ringens</em>.	eng
154635	distribution	Russell, B., 2009	The Slender Barracudina<em> (Lestidiops ringens</em>) occurs from British Columbia in Canada, to central Baja California in Mexico.&#160; Two specimens have also been collected by mid-water trawl from northern Japan (Okamoto <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
154635	habitat	Russell, B., 2009	The Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0–3,290 m.&#160; It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods.&#160; This species has a number of predators including albacore, salmon, swordfish, and lancetfish.	eng
154635	population	Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for the Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span><em> </em>	eng
154635	threats	Russell, B., 2009	There is no known commercial fishery for the Slender Barracudina<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; Due to its extensive depth profile, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by some fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to represent a major threat.	eng
154636	conservation	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Roberts, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.	eng
154636	distribution	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Roberts, C., 2009	<em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is endemic to New Zealand, where it is widespread in coastal waters.&#160; It is found from North Cape to Stewart Island, and the Chatham Islands (Nelson 1978).	eng
154636	habitat	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Roberts, C., 2009	<em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is a benthic species that has been found at a depth range of 5–200 m on sand and mud bottoms.	eng
154636	population	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Roberts, C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.&#160;  It is common in museum collections.	eng
154636	threats	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Roberts, C., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em>.&#160; The Hauraki Gulf region has been the target of both major commercial and recreational fisheries for Sparid (<em>Pagrus auratus</em>).&#160; <em>Hemerocoetes monopterygius</em> is probably taken as by-catch, especially by shrimp trawls, but this is not thought to pose a major threat to the species (J. Nelson pers. comm. 2009)	eng
154637	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitegill Dragonet. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance and threats, as very little information is available at present.	eng
154637	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Whitegill Dragonet (<em>Callionymus leucobranchialis</em>) is a western Pacific dragonet, known from only one locality in the Philippines and two localities in Australia (Western Australia and Queensland).	eng
154637	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Whitegill Dragonet is demersal, burying into soft substrates. It has been found at depths ranging of 60–137 m. Congeners feed on small, bottom-dwelling organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).	eng
154637	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Whitegill Dragonet is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154637	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	It is unknown whether the Whitegill Dragonet is being impacted by any major threat processes. Like its congeners (e.g., <em>Callionymus belcheri</em> and <em>C. filamentosus</em>), this species may be taken as by-catch in commercial prawn fisheries, or may be used for the production of fish meal (Fricke 2001).	eng
154638	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Myctophum lychnobium</em>.<br/><br/>There is uncertainty regarding whether <em>M. lychnobium</em> is a valid species, therefore more taxonomic research is required.	eng
154638	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Myctophum lychnobium</em> is known from China (South China Sea) and Papua New Guinea (Solomon Sea and off Madang).&#160; However, Froese and Pauly (2007) state that the distribution of <em>M. lychnobium</em> ranges from the Mozambique Channel to the eastern Pacific.	eng
154638	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Myctophum lychnobium</em> is a bathypelagic species with a depth range of 0–1,000 m.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae migrate vertically to the upper 200 m at night to feed. Species are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).	eng
154638	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Myctophum lychnobium</em>.	eng
154638	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myctophum lychnobium</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154639	conservation	Hastings, P.S. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in the Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
154639	distribution	Hastings, P.S. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only found around the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico.	eng
154639	habitat	Hastings, P.S. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found near rocky shores and rocky reefs in a narrow depth range between 0 and 10 m.	eng
154639	population	Hastings, P.S. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154639	threats	Hastings, P.S. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a very shallow, narrow depth range and a restricted distribution. This species is therefore susceptible to localized stochastic events, including oceanographic environmental changes during ENSO or future climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
154640	conservation	Acero, A. & Bentancur, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Guri Sea Catfish.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers is needed. Further research is needed to establish the extent of harvest and if fishing effort decreased in the years that landings were reported to be low.	eng
154640	distribution	Acero, A. & Bentancur, R., 2009	The Guri Sea Catfish (<em>Genidens genidens</em>) can be found off the coast of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina.	eng
154640	habitat	Acero, A. & Bentancur, R., 2009	The Guri Sea Catfish is a demersal species that is typically found in shallow, brackish water over sandy or muddy bottoms, estuaries and coastal lagoons.&#160; Males mouthbreed the eggs and fry until development is complete.&#160; This species has a very low fecundity, with an average litter size of only 5–17 individuals (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
154640	population	Acero, A. & Bentancur, R., 2009	The Guri Sea Catfish is one of the most common catfish species along the Brazilian coast. It is abundant in estuaries and lagoons (Barbieri <em>et al.</em> 1992). A study by Araújo <em>et al</em>. (2002) found that this species was one of the most abundant in Sepetiba Bay, Brazil between 1993 and 1996. The data collected from this study also showed that the number of Guri Sea Catfish specimens caught each year has decreased; in 1993/1994, 991.95 kg were harvested, but in 1995/1996, only 141 kg were harvested (Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is unclear if this is due to changes in fishing effort or to a genuine decline in population size.	eng
154640	threats	Acero, A. & Bentancur, R., 2009	This species is commercially harvested and targeted by artisanal fisheries (Barbieri <em>et al.</em> 1992). Marine resources of the eastern coast of South America, are under intense fishing pressure. Due to its low fecundity, commercial harvesting may be causing population declines.	eng
154641	conservation	Acero, A., Fricke, R., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gobiodon histrio</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs) including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP).&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
154641	distribution	Acero, A., Fricke, R., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Gobiodon histrio</em> is distributed from the Red Sea to the Samoa Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
154641	habitat	Acero, A., Fricke, R., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histro</span> is a demersal species that is found among the branches of <em>Acropora</em> corals, especially <em>Acropora nasuta</em> colonies (Munday <em>et al</em>. 1997, Munday 2002, Hobbs and Munday 2004).&#160; This species relies on <em>Acropora nasuta</em> for shelter, food and a site for reproduction (Patton 1994, Nakashima <em>et al</em>. 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histro</span> competes with other <em>Gobiodon</em> species for access to colonies of <em>Acropora nasuta</em> (Munday <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; There are rarely more than two <em>Gobiodon histrio</em> individuals present per coral colony.&#160; The species conducts both protogynous and protandrous sex changes (i.e., can change sex in both directions) (Munday and Molony 2002).	eng
154641	population	Acero, A., Fricke, R., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histrio</span> is reported as common in Kimbe Bay (Munday 2000), however its abundance is closely correlated to the abundance of the coral <em>Acropora nasuta</em> (Munday <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
154641	threats	Acero, A., Fricke, R., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiodon histrio</span> is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, however the harvest levels are not known.&#160; This species is also likely to be suffering localised population declines due to habitat degradation.&#160; Coral reefs in the Red Sea have been severely degraded by coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, water pollution (sedimentation) and human population pressures.&#160; However these threats are not consistent over the entire range of this species.	eng
154642	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em style="font-style: italic;"> foliaceus</em>. However, its distribution may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including several in New Caledonia.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, ecology, biology, habitat preferences, and potential threats to this species.&#160; In particular, information on the adult stage is required.	eng
154642	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	Larvae of <em>Thalassenchelys foliaceus</em> have been found in tropical waters from Madagascar to New Caledonia and the South China Sea. The range of the adult part of the population is not known.	eng
154642	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em> foliaceus</em>. Other members of the genus are found in the shallow photic zone, at depths of 0–50 m. It is yet to be determined if these are indicative of the depth profile of <em>T. foliaceaus</em>.	eng
154642	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	As&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys</span><em> foliaceus</em> is known only from larvae, no information is available on its population size or trends.	eng
154642	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassenchelys foliaceus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154643	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em>.  This species is known to occur in the National Park of American Somoa, and is likely to be be found within several more marine park areas within its range.	eng
154643	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em> is a western Pacific blenny distributed from the Ryukyu Islands south to the Great Barrier Reef, and east to the Samoa Islands and Marshall Islands. This species has also been reported from Madagascar, Mauritius, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago.	eng
154643	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parenchelyurus hepburni</em> lives in the intertidal zone beneath stones and in tide pools near rocky and coral reefs. It is found at a depth range of 1-4 m.	eng
154643	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	This species is relatively common within its range.	eng
154643	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154644	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Liparis liparis</span>.&#160;  Further research is needed to determine the current extent and severity of threats to this species.	eng
154644	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Liparis liparis</em> is distributed through the northeast Atlantic, off the Baltic countries (Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Russia, Sweden, Denmark), Norway, the British Isles, Ireland, Iceland, Portugal, and France (D. Stein pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154644	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Liparis liparis</em> is a small, benthic, inshore species with a short lifespan of 1 year in the most southerly reaches of its range, and to 2 or 3 years in more northerly waters.&#160; A mature adult grows to 10–15 cm.&#160; Spawning takes place in the spring.&#160; This species feeds primarily on crustaceans, and occasionally fishes and polychaetes. &#160; This species is found in the subtidal zone to the epipelagic zone, and is reported to have a broad depth range, from just beneath the surface down to 300 m.	eng
154644	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Liparis liparis</em>.	eng
154644	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	The near-shore habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Liparis liparis</span> has been impacted by pollution discharges, such as sewage and industrial waste, over much of the last century or more. However, these impacts are thought to be localised and not impacting the species across the full extent of its range.	eng
154645	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus herwigi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology and population numbers of this species.	eng
154645	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Careproctus herwigi</em> is known only from the holotype which was collected off northern Argentina. Species within the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).	eng
154645	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	Congeners, <em>Careproctus rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). This species was collected at a depth of 1250 m. It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).	eng
154645	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	Species of the family Liparidae are known to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154645	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown if this species is impacted by a major threat process. There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).	eng
154646	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, and potential threats to this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
154646	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em> is found in the Red Sea.	eng
154646	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	Species of the genus <em>Leptocephalus</em> are found in deep water, but the exact ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptocephalus ophichthoides</span> is not known.&#160; This species is known only from the larvae, which may have been separately described as an adult (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154646	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em>.	eng
154646	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is not known if <em>Leptocephalus ophichthoides</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154647	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Spear-snouted Grenadier.	eng
154647	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	In the western Atlantic, the Spear-snouted Grenadier (<em>Caelorinchus occa)</em> is found from the Florida Straits to northeastern South America. One specimen has been captured off Bermuda. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic from the Faroe Channel to Cape Verde.	eng
154647	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Spear-snouted Grenadier<em></em> is a bathydemersal  species that has a depth range of 400-2,220 m. It feeds on small fishes, polychaete and crustaceans. Species from the Macrouridae family occur on the continental slope and rise (FAO 2002).	eng
154647	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information available for the Spear-snouted Grenadier.	eng
154647	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	It is unlikely that Spear-snouted Grenadier is being impacted by any major threat processes. Some species from the Macrouridae family are taken in quantity as by-catch in deep-water shrimp trawlers (FAO 2002), however this threat is unlikely to be significantly impacting the entire population due to broad range over which it is found and the depths it can occupy.	eng
154648	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas&#160; including the Bigi Pan Multiple Use Management Area off the coast of Suriname. <br/><br/>Further research on the by-catch levels and abundance of this species is required.	eng
154648	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is found off northern South America from Venezuela to Brazil.	eng
154648	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is a bottom dwelling species typically found on soft substrates within the continental shelf and at a depth range of 30-90 m. (Froese and Pauly 2009).	eng
154648	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>.	eng
154648	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em> is of minor commercial importance but is taken as by-catch by both the shrimp and finfish industries (Munroe 2002). Many areas of the Brazilian coastline have suffered from overfishing (Gutberlet 2004). It is not known how significant these threats are to the population of <em>Ancylopsetta kumperae</em>.	eng
154649	conservation	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	A monkfish management plan, which includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius gastrophysus</span>, was submitted to the Brazilian authorities to restrict fishing levels to a precautionary amount.&#160; It proposed a 2,500 tonne allowable catch which would reduce removals to 4% of the total biomass and 8% of the spawning biomass.&#160;  It also recommended that only the more selective gill net operations should be used in areas deeper than 250 m.&#160; These conservation measures were not followed in 2002 and instead a chartered gill net ban was established from October onwards (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.	eng
154649	distribution	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, south to the northern coast of Argentina, including the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
154649	habitat	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is a slow-moving bottom dweller, found on soft bottoms at depths of 200 - 700 m. <br/><br/>Longevity in its congener, <em>Lophius budgessa</em>, is approximately 13 years in males and 19 years in females (Landa<em> et al.</em> 2001).	eng
154649	population	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	During 2001, deep water fishing removed 10,000 tonnes (15.9%) of the 62,776 tonne total biomass estimate for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius gastrophysus</span>, and 31.6% of the spawning stock (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; Within the main fishing areas of southern Brazil, the biomass reduction for this species was 30 - 60% according to modelling simulations (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>FAO statistics show landings of this species from Brazil, Spain and the United Kingdom, with landings ranging from around 300 mt to over 9,000 mt from 1995 to 2006.&#160;  The peak in 2001 of 9,200 mt was followed by declines down to around 2,500 mt in recent years, with all recent landings from the Brazil fishery.&#160;  These levels of exploitation that are equivalent to around 4% of total biomass, or 8% of spawning biomass (Perez et al. 2005).<br/><br/>Landings of this species in the US are probably lumped under <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius americanus</span>.	eng
154649	threats	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is commerically fished throughout its range.&#160; Since 2000, the deep water fishing industry off southern Brazil has increased in intensity due to an expansion of traditional trawling practices to include slope grounds, and the authorisation by the government of chartered fleet operations (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; <em>Lophius gastrophysus</em> is very sensitive to intense fishing due to slow density recovery rates.&#160; The exploitation rate for this species is greatest for the larger specimens (Perez <em>et al</em>. 2005), which could explain the greater decline in the percentage of spawning individuals.	eng
154650	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, ecology and threats of this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
154650	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> is distributed from the western Laptev Sea to the Bering Straight in the Arctic, and from the Canadian Arctic to Ungava Bay.	eng
154650	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> is found in Arctic climates, however its specific habitat requirements are unknown at present.  This species has a broad depth profile in the upper to mid euphotic zone, from the surface down to around 51 m.	eng
154650	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em>.	eng
154650	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	It is not known if <em>Gymnelus barsukovi</em> are being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154651	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathygobius aeolosoma</em>. Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Islands are protected (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009) within Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters) and Norfolk Island National Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, so that possible threats can be identified.&#160; A taxonomic revision of the <em>Bathygobius</em> genus is also needed.	eng
154651	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J. , 2009	<em>Bathygobius aeolosoma</em> is known from only two locations in Australia: Norfolk Island (type locality) and Lord Howe Island (Francis 1993).	eng
154651	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J. , 2009	<em>Bathygobius</em><em> aeolosoma</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Like its congener <em>Bathygobius cotticeps</em>, it is likely that this species is found in tidepools of rock substrates and coral reefs.	eng
154651	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J. , 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius aeolosoma</span>.	eng
154651	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J. , 2009	There is no information available on current or potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Bathygobius aeolosoma</span>.	eng
154652	conservation	Landaeta, M.F., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, population numbers, and threats of this species.	eng
154652	distribution	Landaeta, M.F., 2009	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is only known from a few specimens collected at the Sala y Gomez Ridge, near Easter Island (Parin<em> et al.</em> 1997, Landaeta<em> et al.</em> 2003).	eng
154652	habitat	Landaeta, M.F., 2009	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is a bathydemersal species (Parin<em> et al.</em> 1997) which has been found at a depth range of 470-485 m over a seamount.	eng
154652	population	Landaeta, M.F., 2009	<em>Enigmapercis acutirostris</em> is only known from a few specimens.	eng
154652	threats	Landaeta, M.F., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. The seamounts within this species range are harvested for a number of commercially important species. While this species is not targeted directly, it may be taken as by-catch by other commercial fisheries.	eng
154653	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em>.	eng
154653	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> has been found in a number of localities within the Southern Ocean; the Knox Coast, Ross Sea, Queen Maud Land, Lazarev Sea, the Southern Shetland Island, and the South Orkney Islands.	eng
154653	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 200–1,120 m.&#160; This species is known to feed on amphipods, isopods, and molluscs.	eng
154653	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pogonophryne barsukovi</span>.&#160; Species in the genus <em>Pogonophryne</em> are thought to be relatively low in abundance (La Mesa <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; However, given the deep-water nature of this species and its geographic location, this could be a result of limited sampling effort.	eng
154653	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Pogonophryne barsukovi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154654	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis kreffti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the possible threats facing this species, along with information on its distribution and abundance.	eng
154654	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis kreffti</em> is occurs in the north Scotia Sea between South Georgia and Shag Rocks, and also within the Weddell Sea.	eng
154654	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis kreffti</em> is a bathydemersal species, found at a depth range of 850?2,600 m.	eng
154654	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis kreffti</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154654	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154655	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Møller, P.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas.	eng
154655	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Møller, P.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em> is found in the Sea of Okhotsk, from the Bay of Penzhinsk to the Shantar Islands.	eng
154655	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Møller, P.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The eelpout, <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>, is a demersal species with a depth range of 0?60 m.&#160; It inhabits intertidal and subtidal zones (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009). Eelpouts (family Zoarcidae) are often associated with muddy substrates (Martin and Yamanaka, 2004).	eng
154655	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Møller, P.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is currently no population information available for <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.	eng
154655	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Møller, P.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em>.  Although the Sea of Okhotsk is severely impacted by over-fishing, <em>Hadropareia middendorffii</em> is of no importance to commercial fisheries, and occurs primarily in coastal waters which would limit its susceptibility to fishing pressure (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154656	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends is needed, with investigation on the extent of threats to this species across its range.	eng
154656	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Parioglossus neocaledonicus</em> is endemic to New Caledonia (Marquet <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km² (the total area of New Caledonia is less than this threshold), and it is likely to occur in fewer than 10 locations (E. Mundy and A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154656	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus neocaledonicus</span> is a demersal species that is found in slightly brackish and freshwater. It is the first species of the genus to be found in fresh to slightly brackish water (Dingerkus and Seret 1992).	eng
154656	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus neocaledonicus</span>.	eng
154656	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Parioglossus</span><em> neocaledonicus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, it is likely to be affected to some extent by mining activities such as nickel mining within New Caledonia's rivers (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154657	conservation	Van Tassell, J. & Findley, L., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the current and imminent threats that this species is facing.	eng
154657	distribution	Van Tassell, J. & Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Clipperton Atoll, the Galapagos Islands and Lobos de Afuera in northern Peru (Miller and Stefanni 2001).	eng
154657	habitat	Van Tassell, J. & Findley, L., 2007	This species inhabits shallow rocky shores and tidepools to depths of two m.	eng
154657	population	Van Tassell, J. & Findley, L., 2007	This species is most likely common, although it has a restricted range (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
154657	threats	Van Tassell, J. & Findley, L., 2007	This species has a restricted and disjunct distribution, and a very narrow and shallow depth range. For the subspecies found at Clipperton Atoll, the shallow water coral reef habitat is threatened by oceanographic environmental changes such as the ENSO events and global warming (e.g. coral bleaching, degradation of benthic fauna and flora) (Glynn 1991, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Hughes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, D’Croz and Maté 2004). The other two subspecies which are found near the Galapagos Islands and Lobos de Afeura, may also be affected by these threats and other localized events.	eng
154658	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to determine the abundance of this species.	eng
154658	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> has been found off the coast of New Zealand at Bell's Flat, Raoul Island and the Kermadec Islands.	eng
154658	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> is a demersal species found on rocky reefs at a depth range of 164-270 m. It is found within the continental shelf. This species is likely to be found solitary or in small groups (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154658	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias bilaticlavia</em> is thought to be known from only a few specimens which may be a result of poor of sampling effort (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154658	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	As this species is known from deep water rocky reefs it is unlikely to be taken by trawler fisheries operating within this area. Coastal development and pollution are also of no major concern.	eng
154659	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Dzhugdzhursky Strictly Protected Nature Reserve. <br/><br/>Further research into the distribution, abundance, biology, and the impact of potential threats to this species is needed in order to determine if it is likely to be suffering significant population declines.	eng
154659	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em> is known only from the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
154659	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	The sculpin, <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>, is a demersal species with a depth range of 0–112 m. This is a coastal, benthopelagic species usually found resting on sand and mud bottoms in harbours, bays and estuaries.	eng
154659	population	Neely, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em>.	eng
154659	threats	Neely, D., 2009	It is not known if <em>Myoxocephalus tuberculatus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; This species may be locally threatened by industrial and domestic pollution discharges and waste oil from the oil mining process (NOAA 2003).&#160; The Sea of Okhotsk is severely over-fished and while this species is not targeted directly, it is likely to be taken as by-catch.	eng
154660	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154660	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is known from New Zealand and Tonga.	eng
154660	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is a demersal species found from estuaries to the continental shelf.&#160; Stargazers are sedentary fish that camouflage themselves by burrowing in the sand and mud.&#160; They prey upon animals moving over them and feed on crabs, molluscs, worms, and small fishes.&#160; Occasionally, this species can be found on sandy beaches above the water level at low tide (Forster and Starling 1982).&#160;  This species has a depth range of approximately 10–100 m.	eng
154660	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is common in the inshore waters of New Zealand (FAO 2001b).	eng
154660	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Genyagnus monopterygius</em> is occasionally harvested by gill nets or trawls (FAO 2001b).&#160; However, as this is a small fishery and this species is reported to be common around the New Zealand coast, this is not thought to represent a major threat to this species at present.	eng
154661	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed to determine if it is undergoing significant declines in abundance.	eng
154661	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is known from southern Australian. It ranges from Shark Bay in Western Australia, to Terrigal in New South Wales, including Tasmania (Gomon, Bray and Kuiter 2008<em></em>).	eng
154661	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 10 to 400 m and is found offshore on the continental shelf and upper slope. Species from the Oplegnathidae family feed on barnacles and molluscs.	eng
154661	population	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> is reported to be particularly common in the Great Australian Bight (McGrouther 2004).	eng
154661	threats	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	This species is taken as by-catch and it is reported that large quantities are taken in the Great Australian Bight shelf waters. Annual catches and catch per unit effort is reported to have increased as effort on the shelf increased in the early 1990s and decreased between 1998 and 2002 (Ward <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is also taken as by-catch in Western Australian trawl fisheries (Australian Fisheries Management Authority 2003) and in south east Australian otter trawl fishery. <em>Oplegnathus woodwardi</em> has been assessed as a medium risk species in the south east otter trawl fishery (Wayte <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is harvested as a food fish (Gomon, Bray and Kuiter 2008).	eng
154662	conservation	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006)	eng
154662	distribution	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico (Amezcua-Linares 1996) to Peru.	eng
154662	habitat	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This demersal coastal species is found in estuaries and shallow inshore bays over muddy and sandy substrata to depths of 30 m.	eng
154662	population	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species may become abundant seasonally.	eng
154662	threats	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
154663	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Oneirodes acanthias</em>.	eng
154663	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes acanthias</em> is distributed southwards from the Gulf of Alaska, along the western coast of the United States of America, to Mexico.	eng
154663	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes acanthias</em> is a bathypelagic species that as been found at a depth range of 595-1,095 m. This species feeds on crustaceans. Unlike some members of its genus, the males are not parasitic to the females.	eng
154663	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes acanthias</span>.	eng
154663	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes acanthias </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154664	conservation	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>.<br/><br/>Further research into the distribution, habitat, population numbers of this species is needed in order to determine if this species is being impacted by any major threat process.	eng
154664	distribution	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em> is found from the Gulf of Oman to Western Australia (Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154664	habitat	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	The Blackvent Filefish, <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 30–200 m.	eng
154664	population	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em>.	eng
154664	threats	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Thamnaconus melanoproctes</em> is being impacted by any major threats, however it may be taken as by-catch like its ecologically similar congener <em>Thamnaconus fajardoi</em> which is taken incidentally by bottom trawls (FAO 1984). Current fishing methods in the Arabian Sea have resulted in overexploitation of coastal resources, and this is mostly due to large fishing vessels that fish illegally near the coast (NOAA 2004).	eng
154665	conservation	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias posti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154665	distribution	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias posti</em> is only known from 10° longitude offshore off Brazil.	eng
154665	habitat	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias posti</em> is a mesopelagic species that has been found at depths between 0-660 m, but it mostly found at depths less than 200 m. Some species from the Stomiidae family migrate to surface waters at night (FAO 2002).	eng
154665	population	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias posti</em>.	eng
154665	threats	Clarke, T.A., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Eustomias posti</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There are major commercial fisheries that operate within this species distribution range, however, <em>Eustomias posti</em> is of no commercial importance and there are no reports of this species being taken as by-catch.	eng
154666	conservation	Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution and potential threats of this species as little information is available.	eng
154666	distribution	Russell, B., 2009	<em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> has been found in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
154666	habitat	Russell, B., 2009	<em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> is a deepwater mesopelagic species found at a depth range of 814 - 997 m. The recorded maximum length of this species, 6.17 cm, is based upon an immature specimen.	eng
154666	population	Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em>.	eng
154666	threats	Russell, B., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Stemonosudis bullisi</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154667	conservation	Carpenter, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Spicara axillaris</em>.	eng
154667	distribution	Carpenter, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> occurs from Natal to Cape Town in South Africa; it has also been collected off central Mozambique (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154667	habitat	Carpenter, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> is a pelagic species that has a depth range of 20 m to 160 m and moves inshore during stormy weather (Heemstra 1986).	eng
154667	population	Carpenter, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Spicara axillaris</em> has been described as rare (Heemstra 1986).	eng
154667	threats	Carpenter, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Heemstra, P.C. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no known major threats for <em>Spicara axillaris</em> as it is only rarely captured during line fishing and trawling (Heemstra 1986).	eng
154668	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Linophryne lucifer</em>. Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species.	eng
154668	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Linophryne lucifer</em> is a north Atlantic species. It has been found off the coasts of Madeira, Newfoundland, and Iceland.	eng
154668	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Linophryne lucifer</em> is a deep water angler fish showing extreme morphological differences between males and females. The smaller males are obligatory sexual parasites and cannot survive long-term without latching on to a female. The female body is short, with a large head and wide mouth with long, slender asymmetrically arranged front teeth. An illicium and luminescent esca serve as a 'rod' and 'bait' to lure prey. <br/><br/>The reproductive organs of both sexes cannot mature without a parasitic association with a member of the opposite sex, though it should be noted that the female can have more than one male attached.<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Linophryne</em> are benthopelagic and are taken in midwater and bottom trawls (Bertelsen 1982, Swinney 1995).&#160; Bertelsen (1982) relates their benthopelagic nature to a greater abundance of food in this zone, compared to the mesopelagic.<br/><br/>Records of Ceratioid fish are confined to the waters off the south and west of Iceland. Few specimens have been collected in the northern fishing grounds, indicating that the distribution of Ceratioid fish maybe limited to the warmer Atlantic waters (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999). In this study, specimens were taken at depths of 500-1,000 m.&#160; A single specimen was collected by Soviet research vessels at 1,220-1,275 m on the west Australian Ridge.	eng
154668	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Linophryne lucifer</span> has been described as "relatively common" in Icelandic and adjacent waters (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999).	eng
154668	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Linophryne lucifer </span>are taken as by-catch during commercial fishery trawling (Ejsymont 1970). However, it is unlikely that this poses a significant threat to the population, as it is also found to occur outside of commercial fishery zones.	eng
154669	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Archamia buruensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154669	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Archamia buruensis</em> is distributed from Indonesia to Fiji, and north to Taiwan. Listed localities are: South China Sea, Indonesia, Phillipines, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Santa Cruz Islands, Fiji (Gon and Randall 2003).	eng
154669	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Archamia buruensis</em> occurs in brackish and marine waters on inner coral reefs and mangroves, to a depth of 6 m. It is found over both hard and soft substrates. Individuals exhibit distinct pairing during courtship and spawning, and males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching.<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the lower reaches of freshwater streams.	eng
154669	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is common in some areas such as Madang, Papua New Guinea, and northern Palawan in the Phillipines, occuring in small groups (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154669	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be harvested for commercial trade, either as a food source or for aquariums. It is likely that in areas of this species' distribution it is undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation. Mangrove forests have also undergone widespread decline due to deforestation for timber, shrimp aquaculture, and land reclamation. This not only removes available habitat space for species utilising mangroves, but causes siltation of neighbouring coral reefs and consequently the loss of this habitat. At present this species is not thought to be seriously impacted by these threats as these are localised and not known across the entire distribution range.	eng
154670	conservation	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest, and population size of this species is needed.	eng
154670	distribution	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is distributed from Christmas Island, the Cocos-Keeling Islands and northwestern Australia, east to the Hawaiian and Pitcarn Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and the Rapa Islands.	eng
154670	habitat	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is found in a variety of different reef zones and habitats, including lagoons, seagrass beds, and on the back reefs, reef-face, and fore-reef slopes, at a depth range of 3–161 m.&#160; Juvenile <em>P. multifasciatus</em> are usually found on rubble, stony, or sandy coral bottoms, whilst adults are associated with macroalgae, rubble, or reef substrate (Michael 2004).&#160; This species feeds during the day and at dusk and occurs either individually or in groups of 2 or 3.&#160; It feeds on crustaceans, small fish, gastropods, polychaetes, and formaniferans.&#160; Juveniles sometimes aggregate in the water column to feed on zooplankton (Michael 2004).	eng
154670	population	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> was reported to be a common coral fish in a study conducted on niche shifts at Lizard Island, on the northern Great Barrier Reef (McCormick and Makey 1997).&#160; However, there are few sightings of this species in the Indo-Pacific region, suggesting rarity (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154670	threats	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Parupeneus multifasciatus</em> is harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade.&#160; It is also a commercial food fish, but is of less commercial importance than larger goatfish.&#160; The harvesting of this species for the aquarium trade and human consumption is not considered a major threat, due to the small scale of the fishery. <br/><br/>This species is associated with a variety of different habitats including coral reefs.&#160; The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution (e.g., Japan and the Philippines) have experienced regional and localised degradation due to bleaching, industralisation, water pollution, and other population pressures.&#160; In other areas of its distribution, the reefs are in good condition, and therefore habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to this species.	eng
154671	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to the lack of information further research into the distribution, ecology and threats of this species is needed.	eng
154671	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Solocisquama carinata</em> is known from a single specimen found near the Sala y Gomez Ridge, a deep water volcanic ridge 415 km north-east of Easter Island.	eng
154671	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The single specimen of this species was collected from the bathyl zone between 750-800 m. There is no other habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
154671	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	All three species of <em>Solocisquama</em> are considered rare (Bradbury 1999).	eng
154671	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154672	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.	eng
154672	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	<em>Bathycongrus retrotinctus</em> has been recorded from Japan and the Philippines.&#160; This species is thought to be present in the Sea of Japan, due to two specimens being found in the Tokyo fish market (Jordon and Synder 1901).&#160; However, no live specimens of <em>B. retrotinctus</em> have been collected from this region and the market stall records date back to over a hundred years ago.&#160; The six specimens collected from the Philippines were initially misidentified as <em>Bathycongrus megalops</em>, before later being reassessed as <em>B. retrotinctus</em> (Castle and Smith 1999).	eng
154672	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em> is a bathydemersal conger eel.&#160; In the Philippines, this species has been collected at a depth range of 150–450 m.	eng
154672	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em>.	eng
154672	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	It is not known whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Bathycongrus</span><em> retrotinctus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; The presence of specimens in a Tokyo fish market indicates that <em>B. retrotinctus</em> may be harvested for human consumption or taken as by-catch; however reference to the Tokyo fish market specimens dates back to 1901, so it is not known if this species is taken in fisheries today.	eng
154673	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em>.	eng
154673	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from the eastern Gulf of Mexico to French Guiana. In the eastern Atlantic it has been found from Cape Verde, the Gulf of Guinea, Namibia and South Africa. It is also found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans from eastern Africa to Hawaii.	eng
154673	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> can be found in deep water typically over sand bottoms. This species has been collected from depths ranging between 120 m and 1318 m.	eng
154673	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em>.	eng
154673	threats	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Bathyuroconger vicinus</em> is sometimes caught in bottom trawls as by-catch by the deep-water fishing industry. However this is not thought to be a major threat to the population numbers of this species as harvesting does not occur across its entire broad range.	eng
154674	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lampanyctus jordani</span>.	eng
154674	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is widely distributed throughout subartic waters from Japan eastwards, including the Okhotsk and Bering Seas.&#160; This species is rarely found within 1,445 km of the North American continent (Wisner 1970).	eng
154674	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0–3,400 m. At night, it is usually found at a depth range of 0–200 m and during the day it is usually found at depths of 200–1,000 m.	eng
154674	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Lampanyctus jordani</em> is a common myctophid fish in the western North Pacific (Watanabe <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154674	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lampanyctus jordani</span> is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although it may be taken as by-catch in areas of its range.	eng
154675	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Balistes rotundatus</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
154675	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Balistes rotundatus</em> is an Indo-West Pacific triggerfish reported from India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Japan and the Marshall Islands and Cook Islands.	eng
154675	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Balistes rotundatus</em> is a pelagic, coastal species. Species from the family Balistidae can occur from the coastline to a depth of 100 m and feed on bottom invertebrates (FAO 2001). Further information is needed on the specific ecological requirements of this species.	eng
154675	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Balistes rotundatus</em>.	eng
154675	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, the Balistidae family are highly valued as food in many handline fisheries, and also taken as by-catch in commercial trawls (FAO 2001).	eng
154676	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus prasiognathos</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of&#160; marine protected areas.	eng
154676	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is distributed eastwards from the Maldive Islands through Indonesia to New Ireland in Papua New Guinea, and north to the Ryukyu Islands, including Palau and Micronesia. This species is possibly replaced by <em>Scarus falcipinnis</em> in the western Indian Ocean (Randall and Chout 1980). Other Indian Ocean localities include Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island and western Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154676	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is associated with the outer slope of coral reefs but will enter shallow water in protected areas such as lagoons. This species is often found in large schools, and grazes on benthic algae. It is commonly found at a depth range of 1 - 15 m.	eng
154676	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus prasiognathos</em> is relatively common in shallow regions of seaward and leeward reefs (FAO 2001b). It often occurs in schools containing more than 100 individuals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154676	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus prasiognathos </em> is harvested throughout most of its range, as a food source. It is harvested using artisinal fishing gear such as nets and traps. This is not thought to be a major threat. Due to the size of this species, it is likely to be taken in other fisheries, as by-catch. <br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats it is likely to be undergoing declines due to threats on its habitat including destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However these are localised threats and not considered a major threat to this wide-ranging species.	eng
154677	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus festivus</em>, however the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154677	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa to the Marshall Islands and French Polynesia, north to the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. It has not been recorded from Australia.	eng
154677	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus festivus </em> is associated with coral reef habitats and is found in clear lagoons and seaward facing coral reefs on the outer slope at a depth range of 3-30 m. This species feeds on benthic algae and is occasionally seen feeding on the coral.	eng
154677	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is usually seen in small numbers and is not common at any locality (Randall 2005; FAO 2001).	eng
154677	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus festivus</em> is occasionally harvested by artisanal fisheries in areas of its distribution. It is marketed fresh and is mainly caught with traps, nets and other kinds of artisanal gear (FAO 1983). There are no catch statistics available for this species. The fishing activities are not thought to pose a major threat (G.R. Allen and O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is likely to be undergoing declines due to habitat degradation of its coral habitat. However these are localised threats only and not considered a major threat to the global population.	eng
154678	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon sealei</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade, and whether it is captive bred or wild caught.	eng
154678	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is distributed from Malaysia to the Solomon Islands, north to the Philippines, Palau, and south to Ashmore Reef, Australia.	eng
154678	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is usually found on coastal fringing reefs or patch reefs to a depth of 25 m. It is often found in pairs or in groups among branching corals such as <em>Acropora</em>. <br/><br/>Individuals shelter in amongst the coral during the day and come out to feed at night on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates. This species demonstrates distinct pairing during courtship. The males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur. In 2007 this species was recorded in high numbers on highly degraded sites (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154678	population	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon sealei</em> is a common species throughout most of its range often occurring in large aggregations around coral heads (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154678	threats	Gon, O., 2009	There are a number of threats impacting the habitat of this species such as coastal development, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, cyanide fishing, water pollution, and coral bleaching. However, this species is known from a number of unimpacted locations throughout the Western Pacific and so threats are only thought to be causing localised declines. This species is harvested for the aquarium trade although it is not believed to be harvested in a significant quantity.	eng
154679	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, ecology, abundance, and distribution of this species.	eng
154679	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em> is only known from a few specimens found east of the South Orkney Islands.	eng
154679	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis tompkinsae</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth of 1,976–2,068 m.	eng
154679	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis tompkinsae</span>, as it is currently only known from a few specimens.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154679	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis tompkinsae</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154680	conservation	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dentex barnardi</em>.	eng
154680	distribution	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> occurs from Gabon down the west coast of Africa to Angola (Bianchi 1992). This species has also been recorded from Henties Bay, Namibia (Heemstra 1995).	eng
154680	habitat	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs over trawlable substrates on the continental shelf, at a depth range of 40–100 m.	eng
154680	population	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	<em>Dentex barnardi</em> was found frequently and in fairly large numbers in trawl surveys off the coasts of Congo and Gabon (Bianchi 1992a, 1992b).	eng
154680	threats	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	In the Gabon and Angola area, related species are the main commercial species (Kilongo <em>et al.</em> 2007). While it is not known if <em>Dentex barnardi</em> is a target species, it is likely to be taken as by-catch in commercial bottom trawl fisheries.	eng
154681	conservation	Robertson, R.D., Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F. & Edgar, G., 2007	The Pacific Beakfish is present in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, the Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Area, the Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve.&#160; However, better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galapagos species.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population size and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154681	distribution	Robertson, R.D., Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F. & Edgar, G., 2007	The Pacific Beakfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oplegnathus insignis</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific and is found from Manta in Ecuador, to Antofagasta in Chile, including the Galapagos Islands (Chirichigno, 1974).	eng
154681	habitat	Robertson, R.D., Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F. & Edgar, G., 2007	The Pacific Beakfish is a&#160; reef-associated species.&#160; It is generally solitary, and is known to constantly swim over rocky reefs and boulder strewn slopes, and along walls in shallow waters (Humann and  Deloach 1993).&#160; It has been found to a depth of 30 m.	eng
154681	population	Robertson, R.D., Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F. & Edgar, G., 2007	The Pacific Beakfish was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.77 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar et al. 2004).&#160; It is generally uncommon in Galapagos, but locally common in the west and south regions of the Archipelago.&#160; It is considered common in Peru and northern Chile.	eng
154681	threats	Robertson, R.D., Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F. & Edgar, G., 2007	<p>This species is often taken as incidental by-catch in commercial fishing activities. It also may be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO or global warming due to its shallow water reef habitat. However,&#160; given its apparent widespread distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of population decline from its frequent capture in by-catch is unknown.</p>	eng
154682	conservation	Acero, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pristipomoides freemani</em>.	eng
154682	distribution	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is found in the western Atlantic from southeastern USA to Uruguay.	eng
154682	habitat	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is a demersal species found over rocky and soft substrates at the upper edge of the continental slope (Allen 1985) at a depth range of 50 - 220 m.	eng
154682	population	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Pristipomoides freemani</em> is an uncommon species.	eng
154682	threats	Acero, A., 2009	This species is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range but not in any significant quantity (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009). There are no significant threats impacting this species.	eng
154683	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em>. In some regions its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Cartier Island Marine Reserve.	eng
154683	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> is an Indo-West Pacific snake eel, known from India, the Straits of Malacca, the Philippines, Indonesia and northern Australia.	eng
154683	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	Most specimens of <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> have been collected from shallow turbid estuaries, although some individuals have been found in deeper water over soft substrates (Castle and McCosker 1999).  This species is found to a depth of 180 m.	eng
154683	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em>.	eng
154683	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Skythrenchelys zabra</em> is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
154684	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stegastes fuscus</em>, however its distribution may fall into marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and taxonomy of this species is needed.	eng
154684	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> is considered endemic to Brazilian coastal reefs, by some authors (Schwamborn and Ferreira 2002; Allen 1991). This species may in fact be more widespread, but reports from other localities need to verified. <br/><br/>There are reports of its occurrence in the Caribbean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic off Senegal (Froese and Pauly 2006), however some authors consider the population in the Caribbean as another species, <em>Pomacentrus dorsopunicans</em> (Cervigón 1993).	eng
154684	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> inhabits both coral and rocky reefs. This species is also occasionally found near the shore in areas with little visibility. This species defends its territory from other herbivorous species. It feeds predominantly upon algae within its territory and may also take animal matter.  This species is found at a depth range of 1 - 40 m.	eng
154684	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Stegastes fuscus</em> is a highly abundant fish around islands off the south eastern (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 1998) and north eastern Brazilian coast (Schwamborn and Ferreira 2002).	eng
154684	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species. Due to its coastal nature it is likely to be impacted by pollution and coastal fisheries, however due its reported abundance these threats do not appear to pose a significant threat to the population.	eng
154685	conservation	Acero, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sebastes nivosus.&#160; </em>However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs). Further research is needed on population numbers, biology, ecology and potential threats to this species in order to determine if it likely to be suffering significant population declines.	eng
154685	distribution	Acero, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Sebastes nivosus</em> is distributed from coastal areas of the Miyagi and Niigata Prefectures to Hokkaido, Japan.	eng
154685	habitat	Acero, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> nivosus </em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters.&#160; Its depth range is currently unknown, however other members of the <em>Sebastes </em> genus have a depth profile ranging from 2 m to around 370 m.	eng
154685	population	Acero, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes nivosus</span>.	eng
154685	threats	Acero, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	The <em>Sebastes</em> genus has been of major importance to commercial and recreational fishing for more than 100 years (Love <em>et al</em>. 1998). However, the impact on&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> nivosus</em> is not well understood. This species is likely to be over-fished but it is not known to what extent (W. Eschmeyer pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by pollution. Due to the heavy industries along the Japanese coast, the Sea of Japan has suffered from coastal water pollution, damage to fishery resources, and red tides since the 1960s, although strict laws and standards have since improved the quality of coastal waters (NOAA 2004). This species may also be taken as by-catch in bottom trawl fisheries.	eng
154686	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicrolene nigra</em>.	eng
154686	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is found in the east Pacific from the Gulf of Panama to northern Chile (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154686	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been found at a depth range of 600-1,865 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154686	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene nigra</em> is reported to be an uncommon species (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154686	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Dicrolene nigra</em>, due to its deepwater nature. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
154687	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Iona National Park off Angola.<br/><br/>Further research on the extent to which this species is harvested is required.	eng
154687	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> ranges from Scotland south to Angola, including the Azores. This species is also known from the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
154687	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 20-350 m. It is found on sand, mud, shell and coral substrates. Its diet consists of polychaete, though like many species in the genus, it probably consumes mainly benthic crustaceans (Jardas and Pallaoro 1987).	eng
154687	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is reported to be most common around the Angola/ Congo region.	eng
154687	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	According to a survey of Portuguese fishing, <em>Arnoglossus imperialis</em> is occasionally discarded as by-catch during crustacean trawling, demersal purse seine fishing, mid-water trawling (Borges <em>et al.</em> 2001) however this is unlikely to be driving significant declines across this species entire range.	eng
154688	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	The distribution of the Half-lined Cardinalfish falls within marine parks including the Iki-Tsushima Quasi-National Park and within these parks this species is listed as a marine protected species (NOWPAP DINRAC 2007).<br/><br/>Further research is needed to on the taxonomy, distribution, population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154688	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	The Half-lined Cardinalfish, <em>Apogon semilineatus,</em> is found in the northwestern Pacific from the Izu peninsular Honshu and the Ogasawara islands to Hong Kong.	eng
154688	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	This is a nocturnal species that has a depth range of 3 to 100 m. It is typically found within the vicinity of rocky reefs and may enter semi-enclosed sea areas. It forms large schools over rocky substrates (Kuiter and Kozawa 1999).<br/><br/>This species exhibits diel horizontal migration between the rocky substrate areas where they rest during the day, and the sandy substrate areas where they feed during the night (Sudo and Azeta 1992).<br/><br/>Breeding pairs are found in Japan from July to September and mouth brooding is done by the male.	eng
154688	population	Gon, O., 2009	This species is common in the Izu Pennisular (Kuiter and Kozawa 1999).	eng
154688	threats	Gon, O., 2009	The Half-lined Cardinalfish is known to be taken as by-catch. A survey, conducted in 2005 to 2006, to identify the discards in large-scale set net fisheries in Tateyama Bay, Chiba prefecture, Japan, found that this species was one of the ten most dominant discarded species (Akiyama 2007). It is not currently clear how this is impacting the population of this species.<br/><br/>Like other cardinalfish, it is likely that this species is collected for the aquarium trade, although this is not thought to be a major threat.	eng
154689	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Palomar, M.J.S. & Alava, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Caelorinchus velifer</em>.&#160;Further research on the threats of this species is needed.	eng
154689	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Palomar, M.J.S. & Alava, M.N., 2009	<em>Caelorinchus velifer</em> is only known from the Philippines (type locality: Mindanao Sea). It is known from the Verde Island Passage (Escarceo Light and Matocot Point in Batangas Bay), Bohol Sea and northern Mindanao (Tagolo Light and vicinity).	eng
154689	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Palomar, M.J.S. & Alava, M.N., 2009	<em>Caelorinchus velifer</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth range of 247-446 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154689	population	Iwamoto, T., Palomar, M.J.S. & Alava, M.N., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Caelorinchus velifer</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997). It is known only from specimens collected in 1908-1909 from three sites (Gilbert and Hubbs 1920, Anonymous 2001). It is apparently more abundant in the southern Luzon area than in northern Mindanao	eng
154689	threats	Iwamoto, T., Palomar, M.J.S. & Alava, M.N., 2009	It is not known whether this species is impacted upon. Most members of this genus are found in relatively shallow waters of the continental slope&#160; (<span style="font-style: italic;">e.g.</span>, in depths between 150-800 m) making them susceptible to capture by commercial trawls (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990). It may be caught as by-catch by many of the deep sea fisheries that operate on a commercial scale in the Mindanao Sea.	eng
154690	conservation	Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Ha'apai Conservation Area in Tonga.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, biology, ecology, habitat status and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.	eng
154690	distribution	Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em> is an Indo-Pacific sand goby, known from Tonga, and Ishigaki-jima in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan.&#160; It is highly likely that it occurs in other areas, but there is no information available.&#160; This species is very difficult to collect or observe due to its cryptic nature (E. Mundy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154690	habitat	Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is little information available on the habitat and ecology of <em>Kraemeria tongaensis</em>.&#160; Kraemeriids burrow in shallow marine and estuarine areas with fine coral sand or muddy sand substrates (Larson 2001).	eng
154690	population	Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Kraemeria tongaensis</span>.&#160; It is very difficult to collect or observe due to its cryptic nature (E. Mundy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154690	threats	Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	The threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Kraemeria tongaensis</span> are unknown.&#160; This species is restricted to shallow coastal habitats and may therefore be affected by threats such as coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, its current known localities are not in heavily populated areas, so the impact of these threats should be minimal.	eng
154691	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Claudia's Dragonet.&#160; However, its range includes the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154691	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	Claudia's Dragonet (<span style="font-style: italic;">Synchiropus </span><em>claudiae</em>) is found from the Madang Barrier Reef (Papua New Guinea), southwards to Queensland (Australia).&#160; The southern limit of its distribution is 15°45'S.&#160; Although the range in which this species is found is sizeable, its distribution is patchy due to habitat requirements.	eng
154691	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	Claudia's Dragonet is reef associated, and is found on small sand patches within coral reefs.&#160; This species is found down to a depth of 5 m.	eng
154691	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for Claudia's Dragonet.	eng
154691	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	Claudia's Dragonet is not known to be in any commercial trade.&#160; Coral reefs throughout its range are under threat from a number of factors such as coastal development and pollution, destructive fishing practices, tourism and coral bleaching.&#160; However, given the wide range of this species, it is unlikely that these threats are having a significant impact on the global population at present.	eng
154692	conservation	Watson, W., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Stout Infantfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Further research is needed on potential threats to this species.	eng
154692	distribution	Watson, W., 2009	The Stout Infantfish<em> (Schindleria brevipinguis)</em>, the world's smallest vertebrate, is currently known only from Lizard Island to the Carter reef area of the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia, and from Osprey Reef in the Coral Sea.&#160; However, it is likely that this species is more widely distributed than currently known (Australian Museum 2006).	eng
154692	habitat	Watson, W., 2009	Little is known about the biology of the Stout Infantfish.&#160; Specimens of this species have been collected close to coral reefs.&#160; The known depth profile of this species is 15–30 m, in the euphotic zone.&#160; This species is paedomorphic, and may have a life span of about 2 months.	eng
154692	population	Watson, W., 2009	There is no population information available for the Stout Infantfish.&#160; The family Schindleriidae is thought to contain the most abundant coral reef fishes in the world (Leis 1978).	eng
154692	threats	Watson, W., 2009	Due to the Stout Infantfish's association with coral habitats and its coastal nature, it may be impacted by a number of threats such as coastal development, water pollution, sedimentation, and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, this species may be relatively tolerant of short-term impacts, due to its short life-span and low population doubling time.	eng
154693	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spinycheek Scorpionfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.	eng
154693	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	The<em> </em>Spinycheek Scorpionfish <em>(Neomerinthe hemingwayi)</em> occurs from New Jersey to southern Florida.&#160; This species is also found in the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Campeche, Mexico.	eng
154693	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	The Spinycheek Scorpionfish <em></em>is a demersal species that has a depth range of 45–230 m.&#160; Most western Atlantic species from the Scorpaenidae family are found relatively near the shore, over hard bottoms and reefs, or associated with coral rubble (FAO 2002).	eng
154693	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for the Spinycheek Scorpionfish.<em></em>	eng
154693	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	The Spinycheek Scorpionfish is not impacted by any major threatening processes. &#160; This species is not commercially fished, although it may occasionally be taken as by-catch by trawl fisheries (FAO 2002).	eng
154694	conservation	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), Mermaid Reef Marine Nature Reserve, Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Ningaloo Marine Park.	eng
154694	distribution	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is an Australlasian dottyback, distributed from northern Western Australia, along the northern Australian coast and round to Queensland.	eng
154694	habitat	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The dottyback <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is associated with coral rubble (Bradbury and Young 1981) and is found in intertidal pools up to a depth of 3 m. It feeds mainly on crustaceans. Species from the Pseudochromidae family are cryptic diurnal inhabitants of coral reefs and rock bottoms and a few species from this family live in large sponges (FAO 1999).	eng
154694	population	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information for <em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em>.	eng
154694	threats	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Blennodesmus scapularis</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is taken in very small quantities.<br/><br/>As this species inhabits intertidal pools, it is also likely to be impacted by habitat degradation caused by coastal development, however this is a localised threat only as much of this species range is unimpacted by coastal development.	eng
154695	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Earle's Splitfin, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Hanauma Bay Marine Life Conservation District in the Hawaiian Islands. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the habitat status and harvest levels of this species are needed.	eng
154695	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Earle's Splitfin <em>(Luzonichthys earlei</em>) is found off the coast of the Maldives, Christmas Island, New Britain, the Marshalls, the Hawaiian Islands and throughout Micronesia.	eng
154695	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Earle's Splitfin is a reef-associated species that forms large, zooplankton-feeding aggregations along steep outer reef slopes. The depth profile of this benthopelagic species is 15-205 m.	eng
154695	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for Earle's Splitfin.	eng
154695	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Earle's Splitfin<em></em> is potentially impacted by habitat degradation and bleaching events on reef systems (Kelty and Kuartei 2004, NCCO 2005). This species is also occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. However, these are localized threats only, and therefore presently do not represent major threats to this species.	eng
154696	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> </em>Humpback Brotula.	eng
154696	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Humpback Brotula <em>(Grammonus robustus)</em> is an Indo-West Pacific species known from the Red Sea, South Africa, the Philippines, the East China Sea, and Japan (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154696	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Humpback Brotula is a bathydemersal species that is thought to have a depth range of  45-1,260 m. This species is found on soft bottoms. Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154696	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Humpback Brotula is reported to be an uncommon species (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154696	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of the Humpback Brotula, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. However, this species has been taken in trawls at depths of 45–345 m (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154697	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J. & Luiz Rocha., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present in marine protected areas throughout the Caribbean, Brazil and USA.	eng
154697	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J. & Luiz Rocha., 2009	<em>Xyrichtys martinicensis</em> is distributed from southern Florida and the Bahamas to northern South America, including the eastern and southern Gulf of Mexico and the Antilles.	eng
154697	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J. & Luiz Rocha., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys martinicensis</span> inhabits sand and rubble bottoms adjacent to reefs and seagrass to depths of 21 m. Species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys</span> are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007). It feeds on small sand-dwelling invertebrates.	eng
154697	population	Sadovy, Y.J. & Luiz Rocha., 2009	<em>Xyrichtys martinicensis</em> is common throughout its range. It can be abundant over sand bottoms adjacent to reefs.	eng
154697	threats	Sadovy, Y.J. & Luiz Rocha., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Xyrichtys martinicensis.</span>	eng
154698	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Lophodolos indicus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of MPA designations.	eng
154698	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Lophodolos indicus</em> has a circumglobal distribution throughout tropical waters.	eng
154698	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Lophodolos indicus</em> is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 750-1,625 m. Species from the Oneirodidae family are known to be solitary (FAO 1999).	eng
154698	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophodolos indicus</span>.	eng
154698	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Oneirodidae family are of no economic interest (FAO 1999), and due to the small size and deep-water nature of <em>Lophodolos indicus</em>, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
154699	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the abundance of this species is needed with monitoring of the population trends in areas where mangrove forests are being cleared.&#160; Research is also needed to establish whether this species is taken for the aquarium trade.	eng
154699	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Mugilogobius fasciatus</em> is a western Pacific goby, known from Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,425 km².	eng
154699	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Mugilogobius fasciatus</em> is a small, cryptic, benthic goby that can be found in brackish water and inhabits small, shallow mangrove creeks and pools.&#160; It is often found hiding in the leaf litter.	eng
154699	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mugilogobius fasciatus</span>.	eng
154699	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The extent of mangrove loss across this species' range is as follows: in Singapore, mangrove cover declined from 1,570 ha in 1987, to 500 ha in 1990; in Thailand, mangrove cover has declined from 268,693 ha in 1982, to 244,000 ha in 2000; and in Malaysia, mangrove cover has declined from 641,172 ha in 1990 to 572,100 ha in 2000 (FAO 2003). These losses are attributed to cutting for coastal development, shrimp ponds, and wood (Ong 2002).&#160; In addition to the loss of mangrove forests, the coastal waters surrounding shrimp ponds start to accumulate high levels of ammonia as a by-product of the farming; they become silty as sediments become unstable, and the natural nutrient cycling capacity of the system is lost.&#160; With a loss of nutrient cycling, coastal waters become increasingly more impacted by coastal development and pollution.&#160; This species is further threatened by habitat fragmentation.<br/><br/>Many species within the genus <em>Mugilogobius</em> are popular in the aquarium trade. Further research is needed to establish if this species is also harvested for the trade or if maybe it is taken incidentally during the harvest of other <em>Mugilogobius</em> species.	eng
154700	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of bauxite mining on the population of this species, better enabling conservation measures to be implemented.	eng
154700	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is endemic to the Gove Peninsula, south of Cape Arnhem, Northern Territory, Australia (Fricke 1997). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 317 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154700	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is a coastal species, endemic to bauxite rocks (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154700	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Enneapterygius namarrgon</span>.	eng
154700	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Enneapterygius namarrgon</em> is only found on bauxite rocks of the Gove Peninsula, Australia. Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. Over 85% of the bauxite mined globally is converted to alumina for the production of aluminium metal. Australia is the World’s leading producer of bauxite and alumina. Production totalled 62 Mt of bauxite or 36% of the world production in 2006. The Gove mine contains the world's highest grade deposits of Bauxite. Due to its restricted association with bauxite rock, it is likely that this species is being threatened by bauxite mining (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It is predicted that the resource life for existing bauxite operations is on average 70 to 75 years, therefore the threat to this species will continue in the future.	eng
154701	conservation	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
154701	distribution	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em> is distributed around Australia; northern New South Wales, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island: and in northeastern New Zealand; Cape Reinga to East Cape (Francis 1993, 1996, 2001) and the Kermadec Islands.	eng
154701	habitat	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolabrus luculentus</span> is a small species that grows to about 170 mm (SL). It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water in depths to at least 50 m.&#160; It spawns in New Zealand, reportedly from March to October, and matures after one year (Francis 2001). Food consists of small crustaceans and hermit crabs (Francis 2001). Juveniles are facultative cleaner symbionts (Ayling and Grace 1971)	eng
154701	population	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em> is one of the most common wrasses at Lord Howe Island. It is abundant at Kermadec Island but is considered uncommon off mainland New Zealand where they are usually found around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001). In general, it is more common around island groups and less common off the Australian and New Zealand mainland.	eng
154701	threats	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no major threats to <em>Pseudolabrus luculentus</em>.	eng
154702	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Coryphaenoides nasutus</em>.	eng
154702	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is found from northern Japan to the East China Sea.	eng
154702	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is a benthopelagic species that is found over sandy and muddy bottoms between temperatures of 1.5 to 5°C at depths ranging from 625-1,180 m.	eng
154702	population	Iwamoto, T., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154702	threats	Iwamoto, T., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Coryphaenoides nasutus</em> is taken as by-catch by trawlers in northern Japan where it is used to make fish paste (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).  However, trawling activities in this area typically do not go deeper than 600 m (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). The incidental catch of this species is unlikely to constitute a major threat to the global population.	eng
154703	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Siganus magnificus</em>, however this species is well protected in marine protected areas in the Thai part of its range.	eng
154703	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is known from the Mergui Archipelago in Myanmar, and the Surin and Similan Islands in Thailand. Records from Java and Sumatra need to be confirmed (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Due to a lack of surveys within the vicinity of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this species range may extend further west than currently known (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154703	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is found on coral reefs in tropical climates at a depth range of 5-25 m. It is most commonly found on sheltered reefs amongst branching corals. This species feeds on algae and small invertebrates. Adults are often found in pairs, whereas juveniles occur individually and utilise the coral for shelter. This species is allopatric with the closely related <em>Siganus vulpinus</em>, a wide ranging Western Pacific species (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is thought to have a longevity of approximately 10-12 years, with an age of first breeding at two years (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species has a pelagic larval stage and so is likely to constitute a single population (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154703	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is a moderately common species (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Over a three generation period of 15-20 years, this species maybe declining but the rate of decrease is unlikely to be greater than 20% (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154703	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Siganus magnificus</em> is not a common species within the aquarium trade (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Much of this species suitable habitat is offshore, away from coastal development and associated threats. The 2004 tsunami is not though to have significantly impacted the structure of the reef within this species range (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154704	conservation	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within the Torres Strait Protected Zone. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers is needed, to determine the rate of decline and impact commercial harvesting is having on this species.	eng
154704	distribution	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	The distribution of the Smooth Croaker, <em>Johnius laevis</em>, is restricted to northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea. This species has a relatively fragmented distribution.	eng
154704	habitat	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	Smooth Croaker inhabit coastal waters. Like other croakers, this species feeds on small crustaceans, fish and benthic organisms. This species is found in the euphotic zone at depths down to around 60 m.	eng
154704	population	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	There is no population information available for the Smooth Croaker.	eng
154704	threats	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	The Smooth Croaker is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. From 1990 to 1995, the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics reported a range of yearly catches of around 36,800 tonnes to 50,900 tonnes of croakers from the Western Central Pacific (FAO 2001a). Actual yearly catch may be higher, as available statistics do not cover small scale fisheries. This species is not the most commercially important species in this genus due to its small size.  <br/><br/>This species is a by-catch species of the Torres Strait Prawn Fishery (Torres Strait Prawn Management Advisory Committee 2007). It is also one of the most commonly taken by-catch species in the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf Prawn Fishery (Tonks<em> et al</em>. 2007).	eng
154705	conservation	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Blackeye Emperor.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas in the Seychelles.	eng
154705	distribution	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Blackeye Emperor<em> (Lethrinus enigmaticus</em>) has been recorded from Saya de Malha Bank in the Western Indian Ocean, and the Seychelles (Carpenter and Allen 1989).&#160;  It has also been caught off southern Natal, Alawaol Shoal, and off the coast of central Mozambique (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154705	habitat	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Blackeye Emperor is found on coral reefs, seagrass beds and sandy areas adjacent to reefs at a depth range of 10–50 m (Carpenter and Allen 1989). &#160; It feeds on echinoderms, crustaceans, other fish, and molluscs.	eng
154705	population	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	In the area of the Saya de Malha, 4 tonnes of fish are caught a day, of which the Blackeye Emperor constitutes 90% (Lebeau and Cueff 1975).&#160; A decline in the number of large specimens caught was observed after 1968, which suggests this species was being over-fished.&#160;  This species has a low regeneration time (Lebeau and Cueff 1975).	eng
154705	threats	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Blackeye Emperor is commercially harvested as a food source.&#160; Although this species is associated with coral reefs, it thrives in areas of low coral cover and is therefore not considered threatened by recent declines in coral cover (K. Carpenter pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154706	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus dubius</em>, however it is found in a number of marine protected areas around the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
154706	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Reported occurrences outside of Hawaii are misidentifications (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
154706	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus dubius</em> inhabits seaward reefs on the outer reef slope, at a depth range of 1 - 20 m. This species feeds predominantly on benthic algae. It is protogynous (changes sex from female to male) and the size at sex change ranges from  26.4 - 39.8 cm total length (TL) (DeMartini <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
154706	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is a common species throughout the Hawaiian Islands (Randall 2006).	eng
154706	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus dubius</em> is harvested on the subsistence scale as a food fish. This is not considered a major threat to the population of this species (G.R. Allen and O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). It may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal devleopment and pollution, however the population currently seems to be stable, abundant and healthy.	eng
154707	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Motomura, H. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species covers numerous designated marine protected areas.	eng
154707	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Motomura, H. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em> is found in eastern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, and northern, western and eastern Australia.	eng
154707	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Motomura, H. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em> is found in coastal waters over sand and mud substrates at a depth range of 10–56 m.&#160; This species feeds predominantly on penaid shrimp.&#160; It is a protandrous hermaphrodite and develops from a male to a female, normally when it reaches 12–14 cm (SL) (Frose and Pauly 2006).	eng
154707	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Motomura, H. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.	eng
154707	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Motomura, H. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Polydactylus multiradiatus</em>.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch in local subsistence fisheries.	eng
154709	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hetereleotris vulgaris</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.  <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
154709	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean from Mozambique, Dijibouti, southern Oman and Pakistan. It is also found in the Red Sea and one specimen has been found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.	eng
154709	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	This is a benthic species typically found in the intertidal zone in rockpools and on rocky substrates. It has been collected at depths from 1-24 m.	eng
154709	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hetereleotris vulgaris</em>.	eng
154709	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution, however these would be localised threats only and are not common occurrences within this species range.	eng
154710	conservation	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, threats, population trends, and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
154710	distribution	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is known from two specimens washed up on a beach in the Ogasawara Islands to the south of Japan (type locality: Miyanohama Beach, Chichi-jima).	eng
154710	habitat	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is thought to be a demersal species found over sandy substrates at shallow depths not deeper than 50 m (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154710	population	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai</em> is known only from two specimens.	eng
154710	threats	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	It is not known if <em>Paramonacanthus matsuurai </em>is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154711	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathydraco joannae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if it is synonymous with <em>Bathydraco antarcticus</em>.	eng
154711	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Bathydraco joannae</em> is found to occur on the upper slopes of the Scotia Sea Islands, Patagonian Slope, close to the Falkland Islands, and off the Kerguelen Islands.	eng
154711	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	This bathydemersal species is most commonly found on the upper continental slope at depths ranging from 600 - 1,800 m. While there is no available information on the feeding ecology of this species, congeners such as <em>Bathydraco marri</em> have been observed to feed upon mysids, amphipods and copepods, along with euphausiids, isopods and tanaids (Mesa<em> et al</em>. 2007).	eng
154711	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bethydraco joannae</em>.	eng
154711	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Bathydraco joannae</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken incidentally as a by-catch species by fisheries operating within its range.	eng
154712	conservation	Collette, B., Ferreira de Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. & Minte Vera, C., 2010	It is considered a highly migratory species under Annex I of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, there is a minimum catch size of 70 or 80 cm. In Mexico, there are area-closures for commercial fishing for this species, and a two fish sport limit. In the past, there have been conservation measures implemented by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) for no purse-seine fishing. In Ecuador, 50% of the fishing fleet, including those for tunas, use an experimental sorting grid to release juveniles, small tunas and other by-catch species. In 2005, a recreational fishing limit of five fish per fishermen per fishing day was established for this species in Puerto Rico (Rodrigues-Ferrer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the US, there are bag limits and size limits in the recreational fishery and size and trip limits in the commercial fishery (SAFMC 2003).&#160;&#160;&#160; <br/><br/>This species' distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154712	distribution	Collette, B., Ferreira de Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. & Minte Vera, C., 2010	This species is widespread in tropical and temperate waters and occurs in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific Oceans and the Mediterranean, though it is most common in waters between 21 to 30 <sup>o</sup>C.	eng
154712	habitat	Collette, B., Ferreira de Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. & Minte Vera, C., 2010	Schools of <span style="font-style: italic;">Coryphaena hippurus</span> can be found in open waters and near coastal areas. This species is found to a depth of 85 m. Its diet consists of smaller fishes, zooplankton, crustaceans, and squid.<br/><br/>This species is fast-growing, and matures relatively early. Maximum size is 200 cm, but more commonly is found to 100 cm. Longevity can reach four years but is usually less than two years (Oxenford and Hunt 1983, Oxenford 1999, Lessa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).&#160; Age at first maturity is three to four months in the Gulf of Mexico, four months in the Caribbean (Oxenford 1999), six to seven months in the northeastern North Atlantic, and 4 months in northeast Brazil (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Off North Carolina, males reach 50% maturity at 476 mm, 100% at 645 mm; females reach 50% maturity at 458 mm, 100% at 560 mm (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Oxenford 1999, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008).&#160; In the eastern Caribbean, males reach 50% maturity at 91 cm FL (4 to 5 months old) and females at 83.5 cm FL (4 to 5 months old) (Oxenford 1999).&#160; In Puerto Rico, 50% maturity is reached at 45 cm FL (greater than 7 months old) (Perez and Sadovy 1991).<br/><br/>Spawning is probably year-round at water temperatures greater than 21<sup>o</sup>C, and spawning occurs in the open water when water temperature rises. In temperate areas such as North Carolina, peak spawning occurs from April through July. In East African waters, spawning season may last from March to early June and spawning occurs inshore. In tropical regions spawning likely occurs year round. Batch spawning occurs at least two or three times per spawning period. Batch fecundity estimates in the west central Atlantic range from 58,000 to 1.5 million eggs and are strongly influenced by size (Gibbs and Collette 1959, Ditty 2005, Schwenke and Buckel 2008, Oxenford 1999).&#160; In southern Brazil, spawning occurs from November to February, at least between 20 - 28<sup>o</sup>S (Amorim, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
154712	population	Collette, B., Ferreira de Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. & Minte Vera, C., 2010	From 1961 to 2006, the reported worldwide landings for this species from FAO have gradually increased from 17,000 metric t to a peak of 59,000 metric t in 2005. In 2005, Japan reported 10,000 tonnes and Taiwan Province of China approximately 15,000 t.<br/><br/>In the Eastern Pacific, this species can be locally abundant. Data from the Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC 2006) from 1976-2005 widely varies from 200 to 22,000 metric t, with a maximum of 22,000 metric t in 2001. Although there is no data on fishing effort, demand has not decreased. However, there have been many regional fishermen reporting that catches are decreasing, especially in Costa Rica and Ecuador where there are possibly localized declines in catch rates. In Peru, catch of this species is highly fluctuating; there was a peak catch in 2005-2006 of 2,000 and 4,000 mt (artisanal fleet) but in 1998, 21,000 t were caught after a El Nino event.<br/><br/>There is some evidence of multiple populations based on biological and morphological characteristics (Oxenford and Hunt 1986, Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Duarte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), however there is genetic connectivity between migratory groups in the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM 2006) stock assessment recognized the uncertainty about stock structure and conducted separate analyses (one that recognizes separate north and southern stocks and one combining both).&#160; The conclusion from all of the assessments was that there was no decline in CPUE indices and therefore the fishery appears sustainable at current levels. They did note the uncertainty and the need for more data from other countries within the stock area.&#160; <br/><br/>The CRFM 2010 stock assessment analyzed data from the Caribbean, Venezuela, Brazil and the US that corroborates that this species migrates from northern Brazil to the eastern Caribbean and may also enter the southeastern Caribbean Sea.&#160; The standardized CPUE indices for the eastern Caribbean corroborates that the stock is not declining. In Brazil there is evidence of at least two stocks, one in northern Brazil (shared with the Caribbean) and one in the northeastern Brazilian coast (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).&#160; Although there is uncertainty in the data, the stock assessment in the northeast indicated that the stock is fully exploited (Lessa <span style="font-style: italic;">et&#160; al.</span> 2009). &#160; &#160; <br/>    <p>This species is widespread and is very common in the Mediterranean, and catches are increasing. The average catch from 2000 to 2009 is about 8,000-10,000 t per year. Off the coast of Turkey it is seasonally common. FAO landing figures are available from Tunisia, Malta and Spain. Most of the current catch figures are from Tunisia and Spain and are currently increasing. Catches from Malta have remained relatively stable since 1950.  The distribution of this species is expanding to the northern part of the western Mediterranean. Catches are much higher in late summer and early autumn.<br/></p>	eng
154712	threats	Collette, B., Ferreira de Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K.E., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Graves, J., Guzman-Mora, A., Viera Hazin, F.H., Juan Jorda, M., de Oliveira Leite Jr., N., Teixeira Lessa, R.P., Miyabe, N., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. & Minte Vera, C., 2010	There are no major threats known to this species. However, this species is of high commercial value, with a global catch of 58,076 t in 2005, and is extensively harvested throughout its range (FAO-FIGIS 2005). There have been observed declines in catch in the Eastern Pacific, but this is thought to be a consequence of higher catches during El Nino events.<br/><br/>This species is caught in various types of fishing gear , including longlines, purse seine vessels, and recreational fishing vessels (Palko <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1982).&#160; It is one of the most important species in artisanal fisheries around the world.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is caught in association with fish attracting devices (FADS), trolling line and sport fisheries. These attracting devices such as floating bundles of bamboo reeds or cork planks are used to concentrate dolphinfish before nets are set.&#160; The use of FADS are increasing the by-catch of this species (Nelson pers. comm. 2010). Small quantities are taken as by-catch in longline and driftnet fisheries.<br/><br/>The Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) recognizes that the lack of any institutional framework or regional body for collaborative or shared management of this resource is a concern given the increasing catches of this species in the region (CRFM 2006). <br/><br/><p><br/></p><p>.<br/></p>	eng
154713	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is recorded from several marine protected areas (WDPA 2006), including Bahia de Loreto National Park, Parque Nacional Bahia de Loreto, and Cabo Pulmo National Park.	eng
154713	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
154713	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits rocky coasts and tidepools with abundant macroalgae in shallow waters to 5 m.	eng
154713	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154713	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known major threats impacting this species and no reported significant population declines.	eng
154714	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the effect of habitat loss from coastal development and the removal of mangrove habitat on this species population.	eng
154714	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Colombia.	eng
154714	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits soft substrata such as mud, sand, or gravel in fresh or brackish water habitats, such as mangroves channels and estuaries (Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000), to depths of 5 m.	eng
154714	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
154714	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	Localised coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect the extent and quality of habitat for this species.   However, given its apparent widespread distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of habitat loss and  corresponding effect on this species population is currently unknown.	eng
154715	conservation	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and potential threat processes of this species is needed.	eng
154715	distribution	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is distributed through the Pacific ocean and has been found by the Hawaiian island of Oahu, from southeastern Australia and the Indonesian island of Sulawesi to New Caledonia (Mundy 2005).	eng
154715	habitat	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is an epipelagic and mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 750m. This species is most often caught in nets above depths of 160m (Mundy 2005). Some species from the <em>Stomiidae</em> family migrate to near surface at night (FAO 1999).	eng
154715	population	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em>.	eng
154715	threats	Clarke, T.A., 2009	Due to its deep-water nature it is unlikely that <em>Eustomias vulgaris</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken on occasion as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range, however there are no reports of it being a common by-catch species.	eng
154716	conservation	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paxton concilians</em>, however the distribution of this species falls within the Monte Bello Islands Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance and distribution of this species.	eng
154716	distribution	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Paxton concilians</em> has only been found in northwestern Australia in the vicinity of the Monte Bello Islands (Baldwin and Johnson 1999).	eng
154716	habitat	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	The cardinalfish <em>Paxton concilians</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 46-80 m.	eng
154716	population	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paxton concilians</em> as only four specimens of this species have been found. It is known only from the type specimens.	eng
154716	threats	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	The impacts of major threats on this species are not known.	eng
154717	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoa choerostoma</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the North Shore Coral Reef Preserve.	eng
154717	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Bermuda Anchovy <em>(Anchoa choerostoma</em>) is known only from the waters around Bermuda. Reports of this species from Panama and Puerto Rico were misidentified <em>Anchoa lyolepis</em>.	eng
154717	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Bermuda Anchovy are commonly found in multi-species aggregations in the upper half of the water column. It is planktivorous and suspected to have a summer spawning period.  This epipelagic species ranges in depth from the surface to 50 m in bays and near patch coral reefs.	eng
154717	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Bermuda Anchovy, <em>Anchoa choerostoma,</em> is common around the shallow sounds, bays and nearshore patch coral reefs of Bermuda (Parrish 1989).	eng
154717	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	It is unlikely that the Bermuda Anchovy<em></em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.  This species may be of commercial interest in the future (Fishbase 2007), but is not known to support any fishery at the present time.	eng
154718	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parma victoriae</em>.&#160; However, it is known to occur in a number of marine protected areas, including Barwon Bluff Marine Sanctuary.	eng
154718	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Parma victoriae</em> is distributed in southern Australia from Dongara, Western Australia to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria, including northern Tasmania (Edgar 2000).	eng
154718	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	The damselfish, <em>Parma victoriae</em>, is a herbivorous species that inhabits sheltered and moderately exposed temperate rocky reefs at a depth range of 3 – 35 m. Adults of both sexes are territorial and will aggressively defend their home cave area, which also includes a crop of algae which the fish graze continually (Edgar 2000).&#160; Breeding occurs between the months of November and February (Norman and Jones 1984).	eng
154718	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parma victoriae </span>is reported to be common (Hart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005; Norman and Jones 1984).<br/><br/>In a survey conducted in the Bass strait, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parma victoriae</span> was found to be locally abundant (Ocean Rescue 2000). In a study by Norman and Jones (1984) this species was observed in densities of 30 fish per 500m<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154718	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Parma victoriae</em> is not known to be of any commercial interest either as a food source, or for the ornamental trade.&#160; It is likely to be regionally threatened by coastal development and degradation.&#160; The dredging of Port Phillip Bay in April 2008 is likely to have caused significant declines in the abundance of this species around this area of Victoria.&#160; However, there are large sections of coastline around Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia which remain undeveloped.	eng
154719	conservation	Allen, G.R., Min, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.	eng
154719	distribution	Allen, G.R., Min, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span> is known only from Indonesia, from the Togean Islands in central Sulawesi and Lembeh Strait off northern Sulawesi.	eng
154719	habitat	Allen, G.R., Min, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span> is suggested to be reef-associated (Froese and Pauly 2008), and has been observed over rubble bottoms from 15 ? 40 m depth (Allen and McKenna 2001).	eng
154719	population	Allen, G.R., Min, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis</span>. This species was occasionally observed over rubble bottoms during underwater visual surveys in the Togean Island, Indonesia (Allen 2001).	eng
154719	threats	Allen, G.R., Min, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Paracheilinus togeanensis. </span>	eng
154720	conservation	Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Suezichthys bifurcatus</span>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, threat from by-catch, and ecology of this species.	eng
154720	distribution	Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus</em> is endemic to south west Australia (B.C. Russell pers. comm. 2009). Its range extends from the Great Australian Bight in South Australia (33 33 S, 132 57 E), to southern Western Australia (Rottnest Island, near Perth).	eng
154720	habitat	Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus</em> is a small species that grows to about 110 mm (SL). It is usually captured in trawls at depths to about 100 m, but has been photographed (Kuiter 2002) and a single specimen collected in deeper water at Rottnest Island, on rubble bottoms near algal covered rocky reefs.	eng
154720	population	Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Most specimens are taken by trawls. It is considered to be uncommmon within its range(B.C. Russell pers.comm. 2009.).	eng
154720	threats	Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	&#160;<em>Suezichthys bifurcatus </em>has been caught as by-catch from trawlers which enter its habitat (B.C. Russell pers.comm. 2009).	eng
154721	conservation	Matsuura, K. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Masked Triggerfish, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154721	distribution	Matsuura, K. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Masked Triggerfish, <em>Sufflamen fraenatum</em>, is distributed from East Africa, through Micronesia to the Pitcairn Islands and Hawaii. The northern and southern limits of this species are Japan and Lord Howe Island, respectively.	eng
154721	habitat	Matsuura, K. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Masked Triggerfish can be found on coastal rocky reefs, silty habitats and in lagoons over sandy patches. It is also found over sand and rubble patches on seaward facing coral reefs. This species has been found at a depth range of 13-200 m. Individuals feed on echinoids, fishes, molluscs, tunicates, crustaceans, algae, polychaete worms, foraminiferans and detritus. This species displays territoriality especially during breeding season.	eng
154721	population	Matsuura, K. & Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for Masked Triggerfish.	eng
154721	threats	Matsuura, K. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Masked Triggerfish is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. It is harvested at the subsistence scale using drive-in nets, gill nets and traps (FAO 2001b). Only the individuals in the upper part of this species range are likely to be captured as this fishing methods tend to be used in the euphotic zone. <br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats. The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution have experienced regional and localized degradation due to coral bleaching, industrialisation, water pollution and other population pressures. As this threat not found throughout this species distribution it is not considered a major threat to the entire population.	eng
154722	conservation	Stevenson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>M. papilio</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Wrangel Island Strictly Protected Nature Reserve in the Chukchi Sea. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154722	distribution	Stevenson, D., 2009	The Butterfly Sculpin, <em>M. papilio,</em> is known from the Chukchi Sea in the Arctic, and the Kuril and Commander Islands. This species is not found in the Bering Sea, despite many reports of it being found there (D.E. Stevenson pers. comm. 2007).	eng
154722	habitat	Stevenson, D., 2009	The Butterfly Sculpin is a benthic species that has a depth range of 4-320 m and inhabits Arctic to subarctic waters at less than 1°C. Sculpins can be found over all substrate types: rock, sand and mud.	eng
154722	population	Stevenson, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>M. papilio</em>.	eng
154722	threats	Stevenson, D., 2009	Sculpins are caught incidentally by a wide variety of fisheries and it is likely that the larger sculpin species, including species from the genus <em>Hemilepidotus</em>, are commonly taken by groundfish fisheries (Reuter <em>et al</em>. 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Melletes papilio</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em> occurs in some major fishing areas.	eng
154723	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.<br/><br/>Further research on the distribution is needed.	eng
154723	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is known from the Andaman Islands (single specimen), the Java Sea, the Philippines, and the Bismark Archipelago just off Papua New Guinea. At present this species appears to occupy a patchy distribution within the Indo-Pacific.	eng
154723	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is a pelagic, schooling species typically found inshore in brackish and marine waters to a depth of 50 m. It can also be found in estuaries. Congeners of this species, <em>Anodontostoma chacunda</em>, feed on a mix of diatoms, radiolarians, molluscs, copepods and crustaceans.	eng
154723	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em>.	eng
154723	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma selangkat</em> is harvested as a food source at a subsistence scale. At present there is no fisheries catch data on this species (FAO 1999a). It is harvested using lift nets, set nets and purse seine nets (FAO 1999). It is not known how this species is being impacted by threats such as harvesting and coastal development and pollution.	eng
154724	conservation	Moore, J.A., Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensi</span>s. However, a large percentage of the population is present a marine protected area in the eastern tropical Pacific region: the Archipelago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve in Mexico (WDPA 2006).	eng
154724	distribution	Moore, J.A., Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is only found near the Revillagigedo Islands and the Clipperton Atoll. Subpopulations of this species are highly localized in underwater reef-caves in these two locations, and its area of occupancy is therefore estimated to be less than 50 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154724	habitat	Moore, J.A., Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> is a reef-associated species that lives in underwater reef-caves at depths of 5-50 m.	eng
154724	population	Moore, J.A., Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> was considered abundant in appropriate habitat in the Clipperton Atoll during surveys in 1994 and 1998, and in the Revillagigedo Islands from 1992 and 1994.	eng
154724	threats	Moore, J.A., Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	Subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis clarionensis</span> are highly localized and only found in underwater reef-cave systems in two locations (Clipperton Atoll and Revillagigedos Islands). This species is therefore very susceptible to localized stochastic threats, including oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO or global warming events (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
154725	conservation	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, threats and abundance of this species is needed.	eng
154725	distribution	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species is known from four specimens taken at Cay Sal Bank, Bahamas, Gran Bahamas Island, and St Croix in the Virgin Islands (Dooley and Berry 1977; J. Dooley pers.comm. 2009).	eng
154725	habitat	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em> can be found on the outer slope of coral-reef ledges, over sand and mud bottoms at a depth range of 126-300 m.	eng
154725	population	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154725	threats	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known threats for <em>Caulolatilus williamsi</em>.	eng
154726	conservation	Harold, A.S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slope Hatchetfish.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with many marine protected areas.	eng
154726	distribution	Harold, A.S., 2009	The Slope Hatchetfish<em> (Polyipnus clarus</em>) is found in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the Gulf Stream as far north as Nova Scotia, and in the Gulf of Maine.	eng
154726	habitat	Harold, A.S., 2009	The Slope Hatchetfish<em></em> is a mesopelagic, demersal, shoaling species that occurs down to depths of 833 m.&#160;  The upper boundary of its depth profile is not known.	eng
154726	population	Harold, A.S., 2009	The Slope Hatchetfish is an abundant, near-bottom, shoaling species (Gartner <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
154726	threats	Harold, A.S., 2009	It is unlikely that the Slope Hatchetfish is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It is possible that it is taken as by-catch in some bottom trawls, but due to its small size, this is unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
154727	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
154727	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Bathypterois oddi</em> is known from the type locality in the Tasman Sea, off the south coast of New Zealand. It is also possibly found off South Australia (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1988).	eng
154727	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Bathypterois oddi</em> is a bathydemersal species which feeds on small, planktonic crustaceans and squid. It was found at a depth of 4,400 m, and a temperature of 1.15<sup>o</sup>C. Species within the family Ipnopidae are typically found off the continental slope or over an abyss. They are known to be amongst the deepest living fish species. Individuals commonly feed on zooplankton or benthic invertebrates.	eng
154727	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bathypterois oddi</em>, however another species of this genus, <em>B. longipes</em>, is thought to be possibly the most abundant abyssobenthic species in the northeastern Atlantic, suggesting an important role for <em>Bathypterois</em> as a deep sea fish (Nybelin 1957).	eng
154727	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species, it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154728	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amphistichus koelzi</em>. However this species may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its distribution range.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is suggested to ensure it does not become over-exploited by both commercial and private fishers.	eng
154728	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is distributed from slightly south of the US-Canadian border to northern Baja California, Mexico.	eng
154728	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is a demersal species found in the intertidal zone to a depth of 9 m. It is most commonly seen in the surf zone off sandy beaches.<br/><br/>Like congeners, such as <em>Amphistichus argentus</em>, it is likely this species forms small schools, feeds on crustaceans and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
154728	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> is one of the dominant species in the surf zone of northern California (Allen and Pondella 2006).	eng
154728	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Amphistichus koelzi</em> has some commercial importance as a food source, and is also a target species by sport fishers (Skinner 1962). <br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by coastal pollution such as sewage, industrial and domestic waste water, and coastal development. However, this is a localised threat and is not known across its entire distribution range.	eng
154729	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the White-spotted Lantern Fish.	eng
154729	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The White-spotted Lantern Fish<span style="font-style: italic;"> (</span><em>Diaphus rafinesquii</em>) is found in the Mediterranean and the western Atlantic north of the Gulf Stream. This species is also distributed across the eastern Atlantic from Iceland to Mauritania.	eng
154729	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The White-spotted Lantern Fish is a bathypelagic, oceanodromous species that has a depth range of 40-1,080 m. This species shows diurnal vertical migration patterns (Hulley 1990). During the day it can be found at depths between 325-750 m and at night adults can be found at depths between 300-600 m and juveniles at a depth range of 40-200 m. This species is known to spawn during the autumn and winter months (Hulley 1984).	eng
154729	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	In biodiversity studies using pelagic trawls, low numbers of this species were reported (Moore <em>et al</em>. 2003). The White-spotted Lantern Fish is reported to be rare south to the Gulf of Mexico (FAO 2002).	eng
154729	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no commercial fishery for this species, however it may be occasionally taken as a by-catch species. Due to its small size, this is not likely to pose a major threat as it is only likely to be retained in prawn fishery nets.  There are no other threats to this species.	eng
154730	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em>, however this species distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers, threats and possible harvest of this species.	eng
154730	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> is only known from 5 specimens and is endemic to the Loyalty Islands, France in the western Pacific. It may also be found to occur around New Caledonia (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154730	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The basslet, <em>Luzonichthys williamsi,</em> is a midwater coral reef species that has a depth range of 22 to 50 m. It is seen on the outer-reef slope in groups feeding on zooplankton. It has also been collected over patches of coral rubble. This is a small short-lived species.<br/><br/>This species co-occurs with the very similar <em>Luzonichthys whitleyi</em>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">L. waitei, </span>and may well occur in mixed-species aggregations.	eng
154730	population	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> is only known from 5 specimens.	eng
154730	threats	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Luzonichthys williamsi</em> may be taken for the aquarium trade as small serranids from the <em>Anthiinae</em> sub-family are known to be of particular value within the trade (FAO 1999), but this is unlikely to be driving rapid declines. The restricted range of this species also implies that it may be at risk from intrinsic factors which affect small populations.<br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas impacted by destructive fishing practices. In 2001, the reefs around the Loyalty Islands were impacted by a number of threats including Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching, however they are showing good signs of recovery (Wilkinson 2004). Overall, the coral reefs within this species range are considered to be in good condition. <br/><br/>Studies from the neighbouring island of New Caledonia have shown that surrounding coastal waters are subjected to large inputs of metals, mainly due to nickel production. In addition, natural erosion of the soils associated with tropical rainfall, urban development and lack of efficient wastewater treatment (Ambastian <em>et al</em>. 1997) may pose a threat in the future. <br/><br/>At present there don't appear to be any significant threats or reason to assume the species is undergoing declines.	eng
154731	conservation	Wootton, R.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Apeltes quadracus</em>.	eng
154731	distribution	Wootton, R.J., 2009	The Fourspine Stickleback, <em>Apeltes quadracus,</em> is found close to the shore in the western Atlantic from the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Canada, to North Carolina. This species is also found inland in lakes in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Quebec and Hudson, Delaware and Susquehanna river drainages. This species was accidentally introduced into Lake Superior and the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland. This is an invasive species and has recently been recorded in the state of Ontario.	eng
154731	habitat	Wootton, R.J., 2009	The Fourspine Stickleback is a benthopelagic species typically found in marine and brackish waters in the shallow photic zone. It is also seen in backwaters and to a limited extent, freshwater. It can be found in amongst weedy vegetation around the shoreline. Marine specimens feed on a mix of gammarids, isopods, chironomids and plant detritus, while freshwater individuals feed on cladoceran larvae, chironomids, ephemeropterans, arthropods and other insects. <br/><br/>This species displays sexual dimorphism with the females being comparatively larger than the males. With the onset of the mating season, males set up and defend their territory within which they build a multi-tiered nest in available vegetation. Females are then encouraged to lay eggs within the nest which the male then fertilises, guards and aerates.	eng
154731	population	Wootton, R.J., 2009	The Fourspine Stickleback is reported to be expanding its range all the time. Within its newly colonised areas, this species has been reported to be increasing rapidly in numbers, often to the detriment of native fish species (Stephenson and Mormot 2000).	eng
154731	threats	Wootton, R.J., 2009	The Fourspine Stickleback is used in the public aquarium trade, however there is no evidence that it is harvested in high enough quantities to result in significant population declines. It is likely that many of the individuals used within the aquarium trade, have been bred in captivity and were not taken directly from the wild. This species has a short generation time and so is likely to tolerate moderate harvesting.	eng
154732	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Coral Sea Gregory. However the distribution of this species falls within numerous marine protected areas, including several in New Caledonia all of which are strict "no-take" areas to conserve biodiversity (Lovell <em>et al</em>. 2004). The management of Australia’s Reefs is seen as effective (Miller and Sweatman 2004).	eng
154732	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Coral Sea Gregory, <em>Stegastes gascoynei</em>, is distributed through tropical and some temperate waters of eastern Australia, from the southern Great Barrier Reef to Sydney, New Zealand and New Caledonia. This species has also been recorded from the Coral Sea (type locality Keen Reef), Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and the Loyalty Islands.	eng
154732	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Coral Sea Gregory is associated with inshore live coral and rocky reefs.  The depth profile of this species ranges from 2 m to 30 m.	eng
154732	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154732	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	The Coral Sea Gregory is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats, however it might be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.  <br/><br/>The species is associated with coral reefs. The majority of coral reefs in the South West Pacific are healthy, while others are recovering after coral bleaching in 2000 and 2002. The major signs of reef stress around the major towns are due to over-exploitation and pollution from sediments and nutrients. It is predicted that large areas of coral reefs will remain healthy in the future, with only those around the larger towns being damaged (Lovell <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The coral reefs of Australia are in a relatively good state despite episodes of degradation.  It is predicted that the coral reefs will remain in good condition in the future, providing protection measures (establishment and enforcement of marine protected areas and improved fisheries management) are maintained (Miller and Sweatman 2004).	eng
154733	conservation	Gon, O., Heemstra, P.C., Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em>, however it may be found within a few marine protected areas.&#160; No actions are needed.	eng
154733	distribution	Gon, O., Heemstra, P.C., Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em> is found off the coast of South Africa from Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth, to False Bay near Cape Town (Moller and Schwarzhans 2006). Specimens have been collected from three to four localities (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008). Due to difficulty in sampling, this species may in fact be more widespread (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154733	habitat	Gon, O., Heemstra, P.C., Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dermatopsoides talboti</em> is a demersal, intertidal species that occurs in shallow water, including tidepools, in the photic zone (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is found at a depth range of 0 - 5 m. This cryptic species is very secretive and hides in rocky reefs during the day and is active at night (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous with a small brood size (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154733	population	Gon, O., Heemstra, P.C., Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	This species is referred to as 'secretive' and 'uncommon' (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is known from 6 specimens (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). This species is likely to be uncommon or rare (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154733	threats	Gon, O., Heemstra, P.C., Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	This species is likely to be locally impacted by coastal development and related pollution sources in parts of its range.&#160; However, much of its range is not heavily populated (O. Gon. and P. C. Heemstra. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154734	conservation	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are now a range of conservation measures in place for the long-term sustainability of global Pink Snapper stocks. Most of the commercial and recreational fisheries have imposed TACC and recreational bag limits based on the biological maximum sustainable yield, in an attempt to aid recovery of over-fished stocks. The distribution of this species also covers a number of marine protected areas including the Okakari Point Marine Reserve and the Tawharanui Marine Park in New Zealand. <br/><br/>Since the 1980s, Japan has managed to successfully culture this species on a commercial scale and now obtains 75% of its annual quota from captive bred stock. New Zealand and Australia are both developing their aquaculture industries in an attempt to alleviate pressure on wild populations.<br/><br/>Further research on the stock status of the Queensland and New South Wales fisheries is needed before wild stocks collapse. In consideration of the genetic isolation of stocks, seen on both a global and localised scale, future conservation efforts should seek to protect spawning grounds.	eng
154734	distribution	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Pink Snapper,<em> Pagrus auratus</em>, is distributed around the coastal waters of New Zealand, Australia, China, and Japan. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16, 359, 123 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154734	habitat	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Pink Snapper is a demersal species and can be found to depths of 200 m, although is most abundant at depths of 15 m - 60 m. This species forms large aggregations within the continental shelf and inhabits a wide range of habitats from rocky reefs to areas of sand and mud substrates. Individuals prey upon a number of organisms including crustaceans, marine worms, starfish, shellfish, and smaller fishes. This species can live up to 60 years old and has a very low natural rate of mortality. Individuals are capable of substantial migrations (Hayes 1994).<br/><br/>Snapper congregate prior to spawning and move on to the spawning ground around November to December. They are serial spawners, releasing eggs over the spring and summer months. The young will school in shallow waters, and move into deeper waters in the winter months. <br/><br/>The global population of Pink Snapper exists in a number of subpopulations due to genetic isolation of the northern and southern hemisphere (D. Paulin pers. comm. 2008). This is also seen on a regional scale. In New Zealand there is little mixing between the East Northland and Hauraki Gulf Snapper. This is also seen in Shark Bay, Western Australia where there is evidence to suggest that there is little if any mixing between coastal and ocean snapper (Edwards <em>et al.</em> 1989, 1999; Johnson <em>et al.</em> 1986; Moran <em>et al.</em> 1998, 2003; Nahas <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
154734	population	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Pagrus auratus</em> is described as the dominant species in inshore communities of northern New Zealand.	eng
154734	threats	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Fricke, R., 2009	Pink Snapper is one of the most commercially important fisheries in New Zealand (Paul and Tarring 1980), Australia, and Japan. It is also an important recreational fishery. It is harvested using a number of methods including set lines, bottom trawls, pair trawls and midwater trawls.<br/><br/>Over the past 25 years, the snapper fisheries of Australia and New Zealand were described as over-exploited as stocks showed signs of collapse. In New Zealand, snapper landings peaked at 18,000 tonnes, however by the mid 1980s the catches had declined to 8,500 - 9,000 tonnes. Since then New Zealand implemented one of the most comprehensive Quota Mangement Systems to manage the remaining stock and set Total Allowable Commercial Catch limits based on the biological maximum sustainable yield (B<sub>MSY</sub>).<br/><br/>The New Zealand snapper fishery is split into 10 Quota Management Areas (QMA). Four areas of the fishery, SNA1, SNA2, SNA7 and SNA8, account for nearly all of the total landings. Within SNA1, there are 2 sub-stocks, East Northland and Hauraki Gulf/ Bay of Plenty. A stock assessment of the East Northland sub-stock indicates that the population currently meets the B<sub>MSY</sub> reference point and is expected to exceed this (67% probability) come the end of the 20 year projection period. The Hauraki Gulf stock currently falls below the B<sub>MSY</sub> reference point, but there is a 100% probability that it will exceed this point within the projection period. Estimates from SNA2 indicate that the stock is near or just below the B<sub>MSY</sub> but is expected to exceed this level by 2011, assuming fishing effort, landings, and natural mortality remain constant. The stock in SNA7 is thought to be well above the B<sub>MSY</sub> and will continue to further increase even if future landings were significantly larger than at present. The stock in SNA8 is thought to be below the B<sub>MSY</sub>, however estimates from this assessment were considered unreliable due to model error.<br/><br/>Analysis of the Queensland fishery stock, has been controversial. Most data on the stock is derived from recreational and commercial landings. Recreational data imples that the stock is in severe decline and below the B<sub>MSY</sub>, while commercial data would suggest that the stock is in a slow rate of decline. There are at present, concerns about the long-term sustainability of this fishery as fishing effort moves further north to new fishing grounds. <br/><br/>At present there is no evidence to suggest that stocks in the Shark Bay Snapper Fishery are below reference points or limits. Estimates of the stock indicate that 70% of the virgin stock biomass still remains.<br/><br/>In 1988, the Japanese successfully cultured 45,000 tonnes of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Pink Snapper<em></em>, three times the amount that is harvested from wild stocks. Other countries, such as New Zealand and Australia, are running trial aquaculture experiments in an attempt to aid recovery of exploited stocks.	eng
154735	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is supporting a Large Marine Ecosystem project in the Yellow Sea to address critical threats to the coastal and marine environment, and to promote ecosystem-based management of coastal and marine resources. Further research to determine the suitable habitat, range, and threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus </span>should be carried out.	eng
154735	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Sebastes koreanus</em> is known only from the Yellow Sea, South Korea.&#160; It has been collected from Munyae Island, Okdo-myon, Okku-gun, and Chollabuk-do (Eschmeyer 2008).	eng
154735	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes</span><em> koreanus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 2–30 m.	eng
154735	population	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus</span>.	eng
154735	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes koreanus</span> is impacted by any major threat processes. The species is known from only a few specimens collected in an area of the Yellow Sea known to be impacted by pollution such as oil and industrial effluents.	eng
154736	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitetail Goblinfish.&#160;  However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.	eng
154736	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	The Whitetail Goblinfish<em> (Minous quincarinatus</em>) is widely distributed through the northwest Pacific.&#160; Its presence has been documented in the Yellow Sea, off the northern, northeastern and southwestern coasts of Taiwan, in the East China Sea, and the South China Sea including the coasts of Peng-hu Island and Hong Kong, and south of the Misaki Peninsula in southern Japan.	eng
154736	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	The Whitetail Goblinfish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 50–154 m and is found on the shelf edge on soft, sandy or mud substrates.	eng
154736	population	Poss, S., 2009	The Whitetail Goblinfish has been described a common throughout its range (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1979)	eng
154736	threats	Poss, S., 2009	The Whitetail Goblinfish could be locally threatened by oil spills in the future, as there is significant international shipping traffic throughout much of its range.&#160; There is also extensive fishing across much of this species' range, although the Whitetail Goblinfish is not specifically targeted.	eng
154737	conservation	Alvarado, J., Barbour, C.D., Eschmeyer, W., Iwamoto, T. &  Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span>;&#160;however this species distribution may occur in a number of marine protected areas including the Seaflower Marine Protected Area off Colombia.	eng
154737	distribution	Alvarado, J., Barbour, C.D., Eschmeyer, W., Iwamoto, T. &  Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	The distribution of the Bright Silverside, <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer,</span> extends from Panama to Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
154737	habitat	Alvarado, J., Barbour, C.D., Eschmeyer, W., Iwamoto, T. &  Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span> is found in coastal habitats such as estuaries, tidal rivers and mangrove creeks, and is present in marine and brackish waters at depths to 10 m. The diet of this species consists of zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae, and pelagic fish eggs (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
154737	population	Alvarado, J., Barbour, C.D., Eschmeyer, W., Iwamoto, T. &  Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer</span> is reported to be the third most abundant fish in the mangrove wetland and adjacent tidal river of Palmar, Ecuador (Shervette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). The average density of this species in this area, was recorded to range between 0.82-77.73 individuals per 100m<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154737	threats	Alvarado, J., Barbour, C.D., Eschmeyer, W., Iwamoto, T. &  Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinella serrivomer </span>is associated with mangrove habitats which have become increasingly threatened by human population pressures, such as large scale harvest for wood chips, and clearance of the land for conversion to aquaculture ponds (Ong 2002). The degradation of mangrove habitats is not considered a major threat to this species, as in a study conducted by Shervette <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2007), this species was found to be just as abundant in a tidal river with no mangroves, as in a tidal river with mangroves.<br/><br/>Oceanographic, environmental changes such as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events threaten this species in parts of its range, such as Peru.	eng
154738	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus comptus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Hawaiian Islands.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of coral reef degradation on the population in the future. Research is also needed on species-specific conservation measures for this species, to try to prevent further negative impacts on the population of <em>C. comptus</em>.	eng
154738	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Callionymus comptus</em> is known only from the Hawaiian Islands. The distribution of this species is severely fragmented, because very few areas in the Hawaiian Islands meet its habitat requirements (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It is estimated that the total range area for this species is less than 20,000 km².	eng
154738	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus comptus</span> is restricted to sand patches on reef crests and lagoon areas, where it buries itself in clean sand. This benthopelagic species is found at depths of 3-28 m.	eng
154738	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	This species is rare (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154738	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus comptus</span> is associated with coral reef habitats. The coral reefs of Hawaii have been degraded due to pollution, development and dredging. The most significant threats to the reefs are coral bleaching and disease, and invasive alien species (Friedlander <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is predicted that Hawaii's reefs will continue to be degraded in future as human pressures increase, but the rate of decline can be reduced if there is effective protection and management (Friedlander <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
154739	conservation	Allen, G.R., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
154739	distribution	Allen, G.R., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em> is known from the holotype (type locality Hummocky Island, north of Curtis Island) on the east coast of Australia off Queensland. This species is likely to have a wider distribution however due to difficulties in identifying this species the distribution is uncertain (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154739	habitat	Allen, G.R., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The type specimen was a trawl specimen (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Nothing further is known on the biology or ecology of this species. Cynoglossids are difficult to identify due to the similarity between species (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154739	population	Allen, G.R., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Cynoglossus maccullochi</em>.	eng
154739	threats	Allen, G.R., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynoglossus maccullochi</span> is being impacted by any major threats.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species may occasionally be taken as by-catch by trawlers operating within its range (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154740	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em>.	eng
154740	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> has a near circumantarctic distribution from west of the Adelaide Islands round to the Ross Sea.	eng
154740	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> is bathydemersal and lives at temperatures as low as -1.65° Celsius. This species has a depth range of 371-915 m and can be found on the outer shelf and deep in troughs. This species has the lowest fecundity of any known bathydraconid species, producing only 2000 eggs per female (La Mesa<em> et al.</em> 2007). Spawning may occur from mid to late summer (Gon 1990).	eng
154740	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> has been described as the dominant species in the Gould Bay area (Ekau 1990). This species comprised 3.2% of the catch from a bottom trawl in the Ross Sea (Eastman and Hubold 1999).	eng
154740	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Akarotaxis nudiceps</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. It may be taken incidentally as a by-catch species.	eng
154741	conservation	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D. & Zapata, F., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however this species is present in several marine protected areas in the Gulf of California, Mexico including Las Islas del Golfo de California, Flora and Fauna Protection Area.	eng
154741	distribution	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D. & Zapata, F., 2007	The Gulf Opal Eye, <span style="font-style: italic;">Girella simplicidens,</span> is endemic to the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
154741	habitat	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D. & Zapata, F., 2007	This benthopelagic species forms big schools in shallow rocky areas that are rich in algae. It can primarily be found to depths of 15 m.	eng
154741	population	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D. & Zapata, F., 2007	This species is abundant in the northern Gulf of California, but scarce in the southern portion (Robertson and Allen 2006), where relative abundance was between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In general, it is considered common through much of its range, with no indication of recent population decline.	eng
154741	threats	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D. & Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154742	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bluestriped Snapper, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed on the population size, harvest levels, and extent of harvest of this species.	eng
154742	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Bluestriped Snapper<em> (Lutjanus notatus</em>) is found in the Indian Ocean off East Africa, Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius.&#160; This species has also been reported from Taiwan, however this needs verification.	eng
154742	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Bluestriped Snapper inhabits coral reefs in tropical climates.&#160; It is found either individually or in groups of 5?10 individuals, at a depth range of 10?50 m.&#160; This species feeds on fish and crustaceans.	eng
154742	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for the Bluestriped Snapper .	eng
154742	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Bluestriped Snapper is harvested by artisinal fishers throughout much of its range.&#160; It is seen in local markets in relatively small quantities.&#160; It is caught using handlines, traps and gill nets.&#160; More general threats to this species' abundance may include threats to its habitat due to intense coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, these threats are likely to be operating at a localised scale only.	eng
154743	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em></em> the Neglected Grenadier Anchovy, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154743	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy,<em> Coilia neglecta, </em>is known from India, Sri Lanka, throughout the Bay of Bengal and from Thailand to Malaysia.	eng
154743	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy is a schooling species that can be found in saline coastal waters and estuaries to a depth of 50 m. It is often found in the vicinity of mangrove forests. It is tolerant of some degree of freshening and often utilises river mouths for feeding and spawning.	eng
154743	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Museum specimens suggest that this species is common (FAO 1988).	eng
154743	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Neglected Grenadier Anchovy is taken as a by-catch species by subsistence fishers and processed into fish meal for the shrimp farm industry. There are no known catch statistics available for this species, however it is only known to be harvested by small scale fisheries in parts of its range.<br/><br/>This species utilises a habitat that is becoming increasingly degraded by pollution and siltation. Coastal wetland systems are important buffer zones for many coastal fish species. They lower water turbidity, lower nutrient loading from coastal pollution run-off, and provide food and shelter to both adults and juveniles. India has lost 50% of its wetland systems and mangrove cover has been reduced from 700,000 hectares in 1987 to 453,000 hectares in 1995 (Parikh and Parikh 1999). This is a 34% decline in mangrove habitat over 8 years; less than a 10% decline in this species over the same time. However this is only a small part of this species range.	eng
154744	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology of this species is needed to determine habitat specificity.	eng
154744	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is found off southern Australia from the state of Victoria, to the state of South Australia including Tasmania.	eng
154744	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is mainly found in protected marine habitats with soft bottoms or seagrass beds. This species can be found in small aggregations below three m, however larger schools are found nearer the surface.  This species has not been collected from the upper reaches of estuaries or lagoons (Pavlov <em>et al.</em> 1988).  Individuals exceeding three cm are planktivorous, feeding mainly on copepods.	eng
154744	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	This species is described as moderately common in some sheltered marine habitats of cool temperate southeastern Australia (Pavlov <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
154744	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Kestratherina brevirostris</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.	eng
154745	conservation	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy and ecology of this species, as well on as any potential threats it may face.	eng
154745	distribution	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em> has only been found around the waters of Bermuda.	eng
154745	habitat	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em> is a pelagic species which has been collected at depths of 200–1000 m.&#160; Most species from the <em>Stomiidae</em> family are mesopelagic, with some species bathypelagic.&#160; Some species from this family migrate to the surface at night (FAO 2002).	eng
154745	population	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Leptostomias bermudensis</em>.	eng
154745	threats	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptostomias bermudensis</span>, although it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within the coastal waters of Bermuda.	eng
154746	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Trimma fraena</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research is needed to establish the distribution and abundance of this species, to monitor its habitat status, and to investigate the impact of threats such as habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
154746	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Trimma fraena</em> has been found around the Chagos Archipelago, Comoros Islands, Maldives and Bali. Although this species is only known from a few localities at present, it is very likely to occur in more areas, as suitable habitat is available for the species.	eng
154746	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Trimma fraena</em> inhabits silty, coral reef habitats and has been found at depths of 9–15 m.	eng
154746	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trimma fraena</span>.	eng
154746	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
154747	conservation	Harold, A.S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>.	eng
154747	distribution	Harold, A.S., 2009	<em>Maurolicus breviculus</em> is found in the eastern equatorial Pacific, off Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
154747	habitat	Harold, A.S., 2009	The hatchetfish, <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>, is a bathypelagic species that has a large depth range of 50–1,865 m.&#160; Species from the Sternoptychidae family have a diet that consists of small fish and zooplankton, including crustaceans, annelids, chaetognaths, and molluscs (FAO 2002).	eng
154747	population	Harold, A.S., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Maurolicus breviculus</em>.	eng
154747	threats	Harold, A.S., 2009	Due to the small size and deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Maurolicus breviculus</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154748	conservation	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are some catch limitations for <em>Lophius</em> species off the coast of Namibia (Maartens and Booth 2001b). Management of the Monkfish fishery (which also includes <em> L. budegassa<em>) </em></em>has involved imposing effort limits, including limited access and a restriction of 800 horse power on fishing vessels (Maartens and Booth 2001b). Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.	eng
154748	distribution	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> occurs from northern Namibia (below 21° S latitude), around the southern coast of South Africa, up to Durban (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
154748	habitat	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is found on muddy substrates on the deep continental shelf, upper slopes, and subtidal zone. It feeds on small fish, including Cape Hake <em>(Merluccius capensis</em>) and Herring <em>(Etrumeus whiteheadi)</em>. It ranges from depths of 150 m to around 400 m.<br/><br/><em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is a long-lived, slow-growing species with a life span in excess of 10 years in Namibia (Maartens <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). <br/><br/>Spawning occurs in September in the South African subpopulation (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005).<br/><br/>Distribution data indicate that individuals move into deeper water as they grow, and on the south coast of South Africa, this offshore migration is also accompanied by an eastward migration (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
154748	population	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	Fishery models (age structure production model and length-based cohort analysis model) provide evidence that <em> Lophius vomerinus <em> </em></em>resources are over-exploited, with harvesting levels higher than those concomitant with sustainable yields (Maartens and Booth 2001a).	eng
154748	threats	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Lophius vomerinus</em> is an important commercial species for Namibia. Landings of <em>L. vomerinus</em> contribute approximately 90% of the total Namibian<em> Lophius</em> landings (Walmsley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In 1998, <em>Lophius</em> spp. were the fourth most landed catch in the region, at 17,000 t. This species is also often caught as a by-catch species of the Hake fishery (Maartens and Booth 2001a).&#160; A large number of juveniles are captured each year (Maartens <em>et al</em>. 2002) and models of future catches suggest that catches greater than 12,000 t per year will probably be unsustainable (Maartens and Booth 2001a).<br/><br/>In 1990, the annual catch of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophius</span> was approximately 1,500 t. This increased to more than 12,000 t in 1994. Between 1995 and 1997, this decreased to around 10,000 t, but then peaked in 1998 at 17,000 t, falling to 16,000 t in 1999 (Maartens and Booth 2001a). During the 1990s, there was an improved efficiency in fishing vessels and an increase in the number of vessels targeting this species (Maartens and Booth 2001a).	eng
154749	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number marine protected areas.	eng
154749	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em> is found in the western Atlantic from southern Florida and the Bahamas to Panama, Venezuela and Trinidad.	eng
154749	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Petrotyx sanguineus</em> is found on the outer reef slope of shallow coral reefs in tropical climates at depths of 3 to 15 m. This species is secretive in habit (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is oviparious (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009) and has oval pelagic eggs which float in a gelatinous mass (Froese and Pauly 2007). There is no apparent preference for live or dead coral (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154749	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	This is a common species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
154749	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat destruction as a result of coastal development and pollution.	eng
154750	conservation	Balanov, A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Shining Tubeshoulder.	eng
154750	distribution	Balanov, A.A., 2009	The Shining Tubeshoulder <em>(Sagamichthys abei</em>) is widespread through the northern Pacific, ranging from Japan and the Bering Sea, to British Columbia and California.&#160; It is also known from the coasts of Peru and Chile, but not westward of this point (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1984).&#160; While this species is known from the Sea of Okhotsk (C. Mecklenburg pers. comm. 2008), it is described as rare in this region (Balanov and Il'inskiy 1992, Sazonov <em>et a</em><span style="font-style: italic;">l</span>. 1993, Ivanov 1997).	eng
154750	habitat	Balanov, A.A., 2009	The Shining Tubeshoulder is most commonly found at depths of 300?500 m, although it has been found at depths down to 1,250 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Savinykh <em>et al.</em> 2005).&#160; According to Matsui and Rosenblatt (1984), this species prefers a temperature range of 6?8°C, and it is not often found in low-oxygen areas.&#160; While there have been previous claims that the juveniles of this species rise to the surface from depths of 100 m to feed (Fitch and Lavenberg 1968, Savinykh<em> et al</em>. 2005), other studies have found no evidence of any vertical migrations (Matsui and Rosenblatt 1984).&#160;  It is thought that this species' spawning grounds are within subtropical regions.&#160; Immature individuals drift by currents to subarctic waters to feed (Savinykh <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
154750	population	Balanov, A.A., 2009	Sazonov <em>et al</em>. (1993) and Savinykh <em>et al</em>. (2005) described the Shining Tubeshoulder as "rather rare".	eng
154750	threats	Balanov, A.A., 2009	It is likely that the Shining Tubeshoulder may occasionally be taken as a by-catch species.&#160; However, a study of mesopelagic by-catch did not find this species in high numbers (Sinclair and Stabeno 2001).&#160; At present, fishing related mortality is not thought to be a major threat to this species as it is not targeted directly, and this threat is not known across its entire range.	eng
154751	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oneirodes epithales</em>.<br/><br/>Due to the lack of information available for this species, research should be conducted on its distribution, ecology and potential threats.	eng
154751	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	A single specimen of <em>Oneirodes epithales</em> was found in the northwestern Atlantic, approximately 800 km south of Newfoundland (Orr 1991).	eng
154751	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes epithales</em> is a deep water species. The only known specimen was caught at a depth of 1,829 m.	eng
154751	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes epithales</span>.	eng
154751	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is not known whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes epithales</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154752	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Taylor's Garden Eel. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas including the Maza Wildlife Management Area in Papua New Guinea. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of seagrass meadow degradation on subpopulations of this species.	eng
154752	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	Taylor's Garden Eel, <em>Heteroconger taylori</em>, is known from Papua New Guinea and Bali, Indonesia.	eng
154752	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	Taylor's Garden Eel is found on silty sand and seagrass meadows. This species occurs individually or in small groups.  This species is found in the photic zone to a depth of 10 m.	eng
154752	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Heteroconger taylori</em>.	eng
154752	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	Taylor's Garden Eel is associated with seagrass meadows. The seagrass habitats of Indonesia are locally threatened by a number of factors, including destructive fishing, pollution and global climate change. As this species is not only associated with seagrass habitats, the localised degradation of seagrass meadows is not considered a major threat to this species.	eng
154753	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154753	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em> is found from Algeria in the Mediterranean, on the South Atlantic Coast of Spain, and south along the west coast of Africa to the Congo River.  Although the range of this species is large, its distribution is extremely patchy.	eng
154753	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em> is a near-shore species, strongly associated with hard substrate. This species is found in rocky areas of the intertidal zone, where it shelters in crevices and under rocks (Nieto and Alberto 1990) and in shallow waters near harbours (Zander 1986).  This species is oviparous.	eng
154753	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154753	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Hypleurochilus bananensis</em>.	eng
154754	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Slendertail Grenadier.<em></em>	eng
154754	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Slendertail Grenadier <em>(Mataeocephalus tenuicauda</em>) is distributed from the Pacific coast of Panama, south to Ecuador. It is also found around the Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
154754	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Slendertail Grenadier <em></em>is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is found at a depth range of 700–1,600 m.&#160; Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found over upper continental slopes (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish, and cephalopods.&#160; The Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154754	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Slendertail Grenadier <em></em>is considered common in the waters around Panama and Ecuador (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).	eng
154754	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the Slendertail Grenadier.&#160; It <em></em>is of no current interest to fisheries (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990), and due to the depth range at which this species is found, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch.	eng
154755	conservation	Chao, N.L. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the White Croaker.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154755	distribution	Chao, N.L. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is distributed from Barkley Sound in British Columbia, Canada to southern Baja California, Mexico.	eng
154755	habitat	Chao, N.L. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	Adult White Croakers are epibenthic and occur on sandy bottoms. They have been taken to depths of 183 m. Their diet consists of smaller fish, and epibenthic and benthic invertebrates including polychaetes, clams, shrimp and crabs (Meador <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is a multiple spawner.	eng
154755	population	Chao, N.L. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is considered common and abundant (Moore 2001). The Californian landing of this species has declined from 150,000 lb to 30,000 lb in two decades (California Department of Fish and Game/ NOAA Fisheries Service 2009). Whilst fishing pressure is being reduced in this region, it is likely that the decline in landings also reflects a population decline. This is likely to reflect about half of the species range (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154755	threats	Chao, N.L. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Genyonemus lineatus</span> is of minor commercial importance and the latest Californian landings data from 2004 record approximately 30,000 lb per year (California Department of Fish and Game/ NOAA Fisheries Service 2009). Individuals of this species inhabit nearshore areas including the vicinity of wastewater discharge pipes where there are high levels of PCBs and DDTs. Adults exposed to such pollutants show impaired reproduction and liver disease (Malins <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1987, Cross and Hose 1988). Therefore this species is threatened by harvesting and pollution.	eng
154756	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, to determine if it is distinct from <em>S. cotticeps</em>, from the Philippines.	eng
154756	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.&#160; It is only known from its type locality.&#160; However, it has been noted that <em>S. cotticeps</em> from the Philippines might be the same species (Eschmeyer and Randall 1975).	eng
154756	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	The scorpionfish, <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris,</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 79–134 m, and has been found over coarse sand with broken shells and coral.&#160; Most species from the Scorpaenidae family are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction (FAO 1999).	eng
154756	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em>.	eng
154756	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenopsis altirostris</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; The closely related species, <em>S. cotticeps</em>, is of no importance to fisheries (FAO 1999), and due to the small size of <em>S. altirostris</em>, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch by fisheries.	eng
154757	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus platycephalus</em>. Further research is needed on its distribution, habitat, and threats, as little information is currently available.	eng
154757	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	The Flathead Dragonet (<em>Callionymus platycephalus</em>) is known only from its type locality in the Visayan Sea, Philippines. The true distribution of this species is likely to be patchy due to specific habitat requirements (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154757	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus</span> is a demersal species that can be found burying itself in sand.&#160; The depth profile of this species is thought to be 30–48 m.	eng
154757	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154757	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus platycephalus </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It could potentially be impacted by habitat degradation resulting from water pollution, but it is not known from near any heavily populated coastal areas.&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch in commercial fisheries, but again, more information is needed to confirm this.	eng
154758	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astrabe fasciata</em>. Further research is needed on the ecology of this species to determine what threats it may be facing, as well as on its distribution and abundance.	eng
154758	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	Specimens of <em>Astrabe fasciata</em> have been collected from north Honshu (Aomori and Niigata prefectures) and Kyushu (Nagasaki prefecture), Japan.	eng
154758	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	Specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe fasciata</span> have been found under stones on rocky bottoms at a depth range of 1–2 m.	eng
154758	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe</span><em> fasciata</em>.	eng
154758	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no information about current or potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Astrabe fasciata</span>.	eng
154759	conservation	Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for the Blue Sprat, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154759	distribution	Priede, I.G., 2009	The Blue Sprat, <em>Spratelloides gracilis,</em> is a widespread species distributed from the Red Sea south to Zanzibar and east to the western Pacific (Japan south through the Philippines to southeastern and western Australia, east to Samoa, excluding the Cook, Society and Marquesas islands, and the Tuamoto Islands). This species is also reported to occur off Palau and the Marshall Islands (Myers 1999).	eng
154759	habitat	Priede, I.G., 2009	The Blue Sprat is a pelagic, inshore schooling species, which inhabits clear waters of coastal, lagoon and seaward coral reefs. It feeds predominantly on zooplankton. This species migrates to shallow water areas during the spawning season and deposits adhesive eggs on the substratum (Takeuchi and Gushima 2006). Spawning frequency varies unpredictably with local environmental conditions. Spawning peaks occur in October, around the full moon, in Kirbati (FAO 1999).<br/><br/>This species grows extremely fast, and completes its life history in a few months. Maturity is attained at 50 to 60% of the maximum size. The oldest individual of this species ever recorded reached an age of only 4 months (Meekan <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
154759	population	Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Spratelloides gracilis</em> is a dominant species at Doigahama Beach, Japan (Suda<em> et al</em>. 2002). This species is common throughout much of its range.	eng
154759	threats	Priede, I.G., 2009	The Blue Sprat is an important fishery resource for many coastal communities. It is harvested as a food source and for bait.<em></em> This species is caught using beach seines, purse seines, ringnets and dipnets. Separate statistics for this species are only recorded for FAO Fishing Areas 61 and 71. Landing in these areas are reported at 1,000 tons annually. However, there is no reported significant decline in the population of this species. The rapid population doubling time displayed by this species makes it less vulnerable to moderate threats.<br/><em><br/></em>	eng
154760	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis alpha</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154760	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis alpha</em> is distributed from north-western Australia, Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands to Papua New Guinea, the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, north to the Northern Mariana and Marshall Islands and east to French Polynesia. This species has also been recorded from the Spratly Islands (Thi and Quan 2006).	eng
154760	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis alpha</em> occurs on outer reef slopes of coral reefs at a depth range of 18 - 95 m. It is known to occur in loose aggregations.	eng
154760	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	This species is abundant on outer reef slopes throughout its range. It is not unusual to observe hundreds of individuals during a single dive (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154760	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	In localised patches of this species range, coral reef degradation and loss is occurring due to factors including water pollution, human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. This is a deep reef species with a broad geographic range so is unlikely to be undergoing significant declines as a result of these threats.	eng
154761	conservation	Collette, B., K., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance, and threats this species may be facing.	eng
154761	distribution	Collette, B., K., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em> is known from Bangkok, Thailand and Sandakan, Borneo (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154761	habitat	Collette, B., K., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em> is a pelagic species found in coastal marine and brackish waters. It is reported from the vicinity of mangrove forests and estuaries.	eng
154761	population	Collette, B., K., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154761	threats	Collette, B., K., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Zenarchopterus pappenheimi</em>.	eng
154762	conservation	McCosker, J.E. & Tighe, K., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. This species is poorly known, and more research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.	eng
154762	distribution	McCosker, J.E. & Tighe, K., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific. However, it is only known from five individuals, and no additional records have been made since 1988 (Lavenberg 1988). This species distribution may range from the tip of Baja California and from Jalisco, Mexico to Costa Rica. However, its currently known distribution is very disjunct and is represented by the locations of the only known individuals (Lavenberg 1988). These include the holotype from Boca de la Trinidad, Gulf of California; and 3 pelagic leptocephali: 1 from Arroyo de San Luis, Gulf of California; 1 from Costa Rica, and 1 from near Malpelo Island, Colombia.	eng
154762	habitat	McCosker, J.E. & Tighe, K., 2007	This species is thought to be found on sand and coralline-rubble substrata as the holotype was taken with sand by a dredge at 95 m. However, the habitat requirements and ecology of this species are unclear.	eng
154762	population	McCosker, J.E. & Tighe, K., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. Only five individuals are known.	eng
154762	threats	McCosker, J.E. & Tighe, K., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species.	eng
154763	conservation	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is found in the Archipielago de Revillagigedo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the abundance of this species is needed.	eng
154763	distribution	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo Islands of Socorro and San Benedicto.	eng
154763	habitat	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is a benthic, subtropical reef-associated species that inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 20 m.	eng
154763	population	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, it may possibly be common (one collection included 49 individuals).	eng
154763	threats	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, although given its shallow depth range it may be negatively impacted by current or future ENSO events and associated climatic changes. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO events and global warming may have fatal effects on shallow marine ecosystems and the survival of restricted range species (Soto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).	eng
154764	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Mottled Jawfish, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is recommended.	eng
154764	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Mottled Jawfish <em>(Opistognathus maxillosus</em>) occurs in the western Atlantic, from southern Florida and the Bahamas to northern South America, including the eastern Gulf of Mexico and the Antilles.	eng
154764	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Mottled Jawfish occurs in tropical climates and is associated with coral reefs.&#160; It is usually found at depths of 2 m or less, but has been reported at a depth of 12 m (Michael 2001).&#160; This species is usually found on the protected side of coral reefs, where it inhabits areas of sand, coral, rubble, and seagrass. It builds an elaborate burrow around 30 cm deep, with a terminal chamber and vertical shaft lined with coral and shell fragments.&#160; It exhibits a high levels of site fidelity and rarely relocates or builds a new burrow.	eng
154764	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for the Mottled Jawfish.	eng
154764	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Mottled Jawfish is taken from the wild to supply the aquarium trade.&#160; At present, this is not thought to be a major threat to this species, due to the low demand for this species.<br/><br/>Due to the shallow water, coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human-induced threats including water pollution from domestic and commercial sources, coastal development, and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the species' entire range, and so are only likely to be causing localised declines in abundance.	eng
154765	conservation	Acero, A., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>.	eng
154765	distribution	Acero, A., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em> is found in the south Caribbean Sea from Nicaragua to the Guianas, including Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
154765	habitat	Acero, A., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The large-tooth flounder, <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>, is a demersal species that is found on soft bottoms (mud and sand) of the outer continental shelf at a depth range of 70 - 260 m (FAO 2002).	eng
154765	population	Acero, A., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em>.	eng
154765	threats	Acero, A., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Ancylopsetta cycloidea</em> is caught as by-catch by both the shrimp and finfish fisheries, however due to the deepwater nature of this species and the maximum depth to which these fisheries trawl (100 m), it is unlikely to be harvested in significant quantities (A. Acero. and J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). There is no directed fishery for this species (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154766	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including several around the Seychelles.	eng
154766	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em> is an Indo-Pacific snake eel, reported from Mozambique, the Seychelles, Israel, India, the Marquesas Islands, Indonesia, Palau, and the Marshall Islands.	eng
154766	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>  is a demersal species found in tropical waters.&#160; It is a benthopelagic species, found at a depth range of 2–42 m.&#160; As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about its habitat or ecology (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).&#160; These species are sand and mud-burrowers, and do not seem to be limited to a small geographic area.&#160; Their rarity in collections is mostly a result of the difficulty in sampling them.&#160;  Many species in the family are widely distributed, and none seem to occupy a unique habitat (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154766	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Xestochilus nebulosus</em>.	eng
154766	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Xestochilus nebulosus </span>is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154767	conservation	Barbour, C.D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Rough Silverside.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.	eng
154767	distribution	Barbour, C.D., 2009	The Rough Silverside,&#160;<em>Membras martinica</em>&#160;is found in the western central Atlantic, from New York to Veracruz in Mexico.&#160; This species has also been collected from the Hudson River, as far north as Peekshill, New York (Smith 1985), a considerable distance upstream of St. John's River in Florida (Nelson <em>et al</em>. 2004), and from a number of river systems in Mexico (Miller 2005).	eng
154767	habitat	Barbour, C.D., 2009	The Rough Silverside is a pelagic species found in a number of different habitat types.&#160; It typically occurs off exposed shoreline and beaches, over a firm substrate (e.g., Chesapeake Bay: Murdy <em>et al.</em> 1997).&#160; This species is also known from coastal rivers.	eng
154767	population	Barbour, C.D., 2009	A study by Manuel (2005) found that the Rough Silverside was one of the dominant diurnal species in Pueblo Viejo coastal lagoon, Veracruz, Mexico.&#160; There are no other indications of population size for this species across the rest of its range.	eng
154767	threats	Barbour, C.D., 2009	It is unlikely that the Rough Silverside is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154768	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas including the Peninsula Valdes and Tierra Del Fuego National Park. <br/><br/>Further research on the biology and ecology, and threats of this species should be carried out, as there is little information currently available.	eng
154768	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em> is found in the southwestern Atlantic from Puerto Madryn, south to Tierra del Fuego in Argentina.	eng
154768	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is very little habitat or ecology information available for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>.  It is thought to inhabit the intertidal zone.  This species is found in the euphotic zone and has been found to a depth of 40 m.	eng
154768	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em>.	eng
154768	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Iluocoetes elongatus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. The coastline along which this species is found is relatively under-developed and unimpacted by pollution. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
154769	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Silhouettea evanida</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat, biology, abundance, and potential threats for this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
154769	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Silhouettea evanida</em> is known from Darwin, Australia (type locality: Mindil Beach), Bowen and Hervey Bay in Queensland.	eng
154769	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Silhouettea evanida</em> is a small, benthic, cryptic goby found in quiet shallows on a sand or sandy/mud substrate, for example beaches and mangrove creeks (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154769	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea evanida</span>.	eng
154769	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The impacts of major threatening processes on <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> evanida</em> are not well understood. However, most gobies are of no commercial importance and if, like its congeners, it is of small size, it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch.	eng
154770	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Peppered Goby<em>.</em>&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and its rate of habitat loss.	eng
154770	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Peppered Goby (<em>Pariah scotius</em>) has been found in the southern Bahamas and in Curaçao. Suitable habitat for this species (i.e., <em>Spheciospongia vesparia</em>) is common in the western Caribbean in reef lagoon areas.	eng
154770	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Peppered Goby is found inhabiting sponges, especially the sponge, <em>Spheciospongia vesparia</em>, which is typically found at a depth range of 15-60 m.	eng
154770	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Peppered Gobi.	eng
154770	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether there are any major threat processes impacting the Peppered Goby.&#160; Threats to sponges include water pollution from coastal development or boat traffic, and harvesting for the pharmaceutical industry.&#160; At present, it is not known if these threats are having a significant impact on the Peppered Goby population. Given that this species associates with sponges such as <em>Spheciospongia vesparia,</em> it may be affected to some degree by habitat degradation, but this sponge is described as rather common in the western Caribbean (S. Zea pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154771	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.	eng
154771	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is a Western Central Pacific boxfish, known from Australia from New South Wales and Victoria.	eng
154771	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is found within the vicinity of coral reefs but also on deep-water reefs. In a study by Vanderklift <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), this species was collected at both 0 m and 300 m.	eng
154771	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span>.	eng
154771	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Anoplocapros inermis</span> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species is not targeted for food and is not known to be collected as by-catch.&#160; It may be undergoing declines in areas where its habitat borders coastal development and pollution, however this does not occur across its entire range. This species is also found in deep-water where it is likely to be unimpacted by a range of threats.	eng
154772	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology and potential threats.	eng
154772	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em> is endemic to Western Australia and is found 70 km south of the Rowley Shoals (Fricke 2002).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,616 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154772	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em> is a mesopelagic species found at a depth range of 350–420 m.&#160; While there is no available information on the habitat or feeding ecology of this species, congeners have been observed to be benthic, inhabiting sand and mud bottoms, and feeding on small benthic organisms (FAO 1999).	eng
154772	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Synchiropus grandoculis</em>.	eng
154772	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Synchiropus grandoculis </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes<em></em>.	eng
154773	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ocosia possi</em>.	eng
154773	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Ocosia possi</em> is found in the western Indian Ocean, around the Saya de Malha Bank.	eng
154773	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Ocosia possi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 143–230 m.	eng
154773	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ocosia possi</em>.	eng
154773	threats	Poss, S., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Ocosia possi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.	eng
154774	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nematalosa nasus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvest.&#160;  Further research is needed to establish the impact of threats such as mangrove loss on this species.&#160;  Monitoring of harvest levels should also be undertaken.	eng
154774	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is found in the Indian Ocean, from the coast of Iran and the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, to Malaysia.&#160; It is also possibly present in the Gulf of Aden and Indonesia.&#160; In the Indo-Pacific, it is found from Thailand to the southern tips of Japan and Korea, including the Philippines.	eng
154774	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is is found in the intertidal zone around estuaries and mangrove forests, to depths of 30 m.&#160; It is tolerant of a range of salinities from freshwater to marine.&#160; This species is a filter feeder.	eng
154774	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Nematalosa nasus</em> is common in mangrove areas of southern India (Kathiresan and Rajendran 2002). <br/><br/>This species was the fourth most abundant species of fin fish to be taken in stake traps in the intertidal zone of the northern Arabian Gulf.&#160; 1,070 individuals were collected over the course of bi-weekly sampling from January 1982 to December 1984 (Abou-Seedo 1992).	eng
154774	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nematalosa nasus</span> is exploited as a food source; it is harvested on a subsistence scale and marketed fresh, dry-salted or boiled.&#160; It is used to make fish balls.&#160; This species is caught using stake traps and hand nets.&#160; Due to the reported abundance of this species and its general resilience, harvesting by this subsistence fishery is not considered to be a major threat to this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Mangrove forests are under pressure for their commercially important resources and as sites for shrimp aquaculture.&#160; However, due to the reported abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nasus</span> within mangroves, this is not considered a major threat.	eng
154775	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Flagfin Blenny.  However, the distribution of this species falls within a number of designated marine protected areas.	eng
154775	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Flagfin Blenny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Emblemariopsis signifer</span>) is found in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas, south to Santa Catarina, Brazil and west to Belize and Honduras (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
154775	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Flagfin Blenny is a small species that inhabits live and dead coral reefs within tropical climates. This species lines the elliptical hole in which it lives (probably made by <em>Lithophaga bisulcata</em>) with its eggs and stays within close vicinity (de Matos Nogueira 2003). This species is carnivorous. It is found at a depth range of 3-55 m.	eng
154775	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Flagfin Blenny is common among the islands off the northern coast of Sao Paulo (de Matos Nogueira 2003), but uncommon in the reefs off the 'hump' of Brazil (Feitoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
154775	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	It is unlikely that the Flagfin Blenny is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154776	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ebinania brephocephala</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, ecology and threats of this species.	eng
154776	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> occurs off the coast of Japan from the Fukushima Prefecture to the Kochi Prefecture.	eng
154776	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters and has a depth range of 100-350 m.	eng
154776	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154776	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	Extensive fishing occurs throughout its range but <em>Ebinania brephocephala</em> is not directly targeted, however it may be taken as by-catch. This species may also be impacted by coastal development.	eng
154777	conservation	Lea, R.N., McCosker, J.E. & Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place for the Earspot Cusk Eel, and no marine protected areas are known to overlap with this species' range. Establishment of mangrove habitat marine protected areas is needed in the eastern tropical Pacific, including within this species' distribution. Further research and monitoring of the population size and habitat trends of this species is needed.	eng
154777	distribution	Lea, R.N., McCosker, J.E. & Béarez, P., 2007	The Earspot Cusk Eel (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ophidion fulvum</span>) is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to northern Peru.	eng
154777	habitat	Lea, R.N., McCosker, J.E. & Béarez, P., 2007	This species occurs in reduced salinity areas such as mangroves, estuaries, and mouths of rivers, on muddy and sandy substrata, to depths of 20 m. Exact generation length is not known, but based on similar species, longevity is estimated to be less than three years (Retzer 1991).	eng
154777	population	Lea, R.N., McCosker, J.E. & Béarez, P., 2007	There is no population information available for the Earspot Cusk Eel. This species is poorly known and is regarded as uncommon.	eng
154777	threats	Lea, R.N., McCosker, J.E. & Béarez, P., 2007	The Earspot Cusk Eel is associated with mangrove habitat, which is under serious threat in many parts of its range (Jiménez 1994, Vega and Villarreal 2003). Huge mangrove areas in Panama and Costa Rica (representing at least a third of this species' range) have been completely devastated due to uncontrolled urbanization and high impact tourism in Pacific coastal areas. Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves can drive some fish species to extinction, with uncommon species  more vulnerable (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2005). According to FAO (2007) there has been at least a 28% decline in mangrove area within this species' range based on country declines reported from Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador over the past 20-25 years, the majority of which has occurred since the early 1990s.	eng
154778	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis megalopus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance, distribution and threats of this species.	eng
154778	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis megalopus</em> is known only from the large Cascadia and Tufts abyssal plains off Oregon, USA.	eng
154778	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis megalopus</em> is a bathydemersal species and individuals have been captured at 559 m and deeper (Chernova 2006).&#160; This species is thought to be a prolonged or continuous spawner (Stein 1980).	eng
154778	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis megalopus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154778	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154779	conservation	Moore, J.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>A. fernandezianus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species falls within a National Park and a World Biosphere Reserve around the Juan Fernandez Islands. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed on the possible threats to this species..	eng
154779	distribution	Moore, J.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aulotrachichthys fernandezianus</span> is restricted to the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernandez Archipelago, off the coast of Chile (Pequeño and Lamillia 2000, Pequeño and Sáez 2000).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 460 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154779	habitat	Moore, J.A., 2009	Individuals of <em>A. fernandezianus</em> have been captured nearshore around the Desventuradas Islands (Pequeño and Lamilla 2000). This species ranges in the photic zone from the surface, to 20 m depth.	eng
154779	population	Moore, J.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>A. fernandezianus</em>.	eng
154779	threats	Moore, J.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aulotrachichthys fernandezianus</span> has a relatively restricted distribution, which increases the possible impact of indirect and stochastic threats on its population. As an inshore species, <em>A. fernandezianus</em> could be impacted by threats such as pollution discharges, and is potentially at risk from the effects of increasing water temperatures resulting from global warming.&#160;  However, this species is limited to two groups of largely inaccessible islands.&#160; One group, the Desventuradas, is uninhabited except for a military base on San Felix.&#160; The other, Juan Fernandez, is a designated marine reserve which is considered to provide effective habitat protection (J. Moore pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154780	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em>, however this species is known from the Wilsons Promontory Marine Park.	eng
154780	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em> has only been recorded at a few locations around Australia: south coast Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia.	eng
154780	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Siphonognathus beddomei</em> is found on rocky reefs, which have a plentiful growth of brown macroalgae and to a maximum depth of 10 m. It is also found in areas which only have moderate wave action.  This species occurs in aggregations.	eng
154780	population	Allen, G.R. & Paxton, J.R., 2009	This species is common in Wilson's Promontory National Park (Plummer<em> et al.</em> 2003). It is also common off southwestern Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154780	threats	Allen, G.R. & Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Due to the coastal, shallow water nature of this species it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development. However, the coastlines along which this species is found, are relatively underdeveloped.	eng
154781	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> </em>the Humboldt Grenadier.	eng
154781	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Humboldt Grenadier, <em>Coryphaenoides ariommus</em>, is distributed from northern Peru to southern Chile. It is also found in the eastern Central Pacific.	eng
154781	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The grenadier, <em>Coryphaenoides ariommus</em>, is a bathydemersal species and occurs along the middle levels of the continental slope at depths of 768 - 1,860m (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).	eng
154781	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Humboldt Grenadier is locally abundant and was among the most frequently captured species during a survey of Chilean demersal fishes (Sielfeld and Vargas 1996).	eng
154781	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is of no commercial value. Some species from the Macrouridae family are taken in quantity as by-catch in deep-water shrimp trawlers (FAO 2002), however this threat is unlikely to be significantly impacting the Humboldt Grenadier across its entire distribution.	eng
154782	conservation	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	<p>There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).</p>	eng
154782	distribution	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to southern Colombia.	eng
154782	habitat	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters, such as estuaries and inshore bays to depths of 50 m. It can be found over sand and mud substrates, and within the vicinity of mangrove forests.	eng
154782	population	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species is common, based on its presence in local artisinal markets.	eng
154782	threats	Chao, L.N. & Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species is targeted commercially and by artisinal fishers. It can be found regularly in local markets. Given its relatively restricted distribution in the Eastern Pacific region, the extent of population decline from its capture by commercial and artisinal fisheries is unknown.	eng
154783	conservation	Nelson, J., Neely, C., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, ecology, and potential threat processes of this species is needed as little information is available.	eng
154783	distribution	Nelson, J., Neely, C., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em> is found in Peter the Great Bay, an inlet into the Sea of Japan, Russia.	eng
154783	habitat	Nelson, J., Neely, C., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em> is a benthic species found over sand and mud substrates at a depth range of 29-70 m.	eng
154783	population	Nelson, J., Neely, C., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Artedielloides auriculatus</em>.	eng
154783	threats	Nelson, J., Neely, C., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species is of no commercial interest to fisheries. Due to its small size, it is unlikely to be taken in significant quantities as by-catch.<br/><br/>The marine ecosystem in which this species is found, has suffered from intense shipping traffic and its associated threats including: bilge and ballast water, oil and fuel leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals. Peter the Great Bay is also known for high levels of radionuclides in the sediments and red tides.	eng
154784	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cryptocentrus leonis</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, population numbers and potential threats for this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
154784	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The goby species, <em>Cryptocentrus leonis</em>, is known only from the South China Sea around Thailand.	eng
154784	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span> is thought to inhabit brackish water.&#160; Indo-Pacific gobies of the <em>Cryptocentrus</em> genus have important symbiotic relationships with snapping shrimp (<em>Alpheus</em> spp.); this relationship involves the shrimp sharing food and their burrow with the gobies (Larson and Murdy 2001).	eng
154784	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no known population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span>.	eng
154784	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Cryptocentrus leonis</span>.	eng
154785	conservation	Gon, O. & Vacchi, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pleuragramma antarctica</em>, however the area in which this species is found is managed by CCAMLR. The convention was established due to concerns on increasing fishing pressure on krill and the impact this may pose to other marine organisms.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154785	distribution	Gon, O. & Vacchi, M., 2009	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> has a circumantarctic distribution which includes the Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen, Ross Sea, Davis Sea, Oates, Adelie, Wilhelm, Prydz Bay, Antarctic Peninsula, South Shetland and the South Orkney Islands.	eng
154785	habitat	Gon, O. & Vacchi, M., 2009	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> is regarded as the only truly pelagic fish species in Antarctic waters. Specimens have been collected over mud and sandy mud bottoms, however the morphometrics of this species indicates that it does not feed on the benthos. This species has a depth range of 0-728 m, with the larvae and postlarvae occurring at a depth range of 0-135 m; juveniles at 50-400 m and adults are found at depths below 400 m. All of this vertical distribution is throughout the Antarctic continental shelf (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).This species predominantly feeds on krill and copepods, however amphipods, euphausiids, molluscs, polychaetes, chaetognaths and ostracods are also part of its diet. <em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> may also switch to cannibalism in the absence of an adequate food supply. This species inhabits both open waters and areas of pack ice in mid-water. <br/><br/>With its wide distribution and high numbers, <em>P. antarctica</em> forms a major part of the diet of most large Antarctic predators. This species is an important part of the cryopelagic feeding community (Hureau 1994). It is very slow growing and takes considerable time to reach maturity. Considering its importance, a significant decline in population numbers could have severe ecological ramifications.<br/><br/>Spawning possibly occurs in August-September (Kock and Kellermann 1991).	eng
154785	population	Gon, O. & Vacchi, M., 2009	<em>Pleuragramma </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span> is described as dominant in the Weddell Sea (Ekau 1990). Guglielmo <em>et al.</em> (1998) describe it as the most dominant pelagic fish in the high Antarctic. It represents about 98% of the total nototheniid ichthyoplankton of the Weddell Sea (Keller 1983). The overwhelming dominance of <em>P. antarcticum</em> is well documented in the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea, accounting for over 90% of the local fish community in number and biomass (DeWitt 1970, Hubold and Ekau 1987). Abundances of postlarvae reach as high as 27,075 specimens per 100 m<sup>3</sup> in the Ross Sea.	eng
154785	threats	Gon, O. & Vacchi, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>P. </em><span style="font-style: italic;">antarctica</span>. At present this species is not commercially exploited. The Former Soviet Union has reported catches of <em>P. antarctica </em> four times between 1977 and 1983 (approximately 1,000 t per year). Due to the prominent role of this species in the Antarctic ecosystem food web, any attempts to exploit this fish species in the future will be cautiously approached according to the CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) rules.<br/><br/>Larvae and juveniles are captured as by-catch in krill fisheries, but this is not considered a major threat (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154786	conservation	Acero, A., Jaafar, Z., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species falls within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; Further research on the distribution, abundance and potential threats for this species is needed.	eng
154786	distribution	Acero, A., Jaafar, Z., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblyeleotris callopareia</em> is only known from the proximity of Lizard Island on the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
154786	habitat	Acero, A., Jaafar, Z., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	Specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris</span><em> callopareia</em> have been collected from sandy reef slopes.&#160; This species shares burrows with the alpheid shrimp.&#160; The shrimp excavates and maintains the burrow, while <em>A. callopareia</em> acts as lookout for predators.&#160; The holotype of this species was found at a depth of 26 m.	eng
154786	population	Acero, A., Jaafar, Z., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span>.	eng
154786	threats	Acero, A., Jaafar, Z., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Amblyeleotris callopareia</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Its range as currently known falls within the Great Barrier Reef marine reserve, meaning its habitat is not under serious threat at present.	eng
154787	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.	eng
154787	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Neobythites franzi</em> is only known from its type locality off Dunk Island, Queensland, Australia.	eng
154787	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Like other cusk eels, <em>Neobythites franzi</em> is a benthopelagic species (Nielsen 2002). To date, specimens have been found at a depth range of 260–373 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154787	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span>.	eng
154787	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Neobythites franzi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, considering its deep-water nature, it would seem likely that it is not facing any significant threats.	eng
154788	conservation	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em>, however it is known to occur within marine protected areas, including the Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Park.	eng
154788	distribution	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni </em>occurs throughout most of Oceania, from&#160; the Ogasawara Islands, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, Taongi and Wake Atolls, and throughout Polynesia from the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Island south to Samoa, the Cook, Society and Tuamotu Islands. The distribution of this species may possibly be more widespread (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). This species occurs at depths of 4-300 m.	eng
154788	habitat	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	The butterflyfish, <em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em>, is found on coral reefs. It is typically seen on the outer-reef, fore-reef slopes and drop-offs. This species occupies a depth range of 4-300 m. This species forms schools high in the water column where it feeds on zooplankton, especially copepods.	eng
154788	population	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em> is uncommon throughout its range (Lieske and Myers 1994), although it is moderately common in the Phoenix Islands occurring in aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).&#160;There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
154788	threats	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<em>Hemitaurichthys thompsoni</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, but collecting is not common over most of its range.	eng
154789	conservation	Hulley, P.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the harvest levels and biology of this species is needed.	eng
154789	distribution	Hulley, P.A., 2009	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is broadly distributed in the Antarctic, ranging from the Antarctic Divergence/Weddell-Scotia Confluence to the northern boundary limits (usually considered to coincide with the geographic location of the Subtropical Convergence), and further north in meridional currents: to 32°-33°S in Peruvian Current and to 34°S in Falkland Current. <em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> has also been reported from the Falkland Islands (Hulley 1990) and New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
154789	habitat	Hulley, P.A., 2009	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is a epipelagic, oceanodromous species that is found at depths of 50-100 m south of the Antarctic Polar Front at night, but deeper (500-600 m) north of the Antarctic Polar Front. At the Subtropical Convergence this species is found at depths greater than 1,000 m. This species is a general plankton feeder, copedods predominate the diet, but it also feeds on euphausiids and amphipods. <br/><br/>This species forms an important part of many species diets including penguins, fur seals and many sea birds.	eng
154789	population	Hulley, P.A., 2009	This species is abundant throughout its range. In some parts of its range, it is the most abundant midwater species.	eng
154789	threats	Hulley, P.A., 2009	<em>Krefftichthys anderssoni</em> is taken as by-catch in krill fisheries. However, this species is one of the most abundant midwater species in the Southern Ocean and is likely to have a rapid population doubling time thereby making it more resilient to harvesting.	eng
154790	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Scissortail Sculpin.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research is needed on the by-catch levels of this species, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
154790	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	The range of the Scissortail Sculpin <em>(Triglops forficatus</em>) extends from the northern Kuril Islands to the Bering Sea, and east to the Gulf of Alaska.	eng
154790	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	The Scissortail Sculpin<em></em> is a demersal species that is found at a depth range of 20–470 m.&#160; It primarily inhabits outer-shelf regions over sand, pebble, gravel, and shell substrates.	eng
154790	population	Neely, D., 2009	There is no population information available for the Scissortail Sculpin.	eng
154790	threats	Neely, D., 2009	It is unlikely that the Scissortail Sculpin is being impacted by any major threat processes across its wide range.&#160; There is no direct fishery for any sculpin species in the Gulf of Alaska or the Bering Sea.&#160; However, sculpins are taken as by-catch by a wide variety of fisheries in these regions, with the main fisheries in the Gulf of Alaska being trawl fisheries for flatfish, Pacific Cod, and rockfish, and the Pacific Cod pot fishery (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; In the Bering Sea, the main fisheries are trawl fisheries for Yellowfin Sole, Pacific Cod, Pollock, Atka Mackerel, and Flathead Sole, and the Pacific Cod hook-and-line fishery (Reuter and TenBrink 2006).&#160; Sculpins were reported to constitute 19–26% of the Gulf of Alaska 'other' species catches in 2005–2006 (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006), and 20% of the Bering Sea 'other' species catch during 1997–2006 (Reuter and TenBrink 2006).&#160; However, it is the larger sculpin species such as <em>Hemilepidotus spp.</em> that contribute the majority of biomass (Reuter <em>et al.</em> 2006, Reuter and TenBrink 2006).	eng
154791	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Halieutopsis tumifrons</em>. Further research on the ecology and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
154791	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> is known from two specimens collected within the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands.	eng
154791	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	Specimens of <em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> have been collected from the bathyl zone at a depth range of 2,418-2,487 m. There is no other information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
154791	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is currently no population information available for this species.	eng
154791	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is not known if <em>Halieutopsis tumifrons</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
154792	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.	eng
154792	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is reported from the Bangladesh, Calcutta (India), Phuket and Songkhla (Thailand), northern Sumatra, Sarawak and Borneo. In earlier literature by authors prior to Wongratana (1983), <em>A. thailandiae</em> was often misidentified as <em>A. chacunda</em> (FAO 1985).	eng
154792	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is a pelagic, schooling species typically found inshore in brackish and marine waters to a depth of 50 m. It is likely to be found in estuaries. Congeners of this species, <em>Anodontostoma chacunda</em>, feed on a mix of diatoms, radiolarians, molluscs, copepods and crustaceans (FAO 1999).	eng
154792	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em>.	eng
154792	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Anodontostoma thailandiae</em> is harvested on a subsistence scale. At present there is no fisheries data relating to the landings of this species (FAO 1999). This species is landed using seine nets, lift nets and set nets (FAO 1999).	eng
154793	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida keys Marine National Park.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest, and population numbers of this species is recommended.	eng
154793	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is found in the western central Atlantic, around Bermuda, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean basin, to Tobago and the Greater and Lesser Antilles.	eng
154793	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	The herring, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, is a coastal, pelagic, schooling species found at a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It has been found in the vicinity of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, and bays, and is heavily preyed upon by larger fish, squid, and seabrds.&#160; <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> mainly feeds on zooplankton and in the evenings, it migrates offshore to feed, then returns to inshore waters in the morning.&#160; It shows site fidelity.&#160; It is a small, short-lived species (Friedlander and Beets 1997).	eng
154793	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is thought to be the most abundant fish in the West Indes.	eng
154793	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> is commercially harvested for use as bait and chum.&#160; However, a relatively small number of boats fish for this species during aggregations, and the dynamics of the fishery are reported to have been fairly stable over time (Friedlander and Beets 1997).&#160; Fishers in the Virgin Islands locate the large schools and harvest them by cast nets (Coblentz 1995).&#160; This species constitutes 55% (weight) of all bait fish harvested from St John and St Thomas in the Virgin Islands.&#160; It may also be taken as by-catch during harvesting of other large commercial fish species.&#160;&#160; Although its strong lunar periodicity and site fidelity during spawning aggregations make it is easily susceptible to heavy fishing pressure, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em> does not appear to be heavily exploited by present fishing methods (Friedlander and Beets 1997).&#160; However, Beets and LaPlace (1991) reported declines in the abundance of inshore bait fish due to habitat degradation from coastal and upland development.	eng
154794	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> Oneirodes schmidti</em>. The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations in the Banda Sea (Wood 2007), however due to the depth profile of this species, it is unlikely that these will afford it much protection.	eng
154794	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> has only been found in the Banda Sea in Indonesia.	eng
154794	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> is a bathypelagic species that is thought to occur at depths of of up to 2,500 m. Species from the Oneirodidae family are known to be solitary (FAO 1999).	eng
154794	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes schmidti</span>.	eng
154794	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Oneirodes schmidti</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, it may occasionally be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.	eng
154795	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.	eng
154795	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em>is is only known from a few specimens found in the waters around the Maldives.	eng
154795	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata</em> is a deep-water benthic species that has been collected at depths of 256–293 m.	eng
154795	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Poecilopsetta albomaculata, </em>as it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
154795	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Poecilopsetta albomaculata</span> is being impacted by any major threats.&#160; The Maldives have experienced dramatic increases in fish catches in recent years (FAO-FIGIS 2007).	eng
154796	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded from several marine protected areas, including Cabo Pulmo National Park, Mexico. <br/>However, as this species has not been recorded since 1965, more research is needed on this species population status, habitat preferences, and threats.	eng
154796	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western Gulf of California and near Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. This species is only known from a few records, and has not been collected since 1965.	eng
154796	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to occur in rubble habitats near reefs to depths of 40 m.	eng
154796	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is rare. There are very few collection records, and the last collection record was in 1965. This species was previously recorded in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, although it was not observed during the course of recent survey work (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
154796	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats for this species.	eng
154797	conservation	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eptatretus mendozai</em>. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution and ecology of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
154797	distribution	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	<em>Eptatretus mendozai</em> has been found in the western Atlantic ocean, off the coast of Puerto Rico and possibly off the north coast of Haiti.	eng
154797	habitat	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	<em>Eptatretus mendozai</em> is a benthic species of hagfish, often found burrowing in mud or clay substrates. This species has been found at a depth range of 720-1,100 m. Members of this genus typically feed on dead or dying fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
154797	population	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eptatretus mendozai</em>.	eng
154797	threats	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at the present time. Hagfish skin has become of recent commercial interest in Korea, although there is no known directed fishery for this species.	eng
154798	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thalassobathia pelagica</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on this distribution of this species, to establish the full range of <em>T. pelagica</em> in the southeast Atlantic.	eng
154798	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thalassobathia pelagica</em> is known in the north Atlantic from Ireland, Greenland, Iceland, and Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine.&#160; This species has also been captured in the southeast Atlantic in the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
154798	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thalassobathias pelagica</em> is bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 500–1,000 m.&#160; This species is often found living with sea nettles (jellyfish) of the genus <em>Deepstaria</em>, and isopods of the genus <em>Anuropus</em> (Robison 2004).&#160; <em>Thalassobathias pelagica</em> is also reported to have a symbiotic relationship with the Scyphomedusa (jellyfish), <em>Stygiomedusa gigantean</em> (Drazen and Robison 2004).&#160; Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154798	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	This species is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154798	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassobathia pelagica</span>, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.	eng
154799	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serranus tigrinus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida Keys Marine National Park.	eng
154799	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is found throughout the Caribbean, from Trinidad and Tobago, to southern Florida.	eng
154799	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is found alone or in pairs in clear waters by areas with rock or scattered coral (Robins and Ray 1986).&#160; The depth range of this species is in the upper euphotic zone, from the surface to 40 m depth.&#160; Its diet consists mostly of crustaceans.&#160; Individuals of this species are known to be synchronous hermaphrodites and pelagic spawners.	eng
154799	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Serranus tigrinus</em>.	eng
154799	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unlikley that <em>Serranus tigrinus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154801	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Threadfin Smooth-head.	eng
154801	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	The range of the Threadfin Smooth-head (<span style="font-style: italic;">Talismania mekistonema</span>) includes both the eastern and western Atlantic, the Indian Ocean (Markle and Quero 1984), and probably the western central Pacific (Sazonov and Markle 1990).&#160; In the eastern Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Azores and western Sahara, to Angola.&#160; In the western central Atlantic, this species is distributed from the Lesser Antilles to the Bahamas and Bermuda.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, this species is known from Western Australia (Hutchins 2003).	eng
154801	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	The Threadfin Smooth-head is a benthopelagic species (Sulak 1975) found at a depth range of 600–1,500 m, on the continental slope.	eng
154801	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for the Threadfin Smooth-head.&#160; However, species of the family Alepocephalidae can be locally abundant at depths beyond 1,500 m (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154801	threats	Auster, P., 2009	There is no commercial fishery for the Threadfin Smooth-head (FAO 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by deep-sea fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to constitute a major threat.	eng
154802	conservation	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J. &  Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Secutor hanedai</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels, and extent of harvest of this species is needed. The full distribution of this species needs to be clarified.	eng
154802	distribution	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J. &  Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is found in southern regions of the South China Sea, and Straits of Malacca. This species is probably more widely distributred in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).	eng
154802	habitat	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J. &  Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is a demersal, schooling species that inhabits coastal waters over muddy-sand bottoms to a depth of 40 m. This species is common near mangroves, enters estuaries, and has been recorded up to 6 km offshore (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).	eng
154802	population	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J. &  Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is reported to be common near mangroves (Woodland <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>The Straits of Malacca, which is one of the most heavily used bodies of water in the world, is severly impacted by fisheries, and surveys by the Department of Fisheries have shown that bottom-dwelling fish populations have declined by 60% between 1990 and 1998 (WWF 2007).<br/><br/>However, FAO statistics (2008) show aggregated ponyfish (family Leiognathidae) landings for the western Central Pacific have steadily increased over the last 30 years and in the last 10 years these have been from around 120,000 mt to a leveling off of around 140,000 mt.  These data therefore do not support the contention that ponyfish are presently overexploited in the region but that they have reached a maximum level of exploitation.	eng
154802	threats	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J. &  Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Secutor hanedai</em> is caught in bottom trawls as a food fish. This species may also be impacted by habitat degradation. The South China Sea is severly impacted in terms of habitat degradation. The main threats include sewage, destructive fishing practices, over-fishing, destruction of mangrove forests.	eng
154803	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Venefica tentaculata</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology and potential threats.	eng
154803	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is known from the western Pacific, off northern Honshu and in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; This species also occurs off California, the USA, and Central America (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
154803	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is a demersal species with a depth range of 100–500 m.&#160; Most species in this poorly known eel family, the Nettastomatidae, inhabit the deeper waters of the continental slope or abyss and are captured near the sea bed (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
154803	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Venefica tentaculata</em>.	eng
154803	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Venefica tentaculata</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154804	conservation	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Couma Sea Catfish.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of MPA designations including the Ile du Grande Connetable Nature Reserve off French Guiana.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats, harvest levels, and population trends of this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
154804	distribution	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	The Couma Sea Catfish (<em>Sciades couma</em>) is a South American species, occurring from the Gulf of Paria (Venezuela) to the mouth of the Amazon (Brazil) (Acero 2002).	eng
154804	habitat	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	The Couma Sea Catfish is a demersal species. It is confined chiefly to turbid waters in estuaries and the lower parts of rivers.&#160; Two annual cycles of slower growth are know during the two dry seasons (March and August to November). In the beginning of reproduction, the male's mouth changes to function as a egg repository.&#160; Egg diameter is about 2 cm and females typically lay 100–165 eggs. This species feeds mainly on crustaceans.	eng
154804	population	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	There is no available information on population size or trends for the Couma Sea Catfish, although it is a common species where it occurs.	eng
154804	threats	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	The Couma sea catfish is a commercially important species.&#160; Nothing is known about population trends, but it appears to be coping with current fishing pressures. Pollution in estuarine areas is a potential threat to sub-populations in these areas, but nothing is known about the effects of this on the global population (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154805	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species lies within the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park, and UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve.	eng
154805	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em> is only known from the Juan Ferdandez Islands, Chile. This archipelago covers a total area less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154805	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Members of this genus are typically found in rocky intertidal regions, typical of those in the Juan Fernandez archipelago (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154805	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Sicyases hildebrandi</em>.&#160; The only known museum specimen is the holotype USNM 88818 collected in December 1926. This species lives in a habitat that is extremely difficult to sample.&#160; Therefore the lack of additional specimens in museum collections is considered to be related to a lack of collecting effort rather than a genuine rarity of the species (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154805	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known threats impacting <em>Sicyases hilbrandi</em>.	eng
154806	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tricorn Batfish. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research on the population numbers, habitat, and potential threats to this species is needed, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
154806	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Tricorn Batfish<em> (Zalieutes mcgintyi</em>) is an Atlantic species found from Florida to the northern coast of South America. It has also been found in the Gulf of Mexico and as far north as North Carolina in the Atlantic (Schwartz <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
154806	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Tricorn Batfish is a demersal species, with a depth range of 90-660 m. However, it is most commonly found at depths of 90-180 m. A few species from the Ogcocephalidae family are found inshore on open bottoms among rocks or reefs, but most are taken well offshore from mud or sand bottoms (FAO 2002).	eng
154806	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is currently no population information available for the Tricorn Batfish.	eng
154806	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unlikely that the Tricorn Batfish is being impacted by any major threat processes at present. Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are rarely eaten and are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 2002). This species may be taken as by-catch by bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range. In the area of the Atlantic Ocean off the southeastern USA, the coastal shrimp fishery is highly valuable and accounts for 10% of the total tonnage landed from the South Atlantic region (NOAA 2003). The region off north Brazil has been classified as severely impacted by over-fishing and destructive fishing practices, however these impacts are thought to be decreasing (NOAA 2004).	eng
154807	conservation	Herdson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caranx crysos</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154807	distribution	Herdson, D., 2009	In the eastern Atlantic, the Blue Runner <em>(Caranx crysos)</em> is found in the Mediterranean, south to Senegal to Angola (Froese and Pauly 2006). This range has been extended north with the first record for the French Atlantic coast, from Arcachon, Bay of Biscay (Quero <em>et al</em>. 1994), and two more recent records from the coast of Dorset and Cornwall in England (Sawby <em>et al</em>. 1996); this now brings the British records to 13 individuals (D. Herdson pers. comm. 2007). The northward extension of this species' range is thought to be related to increasing sea temperatures in the North Atlantic (Stebbing <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>In the western Atlantic this species is recorded from Nova Scotia (Canada), Brazil, Bahamas, throughout the Caribbean (including Antilles) and the Gulf of Mexico.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>the Blue Runner is replaced by <em>Caranx caballus</em> which may be conspecific.	eng
154807	habitat	Herdson, D., 2009	The Blue Runner is a pelagic species which forms schools primarily inshore; it is not thought to be common around reefs (FAO 2002). It has a depth range of 0-100 m and juveniles <em></em>are found beneath floating <em>Sargassum</em> mats. These mats provide this species both with prey and protection from predators. It <em></em>feeds on shrimps, fishes and other invertebrates. Two spawning peaks have been identified for this species, the main occurring in June, July and August, with a secondary peak in October (Swaby <em>et al</em>. 1996). However, it has also been suggested that spawning occurs throughout the year (McKenney <em>et al.</em> 1958; Goodwin and Finucane 1985).	eng
154807	population	Herdson, D., 2009	Swaby <em>et al</em>. (1996) state that Blue Runner are common enough in the western Atlantic, to be caught commercially for food and bait. A study by Rountree (1990) found this species to be the second most abundant species off South Carolina, U.S.A. and a study by D'anna <em>et al</em>. (1999) found this species to be one of the most abundant fish in the Gulf of Castellammare, northwest Sicily.	eng
154807	threats	Herdson, D., 2009	The Blue Runner is harvested as a food source and for bait. It is caught using using bottom and pelagic trawls, ringnets, purse seines, set nets, and line gear. It is marketed fresh, frozen and salted and in the Dominican Republic and USA up to 1,000 tons of this species is landed per year. At present there is no known evidence to suggest the global population is in significant decline.<br/><br/>This species is also used within the public aquarium trade, however much of the demand is met by captive breeding. Wild harvest of this species for the aquarium trade will have no significant impact on the global population of this species.	eng
154808	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em>.&#160; Monitoring of this species and its threats is needed, to determine if krill fisheries will have a negative impact on the population of this species in the future.	eng
154808	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> occurs around the Antarctic continental shelf, the insular shelf of the South Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands, Elephant Island, the South Shetland Islands, the Ross Sea, and the Weddell Sea.	eng
154808	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> is a bathydemersal species, typically found on the continental shelf.&#160; It occurs at a depth range of 219–610 m and lives at temperatures ranging of -1.9 to -0.2°C.&#160; This species exhibits a strong dependence on krill as a food source (Eastman and Lannoo 2003).	eng
154808	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	A study by Donnelly<em> et al.</em> (2004) reported that <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> occurred at greatest densities at a depth range of 450–517 m, where 1,838 individuals were found within 1 km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; At depths of 238–277 m, densities were found to be 115 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>.&#160; Granata <em>et al.</em> (2002) found the juvenile form of this species to be abundant around the Ross Ice Shelf.	eng
154808	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Racovitzia glacialis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, its association with krill means it may be threatened by krill fisheries, either by indirect harvesting as by-catch, or via a reduction in food availability.	eng
154809	conservation	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it occurs within the Simangaliso National Park and Maputaland Marine Reserve. Further research is needed on the population trends, harvest levels and threats of this species.	eng
154809	distribution	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<em></em> This species is found around Inhaca Island, Mozambique (Pereira 2000) and between Kosi Bay and Aliwal Shoal in South Africa (Michael 2004, Endoh 2007). It is most common at depths of more than 25 m.	eng
154809	habitat	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<em></em>This species has been recorded from rocky offshore reefs with abundant sponge growth. It feeds on sponges and tunicates and occurs alone, or in small groups consisting of a male and several females.	eng
154809	population	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<em></em>Animals are rarely seen by divers (P.C. Heemstra pers.comm. 2009), although it is not clear if this is a result of its preference for deep reef habitats or natural scarcity (P.C. Heemstra pers.comm. 2009).	eng
154809	threats	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	The collection of species for the ornamental trade off Mozambique is unregulated at present. Due to the intensity of the artisanal fishing industry off Mozambique, it is likely that this species is occasionally taken as by-catch. Habitat degradation is unlikely to pose a major threat to this species as much of its range is found within a World Heritage Site. At present the reefs within this species' range are in good condition.	eng
154811	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Starksia leucovitta</em>.&#160; However, its distribution falls within the Navassa Island MPA, which covers an area of 1,472 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154811	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Whitesaddle Blenny <em>(Starksia leucovitta</em>) is known only from Navassa Island in the Caribbean.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,472 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154811	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Whitesaddle Blenny<em></em> is associated with coral reefs and is found on rocky reefs and sand and rubble flats (Williams and Mounts 2003) at a depth range of 9–30 m.	eng
154811	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The population of the Whitesaddle Blenny is stable or expanding, presumably due to heavy fishing pressure on large predators (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species was found to be very common at Navassa in 1999 (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154811	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	Navassa Island is isolated and uninhabited.&#160; Fishing by Haitian fishermen is the primary threat to the reefs of Navassa (NOAA 2008).&#160; The Whitesaddle Blenny is not taken by these fishermen and its population is stable or expanding, due to heavy fishing pressure on large predators (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Fishing is primarily hook-and-line, and the Whitesaddle Blenny is not taken as by-catch.	eng
154812	conservation	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> has been bred in captivity. The distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas including the Christmas Island National Park.	eng
154812	distribution	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is distributed from Christmas Island and Western Australia to Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Melanesia, the Philippines, Palau and northwards to the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
154812	habitat	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	The anemonefish <em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> has a depth range of 3 - 20 m and is found in lagoons and outer coral reefs. It is most commonly associated with the host anemone species' <em>Stichodactyla mertensii</em> and less frequently with <em>Heteractis crispa</em> (Fautin and Allen 1992). This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is monogamous (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154812	population	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is relatively common throughout its range (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009). This species is commensal with sea anemones, usually one adult pair and several juveniles per anemone (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154812	threats	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Amphiprion sandaracinos</em> is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, and it is caught with hand nets (FAO 2001). The anemone in which this species resides, is also commercially harvested for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>In areas of its range it is threatened by habitat degradation due to eutrophication, destructive fishing practices, tourism, coral bleaching, coastal development and water pollution.  <br/><br/>The threats detailed are mainly of a localised nature and do not pose a significant threat to the global population of this species.	eng
154813	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
154813	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Aphanopus mikhailini</em> is found at the Walvis Ridge off the Namibian coast, off the coast of Argentina, seamounts off the coast of Mozambique and along the West Australian Ridges, South East Australia, the North Island of New Zealand and the Challenger Plateau off the northwest of New Zealand.	eng
154813	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	This is a bathydemersal species, typically found to occur on the continental slope or over seamounts at a depth range of 905-2,000 m.	eng
154813	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154813	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Within this species distribution, off the coast of Mozambique and western Australia, deep seamount fishing operates at a commercial level for Orange Roughy and Alfonsino. This species may be taken as by-catch but it is unlikely to result in a significant decline in the global population. There are a number of unexploited seamounts across the Southern Ocean.	eng
154814	conservation	Munroe, T.A., Nielsen, J.G. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella fijiense</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the abundance of this species is needed to ensure that potentially increased demand for this species does not trigger a rapid decline.	eng
154814	distribution	Munroe, T.A., Nielsen, J.G. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is a western Pacific sardine known from Papua New Guinea and Fiji. It has also been recorded from New Caledonia (Thollot 1996).	eng
154814	habitat	Munroe, T.A., Nielsen, J.G. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is a pelagic sardine found schooling in coastal waters to a maximum depth of 50 m. This species is found within the continental shelf (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154814	population	Munroe, T.A., Nielsen, J.G. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is not thought to be an abundant species (FAO 1999), however sardine species are known to undergo large scale fluctuations in population numbers annually.	eng
154814	threats	Munroe, T.A., Nielsen, J.G. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. This species is harvested on a subsistence scale by artisinal fishers in Fiji. It is likely to be harvested using beach seines (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Sardinella fijiense</em> is used as bait in the tuna fishery (Froese and Pauly 2006), and in chinese medicine (Tang 1987). The harvesting of this species is not considered a significant threat to the global population considering the small scale of the fishery and the rapid population turnover time (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154815	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em>.	eng
154815	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	This species occurs from Mauritania to central Namibia. It has also been found in the western Atlantic by Georges Bank (Moore <em>et al.</em> 2003), the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas and across the Atlantic. One specimen is known from the southwest Atlantic (25°27'S, 35°56'W).	eng
154815	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em> is a mesopelagic species that is thought to occur at depths of up to 1,000m. It is thought that, like most species of this genus, it tends to live deeper than 500m during the day. Some, particularly smaller individuals, migrate up the water column to feed at night (Gibbs 1984).  Its diet may consist of smaller fishes and crustaceans.	eng
154815	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no known population information for <em>Astronesthes richardsoni</em>.	eng
154815	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no directed fishery for this species. Due to the deepwater and oceanic nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution from urban centres.	eng
154816	conservation	Acero, A., Gordon, J.D.M. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are country-specific management plans in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span>.&#160; In 1996, the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) established a total allowable catch limit of 153,000 t for the NEAFC Convention Area.&#160; In 2001, this was revised to 95,000 t. This species is continually assessed and managed by ICES and NAFO.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population dynamics of stocks within fishing zones to establish if particular stocks are being over-exploited.	eng
154816	distribution	Acero, A., Gordon, J.D.M. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Sebastes mentella</em> has a range that extends across the northern Atlantic, from Baffin Bay down to Nova Scotia on the western coast, across to the Norwegian Sea down to Loften Island.&#160; Its range also includes the western and northern coasts of Spitsbergen, the Iceland-Faroes Ridge, Iceland and Greenland.&#160; In places, its range coincides with the closely related species, <em>Sebastes fasciatus</em>.	eng
154816	habitat	Acero, A., Gordon, J.D.M. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella </span>is a benthic/mesopelagic species that inhabits deep water from 300–750 m, though it may be found deeper to 1,000 m. Catch data indicate that spawning occurs in April to mid-May (Sigurdsson <em>et al</em>. 2006); the females release live larvae which are transported widely through planktonic drift (Pikanowski <em>et al.</em> 1998).&#160; Longevity was determined from isotope ratios and estimated to be at least 65 years for most subpopulations, and at least 75 years in the waters off Nova Scotia.<br/><br/><em>Sebastes fasciatus</em> and <em>Sebastes mentella</em> are hard to distinguish and within fisheries they are occasionally considered the same stock (Roques <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is known to hybridise with <em>Sebastes fasciatus</em> (Roques <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
154816	population	Acero, A., Gordon, J.D.M. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span>.	eng
154816	threats	Acero, A., Gordon, J.D.M. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes mentella</span> is a major commercial species that is harvested as a food source throughout its range. Global catch statistics for the last 10 years are as follows: <br/><br/>1996 - 4,842 tonnes (t); 1997 - 5,234 t; 1998 - 4,619 t; 1999 - 25,043 t; 2000 - 76,328 t; 2001 - 98,662 t; 2002 - 92,896 t; 2003 - 95,478 t; 2004 - 85,190 t; 2005 - 50,843 t; 2006 - 61,500 t (FAO-FIGIS). <br/><br/>This fishery is continually monitored by both ICES and NAFO. While it is a major commercial fishery, there is no indication that it is being over-exploited at present.&#160; A genetic divide between the populations on either side of the Atlantic is lacking, meaning that overfishing by North America or European countries would likely impact the reproduction of all the stocks (Roques<em> et al.</em> 2002).	eng
154817	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Belted Blenny. However, this species is present in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, the Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area, the Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
154817	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	The Belted Blenny (<span style="font-style: italic;">Malacoctenus zonogaster</span>) is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.	eng
154817	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	The Belted Blenny is a reef-associated species, found in shallow rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m, as well as in tidepools.	eng
154817	population	Hastings, P., 2007	The Belted Blenny is the second most common blenny in the Galapagos Islands (Allen and Robertson 1994).	eng
154817	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known major threats to the Belted Blenny. However, given its shallow reef habitat and restricted range it may be negatively impacted by localized stochastic events, such as oceanographic environmental changes from current or future ENSO events and climate change (Soto <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
154818	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acanthurus gahhm</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas (MPA's). There has been some success in establishing MPA's in the Red Sea, but there is little or no effective regional MPA network, and most of the MPAs have ineffective management (Kotb <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004).<br/><br/>Research is needed on the distribution of this species, to establish if the range <em></em>extends to the Arabian Sea and western and central Pacific.	eng
154818	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Black Surgeonfish,<em> Acanthurus gahhm</em>, is thought to be endemic to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. There have been records of this species in the Arabian Sea, but these need further confirmation (Froese and Pauly 2007). There are also records of this species from Mozambique (Pereira 2000) and areas of the western Pacific (Froese and Pauly 2008). The distribution of this species needs to be clarified.	eng
154818	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Black Surgeonfish, <em>Acanthurus gahhm</em>, has a depth range of 1 - 40 m and is usually found in tropical climates over open sand and rubble bottoms in lagoons or at the base of seaward reefs (Kuiter and Debelius 2001). It is also often found in large groups in open areas near coral or rock, and in small groups which sometimes join to form large loose aggregations.	eng
154818	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154818	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Black Surgeonfish is harvested for the aquarium trade using nets.<br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats. Urban growth, coastal land reclamation, fisheries expansions and water pollution combined with Crown of Thorns (COTS) outbreaks are placing increasing pressure on the coral reefs of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (Kotb <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is predicted that pressures on the reefs of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden will increase over the next 8 years due to major development for mass tourism and industrialization, over exploitation, destructive fishing in poorly managed areas and COTS outbreaks (Kotb <em>et al</em>. 2004). A more serious threat will be posed by the exploitation of fish throughout the region. Further large-scale bleaching events could prove catastrophic to the stressed coral of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>Without a complete understanding of the distribution range of this species, it cannot be inferred how these threats might be impacting the global population of this species.	eng
154819	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Yellow-spotted Tilefish, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154819	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Yellow-spotted Tilefish, <em>Hoplolatilus fourmanoiri,</em> is an Indo-Pacific species known from Indonesia, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands and Viet Nam.	eng
154819	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Yellow-spotted Tilefish is associated with coral reefs and is found on silty-sand bottoms with coral rocks. This species feeds upon zooplankton.	eng
154819	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154819	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	Although harvested for aquarium trade, <em>Hoplolatilus fourmanoiri</em> is not a common species in the trade.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human induced threats including destructive fishing practice, coastal development, and water pollution from domestic and commercial waste. However, these threats are no known throughout this species range and so are only likely to be causing localised declines.	eng
154820	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Alepisaurus ferox</em>.	eng
154820	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Longnose Lancetfish<em> (Alepisaurus ferox)</em> is widely distributed in subtropical and tropical waters and has been found in the eastern Pacific from the Aleutian Islands to Chile and in the western Pacific, from Japan to Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia (C. Roberts pers. comm. 2009). It also occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean off Natal, South Africa, and possibly the Maldives.	eng
154820	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Longnose Lancetfish can be found in the epipelagic zone, down to the bathypelagic, ranging from just beneath the surface to 1830 m depth. It is distributed through mostly tropical and subtropical waters, though adults migrate to the subarctic to feed. Individuals feed on fish, cephalopods, tunicates and crustaceans (Post 1984), however diet can vary according to region. Cannibalism has also been seen within this species (Potier <em>et al</em>. 2007). Adolescents are synchronous hermaphrodites (Smith and Atz 1973).	eng
154820	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154820	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	This species is frequently taken as by-catch by the longline tuna fisheries. Although sometimes eaten, <em>Alepisaurus ferox</em> is not a commercial species as it is not considered to be a favourable food fish. At present, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat as it is not targeted directly by the fishing industry, and lives at great depths.	eng
154821	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology, abundance, distribution and threats.	eng
154821	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span> is known from a single specimen found west of Ireland (Chernova 2001).	eng
154821	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashev</span>i was caught by a midwater trawl at 800 m.&#160; It is a pale fish with a large, compressed head and long gill slits (Chernova 2001).	eng
154821	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span>, as it is only known from a single specimen.	eng
154821	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos andriashevi</span> is impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; However, as this species was captured by a midwater trawl, it is possible that it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.	eng
154822	conservation	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Sundarbans Nature Reserve in the Bay of Bengal.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its harvest levels is needed, to determine the impact of commercial fisheries on the population of <em>P. maculatus</em> in the future.	eng
154822	distribution	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is found from Sri Lanka and the Bay of Bengal, to Borneo.	eng
154822	habitat	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is found in coastal waters and estuaries, in the euphotic zone.	eng
154822	population	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> has been described as abundant (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2008)	eng
154822	threats	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	<em>Pterotolithus maculatus</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry.&#160; There are no catch data available for this species, however this threat is not considered to be having a significant impact on the global population size.	eng
154823	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em>, however its distribution range coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154823	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is found in the Red Sea, the Suez Canal, and the Bardawil Lagoon on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt (Fouda <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
154823	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is a demersal species found inhabiting shallow coastal areas, among sand-covered coral rubble. It feeds upon copepods, polychaetes and nematodes.	eng
154823	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Silhouettea aegyptia</em> is abundant in the Red Sea and Suez Canal (Fouda 1995; Fouda <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
154823	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by threats such as coastal development and water pollution from sources such as sewage, industrial and domestic wastewater, and sedimentation. However this is only likely to be causing localised declines in built-up coastal regions. There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154824	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Laeops cypho</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, and to determine whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154824	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Laeops cypho</em> is only known from its type locality at Point Tagolo, Mindanao in the Philippines (Herre 1953).	eng
154824	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Laeops cypho</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been collected at depths of 216–333 m on the continental shelf.	eng
154824	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Laeops cypho</em>.	eng
154824	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	It is not known if <em>Laeops cypho</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It is possible that this species may be taken as by-catch in deep water trawls.	eng
154825	conservation	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Broadgilled Hagfish.	eng
154825	distribution	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	The  Broadgilled Hagfish, <em>Eptatretus cirrhatus</em>, is distributed from eastern Australia and New Zealand.	eng
154825	habitat	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	The Broadgilled Hagfish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 1-1,100 m and occurs on soft bottoms of the continental shelf. Inshore, this species is often associated with reefs and can be easily sampled by divers or inshore commercial trawling (Mincarone and Stewart 2006).<br/><br/>Hagfish often feed on dead and dying fish, and worms. They use their rasping teeth to burrow through the body wall or enter through the mouth, gills or anus of larger animals. They devour the internal organs and body musculature so voraciously that fragments of newly ingested food may pass out of the anus while the animals continue feeding (Baldwin and Forster<em></em> 1991).	eng
154825	population	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	Broadgilled Hagfish can form locally abundant populations (M. Mincarone pers. comm. 2007).	eng
154825	threats	Mincarone, M.M., 2009	It is unlikely that Broadgilled Hagfish is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species and due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by any major human or climatic threats.	eng
154827	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Inimicus caledonicus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154827	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Inimicus caledonicus</em> is known from New Caledonia, Queensland (Australia), Papua New Guinea, and westward to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.	eng
154827	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Inimicus caledonicus</em> is found at a depth range of 15-60 m. This highly venomous species is well camouflaged and can be found resting on rocky, mud and sand substrates within the vicinity of coral reefs.	eng
154827	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Inimicus caledonicus</em>.	eng
154827	threats	Poss, S., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. It is occasionally taken as by-catch in bottom trawl fisheries (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1990).	eng
154828	conservation	Chao, N.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em>, however it may be found in a number of marine protected areas.&#160;  Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species should be carried out to ensure it does not become over-exploited.	eng
154828	distribution	Chao, N.L., 2009	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is found in the Greater Antilles and along the Caribbean coast from Costa Rica to Colombia.&#160; It is likely that this species' distribution is larger than is currently known (Chao 2002).	eng
154828	habitat	Chao, N.L., 2009	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is a demersal species found in sandy areas along beaches and coral reefs, in shallow waters.	eng
154828	population	Chao, N.L., 2009	It is likely that <em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> has a population size greater than 10,000 individuals (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154828	threats	Chao, N.L., 2009	<em>Umbrina broussonnetii</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry for local consumption and as bait, however it is not targeted specifically (Chao 2002).&#160; Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines due to coastal development, water pollution, sedimentation, tourism, and destructive fishing practices.	eng
154829	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parablennius yatabei</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154829	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em> is known from southern Japan, Taiwan, Korea and Viet Nam. There is one record from Pu Taw Island (Zhoushan) China.	eng
154829	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em>is found in intertidal rocky shore areas to depths of 5 m (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009) where it feeds on algae and detritus. This species is probably gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner, where the male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.	eng
154829	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parablennius yatabei</em> is common in rocky shore areas.	eng
154829	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats for <em>Parablennius yatabei</em>.	eng
154830	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pyramodon lindas</em>.&#160; Further research into potential threats to this species is needed.	eng
154830	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is a western Pacific pearlfish, distributed from Japan to northern Australia.	eng
154830	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is a benthopelagic species, typically found at depths of 250–385 m.&#160; Species of the family Carapidae are oviparous (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).&#160; A few species of the family Carapidae have free-living adults, but most are commensals, found in the body cavity of invertebrate hosts, such as bivalves, holothurians, and asteroids (Markle and Olney 1990, Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154830	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Pyramodon lindas</em> is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154830	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Species of the family <em>Carapidae</em> are of no importance to fisheries (Nielsen 1999).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyramodon lindas</span> may be taken incidentally as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, but this is not likely to be causing any significant population declines.	eng
154831	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Chromis punctipinnis</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including including the San Diego-La Jolla Ecological Reserve.	eng
154831	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Blacksmith Chromis, <em>Chromis punctipinnis,</em> is distributed from Monterey Bay in California, south to central Baja California, Mexico.	eng
154831	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Blacksmith Chromis is found over steep, rocky banks, reefs and among kelp beds at a depth range of 2-46 m. This species is also found over man-made structures such as oil platforms and bridge pilings. Individuals shelter within rocky crevices of the reef at night and some occupy the same shelter consistently. At dawn, they emerge to feed on zooplankton in open water, over rocky areas, and within kelp beds, migrating to the incurrent ends of reefs where high density zooplankton patches are concentrated (Hartney 1996). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (mysids and amphipods) and juvenile squid when abundant. Juveniles and adults school or aggregate according to size. An unsexed individual, was found to reach sexual maturity at 2 years.	eng
154831	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Blacksmith Chromis is abundant throughout its distribution range (Morris 1983; Hartley 1996).	eng
154831	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Blacksmith Chromis is harvested as a gamefish, however due to its apparent abundance, this is not thought to be a major threat to this species. In areas of intense coastal development, this species may be threatened by habitat destruction and sources of water pollution such as sewage, and commercial and domestic waste. However, this species exhibits a level of tolerance to coastal developed areas as it is found near bridge pilings and oil platforms, so degradation is not thought to be a major threat at present. This threat is not known across its entire range.	eng
154832	conservation	Gon, O. & Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em>. While there are marine protected areas in the Gulf of Aqaba, they are ineffective to problems relating to water quality issues such as eutrophication.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine abundance, population trends, and threats faced by this species.	eng
154832	distribution	Gon, O. & Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> is only known from two specimens from North Beach on the coast of Eilat (Gon and Golani 2002).	eng
154832	habitat	Gon, O. & Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> is a cryptic, nocturnal species (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009) found in crevices on rocky and coral reefs. This species has been found to a depth of 1.5 m.	eng
154832	population	Gon, O. & Møller, P.R., 2009	A long-term sampling program starting in 1984, conducted more than 200 hauls, including 44 at night: only two specimens of <em>Gymnapogon melanogaster</em> were collected (Gon and Golani 2002).<br/><br/>Other species in this genus are known to be rare and usually not more than 1 - 2 individuals per collection (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154832	threats	Gon, O. & Møller, P.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnapogon melanogaster</span> has been found in the vicinity of heavy coastal development therefore is likely to be impacted by pollution. In addition, water quality at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba has been deteriorating over the last few decades (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). It is unclear to what extent these threats have affected the population size of this species.	eng
154833	conservation	Fricke, R., Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G. & Tyler, J. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span>. However the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including the Hawaiian islands National Wildlife Refuge, which covers an area of 2,500 km and is a no-take zone. In the eastern Pacific much of the distribution of this species is contained within marine protected areas.	eng
154833	distribution	Fricke, R., Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G. & Tyler, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span> is widely distributed in the Indo-pacific, from East Africa to Central America. In the tropical eastern Pacific there are several records scattered from the mainland including the tip of Baja California, southern Mexico, Panama, and Ecuador, and at all the oceanic islands.	eng
154833	habitat	Fricke, R., Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G. & Tyler, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bothus mancus</span> lives on sand near coral reefs and reef flats (FAO 2001), and is also found on gravel substrata. It&#160; feeds on small benthic crustaceans and fishes. This species is commonly observed in shallow water but can be found to 150 m.	eng
154833	population	Fricke, R., Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G. & Tyler, J. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154833	threats	Fricke, R., Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G. & Tyler, J. , 2009	This species is harvested as a food source in some parts of its range, however this is not considered a major threat at present due to the small scale of the fishery. There are no other known major threats to this broadly distributed species.	eng
154834	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.&#160; This species may occur in a number of marine protected areas around the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
154834	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Helcogramma inclinata</em> is a western Pacific triplefin, known from the Ryuku Islands, Taiwan, and the Batangas in the Philippines.	eng
154834	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Helcogramma inclinata</em> is a demersal species found resting on hard substrates in the subtidal to intertidal zone, to depths of 9 m.&#160; This species is associated with dead and live coral reefs and rocky substrates (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154834	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.	eng
154834	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Helcogramma inclinata</em>.	eng
154835	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cabillus macrophthalmus</em>. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats.	eng
154835	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Cabillus macrophthalmus</em> is known from only one specimen collected at Djampeah Island, Indonesia (the type locality) (Randall <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
154835	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span> is a demersal goby.&#160; The type specimen was collected from a dredge trawl over a coral bottom at a depth range of 120-400 m; very few gobies are collected in this depth range.&#160; The only known specimen was 30 mm, however its congener, <em>Cabillus atripelvicus</em>, is known to reach a size of 41 mm.	eng
154835	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span>.	eng
154835	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Cabillus macrophthalmus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes, however most gobiids are of no commercial or recreational importance (Larson and Murdy 2001).	eng
154836	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154836	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Schindleria praematura</em> is confined to Indo Pacific coral reefs, and is distributed from southern Japan and the South China Sea, south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and Papua New Guinea, and west to Palau and the Marshall Islands. It has also been reported from Sala y Gómez and Easter Island.	eng
154836	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span> is associated with coral reefs and occurs around lagoons and in adjacent waters.&#160; It is also found on the outer reef slope, near the bottom over sandy substrates.&#160; This species is found to a depth of 130 m. Around Easter Island, this species was found only in shallow water (Landaeta <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
154836	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	In a study around Easter Island by Landaeta <em>et al.</em> (2002), the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span> ranged from 3.5–23.3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>3</sup>.	eng
154836	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Schindleria praematura</span>.&#160; As it is found in the vicinity of coral reef systems, it may be affected in parts of its range by destructive fishing practices such as cyanide fishing, or by coastal development and pollution.	eng
154837	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Threadfin Blenny.&#160; However, it has been found in the Flower Garden National Marine Sanctuary (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).	eng
154837	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Threadfin Blenny <em>(Nemaclinus atelestos</em>) is found in the western Atlantic from the northern Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda to Nicaragua, including the Bahamas and the Antilles  (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).	eng
154837	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Threadfin Blenny is a benthic blenny, known from rocky and coral reef habitats at a depth range of 25–256 m (McEacgran and Fechhelm 2005).	eng
154837	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Threadfin Blenny.	eng
154837	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unlikely that the Threadfin Blenny is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154838	conservation	Iwamoto, T. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Lepidion eques</em>.&#160; Fishing activity has been heavily regulated within the Grand Banks since the collapse of many commercially important fish stocks.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed on the population size and harvest levels of this species to determine if the population is being over-exploited.	eng
154838	distribution	Iwamoto, T. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	The distribution of <em>Lepidion eques</em> extends northwards from the Bay of Biscay (west of the British Isles),  along the Iceland-Faroe Ridge to northern Labrador and the Grand Banks (Templeman 1970, Magnusson 2001).	eng
154838	habitat	Iwamoto, T. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	<em>Lepidion eques</em> is a benthopelagic species found in the greatest abundance at depths of 500–1,300 m.&#160; It prefers temperate waters with a temperature range of 4.5–9.5<sup> o</sup>C (Magnusson 2001).&#160; The main food items for this species include crustaceans, copepods, amphipods and cephalopods.&#160; Spawning takes place between April and May.&#160; This species displays congregatory behaviour, but may also be seen individually (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).	eng
154838	population	Iwamoto, T. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	<em>Lepidion eques</em> is rare in the western Atlantic (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).&#160; A survey from the Rockall Trough found the greatest mean abundance at 750 m (0.8 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) and the greatest biomass was seen at 1,000 m (0.085 kg per 1000 m<sup>2</sup>).	eng
154838	threats	Iwamoto, T. & Gordon, J.D.M., 2009	<em>Lepidion eques</em> can be seen in the by-catch of trawl fisheries operating within its range.&#160; It is caught singly or in aggregations numbering more than 100 individuals.	eng
154840	conservation	Van Tassell, J. & Tornabene, L., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this genus needs to be further researched.	eng
154840	distribution	Van Tassell, J. & Tornabene, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific Region, and is distributed from the northern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Bedenbaugh 1988).	eng
154840	habitat	Van Tassell, J. & Tornabene, L., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit muddy/ sandy substrata and to feed on mobile benthic worms and crustaceans. It is a relatively deepwater species, and can be found at a depth range of 20 to 150 m.	eng
154840	population	Van Tassell, J. & Tornabene, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154840	threats	Van Tassell, J. & Tornabene, L., 2007	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154841	conservation	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Dotalabrus alleni</span>. However, this species range coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and possible threats for this species.	eng
154841	distribution	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Dotalabrus alleni</em>&#160; is known only from southern Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island.	eng
154841	habitat	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Dotalabrus alleni</em> is a subtropical species found on rocky reefs, and possibly kelp reefs, usually forming small aggregations comprising a number of females and a single dominant male. It is found at a depth range of 1–15 m.	eng
154841	population	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This is a relatively common species.	eng
154841	threats	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154842	conservation	Williams, J.T. & Tyler, J.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Bonaire National Marine Park.	eng
154842	distribution	Williams, J.T. & Tyler, J.C., 2009	<em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is a coastal species found from Dominica northwards to St. Barthélemy, and southwards to St. Lucia.	eng
154842	habitat	Williams, J.T. & Tyler, J.C., 2009	<em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is found in shallow rocky surge zones at depths of less than 1 m.	eng
154842	population	Williams, J.T. & Tyler, J.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em>.	eng
154842	threats	Williams, J.T. & Tyler, J.C., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Tomicodon rhabdotus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154843	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Guadalupe Clingfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with the Isla Guadalupe Designated Biosphere Reserve.	eng
154843	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Guadalupe Clingfish<em> (Rimicola sila</em>) is endemic to Isla Guadalupe, Mexico.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,926 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154843	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Guadalupe Clingfish is a demersal species found in inshore waters.	eng
154843	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Guadalupe Clingfish.	eng
154843	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the Guadalupe Clingfish at present. This species is found around an uninhabited, protected volcanic island and is unlikely to be impacted by any anthropogenic threat processes.	eng
154844	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Platybelone argalus</em>. However the distribution of this species falls may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154844	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Platybelone argalus</em> has a circumglobal distribution throughout warm waters of all oceans. It is commonly found around islands.	eng
154844	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Platybelone argalus</em> is neritic and epipelagic.	eng
154844	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species is abundant around islands (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154844	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known major threats for <em>Platybelone argalus</em>. It is harvested as a food source in parts of its range, however there is no evidence to suggest that this is resulting in a significant decline in population size.	eng
154845	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slender Sole, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Maquinna Marine Provincial Park off Vancouver Island.&#160; Continued monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154845	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slender Sole<em> (Lyopsetta exilis)</em> is distributed from southeastern Alaska to the centre of Baja California, Mexico.	eng
154845	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slender Sole is a benthic species found to occur on the continental shelf in deeper waters of the slope, or in rocky areas (Doyle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).	eng
154845	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slender Sole is considered relatively abundant in areas of its range, including along the Oregon coast (Doyle <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
154845	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slender Sole has some commercial value, but does not seem to be harvested in large quantities due to its small size.&#160; Harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
154846	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154846	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em> is an Indo-West Pacific goby, recorded from South Africa, the Seychelles, Raphael Islands, Chagos Archipelago, Indonesia (Papua to Sumatra), Ryukyu Islands, Japan, Taiwan, and around the coast of Australia from the west coast, past Northern Australia and around to Queensland.	eng
154846	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em> is a demersal species which burrows in sand adjacent to coral or rock reefs. This species has been found to depths of 12 m.	eng
154846	population	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154846	threats	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of <em>Barbuligobius boehlkei</em>, it may be undergoing localised population declines due to the threat of coastal development and water pollution however this is not driving a significant decline in the global population.	eng
154847	conservation	van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
154847	distribution	van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to Panama (van der Heiden and Mussot-Pérez 1995).	eng
154847	habitat	van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This benthic fish inhabits sandy substrata at depths between 10 and 45 m (van der Heiden and Mussot-Pérez 1995).	eng
154847	population	van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154847	threats	van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is caught as by-catch in industrial shrimp fisheries.	eng
154848	conservation	Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gnatholepis cauerensis</em>.&#160; This species is known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, population numbers and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.	eng
154848	distribution	Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	The goby species, <em>Gnatholepis cauerensis</em>, is distributed widely in the Indo-Pacific (Randall and Greenfield 2001).	eng
154848	habitat	Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gnatholepis</span><em> cauerensis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 3-58 m and occurs on sandy bottoms, often near coral reef or coral rubble.&#160; It has been noted that this species appears to prefer deeper water than its close relative, <em>Gnatholepis anjerensis</em> (Randall and Greenfield 2001).	eng
154848	population	Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnatholepis cauerensis</span>, but it is very widespread.	eng
154848	threats	Acero, A., Dominici-Arosemena, A. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no known major threats to<span style="font-style: italic;"> Gnatholepis cauerensis</span>. Due to its coastal nature, it is likely to be affected by coastal development, water pollution and destructive fishing practices in parts of its range; however these would only be localised threats.	eng
154849	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Springer's Triplefin. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154849	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Springer's Triplefin (<em>Helcogramma springeri</em>) is a Pacific triplefin, distributed from the Philippines to Papua New Guinea and the northern Barrier Reef, including the Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia, and Natuna Island, Malaysia.	eng
154849	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Springer's Triplefin is a demersal species found in the intertidal to subtidal zone at a depth range of three to nine m. This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky coastlines, where it can be found in tidepools and resting on coralline rock surfaces.	eng
154849	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for Springer's Triplefin.	eng
154849	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Springer's Triplefin is not harvested for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. This species has a relatively wide distribution and is known from a number of reef systems which are in good condition e.g. Great Barrier Reef.	eng
154850	conservation	Moore, J.A., Fricke, R. & Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154850	distribution	Moore, J.A., Fricke, R. & Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Myripristis pralinia</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa (Mozambique to Kenya), east to French Polynesia.&#160; This species' range extends north to the Ryukyu Islands and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia.	eng
154850	habitat	Moore, J.A., Fricke, R. & Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>, is a nocturnal species, found in small, loose groups in caves, lagoons or under ledges of coral reef flats and outer reef slopes. It feeds on plankton such as crab larvae.	eng
154850	population	Moore, J.A., Fricke, R. & Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis pralinia</em>.	eng
154850	threats	Moore, J.A., Fricke, R. & Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Myripristis pralinia</span>.&#160; In localised areas, it maybe undergoing declines due to habitat degradation as a result of destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, and tourism such as scuba-diving.&#160; This species is harvested as a food source, but only by a few countries, so this is also considered to be a localised threat only..	eng
154851	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em>.&#160; Further research on its ecology, population numbers and threats is needed.	eng
154851	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is found at numerous locations within the Southern Ocean, including around the Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Islands, Marion Islands, Macquarie Islands, and the Kara-Dag seamount northeast of the Prince Edward Islands.	eng
154851	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is a demersal species found over seamounts and on the continental slope.&#160; It spends much of its time on the sea floor, feeding on benthic invertebrates, mainly amphipods.&#160; It is associated with temperate climates.&#160; Waite (1916) observed this species within kelp beds.	eng
154851	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em>.	eng
154851	threats	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Zanclorhynchus spinifer</em> is not known to be commercially harvested, although it may be taken as by-catch, particularly over seamounts where there are a number of commercially important fisheries.&#160; However, as there are no known reports of this species being taken as by-catch, it is unlikely to pose a significant threat.	eng
154852	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, biology and population numbers of this species is needed to determine how it may be impacted by harvesting as by-catch.	eng
154852	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Careproctus cactiformis</em> is only known from southern Argentina. This species is known only from the holotype, which was collected at a depth of  399-536 m;&#160; Coordinates were 43 40 S and 59 34 W (Stein, D. pers. comm. 2009). Species from the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).	eng
154852	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Careproctus cactiformis</em> is a benthic species that has been found a depth range of 399-536 m. Congeners, <em>C. rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).	eng
154852	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	Species of the family Liparidae are known to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154852	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown what major threats, if any, this species is facing.  There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).	eng
154853	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Syngnathus floridae</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species habitat is needed.	eng
154853	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> has a widespread distribution from Bermuda and Chesapeake Bay (USA), including the northern Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, and the western Caribbean Sea to Panama (Dawson 1982).	eng
154853	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> can be found inhabiting coastal seagrass beds to a depth of 22 m. Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
154853	population	Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Syngnathus floridae</em> is reported to be abundant in Chesapeake Bay (Ripley and Foran 2006). This species is also reported to be a common in Florida Bay (Thayer <em>et al</em>. 1999). A study conducted in Florida Bay in 1984-1985 recorded 33.1 individuals of this species per hectare, this study was replicated in 1994-1995 and 18.6 indiviudals were recorded per hectare (Thayer <em>et al</em>. 1999). This decrease in the numbers of <em>Syngnathus floridae</em> in Florida Bay was linked to the habitat degradation of seagrass meadows.	eng
154853	threats	Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no known major threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Syngnathus floridae</span> but seagrass meadows are under a number of threats relating to water quality such as sedimentation, coastal run-off, sewage outflows, as well as habitat disturbance from boat traffic and destructive fishing activity.<br/><br/>This species is not known for any commercial trade.	eng
154854	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hephthocara simum</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and taxonomy of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
154854	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Hephthocara simum</em> has been reported from the Bay of Bengal (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154854	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Hephthocara simum</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 1,110-1,650 m (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154854	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154854	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Due to its deepwater nature, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Hephthocara simum</em>.	eng
154855	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	No information available.	eng
154855	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154855	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Hippichthys spicifer</em> is distributed from the east coast of Africa and the Red Sea (type locality), eastwards to Kirabati and the Samoa Islands (Dawson 1985). In the Western Pacific this species is distributed from southern Japan to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia (Randall 2005).	eng
154855	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	This is a coastal species, known from throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the Red  Sea and East Africa to Sri Lanka and Samoa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Known  from the Lower Sabaki (Whitehead 1960), it is likely to occur along the Kenyan  and Tanzanian coastlines (Seegers<em> et al</em>. 2003).	eng
154855	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Hippichthys spicifer </em>occurs in shallow coastal waters, including estuarine habitats such as mangroves. This species is also found regularly in tidal creeks (Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002) and the lower reaches of rivers (Eccles 2002; Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Male <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em> carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154855	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	This species occurs in shallow coastal and estuarine waters, sometimes among mangroves. Also found regularly in freshwater in the lower courses of rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
154855	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	No information available.	eng
154855	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>.	eng
154855	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	No information available.	eng
154855	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no known major threats for <em>Hippichthys spicifer</em>, however like many pipefish species it may be collected incidentally.	eng
154856	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis pembae</em>, however its range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154856	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is found from Oman and the Red Sea south to Tanzania. This species has also been recorded form the Maldives and Seychelles.	eng
154856	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is a coral reef associated species and usually occurs in loose aggregations at a depth range of 25-50 m, although it has been observed at depths of 12 m. This species feeds upon zooplankton, and is found on steep rocky substrata (Allen 1991).	eng
154856	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis pembae</em> is a common species, especially around Jeddah and the Sudanese Red Sea (Allen and Randall 1980). There is no more recent population information available for this species.	eng
154856	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	In areas of this species' range, its habitat has undergone severe degradation. Coral reef systems in the Red Sea are being negatively impacted by an intensifying tourism market, eutrophication, destructive fishing practices, shipping traffic, mining for oil, and sedimentation associated with coastal development. East African reefs are threatened by coral bleaching episodes and Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks. However at present these threats are thought to be only causing localised declines. This is a deep reef inhabitant and therefore these threats are probably minimal.	eng
154857	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, habitat, ecology and potential threats for this species.	eng
154857	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Silhouettea nuchipunctatus</em> has only been recorded from a tide pool at Dumaguete, Oriental Negros, in the Philippines.	eng
154857	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Its congener, <em>Silhouettea sibayi</em>, inhabits sandy terraces and slopes to a depth of about 20 m and also occurs in barren sandy areas as well as among macrophyte cover (Bruton 1997).&#160; It is likely that this species is of small size; the size of it congeners range from 3.5 cm TL (<em>Silhouettea hoesei</em>) to 4.5 cm TL (<em>Silhouettea insinuans</em>).	eng
154857	population	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information for <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea nuchipunctatus</span>.	eng
154857	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	The impact of major potential threats on <span style="font-style: italic;">Silhouettea</span><em> nuchipunctatus</em> are not known.	eng
154858	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zesticelus bathybius</em>.&#160; Further research is needed its ecology, distribution and potential threats.	eng
154858	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is known from the holotype and four paratypes found in the northwestern Pacific, off Misaki in the Kanagawa Prefecture, Tosa Bay, Japan.	eng
154858	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 700–1,000 m.	eng
154858	population	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Zesticelus bathybius</em> is thought to be a rare species and since the holotype was collected in 1887, only four specimens have been collected, in 1904, 1906, 1988, and 1989 (Yabe and Okamura 1993).	eng
154858	threats	Neely, D., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Zesticelus bathybius</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154859	conservation	McEachran, J.L., Paxton, J.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lampadena pontifex</em>.	eng
154859	distribution	McEachran, J.L., Paxton, J.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Specimens of <em>Lampadena pontifex</em> have been found in the Mauritanian upwelling region near St. Helena.&#160; This species has also been recorded from Cape Verde and above the continental shelf at Namibia.	eng
154859	habitat	McEachran, J.L., Paxton, J.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Lampadena pontifex</em> is a mesopelagic and bathypelagic, pseudoceanic species that has a depth range of 90–750 m. This species displays diurnal vertical migrations.&#160;  During the day, it is found at depths of 275–750 m and at night it migrates to feed at a depth range of 90–275 m.	eng
154859	population	McEachran, J.L., Paxton, J.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lampadena pontifex</span>.	eng
154859	threats	McEachran, J.L., Paxton, J.R. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known threats to <em>Lampadena pontifex</em>.	eng
154860	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Facciolella karreri</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
154860	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Facciolella karreri</em> is known from the Red Sea. This species may also be found to occur along the coast of northern Australia but this has not yet been verified (Klausewitz 1995).	eng
154860	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Facciolella karreri</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 700-2,000 m. It is likely to occur in holes in soft sediments.	eng
154860	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Facciolella karreri</em>.	eng
154860	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Facciolella karreri</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.	eng
154861	conservation	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154861	distribution	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Istigobius rigilius</em> is distributed from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), and east to New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Palau, Kiribati, Ashmore and Cartier Reefs, and&#160; the Marshall Islands.	eng
154861	habitat	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span> can be found resting on sand patches, amongst living coral and coral rubble, in clear water lagoons and bays.&#160; It occurs at a depth range of 0–30 m.	eng
154861	population	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span> is reported as uncommon in the Capricorn-Bunker Group (Lowe and Russell 1990). Nevertheless, it is generally the most common <em>Istigobius</em> species found on coral reefs (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154861	threats	Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Istigobius rigilius</span>. Due to its association with coral habitats, it is likely to be undergoing localised declines from factors relating to habitat degradation such as destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, sedimentation, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However, due to the localised nature of these threats, they are not considered to pose a major threat to this broad ranging species.	eng
154862	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology, population size and status, distribution and threats to this species.	eng
154862	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Scartelaos cantoris</em> is known from only a single locality in the Andaman Islands.	eng
154862	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em> is a demersal goby.&#160; Its congener <em>Scartelaos histophorus</em> is an intertidal, amphibious air breather, that is found on sand and mud flats along bay shores. <span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> </em><em>histophorus</em> has also been found in estuarine areas, swamps, marshy areas, on tidal mud flats and in freshwater tidal zones.&#160; It is found actively shuttling back and forth between rock pools and the water surface.	eng
154862	population	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelao</span>s<em> cantoris</em>. Only three specimens are known.	eng
154862	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	Nothing is known about major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Scartelaos</span><em> cantoris</em>.	eng
154863	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Striped Dartfish.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with several marine protected areas (MPAs).	eng
154863	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	The Striped Dartfish (<em>Parioglossus taeniatus</em>) is an Indo-west Pacific species recorded from Aldabra, the Philippines, Palau, Vanuatu, the southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and Fiji. Suzuki <em>et al.</em> (1994) also recorded specimens of this species in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.	eng
154863	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	The Striped Dartfish is known to inhabit coastal waters with silt, sand, and rocky substrates.&#160; This species has been found in the vicinity of estuaries and mangroves, often with <em>Parioglossus formosus</em>.	eng
154863	population	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Striped Dartfish.	eng
154863	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	It is unlikely that the Striped Dartfish is impacted by any major threat processes. Habitat degradation is not considered a major threat due to the broad distribution and generalist habitat preferences of this species.	eng
154864	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sciaena callaensis</em>.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the biology and ecology of this species, as little information is currently available. Monitoring of this species and its threats should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact of water pollution on the population of this species in the future.	eng
154864	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> is known from its type locality of Callao Bay, Peru near the city of Lima (Hildebrand 1946).	eng
154864	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> is found in brackish water in estuarine habitats.	eng
154864	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Sciaena callaensis</em>. This species is only known from five specimens. The last reliable record for this species is from 1966 (USNM 219420). Norma Chirichigino (pers. comm. 1983) stated that this species has not been observed since 1966, and despite continual efforts to document the fish fauna of the area, no additional records have been reported (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154864	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Sciaena callaensis</em> was found to occur in the brackish water of Callao Bay near Lima. These waters are known to be heavily polluted, due to regional human pressures. Surveys of Callao Bay have found it to be impacted by high organic loads and chemical contamination, and to have a lower macrobenthic species abundance than unpolluted areas (Tarazona <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
154865	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Monomitopus agassizii</em>.	eng
154865	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.	eng
154865	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> is a benthopelagic species (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008) that has a depth range of 48–1,275 m.&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154865	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Monomitopus agassizii</em> is known to be common (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154865	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting <em>Monomitopus agassizii</em>, however it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.	eng
154866	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pholis ornata</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Race Rocks Marine Protected Area off California.&#160; Further research into the population numbers and potential threats to this species is needed, to determine if coastal pollution and run-off are significantly impacting this species.	eng
154866	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<em>Pholis ornata</em> is distributed off the coast of North America from southern British Columbia, to central California.	eng
154866	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<em>Pholis ornata</em> is found in rocky and pebbled intertidal areas as well as mudflats, although its optimal habitat is said to be estuarine habitats.&#160; This species is versatile in its habitat requirements, in that it can tolerate low salinity waters, and readily utilises seasonal vegetation for shelter (Barton 1982).&#160; Its diet consists of small molluscs and crustaceans.&#160; Both the male and females guard the egg mass. &#160; This species is thought to range from the surface down to 50 m depth.	eng
154866	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pholis ornata</em>.	eng
154866	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	As an intertidal species, the habitat of <em>Pholis ornata</em> could be deleteriously impacted by run-off and pollution discharges in areas of the coastline with high human populations pressures.&#160;  However, due to the broad distribution of this species, this is a considered only as a localised threat.	eng
154867	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154867	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
154867	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 384-1,463 m (Mundy 2005). Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on the upper continental slope (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish and cephalopods. Species of Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154867	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no known population information available for<em>Sphagemacrurus gibber</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154867	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	While this species is of no commercial interest, it is occasionally seen in by-catch but in very small quantities.  It is not known whether this poses a major threat to the population.	eng
154868	conservation	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y.J. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em>. There are no known effective marine protected areas within this species range.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure that demand for the aquarium trade does not threaten the population in the future.	eng
154868	distribution	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y.J. & Yeeting, B., 2009	<em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em> is found in the Caroline Islands, and the Marshall Islands (Myers 1999). Vagrants have been recorded in Palau and Saipan.	eng
154868	habitat	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y.J. & Yeeting, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis </span>inhabits sand and rubble patches of steep seaward reefs at depths of 35 to 50 m (Allen 2003). This is a secretive species.	eng
154868	population	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y.J. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is considered common in the Marshall Islands.	eng
154868	threats	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Sadovy, Y.J. & Yeeting, B., 2009	<em></em> There are no known major threats to <em>Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis</em>, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
154869	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myctophum spinosum</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with numerous marine protected areas.	eng
154869	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Myctophum spinosum</em> is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Indian, Pacific, Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.	eng
154869	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The lanternfish, <em>Myctophum spinosum</em>, is a bathypelagic, oceanodromous species that exhibits diurnal vertical migration.	eng
154869	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Myctophidae family are very common oceanic fishes, making up the greatest biomass in mesopelagic zone (FAO 1999).	eng
154869	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Myctophum spinosum </em>is impacted by<em> </em>any major threat processes<em></em>.	eng
154870	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parapercis colias</em> occurs in many of the marine protected areas (MPAs) around coastal New Zealand.&#160; Since inception of these MPAs, studies have looked at changes in Blue Cod density within these reserves.&#160; Results vary on the effectiveness of such conservation measures.&#160; In the Kokomohua Marine Reserve in the Marlborough Sounds, densities of Blue Cod were 125% more abundant when compared to control sites.&#160; Body size was also found to increase (Davidson 2001).&#160; However, no such increase has been seen within the Te Tapuwae o Rangokako Marine Reserve (Freeman 2005).<br/><br/>The Blue Cod was the first species to be added to the Quota Management Systsem (QMS) in New Zealand.&#160; The government now monitors catches allowing for TAC (Total Allowable Catch) limits to be set if required.<br/><br/>Mesh sizes have been imposed in the BCO5 fishery to minimise the by-catch of under-sized individuals by the Rock Lobster fishery.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, fishing effort, and size of this species should be continued.&#160; Further research is needed on BCO7 to determine if the TACC is sustainable.&#160; Efforts should be made to protect important spawning aggregations from harvesting.	eng
154870	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parapercis colias</em> occurs around all coasts of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands.	eng
154870	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parapercis colias</em> is a demersal species, found around rocky coastlines in areas of high seaweed and kelp density, at a depth range of 0–150 m.&#160; It is particularly sensitive to water clarity and only occurs in very clear waters.&#160; It feeds on small fish, crabs and shellfish.<br/><br/><em>Parapercis colias </em>is a type of Blue Cod.&#160; It has been shown to be a protogynous hermaphrodite.&#160; This species reaches a maximum age of 32 years.&#160; Individuals reach sexual maturity at different lengths and ages depending on their location.&#160; Spawning aggregations have been noted from inshore and mid-shelf waters.	eng
154870	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The greatest population densities of <em>Parapercis colias</em> are typically seen off the South Island of New Zealand.	eng
154870	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parapercis colias</em> is one of the most important commercial and recreational fish species in New Zealand waters.&#160; The Blue Cod fishery is comprised of 10 sub-fisheries known as BCO1 to BCO10.&#160; Total landings peaked at 954 t in 1985, the year before the Quota Management System was implemented; following that, there was a decline in landings until 1989, when there was a shift in the predominant fishing type from handlines to cod pots, after which annual landings continued to increase and approach the total allowable commercial catch (TACC).&#160; However, annual landings have remained under the TACC limit.&#160; Landings for the commercial fishery in 2006–2007 were reported to be 2,413 t.&#160; The landings and TACCs for BCO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, are considered sustainable.&#160; It is thought these will also encourage stocks to safely reach sizes that will support the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY).&#160; It is unknown if harvest levels in BCO7 are sustainable; there are some indications that abundance has decreased in a few localised areas. <br/><br/>Observations from recreational fishers imply that localised declines may be occurring in a few areas of BCO 3, 5, and 7, where fishing effort is most concentrated.<br/><br/><em>Parapercis colias</em> is also taken as by-catch by other fisheries.&#160; However, offshore by-catch levels are thought to be very low.&#160; By-catch is either discarded or used as bait.<br/><br/>The species responds negatively to changes in water quality (nutrient enrichment, dredging and sediment run-off), through the increased turbidity and release of toxic chemicals in the sediment.&#160; However, this is a localised threat and is not considered to pose a major threat to the entire population of this species at present.	eng
154871	conservation	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154871	distribution	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	This species is known from the coasts of Suriname and Brazil, and from the lower Rio Amazonas.	eng
154871	habitat	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	This demersal species is tolerant of freshwater, brackish and marine waters and has been found at a depth range of between 20-40 m.	eng
154871	population	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenogobius thoropsis</span>.	eng
154871	threats	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154872	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Apogon compressus</em> has been successfully reared in captivity. The distribution of <em>A. compressus</em> coincides with a number of designated marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154872	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Fricke, R., 2009	The cardinalfish <em>Apogon compressus</em> is distributed from the eastern Andaman Sea, south and east to Vanuatu and New Caledonia, and north to the Ryukyu Islands and Ishigaki Island, Japan.	eng
154872	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Fricke, R., 2009	This cardinalfish, <em>Apogon compressus</em> is found on a diverse range of continental, shelf and high island reefs at a depth range of 1 - 20 m. It is associated with areas of abundant live coral cover (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Apogon compressus</em> often hides among branching stony corals during the day. <em>A. compressus</em> is nocturnal and leaves its shelter at night to feed on zooplankton. It is often found in small aggregations, among or near mounds of branching coral such as <em>Porites cylindrica</em> or <em>Porites nigrescens</em>.	eng
154872	population	Allen, G.R. & Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Apogon compressus</em> is common throughout its range (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154872	threats	Allen, G.R. & Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Apogonids</em> are not heavily targeted for the aquarium trade owing to their nocturnal nature (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Levels of harvest for this species are unlikely to be driving rapid decline (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is not likely to be driving a significant population decline due to the localised nature of threats such as coastal development and pollution (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154873	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Cotto, A. & Rojas, P.A., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>.&#160; However, this species' distribution falls coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, and habitat requirements, as well as on the impact of coastal development given the very shallow, near-shore habitat of this species.	eng
154873	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Cotto, A. & Rojas, P.A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific.&#160; It is only known only from the four type specimens collected from Colombia, plus a photo, apparently of this species, from the Gulf of Panama (Collette 1995).&#160; Based on these collections, it appears to be restricted to very shallow continental shelf habitat within its range, and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> .	eng
154873	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Cotto, A. & Rojas, P.A., 2007	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>. Four specimens have been collected over sandy and muddy substrata, as well as in brackish environments, in a very narrow depth range of 5–10 m.	eng
154873	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Cotto, A. & Rojas, P.A., 2007	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>; only four specimens are known.	eng
154873	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Cotto, A. & Rojas, P.A., 2007	Although more information in needed to determine the population status and habitat requirements of <span style="font-style: italic;">Porichthys oculellus</span>, it is likely that this species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive and ongoing coastal development within its near-shore restricted range.	eng
154874	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hetereleotris georgegilli</em>. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research on the abundance of this species and its potential threats is needed.	eng
154874	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Hetereleotris georgegilli</em> is found only around the Mauritian and Réunion Islands. The area in which this species occurs is less than 20,000 km² (approximately 5,572 km²). This species is only known from a few specimens. On Mauritius, is was found at three sites (Gill 1998). It was later recorded on Réunion, but information on the number of occupied sites is not available.	eng
154874	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span> is a demersal goby found on a range of substrates including coral, rock, sand and silt. It is found in the intertidal zone to a maximum depth of 10 m. It appears to be restricted to shallow, high-energy habitats (Gill 1998).	eng
154874	population	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span>.	eng
154874	threats	Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hetereleotris georgegilli</span> is an intertidal species and is likely to be undergoing localized declines due to coastal development and water pollution.	eng
154875	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cynoscion acoupa</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the large size and commercial importance of this species, continued monitoring of its harvest levels and population numbers is needed.	eng
154875	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is found in the Western Atlantic from southeast Brazil to Panama.&#160;  It is most common around northeastern South America (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154875	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is a coastal, demersal, and brackish water species that forms schools.&#160;  It is commonly found over mud or sandy mud bottoms near mouths of rivers.&#160;  Juveniles are restricted to brackish and fresh waters and shelter in mangrove swamps as nursery grounds.&#160; <em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> feeds on shrimps and fishes (FAO 2002).  It is an important food fish (Chao 2003).	eng
154875	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is locally abundant around northeastern South America (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154875	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Cynoscion acoupa</em> is an important commercial species, but there has been no apparent reduction in population size over the last 10 years (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  Juveniles are associated with mangrove habitats, however they also associate with soft-bottoms near river mouths.&#160;  Therefore at present, mangrove degradation occurring in this region is not considered a major threat to this species (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154876	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Aioliops brachypterus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with El Nido Marine Reserve. Further research should be carried out to confirm the distribution of <em>A. brachypterus</em> and to establish its population size. Conservation measures including the establishment and management of Marine Protected Areas to reduce the rate of coral reef degradation occurring within this species' range, are needed.	eng
154876	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Aioliops brachypterus</em> has been reported from Miniloc Island and El Nido Island, the Philippines. The area in which this species is known to be distributed is approximately 1,000 km². However, it is likely that this species actually occurs in coral reef habitat in a much wider range in the region.	eng
154876	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops</span><em> brachypterus</em> is found near drop-offs on coral reefs. Many species of Ptereleotridae form schools, although others occur in pairs or smaller groups (Larson 2001). This species has been found to a depth of 25 m.	eng
154876	population	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops brachypterus</span>.	eng
154876	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aioliops</span><em> brachypterus</em> is associated with coral reef environments. The coral reefs within this species' range have been degraded by human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. Coral reef habitat is also threatened by water pollution. The South China Sea is polluted by organic and inorganic wastes from sewage, from agricultural and industrial wastes, and from run-off containing oil, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Oil spills have caused severe marine degradation in the South China Sea, and there have been documented spills in 1992 and 1993.&#160; A combined total of 27,000 t of crude oil was released into the South China Sea from these two spills. Over 100,000 oil tankers and container and cargo vessels travel through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore each year into the South China Sea. There is therefore the potential for more oil spills in the region in the future.<br/><br/>The coral reefs of the Philippines have experienced the greatest degradation of all the reefs in the South East Asia. The percentage of reefs in poor condition has increased from 33% in the 1980s to nearly 40% two decades later (Tun <em>et al</em>. 2004). It is predicted that coral reef condition in South East Asia will continue to decline (Tun <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
154877	conservation	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Maputaland Marine Protected Area.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the abundance and threats of this species is needed.	eng
154877	distribution	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> occurs between Durban, South Africa and Maputo Bay, Mozambique. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 822 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154877	habitat	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> is a sand-burrowing intertidal species found to a maximum depth of 16 m.	eng
154877	population	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	In a description of the sand flats at Inhaca Island, Mozambique in 1962, it was noted that <em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> was one of the many frequently netted fishes in directed surveys (Macnae and Kalk 1962).  Common along sandy beaches (Nelson 1986).  Nowadays it is rarely observed in life but can be collected in considerable numbers by ichthyocides.	eng
154877	threats	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Apodocreedia vanderhorsti</em> may be taken as by-catch in shrimp fisheries although it has not yet been documented (Sousa <em>et al.</em> 2005). Considering the shallow water, inshore nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution.	eng
154878	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomacentrus smithi</em>, however its distribution falls within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154878	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is found in the Philippines, Indonesia, Sabah, Malaysia and Brunei (Allen 2004).	eng
154878	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> inhabits silty areas of lagoons, harbours and coastal coral reefs at a depth range of 2 - 14 m. It is found to occur in small to large groups which feed in midwater above live coral heads.	eng
154878	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is abundant throughout its range, occurring in large aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154878	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus smithi</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade. Due to the coastal nature of this species and its association with coral reefs, it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.	eng
154879	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>.	eng
154879	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Polyipnus elongatus</em> is thought to be endemic to the Coral Sea, Australia (Last and Harold 1994).	eng
154879	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The hatchetfish, <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>, is a benthopelagic species that has been found at a depth range of 440–690 m (Last and Harold 1994).	eng
154879	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Polyipnus elongatus</em>.	eng
154879	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	Due to the mesopelagic habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyipnus elongatus</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154880	conservation	Gordon, J.D.M, Iwamoto, T. & Herdson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the by-catch levels of this species is needed.	eng
154880	distribution	Gordon, J.D.M, Iwamoto, T. & Herdson, D., 2009	Bigeye Rockling, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gaidropsarus macrophthalmus,</span> may be found in the northeast Atlantic, from the Bay of Biscay northwards along the west coast of the British Isles to the Faeroe Islands.	eng
154880	habitat	Gordon, J.D.M, Iwamoto, T. & Herdson, D., 2009	Bigeye Rockling is a non-migratory demersal species that has a depth range of 150-530 m. It is often seen near the benthos where it feeds on crustaceans.	eng
154880	population	Gordon, J.D.M, Iwamoto, T. & Herdson, D., 2009	There is no population information for Bigeye Rockling.	eng
154880	threats	Gordon, J.D.M, Iwamoto, T. & Herdson, D., 2009	While this is not a target species, Bigeye Rockling is occasionally taken as by-catch during bottom trawling (Cohen<em> et al</em>. 1990), however at present this is not thought to be having a significant impact on the population.	eng
154881	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance, distribution, and threats of this species.	eng
154881	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is only known from two specimens found off the coast of Venezuela and Brazil.	eng
154881	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is a neritic species.  The two specimens of <em>P. oculofrenum</em> were found at depths of 57 m and 62 m.	eng
154881	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is only known from two specimens.	eng
154881	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is not known if <em>Porichthys oculofrenum</em> is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154882	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Slender Brotula.	eng
154882	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Slender Brotula, <em>Dicrolene multifilis</em>, is found from East Africa to the Bay of Bengal (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154882	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Slender Brotula is a benthopelagic species found at depths ranging from 350-1,700 m.  Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154882	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Slender Brotula has been recorded as uncommon (Nielsen<em> et al.</em> 1999).	eng
154882	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting the Slender Brotula, due to the deepwater nature of this species.	eng
154883	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pelotretis flavilatus.&#160; </em>However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Long Sound Marine Reserve.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154883	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is endemic to New Zealand.&#160; It occurs around both the North and South Islands, although greater abundances are typically found around the South Island.	eng
154883	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is a demersal species, generally found at a depth of 150 m.&#160; Juveniles are found inshore within estuaries, shallow mudflats and sandflats, where they remain for up to two years.&#160; Adults feed on cockabullies, shellfish, crabs, worms, and brittlestars.	eng
154883	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is described as the most abundant flatfish off the Otago Coast (James 1970).&#160; It is more abundant around the South Island of New Zealand, than the North Island.	eng
154883	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Pelotretis flavilatus</em> is harvested on a commercial scale as a food source.	eng
154884	conservation	Stevenson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bathymaster derjugini</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats faced by this species.	eng
154884	distribution	Stevenson, D., 2009	<em>Bathymaster derjugini</em> is distributed from the Kuril Islands and Tartar Strait, to Peter the Great Bay, Russia.	eng
154884	habitat	Stevenson, D., 2009	<em>Bathymaster derjugini</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 65 m. It inhabits shallow water in the upper reaches of the sublittoral zone (Cook <em>et al</em>. 1999) and rocky shore areas.	eng
154884	population	Stevenson, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bathymaster derjugini</em>.<br/><br/>In the central east Pacific, the larvae of this family were the most abundant comprising 94.6% of the sample (Franco-Gordo <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
154884	threats	Stevenson, D., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be impacted by coastal development and pollution, and some areas in which it is found is subject to heavy shipping traffic and threats associated with this such as bilge and ballast water and fuel dumping. It is not known how this species is being impacted by these threats.	eng
154885	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on ecology of this species, in order to better understand the impact of threats such as incidental mortality through by-catch.	eng
154885	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em> is an Indo-Pacific scorpionfish, known from Hong Kong, Taiwan, New Caledonia, and Sumatra to the Bali Strait.	eng
154885	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em> is a bathydemersal species, collected from a depth range of 225–295 m on the top of seamounts.&#160; The biology of this species is 'largely unknown' (FAO 1999b).	eng
154885	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Neomerinthe rotunda</em>.	eng
154885	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	This species is of no commercial value.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating on the top of seamounts in parts of its range.	eng
154886	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em>macleayanus</em>, however, its distribution may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154886	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Narrowbanded sole, <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em>macleayanus,</em> is only known from eastern Australia in the coastal waters of New South Wales and southern Queensland (Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2009).	eng
154886	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The Narrowbanded Sole is a demersal species found in coastal and estuarine habitats over sand and mud substrates. Species in a closely related genus,&#160;<em>Aseraggodes</em><em> haackeanus</em> and <em>Aseraggodes sp. nov.</em>, inhabit sheltered silty areas, have a depth range of 1 - 30 m and can reach a size of 35 cm (Edgar 2000).	eng
154886	population	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Synclidopus </span><em></em><em>macleayanus</em>.	eng
154886	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats within its range (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). Due to its small size, it is unlikely to be taken as a food source (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). However, this species is frequently taken as by-catch by prawn trawls (Macbeth <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
154887	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span>.&#160; Further research on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats is needed.	eng
154887	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> is only known from a single specimen collected in the northwestern Atlantic off of Nova Scotia, south of Browns Bank and East of Georges Bank (Chernova <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
154887	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	The holotype of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> was collected from within a depth range of 0–1,008 m.	eng
154887	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span>.	eng
154887	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Psednos harteli</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154888	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pomacentrus wardi</em>, however the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154888	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> is endemic to eastern Australia. It ranges from Sydney to the Gulf of Carpentaria.	eng
154888	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> inhabits lagoons and outer reef slopes of coral reefs to a maximum depth of 20 m.. They can be found individually or in small groups. It mainly feeds on benthic algae.	eng
154888	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus wardi</em> is reported to be abundant at the Capricorn Group (Allen 1975), the Great Barrier Reef (Allen 1975; Ceccarelli <em>et al</em>. 2006) and Nelly Bay, Magnetic Island (Ceccarelli <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
154888	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	It is unlikely that<em> Pomacentrus wardi</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats. General threats to this species may include the degradation of its coral reef habitat, due to coral bleaching and human population pressures. However, the reefs of Australia are in a relatively healthy condition at present (Miller and Sweatman 2004).	eng
154889	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, habitat status, and harvest levels of this species is needed.&#160; The extent of damage caused by indiscriminate fishing practices should also be monitored to determine if the habitat of this species is being significantly degraded.	eng
154889	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This Pacific species has two subspecies which have distinct distributions.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis ventralis</em> has been found around the southwest Pacific in New Caledonia, the Tumaotu Archipelago, the Marshall Islands, and the Pitcairn group.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis hawaiiensis</em> is found around the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
154889	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em> is a secretive, coral reef-associated fish.&#160; <em>Pseudanthias ventralis hawaiiensis</em> is found at a depth range of 26–68 m and <em>Pseudanthias ventralis ventralis</em> is found at a depth range of 26–120 m.&#160; Most specimens have been collected from caves or from beneath ledges; other specimens have been found by reef rubble along steep drop-offs or channel walls.&#160;&#160;<em>Pseudanthias</em><em> ventralis </em> will leave its cave to feed on zooplankton such as copepods.	eng
154889	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em>.&#160; However, the life history characteristics of the Anthiinae sub-family (short-lived, high natural mortality rate, high growth rate, and high recruitment rate) (Russ and Alcala 1998) suggest that they are likely to be abundant.	eng
154889	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Pseudanthias ventralis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its range.&#160;  This species is harvested for the aquarium trade, but due to its fast life history, this is unlikely to significantly impact population size.&#160; Indiscriminate fishing methods such as blast fishing may be causing habitat degradation.	eng
154890	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Coryphaenoides subserrulatus</em>. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the by-catch levels and population trends of this species is needed to assess any possible change in the conservation status.	eng
154890	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Four Rayed Rattail, <em>Coryphaenoides subserrulatus</em>, can be found around South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Chile and Argentina.	eng
154890	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 550-1,180 m. It is typically found on the continental slope.	eng
154890	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	In a study by Francis <em>et al.</em> (2002), this species appeared in 49% of 9,857 tows. This species dominated 80% of the by-catch species in trawls along St Patricks Head Ridge off east coast Tasmania (Kloser and Horne 2003).	eng
154890	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The genus <em>Coryphaenoides</em> includes some of the most commercially important species of Macrouridae.<em> </em>This species is of minor commercial importance, however it does comprise a large percentage of the by-catch in areas such as Tasmania (Kloser and Horne 2003). Intense exploitation of fishery resources off the coast of Argentina may have impacted this species (Schonberger and Agar 2001). While this species may have undergone declines in parts of its range, these threats are unlikely to have significantly impacted the global population of this broad ranging species.	eng
154891	conservation	Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus lineatus</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research on population trends and abundance across the species range is needed. Monitoring of the harvest levels is also required to better understand how harvesting for the aquarium trade is impacting the population.<br/><br/><em></em>	eng
154891	distribution	Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em> is found around the northern Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands.	eng
154891	habitat	Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em> is found over coral, rock and rubble, on clear, outer-reef slopes from 20?55 m.	eng
154891	population	Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em></em> Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed for <em>Cirrhilabrus lineatus</em>. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
154891	threats	Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus lineatus</span>, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade. At present there is no information on the harvest levels of this species and how this is impacting the population, however at least a third of this species range falls within effective marine protected areas therefore providing it with some protection from harvesting.	eng
154892	conservation	Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
154892	distribution	Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Honduras.	eng
154892	habitat	Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal waters, lagoons, and estuaries, preferring areas with sandy substrata (Bussing 1995; De La Cruz Agüero 1997) to depths of 30 m.	eng
154892	population	Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is not thought to be very common in La Paz, Mexico.	eng
154892	threats	Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
154893	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>S. triophthalma</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed to determine if this species is undergoing a significant decline in abundance.	eng
154893	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> occurs from Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea. It is not found in the south of Cape Lopez, Gabon.	eng
154893	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> is a demersal species that can be found over sand bottoms (Desoutter 1990) at a depth range of 10 to 30 m. It is also known to enter lagoons. Its diet consists of molluscs and other species of invertebrates. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154893	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>S. triophthalma</em>.	eng
154893	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Solea triophthalma</span> is a commercially landed fish and is caught using bottom trawls and beach seines (FAO 1990), however there is no information concerning landings. This species is also likely to be taken as by-catch in other bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range. The Gulf of Guinea is reported to be overfished and several demersal and pelagic fish species are over-exploited. The Gulf of Guinea also shows signs of ecosystem stress (NOAA 2003). Without landings and abundance data for this species it is difficult to determine what impact these threats are having on the population numbers.	eng
154894	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
154894	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> occurs from Sagami Bay to the Ryukyu Trough, Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The distribution of this species may extend to China (CAFS 2005), although this requires verification.	eng
154894	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 600-1,000 m. Most Alepoephalidae species inhabit water layers above the continental slope, and oceanic ridges and rises (FAO 2001b).	eng
154894	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em>.	eng
154894	threats	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Alepocephalus owstoni</em> is of no commercial importance but does constitute landed catch by fishers and may be taken as by-catch in deep-sea fisheries (FAO 2001b).	eng
154895	conservation	Acero, A., Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bluefin Gunard.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Research is needed on the taxonomy of this species to determine if there are genetic differences between the three fragmented subpopulations.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is also needed.	eng
154895	distribution	Acero, A., Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Bluefin Gurnard (<em>Chelidonichthys kumu</em>) is an Indo-Pacific searobin, distributed from Mozambique to South Africa in the western Indian Ocean. In the Pacific, this species ranges from Vietnam, north to Japan and South Korea.&#160; It is also reported in the Pacific from southern Australia and New Zealand.	eng
154895	habitat	Acero, A., Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	Bluefin Gurnard is a benthic species that is found over open sand, mud and sandy shell bottoms, at a depth range of 1–200 m.&#160; It is a continental species associated with nutrient rich waters, and is often found in rivers, estuaries and transitional waters.&#160; The juveniles of this species may occur in bays.	eng
154895	population	Acero, A., Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	Bluefin Gurnard is common around New Zealand, except for along the Fiordland coast (Waitangi Tribunal 1992).&#160; This species is also reported to be common in Australia.<br/><br/>Landings statistics over the last 20 years generally show a stable trend (FAO Fishstat 2006). <br/><br/>Catch levels of Bluefin Gurnard in New Zealand have been reported as stable since 1986 and have been below the set sustainable quota (New Zealand Government 2007).&#160; Total landings of the species in New Zealand waters were as follows:<br/><br/>1996–1997 - 2,796 t; 1997–1998 - 2,532 t; 1998–1999 - 2,284 t; 1999–2000 - 2,429 t; 2000–2001 - 3,348 t; 2001–2002 - 3,429 t; 2002–2003 - 3,831 t; 2003–2004 - 3,508 t; 2004–2005 - 3,974 t; 2005–2006 - 3,589 t. <br/><br/>The Total Allowable Catch (TACC) for Bluefin Gurnard in 1996–1997 was 5,281 t; from 1997–1998 to 2001–2002 it was 5,143 t; and from 2002–2003 to 2005–2006 the TACC was 4,993 t (New Zealand Government 2007).<br/><br/>Bluefin Gurnard is also known to be taken by trawls off southern Africa and Australia (Richards 1999) but it is unknown if this species is harvested in other areas of its range.	eng
154895	threats	Acero, A., Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	Bluefin Gurnard is a major by-catch species, mainly in the red cod and flatfish trawl fisheries in parts of New Zealand.&#160; This species is also harvested as a commercial food source.&#160; However, in New Zealand, only 6% of the total catch of this species is actually targeted (New Zealand Government 2007).	eng
154896	conservation	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed on the abundance and harvest levels of this species.	eng
154896	distribution	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is only known from Burdwood Bank, Argentina (Balushkin and Stehmann 1993).	eng
154896	habitat	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 155 m to 160 m on soft bottoms (sand/ mud substrates). Most <em>Patagonotothen</em> are small species that are assumed to be opportunistic feeders with a generalist diet, which varies according to the available prey (Laptikhovsky 2004).	eng
154896	population	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em>.	eng
154896	threats	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen kreffti</em> is reported to appear in commercial landings as by-catch (Balushkin and Merret 1996), however the extent to which harvesting of this species is impacting the population size is unknown.	eng
154897	conservation	Herdson, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Poor Cod. Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154897	distribution	Herdson, D., 2009	The Poor Cod (<em>Trisopterus minutus</em>) is distributed across the western Mediterranean Sea and along the coast of Europe, from Morocco and Gibraltar, to Trondheim Fjord (Svetovidov 1986).	eng
154897	habitat	Herdson, D., 2009	The Poor Cod occurs in small schools over muddy or sandy bottoms at depths of 15-200 m (120 m in the Mediterranean), though it can be found as deep as 400 m (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990). Its diet consists of crustaceans and small fish (Svetovidov 1986). Maturity is reached at one year of age, and spawning takes place from winter to spring.	eng
154897	population	Herdson, D., 2009	A study of demersal fish populations around the coasts of the UK and northwestern Europe found Poor Cod to be one of the most abundant demersal fish species (Rogers<em> et al.</em> 1998).	eng
154897	threats	Herdson, D., 2009	The Poor Cod is considered locally abundant and it is not heavily fished (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990). However, studies of Turkish trawlers found that the equipment did not allow juvenile Poor Cod to escape, but took both adult and immature individuals (Ozbilgin<em> et al.</em> 2005). The harvesting of this species is not considered to be a major threat, as it is of minor commercial importance, and harvesting does not occur throughout its entire range. It has also been described as one of the most abundant demersal species throughout most of its range.	eng
154898	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span>.&#160; However, its distribution <em></em> may cover numerous marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research into the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade is needed.	eng
154898	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	<em>Eviota storthynx</em> is reported from the Philippines, Yap and Palau, Caroline Islands, Seribu Islands, Java Sea, Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia, and south of Japan.	eng
154898	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> is a small, cryptic goby, found along rocky shorelines, eelgrass patches, coral flats, mangroves and algal reefs.	eng
154898	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> is very common in northern Viet Nam near Cac Ba, just east of the mouth of the Red River (R. Winterbottom pers. comm. 2008). It is a very widespread species.	eng
154898	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	<em>Eviota</em> species are used in the aquarium trade, although it is not considered a common genus.&#160; As <span style="font-style: italic;">Eviota storthynx</span> occupies coastal habitats, it is likely to undergo localised declines in abundance as a result of threats such as destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, sedimentation, and tourism. However, these are not thought to pose a significant threat to the global population of this species.	eng
154899	conservation	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius</span><em> wheeleri</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the habitat and ecology of this species, as little information is available at present.&#160; Population trends and by-catch levels should be monitored to determine whether there is any impact from fisheries in the region.&#160; Research into other potential threats and the full range of this species should also be carried out.	eng
154899	distribution	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Uropterygius wheeleri</em> is known from Cape Verde, Senegal, and islands in the Bay of Biafra (within the Gulf of Guinea).	eng
154899	habitat	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius wheeleri</span> is found in shallow photic waters with sandy or rocky substrate (Smith and Bohlke 1990).	eng
154899	population	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius</span><em> wheeleri</em> is relatively common and widespread (D. Smith pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154899	threats	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Uropterygius wheeleri</span> may be threatened by trawling activities within parts of its range.&#160; There is a history of over-exploited fisheries in the region, and consequently, this species may be taken as by-catch in some areas.	eng
154900	conservation	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>A number of fisheries management measures have been implemented by China to protect fish stocks in the China Sea. These include a fishing license scheme, closed areas and seasons, mesh size limit, and a limit on the percentage of juvenile fish in the catch (FAO 1999c). The success of the majority of these measures has been criticised (FAO 1999c).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on possible reasons for the large fluctuations seen in the annual landings of this species, as well as a more accurate estimate of the overall rate of population decline.	eng
154900	distribution	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is known from southern Japan, the East China Sea, and the northern part of the South China Sea from Viet Nam to the Formosa Strait, and the Philippines. It is also found around northwestern Australia and the Arafura Sea.	eng
154900	habitat	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Russell, B., 2009	<em>Nemipterus virgatus</em>, is a demersal species which occurs on sand or mud bottoms. Young <em>N. virgatus</em> generally occur in shallower water, between 18 to 33 m, whilst adult fish can occur down to 220 m (FAO 2001). This species feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalopods.  <br/><br/>Male <em>N. virgatus</em> have a faster growth rate than the females, therefore females predominate at small sizes (Egglestone 1970, 1973; Hsu and Liu 1977; Kao and Liu 1979). In the southwestern region of the Sea of Japan females mature at a larger size than in the South China Sea (Kobayashi 2004).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus</span> <em>virgatus</em> are rudimentary hermaphrodites, in which all males have functional testes and rudimentary ovarian portions throughout their life (Takahashi <em>et al</em>. 1989). The main spawning season for the Hong Kong fishery is from April to June, but some individuals have a protracted spawning period to July or August (Li 1954, 1960). Liu and Su (1972) however report the main spawning season from February to June with a peak from February to April in the northern area of the South China Sea. And from March to September from the northern area of the East China Sea. The main spawning grounds in the northern area of the South China Sea are located 90-150 miles southwest and 35 miles south of Hong Kong (Liu and Su 1972).    <p>&#160;</p>	eng
154900	population	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Russell, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is taken in commercial quantities by handlines, longlines, and bottom trawls (FAO 2005). Juveniles are also caught in considerable quantities by shrimp trawlers using beam trawls (FAO 2005).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus</span> <em> virgatus</em> is one of the most important commercial fish in the East China Sea and northern South China Sea (Li 1954, Eggleston 1973). The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 250,591 t. The countries with the largest catches were China (246,601 t) and Taiwan Province of China (3,990 t) (FAO 2005).<br/><br/>Catch data from the FAO shows an overall decline over the past 20 years for this species. However, the rate of decline of this species has varied over this period. The highest annual catch for this species was recorded in 1974 at 18,011 t. In 1990, the catch was 12,511 t but from 1998-2007 the catch has fluctuated at levels between 4,824 t and 2,670 t (FAO 2009). The variation in the rate of the decline makes evaluating a percentage decline problematic, but an average decline of at least 30% has been inferred. <br/><br/>The Golden Threadfin Bream is very abundant in the northern part of the South China Sea and southern part of the East China Sea (Russell 1990).	eng
154900	threats	Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is one of the most important commercial fishes in the East China Sea and northern South China Sea. This species is caught using handlines, longlines and bottom trawls; Juvenile<em></em> are also caught in large quantities by shrimp trawlers (FAO 2005).	eng
154901	conservation	Kimura, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Smalltoothed Ponyfish, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154901	distribution	Kimura, S., 2009	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish <em>(Gazza achlamys</em>) has been recorded in the Indo-Malayan-region, from Sumatra to Java, Flores, Sabah, Ambon, Lombok and the Philippines, and the eastern half of New Guinea to the Solomon Islands. In the North Pacific<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em> is reported from the southern Marianas, Pohnpei, Taiwan Province of China, and Okinawa in Japan. In the Indian Ocean, it is found off Sri Lanka and southern India. There have also been reports of this species off the east coast of Australia (FAO 2001) and in the waters around Japan (Kimura <em>et al</em>. 2006), however this needs confirmation.	eng
154901	habitat	Kimura, S., 2009	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish<em></em> can be found on sandy or muddy substrates in brackish and coastal, inshore waters to a depth of 20 m. This schooling species, feeds mainly on small fishes, crustaceans and polychaetes.	eng
154901	population	Kimura, S., 2009	There is no population information for the Smalltoothed Ponyfish.	eng
154901	threats	Kimura, S., 2009	The Smalltoothed Ponyfish is of minor importance to commercial fisheries. This species is caught throughout the year, mainly with bottom trawls; also in bag nets and shore seines. Larger specimens may be marketed fresh or dried-salted, but catches are mostly converted to fishmeal or dumped at sea. There is no indication that this species is undergoing a significant population decline as a result of harvesting.	eng
154903	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Xenomystax trucidans</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats.	eng
154903	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Xenomystax trucidans</em> is only known from the holotype and a few paratypes collected in the Maldives and the Laccadives, Lakshadweep, India.	eng
154903	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Xenomystax trucidans</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; Species of the genus <em>Xenomystax</em> are usually found at depths of 400–800 m.&#160; Members of the family Congridae are primarily benthopelagic, occurring on sand and mud bottoms, and feeding on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 1999).	eng
154903	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Xenomystax trucidans</em>.	eng
154903	threats	Smith, D., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystax trucidans</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154904	conservation	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres ornatissimus</span>.     <p>However, most of its area of occurrence falls within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument.</p>	eng
154904	distribution	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2010	<p>This name used to be applied to a species widely distributed in the central-west Pacific. Recently, genetic evidence indicates that this name should only be used for the Hawaiian Islands population, with the remaining populations now considered part of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. claudia</span> (Randall & Rocha 2009).</p>	eng
154904	habitat	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres ornatissimus</span> is a coral reef associated species, and is found from 1-15 m. It inhabits lagoons and outer seaward reefs, and feeds primarily on small benthic crustaceans and molluscs (Randall 1985).	eng
154904	population	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2010	This species is abundant in many parts of its range.	eng
154904	threats	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2010	<em></em>There are no known major threats known to <em>Halichoeres ornatissimus</em>.	eng
154905	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how may be impacted by threats such as fishing.	eng
154905	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found from the east coast of India, from the Hooghly estuaries to the Gulf of Mannar.	eng
154905	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em> is a benthopelagic species found in estuaries and coastal waters at a depth range of 0–80 m (Nakamura and Parin 1993).&#160; This species feeds on a variety of organisms including young clupeoids, prawns, the Marine Lizardfish <em>(Harpodon nehereus</em>), <em>Trichiurus</em> spp, small fishes, and crustaceans.	eng
154905	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Lepturacanthus pantului</em>.&#160;  Gupta (1966) described this species from a type series of 55 specimens and therefore it is probably not an uncommon species, at least locally.	eng
154905	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepturacanthus pantului</span> is harvested as a food source.&#160; It is marketed fresh and dried salted.&#160; It is harvested using bag nets, shore seines, boat seines, and with trawls.&#160; The extent of the impacts that these threats are having on poopulation size of this species is unknonw at present.	eng
154906	conservation	Collette, B., Iwamoto, T. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri</span>. However, this species distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154906	distribution	Collette, B., Iwamoto, T. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri </span>has a circumtropical to subtropical distribution. In the tropical eastern Pacific it is found from Costa Rica to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands and other oceanic islands. In the western Indian Ocean it is found from east Africa to India, including the Seychelles and Madagascar. In the eastern Indian Ocean it is found from Indonesia to Western Australia. In the western Atlantic it is found from Florida to Brazil. In the eastern Atlantic it is found from Mauritania to Namibia and in the eastern Pacific from Guatemala to Chile.	eng
154906	habitat	Collette, B., Iwamoto, T. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri </span>is found between 20<sup>o</sup> S and 25<sup>o</sup> N and is thought to be limited by the 23.9<sup>o</sup>C isotherm (Omori <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). This species is epipelagic and found to a maximum depth of 200 m.	eng
154906	population	Collette, B., Iwamoto, T. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brama dussumieri</span> is common throughout its range (FAO 2001). There is no landings data specific to this species.	eng
154906	threats	Collette, B., Iwamoto, T. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
154907	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Cetominus teevani</em>.	eng
154907	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Cetomimus teevani</em> is found in the western central Atlantic off the coast of Bermuda and in the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
154907	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Whalefishes are a rare group of deepsea fishes (Tolley<em> et al.</em> 1989). This is a bathypelagic species that feeds primarily upon crustaceans. More than 180 specimens (of this family) have been collected from all three oceans extending from 41<sup>o</sup>N in the Pacific and Atlantic, to 40<sup>o</sup>S in the Atlantic and 57<sup>o</sup>S in the Pacific. Members of this genus have been found at depths ranging from 900-1,300 m.	eng
154907	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Cetomimus teevani</em>.	eng
154907	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species, it is unlikely that it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.	eng
154908	conservation	Merrett, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Normichthys herringi</em>.&#160; Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that it would be afforded much protection from any marine protected area designations within its range. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, ecology, and potential threats to this species, as little information is available.	eng
154908	distribution	Merrett, N., 2009	<em>Normichthys herringi</em> is known from two specimens collected in the Arabian Sea.	eng
154908	habitat	Merrett, N., 2009	<em>Normichthys herringi</em> is a deep water species and has been found at depths of 1,100–2,009 m, but its depth range has not been fully determined.	eng
154908	population	Merrett, N., 2009	Only two speciemens of <em>Normichthys herringi</em> are known.	eng
154908	threats	Merrett, N., 2009	It is not known if <em>Normichthys herringi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154909	conservation	Clarke, T.A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias albibulbus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, and potential threats to this species.	eng
154909	distribution	Clarke, T.A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is only known from specimens captured near Hawaii off Oahu (Clarke 2001).  However, this is likely to be an artifact of collection effort, rather than a genuine restricted distribution (J. McEachran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154909	habitat	Clarke, T.A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is an epipelagic and mesopelagic species (Mundy 2005) and has been found at a depth range of 0–350 m.&#160; It appears this species is only known from a few female and juvenile specimens (Clarke 2001).	eng
154909	population	Clarke, T.A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is likely to be found at densities of 1 per 1,000–10,000 m<sup>3</sup> (T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154909	threats	Clarke, T.A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Eustomias albibulbus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. McEachran pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154910	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Apogon neotes</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154910	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon neotes</em> is a western Central Pacific cardinal fish, known from Tonga, the Philippines, Palau, Maumere Bay (Indonesia) and Mandang, Papua New Guinea.	eng
154910	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon neotes</em> is found on relatively pristine reefs in shallow (3 - 25 m), clear waters of the outer reef and lagoons. It is typically seen in areas of Gorgonian fans and soft corals. Individuals form small schools and utilise crevices in the reef for shelter. This species exhibits distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. The males of this species, mouthbrood the young.	eng
154910	population	Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon neotes</span> is a common species that occurs in small aggregations.	eng
154910	threats	Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines from factors affecting habitat quality, such as coral bleaching, cyanide fishing, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and the negative threats associated with tourism and coastal development. However this species has been recorded from a number of reef systems where human settlement is minimal and so threats associated with coastal development and tourism, are considered negligible.	eng
154911	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caelorinchus aratum</em>. Further research into the ecology and possible threats of this species is needed.	eng
154911	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Caelorinchus aratrum</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is distributed from Hawaii Island to O'ahu Island.	eng
154911	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is bathydemersal (Mundy 2005) and is found at a depth range of 385 - 730 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154911	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	Species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154911	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon as it is a deep water species and there is no known commercial fishery for this species even though there is a commercial fishery for other species in the family Macrouridae.	eng
154912	conservation	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>A. fleurieu</em>, however this species distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154912	distribution	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon fleurieu</span> is distributed in the western Indian Ocean from the Persian Gulf and Red Sea along the east coast of Africa to Durban, including the Comoros, Seychelles and Madagascar. In the central Indian Ocean, it ranges from the southern tip of India to Sri Lanka and the Maldives. In the eastern Indian Ocean from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, and north to Hong Kong, and west to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.	eng
154912	habitat	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	This cryptic species is found in the crevices of shallow coral reefs with moderate currents at a depth range pf 1-30 m. The adults usually form small schools, and demonstrate distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. This species is a mouthbrooder.	eng
154912	population	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is found usually in small to fairly large aggregations in the vicinity of coral and rocks.	eng
154912	threats	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apogon fleurieu</span> is not impacted by any major threat processes. Although habitat degradation may be causing localised declines, this is not considered to be a major threat to the global population of this wide-ranging species.	eng
154913	conservation	Knapp, L.W. & Baker, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Leviprora inops</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of MPA designations, including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the threat processes and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
154913	distribution	Knapp, L.W. & Baker, J., 2009	<em>Leviprora inops</em> ranges from Kangaroo Island off South Australia, to Shark Bay in Western Australia (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154913	habitat	Knapp, L.W. & Baker, J., 2009	<em>Leviprora inops</em> is a predatory species most commonly found at depths of less than 10 m, in seagrass beds.&#160; There are also some unverified occurrences of this species at depths of 50 m in the Great Australian Bight (J. Baker pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154913	population	Knapp, L.W. & Baker, J., 2009	<em>Leviprora inops</em> is common within seagrass beds (Vanderklift<em> et al.</em> 2007).	eng
154913	threats	Knapp, L.W. & Baker, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leviprora inops</span> does not appear to be a commercial species and nor is it specifically targeted by the sport fishery; however there are records of this species being taken by recreational anglers and spearfishers (e.g. in&#160;southern Western Australia) (J. Baker pers. comm. 2009). The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leviprora inops</span> may be somewhat threatened in  bays where seagrasses have been degraded by coastal discharges and developments,  but there are no data specific to this species&#160;(J. Baker pers. comm.  2009).&#160;  It is therefore unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. inops</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its range.	eng
154914	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Long Sound Marine Reserve.&#160; Further monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed .	eng
154914	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The flounder, <em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em>, is found in New Zealand.&#160; This species is most abundant in the Tasman Bay and off the southeast coast of the South Island.	eng
154914	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> is a demersal species, generally found to inhabit depths less than 50 m.&#160; Specimens can be found in harbours, inlets, bays, and open, deeper waters.&#160; This species shows no marked preference for substrate type, having been found on sand, mud, clay, pebbles, and gravel bottoms.&#160; This species is common on mudflats and in pools left by the receding tide.&#160; Adults have been observed feeding on small crabs, shrimps, shellfish, brittlestars, and worms.&#160; Juveniles use the intertidal and sublittoral areas as nursery grounds for the first two years.	eng
154914	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> is a common flatfish in New Zealand (Smith 1987). In Whangateau Harbour, it is found at densities of 0.3–43.0 individuals per 100 m<sup>3</sup> (Roper 1986).	eng
154914	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Rhombosolea plebeia</em> one of the most important commercial flatfish species in New Zealand (Parrott 1960).	eng
154915	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154915	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em>&#160; is known from the Red Sea, Mozambique Channel, the Seychelles, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China and Japan. The disjunct distribution may reflect trawl captures and this species may be more widespread than current records show.	eng
154915	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em> is found in open sandy patches. This species often occurs in mid-water aggregations which may contain up to several hundred individuals. This species is found at a depth range of 10 - 20 m. In the Gulf of Aqaba it uses small rock outcrops and debris for nesting (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154915	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Teixeirichthys jordani</em> is reported to be common in the Gulf of Aqaba on sandy bottoms (Khalaf <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the Gulf of Aqaba despite declining condition of habitat this species population appears to remain stable (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154915	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Trawl fisheries may represent a threat as well as habitat destruction in some parts of the range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154916	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for the Can-opener Smoothdream.	eng
154916	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Can-opener Smoothdream, <em>Chaenophryne longiceps</em>, is found in the tropical to temperate parts of all oceans. The most southerly specimen recorded was found off the coast of New Zealand (Stewart and Pietsch 1998).	eng
154916	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Can-opener Smoothdream is a bathypelagic species. Specimens have been collected at a depth range of 1,500-3,000 m. While the males are dwarfed, they are not parasitic.	eng
154916	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	During the period 1973 to 1999, only 32 individuals were reported by commercial fishermen to Iceland's Marine Research Institute (Jónsson and Pálsson 1999).	eng
154916	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	The Can-opener Smoothdream has been taken as by-catch in deep water trawls however due to the depth range this species occupies, this is not thought to be a major threat at present.	eng
154917	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
154917	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	The Exquisite Sand-goby, <em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em>, is found off New South Wales and Queensland, Australia. It is also reported from the North Island in New Zealand (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
154917	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	The Exquisite Sand-goby is a demersal species found in lower shore tide pools. It is also found in coastal bays, harbours, sandy estuaries, and sometimes in seagrass beds (Kuiter 1993). It can usually be found resting on soft substrates.This species feeds on amphipods, polychaetes and mysids.	eng
154917	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Favonigobius exquisitus</em> is reported to be the most abundant lower shore goby at Manly, Moreton Bay (Ford <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/>When sampled off the North Island in New Zealand, this species was found to occur in 211 of 305 beach seines in which 11,962 specimens were collected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
154917	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it maybe impacted by coastal pollution and development including sewage outflow, sedimentation, and dredging activity however much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in good condition. There is no indication that this species is undergoing a significant decline in population numbers at present.	eng
154918	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em>.	eng
154918	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em> is distributed from the eastern coast of Africa, to the western coast of Australia.&#160; This species has also been recorded from New Caledonia.	eng
154918	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em> is a benthopelagic species of cusk eel.&#160; Individuals are typically found at a depth range of 200–500 m.&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154918	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</span> is reported to be uncommon (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
154918	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting <em>Pycnocraspedum squamipinne</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.	eng
154919	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ateleopus japonicus</em>.	eng
154919	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is a Western Pacific Jellynose fish, known from southern Japan, Taiwan (Shen and Ting 1972), China (Chen 2002), Malaysia (Mohsin <em>et al</em>. 1993), Viet Nam (Phung and Thi 1994) and the Chesterfield Islands, New Caledonia (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
154919	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 140 - 600 m. At night it moves up to <span style="font-style: italic;">c</span>. 100 m. Little is known about the biology of species in this family (FAO 1999a).	eng
154919	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> is reported to be rare in waters around Taiwan (Shen and Ting 1972), but not uncommon in southern Japan (K. Matsuura pers comm. 2009). The population trend appears to be stable.	eng
154919	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	Species from the Ateleopodidae family are of no commercial importance (FAO 1999), however <em>Ateleopus japonicus</em> may be taken as by-catch in fishery operations in southern Japan (K. Matsuura pers comm. 2009) and probably elsewhere in its range.	eng
154920	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for Yellowfin Damselfish, <em></em>however the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
154920	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Yellowfin Damselfish, <em>Chrysiptera flavipinnis,</em> is distributed from Samarai Island (southeast Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia,  south to Sydney, including the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.	eng
154920	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Yellowfin Damselfish <em></em>inhabits rubble and dead coral outcrops situated in sandy areas at a depth range of 3-38 m. This species can be found individually or in small groups.	eng
154920	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Chrysiptera flavipinnis</em>.	eng
154920	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Yellowfin Damselfish <em></em>is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade. This species may also be threatened by a number of other threats upon its habitat, such as destructive fishing practices, eutrophication, sedimentation, tourism, and coastal development. However these are localised threats only and this species is not dependent on live coral cover.	eng
154921	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Bahia de Loreto National Park in the Gulf of California. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the ecology, population numbers, and potential threat processes of this species is needed.	eng
154921	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> is known from the Gulf of California and southern region of the Gulf of Panama. This species is also reported from Costa Rica (Bussing 1980).	eng
154921	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of the basslet, <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however, it is found at depths between 120 - 250 m on coral reefs.	eng
154921	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em>, however, healthy stocks of <em>Serranidae</em> species have been reported in the Gulf of California (NOAA 2003).	eng
154921	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Some species from the Serranidae family, particularly members from the Liopropomatini sub-family, are of value as aquarium fishes (FAO 1999). <em>Liopropoma longilepis</em> may also be affected by the altering of ecosystem health in the Gulf of California, caused by pollution and increasing numbers of fishing vessels (NOAA 2003).	eng
154922	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Shiretoko National Park in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; Further research is needed on the habitat and ecology of this species, as little information is currently available. &#160; Monitoring of the impacts of fishing and pollutants is also required.	eng
154922	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> occurs in the northwest Pacific from Japan to the Bering Sea, including the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
154922	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; The depth profile of this species is 160–1,800 m.	eng
154922	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no available population information for <em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em>.	eng
154922	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycenchelys hippopotamus</em> inhabits the Sea of Okhotsk, and is therefore likely to be impacted by oil spills, and the threats associated with heavy shipping traffic, such as bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals (GIWA 2008).  Due to its large size, it also is likely to be taken as by-catch.	eng
154923	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and habitat of this species as little information is available.	eng
154923	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is known from one specimen found floating on the surface near a lava flow by the island of Hawaii.	eng
154923	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The cusk eel <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is likely to be a benthopelagic species. This species may, like other members of this genus, occur on the bottom at upper slope depths. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154923	population	Allen, G.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is likely to be rare (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999): it has not been recorded since the type specimen was collected in 1950, despite significant survey effort in the area (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154923	threats	Allen, G.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Luciobrotula lineata</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes, but if it does inhabit deeper waters like other members of the genus <em>Luciobrotula</em>, it is unlikely that it is threatened. There is little fishing effort in the area owing to lava flows and the lack of shallower shelf waters (O. Gon, G. R. Allen and J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154924	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notopogon macrosolen</em>.	eng
154924	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is known from southern Namibia to Saldanha Bay, northwest of Cape Town, South Africa. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 150,693 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154924	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is a bathydemersal species typically found on soft bottoms at a depth range of 200 - 500 m.	eng
154924	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Notopogon macrosolen</em>.	eng
154924	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Notopogon macrosolen</em> is occasionally taken as by-catch in trawls off southern Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). There is no catch data available for this species. However due to the depths at which this species is found, the incidental catch of this species is unlikely to pose a significant threat to the population.	eng
154926	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em> Xenopoclinus leprosus</em>.&#160; However, in places, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.	eng
154926	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is found from from Orange River Mouth in Namibia, to Algoa Bay in South Africa.	eng
154926	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is a viviparous species, found over sand and gravel substrates in brackish and marine waters.&#160; It is typically found in bays and estuaries.&#160; The main prey of this species is amphipods and isopods.&#160;  It has been found at depths of 1–23 m.	eng
154926	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em> is common in intertidal and sandy areas at depths of around 20 m (Smith 1986).	eng
154926	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Xenopoclinus leprosus</em>.	eng
154927	conservation	Myers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J.T. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Entomacrodus macrospilus</em>. It is found to occur in a number of marine protected areas in part of its distribution.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and potential threats of this species.	eng
154927	distribution	Myers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J.T. , 2009	This species is only known from the Marquesas Islands.	eng
154927	habitat	Myers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J.T. , 2009	<em>Entomacrodus macrospilus </em>inhabits high energy rocky coasts to a maximum depth of 8 m.	eng
154927	population	Myers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J.T. , 2009	<em>Entomacrodus macrospilus</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm. 2009).	eng
154927	threats	Myers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J.T. , 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
154928	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Antigonia combatia</em>.	eng
154928	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is known from the western central Atlantic ranging from New Jersey, USA to northern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.	eng
154928	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is a benthopelagic species found within the upper continental shelf at a depth range of 120 - 600 m. This species feeds on small invertebrates.	eng
154928	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Antigonia combatia</em>.	eng
154928	threats	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Antigonia combatia</em> is occasionally landed as a food source but is not of any major commercial importance. There are no known major threats for this species. Due to its deep-water nature it is unlikely to be impacted by many human-induced and climatic threats.	eng
154929	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for<em> Benthocometes robustus</em>.	eng
154929	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Benthocometes robustus</em> has been found in the tropical west Atlantic, around northwest Africa, the western Mediterranean Sea, Balearic Sea, southern Sardinia, the Adriatic, eastern Ionian Sea, and off Cyprus. In 1994 this species was also described from southern Brazil (Haimovici <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994).	eng
154929	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species mainly found between depths of 500-1,000 m. However, it can be found at a wider ranging depth profile of 385 - 1,200 m. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous and the larvae of this species are epipelagic (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154929	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Benthocometes robustus</em> has been noted as common (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999) but uncommon in the Mediterranean region (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
154929	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Benthocometes robustus</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.	eng
154930	conservation	Collette, B.B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Batrachoides surinamensis</em>, however this species may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas affording it some protection from harvesting.	eng
154930	distribution	Collette, B.B., 2009	The Pacuma Toadfish<em> (Batrachoides surinamensis</em>) is found along the coasts of Central and South America from Honduras to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil.	eng
154930	habitat	Collette, B.B., 2009	The Pacuma Toadfish is a relatively inactive demersal species found on muddy substrates in shallow warm brackish waters. It has been found to depths of 36 m. This species mainly feeds upon small gastropods and crustaceans.	eng
154930	population	Collette, B.B., 2009	Pacuma Toadfish have been described as abundant and widely-distributed (B.B. Collette pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154930	threats	Collette, B.B., 2009	Pacuma Toadfish is taken by the commercial fishing industry in Trinidad and French Guiana as a food fish, but is of little commercial importance in Venezuela (Collette 2002). It is marketed fresh. Harvesting for food is not considered to pose a major threat to this species at present as it only occurs within a small part of its range.	eng
154931	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, however its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154931	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	This species is found in the southern Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden.	eng
154931	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pseudochromis sankeyi</em> is a cryptic species found under rock and coralline ledges, and in caves within the vicinity of coral reefs. It is found on the fore-slope reefs at a depth range of 2 - 10 m. It has been seen congregating in groups of up to 100 individuals (Michael 2001).	eng
154931	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It has been seen congregating in groups of up to 100 individuals (Michael 2001).	eng
154931	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	Species of the <em>Pseudochromis</em> genus are commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is not known to what extent this particular species is utilised. <br/><br/>It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines owing to coastal development and pollution however these threats are not widespread at present.	eng
154932	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
154932	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parupeneus posteli</span> is endemic to Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean. Although it has not been confirmed, it is possible that this species may also occur in Mauritius due to the small distance between the two islands (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,736km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154932	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	Specimens of <em>Parupeneus posteli</em> have been found at depths between 150 m to 250 m. This species is likely to occur over sand substrate (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154932	population	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154932	threats	Heemstra, P.C., 2009	This species is likely to be harvested by hook and line, gillnets and traps (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009), however it is unlikely to be intensively harvested due to its small size and the absence of trawler fisheries within its range. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikley to be threatened by coastal development or pollution.	eng
154933	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Humpback Turretfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.	eng
154933	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Humpback Turretfish <em>(Tetrosomus gibbosus</em>) is distributed from East Africa to Indonesia, north to Japan, and south to Australia.&#160; The distribution of this species includes the Red Sea. It has also spread to the Mediterranean, via the Suez Canal.	eng
154933	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Humpback Turretfish is usually found in deep offshore waters over coastal slopes and sheltered muddy and sandy substrates.&#160; It is also occasionally found near shallow algae and seagrass beds with silty rubble substrates, and areas of part-destroyed coral reefs, and rocky outcrops.&#160; This species has a depth range of 37–110 m, and feeds on macroalgae and invertebrates, including worms, crustaceans, molluscs, and sponges.	eng
154933	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Humpback Turretfish has only recently become established in the Mediterranean. While it is relatively uncommon there now, it may increase in population size in the future (Spanier and Goren 1988).	eng
154933	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Humpback Turretfish is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade, although it is known to be difficult to maintain.&#160; It is not harvested as a food source due to its poisonous organs and flesh, however it may be taken as by-catch during trawling (FAO 1984). <br/><br/>More general threats to this species include threats associated with habitat degradation.&#160; Around the Red Sea, there has been considerable dredging and pollution associated with the shipping industry.&#160; However, these threats are not known across the entire range of this species, and are unlikely to be causing any significant population decline at present.	eng
154934	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats, population trends, and abundance of this species.	eng
154934	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus winterbottomi</span> has only been found from Middle Mangrove Island and Exmouth Gulf, Australia.  No specimens were found either north or south despite further searches (Gill <em>et al.</em> 2000).  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,008km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154934	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Congrogadus winterbottomi</em> is found in muddy rock pools within the intertidal zone to a depth of 5 m. This species appears to have a small distribution, which is not an uncommon trait in the Pseudochromidae family (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
154934	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154934	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are plans to build on one of the worlds largest salt marshes at Exmouth Gulf, which could lead to habitat degradation and high levels of larvae mortality (Australian Marine Conservation Society 2007). It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats at present.	eng
154935	conservation	Hutchins, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anacanthus barbatus</em>.	eng
154935	distribution	Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> is distributed from western India, east to the Philippines, and south to northwestern Australia.	eng
154935	habitat	Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> has a depth range of 3-8 m and inhabits sandy, weedy areas of coastal reefs. It is also found over open muddy substrates in estuaries as well as deep coastal bays and mangroves. This is a cryptic species found lining up with ropes, seawhips, large stringy-type sponges, as well as mangrove roots.	eng
154935	population	Hutchins, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Anacanthus barbatus</em>.	eng
154935	threats	Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Anacanthus barbatus</em> is of minor commercial importance (FAO 2001b), and so is not likely to be undergoing a significant population decline.<br/><br/>This species may also be impacted by habitat degradation caused by coastal development, however this is only a localised threat and because this species is found in a number of different habitat types this is not considered a major threat.	eng
154936	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for<em> Chaunax flammeus</em>.	eng
154936	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Chaunax flammeus</em> is found in the western Indian Ocean around Madagascar.	eng
154936	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Chaunax flammeus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 195-810 m. Congener <em>Chaunax stigmaeus</em> has been found sitting on the dense rubble beds of dead coral (<em>Lophelia pertusa</em>) off the southeastern USA. Other congeners have been found on soft bottoms (Caruso<em> et al.</em> 2007). Species from the Chaunacidae family occur on continental slopes (FAO 1999).	eng
154936	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is currently no population information available for this species.	eng
154936	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats due to the depth range at which it can be found.	eng
154937	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spotted Velvetfish. <br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154937	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	The Spotted Velvetfish (<em>Erisphex pottii</em>) is distributed from Matsushima Bay and Niigata Prefecture, Japan southward to the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This species has recently been reported from the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <em>et al</em>. 1994).	eng
154937	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	The Spotted Velvetfish can be found over sand or mud bottoms. Froese and Pauly (2007) state that this species inhabits shallow waters, whilst Masuda <em>et al</em>. (1975) report that this species' is found in fairly deep waters.	eng
154937	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for the Spotted Velvetfish.	eng
154937	threats	Poss, S., 2009	The Spotted Velvetfish is harvested for use in animal feeds and fertilisers (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1975). It is not known what impact this is having on the population numbers of this species. Threats cannot be determined without a depth profile for this species.	eng
154938	conservation	Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K., Sorensen, M., Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bhanotia nuda</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154938	distribution	Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K., Sorensen, M., Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is known from Palau and Maiwara Island, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154938	habitat	Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K., Sorensen, M., Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is a small and secretive species found on shallow algae reef habitats, in tidal pools and in sheltered reef flats (Kuiter 2000). It is also known from the vicinity of mangrove forests, coral reefs, and silty waters. Metamorphosed individuals of this species may be found in tide pools to a depth of at least 14 m (Myers 1991). Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154938	population	Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K., Sorensen, M., Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bhanotia nuda</em>.	eng
154938	threats	Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Morgan, S.K., Sorensen, M., Fritzsche, R., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Bhanotia nuda</em> is known from a number of habitat types including mangroves, silty coastal waters, algal reefs and coral reef systems, some of which are threatened.  However, since this species utilizes a number of different habitats, there are no known specific major threats.	eng
154939	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154939	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	The Western Atlantic Finless Eel<em> (Apterichtus kendalli) </em>is distributed from Venezuela, north to South Carolina including the Bahamas. One specimen of this species has also been collected from St. Helena Island in the eastern Atlantic.	eng
154939	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	The Western Atlantic Finless Eel<em> </em>is a demersal species with a depth range of 3 - 400 m. This species burrows into the sand and can be found within the continental shelf. Species from the Ophichthidae family have a pelagic leptocephalus larva (FAO 2002).	eng
154939	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information for <em>Apterichtus kendalli</em>, however, species from the family Ophichthidae are often extremely abundant (FAO 2002).	eng
154939	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Although no direct fishery exists for finless eels, the larger species' from this family are taken as by-catch by trawls and hook-and-line (FAO 2002). Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution from urban centres.	eng
154940	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Painted Anthias. However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154940	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Painted Anthias <em>(Pseudanthias pictilis</em>) has been found off New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island, and the southern Great Barrier Reef.&#160;  It is also known from Norfolk Island and Tonga.	eng
154940	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Painted Anthias occurs in aggregations above steep slopes on the outer reef.&#160;  The depth profile of this species is 12-40 m, in the euphotic zone.	eng
154940	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Painted Anthias	eng
154940	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	While not considered as major threats to the Painted Anthias, areas within this species' range have been impacted by Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching.	eng
154941	conservation	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, biology, ecology and threats.	eng
154941	distribution	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico, and is only known from the holotype taken from the stomach of a White Seabass at Thetis Bank off the west coast of Baja California (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).	eng
154941	habitat	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There is little known about this species biology or ecology.	eng
154941	population	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154941	threats	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154942	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span>. However, this species' distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
154942	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
154942	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span> lives in coastal and estuarine waters at depths of 10–30 m.	eng
154942	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span> is considered common, based on shrimp trawls and market surveys in the Gulf of Nicoya in Costa Rica, Panama Bay in Panama, and Colombia.	eng
154942	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, <span style="font-style: italic;">Notarius troschelii</span>  is important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh.	eng
154943	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for Whitelegg's weedfish.	eng
154943	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Whitelegg's weedfish (<em>Heteroclinus whiteleggii</em>) is endemic to the waters of New South Wales, Australia, from Byron Bay to Jervis Bay.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,248km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154943	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Whitelegg's weedfish is associated with rocks covered in algae and is found in rockpools, intertidal areas and shallow weed-covered rocky reefs. It is a bottom dwelling species found in shallow waters from the surface to 3 m depth.	eng
154943	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for Whitelegg's weedfish.	eng
154943	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Whitelegg's weedfish occurs in a developed area of New South Wales.&#160;  However, potential threats such as water pollution are thought to be unlikely to impact this species across its entire range.&#160;  There is no documented population decline for this species.	eng
154944	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parapercis striolata</em>.	eng
154944	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The sandperch, <em>Parapercis striolata</em>, is only known from two specimens collected from the Kai Islands, Indonesia, and the Philippines.	eng
154944	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parapercis striolata</em> is a demersal species which inhabits the continental slope.&#160; Males of other species in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis</span> genus are territorial and maintain harems (FAO 2001b).&#160;  One of the two known specimens was found at a depth of 310 m.	eng
154944	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis striolata</span>.&#160;  This species' habitat is difficult to sample.	eng
154944	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis striolata</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes. There are no known major threats on the deeper continental slope areas where this species has been collected.	eng
154945	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psudanthias cichlops</em>. However, there are 52 marine protected areas around Japan, some which incorporate this species' rocky reef habitat. There are also conservation management plans for reefs off the coast of Japan, as well as Crown of Thorns starfish extermination projects, which have been met with some success. Further research is needed on threats to this species and its habitat status.	eng
154945	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The distribution of <em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em> extends south from Japan to the Indian Ocean.	eng
154945	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em> is found in the mid-euphotic zone at depths ranging of 20-40 m on rocky tropical reefs and current-prone soft-bottom slopes.	eng
154945	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias cichlops</em>.	eng
154945	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Pseudanthias cichlops </em>is being impacted by any major threat processes.  Although this species is not harvested for the aquarium trade, other species within the <em>Pseudanthias</em> genus are regularly collected.  Rocky tropical reefs within this species' range are susceptible to habitat degradation from dynamite fishing, but this is currently considered to be a localized threat only.	eng
154946	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The Queensland Fishery is regulated under Queensland's Fisheries Regulations 1995. Regulations include a bag limit of five individuals and minimal size limit of 50 cm, that applies to both commercial and recreational fishers on the East Coast of Queensland. Recreational fishers are also limited to 30 school mackerel per fishing trip. Commercial fishers must also have a licence with a fishery symbol from Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI and F) allowing them to fish for <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> (CRC 2006). These licences also regulate fishing practices and gear.	eng
154946	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is distributed from southern Papua New Guinea and northern Australia, south from Shark Bay to Onslow on the west coast and south to Sydney on the east coast (Collette and Nauen 1983).	eng
154946	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is an epipelagic, neritic schooling species, which often inhabits turbid coastal waters in embayments and estuaries (Begg and Hopper 1997, Begg and Sellin 1998). It forms mixed schools with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. commerson</span> over shallow reefs offshore of Queensland. <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is seasonally migratory and moves into inshore waters, bays and estuaries of Queensland during the southern midwinter and early spring. The depth profile of <em>S. queenslandicus</em> has a lower limit of around 100 m. However, it often inhabits very turbid coastal waters shallower than 30 m. Common length 50 to 80 cm FL.<br/><br/>            <p>Age of maturity is 1.5 yr, study done in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Begg (1998a)</p>             <p>Age of maturity is 1.5 yr, study   done in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>   by Begg (1998a)</p>             <p>Length at 50%&#160; maturity is 42.55 cm FL, study done in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> by   Begg (1998a)</p>             <p>Length at 50%&#160; maturity is 37.55 cm FL, study done in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region> by   Begg (1998a)</p>             <p>Maximum age: 10 yr in a growth study using   Otoliths in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>   by Begg (1998b)</p>             <p>100 cm FL in   Collette (1983)</p>	eng
154946	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is abundant in parts of its range (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009). This species is taken with others of its genus in a fishery in Queensland with a reported annual take of 1,000 t&#160; (Collette and Nauen 1983)<span style="font-style: italic;">.<br/><br/></span>The CPUE for this species is stable from 1998 to 2003 (CRC Reef Research Center Current State of Knowledge May 2005)<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Commercial catches from 1999 to 2000 increased significantly, while recreational catches decreased. This led to a change in management in 2002, where commercial net fishers are now prohibited from targeting this species. A formal stock assessment has been conducted (CRC 2005).	eng
154946	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is of commercial importance to fisheries and is marketed fresh. <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> together with <em>S. munroi</em>, <em>S. semifasciatus</em> and <em>S. commerson</em> forms important commercial and recreational fisheries throughout Queensland, the Northern Territory, Western Australia, and to a lesser extent northern New South Wales (Begg and Sellin 1997). In 1999 the Torres Strait Fishery was expanded to include <em>S. queenslandicus</em> (Torres Strait PZJA 2006). <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is caught by commercial fishers with the use of set mesh nets, drift nets or ring nets, or hook and line.<br/><br/>Four species of <em>Scomberomorous</em>, including <em>Grammatorcynus</em> and <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> form Queensland's second most important fin-fishery with an annual production of around 1,000 t of whole and filleted fish. <em>Scomberomorus queenslandicus</em> is caught by recreational and commercial line-fishermen with trolling lures including cut bait and metal spoons (Collette 2001).<br/><br/>Surveys conducted across Queensland's recreational fisheries, have revealed that between 40 to 65% of <em>S. queenslandicus</em> landed are caught by recreational fishers (CRC 2005).	eng
154947	conservation	Curtis-Quick, J., Hastings, P.A., Patzner, R.A., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154947	distribution	Curtis-Quick, J., Hastings, P.A., Patzner, R.A., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is a species known from Brunei, eastern Sabah to the Solomon Islands and in the south central islands of Indonesia.	eng
154947	habitat	Curtis-Quick, J., Hastings, P.A., Patzner, R.A., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em></em> <em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is found on coastal fringing reefs and lagoons to 10 m. It is solitary or in small groups on coral outcroppings.<br/><br/>For most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius, </span>juveniles and adults are almost entirely restricted to subtidal habitats with living coral.&#160; Little information is available on the reproductive habits and the early life history of species of this genus (Springer 1988).	eng
154947	population	Curtis-Quick, J., Hastings, P.A., Patzner, R.A., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Ecsenius trilineatus</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm. 2009).	eng
154947	threats	Curtis-Quick, J., Hastings, P.A., Patzner, R.A., Smith-Vaniz, W.F. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. However, most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecsenius </span>are likely to be collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
154948	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>.	eng
154948	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em> is known from Japan (Sagami Bay, Suruga Bay, Kumano Nada, Tosa Bay and Okinawa Trough) and the Sulu Sea, Philippines.	eng
154948	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em> is a meso-/bathypelagic species with a depth range of 100-3,178 m. Some species of the Stomiidae family migrate to near surface at night. The diet of this family is thought to consist of midwater fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
154948	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no known population information for <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>.	eng
154948	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of <em>Astronesthes indopacificus</em>, it is unlikely to be impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
154949	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its ecology, population numbers and potential threat processes.	eng
154949	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is endemic to the west coast of Tasmania, Australia.	eng
154949	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth range of 1,120–1,220 m.	eng
154949	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis atrolabiatus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
154949	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Paraliparis atrolabiatus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154950	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including several in the Virgin Islands.&#160; A seagrass monitoring scheme was established in 2004 which involves the twice yearly assessment of several seagrass sites around the islands (BVI Government 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, to establish if <em>A. amplicirrus</em> does consist of two separate species.	eng
154950	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic, around the Virgin Islands, Belize and Southern Mexico.&#160; It has also been found around Florida, although it is not certain whether this is the same species (Johnson and Greenfield 1983). Its type locality is in the Virgin Islands.&#160; Specimens from Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados are also recorded in Fishbase, but these records need to be confirmed.	eng
154950	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> is normally found in shallow waters not exceeding a depth of 1.5 metres, over seagrass beds (Johnson and Greenfield 1983), corals and rocky bottoms, but it has also been collected at a depth of 20 m (Royal Ontario Museum).	eng
154950	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em>.	eng
154950	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Acyrtops amplicirrus</em> is found in a number of different habitat types, including coral, rocky bottoms and sea grass beds, which is likely to buffer it from the impacts of known threats in this region.	eng
154951	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lethrinus genivittatus.</em>&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of <em>L. genivittatus</em>, to ensure that individuals of this species are not misidentified as other species.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest is also needed.	eng
154951	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is an Indo-Pacific emperor fish, distributed from Indonesia (including the Indian Ocean side) east to the Caroline Islands and Papua New Guinea, north to southern Japan, and south to Northern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory, Western Australia) and New Caledonia.	eng
154951	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is a shallow water species associated with seagrass beds, sand flats, mangrove swamps and outer-reef slopes.&#160; It is predominately found on <em>Halimeda</em> beds, and rarely on reefs and <em>Sargassum</em> beds in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia; this is thought to be related to substrate composition rather than algae presence (Rossier and Kulbicki 2000).&#160; This species also penetrates into rivers in some areas.&#160; Individuals feed mostly on small fishes and crustaceans.&#160; <em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and length at sex change is recorded to be 18.0 cm (TL) (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
154951	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> was reported to be the most dominant species associated with the cactus algae, <em>Halimeda,</em> in the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia, with a density of 0.032 fish/m<sup>2</sup> (Rossier and Kulbicki 2000).	eng
154951	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is of minor commercial importance due to its small average size.&#160; It is mostly caught using shore seines and is marketed fresh.&#160; The harvesting of this species as a food source is not considered a major threat.<br/><br/><em>Lethrinus genivittatus</em> is associated with a variety of habitats which are subjected to a number of threats including water pollution, deforestation of mangroves, over-fishing, tourism, coastal development, and increasing sea temperatures.&#160; However, these localised threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are not considered a major threat to this species.&#160; In addition, this species is known from a number of habitat types.	eng
154952	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154952	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em> is distributed from the east and south coast of Africa to the Marshall Islands, north to southern Japan and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. This species is also known from Tonga and throughout French Polynesia.	eng
154952	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogonichthys ocellatus</em> is found in shallow lagoons and tidal pools, bays and harbours hiding among rocks, coral rubble or clumps of brown algae to maximum depths of 5 m. It is a nocturnal species, that utilises rocky reefs as a means of shelter during the day. Individuals demonstrate distinct pairing during courtship and spawning.	eng
154952	population	Gon, O., 2009	This is a secretive and cryptic species but it is common within suitable habitat.	eng
154952	threats	Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be harvested for commecial trade. It may be taken incidentally by local fishers using handnets on rocky reefs to capture other species, however this is a localised threat and not known across the entire distribution range of this species. This species does not appear to be linked to a particular habitat type and can be found in harbour areas, indicating a level of tolerance to sources of water pollution. This species is not threatened by any major threats.	eng
154953	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and the severity of potential threats to this species as little information is currently available.	eng
154953	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>is found in the Arctic and is distributed from the White Sea of Russia to Hershel Island, Canada, including the New Siberian Islands.	eng
154953	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	The eelpout, <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>, is a demersal species that has a depth range of 9–90 m and is found in shallow, inshore waters.&#160; It is found on soft bottoms of brackish water with a salinity range of 15–27 ppt.&#160; This species feeds on a mix of isopods, bivalves and polychaetes.	eng
154953	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em>.	eng
154953	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Lycodes jugoricus</em> is being impacted by any major threatening processes.&#160; This species inhabits relatively shallow inshore areas, and is therefore possibly impacted by coastal pollution.&#160; It may also be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.	eng
154954	conservation	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Barraza, E., Victor, B. & Medina, B., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures known for <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span>. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.	eng
154954	distribution	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Barraza, E., Victor, B. & Medina, B., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum </span>is found in southern Baja and the Central Gulf of California to Ecuador. It is also known from all the offshore islands except for Clipperton.	eng
154954	habitat	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Barraza, E., Victor, B. & Medina, B., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span> forms aggregations that feed on plankton around rocky and coral reefs to depths of 45 m. It also feeds on benthic crustaceans, and fish eggs; and the young sometimes "clean" parasites from other fishes. It is a pelagic spawner, and sex reversal is completed in 2–6 weeks (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987; Warner 1982).	eng
154954	population	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Barraza, E., Victor, B. & Medina, B., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span> is abundant but there are no specific estimates of population (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from R. Robertson).	eng
154954	threats	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Barraza, E., Victor, B. & Medina, B., 2007	There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassoma lucasanum</span>. It could possibly be collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
154955	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Lang, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sillago indica</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the range, abundance and harvest levels of this species.	eng
154955	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Lang, N., 2009	<em>Sillago indica</em> is known from the east and west coasts of India, and along the coast of Oman. This species distribution may extend along the coastlines of other countries, however it is difficult to identify and so the full distribution range of this species is not yet known (N. Lang pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154955	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Lang, N., 2009	<em>Sillago indica</em> inhabits coastal waters at a depth range of 0 - 30 m.	eng
154955	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Lang, N., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Sillago indica</em>.	eng
154955	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Lang, N., 2009	It is thought that <em>Sillago indica</em> is taken by the commercial fishing industry as by-catch, however considering the difficulties in identifying this species, we cannot be sure of the harvest rate (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). It is unlikely to be taken as a food source due to its small size (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154956	conservation	Auster, P., Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zeus capensis</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas.	eng
154956	distribution	Auster, P., Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Zeus capensis</em> is distributed from Namibia, around the Cape to Mozambique.	eng
154956	habitat	Auster, P., Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The dory, <em>Zeus capensis</em>, is a demersal species found at a depth range of 35-400 m on the continental shelf and slope. It has been found in midwater and close to the seafloor. The diet of this species consists of fish, cephalopods and crustaceans.	eng
154956	population	Auster, P., Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	Bianchi <em>et al</em>. (1999) noted that <em>Zeus capensis</em> was among the dominant fish species on the central shelf along Namibia, an area at the northern most limit of this species' range.  It is also common off the coast of South Africa (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154956	threats	Auster, P., Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Zeus capensis</em> is an excellent food fish, caught by demersal trawling, and is often taken as by-catch in hake fisheries (Rheeder and Sauer 1998). It is marketed both fresh and frozen. However, this is not thought to represent a major threat to this species at present.	eng
154957	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is present in several protected areas within its range. In Costa Rica it is found in Marino Ballena National Park, Isla del Caño Biological Reserve, and Santa Rosa National Park. In Panama it is found in Coiba National Park, Coiba Special Zone of Marine Protection, and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
154957	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from Costa Rica and Panama. The area of occupancy for this species is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, given its restricted near-shore range and very shallow-water habitat.	eng
154957	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is found on shallow rocky or coral reefs and in tide pools to depths of five m.	eng
154957	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	This species is uncommon, and is rarely recorded despite directed surveys involving appropriate techniques for cryptic species.	eng
154957	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa-Perez, H. & Hastings, P., 2007	Major threats for this species include habitat degradation and destruction due to diving, extraction of corals or live rocks, blast fishing, etc. (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). This species may also be susceptible to current or future ENSO events,  given its very narrow and shallow depth range (Glynn 1991, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Hughes <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, D’Croz and Maté 2004).	eng
154958	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Heteroclinus roseus</em>.&#160; However, it may occur within the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.	eng
154958	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Heteroclinus roseus</em> is a Pacifc weedfish known from Western Australia to New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Vanuatu (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154958	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Heteroclinus roseus</em> is a cryptic species that inhabits seaweed and kelp belts along the coast of Western Australia, and is often associated with rocks covered in algae.&#160; It is a bottom dwelling species found in the shallow photic zone.	eng
154958	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroclinus roseus</span>.	eng
154958	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroclinus roseus</span>.&#160; The coastline of Southern Australia is relatively unaffected by coastal development and pollution at present.	eng
154959	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Gorgonian Goby, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
154959	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	The Gorgonian Goby <em>(Bryaninops amplus)</em> is distributed from Natal in South Africa, Madagascar, the Maldives and Seychelles, to the Hawaiian Islands, north to Southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and the Northern Territory, Australia.	eng
154959	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	The Gorgonian Goby<em></em> is&#160; a demersal species that has a depth range of 1 - 30 m. It lives exclusively on, or in close association with gorgonian seawhips, <em>Juncella fragilis</em> and <em>J. juncea</em>, which usually occur in groups in areas exposed to currents; these can be found in the vicinity of coral reefs. This species may also live in association with other species such as <em>Ellisella maculata</em>, or even on mooring lines. Individuals are benthic spawners.	eng
154959	population	Larson, H.K. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	There is no population information available for the Gorgonian Goby.	eng
154959	threats	Larson, H.K. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	The Gorgonian Goby,<em> Bryaninops amplus</em>, is harvested for aquarium trade, however this is not considered a major threat to this species as it is only harvested on a small scale in a few areas of its distribution.	eng
154960	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus oviceps</em>, however the distribution covers some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure that any increased demand for this species does not result in a significant decline.	eng
154960	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is widely distributed in the western and central Pacific Oceans to the Society Islands and Tuamoto Archipelago. Its range extends west to the eastern Indian Ocean including Western Australia (south to Shark Bay), Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands.	eng
154960	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> inhabits lagoons and seaward coral reefs on the outer slope at a depth range of 1 - 15 m. This species is typically found individually and in groups (juvenilles and initial phase) (G.R. Alllen pers. comm. 2009). <em>Scarus oviceps</em> scrapes coralline surfaces for microlagae. It is also feeds on the faecal matter of damselfish (Bailey and Robertson 1982).	eng
154960	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is a common species of parrotfish (Bailey and Robertson 1982).	eng
154960	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Scarus oviceps</em> is harvested commercially as a food fish using traps, gill nets and spearing. It may be undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and pollution. At present there is no evidence to suggest that this species is undergoing a significant decline as a result of any of the mentioned threats.	eng
154961	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for  <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154961	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parapercis somaliensis</em> is known from the Red Sea, Somalia, Sumbawa, Indonesia, Taiwan (Chen 2004), Japan (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), Java and Comoros (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154961	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Parapercis somaliensis</em> occurs on deep coastal slopes and is sometimes collected in deep water trawls (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).&#160; Species of the family Pinguipedidae are carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic crustaceans and occasionally on small fishes (FAO 2001b).&#160; It is expected that all members of the genus are protogynous hermaphrodites.&#160; Males of other species in this genus are territorial and maintain harems (FAO 2001b).&#160; This species is taken in trawls at a depth range of 50–110 m (Russian Academy of Science 2002).	eng
154961	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>.	eng
154961	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threat processes impacting <em>Parapercis somaliensis</em>.	eng
154962	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<em></em><br/><br/>Further research on the possible threats of this species is needed to determine if it is taken as by-catch and in what quantity.	eng
154962	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Upturned Snout Rattail, <em>Caelorinchus mycterismus</em>, is known from the Wanganella Bank and northern and central New Zealand waters including the Chatham Rise and the Challenger Plateau.	eng
154962	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Upturned Snout Rattail is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 833-1,150 m over plateaus and seamounts. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154962	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Upturned Snout Rattail is reported to be an abundant species particularly around the North Island and on the Challenger Plateau.	eng
154962	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	As this species is known from some commercial fishing grounds, Challenger Plateau, it is possible it may be taken as by-catch by a number of fisheries. However it is reported to be an abundant species in this area and so is not thought to be undergoing a significant population decline at the present time.	eng
154963	conservation	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Priolepis sticta</em>. Further research on the distribution, abundance and threats for this species should be carried out.	eng
154963	distribution	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L. , 2009	<em>Priolepis sticta</em> is known from only eight specimens taken from a single locality off Flores, Indonesia. Winterbottom and Burridge (1992) state that this species "may be more widely distributed than present evidence indicates".	eng
154963	habitat	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L. , 2009	Like other gobies, <em>Priolepis sticta</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Specimens were collected from muddy substrates at a depth of 16–17 m, but its complete depth range is not known.	eng
154963	population	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L. , 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis sticta</span>.	eng
154963	threats	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L. , 2009	Nothing is known about potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Priolepis sticta</span>.	eng
154964	conservation	Acero, A., Clarke, T., Murdy, E., Paxton, J. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Duckbill Eel.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Isla de Aves Wildlife Refuge off the coast of Venezuela.&#160; Further research is needed on  its distribution, abundance, and threats, including monitoring of by-catch levels.	eng
154964	distribution	Acero, A., Clarke, T., Murdy, E., Paxton, J. & Russell, B., 2009	The Duckbill Eel (<em>Hoplunnis schmidti</em>) occurs off the coast of Venezuela.&#160; It has also been reported from the northwest coast of Africa (Maurin and Quero 1982), but this is thought to be a misidentification (D. Smith pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154964	habitat	Acero, A., Clarke, T., Murdy, E., Paxton, J. & Russell, B., 2009	The Duckbill Eel is a demersal species.&#160; Species from the Nettastomatidae family are known to live on or near the bottom in moderately deep water (Carpenter 2002).	eng
154964	population	Acero, A., Clarke, T., Murdy, E., Paxton, J. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for the Duckbill Eel.	eng
154964	threats	Acero, A., Clarke, T., Murdy, E., Paxton, J. & Russell, B., 2009	It is unknown if the Duckbill Eel is being impacted by any major threats.&#160; Species from the Nettastomatidae family have no commercial value but they are occasionally taken as by-catch in trawls (Carpenter 2002).&#160; Fishing off the coast of Venezuela is intense and the annual landings of fish from Venezuela in the past decade have generally declined indicating the area is being over-fished (Earthtrend 2007).&#160; It is therefore quite likely that the Duckbill Eel is taken as by-catch in some parts of its range.&#160; However, there are no data available to indicate the scale of this by-catch and whether this is causing population declines in this species.	eng
154965	conservation	Hutchins, B., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acreichthys hajam</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>This species appears to be restricted to coral reefs and seagrass beds. Information is needed to determine if threats to these habitats are substantial threats to the species.	eng
154965	distribution	Hutchins, B., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Acreichthys hajam</em> is a northwestern Pacific filefish, known from the Ryukyu Islands and the Philippines.	eng
154965	habitat	Hutchins, B., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Acreichthys hajam</em> is a demersal species, which has been collected near coral reef habitats (Situ and Sadovy 2004) and seagrass beds (K. Matsuura pers.comm. 2009). Many species of the family Monacanthidae are omnivorous and will feed on almost any food source.	eng
154965	population	Hutchins, B., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Acreichthys hajam</em>. It may be locally abundant in seagrass beds (K. Matsuura pers.comm.  2009).	eng
154965	threats	Hutchins, B., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting<em> Acreichthys hajam.<br/></em>	eng
154966	conservation	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology, population numbers, potential threat processes, and distribution of this species.	eng
154966	distribution	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	The rare filefish <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em>, is only known from three specimens collected from Fiji, New Caledonia and Kii Peninsula, Japan.	eng
154966	habitat	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is a demersal species that has been collected at a depth range of 130 to 210 m although its true depth range is yet to be determined.	eng
154966	population	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is reported to be rare (Matsuura 1999).	eng
154966	threats	Hutchins, B. & Matsuura, K., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Thamnaconus fijiensis</em> is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
154967	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E., Van Tassell, J. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Amblygobius buanensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations.	eng
154967	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E., Van Tassell, J. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	The Buan Goby (<em>Amblygobius buanensis</em>) is distributed from the southern Philippines to Java, Indonesia. This species has also been reported from Palau, Micronesia.	eng
154967	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E., Van Tassell, J. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	The species is found in silty, inner tidal flats near mangroves, on inner silty reefs, and in seagrass beds, to a depth of 15 m. This goby feeds on small invertebrates and organic matter.	eng
154967	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E., Van Tassell, J. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	The Buan Goby is very common within the Palau region and is the most abundant species of this genus (R. Winterbottom pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154967	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K., Murdy, E., Van Tassell, J. & Winterbottom, R., 2009	The Buan Goby is associated with, but is not restricted to, mangrove habitats.&#160; The mangroves of the Philippines and Indonesia are threatened by population pressures, large-scale harvest, and conversion to aquaculture ponds (Ong 2002).&#160; It has been estimated that the mangrove area in the Philippines has decreased from 4,500 km² in 1945, to 1,325 km² in 1995 (Valiela <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; The annual rate of mangrove loss in Asia is estimated to be 628 km² per year (Valiela <em>et al</em>. 2001).&#160; However, since the species occurs in a number of habitat types and has a tolerance for silty inner reefs, the above mentioned threats are not likely to be having a significant impact on the population at present (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154968	conservation	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are directives in place to manage the pilchard stocks, in which <em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is included, in South Africa. These include a minimum mesh size of 28 mm, a closed winter season and monitoring at factory landing sites (FAO 2001).	eng
154968	distribution	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> occurs in the southeast Atlantic from Walvis Bay in Namibia to Durban in South Africa.	eng
154968	habitat	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is typically found to occur inshore. Juveniles shoal in near-shore upwelling zones, while adults occur in the deeper waters by the continental shelf edge (Agenbag 2003). This epipelagic species ranges in depth from just below the surface to 200 m. This species is likely to have a short longevity and generation length.	eng
154968	population	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	This species undergoes natural fluctuations in population numbers (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154968	threats	Heemstra, P.C., Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Etrumeus whiteheadi</em> is commercially harvested by both South Africa and Namibian fisheries. There have been fluctuations in the landings of this species over the last 20 years, however there does not appear to be any evidence of a decline in the reported FAO landings (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009), assuming fishing effort has been relatively constant. Landings vary between 30,000 to 55,000 tonnes annually (FishStat 2009). The short longevity of these species renders them less vulnerable to moderate exploitation.<br/><br/>The landing data for this species may be confused with <em>Etrumeus teres</em> in southern Africa (Whitehead 1985).	eng
154969	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Kuronezumia bubonis</em>.	eng
154969	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Kuronezumia bubonis</em> has been reported from French Guiana and Suriname in the western Atlantic (Uyeno <em>et al</em>. 1983), South Africa and Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean (Iwamoto and Anderson 1994), Australia (Paxton<em> et al</em>. 1989), New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al</em>. 1989, Iwamoto and Anderson 1994) and Hawaii (Mundy 2005) in the Pacific.	eng
154969	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Kuronezumia bubonis</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 585-1,300 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are primarily found on the upper continental slope (FAO 1999), and typically feed on bottom invertebrates, free-swimming crustaceans, fish and cephalopods. Macrouridae species are usually schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154969	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	Species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
154969	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no known commercial fishery for this species. Due to the size of this species, it may on occasion be taken as by-catch, however, this is only likely if it is in the upper region of its depth range, and is therefore unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
154970	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is farmed for aquaculture and may be bred in captivity for this purpose.&#160; The distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154970	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is distributed in coastal waters around the western Atlantic from Massachusetts, east to Bermuda, and south to Argentina, including the Northern and Southern Gulf of Mexico, (McEachran and Fechhelm 2005) and the Caribbean Sea.	eng
154970	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is a coastal species found in sub-tropical climates at a depth range of 0–12 m.&#160; Adults of this species are usually found in clear coastal areas and in the surf zone along sandy beaches where they form large schools.&#160; They are also found around reefs and rocky areas (FAO 2002).&#160; Juveniles are common near clean, sandy beaches.&#160; This species is usually associated with high water salinity (FAO 2002).&#160;&#160;<em>Trachinotus</em><em> goodei</em> feeds on crustaceans, polychaete worms, insect pupae, molluscs, and fishes.	eng
154970	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus goodei.</span>	eng
154970	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Trachinotus goodei</em> is fished commercially, and is caught using seines and by sport fishers with hook-and-line.&#160; This species is not fished selectively and is found in Central and South American markets (FAO 2002).&#160; This species is also farmed for aquaculture, therefore commercial harvesting is unlikely to be a major threat to this species.	eng
154971	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Scarus viridifucatus</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154971	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is distributed in the Indian Ocean from Mozambique to Somalia, and also the Maldives, Seychelles and Madagascar. This species has also been found in Thailand, Bali, and Sulawesi (Satapoomin, Kuiter and Randall 1994).	eng
154971	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is found in shallow waters at a depth range of 2 - 15 m. At atoll sites, this species is usually found on coral reef flats or the shallower areas around the front of the reef. This species is also found along rocky shores of islands (Randall and Bruce 1983). This species feeds upon benthic algae.	eng
154971	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> appears to be common throughout its range, especially in the western Indian Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154971	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Scarus viridifucatus</em> is harvested throughout most of its range, as a food source. It is harvested using artisinal fishing gear such as nets and traps. There is no current evidence to suggest that this is causing a significant decline in the global population.<br/><br/>Due to this species association with coral reef habitats it is likely to be undergoing declines due to threats on its habitat including destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, coastal development, pollution, and tourism. However these are localised threats and not considered a major threat to this wide ranging species.	eng
154972	conservation	Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, C. & Massuti, E., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas. Within the Mediterranean, a Strategic Action Plan has been developed to deal with the impacts of land-based pollution sources on the marine ecosystem. Further research and monitoring of the population size and habitat status of this species is needed to determine the extent to which it is impacted by threats such as pollution.</p>	eng
154972	distribution	Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, C. & Massuti, E., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Golani et al. 2006). It is distributed throughout the north-west and east Mediterranean Sea. It is found also in the Balearic Islands, in Ibiza (Fischer et al. 2007).</p>	eng
154972	habitat	Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, C. & Massuti, E., 2009	This species inhabits rocky shores, and dimly lit biotopes like overhanging rocks or caves. This species is common in rocky reefs along the Israeli coast. It is found in shallow water, primarily 0-2 m, among algae (Goren pers. comm. 2007, Goren and Galil 2001).      <p>This species grazes on periphyton (Zander 1986). It is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal, adhesive eggs (Breder and Rosen, 1966). The female deposits eggs inside an empty mussel and the male tends the clutch (Schönfelder 2002).</p>	eng
154972	population	Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, C. & Massuti, E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Red Blenny.	eng
154972	threats	Di Natale, A., Bilecenoglu, M., Bariche, M., Bizsel, C. & Massuti, E., 2009	<p>This bottom-dwelling species is threatened by habitat degradation caused by pollution discharges and oil spills. In the Mediterranean Sea, oil spills occur frequently. The large majority of oil input into the Mediterranean Sea is chronic, stemming from rivers and municipal sources. </p>  <p>&#160; </p>        <p>The Black Sea ecosystem is under severe threat from eutrophication. The sea has a large drainage basin and is impacted by domestic and industrial waste, sewage, agricultural nitrates and phosphates, fisheries waste, coastal development and shipping traffic. There are regular beach closures due to water quality issues. The Mediterranean is also under threat from similar problems, but not on the same scale as the Black Sea.</p>    <p>&#160; </p>    <p>While this species is unlikley to be suffering declines due to direct habitat destruction, many of the pollutants will be impacting this species physiologically or altering the Black Sea food web. It is therefore not known to what extent these threats are affecting this species population.</p>	eng
154973	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this <em>Bassozetus robustus</em>.	eng
154973	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is distributed in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the Atlantic this species is distributed from North Carolina to Colombia, including the Gulf of Mexico. This species has also be reported from the southern coast of Brazil. In the Indian Ocean this species is distributed from Kenya to South Africa. This species has also be recored off the west coast of Australia, and east of the Maldives. In the Pacific Ocean this species has been recorded from the Phillipines, east Australia, New Caledonia, Kermadec Island, and east of New Zealand.	eng
154973	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 1,035-4,420 m. Members of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Bassozetus</span> genus, are generally bottom living species. Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous with pelagic larvae (Nielsen 1999).	eng
154973	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Bassozetus robustus</em> is reported to be rather common throughout its range (Nielsen and Merrett 2000).	eng
154973	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Bassozetus robustus</em>, due to the deep water nature of this species.	eng
154974	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Galapagos marine reserve. Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, harvest levels and threats is needed to determine if coral reef degradation and the aquarium trade will have a negative impact on populations in the future.	eng
154974	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>&#160; is broadly distributed in the Pacific. In the eastern Pacific this species is distributed from southern California south to Chile, including Clipperton Island, Cocos Island (Costa Rica), Galapagos islands and Easter Island. In the western and central Pacific this species has been recorded from the Ryukyu islands, Izu islands, Marcus Island, French Polynesia, Pitcairn islands, Wake Island and the Hawaiian islands.	eng
154974	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span> is found on outer-reef areas and drop-offs. Individuals feed on zooplankton. This species is found at a depth range of 6-131 m.	eng
154974	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154974	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em></em>There are no major threats known to <span style="font-style: italic;">Xanthichthys mento</span>. However, it is associated with coral reef habitats which in some areas of its range have been degraded by water pollution, human population pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns outbreaks and coral bleaching. This species is occasionally seen within the aquarium trade.	eng
154975	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoa delicatissima</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas including the California Coastal State Sanctuary.	eng
154975	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slough Anchovy (<em>Anchoa delicatissima)</em> is found from Long Beach, California south along the coast to Magdalena Bay, Baja California (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
154975	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slough Anchovy is a pelagic, schooling species that can be found in coastal, intertidal areas, including estuaries, bays and lagoons (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988). Its diet consists of plankton (Allen and Horn 1975).  This epipelagic species is found from the surface to 50 m depth.	eng
154975	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slough Anchovy was found to be among the most abundant in surveys of a lagoon in southern California (Allen and Horn 1975).	eng
154975	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Slough Anchovy is reported to be a target species of subsistence fishers, however this is not considered a major threat to this species at present. As this is a coastal species, it may be impacted by pollution discharge and run-off but this is unlikely to be causing significant population declines as it is a localised threat.	eng
154976	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Drombus halei</em>. However the distribution of this species is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154976	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Drombus halei</em> is known from Exmouth in Western Australia to Shoalwater Bay in Queensland.	eng
154976	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Drombus halei</em> is a demersal species found on inshore rocky reefs. The Gobiidae family are usually very secretive and are typically very small. Species from this family primarily inhabit shallow tropical and subtropical waters but can be found in nearly all benthic habitats from the shoreline to depths exceeding 500 m (FAO 2001). Species within the Gobiidae family typically have a short generation length and low age at maturity, and are therefore reasonably tolerant to moderate threats.	eng
154976	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	There is no population information for <em>Drombus halei</em>.	eng
154976	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species. Due to the coastal nature of this species it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution, however much of this species range is underdeveloped and in good condition.	eng
154977	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Harvesting for this species is carried out under stock management regulations. These regulations are applicable throughout much of this species range. In British Columbia, trawls have been limited to incidental catches only, due to low stock levels. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
154977	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em></em>This species is found from the Aleutian Islands and the Bering Sea coast of Alaska to<span> Islas Los Coronados, northern Baja California, Mexico.	eng
154977	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Adults inhabits sandy and muddy&#160; substrates at depths of 80 to 550 m on the continental shelf and slope. As juveniles, the diet consists of small invertebrates, while the adults feed on fishes including herring and small pollock<em></em>, shrimp and crabs.  Spawning occurs during November to March, depending on the particular spawning ground. Females spawn once a year and fecundity is related to fish size. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154977	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	Ten separate breeding stocks have been identified for this species, however mixing of the stocks can occur outside of the spawning season. The stocks in British Columbia were considered to be at low levels by the late 20th century (Fargo and Kronlund 1997). Consequently, annual landings were capped at 479 tonnes (t) in 1997, limiting trawl fishers to incidental harvests only. The proportion of small sized individuals entering the fishery had increased over the period of 1998-2002 (Starr and Fargo 2004). Starr and Fargo (2004) found that the population has been increasing in abundance in recent years and current stock status seems to be at or above the level of maximum yield. Recently an increase of by-catch rates of this species have been recorded by fishermen.<br/><br/>In the USA, this species is not considered to be overfished (Lai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Stocks in the areas between&#160; Vancouver and Columbia (Northern region) and areas south of Columbia (Southern region), reached historical lows in 1992 and 1986 respectively (Lai <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, regional populations of this species can experience periods of low levels of abundance due to adverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, stocks in both regions have increased rapidly in recent years (Lai <em>et al.</em> 2005). In 2005, the estimated spawning biomass of this species was 4960 t for the Northern region and 4667 t for the Southern region.	eng
154977	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em></em>This species is an important commercial food fish, and has been fished throughout its range since the 19th century by bottom trawlers. A substantial portion of the annual harvest is taken from spawning grounds during winter months (November to February). Catches for the USA ranged from approximately 1,400-2,600 t over the period 1981-2004. In Canada, annual landings were capped at 479 t in 1997, limiting trawl fishers to incidental harvests only.<br/><br/>Stocks off both the USA and Canada are said to have increased in recent years (Starr and Fargo 2004; Lai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Recently an increase of by-catch rates of this species have been recorded by fishermen off British Columbia (Starr and Fargo 2004).	eng
154978	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154978	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Apogon indicus</em> is distributed in the Pacific from New Caledonia to Kiribati, from Taiwan south to the Philippines, and east to Palau and the Northern Mariana Islands. In the Indian Ocean this species has been recorded from Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, and the Chagos Archipelago.	eng
154978	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Apogon indicus</em> can be found on outer reef slopes in the surge zone, and outside of lagoon areas at a depth range of 2 - 10 m. The reefs on which this species is found, are typically located on the continental slope in nutrient rich waters. During the day it typically shelters in crevices in coral and rock. At night individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos. This is a mouthbrooding species.	eng
154978	population	Fricke, R., 2009	In areas of suitable habitat, this is not an uncommon species (G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154978	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species, however it is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.	eng
154979	conservation	Datta, N.C., Allen, D., Jha, B.R. & Dey, S.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Bahaba chaptis</em>, however it may be found in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to ensure the stocks are not being over-exploited. Further research on the biology and ecology of this species is needed to determine how resilient it is to fishing pressure.	eng
154979	distribution	Datta, N.C., Allen, D., Jha, B.R. & Dey, S.C., 2009	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is endemic to the Bay of Bengal (L. Chao pers. comm. 2007). Recorded from India (Hoogly estuary, West Bengal), Bangladesh and from Myanmar.	eng
154979	habitat	Datta, N.C., Allen, D., Jha, B.R. & Dey, S.C., 2009	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is found in the photic zone of coastal and estuarine waters. This benthopelagic species can tolerate lowered salinities.<br/><br/>Inhabits coastal waters and lower parts of rivers.	eng
154979	population	Datta, N.C., Allen, D., Jha, B.R. & Dey, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bahaba chaptis</em>. This species appears to be very rare being known only by eight specimens.	eng
154979	threats	Datta, N.C., Allen, D., Jha, B.R. & Dey, S.C., 2009	<em>Bahaba chaptis</em> is taken by the commercial fishing industry using trawls, gill nets and handlines, however it is not targeted directly. There are no available catch statistics for this species, and therefore it is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154980	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Natal Fingerfin,<em> </em>however the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas off South Africa.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
154980	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Natal Fingefin, <em>Chirodactylus jessicalenorum</em>, occurs in the Indian Ocean off the coast of South Africa from 27° to 33°S.	eng
154980	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Natal Fingefin is a diurnal species, which inhabits coastal waters preferably over rocky banks and has a depth range of 3-20 m. It feeds mainly upon small, benthic invertebrates (marine worms, crabs and molluscs), squid and small fish.	eng
154980	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154980	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Natal Fingerfin is of minor commercial importance. This species is mainly caught using spears and is marketed fresh. It is also caught as a gamefish and by-catch. It it not known what impact these threats are having on the population numbers of this species.	eng
154981	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Stein, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis copei</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as incidental or accidental mortality (by-catch).	eng
154981	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Stein, D., 2009	<em>Paraliparis copei copei</em> can be found in both the north and south Atlantic; from the Azores to the northwest Atlantic, and off Cape Point in South Africa. <em>Paraliparis copei kerguelensis</em> is distributed around the Kerguelen and Crozet Islands.&#160; <em>Paraliparis copei wilsoni</em> is only known from off the coast of Gabon, Namibia and South Africa.	eng
154981	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Stein, D., 2009	<em>Paraliparis copei</em> is an epibenthic species that feeds on comb jellies and cnidaria.&#160; Specimens have been collected at a depth range of 200 -1,976 m.	eng
154981	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Stein, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paraliparis copei</em>.&#160; However, species from the Liparidae family are thought to have low population densities (Stein 2006).	eng
154981	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Stein, D., 2009	There is no commercial fishery for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis copei</span> or any other Liparidae, although species within this family are often taken as by-catch. Due to their small size, they are easily damaged and overlooked among the masses of invertebrates and fishes with which they are collected (Stein 2006). It is therefore unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis copei</span> is being significantly impacted by fisheries within its range.	eng
154982	conservation	Collette, B. & Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
154982	distribution	Collette, B. & Acero, A., 2007	Dow's Toadfish is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Puntarenas, Costa Rica to Puerto Pizarro in northern Peru (Collette 1966; Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).	eng
154982	habitat	Collette, B. & Acero, A., 2007	This demersal fish occurs on sandy or muddy substrata at depths to 60 m inside bays and estuaries (Collette 1995).	eng
154982	population	Collette, B. & Acero, A., 2007	This species is common in collections taken from Panama.	eng
154982	threats	Collette, B. & Acero, A., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
154983	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Summer Flounder, Scup and Black Sea Bass Fishery Management Plan (FMP), administered by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) and the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council (MAFMC), manages the commerical and recreational fisheries of <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>. Management of this species' stock is done by means of setting annual commercial quotas, recreational harvest limits, a commercial vessel permit moratorium, minimum fish size and gear restrictions, and a recreational fishery limit (Terceiro 2006). There are 91 marine protected area designations along the central Atlantic coast of the United States, in which this species may be found. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.	eng
154983	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is found from the southern Gulf of Maine to South Carolina and occasionally around Florida (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).	eng
154983	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The flounder, <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em>, is a bottom dwelling species and generally prefers muddy or sandy substrates. This species is concentrated in bays and estuaries from late spring to the early autumn, however the larger specimens remain further offshore at depths of 70-155 m or deeper. This species has also been found in salt marshes and seagrass beds with muddy or silty substrates. This species is also occasionally found in freshwater rivers (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).	eng
154983	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is common in the southern Gulf of Maine, east to Nantucket Shoals, and to the western part of the South Channels (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002). This species is rare north of Cape Cod, but is occasionally found as far north as Brown's Bank (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002).&#160; It is abundant from Massachusetts to North Carolina.	eng
154983	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is both commercially and recreationally valuable. The combined landings from commercial and recreational fishing peaked in 1983 at 26,100 t but in 1999-2004, landings have ranged between 8,600 t and 12,500 t (Terceiro 2006). Biomass indices declined through the late 1970s and into the early 1990s, but since then have increased to the level they were during the mid 1970s (Terceiro 2006). It has been reported that although this species' population is not in an over-fished condition, intense exploitation continues to occur (Terceiro 2006). <em>Paralichthys dentatus</em> is also an important by-catch species in the small-mesh fishery for squid in Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds (Bigelow and Schroeder 2002). Commercial aquaculture of this species began in 1966.	eng
154984	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known, species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations in the Indo-Pacific, Bay of Bengal, and off the Western Australian coast.	eng
154984	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Physiculus roseus</em> is an Indo-Pacific Mora, distributed from the Gulf of Aden and the Bay of Bengal, to western Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the South China Sea, Phillipines, and New Caledonia.	eng
154984	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span> is a benthopelagic species, with a depth range of 300–550 m.	eng
154984	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span>.	eng
154984	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus roseus</span> is harvested as a commercial food source in some areas of its range.&#160; However, it is of minor importance and fishing is not considered a significant threat to the global population.	eng
154986	conservation	McCosker, J., Hastings, P., Williams, J. & McEachran, J.D., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em>. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it is affected by threats such as pollution.	eng
154986	distribution	McCosker, J., Hastings, P., Williams, J. & McEachran, J.D., 2007	<em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> is only known from a few specimens in the immediate vicinity of Magdalena Bay, Baja California, Mexico. In 1969, Rosenblatt and Parr took samples at appropriate depths along the coast, and <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> was not found in any other areas. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,131 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
154986	habitat	McCosker, J., Hastings, P., Williams, J. & McEachran, J.D., 2007	<em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em> was found at depths of 7-21 m, on rocky substrates.	eng
154986	population	McCosker, J., Hastings, P., Williams, J. & McEachran, J.D., 2007	There is no population information available for <em>Paraclinus magdalenae</em>.	eng
154986	threats	McCosker, J., Hastings, P., Williams, J. & McEachran, J.D., 2007	<p>This species is threatened by habitat loss from coastal development, urban and industrial pollution, massive tourism development and various potentially harmful extractive activities within its restricted range (Hastings and Fischer 2001). Effluent, including domestic untreated sewage and industrial waste is discharged directly into Magdalena Bay, and intertidal near-shore and wetland areas are being degraded (School for Field Studies 2004). <br/></p>	eng
154987	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research on population trends and potential threats is needed.	eng
154987	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is found only in the southwest Atlantic off the coast of Brazil, from 15<sup>o</sup> to 23<sup>o</sup>S (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008).	eng
154987	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The seabass <em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 15 to 60m. It has been observed over rocky reefs near offshore islands and outcrops (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008). The main food items of this species include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and worms (Irigoyen<em> et al.</em> 2008).	eng
154987	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Acanthistius brasilianus</em> is only known from nine specimens. Irigoyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2008) noted that this was an uncommon species occurring in Brazilian waters from Bahia to Sao Paulo. It is observed rarely on rocky bottoms.	eng
154987	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This is a rare species. It is not found in areas in which trawling occurs (Heemstra pers. comm.). It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats but the species could be experiencing negative effects from coastal pollution and development.	eng
154988	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em>.	eng
154988	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em> has been found in the southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean around southern Africa from Namibia to Kenya, including Madagascar.&#160; It has also been recorded  in the southwest Pacific around New Zealand, and in the southwest Atlantic around Brazil (J. Paxton pers. comm. 2008).&#160; However, there is still some taxonomic doubt regarding the specimen collected in the southwest Pacific, as there are some slight morphometric differences between this specimen and its Indian and Atlantic Ocean counterparts (J. Paxton pers. comm. 2008).	eng
154988	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Adults of <em>Scopelosaurus herwigi</em> are benthopelagic and found on slopes, while the juveniles are epipelagic to mesopelagic.&#160; Individuals are typically found to inhabit warm currents sweeping southwest from the equator.<br/><br/>Congeners of this species, <em>Scopelosaurus harryi</em> and <em>Scopelosaurus adleri</em>, are typically found in the mesopelagic zone at a depth range of 500–1000 m (Balanov 2001).&#160; They migrate to the upper section of the mesopelagic zone to feed during the darker hours of the day.&#160; Both species show a preference for food that is available all year round, and in the greatest quantity.&#160; The younger individuals feed on plankton, while the older year classes shift to a diet of shrimp and myctophid fish. <br/><br/>Savinykh and Balanov (2000) suggested that <em>S. adleri</em> is a mesobenthopelagic species, while <em>S. harryi</em> is a mesopelagic species.	eng
154988	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus herwigi</span>.	eng
154988	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus herwigi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154989	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella longiceps</em>.&#160; However, due to frequent fluctuations in the stock levels of Indian fish, all coastal states have implemented the Marine Fishing Regulation Act which has applied closed seasons and delineation of fishing zones for different categories of fishing methods, in attempt to ensure sustainable management (FAO-FIGIS 2007). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the factors determining population fluctuations and recruitment levels, and to determine if localised or regional extirpations are occurring.	eng
154989	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Aden to southeast India, and possibly the Andaman Islands.&#160; It is not found in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.&#160; Specimens found in the Philippines or in Indonesia were probably misidentifications of <em>Sardinella lemuru</em> (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
154989	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	The sardine, <em>Sardinella longiceps</em>, is a highly migratory, schooling species. &#160; This pelagic species is found in the photic zone at depths of 20–200 m, along the continental shelf.&#160; This species feeds on phytoplankton and small crustaceans.&#160; It breeds once a year off the western coast of India, when temperatures and salinity are low during the southwest monsoon months.&#160; Spawning peaks in August to September.&#160; This species' population size is highly erratic and fluctuates annually (Sarman and Udupa 2001).	eng
154989	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	The population size of <em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is highly erratic and fluctuates annually (Sarman and Udupa 2001).	eng
154989	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella longiceps</em> is fished throughout its range and is one of the most important species in Indian fisheries.&#160; It is mainly caught off Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and southern Maharashtra (Kumaran <em>et al.</em> 1992).&#160; It represented about 8.35% of marine landings in India in 1997, which was a 100% increase from 1996 (Sarma and Udupa 2001). <br/><br/>FAO statistics show no apparent decline in the annual landings of this species.&#160; There are large annual fluctuations in the catch of this species; 7,400 t was harvested in 1956, and 189,000 t in 1960 (Jhingran 1982).&#160; In 2006, the landings for this species were reported at 385,159 t (FAO 2008). <br/><br/>Due to large annual fluctuations in the population numbers of this species, intense fishing pressure is likely to pose a significant threat to regional sub-populations in years where it coincides with low population size.<br/><br/>Global catch statistics for this species for the time period 1996–2006 are as follows: 1996: 223,355 t, 1997: 298,939 t, 1998:  256,773 t, 1999: 222,228 t, 2000: 417,691 t, 2001:  456,190 t, 2002:  357,207 t, 2003:  365,072 t, 2004: 371,586 t, 2005: 361,097 t, 2006: 385,159 t (FAO 2008).	eng
154990	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G., Robertson, R. & Tyler, J. , 2009	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamopteryx jeb</span> falls within the Galápagos Marine Reserve. This reserve, which covers an area of 133,000 km<sup>2</sup> was established in 1986. The Galápagos Marine Reserve is the second largest in the world, and has been declared a World Heritage Site, Biosphere Reserve and a Whale Sanctuary.	eng
154990	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G., Robertson, R. & Tyler, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is endemic to the Galapagos islands, where it is known from approximately 10 sites.	eng
154990	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G., Robertson, R. & Tyler, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calamopteryx jeb</span> is found in rocky areas and coral reefs to a depth of 25 m. This species is cryptic and typically only observed with the use of ichthyocides.	eng
154990	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G., Robertson, R. & Tyler, J. , 2009	This species is considered uncommon. This species is not often observed, and population status and trends are unknown.	eng
154990	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G., Robertson, R. & Tyler, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There are no major threats to this species. It is associated with coral reef environments, but is not coral reef dependent.&#160; Despite protection measures, the marine environment of the Galapagos islands still faces significant human threats. These threats include human population increase, invasion and spread of non-native species, increasing pressure from ecotourism, and illegal commercial fishing. However, none of these are likely to affect this species. It is likely to be a hardy species as it survived the El Nino event of 1982-1983.	eng
154991	conservation	Chao, N.L., Matsuura, K., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tidepool Gunnel.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
154991	distribution	Chao, N.L., Matsuura, K., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The tidepool gunnel <em>(Pholis nebulosa</em>) is predominantly found on the coast of Japan, from Honshu to Kyushu (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  One record also exists from Pusan in Korea (Calafornia Academy of Science Collection Catalogue CAS-SU 26530).	eng
154991	habitat	Chao, N.L., Matsuura, K., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Tidepool Gunnel is found in the intertidal zone in tide pools, on sandy-mud bottoms, and in crevices on rocky reefs.&#160; It may also be found in eelgrass (<em>Zostera marina</em>) beds.&#160; This species has been found at a depth of 200 m, however it occurs more commonly in shallow intertidal areas.&#160;  The report by Nakabo (2002) of a depth ranging down to 200 m is questioned as a typographical error (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154991	population	Chao, N.L., Matsuura, K., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Tidpool Gunnel is abundant in intertidal areas (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009)	eng
154991	threats	Chao, N.L., Matsuura, K., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Tidepool Gunnel is an abundant species with no known major threats (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).&#160;  In certain areas of Japan, there is a seasonal subsistence harvest of this species.	eng
154992	conservation	McCosker, J.E., Béarez, P., Bernal, O. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span>.&#160;  However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).&#160; This species should be carefully monitored, as its persistence will be directly related to its capture by shrimp and other trawl fisheries.	eng
154992	distribution	McCosker, J.E., Béarez, P., Bernal, O. & Lea, R.N., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is known from central California and the Gulf of California to central Peru, including the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
154992	habitat	McCosker, J.E., Béarez, P., Bernal, O. & Lea, R.N., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is a demersal fish which lives on sandy and muddy substrata at depths of 15–380 m.	eng
154992	population	McCosker, J.E., Béarez, P., Bernal, O. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span>.&#160; However, is it known to be widely distributed.	eng
154992	threats	McCosker, J.E., Béarez, P., Bernal, O. & Lea, R.N., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lophiodes caulinaris</span> is taken as by-catch in fishing trawl nets.&#160;   According to Caruso (1983), this accidental mortality caused by fishing activities can affect the distribution and abundance of some species.  However, at present, this is not considered to pose a major threat to the global population.	eng
154993	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Pacific Fanfish.&#160; Given that this is an oceandromous species, it is unlikely that it would be afforded much protection from coastal marine protected area designations. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this rare species and its harvest levels should be undertaken.	eng
154993	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pacific Fanfish<em> (Pteraclis aesticola)</em> occurs throughout the tropical and warm-temperate waters of the Pacific (FAO 2001a).&#160; Froese and Pauly (2006) state that this species has only been recorded from Japan and California.	eng
154993	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pacific Fanfish is a pelagic, oceanodromous species that has a depth range of 0–100 m.&#160; The majority of Bramidae species are epipelagic (FAO 2001a).&#160; The young of this species probably inhabit shallow waters, while adults are found in deeper waters (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
154993	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pacific Fanfish is very rare and most commonly seen in the stomach contents of large predatory fishes, such as tuna.	eng
154993	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pacific Fanfish may be harvested as a commercial food source.&#160; However, the harvesting of this species is not considered a major threat at present, as this species is rarely caught (FAO 2001a).	eng
154994	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em>. Further research on its ecology, distribution, population numbers, and potential threats is needed.	eng
154994	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is only known from a single specimen found off Townsville, Queensland.	eng
154994	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is a demersal, deep-water species, closely related to the Indonesian <em>Plectranthias wheeleri</em>. It has been collected at a depth of 220 m.	eng
154994	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em>, as it is only known from a single specimen.	eng
154994	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is not known if <em>Plectranthias pallidus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
154995	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Diaphus holti</em>.	eng
154995	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Small Lantern Fish <em>(Diaphus holti)</em> can be found in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to Liberia. Two specimens have been reported from the Indian Ocean at 29°30'S, 64°56'E (Hulley 1984).	eng
154995	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Small Lantern Fish, <em>Diaphus holti</em> is a bathypelagic, oceanic species that has a depth range of 40-777 m. This species undergoes diurnal migrations; during the day it can be found at a depth range of 225-675 m and at night it rises to depths ranging from 40-275 m to feed. This species is an opportunistic predator, feeding upon copepods, euphausiids, ostracods and fish (Kinzer 1982). Spawning takes place in spring and summer. Gravid females are typically found at depths of less than 450 m.	eng
154995	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, however, species from the Myctophidae family are reported to be very common oceanic fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
154995	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting the Small Lantern Fish. However, this species has been observed within the by-catch of commercial trawls. A study on the Cretan continental shelf has shown that this species is not usually captured by bottom trawling equipment (Kallianiotis<em> et al.</em> 2000). DUe to the depths at which this species can be found, it is unlikely to be significantly impacted by any other major threats.	eng
154996	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Calumia godeffroyi</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations.&#160; Further research on&#160; population trends is needed.	eng
154996	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Tailface Sleeper (<em>Calumia godeffroyi</em>) is an Indo-Pacific sleeper goby, distributed from East Africa to the Society Islands.	eng
154996	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Tailface Sleeper is associated with coral reefs and can be found resting on coral and rubble substrates. This species occurs at a depth of 7–30 m.	eng
154996	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	Many marine eleotrids are rare (Hoese and Roberts 2005). The Tailface Sleeper is widespread but is not commonly observed (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
154996	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The coral reefs in some areas of the Tailface Sleeper's range (e.g., in East Africa and Indonesia) have experienced regionalised and localised degradation due to bleaching, industrialisation, water pollution (sedimentation), destructive fishing practices and other human population pressures. In other parts of its range, the reefs are in good condition, so at present habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to the global population.	eng
154997	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em>.	eng
154997	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em> is found only in subtropical to tropical waters of the Atlantic: the eastern Atlantic from Madeira to Angola, in the western Atlantic from New Jersey to the Guianas including the Gulf of Mexico. A single specimen has been found from the Straits of Sicily and two individuals have been found in the stomach contents of the lizardfish, <em>Saurida undosquamis</em>, off the coast of Antalya, Turkey.	eng
154997	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em> is a pelagic, oceanodromous species. Little is known about the precise depths that <em>B. atlanticus</em> inhabits although it has been collected in the epi-/mesopelagic zone. Since it was found in the stomach of the lizardfish, <em>Saurida undosqamis</em> which is rarely found deeper than 100 m, it may also inhabit shallow waters as well as deep. This species mainly feeds upon crustaceans, but also feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton.	eng
154997	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The Lesser Bream is reported to be locally abundant in the northern Gulf of Mexico, but seems to be rare along the east coast of Florida (Dawson 1966).	eng
154997	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	It is unlikely that major widespread threats are impacting <em>Bregmaceros atlanticus</em>. Species from the Bregmacerotidae family are of no commercial importance in the western central Atlantic but specimens of Bregmacerotidae are taken as by-catch in some commercial fisheries (FAO 2002).	eng
154998	conservation	Harold, A.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Half-naked Hatchetfish.	eng
154998	distribution	Harold, A.S., 2009	The Half-naked Hatchetfish (<em>Argyropelecus hemigymnus</em>) is distributed through the eastern Pacific, and both the eastern and western Atlantic Ocean.  In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from north of the British Isles to South Africa; in the western Atlantic it is found from New Jersey, USA to Argentina.  In the Pacific it occurs throughout the California Current area.	eng
154998	habitat	Harold, A.S., 2009	The Half-naked Hatchetfish is a bathypelagic species which occurs at depths of up to 2,400 m. During the day this species occurs at a depth range of 200 - 700 m but is concentrated at 350 - 550 m. At night it occurs at depths of 100 - 650 m but prefers a depth range of 150 - 380 m. Adults make daily vertical migrations up the water column, rising at dusk to feed on copepods and small fish. It will spawn multiple times during a season, producing planktonic eggs.	eng
154998	population	Harold, A.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154998	threats	Harold, A.S., 2009	Due to its deep-water nature and small size, it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
154999	conservation	Fry, G. & Newman, S., 2010	There are no species specific conservation measures for<em> Etelis carbunculus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed with further research on the extent of the fishery. Conservation measures need to protect important spawning aggregations.	eng
154999	distribution	Fry, G. & Newman, S., 2010	The Ruby Snapper, <em>Etelis carbunculus</em>, is found throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is known from the coast of East Africa to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, across the Indo-pacific, north to Japan and south to Australia. In the Pacific its range extends to Hawaii, including French Polynesia. It has also been recorded from northern New Zealand (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1999) and out to both Christmas and Cocos Islands (S. Newman pers. comm. 2010).	eng
154999	habitat	Fry, G. & Newman, S., 2010	The Ruby Snapper inhabits rocky bottoms on the continental shelf, and feeds on fishes and large invertebrates such as squids, shrimps and crabs. It also feeds on planktonic organisms (Haight <em>et al</em>. 1993). This demersal species is known from a depth range of 90-400 m and is known to occur in aggregations. At Vanuatu (New Hebrides) spawning occurs throughout much of the year, with a peak in activity around November (Allen 1985).	eng
154999	population	Fry, G. & Newman, S., 2010	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
154999	threats	Fry, G. & Newman, S., 2010	Ruby Snapper is an important food fish in some areas. It is mainly caught with bottom longlines and deep handlines, and is marketed fresh or frozen. It is one of the principal species in the Hawaiian offshore handline fishery. There are indications that some fish stocks on Hawaiian banks have been severely overfished (Haight <em>et al</em>. 1993). Fishery reports for the Hawaiian Islands indicate that the catch rates of <em>E. carbunculus</em>  have declined steadily since the 1950s, and have dropped more steeply in the last 10-15 years. As the catch rates have dropped, so have the proportion of mature fish in the catches (DAR 2002). <br/><br/>The Hawaiian landings of this species have dropped from approximately 18,100 kg in 1998 to 10,900 kg in 2003. Moffitt (1980) noted that the CPUE(Catch per Unit Effort) was 0.06-0.08kg/line hr in the North West Hawaiian Islands.&#160;Over the last 40 to 50 years, partial CPUE &#160;has been reduced to half of what it once was (Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy 2005). This species is considered locally depleted in the middle Hawaiian Islands, whilst all bottomfish populations are considered 'relatively healthy in the North Western Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy 2005).<br/><br/>This species<em></em> is also commercially fished in the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery (WDWTF) in south-western Australia. This species has been intensely fished in this area and due to its aggregatory behaviour with preference for restricted continental shelf habitats, it is vulnerable to heavy fishing. As a result it is reported to be overfished in this area and the catch rates of this species are thought to have fallen (Hunter 2008).<br/>In Kimbe, Manus and Oro bay, Rabaul CPUE efforts in the late nineties were 0.57-1.41kg/line hr(Chapman 1998)&#160;and 0.001-0.31kg/line hr respectively (Wellington and Cusack 1998).<br/>This species is harvested throughout most of its distribution range. This species is mostly harvested using deep handlines and bottom longlines (Allen 1985).	eng
155000	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Obliquebanded Stingfish.&#160;  While its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Jebel Samhan Nature Reserve off Oman, these would only provide protection in shallower reaches.	eng
155000	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	The Obliquebanded Stingfish<em> (Minous dempsterae)</em> is found from western India, Pakistan and the Gulf of Oman.	eng
155000	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	The Obliquebanded Stingfish is a demersal species, typically found over muddy or clay substrates in the photic to deep photic zone, at 5–117 m depth.&#160; Species from the <em>Minous</em> genus may be primarily nocturnal or crepuscular, and may bury themselves in the substrate like other Scorpaenoids (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008). The depths and conditions of turbidity for this species makes visual censusing difficult.	eng
155000	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for the Obliquebanded Stingfish.	eng
155000	threats	Poss, S., 2009	It is unlikely that the Obliquebanded Stingfish is being impacted by any major threat processes at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155001	conservation	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155001	distribution	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em> is an Indo Pacific sand burrower distributed from Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean, to the Mariana Islands and Pitcairn Islands. This species has also been reported from India, but this occurrence outside the distributional range needs confirmation (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
155001	habitat	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em> burrows into loose coral sand of shallow exposed seaward reefs and sandy shorelines.  This species is found to a depth of at least 10 m.	eng
155001	population	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155001	threats	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known threats for <em>Chalixodytes tauensis</em>.	eng
155002	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em>.  However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Juan Fernandez National Park.	eng
155002	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	According to Muñoz <em>et al.</em> (2002) <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> is distributed from Los Molles to Valdivia off Chile. This species can also be found around the Juan Fernandez Islands (Pequeño and Inzunza 1987).	eng
155002	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Juvenile <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> inhabit rocky intertidal areas, while adults can be found in deeper water. The diet of this species consists of crustaceans such as amphipods and decapods (Muñoz <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
155002	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em>.	eng
155002	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Bovichtus chilensis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, possible localised threats to this species may include water pollution and coastal development, however these are unlikely to resulting in significant declines in the population as much of this species range is underdeveloped..	eng
155003	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Astronesthes nigroides</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers, habitat and ecology of this species as little information is currently available. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is also needed to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
155003	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> occurs north of Lisianski Island and east of Pearl and Hermes Reef, Hawaii. It is also present in the east Pacific off California, and in the western Pacific off Japan.	eng
155003	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 50 m and inhabits subtropical waters. Some species from the Stomiidae family migrate to surface waters at night (FAO 1999). This species is found within the vicinity of coral reefs.	eng
155003	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is currently no population information available for this species.	eng
155003	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Astronesthes nigroides</em> is reported to be taken occasionally as a food fish, however due to its small size it is unlikely that this is driving a significant decline in the population numbers. This species maybe undergoing locaslised declines in abundance due to coastal development and pollution.	eng
155004	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may occur within marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, abundance, distribution, and threats of this species is needed.	eng
155004	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Congrogadus amplimaculatus</em> is known to occur in the southern portion of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia and the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Eschmeyer 1990). This species appears to have a small distribution, which is not an uncommon trait in the Pseudochromidae family (Gill <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
155004	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Congrogadus amplimaculatus</em> is a cryptic species associated with coral reefs and has been collected over sandy and muddy substrate, with sponges and large shell fragments. This species feeds mainly on crustaceans. The eggs of this species have cruciform hooks on the surface.	eng
155004	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155004	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Congrogadus amplimaculatus</span> is being affected by any major threats.	eng
155005	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coloconger japonicus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed to assess the impact that over-exploitation within the East China Sea has had upon this species.	eng
155005	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Coloconger japonicus</em> is known from the East China Sea.	eng
155005	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Coloconger japonicus</em> is a bathydemersal species of eel that has been found at a depth of 750 m. Species of the genus <em>Coloconger </em>prefer open, muddy bottoms (FAO 1999).	eng
155005	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Coloconger japonicus</em>.	eng
155005	threats	Smith, D., 2009	While this species is not directly targeted by the commercial fishing industry, it is found in one of the most intensively exploited marine ecosystems in the world (Chen and Shen 1999), and so may be incidentally taken as by-catch. Pollution, habitat destruction, and overfishing are considered to be the most critical problems to be addressed in the East China Sea.	eng
155006	conservation	Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155006	distribution	Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Coris caudimacula</em> is found from the northern Red Sea and Gulf of Oman, south to East London in South Africa and east to the northwest coast of Australia, extending to Shark Bay; including Green Island. It is also found in east Sumatra and Bali.	eng
155006	habitat	Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coris caudimacula</span> inhabits areas of sand and rubble near coral in lagoons, bays, and protected seaward reefs. It feeds on benthic organisms including small crustaceans and molluscs.	eng
155006	population	Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The species is considered to be common across much of its range.	eng
155006	threats	Craig, M. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This species is not known to face any major threats, althoug it is likely to be undergoing localised declines in abundance in areas of coastal development and coastal pollution.	eng
155007	conservation	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within several marine protected areas, including the Auckland Islands Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the possible threats impacting this species and the abundance.	eng
155007	distribution	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is found from the Norfolk Ridge in the Tasman Sea, and southern Australia to New South Wales.<br/><span>	eng
155007	habitat	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is a demersal, temperate species. Species from the family Diodontidae feed on hard-shelled benthic invertebrates and most species from this family spawn pelagic eggs and pass through a pelagic juvenile phase (FAO 2001).	eng
155007	population	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatu</span>s.	eng
155007	threats	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Allomycterus pilatus</span> is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
155008	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Seychelles Soldier.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas.	eng
155008	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The Seychelles Soldier <em>(Myripristis seychellensis</em>) is restricted to islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean.&#160; This species has been documented from the Seychelles, Reunion, Madagascar, Comoros and Mauritius.<br/><br/>Specimens collected from Taiwan were originally thought to belong to this species, but these specimens have since been used to describe the new species, <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.	eng
155008	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The Seychelles Soldier feeds on zooplankton at night and shelters under ledges and in caves during the day (J. Moore pers. comm. 2008).&#160; This species is found on coral and rocky reefs and in lagoons at a depth range of 2–21 m.	eng
155008	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Seychelles Soldier.	eng
155008	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The Seychelles Soldier may occasionally be harvested by subsistence reef fishers.&#160; In parts of its range, it may also undergo declines as a result of coastal development, pollution, tourism, and destructive fishing practices such as blast fishing.&#160; However, as this species is found in a number of habitat types in regions that are still relatively unaffected by development, and it is not directly targeted, it is unlikely that these threats are having a significant impact on the global population.	eng
155009	conservation	Balanov, A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em>.	eng
155009	distribution	Balanov, A.A., 2009	<em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> is known from Iwate prefecture in Japan to the Bering Sea, and from British Columbia to California (C. Mecklenburg pers. comm. 2008, A. Balanov pers. comm. 2008). Mecklenburg (pers. comm. 2008) states that it is also known from the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
155009	habitat	Balanov, A.A., 2009	<em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> is a mesopelagic/bathypelagic species during its adult life stage, with epipelagic/mesopelagic planktonic eggs and larvae (A. Balanov pers. comm. 2008). This species has a depth range of 0?6,600 m.	eng
155009	population	Balanov, A.A., 2009	The larvae of <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em> have been found to be among the most abundant during April around the Kuroshio-Oyashio region of the western north Pacific (Sassa<em> et al.</em> 2006).&#160; This species has been described as a common mesopelagic fish in the Bering Sea (Balanov and Il'inskiy 1992) and the northwestern Pacific off Kamchatka and Kurile Islands (Ivanov 1997).	eng
155009	threats	Balanov, A.A., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of <em>Pseudobathylagus milleri</em>, it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155010	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em>.&#160;  However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.	eng
155010	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> is distributed from Pakistan and Sri Lanka, north to southern Japan, and south to New Britain, New Guinea.&#160; A specimen of this species has also been recorded from New Caledonia (Motomura 2002).	eng
155010	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	Individuals of <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> have been collected from silty, sand, and rocky bottoms, and areas of coral reef.&#160; This species has a depth range of 1–60 m. Most species from the Scorpaenidae family are found near, or on, the bottom, and are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction (FAO 1999).	eng
155010	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em>.	eng
155010	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenopsis ramaraoi</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Most Scorpaenidae species in the western central Pacific are small and dangerous to handle and therefore do not form the basis of large fisheries (FAO 1999).	eng
155011	conservation	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus minimus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species.	eng
155011	distribution	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> has been found from Burdwood Bank, south of the Falkland Islands. Species within the Liparidae family, are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).	eng
155011	habitat	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 124-128 m.	eng
155011	population	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Careproctus minimus</em> is only known from two specimens; the holotype (Andriashev and Stein 1998) and one  additional specimen (Stein 2006) . Species from the Liparidae family are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
155011	threats	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is not known if <em>Careproctus minimus</em> is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155012	conservation	Harold, A.S. & Clarke, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Sternoptyx obscura</em>.	eng
155012	distribution	Harold, A.S. & Clarke, T., 2009	This species is found from all parts of the Indian Ocean. It is also known from the Pacific Ocean ranging from the Ryukyu Islands in the west, to New Zealand in the south, and Peru in the east. It is also known from the Californian coast.	eng
155012	habitat	Harold, A.S. & Clarke, T., 2009	<em>Sternoptyx obscura</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 500-1000 m. The diet of the Sternoptychidae family consists of small fishes and zooplankton (FAO 2002).	eng
155012	population	Harold, A.S. & Clarke, T., 2009	This species is common in the Indian Ocean north of 15°S (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155012	threats	Harold, A.S. & Clarke, T., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
155013	conservation	Fricke, R. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for <em>Parablennius parvicornis</em>. This species may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.  Further research and monitoring of the potential threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
155013	distribution	Fricke, R. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Parablennius parvicornis</em> is restricted to the Canary Islands, Azores, Madeira, and Senegal.	eng
155013	habitat	Fricke, R. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	The rockpool blenny <em>Parablennius parvicornis</em>, is found in areas of volcanic rock (Fricke pers. comm.) in tidepools to a depth of 2m. A demersal species that feeds exclusively on algae and is found in areas exposed to sunlight. Breeding takes place in male-constructed pebble nests and after eggs are laid, males continue to guard the nest and provide care for the eggs (Santos and Nash 1996).	eng
155013	population	Fricke, R. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Parablennius parvicornis</em> has been described as one of the most abundant fish species in the intertidal zone of Gran Canaria (Brito 1991).<br/><br/>In a study by Cody (1993) 164 males and 98 females were collected from 82 tidepools. It was described as numerically dominant in 41% of all the surveyed pools.	eng
155013	threats	Fricke, R. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it is likely that in certain areas of its distribution it is undergoing loaclised declines due to coastal pollution and development; however, at present there is no indication that these pose a significant threat to this species.	eng
155014	conservation	Herdson, D., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>its<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>falls within numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the life history characteristics of this large species to determine vulnerability to potential threats.	eng
155014	distribution	Herdson, D., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	<em>Alectis ciliaris</em> has a circumtropical distribution in marine waters.	eng
155014	habitat	Herdson, D., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	This species is pelagic in neritic and oceanic waters. Adult<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> are usually solitary and frequent shallow coastal waters; juveniles are pelagic and drift. Its diet consists of slow-swimming or sedentary crustaceans, and occasionally small crabs an<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>d fishes. This species is found at a maximum depth of&#160; 60 m. Adults are demersal, however juveniles up to 25 cm are pelagic.	eng
155014	population	Herdson, D., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	This species is common in many parts of its range such as in the Indo-pacific.	eng
155014	threats	Herdson, D., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is sometimes harvested by commercial fisheries, and is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, however there is no current indication of a population decline.	eng
155015	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em>.	eng
155015	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is widespread in the northwestern Pacific. It is found in the south-central Bering Sea, the eastern Gulf of Alaska, the western Bering Sea off Cape Navarin to the Pacific Ocean off the Kuril Islands, and in the Sea of Okhotsk.	eng
155015	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been collected a depth range of 200-3,730 m. It is most commonly seen at depths of approximately 800 m.	eng
155015	population	Neely, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em>.	eng
155015	threats	Neely, D., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Artediellichthys nigripinnis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
155016	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; However, it may be present in several marine protected areas around Mexico (WDPA 2006).	eng
155016	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	The Bronze-striped Grunt (<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthopristis reddingi</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Mexico.	eng
155016	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	The Bronze-striped Grunt is a demersal species that occurs on sand and rubble substrata, at depths of 5–30 m. It usually forms schools (McKay and Schneider 1995), and juveniles can be common in littoral pools (McKay and Schneider 1995).	eng
155016	population	Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	There is no population information available for the Bronze-striped Grunt.&#160; This species may be common within its distribution, but it has not been reported in surveys conducted at Los Islotes in the Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001), Bahía de Navidad, México (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001), and Cabo Pulmo in the Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155016	threats	Allen, G.R. & Robertson, R.D., 2007	There are no known major threat processes impacting the Bronze-striped Grunt.	eng
155017	conservation	Allen, G.R., Craig, M., Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span>. However, 80 % of this species range is within the&#160;Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a well protected marine park in the Northern Hawaiian Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155017	distribution	Allen, G.R., Craig, M., Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Labroides phthirophagus</em> is found in the east central Pacific, along the Hawaiian Islands chain and at Johnston Island.	eng
155017	habitat	Allen, G.R., Craig, M., Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span> inhabits coral and rocky reef habitats, other than within the surge zone (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species is an obligate cleaner, feeding on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (see Grutter 1997 for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dimidiatus</span>), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993). This species is active in the daytime, and may possibly produce a protective mucous cocoon at night (Tinker 1978). <br/><br/>There is no information regarding sex reversal or hermaphroditism in this species, though it may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dimidiatus</span> in these respects (see&#160; Robertson 1972; Kuwamura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002; Sadovy and Liu 2008).	eng
155017	population	Allen, G.R., Craig, M., Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em></em> Little or nothing is known about the status of the populations of <em>Labroides phthirophagus</em>, though it is considered to be relatively common within its relatively restricted distribution range (M. Craig, and L. Rocha, pers. comm. 2009; G. Allen, pers. comm. 2010).<br/>Craig (2010) observed no decline in this species population around the Island of Oahu over the time period of 2002-2004 (M. Craig pers. comm.2010).	eng
155017	threats	Allen, G.R., Craig, M., Pollard, D., Rocha, L. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Labroides phthirophagus</span>. However, it is occasionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localised impacts on this species.	eng
155018	conservation	Betancur, R. & Acero, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Geelbuik Sea Catfish, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed in order to determine the severity of population declines in the future.	eng
155018	distribution	Betancur, R. & Acero, A., 2009	The Geelbuik Sea Catfish (<em>Sciades parkeri</em>) is found from Venezuela to northern Brazil.	eng
155018	habitat	Betancur, R. & Acero, A., 2009	The Geelbuik Sea Catfish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 15-20 m (Leopold 2004) and can be found living in muddy, turbid estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers&#160; Its main food items include fishes and crustaceans.	eng
155018	population	Betancur, R. & Acero, A., 2009	The species is commercially fished, but there are no species-specific landings data available to be able to estimate trends or decline rates for this species. It appears to be scarcer than other species within the genus. It is inferred that there has been a decline in the population numbers of this species.	eng
155018	threats	Betancur, R. & Acero, A., 2009	Geelbuik Sea Catfish is the second most harvested Ariid species, in terms of biomass, within the French Guiana region (Leopold 2004). It is exported to a range of countries including Canada, the USA, the UK and Holland (Froese and Pauly 2007). Both Guyana and Brazil have seen declines in fish stocks in general, due to over-exploitation of fisheries (Gutberlet 2004, FAO 2007). This species is harvested using longlines, Chinese trap nets, seines and bottom trawls. This species is thought to have declined at a rate approaching 30% over 15 years (A. Acero pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The Geelbuik Sea Catfish occupies estuarine areas where there is a potential threat from pollution and habitat degradation. However, there are no data to confirm whether the species is affected by this.	eng
155019	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span>.&#160; This species may occur in the Lafken Mapu Lahual Marine Protected Area.	eng
155019	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> is distributed in Chile from Caleta Leandro in Talcahuano, to Chiloé (Pequeño and Sáez 2005).&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,520 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155019	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> can be found in brackish water and intertidal areas along rocky shorelines (Pequeño and Sáez 2005).&#160; <em>Calliclinus nudiventris</em>is is sympatric with the related species, <em>C. geniguttatus</em>, and it is thought there is some hybridisation between them (Cervigon <em>et al</em>. 1979).	eng
155019	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span>.&#160; <em>Calliclinus geniguttatus</em> was found to be the second most abundant species along a rocky shoreline in the 8th Region, with a total of 70 individuals being collected in 0.38 m<sup>3</sup> (Quijada and Caceres 2000).	eng
155019	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calliclinus nudiventris</span> is not known to be of any commercial interest.&#160; It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; The coastline along which this species is found is relatively undeveloped.	eng
155020	conservation	Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., Eschmeyer, E., Iwamoto, T. &  Munroe, T.A. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri</span>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Alto de Golfo California y Delta del Rio Colorado Biosphere Reserve.   Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155020	distribution	Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., Eschmeyer, E., Iwamoto, T. &  Munroe, T.A. , 2009	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri </span>extends from the Gulf of California, south to Ecuador (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2008)	eng
155020	habitat	Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., Eschmeyer, E., Iwamoto, T. &  Munroe, T.A. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri </span>is a pelagic species most commonly found in warm, murky waters near shores and in bays near river mouths to depths of 50 m. It is tolerant of lowered salinities (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988, Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez 1995, Robertson and Allen 2006). Like other anchovies, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. walkeri</span> is a schooling species. Larvae and eggs are both pelagic (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
155020	population	Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., Eschmeyer, E., Iwamoto, T. &  Munroe, T.A. , 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Anchoa walkeri. </span><em></em>	eng
155020	threats	Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., Eschmeyer, E., Iwamoto, T. &  Munroe, T.A. , 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is taken as a food source at the subsistence scale.	eng
155021	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for the Glass Goby, however, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed.	eng
155021	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Glass Goby, <em>Coryphopterus hyalinus,&#160;</em> is distributed from the Florida Keys and Bermuda to Colombia, including the Bahamas, Haiti and the Lesser Antilles.	eng
155021	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Glass Goby<em></em> is coral reef-associated species that is found in tropical climates. It is a schooling species that hovers above the substratum mostly in deeper drop-off, and spur-and-groove habitats (Greenfield and Johnson 1999). It is also found near large coral columns and heads.	eng
155021	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	Greenfield and Johnson (1999), found the Glass Goby to be one of the most dominant goby species in coral drop-off habitats in the western Caribbean.	eng
155021	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Glass Goby is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade, however it is unlikely to be collected across its entire range and its short generation length makes it resilient to moderate levels of threats.<br/><br/>This species may also be suffering declines due to habitat degradation caused by coral bleaching, pollution and destructive fishing practices, however this is only a localised threat.	eng
155022	conservation	Chao, N.L., Edwards, A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Whitespotted Stargazer.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155022	distribution	Chao, N.L., Edwards, A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Whitespotted Stargazer<em> (Uranoscopus polli</em>) is known from the coast of the Congo and Angola, north to Sierra Leone.	eng
155022	habitat	Chao, N.L., Edwards, A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Whitespotted Stargazer burrows in sand and mud.&#160; While concealed, it attracts its prey by means of a worm shaped lure in its mouth.&#160; This demersal species is found in the deeper shelf area (Bianchi 1992) at depths of approximately 20–200 m.&#160;  Analyses from Bianchi (1992) put this species in a continental shelf habitat grouping, just below the thermocline on sandy bottoms.	eng
155022	population	Chao, N.L., Edwards, A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	Trawl data from Bianchi (1992) showed that the Whitespotted Stargazer was not very prevalent in catches, comprising less than 1% of total catch from 18 stations of Gabon and Congo.	eng
155022	threats	Chao, N.L., Edwards, A., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Whitespotted Stargazer.&#160;  However, it is harvested by artisanal fishers within the Gulf of Guinea (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 1999).&#160; This species is also fished commercially (FAO 1999a), but there are no species-specific catch statistics available.	eng
155023	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Callionymus sagitta</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155023	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet (<em>Callionymus sagitta)</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from India and Sri Lanka, east to China and Korea, including Indonesia (Fricke 2002).  Fricke (1983) reports that this species<em> </em>is not present along the coast of Viet Nam where it is replaced by <em>Callionymus hainanensis</em>.	eng
155023	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet is a demersal species, which can be found resting on sandy substrates along coastlines, in estuaries, and in the lower courses of rivers. This species feeds on worms, zooplankton and phytoplankton. This species has a short generation length and population doubling time (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155023	population	Fricke, R., 2009	The Arrow-headed Darter Dragonet is common on inshore sandy bottoms (FAO 2001b).	eng
155023	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	Due to the small size of this species, it is of no commercial value as a food source. It is occassionally taken as by-catch and used for fish meal. Due to the inshore nature of this species it may be impacted upon by coastal pollution and coastal development, however this is only likely to be causing localised declines. The low population doubling time and short generation length of this species (Froese and Pauly 2007) means it is resilient to short-term disturbances.	eng
155024	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em>, however, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155024	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is distributed along the north coast of South America from Panama to Recife, Brazil.	eng
155024	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is a coral and rocky reef-associated, demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 70 m. It is sluggish and inhabits littoral waters. This species is usually found on sandy or rock substrates and even large specimens may be found in waters less than 1 m deep. It is also found hiding in crevices or caves. Its diet mainly consists of molluscs and crustaceans (Collette 2002).<br/><br/>The eggs of <em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> are deposited on the shells of molluscs or stones, and this species is one of the very few marine fishes that guards fry and juveniles (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155024	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is moderately abundant (Collette 2002).	eng
155024	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Amphichthys cryptocentrus</em> is not of commercial importance. It is harvested by local fishers for local trade as a food source. It is caught in traps and by special types of hooks called garrapinos, and is marketed mainly fresh (Collette, 2002). This species may also occassionally be harvested by artisanal and trawl fisheries for fishmeal and oil production.	eng
155025	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is farmed for human consumption and this reduces pressure on wild stocks of this species. The distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas affording this species some protection from harvesting.<br/><br/>Monitoring and further research of the harvest levels and biology of this species is needed.	eng
155025	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The original distribution of <em>Siganus rivulatus</em> ranged from South Africa to the Red Sea, including Madagascar, the Comoros and Seychelles. The distribution of this species has spread to the eastern Mediterranean via the Suez Canal from Egypt, to Libya and Greece. This species has also been recorded from Malta.	eng
155025	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is found in subtropical climates and feeds mainly on green algae. This species forms schools of about 50 to several hundred individuals, in sheltered bays over rocky/ algal covered bottoms to a maximum depth of 60 m. This species is also found in the vicinity of coral reefs.	eng
155025	population	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Siganus rivulatus</em> is a common fish in the eastern Mediterranean (Kuiter and Debelius 2001). This is one of the most abundant species in the Levantine rocky shore area off Turkey (Golani and Ben-Tuvia 1995).	eng
155025	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	<em></em>This species is harvested throughout much of its range and forms an important component of many artisinal fisheries. It is typically harvested using beach seines, gill nets, and occasionally by trawling. However, there are no reported significant declines in the subpopulations. There are no separate catch statistics available for this species. Landings are combined with other siganid species.<br/><br/>In a few parts of this species range, it is being infected with the bacteria <span style="font-style: italic;">Mycobacterium marinum</span>. However, infection mainly occurs in individuals that have become trapped in aquaculture cages where they are exposed to already infected individuals (Diamant <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155026	conservation	Herdson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pelates sexlineatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas, including the Cod Grounds Commonwealth Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed to establish the distribution, harvest levels, and population trends of this species, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
155026	distribution	Herdson, D., 2009	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is distributed south from Singapore to Australia, and north to China and Okinawa (Japan).&#160; The distribution of this species may extend to India, but this requires confirmation (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
155026	habitat	Herdson, D., 2009	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, schooling species that has a depth range of 1–30 m and inhabits sheltered seagrass, sand, and coastal reefs.&#160; It occurs most abundantly in weedy areas near the mouth of estuaries (Edgar 2000).&#160; It is also known to inhabit bays and inshore coastal waters.&#160; It frequents large reef areas but is also commonly found on smooth trawling and hauling grounds (NSW DPI 2007).&#160; This species feeds mainly on crustaceans (Sanchez-Jerez <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
155026	population	Herdson, D., 2009	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is a common species in the seagrass meadows of many estuaries along the coast of New South Wales (Sanchez-Jerez <em>et al</em>. 2002, Heithaus 2004, Kwak and Klumpp 2004).	eng
155026	threats	Herdson, D., 2009	<em>Pelates sexlineatus</em> is of minor commercial importance, and is harvested as a food source using handlines, seines, and other inshore fishing gear.&#160; It is mostly marketed fresh (FAO 2001a).&#160; This species is harvested by the Estuary General Fishery in New South Wales, Australia, and is also taken as by-catch (although it is discarded) in the Estuary Prawn Trawl Fishery in New South Wales.&#160; The annual recreational harvest of striped grunter species, including <em>Pelates sexlineatus</em>, in New South Wales is likely to be less than 10 t (NSW DPI 2007).	eng
155028	conservation	Vacchi, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em>.	eng
155028	distribution	Vacchi, M., 2009	<em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is found within the Ross Sea of the Southern Ocean.	eng
155028	habitat	Vacchi, M., 2009	<em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is a demersal species which is known from a depth range of 84-287 m and feeds primarily upon polychaetes (La Mesa and Vacchi 2005).	eng
155028	population	Vacchi, M., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em>.	eng
155028	threats	Vacchi, M., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Artedidraco glareobarbatus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
155029	conservation	Meyers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Salarias ceramensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends is needed.	eng
155029	distribution	Meyers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> is found in the coral triangle region, in the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. There are also records from Palau.	eng
155029	habitat	Meyers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> occurs in sheltered bays and lagoons, often amongst mixed algae and coral rubble, in silty habitats at a depth range of 1 - 30 m.	eng
155029	population	Meyers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	This species is relatively common.	eng
155029	threats	Meyers, R., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	<em>Salarias ceramensis</em> is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade. It is also of minor importance to fisheries (Froese and Pauly 2006). The collection of this species from the wild for commercial purposes is not considered a major threat.	eng
155030	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em>.&#160; Changes in net gear size used by the commercial fishing industry is not thought to be viable, as it could be accompanied by a significant loss in the catch of target species. The best solution as proposed by Fonseca <em>et al. </em>in their 2005 study, is to avoid dense schools of <em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em>.&#160; Commercial exploitation of this species was stopped in the 1980s after a significant decrease in abundance.&#160;&#160; Further research is needed on the biology and harvest levels of this species, to help distinguish between natural fluctuations in the population of this species, and fishery-related declines.&#160; Taxonomic research is also needed to determine the validity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Macroramphosus gracilis.</span>	eng
155030	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em> is distributed in the western Atlantic off the east coast of the USA and the Greater Antilles, northern South America and Argentina.&#160; It also occurs in the eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Indo-West Pacific, mostly in temperate latitudes between 20<sup>o</sup> and 40<sup>o</sup> N. (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155030	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Macroramphosus scolopax</em> is a bethopelagic, subtropical species, typically found on the lower continental shelf over sand substrates (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This species is also known from the upper slope and oceanic seamounts.&#160; While normally found at a depth range of 50–350m, it has also been taken from depths of 600 m.&#160; Food items for this species include copepods, foraminiferans, amphipods, gammarid shrimps, polychaetes, and paguridae.&#160; This species is found in large schools.	eng
155030	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Macroramphosus</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">scolopax</span> is described as usually being very abundant off the coast of Portugal, on the outer continental shelf (Marques <em>et al</em>. 2005, Lopes <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; Surveys from the 1970s indicated a high abundance of this species, in the region of 360,000 t.&#160; During the 1980s, there was a decline in this abundance, followed by an increase again between 1990 and 2003 (Marques <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; More recent acoustic surveys from 1998 to 2003 indicate a decline in abundance from 500,000 t to 175,000 t.<br/><br/>An acoustic survey off the coast of Morocco in 1976 estimated a biomass of 1,300,000 t (Brêthes 1979).	eng
155030	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	In the early 1970s, <span style="font-style: italic;">Macroramphosus scolopax</span> was commonly taken in purse seine nets with catch rates of 25–30 tonnes per boat per day, with a landing of 10,000 tonnes in 1973 (Morais 1981).&#160; In the late 1970s, landings increased  to 33,000 tonnes, where they peaked in 1978 (Morais 1981).&#160; Efforts were made to implement the commercial exploitation of this species for fishmeal, but fishing vessels geared for this fishery are limited in number.&#160; As this is a schooling species and is found in many fishery zones, it is regularly taken as by-catch. This, in addition to natural variability, is likely to be responsible for much of the decline seen in the biomass of this species in recent years.&#160; Considering the wide distribution and reported abundance of this species, the indirect harvest of this species is not considered a major threat at the present time.	eng
155031	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus whiteheadi</em>.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species as well as the impact of threats such as shrimp fisheries.	eng
155031	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R. , 2009	<em>Callionymus whiteheadi</em> is a Pacific dragonet, known from only three specimens collected in Indonesia (at Java, Kangean, and Bali).&#160; The area from which this species is known is less than 20,000 km² (around 19,208 km²).	eng
155031	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is a demersal species and has been recorded at depths of 100–220 m.&#160; It occurs on soft bottoms, burying in soft substrate.&#160; Congeners of this species feed on small bottom organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).	eng
155031	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155031	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R. , 2009	It is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>whether<span style="font-style: italic;"> Callionymus whiteheadi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Like its congeners (e.g., <em>C. belcheri</em> and <em>C. filamentosus</em>), this species may be taken as by-catch in commercial prawn fisheries or may be used for the production of fish meal (Fricke 2001).	eng
155032	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</span>. This species range overlaps with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, and monitoring of the harvest levels of this species.	eng
155032	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em> is found in the Philippines and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Kuiter 2002).	eng
155032	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em> occurs over rubble or shallow patch coral reefs, in areas of current. It is found to a maximum depth of 30 m.	eng
155032	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Cirrhilabrus rubripinnis</em>.	eng
155032	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This species is commonly exploited for the aquarium trade, however this is not believed to pose a significant threat to the global population at present. There are no other known major threats for this species.	eng
155033	conservation	Allen, G.R., Choat, C.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas</span>. <br/><br/>Further research of the population numbers, potential threat processes, distribution, and ecology of this species is needed.	eng
155033	distribution	Allen, G.R., Choat, C.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas </span>is thought to be endemic to Oman, where it has only been encountered at Sawda Island (Kuria Muria Islands) off the coast of southern Oman in the Arabian Sea.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
155033	habitat	Allen, G.R., Choat, C.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Halichoeres melas</em> inhabits coastal coral reef systems (Randall and Earle 1994) at depths of 5–10 m. It is solitary and ranges over a wide area, stopping briefly every 2–3 m to pick food from the reef substrate.	eng
155033	population	Allen, G.R., Choat, C.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres melas </span>has been described as having a low population density (Randall and Earle 1994). This species is only known from a small number of records.<em></em>	eng
155033	threats	Allen, G.R., Choat, C.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155034	conservation	McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including 13 around New Caledonia, all of which operate stringent 'no-take' policies.	eng
155034	distribution	McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is distributed from the Ryukyu Islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, and east to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa.	eng
155034	habitat	McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> inhabits shallow, semi-exposed, hard-coral and rocky reefs with rich algal growth.&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The males guard the deposited eggs, which are demersal and adhesive (R. Patzner pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155034	population	McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is locally abundant throughout its range (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155034	threats	McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Crossosalarias macrospilus</em> is widely distributed in the western Pacific and it is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat processes (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155035	conservation	Chao, N.L., Heemstra, P.C., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Blackflag Sandperch.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155035	distribution	Chao, N.L., Heemstra, P.C., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Blackflag Sandperch<em> (Parapercis signata)</em> is known from the Maldive Islands and the Seychelles (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155035	habitat	Chao, N.L., Heemstra, P.C., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Blackflag Sandperch is found on open rubble/muddy substrates, close to coral reefs.&#160; It feeds on small invertebrates and fish.&#160; There is evidence to suggest that this fish is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with the two smallest paratypes being female and the larger three male (Randall 1984).&#160;  This species is found to a depth of 50 m (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155035	population	Chao, N.L., Heemstra, P.C., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for<em> </em>the Blackflag Sandperch.	eng
155035	threats	Chao, N.L., Heemstra, P.C., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no known major threat processes affecting the Blackflag Sandperch<em></em>.	eng
155036	conservation	Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi</span> includes a number of marine protected areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
155036	distribution	Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi </span>has been recorded in the Gulf of California in Mexico south to Peru, and the Galapagos Islands (Robertson and Allen 2006). There is an old record of this species from southern California, USA (Dooley 1978), however there are no other records to support that the distribution of this species extends north to California. It is assumed that the species also is found in suitable habitat in between these recorded points.	eng
155036	habitat	Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus hubbsi</span> is a demersal species, which is found on sand and rubble substrata (Robertson and Allen 2006) from 20-40 m. It occupies the same areas and habitats as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. affinis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. princeps</span>, but prefers shallower waters (Schneider and Krupp 1995). The diet of this species consists of benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalve, octopus, squid and cuttlefish (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
155036	population	Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155036	threats	Collette, B. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
155037	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Physiculus parini</em>.&#160; Further research on potential threats to this species is needed.	eng
155037	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Physiculus parini</em> is found along the Sala y Gomez Ridge near Easter Island.	eng
155037	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Physiculus parini</em> is a bathypelagic species found at depths of 330–360 m over the seamounts of Sala y Gomez Ridge.&#160; Most species of the Moridae family live over hard bottoms and do not form dense aggregations (FAO 1990).&#160; It is likely that this species is endemic to this seamount, as nearly half of all fish occurring on the Sala y Gomez ridge are endemics.	eng
155037	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Physiculus parini</em>.	eng
155037	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physiculus parini</span> is of no commercial importance.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by seamount fisheries taking commercially important species such as the Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus).</em>	eng
155038	conservation	Acero, A. & Murdy, E. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Percis matsuii</span>.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and the impact of threats such as by-catch.	eng
155038	distribution	Acero, A. & Murdy, E. , 2009	<em>Percis matsuii</em> is distributed around southern Japan.	eng
155038	habitat	Acero, A. & Murdy, E. , 2009	<em>Percis matsuii</em> is a bathydemersal species found over mud and sand substrates at a depth range of 200?500 m.	eng
155038	population	Acero, A. & Murdy, E. , 2009	There is currently no population information available for<em> Percis matsuii</em>.	eng
155038	threats	Acero, A. & Murdy, E. , 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of <span style="font-style: italic;">Percis matsuii</span>, it is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as coastal development.&#160; However, it may be taken as by-catch by trawler fisheries.&#160; It is unknown whether this poses a significant threat to this species, but fisheries are over-exploited in this region and by-catch is insufficiently monitored.	eng
155039	conservation	Eschmeyer, W., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its distribution, ecology, and threats.	eng
155039	distribution	Eschmeyer, W., 2009	<em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em> is distributed from Japan and the East China Sea, south to the South China Sea (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155039	habitat	Eschmeyer, W., 2009	<em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Occurrence records indicate that it has been collected from depths of 100–500 m (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155039	population	Eschmeyer, W., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Saurenchelys fierasfer</em>.	eng
155039	threats	Eschmeyer, W., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurenchelys fierasfer</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Over-exploitation of fish and other living resources is reported to be severe in both the East China Sea (Heileman and Tang 2008) and the South China Sea (Heileman 2008).&#160; In 2004, total reported landings of all marine resources in the East China Sea were four million tonnes (Heileman and Tang 2008), and in the South China Sea, reported landings were six million tonnes (Heileman 2008).&#160; Excessive by-catch is also reported to be a severe problem in the South China Sea (Heileman 2008).&#160; It is therefore possible that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. fierasfer</span> is taken as by-catch in at least some areas of its range.&#160; However, the deep water habit of this species suggests that most of the population may be outside the reach of fisheries in the region (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155040	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etropus rimosus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Florida Keys National Marine Park. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
155040	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Gray Flounder, <em>Etropus rimosus,</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to southern Florida and the eastern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
155040	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Gray Flounder is typically found at depths greater than 40 m to a maximum depth of 180 m. The larvae are most common between depths of 20-60 m. This species can be found resting on soft substrates.	eng
155040	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Gray Flounder has been described as an abundant species (Dowd 1981).	eng
155040	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Etropus rimosus</em> is used in the pet food industry but this is unlikely to pose a major threat to the population numbers of this species (Leslie and Stewart 1986).	eng
155041	conservation	Acero, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the population numbers, distribution, and threats of this species is needed.	eng
155041	distribution	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em> is only known from three specimens collected from the Caicos Bank, Bimini, and Tongue of the Ocean off the Bahama Islands.	eng
155041	habitat	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Caulolatilus dooleyi</em> is a tropical, deep-water species of tilefish that has been found at a depth range of 219 m to 256 m. This species finds shelter in crevices of rock piles or at the base of coral on steep, outer slopes.<br/><br/>This species feeds on a range of benthic invertebrates such as molluscs, crabs, sea urchins and worms.	eng
155041	population	Acero, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155041	threats	Acero, A., 2009	This species is not known to be directly targeted for any commercial trade, however other species of this genus are taken by spear fishers and by commercial fisheries as by-catch.	eng
155042	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Plesiops nigricans</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of MPAs throughout its range.	eng
155042	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The distribution of <em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is restricted to the the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea.	eng
155042	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is found on coral reefs hiding amongst coral rubble and crevices at a depth range of 5–30 m.&#160; This species feeds at night and hides during the day.	eng
155042	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Plesiops nigricans</em>.	eng
155042	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Plesiops nigricans</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, however it is not the most common species in the genus <em>Plesiops</em> to be used in the ornamental trade.	eng
155043	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Indian Mackeral Scad. However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed, along with further research on the fishing effort in all the major fishery regions.	eng
155043	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is broadly distributed throughout the Indian Ocean, from East Africa to Indonesia and in the western Pacific Ocean, from Japan to Australia. This species has also been found in the eastern Mediterranean (Golani 2006).	eng
155043	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Indian Mackeral Scad is a benthopelagic, coastal species that has a depth range of 40-275 m. It forms large schools in deep water, and is occasionally found inshore in sheltered bays in small to large groups. This species feeds on planktonic invertebrates.	eng
155043	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is one of the most common coastal pelagic species in South-East Asia (Perrin and Borsa 2001) and most common <em>Decapterus</em> species in coastal waters and on open banks of the Indian Ocean (FAO 1999).	eng
155043	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Indian Mackeral Scad, <em>Decapterus russelli</em>, is a highly commercial species and is taken in coastal waters throughout its range. This species is very important in the South China Sea region as a cheap source of protein, particularly for lower income groups. This species is mainly caught with purse seine nets and trawls. In Malaysia 96% and 2% of landings are caught with purse seines and trawls, respectively. In the last 10 years the global landings of this species have been as follows: 1997 - 150, 027 tonnes, 1998 - 145, 747 tonnes, 1999 - 162, 437 tonnes, 2000 - 182, 499 tonnes, 2001 - 171, 701 tonnes, 2002 - 195, 422 tonnes, 2003 - 179, 011 tonnes, 2004 - 168, 625 tonnes, 2005 - 167, 975 tonnes, 2006 - 175, 770 tonnes, 2007 - 164, 016 tonnes (FAO-FIGIS 2008). There is no apparent increase or decrease in the population as the landings of this species have fluctuated since the 1950s. This species is<em> </em>marketed fresh or may be dried or salted; also sold frozen and canned.<br/><br/>The stocks of <em>Decapterus russelli</em> are subject to heavy exploitation (Perrin and Borsa 2001) and are reported to be overexploited (Mansor and Abdullah 1995; Atmaja and Nugroho 2005). On the Sunda shelf (extension of the continental shelf of South East Asia) the annual landings of scads have decreased from around 82,500t in 1994 to around 42,500t in 2004 (51.5% decrease), despite an increase in fishery effort of around 50% for the same period (Atmaja and Nugroho 2005). This reported decline is only known from a small part of this species range. In general the global landings of this species appear to relatively steady, however this could be better supported by further information on the fishing effort in this time.	eng
155044	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Herdson, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Buglossidium luteum</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155044	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Herdson, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Buglossidium luteum</span> may be found in the eastern Atlantic from Iceland and Scotland to the Mediterranean. Its range includes the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.	eng
155044	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Herdson, D., 2009	<em>Buglossidium luteum</em> is a demersal species that occurs at depths ranging from less than 1 m to 450 m. This small flatfish species prefers shallow, sandy and muddy bottoms near river outflows, though it avoids the low salinity waters of large estuaries (Amara <em>et al</em>. 2004). Its diet varies seasonally, but often includes bivalves, polychaeta, amphipoda and, according to some studies, copepoda (Henrique<em> et al.</em> 2002).  It does not make any pronounced migrations. It is most abundant at depths of 10 - 40 m (Quero <em>et al</em>. 1986).	eng
155044	population	Munroe, T.A. & Herdson, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Buglossidium luteum</span> is considered abundant in areas of its range including the Portuguese coast (Carbral <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
155044	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Herdson, D., 2009	While this species is not fished commercially, trawls targeting other species, such as the shrimp <em>Crangon crangon</em>, take <em>Buglossidium luteum</em> as by-catch (Berghahn and Purps 1998).  However, this is not considered to be a major threat to this species at this time as it is not affecting the entire population.	eng
155045	conservation	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J.,  Carpenter, K. & Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Merluccius hernandezi</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the taxonomy and biology of this species, as well as on its abundance and threats.	eng
155045	distribution	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J.,  Carpenter, K. & Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> is known from the Gulf of California.	eng
155045	habitat	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J.,  Carpenter, K. & Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> inhabits epipelagic and mesopelagic zone waters of the continental shelf, open sea, and seamounts, to a depth of around 300 m.&#160; This is likely to be a small-sized species, as it has been recognised as a 'dwarf' Hake stock (Iwamoto <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).	eng
155045	population	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J.,  Carpenter, K. & Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> was previously classed as <em>Merluccius angustimanus</em>, and is said to have a low abundance (Cohen<em> et al.</em> 1990).	eng
155045	threats	Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J.,  Carpenter, K. & Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Merluccius hernandezi</em> is of no real commercial importance and is only exploited on a local scale by trawlers (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
155046	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon margaritophorus</em>. However the distribution of this species coincides with numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155046	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Red-striped Cardinalfish,<em> Apogon margaritophorus,</em> is distributed from the Indo-Malay Archipelago to the Solomon Islands.	eng
155046	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Red-striped Cardinalfish <em></em>is found in shallow coral reefs around lagoons and sheltered bays at a depth range of 1-10 m, and it is usually found sheltering near long-spined urchins or large anemones in seagrasses. It occurs in small groups with individuals forming pairs within these aggregations. It is a mouthbrooding species.	eng
155046	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155046	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Red-striped Cardinalfish occasionally shows up in the aquarium trade as an "Assorted Cardinal Fish". The harvesting of this species for the aquarium trade, is not considered a major threat to this species at present owing to the short generation time, broad range and infrequent harvesting for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>This species may be threatened by coral reef and seagrass habitat degradation in areas of its range, however, the majority of coral reefs in the South West Pacific are healthy, while others are recovering after coral bleaching in 2000 and 2002. The major signs of reef stress around the major towns are due to over-exploitation and pollution from sediments and nutrients. It is predicted that large areas of coral reefs will remain healthy in the future, with only those around the larger towns being damaged (Lovell <em> et al</em>. 2004).	eng
155047	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cocotropus roseus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area (MPAs) designations including the Gulf of Mannar National Park off the coast of India.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the ecology, population numbers and potential threats to this species is needed as little information is available.	eng
155047	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S.G., 2009	<em>Cocotropus roseus</em> is recorded from the western Indian Ocean around India and the Maldives.	eng
155047	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em> is a demersal species.&#160; The genus <em>Cocotropus</em> is generally found at depths less than 100 m.&#160; Species from the Aploactinidae family are often found under or between rocks or vegetation (Poss 1999).	eng
155047	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S.G., 2009	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em>.	eng
155047	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S.G., 2009	It is unknown whether&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cocotropus</span><em> roseus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; The Aploactinidae family are of no commercial importance (Poss 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range, especially shrimp trawlers, but there are no data available to confirm this. This species is unlikely to be threatened (W. Eschmeyer pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155048	conservation	Matsuura, K. & Nazarkin, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em>. &#160; Further research on its abundance, ecology, habitat status, and threats&#160; should be carried out.	eng
155048	distribution	Matsuura, K. & Nazarkin, M., 2009	<em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is known only from Misaki in the Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan.	eng
155048	habitat	Matsuura, K. & Nazarkin, M., 2009	<em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is a demersal species typically found in tidal pools.&#160; There is little information available on the ecology of this species or genus.	eng
155048	population	Matsuura, K. & Nazarkin, M., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em>.	eng
155048	threats	Matsuura, K. & Nazarkin, M., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Zoarchias neglectus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.&#160; Part of its range includes a busy harbour where it may be impacted by threats associated with coastal development, ballast water, boat traffic, oil leaks from ships, dredging, and other sources of water pollution.	eng
155049	conservation	Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Devil Searobin. Further research on the threats, harvest levels, population numbers, and biology of this species is needed.	eng
155049	distribution	Murdy, E., 2009	The Devil Searobin (<em>Lepidotrigla kishinouyi</em>) has been documented from the Sea of Japan to East China Sea south of Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, and in the coastal waters of Taiwan (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
155049	habitat	Murdy, E., 2009	Gurnards are benthic species found on the continental shelf of tropical and warm temperate regions. The Devil Searobin has been found at a depth range of 40-140 m. Species in the genus <em>Lepidotrigla</em> are typically found to occur on sandy, muddy, rubble or reef-type substrates.	eng
155049	population	Murdy, E., 2009	Currently there is no available population information for the Devil Searobin.	eng
155049	threats	Murdy, E., 2009	There is no major commercial fishery for the Devil Searobin. However, it is taken by bottom trawler fisheries operating within its range. The East China Sea is intensively exploited for both fish and algae, and many fisheries are said to over-exploit; further research is needed to assess how significant a threat this is to the population of this species.	eng
155050	conservation	Larson, H.K., Van Tassell, J. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Callogobius clitellus</em>, however it is known from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
155050	distribution	Larson, H.K., Van Tassell, J. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	The Saddled Goby, <em>Callogobius clitellus,</em> is distributed from Indonesia and the Philippines to the Solomon Islands and the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
155050	habitat	Larson, H.K., Van Tassell, J. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	The Saddled Goby is a benthic species found amongst rubble and on sandy substrates in bays and on steep coral reef slopes. It has been found at a depth range of between 3-20 m.	eng
155050	population	Larson, H.K., Van Tassell, J. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	There is no population information available for the Saddled Goby.	eng
155050	threats	Larson, H.K., Van Tassell, J. & Jaafar, Z., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of the Saddled Goby this species maybe undergoing localised declines in abundance due to coastal development and water pollution.	eng
155051	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Marine protected areas targeted at protecting mangrove habitat are needed within the region to protect species that are dependent on this specific habitat type.	eng
155051	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	The Taboga Goby (<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius tabogensis</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and central Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
155051	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	The Taboga Goby is a demersal species, found in mangrove channels with muddy substrata, to depths of 6 m (Birdsong 1981).	eng
155051	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	The Taboga Goby is moderately common within its specific habitat.	eng
155051	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known major threats to the Taboga Goby.&#160; However, localised coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species and its shallow water habitat.	eng
155052	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Flying Gurnard,&#160; however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155052	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	The Flying Gurnard, <em>Dactyloptena gilberti</em>, is an Indo-Pacific gurnard, distributed from southern Japan and the Gulf of Thailand to India, the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia.	eng
155052	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	Flying Gurnard is taken inshore over mud-sand substrates at a depth range of 20-71 m. The congener, <em>Dactyloptena orientalis</em>, feeds on benthic crustaceans, clams, and small fishes.	eng
155052	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for the Flying Gurnard.	eng
155052	threats	Poss, S., 2009	The Flying Gurnard forms a minor component of western central Pacific fisheries, and is marketed fresh. This species is harvested in nearshore waters with seine nets, or by trawls. Current levels of exploitation are low and not considered a major threat to the global population.	eng
155053	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Phucocoetes latitans</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with several designated marine protected areas, including the Tierra Del Fuego National Park. <br/><br/>Further research on the abundance of this species and its strength of association with kelp habitats is needed.&#160; Monitoring of any changes in population size associated with El Nino years would also be useful.	eng
155053	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is found on the shores of Patagonia from Mar del Plata, Argentina, to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands.	eng
155053	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is a benthic species found on slopes along rocky coastlines.&#160; It is associated with seaweed and kelp holdfasts.&#160; Spawning occurs within the intertidal zone, where the nests are guarded.	eng
155053	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Phucocoetes latitans</em>.	eng
155053	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Phucocoetes latitans</em> is of no commercial value and is not fished.&#160; Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it maybe undergoing localised declines in areas impacted by significant coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, the coastline along which this species is found is relatively under-developed.&#160; Due to this species' association with kelp forests, it is likely to be affected by kelp die-offs that occur in El Nino years.	eng
155054	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em>.&#160;  However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the by-catch levels of this species is needed.	eng
155054	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em> is found from the Great Australian Bight to southwest Western Australia.	eng
155054	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em> is a demersal, schooling species that has a depth range of 95–390 m.&#160; It is found on the continental shelf and slope.	eng
155054	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Plagiogeneion macrolepis</em>.	eng
155054	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	This species is discarded as by-catch by a number of southern Australia trawl fisheries; considering the lack of knowledge on species composition, abundance and distribution this is considered to pose a threat to this species (Baker 2009). Daley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006 listed this species as 'at high risk of population impacts' as a result of the trawler fisheries. While this is not a target species, it may become a targeted food source in the future; a number of other rubyfish species are already taken for food (Baker 2009). This species is particularly vulnerable to the impact of fishing as it is a long-lived species, slow-growing, slow to mature, with a low reproductive output (Weeber and Szabo 2004, citing Annala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003). It is possible that this species congregates on seamounts like congener  <em>P. rubiginosum, </em>where it is particularly vulnerable to over-fishing<em> </em>(Ivanin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996; Weeber and Szabo 2005).	eng
155055	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em>.	eng
155055	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is found in the tropical waters of the northwestern and central Atlantic, the western Indian Ocean (Natal), the Coral Sea and the central Pacific. This species has also been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
155055	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The footballfish, <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is a meso and bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 0 to 1,900 m. The larvae of species from the <em>Himantolophus</em> genus are epipelagic, usually occurring less than 50 m below the surface, and at metamorphosis they descend to depths of more than 800 m (Bertelsen and Krefft 1988). This species uses a lure (modified dorsal fin spine) as a means by which to attract prey (FAO 2002).	eng
155055	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Himantolophus cornifer</em>.	eng
155055	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<em>Himantolophus cornifer</em> is of no commercial interest, and due to its small size it is unlikely to be taken as by-catch. There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
155056	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for  New Zealand Dory, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155056	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	The New Zealand Dory, <em>Cyttus novaezealandiae</em>, is found off the coast of New Zealand and southeast Australia.	eng
155056	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	The New Zealand Dory is a demersal species that has a depth range of 20-450 m and can be found on the continental slope.	eng
155056	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for the New Zealand Dory.	eng
155056	threats	Auster, P., 2009	New Zealand Dory is occasionally seen as by-catch when trawling (CSIRO Report 2001). At present this is not considered a major threat to this species as it comprises less than 1% of the by-catch (AFMA 2005).	eng
155057	conservation	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Japanese Stargazer.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155057	distribution	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Japanese Stargazer<em> (Uranoscopus japonicus</em>) is distributed from South Korea to Sagami Bay, Japan, southward to Taiwan, from Shanghai to Fujian in China, and around Singapore.&#160; Reports of this species from Yemen and Australia are thought to be misidentifications (M. Gomon pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155057	habitat	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Japanese Stargazer is a benthic species, found resting on, or burrowed in, sand or muddy bottoms, to a depth of 300 m, in near shore waters.&#160; Individuals feed on animals that move over them, such as crabs, molluscs, worms, and small fishes. The Japanese Stargazer is venomous and has a cleithral spine with a venom gland.	eng
155057	population	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Japanese Stargazer.	eng
155057	threats	Chao, N.L., Gomon, M.F., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Japanese Stargazer.&#160; This species is occasionally taken as by-catch, but this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
155058	conservation	Lea, R.N. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.	eng
155058	distribution	Lea, R.N. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species is found in the Mexican Pacific; from Monterey Bay in California, USA to the Gulf of California (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983,&#160;Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155058	habitat	Lea, R.N. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species is poorly known. It lives on soft sand and sand/mud substrates in coastal areas at depths of 3-140 m (Galván-Magaña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).&#160;&#160;It lives on sandy substrata and preys on mysids and gammaridean amphipods as well as pelagic red crab, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleuroncodes planipes</span> (Ramírez-Murillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).<p></p>	eng
155058	population	Lea, R.N. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species is considered uncommon over much of its range.	eng
155058	threats	Lea, R.N. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to the population at this time, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp, and other fishing trawlers. <br/><p></p>	eng
155059	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Masked Stargazer.	eng
155059	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Masked Stargazer (<em>Gillellus healae)</em> is found in the western Atlantic, from South Carolina to the northeast coast of Mexico, including the Florida Keys. This species can also be found in the waters off Aruba.	eng
155059	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Masked Stargazer<em></em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 21-73 m. This species inhabits soft bottoms, where it buries itself in sand with only its eyes, nose and mouth protruding, waiting for passing prey.	eng
155059	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Masked Stargazers are often locally abundant (FAO 1999).	eng
155059	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species although it may be taken as by-catch by fishing trawlers operating within its range.	eng
155060	conservation	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepidotrigla venusta</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, biology and ecology of this species, as well as on its potential threats.	eng
155060	distribution	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Lepidotrigla venusta</em> is a searobin, known from only one specimen collected from Luzon, Philippines; described with 34 paratypes (Fowler 1938).	eng
155060	habitat	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	Like other searobins, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla</span><em> venusta</em> is a demersal species. The type specimen was collected from a depth of around 82 m (Eschmeyer 1999).	eng
155060	population	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla venusta</span>.	eng
155060	threats	Acero, A., Kawai, T. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidotrigla venusta</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Like its congeners, this species may be taken as by-catch by trawls throughout its range (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155061	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Pyle, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomacentrus callainus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155061	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Pyle, R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> is an eastern central Pacific damselfish, recorded from Fiji and Tonga (type locality, Tongatapu).	eng
155061	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Pyle, R., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> is found on shallow coral reefs, which it uses for shelter. This species is found between depths of 2 - 8 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155061	population	Allen, G.R. & Pyle, R., 2009	This species is abundant throughout the Fijian Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155061	threats	Allen, G.R. & Pyle, R., 2009	Many of the reefs that <em>Pomacentrus callainus</em> inhabits, have been subjected to degradation in populated areas by a number of threats. The coral reefs around Fiji have been locally impacted by sewage, coral harvesting, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices, Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks, and eutrophication. <br/><br/>Seventy five percent of Tonga is uninhabited by humans and so development does not pose a huge problem to this part of the distribution. However in areas that are inhabited, infrastructure is poor and so reefs are degraded by untreated sewage and sedimentation. The use of destructive fishing practices in this region is common. <br/><br/>This species may be taken for the aquarium trade, however it is not a major threat.	eng
155062	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em>.<br/><br/>Further studies in deeper water around Ambon Island are needed to determine if this species occupies a deep water habitat.	eng
155062	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is known from a single specimen from Ambon, Indonesia.	eng
155062	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is a demersal species. The Serranidae family are usually found on coral reefs or rocky substrata and the majority of species occur on continental shelves in depths less than 200 m. Except for occasional spawning aggregations, most groupers are solitary fishes and are generally resident on a particular reef for a long time (FAO 1999).<br/><br/>Like other species within the subfamily Anthiinae, this species may in fact be a deep reef (greater than 50 m) species and quite common. The shallow waters within this area have been relatively well surveyed (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155062	population	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em>.	eng
155062	threats	Allen, G.R. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Dactylanthias aplodactylus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Surveys have found the waters around Ambon Island to be severely contaminated by domestic waste, a stress which has indirectly caused an increased parasite load on some reef fish (Evans <em>et al.</em> 1995). The coral reefs around Ambon and other Indonesian islands are also under threat from 'blast fishing' (Harger 1995). Dive teams have reported significant cracks in the coral reef around Ambon as a result of near constant blast fishing. If this is in fact a deep reef species, then it is unlikely to be impacted by blast fishing activity.	eng
155063	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the extent of this species distribution.	eng
155063	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is found in the Timor Sea and off Hawaii (Mundy 2005).	eng
155063	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is a benthopelagic species found at depths ranging from 920-1,700 m (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008). Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
155063	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em> is a rare species (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
155063	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting <em>Dicrolene hubrechti</em>, due to the deepwater nature of this species.	eng
155064	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Apogon notatus</em>, however, the distribution of this species may fall within marine protected areas.	eng
155064	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is distributed in the southern islands of Japan.	eng
155064	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is found around rocky reefs in bays and harbours, hovering near reef crevices and caves. During certain parts of the year it regularly forms large, dense aggregations during the day.<br/><br/>About two months before spawning, when water temperature exceeds 16<sup>o</sup>C, females establish territories over rocky substrate. Males join the females in these territories and form breeding pairs. During the reproductive season, (June - September in Japan) spawning occurs daily. The males of this species mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until they hatch.	eng
155064	population	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon notatus</em> is reported to be common (Kuwamura 1983) and a dominant species (Okuda 2001) in the coastal waters of southern Japan.	eng
155064	threats	Gon, O., 2009	<em></em><em>Apogon notatus</em> is associated with rocky reefs in harbours and bays, implying a level of tolerance to polluted conditions and utilisation of a range of habitat types. This species is reported to be common in southern Japan, an area that has experienced severe coastal degradation, providing further evidence that this species is relatively unimpacted by threats relating to reef degradation.	eng
155065	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em>.<br/><br/>As this species is only known from a couple of specimens, further research is needed on the biology, ecology, population numbers, potential threats, and distribution of this species.	eng
155065	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em> is distributed in the Bering Sea including Commander Island and the Aleutian  Islands, at a depth of 32-92 m.&#160; This species and other cottids are usually found  in cold waters (K Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155065	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	The sculpin, <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em>, is a demersal species that has been collected at depths of 52–97 m. Little is known about the habitat or biology of this species, but its congener, <em>S. concinnum</em>, reaches a maximum size of 5.1 cm (SL), inhabits rocky bottoms and has been found among rocks covered with calcareous algae, kelp and brown algae, and sea urchins.	eng
155065	population	Neely, D., 2009	There is currently no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Stelgistrum beringianum</span>.	eng
155065	threats	Neely, D., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Stelgistrum beringianum</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Sculpins are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 1999).	eng
155066	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Huysman's Righteye Flounder.&#160; Further research is needed on the harvest levels and population trends of this species.	eng
155066	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Huysman's Righteye Flounder <em>(Samariscus huysmani</em>) is found from Myanmar, eastwards to China, and south to Indonesia.	eng
155066	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Huysman's Righteye Flounder is a demersal species found at a depth range of 98–122 m.	eng
155066	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for Huysman's Righteye Flounder.	eng
155066	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Huysman's Righteye Flounder is occasionally taken as by-catch by shrimp fisheries.&#160; It is not known if this poses a significant threat to this species.	eng
155067	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em>.	eng
155067	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em> is found along the Pacific coast of Honshu and the nearby islands, to the Ogasawara Islands (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).	eng
155067	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 50-100 m and can be found over coral and rocky substrates. This species forms schools above the reef (P.C.  Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species mixes with other anthiids while feeding on zooplankton above the reef (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).	eng
155067	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudanthias caudalis</em>, however the life history characteristics of the <em>Anthiinae</em> subfamily (short-lived, high natural mortality rate, high growth rate and high recruitment rate) (Russ and Alcala 1998) suggests that this species may be locally abundant.	eng
155067	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	Due to the deep water nature of this species, it is not commonly seen within the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species largely occurs on offshore reefs where it is unlikely to be impacted by inshore pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). The use of piscicides is prohibited within Japanese waters (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009) so this is unlikely to pose a threat.	eng
155068	conservation	Collette, B.B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and threats of this species.	eng
155068	distribution	Collette, B.B., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera </span>has a circumglobal distribution throughout all warm waters. Its most southerly limit reaches Otago in New Zealand. In the western Atlantic it ranges from Nova Scotia to Brazil.	eng
155068	habitat	Collette, B.B., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera</span> is commonly found attached on to sharks, particularly blue sharks and in the gill chambers of swordfish and billfishes (O'Toole 2002). This is an epipelagic species, like the host species. This species is found to a maximum depth of 200 m.	eng
155068	population	Collette, B.B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is common.	eng
155068	threats	Collette, B.B., 2009	There are no major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Remora brachyptera</span>. This species may be indirectly impacted due to the harvesting of its host species.	eng
155069	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Blackpored Eel.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas, including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.&#160; Further research into the ecology of this species is needed, in order to better identify any potential threats it may face.	eng
155069	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	The Blackpored Eel<em> (Ophichthus melanoporus) </em>has been found from the east coast of Florida, the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas.	eng
155069	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	The Blackpored Eel is found in deep water and the larvae are found inshore. &#160; This species is known to occur at depths of 51 - 460 m.	eng
155069	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Blackpored Eel.	eng
155069	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown; however it is unlikely that the Blackpored Eel is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155070	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of this species to determine if known threats are triggering significant declines.	eng
155070	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is known from the South China Sea.	eng
155070	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is a demersal species found in tropical waters. Other species of the genus <em>Samariscus</em> are found at depths ranging from 3-150 m; it is likely that this species falls within a similar range. The maximum size of <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is not known, however the maximum size of congeners range from 5.5 cm to (<em>S. macrognathus</em>) to 16 cm (<em>S. latus</em>). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155070	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em>.	eng
155070	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is not known whether <em>Samariscus filipectoralis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. It is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in commercial bottom trawls. The South China Sea is severely impacted by overfishing and is reported to have excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices. The South China Sea is also severely impacted by habitat modification and the effects of pollution (NOAA 2004). It is unknown what impact these threats are having upon this species owing to its small size and the lack of commercial interest (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155071	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia</span><em> maculata</em>. It is possible that this species may occur in a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), affording it some protection from anthropogenic threats.	eng
155071	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	<em>Gorgasia maculata</em> is found in the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific, from the Maldives and the Comoros to the Solomon Islands, and as far north as the Philippines.	eng
155071	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span> is a reef-associated species, found living in coral-sand burrows at a depth range of 25–48 m. They are found in colonies with their heads protruding from the burrow to feed on small planktonic organisms in the water current.&#160; Colonies typically are found in areas exposed to a current.	eng
155071	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span>.	eng
155071	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Gorgasia maculata</span> is impacted by any major threat processes at present.	eng
155072	conservation	Smith, D. & Coral Specialist Group, 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Southern Conger Eel.	eng
155072	distribution	Smith, D. & Coral Specialist Group, 2009	The Southern Conger Eel, <em>Conger verreauxi</em>, is found in the Indo-Pacific from Western Australia to New South Wales. It is also found in the Southwest Pacific around New Zealand.	eng
155072	habitat	Smith, D. & Coral Specialist Group, 2009	The Southern Conger Eel<em></em> stays hidden during the day in cracks and crevices of moderately exposed coral reefs (Edgar 2000), rubble and wrecks. This species has been recorded to a depth of 500 m but is more commonly found at a depth range of 0 - 100 m. This species main prey items include fish, crabs and octopus. This species migrates to deep water to spawn and die.	eng
155072	population	Smith, D. & Coral Specialist Group, 2009	There is no population information available for the Southern Conger Eel.	eng
155072	threats	Smith, D. & Coral Specialist Group, 2009	Currently the conger eel fishery, within this species distribution range, is known to be small and is not intensively harvested. A number of species however, are regularly taken as by-catch during trawling, potting and lining (New Zealand Government 2005). Recreational fishermen will usually return any by-catch eels back to the sea. Current catches of this species are likely to be below the maximum sustainable yield.<br/><br/>The New Zealand Government believes that "a commercial interest in conger eels will develop in New Zealand" (New Zealand Government 2005).	eng
155073	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155073	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Thailand to the Solomon Islands and Micronesia, north to the Philippines, and south to Queensland. This species is also known from the Andaman Sea and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean (Kuiter 2000).	eng
155073	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is found in tidal pools and sheltered inner reefs, usually in caves with sponges and below large coral plates. <em>Doryrhamphus janssi</em> is an active cleaner and has a cleaning station that is regularly visited by apogonids and damselfishes where adults work in pairs (Kuiter 2000). Males carry eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the trunk (Dawson 1981)   Species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Doryrhamphus</span> typically brood 80-150 eggs (Kuiter 2000).	eng
155073	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Doryhamphus janssi</em>.	eng
155073	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	This species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade. It is not known if it is targeted directly or taken as a by-catch species.	eng
155074	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on potential threats to this species is needed.	eng
155074	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em> is found in the southeast Pacific and southwest Atlantic Ocean from Argentina to Chile.	eng
155074	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em> is a demersal species, commonly found over rocky bottoms and around the holdfasts of kelp (<em>Macrocystis pyrifera</em>) in the intertidal zone (Siefeld <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160; Most <em>Patagonotothen</em> species are assumed to be opportunistic feeders with a generalist diet that varies according to the available prey (Laptikhovsky 2004).&#160; This species has two spawning peaks throughout the year, and spawning grounds are in the intertidal zone.&#160; Adults guard the nests to ensure survival of the embryos (Rae and Calvo 1995).	eng
155074	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen cornucola</em>.&#160; The suborder Notothenioidei is a dominant group in the coastal fish fauna of the Antarctic, subantarctic and Patagonian regions (Pequeńo 1989).	eng
155074	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Species of Nototheniidae from the Southern Ocean are under increasing pressure from commercial fisheries as they are the major fish resource in this area, and Antarctic icefish are reported to be depleted.&#160; At present, this species is not thought to be threatened by harvesting either as by-catch, or directly for commercial purposes.&#160; This is a small species which is most commonly found in the shallow intertidal zone, amongst kelp holdfasts.<br/><br/>Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it may be undergoing declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, there is little coastal development within this species' range, and this would be considered a localised threat only.	eng
155075	conservation	Carpenter, K. & Collette, B.B. , 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens.</span> However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155075	distribution	Carpenter, K. & Collette, B.B. , 2010	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens </span>is widely distributed in tropical waters. In the Eastern Pacific area it is found from San Francisco to Chile, but it is rare north of the state of Baja California in Mexico. It is found in the Indian Ocean including waters around Reunion and Mauritius. In the western Atlantic it is found from Florida to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. It is also found in the Western Pacific Ocean around Indonesia and China.	eng
155075	habitat	Carpenter, K. & Collette, B.B. , 2010	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens</span> attaches itself to other species by a cephalic sucking disk on its head. Ninety percent of individuals are found on Manta Rays, but are also associated with 4 other hosts (O'Toole 2002). It is often found inside the gill chambers and mouth of its host. This species is found to a depth of 50 m.	eng
155075	population	Carpenter, K. & Collette, B.B. , 2010	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Remorina albescens</span>.	eng
155075	threats	Carpenter, K. & Collette, B.B. , 2010	<em></em>This species is used within Traditional Chinese Medicine, however there is no indication that this is causing a decline in the population. It's association with Manta Rays may result in future population declines should Manta Rays continue to be impacted by anthropogenic pressures.	eng
155076	conservation	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus</span>. However, this species distribution overlaps with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155076	distribution	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus</span> is found from the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
155076	habitat	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2007	<p>This reef-associated species is common in shallow waters to 15 m depth, especially where brown algae exists (Gomon 1995). At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish is found in deep rocky walls, exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of massive coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). This species is also known to enter the mouths of estuaries on hard substrata. </p>	eng
155076	population	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2007	This species is very common.<br/><br/>                      <p>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica this species was found to have a density of less than 0.01 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In the Gulfo Dulce, Costa Rica, a density of 0.033+/-0.071 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> was found, with a relative abundance of 0.879% (Figueroa 2001). Within a survey of five sites near the Catalinas Islands, this species was observed a total of 133 times, but in only two of the five sites (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. notospilus</span> could not be found at Los Islotes, Gulf of California. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was also not found, although it has been previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this species was captured just once within 12 one month long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this species (cited as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojulis notospilus</span>) seems to be abundant in corals and tide pools, and is occasionally found in rocky and sandy substrata. This species is abundant in El Salvador, and common in shallow sheltered rocky habitat types in Galapagos.</p>	eng
155076	threats	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2007	There are no known major threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres notospilus.</span>	eng
155077	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em>.	eng
155077	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is distributed from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Panama.	eng
155077	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been collected from a depth range of 3,200–4,188 m.&#160; Species of this genus feed on clams.	eng
155077	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em>.	eng
155077	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Lycenchelys monstrosa</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155078	conservation	Kawai, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155078	distribution	Kawai, T., 2009	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is distributed from Japan southwards, to the China Sea, Philippines, and northern Australia.&#160; This species is also known from India (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002), Yemen (Al Sakaff and Esseen 1999), and Oman (Randall 1995).	eng
155078	habitat	Kawai, T., 2009	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is a demersal species, found resting on the sea floor at a depth range of 10?440 m.&#160; It is found on the continental shelf and in the open sea.	eng
155078	population	Kawai, T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterygotrigla hemisticta</span>.	eng
155078	threats	Kawai, T., 2009	<em>Pterygotrigla hemisticta</em> is harvested as a food fish in subsistence fisheries.&#160; There is no commercial fishery for this species at present, but it is incidentally taken as by-catch in trawls throughout its range (FAO 1999b).&#160; The harvesting of this species by subsistence fisherman is not considered a major threat to this wide-ranging species.	eng
155079	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of MPAs. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and abundance of this species as well as on its potential threats, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
155079	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> is known from the Chesterfield Islands (Kulbicki <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994) and Bali Strait, to Timor in Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984). It has also been recorded off the south Queensland coast, from Flat Island to Moreton Bay (Hardy 1983).	eng
155079	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> is a demersal species, recorded to depths of 53 m (Hardy 1983). It has the ability to inflate itself, either with air or water, as a deterrent to predators.&#160; Many species from this family are poisonous and excrete toxins from their skin.	eng
155079	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	<em>Torquigener tuberculiferus</em> has been described as relatively common across its range.	eng
155079	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
155080	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Central American Halfbeak.&#160; However, in places, its distribution coincides with marine protected areas, including eight along the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica and three along the Atlantic coast of Panama.	eng
155080	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The Central American Halfbeak<span style="font-style: italic;"> (Hyporhamphus roberti</span>)  is found from Belize south to Rio de Janiero, Brazil (Collette 2002).&#160;  Earlier records of this species from the United States are misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. meeki </span>(Banford and Collette 1993).	eng
155080	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The Central American Halfbeak inhabits marine and estuarine waters and is found in mangrove forests and coastal lagoons.&#160; Specimens have also been reported from freshwaters which have direct access to brackish waters in Lake Izabal, Rio Polochic, and El Estor in Guatamala, and also in Rio Patuca in Honduras (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It has also been found in a landlocked freshwater environment in El Cajon in Honduras (Matamoros <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
155080	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for the Central American Halfbeak.&#160; It may be locally abundant (B. Collette pers.comm. 2009).	eng
155080	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Central American halfbeak.	eng
155081	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed along with further research on the biology of this species.	eng
155081	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> is mainly found in the western Atlantic, though occasionally juveniles are known to drift across to the eastern Atlantic. The most northerly extent of this species range can be seen in Nova Scotia, with the most southerly extent seen off southern Florida and in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.	eng
155081	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> is a pelagic species that lives over the continental slope. Adults live in deepwater canyons while the juveniles prefer surface waters and may occasionally be found in coastal waters, usually during the summer/autumn months, sheltering in large groups under floating debris. Adults are often seen schooling. Spawning tends to occur in the spring months. This species diet consists of small fish and crustaceans.	eng
155081	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em>.	eng
155081	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The harvesting of <em>Hyperoglyphe perciformis</em> as a food source, has recently commenced off the coast of the United States (Filer and Sedberry 2006). At present this is not considered a significant threat to the population of this species.	eng
155082	conservation	Stein, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, distribution and threats of this species.	eng
155082	distribution	Stein, D., 2009	The Papillose Lumpsucker, <em>Eumicrotremus barbatus</em>, is distributed through the north Pacific. It is found off Abashiri, Japan, off Paramushir Island in the Kuril Islands, and off the shore of Igitkin Island in the Aleutian chain. The full extent of this species range is not known.	eng
155082	habitat	Stein, D., 2009	The Papillose Lumpsucker is a benthic species that has a depth range of 74-220 m and inhabits temperate waters. They are found on rocky, sandy and muddy substrates where they feed on benthic invertebrates. Most species from the Cyclopteridae family are found on the continental shelf and upper slope. Most species from this family are thought to spawn in shallow coastal waters, sometimes migrating hundreds of miles.	eng
155082	population	Stein, D., 2009	This is a rare species (D. Stein pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155082	threats	Stein, D., 2009	This species is not targeted directly by any major commercial fishery and due to its small size it is unlikely to be harvested in significant quantities as by-catch. It may be impacted by water pollution associated with heavy shipping activity.	eng
155083	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155083	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	This species is distributed from Oman and Somalia south to East London (South Africa), and east to Madagascar, Seychelles, Comoros, Mauritius, Réunion and the Mascarene Islands (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008). It has also been recorded from the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. It has been recorded from 6-70 m in depth.	eng
155083	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	Animals have been recorded in areas adjacent to coral reefs, often hiding between broken coral. This species usually occurs in groups of about ten individuals. Allen <em>et al</em>. (1998) comments that this fish usually occurs in areas of coral and rubble with thick algae growth. It feeds on invertebrates and algae.	eng
155083	population	Fricke, R., 2009	This species is common off South Africa (Lieske and Myers 1994), and is considered to be relatively common with stable populations throughout most of its range (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155083	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however localized habitat degradation may be occurring within its range.  Major coral bleaching similar to that of 1998 and a coastal population of over 20 million people are the two primary threats to East African reefs (Obura <em>et al</em>. 2004). The predictions for the status of East African reefs over the next eight years is poor, with a predicted coastal population of 39 million people and the probability that coral bleaching events of a similar magnitude to the 1998 event will be repeated. A population decline of 25% in association with general habitat degradation following a 1998 coral bleaching event in the Seychelles Islands was reported by Spalding and Jarvis (2002). However this species is found on damaged coral reefs so are seemingly resilient to moderate habitat degradation.	eng
155084	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Champsodon capensis</em>.	eng
155084	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Champsodon capensis</em> is found in the Indian Ocean from the Seychelles and Mauritius, and along the African coastline from Kenya to South Africa, and around the Cape of Good Hope.	eng
155084	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Champsodon capensis</em> is a mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 64-552 m. This species occurs in great shoals and migrates to the surface at night to feed.	eng
155084	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Champsodon capensis</em>.	eng
155084	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	This species is not threatened by any major widespread threat.  There is no known commercial fishery for this species, however it is possibly is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within its range.	eng
155085	conservation	Auster, P. & Heemstra, P.C., 2009	In New Zealand <em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is under the management of The New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries. The department sets fishing quotas for this species, but assessment data is poor so it's unclear whether the quotas are limit fishing pressure to a sustainable level (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). The New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries has recently closed 19 seamounts to fishing, but this species was only previously fished from one of these seamounts (Blue Ocean Institute 2004).<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its harvest levels is needed, to accurately determine the impact of commercial fisheries on the population of <em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em>.	eng
155085	distribution	Auster, P. & Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is found off the coast of Suriname, Argentina and the Falkland Islands. In the south east Atlantic this species is distributed from Namibia to South Africa. In the south Pacific this species is found from southern Chile to the Bellingshausen Sea and throughout the Australian-Antarctic Basin and Australasia. This species is also found in the Mozambique Channel from Mozambique and Madagascar to South Africa.	eng
155085	habitat	Auster, P. & Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species found in deep waters at a depth range of 400-1,500 m. It is typically found on the continental slope and seamounts (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). Adults inhabit the lower depths and the juveniles remain close to the surface.	eng
155085	population	Auster, P. & Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is reported to be common over some seamounts (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155085	threats	Auster, P. & Heemstra, P.C., 2009	<em>Pseudocyttus maculatus</em> is commercially harvested as a food source. The main reported fishing area for this species is around New Zealand (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). Within New Zealand the main fishing area is Chatham Rise, but other major fishing areas include Otago-Southland (South Island) and the Bounty/Pukaki area (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). In one area the estimated biomass of this species was less than the biomass necessary to sustain a 'maximum constant yield' (BMCY), but in other areas the estimates were above the BMCY (Blue Ocean Institute 2004). The fisheries around New Zealand are not considered to be in an over-fished state (Blue Ocean Institute 2004).<br/><br/>This species is caught as by-catch from the <em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em> fisheries (AGDAFFBRS 2004).<br/><br/>This species is vulnerable to over-exploitation due to its low resilience level (Clark 2001), and its tendency to aggregate around seamounts which makes it easy to harvest.	eng
155086	conservation	Chao, N.L., Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Omobranchus fasciolatus</span>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155086	distribution	Chao, N.L., Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is distributed from Mozambique, Madagascar and Mauritius northwards along the east African coast to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Gulf of Kutch. It is disputed whether this species occurs in the Seychelles (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155086	habitat	Chao, N.L., Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is a bottom dwelling species associated with volcanic rock and is found in intertidal coastal rocky reefs. This species has occasionally been found on corals. This species is found to a depth of 3 m.	eng
155086	population	Chao, N.L., Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em> is common in shallow estuarine waters.	eng
155086	threats	Chao, N.L., Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats for <em>Omobranchus fasciolatus</em>.	eng
155087	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Namorado Sandperch.&#160; Further research is needed to determine whether the population is significantly impacted by fishing.	eng
155087	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The<em> </em>Namorado Sandperch (<em>Pseudopercis numida)</em> is found in Brazil from Rio de Janeiro to the coast of Santa Catarina.&#160; It has also recently been found in the Nuevo Gulf, Argentina.&#160; It is currently not known whether this species is native to this area, or whether it has been introduced, possibly via ballast water in freighters or cruise ships (Venerus <em>et al.</em> 2007).&#160; Reports of this species in Uruguay were thought to be misidentifications of <em>Pseudopercis semifasciata</em> (Venerus <em>et al.</em> 2007), but based on recent collections extending the distribution to the Rio Grande (N.L. Chao pers. comm. 2009, National Museum of Natural History USNM 203952), we consider the reports from Uruguay and Argentina to be valid records and extend the native distribution southward to Nuevo Gulf, Argentina.	eng
155087	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Namorado sandperch<em></em> is found on coastal rocky reefs, over a range of substrate types (sand, rubble and rocky bottoms), at a depth range of 15–300 m. However, this species is most commonly found in deeper waters, on the upper continental shelf below 150 m.	eng
155087	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Namorado Sandperch.	eng
155087	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Pseudopercis numida</em> is harvested commercially as a food source.&#160; It is caught using bottom long-lines.&#160; Between 1986 and 1995, this species was reported to make up 18.4% of the long-line catch off southeast Brazil (Paiva and Andrade-tubino 1998).&#160; However, it is not known if the long-line fisheries off southeast Brazil pose a significant threat to this species.	eng
155088	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Enophrys taurina</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats to this species is required.	eng
155088	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	The Bull Sculpin, <em>Enophrys taurina</em>, is distributed from north of Monterey Bay (37°49'N; 123°3'W), near San Francisco, to Santa Catalina Island in southern California. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,473km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155088	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	The Bull Sculpin is a benthic, coastal species that has a depth range of 11-265 m over rocky and sandy substrates. It is closely related to <em>E. bison</em>, an algae eater (Eschmeyer<em> et al.</em> 1983).	eng
155088	population	Neely, D., 2009	Bolin (1944) described this species as rare. The California Academy of Sciences have a collection of only 4 specimens, corroborating its description as rare (D. Neely pers. comm. 2007).	eng
155088	threats	Neely, D., 2009	There are no major threats impacting this species but due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be suffering localised declines due to coastal development and pollution.	eng
155089	conservation	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lutjanus decussatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas. &#160;Further research on population, harvest levels, and threats is recommended; as well as monitoring of fisheries&#160;data and harvest for the aquarium trade to ensure the population is not suffering significant declines.	eng
155089	distribution	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Lutjanus decussatus</em> is distributed from southeast India and Sri Lanka, to Papua New Guinea and Micronesia, and north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan (FAO 2001).&#160; The distribution of this species is also reported to extend south to the Great Barrier Reef (Michael 2004).	eng
155089	habitat	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	The snapper, <em>Lutjanus decussatus</em>, is found on coastal reef faces and sandy slopes with scattered patch reefs at a depth range of 2 - 30 m.&#160; This species is also less commonly found on offshore reefs.&#160; Fish are typically found to occur individually, but occasionally form schools.&#160; Food items include smaller fishes and crustaceans.&#160; This species can attain lengths of 35 cm, but lengths of around 20 cm are more common.	eng
155089	population	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lutjanus decussatus</span>.	eng
155089	threats	Curtis-Quick, J., 2009	<em>Lutjanus decussatus</em> is of minor commercial importance, due to its small size.&#160; It is caught by subsistence fishers using handlines, traps and gill nets.&#160; This species is mostly marketed fresh (FAO 2002).&#160; It is also taken for the aquarium trade, but in very low numbers. &#160;In Indonesia numbers have fallen over the last eight years, and fishing pressures, particularly fish fences, have increased (J. Curtis-Quick pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may also be impacted by coastal development and pollution.&#160; However, this is a localised threat, and not known across the species' entire range.	eng
155090	conservation	Knapp, L.W., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for  Spotted Flathead, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Arnovon Islands Marine Protected Area in the Solomon Islands.	eng
155090	distribution	Knapp, L.W., 2009	The Spotted Flathead, <em>Cociella punctata,</em> is widely distributed through the western central Pacific from Taiwan, the Philippines, Palau to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides.	eng
155090	habitat	Knapp, L.W., 2009	The&#160; Spotted Flathead<em></em> is frequently found in shallow coastal waters resting on the seafloor. This species has been found at a depth range of 10-300m. The juveniles of this species, utilise mangrove habitat and stream mouths as a nursery ground (Knapp pers. comm. 2007). Adults occupy silty/ sandy habitats.	eng
155090	population	Knapp, L.W., 2009	The Spotted Flathead is reported to be common off Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea (Knapp 1996).	eng
155090	threats	Knapp, L.W., 2009	The Spotted Flathead is of minor commercial importance, but is harvested by trawl fisheries at depths of 23-250 m. As juveniles use mangrove habitat for development, recruitment of this species may be impacted by habitat degradation due to deforestation for timber or shrimp aquaculture. At present, neither of these threats are thought to be causing significant declines in the population numbers as they are not known across the entire range of this species.	eng
155091	conservation	Fricke, R. & McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the White-margined Moray. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155091	distribution	Fricke, R. & McCosker, J.E., 2009	The White-margined Moray, <em>Enchelycore schismatorhynchus</em>, is known from the Chagos Archipelago in the eastern Indian Ocean, to the Ryukyu Islands and south through to French Polynesia including Wallis and Futuna, Papua and Tonga.	eng
155091	habitat	Fricke, R. & McCosker, J.E., 2009	The White-margined Moray is usually found in lagoons and on the foreslope of reefs in the crevices of coralline and volcanic rocks. This species is a nocturnal feeder (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).  This species is found in the photic zone from the surface to a depth of around 20 m.	eng
155091	population	Fricke, R. & McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for the White-margined Moray.	eng
155091	threats	Fricke, R. & McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no directed fishery for this species. It may be undergoing localised declines in parts of its range that have been heavily impacted by coastal development and pollution, however much of this species suitable habitat over its broad range is in good condition. This species is also less likely to be impacted by threats associated with coral reefs at it is able to occupy both coral and rocky reefs.	eng
155092	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Laeops kitaharae</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the abundance of this species is needed.	eng
155092	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is an Indo-west Pacific flounder, recorded from China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, Korea and Thailand.	eng
155092	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The flounder <em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 70 - 300m. This species is likely to be found on sand-mud bottoms (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). The lack of information on the abundance and biology of this species is likely due to their being no commercial interest in this species and its small size.	eng
155092	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Laeops kitaharae</em>.	eng
155092	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Laeops kitaharae</em> is taken as by-catch which is processed into fish meal in Taiwan and probably elsewhere (T. Munroe pers. comm. 2008). At present there is no catch data available for this species. The region in which this species can be found has been heavily exploited by commercial fisheries. It is not known what impact this has had on the population size.	eng
155093	conservation	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Narrownecked Oceanic Eel.	eng
155093	distribution	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	The Narrownecked Oceanic Eel <em>(Derichthys serpentinus)</em> is a widely distributed, but is not common in any ocean.  It was first known from the waters off southern Africa, the central Atlantic and east Pacific, but has since been found in the west Pacific (Castle 1970).	eng
155093	habitat	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	The Narrownecked Oceanic Eel <em></em>is a epi-/mesopelagic species typically found to occur at depths between 500-2,000 m, although an adult specimen has been taken above 360 m at night (T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008) The pre-metamorphic larvae prefer waters of 1,000-2,000 m (Castle 1970). Individuals feed on small planktonic shrimp, amongst other prey (Bauchot and Saldanha 1986). This species larvae and eggs are planktonic.	eng
155093	population	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	In 1935, Beebe reported that in over 1000 midwater trawls, <em>D. serpentinus</em> was only found in 2% of samples.  While there is no information on the population size of <em>Derichthys serpentinus</em>, it is thought that this species is 'nowhere common' (Castle 1970). Studies on the distribution of eel larvae in the western Sargasso Sea, have reported the larvae <em>D. serpentinus</em> to be among the most abundant species (Castonguay and McCleave 1987).	eng
155093	threats	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	The only potential known threat to the Narrownecked Oceanic Eel is that of the deepwater trawling industry. However this is a wide ranging species and deepwater species of eels are rarely seen in the by-catch of these trawls and so this threat is not considered to have a major impact upon this species at present.	eng
155094	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for Mosshead Sculpin, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas along the coast of the Pacific northwest.	eng
155094	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	The Mosshead Sculpin, <em>Clinocottus globiceps,</em> is distributed from Kodiak Island off Alaska to Gaviota off southern California. While the exact depth range of this species is not known, this coastal species is found in the intertidal zone.	eng
155094	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	Mosshead Sculpin occurs in rocky tidepools. Adults exhibit homing behaviour and strong site-fidelity, returning to the same pool over long periods. They are most often found sheltering under rocks or seaweed. This species is capable of aerial respiration and is known to leave water when conditions become hypoxic or otherwise inhospitable (Yoshiyama<em> et al.</em> 1995). Their diets are broad, but they will selectively forage on sea anemones and algae (Yoshiyama<em> et al.</em> 1996). Reproduction occurs in winter and spring.	eng
155094	population	Neely, D., 2009	In surveys of the intertidal zone, Mosshead Sculpin comprised approximately 75% of the fish captured in the mid-tidal zone tidepools of Oregon. This species is described as an abundant species within its range (Webster <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
155094	threats	Neely, D., 2009	The Mosshead Sculpin is an intertidal species and so it is potentially at risk from coastal pollution discharge. However, this is not considered a major threat as it is not impacting this species across its entire range.	eng
155095	conservation	Hutchins, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em>. However its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155095	distribution	Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is endemic to Australia occuring in temperate marine waters from northern to central New South Wales and the Great Australian Bight off South Australia to the central coast of Western Australia. It is also known from Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island.	eng
155095	habitat	Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is found around rocky and coral coastlines. It usually lives near the bottom in offshore waters.  It is not commonly seen in shallow water.  This benthopelagic species has been trawled at depths between 50 m and 135 m.	eng
155095	population	Hutchins, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em>.	eng
155095	threats	Hutchins, B., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Cantheschenia longipinnis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. This species is of no commercial interest.	eng
155096	conservation	Collette, B., Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Herdson, D., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Matsuura, K., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, J., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P.    , 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.	eng
155096	distribution	Collette, B., Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Herdson, D., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Matsuura, K., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, J., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P.    , 2010	The range of <em>Sarda sarda</em> extends from Norway to South Africa, including the Mediterranean and Black Sea in the eastern Atlantic, and from Nova Scotia to the northern Gulf of Mexico in the western Atlantic. While it generally does not appear in the Caribbean Sea, it has been found in Colombia and Venezuela (Collette and Nauen 1983).&#160; This species has not been recorded in northeast and central Brazil but occurs in south Brazil to Argentina.&#160; <br/><br/>Report from the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) also list this species from the Lesser Antilles north to the US Virgin Islands (Hazel pers. comm. 2010). However, these records need to be verified (Collette pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155096	habitat	Collette, B., Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Herdson, D., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Matsuura, K., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, J., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P.    , 2010	This species is a small epipelagic, neritic species that occurs in schools. It sometimes enters estuaries and has a depth range of 0-200 m. It preys upon sardines, squid, anchovy, mackerel and other small fishes (Collette 2003). This species is migratory (Sabates and Recasens 2001) and spawning season and size of maturity varies between regional populations (Valeiras and Abad 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br/></span>	eng
155096	population	Collette, B., Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Herdson, D., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Matsuura, K., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, J., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P.    , 2010	<em>Sarda sarda</em> is considered to be abundant in many localities.  FAO statistics (2008) show that landings have fluctuated with no apparent increasing or decreasing trends between around 21,000 mt and 84,000 mt between 1996 and 2006.&#160; This pattern extends as far back as 1950.	eng
155096	threats	Collette, B., Amorim, A., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Herdson, D., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Matsuura, K., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, J., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P.    , 2010	<em>Sarda sarda</em> is harvested in various parts of its range, with the most important fishery being that in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (FAO-FIGIS 2005). Turkey and Mexico landed the highest tonnage of this species: 17,900 and 2,314tonnes respectively. Oray <em>et al.</em> (2004) have noted that the majority of fish landed in Turkey are below mature size, indicating that the stock will be unable to renew or sustain itself long-term. This species comprises an important fishery in Argentina (Hansen 1987).	eng
155097	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caesio caerulaurea</em>, however this species is known to occur in a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155097	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Blue and Gold Fusilier, <em>Caesio caerulaurea,</em> is widespread in the tropical Indo-West Pacific from East Africa, including the Red Sea but not the Persian Gulf, to French Polynesia; north to southern Japan and south to Vanuatu and New Caledonia.	eng
155097	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Blue and Gold Fusilier, <em>Caesio caerulaurea, </em>is found in coastal areas on coral reefs on the foreslope, outer reef channel, inter-reef soft substrate, and in lagoons. This species schools in large midwater aggregations, to feed on zooplankton. From what is known of the few species studied, reproduction is characterized by early sexual maturity, high fecundity, small pelagic eggs, spawning prolonged throughout most of the year, and mass spawning on a lunar cycle (FAO 1988).	eng
155097	population	Fricke, R., 2009	In a study by Ohman <em>et al.</em> (1997) in the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Sri Lanka this species was found to be common. 576 individuals were collected from 11 <em>Porites</em> dome sites.	eng
155097	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	The Blue and Gold Fusilier is moderately important in coastal fisheries, and is common in markets in Indonesia and the Philippines (FAO 1988). This species is caught by drive-in nets, gill nets, traps, trawls, and handlines. <em></em>Juveniles are important as tuna baitfish in some areas (Randall 2005). This species is usually taken in multispecies catches of fusilier fish.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, blast-fishing is a common method used by fishers to harvest large numbers of schooling species such as siganids and caesionids (Fox and Erdmann 2000). In this study on blast fishing, a bomb was thrown into a school of caesionids and another at random over a reef slope. The first bomb targeted at the caesionids yielded 2,153 individuals, of which this species comprised 93% by weight. The second random bomb yielded 971 individuals of which only 43 were caesionids. Blast fishing is a significant threat when targeted at large schools of fish. Despite it being an illegal fishing method, it is still widespread through South East Asia (Fox and Erdmann 2000). However this species has a broad geographic range, is only fished in parts of its range, and is resilient to moderate levels of harvest therefore these threats are not considered to pose a significant threat to the global population at present.	eng
155098	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromis flavicauda</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
155098	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis flavicauda</em> is known to inhabit the coastal areas of Bermuda and Brazil (Moura 1994). This is a deep reef species and is probably more widespread than current records suggest (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155098	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis flavicuada</em>, inhabits offshore coral reefs. The reefs on which it is found are often covered in coralline algae rhodoliths. This species has been found to a depth of up to 61 m.	eng
155098	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Chromis flavicauda</em>. It is only known from a few locations.	eng
155098	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Chromis flavicauda</em> is associated with coral reef habitats. Due to the relatively deep dwelling habits of this species, it is unlikely to be affected by degradation in more shallow reef areas of Brazil (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). The coral reefs of Bermuda remain relatively healthy and stable with no apparent change over the past 10 years (Jones <em>et al</em>. 2004). Due to the lack of information available for this species, it is unknown if it is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155099	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Oyster Blenny, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.	eng
155099	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	The Oyster Blenny<em> (Omobranchus anolius)</em> is endemic to Australia and is distributed from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Spencer Gulf, South Australia, excluding Tasmania. This species has also been introduced to east Auckland, New Zealand (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
155099	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	The Oyster Blenny<em> </em>is usually found in shallow estuarine waters, down to approximately 5 m (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009), and is associated with oyster shells or calcareous polychaete worm tubes, on tidal mudflats. Females deposit 200–500 eggs in batches on the inside of oyster shells (Francis <em>et al. </em>2004).&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.&#160; After hatching, the larvae are planktonic before they settle on the bottom.	eng
155099	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species<em>.</em>	eng
155099	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Oyster Blenny.	eng
155100	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Hippocampus hendriki</em> has been listed under CITES appendix II ensuring that international trade of this species is monitored.<br/><br/>All sygnathids are subject to export controls of the Coomonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1998.<br/><br/>All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the EPBC Act 1999.<br/><br/>This species is known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and World Heritage Area, Queensland.	eng
155100	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Hippocampus hendriki</em> is restricted to the inner Great Barrier Reef area, from the Capricorn region to Cape York in Queensland.	eng
155100	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus hendriki</span> has  been collected from trawls on flat substrate at depths of 18 to 25m (Kuiter 2000) Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
155100	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	This species is only known from type specimens.	eng
155100	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no major threats reported for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus hendriki</span>.<br/><br/>It may potentially be taken as by-catch by shrimp fisheries.	eng
155101	conservation	Stein, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus mederi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, ecology and population numbers of this species.	eng
155101	distribution	Stein, D., 2009	<em>Careproctus mederi</em> is endemic to the Sea of Okhotsk in the northwest Pacific. Species within the family Liparidae are known to have limited geographic ranges (Stein 2006).	eng
155101	habitat	Stein, D., 2009	<em>Careproctus mederi</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been found at a depth of 20 -950 m. Congeners, <em>Careproctus rotundifrons</em>, were found on the continental slope over a muddy / silty substrate, and were captured in bait traps set on the sea floor (Sakurai and Shinohara 2008). It is likely that this is a small species; size of species ranges from 45 mm for <em>C. minimus</em>, to 74 mm for <em>C. georgianus</em> (Stein 2006).	eng
155101	population	Stein, D., 2009	Species of the family Liparidae are known to low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
155101	threats	Stein, D., 2009	It is unknown if this species faces major threats. There is no commercial fishery for the family Liparidae. However it is likely that this species is being taken as by-catch. Due to its small size, it may be overlooked and damaged in tows (Stein 2006).	eng
155102	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155102	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Truncate Cardinalfish <em>(Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em>) is distributed from the East Indies to the Marshall Islands and Papua New Guinea, south to Australia and New Caledonia and North to Japan.	eng
155102	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Truncate Cardinalfish is found on the fore-slope of coastal coral reefs, lagoon patch reefs and in silty habitats at a depth range of 2-10 m. Adults of this species are solitary and can be found among boulders, under plate corals, among corals, or in seagrass meadows. Juvenile <em>C. singapurensis</em> often swim among the spines of sea urchins.	eng
155102	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155102	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	<em>Cheilodipterus singapurensis</em> is not regularly encountered in the aquarium trade, although juveniles may occasionally turn up as an "Assorted Cardinalfish". The occasional harvesting of this species for the ornamental trade, is not considered a major threat.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to habitat degradation caused by pollution and destructive fishing practices, however these threats are not known across its entire range and much of its suitable habitat is in relatively good condition.	eng
155103	conservation	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.	eng
155103	distribution	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama. However, it is only known from seven collection localities, and the current limits of distribution are not well defined.	eng
155103	habitat	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit estuaries, mangroves and coastal sandy areas to depths of 20 m.	eng
155103	population	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155103	threats	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No major threats are currently known for this species. However, there may be localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and destruction of mangrove habitat (Jimenez 1994). In addition, this species may be threatened by future ENSO/ climate change events given its shallow water habitat (Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004; Soto 2001).	eng
155104	conservation	Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S. & Polidoro, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus</em>, however it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155104	distribution	Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S. & Polidoro, B., 2009	This species has been found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Spain to Liberia, including the Azores, the Canary Islands, Ascension Islands and Cape Verde. In the western Atlantic it is found off Brazil. In the Pacific it is found off California and the Revilla Gigedos Islands. It has also been found around South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.	eng
155104	habitat	Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S. & Polidoro, B., 2009	This epipelagic species is found in cooler near-shore waters, and around islands. It is able to leap out of the water, and glide over the water surface for long distances. It feeds on zooplankton and small fishes.	eng
155104	population	Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S. & Polidoro, B., 2009	The subspecies <em>Cheilopogon pinnatibarbatus californicus</em> is reported to be common (Discover Life 2007).	eng
155104	threats	Carpenter, K.E., Livingstone, S. & Polidoro, B., 2009	There is no known commercial fishery for this species, although it is likely to be taken as by-catch in some areas of its broad range.	eng
155105	conservation	Knapp, L.W., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Platycephalus indicus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of the species is needed.	eng
155105	distribution	Knapp, L.W., 2009	Recorded from across the Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea and East Africa to the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>, north to southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Korea</st1:country-region>, and south to northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Introduced into the eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean Sea</st1:place>.  <em>Platycephalus indicus</em> has a widespread distribution through the eastern Indian Ocean from the Bay of Bengal and the Gulf of Thailand, south to Northern Australia (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2008). Previous identifications from Japanese and Korean waters, have since been described as a new species' of flathead by Misuhiro Sakashita and Tetsuo Yoshino.<br/><br/>In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:country-region> it is found widely with territorial waters, estuaries and freshwater areas such as <st1:placename w:st="on">Lam</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype> (Nghe An province), Ma River (Thanh Hoa province) and limestone areas such as<st1:place w:st="on"> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Phong Nha</st1:placename></st1:place>&#160;and Ke Bang (Quang Binh province)	eng
155105	habitat	Knapp, L.W., 2009	<em>Platycephalus indicus</em> is found on sandy or muddy bottoms, close to coral reefs in subtropical climates. This species is an ambush predator. Younger life stages use estuaries and freshwater habitats as nursery grounds.	eng
155105	population	Knapp, L.W., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Platycephalus indicus</em>.	eng
155105	threats	Knapp, L.W., 2009	<em>Platycephalus indicus</em> is fished commercially throughout its range by bottom trawlers. It is trawled to depths of 30 m, but more often taken at depths less than 15 m (L. Knapp pers. comm. 2007). It is used as a food source and in Traditional Chinese Medicine. This species may be undergoing varying degrees of habitat degradation. As juveniles utilise estuarine and freshwater habitats, they maybe impacted by coastal run-off, and domestic and industrial pollution sources. At present, neither of these are thought to pose a major threat to the population of this species as they do not occur across the entire distribution range.	eng
155106	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Kali macrodon</em>.	eng
155106	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Specimens of <em>Kali macrodon</em> have been found at a number of patchy locations, including the Indian Ocean off Indonesia, eastern Pacific near Ecuador and California, the south Atlantic off South Africa, the west Atlantic in the Gulf of Mexico, and four individuals in the eastern Atlantic from 24°N to 19°S (Johnson 1969; Johnson and Keene 1986). It is likely that this species appears in the tropical and subtropical waters of all oceans (Johnson and Keene 1986).	eng
155106	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Kali macrodon</em> is a deepwater, bathypelagic species typically caught at depths ranging from 1,500-2,500 m (Johnson 1969).	eng
155106	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Kali macrodon</em>.	eng
155106	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats. There is no directed fishery for this species, or reports of it being taken as by-catch	eng
155107	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Walkers Cay in the Bahamas and the 341,362 km<sup>2 </sup>Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument.	eng
155107	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> has a broad, fragmented distribution.&#160; It has been reported in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas to the Lesser Antilles, including the Caribbean Sea and Mexico.&#160; This species has also been recorded from Ascension Island in southern Atlantic.&#160; In the Indian ocean, this species has been recorded from the Comoros, Seychelles, Agalega Islands, and Mauritius.&#160;<em>Monopenchelys</em><em> acuta</em> has also been recorded in the Pacific Ocean from Fiji and Hawaii.	eng
155107	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> is found on coral heads, rock and coral crevices, and rocky ledges.  This benthic species is found at depths of 13–45 m.	eng
155107	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em>.	eng
155107	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Monopenchelys acuta</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, its habitat may be locally impacted by threats such as pollution, tourism, coastal development, storm damage and fishing activity, including abandoned nets.	eng
155108	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>. However, it occurs in several marine protected areas (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155108	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em> is only known from Western Australia to the Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales (Springer and Gomon 1975).	eng
155108	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>&#160; is found in coastal, estuarine and rocky habitats (Springer and Gomon 1975).	eng
155108	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em>.	eng
155108	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. &  Williams, J., 2009	<em>Omobranchus rotundiceps</em> is not being impacted by any major threat process.	eng
155109	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however <em>Praealticus dayi</em> may be found in the 2 marine protected areas that surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.<br/><br/>Further research is required on this species abundance and distribution.	eng
155109	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Praealticus dayi</em> is only known from a few specimens collected around the Andaman Islands, because collecting is often severely restricted in this area by the government.	eng
155109	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	Although there is no information about this species habitat and ecology, all of the other members of this genus are found in shallow water along rocky shores and therefore it is assumed that <em>Praealticus dayi</em> is also found there.	eng
155109	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Praealticus dayi</em>.	eng
155109	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Praealticus dayi</em>.	eng
155110	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Bullseye Jawfish.&#160; However, this species' distributioncoincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).	eng
155110	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2007	The Bullseye Jawfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opistognathus scops</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Panama, and near Gorgona Island, Colombia.&#160; A record from the Galapagos Islands is doubtful, as there is no known specimen, and is likely a misidentification of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. galapagensis</span>.	eng
155110	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2007	The Bullseye Jawfish is a demersal species, which inhabits sand-rubble substrata (Allen and Robertson 1994) at depths of 3–20 m (Escobar-Fernández and Siri 1997).	eng
155110	population	McCosker, J.E., 2007	There is no population information available for the Bullseye Jawfish.	eng
155110	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2007	There are no known major threats impacting the Bullseye Jawfish.	eng
155111	conservation	Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Smooth Horsefish<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>However, the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas (MPAs).&#160; Further research is needed on the population size and harvest levels of this species.	eng
155111	distribution	Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Smooth Horsefish (<em>Congiopodus torvus</em>) is distributed from Namibia to Natal, South Africa (Fischer and Bianchiv 1984).	eng
155111	habitat	Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	The Smooth Horsefish is a demersal species that has a depth range of 5–300 m and inhabits soft bottoms of the continental shelf.&#160; This species feeds on benthic crustaceans (Macpherson 1989).	eng
155111	population	Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for the Smooth Horsefish.	eng
155111	threats	Fricke, R. & Murdy, E., 2009	Although the Smooth Horsefish is not targeted by commercial fisheries, it is sometimes taken as by-catch by trawlers.&#160; The marine ecosystem off Namibia is reported to have been altered by overfishing (Sumaila and Vasconellos 2000).	eng
155112	conservation	Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em>. <br/><br/>Further research into the biology and ecology of adult specimens of this species should be carried out.	eng
155112	distribution	Russell, B., 2009	<em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> is mostly known from juvenile specimens.&#160; It is found in tropical waters in the western Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans.	eng
155112	habitat	Russell, B., 2009	Adults of <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> have been found to depths of 500 m, whereas the young are found at shallower depths of about 20 m.This is an oceanic species.  Paralepididae species are rapid swimmers that feed on fishes and crustaceans.	eng
155112	population	Russell, B., 2009	Paralepididae species are moderately common deepsea fish (Carpenter and Niem 1999).	eng
155112	threats	Russell, B., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Stemonosudis gracilis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. This is a deepsea species with a broad geographic range. There is no directed fishery for this species.	eng
155113	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Russell, B. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurida pseudotumbil</em>.&#160; It is unlikely that the distribution of this species falls within any Indian marine protected area designations (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, ecology and potential threats.	eng
155113	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Russell, B. & Williams, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span> is known only from the type specimens (collected from Visakhapatnam), and other specimens collected from the east coast of India (Dutt and Sagar 1981).	eng
155113	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Russell, B. & Williams, J., 2009	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span>. The type specimens were collected from the catches of mini-trawlers along the east coast of India at Visakhapatnam, Puri, Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Madras, and Pondicherry (Dutt and Sagar 1981). Probably has similar habits to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida </span>which occur on soft bottoms. Maximum size of specimens examined by Dutt and Sagar (1981) is given as 250 mm (SL).	eng
155113	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Russell, B. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Saurida pseudotumbil</em>.	eng
155113	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Russell, B. & Williams, J., 2009	<p>It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Saurida pseudotumbil</span> is being impacted upon by any major threat, however, the type specimens were obtained by trawling (Dutt and Sagar, 1981) and this species forms part of the trawl catch. There is heavy fishing around the Indian coast, but it is unknown to what extent this affects the population.</p>	eng
155114	conservation	Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em>. Areas of this species distribution may coincide with marine protected areas such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
155114	distribution	Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> is a western central Pacific species known from 16 localities. These include northwest Australia, Maluku in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Louislade Archipelago, Santa Cruz Island and Vanuatu, western and 3 localities along eastern Australia (P. R. Møller pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155114	habitat	Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> occurs in the shallow photic zone at a depth range of 5 - 25 m. It hides within crevices and caves on the coral reef (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
155114	population	Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Diancistrus novaeguineae</em> is a common species (P.R. Møller pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155114	threats	Møller, P.R. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diancistrus novaguineae</span>, like all bythitids, is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade, although it is not a popular aquarium species due to its drab colour. There is no directed fishery for this species (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal development and habitat destruction, however these threats are not known throughout its entire range and are therefore unlikely to be resulting in significant widespread population declines.	eng
155115	conservation	Herdson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Redsnout Emperor.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, population numbers, and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155115	distribution	Herdson, D., 2009	The Redsnout Emperor (<em>Lethrinus reticulatus</em>) is known from Mauritius, Chagos, west Thailand, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, the Philippines and Northern Marianas to Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea and Somoa.	eng
155115	habitat	Herdson, D., 2009	The Redsnout Emperor is known to occur over soft substrates in the vicinity of coral reefs in shallow photic waters.&#160; This species feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes (FAO 2001a).	eng
155115	population	Herdson, D., 2009	There is no population information available for the Redsnout Emperor.	eng
155115	threats	Herdson, D., 2009	The Redsnout Emperor is harvested as a food fish.&#160; This species is caught mostly by trawl and handline, and is marketed fresh.&#160; It is heavily exploited in some regions, while in others it is harvested at a subsistence scale (D. Herdson pers. comm. 2008).&#160; It is not known what impact this is having on the population size of this species.<br/><br/>Due to its coastal, shallow water nature, it is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation from destructive fishing practices, coastal development, pollution, and tourism.&#160; However, these are localised threats and not known across this species' entire distribution range.	eng
155116	conservation	Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sardinella albella</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is recommended.	eng
155116	distribution	Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella albella</em> is an Indo-West Pacific sardine, distributed from the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, East African coast and Madagascar, eastwards to Indonesia, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, north to Taiwan, and south to Papua New Guinea and northern Australia.	eng
155116	habitat	Priede, I.G., 2009	The sardine, <em>Sardinella albella</em>, is a coastal pelagic species that has a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is a schooling species that feeds on zooplankton and phytoplankton.&#160; <em>Sardinella albella</em> has also been found in mangrove forests in Queensland, Australia (Robertson and Duke 1990).	eng
155116	population	Priede, I.G., 2009	Samonte <em>et al</em>. (2000) state that <em>Sardinella albella</em> is 'thriving' in Philippine waters, along with other <em>Sardinella </em>species.&#160; Despite being highly adapted to highly productive ocean situations, sardines have been found to experience improved reproduction during El Nino years (Bakun and Broad 2003).	eng
155116	threats	Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Sardinella albella</em> is of commercial importance along the western coast of India, and is caught mainly with purse seines, lift nets, and set nets (FAO 1999).&#160; This species is marketed fresh, dried, dried-salted, and made into fish balls.&#160; This species is also one of the dominant species harvested by the artisanal fisheries of Mozambique (Lopes and Gervasio 1999).&#160; In northern Australia, <em>Sardinella albella</em> is also taken as by-catch in tropical demersal trawls targeting prawn species (Salini <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
155117	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Melamphaes spinifer</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas within the eastern Pacific.&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed to determine the population size and impact of by-catch on this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
155117	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is distributed through the eastern Pacific from 27<sup>o</sup>N to 34<sup>o</sup>S, and westwards to about 130<sup>o</sup>W.	eng
155117	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is a mesopelagic species that has a depth range of 100–1,109 m.&#160; Adult specimens are typically found at depths of 400–500 m, while juveniles are found higher in the water column at 100–200 m.&#160; Congeners of this species are relatively small, for example <em>Melamphaes longivelis</em> reaches a maximum size of 10.6 cm and <em>Melamphaes pumilus</em> reaches a maximum size of only 2.3 cm.	eng
155117	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Melamphaes spinifer</span>.	eng
155117	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Melamphaes spinifer</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes across its entire range.&#160;  However, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries, as the eastern Pacific is very highly fished, with 18–20% of the world's fish catch coming from the Humboldt Current (NOAA 2004).&#160; Species from the Melamphaidae family are known to be frequently taken as by-catch in deep-water trawls but are of no commercial importance (FAO 1999).	eng
155118	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels, harvest extent and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
155118	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is distributed from Mozambique and Tanzania, to Madagascar and the Maldives.&#160; This species is also recorded from the Andaman Islands and Indonesia (Timor to Sumatra).	eng
155118	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> inhabits deep reefs to a depth of up to 220 m.&#160; Some congeners of this species occur on sandy bottoms and seagrass beds.&#160; <em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is a predatory fish, feeding on crustaceans and small fish.&#160; Species from the <em>Lethrinidae</em> family are usually solitary, but also occur in small groups (FAO 2001a).	eng
155118	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lethrinus conchyliatus</span>.	eng
155118	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Lethrinus conchyliatus</em> is fished commercially and recreationally, and is caught using handlines, traps and trawls (FAO 2001a).&#160; However, catch statistics are not available for this species.<br/><br/>This species is also likely to suffer from localised declines due to coral reef habitat degradation caused by pollution, overfishing and human population pressures.&#160; However, this species is mainly associated with deep reefs which are impacted by these threats to a lesser degree than shallow reefs.	eng
155119	conservation	Collen, B. Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa.</span>&#160; However, it may occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to establish if this species is harvested by fisheries as by-catch or as a target species.	eng
155119	distribution	Collen, B. Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa</span> is known from the southwest Atlantic, around  Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil.	eng
155119	habitat	Collen, B. Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa </span>is a<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>demersal species.&#160; It is also found in brackish waters.	eng
155119	population	Collen, B. Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa.</span>	eng
155119	threats	Collen, B. Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Odontesthes incisa </span>is of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>minor commercial importance.	eng
155120	conservation	Dominici, A., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span>. However, the distribution of this species may fall with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Apo Island Marine Reserve in the Philippines. Apo Island marine reserve is a no-take reserve and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span> biomass is reported to have tripled inside the reserve from 1983 to 2001. Outside the reserve, but close to the reserve boundary, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii </span>biomass has increased by a factor of 40 (Russ <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Therefore habitat conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of no-take zones and marine protected areas are needed to effectively conserve populations of this species.<br/><br/>    <p>Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, harvest levels and threats should be undertaken, to accurately determine the </p>  <p>&#160; impact of coral reef degradation and fisheries on the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span> in the future. Research should also be </p>  <p>&#160; conducted on species specific conservation meaures for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. vlamingii</span>, to try and reduce further negative impact on the </p>  <p>&#160; population of this species.</p>	eng
155120	distribution	Dominici, A., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span> is a wide-spread Indo-pacific unicorn fish, distributed from East Africa to French Polynesia and Hawaii, north to southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. In the Eastern Pacific, this species is only found in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
155120	habitat	Dominici, A., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span> occurs in deep lagoons and seaward coral reefs. This species is often found forming loose schools along upper regions of deep drop-offs to depths of 50 m. It forms mid-water aggregations off steep coral slopes to feed upon zooplankton during the day.	eng
155120	population	Dominici, A., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Naso vlamingii</span>.	eng
155120	threats	Dominici, A., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B. , 2009	<em></em>There are no major threats known to this species, however it is harvested by subsistence fisheries and for the aquarium trade. It is associated with coral reefs, a habitat that can be locally degraded by water pollution, human pollution pressures, overfishing, tourism, Crown of Thorns outbreaks and coral bleaching.	eng
155121	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Reef Finspot, although in places, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155121	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Reef Finspot<em> (Paraclinus integripinnis</em>) is distributed from Santa Barbara County in southern California, USA, to southern Baja California, Mexico.&#160;  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,251 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155121	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The Reef Finspot occurs in the lower intertidal zone along rocky shorelines either on hard substrates or in tidepools.&#160; Its diet consists of isopods and amphipods.&#160; This species is found to a depth of 15 m.	eng
155121	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	The sub-population in the northern part of the Reef Finspot's range appears to fluctuate. While it was previously considered rare, its abundance was observed to increase during El Nino periods, and decline following the event (Davis 2000).	eng
155121	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Reef Finspot. This species  is reasonably resilient to moderate habitat degradation.	eng
155122	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and potential threats to this species.	eng
155122	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Lycodes sadoensis</em> is known from the holotype collected in the Sea of Japan.	eng
155122	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	The eelpout, <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>, is a benthic species found in temperate waters.&#160; It has been collected at a depth of 235 m.	eng
155122	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Lycodes sadoensis</em>.	eng
155122	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Lycodes sadoensis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are a number of commercial fisheries operating within this species' range that may take it as by-catch.	eng
155123	conservation	Herdson, D. & Priede, I., 2009	In response to over-exploitation of stocks in the 1970s, Total Allowable Commercial Catch (TACC) limits were imposed. The current allowable biological catch for 2007-2009 has been set at 194,000 mt (NOAA 2007).<br/><br/>The Biological Maximum Sustainable Yield (BMSY) for this species has been calculated at 629,000 mt, so even with the current estimates of the stock biomass, it is still above this limit. The stock is not reported to be in an overfished condition, and no over-fishing is thought to be occurring (Overholtz 2006).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and stock biomass is needed to ensure limits can be revised should there be changes to the levels of recruitment.	eng
155123	distribution	Herdson, D. & Priede, I., 2009	This species is distributed from northern Bay of Biscay to Iceland and southern Greenland, eastward to Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, including the Baltic. It is also seen along southwestern Greenland and Labrador down to South Carolina.	eng
155123	habitat	Herdson, D. & Priede, I., 2009	This benthopelagic, oceanodromous species, forms large schools in coastal waters. It feeds predominantly upon copepods, migrating up the water column at night to feed in shallower surface waters. The species is divided into several subspecies, with separate spawning times; these include the winter spawning Norwegian and Icelandic herrings, the autumn spawning Icelandic and North sea herrings and the Baltic herrings. Individuals mature at ages ranging from three to nine years. The Atlantic Herring ranges in depth from the surface to 200 m.<br/><br/>Three very large year classes were produced in 1994, 1998 and 2002 (TRAC 2006).	eng
155123	population	Herdson, D. & Priede, I., 2009	A US stock assessment (age classes 2+) of Georges Bank, Nantucket Shoals and the Gulf of Maine, estimated there to be 1.4 million metric tonnes in 2001 (Overholtz<em> et al</em>. 2004). Biomass is now thought to have declined to 1 million metric tonnes in 2005.	eng
155123	threats	Herdson, D. & Priede, I., 2009	In the mid 20th century, the Atlantic Herring was considered to be one of the most commercially valuable food fish species.<br/><br/>Stocks of this species showed a strong reduction in the 1970s from global landings of 4,095,394 t in 1966, to 887,533 t in 1979. This decline was attributed to overfishing. Approximately 10-20% of these landings are taken from Area 21 (Northwest Atlantic) while the rest is taken in Area 27 (Northeast Atlantic). The largest reported catches are from Norway and Iceland. In the last 10 years global catches have shown an increase: 1998 - 2,421,462 t, 1999 -  2,411,408 t, 2000 - 2,381,011 t, 2001 -  1,952,605 t, 2002 - 1,873,503 t, 2003 - 1,958,929 t, 2004 - 2,020,111 t, 2005 - 2,316,050 t, 2006 - 2,244,595 t. While stocks hit critically low levels in the 1970s and showed signs of commercial extinction, they have since recovered (Melvin and Stephenson 2007).       <br/><br/>The Northwest Atlantic stock is treated as two separate stocks: Gulf of Maine stock and Georges Bank-Nantucket Shoals stock. The Georges Bank stock crashed in the 1970s due to overexploitation by foreign fishers, while the Gulf of Maine stock continued to support coastal fisheries. The Georges Bank stock is now said to have fully recovered due to recolonisation from Gulf of Maine and Nantucket Shoals. The Bay of Fundy stock declined from approximately 570,000 mt in 1997 to 460,000 mt in 2000 - 2001, however in 2002/ 2003 it showed an increase (Melvin<em> et al.</em> 2004; NOAA 2005). Despite this increase there are concerns about the stock due to fewer adults in the population. <br/><br/>Current rates of fishing mortality in the U.S. fisheries are calculated to be approximately 10% indicating that stocks are under-utilised, however there is concern that the inshore Gulf of Maine stock is being over-exploited (NOAA 2005).<br/><br/>An average fishing mortality (F) of 0.7 was calculated for the 1970s, this declined to 0.3 in the 1980s, 0.15 in 1991 and has since remained stable at 0.1 since 2002 (TRAC 2006).	eng
155124	conservation	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em>, however its distribution range may cover a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155124	distribution	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em> has been found in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf and off the coast of Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
155124	habitat	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em> inhabits burrows within a sand-rubble substrate in the vicinity of coral reefs. It lives in symbiosis with the shrimp <em>Alpheus bellulus</em> (Froese and Pauly 2007). This species is found at a depth range of 2 to 17 m.	eng
155124	population	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Amblyeleotris triguttata</em>.	eng
155124	threats	Larson, H.K. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	This species is reportedly harvested for the aquarium trade (Froese and Pauly 2007), however it does not appear to be a common species within the trade. It is unclear as to whether this is due to lack of commercial interest, or species abundance. This species may be undergoing localised declines due to coastal development and pollution, however this is not a significant threat to the global population.	eng
155125	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaena azorica</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations around the Azores.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the habitat status and population size of this species is needed in order to determine if it is significantly impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155125	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaena azorica</em> is only known from the Azores.	eng
155125	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaena</em><em> azorica</em> is a demersal species that has been found on hard bottoms.&#160; Its depth range remains unknown, but species from the <em>Scorpaena</em> genus occur at depths of 0–800 m.	eng
155125	population	Motomura, H., 2009	Although there are no population data for <em>Scorpaena azorica</em>, a survey of demersal fish assemblages around the Azores classed this species as rare (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
155125	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	There are growing problems around the Azores with marine sand extraction, agricultural run-off, and discharge of untreated sewage from tourist resorts and towns.&#160; Fishing limitations are in place, but enforcement is lacking (Depledge <em>et al.</em> 1992). Although the full impact of these threats on the marine environment is unknown,&#160;<em>Scorpaena</em><em> azorica</em> is likely to be suffering from significant habitat quality declines.&#160; It is unlikely that this species is of commercial importance, although like a large number of congeners, it may be consumed locally.	eng
155126	conservation	Lindeman, K.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Black Snapper, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155126	distribution	Lindeman, K.C., 2009	<em>Apsilus dentatus</em> is distributed from the West Indies, northern Gulf of Mexico (near the West Flower Garden Bank, southeast of Galveston, Texas), and the Florida Keys, to Venezuala and Belize, including the Bahamas and the Greater and Lesser Antilles. It is thought that this species is more widely spread (FAO 2002).	eng
155126	habitat	Lindeman, K.C., 2009	The Black Snapper<em></em> is coral-reef associated species that has a depth range of 12-300 m. It is mainly found over rocky bottoms (FAO 2002) and deep-reef, slope habitats, often beyond the shelf edge, however the young are sometimes found near the surface. It feeds on benthic cephlapods, tunicates, and ray-finned fishes and apparently spawns during most of the year (FAO 2002).	eng
155126	population	Lindeman, K.C., 2009	The Black Snapper is reported to be very common in the Bahamas along steep drop-offs (FAO 2002).	eng
155126	threats	Lindeman, K.C., 2009	<em>Apsilus dentatus</em> is harvested for food using handlines (FAO 2002), this however, is not considered a major threat to this species at present. There is no reported declines in the catch of this species and it remains common throughout much its habitat.	eng
155127	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	Oman has developed an interactive CD for all the schools describing the marine environment to enhance environmental education (Wilkinson 2004). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its range is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Due to the restricted range of this species, further research on the threats, and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
155127	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	This species is known from coastal Oman and the Socotra Archipelago.	eng
155127	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	This species is found on coral reefs and over reef rubble. It is found at a depth range of 11-15 m.	eng
155127	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155127	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	The reefs of Oman are in good condition and have remained relatively unaffected by natural and anthropogenic threats (Coles 1996). However the Pseudochromis genus is harvested for the aquarium trade. This species may have been affected by coastal development and pollution within its limited known range.	eng
155128	conservation	Acero, A., 2009	There is no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em>.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155128	distribution	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> has a distribution range extending from North Carolina, Bermuda and Florida, south to Nicaragua, Colombia and Venezuela including the Lesser Antilles, southern Mexico. This species is probabaly found throughtout the Caribbean (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155128	habitat	Acero, A., 2009	The tilefish <em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> is a demersal species found over sandy, muddy and rubble bottoms. It has a depth range of 45 - 495m but is commonly found between 150 - 250m (FAO 2002). It is also found to be associated with <em>Caulolatilus microps</em> and <em>Caulolatilus chrysops</em> (FAO 2002). It feeds on invertebrates and small fishes.	eng
155128	population	Acero, A., 2009	<em>Caulolatilus cyanops</em> is rare off North Carolina (FAO 2002).	eng
155128	threats	Acero, A., 2009	This species is fished commercially using hook-and-line, and by trawls off Columbia and Venezuela. There are no seperate catch statistics for this species.	eng
155129	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterois lunulata</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park off Queensland.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed, to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
155129	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is distributed from  Korea and southern Hokkaido in Japan, southward through China, Taiwan, and Indonesia, to northern Australia, Queensland and New Caledonia.	eng
155129	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is found on open substrates with remote outcrops of reef, or soft-bottom substrates at moderate depths.&#160; This species feeds on fish and crustaceans.&#160; The spines of <em>P. Lunulata</em> are venomous.&#160; Species from the Scorpaenidae family are typically found on, or near, the bottom, from the surface to a depth of 150 m.&#160; Most species from this family are known to lead solitary lives and only aggregate for reproduction  (FAO 1999).	eng
155129	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pterois lunulata</em>.	eng
155129	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Pterois lunulata</em> is utilised as a food source.&#160; The venomous dorsal-fin spines are removed by fisherman when marketed (FAO 1999).&#160; This species is also harvested from the wild for display in public aquariums.&#160; However, neither of these threats are considered to have a significant impact on the population size of this species, as these are localised threats only.	eng
155130	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Larson, H.K., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B.  , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus, </span>however its distribution range overlaps a number of marine protected area.	eng
155130	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Larson, H.K., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B.  , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus</span> is broadly distributed throughout the tropical Indo-west Pacific, including Hawaii. <span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus </span>also occurs in the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California, the lower Gulf of California to Ecuador, and all the offshore islands.	eng
155130	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Larson, H.K., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B.  , 2009	<em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus </span>adults are associated with coral reefs and are found in coastal and oceanic waters to depths of 146 m. Adults school in passes or the outer reef during the day, and disperse at night to feed. Juveniles <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>school in estuaries and harbours. Individuals feed primarily upon fish and crustaceans.	eng
155130	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Larson, H.K., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B.  , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caranx sexfasciatus</span> is common in waters of the Galapagos islands (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species is locally abundant around offshore islands.	eng
155130	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Larson, H.K., Molina, H., Robertson, R. & Smith-Vaniz, B.  , 2009	<em></em>This species is harvested by artisinal fisheries as a food source, however there is no evidence for a significant decline in the population. There are no other known major threats for this species.	eng
155131	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Spaghetti Eel.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas (MPAs), including the Florida Keys Marine National Park.&#160; Monitoring of the general threats to coral reef habitat should be carried out to ensure that they do not become more widespread and cause problems for this species in future.	eng
155131	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	The Spaghetti Eel (<em>Moringua edwardsi</em>) is found in the western Atlantic from Bermuda and Florida, the Caribbean, and the Lesser Antilles to Venezuela (Castle 1979).	eng
155131	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	The Spaghetti Eel is associated with reefs and lives on sandy bottoms in subtropical climates where individuals feed on burrowing invertebrates.&#160; Juveniles spend their time buried in the sand, but adults emerge at night.&#160; They display extreme changes in eye and fin shape, and body colour with maturity (Smith 1997).<br/><br/>The smallest larvae are found throughout the main islands of the Caribbean, whilst larger larvae are found at islands further away from the Caribbean (Castle 1979). This suggests that Spaghetti Eels spawn in the Caribbean area.&#160; The species is found to a depth of 35 m.	eng
155131	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	The Spaghetti Eel is scarce in the western Gulf of Mexico (Smith 1997).&#160; There is no population information from elsewhere in its range.	eng
155131	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Smith, D. , 2009	It is unlikely that the Spaghetti Eel is under any serious threat at present. More general threats include impacts to its habitat, including coral bleaching from rising sea temperatures, reef structure damage from tropical storms and hurricanes, pollution associated with coastal development and tourism, coral disease and threats associated with the mass die-off of sea urchins in the Caribbean.&#160; However, the species has a large range and it is unlikely that the global population is being impacted by these threats at present.	eng
155132	conservation	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias monodactylus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
155132	distribution	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias monodactylus</em> is found in the north Atlantic.	eng
155132	habitat	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias monodactylus</em> is a bathypelagic species and it is thought to have a depth range of 0-1,820 m. This species has for some time been considered a synonym of <em>Eustomias filifer</em> and its species status has only been recently resurrected (Sutton and Hartel 2004). As such, there is little information on its ecology or range. Related species undertake vertical migrations, ascending at night to shallower waters to feed.	eng
155132	population	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias monodactylus</em>.	eng
155132	threats	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no directed fishery for this species and it is not reported to be taken as by-catch within its range. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal pollution and development, and climatic threats.	eng
155133	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em>.	eng
155133	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is found in the western central Atlantic from the eastern Gulf of Mexico, south to the mouth of the Amazon river including the Bahamas and the West Indies.	eng
155133	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	The conger eel <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is a bathydemersal species that has a depth range of 101 - 503 m. Conger eels occur primarily on sand or mud bottoms and many burrow during the day and actively forage at night. Most species from the Congridae family live on the continental shelf or slope and feed on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 2002).	eng
155133	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em>.	eng
155133	threats	Smith, D., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Bathycongrus vicinalis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat process. Some species of conger eels, mainly from the <em>Conger</em> and <em>Ariosoma</em> genus are found in commercial fisheries but on the whole they are of little importance. They are caught by trawls, traps, and by hook-and-line, and are marketed mostly fresh. There is no reported commercial fishery for this species, though it may be taken as by-catch by other fisheries operating within its range.	eng
155134	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and several in the Red Sea.	eng
155134	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Herring Scad, <em>Alepes vari</em>, is distributed from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf to the western Pacific, from Korea and the Ryukyu Islands, south to Queensland and New Caledonia.	eng
155134	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Herring Scad<em></em> is a pelagic species and is common in shallow coastal waters where it often swims near the surface. It forms dense schools on clear inner coral reefs, and swims high above substrate. It feeds primarily on shrimps, copepods, decapods and small fishes.	eng
155134	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Herring Scad is a common species in shallow coastal waters (Froese and Pauly 2008).	eng
155134	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	Herring Scad<em> </em>are of minor commercial importance and are mainly taken by hook and line. It is marketed fresh or dry salted. Due to the nature by which this species is harvested and its broad geographic range, fishing is not considered a major threat at present.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted in areas where there is extensive coastal development or pollution, however this is a localised threat for this wide ranging species. It may also be taken as by-catch by other fisheries operating in areas of its range, however there are no reports of it being taken in significant quantity.	eng
155135	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sillago japonica</em>. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including Sha Chau and Lung Kwu Chau Marine Park near Hong Kong. This species is now reared in a number of aquaculture operations therefore meeting some of the market demand for this species.<br/><em></em><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and abundance of Japanese Whiting, to try and establish the full range of this species. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155135	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	The japonese whiting <em>Sillago japonica</em>, is distributed the coastal waters off Japan, Taiwan, Korea and South East Asia. The distribution of this species may possibly extend to the Philippines (Yamanda <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
155135	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	Japanese Whiting is a demersal species which occurs in bays on shallow sandy flats. Juvenile<span style="font-style: italic;">s</span><em></em> feed on calanoid copepods, as individuals of this species increase in size, mysids form a larger part of the diet (Inoue <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is oviparous.	eng
155135	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Sillago japonica</em>.	eng
155135	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	Japanese Whiting is an important commercial food fish, owing to its highly esteemed flavour (FAO 1992).  This species is commercially fished using beach seines, gill nets and trammel nets in coastal waters, and in deeper nearshore waters using otter trawl and beam trawl nets. Drops in the catches of this species have been observed and attributed to overfishing and changes in the environment (Sulistiono <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is predicted that there will be further decreases in the catches of this species.	eng
155136	conservation	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Callionymus macclesfieldensis</em>.&#160; Further research on its range and population trends, and monitoring of by-catch levels and habitat status should be undertaken to accurately determine the impact (if any) of fisheries and water pollution on the population.	eng
155136	distribution	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	The dragonet species, <em>Callionymus macclesfieldensis</em>, is known only from Macclesfield Bank in the South China Sea. The area from which this species is known is less than 20,000 km² (around 19,535 km²).	eng
155136	habitat	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus macclesfieldensis</span> is demersal and has been recorded from 77–82 m. It can be found burying in soft sediment. Congeners feed on small bottom-dwelling organisms such as crustaceans, worms and snails (Fricke 2001).	eng
155136	population	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus macclesfieldensis</span> is a rare species (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155136	threats	Acero, A. & Fricke, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callionymus</span> <em>macclesfieldensis</em> may be threatened by pollution and accidental mortality.&#160; The South China Sea is severely over-fished, with excessive by-catch levels. While this species is not targeted directly, it is possible that it could be taken as by-catch, although more information is needed to confirm this.<br/><br/>The South China Sea is polluted by organic and inorganic waste from sewage, from agricultural and industrial waste, and from run-off containing oil, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.&#160; However, as this species occurs in deeper areas far from the coast, the impact of this coastal pollution may be minimal (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155137	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats and population numbers of this species.	eng
155137	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is endemic to the waters of the Hawaiian Islands (Amaoka and Yamamoto 1984).	eng
155137	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is a mesopelagic, benthic species found on sand, mud and clay substrates. It has been found at a depth range of 443-640m.	eng
155137	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em>.	eng
155137	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Chascanopsetta crumenalis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species may be taken as incidental catch by bottom trawling fisheries, however it is of no commercial interest at the present time and this threat process is unlikely to be causing significant declines.	eng
155138	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conversation measures in place or needed for <em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em>.	eng
155138	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em> has been recorded from Queensland, New South Wales and Tasmania, Australia, and New Zealand.	eng
155138	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Antipodocottus galatheae</em> is a demersal sculpin found on the continental shelf. The depth range for this species is not known, however, the family Cottidae are typically found at depths ranging from 150-765 m (FAO 1999b).<br/><br/><em>Antipodocottus megalops</em> attains a length of approximately 5 cm.	eng
155138	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155138	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The family Cottidae are of no interest to fisheries (FAO 1999b) and due to the small size of the southern hemisphere sculpins they are easily missed in trawl nets (Nelson 1990) and therefore are unlikely to be taken as by-catch. Due to the deep-water nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by threats such as coastal development and pollution from urban areas.	eng
155139	conservation	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys need to be made to determine the ecology, abundance and threats of this species.	eng
155139	distribution	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em> is known from the Strait of Magellan, between Chile and Argentina.	eng
155139	habitat	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em> is a demersal species. It is thought to be found deeper than 100 m, and this has been inferred from related species, however the exact depth range of this species is currently unknown.	eng
155139	population	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Patagonotothen thompsoni</em>. It is only known from the type specimen.	eng
155139	threats	Gon, O. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats. Species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Patagonotothen</span> are harvested as a food source.	eng
155140	conservation	Mincarone, M.M. & Acero, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eptatretus wayuu</em>. <br/><br/>Further research on the distribution, ecology and threats of this species is needed.	eng
155140	distribution	Mincarone, M.M. & Acero, A., 2009	<em>Eptatretus wayuu</em> has been found in the western Atlantic along the coast of Guajira, Colombia.	eng
155140	habitat	Mincarone, M.M. & Acero, A., 2009	<em>Eptatretus wayuu</em> is a benthic species of hagfish, often found burrowing in mud or clay substrates. This species has been found at a depth range of 300-306 m. Members of this genus typically feed of dead or dying fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
155140	population	Mincarone, M.M. & Acero, A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eptatretus wayuu</em>.	eng
155140	threats	Mincarone, M.M. & Acero, A., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Eptatretus wayuu</em> is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Hagfish skin has become of recent commercial interest in Korea.	eng
155141	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Shortfin False Moray. However, the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas including several in New Caledonia, all of which are 'no take' areas to conserve biodiversity.  <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
155141	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Shortfin False Moray, <em>Kaupichthys brachychirus</em>, is distributed from Rowley Shoals, Western Australia, north to Papua New Guinea and Papua, and east to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia. This species has also been recorded in the Pacific from Palau, Marshall Islands, Fiji, Wallis and Futuna Islands, Samoa, American Samoa and French Polynesia. The distribution of this species may be more widespread than currently known (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155141	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Shortfin False Moray is associated with muddy environments, where it can be found in the crevices of dead coralline rock and volcanic rock. This species is a noctural feeder which may feed in areas adjacent to reefs (R. Fricke pers. comm.).  This species is found in the photic zone from the surface to 43 m depth.	eng
155141	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155141	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no directed fishery for this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation, however this species has a lack of habitat specificity and a broad range so this is unlikely to pose a major threat to the population.	eng
155142	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or&#160; needed, for<em> Laemonema rhodochir</em>.	eng
155142	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Laemonema rhodochir</em> has been found along the Kyushu-Palau Ridge, which extends south-southeast from the southern tip of Japan, around Hawaii to Hancock Seamount, and from the Sala y Gomez Ridge near Easter Island (Melendez and Markle 1997).	eng
155142	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The morid cod, <em>Laemonema rhodochir</em>, is a bathypelagic species that has a depth range of 95–600 m.&#160; It prefers rocky habitats and may be found sheltering in crevices (Mundy 2005).	eng
155142	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Laemonema rhodochir</span>.	eng
155142	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Laemonema rhodochir</span> is not being impacted by any major threats at present.&#160; It is possible that this species may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to cause significant declines.	eng
155143	conservation	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Paxton, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance, threats and ecology of this species.	eng
155143	distribution	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Paxton, J., 2009	The single specimen of <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em> was found off the coast of Mombasa in Kenya.	eng
155143	habitat	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Paxton, J., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for <em>Paraulopus maculatus</em>.  The single specimen that was collected was found between a depth between 178 m and 290 m but its depth range is unknown.	eng
155143	population	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Paxton, J., 2009	This species is only known from one specimen.	eng
155143	threats	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Paxton, J., 2009	The impact of any potential threats to this species is unknown.	eng
155144	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155144	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Myripristis trachyacron</em> is a western Pacific soldierfish, known from the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
155144	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>, shelters under ledges and in caves on coral and rocky reefs.&#160; It is typically seen at depths less than 50 m. It can be found in small aggregations in current-prone channels, feeding on zooplankton.	eng
155144	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em>.	eng
155144	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Myripristis trachyacron</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; It may occasionally be harvested by subsistence fishers.	eng
155145	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends, threats and harvest levels of this species.	eng
155145	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em> is known only from the Philippines and Samoa, but its distribution is thought to be more widespread (FAO 2001b).	eng
155145	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em> can be found on sand and mud bottoms in shallow coastal waters within the photic zone. This species feeds predominantly upon small fishes and benthic invertebrates.	eng
155145	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Brachirus sorsogonensis</em>.	eng
155145	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachirus sorsogonensis</span> is likely to be threatened by trawling activity within its range. It is targeted by artisinal fisheries as a food source. It is also likely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155146	conservation	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures known. This species distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas.	eng
155146	distribution	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anampses melanurus</span> is found from Indonesia to the Marquesas and Society Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands (Myers 1991; Lieske and Myers 1994) and southern Japan (mainland Kashiwa Jima), south to Scott Reef off northwest Australia (Myers 1991).	eng
155146	habitat	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	The White-spotted Wrasse, <em>Anampses melanurus,</em> is found in deep coastal, outer-reef slopes and drop-offs. It may also be found in the surge zone to a depth of 40 m, although it is more commonly found between 15 and 30 m. This species aggregates in small groups of several females with a single dominant male. The White-spotted Wrasse feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes.  This is a diurnal species that burrows into the sand at night.	eng
155146	population	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155146	threats	Cabanban, A.S. & Sadovy, Y.J. , 2009	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, however it does not do well as an aquarium fish (Fenner 2009).	eng
155147	conservation	Moore, J.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
155147	distribution	Moore, J.A., 2009	<em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is known from 25 specimens collected from the Philippines, within the Sibuyan Sea (Matocot Point, Batangas Bay and Luzon Island), Visayan Sea (Pescador Island) and Lopez Bay in the Quezon Province.	eng
155147	habitat	Moore, J.A., 2009	<em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is a deepwater, benthopelagic species which has been found at a depth range of 362-549 m. Species of the Hoplostethus genus are typically found in dense aggregations over seamounts, and so are locally abundant.	eng
155147	population	Moore, J.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em>.	eng
155147	threats	Moore, J.A., 2009	It is not known if <em>Hoplostethus metallicus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Like congeners, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in fisheries operating over seamounts.	eng
155148	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em>, however the distribution of this species falls within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155148	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is found in the western Atlantic from the Bahamas to Brazil (from Bahia to Espirito Santo states).	eng
155148	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is a cryptic species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999) that inhabits crevices within shallow coral reefs and shallow rocky ledges in tropical climates. This species is found deep within the reef during the day to a maximum depth of 16 m. It is a viviparous species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
155148	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Stygnobrotula latebricola</em> is rare around Puerto Rico (Dennis <em>et al</em>. 2004), but reported to be common in other areas of its distribution (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155148	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the global population of this species. It may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat destruction as a result of coastal development and pollution.	eng
155149	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em>. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species to determine if it is restricted to waters off eastern Luzon only, and on the possible incidental catch of this species by commercial fishery operations within its range.	eng
155149	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is only known from the east coast of Luzon, Philippines.	eng
155149	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is a bathydemersal species, found living over mud, sand, and rubble substrates. This species has been collected from a depth range of 267-292 m. This species feeds on benthic macrofauna.	eng
155149	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em>.	eng
155149	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus brunneus</em> is of no commercial interest to fisheries, and there is no evidence of this species being marketed (FAO 2001b). This species may be taken incidentally as by-catch by other commercial fisheries operating within its range but it is not known if this constitutes a major threat.	eng
155150	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, population numbers, and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
155150	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</em> is known only from the holotype, found at Seguam Pass, by the Aleutian Islands, at a depth of 455 m.	eng
155150	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span> has been found at a depth of 455 m.&#160; The holotype was found to have ostracods and rocks in its stomach, suggesting it is a benthic-dwelling fish.	eng
155150	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis.</span>	eng
155150	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is not known if <span style="font-style: italic;">Prognatholiparis ptychomandibularis</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155151	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for<em> Apogon rubrimacula</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
155151	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon rubrimacula</em> has been recorded from the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Great Barrier Reef, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. There is also a record (underwater photograph) of this species from the Philippines (Randall and Kulbicki 1998).	eng
155151	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon rubrimacula</em> is a tropical cardinal fish found on reef flats and in shallow lagoons at a depth range of 0-33 m. During the day it typically shelters in the reef structure. At night, individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos. <br/><br/>The males of this species mouthbrood the eggs until hatching. This species can be seen forming distinct aggregations.	eng
155151	population	Gon, O., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155151	threats	Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines from factors affecting habitat quality, such as coral bleaching, cyanide fishing, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and the negative threats associated with tourism and coastal development. However, many of the reef systems on which this species is found, are still deemed as healthy and relatively unimpacted by the mentioned threats; for this reason the global population of this species is not thought to be threatened.	eng
155153	conservation	Fricke, R. & Kimura, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155153	distribution	Fricke, R. & Kimura, S., 2009	The Bearded Silverside, <em>Atherion elymus</em>, is distributed from southern Japan, south to northern Queensland. It has also been collected from localities close to islands in Micronesia, Melanesia, Fiji and New Guinea.	eng
155153	habitat	Fricke, R. & Kimura, S., 2009	Bearded Silverside occur in loose aggregations in the photic zone and are found in tidepools, rocky reefs, along rocky shorelines and reef margins. Eggs of this species are large and self adhesive. This species has a depth profile of 0-6 m.	eng
155153	population	Fricke, R. & Kimura, S., 2009	Like other species of silverside, it is likely that this species is abundant and common throughout its range in areas of appropriate habitat.	eng
155153	threats	Fricke, R. & Kimura, S., 2009	There is no directed commercial fishery for this species. It is infrequently collected for use as bait, however this is unlikely to be driving a significant population decline. This species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and urban pollution discharge.	eng
155154	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis operculosus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats to this species is needed.	eng
155154	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis operculosus</em> is only known to occur off the Kerguelen Islands.	eng
155154	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis operculosus</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 380?1,010 m.	eng
155154	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis operculosus</span> is said to be common near the Kerguelen Plateau at 380?820 m (Andriashev 1982b; cited in Miller 1993).	eng
155154	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis operculosus</span> is of no known commercial value.&#160; It may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range.	eng
155155	conservation	Nazarkin, M., Sheiko, B., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chirolophis snyderi</em>, however its distribution range does coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research on the population trends and threats for this species is needed.	eng
155155	distribution	Nazarkin, M., Sheiko, B., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is distributed from the Chukchi Sea and the western Gulf of Alaska to the Sea of Okhotsk, Tatar Strait, and the Pacific coast of Hokkaido.<br/><em></em><br/>The depth range for this species is likely to be 0 - 70 m. The record of 490 m is likely to be a result of a previous specimen from a shallower tow (Sheiko pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155155	habitat	Nazarkin, M., Sheiko, B., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 0 - 70 m in nearshore waters (Mecklenburg and Sheiko 2004) over soft and rocky bottoms.<br/><em><br/></em>	eng
155155	population	Nazarkin, M., Sheiko, B., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> is a rare species.	eng
155155	threats	Nazarkin, M., Sheiko, B., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is unknown what major threat processes are impacting this species. <em>Chirolophis snyderi</em> may be taken as by-catch in the Sea of Okhotsk fisheries. In 1995 the total catch of Russian fishing fleets in the Sea of Okhotsk was 4.3 million metric tons (Stokke 2001). Due to the coastal nature of this species it may be impacted by coastal development and pollution. The Sea of Okhotsk has been heavily impacted by heavy shipping due to bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals.	eng
155156	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Fricke, R. & Hastings, P. , 2007	This species is found in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA), Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and the Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
155156	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Fricke, R. & Hastings, P. , 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Galapagos Archipelago.	eng
155156	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Fricke, R. & Hastings, P. , 2007	This reef-associated species lives in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes and walls (Humann and Deloach 1993), to a depth of 15 m. Males occupy territories of less than 50 cm diameter, on vertical or overhanging rock faces, from November through February. Females leave the territory after spawning, but the male continues to court and to spawn with other females in his territory while guarding the previously spawned egg masses from predators, like wrasses and gobies (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
155156	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Fricke, R. & Hastings, P. , 2007	This species has been categorized as common to locally abundant, and is one of the most abundant of the Galapagos endemic reef fishes. Mean abundance has been estimated at 1.77 individuals/500m<sup><sub>2</sub></sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
155156	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Fricke, R. & Hastings, P. , 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, although given its shallow depth range it may be negatively impacted by current or future ENSO events and associated climatic changes. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO events and global warming may have fatal effects on shallow marine ecosystems and the survival of restricted range species (Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). For example, the only known location of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. corallicola</span> lies within the region of strongest El Niño impacts where <span style="font-style: italic;">Azurina eupalama</span>, another endemic species from Galapagos once common in localized aggregations on several islands, declined precipitously after the 1982/83 El Niño event and has not been recorded since.	eng
155157	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Atrobucca kyushini</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels of this species is needed.	eng
155157	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> occurs off the northwestern coast of Borneo in the South China Sea. This species is only known from the type locality.	eng
155157	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> is a benthic species that inhabits continental shelves and can be found at depths up to 100 m.	eng
155157	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Atrobucca kyushini</em>.	eng
155157	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Atrobucca kyushini</em> is harvested as a food source, although it is not targeted specifically by fisheries.&#160; It is very likely that this species is taken as by-catch in bottom trawls. <br/><br/>The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) has classified the South China Sea as being severely over-fished, with excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices.&#160; However, the precise impacts on <em>A. kyushini</em> are unknown.	eng
155158	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psettina hainanensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance of, and possible threats to this species.	eng
155158	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Psettina hainanensis</em> is found in the South China Sea around Hainan, China.	eng
155158	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Psettina hainanensis</em> is a demersal species that is found resting on sand and mud bottoms in tropical waters. It preys on benthic invertebrates and fishes.	eng
155158	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Psettina hainanensis</em>.	eng
155158	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The area in which this species occurs has been heavily fished by trawlers. This species is unlikely to be targeted as a food source (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). It is not known what impact fishing activity might have had on the population of this species.	eng
155159	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson,R.D. &  Dominici, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Galapagos Marine Reserve.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and population trends is needed.	eng
155159	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson,R.D. &  Dominici, A., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span> is a tropical eastern Pacific species and is distributed from southern California, south to central Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos islands.	eng
155159	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson,R.D. &  Dominici, A., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus </span>inhabits inshore sandy areas and clear waters around reefs and rocky areas. This pelagic species is often observed in large schools, feeding on zooplankton near the surface. This species also feeds on a variety of invertebrate animals and fishes. This species is found to a depth of 30 m.	eng
155159	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson,R.D. &  Dominici, A., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Trachinotus rhodopus</span> is reported to be the most common reef jack in the Sea of Cortez (Thomson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1987), and can be locally abundant.	eng
155159	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson,R.D. &  Dominici, A., 2009	This species is harvested as a food source, however there is no indication that this is causing a significant decline in the population. There are no other known threats to this species.	eng
155160	conservation	Paxton, J.R. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Firefly Lanternfish.	eng
155160	distribution	Paxton, J.R. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Hygophum proximum</em> is widespread in warm waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but has not been found in the Atlantic (Wang and Chen 2001).	eng
155160	habitat	Paxton, J.R. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	The Firefly Lanternfish, <em>Hygophum proximum</em>, is a pelagic oceanic species. It undertakes diurnal vertical migrations, and migrates from water depths of around 500-700 m, to depths shallower than 100 m at night to feed on copepods and other crustaceans (Clarke 1978). Lanternfish make up the greatest biomass of oceanic fish species (FAO 1999).	eng
155160	population	Paxton, J.R. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155160	threats	Paxton, J.R. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
155161	conservation	Møller, P.R. & Stevenson, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Ebony Eelpout, although this species is occasionally used in aquaculture.&#160; The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Shiretoko National Park in the Sea of Okhotsk.&#160; However, due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unclear whether these afford this species any protection. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the biology, habitat and ecology of this species, as well as on the impact of threats such as by-catch and pollution, as little information is available at present.	eng
155161	distribution	Møller, P.R. & Stevenson, D., 2009	The Ebony Eelpout <em>(Lycodes concolor) </em>is distributed from the Sea of Okhotsk to the western Gulf of Alaska, including Akutan Island and Stalemate Bank in the Aleutian chain.	eng
155161	habitat	Møller, P.R. & Stevenson, D., 2009	The Ebony Eelpout, like other species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Zoarcidae</span>, is a bathydemersal species.&#160; Its depth profile is 100–1,025 m.&#160; There is no other information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
155161	population	Møller, P.R. & Stevenson, D., 2009	There is currently no available population information for the Ebony Eelpout	eng
155161	threats	Møller, P.R. & Stevenson, D., 2009	It is unlikely that the Ebony Eelpout is being severely impacted by any major threat processes across its entire range.&#160; However, its presence in the Sea of Okhotsk means that it is potentially impacted by the threats associated with heavy shipping traffic, such as bilge and ballast water, fuel and oil leaks, and anti-fouling chemicals.&#160; Due to its relatively large size, this species is also likely to be taken as by-catch in benthic and pelagic fisheries (GIWA 2008).	eng
155162	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the abundance and threats of this species to determine if harvesting and pollution are triggering rapid declines.	eng
155162	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is distributed from the coast of Guangdong, China, to northern Taiwan.	eng
155162	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is a demersal species which inhabits tropical waters. Other species of the genus <em>Zebrias</em> are neritic and feed on benthic invertebrates and fishes. Its congener <em>Zebrias zebra</em> inhabits shallow sand or mud bottoms in coastal waters (FAO 2001). This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155162	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em>.	eng
155162	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is not known whether <em>Zebrias crossolepis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Congener <em>Zebrias zebra</em> is a food fish that is caught mainly with bottom trawls on the inner continental shelf (FAO 2001). While this species may not be targeted directly, it is still likely to be taken as by-catch. The South China sea is severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with excessive by-catch, discards and destructive fishing practices, and it is reported that these impacts have shown no change in intensity in more recent years (NOAA 2004).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by pollution. The South China Sea is reported to be severely impacted by pollution due to major coastal and economic development (NOAA 2004).	eng
155163	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Striped Grunt, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas, including the Walker's Cay in the Bahamas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch level and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
155163	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Striped Grunt, <em>Haemulon striatum</em> occurs in the western Atlantic from Florida to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, the western Bahamas and the Antilles.	eng
155163	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Striped Grunt <em></em>is a coral reef-associated species that has a depth range of 10-100 m. This species occurs along exposed outer or deeper reefs and has been found on semi-hard substrates. Throughout the range, adults are most commonly found near the shelf edge in mid-water schools (K. Lindeman pers. comm. 2007). Dense aggregations are often seen on small isolated reefs by day, and at night they disperse to feed individually on plankton and small invertebrates.	eng
155163	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Striped Grunt is rare in the northern Gulf of Mexico and has been reported only once in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 2005).	eng
155163	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Striped Grunt is occasionally taken as by-catch by trap or bottom trawls, which is then utilised as a food source. This species is also taken for the public aquarium trade, but this not considered a major threat at present as it is taken in small quantities and is likely bred in captivity.<br/><em><br/></em>This species is also likely to be impacted by localised habitat degradation caused by land-based pollution, disease, coral-bleaching, and destructive fishing practices.	eng
155164	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Polydactylus microstomus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Sirinath National Park, Phuket, Thailand. <br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its habitat status is needed, to determine if the degradation of mangrove habitats will have a negative impact the population of <em>P. microstomus</em> in the future.	eng
155164	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is an Indo-Pacifc threadfin.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, this species is known from Tamil Nadu (India), Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Phuket Island, Thailand.&#160; In the west Pacifc, <em>P. microstomus</em> is distributed from Taiwan to New Caledonia (excluding Australia).	eng
155164	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> inhabits turbid coastal waters, estuaries, mangrove creeks, and mangrove-lined rivers (Motomura and Iwatsuki 2001).&#160; It feeds mainly on small crustaceans, fish, and benthic organisms.&#160; Some specimens of this species are known to be hermaphrodites.&#160;  This species is epipelagic and is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 2–55 m.	eng
155164	population	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is reported to be relatively common in the western part of Indonesia and the Philippines.	eng
155164	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Polydactylus microstomus</em> is associated with mangrove habitats.&#160; The mangrove habitats of Asia have been significantly threatened by human population pressures, large-scale harvest for wood chips, and conversion to aquaculture ponds.&#160; To date, 36% of Asian mangrove forests have been lost (Valiela <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
155165	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>All sygnathids are subject to export controls of the Coomonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 since 1998.<br/><br/>All syngnathids and solenostomids are listed as marine species under s248 of the EPBC Act 1999.	eng
155165	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> is distributed from the Gulf of Oman and Seychelles, eastwards to the Somoa Islands. This species is distributed in the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands to the Great Barrier Reef. <em>C. amplexus</em> is also known from Fiji (type locality).	eng
155165	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> is a demersal species typically found in the tropics and subtropics to a maximum depth of 31 m. It is known from coral reefs, lagoons, harbours, and open sandy-flats. Also reported on rubble along edges of reefs (Kuiter 2000) and in patch reefs surrounded by sandy flats (Nanami and Nishihira 2002).  Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
155165	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em>.	eng
155165	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J.,  Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Corythoichthys amplexus</em> has no known major threats.	eng
155166	conservation	Matsuura, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Striped Burrfish, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of threats, and population numbers is needed.	eng
155166	distribution	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Striped Burrfish, <em>Chilomycterus schoepfii,</em> is found in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia, Maine, the Bahamas and the northern Gulf of Mexico, to Brazil. This species is uncommon or absent from most of the West Indies (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155166	habitat	Matsuura, K., 2009	The Striped Burrfish<em></em> is associated with seagrass beds in sheltered, coastal waters. It can also be found on coastal reefs to a maximum depth of 11 m. Individuals are carnivorous but occasionally graze on algae.	eng
155166	population	Matsuura, K., 2009	Striped Burrfish<em></em> are reported to be common in seagrass beds in coastal bays and lagoons (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155166	threats	Matsuura, K., 2009	Striped Burrfish are harvested for the international aquarium trade, however there is no known indication that this is causing a significant decline in abundance.<br/><br/>These species is likely to be undergoing declines in some areas of its range, due to habitat loss and degradation. Due to the this species association with coastal habitats and seagrass beds, it is likely to be threatened by increasing sea temperatures, coastal development, pollution from land, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices, and tourism. However, these are localised threats only and not considered a major threat to the entire population.	eng
155167	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Rosy Blenny. However, its distribution may coincide with numerous designated marine protected areas, including Walker's Cay in the Bahamas. This species is also known within the Dry Tortugas National Park, 70 miles west of the Florida Keys. Fishing activity has recently been banned within this designation. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155167	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Rosy Blenny<em> </em>(<em>Malacoctenus macropus</em>) is distributed through the western Atlantic from southern Florida and Bermuda to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, and the Greater and Lesser Antilles.	eng
155167	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Rosy Blenny<em></em> is a demersal species that is found on reefs in subtropical climates at a depth range of 0-8 m. It occurs in a wide variety of shoreline habitats and patch reefs, including sponge beds and sea-grass beds. It also occurs in estuaries (Layman <em>et a</em>l. 2004), in areas of rubble and algae, and also in mangroves (Greenfield and Johnson 1990).	eng
155167	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	In the western Caribbean, the Rosy Blenny has been found to be the second most dominant blennioid species in rubble/algae habitats and the most dominant in mangrove habitats (Greenfield and Johnson 1990).	eng
155167	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team)., 2009	The Rosy Blenny is harvested for the aquarium trade. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species as present.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to pollution and habitat degradation.	eng
155169	conservation	Hartel, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species	eng
155169	distribution	Hartel, K., 2009	This species is known from the subtropical Atlantic and Indian oceans (Badcock 1988).	eng
155169	habitat	Hartel, K., 2009	There is little evidence that this species is known from beyond 1,000 m, and scarcity in collections may in fact be due to feeding associations rather than lack of sampling at depth (Badcock 1988).	eng
155169	population	Hartel, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155169	threats	Hartel, K., 2009	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155170	conservation	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em>. Further research is needed into this species' distribution, abundance and potential threats, as little information is currently available.	eng
155170	distribution	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em> is known only  from two specimens collected off the coast of Brazil.	eng
155170	habitat	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Asarcenchelys longimanus</em> is a demersal species and lives over soft bottoms.&#160; The holotype was found at a depth of 55 m. Species from the family Ophichthidae are well adapted for burrowing and many of these species spend most of their adult lives buried in soft sediment; some come out at night to forage.&#160; Ophichthids have pelagic leptocephalus larvae (Carpenter 2002).	eng
155170	population	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Asarcenchelys longimanus</span>.	eng
155170	threats	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Asarcenchelys longimanusis</span> being impacted by any major threats.&#160; There is no commercial fishery for the Ophichthidae family, but they are sometimes taken as by-catch in trawl and hook-and-line fishery operations (Carpenter 2002).	eng
155171	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas, including the Had Chao Mai Marine Park. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology and population status of this species.	eng
155171	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	The Threefinger Threadfin, <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>, is known from Thailand (either side of Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea), Malaysia (Malay Peninsular and Kalimantan) and western Indonesia (Java).  However, Motomura <em>et al.</em> (2002) state that this species is 'probably more widely distributed in western Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan)'.	eng
155171	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	Little information is available for the habitat of <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em>. However <em>Eleutheronema</em> species generally occur on continental shelves, and are considered to be heavily dependant on large freshwater rivers (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
155171	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for the Threefinger Threadfin.	eng
155171	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	Although species of this genus are harvested commercially, <em>Eleutheronema tridactylum</em> is too small to be of major commercial importance (Motomura 2004). It is unlikely that <em>E. tridactylum</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
155172	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for The Large-headed Scorpionfish.	eng
155172	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	The Large-headed Scorpionfish (<em>Pontinus macrocephalus)</em> is a western Pacific scorpionfish, distributed from Indonesia, east to French Polynesia, north to Japan and Hawaii,  and south to Australia and New Caledonia.&#160; It has also been reported from Malaysia (Mohsin <em>et al</em>. 1993).&#160; The distribution of this species may be more widespread than currently described (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155172	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	The Large-headed Scorpionfish is a demersal species, found on the upper slope of the continental shelf and oceanic islands.&#160; This species is found resting on coralline rock at a depth range of 174–278 m.	eng
155172	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for the Large-headed Scorpionfish.	eng
155172	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Large-headed Scorpionfish.	eng
155173	conservation	Espinosa-Perez, H.,Findley, L.T. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006). In March 2004, legislation was passed to prohibit increased fishing of this species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993).<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels and population trends of this species.	eng
155173	distribution	Espinosa-Perez, H.,Findley, L.T. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found from the west coast of central Baja and Gulf of California to Laguna Mar Muerto, Chiapas, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It was introduced into the highly saline waters of the Salton Sea in southern California, USA, where it is now likely extirpated (Welcomme 1988).	eng
155173	habitat	Espinosa-Perez, H.,Findley, L.T. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 50 m. It may be able to tolerate higher salinities (up to 40ppt). It can be found over gravelly, muddy and sandy substrates.	eng
155173	population	Espinosa-Perez, H.,Findley, L.T. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155173	threats	Espinosa-Perez, H.,Findley, L.T. & van der Heiden, A.M., 2007	This is an important commercial species that is typically caught using gill nets and bottom trawl. However, more information is needed to determine the effect of commercial fisheries on this species population.	eng
155174	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em>, however in places, its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas.	eng
155174	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is found from the waters off San Francisco, California, USA, to San Martin Island off northern Baja California, Mexico (Stephens 1961).  The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,686 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155174	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is found over sandy and muddy substrates along rocky coastlines and bays.&#160; It is often found sheltering in rocky crevices and man-made objects such as tires and bottles and is exceedingly territorial (Eschmeyer and Herald 1983).&#160; Both sexes tend the eggs.&#160; This species is found at depths of 3–27 m.	eng
155174	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	Hubbs (1953) reported that <em>Neoclinus uninotatus</em> is "not common anywhere in its range", however Eschmeyer and Herald (1983) state that this species is easily seen around coastal structures such as piers.	eng
155174	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Neoclinus uninotatus</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; This species appears to be relatively tolerant to disturbance, as it is often found in areas where coastal development has taken place and in areas littered with rubbish.	eng
155175	conservation	Starnes, W.C., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gerres infasciatus</em>.&#160; Further research is needed into the distribution and abundance of this species, and to determine how it may be impacted by threats such as fishing, pollution and coastal development.	eng
155175	distribution	Starnes, W.C., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The mojarra, <em>Gerres infasciatus</em>, is known from the Northern Gulf of Thailand (Iwatsuki and Kimura 1998) and Tamil Nadu in India (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
155175	habitat	Starnes, W.C., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	Three specimens of <em>Gerres infasciatus</em> have been collected over sandy bottoms of shallow, inshore, coastal waters, subject to the outflows of local rivers.&#160; At present, nothing is known of the ecological requirements of this species (Iwatsuki and Kimura 1998).	eng
155175	population	Starnes, W.C., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Gerres infasciatus</em> was confirmed to be the most abundant Gerreid species in a number of markets in Madras, India.&#160; However, at present, this species has only been recorded from Tamil Nadu in India (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
155175	threats	Starnes, W.C., Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gerres infasciatus </span>in the markets of Madras (Fukuhara <em>et al</em>. 2006) indicates that this species is utilised as a food source.&#160; However, there are no other records of this fish being harvested for human consumption.&#160; It is not known what other potential threats this species may be impacted by, however like other species in the <em>Gerres</em> genus, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by bottom trawls operating within its range.<br/><br/>As this species is found in inshore coastal areas, it is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation caused by pollution and coastal development.	eng
155176	conservation	Collen, B., Richamn, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parupeneus crassilabris.&#160; </em>However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.	eng
155176	distribution	Collen, B., Richamn, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> is distributed through the eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific, from the Ryuku Islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef, and east to Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Palau, the Caroline Islands, Fiji, Tuvalu, Tonga and Niue.&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> crassilabris</em> has also been reported from Viet Nam.<em><br/></em>	eng
155176	habitat	Collen, B., Richamn, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> occurs on lagoon reefs, reef faces, and fore-reef slopes.&#160; Juvenile <em>P. crassilabris</em> are more common on sandy reef flats, whilst adults prefer areas of high vertical relief (Myers 1998).&#160;  On the Great Barrier Reef, this species is most often found on shallow lagoon reefs (Michael 2004).&#160;&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> Crassilabris</em> is usually solitary, but can occur in groups of 2 or 3 individuals.&#160; This species hunts both diurnally and nocturnally, and primarily feeds during the day on xanthid crabs, decapod shrimps, and mantis shrimps.&#160; During the night, it feeds on slumbering fish and crab larvae.&#160; It also occasionally feeds on octopuses, polychaete worms, amphipods, and gastropods.	eng
155176	population	Collen, B., Richamn, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parupeneus crassilabris</span>.	eng
155176	threats	Collen, B., Richamn, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Parupeneus crassilabris</em> is a commercial food fish, and is mainly caught with shore seines and hook-and-line.&#160; This species is marketed fresh.&#160;<em>Parupeneus</em><em> crassilabris</em> is not targeted specifically by fishers, but is taken in multi-species catches.<br/><br/>More general threats to this species may include threats to its habitat.&#160; Due to the coastal nature of this species, it may be impacted by a number of human-induced threats including coastal development, water pollution from domestic and commercial sources, and destructive fishing practices; however these threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are only likely to be responsible for localised declines.	eng
155177	conservation	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Psenopsis anomala</em>. <br/><br/>Continued monitoring of the harvest levels and abundance of this species is needed to ensure it does not become over-exploited.	eng
155177	distribution	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is distributed form Japan to the East China Sea, Hong Kong, and northern South China Sea (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
155177	habitat	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em>, is an epipelagic species that has a depth range of 0 - 370 m.	eng
155177	population	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is very abundant and fast growing in the East China Sea (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  FAO statistics show a peak in landings of around 23,000 mt in 1987 and these landing have fluctuated widely in recent years to around 9-10,000 mt.  However in Japan, landings were stable from 1991 to 1996 and it is known to be presently locally abundant (Yamada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
155177	threats	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Psenopsis anomala</em> is a commercially important source of food, harvested by trawlers. In 1999 the total landings were reported at 10,871 tonnes (FAO 2000). The countries with the largest catches were Japan (4,996 tonnes) and the Taiwan Province of China (5,075 tonnes) (FAO 2000).<br/><br/>It is also likely that this species is taken as by-catch in other commercial fisheries. Much of the range in which this species occurs is intensively exploited by fisheries.	eng
155178	conservation	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	This species distribution falls into a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). In Costa Rica, it may be present in Cocos Island National Park, and Cocos Island World Heritage Site. In Colombia, in Malpelo Island Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas and Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary World Heritage Site. In Ecuador, in Galapagos Marine Reserve; Galapagos Archipelago Particularly Sensitive Sea Area, Galapagos Island World Heritage Site, and Galapagos Island Man and Biosphere Reserve.<br/><br/>However, more research is needed to properly assess the taxonomic validity of this species. Further research on the population status of this species is needed.	eng
155178	distribution	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	This species is endemic species to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island, Malpelo Island, and the Galapagos Archipelago. However, it is likely that this species is a junior synonym of the widely distributed <span style="font-style: italic;">Heteroconger pellegrini.</span>	eng
155178	habitat	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	This species inhabits clean sandy subtrates to depths of 30 m. It is usually found in large colonies feeding on zooplankton (Allen and Robertson 1994).	eng
155178	population	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155178	threats	McCosker, J.E.,  Béarez, P. & Lea, R.N., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
155179	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhacochilus vacca</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is needed to forewarn of any rapid declines in population size that may trigger a threat category in the future.	eng
155179	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is distributed from southeastern Alaska to Guadalupe Island, off north-central Baja California, Mexico.	eng
155179	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is most commonly found in dense kelp forests over rocky substrates, to a maximum depth of 46 m.&#160; It is also known from rocky coastlines, and from near pilings and underwater structures.&#160; Its diet consists of large-shelled invertebrates such as molluscs and crabs (Alevizon 1975).	eng
155179	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> has been described as abundant on the North American Pacific coast (Boulding <em>et al.</em> 2001).&#160; Declines in both adult and juvenile abundance have been observed off the Californian coast, which may be linked to oceanic warming (Stephens <em>et al.</em> 1986, Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
155179	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Rhacochilus vacca</em> is harvested for aquariums, as a gamefish, and as a food source.&#160; There is a lack of information on current landings.&#160; The kelp habitat of this species is likely to be under threat from oceanic warming (Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 1997) and sea urchin grazing (Tegner and Dayton 2000, Steneck <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
155180	conservation	Carpenter, K., Acero, A., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Calamus cervigoni</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155180	distribution	Carpenter, K., Acero, A., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2007	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is endemic to the eastern coast of Venezuela.	eng
155180	habitat	Carpenter, K., Acero, A., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2007	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> inhabits mud bottoms, and is most common at a depth range of 25-70 m, but has been recorded down to 90 m.	eng
155180	population	Carpenter, K., Acero, A., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2007	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is abundant in some areas, such as Margarita Island and north of the Paria and Araya Peninsulas (Carpenter 2002).	eng
155180	threats	Carpenter, K., Acero, A., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2007	<em>Calamus cervigoni</em> is harvested by trawlers but is of minor commercial importance. However, at present there is no information to suggest that this threat is causing a significant decline to the population of this species.	eng
155181	conservation	Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas affording it protection from harvest.	eng
155181	distribution	Priede, I.G., 2009	The Dogtooth Herring, <em>Chirocentrodon bleekerianus,</em> is found from the southern Caribbean and Panama, to the coastal waters of Rio Grande do Sul State in Brazil.	eng
155181	habitat	Priede, I.G., 2009	The Dogtooth Herring<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a coastal schooling species found in bays and estuaries as well as lagoons and just off river mouths, to depths of 40 m. It is tolerant of lowered water salinity. This is a migratory species that spawns in winter months. This species feeds on larger clupeoid fishes and caridean shrimps. Correa <em>et al.</em> (2005) found this species fed predominantly on copepods and diatomaceous algae.	eng
155181	population	Priede, I.G., 2009	In 1999 - 2000 this species was reported to be one of the most abundant species off the coast of Parana in Brazil. It is also reported to be common in the region of Parangua Bay and adjacent beaches of Shangri-la and Leste, Brazil (Correa <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
155181	threats	Priede, I.G., 2009	This species is harvested on a subsistence scale as a food source. There are no known catch statistics for this species, however considering the scale of this fishery and the reported abundance of this species, the harvesting of this species is unlikely to constitute a major threat to this species at present.	eng
155182	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however in places its distribution may coincide with marine protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population and harvest levels of this species should be carried out. Conservation measures need to focus on minimising the by-catch of this species to prevent this species becoming threatened.	eng
155182	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species occurs in the Mediterranean, from the Strait of Gibraltar to Angola, including islands such as the Canary Islands and Madeira.	eng
155182	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> is a demersal species, found over sandy/ muddy and rocky bottoms mostly at a depth range of 10 to 50 m but recorded down to 100 m (Kent citation). It is found inshore in estuaries (Kapiris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), harbours, to a couple of miles offshore. It feeds on near-bottom invertebrates. <em>Pomadasys incisus</em>  is a non-seasonal spawner and breeding occurs year round; maturity is reached in approximately 2 years (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
155182	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> has been observed in relatviely high-density schools in the coastal waters of the Canarian Archipelago, and is considered to be among the 20 most abundant demersal species in the area (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).  Listed as one of the 5 most abundant fish species in underwater surveys of mostly rocky areas across the Canaries with the highest count of any species on one of the transects (Hajagos and Van Tassell (2001).  This is a fast-growing short-lived species (Pajuelo et al 2003).     A survey of the fisheries of the Canary Islands found that this species was in danger of recruitment-overfishing, as 45% of the individuals caught are below the breeding size (Pajuelo <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In the Canary Islands an 80% reduction in non-exploited equilibrium rates are inferred from a growth-overfishing model. This rate of exploitation is difficult to interpret because exploited rates of decline are unknown in this type of soft-sediment trawling.  Furthermore, this species is abundant over rocky bottoms in the Canary Islands at the same time as growth overfishing is reported.   Abundant in parts of its range in the Mediterranean (Francour <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> Med Red List workshop assessment 2007).  Kapiris <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2008) indicate from anecdotal information from fishermen that this species is heavily exploited as by-catch in the Aegean sea.  It is a thermophilic species that apparently is expanding its range into the northern Med because of increasing temperatures (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008). This species is also caught in Angolan fisheries, though not at such high levels (Agostinho <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
155182	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Pomadasys incisus</em> has no current commercial value, but is taken as by-catch in trawl fisheries in the Aegean Sea and Canary Islands (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008) and presumably also taken as by-catch in trawl fisheries throughout its range.  Some landing reported in FAO statistics for the 1980s and 1990s indicate some commercial utilization.  Most reports suggest that it is discarded, although it is retained and consumed in parts of its range.  In Tunisia, it is caught by artisanal gears such as trammel and gill nets, beach and purse seines, long lines and trawls (Fehri-Bedoui and Gharbi 2008).	eng
155183	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Saint Lucia Marine Protected Area off South Africa.&#160; In Mozambique, there have been a number of proposed measures to control by-catch, but these have not yet been implemented (Fennessy <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160; Further research and monitoring is needed of potential threat processes and population trends of this species.	eng
155183	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em> is known from the western Indian Ocean and the southeast Atlantic.&#160; It occurs from Mossel Bay in South Africa to Delagoa Bay in Mozambique.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 54, 074 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155183	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The flounder species, <em>Paralichthodes algoensis,</em>  inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms.	eng
155183	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>.	eng
155183	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The waters around Mozambique are under heavy exploitation by shrimp fisheries (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 2000).&#160; This industry traditionally has a large percentage of discarded by-catch.&#160; In Mozambique, by-catch makes up 80% of the catch (Fennessy <em>et al.</em> 2004).&#160;  Despite the high levels of exploitation these waters experience, studies have not found an overall significant change in the size, composition or diversity of Mozambique's demersal fish communities (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 2000).&#160; While this threat may impact <em>Paralichthodes algoensis</em>, it is not considered a major threat to this species at present.	eng
155184	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this species and its potential threats is needed, to determine the impact that a deep-water snapper fishery would have on the population of <em>N. bimaculatus</em> if it is established in the waters off New Zealand.	eng
155184	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is known only to occur off New Caledonia.	eng
155184	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species collected from 435–480m (J. Nielsen pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Species of the family Ophidiidae are oviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
155184	population	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em> is reported to be rare (Nielsen <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
155184	threats	Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting <em>Neobythites bimaculatus</em>, due to the deep-water nature of this species.<br/><br/>At present, there is no development or management plan for a deep-water snapper fishery in the waters of New Caledonia.&#160; However, a study is being considered that could lead to the development this fishery (Adams and Chapman 2004).&#160; Although <em>N. bimaculatus</em> is not currently threatened, the development of a deep-water snapper fishery could result in this species being taken as by-catch.	eng
155185	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats to this species.	eng
155185	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em> is only known to occur off Kerguelen and Crozet Islands.	eng
155185	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis obliquosus</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been found at a depth range of 350?1,345 m.	eng
155185	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis obliquosus</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
155185	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are some major commercial fisheries operating within the range of this species.	eng
155186	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is known to occur in the Cobourg Peninsula Marine Park in the Northern Territory of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
155186	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Cirripectes filamentosus</em> can be found in the Indian Ocean from northern Madagascar and Mauritius to the southern Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. This species is also distributed throughout the Indo-australian Archipelago, east to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and as far north as Taiwan.	eng
155186	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Cirripectes filamentosus</em> is associated with continental, coral and rocky reefs and coralline rock pools in nutrient rich waters. This is a benthic, herbivorous species known to depths of 20 m. <em>This species</em> is oviparous and displays distinct pairing.	eng
155186	population	Fricke, R., 2009	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155186	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
155187	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-speciifc conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within several designated marine protected areas including the Malinidi-Watamu Marine National Park off the Kenyan coast.	eng
155187	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> is found around Mozambique, Kenya, and the Aldabra Atolls.	eng
155187	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about the ecological requirements of <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).  These species are sand and mud-burrowers and do not seem to be limited to a very small geographic area. Many species in the family are widely distributed and none seem to display a high degree of habitat specificity (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).	eng
155187	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em>. Rarity in collections is most likely a result of sampling difficulties (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).	eng
155187	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Callechelys bitaeniata</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
155188	conservation	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed. Further research should be conducted on possible conservation measures such as closed seasons during peak spawning periods.	eng
155188	distribution	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is found in around the Caribbean Islands of the Antilles, south of Cuba.	eng
155188	habitat	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is a demersal, diadromous goby. Adults live in freshwater where they spawn and larvae migrate downstream into marine waters within the continental shelf. The congener, <em>S. punctatum</em> is thought to be long-lived (more than five years) and iteroparous (i.e., it produces offspring in successive—annual or seasonal—batches).	eng
155188	population	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium plumieri</span> is rarer than its congener, <em>S. punctatum</em>.	eng
155188	threats	Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	The artisanal fishery industry in the Caribbean for <em>Sicydium</em> species is widespread and often intense (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1995). Fishery declines in <em>Sicydium</em> species have been reported in other regions (Bell <em>et al</em>. 1995). The reason for these declines is not clear as no landing statistics are available. Habitat degradation and over-exploitation have both been suggested as potential causes of these declines (Bell 1999).	eng
155189	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.	eng
155189	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em> is widely distributed in the tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.	eng
155189	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em> is a bathypelagic, oceanic species which generally occurs at depths of 500–600 m (Kotlyar 2004).&#160; However, it can sometimes be found down to depths of 1,450 m.&#160; Species from the family Melamphaidae primarily feed on gelatinous organisms and small crustaceans (FAO 1999).	eng
155189	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.	eng
155189	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Due to the small size of this species, it is unlikely that it is being taken as by-catch in significant quantities.&#160; There are no other known threats to <em>Scopeloberyx opisthopterus</em>.	eng
155190	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Simenchelys parasitica</em>.	eng
155190	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	The Snubnosed Eel <em>(Simenchelys parasitica)</em> has a broad geographic range. This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from France to Madeira, Morocco, the Azores, St Helena, Cape Verde, and the coast of South Africa. In the western Pacific, it is found off Japan, Wake Island in the Northern Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand. In the western Atlantic, it is known from the east coast of the USA, to Nova Scotia.	eng
155190	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Simenchelys parasitica</em> is found in temperate marine waters on continental slopes at upper abyssal depths of between 136 m and 2,620 m, however it commonly occurs at depths of 500 m to 1,800 m and at temperatures of 3.5 to 5.2°C (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997).  This species feeds on invertebrates including epibenthic copepods and amphipods, and fish.  It may also be parisitic to other fish species.	eng
155190	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Simenchelys parasitica</em>.	eng
155190	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that it is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155191	conservation	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nessorhamphus danae</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, in order to better understand any potential threats it may face.	eng
155191	distribution	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Nessorhamphus danae</em> is found in tropical waters in the western Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.	eng
155191	habitat	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Nessorhamphus danae </em> is a bathypelagic species and has been found in both oceanic areas and on the continental shelf.&#160; The Derichthyidae family inhabits waters several hundred metres deep and specimens are rarely seen.	eng
155191	population	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	It is likely that <em>Nessorhamphus danae</em> occurs at very low densities of around 1 individual per 1,000–10,000m<sup>3</sup>(T. Clarke pers. comm. 2008).&#160; This species is only known from a relatively small number of occurrences.	eng
155191	threats	Smith, D. & Clarke, T.A., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Nessorhamphus danae </em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There is no known commercial fishery for this species.	eng
155192	conservation	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Paperhead Croaker. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Torres Strait Protected Zone.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population trends and threats of this species.	eng
155192	distribution	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	The distribution of the Paperhead Croaker <em>(Johnius novaeguineae</em>) is restricted to New Guinea and northern Australia.	eng
155192	habitat	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	The Paperhead Croaker is a demersal species found in estuaries and rivers. This species feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
155192	population	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Johnius novaeguineae</em>.	eng
155192	threats	Chao, N.L. & Sasaki, K., 2009	It is unlikely that the Paperhead Croaker is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species and much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in good condition and underdeveloped.	eng
155193	conservation	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Pratchett, M. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coradion melanopus</em>. This species is likely to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
155193	distribution	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Pratchett, M. & Myers, R., 2009	<em></em>This species occurs from the Philippines (excluding Palawan) south to Papua New Guinea and Bismarck Archipelago, and Sulawesi, Halmahera, Seram and West Papua in Indonesia. It ranges in depth from 2-50 m.	eng
155193	habitat	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Pratchett, M. & Myers, R., 2009	<em>Coradion melanopus</em> lives on coastal reefs in sheltered lagoons with poor coral growth, and in outer reef areas where the growth of sponges and hydroids is prolific (Michael 2004). This species is usually seen feeding on barrel sponges (Xestospongia). It can be found to a maximum depth of 50 m. This species lives singly or in pairs when breeding.	eng
155193	population	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Pratchett, M. & Myers, R., 2009	<em>Coradion melanopus</em> is moderately common and the most abundant member of the genus at Cenderawasih Bay, West Papua, Indonesia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). A total of five to ten individuals per dive were recorded on inshore reefs during a 2008 survey. Members of this genus are usually seen in relatively low numbers which is not necessarily indicative of a declining population (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155193	threats	Allen, G.R., Fricke, R., Pratchett, M. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
155194	conservation	Allen, G.R., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, or needed for the Kimberley Blenny.	eng
155194	distribution	Allen, G.R., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	The Kimberley Blenny<em> (Cirripectes alleni)</em> is endemic to the Kimberley region of northwest Australia.	eng
155194	habitat	Allen, G.R., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	The Kimberley Blenny <em></em>is a benthic species, found at a depth range of 1?15 m, sheltering in crevices.&#160; It is typically associated with turbid coral and rocky reefs. Adults are found in pairs.&#160; Like all Blenniidae, this species is gonochoristic and an oviparous nest spawner.&#160; The male guards the deposited eggs which are demersal and adhesive.&#160; After hatching, the larvae are planktonic before they settle on the bottom (R. Patzner pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155194	population	Allen, G.R., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	The Kimberley Blenny is abundant and the most commonly found blenny in the Kimberley region (G. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155194	threats	Allen, G.R., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J. , 2009	There are no known major threats impacting the Kimberley Blenny. As this species is known from uninhabited localities offshore from mainland Australia, it is not threatened by coastal development or pollution.	eng
155195	conservation	Harold, A.S., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em>.	eng
155195	distribution	Harold, A.S., 2008	Specimens of <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> have been found in the waters off Baja California in Mexico, south to the Galapagos (Rechnitzer and Bohlke 1958). It is known throughout the California Current, seaward to the continental shelf.	eng
155195	habitat	Harold, A.S., 2008	<em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 2,213-4,938 m. This species probably feeds on planktonic invertebrates. The eggs and larvae of <em>I. irregularis </em>are planktonic.	eng
155195	population	Harold, A.S., 2008	There is no population information avilable for <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em>.	eng
155195	threats	Harold, A.S., 2008	It is unlikely that <em>Ichthyococcus irregularis</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
155196	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Centropogon latifrons</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution, abundance and ecology of this species. Monitoring of by-catch levels in trawls and other net fisheries, and also the harvest levels of this species for the aquarium trade is needed to determine whether the species is likely to suffer significant population declines.	eng
155196	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S. , 2009	<em>Centropogon latifrons</em> is endemic to Australia and is distributed from the western extreme of the Great Australian Bight to Kalbarri in Western Australia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 68,704 km². Its distribution in South Australia is limited (Baker 2008).	eng
155196	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is a benthic species associated with shallow, coastal seagrass beds. In parts of Western Australia, it has been recorded in sandy surf zones (Ayvazian and Hyndes 1995) and other sandy habitats (Hyndes <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is also found in estuaries (Hoese <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is reported to occur in similar habitat to its congener, <em>Centropogon australis</em>, which inhabits sheltered reef, sand and seagrass with a depth range of 0–30 m (Edgar 2000).&#160; Species from the Tetrarogidae family are bottom-dwelling predators of crustaceans and fishes.	eng
155196	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is reported to be more common in south-western Australia than in South Australia, although little is known about the relative abundance of this species in South Australia, which is at the edge of its range (Baker 2008).	eng
155196	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Poss, S. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Centropogon latifrons</span> is not targeted by fisheries, but is reported to be a minor component of the by-catch of some southeast trawl fisheries (SETF).&#160; In the otter trawl subfishery of the SETF, an Integrated Scientific Monitoring Program (ISMP) reported that in eight trawl shots, about 21 kg were discarded. Wayte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2004) list this species as 'medium risk' to population impacts from trawling.&#160; In Western Australia, it is caught infrequently in nets, in coastal seagrass beds (Hutchins and Thompson 1983).<br/><br/>This species is also used in the international aquarium market and in 2005, specimens for export were selling for US$18–25 per fish, depending on the size (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There are no available data on the numbers taken or locations from which they are taken for the aquarium trade, and therefore there is no assessment of the sustainability of this practice (Baker 2008).<br/><br/>As this species is benthic and associated with shallow marine seagrass beds, it is also likely to be vulnerable to population decline due to habitat degradation in some coastal areas (Baker 2008).	eng
155197	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are catch limits imposed on fry harvesting of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span>.&#160; However, very little is known about the population structure of this species.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, harvest levels and recruitment of this species is needed, to determine how harvesting of the fry is impacting adult populations upstream.	eng
155197	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Cotylopus acutipinnis</em> is well known from the islands of Réunion and Mauritius.&#160; However, the BMNH also holds two specimens of this species collected from the Negombo Estuary, Sri Lanka in 1991.&#160; If the identification of theses specimens is correct, then the range of this species may be much larger than previously believed.&#160; If, however, its distribution really is restricted to Réunion and Mauritius, the area in which this species is distributed would be less than 20,000 km² (approximately 7,916 km²).	eng
155197	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span> is a benthopelagic species, found in clear, well-oxygenated, mountainous rainforest streams.&#160; Hatching and larval stages are found in the sea, whilst post-larvae and adults are found in freshwater (Froese and Pauly 2006).&#160; Adults feeds on green algae (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155197	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	This species has a wide distribution in Réunion, but it is less abundant in Mauritius (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155197	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The fry of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cotylopus acutipinnis</span> are captured at river mouths, as they swim up stream.&#160; This is an important local food source and is captured using traditional techniques such as trap nets.&#160; Overfishing of fry is known to occur in the river mouths in Réunion (Berrebi <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
155198	conservation	Love, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sebastes peduncularis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on its taxonomy, population numbers, distribution, ecology, and threats.	eng
155198	distribution	Love, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis</span> is known only from two juvenile individuals taken together in the same trawl between the southern tip of Isla Tiburón and Isla Angel de la Guarda, in the Gulf of California (Chen 1975).	eng
155198	habitat	Love, M., 2009	The two known specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis </span>were taken in the same trawl at depths of 440–450 m, but the full depth range of this species is not known.&#160; Like other species in this genus, it likely undergoes significant morphological changes as the juvenile reaches maturity.	eng
155198	population	Love, M., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes peduncularis</span>, as it is only known from two specimens.&#160; However, species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> are generally widespread, abundant, and dominant among their local fauna (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155198	threats	Love, M., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Sebastes peduncularis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are established fisheries within this species' range, so it may be taken as by-catch.	eng
155199	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em>. This species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, distribution and threats of this species.	eng
155199	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is known from a few occurrences in the western Atlantic; Gulf of Mexico southwards to Suriname.	eng
155199	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is a demersal species found in tropical waters. As with many members of the family Ophichthidae, there is little known about the ecology for this species. These species are sand and mud-burrowers and do not seem to be limited to a very small geographic area. Their rarity in collections is mostly a result of the difficulty in sampling them. Many are widely distributed and none seem to occupy an especially unique habitat (J. McCosker pers. comm. 2007).	eng
155199	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em>.	eng
155199	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Ethadophis akkistikos</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no directed fishery for this species and it occupies a broad geographic range.	eng
155200	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Parapercis xanthozona</em>.&#160; However, it may be found in a number of marine protected areas within its range, including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out determine how <em>P. xanthozona</em> is being impacted by habitat degradation.	eng
155200	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is found along the east coast of Africa, from South Africa to Tanzania.&#160; This species is also distributed in the Pacific, from Indonesia, east to the Solomon Islands and Queensland, and north to southern Japan.&#160;<em>Parapercis</em><em> xanthozona</em> has also been recorded from New Caledonia, Fiji, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands.	eng
155200	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is found in protected bays and coral reef lagoons, to a depth of 20 m.&#160; It may also be seen amongst boulders.&#160; This species is associated with continental reefs found in nutrient rich waters.&#160; It feeds on small invertebrates and fishes.	eng
155200	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis xanthozona</span>.	eng
155200	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Parapercis xanthozona</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, although it is not a common species within the trade.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal locality of this species and its coral-reef association, it is likely that it is undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation.&#160; Reefs in areas of this species' range have been impacted by a number of threat processes such as coastal development, water pollution, destructive fishing practices, coral bleaching, and tourism.	eng
155201	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
155201	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or that are needed for <em>Ambassis urotaenia</em>. However the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas, including the Tampolo Marine Reserve in Madagascar.	eng
155201	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> is distributed from the Seychelles, Reunion, Madagascar, India and the Red Sea, east to the Philippines, Fiji and Caroline Islands, and north to Sagami Bay in Japan.	eng
155201	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Enters lower courses of east flowing rivers along the coast (Maugé 1986).	eng
155201	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> occurs in brackish waters near estuaries and mangroves, and can sometimes be found in upper streams (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984). This species can be found in large schools.	eng
155201	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Fresh and brackish water (Maugé 1986).	eng
155201	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Ambassis urotaenia </em> is reported to be common in surface waters off Hong Kong (Ni <em>et al.</em> 2000) and in the Pagbilao mangroves in the Philippines (Ronnback <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
155201	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
155201	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Ambassis urotaenia</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. This species has a broad geographic range and is found in a range of habitat types so it is unlikely to be impacted by any threats specific to a habitat.	eng
155201	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
155202	conservation	Betancur, R., 2009	There are no species-specififc conservation measures in place for <em>Plicofollis platystomus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Lampi Marine National Park off Myanmar. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed to determine if it is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future.	eng
155202	distribution	Betancur, R., 2009	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is distributed in south and southeast Asia and is found around India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.	eng
155202	habitat	Betancur, R., 2009	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species that has a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is found in marine and estuarine waters and feeds mainly on invertebrates.	eng
155202	population	Betancur, R., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Plicofollis platystomus</em>.&#160; However, many species from the Ariidae family are reported to be locally abundant (FAO 1999).	eng
155202	threats	Betancur, R., 2009	<em>Plicofollis platystomus</em> is reported to be one of the six most most commercially important catfishes within its region (Hafizuddin and Majumer 1995).&#160; It is marketed fresh (Jayaram 1984).&#160; It is harvested using a combination of bottom trawls, stake traps, shore seines, set bagnets, and hook and line.&#160; However, fishing is not considered to be a major threat to this species at present.	eng
155203	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Talismania bifurcata</em>.	eng
155203	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Talismania bifurcata</em> is distributed in the eastern Pacific, from British Columbia to Peru, including the Gulf of Panama.&#160; In the southwest Pacific, this species is found around New South Wales, Australia.&#160;&#160;<em>Talismania</em><em> bifurcata</em> has also been found off the coast of Nambia, and in the South China Sea.	eng
155203	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Talismania bifurcata</em> is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 300–2,000 m, on the continental slope.&#160; The eggs and larvae of this oviparous species are mesopelagic.	eng
155203	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Talismania bifurcata</span>.&#160; However, species of the family Alepocephalidae can be locally abundant at depths beyond 1,500 m (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155203	threats	Auster, P., 2009	There is no commercial fishery for <em>Talismania bifurcata</em> (FAO 1999).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by deep-sea fisheries operating within its range, but this is unlikely to constitute a major threat.	eng
155204	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for the Paamiut Eelpout.<em> </em>	eng
155204	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	The Paamiut Eelpout<em> (Lycodes paamiuti)</em> occurs in Arctic waters, from Baffin Bay to the Norwegian Sea (Moller 2001).&#160; It is also found off Iceland and the Faroe Islands.	eng
155204	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	The Paamiut Eelpout<em> </em>is a benthic species found on continental slopes at a depth range of 350–1,300 m (Moller 2001).&#160; It is possible this species has the same general habitat and diet as closely related species<l. pallidus=""> which occur on muddy bottoms and feed on polychaetes, ophiurids, amphipods and small bivalves (Andriashev 1986).</l.>	eng
155204	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no population information available for the Paamiut Eelpout.<em> </em>	eng
155204	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no known major threats to the Paamiut Eelpout<em> </em>.	eng
155205	conservation	Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Rojas, P. & Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006). Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155205	distribution	Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Rojas, P. & Cotto, A., 2007	Bighead Tilefish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Caulolatilus affinis,</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos islands.	eng
155205	habitat	Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Rojas, P. & Cotto, A., 2007	This deep water demersal species inhabits rocky and sandy substrata near isolated reefs (Schneider and Krupp 1995) at depths between 30 and 200 m.	eng
155205	population	Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Rojas, P. & Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common at depths below 60 m near Malpelo Island. It is frequently observed on Gorgona Island in artisanal fisheries (Franke and Acero 1996), and in experimental fisheries (0.46 kg per 100 hooks in Gorgona and adjacent areas). It is not abundant in Nicaragua.	eng
155205	threats	Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Rojas, P. & Cotto, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this is a commercially important species. Hooks and lines are the most common fishing methods used (Schneider and Krupp 1995). This species is marketed fresh or frozen, and considered of excellent quality for human consumption (Schneider and Krupp 1995). For example, it is heavily fished in Ecuador (Jimenez-Prado and Bearez 2004). In the Parque Gorgona, Colombia, this species is of great interest for the fisheries of the area (Franke and Acero 1996). It is also heavily fished in the Gulf of California in sport and commercial fisheries, as well as shrimp by-catch.	eng
155206	conservation	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences and potential threats to this species, as currently very little information is available.	eng
155206	distribution	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is only known only from one specimen collected from the Taiwan Strait, Formosa Bank (McCosker and Randall 2001).	eng
155206	habitat	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	<em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is a demersal species which was collected at 50 m. Species of the family Ophichthidae have muscular cylindrical bodies that are well adapted for burrowing and many species spend most of their adult lives buried in the bottom sediment (Smith and McCosker 1999, Carpenter 2002).	eng
155206	population	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em>.	eng
155206	threats	Acero, A., McCosker, J.E. & Murdy, E., 2009	It is unknown whether <em>Brachysomophis longipinnis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Species of the family Ophichthidae may be harvested, although no commercial fishery for this family exists (Smith and McCosker 1999, Carpenter 2002).	eng
155207	conservation	Barbour, C.D. & Conover, D.O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Menidia peninsulae</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Florida Keys National Marine Park.	eng
155207	distribution	Barbour, C.D. & Conover, D.O., 2009	This species is found in the western Atlantic: from northeast Florida to Horn Island off Mississippi (but not from Louisiana and northeastern Texas).&#160; It may also be found in the northern Gulf of Mexico from Galveston Bay in Texas, to the state of Veracruz in Mexico.	eng
155207	habitat	Barbour, C.D. & Conover, D.O., 2009	<em>Menidia peninsulae</em> will often form mobile, dense schools when foraging for plankton.&#160; This species prefers salinity levels above 15 ppt (McMullena and Middaugh 1985), and can be found in sea water, tidal creeks and marshes. <br/><br/>This species has three different dietary stages throughout the course of its life (Lucas 1982).&#160; In the earliest stage, plankton and detritus are the dominant food types, while non-reproductive juveniles and adults feed on copepods and larvae.&#160; Gravid females feed on larval fish and amphipods.	eng
155207	population	Barbour, C.D. & Conover, D.O., 2009	<em>Menidia peninsulae </em> is common throughout its range (McMullen and Middaugh 1985).	eng
155207	threats	Barbour, C.D. & Conover, D.O., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Menidia peninsulae</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155208	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the designations at Bikar Atoll and Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands.	eng
155208	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is only known from around Fiji and the Marshall Islands.	eng
155208	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> occurs in high-energy habitats, on outer reef flats, and surge channels of exposed reefs.&#160; The depth profile from which this species is known is from the surface to 6 m.	eng
155208	population	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is relatively common (H. Motomura pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155208	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Scorpaenodes quadrispinosus</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155209	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em>. However, this species may be found to occur in the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance and threats of this species.	eng
155209	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is only known from the Juan Fernández Islands, Chile.	eng
155209	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is a demersal species. Congeners of this species occur on sandy bottoms in estuarine areas. This species has a pelagic larval stage (J. G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155209	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em>.	eng
155209	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	It is not known if <em>Paralichthys schmitti</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. Some species from the Paralichthyidae family are caught in bottom trawls and marketed fresh (FAO 2001).	eng
155210	conservation	Hastings, P.A. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is present in several marine protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Gorgona Island Natural National Park.&#160; However, there is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the species, the current limits of its distribution, and its specific habitat requirements, as well as to identify any potential major threats for this species.	eng
155210	distribution	Hastings, P.A. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is found from southern Panama to northern Peru, including Gorgona Island, Colombia.&#160; However, the southern limit of its distribution is not well defined.	eng
155210	habitat	Hastings, P.A. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span> is a benthic, intertidal species that inhabits rocky reefs and estuaries to depths of 10 m, and possibly coastal streams.	eng
155210	population	Hastings, P.A. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobiesox multitentaculus</span>.	eng
155210	threats	Hastings, P.A. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats impacting<span style="font-style: italic;"> Gobiesox multitentaculus</span>.&#160; More information on this species' distribution and specific habitat preferences, such as whether it is present in coastal streams, is needed to further assess the impact of potential threats such as coastal development on this potentially restricted range, near-shore species.	eng
155211	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, potential threats and distribution of this species.	eng
155211	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is found from Florida to southern Mexico including the Bahamas.	eng
155211	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 500-1,900 m. Congeners, <em>Synaphobranchus affinis</em>, are found on the upper continental slope over rocky substrata.	eng
155211	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em>.	eng
155211	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely that <em>Synaphobranchus oregoni</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. There is no known directed fishery for this species.	eng
155212	conservation	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	Three are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cosmocampus elucens</em>, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas such as the Florida Keys National Marine Park.	eng
155212	distribution	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is distributed from New Jersey, North Carolina, Bermuda and the northern Gulf of Mexico to the Lesser Antilles, Suriname, and to Brazil (Fritzsche 2002)	eng
155212	habitat	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is typically found in shallow seagrass beds. It is also found in mixed algal beds (Kuiter 2000). Males carry the eggs in a brood pouch under the tail.	eng
155212	population	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	Common at least in parts of its range (R. Fritzsche pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155212	threats	Fritzsche, R., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Carpenter, K., Bartnik, S., Robinson, E., Sorensen, M. & Morgan, S.K., 2009	<em>Cosmocampus elucens</em> is not collected for any commercial trade and there are no known major threats.	eng
155213	conservation	Edwards, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synodus saurus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations, including the Florida Keys Marine National Park. &#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is recommended.	eng
155213	distribution	Edwards, A. & Russell, B., 2009	<em>Synodus saurus</em> is distributed in the eastern Atlantic around the Azores, Canaries, Madeira, and the continental waters off Morocco, and in the Mediterranean Sea (Sulak 1984).&#160; In the western Atlantic, it is found only in the waters around the Bahamas, the Leeward Islands, and the West Indies (Russell 2002).	eng
155213	habitat	Edwards, A. & Russell, B., 2009	<em>Synodus saurus</em> can be found to depths of 250 m in the Canaries, but is most abundant at depths less than 50 m.&#160;&#160;<em>Synodus</em><em> saurus</em> is primarily associated with sandy substrates.&#160;  This species is a cryptic predator that feeds mainly on small, pelagic, gregarious fish, remaining camouflaged buried beneath the sand.&#160; However, it is a highly mobile predator, capable of rapidly swimming more than five meters to capture its prey (Soares <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
155213	population	Edwards, A. & Russell, B., 2009	<em>Synodus saurus</em> is regarded as a rare species in the Adriatic Sea, although there is circumstantial evidence that this species is expanding its range (Tutman <em>et al</em>. 2003).&#160;  Soares <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species is common around the Azores.	eng
155213	threats	Edwards, A. & Russell, B., 2009	Although not a target species, <em>Synodus saurus</em> is taken as by-catch during commercial trawling (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000, Abdallah 2002).&#160; However, this is not considered a major threat to this species at present, as it only occurs in localised regions of this species' range.	eng
155214	conservation	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Gobius fallax</em>, however its range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the potential future threats of this species is needed.	eng
155214	distribution	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	This species is found in the Mediterranean Sea (Miller 1986, Herler and Patzner 2005).	eng
155214	habitat	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	<em>Gobius fallax</em> is an inshore species that occurs most often at depths of 2-8 m, but can be found as deep as 32 m. It is usually seen on or near boulders and other rocky shelters (Herler and Patzner 2005). Gobies have a short generation time (Martin and Palumbi 1993).	eng
155214	population	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	This is a common species in parts of the Mediterranean Sea (Herler and Patzner 2005).	eng
155214	threats	Van Tassell, J.L., 2009	As <em>Gobius fallax</em> is an inshore species, its habitat may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution. These threats are unlikely to be occurring across this species entire range and so will be causing localised declines only. Gobies have a short generation time and so are tolerant of moderate threats.	eng
155215	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em>. <br/><br/>Further research on the extent to which this species is harvested, is needed. Monitoring of the harvest levels is also needed in order to determine if there is a significant decline in the population.	eng
155215	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> occurs from the Bay of Biscay and the western Mediterranean (along the Spanish coast from Gibraltar to Malaga and off Morocco and Algeria), to the Cape of Good Hope (J. Nelson pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155215	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The preferred habitat of <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is sandy or sand-mud bottoms at depths of 15 - 40 m or to 115 m along the inner shelf of the Gulf of Cadiz (Jimenez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Its diet consists of crustaceans, polychaetes and bivalves. It has a long spawning season, beginning in autumn and continuing through till early summer.	eng
155215	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	The population of <em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is increasing in the northern part of its range, possibly due to climate change induced ocean warming, and subsequent greater juvenile survival (Désaunay <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
155215	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Dicologlossa cuneata</em> is among the main target species along the coast of Spain (Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2001) and of high commercial interest in the Gulf of Cádiz (Baldó <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
155216	conservation	Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em>.	eng
155216	distribution	Neely, D., 2009	The Threadfin Sculpin is distributed from the Gulf of Alaska by Chirikof Island, south to Point Loma in southern California.	eng
155216	habitat	Neely, D., 2009	<em>Icelinus filamentosus</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 18-800 m and inhabits sandy and muddy bottoms on the continental slope (Love and Yoklavich 2006). Its diet consists of crustaceans, shrimps, and isopods.	eng
155216	population	Neely, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em>.	eng
155216	threats	Neely, D., 2009	Due to its deepwater nature, it is unlikely that <em>Icelinus filamentosus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threats. In some areas however, it may be taken as by-catch during bottom trawling.	eng
155217	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine what impact harvesting is having upon population numbers.	eng
155217	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is known from both the western and eastern central Atlantic (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">at al.</span> 1990).	eng
155217	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This<em> </em>is a benthopelagic species found at a depth range of 200-510 m, but may be taken at 90 m or as deep as 850 m. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155217	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is reported as abundant in parts of its range (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1990).	eng
155217	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This is a common by-catch species in trawl fisheries operating between 200-400 m, however separate catch statistics are not available (Cohen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).	eng
155218	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Yellowbar Basslet.&#160; Further research is needed on the range of this species to establish if its distribution extends between Belize, Cuba and the Bahamas.	eng
155218	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Yellowbar Basslet<em> (Lipogramma robinsi)</em> has been found in the western central Atlantic along the coasts of Belize and Cuba, and off the coast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas.&#160; Belize and San Salvador Island are 1,500 km apart and have unrelated oceanic current environments which suggests that this species could also be found at other locations within the western Atlantic (Gilmore 1997).	eng
155218	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Yellowbar Basslet is a demersal species that has a depth range of 180–290 m and is often found under sedimentary rock ledges (Gilmore 1997).	eng
155218	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for the Yellowbar Basslet.	eng
155218	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is unlikely that the Yellowbar Basslet is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Species from the Grammatidae family are ideally suited for the aquarium trade, however, the relatively deep-water nature of this species means it occurs too deep for conventional capture and is therefore likely to remain rare in the aquarium trade (FAO 2002).	eng
155219	conservation	Poss, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em>.&#160;  This species' distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.&#160; However, without further information on the depth profile of the species, it is unclear how much protection these might afford.&#160; Further research on the ecology of this species is needed.	eng
155219	distribution	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Shark Bay in Western Australia, to Southport in Queensland.	eng
155219	habitat	Poss, S., 2009	<em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is found in the neritic zone on inshore reefs.&#160;  Data on this Tetraogid are scarce, and it is unclear how closely associated this species is with the reef system.	eng
155219	population	Poss, S., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em>.&#160; This species is infrequently collected, although it is collected more frequently than some of the other scorpaenoids, as it occurs in in-shore regions and coral reefs (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008)	eng
155219	threats	Poss, S., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Paracentropogon vespa</em> is being impacted by any clearly identifiable near-term threat processes at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).&#160; Large scale threats to coral reefs are likely to impact Scorpaenoids including this species.&#160; However, its broad distribution also includes habitats in good condition, and it is therefore unlikely that these threats are significantly impacting the global population of this species at present (S. Poss pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155220	conservation	Allen, G.R., Floeter, S. & McEachran, J.D., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.	eng
155220	distribution	Allen, G.R., Floeter, S. & McEachran, J.D., 2009	<em></em>This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA) to Brazil at least as far south as São Paulo state, including Bermuda, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas (Rose Island, Nassau [Allen 1980]). It is found at depths of 5-92 m.	eng
155220	habitat	Allen, G.R., Floeter, S. & McEachran, J.D., 2009	<em></em>This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs. Although this species has been recorded at depths of more than 60 m, it is more commonly seen in shallower water. It feeds on polychaete worms, shrimps, amphipods and hydroids. It can occur singly, in pairs (especially during breeding) and in groups.	eng
155220	population	Allen, G.R., Floeter, S. & McEachran, J.D., 2009	It was occasionally observed at the Abrolhos Islands, Brazil during a survey in 2000 (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). It forms large aggregations on the coast of southeast Brazil (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155220	threats	Allen, G.R., Floeter, S. & McEachran, J.D., 2009	There are no known&#160; major threats.<em></em>	eng
155221	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em>. The distribution of this species overlaps with several marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, and possible threats within this species range.	eng
155221	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em> is found from Sumatra, Indonesia to the Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands), north to the Philippines. It is also found in Palau.	eng
155221	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em> is found in shallow water to depths of 10 m on sheltered coral reefs.	eng
155221	population	Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Halichoeres papilionaceus</em>.	eng
155221	threats	Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres papilionaceus.</span>	eng
155222	conservation	Nakabo, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155222	distribution	Nakabo, T., 2009	<em>Pentaceros japonicus</em> is distributed from Pacific coast of southern Japan (Boso Peninsula southward to Amami Island), Ogasawara Islands, Kyushu-Palau Ridge, Emperor's Seamouts Chain (Pers. comm T. Nakabo 2009).	eng
155222	habitat	Nakabo, T., 2009	The armourhead, <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>, is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 100–600 m.&#160; This species occurs over seamounts. Its spawning season is from Autumn to Winter (Pers. Comm. T. Nakabo 2009).	eng
155222	population	Nakabo, T., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pentaceros japonicus</em>.	eng
155222	threats	Nakabo, T., 2009	<em>Pentaceros japonicus </em> is a commercially important species and it is roughly estimated that the annual global catch of this species is 100,000–500,000 tons (Froese and Sampang 2004).<br/><br/><em>Pentaceros japonicus </em> is also harvested for the aquarium trade, although at present this is not considered a major threat to this species.	eng
155223	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
155223	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em> is an Indo-Pacific goby, known from Western Australia and the Philippines.	eng
155223	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em> is a demersal species found in the shallow photic zone. This species has been collected near the mouth of the River Daintree and in salt water swamps in the Philippines indicating a tolerance for a range of environmental conditions.	eng
155223	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no known population information for <em>Gobiopterus mindanensis</em>.	eng
155223	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no known major threats currently impacting this species.	eng
155224	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Hairy Scorpionfish. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected area designations including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Further research and monitoring of the habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
155224	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	The Hairy Scorpionfish (<em>Scorpaenodes hirsutus</em>) is widely distributed from the Red Sea and east coast of Africa, north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef and the Cook Islands.	eng
155224	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	The Hairy Scorpionfish inhabits lagoons and seaward reefs. It is found in the euphotic zone at depths of 8-58 m. This species has venomous spines.	eng
155224	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for the Hairy Scorpionfish.	eng
155224	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	The Hairy Scorpionfish may be undergoing localized declines due to habitat degradation. However, given the broad distribution of this species, this is not considered to be a major threat at present.	eng
155225	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine this species abundance, and to what extent this species is being harvested as by-catch.	eng
155225	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> occurs from west Gibraltar to the Western Sahara. Its range also includes the Canary Islands, the western Mediterranean and Morocco.	eng
155225	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> is a demersal species and can be found at depths of 85 - 897 m on sand and mud substrates. Its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates. Spawning occurs during the autumn.	eng
155225	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em>. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Arnoglossus</span> species, this species is likely to be relatively common in areas of its range.	eng
155225	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Arnoglossus rueppelii</em> is taken as by-catch by fisheries operating within the Alboran Sea in the western Mediterranean (Abad <em>et al.</em> 2007). In this study it formed a relatively small portion of the catch. The incidental harvest of this species is unlikely to be a major threat to this species unless it is occurring across its entire range and is being harvested in greater quantities. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development and pollution.	eng
155226	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chromogobius quadrivittatus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the impact that threats such as pollution may be having on this species.	eng
155226	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<em>Chromogobius quadrivittatus</em> is distributed throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea.	eng
155226	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus</span> is found in shallow intertidal areas, under algae-covered rocks on either rock or sandy substrate. It is also found in inshore waters under stones amongst weeds (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155226	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus.</span>	eng
155226	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Van Tassell, J., 2009	In parts of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chromogobius quadrivittatus</span>' habitat is likely to be threatened by pollution (e.g., from oil spills and run-off from agriculture and industries) and coastal developments.&#160; In the Mediterranean and Black Sea, oil spills occur relatively frequently.&#160; The majority of oil input into the Mediterranean and Black Sea is chronic (i.e., stems from rivers and municipal sources) rather than accidental (e.g., oil spills from ships) (ITOPF 2003). <br/><br/>In the Black Sea, the three potential sources of oil spills are production activities, loading activities at terminals, and shipping accidents involving tankers.&#160; Between 1974 and 2003 there were major three oil spills from tankers in the Black Sea; these spills alone released 149,000 tonnes of crude oil into the Black Sea (ITOPF 2003). Although spill risk from oil production in the Black Sea seems to be minimal, the region is subject to a substantial and increasing transit trade in crude and refined oil products (ITOPF 2003).<br/><br/>The Mediterranean Sea has a long history of intensive use and is subject to degradation from increasing coastal zone development, chronic pollution from agricultural and industrial run-off, and illegal discharges at sea (ITOPF 2003). Between 1970 and 2003, there were 17 major spills from tankers releasing a total of approximately 466,000 tonnes of crude oil and oil products into the Mediterranean (ITOPF 2003). In August 2006, 15,000 tonnes of oil was spilled into the Mediterranean Sea due to the Israeli bombing of the Jiyyeh power station (BBC 2006).	eng
155227	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species, as there is currently little information available.	eng
155227	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> has been found off the Canary Islands, around the Bahamas, and around Bermuda in the western central Atlantic.	eng
155227	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> is a bathypelegic species found at a depth range of 300–2,000 m.&#160; This species feeds on crustaceans.	eng
155227	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em>	eng
155227	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Serrivomer lanceolatoides</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155228	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>.&#160; Further research on the ecology, distribution, population numbers, and threats for this species is needed.	eng
155228	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span> is known only from a few specimens caught near Cape Verde.	eng
155228	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span> is a demersal species that has been captured at depths of 180–200 m. Its congener, <em>Parapercis colias</em>, is known from rocky coastlines in areas of dense macroalgal growth.&#160; <em>Parapercis colias</em> feeds on small fish, crabs and shellfish.	eng
155228	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>.	eng
155228	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The coastal fisheries around Cape Verde are over-exploited.&#160; However, it is unknown what impact this has had on <span style="font-style: italic;">Parapercis atlantica</span>, as it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
155229	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemateleotris magnifica</span>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of regional scale threats, and population trends is needed.	eng
155229	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> is distributed from East Africa to the Hawaiian, Marquesan and Pitcairn Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands and south to New South Wales (Randall 2005).&#160; Fishbase (2007) states that the southern limit of this species' range extends to New Caledonia and the Austral Islands, however there is no reference to support this.	eng
155229	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> inhabits burrows on the upper portion of outer reef slopes at a depth range of 6–61 m.&#160; This species hovers above the bottom, facing the current to feed on zooplankton: primarily copepods and crustacean larvae. This species does not stray far from its burrow, and occurs individually or in pairs.&#160; This species displays monogamy.	eng
155229	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	There is no population information available for&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemateleotris magnifica</span>.	eng
155229	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Nemateleotris magnifica</em> is a popular aquarium fish and is harvested from the wild for the aquarium trade.<br/><br/>This species is associated with coral reef habitats.&#160; The coral reefs in some areas of this species' distribution (e.g., East Africa and Indonesia) have experienced localised degradation due to bleaching, industrialisation, destructive fishing practices, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, water pollution, and other population pressures.&#160; In other areas of <em>N. magnifica</em>'s distribution, the reefs are in good condition, and therefore the regional degradation of the reefs is not considered a major threat to this species at present.	eng
155230	conservation	Hartel, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species.	eng
155230	distribution	Hartel, K., 2009	This species is known only from the holotype, a damaged juvenile specimen (Fukui and Kitagawa 2006) collected in sub-Antarctic waters in the southeast Pacific.<br/><a href="http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?client=firefox-a&channel=s&hl=en&q=&ie=UTF8&geocode=FaUH1_wdoCl5-Q&split=0" log="miw" onclick="this.blur();openInfoWindow('A');return false;"></a>	eng
155230	habitat	Hartel, K., 2009	This species is bathypelagic. It is known only from the holotype which was captured at a bottom depth of 2,400 m.  Examinations of other species in this genus suggest that <em>Dolichopteryx</em> spawn iteratively during spawning season (Fukui and Kitagawa 2006).	eng
155230	population	Hartel, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155230	threats	Hartel, K., 2009	It is not known if this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155231	conservation	Matsuura, K., Hutchins, B., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas, including the Great Australian Bight Marine Park.	eng
155231	distribution	Matsuura, K., Hutchins, B., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean around the coastline of southern Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania.	eng
155231	habitat	Matsuura, K., Hutchins, B., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is typically found in large schools on offshore coastal reefs and deep, rocky estuary reefs in areas of kelp.&#160; Juveniles use jetties and piers for shelter.&#160;  This species is found to a depth of 120 m.	eng
155231	population	Matsuura, K., Hutchins, B., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is a common species throughout its range (Kuiter 1996).	eng
155231	threats	Matsuura, K., Hutchins, B., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Meuschenia hippocrepis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes at present.	eng
155232	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em>.	eng
155232	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	Specimens of <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> have been captured in the Gulf of California by Mexico, the Coral Sea off Australia, and the eastern central Atlantic, suggesting this species is broadly distributed in waters within 25° of the Equator (Paxton 1989).	eng
155232	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> is a bathypelagic species found at a depth range of 1,000–2,100 m.&#160; It feeds primarily on crustaceans.	eng
155232	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamphocetichthys savagei</span>.&#160; However, whalefishes in general are a rare group of deep-sea fishes (Tolley<em> et al.</em> 1989).	eng
155232	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Rhamphocetichthys savagei</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155233	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em>.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats to this species, as little information is currently available.	eng
155233	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is found in the Red Sea.	eng
155233	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 695–705 m.	eng
155233	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em>.	eng
155233	threats	Smith, D., 2009	Due to the deep-water nature of this species, it is unlikely that <em>Saurenchelys meteori</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155234	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Acromycter perturbator</em>.	eng
155234	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from southern New England to the Bahamas and Jamaica.	eng
155234	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is a bathydemersal species found at a depth range of 787-1,318 m (NAFO 2008). Members of the family Congridae are primarily benthopelagic occurring on sand and mud bottoms and feeding on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (FAO 1999).	eng
155234	population	Smith, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Acromycter perturbator</em>.	eng
155234	threats	Smith, D., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Acromycter perturbator</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, due to the deep-water nature of this species.	eng
155235	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Atlantic Piquitinga.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it protection from some types of habitat degradation and harvesting.<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and threats to this species should be carried out to ensure stocks do not become over-exploited, and to better understand the implications of habitat loss.	eng
155235	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	Atlantic Piquitinga <em>(Lile piquitinga)</em> has been found off Venezuela and the northwestern coast of Brazil.&#160; It is also likely to occur throughout the intervening area (FAO 2002).	eng
155235	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	Atlantic Piquitinga<em></em> is a schooling species that can be found over muddy bottoms in sheltered coastal waters, estuaries and hypersaline lagoons, to a depth of 50 m.	eng
155235	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	Atlantic Piquitinga<em></em> is very abundant in mangrove-lined lagoons, especially south of Margarita Island (FAO 2002).	eng
155235	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	Atlantic Piquitinga is harvested for bait off western Venezuela (FAO 2002). <br/><br/>Due to the presence of this species in mangrove areas, it could potentially be threatened by loss of mangrove forest.&#160; However, as this species is known from a range of habitat types, these are likely to be localised declines only.	eng
155236	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em>.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this particular species is required in order to determine at what rate it is being harvested and if it is undergoing a significant population decline.	eng
155236	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> is distributed from northern Namibia to False Bay in South Africa (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).	eng
155236	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The sole, <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em>, is a benthic species found over muddy substrates. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, molluscs and fish. This species is found at a depth range of 100 - 400 m. The larvae are pelagic.	eng
155236	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> was historically abundant, but has been declining since the early 1980s (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).	eng
155236	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	In the past, the catches of <em>Austroglossus microlepis</em> and <em>Cynoglossus zanzibarensis</em> have been grouped together, making accurate stock and catch assessments for each species difficult to decipher (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).  It is generally captured as an incidental species during trawling for targeted demersal species such as hake (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). Catches have been declining since the early 1980s, though this may be a result of a change in mesh size, from a 75 mm mesh recommended for targeting <em>A. microlepis</em>, to a mandated 110 mm mesh for those trawlers catching more than 30% by weight of hake (Diaz de Astarloa 2002). Recent annual landings of this species have been less than 500 tonnes (Diaz de Astarloa 2002).<br/><br/>Over-fishing off the coast of Namibia has altered the ecosystem (Sumaila and Vasconcellos 2000) and most commercially exploited species have not only become far less abundant, but many have experienced population crashes (van Zyl 2001).	eng
155237	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Yellow Triplefin. The distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155237	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Yellow Triplefin<em> </em>(<em>Enneapterygius abeli</em>) is distributed from South Africa, north to the Red Sea including the Comoros, Seychelles, Mauritius and Réunion.	eng
155237	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Yellow Triplefin, a small, cryptic triplefin, is found on tropical coral reefs in shallow photic waters. It is a benthic species that can be found on rocky or coral substrates, amongst live coral. This species feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates. The order Tripterygiidae is described as the most abundant and speciose group of fishes to be found on coral reefs (Longnecker and Langston 2005).	eng
155237	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Yellow Triplefin is common in the north Red Sea, but rare in the southern Red Sea (Clark 1979).	eng
155237	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Due to the small size of the Yellow Triplefin, it is of no commercial value as a food source. It is not used within the aquarium trade.	eng
155238	conservation	Allen, G.R., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Halichoeres binotopsis</em>. However, this species distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155238	distribution	Allen, G.R., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> occurs in the western Pacific from Singapore to the Philippines, including Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.	eng
155238	habitat	Allen, G.R., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> inhabits shallow coastal coral reef flats and channels, often in algal dominated shallow waters at a depth range of 1-15 m (Kuiter 2002).	eng
155238	population	Allen, G.R., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis</span> is common on some reefs of eastern Halmahera (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
155238	threats	Allen, G.R., Choat, J.H. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Halichoeres binotopsis.</span>	eng
155239	conservation	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155239	distribution	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is a an eastern Atlantic species that occurs from Morocco to Angola.	eng
155239	habitat	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is a demersal species that occurs at depths of 50-200 m on sandy and muddy bottoms (Schneider 1990). Congener <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> inhabits a burrow made in sand and mud substrates on the sea floor. Tilefish predominantly feed on molluscs, polychaete worms, shrimp, squid and small fishes.	eng
155239	population	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus semifasciatus</em> is reported to be rare north of Dakar, Senegal. It is also reported to be most abundant from June to October at a 50 - 100 m depth range.<br/><br/>FAO landing from the eastern central Atlantic show Senegal and the Ivory Coast with an overall increase in landings from around 30 to 50 mt from the Ivory Coast in the 1990s and increasing to around 300 mt from Senegal since the turn of the century.<br/><br/>In trawl surveys off Sierra Leone the species constituted 1.2% of the total trawl catch between 50 and 100 m (Guinean trawl survey, edited by Frank Williams c.1960s).	eng
155239	threats	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species is captured by local fishermen, though it is not known whether this is a target species (Afonso <em>et al</em>. 1999). According to FAO statistics, this species is landed commercially in Senegal and the Ivory Coast.	eng
155240	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thryssa mystax</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, affording it some protection from harvesting.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed to assess levels of exploitation.	eng
155240	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> ranges from the coast of Pakistan to Australia, including the coasts of India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China.&#160; It is also found in the Gulf of Thailand.	eng
155240	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is a pelagic, schooling species, found inshore in estuaries, mangroves, and brackish water.&#160; It can be found to depths of 50 m.&#160; This species is tolerant of a range of salinities.	eng
155240	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is one of the most common anchovy species if identifications to date are correct (Wongratana <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
155240	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	<em>Thryssa mystax</em> is harvested by the commercial fishing industry using both seine nets and bamboo-stake traps (Wongratana <em>et al.</em> 1999).&#160; It is marketed fresh, salted and dried, in fish sauce, fish balls, and as fish meal.&#160; Four percent of by-catch from the north of Viet Nam consists of this species (Son <em>et al</em>. 2005).&#160; This species is also an important part of the fishery within the state of Kerala and along the Tuticorin coastline (Nalluchinnappan and Jeyabaskaran 1991).	eng
155241	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats faced by this species is needed.<em><br/></em>	eng
155241	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em> is distributed from the northern Kuril Islands and the Sea of Okhotsk, to Sagami Bay, Japan.	eng
155241	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em> is a bathydemersal species which prefers temperatures between 3-4<sup>o</sup>C.  The depth profile of this species ranges between 200-1,400 m.	eng
155241	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	There is no available population information for <em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi</em>.	eng
155241	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Hadropogonichthys lindbergi </em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155242	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Trewavas Croaker.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species and how it may be impacted by threats such as pollution and incidental mortality through by-catch	eng
155242	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Trewavas Croaker (<em>Johnius trewavasae</em>) is known from Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Shanghai. There are only a few known specimens of this species from disjunct localities.	eng
155242	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Trewavas Croaker is found in shallow coastal waters to a maximum depth of 40 m.&#160; Like other croakers, this species feeds on small crustaceans, fish and other benthic organisms.	eng
155242	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There is no population information available for the Trewavas Croaker.	eng
155242	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Sasaki, K. & Williams, J.T., 2009	The Trewavas Croaker is of minor commercial importance to fisheries, as by-catch. <br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be suffering localised declines from threats relating to water pollution and coastal development.	eng
155243	conservation	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	Due to a decrease in the catches of <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em>, a project of red tilefish stock enhancement was initiated in 1984 by the Miyazu Station of Japan Sea-Farming Association (JASFA), now known as Miyazu Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement (NCSE), Fisheries Research Agency (FRA). Yearly production of more than 1,000,000 fertilized eggs and more than 100,000 juveniles was achieved in the 1990s (Yokota <em>et al</em>. 2006).  Over 20,000 fingerlings have been released into Western Wakasa Bay since 1998 (Mitamura <em>et al</em>. 2005). However since this time only 18 of all the released fish were recaptured in May 2004. This low recapture rate is thought to be due to errors in the experimental design (Yokota <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population numbers and harvest levels is also needed. Conservation measures should look at protecting important spawning grounds.	eng
155243	distribution	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is distributed from Honshu to Kyushu, Japan and in the East China Sea (Yokoto <em>et al</em>. 2007). Dooley (1999) states that the distribution extends from the coast of China to South Viet Nam and the waters around the Philippines. Russell and Housten (1989) reported this species from the Arafura Sea, however there is no recent information to support this.	eng
155243	habitat	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> occurs in the sublittoral zone over sandy-muddy, or shell-sand-mud substrates and has a depth range of 30 - 265 m but is commonly caught at depths of 80 - 200 m (Dooley 1999). This species inhabits a burrow that is constructed in the sea bottom, by digging into the sand and mud. <em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> has been observed to show site fidelity, and use burrows to escape predators and for resting at night (Mitamura <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>There is sexual dimorphism and potentially protogynous hermaphroditism (J. Dooley pers.comm. 2009).  There are also sexual differences in distributions with males typically occupying greater depths (Yamashita 2007).	eng
155243	population	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is reported to be the most common of Japanese tilefish (Dooley 1999).  According to FAO statistics for the northwest pacific (listed under Tilefishes nei, although this species is considered the bulk of this catch) there was a steady increase to around 8,000 mt in 2002 and then there was a dramatic jump in landings up to about 74,000 mt in 2005 and a subsequent decline to around 64,000 mt in 2006.  Most of the dramatic increases in the landings were due to the Chinese. Landings from Japan and Taiwan Province of China have decreased in recent years while those of Korea and Hong Kong have increased.  Overall, there has been an increase and steady landings for the four countries, excluding mainland China.<br/><br/>Females stock in 2005 calculated as 44% of virgin stock in waters off Yamaguchi prefecture (Kamano 2005).	eng
155243	threats	Dooley, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Branchiostegus japonicus</em> is an important commercial species in Japan. This species is caught using bottom longlines and trawls, and is marketed fresh, canned or frozen. It has&#160;been sold for high prices, similar to red sea bream and Japanese flounder.	eng
155244	conservation	Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for The Redspine Threadfin Bream.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels, threats and population trends of this species is needed.	eng
155244	distribution	Russell, B., 2009	<p>The Redspine Threadfin Bream (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nemipterus nemurus</span>) is found in the western central Pacific from Thailand to the South China Sea and south to Indonesia (Russell 1990).&#160; Also reported (unconfirmed records) from the Philippines and the Andaman Sea  (Mohsin and Ambak 1996). The distribution of this species could extend further than currently described (Eggleston 1974).</p>	eng
155244	habitat	Russell, B., 2009	<p>The Redspine Threadfin Bream is a demersal species found over soft substrates in coastal waters at a depth range of 0-70 m. Commonly caught at 40 - 50</p>      <p>m depth, very seldom in waters less than 40 m depth. Considered a small species, normal sizes caught about 10 - 22.7 cm (Mohsin and Ambak 1996) This species feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalapods</p><p><br/></p><p>        </p><p>In the east coast of Peninsular : Malaysia, common length 16 cm and maximum TL 27.6 cm. Usually abundant in June - August. Growth rate as indicated by VBGF is quite high (K = 1.20). Total mortality rate Z = 2.78. Not well exploited, (exploitation rate (E) 13 - 19%). Length-weight relationships calculated by Said (1988) for specimens from the South China Sea off Trengganu,  Malaysia show a significant difference between the sexes:</p>              <p>Log W = -3.9259 + 3.1104 Log L or W = 0.00012 L 3.110 (for male) and Log W = -2.5849 + 2.6191 or W = -0.0026 L 2.6191 &#160;(for female)</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Relationships of various lengths have been   expressed as:  </p><p>&#160;</p>  <p>TL = 1.1407 + 1.4464 SL, r = 0.947</p>  <p>FL = 0.5878 + 1.0619 SL, r = 0.991</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>Growth of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nemurus</span> was calculated to be 6.7,</p>  <p>11.2, 15.5 and 18.1 cm in years I, 2, 3, 4, respectively.</p>  <p>K = 0.2331, L∞ = 29.36 and to = -0.0747.</p>  <p></p>  . <p></p>	eng
155244	population	Russell, B., 2009	The Redspine Threadfin Bream is the most abundant species of <em>Nemipterus</em> in the South China Sea (Russell 1990).	eng
155244	threats	Russell, B., 2009	Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be impacted by a number of human-induced habitat threats, including destructive fishing methods, coastal development, and water pollution due to domestic and commercial sources; however these threats are not known across this species' entire range and so are unlikely to pose a significant threat to the entire population.&#160; The South China Sea is also heavily impacted by over-fishing.<br/><br/>    <p>In Malaysia, a very important commercial species that is marketed fresh. According to Said (1988), <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nemurus</span> is the most abundant species in Trengganu; in terms of number and weight, represents 52.5% and 53.1 % respectively of the total nemipterids caught.</p>	eng
155245	conservation	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G. & Barraza, E., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span>.&#160; However, it is present in some marine protected areas in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico (Roca et al. 2003, WDPA 2006).	eng
155245	distribution	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G. & Barraza, E., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, to Peru, including around all the offshore islands.&#160;  However, its distribution is somewhat uncertain due to morphological similarity to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. vanicolensis</span>, and lack of awareness of that species in the region until recently.&#160; Regardless, genetic studies at Baja and Clipperton indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dentatus</span> is likely the most abundant of the two species in the eastern tropical Pacific.	eng
155245	habitat	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G. & Barraza, E., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is a reef-associated species, inhabiting sand, mud, and rock substrata to depths of 60 m (Schneider 1995).&#160; This species can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).&#160; At the Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in the deep zone over middle size rocks and sand, deep rocky walls, zones of massive corals, and deep rocky reef (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
155245	population	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G. & Barraza, E., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus</span> is common throughout its range.&#160; It was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, where it was found to have an overall mean abundance of 5.75 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).&#160; However, this fish was not found in surveys in Costa Rica in the Gulf of Papagayo (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) or Catalinas Island (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">M. dentatus</span> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes in the Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency of 30–70%.&#160; In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance of 0.1–1%, and a relative frequency of 25–50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).&#160; In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 9 times within 12 one-month long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez et al. 2001).&#160; A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms and frequent in rocky and sandy substrata.&#160; Zapata and Morales (1997) recorded a density of 1.255 +/- 7.516 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 20.6% at Gorgona Island.&#160; According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish was commonly seen or collected, and apparently abundant enough to have a resident sub-population at Clipperton Atoll.	eng
155245	threats	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G. & Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthys dentatus.</span>	eng
155246	conservation	Smith, D., Gordon, J.D.M. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Synaphobranchus kaupii</em>. <br/><br/>Due to reported population declines, monitoring of this species should be carried out.	eng
155246	distribution	Smith, D., Gordon, J.D.M. & Priede, I.G., 2009	The Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel, <em>Synaphobranchus kaupii</em>, is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Faroes and Iceland to Cape Verde, Morocco to Mauritania and along the West African slope (Nigeria, Namibia and South Africa). This species is also found in the western North Atlantic on the middle and lower slopes of the mid-Atlantic USA (Gordon and Mauchline 1996), the Bahamas, Cuba and Brazil. Specimens also occur in the Indo-west Pacific off Japan, Australia and Hawaii.	eng
155246	habitat	Smith, D., Gordon, J.D.M. & Priede, I.G., 2009	Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is found along the continental slope, down to the abyssal zone (at depths of between 120 m and 4,800 m) but is most common in waters of 400 to 2,000 m (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997). This species' diet consists of decapoda, natantia, and amphipods, but it also feeds on fish and cephalopods.	eng
155246	population	Smith, D., Gordon, J.D.M. & Priede, I.G., 2009	While the population size is unknown, Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is considered an abundant to dominant deepsea species in various parts of the Atlantic (Sulak and Shcherbachev 1997; Trenkel <em>et al.</em> 2004). In fine meshed trawls this species can comprise >50% of the total catch at some depth zones (Gordon <em>et al</em>. 1996). Some recent unpublished data indicates that the stock of the west coast of Ireland, has halved due to fishing activity, however it still remains abundant (I.G. Priede pers. comm. 2007).	eng
155246	threats	Smith, D., Gordon, J.D.M. & Priede, I.G., 2009	It is unlikely that Kaup's Arrowtooth Eel is being impacted by any major threats. Research shows that off the west coast of Ireland, the abundance of this species has halved as a result of fishing activity (I.G. Priede pers. comm. 2008).  However due to the broad distribution and reported abundance of this species, fishing is not considered a major widespread threat.	eng
155248	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Starksia guttata</em>, however its distribution coincides with marine protected areas in the region.	eng
155248	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Starksia guttata</em> occurs at Tobago Cays in the Grenadines; specimens have been found just south of St Vincent Island, at Bequia Island, off Tobago Island (J. Van Tassell pers. comm. 2008), and at Curacao (Greenfield 1979).	eng
155248	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Starksia guttata</em> occurs on rocky and coral reefs.&#160; This species is found at depths of 1–20 m.	eng
155248	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Starksia guttata</span>.	eng
155248	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Starksia guttata</em>.	eng
155249	conservation	McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to establish the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155249	distribution	McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The soldierfish, <em>Myripristis formosa</em>, is only known from four collections off Taiwan (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155249	habitat	McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Myripristis formosa</em> is a demersal fish.&#160; It feeds on zooplankton at night and shelters under coral and rock ledges and in holes during the day (J. Moore pers. comm. 2007).&#160;  This species is found at a depth range of 15–30 m.	eng
155249	population	McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Myripristis formosa</em>.	eng
155249	threats	McEachran, J., Moore, J.A. & Williams, J., 2009	Due to the lack of population and distribution data, it is unknown whether <em>Myripristis formosa</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. However, due to its coastal nature, it is possibly impacted by coastal development and pollution.	eng
155250	conservation	Edwards, A., Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Congo Dentex.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and population size of this species is needed.	eng
155250	distribution	Edwards, A., Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Congo Dentex<em> (Dentex congoensis</em>) occurs along the west African coast, from Senegal to Angola.	eng
155250	habitat	Edwards, A., Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Congo Dentex is a demersal species that is found on various substrates over the continental shelf and upper slope, to depths of 400 m.&#160; Its diet consists of mainly fish, although it also feeds on tunicates and molluscs.	eng
155250	population	Edwards, A., Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	In 1990, a survey of fish species assemblages in commercial landings found that the Congo Dentex contributed the second highest biomass to these catches (Martos <em>et al.</em> 1991).&#160; This species was caught in large numbers in trawl surveys and considered an indicator species for certain species assemblages off Ghana (Korentang 2001), Congo and Gabon (Bianchi 1992).<br/><br/>According to the FAO, the total amount of Congo Dentex officially landed per year varies widely; in 1990, 180 tonnes were landed, while in 2005, just under 1,500 tonnes were reported (FAO-FIGIS 2007).&#160; The 'Guinea 90' survey of the central eastern Atlantic captured 3,100 tonnes in Liberia alone (Martos <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
155250	threats	Edwards, A., Carpenter, K., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J. & Fritzsche, R., 2009	The Congo Dentex is a target species in the fisheries along the West African coast, where it is harvested by means of bottom trawls and longlines.&#160;  The continental shelf stocks of fish in this region have been over-exploited (Ramos <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
155251	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Araiophos eastropas</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155251	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Araiophos eastropas</em> has been recorded from one location in the South China Sea.&#160; Fishbase records that specimens of this species have also been taken from a wider area, but these records require confirmation.	eng
155251	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Araiophos eastropas</em> is a mesopelagic species and has been recorded at a depths of 200–570 m (Museum catalogue vouchers from fishbase).	eng
155251	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Araiophos eastropas</em>, as it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
155251	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J., 2009	It is unknown if <em>Araiophos eastropas</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.&#160; Mesopelagic species are unlikely to be threatened as they are not targeted by fisheries.	eng
155252	conservation	Allen, G.R., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojuloides kaleidos</span>, however its range coincides with a number of marine protected areas. Further research is needed on the population trends of this species.	eng
155252	distribution	Allen, G.R., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em> is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from Maldives, Niccobar and Andamen Islands, to southern Indonesia as far east as Flores.	eng
155252	habitat	Allen, G.R., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em> is a small species that grows only to about 100 mm (TL). The type specimen was collected from a depth of 30 m (Anderson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). This species is found on coral reefs over rubble slopes with a mix of algae and encrusting invertebrates, and in current-prone channels. Juveniles and females form small groups, and males are usually seen singly moving over large sections of reef (Kuiter 2002).	eng
155252	population	Allen, G.R., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudojuloides kaleidos </span>is reported to be common in the Sunda Strait (Kuiter and Randall 1995). It is commonly observed in eastern Indonesia (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155252	threats	Allen, G.R., Russell, B. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em></em> There are no major threats impacting <em>Pseudojuloides kaleidos</em>. This species may be used for the aquarium trade as the males are very attractive (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2009). This species is likely to be undergoing localised declines in areas of intense coastal development and pollution. This species does not appear to be dependent on live coral cover so moderate structural damage to the reef is unlikely to pose a significant threat.	eng
155253	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, including the Central Andros National Park in the Bahamas.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the harvest levels and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155253	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Jenkinsia majua</em> is found in the western central Atlantic, from the Gulf of Campeche, the Bahamas, and the northwestern coast of the Caribbean.	eng
155253	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	The herring, <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>, is an inshore schooling species found at a depth range of 0–50 m.&#160; It is found around coral reefs, bays, and harbours.&#160; Like its congener, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, this is a short-lived species.	eng
155253	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Jenkinsia majua</em>.	eng
155253	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	While there are no catch statistics available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Jenkinsia majua</span>, it is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in other Clupeid fisheries, and used for baitfish and chum.&#160; However this is not an intensively exploited fishery.&#160; Like its congener, <em>Jenkinsia lamprotaenia</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Jenkinsia majua</span> is also likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation as a result of coastal development.	eng
155254	conservation	Love, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Cortez Rockfish.&#160; Further research is needed to establish if this species is commercially harvested or taken as by-catch.	eng
155254	distribution	Love, M., 2009	The Cortez Rockfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sebastes cortezi</span>) occurs in the Gulf of California, along the coast of Baja California, Mexico	eng
155254	habitat	Love, M., 2009	<em>Sebastes cortezi</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; It occurs at depths of 200–1,100 m.&#160; Juveniles are surface-dwelling, morphologically quite different, and are often associated with floating weed and debris (Chen 1975).	eng
155254	population	Love, M., 2009	There is no species-specific population information available for the Cortez Rockfish.&#160; However, species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> are generally widespread, abundant, and dominant among their local fauna (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155254	threats	Love, M., 2009	Although species from the genus <em>Sebastes</em> support, or have supported, major world fisheries (Merret and Haedrich 1997), there are no available reports of the Cortez Rockfish  being harvested.&#160; There are established fisheries within this species' range, so it may be taken as by-catch, but this is unlikely to be causing any significant population decline.	eng
155255	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em>. However, the distribution of this species coincides with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155255	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are possibly two separate subpopulations of <em>Neopomacentrus bankieri,</em> but further collections may provide evidence for a continuous distribution. One subpopulation inhabits the South China and Java Seas. Another subpopulation is found from Daru Island off southern Papua New Guinea to eastern Queensland. This species was recently collected at the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua (G.R. Allen pers. com. 2009).	eng
155255	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em> inhabits coastal reefs around coral and rock outcrops on soft bottoms. This species has been found at a depth range of 3 - 12 m. It utilises coral and rock structures as a refuge from predators.	eng
155255	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Neopomacentrus bankieri</em> is reported to be abundant at Orpheus Bay on the Great Barrier Reef (Ackerman and Bellwood 2002). It is also common at the Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155255	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. In areas of its range it may be undergoing localised declines in abundance due to destructive fishing practices, coastal development.and pollution.	eng
155256	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the threats of this species is needed.	eng
155256	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em> is only known from south of New Caledonia on the Loyalty Ridge.	eng
155256	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em> is a bathydemersal species and has been found at a depth range of 797-835 m. This species has been found within the continental shelf and on seamounts. Species from the family Macrouridae are commonly schooling fish (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155256	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There is no population information for <em>Caelorinchus shcherbachevi</em>, however, species from the family Macrouridae can be quite abundant (Merrett and Haedrich 1997).	eng
155256	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is of no known commercial value, however it occurs in an area where there are commercial fisheries and so may be taken as by-catch.	eng
155257	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155257	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Easter Island Flyingfish, <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>, is found in the southern tropical Pacific Ocean from New Caledonia, Fiji, and Easter Island. These islands have low human population densities. A single specimen has also been collected in the eastern Pacific, north of the equator.	eng
155257	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Easter Island Flyingfish is found within the continental shelf in neritic surface waters (FAO 1999) to a maximum depth of 20 m. This species is not known to have any specific habitat requirements. This species feeds on zooplankton and small fish. <br/><br/>Flyingfish are capable of leaping out of the water and gliding for long distances over the water surface.	eng
155257	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em>.	eng
155257	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Cheilopogon rapanouiensis</em> is being impacted by any major threats at present. It is of no interest to fisheries, however due to its size and depth profile it may occasionally be taken as by-catch.	eng
155258	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span>.	eng
155258	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Scopelosaurus gibbsi</em> is distributed across the South Pacific, between latitudes 20<sup>o</sup> and 40<sup>o</sup>S, and from longitudes 80 to 180<sup>o</sup>W (J. Paxton pers.comm. 2008).	eng
155258	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for <em>Scopelosaurus gibbsi</em>.<br/><br/>Congeners of this species, <em>Scopelosaurus harryi</em> and <em>Scopelosaurus adleri</em>, are typically found in the mesopelagic zone at a depth range of 500–1,000 m (Balanov 2001).&#160; They migrate to the upper section of the mesopelagic zone to feed during the darker hours of the day.&#160; Both species show a preference for food that is available all year round, and in the greatest quantity.&#160; The younger individuals feed on plankton, while the older year classes shift to a diet of shrimp and myctophid fish. <br/><br/>Savinykh and Balanov (2000) suggested that <em>S. adleri</em> is a mesobenthopelagic species, while <em>S. harryi</em> is a mesopelagic species.	eng
155258	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span>.	eng
155258	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that <span style="font-style: italic;">Scopelosaurus gibbsi</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155259	conservation	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the biology of this species is needed.	eng
155259	distribution	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Atlantic Needlefish <em>(Strongylura marina)</em> is present in the western Atlantic from Maine to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, but is absent from the Bahamas and the Antilles.	eng
155259	habitat	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Atlantic Needlefish, <em>Strongylura marina</em>, is found on reefs in subtropical climates, mangrove lined lagoons and seagrass beds. It is also known to enter freshwaters. Adults and juvenilles are mainly piscovorous, with shrimp being an important food component in the rainy season (Arceo-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2004). Eggs attach to items in the waters by surface tendrils. The depth range if this fish is unknown.	eng
155259	population	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	This species is moderately commmon (FAO 2002).	eng
155259	threats	Collen, B., Dewhurst, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Atlantic Needlefish<em></em> is commercially harvested, but consumption is restricted to local areas where this species attains a large size (Arceo-Carranza <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is mainly caught as a bait source for marlin sport fishing. It is caught by casting or trolling surface or near-surface lures, seines, trammel nets, and by using light as a lure. This species is not of significant commercial importance as the green bones are not considered favourable.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature and large size of this species, it is likely to be taken as by-catch by coastal fisheries operating within its range. However, this is not considered to be a major threat to this species as this threat is not known throughout its entire range. There is no evidence to suggest that this species is undergoing a significant population decline.	eng
155260	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Benthosema pterotum</em>.	eng
155260	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The distribution of the Skinnycheek Lanternfish (<em>Benthosema pterotum)</em> extends from Mozambique to the Gulf of Oman, east to the Bay of Bengal, Indonesia and western Australia, and north to Japan (J.R. Paxton pers.comm. 2008).	eng
155260	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The Skinnycheek Lanternfish, <em>Benthosema pterotum</em>, is a benthopelagic and mesopelagic species that is typically found on the edge of the continental slope and around islands. This species has a depth range of 10-300 m. During the day it is found at a depth of 130-300 m and at night it migrates up to a depth range of 10-200 m. It feeds mainly on copepods and various crustacean larvae.	eng
155260	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	The mesopelagic fish community in the Gulf of Oman is reported to be dominated by Skinnycheek Lanternfish (Dalpadado and Gjøsæter 1988). An estimate of the biomass in the Gulf of Oman ranges from 1- 4 million tonnes (<span class="name"><span class="surname">Valinassab, Pierce and <span class="name"><span class="surname">Johannesson 2007).<br/></span>	eng
155260	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em></em>There is large potential for future commercial exploitation of this species for use as fish meal (Dalpadado 1988), however at present the trawling of this species is not economically viable (<span class="name"><span class="surname">Valinassab, Pierce and <span class="name"><span class="surname">Johannesson 2007).</span>	eng
155261	conservation	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Yellow-dappled Flounder, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the El Nido Managed Natural Resource and Protected Area. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the population numbers and harvest levels of this species to ensure it is not being widely exploited.	eng
155261	distribution	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Yellow-dappled Flounder, <em>Brachypleura novaezeelandiae</em>, is an Indo-Pacific flounder distributed from the Persian Gulf through the eastern Indian Ocean to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.	eng
155261	habitat	Munroe, T.A., 2009	The Yellow-dappled Flounder is a demersal species, found living on sand and mud substrates.This species is frequently collected from estuaries and is known to be a benthic feeder.  The depth profile of this species ranges from 18 m to 92 m.	eng
155261	population	Munroe, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for Yellow-dappled Flounder.	eng
155261	threats	Munroe, T.A., 2009	Yellow-dappled Flounder is of minor commercial importance to fisheries. It is harvested by trawling and is mostly used for the production of fish meal for the shrimp aquaculture industry (FAO 2001b). It is also discarded from trawlers as by-catch. At present there is no information regarding the landings of this species.	eng
155262	conservation	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eustomias dinema</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution and threats of this species is needed before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
155262	distribution	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias dinema</em> is only known from the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
155262	habitat	Clarke, T.A., 2009	<em>Eustomias dinema</em> is an epi / mesopelagic species (Mundy 2005) found at a depth range of 200-700 m. Individuals spend the daytime in the mesopelagic zone, but at night migrate to the epipelagic. Species in this family feed on midwater fishes (FAO 1999).	eng
155262	population	Clarke, T.A., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eustomias dinema</em>.	eng
155262	threats	Clarke, T.A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at the present time.	eng
155263	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Rocha, L. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155263	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Rocha, L. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is endemic to the eastern Brazilian coast, from Alagoas, south to Santa Catarina.	eng
155263	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Rocha, L. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is a small cryptic fish that inhabits algae-covered reefs and tidepools with clear water, in tropical climates.&#160; It typically occurs in the upper 10 m,&#160; but may also be found at depths of 14–25 m (Guimaraes and de Bacellar 2002).&#160; This species can be found on both pristine and impacted reefs, indicating that it is resistant to at least mild habitat degradation (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155263	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Rocha, L. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em> is very common along the southeastern Brazilian coastline.&#160; Hundreds of individuals can be found in a single tide pool (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155263	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Rocha, L. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to <em>Paraclinus rubicundus</em>.	eng
155264	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em>.	eng
155264	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> has been found in the coastal waters of southern and southwestern Australia (Roberts 1987).	eng
155264	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 128-220 m. This species inhabits deep, rocky reefs in subtropical waters on the continental shelf (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155264	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Lepidoperca filamenta</em> is likely to be an uncommon species (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155264	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This species is unlikely to be taken as by-catch by trawlers operating within its range, owing to it occurring on deep rocky reefs. Due to the deep-water nature of this species it is unlikely to be threatened by coastal development and pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155265	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Malacocephalus occidentalis</em>.&#160; Monitoring of the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155265	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is found from the southern USA to Uruguay, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.&#160; It is also found on the eastern Atlantic coast from Namibia to the Western Sahara, including the Canaries.	eng
155265	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	The grenadier, <em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em>, is found in warm to temperate waters on the continental slope mostly at depths exceeding 350 m, however it can occur at depths of 140–1,945 m.&#160; It feeds on benthic macro-crustaceans, myctophid fishes, and cephalopods.&#160; This species has a low resilience as its minimum population doubling time is estimated to be 4.5–14 years (Froese and Pauly 2007).	eng
155265	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is most abundant in the north of its range (Haimovici<em> et al.</em> 1994).	eng
155265	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Malacocephalus occidentalis</em> is commercially exploited for fishmeal and oil.&#160; At present, fishing activity is of little threat and is not likely to occur throughout this species' entire range.&#160; However, it may pose more of a threat if fishing effort shifts from the over-exploited coast to deeper waters.&#160; This has already started to occur in southern Brazil and in Newfoundland (Powell and Haedrich 2003, Perez<em> et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Like other species in the Macrouridae family, <em>M. occidentalis</em> is likely to be taken as by-catch by bottom trawl fisheries.&#160; However, this threat is not known throughout its entire range.	eng
155266	conservation	Smith, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ariosoma selenops</em>.	eng
155266	distribution	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Ariosoma selenops</em> is found in the western central Atlantic from as far north as Nova Scotia, south to the northeastern coast of Brazil, including the northern Gulf of Mexico and the lesser Antilles.	eng
155266	habitat	Smith, D., 2009	<em>Ariosoma selenops</em> is a benthopelagic species found at bathyl depths in tropical and temperate waters. Members of this genus, <em>Ariosoma</em>, can attain lengths of 34 cm. Individuals are typically found on sand or mud bottoms on the continental shelf and slope.	eng
155266	population	Smith, D., 2009	Species of the Congridae family are known to be abundant.	eng
155266	threats	Smith, D., 2009	This species is of no commercial interest. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by coastal development or pollution.	eng
155267	conservation	Moore, J.A., 2009	There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em>. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology, potential threats and distribution of this species before a full assessment of conservation status can be made.	eng
155267	distribution	Moore, J.A., 2009	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is only known from five specimens collected at one locality in the Red Sea.	eng
155267	habitat	Moore, J.A., 2009	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is a deepwater, benthopelagic species which has been found at a depth range of 510-520 m. Species of the Hoplostethus genus are typically found in dense aggregations over seamounts, and so are locally abundant.	eng
155267	population	Moore, J.A., 2009	<em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is only known from 5 specimens.	eng
155267	threats	Moore, J.A., 2009	It is not known if <em>Hoplostethus marisrubri</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes. If it does congregate over seamounts, then it may be taken as by-catch by a number of fisheries.	eng
155268	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scatophagus argus</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research on the harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155268	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Scatophagus argus</em> is distributed from the Persian Gulf, past India, and into the western Pacific.&#160; Its distribution extends from Japan in the north, to New South Wales, New Caledonia, and Fiji in the south (Randall 2005).&#160; The FAO (2001) states that the distribution of this species also extends further east in the Pacific, to French Polynesia.&#160;&#160;<em>Scatophagus</em><em> argus</em> has also been recorded from Micronesia.	eng
155268	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The scat, <em>Scatophagus argus</em>, is usually found in estuaries, harbours, mangrove sloughs, and the lower reaches of fresh water streams, especially those with high mineral concentrations.&#160; Tiny juveniles float in the surface film (Kuiter and Debelius 2001).&#160; This species feeds on benthic algae, plant matter, and small benthic invertebrates.&#160; It is a schooling species.&#160; Individuals typically grow to 20–30 cm.&#160; Filipino fishers believe the dorsal, anal, and pelvis spines are venomous and capable of inflicting painful wounds.	eng
155268	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Scatophagus argus</em>.	eng
155268	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scatophagus argus</span> is harvested as a food source using traps and nets.&#160; However, due to its small size, it is not thought to be of commercial importance.&#160; It is also used in Chinese medicine and for the aquarium trade.&#160; However, due to the low commercial value of this species and its venomous spines, harvesting is not considered a major threat at present.<br/><br/>This species occurs in some estuarine environments that are subject to high levels of contaminants from shipping (oil and fuel leaks, ballast water, anti-fouling paints), coastal development, and pollution from upstream.&#160; However, these are localised threats, and not known throughout its entire range.	eng
155269	conservation	McCosker, J.E., Acero, A. & Espinosa, H., 2007	The Bluespotted Jawfish may occur in a number of marine protected areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), and it is protected by law in Mexico. Given its collection for the aquarium trade, population trends should be monitored.	eng
155269	distribution	McCosker, J.E., Acero, A. & Espinosa, H., 2007	The Bluespotted Jawfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Opistognathus rosenblatti</span>) is endemic to the eastern Pacific and this is found at the tip of Baja California and the lower three-quarters of the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
155269	habitat	McCosker, J.E., Acero, A. & Espinosa, H., 2007	The Bluespotted Jawfish is a demersal species, found in sandy rubble areas at depths of 5–25 m.&#160; It can form colonies of up to several hundred fish.	eng
155269	population	McCosker, J.E., Acero, A. & Espinosa, H., 2007	The Bluespotted Jawfish is locally abundant at several island locations in the Gulf of California and near Cabo San Lucas.	eng
155269	threats	McCosker, J.E., Acero, A. & Espinosa, H., 2007	Although not considered a major threat at this time, the Bluespotted Jawfish is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
155270	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Entomacrodius stellifer</em>. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
155270	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> is a western Pacific blenny, reported from the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.	eng
155270	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> inhabits rocky shorelines, reef flats and surge channels in high energy areas to depths of 5 m.	eng
155270	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Entomacrodus stellifer</em> is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155270	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Entomacrodus stellifer</span> (J. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155271	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, however its distribution falls into some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels is needed to ensure demand for this species does not trigger rapid declines.	eng
155271	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	The dottyback, <em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em>, is found in the Red Sea.	eng
155271	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em> is a cryptic species and occupies a number of habitat types including harbours, coral reef-slopes, caves and silt-covered rocks at a depth range of 5 - 60 m.	eng
155271	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em>Pseudochromis dixurus</em> is a common species throughout its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155271	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	This species is occasionally harvested for the aquarium trade although this is not believed to be a major threat to this species owing to its abundance and the small quantities in which its harvested. It is likely that this species is undergoing localised declines in areas of coastal development and pollution, however these threats are not known across its entire range.	eng
155272	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby. However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas. <br/><br/>Due to the rarity of this species, monitoring of the population is suggested so that significant regional declines can be noted.	eng
155272	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby (<em>Nesogobius hinsbyi</em>) has been found at a number of locations off the Australian coastline: Port Phillip Bay, the South Australian Gulf Coast, and Kangaroo Island. It has also been found around southern, eastern, and western Tasmania.	eng
155272	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby is a demersal species, found on sand (Hoese and Larson 2006), rubble substrates, and in rockpools. It is known to occur at a depth range of 5-60 m, but is usually found at depths greater than 20 m.	eng
155272	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	The Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby <em></em>is abundant in southern Tasmanian estuaries, but rare elsewhere (Edgar 2005).	eng
155272	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	The subpopulation of the Tasmanian Orange-spotted Sand Goby  within Port Philip Bay is likely to be undergoing significant declines with the onset of a multi-billion dollar dredging program, which is expected to proceed for two years as of February 2008. <br/><br/>Due to the intertidal nature of this species, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas where there is significant coastal development and pollution. However, these threats are thought to be localized, and they are therefore unlikely to be causing global population declines.	eng
155273	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for <em>O. lateralis</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155273	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span> is distributed from East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique) to Micronesia and Somoa, north to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands, and south to Lord Howe Island.	eng
155273	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span> is tolerant of a range of salinities. It can be found in mangrove estuaries, freshwater, and shallow sheltered inshore coral reefs. This tropical species is found in shallow water, amongst algal-covered coral rubble. It is typically seen in small aggregations.<br/><br/>Like all cardinal fish, this species forms distinct pairs during mating and mouthbroods the eggs. Individuals feed on benthic invertebrates and small fish.	eng
155273	population	Gon, O., 2009	This species is reported to be common in mangrove estuaries (Gon 1986).	eng
155273	threats	Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be directly targeted for the aquarium trade or any other commercial trade. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostorhinchus lateralis</span>, unlike other species of cardinal fish, is less reliant on live reef systems. This species is found in a range of habitats that undergo daily fluctuations in temperature, salinity and pollutant concentrations. <br/><br/>Due to the wide-spread distribution of this species, it is unlikely that localised threats are causing a significant decline in the global population.	eng
155274	conservation	Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Apogon wassinki</em>, however the distribution of this species may fall within numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155274	distribution	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon wassinki</em> is distributed from the Philippines and eastern Indonesia including west Papua, south to Western Australia.	eng
155274	habitat	Gon, O., 2009	<em>Apogon wassinki</em> is usually found on sheltered coastal coral reefs to a depth of 22 m. It is often found in pairs or in small groups among branching corals such as <em>Acropora</em>. Individuals shelter in amongst the coral or in caves during the day and come out to feed at night on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates. This species demonstrates distinct pairing during courtship. The males mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur.	eng
155274	population	Gon, O., 2009	This is a common species on coastal reefs throughout its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155274	threats	Gon, O., 2009	There are a number of threats impacting the habitat of this species such as coastal development, tourism, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, cyanide fishing, water pollution, and coral bleaching. However, these threats are not known throughout this species entire range and so are only thought to be triggering localised declines. This species is not thought to be undergoing a significant global population decline (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155276	conservation	Collette, B.,Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, K., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P., 2010	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thunnus atlanticus</em>.<br/>    <p>Freire<em> </em>(2009) suggest a capture-release study, involving Caribbean and Brazilian northeastern and southeastern researches to better establish fishing mortality rates and understand migratory patterns.&#160;</p><p>Better data is needed from fisheries landings to specifically identify and record this species. <br/></p>	eng
155276	distribution	Collette, B.,Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, K., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P., 2010	<em>Thunnus atlanticus</em> is distributed from Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, south to 26<sup>o</sup> S in Brazil and the island of Trindade off Brazil (Collette and Nauen 1983), including the wider Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. There is a recent record (2008) from Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago (Travassos, unpublished data).<br/>    <br/>  <p><br/></p>	eng
155276	habitat	Collette, B.,Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, K., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P., 2010	<em>Thunnus atlanticus</em> is found in coastal waters with a temperature above 20<sup>o</sup>C. It is an epipelagic species, often found over reefs, bays and offshore.&#160; It sometimes occurs in large schools, often with<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Skipjack tuna (<em>Katsuwonus pelamis</em>).&#160; It feeds on fishes, squids and crustaceans. The IGFA all-tackle gamefish record for this species was caught off the coast of Florida and weighed 22.4 kg. Maximum recorded length is 110 cm FL (Collette in press).<br/>&#160;<br/>Around Florida, spawning season extends from April to November, with a peak in May, while in the Gulf of Mexico spawning apparently occurs between June to September (Collette in press).&#160; In Brazil, spawning peaks in November and December. The species migrates to Formosa Bay to spawn from October to January (Freire 2009).&#160; During the spawning season, there is an annual concentration of <em>T. atlanticus</em> along the southern coast of Rio Grande do Norte during the second half of the year (Vieira <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2005a).            <p>Vieira <em>et al </em>(2005b) found an average length of 61.1 cm for females and 64 cm for males. The total weight ranged from 1000 to 5000 g (females) and 1456 to 8400 g (males) for individuals caught in Rio Grande do Norte from September 1999 to January 2001, within a depth range of 20 to 60 m. The same authors report a sex ratio of 2.1:0.5, with a larger abundance of males. Freire (2009) reports captures of <em>T. atlanticus</em> from 36 to 89 cm FL along the northeastern Brazilian coast between 1998 and 2000. <br/></p>    <p>According to Vieira <em>et al</em> (2005<span style="font-style: italic;">b</span><em></em>), the estimated average length for gonadal maturation is 51 cm (TL) for females and the absolute fecundity shows a mean of 1,541,841 oocytes for specimens caught in Rio Grande do Norte State, Brazil. Freire (2009) report size at first maturity at 49.2 cm (TL) for females and 51.3 cm (TL) for males.</p>    <p>Tagging data exists from the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) for this species (787&#160; individuals).&#160; This  data does not indicate migratory behavior (Singh-Renton and Renton  2007).&#160; <br/></p>There is evidence of genetic differentiation between the Gulf of Mexico and Northwest Atlantic stocks (Saxton 2009).<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
155276	population	Collette, B.,Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, K., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P., 2010	<em>Thunnus atlanticus</em> is one of the most common tuna species in the western central Atlantic (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>FAO landings (2008) indicate that it is harvested by a wide range of countries with catches fluctuating over the last 20 years between 2,400 to 5,200 mt from 1986 to 2006.  These landings probably do not include the recreational catch which likely comprises a large portion of the fishery (B. Collette pers. comm. 2009).&#160; There is some doubt as to whether this includes all catches throughout its range.&#160; Large fluctuations reflect discontinued reporting from a number of areas.<p><em>T. atlanticus</em> was the species with the highest abundance in the pelagic longline fishery in northeast Brazil, with an average CPUE of 0.32 ind/100 hooks, representing 56.2% of all caught tunas (Hazin <em>et al</em>. 2001 in MMA 2006<em></em>).</p><p>&#160;</p>	eng
155276	threats	Collette, B.,Amorim, A.F., Boustany, A., Carpenter, K., Dooley, J., Fox, W., Fredou, F.L., Fritzsche, R., Graves, J., Hazin, F., Juan Jorda, M.J., Leite, N., Lessa, R., Minte-Vera, C., Nelson, K., Nelson, R., Oxenford, H., Travassos, P., 2010	This species is fished by trolling or drifting longline with live bait. Fish aggregating devices (FADs) are used to increase the capture of this species (Taquet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Males are caught more often than females; in one report males constituted 80% of the catch (Taquet <em>et al</em>. 2000). The largest fishery for this species is off the southeastern shore of Cuba (Collette 2002). It is the target of hand and line artisanal fisheries in the northeast of Brazil (Freire 2009). This species may also be taken as by-catch in the yellowfin (<em>Thunnus albacares) </em>fisheries (González-Ania <em>et al</em>. 2001). There is also an important sport fishery in Florida and the Bahamas (Collette 2002) .<br/><br/>Three of the major fisheries (Cuba, Dominican Republic and Martinique) have ceased reporting landings data for this species (ICCAT SCRS 2009).&#160; <br/>                    <p>Nóbrega <em>et al</em> (2009) reports <em>T. atlanticus</em> captures all along the northeastern Brazilian coast by hand-line artisanal fishery, with catches by state as follows: Bahia (57.6%), Rio Grande do Norte (23.7%), Alagoas and Pernambuco (17.7%), Ceará (0.8%) and Piauí (0.1%). There is an annual concentration of this species along the southern coast of Rio Grande do Norte State during the second half of the year which increases its capture by the artisanal fleet (Vieira <em>et al</em> 2005b). It is fished all over the Brazilian central coast (from southern Bahia to northern Rio de Janeiro State) by trolling and hand-line fisheries (MMA 2006). It is also caught by game fisheries off the coast of São Paulo State (Amorim and Silva 2005).</p>      <p><br/></p>	eng
155277	conservation	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Antennarius analis</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas, including 18 off the Fijian coast (Wood 2007).	eng
155277	distribution	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Antennarius analis</em> is an Indo-Pacific species distributed from Christmas Island and Rowley Shoals to the Society Islands, including Palau, Fiji, and Samoa (Pietsch and Grobecker 1987). The species has also been recorded from both Oahu, Hawaiian Islands (Pietsch and Grobecker 1987) and Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Islands (Kon and Yoshino 1999).	eng
155277	habitat	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Antennarius analis</em> has been collected from tide pools and outer reef slopes at a depth range of 1.5 - 21 m.   It is a cryptic lie-in wait predator, mostly found on coral reefs.	eng
155277	population	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	This species is never observed in visual surveys and typically shows up as 1 or 2 individuals at rotenone stations (J. Williams and G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155277	threats	Collette, B., Matsuura, K., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	Species of the genus <em>Antennarius</em> are taken for the marine aquarium trade, however this species is not yet specifically recorded in this trade. This species is of no other significant economic interest. It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.	eng
155278	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>.&#160; However, this species' distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
155278	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span> is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific, and is found from the northern and eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.	eng
155278	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span> is a demersal species, found on sandy-mud and broken-shell substrata (Birdsong 1981), at depths of 3–36 m.	eng
155278	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no information on populations size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>. However, this species is relatively common within its specific habitat.	eng
155278	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Microgobius erectus</span>.&#160; However, due to its preference for offshore habitat, shrimp trawling may pose a threat to this species in some parts of its range.	eng
155279	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservations measures in place for the Eyestripe Bass, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations. Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155279	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eyestripe Bass<em> </em>(<em>Liopropoma aberrans</em>) is found off the coasts of Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Belize, and North Carolina, and in the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
155279	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eyestripe Bass is a demersal species that can be found along deep reefs to a depth of approximately 190 m.	eng
155279	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Eyestripe Bass.	eng
155279	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eyestripe Bass is not harvested commercially as a food source, but is occasionally taken for the aquarium trade. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species at present.	eng
155280	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the harvest levels of this species, with monitoring on the levels of abundance.	eng
155280	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is found off the eastern coast of India, possibly to Myanmar.	eng
155280	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> occupies a range of habitat types. It is found in coastal waters, estuaries and in rivers up to 20 km from the mouth (Babu Rao 1971) to a maximum depth of 50 m. It is a schooling species. This species is tolerant of a range of salinities.	eng
155280	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is a common coastal species.	eng
155280	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Thryssa gautamiensis</em> is caught by artisanal fisherman throughout its entire range. This species is harvested using purse seine nets and bamboo stake traps. <em>Thryssa</em> species contribute greatly to the annual landings of anchovy in India. In 2003, anchovies contributed to 6% of the total annual pelagic landings (Mohanty<em> et al</em>. 2005). It is unknown what impact fishing is having on the population numbers of this species. Further research is needed on the landings of this species.	eng
155281	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	New Zealand has implemented a Total Allowable Catch limit for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em>.&#160; There are also a number of MPA designations within this species' range, although it is not likely that these provide much protection for <em>S. caerulea</em>, given its deep-water habitat. <br/><br/>Monitoring of the population, harvest levels and extent of harvest of this species is needed.	eng
155281	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Seriolella caerulea</em> can be found in the southwest Pacific around southern Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, the southeast Pacific around Chile and the Juan Fernandez Islands, and in the southwest Atlantic off Argentina.	eng
155281	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	Adult forms of <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> typically occur on continental shelves and upper slopes, while juveniles inhabit the surface waters and are typically associated with jellyfish.&#160; This deep sea fish has a depth range of 150–800 m.	eng
155281	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em>.	eng
155281	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Starnes, W.C., 2009	<em>Seriolella caerulea</em> is taken incidentally as by-catch by trawlers fishing for hoki, silver warehou, hake, ling and scampi. Landings in the southwest Pacific peaked in 2003 at 3,646 tonnes with a decline to 2,669 tonnes in 2005.&#160; This species is sometimes reported as <em>Seriolella punctata</em>, a related species, making management and accurate landing data difficult to collate.<br/><br/>This species has also been targeted by fisheries around the Mernoo Bank, the Stewart-Snares shelf, Puysegur Bank and on the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand.&#160; However, target fisheries accounted for only 8% of the total <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> catch for the years from 1988–1989 to 1994–1995 (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2007).<br/><br/>The total landings of <em>Seriolella caerulea</em> in New Zealand were, in 1998-99, 2,306 t, in 1999-2000, 2,351 t, in 2000-01, 1,897 t, in 2001-02, 1,941 t, in 2002-03, 3,346 t, in 2003-04, 2,357 t, and in 2004-05, 2,863 t. In 1998, a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 3,374 t was introduced for <em>Seriolella caerulea</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> However, it is not known whether recent catches of this species by New Zealand fisheries are sustainable or if they are at levels that will allow the stock to move towards a size that will support the maximum sustainable yield (New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 2007).<br/><br/>Although there are no available catch statistics, it is likely that this species is also being taken as by-catch or targeted as a commercial species throughout the rest of its range.	eng
155282	conservation	Van Tassell, J.L. & Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, however it may be found to occur in a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155282	distribution	Van Tassell, J.L. & Larson, H.K., 2009	The Golden Goby, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobius xanthocephalus,</span> occurs in the eastern Atlantic from northern Spain to Madeira and the Canary Islands. It also occurs in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.	eng
155282	habitat	Van Tassell, J.L. & Larson, H.K., 2009	This inshore, benthic species typically occurs at depths of 0-20 m although it has been found to a depth of 36 m. This species is typically seen sheltering in small, sandy caves, fissures and boulders (Almeida and Arruda 1998) and seagrass (Heymer and Zander 1992). This species has a short generation time (Martin and Palumbi 1993).	eng
155282	population	Van Tassell, J.L. & Larson, H.K., 2009	In parts of its range, <em> Gobius xanthocephalus</em> is considered common and it is the most abundant species at depths of 3-20 m on the Portuguese coast (Almeida and Arruda 1998). Vasileva and Bogorodskii (2004) consider it to be rare in the Black Sea.	eng
155282	threats	Van Tassell, J.L. & Larson, H.K., 2009	As <em>Gobius xanthocephalus</em> is an inshore species, its habitat may be impacted by coastal development and water pollution. These threats are unlikely to be occurring across this species entire range and so will be causing localised declines only. Gobies have a short generation time and so are tolerant of moderate threats.	eng
155283	conservation	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Coelophrys arca</em>.<br/><br/>Further research on the abundance, distribution and threats of this species is needed.	eng
155283	distribution	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Coelophrys arca</em> is known from the Philippines and the Banda Sea.	eng
155283	habitat	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Coelophrys arca</em> is a demersal species. This species was found in a midwater trawl in the Banda Sea between 600-1,000 m by Bradbury in 1985. Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are found offshore on continental shelves and upper continental slopes (FAO 1999a).<br/><br/>Bradbury (1988) noted that pelagic larvae are common in ogcocephalids.	eng
155283	population	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
155283	threats	Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat process.	eng
155284	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Chenery, A.M. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research and monitoring of this species' habitat status and threats should be undertaken.	eng
155284	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Chenery, A.M. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> is widely distributed in Japan, from the Chiba and Niigata Prefectures, south to Kyushu. &#160; It is also reported from the Korean Peninsula (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
155284	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Chenery, A.M. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> utilises <em>Zostera</em> beds as one of its habitats throughout all life stages.&#160; A study conducted by Horinouchi and Sano (1999) found <em>P. zonoleucus</em> to be more abundant in areas of seagrass meadows with sparser or shorter seagrass.&#160; Froese and Pauly (2006) state that <em>P. zonoleucus</em> occurs in schools near rocky shores.	eng
155284	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Chenery, A.M. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pterogobius zonoleucus</em> is reported to be a common species along the coast of Japan (Horinouchi and Sano 1999).	eng
155284	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Chenery, A.M. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pterogobius zonoleucus</span> utilises seagrass habitats, which are being increasingly impacted by a number of threat processes; these include sedimentation, water pollution, boat traffic, coastal development, and dredging activity.&#160;  However, due to the broad distribution of this species, these threats are currently only localised and can not be considered as major threats.	eng
155286	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span>.&#160; Further research on the ecology, distribution, threats, and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
155286	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Peristedion amblygenys</em> is known from its type locality at San Fernando, Luzon Island, in the Philippines.	eng
155286	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Peristedion amblygenys</em> is a demersal species that has been collected at a depth of 82 m on the continental slope, over rocky substrates.	eng
155286	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span>.	eng
155286	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	It is unknown whether <span style="font-style: italic;">Peristedion amblygenys</span> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155287	conservation	Iwamoto, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Antimora microlepis</em>. <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring is needed to determine the impact that fishing activity is having upon population numbers of this species.	eng
155287	distribution	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> occurs in the eastern and western North Pacific. While Cohen<em> et al.</em> (1990) state it occurs north of 10° N, Kulka <em>et al.</em> (2003) note that stocks of <em>Antimora microlepis</em> and the closely related Atlantic species <em>A. rostrata</em>, mingle in the waters around the southern tip of South America.	eng
155287	habitat	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> is a bathypelagic species that may be found on continental slopes at a depth range of 175 - 3,048 m (Kulka<em> et al.</em> 2003). Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates.	eng
155287	population	Iwamoto, T., 2009	<em>Antimora microlepis</em> is found in 'significant quantities' in some areas (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990).	eng
155287	threats	Iwamoto, T., 2009	This species is captured frequently by trawlers targeting species the Dover Sole, <em>Microstomus pacificus</em> and rockfish, <em>Sebastes spp. <br/></em>	eng
155288	conservation	Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lestidiops gracilis</em>. Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, as little information is available. Research and monitoring is also needed on potential threats, to determine if this species is harvested as by-catch by commercial fisheries, and if so, the impact that this is having on the population of <em>L. gracilis</em>.	eng
155288	distribution	Russell, B., 2009	<em>Lestidiops gracilis</em> is endemic to New Zealand and can only be found on the East Coast. There are reports of it being found in Cuba, but these are very likely to be misidentifications (N. Merrett pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155288	habitat	Russell, B., 2009	<em>Lestidiops gracilis</em> can be found in the mesopelagic to bathypelagic zones. Congeners, such as <em>Lestidiops affinis</em> and <em>Lestidiops jayakari, </em>are found to congregate at the top of seamounts (Pusch <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
155288	population	Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Lestidiops gracilis</em>.	eng
155288	threats	Russell, B., 2009	If <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestidiops gracilis</span> does congregate above seamounts, it may be threatened by commercial fisheries. The seamounts within New Zealand waters are heavily fished for species such as the Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>), therefore <span style="font-style: italic;">L. gracilis</span> may be taken as as by-catch in commercial fisheries. Consequently, it is unknown if this species is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155289	conservation	Starnes, W.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the<em> </em>Pemarco Blackfish.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with a number of designated marine protected areas.&#160; Monitoring of this species, its habitat status, and potential threats is needed, to determine the impact commercial fisheries will have on the population of this species in the future.	eng
155289	distribution	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pemarco Blackfish <em>(Schedophilus pemarco</em>) has been found along the West African coast from Cape Blanc, Mauritania, to Namibia. Specimens have also been found in the Caribbean, although these are likely to have been transported from western Africa on the North Atlantic Gyre (Haedrich and Cervigon 1969).	eng
155289	habitat	Starnes, W.C., 2009	The Pemarco Blackfish<em> </em>is a benthopelagic species that has a depth range of 50–500 m, and is most commonly found on the continental shelf or slope (Schneider 1990, Haedrich and Cervigon 1969) over a range of substrates.&#160; This species' diet consists of jellyfish, amphipods, krill, and small fish.&#160; As adults increase in size, they seek deeper water (Haedrich and Cervigon 1969).	eng
155289	population	Starnes, W.C., 2009	In their description of the<em> </em>Pemarco Blackfish, Haedrich and Cervigon (1969) described this species as 'somewhat rare'.	eng
155289	threats	Starnes, W.C., 2009	It is unknown whether the Pemarco Blackfish is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; Although this species does not appear to be a target species, it is captured by bottom trawling in the Gulf of Guinea.&#160; Ecosystem structure and function has been dramatically changed in areas of this species range, such as Namibia, due to the pressure of over-fishing (Sumaila and Vasconcellos 2000).	eng
155290	conservation	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scarus schlegeli</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia.	eng
155290	distribution	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span> is found in the Indo-central Pacific, around the Cocos and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean, from the Moluccas to the Tuamoto and Austral islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to Shark Bay and the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia.&#160; It is also known from Rapa, French Polynesia.	eng
155290	habitat	Allen, G.R., 2009	The parrotfish, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span>, is found on exposed and sheltered reefs at a depth range of 1 – 50 m, but usually occurs at depths of 5 – 25 m.&#160; This species grazes on the reef and over rubble and sandy reef bases, in small to large schools (FAO 2001).&#160; Juveniles may school with other species, and females are often found in schools of mixed species when feeding.&#160; However, males are usually seen separately and exhibit territorial behaviour.	eng
155290	population	Allen, G.R., 2009	<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span> is reported to be common throughout its range (FAO 2001; G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2009) and adults are reported to be particularly common in areas with rich coral growth and high vertical relief.	eng
155290	threats	Allen, G.R., 2009	There are no major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus schlegeli</span>.&#160; In some areas it is harvested as a food source, but this is a localised threat only.	eng
155291	conservation	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Mugil incilis</em>.&#160; However, in places, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.  <br/><br/>Monitoring of harvest levels needs to be continued for this species, particularly in Colombia.	eng
155291	distribution	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Panama and Haiti to southeastern Brazil.	eng
155291	habitat	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is primarily found in brackish estuaries, coastal waters, and surf zones, but can also be found in marine and hyper-saline waters.&#160; Spawning occurs at the mouths of rivers.&#160; Juveniles migrate large distances to swamps and river mouths to seek food and to protect themselves against predators (Harrison 2002).	eng
155291	population	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Between 1994 and 2004, a survey in Colombia showed a reduction in adult <em>Mugil incilis</em> of mature size from 30% of the population to 17% (Barandica <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
155291	threats	McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Mugil incilis</em> is one of the three main species exploited in the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta lagoon, which is one of the most important artisanal fisheries in Colombia (Rueda and Defeo 2003).&#160;  This species is harvested at a low level throughout its range, although may suffer from over-fishing in localized regions (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>In Colombia, this species may also be impacted by re-suspension of substratum caused by using a boliche (an encircling gill net) which can detrimentally affect fish by obstructing their gills and reducing their oxygen intake (Rueda and Defeo 2003, A. Acero pers comm. 2009).&#160; However, this is not known from other areas of its range where fishing pressures are less intense (A. Acero pers comm. 2009).	eng
155292	conservation	Edwards, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Sparisoma strigatum</em>, however its distribution may coincide with the Sandy Bay Nature Reserve off St Helena.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the population trends of this species is needed along with further research on the cause of the major fish kills occurring within this species range.	eng
155292	distribution	Edwards, A., 2009	<em>Sparisoma strigatum</em> is endemic to the Ascension and St. Helena Islands.	eng
155292	habitat	Edwards, A., 2009	Adult <em>Sparisoma strigatum</em> occur over rocky reefs, grazing on turf algae (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2000). Adults are usually&#160;at less than 10 m depth near rocks at Ascension, where  occasionally seen in groups of up to six individuals&#160;(Lubbock 1980), and  usually at less than 15 m depth in rocky areas at St Helena (Edwards and Glass  1987) but are occasionally found to 20 m depth at both islands. Juveniles were  noted on rubble adjacent to rocks at 5-20 m depth at Ascension (Lubbock 1980)  and as occasional amongst weed and rubble patches at 15-18 m depth at St  Helena&#160;(Edwards and Glass 1987). This coastal species is found in the euphotic  zone to 20 m depth.	eng
155292	population	Edwards, A., 2009	Recorded as uncommon at Ascension Island (Lubbock 1980) and moderately common  at St Helena Island in shallow rocky areas less than 20 m deep (Edwards and  Glass 1987).	eng
155292	threats	Edwards, A., 2009	A report on marine biodiversity hotspots ranked the average threat to reefs in the Ascension and St Helena Islands as low (Roberts <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is occasionally harvested as a food source.<br/><br/>Unexplained fish kills have been experienced both at St Helena Island (March  2006) when thousands of juvenile butterflyfishes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon sanctaehelenae</span>) were  found floating on the sea surface and at Ascension Island (September 2007) when  large numbers of dead and dying groupers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Epinephelus adscensionis</span>) were found  on the beaches. The chances of simultaneous mass mortalities of an Ascension-St  Helena shared endemic at both islands appears remote but the situation should be  monitored (A. Edwards pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155293	conservation	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Barraza, E. & Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span>. However, it may be present in some marine protected areas in&#160; Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico (Roca <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
155293	distribution	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Barraza, E. & Zapata, F., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California in Mexico, to northern Peru.	eng
155293	habitat	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Barraza, E. & Zapata, F., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is a demersal species that inhabits the sandy substrata of coastal waters (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of around 100 m.&#160; In a survey conducted at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species was considered occasional in rocky substrata, and abundant in sandy substrata (Rubio 1986). &#160; In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be a transient species in an estuary associated with mangroves (Rojas et al. 1994).&#160; It occasionally occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical Eastern pacific (Cooke 1992).	eng
155293	population	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Barraza, E. & Zapata, F., 2007	According to Robertson and Allen (2006),&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is a common species in Panama, and it is frequently collected in shrimp trawls.	eng
155293	threats	Allen, G.R., Robertson, R.D., Barraza, E. & Zapata, F., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to global populations at this time, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pomadasys panamensis</span> is considered to be important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004), as well as in El Salvador.	eng
155294	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em>, however its distribution range may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155294	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is found in the western central and south Atlantic Ocean from Venezuela south to French Guiana, then from Rio de Janiero to 12<sup>o</sup>S. It is also known from the island of Trinidade.	eng
155294	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is a congregatory coastal species, that may also be found ranging from estuaries to very low salinities upstream (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988). This epipelagic species has a depth range of 0 - 200 m. It is a broadcast spawner.	eng
155294	population	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em>.	eng
155294	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Nielsen, J.G., 2009	<em>Anchoviella brevirostris</em> is probably caught in estuaries by the artisanal fishing industry (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988) which may be causing local population declines. There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
155295	conservation	Allen, G.R., Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Similan Island National Park and a number of protected areas within the Maldives.	eng
155295	distribution	Allen, G.R., Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> occurs around the Maldives, Similan Islands off Thailand, and Sumatra in Indonesia (Kuiter and Debelius 2007).	eng
155295	habitat	Allen, G.R., Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is a shallow coral reef associated species, and is most frequently found in clear water along the outer reef slopes at a depth range of 3 to 15 m, however. It can be found at depths up to 30 m. It occurs in aggregations and mainly feeds on zooplankton.	eng
155295	population	Allen, G.R., Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is an abundant species (G.R. Allen and P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155295	threats	Allen, G.R., Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias ignitus</em> is likely to have been impacted by localized reef degradation as a result of coastal development and pollution (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). This species is also likely to be collected for the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009), however there is currently no evidence of a significant decline in the population (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155296	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or that are needed, for Pygmy Argentine.	eng
155296	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	This species is found in the western Atlantic from the continental shelf break off South Carolina to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.	eng
155296	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The Pygmy Argentine, <em>Glossanodon pygmaeus,</em> is a meospelagic species that has a depth range of 92-458 m and inhabits muddy, gravel or sandy substrates. Species from the <em>Argentinidae</em> family occur on the outer shelf and upper slope and feed on planktonic invertebrates and euphausiids and small fishes (FAO 2002).	eng
155296	population	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There is no population information for the Pygmy Argentine, however the Argentinidae family are known to be locally abundant in some places in the western Atlantic (FAO 2002).	eng
155296	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	It is unlikely that there are any major threats impacting the Pygmy Argentine.&#160; This species is of no importance to commercial fisheries, although members of the Argentinidae family are taken as by-catch in shrimp trawls (FAO 2002).	eng
155297	conservation	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em>.	eng
155297	distribution	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	The goby species, <em>Apocryptodon punctatus</em>, is known only from the inshore coastal areas of mainland Japan.&#160; The species is found in internal seas and bays only, and does not occur around the Pacific or Sea of Japan coastlines (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155297	habitat	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em> is a demersal species found in burrows made by crustaceans (<em>Alpheus</em> spp.) within estuaries and intertidal mudflats.&#160; As a result, it is difficult to observe, due to turbid water (E. Murdy pers. comm. 2009).&#160; This goby is also tolerant of brackish waters.	eng
155297	population	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Apocryptodon</span><em> punctatus</em>.	eng
155297	threats	Acero, A., Larson, H.K. & Murdy, E., 2009	Due to its inshore nature, it is likely that this species is exposed to a number of potential threats including development, pollution run-off and fluctuations in a number of environmental factors such as salinity and temperature.&#160; However, given the habitat in which it is found, this species should be relatively tolerant of fluctuations in salinity and temperature.	eng
155298	conservation	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Careproctus pallidus</em>, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Tierra del Fuego National Park.<br/><br/>Further surveys are needed to determine the abundance, ecology and threats of this species.	eng
155298	distribution	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Careproctus pallidus</em> is known from two specimens found in southern Chile, on the border with Argentina.	eng
155298	habitat	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no ecological information available for <em>Careproctus pallidus</em>.  The depth profile of this species is thought to be from 6m to 28m depth, from the collection of the two known specimens.	eng
155298	population	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	The rarity of Liparid species in South American collections is due to lack of sampling (Stein 2005).	eng
155298	threats	Stein, D., Nelson, J., Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	It is not known if <em>Careproctus pallidus</em> is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
155299	conservation	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.&#160; Further research is needed to determine the distribution and abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155299	distribution	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em> is a filefish found in waters off northwestern Australia.	eng
155299	habitat	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	<em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em> is a demersal species that has been found at a depth range of 22–82 m.	eng
155299	population	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.&#160; It is known only from 22 type specimens (Hutchins 1977).	eng
155299	threats	Matsuura, K., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R., Carpenter, K. & Hutchins, B., 2009	There are no known major threat processes impacting <em>Eubalichthys caeruleoguttatus</em>.	eng
155300	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pentapodus emeryii</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of marine protected areas within its range.&#160; Further research and monitoring of the population numbers, harvest levels, and extent of harvest is needed.	eng
155300	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pentapodus emeryii</em> is distributed from Java and Borneo to Papua New Guinea, north to the Philippines, and south to northwestern Australia.	eng
155300	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The bream, <em>Pentapodus emeryii</em>, inhabits lagoons and coastal reefs at depths greater than 20 m.&#160; Adults are often found adjacent to coral or rocky reefs, on sand or mixed sand-rubble slopes, alongside sponges, soft coral, and algae.&#160; They typically form small groups.&#160; Juveniles inhabit shallower depths, amongst coral, algae and sponges, and are found solitary.&#160; This species feeds on small fishes, sipunculid worms, and ophiuroids.	eng
155300	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pentapodis emeryii</em> is reported to be the thirteenth most abundant reef fish in tropical Western Australia (Travers<em> et al.</em> 2006).	eng
155300	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pentapodus emeryii</em> is occasionally taken in small numbers as a food source (Russell 1990).&#160; However, due to the small size of this species, this is a subsistence scale fishery only.<br/><br/>Due to the coastal nature of this species, it is likely to be undergoing declines in areas impacted by destructive or intense fishing, large scale coastal development, and water pollution due to domestic and commercial sources. However, these threats are not known across the entire distribution of this species, and so are only likely to be causing localised declines in abundance.	eng
155301	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.	eng
155301	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is distributed from East Africa to French Polynesia, north to southern Japan, and south to northwest and east coast Australia and New Caledonia.	eng
155301	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> can be found in lagoons and on coastal reef slopes.&#160; Although sometimes observed living in holes in the hard reef substrate, it is most commonly seen in sand or mud, or among coral rubble, sometimes with only its head protruding.   <br/><br/>This species tends to be site attached; individuals have been known to stay in the same hole for months or even years.&#160; Juveniles are found individually, but it is not uncommon to find more than one male in the same area.&#160; In some cases, males will even share the same hole within the sandy substrate.&#160; During the day, individuals feed on small fishes that pass close to the burrow entrance.<br/><br/><em>Rhinomuraena</em><em> quaesita</em> has several characteristics that have lead experts to suggest that it should be placed in its own family — the <em>Rhinomuraenidae</em>; these include the positioning of its kidneys and most of its reproductive organs posterior to the anus (a unique condition that has not been reported in any other vertebrate) (Michael 1998).<br/><br/>This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite, <span style="font-style: italic;">i.e</span>., all females are derived from males that have changed sex.	eng
155301	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is reported to be common in Indonesia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
155301	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Rhinomuraena quaesita</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; In Indonesia, this species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade using cyanide fishing.&#160; However, this is a localised threat and not significant to the global population.	eng
155302	conservation	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nectamia </span><em>annularis</em>. There has been some success in establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Red Sea, but there is little or no effective regional MPA network, and most of the MPAs have ineffective management (Kotb <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
155302	distribution	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	The Ringtail Cardinalfish, <em>Nectamia annularis</em>, is endemic to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
155302	habitat	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Nectamia annularis</em> is a small planktivorous coral reef fish, found to a depth of 17 m. During the night, fish of this species forage either individually or in small groups in the shallow waters above the coral reefs. During the day, <em>N. annularis</em> hide in deep crevices and caves. Like other cardinal fish, <em>N. annularis</em> exhibit distinct pairing during courtship and spawning. This species is a mouth-brooder.	eng
155302	population	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Nectamia annularis</em> is reported to be a common, nocturnal coral-reef fish in Eilat, Red Sea (Holzman and Genin 2003) and is likely to be common elsewhere in its range (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155302	threats	Fricke, R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is not known to be threatened by harvesting for the aquarium trade but may be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation. The coral reefs off Eilat are threatened by a number of factors including mariculture effluent, sewage, bilge and ballast water, ship fuel discharge, intense tourism pressure, and discharge of detergents and phosphates. The reefs of Eilat are considered to be in a 'critical state' (Wilkinson 2004), but elsewhere in the range of this species, reefs are likely to be less threatened. Crown of Thorns Starfish is a localized threat. Overall, these localized threats do not appear to be driving rapid population declines (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155303	conservation	Auster, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em>.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the ecology and distribution of this species.	eng
155303	distribution	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is known from a unique holotype found at 9°23 N, 89°32 W (Nielsen and Larsen 1968) found in the central eastern Pacific, off the coast of central America.	eng
155303	habitat	Auster, P., 2009	<em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is thought to be bathydemersal, as the only specimen collected was taken from a depth of 3,570 m.<br/><br/>Most species within the Alepocephalidae family can be found near the benthos above oceanic ridges and the continental slope.	eng
155303	population	Auster, P., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em>.	eng
155303	threats	Auster, P., 2009	It is not known if <em>Bathylaco macrophthalmus</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However these is no known directed fishery for species within the family <em>Alepocephalidae</em>. It is unknown whether it is likely to be taken as a by-catch species due to the lack of information on the habitat and distribution of this species.	eng
155304	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found to occur in a number of marine protected areas around the west and north coast of Australia.	eng
155304	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> occurs off northern Australia from Rottnest Island to the Gulf of Carpentaria.	eng
155304	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> inhabits inshore rock and coral reefs mainly on rocky substrates.  This species has been found to a depth of 6 m.	eng
155304	population	Allen, G.R. & Larson, H.K., 2009	<em>Pomacentrus milleri</em> was found to be one of the most abundant <em>Pomacentrus</em> species in a survey of the Jurien Bay Marine Park (Potter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is one of the most common pomacentrids along the west Australian coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155304	threats	Allen, G.R. & Larson, H.K., 2009	Species within the genus <em>Pomacentrus</em> are often utilised for the aquarium trade, however there is no record of this species being harvested for the trade. <br/><br/>A study by Watson<em> et al.</em> 2007 found that even if not directly targeted, the abundance of this species was altered by fishing activity within its region by altering the community species composition. This is not considered a major threat to this species as fishing activity is not known across this species entire range.	eng
155305	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Oneirodes luetkeni</em>. <br/><br/>Further research into potential major threats, the ecology, distribution and abundance of this species is needed, as little information is available at present.	eng
155305	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Oneirodes luetkeni</em> has been found in the Gulf of Panama.	eng
155305	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span> is an angler fish, referred to as amongst the most primitive of its family (Pietsch 1969). It has been captured at depths of 1,750 m (Castellanos-Galindo <em>et al.</em> 2006), but its depth range is not known.	eng
155305	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information currently available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span>.	eng
155305	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	It is not known if there are any major threats impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Oneirodes luetkeni</span>.	eng
155306	conservation	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Neely, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>.	eng
155306	distribution	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Neely, D., 2009	<em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em> is known only from the Notsuke-suido Channel, off the east coast of Hokkaido, Japan.&#160; The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 742 km².	eng
155306	habitat	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Neely, D., 2009	The sculpin, <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>, is a demersal species found in coastal marine waters at a depth range of 15–157 m. It is found on sandy and mud bottoms. The congener, <em>Ricuzenius pinetorum</em>, is approximately 6 cm (SL).	eng
155306	population	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Neely, D., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ricuzenius nudithorax</em>.	eng
155306	threats	Acero, A., Murdy, E. & Neely, D., 2009	The region from which this species is recorded is not known to be subjected to pollution or any other activities likely to affect this species' habitat, and there are no trawl fisheries in the area (K. Matsuura pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155307	conservation	Motomura, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em>.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, and to determine the extent to which it may be impacted by threats such as pollution and by-catch.	eng
155307	distribution	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> occurs in the northwest Pacific off the coast of Hachijôjima, Japan. It is also found in the South China Sea, in the coastal waters of Taiwan.	eng
155307	habitat	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits temperate waters.&#160; Its depth range remains unknown, but species from the <em>Scorpaena</em> genus occur at depths of 1–800 m.&#160; Its congeners, <em>S. cardinalis</em> and <em>S. cookii</em>, are both inshore species that occur on rocky reefs (FAO 1999).&#160; The maximum size of <em>S. hatizyoensis</em> is unknown, but <em>S. cardinalis</em> reaches a size of 38 cm (FAO 1999).	eng
155307	population	Motomura, H., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em>.&#160; However, its congener, <em>S. cardinalis</em>, is reported to occur commonly in a wide range of habitats in areas of its range in Australia (Edgar 2000).	eng
155307	threats	Motomura, H., 2009	<em>Scorpaena hatizyoensis</em> may be threatened by pollution and intensive fishing, which occur in parts of its range.&#160; It is likely that this species is taken as by-catch in some areas of its range.&#160; However, at present, these threats are not thought to be causing any significant population declines.&#160; Its congeners, <em>S. cardinalis</em> and <em>S. cookii</em>, are of no importance to commercial fisheries, but are both fished locally for food (FAO 1999).	eng
155308	conservation	Allen, G., Fricke, R., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	The distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas in the Pacific,  including 13 sites around New Caledonia all of which are strict 'no-take' areas to conserve biodiversity (Lovell <em>et al</em>. 2004). Monitoring of the harvest levels and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
155308	distribution	Allen, G., Fricke, R., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the tropical waters of the central Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001) from the Philippines, east to the Pitcairn Islands (UK), and Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003) north to the Northern Marianas Islands and Hawaii (USA), and south to New Caledonia and Queensland (Australia). The species is found at a depth range of 15-60 m.	eng
155308	habitat	Allen, G., Fricke, R., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It can be found on the foreslope of coral reefs and clear lagoons. This species, which forms harems of three to seven individuals, feeds on algae and is secretive and stays near shelter.	eng
155308	population	Allen, G., Fricke, R., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>This species is considered to be common to abundant, with relatively stable populations (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
155308	threats	Allen, G., Fricke, R., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is commercially harvested for the aquarium trade (FAO 1999). It is frequently taken, although individuals are of relatively low value (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is only taken in a few areas of its broad geographic range. This species has been bred in captivity. This species may also be impacted by coral reef degradation, caused by destructive fishing practices, coastal development and tourism. However, this is a localized threat only and much of the suitable habitat in this species range is in relatively good condition.	eng
155309	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Isacia conceptionis</em>, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
155309	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Cabinza Grunt, <em>Isacia conceptionis</em>, is found from Peru to Chile.  It has also been reported from Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997).	eng
155309	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Cabinza Grunt occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms and has a depth range of 0-50 m. This species is dominant in shallow rocky subtidal areas (Angel and Ojeda 2001). Its diet consists of small crustaceans, polychaetes and algae.	eng
155309	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Cabinza Grunt <em></em>has been described as among the most abundant species in this region, both currently and historically (Reitz 2001; Sielfeld <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002;  Vildo <em>et al</em>. 1999).  Angel and Ojeda (2001) found Cabinza Grunt <em></em>to be the most abundant fish species along the northern Chilean coast. It is thought that, like other species in the region, it suffered population declines during El Nino events (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
155309	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	The Cabinza Grunt <em></em>is harvested commercially as a food source. Landings in the Humboldt Current have ranged from between 1,000 to near 7,000 tonnes over the last ten years: 1995 - 3,282.34 tonnes, 1996 - 2,362.11 tonnes, 1997 - 1,701.67 tonnes, 1998 - 2,545.16 tonnes, 1999 -&#160; 6,119.10 tonnes, 2000 - 3,361.92 tonnes, 2001 - 3,244.06 tonnes, 2002 - 3,842.05 tonnes, 2003 - 2,882.75 tonnes, 2004 - 3,158.12 tonnes. While there are annual fluctuations in the landings of this species, there is no obvious decline assuming the catch per unit effort has remained relatively constant. Fluctuations in the landings of this species might be attributed to El Nino events.	eng
155310	conservation	Alvarado, J., Eschmeyer, W. & Iwamoto, T. , 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span>. However, the distribution of this species falls within numerous designated marine protected areas, including several in Bermuda and the Bahamas. <br/><br/>Further research is needed on the distribution of this species, to try and establish the full range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> in the Pacific. Monitoring of this species, its threats and harvest levels is needed, to determine if commercial harvesting and coral reef degradation will have a negative impact on the population of this species in the future.	eng
155310	distribution	Alvarado, J., Eschmeyer, W. & Iwamoto, T. , 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is found in the western Atlantic and is distributed from southern Florida and Bermuda, to Brazil (Lavett-Smith 1997). This species has also been found off the coast of Tumaco (Colombia) in the eastern Pacific. However, this distribution in the eastern Pacific should be verified (Lavenberg and Chernoff 1995).	eng
155310	habitat	Alvarado, J., Eschmeyer, W. & Iwamoto, T. , 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is found in subtropical shallow waters over coral reefs. This species feeds on zooplankton and is found in large schools.	eng
155310	population	Alvarado, J., Eschmeyer, W. & Iwamoto, T. , 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Atherinomorus stipes</span> is common in coastal waters of the northwestern Atlantic (Suarez-Morales and Aviles-Torres 2003).	eng
155310	threats	Alvarado, J., Eschmeyer, W. & Iwamoto, T. , 2010	<p>There are no major threats known to this species. However this species is associated with coral reef habitat, which is threatened by coral bleaching, tropical storms, hurricanes, coral disease, over fishing, water pollution and population pressures in many parts of its range in tropical America.</p>	eng
155311	conservation	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Raconda russeliana</em>.&#160; However, it may occur in a number of coastal marine protected areas.	eng
155311	distribution	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific from the eastern coast of India, to Singapore and the Java Sea.	eng
155311	habitat	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is a pelagic species, typically found in coastal and estuarine waters.&#160; The depth range of this species is unknown, but like other clupeids, it is likely to occur in the shallow photic zone.&#160; This species mainly feeds on prawns and copepods.	eng
155311	population	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Raconda russeliana</em>.	eng
155311	threats	Munroe, T.A. & Priede, I.G., 2009	<em>Raconda russeliana</em> is rarely seen in catches (Whitehead 1985), but is marketed in local trade as a salted fish.	eng
155312	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Tyler, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.	eng
155312	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Tyler, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Tomicodon australis</em> is known only from Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina on the southeastern coast of Brazil.&#160; As this species inhabits a high energy, rocky shore environment that is difficult to sample, this species is probably more widely distributed in Brazil than currently known (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155312	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Tyler, J. & Williams, J., 2009	<em>Tomicodon australis</em> occurs in shallow surge zones on rocky shores (J.T. Williams pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155312	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Tyler, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.	eng
155312	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Tyler, J. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known threats impacting <em>Tomicodon australis</em>.	eng
155313	conservation	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Canthigaster leoparda</em>.	eng
155313	distribution	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster leoparda</em> is an Indo-Pacific puffer fish, distributed from Christmas Island and Indonesia (Moluccas to Bali) to the Philippines and Guam. Also present in the Cook Islands.	eng
155313	habitat	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster leoparda </em>is commonly seen in caves of deep coral drop-offs (Sadovy and Severin 1992).	eng
155313	population	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Canthigaster leoparda</em>.	eng
155313	threats	Matsuura, K., Allen, G., Collette, B., Nelson, J., Dooley, J., Fritzsche, R. & Carpenter, K., 2009	<em>Canthigaster leoparda</em> has no known major threats.	eng
155314	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for P<span style="font-style: italic;">seudocheilinus ocellatus</span>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas.	eng
155314	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em> is found in the western south Pacific, including Pitcairn Islands, Tuamotu Archipelago, Rapa, Austral Islands, Society Islands, Johnston Islands (not Hawaii), Marshall Islands, Wake Island, Caroline Is. Also in Fiji, Loyalty Is, Coral Sea, Ryukyu Is and Ogasawara Is. (Randall 1999), Tahiti, Vanuatu, Australia, Cook Is., Line Is, French Polynesia, Micronesia, New Caledonia (Froese and Pauly 2009).	eng
155314	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</span> lives in depths between 20–60 m on coral reefs. It is a cryptic species, and prefers darker areas of the reef (Randall 1999; Munday 2005). It lives in deeper water than other congeners (Randall 1999). This species can be found in caves and overhangs of drop-offs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155314	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em>. This species is cryptic, and is therefore difficult to study.	eng
155314	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em></em>There are no major threats known for <em>Pseudocheilinus ocellatus</em>, although it is collected for the aquarium trade, but not commonly traded.	eng
155316	conservation	van der Heiden, A.M. & Findley, L.T., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span>.&#160; Although its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006), enforcement of fishing regulations in these areas is negligible.<br/><br/>Further research is needed to confirm anecdotal evidence of population decline due to fishing pressures and the disappearance of large individuals.	eng
155316	distribution	van der Heiden, A.M. & Findley, L.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span> is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found near central Baja California and in the Gulf of California.&#160; The most northwestern record on Baja California needs verification, as a continuous distribution from that record to the tip of the peninsula is suspect.	eng
155316	habitat	van der Heiden, A.M. & Findley, L.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius </span>is present in coastal areas at the mouth of estuaries and in brackish water habitats, on soft substrates, at depths to 95 m (Galván-Magaña et al. 2000).	eng
155316	population	van der Heiden, A.M. & Findley, L.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paralichthys aestuarius</span> is relatively common throughout its range.&#160; However, there has been a decline in mean size of the larger individuals of this species in fishery catches.	eng
155316	threats	van der Heiden, A.M. & Findley, L.T., 2007	<p>This species is commonly caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling activities (Pérez-Mellado and Findley, 1985) and is also directly fished in localised areas (e.g. Puerto Penasco and Bahia Kino in Mexico). Research is needed to address the suggesting evidence of population decline due to fishing pressures and the disappearance of large individuals.</p>	eng
155317	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the Flathead Perch.&#160; However, its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations.&#160; Further research and monitoring of its habitat status, population numbers, and potential threats is needed, as little information is currently available.	eng
155317	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Flathead Perch<em> (Rainfordia opercularis</em>) is an Australian species distributed around Western Australia and Queensland.	eng
155317	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Flathead Perch<em> </em>is a secretive, sub-tropical species, found inshore in caves of coral reefs.&#160; Species from the Serranidae family are benthic species and most are found at depths of less than 200 m (FAO 1999).	eng
155317	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Flathead Perch.	eng
155317	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is unlikely that the Flathead Perch is being impacted by any major threat processes.&#160; There are some localised incidents of habitat degradation within this species' range, due to Crown of Thorns starfish outbreaks and damage from tropical storms, but these are unlikely to be acting as major threats.<br/><br/>It is also possible that this species is taken for the aquarium trade as the sub-family Liopropomatini are known to be of value in this trade (FAO 1999).	eng
155318	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	In 1986, the Canarian Government imposed a minimum length of capture (15 cm total length) for the Archipelago (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).  There are no other known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Serranus atricauda</em>.  However, its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including Selwo Marine Park off southern Spain.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest levels, extent of harvest and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
155318	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The range of <em>Serranus atricauda</em> extends along the coasts of Europe and west Africa from the Bay of Biscay in the north eastern Atlantic to the Azores, Mauritania and the Canary Islands, the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, Algiers and southern Spain (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
155318	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is a demersal species that is found over rocky substrates from the subtidal zone to depths of 150 m (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is a generalist species, predominantly feeding on crustaceans and smaller fish. Spawning can take place throughout the year (García-Díaz <em>et al</em> 2006). <em>Serranus atricauda</em> is a hermaphrodite and maturation occurs at 4 years old (Costa 1997). The species is highly territorial (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
155318	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is described as relatively abundant but likely to have declined (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Densities of this species have been recorded as 0.04 individuals per 250m<sup>2</sup> in Cabo de Palos Marine Protected Area and 0.3 individuals per 250m<sup>2</sup> in Cabo de Gata Marine Protected Area (Charton <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Significant decreases in catches have been recorded around the Canary Islands since the second half of the 1980s (Cuyas <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
155318	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Serranus atricauda</em> is one of the species targeted by the local semi-subsistence fishing industry around the Azores, of which the main catching methods are rod and line from near-shore boat, and coastal nets (Moranto <em>et al.</em> 2000).  Its near-coastal habitat is likely to have been degraded by pollution from human settlements, including agricultural run-off and sewage.<br/><br/>While this species is considered to be relatively abundant (Morato <em>et al.</em> 2000), human fishing pressures have impacted the abundance of this species in islands around the Canarian Archipelago. In the same area, two larger serranid species have been severely overfished and stringent management measures for the area have been recommended (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species is commercially harvested throughout its range.	eng
155319	conservation	Larson, H.K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.&#160; Further research is needed on the potential threats to this species, to determine the impact that fishing activity is having on the population.	eng
155319	distribution	Larson, H.K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span> has been found in the Red Sea and off India.	eng
155319	habitat	Larson, H.K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span> is a deep-water, benthic gobiid, commonly trawled from depths of 434–496 m (H. Larson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155319	population	Larson, H.K., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.	eng
155319	threats	Larson, H.K., 2009	There is no known commercial trade for <span style="font-style: italic;">Obliquogobius turkayi</span>.&#160;  However, many of the countries surrounding the Red Sea have experienced a rapid unsustainable increase in fishing pressure and some countries' marine resources have suffered from over-exploitation (FAO-FIGIS 2007).&#160; Although there is no information suggesting that this species has declined as a result of this activity, it may occasionally be taken as by-catch, or be suffering habitat degradation from trawling activity.	eng
155320	conservation	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nannobrachium gibbsi</em>.	eng
155320	distribution	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<p>This species has a suggested south tropical semi-subtropical distribution, widespread from the southern half of the Tropical and northern half of the South Pacific Subtropical regions (<span lang="EN-GB">Zahuranec 2000). The distribution of this species occurs slightly north of the equator; there is no consistent variation in extreme eastern and western Pacific ends of this species range (<span lang="EN-GB">Zahuranec 2000). The are no confirmed identifications of this species west of 160<sup>o </sup>east in the Tropical Pacific region (Paxton, J. pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155320	habitat	Paxton, J.R., 2009	<em>Nannobrachium gibbsi</em> is a bathypelagic species.&#160; Most species of the family Myctophidae migrate vertically to the upper 200 m at night and are opportunistic carnivores, feeding mainly on crustaceans (FAO 1999).	eng
155320	population	Paxton, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannobrachium gibbsi</span>.	eng
155320	threats	Paxton, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting <span style="font-style: italic;">Nannobrachium gibbsi</span>.	eng
155321	conservation	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Helcogramma decurrens</em>.&#160; It is likely that this species occurs in a number of marine protected areas around the south and west coasts of Australia, affording it some protection from harvesting.	eng
155321	distribution	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is known from the coastal region of Western and South Australia.	eng
155321	habitat	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is a bottom-living blennioid species, typically found on rocky substrates covered in algae.&#160; It occurs in the subtidal to intertidal zone, and has been recorded at depths of up to 13 m.	eng
155321	population	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	Fricke (1994) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Helcogramma decurrens</span> as quite common.	eng
155321	threats	Fricke, R., McEachran, J. & Williams, J.T., 2009	<em>Helcogramma decurrens</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, but tis is not thought to represent an major threat to the species.	eng
155322	conservation	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectrogenium nanum</em>.	eng
155322	distribution	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Plectrogenium nanum</em> is  known from Japan, Taiwan, New Zealand, the Kermadec Islands, New Caledonia, Hawaii, and Madagascar.&#160; This species probably has a more widespread distribution than is currently described (R. Fricke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
155322	habitat	Fricke, R., 2009	<em>Plectrogenium nanum</em> is a bathydemersal species.&#160; It has been collected from a depth range of 250–650 m.	eng
155322	population	Fricke, R., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Plectrogenium nanum</span>.	eng
155322	threats	Fricke, R., 2009	There are no known major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Plectrogenium nanum</span>, although it may be taken as by-catch in some areas of its range.	eng
155323	conservation	Heemstra, P.C & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em>.<br/><br/>Further surveys need to be made within this species appropriate habitat to determine level of abundance.	eng
155323	distribution	Heemstra, P.C & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> is known from eight specimens found near Madagascar and in the Saya de Malha Bank, western Indian Ocean.	eng
155323	habitat	Heemstra, P.C & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	It is believed that <em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> has a preference for rocky outcrop areas. It has been collected at a depth range of 140-190 m.	eng
155323	population	Heemstra, P.C & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Plectranthias bauchotae</em> is only known from eight specimens. The few recorded specimens is likely to be a result of inadequate sampling (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155323	threats	Heemstra, P.C & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This species is unlikely to be undergoing a rapid decline in population numbers (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009). Its preference for rocky outcrop areas protects it from fishing activity. Due to the deepwater nature of this species it is unlikely to be impacted by pollution or coastal development.	eng
155324	conservation	Stein, D.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span>.<br/><br/>Further research on the ecology, distribution, abundance, and threats to this species is needed.	eng
155324	distribution	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis orcadensis</em> is only known from a few specimens found around the Southern Orkney Islands in the Scotia Sea.	eng
155324	habitat	Stein, D.L., 2009	<em>Paraliparis orcadensis</em> is a bathydemersal species that has been collected at a depth of 1,253 m.	eng
155324	population	Stein, D.L., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span>, as it is only known from a few specimens.&#160; However, species of the family Liparidae are thought to have low population abundances (Stein 2006).	eng
155324	threats	Stein, D.L., 2009	It is unknown if <span style="font-style: italic;">Paraliparis orcadensis</span> is being impacted by any major threatening processes.	eng
155325	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for<em> Ogcocephalus pumilus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may coincide with numerous marine protected area designations, including seven in Suriname and 31 around the Bahamas (Wood 2007).<br/><br/>Further research into the population size, ecology, and potential threats to this species is needed, as little information is currently available.	eng
155325	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> is found in the western central Atlantic off the coast of Suriname, and in the Caribbean Sea.	eng
155325	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> is a demersal species that has a depth range of 35-348 m. Most species from the Ogcocephalidae family occur well offshore on mud or sand bottoms (FAO 2002).	eng
155325	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ogcocephalus pumilus</span>.	eng
155325	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	Species from the Ogcocephalidae family are rarely eaten and there is no commercial fishery for them (FAO 2002). While in the Caribbean Sea, there are significant impacts from over-fishing of reef resources, oil pollution, and land erosion leading to siltation as a result of deforestation (NOAA 2003), it is considered unlikely that these are acting as major threats to <em>Ogcocephalus pumilus</em> at present.	eng
155326	conservation	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for Eastern Wirrah, however its distribution may cover a number of marine protected areas including the Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park in Victoria, Australia.	eng
155326	distribution	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eastern Wirrah, <em>Acanthistius ocellatus,</em> is found along the eastern coast of Australia from southern Queensland through to New South Wales and eastern Victoria.  Its range also includes the coast of northern Tasmania and Lord Howe Island.	eng
155326	habitat	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eastern Wirrah is found in a range of reef habitats, in caves and crevices of rocky reefs from near-shore rockpools and estuaries, to further offshore. This species has a depth range of 4-100 m.	eng
155326	population	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	The Eastern Wirrah is one of the more common large fishes on deeper New South Wales reefs (Edgar 2000).	eng
155326	threats	Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	While the Eastern Wirrah is not harvested commercially, it is often caught using hook and line by recreational fishermen. It is not known what impact this is having on population numbers of this species, however there are no reports of this species suffering any significant declines and this is therefore unlikely to be acting as a major threat at present.	eng
155327	conservation	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas in the Gulf of California.	eng
155327	distribution	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Lizard Triplefin is endemic to the Mexican Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.	eng
155327	habitat	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores and steep slopes to depths of 40 m.	eng
155327	population	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983). In Los Islote, Gulf of California, this species was considered to be both frequent and abundant (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).	eng
155327	threats	Hastings, P. & Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is not known to be impacted by any major threats.	eng
155328	conservation	Tyler, J.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em>.&#160; Its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected area designations, but the extent of protection that these provide is unclear at present.<br/><br/>In order to determine if this species is likely to suffer significant population declines in the future, further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, and potential threats.	eng
155328	distribution	Tyler, J.C., 2009	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> has been found in waters around Tanzania, the Philippines and Australia.	eng
155328	habitat	Tyler, J.C., 2009	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> is a deep benthic species (J. Tyler pers. comm. 2008) and has been found at a depths of 183-194 m. Species from the Triacanthodidae family usually occur on flat, sandy, or weed-covered bottoms, and feed on bottom invertebrates (FAO 2001).	eng
155328	population	Tyler, J.C., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em>.	eng
155328	threats	Tyler, J.C., 2009	<em>Paratriacanthodes herrei</em> may be experiencing localised threats, but is unlikely to be severely impacted across its broad range.&#160; The Triacanthodidae family are marketed, but are of little commercial importance (FAO 2001).&#160; This species may be taken as by-catch by commercial fisheries operating within its range, particularly in Tanzania where the major fishing areas are fully exploited.	eng
155329	conservation	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em>.&#160; However, the distribution of this species may fall within numerous designated marine protected areas,  including several in Japan.&#160; Further research is needed on the ecology of this species, in order to better understand the impact of potential threats.	eng
155329	distribution	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> has a patchy distribution from Japan, south to northern Australia, and east to the Marshall Islands.	eng
155329	habitat	McCosker, J.E., 2009	<em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> is a demersal species.&#160; Species of the family Ophichthidae have muscular cylindrical bodies which are well adapted for burrowing, and many species spend most of their adult lives buried in the bottom sediment (Smith and McCosker 1999).&#160;  This species has a depth range of 0–40 m.	eng
155329	population	McCosker, J.E., 2009	There is no population information available for <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em>.	eng
155329	threats	McCosker, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that <em>Ophichthus altipennis</em> is being impacted by any major threat processes.	eng
155330	conservation	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pomadasys maculatus</em>, however its distribution may coincide with numerous marine protected areas.<br/><br/>Monitoring of the harvest and by-catch levels, the extent of harvest, and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
155330	distribution	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is found throughout the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, and in the western Pacific from China and Taiwan, south to Australia.	eng
155330	habitat	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	The grunt, <em>Pomadasys maculatus</em>, is an amphidromous species that is found in coastal inshore waters at a depth range of 20–110 m.&#160; It inhabits sandy bottoms close to reefs, open bays, trawling grounds, and estuaries (FAO 2001).&#160; It feeds on crustaceans and fishes.	eng
155330	population	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is commonly found on prawn trawl grounds (FAO 2001).	eng
155330	threats	Collen, B., Richman, N., Beresford, A., Chenery, A. & Ram, M. (Sampled Red List Index Coordinating Team), 2009	<em>Pomadasys maculatus</em> is fished commercially and is taken by bottom trawl, handline, set net, trap, and spear (FAO 2001).&#160; It is also likely that this species is taken as by-catch by prawn trawl fisheries operating within its range.<br/><br/>This species may also suffer localised declines due to habitat degradation and pollution.	eng
155333	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2009	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries; it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
155333	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2008	The species is listed on Appendix II of the Berne Convention and is listed on Annex IV of the EU Natural Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in many countries; it is recorded on many national and sub-national Red Data books and lists and is present in many protected areas. In parts of this species range, mitigation measures to reduce road kill have been established.	eng
155333	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2009	Following the recent revision of the ?Bufo viridis? complex by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), populations of green toads now allocated to Pseudepidalea viridis are distributed through much of Europe (excluding much of Fenno-Skandia, the British Isles, almost the whole of Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and almost all of Europe west of the Rhine River) eastwards to Kazakhstan. Populations of green toads from the southern tip of Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany were provisionally identified as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), however it is possible that populations of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are also within these areas. The species of green toad on the island of Malta is unclear, and is retained here in <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> pending further research. Populations of green toad from the Eastern Mediterranean countries, and much of Central and Middle Asia are now largely allocated to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006). Populations from North Africa are now included within <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>. Populations of green toads from the Balearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy) and much of mainland Italy are now recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em>. Green toad populations from Sicily, Italy, now mostly comprise the endemic <em>Pseudepidalea sicula</em>, with some populations of <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em> in the northeast of this island. The status of green toads in Israel, Jordan, Sinai (Egypt) and of the isolated, relict population in the southern Hadramaut in southwestern Saudi Arabia is currently unclear, and it is possible that these populations should be included within either <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> or <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri </em>pending further review.	eng
155333	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2008	Following the recent revision of the ?Bufo viridis? complex by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), populations of green toads now allocated to Pseudepidalea viridis are distributed through much of Europe (excluding much of Fenno-Skandia, the British Isles, almost the whole of Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and almost all of Europe west of the Rhine River) eastwards to Kazakhstan. Populations of green toads from the southern tip of Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany were provisionally identified as <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006), however it is possible that populations of <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are also within these areas. The species of green toad on the island of Malta is unclear, and is retained here in <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> pending further research. Populations of green toad from the Eastern Mediterranean countries, and much of Central and Middle Asia are now largely allocated to <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> by Stöck <em>et al</em>. (2006). Populations from North Africa are now included within <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri</em>. Populations of green toads from the Balearic Islands (Spain), Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy) and much of mainland Italy are now recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em>. Green toad populations from Sicily, Italy, now mostly comprise the endemic <em>Pseudepidalea sicula</em>, with some populations of <em>Pseudepidalea balearica</em> in the northeast of this island. The status of green toads in Israel, Jordan, Sinai (Egypt) and of the isolated, relict population in the southern Hadramaut in southwestern Saudi Arabia is currently unclear, and it is possible that these populations should be included within either <em>Pseudepidalea variabilis</em> or <em>Pseudepidalea boulengeri </em>pending further review.	eng
155333	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2009	This species lives in a wide range of forests, forest steppe, scrubland, grassland and alpine habitats. Animals may be present in modified areas including urban centres (e.g. Bucharest), city parks and gardens - and often benefits from disturbed habitats. Spawning and larval development occurs in a diverse range of temporary and permanent waterbodies including swamps, ponds, lakes, pools in streams and rivers, reservoirs, ditches and puddles.	eng
155333	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2008	This species lives in a wide range of forests, forest steppe, scrubland, grassland and alpine habitats. Animals may be present in modified areas including urban centres (e.g. Bucharest), city parks and gardens - and often benefits from disturbed habitats. Spawning and larval development occurs in a diverse range of temporary and permanent waterbodies including swamps, ponds, lakes, pools in streams and rivers, reservoirs, ditches and puddles.	eng
155333	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2009	This species is still considered a relatively abundant to common species over large parts of its range, although populations formerly recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are rare or declining on the fringes of its range in Europe (e.g., Denmark and Sweden). It is extinct in Switzerland despite re-introduction efforts.	eng
155333	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2008	This species is still considered a relatively abundant to common species over large parts of its range, although populations formerly recognized as <em>Pseudepidalea viridis</em> are rare or declining on the fringes of its range in Europe (e.g., Denmark and Sweden). It is extinct in Switzerland despite re-introduction efforts.	eng
155333	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2009	The main threat over much of the range (most especially in the north) appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural). Populations might be locally declining due to mortality on roads.	eng
155333	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avisi, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, U?ur Kaya, Matthias Stöck, Muhammad Sharif Khan, Sergius Kuzmin, David Tarkhnishvili, Vladimir Ishchenko, Theodore Papenfuss, Gad Degani, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Nasrullah Rastegar-Pouyani, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Trevor Beebee, Franco Andreone, 2008	The main threat over much of the range (most especially in the north) appears to be the loss of breeding habitats through wetland drainage, desiccation and aquatic pollution (industrial and agricultural). Populations might be locally declining due to mortality on roads.	eng
155335	conservation	Feher, Z., Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	There are no known coservation actions.	eng
155335	distribution	Feher, Z., Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca </span>is found in Germany, Austria, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Czech Republic in the Alpine-Carparthian region, possibly extending to Ukraine. Boeters (2008) noted that <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span> (Frauenfeld, 1857) lives in springs of tributaries of the Danube and that tributaries with springs inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">B. austriaca</span> flow into the Danube roughly between the more upstream situated drainage area with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bavarica</span> and the more downstream situated drainage area with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. schmidtii.</span> It was mentioned from Romania, but recent studies indicate that these records were in fact other <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species (Falniowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). <br/><br/>There are 4 subspecies currently recognised by Gloer (2002):<br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca austriaca</span> (Frauenfeld, 1857) : <br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca conica</span> (Clessin, 1910):&#160; In Oberbayern and Austria<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca ehrmanni</span> Pax, 1938: Poland and the Czech Republic<br/> <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca pavovillatica</span> Canon, 1937: the Czech Republic	eng
155335	habitat	Feher, Z., Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155335	population	Feher, Z., Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella austriaca&#160; </span>is a widely distributed species. No data are available on population trends.	eng
155335	threats	Feher, Z., Haase, M. & Reischutz, P., 2010	The species is not considered to be threatened with extinction, but there are threats to the springs where the species is found, such as pollution of water (agricultural sources) and overabstraction of water for domestic supplies and agricultural use (water for stock and irrigation for crops).	eng
155339	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This is a nationally protected species in France. More research on the taxonomy and the distribution range is needed.	eng
155339	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Spiralix vitrea</em> is endemic to France where it is recorded from much of the Rhone valley: Departments of Ain, Isère, Rhône, Drôme and Ardèche. It is widespread in the region, however, the records from the subpopulations the area of&#160;Drôme and Ardèche are uncertain in terms of their&#160;taxonomic status.	eng
155339	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean karst waters.	eng
155339	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155339	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Overexploitation of the aquifers may lead to reduction in the water-levels, leading to a degradation of the habitat quality.	eng
155340	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	It is protected by law in France. More research on taxonomy and population size and trends is needed.	eng
155340	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is restricted to the Rhône valley, southern France. It is only known from one aquifer, on each side of the Rhône river.	eng
155340	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155340	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155340	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic sources &#160;(sewage and run-off) or agricultural&#160;sources&#160;(nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides). Lack of water in the aquifer changing habitats and ranges maybe another threat if the aquifers become overexploited.	eng
155342	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures are proposed.	eng
155342	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
155342	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> is listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (CK map, version 5.3.8) in the Italian Red List, based on scattered localities in southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (14 localities).&#160; Habitat monitoring would be recommended for this species, to assess whether it would meet the Near Threatened status in the future. &#160;</p>	eng
155342	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is recorded from the Atlantic coast of Europe and Mediterranean France, as well as Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco in Africa.	eng
155342	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>Bank <em>et al</em> (2009) gives the range as <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Malta</st1:country-region></st1:place>. It is rather localised in the distribution, but widely scattered.&#160; In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> it was lost from 4 sites since 1900’s, and hence it is currently viewed as Near Threatened in the Italian Red List. <br/></p><p>In the mediterranean, it is also known from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco in Africa.</p>	eng
155342	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species was recorded from the Atlantic coast of Europe and Mediterranean France, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
155342	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Crenobiont that lives in rivers, streams, ponds, plain streams, water with high levels of organic matter, and is more resistant to pollution and organic load than other related species. It has recently colonized groundwater in wells and lost its pigmentation. When the surface waters dry out, this species follows the water down into the wells (Ghamizi 1998).	eng
155342	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> has been found to inhabit   coastal streams and rivers.	eng
155342	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is a crenobiont. Also lives in rivers, streams, in ponds, plain streams, water with high levels of organic matter, and is more resistant to pollution and organic load than other related species. Has recently colonised ground water in wells and lost its pigmentation. When the surface waters dry out, this species follows the water down into the wells (Ghamizi 1998).	eng
155342	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Its populations are abundant.	eng
155342	population	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The population status for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> is currently unknown.	eng
155342	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is an abundant species.	eng
155342	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	In Italy,     the currently known threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria similis</span> are pollution of&#160; river waters and habitat degradation at the coast due to urbanisation and land use change.	eng
155342	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major future threats have been identified to the species.	eng
155342	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
155466	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are known for the area.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155466	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pontobelgrandiella nitida</span> is endemic to Bulgaria and is restricted to 2 freshwater springs, one in Polaten and the second in Glozhene in the district of Teteven in Bulgaria (Stara Planina Mountains).&#160;<p>Even though, the location of the 2 sites where this  species is present are only few kilometres outside the border of the  Mediterranean biogeographical region, this  species is considered here as Mediterranean . This decision has  been taken based on climatic and geological similarities of the region  with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.</p>	eng
155466	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).	eng
155466	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no data present on the population trends of this species.	eng
155466	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.</p>	eng
155468	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii </span>are known and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155468	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine regions of Lombardia, where it is present in at least 23 locations in an area that covers about 140km x 60km.	eng
155468	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> is found in the groundwaters within rocks.	eng
155468	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There are no known data trends for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span>.	eng
155468	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica concii</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli et al., 2000).	eng
155469	distribution	Killeen, I. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	Originally Fauna Europea listed <em>Marstoniopsis insubrica</em>&#160;for Italy and Switzerland and&#160;<em>Marstoniopsis scholtzi</em>&#160;for NW Europe, along the Atlantic coasts. Both species are now considered to be the same species, and hence the distribution is merged.&#160;In UK <em>Marstoniopsis insubrica&#160;</em>&#160;is very localised, known only from 7 10km squares. and not&#160;recorded alive at any site since 1982 although it was thought to be&#160;native in Southern England, it was introduced into Canals near Manchester in early 1900’s (Kerney, 1999). &#160;In Italy known from scattered locations throughout northern Italy. In Poland and Germany, a few subpopulations were studied by Falniowski & Wilke (2001).	eng
155469	habitat	Killeen, I. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica</span> inhabits lentic and lotic freshwater systems, lakes, rivers and estuaries.	eng
155469	population	Killeen, I. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	No data is available on the population trend for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica.</span>	eng
155469	threats	Killeen, I. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	There are no known threats for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis insubrica.</span>	eng
155471	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>	eng
155471	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia karamani </span>is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160; The known AOO is 2 km<sup>2</sup>, but the potential AOO is estimated as less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, based on possible habitats. <strong></strong></p>	eng
155471	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species lives in freshwater in rocky areas in surrounding sublacustrine springs where it lives on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956) . </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155471	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia karamani</span> is a very rare species, and given the cryptic habitat it is difficult to record during surveys.	eng
155471	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>  <p></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155472	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring water quality would enable the status of the species to be monitored, as it is sensitive to water pollution.<br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>	eng
155472	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Micropyrgula stankovici</span> is recorded from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid where it is found in </st1:placename>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, but at most sites where it is recorded it is present in low abundance.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
155472	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater lake species which is restricted to the sublittoral zone.	eng
155472	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in low abundances (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155472	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The changes in the habitat quality within the sublittoral zone are not very well studied, and as such the knowledge base relates to generic threats to the lake. At present deforestation in the water catchment leads to erosion and increasing sediment load, which is thought to impact the habitats of this small freshwater gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is also contaminating the water of the lake, leading to declining water quality.	eng
155473	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation actions for this species. more research is needed on the taxonomy, population and distribution.	eng
155473	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella samecana </span>is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Radoman (1983) lists the locality for this species as Plava voda, a large spring and brook in Travnik town and suggests that Clessin's spring "<span style="font-style: italic;">Sameca</span>" cannot be found near Travnik. In 2009 this species was found by Z. Erőss and Z. Fehér in the type locality (Z. Feher, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155473	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs and streams.	eng
155473	population	Seddon, M., 2010	<p>In 2009 this population seemed to be not very abundant (Z. Feher pers. comm. 2010). Only the first ca. 200 metre section of the stream was searched (after that it flows through private land), and this species was found only within a short (3-5 m) section and was not very abundant.</p>	eng
155473	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella samecana</span> may be restricted to a spring and outlet streams which is&#160;now exploited as a tourist site. &#160;Many of the banks are now artificial, and the creation of the walls as well as the management of the sites may well have a detrimental effect on the species, and as such the species may be threatened.	eng
155475	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It could re-establish in sites which are conserved, but these don't exist currently. It's a beautiful (charismatic?) species.	eng
155475	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No&#160;conservation actions&#160;are required for this&#160;species&#160;at&#160;present.</p>	eng
155475	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species could re-establish in sites where it is conserved, but these don't exist currently. It's a good looking species considered charismatic.	eng
155475	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	A widespread species distributed in Asia (central, north and south and southeast), north America, north Africa and New Zealand.&#160;This species also has a widespread European distribution, occurring in all European Mediterranean countries (Yueying Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979)	eng
155475	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This holarctic species is present in northern Africa, where it is confined to some populations in the plains of the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. It is known only from a few places. The reference from Egypt (Brown 1980) appears to be erroneous (Brown 1994). Historically it was found in Egypt (in tombs/ temples). In Morocco, it is present in three or four locations, where it has been identified as problematic for disease. Many dead shells were found.	eng
155475	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a Holarctic species. In northern Africa the species is confined to some populations in Morocco (Atlas mountains, but not in mountains, it is in the plains) in only a few places. The reference from Egypt (Brown 1980) appears to be erroneous (Brown 1994). It was historically found in Egypt (within tombs/temples). In Morocco it is present in three or four locations, and is problematic for disease.	eng
155475	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is considered to be a problem for disease as it is vector of <em>F. hepatica</em>. It lives on standing and slow running waters as well as temporary pools, lakes and shallow areas.	eng
155475	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species can be a problem for disease - vector of <span style="font-style: italic;">F. hepatica</span>. It is found in standing and slow running waters and temporary pools. It is found in lakes, shallow areas.	eng
155475	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species inhabits slow or still waters, such as the edge of pools, streams, <span class="definition">reservoirs, amongst others. They like muddy sand or crushed stone bottom, and feed on diatoms, aquatic plants and the remaining tissue of other gastropods.<span class="definition"><span class="definition"> The species can be transported by birds, in part&#160;accounting&#160;for its very wide&#160;distribution.	eng
155475	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155475	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155475	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on population status or trends has been recorded. Although there are localised declines, the species population is believed to be stable.	eng
155475	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a widespread species with no major species-specific threats.	eng
155475	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution is the biggest problem together with water abstraction. Drought and raising temperatures are causing climate change. There is a potential rescue effect through return as birds carry it, but the habitats quality it needs is disappearing so even if it comes back, it probably won’t be able to establish, due to agricultural expansion and pesticides pollution. There are also problems with the waste water causing sewage pollution.	eng
155475	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Pollution is the biggest problem to this species, along with abstraction of water. Climate change is impacting it with reduced rainfall and increased temperatures. It could return as birds carry it, but the habitats it needs are disappearing so even if it comes back, it probably can't establish, because of agricultural expansion and pesticides. Its habitats are also threatened by waste water (i.e. sewage pollution).	eng
155476	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155476	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155476	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None in place. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
155476	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from Ethiopia (Brown 1994). The type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been reported from northern Egypt, possibly also Italy.	eng
155476	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is present in Egypt, Ethiopia and possibly Italy (Brown 1994). It has only been collected from 3 sites in northern part of Egypt, where it was rare: Alexandria, Ismailia and Suez. Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
155476	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is known from Uganda and Kenya, as well as having been recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt. There is one record for the southern tip of Italy, but this needs to be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded as widespread in Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has only been collected from three sites in the northern part of Egypt, where it was rare: Alexandria, Ismailia and Suez.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Ethiopia (Brown 1994).	eng
155476	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Different habitats. Spread by birds therefore the distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Lives on papyrus leaves. River species.	eng
155476	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is present in different habitats and spread by birds therefore its distribution is changeable. It lives in rivers and lays on all kinds of freshwaters, e.g., stagnant waters. It is very easily overlooked due to its very small size. It lives on papyrus leaves, being found in some parts of the Nile Delta.	eng
155476	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
155476	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155476	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155476	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155476	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155476	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information on threats to the species.	eng
155476	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
155478	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended, to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species, as it is difficult to collect given the cryptic habitat and the low population density. A full survey of all hydrobid species in Bosnia and Hercegovina would be timely in view of the range restricted nature of these species.	eng
155478	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is recorded from Bosnia-Herzegovina (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006; &#160;Fauna Europea project) where it is restricted to a single site, a cave at Čepelica near Bileća (Sket pers. comm. 2010).<strong> </strong>	eng
155478	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is believed to be found in freshwater systems in caves.	eng
155478	population	Seddon, M., 2010	No recent data on population trends.	eng
155478	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	Changes to the hydrogeology recharging the aquifer, changing the quality of habitat at the only known site (Sket, pers. comm., 2010)	eng
155479	conservation	Feher, Z., 2010	There are no conservation actions needed.	eng
155479	distribution	Feher, Z., 2010	This is a widespread species in central and south-east Europe including Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.	eng
155479	habitat	Feher, Z., 2010	This species lives in freshwater springs	eng
155479	population	Feher, Z., 2010	This is a locally abundant species.	eng
155479	threats	Feher, Z., 2010	The main threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155481	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.</p><strong><br/></strong>	eng
155481	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
155481	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This freshwater species occurs in the littoral zone occurs at the northern and southern sandy beaches of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, as well as in sandy patches along the rocky eastern and western shoreline.</p>	eng
155481	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found at suitable habitats in high abundances.	eng
155481	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the highly human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing the suitable habitats for this species. <br/></p>	eng
155483	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pezzolia radapalladis</span> is not a protected species in Italy, but one site lies in a protected area. There is a <a href="http://www.wwf.it/UserFiles/File/Ecomediterraneo/Progetto%20Toscana/Docdef2008-2009/DOCUMENTO_TARGET_TERRESTRI_maggio2009.pdf">WWF </a>document promoting the conservation of the region, which includes this species, as a notable species requiring protection (WWF 2009). More research on the trends of the population and the habitat is needed.	eng
155483	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is found at three locations: three valleys in the region of Liguria (Rapallo, Camogli and Avegno), all within 10 km² (Bodon <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
155483	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This is a freshwater species found in groundwater and springs.	eng
155483	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.   The exact status of population is unknown, although the species has been collected on a regular basis from outflows in the area of Rapallo.	eng
155483	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The main threats to the species lie in changes to the groundwater, such as pollution (agricultural sources or domestic sources) and over abstraction of water for domestic supplies. Some of the outflow points may be disturbed during improvement for the off-take of water (habitat degradation)&#160;(Ruffo and Stoch 2006, Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2000).<p><em></em></p>	eng
155485	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions known for this species. More research on taxonomy is needed.	eng
155485	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vinodolia vidrovani </span>was listed by Fauna Europea for the former country of Yugoslavia. Kabat (1993) noted that this was a recent species found in freshwater springs at Vidrovan, 9km of north of Nikšić Town.&#160; Radoman (1983) lists many springs in the area of Nikšićko polje, Uzduh and another spring in Glibavac village, two springs in Rastoci village and others in the basin of Lake Skadar [Scutari], Montenegro.	eng
155485	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155485	population	Pešić, V., 2009	There is no population data for this species.	eng
155485	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
155487	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
155487	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella cylindracea&#160;</span> is endemic to France, where it is only recorded from the department  Aube.	eng
155487	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155487	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155487	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155489	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that are impacting this species as well as further survey data on the population status.	eng
155489	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<em>Plagigeyeria montenigrina</em> is&#160;endemic to Montenegro, known only from the type locality, a spring in Obodska Pećina cave near Rijeka Crnojevića, area of Skadar Lake. &#160;Not found in recent surveys in the springs of the surrounding areas (Pesic pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155489	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	Subterranean karst waters.	eng
155489	population	Pešić, V., 2009	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155489	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	Seepage of waste water into underground waters that are the habitats for this species.	eng
155490	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	Conservation actions are not known, however, this species requires more research on population trends, distribution and threats.	eng
155490	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to               central Slovenia; where it is found along Sava River east of Ljubljana. Only dead shells have ever been recorded (Sket pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155490	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
155490	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
155490	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155491	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review as this species has been identified on basis of shell morphology, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity.	eng
155491	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Saxurinator orthodoxus</span> is endemic to Montenegro, known only from the type localities (Sources of River Zeta near Straganik and Tunjevo).	eng
155491	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is found in Rheocrenic springs, possibly subterranean.	eng
155491	population	Pešić, V., 2009	No information available on population or population trends for this species.	eng
155491	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality.&#160; This spring has been captured for it's water.&#160; In the upper part of River Zeta the problem is infiltration of waste water from local industry of Nikšić city; furthermore the water in upper part of the river Zeta is used for hydro-power “Perućica” (the most important one in Montenegro) which greatly influenced water level regime in the summer period. This has lead to declining quality of habitat since the species was first described.	eng
155497	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	&#160;Habitat monitoring is required. No current conservation activities are put in place.	eng
155497	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is   known from one locality in South Dobridza, Black Sea  Coast. According to Bodon (pers. comm. 2009), this species has not been found since 1960 and so the current status is uncertain.	eng
155497	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	It is a troglophilic species, which means that it <span class="style1">can live either inside or outside a cave, which is living in a deep well at the seaside.	eng
155497	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no data about the population size of the species.	eng
155497	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>The pollution as an outcome of agriculture and domestic activities using the well water where this species occurs. A high touristic pressure may be a threat on this species.<br/></p>	eng
155499	conservation	Bilandzija, H., Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	More research needs to be carried out on distribution and threats to this species.	eng
155499	distribution	Bilandzija, H., Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia edlaueri</span><span id="result_box" class="long_text"> is restricted to <span id="result_box" class="long_text">Bosnia and Herzegovina<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> and Croatia.&#160; It was originally known from from three springs in the Neretva River delta. Schütt (2000) reported that it could be found frequently in outwash from the spring at Ombla, near Dubrovnik (Croatia), and he assumed that it should be found elsewhere in the Popovo Polje.	eng
155499	habitat	Bilandzija, H., Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater cave systems.	eng
155499	population	Bilandzija, H., Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	There is no data on populations for this species.	eng
155499	threats	Bilandzija, H., Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155503	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although some localities will lie within protected areas, as lagoonal habitats are protected in some countries. More knowledge is needed on the species distribution, life history and ecology.	eng
155503	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species has been recorded from France, Spain as well as the Atlantic Islands. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) described it as widely distributed on the Atlantic coast, from La Rochelle (France, Paladilhe 1877) to Cadix (Spain), Ria de Arosa (Galicia, Cadée 1968 in Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and Tanger (Morocco, MNHN, leg. Gofas). It is likely to be widespread on the Atlantic shoreline from France to Morocco at 4 detailed recorded locations. Due to a lack of research, further sites need to be added to the range in Spain and Portugal to improve the map.	eng
155503	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is mainly found in coastal areas, on the edge of lagoons, within interstitial waters on the stony areas of beaches, sometimes covered by salt-tolerant vegetation.	eng
155503	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no specific data on population status.	eng
155503	threats	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in a restricted habitat that is often modified for recreational purposes or for industrial development, however given the widespread distribution only parts of the population are impacted by these threats.	eng
155504	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2009	No conservation actions are known for this species. This species requires more research on population trends and threats.	eng
155504	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2009	This species is restricted to Croatia and Bosnia & Hercegovina. There are two subspecies currently recognised:<br/><em>Plagigeyeria nitida&#160;nitida </em>known from hinterland of Metković in Bosnia & Hercegovina and Croatia<em>.<br/></em><em></em><em>Plagigeyeria&#160;nitida angelovi </em>is<em>&#160;</em>restricted to&#160;Croatia, where it is restricted to the Ombla source (rivers Dubrovnik) in Dubrovnik (Schutt 1972, 2000; Bole and Velkovrh 1986 cited in Croatian Red List, 2010, in press)	eng
155504	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2009	<p>This species inhabits in freshwater karst cave habitats.&#160;</p><p>The only detailed information from Croatia is for the subpecies from Ombla, where it is not known whether species inhabit the fast-flowing cave streams or stagnant waters (Slapnik pers. comm. 2010)</p>	eng
155504	population	Slapnik, R., 2009	There are no data available on population trends.	eng
155504	threats	Slapnik, R., 2009	No threat information are available for this species, however the subspecies <em>angelovi</em> is threatened at the Ombla site. Hydroelectric operations in the area of Popov fields have decreased the flow of underground water and there is a threat to groundwater pollution with contamination from waste water and solid and liquid municipal waste, due to landfill in the area.	eng
155507	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no conservation actions in place, although habitat monitoring is recommended to pick up future changes and any acceleration in rate of habitat change due to water abstraction.	eng
155507	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p><em>Belgrandiella bureschi </em>is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in the Karst spring at the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">village</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Bankya</st1:placename></st1:place>, Tran district (close to the Serbian border). The total area of the site is unknown. </p><br/><p></p>	eng
155507	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	Only known from a single cave where it occurs in thermal karstic spring, 19.6° C in Bulgaria, near the village of Bankya (Tran district) not far from the Serbian border. It should be noted that there are 2 villages in Bulgaria with the same name (Bankya).<strong></strong>	eng
155507	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	Population trends are unknown.	eng
155507	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>The spring is vulnerable to future threats including different types of pollution as well as possible water capturing for use for domestic supplies.<br/></p>      <strong></strong>	eng
155509	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is not listed on the Slovenian Red List and no species-specific conservation actions known.<br/><br/>Actions required include:<br/> <ul><li>Further research on population trends and distribution<br/>   </li><li>Habitat monitoring</li><li>Campaign on the awareness of freshwater biodiversity and impact of water extraction and pollution on species especially given the proximity to a road.</li></ul>	eng
155509	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia. <span style="font-style: italic;">Kerkia brezicensis</span> has been recorded just from one site (karstic spring at&#160;the entry to Dvorce village, south-east of Brežice (Slovenia) 33T&#160;WL48 (Bodon and Cianfanelli 1996). This small spring is close to village and the local road.	eng
155509	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This small species is found in freshwater springs close to the road.	eng
155509	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	No population trend data is available for this species.	eng
155509	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	This small spring is close to village and&#160;the local road and there is the possible threat from pollution of&#160;groundwater from agriculture sources and domestic sources and threat of changes to the site resulting from pollution from&#160;the road or from alterations to the road.	eng
155512	conservation	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	This species and its habitat should be monitored.	eng
155512	distribution	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is endemic to Italy and North Western Slovenia, where it is restricted to a small region, c. 70km x 60km, with at least 15 known locations.	eng
155512	habitat	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is found with the groundwaters in karst regions.	eng
155512	population	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	The population trend for <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> is not known.	eng
155512	threats	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2010	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica forumjuliana</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by  anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al</span>. 2000).	eng
155515	conservation	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. More research is needed on the population trends, and the agricultural pollution coming from the neighbouring area of Prespa Lake needs to be regulated and reduced.<strong></strong></p>	eng
155515	distribution	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the feeder springs of St. Naum, near Lake Ohrid, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), which are estimated to have an estimated subterranean area of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
155515	habitat	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>This is a subterranean species, hence the living specimens are only found when they are flushed from the underground waters into the springs (Radoman 1983)</p>	eng
155515	population	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is a rare species. Recent surveys in the last six years have not found it in the spring, but as this is a subterranean species it is difficult to observe and record in surveys.	eng
155515	threats	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	Agriculture adjacent to the Prespa Lake is contaminating the water which feeds the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006), which potentially impacts the species.	eng
155527	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160; The station of Montecatini Thermal Springs is the only known site for the Pistoia region  and has been detected in waste water of one spring, so an intervention would  therefore be desirable to conserve this environment (Cianfanelli, 2009).	eng
155527	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, found in northern Tuscany where it is known for a few springs in Equi Terme and Montecatini Terme (Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2005) in 3 locations, all closely located thermal springs. Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).	eng
155527	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits thermal spring waters, where it is often difficult to see due to habit of living covered in mud (Cianfanelli, 2009).	eng
155527	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	As this species is restricted to a small population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155527	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).	eng
155530	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is present in the Galicica National Park (in the   Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia - FYROM). Futhermore, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. The pollution in the watershed should be managed to decrease the ecosystem degradation and the habitat loss for this species.<br/></p>	eng
155530	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species is restricted to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placetype w:st="on">and Albania, where it is found in the Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and in the feeder springs of Sveti Naum and Zagorican.</p><p></p>	eng
155530	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater lake species found in the littoral zone, but it can be found in low abundance in the sublittoral zone. It is restricted to hard substrate.	eng
155530	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is abundant and found at many collecting points.	eng
155530	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The water quality in the lake is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However, these threats are likely to affect only a part of all individuals because this an abundant species in the&#160;littoral as well as the upper part of the sublittoral zone of the lake and some locations are not threatened.</p>  <p></p>	eng
155534	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Least Concern in the Italian Red List therefor no specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155534	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appenninic regions of Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Puglia, Molise, Abruzzo and Sicily so widespread, but quite localised within the range.	eng
155534	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> is found within <span style="font-style: italic;">s</span>prings and groundwaters in rocks.	eng
155534	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population data for<span style="font-style: italic;"> Islamia pusilla</span>.	eng
155534	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia pusilla</span> inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). It is also found in spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155537	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be Vulnerable in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket & Velkovrh 2002).</p>	eng
155537	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia and Croatia (Fauna Europea, Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;<em>Sadleriana s. sadleriana</em>&#160;was described from Studenica (a pool on the river) in the village of Dol near Borovnica. It is described as being widespread in the region,&#160;and is present in the drainage basins of the Sava River, Ljubljanica River, Kupa River, and Una River. <em>Sadleriana s. robici</em>&#160;(Clessin, 1890) is more restricted, being found in Krka River Drainage, at several springs near the source.	eng
155537	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs and possibly groundwater feeding those springs.	eng
155537	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
155537	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
155541	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.</p>	eng
155541	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>. It is restricted to sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155541	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed&#160;(C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155541	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155541	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution, from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake, is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa Lake waters, which feed the aquifer of&#160; <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load in the lake (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Increased frequency of fires in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation)&#160;(C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155542	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155542	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the Appenine regions of Liguria,Tuscany and Piedmont. It is widespread through suitable habitats in the region.	eng
155542	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species inhabits ground waters.	eng
155542	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	There is no data on population trends.	eng
155542	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em><span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2000).	eng
155545	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. More sustainable water management is needed to ensure the continuing quality of the habitat. The trend in habitat decline should be monitored to determine changes to this species status.<br/></p>	eng
155545	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus fontinalis</span> is restricted to the Feeder springs system (St. Naum, Tusemista and Zagorican) of Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).<br/></p>	eng
155545	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species needs a constant water temperature and chemistry to survive. It occurs in places with low flow rate.</p>	eng
155545	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>It is at suitable habitats in low abundances.</p>	eng
155545	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Agriculture near the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of these springs, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).&#160;  The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, and over-abstraction of water.<br/></p>	eng
155546	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures set for the species, although it is recommended that given the small area, that a habitat monitoring programme be put in place for the species so that future changes in status can be seen.	eng
155546	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica acicularis</span> is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known from two sites, Dushnik cave near village of Iskrets, and Yamata cave at the village  of Tserovo, both in western Stara Planina mountains in Bulgaria.	eng
155546	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment), it is present in springs and streams in caves. Based on climatic and  geological similarities, this species is considered to be Mediterranean.	eng
155546	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no data on this species population.	eng
155546	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<strong></strong>Although at present there is no evidence of habitat degradation, the cave is used, and hence a possible threat could be the pollution caused by visitors (Human or Animals) to the cave in the future.	eng
155548	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires more research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
155548	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, and was described relatively recently by Bernasconi (2000), from the Department of Ariege, in the Pyrennees. It was found in two sites, Troye D'Ariege and Sieuras, about 40km apart, in different parts of the region. The species is mapped on the <a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceRepartition.jsp&numero_taxon=162852&date_min=1950&date_max=2010">INPN </a>site.	eng
155548	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155548	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155548	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155556	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
155556	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in western Sardinia, where it is only found in the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne', at San Giovanni, 100m ASL (UTM 32 T NK4260) (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998).	eng
155556	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to interstitial waters of a spring within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998). It is a strict stygobiont, i.e a species restricted to subterranean groundwater habitats and characterized morphologically by loss or severe reduction of eyes and pigment.	eng
155556	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. Most records are before 1995. In 1998, Manganelli noted that this  species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it  was exploited for water, and the bottom surface of the spring cemented  over.	eng
155556	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch, 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli et al., 1998, 2000).&#160; GIven that it only occurs at a single site, it is considered very vulnerable to any human activity that would disturb the groundwater system or the spring. In 1998, Manganelli noted that this species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it was exploited for water, and the bottom surface of the spring cemented over. Hence, this species is listed as Critically Endangered.	eng
155558	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Monte Fenera is highlighted in the Provinca di Vercelli Conservation Strategy, with <em>Iglica pezzolii </em>mentioned as a species of conservation interest.	eng
155558	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found within the alpine region of Monte Fenera, Piedmont. This species is known from 3 Locations (7 sites) within a small region, and so currently viewed as rare.&#160; &#160;The locations are Grinasco, Valduggia and Borgosesia (UTM MR46 and MR45).	eng
155558	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is restricted to groundwaters and outflows (caves, resurgences and springs).	eng
155558	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so the population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155558	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em>., 2000). &#160;Threats identified in the region also include increased frequency of forest fires (erosion and increased sediment in the water leaching into the groundwater system) and possible disturbance of the caves for recreational activities and illegal excavations.</p>	eng
155559	conservation	Seddon, M. & Slapnik, R., 2009	No conservation actions known for this species.                 This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket & Velkovrh 2002).	eng
155559	distribution	Seddon, M. & Slapnik, R., 2009	<em>Sadleriana schmidtii</em> is recorded from Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Slovenia (Fauna Europea, 2006). It was first described from a spring at Susica, near Novo Mesto and is a subterranean form (Radoman 1985).                 According to Bole & Velkovrh (1986) and Radoman (1985) and some unpublished data (Sket pers. comm 2010), it may only be known from southeaster Slovenia and adjacent Croatian area.	eng
155559	habitat	Seddon, M. & Slapnik, R., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155559	population	Seddon, M. & Slapnik, R., 2009	There is no data on recent population trends for this species.	eng
155559	threats	Seddon, M. & Slapnik, R., 2009	Although there are threats to groundwater as sources of water for local villages and towns and from drought phases in the summer, the threats are localised.	eng
155565	conservation	Slapnik, R. & Seddon, M., 2010	This species requires more research on population trends and threats	eng
155565	distribution	Slapnik, R. & Seddon, M., 2010	This species is restricted to Slovenia,&#160;                where it is endemic to northwestern Slovenia (                including the cave Babja Luknja near Medvode and other caves and springs area around Medvode, North-West of Ljubljana).	eng
155565	habitat	Slapnik, R. & Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs and caves (Sket pers. comm. 2010)	eng
155565	population	Slapnik, R. & Seddon, M., 2010	&#160;No information on the population is available.	eng
155565	threats	Slapnik, R. & Seddon, M., 2010	The specific threats to this species are not known, but the general threats to habitats in the region are habitat degradation and overabstraction of water.	eng
155566	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures taken for this species. It is recommended that a programme of habitat monitoring be implemented to determine whether potential use of the cave for tourist activities will change the water quality.	eng
155566	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in spring near a sink-hole, close to Polaten village in the western Stara Planina Mountains (Georgiev in litt. 2009).&#160; The total area of the distribution is uncertain, and hence has been estimated as less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
155566	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Insignia macrostoma</span> is a freshwater species living in a cold spring in a cave.  The habitat quality may be in doubt due to exploitation of the cave.	eng
155566	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no information on population trends for this species.	eng
155566	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<strong></strong>In the future, the pollution caused by the visitors may affect the cave ecosystem to a limited extent (depending on the accessibility to public).	eng
155569	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	Given the uncertainty of the species status, there are no conservation actions required, however more research is needed on the taxonomy, specifically, a combination of conchological, anatomical and molecular studies by appropriate experts, and on its distribution.	eng
155569	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species is known only from two&#160;sites in departments of Vendée and Deux-Sèvres in western France.&#160; Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) noted that it was originally described from a spring close to the mill at Gauchet (commune de Pissotte) and have reviewed the status of the types in Paris and Geneva.	eng
155569	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters and underneath the riverbeds and can also be found in freshwater springs.	eng
155569	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155569	threats	Prie, V., 2010	This species is sensitive to water pollution and groundwater absorption.	eng
155571	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures have been proposed.	eng
155571	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
155571	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155571	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
155571	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155571	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  Information on conservation initiatives is not known. </p>	eng
155571	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Research into its distribution in the region is required.	eng
155571	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	A widespread species in North America, Europe and Africa. Known in Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa and Madagascar. Possibly present in suitable habitat in western Africa - recorded from northwest Africa by Kuiper (1966) but questionable if present in the Western Africa region (shown as part of Algeria).	eng
155571	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pisidium casertanum</em> is a widespread Paleartic species that occurs in coastal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. It has a disjoint distribution further southwards in Africa till the Cape (Van Damme 1984). According to old reports it was present in Fayoum in Egypt, but it's considered to be gone from that site. Its type locality is Caserta, Italy.	eng
155571	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium casertanum</span> is one of the most widely distributed species of freshwater mollusc in the world. It is widely known from Palaearctic and Nearctic region including some parts of South America, Africa and Australia and&#160; Asia. In Asia, this species is found in India (the upper Indus River basin in Kashmir), China, (Tibet), Thailand  and Nepal (Kavre District, Banepa, small springstream to the lower Chandeshwari Khola, 0.5 km SE of Chandeshwari, elevation 1615 m asl).&#160; It is a cosmopolitan species (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishan and Dey 2007).	eng
155571	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Its distribution in the region is unknown due to taxonomic and identification problems.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Presumably distributed in most parts of the world, but this is doubtful (Mandahl-Barth 1988). Northwest Africa and large parts of eastern Africa from Ethiopia in south to South Africa and Madagascar (Kuiper 1964 and 1966a).	eng
155571	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widely distributed, although no specific localities are mentioned. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented as widespread in other parts of Africa and world.	eng
155571	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia. No specific localities are mentioned (Daget 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented as widespread in other parts of Africa and world.	eng
155571	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a widespread species in North America, Europe and Africa. It is known within Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa, as well as Madagascar (Kuiper 1964 and 1966).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in coastal Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. There are old reports from Egypt (Fayoum) but it is gone from there.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan and Ethiopia. No specific localities are mentioned (Daget 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It has a disjunct distribution further southwards in Africa to Namibia and South Africa (Van Damme 1984). However its range is not certain  due to taxonomic and identification problems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is possibly present in suitable habitat in western Africa - it is recorded from northwest Africa by Kuiper (1966) but it is questionable if it is present in the western Africa region, and this isn't a reference to the range within part of Algeria.	eng
155571	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Genus is found in lakes, rivers, streams and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
155571	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155571	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
155571	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155571	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155571	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidia</span> are found both in lakes, rivers and small water bodies. This is a very tolerant species, lives in habitats that may dry out (Seddon, pers. comm.). Tolerant of poor water conditions. In Europe and North America, found in temporary water bodies and ditches.	eng
155571	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	The species is cosmopolitan in distribution and found in cold water streams and rivers in fine mud and leaf litters.&#160; They usually attached themselves to aquatic vegetation, sometimes they attached to t he surface film of water by slime threads.	eng
155571	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
155571	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155571	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
155571	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
155571	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155571	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available on populations.	eng
155571	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
155571	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155571	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats known.	eng
155571	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No threats are known to the species.	eng
155571	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation is a likely threat in Tanzania.	eng
155571	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species.	eng
155571	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
155571	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on current threats to the species. It is found in the unpolluted waters thus habitat disturbance and anthropogenic activities causing water pollution are potential threat to this species.	eng
155572	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.	eng
155572	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Spiralix collieri</em> is endemic to France and is found in the Rhone region. Although this species has been mapped based on the literature data, the records of the species are unreliable, as identification is difficult, and hence the species records are in need of review.	eng
155572	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean freshwaters.	eng
155572	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available.	eng
155572	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155573	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions specifically for this species, but conservation management plans for the Lake and habitat monitoring programme would be recommended to assist with assessment of future changes for this species.	eng
155573	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vinodolia gluhodolica</span> is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>.&#160; It was originally known only from the type locality&#160; near Virpazar town, area of  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>(a spring at Velje Oko below the Gluhi Do village).&#160; Zoltan Feher (pers. comm. 2009) has recorded the species (Material determined by Marco Bodon) from another site in 2000 in Montenegro, 3 km from the original locality, suggesting that the species may be at other sites locally. Vladimir Pešić (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the species was not found in numerous other springs around the type locality.	eng
155573	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	The species is found in freshwater springs close to Lake Skadar. However, t<a style="">his species may be a subterranean groundwater species, and as such this may explain the limited recording, especially during the summer months when the freshwater springs dry up.&#160;</a>	eng
155573	population	Pešić, V., 2009	In April 2000, it was abundant (1000's) at the second site, however in 2008, at a different time of the year (late summer) no specimens were found (Material determined by Marco Bodon).&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>	eng
155573	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	Vladimir Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the original spring has been captured for local drinking water and other springs are susceptible to summer droughts, when outflow from the groundwater sources cease.	eng
155576	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p>	eng
155576	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. As it prefers habitats such as the&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Chara </span>beds and fine gravels, the&#160;rocky shores in the east and in the west of the lake separate two sub-populations (on the northern and on the southern shores).</p>  <p></p>	eng
155576	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in a freshwater lake where it is restricted to the belt of Characea and fine gravels.	eng
155576	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species can be locally abundant (C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009)</p>	eng
155576	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the high human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing suitable habitats. However, as this is a sublittoral species it is thought that it is largely unaffected.	eng
155577	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	No conservation actions is in place for this species. More research is needed at the taxonomic level, as well as on the population and distribution range.	eng
155577	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species is endemic to France (near Avignon).	eng
155577	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This is a freshwater spring-snail.	eng
155577	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available.	eng
155577	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Springs in the southern part of France are currently threatened by high pressure on the water resource, leading to temporary flowing springs, or capture of the springs, leading to the destruction of the habitat by concrete.&#160; If the distribution and taxonomy of the species were to be resolved, given the water supply problems in the region, the species is likely to be threatened through over-abstraction.	eng
155583	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species and later&#160;assigned a status of&#160; Vulnerable for the Slovenian Red List 2002 (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, tuesday 24 september 2002). The population and distribution status require review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.</p>	eng
155583	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<em>Belgrandiella&#160;globulos</em><em>a&#160;</em>is endemic to Slovenia, where it is only known from&#160;the&#160;cave Mrzla jama near&#160;Bločice, 3.5 km NNW from Lož (type locality) and springs of Cemun&#160;and Obrh near Cerkniško jezero, Cerknica.	eng
155583	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	Freshwater in Karst Subterranean system in caves and emergent springs.	eng
155583	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	No data available on population status or trends.	eng
155583	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	Slapnik (2010, pers. comm.) considers that the major threats to the species lie in water pollution and urbanization (with increased use of local water sources for domestic supplies).	eng
155586	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no conservation actions specific for this species, although the only known site lies in a protected area.A r eview of the  taxonomic status and distribution is needed.	eng
155586	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	<em>Paladilhiopsis tarae</em> is listed by Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006; &#160;Fauna Europea) as an endemic species for Montenegro. Vladimir Pesic notes that this is a groundwater species, found in the canyon of river Tara.	eng
155586	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	This species is present in karstic groundwater water (springs and streams in Caves).  It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).	eng
155586	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no recent data on population status for this species.	eng
155586	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no recent data on threats to the species.	eng
155587	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	No conservation actions in place for this species.&#160; Monitoring of habitat trends to be recommended to identify future changes in habitat quality which may impact the species.	eng
155587	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	According to Bank (2006) this species is found in Greece and Bulgaria. In Bulgaria this species is found in spring near a sink-hole, close to Polaten village, western Stara Planina Mountains (Georgiev in litt. 2009).&#160; The total area of the distribution is uncertain, and hence has been estimated as less than 100km. The records from Greece are questionable, as no data is given.	eng
155587	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species occurs in a freshwater cold spring in a cave.  The habitat quality may be in doubt due to exploitation of the cave.</p>	eng
155587	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	The population of this species is not known.	eng
155587	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p><strong></strong>In the future, the pollution caused by the visitors may affect the cave ecosystem to a limited extent&#160; (depending on the accessibility to public).</p>	eng
155588	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Habitat monitoring and restoration is needed, as well as legislation development and implementation at national level.	eng
155588	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pisidium personatum</em> is a widespread Paleartic species that occurs in Africa in the Atlas and Anti-Atlas region of Morocco and Algeria, in coastal Tunisia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (Van Damme 1984). Ghamizi has recent collected this species so there is evidence that it is still present, although its distribution is very localised to flowing streams and lakes with clean water. In Morocco, it is currently only at the Upper zone of Atlas (Ghamizi pers. comm.).	eng
155588	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species lives in flowing streams and lakes with clean water. It is very sensitive to pollution and needs good water quality to live, being less tolerant to pollution than <em>P. casertanum</em>.	eng
155588	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available on populations.	eng
155588	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The main threats to the species are water pollution, habitat degradation and global warming.	eng
155589	conservation	Feher, Z., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research on the population and habitat trends is needed.	eng
155589	distribution	Feher, Z., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia valvataeformis</span> is only known from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The type locality is Vrelo Bosne, near Sarajevo. Vrelo Bosna&#160; is a spring and river at the source of the&#160;River Bosna, with a surrounding recreational park in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, twelve kilometres south-west of&#160;Sarajevo.	eng
155589	habitat	Feher, Z., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155589	population	Feher, Z., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155589	threats	Feher, Z., 2010	The main threats for this species are unknown, but the site deteriorated during the 1990's and has now been restored as a park around the spring. The threats are likely to be pollution.	eng
155590	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	The species is recently described, and as such there is little sampling effort to establish the wider range around these two locations.&#160; There is a need to undertake a full taxonomic review in light of Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007), as well as more survey and mapping.	eng
155590	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This recently described species is endemic to France where it is known only from 2 populations in Saint-Bris-des-Bois : Fontaine de Houmeau and Fontaine Taillard.	eng
155590	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155590	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155590	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. However, at present the levels of threat to this species are less immediate at the two known sites.	eng
155599	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no conservation actions in place specific to the species. Surveys are needed to determine range and population levels, and the threats to other sites if located.	eng
155599	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella angelovi</span> is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known only from the type locality: a spring in Stara Planina Mts on the Shipka pass, although the exact position of the type locality is not known. However, there are two or three small springs on this pass near a small village and several of the springs have been modified by concreting to allow the offtake of water for the villages. It is possible that this species may have a wider distribution as many of the local springs have not been surveyed.	eng
155599	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	It is considered a freshwater, cold spring species.	eng
155599	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	When originally collecting in the 1960s, Pinter found this species to be abundant. However there are no recent data on the status of this species.	eng
155599	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	This area at the top of the pass has several small springs, which are vulnerable to change, from water use for the village, and by visitors and tourism development. There is a possible risk in the future of fluctuations in populations as the result of changes in water level. The species possibly occurs in other areas in the regions that are hardly accessible, which are less threatened by human impacts.	eng
155602	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known or are recommended at present.	eng
155602	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> has a range on coastal habitats of Northern Atlantic countries, Ireland, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Germany.	eng
155602	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> lives in coastal and brackish waters.	eng
155602	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span>, although it can be quite localised and abundant, in some regions habitats are in decline.	eng
155602	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria anatina</span> are unknown.	eng
155605	conservation	Seddon, M., 2009	A small stygobitic snail from the family Moitessieriidae which is included in the Annex 4 (“Species of fauna strictly protected”) of the Decret 328/1992 of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Tarruella <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2008).&#160;<span lang="EN-US">	eng
155605	distribution	Seddon, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria olleri </span>occurs in Spain and France. In France it was recorded once by Bertrand (2004), but the French record might not be <span style="font-style: italic;">M. olleri</span> (V. Prie, pers. comm, 2009). In Spain it is recorded from Catalonia, where it is restricted in range to an<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> area of approximately 400 km², with most  located in the 10x10 km square UTM DG22 near the type locality, and the other two sites separated more than 25 km of these towns.	eng
155605	habitat	Seddon, M., 2009	Believed to be living in subterranean waters, although shell records have come from springs and interstitial waters of the riverbed (V. Prie, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
155605	population	Seddon, M., 2009	There are no population trend data available for this species, although it has been recently collected.	eng
155605	threats	Seddon, M., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155607	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation action plans in place. <br/> An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. <br/></p>	eng
155607	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Prespolitorea malaprespensis</span> is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">smaller Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake, </st1:placetype>Mikri Prespa, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Recent surveys have only found it in within the Greek part of the lake (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009)<br/></p>	eng
155607	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This littoral species lives on the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline of the lake.	eng
155607	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This species is very rare.	eng
155607	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>  Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several metres), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. As a consequence, the type locality, on the Albanian side, has been converted to land. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake. <br/></p>	eng
155609	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no conservation activities present at the present. Monitoring of the habitat trend is recommended.	eng
155609	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is known from two sites, Dushnik cave near village of Iskrets, and Yamata cave at the village  of Tserovo, both in western Stara Planina mountains in Bulgaria.	eng
155609	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment), it is present in springs and streams in caves.	eng
155609	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no data on population.	eng
155609	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<strong></strong>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.	eng
155612	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation actions in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between Albania, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and Greece would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the Prespa Lake.<br/></p>	eng
155612	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella macedonica </span>is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename>, found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The main distribution is found on the western shore of the lake.</p>	eng
155612	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species lives along the littoral zone on rocky shores within the lake.	eng
155612	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species is generally relatively common in the lake. Inter-annual population fluctuations are known for species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis</span> (Falniowski and Wilke 2001) and may also apply to this species (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155612	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The major threats to this species are habitat loss due to abrupt drop of water level (of several metres), caused by excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers. These water levels changes impact <span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella macedonica</span> which is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake. Pollution caused by intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake.    In addition, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, whic h are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake. </p>	eng
155616	conservation	Feher, Z., 2010	There is no conservation action for this species at present.	eng
155616	distribution	Feher, Z., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dabriana bosniaca</span> is endemic to Bosnia and was described from a cave Dabarska pećina , near source of Dabar River, south of Sanski Most.	eng
155616	habitat	Feher, Z., 2010	This species is found in the subterranean freshwater in karst systems.	eng
155616	population	Feher, Z., 2010	There is no recent population data for this species.	eng
155616	threats	Feher, Z., 2010	At&#160;present&#160;there&#160;is&#160;no&#160;data&#160;on&#160;the&#160;threats&#160;to&#160;this&#160;species.&#160;This&#160;is&#160;a&#160;large&#160;spring,&#160;where&#160;a&#160;river&#160;comes&#160;out&#160;from&#160;a&#160;large&#160;cave. <br/>The&#160;biotope&#160;seems&#160;to&#160;be&#160;in&#160;a&#160;good&#160;condition,&#160;water&#160;is&#160;crystal&#160;clear,&#160;there&#160;are&#160;no&#160;signs&#160;of&#160;human&#160;disturbance.	eng
155618	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. It is found in 3 protected areas in Slovenia.	eng
155618	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<em>Iglica luxurians </em>is endemic to Slovenia, where it is first described from a spring near Podgora (near&#160;                Vrhnika ). &#160;It is listed in the Notranjski Regional Park, on the Ljubljanica river and in a Natura 2000 site with unique underground and surface stream;&#160;Cerknisko Jezero and&#160;Ljubljansko Barje (<a href="http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/species/285443/sites">EUNIS</a> 2010).	eng
155618	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This small freshwater snail is found in groundwater in karst.	eng
155618	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
155618	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited	eng
155619	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	No species-specific conservation actions are known, however, it is recommended that taxonomic work is undertaken to establish the species limits and relationships to other taxa.&#160; Habitat monitoring would be advised to establish any potential decline that may impact the species.	eng
155619	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	The type locality for this species is Chatillon-sur-Seine.&#160; Bertrand (2004) gives a distribution on the Doubs, Haute-Saone and Haut-Rhin departements in France, but this taxon seems to be localized to only a few karstic systems (V. Prie pers.comm. 2010)	eng
155619	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This is a subterranean species living in karstic waters.	eng
155619	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no data on the population status.	eng
155619	threats	Prie, V., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is uncertain whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, in this region, subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.</p>	eng
155620	conservation	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. However more research is needed in order to try to rediscover this species and establish trends for habitat decline.<br/></p>	eng
155620	distribution	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Zaumia sanctizaumi</span> is present in a very restricted area in the south-east of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).</p>	eng
155620	habitat	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This species occurs in the littoral zone on the south-east shore of Lake Ohrid, a large freshwater lake near the church of St. Zaum.	eng
155620	population	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is a very rare species. Recent surveys carried out since 2003 have not found it (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm., 2009) .	eng
155620	threats	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. Agriculture near the Prespa lake are contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased fire hazard in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation). </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
155621	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	The status of the populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum bessoni</span> is unknown, and thus recommended conservation actions would be resurvey and also system of habitat monitoring to ensure that any changes in status are known fairly quickly.	eng
155621	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum bessoni</span> is restricted to France, where it is only known from the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques.&#160; It was listed from four localities, with type locality being at Haute Soule (Bertrand and Boeters 2001; Bernasconi 1999).	eng
155621	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in subterrannean freshwaters within a karstic region; it is a stygobite (i.e. an aquatic species that complete its entire life in the cave environment).	eng
155621	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155621	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the groundwater table may impact this species and hence maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155624	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legal protection of springs and reduction of groundwater abstraction are needed.	eng
155624	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	The species is found in freshwater springs which are not protected habitats in Croatia. If it is shown to be restricted to Croatia, a programme of habitat protection might be required, give the levels of water abstraction in the region.                 Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status and taxonomic research to determine the nature of the other island populations.	eng
155624	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species would benefit from protection of springs, reduction of abstraction from water table.	eng
155624	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is known from wells in Croatia, Tunisia, south Italy, Sicily and Morocco. In Morocco it is found in springs in Ain Aghbal, Aiyoune Oum Rbi, Ouiwane, and Tit Zil, which are all in the middle Atlas.	eng
155624	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The taxon is present in wells in Croatia, Tunisia, south Italy, Sicily and Morocco. In Morocco it occurs in a spring in Ain Aghbal, a spring in Aiyoune Oum Rbi, a spring in Ouiwane, and a spring that becomes a very small pond just above the spring called Tit Zil (i.e., the spring is under the pond), which are all in the Middle Atlas. Only point localities for Morocco and Tunisia are available. Its type locality is in Pago, Corsica.	eng
155624	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is listed by Fauna Europea as endemic to Croatia. &#160;At present, this assessment follows the species concept of Giusti&#160;<em>et al&#160;</em>(1995) who considered the Croatian populations to be<em>&#160;Pseudamnicola conovula</em> and the other records from Italy a different species. &#160;Hence&#160;this species is considered to be endemic to Croatia, where it was described from the island of Pag; &#160;it has since been recorded from other springs close by, on the Island of Cres, Krk and Rab (Radoman, 1985).&#160; There is some uncertainty about the validity of some records &#160;attributed to this species, as some literature cites records from the Vjosa River, Albania (Bequiraj et al, online paper: http://www.balwois.com/balwois/administration/full_paper/ffp-1190.pdf). Other records include Dolines in Apulia, Italy (Ariani <em>et al</em>, 2000).	eng
155624	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Crenobiont that lives near springs and in a small pond over a spring, with very good quality water.	eng
155624	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a crenobiont, found near springs and in a small pond over a spring, with very good quality water.	eng
155624	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is thought to inhabit freshwater springs.	eng
155624	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information.	eng
155624	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155624	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no population data for this species.	eng
155624	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Pollution of springs, reduction in ground water level, urbanisation. One spring in Morocco is used for a trout fishery.	eng
155624	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are pollution of springs, lowering of ground water level and urbanization. In addition, one of the springs where it occurs in Morocco is used for trout fishery.	eng
155624	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	These springs are under pressure from water abstraction on the subpopulations on the island of Pag.	eng
155625	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	There are no conservation actions are in place in Italy. As this species lies close to the limits of a threatened status, the monitoring of populations and habitat trends would be recommended.	eng
155625	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella ephippiostoma</span> is endemic to Italy and Slovenia. In Italy it is only known from a single site close to the border with Slovenia (<a href="http://www.faunaitalia.it/ckmap/">CKmap</a> version 5.3.8; Spring 1 km in Valle di Bodigoi, UTM UM80). In Slovenia, it is present in at least 13 sites, in four main areas: 11 different springs which occur in two areas (Cerkniško jezero and Ljubljansko barje), and two isolated localities (river Vipava (VL17) and river Idrija (VM 20) Slovenia (Slapnik, pers. comm, 2009).&#160; Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> (2001) also collected&#160; it in the Soca Valley near Lozice (UM9201); several springs near Gorenje Jezero - Cemun Spring (VL56) and Obhr Spring (VL56), Mocilnik springs, Vrhnika (VL49) and Verd Village springs (VL48) and noted that it was originally described from Springs near Podgora (near Lublijana).	eng
155625	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella ephippiostoma</span> lives in freshwater springs and groundwaters in the karstic regions.	eng
155625	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no data available on population trends of<span style="font-style: italic;"> Hadziella ephippiostoma</span>.	eng
155625	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The major threats to this species lie in the over-exploitation of springs where the species is found, and through pollution of groundwaters from both domestic and agricultural sources.	eng
155626	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no targetted conservation actions in place for this species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertiliser, pesticide and herbicide use for agriculture purposes needs to be drastically reduced.&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155626	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Parabythinella malaprespensis</span> is restricted to the small <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Mikri Prespa) between Albania and Greece. Recent surveys have not found this species in the Albanian part of the lake, however this was the type locality, so the species was present in the Albania during Radoman's surveys in the 1980's, suggesting that the extent of occurrence has decreased in the last 30 years.&#160;</p>	eng
155626	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species lives in the littoral zone of large freshwater lakes, where it is found on hard substrates like stones and rocks.	eng
155626	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a rare species that was previously more common and more widely distributed.	eng
155626	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Habitat loss due to the abrupt drop in water level (of several metres) caused by excessive abstraction of water for agriculture coupled with low inflow from the catchment due to extremely dry summers, is the major threat to this littoral species. In addition, pollution related to intensive agriculture practice in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
155631	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. The species is considered Vulnerable&#160;in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).	eng
155631	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is localised to springs in the foothills of Kum, east of <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ljubljana</st1:place></st1:city> between 200m and 600m ASL. The species is known from an area of about 200km2 (20 x 10km) with presence in at least 6 individual springs in              the Posavsko hribovje area : spring by Prusnik, east of Kum 230 m ASL; Spring by Susnjek, Podkum, 590m ASL; spring in Jelova, Radeče, 480m ASL;&#160; Mitovšek spring, Kum 350m ASL; Spring by Šklendrovec Stream, 320m ASL. Spring in Quarry at Radeče, 230m ASL (Slapnik, 1997)	eng
155631	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	The species inhabits freshwater springs with temperatures ranging from 8 to 9.6 C. ASL (Slapnik, 1997)	eng
155631	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no information on the population status of this species.	eng
155631	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The   main threat to this species is groundwater pollution and abstraction of surface water.	eng
155632	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Conservation measures needed include research and habitat conservation, as well as law enforcement.	eng
155632	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This Paleartic species is known from Morocco from the marshes of the Lower Loukkos and Dayet Hachlaf, from Chefchaouen, from near Ifrane, Cap Spartel, Aïn Aghbal near Azrou, Aïn El Ghars at Immouzzer Kandar, Dayet Ouhouli and Oued El Malik near Tangier (Ghamizi 1998). It is a much localised species that is disappearing from Moroccan lowlands and declining in the whole Africa due to climate change. It was previously recorded near Constantine in Algeria (Bourguignat 1864), according to records from the 19th century, where it possibly doesn’t exist there anymore as the whole area has been converted to a city.	eng
155632	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It inhabits vegetation rich clean standing waters (not flowing). It is present in lake borders where there is vegetation, and in little streams just below springs in the mid-Atlas mountains.	eng
155632	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155632	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The major threats to the species are global warming, pollution and drainage.	eng
155637	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.&#160;</p><strong></strong>	eng
155637	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<br/></p>	eng
155637	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This littoral and partly sublittoral species, can be found on various substrates like <em>Dreissena</em> shells, stones and gravel.	eng
155637	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats only in very low abundances.</p>	eng
155637	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod.&#160; However these threats are only impacting populations within the littoral zone of the lake.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155638	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> is considered to be Endangered &#160;in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket & Velkovrh 2002).</p>	eng
155638	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia   subcarinata</span> is endemic in Western Slovenia (and possibly in adjacent Italy), where it is known from springs along upper reaches of Soča river (Sket, pers. comm. 2010). It was first described from                 a freshwater spring in village Ložice near Deske in Soča valley (Slapnik, pers. comm, 2009).<strong></strong>	eng
155638	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> is a small species and is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155638	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span> has no data on population trends.	eng
155638	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no information on specific threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subcarinata</span>, although plausible threats are                  over-exploitation of springs where the species is found, and through pollution of groundwaters from both domestic and agricultural sources.	eng
155641	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation measures. more research on the population, distribution and threats is needed.	eng
155641	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006; Fauna Europea), known only from springs Buna and Bunica, south of Mostar.</p>	eng
155641	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no information on habitat for this species.	eng
155641	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no population data for this species.	eng
155641	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no information on the threats for this species.	eng
155642	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This species is protected by law in France under the name "<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia minuta</span>".	eng
155642	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia spirata&#160;</span> is endemic from France. It is known only from a restricted area in the upper catchment of the Doubs river, and in the&#160;department&#160;of&#160;Doubs, in the region east of Besançon in France. Bertrand (2004) gives two locations.	eng
155642	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155642	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no data available on the population for this species.	eng
155642	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.	eng
155643	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More sustainable water management is needed to ensure the continuing quality of the habitat. Monitoring habitat trends would be beneficial for this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
155643	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">the </st1:placetype>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placetype w:st="on">part of Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">and in the springs near Ohrid town (north-east of the Lake), and in the Albanian Feeder springs </st1:place></st1:country-region>system (Tusemista and Zagorican) (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155643	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake with sublacustrine springs and cold water springs. It is probably a species needing a specific (and narrow) constant water temperature and chemistry (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155643	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in low abundances.</p>	eng
155643	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).   The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.</p>	eng
155644	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.&#160; Given the uncertain taxonomic status of the species, more research is required, that includes conchological, anatomical and molecular characters (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155644	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is found in the region of the Jura.	eng
155644	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This small freshwater gastropod lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155644	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.	eng
155644	threats	Prie, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited	eng
155649	conservation	Vavrova, L., Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Georgiev, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Most probably there is no conservation action for this species in place.	eng
155649	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155649	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is recorded from Tunisia in last century (it is known from Oued El Qmor, Tabarca and Khroumiri). People have collected in this area more recently without finding it, so it is presumed to now be Extinct.	eng
155649	distribution	Vavrova, L., Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Georgiev, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a widespread species in Europe according to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006). Some older distributional data might refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. troscheli </span>which is now considered to be a distinct species. Fauna Europaea lists the following countries: Austria, Balearis Islands, Belgium, U.K. - Great Britain, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Ukraine, Serbia.<br/><br/>Czech Republic: <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia leachii </span>(Sheppard, 1823) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia troschelii</span> (Paasch, 1842) are both recorded in the Czech Republic, where both species are restricted to South Moravia; in the floodplains along the Morava River and the Dyje River where both species are very rare.<br/>UK:&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia leachii </span>(Sheppard, 1823) is widespread in lowland rivers, but is believed to have declined over the last 50 years (Killeen, pers. comm, 2009).&#160;Slovakia: Mainly the Danube and Morava River. Also in the Latorica River and slow flooding canals and oxbows, and fishponds.Germany: Common in the north part. In the southern part only in the River Rhein, Neckar and Chiemsee.<br/>Bulgaria: <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia rumelica</span> Wohlberedt, 1911 was considered a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia (Codiella) leachii</span> by Angelov (2000). Georgiev (2010) noted that it was described as a new species from a thermal spring (water temperature 20° C) in the Rhodopes Mountains near the town of Krichim (Wohlberedt, 1911). The only known such spring is Krichimski Vircheta, near the Vacha River. <br/><br/>  This species has a Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern <st1:place w:st="on">Scandinavia</st1:place>.&#160; It is widespread within its known range in Europe from Scandinavia to the Iberian Penisula, and from Eire to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
155649	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155649	habitat	Vavrova, L., Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Georgiev, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species lives in different types of habitat, such as oxbows, rivers, streams, fish ponds, slow flowing canals, etc. It is known to inhabit a wide range of habitats such as streams, rivers, canals, large drains, marsh drains and lakes, however, it is less common in smaller ponds. It shows a strong preference for richly vegetated habitats, often with a muddy or silty substrate with a high diversity of molluscs and other aquatic invertebrates.	eng
155649	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155649	population	Vavrova, L., Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Georgiev, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	There is no unified information available on population and trends for this species, although some countries where the species is less widespread have data on population declines over the last 50 years.&#160;There is little evidence of any significant decline.	eng
155649	threats	Vavrova, L., Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V., Georgiev, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Its habitats are affected by artificial and natural impacts (i.e. natural sedimentation and water pollution), although it is difficult to state if there is a significant decline on the habitat quality. It is pollution sensitive and there is evidence of some localised decline. <br/>    <p>Other Threats: Pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging.&#160; Mouthon (1996) showed&#160; that <span style="font-style: italic;">B. leachii </span>was one of the species of gastropod most sensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
155649	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155651	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. &#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).&#160; The species requires a programme of habitat monitoring and survey work to establish population trends at the last two known sites, as well as information about potentially damaging actions.	eng
155651	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is restricted to western Sardinia. The type locality is the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne, at San Giovanni, 100m ASL (UTM 32 T NK4260). Also known from a spring on right bank of Cedrino River, S. Leonardo (3km upstream of Orosei, UTM 32 T NK5771) and Spring San Giuseppe, Siniscola (UTM 32 T NK5790) at 55m ASL (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 1998). The possible loss at the type locality was noted by Manganelli <em>et al.</em> (1998).	eng
155651	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is restricted to interstitial waters of a spring within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is a strict stygobiont (i.e. species generally restricted to subterranean groundwater habitats and characterized morphologically by loss or severe reduction of eyes and pigment). Like most spring-snails, the species feeds using a radula, scraping rock surfaces.	eng
155651	population	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low and the loss of one sub-population suggests a decreasing trend.	eng
155651	threats	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In 1998, Manganelli noted that this species has not been found living at the spring at Su Cologne since it was exploited and the bottom surface of the spring cemented over.	eng
155652	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>	eng
155652	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohridohauffenia rotonda</span> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and thus only known in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is recorded on the south-eastern shore from Gorica Hill, near Ohrid town, to St. Naum (Radoman 1985) and from the north-west shore (Hauffe T. pers. comm<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009).</p>	eng
155652	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater species only found in edges of the lake in the littoral zone on banks and on stones.	eng
155652	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is only  found in a few locations and mainly in low abundance (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155652	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>  Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load changes the lake bed, smothering the rocks with cover of fine sediment. The water quality is also changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) leading to habitat degradation. As eutrophication continues, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod.&#160;</p>	eng
155653	conservation	Hauffe, T., Erõss, Z., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.	eng
155653	distribution	Hauffe, T., Erõss, Z., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>&#160;This species is present in a very restricted area of the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) part of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>.</p>	eng
155653	habitat	Hauffe, T., Erõss, Z., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is living in rocky areas of the shore of Lake Ohrid where it is found in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species  (Hadzisce 1956) .	eng
155653	population	Hauffe, T., Erõss, Z., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is strictly restricted to the rocky south-eastern shore and is found only in low abundances.</p>	eng
155653	threats	Hauffe, T., Erõss, Z., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod, diminishing its ability to filter water. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.&#160;Agriculture near the Prespa lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region, threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).	eng
155655	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this endemic species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between Albania, FYROM and Greece would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the Prespa Lake. Habitat monitoring should be introduced to determine the impacts of sedimentation and declining water quality for this species. The impact of the introduced fish are unknown, but the pea-clams are known to be fish-food in other lake habitats, and so more understanding of the impacts of the native and introduced species are recommended.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
155655	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium maasseni i</span>s restricted to <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Schultheiss <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2008). The total surface area is 254km² and it lies between the three countries with190 km² in FYROM, 84.8 km² in Greece and 38.8 km² in Albania.	eng
155655	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This small bivalve, a pea-clam, is found in freshwater habitats where it is found in littoral zone of the lake on soft substrates.	eng
155655	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a locally abundant species in Lake Prespa.	eng
155655	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The increase of sediment load as the result of erosion of the neighbouring area impacts this small bivalve and its ability to filter water. The eutrophication related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the adjacent area to the lake results in the growth of macrophytes, covering the soft substrate and diminishing the oxygen availability within the substrate (anoxic). The introduction of alien fish species for recreational fishing has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.	eng
155656	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	The conservation action for this species are not known.&#160; Surveys for this species would be recommended to determine the presence continues in this cave system and monitoring of the groundwater quality to determine changes in biotope condition.	eng
155656	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella dabriana</span> is recorded from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was described by Radoman (1975) from source of the Dabar River, about 6-8 km south of Sanski Most, by the cave, Dabarska pecina (44° 42' 38 N,&#160;16° 38' 17 E).&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
155656	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is found in freshwater karsts, groundwaters and emergent springs in cave (Radoman 1975).	eng
155656	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no population information for this species.	eng
155656	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	<p>Although the species is apparently restricted to a single site, the current condition of the biotope is considered unpolluted, (Z. Feher, pers. Comm. 2010) and as such there is no reason to consider that this species is threatened.&#160;</p>	eng
155659	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.	eng
155659	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pisidium nitidum </em> is a widespread Holartic species. In Africa, it has only been recorded from a single locality in the Oued Mikkés near Ifrane, Morocco (Van Damme 1984). The Oued Mikkés is presently heavily polluted and the African population can be assumed to have disappeared.	eng
155659	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155659	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155659	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution is a major threat affecting to the species.	eng
155661	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species was protected by law in Styria, Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List, where it is deemed to be Extinct (EX). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
155661	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella kreisslorum </span>is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, a single spring in Hohenberg, north west&#160;of Graz, Steiermark (Gloer 2002), where <span id="result_box" class="long_text">it was first collected by E. Kreissl and PL <span title="">Reischütz in 1981. As<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> there were only a few shells, the species was not described until 1997. According to <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz & <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz (2008) <span id="result_box" class="long_text">this spring has now been captured, although another spring produced a few empty shells at Melanie-Quelle am Schöckl.&#160;</span></span>	eng
155661	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This is a freshwater species that inhabits springs.	eng
155661	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz and <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="">Reischütz (2009) noted that the species may have been extinct before it was described, as the the type locality, as spring, has been lost. </span>	eng
155661	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater and the lowering of the groundwater level due to inappropriate water management. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.	eng
155668	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place, however surveys are required to establish the absence and possible extinction of the species.	eng
155668	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia varica</span> is restricted to the springs around the Var river delta (near Nice and Cannes, south-eastern France). It is known only from four sites, in one location (Var River).	eng
155668	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This is a freshwater spring snail.	eng
155668	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
155668	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The natural habitats in the  delta of the Var River have been changed by human activities, such as construction of the airport, increased urbanisation and the consequent habitat degradation resulting from pollution, etc., and, as such, most of the sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia varica</span> occurred have changed.	eng
155669	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155669	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the appeninic regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Tuscany, Lazio and Puglia where it is widespread, but locally distributed.	eng
155669	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to thermal spring waters and slow-flowing water.	eng
155669	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no data on population trends.	eng
155669	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155670	conservation	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat quality would allow the trends in rate of changing habitat quality to be assessed, and hence any change that would impact conservation status could be tracked. <br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
155670	distribution	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
155670	habitat	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is freshwater species lives in the littoral zone, living on various substrates, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena </span>shells, gravels and sand.	eng
155670	population	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is a rare species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155670	threats	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. The decline in the habitat quality is only affecting the littoral range of this species and is not thought to impact the sub-littoral part of the range.	eng
155674	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species is considered Near Threatened in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
155674	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<em>Alzoniella cornucopia</em> is endemic to Italy, specifically to an aquifer&#160;in the upper reaches of River Arbia within the Appeninnes of Tuscany (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
155674	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<em>Alzoniella cornucopia</em> is found in&#160;groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
155674	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area but population trends are unknown.	eng
155674	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155675	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No conservation actions required for this species	eng
155675	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures are proposed.	eng
155675	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
155675	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
155675	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of.	eng
155675	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
155675	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
155675	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
155675	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Research on <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus'</span> biology is recommended and potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>	eng
155675	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Distributed widely in West Africa. Absence from Central African Republic is considered real.	eng
155675	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides tuberculata</em> is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
155675	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Melanoides tuberculatus</em> is a circumtropical species, native to the Indo-Pacific region, south Asia, Arabia, Near East, and northern Australia. Its southern limits lie near Port Elizabeth (South Africa) and Namibia (Brown 1994). It has also been introduced to the Americas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Although it is widespread in tropical Africa, it is apparently absent from a large western area, including most of the Zaire Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed species in eastern Africa occurring in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi, including Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria and other regional wetlands.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is thought to be present in the majority of North Africa countries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in all countries in the region, and on Socotra.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and the eastern drainages of South Africa southwards to Port Elizabeth. It has also been recorded at a few isolated sites in Namibia (possibly relic populations); one of these is a subterranean lake. It is not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed widely in West Africa. Absence It is known from Central African Republic is considered real.	eng
155675	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	Regional Distribution: Widely introduced through Europe with scattered populations in central Europe, becoming more common around the Mediterranean.&#160; <br/>Global distribution: Native range - Indo-Pacific region, S. Asia, Arabia, Near East, northern Australia and widepspread in tropical Africa.	eng
155675	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> has a very broad distribution. It is found in northern and southern Africa; eastern Mediterranean countries, Saudi Arabia, south and southeast Asia (including numerous records from, Bangladesh, Nepal and from much of India), southern China (including records from Hong Kong and Hainan), Japan, Malaysia, and northern Australia (Yueying Liu 1979, Brown 1994, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It was introduced to the Americas. It is distributed throughout India except Kashmir.	eng
155675	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Throughout Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and  the eastern drainages of South Africa southwards to Port Elizabeth. It has also been recorded at a few isolated sites in Namibia (possibly relic populations); one of these is a subterranean lake. It is not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Native range - Indo-Pacific region, southern. Asia, Arabia, Near East, northern Australia. Widespread in tropical Africa, but apparently absent  from a large western area, including most of the Zaire Basin. Southern limits lie near Port Elizabeth (South Africa) and Namibia (Brown, 1994). Introduced to the Americas.	eng
155675	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from all countries and on Socotra.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is presently a circumtropical species, introduced everywhere by man. The type locality is India.	eng
155675	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is presently Circumtropical, and has been highly introduced. Its type locality is in India.	eng
155675	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is widely distributed in eastern Africa occurring in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Malawi. Including Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria and other regional wetlands.	eng
155675	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in lakes and rivers at mud, sand and gravel. Present both within vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>) and on bottom without vegetation. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
155675	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent and occurring among vegetation.	eng
155675	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Lakes and rivers at mud, sand and gravel. Present both within vegetation (<em>Vallisneria</em>) and on bottom without vegetation. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
155675	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent. Among vegetation.	eng
155675	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides   tuberculatus</span> inhabitats&#160;clear water with rocky or sandy bottom in the rapid flowing mountain streams. It is also found in pools, lakes and ditches. <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> is the intermediate host of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus westermani, Metagonimus trematode</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Diorchitrema formosanum</span>.	eng
155675	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species lives in stagnant and slowly running waters, tolerating high salinity to some extent among vegetation.	eng
155675	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in most habitats in Lake Victoria even in the disturbed and polluted areas it was recorded in high abundance.	eng
155675	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Various permanent water bodies including rivers, lakes, shallow seepages and man-made habitats (Brown 1994).	eng
155675	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Various permanent water bodies including rivers, lakes, shallow seepages and man-made habitats (Brown 1994).<br/>May in fact benefit from human disturbance as can live in degraded habitats.	eng
155675	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	A very widespread and common species.	eng
155675	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	A very widespread and common species.	eng
155675	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Can be very abundant.	eng
155675	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	In the ongoing freshwater gastropods study of Lake Victoria, Kenya, over 40,000  specimens have been recorded in few sampling localities and the species appears very stable in the lake.	eng
155675	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is common and abundant.	eng
155675	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is common and abundant.	eng
155675	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides   tuberculatus</span>, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
155675	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus</span> is parthenogenetic. Females are capable of asexual reproduction,  where growth and development of <span class="mw-redirect">e<span class="mw-redirect">mbryos occurs without <span class="mw-redirect">fertilization by a male. This makes it easy for this species to colonise new areas, as few individuals are required to successful reproduce to start a new sub-population.	eng
155675	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
155675	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
155675	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats for this widespread species.	eng
155675	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats have been identified.	eng
155675	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
155675	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
155675	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides tuberculatus </span>inhabits&#160;clear water with rocky or sandy bottom in the rapid flowing mountain streams, which are impacted in parts of the species range by sedimentation arising form deforestion and agriculture. The impacts of these threats on the species require research.	eng
155675	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	The invasive thiarid <em>Tarebia granifera</em>  has been introduced to South Africa from Asia by the aquarium trade (Appleton 2003) and appears to be outcompeting <em>M. tuberculata</em> in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa (Appleton pers com). The Asian form of the species has probably been introduced to South Africa via  the aquarium trade but its impact on the indigenous <em>M. tuberculata</em>  is unknown (see Genner et al 2004 for a discussion on an apparently similar situation in Lake Malawi).	eng
155675	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	There are no known threats to this species	eng
155675	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	There is evidence that the indigenous <em>M. tuberculatus</em> has been displaced by an Asian strain in Lake Malawi and this strain may be more widespread (Genner <em>et al.</em> 2004). Introduced via the aquarium trade.	eng
155676	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. This species is assessed as Extinct in the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8).	eng
155676	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy. Specifically it was found within the alpine region of Lombardy between Lake Garda and Lake Idro. It has not been recorded since 1850 and hence is considered to be Extinct.	eng
155676	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This freshwater mollusc was originally recorded as living in standing marsh water (CK Map 5.3.8).	eng
155676	population	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species was restricted to a small area and has not been recorded since 1850.	eng
155676	threats	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is considered Extinct as it hasn't been found again since 1850. The causes of its extinction are uncertain, but the habitat has probably been lost.	eng
155677	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Bole and Velkovhr 1986, Bole 1992) and later&#160;assigned a status of&#160; Vulnerable for the Slovenian Red List (Slovenian Gazette, September 2002).                Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status.&#160; </p>	eng
155677	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>Although this species is listed by Fauna Europea as endemic to Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;The type locality for this species was the cave Raja peč near Sevnica and springs in surroundings (Slapnik pers. comm. 2010), and it is believed to be restricted to these sites (Sket pers. comm. 2010). <br/></p>	eng
155677	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species lives in freshwater springs and caves.	eng
155677	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
155677	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The major threat to the species is pollution of the groundwaters feeding the springs, with agricultural sources. A secondary threat may be the use of the cave for tourist purposes, with possible changes to the microhabitats to the  cave.	eng
155679	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in the region.	eng
155679	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pisidium tenuilineatum </em> is a Paleartic species only known from a single location in northern Africa, the Oued Mikkés near Ifrane, Morocco (Kuiper 1972). It is probably Extinct in Africa. Its type locality is in a canal near Marsworth Church in Ireland.	eng
155679	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information.	eng
155679	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155679	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Global warming is a major threat to the species.	eng
155682	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions	eng
155682	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is recorded from Brittany (France) to Morocco along the Atlantic coast.	eng
155682	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span> species lives in brackish waters.	eng
155682	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span>.	eng
155682	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia glyca</span> are unknown.	eng
155685	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.&#160; Habitat monitoring is recommended to establish changes in habitat quality and the conservation status of this species. <br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>	eng
155685	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania. It has a wider distribution range than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea </span>species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155685	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species lives in a freshwater lake, where it prefers the rocky shores of the littoral zone.</p>	eng
155685	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is not very abundant (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155685	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Lake Ohrid is among the nutrient-poor (so called oligotrophic) lakes (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006) and as such the species are adapted to these conditions. Recent surveys of the lake suggest that complete nutrient-enrichment (eutrophication) is taking place, from domestic water pollution and agricultural run-off.&#160;In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod.	eng
155686	conservation	Bilandzija, H. & Jalzic, B., 2009	It should be protected from water extraction. Conservation actions would be to change plans for dumping site.&#160; Proper drainage from road is needed to stop seepage to aquifer.&#160;All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia.&#160;&#160;The status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.	eng
155686	distribution	Bilandzija, H. & Jalzic, B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina</span> is listed by Fauna Europea from Bosnia and Croatia (Bank <em>et al.</em> 2006; Fauna Europea). &#160;One subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">jadertina&#160;</span>is recorded from both Bosnia and Croatia, although Sket (pers. comm. 2010) doubts the locality data for Bosnia.&#160; The other subspecies&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia jadertina sinjana</span>&#160;is endemic to Croatia and at present is only known from one locality, a spring in river valley of Jadro, near Spilt.	eng
155686	habitat	Bilandzija, H. & Jalzic, B., 2009	This species occurs in a freshwater spring emerging from a cave system. It is possible that the species occurs within the cave system. The cave water is exploited for drinking water.	eng
155686	population	Bilandzija, H. & Jalzic, B., 2009	There is no data on population trends.	eng
155686	threats	Bilandzija, H. & Jalzic, B., 2009	The threats are:<br/><ul><li>extraction of water for drinking (ongoing)</li><li>road passes close to the spring, major road, with traffic with large lorries, oil spills&#160; possibility for&#160; road accidents. </li><li>run-off from road into the underground aquifer - pollution.</li><li>planning to build a refuse disposal about 30 km away, however the site has been tested and links through subterranean waters to this site. [Future large problem- regional disposal].</li></ul>	eng
155689	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V. & Bodon, M., 2010	Further data is required on population status and distribution.	eng
155689	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V. & Bodon, M., 2010	The species is listed for Italy by Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2006), however in Fauna Italica it is considered to be <em>B. leachi</em>. &#160;According to Bodon and Cianfanelli (Cianfanelli, pers. comm. Feb 2010), <em>Bithynia italica</em>, Paulucci, 1880 is a valid species and this species is widely distributed in Italy and in Corsica.&#160;The type locality for this species is&#160; Angitola river near Pizzo in Calabria, Italy. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is mentioned by Falkner <em>et al.&#160;</em>(2002) from Pietracorbara&#160; in Corsica ("Cape Corse" only) ; and Viareggio and Lago di Massaciuccoli in Italia, where it is syntopic with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. boissieri.</span>	eng
155689	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V. & Bodon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater rivers.	eng
155689	population	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V. & Bodon, M., 2010	No data on population status although believed to be widespread.	eng
155689	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Prie, V. & Bodon, M., 2010	The threats to the species are localised and the wide distribution in Italy and Corsica suggests that the species is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
155690	conservation	Seddon, M., 2009	No conservation actions are in place for this species, although it is listed as endemic for the Mountain. More information is needed on the distribution and the population. Habitat trends should be monitor.	eng
155690	distribution	Seddon, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is known from&#160; Bjelaš-nica, a site that also holds <em>Radomaniola bosniaca</em> and is a mountain in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is found directly to the southwest of Sarajevo.&#160;&#160;It is restricted to the Vrbas River catchment. It was described from 6 springs or brooks within the catchment (Radoman 1983). Spring between Jajce and Mrkonjiće-grad, 8km from Jajce&#160;; spring below Barevo village 8km N of Jajce&#160;; spring between Mrkonjiće-grad and Kljuće, 2-3km from Mrkonjiće-grad, Sredinace spring 5 km of Jezero and 4km N of Šipovo; Žlicino-vrelo by Ćirakovac, 10km from Mrkonjiće-grad.	eng
155690	habitat	Seddon, M., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155690	population	Seddon, M., 2009	No data on the population is available.	eng
155690	threats	Seddon, M., 2009	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer or water extraction is taken directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction, unless they lie in protected areas.	eng
155691	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
155691	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Endemic to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), this species is restricted to Lake Ohrid, the St. Naum, Zagorican and Tusemista feeder springs of Lake Ohrid, the Drim System at least upstream to the dam Lake Globocicko (approximately 15 km north of Lake Ohrid), and to the Sum spring north-west of Lake Ohrid (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>  <strong></strong><p></p>	eng
155691	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>In Lake Ohrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">Radix</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> relicta </span>was recorded between depths from 0 m to 35 m. It lives mainly on hard substrata (e.g. rocks, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena</span> bundles) or on algae of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara </span>belt. (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)</p>	eng
155691	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is an abundant species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155691	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).   In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.</p>	eng
155693	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions currently in place for this species. More research on the distribution of this species is needed to define the real risk of extinction of this species (if this species is proven to be restricted to one single spring, it might qualify for a Critically Endangered category).	eng
155693	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella haicabia</span> is endemic to France, and is known from the Department Pyrenees-Atlantiques (south-west France). This species was described relatively recently, from a spring<span id="result_box" class="medium_text"> about 200 m from the sea on the farm Haicabia, north of Route Nationale 10c, between St Jean de Luz and&#160; Hendaye, Pyrenees-Atlantiques, France (UTM: XP00). Boeters (2000) has only found it from 1 location.	eng
155693	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155693	population	Prie, V., 2009	The status of the populations at the known site is currently unknown, as no further sampling reported since first collection 10 years ago.	eng
155693	threats	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella haicabia</span> is currently only known from a single spring on a farm, near the sea between two towns.&#160; This site has potential threats from exploitation of the water source, from pollution by use of the spring and over abstraction of water.	eng
155694	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No conservation actions are specifically in place for this species.	eng
155694	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is widespread in northern Italy (see CK Map version 5.3.8), found in most areas of Lombardia, Piedmonte and Liguria. It is not known whether the species is reducing in range, but likely that some populations are threatened through exploitation of sources.	eng
155694	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155694	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The populations trends are unknown.	eng
155694	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is widespread through northern Italy, and although some populations may be threatened through exploitation of the springs by nearby villages, it is unlikely to lead to extinction in the near future.   The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water sources, either through extraction of groundwater feeding the spring, or capping (off-take) of water from the springs.&#160; There are a variety of purposes in the region, use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.	eng
155695	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>	eng
155695	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia hadzii</span> is recorded from a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)<st1:placename w:st="on">, </st1:placename>from   Pečtani <span color="blue">to the beach at St. Naum (Radoman 1985).<br/></p>	eng
155695	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is living in freshwater habitats in rocky areas, in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs, where it is found on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956). <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
155695	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The population trend is not known.	eng
155695	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155696	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Lajtner, J. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="background-color: white;">There are no species-specific conservation  action plans known, however habitat monitoring is recommended.&#160; <br/><br/></span>This species is currently listed as Near Threatened in Italy, based on limited range and a small number of sites but there are no known threats. <br/><br/>In Slovenia, one subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. robiciana kostanjevicae</span>) is present in the River Krka catchment, which<span style="background-color: white;"> is a  Natural Monument. According to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka  River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72  and ) is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area   potential Site of Conservation Interest.&#160;&#160; </span>	eng
155696	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Lajtner, J. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<em>Paladilhiopsis robiciana</em> is recorded from Italy, Slovenia, Croatia.&#160; In Italy it is found in NE Italy, where it is recorded from 5 localities (EOO 400 km2), but some sites have multiple outflows. All localities have been surveyed in last 40 years, as the species was first recognised in Italy in 1973. In Slovenia, it is recorded from the springs in NW Slovenia. One subspecies is known from Croatia.	eng
155696	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Lajtner, J. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155696	population	Cianfanelli, S., Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Lajtner, J. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155696	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Lajtner, J. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The major threats to this species are overabstraction of water during the summer periods, causing a drop in the water table and degradation of habitats through temporary drying.	eng
155698	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The species is present in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>.<a name="OLE_LINK1"> There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.</p><p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>  <strong></strong><p></p>	eng
155698	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, and to the feeder spring systems on the southern edge of the lake. It is found at four locations including the lake and three independent feeder spring systems. It has a wider distribution range in the catchment area than other species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea</span>.	eng
155698	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This freshwater species is found on hard substrates (stones and rocks) in lake margins and in springs.<br/></p>	eng
155698	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is not very abundant (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155698	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Lake Ohrid is among the nutrient-poor (so-called oligotrophic) lakes (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) and as such the species are adapted to these conditions. Recent surveys of the lake suggest that complete nutrient-enrichment (eutrophication) is taking place from domestic water pollution and agricultural run-off.&#160;In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod.   The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism/recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.	eng
155702	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is not known to occur in a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place. It is also not currently protected by Austrian law and is found to be Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List. It is suggested that monitoring of the habitat of this species is conducted, along with research into the population trend.	eng
155702	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum excessum </span>is endemic to Austria. Specifically it is found in the northern Alps in the western parts of the province of Salzburg. It is only known from the type locality in the floodline debris deposits of a brook north-east of Schwandt    .	eng
155702	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species occurs in freshwater springs and groundwater,&#160;occasionally it is also in water found in rock fissures.	eng
155702	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There have been no living individuals of this species found recently.	eng
155702	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are unknown. This species could be threatened by pollution from agricultural practices and groundwater extraction as other Austrian endemic species found in the same type of habitat are under these threats.	eng
155705	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires species-specific survey work by appropriate specialists, doing surveys at the right season, to determine if the type locality still exists and if the species is still extant.	eng
155705	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia moitessieri</span> is considered to be endemic to France and was found in "la source du Martinet", a single freshwater spring around Montpellier (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155705	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in a freshwater spring, which is declining in quality as a result of water pollution and drying out. The spring is likely to be no longer perennial.	eng
155705	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species, but it is believed to be declining.	eng
155705	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species. Given that the single location for this species is a spring near Montpellier, a rapidly expanding town in southern France, the species is highly vulnerable to urbanization and water resource overexploitation.	eng
155707	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions known to be in place for this species, however, monitoring of habitat quality would be recommended for this species.	eng
155707	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia jamblussensis</span> is currently only known from Causse of Quercy, a limestone pavement area  in the department of Lot in south-west France.	eng
155707	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155707	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155707	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Reduction of the water table may become problematic, if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155708	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are in place for this species. The species would benefit from population monitoring and education of the local people to raise awareness.	eng
155708	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, and it is known only from the type locality in the Creuze department. &#160;This single location has a small range, and as such it is currently regarded as a restricted species.	eng
155708	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155708	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155708	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155714	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measures. More research on population is needed.	eng
155714	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Belgrandia gfrast</em> is an endemic species from France, where it is only known from the type locality, Saint-Louis in the Department of Jura.	eng
155714	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155714	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available.	eng
155714	threats	Prie, V., 2009	This species is known from a single spring site in an area where there is considerable pressure on water resources for domestic supplies with numerous springs captured, but at the moment, this particular site is not significantly altered.	eng
155717	conservation	Vavrova, L., 2010	There are no conservation measurements in place. However several subpopulations are in protected areas.	eng
155717	distribution	Vavrova, L., 2010	<em>Viviparus contectus </em>is a Palearctic species, occurring over most of the European states in the west, north and east, but much rarer in southern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. It is widespread<em> </em>in northern and central Europe recorded from UK in west of region, to northern countries of Sweden, Latvia, Estonia and Denmark, through to Germany, Switzerland, south to Italy, Slovenia and east to Greece and Bulgaria.This species is P<span class="mw-redirect">alearctic in distribution extending to western Siberia	eng
155717	habitat	Vavrova, L., 2010	This species lives in generally lentic habitats, in large slow-flowing rivers, large drainage ditches, fenland dykes, ditches on grazing marshes, and occasionally in large ponds and lakes.	eng
155717	population	Vavrova, L., 2010	This species can live up to 10 years, and occasionally more.	eng
155717	threats	Vavrova, L., 2010	The main potential threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources – especially intensification of agriculture, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging – particularly of drainage ditches on grazing marsh complexes.	eng
155718	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place. More research on population trends, distribution and threats is needed.	eng
155718	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	This species is listed for Montenegro, but there is no recent data on range or distribution.	eng
155718	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no data on habitats.	eng
155718	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no data on population trends.	eng
155718	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155719	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	More research on populations is needed.	eng
155719	conservation	Van Damme, D, 2008	No data available.	eng
155719	conservation	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
155719	distribution	Van Damme, D, 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from a single dubious 19th Century mention from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm, in Africa only found in Morocco near Ifrane (extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e. a pond) near the Museum of Cairo in Egypt (introduced).  Spread by birds. Probably gone from Africa and most of the Mediterranean part of Europe due to climate change. The type locality is in Frederiksdal, Denmark.	eng
155719	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm. In northern Africa, it was found in Morocco near Ifrane, (where it is now extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e., a pond) near the Museum of Cairo in Egypt, where it has been introduced. It is spread by birds. It is probably gone from Africa and most of the Mediterranean part of Europe due to climate change. Its type locality is Frederiksdal in Denmark.	eng
155719	distribution	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread in the colder parts of the Paleartic realm. In northern Africa it was only found in Morocco near Ifrane (extinct) and in an artificial basin (i.e. a pond) near the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (where it was introduced). It is probably now gone from Africa.	eng
155719	habitat	Van Damme, D, 2008	Found in cold limpid waters.	eng
155719	habitat	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in cold limpid waters.	eng
155719	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in cold limpid waters.	eng
155719	population	Van Damme, D, 2008	No data available.	eng
155719	population	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155719	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155719	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Global warming is a major threat to the species.	eng
155719	threats	Van Damme, D, 2008	It is most threatened by global warming.	eng
155719	threats	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is affected by impacts of climate change. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
155720	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats. <strong></strong></p>	eng
155720	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006). It is found in sub-littoral zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). This species has a patchy distribution, and is localized vertically (restricted to a bathymetric depth) and horizontally (restricted area in the north-east of the lake).<br/></p>	eng
155720	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater lake species is from the sublittoral zone where it is recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena </span>shell belts. The substrate has changed from sandy to mud due to accumulation of organic material (Albrecht pers. comm., 2009).	eng
155720	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is known to be very rare in survey samples (C. Albrecht, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155720	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. <br/></p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155723	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are currently in place for this species.&#160; Taxonomic research is ongoing to establish the relationships between the subpopulations and the validity of the species.	eng
155723	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is known from two departments, <a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceDescription.jsp&numero_taxon=162839">Loir-et-Cher and Charente-Maritime.&#160; </a>Given the difficulties in identification and knowledge about whether these subpopulations represent the same species, it is at present not possible to map the species, nor comment in detail on the range.&#160; Currently research is ongoing to establish species status (J.M. Bichain pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155723	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	<p>In common with many <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species, this species lives only in springs, hence the natural habitat is very restricted, to one or several spring sites in close proximity. </p>	eng
155723	population	Prie, V., 2009	No data is available on the status of the populations.	eng
155723	threats	Prie, V., 2009	No threats are known specifically for this species, but as with many spring-snail species, the major threats are use of the spring for water supplies for domestic and agricultural purposes.&#160;Many spring sites are used to supply small settlements with water, and as such maybe improved by concreting the sides to provide a cleaner extraction point.&#160; There are also changes to the water levels throughout the year as water is pumped from the groundwater supply, sometimes to the point of temporary drying of the spring-site during the late summer, prior to groundwater recharge in the winter.	eng
155728	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research on population, distribution and threats is needed.	eng
155728	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
155728	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no data on habitat.	eng
155728	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155728	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155729	conservation	Schreiber, K., Hauffe, T. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. The lake is recognised as a protected area (GR1340001-Ethnikos Drymos Prespon)&#160;and is listed by Greece as a Natura 2000 site (Radea, pers. comm. 2010).&#160;</p>	eng
155729	distribution	Schreiber, K., Hauffe, T. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to Lake <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> which lies in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.&#160;</p>	eng
155729	habitat	Schreiber, K., Hauffe, T. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zones in rocky habitats.	eng
155729	population	Schreiber, K., Hauffe, T. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This species has only been found in low abundances in recent surveys in the lake (Albrecht <em>et al</em>, pers. comm. 2010)	eng
155729	threats	Schreiber, K., Hauffe, T. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This species is vulnerable to habitat loss resulting from abrupt drops in water level (of several metres) related to excessive abstraction of water for agriculture, coupled with extremely dry summers, leading to impact in the littoral zone which is threatening this species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area is also responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation to this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrates of the lake bottom is changing, which is diminishing the habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
155730	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
155730	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
155730	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No proposed conservation measures.	eng
155730	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
155730	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species.	eng
155730	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Lymnaea truncatula</em> is a widespread and common Holarctic species, and is widespread in Europe. In Africa it occurs in cool regions from the Mediterranean to the Cape.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is not native to central Africa, but has been reported from eastern DRC and the Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to be a non-native species, found in the highlands of Kenya and south east Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species only occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, but is common in Lesotho. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia and the Nile Delta, also in Baharia, Kharga and Dakhla Oases (Malke, 1959) where it was rare.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Ethiopia, and possibly also in the region of Lake Nasser (Egypt).	eng
155730	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a widespread and common Holarctic species. In Africa, it occurs in cool regions from the Mediterranean till the Cape. In the northern African region, it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the Nile Delta, being also recorded in Baharia, Kharga and Dakhla Oases (Malke 1959) where it was rare. Its type locality is in Thangelstedt, Germany.	eng
155730	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Galba truncatula</span> is a widespread species found throughout the world. It is known from North America, Europe, Africa, West, South and North Asia (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
155730	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Only occurs in southern and eastern South Africa, common in Lesotho. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Sporadically in Ethiopia and Kenya and in Northern Africa. It is a holarctic species.	eng
155730	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, and possibly present also in the region of Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Widespread and common Holarctic species. In Africa occurring in cool regions from the Mediterranean till the Cape. The type locality is in Thangelstedt, Germany.	eng
155730	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	An amphibious species and normally occurs in greatest numbers above 800m altitude in South Africa. An outlying population occurs in a canalized river in Durban (Appleton pers com). Survives in small streams, seepages, bogs and temporary collections of rainwater. Not found in main river channels and lakes but is found on the damp mud of river banks and lakes and irrigation furrows. <br/><br/>Intermediate host of <em>Fasciola hepatica</em>, the common liver fluke of cattle, sheep and other domestic stock.	eng
155730	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It inhabits small streams  and temporary ponds. In Lesotho, also found in bogs and marshes.	eng
155730	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is considered as a vector of the disease <em>Fasciola hipatica</em>. It has been found in all water bodies, including intermittent or long term, man-made, etc. It is spread by birds (make long strings with eggs on that get caught on birds and transported to new water bodies).	eng
155730	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This is a palustrine species that is found in swamps, dumps and polluted waters. It serves as an intermediate host of many trematodes including <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica</span>.	eng
155730	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Vector of disease (<em>Fasciola hepatica</em>). Found in all waterbodies, intermittent or long term, man-made etc. Spread by birds (make long strings with eggs on that get caught on birds and so transported to new water bodies).	eng
155730	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally common.	eng
155730	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
155730	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155730	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Population status and trend data for this species are not available.	eng
155730	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is common in Lesotho, less common elsewhere in southern Africa and scattered in East Africa.	eng
155730	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
155730	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats are known to the species.	eng
155730	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
155730	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No specific threats known.	eng
155730	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This is a widespread species with no specific threats.	eng
155733	conservation	Gargominy, O. & Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella roubionensis</span> has been found in surveys in Mercantour National Park (INPN, Gargimony, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155733	distribution	Gargominy, O. & Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella roubionensis </span>is endemic to France, where it is restricted to Alpes-Maritime, SE France, and has recently been recorded from the Mercantour National Park (<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceDescription.jsp&numero_taxon=162866"></a>Gargominy & Ripken, 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Gargominy, O. </strong>& Ripken, E. J. 2006. Données nouvelles sur les mollusques (Mollusca, Gastropoda) du Parc national du Mercantour (France). <em>MalaCo</em>(3): 109-139.	eng
155733	habitat	Gargominy, O. & Prie, V., 2009	Most <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species live only in springwater. Their natural habitat is thus very restricted.	eng
155733	population	Gargominy, O. & Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available.	eng
155733	threats	Gargominy, O. & Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The type locality has been damaged by the construction of a road.	eng
155734	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155734	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
155734	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The Paleartic species is widely spread species, known from Egypt, Tunisia, and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Morocco. In Egypt, it is known from Lake Qaron, northern delta lakes and Siwa oasis.	eng
155734	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widely spread paleartic species, known from Egypt, Tunisia and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast of Morocco. In Egypt, it is known from Lake Qaron, northern delta lakes and Siwa oasis.	eng
155734	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is found in brackish waters, in estuaries. Spread by birds.	eng
155734	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in brackish waters and estuaries. It is spread by birds.	eng
155734	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is very common where it is found.	eng
155734	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is very common where found.	eng
155734	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats to the taxon are known.	eng
155734	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
155735	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No known conservation actions.	eng
155735	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	Prie (pers. comm, 2009) considers this species to be widespread in southern France.	eng
155735	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters. As it has never been collected alive, it is suspected to be living only in deep waters.	eng
155735	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155735	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155739	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)  and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>	eng
155739	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)  and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
155739	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This littoral species lives on the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline.	eng
155739	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This is a very rare species.	eng
155739	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
155740	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is listed as Rare on Red list of Slovenia (Bole & Velkovrh1986, 1992, Slovenian Gazette, September 2002).	eng
155740	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia wagneri</span> is endemic to&#160; south-eastern Slovenia , recorded from four locations,&#160; a cave Raja peč near Sevnica (type locality), one spring near Sevnica and springs north from Trebnje (springs in the basin of river Mirna). </p>	eng
155740	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species occurs in caves and in springs.<br/></p>	eng
155740	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no data on population status for this species.	eng
155740	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The main threat to this species is groundwater pollution.	eng
155744	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155744	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine section of the River Isonzo, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and occurs close to the border, and so could occur in Slovenia. It is known from 3 locations, and so currently viewed as rare.	eng
155744	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
155744	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155744	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155745	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires research on taxonomy, threats, population trends and distribution.	eng
155745	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	The real distribution of this species is unknown. This species was originally described from the Rhône alluviums near Lyon, but from floodline debris so the precise location in the river catchment is unknown. According to Boeters (ref missing), the species lives in springs of the Jura (source de la Loue), but <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>population from this site are considered by Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) as<span style="font-style: italic;"> B. geisserti</span> and as such the distribution remains uncertain.	eng
155745	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species probably lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155745	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155745	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155746	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	No conservation actions known for this species. Survey work is required to establish whether the species is still present at springs around the last known location, and if refound then monitoring will be required and possibly site protection.	eng
155746	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<em>Plagigeyeria tribunicae </em>was described in early 1980's from the cave Dejanova pećina in Bileća, E Hercegovina, and&#160;is endemic to Bosnia & Hercegovina (Sket, pers. comm., 2010).	eng
155746	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is believed to be a freshwater spring-snail.	eng
155746	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no recent data on population trends.	eng
155746	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The only known locality is now below the man-made lake, and as such the springs where the species may have been recorded have been destroyed, and the species status is uncertain (Sket, 2010 pers. comm.).	eng
155750	conservation	Bilandzija, H., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species has also been assessed at a regional level:<br/>EU27:&#160; Least Concern <br/>Europe:&#160; Least Concern<br/>Mediterranean:&#160; Least Concern<br/>Italy: Least Concern<br/>Croatia:&#160; Critically Endangered.&#160; All the caves and the cave fauna are strictly protected by law within Croatia.&#160; However the status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.	eng
155750	distribution	Bilandzija, H., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to North Eastern Italy, North Western Slovenia and Croatia (Schutt 2000). <br/><br/>It is only known from 6 10km squares in Italy (e.g.&#160; Sorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle del F oSorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle del Sorgente 1,1 km dal confine di stato, valle de Natisone, a monte di Stupizza, com. Pulfer)<br/><br/>In Croatia, only in a small periodic spring on island of Rab between town of Rab and village of Barbat.<br/><br/>In Slovenia,the range is unknown.	eng
155750	habitat	Bilandzija, H., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This is a freshwater species found within caves and is regarded as a stygobiont.	eng
155750	population	Bilandzija, H., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species has no known population data.	eng
155750	threats	Bilandzija, H., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is known in Italy where it is considered Least Concern, however is it susceptible to groundwater pollution and grounwater abstraction.<br/><br/>In Croatia, only in a small periodic spring on island of Rab between town of Rab and village of Barbat. The site is likely to be threatened from pollution, tourist development and infrastructure development.	eng
155751	conservation	Pešić, V. & Seddon, M., 2010	There are no species-specific actions in place for this species, however further research is needed on population trends and the impacts of possible threats on species distributions. This species has been assessed at the regional level:&#160; EU27 regional assessment:&#160; Not Applicable, European & Mediterranean regional assessment:&#160; Least Concern.	eng
155751	distribution	Pešić, V. & Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adriohydrobia gagatinella</span> is recorded from the Balkan region, from Albania, Montenegro to Croatia. It was originally described from Ljuta Spring, near Kotor, Montenegro. Specimens from the Krka River near Skradin, Croatia, were analysed by Wilke and Falniowski (2001)&#160;in their works on the molecular systematics of the genus.	eng
155751	habitat	Pešić, V. & Seddon, M., 2010	This species is found in freshwaters, and is recorded from rivers and springs.	eng
155751	population	Pešić, V. & Seddon, M., 2010	No data on population trends for this species and more research is needed.	eng
155751	threats	Pešić, V. & Seddon, M., 2010	<em>Adriohydrobia gagatinella</em>&#160;occurs in habitats that are under pressure from water pollution and habitat degradation, although the impact on this species is not known.	eng
155752	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.   Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   </p>  <p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>	eng
155752	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata rhabdota</span> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, where it is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>  <p></p>	eng
155752	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater species found in the sublittoral zone.	eng
155752	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats in high abundances.</p>	eng
155752	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, but there is less impact in the deeper waters at present. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) may also impact this gastropod in the future.	eng
155756	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population and the habitat trends.	eng
155756	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is listed by Bank (2006; Fauna Europea) for Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;Baba (2007) listed the species for Ogulin, Leskovac and Stunjica creeks in the coastal areas of Croatia in his biogeographic region of Ponto-Mediterranean.                Sket (pers. comm. 2010) suggests that it is endemic in central and south-east Slovenia and the adjacent Croatia, systems of rivers Ljubljanica, Krka, Kolpa/Kupa.	eng
155756	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits in freshwater rivers close to the coast.	eng
155756	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	No data on population status or trends are available.	eng
155756	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The general threats to freshwater molluscs in this region include river flow management (for hydroelectric power production), water pollution (from domestic and agricultural sources) and habitat degradation, where habitats are modified during road construction in the river valleys, however the impact on this species is uncertain.	eng
155759	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>                  </p><p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.</p>  An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.<p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155759	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radix pinteri </span>is endemic to the Prespa <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, which lies between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM(also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
155759	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This species has been found on both sandy sublittoral (type specimen ) and sandy littoral (paratypes) (Schütt, 1974). Nowadays <span style="font-style: italic;">R. pinteri</span> is rare and patchy, restricted to the littoral, mainly on stones and occasionally on sand.	eng
155759	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This species can be found only in low abundances, sympatrically with a more abundant congeneric species <span style="font-style: italic;">(Radix auricularia</span>).	eng
155759	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatom communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
155762	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation actions, however, taxonomy and distribution will need to be researched.	eng
155762	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is known from the catchments around Sarajevo (Radoman 1983). The type locality of the nominate race was a spring near Vrelo bosna (Vruci), close to Sarajevo. Radoman (1983) listed springs at Mokro, Borim (Vruci) and Gornje Bradina for the nominate race. Radoman (1983) listed sites for subspecies<em> S. a.&#160;</em><em>erythropama</em> Schutt 1959 from a captured spring Knjeginjace (6 km from Sarajevo and 2km from Miljevci) and another spring close by (200m);&#160;<em>S. a.&#160;travnicensis Radoman, 1975</em> from Plava voda, a stream in Travnik town, as well as 3 springs within 10km of the town, Vašljiva voda 2km west at Lovrić, Šujica River between Kupres and Livno, and Basinac);&#160;S. a.&#160;<em>driniana</em> Radoman, 1975 from drainage of the Drina River (5 sites, Kaostica village, Čatin potok in Brodari Village 300m above Drina River, Višegrad and Perucac).	eng
155762	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This is a species that inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155762	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on recent population trends.	eng
155762	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The major threat to water sources in the region is water extraction for domestic supplies.&#160; Although several of the sites are already exploited as water sources for the local villages, the overall trend is uncertain.	eng
155763	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no specific conservation actions in place. More research on the taxonomy, the population, distribution and on the main threats is needed.	eng
155763	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is listed for Bosnia and Herzegovina and is known from the type locality at Podgaj, above the road at Zenica, 11 km from Doboj.	eng
155763	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155763	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155763	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The main threats to this species are unknown. However, freshwater habitat are under high pressure in this region, in relation with over-abstraction, pollution and drought.	eng
155764	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires more research on population trends, distribution and taxonomy.	eng
155764	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France.	eng
155764	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155764	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155764	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155766	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There are no conservation actions for this species, however monitoring of the habitat needs to be carried out as does more research into distribution and trends in population.	eng
155766	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	Giusti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) described a Holmediterranean distribution for this species, regarding it as conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbis argraulus.&#160; </span>However it is now considered to be more restricted, from Sardinia, Corsica, possibly Alpes Maritime (Gloer and Zettler 2009, Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). On Corsica it is listed from at least 13 locations (Gloer and Zettler 2009) and as such is not range restricted.	eng
155766	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This is a freshwater species.	eng
155766	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
155766	threats	Prie, V., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
155768	conservation	Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are known. The species was considered to be Near Threatened for the Red List of Italy. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, however habitat monitoring would be recommended for this species.	eng
155768	distribution	Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine region of eastern Friuli-Venezia Giulia.&#160; It is only known from a small area, c. 25 km x 15km where it is recorded at three locations.	eng
155768	habitat	Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This small freshater species is found in groundwaters in rocks.	eng
155768	population	Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155768	threats	Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006).&#160;                <span lang="EN-US"> Living in subterranean habitats which are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.    (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155769	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There is no species-specific conservation actions for this species.&#160; Taxonomic research is required to confirm the status as a full species, and if shown then habitat monitoring will be required.	eng
155769	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Bythiospeum racovitzai </em>is only known only from it's type locality in the&#160;department of&#160;Jura, France.	eng
155769	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean freshwaters.	eng
155769	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155769	threats	Prie, V., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes, however subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Decline in habitat following falls in the water table levels maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.</p>	eng
155770	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155770	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy and is found in the alpine regions of Veneto and Lombardy, where it is locally common and some sites have multiple outflows.	eng
155770	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species lives in groundwaters in karst. Some sites have multiple outflows. It feeds using scrapers.	eng
155770	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No data on populations trends are available, however, this is a locally common species.	eng
155770	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2000).	eng
155771	conservation	Bilandzija, H. & Slapnik, R., 2009	There are no specific actions known for the species, although habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to check on population decline levels.&#160; <br/><br/>The Cave of Vjetrenica, the site for <em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae</em> <em>vjetrenicae</em> has been protected since around 1900, when the metal gate preventing access was first made. The same gate, slightly modified in early ‘60s, is still there (Ržehak 1965). Legal protection of the cave started in 1914and it was proclaimed a natural monument in 1950.&#160;Speleological Society Vjetrenica - Popovo polje has renewed the pre- war tourist programme, but flashlights are used at the moment, instead of electrical lighting, which is beneficial to the cave fauna.&#160;<br/><br/>The 'Popovo polje/Vjetrenica' is listed in the Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest.&#160;The B-H Academy made proposal to nominate Vjetrenica as a&#160;candidate&#160;for the World Heritage List.	eng
155771	distribution	Bilandzija, H. & Slapnik, R., 2009	<em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae</em>&#160;was first described from Bosnia & Hercegovina, and the nominate race was found in the Vjetrenica cave system. Two other subspecies are listed from Croatia:&#160; <em>Lanzaia vjetrenicae kusceri&#160;</em>Karaman, 1954&#160;recorded from Croatia.<em> Lanzaia vjetrenicae latecostata</em>&#160;Schütt, 1968&#160;recorded from Croatia and in addition Fauna Europea lists the species from Montenegro. The number of subpopulations is uncertain, but there are possibly as few as 4, but it may get up to 9.	eng
155771	habitat	Bilandzija, H. & Slapnik, R., 2009	This species inhabits freshwaters in karst subterranean system	eng
155771	population	Bilandzija, H. & Slapnik, R., 2009	Population status is unknown.	eng
155771	threats	Bilandzija, H. & Slapnik, R., 2009	At the type locality for the nominate sub-species, the major threats to the cave system where it lives are related to activities that disturb the special microclimate in the cave. &#160;Increased nutrient load in the water may attract other species that would compete with<em> Lanzaia vjetrenicae. </em>Water abstraction from the groundwaters and the springs feeding the cave would lead to change in the water conditions in the cave. Any use of chemicals, either for work in the cave, or from seepage from above the cave would impact the species.	eng
155772	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are known for this species. more research on taxonomy, population and habitat trends is needed.	eng
155772	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella vimperei i</span>s endemic to France, where it is known from 6 localities in three departments: Deux-Sèvres, Charente and Haute-Vienne.	eng
155772	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155772	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155772	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155773	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats.	eng
155773	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is mainly found in the littoral zone and the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows above 30 m depth&#160; (Radoman 1985).	eng
155773	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater snail is mainly found in the littoral zone of the lake on various substrates like <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena</span> shells, stones and gravel, and rarely within the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows above 30 m depth.<br/><em></em>	eng
155773	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is generally found in low abundances in survey samples.	eng
155773	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. However these threats are not thought to be currently impacting this species, although they may if pollution levels increase.	eng
155775	conservation	Prie, V., 2008	Survey work is needed to establish if there are any sites where this species is found within the historical range, as well as taxonomic research on the status of the species incorporating a molecular approach.&#160; Habitat management maybe required at the last known site.	eng
155775	distribution	Prie, V., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria sarahae</span> is only known only from 2 localities : an oxbow lake in the Loire, being slowly filled with mud, but still receiving water at high tide, and a second locality around Rochefort (department Charente Maritime, coll. Morgan, MNHN), western France, where it has not been recorded in the last 100 years.	eng
155775	habitat	Prie, V., 2008	Freshwater species, in areas with a brackish influence at high tide, such as river oxbow and lagoons.	eng
155775	population	Prie, V., 2008	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155775	threats	Prie, V., 2008	The main threats to this species are unknown, although sedimentation is the natural threat to one site.	eng
155779	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. More research is needed on the taxonomy and on the populations trends, as well as the distribution range (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).&#160; Monitoring of habitat trends (water quality and sediment load) would assist is determining changing status for this species. <br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
155779	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Hauswald <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>	eng
155779	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater species is usually found in the sublittoral zone of the lake.	eng
155779	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This rare species is found only at a few collecting points, and where recorded is usually in low abundance (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155779	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, although there is a slower decline in water quality in the deeper waters of the lake (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009). Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also potentially impacts this small freshwater gastropod.	eng
155781	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no conservation actions for this species, however, it does require more research on population trends, distribution and threats.	eng
155781	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radomaniola bosniaca&#160;</span> is endemic to west Bosna in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), where Radoman (1983) listed it for 3 different locations: Miljevci village (by the road between Sanski Most and Bosanska Krupa, a closely adjacent spring at Podbrnjaca and another spring at Neteka, near the source of the River Una. There is no recent data on the range of the species.	eng
155781	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is thought to be restricted to freshwater springs.	eng
155781	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species, although Radoman (1983) reported that it was common at one of the three sites.	eng
155781	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155783	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is considered to be Vulnerable in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket and Velkovrh 2002).                 Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of the allied species including molecular characters, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs and caves for freshwater biodiversity.	eng
155783	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica gracilis</span> is endemic to Slovenia where it is found in the caves and springs in basin of river Krka. Di Mattia (2007) reported finding this species at                 the karstic springs Poltarica near Krška Vas, Grospulje but shows a wider range in his distribution map of the slovenian species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica</span> covering much of the catchment of the river Krka to the junction with the Sava river.&#160;  <strong></strong></p>	eng
155783	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This small freshwater species inhabits caves and freshwater springs (de Mattia 2007;&#160; Sket pers. comm. 2010)	eng
155783	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155783	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	Direct threats to this species are not known, but its habitat is vulnerable to water pollution.&#160; In  the future abstraction of groundwater water and groundwater pollution  may pose a threat as this could cause the declining quality of the  species' habitats and possible loss if the frequency of seasonal  droughts increases.	eng
155785	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	The taxonomic issues of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>need to be solved.	eng
155785	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	The distribution of this species is unclear, as shells are easily confused with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum </span>species, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">B. diaphanum</span>. However, based on the current records (mainly shells) it is thought to be endemic to France, where it occurs at five localities in the Departments of Ain, Jura, Rhone, Saone-et-Loire.	eng
155785	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155785	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available.	eng
155785	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the groundwater table may threaten the species through habitat degradation, if the aquifers are over-exploited.	eng
155788	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;It is assessed as Least Concern in the Italian Red List. More research is needed for population and habitat trends.	eng
155788	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in Idume Creek, Torre Castiglione and Bambinello Spring (Wilke 2003), in the Apennines region of southern Puglia.	eng
155788	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species inhabits coastal springs, river mouths and oligohaline (i.e. with limited amount of salt) groundwaters in rocks.	eng
155788	population	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155788	threats	Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ferreri in prep.; Ruffo and Stoch 2006). It is also found in areas which are greatly affected by anthropogenic activity, and is therefore threatened by pollution and urbanization (Ferreri in prep.). Morever, its ecological resources are competitively exploited by local, sympatric species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia ventrosa, Mercuria similis, Islamia pusilla, </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Helobia stagnorum</span>) as well as by invasives (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamopygrus antipodarum</span>), thus reducing its chances of survival (Ferreri, in prep.). Where populations of this species inhabit river mouths, they may be affected by anthropogenic river bank damage and/or cementation (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155789	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species. <br/></p>	eng
155789	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid, in the surroundings of sub-lacustrine springs.	eng
155789	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This littoral species is strictly restricted to hard substrates like rocks and stones.	eng
155789	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is strictly restricted to the rocky south-eastern shore and could be found only in low abundances.	eng
155789	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>	eng
155791	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	Species is protected by National Legislation in Montenegro and lives within a National Park.<br/>    <p>On-going transboudary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area.</p>	eng
155791	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is endemic to   Montenegro, where it is only known from a single site on Vranjina island in Lake Skadar. Despite research in the region, it has not been found in nearby springs.	eng
155791	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species lives amongst the mosses in the spring on island Vranjina in Lake Skadar, Montenegro.&#160;During 2 year research in the region, there were observed changes in habitat   during the period from July to end of September, due to falling water levels in the spring.	eng
155791	population	Pešić, V., 2009	The observed population levels of this species are declining (V. Pesic, pers. comm., 2009), based on a two year study of the site. There is a small population living amongst damp mosses, which are most susceptible to changes in habitat   during the period from July to end of September, due to falling water levels in the spring.	eng
155791	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	The water has been captured for local drinking, a rapid process of eutrophication in Lake Skadar which is connected to the springs during the major part of the year.	eng
155792	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	No conservation plans are in place for this species. &#160;A review of taxonomic status and distribution of sub-populations are needed for this species.	eng
155792	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	The species is currently viewed as being endemic to France, where it is recorded from the departments of Charente, Gironde and Charente-Maritime (Bernasconi, 2002). The population from Font del Truffe (Quercy) could be attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. ferrussina</span> (Prié & Bichain, unpublished data, 2009).	eng
155792	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155792	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155792	threats	Prie, V., 2010	The species is not well-known, but appears to have a widespread distribution within it's range. It is likely to be under-recorded, and as such is viewed as Least Concern.&#160; However the habitats are vulnerable to modification for domestic water abstraction and water quality needs to be maintained.	eng
155795	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	Ecosystem management projects are being implemented in the Skadar lake.&#160;On-going transboundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. Habitat should be monitor.	eng
155795	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona</em>&#160;&#160;occurs in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina.&#160;&#160;Most of these subspecies (<em>Plagigeyeria z.&#160;pageti</em>&#160;, &#160;<em>Plagigeyeria z.</em>&#160;<em>vitoja) </em>are&#160;restricted to Montenegro<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">, although one&#160;<em>P. z.</em>&#160;<em>zetatridyma</em>&#160;Schutt, 1960 extends to Bosnia and Herzegovina. &#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona&#160;zetaprotogona</span>&#160;is restricted to Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>, known only from the type locality (source of river Zeta near Tunjevo village). The Zeta River is the most significant tributary of the Morača. The Perućica&#160;Hydroelectric power plant&#160;near Nikšić &#160;uses the waters of the Zeta River to generate power. After that, the river&#160;meanders&#160;through the&#160;Bjelopavlići Valley, until it empties into the Morača a few miles north of Podgorica.&#160;<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja</em>&#160;is restricted to the spring at Vitoja.&#160;</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
155795	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species inhabits in springs which flows directly out of the ground, the water directly forming a stream (rheocrenic springs) and it may be present in subterranean areas as well.	eng
155795	population	Pešić, V., 2009	In one of the sites, Vitoja spring,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja&#160;</span>is frequently obtained in samples, and as such is not rare although the population trend is not known.	eng
155795	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	One of the sites (Zeta spring) has been captured. &#160;In the upper part of river Zeta, the Perućica&#160;Hydroelectric power plant&#160;near Nikšić &#160;uses the waters of the Zeta River to generate power&#160;which greatly influenced water level regime in the summer period (<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona zetadidyma</em>).&#160;Additional problems come from waste water from the city polluting groundwater. &#160;For the other subspecies&#160;<em>Plagigeyeria zetaprotogona vitoja</em>&#160;the spring is planned to be capture for local drinking (Vitoja).&#160;No information is present for the third site.	eng
155796	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information.	eng
155796	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155796	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Bithynia tentaculata</em> is a widespread and common Paleartic species, whose southern limit was in Israel and northern Africa, where it was recorded in the very early 19th century near Essouira (Morocco) and near Oran (Algeria). However, it has not been recorded anymore during the last decades. It must be assumed that its maghrebian relict populations have become extinct. Ghamizi has surveyed this area extensively without finding it. Possibly, It was never present in Morocco, and it is almost certain that it is not present there now.	eng
155796	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widespread and common palearctic species. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The southern limit was in Israel and northern Africa, where it was recorded near Essouira (Morocco) and near Oran (Algeria) but not recorded there in more recent decades. It must be assumed that the Maghrebian relict populations have become extinct. Ghamizi has surveyed this area extensively without finding it. It possibly was never present in Morocco, and almost certainly not present there now. Records from very early in 19th century.	eng
155796	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155796	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155796	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155796	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155796	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155796	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155800	conservation	Slapnik, R., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Manganelli <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in Italy. &#160;In Slovenia it is considered to be 'Rare' and R. Slapnik (pers. comm. 2010) suggests this would be equivalent to Vulnerable (VU D2) in Slovenia based on current Red List Criteria. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended, as well as communication campaigns for the local communities.	eng
155800	distribution	Slapnik, R., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span lang="EN-GB"><em>Iglica tellinii </em>is endemic to Italy and Slovenia. &#160;In Italy, it occurs close to the border and is&#160;known from 7 locations and is currently viewed as rare. In Slovenia, it is known from&#160;two sites (spring Perilo and cave Turjeva jama near Robic, Kobarid (Bole and Velkovrh 1986) which could be just one locality, and&#160;alluvial gravels in the valley of the river Natisone.	eng
155800	habitat	Slapnik, R., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is known from groundwaters in alluvium, with outflows in Caves and Springs in Slovenia.	eng
155800	population	Slapnik, R., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There are no data on population trends.	eng
155800	threats	Slapnik, R., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al</em>. 2000; R. Slapnik pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155804	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia bourguignati </span>is protected by law in France, however, this species does require research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
155804	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, but the current issues with taxonomic limits for this species mean that little data is available for mapping or description.	eng
155804	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155804	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155804	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155806	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	No conservation actions are in place. Surveys over next few years in adjacent springs should be conducted to assess whether the species should be confirmed as Extinct.	eng
155806	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Bank <em>et al. </em>Fauna European, 2006). It was only known from the spring at Studen?i?ta (Bej Bunar) near Lake Ohrid (Radoman 1985).&#160;&#160;</p><sup> </sup>	eng
155806	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species lived on stones in a freshwater spring with a constant temperature of   11<sup>o</sup>C.	eng
155806	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Recent surveys in 2009 did not find any individuals of this species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009)	eng
155806	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species had a restricted range and was extirpated from the   type locality when site was destroyed due to road construction (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., pers. comm<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> 2009).<br/></p>	eng
155807	conservation	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	There are   no actions in place for this species. Habitat monitoring is recommended. The species is listed as Least Concern in Italy (CKMap 5.3.8) and	eng
155807	distribution	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> is widespread in central  and western <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and known in at least 12 locations in the region of <st1:state w:st="on">Friuli-Venezia Giulia</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region></st1:place>. (Bodon & Giovannelli, 1993 - <span style="font-style: italic;">Gortana, Atti Mus. Friulano Stor. Nat</span>., 14: 195-206, 1994, 58: 233-244). (CK Map 5.3.8).                                  Not a range restricted species, although present in small area (EOO 150km x 150km). <p><br/></p>	eng
155807	habitat	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> inhabits cave groundwaters from 5-200m ASL, and can be found in outflow from springs.	eng
155807	population	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The population trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> are unknown.	eng
155807	threats	Slapnik, R. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia subpiscinalis</span> is threatened by loss of springs and pollution of the underlying groundwater systems from agricultural pollution. Other threats that may impact groundwaters include the pumping of drinking water for the villages and towns. Longer term threats are the potential degradation of habitats following changes to rainfall patterns causing changes to groundwater recharge.	eng
155809	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be 'Rare' in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Bole 1988, Bole 1992; Sket & Velkovrh 2002).</p>	eng
155809	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is listed by Fauna Europea for Croatia and Slovenia. Schutt (1974) described this species from the springs near Kostanjevica, 40km W of Zagreb, Slovenia (not Croatia as cited by Schutt), and as such the Croatian record seems to be doubtful.   <p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
155809	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	Karst groundwaters in caves and outflow springs.	eng
155809	population	Seddon, M., 2010	No population trend data is available on this species.	eng
155809	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The major threats to the species lie in groundwater pollution and overabstraction.	eng
155810	conservation	Falkner, G. & Niederhöfer, H., 2008	As this species is suspected to be extinct, a specific survey should be conducted.	eng
155810	distribution	Falkner, G. & Niederhöfer, H., 2008	This spring-snail is endemic to Germany, where it is only known from Baden-Wurttemberg (Treffelhausen, Bissingen und Neidlingen) (Gloer 2002), where it is now considered possibly extinct (Falkner and Niederhofer 2008). Originally this species was recorded from 3 sites in Germany. Falkner and Niederhofer (2008) note that this species was described by G<span id="result_box" class="long_text">eyer 1904 from a few sites, a freshwater spring in the Treffelhausen (<span id="result_box" class="long_text">south of the city), another spring at Bissingen and a third&#160; in Gernhardsberg at Neidlingen and another in a side valley at Treffelhausen. However it is now not found in recent surveys in the region.	eng
155810	habitat	Falkner, G. & Niederhöfer, H., 2008	This is a freshwater snail, living in subterranean waters and only seen in outflow at springs, where it has rarely been recorded.	eng
155810	population	Falkner, G. & Niederhöfer, H., 2008	This species is possibly extinct as there have been no recent records.	eng
155810	threats	Falkner, G. & Niederhöfer, H., 2008	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155812	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however, there is a lack of knowledge in taxonomy, distribution and population trends.	eng
155812	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on the current range for this species, although it is listed for Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
155812	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no information on the habitat of this species.	eng
155812	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no population data for this species.	eng
155812	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155813	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There is no conservation action for this species.	eng
155813	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Palacanthilhiopsis margritae</em> is known only from the type locality in department Ardèche, southern France.	eng
155813	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155813	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155813	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited degrading habitats. However, this region of France is relatively free of human pressure.	eng
155815	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	More research on the species taxonomy is recommended.	eng
155815	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a Circum-Mediterranean species that in northern Africa is present in, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its type locality is in southern Europe.	eng
155815	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a freshwater, medium sized species that lives in small and medium shallow streams on stony surfaces. It is rarely found on standing waters.	eng
155815	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155815	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major conservation threats are known to the species.	eng
155816	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place. Surveys for this species would be recommended to determine the presence continues in this cave system and monitoring of the groundwater quality to determine changes in biotope condition.	eng
155816	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<em>Lanzaia bosnica</em> is restricted to&#160;Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fauna Europea, Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Radoman (1983)&#160; noted that although it was described from source of the Dabra River (about 6-8km south of Sanski Most) and nearby Dabarska pećina .	eng
155816	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater karstic groundwaters (and emergent springs in cave).	eng
155816	population	Seddon, M., 2010	No recent data on population status is available.	eng
155816	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The main threats to this species are not known. Although the species is apparently restricted to a single catchment, the current condition of the biotope at the cave is considered unpolluted (Z. Feher pers. comm. 2010) and as such there is no reason to consider that this species is threatened.	eng
155817	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	&#160;No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. <span style="font-style: italic;">B. minuscula</span> was listed as Data Deficient for Italy. This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
155817	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appeninic regions of Marche, Umbria, Molise and Campania, where it is known from 9 widely scattered locations.	eng
155817	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species occurs in springs and groundwaters. It feeds using raspers.	eng
155817	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
155817	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2000). It is also found in spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000).	eng
155825	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Least Concern in the Italian Red List.&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155825	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically located in the appenninic regions of Tuscany, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna.	eng
155825	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma</span> is usually found in the groundwaters within rocks.	eng
155825	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No population data is known for the species  <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia piristoma.</span>	eng
155825	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2000).	eng
155827	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The springs in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) are part of a Protected Area (Galicica National Park).&#160; Monitoring of changing water quality at these sites is recommended in order to determine future changes to the status of the species.	eng
155827	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia gjorgjevici</span> is endemic to freshwater habitats in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania.&#160; It is found in a small lake near St Naum and   Tusemista (St Naum,   Tušemišta ; Radoman 1985) adjacent to Lake Ohrid and but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment.	eng
155827	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to springs in the south of Lake Ohrid and is mainly found on stones near the outflow of the spring.	eng
155827	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009)   noted this is found only in a few locations and where it is found it occurs in low abundance.	eng
155827	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The quality of habitat in the Albanian springs is declining due to pollution by aquaculture, solid waste produced by domestic use and tourism and other recreational activities, as well as over-abstraction of water.   Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the waters of Prespa Lake, which&#160; feeds the aquifer of these springs<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load to springs fed in the Lake Ohrid catchment (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/></p>	eng
155828	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155828	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is widespread paleartic species, also occurring in Morocco (Ghamizi 1998) and possibly Algeria (Bourguignat 1864) but these records are considered doubtful as they date from the 19th century. It is almost certainly no longer in Algeria. Retreating northwards, it is restricted to five locations in mid-Atlas in dayets, a type of small lake found in Morocco left over from glaciation, with fluctuating water levels with rainfall.	eng
155828	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in good quality clear waters with slow flow or stagnant, on the borders of lakes in the vegetated area.	eng
155828	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155828	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Threats to this species include; pollution from sheep grazing, abstraction of water from dayets for cultivation and irrigation, and the introduction of carp which eats molluscs and mollusc eggs. In the dayets where carp is present, only large snails are found.	eng
155830	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species and its habitat should be monitored	eng
155830	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is only known from the type locality, "Fontaine de LaBatte, Lagorce (Ardèche)".	eng
155830	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155830	population	Prie, V., 2009	<br/> There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155830	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Although detailed threats to the species are unknown, the likely threats will be pollution of the groundwaters from agricultural sources and overabstraction of groundwater.	eng
155832	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place, but part of the range lies within a Natura 2000 site, which should ensure water quality is maintained. More research is needed on taxonomy,&#160; population tends and threats.	eng
155832	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it was originally described from floodline debris of the river Lez (Department   Herault) It is considered to be endemic to the Lez drainage basin. Falkner <em>et al.</em> (2002)   suggested three possible sites; the resurgences along the bed of the River   Lez, springs at Cauquillade, Aniane, Department Herault; Moulin de St   Guilherm-le-Desert. This species is possibly extinct, as it has not been found in recent years (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The EOO is estimated as 49 km<sup>2</sup>, based on observed data from two sites, both fed by the same groundwater source.&#160; There are no records in northern part of the Lez catchment, despite active recording, and no records in southern part, which contains Montepellier, and hence little pristine habitat.	eng
155832	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	According to Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002), <span style="font-style: italic;">B. eutrepha</span> should be restricted to the Lez catchment, where it was living in subterranean waters.	eng
155832	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species, but it is suspected to be now extinct.	eng
155832	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threat is from urban encroachment leading to decline in quality of habitat, but other threats in part of the range include water pollution from vineyards (pesticides and herbicides), water pollution from domestic sources (sewage and run-off) and water abstraction for domestic and agricultural purposes.	eng
155836	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2009	All caves and cave fauna are strictly protected by law in Croatia. The status of the subpopulation in Croatia is unknown and requires monitoring.<br/>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.<p><br/></p>	eng
155836	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Croatia and Slovenia. In Croatia it lives in the subterranean waters and springs at Tounjčica, Rudnica, Mrežnica with all three sites in the same catchment. There are also comments that it is found in the North-West of Croatia, however this is not a karst country (B. Jalzic pers. comm. 2009), so this requires confirmation.	eng
155836	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2009	This species inhabits subterranean waters and springs	eng
155836	population	Slapnik, R., 2009	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155836	threats	Slapnik, R., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155838	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155838	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is widespread but local in the Appenninic regions of Abruzzo, Marche, Campania and Lazio.&#160; It is known from at least 26 locations in the region,	eng
155838	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits spring waters where it feeds using scrapers.	eng
155838	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
155838	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155842	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no conservation actions known for this species. This species requires more research on population trends, distribution and threats.	eng
155842	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, there is no detailed information on current distribution. Wagner described it from type locality of Bosna springs. The spring, Vrelo Bosne, is at the&#160;foothills&#160;of the Mount&#160;Igman, on the outskirts of&#160;Sarajevo (Sket pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155842	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is known to to be a freshwater spring snail.	eng
155842	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on recent population trends	eng
155842	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155848	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires more research on population trends and taxonomy.	eng
155848	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Palaospeum nanum</span> is only known from the type locality, Rebenacq in the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, southwest France.	eng
155848	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155848	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
155848	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155854	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Prie, V., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The species is listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (Manganelli <em>et al</em>., 2000) in the Italian Red List, but there are no conservation actions in place. Recommended Actions include habitat monitoring and resolving whether the Corsican populations are extant.	eng
155854	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Prie, V., 2009	Bank <em>et al </em>(2009) lists this species' distribution as <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region> (Corsica) and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy. &#160;In Italy</st1:country-region>&#160;it is only found in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place>, where it is recorded from the western side of the island in about 12 localities. All localities have been surveyed in the last 30 years. The range in <st1:place w:st="on">Corsica</st1:place> is unknown and there are no records in INPN (French National Inventory of Natural Heritage)	eng
155854	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Prie, V., 2009	The species inhabits coastal streams and rivers.	eng
155854	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Prie, V., 2009	The population status for this species is unknown.	eng
155854	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Prie, V., 2009	The threats to this species are    exploitation of water sources and pollution of groundwaters (Manganelli <em>et al</em>, 2001).	eng
155857	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>	eng
155857	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus trapezoides</span>&#160;is restricted&#160;&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid, where at present it is only known from the </st1:placename>the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) <st1:placename w:st="on">part of the Lake.</st1:placename></p><p><em><br/></em></p>  <p></p>	eng
155857	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrate. It occurs in considerable deeper water than <em>G. lychnidicus</em>. Juveniles live amongst the <em>Chara</em> meadows.	eng
155857	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	It is found at suitable habitats in relatively high abundances (C. Albrecht <em>et al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155857	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this gastropod. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, which is diminishing the habitat and food availability.&#160;  </p>	eng
155859	conservation	Vavrova, L., 2010	<p>There are no global level conservation measures in place for this species. The species is listed as Endangered on the Swiss Red List. The conservation status in Italy is Least Concern (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001. </p>	eng
155859	distribution	Vavrova, L., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Europe, and its distribution is mainly southern and eastern Europe including <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fauna Europaea, 2006). In Italy the species is widespread throughout the northern catchments, becoming infrequent in the central part of the country.<br/></p>      <p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater ater</span> (De Cristofori & Jan, 1832) occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p><p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater gallensteini</span> (Kobelt, 1892), occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p>The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Viviparus ater hellenicus</span> (Clessin, 1879) occurs in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fauna Europaea Web Service 2010).</p><p><br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
155859	habitat	Vavrova, L., 2010	<p>This species inhabits lakes (Ribi 1986) showing a preference for lentic waters with a weak current and lots of aquatic vegetation.<strong></strong></p>  <p>The females of this species are ovoviviparous and give birth to offspring with a shell width of between 6 to 11 mm (Ribi and Arter 1986). This species reaches sexual maturity in its second year (Ribi 1986), and both sexes can live for ten years or more, growing to approximately 45 mm in shell height (Ribi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986 in Staub and Ribi 1995). In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zurich</st1:placename></st1:place> this species<em> </em>remains buried in the sediment for approximately five months during winter (Ribi 1986).</p>  <p>This species and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. contectus</span><em> </em>are sympatric in several places in southern Europe and hybridize naturally where they co-occur, even though they differ in several morphological, karyotypical and life history traits (Ribi and Porter 1995).</p>	eng
155859	population	Vavrova, L., 2010	<p>This species has been described as common in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Zurich</st1:placename></st1:place> (Staub ad Ribi 1995).</p>	eng
155859	threats	Vavrova, L., 2010	<p>It is unlikely that this species is being threatened on a global level. On a local scale it is probably affected to some degree by pollution, and also habitat degradation from recreational activities. The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or other chemical sources.&#160; Other threats lie in alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes, and over-frequent dredging.</p>	eng
155863	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring in the littoral zone would allow the conservation status to be assessed in the future, so that changes in status can be quickly seen.</p><strong><br/></strong>	eng
155863	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename> and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
155863	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species found in the   sandy parts of the  littoral zone of the lake.	eng
155863	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is locally very abundant in survey samples.	eng
155863	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation to this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the high human populated northern and southern shallow bays could decrease the suitable habitats for this species in the littoral zone, however there is no evidence that this is currently impacting the species.</p>	eng
155864	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known although the species is listed as&#160;Near Threatened in Italian Red List (Manganelli<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>, 2001). It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155864	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the alpine region of western Friuli-Venezia Giulia. The range lies close to the Slovenia border, but there are no records listed, it is thought to be endemic to Italy. It is recorded from 12 localities in the region.	eng
155864	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species can be found in groundwaters of karst regions.	eng
155864	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155864	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
155866	conservation	Slapnik, R. & Feher, Z., 2009	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). There are no conservation actions in place but research into taxonomy, population and distribution, and habitat trends would be of benefit.	eng
155866	distribution	Slapnik, R. & Feher, Z., 2009	This species has been described from Slovenia, with 5 known sites in N and NE Slovenia. 1) Potoce, near Preddvor, north of Kranj, 2) Paka Village near Velenje, 3) Steska Jama (Cave) near Zalec, 4) a spring near Dobrna, 5) Toplica spring near Celje.	eng
155866	habitat	Slapnik, R. & Feher, Z., 2009	Freshwater springs sometimes near caves.	eng
155866	population	Slapnik, R. & Feher, Z., 2009	There is no information on population trend.	eng
155866	threats	Slapnik, R. & Feher, Z., 2009	The major threats for this species lie in water pollution from urbanisation and the construction of motorways near rivers. Other threats include regulated water flow, changing water flow patterns, and possibly degrading the habitat.	eng
155867	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is currently protected by law in Lower Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. Its habitat should be protected and it is suggested that monitoring of its habitat should be conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
155867	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum bormanni</span> is endemic to the central Alps in Styria, Austria from the region of Graz.&#160; There are records from two caves, Bärenhöhle near Mixnitz and from floodwaters ejected from springs close to Ludwig-Hammer-Höhle (Blaubruchhöhle) in Annengraben (Einödgraben, NNE Graz) (Kreissl and Freitag 1989).	eng
155867	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species inhabits caves and springs, and is found in groundwater and within water in rock fissures.                <em></em>	eng
155867	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is considered 'rare' and recently a decline in population trends has been observed.	eng
155867	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to the species are the abstraction of groundwater for drinking water and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilisers as a result of agricultural practices, that pose a threat to this species. Some localities are also under pressure from tourism activities.	eng
155869	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The species was first listed in Threatened non-marine molluscs of Europe, Wells & Chatfield (1992) as rare. The species is currently listed as </st1:place></st1:country-region>Near Threatened (CK map, version 5.3.8) in the Italian Red List, but there are no conservation actions in place. Recommended Actions include habitat monitoring and resolving whether the Corsican populations are extant.	eng
155869	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted &#160;to northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region></st1:place> and recorded from 6 localities within 310 km squares (EOO 200km2, range restricted species).	eng
155869	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>This species is found in groundwater in Karst region. <br/></p>	eng
155869	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The population status for this species is unknown.	eng
155869	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>Possible threats facing this species are exploitation of water sources (domestic) and pollution of groundwaters (agriculture).</p>	eng
155878	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. This species is listed as Near Threatened on the Italian Red List.	eng
155878	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the appeninic regions of Marche, Abruzzo and Lazio, where it is widely but locally distributed. It is recorded from 22 locations.	eng
155878	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits ground waters in rocks and is widely recorded in outflows in springs, lakes and cave detritus.	eng
155878	population	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no data on population trends.	eng
155878	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
155880	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;Manganelli <em>et al</em>. (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;<p></p>	eng
155880	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found on the coast of south-eastern Sicily, in Fonte Ciane, Syracuse.	eng
155880	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species lives in springs.	eng
155880	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155880	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). It inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155881	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. In light of the current restricted distribution, habitat monitoring and population surveys are recommended so that any changes in the status can be acted upon.	eng
155881	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, and is restricted to the southern part of department  Ardèche. Four localities are given in the description of the species and a further locality is added by Girardi (cited as pers.comm&#160; in Bertrand 2004).	eng
155881	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found within subterrannean freshwaters within karst regions; it is a stygobite.	eng
155881	population	Prie, V., 2009	No date is available on the population status.	eng
155881	threats	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia gloeeri</span> occurs in the tourist area of the Ardèche canyon, and area where there is increasing human pressure which has led to a general decrease of water quality and quantity. This is especially true in summer, during the height of the tourist system. The major threats are from overabstraction of water for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwaters from sewage and from agricultural sources (Herbicides and Pesticides).&#160; The general level of threat is lower than some of the other species, although in view of increasing pressure on water resources, the species is listed on a precautionary basis given it's limited distribution.	eng
155883	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The springs where this species lives are in the Galicica National Park. Habitat monitoring is recommended for this species, unless future taxonomic research shows it to be conspecific with sister taxa in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrgohydrobia. <br/></span>	eng
155883	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is endemic to the St. Naum feeder spring system in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)<span class="external text">.	eng
155883	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater spring-snail living on soft substrate.	eng
155883	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a very rare species in recent sampling (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155883	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the waters of Lake Prespa, which in turn feeds the aquifer of these springs<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on"></st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load which could potentially impact this species (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
155884	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cianfanelli, S. & Feher, Z., 2010	The species is listed as Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 2000) and is not listed for Croatia. &#160;No conservation actions are needed given the range.	eng
155884	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cianfanelli, S. & Feher, Z., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span> has a transadriatic-transionian distribution, present in the western Balkans, Ionian islands and southern Italy. Transadriatic and transionian distributions are disjunct being divided by the Adriatic or Ionian Seas. </p>  <p>In the western Balkans (Dalmatia, Montenegro, Ionian Islands of Kerkyra and Lefkas; its presence on other Ionian Islands and in Ipeiros requires confirmation (Bodon <em>et al</em>, 1999).</p>  <p>In Montenegro, it is known from a spring (Quelle) Zwebina in Pridvorje, Dubrovnik. </p>  <p>In Italy is in mainly found in southern regions, with one record near the Slovenian border.&#160;</p>  <p>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring near the Grotta di Bussento, Morigerati (Morigerati, Salerno, Campania), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; well near Fonte Nozzola, ca. 1 km E of San Costantino (Rivello, Potenza, Basilicata),&#160; <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring at Colle San Martino (Civita, Cosenza, Calabria), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring in Argentino River, ca. 1800 m NE of Orsomarso (Orsomarso, Cosenza, Calabria&#160; <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring inside the Grotta del Tasso no. 207 Pu (Ischitella, Foggia, Apulia), <br/>·&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; spring 700 m SW of Case Masella, south of Monte Civita (Ischitella, Foggia, Apulia).</p>	eng
155884	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cianfanelli, S. & Feher, Z., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span> is a spring species.	eng
155884	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cianfanelli, S. & Feher, Z., 2010	There is no population trend information available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia </span>but is generally considered as not frequent and localized.	eng
155884	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cianfanelli, S. & Feher, Z., 2010	There are no main threats known for <span style="font-style: italic;">Litthabitella chilodia</span>.	eng
155885	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	More research is needed on the taxonomy and distribution if this species.	eng
155885	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Istriana falkneri</span> is known only from the type locality (Reserve Naturelle de la Ramiere, Drome) in France.	eng
155885	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	There are no data available on the habitat of this species. It has only been found in rivers alluviums. It is supposed to be subterranean or spring-dwelling, or living beneath the riverbeds.	eng
155885	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available.	eng
155885	threats	Prie, V., 2010	The main threats are unknown.	eng
155886	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There a re no conservation action sin place. More research on the population and distribution is needed.	eng
155886	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia roselloi</span> is only known from the type locality, Sanilhac, in the department of Gard, southern France, where it is present in one aquifer.	eng
155886	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155886	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155886	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. The aquifer maybe reduced degrading the habitats if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155888	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research is needed on the population trends and on the distribution range.<br/></p>	eng
155888	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid.	eng
155888	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrate.</p>	eng
155888	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species can be found at suitable habitats in very low abundances (C. Albrecht pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155888	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>  Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/></p>	eng
155891	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155891	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella macrostoma </span>is endemic to north-western Italy, where it is known from 7 locations within region of Liguria and Toscana. Some sites listed in CK Map have multiple springs from single groundwater source.	eng
155891	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
155891	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	Restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155891	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155893	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and&#160; more than one species might be conspecific, hence further research is needed to solve this issue. Habitat monitoring is required to determine future changes in the status of the species.</p>	eng
155893	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, where it is found in sub-littoral zone between 30 and 50 m depth, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985).</p>	eng
155893	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a freshwater species living in the sublittoral zone of the lake between 30 and 50 m depth (Albrecht <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
155893	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species is rare (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155893	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Although these threats are leading to an ongoing deterioration in habitat quality, and the rate of change at present is not having a major impact on population levels. <br/></p>	eng
155898	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Protection of springs is needed.	eng
155898	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is known from northeast Spain (Boeters 1988) and Middle Atlas in Morocco. In Morocco it is known from springs at Ain Aghbal, T Ouiwane, Timdighas, and a small stream at Sidi Addi.	eng
155898	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a crenobiont (in springs and brooks). It is found in good quality water.	eng
155898	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155898	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is threatened by pollution, and drying up of springs, caused by groundwater abstraction, droughts.	eng
155899	conservation	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Assessed as Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <em>et al,</em> 2000).	eng
155899	distribution	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in Italy, mainly in the northern regions where it is widespread, and the range extends eastwards&#160; to Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia & Hercegovina.	eng
155899	habitat	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155899	population	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population trend data on this species.	eng
155899	threats	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Threats to this species include groundwater pollution and groundwater abstraction.	eng
155904	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>No conservation actions are known to be in place for this species.  However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring habitat trends is recommended for this species to check for changes in distribution and habitats.</p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
155904	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stankovicia wagneri</span> is restricted to Lake Ohrid, between Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is mainly found in the deeper parts of the lake, below 30 m depth&#160; (Radoman 1985).	eng
155904	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This lacustrine freshwater species lives in the sub-littoral zone of Lake Ohrid.	eng
155904	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155904	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) could also impact this small gastropod. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>	eng
155905	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There are no known conservation actions.  More survey is needed to clarify the species distribution.	eng
155905	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	In this assessment <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola pisolinus</span> is considered to be endemic to Department of Bouches-du-Rhône in southern France, based on Falkner<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. (2002).	eng
155905	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in springs.	eng
155905	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
155905	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicides and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155906	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	Further surveys are necessary to confirm the status of the species on the island and possibly develop a plan for conservation action given the level of pressure on water resources on the island.	eng
155906	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria vindilica</span> is endemic to the island of Belle-île de mer, Western France.	eng
155906	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species was reported from in small freshwater streams on the island.	eng
155906	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155906	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation from water extraction and urban development.	eng
155907	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are known for the area. Habitat should be monitor.<br/></p>	eng
155907	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bulgaria</st1:place></st1:country-region>, known from a stream in Temnata Dupka cave at Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. The cave is about 800 m in length. Even though, the location of this site is only few kilometres outside  the dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region,  we considered this species to be Mediterranean, based on climatic and geological similarities of the region  with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.	eng
155907	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in Caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155907	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There is no data on the population of this species.	eng
155907	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>A possible threat could be the pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave in the future.</p>	eng
155908	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.	eng
155908	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pisidium subtruncatum</em> is a Paleartic species widespread to the north of the Alps. In Africa, it has only been recorded from two localities in Morocco (Ifrane and Tangier) and Algeria (near Algiers and Sebdou) (Van Damme 1984). The last record dates from 1971, being quite possibly extinct in Africa. Its type locality is Qvillebäcken in Sweden.	eng
155908	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in cold waters.	eng
155908	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155908	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is threatened by water temperature rise due to global warming, as it prefers cold water.	eng
155910	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place for this species but habitat monitoring would be of benefit.	eng
155910	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella navarrensis </span>is endemic to France, and is found in Department Pyrénées-Atlantiques (South-West France).&#160; It is currently only known from&#160;two neighbouring wells near Arnéguy, but these two wells are fed by the same aquifer, therefore the species occurs in only one single location.	eng
155910	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in wells and is considered to be subterranean.	eng
155910	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155910	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. However, this location in the Pyrenees does not seem to suffer from human impacts and no immediate threat is known for the species, although as a single site it is vulnerable to future changes.	eng
155911	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species is considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8) (Manganelli <em>et al</em>, 2000).&#160; Further survey work on range and threats to the species as well as monitoring of habitat trends are recommended to evaluate future changes in the species.	eng
155911	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy found in the Appeninic region of central Tuscany where it has been recorded from 12 locations (unpublished data compiled for the Italian mapping project CK Map version 5.3.8.).	eng
155911	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments (Manganelli <em>et al,</em> 2000).	eng
155911	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No data on population decline as there is limited data on this species.	eng
155911	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species is vulnerable to groundwater abstraction for domestic purposes and/or pollution from agricultural sources and domestic sources. (Manganelli <em>et al.</em>, 2000).	eng
155914	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no documented actions. This species requires more research on population trends and taxonomy.	eng
155914	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is listed as a endemic species from France and was described from "Source de la Farre" northwest of&#160; Labastide-de-Virac.	eng
155914	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155914	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155914	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155917	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	There are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring of the spring is recommended to determine future trends in the habitat and population status of this species.	eng
155917	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<em>Vinodolia matjasici</em>&#160;is&#160;endemic to&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it is known only from the type locality, a small spring near the Lipovik village, 31 km west of Podgorica and 49 km north west of Lake Skadar (also known as Scutari and Shkodër). &#160;This&#160;spring which has already been captured for domestic supplies.	eng
155917	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is an exclusively subterranean form that lives in this freshwater spring and may extend to the groundwater system feeding the spring.	eng
155917	population	Pešić, V., 2009	The population status is not known.	eng
155917	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	Vladimir Pesic (pers. comm. 2009) observed that the freshwater spring has been captured for local drinking water and the spring is also susceptible to summer droughts, when outflow from the groundwater sources cease.	eng
155920	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are in place for this species but monitoring of habitat and population trends would be of benefit.	eng
155920	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia gibberula</span> is endemic to France, where it is known from 2 localities in the Hérault valley (V. Prie pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155920	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155920	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155920	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilisation for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155921	conservation	Feher, Z., 2010	In Hungary it is protected by law. In Austria, according to their Red List (2008) the fluvial subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">acicularis</span> is Critically Endangered and the other subspecies is Extinct.	eng
155921	distribution	Feher, Z., 2010	Widespread in central and eastern Europe, this species is predominantly distributed within the Danube drainage however there are some sub-populations adjacent to the Danube basin (e.g. Greece).	eng
155921	habitat	Feher, Z., 2010	This occurs in rivers and thermal springs.	eng
155921	population	Feher, Z., 2010	In the Danube there is an observable decrease of the the population, however there are several stable subpopulations in tributaries.	eng
155921	threats	Feher, Z., 2010	Pollution is the main threat to this species.	eng
155923	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Research is needed to confirm that the species is still present in northern Africa.	eng
155923	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Psidium milium</em> is a Paleartic predominantly boreal species, rare in southern Europe. It was cited from one location in Morocco (Oued Mikkès near Ifrane) and two locations in Algeria (Bouffaric and Sebdou). The earliest record dates from 1971 (Oued Mikkès), but that population has become extinct due to pollution. It can be assumed that due to global warming and general ecosystem degradation this species is likely to disappear from Africa.	eng
155923	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155923	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information on population.	eng
155923	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is threatened by pollution, global warming and general ecosystem degradation.	eng
155924	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This species requires more research on taxonomy and distribution.	eng
155924	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia pontmartiniana</span> is endemic to France. It is only known from the type locality(Surgeons des sources des Angles. Gard departement).	eng
155924	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155924	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155924	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowered groundwater tables maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155925	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There is no conservation actions needed for  <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> but more research on the taxonomy is needed for the species.	eng
155925	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> is a widespread species within France (Bertand 2004).	eng
155925	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana</span> lives in subterranean waters, and possibly in the waters flowing under the river beds.	eng
155925	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Islamia moquiniana.<br/><br/></span>	eng
155925	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.<br/><br/>Hyporheic habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption is another important threat for the small stream that may become completely dried out in summer, thus affecting directly the species. Casual droughts, and therefore climate change, are also a potential threat.	eng
155926	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	Habitat monitoring is suggested for this species, as well as new surveys to determine how many localities occur on Corsica.	eng
155926	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Graziana trinitatis </em>is only&#160;known from only a few localities in France. One is the type locality, La Trinité near Nice, and a few others are given by Falkner <em>et al</em>. (2002) from Corsica.&#160;Because we do not know the exact number of localities, neither AOO nor EOO can be calculated. Nevertheless, it is believed that there are fewer than 5 locations.	eng
155926	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	Species from the genus <em>Graziana</em>&#160;&#160;are freshwater spring snails.	eng
155926	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155926	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer ; or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction, unless they lie in protected areas.	eng
155927	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span> was not included in the list of species assessed for the Croatian Red List of the Cave Fauna.	eng
155927	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni </span>is listed for southern Dalmacija (Croatia), southeastern Hercegovina (BiH) and Montenegro by Bole and Velkovrh (1986). Schütt (2000) listed the species from the<span id="result_box" class="long_text"> Baba cave near Trebinje in Herzegovina (Type locality), as well as from material washed out from the Ombla cave system, where it was not frequent, but consistently represented. The distribution includes the extended area around the Popovo Polje <span title="Zahlreiche Fundorte, an denen">as well as Trsteno, N. Dubrovnik (Schütt <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Zahlreiche Fundorte, an denen">1975).</span>	eng
155927	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span> is found within groundwaters in Caves.	eng
155927	population	Seddon, M., 2010	No population trend data on <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica absoloni</span>, but the species is never found in large numbers (Schutt, 2000).	eng
155927	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The major threats to this species are groundwater pollution, from different sources, within the cave systems.	eng
155931	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species (Bole 1988, 1992, Sket and Velkovrh 2002) , although there are no specific conservation actions known for this species in Slovenia. However all cave-dwelling species are protected in Croatia, although again no specific plans are in place for this species. Monitoring of the population and the habitat is recommended.	eng
155931	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is restricted to Croatia and Slovenia. &#160;In Croatia<em> Iglica langhofferi</em>&#160;is recorded living in Cucerje stream (Medvednica National Park). &#160;In Slovenia ,it is found in the cave&#160;Glija jama between&#160; Celje and Zidani Most and dead shells have been taken from sediment in river&#160; Savinja near&#160; Celje, but these latter records are not considered to represent sites, it is only considered to be living at&#160;Glija jama.&#160;<p><br/></p>	eng
155931	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is found in groundwater in Karstic regions (Freshwater) in Slovenia and Croatia.&#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
155931	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>There is no data on population trends in either Slovenia or Croatia.&#160;</p>	eng
155931	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>The major threats are considered to be water pollution and urbanization.<br/></p>	eng
155935	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species.This species requires more research on distribution, population trends and threats	eng
155935	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to central Bosna (near Sarajevo) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
155935	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This snail inhabits freshwater spring.	eng
155935	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no recent data on population trends.	eng
155935	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The latest CBD report from Bosnia suggests that there are considerable threats to freshwater species, but no specific information is available for this species.	eng
155938	conservation	Sket, B., 2010	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.</strong>	eng
155938	distribution	Sket, B., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia. It is recorded from central Slovenia, only known from springs of the river Ljubljanica in Vrhnika area.	eng
155938	habitat	Sket, B., 2010	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
155938	population	Sket, B., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
155938	threats	Sket, B., 2010	Possible threats to this species include the pressures on the habitat from urban development and water pollution.	eng
155939	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	There are no conservation actions known for this species.	eng
155939	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to western and southern Slovenia and the upper Kupa/Kolpa drainage in Croatia (Sket, pers. comm., 2010).	eng
155939	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155939	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no population data for this species.	eng
155939	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155940	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Prevention of introduction of carp into dayets is needed.	eng
155940	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Hippeutis complanatus</em> is a Paleartic species with a few relict populations extending into northern Africa. Recently only recorded from Morocco at Aguelman Tifounassine and Oued Tamelelt in the Middle Atlas and from wells at Tahla in the Anti-Atlas (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria it was recorded in the 19th Century by Bourguignat (1864) from Rassauta, which is now a suburb of Algiers and has been drained, so it is expected to be gone.	eng
155940	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is found in the Middle Atlas in dayets, a type of small lake found in Morocco left over from glaciation with fluctuating water levels with rainfall. It prefers cold waters.	eng
155940	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155940	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The major threat to the species is water abstraction for cultivation and irrigation. As a result of the introduction of foreign carp in some dayets (which eats molluscs and mollusc eggs), only large snails are found in these water bodies, although there is not much settlement around them. In addition, sheep grazing destroys bordering vegetation where snails live.	eng
155941	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Taxonomy should be checked for the species as it is likely to be not only one but a complex of several species with smaller distributions.	eng
155941	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Melanopsis cariosa</em> occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
155941	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is freshwater, medium sized species that lives in streams with low water level and stony bottom. It is rarely found on standing waters.	eng
155941	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155941	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	A major threat to the species is harvesting by shell collectors.	eng
155942	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.	eng
155942	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is originally recorded from the Pyrenees and Department Aveyron (Bernasconi, 2000), giving a rather disjunct distribution. The Aveyron records are only based on shells, and as such are considered to be possibly not this species (Prie & Bichain, pers. comm. 2009). Therefore the EOO is calculated on the subpopulations from the Pyrenees only.	eng
155942	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This is a freshwater spring species.	eng
155942	population	Prie, V., 2009	The population status is unknown at these sites.	eng
155942	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water.	eng
155944	conservation	Prie, V., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is protected in France. Habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended to get an indication of habitat changes that would impact this species as well as further survey data on the population status and taxonomic review of the Italian sub-populations, which are possibly not this species (Prie pers. comm. 2010).	eng
155944	distribution	Prie, V., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria massoti </span>is now considered to be restricted to the department of Pyrénées-Orientales (France), where it is known from the Agly drainage basin only, and although recorded from a spring, as this is a groundwater species, it is assumed to live in a underlying aquifer system.<br/><br/>The sub-populations from Sardinia are considered to be in need of taxonomic revision and are not included in this assessment, as these may represent a different species (Prie pers. comm. 2010) The range on Sardinia represents 7 different sub-populations scattered  over central-eastern Sardinia. These sites range from 5m ASL to 750 m  ASL, and are largely springs.	eng
155944	habitat	Prie, V., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters, but is also found in freshwater springs.	eng
155944	population	Prie, V., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155944	threats	Prie, V., Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. The aquifer where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. massoti</span> lives is slightly salted and suitable for human consumption. Water abstraction for domestic purpose should therefore not be an important threat. The area is at present relatively free of major pollution, but a single event could affect the only locality and the species is therefore very vulnerable.	eng
155945	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	Site and habitat protection are needed to ensure the survival of this species. More research is also needed on the taxonomy.	eng
155945	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Graziana provincialis </em>is endemic to southern France where it is restricted to 3 sites.	eng
155945	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Grazina</em>&#160;species are freshwater spring snails.	eng
155945	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155945	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer ; or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling speciezs are threatened with general habitat destruction.	eng
155946	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is listed as protected in Toscana, although no specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. It was considered to be Near Threatened on the Italian Red List (CK Map 5.3.8.).&#160; A programme of habitat monitoring is required for this species.	eng
155946	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella manganellii</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically to Tuscan Appeninnes.&#160; It is listed from at least 8 locations, some of which have multiple outlets from a single groundwater system.	eng
155946	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species can be found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
155946	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155946	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
155947	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is not protected in France. Conservation actions recommended include taxonomic review of the other sites where this species has been identified on shell morphology, as well as habitat monitoring for changes and raising awareness of the importance of these springs for freshwater biodiversity.	eng
155947	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella eurystoma</span> is endemic to France where it is found in the Mediterranean zone. Molecular analyses have confirmed this species is found from 3 of the 4 localities, with an AOO of 16 km<sup>2</sup> but it could be more widespread in the Causse du Larzac and the Hérault basin (V. Prie,<span style="font-style: italic;"> pers. comm</span>, 2009.	eng
155947	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This is a small freshwater gastropod which is found in springs.	eng
155947	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155947	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Although specific threats to these sites are uncertain, spring sites are vulnerable to exploitation due to water utilization for watering livestock and offtake for domestic supplies. Consequently, these sites get concreted over or are over-exploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources of the groundwater feeding the springs is poorly documented but&#160; may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155949	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by the French law.	eng
155949	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Bythiospeum francomontanum </em>is listed for France and Switerland. &#160;In France it is is known from the departments of Jura, Doubs, Haute-Saône and Haut-Rhin. In Switzerland, it is known from the Neuchatel and Berne cantons.	eng
155949	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This is a subterranean species living in karstic waters.	eng
155949	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
155949	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155950	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	The taxonomic status of this species require confirmation.There are no conservation measures.	eng
155950	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	The species is considered to be endemic to France, and not found in Spain (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>, 2002), however range of this species is currently under some doubt, as most of the original records come from Pyrenees-Atlantique, but the French National Inventory of Natural Patrimony (<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceDescription.jsp&numero_taxon=162862">INPN</a>) shows a record from the Department of Herault, on the Mediterranean coast, without any intervening records. Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) suggest that the range is limited to springs in the vicinity of St Jean de Luz and the Valley of the Nive at Arneguy.	eng
155950	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is believed to be a freshwater spring species.	eng
155950	population	Prie, V., 2009	Population status is unknown.	eng
155950	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The distribution and taxonomic status is unknown in detail.&#160; However springs in the region of St Jean de Luz are largely captured for use either for animal drinking troughs and for domestic supplies, so the habitats in the region have been impacted.	eng
155951	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by law in France.	eng
155951	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Avenionia berenguieri </span>is endemic to France, where it is restricted to the departments of Ardèche, Drôme, Vaucluse and Gard (southern France).&#160; It has been recorded from more than 10 locations.	eng
155951	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in springs and subterranean habitat.	eng
155951	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155951	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs and aquifers linked to the Rhône river suffer from human pressure, i.e. urbanization and water management. Consequently these sites can be overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155954	conservation	Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	This species requires more research on threats and population trends.	eng
155954	distribution	Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Cilgia dalmatica </span>is known from freshwater springs near Sopot, south bank of Svitavsko (and elsewhere) and from Plat in S. Dalmacjia (Croatia) and today is considered to be restricted to Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.&#160;</p>	eng
155954	habitat	Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
155954	population	Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	The population trend of this species is unknown.	eng
155954	threats	Slapnik, R. & Lajtner, J., 2009	There is no knowledge on current threats to this species, although if restricted to these two sites, then the species could be threatened by degradation of&#160; water sources.	eng
155956	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. Surveys and habitat monitoring are recommended, once the species status is confirmed.	eng
155956	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrgohydrobia jablanicensis</span> was endemic to springs at Sum, about 4 km west of the Struga town, Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160; These were dammed during the 1960s to form a small artificial  lake, and this species was once abundant at the site, but between the 1960s and 1980 few specimens were been found. Recent surveys have found it once in 2004.	eng
155956	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species lived in freshwater springs on soft substrate, but these habitats have been flooded to make a small artifical lake.	eng
155956	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species was endemic to these springs, and was once abundant at the site, but between the 1960s and 1980 few specimens were been found. In 1985 Radoman reports two shells from the bottom of the small lake, but was uncertain whether the species would survive to the future (Radoman 1985). Recent surveys have found this species again in 2004, but it is still a very rare species.	eng
155956	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	These springs were dammed during the 1960s to form a small lake, which has disturbed the ecology of the ecosystem. Further threats exist from the exploitation of the new lake and habitat degradation from agricultural run-off and domestic pollution. Water abstraction for drinking water is a further threat to this species.	eng
155958	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no specific conservation actions known for the species, although habitat monitoring and population monitoring would be recommended to check on population decline levels. The Cave of Vjetrenica has been protected since around 1900, when the metal gate preventing access was first made. The same gate, slightly modified in early ‘60s, is still there (Ržehak 1965). Legal protection of the cave started in 1914and it was proclaimed a natural monument in 1950.&#160;Speleological Society Vjetrenica - Popovo polje has renewed the pre- war tourist programme, but flashlights are used at the moment, instead of electrical lighting, which is beneficial to the cave fauna.&#160;<br/>The 'Popovo polje/Vjetrenica' is listed in the Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest.&#160;The B-H Academy made proposal to nominate Vjetrenica as a&#160;candidate&#160;for the World Heritage List.	eng
155958	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<em>Narentiana vjetrenicae&#160;</em>is only                known from the type locality and from the cave Vjetrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The type locality was a freshwater spring,                Lukavac  below Vjetrenica cave, near Zavala, Popovo (Radoman, 1985; Kabat & Hershler, 1993). <br/><p></p>	eng
155958	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is known from freshwater springs emerging from the karst groundwaters of Popovo polje.	eng
155958	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on the population status of this species.	eng
155958	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The Cave has been a tourist destination since the end of 19th Century. A 1250 m long path to Veliko jezero was created, and by the end of 1950s Vjetrenica was a tourist site with electric lighting set up over 1045 m of the cave with a hotel on-site and tourist guides attracting some ten thousand visitors annually. In the 1990's tourism decreased, and in the last 10 years, has been renewed, without the&#160;electric lighting (Sket 2003).	eng
155959	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	No conservation measures are known for the area.&#160; It is recommended that habitat monitoring protocols are put in place to identify potential degradation of the habitats.	eng
155959	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria. It is known from a stream in Temnata Dupka cave at Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. The cave is about 800 m in length.<br/><br/>Even though the location of this site is only few kms outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region, this species is considered here to be&#160; Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the Mediterranean.	eng
155959	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in caves). It is a troglobite (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).	eng
155959	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	The population size and trend are not known.	eng
155959	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>A potential future threat could be the pollution caused by visitors to the cave. Visitors to this single site, and the facilities required to accommodate them, may have a detrimental effect on the water quality.<br/></p>	eng
155960	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.</p>	eng
155960	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
155960	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in the littoral zone of the lake, amongst the <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> meadows and on stones/rocks.	eng
155960	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is one of the most frequent and widespread   &#160;hydrobiids of Lake Ohrid.	eng
155960	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
155961	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
155961	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species was listed for France in Fauna Europea, but is&#160;taxonomically confused (Falkner&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2002). Hence it is impossible to map, as the records cannot be confirmed as this species.	eng
155961	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
155961	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155961	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
155962	conservation	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2010	Research on the population size, trends and distribution is needed. It is not known what conservation measures should be taken to protect this species.	eng
155962	distribution	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2010	There is confusion in the literature on the range of this species. &#160;According to Fauna Europea (Bank <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006) this species is known from Italy and France (Corsica).&#160; However, in Italy the species was originally described from Rome, but listed for Sicily. In Corsica, it is only known from a single site on the northern coast (<a href="http://inpn.mnhn.fr/isb/servlet/ISBServlet?action=Espece&typeAction=10&pageReturn=ficheEspeceRepartition.jsp&numero_taxon=162718&date_min=1950&date_max=2010">INPN</a> 2009).&#160; According to Gloer and Maasen (2009) <span style="font-style: italic;">Paludina boissieri</span> Küster, 1852, was been described from the region of Rome (Kuster 1852: 36) as its type locality, and not Sicily, as given in Beriozkina and Starabogatov (1995).	eng
155962	habitat	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2010	This is a freshwater snail found in rivers.	eng
155962	population	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2010	There is no information about the population size and trends.	eng
155962	threats	Seddon, M., Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2010	The main threats to this species are unknown as the distribution and taxonomic status is uncertain.	eng
155964	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions known forthis species, although in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM),  some sites are located in the Galicica National Park. Habitat monitoring would be recommended in order to evaluate changes in the status of this species. Information to increase awareness of the impact of regular cleaning of these sites and other forms of spring-site management on the species would be beneficial. <br/></p>	eng
155964	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania. It is found in   the Feeder springs (at St. Naum, Tusemista and Zagorican) on the south-east side of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, but not within the adjacent northern springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). In this area there are   a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from Lake Ohrid. As most of the springs come from the same ground-water sources they are considered as three locations.	eng
155964	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to springs adjacent to the shores on the south-east of Lake Ohrid and is mainly found on stones nearby direct spring effluents.	eng
155964	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is found only in a few locations and mostly in low abundances.</p>	eng
155964	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species has a restricted range and is possibly threatened due to habitat degradation from extraction of domestic water and 'improvements' to habitats where it lives, in order to improve water quality for domestic use. In addition these springs are fed from groundwater sources that are linked to Lake Prespa where there is declining water quantity and quality.&#160; In that lake, eutrophication due to waste water, fish breeding, tourism and waste disposal (Tusemista) is impacting water quality. <em></em></p>	eng
155967	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed, as well as habitat monitoring.<br/></p>	eng
155967	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found in sub-littoral zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placetype u1:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>  <st1:placename w:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:placename></st1:placetype></st1:place>, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985). This species has a patchy distribution, and is localized vertically (restricted to a bathymetric depth) and horizontally (restricted area in the north-east of the lake). Its vertical distribution seems to be disjunct, between the "shell zone", between 20 and 35 m and then 70 to 80 m. <br/></p>	eng
155967	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This sub-littoral species is described from <em>Dreissena </em>shell belts. The substrate has changed from sand to mud due to accumulation of organic material (C. Albrecht&#160; pers comm. 2009).</p>	eng
155967	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a rare species (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155967	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod.	eng
155968	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species. More research on population trends and on distribution range is needed.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
155968	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Strugia ohridana</span> is restricted to a large cave-spring, from which the Sum brook originates, south of Zagracani, about 4 km from Struga town, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM)(Radoman 1983). The range is difficult to estimate, as this species lives in subterranean groundwaters, potentially occupying the whole subterranean system, which is inferred to be less than 100 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
155968	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This subterranean species lives in a cave system, on stones in a spring with a constant temperature.	eng
155968	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The population trends are unknown. Recent surveys did not find it in the cave but this is a subterranean species that is difficult to sample.	eng
155968	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The water extraction for domestic use is restricting the habitat available for the species at certain periods of the year. However, this species is probably present in the subterranean cave system, where no threats are thought to occur.	eng
155971	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Some sub-populations might be present in protected areas (in Montenegro). However, the majority of the populations are not and there are some genetic variations (sub-species). A sustainable management of springs (in particular regulation of spring capture) and revitalisation of springs destroyed are needed for ensuring the survival of this species.	eng
155971	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is broadly distributed in western and southern Balkans (Radoman 1985) including Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006). Radoman (1985) noted that it was present in the springs adjacent to Lake Ohrid, not within Lake Ohrid.	eng
155971	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in springs and flowing waters.	eng
155971	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species is generally abundant in the spring it is present in.	eng
155971	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<em></em>Localised threats exist to subspecies due to their restricted ranges and threats from habitat degradation from spring exploitation, as well as from agricultural run-off and domestic pollution.	eng
155972	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is listed on the Austrian Red List as&#160;Extinct (EX) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007). It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into population trends.</p>	eng
155972	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, Tiefsteinschlucht at Tiefsteinschlucht at Schleedorf	eng
155972	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species occurs in springs.	eng
155972	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	The population trend of this species is not known and it is thought to be possibly extinct.                 Three surveys by Reischutz and Reischutz in 1968, 1973 and 2004 have failed to find this species and other surveys by Seidl, Boeters, Falkner over the last 30 years have also not located specimens, hence it is considered to be extinct.	eng
155972	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is mainly threatened by the abstraction of groundwater for drinking purposes and habitat degradation.	eng
155973	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	This species is currently known to be widespread, and as such is not in need of species-specific conservation actions, however more research is needed on the taxonomy to establish species limits.	eng
155973	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Bythiospeum rhenanum </em>lives in Germany, where it is relatively widespread, in Switzerland (Berne and Neuchatel Cantons) and in France in the departments of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin.	eng
155973	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This small freshwater snail lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155973	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.	eng
155973	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Lives in subterranean habitats which are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources.&#160;&#160;The species is also vulnerable to habitat degradation as the result of over-abstraction of water from the aquifer.	eng
155976	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.<p>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). </p>	eng
155976	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to southern Slovenia.	eng
155976	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
155976	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
155976	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155978	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions for this species.	eng
155978	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria heideae</span> is restricted to three cave systems around Les Angles, Department (30), France.	eng
155978	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
155978	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
155978	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides). Lowering of groundwater levels may impact the species, and thus maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
155982	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. As this species hasn't been recorded in the last six years, a programme of systematic sampling using different survey methodologies would be recommended. <br/></p>	eng
155982	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Ohrid (Bank <em>et al</em>., Fauna European 2006).   It is found in sublittoral zone of Lake Ohrid (below 30 m depth) but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985 ).	eng
155982	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species lives in freshwater lakes where it is sublittoral (found below 30 m depth).	eng
155982	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Recent surveys carried out since 2003 have not found this species (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155982	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.	eng
155983	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is protected at national level in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro. &#160;There are&#160;</st1:country-region></st1:place>on-going transboundary projects which will focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. &#160;Monitoring habitat quality if the region would be recommended to detect future changes in water quality and in habitats, both of which could impact the species in the future.<br/><br/>Regnier et al (2009) reported that this species was extinct, but in error.&#160; Pesic (pers. comm) noted that the species is very rare and the type locality is not lost, but that sampling needs to take place at the right season.	eng
155983	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Bracenica spiridoni</em> is endemic to Montenegro, where it is found in the&#160;Skadar area. It is restricted</strong>&#160;to only two sites:  <p></p><ul><li>a small spring ca. 2x2m<sup>2</sup> (Spirov izvor)</li><li>a sublacustrine spring in Skadar Lake (Karuc spring)</li></ul>V. Pešić (pers. comm. 2010) notes that the reports that the type locality for species has been lost (Szarowski, 2006) are in error. <br/><p></p>       <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">   <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>     </st1:placetype></st1:place>	eng
155983	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<em>Bracenica spiridoni</em>&#160;is a freshwater species&#160;in Karst regions, where it has been recorded from&#160;exclusively&#160;subterranean areas and the outflow springs.	eng
155983	population	Pešić, V., 2009	The population trend is unknown, but it is rare in survey samples, with only a few individuals collected to date (V. Pešić pers. comm. 2009).	eng
155983	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	The spring at&#160;Spirov izvor is already used to supply domestic water, so overabstraction of water from this source, leading to declining&#160;habitat quality, and potential loss of habitat is considered the primary threat.<br/><br/>The secondary threat include a rapid process of eutrophication which is affecting at the present time the sublacustrine spring Karuc. This site is suffering a rapid declining of the depth in last 25 years due to the use of this sublacustrine spring. Furthermore there is a plan to capture this spring to supply drinking water &#160;along the coastal part of Montenegro.	eng
155987	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on conservation actions for this species, however, it does require more research into trends and threats.	eng
155987	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fauna Europea, 2006) where it is found in the                hinterlands of Metković, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (B. Sket pers. comm. 2010)	eng
155987	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no data on the habitats of this species.	eng
155987	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on the population status for this species.	eng
155987	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155988	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>&#160;(2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
155988	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found on the coast of Tuscany.&#160; On the island of Elba there are 3 known localities.	eng
155988	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters in rocks. The species feeds using its scrapers.	eng
155988	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
155988	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>2000).	eng
155989	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None.	eng
155989	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Taxonomic research is in need..	eng
155989	conservation	Killeen, I. & Ghamizi, M., 2010	This species is considered threatened in some parts of it's range and has been listed for research and protection (e.g. UK, Willing, pers. com, 2009).<br/><br/>Being regionally assessed in the following countries:<br/>UK:&#160; Critically Endangered B2a,b(iii)<br/>Netherlands:&#160; Vulnerable (equivalent to A2c)<br/>Italy:&#160; Data deficient.<br/>North Africa: Least Concern.	eng
155989	distribution	Killeen, I. & Ghamizi, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span> is viewed as a widespread, but very localised species in Europe.&#160; It is more common in the Mediterranean part of the range than further north in Europe.   Gloer (2002) gives the range as Atlantic-Mediterranean, and comments that it is probably found in suitable habitats along the entire European-Atlantic coast and the entire Mediterranean littoral from <st1:city w:st="on">Morocco</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:country-region> to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Iran</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Boeters, 1998).&#160; It is known inland in <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> only as a subfossil (Mansfelder Saltzseen, Bank <em>et al</em>., 1979). <br/><br/><ul><li>In Belgium, recorded from lagoons on the coast.&#160;</li><li>In France, recorded from lagoons in Pas-de-Calais (Cucherat, 2003, unpublished report) on Atlantic coast and Mediterranean coastal records include lagoons in Aude (Betrand). <br/></li><li>In the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Netherlands</st1:country-region> only some sites in <st1:place w:st="on">Zeeland</st1:place> (Gittenberger <em>et al</em>. 1998 )   is declining as the few remaining sites are threatened by urban pollution and by changes in salinity brought about by coastal control schemes (Kerney, 1999).   Gittenberger <em>et al</em>. (1998) noted a decline from 11 sites to 4 sites, and since 1950 live finds made only in <st1:place w:st="on">Zeeland</st1:place>.&#160; Beside several reports from the brackish water at Zieriksee (Schouwen-Duiveland), the type locality of the species, there are incidental finds from Goeree (at the dyke along the South coast), Schouwen-Duiveland (Ronde Weel, also by Zierikzee) and in Vlanderen (Achterste Creek by Terneuzen in the west outlet of the Braakman Creek (de Bryne, et al, 2003). </li><li>In Italy it is recorded from 19 different sites, mainly coastal, around the country, and on Sicily (Bodon <span style="font-style: italic;">el al</span>, data from CK Map 5.3.8)</li><li>In UK, known from a single site, a coastal lagoon in the southern England, where it has recently been refound at brackish water pond in the marsh at Farlington.&#160; It was previously viewed as becoming extinct between 1960 and 1970 (Kerney 1999) (M. Willing, pers. comm, 2009).</li></ul>      <br/><h1></h1>	eng
155989	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widely spread paleartic species. In northern Africa it is known from the Bay of Tunisia and coasts of Morocco. Because of uncertainty with misidentification of other similar species, this species may be more widespread e.g. also on the coasts of Algeria.	eng
155989	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Widely spread paleartic species that in northern Africa is known from the Bay of Tunisia and coasts of Morocco. Due to uncertainty with misidentification of other similar species, the species may be more widespread that actually recorded and, e.g., be present also on the coasts of Algeria.	eng
155989	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is found in brackish waters, a coastal species.	eng
155989	habitat	Killeen, I. & Ghamizi, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span> lives in brackish water lagoons and estuaries and ditches with a brackish influence.	eng
155989	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This coastal species occurs in brackish waters.	eng
155989	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
155989	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
155989	population	Killeen, I. & Ghamizi, M., 2010	There are no data on overall population status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Heleobia stagnorum</span>, although it is known to be localized. Where it occurs, it is locally abundant and is dispersed by birds.	eng
155989	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	A brackish water species so no major threats. Brackish waters are often heavily polluted (high nitrates) so if it can stand this then should be able to survive.	eng
155989	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Brackish water species that is not facing major threats as it is very tolerant to often heavily polluted (high nitrates) brackish waters.	eng
155989	threats	Killeen, I. & Ghamizi, M., 2010	<p>The main threats, especially in the northern part of the range include any factors such as barrages, sluices, water flow management schemes that may alter or disrupt the narrow salinity range that this species occupies.&#160; Other threats include pollution by nutrient enrichment, industrial chemicals, oil spills etc.</p><p>In the longer term, global warming causing higher sea levels and the greater chances of saline intrusion could disrupt salinity (raise) levels.</p>	eng
155990	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
155990	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><em>Gyraulus lychnidicus</em>&#160;is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, where it is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
155990	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral zone where it is restricted to hard substrates, including artificial constructions. The juveniles are found amongst the <em>Chara </em>meadows.</p>	eng
155990	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in relatively high abundances (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers.comm. 2009)</p>	eng
155990	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. As a result of this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
155991	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no known conservation actions. More research is needed on taxonomy, population size, trends and distribution, threats and habitat trends.	eng
155991	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, where it is localised and&#160;restricted to the southern parts of the departments Var and Alpes-Maritime on the south-east Mediterranean coast.	eng
155991	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in springs.	eng
155991	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population trend data available for this species.	eng
155991	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats to this species are unknown.	eng
155993	conservation	Albrecht, C., Feher, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, Lake Ohrid is a World Heritage Site and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999.&#160; A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring and population trend monitoring would be recommended for this species	eng
155993	distribution	Albrecht, C., Feher, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Acroloxus improvisus</span> is endemic to Lake Ohrid, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania, where it is found only on the rocky eastern and south-western shore. </p>	eng
155993	habitat	Albrecht, C., Feher, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is living in a freshwater lake, where it is found in rocky areas in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon and sublittoral species  (Hadzisce 1956).	eng
155993	population	Albrecht, C., Feher, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009) noted that   <span style="font-style: italic;">A. improvisus</span>   is strictly restricted to the rocky eastern and south-western shore. It is a very rare species.	eng
155993	threats	Albrecht, C., Feher, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area, causing increased sediment loads in the lake which impacts the feeding and resting places for this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake leading to declining water quality. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the water of Prespa lake, which in turn feeds the aquifer of Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load in Lake Ohrid (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.	eng
155994	conservation	Vavrova, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Emmericia patula</span> is protected by the Law on Nature Protection of the Republic of Croatia. However there are no specific conservation actions in place for this species. It is also listed as Least Concern on the European and Mediterranean regional red list assessments.	eng
155994	distribution	Vavrova, L., 2010	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">This species is listed from France, Italy, Albania, Croatia, Germany and Slovenia in Fauna Europea (Bank <em>et al</em>, 2006). The range of the species suggests that it is not localised, and is adjacent to the range of the other three species in the genus <em>Emmericia</em>. In France it was added as a new species to the french fauna in 1986, following an inventory on the Rivers Doubs in Eastern France. In Italy it is present in scattered localities, mainly in NE Italy, but with odd records in NW Italy and central Italy.&#160; The records for Albania are uncertain and require confirmation.	eng
155994	habitat	Vavrova, L., 2010	Springs and rivers, in the upper parts and middle parts of the river in Croatia.	eng
155994	population	Vavrova, L., 2010	No detailed data on population trends.	eng
155994	threats	Vavrova, L., 2010	There are localised threats from water pollution and habitat degradation with road construction in valleys and river channel management plans, however these are not viewed as threatening the species across the region.	eng
155997	conservation	Falkner, G. & Prie, V., 2009	The species is believed to now be Extinct.	eng
155997	distribution	Falkner, G. & Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France. In Falkner <em>et al. </em>(2002), the range is described as 'environs of Toulouse' in the department of Haute-Garonne.&#160;In Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) two locations were considered valid from&#160;Moquin-Tandon, in the 1850's at Bourassol and Blagnac and a third locality from the Locard Collections at MNHN, Paris from 'St Michel s. Touch, près de Toulouse'. &#160;Much of this region is now part of the city of Toulouse, and Boeters (pers. comm. in Falker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2002) has searched for the species in the Bourassol parts of Toulouse and considered that this species has been lost during this century.	eng
155997	habitat	Falkner, G. & Prie, V., 2009	This species lived in freshwater springs.	eng
155997	population	Falkner, G. & Prie, V., 2009	This species is believed to be Extinct. It has not been recorded for over 50 years, despite survey efforts; possibly it became Extinct 30-50 years before that.	eng
155997	threats	Falkner, G. & Prie, V., 2009	The species was recorded from springs in the small villages adjacent to Toulouse in the 1850-1860's, however these locations are now all part of the city of Toulouse, and the sites are believed to have been lost during urbanisation.	eng
156004	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). . The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.	eng
156004	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region>, where it is restricted to two sites, a spring in caves at Cerknesko Jezero (Križna jama and sources around cave near to Lož) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Notranjski</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated as 50 km, based on two locations and restricted range as less than five locations.<br/></p><p>    </p><p></p>	eng
156004	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156004	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	Population status of this species is unknown.	eng
156004	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is considered to be under pressure as the water source it occupies could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agricultural and domestic sources.	eng
156005	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	&#160;The species requires research on taxonomy, population trends and distribution.	eng
156005	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species was described from empty shells collected from Rhone alluviums and neither its taxonomic position nor its distribution are clear.	eng
156005	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156005	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available.	eng
156005	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156007	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	Research is needed to clarify the taxonomic statuis of this species as well as the distribution, if still considered to be a valid species.	eng
156007	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is described as a French endemic, but&#160; may be synonymised with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pyrenaica</span>.&#160; Accordimg to Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) there are some problems with the locality information given for the species. For the distribution, we include 10 localities for <span style="font-style: italic;">B. darieuxii </span>from Bernasconi (2000) and the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. pyrenaica</span>.	eng
156007	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
156007	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
156007	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilisation for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
156009	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<em>Belgrandiella croatica</em> is assigned a status of Rare for the Slovenian Red List 2002  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, tuesday 24 september 2002).&#160;The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed.	eng
156009	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Slovenia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Croatia</st1:country-region> where it is restricted to a few springs in the <st1:placetype w:st="on">river basin</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Kolpa/Kupa</st1:placename> in southeastern part of the country on both sides of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Croatia</st1:place></st1:country-region>-Slovenian border. Radoman (1985) first described the species from the village of Lešnica (SW of Delnice along the road of Karlovac-Rijeka at Ogulin).<br/></p>	eng
156009	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156009	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	Population status of this species is unknown.	eng
156009	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure in Slovenia, as the water source could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agriculture source and domestic sources (R. Slapnik, pers. comm., 2010).</p>	eng
156010	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. As surveys have not recorded this species is recent years, it is recommended that targeted surveys are conducted to assess the species status. <br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>	eng
156010	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohridohauffenia sublitoralis</span> is endemic to Lake Ohrid, which lies between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania.   It is found in sub-littoral zone of Lake Ohrid between 25 and 40 m depth, but not within the adjacent springs in the catchment (Radoman 1985).</p>  <p></p>	eng
156010	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a sub-littoral species found through the sub-littoral zone of the lake below 25 m depth (Radoman 1983)	eng
156010	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Despite recent surveys, this species has not been found since 2003 (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>	eng
156010	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake.	eng
156014	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.&#160;The species was considered Near Threatened in the Italian Red List (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>The recommended conservation action is habitat monitoring protocols to check whether the species habitats are declining.	eng
156014	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in western Sardinia. <br/>The type locality is the 'Plentiful karstic spring Su Cologne, at San Giovanni, 100m above sea level (UTM 32 T NK4260). Also known from Cave Su Giana (100m ASL,UTM 32 T NK4360), Cave Sa Oche at Lanaitto (150m ASL,UTM 32 T NK4156),Cave Bue Marino, 1.5m ASL (UTM 32 T NK5255) and a spring on right bank of Cedrino River, S. Leonardo (3km upstream of Orosei, UTM 32 T NK5771) (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). In single catchment.	eng
156014	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to slow flowing groundwater within a karstic region (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It is a strict stygobiont. Like most spring-snails the species feeds using a radula, scraping rock surfaces.	eng
156014	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
156014	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo & Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000), although it is less threatened than the other species, as it is present through much of the groundwater systems and not restricted to the interstitial waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998), however the rate of change is not expected to impact the species over the next 10 years, although any sudden change would change the status of this species.	eng
156017	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	Further research is required for this species to clarify the taxonomy, also on population and threats.	eng
156017	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Belgrandia dunalina</em> lives only in the freshwater springs of the Herault and Lez rivers catchment areas.	eng
156017	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs and has suffered from loss of habitat. Living in springs, a habitat which is naturally fragmented.	eng
156017	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species. However, given that springs are affected by casual droughts due to groundwater absorption in this region, a reduction in the population size can be inferred.	eng
156017	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are over-exploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
156021	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation actions are known and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
156021	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy specifically found in the alpine regions of&#160;southern Piemonte and the western Liguria, where it is restricted in range. In Piemonte it lives in the springs of the Bossea Cave&#160;which outflow through the Corsaglia torrent, about 30 m below the entrance of the cave, although it has not been found in the subterranean complex of this cavity. It may also be present in the main branch of the hypogean stream of the Caudano Caves. It is known from over 25 sites in this region, some of which are springs, others are in caves.	eng
156021	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This freshwater species lives in groundwaters, present in cave springs and in hypogean streams of karstic cavities.	eng
156021	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	There is no population trend information.	eng
156021	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<p>The main threats to the species lie in changes to the groundwater, such as pollution (agricultural sources or domestic sources), and in over abstraction of water for domestic supplies&#160;(Manganelli<em> et al.</em>2000).</p>	eng
156022	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Bythiospeum charpyi</em>&#160;is protected by law in France.	eng
156022	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	Based on records from shells,&#160;<em>Bythiospeum charpyi</em> has a wide range in France (départements of Doubs, Jura, Haute Saone and Territoire de Bellfort) and Switzerland (Bern canton). &#160;It is considered as two subspecies by some authors,&#160;<em>B. c.&#160;</em><em>charpyi</em>&#160;(Paladilhe, 1867)&#160; in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>&#160;and&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region>; &#160;<em>B. c.&#160;giganteum</em>&#160;Bernasconi, 1969 which is only found&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region></st1:place>.	eng
156022	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156022	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no data available on the population trends for this species.	eng
156022	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Lowering of the water levels in the aquifer may degrade the habitat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156024	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species.	eng
156024	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radomaniola montana</span> is endemic to Montenegro. It was originally described from the Lukavac Brook, 15 km from Budva. Other records in Radoman (1983), list the species from Studenac spring (in Braići village close to Budva), Vrelo podgorska (Podgor village), Tomići village spring, 3 springs in the region of Crmnica (in the Skutari Basin) and Skruca and other springs in the region of Dobra voda, between Bar and Ulcinj. Radoman noted that the range occupied the mountains between the Adriatic region and the Skadar (Skutari) Lake catchment.	eng
156024	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156024	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no population trend data for this species.	eng
156024	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	No threats are known for this species	eng
156028	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	Conservation actions are not in place for this species.&#160; Further survey data are required to establish if this cryptic species is still extant, and&#160; thereafter monitoring to establish any decline in habitat quality. Some species may require a review to decide whether any restrictions on drawdown would be required to maintain suitable habitat if the species is still present.	eng
156028	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Henrigirardia wienini </span>is endemic to a single cave in the Hérault valley in southern France.	eng
156028	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156028	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species. This species has never been found alive and could already be extinct.	eng
156028	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water extraction and impacts lowering groundwater table maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. Concerning the cave where <span style="font-style: italic;">H. wienini</span> lives (if it is still living), the water is abstracted for domestic purposes. Agricultural and housing are very limited in the area, so pollution in probably not an important threat at the moment.	eng
156031	conservation	Sket, B., 2010	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as 'Rare' on the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. The Krka River catchment is a Natural Monument,&#160; according to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72) and is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area potential Site of Conservation Interest. </span><span style="background-color: white;">In the CBD <a href="https://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/www.arso.gov.si/narava/poro%C4%8Dila%20in%20publikacije/biotska_raznovrstnost2.pdf">government report</a>&#160; </span><span style="background-color: white;">this species was one of two highlighted and the site at source of the Krka near Trebnja Gorica is one of the most notable cave sites in Slovenia. There should be work undertaken to monitor the changing quality of habitat in these cave and springs for all of the endemic freshwater snails. <br/></span>	eng
156031	distribution	Sket, B., 2010	This species is endemic to springs and caves in the upper part of the Krka catchment in the central part of southern Slovenia.	eng
156031	habitat	Sket, B., 2010	This species occurs in caves and freshwater springs (Sket pers. comm. 2010). The springs at the upper part of the Krka river are rich in calcium, as this river is the only Tufa forming river in Slovenia.	eng
156031	population	Sket, B., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
156031	threats	Sket, B., 2010	Some decline in water quality has been observed in the region as result  of pollution from percolation of water from the overlying agricultural  area (Slapnik pers. comm. 2009), however the levels of impact on this species are uncertain, and require further investigation, but on a precautionary basis, the species is listed as a result of these threats, as it is known to be rare.&#160;&#160; The impact on non-native species is lighted as a general threat to freshwater molluscs in the Slovenian Government report to the <a href="www.arso.gov.si/narava/poro%C4%8Dila%20in%20publikacije/biotska_raznovrstnost2.pdf">CBD</a>.	eng
156032	conservation	Pesic, V., 2009	Research on the Skadar lake is needed. The species is protected nationally in Montenegro.&#160;On-going transboundary projects (IBA) focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area.	eng
156032	distribution	Pesic, V., 2009	<em>Radomaniola lacustris</em>&#160;is only known from small area of beach on the edge of Lake Skadar near Murici, Montenegro.	eng
156032	habitat	Pesic, V., 2009	<em>Radomaniola lacustris</em> lives in freshwater habitats on the edge of a sandy beach on Lake Skadar. According to Radoman (1983), this is the only lacustrine form in this genus.	eng
156032	population	Pesic, V., 2009	Unknown. There is no data present about the population.	eng
156032	threats	Pesic, V., 2009	The threats to this species are mainly resulting from habitat degradation due to eutrophication of Lake Skadar. The littoral zone is subject to lake level changes and habitat degradation.	eng
156033	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Protection of springs, development and enforcement of limitations on use of water from springs and water abstraction, and . actions to mitigate the effects of climate change would all benefit this species.	eng
156033	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Mediterranean but not to northern Africa. In Morocco, it is known from spring Ain Jdida and spring Ain Louada, in the region of Tetouan.	eng
156033	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a crenobiont - dependent on springs.	eng
156033	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
156033	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	In Northern Africa, this species is threatened by pollution and extraction of water from springs. Climatic change could be a big problem as the springs are cold, and an increase in temperature could seriously impact the species.	eng
156034	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, however, distribution and taxonomy need to be researched.	eng
156034	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobia declinata </span>was   described by Frauenfeld, 1863 from the region of  Montenegro, but there  is  no current data on the distribution or status  of this species.	eng
156034	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
156034	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
156034	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156035	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation measure in place for this species. More research is needed on the population a distribution.	eng
156035	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhia umbilicata</span> is endemic to the Trabuc cave system in southern France.&#160; Prie (pers. comm. 2009) reports the species from 3 different groundwater systems within this small region, hence the species should be regarded as a restricted range species.	eng
156035	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156035	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
156035	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156036	conservation	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known apart from&#160; a programme of habitat monitoring  is recommended.&#160; It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
156036	distribution	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella microstoma </span>is endemic to north-western Italy, where it is known from a small area, with 6 recorded sites (CK Map 5.3.8), although this region is actively researched, some new sites may be found.	eng
156036	habitat	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is found in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
156036	population	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so the population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
156036	threats	Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
156038	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation actions in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. The remaining population should be monitored.	eng
156038	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malaprespia albanica</span> is now only found in one sublacustrine spring in the Albanian  part of the small Prespa Lake ("Mikri Prespa") (Albrecht, pers. comm.,  2010).&#160; They speculate that the distribution of this species was broader in the past, but has probably declined as a result of abrupt changes of water level changes and accumulation of organic material (mud) on the shallow rocky banks of the lake.	eng
156038	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	The species is living in a spring, that was used to be sublacustrine, but due to considerable water level drop, it is now located outside of the current lake (Albrecht, pers. com, 2010).	eng
156038	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This is a very rare species, so is assumed to live at low density (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., pers. comm., 2009)	eng
156038	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This lake was a nutrient-poor lake (oligothropic), but due to pollution related to intensive agriculture practise in the neighbouring area, it is now more eutrophised. Herbicides might impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Abrupt water level drop (of several meters), due to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is thought to have contributed to the disappearing of most of the population range, the remaining population surviving only in one area continuously fed by a spring.	eng
156040	conservation	Sket, B. & Seddon, M., 2010	No known conservation actions in place for this species, although taxonomic data and population and distribution data is required for establishing likelihood of extinction at this site.	eng
156040	distribution	Sket, B. & Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Marstoniopsis vrbasi</span> is endemic to Bosnia-Herzegovina and is only known from the type locality, a spring in Bočac in Vrbas valley, 28 km S of Banja Luka (Bole & Velkovrh, 1987).	eng
156040	habitat	Sket, B. & Seddon, M., 2010	This species occurs in freshwater springs.	eng
156040	population	Sket, B. & Seddon, M., 2010	There are no recent survey data, so population trends not available.	eng
156040	threats	Sket, B. & Seddon, M., 2010	<p>The landscape is totally altered by hydrotechnical works for the powerplant installations. The freshwater springs are no longer accessible, and may well have been destroyed.</p>	eng
156043	conservation		None needed.	eng
156043	distribution		Regional distribution: An introduced species from America. Now widespread in South Africa. Also found in the Fish River and Karstveld wetlands in Namibia, Lake Kariba (Zimbabwe and Zambia) and southern Mozambique. Of importance in the transmission of fascioliasis (<em>Fasciola gigantica</em> and <em>F.hepatica</em>) in several adopted countries but evidence for this is so far lacking in Africa.<br/><br/>Global distribution: Native - North America. Introduced in Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, some Caribbean islands and possibly Asia.	eng
156043	habitat		A moderately amphibious species, it commonly occurs on the damp sediments near the air/water interface of permanent streams, pools and lakes . Also occurs in artificial  waterbodies such as  impoundments, ornamental ponds and  drinking troughs.	eng
156043	population		A common species with an expanding distribution within the region.	eng
156043	threats		None known.	eng
156045	conservation	Bilandzija, H. & Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions known specifically for this species, although Cave fauna is protected in Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.	eng
156045	distribution	Bilandzija, H. & Pešić, V., 2009	<span id="result_box" class="long_text">The species is from Croatia and<span style="background-color: white;"> Bile (BiH)</span> and has been found at 7, possibly 8 locations.&#160; It has been found in outwash from the springs at Ombla (Croatia). <span title="Ich sammelte">Schütt (2000) collected and found the species to be frequent at the Ljuta source near Dobrota <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the spring at Vrgorac Stinjevac (east of Biokovo)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the springs at Mlini Plat <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">; in Mühlquelle in Zaton Mali <span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">(Croatia)<span id="result_box" class="long_text"><span title="Ich sammelte">, in the spring Bileca (BiH) and&#160; the main springs at of Trebinjica, Bile (BiH). There is a possible record from Montenegro, but this requires further survey data to clarify the presence. <br/></span></span></span></span>	eng
156045	habitat	Bilandzija, H. & Pešić, V., 2009	This species can be found in Freshwater springs emerging from caves.	eng
156045	population	Bilandzija, H. & Pešić, V., 2009	There is no data on population status for this species.	eng
156045	threats	Bilandzija, H. & Pešić, V., 2009	A Dubrovik tourist development is leading to degradation of the species habitat.&#160; Pollution from agriculture (nitrates), Sewage at Ombla, as well as construction of a dam taking water since the 1970s at Ombla. Water extraction for drinking water and irrigation for agriculture is also another threat to this species.	eng
156047	conservation	Manganelli, G., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	Considered to be Least Concern in Italy (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2002) and Rare in Slovenia. There are no specific conservation actions for this species, although habitat monitoring would be recommended to establish whether the species is suffering from impacts of pollution and groundwater lowering from exploitation.	eng
156047	distribution	Manganelli, G., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span> is endemic to North Eastern Italy and Western Slovenia.&#160; In Italy it is recorded from 27 sites over a wide area whereas it is restricted to only Western Slovenia in Slovenia.	eng
156047	habitat	Manganelli, G., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span> is found within subterranean groundwaters and the outlets at springs.	eng
156047	population	Manganelli, G., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The population trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii </span>are unknown.	eng
156047	threats	Manganelli, G., Giusti, F., Bodon, M. & Cianfanelli, S., 2009	The pollution of groundwater from agricultural sources and domestic sources will threaten <span style="font-style: italic;">Hauffenia tellinii</span>, which is considered to require clean waters.	eng
156048	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	There are no conservation measures. More research is needed to solve the taxonomic issues of this genus.	eng
156048	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	This species was originally described from 'springs at Bigorre', Haute-Pyrenees, France. It is only known from the type specimens, a single shell designated as a lectotype and three syntypes (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, Haase 2000).&#160; Bernasconi (2000)&#160; noted that attempts to find the species again at springs close to  Bagneres de Bigorre have failed to produce any specimens.	eng
156048	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	this species occurs in freshwater springs	eng
156048	population	Prie, V., 2010	There are no population data available.	eng
156048	threats	Prie, V., 2010	As with most species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella, B. pyrenaica</span> is only found living living in freshwater springs. Their natural habitat is thus very restricted. Because springs have often been transformed for water supply, and/or run out of water at least temporarily because of water pumping in summer, we can infer an important and continuing decline in number of locations for all the springsnails species.	eng
156049	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR) (Reischutz & Reischutz&#160; 2007, 2009). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species' population trends.</p>	eng
156049	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. It is known from the limestone Alps in eastern Upper Austria. The type locality is Reutersteinquelle, which feeds into a brook that drains into the Krumme Steyrling river (Glöer 2002). Although recorded from&#160; three sites, the location maybe a single location as the groundwater system underlying may feed all, but treated as 3 sites given the distance between the two main sites (see map in Reischutz & Reischutz, 2009).	eng
156049	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	The species inhabits groundwater and rock fissures and is recorded from outflow points such as freshwater springs.	eng
156049	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There have been no living individuals of this species recorded, only empty shells were found. It is considered to be very rare or possibly extinct.	eng
156049	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to this species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also a threat from pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species.	eng
156051	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	There are no conservation actions in place for this species, although habitat monitoring (water quality, sediment load and nitrates) would be recommended, to get an indication of potential changes that would impact this species, as it is difficult to collect given the cryptic habitat and the low population density. Lake Ohrid is a World Heritage Site and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.	eng
156051	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of Lake Ohrid, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).	eng
156051	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is living in a freshwater lake, where it is found in rocky areas in the surroundings of sublacustrine springs on the underside of stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon and sublittoral species (Hadzisce 1956). <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
156051	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	It is strictly restricted to a freshwater lake, where it is found on the rocky bottom of the south-eastern shore and requires specific hydrological conditions. It is found only in very low abundances.	eng
156051	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area causing increased sediment loads in the lake which impacts the feeding and resting places for this small freshwater limpet. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake leading to declining water quality. Agriculture near the Prespa lake is contaminating the water of Prespa lake, which in turn feeds the aquifer of Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load in Lake Ohrid (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). In addition, increased frequencies of fire in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>	eng
156053	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
156053	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
156053	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population numbers, distribution and threats.	eng
156053	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
156053	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
156053	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
156053	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
156053	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Bulinus truncatus </em> is an Afrotropical species extending northwards till Portugal and southwards till Kenya. It is well distributed across oases of the northern Africa. It is considered as one of the most common and dangerous snails (vector of Bilharziosis) in the region. The type locality is in Egypt.	eng
156053	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Bulinus truncatus</em> occurs in northern and western Africa. In central Africa it occurs in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon.	eng
156053	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Northern limit known to be Portugal, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Near East. Main areas of distribution in Africa are in the North-West, lower Egypt, Sudan, and Westwards into Mauritania. Southern limits lie in DRC and Malawi (Brown 1994), but also recorded from Harare in Zimbabwe (DBL database)	eng
156053	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, south Egypt and possibly also in Eritrea and Djibouti. The type locality is in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Afrotropical species extending northwards till Portugal and southwards till Kenya. One of the most common and dangerous snails (vector of Bilharziosis) in the region under consideration.	eng
156053	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The northern limit of this species is known to be Portugal, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Near East. The main areas of distribution in Africa are in the northwest, lower Egypt, Sudan, and westwards into Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Cameroon, DRC and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread. It occurs in western Kenya, Ujiji, Kigoma in Tanzania, Lake Mutanda in Uganda and in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is found in all oases, so is distributed across northern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, south Egypt and possibly also in Eritrea and Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its southern limits lie in Zaire and Malawi (Brown 1994), but it has also been recorded as rare in Zimbabwe (DBL database).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in western Africa.	eng
156053	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is widespread, occurring in western Kenya, Kigoma in Tanzania, Lake Mutanda in Uganda and in Malawi.	eng
156053	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widespread in western Africa, and further afield to southern Europe, and the Middle East.	eng
156053	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in all oases in the desert. Also in irrigation channels, pools etc. Transmits <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosomiasis haematobium</span>.	eng
156053	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Found in various water bodies, flowing and standing, some which become seasonally dry.	eng
156053	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various waterbodies, flowing and standing, some of which become seasonally dry. Often found in standing waters, irrigation channels, and other man-made structures.	eng
156053	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is common in all oases in the desert. Also present in irrigation channels, pools and other human-made infrastructures. It transmits the parasite <em>Schistosomiasis haematobium</em>.	eng
156053	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It is found in various water bodies, flowing and standing, including man-made waterbodies. Not so able to withstand drying out in seasonal pools (Kristensen, pers. comm.). It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span>, causing Schistosomiasis.	eng
156053	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in various water bodies ranging from permanent lakes and rivers to standing water bodies which occasionally become dry. Has been described as tolerant to some degree of drought through aestivation.	eng
156053	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Various waterbodies, flowing and standing, some of which become seasonally dry.	eng
156053	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information.	eng
156053	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
156053	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
156053	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
156053	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
156053	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
156053	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
156053	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
156053	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats.	eng
156053	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats.	eng
156053	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
156053	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
156053	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Snail control.	eng
156053	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control measures.	eng
156054	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> is a protected species in France.	eng
156054	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> occurs in France, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Hautes-Pyrénées, on the Adour drainage.	eng
156054	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae</span> inhabits in subterranean waters.	eng
156054	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for species <span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria lescherae.</span>	eng
156054	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. In this region of the Pyrenees, neither agriculture nor urbanization can be considered an important threat at present.	eng
156055	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions for this species. Research on taxonomy, population size and trends, and threats would be of benefit.	eng
156055	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France,where it is found at&#160;3 localities in the Department of Vienne.	eng
156055	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
156055	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
156055	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats remain common to many of the spring-snails in the region, overexploitation of the water source for domestic and agricultural purposes, as well as pollution of the groundwater feeding the springs. Due to the need for water, numerous springs in this region are captured and become unsuitable for <span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella </span>species.	eng
156056	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	<p>The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p>	eng
156056	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella koprivnensis </span>is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it was described from Krčana spring, 2 km of the road of Cazin-Bužin at the village Donja Koprivna (Radoman 1983). </p>	eng
156056	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs (Radoman 1983).	eng
156056	population	Seddon, M., 2010	Population status of this species is unknown.	eng
156056	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats for this species are unknown.	eng
156057	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.</p>	eng
156057	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ancylus lapicidus</span> is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of Lake Ohrid.	eng
156057	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species is found in the littoral zone of lakes where it is restricted to hard substrate.	eng
156057	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is found at suitable habitats in relatively low abundances (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
156057	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>      Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> is contaminating the Prespa Lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod. In relation to this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. <br/></p><p></p>	eng
156059	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed. A strong recommendation for site protection especially from the impacts of threats is made for the species conservation in south Asia.</p>     <p></p>	eng
156059	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium annandalei</span> includes parts of southeast Europe (Sicily, Greece, southern Italy, Israel, Turkey), to south and southeast Asia (Nepal, India (Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar), Myanmar, Bangladesh, Thailand and Indonesia (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2001)).	eng
156059	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is restricted to springs, and small to medium sized streams.	eng
156059	population	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	In India, it is found in small numbers along with other bivalves and occurs in unpolluted waters (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). Increasing levels of water pollution in the streams is inferred to be a cause of decline in populations.	eng
156059	threats	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Organic pollution and eutrophication have been noted as the major threats to this species in south Asia. It is considered as a good indicator for the water quality assessment (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
156060	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The species is present in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> which is a World Heritage Site, where the Albanian side has been protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and the sites at the spings are in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Galicica</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. There are no current conservation actions in place for this species.   Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place></p>	eng
156060	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Valvata stenotrema</span> is endemic to in Lake Ohrid and in the Feeder springs system (St. Naum), and is recorded from Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) (Hauswald<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>	eng
156060	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral and partly sub-littoral zones, occurring in the sandy beach in the north and the south of Lake Ohrid, and in sandy patches in the feeder springs.	eng
156060	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species can be found at suitable habitats in very high abundances.</p>	eng
156060	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (sewage, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; As a result of this eutrophication, enhanced macrophyte and broad reed belt growth at the highly human populated northern and southern shallow bays are decreasing the area of suitable habitat for some species. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
156061	conservation	Albrecht, C., Erõss, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.<br/></p>	eng
156061	distribution	Albrecht, C., Erõss, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p>    <p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p></p>	eng
156061	habitat	Albrecht, C., Erõss, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This freshwater lake species is found in the littoral and sub-littoral zone on various substrates such as <em>Dreissena</em> shells, stones and gravel.	eng
156061	population	Albrecht, C., Erõss, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<strong><em></em></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Ginaia munda</span> is relatively abundant in Lake Ohrid and common in suitable habitat.  <strong><br/></strong><strong><em><br/></em></strong>	eng
156061	threats	Albrecht, C., Erõss, Z., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>&#160;Deforestation leads to erosion of the neighbouring area and increasing sediment load impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from agriculture run-off and from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. However this appears to be a quite hardy species and these are not considered currently to be a major threat.  </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156063	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
156063	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
156063	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species found&#160; in the littoral and sublittoral zones of the lake, that can be found on various substrates like<em> Dreissena</em> shells, gravel and stones.	eng
156063	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>It is found at suitable habitats in relatively low abundances (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
156063	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small gastropod within the littoral zone.	eng
156064	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on"></st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156064	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the small <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> ("Mikri Prespa") and the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM (also known as Macedonia) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156064	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This littoral species occurs in rocky habitat.	eng
156064	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	Although the population trend is unknown<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. prespensis</span> is frequently recovered in recent surveys within suitable habitats in the freshwater lake (Albrecht <em>e</em><em>t al, pers. comm</em>., 2009).	eng
156064	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
156065	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation actions for this species.	eng
156065	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is listed in Fauna Europea as restricted to Bosnia & Hercegovina and Croatia. Schutt (2000) <em>Pseudamnicola troglobia</em>&#160;was common at the Ombla source and in the floodline debris from outflow in Komolac as well as several sites on the Popovo polje.&#160;It is obviously in the subterranean streams of this area and hence is widespread in the outflow detritus from the systems (Schutt, 2000).	eng
156065	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is thought to inhabit subterranean habitat and freshwater springs.	eng
156065	population	Seddon, M., 2010	This species was common at the Ombla source and in the floodline debris from outflow in Komolac as well as several sites on the Popovo polje.&#160;It is obviously in the subterranean streams of this area and hence is widespread in the outflow detritus from the systems (Schutt, 2000).	eng
156065	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
156074	conservation	Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	More research is needed on the population range and trends. No specific conservation measures are known for this species, and it is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. This species is   listed as Data Deficient in the Italian Red List (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). Further research needed on population and habitat trends.	eng
156074	distribution	Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia latina</span> is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the Bolsena and Bracciano lakes, within the   Appeninnes region of Lazio (Altitude 165-500m ASL).	eng
156074	habitat	Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species lives in   freshwater lakes, the tributary streams   and outflows (Acque lentiche: laghi; acque lotiche: potamal).	eng
156074	population	Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Population trends are unknown. However, the species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low. Collecting records show that the species was extant in 2003 (S. Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2010)	eng
156074	threats	Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is considered to be vulnerable to extinction, as it has a restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Given the habitats are freshwater lakes, the species could be affected by changes in the water quality by eutrophication and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and in disturbance of the lakes for recreational use leading to habitat degradation. It is also found in rivers, which may be subject to anthropogenic river bank damage and/or canalization (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
156076	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).&#160; <em></em>The population and distribution status requires review. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p>	eng
156076	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is restricted to the springs east of Cerkniško jezero. (AOO estimated as 20km2, based on two locations, with 4km buffer around each, and restricted range as less than 5 locations). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156076	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	The species inhabits freshwater springs and is probably also in caves (Sket, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
156076	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	The population status for this species is unknown.	eng
156076	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure, as the water source could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agricultural and domestic sources. </p>	eng
156077	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are documented for this species, however, it does need to undergo taxonomic review.	eng
156077	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France. It is known from the springs of Font-Sainte (Ustou), Borde de crue and Chapelle de Bincarède (Seix). A specimen from flood debris of Exergue river (Porté-Puymorens) is attributed to this species.	eng
156077	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156077	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156077	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156078	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156078	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<em>Vinodolia lacustris</em> is restricted to the south-western shore of the large freshwater Lake&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename>, where it is found between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region> and FYROM (as known as Macedonia).&#160;<p>  </p>	eng
156078	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species lives on&#160;littoral zone of the lake where it is recorded on&#160;the rocky/stony steep parts of the shoreline.</p>	eng
156078	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is very rare. Recent faunal surveys between 2003 and 2009 did not found it (Albrecht <em>et al.</em>, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
156078	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.</p>	eng
156079	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions in place. &#160;More data on population status, distribution and taxonomy are needed for this species.	eng
156079	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella galerae</span> is restricted to the region of Méjean, mainly around Grotte de Castelbouc I near Sainte Enimie, Department&#160; Lozère (48), France.&#160; It was first described in 2002, so there may be additional sites locally, but no living animals were found during the expedition. Jean-Michel Bichain and Vincent Prie have undertaken other expeditions into the cave system where the species was originally found, but failed to find living specimens of this species.	eng
156079	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species was found in the freshwaters within a cave system, but it is mainly recorded from samples taken within 800m of the cave entrance.&#160; It has not been recorded alive.	eng
156079	population	Prie, V., 2009	As it has never been found alive, there are no population data available for this species.	eng
156079	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. The overexploitation of groundwater may be a potential risk.	eng
156083	conservation	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place.</p>	eng
156083	distribution	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is a very common and abundant species in northern and central Europe and the Balkans across to central Asia. In the south-west part of Europe is becomes rare, and is not present in Spain, however there are records from the Atlantic islands.&#160; As a species found in the aquarium trade, it can be found in small ponds outside the main range. In the Balkans there are two subspecies have been described from the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lake.<br/><br/>Slovakia: It is known as a common species in large rivers such as the Danube, Morava, Vah, Ipel, Latorica, Tisa, as well as streams and fishponds.<br/>Czech Republic: Common species, and in the second half of the 20th century it has expanded it's range to new localities.<br/>Germany: More common species in the north lowlands, and is absent from central germany and is relatively rare in the south. <br/>Serbia: It is a common species in the Danube and Sava Rivers.<br/>UK: widespread.	eng
156083	habitat	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This  is a large freshwater gastropod, also adapted to semi-aquatic habitats.  The species inhabits different types of habitats - large rivers,  streams, fishponds, swamps, slow flowing waters, flooded gravel pits,  etc. and it is typically found in water which is still, or only moving  slowly, where there is a good growth of many different kinds of pond  weeds, and where there are high levels of calcium dissolved in the  water.<br/>In freshwater lakes, such as Prespa and Mikri Prespa, it is found on a variety of substrates.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. corneus arabatzis </span>is found in the Prespa Lake and occurs on hard substrate like stones and rocks.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">P. corneus grandis</span> is found in the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lakes on soft substrate and macrophytes.	eng
156083	population	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	This is a common and abundant species. The sub-species present in the Prespa and Mikri Prespa Lakes are also common and abundant.	eng
156083	threats	Albrecht, C., Schreiber, K. & Hauffe, T., 2009	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
156084	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
156084	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically to the Appennines montane region of western Liguria.&#160; It is recorded from 6 10km squares in the region, and known from about 15 sites within the region.&#160; Many of the sites are small outflow points from the subterranean waters where the species is found.	eng
156084	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species occurs in subterranean water, and is found in approximately 15 small springs which outflow from the groundwaters within these valleys, between 10m above sea level and 500 m above sea level.	eng
156084	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no data available on&#160; the population status, although it has been sampled on a regular basis over the last 10 years, but it is described as not abundant (less than 2% of all shells recovered from some sites) (See data from <a href="http://wwwbioitaly.casaccia.enea.it/wwwbioitaly/query/dettagli.asp?cod=IT1331718&regione=Liguria">region</a>).	eng
156084	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo & Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
156086	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p><em>Belgrandiella crucis</em> is listed as Rare on the Slovenian Red List 2002  (Slovenian official gazette (2002). no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). </p><p>The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. Habitat monitoring would enable changes to status to be assessed. </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>   <p></p>	eng
156086	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella crucis</span> is endemic to Slovenia, where it is restricted to a cave (Križna jama) and freshwater springs around cave near to Lož.&#160; Although Radoman (1983) described it from the type locality at Speiquelle Jezerskim near the village Gorenje Jezrom by the east end of the Cernika field, the text for two species, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. crucis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. schleschi</span> was confused (Boris Sket, pers. comm. 2010), and so the range should be restricted to the first two locations.<br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
156086	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	Species found in   freshwater springs, including cave springs.	eng
156086	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	No data on population trends.	eng
156086	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	<p>This species is considered to be under pressure from future loss of water, as the water springs could be captured for use, and there is the possible threat from pollution of groundwater from agriculture source and domestic sources, mainly at the freshwater springs around cave near to Lož.</p>	eng
156087	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no specific conservation action plans in place for this species. Population trends, distribution and threats need to be researched.	eng
156087	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<em>Paladilhiopsis solida</em> is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina&#160; (Bank <em>et al</em>, 2006; Fauna Europea) and                 <em></em>is known from Herzegovina near Mostar and Popovo polje and near Split (Croatia) (Sket pers.comm. 2010).	eng
156087	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This is a freshwater species	eng
156087	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no recent data on population trends for this species.	eng
156087	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on threats to this species.	eng
156090	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Bodon, M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. It is listed as Endangered on the Italian Red List. Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species to determine future trends in populations and EIA and surveys for proposed tourist developments at the sites where the species is found.	eng
156090	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Bodon, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the Appeninne region of southern Tuscany at Sarteano (525m ASL) , with three closely localised outflows from the same thermal spring.	eng
156090	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Bodon, M., 2009	This species lives in thermal spring waters and feeds using scrapers.	eng
156090	population	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Bodon, M., 2009	The population trend for this species is unknown. However, since the species is restricted to a small area, population numbers are presumably relatively low.   Collecting records show that the species was still extant in 1998 (Cianfanelli pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156090	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G. & Bodon, M., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits thermal springs, the species could be affected by anthropogenic exploitation of thermal waters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).   &#160;The other main threats to the species lie in changes to the water quality, such as pollution (domestic sources), and in disturbance of the outflow points to improve them for the off-take of thermal water.	eng
156092	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species requires more research on taxonomy.	eng
156092	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<em>Spiralix hofmanni</em> is endemic to France. It is difficult to differentiate <span style="font-style: italic;">Spiralix  hofmanni</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">S. collieri</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. puteana</span> on the basis of  the original description. Therefore, no distribution map can be  proposed, excepted that inferred from the data of the authors of the  description themselves. We can only map the type specimens, but not the  distribution of the species based on the current survey data by the malacological community.	eng
156092	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156092	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156092	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156093	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is not known to exist in a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place. It is not protected by Austrian law. This species is deemed to be Data Deficient on the Austrian Red List. It is suggested that monitoring of the habitat should be conducted, along with research into population trends.	eng
156093	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum excelsior </span>is endemic to Austria.                 This species was recorded from alluvial deposits of the brook Fischach downstream of Maria Sorg (perhaps coming from the mountain Hochgitzen or from the gravels of the brook Fischach), discharge of a spring at the Gaisberg near Guggental and at the Heuberg above Schwandt.  However, Patzner (2006) notes that this species has not been found since it was first collected.	eng
156093	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species lives in freshwater springs, groundwater and the water found in rock fissures.	eng
156093	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There have been no living specimens of this species found recently. There is no information available on the historic or current population trends for this species.	eng
156093	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possibly threatened by pollution from agricultural practices and groundwater extraction as other <em>Bythiospeum</em> species endemic to Austria that are found in the same type of habitats are under these kinds of threats.	eng
156095	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>There are no conservation measures known for the species in Bulgaria. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.<br/></p>	eng
156095	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is known to live at least in 2 locations, one in Bulgaria, and the second one is the former Yugoslavia, probably in Serbia. The status in Montenegro (Fauna Europea, 2006) is uncertain.	eng
156095	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is present in karstic water (springs and streams in Caves). It is a troglobite species (i.e. it lives permanently underground and cannot survive outside the cave environment).	eng
156095	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no data present on the population trends of this species.	eng
156095	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>In Bulgaria, one site is considered as possibly threatened, as it is in a tourist area, and it is thought to be susceptible to pollution caused by potential visitors of the cave.</p>	eng
156101	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	Most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat  destruction, so actions to protect the sites as well as education about the importance of these sites .	eng
156101	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Graziana cezairensis</span> is endemic to south-east France where it is found in the alpine regions.	eng
156101	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This is a freshwater spring snail.	eng
156101	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
156101	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Springs are subject to increasing pressure due to water extraction : either they become temporary flowing when water is extracted from the ground, thus lowering the subterranean water level at least in summer or they are built for water extraction directly from the spring. Therefore, most of the spring-dwelling species are threatened with general habitat destruction.	eng
156104	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas.	eng
156104	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found in the appeninic regions of Basilicata, Tuscany, Umbria, Marche and Abruzzo, where it is recorded from at least 24 locations, some of which are 'captured' for drinking water.	eng
156104	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
156104	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	There is no data on population trends.	eng
156104	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	This species inhabits spring waters, which may be exploited by humans and/or polluted (Managnelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
156105	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	There are no conservation actions currently, however, this species requires more research on taxonomy and distribution.	eng
156105	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	This species was described by Schütt (1959) from the region of Montenegro, but there is no current data on the distribution or status of this species.	eng
156105	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
156105	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
156105	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156106	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions in place for this species.&#160;It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue. Monitoring of habitat quality (water, sedimentation) would assist in determining future trends for this species.<br/></p>	eng
156106	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ohrigocea karevi</span> is endemic to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>. It is restricted to sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).</p><p></p>	eng
156106	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed.<p>  </p>	eng
156106	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156106	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased frequency of fires in the region are threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation) that coats the habitat where the species lives and feeds.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
156109	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is present in the Galicica National Park in FYROM. <br/></p>	eng
156109	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species in present in Lake Ohrid, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and Albania, near St Naum and in springs at St Naum (a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from the main lake (Radoman 1985). It is also recorded from Zagorican&#160; (a group of springs about 2 km from lake with temperature of 12.5 °C) (Radoman 1985) and   Tušemišta     (a group of springs about 200 m from edge of Lake Ohrid).</p>	eng
156109	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the littoral zone of the lake near sublacustrine springs and cold water springs and lives on stones and rocks. This species needs a precise narrow water temperature range and has a low tolerance to temperature changes.</p>	eng
156109	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a locally abundant species.	eng
156109	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However these threats only appear to be impacting individuals in the Albanian springs, which represent only a small number of the total population.<br/></p>	eng
156112	conservation	Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2010	This species is considered to be Rare in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;(Sket and Velkovrh 2002).	eng
156112	distribution	Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2010	This species is a restricted range freshwater mollusc found in groundwater systems in Italy and Slovenia. In Italy it is known from six locations and is currently viewed as rare.  In Slovenia it is known from just a few localities in a very small area (caves and springs north and northwest of Ljubljana; small village Dobeno, 10 km north of Ljubljana) which is also the type locality for <span style="font-style: italic;">Iglica hauffeni</span>.	eng
156112	habitat	Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2010	This species is found in the groundwaters in karst areas.	eng
156112	population	Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2010	There are no population data for this species.	eng
156112	threats	Slapnik, R., Bodon, M., Cianfanelli, S., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2010	The threats to this species are pollution of groundwater and anthropogenic changes.	eng
156113	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	More research is needed on the taxonomy, the population trends and the distribution.	eng
156113	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is present in Algeria and France (Corsica) (Falkner <em>et al</em>. 2002). It has been misidentified with <span style="font-style: italic;">Peringia ulvae </span>and therefore its actual distribution is unclear. &#160;It is present in at least 3 locations on Corsica, but due to misidentification issues, it maybe more widespread (V. Prie pers. comm. 2010).<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
156113	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in coastal freshwater and brakish waters.	eng
156113	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available.	eng
156113	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats are unknown.	eng
156117	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species requires research on population trends and distribution.	eng
156117	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is reported from southern Europe and has a disjunct distribution. In Italy it is found in the northern-central part where it is present in the eastern-most large lakes (Lago de Garda, Lago di Tenno, Lago di Massenza, Lago di Cavedine, Lago di Endine, Lago do Toblino, Lago d'Idro).&#160; Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) suggest that it is present in 32 locations in the region.&#160; It has been recorded from Lake Skadar (Jacobi, 1978), in Montenegro & Albania. Although it is suggested as being present in Ombla springs in Dalmatia (Croatia), these records require further confirmation, as most other sites are large lakes. It is known as a Quaternary fossil in Italy (Settepassi and Verdel).	eng
156117	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	Shallow water at edge of lakes and other slow flowing situations (river mouth entering lakes), where found under stones on bed of lake/river.	eng
156117	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no recent data on population trends on this species.	eng
156117	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is viewed as widespread, and hence is at less risk than other more restricted range species, although it is considered Vulnerable in Italy due to habitat degradation from pollution and recreational activities.	eng
156118	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is listed as 'Vulnerable'  on the Slovenian List of Threatened Species. The river catchment is a  Natural Monument,&#160; according to the Decree on the Protection of the Krka  River, its tributaries and banks (Dolenjska Assembly Journal, No. 21/72)  and is included in the European network Natura 2000 as a special area  potential Site of Conservation Interest.&#160; There are no species-specific action plans known, however habitat monitoring is recommended. <br/></span>	eng
156118	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is found only at the source of the River Krka in cave, where the species is found clinging to rocks.	eng
156118	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	Freshwater river in cave, where the species is found clinging to rocks.&#160; Some decline in water quality has been observed in the region as result of pollution from percolation of water from the overlying agricultural area.	eng
156118	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	No data on population status	eng
156118	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The major threat to the species is pollution of the groundwater, a current problem, with secondary threat from the use of the cave for Tourist purposes, with possible changes to the microhabitats to the cave.&#160; Only part of the cave is used currently, with part sealed to conserve the environment.	eng
156119	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. More sustainable management of the watershed is needed to reduce the eutrophication of the lake. Habitat monitoring for this species would be recommended.<br/></p>  <strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong>	eng
156119	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This small freshwater bivalve is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009), where it is mainly found on the northern and southern sandy beaches (Schultheiß<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).<br/></p>	eng
156119	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater lake species is found in littoral zone and partly in the sub-littoral zone on soft substrates. It is a very small pea-clam (3 to 5 mm), living in the soft substrate.	eng
156119	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a locally abundant species (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156119	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Increasing sediment load (due to construction of new settlements, deforestation and erosion of the neighbouring area) also impacts this small mussel and its ability to filter water. The eutrophication of the lake due to agricultural pollution results in the growth of macrophytes, covering the soft substrate and diminishing the oxygen availability within the substrate (anoxic).	eng
156121	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	This species requires more research on population trends and status.	eng
156121	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
156121	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits in freshwater springs.	eng
156121	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no data on population trends.	eng
156121	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156125	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions known for this species. Research and monitoringof distribution trends would be of benefit.	eng
156125	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is endemic to France, being a recently described taxon, known only from the type locality, "Source de la Loue" in Jura.&#160; This cave system is extensive and so the range may extend in the cave.	eng
156125	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species is a spring-snail known from one catchment.	eng
156125	population	Prie, V., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
156125	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The cave where this species occurs is believed to be secure, with no current threats from any specific ongoing activities and the aquifer is extensive. The site is currently a tourist venue and so benefits from these activities in maintaining the habitat. &#160;However, should this change, the species would immediately qualify for Critically Endangered.	eng
156126	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no known conservation actions. More research on the population and distribution is needed.	eng
156126	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Moitessieria nezi</span> is restricted to a single location, Rebenacq in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France.	eng
156126	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156126	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156126	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited. However, the place where <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nezi</span> lives in the Pyrenees is not affected by human pressure.	eng
156127	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions specifically for this species, but conservation management plans for the Lake which is protected at national level in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro, but not in Albania. Habitat monitoring and population data would inform future conservation assessments on this species.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
156127	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<em>Vinodolia scutarica</em> is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar (Scutari) which has banks in Montenegro and Albania. &#160;It is found</st1:placename></st1:place>&#160;along the lake bank near Luka Krnička in Montenegro and in freshwater springs adjacent to the lake in Albania (Feher and Eross 2009).	eng
156127	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is restricted to region of Lake Skadar, where it was found   along the lake bank near the place Luka Krnička, in Montenegro (Radoman 1973) and in a spring in Albania (Feher and Eross 2009). The records from Radoman (1973) may be uncertain, as recent records are from springs.	eng
156127	population	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is very abundant at site in Albania (10,000's).	eng
156127	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	One of the sites, the Skandar Lake is undergoing rapid eutropication, whereas the springs in Albania could potentially be captured for drinking water supply.	eng
156129	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species occurs in the Kalkalpen National Park protected area, which is also recognised as an Important Bird Area and a Natura 2000 site. Currently this species is considered one of several species of spring-snail occurring in the park that require conservation action. It is found on the&#160;Austrian Red List, where it is deemed to be 'Critically&#160;Endangered' (CR) (Reischütz and Reischütz 2007).&#160;It is suggested that the monitoring of habitats and populations is conducted, along with surveying for further populations. This species is not currently protected by law in Austria.	eng
156129	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella aulaei</span> is endemic to the northern limestone Alps of Austria. Specifically it is known from the Steyr and Krumme valleys, between 365-405 metres above sea level. It is currently only known from two springs, Rinnende Mauer and the right spring of the Wunderlucke, a pond on the left bank of the River Steyrling, at Rabach, about 10 km north of Kalkalpen National Park, Ober Österreich (Haase, Weigand and Haseke 2000).	eng
156129	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater springs and pools.	eng
156129	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	This species is abundant at the two sites it is found, however the overall population trend is not known.	eng
156129	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, invasive non-native species and the abstraction of water, resulting in the subsequent lowering of groundwater levels. There is also pollution, mainly from fertilizers, as a result of agricultural practices, that poses a threat to this species. About 20 % of the local water supply comes from springs and a further 30% from wells and in&#160;the northern part of the valley there are some problems with nitrates in drinking water (Amt der Oö.Landesregierung 2007, <a href="http://www.ooe.gv.at/cps/rde/xbcr/SID-9D113797-DC138295/ooe/Steyr-_und_Teichltal.pdf">Local information</a>).&#160;<p></p>	eng
156130	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas, although other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella</span> are protected in Toscana. The species was considered to be Near Threatened in Italy. More information on population would be a benefit.	eng
156130	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella lunensis</span> is endemic to north-western Italy (Toscana and Liguria) where it is restricted to the Magra River basin (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2002).	eng
156130	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is present in groundwaters in alluvial sediments.	eng
156130	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
156130	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is threatened by its restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006). Since it inhabits groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
156132	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	This species is protected by the French law. More research is needed on the taxonomy.	eng
156132	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum dorvani </span>lives in France in the south of the Jura in the Department of Ain and in the Chartreuse and Vercors mountains.	eng
156132	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in groundwater.	eng
156132	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population trend data available for this species.	eng
156132	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156134	conservation	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake.&#160; Habitat monitoring is recommended to indentify accelerated rates of changes for this species, as well as local awareness raising, and national level protection policies.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
156134	distribution	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, between the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is known from the lacustrine waters of Lake Ohrid within a narrow belt on the eastern shores from Pestani to St Naum. Two separated sub-populations (on the eastern and on the western shores) are present in the two separated habitats of the sandy beaches in the north and the south of the lake (at Struga and Pogradec bays).<br/></p>	eng
156134	habitat	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species is only lacustrine and is found along the shore in the littoral zone where it lives in the banks, on stones and on <em>Dreissena </em>shells.	eng
156134	population	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in low abundance (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156134	threats	Hauffe, T., Albrecht, C. & Schreiber, K., 2009	Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased  sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from  sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water  of the lake. The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation. In relation with sedimentation and eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing which is diminishing the habitat and reducing food availability for this small gastropod.	eng
156135	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><a name="OLE_LINK1">There are no current conservation actions in place for this species. However, </a><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and&#160; more than one species might be conspecific (Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009). Further research is needed to solve this issue. Habitat&#160; monitoring would be recommended for this species, as changes in the rate of decline of habitat quality would potentially change the status of the species.   </p>  <p><strong>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
156135	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudohoratia brusinae</span> is endemic to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> and recorded from both Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).<strong></strong></p>	eng
156135	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	According to Radoman (1983) this freshwater lake species is found in the sub-littoral zone, however Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (pers. comm. 2009) noted that it was rare.	eng
156135	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudohoratia brusinae</span> found in low numbers and is considered to be rare (C. Albrecht <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156135	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which could impact this gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, however the level of impact in the deeper water of the sub-littoral zone is not as great as in the littoral zone.</p>	eng
156138	conservation	Prie, V., 2010	More detail on distribution and taxonomic status is required for this species.	eng
156138	distribution	Prie, V., 2010	<em>Bythiospeum michaudi</em> is only known from the type locality, the Rhône alluviums north and south of Lyon (France). It is impossible to know where it actually lives, as this range is large, but the species has not been collectedly recently and therefore to map its distribution.	eng
156138	habitat	Prie, V., 2010	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156138	population	Prie, V., 2010	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156138	threats	Prie, V., 2010	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156140	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	This species requires more research on population trends and threats.	eng
156140	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hadziella thermalis</span> is endemic to eastern Slovenia and the adjacent region in Croatia.	eng
156140	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species is present in hypothermal springs.	eng
156140	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
156140	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156142	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.<br/></p>  <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
156142	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and is recorded from the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region></st1:place>, where it is found restricted to the rocky eastern and south-western shore. </p>  <p></p>	eng
156142	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is resting on the stones in a narrow lacustrine belt at the south-eastern shore of the Lake. <em></em>	eng
156142	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is locally abundant.	eng
156142	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability.  </p><strong><br/></strong>	eng
156144	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There are no conservation actions for this species, although <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, and the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999. A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Habitat monitoring for changing water quality is recommended to assess potential changes in rates of decline of the water quality, and hence impact on this species.</p>	eng
156144	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia stankovici</span> is present in a very restricted area of the south-eastern shore of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM).&#160;  It is found in narrow stony shores between from Pečtani <span color="blue"><span color="blue"> to the beach at St Naum (Radoman 1985).</p><p></p>	eng
156144	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lyhnidia stankovici</span> is living in freshwater lakes in rocky areas surrounding sublacustrine springs, where it lives on the underside of the stones (sublithic species). It is a sublacustrine interlithon species (Hadzisce 1956). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156144	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a very rare species.	eng
156144	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake. Agriculture near the Prespa Lake are contaminating the Prespa lake waters, which are feeding the aquifer of the Lake Ohrid, resulting in increased nutrient load (Matzinger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). There is also an increased fire hazard in the region threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
156145	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	This species requires research on taxonomy, threats, population trends and distribution.	eng
156145	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	According to Fauna Europea this species is endemic to Slovenia, however Slapnik (pers. comm. 2010) notes that there are no specimens in Museum collections from Slovenia and Sket (pers. comm. 2010) has no knowledge of the species in Slovenia.	eng
156145	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
156145	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population trends.	eng
156145	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156147	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	There are no conservation actions in place. More research on the distribution and population range is needed.	eng
156147	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia conoidea</span>&#160; is endemic to France and is recorded from Ardus-sur-Aveyron and from flood-line debris from the River Tarn river, near Montauban, in the department of Tarn.	eng
156147	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
156147	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156147	threats	Prie, V., 2009	The main threats to this species are unknown, but subterranean waters are sensible to water abstraction and pollution. Springs in the southern part of France are currently threatened by high pressure on the water resource, leading to temporary flowing springs, or capture of the springs, leading to the destruction of the habitat by concrete.	eng
156149	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>Manganelli <em>et al</em> (2000) considered the species to be Near Threatened in the Italian Red List.&#160;</p>	eng
156149	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, specifically found within the alpine regions of Lombardy and Veneto, where it is known from 11 locations, varying from 150m-980m above sea level.	eng
156149	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is restricted to groundwaters and outflows (springs, resurgences and caves).	eng
156149	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
156149	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	The species is restricted to groundwaters and as such the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli&#160;<em>et al</em>., 2000).	eng
156150	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">This species is listed as</st1:place></st1:country-region> Least Concern on the Italian Red List.	eng
156150	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	<p>This species is widespread throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, mainly on the western central and southern regions, western side of <st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place>. It is also listed as present on <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Malta</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Bank et al, 2006), although the status is uncertain.</p>	eng
156150	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	This species inhabits   streams and rivers.	eng
156150	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There is no population data for this species.	eng
156150	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Giusti, F. & Manganelli, G., 2009	There are localised threats of exploitation of water sources and pollution of  groundwaters (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2001), however they will not significantly impact this species across the range.	eng
156151	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	This species requires more research on population trends, distribution, taxonomy and threats.	eng
156151	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<p><em>Plagigeyeria edlaueri </em>is endemic to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina between Metković and Bileća (Sket pers. comm. 2010).</p>  &#160;<em></em>	eng
156151	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156151	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no population data for this species.	eng
156151	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no current data on threats.	eng
156153	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no current conservation action in place for this species. However, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>  <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place> is a World Heritage Site, the Albanian side is protected under national jurisdiction since 1999 and a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed between the two countries for the management for the lake. Monitoring of the habitat trends in the lake may inform as to changing quality of habitats which would inform as the whether the conservation status will change.<br/></p>	eng
156153	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species is known only from to <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename>, and so is endemic to the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>  <p></p>	eng
156153	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This freshwater species is found in the sublittoral zone of lakes and is thought to be restricted to sandy or soft substrates (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156153	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is found in relatively low abundances and patchy distribution (C. Albrecht<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156153	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The changes in the habitat quality within the sublittoral zone is not very well studied and as such the knowledge base relates to generic threats to the lake.   Deforestation of the neighbouring area leads to erosion and an increased sediment load, which impacts this small gastropod. Pollution from sewage from major cities adjacent to the lake is contaminating the water of the lake, leading to declining quality of habitat.	eng
156155	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place for this species.&#160;It is difficult to distinguish the different species of this genus and more than one species might be conspecific. Further research is needed to solve this issue.</p>	eng
156155	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<em>Ohrigocea miladinovorum</em>&#160;is restricted to the the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM) part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Ohrid</st1:placename></st1:place>, where it is only found in the sublacustrine springs of the south-eastern shore (from Pectani to St Naum) (Radoman 1985).	eng
156155	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species prefers the rocky shores near sublacustrine springs on the lake bed.</p>	eng
156155	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>This species is rare in survey samples (C. Albrecht <em>et al.</em> pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<br/></p>	eng
156155	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	<p>&#160;The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. Increased frequency of fire in the region is threatening the future of this species through erosion and changes in sediment composition (siltation).</p>	eng
156156	conservation	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The species is present in the Galicica National Park, and so part of the range is protected. Lake Ohrid is under a Memorandum of understanding for catchment management between Albania and FYROM. Habitat monitoring (water quality and sediment load) would be useful to determine changes in the status of this species.	eng
156156	distribution	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This species is endemic to Albania and the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (<span color="blue">FYROM), where it is found along the edges of Lake Ohrid&#160; and in adjacent springs at St. Naum (a group of about 10 springs feeding a small lake a few hundred metres from Lake Ohrid) and Zagorican&#160; (a group of springs about 2 km from lake with temperature of 12.5 °C) (Radoman 1985). Recent surveys were not able to find this species at the latter site, but did find it at Tusemista.	eng
156156	habitat	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	It is found in springs and a freshwater lake, most abundantly in the<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chara </span>zone, as well as more sparsely on the sandy bottoms.	eng
156156	population	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	This is a locally abundant species (Albrecht e<em>t al</em>. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
156156	threats	Albrecht, C., Hauffe, T. & Schreiber, K., 2009	The water quality is changing due to pollution (eutrophication, sedimentation, agricultural run-off) and habitat degradation.&#160; In relation with this eutrophication, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability. The surrounding springs are exploited by the tourism industry and by local residents for their domestic water supply. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, they are also used for aquaculture and are heavily polluted. However these threats are only impacting individuals found in the Albanian springs, which represent only a small percentage of the total population.	eng
156159	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	No conservation activities are in place but monitoring of habitat trends is needed.	eng
156159	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is only known from a cave at the source of the Petreska River, near Lakatnik, Stara Planina Mts. Total area of the site is unknown but estimated as 4 km<sup>2</sup> based on a single location with 2 km buffer zone.<br/><br/>Even though the location of this site is only few kilometers outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region,&#160; this species was considered to be&#160; Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the Mediterranean.	eng
156159	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species lives within karstic regions where it is restricted to springs and streams within caves.</p><p><strong><br/></strong></p><br/><p></p>	eng
156159	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No data is available about the population of this species.	eng
156159	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p><strong></strong>There are no current threats at the site, but a potential future threat exists in the pollution of the spring-waters caused by use (and possible development) of the cave for recreational visitors.</p>	eng
156160	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	One of the locations where this species occurs is Monte Gazzo, a Natura 2000 site which is designated as a protected zone (site no IT1331615). Conservation actions required would be continued monitoring of the sites where the species is found to ensure that there are no changes in status.	eng
156160	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alzoniella sigestra</span> is endemic to Italy, and has a very restricted range to an area west of Genoa, Val Chiaravagna, where it is found in an area of less than 20 km by 10km (CK Map 5.3.8.).&#160; The type locality was springs near Sestri Ponente. Although it is restricted to the valley, there are multiple outflows (springs), where the species has been seen, so it is presumably present throughout the groundwater system.	eng
156160	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	This species lives in groundwaters in karstic regions. Like most spring-snails, the species feeds using a radula to scrape food from rocks.	eng
156160	population	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	No data available on population numbers.	eng
156160	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Bodon, M., Manganelli, G. & Giusti, F., 2009	This species is found in groundwater, hence the species is vulnerable to changes in the groundwater through abstraction for domestic purposes and&#160; pollution (Manganelli <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
156162	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a threat review is needed. The population and distribution status requires review, and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status. The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002).	eng
156162	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia and is only known from Radoman's collection at&#160; 'the small spring in Nova sela (village), at the road Kočevje-Delnice, on the left side of the Kupa river'.   <span class="apple-style-span">No recent surveys have located this spring (Slapnik 2010).  <p><br/></p><p></p>	eng
156162	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156162	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	There are no known population data on this species.	eng
156162	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156164	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	More research needs to be carried out on taxonomy for this species as it has only been identified by a single shell.	eng
156164	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	This species is listed as endemic to France collected in the Garonne floodline debris near Toulouse	eng
156164	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in subterranean waters.	eng
156164	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156164	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Subterranean habitats are vulnerable to water pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural (nutrient loads, herbicide and pesticides) sources. Water absorption maybe another threat if the aquifers are overexploited.	eng
156166	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
156166	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known or required.	eng
156166	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
156166	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
156166	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None needed.	eng
156166	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None required.	eng
156166	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Corbicula fluminalis</em> is widespread all over Africa. In central Africa, it is known from the Congo basin, Gabon, etc.	eng
156166	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Corbicula fluminalis</em> is widespread all over Africa. It is known from Eurasia to Africa (Appleton, pers. comm.). It has also been introduced to the United States where it is a problematic invasive species, and possibly also to South America.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Congo basin and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is presumed to be present in all north African countries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in all northeast countries in the region except Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs throughout southern Africa region, although absent from the arid west.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from throughout western Africa.	eng
156166	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Occurs throughout Southern Africa region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> From Asia to Africa (Appleton pers. comm.). It has also been introduced to the United States where it is a problematic invasive species, and possibly also to South America.	eng
156166	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from all countries except Djibouti.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Eurasia and northern Africa south to the Great Lakes. Recently rapidly spreading in Europe and north America. The type locality is the Euprates River.	eng
156166	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is present in Eurasia and northern Africa, south till the Great Lakes. It is rapidly spreading in Europe and northern America recently. Its type locality is in the Euprates River. It is presumed to be in all northern African countries though this information has not been confirmed.	eng
156166	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within the region it is found from Senegal to Chad.<br/>Elsewhere in Africa it occurs from Egypt and Ethiopia to Senegal, and southwards to Northern Tanzania and Lower DRC.	eng
156166	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in rivers and lakes.	eng
156166	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in rivers, lakes and dams (Appleton 1996).	eng
156166	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is present in rivers and lakes.	eng
156166	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The species is tolerant of a range of habitats (likes muddy bottomed waters). It spreads very rapidly and easily.	eng
156166	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	The species is tolerant of a range of habitats (likes muddy bottomed waters). It spreads very rapidly and easily.	eng
156166	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found buried in clay at the bottom (Mandahl-Barth 1988) or rivers, dams and lakes (Appleton 1996). It is largely found within the savannah regions of Africa. It has been a major invader in Europe (Muller 2003). It bears live young, tends to exist at high densities. It is able to move through ecosystems quickly (even upstream), and resilient to disturbance.	eng
156166	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
156166	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
156166	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
156166	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
156166	population	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is locally abundant and found in extremely high densities.	eng
156166	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	This species is very common.	eng
156166	threats	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
156166	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
156166	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No threats identified.	eng
156166	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There are no information on current threats to the species, and this species is known to be resilient to threats, so any threats are likely to be localised. Habitat disturbance such as mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
156166	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
156170	conservation	Slapnik, R., 2010	The species is considered 'Rare'&#160; in the Slovenian List of Threatened Species&#160;  (Slovenian official gazette (2002) no. 82, Tuesday 24 September 2002). <br/>This region is under considerable pressure for managing water sources and thus a monitoring programme is needed. The population and distribution status requires new data and the taxonomy would benefit from molecular approaches to confirm the species status.	eng
156170	distribution	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is endemic to Slovenia, where it is found in Natura 2000 area in&#160;Kras,&#160;Trnovoski goz, Nanos,&#160;Notranjski triangle, Snežnik.	eng
156170	habitat	Slapnik, R., 2010	This species is found in freshwater in caves.	eng
156170	population	Slapnik, R., 2010	The population and distribution status requires new data.	eng
156170	threats	Slapnik, R., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
156172	conservation	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation actions for this species. More research needs to be carried out on trends and status.	eng
156172	distribution	Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paladilhiopsis bosniaca</span> is listed as endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina, where it is known from the Travnik area, however there is no recent detail on the distribution.	eng
156172	habitat	Seddon, M., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater springs.	eng
156172	population	Seddon, M., 2010	There is no data on population.	eng
156172	threats	Seddon, M., 2010	There are no data on threats to this species.	eng
156174	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2009	<p>This species is strictly protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
156174	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella multiformis </span>is endemic to Austria where it was recorded in a single spring in the northern Alps, near Kalten Rinne, Weinzettelwand in Niederösterreich.	eng
156174	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2009	This is a freshwater species that inhabits springs.	eng
156174	population	Reischutz, P., 2009	&#160;This species has experienced a population decline and is now considered very rare, possibly extinct (Reischutz, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
156174	threats	Reischutz, P., 2009	The main threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella multiformis</span> are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater. Pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices, also pose a threat to this species.	eng
156175	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.	eng
156175	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Wide ranging Paleartic species that in Africa occurs in Morocco and Algeria as far south as El Golea (according to Bourguingat 1884), and in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Giza and the Siwa Oasis. The species is retreating northwards. Most recent data from Ghamizi (1998), states that it is only present in very few locations in Morocco. Data from many more locations is not recent. Its type locality is in Europe.	eng
156175	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in vegetation rich water bodies.	eng
156175	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information on populations.	eng
156175	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Climate change is a major threat affecting to the species.	eng
156177	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions are known for this species.	eng
156177	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandia gibba</span> is endemic to France, where it is found west of the Rhône valley, however the geographical data is currently incomplete&#160;(V. Prie, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
156177	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
156177	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156177	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs are affected by human activities: groundwater over abstraction,&#160;groundwater&#160;pollution and urbanisation. Consequently the major threats lie in springs drying out during the year due to over exploitation. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
156179	conservation	Prie, V., 2009	More research is needed on the taxonomy and the distribution, as the species has not been recorded since the 19th century.	eng
156179	distribution	Prie, V., 2009	The species is endemic to the Pyrenees, France. More research is needed on the geographical distribution, as the species has not been recorded since the 19th century.	eng
156179	habitat	Prie, V., 2009	This species lives in freshwater springs.	eng
156179	population	Prie, V., 2009	There is no data on the population size or trend.	eng
156179	threats	Prie, V., 2009	Springs sites are vulnerable to exploitation for water utilization for stock and domestic purposes. Consequently these sites get concreted over, or are overexploited leading to temporary loss of water. The pollution from domestic (sewage and run-off) or agricultural sources of the groundwater feeding the springs may be another important threat to the species.	eng
156181	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	Control pollution and deforestation.	eng
156181	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution control and deforestation and needed.	eng
156181	conservation	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species would benefit from control of pollution and deforestation.	eng
156181	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a widespread Palearctic species. In northern Africa occurs in the mountainous zone of Morocco (High and Mid Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998), where it is on the edge of its range in Northern Africa. All over Europe. Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). Its type locality is the Ilm River, Germany.	eng
156181	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, central and northern plateau above 2,200 m (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> This is a widespread Palearctic species occurring in the mountainous zone of Morocco (high and middle Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998). Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). On the edge of its range in Northern Africa. All over Europe. The type locality is the Ilm River, Germany.	eng
156181	distribution	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread palearctic species. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the mountainous zone of Morocco (high and mid Atlas), Algeria and Tunisia as far south as the Oued Souss (Ghamizi 1998). Isolated populations have been recorded in the Hoggar and in the Tassili N'Ajjar (Brown 1994). On the edge of its range in northern Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It also occurs in the central and northern plateau of Ethiopia above 2,200 m (Brown 1994).	eng
156181	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Fast-flowing cold waters of good quality, living on rocks. Spread by birds.	eng
156181	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in fast flowing waters of good quality, living on rocks. It is spread by birds.	eng
156181	habitat	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species lives on rocks in in good quality fast flowing waters. It is spread by birds.	eng
156181	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
156181	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
156181	population	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in small localised populations.	eng
156181	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is very vulnerable to pollution, and possibly to climate change as it is a cold water species. Modification of habitats, (e.g. if there is an accumulation of sediment that covers the rocks) can affect the species. Erosion due to deforestation causes an increase in sediment that would cause this and prevent it from continuing to occur there.	eng
156181	threats	Ghamizi, M. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is very vulnerable to pollution, possibly also to climate change because it is a cold water species. Habitat modification is also a threat, particularly where there is sedimentation leading to the covering of rocks. Erosion and deforestation cause an increase in sedimentation, that covers rocks and prevents this species from inhabiting these areas.	eng
156181	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Very vulnerable to pollution, possibly also climate change because it's a cold water species. Modification of habitats, i.e., if there is lots of sediment that covers rocks.  Erosion, deforestation cause an increase in water sediment load that would cover rocks and prevent it living there.	eng
156188	conservation	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>There is no conservation action in place. An action plan on the sustainable management of water use in the region is urgently needed and existing water legislation should be enforced. Fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides use for agriculture purposes need to be drastically reduced. Regional cooperation between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, FYROM and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> would be an asset for coordinated conservation action for the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>.</p>	eng
156188	distribution	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the <st1:placename w:st="on">Prespa</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, between <st1:country-region w:st="on">Albania</st1:country-region>, the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
156188	habitat	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>This littoral species lives beneath rocks on sandy substrate.</p>	eng
156188	population	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	This species is locally abundant. It has a patchy distribution.	eng
156188	threats	Hauffe, T., Schreiber, K. & Albrecht, C., 2009	<p>  </p><ul>    </ul>Habitat loss, due to abrupt water level drop (of several meters), related to excessive water abstraction for agriculture coupled with extremely dry summers, is threatening this littoral species. Pollution related to intensive agriculture practice and settlements in the neighbouring area, is responsible for the eutrophication of the lake. In relation with this, the biofilm (algae) present on the hard substrate is changing, diminishing habitat and food availability for this small gastropod. Herbicides might also impact diatomae communities, which are the major food source for this snail. Introduction of alien fish species for fishing purposes has contributed to profound modification of the natural ecosystem of the lake.<ul>  </ul>	eng
156189	conservation	Sket, B. & Cioboiu, O., 2010	No conservation actions are known for this species.&#160; More research is needed on the specific threats for this species.	eng
156189	distribution	Sket, B. & Cioboiu, O., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lithoglyphus fuscus</span> is widely distributed between central Slovenia and Bosnia.&#160; Radoman (1983) reported the species from the Rivers Una and Vrbas. The&#160;Vrbas is a major&#160;river&#160;in western&#160;Bosnia and Herzegovina,  originating on the southern slope of the&#160;Vranica mountain, at around  1530 metres above the sea level and feeding into the Sava River.	eng
156189	habitat	Sket, B. & Cioboiu, O., 2010	This species is found in the middle and lower reaches of large freshwater rivers (Radoman 1983).	eng
156189	population	Sket, B. & Cioboiu, O., 2010	There is no data on population trends for this species, although it is thought to be widespread.	eng
156189	threats	Sket, B. & Cioboiu, O., 2010	There are no data on the specific threats to this species, although the middle and lower reaches of the rivers have been subjected to habitat management and flow management.	eng
156191	conservation	Cianfanelli, S., Manganelli, G., Giusti, F. & Bodon, M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. The species would benefit from population monitoring and education of the local people to raise awareness.	eng
156191	distribution	Cianfanelli, S., Manganelli, G., Giusti, F. & Bodon, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, found in only two locations, Fonte di San Cassiano and Giano dell'Umbria within the Appeninne areas of Marche and Umbria.	eng
156191	habitat	Cianfanelli, S., Manganelli, G., Giusti, F. & Bodon, M., 2009	This species lives in karstic subterranean freshwater habitats.	eng
156191	population	Cianfanelli, S., Manganelli, G., Giusti, F. & Bodon, M., 2009	This species is restricted to a small area, so population numbers are presumably relatively low.	eng
156191	threats	Cianfanelli, S., Manganelli, G., Giusti, F. & Bodon, M., 2009	The species has a restricted range (Ruffo and Stoch 2006) and given that it is found in groundwaters, the species could be affected by anthropogenic groundwater abstraction and/or pollution (Manganelli<em> et al</em>. 2000).	eng
156193	conservation	Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2009	No conservation actions required until status of the species is known.	eng
156193	distribution	Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2009	Fauna Europea (Bank <em>et al</em>. 2006) listed this species is endemic to France and Italy, where it has been recorded from Corsica and Alpes Maritimes (Falkner <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002), and through Liguria (Italy).&#160; However there is doubt as to the validity of the species.	eng
156193	habitat	Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2009	This species is found in freshwater springs.	eng
156193	population	Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
156193	threats	Cianfanelli, S. & Prie, V., 2009	Given the uncertainity about the taxonomic status it is not possible to define the threats.	eng
157244	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Riyad Sadek, Ibrahim Baran, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Sherif Baha El Din, László Krecsák., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It has been recorded from many protected areas. Further research is needed into the population dynamics and harvest levels for this species.	eng
157244	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Riyad Sadek, Ibrahim Baran, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Sherif Baha El Din, László Krecsák., 2009	This widespread species has been recorded from Romania (where it is possibly extinct), through Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia, Greece (including the islands of Limnos, Paros, Antiparos, Kalymnos, Corfu, Lesbos, Chios and Samos among many others), Turkey (widespread, except in the Black Sea coastal region), eastwards into Iran, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia and into the Caucasus Mountains of southern Armenia, Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia and southern Russia. It is also present in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Egypt westwards through Libya, Tunisia and Algeria to Morocco. It can be found from below sea level up to 1,700m asl (Lake Van, Turkey).	eng
157244	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Riyad Sadek, Ibrahim Baran, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Sherif Baha El Din, László Krecsák., 2009	This species can be found inhabiting open dry steppes and semi-deserts. It appears to prefer clay and stony soils, and is more rarely it is encountered on stabilized sands and in vineyards and gardens. In the Caucasus it is found at altitudes from 1,500 up to 1,700m asl along the river valleys. On the northern border of its distribution range (in southern Russia) it has been recorded from the sheep's fescue-sagebrush steppe. Habitats everywhere are associated with arid landscapes. It can be found burrowing through the soil and often lives in rodent burrows. It is ovoviviparous, the females produce between six and 20 live young in August - September. Pregnancy continues about 5 months. Period of activity lasts from March - April to the beginning of October.	eng
157244	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Riyad Sadek, Ibrahim Baran, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Sherif Baha El Din, László Krecsák., 2009	It is generally an uncommon or rare species. In Romania it is known from only a few specimens.	eng
157244	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Roberto Sindaco, Wolfgang Böhme, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Riyad Sadek, Ibrahim Baran, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Sherif Baha El Din, László Krecsák., 2009	This species appears to be declining in various parts of its range, especially in the west. It is susceptible to intensification of agricultural methods, pollution, overcollection of animals and persecution by people. In Egypt it has been heavily overcollected for the pet trade and suitable habitats have been destroyed, mostly through quarrying and reclamation of land for agriculture.	eng
157245	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is present in protected areas in Serbia and Montenegro and in Greece. There is research needed to confirm the relationships between populations in the western and eastern parts of the species range. Habitat protection is especially needed for the isolated populations. Further information is needed into the distribution and conservation status of this species in Central Europe.	eng
157245	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2009	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It is present in protected areas in Serbia and Montenegro and in Greece. There is research needed to confirm the relationships between populations in the western and eastern parts of the species range. Habitat protection is especially needed for the isolated populations. Further information is needed into the distribution and conservation status of this species in Central Europe.	eng
157245	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2008	This species occurs in very fragmented populations, ranging from eastern and southern Serbia, western and southern Romania, much of Bulgaria (except the southwest), and northeastern Greece (a few records from the margin of its range) to European Turkey (Thrace only). It also occurs as a second disjunct population ranging from northwestern Iran, through Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia into southern Russia. It is found up to 2000m asl in Armenia and Georgia.	eng
157245	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2009	This species occurs in very fragmented populations, ranging from eastern and southern Serbia, western and southern Romania, much of Bulgaria (except the southwest), and northeastern Greece (a few records from the margin of its range) to European Turkey (Thrace only). It also occurs as a second disjunct population ranging from northwestern Iran, through Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia into southern Russia. It is found up to 2000m asl in Armenia and Georgia.	eng
157245	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2008	This is a largely terrestrial species often found in clearings with lush vegetation, traditional meadows and glades within open broad-leaf woodland. In the Caucasus, the females lays four to eight eggs in a clutch between the middle of June and the middle of July (two clutches during the summer for Georgia and Armenia). The young hatch from August to September. This species goes to hibernation in October.	eng
157245	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2009	This is a largely terrestrial species often found in clearings with lush vegetation, traditional meadows and glades within open broad-leaf woodland. In the Caucasus, the females lays four to eight eggs in a clutch between the middle of June and the middle of July (two clutches during the summer for Georgia and Armenia). The young hatch from August to September. This species goes to hibernation in October.	eng
157245	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2008	It is rather rare in Central and Southern Europe. Good, stable populations of this species remain within the Caucasus.	eng
157245	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2009	It is rather rare in Central and Southern Europe. Good, stable populations of this species remain within the Caucasus.	eng
157245	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2008	Populations in Central and Southern Europe (including Thrace) are significantly threatened by habitat loss and degradation caused by agricultural intensification (conversion of suitable habitat; overgrazing; agrochemical pollution) (CoE, 2003). Threats to the species in the eastern part of its range are unclear, but are presumed to include habitat loss through agricultural intensification.	eng
157245	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Hans Konrad Nettmann, László Krecsák, 2009	Populations in Central and Southern Europe (including Thrace) are significantly threatened by habitat loss and degradation caused by agricultural intensification (conversion of suitable habitat; overgrazing; agrochemical pollution) (CoE, 2003). Threats to the species in the eastern part of its range are unclear, but are presumed to include habitat loss through agricultural intensification.	eng
157246	conservation	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Appendix II of CITES. There is a need to protect the coastal habitat of this species. Its range includes many protected areas, for example the following ones in Morocco: Tamga, Saghro, Chekhar, Talassemtane, Trois fourches, Sebkha Bou Areg, Gourougou, Embouchure Moulouya, Béni Snassen, Jbel Moussa, Perdicaris, Bouhachem, Brikcha, Koudiat Tidighine, Lalla Outka, Lalla Chafia, Bou Iblane, Bou Naceur, Jbel Tichoukt, and Jaaba. There is a need to monitor and regulate the collection of animals in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). In Spain, barriers have been created in an attempt to prevent mortality on roads.	eng
157246	distribution	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is found in southern Europe, northern Africa and southwestern Asia. In Europe it is found in Malta, and on Crete (although this requires confirmation), Samos and Chios (both in Greece), and in southern coastal Spain and Portugal where it is probably introduced before 1500. It was reportedly introduced to the island of Sicily, Italy, but its presence was never confirmed; a small, probably introduced, population is reported to be present in Apulia in southwestern Italy (not mapped here) (Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006). There are old reports of an introduced population in Crete, Greece but there are no specimens. In North Africa it occurs along the Atlantic coast of Western Sahara, is widely distributed in Morocco, and is present in northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt. In southwestern Asia it occurs on the island of Cyprus, in southern Turkey (and as isolated populations in the Marmaraa region [Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2000; Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2006]), through the Levant region of western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan, western and southwestern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen. It can be found from sea level up to 1,850m asl.	eng
157246	habitat	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is a diurnal species found climbing in bushes in dry habitats. It inhabits shrubland, plantations, open pine woodland, orchards (such as almonds and olive groves) and gardens. In Egypt, it also occurs on vegetation in sparsely vegetated open gravel plains. The females produce a single clutch of between five and forty-five eggs per year, these are buried in the soil.	eng
157246	population	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is a common species in most of its native range. In Spain, the species is most commonly found in densities of 10 to 25 animals per hectare, although up to 50 animals per hectare may be found. It is rare in Western Sahara. In Egypt, it is fairly common in coastal areas, but uncommon in more inland arid areas. In Turkey, it is uncommon (Avci and Kumluta?, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
157246	threats	Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is threatened locally by loss of habitat through urbanization and the development of tourist facilities, agricultural intensification, predation by domestic animals, accidental mortality on roads and by illegal collection of animals. It may be used for remedies or as a talisman in North Africa (not in Egypt). Animals are caught, sometimes illegally, for the international pet market and are offered to tourists at local markets. In Turkey, forest fires are also a threat.	eng
157247	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Egypt, there is a need for further research into the impacts of harvesting on this species. Regulation and monitoring of the trade in this species in Egypt may be needed.	eng
157247	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This species ranges from Greece and Turkey (west, southern, southeastern, central, northern central Anatolia to the Black Sea) to Syria, Lebanon, northwestern Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, northern and western Jordan, Israel and northern Egypt (and introduced west of the Nile). In Greece it is found in northern mainland (mainly in Kentriki Makedonia) where it was possibly introduced, and on the islands of Corfu in the Ionian Islands, the Cyclades (Mykonos, Rhineia, Delos, Paros, Despotiko, Antiparos), Naxos and eastern Aegean islands, and islands close to the Turkish mainland (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Ikaria and Rhodes). It is also present in Cyprus, and it has been introduced to Malta (Arnold 2003). It occurs from sea level up to 1,900m asl.	eng
157247	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	This is a diurnal species that is found in a variety of dry, arid and semi-arid habitats, often in rocky areas. Populations are often present in rocky mountainous and coastal regions. It can be found on rocks, trees, buildings and other habitats that it can climb on. The females lay from three to 12 eggs per clutch (Disi, 2002). In north Sinai it can be found in cultivated areas such as orchards (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157247	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	It is generally a very common species. In Egypt the species is declining. The populations in mainland Greece were probably introduced after 1500.	eng
157247	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Petros Lymberakis, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2009	There generally appear to be no major threats to this widespread species. In Egypt it is threatened by overcollection for the pet trade and habitat loss in some areas through coastal development (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157248	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Ljiljana Tomović, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Ulrich Joger, A. Westerström, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. There is a need to conserve separate evolutionary lineages of this species, as some may represent currently unrecognized species. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
157248	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Ljiljana Tomović, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Ulrich Joger, A. Westerström, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This widespread species ranges southwards from Scandinavia (where the species is patchily distributed in the northern part of the range) and the Baltic region to France and the United Kingdom (not present in Ireland), and eastwards through Europe (excluding Iberia, peninsular Italy and most of Greece) to Russia (as far east as Sakhalin), Mongolia, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea and northwestern China.  On the Balkan peninsula it is largely restricted to montane areas and has a very fragmented distribution. It has been recorded from sea-level up to 2,700m asl (the Alps and in Bulgaria).<br/><br/>[[ASIAN DISTRIBUTION NOT YET MAPPED]]	eng
157248	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Ljiljana Tomović, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Ulrich Joger, A. Westerström, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is present in a wide variety of habitats including, open woodland and shrubland, hedgerows, field edges, heathland, moors, grasslands, alpine meadows, dunes and marshes. It generally requires humid habitats. The female produces between three and 18 young.	eng
157248	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Ljiljana Tomović, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Ulrich Joger, A. Westerström, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It can be common in suitable habitat. In some mountainous parts of its range, such as Bulgaria and Greece, it is a rare species (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). In Germany there have been population declines and some local extinctions. Lowland populations from Po plain in northern Italy are extinct in the past century.	eng
157248	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Ljiljana Tomović, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Ulrich Joger, A. Westerström, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, Roberto Sindaco, Dušan Jelić, 2008	In Europe, populations of this species have been significantly fragmented by the intensification of agricultural methods and development. Populations of this species are susceptible to persecution and collection for the pet trade (Ursenbacher, 1997). It is threatened in Romania by illegal collection of animals for venom extraction (CoE, 2003). In some parts of its range afforestation, and succession as a result of abandonment of traditional agricultural practices, are threats.	eng
157249	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Wolfgang Böhme, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and occurs in many protected areas throughout its range. Further studies may be needed into the distribution of this species. It is protected by national legislation in some countries of its range (e.g.. Austria, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland). It is categorised as Least Concern in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).	eng
157249	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Wolfgang Böhme, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species is present throughout much of Europe, generally being absent only from Ireland, northern Scandinavia, central and southern Iberia, most Mediterranean Islands, and Greece (excluding the southern Peloponnese). There are isolated populations outside the main range in several places: near Lisbon in western Portugal; on Kaz Dagi (Ida Mountains, Canakkale and Balikesir) in extreme western Turkey (C.V. Tok pers. comm.); and in the Caucasus region of northeastern Turkey, northern Iran (restricted to the Caspian region), Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and southern Russia. In Northern Euraisa, it is very widespread in the forest zone stretching from the Baltic countries, through Belarus, the Ukraine and Moldova in the west to the left-bank valley of the Tobol River of western Siberia in the far east of its range. Records from North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) might be misidentifications (Schleich <em>et al</em>., 1996). It can be found from sea level up to 2,400m asl.	eng
157249	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Wolfgang Böhme, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	Populations of this species can be found in grassy meadows, woodland glades, heathland, at the forest edge, in forest clearings, with alluvial forest, under hedgerows, in parkland and rural gardens. Animals have been found burrowing in loose sand and under rocks.  It is an ovoviviparous species; the female gives birth to between three and 26 young.	eng
157249	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Wolfgang Böhme, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It can be relatively common, but localized declines are believed to be taking place through the conversion of land to intensive agriculture. Changes in population abundance is difficult to determine as the species spends a considerable time underground (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.).	eng
157249	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Wolfgang Böhme, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It is threatened in parts of its range by a general loss of habitat due to agricultural intensification and urbanization, fires and reafforestation of clearings. Animals are also killed on roads in parts of its range, and predation by cats is a threat in some areas. Unmediated mitigation projects, such as the translocation of subpopulations, are a threat to some UK populations. It is not collected commercially.	eng
157250	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In general no conservation activities are currently needed for this species as a whole. The distinct, isolated population inhabitating the Sary Kum sand dune close to Makhachkala City in Daghestan, needs urgent conservation action, including the development of a protected area, to prevent further loss of its habitat through mining of these dunes.	eng
157250	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species ranges from southern Russia (Dagestan, Kalmykia and the eastern part of Chechnya) in the northwest of its range, through Kazakhstan to northwestern China. In the south of its range it occurs from the Central Plateau of Iran, through Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to Kyrgyzstan to Tajikistan. The species exists as a number of isolated populations. They are found from 45m bsl to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
157250	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is generally associated with open sand dunes. Animals have also been recorded from flat desert areas, where populations are limited to sandy flats with a low shrub cover, on sandy, gravel strewn hammada and on barren salt flats (Anderson, 1999). Animals are often observed in suitable habitat close to roads (Anderson, 1999). The female lays between two and six eggs.	eng
157250	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan this is a common species in sandy deserts (found at densities of 18 animals per 2 km2 in Kara Kum, Turkmenistan; at densities of 64 animals per hectare in Kazahstan).	eng
157250	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	It is locally threatened by the stabilisation of dunes and the conversion of dune habitats to agricultural land (through irrigation), mining (sand extraction) and urban areas.	eng
157251	conservation	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Boris Tuniyev, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is protected in the Borzhomsky, Liakhvsky and Saguramsky reserve of Georgia, in the Girkansky, Zakatal'sky, Pirkulinsky and Turianchaisky reserve of Azerbaijan, in the Khosrov reserve of Armenia. The species was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) - an endangered species; of Georgia (1982) - category 2. It is included into the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001): category 3.	eng
157251	distribution	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Boris Tuniyev, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found over much of Turkey, through Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the Caucasus region of southern Russia, to northwestern Iran and far northern Iraq, and south to Lebanon and Mount Hermon (in Israeli-occupied Syria). It is presumed to occur in western Syria in the area mapped. It occurs from 100 up to 3,000m asl.	eng
157251	habitat	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Boris Tuniyev, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This diurnal species is largely found in mountainous areas where it occurs on open, rocky slopes, in wooded ravines, wet valleys and at the edges of deciduous woodland. Period of activity lasts from March to October. It can be found among ruins and in traditionally farmed land and rural gardens. The females lay between three and seven eggs in a clutch.	eng
157251	population	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Boris Tuniyev, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a fairly common species over much of its range. It is moderately rare on Mount Hermon.	eng
157251	threats	Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Göran Nilson, Boris Tuniyev, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is locally threatened in parts of Lebanon and Turkey by intensive habitat loss. In Turkey this species is threatened by forest fires in the south-west and development in the coastal areas where it occurs. It is locally threatened at Mount Hermon, Israel by habitat loss. Intensive anthropogenic destruction of the mountainous-arid territories in the eastern part of the Caucasian Isthmus and associated transformation of the vegetation have led to significant declines. This species is sold in the pet trade, although not in large numbers given the difficulty in finding them.	eng
157252	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It occurs in a number of protected areas. It is protected under Appendix II of Bern and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive (as part of <em>P. erhardii</em>).	eng
157252	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The species is endemic to Crete and its satellite islands. On the island of Crete it is present only on the western part, mostly to the west of a north-south axis ‘cutting’ Crete at the town of Rethymno. In this area it is found from sea level to 2,000m asl. The satellite islets are: Elaphonisos, Artemis, Gaidouronisi (=Chryssi), Mikronisi (immediately east of Gaidouronisi), Kavalloi, Elasa, Paximada, Dragonada, Prassonisi (immediately north of Dragonada) Avgo, Dia, Karga, Ag. Nikolaos (in the gulf of Souda) and Ag. Theodoroi (=Thodorou)(Lymberakis et al. 2008). Its altitudinal range is from sea level to 2,000 m.	eng
157252	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It occupies shrubland, rocky areas, and dry river beds.	eng
157252	population	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	The population size has not been quantified. It is common in suitable habitats but very patchily distributed.	eng
157252	threats	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Habitat loss and degradation from urbanization and tourist development are the main threats.	eng
157253	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	In view of its wide range it is presumably present in many protected areas. Research into commercial harvest levels in Egypt is needed. As a species with a reducing number it is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, 2001).	eng
157253	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This widespread species is present in North Africa, southern Europe, West Asia and the Caucasus. In North Africa it ranges from Tunisia in the west, through northern Libya to northern Egypt (with an apparently isolated population at Siwa). In southern Europe, it is largely found in the Balkans being distributed along the Adriatic coastal area from Slovenia and Croatia (including some Adriatic islands) to Albania, eastern Macedonia, most of Greece (including some Aegean islands) and southern Bulgaria. There is an isolated population on Lampedusa island (Italy). The species is present on Cyprus, in much of Turkey, in the Caucasus region (and adjacent Kalmykia in southern Russia), western Iran, Iraq and western Saudi Arabia. The species also ranges south from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan.	eng
157253	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is found in arid open woodlands, scrubland with low cover, dry steppe, open spaces, stabilized sand dunes coastal dunes, grassland, meadows, flood plains and cultivated land. In the Transcaucasian region it is found in dry rocky semi-desert, preferring places with rough rocky terrain. It is often found near wetlands in the Nile Delta. The females lay between four and 20 eggs.	eng
157253	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This is generally a common species. In Egypt it is still reasonably common, but declining.	eng
157253	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	There are overall no major threats to this species. On Lampedusa Island (Italy) populations are heavily impacted by mortality on roads. In Egypt it is collected in large numbers for the international pet trade, and is also threatened by land reclamation for agriculture, overgrazing, collection of firewood, quarrying and urbanization. The species is used by snake charmers and as a souvenir for tourists in Tunisia (Juan M. Pleguezuelos, pers. comm. October 2008).	eng
157254	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species probably occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>P. algirus</em>). Research is needed to determine the distribution limits of this species.	eng
157254	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species is endemic to the Iberian peninsula, where it occurs in Portugal and western and central parts of Spain. The range limits of this species in the east (where it overlaps with <em>P. jeanneae</em>) is imprecisely mapped and requires further clarification.	eng
157254	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in coastal sand dunes, pine and oak forest and shrubland.	eng
157254	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	A widespread species that is common in suitable habitats. Densities of 13-25 specimens per hectare, and up to 178 individuals per hectare, have been recorded (Gil Costa 1992).	eng
157254	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
157255	conservation	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) report that the wide range and stable numbers of this species indicate that there is no need for any special protection measures. Parts of this species distribution range are likely to coincide with protected areas.	eng
157255	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	Szczerbak and Golubev (1996), report that the wide range and stable numbers of this species indicate that there is no need for any special protection measures. Parts of this species distribution range is likely to coincide with protected areas.	eng
157255	distribution	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is present in southern Russia (Kalmykia and Dagestan), Georgia (Tibilisi and Abkhazia, possibly introduced), Armenia and Azerbaijan (from Yerevan to Julfa, Central and Eastern Azerbaijan), Iran, northern Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and southwestern Kazakhstan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It is also present on islands in the Caspian Sea. It has possibly been recorded from Syria, however, the record from Heme, South Haleb, needs to be confirmed (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). <br/><br/>The species has almost certainly been transported into the European part of its range by human activity (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has been recorded up to 1,653 m above sea level in Afghanistan and to a lower elevational limit of 45 m below sea level.	eng
157255	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is present in southern Russia (Kalmykia and Dagestan), Georgia (Tibilisi and Abkhazia, possibly introduced), Armenia and Azerbaijan (from Yerevan to Julfa, Central and Eastern Azerbaijan), Iran, northern Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and southwestern Kazakhstan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It is also present on islands in the Caspian Sea. It has possibly been recorded from Syria, however the record from Heme, South Haleb, needs to be confirmed (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The species has almost certainly been transported into the European part of its range by human activity (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has been recorded up to 1,653 m asl (Afghanistan).	eng
157255	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This largely crepuscular and nocturnal species is found in rocky areas, on cliff faces and outcrops, among ruins and in buildings (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded from open steppe habitat in Azerbaijan and it also occurs in takyr-type habitats (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). Sometimes animals are found in the burrows of rodents. The female lays two or three clutches of two eggs in a season (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996); collective laying of clutches has been recorded.	eng
157255	habitat	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is found in rocky areas, on cliff faces and outcrops, among ruins and in buildings (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from open steppe habitat in Azerbaijan and it also occurs in takyr-type habitats (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). Sometimes animals are found in the burrows of rodents. <br/><br/>It has crepuscular and nocturnal activity, but it does appear during daylight hours in spring. This species hibernates from the end of October to the end of March - early April. The female lays two or three clutches of two eggs in a season (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). Collective layings are known.	eng
157255	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	It seems to be a reasonably common species in suitable habitat, especially on buildings or ruins; it can be numerous in some places.	eng
157255	population	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This seems to be a reasonably common species in suitable habitat, especially on buildings or ruins; it can be numerous in some places and is thought to be increasing in Europe.	eng
157255	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	There appear to be no current major threats to this adaptable species as a whole.	eng
157255	threats	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
157256	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer., 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. Appears on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. It is presumed to occur in many protected areas throughout its range. Habitat restoration work is taking place in parts of Austria (CoE, 2003). Conservation projects for this species are in place in Germany (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). Further research into the range and taxonomic status of this species are needed (e.g.. for Yemen and Cyprus). The species has been reintroduced to part of its former range in eastern Germany. In Germany the species is Critically Endangered. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). Eradication of invasive wetland plant species is an important future measure.	eng
157256	conservation	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Isailovic, J.C., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Ajtic, R., Vogrin M., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Baha El Din, S.M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Sterijovski, B., Schmidt, B. & Meyer, A., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and it is protected by national legislation in a number of countries. It also appears on Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. It is presumed to occur in many protected areas throughout its range. Habitat restoration work is taking place in parts of Austria (CoE, 2003). Conservation projects for this species are in place in Germany (B. Schmidt pers. comm.), where the species is listed as Critically Endangered. The species has been reintroduced to part of its former range in eastern Germany. This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). Further research into the range and taxonomic status of this species are  needed (e.g., for Yemen and Cyprus). Eradication of invasive wetland plant species is an important future conservation action.	eng
157256	distribution	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Isailovic, J.C., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Ajtic, R., Vogrin M., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Baha El Din, S.M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Sterijovski, B., Schmidt, B. & Meyer, A., 2009	In Europe this species ranges from southern Switzerland (and possibly adjacent France), and Germany (where there are isolated populations in the west), eastwards into eastern Austria, Italy (islands excluded), Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine and southern Russia, southwards into Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Crete, Rhodes and Samos). In Asia the species ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and northern Egypt (Nile Delta and lower Nile Valley). It also ranges from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan eastwards into Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and northwest China. It might be present on Cyprus, although this requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,800 m asl.	eng
157256	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer., 2009	In Europe this species ranges from southern Switzerland (and possibly adjacent France), and Germany (where there are isolated populations in the west), eastwards into eastern Austria, Italy (islands excluded), Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine and southern Russia, southwards into Croatia (including some Adriatic islands), Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, Albania and Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Crete, Rhodes and Samos). In Asia the species ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and northern Egypt (Nile Delta and lower Nile Valley). It also ranges from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan eastwards into Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and northwest China. It might be present on Cyprus, although this requires confirmation. It occurs from sea level up to 2,800m asl.	eng
157256	habitat	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Isailovic, J.C., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Ajtic, R., Vogrin M., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Baha El Din, S.M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Sterijovski, B., Schmidt, B. & Meyer, A., 2009	This is a largely aquatic species associated with rivers, coasts, streams, lakes, ponds and the surrounding terrestrial habitat. It occurs in coastal areas. It appears after hibernation in the middle of March - beginning of April (for Azerbaijan). The species lays a clutch of between five and 37 eggs.	eng
157256	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer., 2009	This is a largely aquatic species associated with rivers, coasts, streams, lakes, ponds and the surrounding terrestrial habitat. The species lays a clutch of between five and 37 eggs.	eng
157256	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer., 2009	It is common in much of its range. If it occurs on Cyprus, it is extremely rare there. In Egypt the potential range has increased since the construction of the Aswan High Dam, although the species is considered to be declining. It has declined in Israel.	eng
157256	population	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Isailovic, J.C., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Ajtic, R., Vogrin M., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Baha El Din, S.M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Sterijovski, B., Schmidt, B. & Meyer, A., 2009	This species is common in much of its range. If it occurs on Cyprus, it is extremely rare there. In Egypt the potential range has increased since the construction of the Aswan High Dam, although the species is considered to be declining. It has also declined in Israel.	eng
157256	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Cornelius C. De Haan, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer., 2009	It appears not to be globally threatened. It is threatened by loss or modification of wetland habitats in parts of its range, for example through river channelization and lakeshore development. This species is considered to be threatened in a number of western and central European range states. It is often killed by road traffic, particularly in the mating season. In Egypt large numbers of this species are collected for the international pet trade (Sherif Baha El Din pers. comm.). As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Habitat destruction by invasive plant species are a threat in parts of its range.	eng
157256	threats	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Isailovic, J.C., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Ajtic, R., Vogrin M., Corti, C., Mellado, V.P., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Baha El Din, S.M., Nettmann, H.K., De Haan, C.C., Sterijovski, B., Schmidt, B. & Meyer, A., 2009	This species appears not to be globally threatened. It is threatened by loss or modification of wetland habitats in parts of its range, for example through river channelization and lake-shore development. This species is considered to be threatened in a number of western and central European range states. It is often killed by road traffic, particularly in the mating season. In Egypt large numbers of this species are collected for the international pet trade (Sherif Baha El Din pers. comm.), but this is not considered a major threat. As with many snakes this species is generally persecuted by people. Habitat destruction by invasive plant species is a threat in parts of its range, as is pollution.	eng
157257	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, 2009	The species is present in many protected areas. Szczerbak and Golubev (1996), suggest that the populations on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo and in Turkmenistan are in need of protection.	eng
157257	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Nilson, G., 2009	The species is present in many protected areas. Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) suggest that the populations on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo and in Turkmenistan are in need of protection. Quarrying is a threat to this species in parts of its range and conservation measures are needed to reduce the threats impacting its habitat.	eng
157257	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Nilson, G., 2009	This species is present over much of Central Asia. It has been recorded from southern Russia (in Astrakhan west of the Volga River), central and southern Kazakhstan, northwestern Uzbekistan, northern Turkmenistan, northwestern China and central and southern Mongolia (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is not believed to be present in Iran (Anderson 1999) and it is uncertain if the species is present in Afghanistan. It can occur up to 1,550 m above sea level.	eng
157257	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, 2009	This species is present over much of Middle Asia. It has been recorded from southern Russia (in Astrakhan west of the Volga River), central and southern Kazakhstan, northwestern Uzbekistan, northern Turkmenistan, northwestern China and central and southern Mongolia (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is not believed to be present in Iran (Anderson 1999). It is uncertain if the species is present in Afghanistan. It can occur up to 1,550m asl.	eng
157257	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Nilson, G., 2009	It is found in semi-desert habitats and steppe which has semi-desert areas. It is generally found on slopes, which are covered with large and small rocks, also in areas of weathered rock slabs and less often on clay plains. It has also been recorded from loose sand dunes (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September 2008). Vegetation cover is mostly scanty grasses and herbs (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.	eng
157257	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, 2009	It is found in semi-desert habitats and steppe which has semi-desert areas. It is generally found on slopes, which are covered with large and small rocks, also in areas of weathered rock slabs and less often on clay plains. It has also been recorded from loose sand dunes (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). Vegetation cover is mostly scanty grasses and herbs (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.	eng
157257	population	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, 2009	It is very common under tones in northwestern China and Kazakhstan. It is a common species that can reach densities of up to 10 individuals per 1 m2 (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
157257	population	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Nilson, G., 2009	This is a common species that can reach densities of up to ten individuals per square metre (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It is very common under stones in northwestern China and Kazakhstan.	eng
157257	threats	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Nilson, G., 2009	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. The population at the type locality of this species on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo, Astrakhan, Russia, is being lost through quarrying of rock for gravel production (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
157257	threats	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, 2009	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. The population at the type locality of this species on Mount Bolshoi Bogdo, Astrakhan, Russia, is being lost through quarrying of rock for gravel production (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
157258	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is included into the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) and Armenia (1987). It is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected on the territory Vashlovansky and Lagodekhsky reserves in Georgia and on the territory of Khosrov reserve (Armenia).	eng
157258	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and on Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is included into the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) and Armenia (1987). It is present in a number of protected areas. It is protected on the territory Vashlovansky and Lagodekhsky reserves in Georgia and on the territory of Khosrov reserve (Armenia).	eng
157258	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species ranges from extreme northeastern Italy southwards along Mediterranean area of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southern Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including some Aegean islands such as Crete). It is present on the islands of Malta and Cyprus and ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon and Israel in the south. It is also present in the Caucasus Mountains, including in Armenian, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia, Iran and Iraq. This is found from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
157258	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	This species ranges from extreme northeastern Italy southwards along Mediterranean area of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southern Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia and Greece (including some Aegean islands such as Crete). It is present on the islands of Malta and Cyprus and ranges from Turkey into Syria, Lebanon and Israel in the south. It is also present in the Caucasus Mountains, including in Armenian, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia, Iran and Iraq. This is found from sea level up to 2,000 m asl.	eng
157258	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	This species is mostly found amongst rocks in shrubby landscapes. It can also be found in open or degraded woodland, among old walls and ruins, on sandy beaches with plant cover (Turkey and Europe only) and sometimes close to human habitation. Populations have been recorded in the montane-xerophytic steppe, in semi-deserts and, more rarely, at the edges of mountain forest. The females lay between 5 and 9 eggs.	eng
157258	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	This species is mostly found amongst rocks in shrubby landscapes. It can also be found in open or degraded woodland, among old walls and ruins, on sandy beaches with plant cover (Turkey and Europe only) and sometimes close to human habitation. Populations have been recorded in the montane-xerophytic steppe, in semi-deserts and, more rarely, at the edges of mountain forest. The females lay between 5 and 9 eggs.	eng
157258	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is common in the Mediterranean part of the Balkans, but it is rare in Turkey. It appears to be rare on Malta and it is very local in Italy.	eng
157258	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	It is common in the Mediterranean part of the Balkans, but it is rare in Turkey. It appears to be rare on Malta and it is very local in Italy.	eng
157258	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2008	It is persecuted in parts of its range through confusion with viper species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by conversion of land to intensive agricultural use, urbanization, and general mortality of animals on roads.	eng
157258	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	It is persecuted in parts of its range through confusion with viper species. In parts of its range it is locally threatened by conversion of land to intensive agricultural use, urbanization, and general mortality of animals on roads.	eng
157259	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In view of the species wide range, it seems likely that it is distributed within several protected areas.	eng
157259	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Tuniyev, B., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2009	Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. In view of the species' wide range, it seems likely that it occurs within several protected areas.	eng
157259	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This widespread species is present from Dagestan (Russia) and northeastern Iran (Kopet Dagh mountain range), through Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia.	eng
157259	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Tuniyev, B., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2009	This widespread species is present from Dagestan (Russia) and northeastern Iran (Kopet Dagh mountain range), through Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. Recorded up to 1,500 m asl.	eng
157259	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	It is present in clay and stony desert and semi-desert areas, generally with a spare cover of vegetation. Animals can be found in dry stream beds and sandy areas mixed with pebbles (Anderson 1999).	eng
157259	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Tuniyev, B., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2009	It is present in clay and stony desert and semi-desert areas, generally with a sparse cover of vegetation. Animals can be found in dry stream beds and sandy areas mixed with pebbles (Anderson 1999).	eng
157259	population	Natalia Ananjeva, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This is generally a common species.	eng
157259	population	Ananjeva, N., Tuniyev, B., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2009	This is generally a common species, but local declines may occur due to the conversion of land in Central Asia for agricultural use.	eng
157259	threats	Ananjeva, N., Tuniyev, B., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2009	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by overgrazing and habitat transformation to agriculture.	eng
157259	threats	Natalia Ananjeva, Boris Tuniyev, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by overgrazing and habitat transformation to agriculture.	eng
157260	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	In view of the wide range of this species outside of Europe, it occurs in numerous protected areas across its range (most current populations are restricted to protected areas which conserve sand dunes). The steppe-runner <em>E. a. potanin</em>i is included into the Red Data Book of Mongolia (1997) as a rare species, it is protected in the Great Gobi reservation. <em>E. a. uzbekistanica</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999) (category 2). <em>E. a. transcaucasica</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987). <em>E. a. deserti</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Moldavia (1999) as a Critically Endangered species. The Armenian subspecies <em>E.a. transcaucasica</em> is an isolated population which occurs surrounding Lake Sevan and is becoming increasingly threatened and needs species conservation attention.	eng
157260	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	This widespread species ranges from eastern Romania (Danube Delta), through southern Moldova, Ukraine (including the Crimean Peninsula), southwestern Russia, the Caucasus (including an isolated population at Lake Sevan, Armenia), northern Iran (known only with certainty from the western slopes of Talysh Mountains and a single locality southeast of Tabriz in East Azarbaijan Province [Anderson, 1999]), through much of Central Asia to northwestern China and southwestern Mongolia. The westernmost locality is Hanu Conachi sand dunes (Romania). It is unclear if this species is present in Turkey.	eng
157260	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	It is a diurnal species that generally occurs in dry, open areas with some sparse herbaceous vegetation. It is also found in steppe habitat, sandy coastal areas, sparsely vegetated river plains, and on stone walls bordering party cultivated land (Anderson, 1999; Arnold, 2003). Animals often shelter under spiny shrubs and in burrows. In the south of its distribution, this species emerges from hibernation between the end of February and the beginning of March, and emerges in April in the montane and northern parts of its range. The female lays two clutches of between one and 12 eggs (usually three or four) (Arnold, 2003). The young hatch between the middle of May and the beginning of July. The species is reproductively mature following its first hibernation period.	eng
157260	population	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	It can be a common species in parts of its range (Arnold, 2003; Melnikov, 2003). The density can be up to 60 animals per hectare.	eng
157260	threats	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	In Romania, the species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation do sand dunes by reforestation, increased tourist, urban, agricultural and industrial development; pesticide pollution; overgrazing and inappropriate afforestation of suitable sandy habitat (CoE, 2003). The threats to populations outside of Europe needs further evaluation.	eng
157261	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2008	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies on this species are needed, particularly for populations in the eastern and Arabian parts of its range (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157261	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	It is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention and is present in a number of protected areas. Further taxonomic studies on this species are needed, particularly for populations in the eastern and Arabian parts of its range (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157261	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	This species is widely distributed around the Mediterranean Basin, east through West Asia as far as India, often in built-up areas. In mainland Europe it is found in southwestern Portugal, southern and eastern Spain, southern France, much of coastal Italy, and coastal Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southeast to western Albania and most of Greece. It is found on numerous islands in the Mediterranean, including the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete and Cyprus, and many smaller islands in the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas.  In mainland Asia it is found in western and southern Turkey (coastal zones, as far inland as Afyon, with an isolated population at Samsun on the north coast), western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan. On mainland Africa it is found from northern Morocco through northern Algeria, much of Tunisia, northern Libya, northern and eastern Egypt (including some offshore islands) and the Nile Valley. It was most likely introduced in antiquity through much of its supposedly native range, but it is no longer clear when and where these introductions took place. In more recent times, it has been widely introduced, with introduced populations known from the Canary Islands (Spain), the southern United States, parts of Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Cuba and possibly Belize [not mapped here]. This is a lowland species that is occasionally found up to 1,100m asl. Arabian populations are now referred to <em>H. robustus</em>.	eng
157261	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2008	This species is widely distributed around the Mediterranean Basin, east through West Asia, often in built-up areas. In mainland Europe it is found in southwestern Portugal, southern and eastern Spain, southern France, much of coastal Italy, and coastal Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Montenegro, southeast to western Albania and most of Greece. It is found on numerous islands in the Mediterranean, including the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete and Cyprus, and many smaller islands in the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Aegean Seas.  In mainland Asia it is found in western and southern Turkey (coastal zones, as far inland as Afyon, with an isolated population at Samsun on the north coast), western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western Jordan. On mainland Africa it is found from northern Morocco through northern Algeria, much of Tunisia, northern Libya, northern and eastern Egypt (including some offshore islands) and the Nile Valley. It was most likely introduced in antiquity through much of its supposedly native range, but it is no longer clear when and where these introductions took place. In more recent times, it has been widely introduced, with introduced populations known from the Canary Islands (Spain), the southern United States, parts of Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Cuba and possibly Belize [not mapped here]. This is a lowland species that is occasionally found up to 1,100m asl. Arabian populations are now referred to <em>H. robustus</em>.	eng
157261	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2008	It is extremely adaptable species. It is found in shrubland, rocky areas, salt marshes, coastal areas, cliffs, caves, on stone walls in agricultural areas and it is common in urban environments, including inside buildings. The females lay two to three clutches per year of one to two eggs.	eng
157261	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	It is extremely adaptable species. It is found in shrubland, rocky areas, salt marshes, coastal areas, cliffs, caves, on stone walls in agricultural areas and it is common in urban environments, including inside buildings. The females lay two to three clutches per year of one to two eggs.	eng
157261	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2008	It is abundant over much of its distribution and its range and population is increasing.	eng
157261	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	It is abundant over much of its distribution and its range and population is increasing.	eng
157261	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2008	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species. Animals are occasionally persecuted in tourist resorts, and there is some collection of the species for the pet trade, although this does not seem to have a significant impact on the overall population.	eng
157261	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	There are no major threats to this very adaptable species. Animals are occasionally persecuted in tourist resorts, and there is some collection of the species for the pet trade, although this does not seem to have a significant impact on the overall population.	eng
157262	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2008	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, for example the following ones in Morocco: Saghro, Talassemtane, Jbel Moussa, Beni Snassen, Cap des trois fourches, Gourougou, Perdicaris, Cap Spartel, Tamga, Khnifiss, Chekhar, Trois fourches, Sebkha Bou Areg, Gourougou, Embouchure Moulouya, Beni Snassen, and Koudiat Tidighine.	eng
157262	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2009	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, for example the following ones in Morocco: Saghro, Talassemtane, Jbel Moussa, Beni Snassen, Cap des trois fourches, Gourougou, Perdicaris, Cap Spartel, Tamga, Khnifiss, Chekhar, Trois fourches, Sebkha Bou Areg, Gourougou, Embouchure Moulouya, Beni Snassen, and Koudiat Tidighine.	eng
157262	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2008	This species ranges widely in Portugal, Spain (generally absent from the Cantabrian Mountains), southeastern France, and northwestern Italy (Liguria); in North Africa it distributes along northern Algeria, Morocco and coastal areas of Western Sahara. It ranges from sea level up to 2,160m asl.	eng
157262	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2009	This species ranges widely in Portugal, Spain (generally absent from the Cantabrian Mountains), southeastern France, and northwestern Italy (Liguria); in North Africa it distributes along northern Algeria, Morocco and coastal areas of Western Sahara. It ranges from sea level up to 2,160m asl.	eng
157262	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2008	A venomous snake, it is found in scrubland with low cover, open spaces, coastal dunes, grassland, meadows and cultivated land. In hot time of summer it has crepuscular-nocturnal activity. The annual activity period seems to be expanding in parallel with the raise of mean annual temperatures (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
157262	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2009	A venomous snake, it is found in scrubland with low cover, open spaces, coastal dunes, grassland, meadows and cultivated land. In hot time of summer it has crepuscular-nocturnal activity. The annual activity period seems to be expanding in parallel with the raise of mean annual temperatures (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
157262	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2008	It is generally a common species. In human altered landscapes, populations are frequently stable or even increasing, whilst the populations of other snakes are declining (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
157262	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2009	It is generally a common species. In human altered landscapes, populations are frequently stable or even increasing, whilst the populations of other snakes are declining (Juan M. Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008).	eng
157262	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2008	There are overall no major threats to this species. Many animals are killed on roads or are persecuted by farmers. The snake is used by snake charmers, and it is also sold dried as a curio but this is not a major threat.	eng
157262	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Marc Cheylan, 2009	There are overall no major threats to this species. Many animals are killed on roads or are persecuted by farmers. The snake is used by snake charmers, and it is also sold dried as a curio but this is not a major threat.	eng
157263	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It is present in a large number of protected areas (especially in the north of its range). There is a need for the development of education programmes about this harmless species. It is included into the Red Data Books of the Ukraine (1994) - category 1 and Kazakhstan (1996) - category 2.	eng
157263	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	This widespread species ranges eastwards from the Balkan region of Europe to Turkey, the Caucasus region, Central Asia and the Levant. From the Balkans it has been recorded along the Adriatic regions of Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania (common only in coastal areas), the southern Macedonia (through the Vardar valley to the vicinity of Skopje), most of Greece (including the Ionian Islands and the islands of Limnos, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Ikaria and Samos) and southern and eastern Bulgaria. It also occurs in southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, Turkey (in the west, north and south), western Syria, throughout Lebanon, northern Israel, northwest Jordan, Iraq, Iran (restricted to the Caspian region, northern Zagros, the Alborz and Kopet Dagh), and into Central Asia where it is present in southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southeastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, western Tajikistan and Afghanistan. It is found from sea level to around 2,300m asl.	eng
157263	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	This species is found in dry, well vegetated rocky slopes, marquis, traditionally cultivated areas and close to human settlements. In Iran, it has been collected in open grassy areas (Anderson, 1999). It occurs in foothill plains and valleys of river, inhabited sparse deciduous forests, tugay-bushes, shrubs, hollows, woodland edges and foothills. Animals may be found hiding under bushes, among stones or in rodent burrows. It is common in gardens, vineyards and is sometimes found in agricultural land. The female lays between six and ten eggs in a clutch.	eng
157263	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	It is generally a common species.	eng
157263	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Idriz Haxhiu, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in Jordan and the southern periphery of its range by habitat loss, mainly through conversion to agricultural use. Animals may be occasionally killed through misidentification with snakes.	eng
157264	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Petros Lymberakis, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It occurs in some protected areas throughout its range.	eng
157264	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Petros Lymberakis, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Dušan Jelić, 2008	This species is present in Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean zones in much of central and southern Italy (excluding Sicily), and in the Balkan region, ranging from Slovenia southwards along the Adriatic coastline (including some Adriatic islands), into much of Albania, Macedonia (mainly in the lowlands), southernmost Serbia, Montenegro and Greece (not in Thrace, but on a number of Ionian and Aegean islands). It is found from sea level up to 2,500m asl.	eng
157264	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Petros Lymberakis, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is found in hedgerows, close to woodland edges, in open woodland, rocky overgrown areas and traditionally cultivated land. Animals may also be found near to waterbodies but also away from them. Animals tend to have very large home ranges. The females lay between four and 16 eggs, and the generation time is 4 to 5 years.	eng
157264	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Petros Lymberakis, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is not a common species, and it has a fragmented range. It is thought to be in significant decline.	eng
157264	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan M. Pleguezuelos, Petros Lymberakis, Roberto Sindaco, Antonio Romano, Dušan Jelić, 2008	It is mainly threatened by habitat loss due to intensification of agricultural practices and infrastructure development for tourism and urbanization. It is persecuted by humans in many parts of its range.	eng
157265	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. It is included in the Red Data Books of the Ukraine (1994) - category 3; Kazakhstan (1996) - category 4; and of Turkmenistan (1999) - category 3. Because of declining populations in parts of its range, it is also included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001).	eng
157265	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This species occurs from eastern Greece (Thrace) northwards through Bulgaria, southern and eastern Romania, Moldova, southern Ukraine and southern Russia to western Kazakhstan, western Turkmenistan, the Caucasus, most of Turkey, northern and western Iran and northern Iraq.  There is also an isolated population in Israel, and Lebanon that may also occur in Syria. It occurs from sea level up to around 2,500m asl (Transcaucasia).	eng
157265	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This diurnal species is often encountered in rocky slopes in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. It is normally found in the arid landscapes, in steppes and semi-deserts, as well as in the forest-steppe zone (both on the plain and in the foothills), on the areas of stony and sandy semi-desert, on the slopes with bush vegetation and with rocky outcrops, on forest edges, in open steppe and tugai forests. To the north of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol depression in northwestern Turkmenistan this snake lives on thick loamy soils with thickets of saxaul, saltwort and other xerophytic vegetation. In the central Ustyurt of Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan, animals can be found in areas of solid stabilized sands, at locations with saxaul vegetation in the clay desert, and on solonchaks (saline soils). It is an egg-laying species; the females lay a clutch of between 4 and 16 eggs.	eng
157265	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	It is usually found at low population densities.	eng
157265	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. It is generally persecuted throughout its range but not at a level that is of a threat to the species. It is declining significantly in Romania, largely through habitat loss (CoE, 2003). The cultivation of steppe and similar habitats is leading to an overall decline in numbers.	eng
157266	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitat Directive. The species is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Conservation actions, such as ecological research and protection of important areas, and needed for populations in Germany, and presumably other northern parts of the species range (CoE, 2003). There is a need to develop management strategies and protected areas for this species at a national level; it is protected by national legislation in most range states. An EU Action Plan is in place for this species. The species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984), and the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) - category 2, Georgia (1982) - category 2, and the Ukraine - category 3. This species is listed an Endangered in the German National Red List. This species is currently categorized as Critically Endangered in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).	eng
157266	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention and Is included in Annex IV of the EU Habitat Directive. The species is present in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Conservation actions, such as ecological research and protection of important areas, and needed for populations in Germany, and presumably other northern parts of the species range (CoE, 2003). There is a need to develop management strategies and protected areas for this species at a national level; it is protected by national legislation in most range states. An EU Action Plan is in place for this species. The species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (1984), and the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (2001) - category 2, Georgia (1982) - category 2, and the Ukraine - category 3. This species is listed an Endangered in the German National Red List. This species is currently categorized as Critically Endangered in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). This species is categorized as Endangered in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005).	eng
157266	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2008	This species ranges from its southern limits in northern Spain and central southern Italy, through much of France (except the north and parts of the southwest), southeastern and western Germany (north to Hessen, where it occurs as very fragmented most of the south), to the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary and much of the Balkan region. Populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), western Germany, western Czech Republic, and southern Ukraine are isolated from the main range, and it is possibly localized in Romania and Moldova. It is also present in northern Turkey, western Georgia, southern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. It may occur in southern Poland although this requires confirmation. The species has been extinct in Denmark for around 200 years. It ranges from 60 to 2,000m asl.	eng
157266	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	This species ranges from its southern limits in northern Spain and central southern Italy, through much of France (except the north and parts of the southwest), southeastern and western Germany (north to Hessen, where it occurs as very fragmented most of the south), to the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary and much of the Balkan region. Populations in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), western Germany, western Czech Republic, and southern Ukraine are isolated from the main range, and it is possibly localized in Romania and Moldova. It is also present in northern Turkey, western Georgia, southern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. It may occur in southern Poland although this requires confirmation. The species has been extinct in Denmark for around 200 years. It ranges from 60 to 2,000m asl.	eng
157266	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2008	It is found in dry, open woodlands (deciduous, mixed and coniferous), woodland edges, forested ravines, scrubland and thickets, rocky outcrops, road embankments, moist meadows, field edges, traditionally cultivated land, tea plantations, stone walls and old buildings, parks and gardens. The females produce a single clutch of two to 18 eggs in July (Caucasus).	eng
157266	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is found in dry, open woodlands (deciduous, mixed and coniferous), woodland edges, forested ravines, scrubland and thickets, rocky outcrops, road embankments, moist meadows, field edges, traditionally cultivated land, tea plantations, stone walls and old buildings, parks and gardens. The females produce a single clutch of two to 18 eggs in July (Caucasus).	eng
157266	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2008	It can be common, but many populations are small and isolated.	eng
157266	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It can be common, but many populations are small and isolated.	eng
157266	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2008	It is threatened by accidental mortality on roads, especially in areas where the species is relatively common. It is also threatened by fragmentation of habitat through intensification of agricultural practices and afforestation of suitable areas. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people. Eggs are laid in heaps of grass and other vegetation that are frequently cleared by people.	eng
157266	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Bartosz Borczyk, Benedikt Schmidt, Andreas Meyer, 2009	It is threatened by accidental mortality on roads, especially in areas where the species is relatively common. It is also threatened by fragmentation of habitat through intensification of agricultural practices and afforestation of suitable areas. As with many snakes, this species is generally persecuted by people. Eggs are laid in heaps of grass and other vegetation that are frequently cleared by people.	eng
157267	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, 2009	This species is included into the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan (1996) - category 3, in the Red Data Books of Ukraine (1994) - category 2 and Moldavia (2001) as an Endangered species. It has been included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention, Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive, and is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. It is present in many protected areas.	eng
157267	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, 2009	This species is present from southern Hungary eastwards to Romania, Moldova, southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia and extreme western Kazakhstan. It also ranges southwards through the Balkans from Croatia (Lastavo Island and eastern parts of continental mainland [Ozimec 2005; Trocsanyi and Schafer, 2008]), Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia (where it only occurs below 1,500m asl), Albania (where widespread), Greece (absent from the Peloponnese peninsula, but present on many islands including Andros, Tinos, Syros, Kythos, Kea, Serifos, Ikaria, Samos, Chios, Oinousses, Thasos, Samothraki and Limons), Bulgaria, and Turkey (Thrace and central and western Anatolia). Records from Jordan require confirmation and might refer to another species, since they are far outside the known range. This species ranges from sea level to 2,000m asl (Turkey).	eng
157267	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, 2009	It is found in dry areas of open scrubland (macchia) and woodland, steppe and other grassland, rocky hillsides, semi-desert, overgrown areas, vineyards, olive groves, rural gardens, stone walls and ruins. In the North Caucasus it has been recorded from sand dune habitats. This species hibernates in large groups (R. Ajtic pers. comm.). In the Crimea, it emerges from hibernation at the end of March - beginning of April; in Kalmykia it emerges in the second part of March. Winter hibernation starts in middle of September - October (sometimes in first part of November). It is active during the day in spring, and in the hot part of summer it has two peaks of activity. Females lay eggs (6 - 18 eggs in the clutch) from middle of June to the beginning of July, with young appearing in the first part of September.	eng
157267	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, 2009	It is generally a common species over most of its range.	eng
157267	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Bogoljub Sterijovski, 2009	While there appear to be no major threats to the species, it is often killed by traffic while it is basking on roads. As with many other species it may be particularly vulnerable when it forms aggregations for hibernation. It may be persecuted by people, when they are accidentally revealed during hibernation.	eng
157268	conservation	Göran Nilson, Claes Andrén, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	There are protected areas within the range of this species. There is a need to protect the specific meadow and grassland habitats of this species. The species is included on the Red Data Book of the Ukraine (1994) - category 2 and of Uzbekistan (2003) - status and category 2, VU:D, as well as into the "Annotated List of Taxa and Populations required a Special Attention to their Status in the Wildlife "(Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001).	eng
157268	distribution	Göran Nilson, Claes Andrén, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It inhabits steppe, forest-steppe and semi-desert zones of south-eastern Europe, Central Asia and north-west of Middle Asia, including the Crimea, the southern Ukraine, steppe regions of Ciscaucasia, and the Great Caucasus, of Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, and into China.  There is an isolated population in Transcaucasia.  In the north the distribution range attains the Volzhsko-Kamsky Territory, in the east - Altai and Jungaria. In the mountains it goes up to 2500m asl.	eng
157268	habitat	Göran Nilson, Claes Andrén, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It is primarily associated with open meadows and hillsides. Upland subspecies are generally found on well-drained rocky hillsides, steppe and meadows, while the lowland forms are found in either steppe, or dry or damp meadows. It occurs in plain and sagebrush steppes, alpine meadows transformed into steppe, solonchaks (saline land) semi-deserts and stabilized sands. This species is absent in cultivated lands and remains only ravines, roadsides and river banks. Thus, for instance, in the lower left bank area of the Dnieper river in the Zaporozhskaya, Dnepropetrovskaya and Khersonskaya regions the viper is found only in the narrow strip of a steep bank with bush vegetation in the area between water and arable land. It is an ovoviviparous species. Pregnancy lasts up to 3 months. Young appear (up to 17) in July - August. It is active in Azerbaijan from the beginning of April up to beginning of October.	eng
157268	population	Göran Nilson, Claes Andrén, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	It is common in areas of suitable habitat.	eng
157268	threats	Göran Nilson, Claes Andrén, Boris Tuniyev, 2009	The major threat to this species is the conversion of traditionally farmed meadows to intensively cultivated and grazed land because it prefers open meadows and other suitable land suitable for agriculture.  Development for agriculture has also led to significant fragmentation throughout its range. There is a small international pet trade of this species which is not a significant threat. Montane populations may be significantly impacted in the future by climate change.	eng
157269	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	The subspecies <em>Eryx miliaris nogaijorum</em> is included into the " Annotated list of taxa and population required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001) due to reduction of the area of isolated sand deserts in Kalmykia and Ciscaucasia. It is protected in the "Tschernye Zemli" Reverse in Kalmykia (Russia). This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
157269	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species ranges through northern Iran, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, the sandy deserts of Middle Asia and the eastern Ciscaucasia of Russia (Kalmykia, Chechnya, Dagestan). It ranges from sea level to around 1,000m asl.	eng
157269	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is widely distributed in sandy deserts, in shifting sand dunes and semi-stabilized sand dunes. It prefers relatively loose soils on different types in deserts and semi-deserts (sagebrush <em>Artemisia</em>-glasswort <em>Salsola</em> desert and glasswort desert). Sometimes, animals can be found in clay and loess deserts, on the takyr with patches of vegetation near the sands, on the slopes of the ravines and on the margins of irrigated lands, as well as in the dry foothills on the valleys with sandy-clayish soil. It may also be encountered in vineyards. Animals often hide within the sand and use burrows of rodents and ruins as refuges. It is nocturnal during the hot part of the year; and is common on the surface in spring. The period of activity lasts for March to October over most of its range; and in the area of eastern Ciscaucasia and Kazakhstan from April to September. The species is viviparous, with the female giving birth for 4 to 15 young in July - August.	eng
157269	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This is generally a common species, however some subpopulations (and the subspecies <em>E. m. nogaiorum</em>) are declining.	eng
157269	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from intensive agricultural expansion, the abandonment traditional agricultural areas, overgrazing of vegetation by livestock, mining and drilling operations (oil, salt, mirabilite, sulphur, natural gas), and industrialization in parts of Middle-Asia (including factories, and chemical plants). The subspecies <em>E.m. nogaiorum is</em> declining rapidly due to habitat loss and conversion of sandy dune habitats through irrigation to intensive agricultural use.	eng
157270	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is found in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect this species in Egypt. It is considered to be Vulnerable in Egypt (S. Baha El Din. pers. comm.).	eng
157270	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species ranges from the Aegean islands of Greece (including Leros, Rhodos, Symi, Kalymnos, Kos, Lipsi and Megisti Kastelorizo), to Cyprus, western and southern Turkey, southwards into Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel and western and northwestern Jordan. It also extends eastwards into northeastern Iran, Armenia, northern Iraq, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, eastern Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. There are isolated populations in northern Egypt (close to Cairo and the southern Sinai Peninsula). It is largely a lowland species, but can be found up to around 2,000m asl in Turkey.	eng
157270	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is found in open areas, including open dry woodland and shrubland, with some rocks and bushy vegetation. It is adaptable and can be found in both rural and urban areas. The females lay clutches of four to 10 eggs.	eng
157270	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is generally a very common species. In Egypt it is a rare species.	eng
157270	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is frequently killed by people as it resembles a viper. In Egypt it is also threatened by collection for the pet trade and may be threatened by general habitat degradation through overgrazing of its habitat.	eng
157271	conservation	Oscar Arribas, 2008	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>I. monticola</em>). It occurs in the Lake of Sanabria Natural Park. Further general research is needed for this newly described species as a whole.	eng
157271	distribution	Oscar Arribas, 2008	This species is endemic to the Montes de León (Spain): Sierra Segundera, Sierra de la Cabrera, Sierra del Eje or Peña Trevinca and Sierra del Teleno between the provinces of León, Zamora and Orense, where it can be found from 1,000 to 2,000m asl, but probably also occurs at higher altitudes.	eng
157271	habitat	Oscar Arribas, 2008	It occurs in rocky habitats above the tree line in oro-Mediterranean climatic zones. Animals are very abundant close to glacial lakes and talus tracks crossing shrubland in subalpine areas. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
157271	population	Oscar Arribas, 2008	In general it is abundant within its restricted range. It seems to be very abundant in the Sanabria area (Sª Segundera and de la Cabrera Baja), fairly abundant in Sierra del Teleno and is perhaps rarer in the Trevinca Massif (Arribas and Caranza, 2007).	eng
157271	threats	Oscar Arribas, 2008	Populations in the vicinity of Teleno are potentially threatened by the development of tourism, including the possible reopening of the Morredero Sky-resort (Teleno Massif, León) or of the Fonte da Cova Sky-Resort (Trevinca Massif, Leon) (Arribas and Carranza 2007). The species is also possibly threatened by disturbance of its talus habitat during cyclist tours (Vuelta Ciclista a España and Vuelta a León) which finish at the Morredero Sky-resort and attract a large number of supporters. The populations in lower parts of the species range are also likely to be impacted by ongoing slate quarrying and similar mining operations within the area (Arribas and Carranza 2007).	eng
157272	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	It is present in some protected areas in Turkey and Greece. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
157272	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is present in some protected areas in Turkey and Greece. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
157272	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	This species is present in southern Turkey (much of southern Anatolia), Syria, northern Iraq, Lebanon, and on the islands of Rhodos, Kos, Kalymnos, and other southeastern Aegean islands of Greece. It is possibly present in Israel (it may have occurred there in the past, although further studies are needed to confirm this and it is not mapped here). It is not present on Cyprus.  More research is needed to determine its presence in Syria. Recorded from sea level to 1,400m asl in Turkey.	eng
157272	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	This species is present in southern Turkey (much of southern Anatolia), Syria, northern Iraq, Lebanon, and on the islands of Rhodos, Kos, Kalymnos, and other southeastern Aegean islands of Greece. It is possibly present in Israel (it may have occurred there in the past, although further studies are needed to confirm this and it is not mapped here). It is not present on Cyprus.  More research is needed to determine its presence in Syria. Recorded from sea level to 1,400m asl in Turkey.	eng
157272	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	It is a fossorial species found in a variety of sparsely vegetated Mediterranean habitats. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to excavate and have a high level of humus. It can presumably occur in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay one or two eggs in a clutch.	eng
157272	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is a fossorial species found in a variety of sparsely vegetated Mediterranean habitats. It is often found in moist, sandy soils that are easy to excavate and have a high level of humus. It can presumably occur in low intensity agricultural land. The females lay one or two eggs in a clutch.	eng
157272	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	It is abundant in Turkey.  In Greece, it is rather common within its range. It is uncommon in Syria, but more work is needed to verify its status.	eng
157272	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is abundant in Turkey.  In Greece, it is rather common within its range. It is uncommon in Syria, but more work is needed to verify its status.	eng
157272	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some persecution where it is mistakenly identified as a snake.	eng
157272	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some persecution where it is mistakenly identified as a snake.	eng
157273	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	In Greece it is present in the Yalova Pilos protected area. In Egypt it is present in the Burullus protected area. In Egypt, there is a need for the development and implementation of national legislation to protect this species. Monitoring of population trends and the impact of harvesting is also needed. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species.	eng
157273	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This African species has been recorded from Egypt (restricted to the Nile delta and lower Nile valley), Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon. In Europe it is restricted to a tiny part of the southwestern Peloponnese in southern Greece, where it is believed to be an introduction from antiquity possibly from Egypt.	eng
157273	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species has been recorded from salt marshes, sand dunes and maquis shrubland. Animals are found climbing in vegetation such as reeds and shrubs. It has sometimes been found climbing in large trees. It is sometimes found on the ground in sandy areas. It has been recorded from traditionally cultivated agricultural land and rural gardens. In Greece, the females produce a single clutch of between four and 43 eggs per year.	eng
157273	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	In Greece, the single population fluctuates, with estimates of between 150 and 600 individuals over the last decade (Dimaki 2008). It is relatively common in the northern Nile delta, Egypt (Flower, 1933; S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157273	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	In Greece, the main threat to the species is loss of sand dune breeding habitat to developing tourism, and illegal collection (as pets). Mortality on roads is also an importantly threat to the Greek populations, especially during the breeding season. In Egypt, the main threat to this species is overcollection for the pet trade. It is also probably threatened by the reclamation of wetlands in the northern Nile delta (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.).	eng
157274	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, Sherif Baha El Din, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Wolfgang Böhme, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This species is listed on Annex III of the Bern Convention.  It is found in a number of protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Egypt, further research into the range of this species is needed. It is protected on the territory of Khosrov Reserve in Armenia	eng
157274	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, Sherif Baha El Din, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Wolfgang Böhme, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This species ranges from southeastern Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, and southern Bulgaria, to Greece (including the Ionian and Aegean islands of Rhodos, Korfu, Salamis, Naxos, Lesvos, Lefkas, Patmos, Samos, Evia, Dilos, Rineia, Andros, Skyros, Kos, Kythera, Kastelorizo), through most of Turkey (though absent from most of the north), western Syria, Lebanon, western Jordan and northern and central Israel. It also ranges eastwards into Iran and Iraq, and northwards into the Caucasus region of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia. It is also present in Central Asia occurring in southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and possibly Pakistan. The species is also found from Cyprus, and has been recorded once from Dugi Otok island (Croatia) where its current presence is uncertain (Du?an Jeli? pers. comm., October 2008). It is present in northern Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). It might be present in Bosnia-Herzegovina although this requires confirmation. This species ranges from sea level up to about 1,700 m asl.	eng
157274	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, Sherif Baha El Din, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Wolfgang Böhme, Dušan Jelić, 2009	This largely subterranean species is associated with moist, sparsely vegetated, open areas. It is often found in grassy fields and slopes. It is found under rocks and occupying burrows made by worms. Animals are generally only found during the springtime. The females lay between four and eight eggs in a clutch. This species shows an aggregation behaviour for either mating or moisture conservation (Disi, 2002). It is found in traditional agricultural areas, among ruins and even in urban areas. Pairing occurs from the spring to the beginning of summer. The female lays 2 to 10 eggs in underground passages in second part of summer.	eng
157274	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, Sherif Baha El Din, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Wolfgang Böhme, Dušan Jelić, 2009	It is generally a common species. In Egypt it is a rare, localized and declining species. In Macedonia the species has a very patchy distribution.	eng
157274	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Idriz Haxhiu, Sherif Baha El Din, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Wolfgang Böhme, Dušan Jelić, 2009	There are no major threats to this species over most of the Mediterranean region. In Albania and Egypt it is threatened by habitat loss through intensive agriculture and land reclamation. Populations of this species in the Caucasus are threatened by the conversion of habitat to intensive agricultural use.	eng
157275	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	In view of its wide range, it is likely to occur in many protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole. Additional research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
157275	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This widespread snake ranges from eastern Ukraine, through southwestern Russia and parts of the Caucasus, to Middle and Central Asia, and from here to eastern Russia, Mongolia and China and possibly Korea. There is an isolated Iranian population in Mazandaran Province and Seman Province (Latifi, 1991). It has been recorded between sea level and 3,580m asl.	eng
157275	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This diurnal species is found in a variety of habitats, including, forests, mountainous areas, fields, rivers and even coastal areas (Latifi 1991). It is an oviparous species, the females lay clutches of 5 to 24 eggs.	eng
157275	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This is one of the commonest snakes in parts of Russia, Kazakhstan and Middle Asia.	eng
157275	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, 2009	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
157276	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation activities are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
157276	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is endemic to Cyprus, where it generally occurs throughout much of the island.	eng
157276	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is distributed in a range of rocky habitats, Mediterranean shrubby vegetation, and may be found within rural areas and possibly more urban locations. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
157276	population	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
157276	threats	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
157277	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. In Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Serbia and Montenegro. As a species with a limited distribution range and reducing number it is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is a considered to be a threatened species in Lebanon.	eng
157277	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	It is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. In Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Serbia and Montenegro. As a species with a limited distribution range and reducing number it is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to their status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is a considered to be a threatened species in Lebanon.	eng
157277	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species ranges from coastal Croatia southwards into Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, central and southern Bulgaria, Albania, Greece (including the islands of Limnos, Lesbos, Chios, Kalymnos (there is an endemic subspecies on this island) and possibly Samos), Cyprus and Turkey (Thrace and western, southern and eastern Anatolia) southeast to northern and western Syria, Lebanon (above 1,000 m asl), northern and eastern Iraq, western Iran and southern Turkmenistan. It has also been recorded from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, although the identity of these animals requires further investigation. This species ranges from sea level up to 2,200 m asl.	eng
157277	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	This species ranges from coastal Croatia southwards into Bosnia-Herzegovina, southern Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia, central and southern Bulgaria, Albania, Greece (including the islands of Limnos, Lesbos, Chios, Kalymnos (there is an endemic subspecies on this island) and possibly Samos), Cyprus and Turkey (Thrace and western, southern and eastern Anatolia) southeast to northern and western Syria, Lebanon (above 1,000 m asl), northern and eastern Iraq, western Iran and southern Turkmenistan. It has also been recorded from the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, although the identity of these animals requires further investigation. This species ranges from sea level up to 2,200 m asl.	eng
157277	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	In general, this species is associated with dry or xerophytic landscapes. It is found on the open parts of stony semi-desert and wermuth steppe, among rocky outcrops and stones. Populations are found at the slopes of foothills and mountain covered with bush vegetation and woods, in thickets of xerophilous bushes, in juniper open woodlands, oak groves, border of forests. It has been recorded from open woodland, garrigue, overgrown areas, gullies, vineyards, gardens, stone walls and old buildings. The females lay between three and 16 eggs in a clutch.	eng
157277	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	In general, this species is associated with dry or xerophytic landscapes. It is found on the open parts of stony semi-desert and wermuth steppe, among rocky outcrops and stones. Populations are found at the slopes of foothills and mountain covered with bush vegetation and woods, in thickets of xerophilous bushes, in juniper open woodlands, oak groves, border of forests. It has been recorded from open woodland, garrigue, overgrown areas, gullies, vineyards, gardens, stone walls and old buildings. The females lay between three and 16 eggs in a clutch.	eng
157277	population	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	In the north of its range it is a common species. It is rare in the south of its range (e.g., in Lebanon). It is reported to be declining in Albania.	eng
157277	population	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	In the north of its range it is a common species. It is rare in the south of its range (e.g., in Lebanon). It is reported to be declining in Albania.	eng
157277	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species is threatened by direct persecution in parts of its range (e.g., by farmers in Turkey), and loss of habitat to intensive agriculture and fires. Animals are often killed on roads.	eng
157277	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Idriz Haxhiu, Wolfgang Böhme, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2009	This species is threatened by direct persecution in parts of its range (e.g., by farmers in Turkey), and loss of habitat to intensive agriculture and fires. Animals are often killed on roads.	eng
157278	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In view of its wide range it presumably occurs in some protected areas. The subspecies <em>P. g. salsatus</em> is included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1999): category 3 - rare, narrow-ranged species.	eng
157278	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is widely distributed from western borders of China across the whole northern sub-zone of deserts to the western coast of the Caspian Sea. In the European part of Russia, the species is distributed in Dagestan, Kalmykia, Stavropol Territory, Astrakhan and Volgograd region. The main part of the distribution range is situated in Kazakhstan, but the species also occurs also in Uzbekistan (Kara-Kalpakia) and Turkmenistan. It is found up to 1,000m asl.	eng
157278	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is generally associated with areas of sandy soil, sometimes with a sparse vegetation cover. The subspecies <em>P. g. salsatus</em> is closely associated with alkali soils, but occasionally it can be found on the slopes of barkhans (sand ridges). It is territorial species, females are more settled but have a smaller home range than the male. Reproduction begins at the end of April, with the eggs laid from May to June, and the young appearing in the middle of July.	eng
157278	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	It is common species found at relatively high densities. It can be a rare species in the Caucasus.	eng
157278	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species is threatened in lowland parts of its range through the conversion of habitat to intensive agriculture and plantation use.	eng
157279	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Pierre-André Crochet, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Further taxonomic studies and research into the distribution of this species (particularly in North Africa) are needed.	eng
157279	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Pierre-André Crochet, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This species ranges from northeastern Greece (including the islands of Lesbos, Ikaria, Samos, Patmos, Kalymnos, Rhodes and Karpathos) and southeastern Bulgaria through Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Russia, Iran, northern Pakistan and northwestern India. It is also present in Cyprus; northestern Algeria (isolated population in the Aures Mountains); northeastern Libya, Egypt (northeast Sinai) and central and northern Israel, western and northern Jordan, throughout Lebanon, Syria and northern Iraq. It ranges from 400m below sea level (Dead Sea) up to 2,000m asl, but may be found at higher elevations.	eng
157279	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Pierre-André Crochet, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	This is found in arid or dry areas of sparse grassland, shrubland or cropland, and sclerophyllous woodland. In Armenia it occasionally occurs on sands, in central Armenia it is known in sparse oaken woods. In hot time of summer it prefers to be in immediate proximity to water. In Egypt, it inhabits well-vegetated rocky hillsides. It may be found hiding in crevices, dense vegetation and in sand at night. It is an egg-laying species; females lay two clutches of 3 - 6 eggs in a season.	eng
157279	population	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Pierre-André Crochet, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	It is generally a common and abundant species.	eng
157279	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Pierre-André Crochet, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Yehudah Werner, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Sherif Baha El Din, 2009	In general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole  In Israel it is believed to be declining in some areas through the use of agrochemicals. In Egypt, it is threatened by overgrazing, collection of firewood and quarrying.	eng
157280	conservation	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	The species probably occurs in a number of protected areas. It is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention (as part of <em>P. algirus</em>). Research is needed to determine the distribution limits of this species.	eng
157280	distribution	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	This species occurs in eastern Spain and southern France. Its western distribution limits (where it overlaps with <em>P. manuelae</em>) is imprecisely mapped and requires further clarification.	eng
157280	habitat	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	It occurs in coastal sand dunes, pine and oak forest and shrubland.	eng
157280	population	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	A widespread species that is common in suitable habitats. One population on a small island on the north-eastern coast of Spain has gone extinct.	eng
157280	threats	Iñigo Martínez-Solano, 2008	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
157281	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It has been included in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Ukrainian SSR (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). This may be a species complex containing a number of threatened species. Further taxonomic studies are required to resolve this and to identify any taxa needing conservation measures.	eng
157281	conservation	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	This species occurs in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. It has been included in the Red Data Books of the USSR and Ukrainian SSR (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). This may be a species complex containing a number of threatened species. Further taxonomic studies are required to resolve this and to identify any taxa needing conservation measures.	eng
157281	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	This species ranges from southeast Italy (Apulia and Basilicata), Albania (coastal region from Shkoder to Vlore), Serbia (Prizren), Macedonia, most of Greece (including the Ionian and many Aegean islands), southern and eastern Bulgaria, southern Ukraine (southern Crimea only), much of Turkey (Anatolia), Cyprus, northeastern, northern and western Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel, northwestern Jordan, ranging westwards and possibly into northern Iraq and western Iran. It has been introduced to Hungary (currently known only from a single house in Budapest and a second site at Balatonszeplak-felso). It is not present in Romania (László Krecsák pers. comm.). The species can be found up to 1,700m asl but is typically found at lower elevations.	eng
157281	distribution	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	This species ranges from southeast Italy (Apulia and Basilicata), Albania (coastal region from Shkoder to Vlore), Serbia (Prizren), Macedonia, most of Greece (including the Ionian and many Aegean islands), southern and eastern Bulgaria, southern Ukraine (southern Crimea only), much of Turkey (Anatolia), Cyprus, northeastern, northern and western Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel, northwestern Jordan, ranging westwards and possibly into northern Iraq and western Iran. It has been introduced to Hungary (currently known only from a single house in Budapest and a second site at Balatonszeplak-felso). It is not present in Romania (László Krecsák pers. comm.). The species can be found up to 1,700m asl but is typically found at lower elevations.	eng
157281	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	This species is found climbing or on the ground in dry, rocky or stony places. It can be found in scrubland, under the bark of old juniper trees, on cliffs, on stone walls and on the outside and inside of buildings.  In Serbia, it is found in old buildings. Over most of Israel and Jordan it is only recorded on tree trunks. The females lays about two eggs in a clutch.	eng
157281	habitat	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	This species is found climbing or on the ground in dry, rocky or stony places. It can be found in scrubland, under the bark of old juniper trees, on cliffs, on stone walls and on the outside and inside of buildings.  In Serbia, it is found in old buildings. Over most of Israel and Jordan it is only recorded on tree trunks. The females lays about two eggs in a clutch.	eng
157281	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	It is common over most of its range. In Serbia it is known from only a single town. In Greece, usually it is not found near human populations, but it is very common on small islands.	eng
157281	population	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	It is common over most of its range. In Serbia it is known from only a single town. In Greece, usually it is not found near human populations, but it is very common on small islands.	eng
157281	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumluta?, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2009	There are no major threats to this species over most of its range. Populations in the southern part of the range are threatened by deforestation through urbanization and agricultural development.	eng
157281	threats	Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Rastko Ajtic, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Idriz Haxhiu, Claudia Corti, Roberto Sindaco, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, 2008	There are no major threats to this species over most of its range. Populations in the southern part of the range are threatened by deforestation through urbanization and agricultural development.	eng
157282	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Göran Nilson, 2009	The Caucasian subspecies <em>G. h. caucasicus</em> was included into the Red Data Book of Turkmenistan (1985) as a rare subspecies (category 3); however, it is now excluded from the list of protected species (Red Data Book of Turkmenistan, 1999). This species has been recorded from many protected areas.	eng
157282	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Göran Nilson, 2009	This widespread snake generally ranges from the Caucasus and northern Iran, through Central and Middle Asia, to southeastern Russia, Mongolia and northeastern China.	eng
157282	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Göran Nilson, 2009	This species has been recorded from a number of habitats. Populations have been found in scrubland, mountain and hill habitats, forested areas and among rocks (Latifi, 1991). Between 3 to 14 young are born.	eng
157282	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Göran Nilson, 2009	This species is generally a common species within appropriate habitat; exceptionally it is uncommon in the Caucasus region.	eng
157282	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, Göran Nilson, 2009	It lowland parts of the species range populations may be threatened by overgrazing of their habitat by domestic livestock. It is generally not threatened in more montane localities.	eng
157283	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This species is listed on the Bern Convention. It occurs in a number of protected areas. Research is needed to resolve the taxonomy of this possible species complex (S. Baha El Din Pers. Comm.).	eng
157283	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	This very widespread species occurs in northern and northeastern Africa and west Asia, and in a few parts of southern Europe. In Africa it ranges from central Mauritania (single confirmed locality), Western Sahara (a single confirmed locality), southern, central and northeastern Morocco, Melilla and the Chafarinas Archipelago (Spain), through northern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya to northern Egypt, south along the Nile Valley to Sudan, with isolated populations in Chad, Niger, southern Algeria and Somalia. In West Asia it occurs in western and southern Turkey, western Syria, Lebanon, Israel, western and eastern Jordan, coastal parts of the Arabian peninsula (in Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Kuwait), and in Iraq, Iran, and southern Turkmenistan to western Pakistan. In Europe it is present in Italy (on the islands of Sardinia, Sicily, Lampedusa, Linosa, Lampione and Conigli; with mainland populations near to Naples), Malta, and a few parts of mainland Greece (and the islands of Crete, Chios, Kea, Euboea, Rhodes and Karpathos). It also occurs on Cyprus. It is found from sea level up to 2,500 m asl (Morocco). Records from Eritrea, Ethiopia and Kenya are now referred to other species	eng
157283	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	It is a highly adaptable species that is often associated with arid to moist sandy, open areas or places with sparse scrub. It is found in coastal dunes and stabilized vegetated dunes further inland and It is also found in orchards, vineyards, fields, oases, rural gardens and urban areas. A terrestrial species found close to ground cover such as stones and vegetation. It is largely nocturnal in the summer and diurnal in the winter. The females give birth to between two and twenty fully formed live young.	eng
157283	population	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	It is a very common species in many parts of its range. Some populations are expanding with land reclamation in arid areas, and the species is well able to colonize new areas wherever it is introduced.	eng
157283	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Tahar Slimani, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Ulrich Joger, El Hassan El Mouden, Philippe Geniez, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, Roberto Sindaco, 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Some populations may be locally threatened by overgrazing and intensification of agriculture, including the use of agrochemicals. It is heavily collected for the pet trade and scientific research in parts of its range (e.g. Egypt).	eng
157284	conservation	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Alexander Westerström, Cornelius C. De Haan, Varol Tok, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range in most western European states. The species is present in a number of European protected areas. It is included in the national Red Data Books of a number of counties. This species is currently categorized as Vulnerable in Poland (Bartosz Borczyk pers. comm.). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005).	eng
157284	distribution	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Alexander Westerström, Cornelius C. De Haan, Varol Tok, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species ranges from southern Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden where it is extremely fragmented and rare) and the Baltic region, southwards as scattered populations through western, central and eastern Europe (excluding most of mainland Denmark, parts of southwestern France, and much of southern Iberia), into northern Turkey (much of Anatolia, with some isolated southern populations), the Caucasus region, northern Iran (Central Province) and Kazakhstan. It is also present in southern England (United Kingdom), on the Italian islands of Elba and Sicily. In Spain the species has been recorded from the Sierra Nevada, and there is an voucher specimen in the EBD collection collected in the Cádiz province (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm. October 2008). It is found from sea level up to 2,750 m asl.	eng
157284	habitat	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Alexander Westerström, Cornelius C. De Haan, Varol Tok, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It is found in moorland, rocky coastlines, open woodland (deciduous, coniferous and mixed) and scrubland, hedgerows, woodland edges, heathland, sandy coastal sites, rocky areas, screes, subalpine and open areas with sparse vegetation. On the southern Iberian Peninsula and Greece it is largely restricted to upland or montane areas. Between two and 19 fully formed young (3.9 on average) are born at the end of August - October. The period of activity lasts from end of March - April to September - October but this varies largely according to latitude and altitude.	eng
157284	population	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Alexander Westerström, Cornelius C. De Haan, Varol Tok, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It can be generally common in southern parts of its range, but it can also be rare, with fragmented populations in many northern parts of its range. The species can be hard to detect and populations may be overlooked (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is always rare in southern Sweden, but it is extremely rare on the Baltic island of Åland (Alexander Westerström pers. comm.). In Switzerland, it is still relatively abundant in the Alps but there is a ongoing decline in the lowlands, mainly due to agricultural intensification (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). It is also extremely rare in the isolated populations of southern Iberian Peninsula (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008); on average, in some populations 500 hours of fieldwork are needed to find an individual (Santos <em>et al</em>. in press).	eng
157284	threats	Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Rastko Ajtic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Alexander Westerström, Cornelius C. De Haan, Varol Tok, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It is threatened in parts of its range by the intensification of agricultural practices, afforestation of open areas (e.g.. in Belgium) and fires in woodland or scrubland. Many populations are vulnerable because of their fragmented nature, and through  overgrowth of the species preferred open habitats (for instance, in abandoned traditional farmland). Populations from the southern Iberian Peninsula (Sierra Nevada) could be threatened by climate change and displacement by more competitive Mediterranean species (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). Intrinsic threats for southern populations include poor recruitment capacity, extremely low density, isolation of populations, and global climate warming (for mountain populations) (Juan M Pleguezuelos pers. comm., October 2008). While it is not collected, the species is sometimes persecuted through confusion with vipers.	eng
157285	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, 2009	This species is present in the Mount Hermon protected area. It is protected by Israeli national legislation.	eng
157285	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, 2009	This species has been recorded from central, eastern and southeastern Turkey, east to the southern Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, through Central and South Asia, into western Mongolia and northwestern China. There are isolated populations in northern Jordan, Lebanon (restricted to montane areas) and Mount Hermon, and it has been recorded from Greece (the island of Kos), but this might be a misidentification and requires further confirmation. In the north and east of its range the species has a continuous distribution, in the Near East it has a relictual montane range. It can occur from about 900m to 2,400m asl.	eng
157285	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, 2009	This species is found in sparsely vegetated, rocky or stony areas, in montane regions. It is not present in human modified areas. This species lays eggs.	eng
157285	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, 2009	In the north of its range it is quite common in montane areas; in the south it is a rare relictual species.	eng
157285	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, 2009	There are no major threats to the species in Turkey. Relictual southern populations are possibly threatened by overgrazing of habitat. It is regularly persecuted and this might especially impact relictual populations.	eng
157286	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	Other than research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole. In view of its wide range, it seems likely that the species is found within a number of protected areas.	eng
157286	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This widely distribtued lizard ranges from the Caucasus region in the west (including Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia), through Iran, Middla Asia and Central Asia, as far east as western China. Within Iran, this species occurs on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, valleys of the Kopet Dagh and scattered localities on the northern and western margins of the Central Plateau (Anderson 1999). In Pakistan, it is found from Waziristan westward through the Quetta region almost to Nushki (Minton 1966). It can occur up to around 2,300m asl (Pakistan).	eng
157286	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This diurnal species has been recorded in Iran from silty alluvium flats, among sparse scrub, steppe and grassland vegetation. It is also found in irrigated areas and dry stream beds (Minton, 1966; Anderson, 1999). In Middle Asia and Transcaucasia, populations are often associated with stabilized and semi-stable sandy soils, rocky steppes and foothills with sparse herbaceous and shrub vegetation. It is not found in extremely arid conditions (Minton, 1966). Animals generally live in burrows at the base of shrubs (Minton, 1966). Females lay two or three clutches of between two and six eggs annually.	eng
157286	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In general, it is a common, often locally abundant, species (up to 80-200 animals per hectare). It appears to be a common species in Pakistan (Minton, 1966).	eng
157286	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In some areas the species is threatened by habitat conversion due to expansion of intensive agriculture and overgrazing of its habitat.	eng
157287	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species occurs in numerous protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
157287	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species occurs in numerous protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
157287	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species ranges from southern Russia where it occurs in the northeastern Caucasus of Daghestan and Stavropol Territory, through eastern Georgia, Armenia, Azerbajian and northeastern Turkey (vicinity of Mount Ararat, eastern Anatolia), and from the Caspian coast of northern Iran into southwestern Turkmenistan (Baran and Atatur 1998; Anderson 1999). The species may be present in Iraq, although this requires confirmation (Anderson 1999). There is an isolated record of this lizard from Shiraz in southeastern Iran for which the identity has been confirmed (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from sea level up to 3,000m asl (Turkey). Until recently an isolated population existed in the area of Cape Pizunda in Abkhazia, Georgia.	eng
157287	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	This species ranges from southern Russia where it occurs in the northeastern Caucasus of Daghestan and Stavropol Territory, through eastern Georgia, Armenia, Azerbajian and northeastern Turkey (vicinity of Mount Ararat, eastern Anatolia), and from the Caspian coast of northern Iran into southwestern Turkmenistan (Baran and Atatur 1998; Anderson 1999). The species may be present in Iraq, although this requires confirmation (Anderson 1999). There is an isolated record of this lizard from Shiraz in southeastern Iran for which the identity has been confirmed (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from sea level up to 3,000m asl (Turkey). Until recently an isolated population existed in the area of Cape Pizunda in Abkhazia, Georgia.	eng
157287	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	Populations of this species have been found in areas with rushes, clay semi deserts, lowland and montane steppes, brush, shrubs and similar cover. Animals have been recorded from coastal dunes, hilly areas and pastureland containing some shrubby cover (Anderson 1999). In Turkey it is known from sparsely vegetated steppe plains, or slopes sometimes close to forests (Baran and Atatur 1998). The female lays between six and eleven eggs in a clutch (Baran and Atatur 1998), and lays two clutches each season.	eng
157287	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	Populations of this species have been found in areas with rushes, clay semi deserts, lowland and montane steppes, brush, shrubs and similar cover. Animals have been recorded from coastal dunes, hilly areas and pastureland containing some shrubby cover (Anderson 1999). In Turkey it is known from sparsely vegetated steppe plains, or slopes sometimes close to forests (Baran and Atatur 1998). The female lays between six and eleven eggs in a clutch (Baran and Atatur 1998), and lays two clutches each season.	eng
157287	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	Over most of the distribution range it is common or even abundant.	eng
157287	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	Over most of the distribution range it is common or even abundant.	eng
157287	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	In some places in the Caucasus the species is declining due to general habitat destruction.	eng
157287	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2009	In some places in the Caucasus the species is declining due to general habitat destruction.	eng
157288	conservation	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Vogrin, M., Corti, C., Pérez Mellado, V., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Kyek, M., Westerström, A., Nettmann, H.K., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B. & Schmidt, B., 2009	The species is included in the Red Data Books of numerous countries in the western part of its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in most of its range countries (all EU). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas over much of its range. Habitat restoration projects (e.g. Estonia) and reintroductions for the species (e.g. UK) are taking place in parts of its range. More research on its biology and threats and monitoring is needed.	eng
157288	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Martin Kyek, Alexander Westerström, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	The species is included into the Red Data Books of numerous countries in the western part of its range. It is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention, and on Annex IV of the European Union Habitat and Species Directive. It is protected by national legislation in most of its range countries (all EU). This species is categorized as Vulnerable in Switzerland (Monney and Meyer, 2005). It is present in a number of protected areas over much of its range. Habitat restoration projects (e.g.. Estonia) and reintroductions for the species (e.g.. UK) are taking place in parts of its range.	eng
157288	distribution	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Vogrin, M., Corti, C., Pérez Mellado, V., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Kyek, M., Westerström, A., Nettmann, H.K., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species ranges from northeastern Spain (isolated populations in the Pyrenees at around 1,800 m asl), France, the United Kingdom (isolated and fragmented populations in the south and the northwest), and southern Scandinavia (throughout Denmark and with a patchy distribution in central and southern Sweden), eastwards through Western, Central and Eastern Europe (where it is patchily distributed) into the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia and Eastern Asia, as far east as northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. In Europe it ranges south to the Italian Alps (a few populations in southwestern and northeastern Alps only), northern and eastern Albania and northern Greece (where populations are largely isolated in mountain ranges). It occurs up to at least 2,500 m asl (Bulgaria).	eng
157288	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Martin Kyek, Alexander Westerström, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	This species ranges from northeastern Spain (isolated populations in the Pyrenees at around 1,800m asl), France, the United Kingdom (isolated and fragmented populations in the south and the northwest), and southern Scandinavia (throughout Denmark and with a patchy distribution in central and southern Sweden), eastwards through Western, Central and Eastern Europe (where it is patchily distributed) into the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia and Eastern Asia, as far east as northwestern China and northwestern Mongolia. In Europe it ranges south to the Italian Alps (a very few populations in southwestern and northestern Alps only), northern and eastern Albania and northern Greece (where populations are largely isolated in mountain ranges). It occurs up to at least 2,500m asl (Bulgaria).	eng
157288	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Martin Kyek, Alexander Westerström, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It can be found in meadows, heathland, coastal dunes, grassland, steppe, subalpine and alpine meadows, shrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, in alpine areas, traditionally managed agricultural land and rural gardens. Sometimes it is present in sandy semi-desert areas. In the northwest of its range (e.g.. UK) it is largely restricted to open heathland and coastal dune habitats. The female may lay one or two clutches of between four and 14 eggs per year. Incubation period lasts 50 - 55 days.	eng
157288	habitat	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Vogrin, M., Corti, C., Pérez Mellado, V., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Kyek, M., Westerström, A., Nettmann, H.K., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species can be found in a wide range of habitat types including meadows, heathland, coastal dunes, grassland, steppe, subalpine and alpine meadows, shrubland, hedgerows, open woodland, in alpine areas, traditionally managed agricultural land and rural gardens. Sometimes it is present in sandy semi-desert areas. In the northwest of its range (e.g. UK) it is largely restricted to open heathland and coastal dune habitats. <br/><br/>It appears after hibernation in March in the North, in March - April in the South and at mountains. The female may lay one or two clutches of between four and 14 eggs per year. Incubation period lasts 50 - 55 days. Young of first generation appear in July - August, second - in September - October.	eng
157288	population	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Martin Kyek, Alexander Westerström, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It can be common in suitable habitat. It is locally declining in across its NW range (Benedikt Schmidt pers. comm.). In Sweden occurs along the southern coast in continuous populations, inland populations are tiny (5-10 individuals) and relictual.	eng
157288	population	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Vogrin, M., Corti, C., Pérez Mellado, V., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Kyek, M., Westerström, A., Nettmann, H.K., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species can be common in suitable habitat. It is locally declining in Switzerland (B. Schmidt pers. comm.). In Sweden it occurs along the southern coast in continuous populations, inland populations are tiny (5-10 individuals) and relictual. This species is undergoing local declines in Slovenia and Croatia (M. Vogrin pers. comm.).	eng
157288	threats	Aram Agasyan, Aziz Avci, Boris Tuniyev, Petros Lymberakis, Claes Andrén, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nazan Üzüm, Nikolai Orlov, Richard Podloucky, Sako Tuniyev, Uğur Kaya, Jelka Crnobrnja Isailovic, Milan Vogrin, Claudia Corti, Valentin Pérez Mellado, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Marc Cheylan, Juan Pleguezuelos, Martin Kyek, Alexander Westerström, Hans Konrad Nettmann, Bartosz Borczyk, Bogoljub Sterijovski, Benedikt Schmidt, 2009	It is threatened by habitat loss through urbanization, conversion to intensive agricultural use (especially the loss of hedgerows and other suitable habitats), coastal and alpine tourism development and the loss of traditional forestry practices, and unsustainable management. Many animals are killed on roads in parts of its range (e.g.. Austria). Some populations in Sweden are reported to be suffering from inbreeding depression due to a fragmented distribution (Olsson <em>et al</em>., 1996). There is some predation of animals by cats in urban areas. Open habitats, which this species requires, are being overgrown with vegetation. It is a threatened species in much of the northwest of its range, including the United Kingdom, Scandinavia and northern Germany.	eng
157288	threats	Agasyan, A., Avci, A., Tuniyev, B., Lymberakis, P., Andrén, C., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Üzüm, N., Orlov, N., Podloucky, R., Tuniyev, S., Kaya, U., Crnobrnja Isailovic, J., Vogrin, M., Corti, C., Pérez Mellado, V., Sá-Sousa, P., Cheylan, M., Pleguezuelos, J., Kyek, M., Westerström, A., Nettmann, H.K., Borczyk, B., Sterijovski, B. & Schmidt, B., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss through urbanization, conversion to intensive agricultural use (especially the loss of hedgerows and other suitable habitats), coastal and alpine tourism development and the loss of traditional forestry practices, and unsustainable management. Many animals are killed on roads in parts of its range (e.g. Austria). Some populations in Sweden are reported to be suffering from inbreeding depression due to a fragmented distribution (Olsson <em>et al</em>. 1996). There is some predation of animals by cats in urban areas. Open habitats, which this species requires, are being overgrown with vegetation. It is a threatened species in much of the northwest of its range, including the United Kingdom, Scandinavia and northern Germany.	eng
157289	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Wolfgang Böhme, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	It is known from protected areas in Tunisia, Egypt and elsewhere in its range. Further taxonomic studies are needed for this species. Research into the trade of this species in Egypt is needed. In Egypt the species is under notable decline and may be considered to be locally threatened. It is included into the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987) as a rare species, and is also included within the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982). In Russia it is listed in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) - "Annotated list of taxa and population required a special attention to their condition in the wildlife". The species is considered to be 'endangered' in Russia where it is found in only two localities within Southeastern Daghestan.	eng
157289	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Wolfgang Böhme, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	This species ranges from North Africa, where it is present in northeastern Algeria, central Tunisia, northern Libya and northern Egypt (including Sinai), into southwestern Asia where it is found in Israel, west and central Jordan, Lebanon, western Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, northeast into the Caucasus and Central Asian regions, where it is found in southern Russia, eastern Georgia, southern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan (restricted to the Mekram coast and Ormara and Astola islands [Minton, 1966]) and northwestern India. It also occurs on the island of Cyprus. It can be found up to 1,800 m asl (Turkey).	eng
157289	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Wolfgang Böhme, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	This species occurs in a wide range of arid habitat types, including Mediterranean shrubland, semi-desert and rocky areas. Animals are not foundin forested habitats. It can be found in open vegetation close to oases, in bushes and steppe grassland, sandy hills, dry cultivated land and semi-desert. The female lays a clutch of between three and 20 eggs.	eng
157289	population	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Wolfgang Böhme, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	It is locally common in good habitat, however it is usually fairly rare and dispersed. On the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, it is rare and localized.	eng
157289	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Philippe Geniez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Wolfgang Böhme, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sherif Baha El Din, C. Varol Tok, 2009	Numerous subspecies are declining across much of its range from habitat loss due to agricultural conversion. There are minimal threats to the species as a whole, and mostly from habitat loss and urbanization, but overall its status is secure. In Egypt it is threatened by heavy overcollection for the pet trade, and by overgrazing, quarrying, collection of firewood, land reclamation for agriculture and off-road vehicle use.	eng
157290	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place. It is recommended that restrictions are placed on visiting the islands, to prevent the introduction of new species that might prey upon <em>P. levendis</em> or destroy its habitat.	eng
157290	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is only found on the islets Pori and Lagouvardos, north of the island of Antikythira, between Crete and Peloponnesos (Greece).	eng
157290	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species occupies rocky areas and Mediterranean-type shrubland (frygana). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
157290	population	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Although the population size has not been quantified, it is presumably small overall, even though the species is common on the larger of the two islets.	eng
157290	threats	Petros Lymberakis, 2008	There are no threats known to affect the species at present, but it would be highly vulnerable to introduced predators (e.g. cats), or to the introduction of goats which would severely overgraze the species' habitat.	eng
157291	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is present in protected areas in Turkey and Greece. No further conservation actions are needed.	eng
157291	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is present in protected areas in Turkey and Greece. No further conservation actions are needed.	eng
157291	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This widespread species ranges from the islands of Rhodes, Symi, Kos and Samos (Greece) through much of Turkey (except the north). It is found up to 1,200m asl.	eng
157291	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This widespread species ranges from the islands of Rhodes, Symi, Kos and Samos (Greece) through much of Turkey (except the north). It is found up to 1,200m asl.	eng
157291	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is found in rocky and well vegetated areas that are often close to water. It can be found in cultivated land, among ruins and in rural gardens. It is an ovoviviparous species, the female gives birth to between three and eight young.	eng
157291	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is found in rocky and well vegetated areas that are often close to water. It can be found in cultivated land, among ruins and in rural gardens. It is an ovoviviparous species, the female gives birth to between three and eight young.	eng
157291	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is common in Turkey, but is uncommon in Greece (where it is on the edge of its range).	eng
157291	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is common in Turkey, but is uncommon in Greece (where it is on the edge of its range).	eng
157291	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There do not appear to be any threats to this widespread species.	eng
157291	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2009	There do not appear to be any threats to this widespread species.	eng
157292	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. The species is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is protected on territory of several reserves: Khosrov, Erebuni, Dilijan (Armenia), Vashlovany (Georgia), Gyrkansky, Shakhbuzsky (Azerbaijan).	eng
157292	conservation	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention. It is present in many protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in parts of its range. The species is included into the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). It is protected on territory of several reserves: Khosrov, Erebuni, Dilijan (Armenia), Vashlovany (Georgia), Gyrkansky, Shakhbuzsky (Azerbaijan).	eng
157292	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2008	This species is found on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Alzonisi, Kalymnos, Leros, Symi and Megisti (= Kastelorizo) of eastern Greece, through most of Turkey (on the mainland and small rocky islands), eastwards into the Caucasus Mountains of south Russia, eastern Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.  Records from Iran (Central Province and Zanjhan Province) and Iraq should be verified.  Records from Israel, Lebanon and Syria are now considered to refer to Eirenis levantinus. It is not present on Cyprus. It ranges up to 2,500m asl (in Anatolia).	eng
157292	distribution	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2009	This species is found on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Alzonisi, Kalymnos, Leros, Symi and Megisti (= Kastelorizo) of eastern Greece, through most of Turkey (on the mainland and small rocky islands), eastwards into the Caucasus Mountains of south Russia, eastern Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.  Records from Iran (Central Province and Zanjhan Province) and Iraq should be verified.  Records from Israel, Lebanon and Syria are now considered to refer to Eirenis levantinus. It is not present on Cyprus. It ranges up to 2,500m asl (in Anatolia).	eng
157292	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2008	This species occurs in a wide variety of dry, rocky areas with sparse vegetation. It can be also be found in woodland, fallow agricultural land and cultivated areas. It spends most of its time under stones. The female lays between three and eight eggs in a clutch. Oviposition for Armenia occurs between the second part of June and July; the young appear in July.	eng
157292	habitat	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2009	This species occurs in a wide variety of dry, rocky areas with sparse vegetation. It can be also be found in woodland, fallow agricultural land and cultivated areas. It spends most of its time under stones. The female lays between three and eight eggs in a clutch. Oviposition for Armenia occurs between the second part of June and July; the young appear in July.	eng
157292	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2008	It is generally a common species.  In Iran, this species is rare. The ecology and status of population has not been investigated widely.	eng
157292	population	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2009	It is generally a common species.  In Iran, this species is rare. The ecology and status of population has not been investigated widely.	eng
157292	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species over most of its range. In Dagestan, its habitat is being converted to agricultural use.	eng
157292	threats	Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species over most of its range. In Dagestan, its habitat is being converted to agricultural use.	eng
157293	conservation	Cheylan, M., Corti, C., Sindaco, R. & Romano, A., 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive and is protected by national legislation in France and Italy. It occurs in several protected areas.	eng
157293	distribution	Cheylan, M., Corti, C., Sindaco, R. & Romano, A., 2008	This species is restricted to the islands of Corsica (France) and Sardinia (Italy), and on most of the adjacent smaller islands. It occurs from sea level to over 1,800 m asl.	eng
157293	habitat	Cheylan, M., Corti, C., Sindaco, R. & Romano, A., 2008	This species is found in arid scrubland, maquis, rocky areas, scree, open woodland, field edges, sandy coastal places with vegetation and occasionally in traditionally cultivated fields. The females lay clutches of six to 12 eggs.	eng
157293	population	Cheylan, M., Corti, C., Sindaco, R. & Romano, A., 2008	The species is locally abundant, chiefly in mountainous areas, but there is some evidence that it might be locally decreasing. It may be abundant on small islands.	eng
157293	threats	Cheylan, M., Corti, C., Sindaco, R. & Romano, A., 2008	The species is not threatened as a whole, but insular populations are potentially threatened by introduction of predators or overcollection. <em>Podarcis siculus</em> (probably introduced in Sardinia in historical times) perhaps out competes this species when the habitat is opened for agricultural land and pastoral land. It is probably also affected by fire and land-use change.	eng
157294	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is present in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to establish a protected area for this species and other relictual species in Sinai, Egypt. In the rest of its range, no further conservation actions are needed.	eng
157294	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2009	It is present in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to establish a protected area for this species and other relictual species in Sinai, Egypt. In the rest of its range, no further conservation actions are needed.	eng
157294	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is present in Turkey (widespread in southern and southeastern parts), Greece (the Aegean islands of Rhodos, Symi, Chalki, Tilos, Patmos, Kalymnos, Kos, Leros, Nisyros and Megisti [= Kastelorizo]), Cyprus, much of Syria (except the east), Lebanon  (including Palm ilet), much of Israel (except the southwest), western Jordan, the northeast Sinai Peninsula, Egypt (Gebel El Halal), northern and eastern Iraq, and western Iran. There are possible records of this species from Kuwait (perhaps represent introductions). It is found up to 1,000m asl.	eng
157294	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is present in Turkey (widespread in southern and southeastern parts), Greece (the Aegean islands of Rhodos, Symi, Chalki, Tilos, Patmos, Kalymnos, Kos, Leros, Nisyros and Megisti [= Kastelorizo]), Cyprus, much of Syria (except the east), Lebanon  (including Palm ilet), much of Israel (except the southwest), western Jordan, the northeast Sinai Peninsula, Egypt (Gebel El Halal), northern and eastern Iraq, and western Iran. There are possible records of this species from Kuwait (perhaps represent introductions). It is found up to 1,000m asl.	eng
157294	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is found in lowland mountain areas in a wide variety of habitats including arid open areas, meadows, rocky  and stony regions, swampy areas, open woodland, beaches, vineyards, agricultural land and ruins. The females lay between seven and 11 eggs.	eng
157294	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This species is found in lowland mountain areas in a wide variety of habitats including arid open areas, meadows, rocky  and stony regions, swampy areas, open woodland, beaches, vineyards, agricultural land and ruins. The females lay between seven and 11 eggs.	eng
157294	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This is a common species over much of its range. There is only a single record from Egypt.	eng
157294	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2009	This is a common species over much of its range. There is only a single record from Egypt.	eng
157294	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There is some local persecution of this species as there is for most snakes. In Egypt it is threatened by quarrying, overgrazing and possibly by collection for the pet trade.  This species is collected for use snake charming performances.  It is considered a useful predator of mice and other agricultural pests.	eng
157294	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Uğur Kaya, 2009	There are no major threats to this widespread species. There is some local persecution of this species as there is for most snakes. In Egypt it is threatened by quarrying, overgrazing and possibly by collection for the pet trade.  This species is collected for use snake charming performances.  It is considered a useful predator of mice and other agricultural pests.	eng
157295	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2009	This species has been recorded from protected areas in Jordan, Lebanon, Cyprus and Turkey. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. The Caucasian subspecies are included into the Red Data Books of Kazakhstan (1996)  (category 2) and the Russian Federation (2001) - category and status 2. There is a need to develop education programmes for the conservation of this species throughout its range. Populations on Cyprus should be monitored. The isolated population in Jordan is considered to be threatened.	eng
157295	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2009	This species ranges from southwestern Jordan (where there appears to be an isolated population) and Israel (where it is extinct), north to southern and eastern Turkey, eastwards through the Caucasus Mountains (in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, southern Russia), Iran, and Iraq to Central Asia as far west as Kashmir. It is also present in Cyprus. Records from Saudi Arabia are misidentifications (W. Böhme pers. comm.). The subspecies, <em>Macrovipera l. transmediterranea</em>, has also been recorded from isolated relict populations in Algeria and Tunisia. However, these North Africa records appear to be based on old specimens without precise distributional details (populations not mapped here), or collection localities, and their occurrence has never been confirmed (R. Sindaco in litt.. October 2008). It can occur from sea level up to 2,500 m asl.	eng
157295	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2009	This species is known from semi-arid stony slopes, rocky ravines, dry foothills and mountain valleys. It is found in the very diverse desert and montane-steppe biotopes. Populations can be found in grassland and cultivated areas, in shrubland, in open pistachio woodlands, on the banks of irrigation channels and it is regularly recorded close to small water courses. It is an ovoviviparous species, females give birth to between 8 and 43 live young.	eng
157295	population	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2009	This species is very common in Lebanon, widespread but rare in Turkey and rare in Jordan. The species appears to be very rare in North Africa. It is now extinct in Israel, this extinction may be linked to a recent reduction in precipitation levels. In the Transcaucasian area it is locally a common species, although in the northern Caucasian area it is very rare.	eng
157295	threats	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Dan Cogalniceanu, John Wilkinson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Wolfgang Böhme, Petros Lymberakis, Varol Tok, Ismail H. Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2009	This large viper is generally persecuted throughout its range. The species is heavily persecuted in Cyprus, principally for sport, and may be threatened on the island although new legislation and active public awareness campaigns aim to protect the species. If they are found to exist, the populations in North Africa are relictual with very restricted ranges and may be significantly threatened by persecution. There is some illegal exportation of this species for the pet trade from Turkey. Locally the populations have been seriously affected by intensive collecting for venom. Lowland populations in Central Asia are declining because of habitat conversion from agriculture and associated irrigation schemes; populations in montane regions where there is little development are more stable.	eng
157473	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are needed.<br/></p>	eng
157473	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species occurs throughout much of Europe, from southern Europe and Circum-Mediterranean, extending northwards into central and western Europe. It is widespread in Spain (Verdugo 2004, Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), Cyprus and Italy, but in Portugal it is only present in the south, in particular there are only three localities known (Serrano 1981, Zuzarte 1983). In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. It has been reported from the European part of Turkey without exact locality documented (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is also found in all Caucasus, Minor Asia, Iran and northern Africa.    <p><br/></p>	eng
157473	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Larvae develop in dead wood of a wide variety of tree and shrub species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Cytisus, Pistacea, Ceratonia, </span>rarely some <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>; in Cyprus it has been reared from dead branches of <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>, <em>Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris. </em>. The adults are active in V-VIII (and in VII as the latest). It lives in temperate forests and shrub-lands, and is common in pre-littoral areas. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Cyprus it is found in<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>   orchards, maquis, garigue and forests. It is very common in old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua.</em>&#160;<em></em></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157473	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>  It seems to be common in Cyprus and Italy while in Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Portugal there are only three localities known (Serrano 1981, Zuzarte 1983).	eng
157473	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no known major threats to this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157474	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas.   Further studies are needed into the specific habitat requirements, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.</p>	eng
157474	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is endemic to the Balkans. In Greece it is found in Crete and Ikaria (Bense 1995). </span><span style="background-color: white;">Records from Greece are for sub-species: in Ikaria (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">S. s. similatus</span><span style="background-color: white;">) and Crete (</span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;">S. s. mehli</span><span style="background-color: white;">) (Sama 2002).</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="font-style: italic; background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white;">This species is also present in Bulgaria and Romania. In Cyprus it is widespread</span><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p><span style="background-color: white;"></span><br/></p>	eng
157474	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been </st1:place></st1:country-region>found in orchards, maquis, garrigue, and forests; adults feed at various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Its larval development situation is unknown. Its precise habitat is suspected to be similar to that of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. flavicornis </span>however its Extent of Occurrence  is smaller than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. flavicornis</span> so it is suspected that it may have more specific habitat requirements but these are not well known. More research is needed. Adults are active in May - June (Bense 1995).	eng
157474	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout most of its range but it is not common. Trends are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157474	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available - more information on specific habitat of species is needed before threats can be understood.<br/></p>	eng
157475	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157475	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in Europe in the south of Russia.	eng
157475	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.	eng
157475	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157475	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157476	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). No specific measures are needed.<br/></p><p>In the UK the conservation status of this species in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> is 'Nationally Scarce' (Hyman and Parsons 1992); no specific actions are in place but its habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157476	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This Eurosiberian species is widespread throughout all Europe except the far south-west. A Palaearctic species, with two subspecies described (one in Japan only) (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine and Hungary it is widespread throughout; also in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). It is widespread in Britain and Ireland.	eng
157476	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decaying wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and probably other tree species; they pupate at end of season and overwinter in the adult stage. Adults active May and June (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine pupation takes place in VII-VIII; adults have been found on branches of trees or&#160; feeding at flowers of grasses and bushes (Dolin 1988). In Denmark also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs in all forest ecosystems, also in isolated groups of trees from lowlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of broad-leaved forests, also in pine plantations, orchards, city parks, suburbs wherever dead wood is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-GB">Primarily associated with ancient wood pastures in Britain, also widely known from birches around peatlands in Britain and Ireland (Alexander 2002).	eng
157476	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	A common species in at least parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is considered likely to be stable.<br/><br/>It has a very fragmented distribution within its British and Irish ranges, with many small isolated populations (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is very common; also common in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The species is common in all suitable habitats in Hungary, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157476	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>This species faces no major threats at present. Loss of old trees and decaying wood can be a threat to this species.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157477	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.<br/></p>	eng
157477	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	In Europe, this species is found in Spain and Cyprus. It has been recorded from the Balearic Islands (Spain), where it is possibly introduced. It is widespread in northern Africa and south-western Asia (Arab countries, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan). Its Area of Occupancy in Spain is 700   <span lang="EN-GB">km² (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). There are seven known sites in Spain. Occurs from sea level to 1,100 m.	eng
157477	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are polyphagous, and occupy (and consume) the deadwood of a variety of woody plant species including date palm (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix dactylifera</span>), tamarisk (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix gallica</span>) and even bamboos. Adults are nocturnal (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). </p>	eng
157477	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>Typically few specimens are found. However, it is not known whether this is because the species is uncommon, or because collecting techniques are inadequate.<br/></p>	eng
157477	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species has relatively generalist habitat preferences and is not thought to face any major threats at present.<p></p>	eng
157478	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157478	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is found in Europe only in southern Russia. It is also present in Near East.	eng
157478	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>	eng
157478	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157478	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>No information available. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157479	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It does not appear to occur in any protected areas. Further research is needed to determine what current and potential threats are present for this species.<br/></p>	eng
157479	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Endemic to the Canary Islands. Known from Tenerife, La Gomera, and El Hierro. Reported from five sites by Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007).	eng
157479	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in the deadwood of juniper trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span> sp.) in woodland, but no information is available on any requirements for canopy open-ness.<br/></p>	eng
157479	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157479	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157480	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>It is present in one protected area. This species is included in the Red List of Poland as Data Deficient (2002), in the Red List of Germany as Extinct (2009) and in the Red List of Finland as Data Deficient (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).</p>	eng
157480	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is a rare species of north and central-Europe, and is known from Finland, Belarus, European Russia and European Kazakhstan. There is only one record from northern Finland (Lapland) in 1984. Old records from Germany and Poland are doubtful or represent imported specimens but more recent records for Poland show that it is currently present in Poland (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009). There is an old record (after 1950) from Germany in Brandenburg, but now the species is considered Extinct according to the German Red List (2009). This species is also present in Siberia, northern Mongolia, northern China and reported from North Korea; introduced into Japan (Sama 2002).	eng
157480	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous on broad-leaved trees. Larvae feed under the bark on dead branches and stems of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>; adults live on the host trees (Sama 2002). On the basis that this species is extremely rare in Finland and rare in Poland, it is suspected to have very specific habitat requirements (P. Tykarski and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009), possibly requiring very old dead broad-leaved trees.	eng
157480	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is extremely rare in Finland and rare in Poland. Due to its very specific habitat requirements of very old broad-leaved trees - which are known to be in decline throughout Europe - it is thought that the population trend is decreasing.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157480	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The major threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality which is a particular concern for this species which requires specific habitat (large, old, dead broad-leaved trees), involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Habitat loss is likely to be driven by exploitation from forestry, and land use changes possibly from road building (P. Tykarski and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157481	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157481	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2005, it is known from two sites in the centre of the country (Zapata and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).	eng
157481	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.	eng
157481	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157481	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157482	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157482	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 1995; the type locality (the only site known) is in the extreme southern part of the country (Wurst 1995).	eng
157482	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements.	eng
157482	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157482	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157483	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	It is present in several protected areas and no conservation actions are needed.	eng
157483	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found from Italy to Ukraine, reaching as well southern Russia (Caucasus) and further east into western Asia.	eng
157483	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species known from many regions of forest, forest-steppe, steppe zones (Ukraine) and in Crimea (Drogvalenko 2001). More common in forest than in steppe. It is polyphagous on the fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi. While it is obligatory mycetophagous, beetles develop on numerous xylotrophic fungi - T<span style="font-style: italic;">rametes, Pleurotus, Polyporus, Laetiporus, Daedaleopsis, Bjerkandera, Antrodia, Exidia, Chondrostereum</span>. Imago often found under dead bark on micellar mould of fungi (Drogvalenko 2001).	eng
157483	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is a common species, with adults easy to find on fungi and bark of trees, the population trend is stable because the fungi it requires (obligatory mycetophagous) are common throughout its range.	eng
157483	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species is polyphagous on wood fungi which are common throughout its range so it is not thought to be threatened.<br/></p>	eng
157484	conservation	Campanaro, A., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Research is recommended but no other specific measures are needed.<br/></p>	eng
157484	distribution	Campanaro, A., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is distributed in southern Europe, and is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is widespread over much of Spain but it is absent from the far west (Vives 2001). In Portugal it is known from three northern sites (only one recent) and one (old) southern site. In France it only occurs in the Mediterranean region, and in Ukraine it is only present in in Crimea. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (west, south and central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan.	eng
157484	habitat	Campanaro, A., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species. Larvae develop in dry deadwood of a variety of tree species including <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Ficus, Pistacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus, Vitis, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus. </span>Adults are active in VI-VIII. In Cyprus it has been reported from old   orchards, maquis and forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is found in Mediterranean forests in low and medium altitude.<br/></p>	eng
157484	population	Campanaro, A., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This species is widespread and common in most of its range but its population trend is unknown. In particular it is common in Italy and France. However in Portugal it is very scarce as it has been recorded from three old and one very recent locality (Grosso-Silva 2000). In Ukraine it is rare and in Cyprus it is not common although<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/></p>	eng
157484	threats	Campanaro, A., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>      </p><p>There are no major threats to this species. Locally, populations can be threatened by fires.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157485	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed, however an effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). <br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary and it is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).	eng
157485	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B. , 2009	This species is widespread across Europe, in central and south-eastern Europe as far west as France and parts of Spain and Portugal; not present in the north (Bense 1995). It is also found in Minor Caucasus and northern Iran. <br/><br/>In Romania it is widespread, and in Hungary this species is distributed in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it has been recorded from only two sites in the north (one in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the other in the early 1980s) (Oliveira 1893, Zuzarte 1983). In Germany there are only old records before 1900 or 1950 from southern, middle and eastern German states: Bayern, Hessen, Rheinland-Pflaz, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Niedersachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt and Sachsen, and one record after 1950 from Baden-Württemberg. In Switzerland it is only present in the south. It is Extinct in Poland. It has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and Kırklareli, in European Turkey (Malmusi and Saltini 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157485	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The female beetles lay eggs on the bark of thin dead dry branches (diameter 2-3 cm) attached to dead trees or on living trees, but not fallen branches. The larvae hatch after three or four days and develop in the dead wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Ulmus</em><em>, </em><em>Paliurus, </em><em>&#160;Quercus, Robinia, Salix, Castanea, Fagus, Populus, Prunus, Amygdalus</em>). Pupation in spring in the wood, three weeks duration; the adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host plants and feeding at flowers. The life cycle is two or three years.<br/><p>    </p><p>In Hungary it lives in light thermophilous oak forests (Turkey oak and white oak). In Romania it has been reported from oak forests and also occurs in the plain forests, up to beech forest, also in old orchards with <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in thermophilic broadleaved forests and open stands. In Slovakia it has been found in orchards. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157485	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B. , 2009	This is a difficult species to find and study as it lives in the canopy level of trees. <br/><br/>In France it is widespread, common in the south but declining in the north. In Italy it is widespread and common, on mainland and Sicily, not present in Sardinia. In Spain it is very localized, not abundant (30 localities). In the Czech Republic is very rare, nearly Extinct and recent records are reported from warmer areas. In Slovakia it is common. In Ukraine it is&#160; local but relatively not rare. In Romania it is not rare. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.	eng
157485	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species, it is using a common habitat. Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (e.g. Hungary). Also replacement of native oak forests with others species of trees poses a threat.	eng
157486	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157486	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is widespread from Caucasus to northern Iran (Sama 1995). Its European range is in south-western Russia.	eng
157486	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>	eng
157486	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157486	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available. Specific threats are unknown, but likely threats would be habitat loss from logging for timber and fuel.<br/></p>	eng
157487	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Protection of open stands with old <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, as the species prefers thick and sturdy trees, continuation of the stand management and pollarding of trees are conservation measures that should be promoted for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>In Hungary most of the known localities fall within protected areas; an effective protection of the maple stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006) and in Germany (2009).	eng
157487	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is an Endemic species to Europe that is widespread across central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Hungary it is very rare in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is largely distributed along the north-eastern border of the country (Alsace, Jura, Rhône-Alps); it is not overlapping the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. insubricus</span> (Bense 1995, Villiers 1978). In Germany the records are after 1950 from Baden-Württemberg, Bayern and Nordrhein-Westfalen, and old records from before 1950 from Sachsen-Anhalt, Thüringen and Sachsen. It is extinct in Switzerland.	eng
157487	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dying or dead branches and trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>, rarely also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus, Fraxinus, Alnus, Fagus, Salix</span>), and pupate in the wood; the species prefers thick and sturdy trees. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. The beetle prefers solitary trees or open stands of trees, at the edges of forests or coppices, and pollarded trees - the trees of the old cultural landscape are important rather than forest trees.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is found in old undisturbed forests where old maples are found. In the Czech Republic it lives in open stand trees, open canopy and does not like shade. In France larvae are xylophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer pseudoplatanus</span>; they use trunks and large branches, also the exposed roots (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157487	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>This species is rare throughout its range and has a very scattered distribution.<br/></p>  In Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is very rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is a rare species but with a large distribution. In Italy there are 30 localized populations in mainland Italy. In Romania there is only one record from before 1900.	eng
157487	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Shading of habitat and loss of traditional management systems are major threats to this species.<br/></p>  In Hungary habitat loss is a main threat. Removal of maples from the forests is the main cause if the rarity of this species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France habitat loss, especially of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> in hedges of the agricultural landscape and forests.	eng
157488	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In Hungary, old orchards should be protected and sustained. However, as the species occurs in natural habitats, including those in protected areas as well, no more specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been found inside protected areas, for example in south-western Romania, near the Danube river, therefore it is expected that a good management plan of these protected areas will be useful (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157488	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout much of Europe from the Mediterranean, south and central Europe to southern Russia. In Ukraine, this species is found from the forest-steppe zone to Crimea. In Hungary, it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountain areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) while in Romania, it is widespread in the plain areas, hills and low mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in the Caucasus, Iran, Syria and Turkey.	eng
157488	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  The larvae of this species develop in thin dead twigs on a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Staphylea, Quercus, Juglans, Castanea, Prunus, Rosa, Rubus, Amygdalis, Morus, Pistacia</em>). The life cycle lasts at least two years. Adults are found in IV-VI, on host plant. This species is mainly crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>In Hungary, it occurs mainly in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species has been observed during the day on the dead oak branches and leaves, sometimes in association with other longhorn beetles, <span style="font-style: italic;">Exocentrus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">adspersus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leiopus nebulosus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
157488	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracilis</span> is rather rare throughout much of its range and found only in a few localities. <br/><br/>In Germany, this species is only found in eastern states while in Italy it shows a scattered distribution and few populations. In the Czech Republic, it is a very rare species, local and mostly found in the south-east. In Slovakia, it is less rare than in the Czech Republic and found only in the warmer part in the south of the country. In Romania, there has only been a few records, therefore it is suspected that the population is genuinely declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. gracilis</span> is difficult to find, therefore no information is available about population size and trend (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Ukraine, it is a relatively rare species.	eng
157488	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.<p>In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of the removal of dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. The disappearance of old orchards is more threatening (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, logging and human settlement are the major threats (P. Istrate pers.comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157489	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	More research on the habitat preference of this species is needed. <br/><br/>Several localities are in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic.	eng
157489	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is found in patchy distributions throughout much of Europe, in southern, central and eastern Europe; but absent in the north. <br/><br/>It also occurs in Minor Asia, Caucasus, northern Iran and southern Turkmenia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in the hilly and lower mountainous regions. In Romania it occurs in the warm areas from the south where large forests are preserved. In Italy it is present in mainland, Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
157489	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead decaying trunks of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., but also in other host-plants such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, often associated with ants. Larval development in ant hills outside of trees might be possible, and has been reported in the Ukraine. In Ukraine larvae develop in ant-hills of <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus</span>, which occur in decayed wood, stubs and the ground of forest; the adults are active in V-VIII, often feeding at flowers in broad-leaved forests and gardens (they prefer glades and edges)  (Medvedev 1964). It flies slow, easy to observe and catch (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens, Quercus cerris </span>forest, spread on limestone areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in turkey oak-sessile oak and white oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157489	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The population size and trends appears to vary across its European range, from common in Ukraine and the south of France (Paulian and Baraud 1982) to Spain where there are a few small isolated populations known (Micó and Galante 2002) and Germany where there are only three old records before 1950 in three States (Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Niedersachsen). In France it used to be very rare in the west (Gironde) 30 years ago, however now the species is very abundant (Paulian and Baraud 1982). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as not very rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common only in the south-western part; in the central part it occurs where thermophilous <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> are present, on the slopes of small mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009 ). Probably the same situation in other parts of the Balkans. In Greece it is present in many localities.	eng
157489	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	As it is not clear precisely what the larvae need - decaying wood, ant nests or both - it is not possible to assess any potential threats. In Hungary its broad habitat, thermophilous oak forests, are threatened by urban encroachment. Dead and hollow trunks are also often removed from the forests as part of the forestry management.	eng
157490	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species occurs in some protected areas in Crimea and in a few small protected areas in Romania.	eng
157490	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in south-eastern Europe. It has been reported from south-eastern Romania in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), in the eastern part of Bulgaria and in Crimea. It is also found in Caucasus and Minor Asia.	eng
157490	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in deciduous broad-leaved forests and the larvae develop in decaying wood.  Imago active in VI-VIII, often in forests (glades, edges) and gardens feeding at different flowers. In Romania, it is only present in the glade forests near the dry valley in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157490	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is common and the population is thought to be stable.	eng
157490	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157491	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place other than general FSC guidelines. This species occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK).	eng
157491	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Holarctic species is widespread across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also found in the Caucasus, northern Africa (Algeria) and Iran.<br/><br/>In Britain it has a very disjunct distribution, widespread in the English lowlands and in the Caledonian forest areas of Scotland, but absent elsewhere (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157491	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Develops in fungal fruiting bodies on various broad-leaved trees. Adults may be found feeding at bracket fungi, irrespective of larval hosts.(Alexander 2000). In Ukraine the larvae usually develop in the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus obliquus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">I. cuticularius;&#160; </span>the adult beetles may be found on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Polyporus squamosus, Russula rosea, Flammulina fomentarius, Pleurotus calyptratus</span>, but<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996). In Britain, the larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus hispidus </span>on ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>in the south and east lowlands, while preferring <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius </span>on birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>in the Caledonian forest areas of Scotland.&#160; Also reported from other broad-leaved trees, without reference to the associated fungus&#160; (Alexander 2000). In Hungary this species occurs almost always on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius.</span><br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broadleaved forests. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>UK sites include ancient wood pastures and woodlands, historic parklands, and traditional orchards (Alexander 2000).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157491	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread species that is common in many parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In Britain there are two large populations, almost certainly genetically distinct; strong numbers in both (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Portugal there is a single recent record from the central area, near the western Atlantic coast (Aguiar and Serrano 1995).	eng
157491	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European scale.<br/></p>	eng
157492	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005). In Ukraine, it may be required to create protected areas for this species. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157492	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This Euro-Anatolian species occurs throughout much of Europe, in the north reaching Scandinavia (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians (not in the high mountains) and in the forest-steppe zone. In Spain this species is cited as present without specific localities in a check-list of Iberian Elateridae (Sánchez-Ruiz 1996); presence recently confirmed in the north of Spain (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The species is considered Extinct in Denmark (2005). It is also found in Minor Asia.	eng
157492	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The larvae develop in decayed (red-rotted) heartwood of a wide range of broad-leaved trees, but especially oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. Pupation take place in VII-VIII; after this the beetles hibernate. The adult is active in V-VII the following year. The adult is usually found during the day sheltering under bark or in cracks of decayed wood; it flies at twilight. In Hungary this species prefers willow galleries along rivers and streams; also in alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it inhabits alluvial woodlands and vegetation near rivers in highlands and moist localities of the forest-steppe zone (Laibner 2000). It is reported to be confined to mountainous areas in the south of its range.	eng
157492	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	A few European states hold strong populations, but it is local and rare in most. In Hungary it is widespread all over the country and it is not uncommon and the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic the species is reported from four or five areas. In the Slovak Republic there are many records from six areas; it is a localized species but its niches are rather numerous (Laibner 2000). In Spain there is a single locality known, in the Pyrenees (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In France it is considered a rare species. In Italy there are five scattered records throughout the country. In Ukraine this species is relatively not rare, but local.	eng
157492	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary the species is not threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157493	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157493	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in mainland Greece. There is just one record from Chalkidiki Peninsula (type material).	eng
157493	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It presumably lives in deciduous forests and trees, developing in the deadwood of small trunks and large branches of oaks.	eng
157493	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157493	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157494	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
157494	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Holarctic species (Laibner 2000) occurs throughout most of Europe; it is absent in far south-western Europe. It is also present in Near East and in the Nearctic region.	eng
157494	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying wood (last stages of&#160; decay) in stubs and trunks (Dolin 1988); in heart-rot of pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and probably other trees too; pupation at end of June-August; the adult beetle overwinters in the pupal cell and becomes active in V-VI, and is found on grasses and bushes. The life cycle is three years (Dolin 1988). In Denmark larvae develop especially in dead wood and under bark of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span> (O. Martin pers. comm. 2009, National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>It lives in evergreen forest from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In the UK it can be found in a wide variety of wooded habitats in the cultural landscape, including Caledonian pine forest, but also wooded fringes to raised mires, etc (Alexander 2002). In the Ukraine it lives in conifer forests only.	eng
157494	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A common species in at least parts of its range. In Denmark it is widespread but not common (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range, with the main centre of distribution in Scotland, but with many outlying smaller populations across England and Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians and is a common species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common (Laibner 2000); and in Finland and Sweden it is very common.	eng
157494	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species faces no major threats at present.	eng
157495	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157495	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in the Greek Mediterranean island of Crete. Two specimens have been collected from different localities (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157495	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. One specimen was found in a rotten <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> stump (P. Cate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157495	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157495	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157496	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., Tezcan, S.,, 2009	As it is found in protected areas&#160; no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania was reported from non-protected areas. The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Italian Red List.	eng
157496	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., Tezcan, S.,, 2009	This species is widely distributed across south-eastern Europe, from Italy to Turkey. It also occurs in the Caucasus, northern Africa and northern Iran. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There are few records in lowlands areas of Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157496	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., Tezcan, S.,, 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is mostly found in coastal to hilly situations (up to about 1,000 m); in southern Turkey up to 2,000 m. Larvae develop on <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, occasionally on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus</span>, in Lebanon on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>, feeding under bark on weakened, sometimes apparently healthy trees, often at ground level or underground. Adults are active on host-plants after dark (Sama 2002). Juniper is absent in the lowlands in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in III-VI.<br/><br/>.	eng
157496	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., Tezcan, S.,, 2009	While this species is rare in Ukraine and Romania, it is locally common in areas of Hungary and the trees it inhabits - Juniper and Cyprus - are fairly widespread and common throughout Europe. Juniper is in decline (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009) but overall this habitat is thought to be stable and the experts infer that the population of the species is stable. In Ukraine, it was recorded in the Carpathian region 60 years ago and 20-30 years ago in Crimea (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157496	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., Tezcan, S.,, 2009	In Hungary, this species is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><br/>In Romania, it is threatened by the removal of host trees where it occurs (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157497	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157497	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	In Europe the species is found in southern Albania and Greece. It is also known from the northern slopes of the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Turkey and Turkmenistan.	eng
157497	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in deciduous forests,&#160; predominantly in the decaying wood of old oaks.	eng
157497	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is a local and rare species and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>	eng
157497	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Loss of deciduous forest is a specific major threat. Over-collection for commercial purposes is also a threat.</p><p></p>	eng
157498	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987); all modern records are from legally protected sites, although this does not protect the beetle from mushroom gathering, etc.	eng
157498	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is found in southern and central Europe, reaching as well the British Isles. It also occurs in the western part of northern Africa.	eng
157498	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults normally frequent fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on trunks of broad-leaved trees and a variety of shrubs, including gorse and elder in open limestone pasture in southern Britain; the only fungus species identified in Britain is <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span>, but other fungi may also be used; in a wide variety of situations including ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and ancient woodlands, as well as scrubby pastures (Alexander 2002). The known localities in Hungary are habitats of relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157498	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is very rare throughout its range. In Britain it has a highly fragmented distribution, with two main centres of population plus a small isolated area where it may now be Extinct; modern records only from the New Forest and four other areas (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is known from very few localities scattered in the western part of the country; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France there are three records for this species; in Spain there is only one; in Slovakia there is one recent record.	eng
157498	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	Loss of old trees and decaying wood, including excessive scrub clearance on limestone pastures for 'conservation' objectives. Oyster mushroom is also a very popular wild food and collection for consumption may be affecting the beetle populations in the New Forest and elsewhere (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157499	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It is important to ensure habitat continuity and connectivity. <br/><br/>This species is listed in several protected areas in Hungary and in Ukraine (e.g. Chernomorskyi reservation (Kherson region) and Kanevskyi reservation (Cherkassy region).<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Endangered in Germany (2009) and the Czech Republic and Vulnerable in Slovakia.	eng
157499	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across south, central and eastern Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, and in the river valleys of the lowlands (Nádai 2008). In Romania it has been reported from different parts, especially from the parts with hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in forests and forest-steppe zones; in steppe zone only along Dnieper River.	eng
157499	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species develops in cavities, rot-holes in a variety of old ancient trees and sometimes in old traditional orchards. The larvae develop have been found in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix</span> and some other tree species. The life cycle is one year on western and southern regions of Romania and two years in the north-eastern part (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The adults are active in VI-IX and are found on the trunk of trees (usually oak) with flowing sap or feeding at shrub flowers <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana, Crataegus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In central Europe the tree diameter and the habitat quality must be higher than in southern Europe; this is probably related to insulation and climate. In Ukraine found in broad-leaved forests.&#160; In Hungary it occurs in thermophilous oak forests, wood pastures, and riverine hardwood galleries (Nádai 2008). In Romania it lives in the same places with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa</span>.	eng
157499	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	In Europe this species is rare with a very scattered distribution; the population trend remains unknown. In Spain it is a rare species, only known from one locality. In Poland is rare and in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the populations seem to be small and isolated (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania,&#160; in the central part, many populations exist in the same places with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia cuprea</span>. Large populations are spread in the south-western Carpathians in low mountains and in hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy presumably it is rare. In Ukraine it is also rare.	eng
157499	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>The main threats to this species are logging or natural death of the old ancient trees, and habitat fragmentation. The provision of this special habitat is often not secured for the future. <br/></p>In Hungary urban encroachment and removal of dead wood occurs in several localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species does not seem to be threatened.	eng
157500	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Forest management adapted to the needs of this species such as leaving dead stumps in their original position to decay is recommended.<br/><br/>It is necessary to protect some places (territory) where the beetles occur. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Italy and Slovakia.	eng
157500	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is found in patchy distributions in southern and central Europe. It is also found in the Caucasus and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).  In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the central part of the forest-steppe zone.	eng
157500	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Laibner (2000) states that the larvae develop in decayed roots and stump remnants covered with soil, but (Dolin 1988) says the larvae develop in forest soil under trees, near dead trunks and stubs in relatively humid places.  Pupation takes place in the ground at the end of July-August, the adults overwinter in the pupal cells, and become active in V-VI; they are active in daylight. The adults do not fly far from the places where larvae are developing (Dolin 1988). In forest-steppe formations and open mixed south-facing forests. In Ukraine it occurs in broad-leaved forest. In Hungary this species occurs mainly in open thermophilous oak forests (mainly of turkey oak and white oak), often in ecotonal situation (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157500	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species seems to be common over much of its European range, although is rare in certain states, e.g. France and Ukraine.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is common in all suitable habitats, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France this species is very rare and sporadic; there is one historical record (verified) before 1905 in the border between France and Italy (Mont Cenis, centre of the northern Alps); it has not been seen again at this locality but is indicated in 1960' in the Cote d'Or department in one locality (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy it occurs only in the four mainland regions and the most recent record is from 2001. In Greece it is present but scattered. In Germany it is present in the south and the populations seem to be stable. In Ukraine it is widespread but rare. In the Czech Republic, in Bohemia, it is rare and in Slovakia in South Moravia is common (Laibner 2000).	eng
157500	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Wood chipping of stumps (mechanical site preparation) after clear cutting is a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is not threatened.	eng
157501	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157501	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in southern Crimea, Ukraine. It is only known from six specimens from the southern tip of the Crimean Peninsula but the exact localities are unknown (Dolin 1988).	eng
157501	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is believed to be an obligate saproxylic species, although the larva is unknown, and hence its habitat requirements are also unknown. The adults are active from mid July to the end of August (they presumably pupate in the spring or beginning of summer). Flight occurs at twilight (Dolin 1988).	eng
157501	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is very rare (known from two specimens in collection of Zoological Institute, Kiev and the type series and four exuvia in Zoological Institute of St-Petersburg).	eng
157501	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>  </p>No information available.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 48pt;" width="64" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
157502	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Campanaro, A., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157502	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is scattered in southern Europe from Spain to Bulgaria.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it occurs in the south-eastern tip bordering Slovakia and Austria. In Slovakia it occurs in the central part of the country. In Spain it is only present in the north (Recalde Irurzun 2008).	eng
157502	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in white-rotten interiors of lying dead but otherwise intact logs; in shady conditions. It has also been found in a regeneration area with dense regrowth of young trees; in high quality old growth forests with old trees, so good continuity of habitat. Beetles have been reported from a wide range of broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Castaneus, Fagus, Fraxinus, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> (Muona 1993). <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is known from only one locality; the record is very old, so no information is available about the habitat. However, the extant habitats around the locality are mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It inhabits oak and ash (Lucht 1992).	eng
157502	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Typically single records of individual beetles. Population probably stable.<br/></p>  In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the central part of the country; the record is more than 70 years old. As the species is known from only one locality, no information is available from its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France and the Czech Republic it is rare. There are two localities known in Slovakia. In Spain it is rare with eight localities in the north.	eng
157502	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of veteran trees. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157503	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	It has conservation status in Britain as Nationally Scarce (Hyman & Parsons 1992); and no specific actions are in place but its habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK). It is considered Endangered in Italy, Vulnerable in Germany and Near Threatened in the Czech Republic.	eng
157503	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This Eurocaucasian species is widespread across all Europe; absent from Spain and Ireland; also from Fennoscandia and Denmark by Allen 1966.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs almost in all regions with broad-leaved trees, except in the steppe. In Hungary it is widespread all over the country. In Britain it is concentrated in central southern England, with scattered outlying populations across the rest of southern Britain.	eng
157503	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of living old oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> trees, it has also been reported from beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; the adults are active from mid May to July, and are attracted to hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom (Alexander 2002), other shrubs and grasses (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>In Hungary and Ukraine it occurs in various broadleaved forests. In Britain it is largely confined to ancient woodlands and wood pastures in the cultural landscape rather than forest.	eng
157503	population	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species has a fragmented distribution in Europe and its population is declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common but local. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia this species occurs locally across the whole territory except for the mountains (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is quite common in the country and the populations are strong. In Italy it is rare species and in Germany it is widespread and scattered. It has a very fragmented distribution within its British range, but strong populations across central southern counties, with more isolated populations scattered elsewhere. Some outlying populations appear to have been lost in recent decades (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157503	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157504	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed. This species occurs in several protected areas and Natura 2000 sites (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).	eng
157504	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across central and southern Europe (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions covered with oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal there are only two very recent records from the north of the country. In Spain it occurs in the central and northern part. In France it is widespread but rare and localised (Villiers 1978). In Germany it is found in&#160; the south-western German States: Baden-Württemberg, Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz.	eng
157504	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of standing, dry trunks and thick branches of broad-leaved trees, mainly in Q<span style="font-style: italic;">uercus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Stage of eggs lasts between ten or 13 days. Adults emerge in VII-VIII and are crepuscular and nocturnal (attracted to light).<br/><br/>This species is mainly found in thermophilous oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in thermophilic oak-beech-forests, mainly breeding in thick, sun-exposed canopy branches.	eng
157504	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	As this is a canopy species it might be more frequent than assumed as it has probably been under-sampled. It is considered that the population trend is stable and partially increasing (north). However, Sama (2002) states that it is a local and endangered species. <br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany and France it is rare, in Romania very rare and in Portugal too (two recent records). In Ukraine (Crimea) it is very rare as only one specimen is known. There is only one locality known in Poland. In the Czech Republic there are very few sites only in the extreme south-eastern part, in warm oak forests, partially floodplain forests. In Slovakia it is present in the south and east with only a few localities. In Greece the populations are widespread but scattered, few localities. In Spain it is rare, eight or nine localities, and not very abundant.	eng
157504	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. Loss of old stands of oak is a potential threat to the species habitat but it does not lead to a decline at the moment. Also habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. <br/></p>	eng
157505	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157505	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in central and southern Europe.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"></span>In the Czech Republic it is known from four areas. In Slovakia it is known from two areas; probably across the whole territory, but sporadically (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is found in six States.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157505	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Confined to oaks in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000) and develops in dead wood and may be predatory like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampedus</span>.	eng
157505	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Germany only five records have been registered in the last 25 years.<br/></p>	eng
157505	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157506	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	None needed.	eng
157506	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is boreomountane. It is widespread throughout much of Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). Its southern distribution is more confined to mountains. It is also found in Japan and Korea.	eng
157506	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dying or dead branches and standing and fallen trunks of conifers (especially<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea</span><span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix)</span>. Life cycle two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, found on host-plants.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157506	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>The species is common in suitable habitats. In Germany it is present in the low range mountain and alpine forests. In Romania there are few report but the species spread in all the Carpathians Mountains  (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Presumably the population trend for this species is stable.</p>	eng
157506	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species. <br/>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157509	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area and there is no information on the conservation measures in place.</p>	eng
157509	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is described from a single female found in Bavaria (Laibner 2000) in Germany. It has been removed from the German checklist and National Red List, because there is no indication that the type specimen is unique, it is most likely to be an aberrant specimen of another <em>Ampedus</em> species (B.&#160;Büche&#160;pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157509	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was only once found, 'on cord of oak wood' (Laibner 2000).	eng
157509	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	It is only known from the single type specimen.	eng
157509	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157510	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Research on the taxonomic status of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus </span>is needed.   No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas. It has not been included in the Red Book of the Invertebrate of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).	eng
157510	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is known from western and central Europe, reaching some countries in southeastern Europe.<br/> <br/> In&#160; Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> is widespread all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain this species is present in the north-eastern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004) occupying 25 localities/squares of 10x10 km between 200 and 1,600 m altitude (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157510	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fuscus</span> is frequently confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus</span> in France where it is found under bark of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. In Spain, it is a strictly forestal species found under bark or dead wood of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Olea europaea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> spp.). This seems the most reliable criterium to differentiate it from <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mauritanicus</span> (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species occurs  in many types of broad-leaved forests, with a preference to willow and poplar. It is also found in parks, roadside tree rows, wood pastures, poplar plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157510	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread and not uncommon throughout its range. Its population trend is stable. <br/><br/>In Italy, it has been recorded only from the northern part of the country and these records are old. In France it is very common while in Germany is uncommon but found throughout much of the country. In Hungary, although never abundant, it is a common species with stable populations all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain is not scarce and found in 25 localities (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157510	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	There is no information about the threats to this species, although in Hungary this species is not threatened at all (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157511	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	No specific conservation measures for this species are known. It is not thought to occur in any protected areas. Research on threats and population trends are urgently needed to better inform a future reassessment of this species' status.	eng
157511	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	This species is only found in the Portuguese archipelago, the Azores, in the Atlantic Ocean. Only four localities (on three islands) are reported by Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). According to Base de dados da Biodiversidade dos Açores (2009) it is present in the islands Pico, Saõ Miguel, Santa Maria and it records the species from twelve 0.5x0.5 km grids, eight of them on Santa Maria island. The grids are situated near coast and in medium altitudes. It is a relict species.	eng
157511	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus azorica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex</span> in montane laurisilva forests. No details are available on size of deadwood required or on open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>	eng
157511	population	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157511	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>No information available. There may be ongoing declines in habitat extent and quality (since the sites for this species are not in protected areas), but better information is needed to confirm this.<br/></p>	eng
157512	conservation	Mico, E. , 2009	This species is present in the Red Data Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006), rated as Least Concern. It is present in the protection catalogues of several regions within Spain. The species is present in some Natura 2000 areas and in some National Parks.	eng
157512	distribution	Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only known from the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><br/>It is present in all the Mediterranean part of Spain, occupying a total of 40 provinces (GTLI 2003, Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007). Its northern distribution limit is in the surroundings of the Cantabrian Range and Pyrenees, excepting a locality in Guipuzcoa province and a few localities in Huesca province. Most localities are in the north in the 'Meseta' and in the Sistema Central.<br/><br/>In Portugal overall, there are 12 known localities in the north and centre  (only five published: GTLI 2003). Apart from one northern locality, the unpublished records refer to localities concentrated in a relatively small area in the centre, 80 to 100 km north of Lisbon   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009). Most of the unpublished records were obtained after 2000 (the oldest dates from 1975)   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).	eng
157512	habitat	Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In&#160; Spain it is present in broad-leaved Mediterranean forests, mainly above 400 m and more frequent in forested mountain areas and the middle altitude (750 m) plateaus (GTLI 2003). Also present in bocage open landscapes with scattered trees (GTLI 2003). It can probably live in several species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and other broad-leaved species (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).	eng
157512	population	Mico, E. , 2009	In Spain there is no systematic data on local abundance or population trends available. A local study in Catalonia reported less than ten specimens per year and four-year fluctuations in abundance (Jeremías and Escolà 2003). There is no data for Portugal (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157512	threats	Mico, E. , 2009	No systematic assessment of threats exists for this species. Being a species of similar size and habitat than <span style="font-style: italic;">Lucanus cervus</span>, it is probably under the same threats, namely, habitat destruction or degradation by removal of old, dead trees and dead wood (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).	eng
157513	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas. In Ukraine it is present in the Kanevskyi reservation. It is listed as Endangered in the Czech National Red List and as Near Threatened in the German National Red List.	eng
157513	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe but is absent from the far west and east, and from the Britain and Ireland. In Ukraine it is present in the western region and in the central forest-steppe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey.	eng
157513	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under dead bark and in cavities in most broad-leaved tree species; typically in floodplains and broad-leaved forests of lowlands and highlands; the adults are crepuscular (Laibner 2000); the larvae feed on the larvae of Scolytidae and Bostrichidae; they pupate in the autumn, and the adults hibernate in their pupal cells and become active in May (Dolin 1982). In Ukraine, the larvae develop in the dry deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> especially. The known records from Hungary are from various broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only found in white-rotten wood of hornbeam.	eng
157513	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The status of this species varies wildly country by country, from being common and widespread in Denmark to rare in Ukraine. In the Czech Republic it is known from four areas. In the Slovak Republic there are several records from three areas; rare (Laibner 2000), but recently found at many more sites, almost across the country, except for the high mountains. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions. The populations are sporadic and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Germany there are recent records in all states. In Sweden it is present on the border and it is the border of the species range, but it is common.	eng
157513	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There are no major threats to the species as its habitat, deciduous trees, is abundant (e.g. Hungary). In Ukraine the cutting and loss old trees are threatening this species.</p>	eng
157514	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	No information available. This species is listed as Data Deficient in Poland, as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.	eng
157514	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	It is found in central Europe. It also occurs in Siberia and Russian Far East. <br/><br/>In Germany this species is Extinct. In Ukraine it occurs in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Kharkov region), and may be in the Carpathians too (Drogvalenko 2004). <span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>	eng
157514	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in warm deciduous forests of central and southern Europe. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>the bracket fung<span style="font-style: italic;">i Inonotus obliquus, I. cuticularis</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 1997, 2004). In Hungary one of the three known specimens was found in a ravine forest on a sporocarp of the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157514	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	In most countries it is not a numerous species. It is found sporadically, very locally and rarely.<br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary it is known only from three localities (one specimen each) in the central part of the country - one is from 1996, the other two records are more than 70 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) -as there is no extant population known, no information is available about its populations. In Slovenia there are very few records in the last 50 years. In Poland it was only recorded in 1988. In Slovakia there have been three records since 1950.	eng
157514	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157515	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	It is required in order to conserve this species to preserve the ancient broad-leaved forests from the Balkan Peninsula (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
157515	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread in south-eastern Europe. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus it </st1:country-region></st1:place>is widespread in the lowlands but absent from the higher elevations of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It occurs also in Anatolia and it was reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Ozdikmen <em>et al.</em> 2009).<p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157515	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species with little information about its development, but it probably grows in the decaying roots of plane trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus </span>(Bense 1995)<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> and has been found in maquis and  dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span>. <br/></p><p><br/><em></em></p>  <p></p>    <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157515	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus the species is locally common (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>	eng
157515	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Clearance of dead and tree stumps from the old forests may be one of the threats (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157516	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	In the UK it has the conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Ireland, UK, Ukraine, Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in Denmark (2005).	eng
157516	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs throughout much of Europe. It is also found in Caucasus and in western Siberia.<br/><br/>In Spain it is present in the northern half only (Recalde Irurzun 2008).	eng
157516	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead, dry trunks and stumps in exposed situations, especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>; the wood needs to be solid and hard on the surface; <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>larvae bore galleries across the grain; development takes at least two years <span style="font-style: italic;">(</span>Muona 1993). Also found in branches down to five cm diameter; so does not require large old trees. <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Platanus, Populus, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. Larvae develop especially in beech and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span> in Ukraine (Drogvalenko 2001).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zone and in mountains of Crimea. In Hungary it occurs in mature broadleaved forests, especially in oak, beech and hornbeam. In UK in the ancient woodlands and historic parklands of the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157516	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Widespread and not uncommon in at least parts of its range. Population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is only known from two sites, where recorded only once (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widely scattered across lowland England, but with some fragmentation of distribution and signs of local declines (Mendel and Clarke 1996)<br/><br/>In Ukraine it appears locally and is not so common. In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions; the populations have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it was found throughout the country in flatlands and lower mountains; not rare. <br/><br/>In Portugal there is only one record from the northern part of the country, almost one century old (Barros 1913). <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain it is widespread in the north, with 20 known localities (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/>In Finland there is only one reliable record. In Denmark it is rare and local (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157516	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157517	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Ukraine). It is considered Data Deficient in Poland. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157517	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is known from most of Europe, excepting the far west - Portugal and the British Isles. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. In Spain it is present only in the north (Recalde Irurzun and San Martín Moreno 2007). It is also found in Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) and in all of Caucasus (Lobl and Smetana 2007).	eng
157517	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop in decayed wood and under bark of broad-leaved trees, especially favouring stumps; it is a predator or necrophagous. The larvae hibernate and pupate in mid May, and the adult is active in VI-VII and are attracted to lights. This species lives in broad-leaved forests and in open country. In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it is found in the forests of the submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000); in Ukraine it similarly is found in mountain forests. In Hungary it occurs in the cool, shady parts of the forests, mainly in ravines and stream valleys (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is considered to be a strong indicator of good ecological condition of forests.	eng
157517	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an uncommon species across much of its range. In Ukraine it is considered a rare species. In the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic it is locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is rare in a few mountainous areas, with small populations, but is not a threatened species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and local. In France it is uncommon. In Spain there are only three localities in the north (Recalde Irurzun and San Martín Moreno 2007).	eng
157517	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/></p>	eng
157519	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.</a></p>	eng
157519	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in the Mediterranean island of Sicily.	eng
157519	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnorimus</span> species it probably develops in accumulations of wood mould in cavities in the trunks and main boughs of veteran trees in deciduous woodland (beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests).	eng
157519	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157519	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. It is strongly suspected that this habitat is in decline across Europe due to changing land use patterns and lack of appreciation of their importance for nature conservation.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157520	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas.	eng
157520	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widespread across all Europe, except Britain, Ireland and the far west. It is also found in western Caucasus. It is Extinct in Denmark (1997).	eng
157520	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine the beetles inhabit carpophores of Pleurotaceae fungi on decaying wood: <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. calyptratus, Leccinum aurantiacum</span> (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 1997, 2001); the adult beetle is found often under dead bark on beech-trees.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Hungary the species occurs in various broad-leaved forests.	eng
157520	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is increasing in some areas (e.g. Finland, Germany).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species, sometimes numerous. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities.	eng
157520	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157521	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005).	eng
157521	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is scattered in Europe, from the Scandinavian Peninsula to western and central Europe. Endemic to Europe.	eng
157521	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Mainly confined to hornbeam (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>) trees in broad-leaved woodland. Found in standing dead wood in small, medium and large-sized trees. Has been reared from rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus cerasifera</span>. Beetles on dead standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus betulus</span>, diameter less than 15 cm, bark fallen off (Muona 1993). In Hungary habitats of the known populations are closed, mature beech forests. Reported to develop in hornbeam (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979); in still rather fresh, hard wood (Vávra 2005).	eng
157521	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>It is a widespread and not infrequent species in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>  In France it is generally widespread but absent from the Atlantic area; many localities are known (20-30 sites). In Germany it is very sporadic in warmer broad-leaved forests at lower altitudes. In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is present in four areas (one to several faunistic grid cells) from central Bohemia (west) to southeastern Moravia (east); fifth area (two faunistic grid cells) with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it has a scattered occurrence across the country (about&#160; ten areas of one or two grid cells), missing in the north-west (Elateridae 2009).<br/><br/>In Sweden there are two small sub-populations in southernmost Sweden. In Norway it is very localized, restricted to far south.	eng
157521	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.&#160; </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157522	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially with regard to its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157522	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The main population seem to occur outside of Europe (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey, Caucasus region, Near East, Iran, Iraq). </st1:country-region>In Europe, this species is reported from Greece (exact distribution unknown) and Cyprus. However it is doubtful if the European population is less than 1%, which would have made this species Not Applicable to the Red List. <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>In Cyprus it has been reported only from Souni (south-western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>, 500 m) (Preiss and Platia 2003). Two specimens have been collected from Turkey (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157522	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> The only specimen collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> was found in decayed wood of <em>Pinus brutia</em>, in a burned forest area (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157522	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus it is <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>very rare and local - only one specimen has been collected in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Preiss and Platia 2003). The population of Greece is unknown. <br/></p><p><br/>.</p>	eng
157522	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Forest fires are a specific threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157523	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987), but no real action on the ground is in place. In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of&#160; Invertebrates of&#160; Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).<br/><br/>It occurs in several protected areas in Hungary and Spain.	eng
157523	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is known from much of Europe. It also occurs in northern Africa (Tunis), Syria and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, forest and forest-steppe zones; maybe in Crimea too. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas.<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded from the country, without geographical detail, in the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) and apparently not found ever since. In Spain it was recorded from six provinces, mainly along the northern Mediterranean coast, but also in Guipuzcoa in the Cantabrian side of Spain and Sierra de Andújar (Jaén) in the inner south; no localities mentioned in some of these provinces (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).<br/><br/> In Denmark it is widespread but not common (Hansen 1996). In Britain it has been found across the lowlands on the south and east, but there are few modern localities known. It is absent from Ireland.	eng
157523	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the burrows of the bark beetles <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleobius vittatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leperisinus varius, </span>and is parasitic on them; mostly in old untreated fencing palings in UK, also on elm and ash trees (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults and larvae are predators under bark, mostly conifer trees (firs). The life cycle is one year (Drogvalenko 1999, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In Spain it lives in both broad-leaved and coniferous trees, under bark, predating scolytids (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). In Hungary the known occurrences are in broad-leaved forests, especially where twigs and branches are left in the forest after logging.	eng
157523	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species over part of its European range at least, with populations which are increasing, again at least in part of its range.<br/><br/>In the UK it has always been a rare species and largely dependent on the cutting of ash and elm for fencing in the historic period; it has virtually disappeared with the commercial production of chemically treated wood (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are very few records known, probably due at least partly to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In central Europe it is common but in Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Sweden it is common. In Germany and Finland this species is expanding its range. In Italy it is not so common and it is considered a bioindicator. In Spain it occupies six squares of 10x10 km.	eng
157523	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. However in the UK the commercial production of wooden fencing materials, involving chemical preservatives is a threat as the species was formerly favoured by hand-cutting of fencing materials. Also the destruction of dead and old trees are a negative factor in some range states.	eng
157524	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	In the UK, it is recommended to promote interest in veteran trees throughout the country not just in reserves (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and Britain).	eng
157524	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe. It is also known from the Caucasus and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. It is very widespread in England, extending into southern Scotland. It is unknown in Ireland.	eng
157524	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands as well as wood-pastures and hedgerow trees; the larvae develop in certain species of fungus involved in the decay of dead wood of broad-leaved trees.<br/><br/>In Britain, larvae develop in the hard black fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoxylon fragiforme</span> fungus on dead and dying beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, or <span style="font-style: italic;">Daldinia concentrica</span> on ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>; the pupae are reported from under dead bark and in deadwood (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine the beetles live on wood-decay fungi (Pyrenomycetes) and under bark with fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypoxylon, Daldinia, Xylaria, Ustulina, Nummularia,</span> rarely on <span style="font-style: italic;">Hericium, Fomes, Daedaleopsis </span>(Drogvalenko 2001).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broadleaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. In Britain suitable trees may be found in a wide variety of situations, throughout the cultural landscape - in woodland margins, hedgerows, wood pastures and parkland.	eng
157524	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it is a widespread throughout England although rare in the west; mainly in the border counties of Wales; present in southern Scotland but rare. In France it is widespread and in Spain it is plentiful in the north at least. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. It is very rare in southernmost Finland. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.	eng
157524	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157526	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	None other than standard FSC guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). It occurs in many protected areas across its wide range (e.g. UK, Hungary).	eng
157526	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found throughout<em> </em>all Europe. Its occurrence in Siberia is questionable. It also occurs in the Caucasus.	eng
157526	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. <br/><br/>In the UK adults are normally frequent in fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on trunks of broad-leaved trees; it has been reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Piptoporus betulinus</span> (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults and larvae occur on many (near 30) species of xylotrophic fungi. Moreover beetles inhabit carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Bjerkandera adusta, B. contragosa, Funalia trogii, Gleoporus dichrous, Hapalopilus nidulans, Lentinus lepideus, Pluteus atricapillus, P. pulmonarius, Panus rudis, P. squamosus, Tricholoma saponaceum </span>(Khalidov 1984, Drogvalenko 1997). Adults have been found in IV-V.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted broad-leaved forests. UK sites include ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, traditional orchards and woodlands generally (Alexander 2002).	eng
157526	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  In Ireland it is rare and has a strongly fragmented distribution with a small number of very isolated sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widespread in Britain and it is plentiful. In Ukraine it is a common species and is present in all regions where there is woody vegetation. This species is widespread all over Hungary wherever wooded plant societies occur; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it was recently recorded from two localities in the north-west (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).	eng
157526	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157527	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S, 2009	In Hungary and Romania some of the localities are in protected areas. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009) and as Data Deficient in Poland. It is recommended that goat willow stands should be left undisturbed (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157527	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S, 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe; it occurs in central, eastern and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Baden-Württemberg and Sachsen-Anhalt, records after 1950. In Romania it is a rare species spread on the high hills and&#160; mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it is considered uncommon, but widespread.	eng
157527	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S, 2009	In Europe it is a montane species; developing only in the wood of willows&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>sp (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span> in Europe, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. fragilis, S. sibirica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. xerophila</span> in Siberia); it develops in the moist heartwood of healthy or weakened trunks and branches (1.8 - 16 cm diameter); the larvae feed deep in the wood; adults are found on the host trees (Sama 2002). In Hungary it is found in undisturbed forests that are free of forestry management, where extensive populations of goat willow <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span> are found (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported in associations with the other longhorn beetles <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda similis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aromia moschata</span>, in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. caprea</span>, (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland and Germany it is found in various warm habitats where <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> grows - roadsides, forest edges etc.<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157527	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S, 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is quite rare in its localities, and the populations must be small (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania there are only old reports, a few small populations in the south and central parts of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there are a few recods in the south of the Tirol region.</p>	eng
157527	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S, 2009	Habitat loss is the main reason of the rarity of this species, because its host trees are usually selectively removed from forests by foresters (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Land use change and habitat transformation are also threats to this species. In Finland the species is not threatened.	eng
157528	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive.  <span lang="EN-GB">	eng
157528	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across all Europe, excepting the British Isles. It is also known from Siberia, Far East and Japan. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest zone.	eng
157528	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in white-rotten heartwood of various tree species, although mostly of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; the larvae and pupae hibernate. The life cycle is two to three years, with adult beetles active from the end of May into June (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). It requires continuity of dead trees, and is confined to almost undisturbed natural forest. In Finland this species is also present in burnt forests.	eng
157528	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but the species is considered rare in Europe and its population is decreasing. In Finland it is widespread but very rare. In Ukraine it is very rare. In Portugal it has been recorded only once, from the extreme north of the country (Oliveira 1893). <br/></p>	eng
157528	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The species is relatively large and easy to find by collectors.</p>	eng
157529	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Ukraine, Hungary).<br/><br/>In the UK it is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan; also the Ancient Tree Hunt project aims to document all ancient trees across the UK and promote their protection (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987), Endangered in Germany and Sweden, as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005) and as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic.	eng
157529	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This western Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is known from Spain across to the east of Europe, and from Italy to Sweden (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is also found in the Caucasus. In Ukraine it occurs in the western part of the forest-steppe zone. In Britain it is only known from small areas in the south-east. It is absent from Ireland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157529	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A specialist of large, hollow veteran trees. It is an old growth species - an indicator species for undamaged natural forests (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/><br/>The larvae develop in black wood mould in the interior of old hollow trunks and boughs of broad-leaved trees, generally live trees; mainly in elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and horse-chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus</span>, very occasionally in oak Quercus (Allen 1966); may prefer white-rot over red-rot; often associated with bird nest material in Britain. The larvae overwinter and pupate in late May or early June; the life cycle is normally 3-4 years but may last up to 6 years. An individual tree can potentially sustain a population of the beetle for several decades. The larvae feed on other invertebrates in the wood mould, especially chafer larvae (Alexander 2002); the adults are active at midsummer V-VIII and are attracted to hollow trees with <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> pheromones (Svensson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004); the adult is short-lived and often said to be crepuscular, attracted to lights, but males also known to swarm around midday; females attract males by pheromone (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160; The adult beetles occasionally feed at sap of some trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, Castaneus</span>).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in deciduous forests and groves, also in isolated groups of old trees (limes, willows, poplars, oaks, maples) from lowlands to foothills; frequently along water courses (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is known from old growth forests or wood pastures with ancient trees, but the most records are from riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). UK sites are in the cultural landscape - historic parklands and wood pastures - and also old willows along floodplains (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157529	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	It is a rare species and somewhat patchily distributed throughout its European range. Suspected to be declining, as its habitat is declining. Threatened throughout entire range (Tolasch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). <br/><br/>It is widespread but not abundant in France, more localised in north (Brustel 2005). In the UK it has a very fragmented range in the south-east, with just a few isolated populations remaining (Mendel and Clarke 1996); six small sites are known plus one large one, Windsor Great Park and Forest; it has been lost from 50% of its known sites due to habitat destruction (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is not common and occurs very locally. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountain regions and along the Danube River; its populations are patchy and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and local and it is only in Zealand and Lolland (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Spain the concentration of known sites is in northern Navarra (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).	eng
157529	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>In Hungary very old trees are threatened all over the country - also true of most European states - and the known localities are threatened by over-collecting and destruction of microhabitats.	eng
157530	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old hollow trees. This species occurs in protected areas.	eng
157530	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is described as a central European species (Laibner 2000) but is also known from northern Europe (Lobl and Smetana 2007) but not from Britain or Ireland.<br/><br/>In France it is very rare and localized to the eastern part of the country below 1,200 m (Leseigneur 1972).	eng
157530	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It typically inhabits old, hollow broad-leaved trees with moist decayed wood. The larvae develop in the wood mould and are predatory.&#160; The adult overwinters inside the tree and becomes active in May - June ; they are found in the evening around the hollows of trees in which they developed (Dolin 1982, Laibner 2000). In France it has been observed that the larvae are never in cavities situated at the contact of the soil (Leseigneur 1972).<br/><br/>In naturally preserved forests of lowlands and highlands, also in parks (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine in forests.	eng
157530	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally rare and localized. Population declines have been noted in at least some parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is rare. In the Czech Republic it is widespread over seven areas; in Slovakia over two areas (Laibner 2000). In Hungary only one locality is known from the westernmost part of the country, which is more than 50 years old - as extant populations are unknown no information on its populations is available. In Denmark it is rare and only present in the east (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Finland there are four known locations, and it is regarded as threatened. In Sweden there are about ten known subpopulations. In Germany it is rare and considered as threatened. In Spain there is only one site known; this is presumed to be a relict species.	eng
157530	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The loss of hollow trees is the main threat to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude mowing and/or grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157531	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157531	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is described from Sicily, Italy, but this is very probably a label error. This is a Neotropical species. It is not listed in the Italian checklist (Gobbi and Platia 1995). Either this is an introduced species, or it does not occur in the European region at all.	eng
157531	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.	eng
157531	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information is available.</p>	eng
157531	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157532	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	No conservation measures are necessary.	eng
157532	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe, except the far north (Bense 1995). It is very widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001); also widespread in Hungary, Romania, Denmark and Cyprus. It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953). It is only present as a synanthropic in the UK, breeding in the structural timbers of buildings.<br/><p>    </p><p></p>	eng
157532	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the dead dry wood of stems and stumps of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Pinus, Abies</span>). The life cycle is two or three years (or more, maximum seven or eight), in building timbers much longer. Pupation takes place in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, IX, and are found on the host-plant or on timber. It occurs in native situations across southern Europe but becomes increasingly confined to seasoned timber within human constructions in the north, in both rural and urban areas.</p><p>    </p>    <p>In European Turkey larvae similarly develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Abies, Pinus</em></strong> and in building timbers (Schimitschek 1953). In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> it is also </st1:place></st1:country-region>reported as a timber pest; found in towns and villages and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> stands; it has been reared from <em>Pinus brutia</em> dead wood. In Germany its original habitat is pine and spruce forests. In Hungary it is found in settlements in building timbers, also in indigenous and planted pine stands. In Romania it is reported from timber storehouses, and also develops in different parts of wooden houses.&#160;In Denmark it is associated with houses and develops in dry wood.  In Finland it is rare and is only present in the southernmost archipelago in buildings.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157532	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	A widespread and common species. A pest in timber in houses and other buildings. In Denmark this species is rare. In the UK it is well established in building timbers in parts of south-eastern England, where it can cause serious damage; it is occasionally found in posts and stumps outdoors (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as a pest of timber. It is not rare in Cyprus and common in Ukraine. <br/><p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place></p><p></p>	eng
157532	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	A threat to timber buildings but the species itself is under no threat.	eng
157533	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is no information available.</p>	eng
157533	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is described from northern Germany and a single record from southern Germany. It was subsequently recognized from the Czech and Slovak Republics (Laibner 2000).	eng
157533	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in&#160;decaying stumps and fallen oak trunks; in oak groves and mixed forests of lowlands (Laibner 2000).	eng
157533	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends of this species are not known.</p>	eng
157533	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no known major threats to the species, however - with the taxonomic uncertainty - the biology of the species is unknown and the threats cannot be assessed.</p><p></p><p></p>	eng
157534	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<p>More research is needed, monitoring using window traps instead of direct sampling in order to get more information about population sizes. In Italy this species is assessed as Vulnerable (Sama 2006) and in Germany as Critically Endangered (2009).</p>	eng
157534	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This species is believed to be restricted mainly to France and Italy, extending into northern Spain (Bense 1995); in Germany there is one old record (before 1900) from Hessen and one record from Baden-Württemberg after 1950. It is also known from Crimea (Ukraine).<br/><br/> In France the species is sporadic in the north but more abundant in the south (Villiers 1978, Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In mainland Italy it has scattered populations, plus one population in Sardinia and two in Sicily. In Spain there are 12 localities, mainly in the north-eastern and central part of Spain.	eng
157534	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead wood of branches and trunks of oak species <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus petraea</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pyrenaica</span> (Bense 1995)<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> especially canopy branches.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The adults are active in June - July. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>	eng
157534	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is hard to find and might therefore be under sampled. In France the species is sporadic in the north but more abundant in the south; recent use of window traps permits the observation of more individuals (Villiers 1978, Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Germany there is one old record (before 1900) from Hessen and one record from Baden-Württemberg after 1950. In mainland Italy it is very rare, and one population in Sardinia, two in Sicily. In Spain there are 12 localities, mainly in the north-eastern and central part of Spain; it is considered rare. In Crimea it is very rare.</p>	eng
157534	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157535	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	It is present in some protected areas (e.g. Romania). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2005).	eng
157535	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe; in the north, central and eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the northern forest zone. In Denmark it is only present in  Jutland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Sweden it is Regionally Extinct. It is not known from Britain or Ireland.<br/><br/>It also occurs in the Caucasus.	eng
157535	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the dead wood of fir, pine-trees, etc. in the last stage of decay. Pupation occurs at the end of the summer. Larvae and the adults (after pupation) hibernate. The adult is active in V-VI (Dolin 1988). It occurs in both coniferous and broad-leaved woodland, including conifer plantations (it breeds in cut stumps and lying logs). In Ukraine it is also found in conifer forests. For Hungary there is no information is available on the habitat of this species.	eng
157535	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is common in some countries but rare in others.<br/></p>  In Finland it is common and widespread. In Germany it is considered to be one of the most common species. Very few localities are known from Hungary and all are more than 50 years old. In Italy there is little data but there are few known records and the species is presumed to be rare. In Denmark it is very rare and local. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157535	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Cutting and destruction of old trees, especially lying trunks are threats to this species. <br/></p>	eng
157537	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania).	eng
157537	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe, absent only from the far north and west (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Germany it is present in all German States. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread in the plain, hilly and mountainous areas, and in European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987). It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula (Verdugo 2004, Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) and it is also widespread in Cyprus. It has a scattered distribution across lowland England and Wales, there is one isolated record in southern Scotland; but is unknown from Ireland.<br/><br/><br/><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>	eng
157537	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p>    <p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in and under the bark of freshly dead or dying branches and trunks of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees; mature and veteran trees are colonized. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood, occasionally under bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. It is crepuscular and nocturnal. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Castanea, Ulmus,&#160; Corylus, Salix, Fraxinus, </em>fruit-trees). In European Turkey larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and adults are active in IV-V (Schimitschek 1953). It has been reared from dead branches of <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris</em> and<em> Prunus dulcis</em> in Cyprus. In Germany it lives in various broad-leaved tree species. Also in almond trees.<br/><br/>In the UK it mostly lives in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; preferring open-grown trees or at least trees with well sun-lit trunks; in parklands, hedgerows, and woodlands. occasionally reported from old apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus </span>orchards (Alexander 2002). This species occurs in various deciduous forest types (mainly in oak and beech) in Hungary. It is reported mainly from old oak trees in Romania. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>found in orchards and forests<em>.</em> <em><br/></em></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p><p></p>	eng
157537	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is relatively common and widespread over much of its European range and there are no indications of any declines.<br/><br/>It is widespread across central and south-eastern England, extending as far north as Yorkshire, and west into Devon and parts of Wales; isolated population at Dalkeith Old Oakwood in southern Scotland; locally distributed but has increased in abundance in recent decades following oak dieback disease (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009)<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longicorns in the oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species is common and well represented. In Cyprus it is locally common. Population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><p>It is considered a potential pest in the Czech Republic.<br/></p>	eng
157537	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species does not face major threats. <br/><br/>In the UK, habitat loss, insensitive land management, clearance of dead and dying trees, for reasons of tidiness and (unjustifiable) forest hygiene as well as canopy closure in woodlands, causing increased shade on trunks and larger boughs are threatening this species. It is nonetheless increasing in abundance.	eng
157538	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. The species does not occur in any protected area. However it is recommended that the areas where this species occurs become protected.<br/></p>	eng
157538	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It occurs in the western part of Crete.	eng
157538	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> (Bense 1995) mainly in trunks.	eng
157538	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species other than that it is a rare species.</p>	eng
157538	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Deforestation and conversion of oaks is a major threat to this species. Also charcoal production and grazing goats are a threat.	eng
157539	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is included in the Red Book of Ukraine, as Possibly Extinct. This species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
157539	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is known from the eastern Mediterranean and Asia. It is present in Cyprus, Croatia and Greece. In Greece it has been reported from three localities. In Ukraine this species is thought to be Extinct because the last record of it was from 60 years ago (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157539	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in old decayed wood (rotten trunks) of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>in humid places near water basins (streams); they are obligate predators. Imago active in end of May beginning of June. In Ukraine all old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> have disappeared in the known areas where this species has been found; this habitat has disappeared from this area leading the experts to suspect that the species is now extinct (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It is locally common in Cyprus where it has been reported from the forested areas between 200-1,500 m.<br/>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><em></em></p>	eng
157539	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Declines in some parts of its range indicate that it is likely to be decreasing but this cannot be quantified. It requires specific habitat - old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> - that are known to be becoming more scarce across Europe so the population is suspected to be in decline. In Greece it is only known from three places with a declining extent and quality of habitat so its population trend there is inferred to be declining. In Ukraine this species is extremely rare, and may be Extinct (last finding was near 60 years ago - in the Red Book of Ukraine it is Possibly Extinct). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus the </st1:country-region></st1:place>population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is common in Turkey.</p>	eng
157539	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species is threatened by the destruction and disappearing of habitats with old <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This is the largest European click beetle (Laibner 2000) and so may be especially targeted by collectors. Specific information is not known about threats to its habitat throughout the range, but based on complete removal of its habitat in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009) it is suspected to be seriously threatened by this in the rest of Europe. More research is needed.</p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157540	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	Retention of dead standing trees and keeping broad-leaved trees along river systems are recommended measures for this species. It occurs in some protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic but has been underestimated.	eng
157540	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is known from central and western Europe. The presence of this species in France is uncertain - there might be three records from 1885 but it could have been misidentified. Its presence in in Italy is also doubtful - possibly misidentified.	eng
157540	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from hollow, brown-rot in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Cerasus, Populus</span> (Muona 1993). In Hungary all known localities are in lowland soft wood forests, mainly riverine galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It mainly lives in the decaying heartwood of dead trees but in trees with the outer part intact.	eng
157540	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is very rare and scattered in Europe. This species is very sporadic in Hungary, mainly in the lowlands; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Slovakia there are six populations, in the Czech Republic four and in Germany there is one locality.	eng
157540	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>Also the removal of dead wood and removal of standing dead trees along the rivers are threatening this species.<br/></p>	eng
157541	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Some of the known sites for this species are within protected areas.</p>	eng
157541	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is endemic to Sicily (Bense 1995).	eng
157541	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occupies oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> sp. woodland in the mountains. No information is available on the size of dead timber required nor on the open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>	eng
157541	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This species is known from eight sites in northern Sicily (Sama 2006). Population size and trends have not been quantified.<br/></p>	eng
157541	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157542	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity is essential for the conservation of this species. <br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). <br/><br/>This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic, as Endangered in Slovakia and as Near Threatened in Italy.	eng
157542	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Distributed from Spain through central and southern Europe (Laibner 2000) to Ukrainian Carpathians and Turkey (west part) (Lobl and Smetana 2007).	eng
157542	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the underground parts of decaying, blackened standing oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also in tunnels of weevils of the tribe Cossonini (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine, larvae develop in humid hollows (decayed wood) near root part of trunk of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, sometimes in the ground. They have also been found high up on trunks and branches. This information either means that the species has different preferences across its range or that the information is not right. Essentially the species needs red rot in big trees. Pupation takes place in the autumn; the adults are active from the end of April into May (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>A primeval forest relict. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in naturally preserved forests from lowlands to foothills (Laibner 2000).&#160; In Hungary the only population lives in an abandoned wood pasture (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157542	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is very rare throughout its European range. <br/><br/>In France it is very localized in lowland large and ancient beech forests, less than ten localities known, probably a relict of old-growth forests like <span style="font-style: italic;">Limoniscus violaceus</span> (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy there are only two records from Tuscany region, one very old (1875). In Austria it is only found around Vienna and Niederösterreich, six historic records. In Hungary only one extant population is known in the south-western part of the country, which is small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are only a few sites. In Slovakia it has recently been only found in two areas; it is considered rare. In Poland one locality known. In Ukraine this species is rare. The first ever records in Greece and Turkey are from 2006.	eng
157542	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157544	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. Tezcan, S.,, 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place.	eng
157544	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. Tezcan, S.,, 2009	This species is found in central and eastern Europe reaching north-eastern Europe. It is also found in Siberia, Mongolia and Far East.	eng
157544	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. Tezcan, S.,, 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine it occurs in forests and in north-western part of the forest-steppe zones. In forests it has been found on the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis confragosa, D. tricolor, Lenzites betulina, Coriolus versicolor, C. pubescens, C. hirsutus, Trametes ochraceus, T. suaveolens, Fomes fomentarius</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996).	eng
157544	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. Tezcan, S.,, 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is common in Russia but there is not enough information about the species. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span><br/></p>	eng
157544	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. Tezcan, S.,, 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157545	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Ukraine). <br/><br/>It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987) but recommended for increase to Vulnerable (Hyman and Parsons 1992).	eng
157545	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	A boreal-alpine species. This species is widespread across northern Europe but is restricted to   mountainous areas in central and southern Europe. <br/><br/>It is known from Italy, the eastern Carpathians, Bulgaria, and western Siberia (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is only found in the Alps and Bavarian mountains. In the UK it is confined to the Caledonian pine forest of central Scotland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157545	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in well-red-rotted heartwood of fallen pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, spruce and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; the larval stage probably takes three to six years; they are opportunistic carnivores; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults (Owen and Mendel 1993). In Ukraine larvae also develop in stubs and decayed wood of fir trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>. In Finland mostly in dead conifers, also in stumps.<br/><br/>It lives in relicts of old growth evergreen and mixed forests with firs and pines from submontane zone to upper limits of montane zone. In northern Europe it lives in forest-tundra, where it develops in birches (Laibner 2000).	eng
157545	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	Very common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Fennoscandia) but much rarer in the alpine areas and elsewhere. Overall, population trend is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it occurs only in a restricted area of the eastern Scottish Highlands (Mendel and Clarke 1996); a very vulnerable small population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In the Czech Republic there are several localities. In Slovakia it is more frequent but nevertheless very rare (Laibner 2000). In Italy it is very rare and decreasing.	eng
157545	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level. Loss of old trees, dead and decaying wood can be a threat.</p>	eng
157546	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation measures are in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).	eng
157546	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is also known from Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in almost all regions, mostly in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, very rare in the lowlands. In Britain it is widespread across lowland England, and also occurs locally in Wales and in northern Scotland. It has only recently been found in Northern Ireland.	eng
157546	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in soft bracket fungi - <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis, Inonotus, Laetiporus, Polyporus, Abortiporus, Pleurotus</span> - on a wide variety of broad-leaved tree species. The adult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Piptoporus betulinus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span>) and are sometimes found under dead bark on trees. Imago hibernates and is more active in V-VII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/> In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. It is found on mature trees rather generally and especially along alluvial floodplain situations in Britain (Alexander 2002).	eng
157546	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a relatively common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities. In Ireland there is a single recent report from north, assumed to be natural colonisation (Anderson 2007). In the UK it is widely scattered throughout the lowlands.	eng
157546	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>    </p>There are no major threats to this species. The loss of old trees and decaying wood is a potential threat.	eng
157547	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	The preservation of veteran trees and dead wood in forests is essential. The species is present in protected areas; however in Hungary the protection is not always effective (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The species is legally protected in Hungary. This species is classed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia and as Endangered in Italy.	eng
157547	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is present from France through central Europe to the forest-steppes in Ukraine (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, it occurs in the Carpathians and in the south of the forest-steppe zone. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is Extinct.	eng
157547	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other broad-leaved tree species<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; generally with lucanid beetle larvae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceruchus)</span>. A predator of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus scarabaeoides</span> which is itself very rare, but it does not feed exclusively on this species. Pupation occurs in the autumn but the adults remain in the pupal cells in the decaying wood through the winter months. In Hungary the preferred micro-habitats are red-rotten logs of bird cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, and sometimes oak, always with <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus scarabaeoides </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France, the larvae develop in red-rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> together with Lucanid larvae (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aesalus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus parallelepipedus</span>) (Leseigneur 1972).<br/><br/>Often in remnants of oaks, always inside forests; the preferred habitats are beech-oak woods of lowlands and foothills (Laibner 2000). It prefers dark, shady stands; old growth forest and trees with a large diameter. In Hungary nearly all records are from closed, dark stands deep inside the forests, mainly in ravines <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157547	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is a very rare species in Europe and its population is declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species; only one specimen known from the Kirovograd region in central Ukraine. In the Czech Republic there is only one recent record. In Slovakia it is known from five localities and it is rare (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all known extant populations are restricted to limited areas and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there is one record from 1977 in southern Italy. In Greece there is a single recent record from the Peloponnesus. In France there are only two localities known; it is considered a relict species (Leseigneur 1972) - there is one locality from 1847 where it has never been found again, and the second locality is from 1965 in the Pyrenees.	eng
157547	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Forest exploitation is one of the main threats, including the removal of dead wood. It is dependent on certain prey species that are locally declining. <br/><br/>In Hungary all populations are small and vulnerable. Removal of old logs and especially illegal over-collecting of the wintering adults are serious threats; the latter results in destruction of the red-rotten logs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157549	conservation	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987) and it is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Two of the populations lie within protected sites and SACs, while part of the third is also protected. Also most of the localities in Hungary&#160; are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed. This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005) and as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2005).	eng
157549	distribution	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This species is widely spread across Europe. It is also found in western Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine mostly in Carpathians and the forest zone. In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Spain it is present in the western Pyrenees and Sistema Ibérico (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Britain it is confined to a few areas in southern England. It is absent from Ireland.	eng
157549	habitat	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop only in moist, very soft white-rotten wood, where surrounded by intact, un-decayed sapwood; in dead parts of standing trees (often in hollow live trees); pupae have been found in wood mould beneath a fallen beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>branch; mostly pupae hibernate in wood; adults May-August; development time at least two years, sometimes three (Muona 1993, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 2001, Alexander 2002).&#160; Found in a wide array of broad-leaved trees. In Sweden it develops in standing dead <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus glabra</span>, partly without bark, surface wood hard, inside with white and brown rot. Beetles also reported in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>; and reared from moist white-rotten inner wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>about four metres high. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Russia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>(Germany). In the UK mainly in old beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>.<br/><br/>It lives in natural and semi-natural broad-leaved woodlands and wood-pasture. In Hungary habitats of the known populations are closed, usually mature forests, mainly oak, beech and hornbeam. UK sites are ancient wood pastures (Alexander 2002) and it has recently been found in an old cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>orchard (K.N.A. Alexander pers comm 2009).	eng
157549	population	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	Widespread but generally uncommon, and rare in some countries. Population trend is unknown but it is increasing in some areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it is known from three very isolated populations: Windsor Forest and Great Park, the New Forest, and the Severn Vale, with sub-fossils from farther north, at Thorne Moors in Yorkshire (Alexander 2002). In Spain there are seven localities known, all recent (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Hungary all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Ukraine it is also rare. In Denmark it is very rare and local; only in one locality (on Lolland) (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).  <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden it is very rare and local and present only in southernmost Sweden.<span lang="EN-GB"> In Finland it is rare but increasing; about 20 known localities (most of them recently found). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are many faunistic grid cells in the west (Bohemia) and east (Moravia), particularly in Bohemia; also many grid cells with records only from the time before 1950 (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia there are 13 faunistic grid cells scattered over the country, four additional ones with records from before 1950 (Elateridae 2009).<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>&#160;</span>	eng
157549	threats	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/><br/></p>	eng
157550	conservation	Alexander K.N.A., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available but data suggests that no conservation measure are needed over much of its range. This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157550	distribution	Alexander K.N.A., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is also present in northern Africa.<br/><br/>It is distributed throughout Portugal and all records are recent. In Cyprus and Italy it is <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>widespread; it is also present in Malta. In France it is present only in the Mediterranean border but it is frequently confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. griseus </span>(Villiers 1978). In Romania it has been reported from Dobroudjia. In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea.	eng
157550	habitat	Alexander K.N.A., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead and dry wood, mostly of twigs and branches, but also in living twigs to some extent (1.5 - 4 cm diameter). It is a strongly polyphagous species on nearly all broad-leaved trees, and often on conifers. It can cause serious damage to cultivated <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus avellana</span> (in Spain), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus mirbecki </span>(Algeria and Morocco), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Spain), <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pinsapo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. nordmanniana</span> (in Spain) (Sama 2002).<br/>The ecology may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. griseus. </span>Adults are attracted to light. <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>In Romania it especially lives in elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>. In <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Italy it is found in plain and mountain forest, mainly Mediterranean element. In Cyprus it is found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns; it has been reared from dead wood of Lemon tree, <em>Ceratonia siliqua,, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Pistacia lentiscus</em> <em></em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>	eng
157550	population	Alexander K.N.A., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	In Europe it is rather common and widespread; only in the south (Sama 2002). In Cyprus and Italy it is common. In Crimea it is very rare. In Romania there are only old records. <br/><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
157550	threats	Alexander K.N.A., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available, but a common and widespread species in much of range, suggesting little threat at present.</p>	eng
157551	conservation	Dodelin, B. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>In Spain it does not occur in any protected area. It occurs at least in  one place (Hyères) in a protected area in France.</p><p>The key actions needed are educational, to ensure that beach-cleaning operations only focus on man-made debris and leaves all<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>driftwood in place, including flotsam and jetsam. With so much river regulation, natural driftwood has become much scarcer and the habitat is usefully supplemented by debris from shipping, etc.<br/></p><p>Firewood gathering also needs to be limited such that all driftwood is not removed.<br/></p>	eng
157551	distribution	Dodelin, B. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution in southern Europe, primarily along Mediterranean coasts and including some of the Mediterranean Islands. <span lang="EN-GB">In Europe it is present in Spain, France (also Corsica), Italy (also Sardinia), Greece, Cyprus.  <br/> <span lang="EN-GB"><br/>In Spain there are two localities known (Balearic Islands; Grau de Gadía, Valencia). The report from Valencia is old (1960). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong style="font-weight: normal;">In France, the species is  localised in the Parc Naturel Régional of Camargue (Bouches du Rhône) and in a Natura 2000 site<em></em><em> </em>in Var and Haute-Corse. </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Also it has been confirmed from the </strong>  <span lang="EN-GB">Le Canet beach   <span lang="EN-GB">(eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>)<span lang="EN-GB"> and in Corsica in Aleria and Cateraggio. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">It has not been cofirmed in Gard (Le  Grau du Roi) (Leseigneur 1972) and Corse du Sud (Porto-Vecchio, Rondinara's  beach) (Leseigneur 1972). In Saint-Aygulf (Var), the population is extinct  (Leseigneur 1972, P. Berger pers. comm. 2009,&#160; </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">J. Delnatte pers. comm. 200<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>9).</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> <span lang="EN-GB">It is present in the eastern part of Corsica and in the southern part of Sardinia <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">(Leseigneur 1972, Idrissi 1982,  Platia 1994, Mertlik and Platia 2008, Alonso-Zarazaga and Cate  2009). <span lang="EN-GB">In Cyprus it has been reported only from Agia Napa (easter Cyprus) (Preiss and Platia 2003). <br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">It is also present in <span lang="EN-GB">Tunisia, Algeria,   <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region><span lang="EN-GB">, Turkey (Leseigneur, 1972, Idrissi 1982, Platia 1994, Mertlik and Platia 2008).</span></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p></span></span></span></span></span>	eng
157551	habitat	Dodelin, B. & Méndez, M., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>Some authors do not consider this species as a true saproxylic while others consider it as a psammophile saproxylic species - recent observations tend to support the latter. Larvae can be found in decayed and decomposing drift wood along the strand-line of beaches (and also coastal dunes) in the Mediterranean area. The species' habitat is red (brown) and/or white rot of decaying wood (trunks and tree stumps of broad-leaved trees, especially&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus sp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp</span>.) lying on the sand of beaches or coastal dunes, near the sea. All the larval instars are represented in the decaying wood (J. Delnatte pers. comm. 2009). The larva is carnivorous, a predator of saproxylic beetles (such as Curculionidae, Cossoninae), and may also be saprophagous, an omnivore (in the first larval instars). Larvae move freely in the sand (Platia 1994) and so can be found away from driftwood - this does not mean that they can survive in isolation from driftwood only that they move between driftwood locations from time to time. Larvae and pupae of <span style="font-style: italic;">I. moreli </span>have been<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found in the soft part of decaying wood (H. Brustel pers. comm. 2009). The larvae pupate in the spring and the adults are found in July and August under debris and at the base of plants; they are crepuscular and are attracted to lights (Leseigneur 1972, Idrissi 1982, Platia 1994, J. Delnatte pers. comm. 2009). The larvae appear also to feed on grass roots to some extent (Leseigneur1972, Platia 1994). Whether or not the species is fully saproxylic, it does seem to depend on the presence of plentiful driftwood. The driftwood also provides protection from the heat and drying aspects of sunshine. In Italy it probably lives in every sandy beach without urbanization. There is no information on the habitats and ecology of this species in Cyprus (O. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><p><strong></strong><strong></strong></p> <p></p><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><p></p>	eng
157551	population	Dodelin, B. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Rare species and very localised on the beach in circum-Mediterranean area. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it is very rare and local - only four specimens were collected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Preiss and Platia 2003). In Spain it does not seem to be abundant.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB"></p>	eng
157551	threats	Dodelin, B. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The species is threatened by the removal of driftwood from beaches and sand dunes, as part of beach-cleaning operations and also beach-combing and firewood gathering for beach fires.<br/></p>	eng
157552	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.   <span lang="EN-GB">It is included in the Red List of Sweden as Endangered (EN) in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>2005 and as <span lang="EN-GB">Critically Endangered (CR)<span lang="EN-GB"> in the earlier Red List (2000)<span lang="EN-GB">.<span lang="EN-GB"> Its is also included in the Red List of Finland as Endangered (EN) (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">This species is likely to become extinct in the biogeographical region<span lang="EN-GB"> unless conditions change.<span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></span>	eng
157552	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is confined to northern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>.	eng
157552	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, associated exclusively with the slime mould <span style="font-style: italic;">Trichia decipiens </span>- a common species dependent on decaying wood - in natural old growth spruce forests in Finland; the host mould prefers mid-decayed aspen and spruce logs, and its incidence grows with both increasing log diameter and stand-level log density (Laaksonen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). The information on the biology of the species is recent but because the species has only been found in old growth forests, it is thought that it may have other specific habitat requirements, such as micro-climatic specificity, but more information is needed.	eng
157552	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	It is only found at a single locality in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sweden</st1:place></st1:country-region>, with the last record from 1996, and at a single locality in Belarus from the 1800s (Laaksonen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/>In Finland it is known from more than ten localities, mostly in the eastern parts of the country. It is difficult to estimate the trend because all records are from the last 30 years, and its suitable habitat has decreased due to forestry and logging. The trend is therefore unknown but the suspicion is that it may be declining.	eng
157552	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is threatened by unsustainable forestry management, in particular forestry clearance and the removal of dead and dying trees. It is also negatively threatened by grazing and drainage.	eng
157553	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.<br/></p>	eng
157553	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only found across some countries in south-eastern Europe. It is common in Asian part of Turkey, but not in its European range.	eng
157553	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that requires large veteran trees as it inhabits decaying heartwood; the beetle has been found on sun exposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009) and in old traditionally managed cherry orchards; adults are attracted to Compositae flowers for feeding (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). Little information is available on the tree landscape types occupied but it is clear that the cultural landscape is important.<br/><br/><p>&#160;</p><p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
157553	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. However the population is likely to be small and fragmented due to its reliance on veteran oak trees (and cherry orchards).</p>	eng
157553	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>  This species lives in veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species, as is the lack of new generations of trees developing. Traditional management of old cherry orchards and veteran trees is vital and yet the essential land management systems which produce them are breaking down across the range.</p>	eng
157554	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive and Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>In the UK it has conservation status as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); also legal protection from trade and a few key sites are designated as SAC. It is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan; there has been extensive publicity led by the People's Trust for Endangered Species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Important populations of this species live in protected areas and Natura 2000 areas in Hungary; the species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Also in Romania and in Ukraine the species occurs in large protected areas.<br/><br/>In Spain it is protected at the national level as being of 'Special interest'; also present in regional protection lists. Present in several Natura 2000 areas and national parks. Rated as Least Concern in the Red Data Book (Verdú and Galante 2006).<br/><br/>In Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic it is considered Endangered, in Sweden Near threatened and Least Concern in Spain and Bulgaria. In Denmark this species is Regionally Extinct (2003). The species is included in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.	eng
157554	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also found in Caucasus, Minor Asia, Syria and west Kazakhstan.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is widespread, mainly in the south. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. It is much more sporadic on the lowlands, mainly in riverine willow and oak galleries. In Romania it is widespread, especially in the hilly areas with sun exposed slopes. It also occurs in the European part of Turkey and it has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953).<p>In Italy it is mainly distributed in northern and central regions (for certain southward to Latium) (Bartolozzi and Maggini 2006). In Spain it is present in the northern half of the country and occupies a total of 32 provinces (Galante and Verdú 2000, López-Colón 2000). Its southernmost distribution limit is a south-western and north-eastern line running from Cáceres province to Sierra de Gredos in northern Toledo, Sierra de Guadarrama, Serranía de Cuenca, east of Teruel and north of Tarragona. To the south of this line two isolated localities are known, one of them in Albacete (Galante and Verdú 2000) and the other one in the south of Badajoz (Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007). Within the northern half, the presence of this species in Valladolid province requires confirmation. In Portugal it occurs in the northern half, most records being from the western part (Grosso-Silva 1999, 2005), and there are also two recent (1990 and 2006) records from the centre: Sintra, north-west of Lisbon   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it is largely confined to the south-east of England, where it is widespread.<br/></p>In Denmark this species is Extinct (2003). The last reliable finding is from the 1960s-1970s. Few later findings are all considered introduced<span lang="EN-GB">.	eng
157554	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood near or below the soil surface, including decaying old stumps, but also in the base of fence posts; always decay from white-rot fungi; and generally in light soils; larval development takes about four years in the UK but five in European Turkey; pupation in IX; adults are active in VI-VII, feed on fruit and sap, and fly mainly in the evening (Lodos 1989, Alexander 2002). In Ukraine larvae mostly live in wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, sometimes other broad-leaved trees. In European Turkey larvae develop in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Tilia</em></strong>. The species needs big trunks and stumps.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in thermophilous oak woods (mainly in turkey oak woods) in the hills and the lower mountain areas. Important populations occur in wood pastures and riverine forests, where pedunculate oaks occur. Sometimes it develops in other broadleaved trees (e.g. willow) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Sites in the UK are mostly in the cultural landscape and especially in human settlements which tend to be richer in suitable trees, etc, than open countryside (Alexander 2002). In Spain this species is very polyphagous on broad-leaved tree species. In the north, it is present in bocage landscapes, city gardens, riparian forests and forests below 700 m. Towards the south, in Mediterranean areas, it is present at higher altitudes up to 2,000 m, in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests, including dense forests (Proyecto Ciervo Volante 1996, M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).	eng
157554	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Schmidl, J., 2009	In Europe the species seems to be more common in the south (except for Italy) and south-eastern part of its range. In the northern part of Europe, this species is decreasing.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a highly fragmented distribution but with one large and strong population centred across the Lower Thames Basin, plus two smaller concentrations; there is no evidence for any substantial decline in recent decades; sub-fossil remains have been found more widely (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain no systematic quantitative data exist on population size. Locally it can be over 100 individuals. The subpopulations in the north are decreasing and the subpopulations in the south are stable. In Andorra no data on populations exist. The three 10x10 squares occupied are data from records before 1980 (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Ukraine is local and not common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became somewhat rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. However, strong populations still occur in mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania well preserved populations occur in the oak forests from central and other hilly areas. Much rarer is the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">turcicus</span> from Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic its population is decreasing and in Sweden a 15% decline has been recorded over 15 years. In Italy it is locally quite common but declining.	eng
157554	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The overall decrease in the average age of forests due to more intense management and exploitation is a major threat. A future threat in eastern Europe is increased forest exploitation, leading to a decline of this species. Abandonment of coppicing and pollarding will lead to forest closure and will negatively affect the species. Loss of dead wood and old trees, forest clearing and removal of living hedges are also potential threats. In Britain, suitable habitat has been disappearing from the wider countryside to such an extent that the species now has a more urban and suburban distribution pattern. <br/></p><p>The species is also popular with collectors.<br/></p>	eng
157555	conservation	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance, ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially in terms of assessing its actual conservation needs.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157555	distribution	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is only found in Cyprus. It has been reported from a few localities in the upper zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (1,000–1,900 m): Olympos, Platres, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Preiss and Platia 2003), Platania, Kannoures (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Four specimens have been found in Pafos (P. Cate collection, Vienna).<p><br/></p>	eng
157555	habitat	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"> In Cyprus it has been f</st1:place></st1:country-region>ound in <em>Pinus brutia</em> and <em>Pinus nigra</em> forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009), although no details are available on the type of deadwood that it requires.	eng
157555	population	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">It is a </st1:country-region></st1:place>very rare and local species (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157555	threats	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>    </p>  There is no information available on the threats to this species. Presumably the lack of suitably rotten trees and forest fires can be a threat.<br/><p></p>	eng
157556	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is no information available. It is not known if the species is present in any protected area.</p>	eng
157556	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<em>Ampedus corsicus</em> is endemic to Corsica. Platia (1994) mentions three stations: Bonifacio, Vizzavona, Valdoniello forest, and the typus is labelled 'Corsica'. References to <em>A. corsicus</em> from mainland France are a mistake stemming from the confusion with <em>A. quercicola.<br/><br/><br/></em>	eng
157556	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species occurs in temperate forests in a wide range of suitable wood types (Leseigneur 1972).	eng
157556	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known. However the number of subpopulations is less than ten and they seem to have a fragmented distribution.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157556	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>	eng
157557	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is also categorized as threatened in all the countries where it occurs. This species is likely to struggle unless conditions change. It is important to preserve the forest in its natural condition. The species occurs in some protected areas (e.g. in the Poleskyi reserve, Ukraine).	eng
157557	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This species is widespread across central, northern and eastern Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the forest zone and in the Carpathians. There are old records from 1876 and some disputed ones in the Czech Republic and there are assumptions that it might be present in the Bohemian Forest; it could be Extinct there. In France records need to be validated. In Finland it has a very localised distribution, more frequent in the easternmost part of Finland. It is also found in Siberia, far east Russia, Japan, and north China (Lobl and Smetana 2007).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157557	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in coniferous and mixed forests under the bark of dead conifer trees, occasionally broad-leaved trees; it requires trees with a diameter of more than 7-10 cm at a height of 120 cm, with loose bark and damp under-bark layer (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It only colonises standing dead trees but may still be present after they have collapsed. The species is connected to the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Ophiostoma pini</span> in boreal areas - the larva feeds on the fungus under bark - and it is mainly found in Scots pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris </span>trees (primary habitat), but it is sometimes found in other trees if they have been burnt. The life cycle is two years; larvae and adults hibernate, and the adults are active in VII-VIII (Drogvalenkο 1999, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Ukraine, the beetle is especially associated with pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and sometimes birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, willow Salix, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. In Finland in addition to the pine dominated old-growth forests the species lives on burned areas in trees killed by fire, sometimes even in stumps.<br/></p>	eng
157557	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Extinct in western and central Europe and very rare and threatened in Slovakia, Czech Republic (no recent records), Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Sweden (Vulnerable) and Finland (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).<br/><br/>In Lithuania there are 57 records across nine districts since its first detection in 1972 (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Finland there is a continuing decline in the Area of Occupancy. It has disappeared from the whole mainland of Sweden, and there has been a reduction of more than 50% during the last 100 years. The last observations in some parts are from the 1920s or 1950s. In Poland there are only two localities in the very east. In Germany not extant within the borders after 1918.<br/><br/>The population trend is decreasing with fragmentation effects and declining habitat.	eng
157557	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Cultivation and intense exploitation of forests are major threats to this species (Karalius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Other threats include the loss, destruction and harvesting of old dead trees and suppression of forest fires. The lack of self-thinning is a threat in pine forests. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use (sensitive to forest management).	eng
157558	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009).	eng
157558	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) and southern Russia. In Ukraine, it is present in Crimea and in the lowland of the Dnieper River. In Hungary it is restricted to a few localities in the foothills and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There are only few and old reports from south-western Romania and Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in the Caucasus and in <st1:place w:st="on">Iran.</st1:place>	eng
157558	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that is known to develop in the dead wood of oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and maples <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>but detailed habitat requirements are not known. It requires open forests and forest edges.&#160; <br/></p><p>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>In Hungary this species lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak, and adults feed at blossoming shrubs (mainly hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>) (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009<span style="font-style: italic;">).&#160;</span>In Romania it was found at flowers in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Callimellum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stenopterus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine, the imago is active in V-VI. <br/><br/></p>	eng
157558	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Overall the abundance and trends of this species are unknown. The species is very rare in Hungary, the Slovak Republic and Ukraine, however it is not thought to be declining. While in Romania the trend is suspected to be declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), in Hungary the species may be increasing because it is increasingly frequent. In particular, in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not uncommon on its localities. In the 1970s it was known from only one locality; now the species seems to be increasingly frequent (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157558	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There appear to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to the species (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, presumably the use of oak branches and wood for local human use may be a threat, but this is not a major threat (P. Istrate&#160; pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157559	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157559	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2005; the type locality (the only site known) is in the centre of the country (Zapata and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).	eng
157559	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<span lang="EN-GB">It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.	eng
157559	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157559	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157560	conservation	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157560	distribution	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is found in Greece and Turkey (Adana, Nur daglari, Yarpuz environment). One specimen has been collected from Taygetos and five from Turkey (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157560	habitat	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details are available about its specific habitat requirements.	eng
157560	population	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157560	threats	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157561	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area.	eng
157561	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species occurs in south-western Europe only (Bense 1995). It is very widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001). In Portugal there are only a few records from the east, central and northern parts of the country (M.&#160;Méndez&#160;pers. comm. 2009). In France it is only found in the south.	eng
157561	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae feed in the wood of dead branches of <em>Quercus</em> (Chobaut 1893). The adult beetles fly in sunny weather to feed at flowers and therefore require open forest or ecotonal habitat of forest and meadow (Vives 2001)<em></em>.<br/></p>	eng
157561	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species although it is widespread. The population trend remains unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157561	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The species is not thought to face any major threats (M.&#160;Méndez&#160;pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157562	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available. Part of the range of this species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157562	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is found in the west and central part of southern Europe.<br/><br/>In Italy it is only present in the centre and south of mainland Italy. The presence of this species in the Balkans needs confirmation from new findings. <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa and the Caucasus region.	eng
157562	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in sporophores of lignicolous fungus, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span>.	eng
157562	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>In Portugal has been recorded from several sites in Serra da Estrela, a mountain area in northern-central Portugal. Most of the records are very recent (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009). There is no information for Italy and Spain. In France it is only reported from the type locality.</p>	eng
157562	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157564	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Hungary this species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, the species is well preserved inside large protected parks in the south-western part of country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the northern part of its range, it is important to properly protect and manage forests stands through improved forest management that favours good isolation, using appropriate forest management techniques, including coppicing.	eng
157564	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	It is believed that this species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe, reaching northern Europe including Iceland in the North Atlantic Ocean. In Italy it is only known from two sites situated in the north-western part of the country. In Germany it is only known from three states: an old record before 1950 in Bavaria, a record from before 1900 in Sachsen and a last record after 1950 in Sachsen-Anhalt. In Ukraine is is mostly present in Crimea and in the western hills of the Carpathian Mountains. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and sporadic in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Romania it is widespread from the low hills up to the mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). All localities in Serbia are in the central and south-eastern part.<br/>This species is also found in the Caucasus.	eng
157564	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that requires temperate broad-leaved forests. It lives in standing but dead broad-leaved deciduous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Quercus, Castanea, Fagus, Ulmus, Corylus, Acer</span>) and in fallen branches. It also develops in trunks of trees with smaller diameters. It may develop in wooden fences, construction wood and in log houses but these may be marginally suitable habitat. It develops in wood of diameters from three to 35 cm with or without bark. This species may need sun exposed stands of forest.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157564	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Overall this species is widespread but not abundant and may have a relatively small population. The adult is difficult to find because it is only active nocturnally. The species has been listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic, as it is considered very local and rare, which suggests a declining trend in the species. It appears to have disappeared from Poland, further suggesting a decline in the northern range of this species.In the Slovak Republic is not very rare in the southern part of the country, but it has declined somewhat. In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified - the species is widespread, but never common (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). Although it is widespread in Romania, it is not common (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157564	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>      </p><p>In the northern part of its range the main threats are likely to be loss of coppiced sun-exposed forest stands due to changing forest management practices that do not favour coppicing. In the southern part of the range threats may include inappropriate forest management due to extraction of old hornbeam.<br/></p>  <p></p><p>In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species is mainly threatened by habitat loss due to unsustainable forest management (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157565	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is dependent on old hollow trees with red rot therefore the maintenance of continuity and connectivity is necessary.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.	eng
157565	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread across southern, eastern and central Europe, extending to some countries in northern and western Europe. <br/><br/>This species is also found in Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) and in Turkey (Lobl and Smetana 2007).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western and central part of the forest-steppe zone; it is absent in Crimea. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157565	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The life cycle is three years: the larvae develop in decayed stumps and hollows of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>trees; old hollow trees with red rot . Pupation takes place in spring and in the beginning of summer. Adults are active in the evening in VI-VIII, flying to light (Dolin 1988); at dark high on tree trunks and branches or flying short intervals (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>It lives from lowlands to highlands, in enclaves of old broad-leaved forest and groves, mainly oak (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in open broad-leaved forests, also in city parks, orchards and suburbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157565	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread but rare throughout its range.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are several localities and in Slovakia several sites in the south. In Hungary the species is sporadic, and the populations are small. In Spain there are five sites known from Navarra, one from La Rioja and one from near Madrid (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). In Italy there are 25 localities, most recent records found in 2003. In France it is rare and very localized. In Greece it is extremely rare and is not present in Crete. In Ukraine it is a rare species.	eng
157565	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Cut, loss and destruction of old trees and stubs are major threats to this species. In Hungary this species is not threatened.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 1249px; height: 40px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
157566	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	In the UK a new initiative has been started to encourage good conservation practice in traditional orchards through the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan. Traditional orchards are now being inventoried across the country, but no monitoring scheme is yet in place. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania, Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2003) and Vulnerable in Britain.	eng
157566	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This species has a patchy distribution throughout almost all regions of Europe (with the exception of the far north). In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread especially in the forests from south and south-western Carpathians. In Portugal it occurs in the northern half, with very few records in the last 50 years. In France it is widespread and common. It is very localised in the UK, with just one large population and a three smaller populations. It is very localized in the south of Sweden and is restricted to a small area near Oslo (Norway).	eng
157566	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood; red- and white-rot provide suitable larval habitat. Larvae normally take two years to develop in the UK, longer where conditions not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the adults are active in&#160; V -VII, often feeding at flowers of elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>; the larvae are mainly found in old oaks, but also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix, </span>and fruit trees; the life cycle is one year and the larvae hibernate. In Hungary, larvae develop not only in hollow trees but also in dead lying trunks (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania adults can be found on white flowers, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK, the species clearly needs old open-grown trees; it is not found in closed-canopy shady situations. The majority of sites are traditional fruit orchards, using old hollowing plum <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus domesticus,</span> apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>sp. and pear <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus </span>trees. Also known from hollow forest oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in two sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is found in broad-leaved forests where dead wood is abundant, mainly in stream valleys and ravine forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157566	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	In general it seems to be a widespread and more or less stable species in Europe, with the exception of range states on the northern and north-western distribution limits of the species where some very significant declines have been reported.<br/><br/>In the UK it has declined dramatically in recent decades and the range has contracted significantly; one large landscape-scale population survives plus three small isolated populations  (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is very rare and possibly Extinct; there have been very few new findings. In Latvia there is a single population known (D. Telnov pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is restricted to the old wood pastures of the Cordillera Cantabrica and Pyrenees (Micó and Galante 2002); more than 30 localities are known. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Hungary the extant populations seem to be constant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are stable populations with a high number of individuals in the forests from south-western Carpathians, near the border with Serbia.	eng
157566	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  The loss of old trees in traditional orchards, either through replacement with younger trees, or through complete destruction of the orchard are a main factor causing a negative impact on this species in the UK; also canopy closure is a threat as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157567	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas. In particular in Hungary most of the localities are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is listed as Endangered (Vávra 2005). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157567	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is spread around much of Europe, from central to north and western Europe. In the Czech Republic it is known from central Bohemia (west), northern Moravia (north-east) and southern Moravia (south-east). In the Slovak Republic it is known from several areas, from the west to the east (except high mountains in the north). In Spain there are nine localities known, all in pre-pyrenaic forests (Recalde Irurzun 2008).	eng
157567	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larval development occurs both high up in the tree, in dead branches (diameter 15 cm) and in the trunk - the outer surface of the wood is usually solid, the inner parts with white rot, moist (e.g. with the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Phellinus robustus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Corticium comedans</span>); most larvae develop on the southern, warmer side of the tree and especially areas without bark; development takes two years; it seems to prefer oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, but is also known from hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and small-leaved lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span> (Muona 1993), also most frequent in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>in Russia and the Ukraine. The larvae hibernate and the adult is active in VI-VII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Drogvalenko 1999). The adult is mainly found in the canopy.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is known from the Carpathians and forest zone. In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, usually mature forests, mainly oak, beech and hornbeam; sometimes it is present in managed forests too (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France this species prefers <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Alnus, Tilia</span> and other broad-leaved trees; in deciduous forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157567	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species has a large distribution in Europe. Based on known records it has a scattered distribution, most widespread in central Europe, but rarer in the surrounding areas. However it may be under-recorded as it is largely a canopy species (and consequently difficult to find even when present). In Germany&#160; it is widespread across the south and middle of the country (30-50 known localities) but it is likely to be under-recorded; it is not declining; may rather have increased in recent decades. In the Czech and Slovak Republics there are many recent records (approximately 50 in total). In France it is widespread but very localised and very rare, with discontinuity between the stations. At least in 22-95 French departments (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions and all known populations are very small; however, it does not seem threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Sweden there is one single population in the far south. In Spain there are nine localities known in pre-pyrenaic forests (Recalde Irurzun 2008) and it has only recently been discovered in Spain. It formerly occurred in Britain but became extinct after the Neolithic period (Alexander 2002), presumably lost through deforestation.	eng
157567	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. The species is especially threatened by intensive forest management such as removal of dead trees.Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
157568	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157568	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in Greece on the south-west Peloponnesan Peninsula and in northern Africa (Bense 1995); it is also found in Turkey. In Turkey, Greece and Middle East it is the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">inhumeralis </span>(R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157568	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development inadequately known, up to now only reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia </span>(Bense 1995) although it is believed to be polyphagous. Larvae bore in dead branches of deciduous trees (R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009). The adult lives on deciduous trees and visits shrub flowers to feed during daytime.	eng
157568	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is no information available on the abundance or trends of this species.</p><p></p>	eng
157568	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157569	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There are no conservation actions needed and the species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157569	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread through a central east-west band across Europe but with populations also scattered to the south on the Mediterranean (Bense 1995). <br/>It is widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly areas but much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in almost all parts of the country, but there are not many reports (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is believed to be present in the south-western states but there are many wrong indications and the distribution needs to be checked. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been reported from the southern and western slopes of Troodos Mountains (0-1000 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and it has also been reported from Istanbul (Demelt and Alkan 1962), Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), Canakkale (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009) in European Turkey. It is also found in Kazakhstan, all Caucasus and northern Iran.<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>  <p></p>	eng
157569	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>      </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead branches and twigs of small diameter of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Castanea, Ulmus, Ficus, Prunus, Pyrus,&#160; Crataegus,</em><em> Padus, Frangula, Rhamnus, Pistacia, </em><em>Robinia, Paliurus, Styrax, Cistus</em>). Adults emerge in V-VIII and are attracted to white flowers for feeding. It is known from Mediterranean maquis, temperate shrubland, temperate forest, and orchards. In Hungary it lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where the larvae develop in dead branches of oak and various shrubs, with the adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany this species lives in thermophilic forest areas. In Romania the larval stages are found inside dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was found mainly in maquis and garigue on various flowers, especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157569	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a widespread species, common in warmer regions. The population trend is stable. In Hungary and Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded in Hungary as common on its localities. In Romania it is becoming rarer (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/>    <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>uncommon and local. In Spain and Italy it is widespread and very common. In the Czech Republic it is very localised and in Slovakia it is widespread as it prefers warmer areas. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157569	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this species. In Germany is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution (2009), and is therefore threatened only by low number of populations.<br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157570	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	As it is found in protected areas as well as in planted conifer forests no specific measures are necessary.  It is listed in the British Red Data Book<span style="font-style: italic;"> (</span>Shirt 1987) but this is clearly a mistake due to lack of knowledge at that time (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157570	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This species is widespread throughout Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central, northern Europe and south-eastern Europe. It is absent from south-western Europe and the Mediterranean. In Germany it is widespread. In Hungary this species is widespread in the country wherever indigenous or planted conifer forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread from the plains up to high mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is not common, but distributed throughout most of the country (Thomsen 2007). It is widespread in Ukraine. It is also found in  Korea and Japan. It is regularly imported into countries where it is not native with timber, for example in Britain and Ireland.<br/></p>	eng
157570	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in or under the bark of dead, dry trunks and branches of a wide variety of coniferous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picea</span>), only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Alnus</span>). Life cycle two years (sometimes longer), with pupation in spring in the wood. For completion of development it is necessary for there to be thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on the host-plants. In Ukraine the life cycle is one year. It can live in artificial habitats such as the dry wood in constructions. In Hungary it lives in all kinds of indigenous and planted conifer forests, rarely in deciduous forests  (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in coniferous forests. In Romania it lives in  dry coniferous wood, in Carpathian forests, and sometimes in the coniferous parts of buildings (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is often associated with houses, sawmills, timberyards etc. (Thomsen 2007). <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157570	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	It is a common and widespread species over much of its native range, e.g. in Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).  In the Carpathian Mountains it is well represented where coniferous forests exist; it is  spread in all parts of Romania with coniferous wood used for different parts of traditional houses (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157570	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over its range (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Germany).  In Romania it can be considered as a pest of the timber industry (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157571	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is no information regarding conservation actions for this species. It remains unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. In Germany it is included in the Red Data Book.</p>	eng
157571	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution across Europe, and is absent from many areas. It is not present in Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). It is&#160;considered Extinct in Germany (B. Büche pers. comm. 2009). In France there are about 15 localities in central and south-western France. It was recently found in north-western Greece in 2008 (Mertlik <em>et al.</em> 2009) and in Bulgaria the only record is from 1998 (Elateridae 2009).<p><br/></p><br/><p><br/><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nouvelles%20observations%20de%20Microrhagus%20pyraeneus%20(Bonvouloir%2C%201872)%20(Coleoptera%20Eucnemidae)&rft.jtitle=L'%20Entomologiste&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.aulast=Brustel&rft.au=H.%20Brustel&rft.au=C.%20Van%20Meer&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=75-78"></p>	eng
157571	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been found in&#160;dry branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>in Germany (Muona 1993).&#160;In France it was found in humid and cold lowland forests, developing in white-rotten wood (branches) of <em>Alnus</em> and <em>Quercus</em>, lying on the ground (Brustel and Van Meer 2008).	eng
157571	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered one of the rarest beetle in Europe (Brustel and Van Meer 2008).</p><p><br/></p><p>      </p><br/><p></p>	eng
157571	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. These are the main threats to the species but their intensity is unknown.</p><p></p>	eng
157572	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005), as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987). Conservation of old-growth trees, protection of known sites, and preservation of traditional coppicing are recommended for the conservation of this species, as well as the provision of substitute habitat by creating trees with cavities. This species would benefit if traditional coppices continue to be managed, but also if forests are being left intact without removing old live trees with cavities.<br/><br/>In the UK, all three known sites are protected under UK legislation and SAC. It has been illegal to collect this species since 1988. A Species Action Plan was developed (1996) and a Species Recovery Programme was initiated by English Nature. Tree mapping and documentation projects are available at all sites. New tree plantings have been carried out at the active wood pasture site; future host trees have been selected for retention from beech natural regeneration at the former wood pasture site. No analysis of tree population dynamics has been carried out however, so there is currently no real understanding of long-term host tree availability. Fallen hollow beech trees have had their trunks re-erected and filled with sawdust and other materials, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Limoniscus </span>larvae and elytra have been found within them after six years of composting (Green 1995, Whitehead 1998) (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary although all known extant populations are in protected areas (or at least in Natura 2000 sites), more effective conservation of the hollow oaks is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary.	eng
157572	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This central European species is known to have a discontinuous distribution across the entirety of Europe except for the outer-most southern and northern areas (Laibner 2000). It is extinct in Denmark and has not been found there in <span style="font-style: italic;">circa</span> 100 years (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157572	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould, typically in the base of hollow living trees, usually in the trunks, with large cavities containing wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. In most sites the larvae are found in wood mould in close contact with the soil but there is at least one observation of larvae in wood mould a few metres up in the tree. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions. Sites may be in forest or in cultural landscapes, e.g., old wood pastures, old coppiced woodlands, etc. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>In England it occurs in three very different sites: one active old wood pasture dominated by ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, one abandoned old ash coppice, and a former old wood pasture dominated by beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, </span>all part of the cultural landscape rather than old forest<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary most records are from hollow turkey oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus cerris</span> (not necessarily old ones) with near-ground cavities filled with wood mould, but also from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is known only from old and ancient beech forests with trees damaged at their base; the larvae live in cavities in contact with soil in living <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> or rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Leseigneur 1972).</p>	eng
157572	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is very rare throughout its European range. <br/><br/>In Britain there are isolated populations within a very fragmented range; it is only known from two areas in England, with two distinct sites at one of these; there is no information available on population size or trends (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary there are very few records known from the hilly areas; the species is very rare and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are several sites scattered across the country. In Slovakia it is found in the south and east, and there are several sites. In Germany there are up to ten localities, half of those have been confirmed several times. In France it is very localized in lowland large and ancient beech forests; 15 known localities. In Spain it is known from four localities in the north, one very old. In Poland it is known from two localities: one from 1870 and one from 1920. It is certainly Extinct in Denmark - not found in <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>100 years (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157572	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>    </p>  In England, natural loss of old trees from the known sites and lack of new generation trees are major threats to this species; also singling of old coppice stools in productive woodland. Canopy closure is a potential threat in the <st1:country-region><st1:place>UK</st1:place></st1:country-region>, as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><p></p>	eng
157573	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157573	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is distributed through central-southern Europe (Sama 2002), south and northwestern Europe including the Mediterranean islands.	eng
157573	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in dry dead branches in living broad-leaved tress, in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> etc.<br/></p>	eng
157573	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>In France and Italy this species is common.</p><p>In Spain it is unknown which population is <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>.</p>	eng
157573	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no threats to this species.<br/><p></p>	eng
157575	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Petrakis, P., & Büche, B., 2009	It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat for this species continues to be available in future.	eng
157575	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Petrakis, P., & Büche, B., 2009	This species is confined to north-eastern Greece and the European part of Turkey (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It was reported from Edirne (Keşan) in the European part of Turkey (Ranius <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
157575	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Petrakis, P., & Büche, B., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157575	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Petrakis, P., & Büche, B., 2009	Little information is known but as this species requires decaying heartwood it may be inferred that due to declining extent of habitat this species faces a declining trend.<br/><br/><p></p>	eng
157575	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Petrakis, P., & Büche, B., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157576	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157576	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in Cyprus and Turkey (Asia Minor). In the European region it is confined to Cyprus.     <p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from a few localities in the upper zone of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (1,200-1,900 m) in Olympos, Almyrolivado, Prodromos (Preiss and Platia 2003).<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157576	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span> forests, developing in rotten trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus nigra</span><em> </em>(Preiss and Platia 2003).	eng
157576	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species is very rare and local and only found on Cyprus (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is no information on population trends.<br/></p>	eng
157576	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157577	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In Hungary, this species occurs in several protected areas and Natura 2000 sites. No specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine, no specific measures are needed.	eng
157577	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	It is believed that this species is widespread throughout much of Europe, excepting only the north. It occurs in south-western, central and eastern Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. <br/><br/>In Hungary, it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, mainly in the western part of the country. It is much rarer in the lowlands where it has been found in a few oak plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it might be found in the south. In Portugal it has only been recorded in 1907, from a single locality. It has been recorded from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953). <br/><br/>It is also found in north Africa, Minor Asia, Turkey, south of west Siberia and Kazakhstan.	eng
157577	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species and develops in the deadwood of a variety of broad-leaved tree species, but especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and sweet chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>. Adults are active in V-VII (Schimitschek 1953). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In Hungary, this species occurs in xerothermic thermophilous oak woods (namely turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <strong><em></em></strong>In Germany it also develops in oak forests. In Spain it develops in thin branches on several <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species and also on chestnut, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>.&#160; </p><p></p>	eng
157577	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries in the southern parts of its range, and more restricted towards the northern areas. In Italy it is reported as not rare while in Spain it is not common<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In Hungary, its population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species has stable populations where occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In the Czech Republic, it is not frequent and it is absent from the mountains - this species inhabits the southern warmer parts of the Czech Republic. In the European part of Turkey, its population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>	eng
157577	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is not threatened.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157578	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is no information available.</p>	eng
157578	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is distributed in south-western Europe (Sama 2002) and in some of the   Mediterranean islands and in the Canary Islands. In particular this species is found in France, Croatia, Sardinia, Portugal, Poland and Spain, including the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>Data for the species in France, Italy and neighbouring areas exist (Bense 1995) but the species has subsequently been recognised as comprising two separate species: the true <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> and the newly described <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus </span>(q.v.). It is unclear whether older data for the species applies to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus.</span><br/><br/>In Spain it remains unclarified if the records belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pilosus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>.<br/>  In Portugal the species is distributed across the northern half, with few records.<br/>In Italy the species is only found in southern Sardinia, in the municipality of Cagliari. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span> occurs throughout mainland Italy.<br/>In Switzerland and Germany data on the species are most likely records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. glabromaculatus</span>. The species has not been recorded in Germany since 1950 and introductions to Germany have been recorded but without precise data.<br/><br/>This species is also found in northern Africa.	eng
157578	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dry dead branches of various widespread and common tree species (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span>).<br/></p>	eng
157578	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species across its range. In Spain it is not abundant. The only records for Germany are from before 1950 and are from Rheinland-Pfalz and Thüringen. It is no longer present in Germany.</p><p>The trends for this species are not known.<br/><br/><br/></p>	eng
157578	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The specific threats to this species remain unknown.</p><p></p><p></p>	eng
157579	conservation	Bahillo, P. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Not present in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). It is found in at least one protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157579	distribution	Bahillo, P. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only known from Canary Islands, Spain. Present in four islands: La Palma, Hierro, Tenerife and Gran Canaria (Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala 1981, Izquierdo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
157579	habitat	Bahillo, P. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Pine forests, under the dead bark of fallen trees and branches, where it feeds on other xylophagous insects (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157579	population	Bahillo, P. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala (1981) recorded only two specimens, one from La Palma and the other one from El Hierro; it does not seem to be a very abundant species. Known from four islands, only four localities known (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157579	threats	Bahillo, P. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Pine forests in the Canary Islands are managed for forestry, so it is possible that the species gets negatively affected if dead trees or large branches are removed from the forest as a part of the 'cleaning' management (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). Forest fires are also a threat.<br/></p>	eng
157580	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, although it occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species, especially its conservation management requirements.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157580	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species seems to be endemic to Greece. It is recorded from Mt Parnitha, Attiki, Mt Kyllini, Korinthia. However it may occur in western Turkey.	eng
157580	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is restricted to high mountains and lives in fungal fruiting bodies on dead wood of coniferous trees, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span>.	eng
157580	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is a rare species.</p>	eng
157580	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The strong decline of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cephalonica</span> forests is a major threat to this species. Forest fires and grazing of goats (suppression of forest generation) are other threats.<br/></p>	eng
157581	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Conservation of dying trees is recommended. This species is classed as Endangered in Germany.	eng
157581	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread across southern and the south part of central Europe. It is also found in northern Africa, Minor Asia and Caucasus.	eng
157581	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This may be a facultative saproxylic species, rather than obligate, although the evidence is unclear. The adults have been found in dry fruit bodies of the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> fallen to the ground but also other fungi; it appears to be prefer old fruit bodies of lignicolous fungi but is also apparently occasionally found on other fungi - the presence of adult beetles is not evidence that the species developed there however. No reports of rearing have been found. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus eryngii</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996); adults are sometimes found under bark of beech-trees, presumably as a winter refugium.	eng
157581	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Information is not available on population size and trends for most of its range. It appears to be common and widespread in some areas, but rare in many countries.<br/><br/>In Greece it is assumed widespread. In France it is not rare but also not common, largely distributed in the country. In Spain it has a fragmented distribution in the Mediterranean part. In Ukraine it is a relatively rare species, especially in the forest-steppe zone, and in the mountains of Crimea. In Hungary there are a very few localities known from the western part of the country, all are more than 50 years old. As there is no extant population known, no information is available about its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany there is one single recent record. In Portugal it was recorded in the 1920s from two localities in the north; no additional records.	eng
157581	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>There are no major threats.</p><p></p>	eng
157582	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II  of the EU Habitats Directive. It is recommended to maintain the continuity of old growth-forest. As the dispersal ability is slow, reintroductions should be considered. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Spain, Greece).	eng
157582	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is extremely rare and mainly a southern European species, from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, extending northwards through Hungary and Austria into southern Germany.<br/><br/>This species is very rare in the mountain forests in France (Brustel 2005). It has disappeared from the Alps where it was cited in 1854. Researches in this historical forest area during a three year period (including window trapping) gave no results (H. Brustel and R. Allemand pers. comm. 2009). The species is currently known only from the Pyrenees<em> </em>(< ten localities) and was newly found in the southern part of the massif central (Rousset <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Spain it is only known from four localities in the Pyrenees (Gómez-Moreno 1934, Alonso-Zarazaga and López-Colón 2002, Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Italy it is present in north and south central mainland (not present in Sicily and Sardinia). In Ukraine, this species occurs in the the forest and forest-steppe zones in the Carpathians and Crimea.<br/><br/>In Hungary, it is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions, mainly in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Last recorded in Sweden in 1863, and the few German records are old. There are no modern records from the British Isles, and it is most recently known c3,000 BP from sub-fossils (Buckland and Kenward 1973).	eng
157582	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults live in large diameter decayed humid wood of lying trunks of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> (including aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>), and some conifer trees. In France, larvae of this species have been found in trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. <br/>The adults feed exclusively on Myxomycetes and therefore need large quantities of dead wood in a humid microclimate (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It needs big trees that are not drying and it seems to prefer montane habitats - in France at least. Pupation occurs during summer; adults hibernate in the pupal cell or under bark. Young adults appear in VI-VIII (Kryzhanovskij 1983, Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary and Spain, most of the known populations are in mature broad-leaved forest, mainly beech. However, it has also been found in planted pine forest (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Normally regarded as a relict species of primary, wholly undisturbed forest (not disturbed by human activity) (Alexander 2002). <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/> <p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Description%20of%20larva%20and%20pupa%20of%20Rhysodes%20sulcatus%20(F.)%20(Coleoptera%2C%20Rhysodidae)%20and%20notes%20on%20the%20bionomy%20of%20this%20species&rft.jtitle=Annales%20Zoologici%20Warszawa&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=12&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Burakowski&rft.au=B.%20Burakowski&rft.date=1975&rft.pages=271-287"><br/></p>	eng
157582	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is rare and threatened throughout its range (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Its population trend is unknown. <br/><br/>In Spain this species is found in only four known localities, all in the Pyrenees, until recently the last known record was from 1964 (Alonso-Zarazaga and López-Colón 2002), a recent finding has been reported (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Localities are far apart. There is no information about the population size (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009). This species is very rare in France (Brustel 2005).<br/><br/>In Poland it is found at most in six localities, in Romania in just one, in the Czech Republic in two recent sites, in Slovakia in several sites across the country and in Russia in two - one large site in Karelia and another in the area of Moscow. In Slovenia, the species has been found in three sites, all with recent records.  In Greece, it has only been found in one protected area. In Ukraine and Italy, it is a rare and localised species. In Germany, it is Extinct while in Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157582	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Loss of old trees and decaying wood, and the removal of large old logs are serious threats to this species.	eng
157583	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157583	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
157583	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information available on the habitat requirements for this species.	eng
157583	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157583	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157584	conservation	Alexander K.N.A., Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No measures needed.	eng
157584	distribution	Alexander K.N.A., Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It is a European species (Laibner 2000). This species is widespread across western, central and south-eastern Europe, but absent from the boreal forests of the north. In Ukraine it occurs only in the Carpathians. In Italy it is only present in the northern part of the mainland. In Germany it is present in six States and has been recorded recently.	eng
157584	habitat	Alexander K.N.A., Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decaying wood and stubs of conifer trees; the adult is active in May - June;.in conifer, preferably spruce forests, from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it occurs in mountain forests and the larvae develop mainly in decayed fir.	eng
157584	population	Alexander K.N.A., Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It is a widespread species in Europe and mostly common in higher mountain ranges but not exclusively so. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common. It is a usual species in Ukraine.	eng
157584	threats	Alexander K.N.A., Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
157585	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of old trees of appropriate species, and appropriate habitat management (especially leaving dead wood rather than 'cleaning' it up).<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Vulnerable (Shirt 1987); it is also a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).	eng
157585	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe. It is a west Palaearctic species ranging as far as the Caspian Sea (Laibner 2000).<br/> <br/>This species also occurs in Minor Caucasus in Georgia and Armenia. <br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from a single locality in the northern part (Barros 1932). In Ukraine it occur in the east area until the Dniper River; in Crimea absent. In Britain its has a very restricted range in the far south of England (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157585	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in relatively soft white-rotten heartwood of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span> (and some other species, including fruit trees); in trunks, logs and boughs, and more rarely in stumps; pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult; adults have occasionally been taken off hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom (Alexander 2002). Larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>are typical predators which eat the larvae of other saproxylic insects: Cerambycidae (Leseigneur 1972), Lucanidae (Husler and Husler 1940, Iablokoff 943), Bostrichidae, Curculionidae and some Diptera (Dolin 1988). The adults are active in V-VI.<br/><br/>UK sites tend to be ancient wood pastures in the cultural landscape, with open-grown trees (old growth) (Alexander 2002). It is also found on floodplains and forest-steppe formations, in preserved deciduous forests of submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech forests, mainly open stands and ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157585	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A not particularly common species that is declining in some range states, but overall it is not declining in Europe.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution, with just a few isolated populations, four main centres; at least one strong population (Mendel and Clarke 1996, K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs locally across both territories (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare but somewhat widely distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Sweden it is rare and localized and has declined.	eng
157585	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157586	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	At present no conservation measures are needed. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy, as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Endangered in Slovakia.	eng
157586	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is known from the Mediterranean area, including the Mediterranean islands, reaching central Europe, Crimea in Ukraine and some countries in western Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus (Laibner 2000) and northern Africa.	eng
157586	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Adults occur in stumps and trunks in open, sunlit forests of various composition, and in forest-steppes from lowlands to submontane zones. Frequently seeks burnt wood after forest fires (Laibner 2000). Prefers to be on wood with ant nests as it is preying on them. <br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is an obligate predator. A typical forest species. The larvae develop under bark of decayed wood of broad-leaved trees and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. The adults are inactive under bark and in splits of dead trees by day (Dolin 1982). In Hungary the only extant population lives in an indigenous juniper-birch shrubland (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It the European part of Turkey, larvae develop in the old trunks of felled trees and under bark of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus cerris</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus conferta</em></strong>; overwintering in adult stage; the adults are active early in teh year, in III-IV (Schimitschek 1953). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region></st1:place>adults have been found in rotten wood of <em>Pinus brutia, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Juglans regia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p>	eng
157586	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is common and has stable populations in much of the Mediterranean range, but is rare and threatened further north.<br/><br/>In Greece it is widespread but scattered and locally rare. In Cyprus it is widespread and its population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been recorded from over 100 sites (historic and recent). It is common in Spain and common in southern France with stable populations. It has been reported from Istanbul in European Turkey (Schimitschek 1953).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there is one recent site in southern Bohemia. In Slovakia it has been found in three areas only (Laibner 2000). In Hungary only one doubtful record is known from the central part of the country, which is more than 80 years old; an extant population was discovered in 2008 in the southernmost part of Hungary. There is only one extant population known which is small and restricted to one small area (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a very rare species.<br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>  <p></p>	eng
157586	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is not threatened in most of its range. Loss of old trunks and felling of trees can be a threat to this species.	eng
157587	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>  No specific conservation measures are in place. This species was not included in the Red Book of the Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Some populations are present in protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157587	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe; except in northern Europe. This species is not endemic to Europe. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/>In Portugal, it has been recorded from  several areas in the north and centre of the country. Most of the records (10 out of 13) are recent (1995 onwards) but this may reflect a recent higher sampling effort (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. caerulea</span> is widespread but not recorded from Galicia nor the Atlantic coast (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). It occupies 114 localities/squares of 10x10 km (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">T. c.</span> subps. <span style="font-style: italic;">pini</span> is present in Canary Islands (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The presence of this species in the Italian islands is doubtful.	eng
157587	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Spain it is found under bark of pines <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> spp., where they feed on other saproxylic insects (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157587	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but its population trend is considered stable. <br/></p><p>This species is common in the Mediterranean part of its range, including Greece, but rare in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.</p><p>In Spain, both subspecies are found in high numbers in the localities known (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).</p><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157587	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157588	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. The species occurs in Troodos Mountains protected area.   Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this little-known species.</p>	eng
157588	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	In the European Union, this species is only found in Cyprus. Its general distribution is western-Asian (Turkey, Middle East).	eng
157588	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in very dry dead wood (twigs, branches) in coniferous forests. Found in woodsheds as well as in twigs on the ground.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157588	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157588	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available on specific threats but <span lang="EN-GB">there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat. </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157589	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157589	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Spain.	eng
157589	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The adult has been found under bark on deadwood, in riparian and Mediterranean forest, but no details are available about its larval development situations.	eng
157589	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157589	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157590	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Schmidl, J., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic.	eng
157590	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is scattered throughout much of Europe, except the Scandinavian Peninsula, British Isles, Baltic States and far western Europe. It was a native species in Britain but died out before the historic period. It is also present in Near East.	eng
157590	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is known from deadwood of various broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>(Scandinavia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>(Russia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Germany); it has been reared from standing dead trees and snags with hard surface wood but soft heartwood decay within (Muona 1993); in dead standing trunks in moist forests. Relatively thermophilous (Alexander 2002). In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, mature beech forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It prefers beech wood (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1979); in (semi) natural forests (Vávra 1996).	eng
157590	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species seems to be scarce in parts of its range but it is believed that it is due primarily to under-sampling.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; the known populations are usually small, although in the late 1990s it was abundant in the Buda Hills (the hills in the capital Budapest) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany there are recent records from the south and east; it is quite rare. In the Czech Republic it is rare and records are scattered across the country; 14 faunistic grid cells with post-1950 records, five with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it is also rare with records scattered across the country; 12&#160; faunistic grid cells with post-1950 records, missing in the south-western part, except for a single faunistic grid cell with pre-1950 record(s) (Elateridae 2009). In Romania it is common. In Spain records are only previous to 1980 (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In the UK there are sub-fossil records widespread across the England lowlands (Alexander 2002); in deposits dated c 3000 BP (Buckland and Kenward 1973); long Extinct.	eng
157590	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157591	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially into its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157591	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is known only from Greece. It has been recorded from Aghios Nikolaos, Karpenissi, Varetadha, Amphilochia, Mount Ossa, Larissa but it is possibly present also elsewhere. One specimen has been collected from Mount Taygetos and four from Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157591	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is little information about the ecology of this species. It lives in deciduous forests.	eng
157591	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>	eng
157591	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The decline of forest is a major threat to this species.&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
157592	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	The species occurs in the Crimean Mountain Reservation.	eng
157592	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in Crimea (Ukraine).	eng
157592	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are found in decayed wood and stubs of beech-trees. The adult is active in the second half of May to June. The larvae are predatory or necro-saprophagous. In the Crimean Mountain Reservation there are a large number of old beech trees, so this species has adequate habitat.	eng
157592	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population is in a small area, but it is stable, and part of its range is protected in the Crimean Mountain Reservation (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>	eng
157592	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	Potential threats to this species include felling and destruction of old beech but this is not a risk within the Crimean Mountain Reservation. This is not thought to be a major threat at present because cutting of beech trees is forbidden on the Crimean Peninsula, even outside the protected area.	eng
157593	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus </span>occurs in several protected areas, therefore no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, this species is widespread in protected areas in the south-western part of the country and it is quite common in the hilly areas.It is important to preserve small&#160; forest areas undisturbed by human activities (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is listed as Endangered (2009).	eng
157593	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widespread in central, western and southern Europe, and the Mediterranean. It is also found in northern Iran. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span><br/>In Hungary, this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it is a common species in the central part of Romania, in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Its distribution in the European part of Turkey is unknown. In Ukraine the species was present in the Carpathians but there have not been new records in the last 60 years. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>	eng
157593	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the wood of dead branches of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Fraxinus, Crataegus, Zelkova, Ostrya, Castanea, Loranthus</span>), pupating in the autumn within the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in V-VII, attracted to flowers for feeding.</p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus </span>lives in light oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been observed in May on different white flowers of shrubs, <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus monogyna</span>, etc. (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157593	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In Hungary the population size and trend of this species have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, there is no information on the trend of the population but because it was observed during the last five years in many places, it is expected that this species is well represented (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, this species is only found in southern and central Germany while in Italy, it has a scattered distribution. In the Czech Republic, it is widespread, common and the population is not declining. <br/><span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>	eng
157593	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. angulatus</span> is threatened by the removal of dead branches infested by larvae from the forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157594	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	No conservation actions in place or needed. This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157594	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	In Europe this species is widespread from Russia to Portugal and from northern Europe to the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Sibir, Minor and Central Asia. <br/><br/>It occurs in almost in all Ukraine (except steppe zone). In Hungary this species is widespread in areas covered with oak forests. In Portugal it appears to be widespread but records are few. In France it appears to be widespread but records are few. This species is known from a few localities in Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Çanakçıoğlu 1993, Lodos 1998).    <p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157594	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This beetle inhabits dry trunks and stubs, and can be a pest species in firewood in storehouses. Mainly in wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">sp</span>., rarely in other wood or broad-leaved trees. The adult is active mostly in VI in Ukraine. The life cycle is one or two years. In Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Aesculus hippocastaneum</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea vesca</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Morus alba</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Viburnum tinus</em></strong>. It is also found in chairs and tables made of <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus hippocastanum</span>. <strong><em></em></strong>The adults are active in IV-VI. The life cycle is one year (Canakcıoglu 1993, Lodos 1998). In Germany it has a preference for oak, also in exposed root wood of Rosaceae trees.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of oak woods. In Portugal two of the three recent Portuguese records are not from oak woodlands but from degraded areas where old oaks are practically absent (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).</p><p> British sites are not well documented but at least one, Dunham Park, is an ancient deer park with a large number of old oak trees and rich in old growth beetles and flies; this the last known site for the species in Britain, having been found in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century.</p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p><p>    </p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p><span style="font-style: italic;"><p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p><p></p>	eng
157594	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is apparently common (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. Population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey. In Germany it occurs in all States, abundant in thermophilic broad-leaved forests. In Spain it is very common (134 localities). In Italy it is regarded as a pest.<br/><br/>It is Extinct in Britain.	eng
157594	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	Loss of old oak trees through forestry, tidiness, inadequate natural regeneration or planting are major threats to this species. Also habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of deforestation; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present, because the species is thriving in managed forests as well.	eng
157595	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	In Hungary the species occurs in several protected areas so no specific measurements are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is considered as Data Deficient in Poland and as Endangered in Germany (2009). FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157595	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is distributed throughout much of Europe; in central Europe, from Pyrenees to the Black Sea (Bense 1995) including some of the Nordic and Scandinavian countries. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is present in the north and there is a record in Calabria (south). It has also been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953). It also occurs in southern Russia and Caucasus (Major and Minor).	eng
157595	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It prefers lime wood <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> for oviposition; reports regarding development in aspen&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>are probably incorrect. Larvae develop under bark on dead branches and pupate in the wood, under or in the bark. Adults are found on the foliage or branches, or flying nearby (Sama 2002). Life cycle two to three years. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on leaves, branches and stems of the host plant; they feed on leaves and will eat aspen leaves as well as lime. In Hungary it lives in forests where various species of lime occur, especially in ravine and slope forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been founded on the very fresh cut trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>in the south-western Carpathians. It is a nocturnal species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has been also found in thermophylus forests.	eng
157595	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	In Ukraine this species is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania there are small populations but it is widespread throughout the country. It is common in the Carpathian forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Germany there are new records after 1950 only from Baden-Würtemberg, Bayern, Sachsen-Anhalt, Sachsen and Brandenburg. In France it is not a rare species. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda </span>are hard to find but the use of the feeding signs of the adults in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>leaves have permitted numerous observations in Switzerland (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157595	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species is threatened due to the loss of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>trees. In Hungary it is not threatened because its host plants are widely available, and the ravine and slope forest are usually removed from forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania in the low mountainous areas, where there exist large deciduous forests,&#160; this species is not threatened (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157596	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, UK). In the UK this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992) although also listed in the out-of-date British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987).	eng
157596	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species has a Holarctic distribution, inhabiting the north and central zone of the Palaearctic region (Laibner 2000). This is a boreal-alpine species. It also occurs in the Caucasus and North America (Laibner 2000).	eng
157596	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under thick dead bark or in dead wood immediately beneath the bark, usually in fallen trunks; typically in spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, but also in other tree species e.g. birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; they are predatory, eating the&#160; larvae of numerous deadwood insects; four or five years duration; pupate in spring at the end April or May; pupation takes place between bark and wood or in the bark; adult crepuscular, flying May to August;&#160; the adults feed on aphids and some dead small insect which stick to the bark of trees (Dolin 1982, Owen 1986, Laibner 2000). Larvae have been found only in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>timber in Scotland (Owen 1986) and only conifer trees (mostly fir-trees) in Ukraine (Dolin 1982).<br/><br/>It lives in old mountain evergreen forests (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is is a mountain forest species. In Scotland however it is found especially in the moister birch-woods in the uplands, at 100-400 m altitude (Owen 1986).	eng
157596	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	A widespread and fairly common species in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread in western Scotland; occasionally reported elsewhere in northern Britain (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is locally distributed and is becoming increasingly rare (Laibner 2000). It is fairly common in Finland.	eng
157596	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. However, these are not thought to be a major threat to the species at the European level.<br/></p>	eng
157597	conservation	Alexander,K., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation actions are in place or needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).	eng
157597	distribution	Alexander,K., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species has a wide Palaearctic distribution (Mendel 2004) found in all Europe.<br/><br/>In Britain it is confined to the south-east of England (Mendel 2004).	eng
157597	habitat	Alexander,K., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in all type of forests in decaying wood. The larvae most frequently develop in red-rotten heartwood, but also in decaying wood generally. The adults fly after dark and are attracted to light; they are active in V-VII (Lodos 1998).<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in forests of various composition from lowlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in all kinds of broadleaved forests.&#160; In Britain it lives in a wide variety of wooded habitats, in the cultural landscape as well as forests (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/> The ecology appears to be the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. castanipes</span> (Dolin 1988).<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157597	population	Alexander,K., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	It is a common species (Laibner 2000) with stable populations in Europe.<br/><br/>It is widespread in the south-east of the UK. In Hungary it is a common and widespread species with strong populations. In Finland it is rare and only present in the southern part. In Denmark it is common and distributed in the eastern part (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine it is a common species. Population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey and the exact locality is unknown.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB">	eng
157597	threats	Alexander,K., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. <br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157598	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	It is known from many protected sites (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009). The species is legally protected in Hungary.	eng
157598	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Palaearctic region and occurs throughout much of Europe (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in river valleys and hilly and lower mountain areas. In Romania it is spread along the river valleys from the plains up into the hills and mountains. In Portugal it is widespread, with few records. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987,   Canakcıoglu 1993) and Edirne and KIrklareli (Ozay 1997).<p>In Denmark it is distributed almost throughout the country (Thomsen 2007) and it is widespread in Finland. It is widespread in Britain, but very patchy.<br/></p>	eng
157598	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The status of this species as a saproxylic is unclear as development begins in living woody tissues. <br/></p><p>It develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Salix, </em>occasionally <em>Populus, Alnus, Acer</em>). The larvae first develop in the thick but living wood of&#160; trunks and branches, later tunnelling between living & dead tissues; it prefers young healthy growths rather than established trees (Kaufmann 1990). The life cycle is at least three years, with pupation in spring within wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cell and emerge in VI-IX, they fly during periods of warm sunshine although rest of time spent motionless on twigs and branches in the canopy;; they are attracted to flowers for nectar and are also attracted to anything sweet, including discarded wrappers of ice lollies (K.N.A. Alexander pers comm 2009). In Romania it has been observed on old <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>,<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span> also on <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>; the adult has been found resting on leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha </span>and at white flowers of Umbelliferae. In European Turkey larvae develop in old trunks and branches of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>; the adults are active in VI-VIII (Canakcıoglu 1993). In Finland the species lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span>. In Germany it lives mostly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>; it uses small diameter branches and trunks (less than five cm).</p><p>Primarily a riverine and floodplain species; the larva is tolerant of submergence for many weeks. It lives in wet woodlands and waterside trees in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it lives mainly in riverine and swamp willow forests, but occurs also in deciduous forests where goat willows occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). All records from Portugal are from riverine areas.</p><p>    </p>  <br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><p></p>	eng
157598	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species and common throughout much of its range. Population trend considered to be stable overall, although a significant decline has occurred in some areas, e.g. Britain.<br/><br/>In Ireland it has a widespread but very fragmented distribution; best known in the south-west but with isolated populations in the north.It is widespread across much of Britain, but very localized and becoming increasingly scarce - there are more old records than current ones; the main stronghold is the low-lying area of the former Great Fen of eastern England (Twinn and Harding 1999<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania this species tends to be more frequent near riverside valley from low mountains, defiles, etc. In Germany it is widespread and not rare, occurring in all States. In Finland it is not uncommon while in Italy and Spain it is common. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.	eng
157598	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I. & Méndez, M., 2009	Clearance of waterside trees and wet woodland, as well as habitat loss due to logging of old willows, are threats to this species.	eng
157599	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>  There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. </p>	eng
157599	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across the south of central, western and eastern Europe, it is circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain it is known only from two areas on the mainland in the Ebro Valley and the arid south-eastern part; also in the Balearic Islands (Vives 2001). In Cyprus it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> widespread (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In France it has recently been introduced/arrived in southern France (Pellegrin 1990) and is extending to the north along the Rhône Valley (Cocquempot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Italy this species appears along the central and southern coast and in Sardinia. <br/><br/>It is also present in northern Africa.	eng
157599	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the dead wood of conifers (Cupressaceae:<em> Juniperus, Cupressus, Thuja, Callitrix</em>). The larvae first develop under bark, later in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are crepuscular and nocturnal.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been </st1:place></st1:country-region>reported from maquis with <em>Juniperus phoenicea</em> and forests with <em>Cupressus sempervirens.</em> It is found also in towns, villages and cultivations in association with planted stands of <em>Cupressus sempervirens. </em>It has been reared from dead wood of <em>Juniperus phoenicea </em>and<em> Cupressus sempervirens </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p></p>	eng
157599	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>In Cyprus it<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> is locally common in the lowlands and hilly areas 0-1,500 m (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In France its population is expanding to the north. In Italy and Spain the species may be under recorded. It is believed that the population trend is increasing. In Spain it is known only from two areas on the mainland, also in the Balearic Islands (Vives 2001).</p>	eng
157599	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>      </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157600	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	This species may be protected in two mountains with the Crimean Reservation.	eng
157600	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	This species is only known in Europe from Crimea (Ukraine) and the south of Russia. It also occurs in the Caucasus.	eng
157600	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The biology and exact habitat needs of this species are unknown. It may be similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">G. oblonga </span>(adults and larvae predators under dead bark of trees).	eng
157600	population	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	It is very rare in Ukraine.	eng
157600	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The destruction of dead trees and gathering of trunks appear to be the major specific threats to this species.</p><p></p><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157602	conservation	Alexander, KNA., Schlaghamersky, J., Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Buche, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. in Hungary and Spain). In Spain it is present in the protected areas of Montseny and La Albera, but it is not Red-listed at the national or regional levels. Within these protected areas, and in the potential distribution area of this species in Spain, conservation measures need to be taken to preserve dead wood in forests (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009). In Poland this species is listed as Endangered an in the Slovak Republic as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. Continuity (maintenance of suitable habitat in the same area without interruption) is very important for this species.	eng
157602	distribution	Alexander, KNA., Schlaghamersky, J., Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Buche, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across all Europe, but absent from the British Isles and far west of Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians, in the west part of the forest-steppe zone and in Crimea. It is also found in all Caucasus and south of Turkmenistan.	eng
157602	habitat	Alexander, KNA., Schlaghamersky, J., Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Buche, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits decaying heartwood in various species of broad-leaved trees. It is typically found in old-growth and ancient and veteran trees (in forest only). This species has very poor dispersal capacity, consequently a critical factor is that habitat remains stable in the long term (that there is a long history with no disturbance). Very little such habitat remains in large parts of Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary it develops in red-rotting heartwood of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, wild cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>in closed forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine larvae develop in relatively dry wood of beech and oak (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p>In Spain it is located in fallen branches of 30-40 cm diameter of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pyrenaica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Development takes three years. Adults are present in June (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It seems to be present only in forests with a presence of old trees (Recalde<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2006, Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p><p>In France, larvae are saproxylophagous in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea, Quercus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>. Also found in small trees (diameter 10 cm) (Baraud 1993). The presence of decaying wood in the long term seems to be a condition for the presence of the species.<br/></p>	eng
157602	population	Alexander, KNA., Schlaghamersky, J., Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Buche, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	A rare and localised species throughout much of its distribution. It is restricted to a very specialised habitat type. A continuing population decline can be inferred based on ongoing loss and degradation of suitable habitat. There is no detailed data for the Czech Republic but is very localised and restricted to patches of good-quality old-growth woodland. In Germany there are 15-20 known populations. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions; most of its localities house strong populations - this species is not threatened here (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the European part of Turkey the exact locality is unknown. In France it is widespread but very localised with discontinuity between the stations (Baraud 1993). In Spain there are only three known localities, very far apart but at least in one of these localities there are a high number of individuals, either in the Catalonian Pyrenees or nearby mountains of Catalonia and Basque Country (Muñoz-Batet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It reaches its distribution limit in this part of Europe.	eng
157602	threats	Alexander, KNA., Schlaghamersky, J., Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B., Buche, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors (particularly in the case of this species which is a weak flier and has poor dispersal capacity).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157603	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Maintenance of continuity and connectivity of habitat are necessary for the conservation of this species. The species is present in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary). <br/><br/>This species is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987), it is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.	eng
157603	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species occurs widely across southern and central Europe: the Iberian Peninsula, Britain, France, Italy, south and central Europe, the Carpathians (Laibner 2000). It is also found in the Caucasus. In Ukraine it is only present in the eastern slope of the Carpathians (Uzhgorod region) (Dolin 1988).	eng
157603	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dry red-rotten heartwood of ancient oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, often in the lining of cavities in the trunks & main boughs; the larvae are predatory; they pupate from the beginning of April until the end of May-June. The adults are active in V-VII, in the evening and early night, and are attracted to light (Dolin 1988, Alexander 2002).&#160; <br/><br/>The sole UK site is ancient parkland (Alexander 2002). It also lives in old oaks in groves of the lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000) and develops in solitary trees and open forest, in dead and dying trees. In Ukraine larvae also develop in chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span> (Dolin 1988). In Hungary the only population lives in a wood pasture (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157603	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species appears to be rare and threatened across most of its European range, with reasonably strong and stable populations only reported from France.<br/><br/>In Britain this species is confined to a small area within a single ancient parkland; the population is considered small and endangered (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the Czech Republic since 1950 it&#160; has only been recorded from the south-eastern part (one floodplain area). In Slovakia it has a scattered population from west to east and there are very few sites. In Hungary there is only one extant population known, which is small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is present in the north and central regions, 15 localities and the most recent records are from 1990. In France it is relatively common in the south and it forms small and patchy populations in the north. In Greece it is very rare in northern and central Greece, last records from 1975.	eng
157603	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157604	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	In the British Red Data Book the species is listed as Rare (Shirt 1987), in the Czech Republic listed as Critically Endangered (Vávra 2005) and in Germany it is listed as Near Threatened by the German Red List 2009. In Hungary, the known localities are in protected areas, therefore no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm.2009).	eng
157604	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species occurs in all of Europe except for the southern Balkans and north of Stockholm, Sweden.&#160; In the Czech Republic occurs in 8 areas across the country (with records after 1950), of those only one in the western part (Bohemia), the others in three groups in the eastern part (Moravia). Another two adjacent areas at the Slovak border with pre-1950 records only (Elateridae 2009).&#160; In the Slovak Republic the records are after 1950 from 17 areas from the central to the eastern part, in the west only older records (three areas, some distance from each other) (Elateridae 2009). Recently discovered in north Spain, in pyrenaic, pre-pyrenaic and Sistema Ibérico localities (Recalde Irurzun 2008). Also relatively recently discovered in Britain, although regarded as an overlooked long-term resident (Hammond 1974).	eng
157604	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood, in particular of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, also in poplar <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979). It has been reared from a log of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvatica</span>, diameter 20 cm, wood hard on surface, inside rotten, brownish; larvae of this species were once found in horse chestnut wood <span style="font-style: italic;">Aesculus</span>  (Muona 1993).&#160; In Ukraine and Russia, this species develops in humid loose wood of lying aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees. Its larvae hibernate and the adult is active in VI-VIII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). It inhabits old forests (Freude<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1979) -&#160; in Hungary too, the habitats of the known populations are open forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In England, it is usually found in shady woodlands and particularly those on Chalk hillsides; also known from historic parklands (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is found in the Carpathians and forest zone. This species is also found in floodplains.	eng
157604	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is common, widespread and presumably under-sampled over much of its European range. The population is currently expanding across southern England and under no threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). This species is rare in the Ukraine. There are eight localities known from Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Hungary, this species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157604	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>The lack of dead wood in the forest ground layer and on the floor is the major threat to this species.In the UK and in Ukraine the loss of old trees and decaying wood is the major threat. However, this species appears to be strong and expanding at present in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species does not seem to be threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157605	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
157605	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is known from northern Spain, France and Great Britain; it is also present in northern Africa.<br/>In the UK there is a&#160;non-native population established in one area of south-eastern England (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009, Harrison 1996).&#160;In Spain, the species is known from six to eight localities, localized in northern Spain, in Navarra and&#160;Álava. In France it is present in the southern part although it remains unclear whether it is native or not (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In French literature it is said that this species is also present in Sicily, but this remains unconfirmed. Without further information about the distribution in northern Africa and the population size it is unclear whether this species is only marginally present in Europe.	eng
157605	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is associated with small wood-decay fungi fruiting from branches and logs of broad-leaved trees; in Britain especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereum hirsutum</span> on fallen oak branches (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); in France especially&#160;on dead branches of beech and hazel (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157605	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	There is no information about population size, abundance or trends for this species.	eng
157605	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
157606	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009) and in Denmark (2005).	eng
157606	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species is widespread across Europe, except in the north and west, and far south-west (Bense 1995). This species is also found in the Minor Caucasus, Minor Asia, northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, but occurs also in riverine hardwood galleries and remnant oak forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is widespread but not common   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Oymen 1987), Edirne (Ozdikmen and Sahin 2006) and Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004, Malmusi and Saltini 2005, Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). In Sweden it is only present in the south. <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157606	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop under the bark, later in the wood, of dead branches and trunks. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in late summer in wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cell and emerge in IV-VIII, found on host plants and at flowers. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Juglans, Quercus, Prunus, Fagus, Castanea, Carpinus, Betula, Ulmus, Salix, Populus, Syringa, Tilia, Corylus, Ostrya</em>). In Romania it has been found on oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and branches, also at different white flowers of shrubs (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Ulmus </span>and fruit trees (Erdem 1968). In Denmark it develops in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> in old forests; prefers the wood of dry and sick stems (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it lives in all collin, planar broad-leaved forests. In Hungary it lives in oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches of oak and other trees, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157606	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread and common species in Europe but with a rather fragmented distribution in the north; its population trend seems stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Romania it is well represented but higher number of individuals can be found in protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in all the States but it is rare in the north. Generally rare in Denmark; this species is a 'heat-loving' species and is most common in the south (Thomsen 2007). The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In the UK it is possibly native but if so Extinct; there was a wide scattering of records up until 1902; only casual imports since then.	eng
157606	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range in Hungary as a result of urban encroachment and forest management, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species.	eng
157607	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in many protected areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); the remaining areas of old native pine forest are now all protected.<br/><br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. Conservation measures are difficult to accomplish, as the localities are outside protected areas, and are in areas devoted to harvesting timber (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157607	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe. It is also known from Siberia, Far East.	eng
157607	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in the deadwood of coniferous trees (plantations as well as natural and semi-natural woodlands).<br/><br/>The larvae develop mostly under bark on freshly dead <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus,</span> more rarely in fir trees; they are found in the burrows of bark beetles Scolytinae; in trunks and branches, while still moist and sappy. The life cycle&#160; is two years. Larvae and adult beetles hibernate under the bark. The adult is more active in IV-V (Mamaev <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1977, Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary all known populations are in old pine plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it is widespread in the Caledonian pine forest areas of Scotland (Alexander 2002).	eng
157607	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is believed to be stable (although it has not been quantified).<br/><br/>In Finland it is common. <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden it is common and in Germany it is common at least in the east of the country; frequently occurs in plantations as well as in natural and semi-natural habitats.<br/><br/>In Hungary a few localities are known from the western part of the country (Transdanubia); all the known populations are small. In Denmark it is not common; occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> ten localities in the country (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In the UK it has a restricted distribution - only in Highland Scotland - but there is no evidence for any decline in recent years (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is local.	eng
157607	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level.<br/></p>	eng
157608	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species occurs in one protected area in Crimea and maybe also in Karadag protected area. <br/></p>	eng
157608	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is found in Europe only in Ukraine (Crimea only) and the south of Russia (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Outside Europe it is found across Caucasus, northern Iran and north-eastern Turkey.	eng
157608	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark of dead wood on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, nut-trees and other broad-leaved trees (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It also occurs in milled wood. Larvae might develop over two or three rears, depending on the conditions. Normal life cycle is two years. Adults are active during the months VI-VIII. </p>	eng
157608	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is relatively rare in Crimea (A.   Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157608	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>      </p>In Ukraine, its habitat may be declining and it has a very small distribution. <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species which are providing habitat are declining, however in the Crimea reservation the beech trees are in a stable condition (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Outside Europe, in the Caucasus the situation is thought to be stable (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>	eng
157609	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place, or are needed at present.	eng
157609	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This is a species of Mediterranean Europe, occurring across south-western and southern central Europe, including Cyprus and the southern Ukraine, mostly in Crimea. It is also found in Turkey and in northern Africa. In France it occurs in the Rhône valley, in the Mediterranean sea border and in Corsica (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38).	eng
157609	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Probably polyphagous in broad-leaved woody plants. In Ukraine larvae develop in vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis </span>woods.</p>	eng
157609	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This species is probably widespread in Italy and France. However, there is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is considered as a common species. <br/></p>  <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>	eng
157609	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157610	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2005).	eng
157610	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe, but it is absent from the Britain and Ireland (old reports were mis-identifications). It also occurs in northern Africa and Siberia (to Baikal Lake).<br/><br/>It is widespread is Portugal. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it seems to occur locally across both territories (Laibner 2000).	eng
157610	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Preferentially it lives in decaying wood of oak; also in montane zone spruces, in pine and larch (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood (first stage of decaying) mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, but in the south also in broad-leaved trees (Dolin 1988); the adult beetle is active in V-VI, and lives a concealed life under bark and in splits of wood.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it inhabits alluvial woodlands, forest-steppe formations and preserved stands of submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, closed stands of hilly and mountainous oak forests, but also in poplar and other broad-leaved trees in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in all areas where there is <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus.</span>	eng
157610	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	A widespread species that is not uncommon in at least parts of its range. However in some range states at the edge of its distribution it is rare, localised and declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. In Germany it is very rare and in Denmark too, being only one or two localities in north-eastern Zealand (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Hungary the species is sporadic all over the country; although the species is not very common in the country, the populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157610	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species across Europe as a whole. However some populations may be negatively affected by the loss of old trees.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157611	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157611	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is only found in France. It may have a very restricted distribution.<br/><span style="background-color: green;"><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
157611	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.	eng
157611	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p></p><p></p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p></p><p></p><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">    <table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
157611	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157612	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	Research on the population trends and distribution is needed. Protection of old vineyards is recommended.<br/><br/>In Hungary as the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained, no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157612	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species occurs in south-eastern and central Europe, extending to Italy and northern Spain. It is also present in the Near East.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is widespread mainly in hilly regions where old vineyards occur, and rarely also in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is not present in southern Italy and the islands, but common elsewhere. It is widespread in Slovakia. In Switzerland there are only historic records.	eng
157612	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood of vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, and is sometimes regarded as a pest species of this culture. It is also known to develop in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Populus, Salix</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clematis</span>. The adults emerge in V-VI. It is found in: temperate shrubland and macquis, riparian forest, and in vineyards. In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally managed, but also in more recently established vineyards (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157612	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in vineyards (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>It is common in Italy. There is one record in Prague, introduced, and another record of an introduction. In Slovakia it is widespread in vineyards. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157612	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There seems to be no major threats to this species (e.g. Italy). In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range, as the European Union encourages removal of vineyards from culture. However, the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157613	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. It was listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).	eng
157613	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	This Eurosiberian and east-Mediterranean species is widespread over much of Europe but absent from Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It has also been reported from Istanbul and Kırklareli (Sekendiz 1974) in Turkey. In Romania this species occurs in the central and north part of the country.<p><br/></p>	eng
157613	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop first under the bark later in the wood of dead, sun-exposed standing or fallen trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Betula, Acer, Tilia, Sorbus, Querscus, Ulmus, Castanea</span>). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood. The pupal stage lasts three or four weeks. Adults emerge in V-IX, found on host trees. <br/><br/>In the European part of Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus tremula, P. nigra</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>P. </em>x<em> euramericana</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Ulmus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Fraxinus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Juglans</em></strong>. Pupation takes place in V. Adults active in V. The life cycle is one year (Sekendiz 1974). In Romania many reports are from old <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> trees; adults become active during the day (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs mainly in poplar forests (planted or indigenous) in the lowlands, but also in aspen and other trees in hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany this species is only found in forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> (poplars).<p><br/><strong><em> </em></strong></p>	eng
157613	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p><p>Localized but common in Spain (102 localities); one locality in Portugal; widespread and common in Finland; in Germany the population is increasing and extending its range northwards. In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Romania sometimes a high number of beetles can be found on the old poplars from the lowlands near the bank of rivers; the population size and trend are stable. In Denmark it is rare and very scattered; there are few new finds (Thomsen 2007).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157613	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>However this species is not thought to be under major threat at present.<br/></p>	eng
157614	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Some of the well known populations in Bulgaria are inside preserved natural areas from Rodopi, Pirin Mountains, Veleka (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). However action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.	eng
157614	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Europe including some of the islands in the Mediterranean and extending to southern Russia, European part of Turkey and southern Anatolia. It&#160; is widespread in Cyprus (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and has been reported from Istanbul (Canakcıoglu 1993). <p>    </p>Also found in the Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan).<br/>  <p></p>	eng
157614	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in large, dry dead trunks of broad-leaved trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> sp.,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Platanus orientalis</span>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Pinus</em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong><span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Liquidamber orientalis </em></strong>and <em>Ficus carica</em>. In Cyprus it is found in river valleys, forests and orchards. It requires sun-exposed trees and open forests. This species has only been reported in very large trees. The adult is crepuscular and nocturnal, VI-VIII (Canakcıoglu 1993), and attracted to light (P. Istrate pers.comm. 2009).<br/>    <br/><p>    </p><p>    </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157614	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is little information about the abundance of this species. This species has a patchy distribution and is not common. Many different populations occur in southern Bulgaria, in particular in Veleka River, Rodopi and Pirin Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The population size has not been quantified but the trend is decreasing slowly but constantly, based on the continuing decline of the large, dead, dry trees that it inhabits. The last record of the species in the European part of Turkey was in 1997, records from Anatolia are more than 12 years old. <p>    </p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>	eng
157614	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species is threatened by removal of large trees, particularly replacement of the native oak and <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> old forests with other species. Modern forest management does not benefit this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157615	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157615	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs throughout much of central and south-eastern Europe.	eng
157615	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other species in broad-leaved forest; also known from vineyards. The imago is active in IV-V.</p>	eng
157615	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Where it is found it is very localised.</p>	eng
157615	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Threats to this species are unknown at present.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157616	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157616	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species was recorded from Spain (Andalucia) by Escalera (1925).	eng
157616	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Precise habitat unknown.	eng
157616	population	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157616	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157617	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available. This species may be in a protected area in the central Asia part of its range in the Altai or Sayani regions (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157617	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in the European part of Russia, in the Urals only (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). Although recorded from the Urals, it is unknown whether this record is from a single specimen (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm.   2009).	eng
157617	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The biology of the species is largely unknown; it prefers the deadwood of coniferous trees (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157617	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is extremely rare in the European part of its range (and even more rare in the Altai part of its range in central Asia). The population trend is suspected to be declining based on suspected habitat loss from deforestation in the region (A. Putchkov and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157617	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available. <br/></p>	eng
157618	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157618	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is believed to be found in Europe only on the Black Sea coast (Sama 2002). It also occurs in the Caucasus, Turkey, northern Iran and Minor Asia.<br/>In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea - this is therefore thought to be a marginal species to Europe.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
157618	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead branches and trunks of maples <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>which are very rare in Crimea, the only part of its European range. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Adults are active in VI-VIII. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
157618	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	In Ukraine the species is relatively rare.	eng
157618	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157619	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The areas where the populations occur require protection of floodplain forest and meadow (interspersed trees) habitat. Since 2008 the Czech Ministry of Environment has been taking steps to establish a Protected Landscape Area (the second highest level of protection after a National Park for large size reserves according to Czech legislation) to meet EU requirements for the protection of Natura 2000 sites. However the outcome is unclear as it is facing fierce opposition from local stakeholders including the state-owned forestry company. In Hungary the only known locality is in a protected area. No specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157619	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is found across central and eastern Europe, from Czech Republic to Russia. In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the southernmost part of the country, near the point where Danube River leaves the country; the record is more than 70 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is reported from three areas in the south-eastern tip of the country. Localities are from the floodplain forests but also in drier habitats; all records are since 2000 (Elateridae 2009). In the Slovak Republic there are no reliable records (Elateridae 2009).	eng
157619	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in white-rotten wood in the trunks of various broad-leaved trees, including aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. It has been reared from a large decaying stump of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> - the larvae were found in cells in damp white-rotten sapwood 10-30 mm deep; it has also been reared from fallen parts of the crown of a <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia cordata</span> - wood on surface fairly hard, inside with white-rot, dryish (Muona 1993). The life cycle was two years in the hard wood of the aspen tree; the larvae hibernated (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The single Czech population is in the south-eastern tip of the country at the confluence of the Dyje and Morava Rivers (constituting the border to Austria and Slovakia). The climate is warm and semi-arid but humidity is provided by the abundant wetlands. The habitat is floodplain forests dominated by oak, ash and formerly elm (now rare due to Dutch elm disease) at an elevation of approximately 150 m asl;&#160; records not only from floodplains but also from a drier forest in the same area (J. Schlaghamersky pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is known from only one locality; the record is very old, so no information is available about the habitat. However, the extant habitats around the locality are floodplain forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157619	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	In the Czech Republic there is probably a single population, recorded only recently. In Romania it is rare and in Finland it is very rare, with only one reliably recorded locality, not been found since 1983. In Hungary the species is known from only one locality and no information is available about its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157619	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>Old growth forests have been declining by 30% in the last 10 years in the Czech Republic. On-going logging of mature forest stands and decline of old trees due to a drop in groundwater table as consequence of massive river regulation in the 1970-80s are threats to this species. In Finland urban development affects negatively this species - the only site of the species was in the middle of Helsinki.</p>	eng
157620	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in several protected areas in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species is considered Near Threatened in the German Red List (2009). FSC Guidelines should favour the survival of the species.	eng
157620	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, but not the far north, far south, or Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is widespread in the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula (Vives 2001), but it seems to be also present in Andalusia (Cadiz, Granada, Huelva) (Verdugo 2004). In Portugal most records are 100 years old or more. It is present in all German states. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the hilly areas, at the foothills of the Carpathians and sometimes has been reported from the lowlands. The species has also been&#160; reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987, Canakcıoglu 1993).<br/><br/>It is also found in  Armenia, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran, north-western Africa and Asia Minor.	eng
157620	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus, </em>also in <em>Castanea, Carpinus, Betula, Fagus, Salix, Prunus, Robinia</em>). Larvae develop under the bark of sun-exposed standing and dead fallen trunks and thick branches. Life cycle between one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood or sometimes in the thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VII, on host plant. Pupation 20-30 days.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in oak, beech and hornbeam (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is present in old oak forests, with clearance inside (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the UK this species inhabited ancient forests (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
157620	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Denmark the species is common; it used to be somewhat rare but is probably becoming more widely distributed in recent years (Thomsen 2007). It is considered a common species in the Transylvanian oak forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is rare (edge of distribution). It is widespread across much of France (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey the <span lang="EN-GB">population size and trend have not been quantified. In Britain it is thought to have been native in south-eastern England until the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century; established populations formerly in Epping and Hainault Forests; also non-established introductions (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). </span>	eng
157620	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>In general human activity favours the species by creating sunny areas within the forest, and the main threats are conversion of native forest into plantations and minimum intervention management. The species is safe as soon as there are oaks and freshly dead wood in open sunny situations.<br/></p><p>In particular this species is not threatened in Hungary because host plants are available all over its range (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it is not threatened in Transylvania, but the southern populations may be negatively affected by habitat loss (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the UK the reason for extinction is not known, but probably fragmentation and isolation of populations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157621	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157621	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>The main distribution of this species is in Asia. It is reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). However&#160;the distribution in Turkey is doubtful.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157621	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species.</p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157621	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>The population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157621	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157622	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Mico, E., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schmidl, J., Petrakis, P. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>None needed at present.<br/></p>	eng
157622	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Mico, E., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schmidl, J., Petrakis, P. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This species ranges from south-eastern and eastern Europe to the Mediterranean countries, including the Mediterranean islands.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157622	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Mico, E., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schmidl, J., Petrakis, P. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dry fresh dead wood of a wide variety of tree species. A list of host genera is supplied by   <span class="postbody">Akşit and Çakmak (2005). This species has been recorded as a potential pest in vineyards on the Crimean Peninsula. <br/></p>	eng
157622	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Mico, E., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schmidl, J., Petrakis, P. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is known to be common in many Mediterranean countries. The population trend is stable. In Portugal this species has   only been recorded from three sites located far apart from each other. In Spain the species is known from 30 localities.<br/></p>	eng
157622	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Mico, E., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., Schmidl, J., Petrakis, P. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157623	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The conservation status of this species in Britain is Nationally Scarce but there are no specific actions in place, despite rarity in Britain, but standard good practice recommendations under FSC, etc.; some of the known sites are in legally protected areas although land management even there is not necessarily sympathetic (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The main conservation action needed is truly sustainable forest management.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
157623	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe except the far west and east.	eng
157623	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live beneath the bark on relatively freshly dead trunks and large branches from broad-leaved and conifer trees, while the bark is still firmly attached and the cambial layers still sappy (Alexander 2002). Sites include forest country as well as cultural landscapes, in closed woodlands, open wood pastures and historic parklands, wooded riversides, etc. Its rarity in Britain suggests requirements for very precise conditions, in contrast to the more widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">P</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">dermestoides</span>; it possibly lives deeper under bark - away from fracture points, possibly needs larger items of wood, in sheltered sunny glades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The larvae are said to be predatory on Diptera larvae. It is most widely known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forest across its range. Adults have been reported in flight during the evening. As there are no extant populations known in Hungary, no information is available about its habitat there (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157623	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species is not common in Europe, regarded as common is a few states, but more generally local or rare. In Denmark this species is widespread in the country (Hansen 1996). In Russia it has been reported from Moscow and it is a rare species (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary , this species is very rare, only a few very old localities are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Britain it is a rare and elusive species with a very fragmented range, and with just a small number of very isolated populations; conservation status 'Nationally Scarce'; no data on population size or trends, but likely to be declining (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Italy there are only three records.	eng
157623	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>	eng
157624	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species has conservation status in Britain as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). It is listed as Least concern in Finland and Sweden, and as Vulnerable in Germany.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).	eng
157624	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It also occurs in northern Africa (Egypt), Caucasus, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Mongolia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine mostly in the forest zone, may be in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is widespread across southern Britain, and there are isolated sites further north, into southern Scotland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded in the 1920s from three localities scattered in the northern half; recently (2006 and 2008) collected in two additional sites, one in the north and the other in the centre   (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).	eng
157624	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in red-rotten heartwood, for instance in the decay caused by the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>, the larvae occurring with the fungal mycelium, where the decay is fresh and moist; most if not all larval records are from oak. Adults are attracted to a wide variety of situations for feeding, including the fruit bodies of other bracket fungi, sap-runs and have even been found in garden compost (Alexander 2002). Trees need to be mature or older, e.g. 200 years old or more to have been colonised by the host fungus. In Ukraine larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus, Polyporus, Laetiporus, Pleurotus, Lentinus, </span>sometimes<span style="font-style: italic;"> Bjerkandera adusta; a</span>dult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes, Piptoporu</span>s); they are active from May. The beetles hibernate often in fungi. The life cycle is one or two years. Pupation is on the ground (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996).<br/><br/>Suitable trees can occur in dense woodland but are more typical of open-grown situations, in ancient wood pastures and parklands in the cultural landscape of the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, in the hills and mountains mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech; in the lowlands it is typical of the soft-wood riverine galleries.	eng
157624	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species over much of its European range, with stable populations.<br/><br/>It is widespread over much of England and Wales, but absent from far north; one southern Scottish record; the distribution is very fragmented and many of the sites are very isolated; population trend has not been quantified (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Germany it is widespread but not very abundant. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is common.	eng
157624	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>Overall the species appears not to be under any major threat at the European level.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>In the UK land management which removes trees before they reach biological mature is a threat; fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.	eng
157625	conservation	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No measures needed. It is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).	eng
157625	distribution	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe, including France and northern Spain; absent from Scandinavia and Britain (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In France and Romania it is widespread. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, lower mountainous and lowland regions. It has also been reported from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) in the European part of Turkey. <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa, Iran, Irak and south-east of Turkmenia.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157625	habitat	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; Larvae develop in dead, dry wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Castanea, Robinia, Juglans, Prunus, Salix, Paliurus, Pistacia, Ulmus, Ficus, Ostrya</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>).The life cycle is two years. Adults emerge in V-VIII, and feed at flowers. <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in southern slopes and plateaus covered with sparse shrubs or light thermophilous forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<em> </em>In Germany it also lives in thermophilic broad-leaved tree stands (oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and orchard trees -Rosaceae, etc.). In Romania it is found on the sunny slopes with trees, shrubs, where adults are very attracted to flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Leucanthemum vulgare. </span>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p><br/></p><p><br/></p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span><p><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
157625	population	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>This species is widespread and common throughout its range. In Portugal it has been recorded from scattered localities from all the country, but all records are old. In Crimea it is a relatively usual species. In Turkey and Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but in Hungary the species is regarded as common in its range. In Romania&#160; there are good preserved populations in the central part of the country, where in June a lot of adults can be found on flowers (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In all German States there are new records and in France it is common.<br/></p>	eng
157625	threats	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>It is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over is range (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Germany).<br/></p>	eng
157626	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Outside the boreal zone the protection of flood plain forests would be a necessary protection measure. <br/><br/>The species does occur in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany this species is listed as Vulnerable (2009).	eng
157626	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe, especially in central and north-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) through Eurosiberian subregion and Nordic countries. It is missing in the south-western part and Britain and Ireland. In France and Italy it only occurs in the Alps. It also occurs in Caucasus and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs from the steppe with high grass up to the mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey it is reported from Kırklareli (Sekendiz 1974). In Switzerland it is largely distributed but very localised in suitable places (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<p>In the Czech and Slovak Republics it has a scattered distribution. In Sweden and Finland it is widely distributed but localised.<br/><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157626	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species is found mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, therefore in some parts of Europe it only occurs in flood plains whereas in northern Europe it is widespread following its host-plant. It is a nocturnal species. Larvae develop in and under the bark of sick and dying stems and branches of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, but can be found in other trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp</span>., <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Pyrus</span>, and beech), especially colonising the shady sides. Life cycle one to two years, with pupation in spring in the sapwood. Adults emerge in V-VIII, crepuscular, found on leaves, branches and stems of the host-plants, attracted by light. Stage of pupa two to three weeks.<br/>In Hungary it lives in indigenous poplar forest and in other forest types where aspen occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in floodplain forests, coppice with standards forests.	eng
157626	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is locally abundant in some countries. Overall the population trend is unknown, in some parts stable in others slightly declining.</p>  In Ukraine it is a relatively usual species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only few reports and the population size is small (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Germany there are new records from most states. In France it is not a rare species. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Saperda </span>are hard to find but the use of the signs of the adults in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> leaves have permitted numerous observations in Switzerland (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157626	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>Forest management, especial the removal of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus sp.</span>, reduces the habitat of this species significantly. In Hungary the species is generally not threatened because its host plants are widely available. However, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> is commonly removed from the forest by forestry practice, which results in habitat loss (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany the loss of floodplain forests and breeding trees is a threat.<br/></p>	eng
157627	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<br/>An effective protection of the white oak stands and old orchards is necessary. The species occurs in several protected areas in Hungary and it is legally protected in Hungary. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is considered Near Threatened and in Germany - listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">R. spinicornis</span> (Abeille, 1869) - is considered as 'G', which means 'Presumably Endangered' (2009).	eng
157627	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed in south, central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995).	eng
157627	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It lives only on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>; records from different trees (e.g. fruit trees) must be regarded as incorrect. It prefers trees of small and medium size (commonly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Q, petraea</span> in central Europe and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pubescens</span> in southern Europe). The young larval instars interrupt the sap circulation by girdling the attacked living twig. The larvae then continue feeding subcortically on the dying part of the twig and later start consuming even the grain of the twig. Before pupation the larvae build a pupal cell in the living part of the twig (under the first girdle), turn back and cut off the dead part of the twig by girdling it again. Adults are found on the host plants and are attracted to sugar traps (Sama 2002). Adults are active in VI-VIII. <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>As the larvae actually cause the death of the twigs in which they develop, this species is not strictly saproxylic.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in&#160; thermophilous oak forests and extensively cultivated old orchards; in the hilly and lower mountainous regions.	eng
157627	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>It is widespread in central Europe but rare.<br/></p>In Germany it is present in most German States and regions, but often only old records. Records after 1950: Bayern, Baden-Württemberg, Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Niedersachsen, Brandenburg and Thüringen -&#160; might be under-sampled. In Spain it is widespread but with very scattered localities, less than 20 localities. In Italy there are 11 localities. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is widespread but rare. In Ukraine it is very rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is considered rare.	eng
157627	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The threats to this species are mainly unknown but it is suspected that overall it is not threatened. Habitat loss and fragmentation are occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157628	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005).	eng
157628	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs throughout almost all of Europe, although has been lost from some areas. It is a Transpalaearctic species, absent in Japan (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Portugal for a very long time this species was only known from a single locality in the north (Barros 1896); recently it was recorded from a few sites in the north, centre and south of the country (Cabral 1992). In Britain is is only known from a small number of specimens taken in central southern England in the 1800s (Mendel and Clarke 1996) although these are presumably introductions as the habitat is not native here.	eng
157628	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decayed wood and stubs of conifers. Pupation occurs at the end of summer-autumn and the adult beetles hibernate and appear at the end of April and beginning of May. The beetles live concealed lives under bark (Dolin 1988).although they are known to also feed at hawthorn blossom (Alexander 2002). The larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> feed on the larvae of longhorn beetles Cerambycidae (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <br/><br/>Predominantly in evergreen (chiefly pine) and mixed forests of highlands and submontane zone (Laibner 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary it occurs in the native conifer forests (which are rare in Hungary and restricted to the westernmost parts of the country), and also in pine and spruce plantations (which are much more widespread) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157628	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species is common in at least parts of its range, especially in central and south-eastern Europe.<br/><br/>It is common in the Carpathians and rare in Crimea. In Slovakia and the Czech Republic it is common (Laibner 2000). <span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and has strong populations in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK there are 19<sup>th</sup> century records from a restricted area in central-southern England (Mendel and Clarke 1996); possibly not native (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare and very local; only a few localities (Lolland and Bornholm) (  <span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). It is rare in Portugal.	eng
157628	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species at the European level. The loss of old trees can be a potential threat.	eng
157629	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas and no specific conservation measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). This species is included in the Danish Red Data Book as Vulnerable (2005) and is considered Vulnerable in the Italian&#160;Checklist and distribution of the Italian fauna (Platia 2006).	eng
157629	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	A European species mainly found in western Europe, including the UK and reaching northern Africa and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000), but also reported from some eastern countries. According to an unpublished list generated by data collected by Italian experts the species is also present in Spain, France, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Belgium, Austria, Bulgaria and Romania.<br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>Hungary: a few records are known from the hilly and mountainous regions (if it is regarded as a distinct species, see Taxonomic Notes) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Denmark: only present in two localities in Lolland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/>Italy: widespread, but not found in Sardinia.<br/>UK: two main centres of population, centred on New Forest and East Midlands (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157629	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Larvae develop in decayed heartwood of birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus, </span>oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>fruit trees (Rosaceae) and probably other tree species; pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adult; adults are attracted to hawthorn blossom for feeding. <br/><br/>UK sites include cultural landscape situations such as ancient woodlands, wooded fens, old wood pastures, etc, as well as forests (K.N.A Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics this species lives in oak groves, deciduous and mixed forests in moist habitats from lowlands to foothills (Laibner 2000).&#160;The main population in Germany is found in beech forests and hilly areas, but it is not strictly associated with beech types. In Hungary it occurs in deciduous forests, mainly oak (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it seems to prefer<span style="font-style: italic;"> Carpinus betulus</span> (O. Martin pers. comm. 2009).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157629	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is a widespread species occurring across Europe, but not especially common.&#160;The population trend for this species is unknown.<br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>UK: fragmented distribution, no suggestion of any decline in recent decades (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/>Czech Republic: only known from two areas.<br/>Slovak Republic: two areas known; the species is rare (Laibner 2000).<br/>Hungary: the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/>Germany: it was only found in a few localities in the northern part of the country (flatlands). However it is common in southern and western parts of the country.<br/>Denmark: it is rare and very local.	eng
157629	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This species seems to be threatened in some range states (for example in Denmark, UK and Italy). The main threat is likely to be the loss of old trees and the removal of decaying wood. In Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and Germany the species is not threatened.&#160;</p>	eng
157630	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	No available information.	eng
157630	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is found in Crimea, Ukraine and in the southern part of Russia (Lobl and Smetana 2004).	eng
157630	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in valley (riverine) forests in hill areas from 100 m up to 500 m above sea level. Larvae develop in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix</span>, and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>) on trunks near water (basin). The adult is active in May - June, but spends most of its time under bark or in tree hollows (Dolin 1988).	eng
157630	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	In Crimea it is a regular species in its appropriate habitat (near rivers in lower elevations). The abundance of the species is unknown because it has relatively restricted habitat requirements but the population is thought to be stable (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157630	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Ukraine, cutting and destruction of trees (especially old trees) in river valleys is a potential threat but it is unknown whether this currently threatens the species (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157631	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Research on its habitat preferences and ecology as well as monitoring are necessary and an effective protection of the maple stands is necessary.<br/><br/>This species is present in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006).	eng
157631	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe and on the French and Italian borders (Bense 1995). It is also found in central Europe. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions and in Romania it has only been reported from the south, in the lowland area. In France it is localised in the south-eastern Alps (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>Also recorded from the Atlas mountains in northern Africa, but those could relate to a different species. In this case the species could be regarded as European endemic.	eng
157631	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Mostly a montane species; the larvae develop in damaged parts of living trees (big branches or trunks), feeding sub-cortically on dead or dying wood in contact with living tissue (but the young larvae feed on the sapwood under bark of healthy branches or trunks). The host trees are broad-leaves, especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, </span>also in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ficus, Fraxinus, Alnus, Fagus</span>. The larvae pupate in the wood and the adults emerge in June - August. The adults are active in the canopy of the host plants, although are sometimes found hidden amongst moss or in decayed parts of trunks and big branches (Sama 2002). It is suspected that the species needs a warm climate. It can also be found on road verges or in <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> plantations. In Hungary it is found in old undisturbed forests where old maples are found (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania larvae develop on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudoplatanus</span>, in old oak forests. In southern Europe, on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ficus carica </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157631	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>This species is quite rare in Europe but its population trend is unknown. <br/></p>In Hungary it is very rare, although the population size and trend have not been quantified. In Romania it is also very rare - only one population was discovered 50 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is considered as a rare species but can be common locally in the south-eastern Alps (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) and is the rarest of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ropalopus </span>species occurring in France. In Italy there are ten populations, in Spain there are three populations in the south, and in Turkey one population in Istanbul (but it is an old record). In the former Yugoslavia there are several records. In Bulgaria at least two records. In Greece it is only present in the north and it is not rare. In Austria there are only historic and doubtful records. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.	eng
157631	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Habitat loss is a main threat. Removal of maples from the forests is the main cause of the rarity of this species in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania forest fragmentation and replacement of native species with new introduced species of trees are affecting the species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157632	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. The UK Ancient Tree Hunt project aims to document all ancient trees and promote their protection (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In the UK it is listed in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) as rare. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).	eng
157632	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	European species penetrating into Sweden and in the east reaching the Dnieper River (Laibner 2000). It is also found in northern Africa (Algir), northern Caucasus and Iran (Lobl and Smetana 2007). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zones, in steppe in forests near rivers (Dolin 1988). In the UK it occurs across south-eastern England (Mendel and Clarke 1996). It is absent from Ireland.	eng
157632	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist found in veteran trees. The larvae develop in the decaying heartwood of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees, including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>; in living trees as well as dead trees; probably feed on the larvae of the weevils <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereocorynes truncorum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phloeophagus lignarius</span> as well as of larvae of Anobiidae, Scolytidae; pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult; adults active from middle of April to beginning of June (Alexander 2002, Dolin 1988). <br/><br/>In deciduous and mixed forests, also in parks from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary most records are from old oak, hornbeam or beech forests in the hills and mountains, but it is also known to occur in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). An old growth species in the UK, sites including ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, and traditional orchards in the cultural landscape as well as old forest (Alexander 2002).	eng
157632	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread species with a fragmented distribution but not uncommon.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range but with a good number of known sites (50-60), albeit often very isolated; there is some evidence for a decline (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <span lang="EN-GB"> In Spain there is one single record in the north, which confirms the presence of the species in the country (former, old records were doubtful) (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Sweden there are at least 50 populations and has a fragmented, but not severely. It is rare in Denmark (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine this species is common. It is scattered across Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread throughout all the hilly and mountainous regions; this species is not very common in the area but its populations are strong (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<span lang="EN-GB">	eng
157632	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Not regarded as threatened in some parts of its European range, but its dependence on hollowing trees make it very vulnerable.<br/></p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157633	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157633	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in the Azores Island, the Portuguese Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. Endemic to the Azores (known from the islands of Terceira, Pico and San Miguel).	eng
157633	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Occurs in native, non-native and disturbed woodland. It is commonly found under dead bark of the endemic tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus brevifolia</span> and also in dead branches of other trees. Habitat has been estimated 41 (effective), 113 (potential) 0.5x0.5 km grids. It has been found in 12 of these grids (Hortal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
157633	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157633	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157634	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific measures are in place or needed. Probably occurs in many protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157634	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species occurs in the western Mediterranean - southern Spain and Portugal hold the only European populations; but it also occurs in northern Africa (Bense 1995). It occurs throughout mainland Spain (with the exception of the far north-eastern part) and on the Balearic Islands.	eng
157634	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Develops in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees and shrubs, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia, Cytisus, Prunus</span>. Adults are attracted to blossom for feeding (Bense 1995). It is a relatively generalist species that is found in shrubland and in some artificial habitats (e.g. parks and gardens) as well as in deciduous woodland.	eng
157634	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>It is a common species in Spain, where it is widespread with a large number of recorded localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from the north (old records) and centre (in the 1980s).</p>	eng
157634	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available. It is widespread in Spain and not thought to be under major threat.<br/></p>	eng
157635	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>None feasible until a live population is discovered.<br/></p>	eng
157635	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is endemic to the Spanish Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, the Canary Islands and known from Tenerife only.	eng
157635	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was reported from beneath the bark of a felled Spanish chestnut- tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>.	eng
157635	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species - the species is known from just one specimen found over 100 years ago.<br/> </p>	eng
157635	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157636	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.	eng
157636	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is a central and south-eastern European species, widespread throughout. It is known from Slovenia and Italy (Laibner 2000). In Italy it is only known in one locality. In Ukraine it is found in the western hills of the Carpathians (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157636	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that occurs in broad-leaved deciduous and mixed forests from the lowlands to the submontane zone (Laibner 2000). Its developmental cycle is mainly in decaying oak or alder stumps (Laibner 2000); some specimens have been found in decayed (white-rot) wood of beech-trees and oak (Dolin 1988).	eng
157636	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The species is considered to be rare but the population trend is stable.</p>	eng
157636	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No threats are known and the species is not thought to be threatened.</p>	eng
157637	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157637	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is distributed across south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Cyprus <span style="font-style: italic;">P. nicoclaes</span> very close with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dalmatinus</span> (R. di Cialla pers. comm. 2009).<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>It is also found in the Middle East up to southern Lebanon and Syria from the western side and from Iraq to Iran on the eastern side. In eastern Turkey, Iraq and Iran (Luristan, Kordestan) a close species or subspecies is found: <span style="font-style: italic;">P. tommasoi</span> Sama, 2001.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
157637	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development inadequately known, up to now only reported from oaks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. conferta</span>) and from fruit trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>). Larvae feed in dying wood in thin twigs (often only of one cm diameter) (Bense 1995). The species is thought to be in low mountains.	eng
157637	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout its range but it is suspected to be common in the coastal part of its range in Croatia.</p>	eng
157637	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157638	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157638	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	This species is distributed across south-eastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean (Bense 1995), including Turkey (exact location unknown). In Hungary it is sporadic found in the hilly and lower mountainous regions, mainly in the central and western parts of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157638	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a polyphagous species that lives on broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Rhamnus, Euonymus, Crataegus, Morus, Ficus, Juglans, Styrax, Quercus</em>). The larvae develop in dead twigs. Adults are active in V-VI, and feed at flowers. In Hungary it occurs in light oak forests, mainly in places where spindle is abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157638	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as quite rare, although may be abundant in suitable localities (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Serbia and Montenegro the species is considered rare (Pil 2005).</p>	eng
157638	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species, however habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of shrub level (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157639	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	No specific measures in place in Ireland or in the UK other than general FSC guidelines.<br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Spain, Romania, Ireland, Britain).<br/><br/>In Spain about 23% of the beech forest areas in Spain are in protected areas and the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. cylindricum</span> in protected areas is known. However, even within protected areas dead wood is sometimes managed.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2003).	eng
157639	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	It occurs in almost all Europe, and in Siberia and northern China.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the mountain regions. In Romania it is widespread and present in the Carpathians. In Spain it is mainly present in the mountains of the north (Cantabrian Range, Pyrenees, Iberian System) (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006), with an outpost in the Guadarrama Range in middle Spain (Ortuño and Barberá 1993, de la Rosa Maldonado and López-Colón 1998, de la Rosa 2006) and a recent discovery in southern Badajoz, in the south-west of Spain (Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007).<br/><br/>In Britain and Ireland it can be found at all altitudes below the tree line (approx 500 m) and is very widespread.	eng
157639	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Typically found in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees in both broad-leaved and mixed woodland. It bores in white-rotten heartwood of large broad-leaved trees, but is also known from pine<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus</span>, including stumps. Larval development takes two or three years in the UK, the larvae burrowing even into quite hard timber. It has been reported live from floating timber in both freshwater and seawater. Flies in daylight in early summer in the UK (Alexander 2002). Adults present all year round but a clear maximum in July in Spain and males use their horns to fight; larval development one to two years or two to four years, three larval instars (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006).<br/><br/> It the UK suitable host trees occur in a wide variety of situations and it is widespread in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002). In Hungary all known localities are in old beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests. In Romania adults often were recorded from old stumps in beech forests in the Carpathians. In Spain it has mainly been found in beech forests (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006) (never in pine forests), although in the Sierra de Guadarrama has been found on birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>too (de la Rosa 2006).	eng
157639	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread and common species; population trend is stable or increasing in parts.<br/><br/>In Ireland it has a very fragmented distribution, but a reasonable number of known sites, some of which are protected. In the UK it is very widespread across Britain, the population is strong and with little or no sign of any decline. In Denmark (Hansen 1996), Germany and Finland this species is common.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania good populations in size occurs in the south-west. In Ukraine this species is not common. <br/><br/>In Spain there are no quantitative data available; non-systematic observations at the Sierra de Guadarrama, one of the southernmost parts of its Iberian distribution, indicate a fairly high number of exit holes in the populations (in the order of ten) (M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009); a total of 89 squares of 10x10 km are occupied (Grupo de Trabajo sobre Lucanidae Ibéricos 2006, Blanco Villero and Sáez Bolaño 2007).	eng
157639	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157640	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Protected in Carpathian's reservation with complex of other insects. In Sweden it is listed as Near Threatened on the National Red List, and in Finland it is listed as Least Concern on the National Red List as decline has mainly stopped.	eng
157640	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is widely distributed in central, east and northern Europe extending to some countries in south-eastern Europe. It occurs in Norway, Finland and Sweden. According to Lobl and Smetana (2007) it is present in Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathians Mountains. Laibner (2000) says it only occurs in the montane and subalpine zones of the Poloninské Karpaty Mountains, but this information is based on two separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">A. karpathicus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suecicus</span>. In Sweden it occurs in the north and is extremely rare (recorded as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. suecicus</span>).	eng
157640	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae probably develop in the decaying wood of dwarf pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus mugo</span> in the montane and submontane zones of central Europe (Laibner 2000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>) but are more widespread in the boreal forests of Fennoscandia, where they develop in coniferous wood - pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>- but also aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; it prefers red-rotten heartwood<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
157640	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p>In Sweden there are recent records from only half of the formerly known provinces; the population trend is declining. In Finland it is rare, but presumed to be stable. In central Europe it is very localised and in Ukraine it is rare.</p>	eng
157640	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>In Fennoscandia, the species is found mainly in forest reserves and national parks as this species is dependent on an abundant dead wood resource. The removal of dead wood is a threat to the species habitat. Also the destruction of old trees of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus.</span></p>	eng
157641	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. Additionally, fallen trunks and boughs should be left to decay rather than 'cleaned up'. <br/><br/>This species occurs in a number of protected areas. <br/><br/>It is regarded as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Slovakia.	eng
157641	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe; absent from Britain and Ireland. A boreo-montane species. According to Fauna Europaea (2004) it is endemic to Europe.	eng
157641	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in old lying sections of large tree trunks with advanced development of red-rotten heartwood decay, either conifers or broad-leaves. In France larvae are saproxylophagous in wet red-rotten heartwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>trunks. Also found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>red rot in Poland. In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood (brown stage of decay) of broad-leaved trees. In Romania reports are from old broad-leaved and coniferous forests. Only found in relatively cold, humid and aged forest with a long continuity of deadwood supply and low level of tree harvesting. Adults emerge during autumn and stay in the trunk during winter. Most of the known localities have not been exploited for 50 years at least. Inhabits forests with a high density of moist red-rotten logs of both conifer and broad-leaved trees, probably dependent on a continuous supply of suitable logs at the landscape scale (Nilsson<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.&#160; </span>2000). <br/><br/>Typically restricted to old-growth forests (both broad-leaved and coniferous). It depends upon large lying logs that have been decaying for a long time (e.g. it colonises at a late successional stage). Consequently it requires both old, large trees and a management regime that allows decaying logs to be left lying for many years.	eng
157641	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Generally rare, declining and localized.<br/><br/>In Sweden it is very rare (Nilsson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000) and only present in the south. In Finland it is very rare and declining.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian where it is very rare. In Romania this species has not been deeply investigated but many reports are from the south-western Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic there are few localities, rare and declining.<br/><br/>In France it is very localized (Baraud 1993); it has been found in the mountains of Jura, Alps and the Pyrenees (Baraud 1993); in the Alps there are only seven localities (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009), and less than ten localities for the whole country (Paulian and Baraud 1982). Although it is mentioned as very restricted to the Pyrenaic region (López-Colón 2000), no records exist for Spain (P. Bahíllo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Italy it is also very rare and declining; there are about 20 localities in total in north-eastern Alps and one single old record from the northern part of the central Appenines. In Germany its presence was recently confirmed only in mountains in southern Germany; it is very rare; few recent records only from forest reserves. Seems to have disappeared from exploited or managed areas. In Switzerland there are 19 localities, but some of those from old records.	eng
157641	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157642	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
157642	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Spain.	eng
157642	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no information is available on its detailed habitat requirements.	eng
157642	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157642	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157643	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157643	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in Greece. No details on the exact distribution are available. No other specimens are known other than those of the original description (P. Cate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157643	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details of its habitat requirements are available.	eng
157643	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>	eng
157643	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157644	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, UK). In the UK this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).	eng
157644	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, except the far north. It is a west Palaearctic species, reaching the Altai Mountains (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and forests of mountains of Crimea. It has recently been found in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Denmark it is widespread (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Britain it is widespread across southern England and Wales but is only known from one old record in Ireland, in the far south-east (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157644	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	&#160;This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae are predators - partcularly of Scolytidae larvae - living in large dead branches in the upper parts of trees (also sometimes in stumps and trunks) of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and other broad-leaved trees (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>); they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; the adults are active in V-VI and nectar at blackthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus spinosa</span> and hogweed <span style="font-style: italic;">Heracleum </span>in daylight (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>Found in open broad-leaved and mixed forests and parks with groups of old broad-leaved trees in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly oak and beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK primarily in old wood pasture situations in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157644	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	It is widespread, and not uncommon in at least some parts of its European range.<br/><br/>In Ireland there in one single record from the south-east, in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, but the area is poorly recorded and the species could still be present (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution across southern Britain but with a large number (at least 50) of isolated populations (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is a rare species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs sporadically across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the species has small populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are only four localities known, all in the north (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).	eng
157644	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>Across Europe as a whole there are no major threats, but there are negative impacts from a number of human activities such as those detailed below.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157645	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	No conservation actions in place other than FSC guidelines. The species occurs in many&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>In the UK it has the conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).	eng
157645	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Euro-Siberian species is found across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland.	eng
157645	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>The larvae develop in fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi, and it is best known in the UK from <span style="font-style: italic;">Trametes versicolor</span>, especially on beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; ancient wood pastures and woodlands, old fen, and historic parklands (Alexander 2002). In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests wherever shelf fungi with hard sporocarps (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trametes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedalea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis </span>etc.). In Ukraine it occurs in forest and in the forest-steppe zone, also in forests in Crimea; it lives in forests of different types on wood-decay fungi; adults have been found in May - August (Drogvalenko 1997).	eng
157645	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution, with about 30 small isolated populations known, plus one or maybe two larger concentrations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it occurs in the north, where it was recorded from just four localities: one record in the 1920s (Barros 1924), two based on data from the 1970s (Grosso-Silva 2005) and one obtained in 2009 (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species. This species is widespread all over Hungary; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157645	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157646	conservation	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	No conservation measures needed. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157646	distribution	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is Circum-Mediterranean, extending northwards to Belgium and southern Poland (Bense 1995). It is widespread in Spain (Vives 2001) and Italy. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, and most of the records are recent. In Hungary this species occurs in the south-western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from the central part of country. In Cyprus it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> widespread but absent only in the central plain and the east (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in northern Africa, Caucasus, Minor Asia, Kazakhstan.	eng
157646	habitat	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>The larvae develop under the bark of thin dead branches of woody shrubs such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartium, Sarothamnus</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Calicotoma</span>. The adult is active in V-VII and is attracted to blossom of various plants of the families Compositae and Fabaceae for feeding. It is a thermophilous species. .In Cyprus it is found in maquis, garigue and forests in association with <em>Genista fasselata. </em>Adults and larvae have been found in the dead wood of <em>Genista fasselata</em>. Adults are found on the host plant and more rarely feeding at flowers, especially on the yellow flowers of <em>Ferula communis</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The known localities of this species in Hungary are in acidic meadows where <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarothamnus scoparius </span>is present (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from different host-plants,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Calyotome spinosa, Spartium junceum, Cytisus capitatus </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>	eng
157646	population	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This is a widespread species and common in the warmer regions (e.g. Cyprus, Spain, Italy, Ukraine). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Romania but in Hungary it is considered frequent in its localities. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare, locally in the warmest areas.	eng
157646	threats	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There appears to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary although this species is found in a few localities only, it is not threatened.	eng
157647	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No information available. It is now known if the species occurs in any protected area.</p>	eng
157647	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species occurs in southern Europe mainly in Italy and the Adriatic coasts (Bense 1995).&#160;In Switzerland the record is from Tiscino (Germann 2000). It has been very rarely but repeatedly recorded in France near the border with Italy; the most recent record in France is 1953.	eng
157647	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;This species may be polyphagous in deciduous trees, however only <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera helix </span>has been reported as a host until now.<br/></p>	eng
157647	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>The species is widespread throughout Italy and the Balkan countries but there is little information available on the abundance or trends of this species.</p>	eng
157647	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This species has only been found on <em>Hedera helix </em>which is abundant in Europe so no threats are expected to the species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157648	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany this species is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution.	eng
157648	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in the Eurosiberian subregion and in the eastern part of central Europe. <br/><br/> In Ukraine it only occurs in the Carpathians. In Hungary this species is found only in the westernmost parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps. The known records are more than 30 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from the eastern and southern Carpathians but they are old reports (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Bavaria, Saxony. It is also found in Russian Far East, northern Mongolia, northern China and Japan.<br/><span style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"><br/></span>	eng
157648	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under bark and in the wood of lower, stunted branches of large trees or trunks or dying tree-tops in conifers (predominantly <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, only occasionally in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>). The life-cycle is typically one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX and are to be found on the host-plants where they feed on twigs and needles.</p><p>In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from native pine and fir forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is found only in montane spruce forests.<br/></p>	eng
157648	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species appears to have a very restricted distribution in many countries. Nevertheless there is no evidence to suggest that the populations are anything other than stable at present. In Romania and Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rare in Hungary and not common in Romania. In Ukraine this species is rare.	eng
157648	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Replacement of the fir and pine native forests in Romania is a threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157649	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	It is important to maintain the continuity of the habitat. In the UK one of the two known sites is protected and SAC; it is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); and it is considered a Priority Species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the known extant populations are in protected areas. In Italy it is listed as Endangered.	eng
157649	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is distributed in much of central and southern Europe eastwards to Caucasus (Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979). It is a sub-Mediterranean species reaching the Caucasus (Laibner 2000). Also found in Algeria.	eng
157649	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decaying heartwood of hollowing broad-leaved trees; white-rot (Brustel 2005); prefers old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, elms <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, also frequent in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> (Laibner 2000); elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>a key tree species in England (Allen 2001), but also found in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>(Mendel and Owen 1990); eggs are laid in May/June, and young larvae explore the tunnels bored by beetle larvae; the larvae are active in harder, drier heartwood than <span style="font-style: italic;">Ampedus</span>, feeding on the larvae of other beetle species, including Scarabaeidae, Cerambycidae, Buprestidae and probably on Cossonine weevil larvae; they pupate at end of the season and overwinter as the adult; these adults emerge in late April and early May (Dolin 1988), and are said to be nocturnal but some have also been seen active in daylight; only males are attracted to blossom (Allen 1964), including hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, holly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ilex </span>and nettle <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica</span>. <br/><br/>Its habitats are preserved forests from lowlands to highlands, as well as solitary trees or forest-steppe formations. In Britain, its sites tend to be ancient wood pastures in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it has been found in oak-hornbeam forests.	eng
157649	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is very rare throughout its range (Laibner 2000). In the UK it has a very fragmented range and currently it is only known from two very isolated populations in England; there are more old sites than current sites (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the north it was collected 150 years ago (Dolin 1988). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia there are several sites. In Hungary there are only two localities known from the hilly areas; the species is very rare in Hungary, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is widespread, not rare but a hard species to find. In Italy there are 22 localities but most of them are historic records (mainland and Sicily, not present in Sardinia). In Spain there are five localities in the north, close to the Pyrenees, a very recent discovery (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Germany there are not many localities but it is quite widespread and it is considered as threatened.	eng
157649	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Also the removal of dead wood is a threat to this species.	eng
157650	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); remnants of native pine forest are all now protected (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary virtually all known localities are in protected areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is listed as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Spain this species is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Six localities are within protected areas (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). No conservation actions are in place or projected.	eng
157650	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is a widely distributed Palaearctic species in ancient pine and spruce. It occurs almost throughout Europe (except in the south) and in Siberia, Russian Far East, North Korea, Japan (Nearctic region) (Lobl and Smetana 2007).<br/><br/>It is localised in mountain conifer forests in France (Brustel 2005) and confined to the Caledonian pine forests of Scotland in the UK (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark this species is considered Extinct (Hansen 1996) although a very recent breeding population has been re-discovered in northern Zealand, in Grib Skov.<br/><br/>In Spain it occurs in mountain areas in the Pyrennees, Sistema Central and Jaén (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). Probably present in other suitable mountain areas in Spain (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). It occupies 15 localities/squares of 10x10 km (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, forest and forest-steppe zones. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the hilly and mountainous regions.	eng
157650	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decayed (brown or brown-white stages) wood of fir in Ukraine, sometimes <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus, Betula,</span> aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. It also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus picea</span>. The adult beetle is often found on the fruit bodies of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pycnoporellus fulgens, Fomitopsis pinicola, Gloeophyllus</span> sp.), usually in V-VIII. The life cycle is two years. Larvae and adults hibernate. Larvae are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous and the imago is mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1996). In the UK, the larvae feed in the decaying heartwood and sapwood only of large Scots pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> that have been extensively rotted by the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phaeolus schweinitzii</span>; the adults are usually found under bark on dead trunks (Alexander 2002). In Hungary all known records are from mature broad-leaved forests, mainly beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. In Spain this species live in high altitude forests, under the bark of coniferous trees, where they feed on xylophagous insects (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).  It is characteristic of old pine forest in the UK (Alexander 2002).	eng
157650	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species over part of its Europe range, with stable populations in northern Europe but declining in central Europe.<br/><br/>In Sweden there are stable populations. In Finland it is widespread and common. A rare and elusive species only discovered in UK in mid 20<sup>th</sup> century; very little known about it. <br/><br/>In central Europe this species is not common. In particular in Hungary this species is sporadic, and all known populations are small. In Germany it is rare but there are recent records (after 1950) in four states. In Ukraine it is not often but locally found. <br/><br/>In Spain it is apparently widespread but located always in small numbers; this is probably due to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157650	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The European population appears to be under no major threat.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157652	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157652	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species has a Euro-Siberian distribution ranging to the Caucasus and Asia Minor (Laibner 2000) it is widely distributed in south, north, central and eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in most parts of the territory, except in the steppe zone (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and lowland regions. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it appears across the whole territory (Laibner 2000).	eng
157652	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decayed white-rotten heartwood, preferably in still-standing trees (Laibner 2000). In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood of numerous broad-leaved trees (prefering oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, </span>birch<span style="font-style: italic;"> Betula, </span>poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>) sometimes in hollows. The adult beetle is active in V-VI, but most part of the time it is concealed under bark and in hollows (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>It lives in broad-leaved and mixed forests, riparian vegetation and orchards (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in willow-poplar forests along rivers and in other wet habitats; also in orchards and rarely in other broad-leaved trees (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157652	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	Generally widespread, locally common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In Denmark this species is widespread but not common (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In Hungary the species is sporadic in the country, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare in the west, less rare in the east. In Italy there are very few records; mainly in the north.	eng
157652	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species at present, although there may be negative impacts from a number of anthropogenic activities (e.g. inappropriate forest management, for example, removal of large deciduous trees).	eng
157653	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific conservation measures are needed at present. <br/></p>	eng
157653	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across the southern half of Europe. In France, this species occurs throughout all the Mediterranean area northwards as far as Paris (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary, this species occurs in lowland and hilly regions and it is apparently widespread, although not many localities are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it has only been recorded in the 1930s, from a single locality, while - in the European part of Turkey - it is known from a few localities in Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Lodos 1998). In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. The species is also found in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Iran and Turkey.	eng
157653	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in deadwood of a wide variety of tree species. In the European part of Turkey, larvae have been found in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Citrus, Ficus carica</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Morus alba</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Vitis vinifera</em></strong>. Adults are active in VI (Schimitschek 1953, Lodos 1998). In France, larvae have a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus and Morus</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009); tehy are also known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pistacia. </span>In Spain, this species is found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Retama monocarpa</span> (a widespread bush). In Hungary, most of the localities of this species fall into populated areas (towns, suburbs, villages, orchards) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157653	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population trend is unknown. In Ukraine this species is common, while in Spain it has been recorded from 30 localities. In Hungary, this species was first recorded in the 1990s; it is apparently widespread although not many localities are known; although very few old occurrences were already known, it apparently became more common in the last two decades  (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it occurs in the Mediterranean area and it has <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>always been found in small numbers (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey, the population size and trend have not been quantified. </p><p><br/></p>	eng
157653	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
157654	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available. It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and Slovakia and as 'R' in Germany, whcih means that the species has a restricted distribution.<br/></p>	eng
157654	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is distributed in the south of central, east and western Europe; it has a restricted distribution in central Europe (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain many populations are known from six provinces: Lleida, Huesca, Teruel, Madrid, Granada and Cadiz (Verdugo 2004, González <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In Germany it is present in only a few German states, mainly old records, and it is very rare. In Italy there are nine localities in the Alps, six of those records are very old (1860). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare.	eng
157654	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species develops in thin branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> spp. This is a tree-top species and probably under-documented as a result.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157654	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It seems to be a rare species across its range in Europe, and is common nowhere. In Spain it is only known from high quality localities and only very few individuals are known. In Germany it is present in only a few German states, mainly old records and it is very rare (past and present) but the trend is considered stable. In Italy there are nine localities in the Alps, six of those records are very old (1860). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is very rare and declining.	eng
157654	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown, although clearance of native pines must be damaging.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157655	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania), but further protection of the threatened maple stands is necessary.</p><p>In Germany this species is listed as 'R', which means that the species as a restricted distribution (2009).</p>	eng
157655	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is widely distributed in Europe, extending from south-eastern Europe, through central Europe and western Europe, with populations in Scandinavia (Bense 1995). It is also found in Asia Minor  and Syria. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, but uncommon (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is only known in the extreme north-east: Girona (Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). In Romania it is known from some places from the central and the eastern part.  In Germany it has only been recorded from Baden-Württemberg.	eng
157655	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.  Larvae live especially under the bark of sickly and dead twigs and branches from tree-tops (diameter between two and eight cm), only occasionally in trunks. It develops in a variety of broad-leaved trees (especially maple <em>Acer, </em>also elm<em> Ulmus, </em>oak <em>Quercus, </em>hornbeam<em> Carpinus, Ostrya</em>). In Romania it has been reported from elm and oak (Panin and Savulescu 1961). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VI, found on the host plants, occasionally feeding at flowers. In Hungary it lives in various broad-leaved forests where species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>grow (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157655	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>Population status varies in different parts of the range; typically rare or very rare in the west (where it approaches its range limits) but more common in the east. There is no evidence of major population declines, although the overall population trend is unknown.<br/></p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but the species is not quite common and hard to study. In Romania there are only old records.	eng
157655	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>      </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p><p>Also habitat loss is occurring in many parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and removal of maple from the forests.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157656	conservation	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species.<br/></p>	eng
157656	distribution	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species occurs in south-western Europe, where it is found on Sardinia (Italy), where there are only a small number of known sites, and also in Spain, where it is widespread but localized. Its area occupied in Spain is 2,600   <span lang="EN-GB">km². It occurs at altitudes above 900 m. Outside Europe, it also occurs in northern Africa and is rather widespread there.	eng
157656	habitat	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits Mediterranean deciduous forests. Larvae develop in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees (e.g. cork oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber</span>, but also in some introduced tree species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Eucalyptus</span>). Recorded causing technical damage in cork production in Algier.<br/></p>	eng
157656	population	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>Widespread in Spain, where it does not appear to be rare. Population size has not been quantified, nor has population trend. <br/></p>	eng
157656	threats	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of older trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Mediterranean broad-leaved woodlands inhabited by this species are increasingly fragmented.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157657	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	No conservation measures needed. It also occurs in several protected areas throughout its range (e.g. Hungary, Romania). In Germany <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sartor</span> is considered as Presumably Endangered (2009).	eng
157657	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is distributed across central and southern Europe (Bense 1995) and through western Europe. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rare and absent in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is widespread but not common (Vives 2001) and in Portugal there are only very few records from the north. In Germany it is widespread although missing in the very north and rare. In Poland there are no recent records after 1950. In the Czech Republic it is only in the southernmost, in the warmer lowland areas. In Slovakia it is widespread but is not present in the mountains. It is present in almost all regions in Ukraine and widespread in Romania and Cyprus. In the European part of Turkey it was reported from Tekirdag (Villiers 1967, Oymen 1987, Lodos 1998), Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) and Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005). It is also found in Major and Minor Caucasus, Anatolia, Iran, south-western Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>	eng
157657	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of dead branches on a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Paliurus, Quercus, Ulmus, Crataegus, Eleagnus, Castanea, Robinia, Ficus, Cytisus, Pistacia, Ceratonia, Salix, Fagus, Ostrya, Gleditsia</em>). Adults emerge in V-VIII and are attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been observed on the hills with shrubs and isolated trees, sometimes at the edge of deciduous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been found in   orchards, maquis, garigue, and forests on various flowers especially at white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Spain in prefers humid deciduous forest. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157657	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a widespread species in Europe, probably common in the warmer regions. Presumably the population trend is stable. In Romania it is considered well represented (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009); also common and well represented in Italy and Spain.    Population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey and Cyprus but in Cyprus the<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> species is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare.<p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157657	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	The species is not threatened, because host plants are available all over its range. In Romania the removal of shrubs and isolated trees from hills can be one threat to this species. <br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157658	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	Old orchards should be protected and sustained. However, as the species also occurs in natural habitats, including those in protected areas as well, no more specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm 2009).	eng
157658	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe, from the Alps eastwards, but not in Greece (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, Minor and Central Asia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread but sporadic in the hilly and lower mountain areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from Transylvania, and occurs in the high hills (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Recently reported from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Switzerland; historical occurrence also in Austria and Germany. Not present in Poland (Slama 2006). In Italy there are only eight localities in north-western Italy but these data are very old. It has also been reported from the European part of Turkey although without the exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157658	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae live under bark of dry dead branches with diameter 4-12 mm and are able to exploit a number of different tree species. Up to now it is only certainly known from <em>Rosa, Malus, Amygdalus, Pinus, Abies, Cedrus</em>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerasus</span>. Pupation takes place in late summer in the deadwood, rarely under bark. Adults winter in the pupal cells and emerge in IV-VI, are found on the host plants and are attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been observed in the beech forest areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it only develops on bushes in mountain areas. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157658	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	The species is regarded as common in the Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is not uncommon on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is a very rare species in central Europe and can easily be overlooked. In Romania it is not common and there are only old reports. In Italy it is rare (only eight localities) and it is very old data. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><p><br/> </p>	eng
157658	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Local threats could include pesticide use and cutting branches for fire wood. In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present. Disappearance of old orchards is more threatening (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157659	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed. In Hungary the species occurs almost exclusively in protected areas.	eng
157659	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across central and south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it occurs in the western regions. In Hungary it is sporadically found in the westernmost part of the country and in the north-eastern mountains (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from the mountains and a few other places in the central part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is present in all mountain zones, with boreal coniferous forest (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy the species is present in the Alpine arch. In Germany it occurs in the southern and eastern states.	eng
157659	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Larix</span>). Larvae first feed under the dead bark, later in the dead wood of thin stems. Adults emerge in June - July, found on the host-plants and feeding on flowers. It is a typical montane species but it also occurs in artificial habitats such as spruce plantations or gardens and is considered by some a potential pest. In Hungary it occurs in old indigenous conifer forests and in old conifer plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is present in the old conifer forests from the Carpathians, and in France in the boreal coniferous forest. In Italy the spcies is present only up to 700 m.<br/></p>	eng
157659	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a widespread species, common in mountainous regions. There is no data on the population trend of this species.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified; however, it is regarded as rare in the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is suspected that the population is declining (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Not a rare species in France but never found in large numbers (less than five individuals in one year of sampling with ten traps in a site) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is common in the Alpine arch and there are two populations in central Italy. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is widespread and common in montane regions. In Ukraine it is considered rare.	eng
157659	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	In central Europe, including Germany and Italy, there are no major threats to this species. In Hungary, virtually all localities are in protected areas, so no threatening factors exist. In Romania human activities inside old conifer forests can threaten the species.	eng
157660	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157660	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is believed to be distributed in south-eastern Europe including Bulgaria, north-eastern Greece, Crete, and Macedonia.	eng
157660	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but the details of its ecology are not well understood.	eng
157660	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157660	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157661	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. It is unknown if the species is present in a protected areas. <br/></p><p>Need to develop a management plan to preserve these species.<br/></p>	eng
157661	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Within Europe this species is known from Cyprus (cf. Sama 1994) and two   <span lang="EN-GB">Greek islands, Rhodes and Samos by recent records (2005 and 1997). It is also found in Syria, Turkey and Lebanon <span lang="EN-GB">(Welnicki and Przewozny 2007). In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> this species was reported only from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> at the western part of Troodos Massif : Stavros tis Psokas (Sama 1994), Cefyria-Panagia, Cedar Valley, Pomos (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157661	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been found in Mediterranean pine forests, where the larvae develop in old dead trunks of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis</span>, sometimes in association with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Ergates faber</span>. This is a nocturnal species, strongly attracted by artificial light. Adults are active during VI-VIII (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is only present in </st1:place></st1:country-region><em>Pinus brutia</em> forests, where adults and larvae have been found in old rotten trunks of <em>Pinus brutia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p> <br/></p>	eng
157661	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. More than 1% of the total global population occurs in Europe. In Cyprus it is<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> considered very rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
157661	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Extraction of old dead trunks and stumps from the Mediterranean pine forests is a major threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157662	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>It is strongly recommended that actions are taken towards the preservation of standing large dead birch trees. In France the unique location known for this species is state-owned and officially protected since 2009 as a strict forest reserve of 2,000 ha with no wood harvesting (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157662	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Boreo-alpine species occurring widely in Europe except the south; also in Siberia, the Far East and Mongolia (Laibner 2000). A species with a large range. <br/>In France there is only one record of one specimen (male) in 1967 in the alpine forest of the Hauts Plateaux du Vercors. Data confirmed by the best elaterid specialist in France (Leseigneur 1972). Never seen again but the forest has not been exploited for a long time.	eng
157662	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, associated with decaying trunks of birch and aspen; in Finland, the larvae develop in birch trunks decayed by <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius</span> (J. Mattila pers. comm. 2006). The adults&#160; are very short-lived and are attracted to lights (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>A boreo-montane species - in the Czech and Slovak Republics it inhabits the evergreen and mixed forests of the submontane and montane zones. It seems to be a relict of post-glaciation forest succession in central Europe. It is widespread in boreal forest.	eng
157662	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This species has its main range in boreomontane Europe where it is getting scarce towards the south of its range. In Fennoscandia it is widespread and it is locally abundant. The population trend is increasing in Sweden, stable in Finland and unknown for other countries. In the Czech Republic it is known from just two areas and in the Slovak Republic from another two areas; rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany there is one old record from Bavaria before 1900, presumably Extinct.<br/></p>	eng
157662	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species. In Sweden, the species populations are increasing in the north, but in the south the suppression of forest fires could affect the species. Overall, the breeding habitat of the species, birch trees, are abundant. Declining in central Europa probably due to climatic factors.	eng
157663	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	Where the species is highly dependent on Juniper heathland, this habitat should be maintained and managed. As the species lives in the branches, the avoidance of cutting those is recommended.<br/><br/>In Hungary as it is found in protected areas no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Germany it is listed as Vulnerable (2009).	eng
157663	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe extending from the Iberian Peninsula to Poland, Ukraine and the Balkans in the east, but is absent from Scandinavia, Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and lowland regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is Extinct from the Czech Republic and Switzerland. In Germany it is present in all German states except the very north. In Italy there are very few populations and in Spain it has an irregular distribution with local populations in the Basque Country and another few localities in the north (15 localities in total). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Slovakia it is rare and in France it is common.<br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus and north-western Africa.	eng
157663	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and thin trunks of Cupressaceae (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus,</span> only occasionally in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Cupressus, Thuja, Pinus</span>). The species can also develop on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> spp. The life cycle is one year, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults emerge in III-VI, and are found on the host-plants. Its primary habitat is Mediterranean shrubland.<br/></p>	eng
157663	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	The species status is very variable across its European range. It is regarded as common and widespread in France. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In contrast, in Italy there are very few populations and in Spain it has an irregular distribution with local populations in the Basque Country and a few localities elsewhere in the north (15 localities in total). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In Slovakia it is rare.	eng
157663	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	The species is threatened in parts of its range as it depends on Juniper heathland, a habitat that is declining along with the traditional management systems which support it, such as lack of grazing by large herbivores. Afforestation is another cause for the disappearance of this habitat.<br/><br/>In Hungary and Poland it is not threatened because suitable habitats are available all over the country.	eng
157664	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Germany. Protection of broad-leaved forest is needed as well as protection against commercial forestry practices.	eng
157664	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is found throughout all Europe, except the north and far western Europe. It is also found in Caucasus, Siberia and Russian Far East. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, in forests and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones (Drogvalenko 2004). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is also widespread across much of England and Wales, but absent from Scotland and Ireland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden there used to be some subpopulation in the south but now the species is Extinct.	eng
157664	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults normally frequent fruiting brackets of the softer polypore fungi on the trunks and branches of broad-leaved trees; the larvae are assumed to develop in these fungal brackets&#160; (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine the beetles live on fungi of the Pleurotaceae and on some species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus&#160; (P. squamosus</span>) (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Drogvalenko 2004). In Hungary it prefers dying trees with <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> and fruiting bodies of other tree fungi. <br/></p><p>In Europe it is delimited by the broad-leaved forest zone with high populations of low forest management intensities. UK sites include ancient wood pastures, historic parklands, traditional orchards and woodlands generally (Alexander 2002). In Hungary the species occurs in all kinds of indigenous and planted forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009); it prefers old growth forests<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. The species is typically dependent on veteran trees.<br/></p>	eng
157664	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species seems to be rare over much of its European range and its population is decreasing. It is however still widespread in certain areas, eg much of lowland England and in Romania it is abundant in the Carpathian beech forest. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Germany and the Czech Republic the species is rare. In Ukraine it is relatively rare.	eng
157664	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157665	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and general ecology of this species.</p>	eng
157665	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and it is found in northern Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt), Minor Asia, Iran and Iraq.<br/><br/>In Europe it is found in the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, mainland France and Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Ukraine and Croatia. <br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>France: it is found in the southern Mediterranean border of mainland France and Corsica (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935).<br/>Italy: there are available only generic regional records (Sardinia and Sicily) and one precise Sicilian locality (Lundberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">al.</span> 1987)<br/>Portugal: this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>was only recorded in 1984 from two localities in the southernmost area.<br/>Spain: it is present in eight localities in mainland Spain and in the Canary Islands it is present in La Palma, La Gomera and Tenerife (Lesne 1904, Machado and Oromi 2000).<br/>Ukraine: it is present only in Crimea.	eng
157665	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  It can live on a broad variety of dry wood (<span style="font-style: italic;">Citrus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix</span>, probably several others) (López-Colón and Baena 1998). Larval development in the midribs of leaves and fruitstalks of date palms (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>has repeatedly been observed (Egypt, Iraq, and also in the Canary Islands) (El-Sherif <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).</p>	eng
157665	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is considered to be rare in Europe, and is likely to be introduced from time to time because of the rather wide larval food plant range. The population trend of this species is unknown.<br/></p>In Ukraine this is a rare species.	eng
157665	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. The habitat of this species is quite common, although the population is rather fragmented. This is best considered a natural phenomenon, because in southern Europe, the species is on the northern fringe of its range.<br/><br/>The population from the Canary Islands could be threatened by invasive species which are affecting palm tress.	eng
157666	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157666	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003, it is known from two sites in the north of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).	eng
157666	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.	eng
157666	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157666	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157667	conservation	Alexander K.N.A., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place other than FSC guidelines. The species is very common and occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).<br/>The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2004).	eng
157667	distribution	Alexander K.N.A., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout most of Europe; it is absent from Ireland. It is also found in Caucasus, Minor Asia and Iran.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. In Denmark it is common and widespread (Hansen 1996). In Germany there are recent records in all States. It is common and widespread across much of lowland England and Wales, but absent from the north.    <p>It is widespread in Spain, with a higher number of records in the northern half of the country. Being so common, no special attention has been given by entomologists and it is not well represented in entomological collections (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). It is present in Andorra (de Torres Sala 1962).</p><p>In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre (Grosso-Silva 1999, 2005), it appears to be less common in the south, from where there is recent unpublished information (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).&#160;</p><p>In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Sekendiz 1974, Lodos 1989, Canakcioglu 1993).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157667	habitat	Alexander K.N.A., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the decaying heartwood of many broad-leaved tree species, where it is being decayed by a white-rot fungus; overwintering in larval / adult stages. It flies on summer evenings V-VII, and is attracted to light (Alexander 2002) and exposed sap of trees. In European Turkey larvae develop in dead wood of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea, Fagus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Juglans, </em></strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus,</em></strong> <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>; adults active in IV-VIII (Canakcioglu 1993). In Romania adults have been found in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Lucanus cervus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx cerdo</span> at the tree sap. In Spain adults have been found all the year round but mainly in V-VIII (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). Limited data on pupation indicate that pupation is in early July and adult within the pupal chamber by late August or early September.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, villages. In Spain present in bocage landscapes, riparian forests and closed forests (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). In the UK suitable trees may occur in a very wide variety of situations, especially across the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157667	population	Alexander K.N.A., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is a widespread and common species with stable populations across its European range.<br/><br/>It is widespread across much of lowland England; large strong population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is very common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread and it is considered the most common lucanid species. In European Turkey its population was very high in the 1940s; however the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><br/>In Spain there is no data on local population size. A study of road casualties revealed local densities in the order of 10-20 individuals (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). Very frequent even in highly humanized environments and rural landscape. In Andorra there is no recent data on the presence of the species.	eng
157667	threats	Alexander K.N.A., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species does not seem to be currently threatened. However some local threats can include the loss of old trees and decaying wood, particularly in the UK.	eng
157668	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species is present in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, especially from the aspect of its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157668	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Greece. The exact distribution of this species is unknown. One specimen (paratype) was collected in the Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157668	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the decaying wood of large forest trees.	eng
157668	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p>	eng
157668	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157669	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Ukraine it is in Crimea's reservations in complex with other insects.	eng
157669	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in south-eastern Europe, in Crimea, Bulgaria and south-western Russia (Caucasus).	eng
157669	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species found in broad-leaved and mixed forests. Larvae develop in dry but decayed wood of tree trunks. Imago active from April to May.	eng
157669	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance or trends of this species throughout the range. In Crimea it is found locally and not often, but it is not considered rare (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157669	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157670	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157670	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is endemic to southern Italy.	eng
157670	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a xylophagous species, but no details of its precise habitat requirements are available.	eng
157670	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population size and trend are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157670	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157671	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>It is listed as Endangered in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) and it is a priority species for conservation action   in the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan. It is listed as Endangered in Denmark (2005). The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).	eng
157671	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Eurocaucasian species (Laibner 2000) is distributed throughout much of Europe; excluding the Iberian Peninsula. Dolin (1988) describes this species as occurring in southern and central Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest-steppe zone. In Denmark it only occurs in Lolland and Zealand (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In the UK it is only known from one site, Windsor Forest and Great Park (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/><br/>It is also present in Near East.	eng
157671	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop exclusively in large decayed oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and boughs, and especially stumps; chiefly ones with red-rotten heartwood (late successional stage); larvae pupate at the end of the season and overwinter as adults; an adult has been taken at hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>blossom in the UK and so there may be some requirement for pollen and/or nectar on occasion (Alexander 2002).&#160; In Ukraine larvae have also been found in wood of plane <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus </span>and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>; pupation in VII-VIII; adult beetles appearing in May and active until June in the hours of daylight. In Hungary almost all records are from oak trees but it is known also from red-rotten bird cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<br/> <br/>It is an old growth species. Found in preserved broad-leaf and mixed forests from lowlands to submontane zone; preferentially in oaks (Laibner 2000). The sole UK population occurs within open-grown trees in historic parkland rather than forest (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary almost all records are from mature forests and wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157671	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is rare throughout its European range and has a fragmented distribution.<br/><br/>In the UK the sole confirmed population is in Windsor Great Park and Forest (Mendel and Clarke 1996); no suggestion of any decline in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively not rare. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions and the populations are small. In Sweden there is one single subpopulation. In Germany it is widespread but rather rare throughout. In Italy it is considered quite rare, but there are few data and in Denmark it is very rare and local.	eng
157671	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157672	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	No actions in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species occurs in many&#160; protected areas (Hungary). It is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987).	eng
157672	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland and has a very restricted range in Britain. It is also found in Caucasus and Siberia. It is Extinct in Denmark (1997).	eng
157672	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Ukraine this species develops in the wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. calyptratus, P. ostreatus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Leccinum aurantiacum</span>. Pupation takes place on the ground. The adult beetles hibernate (Khalidov 1984, Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996, Krasutzky 1996, Drogvalenko 2001). In the UK it is usually associated with the fruit bodies of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span> growing on dead trunks of broad-leaved trees; the adults hibernate beneath loose bark on the tree trunks, often in large aggregations (Alexander 2002). In Hungary this species occurs almost always on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and may be in the northern part of the forest zone. In the UK it is found in a wide variety of situations including ancient woodlands and wood pastures, historic parks and wooded places generally (Alexander 2002).	eng
157672	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Britain it has a very fragmented distribution, with one main population and three small isolated ones (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Germany nowadays it is restricted to Bavaria; it formerly also occurred in eastern Germany near the Polish border. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland it is widespread and common.	eng
157672	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats at the European scale.<br/></p>	eng
157674	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
157674	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species occurs in southern Europe and partly in central Europe. In Italy it is widespread in western Italy, Sicily and Sardinia. <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa and all Caucasus, and has been introduced in North America.	eng
157674	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead wood beneath bark in branches, typically on living trees; oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, crest-trees and some other broad-leaved trees. Pupation occurs in spring. The adult is active in V-VII,&#160; nocturnal, and is attracted to artificial light. The life cycle is one year.</p><p>In the Iberian Peninsula it is normally linked to oak forests but the distribution is very scattered. <br/></p>	eng
157674	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This is a rare species across most of its European range. The Ukraine is one of notably few countries where it is regarded at all common.<br/><br/>In Romania it is rare and very localized and the few records are old. It is also localized in Italy. It is rare in France and there are 20 localities in Spain. In the Czech Republic and Switzerland there is only one occurrence in each of the countries. In Austria, Germany and Slovakia it is Extinct.	eng
157674	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p>The threats to this species are unknown. The species is living on branches of oak trees, a habitat that is not rare, but the species still seems to be rare throughout its range.<p></p>	eng
157675	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Actions should focus on birch trees being maintained and open forests and pastures with birch should be protected or managed to favour birch. In Poland, this species is listed as Data Deficient.<br/></p>	eng
157675	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species has a restricted distribution in eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In the Czech Republic it is known from one record. It occurs in the far western part of Ukraine, on the western slope of the Ukrainian Carpathian mountains. Due to its fairly specific habitat requirements (birch on open forests, and probably sun exposed slopes) the Area of Occupancy is suspected to be small - perhaps not much greater than 2,000   <span lang="EN-GB">km².  It also occurs in western Siberia and Kazakhstan.	eng
157675	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It requires pastures with birch trees or open forests. It is monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula verrucosa</span>, the larvae occurring in dead wood (Sama 2002) and has been observed to require young but dying trees. The species has been known to colonize birch trees from which the bark had been removed by shepherds to kill them in order to increase their pasture size. While birch occurs commonly throughout the extent of occurrence of the species, the species itself is found only locally (mosaic distribution) and this suggests specific climatic requirements of the species such as slopes that would provide good sun exposure. Adults active in VI-VII.	eng
157675	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread across a relatively large area but only locally found and even locally rare.	eng
157675	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Land use changes that decrease the proportion of birch in the species' range such as afforestation of pastures or deforestation of birch stands. Birch is known to be a low-quality wood and it is usually removed by forest managers and birch forests might be likely to be removed and replaced with more economically valuable wood.</p><p></p>	eng
157676	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157676	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in the south of Russia.	eng
157676	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.</p>	eng
157676	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157676	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157677	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Listed as Rare in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987) and the habitat is covered by the Wood Pasture and Parklands Action Plan of the UK Government's Biodiversity Action Plan (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden it is considered to be Near Threatened. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK).	eng
157677	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe including Britain. It is a Trans-palaearctic species widespread across all Europe (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, and in the forest-steppe zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Portugal it has been recorded from one site in the north (Barros 1896) and another in the centre (Barros 1928). In the UK it is confined to a few small regions only, all in the south of England and Wales.	eng
157677	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead and decaying timber of various broad-leaved trees, often within living trees, and mainly in rotten heartwood; they are said to feed preferentially on larvae of the lesser stag beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus</span>, and other beetles; they pupate at the end of the season and hibernate as adult, becoming active the following spring (Alexander 2002). In the Ukraine larvae prefer wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>; the adults are active IV-V, but live hidden in hollows and under bark of dead trees. The females are sometimes more active and are attracted to flowers for feeding in VI-VII on glades and edges of forests (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>It lives in broad-leaved (chiefly oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>) and mixed forests from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). UK sites tend to be ancient wood pastures and historic parklands rather than forests (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it lives in broad-leaved forests, mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>.	eng
157677	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is relatively common in much of Europe although - in parts of its range at least - its populations seem to be declining.<br/><br/>In the UK this species has a very fragmented range, with three main centres of population plus a few outlying small populations. No suggestion of any decline, although a few of the smaller outlying sites only have old records (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Hungary the species is quite common in the country and the populations are strong. In the Czech Republic localities are considerably scattered (Laibner 2000) while in Slovakia it is more frequent; not rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is uncommon, but not really rare. In Italy it is more common in the northern part, but with more scattered records in the centre and south. In Denmark it is not common.	eng
157677	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The removal of dead trees from forests (as a result of inappropriate management) is the main threat. <br/></p>	eng
157679	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, Romania). It has Nationally Scarce status in Britain.	eng
157679	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This species is found throughout much of Europe except the extreme south west and west (Bense 1995). It also occurs in northern Africa, all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran, northern China and Korea.<br/></p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. In Romania it is widespread in the areas with oak and beech forests. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943).</p><p>In Denmark it is common and distributed throughout most of the country (Thomsen 2007). It is present in all German States. In Britain it is best known in the mountainous areas of northern England and northern Scotland, but also occurs in the mountains of north Wales.<br/></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157679	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops under bark on dead branches and stems of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<em>Alnus, Prunus, Juglans, Acer, Sorbus, Fagus, Quercus, Ulmus, Salix, Populus, Betula, Corylus, Ilex, Carpinus, </em>fruit-trees). The life cycle is between one and three years. Pupation occurs in spring in or under bark or in the sapwood. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the leaves, branches and stems of the host plant. It is a crepuscular species. The adults spend most of their lives high in the tree canopies where they feed on live leaves; they are not normally attracted to blossom; the females descend to oviposit into bark crevices of recently dead, mainly standing trunks of large diameter (Rejzek 2002).<br/><br/>It is an old growth species that lives mainly in woodlands and old forests. In Germany it lives in floodplain forests, orchards, and forests with at least some broad-leaved trees. In Hungary this species occurs mainly in old orchards where develops in cherry; sometimes in other forest types, especially in alder, or in oak-hornbeam forests where wild cherry is a typical tree. In Romania it has been reported from willow, elm, etc. in forests. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
157679	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>A widespread and common species over much of its European range, with stable populations.<br/></p>  In the Nordic countries this species is common with stable populations. In the UK it has a very localised distribution in parts of northern Britain, associated with hill districts of northern England, north Wales and Scotland. There is no evidence for any decline although some areas have no modern records.<br/><br/>In central Europe this species is common. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats. In Romania even if it is widespread nowadays it is quite difficult to find. In Ukraine it is common. In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. <br/><p>In Italy this species is common while in Spain it is localized but common.</p>	eng
157679	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. <br/><br/>In the UK clearance of dead trees and fallen branches are a threat. In Hungary the abandonment and removal of old orchards is a threat, although the species survives in wild cherry, which is widespread in the forests.	eng
157680	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	The distribution and population size of this species need to be researched. It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Crimea, Hungary). This species is listed as Endangered in Slovakia.	eng
157680	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species has its main distribution in central and south-eastern Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Turkey and Iran.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, in the western part of the forest-steppe zone and in Crimea. In Hungary it is known from a few localities in the hilly regions of the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It also is known from France and Italy.	eng
157680	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are&#160; xylomycetophagous in large diameter trunks of various tree species: <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Fagus</span>; the adults feed exclusively on Myxomycetes and need large quantities of dead wood in a humid climate (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It needs large trees that are not drying out. In Ukraine it inhabits old lying trunks of broad-leaved trees (mostly beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>). All known populations from Hungary are in mature broadleaved forest, mainly beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is a relict species of primary, wholly undisturbed forest.	eng
157680	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is rare throughout its range. It is rare in Ukraine and all known populations from Hungary are small. In Italy it is rare and local, recorded only from southern central mainland (not in Sardinia and Sicily). The first record for the Czech Republic is very recent and is from the south-east (Nakladal and Kmeco 2008). In France it has been recorded but there is no information about recent records. In Romania it is found at the same site as <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhysodes sulcatus. </span>In Austria and Germany there are no recent finding<span style="font-style: italic;">s.<br/><br/></span>	eng
157680	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	The populations are small and vulnerable, and threatened by removal of old logs. In Ukraine loss of old broad-leaved trees and decaying wood are major threats.	eng
157681	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is recommended that dead wood is not removed from the forests. Adoption of FSC Guidelines should help.	eng
157681	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species occurs throughout central and southern Europe, from France to Bulgaria; rare in Spain (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only few records, from Transylvania, in the hilly areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in all states except in the north. It has been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953, Oymen 1987). It also occurs in the Caucasus.	eng
157681	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop first under bark, later in the wood of dead twigs and branches still attached to standing&#160; broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>); it is a canopy deadwood specialist. Life cycle one to two years, with pupation in autumn in the wood. Adults emerge in III-V, and are found on the host-plants. Pupation at early spring. In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in oak forests.<br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157681	population	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	Not an abundant species at the European level. In northern Europe is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as moderately common in the oak forests (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009).&#160; In Romania it is a rare species, but this could&#160; be due to the lack of field data (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered rare. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<p><br/></p>	eng
157681	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and unsympathetic forest management; however, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merk pers.comm. 2009).	eng
157682	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	The necessary actions to preserve this species are&#160; habitat preservation, continuity and connectivity. In Hungary, this species occurs in several protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, this species occurs in national parks. A good selection of old trees is needed in order to preserve this species and keeping some of these inside the broad-leaved forests is important (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157682	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is found across central and southern Europe in a east-west band from northern Spain into the Balkans (Bense 1995). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Hungary, this species is widespread all over the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread only over the Carpathian Mountains and it does not occur in Transylvania. In Ukraine, it is found in the Carpathians and in the steppe zone in Crimea. It has been also reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008) in European Turkey. It is also found in Asia Minor and Iran.	eng
157682	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in moist decaying wood of standing or fallen trunks, often in dead or dying parts of living trees. Pupation occurs in spring or summer in the wood near the surface. The adults are found on the tree host during evening and night, from June into August. The life cycle lasts at least three years. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially in <em>Populus </em>and <em>Salix, </em>also in <em>Juglans, Acer, Quercus, Alnus, Tilia, Prunus, Platanus, Fagus, Ulmus, Celtis, Fraxinus, Morus, Aesculus, Carpinus, Castanea, Prunus, Malus, Eucalyptus</em>). The adults are crepuscular and nocturnal. The species seems to prefer large diameter trees (> 40 cm) and requires large populations of them; it can also be present in urban areas.<br/></p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scabricorne</span> is most common in riverine and swamp forests, but occurs also in hilly hardwood forests and populated areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, it has been found in limes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> sp.). In France, the species has a preference for <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Populus alba </em></strong>and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>P. nigra (</em></strong>B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, the species has been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> trees in floodplains and in a few old-growth beech forests. <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em></em></strong>In the European part of Turkey the larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus nigra</span>&#160;<strong><em></em></strong>(Sekendiz 1974). In France,<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. scabricorne </span>is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>largely distributed in lowland forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span></p><p>    </p><p></p>	eng
157682	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. The overall population trend is believed to be declining and Extinct in some areas although it is stable in others. It is rather a common species in Hungary, Ukraine, France, Spain and Italy while it is rare in Germany, Czech Republic, Romania and Slovakia. <br/></p><p>In Hungary, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. scabricorne</span> the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) as in France, where the population is stable and also common in the localities (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, there are small populations and the population is declining slowly. In Bulgaria, this species is less rare than in Romania but there has been a massive habitat loss in recent years (P. Istratu pers. comm. 2009). In Italy, the population is stable and the species is found in several localities in northern and central Italy; the distribution of the species is more scattered in the south and there are few populations in the Italian islands. In Spain, this species is absent in the north-western part but it is found in 56 localities in the north. In Germany this species is found in the south-western corner and in one isolated population in Brandenburg. It is Extinct in Bavaria and Saxony, while in the Czech Republic is found in the south-east and considered Extinct in Bohemia. This species is present in the lowlands in the south and east of Slovakia. In the European part of Turkey, the population size and trend have not been quantified. </p>	eng
157682	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing or mowing activities. Removal of ancient living or dying trees poses the major threat. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. <br/>In its south-western range, these threats exist but only marginally affect the populations at the moment.<br/><br/>In Hungary, habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, losing large areas of woodland in the Romanian Plain may be the major threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany, this species is Critically Endangered (2009) by loss of large dead trees. In Ukraine there are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
157683	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed. Some of the known localities are in protected areas (e.g. Bulgaria, Romania). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).	eng
157683	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread in central, eastern and southern Europe; absent from the north (Bense 1995). It also occurs in Caucasus, northern Iran, northern Africa and Armenia.<br/><br/>In Romania it mainly occurs in the south. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, but scarcely recorded. In Greece it is only found in coastal islands. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions. It has been reported from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) and Tekirdag (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009).<p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157683	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of recently dead branches, thin stems and stumps of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Carpinus, Fagus, Malus, Betula, Pyrus, Ulmus, Crataegus, Populus, Tilia, Morus, Sorbus, Cydonia, Prunus)</span>. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on the host-plants, rarely at blossom (Sama 2002).<br/><br/>It lives in open deciduous forests, old orchards, parks, and pastures with trees. In Hungary it occurs in ecotonal situations of the oak zone; larvae have been found in branches of hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus </span>(O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is found in warm oak forests. In Germany it is often in Rosaceae-trees (orchards, in cities). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
157683	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Overall the species is considered common across much of Europe. <br/><br/>The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Turkey, but in Hungary the species is quite rare in its localities, and the populations must be small. In Romania it is a rare species, difficult to find. In Germany it is distributed in almost all German States, but it is scattered, rare and declining. In Italy it is widespread and common in montane forest. In the Czech Republic it occurs in the centre and south-east and has become quite frequent in the last few decades. In Slovakia it is only present in warm areas and is rare to very rare. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157683	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. Habitat loss is occurring in some localities as a result of removing shrub level (e.g. Hungary).<br/></p>	eng
157684	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in a protected area.	eng
157684	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across southern Europe. In Romania the species is present in the floodplain forest and in Baile Herculane (Cerna Valley).  It is also present in Near East.	eng
157684	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>(old Yugoslavia), <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus </span>(Romania), <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(France), <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>(Rumania) (Muona 1993). It also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. It requires a specific type of rot in dead wood. In Hungary the known habitats are groups of very old oak trees (wood pastures or mature forests) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157684	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<span lang="EN-GB">The population is scattered. In Hungary the species is very sporadic: only three localities are known, one of them is more than 70 years old. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl <span lang="EN-GB">pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">Only one locality in the south of the Czech Republic.<br/><br/><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Portugal there is only one old record fom the transition north-centre (Oliveira 1893), requiring confirmation. <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there is only one locality (Malaga) and old (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">In France there are about ten localities (L. Leseigneur pers. comm. 2009, B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).</span></span>	eng
157684	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	Change of habitat quality and the removal of old trees may be major threats. In Hungary the localities - if the populations exist at all - are highly threatened, because these are not protected, and the old trees are being removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157686	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The species does not occur in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
157686	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species has a very restricted range in Europe. It has only been found in Thassos islands (northern Aegean Islands). This species is also found and described from north-eastern Turkey (Samsun, Manisa, G<a name="OLE_LINK2">ö</a>rdes) and the western part of Turkey in the Izmir area and from Cisme.	eng
157686	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>It is doubtful that this is an obligate saproxylic species, as Holzschuh (1981) reports it from <span style="font-style: italic;">Isotis tinctoria </span>(from G<a name="OLE_LINK2">ö</a>rdes) and some <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorophorus</span> develop in woody roots of herbs. This species is very closely related taxonomically to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. trifasciatus</span> which develops in the roots of herbs. <br/></p>	eng
157686	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. However, it appears that the species is currently not uncommon within its restricted distribution.<br/></p>	eng
157686	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The island of Thassos where the species occurs seems to be affected by land conversion for agriculture and urbanisation. Therefore the habitat size is declining.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157687	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>No information available. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157687	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	This species is only found in Italy, where it is known from a single site in the north-central Appenines. Only known from the type locality. Endemic to Italy.	eng
157687	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no more is known other than in occurs in woodland.	eng
157687	population	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157687	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157688	conservation	Büche, B., Hyvarinen, E. & Alexander, K., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in many protected areas. In the Czech Republic it is listed as Critically Endangered (Vávra 2005).	eng
157688	distribution	Büche, B., Hyvarinen, E. & Alexander, K., 2009	A boreo-montane species, widespread in boreal and montane woodlands across much of Europe.  In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone.	eng
157688	habitat	Büche, B., Hyvarinen, E. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in in red-rotted standing and lying trunks, branches and stumps. It has been reared from a <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> stump with bark partly fallen off, surface wood hard with brown rot, moist, heartwood dry; also from very soft, fairly dry brown-rot in <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">abies </span>log (Muona 1993). Brown- or red-rot in spruce is usually due to decay of dead heartwood by fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phaeolus schweinitzii</span> (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in humid and loose wood of lying aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, sometimes oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and firs. Larvae hibernate. Pupation in May - June. Adult beetles active in June - August (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). Found on trees including <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Populus, Alnus, Salix.</span><br/><br/>Occurs in coniferous and broad-leaved woodlands.	eng
157688	population	Büche, B., Hyvarinen, E. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>Widespread and common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend is presumed to be stable.</p><p>In Finland it is common in the south with stable population trend.</p>  In France it is widespread and very localised, it has been reported from eight localities; confined to higher elevations. In the Czech republic there are records only from four faunistic grid cells (all with records after 1950) arranged in two groups - one in the south-west, one in the south-east (floodplain forests) (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia there are records only from two faunistic grid cells (both with records after 1950) in the western (close to the cluster in south-eastern Czechia) and central part (Elateridae 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare.	eng
157688	threats	Büche, B., Hyvarinen, E. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.&#160; <br/></p><p>There are no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157689	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area or if there is any conservation measure in place.</p>	eng
157689	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species' description was based on two males from Germany (Baden, Hessen) (Laibner 2000).	eng
157689	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It was collected under bark on dead wood of oak and pine trees (Laibner 2000).	eng
157689	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	It is only known from two male specimens (Laibner 2000). There is no information regarding the population trends of this species.	eng
157689	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157690	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area or whether there are any conservation measures in place.</p>	eng
157690	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is described from one or two specimens in Germany to the south of Hamburg (B.&#160;Büche pers.&#160;comm. 2009).	eng
157690	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No details of its habitat associations are known.	eng
157690	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157690	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species.&#160;</p><p>In Germany this species was excluded from the working (unpublished) checklist and therefore was not included in the German Red List.</p>	eng
157691	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157691	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widely distributed across southern Europe, in the southern parts of central and eastern Europe. It is also found in the Mediterranean and in the Canary Islands. In Ukraine, it may occur in Crimea, but confirmation is still needed. This species also occurs in northern Africa, the Caucasus, Asia Minor and Turkey.	eng
157691	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood of various broad-leaved trees. In Spain, on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siligua</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus</span> species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus,</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span>. In Italy, on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species and other broadleaved species. <br/></p>	eng
157691	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Italy, this species is not rare. In Spain there are 93 localities in 81 10x10 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
157691	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157692	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J., 2009	It is important to preserve big hollow oak trees. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g., Hungary).	eng
157692	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is recorded from Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania and Latvia (Laibner 2000). It has also been recorded in patchy distributions elsewhere across central, southern and northern Europe (Austria, Slovakia, Norway, Greece and Czech Republic). For many countries, records are missing but occurrence is probable (lack of data rather than lack of beetles). In Denmark it is distributed in Zealand and Lolland; only few localities in Jutland (National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157692	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This is a typical rot-hole dweller, developing in wood mould in cavities in trunks and stumps of old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in alluvial woodlands and deciduous vegetation, from foothills to highlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all records are from oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157692	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species distribution is very scattered throughout its range as it uses mainly old hollow oak trees as habitat. It is inferred that the population trend is declining.<br/><br/>It is very rare in Hungary, being known from only three areas in the country; all populations are small, but it is not considered to be threatened in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is known only from one area and in the Slovak Republic it is known from at least seven areas (Laibner 2000). In Sweden it is rare but it occurs mainly in protected areas.	eng
157692	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, especially old growth with hollow trees and loss of mega-tree continuity. Local populations can be eradicated with the removal of one hollow tree. This includes the cutting down of trees in parks or alleys or in old pastures.<br/></p>	eng
157693	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>      </p>  <p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, although it is present in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157693	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Cyprus and has been reported from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Platres, Panagia, Pera Pedi, Lagoudera, Kelefos, Vretsia, Roudia) and the southern hilly area (Choirokoitia). <br/><br/>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></p>	eng
157693	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in old deciduous forests and tree stands.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> Found in orchards, maquis, forests and river valleys with <em>Platanus orientalis </em>and<em> Alnus orientalis</em>. Larvae and adults have been found in decaying wood of <em>Platanus orientalis, Alnus orientalis</em> and <em>Juglans regia</em>. Adults are attracted to light (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157693	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> Population size and trend has not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157693	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Degradation of old forests by intense forest management and loss of old trees in urbanised areas are major specific threats to this species.<br/></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157694	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	There is no information regarding the conservation actions for this species; probably none are needed at present.	eng
157694	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species only occurs in the Spanish archipelago, the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean.	eng
157694	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Launaea spinosa</span>, a shrub, growing in near-coast habitats (Israelson 1974). It has also been reared from deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span> (Lesne, 1904) and, in Gran Canaria, from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera</span> (Lesne, 1905). Probably, these are only three of a variety of potential hosts. </p><p> </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157694	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>  In the Canary Islands, the species is recorded from all the islands except for Lanzarote (Machado and Oromi 2000).The population size and trends are unknown, but the species is not restricted to certain habitat types, and perhaps is common at least in some of the islands (Zoological Museum Lund holds 120 specimens).<br/> </p>	eng
157694	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157695	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Old almond plantations should be protected and sustained. Some localities are in protected areas. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157695	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found throughout much of central and south-eastern Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is sporadic in the lower mountain areas. Most localities are in the region above the Lake Balaton (central part of the western half of the country) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). According to one source (BioLib.cz 2009) this species also occurs in Austria.	eng
157695	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species is found in orchards and gardens, the larvae developing in dead twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>. In Hungary it occurs in old, traditionally cultivated almond <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus </span>plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The species also develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Amygdalus comunis</span> in Greece, Hungary and Bulgaria. The species has also been reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies cefalonica</span>.<br/></p>	eng
157695	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species is difficult to find, so little information is available about population size and trends. It is locally common in extensively cultivated almond orchards (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). While no information is known about the population, in eastern Europe traditional orchards are in decline, and traditional methods to manage orchards are being replaced with more modern methods. For these reasons we suspect a slight decline in the population of this species beginning in the past and extending to the future. In Slovakia the species is extremely rare and is only known from several recent records in the south.	eng
157695	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>In some parts of its range (Hungary) this species is threatened by the disappearance of old almond plantations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is likely that old, traditionally managed orchards where this species is found are in decline throughout its range but it is unknown to what extent this is affecting this species.<br/></p>	eng
157696	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Spain).	eng
157696	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all Europe, except the far west of Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran, Kazakhstan and Siberia.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs only in the westernmost and northernmost mountainous parts of the country. It is Extinct in Britain.	eng
157696	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying wood of broad-leaved trees of various species (Alexander 2002); in white-rotted branches and trunks of diameter greater than five cm lying on the ground. The adults are found in the decaying wood as well as the larvae. In Ukraine, adults are active in V-VI; oak and beech are the typical host trees. In Romania the adult beetles can be found in the early spring and are attracted to flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus spinosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana</span>&#160; at the edge of oak forests sometime in the end of April . <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in old beech forests. In Spain its habitats are mainly mountain areas above 700 m (Á. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157696	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species; common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable.<br/><br/>This species is known from very few localities in Hungary; the populations are very small. In Romania it is known from from recent records from the central part of the country. It was reported from hilly areas. In Ukraine it is not common and local. It is common throughout Germany, except maybe in the higher mountains while in France and Switzerland it is common in lowlands areas. In Italy it is not common and is present in the Alps and Appenines. In Denmark it is common and widespread (Hansen 1996). It is rare in southern Finland. In Sweden it only occurs in the south and it is not common.<br/><br/>In Spain it occupies 51 squares of 10x10 km; more than a half of those correspond to observations before 1980 (Á. Quirós pers. comm 2009.); in total 70 localities known. It is present in north-eastern Spain, from northern Catalonia, Pyrenees, Navarra, Basque Country, Rioja, northern Burgos and one site in Cantabria (López-Colón 2000, Á. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fossil evidence for presence in Britain up until Bronze Age, and reports of live specimens across country up until 1839; now clearly Extinct (Cooter 1976).	eng
157696	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157697	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No conervation measures in place, other than standard FSC guidelines. <st1:country-region><st1:place>Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range (e.g. Hungary and UK). <br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p>	eng
157697	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe expect Portugal. In the Mediterranean it is mostly found in mountains. It also occurs in the Caucasus, Siberia and Japan.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, much rarer in the lowlands. The reverse is the case in the UK.	eng
157697	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs at bracket fungi on a wide range of broad-leaved trees in woodlands and other habitats.<br/><br/>Usually associated with the fruit bodies of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus ostreatus</span> in UK, growing on trunks of broad-leaved trees; adults hibernate beneath loose bark on tree trunks, often in large aggregations (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is found on carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius, Kuehneromyces mutabilis, Trichaptum biforme, Flammulina velutipes, Fomes fomentarius</span> (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The adult is mostly found from IV to VIII - mostly in VII.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests. In the UK it is known from a wide variety of situations including ancient wood pastures, historic parks and wooded places generally (Alexander 2002).	eng
157697	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	It is a common species in Europe.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very widespread; has increased in abundance and distribution in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a widespread and common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities.	eng
157697	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p>There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157698	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is need to maintain old growth coniferous forests and veteran conifer trees to conserve suitable habitat for this species. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.	eng
157698	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread across southern Europe. It is present in Greece and it is known from nine localities on mainland Italy and one locality on Sicily.	eng
157698	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in coniferous temperate forests, and based on its presence in only ten localities throughout Italy, experts suspect that it may have more specific habitat requirements such as old growth coniferous forest or veteran trees. More information is needed.	eng
157698	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is no information on the species' abundance in Greece, however in Italy it is in a restricted number of localities (ten).	eng
157698	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Very little specific information is known, however the species is listed as Endangered in Italy, presumably because of its fragmentation, small area of occupancy and continuing decline in area, extent and quality of habitat. Threats are unknown for Greece. Experts suspect that it may have specific habitat requirements such as old growth coniferous forest or veteran trees and the extent and quality of such habitats are declining across Europe.<br/></p>	eng
157699	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157699	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species is found in Ukraine and also believed to occur in the eastern Mediterranean (Sama 2002). This species also occurs in the Caucasus. There is a doubtful record for Bulgaria in Fauna Europaea. <br/></p>	eng
157699	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Precise habitat associations unknown, although it is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
157699	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but where it is known - in Crimea - it is very rare.<br/></p>	eng
157699	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157700	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a 'protected area' although actual protection of this species is not being achieved.<br/></p>	eng
157700	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Cyprus (Sama 2002). It has been reported only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype> (a small area in <st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype> in western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region>) at 1,100–1,400 m (Sama 1992).	eng
157700	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, found only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> forest. This species has been reared only from dead branches and twigs of the <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> endemic Cedar, <em>Cedrus brevifolia</em>. (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The endemic cedar forests of Cyprus are represented by only a few hundred hectares.<br/></p>	eng
157700	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">It is considered a rare </st1:place></st1:country-region>and local species (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Because <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> trees are declining in Cyprus, it is presumed that the species population is also declining.	eng
157700	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>      </p><p>This species is monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> and thereby threatened by the disappearance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>. Goats eat the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> seedlings and germination is inhibited by drought. The species is therefore under severe threat through habitat loss.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157701	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Education about the importance of leaving deadwood in the countryside in recommended. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157701	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe, except the far north, far south and Ireland (Bense 1995). It is also found in Caucasus, Armenia and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In western Europe it is a typical species of the lowlands but it appears to be confined to higher altitudes in parts of the east of its range. In Denmark it is distributed throughout the country, except in western Jutland (Thomsen 2007). In the UK it is widespread across central and south-eastern England, extending into eastern Wales (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Ukraine it is present mainly in the Carpathians in the forest zone and in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous forests. In Romania it is widespread in the hilly deciduous forests. In European Turkey it has been reported from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008). <br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157701	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dry wood of dead branches and thin stems (typically in the canopy). The life cycle is two years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults winter in pupal cell and emerge in IV-VIII, on flowers. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Fagus, Acer, Alnus, Carpinus, Corylus, Crataegus, Euonymus, Quercus, Rosa, Tilia, Robinia, Ulmus, Sambucus, Juglans</em>). Adults have a strong attraction to blossom, especially hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, and especially where growing in sheltered open sunny situations. In Romania adults have been found at the flowers of various shrubs, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Viburnum lantana</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Sambucus nigra</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites include enclosed woodlands, open wood pastures and parklands, as well as hedgerows (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species occurs in all kinds of indigenous deciduous forests of the country. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p><p></p>	eng
157701	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Generally widespread and quite common across most of its range; population trend has not been quantified but is thought to be stable overall, with some indications of local declines, as in the UK. In Denmark and Ukraine this species is common. In the UK it is widespread but may be declining (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is very common on the edge of deciduous forests from central Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is widespread and abundant in broad-leaved forests, but also in mixed forests.	eng
157701	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Habitat loss and insensitive land management; canopy closure and shading are large threats to this species. Also plantation forestry creating closed canopy conditions, abandonment of active management in woodlands, resulting in canopy closure and abandonment of grazing, resulting in canopy closure   <span lang="EN-GB">are likely to be factors having a negative impact on this species. Also the removal of dead branches, for fuel wood and/or tidiness are additional threats (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers comm. 2009). In Romania the major threat is habitat loss because forest management practices are insensitive, and some poor people use the occupied shrub branches to make domestic fires (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157703	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There appears to be no conservation measures in place but they are not needed. The species has been recorded in protected areas.</p>	eng
157703	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across Europe except the far south and south-west (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, Siberia, Russian Far East, northern  China, Korea and Japan.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions where indigenous or planted conifer forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is spread in throughout the Carpathians where conifer forest are present; also, in the inner part of Transylvania where planted conifer forest exists (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris) </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common and distributed throughout (Thomsen 2007). It has become widely established across lowland England, wherever forestry plantations are available (K.N.A. Alexander, pers. comm.).	eng
157703	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of dead branches, thin trunks and exposed roots of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Abies, Pinus, Larix, Cupressus)</span>, only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Betula). </span>Life cycle one or two  years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults overwinter in the pupal cells and emerge in V-VIII, found on the host-plants and attracted to flowers for feeding. In Hungary it lives in all kinds of indigenous and planted conifer forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found on the white flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus lantana</span> in central Transylvania (P. Istrate&#160; pers. comm. 2009). Some old reports from <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Spirea</span> flowers (Panin and Savulescu 1961).<br/></p>	eng
157703	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is common and abundant, and the population trend is presumed to be stable. In Ukraine and Germany it is a usual species. In the UK there is a naturalised introduction, which has spread across much of central and south-eastern England. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is well represented in low mountains. Also, time to time it has been observed on the hilly areas from Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157703	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There appear to be be no major threats to this species as suitable habitat is widely available throughout its range (e.g. Hungary, Romania, Finland, Germany).<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157704	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It is known to occur in protected areas. Conservation measures are needed for this species in the Alpine region.	eng
157704	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is widely distributed across Europe, from western Russia to the north of central, eastern and western Europe. It may occur in extreme north of Ukraine. <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Siberia, Far East of Russia and northern China.	eng
157704	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in and under the bark of&#160; dead conifer trees. It occurs in small as well as large trees.<br/></p><p>In Ukraine and Russia beetles live under dead bark of dry trunks of conifer trees, sometimes on oak too. Larvae develop in the bark (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Finland the species strongly prefers burned forests, where it inhabits dead pine and spruce trees at least during ten years after the fire. It may sometimes be very abundant. <br/></p>	eng
157704	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Its population status varies from infrequent (but locally abundant) to rare in different parts of its range.<br/></p>	eng
157704	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>Suppression of forest fires and loss of natural fire dynamics in boreal forests is likely to be the main factor having a negative impact on this species.<br/></p>	eng
157705	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old oak trees, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such trees in future.<br/><br/>It occurs in protected areas in UK and in Hungary. It is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987). It is a priority species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan.	eng
157705	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution throughout much of Europe, from the north (including Britain) to south-eastern Europe, and from the Iberian Peninsula (excluding Portugal) to eastern Europe. It also reaches perhaps west Siberia (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Russia it is only present in the Voronezh region, in the middle part of European Russia. In Hungary it is known from very few localities in the hilly regions, mainly from the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009. In Britain it is known from just one site in the south-east of England.	eng
157705	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, dependent upon decaying heartwood in large, old veteran oak trees. It is an old growth species that develops exclusively in the&#160; red-rotten heartwood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks and main boughs, in living trees as well as dead ones; the larvae thought to feed on the larvae of the beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Mycetophagus piceus</span>; they pupate at the end of the season and overwinter in the adult stage; the adults are active nocturnally  (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine all larvae have been found in decayed stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus. </span><br/><br/>The beetle inhabits groups of very old oaks in lowlands and highlands, as well as solitary trees in alluvial woodlands (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it is known from old growth forests with very old oak trees (mainly pedunculate oak) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain the one site is an ancient deer park and forest, part of the cultural landscape.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
157705	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally a rare species with few, scattered and declining populations.<br/><br/>In the UK it has only ever been known from a single large site - Windsor Great Park and Forest - where it continues to thrive (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Spain there is only one recent record, in Navarra (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). In Italy also only one recent record (four in total but most are very old). In&#160; Germany it is absent from the north and parts of the west; locally Extinct in some areas; 15-20 known localities, perhaps less. The species is very rare in Hungary, and the populations are small. In Slovakia it is present only at a small number of localities (probably fewer than 25). In Sweden there is one single population; in the 1940s there was a second known population. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157705	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Loss of ancient oaks is the main problem for this species.   This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>	eng
157706	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The species occurs in a protected area.	eng
157706	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in the Near East and Turkey. In Europe there is just one population, in Cyprus, and this is the unique subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">D. a. troodi </span>(Sama 1994). In Cyprus it has been reported only from the central higher peak of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Olympos 1,600-1,950 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157706	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"> It has been f</st1:country-region></st1:place>ound in forests with <em>Pinus nigra</em> and <em>Juniperus foetidissima</em>. Adults and larvae have been found in dead branches and twigs of <em>Juniperus foetidissima</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157706	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus this species is considered </st1:place></st1:country-region>rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population trend is stable.  </p><p></p>	eng
157706	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p>The evaluation of the threats of the Cyprus population is done on the basis of species, not on the basis of subspecies which presumably is threatened to a higher degree. The host trees where the species lives seem to be not under threat. There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/><p></p>	eng
157708	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157708	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Spain.	eng
157708	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no details are available on its habitat preferences.	eng
157708	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157708	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157709	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
157709	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from a few countries in central and southeastern Europe.	eng
157709	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The known habitats are rotting stumps and branches of very old oak trees (wood pastures or mature forests) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and beech (Bail and Dunk 2007).<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
157709	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Hungary the species is very sporadic. All known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157709	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Because of the rarity of the species nothing can be said about the threats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.	eng
157710	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species occurs in many protected areas and there are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
157710	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>In <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>, this species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean area. Its region of origin is western Africa, and <em>A. monachus</em> today is very widespread in Africa, South America and the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place>, and in the west of the southern Palearctic region. It naturalized in the Mediterranean and in <st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place> a long ago, and was probably introduced in the times of slave-trade.<br/></p>  <p>Records from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region> were introductions (Geis 2002), which may be the case as well in some Mediterranean countries, for example in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region></st1:place> (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009).</p>  <span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
157710	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the wood of a variety of broadleaved trees, and may even enter live tissues of trees. It is considered the most destructive pest of the family Bostrichidae in Israel (Geis 2002).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157710	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>This species is found throughout Italy which suggests that it is abundant in that country. There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout the rest of its range, although reports suggest that it is plentiful.     </p><p>The trends for this species are not known.</p><p></p><p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
157710	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The species appears not to be threatened at present.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157711	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	As this species has a very irregular distribution in central Europe, more research on taxonomy, population size and dynamics as well as potential threat is needed.<br/>In Hungary the two localities of the species are in a protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary; it is also inside some protected areas in the Carpathian Mountains. In Italy this species is listed as Rare on the National Red List (Sama 2006) and in Germany as Data Deficient (2009).	eng
157711	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Hungary the species is known from two localities in the western-most part of the country, where only one specimen each were found in 1992 and 1996 (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is found in the Carpathian Mountains. In Germany it is present only in the southern German states: Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Thüringen, Sachsen.	eng
157711	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark of dead pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and spruce<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea. </span>In Romania it was reported from thin branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus excelsa</span>. The adults emerge in VI-VII and are generally found on the occupied branches, sometimes attracted to flowers for feeding, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Carduus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary it has been found in indigenous spruce forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany and the Czech Republic it lives in spruce forests and plantations.</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>	eng
157711	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There is little information available on population size and trends. The Czech Republic and Poland are examples of the few areas where it is regarded as widespread and common. In Ukraine it is rare. In Romania there are five or six populations in the mountains forests, although they are old reports. In Hungary as this species is known from two specimens from two different localities, no information about its population is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Austria it has been found in two localities, once confirmed in 1952 and again in 1980. Probably more widespread than assumed but extremely hard to find (Steiner 1999). In Italy it is very rare, only three localities known in the north-east Alps. In Slovakia there are only a few localities.	eng
157711	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There is no information regarding the threats to this species. In Romania the replacement of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea excelsa</span> forest areas with different conifer species poses a threat to this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Poland and the Czech Republic it is not threatened.	eng
157712	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157712	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is an oriental species, widespread from the central Urals to Sakhalin and Japan (Sama 2002). Its European range is only in the west-southern part of Russia.	eng
157712	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees.<br/></p>	eng
157712	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The abundance and trends of this species are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157712	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157713	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation actions are in place other than FSC guidelines.<br/><br/>In the UK this species has no conservation status and it has been overlooked by UK conservation agencies. It should be graded Nationally Scarce. It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany because of the scarce resource, which is <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina</span>.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).	eng
157713	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest and forest-steppe zones. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions. It is widespread in Britain, as far north as southern Scotland, and scarcer in the far west. In Portugal it was only recorded in the 19<sup>th</sup> century from the extreme north.	eng
157713	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In the UK adults are mainly found at fresh fruiting bodies of the bracket fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica</span>, but also occasionally <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>; on oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trunks; also reported from fungi on beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span> although this may just be <span style="font-style: italic;">L. sulphureus</span> (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine adults have been found in a wider variety of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus, Crepidotus mollis, C. cirrhatus</span>). The adult beetles are active in VI-IX; both adult and larvae hibernate. The life cycle is one year (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina </span>is the main host fungus in Germany.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech. In the UK mainly in ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157713	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In central Europe this species is not uncommon. In Hungary  the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Ukraine it is not very common.<br/><br/>In Sweden the populations are stable and possibly increasing. In the UK it is widespread across lowland Britain but its distribution is increasingly fragmented and populations are increasingly isolated; some evidence for a significant decline has been recorded in recent decades.	eng
157713	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. However the loss of old trees and decaying wood are negative factors.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157714	conservation	Petersson, R., Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J., Alexander, K.N.A. &  Nardi, G., 2009	In the UK this species is not regarded as having any special interest but its habitat is covered by the general FSC guidelines; many sites are legally protected as the species tends to be present in most of the richer saproxylic sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany and as Near Threatened in Austria.	eng
157714	distribution	Petersson, R., Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J., Alexander, K.N.A. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is known widely across Europe, except the Iberian and Scandinavian Peninsulas. The core of its distribution appears to be in Britain. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and possibly in the western forest zone. In Italy it has not been recorded from the north, only from the southern part, Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
157714	habitat	Petersson, R., Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J., Alexander, K.N.A. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults are associated with bracket fungi on large old broad-leaved trees, most often <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fistulina hepatica;</span> most strongly associated with ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in Britain (Alexander 2002). There is no habitat or ecology information available for the other parts of its range - more research is needed. In Hungary as there are no extant populations known, no information is available about its habitat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157714	population	Petersson, R., Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J., Alexander, K.N.A. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is very rare over most of its European range. However, in Britain is it widespread across much of country and populations appear strong, estimated at least 70 recent sites (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is known from two localities only; both records are more than 90 years old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it may be rare. In Slovakia it has only been recorded from before 1950. In Poland there is one single record for this species. In Greece there is no information, but it is probably present. In Bulgaria and Romania the species has been described from more than 200 years ago, no recent findings. In France it is widespread but very rare. In Germany it is present but there are no recent records. In Austria there are eight recent findings (Jäch<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>1986).	eng
157714	threats	Petersson, R., Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J., Alexander, K.N.A. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p>Also the loss of old trees and decaying wood is a threat to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157715	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	Conservation action should be focused to prevent dead removal from forests. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. in Hungary and Spain). It is listed as Vulnerable in Poland.	eng
157715	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across central Europe but thinning northwards; west into northern Spain. It is also found in all Caucasus, Turkey and Iran (Lobl and Smetana 2008). In Hungary this species is very sporadic; apart from a few very old (at least 50 years old) records, there are two areas where extant populations are known. These are the Kőszeg Mountains (in the westernmost part of the country) and the Mecsek Mountains (in the southern part of the country) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are four documented localities, two in the mountains nearby the Catalonian Pyrenees (Español 1963) and two in the Basque country mountains (Martínez de Murguía <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007, Pagola-Carte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007); a fifth site has recently been discovered in the Cordillera Cantabrica (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it was recorded in the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup>   century from two sites in the same area in the north (Oliveira 1893) and recently (1990s) from a second area in the extreme northeast (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157715	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live amongst moist red-rot in decayed heartwood of large old tree trunks, including oak, cherry, beech and pine; uses live standing trees as well as dead fallen trunks. Widely regarded as an old growth species across its range, with existing sites old forest areas and ancient wood pastures within the cultural landscape (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Germany the population is scattered. In Hungary the known extant populations are in deep valleys and ravines where old red-rotting logs (mainly beech and wild cherry) cannot be removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in chestnut and oak forests with old trees (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009) also in old wood pastures (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157715	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	Few European countries have existing populations and the species is rare, scattered and declining in most; it has national Red List status in most north European countries, for instance in Norway, Sweden, Poland, Germany. It is believed to be extinct in many countries and subfossil presence only in Britain (many sites) and Ireland (Mid Holocene, 2921-2445 BCE) (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Hungary the known extant populations are small, but the number of the individuals in certain logs may be high (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are only five populations known, across the northern mountain zone (Español 1963, Martínez de Murguía <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Pagola-Carte <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) - this species probably reaches its southern distribution limits here; no information on local population size available (J.J de la Rosa pers. comm 2009). It could be present in additional places of the Pyrenees area with large old trees but these places are anyway rare in the area (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered a rare species.	eng
157715	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Loss of old trees and lack of new generations; removal of old, dying and dead trees are key threats to this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary removal of dead wood&#160; (mainly large fallen logs) is a serious threat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain habitat fragmentation and loss of dead wood are threats to this species (J.J. de la Rosa pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157716	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but many of the sites where it occurs are in protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157716	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	This species is only found in central and southern parts of mainland Italy.	eng
157716	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits deciduous woodlands in the mountains, although no details are available on host trees, type of deadwood occupied or on open-ness of the habitat.<br/></p>	eng
157716	population	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Sama (2006) reports eight sites. <br/></p>	eng
157716	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico Belaguer, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>No specific information is available. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157717	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation measures in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species is common and occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK). It is considered as Least Concern in Sweden.	eng
157717	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe. It is absent from Ireland. It is also known from the western part of northern Africa (Morocco), Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan, western Siberia and Mongolia.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is also widespread across much of England.	eng
157717	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops most frequently in the fruiting brackets of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span> in the UK; adults are found beneath fungoid bark and at soft bracket fungi more widely; on a wide range of broad-leaved trees in a similarly wide variety of situations (Alexander 2002). The biology is the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. ater</span>, but it mostly develops in the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus </span>in Ukraine (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, sometimes also in conifer forests.	eng
157717	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species in Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very widespread and there are strong populations. It is common in Italy and it is not uncommon in the southern part of Finland.<br/><br/>It is common in central Europe. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Ukraine it is very common, often numerous.	eng
157717	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. However the loss of old trees and decaying wood are negative factors.</p>	eng
157718	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. It occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). In Germany this species is listed a 'PR' which means that the species is Presumably Endangered.	eng
157718	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is believed to be widely distributed in Europe, through central and eastern Europe, extending into France and southern Sweden (Bense 1995). It is also found in northern and central Caucasus, western and south-western Siberia.<br/><br/>In Spain there is a single locality in Pyrenees (Vives 2001). In France it is probably Extinct; there is only old data (before 1884) that indicates that it was locally a common species in Rhône-Alps (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2009). It was also common in the Paris surroundings (Villiers 1978). In Germany it is only&#160; present in southern and eastern states. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest-steppe zones. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157718	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the dead dry wood of twigs and branches of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Carpinus, Ulmus, Betula, Padus, Crataegus</span>), strictly in the canopy. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in spring or early summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VI.VIII, occasionally found feeding at flowers.</p><p>In Hungary it is found in undisturbed forests that are free of forestry management, mainly in ravine and slope forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania adults can be found on white flowers near freshwater in mountain areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France larvae develop preferentially in old <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> trees (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it also develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> and in mesophilic stands.<br/></p>	eng
157718	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This is a canopy species so it may be under-sampled. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary because the species is very rare. In Ukraine it is not common. In Romania it is quite common in the broad-leaved and coniferous forests in the Carpathians.	eng
157718	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	There appear to be no major threat to this species. In Hungary habitat loss is the main reason for the rarity of this species as its host trees are usually removed from the forests. In Romania forest management and logging are major threats.	eng
157719	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157719	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is reported from three localities (Stoch 2003).	eng
157719	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Little information is available on its specific habitat preferences other than that it occurs in Mediterranean woodlands.	eng
157719	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157719	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157720	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary), so no specific measures are necessary.	eng
157720	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe but absent from Britain, Ireland and Portugal. It is also present in Near East.	eng
157720	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees (usually white-rotten branches and trunks lying on the ground). It is found in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands. <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in open oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, and in Romania in beech forests.	eng
157720	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Widespread and common in at least some range states, especially at relatively high altitudes..<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its localities. In Romania this species is widespread in the forests from the Carpathians especially in the southern part. In Finland it is widespread and common and its population is stable. In Sweden it is also widespread and common but some declines have been reported over the last decades. In Switzerland it is widespread and common. In France it is widespread in upland regions.<br/><br/>In Spain there is one single site in a locality close to the Pyrenees and no recent findings (López-Colón 2000); no data on population size. In Italy it is not common and is found in the Alps and Appenines.	eng
157720	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157721	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157721	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is endemic to mainland Italy.	eng
157721	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a mycophagous species but no details of its precise habitat requirements are available.	eng
157721	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population size and trend are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157721	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157722	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157722	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is present in the Iberian Peninsula and France.<br/><br/>In Portugal it is known from a single locality in the north, not recorded for more than 80 years.	eng
157722	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in sporophores of lignicolous fungus.	eng
157722	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157722	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157723	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are needed.	eng
157723	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This Euro-Asian species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across all Europe except the far south-west. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in almost all regions, except in the south steppe and in Crimea. In Spain it has recently be found (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It is more or less ubiquitous in suitable habitats across Britain and Ireland.	eng
157723	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under dead bark and in decaying heartwood; it lives in broad-leaved trees and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>; also other tree species; it is omnivorous, feeding on live larvae as well as woody debris, etc; probably 3 year cycle; pupate in spring; the adults are active in V-Vii and feed on pollen from flowers (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In the UK it prefers shady woodlands in the cultural landscape as well as forestλ; it also develops on tree-less moorlands in the UK, where larvae are active in the upper peat and moss layers - peat and wood mould are very similar media (Alexander 2002).&#160;In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly is moist places (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157723	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	Generally a widespread and common species; population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ireland and the UK this species is widespread and common (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively common. It is widespread across the Czech and Slovak Republics (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; the species is frequent or even abundant in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is common and distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Spain there are two localities known (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005).	eng
157723	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species faces no major threats.	eng
157724	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This species occurs in at least one protected area in the Carpathian mountains in Ukraine.<br/></p>	eng
157724	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is only found in central Europe, extending east into Ukraine and Hungary. In Ukraine it is only present on the western slopes of the Carpathians.	eng
157724	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is obligatory mycetophagous and beetles occur on wood-decay fungi of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> in beech forests (Drogvalenko 2001), which is still a common tree species in the Carpathians. This is thought to be a relict species associated with ancient forest and has been reported from ancient beech forest. The extent and quality of remaining ancient forests with beech trees in the Carpathian region is not well known but thought to be in good condition. More research is needed on the specific habitat requirements of the species and the remaining ancient beech forest. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>fungi are not confined to deadwood of beech, but also use a variety of other tree and shrub species. The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Triplax </span>genus is not well known because they eat fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> which occur sporadically and may be difficult to find, so finding the beetle species is also difficult. <br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157724	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. On the outer edge of its distribution in Ukraine it is rare and locally found (only known from two specimens). The host tree is widespread in the range of the species so without further information about the ecology of the species little can be said about its population abundance or trends. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157724	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>Because beetles occur on wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>sp. in beech forests (Drogvalenko 2001) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>typically grow on larger trees, experts infer that the habitat availability is limited and may be threatened by logging or forest management practices that favour removal of large trees in the future. <br/></p>	eng
157725	conservation	Mico, E., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place for this species. The sites from which it is known are not in protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157725	distribution	Mico, E., 2009	This species was described in 2003. It is known from two localities in Spain, in Cantalojas (Guadalajara) and Villar del Pedroso, Caceres (Extremadura). It has been recorded from 700 m asl to 1,500 m asl. (Sánchez-Ruiz and de la Rosa 2003, de la Rosa 2008).	eng
157725	habitat	Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits broad-leaved woodlands, particularly in damp areas. Larvae have been found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus glutinosa</span> trees.	eng
157725	population	Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Few specimens have been collected, but this is a very recently described species. Population size and trend is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157725	threats	Mico, E., 2009	<p>The type of habitat occupied by this species is fragmented and there is potentially relatively little suitable habitat for this species (Sánchez-Ruiz and de la Rosa 2003).</p>	eng
157726	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157726	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in the Iberian peninsula in Portugal and Spain.	eng
157726	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in Mediterranean pine woodlands (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus silvestris</span>) but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements. Adults are crepuscular.	eng
157726	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered locally common in a restricted area where it is known from four-five sites (Sanchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></p>	eng
157726	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific information is available. General threats to the habitat of this species include forest fires, 'cleaning' of woodland to remove dead wood, and destruction and fragmentation of habitat as a result of urbanization and expansion of agricultural areas.<br/></p>	eng
157727	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	It is present in several protected areas in Hungary no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania some old deciduous forests from the southern part of country are now protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157727	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	This species is found throughout much of south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). Old records from northern Africa, Iberian Peninsula and France are incorrect (Sama 2002). It is also reported from Jordan, Syria and Israel.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is found in the hilly and lower mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm.). It was reported from the low hills in Transylvania and lowlands in the southern part of Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It was also reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is known from only three localities in Greece.	eng
157727	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs on xerothermic slopes and plateaus covered with sparse shrubs or light thermophilous forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<em></em> It is a polyphagous in broad-leaved trees: <span style="font-style: italic;">Celtis australis</span> in Bulgaria, <span style="font-style: italic;">Gleditsia triacanthos</span> in Romania, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cercis siliquastrum, Citrus sinensis, Cotoneaster franchettii, Pistacia atlantica</span> in Israel. Development inadequately known - larvae develop in dry wood of dead branches. Biology probably similar to <em>S. rufus.</em> Adults are attracted to blossom for feeding (Sama 2002). The habitat of this species is strictly connected with the distribution of its host plants, listed above, which are usually in southern and south-eastern Europe (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em></em><em></em>	eng
157727	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities. About 30 years ago it was regarded as rare in Hungary; since then the known localities are rapidly increasing (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey&#160; the population size and trend have not been quantified, and in Romania the size and trend also remain unknown (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157727	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A. , 2009	<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 307px; height: 1321px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">         <table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 853px; height: 1209px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">There appear to be no major threats to this species. In Hungary, for instance, it is not threatened because suitable habitats are widely available in the hills and mountains (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 390px; height: 1334px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">ROMANIA: Possible the replace of native species of trees in south part of country, which is unfortunately one process in progress, can affect the habitat of species. (P. Istrate, pers. comm. ).<br/>ROMANIA: Possible the replace of native species of trees in south part of country, which is unfortunately one process in progress, can affect the habitat of species. (P. Istrate, pers. comm. ).	eng
157728	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is considered as Critically Endangered in Poland (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Laco conspersus). </span>In<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Finland it is considered Least Concern.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>	eng
157728	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is described as a northern Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) ocurring in north Europe and in some countries of central Europe. It is widespread in Finland. Little information is known about its distribution in Poland except that it is restricted to montane boreal forests. This type of habitat is limited in Poland so its Area of Occupancy may be limited as well. The trends are not known (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009). Not recorded from the Czech and Slovak Republic but was found on the Polish side of Nízke Beskydy Mtns (Bílý 1985, referred to in Laibner 2000) in southern Poland.	eng
157728	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A boreo-montane species - the species lives in submontane and montane evergreen forests in the southern part of its range (Laibner 2000) and also in boreal spruce and pinewood forests in the northern parts (E. Hyvärinen and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). The adults are found on cord wood, logs and under bark (Laibner 2000).	eng
157728	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	In Finland, the population trend is stable. This species is widely distributed but only locally found and not common. The trends are unknown throughout the rest of its European range. In Poland it is Critically Endangered, but it is unknown whether this was based on population decline and it was likely to be based on restricted range and declining extent and quality of habitat (P. Tykarski pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157728	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats for this species.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
157729	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Part of the range of this species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the population abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157729	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in Turkey and Cyprus. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was reported from a few localities in the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-800 m): Diarizos (Preiss and Platia 2003), Agia, Panagia (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157729	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	It remains unknown if this is a true saproxylic as it is perhaps primarily a forest soil beetle. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>All the known localities of this species in Cyprus are in well vegetated (with <em>Platanus orientalis</em> and <em>Alnus orientalis</em>) valleys in <em>Pinus brutia</em> forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Adults were attracted to light.	eng
157729	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">This species is </st1:country-region></st1:place>rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157729	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Removal of <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> is a threat to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157730	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	No specific measures are in place. This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157730	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from Britain and Ireland.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is known from a few scattered localities in the hilly and mountainous regions. In Spain its presence is not confirmed but very likely because it is present in the French portion of the Pyrenean Irati forest, which continues to the Spanish side (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).	eng
157730	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It requires standing dead or partly dead broad-leaved trees of various species. Found in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands.<br/><br/>The larvae develop under bark and in dead wood of various broad-leaved (oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>) and conifer (pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>) trees; they are predatory, eating larvae and pupae of bark beetles Scolytinae and Anobiidae. The adults are active in May - June, under bark and sometimes at fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">(Pycnoporellus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis)</span>. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary all records are from old, relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157730	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species; rather common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Finland), but elsewhere rare and localised. Some declines and range contractions have been reported.<br/><br/>It is rather common in southern-most Finland; but its range has significantly decreased (the historical range was much larger). In Sweden it is found only in the south; rare and localised. In Germany it is currently found only in the east; formerly said to have been more widespread; either stable or slowly decreasing. In Hungary all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Italy it is found in the north; one single record from the south.	eng
157730	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157731	conservation	Alexander, KNA, Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place, other than standard guidelines under FSC. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157731	distribution	Alexander, KNA, Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an Eurasian species (Laibner 2000); present through all regions in Europe except the south-west. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians, and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It occurs in the westernmost and northernmost corners of Hungary; scattered records are known from the central part of Hungary as well (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark the species is common and widespread (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). It is very widespread across Britain although the distribution is very fragmented and most sites tend to be isolated; in Ireland it is very rare and localised, reported from Rathlin Island off the north coast and Kerry in the far south-west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it has recently been found in La Rioja (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It is also found in Siberia and northern Mongolia.	eng
157731	habitat	Alexander, KNA, Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in red-rotten stumps and boughs of various trees, predominantly oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> but also other conifers and deciduous trees.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> In the UK it may develop in peat. It favours wood at ground level or buried, reflecting a need for continuously moist decay. It pupates at the end of season and hibernates as an adult in the pupal cell. It is found in woodlands, old wood pastures and on peatlands, also in old willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> along riversides. Adults have been taken in flight in June and July, and may be found sheltering amongst tree foliage during daylight at this time (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine larvae develop (prefer) conifers, sometimes (in southern part) in wood of some broad-leaved trees (rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>). It is a hygrophilic species - it occurs near lakes, in pine trees on marshes. Adults have daily activity in V-VI. In Hungary most records are from native or planted conifer forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common in evergreen forests, especially pine (Laibner 2000).	eng
157731	population	Alexander, KNA, Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is widespread and abundant and it is considered that the population trend is stable overall. In Britain it is widespread, but has a fragmented range and a large number of isolated populations; believed to be declining at the national level (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a usual species (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the species is rare, and the populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there is a single locality known; recently found (Recalde Irurzun <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In Ireland it is known from just two sites.	eng
157731	threats	Alexander, KNA, Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There appears to be no major threat to this species at European scale (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary, Finland). In the UK loss of old trees and decaying wood is a threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157732	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	In the UK the best examples of its lowland heath habitats are all now protected (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); the beetle has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). This species occurs also in protected areas in Hungary.	eng
157732	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This Transpalaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across almost all Europe.	eng
157732	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae favour subterranean or surface wood, of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calluna</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, etc; adults are attracted to hawthorn blossom for feeding and also found on tree foliage of birch, elder, etc. (Alexander 2002). sometimes larvae occur in the soil near stubs. Pupation at end of&#160; July to September. The adult beetles hibernate and appear in May (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>Occurs in woodlands and heathland. In the UK only on lowland heaths (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is a mesohygrophylic species that occurs near water basin, swamp places, lowland humid forests (Dolin 1988). In Hungary it is typical to soft-wood forests of moist habitats, mainly in riverine and stream-side willow, poplar and alder galleries, marsh forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157732	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is considered likely to be stable.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread on lowland heaths in parts of south-eastern England; a few outlying populations; populations strong (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is a very common species. In Denmark it is rare but widely distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. The species is common in all suitable habitats, with strong populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157732	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>There are no major threats at the European level, although there may be negative impacts from human activities such as draining of damp woodlands and logging.<br/></p>  In the UK the destruction of lowland heaths for housing and industrial developments has been a threat to this species.	eng
157733	conservation	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic (Vávra 2005).	eng
157733	distribution	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	Widespread across much of Europe, with the exception of some Balkan and eastern European states, Britain and Ireland, southern Spain and northern Fennoscandia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians. It has recently been discovered in one Pyrenean locality in Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Italy it is restricted to the north.	eng
157733	habitat	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Typically develops inside heartwood decay within intact trunks of various broad-leaved and coniferous trees. It has been reared from dead, fallen or standing, <span style="font-style: italic;">Euonymus europea </span>in a moist shaded location, wood on surface solid, inside partly rotten. Also reared from a fallen branch of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvestris,</span> partly without bark, half embedded in leaf litter, with fairly solid wood on surface, inside with brown rot; reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Carpinus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Picea, Abies, Fagus</span>; larvae lived in the border of solid and soft wood in inner parts of trunk (Muona 1993). In Ukraine beetles found in loose wood mostly of broad-leaved trees, often aspen. In Hungary larvae in wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus betulus, Quercus spp., Euonymus spp., Abies alba, Picea abies </span>(Freude <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1979), where there is moist red-rotted heartwood but intact, undecayed sapwood.<br/><br/>In Hungary habitats of the known populations are mature forests, (oak and beech). Found in broad-leaved and coniferous woodlands.	eng
157733	population	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	Widespread and relatively common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is presumed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is rare. In Hungary the species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small. In Denmark it is rare and local; only on Zealand and Lolland (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is a rare species but with stable trend.<span lang="EN-GB">  In Spain there is only one locality, recently discovered (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it occurs in many faunistic grid cells across the country (Elateridae 2009). In Slovakia it occurs in many faunistic grid cells, particularly in the central part, not in the south (Elateridae 2009). In Germany it is common and its population trend is increasing.	eng
157733	threats	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>There are no major threats to this species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157734	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). In Germany this species is listed as Presumably Endangered (2009).	eng
157734	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is believed to be throughout much of Europe, from central, west (but not the far west) and southern Europe including some of the   Mediterranean islands. It is also found in all Caucasus, Syria, Iraq, northern Iran, Turkmenistan (Kopet-dag mnys), western Kazakhstan, on east to Ural mountains only.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country, mostly in lower areas; in lowlands, it is the most common species of longicorn (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in lower and hilly areas. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987), Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), Kırklareli (Lodos 1998), Edirne (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009), Tekirdag (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">It is widespread in Cyprus.</st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
157734	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  The larvae develop in the deadwood of exposed fine and dry branches (often two or five cm diameter) - it is a very thermophilus species. The life cycle is two or three years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-IX, attracted to flowers. Polyphagous in many broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Vitis, Acer, Quercus, Populus, Malus, Crataegus,</em><em> Juglans, </em><em>Robinia, Eleagnus, Ficus, Sesbania, Prunus, </em><em>Pyrus, Morus, </em><em>Castanea, Ulmus, Alnus, Fraxinus, Pistacia, Paliurus, Spartium</em> others). In the the east of its distribution range it lives in herbaceous plants (<em>Salicornia, Achillea, Spartium</em>). </p><p>    </p>    <p>In Hungary this species occurs in light deciduous forests, orchards. farmland and grasslands with any shrub vegetation. In Romania it has been reported from old orchards, grasslands with scattered old trees, and cemeteries (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been found in   orchards, maquis, garigue, and forests on various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.</p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157734	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	A common and widespread species in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common on its localities. In Romania it is common and one of the best represented longicorn species. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Cyprus it is very common from 0 to 1,500 m. The population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey.<br/><br/>In Germany it is widely distributed but rare, missing in the very north. In France it is expanding in some areas and decreasing in others. In Spain this species is common. In Finland it is rare.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157734	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
157735	conservation	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	There is a need to maintain continuity and connectivity of the habitat. Research on the species distribution, ecological requirements and threats are required. Standard good practice recommendations under FSC, etc. are among the only conservation actions in place. The species occurs in many protected areas in Britain and several&#160; protected areas elsewhere (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Denmark (1997) and Germany (2009), Vulnerable in Italy and the Czech Republic, and Near Threatened in Slovakia.	eng
157735	distribution	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs widely but sparsely across much of central Europe, extending westwards as far as Britain. It also occurs in the Near East.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it is distributed throughout the south, but it is unknown from Ireland (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In France it is very localized and it is confined to high quality sites (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Spain, it was first recorded from the north-west (Galicia) by Otero Gonzalez (1981) and more recently from a few sites in other northern areas.<br/><br/>In Portugal it has recently been recorded from two localities in the north-west of the country (Grosso-Silva 2002, Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).	eng
157735	habitat	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Adults and larvae live beneath the bark on relatively freshly dead large branches and trunks of broadleaved trees, while the bark is still firmly attached and the cambial layers still sappy (Alexander 2002). Larvae are slow-moving and so are unlikely to be active predators, maybe more of a scavenger and/or feeding on relatively defenseless insects. Its European distribution suggests a requirement for relatively cool and moist conditions but within the temperate zone, and with good habitat continuity over time (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Sites in Britain include forest country as well as cultural landscapes, in closed woodlands, open wood pastures and historic parklands, wooded riversides, etc (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In France it seems to prefer humid and cold forest - northern slopes for example; known from oak and sweet chestnut of small diameter (15-20 cm) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak and beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Müller<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>(2005) lists this species as an Urwald relict category 2 and it is regarded as a high quality forest species in France; this is much less evident in Britain.	eng
157735	population	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The species seems to be rare across Europe with a declining population trend. Only Britain appears to have a strong population with stable trend.<br/><br/>It is widespread across southern Britain, with strong populations and a relatively intact range - well in excess of 150 localities known, no conservation issues (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Portugal it has only recently been discovered (M. Méndez pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it has a scattered distribution, only few populations: one in Sicily, one in Sardinia and some in mainland. In Germany it is known from seven States but only there are four records after 1950. In Denmark this species is very rare (Hansen 1996).	eng
157735	threats	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Lack of old-growth forest stands (specifically Urwald) and probably the loss of continuity of those habitats are the main threats.<br/></p>  In the UK excessive clearance of dead and dying trees, trunks and branches are detrimental for this species but there is no evidence for any decline (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary removal of dead wood is a threat, but this apparently has no serious impact on the species (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The habitat is generally widespread and so the reasons for its rarity are unclear.	eng
157736	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available. Also not known if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157736	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in mainland Spain.	eng
157736	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no information is available on its specific habitat requirements.	eng
157736	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157736	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157737	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. Further studies are needed into the population trends of this species.  The species occurs in a protected area, but is not actually directly protected.    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157737	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species occurs in Turkey and Cyprus. The population in Turkey has a wider range. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has been r</st1:place></st1:country-region>eported from the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-1,200 m): Panagia, Chrysorrogiatissa, Vretsia, Platres, Foini, Pera Pedi (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157737	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	&#160; <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it is found in maquis, forests and orchards. The adults are attracted to ripe fruits and to sugar or wine baits, for feeding. Adults also feed at flowers on occasion, especially on <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinops</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spinosissimus</span> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157737	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">The </st1:place></st1:country-region>population size and trend for this species in Cyprus has not been quantified (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157737	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. The major threat to this species is forest fires. Degradation of its habitat and decline in the extent of suitable habitat are additional threats.<br/></p>	eng
157738	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157738	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in the Portuguese archipelagos of Azores and Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean. An introduction to the USA has been recorded.	eng
157738	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It can be suspected that <span style="font-style: italic;">S. barbata</span> may use a variety of dry woods for its larval development, and is not dependent on larger diameter classes, as this is the general rule within the genus.</p>	eng
157738	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>In the Azores, the species is present on three islands (Pico, Terceira, Santa Maria), and recorded from 21 0.5x0.5 km grids, mainly near coast (Base Biodiversidade   Açores 2009). This may not reflect the total population. No detailed information is available for the Madeira archipelago. </p>  <p></p>	eng
157738	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157739	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	It occurs in protected areas. This species benefits from controlled fires to increase the amount of dead wood.	eng
157739	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is known from central and northern Europe, extending to western and eastern Europe as well. It is a boreomontane species that extends far south. <br/>In central and southern Europe it is confined to the mountains, mainly Alps and Carpathians.	eng
157739	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species is found mainly in pine but also in spruce. Beetles and larvae live under bark of deadwood of conifer trees.	eng
157739	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is considered rare throughout its range and the population trend seems to be declining. However, no information is available on the Russian populations.	eng
157739	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Logging and removal of fallen trees are the main threats to this species. In Fennoscandia, scarification in order to prepare the soil for new forest plantations is another threat. In Ukraine destruction and gathering of old conifer trees are threatening this species.	eng
157740	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157740	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	In Europe this species is only known from Greece. It is reported from north-western Greece (Preveza and Louros river basin) (Zdeněk Malinka collection 2000). It also occurs in Turkey, Near East. Five specimens have been collected from Peloponnesus Peninsula and Crete (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157740	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information about its habitat requirements is available.	eng
157740	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157740	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No specific information available.   The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.  </p>	eng
157741	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	No information available.	eng
157741	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	It is believed that in Europe this species is only found in the Urals. It is also known from one locality in Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It extends eastwards across Asia into northern China (Sama 2002).	eng
157741	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The habitat of this species is known to be temperate forests and maybe as well boreal forests, but no information is available on its specific habitat requirements. <br/></p>	eng
157741	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157741	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry may be a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157742	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	The species occurs in the protected Crimean mountain's reservation (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157742	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in Crimea (Ukraine) and is thought likely to be severely fragmented because its required habitat is fragmented over most of its range. It is suspected to occur also in Bulgaria but there is no information about its distribution there (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It is also found in Minor Asia.	eng
157742	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that occurs in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>forests, the larvae developing in the decaying wood of these tree species.<br/>The larvae hibernate. Adults are seen in glades and feeding at various flowers (mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Compositae</span>) the following spring and summer. The adult beetle is active in June - July. There is one generation per year.	eng
157742	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is relatively rare in the mountain forests of Crimea but its trend is unknown (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157742	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores which has impacts on the species composition of natural regeneration. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species is specifically threatened by habitat loss caused by felling of forests. While this is not a threat in the protected mountain reserves of Crimea, most of the species' range is outside of protected areas (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p><p></p>	eng
157743	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157743	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is known from Greece and Turkey. No exact locations are known. Four specimens have been found from north-western, western and southern Greece (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157743	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, but no information is available on its habitat requirements.	eng
157743	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157743	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157744	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	As the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained, no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157744	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is widespread in south, central and eastern Europe, and also in southern Russia. It is also reported from the European part of Turkey, although the exact locality is unknown. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Asia Minor. <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is widespread mainly in hilly regions where old vineyards occur, and rarely also in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157744	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is best known where it develops in the deadwood of old vines <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, but it also develops in wood from other species. In the Ukraine it is found in wood of vines, and sometimes in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and nut-groves, but not in a forest setting, mainly in open settings.&#160;In Hungary it occurs mainly in old, traditionally managed, vineyards but also in more recently established ones (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p><p>    </p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157744	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In the Ukraine&#160;this is a common species and data from 30 years ago show a stable population. It is not thought to be in decline despite the lack of recent data (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified. In the past it was considered a pest of grapevine but now it is much rarer (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160;In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.</p>	eng
157744	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range, as the European Union encourages removal of vineyards from culture. However, the species occurs in historical wine regions which are protected and sustained (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157745	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas but there is no information available regarding conservation measures in place.</p>	eng
157745	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. In Italy it is only in the north-eastern part of the country. <br/>There are new records from south-western Romania, in the south of the Carpathians Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (500-1,200 m) (Sama and Makris 2001), in particular from Panagia, Platres, Pera Pedi, Vretsia, Foini (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is also reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).	eng
157745	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p><span style="background-color: white;">This species is thought to be associated particularly with veteran trees, developing in the sapwood of freshly dead or dying areas of living fruit trees like Malus and Pyrus, also hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>and other broad-leaved trees. This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/></p><p>    </p>    <p>In Ukraine adults are active in V-IX and the life cycle is three years.In Romania, it develops mainly in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, and sometimes in fruit trees. Adults have been found feeding at <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus</span> flowers (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is present in </st1:place></st1:country-region>old   orchards, maquis and forests. &#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
157745	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however in some areas it is considered rare. No information is known about the population trend, however because of its association with veteran trees which are known to be in decline, the population is inferred to be in decline.<br/></p>	eng
157745	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p><span style="background-color: white;">As this species is though to be associated with veteran trees</span><span lang="EN-GB">, one threat is the rate of loss of these trees, which although not quantified, is significant, and it may potentially exceed 20% in the next ten years (= three generations). Moreover, there is very little regeneration of suitable habitat across the species' range. Once the existing veteran trees have died, there will be no replacements in many areas. Even if efforts are made now to re-plant appropriate tree species, there may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available.  </p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157746	conservation	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	Research on the origin of this species is needed to establish whether it is native to Europe or not.<br/><br/>In Hungary as very few extant populations are known, it is difficult to do anything about conservation. Protection of riverine galleries is necessary.	eng
157746	distribution	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species occurs throughout all Europe. Native wild populations of this species are, however, likely only to be found in southern Europe; the species has been imported into central and northern Europe with movements of woven baskets and other wood products (Bense 1995). It is questionable whether this species is native to Europe as the larvae might have been introduced through commercial transport. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only found in Crimea. In Spain it is widespread although records are localised (Vives 2001), other sources suggest only introduced populations in Tenerife and Azores (Gonzáles Peña <span style="font-style: italic;">et.al. </span>2007). In Portugal it has only been recorded from one area in the centre (Carvalho 1947); additional sites mentioned by Vives (1984) derive from erroneous literature citations. In Germany it is present in almost all states but it has been introduced. This species was formerly widespread in Hungary, but very few new records are known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; It has been reported from Istanbul in European Turkey (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953). In Cyprus it is widespread. It is also found in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Iran, northern&#160; Africa, Japan.    <p>    </p><p>    </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157746	habitat	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p></p><p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead branches and twigs of willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> in particular, more rarely oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, nut-tree, crest-tree and some other broad-leaved tree species; in Cyprus it has been reared from dead twigs of <em>Pistacia lentiscus </em>and <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>; very rarely reported from conifers. The adult is active in VI-VIII. The known localities in Hungary are mainly in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it has been reported from maquis, garigue and old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Germany it was introduced with weaved baskets (willow and other substratum).</p><p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157746	population	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a cosmopolitan species and its population in Europe is stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary, Turkey and Cyprus the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rare in its localities in Hungary but not rare in Cyprus. In the UK and many other northern countries it is a rare naturalised introduction. In Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia it is common.<p>    </p><p>    </p><br/><p></p>	eng
157746	threats	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species at a continent level. In Hungary the riverine galleries are seriously threatened by invasive trees (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157747	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157747	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only known from Malta.	eng
157747	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on its precise habitat requirements.	eng
157747	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157747	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157748	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157748	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. It is a recently described species.	eng
157748	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species could be an obligate saproxylic species, but this requires confirmation since many species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriotes</span> are not saproxylic (the larvae feed on grass roots).	eng
157748	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157748	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157749	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. across Spain, Hungary and Britain). In the Britain the conservation status of this species is Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992). In Denmark it is listed as Vulnerable (1997). In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).	eng
157749	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe, reaching its distributional limits within the southern states. In Spain and Portugal it is only known from the north. In Portugal it was recorded from the extreme north in the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) but apparently not found since. In Spain it is present in the northern third of the country (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004); it is present in 26 localities/squares of 10x10 km between 700 and 1,500 m of altitude (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). In Britain it has a northern and western distribution extending across to the Weald in southern England, perhaps reflecting a need for hill terrain. In Ireland it is only known from the far south-east (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; <span lang="EN-GB">It is also reported from northern Africa (Tunis).	eng
157749	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae and adults are found beneath loose bark on the decaying wood of a wide variety of trees - broad-leaves and conifers - and in the later stages of white-rot decay when the heartwood is dry and soft. The larvae are reported to develop in the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Daedaleopsis</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">confragosa </span>on <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, or in the wood of these trees in Russia and the Ukraine, while they are more closely associated with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>in Britain. The adult is also often found on the fruiting bodies of fungi such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola, Piptoporus, Cerrena, Bjerkandera, Daedalea, Phellinus, Trametes </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> and are active usually in VI-VII. The life cycle is between one and two years. The larvae probably are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous, while the adult is mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). The species is confined to ancient wood pastures and historic parklands in Britain (Alexander 2002). In Hungary it occurs mainly in mature oak forests with abundant dead wood and bracket fungi, sometimes in other forests (beech and hornbeam) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in forests at middle altitudes, related to fungi from which they feed (Bercedo Páramo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
157749	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread in a few countries but more generally localised and relatively rare. In the Alps it is reported to be common. Although the species is not commonly found in Hungary, the known populations are strong and the species is not threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Britain the species has a fragmented distribution, but with more than 40 small isolated populations across the north and west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Only known from a single population in the south-western part of Ireland discovered in 1898, and not reported since; if it still survives it must be a very small and isolated population (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is considered a rare species. Rarely cited in Spain and mainly single specimens, probably due to wrong sampling methods rather than low abundance (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Denmark it is rare and local (Hansen 1996).	eng
157749	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157750	conservation	Putchkov, A., 2009	Action is required to study occurrence, biology and abundance of this species. <a name="OLE_LINK3"> It may occur in a protected area (Crimean Mountain Reservation) but this is uncertain.</a>	eng
157750	distribution	Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from Crimea (Ukraine) but is possibly also in southern Ukraine and southwestern Russia.	eng
157750	habitat	Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its biology is poorly known but it is likely to depend on the availability of a good supply of wood-decay fungi. It occurs in broad-leaved temperate forest.	eng
157750	population	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is considered rare.</p>	eng
157750	threats	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The specific threats to this species are unknown. <br/></p>	eng
157751	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is no information on any conservation action for this species but it is known that the species occurs in a protected area.</p>	eng
157751	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in Crimea but is very poorly known. R<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>ecords are given for Turkey, Greece and Crimea (BioLib.cz 2009) but the Greek and Turkish population is regarded as a separate species (or subspecies) <span style="font-style: italic;">semicyaneus</span>.	eng
157751	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development unknown (Bense 1995). In Crimea adults are attracted to flowers for feeding; however the species is not well known. It is only known there from one or two specimens so there is uncertainty as to whether this is the same species.<span style="background-color: yellow;"></span><br/></p>	eng
157751	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Ukraine it is very rare and poorly known.	eng
157751	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157752	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157752	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is found in the south-western Europe: northern Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006) and Italy. Possibly present in France (it looks very similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bouyoni</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. megerlei</span>, so records of these two species may in fact be attributable to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. campadellii</span>).	eng
157752	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Probably lives in oak woods, like other species in its genus, but no details of its precise habitat requirements are known.	eng
157752	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown. A single locality known in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006) but no information available on France and Italy.<br/></p>	eng
157752	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157754	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>This species occurs in several protected areas. It is included in the Spanish Red Data Book and is listed as Data Deficient&#160;(Verdú and Galante 2006).</p>	eng
157754	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula.<br/><br/>In Portugal this species occurs in the northern half, with very scattered records, mostly from mountain areas - it is known from the extreme north and from the northern central part (areas 150 km apart) since the 19<sup>th&#160;</sup>century (Oliveira 1893). There are unpublished recent records (1996 onwards) from the two areas and also from an intermediate site (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. obs. 2009).<br/><br/>In Spain it is present in the north-western part of the country, in the Cantabrian Range, and towards the south, mainly in mountain areas (Iberian System, Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de Gredos, Sierra Nevada, Sierra de Cazorla) (López-Colón 2000, A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009). There are records from 79 10 x10&#160;km²&#160;grid, 30 of them with data from before 1980 (A. Quirós &#160;pers. comm. 2009). This species is known from 105 localities in Spain (A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157754	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;Towards the Mediterranean part of its distribution in Spain, it is present mainly in mountains above 700 and often 1,000 m; in the north-western part of Spain it is also present at lower altitude, even below 100 m (A. Quirós &#160;pers. comm. 2009, M. Méndez pers. obs. 2009).<br/><em>P. spinifer</em> lives in forests (beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>) but also in shrubby vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus</span> spp. that are known to grow in degraded habitats (in north-western part of Spain) or <span style="font-style: italic;">Retama sphaerocarpa</span> (in Mediterranean part) (A. Quirós pers. comm. 2009). Habitat preferences, however, have not been systematically assessed.	eng
157754	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157754	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no serious threats to this species. <br/><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157755	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures for this species are known to be in place. It is not known if it occurs in any protected areas. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005).<br/></p>	eng
157755	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is known from Fennoscandia and from eastern and western Europe. It is endemic to Europe.	eng
157755	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in broad-leaved and also coniferous woodland. Usually found in trees that died five or ten years ago (data from Sweden). There appears to be no preference for size of tree.<br/><br/>Develops especially in standing, but also lying trees; <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Fagus, Populus, Quercus, Picea, Pinus</span>; surface of wood solid, inside moist, fairly solid, greyish blue. Reared from moist, white-rotten log of <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>, diameter ten cm; also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Abies</span>; larvae are in inner wood; beetles found in inner wood in galleries of other beetles with fungal growth in them. Larvae and adult beetles are frequently in the area of the wood close to the fruiting body of the fungus; development takes more than one year (Muona 1993).	eng
157755	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is widespread; there are typically only scattered records, but the species is regarded as not rare in at least some range states. May be under-recorded as it is difficult to find even where it does occur.</p><p>In Finland there is only one record. In Sweden it is rare in the south. In Denmark it is rare and local and there are only six localities (all in Jutland) (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Germany&#160; it is present in only a few regions; fewer than ten known localities. <br/></p><p>In France it is localised but not rare. In Spain there are recent records from the Pyrenees and Atlantic regions, but it is considered likely to be present in the whole country (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Italy it is found on the mainland and Sicily. In the Czech Republic there are scattered records (six grid squares) while in Slovakia it is nor rare as it was found in 20-30 grid squares.</p>	eng
157755	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species favours relatively long-dead wood, so 'cleaning' of such dead wood from forests has a negative impact on the species.<br/></p><p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157756	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas, e.g. in Romania. In Hungary the species occurs almost exclusively in protected areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157756	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is believed to be widely distributed in Europe from the Eurosiberian subregion to central, western and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Romania and Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian Mountains and the forest zone. In Hungary this species is found only in the westernmost part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is absent from some of the fringing areas such as the British Isles, Spain and Turkey.	eng
157756	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and thin tree-tops of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Pinus, Larix, Picea, Juniperus</span>), and only occasionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Quercus, Acer</span>). The life cycle takes two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VI (in UA -VI-VII), and are found in the canopy on the host-plants. In Finland larvae are most often found in dying thick branches of large spruce (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>) trees. In Germany i<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>t is abundant in all conifer plantations and natural forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea. </span>In Hungary, however,&#160; it occurs mainly in old indigenous conifer forests that are restricted in a few westernmost localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Parasites: some species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ichneumonidae </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Sichelia, Xorides</span>)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Braconidae</span><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>(<span style="font-style: italic;">Caluptus, Helcon, Opius</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Chalcidoidea</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Chiripachus</span>).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157756	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Population levels vary across the continent, with the species widespread in some countries, e.g. Germany, but rare in others. In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified. However, it is regarded as rare in the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are only old reports from different parts of country; it is quite rare, but it might be due to lack of information (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Population size is often underestimated as the species lives in the tree canopy.	eng
157756	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
157758	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas. No specific measures are needed.	eng
157758	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Holarctic species (Laibner 2000) distributed widely across Europe, the Palaearctic and North America.<br/><br/>A northern and western, upland species in Britain (Mendel 2004).	eng
157758	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae most frequently develop in red-rotten heartwood but also in decaying wood generally, in a wide variety of tree species; they feed on the larvae of <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhagium </span>longhorn beetles and other insects, taking both live and dead items; they pupate at the end of the summer and the adults appear from late April until mid July; the adult flies after dark and is attracted to light (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>Ubiquitous in the UK and Ireland, wherever there are trees and decaying wood (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests.	eng
157758	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A widespread and common species; population trend is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Ireland and the UK. In Ukraine it is a common species that occurs in conifer forests of the Carpathians. This species is widespread in the western half of Hungary and its populations are strong. In Denmark it is very common and distributed (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).	eng
157758	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157759	conservation	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157759	distribution	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is only found in Crete, Greece.	eng
157759	habitat	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, although no information is available on its habitat requirements.	eng
157759	population	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157759	threats	Pettersson, R., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157760	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Found in protected areas in France (a large population protected in Fontainebleau Forest), Spain, Hungary (including strictly protected areas and Natura 2000 sites) and Italy. It is considered Endangered in Germany.	eng
157760	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across the European continent, although absent in northern Europe.&#160; In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and lower mountainous regions covered with oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal there is a single record from the   <span lang="EN-GB">19<sup>th</sup> century, without geographic precision. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. varius </span>is largely well distributed in France but only in large beech forests at low altitudes (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935-38). It is also found in northern Africa, Minor Asia, all Caucasus and west Turkmenia.	eng
157760	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a thermophilous species and can be found in the deadwood of all Fagaceae trees, especially beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. The best habitats are provided by standing dead trees with development of the fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Nummularia bulliardia</span>. Development in small branches (ca. five cm) is possible.  The larval phase may be more than five years. The adult is active from the end of June to September (Iablokoff 1945).&#160; In Hungary it occurs in turkey oak-sessile oak woods and white oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Germany this species is found in old broad-leaved forests.</p>	eng
157760	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>    </p>  <p>It is a rare species over much of its European range. In France it has always been considered as a rare species (Iablokoff 1945), probably forming small patchy populations in suitable habitats (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is very rare and in Germany it is rare in broad-leaved forests, in some only records from before 1950. In Spain, Portugal and the Czech Republic it is known from just one location each.&#160; </p><span class="Apple-converted-space">In Ukraine it is, however, a usual species and in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is also rather common on its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157760	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Intensive forest management is a threat but it is not known how much this affects the species. The species does need ancient standing trees at least partly with dead wood in order to survive. In France there are no direct threats actually known but it may be sensitive to the rarefaction of standing dead trees of beech (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is threatened by habitat loss. Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range in Hungary as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the species is not considered to be threatened.	eng
157761	conservation	Alexander KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No conservation actions are needed.	eng
157761	distribution	Alexander KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed in southern Europe and the Mediterranean (Bense 1995). It is also present in northern Africa, Crimea, Turkey, all Caucasus and Iran.<br/>    <p>In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Oymen 1987). In Portugal it has only been recorded from a single locality in the centre, in 1979.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157761	habitat	Alexander KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop under the bark of a wide range of broad-leaved trees, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Salix, Populus, Pistacea, Fagus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica, Prunus, Juglans, Ostrya carpinifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, usually on dying trees but also commonly on dead, even very old wood<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; often breeding in prepared timber, sometimes also in furniture. Adults active in VI-VIII; nocturnal, found on the hosts, and frequently attracted to articifial light (Sama 2002).&#160; The life cycle is usually one year but sometimes two or three year. <br/><br/>A typical inhabitant of Mediterranean maquis.<br/><br/>There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong>	eng
157761	population	Alexander KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It is common only in the central Mediterranean; for example it is common and widespread in Italy (Sama 2002). In Ukraine it is rare, and the population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157761	threats	Alexander KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	There appears to be no major threats to this species.	eng
157762	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	Further studies on the distribution if the species in Italy could be useful. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Romania, Hungary). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009) and as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).	eng
157762	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, except the far north, far south, and Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). It is also found in Kazakhstan, northern Iran, Syria, Asia Minor and northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread in the hilly areas, at the foothills of the Carpathians and sometimes has been reported from the lowlands; it is very common in Transylvania. In Portugal it is known from four sites in the north, most of which are old records. In Germany it is present in all German States. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943). In Denmark it is Extinct (2005); not found naturally in more than 100 years.	eng
157762	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus, </em>also in <em>Carpinus, Fagus, Castanea, Betula</em>). The larvae develop under the bark of sun-exposed standing and fallen dead trunks and thick branches. The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood or sometimes in thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VII (in UA VI-VII), and are found on the host plant. In European Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong> and <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>; the adults are active in V-VII (Schimitschek 1953).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests (mainly in turkey oak and white oak) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found in the old oak forests, in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagionotus arcuatus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in mature oak forests, and breeds in dying trunks.<br/></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157762	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species that is relatively common over much of its European range.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Romania it is common in the Transylvanian oak forests. In Ukraine it is common.&#160; In France it is expanding its range from the east and the north to the rest of France. In the Czech Republic it is very common and it is considered a pest. In Spain there are 64 localities. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey. <p>In Italy there are 12 subpopulations and it is rare. In Sweden it is rare. It is Extinct in Denmark.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157762	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.     <p><span lang="EN-GB">The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157763	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Sweden (2005 and 2000) and Endangered in Finland (Rassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). However, there is some new information on the occurrence of this species in Finland which will move the species nationally into Vulnerable or Near Threatened.<br/> <br/>The species was first found about 20 years ago in Finland, but is not seen very frequently. The situation may be improving because aspen trees are more often being left dead in open areas, providing habitat for the species.<br/><br/>In Sweden this species is likely to struggle unless conditions change. Its habitat and distribution is very fragmented, with it being found in 11 localities.	eng
157763	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	This species is found in Fennoscandia in northern Europe. In Sweden it is in 11 localities, mostly in the east, and in Finland in eight localities.<strong><br/></strong>	eng
157763	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae live in the thick dead bark of old standing aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> trees both in shaded and open areas. It however seems to prefer sun exposed dying or recently dead trees.<br/></p>	eng
157763	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	<p>In Finland the trend is stable. In Sweden the species is thought to be declining and is very fragmented.</p>	eng
157763	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I., 2009	There is lack of information available regarding the threats for this species.   The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use ? affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue and the removal of dead and dying trees is clearly a problem. Forest clearance, unsustainable forest management, grazing, and drainage are also issues. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.&#160; In Finland, the species may become threatened if there were more use or demand for aspen trees which would lead to more removal of the large trees. Additionally, moose eat aspen saplings and may pose a threat to aspen regeneration weakening the future habitat for this species.	eng
157764	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157764	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is endemic to Portugal. It has recently been recorded from the centre of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).	eng
157764	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.	eng
157764	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157764	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157767	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it occurs in one protected area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology to this species, especially into its conservation management needs.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157767	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in Turkey and Greece. One specimen has been collected from Morea, Megaspileon (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157767	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species lives in hollow deciduous trees in forests and open areas.	eng
157767	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered a rare species. Presumably the population is declining due to the disappearance of old hollow trees.<br/></p>	eng
157767	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Logging and removal of hollow trees are specific threats.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
157768	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available. It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157768	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in Croatia and south of Russia and in the Caucasus.	eng
157768	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No information is known about this species' habitat but based on presence in Croatia and southern Russia it occurs in temperate forests.	eng
157768	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157768	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157769	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas in Hungary, so no additional specific measures are suggested (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157769	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in a patchy distribution through central and southeastern Europe.	eng
157769	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is obligatory mycetophagous (fungus-feeder) and beetles occur on wood-decay fungi such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus </span>sp. in relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forests. It is also found on old cherry trees. The extent and quality of remaining undisturbed forests with beech trees in the Carpathian region is not well known but thought to be in good condition. More research is needed on the biology and specific habitat requirements of the species and the remaining ancient beech forest. The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">Triplax </span>genus is not well known because they eat fruiting bodies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus</span> which occur sporadically and may be difficult to find, so finding the species is difficult.	eng
157769	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Little information is known about population abundance and trends. In Hungary this species is known from a few localities scattered in the western and northern parts of the country. It tends to be found more often in the south-western part of Hungary. Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157769	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Little information is available about threats to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157770	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	The species is occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157770	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, except Britain, Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula. <br/><br/> It is also known from Caucasus, Minor Asia (Syria, Turkey). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present mostly in the forest zone. In Hungary this species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions.	eng
157770	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in broad-leaved and mixed woodlands; the larvae develop in fruiting bodies of certain types of fungus that are involved in the decay of the dead wood of broad-leaved trees.<br/><br/>In Ukraine, larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Inonotus obliquus,</span> sometimes <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus, Laetiporus sulphureus.</span> The adult beetles are found feeding on a wide range of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes, Inonotus, Piptophorus</span>) and under bark, mostly of broad-leaved trees. Pupation occurs within the fungi or in ground below. The life cycle is one or two years. The adult beetle is active from May to the end of summer (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech.	eng
157770	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is probably stable.<br/><br/>In Finland it is rather common in the south and its population is stable. In France it is widespread and common.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is rare, Regionally Extinct in most federal States. Old records may, however, apply to wrongly identified <span style="font-style: italic;">M. atomarius</span>.	eng
157770	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157771	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance and population trends of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157771	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It is recorded from Lygaria, close to Rethymnon, Azogires and from lake Kournas environment.	eng
157771	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Development is inadequately known, the larvae are probably polyphagous in dead wood of broad-leaved trees; recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Bense 1995) and also reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span> (G. Novak pers. comm. 2009). Host trees are usually large trees.	eng
157771	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is rare.<br/></p>	eng
157771	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species lives in big trees and a threat may be the loss of these trees and lack of younger trees coming on as future replacements. The population from Lygaria may be affected by fragmentation by road construction and urbanization. More research on the effects of these threats on the species is needed.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157772	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is present in several protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157772	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is found in south-western Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. In Portugal it has only been recorded from two localities in the centre of the country (in 1981 and 2005). In France it is present in all the Mediterranean area including Corsica (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38). In Italy it is present in northern Italy and on the islands.<br/><br/>It is also present in northern Africa and Near East.	eng
157772	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in dead trees and thin branches. Also lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pistacia. </span>Larvae are xylophagous with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157772	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The species is abundant where it occurs - locally common. The population trend is stable.<br/></p>	eng
157772	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species appears to be not threatened.<br/><p></p>	eng
157773	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. <span lang="EN-GB">Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.	eng
157773	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in Cyprus. Reported from scattered localities all over <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region> (Orga, Akamas, Mora, <st1:placetype w:st="on">Cape</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Andreas</st1:placename>, Panagia, Alethriko, Vretsia, Kelefos and Korfi) (Alexis and Makris 2002). There are also records from Amathus and Lemesos.<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157773	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in stands of old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus infectoria</span> trees and more rarely in lowland maquis with  old <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> trees. It is often found in linear or solitary stands of old trees, along streets, rivers or in parks, and has also been found in orchards. Larvae have been found in decaying wood of <em>Quercus infectoria ssp veneris </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and <em>Ceratonia siliqua </em>(Pittino and Miessen 2007). Adults are attracted to wine traps but rarely to light.	eng
157773	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The species is rare and local, found always in small numbers (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.	eng
157773	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>    <p></p><p>The main specific threat is however the loss of habitat, which is old hollow trees, due to extraction, clearing, and destruction of veteran trees. This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species.  In urban areas trees are often ´sterilized´ by burning and filling of the rot holes with concrete or other materials. Recruitment of new generations of trees is a big issue.<br/></p>	eng
157774	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	Present in a large number of protected sites in Britain, Hungary, etc.	eng
157774	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout much of Europe, except only the far north and far south (Bense 1995). It is also found in all Caucasus, northern Iran, west Turkmenistan, Siberia, Algeria - on east to Ural Mountains only.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is known from all parts of the country, specially in the hilly areas. In Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre; few recent records. In Denmark it is distributed throughout and common (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it is present in all the States. In Britain it is widespread across the whole of England and Wales, but with very few records from Scotland. It has been reported from European Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).<p><br/></p>	eng
157774	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae first develop under the bark, later in the wood, of dead trunks and branches. The life cycle is two years (in Ukraine it is one year), with pupation in autumn or spring deep in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are found on the host plants or at flowers. It is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Castanea, Corylus, </em><em>Juglans</em><em>, </em><em>Crataegus,</em><em> </em><em>Sarothamnus</em><em>, </em><em>Robinia, Rosa, Ficus, Ostrya, Salix, </em><em>Morus</em><em>, </em><em>Vitis, Fraxinus, Prunus, Ulmus, Ilex</em>). Adults sun-loving and often found apparently basking on foliage and wood in warm sunshine.<br/><br/>Known in Britain from a very wide variety of situations across the cultural landscape, from woodlands through to coastal scrub and hedgerows&#160; (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in ecotonal situations. In Romania it has been found on fresh cut branches, on the edge of forests, and in pastures with old scatter oaks. In Germany it is abundant in all broad-leaved forests. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157774	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	At the European level this species is widespread and common.<br/><br/> In Britain it is widespread and plentiful over much of the lowlands of England and Wales; but rare in Scotland (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Ukraine it is common. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania it is common in the oak forests of Transylvania. In France it is very common while in Finland it is rare. In Spain it is common. In the European part of Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is regarded as common.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is a rare and very localised species, with possibly two well-established native populations (Alexander 1997); distribution confused by periodic casual introductions.	eng
157774	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appears to be no major threats. <br/>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157775	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Preservation of suitable habitats is recommended for the survival of this species. It lives in several protected areas (e.g. Ukraine, Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in Greece, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Germany (2009). In Poland it is listed as Least Concern.	eng
157775	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across south and central Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread, albeit sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions, and more sporadic in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the central part of the country; there are few reports from other parts of the country. In France it is restricted to the north-eastern part (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Greece it occurs in the centre. In Ukraine it is only present in the Carpathian Mountains.	eng
157775	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<br/><br/>Found in relict forest with dead wood, also in orchards and urban areas, developing in the rotting wood of various broad-leaved trees. In France larvae develop in rotten wood of Alnus (Paulian and Baraud 1982). Does not depend on rot holes and prefers wood on the ground level (trunks and stumps) to provide a minimum of moisture. Prefers a high volume of dead wood and is not found in intensively managed forests. The adults feed on pollen and are attracted to umbel shaped flowers; active in June.<br/><br/>The biology is the same as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. fasciatus. <br/></span><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various open broadleaved forests, mainly in mountainous areas, in wooded stream valleys and ravines, but also in the lowlands, sometimes in surprisingly open, warm and dry habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in hilly areas and low mountains, where exist shrubs, rare trees, herbaceous high vegetation (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157775	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Population numbers and trends appear to be stable in its core areas. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not rare in its localities, but never abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common in its localities; the number of individuals are generally low, but in some years, the number can still be high (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Greece its population is declining. In the Czech Republic it is rare and present in southern, warmer areas. In Ukraine it is a relatively usual species.	eng
157775	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Intensive forest management - including removing dead wood - is a threat to this species as it seems to require habitats with a large amount of dead wood. In Greece, anthropogenic impacts especially tourism leading to more traffic, human intrusion, pathways, and garbage are presumably affecting the habitat of this species. In Ukraine and Hungary the species is not threatened.</p>	eng
157776	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157776	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread across south-eastern Europe extending to some countries in south-western Europe. It has been reported from some stations in south-western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Greece, it is only present in Crete and in the Dodecannese (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is only present in the northern part of the country (Carpaneto and Piattella 1995). This species is also found in Israel.	eng
157776	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.  It is known from decaying wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and is found in thermophilic broad-leaved forests - usually near the edges (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157776	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered common in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/></p>	eng
157776	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157777	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	In the UK it has conservation status as Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); some of the best sites are protected. In Sweden it is regarded as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, and, as it is common is synanthropic habitats, no specific measures are necessary.	eng
157777	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread over much of Europe. It occurs worldwide (except in the Afrotropical region).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country. It is very rare in wild situations in the UK, but known across the lowlands. In Finland some records are more than 100 years old and the species is considered to be Extinct, but a single specimen was found in 2008. It is absent from Ireland.	eng
157777	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits a variety of dry mouldy situations in and about ancient trees, e.g. mildewy cavities, old bracket fungi, wood mould and woody debris generally; it is very occasionally reported from stored products where fungal decay in process, e.g. granary refuse, haystacks, etc. (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine it lives on wood-decay fungi and is found under bark on numerous tree species.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is found mainly in synanthropic habitats (stables, chicken pens, etc.), and is much rarer in natural habitats, in wood mould of cavities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the UK, wild sites are primarily historic parklands and other ancient wood pastures - old growth in the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157777	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	In the UK this species has a very fragmented distribution, with modern records from just four areas, widely scattered and isolated; old records are more widespread and so a serious decline is probable; it was formerly reported from synanthropic situations but is virtually Extinct there due to modern food hygiene practices, etc (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It is not rare in central Europe. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its natural localities; it is common in synanthropic habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is widespread and not rare. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Italy it is quite common. <br/><br/>In Sweden this species is declining.	eng
157777	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>Although not threatened at European level, and able to live in synanthropic situations, its wild habitats of old decaying trees are threatened.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157778	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future. It remains unknown if this species occurs in any protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157778	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the extreme south-east of Europe (Bense 1995). It is present in Crimea, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece (Rejzek and Hoskovec 1999) and the European part of Turkey - it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). It is also found in the Minor Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran and Turkey.	eng
157778	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species found in dying, diseased or stressed trees, but not in dead trees. The species is active during the day but difficult to find. This species is reliant on freshly dead or dying sapwood the larvae developing in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, woods of vine and apricot, cherry, plum, almond and some other stone-fruit trees. Imago in VI-IX and life cycle two or three years duration. <br/></p><p></p><p>    </p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157778	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is a substantial trend in the decrease of suitable host trees, and from this we can infer a reduction in the population of the species, but this cannot be quantified. In Ukraine this species is known to be in a very restricted area and the trend may be decreasing. Although the species is not commonly found it may not be as rare as thought because it is known to be more difficult to find than other similar species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157778	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The rate of loss of veteran trees has not been quantified, but it is significant, and it may potentially exceed 20% in the next ten years (= three generations). Moreover, there is very little regeneration of suitable habitat across the species' range. Once the existing veteran trees have died, there will be no replacements in many areas. Even if efforts are made now to re-plant appropriate tree species, there may still be a 'gap' during which time there would be very little suitable habitat available.  <p></p>	eng
157779	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	River 'conservation' in Britain is a great threat as there is too much emphasis on fencing riverbanks out of grazing, which will ultimately lead to dense thickets rather than the open mosaics favoured by this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). Protection of riverine galleries is necessary for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>It is present in several protected areas.	eng
157779	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	It is believed that wild native sites of this species are found in southern, western and eastern Europe, with northern records of imported specimens only (Bense 1995). The species is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus. It has been introduced to Japan and North America.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Spain but there are few actual records (Vives 2001) and in Portugal it is widespread in the northern half and with a single record from the southern extreme. In Hungary this species was formerly widespread in the country, but very few new records are known.&#160; In Germany it is present in all German States. In Ukraine mostly in Crimea. It has been reported from European Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).	eng
157779	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in the wood of thin dry dead branches of various broad-leaved trees and bushes, often in branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>spp; also live in wickerwork products, which is their means of import into northern European countries (Ehnstrom 2007). Sama (2002) also says that it may develop in conifers; the life cycle is one year; adults are crepuscular or nocturnal, by day hidden on the bark; active in VI-IX. Bense (1995) says that the life cycle is one or two years. Alexander (2002) says two years in Britain. In Ukraine the life cycle is usually two years (rarely one or three); known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Betula, Quercus, </span>chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, nut-tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plumus</span>, bramble <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>, some other trees and bushes.&#160; Imago active in VI-IX.<br/><br/>Best known in Britain from habitat mosaics along riversides and floodplains generally, breeding in willow scrub, old fruit trees, and bramble canes. Was once a serious pest of wicker baskets, etc, but this industry is in serious decline (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). The known localities in Hungary are mainly in riverine willow galleries. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157779	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread and common species in most of its European range, but rare and increasingly scarce in many states.<br/><br/>Formerly widespread in England and extending into eastern Wales, but has declined very dramatically over the last century; it is now best known in the lower river basins of the Thames and Severn, with a few outlying populations elsewhere (Twinn and Harding 1999). It almost<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>meets the British Red Data Book criteria.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is rare in its localities. In the Czech Republic it is rare. In Ukraine this species is relatively rare. The population size and trend have not been quantified for European Turkey.	eng
157779	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	It appears to be not threatened at the European level although is clearly declining at the local level in some states.<br/><br/>Clearance of scrub along riversides and in old orchards can be a threat to this species; also abandonment of grazing leading to scrub thickening and canopy closure along riverside strips and the loss of old orchards. Tidiness, clearance of bramble around field margins, etc. are also additional threats.	eng
157780	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed. It is unknown whether the species occurs in a protected area.	eng
157780	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across western Europe in the Mediterranean area. It is widespread in Portugal, Italy and Spain. It is also found in northern Africa.	eng
157780	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae have been found in decaying wood  of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span> L., <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> L. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Phoenix dactilifera</span> L. (Micó and Galante 2003).&#160; Adults active in summer, feeding at flowers and more often on fruits. It is present in open forests, gardens and parklands.	eng
157780	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	In Spain and France this species is considered abundant.	eng
157780	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no threats to this species.	eng
157781	conservation	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No measures are needed. Monitoring and research on its distribution are recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Data Deficient in Germany (2009).	eng
157781	distribution	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is distributed in central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Austria there are only a few records in the eastern part, while in Switzerland there are only doubtful historical records. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen 2008) in European Turkey. It also occurs in the Caucasus, northern Iran, Turkey and Minor Asia.	eng
157781	habitat	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches; mostly of broad-leaved trees (<em>Fagus, Quercus, Juglans, Castanea, </em>Rosaceae) and shrubs. It has also been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>. The life cycle is two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the host-plants and attracted to flowers for feeding. <br/><br/>The species mainly lives in natural habitats. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has generally been reported from deciduous forests, especially oak, but there are a few records from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> and willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>. The reports from European Turkey are that larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Alnus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong> and Rosaceous plants (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).	eng
157781	population	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.</p>  It is a usual species in Ukraine. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as moderately common in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is quite common in the hills and at the foot of the Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is very rare but there are recent records; is it is only present in Bayern and Sachsen-Anhalt. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is common, but only in warmer areas. In Poland there are no recent records. The population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.<p><br/></p>	eng
157781	threats	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>No major threats to this species are known. In Hungary habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the replacement of native habitat and some unusual forest management activities are threatening this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157783	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures are in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157783	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is endemic to mainland Italy (Bense 1995).	eng
157783	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It inhabits the deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia</span> trees in deciduous woodland in the hills and sub-montane regions of the Appenine ridge. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia </span>is<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>a relatively common species of tree, but no information is available on any requirements for particular types of deadwood or in particular situations. <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span></p>	eng
157783	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is generally rare and known only from a few scattered localities. Sama (2006) reports 12 localities.</p>	eng
157783	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157784	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.   There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in some protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
157784	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs in south-western Europe and northern Africa (Bense 1995); there is a distinct subspecies in Corsica and Sardinia, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. l. corsicus</span> Croissandeau, 1890. In France it is widespread but very localised, with discontinuity between the stations (Villiers 1978).<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the north of Africa.	eng
157784	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>, occasionally in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cupressus</span>, the larvae feeding under the bark of weakened, although sometimes apparently healthy trees, often at ground level or underground (Sama 2002). Adults are found on the host-plants, and are nocturnal (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Spain its natural habitat is restricted to the pre-coastal Mediterranean area and it lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus thurifera</span>. Recently it has been reintroduced in the north-eastern part of Spain with the planting of Cupressaceae (Vives 2001).	eng
157784	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>Scattered in the Mediterranean climate zone. In France, known localities produce sightings regularly so the species does not seem to be declining. The adults emerge very early in the year (February to April) - this can explain the rarity of the observations (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). In Italy it is considered rare.<br/></p><p>The species is increasing due to the increased popularity of ornamental Cupressaceae in gardens.<br/></p>	eng
157784	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available. This species appears not to be threatened.<br/></p>	eng
157785	conservation	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks, but also others), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered as Endangered in Italy.	eng
157785	distribution	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This west Palaearctic species (Laibner 2000) is known from south, west and central Europe reaching some countries in north Europe. <br/><br/>It also occurs in west Caucasus, in west Georgia.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the south and west of the forest zone (Dolin 1988, Lobl and Smetana 2007). In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas. In Spain its presence has only recently been confirmed (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It formerly occurred at a number of sites across England but it has not been reported since about 1860 (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157785	habitat	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A specialist of veteran trees, especially very large old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae are predators in semi-dry wood mould; living in the base of hollow trees (Brustel 2005); it is found in open sunlit habitats within forest. In Ukraine the larvae are also known to develop in the soil around trunks, stubs or decayed wood under the soil. The larvae hibernate; the adult beetle is active at evening in twilight, in IV-V; it lives a concealed life (in chinks of bark and wood), rarely appearing on flowers (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species occurs mostly in <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, but also in lime, maple and poplar (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157785	population	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	Generally very localized, rare and decreasing across its range.<br/><br/>In Slovakia and the Czech Republic it is very locally and individually reported (Laibner 2000). In Hungary its populations are small. In Germany it has become locally Extinct in several regions. In Sweden there is one single population; the last record is from 2002; formerly more widespread. In Italy it is found only in northern and central parts; around 30 localities (although some of these are based on old data). In Poland there is no precise information on distribution but it is not regarded as threatened at present, but this appears to be based on relatively little data. In France it was described as 'quite common' in the old literature; there is very little recent data. In Spain there are old records with vague mentions of rare but widespread in Pyrenees; only two recent localities known (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). It is a relatively rare species in Ukraine. In the UK it was widely reported in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, but there have been no modern reports, and it is assumed to be long Extinct (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157785	threats	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>This species is entirely dependent upon very large old trees (veteran trees), a habitat type which is very fragmented and declining across Europe as a result of various human activities. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude mowing and/or grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157786	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Rare (Shirt 1987) although this needs down-grading (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157786	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread in north and central Europe (Horion 1953). Endemic to Europe according to Fauna Europaea (2004). Absent from Ireland.<br/><br/>Present in northern Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). Very fragmented distribution in Britain, mainly in south-west, but also in northern England and parts of Scotland and Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157786	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in well-decayed wood of broad-leaved trees; they have been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvestris</span>, a soft log with white-rot in an exposed situation (diameter 30 cm); also&#160; in a branch (diameter 4 cm) on ground, totally covered by leaf litter. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Picea, Populus, Quercus, Sorbus, Fraxinus, Tilia</span> (Muona 1993); adult on wing sparingly May-September, and usually found at rest amongst ground vegetation (Alexander 2002).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, especially in beech and oak, but also in species of willow and poplar. In Britain particularly in old shady oak woodlands and wood pastures (Alexander 2002).	eng
157786	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable to increasing.<br/><br/>In Denmark it is common and widespread (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007). <span lang="EN-GB">In Finland it is common in the south where its population is increasing. In Sweden it is not common but increasing. In Slovakia it is widespread. <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is a widespread but not really common. <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution (Mendel and Clarke 1996) but a strong population in southern England has been expanding in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Hungary the species is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous areas; populations have not been quantified, but they must be small. <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there are 11 localities; quite common (Recalde Irurzun 2008). <br/><br/>In Italy it has been found in the north; possibly present in Sicily (where it is possibly introduced).</span>	eng
157786	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157787	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Hungary there are no conservation measures in place (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.	eng
157787	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from southeastern Europe. Just six specimens are known from Europe, from Hungary, Slovakia and Bulgaria.	eng
157787	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species and very little is known about its biology. It is likely to be a predator. Larvae have been found on bark of rotting oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>branches in Bulgaria.	eng
157787	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Hungary all populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.	eng
157787	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species does not seem to be threatened in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) although information is very scant. No information is available from Bulgaria and Slovakia.	eng
157788	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157788	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widespread across southern Europe, in western and eastern Europe, including the   Mediterranean islands. In Ukraine it is only known from Crimea. In Portugal, there are only two records, one from 1924 and one from 2005. In France, this species is found in the Mediterranean area and in the south-west (Sainte-Clare Deville 1935-38). It is also found in north Africa, Syria, Turkey.	eng
157788	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in the dead bark or trees. In Spain this species is found on<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pinus halepensis</span>, a common native and commercially important forest species, as well as on other pine species.<br/></p>	eng
157788	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is a rare species.<br/></p>	eng
157788	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157789	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Presumably the species occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157789	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Mediterranean countries, throughout much of south-western Europe.<br/><br/>It is localised in south and south-western France, and in Corsica. It is widespread in Spain. It was recorded in the 1930s from two localities in the north of Portugal.	eng
157789	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in red-rotten stumps of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies alba</span>.	eng
157789	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The main population is in Spain and northern Africa. It is not uncommon in France.</p><p>The population trend is considered stable.<br/></p>	eng
157789	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>It appears to be not threatened.<br/></p>	eng
157790	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>In Germany it is listed as 'R' which means that it has a restricted distribution (2009).<br/></p>	eng
157790	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in the Eurosiberian subregion, central and eastern Europe, and in the western Pyrenees. In Romania it occurs in the Carpathians and high hills around mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in the Alps: Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. In Ukraine it is present in the north-western part. It is also found in Kazakhstan, east of Minor Caucasus, Mongolia, northern China, Korea, Japan, Russian Far East.	eng
157790	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; The larvae develop in the wood of thin stems of maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>in particular<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>but also <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula, Ulmus, Alnus, salix, Padus, Juglans, Quercus, Tilia, Aralia, Vitis, Fraxinus </span>and many others broadleaved trees<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>more rarely<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus)</span>. It initially develops in the wood of stressed and weakened trees, and later in the dead wood (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). The life cycle is at least two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-VIII, and are found feeding at flowers. In Romania it has been found at white flowers alongside a valley with fresh water, inside the mountains (P. Istrate pers. obs. 2009). In Germany it lives in montane conifer forests in the Alps.<br/></p>	eng
157790	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>It is not a common species in Europe. In Ukraine is unusual in that it is common and the population trend is stable. In Russia and Romania it is not commonly found.	eng
157790	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species faces no major threats. However the main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157792	conservation	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in protected areas. In Germany is listed as 'R' , which means that the species has a restricted distribution.	eng
157792	distribution	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>This species is widespread across Europe, ranging from northern Europe including the Baltic region to central, eastern and western Europe. This species is absent in southern regions of Europe. <br/></p><p>This species is also found in Siberia and far east Russia, and in North America.<br/></p><p>In Italy there are only few records from some of the Alpine regions (Nardi 2006). In France there are only two old records: in Alsace region (Haguenau) and southern Alps (Sainte-Claire Deville 1935-1938). In Germany it is only present in the Bavarian Alps. It might be present in the forest zone of Ukraine. </p>	eng
157792	habitat	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in tree bark in dead and decaying conifer trees - pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea </span>- trees and can sometimes be very abundant.. In Finland the species strongly prefers burned forests, where it often occurs together with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. linearis</span> at least during the first ten years after fire. In Germany it lives in open sunny pine stands in the southern slopes in the northern Alps.<br/></p>	eng
157792	population	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Ukraine it is rare. It is also rare in France and Germany. In the UK it is only known from one specimen taken before 1870 in a wood near Lincoln, England (Fowler 1913); almost certainly an introduction, not native (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
157792	threats	Mico Balaguer, e., Mannerkoski, I., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Pettersson, R., Alexander, K., Mason, F., Méndez, M. & Hyvarinen, E., 2009	<p>Fire suppression and loss of natural fire dynamics in boreal forests   <span lang="EN-GB">- and conifer forests more generally - are likely to be the main factor having a negative impact on this species.  </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157793	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>The species is present in at least one protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157793	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago, the Canary Islands.	eng
157793	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its name suggests an association with fig trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus</span>), but probably it can use a variety of dry woods, including small branches, as is the general rule in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Scobicia</span>. It has been collected in woods of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratonia siliqua</span> (Lesne 1904) and has been reared from <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis vinifera </span>(Lesne 1905).<br/></p>	eng
157793	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In the Canarian archipelago, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ficicola</span> is present on all major islands except for Fuerteventura (Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial). The Zoological Museum Lund holds 30 specimens.</p>	eng
157793	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157794	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I.  , 2009	<p>No information available. The species occurs in several protected areas, especially in Finland.<br/></p>	eng
157794	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I.  , 2009	This species is widely distributed in central and eastern Europe reaching Scandinavia and the Baltic States. In the Czech Republic it is only found in mountain areas and in Ukraine in forest areas. It also occurs in Siberia, northern&#160; Mongolia, Russian Far East, North Korea, northern China and Japan.	eng
157794	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I.  , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the deadwood of many species of coniferous trees, at first under bark on dead stems, later within the wood below. Pupation lasts four or five weeks; the full life cycle takes two years. Before copulation, the adult feeds mostly on the bark of conifer trees, but sometimes also <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Betula, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span>. Each female lays about 20 eggs. The adult is active in V-IX (max. in VII). Sometimes it can be regarded as a serious pest species to forestry, especially in Siberia and north of European Russia. In Finland it lives mostly in old-growth forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>. It is often imported into other countries with Russian timber.<br/></p>	eng
157794	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I.  , 2009	<p>In Finland 20 years ago the population was declining, nowadays it is stable. There is little information available on the abundance of this species in other countries. However, in Ukraine and Poland the populations are also known to be stable. <br/></p>	eng
157794	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I.  , 2009	In Finland the species was threatened, considered Vulnerable, by forestry and loss of old growth forests but nowadays it occurs mostly in protected areas. In the rest of Europe where the species occurs there are no known major threats to this species.	eng
157795	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Many of the known localities fall within protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157795	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is distributed throughout central, southern and eastern Europe, but appears to be rare or very localised in most countries. Examples of countries where it is widespread and not rare include Greece and the Czech Republic. In Germany it is also widely distributed but missing in the northern German states, and very rare but&#160; probably under-documented (B. Büche pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is still present in many populations in Transylvania, but with small numbers (P. Istrtae pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is very rare, with a few sporadic localities known from the hilly regions (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is rare in the Ukraine and absent from Slovakia. In Spain and Portugal it has a very restricted distribution and it is confined to four known populations in the north (Vives 2001). In Portugal it has been recorded very recently (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003) from a single locality in the northern-most area.<br/>Also reported from the European part of Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).	eng
157795	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead trunks and thick branches (especially in the tree-tops) of various broad-leaved tree species (especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus, Pyrus</span>). Adults emerge in May - July and are found on the host-plants. It is not restricted to veteran trees or old-growth woodland according to recent data; also being found in managed oak stands of medium age. In Hungary it lives in light thermophilous oak forests (turkey oak and white oak) (O. Merkl pers.comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found around the mezo-thermophilous forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is a species of thermophilic oak forests. In Greece it has been found in pine trees (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/></p><p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157795	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is quite common in at least some parts of its range, although rare in many other areas. A treetop species; so probably under-recorded (it is difficult to find even where it is present). The population trend is unknown. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century; and most records are older than 50 years (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain and Portugal there are only few known populations in the north. Population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.	eng
157795	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Loss of veteran trees might pose a threat, although the species is not dependent on such trees. In Hungary the main reason of rarity of this species is habitat loss as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania forest management and the use of dead oak branches for fire by local people are threatening this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Poland the species is not threatened.	eng
157796	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157796	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Euro-Siberian species (Laibner 2000) is known from all Europe, except the far west. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in forests in the northern part of the forest-steppe zone and in the Carpathians. Old records from the UK are assumed to be the result of accidental introductions.	eng
157796	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This may be an obligate saproxylic species, but this requires confirmation as larvae are also found in the soil and anthills close to decaying wood. <br/><br/>Larvae have been found in the soil near dead and decaying trunks and stubs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>(occasionally burnt trees), as well as within the decaying wood; sometimes in ant-hills; predatory and necrophagous; adults are active during day time in IV-VI (Dolin 1988).<br/><br/>Prefers pine forests from lowlands to submontane (Laibner 2000). The known records from Hungary are from or near pine forests.	eng
157796	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A common species in at least some parts of its range. Population trend has not been quantified but is believed to be stable.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a common species; also common in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs in a few localities, mainly in the western part of the country; all known populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is rare but well distributed (  <span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).<br/><br/>In the UK it was recorded in two areas of south-eastern England in the 19<sup>th</sup> century; these are assumed to have been accidental introductions as the native vegetation is not suitable for the species, now Extinct (Mendel and Clarke 1996).	eng
157796	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157798	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it is not present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157798	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Crete (Sama 2002). There are only records from the south-eastern coast, near Mirtos and Pefkos, and in the central-southern coast area near the town of Plakias (J. Hrbek pers. obs. 2008) (Cerambycidae 2009).	eng
157798	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The biology of this species is unclear. It is believed that it is a polyphagous species that lives in the deadwood of deciduous trees.	eng
157798	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157798	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. Grazing by goats is a major threat. Additional threats may be urbanisation and tourism.<br/></p>	eng
157800	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species (especially oaks, but also others), and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Vulnerable in the British Red Data Book (Shirt 1987), and as Near Threatened in Sweden.<br/><br/>In the UK, wood pasture and parkland are a priority habitat that is under the Government Biodiversity Action Plan. Also other conservation measures in place cover general management guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>The species is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157800	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is distributed throughout Europe, ranging north to southern Scandinavia and south to Greece (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the central part of the forest-steppe zone, in Donetzkyi mountain-ridge. In Hungary there are very few records known from the hilly and lowland areas. In Denmark it is present in the south. In France it is widespread but very rare and localized (Leseigneur 1972). In Italy there are very few records, mainly from central and southern areas (including Sardinia and Sicily). In the UK there are a small number of sites across lowland England, in the south-east, and the east and west Midlands.	eng
157800	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist, typically found in very large old trees. The larvae develop in red-rotten heartwood of living old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, in smaller boughs as well as trunks.&#160; There is a long larval period and adult dormancy; the adults remaining in their pupal cells from September until the following April, and they may normally be found under loose bark or in hollows from May to July (Alexander 2002). The larvae <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>are&#160; predators or necrophagous&#160; (Dolin 1988). In Italy it is found in coniferous as well as broad-leaved trees. In Hungary virtually all known records are from red-rotten wood of very old oaks. In France larvae are found in the dry powder of red-rot in large trees of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea.</span><br/><br/>It is an old growth species. English sites tend to be historic parklands and the trees are ancient open-grown examples, rather than forest situations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives in trunks of solitary old oaks in broad-leaf or mixed forests (Laibner 2000).	eng
157800	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is a rare species across its European range, with a very fragmented distribution.<br/><br/>In the UK it is a rare species with a very fragmented range and about 15 isolated populations known from modern records. Little or no suggestion of recent decline but there area a few sites with only old records, unconfirmed recently (Mendel and Clarke 1996). In Ukraine it is very rare as it is only known from four specimens. In Hungary it is very rare and the populations are small. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it occurs sporadically in lowlands and highlands across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Germany it occurs sporadically in lowlands across almost the whole territory (with the exception of the north-west), with about 15-20 known localities. In Sweden there are more than 30 sites known from recent records (since 2000) in the southern part of the country. In Denmark it is rare and local.	eng
157800	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>      </p>    <p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157801	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>The species occurs mostly in nature reserves. Restoration of spruce mires is required.</p>	eng
157801	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is known from north and central Europe.	eng
157801	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in natural forests surrounded by mires, spruce-swamp forests. Larvae are living under the bark of fallen spruce trees, trees usually a little off the ground. The diameter of trees may be only 10 cm and the bark may be pretty dry. Sometimes living in thinner parts of trees inhabited by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pytho kolwensis</span>.	eng
157801	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is believed that the population trend is decreasing. In Finland it is restricted to areas where there is a shorter time period for forest management; the main populations are in eastern Finland and the populations are decreasing. It is considered vulnerable. In Sweden it is declining in forest landscape and is regarded as Vulnerable; found at about ten locations in northern Sweden, big range (almost 50% of Sweden); its Area of Occupancy is probably less than 1,000   <span lang="EN-GB">km². In Norway it is present in one location. In Germany there is only an old record which is not validated. <span lang="EN-GB">There is no information about the Russian population.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157801	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>Logging and lack of self-thinning are the main threats to this species. Ditching to favour spruce growth and the subsequent drying of the area are other threats.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157802	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
157802	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This Eurosiberian species is found throughout much of Europe, from central Europe to south-eastern Europe reaching some countries in western and northern Europe.	eng
157802	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species and is polyphagous on the decay fungi of broad-leaved trees. The biology of the species is known more from its Russian distribution than elsewhere. In Ukraine the adult has been reported from carpophores (fruiting body) of many wood-decay fungi - <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes fomentarius, Piptoporus betulinus, P. calyptratus, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. obliquus, Ischnoderma benzonium, Trametes sp.&#160; </span>In Hungary as no new localities are known, information is unavailable on habitat (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157802	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species and it is rare in central Europe but more common in the eastern part of its range. There is a scarcity of records but this may be due to low sampling.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is very rare, and it is known from one specimen found in the Volyn region; it might also be present in the Carpathians and in the western part of the forest zone (Drogvalenko 1997). In Hungary this species is very sporadic, only a few localities are known from at least 50 years ago - as no new localities are known, information is unavailable on its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157802	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157803	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	In France the principal site is classified and managed for forest preservation (Natura 2000). Important entomological inventories are being conducted in 2009 and 2010. There is an urgent need for the protection of the large forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>. A regulation or a control of the captures is needed for the localities well known by collectors (Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable according to the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006).	eng
157803	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This Mediterranean species is widespread in south-eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place> and in the south of western Europe. <br/> <br/> It is considered a rare species by extreme fragmentation of the populations. During the last glaciation, <em>P. mirifica</em> was able to survive in a number of areas traditionally regarded as refugia in the Mediterranean region: the southern Iberian Peninsula, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy</st1:country-region>, the Balkans and the <st1:place w:st="on">Middle  East</st1:place> (full inventory and map in Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/> <br/> <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Spain </st1:country-region>it is known from a few isolated locations in the Central and Betic mountain ranges (eight localities). It was discovered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 1975 by trapping; it is extremely localised. One forest has the biggest population known over the whole distribution area. There are six other sites in the south of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> but only with few specimens found and some of these are yet to be confirmed (<span lang="EN-GB">Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</p><p><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"> This species also occurs in <st1:place w:st="on">Near East</st1:place>.</span></p>  <span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Eupotosia%20mirifica%20la%20grande%20c%C3%A9toine%20bleue%2C%20joyau%20menac%C3%A9%20du%20patrimoine%20naturel%20Europ%C3%A9en.%20Propositions%20pour%20la%20protection%20de%20l'esp%C3%A8ce%20et%20de%20ses%20biotopes%20(Coleoptera%2C%20Cetoniidae%20Cetoniinae)&rft.jtitle=Lambillionea&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1-Suppl%C3%A9ment&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.aulast=Tassi&rft.au=F.%20Tassi&rft.au=H.%20P%20Aberlenc&rft.au=J.%20Y%20Rasplus&rft.au=G.%20Curletti&rft.au=M.%20Dutto&rft.au=G.%20Genson&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.date=2004&rft.pages=1-32">	eng
157803	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood; where the type of rot has been identified it is always red-rot. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. Adults are active in June, July and August.&#160; <br/><br/>It has been reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> forests and it occurs in the limestone from warm places in south-eastern Europe (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is associated with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests. In France it lives only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. pubescens </span>forest and this kind of forest is becoming very rare.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
157803	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is a flagship species both for the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of the Mediterranean zone, its rarity is related to the decline of its habitats and its current distribution is a series of relict populations, and probably previously included a range much greater in the Mediterranean region. Its situation in other countries of the western Mediterranean such as Italy and France is also bleak.<br/><br/>The main population is in France and the population in south-eastern Europe is smaller. In Greece the species has been reported from eight localities very rich in old growth forests. In Bulgaria it has been reported from three old localities that have to be confirmed. In Albania it is present in only one locality (in Petrovac). In Bosnia it has been reported from five localities that have yet to be confirmed.<br/>&#160;<br/>It is considered that the population is decreasing.	eng
157803	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	Loss of hollow trees and lack of future replacement generations is a major threat to this species. Also forest fragmentation and removal of the dead wood are   <span lang="EN-GB">threatening  the species.<br/><br/>Logging of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> is a very important danger for the species. In France, in the biggest locality, trees are well protected by the natural relief (profond lapiaz) but the entomological pressure from amateur collecting is a supplementary threat (surveys are organised during the summer to destroy illegal traps installed by 'entomological tourists') (Tassi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
157804	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. In Hungary the conservation of old trees (especially in wood pastures in the southern part of the country) is necessary. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Romania).	eng
157804	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	This species is known from central Europe, reaching the Baltic States and south-eastern Europe but it is not endemic to Europe. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathian Mountains.	eng
157804	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from a moist branch of hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus </span>lying on the ground, the wood solid on the surface, and fairly hard with white rot inside; also from lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>logs in Russia (Muona 1993). In Ukraine larvae develop in hard wood of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>. The life cycle is one or two years; larvae hibernate; adults have been found under bark on deadwood from April to October (Drogvalenko 2001). <br/><br/>In Hungary the known habitats are old growth oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It also lives in beech forests.	eng
157804	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but its distribution is very fragmented.<br/></p>  In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary this species is known from very few localities in the southern-most part of the country (Baranya and Somogy counties); only a few specimens have been found, so its populations must be very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There is a record in Austria.	eng
157804	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  In particular in Ukraine the destruction of old dead trees are a threat to this species. In Hungary based on the very few localities, not much can be said about threats; however the habitat of the first Hungarian record was destroyed, because the group of very old oaks were completely removed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157805	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.</p>	eng
157805	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in Greece, Turkey and Syria. Two specimens have been collected from Peloponnesus Peninsula (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157805	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. No information is available on its habitat requirements.	eng
157805	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157805	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157806	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	<p>There is no information available regarding any conservation actions for this species.<br/></p>	eng
157806	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	This species is only known from north-eastern Europe. It is found in Latvia and in central-western Russia. It is also known from Siberia, Far East, Mongolia and North Korea (Lobl and Smetana 2008).	eng
157806	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species but it is likely to require a substantial presence of wood-decay fungi.	eng
157806	population	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157806	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A. & Tykarski, P., 2009	<p>No information available. <br/></p>	eng
157807	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157807	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	This species is found across central and eastern Europe, from Poland and Hungary to Russia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is found locally in the Carpathians and in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Drogvalenko 2001). <br/><br/>In Romania it is only known from the type locality (<span lang="EN-GB">Transylvania).    <span lang="EN-GB"><p><span lang="EN-GB">In Hungary the species is known from only one locality in the north-eastern part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157807	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it lives mostly in old, decomposing beech trunks and stumps but is also reported from rotten willow trees; the localities are usually old growth ('virgin' forests) (Elateridae 2009). In Ukraine, the larvae have been found in the dead decayed and humid wood of oak, but eating thin food (sap from decayed wood or plasmodium of myxomycetes). The adult is found under bark on the deadwood of oak and beech (Drogvalenko 2001). In Hungary the species is known from only one locality, which is a park of an old castle (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157807	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	It is a rare species throughout its European range, with notably small numbers of individuals seen in a very few sites.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species, only five specimens known. In Hungary as the species is known from only one locality, no information is available from its population (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic records are known from two sites with a single faunistic grid cell, altogether three specimens have been found on two dates in 1966 and 1973 in a 'virgin forest' and on wood of an old willow, respectively; record made accessible on the internet (Elateridae 2009) in 2008 based on personal communication with the collector and identifier (P. Nohel). An old alleged record is from somewhere in Moravia (eastern part of the Czech Republic) by Hampe, reported in Fleischer (1927-1930) according to the source above (J. Schlaghamersky pers. comm. 2009).<br/>In Slovakia there have been about 50 specimens collected on 12 different localities, many findings are rather recent (since 1990)  (Elateridae 2009). In Bosnia there is one record (Elateridae 2009).	eng
157807	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Schlaghamersky, J., Dodelin, B., & Büche, B.,, 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>	eng
157808	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is listed on Annex II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs in protected areas; in Finland nearly all localities are in protected areas. It is red-listed as Endangered in Sweden  (2005), the same as in earlier red-list (2000).	eng
157808	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is known from northern and central Europe.	eng
157808	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species needs abundant amounts of dead wood, it has poor dispersal abilities (not eager to fly). The diameter of trunks must be 30-40 cm thick at least. It requires productive forest. In Finland it only lives in primeval spruce forests on moist ground with continuity of abundant fallen spruces. Larval stage three to four years and larvae live under the bark of big fallen spruces.	eng
157808	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	In Sweden <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kolwensis</span> is found at a few fragmented localities (ten localities); several of the localities  have weak populations. In Finland there are more than 20 existing localities known but it disappeared from many earlier localities; many populations are weak and decreasing. In Poland there is only one location. In Estonia there are very old records from early   <span lang="EN-GB">20<sup>th</sup>   century. There is no information about the Russian population.	eng
157808	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is threatened by unsustainable forest management, including forestry clearance, removal of dead and dying trees. Ditching of forests is another threat leading to the drying of the area. In Finland very few suitable habitats for this species are left in managed forests.	eng
157809	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).	eng
157809	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe but absent from the north and extreme south (Bense 1995). It also occurs in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Caucasus, northern Iran, northern Africa and north-western Kazakhstan. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland regions covered with oak forests. In Romania it is widespread and in Portugal it is widespread in the north and centre, but scarcely recorded. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005).<p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <br/><p></p>	eng
157809	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It usually lives on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, secondarily on other trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa</span>; the larvae feed deeply under bark on deadwood, pupating in the sapwood or under the bark. At least in Italy, larval growth appears to be strictly associated with moulds covering the walls of galleries. Adults are usually found on the host trees, rarely at blossom (Sama 2001). <em></em>In Hungary it has been recorded from<em> Quercus robur </em>and <em>Q. </em><em>p</em><em>etraea</em><em> </em>(Kovács 1997); the larvae develop under the bark and in dead wood of branches and trunks. The life cycle is two years; the adults emerge in V-VIII. In European Turkey larvae develop in trunks of <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus conferta </em></strong>(Schimitschek 1953). In France it is monophagous in<em> Quercus </em>including <em>Q. ilex </em>in the south (Villiers 1978). In Romania it has been found especially on the bark of fresh cut oaks near the forest or inside the clear oak forests. In Germany it inhabits mainly oak forests. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>  <br/><p><br/></p><p></p>	eng
157809	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Reports suggest that this species is plentiful in many countries.</p>  <p></p>  In central Europe this species is common and expanding. In particular, in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is common in its localities. In Romania its populations seem to be stable in the central part of the country, where oak forests from hilly areas are very spread. In Ukraine it is common. In France this species has been extending to a large part of the country since 1950-1960; populations are now large and widespread (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). In Spain and Italy it has a scattered distribution and it is not common. In Sweden it is rare but increasing. In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157809	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	Habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removing dead oak wood; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.	eng
157810	conservation	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>More research on this species' habitat preferences and the threats causing its decline are needed. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and Germany (2009), and Vulnerable in Slovakia and Poland (2002).<br/><br/></p>	eng
157810	distribution	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs mostly in the south of eastern and central Europe, reaching some southern countries of western Europe.<br/><br/>In Portugal it was recorded only once from the central part of the country (Aguiar and Serrano 1995). In Italy it is only present on the mainland. The presence is Greece is uncertain.	eng
157810	habitat	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in conifer and mixed forests from the highlands to the montane zone, largely confined to firs and spruces, but occasionally oaks and birches (Laibner 2000). Sometimes related to old-growth but not necessarily. In Austria it is a primeval forest relict, liking cool shady conditions.	eng
157810	population	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is rare throughout its range and its population trend is declining.<br/><br/>In Italy there are only six records. In the Czech Republic it is rare with only a few sites. In Slovakia it is localized and scattered throughout the country (Laibner 2000). In Germany it its very rare and is present in four states (Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia) with records after 1950. In Austria the species as first discovered around 2001.	eng
157810	threats	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>&#160;The species is declining throughout its range but the reasons for this are not known. <br/></p>    <p></p>	eng
157811	conservation	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No specific conservation measures are in place. This species is not recorded from any protected areas.</p>	eng
157811	distribution	Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from the south of the European part of Russia and Ukraine. In Ukraine it is present in Crimea; there is one record from the extreme east of Ukraine in the hills near the Russian border. In the southern part of Russia it is found in the Caucasus region.	eng
157811	habitat	Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in temperate broad-leaved forest and it has been found locally near rivers where there are relatively large trees. Its life cycle is one year and it is a predator under bark, predating on bark beetles.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The biology of this species is unknown but it may be similar to other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nemosoma</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">N. caucasicum, N. elongatum). <br/></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
157811	population	Putchkov, A., 2009	In Ukraine it is considered a very rare species as only a few records exist. There is no information on the trends of this species.	eng
157811	threats	Putchkov, A., 2009	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
157812	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157812	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only known from Cyprus. This species is found in the western part of Cyprus and there is one old record from the north.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; Axinopalpis barbarae barbarae</span> was found only at <st1:placename w:st="on">the Cedar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Valley</st1:placetype> (a small area in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pafos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place> ) at 1,100-1,400 m (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; Axinopalpis barbarae consobrinus </span>was reported from a few locations at the west of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place>: Pomos 200 m, Platres 1,200 (Sama 1992), Timi 50 m, Fylagra 800 m (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).&#160; There is also an old record from Akanthou, an area on <st1:placename w:st="on">Pentadaktylos</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype> at northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Sama 1994).  <p></p>	eng
157812	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.</p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Axinopalpis barbarae barbarae</span> has been found only in <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> forest. This subspecies develops only from dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus brevifolia</span> (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>    <p><span style="font-style: italic;">Axinopalpis barbarae consobrinus </span>has been<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>found in   <em></em>   orchards, maquis, and forests. Develops from <em>Prunus dulcis</em> (Sama 1992) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009) and <em>Rhus coriaria</em> (Sama 1992). </p>	eng
157812	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>It is rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population trend is unknown but, because the species habitat is decreasing, then it is presumed that the species is also declining.	eng
157812	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The two different subspecies breed in different host plants.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ssp barbarae</span> is reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span> which is threatened in Cyprus, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp consobrinus</span> is reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus dulcis</span>, a widespread tree in Cyprus.&#160; Therefore it is considered that the <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp barbarae</span> is threatened by the decline of its host tree, whereas <span style="font-style: italic;">ssp consobrinus</span> appears to be not threatened.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157813	conservation	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific measures are in place or needed. Occurs in at least two National Parks in Spain.<br/></p>	eng
157813	distribution	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is found across southern Europe including some Mediterranean islands. It may have been introduced into Ukraine and Germany. In Portugal it was only recorded in 1981 from three localities in the southern half. This species has its origin in tropical Africa, and today is pan-tropical and naturalized in Brazil and the southern Palearctic region (southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia Minor).	eng
157813	habitat	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in the deadwood of a wide variety of woody plants (including some introduced species such as bamboos, but not in conifers) (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Geis 2002). Adults are crepuscular.<br/></p>	eng
157813	population	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is a relatively widespread species. In Spain alone, 31 localities are recorded. However, few specimens have been collected from each locality (Bahillo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Population size and trend has not been quantified.<br/></p>	eng
157813	threats	Bahillo, P., Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.<p></p>	eng
157814	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is not present in any protected areas. Evaluation of distribution and number of populations are needed.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157814	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to southern Greece (<st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place>) (Bense 1995). It is distributed in the northern and central part of <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place>: Kalavryta environment, Vitina/Menalo Oros environment, and Parnon Oros between Tripoli and Sparti (Hrbek 2007).	eng
157814	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is suggested that the species develops in the dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> and visits flowering shrubs for feeding, especially hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> (G. Novak pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157814	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. There are two subpopulations. The subpopulation in Kalavryta area is small but stable. The northern subpopulation of Vitina (Arcadia) is unclear, presumably declining (J. Schmidl pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157814	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specific major threats to this species. However this species can be affected by forest fires, urbanisation and local land use changes, and these are all impinging on its habitats.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157815	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	No information available.	eng
157815	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003; the type locality (the only site known) is in the centre of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).	eng
157815	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but the precise habitat requirements are not available.	eng
157815	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157815	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157816	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157816	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is believed to be widely distributed in central and eastern Europe (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is found throughout the north of the country and also in Crimea. It is also found in Kazakhstan.	eng
157816	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in broad-leaved temperate forests. The imago is active in V-VI.</p>	eng
157816	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout its European range. It is rare in Ukraine although widespread throughout the north of the country. <br/></p>	eng
157816	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157817	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p>Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are necessary for the conservation of this species. This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Near Threatened in Italy.</p>	eng
157817	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This submediterranean species (Laibner 2000) is known from southern Europe and south of central Europe. It also occurs in Asia Minor and Syria.<br/><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/>In Cyprus it has been </st1:country-region></st1:place>reported from a few localities on the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (500-800 m.): Chrysorrogiatissa (Preiss and Platia 2003), Panagia, Korfi, Laneia, Agia Moni (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>In France the first identification was in 1992; it is known in 7/95 departments in the Mediterranean climate, always rare (Coache and Delnatte 2007).<br/></p>	eng
157817	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying but compact wood in hollows in deciduous trees including fruit trees; in natural, undisturbed formations of deciduous trees in lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000)<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">. In Cyprus </st1:country-region></st1:place>it has been found in orchards and maquis near <em>Quercus infectoria</em>. Adults are attracted to light and to wine traps (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157817	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is rare in Europe.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic it only occurs in the south-eastern part at very few sites. In Slovakia there is a single small area confirmed (Laibner 2000), probably only one single record from 1995. In Cyprus it is <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region>very rare and local. In Italy there is one record only from Sicily (Palermo province) from 1992. In Greece there are sparse records from north and central, locally declining. In Spain there is only one recent record from 2003 in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus suber </span>(threatened habitat).	eng
157817	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Disturbance of natural forests (Laibner 2000), habitat loss, loss of hollow trees and removal of veteran trees are threats to this species.	eng
157818	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Austria, and as Endangered in Germany.	eng
157818	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found sporadically across southern and central Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and northern Iran.	eng
157818	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found very locally and rarely in warm, broad-leaved, often alluvial forests. In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forests. In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone (Drogvalenko 1997). It lives on carpophores of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotaceae </span>fungi on decaying wood. The adult is found mostly in VII-VIII (Drogvalenko 1997). It has been observed on fungi on elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia </span>and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>.<br/><br/>It occurs in old growth forest, it is a relic species. <br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
157818	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>The species is relatively rare, but widespread and can be locally common. In Slovakia there are four records. In France it is known from more than five sites. In Ukraine it is relatively rare, but locally numerous. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; its population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species may be common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157818	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157819	conservation	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157819	distribution	Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs from the south of the Volga River to the west into Zaisan lake and to the east into eastern Russia. It is also found in Kazakhstan, western China (Sindzyan), Uzbekistan and Kirgizia. <a name="OLE_LINK3"><span lang="EN-GB">Less than 1% of the total population occurs in Europe. Most of the population occurs in central Asia (</a><a name="OLE_LINK3">A. Putchkov </a><a name="OLE_LINK3">pers. comm. 2009).</a><span lang="EN-GB">	eng
157819	habitat	Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in steppe forests and occasionally in forests. No information is available on its specific habitat requirements.	eng
157819	population	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157819	threats	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157820	conservation	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	More research and monitoring of the species is recommended. It is listed as Near Threatened in Germany (2009) and as Vulnerable in Italy (Sama 2006).<br/>In Hungary the species occurs in several&#160; protected areas, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157820	distribution	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is distributed in southern and central Europe reaching westwards to northern Spain (Bense 1995). The species is widespread in the  the hilly and mountainous areas of Hungary and in the central part of Romania. In Germany it is present in all German states except the very north. <br/><br/>It also occurs in Asia Minor.	eng
157820	habitat	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in wood in dying and dead, sun-exposed twigs and branches of a wide variety of broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus, Prunus, Rubus, Quercus, Juglans, Corylus</span>). Adults emerge in IV-VI, and are found on the host-plants or attracted to flowers for feeding, especially flowering shrubs. In Hungary this species occurs in thermophilous oak forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has also been found at the edge of forests, and adults have been found on nettle <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span> plants (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in broad-leaved forests, prefers thermophilic situations, often on forest edges. In Italy it is restricted to mountains and natural habitats. <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157820	population	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a usual species is Ukraine. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Romania, although the species is regarded as moderately common in the oak forests in Hungary and quite common in the hilly areas. In the Czech Republic it is rare and its populations are stable with recent records, while in Slovakia it is widespread but localised in southern parts. In Spain it has a scattered distribution and a total of 20 localities. In Italy it is rare with 12 populations only in mainland Italy.	eng
157820	threats	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present.<br/></p>	eng
157821	conservation	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157821	distribution	Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only found in southern Russia.	eng
157821	habitat	Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species.	eng
157821	population	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157821	threats	Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157822	conservation	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed for this species. It occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157822	distribution	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe reaching some countries in western Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only found in the Carpathians, at the fringe of its regional distribution. In Hungary it is found only in the westernmost parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs mainly the eastern Carpathians, in native spruce forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Bayern, Baden-Württemberg.<br/><span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>	eng
157822	habitat	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under bark and in the wood of recently dead or sick stems of large diameter (mature but not old) conifers (especially in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Picea</span>, rarely in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Abies </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus).</span> The life cycle is normally one year, rarely two years, with pupation in V and VI in the wood. Adults emerge in June - September, and are found on host -plants, where they feed on twigs and needles. In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests, which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the habitat of this species, old spruce forest has largely been lost and continues to decline; many adults have been observed on old trunks of spruces which were recently cut from the forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).  In Germany it lives in montane spruce forests.</p>	eng
157822	population	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species appears to have a very restricted distribution in many countries. Nevertheless there is no evidence to suggest that the populations are anything other than stable at present. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, but the species is regarded as rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine and Romania this species is considered rare.<span style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;"></span>	eng
157822	threats	Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., , Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The species is not threatened (e.g. Germany, Hungary, Romania). Its population may have declined in the past when large areas of forest in its range were cut following the second World War. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p></p>	eng
157823	conservation	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	To keep continuous forest areas in the landscape and restore traditional forest management, eg wood-pasture should be promoted. Research on the species ecology and the threats is urgently needed.	eng
157823	distribution	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is found in central and eastern Europe, extending to some countries in the Scandinavian Peninsula. <br/><br/>There are historical records for Germany (uncertain), Czech Republic, Slovakia, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy and Greece; and recent records for Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Belarus and Russia.	eng
157823	habitat	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Europe it occurs only in continuous sub-montane forests, living under the bark of deadwood of conifers, mainly on fir; it has also been found on spruce. The species is probably an indicator for continuous conifer forest and there is no secondary habitat. The species seems to depend on veteran trees.	eng
157823	population	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species has been relatively common in the past, but is now rare throughout its range. Recent distribution is relictual, and the species slowly declines on its western border. It is Extinct in the whole of southern Europe, where only old unconfirmed records exist from before 1900. In Fennoscandia it is Extinct.<br/><br/>In Europe as a whole there are between 10 to 14 current sites, while in the EU there are only four confirmed sites, maybe eight.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species, with just one recent record. In Belarus it is also very rare but there are new records. In Russia there are five recent large sites. In Italy it is very rare, only one to four localities in the southern part (Calabria and Basilicata). In Romania there is one recent record. In the Czech Republic there is only one recent record (five old unconfirmed records). In Slovakia there is only one recent record with a big population (probably one of the most stable populations in Europe). In Poland there are two new localities and about 10-15 historical localities.	eng
157823	threats	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Changes in tree composition, loss of primary habitats and its basic characteristics like dead wood supply and sun-exposure are major threats to this species.   Because the habitat of this species is veteran trees any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The species has a tendency to indicate ecological continuity of forests in Europe. The causes of this species decline are not fully understood. It could be related to the decline of fir trees.	eng
157824	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary, France).	eng
157824	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species occurs throughout much of Europe, excepting parts of the south-west, and north and west (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania and France it is also widespread. In Portugal it is widespread in the north, also recorded from one coastal site in the centre (an old record). In European Turkey it was reported from Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004). In Finland it has a very restricted distribution in the south-western part of the country. In Denmark it is somewhat rare, but distributed in the east of the country (Thomsen 2007). In Germany it is present in all German States. In the UK it is very localized within its range, which occupies much of the southern half of Britain (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157824	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.  Larvae develop in dead, rotten wood, especially at the base of dying or dead stems, in stumps and roots. Polyphagous in conifers (<em>Pinus, Picea, Abies</em>) and broad-leaved trees (<em>Quercus, Fagus, Alnus, Castanea, Malus, Salix, Fraxinus, Betula, Ulmus, Corylus</em>).&#160; The life cycle is at least three years (sometimes four). Mature larvae leave the wood and pupate in early summer in the soil in a cocoon constructed from soil and wood particles. Adults emerge in VII – VIII; they are crepuscular and nocturnal (attracted by light), and remain hidden in the daytime. <br/></p><p>    </p><p>In the UK it favours mature and old oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, open-grown, in permanently damp soils, and so tends to be found through the floodplains as well as in historic parklands and wood pastures (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>. In Romania it occurs in both deciduous and coniferous forests; large populations occur in oak and hornbeam in Transylvania; males have been found on the tree trunks, and females on the soil, during the beginning of July. In the Carpathians, the beetles are active during August (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Turkey larvae develop in conifers and broad-leaved trees (Schimitschek 1953); the life cycle is also three years (Canakcıoglu 1993). In Germany it lives on ground level-deadwood in broad-leaved forests, especially in roots and lower trunk parts. In Denmark it develops almost exclusively on roots of beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157824	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	A widespread and common species in at least parts of its range; although declines have been reported in some areas this species is not thought to be declining at a high rate across Europe as a whole.<br/><br/>In the UK it is very localized within its range, and it appears to have declined in abundance in recent decades; it appears Extinct across the west Midlands (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is a common species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as common in its habitat. In central Romania, there are large populations but during the last 30 years a small decline has been observed.(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified.<p><br/></p>	eng
157824	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	There are no major threats to this species. <br/><br/>In the UK loss of old oaks through the floodplains, as a result of agricultural intensification and especially destruction of hedgerows are a threat to this species; clearance of dead and dying trees, for reasons of tidiness and spurious forest hygiene practices are also a   main factor having a negative impact on this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Hungary habitat loss and fragmentation are occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management; however this is not considered to be a major threat to the species at present (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the clearance of dead and tree-stump from old forests may be one of the threats.	eng
157825	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157825	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in mainland Greece, and also occurs in Turkey and Lebanon. Records are known from Taygetos mountains in <st1:place w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:place> Peninsula and from Falakro area in north-eastern Greece (Thracia).	eng
157825	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is a polyphagous species that lives in deadwood of deciduous tress.	eng
157825	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered to be rare.</p>	eng
157825	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality. Climate change may affect some subpopulations in the future.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157826	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157826	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species has only been reported from Sweden.</p>	eng
157826	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is thought to an obligate saproxylic species, if it is a separate species at all. No information is available on its habitat requirements.	eng
157826	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is no information available on the abundance of this species. This species is only known from a single larva from the type locality in Sweden and the validity of this species is in question.</p>	eng
157826	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157827	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no specific measures in place for this species. The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157827	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout most of Europe, except Britain and Ireland. It is endemic to Europe.	eng
157827	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, found in coniferous woodland and plantations. The larvae develop in decayed wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus,</span> and are found under bark on dead fallen trunks; the larvae hibernate; pupation in bark of underground parts of pine stumps in May-June; adults active in July - August; crepuscular and nocturnal (first half), and are attracted by artificial light. The adults and larvae are predators or necrophagous (scavenge) (Dolin 1982, Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>Confined to vast pine forest complexes (Laibner 2000). In Hungary all records are from pine plantations where dead wood is abundant (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157827	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Widespread but generally uncommon. However it is a clandestine species that is likely to be under-recorded.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species that occupies western and southern regions. It is found locally in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is known from a few localities in the western part of the country and from one locality in the north; the populations of this rare species are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is usually found in low numbers but it is widespread across almost all of the country (excepting the mountains and the western part). In Sweden there are collections from seven sites in the last ten years. In Spain there is very little information; probably rare.	eng
157827	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
157828	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157828	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is believed to be confined to European Russia.	eng
157828	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous, but mostly lives in broad-leaved trees. Larvae develop in dry standing or fallen dead trees, feeding under the bark and later pupating within the wood below (Sama 2002).	eng
157828	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157828	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157829	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).<br/><br/>It is listed as Vulnerable in Denmark (2005). In the UK it also has Conservation Status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992).	eng
157829	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A Palaearctic species, distributed as far north as Sweden, and eastwards discontinuously via the Caucasus and Asia Minor, to Iran to Japan (Laibner 2000). <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Britain confined to the south and south-east of England, although there is one old record from north Wales (Mendel and Clarke 1996). Absent from Ireland.	eng
157829	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist restricted to veteran trees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>; also old fruit trees in orchards.<br/><br/>The larvae develop in soft and very humid white-rotten heartwood and black wood mould, mainly in old open-grown ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus </span>and elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, but also field maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">campestre, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, and other broad-leaved tree species; generally beneath bird nests; in live trees as well as stubs and snags; larvae are saprophagous (Leseigneur 1972) or predators and necrophagous (Dolin 1988); pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult. Adults are active in V-VI and are crepuscular (Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>It lives in naturally preserved forest-steppe formations, flood-plain biotopes and old parks (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it occurs mainly in oak forests where old trunks and stumps with near-ground cavities filled with wood mould are available; sometimes also in other tree species (maple, ash, elm) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine considered a tertiary relict of primary broad-leaved forests. In Britain the sites are generally ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and traditional orchards within the cultural landscape, as well as old forest (Alexander 2002).	eng
157829	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally a rare species with scattered localities across its distribution. Population declines have been noted in at least some areas.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented distribution with about 30 modern localities known across southern and south-eastern England, mostly very isolated, and with a similar number of old sites with no modern confirmation - estimated 50% loss of sites since early 20<sup>th</sup> century (Mendel and Clarke 1996). <span lang="EN-GB">In Spain there are only five known localities, two of which are based on old data (from 1930s) (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2005). <span lang="EN-GB">In France there are small number of localities in old-growth sites. <span lang="EN-GB">In Italy there are fewer than ten known localities, mainly from old records. <span lang="EN-GB">In Germany it is locally Extinct in about half of the federal states; around 20-25 localities in the remainder of the territory. In Denmark it is rare and local; only present in the east (<span lang="EN-GB">National Environmental Research Institute 2007).  <span lang="EN-GB">In Sweden there are only two subpopulations recorded in the last ten years.&#160; <br/><br/>In the Czech Republic there are scattered localities; in Slovakia it is more numerous but still relatively rare (Laibner 2000). In Hungary the populations are sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous areas, but sometimes the individuals are numerous. <span lang="EN-GB"> In Poland there are only two recent localities known. In Ukraine it is a rare species. <span lang="EN-GB">There is no detailed information available for the Greek population.</span></span>	eng
157829	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157830	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157830	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Spain and Italy.	eng
157830	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details are available on habitat preferences..	eng
157830	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157830	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157831	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The conservation measures are strongly linked to fighting Dutch Elm Disease. Revitalisation of floodplain forests and re-establishment of diverse (in&#160; tree species) mesophilous or moist forest stands. Research on how the species can survive on other host plants is recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).	eng
157831	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across central, southern and south-eastern Europe (Bense 1995) and extends to some of the Baltic States and to Russia. <br/><br/>In Hungary and Romania this species is widespread in the hilly, mountainous and lowland regions. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943) and from Kırklareli (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Africa and the Caucasus.<p>    </p><br/><p></p>	eng
157831	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark of diseased and dying stems and branches of broad-leaved trees (predominantly elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, only occasionally in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>); they pupate in shallow cells in the sapwood in the spring (Sama 2002). The life cycle is one or two years. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are predominantly crepuscular and nocturnal; they are found on the leaves, branches and stems of the host-plant. <br/><br/>In Hungary it lives in forests where various species of elm occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from elm forests and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>lime<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> also<span style="font-style: italic;"> poplar Populus</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">It has been reported from </st1:country-region></st1:place><em>Ulmus canescens</em> in Cyprus and in France larvae are only known from elm<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p>    </p><p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place><br/></p><p></p><p></p>	eng
157831	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>It is a widespread, but sporadic species across Europe. There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in some countries but more typically rare and localised..</p>  In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as quite frequent in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <span lang="EN-US">In the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland it is widespread but rare because it is dependent on elms. In France and Switzerland it is widely distributed but very localized in suitable places. In France, it is more abundant in the western and southern part of the country (Villiers 1978). In Romania the known populations are from the eastern and southern part of the country; it is not too frequent (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is not rare, it is known from a few locations from mainland Italy and two localities from Sicily. In Spain it is rare, there are 18 populations only in the north and north-eastern part; it is also present in the Balearic Islands. <span lang="EN-US">In Germany records after 1950 only from Brandenburg, Sachsen-Anhalt and Sachsen. In Cyprus<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US"></st1:country-region></st1:place><span lang="EN-US"> it is very rare and local; only one very old record (1939); it has not been found recently (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified for Turkey.     <p>    </p><p><br/></p><p><br/><span lang="EN-US"></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><br/></span></p><br/>  <p></p>	eng
157831	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>The species is threatened due to Dutch Elm Disease which affects its main host-plants. The removal of sick elms from the forests as well as the danger of elm trees declining are both affecting the species. It is able to go onto other host trees but they are not as appropriate as elms. Forest management such as cutting branches or logging are a further threat.<br/></p>  The replacement of native forests where this species occurs is a threat to this species in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species is not threatened because its host plants are widely available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157832	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	The single and most important population for many decades in the UK is Moccas Park which is a protected site. It is also present in protected areas in Hungary, Romania, etc.<br/><br/>It is included in the British Red Data Book as Endangered although this is very out of date (1987).	eng
157832	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across a band from Fennoscandia and Britain to south eastern Europe, through central and western Europe (Bense 1995). It is also found in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Caucasus, northern Iran.<br/><br/>In Germany is is present in all States. In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it has been reported mainly from the south-western part. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987).<br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from four sites in the northernmost area, only one is recent (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003). In Britain it is primarily known from a restricted area in the England/Wales border counties.<br/><p>In Finland it was recorded in Helsinki during 1917-1919 but only a temporary population in imported timber. Not considered as native species.<br/></p>	eng
157832	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under the bark of dead branches and trunks of broad-leaved trees (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> also in <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, Aesculus, Fagus, Castanea, Ulmus, Malus, Betula</span>). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in autumn or in spring in the wood, sometimes under the bark. Adults are active in V-VI, and are found on the host-plants. In Ukraine adults emerge in IV-VI and eggs are placed under bark and in cracks of wood. The adults are sun-loving beetles, basking in sheltered sunny situations, and active fliers when the air temperature is relatively warm and humid; it is not known to be attracted to blossom. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in various types of oak forests, including managed forests. In Germany it lives in oak forests. In Romania it has been reported from old oaks forests; the occupied logs of trees transported between warehouses may favour the development and increase the number of this species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites are mainly historic parklands and ancient wood pastures, but also it is known from a few woodlands. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
157832	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread and common species over much of Europe with some declining population at the edges of its distribution.<br/><br/>In central Europe it is a very common species. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longicorns in the oak forests. In Romania it is not a common species. In Ukraine it is common, especially in forests and in the steppe-forest zones. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In Italy and Spain it is common and in France it is very common. In the UK it is confined to a small area of mid Wales and neighbouring English counties, but there area strong population here and its range appears to be expanding, although possibly due to incidental translocation by people (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157832	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	Clearance of dead trees and fallen branches could be a threat, especially in range edge situations. Also canopy closure in woodlands, leading to loss of sheltered sunny places for the adults.	eng
157833	conservation	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No conservation actions are needed.	eng
157833	distribution	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is a central European species (Laibner 2000). It is absent from the outer north, west, south and east countries.	eng
157833	habitat	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in conifer forests from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). The larvae develop in red-rotting dead trees.	eng
157833	population	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species seems to be common with stable populations in its core area, rarer at the fringes. In the Czech Republic it occurs in mountain ranges in the north and south-west with several localities. In Slovakia it is found mainly in High Tatra mountains and central Slovakia with several locations. In Italy it is occurring in the north only with two localities - new records to the Italian fauna. In Germany it is present in the Bavarian Forest and a recent survey registered more than 300 specimens; it is not rare in its habitat (Jarzabek-Müller and Müller 2008).	eng
157833	threats	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157834	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>In Finland the recently discovered population has been given protection by the establishment of a protected area (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm.   2009). Habitat restoration and site management are recommended to ensure that this species' habitats are well managed and not drained. Logging is a threat, especially in western Russia and site protection is recommended.<br/></p>	eng
157834	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is only found in north-eastern Europe, in the Baltic States and Russia. In Finland, the species was only known from one or two specimens found in the 1950s and considered Regionally Extinct in Finland until recently when a population was recently discovered. In Russia, recent records in Russian Karelia. It is not thought to occur in south-western Russia. Records from Estonia and Latvia are not recent, and no recent records are known. This may be due to declines or lack of survey data. However, this species' habitat is suspected to be in decline.	eng
157834	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species found in the southern boreal zone (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm.   2009). It is associated with aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>. Larvae develop in the soft parts of large standing dead trees with white rot, diameter 110-130 cm. It has been found in dry parts of about 5 m high stump with white rot; also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>stump. Beetles are found in wood and on cut surfaces. Larval development takes more than one year (Muona 1993). In Finland all new records are associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> growing on moist areas.	eng
157834	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is a very rare species, and much of its habitat has been destroyed or altered (large aspen trees removed and moist areas for <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> drained) so it is likely to be in decline particularly in Finland and Russia. Declines in Russia are likely due to logging. Throughout the rest of its European range the species is not well known. In Finland has been considered as Extinct, but there are some newly found small populations. In the provisional list, the species is Endangered because although its habitat is protected in the area where it is found in south of Finland, outside this area the habitat is likely to be declining.</p>	eng
157834	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p>  <p></p><p>Close association with aspen suggests that standard forestry practice of selective removal of non-commercial species may be a threat. In Finland the known localities are in the surroundings of Helsinki and are threatened by many kinds of land use (building roads etc.). Due to the severe fragmentation of this species it is susceptible to stochastic events.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157836	conservation	Alexander,KNA., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place other than FSC general guidelines on deadwood management.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary and UK). It is considered as Endangered in Italy and as Vulnerable in Sweden and Germany.	eng
157836	distribution	Alexander,KNA., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This Euro-Caucasian (Laibner 2000) species is found throughout much of Europe.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Germany and southern Britain.	eng
157836	habitat	Alexander,KNA., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under loose bark on deadwood of various broad-leaved trees, most frequently in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; and sometimes in the relatively soft rotting heartwood beneath the bark; it is a predator of longhorn beetle (Cerambycidae) larvae and probably other insects; at least two summers are spent in the larval stage in southern England; it pupates in May-June; the adults are very short-lived, active in VII-VIII, crepuscular and nocturnal, attracted to light (Dolin 1982, Alexander 2002). <br/><br/>In naturally preserved forest complexes of various composition, also in old orchards from lowlands to submontane zone (Laibner 2000). In Hungary it lives in broad-leaved forests, mainly oak and beech. In Britain, mostly in ancient wood pastures, historic parklands and traditional orchards in the cultural landscape; but also in old forest (Alexander 2002).	eng
157836	population	Alexander,KNA., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species across Europe with stable populations in most of the range. The population size tends to be underestimated because the adults are active at night and regularly recorded by light trapping.<br/><br/>In the UK it is widespread in the central and south-eastern part of England, extending into Wales; its distribution is fragmented but there are strong populations (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it appears sporadically and there are new recent records of larvae while in Slovakia it is more common (Laibner 2000). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and has strong populations in its habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Sweden there are four subpopulations while in Denmark it is common and distributed especially in the southern part (National Environmental Research Institute 2007). In Italy it is rare and has a declining population. In Ukraine this species is distributed in the Carpathians and in the central forest-steppe zone.	eng
157836	threats	Alexander,KNA., Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>There are no major threats.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157838	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Italian Red List. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area. Additional studies are required to determine the extent of occurrence of this species.<br/></p>	eng
157838	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	It is believed to be endemic to Sicily (Bense 1995) where it is known from five localities. However, there are also two records in Greece (J. Schmidl pers. comm. 2009) and old records from the European part of&#160; Turkey (exact locality unknown) (Winkler 1924-1932), but some experts believe that these may be mistaken records for other, related, species. It may be present in Cyprus and northern Africa (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157838	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Develops in maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>species, the larvae feeding under the bark on dead sections of tree trunks (Bense 1995).	eng
157838	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is difficult to find in the wild so it is difficult to make estimates of its population abundance or trends. <br/></p>	eng
157838	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157839	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place.   Further studies are needed into the distribution and abundance of this species. The species occurs in a protected area, but does not appear to be covered by that protection.     <p></p>	eng
157839	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in Cyprus.<st1:country-region w:st="on"> It has been r</st1:country-region>eported from the south and west slopes of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> (300-1,200 m) in Cedar Valley, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Orites</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Eledio, Kellaki, Odou (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157839	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This beetle is found in maquis with <em>Quercus coccifera, </em>also in <em>Pinus brutia </em>and <em>Cedrus brevifolia</em> forests with understory of <em>Quercus alnifolia</em><em>. </em>Larvae develop in branches and twigs of <em>Quercus coccifera </em>and<em> Quercus alnifolia</em>. Adults found on the host plants. Its status as a saproxylic is in doubt as the larvae are thought to develop in live woody tissues rather than dead one.	eng
157839	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">This species is </st1:place></st1:country-region>very rare and local (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). It is considered that its population is decreasing.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157839	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This species appears not to be threatened because it develops in twigs of a common maquis shrub. However forests fires and urbanization may severely affect the population.<br/></p>	eng
157840	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157840	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is only found in the southern part of central Europe from northern Italy to Austria and Croatia.	eng
157840	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Almost certainly develops in fruiting bodies of wood-decay fungi. The type series was found on old oaks by sifting.	eng
157840	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is no information on the abundance of the species. It seems to have been collected in numbers by Reitter in the 1880s, but it is unclear whether it was ever found again. It is possible, that one and the same occurrence (type locality: Trieste) is the basis of all three country records (Trieste was Austria, now Italy from 1818 on, and the territory was claimed by former Yugoslavia as well). <br/> </p>	eng
157840	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157841	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157841	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species has very restricted occurrence in Europe. It is thought to be found in Russia but the exact distribution through Russia is unknown. Its range through Russia is suspected to be in the west-central region (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009). It may be present in one locality in southern Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157841	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no specific information known about its habitat requirements.</p>	eng
157841	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157841	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157843	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>      There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in several protected areas. </p>	eng
157843	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species has a circum-Mediterranean distribution, mainly in Italy and southern France (Bense 1995). It has been found in Serbia only from Fruška Gora Mountains.<br/><br/>The species also occurs in Africa.	eng
157843	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160; Larvae develop in dry wood. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Quercus, Sorbus, Crataegus, Ilex, Sambucus, Ficus, Robinia, Fagus, Buxus, Prunus, Ulmus, Corylus, Carpinus, Paliurus</em>). The adults are active in IV-VI, and feed at flowers.</p>	eng
157843	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In France is not an uncommon species. In Italy the species is widespread and common. In Spain it is rare as it is only known from one locality. The population trend for this species is considered stable.</p>	eng
157843	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/><p></p>	eng
157844	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157844	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution across most of Europe; absent from Britain, Ireland and the far west of Europe. Endemic to Europe according to Fauna Europaea (2004).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and in the Carpathians.	eng
157844	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Beetles have been found in deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus, Fraxinus, Quercus, Salix</span> (Muona 1993). Larvae inhabit white-rotted heartwood. May be found in small as well as large trees. In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in branches of broad-leaved trees with decay fungi. Larvae may hibernate. The adult beetle is active in June - July (  Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1996). <br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs mainly in soft-wood lowland forests (willow and poplar galleries), but also in oak forests.	eng
157844	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Endemic to Europe, where the species is localised, but not uncommon in suitable habitat in some areas (e.g. in France).<br/><br/>In Ukraine this species is very rare. In Hungary the species is known from a few localities of the hills and the forested areas of the lowlands; the populations have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as quite rare in its localities. In Sweden only two specimens have been collected from two locations. In Italy it has been found only in the northern part; one doubtful record from Sardinia. In Spain there are only old records (before 1930) (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/>It is found throughout most of mainland France, with 40-50 localities known.	eng
157844	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
157845	conservation	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available. Probably none needed.<br/></p>	eng
157845	distribution	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is distributed from south-eastern Europe to eastern Asia (China, Korea). It is frequently introduced into northern America, but is not yet naturalized there. It occurs in the south of Russia and in the Caucasus: Georgia (Sama 2002). It also occurs in north-eastern Ukraine (Danilevsky 2007).<br/><br/>It is considered a pest imported from China and it remains unknown if the species is native in eastern Europe.	eng
157845	habitat	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. campestris</span> has a wide host range (willow, fruit trees, birch, probably others). Larvae develop in drying wood, but eggs may be laid at seemingly healthy trees (it is an early colonizer of dying wood). Development is possible in very dry wood, and the adults may hatch after the wood has been worked. Considered a quarantine pest in northern America.	eng
157845	population	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>The species is recorded as fairly common in the Orenburg area (Russia) but there is little information available on the abundance of this species in other regions.</p>	eng
157845	threats	Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is considered to potentially be a serious pest, imported from China around the world. <br/>  </p>	eng
157846	conservation	Dodelin, B., Mason, F. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are needed.<br/></p>	eng
157846	distribution	Dodelin, B., Mason, F. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995); it is widespread from northern Africa to southern France and Italy; locally in central Europe (Slovakia) and Balkans southward to Peloponnese; old records from Hungary, Romania and Crimea never confirmed (Sama 2002).	eng
157846	habitat	Dodelin, B., Mason, F. & Istrate, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Extremely polyphagous on broad-leaved trees; larval development is in dead dry wood of branches of nearly all broad-leaved trees and shrubs (examples include <em>Pistacia, Ceratonia, Ostrya, Carpinus, Ulmus, Robinia, Prunus, Acacia</em>); adults emerge in VI-VIII and feed at various flowers (Sama 2002). It is also found in tree plantations and orchards.<br/><br/>In France it shows clear preference for <em>Pistacia</em> (Villiers 1978).	eng
157846	population	Dodelin, B., Mason, F. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>It is a widespread and common species across much of its European range.</p>In Spain and Italy it is common, with many localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from just four localities in the northern half (two old and two recent). It is rare in Crimea.	eng
157846	threats	Dodelin, B., Mason, F. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157847	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157847	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is only known from two states: Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro.	eng
157847	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a facultative saproxylic species developing either in decaying stumps of broad-leaved trees or in forest soil with deep litter layer. It appears not to be a true saproxylic but has been retained as its ecological requirements are not well known.<br/></p>	eng
157847	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157847	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P.,  Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157848	conservation	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas in Hungary, so no specific measures are necessary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from non protected areas (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The species is not considered threatened in Germany. FSC Guidelines should promote conservation.	eng
157848	distribution	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This species is widespread across Europe from France to south-eastern Europe; it is absent from much of the north and south (Bense 1995). In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it was reported from the hilly areas in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). It has also been reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).	eng
157848	habitat	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Alnus, Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Ostrya, Corylus, Prunus, Ulmus, Juglans, Rosa, Malus, </em><span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus, Vitis</span>) and shrubs (vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>). Larvae develop under the bark of dead twigs and&#160; branches. Life cycle takes two years, with pupation in spring, in the wood. Adults emerge in May - July, and are found on host- plants and feeding at flowers. In Hungary this species occurs in various deciduous forest types, mainly in thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives in in oak and beech forests (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). This species only appears in early spring when entomologists are mostly not out in the field, and hence it tends to be under-recorded.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
157848	population	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	The species is uncommon across its range. It is considered uncommon in Italy and in the Balkans (Sama 2002); also in Romania. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified but it is quite rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare.It is present in all German states, but for Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein there are only old records.	eng
157848	threats	Nieto, A., Mannerkoski, I., Putchkov, A., Tykarski, P., Mason, F., Dodelin, B. & Tezcan, S. , 2009	Habitat loss and fragmentation is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment and forest management (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The major threat in Romania is the replacement of native oak forests with others species (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157849	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>This species occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.<br/></p>	eng
157849	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	This species only occurs in the Portuguese and Spanish archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean, Madeira and Canary Islands, respectively. Endemic to the Canary Islands and Madeira.	eng
157849	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Occurs in laurisilva forest; typically inhabits deadwood of laurels <span style="font-style: italic;">Laurus</span> and willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>; also <span style="font-style: italic;">Persea indica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Apollonias barbujana</span>. <br/></p>	eng
157849	population	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>This species has a restricted distribution, but it is apparently common where it occurs, with many known localities.<br/></p>	eng
157849	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. This species inhabits <span style="font-style: italic;">Apollonias barbujana </span>trees<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>which are utilized for luxury furniture. However, this species remains widespread in the Canary Islands and is not thought to be under immediate threat, although this situation may change in the shorter term.<br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157850	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157850	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across central and southern Europe. It is also found in Caucasus and Turkey.	eng
157850	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is known from the deadwood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span>; in standing trees, logs and branches; wood hard, always with cerambycid galleries, presence of the fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Poria</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">purpurea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Stereum insignitum</span> observed (Muona 1993). In Hungary the habitats of the known populations are closed, mature oak and beech forests (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). The biology of this species in Ukraine is unknown.	eng
157850	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	The species seems to be rare throughout its range. In Hungary the species is known to occur only in the southern part of the country (Baranya county); all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Slovakia known from two localities. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, and is rare. In Slovakia there are only in two faunistic grid cells in the extreme east (border to the Ukranian Carpathians) (Elateridae 2009). In Spain it is known only from one locality close to the Pyrenees (Recalde Irurzun 2008).&#160; In France there are two localities only in the Atlantic Pyrenees (Iraty and Sare) discovered in 1994 and 1995 (Lucht and Chassain 1998).	eng
157850	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157851	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N.,  Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157851	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N.,  Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is believed to be confined to the Balkans (Bense 1995) where it is widely distributed. Although it is described from Hungary this species probably does not occur in Hungary (Sama 2002). It has been reported from the European part of Turkey without giving exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).	eng
157851	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N.,  Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its development is inadequately known; the larvae are said to feed in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>deadwood. Adults have been found feeding at thistle blossom (Bense 1995). This is a relic species (Schmidt 1961). In Greece it has been found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>in Turkey on oak.	eng
157851	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N.,  Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species, however its population may be inferred to be stable on the basis that it requires only oak branches and twigs which are a regularly renewed habitat. It is rare (Sama 2002) but widespread. Very few individuals have been found - the species may be difficult to find, as it lives in branches and twigs and do not require veteran trees.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157851	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N.,  Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There currently appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157852	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157852	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species occurs on Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is also reported to occur in Corsica by the CKmap 2000 database (2009).	eng
157852	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species but no details on its precise habitat requirements are available.	eng
157852	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157852	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157853	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in Slovakia and the Czech Republic and as Vulnerable in Germany (2009). Further studies are needed into the abundance, ecology, and threats to this species. Its status in Britain needs clarification.	eng
157853	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe (on east to the Carpathians). It is also found in northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Romania there are old reports from the eastern part of the country. In Portugal it is widespread in the northern half, undetermined in the south. In Denmark it is very local and there is only one locality in the south. Its British status is unclear and the few records suggest repeated casual introductions into the south-east.	eng
157853	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in hollow trees of broad-leaved species, and the adults feed at flowers. It lives in broad-leaved and mixed forests which is not so scarce in Europe.	eng
157853	population	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread species relatively common and with stable populations in Europe.<br/><br/>In France it is widely distributed. In Spain it is quite abundant in mountainous areas around the country. In the Czech Republic it is very rare. In the UK it is an irregular vagrant only, erratic in appearance. <br/><p><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a>    </p>	eng
157853	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The species does not appear to be particularly threatened over much of its European range, but there are certainly significant pressures on its habitat.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157854	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is found in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). More research is needed to clarify the distribution and abundance of this species.	eng
157854	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is known from central and northern Europe, extending to south-eastern Europe. Also present in the eastern Palaearctic (not a European endemic).	eng
157854	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Found in white-rotted twigs, branches and trunks of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, hazel <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> and other broad-leaved species. Prefers damp areas. Nearly full grown larvae have been found in small, white-rotted twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(diameter two cm) on the ground; also in dry, relatively hard surface wood of standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus </span>(diameter four cm) with early signs of white rot, larvae at base, which was surrounded by moist leaf litter (larvae small). Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix caprea</span> in Germany. Full grown larvae live in soft surface wood; development takes at least two years. Evidently the eggs are laid in still hard wood, but already colonised by decay fungi, which is soft by the time the larvae are full grown (Muona 1993). In Ukraine the species develops in humid branches of oak and nut-trees lying on ground (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Ukraine it has been found in the east forest-steppe (Kharkov region) and in the mountains of Crimea (Drogvalenko 2001). In Hungary the habitats of the known localities are various open forests.	eng
157854	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Generally appears to be a rare and very localised species (but is possibly under-recorded as it is not easy to find even when it is present). Population trend is unknown.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is very rare. In Hungary this species is known from very few localities in hilly regions; the known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Finland and Sweden it is very rare and scattered with few records; in Sweden it is only found in the south. In Germany it is only found in the south and is present in two federal States (formerly occurred in two additional States but has become Extinct there); considered very rare. In Slovakia it is known from four localities, two of them are known only from old data (pre-1950). In France there are seven known localities. In Italy it occurs in the north.	eng
157854	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The species appears to be under no significant threat at the European level, although is rare and localised in many states. The decaying stems do not need to be particularly large.</p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157856	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>It is not known if the species occurs in any protected area and there is no information on the conservation measures.</p>	eng
157856	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is found in Crete, in the far eastern part of&#160;Ukraine and southern Russia. It is also present in Bulgaria, Romania and Kazakhstan (Özdikmen 2008).	eng
157856	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that lives in temperate shrubland or widely spaced forest. Very little is known about its biology.<br/></p>	eng
157856	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This species is very rare in Ukraine and there is no information about its trends. Only two specimens were collected from Ukraine (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157856	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>There is no information on the threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157857	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is unknown if the species is present within any protected areas.</p>	eng
157857	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the French and Italian Mediterranean Islands of Sardinia and Corsica.	eng
157857	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Presumably larvae develop in decaying wood. Adults are attracted to flowers for feeding.	eng
157857	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157857	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>No information available.<br/></p>	eng
157858	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>No specific conservation measures for this species are known.</p>	eng
157858	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	This species is widespread across south and south-eastern Europe. It is also present in the old Yugoslavia area (Bense 1995) and in Near East.	eng
157858	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forests, and is particularly prevalent in the lowlands (Sama 2006). No information is available on the size of dead oak timber required nor on the open-ness of trees in its habitats.<br/></p>	eng
157858	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157858	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157859	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Habitat continuity and connectivity are required. It lives in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). The species is legally protected in Hungary. It is listed as Endangered in Germany (2009) and the Czech Republic.	eng
157859	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread in southern, central and eastern Europe, and present in the north as well. Sub-fossil material has been found in a peat-bog in Denmark where the species no longer occurs (Paulian and Baraud 1982).<br/><br/>In eastern Europe it occurs from south Belarus, middle Russia to Ural (on east). In Ukraine it lives in forests and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones. In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and in the lowlands where extensive forests occur. In Romania it is widespread in all regions, from lowland with grass and small forests up to the low mountains. In Italy it is present in mainland and Sicily.<br/><br/>In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> <em>Protaetia aeruginosa</em> does not occur<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>; it was reported from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> erroneously as a result of misidentification of <em>Protaetia</em><em> </em><em>(Cetonischema)</em><em> speciosa</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). <em>Cetonischema speciosa marchei</em> has been described as an endemic subspecies of Cyprus (Alexis and Delpont 1999).	eng
157859	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually in the trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Suitable cavities may occur high up the host trees. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions are not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. The adults are active in V-IX, fly during warm days, and are very attracted by sap-runs; they usually live in the canopy of trees.<br/><br/>In central Europe it is linked to thermophilous oak forests. In Hungary it occurs in various broad-leaved forests types where hollow trunks are abundant; especially frequent in riverine willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs especially where there are a lot of old oaks with large hollows. In France this species in found only in large broad-leaved forests in plains (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Spain it is linked to large forested areas of deciduous species in which their larvae develop. In Ukraine larvae develop in stubs and decayed wood of oak and fruit trees;&#160; in old forests and gardens, the adults are rarely found at flowers.	eng
157859	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species appears to be rare over much of its European range and, although the overall population trend remains unknown, it is known that it is declining in some parts while increasing in others. There is recent evidence that it is not as rare as previously thought, in some areas at least, once appropriate trapping techniques have been applied. However, hollow trees are known to be becoming increasingly scarce across Europe and so a downward trend in abundance and number of localities may be expected to be occurring.<br/><br/>The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. In Romania there are large populations where old forest and meadows are still present - the species needs bright oak forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France the the use of window traps and traps with wine placed at high level in old oaks has resulted in the recent discovery of new populations (R. Allemand pers. comm. 2009).This species is extremely rare in the Iberian Peninsula where rarity is probably related to the decline of the forests they inhabit, and the current distribution is probably a relict population of a formerly much greater range. In Greece it is currently rare and continues declining. In the Czech Republic it is rather rare and is only occurring in a few areas, but although the species is very rare, it is expanding. There is no population data for Italy. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157859	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Removal of old trees and habitat fragmentation are major threats to this species, for example in Spain. Also the excessive use of insecticides is a local threat (Greece). In Ukraine the destruction of old trees, where larvae develop, are posing a threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aeruginosa.</span> In Hungary, although removing dead wood occurs in several localities, the species does not seem to be threatened; invasive trees in riverine galleries are more dangerous.</p>	eng
157860	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania, UK). There are no specific measures in place; however general management guidelines for forestry operations include retaining old native trees and decaying wood in selected areas, also on cutting regimes appropriate to ride-sides.	eng
157860	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This Eurosiberian species is widespread across nearly all of Europe. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs only in the westernmost part of the country while, in Romania, it is widespread in the low parts of the Carpathians. In Ukraine it also occurs in the Carpathians and in the forest zone. In Russia it occurs in the forest area. <br/><br/>It is also found in Caucasus, northern Kazakhstan, Siberia, far East, northern China and Japan.	eng
157860	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould of decayed heartwood in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>stumps in Britain; it prefers mixed broad-leaved woods in steep-sided river valleys; adults feed on pollen from tall flowering herbs in open sunny areas close to breeding sites, flying in daylight (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the larvae also prefer <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, but also develop in wood and stubs of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; one generation per year; adults active in VI-VIII and feeding at flowers of Umbelliferae and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus, Rosa, Filipendula, Leucantheum </span>(Medvedev 1964). In Romania the life cycle is two or three years and the adults are active in VI-IX (Nikitsky<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1996); adults can be found on the flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus ebulus</span>. In Spain larvae have been found in beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus silvatica</span>; adults feed on Umbelliferae, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus, Rubus, Cirsium.</span> In Hungary it occurs in mixed (conifer and broadleaved) forests where dead wood is abundant and flowers on clearings are available.	eng
157860	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">T. fasciatus</span> is a common species in Europe with stable populations throughout its range.<br/><br/>In the UK there are strong populations centred on areas of Scotland and Wales, with no evidence for any declines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is relatively rare - especially in the eastern part. In Russia it is common. In Spain it is quite abundant but only in the forests in the north. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the population is large in size. In Switzerland it is very common, and in Sweden and Finland it is common.	eng
157860	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<p>This species faces no major threats at present.<br/></p>Clearance of old birches, as a result of afforestation for commercial forestry for instance, is a potential threat to this species; also loss of flowery glades and ride-sides through, for example, insensitive cutting and mowing. In Spain forest fragmentation and loss of flowery glades are threatening this species.	eng
157861	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157861	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe except in the far west (Bense 1995). It is also found in Siberia, Mongolia, possibly in the Caucasus, Minor Asia, North America and northern Africa.<br/><br/>It occurs throughout the northern half of the Iberian peninsula (Vives 2001); also in the south of the Iberian Peninsula: Andalucia (Verdugo 2004), Extremadura, Castilla La Mancha, Murcia, Valencia (Gonázales<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). In Portugal it is widespread throughout the country, most of the records are recent. In France it is largely distributed but more common in the south (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is widespread in the country wherever indigenous (western Hungary) or planted (in all other parts of Hungary) pine forests occur. Its range is expanding (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is present in nearly all German States. In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathians where occur pine forests. The exact locality of this species in European Turkey is unknown.	eng
157861	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae are mostly monophagous on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus; </span>they develop under the bark and in the wood of dying and recently dead thin stems, branches and trees. The life&#160; cycle is usually one or two years, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX, found on the wood of the host-plant and on brushwood, where they feed on green bark and on needles. Pupal stage is two or three weeks, in May-June. In Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Pinus </em></strong>(Erdem 1968) and in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Picea orientalis</em></strong> (Schimitschek 1953) - the adults active in VI and the life cycle is one year (Erdem 1968).</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary it lives in native and planted pine forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) and in Romania in native pine forests.&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
157861	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>A common species in at least parts of its range, which benefits from forestry practices (plantation of conifers) in many areas. Population trend is increasing.</p>    <p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Hungary</st1:place></st1:country-region> the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather common on suitable localities; new populations in planted pine forests are continuously becoming known (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> this species has been expanding at least since 1945, following the pine plantations (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009, Villiers 1978). For European Turkey the population size and trend have not been quantified. In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region> it is rare. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
157861	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This species is expanding in planted pine forests, and not threatened at all. </p>	eng
157863	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157863	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe, throughout much of central and eastern Europe, westwards to western Europe, and reaching northern countries. This species is also found in the Caucasus, Armenia, Iran and north-eastern Turkey.<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions of the country, wherever indigenous or planted spruce forests occur. In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathian Mountains. In Denmark it is distributed in the south and spreading (Thomsen 2007) and in Switzerland it is widespread. It is present in all German States. In Spain this species is restricted to the Pyrenees (Vives 2001).	eng
157863	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. <br/></p><p>It develops in conifers (<em>Abies, Picea Pinus, Larix</em>). Larvae develop first in and later under the dry bark of dead, sun exposed branches and stems (often of 15-30 cm diameter). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood or in the thick bark. Adults emerge in V-VIII, found on the host plants and flowers. <br/></p><p>In Hungary it lives in indigenous and planted spruce forests. In Romania it has been reported from native and planted spruce forest; the beetles have been found in the hilly and mountain areas.</p>	eng
157863	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species with a stable population in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary and Romania the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common in its localities. It is common in Switzerland, France, Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. In Sweden and Ukraine it is rare. In the UK it is a naturalised introduction which is widespread in southern and south-eastern England.	eng
157863	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats.	eng
157864	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available. Part of the population occurs in a protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157864	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Crete (Bense 1995). It is found in the western part of Crete.	eng
157864	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives is <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span> (Kermes oak), developing in the deadwood of stumps and&#160; trunks.<br/></p>	eng
157864	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The species is rare. The population status and trend are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157864	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Deforestation of oaks is a major threat to this species. Also charcoal production and grazing goats are a threat.<br/></p>	eng
157865	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place, and it does not occur in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and threats to this poorly-known species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157865	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The European population is less than 1% of the total global population. The species ranges from northern Africa to Near East and Turkey.<br/><br/>The exact distribution of this species in Europe is unknown. It is believed to live in the Dodecanes islands, but it remains unknown on which. <span style="text-decoration: underline;"></span>This species is also found in Cyprus, but only a few old records from Nicosia (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157865	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.<st1:country-region w:st="on"> </st1:country-region>It lives in old hollow trees (rot holes). There is no information on the habitats and ecology of this species in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:country-region></st1:place> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157865	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Greece this species has been reported from Dodecanes islands, there is no information on population.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region></p><p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it has not been found </st1:place></st1:country-region>recently. Probably it is extinct from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Cyprus</st1:place></st1:country-region> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157865	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>Lack of old hollow trees is a major threat. Also urbanisation.<br/></p>	eng
157866	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is largely neglected by conservation in Britain as habitat conservation there is very polarised, protecting 'woods', 'grasslands', etc, rather than habitat mosaics, and treating thorn as undesirable in grassland reserves; the conservation of traditional orchards is in its infancy (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157866	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across central and eastern Europe, reaching westwards to England, northwards into southern Sweden, and south west into north east Spain (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Caucasus, Iran, north-eastern Turkey, south Turkmenistan, Russia on east to south Ural Mountains.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is present in all German States. In Britain it has a very localised and patchy distribution, largely confined to southern England and south-east Wales. In Spain it is found in four localities in the Pyrenees (Vives 2001); also known in Castilla y Leon (Soria) and Galicia (Lugo) (Gonzáles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
157866	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop under bark on dead twigs, branches and thin trunks. The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in late summer in the wood. Adults emerge in V-VII, and are attracted to flowers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rosaceae</span>). It develops in broad-leaved trees and shrubs (<em>Castanea, Malus, Prunus, Cornus, Quercus</em>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Amelancher</span>, dog-rose <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa</span>, and bramble <span style="font-style: italic;">Rubus</span>). It is mainly associated with woody Rosaceae in Britain; adults are attracted to white blossom of umbellifers, elder <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>, dogwood <span style="font-style: italic;">Cornus</span>, etc.<br/></p><p>In Hungary it lives in light forests, mainly in ecotonal situations, where larvae develop in dead branches Rosaceae and other shrubs, and adults visit blossoming shrubs and herbs. In Britain it favours open sunny situations such as thorn scrub and bramble on the edge of woodlands, in old orchards, old hedgerows, etc (Alexander 2002). In Romania it lives in the high hills, where it is present in <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosa canina</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>; it can also be found in the mountains, very rare.</p>	eng
157866	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species relatively common but with a declining population trend in Europe.<br/><br/>In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as common on its localities.&#160; In Ukraine it is a common species.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very restricted distribution; about four main English concentrations of reports, one extending into south-eastern Wales, plus a few outliers; the range is apparently contracting, and it appears to have been lost from many areas; only about 25 modern records (Twinn and Harding 1999). In Denmark it is somewhat rare, often near the coasts (Thomsen 2007).	eng
157866	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S. & Méndez, M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species, although local threats in certain areas include: in the UK habitat loss and insensitive land management as well as clearance of thorn scrub, destruction of old orchards, heavy trimming on old hedgerows and wood edges, and loss of rough areas generally, are all threatening this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009); in Hungary habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of urban encroachment, but this is not considered to be a major threat to this common species.	eng
157867	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157867	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is known to have a patchy distribution in most of Europe; it is absent from Britain and Ireland, and the far west of Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians. In Spain it is present in the north and northeastern part (Recalde Irurzun 2008).	eng
157867	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It has been reared from large beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>with moist, white-rotten heartwood. Beetles have been found in pupal cells in a large <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>log with white-rotten wood. Also reported from <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>. Larvae have been found 10-30 cm deep in the wood. Development takes probably two years (Muona 1993). In Ukraine and Russia this species develops in decayed wood (white stage) of lying trunks (without bark) of aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tremula</span>, rarely oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae hibernate. Pupation at spring. Adults active at May - July (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in broad-leaved forests, especially in beech and oak, but also in species of willow and poplar (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157867	population	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is stable to increasing.<br/><br/>It occurs throughout most of France, with a large number of known sites; common. In Germany it is considered common, population is increasing and expanding its range.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species. In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there are six localities, mostly recent (Recalde Irurzun 2008).	eng
157867	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>This species faces no major threats.<br/></p>	eng
157868	conservation	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are measures that should be promoted for the conservation of this species. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Slovakia and as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009).</p>	eng
157868	distribution	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is found in some countries in central, eastern and southern Europe (Laibner 2000); it appears to be a central European species, and is absent from countries to the north, west, south and east.	eng
157868	habitat	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying wood; largely confined to old damaged oaks, sometimes poplars and horse chestnuts, scattered in broad-leaved and mixed forests of lowlands and highlands (Laibner 2000).	eng
157868	population	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>The species is rare in Europe. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is locally across the whole territory (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is present in seven States, six of them with records after 1950, its population is declining and it is probably the same situation in Austria. In Italy there is only one record in the north. In France there are approximately 20 localities, with a large and well studied population in the Fôret de Fontainebleau, rare everywhere else in France.<br/></p><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157868	threats	Horák, J., Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>    </p>Removal of old dead trees and dying off of old veteran trees with rot holes are major threats to this species. In addition, no provision of substitutes because of demographic gap, especially of oak trees suitable to develop rot-holes, lead to very little suitable habitat available for this species. Removal of trees because of road safety, unintended or intended demolition of rot-holes or intensive forest management are additional threats.<br/>  <p></p>	eng
157869	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is considered as Endangered in Finland. Maintenance of fire-continue areas in eastern Finland can be beneficial for this species. </p>	eng
157869	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species occurs in north-eastern Europe extending to the European region of Russia.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157869	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Based on the limited known records of this species, it is suspected to rely on old growth forests, particularly pine forests. One record has been found in a burned area so it is suspected that this may be a habitat preference or even requirement for the species.	eng
157869	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is a very rare species within eastern-most Finland. Fewer than ten specimens have been found in Finland, from four localities (E. Hyvärinen and I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).&#160; The first record of the species in Finland is from the1920s and a few recent records have been found due to increased intensity of sampling (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009). There is no information about its distribution and abundance in Russia. No information is known about the trends of this species.</p>	eng
157869	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>The suspected habitat type is known to be declining and predicted to continue declining due to logging and inappropriate fire management (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157870	conservation	Nieto, A.,Alexander, K., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Vulnerable in Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.	eng
157870	distribution	Nieto, A.,Alexander, K., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is found throughout much of Europe, in central and southern Europe. It also occurs in the Caucasus and Turkey.	eng
157870	habitat	Nieto, A.,Alexander, K., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Its habitat is broad-leaved forests with veteran trees and wood-decaying fungi. It can live in small dimensions of dead wood. In Ukraine beetles have been found on carpophores of wood-decay fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus alveolarius, Lentinus tegrinus</span> (Drogvalenko 1997). In other places beetles inhabit fungi <span style="font-style: italic;">Lentinus betulina, Pleurotus pulmonarius, P. ostreatus </span>(Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).	eng
157870	population	Nieto, A.,Alexander, K., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species seems to be common in eastern Europe and scarce in other European countries. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, much rarer in the lowlands. Population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as not uncommon in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is common in the Carpathians. In Germany it has increased the number of records. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia it is rare. In Ukraine it is relatively a rare species; was collected in the Kharkov region. In Portugal it was first recorded from the country very recently, from the extreme north (Soares-Vieira and Grosso-Silva 2003).	eng
157870	threats	Nieto, A.,Alexander, K., Pettersson, R., Mason, F., Horák, J., & Schmidl, J., 2009	There appears to be no major threats to this species. Felling of old trees and destruction of decayed trunks with fungi could be a threat to this species.	eng
157872	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>It is present in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Germany this species is listed as Vulnerable (2009).</p>	eng
157872	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Essentially a Mediterranean species; common in its Mediterranean distribution and somewhat more infrequent in countries to the north. It is absent from much of Fennoscandia, also Britain and Ireland (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in Minor Caucasus, Syria, Turkey and northern Africa.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Spain and Portugal (Vives 2001) but in Portugal it is scarcer in the south (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the westernmost part of the country. Another extant population is known from the Bakony Mountains (central part of the western half of the country). It has been reported from European Turkey without exact locality (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997). It is present in almost all German States. It is occasionally introduced into the UK with timber but has not established itself locally.	eng
157872	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in large diameter dead wood of conifers (especially in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies, Cedrus, Larix</span>), exceptionally in broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Populus</span>), but sometimes in thin branches and in rootlets. Stage of pupa lasts approximately three weeks. The life cycle is at least three or four years, with pupation in late spring and summer in the wood. Adults emerge in VII-IX, found on the wood, they are crepuscular and nocturnal.&#160; <br/></p><p>The known localities of this species in Hungary are in indigenous forests of Scots Pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Germany it also lives in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> forests.<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157872	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Common in the Mediterranean countries. In Spain alone there are 185 known locations. In Ukraine it is a common species. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>Much rare in the north of its European range. Although population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century; most localities are older than 50 years, but an extant population was discovered in the 1970s (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157872	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>      </p><p>There are no major threats to this species at present, although in some parts of its range the loss of mature pines may have a negative impact.<br/></p>  <p></p><p>In Hungary the illegal collection of beetles is an additional threat.</p>	eng
157873	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157873	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species has only been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
157873	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information regarding the ecological requirements of this species.	eng
157873	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
157873	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157874	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Not present in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). It has been found at the Garajonay National Park in La Gomera (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157874	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain. Present in four islands: La Palma and Tenerife (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. l. lauricola</span>) and Gomera and El Hierro (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. l. gomerensis</span>) (Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala 1981, Izquierdo<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2004).	eng
157874	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Both subspecies are present in the laurisilva forest vegetation belt, under the dead bark of fallen trees, where they feed on xylophagous beetles, probably Colydiidae from the genus <em>Tarphius </em>(P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009).<p></p>	eng
157874	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It does not seem to be a very abundant species; Plata-Negrache and Prendes-Ayala (1981) report only three specimens of the nominal subspecies and six from the <span style="font-style: italic;">gomerensis</span> subspecies.<br/></p>	eng
157874	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Habitat destruction (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009) appears to be a major threat to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157875	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It occurs in a Regional Park, but this does not necessarily guarantee effective protection or appropriate habitat management.   Action is urgently needed to protect and appropriately manage existing veteran trees, as well as to ensure that suitable habitat continues to be available in future.	eng
157875	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only known from northern Sicily, Italy (Audisio<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). It is endemic to Sicily. Three sites are reported in the CKmap 2000 database.	eng
157875	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in accumulations of wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Found in mature broad-leaved woodland although no information is available on the canopy open-ness required..	eng
157875	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Little information is known but as this species requires decaying heartwood it may be inferred that - due to declining extent of habitat - this species faces a declining trend.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157875	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g., cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. The restricted area of occupancy combines limited population size with reduced habitat availability, bird predation, fires, and frequently unsuitable local techniques of forest management (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
157876	conservation	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157876	distribution	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is found scattered throughout much of Europe except in northern Europe. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. In France there are six localities in the centre and south-eastern France, including Corsica (Brustel and Aubourg 2008). In Spain its presence has recently been confirmed in a   <span lang="EN-GB">Pyrenean   locality (de la Rosa 2008). It was also recorded from Portugal but without geographical detail in the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Oliveira 1893) and apparently not found ever since.<span lang="EN-GB"> <br/><br/>It is also present in Near East.	eng
157876	habitat	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Reared from both standing and lying logs of maple <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer, </span>hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus, </span>beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus </span>and oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, wood solid and hard. Beetles have been found under bark of a decayed <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>stump in Austria (Muona 1993). In Hungary the species occurs in open broad-leaved forests, especially where dead trunks of maple occur in numbers; also in beech (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157876	population	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	The species is rare throughout its European range. In Hungary&#160; it is sporadic in the hilly and lower mountainous regions; all known populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is rare but its populations seem stable. In France there is only one locality and very rare. In the Czech Republic there are six recent localities. In Spain only one. In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157876	threats	Nieto, A., Méndez, M., Mason, F., Horák, J., Alexander, K., & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157877	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>The species is present in at least one protected area.<br/></p>	eng
157877	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.	eng
157877	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It occurs in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus canariensis</span> forests, for example in the Pinar de Garafia reserve in La Palma (800 ha). Because all other members of <span style="font-style: italic;">Stephanopachys</span> are associated with conifers (especially pines), the Canarian pine is likely to be the only host of the species. Larval development is likely to take place in dead bark.</p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157877	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>The species is known from the major islands    Tenerife, La Palma, El Hierro and Gran Canaria (Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación Territorial). There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It probably is uncommon like other members of the genus (Zoological Museum Lund holds a few specimens only). Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157877	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>Indigenous pine forest are suffering reduction through cultivation and forest fires. Pine forest is commercially managed in the Canary Islands and the traditional management of dead wood is not likely to benefit this species.<br/></p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157878	conservation	Alexander, KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed. The species is very common over much of its range and occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2003).	eng
157878	distribution	Alexander, KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread throughout much of Europe; absent in the British Isles and the Scandinavia Peninsula. It is widespread in Ukraine, Hungary, Romania and Cyprus. It is Extinct in Denmark (2003). It also occurs in the western part of northern Africa and the Caucasus.<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157878	habitat	Alexander, KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in dead wood (stump, stub and branch) of various broad-leaved trees (ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, apple <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix, Populus,</span> vine <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitis</span>). Pupation mainly takes place in autumn (adults hibernate), others in spring after hibernation. One generation per year. The adults are more active in sunny days, feeding at flowers and young leaves of trees and bushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus, Salix, Cornus, Prunus</span> and many fruit-trees) (Medvedev 1964).<br/><br/>In Ukraine adults are active in IV-VIII (in the mountains of Crimea in IV-VI), more usual in V-VII. It lives in broad-leaved forests (often on glades, edges), sometimes in relatively open places but with bushes or with separate trees.&#160; In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, and villages. In Romania it has been found on the edge of broad-leaved forests. In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> it has been found in orchards, maquis, and forests. In Spain adults prefer hygrophilous environments.	eng
157878	population	Alexander, KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread and common throughout much of its range and its population trend is stable overall.<br/><br/>In Spain, Ukraine and Romania it is very common. The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is found sporadically and in small numbers (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>	eng
157878	threats	Alexander, KNA, Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (e.g. Ukraine, Spain, Hungary).	eng
157879	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157879	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species is widespread in northern Europe throughout the Scandinavia Peninsula, into the north part of western Europe and the Baltic States. It is more abundant in the northern part of its range - northern boreal forest is a more suitable habitat than southern boreal forest (I. Mannerkoski pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157879	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Finland the species strongly prefers burned areas, where it can be very abundant. It is also found in other warm forest habitats. It is a boreal forest species that extends to the southern limit of the boreal forest (A. Putchkov pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157879	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout most of its range. In Finland it is quite abundant in burned areas, and the trend is stable.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157879	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. The species is rather common and no decline has been observed.</p>	eng
157882	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157882	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern Europe and in one instance in north-western Europe (Belgium). It is reported from Edirne (Adlbauer 1988) and Klrklareli (Malmusi and Saltini 2005) in the European part of Turkey.<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"> In Cyprus it was found on </st1:country-region></st1:place>the southern and western slopes of Troodos Mountains (0-1,300 m) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157882	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species that is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees. Its specific habitat requirements are unknown and it seems to occupy typical south-eastern European habitats. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus it was found </st1:country-region></st1:place>mainly in maquis and garigue feeding at various flowers especially on white Umbelliferae (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157882	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species throughout the majority of its range, although it is thought to be relatively uncommon. Its exact habitat needs are unknown but it appears not to have specific needs (polyphagous in deciduous trees) so the population is suspected to be stable as this type of habitat is relatively stable across south-eastern Europe. In Cyprus it is uncommon and restricted to a few localities  (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.</p>    <p><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><br/></st1:country-region></st1:place></p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157882	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157883	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>  There is need to establish suitably managed protected areas for this species.<br/></p>	eng
157883	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	&#160;This species is only known from the state of Carinthia, Austria (Laibner 2000) and thus has a restricted distribution and an Extent of Occurrence of up to 10,000  <span lang="EN-GB"> km²   (size of the state of Carinthia).	eng
157883	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. There is no information available regarding its habitat requirements (Laibner 2000).	eng
157883	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>Published information shows it is only known from two records (Laibner 2000) so it is suspected that it is restricted to Carinthia and possibly only in one location, and likely not to be in more than five or ten locations in the area. The population is thus considered to be relatively low, but no information is known about trends.<br/></p>	eng
157883	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157885	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.   It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. </p>	eng
157885	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This species is only found in Greece.<br/></p>	eng
157885	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species, but.there is little information available on the precise habitat requirements of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157885	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157885	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157886	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas. </p>	eng
157886	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed in southeastern Europe. It is also reported from Canakkale (Malmusi and Saltini 2005), in the European part of Turkey.	eng
157886	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is polyphagous in the deadwood of broad-leaved trees like <em>Quercus </em>and<em> Pistacia.</em> However its development is inadequately known. Adults are active in V-VI.&#160; <br/></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157886	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	There is no information about the abundance or trends of this species.<p></p>	eng
157886	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p><p>    </p>  <p></p>	eng
157887	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	The key conservation measure needed for this species is that veteran trees are protected and appropriately managed, and that measures are taken to ensure that there will be a constant or increasing stock of veteran trees over decades to come. This applies to the whole range of the species.<br/><br/>In the UK both known sites are protected under UK legislation. The wood pasture and parkland habitat has conservation priority under the UK Government Biodiversity Action Plan. Only piecemeal habitat inventory work has been carried out so far and there is no monitoring scheme in place. In Spain and Ukraine studies on the distribution of the population of this species are being carried out. The species occurs in several protected areas: in Hungary nearly all localities are in protected areas; in Romania the most stable populations are in three national parks in the south-western Carpathians. This species is listed as Vulnerable in Ukraine, Moldova, Poland and Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006), as Endangered in Britain, and as Critically Endangered in Denmark (2003).	eng
157887	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This species is distributed across the wooded and mountainous regions in Europe, from Britain to the Caucasus. <br/><br/>In Hungary this species is sporadic in the mountainous regions of the country. In Romania it is widespread from the lowlands in the south up to the mountains in the south-western part. In Portugal it has been recorded only from a single mountainous area in the extreme north, not recorded for more than 80 years. In France it occurs in the centre and south, especially in mountain and hilly regions (Paulian and Baraud 1982). In Britain it is confined to small areas in the south-east.	eng
157887	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop in Britain, longer where conditions not optimal. The situation of the occupied hollow trees may vary across its European range, with open-grown trees important in the cooler and damper west, but shade more important under more continental conditions. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). It tends to be restricted to very large old trees and the decay is usually caused by red-rot fungus, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Laetiporus sulphureus</span>.<br/></p><p>Typically found in broad-leaved trees (especially oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>) in central and northern parts of its range. In southern Europe it may also be found in conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>). <st1:country-region><st1:place>In the UK </st1:place></st1:country-region>the species clearly needs old open-grown oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>trees<st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>; it is not found in closed-canopy shady situations. Occupied trees are invariably in open parkland situations rather than 'forest' (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is associated with oak forest, not necessarily open; also in chestnut forest. In Sweden it lives in wooded pastures with old oaks; flying adults seem to prefer the more sun-exposed canopy and become unable to take off at temperatures below 20ºC if not sun-exposed (Eliasson 2000). In France larvae develop in wood mould of tree cavities, essentially <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, but sometimes (rarely) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus, Fagus sylvatica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus maritima</span> (Paulian and Baraud 1982).</p><p>In Ukraine adults are active in V-VII, feed at flowers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Umbelliferae </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra</span>; the larvae develop in wood and stubs of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. The life cycle is one year and pupation takes place in the wood. In Hungary the species is found in mountainous broad-leaved forests where voluminous dead trunks are abundant; larvae have been found in dead wild cherry <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus </span>and beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>. It is not found in wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from old forests where trees large big hollows with wood mould; adults can be found on the bark of host trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
157887	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This species is rare in Europe and has a fragmented population throughout its range. Declines are reported from a number of states.<br/><br/>In the UK it has a very fragmented range with just two remaining isolated populations: one substantial population in Windsor Great Park and Forest and a smaller one at Parham Park in West Sussex; there is no evidence for any decline in recent years but a number of old sites have been lost in the past (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Denmark it is very rare and there are only few new finds. It is known from six or seven localities in the Czech Republic. In France it is considered rare (Paulian and Baraud 1982) and populations are probably stable as there are still a large number of old trees. In Italy it is rare and in Switzerland it is considered be rare and mainly restricted to the Tirol. In Germany it has gone locally Extinct in some regions; populations are declining at a slow but persistent rate; almost no large populations are known any more. In Spain it is a rare species whose rarity is probably related to the decline of forest living; it is more or less restricted to the northern fringes (Micó and Galante 2002); apparently decreasing in numbers as many of the records are old. In Ukraine it is relatively rare and in Hungary it is rare, and the populations are isolated and small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the population size is small and it occurs in the forests in the southern part of the country; however in mountains it is common in forests with old trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157887	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  In the UK the loss of old trees in the historic parkland sites and canopy closure are threats to this species, <st1:country-region><st1:place></st1:place></st1:country-region>as this cools the wood mould and slows larval development. In Spain, logging, forest fragmentation and the removal of dead wood from the ecosystem are factors that are having a negative impact on this species. In Hungary the species is threatened by removing dead wood and by illegal collecting that destroys the microhabitat of the larvae.	eng
157888	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future.<br/><br/>The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157888	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe, from south-eastern to western Europe reaching some countries in northern Europe and central Europe (Lobl and Smetana 2007). Also occurs in the Near East.<br/><br/>It has only recently found in Spain (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006).	eng
157888	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A heartwood decay specialist found in large, old broad-leaved trees. The larvae develop in the decayed wood of broad-leaved trees; pupation at spring to the beginning of summer; the adults are active during the evening in VI-VIII, and are attracted to light (A. Putchkov pers comm). The known records from Hungary are from oak forests in the hills and willow galleries along the Danube River.	eng
157888	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	There are few records of this species. However, it was relatively recently described as new to Science so it is likely to be under-recorded. Moreover there is confusion between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. megerlei</span>.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a rare species that only occurs in the western slopes of the Carpathians. In Hungary it is known from a few localities in the western part of the country; this is a very rare species with small populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain there is a single known locality in Navarra (Recalde Irurzun and Sánchez-Ruiz 2006).	eng
157888	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., TEZCAN, S., Schlaghamersky, J., Mason, F., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157890	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Traditional forest management and coppicing, and protection of traditional orchards and of veteran trees are required to preserve this species, as well as ensuring that new generations of trees are available, maintaining habitat continuity and connectivity. In Hungary as extant populations are unknown, specific measures cannot be launched. Some of the old localities are within protected areas. An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). No specific conservation measures are in place for this species in Romania.	eng
157890	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is widely distributed in south-eastern and southern Europe, reaching France and Spain locally (Bense 1995). In Ukraine it is present in Crimea and in the hills of the Carpathians while in Romania it has been reported from the southern part, only in few places (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary it is very sporadic in the hills and mountains, and is mainly present in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is mainly present in the western part but not in Sardinia. It has also been reported from Istanbul (Schimitschek 1953).<p><br/></p>	eng
157890	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in the woody tissues of living and weakened, sun-exposed trees with a large diameter (at least 30 cm) including stools of coppiced trees; it is polyphagous in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus</em><em> </em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>and fruit trees). Pupation occurs within the wood and the adults emerge in VI-VIII; they are found on the host plant and feeding at flowers. The adult is diurnal and lives in forests and orchards. The life cycle ranges from four or five years in parts of its range to two or three years in Ukraine. In Hungary the known localities of this species are in thermophilous oak woods (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it also has been reported from oak woods and the host plants include fruit trees (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). Also it is believed to live in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx nodulosus</span>. There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157890	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is rare in Europe and its population is declining across the continent. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Most localities are older than 50 years. The species can be regarded as being in the verge of extinction (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine is relatively rare and in Romania there are old reports and some populations are Extinct now (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is still relatively common in the south - it seems to be in regression in the northern part of its French distribution area. Only two recent observations (1966 and 2007) in the north of the Rhône-Alps area (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). In Spain it is present mainly in two areas, one in the centre and one in the southern mountains, in total 22 localities but not common. In Italy it is considered Vulnerable with a declining population. In Slovakia there are three recent sites and several others which have disappeared. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey.	eng
157890	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K. & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Loss of traditional management including coppicing is a major threat to this species. Replacement of fruit trees in old orchards to bush forms poses another threat. In Hungary the species is threatened by the removal of old oak trees; and this practice is the main reason of its rarity (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <br/>In southern Europe, felling in the thermophilous forests is a threat (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157891	conservation	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Maintenance of habitat continuity and connectivity are essential. Research on the species ecology and habitat preferences is needed.&#160; The species occurs in several protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Italy.	eng
157891	distribution	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread across southern Europe, from central to western Europe.	eng
157891	habitat	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives on trunks and in tree cavities, and it probably needs large old trees. It has been found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus humilis</span> forest in Spain and open oak forests in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In Hungary the two known extant populations live in open thermophilous oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157891	population	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is rare throughout most of its range, with France the only country with more than a few sites. <br/><br/>In Hungary there are only two extant populations known in the northern part of the country; the two extant populations seem to be small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is known from three areas in Navarra and one from Cantabria (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). In Italy there is one record from the south (Basilicata) probably from 2001. In the Czech Republic there are two sites in the extreme southern corner of the country. In Slovakia there is one locality in the south. In France it is widespread but very localized forming small but dense populations in suitable habitats (Leseigneur 1972).	eng
157891	threats	Méndez, M., Dodelin, J., Petrakis, P., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157893	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. It is present in at least one protected area.</p>	eng
157893	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is only found in Crete, Greece (Bense 1995).	eng
157893	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The species lives in broad-leaved forest, and is associated with Kermes Oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus coccifera</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Berberis cretica</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> (presumably <span style="font-style: italic;">orientalis</span>). It prefers open forests and visits flowering shrubs for feeding.<br/></p>	eng
157893	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. There are at least three subpopulations. In the subpopulation of Omalos (northern slopes of Mt Lefka Ori) the host plant of this species is abundant but the species is rare or rarely found. The subpopulation Anopolis (southern slopes of Mt Lefka Ori) is small.<br/></p>	eng
157893	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Felling of the host trees and bushes, and use of insecticide (against <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymantria</span> moths) appear to be the major threats to this species. Wood extraction is also a threat.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157894	conservation	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species occurs in several protected areas so no specific measures are necessary&#160; (e.g. Hungary, Romania). It is listed as Vulnerable in Germany (2009).	eng
157894	distribution	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe, from the Eurosiberian subregion to central and south-eastern Europe, extending west into northern Spain and Portugal to north Europe including the Baltic region. It is widespread in southern Iberia. In Portugal there was only recorded in 1985 from a single locality in the north-eastern part of the country. In Germany it is present in the southern and eastern states and in Italy is widespread throughout the country (not present in Sicily). In Poland this species is probably Extinct. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas, and much rarer in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009) while in Romania it is common in central Romania, in Transylvania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine the species occurs in the southern regions. It has been reported from Istanbul (Althoff and Danilevsky 1997).	eng
157894	habitat	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the wood of dead branches that are still attached to the trees; a wide variety of broadleaved trees are used (e.g. <em>Pyrus, </em><em>Quercus, Ulmus, Castanea, Robinia, Betula, Populus, Salix, Viburnum, Pistacia, Carpinus, Crataegus</em>). Pupation occurs in spring or early summer in the wood and adults emerge in VI-VIII; they are attracted to flowers for feeding, especially those of shrubs growing in sunny situations. In Hungary and in Germany it lives in various deciduous forests (mainly in oak-hornbeam and beech forests), and mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been found at the edge of deciduous forests, mainly oak (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p>  <p></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157894	population	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a widespread and common species across much of its European range. Presumably the population trend is stable. In Romania there are large populations inside the inner Carpathian Mountains and in the south-western part of the country (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). The population size and trend have not been quantified in Hungary and Turkey but in Hungary the species is regarded as common on its localities. In Germany it is rather rare and scattered but of no concern.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157894	threats	Alexander KNA, Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. However habitat loss is occurring in some parts of the range as a result of removal of dead wood and logging of old deciduous forests (e.g. Hungary, Romania).<br/><br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 59pt;" width="78" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
157895	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation actions are in place. In Spain it is not included in the Red Book of Invertebrates of Spain (Verdú and Galante 2006). Three localities are within protected areas. In Sweden this species is considered Vulnerable.	eng
157895	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe; absent from the Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the forest zone and in the Carpathians. In Spain it is only present in the Pyrenees. In France regular localities in the Pyrenees but, in the Alps, it is only known from very old records (<1854) in two localities (probably disappeared) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It formerly occurred in Britain - sub-fossils have been found at Thorne Moors, Yorkshire, dating to c 3000 BP (Buckland and Kenward 1973).	eng
157895	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. In France larvae develop in the brown-rotten wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span>, just behind the <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola</span> fungi with which the species is strictly associated. It inhabits in only mountain forests with no management and a continuous abundance of dead wood of large diameter (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). It is also present in birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula </span>and alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>. It lives in big snucks and high amount of dead wood. In Ukraine larvae develop in decayed wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula,</span> aspen, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and rarely in fir. The beetle is often found on fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomitopsis pinicola</span>, rarely <span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes)</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> usually in VI-VII. The life cycle is two years. Usually larvae hibernate. Larvae probably are sapro-xylo-mycetophagous and imagos mycetophagous (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Spain its habitat is mountain forests, both larvae and imagos being found under the bark of coniferous trees, where they predate on xylophagous insects (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004). Fire favours this species.	eng
157895	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread species which is not so common in Europe, and in EU has decreasing populations, but considering the Russian population, it is likely that the species is stable overall.<br/><br/>In Finland it is widespread but not common. In Sweden there are 16 subpopulations. In Germany there is only one record in Bavaria in the Alps. In Spain it is found in small numbers, but this could be due to wrong sampling methods (P. Bahillo de la Puebla pers. comm. 2009). It is known from eight localities in six 10x10 km squares (Bahillo de la Puebla and López-Colón 2004).	eng
157895	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>The species is not considered to be threatened at a European level.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157897	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally, the most important conservation measure to be recommended is the protection of large old trees of appropriate species, and habitat management to ensure that there is a constant or increasing supply of such veteran trees in future. This species is considered to be Critically Endangered in Poland and Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).	eng
157897	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Euro-Siberian species reaching the Caucasus (Laibner 2000) is widespread across eastern and central Europe extending to some countries in northern and western Europe. It also occurs in west Siberia and the Caucasus.<br/><br/>In Denmark it is Extinct, not found in 100 years (<span lang="EN-GB">2005);  also Extinct in Sweden and Germany. In Ukraine it occurs in the Carpathians, the forest zone and locally in Donetzk (south-eastern Ukraine). It is not known from Britain or Ireland.	eng
157897	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Restricted to large, old veteran trees. Larvae develop under bark and in decayed wood of broad-leaved forests (rarely under bark of fir); they are obligate predators; the adult beetles hibernate, and emerge in early spring (Delnatte 2008); they are found under bark and in splits of trees during the day (Dolin 1982); adults on low branches and fallen logs of firs, spruces, pines and oaks (Laibner 2000). In France larvae have been found in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies </span>or rarely in red rot of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. <br/><br/>It lives in relict forest enclaves from highlands to montane zone (Laibner 2000). Only in very old and undisturbed ('primary') mountain forest. Relict species very rare and localized. In Ukraine it is a typical forest species. In Hungary there is no information is available on the habitat of this species. In France it is considered a relict of primary forests.	eng
157897	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Generally a rare species with a very few scattered records. Declines and local extinctions have been reported from several range states. Population trend is decreasing.<br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a very rare species; also very rare in the Czech Republic and Slovakia (Laibner 2000). In Hungary there is only one locality known from the north-eastern part of the country, which is more than 40 years old - as extant populations are unknown no information on its populations is available (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Poland there are only few localities. In Finland it has been recorded only once in the north-eastern part near the Russian border.<br/><br/>In France it is extremely rare; about ten known localities in the west Pyrenees and in the centre of the Alps at the border with Italy (Delnatte 2008). In Spain it is very rare. In Italy there are five records, mostly historical.	eng
157897	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>  This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157898	conservation	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>This species is listed on Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive (as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. planula) </span>based on presence in Sweden and Finland but no reports on it exist. Its presence in southern countries is documented since it was synonymized with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. planula.</span><br/></p>	eng
157898	distribution	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This species occurs in northern and southern Europe. In particular it is present in Sweden, Finland, Hungary, Spain, Greece and Italy. In Italy it is recorded from the central-southern regions and Sardinia (but not in Sicily) (Checklist of the Italian fauna 2009). It is also present in northern Africa.	eng
157898	habitat	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species lives in burned areas (E. Hyvärinen pers. comm. 2009). The only Finnish record is from an old-growth forest area in 1975. The habitat where the only Finnish record was found in 1975 has since been severely reduced and degraded. Only small old growth forest fragments now remain.	eng
157898	population	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>	eng
157898	threats	Hyvärinen, E., Tykarski, P., Putchkov, A. & Mannerkoski, I. , 2009	<p>In Finland the species is known by only one specimen and it is considered Vulnerable, Possibly Extinct.<br/></p>	eng
157899	conservation	Schlaghamersky, J. &  Bilz, M., 2009	<p>There is no information on conservation actions in place. More research on distribution, ecology, habitat preferences and possible threats is necessary. In Poland this species is included in the Polish Red List as Data Deficient, and in the Czech Republic it is listed as Endangered.</p>	eng
157899	distribution	Schlaghamersky, J. &  Bilz, M., 2009	This species is known as a central European species, also recorded from Carpathian Ruthenia (Laibner 2000).	eng
157899	habitat	Schlaghamersky, J. &  Bilz, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in forests of submontane and montane zones (Laibner 2000). Possibly in old beech trees.	eng
157899	population	Schlaghamersky, J. &  Bilz, M., 2009	This species has a restricted range and is very rare. In the Czech Republic appears sporadically mainly in the northern mountain ranges (Sudeten) and only in a few sites. In Slovakia it is known from a few localities in the Tatra mountains. In Poland it was found recently for the first time in the south-east.	eng
157899	threats	Schlaghamersky, J. &  Bilz, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The threats are unknown.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157900	conservation	Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Endangered in the Czech Republic and as Vulnerable in Slovakia.	eng
157900	distribution	Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species is widespread across much of Europe, except the Iberian and Scandinavian Peninsulas and also not in Britain or Ireland.	eng
157900	habitat	Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. New information shows that the species' main habitats are small dead dry standing <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span> trees in very dense regeneration stands. Few entomologists are attracted to such places to collect insects; this is the principal reason of the rarity of the observations (H. Callot pers. comm. 2009). This species has been found feeding on the fruit bodies of wood-decay fungi such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> Pleurotus,</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus, Inototus, Lentinus, Bjerkandera, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes. Piptophorus,</span> and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Daedaleopsis</span>.&#160;In Ukraine, larvae develop mostly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus,</span> sometimes on <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus, Inototus, Lentinus, Bjerkandera</span>. Pupation takes place often on the ground and the adult hibernates, becoming active next spring&#160; Adult beetles have been found on a similar wide variety of wood-decay fungi (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fomes. Piptoporus, Daedaleopsis</span>) mostly on broadleaved trees, but presumably just feeding in some cases, not necessarily egg-laying; flight occurs from May. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996). In Ukraine it occurs only in the forest zone. In Hungary the known localities are in old growth forests, mainly oak and beech, where the main host fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus pulmonarius </span>occurs (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it has been trapped in the large forests surrounding the Paris area and found in high numbers in Alsace in lowland very young forests of <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus.</span>	eng
157900	population	Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	This species seems to be rare in Europe. The extreme rarity of the species given by ancient authors, however, mainly comes from poor knowledge of its special biology (H. Callot pers. comm. 2009); new observations may be published in the near future.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France there are between 20-30 localities; it has been trapped in the large forests surrounding the Paris area and found in high numbers in Alsace<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> In Ukraine it is rare.	eng
157900	threats	Dodelin, B., Schlaghamersky, J. &  Nardi, G., 2009	Certain forestry management activities, such as clear cutting large areas, threaten this species.	eng
157901	conservation	Alexander, K., Buche, B., Dodelin, B. & Schlaghamersky, J., 2009	Many known sites are in protected areas (there is an obligation under the EU Habitats Directive to designate protected areas for this species). The key conservation measure to be recommended is the protection and appropriate management of ancient and veteran trees (wherever they occur, including in cultural landscapes and urban areas), and measures to ensure that such habitat continues to be available in future. For this poorly-dispersing species, measures to retain connectivity between habitat fragments are essential to ensure long-term survival. In Ukraine it is included in the Red Book and is listed as Vulnerable species. The species is recorded inside protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).	eng
157901	distribution	Alexander, K., Buche, B., Dodelin, B. & Schlaghamersky, J., 2009	This species is known from central and eastern Europe, and western Russia (Audisio <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). However its distribution limits are poorly resolved and further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic status and distribution limits. In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathian Mountains and in the northern part of forest-steppe zones. In Romania it is widespread in the southern Carpathians, but also, in the hilly part of central Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Finland the identity of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> is not entirely clear, so far; there is only one confirmed population.	eng
157901	habitat	Alexander, K., Buche, B., Dodelin, B. & Schlaghamersky, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species is restricted to decaying heartwood; it is found only in large, old veteran trees of a variety of broad-leaved species (including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, fruit trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Prunus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span>, and lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>) in both relatively open old-growth woodland and traditional cultural landscapes. This species has very poor dispersal capacity (it is a weak flier), and consequently linear habitat features (e.g. avenues of ancient trees) are critically important for retaining connectivity and viable populations. The larvae develop in accumulations of wood mould in hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae normally take two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees may occur in a wide variety of situations where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the strongest populations are in very old willow galleries; others are in mature oak forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania, in the southern Carpathians, it occurs in clear oak and beech forests from sun exposed slopes where large trees with big hollows occur. In the central part of the country it was found in the pastures with old oaks with large hollows (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p><span lang="UK"><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
157901	population	Alexander, K., Buche, B., Dodelin, B. & Schlaghamersky, J., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but it is believed to be declining in Europe. In Hungary all known populations are small and isolated (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is very rare. In the Czech Republic is quite widespread; known from 50-100 recent sites. In Finland there is one stable population. In Romania there are large populations in the oak and beech forests from the foothills of the southern Carpathians (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157901	threats	Alexander, K., Buche, B., Dodelin, B. & Schlaghamersky, J., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In particular, in Hungary, very old trees are threatened all over the country; the known localities are threatened by over-collecting and destroying microhabitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157902	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no conservation measures needed for this species. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Romania).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157902	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs in the Circum-Mediterranean (Bense 1995) and in some countries of central Europe. <br/><br/>It is also found in northern Africa, all Caucasus, Minor Asia, Turkey and Iran.<br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded across the whole country, but from few localities and mostly before 1951. In Romania there are new records that report this species from Dobroudjia, on the Black Sea coast. It is widespread in Cyprus. Occasional occurrence recorded in the Czech Republic but probably from introductions.	eng
157902	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larval development occurs in both living and dead tress, feeding first under the bark, then boring into the dead parts where in contact with living tissues or directly into living tissues with sap circulation. Found on a wide variety of host trees<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, eg <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus, Fagus, Prunus, Pistacea, Acacia</span>. In Romania it is known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Sambucus nigra, Ruber nigra, </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. In Cyprus it has been reared from dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ficus carica</span><em> </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). The stage of pupa is three weeks. The life cycle is usually one year, but sometimes more. Adults active in VI-VIII, crepuscular or nocturnal, often attracted to light (Sama 2002).&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><br/>In Greece this species is considered a vector for a fungus disease that destroys <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea sativa.</span><br/><br/>In Cyprus <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>it has been found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em> </em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157902	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species but reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries. In Cyprus and Greece this species is common whlie in Italy it is<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> not uncommon. In France it is common in the Mediterranean border (Villiers 1978). In Ukraine it is relatively rare. In Romania there are few new reports, and it is believed that there are only small populations (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160;</p>	eng
157902	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There appears to be no major threats to this species. The replacement of native shrubs from warm places in the Balkan region can be a threat to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157903	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>More research is needed regarding population trends and threats to this species. In Italy it is listed as Vulnerable on the National Red List (Sama 2006).<br/></p>	eng
157903	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is widespread across southern Europe occurring in the whole Mediterranean region. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is only present in Crimea. It has been reported from the European part of Turkey, from Canakkale (Gokceada) (Ozdikmen and Demir 2006). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is </st1:place></st1:country-region>widespread in the lowlands, but absent from the higher elevations of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Troodos</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place> and the central plain (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>In France it is localized in Corsica and only in one continental department (Var) (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). In Portugal it is known from the southern half (a few sites, one recent) and from one locality in the northern part (an old record from the 19<sup>th</sup> century).<br/><br/>It is also found from northern Africa to Iran and in western Georgia and Minor Asia.<p></p>	eng
157903	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p>  <p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in decayed wood of a wide variety of tree species, including oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, ash <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus</span>, mulberry <span style="font-style: italic;">Morus, Pistacea </span>and cedar-trees <span style="font-style: italic;">Cedrus</span>, developing&#160; under bark and in the wood itself; xylophagous. In France, larvae occur in evergreen <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>of large diameter, probably associated with a special white-rot fungus (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Villiers 1978). The life cycle is two years. Adult beetles are active at night and they have been found in natural and semi-natural areas as well as plantations; sometimes they are attracted to light in villages and towns. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. In Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> it is found in maquis and   orchards, and has been reared from dead wood of <em>Olea europaea. </em><br/></p><p><br/></p><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
157903	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species.</p>  For Turkey and Cyprus the population size and trend have not been quantified but in Cyprus the species locally is not rare. It is not rare in Crimea. <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>In Italy its populations are very localized and rare. In Spain there are 40 localities.</p>	eng
157903	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the threats available. Fragmentation of the populations could be a threat.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
157905	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	In the UK this species is considered Extinct.<br/><br/>In Hungary some of the localities are in protected areas but riverine and lowland poplar stands and slope forests should be left undisturbed.	eng
157905	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is widespread across Europe, throughout much of central, eastern and western Europe, as far west as England (although Extinct there) and Spain and north into northern countries including some of the Baltic States (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>It is also found in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan and north-eastern Turkey.<br/><br/>In Hungary it is widespread in the lowland poplar forests and also in hilly and lower mountainous areas. In Romania it only occurs in the hilly areas. It is present in all German States except Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. In Britain it formerly occurred in a small number of sites across southern England but the species is now Extinct.	eng
157905	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop first in and later under the dry bark of dead, sun exposed branches and stems (often of 15-30 cm diameter). The life cycle is one or two years, with pupation in spring deep in the wood or in the thick bark. Adults emerge in IV-VIII, and are found on the host plants and (rarely) at flowers. The adults hardly ever visit flowers and remain on their host tree for most of their short lives. The host is mainly aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>; the larva develops in recently dead wood (from twigs to branches of a large diameter) which is always quite dry. The phloem needs to be free from fungal development (Rejzek 2006). Develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Populus, </em>also in <em>Salix, Rosa, Quercus, Betula</em>). In Romania adults have been observed in the evening on <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span> flowers.</p><p>In Finland it lives on aspen both in sunny and shaded habitats. In Hungary it lives in lowland poplar forests, mainly on white poplar (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span>), and also in the hills and mountains where aspen (<span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">tremula</span>) grows. In Germany it can live in different broad-leaved forests. UK sites included old orchards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Malus</span>) as well as ancient forest.</p><p>&#160;<br/></p><p><br/> </p>	eng
157905	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species common in much of its European range, although it has been lost from outlying regions such as England and is rare in other states.<br/><br/>In Sweden and Finland is not uncommon. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rather rare. In Romania the populations are small and there are only few and old reports. In France it is difficult to find but it is not rare. It is not rare in northern Italy but there are only three records in southern and central Italy.<br/><br/>It was known from south-eastern England in 19<sup>th</sup> century and up until 1905; also isolated reports from Devon in 1928/9 and the Bristol area, in the south-west (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157905	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A.,  Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species at European level. It is unclear why it became Extinct in England.	eng
157906	conservation	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. It is present in several protected areas.	eng
157906	distribution	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This species is a boreal-alpine species, common in forests in northern and Alpine regions (Bense 1995) and also the northern part of central and eastern Europe. In Hungary it is found only in the western-most part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it has been reported from different parts of the Carpathian Mountains (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France the species is resident in the mountains of the eastern border: Jura and Alps (Villiers 1978).	eng
157906	habitat	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. A boreo-montane species; associated with conifer trees, preferably on <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>. Larvae develop under bark on fresh-dead, fresh-cut, wind-fallen or standing dying stumps, trunks or branches, often on firewood stacks (Sama 2002). It prefers disturbed trees with abnormally slow growth, thick bark and resin. Adults active in IV-VI. Eggs laid in cracks in bark of various conifer trees. Egg stage near two weeks. Life cycle two or three years. In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania&#160; it occurs in pine and fir forests; sometime it has been found in associations with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthocinus aedilis</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France, larvae are xylophagous in <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies alba</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> (preference for spruce). Standing dead trees of small diameter are preferred (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157906	population	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	Common in boreal forests; in southern and central Europe it is present only in montane areas. The population abundance might be underestimated as the species is hard to find as an adult. Overall the population trend is stable. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is present in the forest zone and it is relatively rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as frequent in its localities (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is not rare, but research on new populations is poor (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is only present in Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, in the alpine zone; records are after 1950. In France it is considered as very rare in the literature but the adults emerge very early in the year (January to April) and this may explain the rarity of the observations. In Rhône-Alps, the species is known from patchy populations distant of 50-150 km from each others (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). In the Czech Republic it is rare but not considered as threatened in the latest Red List.	eng
157906	threats	Nieto, A., Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	<p>Overall the species is not threatened (e.g. Hungary, Germany, Romania, France).&#160; <br/></p>	eng
157909	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	In Ukraine it is protected in Crimea's and Yalta's reservations.	eng
157909	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species occurs in south-eastern Europe and Minor Asia. It is very widespread and a common species. In Ukraine its only in Crimea.	eng
157909	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species that is polyphagous in broad-leaved forests. The larvae develop in decayed wood of beech trees and rarely in <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>. Larvae are predators or necrophagous. Pupation takes place in the end of summer beginning of autumn. The adult is active in V-VI, but typically remains under loose bark on the host tree, and appears on the trunk and feeding at flowers very rarely (Dolin 1988).	eng
157909	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is a widespread species. In Crimea it is a usual species and common.	eng
157909	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Schlaghamersky, J., Istrate, P. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>No threats are currently known.</p>	eng
157910	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary).	eng
157910	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all of Europe, although currently not in Britain or Ireland. <br/><br/>It is also found in Caucasus, Siberia and far East. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it may be mostly in the forest zone and the Carpathians. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous regions, and sporadic in the lowlands.	eng
157910	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is usually found under the bark of dead wood with wood-decaying fungi. It can occur on broad-leaved and coniferous trees, hardwoods and softwoods; in more open areas as well as in continuous forest. It prefers lying logs (rather than standing trees).<br/><br/>In Ukraine, beetles live on the wood-decay fungus <span style="font-style: italic;">Monodyctis castaneae</span> and are also found under dead bark and in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees. The adult hibernates and is active in V-VI. The life cycle is one or two years (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs mainly in planted and indigenous pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>forests but also in broad-leaved forests. The old UK records come from Caledonian pine forest.	eng
157910	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	Widespread and fairly common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Finland). Overall it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In the Czech Republic this species is rare but widespread. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities. In Finland it is rather common, widespread and with stable populations. In Germany it has disappeared from large areas; only present now in south and eastern Germany, but still common in at least some areas (e.g. around Berlin). Strong decrease in the past, but now its populations are stable to increasing. In Ukraine it is relatively common.<br/><br/>In the UK the status of this species is uncertain; there are subfossil records from the south and a single 19<sup>th</sup> century locality from Highland Scotland, where it was found in 1865 and 1870.	eng
157910	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
157911	conservation	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Probably no conservation measures are needed over much of its range.	eng
157911	distribution	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	In Europe this species&#160; is widely distributed in the Circum-Mediterranean region (Bense 1995),  from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France to Crimea, and extends north into Hungary. It is also present in northern Africa, Caucasus, northern Iran, Middle East, Middle Asia; imported into America (Sama 2002). <br/><br/>In Portugal it has been recorded from north to south of the Mediterranean part of the country, also in Madeira. In Spain it is present also in the Canary Islands (introduction) and the Balearic Islands. In France it is localized in the southern of the Mediterranean area including Corsica but may be in extension up to the north. It is<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place> widespread in Cyprus. It has been reported in European Turkey from Istanbul (Oymen 1987) and Kırklareli (Ozdikmen and Caglar 2004). It has also been reported from south-western Romania; area spread in the warm place up to Craiova (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). This species is very rare in Hungary. Few localities are known from the western half of the country, most are old (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>  <p><br/></p><p> <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157911	habitat	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in very old dry wood, mostly of broad-leaved trees, and is polyphagous; also found in seasoned timber, furniture, and wooden structures such as roof timbers and fences. The larvae develop in dying oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus,</span> beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, alder <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus</span>, willow<span style="font-style: italic;"> Salix, </span>plane <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus, </span>chestnut <span style="font-style: italic;">Castaneus, Pistacea, Cytisus,</span> some fruit-trees, sometimes in coniferous trees. In Cyprus it has been reared from dead wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span>, <em>Ceratonia siliqua, Quercus coccifera, Quercus infectoria, Prunus dulcis</em> and <em>Pinus brutia</em> <em></em>(C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). Adults are active in V-VIII (as the latest in VII). Adults are found on the host wood, and may be attracted to light (Sama 2002), but do not feed. The life cycle is three or four years.<br/><br/>There is little information about the habitat of the species in Hungary; the known localities are in light oak forests. In Romania it has been recorded from timber from old settlements (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it has been found in orchards, maquis, garigue, forests, villages and towns (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.    <p><br/></p>	eng
157911	population	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>This species is widespread and common in its main Mediterranean distribution.</p><p>In Spain it is very common. In Italy there are 80 localities. In France it is common in the south and might be expanding northwards (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it is a common species. In the European part of Turkey there are recent records, the species is common.</p>This species is very rare in Hungary; only a few localities are known, with small populations (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are records of 40 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Crimea it is rare. <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157911	threats	Alexander KNA, Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no threats to this species. </p>	eng
157912	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157912	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is only found in Portugal. Described in 2003, it is known from a few sites in the centre and southern part of the country (Giuseppe and Serrano 2003).	eng
157912	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It remains unknown if this species is a true saproxylic or if it is primarily a forest soil beetle.	eng
157912	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population trend is unknown.</p>	eng
157912	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157913	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157913	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	Across Europe, this species is only found in the southern tip of Spain. It also occurs in north-western Africa (Bense 1995).	eng
157913	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. In Andalusia it lives in forest of three <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>species: <span style="font-style: italic;">canariensis</span>,&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">pyrenaica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">faginea</span> (Verdugo 2004).<br/></p>	eng
157913	population	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>A predominantly African species with a small outpost in southern Spain. In Spain only five specimen have ever been caught, all in Andalusian provinces: Cadiz (three), Malaga (one) and Granada (one) (Verdugo 2004).<br/></p>	eng
157913	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico Balaguer, e., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157914	conservation	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species occurs in several protected areas. In the UK it is listed in the British Red Data Book as Endangered (Shirt 1987); two of three sites are protected as SAC (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In the Czech Republic it is listed as Critically Endangered (2005). In Hungary most of the localities are in protected areas, so no specific measures are needed (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157914	distribution	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	It is widespread across much of Europe. This species is described from Croatia; known from Yugoslavia, Dalmatia and Greece; Sweden and Finland (Allen 1969); localised in France (Brustel 2005). In Ukraine it is present in the Carpathians. It has recently been found in the north of Spain (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In Germany there are recent records from all states, whereas in the neighbouring Czech Republic the species is very rare. Although relatively recently discovered there, the species is regarded as a long-established species in Britain (Hammond 1974).	eng
157914	habitat	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in the decaying wood within trunks and main branches of a variety of broad-leaved tree species, generally fallen wood lying on the soil surface. It has been reared from a dead log of hornbeam <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpinus</span> - wood solid on surface, somewhat moist, very soft and reddish inside - and from fallen branches of hazel <span style="font-style: italic;">Corylus</span> - wood fairly solid with brown rot; also reported from ivy stems <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedera helix, </span>spruce <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> and hawthorn <span style="font-style: italic;">Crataegus</span>; wood with red-rot is preferred over white-rot (Muona 1993). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In Ukraine beetles were found in loose wood mostly of broad-leaved (rarely conifer) trees, often aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>. In Hungary habitats of the known populations are open forests, mainly in ecotonal situations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). There is no obvious pattern to English sites, which include one ancient wood pasture and two sites with no habitat details (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157914	population	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	The species is widespread and common in much of its range but rare and local in some countries. The population trend is believed to be stable. In Sweden it is very common. In Britain it is known from just three well-separated sites and it is rarely recorded; populations presumably very small (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the species is very sporadic in the hilly and mountainous regions; all known populations are very small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In Finland it is only present in the Aland Islands. In the Czech Republic it is very rare; two areas in central Bohemia (west) and one in southern Moravia (south-east) with records since 1950; earlier record(s) from another (adjacent) area in central Bohemia (Elateridae 2009). There are six localities known in Spain; but it is probably under-recorded (Recalde Irurzun 2008). In the Slovak Republic there are known areas from the west to the east (not in the south), all with records after 1950 (Elateridae 2009).	eng
157914	threats	Pettersson, R., Hyvärinen, E., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Schlaghamersky, J. & Schmidl, J. , 2009	In the UK and Ukraine loss of old trees and decaying wood are threatening this species (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Hungary the species does not seem to be threatened (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157915	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania).	eng
157915	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species occurs throughout much of Europe, from the Pyrenees across the Alps in central and eastern Europe and Fennoscandia (Bense 1995). It is a boreal-alpine species but is occasionally imported into other areas with timber.<br/><br/>In Spain it is only in the Pyrenees, where it is widespread (Vives 2001). In Hungary this species is found only in the western-most parts of the country, which are the foothills of the Alps (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread in the Carpathians, mostly in the southern part. <br/><br/>In Denmark it has occasionally been imported with timber from other European countries; no reproductive population in the country (Thomsen 2007). This is also the case with the UK.	eng
157915	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop under the bark and in the dead dry wood of conifers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Picea, Pinus)</span>. The life cycle is normally one year, with pupation in spring in the wood. Adults emerge in VI-IX, found on the wood of the host-plants and on brushwood, where they feed on green bark and on needles. Pupation takes about two or three weeks.&#160; In Hungary it lives in indigenous spruce forests, which are rare in Hungary (O. Merkl&#160; pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it lives only in native pine spruce, and sometimes it was recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus cembra</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it lives in montane spruce forests. In Siberia this species is a serious pest.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157915	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	Very common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Fennoscandia). The population trend appears to be stable. In Ukraine it is a common species. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species is regarded as rare (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania the species is common.	eng
157915	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M. , 2009	<p>No serious threats identified.<br/></p>	eng
157916	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is no information available.</p>	eng
157916	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is described from Germany; also found in Czech Republic (Laibner 2000) and extending to other countries in central and northern Europe. In Germany it is only known from the original description.	eng
157916	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying pine trees, in pine forests (Laibner 2000).	eng
157916	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	The abundance, population size and trends for this species are not known.&#160;Individuals have been found at a small number of sites in the Czech Republic (Laibner 2000).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
157916	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157917	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	In the UK there has been poor appreciation of the dramatic decline in this species so no actions have been taken. Increase in woodland management for fuel wood may prove beneficial for the species as it can breed successfully in fuel wood stacked for seasoning. <br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary, Romania). This species is listed as Near Threatened in Denmark (2005) and Nationally Scarce in Britain - its British status merits revision to Vulnerable.	eng
157917	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This species is widespread across Europe, absent only from far north and west (Bense 1995) (nominative subspecies). <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It also occurs in all Caucasus, Kazakhstan, northern Iran and Egypt (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">alnoides).<br/><br/></span>In Hungary this species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; rarer in forested areas of the lowlands. In Romania it is widespread but not very common. It is present in all German States. In European Turkey it has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953).<br/><br/>In Portugal it is known from five scattered sites in the north and one in the far south. In Denmark it is rare, and most common and well-distributed in the south (Thomsen 2007). In Britain it was formerly widespread across lowland England, but it has become very rare in the past 50 years or so.	eng
157917	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae feed under the bark of dry dead twigs and thin branches of broad-leaved trees and shrubs (especially in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Quercus, </span>also in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Castanea, Carpinus, Ulmus, Alnus, Rosa, Fraxinus, Acer</span>). The life cycle is one year, with pupation in spring in the wood. Pupation takes place at early spring. Stage of pupa is two weeks. Adults emerge in IV-VI, found on the host-plants. In Germany it lives in canopy branches, especially of old oak stands.</p><p>    </p><p>In Hungary this species occurs in various broad-leaved forest types (mainly in oak). In Romania it has been found in thick branches of thermophilous oaks at the beginning of May (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). UK sites include woodlands, wood pastures and parklands, as well as hedgerows, in the cultural landscape. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey. <br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
157917	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	A widespread species in Europe with a population that is stable overall but declining in the edges.<br/><br/>In Central Europe this species is common. In particular in Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as one of&#160; the most common longhorns in the oak forests. In Italy and Spain it is common. In Ukraine it is relatively common. In Finland there is only one locality. The population size and trend have not been quantified in the European part of Turkey.<br/><br/>In the UK it was formerly widespread, although localised, across much of central and south-eastern England; it appears to have undergone a dramatic decline in recent decades (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it seems to be declining in recent decades; the best known population is is south-western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157917	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A., Mannerkoski, I., Tezcan, S., Horák, J. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats. However in the UK clearance of fallen branches as well as canopy closure due to changing land management, result in heavily shaded fallen branches unsuitable for breeding&#160; (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157918	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Hungary). No specific conservation measures for this species are known to be in place.	eng
157918	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This Eurasian species (Laibner 2000) is widespread across almost all Europe except Britain. In Ukraine it is mostly present in all regions, except in the steppe zone. In Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Portugal it is widespread all over the country. In Ireland it is known from just one site.	eng
157918	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop especially in decaying wood of willows <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, poplars <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span>, birches <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula</span>, and oaks <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> (Laibner 2000). In Ireland larvae develop in soft red-rotten heartwood of birch <span style="font-style: italic;">Betula </span>growing on peatland; they pupate at end of season and overwinter as adult (Alexander 2002). In Ukraine this is a mesohygrophylic species. Larvae are predators or necro-saprophagous. <br/><br/>It is found in deciduous and mixed forests of lowlands to foothills, especially near streams and in moist localities (Laibner 2000). Often found in wooded mires and swamp forests. The records from Hungary are from various broadleaved forests, mainly in moist habitats (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The sole Irish locality is a peat bog.	eng
157918	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	A widespread species that is not uncommon in at least parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Ireland it is only known from a restricted area in County Kerry (Mendel and Clarke 1996), where the population appears reasonably strong (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine this species is common. In Hungary the populations are small and in Denmark it is not common.	eng
157918	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mason, F. & Pettersson, R. , 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species, however there may be some negative impacts on populations from e.g. deliberate drainage of wooded wetlands. In Ireland the loss of old and decaying birch trees is a threat (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
157919	conservation	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	No measures are needed. Monitoring and research on its distribution are recommended.<br/><br/>The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). It is listed as Critically Endangered in Germany (2009) and as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2005).	eng
157919	distribution	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread across a central band of Europe, east to west; absent from Fennoscandia (Bense 1995).<br/><br/>In Germany this species is widespread but missing in three German states, in six states there are only old records, recent records (after 1950) only in Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Niedersachsen. In Hungary it is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas; occurs also in riverine forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is widespread especially in the hilly areas; some records are from the plain with forests, in the southern part of the country.<br/>In Denmark it is Extinct (2005) and has not been found in the country in over 100 years. Also Extinct in Austria. It has been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Schimitschek 1953, Erdem and Canakcıoglu 1977, Oymen 1987) and from Edirne (Ozdikmen and Sahin 2006) in European Turkey.<br/><br/>It also occurs in northern Iran, Minor Asia, Caucasus and western Kazakhstan.	eng
157919	habitat	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The eggs are laid on dry dead branches and thin tree trunks, and hatch after near two or three weeks. Polyphagous in a wide range of broad-leaved trees (<em>Acer, Alnus, Castanea, Fagus, Quercus, Corylus, Salix, Malus, Prunus, Tilia, Rhamnus, Ulmus, Juglans, Paliurus, Pistacia, Populus</em>). The larvae develop under the bark and pupate in the spring in the wood. The adults emerge in V-VIII, and are found on host-plants and feeding at flowers. The life cycle is two years. <br/><br/>The species inhabits temperate forest and shrubland, vineyards and orchards. In Hungary it occurs in various deciduous forest types (mainly in oak and beech) (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it is especially found in the oak forests, where the larvae develop on the dead branches of <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer tatarica</span>. Sometimes adults have been found in association with another longhorn beetle <span style="font-style: italic;">Purpuricenus kaehleri</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey larvae develop in <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Quercus</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Castanea</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Salix</em></strong>, <strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Vitis</em></strong> (Schimitschek 1953).	eng
157919	population	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, although reports suggest that it is plentiful in many countries.  In Ukraine and Romania it is a usual species. The population size and trend have not been quantified for Hungary and Turkey, although the species is regarded in Hungary as quite frequent in its localities. In France it is common. In Italy it is quite common with many records. In Greece there are many records. <br/><br/>In contrast, it appears to be rare in other countries. In Germany this species is rare and declining. In the Czech Republic it is rare, once believed to be extinct but new records have been found. In Spain it is also rare, there are very old records, only one recent record and only three populations known. <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157919	threats	Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>There are no major threats known and it is assumed that the species has been undersampled. <br/></p>In Hungary the species is not threatened, because host plants are available all over its range. In Romania the clearance of dead branches can be a threat, especially where there are low number of individuals (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157920	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	In the UK, this species has conservation status, Nationally Scarce (Hyman and Parsons 1992); otherwise reliant on general FSC guidelines. <br/><br/>The species is occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. UK, Hungary).	eng
157920	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This species is widespread across almost all Europe. It is also known from western Siberia. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it occurs in the southern part of the forest zone and forest-steppe zone. In Hungary this species is sporadic all over the country. It is widely scattered across lowland England and there is a single old record from southern Scotland. It is not present in Ireland.<br/><br/><p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Des%20nouvelles%20de%20Mycetophagus%20ater%20Reitter%20et%20Mycetophagus%20populi%20F.%20en%20%C3%8Ele-de-France%20(Coleoptera%20Mycetophagidae)&rft.jtitle=L'Entomologiste&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.aufirst=Ch&rft.aulast=Bouget&rft.au=Ch%20Bouget&rft.au=X.%20Pineau&rft.au=L.%20Duchemin&rft.au=F.%20Arnaboldi&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=97-100"></p><p><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Des%20nouvelles%20de%20Mycetophagus%20ater%20Reitter%20et%20Mycetophagus%20populi%20F.%20en%20%C3%8Ele-de-France%20(Coleoptera%20Mycetophagidae)&rft.jtitle=L'Entomologiste&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.aufirst=Ch&rft.aulast=Bouget&rft.au=Ch%20Bouget&rft.au=X.%20Pineau&rft.au=L.%20Duchemin&rft.au=F.%20Arnaboldi&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=97-100"><br/></p>	eng
157920	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in the decaying wood of broad-leaved trees in broad-leaved and mixed woodland, as well as in historic parklands within the cultural landscape.<br/><br/>The larvae probably develop within fungal mycelia within decaying wood, although the favoured situations and conditions are not known. Adults are most often found during winter and spring and so were probably not in breeding habitat at the time; reported from under loose bark on dead wood and in soft moist decaying sapwood of elm <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus </span>and other broad-leaved trees; spring records include an association with fresh sap (Alexander 2002). In France larvae develop in diverse broad-leaved trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus, Populus, Ulmus</span>) but with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>; they use small white-rotten (probably by <span style="font-style: italic;">Polyporus squamosus</span>) holes in living trees at two or six metres above the soil (Dodelin 2006). In Finland it is often found in aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span> but also in other broad-leaved species.<br/><br/>In Hungary it occurs in mountain broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak, hornbeam and beech, but also from soft-wood riverine forests in the lowlands (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France it is found in old-growth forests with no management and also in parks in cities, in thermophilous conditions (Dodelin 2006). Sites in the UK are ancient wood pastures and historic parklands - old growth within the cultural landscape (Alexander 2002).	eng
157920	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	A widespread species that is rather common in at least parts of its range. Population trend is thought to be stable at the regional level.<br/><br/>In Finland it is rather common, widespread and increasing. In Italy it is found in the north, and in Germany it is widespread throughout but not really common.<br/><br/> In France it is very rare (Brustel 2005); sporadic specimens known from about 11 localities from the centre, east and south. It seems to be absent from the south-west and the Pyrenees. In Britain it has a very fragmented distribution, with only six modern sites known, all small and very isolated; there are more old sites than modern ones, so a severe decline is probable (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In Ukraine it is rare. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as rare in its localities.	eng
157920	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B. & Campanaro, A., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species at the European level. However, in some range states (e.g. UK) the species is potentially seriously threatened by clearing of dead wood in ancient parklands and wood-pastures.<br/></p>	eng
157921	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	Forestry certification schemes that prescribe burning are beneficial for this species and are to be recommended; some such schemes are already in place (e.g. in parts of Sweden). This species occurs in protected areas (e.g. Ukraine).	eng
157921	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This Eurosiberian species is known from almost all of Europe except the far west and Britain and Ireland. This species also occurs in northern China, Mongolia and North Korea (Lobl and Smetana 2007).	eng
157921	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae are obligate predators, developing under bark and in decayed wood of conifer trees. Pupation occurs at the end of summer and in spring. The adult beetles are active in V-VI and are found on grasses, plants, bushes and on the trunks of trees. The adults feed at tree sap, and sometimes take small insects (Aphidoidea, Psyllidae) (Dolin 1982). It lives in old evergreen forests from highlands to mountains (Laibner 2000). It mainly occurs in spruce, birch and aspen in coniferous and mixed forests. Typically found in burnt areas.	eng
157921	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	A boreo-montane species. Generally scarce and localised, although it may be locally not uncommon in suitable habitat in some areas. Declines and local extinctions have been reported from several range states (including those from the core as well as the periphery of the range).<br/><br/>In Finland it has declined and nowadays it is present in the east and north, and has nearly disappeared from the southern parts. In Sweden it too has become locally Extinct in the south, but is still relatively widespread in the north, with 20-30 known localities. <br/><br/>In Ukraine it is a relatively rare species. In the Czech and Slovak Republics it is found locally and becoming rare (Laibner 2000). In Germany it is extremely scare; restricted to higher mountain areas. In Spain it is&#160;known from two populations in the Pyrenees.	eng
157921	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Mico, E. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This species is favoured by forest fires, so any decrease in the frequency of fires would be detrimental to the species. The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157922	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is found in protected areas (e.g. Hungary, France).  In France one population is located in an integral forest reserve close to the Parc National de la Vanoise. Appropriate habitat management is needed both in protected areas and forests managed for forestry (there is a need to maintain open areas, to leave dead logs lying, and to maintain the natural fire cycle). <br/><br/>The development of a management plan to discover new populations should be developed in countries like Albania or Romania, and any new areas foudn should be conserved (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is listed as Vulnerable in Finland and Germany (2009).	eng
157922	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	A Holarctic species, but a rare boreo-montane species in Europe (Sama 2002). This species occurs in the Pyrenees, across the Alps and into eastern Europe and Fennoscandia (Bense 1995). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species has been found only once in the north-eastern part (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Albania one abundant population occurs in the Mt. Arithit (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In France it has been found in the French border in the Swiss Alps in 2007. Known from old data (1855, 1884) from Chamonix where only one population may exist (Allemand<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2009). Exit holes were recently found in the historical site of Chamonix and in the Var department (southern Alps) (H. Brustel pers. comm. 2005) and in the border of the Vanoise National Park (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2004).	eng
157922	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea</span>, also recorded from <span style="font-style: italic;">Larix </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> (Sama 2002) they live in the decaying wood of dead fallen trunks, stumps and roots (Bense 1995). They require rotten but dry wood. The adults are mostly crepuscular or nocturnal, by day hidden under loose bark on the host-plants (Sama 2002). In Albania it has been found in the Macedonian pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus peuce</span> (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France larvae are saproxylophagous in dead and sun-exposed <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus uncinata</span> trunks  with 'pink' rot of Stereaceae fungi. Trunks can be of small diameters (<30 cm) but must always lie in sunny places. In Finland and Germany it lives in old fallen pine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>) trunks, mostly on sun-exposed sites, burned areas etc. <br/><br/>It is a boreo-montane species. In Hungary this species has been found in planted spruce forest.	eng
157922	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. A rare species in Europe (Sama 2002). Population trend is generally declining throughout Europe. <br/></p><p>In Sweden, suitable habitat for this species has declined by 25% in the last ten years (Wikars 2004). <br/></p><p>In its Alpine and Pyrenean distribution, it is now very fragmented and localized. In Switzerland, only one site is known since 2000; only two sites are known in the French Alps.<br/></p>In Hungary this species has been found only once, so no information is available about its populations (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157922	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M., 2009	Extraction of old logs from <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span> sp. forests where the species occurs, and the loss of old-growth forests and large old trees are major threats to this species.	eng
157924	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The species occurs in several protected areas but there is no information on the conservation measures for this species.</p>	eng
157924	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This species is only known from Sardinia and Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
157924	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species.&#160;<em>Dorcus</em> species can survive in a large variety of habitat types, requiring any type of dead wood without specific requirements. It is assumed that <em>D. musimon</em> will have the same habitat requirements.	eng
157924	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The population trend is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
157924	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Méndez, M. & Alexander, K., 2009	<p>The threats to this species remain unknown.</p>	eng
157925	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157925	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	The species is distributed from Turkey, Near East to the Caucasus region, Arabian Peninsula, Iran and Iraq. In Europe this species is only found in Cyprus, Greece and the European part of Turkey. In Greece, the species is reported from southern Macedonia, Asprovalta, Thessaloniki environment, Chalkidike (leg. Kraus 2004, P. Cate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is reported from Pedoulas 1,000 m, a locality on the northern slope of Troodos Mountains (Preiss and Platia 2003)<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Recently was found at Alethriko 50 m and Polemidia 50 m, two localities on the southern coastline.	eng
157925	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, developing in old hollow trees. It has been reported from old plantations with <em>Ceratonia siliqua</em>. The adults are attracted to light (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  <p></p>&#160;  <p></p>	eng
157925	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Its population is fragmented and the species is considered very rare and local in Cyprus<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). <br/></p>	eng
157925	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>This species lives in old hollow trees, a habitat that it is severely declining in the Mediterrarean area and populations are highly fragmented.<br/></p>	eng
157926	conservation	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	In the UK there are no conservation actions in place, other than general FSC guidelines (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009). In France some populations are within national parks and natural forest reserves (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). Action is needed to conserve old growth forests throughout its range.	eng
157926	distribution	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is spread across central and western Europe; it also occurs in North America, northern China, far eastern Russia and Japan; one locality is known in Asian Turkey <span style="background-color: white;">(Mertlik <em>et al. </em>2007)</span>. It has been suggested that it was introduced to Europe but there is no evidence for this in Great Britain, France and Italy, and additionally most sites in Great Britain are long-established and rich in other saproxylics, and it is accordingly regarded as an old growth species (Alexander 2002).&#160;It is only known from one locality in Belgium, from an old growth beech and pine forest (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). Its native status is discussed by Allen (1993).<br/><br/>Specific details for some range states are included below:<br/>Italy: it is present in peninsular Italy but it is omitted from the new checklist (A.&#160;Biscaccianti pers. comm. 2009).<br/>UK: fragmented distribution across central England, with many isolated populations; also a single record from southern Scotland (Mendel and Clarke 1996).<br/>France: present in the Pyrenees and the Alps - it is known from ten localities in France, following intensive collection of data up to 2007 (Dodelin and Brustel pers. comm. 2009, Dodelin <em>et al</em>. 2003). <br/>Spain: old records from the 1930s (Cobos 1959); no recent findings (Recalde Irurzun 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/> <p><br/><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Biologie%20et%20distribution%20de%20deux%20esp%C3%A8ces%20d'Eucnemidae%20associ%C3%A9es%20aux%20bois%20morts%20en%20for%C3%AAts%20de%20montagne%20(sud-est%20de%20la%20France)%20(Coleoptera)&rft.jtitle=Bulletin%20mensuel%20de%20la%20Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20linn%C3%A9enne%20de%20Lyon&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=9&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Dodelin&rft.au=B.%20Dodelin&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.au=L.%20Leseigneur&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=294-300"><span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Biologie%20et%20distribution%20de%20deux%20esp%C3%A8ces%20d'Eucnemidae%20associ%C3%A9es%20aux%20bois%20morts%20en%20for%C3%AAts%20de%20montagne%20(sud-est%20de%20la%20France)%20(Coleoptera)&rft.jtitle=Bulletin%20mensuel%20de%20la%20Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20linn%C3%A9enne%20de%20Lyon&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=9&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.aulast=Dodelin&rft.au=B.%20Dodelin&rft.au=G.%20Lemp%C3%A9ri%C3%A8re&rft.au=L.%20Leseigneur&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=294-300"></p>	eng
157926	habitat	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in decaying heartwood of various trees, both conifers and broad-leaves. In parts of its distribution it is only known from old growth forests (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009). This species&#160;prefers the dry parts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea abies</span> logs in French sites, wood rotten by red rot;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> but in Belgium it has been found in&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span> in very old forests. Forests must have a continuous supply of decaying wood. Most of the known localities in France are large forests with no management for 50 years at least (Dodelin&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2003). Sites in Britain are often historic parklands, ancient woodlands and wood pastures, the species associated in particular with oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>(Alexander 2002). In Canada it has been associated with <span style="font-style: italic;">Picea sitkaensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies pectinata</span>; it is also known from <span style="font-style: italic;">Abies</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">amabilis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. lasiocarpa</span>&#160;(Muona 1993).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
157926	population	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	It appears most likely that the trend is increasing, based on recent new records of the species.	eng
157926	threats	Horák, J., Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>The principle threats to this species are loss of old trees and decaying wood, and the lack of the continuous supply of decaying wood that it requires (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
157927	conservation	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	Little information available. It occurs in a National Park in the Kharkov region of Ukraine.	eng
157927	distribution	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This species is found in several countries in eastern and south-eastern Europe. In Ukraine it is only known from the Carpathian region and from one record on the Crimean Peninsula (in the eastern part of the forest-steppe zone (Kharkov region) (Drogvalenko 1999).<br/><br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
157927	habitat	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species known from broad-leaved forests; it has been found living on elm and ash. Adults and larvae are predators of bark beetles (Scolytidae) and live under bark on freshly dead wood (Drogvalenko 1999).	eng
157927	population	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
157927	threats	Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N., Istrate, P., Horák, J., Tezcan, S. & Putchkov, A., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>	eng
157928	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in several protected areas.	eng
157928	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is found in southern and western Europe in Mediterranean France and Italy, and the Adriatic (Bense 1995). The species is present in the Peloponnese Peninsula and the southern part of Greece.	eng
157928	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. Polyphagous and xylophagous (a diet consisting of wood mainly) on broad-leaved trees with a preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>. Larvae live in dry dead branches of living trees.<br/></p>	eng
157928	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. <br/></p><p>The population is very fragmented in Spain but present in 23 localities in the northern mountains. It is common locally in France. The population trend it is considered stable. The species is not rare in Italy.</p>	eng
157928	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appears to be no major threat.<br/><p></p>	eng
157929	conservation	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
157929	distribution	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	This species is widespread in south-eastern Europe, Turkey and Syria (Bense 1995). In Romania it is present only in the south-eastern part, specifically in Dobroudjia (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Cyprus it is present in the foothills and mountains of Troodos Massif (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is an old record for Spain&#160;(Panin and Savulescu 1961).<p></p>	eng
157929	habitat	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This species shows a strong preference for dead wood on standing oaks growing on poor stony ground. In Romania, it was found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span> forest (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009), and in Cyprus it was found in   <em>Quercus coccifera</em>  in maquis and forests (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157929	population	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no information available on the abundance or trends of this species. In Romania this species was found&#160;once, 40 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus it is l</st1:place></st1:country-region>ocally common (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).</p>  .<p></p>	eng
157929	threats	Putchkov, A., Schlaghamersky, J., Nardi, G., Tykarski, P., Munteanu, N. & Istrate, P., 2009	<p>There is no information regarding the threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
157930	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species, particularly with regard to its conservation needs.</p>	eng
157930	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This species is found in Turkey, Greece and the south of Bulgaria. Four specimens have been collected from four localities in Greece (P. Cate collection, Vienna).	eng
157930	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is found in decayed tree trunks in forests.	eng
157930	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is considered to be not rare. <br/></p>	eng
157930	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Unsustainable forest management, extraction of old trees and removal of dead wood are the specific major threats to this species, although these are currently considered to be at tolerable levels. </p>	eng
157931	conservation	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	In order to conserve this species it is necessary to promote traditional forest management and coppicing, as well as protection of veteran trees and ensure that new generations of trees are available, maintaining habitat continuity and connectivity. In Hungary the recently discovered extant population is in a protected area, but this is a private property. An effective protection of the old oak stands is necessary. The species is legally protected in Hungary (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). The populations from south-western Romania are preserved inside three major national parks (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157931	distribution	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	This species is distributed in the Mediterranean zone of Europe (Bense 1995) and into southern and central Europe. In Ukraine it is present in the southern regions. In Hungary this species is very sporadic in the hills and mountains, mainly in the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It has been recorded from western and southern Romania. It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, except in the northern part and in France it also only occurs in the south. <st1:country-region w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:country-region>it has been reported from the hills and mountains of Troodos Massif (west, south and <st1:place w:st="on">central Cyprus</st1:place>) (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).  It has also been reported from Istanbul (Acatay 1943, Oymen 1987, Ozdikmen and Demir 2006) and it is also found in Minor Asia.<p><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157931	habitat	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	<p>    </p><p>This is an obligate saproxylic species. This thermophilous species develops in broad-leaved trees (especially <em>Quercus</em><em>, </em>also in<em> </em><em>Platanus, Ceratonia</em>). Larvae first develop under the bark and in the woody tissues of living and weakened trees with a large diameter (at least 30 cm) including stools of coppiced trees. It needs sun-exposed trees - the sun-exposed face of the trunk is colonised first (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2009. Life cycle is at least three years. Adults emerge in VI-VIII on host plants, and are crepuscular and nocturnal. Adults can be found during the night on the host tree (P. Istrate pers. obs. 2009). Personal observations from Baile Herculane (Romania) show that this species lives in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cerambyx cerdo</span>. In Rumania it occurs in oak forests from mountains, hilly places and sometimes in planes. In Hungary the known localities of this species are in thermophilous oak woods and wood pastures (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">In Cyprus </st1:place></st1:country-region>it was found in old   orchards, maquis and forests, on or near old trees <em>of&#160; Quercus infectoria ssp veneris </em>and<em> Quercus alnifolia</em> (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009). There is not any detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for the European part of Turkey.</p>    <p><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><br/></st1:place></st1:country-region><em> </em></p>  <p></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157931	population	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Overall the population trend for this species is unknown but it is declining in some parts. In Hungary the population size and trend have not been quantified, but the species became much rarer in the second half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. Most localities are older than 50 years, but an extant population was discovered in 2002 (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). Good populations are preserved in south-western Romania, in the Carpathian oak forest. Other populations, in the Romanian Plain are poor (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In France it is common in its distribution area but seems to regress from the most agro-intensive places and from the northern places (Allemand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). In Slovakia there is only one site in the extreme south of the country. In Spain there are 90 localities and in Italy it is widespread with a good number of populations. The population size and trend have not been quantified for the European part of Turkey or Cyprus but the species is not rare.<br/>    <p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
157931	threats	Mason, F., Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Istrate, P., Munteanu, N., Büche, B., Tezcan, S., Méndez, M., Dodelin, B., Alexander, K., & Schlaghamersky, J. , 2009	Loss of traditional management including coppicing and the degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density are major threats to this species. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. In Hungary and Romania the species is threatened by the removal of old oak trees.	eng
157932	conservation	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	In Finland measures are taken to protect aspen trees during felling of adjacent coniferous trees for timber. This protects habitat for this and other species of beetle. The species occurs in protected areas in Hungary, Romania and Ukraine (in the Kanevskyi reserve in the Cherkassy region). This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in Denmark (2003) and as Endangered in Poland (Oleksa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
157932	distribution	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This Eurasian species occurs throughout much of Europe from western to eastern Europe extending to the northern countries, but not Britain and Ireland. <br/><br/>In Spain there are only a few localities in forests of the Atlantic Coast. In Denmark it is Extinct (2003). In Hungary the species is widespread in the hilly and mountainous areas and sporadic in the lowlands where extensive oak forests occur (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania it occurs in many parts of the country, especially in the forest from hills and small mountains.&#160; In Russia it is present in the southern part and in all forest-steppe zones, south Siberia, Far East to Sakhalin islands. In Ukraine it occurs in the north (all forest and northern part of forest-steppe zones); it is absent in Crimea.	eng
157932	habitat	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It is an old growth species. The larvae develop in wood mould in the base or upper parts of hollow living trees, usually trunks and main boughs with large cavities containing large volumes of wood mould, primarily derived from natural fungal decay of the dead heartwood. Larvae take one or two years to develop, longer where conditions not optimal. Suitable trees occur in a wide variety of situations - old wood pastures, orchards, historic parklands, hedgerow trees, old avenues, etc, all places where trees have been retained into maturity and old age, for a variety of reasons. Often found in trees growing in relatively open country, but may also be found in closed woodland. Pupation takes place in spring. The adults show summer activity, VI-VIII; adults have been found feeding at sap oozing from wounds on large oaks, willows and lime trees in large forest patches.<br/><br/>In Poland it occurs in networks of rural avenues in northern Poland; the hollow trees are generally above 200 cm in circumference, with a tendency towards higher occupancies of the larger trees, with circumferences above 300 cm; no preferences for tree species or for exposition, just hollow trees (Oleksa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2006). In Spain it is associated with large forested areas of broad-leaved trees in which their larvae develop. In Ukraine the adults are often seen on trees with flowing sap (old forests and gardens) usually on glades and edges; larvae develop in old stubs and hollows of oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, willow <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span>, pear-tree <span style="font-style: italic;">Pyrus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span>, and aspen <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus tremula</span>.&#160; In Romania adults have often been found on the sap flow from scarce big oaks, at high level, in the canopy of trees.	eng
157932	population	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	Population size and trends vary across its range. It remains widespread in some states but is rare and threatened in others.<br/><br/>Described as threatened over its whole distributional range, including in Germany and Austria; in Sweden its range contracted during the 20<sup>th</sup> century and the species completely disappeared from the south-west (Oleksa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In Spain it is rare, but there is insufficient data.<br/><br/>In Hungary the species is regarded as not rare in its localities. In Romania it is well represented in pure oak forests, but as not high number of individuals as <span style="font-style: italic;">Protaetia aeruginosa </span>(P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157932	threats	Mannerkoski, I., Hyvärinen, E., Campanaro, A., Alexander, K., Büche, B., Dodelin, B., Mason, F., Pettersson, R., Mico, E. & Méndez, M.  , 2009	<p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude both grazing by large herbivores and cutting. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p>  Also the loss of old hollowing trees and lack of future replacement generations of trees are threats to this species.	eng
157933	conservation	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>Further molecular studies are needed to clarify the presence in Greece of this species. <br/></p><p>In Italy this species is listed as Vulnerable (2006).<br/></p>	eng
157933	distribution	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species is only confirmed from the south of France and Italy. Its status in Greece and Albania is unclear.<br/><br/>The species is known from Corsica and one large locality in continental France (extreme south of the Var department), central and southern Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania and Greece according to Baraud (1993) but <span style="font-style: italic;">L. tetraodon</span> does not occur in Greece (P. Petrakis pers comm. 2009).	eng
157933	habitat	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae is xylophagous in oak <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> species. It lives in buried decomposing wood of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Q. suber</span>. Adults are active and flying between mid-June and mid-August (Baraud 1993).&#160;It lives is broad-leaved forests.	eng
157933	population	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>This is a flagship species. The species is common in central and southern Italy; there is a recent record from northern Italy; about 100 localities in Italy. Very localised in France but not uncommon.<br/></p>	eng
157933	threats	Nieto, A., Dodelin, B., Campanaro, A. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Collection of specimens for non-scientific purposes and trade may cause a rapid decline of its population in the future. This is a very big species.</p><p>Degradation of habitat and removal of dead trees are also threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157934	conservation	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the abundance and distribution of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
157934	distribution	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	In Europe this species is only known from Greece and Cyprus. There are records from Mt. Ossa and Katara (Pindus Mountains). It also occurs in Turkey.	eng
157934	habitat	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives under the dead bark of various trees, such as pine <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>, beech <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus</span>, lime <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilia</span> etc., where deadwood has been colonised by fungi. It is especially found in old beech forest.	eng
157934	population	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is rare and it is considered that the population trend is decreasing.<br/></p>	eng
157934	threats	Nieto, A., Petrakis, P., Schmidl, J. & Pettersson, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The main overall threat is degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Intensive forest management and removal of dead wood are major specific threats. Global warming appears to be reducing the range of beech forest, the preferred forest formation of this species.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
157935	conservation	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	No conservation measures are in place other than general FSC guidelines. The species is very common and occurs in many protected areas (e.g. Hungary, UK).	eng
157935	distribution	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This species is known from the Palaearctic region and it is widespread across most of Europe.<br/><br/>It has only recently appeared in Ireland, either a natural colonisation from Scotland, or, more likely, an incidental introduction. It is known in Scotland from just a single site in the south. It is however widespread in England and Wales (K.N.A. Alexander pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157935	habitat	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It develops in Pyrenomycetes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Diatrype, Hypoxylon, Daldinia</span>). Adult beetles feed on wood-decay fungi more generally (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pleurotus, Fomes, Piptoporus, Polyporus</span>) and are also found under dead bark. The adults hibernate and are active in V-VIII (Nikitsky <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1996).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species lives in all kinds of&#160; broad-leaved forests, and in any wooded places, including city parks, suburbs, villages; sometimes also in conifer forests. In the UK suitable sites include a wide variety of wooded situations, including hedgerows (Alexander 2002).	eng
157935	population	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	A widespread and common species across much of Europe with stable populations.<br/><br/>In Ireland one population was discovered in 1992, and was assumed to be a recent colonisation (Anderson 1993). In the UK it is widespread, with no suggestion of any decline. It is common in Ukraine. In Hungary this species is widespread all over the country; population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species is regarded as very common in its localities. In Portugal it has been recorded from several sites in the northern half and from a single one in the centre, most records being from the 1980s onwards. Probably it is much more widespread in the country than currently known, because of under-sampling (J.M. Grosso-Silva and P. Soares-Vieira pers. comm. 2009).	eng
157935	threats	Nieto, A. Mannerkoski, I., Pettersson, R., Mason, F. & Schmidl, J., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no major threats.<br/></p><p>The main overall threat is likely to be degradation or loss of habitat quality, involving structural changes in the tree populations arising from changing land use – affecting age structures and tree density. Exploitation from forestry is often a key immediate issue, but equally damaging can be long-term changes towards canopy closure and loss of ancient trees as a result of non- or minimum-intervention management systems which all too often exclude grazing by large herbivores. Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
157936	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	Overall, there are no conservation measures needed but recommendations for national level: in Italy research is required in the Alpine arch in order to understand the gap of distribution between France and the Balkans; in Hungary old orchards should be protected and sustained; in Romania good management of the thermophilous forests from the south is recommended. The species is legally protected in Hungary. In Italy this species is listed as Vulnerable (Sama 2006).	eng
157936	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This species is distributed in the south of western, eastern and central Europe. <br/><br/>Common and widely distributed in the Balkans, eastward to Crimea and southern part of European Russia (Sama 2002). In Hungary and the Czech Republic it is widespread in the hilly and lower mountain area.&#160; In Romania it has been recorded from the south but there are only few reports; there is also one record from western Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In the European part of Turkey it has been reported from Canakkale (Gokceada) (S. Tezcan pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Italy, there are about 10 localities concentrated in the Karsic region in the north-east, very old records (1940s). In Spain it is very common, except in the north-west and it is known from more than 100 localities. In Portugal it was recorded only once (in the 19<sup>th</sup> century) but&#160; its presence requires confirmation.<br/><br/>This species occurs as well in Minor Asia, in eastern Iran and northern Africa.	eng
157936	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. The larvae develop in dead dry twigs and branches (Sama 2002) of a large diversity of broad-leaved trees, including <em>Prunus, Quercus, Salix, Pistacia </em>and <em>Ulmus</em>. The larvae gnaw very deep passages in the wood. Pupation takes place at the beginning of summer; adults emerge in V-VIII, attracted to flowers for feeding, including&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Centaurea scabiosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carduus</span> in Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009)<br/><br/>In Hungary it is mainly found in old, traditionally cultivated orchards, also in thermophilous oak forests and suburbs. In Romania it has been recorded from the thermophilous oak forests spread on the lowlands near the Danube river in the south of&#160; Romania (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Spain it is present in almost all <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>and Mediterranean forest. There is no detailed information on the habitats and ecology of this species for European Turkey.<p><br/><strong></strong></p>	eng
157936	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	Common and widely distributed in the Balkans, eastward to Crimea and southern part of European Russia (Sama 2002). In Crimea it is very rare. <br/><br/>In Hungary populations of this species have apparently been declining in the last 20 years (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania there are no data about the size and population trend, but few populations were reported 40-50 years ago (P. Istrate pers. comm. 2009). In Italy it is very rare; very old records (1940s).<br/><p>In Spain it is very common, except in the north-west and it is known from more than 100 localities. <br/></p>	eng
157936	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	Overall there are no threats to this species but it can face local threats. In particular the disappearance of old orchards in Hungary may be threatening, but the exact causes of the population decline are unknown (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Romania and Slovakia forest fragmentation and the replacement of native oaks with others species is a threat.	eng
157939	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	<p>The species is not legally protected but it is included in the French Red Data Book tome II.&#160;Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. The search for new sites is underway.<br/></p><p>Monitoring of the population dynamics and research on the species' biology, resilience and conservation requirements are needed. Furthermore, seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation should be collected.<br/></p>	eng
157939	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula corsica</span> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European-Orophytic origins. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other parts of the island.	eng
157939	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found in "pozzine" (shallow pools), peat and grass around lakes, runnels, and "fruticées naines" (shrubland) or lands from 1,150 to 1,900 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments. At the moment, there is no information about germination, growing and flowering conditions.	eng
157939	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula corsica</span> is known from more than 30 localities in Corsica (33).  The last observations at the site of Sellola were made in 2007.  The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but a decline could not be quantified. The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
157939	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The habitat is submitted to the increase of trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on pozzine, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the Natural  Park around the different lakes. A future reduction in grazing pressure will lead to a change in the species composition and dynamics and shrub vegetation, that might compete with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. corsica</span>, will appear.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Disturbance by wild boar, which dig the soil, impacts on this species.	eng
157951	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Litipo Forest Reserve, Kwamsambia Forest Reserve, and Longuza Forest Reserve.	eng
157951	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from southern coastal Tanzania and northwards to the Nguru and Usambara Mtns.	eng
157951	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub growing in coastal forest, thicket and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis</span> woodland.	eng
157951	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, has not been seen in the wild by Q. Luke (pers. comm.).	eng
157951	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of forest to agricultural expansion.	eng
157952	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a few protected areas including Kimboza Forest Reserve, Kwiro Forest Reserve, Kwemnyese Public Forest and Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
157952	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the East Usambara, Uluguru and Mahenge mountains in Tanzania. There are also four sight records from coastal Kenya at Chasimba and Pangani (Q. Luke pers. obs.).	eng
157952	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb that dies back during the dry season and produces a single leaf in the wet season. Occurs in moist evergreen forest, usually on limestone outcrops.	eng
157952	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This taxonomic group is often under-represented in herbaria because it is difficult to always collect fertile material (species have a very short flowering period). Appears to be very localized, but may be more common that current records indicate.	eng
157952	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The main threat in all the known localities is forest clearance for agriculture (crops), and expanding human settlements.	eng
157957	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from the following protected areas: Udzunwga Mountains National Park, Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve and Livingstone Forest Reserve.	eng
157957	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs from the Udzungwa Mountains westwards along the mountain chains to Rungwe.	eng
157957	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows on the edges of rivers and swamps and in grassy marshes.	eng
157957	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Probably commoner than collections indicate, as it is a large plant and hard to dry, so probably seldom collected.	eng
157957	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Draining of marshy areas for agriculture is the main threat.	eng
157960	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Protection of Kiwengoma Forest is doubtful.	eng
157960	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known only from a very small area from Kiwengoma Forest in the Matumbi Hills.	eng
157960	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A tree growing in dry scrub and riverine coastal forest.	eng
157960	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown, but one of the collections cites it as common.	eng
157960	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Does not appear to be in any protected area, but if it is, they are not effectively protected. There is selective logging (especially of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus</span>), loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion (crops) and general logging for charcoal production.	eng
157964	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of protected areas including Kwamngumi Forest Reserve, Chamanyani Forest Reserve, Nilo Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve Longuza Forest Reserve, Amini Nature Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve and Magombera Forest Reserve.	eng
157964	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from coastal southern Kenya (Shimba Hills) into northern Tanzania (foothills of the Usambara, Ukaguru and Udzungwa mountain ranges).	eng
157964	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb that dies back in the dry months. A moist lowland forest species which seems tolerant of some disturbance as it has been recorded in disturbed forest.	eng
157964	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly distinctive and likely to be collected more frequently than other species in the family. Seems to be reasonably common.	eng
157964	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A number of the forests where it occurs are under pressure from agricultural expansion.	eng
157970	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not known for certain from any protected area. There is a sight record from Mtwara - Mnazi Bay/Ruvuma Estuary Marine Protected area, but the identity of this still needs to be confirmed.	eng
157970	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A coastal species found in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania as far south as Dar es Salaam and on a small island near Zanzibar. The northern most collection in Kenya is doubtful, as is any putative collections from Eritrea.	eng
157970	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A decumbent succulent herb which grows right on the beach front in the salt spray zone on coral outcrops. Also recorded in sandy soils, in grass and open thickets near the sea shore.	eng
157970	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not very common.	eng
157970	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The habitat is sensitive as it is a zone impacted by human activities (coastal development, etc.). Has attractive flowers so would also be sought by succulent collectors.	eng
157971	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its range including Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, and Nairobi National Park (all in Kenya), Uluguru South Forest Reserve (in Tanzania).	eng
157971	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The typical subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">sanguineus&#160; </span>is from the Eastern Cape (Grahamstown area) and Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">ballyi </span>is known only from the Nairobi area, Kenya; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">minor </span>occurs at Chila in the Ufipa district of Tanzania, in the Turkana area of Kenya and into Sudan; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">salmonoides </span>is from the Ngong Hills in the Masai district of Kenya; subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">wakefieldii </span>occurs from southern Kenya (e.g., Mombassa and Taita Hills) southwards into Tanzania (e.g., Uluguru Mts, and a record from Gumbiro in the Ruvuma district).	eng
157971	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded growing in a variety of habitats including sandy soils in deciduous woodland, rocky slopes, near sea level, grassland, etc.	eng
157971	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is presumably common locally.	eng
157971	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known, although given the extensive range is likely to be affected by many threats such as habitat loss because of expanding agricultural activities.	eng
157975	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in two protected areas: Image Forest Reserve and Kisanga Rugaro Forest Reserve. <br/><br/>It is in cultivation.	eng
157975	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Confined to Tanzania where it is known from only two localities: Image Mtn and Kalimbasi Mtn.	eng
157975	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found on rocky outcrops (granite) in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.	eng
157975	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown.	eng
157975	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Possibly sought after by succulent collectors, but not sure if there is much collector activity in this area. Is unlikely to be used medicinally as it is a small species.	eng
157979	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its range.	eng
157979	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	<em>Pycreus flavescens</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas and Australia (mainly introduced).	eng
157979	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in a variety of habitats including swamp margins, along rivers and streams, in seasonally flooded grassland and swamp edges.	eng
157979	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A very common species.	eng
157979	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No threats known.	eng
157980	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Magombera Forest Reserve (see the threats) and West Kilombero Nature Reserve (also known as Matundu Forest Reserve).	eng
157980	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Previously only known only from the Magombera Forest Reserve, which is about 200 ha in size but was recently collected in Matundu Forest Reserve by A. Marshall.	eng
157980	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A small tree growing in groundwater forest, and lowland forest.	eng
157980	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) only found one plant when he collected it, however, it was found to be more common by A. Marshall in Matundu Forest Reserve.	eng
157980	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	At least half of Magombera Forest Reserve has been lost in the last 10-15 years due to encroachment by people, but there are efforts under the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund to try and include what remains of the reserve  within the Selous Game Reserve. There is a sugar plantation and growing settlement adjacent to the Forest Reserve.	eng
157981	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of protected areas: Mafia Island Marine Park, Watamu Marine National Park, Segoma Forest Reserve, Zoraninge Forest Reserve and Litipo Forest Reserve.	eng
157981	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a wide range along the coast being recorded from Arabuko-Sokoke (Kenya) in the north southwards to Rondo Plateau (Tanzania).	eng
157981	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in dry bushland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra, Brachylaena, Manilkara, Brachystegia, Julbernardia, Diospyros, Xylopia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Inhambanella</span>. Also in moist semi-deciduous coastal forest with dominants: <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeos, Cola clavata, C. minor, Ricinodendron, Combretum schumannii, Craibia, Manilkara, Haplocoelopsis, Drypetes, Combretum, Salacia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dichapetalum</span>. Also in wooded grassland.	eng
157981	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A common species.	eng
157981	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There has been loss of habitat along the coast due to expanding agriculture and urban developments but not sufficient to consider this a major threat.	eng
157982	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in some protected areas e.g., Witu, Arabuko Sokoke and Buda Forest Reserves, Shimba Hills National Reserve and Kaya Waa. Does not appear to occur in any  protected areas in Tanzania.	eng
157982	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	All records are along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts, with one collection made at the foot of the Usambara Mts.	eng
157982	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub which grows in coastal forests (moist and dry),  thickets, and in coastal <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyphaene </span>woodland.	eng
157982	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
157982	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of habitat due to expanding agriculture, logging, mining, expanding urbanization, and the species is specifically cut for poles.	eng
157984	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in possibly two protected areas: Tsavo East National Park and one locality is within or near Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve.	eng
157984	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded mostly in the coastal parts of Kenya (Kwale District, Moyale and Tana River) and extending inland to the Lewa Conservancy. Is probably under-recorded because of difficulties in identifying this species.	eng
157984	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in coastal bush and further inland in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> woodland on rocky ground.	eng
157984	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not a common species; occurs in small clumps.	eng
157984	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not sought after by collectors, no other threats known although may be affected in parts of its range by habitat loss because of agriculture, burning for charcoal, etc.	eng
157986	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Ulangambi Forest Reserve, Malindo Extension Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Mailuganji (Mwalugange) Forest Reserve, Udzungwa Mountains National Park and the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
157986	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the southern coastal Kenya southwards into northern Tanzania as far south as the Udzungwa Mountains.	eng
157986	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in a variety of habitats including semi-deciduous forest, riverine vegetation, swamp forest and damp places in grassland.	eng
157986	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common, but in some places said to be rare.	eng
157986	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known, although is probably impacted by habitat loss and degradation in places.	eng
157988	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is recorded from several protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve, Shagayu Forest Reserve, Land 9Forest Reserve, West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, and Udzungwa Mountain National Park.	eng
157988	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Taita Hills in southern Kenya, south to the Pare, Usambara and Udzwunga Mountains in Tanzania.	eng
157988	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found growing in leaf mould and leaf litter in sub-montane evergreen forest, usually growing close to streams.	eng
157988	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Given the number of collections, this species is more common than other species in the family, but each subpopulation will have a very small population size (10-20 plants).	eng
157988	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is ongoing habitat loss across its range.	eng
157993	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Found in several protected areas: Mwachi Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Udzungwa National Park, Pindiro Forest Reserve, Kaya Gandinia, Kimboza Forest Reserve, Kaya Jibara and Kaya Rabai (all the Kaya occurrences are sight records).	eng
157993	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Found in the coastal forests of Kenya then inland to Kanga, Usambara and Udzungwa Mts in Tanzania (also on Zanzibar and Pemba islands).	eng
157993	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in dry coastal forest on swampy sites and on limestone. Also recorded on white sand with giant heather, and more inland in riverine forest or along streams in evergreen forest.	eng
157993	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not common anywhere except perhaps in Kimboza where it occurs in large numbers in a swampy area (a bright blue gecko occurs here living in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants).	eng
157993	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	The limestone is being targeted by cement producers, which will cause declines in this species.	eng
157994	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has been recorded from the Rondo Forest Reserve and Kiwengoma Forest Reserve.	eng
157994	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known from Mueda Plateau in northern Mozambique, Rondo Plateau in southern Tanzania and north to the Matumbi Hills.	eng
157994	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A small tree or large shrub growing in coastal thicket on deep leached sandy soils. Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) found it in the open in quite degraded bushland.	eng
157994	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not common.	eng
157994	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There is continued habitat loss from agriculture and logging.	eng
157995	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Is known to occur in a number of protected areas including: Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shagaya Forest Reserve, Mwanihana Forest Reserve, Uluguru National Park and the       Udzungwa Mountain National Park.	eng
157995	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from the Taita Hills and Kasigau (Kenya), southwards into Tanzania on the Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa mountains as far south as Nyengenge waterfall.	eng
157995	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in or above the ericaceous forest, also in moorland and grassland, usually on ridge tops. Has bright pink/red flowers, and is sometimes found growing on tree trunks or mossy rocks.	eng
157995	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown but presumably locally common. Has probably not been collected that often because one needs to be there at the time when it flowers.	eng
157995	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	No major threats known.	eng
157996	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, near Mkusu Forest Reserve and Vugiri Forest Reserve.	eng
157996	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from the Usambara Mountains.	eng
157996	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A spiny climber to decumbent herb growing in moist forest, forest edge, thicket and rock crevices on rocky slopes.	eng
157996	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but at one locality said to be rare.	eng
157996	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Three of the localities appear to be secure with no threats, but the other two are undergoing decline in habitat extant and quality due to expanding agriculture, logging, settlements, etc.	eng
158000	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is protected in the Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve and in the Ndumbi Valley Forest Reserve.	eng
158000	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Livingstone Mts and from Fulaningi Ridge in the Kipengere Mts.	eng
158000	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A grass aloe which grows in crevices and on ledges of rocky ridges and peaks (basalt) in montane grassland.	eng
158000	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Probably locally common.	eng
158000	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats, most of the localities are now protected.	eng
158001	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	May occur in the Kiunga Marine Nature Reserve and the Watamu Marine National Park.	eng
158001	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a fairly wide range occurring along most of the northern Kenyan coast and extending northwards well into Somalia.	eng
158001	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A small shrub found growing in open scrub or coastal bushland (e.g., in mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> scrub on red sandy soil with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordeauxia edulis </span>or with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia cuneata</span>). Also grows on sandy dunes and beach crests (in Kenya).	eng
158001	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not common.	eng
158001	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Beach crests are under threat in Kenya from expanding tourism. In Somalia little is known about the threats, but little environmental protection can be expected and war damage is probable.	eng
158010	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The only known plants are all in protected areas, namely the Udzwunga Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.	eng
158010	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from the Udzwunga Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.	eng
158010	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub that grows on ridges and flat ground in forest. Is a cryptic species if it is not flowering.	eng
158010	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known from only about ten trees so far. Occurs in very low numbers where found - 3 plants per locality. Could be more common than is currently known.	eng
158010	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	It occurs above the altitude to which firewood collectors are allowed to operate in Udzungwa Mountains National Park.	eng
158013	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas, e.g. Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Kanga Mt. Forest Reserve, Kihuhwi-Sigi Forest Reserve, and Saadani National Park (includes Zaraninge Forest Reserve).	eng
158013	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tazania - East Usambara Mts, Zaraninge Forest, Kanga Mtn, and Udzwunga Mountains National Park.	eng
158013	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub recorded from lowland forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland (to 1,100 m).	eng
158013	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Presumably is locally common.	eng
158013	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of habitat in the East Usambaras due to human activities, e.g. harvesting for firewood, logging for building materials, etc.	eng
158024	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from one locality on or near the boundary of Tsavo East National Park, hence probably also occurs within the protected area.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.	eng
158024	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Ndi Hill, Mbinzau Hill and Katumba Hill in the Chyulu Hills area of southeastern Kenya.	eng
158024	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows on rock slabs in dry succulent vegetation with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia, Commiphora, Lannea</span>, etc. The surrounding vegetation is deciduous woodland.	eng
158024	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very common locally at two localities, but in other places only a few individuals are found.	eng
158024	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is a desirable species to succulent collectors because of the dark red colour of the flowers and the leaves are striated. Rocks are also collected in these areas for building purposes which may have an impact on the habitat.	eng
158037	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The whole population is within the Misali Island Conservation Area.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.	eng
158037	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Confined to a small area on Pemba Island (Misali Island Conservation Area).	eng
158037	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in very scrubby vegetation right on the beach.	eng
158037	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Population density does not appear to be high (more than 50 but less than 250 mature individuals).	eng
158037	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is impacted by fisherman through trampling and collection for medicinal purposes. There is also increasing tourism on the island which may have an impact.	eng
158040	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known to occur in a few protected areas:&#160; Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Mkungwe Forest Reserve and in Nguru ya Ndege Forest Reserve.	eng
158040	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the following mountain ranges in Tanzania: Uluguru, Ukaguru and Udzungwa. In the Udzwungas presumably only occurs on the north facing slopes over-looking the Ruaha Dam	eng
158040	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A fairly small succulent shrub growing on open granite rock slabs on small hills,with deciduous woodland and grasses on deeper soil. Also recorded from woodland with <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia, Combretum, Sterculia</span>, etc. with outcrops of bare rocks with <span style="font-style: italic;">Xerophyta </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Aloe</span>.	eng
158040	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very localized but can occur in dense groups.	eng
158040	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats at present, but there is potential for the species to be impacted by succulent collectors. There may also be impacts through clearance of the habitat by charcoal burners.	eng
158049	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	One locality is within Chome Forest Reserve and one locality is within Kigogo Forest Reserve.	eng
158049	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from two localities. One locality is within Chome Forest Reserve (the identity of this collection cannot be confirmed completely), and the other is the type locality within Kigogo Forest Reserve.	eng
158049	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A saprophyte which at Chome-Shengena grows in leaf litter in forest with high canopy dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Ocotea usambarensis, Podocarpus and Syzygium</span>.	eng
158049	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but probably highly localized and very small.	eng
158049	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The habitat around the Kigogo River locality is still good. The Chome subpopulation is in an area that has experienced considerable habitat destruction (burning and logging).	eng
158059	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not known from any protected areas.	eng
158059	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known only from two collections - Iringa in Tanzania and from north of Lubumbashi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158059	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in Miombo Woodland.	eng
158059	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown.	eng
158059	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown.	eng
158061	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Nawenge and Lulanda Forest Reserves.	eng
158061	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Only known from the Mahenge and Mufindi areas of Tanzania.	eng
158061	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A straggling shrub or liane found in sub-montane and montane forest, often on the forest edges.	eng
158061	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
158061	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
158066	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Shimba Hills National Reserve.	eng
158066	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from the type collection made in 2002 within Shimba Hills National Reserve.	eng
158066	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A saprophyte growing in an evergreen coastal forest remnant on the roots of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zanha golungensis</span> (Sapindaceae).	eng
158066	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Extremely scarce being only known from a single place; a distribution typical of the genus. This single population of seven plants (Cheek 2003) was recorded only from a tiny area less than 0.5 m in diameter.<br/><br/>Species in this genus are often very hard to find because of their scarcity, diminutive stature and the fact that unless flowering the plants are invisible above ground. Flowering only lasts for a month or so and plants may not flower every year.	eng
158066	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The area was logged in the past (by the Forestry Department) but that had been stopped and the impact of the elephants was being reduced through the removal of animals. However, on a recent visit it was discovered that logging had recommenced and that <span style="font-style: italic;">Milicia </span>was being targeted (Q. Luke pers. comm. 2009). Although the logging itself may not impact the species, the associated activity could.	eng
158068	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from some protected areas: Chome Forest Reserve., Talagwe Forest Reserve, Uluguru North Forest Reserve and in Uluguru South Forest Reserve.	eng
158068	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Pare, Uluguru and the Nguru mountains.	eng
158068	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb found in montane forest and forest patches as an occasional ground layer in glades, also in grass among rocks by streams in partly open forest.	eng
158068	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Said to be occasional.	eng
158068	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The habitat is being affected by expanding agriculture and logging.	eng
158072	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs in at least three protected areas: Udzungwa Mountains National Park, West Kilombero Nature Reserve and Image Forest Reserve area.	eng
158072	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known from the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the West Kilombero Nature Reserve and the Image Forest Reserve area.	eng
158072	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Found in montane forest, often on well-drained sandy loams with extensive areas of rock faces.	eng
158072	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not uncommon.	eng
158072	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Most of the known localities are secure - excepting the Image locality.	eng
158082	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in possibly two protected areas: one locality is in on the boundary of Udzungwa Mountain National Park; and one locality is in Lunda-Mkwabi Game Controlled Area.	eng
158082	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Iringa Rural and Kilolo districts of central Tanzania in the Ruaha River Gorge and the gorges of its tributaries.	eng
158082	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in deciduous riverine forest on rocky slopes of gorges at lower elevations.	eng
158082	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not very common, occurs in groups of three to four plants.	eng
158082	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Populations alongside the roads are accessible and vulnerable. This is a striking species and so would be a target for succulent collectors.	eng
158091	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from Udzungwa Mountain National Park, Ihangana Forest Reserve and Amani Nature Reserve.	eng
158091	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known from three areas in Tanzania: East Usambara Mts (Amani), Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Dabaga Highlands, near Kibengu.	eng
158091	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An extensive liane which climbs to the tops of canopy trees in riverine forest. Can probably exceed 30 m in length.	eng
158091	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Population seems to be small, but hard to tell as being a liane in the canopy it is difficult to spot.	eng
158091	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of habitat due to fires and encroaching cultivation, but may not be too severe. Amani was invaded by gold miners in 2005, although they have since been removed. There is also a problem with invasive alien plant species.	eng
158094	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Kwamngumi Forest Reserve and Mlinga Forest Reserve.	eng
158094	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in the East Usambaras area of Tanzania.	eng
158094	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or small tree growing in lowland riverine forest, with canopy species <span style="font-style: italic;">Antiaris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sorindeia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Synsepalum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Barringtonia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Angylocalyx </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Cola scheffleri</span> and an understorey of <span style="font-style: italic;">Costus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mesogyne</span>.	eng
158094	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
158094	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by expanding agriculture (there are cocoa plantations in one area) and habitat degradation and loss.	eng
158096	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded in a number of protected areas: Umvinza Forest Reserve, Mkungwe Forest Reserve, Handeni Hill Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Looguza Forest Reserve, Kwamarimba Forest Reserve and Gonja Forest Reserve.	eng
158096	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This species is primarily found in Tanzania along the northern coast and extending inland as west as the Kigoma district, although that record may require closer scrutiny. Also extends just into southern Kenya with a few records from the Kwale district.	eng
158096	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows on rocky hillsides in dense dry evergreen lowland or riverine forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, also in thick succulent/thorn scrub.	eng
158096	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Said to be common to abundant.	eng
158096	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats recorded, although there will be habitat loss in some places because of the impacts of people.	eng
158108	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Shagayu Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Mkindu Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Mafwamera Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve and the Udzungwa Mountain National Park.	eng
158108	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A montane species found in the Nguru, west Usambara, Uluguru, Kanga  and Udzwunga mountain ranges of the Eastern Arc.	eng
158108	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb found growing in montane forest often in association with bamboo (<span style="font-style: italic;">Arundinaria </span>sp.). Usually grows in rocky areas. Sometimes also associated with ericaceous heath.	eng
158108	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Reasonably common (even abundant) where found but very localized.	eng
158108	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly well protected across most of its range apart from in the northern parts of the range and at Kanga Mtn.	eng
158110	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas including the Shimba Hills, Tana River Primate Nature Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, etc.	eng
158110	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from coastal central and southern Kenya southwards to northern Tanzania, also occurs on Zanzibar island.	eng
158110	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb found in dry and moist lowland evergreen forest on red soil with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erythrophleum, Paramacrolobium, Croton sylvaticus, Xylopia, Pachystela brevipes</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros shimbaensis, D. greenwayi, Tricalysia microphylla</span>. Also found in wooded grassland rowing on termite mounds.	eng
158110	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly common.	eng
158110	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is habitat loss (due to expanding agriculture and charcoal burning in the drier forests) but as the species is so widespread this is not perceived to be a major threat.	eng
158113	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	This species is almost indistinguishable from the West African species <em>D. troupinii</em>.	eng
158116	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a few protected areas including Quirimba National Park (Mozambique), Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), Arabuko-Sokoke and Shimba Hills (Kenya).	eng
158116	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found from central and southern Kenya along the Tanzanian coastal plain and into northern Mozambique.	eng
158116	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">A</span> perennial herb found in dry forest (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra/Brachylaena</span> forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, Uvariodendron kirkii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara</span> lower down).	eng
158116	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Probably not as often collected in the area where it occurs, but is not that common. Appears to have a very patchy occurrence.	eng
158116	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Forests are threatened in places by charcoal burning and agricultural expansion.	eng
158120	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known to occur in several protected areas including Shimba Hills National Reserve, Gongoni Forest Reserve, Kaya Muhaka and Kimboza Forest Reserve.	eng
158120	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Mangea Hills and Shimba Hills in Kenya also Gongoni and Kaya Muhaka. There are sight records from between the Shimba Hills and Mangea (Q. Luke pers. comm.). In Tanzania it is recorded from the East Usambara Mts and from Kimboza Forest Reserve.	eng
158120	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This shrub or small tree grows in coastal forest often near rivers.	eng
158120	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in clumps due to germination of seeds from fruit on branches amongst leaf litter but otherwise is not common.	eng
158120	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The forest on Mangea Hills has all gone, there is severe forest loss on the Usambara Mtns and there is continuing loss of habitat at Kimboza Forest Reserve. This is all mainly due to agricultural expansion and logging for charcoal burning.	eng
158124	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of protected areas.	eng
158124	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found on the coast in central Kenya, then a gap and occurs again in very southern Kenya and into Tanzania along the coast and on all the offshore islands (Pemba, Mafia and Zanzibar) to south of Dar es Salaam. Also supposedly occurs inland in the West Usambaras. There are two disjunct records from Mozambique and an apparent record from Zambia (the latter has been discounted here as it seems unlikely). The species is also cultivated in Jamaica.	eng
158124	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A small shrub, sometimes scrambling, which grows in coastal bushland, scrub, thickets,  grassland, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, lowland forest and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hyphaene </span>savanna.	eng
158124	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not abundant, but not uncommon in northern coastal Kenya. But in Tanzania is fairly abundant.	eng
158124	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	In Kenya the species is threatened by coastal development and small scale agriculture, but in Tanzania it seems to have a wider range in a variety of different habitats and hence is less impacted.	eng
158128	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a few protected areas: Tsavo East National Park; possibly Chyulu National Park; Mkomazi Game Reserve (sight record), and Mwache Forest Reserve. <br/><br/>The plant is fairly common in cultivation.	eng
158128	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Its range extends from the coastal areas of northern Tanzania (Pare Mts) and southern Kenya (Taita Hills) inland to Thika.	eng
158128	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Small succulent shrubs growing on sandy stony soil in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>woodland and at the edge of deciduous thickets.	eng
158128	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in large subpopulations.	eng
158128	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Encroachment by agriculture (crops and livestock - especially goats) is the main threat. Uncontrolled collection of plants from the wild for the aloe gel market may also be a problem. Has been targeted in the past for the succulent trade (there are many plants in cultivation). Habitat clearance for charcoal burning is also a growing threat.	eng
158130	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from several protected areas including the Tana River Primate Nature Reserve, Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Diani-Chale Marine Nature Reserve, Mtai Forest Reserve and Segoma Forest Reserve.	eng
158130	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from northern Tanzania (East Usambara Mountains) into southern and central coastal Kenya, with a range extension northwards to the Tana River Primate Reserve.	eng
158130	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Perennial herb found in dry lowland forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, Scorodophloeus, Bombax, Commiphora eminii</span> and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland.	eng
158130	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Where it occurs is locally very abundant. Is possibly under-collected; it is a very small plant and for most of the year it is not present.	eng
158130	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	All the places where it is collected have been extensively impacted by expanding agricultural expansion and especially by logging for charcoal burning as these are drier forests.	eng
158131	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No information available.	eng
158131	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species has only been recorded from Tanzania (including Eastern Arc Mountains, East Usambara Mountains, Lindi, Morogoro, Tanga), Zambia (Kaputa District; Sumbu National Park) and Kenya (including: Kwale Dist. Muhaka Forest, Kaya Miungoni.).	eng
158131	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It occurs in swamps and riverine, in lowlands (below 850 m above sea level).	eng
158131	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	No information available.	eng
158131	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No information available.	eng
158138	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has been recorded from Kasigau Forest Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Mkusa Northern Highland Forest Reserve and Talagwe Forest Reserve.	eng
158138	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from the West Usamabara and Nguru mountains and from Ngorogoro Crater (Tanzania) and from Kasigau Hill (Kenya). Most of the collections appear to be fairly old.	eng
158138	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in montane habitats, in rocky habitats in rocky sites and sometimes on cliffs. Flowers in any month, but usually September to November.	eng
158138	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown, but appears to be scarce given the low number of collections. The flowering time does not appear to be a factor here.	eng
158138	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown and it is not clear why this species is collected so seldom.	eng
158139	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a few protected areas e.g.,&#160; the Selous Game Reserve (includes the type locality), Kichi Hills Forest Reserve and may be in Ngarama Forest Reserve.	eng
158139	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the coastal areas of southern Tanzania.	eng
158139	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A large shrub or small tree growing in coastal thicket on sandy soils, and in evergreen forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Millettia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dialium.</span>	eng
158139	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not common, probably has a small population (although in one locality was described as the dominant shrub).	eng
158139	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is habitat loss because of expanding agriculture, logging for charcoal burning, etc.	eng
158144	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known from a number of protected areas: Kimboza Forest Reserve, Ruvu Forest Reserve, Uluguru South Forest Reserve, Rupiage Forest Reserve, Selous Game Reserve, Matundu Forest Reserve and Quirimba National Park.	eng
158144	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found from northern Mozambique into Tanzania where it has been collected in Selous Game Reserve, Kimboza, and the Uluguru, Nguru, and Udzwungu Mts.	eng
158144	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs on rocky banks in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland and in lowland forest, often in transitional areas between deciduous woodland or thicket and riverine forest lowland rain forest. Is a tuberous species, the tubers of which are vertically segmented, which may help in the long-term persistence of this species.	eng
158144	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An abundant species.	eng
158144	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is some habitat loss and degradation, but the species is not dependent on pristine habitat conditions.	eng
158152	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has been recorded from the following protected areas: Kaya Bogowa, Kaya Tiwi and Kaya Kinondo (all sight records).	eng
158152	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Found along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts adjacent to the beach. Also recorded from Pemba and Zanzibar islands (Tanzania).	eng
158152	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A tree found growing above the high-tide mark on sandy beaches (dune crests) and on coral near the sea.	eng
158152	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not uncommon and fairly common on part of Zanzibar (at Jozani).	eng
158152	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Infrastructure for tourism might be a threat, but developers often leave it standing as it is an attractive tree. On Pemba, it is cut-down for thatching.	eng
158159	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Given its wide distribution range, this species undoubtedly occurs in many protected areas.	eng
158159	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly widespread in coastal Kenya, Tanzania and in northern Mozambique. Also reported from Somalia and Madagascar in Flora Somalia.	eng
158159	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An aromatic shrub, small tree or liane found in a variety of habitats including thickets, dry scrubby forest, wetter evergreen lowland forest and woodland. Is often found on forest margins and in clearings.	eng
158159	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is presumably a common species.	eng
158159	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Although there is likely to have been habitat loss across its range because of expanding agriculture, urbanization, etc., these are not viewed as major threats to this species.	eng
158162	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Pugu Forest Reserve, Pande Forest Reserve, Banda Forest Reserve and Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest Reserve).	eng
158162	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	On the Tanzanian coast north of Dar es Salaam (Saadani National Park) and as far south as Pugu. Records from Kichi/Matumbi Hills are unconfirmed.	eng
158162	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This tree grows in dry evergreen coastal forest dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Tessmannia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus</span>. Usually grows on tops of ridges.	eng
158162	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The species may be commoner than is currently recognized, because its flowers and fruits are inconspicuous, and its principle flowering and fruiting occurs during the wet season when few collectors are active. Also the species has a strong resemblance to species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros </span>in herbarium material, and sterile material may thus be misidentified in collections. Quentin Luke (pers. comm. has not yet collected this species).	eng
158162	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by conversion of habitat for charcoal burning and collection of building materials, in some areas is also impacted by expanding agriculture. The Pugu Forest for example, is under severe decline.	eng
158163	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.	eng
158163	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This is a widespread species occurring in central, eastern and southern Africa. : DRC, Angola, Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique.	eng
158163	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub or small tree found growing in riverine forest, open woodland, and in secondary evergreen bushland. Often on sandy soils.	eng
158163	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but presumably common given its wide distribution.	eng
158163	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known, although given the wide range is likely to be impacted by habitat loss in places. However, appears to be tolerant of disturbance as often recorded growing in secondary habitats.	eng
158173	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, Ambangulu Forest Reserve, Lulanda and Luhega Forest Reserves.	eng
158173	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded mainly from the Udzungwa Mtn range, but there is one record from the West Usambaras.	eng
158173	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A small tree growing in moist montane forest, often on steep slopes with small streams and swamps, and patches of elfin forest on ridge top.	eng
158173	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	No where common.	eng
158173	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There is heavy human population pressure in the Mufindi and Luhega areas and hence the habitat is declining in extent and quality.	eng
158176	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known from one locality on the boundary of Wala River and Ugunda Forest Reserves so may be in these protected areas.	eng
158176	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Rubeho Mts and then extends further west. Recorded from areas that have not been well-collected.	eng
158176	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A grass aloe growing in rocky habitats in montane grassland, also recorded growing in clay soils in open woodland, usually near watercourses.	eng
158176	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Presumably locally common.	eng
158176	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The high altitude grasslands in many parts of this region have been converted to cultivated fields, for growing potatoes and other crops.	eng
158183	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range.	eng
158183	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures but some populations are found in protected areas such as national parks and forest reserves.	eng
158183	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a widespread cosmopolitan species.<br/><br/>It has ben recorded in almost all countries in Western Africa extending east to Kenya and south to South Africa, inclusing Madagascar.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Zomba on road to Lake Chilwa from Zomba, Nsanje, Mulunguzi Marsh on Zomba Plateau, Swang'oma harbour on Lake Chilwa, Ulongwe forest  reserve, and Mudi river dam in Blantyre. C. r. merkeri & C. r. rotundus = The species is common and widespread in Kenya  from sea-level to 1850.<br/><br/>North-eastern Africa: Sudan (In arenosis limosis ad marginem planitiei Turensis prope pagum), Ethiopia (Africa, Abyssinia, In campis poae abyssinicae prope Adoam), Somalia (Migiurtinia: Altipiano del Shol, Dudo), Djibouti, Eritrea (Eritrea-Oculè Cusai: Gruppo dei monti Soyrà, Monte Mamahot verso il torrente Arigot, altipiano di Golò, Hamasen: Embatcalla) and Egypt (Lake Nasser).	eng
158183	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Widespread in the tropics and subtropics, worldwide (note: not all countries of occurrence may have been recorded).	eng
158183	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Marshes and edge of open water. Swamps, damp sites, riverbanks, drainage lines in coastal bush or forest glades, common weed in rice and maize fields, and in seasonally wet grasslands.	eng
158183	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a wide variety of habitats including seasonally wet grasslands, swamps, bushland. Is tolerant of disturbance and often grows in waste places. (Note: not all habitats of occurrence have been recorded).	eng
158183	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very common, and has become naturalized in many parts of its range, especially in the Pacific islands.	eng
158183	population	Juffe, D., 2010	W idespread and common species throughout Africa.	eng
158183	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats, is very tolerant of disturbance often growing in waste places.	eng
158183	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threat has been identified but heavily grazed by livestock. It is fodder for domestic animals. Rhizomes and bulbes are used to parfume  water.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa frequent droughts, urbanization, shifting agriculture and livestock of small-holders may threaten the species locally, but these are not major widespread threats.	eng
158195	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in at least one protected area: Kasigau Forest Reserve.<br/><br/>Is in cultivation in botanic gardens.	eng
158195	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from three localities in southern Kenya: Kasigau, Kilibasi, and Kizima (Kirima) Hill.	eng
158195	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in lowland forest and deciduous bushland between and on rocky slabs.	eng
158195	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not abundant at any of the localities.	eng
158195	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Sought after by succulent collectors.	eng
158196	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Occurs in the South Nguru Forest Reserve.	eng
158196	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Upper moist evergreen forest.	eng
158196	population	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	A small tree, which appears to be known only from the type collection.	eng
158200	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas: Amani Sigi Nature Reserve, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve, Vugiri Forest Reserve, Biharamulo State Forest Reserve, Pangawe East Forest Reserve, and Uluguru South National Park.	eng
158200	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the East and West Usambara Mts, the Uluguru Mts and the most southerly record is from Mahenge.	eng
158200	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in rain forest in area dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Parinari </span>sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Newtonia buchananii</span>. One of the collections was along a road and also occurs along forest edges. It is said to persist in areas that have been logged.<br/><br/>The tuber is replaced annually.	eng
158200	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Said to be locally frequent.	eng
158200	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Forest clearing, especially for exploitation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Newtonia </span>results in habitat loss and disturbance. Below 1,500 m elevation there are many settlements and farms.	eng
158207	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its range.	eng
158207	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
158207	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A widespread species found in the tropical and subtropical parts of the Old World (note, not all countries of occurrence may have been recorded).	eng
158207	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Fuirena ciliaris</em> is an Old-World tropical species occurring from tropical Africa to Australia. Its Mediterranean distribution is limited to Egypt, where it is very rare and only occurs in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum (Boulos 2005).	eng
158207	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in seasonally wet ground, swamps, pools and lake edges. Also in seasonally flooded grasslands and savannas. Appears to be tolerant of disturbance and grows in rice paddies and other very wet cultivated areas.	eng
158207	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This is a tufted annual or perennial species of up to 37 cm height with a short rhizome. It is found in moist depressions and in rice fields (Boulos 2005).	eng
158207	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A common species.	eng
158207	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is considered a weed in Egypt.	eng
158207	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
158207	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known as is tolerant of disturbance and grows in man-made habitats.	eng
158213	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is recorded from a number of protected areas across its range including Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, Masai Mara National Park and Serengeti National Park.<br/><br/>This species is widely cultivated.	eng
158213	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The range of the species extends from the coastal area of southern Kenya inland westwards through the highlands of Kenya and Tanzania to near Lake Victoria and then further west into Uganda and Rwanda.	eng
158213	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded in thickets in bushed grassland and on steep rocky slopes in dense riverine woodland. Seems to always occur near rivers.	eng
158213	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A very common species.	eng
158213	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The main threats are land conversion for agriculture (crops and livestock) and succulent collectors.	eng
158215	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs entirely within the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
158215	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from near Kingupira in the eastern Selous Game Reserve, the type collection was made 30 years ago (1977), but it was supposedly collected again in 2005 by Frank Mbago (pers. comm.).	eng
158215	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub found in dense riverine forest and thicket growing with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus tinctorius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Baphia kirkii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops fruticosa</span>, etc.; <span style="font-style: italic;">Asteranthe lutea</span> occurs in the same locality.	eng
158215	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not abundant and highly localized.	eng
158215	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are no major threats.	eng
158218	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There are no protected areas in this area.	eng
158218	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not collected since the type collection was made by Schlieben in 1935 at Mlinguru, 20 km south of Lindi. The area has been surveyed by many botanists (including Kai Vollesen and Quentin Luke), but this species was not specifically looked for and the dry hills may not have been as well surveyed.	eng
158218	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	This climbing shrub occurs in what  was described simply as "bushland".	eng
158218	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown.	eng
158218	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Most of the agricultural cultivation is in the valley, but the vegetation on the hills is burnt in the dry season to generate new grazing for livestock.	eng
158221	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known to occur in the Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, but there is no other<span style="font-style: italic;"> in situ</span> protection.<br/><br/>Is widely grown.	eng
158221	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs along the southern Kenyan coast and discovered more recently on the northern Tanzanian coast near Tanga.	eng
158221	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An acaulescent succulent growing in <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>bushland on shale soils, on coral rocks and on white gritty soils.	eng
158221	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common in places.	eng
158221	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is considerable habitat disturbance in this area due to agricultural expansion and other human activities in this coastal zone. Sought after by succulent collectors because of the striking flower colour.	eng
158224	conservation	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The Plant Conservation Programme in Kenya is monitoring the species.	eng
158224	distribution	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Endemic to the drier parts of Ngangao Forest in the Taita Hills.	eng
158224	population	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	The species is known only from a small population containing few individuals. A population estimate may indicate that a more serious threat category is appropriate.	eng
158224	threats	World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1998	Natural regeneration is not evident.	eng
158226	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	In Ruvu Forest Reserve, Kanga, and others (often on the margins of reserves).	eng
158226	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has a disjunct distribution, found mainly on the Uluguru, Rubeho, Kanga and Nguru mountain ranges.	eng
158226	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in wet montane forest (interior of forests and on edge), also in thicket vegetation.	eng
158226	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Unknown.	eng
158226	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Seems to be tolerant of some disturbance given the collecting notes, but there is certainly ongoing loss of habitat to agriculture in some places.	eng
158236	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Probably occurs in a number of protected areas, definitely recorded from Land9 Forest Reserve, Makangala Forest Reserve and Serengeti National Park.	eng
158236	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A widespread species found through much of Kenya and Tanzania and its range extends southwards to central Mozambique, westwards to Uganda and north to Ethiopia. The variety <span style="font-style: italic;">transiens </span>has a more restricted range being found primarily in central coastal Tanzania with an outlying collection from central Mozambique.	eng
158236	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in open dry grassland and in disturbed areas.	eng
158236	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A common species.	eng
158236	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No threats known.	eng
158241	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas, e.g. in East Africa recorded from   Arabuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Kisi Forest Reserve, Kanga Forest Reserve, Kihuhwi Forest Reserve, Land 9 Forest Reserve, Kwambai Forest Reserve, Mvuhu Forest Reserve, and Namkutwa Forest Reserve.	eng
158241	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">amaniense </span>is confined to the coastal areas of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The range of subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">filipendulum</span>, however, occurs throughout the Guineo-Congolian forests of West and Central Africa extending eastwards to Uganda and the western parts of Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
158241	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a variety of habitats including sub-montane moist forests on slopes and along streams, in coastal or gallery evergreen dry to moist forest on rocks.	eng
158241	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Said to be locally abundant in places.	eng
158241	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known, although there will be habitat loss in parts of the range.	eng
158244	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from a number of protected areas including the Selous Game Reserve, Kiwengoma Forest Reserve, Namatimbili Forest Reserve, and Kwamngumi Forest Reserve.	eng
158244	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from Matumbi Hills, East Usambara Mts, edge of the Selous Game Reserve and from various coastal localities.	eng
158244	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in groundwater forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Milicia excelsa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parkia filicoidea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Breonadia salicina</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lettowianthus stellatus</span> and mixed forest and scrub dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia spiciformis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pterocarpus</span> and dry evergreen forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra webberi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.	eng
158244	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Said to be common in places but Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) has found it to be uncommon.	eng
158244	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	The entire coastal area is under threat as a result of extensive habitat loss due to clearance for expanding agriculture and charcoal burning.	eng
158247	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is widely grown.<br/><br/>Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
158247	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from a small area in the southern West Usambara Mountains.	eng
158247	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows on rocky slopes and cliff faces.	eng
158247	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is locally abundant in places.	eng
158247	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The population is accessible so could be impacted by collectors for medicinal use and as ornamentals.	eng
158260	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas in both Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
158260	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A widespread species recorded from Mozambique to northern Kenya.	eng
158260	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub found growing in riverine, coastal and montane forests.	eng
158260	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly common.	eng
158260	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is habitat loss and disturbance due to expanding agriculture, but given the wide range of the species this is not considered a major threat.	eng
158261	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from a number of protected areas: one locality within Kanga Forest Reserve; one locality within Talagwe Forest Reserve; and one locality near boundary of Milindo Forest Reserve.	eng
158261	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Nguru, Ukaguru&#160; Mts and more recently its presence has been confirmed from the northeast Udzwunga Mts overlooking the Ruaha Dam (Q. Luke pers. comm.).	eng
158261	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in moist forest on steep sided mountain with a heath at the top. The Udzwunga collection was on sheer cliff faces over-looking the Ruaha River valley.	eng
158261	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Numbers may be low.	eng
158261	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known. May be some medicinal use by local healers but unlikely to have a major impact. Unknown if this species is sought after by succulent collectors.	eng
158271	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a few protected areas including: a locality in or near Mwache Forest Reserve, Kaya Singwaya (sight record), Mwalugange Forest Reserve (sight record), and Mkomazi Game Reserve (sight record).<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.	eng
158271	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a fairly wide coastal range from northeast Tanzania through&#160; Kenya to the southern corner of Somalia.	eng
158271	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> bushland on sandy soils.	eng
158271	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is reasonably common.	eng
158271	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Plants are collected for aloe gel and it is used as an ornamental, so would be a target for collectors.	eng
158275	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range, for example in East Africa is recorded from Ruaha National Park and Tsavo West National Park.	eng
158275	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Extremely widespread (almost Pantropical) found in central and northern South America; west and central Africa; northeast, east and southern Africa; and in southern Madagascar. Some of the subspecies in East Africa appear to have more restricted ranges, but that may simply be an artefact of collecting or specimens not being identified to subspecific level.	eng
158275	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in a large variety of habitats including seasonally wet grassland and woodland, dry sandy places, on shallow soil on rocks, open dry grasslands, shrublands, and marshes adjacent to the coast. Often found in disturbed habitats.	eng
158275	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very common.	eng
158275	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	No major threats known and appears to do well in disturbed areas.	eng
158277	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Rondo Forest Reserve and Shimba National Reserve.	eng
158277	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from coastal Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
158277	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub/liana found in evergreen coastal forest. Also found in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, riverine forest, coastal thicket, and in disturbed areas.	eng
158277	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A common and fairly widespread species.	eng
158277	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Loss of habitat in some places, but appears to be tolerant of disturbance.	eng
158284	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas.<br/><br/>The species is in cultivation.	eng
158284	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the southern part of the West Usambara Mountains.	eng
158284	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows on grassed rocky slopes.	eng
158284	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Does not appear to be very common.	eng
158284	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The population is accessible so could be impacted by collectors for medicinal use and as ornamentals.	eng
158286	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of reserves and national parks, including Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Shume Magamba Forest Reserve and it was in Kilimanjaro National Park (but appears to no longer be extant in that area).	eng
158286	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the west Usambara mountains, at Ngorongoro Crater and a single collection from Mount Kilimanjaro (Andreas Hemp (pers. comm.) confirms that he has not recollected this species from Kilimanjaro despite intensive surveys; hence the latter is considered a historic record and is not included in the current extent of occurrence for this assessment).	eng
158286	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in wet montane forest.	eng
158286	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	As it has been recorded from disturbed forest, it is presumably locally common, although there are few collections.	eng
158286	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	In the Usambara Mts this species is threatened by habitat loss due to encroaching agriculture, logging for wood, and fires. The same may apply to some of the other sites where it occurs.	eng
158287	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
158287	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from southern Tanzania (Kilwa and Lindi districts) and from northern Mozambique.	eng
158287	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb found in forest (on rocky slopes), in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland and deciduous bushland. Is often found on termite mounds.	eng
158287	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Easy to recognize, and is not seen very often, so seems to be rare.	eng
158287	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The areas outside of the Selous Game Reserve are under threat due to burning for charcoal and conversion to cultivated lands, overgrazing, etc.	eng
158288	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not known to occur in any protected areas, but the Tana collection was near a reserve (Arawale National Reserve), but there have been no further collections from that area. There are plants in cultivation.	eng
158288	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Tana River in northern Kenya, northwards into southern Somalia, along the coastal plain.	eng
158288	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in dry <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia-Commiphora</span> bushland.	eng
158288	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Said to be very common in southern Somalia.	eng
158288	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The area near the Tana River is under pressure from human activities, particularly overgrazing by goats, camels and other agricultural activities. There have been no further collections from the Tana area, so that subpopulation may well be extinct. Overgrazing by goats in Somalia may also be a problem, but this requires confirmation.	eng
158290	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Kanga Forest Reserve.	eng
158290	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from four collections in central coastal Tanzania (lower slopes of the Uluguru Mts, Nguru Mts and south of the E. Usambara Mts). The most recent collection was in 1988, the remainder were collected in the 1950s. Mayo (1958) in the species account for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Flora of Tropical East Africa</span> mentions occurrence in additional areas (T4 and T5) but on checking, it appears this was an error.	eng
158290	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb found in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland on red sandy soil.	eng
158290	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but given the low number of collections is unlikely to be common.	eng
158290	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Habitat loss due to burning for charcoal production and conversion to agriculture.	eng
158292	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Selous Game Reserve, Gonja and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserves.	eng
158292	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found mostly in southern coastal Kenya and in northern coastal Tanzania, but with two disjunct records from much further south in Tanzania.	eng
158292	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub found in various habitats including moist coastal forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia sericea-Pseudolachnostylis</span> woodland.	eng
158292	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not very common; is quite hard to find.	eng
158292	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of forest due to agriculture, mining, and tourism.	eng
158296	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in several protected areas including the Selous Game Reserve, various forest reserves and sacred forests.	eng
158296	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of small coastal forest reserves and sacred forests in Kenya and northern Tanzania, with a disjunct occurrence in the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
158296	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows as a large shrub or small tree, sometimes partly climbing, or as a liane several metres long. Occurs on coral rock bushland on steep escarpments, and in riverine forest on coral rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rinorea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Saintpaulia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strychnos henningsii</span>.	eng
158296	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not very common.	eng
158296	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The forests are impacted by expanding agriculture, mining, and tourism.	eng
158303	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Probably occurs in a number of protected areas across its wide range.	eng
158303	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The nominate subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;"> leptocladon </span>occurs in Tanzania, coastal Kenya and southern Somalia whilst subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>occurs from the Tana River District inland to Baringo District (in Kenya) and there are apparently several records from Ethiopia according to the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The specimens from Somalia are apparently intermediate between subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">leptocladon </span>and subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>(Thulin 1993).	eng
158303	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a range of habitats including secondary bushland; <span style="font-style: italic;">Markhamia, Commiphora, Steganotaenia</span> scrub; also in cultivated areas; wooded grassland; evergreen woodland and rocky hillsides. Grows as a shrub, small tree or a liane. Is aromatic.	eng
158303	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but presumably fairly common as it appears to be tolerant of disturbance.	eng
158303	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Habitat conversion for agriculture is the main threat.	eng
158307	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Image Forest Reserve is close to one of the collection localities, as is Mselezi Forest Reserve..	eng
158307	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a restricted range and is only known from three collections - two from the Rubeho Mts and one from Mahenge.	eng
158307	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded as growing in forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Protea</span> grassland glades, grassland with groups of trees and great rocks.	eng
158307	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, might be overlooked as the forests in the areas where it occurs have not been as well surveyed.	eng
158307	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is some burning of the forests at Mahenge for farming. Moderate impacts.	eng
158308	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Present in many protected areas.	eng
158308	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The typical subspecies is found in Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania whereas subsp. <span style="font-style: italic;">virens </span>is recorded from Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland.	eng
158308	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An erect or straggling shrub sometimes a liane found in a variety of habitats including montane mist forest, lowland forest, wooded grassland and bushland, often on rocky outcrops.	eng
158308	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Quite common where found.	eng
158308	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are probably a wide variety of threats throughout its range, with loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion being the prime one.	eng
158309	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs in at least one protected area - Image Forest Reserve.	eng
158309	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs in the highlands of Mufindi and Njombe.	eng
158309	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in grassland and open woodland (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland, seasonally flooded grassland). Flowers at the end of the dry season or early wet season in November-January.	eng
158309	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Described as abundant in places, and in others as rare.	eng
158309	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There will have been some loss of habitat to agriculture, charcoal burning, etc., but the habitats where this species occurs are still extensive, hence there are no major threats.	eng
158312	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The known population is entirely within Pugu Forest Reserve but there are no effective controls to protect this area.	eng
158312	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a highly restricted range found only in the Pugu and Pande Forest Reserves which is almost destroyed. Several collections from coastal Kenya (provisionally labelled as<span style="font-style: italic;"> U</span>. sp aff. <span style="font-style: italic;">lucida</span>) by Quentin Luke and Anne Robertson might be this taxon.	eng
158312	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A woody liane found growing in dry evergreen coastal forest, usually on the ridges and slopes.	eng
158312	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Was said to be locally common (Johnson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999) and certainly more common than the more widespread <span style="font-style: italic;">Uvaria lucida</span>.	eng
158312	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Pugu forest is not in good shape as it is being impacted by cutting of woody plants for fuel, charcoal production, for poles, etc.	eng
158313	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in Pande, Rondo and Bana Forest Reserves and in Saadani National Park (Zaraninge Forest).	eng
158313	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs along the coast of Tanzania (many collections in the Dar es Salaam area and then further south towards the border), just getting into Mozambique.	eng
158313	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	This small tree or large shrub grows in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland, secondary woodland, coastal forest, and coastal thicket.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
158313	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
158313	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Loss of habitat due to forest clearance for agriculture and charcoal burning.	eng
158318	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Two localities are within Selous Game Reserve and one locality is within Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve.	eng
158318	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Kingolwira in the Morogoro district and in the Selous Game Reserve.	eng
158318	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An acaulescent succulent found growing in wooded grassland.	eng
158318	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
158318	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Three of the localities are impacted by human activities resulting in the clearance or disturbance of the habitat (agriculture, settlements, charcoal burning, etc.).	eng
158319	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is known to occur in Kasigau Forest Reserve.	eng
158319	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from southern Kenya from Mt. Kasigau and Kilibasi Hill and more recently it has been seen and collected on the Taita Hills (E. Wabuele and J. Mwachala pers. comm.).	eng
158319	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows in mist forest on crystalline mountains, often on rock slabs at the edges of bushes.	eng
158319	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Common in the Taita Hills, but little is known about the other localities.	eng
158319	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is collected by people for medicinal use but is not as popular as other species.	eng
158322	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in a number of forest reserves and protected areas - Arubuko Sokoke Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills National Reserve, Kisima Gonja Forest Reserve, Amani Forest Reserve, Zaraninge Forest Reserve, Pongwe Forest Reserve, Mtibwa Forest Reserve, Ruvu South Forest Reserve, Pugu Hills Forest Reserve, Pande Game Reserve, Udzungwa National Park and Ruawa Forest Reserve.	eng
158322	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Widespread along the coastal plain from central and southern Kenya through Tanzania to northern Mozambique. Occurs on Zanzibar (on both islands). The range extends inland in Tanzania to the slopes of the Udzungwa Mts.	eng
158322	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found primarily in dry evergreen coastal forest, but also in lowland and montane rain forest and in woodland.	eng
158322	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is a common species.	eng
158322	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is ongoing loss and disturbance of forests across the range of this species due to expanding agricultural activities, growth in urban settlements, timber felling, etc. But as the timber is not used, it tends to persist in areas of secondary forest or areas now outside of forest.	eng
158325	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	One of the localities is supposedly within an unamed forest reserve.	eng
158325	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from two localities along the coast of northern Tanzania: north of Ngole and 13 km south. of Moa (Tanga district). There is an unconfirmed report of plants that might be this species in southern Kenya (on the sea front).	eng
158325	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grew in deciduous bushland near the sea-shore.	eng
158325	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, Quentin Luke (pers. comm.) has been back to the Moa area to look for it but did not find it. Has not been seen since 1953.	eng
158325	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	In the past there was exploitation for salt in the Moa area, but it is not certain if this impacted the species or not.	eng
158332	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from two protected areas: Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Forest Reserve.	eng
158332	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from a few coastal forsts in Tanzania - Kibaha, Pugu Forest Reserve and Pande Forest Reserve.	eng
158332	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or liane found growing in coastal forest, often in clay-bound sandy soil in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus fischeri</span>.	eng
158332	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Abundant in the localities where it is found.	eng
158332	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The Pande and Pugu forests are not in good shape; they have been impacted by fuel cutting, charcoal, cutting for poles, and agricultural encroachment.	eng
158335	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is a popular plant in gardens.<br/><br/>Not known to occur in any protected areas.	eng
158335	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from two localities: 6.5 km south. of Handeni, Kideleko (Kideliko) Rock and from Kwa Mkono (Handeni district).	eng
158335	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Grows on bare rock slabs on inselbergs.	eng
158335	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but the area is heavily populated by people.	eng
158335	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is well-known in cultivation, but it is not known if there is any impact of collectors on the wild population. But there is more than likely ongoing collection of the plant for medicinal purposes given the local human population density.	eng
158336	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from some protected areas: (in or near) Mailujanji Forest Reserve, Shimba Hills Nature Reserve, Kwamngumi Forest Reserve and Segoma Forest Reserve.	eng
158336	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from southern Kenya and northern Tanzania; has a fairly restricted range.	eng
158336	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb in coastal evergreen forest on limestone outcrops and also recorded in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia </span>woodland. One location was said to be heavily denuded.	eng
158336	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is locally common.	eng
158336	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Ongoing habitat loss due to expanding agriculture and clearance of woodland for charcoal burning.	eng
158338	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been collected in a number of protected areas including Mtai Forest Reserve, Manga Forest Reserve, Mvuha Forest Reserve, Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve, Mwanihana Forest Reserve, Pande Forest Reserve and Shimba Hills.	eng
158338	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has a wide range along coastal Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
158338	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb that dies back during the dry season to an underground storage organ. Occurs in dry forest and Miombo woodland.	eng
158338	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	May be better collected than other species, but appears to be fairly common and abundant.	eng
158338	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is some habitat loss, but appears to be spread wide enough for this not to pose a major threat.	eng
158342	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Occurs in at least two protected areas: Udzungwa Mountains National Park and West Kilombero Nature Reserve.	eng
158342	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known from the Usambara (Amani), Udzungwa and Uluguru Mountains. The collection from the Usambaras is old and it may no longer occur there.	eng
158342	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A scandent shrub found in sub-montane and montane forest.	eng
158342	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Not common, seldom collected.	eng
158342	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There is loss of habitat in these areas due to expansion of agricultural activities, and from charcoal burning.	eng
158343	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Selous Game Reserve and from near or possibly in Kwambai Forest Reserve.	eng
158343	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Known only from four collections from very scattered localities from central to southern Tanzania. The last collection was made in 1975.	eng
158343	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Perennial herb in lowland evergreen forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sclerocarya </span>woodland and wooded grassland.	eng
158343	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown.	eng
158343	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is ongoing habitat loss due to burning for charcoal in the dry forests.	eng
158354	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from at least two protected areas: Rondo and Ngarama North Forest Reserves.	eng
158354	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Restricted to southern Tanzania (mainly Rondo Plateau) and northern Mozambique. Has a very limited range.	eng
158354	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or small tree growing in thickets or in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland usually on sandy soils or termitaria. At one locality was recorded growing on red soils in woodland, dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops, Uapaca nitida, Monotes, Burkea africana, Parinari curatellifolia, Faurea saligna, and Brachystegia spiciformis</span>. At Rondo Plateau it occurs in coastal thicket/forest with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pteleopsis, Grewia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Maprounea </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenocardia</span> in the valley bottom, on deep white sand.	eng
158354	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	In the areas where this species is known, it is not common.	eng
158354	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The woodland outside of protected areas in southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique has been subjected to selective logging for timber, clearance for charcoal burning, and much of the habitat on Rondo Plateau has been impacted by the planting of pine plantations.	eng
158364	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	The species is well protected in the type locality - Kitulo National Park and is also known to occur in Chimala Scarp Forest Reserve.	eng
158364	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Has a disjunct record in the Uluguru Mts, all the other records are from further to the west at the north end of Lake Tannganyika (Livingstone Mountains). The subpopulation at the Ulugurus may be gone, it was outside of any protected area, and most of those grasslands have been converted to agriculture.	eng
158364	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Grows in rocky montane grassland.	eng
158364	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Was reported to be common at the type locality.	eng
158364	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	There is evidence of removal of orchid bulbs for sale in nearby Zambia, and the bulbs of this species may also be impacted at the same time. At the Uluguru Mtn location there has been extensive loss of habitat due to conversion to agricultural land. The Livingstone Mts area could also be impacted in future by increased conversion of grassland areas to agriculture (potato farming).	eng
158366	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in several protected areas, e.g., Arabuko Sokoke, Kisarawe, Pugu , Ruvu South, and Mwalugange Forest Reserves.	eng
158366	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Occurs in the coastal forests of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The records from the Udzungwa Mts are not considered here as they were both sterile specimens and may well represent a new undescribed taxon.	eng
158366	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A shrub or small tree growing in <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia</span> woodland, or open coastal bushland on sandy soils. Found growing in association with the following canopy taxa: <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachylaena, Brachystegia, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros, Inhambanella, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Julbernardia, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara, </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Scorodophloeus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tessmannia</span>.	eng
158366	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Not that common in the Kenyan forests, but common in Tanzania.	eng
158366	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Threatened by habitat loss in many places, e.g. Mangea, Dar es Salaam airport, etc., due to clearance for agriculture, charcoal production, expanding urban infrastructure. This species is not exploited at present for charcoal, but at Pugu Forest it is the only large tree left standing.	eng
158371	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The Mozambique records are from a newly proclaimed protected area - Quirimba National Park; also recorded from Kiwengoma Forest Reserve and Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania.	eng
158371	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from southern Tanzania into northern Mozambique and there is an apparent record from Malawi (Mayo 1985).	eng
158371	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A perennial herb which dies back in the dry season found in coastal woodland, Miombo woodland, wooded grassland and in <span style="font-style: italic;">Terminalia-Sclerocarya</span> woodland especially on old termite mounds.	eng
158371	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Probably overlooked, as its appearance depends on the rains.	eng
158371	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The habitats are being extensively logged for charcoal burning.	eng
158377	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	<span style="background-color: white;">Occurs in many Forest Reserves.<br/></span>	eng
158377	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded along the East African coast from Somalia, northern Kenya to southern Tanzania (right on the border with Mozambique). Probably occurs in Mozambique.	eng
158377	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A coastal species. This scandent shrub grows in dry forest on coral rag, in thicket, and in dry forest or thicket in sand; also found in farmed areas, so appears to be tolerant of disturbance.	eng
158377	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is very common where it occurs.	eng
158377	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There is loss of habitat, but this is not a major problem for this species.	eng
158387	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Has been recorded from a number of protected areas including: Kaya Lunguma, Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve, Kaya Fungo (sight record), Kaya Gandini (sight record), Kaya Mtswakara (sight record), Kaya Puma (sight record), Kaya Sega (sight record), Gonja Forest Reserve (sight record), Mwalugange Forest Reserve (sight record), and Mwachi Forest Reserve (sight record).<br/><br/>Plants are in cultivation.	eng
158387	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded along the coastal plain of southern Kenya, extending inland and occurring on Mt Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.	eng
158387	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A tree aloe that grows in dry forest/bushland on hill slopes. Found growing in association with  <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynometra, Brachylaena, Manilkara, Brachystegia, Julbernardia, Diospyros, Xylopia</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Inhambanella</span>.	eng
158387	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Locally common.	eng
158387	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Is experiencing decline in places due to loss in extant and quality of habitat. At Mangea the subpopulation has almost completely been wiped out by removal of the habitat for expanding agriculture.	eng
158389	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Found in several protected areas.	eng
158389	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania. Specimens from Mozambique and Malawi identified as this subspecies need checking as they are more likely to be subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">virens</span>.	eng
158389	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	An erect or straggling shrub, sometimes a liane found growing in lowland dry evergreen forest, wooded grassland and bushland, often on rocky outcrops.	eng
158389	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Widespread and presumably fairly common.	eng
158389	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Habitat conversion for agriculture is the main threat.	eng
158403	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Supposedly occurred in the Rondo and Chitoa Forest Reserves.	eng
158403	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Confined to Rondo Forest Reserve and Noto Plateau in the Lindi Rural district of Tanzania.	eng
158403	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	The type collection was found on a steep escarpment with dense thicket under <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachystegia microphylla</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Albizia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Faurea saligna</span>, on stony-gravelly soil.	eng
158403	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Very localized, apparently not that common given the lack of collections. Was not found during a recent survey in the area.	eng
158403	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There has been clear felling for establishing farms on Noto Plateau, a quarter of Rondo has been clear-felled for pine plantations.	eng
158414	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from the Shimba Hills, Selous Game Reserve, Udzungwa Mountain National Park, and various forest reserves.	eng
158414	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Primarily a coastal species in southern Kenya to southern Mozambique. In Tanzania also occurs inland to the foothills of the Estern Arc Mountains. - East Usambara,  Udzwunga, etc.	eng
158414	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	A scandent shrub or small tree fouynd growing in riverine forest, open woodland, and secondary evergreen bushland. Notes on the habitat recorded on specimen labels say: "riverine forest on coral rag soil dominated by <span style="font-style: italic;">Drypetes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Rinorea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Saintpaulia</span>, Scorodophloeus fischeri and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strychnos henningsii</span>"; "forest relicts marginal to deltaic mangrove swamp, dense shade with <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Afzelia</span>/<span style="font-style: italic;">Diospyros mafiensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Strophanthus petersianus"; "d</span>isturbed forest (heavily), flat, sandy"; "mixed semi-deciduous lowland forest w <span style="font-style: italic;">Hymenaea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Afzelia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Manilkara</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mimusops</span>", etc.	eng
158414	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Unknown, but presumably fairly common where found.	eng
158414	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	There are pressure on the coastal forests, especially conversion for agriculture, tourism and logging.	eng
158455	conservation	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Recorded from Dzombo Forest Reserve and Amani Sigi Nature Reserve.	eng
158455	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	Known from a triangle in NE Tanzania and SE Kenya. It is not clear if the records in Somalia are this species or subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">septentrionalis </span>(Thulin (1993) indicates that they are intermediate between the two), hence for now they are not included here.	eng
158455	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	A scandent shrub or small tree found in secondary bushland; <span style="font-style: italic;">Markhamia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Commiphora</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Steganotaenia</span> scrub; also in cultivated areas (Verdcourt 1971).	eng
158455	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2008	The triangle of Same-Mombasa-Tanga has seen much habitat conversion for agriculture.	eng
158462	distribution	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Recorded from coastal Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
158462	habitat	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	See species account.	eng
158462	population	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Fairly common.	eng
158462	threats	Eastern Arc Mountains & Coastal Forests CEPF Plant Assessment Project Participants, 2006	Some habitat loss throughout range.	eng
158465	conservation	Cassimiro, J., 2009	<p>This species is known to occur within Parque Nacional da Chapada Diamantina (J. Cassimiro pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158465	distribution	Cassimiro, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Strabomantis aramunha </span>is currently only known from the vicinity of Mucugê municipality, Serra do Sincorá, Espinhaço range, state of Bahia, Brazil (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its known elevational range is between 942-1,207 m asl (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It may possibly occur more widely.	eng
158465	habitat	Cassimiro, J., 2009	Individuals of this species have been found at night, motionless on exposed rock outcrops in the "campos rupestres" (high altitude rocky open grasslands) environment of Serra do Sincorá, Espinhaço mountain range (Cassimiro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158465	population	Cassimiro, J., 2009	This species would appear to be rare, but this may be due to the fact that it is not easy to find it (J. Cassimiro pers comm. 2009). Further data are needed to determine its population status.	eng
158465	threats	Cassimiro, J., 2009	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p><p></p><p><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
158468	conservation		Ensuring the occurrence of viable populations in effectively protected habitat, for every subspecies / evolutionarily significant unit, is highly commendable. Further information on the species' status, population trends and conservation biology would be desirable. In Spain, proposed conservation actions include wetland conservation, control of destructive fishing methods, aquifer management, control of illegal harvest, control of sale of exotic turtles, habitat restoration, and control of feral populations of Trachemys (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species is known to occur in protected areas.	eng
158468	distribution		This species occurs in the western Mediterranean region in both Iberia and northwestern Africa. It is widespread in the Iberian Peninsula (except in northern Spain and northern Portugal)  extending to the Mediterranean region of southern France. In the Mediterranean and Atlantic region of northwestern Africa, it occurs in Morocco (where it is widespread), northern Algeria, northern and central Tunisia, and northwestern Libya. It possibly extends further south along Atlantic coast. Records of scattered Saharan populations in Mali, southern Algeria, northern Niger, and southwestern Libya need to be confirmed (Iverson 1992:143; Keller and Busack 2001). It is mainly a lowland species but is known to exist up to 1,100m asl. <br/><br/><em>M. l. leprosa</em>: European mainland, northern Marocco to middle Atlas mountains, and northwestern slope of High Atlas near Marrakech [Morocco], possibly to Agadir.<br/><br/><em>M. l. saharica</em>: Oued Noun, Oued Ziz and Oued Draa in the Anti-Atlas Mountains of Morocco.	eng
158468	habitat		It inhabits virtually all available freshwater and brackish waterbodies within its range, while preferring large, permanent waterbodies (Keller and Busack, 2001). Females normally produce two clutches of about five to nine eggs (extremes one to 13). The oldest wild animal documented was 35 years (Keller 1997, in Keller and Busack, 2001:77)	eng
158468	population		It is common in most of Spain and Portugal, but certain populations in Spain and Portugal have declined and in some cases disappeared entirely (Guadalquivir, eastern Castilla-Leon, norheastern Portugal) (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003).  It is less common in northern Africa and its populations are becoming increasingly fragmented.	eng
158468	threats		The main threats in Spain, and presumably elsewhere, are habitat alteration, industrial and agricultural pollution, marsh drainage, aquifer water extraction, and fisheries bycatch, while minor threats are harvest for trade for consumption and pets (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003). Highfield and Martin (1996) recorded use of small numbers of<em> Mauremys leproa</em> shells in the manufacture of tourist souvenirs in Morocco. Competition from the introduced turtles <em>Trachemys scipta</em> and <em>Chrysemys picta</em> has been suggested as a major threat (Pleguezuelos <em>et al</em>. 2003, P. Sá-Sousa pers. comm.).	eng
158469	conservation	van Dijk, P.P., 2004	Inclusion of the species in pertinent Italian and European protective regulations is needed, as is safeguarding remaining habitat and preventing genetic pollution from other<em> Emys</em> taxa (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
158469	distribution	van Dijk, P.P., 2004	This recently described species is endemic to the island of Sicily, Italy.	eng
158469	habitat	van Dijk, P.P., 2004	It is known from a number of sites in Sicily, up to 1000-1400 m altitude (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005). No further ecological information is available.	eng
158469	population	van Dijk, P.P., 2004	No specific information known; implied to be uncommon to rare (Fritz <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
158469	threats	van Dijk, P.P., 2004	Threatened primarily by the loss of wetland habitat, and perhaps formerly by over-exploitation (Fritz <em>et al</em>., 2005).	eng
158470	conservation		No specific conservation action appears to be required, though confirmation of the occurrence in securely protected areas would be desirable, as would studies of status and conservation biology. It is present in many protected areas (such as Tyr Beach and the Ammiq Marshes of Lebanon). There is a need to initiate legislation in Turkey to protect this species from collection in the wild for the international pet trade. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
158470	distribution		This species ranges frrom coastal Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania, through most of Greece (including many Aegean and Ionian islands), southeastern Macedonia and southern Bulgaria, to the Marmara Sea region, and widely through the Mediterranean regions and river basins of Turkey to western Syria, Lebanon, northwestern Jordan and northern and central Israel. Among the Mediterranean islands it occurs on are Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, and Corfu (Wischuf and Busack 2001, Iverson 1992, Gasperetti <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is found from sea level up to 900 m asl. The Tigris-Euphrates-basin waterbodies in Turkey are inhabited by <em>M. caspica</em>.	eng
158470	habitat		It inhabits slow-moving and standing freshwater bodies, permanent and temporary, usually with muddy bottom and dense aquatic vegetation. The species has also been recorded from swamps and marshes and from fast flowing rivers. It can tolerate saline and polluted conditions, and can take advantage of certain human habitat alterations (irrigation canals, ditches, water storage ponds, etc.) (Wischuf and Busack 2001: 99, 102). Females may produce two clutches of four to nine (exceptionally 12) eggs per year. The age at maturity has apparently not been recorded.	eng
158470	population		This is possibly the freshwater turtle occurring at the highest densities reported, with 19-217 animals per hectare in unpolluted habitats, and over 500 to 2,000+ animals per hectare of eutrophied wetland (Wischuf and Busack 2001:102). <br/><br/>The marginal Bulgarian population, small at about 1,000 animals, appears to have remained stable (Beshkov 1987, in Wischuf and Busack 2001:102). Marginal populations at the edge of the species range and those on small islands are considered are the ones most at risk.	eng
158470	threats		Populations in Turkey have been noted to be impacted by agricultural pesticides and habitat alteration relating to tourism development (Atatur 1995). Drainage of wetlands would be a locally significant impact on populations, but is unlikely to endanger the species as a whole. In Greece, there have been a number of extinctions and declines of island populations, often through the destruction of freshwater habitats (e.g., Paros Island). It is additionally threatened by the overuse and pollution of freshwater habitats, especially temporary freshwaters (e.g., Cyprus). Competition with the introduced <em>Trachemys scripta</em> has been suggested as a possible threat in parts of its range (e.g., Crete). It is considered to be overcollected for the pet trade in Turkey, and it is threatened in Jordan by pesticide use. There are likely to be an increasing number of threats to this species with increasing water demands in the region.	eng
158471	conservation	Berneck, B., 2009	This species is known to occur at Parque das Neblinas, a private reserve belonging to a local NGO (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158471	distribution	Berneck, B., 2009	This species is known from the Atlantic Forest domain, and is found in four municipalities in the state of São Paulo: Bertioga (Parque das Neblinas); Mogi das Cruzes (Biritiba Ussu district),   Cubatão, and São Paulo (Bororé district) (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is found between   <st1:metricconverter productid="600 a">600 a</st1:metricconverter>nd <st1:metricconverter productid="900 m">900 m asl (B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009). It may be slightly more widely distributed </st1:metricconverter>(B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158471	habitat	Berneck, B., 2009	The species is commonly found within patches of Atlantic Forest and less frequently within <span style="font-style: italic;"> Eucalyptus </span>plantations. Males can be heard calling from the forest floor amidst the leaf litter in the afternoon and evening hours during the rainy season (September to March) (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is a forest-associated species, more so than congener <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptodactylus marmoratus </span>(B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158471	population	Berneck, B., 2009	This species is considered to be common in the remaining patches of Atlantic Forest at Parque das Neblinas (Berneck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158471	threats	Berneck, B., 2009	Habitat destruction due to urban development is a threat to this species given that it is found in areas that are close to the city of São Paulo (B. Berneck pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158473	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species occurs within the boundaries of the Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, a 13,000 ha conservation unit managed by the Instituto Estadual de Florestas of the State of Minas Gerais (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). More research is needed to determine the species' geographic distribution, population status, life history and threats.	eng
158473	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	The new species is known only from type locality: Lagoa das Bromélias, Parque Estadual da Serra do Brigadeiro, District of Careço, Municipality of Ervália, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The type locality is associated to the northern part of the Mantiqueira Mountain Range Complex. The species has been recorded at 1,227 m asl (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158473	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	The species is found in the vicinity of a temporary pond that completely dries up during the dry season (April to September), but which has <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 250 m² of water surface in the rainy season (October to March). The pond is found within a forest fragment rich in epiphytic flora (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). This species is presumed to breed by laying eggs in foam nests.	eng
158473	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	It is a locally common species during the early wet season. Males have been reported to congregate in densities of up to 20 individuals at the beginning of the wet season (Caramaschi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158473	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>There is no information available on major threats to this species.</p>	eng
158474	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	The only existing conservation measure in the area is the Cordillera del    Cóndor  binational park, but it is not known if the species occurs there (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009). Necessary conservation measures include the protection of remaining forests, and an assessment and mitigation of development and mining projects (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158474	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality: Destacamento Militar Cóndor Mirador, western slope of the Cordillera del Cóndor, Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador. It occurs between 1,750–1,850 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008). It is thought to be endemic to the  Cordillera del Cóndor, as it has not been found in either Cordillera del Cutucu or the Cordillera Oriental (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158474	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	The holotype was found  in a mature secondary elfin forest. Active at night, the male was calling among the leaves of riverine vegetation a few cm over water (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008). It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
158474	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	While the species is known from the holotype, it was apparently fairly abundant at the time of collection, given the high number of calls attributed to this species that were heard from the canopy along the stream (Cisneros-Heredia and Morales-Mite 2008).	eng
158474	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species' habitat is threatened by deforestation due to highway development projects that would increase human colonization, agricultural expansion and mining projects (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158475	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	It can be found in both private and public protected areas. Additional conservation actions for this species include watershed management and protection (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158475	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from two localities in southeastern Ecuador (provinces of Morona-Santiago and Zamora-Chinchipe) and two in northeastern Peru (region of Cajamarca). It is found between 1,100-1,500 m asl (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is possible that it may occur more widely (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158475	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found in thorn and evergreen forests. Active at night, frogs of this species can be found on rocks on the borders and in the spray zone of waterfalls (Cisneros-Heredia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is thought that this species depends on well-preserved, unpolluted rivers, and that changes in hydrological patterns would likely affect its survival (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm September 2009). It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
158475	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	This is considered to be a rare species (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158475	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D. & Angulo, A., 2009	Its habitat is threatened with destruction due to agricultural expansion, urban development, mining and water retention projects which would modify the hydrological cycles of the Cordillera Oriental (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158476	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known to occur in two well preserved and protected areas in the northeastern part of the state of Rio Grande do Sul: Parque Nacional dos Aparados da Serra and Reserva Biológica da Serra Geral (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008).	eng
158476	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from Reserva Biológica da Serra Geral, Barra do Ouro, Municipality of Maquiné, and Itaimbezinho Canyon, Parque Nacional dos Aparados da Serra, Municipality of Cambará do Sul, state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008). It is found between 800 and 870 m asl.	eng
158476	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits Atlantic rain forests. Individuals can be found on rocks, in the leaf litter and inside bromeliads about 1.5 m high (Cruz and Fusinatto 2008). It likely reproduces in bromeliads by larval development.	eng
158476	population	Angulo, A., 2009	There is currently no information on the population status of this species.	eng
158476	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic forests.	eng
158477	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs within a private protected area, Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural (RPPN) Serra do Teimoso. The other sites where the species is found are also included within targeted priority areas for biodiversity conservation, given that they house some of the last remaining forest fragments of Atlantic Forest in northeastern Minas Gerais (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158477	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from Municipality of Santa Maria do Salto, northeastern Minas Gerais, and from Municipalities of Jussari and Arataca, southern Bahia, Brazil. It can be found at about 800 m asl (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158477	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is associated with Atlantic Forest fragments. It presumably lays eggs on leaves above the water, with tadpoles later hatching and dropping into the water below.	eng
158477	population	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
158477	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic Forest.</p>	eng
158478	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	There is a&#160;conservation movement that seeks to protect the natural resources and habitats within the Serra do Timbó. The Timbó Project is being developed by the Centro Sapucaia, Núcleo Mata Atlântica (Ministério Público), and the municipal government of Amargosa, and includes the creation of a conservation unit with 674 ha of tropical semi-deciduous forest (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158478	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	Currently, this species is known only from Serra do Timbó, Municipality of Amargosa, state of Bahia, Brazil, where it has been recorded from 800-900 m asl (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is not known whether the species is just confined to the area of the type locality.<br/><span class="000134400-29062009">	eng
158478	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits tropical semi-deciduous forests. Individuals have been found near a forest stream, 1.7‑2.0 m from the ground (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Reproduction is by larval development and tadpoles complete their development in streams.<br/><span class="000134400-29062009">	eng
158478	population	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
158478	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	The forests of Serra do Timbó are currently threatened by deforestation for the development of banana and cacao plantations, pastures, and selective logging of species of commercial interest. In addition, the springs that arise in Serra do Timbó and support the water supply of the municipalities of Amargosa, Ubaíra, Matuípe, and Jiquiriçá are also threatened (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158485	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158485	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the male type specimen of <em>Neodythemis arnoulti</em> is known, collected in the Andohahela National Park.	eng
158485	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158485	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158485	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158486	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158486	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Ceriagrion oblongulum</em> is known only from the Analamazotra National Park (type specimens).	eng
158486	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158486	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158486	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158487	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158487	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Hemistigma affine</em> is widespread on the island of Madagascar.	eng
158487	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specimens were observed in and nearby littoral and lowland rainforests.	eng
158487	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158487	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Potentially, this species may be threatened by deforestation.	eng
158488	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158488	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion apicale</em> is known from scattered localities from northern Madagascar along the east coast to the south east of the island.	eng
158488	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	This species occurs around streams and rivers in forested areas, based on observations in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158488	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158488	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred to be threatened by ongoing deforestation in the region.	eng
158489	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158489	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Thermorthemis madagascariensis</em> has a wide distribution range on Madagascar.	eng
158489	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown, however it may occur in a range of habitat types.	eng
158489	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158489	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158490	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158490	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only few specimens of <em>Tatocnemis crenulatipennis</em> are known, from two scattered localities (Anosibe and Ampijoroa).	eng
158490	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus were observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.	eng
158490	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158490	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158491	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158491	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Anax tumorifer</em> has a wide range on Madagascar.	eng
158491	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The larvae seem to live mainly in pools.	eng
158491	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158491	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158492	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158492	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Nesolestes mariae</em> is known, from the island of Sainte Marie.	eng
158492	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
158492	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158492	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158493	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158493	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only two specimens of <em>Pseudagrion ampolomitae</em> are known, collected from Ambatolampy in central Madagascar.	eng
158493	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The collection locality for this species is 1,400 m NN.	eng
158493	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158493	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158494	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158494	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Palpopleura vestita</em> is widespread on Madagascar.	eng
158494	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The species has been observed in rice paddies, ponds and swamps.	eng
158494	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158494	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158495	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158495	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion igniceps</em> are known, collected from scattered localities in Madagascar (Fort-Dauphin, Perinet, Ranohira, Morafenobe).	eng
158495	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158495	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158495	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158496	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158496	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Hemicordulia similis</em> is widespread over the island of Madagascar and is also recorded from the Seychelles (Mahé).	eng
158496	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirement for this species are unknown.	eng
158496	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158496	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158497	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158497	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Platycnemis pseudalatipes</em> is known from the island "Ile Sainte Marie" and the Analamazotra National Park. The subspecies is known from Marojejy.	eng
158497	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Collection sites for other species of <em>Platycnemis</em> were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.	eng
158497	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158497	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158498	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158498	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Nesolestes tuberculicollis</em> is known from only two female type specimens from Perinet and Ambodirafia.	eng
158498	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
158498	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158498	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158499	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158499	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion divaricatum</em> is known from several scattered localities in the eastern rainforest from northern to southern Madagascar.	eng
158499	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Occurs around streams and rivers in forested areas, based on observations in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158499	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158499	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Current threats are unknown. However, the species may be affected by ongoing deforestation in the region.	eng
158500	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158500	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only type specimen of <em>Tatocnemis virginiae</em> is known, without exact locality, in Madagascar.	eng
158500	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus were observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.	eng
158500	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158500	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158501	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158501	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only very few records of <em>Lokia modesta</em> are known, from scattered localities on Madagascar.	eng
158501	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Habitat is mostly unknown. The species was recorded in littoral forests in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158501	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158501	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158502	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158502	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion hamulus</em> is known, collected from eastern Madagascar (Ambodirafia).	eng
158502	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158502	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158502	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158503	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158503	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion cheliferum</em> is known, collected from central Madagascar (Ambositra).	eng
158503	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements are unknown for this species.	eng
158503	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158503	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158504	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158504	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Ceriagrion nigrolineatum</em> is known from scattered records in eastern Madagascar.	eng
158504	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	In southeastern Madagascar, specimens were observed in littoral and low mountain forests.	eng
158504	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158504	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	The main threat may be deforestation but more data are required to confirm this.	eng
158505	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158505	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimens of <em>Pseudagrion nigripes</em> are known, collected from Analamazotra National Park.	eng
158505	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158505	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158505	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158506	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158506	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only few specimens of <em>Platycnemis hova</em> are known, from scattered localities in Madagascar.	eng
158506	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The collection sites for this species were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.	eng
158506	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158506	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158507	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158507	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion pontogenes</em> is known from Mayotte and Ngazidja (Comoros).	eng
158507	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
158507	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158507	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Pollution from detergents, tree removal and replacement growth.	eng
158508	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158508	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Gynacantha bispina</em> is known from Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues.	eng
158508	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	Occurs in forest streams. The larvae mainly occur in pool sections of small rocky streams. Adults are crepuscular.	eng
158508	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158508	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
158509	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158509	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only from few distinct localities for <em>Zygonyx ranavalonae</em> are known on Madagascar (e.g., Mandoto, Ankarafantsika).	eng
158509	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Forested streams or gallery forest usually with fast running waters, based on the observations made on other Madagascan species of the genus.	eng
158509	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158509	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158510	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158510	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Orthetrum azureum</em> is widespread on Madagascar. The subspecies <em>Orthetrum azureum lugubre</em> Ris, 1915 occurs on Mayotte and Anjouan.	eng
158510	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	This species can be found in a range of habitat types, in cluding gardens and degraded forest habitats.	eng
158510	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158510	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158511	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158511	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only few specimens and localities are known from eastern Madagascar.	eng
158511	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The species was observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158511	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158511	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158512	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158512	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Platycnemis longiventris</em> is known, from Ambanja, Sambirano.	eng
158512	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Collection sites for other species of <em>Platycnemis</em> were shaded habitat from intact to heavily degraded forest.	eng
158512	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158512	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158513	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158513	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Tatocnemis malgassica</em> has a wide distribution along the east coast of Madagascar. Several recent records exist from southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158513	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The species was observed along small running waters in rainforest habitat.	eng
158513	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158513	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Current threats are unknown. However, it is inferred that deforestation may affect this species.	eng
158514	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Only one population is situated within a national park (Black River Gorges National Park).	eng
158514	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Coenagriocnemis rufipes</em> occurs on Mauritius.	eng
158514	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	The species occurs around rocky lotic waters, mainly forest streams but also at unshaded parts of rivers. The species is missing from rivers and streams within sugar cane fields and without gallery forest, which form the majority of Mauritian waters (Martens 2001).	eng
158514	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158514	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Habitat fragmentation and forest degradation.	eng
158515	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158515	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Diplacodes exilis</em> is widespread on the island of Madagascar.	eng
158515	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The species can use degraded habitats, such as ponds and rice paddies.	eng
158515	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158515	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158516	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158516	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Protolestes furcatus</em> occurs on Madagascar, but its range is unknown.	eng
158516	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158516	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158516	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158517	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158517	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Very few records of <em>Lestes silvaticus</em> are known, collected from the Perinet-Analamazotra National Park on Madagascar.	eng
158517	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158517	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158517	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158518	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158518	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the types of <em>Pseudagrion deconcertans</em> are known, collected from Ambatolampy in central Madagascar.	eng
158518	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158518	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158518	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158519	conservation	Martens, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158519	distribution	Martens, A., 2008	<em>Allolestes maclachlani</em> occurs on the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Praslin and Silhouette.	eng
158519	habitat	Martens, A., 2008	This species inhabits forest mountain streams with turbulent, running waters.	eng
158519	population	Martens, A., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158519	threats	Martens, A., 2008	Over extraction of stream water for drinking water/tourism, and forest fires.	eng
158520	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158520	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion tinctipenne</em> are known, from scattered littoral forests (Tampolo, Fort-Dauphin).	eng
158520	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	There are recent records of this species from littoral forest in southeastern Madagascar.	eng
158520	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158520	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Current threats are unknown but the species is inferred to be threatened by ongoing deforestation in the region.	eng
158521	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158521	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Pseudagrion vakoanae</em> is known, collected from Andringitra National Park in Madagascar.	eng
158521	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158521	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158521	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158522	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158522	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimens of <em>Nesocordulia malgassica</em> are known, from eastern Madagascar (Manakara).	eng
158522	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Different species of the genus <em>Nesocordulia</em> were observed near small running waters in rainforest habitat. The type locality is referred to as swamp.	eng
158522	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158522	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158523	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158523	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only very few specimens of <em>Pseudagrion renaudi</em> are known, from scattered localities in Madagascar.	eng
158523	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158523	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158523	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158524	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158524	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Rhyothemis cognata</em> is widespread on Madagascar.	eng
158524	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	This species occurs in a range of habitat types.	eng
158524	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158524	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158525	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158525	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Isomma elouardi</em> occurs on Madagascar, but the range of the species is unknown.	eng
158525	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Based on the biology of the family, this species is likely to use small streams and rivers.	eng
158525	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158525	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158526	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158526	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Nesolestes drocera</em> is known, from the type locality near Maroantsetra.	eng
158526	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
158526	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158526	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158527	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158527	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the type specimen of <em>Metacnemis secundaris</em> is known, from Beraty.	eng
158527	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158527	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158527	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158528	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158528	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Known localities for <em>Viridithemis viridula</em> are in western Madagascar, southwest of Majunga and in the region of Morondava.	eng
158528	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158528	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158528	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158529	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158529	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Few specimens of <em>Calophlebia karschi</em> have been collected along the rainforest belt from the northwest to the southeast of the island. This could be the possible species´range.	eng
158529	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specimens were observed in littoral rainforest, in gallery forest and mountain lowland rainforest.	eng
158529	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158529	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Potentially, deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
158530	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158530	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only scattered distribution data from eastern Madagascar is available on the species' range.	eng
158530	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
158530	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158530	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158531	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158531	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	The male type specimen of <em>Gynacantha hova</em> was collected in northern Madagascar (Ambilobe).	eng
158531	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158531	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158531	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158532	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158532	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	<em>Zygonyx elisabethae</em> has a wide distribution in eastern and northern Madagascar.	eng
158532	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Forested streams or gallery forest usually with fast running waters.	eng
158532	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158532	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158533	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158533	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Almost no exact localies for <em>Calophlebia interposita</em> are known. The type is labelled "Madagascar". A few specimens were collected in littoral forests in the southeast of the island.	eng
158533	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	The species was observed in rainforest habitat.	eng
158533	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158533	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Potentially, deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
158534	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158534	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only the male type specimen of <em>Ceriagrion madagazureum</em> is known, collected from northern Madagascar (Bas Sambirano).	eng
158534	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158534	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158534	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158535	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158535	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only few specimens of <em>Nesolestes ranavalona</em> are known, from scattered localities in eastern Madagascar.	eng
158535	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Other species of the genus <em>Nesolestes</em> were observed at small running waters in rainforest and littoral forest habitat.	eng
158535	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158535	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158536	conservation	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158536	distribution	Schütte, K., 2008	Only three type specimens of <em>Crocothemis striata</em> are known, from the type locality in Ranohira, province Fianarantsoa, Madagascar.	eng
158536	habitat	Schütte, K., 2008	Specific habitat requirements for this species are unknown.	eng
158536	population	Schütte, K., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158536	threats	Schütte, K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158537	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	The species occurs within a protected area, Área de Proteção Ambiental Guaratuba (Cruz<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008).	eng
158537	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality: Área de Proteção Ambiental Guaratuba, Serra da Pedra Branca do Araraquara, Municipality of Guaratuba, state of Paraná, Brazil (Cruz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158537	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	This species occurs in the Atlantic Rain Forest of Brazil. There is no information available on the microhabitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably breeds in still water and goes through a larval stage.	eng
158537	population	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
158537	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic Forest.	eng
158538	conservation	Chaparro, J.C., Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.	eng
158538	distribution	Chaparro, J.C., Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is only known from the vicinity of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru, from 2,600 m asl (Duellman and Hedges 2008).	eng
158538	habitat	Chaparro, J.C., Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species inhabits humid montane forests. Individuals have been found on the ground after rains (Duellman and Hedges 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
158538	population	Chaparro, J.C., Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>A total of two individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=2 individuals) and 2008 (no individuals) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).</p>	eng
158538	threats	Chaparro, J.C., Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
158539	conservation	Chaparro, J.C.,  Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed. <br/></p>	eng
158539	distribution	Chaparro, J.C.,  Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is only known from the vicinity of Oxapampa, region of Pasco, Peru, from 2,600 m asl (Duellman and Hedges 2008).	eng
158539	habitat	Chaparro, J.C.,  Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known only from humid montane forests, where it was found deep within a mossy bank by day (Duellman and Hedges 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
158539	population	Chaparro, J.C.,  Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>A total of five individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=3 individuals) and 2008 (N=2 individuals) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). <br/></p>	eng
158539	threats	Chaparro, J.C.,  Duellman, W.E. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>	eng
158540	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is found at Kapawi Lodge, a lodge run by the Achuar indigenous nation of the upper Amazon basin, who are committed protectors of their biodiversity (Elmer and Cannatella 2008).	eng
158540	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is found in the lowlands of the Pastaza and Napo rivers in southern Ecuador. It is probably more widely distributed into northern Peru (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It is known to occur between 239-255 m asl (Elmer and Cannatella 2008).	eng
158540	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species inhabits lowland primary forests and may presumably also be found in secondary forest. By night frogs are often perched on the leaves of low vegetation between 0.2 and 1.3 m elevation; during daytime they are found in the leaf litter (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
158540	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>It is considered to be a common species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158540	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. If it has a similar ecology to that of sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis kichwarum</span> it may have short dispersal distances, so extensive fragmentation would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). However, while the general region where this species is found is subject to pressure from oil exploration, this would not be of sufficient geographic extent to threaten this species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). In addition, the scale of deforestation activities is relatively minor throughout most of its range (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). </p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
158541	conservation		<p>This species is found at Estación Biológica Jatun Sacha and may possibly also occur in Sumaco-Napo-Galeras, Sangay and Llanganates National Parks (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p>  </p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
158541	distribution		This species is found throughout the humid upland tropical forests of eastern Ecuador, between 400–1,000 m asl (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It may occur further to the north and south of the east Andean slopes, but it is unlikely to be found above 1,200 m asl or below 400 m asl (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158541	habitat		This species inhabits lowland primary and secondary forests. By night individuals are often perched on the leaves of low vegetation, whereas by day they can be found in the leaf litter (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
158541	population		<p>This is considered to be an abundant species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p>	eng
158541	threats		<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. If it has a similar ecology to that of sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis kichwarum</span> it may have short dispersal distances, so extensive fragmentation (e.g., through paved roads) would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The greatest threat for this species is considered to be the construction of roads and clearing for small-land holdings (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The elevation range at which this species occurs in the Andes experiences much greater deforestation and population pressure than more lowland regions (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>  <p></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
158542	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>It is known at least from Yasuni National Park and from Reserva Faunistica Cuyabeno (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
158542	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species occurs in the eastern lowlands of Ecuador in the Napo, Orellana, and Sucumbíos provinces, at approximately 500 m asl and below (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). It is not expected to occur much more widely given that it seems to be flanked to the west by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pristimantis altamnis</span>, to the south by <span style="font-style: italic;">P. achuar</span> and to the north possibly by a different, yet undescribed species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). It is not believed to be found as low as the Iquitos region (110 m asl) (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).<br/><p></p>	eng
158542	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species inhabits lowland primary and secondary forests. By night frogs can be found perched on the leaves or stems of low vegetation from 0.2 to 1.5 m elevation; however, they are found amidst the leaf litter by day (Elmer and Cannatella 2008). This species presumably breeds by direct development.	eng
158542	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>It is considered to be an abundant species [see Pearman 1997 for <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">Eleutherodactylus ockendeni</span> (for which most records are suspected to be <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kichwarum;</span> K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009) and Elmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007].<br/></p>	eng
158542	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>This is a forest species, so deforestation for agricultural purposes reduces its available habitat. In some regions within the species' distribution, this threat is thought to be negligible. However, in other regions (e.g., upper Napo, Coca), rather large areas are being deforested for colonization by small land holdings, pasture, etc., and the threat may be closer to minor-medium (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). The individual dispersal distance is short (Elmer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), so extensive fragmentation would isolate populations (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009). While the general region where this species is found is subject to pressure from oil exploration, this would not be of sufficient geographic extent to threaten this species (K. Elmer pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p> &#160;</p>	eng
158543	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species occurs at a research and conservation centre, the Centro de Pesquisas e Conservação da Natureza (CPCN) Pró Mata (Kwet and Solé 2008). It is also known from Parque Florestal Estadual do Turvo, municipality of Derrubadas, Rio Grande do Sul (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2008).   <br/>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
158543	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is known to occur in three localities on the Araucaria Plateau in extreme northeastern and northern Rio Grande do Sul (municipalities of São Francisco de Paula, 950 m asl, and Machadinho, 760 m asl) and western Santa Catarina (municipality of Seara, 550 m asl). Specimens from El Soberbio (department Guaraní, 190 m asl) in the Argentinean province of Misiones, cited as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. imitatrix</span>, are also referred to this species in view of its characteristic dorsal pattern (Kwet and Solé 2008). It may also occur in south and southeastern Paraguay, but this requires verification. However, it is thought to have a wider distribution than currently acknowledged, and may occur over the entire range of the Serra Geral and adjacent regions of northern and northeastern Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and eastern Misiones province (Kwet and Solé 2008). It is thought to occur between 150 and 1,100 m asl (Kwet and Solé 2008).<br/><p></p>  <br/><br/>  <em><span lang="EN-GB"></em>	eng
158543	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This is an arboreal species occurring in mountainous and submountainous ranges and inhabiting primary and secondary subtropical rainforests and forest edges, including Araucaria forests. A nocturnal, explosive breeder, this species breeds in still permanent water bodies in the forest or at the forest edge.  Breeding occurs during the summer months (December to February). Eggs and larvae of the new species are not yet known (Kwet and Solé 2008).	eng
158543	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This appears to be a very rare species throughout its distribution range (Kwet and Solé 2008). However, it is possible that it may not be easily detected given its arboreal habits, so it could be more common than currently thought (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158543	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	It is thought that this species may be sensitive to habitat disturbance (Kwet and Solé 2008). In Rio Grande do Sul there is deforestation due to soy plantations, reforestation with wood (pine and eucalyptus) plantations and flooding of native forests due to the development of hydroelectric dams (e.g., Usina Hidroelétrica Machadinho) (A. Kwet pers. comm. June 2009).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
158544	conservation	Langone, J. & Angulo, A., 2009	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. It is important to implement a public awareness programme to avoid the indiscriminate use of fire in the region (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158544	distribution	Langone, J. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is only known from Serra do Capivarí in the northeastern state of Paraná, Brazil, at elevations above 1,400 m asl. It is likely to be endemic to the Serra do Capivarí (Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).<span class="000302013-04092009">	eng
158544	habitat	Langone, J. & Angulo, A., 2009	The area where this species occurs is included within the “campos de altitude” in the Atlantic Forest. Individuals can be found during daytime, on the ground or most often inside terrestrial bromeliads. This species deposits its egg clusters in the axils of bromeliads (Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is considered to be a habitat specialist (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158544	population	Langone, J. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>It is possibly commonly encountered during the breeding season (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).</p><p>    </p>	eng
158544	threats	Langone, J. & Angulo, A., 2009	The montane area where the species occurs undergoes periodical burnings due to unregulated fire use by the local residents (see Langone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); these fires may be for agricultural purposes (J. Langone pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158545	conservation	Angulo, A. & Lehr, E., 2009	This species is known to occur within the boundaries of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park. Survival programs inclusive of <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation measures have been suggested for members of this genus (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Monitoring of the population is needed to determine whether chytrid fungus is present and whether it may have affected the species.	eng
158545	distribution	Angulo, A. & Lehr, E., 2009	This species is known from three localities in the region of Pasco, Peru, all within a distance of 26 kilometers from each other. It is found between 1,770 and 2,200 m asl (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158545	habitat	Angulo, A. & Lehr, E., 2009	This species inhabits an area of cloud forests and secondary forests with some open areas that have been converted to grassland. Individuals have been found at night on leaves up to 1.5 m above the ground and in close proximity to a permanent creek (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; E. Lehr pers. comm. September 2009), and in one instance close to a road. It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
158545	population	Angulo, A. & Lehr, E., 2009	<p>It is thought to be a rare species given that as it was recorded/collected in low numbers over a long period (E. Lehr pers. comm. September 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158545	threats	Angulo, A. & Lehr, E., 2009	The vegetation of the road side close to the type locality is regularly cut down as part of&#160; road maintenance. In addition, the surroundings of Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park are intensively used for plantations (e.g., coffee) or for cattle breeding (Lehr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), leading to a lot of soil erosion (Edgar Lehr pers. comm. September 2009). While chytrid fungus has so far not been recorded in this species, other species in this genus inhabiting montane environments have been affected by chytridiomycosis, so it cannot be ruled out as a potential threat.<br/><span class="453300712-21092009">	eng
158552	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required - protection of forest and the watershed.	eng
158552	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is found in forest streams in central Africa (Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea). A record from Cameroon in Tsuda's world list could not yet be confirmed, all other country records are based on literature and/or museum material.	eng
158552	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams; eggs and larvae develop in the streams, immature imagos use the forest, while mature imagos return to the streams for mating and oviposition.	eng
158552	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158552	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation (both, clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution threaten the species.	eng
158553	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158553	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from the type locality in Odzala, Congo, and from an additional locality in Congo and three localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Buzo-Lite, Buzu-Bambenga, and Bambeza).	eng
158553	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158553	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158553	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information, but most likely threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
158554	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158554	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the type locality in the Congo. It is also present in Democratic Republic of Congo (Etoumbi Forest, Makoua). Only two specimens have been caught (the paratype from the type locality almost four years later) and from Central African Republic (Boukoko).	eng
158554	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Most likely found in and around forest streams/rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
158554	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158554	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158555	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
158555	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158555	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Habitat conservation/maintenance and restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
158555	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to Cameroon and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
158555	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
158555	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau and Mali to west Cameroon and Gabon. All records east of Nigeria are dubious.	eng
158555	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158555	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158555	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158555	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158555	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158555	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158555	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158555	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction through logging, agricultural clearance and mining activities.	eng
158555	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is threatened by forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158556	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158556	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158556	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158556	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Gabon; unconfirmed report from the Central African Republic.	eng
158556	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea.	eng
158556	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone and Guinea. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, unconfirmed record from Congo.	eng
158556	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested rivers.	eng
158556	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested rivers.	eng
158556	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested rivers.	eng
158556	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158556	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158556	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158556	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158556	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158556	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158557	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158557	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality in Cameroon (Ambam).	eng
158557	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158557	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158557	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by habitat destruction.	eng
158558	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Before any conservation measures can be formulated, the ecology and distribution of A. stygia has to be studied. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would also be valuable.	eng
158558	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala (holotype); Ubangi, Momenge; Bomboma; Bobey; Busu Bombenga; Banza-Ouest; Ubangi, Dongo; Mahagi-Port; Busu-Bolemo; Lokutu (RMNH). It is recorded in Tsuda's: "A distributional list of world Odonata 1991" for Congo as well, which needs confirmation, as it might be a mixing of the country names.	eng
158558	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It has been found in swamp forests and is assumed to breed in standing waters. No details about the ecology are known.	eng
158558	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158558	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158560	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158560	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality in Gabon: Mvoum, Montagne de Sable, ca 00°14' S 10°07' E. It could be much more widespread.	eng
158560	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely occurring on rainforest streams.	eng
158560	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158560	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158561	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158561	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from various localities of the Congo basin (Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
158561	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely forest streams.	eng
158561	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158561	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat destruction caused by wood extraction is a major threat.	eng
158562	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
158562	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158562	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
158562	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria, Cameroon, Angola, Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Angola, the Central African Republic, Congo and Gabon; it is assumed in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158562	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon.	eng
158562	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria, Cameroon, Angola and Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Angola, Gabon. Records from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo require confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south eastern Nigeria and south western Cameroon.	eng
158562	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested rivers.	eng
158562	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested rivers.	eng
158562	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested rivers.	eng
158562	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158562	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158562	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158562	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158562	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158562	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
158563	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158563	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type specimen collected at Muni River, Mountains of Cristal, Gabon.	eng
158563	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158563	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158563	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158564	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158564	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Research to gather data on range, population, etc.	eng
158564	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research to gather data on range, population, habitat status, and monitoring of this species is required.	eng
158564	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species has been recorded only from Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984a), but there are no data to confirm this. Globally, it is known from Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Shaba Province).	eng
158564	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from a number of localities in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158564	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Zambia (Upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Shaba Province).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from a number of localities (3 known and suspected to be more) in Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment) and Congo Kinshasa (Katanga Province).<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded only from Zambia. It is inferred to also occur in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (Pinhey 1984a), but there are no data to confirm this.	eng
158564	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	In streams in forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
158564	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	In streams in forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
158564	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	In streams in forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
158564	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158564	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
158564	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158564	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest degradation due to agriculture and wood extraction is an inferred threat to the species based on the ongoing activities in the area.	eng
158564	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Inferred forest degradation and agriculture, based on activities in the area.	eng
158564	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Inferred forest degradation, based on activities in the area.	eng
158565	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158565	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Chlorocnemis interrupta</em> is known only from two localities in Gabon: its type locality in Balé River (M'passa, Makokou) and Kingawela.	eng
158565	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to occur in rainforest streams.	eng
158565	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158565	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threat to the species is habitat destruction caused by wood extraction.	eng
158566	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158566	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from various localities in southern Congo (Dimonika, Makabana, Loufula, Kintele, Djili, Voka). Its occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.	eng
158566	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It is most likely to occur in and around forest streams.	eng
158566	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158566	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
158567	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158567	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
158567	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158567	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In the southern Africa region, this species is known from seven localities in coastal river catchments in Angola, and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia. Globally, it is known from Angola, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
158567	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). The species is not endemic to the Central Africa assessment region.	eng
158567	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is known from Angola, Gabon, Zambia, Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo Brazzaville (Congo), and Congo Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). Not endemic to the central Africa assessment region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from seven localities in coastal river catchments in Angola, and the upper Zambezi catchment in Zambia.	eng
158567	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Occurs in shady streams with riparian forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
158567	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Occurs in shady streams with riparian forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
158567	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Occurs in shady streams with riparian forest (Pinhey 1984).	eng
158567	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158567	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158567	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158567	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Forest degradation is an inferred potential threat.	eng
158567	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but forest degradation is an inferred potential threat.	eng
158567	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. Forest degradation, water pollution and agriculture are inferred threats.	eng
158568	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158568	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly also present in Congo and Gabon.	eng
158568	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Sandy and silty streams in forest and secondary forest.	eng
158568	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158568	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat destruction and water pollution are threats to this species.	eng
158569	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158569	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Fraser 1949) and assumed to be confined to the Congo Basin (Dijkstra pers. comm.), Congo and Gabon. Specimens from Cameroon (Vick 1999) have been proved to be another  species, but not <em>D. multilineatum</em>.	eng
158569	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in forest and secondary forest.	eng
158569	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158569	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
158570	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158570	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	More research on biology, distribution and population size, as well as habitat conservation is needed.	eng
158570	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the coastal lowlands of Cameroon (Vick 1999) and Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from coastal lowlands of Cameroon.	eng
158570	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known only from the coastal lowlands of Cameroon (Vick 1999) and Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.). It is not thought to be present in forested areas.	eng
158570	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams in primary forest.	eng
158570	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Streams in primary forest.	eng
158570	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158570	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158570	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation, agriculture and water pollution.	eng
158570	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Deforestation and water pollution.	eng
158571	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158571	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158571	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required.	eng
158571	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in the Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. (confirmed records from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana in west Africa)<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in the Central African Republic and Cameroon. Presence is assumed from northern Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158571	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Togo and probably Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. The assessor has seen <em>N. pujoli</em> males from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana (see <em>N. farinosa</em>).	eng
158571	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic to Ghana and probably Guinea. The assessor has seen <span style="font-style: italic;">N. pujoli</span> males from Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana (see <span style="font-style: italic;">N. farinosa</span>).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic, from northern Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Togo and probably Guinea.	eng
158571	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open ponds and calm parts of streams and rivers.	eng
158571	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open ponds and calm parts of streams and rivers.	eng
158571	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open ponds and calm parts of streams and rivers.	eng
158571	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158571	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158571	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158571	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158571	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158571	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158572	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Conservation measures aimed at preserving habitats and developing greater awareness of the public.	eng
158572	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Conservation measures aimed at preserving habitats and developing greater awareness of the public.	eng
158572	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The Pantelleria lake should be preserved from trampling by livestock and tourist activities.	eng
158572	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from North Africa and the Middle East to Central Asia and favour arid environments. In Europe it is present only in Pantelleria, an Italian volcanic island with a rather warm sulphurous crater lake situated 72 km east of Tunisia and 101 km southwest of Sicily and reaching about 89 km² in area (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Lohmann 1989, Utzeri and d'Antonio 2005)	eng
158572	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from north Africa and the Middle East to central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. It is likely also to be present in Libya.	eng
158572	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> ranges from North Africa and the middle East to Central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. It is likely also to be present in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.	eng
158572	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The Oasis Bluetail (<em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>) has a range that extends from Central Asia through the Middle East to North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco).	eng
158572	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Found in arid areas. Breeds in springs and rivers as well as shallow lakes. The larvae are tollerant of high salinity.	eng
158572	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Found in arid areas. Breeds in springs and rivers as well as shallow lakes. The larvae are tollerant of high salinity.	eng
158572	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The larvae of <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em> are known to be very tolerant to high salinity and the species favours hot arid areas. This is well exemplified in the Pantelleria population, which is confined to a hot (50°C) sulphurous crater lake showing gas emissions and surrounded by sulphurous springs and a sparse belt of rushes (<em>Juncus</em> sp.).	eng
158572	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The Oasis Bluetail occurs mainly in desert oases and brackish coastal sites. Springs and rivers with little vegetation, shallow lakes, glasswort marsh are all suitable habitats. The species is tolerant of high salinity.	eng
158572	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
158572	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	Locally abundant.	eng
158572	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information is available on population size or trends, however it is considered common across its range..	eng
158572	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is abundant in its location on Pantelleria.	eng
158572	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Draining and pollution of habitats.	eng
158572	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Draining and pollution of habitats are threats to the species.	eng
158572	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat loss and pollution affect this species in parts of its range.	eng
158572	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Touristic frequentation and livestock trampling are probably the main threats for this unique population. Climate change and pollution are potential future threats.	eng
158573	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158573	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality Gorilla Mountain, Mamfe, Cameroon.	eng
158573	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Likely to be found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
158573	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158573	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158574	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures in place are known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
158574	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158574	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population and range is required.	eng
158574	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known with certainty only from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. Sierra Leone records pertain to <em>T. aconita.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.	eng
158574	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known with certainty only from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. Sierra Leone records pertain to <em>T. aconita</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to occur in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.	eng
158574	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. It is also known to occur in Cameroon, in the central Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known with certainty from Liberia, Ghana and Cameroon. The records from Sierra Leone pertain to <span style="font-style: italic;">T. aconita</span>.	eng
158574	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
158574	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
158574	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
158574	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158574	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158574	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158574	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
158574	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158574	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158575	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158575	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158575	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
158575	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon; Equatorial Guinea is assumed.	eng
158575	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
158575	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Gabon to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, unconfirmed but likely record from Cameroon, in Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
158575	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158575	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158575	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158575	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158575	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158575	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158575	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158575	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158575	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158576	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158576	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from few sites in Gabon, Congo, Brazzaville and Democratic Republic of Congo, where it is considered to be widespread.	eng
158576	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158576	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158576	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by wood extraction.	eng
158577	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is required on range and population status.	eng
158577	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158577	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. More research is required on range and population status.	eng
158577	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The species is endemic to Angola. It occurs in the Kunene River, the Congo River (outside the region) and the coastal river catchments. This species is known from west and southwest Angola. Currently known from five collections within the region. Last recorded in the 1970s (Pinhey 1975). It is believed to be more widespread than currently known, even within the region.	eng
158577	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is known from west and southwest Angola. Currently known from five collections within the region. Last recorded in the 1970s (Pinhey 1975). It also occurs outside of the Southern Africa region and is believed to be more widespread than currently known, even within the region. Globally, the species is endemic to Angola. It occurs in the Kunene River, the Congo River and the coastal river catchments. Records from the Congo River catchment are outside the southern Africa region.	eng
158577	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species is probably endemic to Angola, occurring in the Kunene River, the Congo River and the coastal river catchments.There is a single record from Dundo, within the central Africa region, but this record is highly doubtful. It is questionable whether the the record is within the region, and if present, the species is probably present at below the 5% threshold.	eng
158577	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small perennial streams and rivers.	eng
158577	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Small perennial streams and rivers.	eng
158577	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Small perennial streams and rivers.	eng
158577	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available on population size or trends.	eng
158577	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	No information available on population size or trends.	eng
158577	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available on population size or trends.	eng
158577	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	The genus occurs in small streams in forested areas and the main threat may be deforestation, however more data are required to confirm this.	eng
158577	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The major threats to the species are unknown. The genus occurs in small streams in forested areas and the main threat may be deforestation, however more data are required to confirm this.	eng
158577	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. The genus occurs in small streams in forested areas and the main threat may be deforestation, however more data are required to confirm this.	eng
158578	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures needed.	eng
158578	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158578	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
158578	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Not needed.	eng
158578	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is widespread at perennial rivers in the region. It has not yet been found in the arid southwest or in the Orange System. Globally, it has been recorded from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and West Africa.	eng
158578	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia; also present in Cameroon, Congo and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
158578	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Kenya and Gambia. Occurrence in Ethiopia and Sudan need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Somalia, records from Sudan and Ethiopia need confirmation. Not recorded from northern Kenya, but occurrence likely.	eng
158578	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.	eng
158578	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	This species has been recorded from northern South Africa to Ethiopia, Sudan and Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Angola, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Somalia, records from Sudan and Ethiopia need confirmation. It has not been recorded from northern Kenya, but occurrence is likely.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is widespread at perennial rivers in the region. It has not yet been found in the arid southwest or in the Orange System.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Gambia.	eng
158578	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Lakes and rivers in forest, savannah and woodland.	eng
158578	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Savannah rivers with gallery forest; also large lakes.	eng
158578	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Savannah rivers with gallery forest; also large lakes.	eng
158578	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Savannah rivers with gallery forest; also large lakes.	eng
158578	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
158578	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158578	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158578	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
158578	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
158578	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No major threats are currently known.	eng
158578	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No major threats known so far.	eng
158578	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No major threats known so far.	eng
158578	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
158579	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158579	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the type locality at Makokou in Gabon. It is possibly also found in Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158579	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
158579	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158579	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Water pollution and deforestation of habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158580	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158580	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the type locality Mayumbe in Democratic Republic of Congo and from numerous specimens stored in the Africa Museum, Tervuren (Dijkstra pers. comm.). The species seems to be endemic to the Congo Basin.	eng
158580	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely rainforest habitats	eng
158580	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158580	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
158581	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158581	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type specimen collected in Congo (Mbila, Mont du Chaillu).	eng
158581	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158581	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158581	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely to be affected by habitat destruction.	eng
158582	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
158582	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158582	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
158582	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.	eng
158582	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.	eng
158582	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
158582	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools in rainforest.	eng
158582	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Pools in rainforest.	eng
158582	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Pools in rainforest.	eng
158582	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158582	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158582	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158582	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
158582	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158582	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158583	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy (in particular), population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
158583	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
158583	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Taxonomic research is needed. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
158583	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	It may occur in the Congo River basin in Democratic Republic of Congo and the Zambesi River basin in northwest Zambia, as well as in the Lake Tanganyika basin, north Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba, Lubumbashi) and Zambia (Upper Zambesi rapids), the record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the range of this taxon is difficult to determine because of taxonomic ambiguities. It forms a group with <em>styx</em> and <em>quirki</em> and more work is needed to determine which species this actually is. Within the southern Africa region it is likely to be a marginal taxon (estimated to be <5% of the global range within the region), found in the upper Zambezi catchment.	eng
158583	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Upemba, Lubumbashi) and Zambia (upper Zambesi rapids), the record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Presence within Zambia and Republic of Congo is possible.	eng
158583	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	The range of this taxon is difficult to determine because of taxonomic ambiguities. It forms a group with <em>styx</em> and <em>quirki</em> and more work is needed to determine which species this actually is. Within the southern Africa region it is likely to be a marginal taxon (estimated to be <5% of the global range within the region), found in the upper Zambezi catchment. Globally, it may occur in the Congo River basin in DRC and the Zambesi River basin in northwest Zambia, as well as in the Lake Tanganyika basin, north Zambia.	eng
158583	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158583	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158583	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Rainforest streams (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
158583	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158583	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
158583	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
158583	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Current threats are unknown, but forest destruction is a potential threat.	eng
158583	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction.	eng
158583	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Potentially forest destruction.	eng
158584	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158584	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
158584	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
158584	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984) and later found by its discoverer on Mt Nimba (Guinee-C) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Gabon, likely to be found in Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.	eng
158584	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is found by its discoverer (Legrand) on Mt. Nimba (Guinee-Cote d'Ivoire) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984).	eng
158584	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been described from north-east Gabon (Legrand 1984) and later found by its discoverer on Mt Nimba (Guinea-Cote d'Ivoire) and southeast Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare. Type locality in Gabon (but this is missing from database).<br/><br/>The species has not been recorded from central Africa yet, but likely in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is found by its discoverer (Legrand) on Mt Nimba (Guinea-Cote d'Ivoire) and south-east Senegal (Legrand 2003). A probable female was found by Lempert (1988) in east Liberia. This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.	eng
158584	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g. Nimba, Fouta Djallon).	eng
158584	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g., Nimba, Fouta Djallon).	eng
158584	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably rainforest streams. Perhaps it occurs only in hilly terrain (e.g., Nimba, Fouta Djallon). Strong fliers and could be more widely distributed than currently shown by the collection records.	eng
158584	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
158584	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158584	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None.	eng
158584	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158584	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158584	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158585	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
158585	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
158585	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158585	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from Ethiopia to Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire and Algeria<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
158585	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and the northern parts of Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. Probably occurs between these locations.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
158585	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Chad, Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. Often confused with <em>O. taeniolatum</em> (an Asian species), but records for this species within Africa can be included in the inferred range at present.<br/><br/>Its presence in central Africa is not confirmed but likely record from Central African Republic, also assumed for northern Cameroon and northern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Sudan, Egypt, Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and assumed to be present in Djibouti.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Chad and the northern parts of Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire. It probably occurs also between these locations.	eng
158585	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Arid areas.	eng
158585	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Arid areas.	eng
158585	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Arid areas.	eng
158585	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	No information available.	eng
158585	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158585	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158585	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158585	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2006	Unknown.	eng
158585	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
158586	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158586	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality in Democratic Republic of Congo (Katwe River, Kundelungu Plateau; Pinhi) and assumed to be endemic to the Kundelungu Plateau.	eng
158586	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species was recorded from the Katwe River "near Cyperus beds". Nothing is known on the species biology	eng
158586	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158586	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158587	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158587	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158587	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the threats to this species, as well as conservation measures and monitoring.	eng
158587	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from two records from Cameroon.	eng
158587	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.	eng
158587	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon in central Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
158587	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
158587	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Small rainforest streams.	eng
158587	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
158587	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158587	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158587	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158587	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Destruction of forest habitats due to agriculture and wood extraction. Water pollution is also a threat to this species.	eng
158587	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158587	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158588	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158588	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Malgassophlebia westfalli</em> is known only from six localities in the area around Makokou, Gabon, where it seems to be common (Legrand 1986).	eng
158588	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
158588	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158588	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat destruction caused by change of the land use into agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158589	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158589	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon and Gabon, but may include more than one species.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Nigeria.	eng
158589	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy rainforest streams.	eng
158589	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158589	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture is a threat to the species.	eng
158590	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158590	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the threats to this species.	eng
158590	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
158590	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Possibly present in Cameroon and Republic of Congo.	eng
158590	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158590	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Guinea-Bissau to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon.	eng
158590	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open pools in forest and calm sections of forested rivers.	eng
158590	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open pools in forest and calm sections of forested rivers.	eng
158590	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open pools in forest and calm sections of forested rivers.	eng
158590	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158590	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158590	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158590	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158590	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158590	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158591	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required, and taxonomic clarification.	eng
158591	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158591	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Only known from Angola (Chimporo) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Musana).	eng
158591	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from a record from Democratic Republic of Congo (Musana); also reported from Angola (Chimporo) (outside the central Africa region).	eng
158591	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158591	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158591	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158591	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158591	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158591	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158592	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158592	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	This species is probably endemic to Congo Basin, and has been listed from Nigeria, where its presence is dubious.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala, Lac Leopold (holotype), Bunia, Bobey, Busu Moto, Busu Lite and Lubumbash.	eng
158592	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Unknown, possibly living in swamp forest.	eng
158592	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
158592	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
158593	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158593	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158593	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158593	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is quite widespread, known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. The species has been recorded from Ivory Coast as well, but this record (Legrand 1984) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra <em>pers. comm.</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.	eng
158593	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded once in the region in the Ivory Coast, but this record (Legrand 1982) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Ivorian record must be verified.	eng
158593	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Ivorian record must be verified.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Recorded from Ivory Coast as well, but this record (Legrand 1984) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from one record in the region in the Ivory Coast, but this record (Legrand 1982) is in serious doubt and needs confirmation (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
158593	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158593	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158593	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158593	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158593	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158593	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158593	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158593	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158593	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
158594	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Surveys on distribution and habitat status. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158594	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<em>Tetrathemis fraseri</em> is known only from the type locality in Ipassa, Makokou in Gabon.	eng
158594	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around rainforest pools.	eng
158594	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158594	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat destruction due to logging is a threat to the species.	eng
158595	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158595	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.	eng
158595	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
158595	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Sierra Leone to Gabon and possibly further east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea; presence likely in Congo, possibly Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158595	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Gabon and possibly further east.	eng
158595	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone to Congo and possibly further east.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, possibly Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
158595	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158595	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158595	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158595	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158595	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158595	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158595	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
158595	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
158595	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
158596	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158596	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the type locality Kibombo (Maniema district, Democratic Republic of Congo) the exact locality is disputed.	eng
158596	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, most likely primary rainforest and rivers or streams.	eng
158596	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158596	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are water pollution and habitat destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
158597	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158597	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158597	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.	eng
158597	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria to Gabon, the Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon. Its presence in Congo is assumed. Unconfirmed record from Angola.	eng
158597	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south Nigeria and south west Cameroon. Record from Sierra Leone refers to <em> <br/>E. girardi</em>  (specimen examined by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Nigeria to Gabon, Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).	eng
158597	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from southern Nigeria to Gabon, Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic, Gabon. The record from Angola needs confirmation and the one from Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southern Nigeria (type locality) and south west Cameroon. The record from Sierra Leone refers to <em>E. girardi </em>(specimen examined by Dijkstra).	eng
158597	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably forested rivers.	eng
158597	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably forested rivers.	eng
158597	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forested rivers.	eng
158597	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158597	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158597	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158597	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158597	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158597	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158598	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
158598	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158598	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
158598	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.	eng
158598	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.	eng
158598	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria at least to Gabon but precise range unclear due to confusion with <em>U. saphirina</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south eastern Nigeria and south western Cameroon.	eng
158598	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158598	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158598	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158598	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158598	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158598	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158598	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158598	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
158598	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
158599	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158599	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from the central Congo Basin (Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
158599	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Most likely found in and around rainforest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
158599	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158599	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
158600	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158600	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species was described from west Central African Republic (Lindley 1976), but not reported until recently. In the Tervuren Museum numerous specimens from Democratic Republic of Congo were found: Abumombazi, Bambesa, Kambaye/Luputa, Nzali, Paulis (Isiro), and six sites in the Kungu area: Banza-Ouest, Busu-Bombenga, Busu-Lite, Dongo, Kungu, Sokro. Dijkstra (2007) found the species at three small streams near Lokutu. These records indicate a widespread occurrence in the Congo Basin.	eng
158600	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Muddy and/or sandy rainforest streams.	eng
158600	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158600	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage and destruction/ deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction, and water pollution.	eng
158601	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
158601	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158601	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
158601	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this deserves confirmation, and for Guinea, which is unlikely.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo, including Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
158601	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Nigeria, but the locations are unknown<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this deserves confirmation.	eng
158601	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This species has been recorded from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon to extreme west of Democratic Republic of Congo. Present in Nigeria, but not recorded from Guinea. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, but the locations are unknown	eng
158601	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
158601	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
158601	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
158601	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158601	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
158601	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158601	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158601	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158601	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
158602	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158602	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known only from one locality each on a large river in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic (Congo and Ubangi rivers respectively). It is likely to be widespread in suitable habitat.	eng
158602	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but probably present in rivers and streams in primary forest.	eng
158602	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158602	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be threatened due to habitat destruction and pollution.	eng
158603	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158603	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is widespread in the eastern half of Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
158603	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158603	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158603	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158604	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158604	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
158604	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Gabon and a dubious record from Togo (Legrand, 1992). More surveys are needed to get an idea of the species' distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from the type locality in Gabon. Potentially endemic if the Togo record proves erroneous.	eng
158604	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from the type locality in Gabon (Legrand 1992) and a possible record from Togo (Lieckweg pers. comm.). More surveys are needed to get an idea of the species' distribution.	eng
158604	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely rain forest streams.	eng
158604	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available, but most likely rainforest streams.	eng
158604	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158604	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158604	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
158604	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The known threats to the species are habitat destruction and water pollution.	eng
158605	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
158605	conservation	Vick, G.S., 2008	Protection of forest and the watershed, research on the species' ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
158605	distribution	Vick, G.S., 2008	<em>Umma mesumbei</em> is known from only five locations (Vick 1996, Vick pers. comm. 2007). The known extent of occurrence (EOO) is about 1,200 km² in the volcanic Cameroon Highlands region. The area is mostly within the tribal lands of the Bakossi and it is usually called the Bakossi Mountains in the broadest sense. Sites are both east and west of the old border between British and French Cameroons:<br/><br/>In SW Province (department Meme - anglophone):<br/><strong>#1</strong> Mount Kupe, especially Max's Trail: 980 m (04°49' N, 09°41' E), but also collected in other locations on the mountain up to at least 1,300 m.<br/><strong>#2</strong> Okpambe (forest stream): 1,450 m (lat/long not available).<br/><strong>#3</strong> Kodmin (Ndine stream): 1,520 m (04°59' N, 09°42' E).<br/><strong>#4</strong> Muambong (Jide River): 1,100 m (04°58' N, 09°43' E).<br/><br/>In Littoral Province (department Mungo - francophone):<br/><strong>#5</strong> Mount Nlonako (near Nguengue): 1,600 m (04°51' N, 10°03' E).	eng
158605	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from extreme western Cameroon (Kupe Bakossi mountains, Kodmin, and Mt Nlonak), and from Takamanda forest, Nigeria (outside the central Africa region). <em>Umma mesumbei </em>is only known from five locations globally (four in the central Africa region) (Vick, 1996; Vick, pers. comm.). The known area of occurrence is about 1,200 km² in the volcanic Cameroon Highlands region. The area is mostly within the tribal lands of the Bakossi and it is usually called the Bakossi Mountains in the broadest sense. Sites are both east and west of the old border between British and French Cameroons.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from western Cameroon and the Takamanda forest, Nigeria.	eng
158605	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Clear forest streams in pristine forest. Adults are found along the streams and in the surrounding forest, larvae and eggs develop in the streams, possibly particularly in seepage areas.	eng
158605	habitat	Vick, G.S., 2008	The species occupies clear forest streams in pristine forest. Adults are found along the streams and in the surrounding forest; larvae and eggs develop in the streams. All known sites are small rocky streams with fast water and, usually, gravel bed; they flow through very good quality submontane forest and the adults are seen in sunny clearings. All known sites also hold populations of&#160;<em>Pentaphlebia stahlii</em> which is the indicator species for this kind of habitat.	eng
158605	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158605	population	Vick, G.S., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
158605	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture, deforestation (both clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution.	eng
158605	threats	Vick, G.S., 2008	Deforestation (both, clear cutting and selective logging) and pollution are threats to this species. Agricultural encroachment has accelerated recently, with large portions of pristine forest being cleard for gardens at Mount Kube and cocoa farms in western Bakossi extending into the pristine forest (Fotso <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
158606	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into biology and ecology would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158606	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from a single locality in Equatorial Guinea (Ebibeyin).	eng
158606	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
158606	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
158606	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat destruction due to deforestation.	eng
158607	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158607	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is only known from the type locality Bioko, Equatorial Africa ("near Moca") (Pinhey 1971) and from adjacent Cameroon (Vick 1999). Not recorded from Bioko in a recent survey (Brooks and Jackson 2001)	eng
158607	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Known from crater lakes.	eng
158607	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
158607	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The main threats to the species are drainage and destruction of swampy habitats caused by agriculture. Water pollution is also a threat.	eng
158609	conservation	MacCulloch, R., 2009	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
158609	distribution	MacCulloch, R., 2009	This species is currently known only from the Pakaraima Mountains in western Guyana, although it is likely to occur in nearby Roraima State, Brazil, and may also occur elsewhere (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009). It is found between 678–1,414 m asl (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158609	habitat	MacCulloch, R., 2009	This species inhabits medium-canopy forests. Frogs can be found at night, amidst leaf litter, among rootlets near the base of trees and in ground holes covered by leaves. Males call during afternoons and nights (MacCulloch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). This species is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
158609	population	MacCulloch, R., 2009	<p>This species is considered to be locally common (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158609	threats	MacCulloch, R., 2009	<p>No threats have been observed for this species.   It      occurs in areas of very sparse human habitation (R. MacCulloch pers. comm. May 2009).  </p>	eng
158610	conservation	Maneyro, R. & Angulo, A., 2009	<p>It is recommended that the sites occupied by the species be designated as of restricted use (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158610	distribution	Maneyro, R. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is only known from two localities (190 and 230 m asl)  separated by about 15 km in the Department of Rivera, northern Uruguay (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). These localities' immediate surroundings have been repeatedly surveyed since 2004, but no new reports have been recorded, and the area of occupancy is currently estimated to be less than 10 km² (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). It is, however, possible that it may occur in other nearby localities close to its currently known range, including the neighbouring state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil, although the predominant kind of land use in this state is extensive agriculture, rather than forestry (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158610	habitat	Maneyro, R. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found in a soft hilly area with an open landscape and predominance of grasslands surrounded by small, shallow and seasonal streams; this area is currently modified by eucalyptus and pine plantations. Circumstantial reproductive evidence suggests that reproduction in this species takes place during winter (Maneyro<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is presumed to breed by laying eggs in water.	eng
158610	population	Maneyro, R. & Angulo, A., 2009	Individuals of this species were found throughout the year, but their frequency of capture (about 1/1000 individuals) was the lowest of the 23 anuran species collected in the study area (Maneyro <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), suggesting that this is a relatively rare species. It is also possible that the species may not occur at the type locality any more, given that the few water bodies that used to be there have been found dried up in the last few years (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158610	threats	Maneyro, R. & Angulo, A., 2009	Modification of the original habitat due to plantation of introduced tree species is considered a threat to this species. The localities where this species was found belong to a large-scale forestry company, which cultivates eucalyptus and pine trees (the latter is especially common in the areas where the species was found) (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). The availability of water bodies at the type locality could also have been affected by dry spells (R. Maneyro pers. comm. September 2009). <br/><br/>  <br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
158613	conservation		This species has been one of several to be collected for captive breeding efforts at the Valle de Antón (a total of five individuals, including one female; J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). So far, however, attempts at breeding have not produced positive results (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). Local herpetologists continue to conduct surveys regularly (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158613	distribution		This species is found in the mountains in the immediate vicinity of the town of El Valle de Antón, in both Coclé and Panama provinces, central Panama, at elevations between 900 and 1,150 m asl (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). All currently known sites (3-4) are on the Pacific versant, but it is possible that this species may be found on the Atlantic slope near Altos de Maria. It is suspected to be endemic to the vicinity of El Valle (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158613	habitat		A forest canopy dweller, this species inhabits tropical premontane forests. Individuals are most often found in primary forest, but can also occur in secondary forest (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Active at night, males call throughout the year, but there appears to be a peak of reproductive activity at the onset of the rainy season (mid-March to May). Eggs are deposited just above the water line on the exposed wood or bark inside tree holes. Clutches range from about 60-200 eggs. The males remain at the hole in attendance of eggs and tadpoles, while females disperse soon after oviposition (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <br/><p></p>	eng
158613	population		This species was uncommon in the region during field surveys in 2005-2006, although one or two males could be heard calling each night during that time. After the detection of chytrid fungus in the region, the species is much less common. Calls are no longer heard at known localities, but in December 2007, one individual was heard in deep forest on Cerra La Gaita (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158613	threats		The chytrid fungus <em>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</em> has been reported for the area where this species is known to occur (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Only one individual has been heard since the chytrid fungus was detected in 2006 (Mendelson <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; J.&#160; Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009). There is some ongoing forest clearing within the species' range for the development of luxury holiday homes, although it has not yet reached critical levels (J. Mendelson pers. comm. September 2009).	eng
158614	conservation	Moravec, J., 2009	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
158614	distribution	Moravec, J., 2009	This species is known to occur over the western and central parts of the department of Pando, northern Bolivia, in the southwestern Amazon basin (Moravec <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It may possibly occur more widely, including in Peru and Brazil. It occurs between 200-300 m asl (J. Moravec pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
158614	habitat	Moravec, J., 2009	This species inhabits tall evergreen lowland rainforests (Moravec<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). Frogs can be found in very humid swampy or flooded shores of smaller streams running through undisturbed terra firme forest. These places are typically densely overgrown with herbaceous plants, ferns and palms, and also have abundant herbaceous lianas. Where there are long or heavy rains, males descend to 2–4 m above the inundated ground and call hidden from view (Moravec<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). Reproductive mode and larvae are unknown, although it is presumed that the species breeds in water.	eng
158614	population	Moravec, J., 2009	Population densities of this species are considered to be comparatively low, as observed local assemblages of calling males did not exceed 4–6 individuals (Moravec <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158614	threats	Moravec, J., 2009	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
158616	conservation	White, W., Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2008	None	eng
158616	distribution	White, W., Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2008	Known only from off the Rowley Shoals, Western Australia.	eng
158616	habitat	White, W., Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2008	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of ~300 m. Known only from two type specimens.	eng
158616	population	White, W., Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2008	Known only off the continental slope of Western Australia near Rowley Shoals at depths of ~300 m. There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.	eng
158616	threats	White, W., Cavanagh, R.D. & Lisney, T.J., 2008	Possibly caught as bycatch of the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fisheries, but these fisheries are small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Like other deepwater squaloid sharks, this species is likely to have the limiting life history characteristics and may not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.	eng
158617	conservation	White, W., 2008	None.	eng
158617	distribution	White, W., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: continental slope of Western Australia between Perth and the Rowley Shoals, and in eastern Indonesia (Bali and Lombok).	eng
158617	habitat	White, W., 2008	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 204?850 m (mostly 300?500 m). Attains at least 87 cm total length (TL), with males mature by 54 cm TL. Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency.	eng
158617	population	White, W., 2008	Known to occur on the continental slope off Western Australia at depths of 300?510 m and caught in large numbers in Indonesia. There is currently no information on population or subpopulation size.	eng
158617	threats	White, W., 2008	The Australian range at which this species is known to occur falls within the North West Slope Trawl and Western Deepwater Trawl fishery areas. However, fishing effort is small with only a few boats in operation, and although details on bycatch are currently unavailable, given the low fishing effort, it is unlikely the impact is cause for concern for this species at the present time.<br/><br/>Caught in large numbers by deepwater fisheries in Indonesia where it is utilized for its meat, fins and liver oil. Indonesian deepwater fisheries operate throughout the depth range at which this species is most common. Although at present, deepwater fisheries are not operating below 600 m off Indonesia, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). There may be some refuge from fishing pressure for this species at the deeper portions of its depth range off Australia.	eng
158619	conservation	Peloso, P., 2009	This species is known to occur within the boundaries of Floresta Nacional Caxiuanã and Parque Nacional da Amazônia, state of Pará; and&#160; Floresta Nacional do Pau-Rosa and Reserva&#160; Extrativista do Baixo Juruá, in the state of Amazonas (Peloso and Sturaro 2008; P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158619	distribution	Peloso, P., 2009	This species is known from scattered localities in the Brazilian Amazon basin, south of the Solimões and Amazon rivers, in the states of Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Pará, and Rondônia, Brazil (Peloso and Sturaro 2008). Most samples collected came from lowland populations (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158619	habitat	Peloso, P., 2009	This is a nocturnal species. It can be found in primary forest or in clearings/pastures (Peloso and Sturaro 2008). Frogs usually occur near isolated pools, under leaves or pieces of bark. Individuals may also be found away from water and sometimes they forage exposed on the leaf litter, especially during or after rains (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009). Females carry a large number (around 2,000) of small, pigmented eggs (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009). This species is presumed to breed in water.	eng
158619	population	Peloso, P., 2009	<p>It is considered to be a common species (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
158619	threats	Peloso, P., 2009	<p>This species may also occur in areas that are subject to deforestation; however, no threats have been observed for known populations (P. Peloso pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
158620	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found within the Parque Estadual dos Três Picos, a recently created conservation unit that includes much of the Serra dos Órgãos mountain range (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158620	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is known only from the type locality: forested mountain slopes in the district of Theodoro de Oliveira, municipality of Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. This area lies within the Serra dos Órgãos (a subdivision of the Serra do Mar mountain range), in the Atlantic Forest domain (Pombal<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is found between 1,200-1,400 m asl (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158620	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is found in montane Atlantic Forest. Of reclusive habits, individuals can be found at night in the leaf litter and within holes at the base of trees (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species is believed to breed by direct development (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158620	population	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>The cryptic habits of <span style="font-style: italic;">Holoaden</span> make it difficult to find these frogs, thus making them appear rarer than they may actually be (Pombal <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).</p>	eng
158620	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	Habitat destruction in the form of urban development (commercial and residential) and land use change (for e.g. agriculture) is a general threat to Atlantic forests.	eng
158624	conservation	Møller, P.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however it is found within the Rottnest Island Marine Reserve.	eng
158624	distribution	Møller, P.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> has a limited distribution in the eastern Indian Ocean around Rottnest Island and Perth, Western Australia.	eng
158624	habitat	Møller, P.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> is found in crevices on limestone rock reefs at depths of 3-15 m (Cohen and Hutchins 1982). Species of the family Bythitidae are viviparous (Nielsen 1999).	eng
158624	population	Møller, P.R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Porocephalichthys dasyrhynchus</span> is an uncommon species (Nielsen<em> et al</em>. 1999). It is known from approximately 40 specimens (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). The rarity of this species may be a result of poor sampling effort. This species preference for crevices makes it difficult to collect (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158624	threats	Møller, P.R., 2009	Rottnest Island is a protected area therefore protecting this species from potential fishing activity. While it is found around the Perth coastline, there is little suitable habitat within this region. Much of the population is likely to be found around Rottnest Island (J.G. Nielsen pers. comm. 2009). There are no known major threats impacting this species.	eng
158625	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Odontanthias tapui</em>.	eng
158625	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> is known from only a few specimens collected in the vicinity of Tahiti and the Cook Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1978).	eng
158625	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> is a non-migratory, rocky reef-associated species that has been collected at a depth range of 120-350 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1979; P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158625	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158625	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Odontanthias tapui</em> may occassionally be taken for the aquarium trade (P.C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009) but is unlikely to be triggering a rapid decline in the population numbers. Habitat degradation is unlikely to pose a significant threat to this deep-water species.	eng
158626	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution coincides with a number of marine protected areas including the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.	eng
158626	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea to the islands of Tonga, Samoa, Phoenix and the Marshall Islands. Its range extends north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan and south to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.	eng
158626	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	This tropical species can be found on coral reef flats and in shallow lagoons at a depth range of 1 - 5 m. During the day it typically shelters in the reef structure and branching corals species such as <em> Acropora</em>. At night, individuals emerge to feed on the zoobenthos, but are secretive. This species is seen singly or in small groups. Juveniles are found inside sponges (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009). This species is a mouthbrooder and during courtship, individuals form distinct pairs.	eng
158626	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	This species is reported to be common on reef flats and lagoons by Myers (1991) and also on reef slopes (O. Gon. pers comm. 2009). It may be moderately common overall (G. R. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
158626	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nectamia fusca</span> is of no known commercial interest as a food source, or for the aquarium trade. It maybe impacted by localised threats such as cyanide fishing, coral bleaching, Crown of Thorns starfish invasions, and habitat degradation associated with tourism. However, due to the localised nature of these threats, these are not thought to be causing a significant decline in the population size of this species at present.	eng
158627	conservation	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Pseudanthias sheni</em>, however its distribution may coincide with a number of marine protected areas including the Rowley Shoals Marine Park.	eng
158627	distribution	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is widespread through Indonesia and northern Australia (Kuiter 2004).	eng
158627	habitat	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is associated with coral reef habitats on the outer reef slope at a depth range of 25 - 46 m. It forms aggregations above the reef where it feeds on zooplankton (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158627	population	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is common on coral reefs in Indonesia and northern Australia (P. C. Heemstra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158627	threats	Heemstra, P.C. & Sadovy, Y.J., 2009	<em>Pseudanthias pleurotaenia</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, although this is unlikely to be driving a significant population decline. It may be undergoing further localised declines in abundance as a result of habitat degradation owing to coastal development and pollution, however these threats are not known throughout its entire range.	eng
158628	conservation	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Nectamia zebrinus</em>. However, the distribution of this species may fall within a number of marine protected areas, including the Ras Mohammed Marine Park off Sharm El Sheikh in Egypt.	eng
158628	distribution	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Nectamia </em><em>zebrinus</em> is known only from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
158628	habitat	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	<em>Nectamia zebrinus</em> is found on coral reefs. Usually found singly or in small groups. It is a secretive species and is typically found sheltering in crevices on the reef during the day to a depth of 10 m. It emerges from the reef at night to feed on zooplankton. Males of this species mouthbrood the fertilised eggs until hatching is ready to occur.	eng
158628	population	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	It is fairly common in its range, but never seen in large numbers (O. Gon pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158628	threats	Allen, G.R. & Gon, O., 2009	There are no known major threats impacting this species. It is likely to be undergoing localised declines due to habitat degradation through coastal development and pollution, tourism, and boat traffic.	eng
158630	conservation	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cochlefelis insidiator</em>.&#160; However, its distribution range may fall within a number of marine protected area (MPA) designations including the Cartier Island Marine Reserve.&#160; Further research into the abundance, potential threat processes, taxonomy, biology, ecology, and distribution of this species should be carried out.	eng
158630	distribution	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	<em>Cochlefelis insidiator</em> is a western central Pacific catfish, known from only four type specimens found in the Fly River Delta in Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (east of Darwin).	eng
158630	habitat	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis </span><em>insidiator</em> is a demersal species that inhabits marine and brackish waters.&#160; This species is found in shallow mudflats, river mouths and muddy coastal waters.	eng
158630	population	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	There is no population information available for&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis</span> <em> insidiator</em>.&#160; In a recent collecting trip to Papua New Guinea, no specimens were found (R. Betancur pers. comm. 2008).	eng
158630	threats	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2009	It is not known if&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cochlefelis</span> <em> insidiator</em> is affected by any major threat processes at present.	eng
158632	conservation	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for the Fringelip Blenny, however, it may occur in several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
158632	distribution	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The Fringelip Blenny<em> (Salarias sinuosus</em>) is found from Pinda Island to Delgado Bay, Mozambique to the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean and in the western Pacific it is found from Japan to Australia and has recently been reported from Tonga.	eng
158632	habitat	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	The Fringelip Blenny is found in tidepools and around rocky shores and coral reefs down to 5 m.	eng
158632	population	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for the Fringelip Blenny.	eng
158632	threats	Chao, N.L., McEachran, J., Patzner, R.A. & Williams, J., 2009	There are no known major threat processes impacting the Fringelip Blenny.	eng
158633	conservation	Günther, R., 2009	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.	eng
158633	distribution	Günther, R., 2009	This species is found on a stretch (9-17 km) along the road Fakfak Town and Kokas, in the Fakfak Mountains (Günther 2008), in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, near km 53 along the Nabire-Mapia road, and near Timika, western New Guinea, Papua Province (Irian Jaya) of Indonesia (R. Günther pers. comm. 2009). It is presumed to occur in between known localities. It is found between 600 and 860 m asl.	eng
158633	habitat	Günther, R., 2009	This species inhabits the edges of primary forests and/or secondary forests near standing or slowly running water. (R. Günther pers comm. 2009). Individuals can be found at day and at night perching on herbaceous plants, tall grasses and low shrubs (ca 0.5-2 m), near and in small ponds and ditches created near the road (Günther 2008). Calling activity has been heard for the months of April and September. It is not thought to survive in totally cleared areas (R. Günther pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158633	population	Günther, R., 2009	This species' population density appears to be high (Günther 2008).	eng
158633	threats	Günther, R., 2009	The general area where this species occurs has been cleared of primary forests for road construction, and these forests are now replaced by secondary growth and plantations (Günther 2008).	eng
158634	conservation	Günther, R., 2009	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.	eng
158634	distribution	Günther, R., 2009	This species is found in the Wondiwoi Mountains at the base of the Wandammen Peninsula, ca 7 km west of the Umar Bay coast, West Papua Province (Irian Jaya) of Indonesia. It occurs at 500 m asl (Günther 2008).	eng
158634	habitat	Günther, R., 2009	This species occurs within primary rain forest. Individuals can be found perching on shrubs close to streams and swamps (Günther 2008). It presumably breeds by laying eggs in water.	eng
158634	population	Günther, R., 2009	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
158634	threats	Günther, R., 2009	No threats are currently known for this species.	eng
158635	conservation	Hillers, A., 2009	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. Further research into its life history, ecology, population size and threats is needed.	eng
158635	distribution	Hillers, A., 2009	This species is known from Kewewol/Boulléré, Boké Préfecture, Sangaredi sub-Préfecture, northwestern Guinea (Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), at about 200 m asl (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). It is likely to be endemic to northwestern Guinea (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158635	habitat	Hillers, A., 2009	It is only known to occur within a gallery forest located in a small depression surrounded by savanna habitat. The forest is approximately 150 m wide where the species is found. The edges are dominated by shrubs, while there is a small number of larger trees in the central section, with a denser canopy and open shrub stratum. The only known specimen was found in the leaf litter of this central area, close to the river (  Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  It presumably breeds in water bodies.	eng
158635	population	Hillers, A., 2009	This species is only known from the holotype.<br/><p></p>	eng
158635	threats	Hillers, A., 2009	The gallery forest and savanna habitats are highly disturbed due to a number of settlements and agricultural encroachment (Hillers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); the latter is mostly comprised of shifting agriculture, with a few small-holder exceptions (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). In addition, there is bauxite mining in the region, so the combined effect of these threat factors is likely to affect the species' area of occurrence (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009). Increasing the number of mining concessions is likely to result in increased pressures on the species' natural habitat (A. Hillers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158636	conservation	Wood, P., 2009	It is known to occur in Ulu Tahan,  <st1:place><st1:placename>Taman</st1:placename>  <st1:placename>Negara</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Pahang, <st1:place>West Malaysia</st1:place> (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158636	distribution	Wood, P., 2009	This species is known to occur in Sungai Lembing, Gunug Benom, Ulu Tahan and Gunung Lawit, central and east Peninsular Malaysia. It is found at 255 m asl (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
158636	habitat	Wood, P., 2009	This species inhabits hilly, closed canopy forests. Individuals of this species have been found at night, no more than one metre above the ground from within rock cracks along a rock wall close to small streams, and on the banks and along fast-flowing streams and rivers (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is assumed to breed in streams via larval development.	eng
158636	population	Wood, P., 2009	It is considered to be a rare species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158636	threats	Wood, P., 2009	Logging operations are taking place in the species' distribution range (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008), and it has been found in low abundance at sites that had been selectively logged (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).   Clear-cut logging would pose a threat to this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009). There have been no dead animals found, neither are there any reported cases of the chytrid fungus in this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158637	conservation	Wood, P., 2009	No conservation actions are currently known for this species.	eng
158637	distribution	Wood, P., 2009	This species is known from Fraser's Hill and Sungai Pergau,     Peninsular Malaysia, between 1,059-1,125 m asl (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).   Distributions are not expected to be continuous for this species based on the fact that it is only known from high elevations (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158637	habitat	Wood, P., 2009	This species occurs in hilly, closed canopy forests. Individuals can be found at night, on rocks and small leaves approximately 0.5–1.5 m above the ground near small streams (Wood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
158637	population	Wood, P., 2009	It is considered to be a rare species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158637	threats	Wood, P., 2009	Habitat fragmentation due to very small scale urban settlements and roads is a possible threat to this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009). Global warming could potentially pose a threat given that the species inhabitis cool montane habitats (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).    There have been no dead animals found, neither are there any reported cases of the chytrid fungus in this species (P. Wood pers. comm. 2009).	eng
158638	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs within the Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). More information is needed on this species' population status, distribution and threats.	eng
158638	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known from Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest, Kamrup district, Assam, northeastern India (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
158638	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species inhabits forests. Individuals can be found near fast flowing streams and are associated with the splash zone of moist rock crevices with overhead canopy cover. Adults can be found in open areas at night, while tadpoles develop in these streams (Sengupta <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
158638	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
158638	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>There is no information on threats to this species.</p>	eng
158649	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information on the species habitat and its status on Palau is needed in order to assess whether it requires conservation action. There are no known conservation measures in place at present.	eng
158649	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to Micronesia and known from the islands Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) and Palau (Republic of Palau). From Palau only two records are known. From Yap records are known from 1939, 2001 and a series of records from 2005.	eng
158649	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	It is not known if this species breeds in running or stagnant waters. Adults are most often seen in the vicinity of trees or shrubs.	eng
158649	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information on this species abundance on Palau is lacking. Buden and Paulson (2007) showed that <em>Hemicordulia lulico</em> is not uncommon on Yap: <br/>"It was frequently seen flying (and seldom perched) along roadsides and wherever there were open spaces with at least scattered trees and shrubs. It was occasionally in forest but usually in small, open patches and not under closed canopy. Small groups of 5-15 were often seen flying in roughly circular routes approximately 2-4 m above the ground within areas several meters in diameter, especially during late afternoons in calm, windless days. All six specimens collected from one such aggregation on 22 June were males, and 25 of the 30 <em>Hemicordulia lulico</em> collected during the course of this study were males. A male and female were collected in tandem perched on the frond of a young coconut tree at the edge of a Nypha palm swamp on 17 July 2005."	eng
158649	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information available on major threats to this species.	eng
158650	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or known to be needed for this species.	eng
158650	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia.  It is described as being common by Davies (2002) based on fieldwork in 1981 and 1983.	eng
158650	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Davies (2002) notes this species is common in wooded areas.	eng
158650	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are is no detailed information available on the population size or trend although it is described as being common (Davies 2002).	eng
158650	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
158651	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available on the conservation measures for <em>Trineuragrion percostale</em>.	eng
158651	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Zealand and only found in the northern end of the North Island. It has been found in Kauri forest in Northland and the Coromandel; it has also been recorded near Taumarunui (Rowe 1987).	eng
158651	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is restricted to cool streams in heavy forest (Rowe 1987).	eng
158651	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information is known on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158651	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are unknown threats to this species.	eng
158652	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	No conservation measures known of or in place.	eng
158652	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and Davies (2002) mentions this species as being widely distributed over this area. Detailed information on number of localities is lacking.	eng
158652	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Detailed information on habitat and ecology is lacking, although this species probably lives in streams, similar to the Australian <em>Isosticta</em> species.	eng
158652	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information is present on population size or trend.	eng
158652	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
158653	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and it is not known if any are needed due to lack of survey effort.	eng
158653	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Gynacantha stevensoni</em> is known only from a single male collected on Nukualofa, Tonga, Samoa on 17 February 1925.	eng
158653	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
158653	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available for population size or trends.	eng
158653	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Nothing is known about threats to this species.	eng
158654	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
158654	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is endemic to the Island of Viti Levu (Fiji). Only a handful of specimens have been recorded and details on its abundance and choice of habitat are unknown.	eng
158654	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Nothing is known on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
158654	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on population trend or size.	eng
158654	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available on the threats to this species.	eng
158655	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
158655	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to the Marquesas islands, French Polynesia and is known only from the type-series.	eng
158655	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Nothing is known on ecology or preferred habitat for this species.	eng
158655	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on population trend or size.	eng
158655	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
158656	conservation	Dow, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
158656	distribution	Dow, R., 2007	This species has a large range occurring from India to Australia.	eng
158656	habitat	Dow, R., 2007	This species is known to inhabit riverine lagoons, ponds (including temporary ponds) and swamps.	eng
158656	population	Dow, R., 2007	There is no information available on the population size or trend for this species.	eng
158656	threats	Dow, R., 2007	Nothing is known on potential threats to this species.	eng
158657	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place or needed at present.	eng
158657	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread and often common species occurring from Peninsular Malaysia and Japan to the Lesser Sundas (Indonesia).	eng
158657	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species occurs on lakes, in marshes and in rice fields.  It is mainly found in man-made habitats and is absent from well-developed forest.	eng
158657	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Neurothemis terminata</em> is often common when it is found in its preferred habitat.	eng
158657	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known major threats affecting this species.	eng
158658	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
158658	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia.  It is common around streams although possibly confined to the southern half of New Caledonia, found only as far north as the road from Boulouparis to Thio or perhaps the west to east road from Bourail to Canala. In the original description there were 13 localities given.	eng
158658	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Caledopteryx maculata</em> generally occurs in the steeper sections of forested catchments and is normally found near water. Oviposition was noticed to be directly onto steep rock faces, into a small rivulet flowing over a clay bed and into a steep hillside seepage area where leaf litter had accumulated. A teneral female was taken at a rock face approximately 1 m away from the water about halfway up a 3 m waterfall. Larvae were flushed with the point of a stiff leaf from horizontal cracks in the rocks on the faces of waterfalls (Winstanley and Davies 1982).	eng
158658	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Davies (2002) described this species as common around streams.	eng
158658	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.	eng
158659	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
158659	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Synthemis flexicauda</em> is endemic to New Caledonia and known from two localities which are 150 km apart. More fieldwork is needed to establish if this species is genuinely rare or merely overlooked.	eng
158659	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	One of the two records is from a pool along a small tributary of a river.	eng
158659	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on population size and trends are known but it appears to be scarce.	eng
158659	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
158660	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
158660	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Davies (2002) described the species as being very common and to be seen everywhere in New Caledonia.	eng
158660	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
158660	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details known on the population trend or size but described as very common (Davies 2002).	eng
158660	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats.	eng
158661	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	In 1987 (Rowe) it was noted the species had shown a decline but since then no new information on the status of the species has been published.  There are no known conservation measures in place or known to be required.	eng
158661	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Zealand.	eng
158661	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Rowe (1987) noted "Oviposition has often been seen over, and into, flowing waters of streams and rivers, but larvae are rarely collected from such habitats. Larvae and exuviae have been recorded from the detritus areas of raupo beds, small bog ponds alongside streams and pools, backwaters and flood ponds of streams. Adults are often very common in areas where the only permanent water is in streams".	eng
158661	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available on the population size or trends for this species.	eng
158661	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species at present or in the future.	eng
158662	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
158662	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from only two specimens: a male from a stream on Mt. Pouedihi, 15 km west of Ouenarou Forest station (5 November 1972) and a female from 18 February 1983 also from "southern New Caledonia between Noumea and Yate" (Davies 2002).	eng
158662	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
158662	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known about population size and trends.	eng
158662	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information is available on the threats to this species.	eng
158663	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
158663	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia and is confined to the northern two-thirds of the island.  It is known to be common at all suitable rocky streams (Davies 2002).  Winstanley and Davies (1982) give 13 localities.	eng
158663	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species generally occurs in the steeper sections of forested catchments and is normally found near water.	eng
158663	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on population size or trend but it is said to be common at all suitable rocky streams (Davies 2002).	eng
158663	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.	eng
158664	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
158664	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It seems to be restricted to the Plaine des Lacs in the southern corner of New Caledonia, a low lying area of approximately 50 by 20 km. Detailed information on the number of locations has not been published but at the moment fewer than 10 localities are known.	eng
158664	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species breeds in both deep rocky ponds and muddy ponds and probably requires reeds for shelter.	eng
158664	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the population size.	eng
158664	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The low lying area where this species occurs has rich nickel deposits which has attracted extensive and destructive open-cast mining.	eng
158665	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place.	eng
158665	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Trineuragrion percostale</em> is endemic to New Caledonia and widespread across the island. Mentioned to be common along forest-edge streams. Lieftinck (1975) states that it is also found in the New Hebrides but I am unaware of the justification for this statement.	eng
158665	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species has been noted to be common along forest-edge streams (Davies 2002).	eng
158665	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species has been noted to be common along forest-edge streams (Davies 2002).	eng
158665	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest and might have declined due to the reduction of the forest cover on New Caledonia.	eng
158666	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
158666	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is known from seven males and one female collected in French Polynesia on the Marquesas islands of Uapou and Tahuata in 1929 and 1930.	eng
158666	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The collected specimens were collected from an altitude of  between 650-1,500 ft. No further details known on actual habitat preference or ecology.	eng
158666	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the population size or trend for this species.	eng
158666	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available on threats affecting this species.	eng
158667	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
158667	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Synthemis campioni </em> is endemic to New Caledonia and is described as 'widespread throughout the island' by Davies (2002).	eng
158667	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Noted by Davies (2002) to be frequent on stony rivers.	eng
158667	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the population size or trends of this species.	eng
158667	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information is available on the threats to this species.	eng
158668	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures known in place.	eng
158668	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	<em>Metaphya elongata </em> is endemic to New Caledonia. Detailed information on number of localities is lacking, although Davies (2002) mentions that it is quite abundant in the right places in the right times. The species has thus far been recorded from the south of the island but the northern parts have been less well explored and it is likely that the species is present there also.	eng
158668	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat and ecology of this species is unknown although due to its distribution it is likely to be at least partly dependant on forest habitats.	eng
158668	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no information available on population size.	eng
158668	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although no details are known on the habitat preference of this species, it is thought to be partly dependent on forest habitats from its distribution and therefore be affected by habitat degradation in the form of forest extraction.	eng
158672	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Despite the various threats affecting <em>Nesobasis rufostigma</em>, there are no conservation measures in place.	eng
158672	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	<em>Nesobasis rufostigma</em> is endemic to Viti Levu, Koro, and Ovalau Islands (Fiji).	eng
158672	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	This species inhabits high-velocity streams at higher elevations in forested areas.	eng
158672	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158672	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Deforestation/logging, mineral extraction activities, urbanization/habitat alteration and climate change are threats affecting this species.	eng
158673	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
158673	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	<em>Hemicordulia oceanica</em> is endemic to Samoa, Tahiti, Society Islands and Raiatea.	eng
158673	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158673	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158673	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158674	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
158674	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	The species is endemic to Samoa.	eng
158674	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158674	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158674	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158675	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
158675	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	The species is endemic to Samoa.	eng
158675	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158675	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158675	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158676	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Despite the various threats affecting this species, there are no conservation measures in place at present.  Further research is required to fully understand the status, size and range of the population.	eng
158676	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	<em>Melanesobasis maculosa</em> is endemic to Viti Levu (Fiji).	eng
158676	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	This species inhabits high-velocity streams at higher elevations in forested areas.	eng
158676	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158676	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Deforestation/logging, mineral extraction activities, urbanization/habitat alteration and climate change are all threats affecting <em>Melanesobasis maculosa</em>.	eng
158677	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
158677	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	The species is endemic to Samoa.	eng
158677	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158677	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158677	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158678	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and further research is required to fill in the missing information for this species.	eng
158678	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	The species is endemic to Samoa.	eng
158678	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158678	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158678	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158679	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Ischnura buxtoni</em>.  Further research is required to fully understand the status, population size and range.	eng
158679	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	The species is endemic to Samoa.	eng
158679	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No details are known on the habitat type or ecology.	eng
158679	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There is no information available on population size and trend for this species.	eng
158679	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Information is lacking on the threats affecting this species.	eng
158682	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat protection.	eng
158682	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat protection through policy-based actions. Research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
158682	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158682	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species does not require specific conservation actions at the moment. It is however one of several species inhabiting running waters that may be impacted in the long term by climate change and the increasing demand for water.	eng
158682	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Orthertrum coerulescens</em> is widespread in Europe and southwestern Asia, as well as North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Lybia).	eng
158682	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Orthertrum coerulescens</em> is widespread in Europe and southwestern Asia, as well as northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya).	eng
158682	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and the Maghreb and extends to northwest India in the east (Mauersberger 1994) and southern Fennoscandia in the north. It is largely absent from the Baltic states and countries east of Poland.	eng
158682	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is common around the Mediterranean, more locally in central and northern Europe whilst marginally entering into Russia.	eng
158682	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> inhabits running waters, such as streams and ditches. In the north of its range, mainly runnels in boggy areas.	eng
158682	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Mainly streams and ditches in the region.	eng
158682	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Mainly streams and ditches in the region.	eng
158682	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is mostly found at largely unshaded, permanent, small, moderately overgrown, running waters like brooks, runnels or ditches. It inhabits also standing waters, springs, seepages near pools or heathland. The habitat preferences seem to vary across its range, for example, lakes in the north, peat bogs in the west, and intermittent rivers in the Mediterranean.	eng
158682	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Abundant.	eng
158682	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	No detailed information is known on the population size or trend of this species, but it is noted to be common and has extended its range over the past twenty years.	eng
158682	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is widespread within its range and often abundant.	eng
158682	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	This species is abundant.	eng
158682	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Ground water extraction and pollution.	eng
158682	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Orthetrum coerulescens</em> is the production of crops and then the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158682	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation caused by agriculture, ground water extraction, infrastructure development and water pollution.	eng
158682	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is currently not under threat, but is impacted by the increased demand for irrigation or drinking water. Groundwater extraction can lead to a decrease of the amount of seepage water. In the south and partly in the centre of its range the species is affected by climate change due to the desiccation of brooks and runnels. The abandonment of traditional use of ditches such as mowing and cleaning, leads to the species decline.	eng
158683	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Conservation measures are only needed in the southern part of its range. Monitoring of these populations and their trend is therefore advisable. When needed local management plans should be made.	eng
158683	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population size, range and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, as well as conservation measures to restore degraded habitat and to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158683	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> is a northern Palearctic species, ranging eastwards to Siberia. The species is common in north Europe and it is fairly common in suitable habitats in the northern part of central Europe. It is scarcer in the south of Europe where it is confined to mountains such as the Alps (common), the Massif Central and the Pyrenees. There are only four known locations in the Balkans: one in Bulgaria, two in Montenegro and one in Serbia.	eng
158683	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> is widespread in northern Europe and northwestern Asia although it is now considered to be a relict in the south of its range (less abundant than previously recorded).	eng
158683	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Leucorrhinia dubia</em> inhabits bogs, ponds, tarns, lakes, usually acidic and often in forest. Larvae are sensitive to fish predation, and so the species does better where fish are not present, such as small pools in raised bogs.	eng
158683	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species occurs most often in acidic forest waters with a <em>Sphagnum</em> vegetation. It is found in fish free waters or avoid fish by living in the <em>Sphagnum</em> vegetation (larvae).	eng
158683	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Detailed numbers are not known on population size or trends, although in the southern part of its range this species is thought to be decreasing.  It is considered common in the remainder of its range.	eng
158683	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>L. dubia</em> is common in large parts of northern Europe and often occurs in high densities. Although in northwest Germany, the species is declining.	eng
158683	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the northeastern part of its range, the species is not threatened but the species has declined in parts of Central Europe due to habitat destruction and eutrophication of bogs and lakes. These threats are now less significant as eutrophication ceased and many habitats are found in reserves or in areas where there is relatively little human impact. In the south of its range the species is more rare and often exists in isolated populations. Here the species is regionally threatened by infrastucture developments for tourism in the mountains and locally by the introduction of fish as well as groundwater extraction. In northwestern Germany, the population decline is probably caused by eutrophication due to atmospheric input. Climate change also affects these southern populations. <em>L. dubia</em> is affected negatively in the southern part of its range by climatic changes, e.g. in the German federal states Rhineland-Palatnate and Bavaria (Ott 2008).	eng
158683	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The destruction of habitat through agricultural production and associated effects of water pollution are continuing threats to this species.	eng
158684	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	No information available.	eng
158684	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	None needed.	eng
158684	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158684	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is naturally fluctuating in relation to the prevailing weather conditions and this is not the sign of a true decline. Therefore, no conservation measures are needed.	eng
158684	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	A species of southern Europe, which has increased dramatically in northern Europe since the mid 1990s, first reaching Great Britain in 2002, eastwards to Mongolia and northern China. Maybe absent from areas for a number of years, suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for many years.	eng
158684	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is present in central and southern Europe, and in northern Africa. It is a strong wanderer that ranges east to Mongolia. Although it can be absent during many years from certain areas, it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). <br/><br/>In northern Africa, it has a patchy distribution in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species aestivates in wet forests.	eng
158684	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is present in central and southern Europe, and in northern Africa. It is a strong wanderer that ranges east to Mongolia. Although it can be absent during many years from certain areas, it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northern Africa, it has a patchy distribution in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species aestivates in wet forests.	eng
158684	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> ranges from the Maghreb to the northwest of India, Mongolia and the south of Siberia. To the north it extends over southern, western and central Europe. It is a strong wanderer that shows more isolated and sometimes short-lived populations up to southeast England (since 2002) and north to Lithuania. In the northern half of Europe, it may be absent for many years and then it is capable of suddenly establishing large colonies that may persist for some years. It shows a northern expansion since the mid 1990s.	eng
158684	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> inhabits sunny standing waters. The species favours temporary water conditions, which are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune and meadow pools, shallow depressions and delta brackish hydrosystems. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to autumn but usually hatch after winter, when the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (1-2 months) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This is a perfect adaptation to the Mediterranean and related climates, where the rain season is restricted from autumn to early spring.	eng
158684	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The species favours ephemeral conditions even more so than other <em>Lestes</em> species, typically visiting sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions.	eng
158684	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	This species favors ephemeral conditions even more so then other <em>Lestes</em> species; such conditions are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158684	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	This species favours ephemeral conditions even more so then other <em>Lestes</em> species; such conditions are typical of sites that dry out early in summer, such as dune slacks, meadow pools and shallow depressions (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158684	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is common throughout its range and has expanded its range in recent years although detailed numbers and population trends are lacking.	eng
158684	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes barbarus</em> is widespread and fairly common in the main part of its range.	eng
158684	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.	eng
158684	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.	eng
158684	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	No major threats known.	eng
158684	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	None.	eng
158684	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a variety of ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Lestes barbarus</em>and the majority of these threats are rooted in land management, both agricultural and non-agricultural.  Water pollution is also having a direct effect on the habitat of this species.	eng
158684	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species does not face major threats at present at European level. Destruction of habitat by agriculture and tourism infrastructure is a general threat all along the Mediterranean coast.	eng
158685	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Conservation action is not required at present. The taxonomic status of <em>S. nigrescens</em> needs to be resolved.	eng
158685	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	None needed at present.	eng
158685	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	None needed at present.	eng
158685	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158685	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is common and widespread from Europe to Japan and around the Mediterranean.	eng
158685	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is widespread in Europe and the Maghreb and is found eastwards to east Asia where it is represented by several closely related subspecies which are sometimes regarded as full species. The species is very common in most of Europe but becomes scarcer to the north only reaching the southern third of Scandinavia.	eng
158685	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	In Africa, <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is restricted to northern areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species is widespread in Europe to central Asia.	eng
158685	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is restricted to northern areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The species is widespread in Europe to central Asia.	eng
158685	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> inhabits a wide range of habitats, especially preferring warm, stagnant waters. These are often shallow and bare; this species is a pioneer of newly created ponds. Occasionally found in flowing or brackish waters.	eng
158685	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is found in a large range of largely unshaded, standing waters or seldom in slowly running waters. The species is often found in man-made habitats and is one of the first species to colonise new ponds or quarries. It occasionally occurs in running or brackish waters.	eng
158685	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Wide range of habitats, specially preferring warm, stagnant waters. These are often shallow and bare, this species being a pioneer of newly created ponds. Occasionally in flowing or brackish water (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158685	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	Wide range of habitats, specially preferring warm, stagnant waters. These are often shallow and bare, this species being a pioneer of newly created ponds. Occasionally in flowing or brackish water (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158685	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Common within its range.	eng
158685	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	Common within its range.	eng
158685	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is generally common and abundant throughout its European range; it becomes scarcer and more localised in the Baltic States and Fennoscandia.	eng
158685	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is thought to be common throughout its range although detailed numbers are lacking and so to are trends.	eng
158685	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not known at present.	eng
158685	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	Not known at present.	eng
158685	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Sympetrum striolatum</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution also has a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158685	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened.	eng
158686	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> populations are being researched and monitored although further studies are needed.	eng
158686	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no current conservation measures needed.	eng
158686	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> is a largely European species that is found east to the lake Baikal area. Its European range is largely confined to Central and Northern Europe. Its continuous range goes south to the Massif Central, the Alps and the mountains of Romania. Isolated populations are present in the Pyrenees (Spain and France) and Montenegro. In the south of its range, already in the south of Germany, the species becomes largely confined to mountainous areas. It is reasonably common in much of its Central European range but becomes almost omnipresent and abundant in the north and northeast of its range. In the west and south, the species clearly favours forested areas and is lacking in the open landscapes of Hungary. In the Ukraine, it is mostly distributed in the north, becomes more rare in the south and is absent in the Black Sea region.	eng
158686	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Aeshna grandis</em> is found in northeastern and central Europe, and east to Lake Baikal in Russia.	eng
158686	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the northern part of its range it is found in a wide variety of standing and slowly flowing waters. The species is found at a large variety of habitats such as larger pools, lakes, canals, oxbows and fenlands. It is also found in water storage areas, ponds, ditches and peat excavations. Most habitats have in common that they are situated in forested areas and have a rich bank side or submerged vegetation. In the south and west of its European range, the species is absent from habitats in the early stages of succession and seems to need more mature habitats. The numbers of emerging adults found at a single site is generally low which led to the suggestion that several suitable habitats at close distance from each other are needed to have a vital population. This seems to be true for most of Central Europe, however in Eastern Europe the situation might be different. In Central Europe the majority of populations is found in man made habitats, but again this might be different in the east of its range.	eng
158686	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species breeds in a wide range of calm waters, usually with rich bank-side or submerged vegetation, such as abandoned canals, oxbows and fenlands. Adults are often seen in forested areas.	eng
158686	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is widespread in most of its Central and Northern European range and becomes scarcer and more confined to mountains towards the south. In the south of its range populations are often more isolated and relatively small. Although widespread in much of Central Europe the numbers are often low and at most reproduction habitats only several to a few dozens of emerging adults can be found each year. The species is more common in the north and northeast of its range and the numbers of specimens emerging from a single habitat is often higher there.	eng
158686	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is widespread and common throughout its range although no information on population size or trend.	eng
158686	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The destruction of habitat through agricultural practices and pollution, are a threat to <em>Aeshna grandis</em>.	eng
158686	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no specific threats to this species. Some of the isolated occurrences in the south, like those in the Pyrenees and Montenegro, might be threatened by climate change.	eng
158687	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No specific measures are needed for this species.	eng
158687	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis latipes</em> is an Atlanto West Mediterranean endemic which is known from Iberia and France only, where it is generally common.	eng
158687	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis latipes</em> occurs mainly in low to moderately fast running waters in lowlands and hilly areas. It is rarely met in standing waters.	eng
158687	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and occurs often in large populations.	eng
158687	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and is not threatened in spite of its restricted range.	eng
158688	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Especially the central European populations should be protected from the impact of grazing by cattle and from tourist activities. There is no need for conservation measures for the northern populations. The main threat is probably climate change. Except from increasing the amount of available habitat there is little which can be done to counterbalance the impact of climate change.	eng
158688	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a number of conservation measures already implemented for <em>Aeshna caerulea</em>, including monitoring its population trends and range.  However restoration and conservation of its habitat are required as it is declining in some areas of its range, particularly in central Europe.	eng
158688	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna caerula</em> ranges from Scotland to Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. It has a boreal-alpine distribution being common and widespread in the Taiga and Tundra areas and having a patchy distribution in mountains further south. It is one of the most northerly species in the world extending to the North Cape. In Europe its lowland areal goes south to Scotland, the south of Sweden, northern Latvia and the northern parts of Russia. In the Siberian part of its range its lowland distribution reaches further south to the area of lake Baikal. In central Europe the species is confined to mountains and it is reasonably widespread in the Alps, seemingly scarce and localised in the Sudety mountains from the northern Czech Republic to southern Poland and in the Carpathians in northern and eastern Slovakia. It is scarce in the western parts of the Bohemian Forest (Šumava). In Slovakia it occurs close to the Ukraine border and it is likely to be present in this country as well. The species has been mentioned for the Bihar mountains in Romania but this record has never been confirmed and although the occurrence of this species in Romania is not unlikely it is here regarded as doubtful. A record from Gomelskaya oblast in the south of Belarus was published without further information and is also considered doubtful and assumed incorrect. If true it would constitute the southernmost lowland record in Europe (Buczyński <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). In its Central European range it does not occur below 800 m and almost all records are from 1,000 m or above.<br/><br/>In some central European countries the species is limited to a small number of populations making it vulnerable for local extinction. In Poland, Czech Republic as well as in Slovakia it has a very patchy distribution. In France <em>Aeshna caerulea</em> is known with certainty only from four localities from the Haute-Savoie department (municipalities of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Vallorcine and Samoëns), within a range of 1,700-2,200 m. In Italy the species was only known from three localities until 2006. The record above Passo Rolle (Dolomiti) has been confirmed but the two other localities, the Lago di Chiesa in Valmalenco (1,600 m, Lombardy) and a pond in Val Vallaga (2,000 m Alto Adige) are in need of confirmation. From 2006 onwards, six new localities were found in Alto Adige (Libella Group, pers comm.). In Slovenia, the species is only known from one record, and so far, no populations have been found. In Germany the species is limited to Baden-Württemberg (one population in the Black Forest) and two regions in the south of Bayern.	eng
158688	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Aeshna caerulea </em> is a boreal species that is numerous in Eurasias polar regions, post-glacial relicts in Scotland, central European mountains (above 1,000 m) and the Caucasus.	eng
158688	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna caerulea</em> is adapted to live in areas with long, strong winters and short summers with a low air temperature. This enables the species to live in areas where most other dragonflies are unable to live. It seems that in warmer areas it is out-competed by other dragonflies such as <em>Aeshna juncea</em>. In colder areas its range of habitats seems to be broader probably due to the reduced pressure of other species. In the north of Europe, in its lowland range, the species is present in standing waters and sometimes in slowly running waters. Here it can be found in bog pools and sedge swamps in moors, heaths and tundra’s. Above the tree line it is mostly found in peaty pools. In its central European, mountainous part of its range the species is exclusively found in standing waters above 800 m. Here it is found in permanent waters of mostly 5 to 80 m<sup>2</sup> surface and with a water depth of generally 20 cm or less. The vegetation consists of <em>Sphagnum</em>, sedges (<em>Carex</em>) and Cottongrass (<em>Eriophorum</em>). The water is frozen for a large part of the year. The water temperature can however rise quickly during day-time in spring and summer to temperatures above 20 degrees Celsius.	eng
158688	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species can be found in alpine and arctic moors, heaths and tundra. It breeds in bog pools and sedge swamps, and is seldom found below 1,000 m in the Alps.	eng
158688	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.	eng
158688	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common in the northern part of its range where it is one of the most common dragonfly species. To the south of its lowland range it is already getting scarcer being more confined to higher areas and occurring in smaller numbers. The species is scarcer in the central European mountain range, where many populations are isolated and small, although larger population with several thousands of specimens have also been found there.	eng
158688	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the north of its range the species is mainly found in areas with low environmental pressure. Most of the populations in the central European mountains are also located in areas with relatively little human impact. However, populations in farmland or in touristic areas are threatened by the impacts of cattle trampling the vegetation and tourist activities (introduction of fish, boats). <br/>The distribution of the species is largely determined by its need for a cold climate reducing the competition of other species. Climate change is likely impacting the distribution of this species already. The impact is likely to be most severe in its Central European range where there are more isolated occurrences. Especially the populations in the western parts of the Tatra, Sudety mountains and the Bohemian Forest are threatened as there are relatively few populations which mostly lie at altitudes which are already on the verge of its climatological possibilities.	eng
158688	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is affected by habitat destruction; the clear-cutting of forests, changes in management regimes of non-agricultural based land and infrastructure development, especially tourism.  Possible future threats include atmospheric pollution such as global warming.	eng
158689	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss and degradation as none are in place at present.	eng
158689	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The ecology of this species is still not well understood and more research is needed. No further conservation measures are needed at the moment.	eng
158689	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> occurs from central and south Europe to China and Japan. Its distribution is often patchy but in many areas it is common. The species has recently spread its range northwards to the Baltic Sea coast in Poland.	eng
158689	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> ranges from western Europe eastwards to Japan and mainly occupies the warmer parts of the temperate region of Europe and Asia. The species is reasonably widespread in eastern Europe where it occurs northwards to central Poland but has a small range in west Europe where it is largely confined to the southern two-thirds of France and northern Italy.<br/>The northern distribution within Europe seems to be determined to a large extent by the summer temperatures. An expansion of its range most probably due to the increased summer temperatures was noted in Switzerland, Poland and the German states of Baden-Württemberg and Bayern (Buczyński <em>et al.</em> 2002, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006, Monnerat 2005, Weihrauch <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
158689	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is mostly found in largely unshaded, warm standing or slow-flowing waters. It frequently occurs at man-made waters like channels, quarries and ponds. The species is also often found at marshes, pools and oxbows in river systems.	eng
158689	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species inhabits open ponds and lakes, including man-made habitats.	eng
158689	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no detailed information known on the population size or trend of this species, just that it can be common in areas of its range.	eng
158689	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a patchy distribution but is generally not uncommon within its European range. The populations are frequently large.	eng
158689	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Orthetrum albistylum</em> is the production of crops and then the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158689	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species does not face any major threats.	eng
158690	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Currently no specific actions are needed.	eng
158690	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
158690	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation is needed.	eng
158690	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympecma fusca</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158690	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> is common in large parts of Europe extending to central Asia. It is currently expanding rapidly on the northern edge of its range, although populations appear to be scarce and fluctuating.	eng
158690	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> is largely confined to the Western Palaearctic and more than half of its area of distribution lies in Europe. The species is widespread and regionally common in southern and central Europe. <em>S. fusca</em> is expanding its range northwards in the Netherlands and Sweden since the 1990s. The species is almost absent from European Russia. Its distribution in Belarus is poorly known.	eng
158690	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> ranges from North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia) and Europe to Central Asia.	eng
158690	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> ranges from northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia) and Europe to Central Asia.	eng
158690	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> inhabits all kinds of well-vegetated standing waters, especially where there are floating dead reeds or rushes.	eng
158690	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympecma fusca</em> occurs at standing or slow-flowing waters with abundant vegetation and the presence of dead, floating plants in spring. The latter must have a soft tissue as they are used for oviposition. A wide variety of habitats are used, such as bogs, marshes, large lakes and gravel pits. The species mates and lays eggs in early spring, emerges in summer and hibernates as adult. This has consequences for the preferred habitat. The habitat needs to have a warm local climate allowing the adult to be active already in the period from February to April. Larvae need to develop fast in a period of only several weeks to three months and thus need relatively warm water with a high abundance of prey allowing a fast growth. After emergence the adults need place to feed after which they disperse to their wintering site. The wintering site is often at several kilometres distance from the reproduction site. Wintering often takes place in dead herbs or grasses of half a meter to a meter high near or in open forest.	eng
158690	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Found on seasonal and permanent marshes, ponds and lakes. Winters as adult before breeding in early spring. Rapid larval development ensures emergence in spring (Corbet 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).	eng
158690	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Seasonal and permanent marshes, ponds and lakes. Winters as adult before breeding in early spring. Rapid larval development ensures emergence in Spring (Corbet 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b).	eng
158690	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Exact numbers are unknown, but it is common in its range, and expanding northwards although numbers are thought to be sparse and prone to fluctuations there.	eng
158690	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	No information available.	eng
158690	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is generally common in its range and is often abundant. In some countries such as Hungary it is one of the most common damselflies.	eng
158690	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Unknown.	eng
158690	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	For unclear reasons the species showed a decline in at least the northwestern part of its range in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s the species had become rare in large parts of Central and western Europe and was deemed threatened on several national Red Lists such as those of Germany, The Netherlands and Belgium. Since then, the species has shown a strong increase and presently it is not believed to be under threat in any of the European states. At the moment there are no threats which are specifically impacting on this species.	eng
158690	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Habitat destruction caused by ongoing agricultural actions and the associated water pollution is having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158690	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat modifications such as trampling by livestock, especially cattle, are likely to impact the habitat of this species.	eng
158690	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications. Trampling by livestock, especially cattle, is likely to impact upon the species habitat.	eng
158691	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
158691	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable. The identification of new protected areas would also be useful.	eng
158691	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Investigations into population numbers and trends of <em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> are in process although extensive fieldwork is still needed in this area of research.  There are no conservation measures in place that deal with the threat of habitat destruction.	eng
158691	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Specific conservation measurements are not needed.	eng
158691	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is found from northwest Africa (Maghreb) and Europe eastwards through western Siberia and Southwest Asia to the northwestern part of Mongolia. The species is widespread in the southern two thirds of Europe but becomes scarce in the arid regions of the Mediterranean and is absent or rare on the Mediterranean islands. The species is absent from the northern three-quarters of Scandinavia.	eng
158691	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is generally common all over Europe, except far north and east to Siberia.	eng
158691	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> ranges across large parts of Europe to Siberia. In the south: Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), it is scattered and quite rare.	eng
158691	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> ranges across large parts of Europe to Siberia. In the south (Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa) it is scattered and quite rare.	eng
158691	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>S. sanguineum</em> is found in standing or rarely in slow-flowing waters with a rich aquatic and bank side vegetation. It is most often found in marshy vegetation along lakes and ponds.	eng
158691	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> prefers waters with lush marshy vegetation and generally avoids running or acidic waters. Sites are often eutrophic and permanent, but they can also breed in seasonally wet swamps.	eng
158691	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	In north Africa, <em>S. sanguineum</em> is a 'summer species'. The eggs undergo embryonic diapause (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It is found in freshwater marshes, lakes and dunary slacks.	eng
158691	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	In North Africa, <em>S. sanguineum</em> is a 'summer species' whose egges undergo embryonic diapause (Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It is found in freshwater marshes, lakes and dunary slacks.	eng
158691	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	It is thought to be common in its range, but detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
158691	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is widespread and common in its range and is one of the most common dragonflies in Central Europe.	eng
158691	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	This species is never abundant in northern Africa.	eng
158691	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	This species is never abundant in northern Africa.	eng
158691	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Breeding habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction and infrastructure development are threats to the species.	eng
158691	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications.	eng
158691	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Sympetrum sanguineum</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158691	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific threat.	eng
158692	conservation	Ferreira, S. and Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation is required. Does occur in protected areas, but these are not managed or well protected. Effective management is lacking even within protected areas.	eng
158692	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation is required. Does occur in protected areas, but these are not managed or well protected. Effective management is lacking even within protected areas.	eng
158692	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The maintenance and conservation of the habitat and therefore species is needed.	eng
158692	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened on a European level. The species is however rare in some regions and has shown locally a strong decline. At these locations, management plans for the conservation and restoration of habitats are needed.	eng
158692	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> is a largely European species occurring east through Turkey, the Levant to the Caucasus and the border of the Caspian Sea in Iran. The species is rare in North Africa and confined to the northern Maghreb. Except for isolated populations in Norfolk and Suffolk it is absent in Ireland and Great Britain. To the north it is found to the southern tip of Sweden, Gotland and Latvia. Although it is distributed over a large part of Europe it is rare to absent in large areas. This pattern seems to be largely explained by its preference for warmer areas combined with its preferences for extensive reed marshes or beds of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Due to this it is absent from mountain areas and large parts of the north (too cold) while it is rare for instance in the Iberian Peninsula and large parts of Germany, probably due to the lack of extensive reed marshes.	eng
158692	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> occurs in central and southern Europe and in northern Africa. It is very localised across much of its range, especially in the southwest (Iberia and northern Africa). It is often numerous where present.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. The species is known from six localities in Morocco.	eng
158692	distribution	Ferreira, S. and Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> occurs in central and southern Europe and in northern Africa. It is very localised across much of its range, especially in the southwest (Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa). It is often numerous where present.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. The species is known from six localities in Morocco.	eng
158692	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Largely a central and south-eastern European species; locally also in southwest Europe.	eng
158692	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> is found around ditches, marshes, ponds and lakes with rich vegetation. It favours swamps of <em>Stratiotes aloides</em> in most of its northern range and sometimes running water in the southern part of its range.	eng
158692	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna isoceles</em> prefers extensive bank vegetation of reed, bullrush (<em>Typha</em>) or Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Throughout its range it reproduces at reed beds at standing or sometimes slowly flowing waters like channels, marshes, ponds, and lakes. In the north of its range it is often abundant at vegetations of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>), which occurs in standing water of good quality, mostly in low peat areas. Preferred are sunny habitats, that have some shelter from the wind and are never largely shaded.	eng
158692	habitat	Ferreira, S. and Samraoui, B., 2009	Usually breeds in large, sunny standing waterbodies with rich vegetation, such as ditches, marshes, ponds and lakes. In Morocco it has been found in fast flowing water.	eng
158692	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Usually breeds in large, sunny standing waterbodies with rich vegetation, such as ditches, marshes, ponds and lakes. In Morocco it has been found in fast flowing water.	eng
158692	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.	eng
158692	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a large European range although it is in many areas rare to absent. In areas where it does occur it can be very abundant and is often found in high numbers. Regionally the species seems to have declined in the recent past. Good indication for this is known from Belgium and some parts of Germany (De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ott and Piper 1998). On the other hand a strong increase has been seen in areas such as Britain, northeast France and the Netherlands.	eng
158692	population	Ferreira, S. and Samraoui, B., 2009	Widespread, but never abundant. In Morocco there six localities, and in Algeria there are two.	eng
158692	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Widespread, but never abundant. In Morocco there six localities, and in Algeria there are two.	eng
158692	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Drying of swamps. Habitat loss generally, and pollution from domestic sources and livestock.	eng
158692	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The habitat is continually being affected by land management of non-agricultural areas.	eng
158692	threats	Ferreira, S. and Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to desiccation of swamps and pollution from domestic and livestock sources are threats to the species.	eng
158692	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There is no indication for a major decline throughout its range. However, due to the patchiness of its distribution there are many areas with isolated occurrences and regionally the species is often threatened. In areas where it is mainly found in vegetation with Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>) the species is mainly threatened by a decline of this plant due to decrease of water quality. Especially the increase of phosphate in the water seems to induce major decline of this plant. Also mismanagement of vegetation of Water Soldier is a threat. Without management these vegetations will ultimately disappear and dredging the plants of Water Soldier every two or three years is needed to maintain the vegetation. However mismanagement might lead to the removal of all Water soldier vegetation in an area at once, which has a negative impact on the species. The species is less susceptible for the water quality in areas where the species mainly occurs in vegetation with reed. Here alteration of the habitat or a too intensive use of the banks is a threat.<br/>Especially in Central and Western Europe much suitable habitat went lost in the last century due to the conversion of marshland to farmland or to the further improvement of farmland. This issue has become less pressing in Central Europe, however it is not unlikely that large amounts of suitable habitat are being converted in order to improve farmland in eastern Europe.	eng
158693	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158693	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Platycnemis dealbata</em> is found in southeastern Turkey to Kashmir and the Caspian coast, it is limited in the south by the Sinai, Syrian Desert and Persian Gulf.	eng
158693	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is found in all types of running waters.	eng
158693	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is common throughout its range although the size and trend of the global population is unknown.	eng
158693	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Platycnemis dealbata</em> is the production of crops and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158694	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Conservation measures in place now include habitat conservation and restoration, surveys on distribution and population monitoring.	eng
158694	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
158694	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation required.	eng
158694	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There is no indication of a strong decline anywhere in its range and conservation measures are not necessary.	eng
158694	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> is distributed from Europe eastwards to Mongolia. In Europe its main range is found in the south although it is relatively uncommon in the Iberian Peninsula and parts of Italy. It favours warm summers and in Europe it occurs more northerly in the east of its range probably as result of the higher summer temperatures in that region. The recent increase in summer temperature has led to an expansion of its European range to the north which led to the species becoming established in The Netherlands, northern Germany and being recorded for the first time in Denmark in 2006.	eng
158694	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> is found around the Mediterranean, east to Mongolia, north to The Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Belarus and Lithuania; it is scarce in much of Iberia and north Africa. Hot summers can lead to influxes further north; at time of assessment this species had increased its range northwards in the northern most countries.	eng
158694	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> occurs permanently only around the Mediterranean. It is scarce in most of the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The species is very localised in Algeria. Present in the Riff Mountains in Morocco.	eng
158694	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Aeshna affinis</em> occurs permanently only around the Mediterranean. It is scarce in most of the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it is present in Tunisia, Algeria (very localized) and Morocco (Riff Mountains).	eng
158694	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Prefers standing waterbodies in open areas or forest clearings, that dry up in summer and are often overgrown with vegetation. The species can breed in places seasonally wet locations.	eng
158694	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Prefers standing waterbodies in open areas or forest clearings, that dry up in summer and are often overgrown with vegetation. The species can breed in seasonally wet locations.	eng
158694	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species exclusively reproduces at standing waters. It prefers shallow, well-vegetated waters sheltered from the wind and exposed to the sun. Many of the habitats dry up partially during summer and become covered with vegetation often including rushes (<em>Juncus</em>), sedges (<em>Carex</em>) or low reed (<em>Phragmites</em>). In Italy, it was also found in rice fields  in the past.	eng
158694	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species prefers standing water bodies that dry up over the summer that are often overgrown with low rushes, bulrushes or reeds.	eng
158694	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	It is not abundant and populations are dwindling across the region, especially since the 1990s.	eng
158694	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	It is not abundant and populations are dwindling across the region, especially since the 1990s.	eng
158694	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information known on the population size of this species.	eng
158694	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is rare north of the Alps and the Loire but widespread in South Europe. In the southern parts of the Ukraine it is common but in other parts such as the Iberian Peninsula it is scarce. The number of specimens varies strongly per site, ranging from some specimens to 1,000.	eng
158694	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat degradation and loss, water extraction.	eng
158694	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The main threat to the species is habitat degradation and loss caused by agriculture and water extraction.	eng
158694	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a variety of threats affecting <em>Aeshna affinis</em> including habitat destruction through agricultural development and human settlement.  These threats are ongoing, as is pollution, although domestic and commercial water pollution appears to have now ceased.	eng
158694	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is currently not threatened. It is able to reproduce in waters that dry up in summer as long as the habitat contains water until the end of spring.	eng
158695	conservation	Boudot, J.P., 2009	Control of pollution and of water use for agricultural, urban and industrial purpose, as well as protection and management of sunny riverine forest are needed for the conservation of the present populations.	eng
158695	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Streams are heavily impacted and need efficient conservation measures to protect their forest-gallery.	eng
158695	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Streams are heavily impacted and need efficient conservation measure to protect their forest-gallery.	eng
158695	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are habitat maintenance and conservation actions in place although more work is required on habitat restoration for this species.  Research on the species itself is underway, including monitoring the population trends.	eng
158695	distribution	Boudot, J.P., 2009	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> is a west Mediterranean endemic, that is widespread over the south of Europe, including the Mediterranean islands, and the north of Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).	eng
158695	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> occurs in the northern parts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. It is also present in the western Mediterranean, including the major islands.	eng
158695	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean, including the major islands. It is also present in the northern parts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
158695	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> only occurs around the western Mediterranean, including the major islands.	eng
158695	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Mostly found in fast flowing and shady streams. According to Dijkstra and Lewington (2006) can also be found in larger waters in full sun.	eng
158695	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Mostly found in fast flowing and shady streams. According to Dijkstra and Lewington (2006) can also be found in larger waters in full sun.	eng
158695	habitat	Boudot, J.P., 2009	The species favours streams and rivers with clear and well oxygenated waters with generaly a swift current speed. It likes lightly wooded banks but when the temperatures are low the adults are frequently found under the full sun.	eng
158695	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species prefers clear streams and rivers, where it occurs with other <em>Calopteryx</em>, although these are often smaller and more shady habitats. They are also found in larger waters in view of full sunlight.	eng
158695	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	This is the most abundant species of <em>Calopteryx</em> within the northern Africa region and it is common where it is found.	eng
158695	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	This is the most abundant species of <em>Calopteryx</em> within the northern Africa region and it is common where it is found.	eng
158695	population	Boudot, J.P., 2009	This species is common wherever it is found in the Mediteranean area. Scattered small populations or isolated specimens have been recorded recently far north from its traditional range (e.g., the French Jura Plateau), probably as a result of climate warming.	eng
158695	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Where habitat is suitable,<em> Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> is common although there is no information known on population trend.	eng
158695	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Alteration of habitats (pollution, tree-cutting, hydrological changes, exotic fish).	eng
158695	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The large majority of threats facing <em>Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis</em> are agricultural based including habitat destruction and loss through crop production, wood plantations and livestock farming. Water pollution also has an affect on the species, again some of that is from agriculture, but also commercial, domestic and sewage plants.	eng
158695	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threat to the species is habitat alteration, e.g., due to agriculture, pollution, tree-cutting, hydrological changes, fire and exotic fish.	eng
158695	threats	Boudot, J.P., 2009	The species is impacted by a wide range of threats such as: destruction of habitats, water pollution, desiccation of rivers due to irrigation or due to prolonged dry periods, tree-cutting, changes in river and banks structure as well as dam construction.	eng
158696	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific action for this species is needed in most of its range as it is common and shows an increase in parts of its northern range. In the east of its range, especially in Romania where it is rare and in the Ukraine where it is in decline, it is needed to map the current distribution in order to judge if conservation measures are needed.	eng
158696	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for <em>Erythromma lindenii</em> however actions are needed to prevent habitat loss due to the effects of water pollution.	eng
158696	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Wetland conservation and public awareness and education.	eng
158696	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Wetland conservation and public awareness and education.	eng
158696	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> has its main distribution in the European part of the Mediterranean and in western Europe. It is also present in northern Africa. The species is very common and widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and France. More to the north it becomes scarcer. The core of its range reaches its northern limit in the Netherlands and the southern half of Germany. It has an isolated occurrence in mid-eastern Germany and western Poland. In Eastern Europe it is largely confined to low elevations and areas near the Mediterranean Sea and the species is rare in coastal Romania. The species which is red listed in Ukraine is sometimes rather numerous in delta parts of large rivers in the southern part of the country. The species was also recently found in Crimea (G. Prokopov, unpublished data, identified by L. Khrokalo; V. Savchuk, unpublished data). The species has expanded its range to the north from the 1990s onwards. This has been noted in Belgium, the Netherlands, and central and northern Germany (Bouwman <em>et al.</em> 2008, De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
158696	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is fairly widespread in southwestern and southeastern Europe. It is present in northern Africa but there it is confined to the northern parts of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
158696	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is fairly widespread in southwestern and southeastern Europe. It is present in northern Africa but there it is confined to the northern parts of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
158696	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Erythromma lindenii </em> is found in southwest and southern Europe and it can be abundant in the Mediterranean region.  It is slowly expanding its range northwards.	eng
158696	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	A wide range of habitats, including ponds, lakes, and slow-flowing streams and rivers.	eng
158696	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	A wide range of habitats, including ponds, lakes, and slow-flowing streams and rivers.	eng
158696	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is found in running waters such as larger brooks, connected oxbows, rivers, channels and in larger standing waters like lakes, (fish)ponds and gravel pits. Reproduction waters are generally largely unshaded, large, oxygen rich and clear. The species is less common at swift running waters, and in rivers and brooks with a strong current it is often confined to areas where the force of the water is less strong. In most cases there is rich aquatic vegetation but the vegetation on the banks is often poorly developed or even absent. In fish free waters the aquatic vegetation is of less importance suggesting that the vegetation is mainly important to avoid predation. The standing waters where the species occurs are often impacted by wind causing waves or are fed by seepage. This makes that the abiotic condition of the waters resemble those of running waters. Throughout its range the species is confined to lower altitudes and most of the records are from below 500 m.	eng
158696	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Most likely to find this species in larger, well-oxygenated waters, including lakes, gravel pits, slow-flowing rivers and wide canals, with rich aquatic vegetation such as <em>Myriophyllum</em>.	eng
158696	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	A fairly abundant and widespread species in the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
158696	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	A fairly abundant and widespread species in the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
158696	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>E. lindenii</em> is common and widespread in most of its range and often occurs in high densities. The species is more rare and localised, but still abundant in the north of its range.	eng
158696	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	In its range, <em>Erythromma lindenii</em> is common but there is no data available to show population trends or numbers.	eng
158696	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat modification is a major threat to the species, especially due to livestock (trampling and eutrophication).	eng
158696	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications, especially from livestock (trampling and eutrophication).	eng
158696	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is at the moment not threatened.	eng
158696	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Water pollution is a continuing threat to the habitat of this species.	eng
158697	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place, but research into the population size, trends and habitat threats are needed.	eng
158697	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Sympetrum haritonovi</em> is restricted to higher altitudes in Central Asia and eastwards to Turkey. Its distribution is poorly known due to the inaccessibility of its habitat.	eng
158697	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species inhabits pools, streamlets and flushed areas around mountain springs; it is not known below 1,750 m above sea level.	eng
158697	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information known on the population size or trend of this species.	eng
158697	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown, most likely due to the inaccessibility of its habitat range.	eng
158698	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
158698	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
158698	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific actions are needed for this species.	eng
158698	conservation	Dow, R., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends are under way although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158698	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Orthertrum brunneum</em> ranges from western Europe and northwestern Africa to the Middle East and central Asia. It is common in the Mediterranean and Atlantic countries and becomes rare and sporadic elsewhere in its range, although it is now known to be expanding northwards due to changing climatic conditions caused by global warming.	eng
158698	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Orthertrum brunneum</em> ranges from western Europe and northwestern Africa to the Middle East and central Asia. It is common in the Mediterranean and Atlantic countries and becomes rare and sporadic elsewhere in its range, although it is now known to be expanding northwards due to changing climatic conditions caused by global warming.	eng
158698	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum brunneum</em> ranges from western Europe and the Maghreb to Central Asia and northeast China (Jödicke <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is common and widespread in large parts of southern Europe. It is scarcer in Central Europe but has in recent years expanded its range northwards up to Lithuania and Latvia (Bernard and Ivinskis 2004, Kal?in? 2008).	eng
158698	distribution	Dow, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> is common around the Mediterranean and the range extends to Mongolia. In Europe it has expanded northwards since 1990s, where it was scarce or extinct due to habitat destruction.	eng
158698	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Mediterranean streamlets, slow-flowing rivers, running ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, gravel pits. Its general behaviour is often that of a pioneer species, which appears promptly in new man-made habitats, then disappearing sometimes after some years.	eng
158698	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Mediterranean streamlets, slow-flowing rivers, running ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, gravel pits. Its general behaviour is often that of a pioneer species, which appears promptly in new man-made habitats, then disappearing sometimes after some years.	eng
158698	habitat	Dow, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> mostly inhabits small streams, running ditches and seepages, preferring scantily vegetated sites.&#160; It favours bare runnels in the north, e.g. in chalk or marl quarries.	eng
158698	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found at sunny brooks, slow-flowing rivers, and ditches, seepages and spring areas, pools, and gravel pits. It is mostly found at sites in early successional stages. It behaves as a pioneer species, which appears promptly at new, often man-made, habitats and often disappears as soon as the vegetation gets higher.	eng
158698	population	Dow, R., 2007	Although no detailed data is known on population numbers, it is common throughout its range and it is increasing northwards.	eng
158698	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is generally abundant in Mediterranean Europe. It is less abundant in Central Europe where its occurrence is naturally variable in the aspects of extent and abundance.	eng
158698	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	This species is generally common in the Mediterranean area, except in North Africa where it is more scattered within less than 30 locations from Morocco to Tunisia.	eng
158698	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is  scattered in northern Africa, found in less than 30 locations from Morocco to Tunisia.	eng
158698	threats	Dow, R., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum brunneum</span> is the production of crops and consequently the associated water pollution is having an effect on the quality of its habitat.	eng
158698	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution and destruction of habitats, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table and drought in connection to global warming.	eng
158698	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no major threats to this species at present. The species benefits from climate change and newly created habitats in the north of its range but may decline in parts of its southern range due to desiccation of streams.	eng
158698	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution and destruction of habitats, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, drought in connection to global warming.	eng
158699	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	No conservation measures needed.	eng
158699	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Platycnemis kervillei</em> is endemic in the Levant, from southeast Turkey to Israel (de Marmels 1995) and an extension into northern Iraq (Asahina 1973). The species is most likely the eastern Mediterranean vicariant of the widely distributed <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> (Pallas, 1771). It seems to be less common than <em>Platycnemis dealbata</em>, probably because it is ecologically less flexible than the latter species.	eng
158699	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Platycnemis kervillei</em> occurs on stagnant or slow flowing waters with rich riparian vegetation. It can also occur in relatively fast moving waters. It is easily overlooked because of the dark blue pruinosity in adults (camouflage) and its habit to fly in river sections shaded by vegetation; this  may account for the paucity of records. Flight period is between April (Jordan Valley) and September.	eng
158699	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
158699	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Groundwater abstraction is a current threat to the species.	eng
158700	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. heros</em> is listed in the Annexes II and IV of the European Habitats Directive; that implies that their habitat should not be altered. This is clearly not respected in some countries, i.e. in Greece where wild spring capture and water extraction regularly increase for irrigation purpose to compensate rainfall deficit.	eng
158700	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster heros</em> is a central and southeastern European endemic taxon ranging from Austria and Slovakia to a large part of the Balkans. The species was only described in 1979 and only in the last two decades its distribution started to become clear (Adamović <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992, Bedjanic and Salamun 2003, Blaskovic <em>et al.</em> 2003, Bulankova and David 2003, Kotarac 1997, Uboni <em>et al.</em> 2007, Janský and David 2008). Its eastern limit in Romania is unknown and it might even go as far east as the Ukraine. It is locally common but scattered because of its specific habitat, mostly shaded rivulets in mountainous areas. In the south of its range, this species is currently decreasing due to climate change, rainfall deficit, spring capture and desiccation of streams.	eng
158700	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. heros</span> is found at shaded streams in mountains and hills, with sandy and rocky beds (Lang <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
158700	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not uncommon within its range and occurs in small to rather large-sized populations.	eng
158700	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change is already a present threat in parts of the southern Balkans, including Romania, so that some previously known localities are now extinct. Some localities have been destroyed due to water capture directly at springs. Wood-logging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream dessication.	eng
158701	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a variety of conservation measures in place however more are needed.  The maintenance and restoration of its preferred habitat is underway, as is the monitoring of the population status and trends.	eng
158701	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed except for further taxonomic research to define the infraranks.	eng
158701	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Calopteryx splendens</em> extends from western Europe (east of Spain) to Lake Baikal (Russia) and northwest China.	eng
158701	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Calopteryx splendens</em> is common in a large part of Europe, but is not present in the Iberian Peninsula. It is not found in the northern half of Fennoscandia. The species ranges eastwards into Central Asia.	eng
158701	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Preferred habitats include partially-open running waters, avoiding cold torrents, high mountains and deep shade, and it is scarce on large rivers. Wandering males are often seen far from suitable habitats.	eng
158701	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species favours brooks and rivers but is largely absent from torrents and shaded waters. It can also occur in flowing ditches and channels.	eng
158701	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and abundant in most of Europe although it declined in the 1960s and 70s in large parts of western Europe as a consequence of intensive stream management as well as water pollution. The populations have been recovering since the 1990s and the current population trend is stable.	eng
158701	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is common and widespread throughout its range.	eng
158701	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Chemical water pollution is the main threat to this species but is not causing the populations to decline at the moment.<br/><br/>As the infrarank forms of this species are still under debate, threats in certain areas of its range may be more serious as they may affect a subspecies or form with a strongly more restricted range than the whole collective species.	eng
158701	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Major threats affecting <em>Calopteryx splendens</em> include habitat destruction through both non- and agricultural practices and the associated water pollution.	eng
158702	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Although the threats affect the habitat of the species, there are no conservation measures in place but they are needed.	eng
158702	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common and not threatened in most of its European range. Isolated occurrences in southern Europe might need attention. Fieldwork and monitoring in order to map the occurrences and to assess their conservation status is needed in southern Italy and the southern parts of the Balkan Peninsula. Local action such as conservation and restoration of habitats might be needed in those areas.	eng
158702	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is a north Eurasian species ranging from West Europe eastwards to Kamchatka and Japan. The specimens from the eastern part of its range have been described as subspecies <em>C. a. amurensis</em>, which is sometimes regarded as a full species (Jödicke <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species is widespread and common in the northern two-thirds of Europe. In the Mediterranean southern third of Europe it is scarce and largely limited to mountain lakes and bogs.	eng
158702	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common and locally abundant in northern Eurasia, in the south it is found locally and mostly restricted to mountain lakes.	eng
158702	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in standing or, more rarely, slow-flowing waters. Western and southern populations are found mainly at woodland lakes, bogs and heaths. In northern and eastern Europe the species has a wider habitat spectrum. It is also found in man-made habitats such as fishponds, oxbows and gravel pits. The species is only found at permanent, not too shallow waters and is absent from temporary waters.	eng
158702	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species prefers standing waters, such as large ponds and small lakes in woodlands, bogs and heaths, but also oxbows, gravel pits, fishponds, sluggish rivers and canals.	eng
158702	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Cordulia aenea</em> is common in its range.	eng
158702	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common across its range and often abundant when present.	eng
158702	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The major threat affecting <em>Cordulegaster aenea</em> is habitat destruction from sources including crop-growing and infrastructure development. Water pollution is also an ongoing threat.	eng
158702	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
158703	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Protection of habitats, especially management of livestock.	eng
158703	conservation	Boudot, J.-P. & Ferreira, S., 2009	Protection of habitats, especially management of livestock and education and awareness.	eng
158703	conservation	Dow, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present, but they are needed to mitigate the strong possibility of habitat destruction in the future.	eng
158703	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
158703	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> has a wide range covering Europe (extending north of the Arctic Circle), Asia, north Africa and boreal North America. It is present in Syria (one record), and Morocco (in two lakes in the high Atlas). The species is often confused with <em>E. deserti</em>.	eng
158703	distribution	Boudot, J.-P. & Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> has a wide range covering Europe (extending north of the Arctic Circle), Asia, northern Africa and boreal North America. It is present in Syria (one record), and Morocco (in two lakes in the high Atlas).	eng
158703	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Enallagma cyathigerum</em> is one of the most widespread damselflies in the world. Its range covers Europe, Asia, northwest Africa and northern America. The species is widespread and common in the European part of its range occurring to the far north of Scandinavia. It becomes scarcer towards the Mediterranean being absent from many of the islands and being rare in the low and dry regions of Spain, Italy and Greece.<br/>&#160;In India&#160; the species is found in&#160; Manipur (Lamjao, Bishenpur) , Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal. Besides India these are also found&#160; in&#160; Europe,Central Asia,Tibet, North America and British Isles.	eng
158703	distribution	Dow, R., 2007	This species is widespread in large parts of Europe and northern Asia.	eng
158703	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>E. cyathigerum</em> commonly occurs at standing and slow-flowing waters. The species is especially common at sites with the lack of fish such as acid bogs or at sites where the vegetation provides shelter from fishes. The species can occur in slightly brackish waters. It is one of several species which commonly reproduces in the Baltic Sea.<br/>The species inhabits stagnent water bodies and also amongsts marshy habitats. It breeds in ponds and marshes.	eng
158703	habitat	Dow, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enallagma cyathigerum</span> inhabits all types of ponds, lakes and also slow rivers. Huge densities occur in acid waters where fish are unable to survive.	eng
158703	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Stagnant waters (high elevation lakes in Morocco) with dense vegetation.	eng
158703	habitat	Boudot, J.-P. & Ferreira, S., 2009	Stagnant waters (high elevation lakes in Morocco) with dense vegetation.	eng
158703	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Known from only two locations in Morocco. The exact proportion of the two species in not known. Probably more locations, but uncertain.	eng
158703	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and widespread in its European range and only in the south populations are more scattered. The sizes of the populations are generally high. It can occur in very high densities in central and northern Europe.	eng
158703	population	Boudot, J.-P. & Ferreira, S., 2009	The species is known from only two locations in Morocco. The exact proportion of the two species in not known. Probably it is present in more locations, but this information is uncertain.	eng
158703	population	Dow, R., 2007	The species is widespread and common in large parts of its range and in the north it is one of the most common species. There is no information available on population trend.	eng
158703	threats	Boudot, J.-P. & Ferreira, S., 2009	A threat to the species is livestock grazing of habitats, and water extraction.	eng
158703	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Livestock poaching of habitats, and water extraction.	eng
158703	threats	Dow, R., 2007	There appear to be no known threats affecting the species currently, but risks of habitat destruction and water pollution are likely to have an effect on populations in the future, especially as the majority of preferred habitat appears to be of marginal use.	eng
158703	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
158704	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation actions are currently needed.	eng
158704	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus pulchellus</em> is an European endemic species ranging from the whole of Iberia to the western half of Germany, western Austria and Switzerland. Isolated records from Italy refer to vagrants, the records from Croatia and Slovakia might be erroneous or vagrants.	eng
158704	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus pulchellus</em> reproduces in all kinds of slow and moderately flowing and standing waters, avoiding strong currents. It reproduces also in some peat bogs up to 1,500 m above sea level. It is most common in slow lowland rivers and their backwaters and abandoned gravel pits. The larvae occupy sandy patches, which may be covered with coarse detritus. The adults are found sometimes far from their breeding habitats.	eng
158704	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is generally common throughout its range.	eng
158704	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	None at present.	eng
158705	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	None needed for this species.	eng
158705	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but habitat mitigation actions are needed.	eng
158705	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is common in northern Eurasia, east to central Siberia and restricted to mountain lakes in the south.	eng
158705	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> ranges from northeast Spain and France to northern Fennoscandia and central Siberia. In the south of its range the species is restricted to mountain lakes in some countries of former Yugoslavia, west Bulgaria and Romania. Two old records from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania may refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">Somatochlora meridionalis</span> and have to be checked.<br/>It is important to resolve problems with literature data from the Balkans, as all old records referring to <em>S. metallica</em> may be indeed <em>S. meridionalis</em>.	eng
158705	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> inhabits various standing and slow-flowing waters such as ponds, oxbows, rocky lakeshores, moorland lakes, canals and sluggish rivers. It often favours some shading by trees and steep banks that suit oviposition; conditions such as these are often found in woodland.	eng
158705	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	It occurs in standing and flowing waters, avoiding fast currents.	eng
158705	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is common throughout its range but no detailed data is known.	eng
158705	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common throughout most of northern Europe where the populations are often large. It is rare in southern Europe where it is mostly confined to mountains.	eng
158705	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Somatochlora metallica</em> is infrastructural development and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158705	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no specific threats to this species on European scale. Habitat destruction and desiccation due to climate change  may lead to a decrease in its southernmost localities.	eng
158706	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	On a European scale, no specific conservation measures are needed. However, in the south and southwest of its range, monitoring of the species in the best breeding habitats is recommended and new habitats should be created whenever older ones disappear through natural succession or abnormal drought periods. Where livestock presents a threat to the species, those habitats should be preserved.	eng
158706	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a variety of conservation measures in place however more are needed.  The maintenance and restoration of its preferred habitat is underway, as is the monitoring of the population status and trends.	eng
158706	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Abundant in many parts of northern Eurasia, but <em>Coenagrion hastulatum </em> is isolated in elevated or bog-like sites towards the west and south.	eng
158706	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> occurs from southwest France and Scotland to east Siberia. It is abundant in northern and eastern Europe but is restricted to mountainous regions in the west and the south of its range. Southwestern and southernmost populations from the Balkans, the Pyrenees range and the Massif Central are confined to high elevation peat bogs and acid swamps and pools, are post-glacial relicts and are clearly disjunct of the main range of the species. Besides, the species is regularly scattered over most of the Alps and other mountains in Central Europe, where it is locally common in acid habitats.	eng
158706	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. hastulatum</em> prefers acid swamps, pools and peat bogs. However, it inhabits a larger habitat spectrum, including also other water bodies with rich and abundant vegetation.	eng
158706	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The preferred habitat of <em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> includes a wide variety of pools and lakes in the north, but it is restricted to somewhat acidic and oligotrophic or mesotrophic habitats in much of its range. It favours well-vegetated borders, e.g. with sedges.	eng
158706	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There have been declines in parts of its central European range but it is widespread and common in northern Eurasia.	eng
158706	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is abundant in the core of its range and irregularly abundant in the west and south. In the west, it shows locally a very high density in acid pools and swamps and sometimes in true peat bogs.	eng
158706	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The majority of ongoing threats facing <em>Coenagrion hastulatum</em> are agriculture based, including habitat destruction through crop-farming and plantations of woodland and water pollution.  In the future, global warming may contribute to the success of this species.	eng
158706	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There is no strong threat in the north and east of its range. Present and future global warming and multiple drought periods represent a major threat to breeding habitats throughout west and south Europe. There, some localities are also in risk of degradation by livestock. In Germany, the species is locally declining due to agriculture induced eutrophication and emissions (e.g. pork breeding). A decline in the Biosphere Reserve Palatinate Forest (Germany) was shown as a consequence of climatic changes and lack of water (Ott 2007).	eng
158707	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Conservation of wetlands and in particular streams and rivers.	eng
158707	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Conservation of wetlands and in particular streams and rivers through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
158707	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Despite the threats facing this species, the population is being monitored and currently no conservation measures are necessary.	eng
158707	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species does not need specific conservation measures.	eng
158707	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> is a very common and widespread species which extends from western Europe to the Maghreb and Central Asia. Its northern limit extends from Scotland to south Norway, Sweden and Finland. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which was attributed to global warming (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
158707	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> is common in most of central and southern Europe to central Asia.	eng
158707	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	The range of <em>Coenagrion puella</em> covers northern Africa (north Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and Europe, to central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158707	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	The range of <em>Coenagrion puella</em> covers northern Africa (north Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and Europe, to Central Asia (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
158707	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Coenagrion puella</em> prefers a wide variety of waters, especially still but also flowing, although generally scarce on peaty or clay soils. It also favours the presence of aquatic vegetation.	eng
158707	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In the European part of its range this species shows high density populations in standing waters but occurs also in small numbers in streams, rivers and ditches.	eng
158707	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	In the northwest of Africa it is largely confined to running waters. In the European part of its range it favours standing waters.	eng
158707	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	In the northwest of Africa it is largely confined to running waters. In the European part of its range it favours standing waters.	eng
158707	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. puella</em> is one of the most common damselflies in Europe, where it generally shows populations with high density.	eng
158707	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	It was localised in the northern parts of northwest Africa, but populations may be great in numbers.	eng
158707	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Localised in the northern parts of northwest Africa, but populations may be great in numbers.	eng
158707	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is common throughout its range, although population trend is unknown.	eng
158707	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Degradation of habitats due deforestation, urbanization, hydological changes and pollution are threats to the species.	eng
158707	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Degradation of habitats (tree cutting, hydrological changes, pollution).	eng
158707	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Human disturbance and habitat loss or destruction are the major threats affecting this species.	eng
158707	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not threatened at the European scale.	eng
158708	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population trends are underway although more extensive studies are needed in understanding population size and range, so to are conservation measures to restore degraded habitat, prevent habitat loss and to increase the water quality of streams and rivers as none are in place at present.	eng
158708	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus lefebvrii</em> ranges from southeast Turkey to Afghanistan, Israel and possibly to Egypt.	eng
158708	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus lefebvrii</em> inhabits rocky and largely open streams and rivers.	eng
158708	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no detailed information available on population numbers, although it is thought to be common in its range.	eng
158708	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The destruction of habitat through infrastructural development and associated effects of water pollution are continuing threats to this species.	eng
158709	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed for <em>P. p. penipes</em>. With respect to <em>P. p. nitidula</em>, control of water use is needed in the Mediterranean area.	eng
158709	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Research into population numbers and trends of <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> are underway although more extensive studies are needed, so to are conservation measures to prevent habitat loss as none are in place at present.	eng
158709	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> occurs from the Atlantic to the Jenisei in Siberia and is often abundant throughout its range.	eng
158709	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> ranges from West Europe (excluding the whole Iberian Peninsula, except for the north of the Spanish province Catalonia) to Siberia and Anatolia. It is missing in the northern part of Fennoscandia. The subspecies <em>P. p. nitidula</em> is restricted to parts of the Balkans (Adriatic islands and coast from Montenegro to Greece, Peloponnese, Cyclades Islands).	eng
158709	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A very ubiquist and opportunist species which is met anywhere in lowlands and rarely in the mountains, on almost any kind of standing and flowing waters if they are not too torrential: floodplains, oxbows, streams, rivers, fishponds, abandoned gravel pits, etc. It does not colonize acid peat bogs.	eng
158709	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is characteristic of floodplains, is dominant on oxbows, rivers and open stretches of streams. Also frequently seen on lakes and a wide range of man-made habitats such as canals, gravel-pits and fish-ponds; the larvae are well adapted to occur with fish. In the north-west (for example Great Britain, The Netherlands, Scandinavia) it is almost confined to flowing waters.	eng
158709	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>P. p. pennipes</em> and <em>P. p. nitudula</em> are widespread and common throughout their range.	eng
158709	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	It is considered abundant throughout its range, even though no detailed numbers of population size or trends are known.	eng
158709	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>P. pennipes</em> sensu lato is a very adaptable species and is frequently the last species which disappears from areas with very intensive agriculture. It is not under any threat at present. However, the restricted range of <em>P. p. nitidula</em>, makes it more susceptible to threats such as climate change and rainfall deficit.	eng
158709	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Platycnemis pennipes</em> is crop production and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158710	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information available on whether there are conservation measures in place, or if they are needed.  Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed.	eng
158710	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Paragomphus lineatus</em> is widespread in northern India and Nepal and occurs west to the Turkish Mediterranean coast.	eng
158710	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The habitat of <em>Paragomphus lineatus</em> is poorly known although it does include open, sluggish and often seasonal streams.	eng
158710	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The species is common in parts of its range and can occur in moderately degraded habitats although no detailed data exists on population numbers and trends.	eng
158710	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	One of the ongoing threats affecting the habitat of <em>Paragomphus lineatus </em> is the production of crops and the associated water pollution is also having a direct effect on the quality of the habitat of this species.	eng
158711	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Conservation measures are needed and none are in place at present.  Population monitoring is underway that will help discover the extent of damage to the habitat caused by agricultural and non-agricultural actions.	eng
158711	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	No specific conservation measures needed.	eng
158711	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Not needed.	eng
158711	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Not needed at present.	eng
158711	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is present in Iberia and northern Africa (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia), where it is widespread and abundant.	eng
158711	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is present in Iberia and northern Africa, where it is widespread and abundant.	eng
158711	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is present in Iberia and northern Africa, where it is widespread and abundant.	eng
158711	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Ischnura graellsii</em> is widespread and abundant within the western Mediterranean.	eng
158711	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	All types of running and standing waters.	eng
158711	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	All types of running and standing waters.	eng
158711	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">I. graellsii</span> is found at all types of running and standing waters.	eng
158711	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The species is found around all types of running and standing waters.	eng
158711	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
158711	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is very common within its distribution range.	eng
158711	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	The species is very common within its distribution range.	eng
158711	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The species is very common within its distribution range.	eng
158711	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	None.	eng
158711	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	None at present.	eng
158711	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	None known.	eng
158711	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a variety of threats affecting the habitat of <em>Ischnura graellsii</em> that are ongoing and the majority of these threats are rooted in agricultural development.  The production of crops in the agro-industry and the associated run-offs from the crops are affecting the quality of water within the species range.  Pollution from domestic and industrial development are also contributing to the destruction of its water habitat.	eng
158714	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	Control of water pollution is required for <em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em>.	eng
158714	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	This species is found in the Amur River basin and Korean peninsula.	eng
158714	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	<em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em> is a stream dweller that prefers big rivers with sandy bottom.	eng
158714	population	Malikova, E., 2007	This species has been recorded in more than thirty localities.	eng
158714	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Water pollution and water harnessing via dams are most likely going to have a negative impact on <em>Nihonogomphus ruptus</em> in future.	eng
158715	conservation	Malikova, E., 2008	This species is protected in Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve (Tajikistan).  Data on the current range and population size are needed. Control of water use and establisment of new protected areas are recommended to conserve the habitats of <em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em>.	eng
158715	distribution	Malikova, E., 2008	<em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em>is known from India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey and several Central Asian states.	eng
158715	habitat	Malikova, E., 2008	<em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em> inhabits rivers, creeks and irrigation channels.	eng
158715	population	Malikova, E., 2008	There is not much information on the abundance of the species within the region. It was said to be common in the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris (Fraser 1934).	eng
158715	threats	Malikova, E., 2008	There are a variety of ongoing threats affecting <em>Anormogomphus kiritshenkoi</em> and some possible ones that are expected to affect their survival in the future.  Drought and limited dispersal are threats already existing, as is water pollution, and these are expected to continue.  However the projected extensive water usage (in the form of groundwater extraction and small-scale fisheries) is likely going to cause unknown levels of habitat degradation and loss in the future.	eng
158716	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	Activity aimed to the conservation of natural habitats is recommended for the future.	eng
158716	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	Common in Japanese and Kuril Islands and also occurs in Southern Sakhalin.	eng
158716	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	This species is found in bogs and large pools in marshes and it is a characteristic alpine species in Japan.	eng
158716	population	Malikova, E., 2007	<em>Enallagma circulatum</em> is common within its range.	eng
158716	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Habitat destruction from water pollution continues to affect this species.	eng
158717	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	Control of water use and water pollution is recommended for the future.	eng
158717	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	The species is restricted to areas along the southern parts of the Caspian Sea and the Kopetdag Mountains in Turkmenistan.	eng
158717	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	<em>Calopteryx orientalis</em> is common in rivers and streams and also occurs in irrigation channels.	eng
158717	population	Malikova, E., 2007	There is no data available on the population numbers or trends.	eng
158717	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Pollution of water-ways through agricultural farming is an ongoing threat affecting this species.  Change in land-use and the drying of land naturally is also continuing to affect the survival of <em>Calopteryx orientalis</em>.	eng
158718	conservation	Malikova, E., 2008	The species seems to benefit from human actitivty aimed at irrigation. Control of water pollution and water use is recommended for future.	eng
158718	distribution	Malikova, E., 2008	Middle East and Central Asia from Israel and South Turkey to Western India.	eng
158718	habitat	Malikova, E., 2008	This species is found in lakes, pools, channels and ponds of irrigation system.	eng
158718	population	Malikova, E., 2008	More than fifty localities are reported for <em>Sympetrum arenicolor</em>.	eng
158718	threats	Malikova, E., 2008	Water pollution and intensive water use may threaten the species in future.	eng
158719	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	The only reported population is in the protected territory. The data on the present status of the population are required.	eng
158719	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	Known only from Caucasian Nature Reserve, Krasnodarskii krai, Russia.	eng
158719	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	Unknown due to not being seen since it was first described, but most likely to favour  pools, bogs and marshes.	eng
158719	population	Malikova, E., 2007	One known locality and it has not been since since its description, therefore the current population size is unknown.	eng
158719	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Habitat destruction and climatic changes are thought to be a cause for concern for this species in the future, as they have been in the past.	eng
158720	conservation	Malikova, E., 2007	Protected in Bashkirsky Nature Reserve (Russia), included to the Red List of Bashkiria. Research and protection measures are needed in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.	eng
158720	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is probably currently not threatened and information on threats is poor but probably no conservation measures are needed.	eng
158720	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is a Central Asia species which occurs throughout Kazakstan (Asia) and Bashkortostan (Easternmost European Russia) under rather isolated subpopulations, due to the current dry period (exacerbated by water use by humans). It is expected that it was much more widespread in the region under a continuous range during the wetter periods of the Holocene 9,000-3,000 BP (Yanibaeva <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
158720	distribution	Malikova, E., 2007	The species has a relatively small range and is confined to the area from East Kazakhstan province to Aral Lake. Isolated populations are known from the Southern Ural and Uzbekistan.	eng
158720	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is found in lakes in the lower parts of the southern Ural mountains.	eng
158720	habitat	Malikova, E., 2007	The species inhabits pools, small lakes and marshes.	eng
158720	population	Malikova, E., 2007	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> is mostly found in low densities.	eng
158720	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura aralensis</em> was found to be fairly abundant in its known localities.	eng
158720	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Drought periods, either natural or due to human influence constitute the main threat of the species in its Asian range, which turned probably extinct in the Aral Sea area and some Central Asia localities due to the drying up of the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (a consequence of unadapted cotton culture). Presently, the species is probably not threatened in its five known European Uralian localities.	eng
158720	threats	Malikova, E., 2007	Habitat destruction from water pollution and abandoned farmland has continued to affect this species.	eng
158725	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Not known within protected areas; searching for further localities needed, as well as studies on biology and ecology.	eng
158725	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	South Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Belle 1973, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).	eng
158725	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Streams and rivers. Males patrol sections of stream when sunny, often chasing one another, frequently land on ground or twigs at shore always returning to the same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158725	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158725	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).	eng
158726	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Known to occur in three protected areas (Manu National Park in Madre de Dios department and Tingo María National Park in Huanuco department, Peru, Amboro National Park in Santa Cruz department, Bolivia). Its biology and ecology need to be studied.	eng
158726	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Peru and Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2007).	eng
158726	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Shady and narrow streams or creeks enclosed within thick rain forest. Adults perch on leaves in small patches of dappled sunlight, opening and closing their wings two or three times after landing (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2007, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158726	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158726	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).	eng
158727	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Known from three protected areas (Baritú and El Rey National Park in Salta province and Reserva El Pantanoso in Jujuy province, Argentina).	eng
158727	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Venezuela and Colombia to Ecuador, Peru, and northwest Argentina (Ris 1913, de Marmels 1988, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007, D R. Paulson personal collection 2007, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2007, R. W. Garrison personal collection 2007).	eng
158727	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Adults fly close to streams and the waters surface, hovering frequently over rapids on narrow enclosed creeks, perching occasionally on grass and twigs or rocks along shores. Pairs in copula perch high in bushes and trees near water (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae live at river and stream margins, in areas of abundant aquatic vegetation (von Ellenrieder 2007).	eng
158727	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158727	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).	eng
158728	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Known to occur within four protected areas (El Ávila National Park in Miranda state, Tamá National Park and Chorro El Indio National Park in Táchira state, Venezuela and Calilegua National Park in Jujuy province, Argentina).	eng
158728	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Venezuela and Colombia to Peru and northwest Argentina (Calvert 1956; de Marmels 1981, 1994; Ris 1918; von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).	eng
158728	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Narrow streams and rivulets within thick mountain rain forest. Male patrols a large territory flying up and downstream; female oviposits alone in moss covered logs and tree twigs in the water to up about 1-2 m above water (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae, described by de Marmels (1982), live under stones and on sediment.	eng
158728	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158728	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging, clear-cutting of forest for agriculture, and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).	eng
158729	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Species has so far not been found within existing protected areas; surveys needed to confirm absence/presence from protected areas, study its ecology, and monitor threats.	eng
158729	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Northwest Argentina, in Jujuy, Salta, and Tucuman Provinces (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2007).	eng
158729	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Seepages, pools, and still waters at stream edges with abundant aquatic vegetation, from mountain rain forest to highland grasslands. Males patrol flying close to water’s surface and perching horizontally on leaves of emergent aquatic vegetation, and remain in horizontal position when in tandem. Pairs in copula land on grasses and bushes near water, and females oviposit in water plants while still in tandem (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larvae, described by von Ellenrieder and Muzon (2006), live among aquatic vegetation.	eng
158729	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158729	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by increased modification and loss of aquatic habitats caused by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2001, Defensor del Pueblo de la Nación 2009).	eng
158730	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Not known within protected areas; searching for further localities needed, as well as studies on biology and ecology.	eng
158730	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Bolivia to northwest Argentina (Dunkle 1987, von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).	eng
158730	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Streams and rivers, where males patrol river areas with rapids with swift and straight beat very close over water surface, frequently settling on rocks (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158730	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	There is no known details on population numbers or trends.	eng
158730	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2009	Reduction and fragmentation of habitat by selective logging and clear-cutting of forest for agriculture and petroleum prospecting known for at least part of its range (Kapelle and Brown 2001).	eng
158805	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not present within protected areas, but not currently under threat. Surveys to establish breeding habitat, biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
158805	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in montane rainforest in Peru (Ris 1918, Bick and Bick 1988).	eng
158805	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat, most likely streams as in other species of the genus; larva unknown.	eng
158805	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from four localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158805	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158806	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158806	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Para, Brazil (Needham 1944).	eng
158806	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; female and larva unknown.	eng
158806	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and locality and more research is needed on all aspects of its life history and population status.	eng
158806	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158807	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Natural Bosque, Paraguay (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).	eng
158807	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Calvert 1909, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158807	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Standing water with dense floating vegetation, including ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges; adults  inconspicuous because they perch and fly low over matted aquatic plants (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.). Larva unknown.	eng
158807	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from over 20 localities, several situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158807	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158808	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in several protected areas along its distribution range: Parques Nacionales Manuel Antonio and Corcovado, Puntarenas province, Parques Nacionales Guanacaste and Santa Rosa, Guanacaste province, Reserva Los Chorros, Alajuela province, and Reserva Forestal El Rodeo, San José province, Costa Rica; Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador; Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru; Reserva El Pantanoso and Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, Argentina (Hedstrom and Sahlen 2001, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158808	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Mexico south to northwestern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1918, de Marmels 1988, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158808	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly in understory of rainforest where they apparently glean spiders and wrapped spider-preys from webs (Fincke 1992). Larvae, described by Ramirez (1995), breed in water-filled holes of trees. Hedstrom and Sahlen (2001) found this species was missing entirely from non-seasonal, tropical wet lowland forest and non-seasonal, tropical moist forest at mid elevation in Costa Rica, while it was active year round in seasonal, tropical dry lowland forest and tropical semi-dry forest, as well as in seasonal, tropical moist evergreen forest and tropical montane moist forest, both at mid-elevation.	eng
158808	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 50 locations (many being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158808	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158809	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
158809	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from northeastern Argentina to Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname and Guyana (Calvert 1909, Ris 1919, de Marmels 1989, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fleck 2004).	eng
158809	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults have an erratic and swift flight, resembling a gomphid, also in the evening (Ris 1919). Fleck (2004) described the larva, which seems to be associated to the aquatic plant <em>Mourera fluviatilis</em> Aublet (Podostemaceae), which grows only in fast moving currents.	eng
158809	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158809	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158810	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158810	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela (Selys 1859, Garrison 1986, de Marmels 1988, Belle 1992).	eng
158810	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Presumably found along rivers; larva unknown.	eng
158810	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158810	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158811	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ecologica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), Distrito Federal, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
158811	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais and Distrito Federal states in Brazil (Needham 1904, Borror 1942, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
158811	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small ponds and the larva has been described by Needham (1904) and Costa <em>et al</em>. (2001).	eng
158811	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158811	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158812	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158812	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Suriname, Napo in Ecuador, and Amazonas States in Venezuela and Brazil (Belle 1966, 1973, 1995; de Marmels 1989).	eng
158812	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly in shaded areas of creeks (Belle 1966); larva unknown.	eng
158812	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158812	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158813	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Two known localities not situated within protected areas, but probably not threatened. Surveys to establish distribution range, biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
158813	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Kennedy 1938, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158813	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small streams in forest (Kennedy 1938); larva unknown.	eng
158813	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas but thought to be widespread in the poorly sampled forests.	eng
158813	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158814	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158814	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Andean forest from central Ecuador (Pichincha province) to southern Peru (Ayacucho department) (Belle 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003).	eng
158814	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly at dusk along river banks (Belle 1989); larva unknown.	eng
158814	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is found in at least nine locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158814	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158815	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158815	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Chile, from Tarapaca to Araucania regions (Needham and Etcheverry 1956, Belle 1973, Carle and Cook 1984).	eng
158815	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams; adults perch on sand at banks (Carle and Cook 1984); larva unknown.	eng
158815	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from seven localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158815	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158816	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, in Argentina (Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158816	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1913, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158816	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults have been collected at streams and marshes (R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
158816	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from seven locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158816	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158817	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158817	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from Mexico south to Bolivia and Brazil (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2003).	eng
158817	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults crepuscular in forests, where larvae breed in temporary pools rich in aquatic vegetation (Santos 1973).	eng
158817	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from at least 67 localities and thought to be widespread but no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158817	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158818	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158818	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southern Peru to northern Chile along the Pacific coast (Ris 1911, Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158818	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Marshes and ponds with abundant emergent vegetation (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007); larva unknown.	eng
158818	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158818	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158819	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158819	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Paraguay, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana (Borror 1942, de Marmels 1983, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158819	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly near the shore of ponds and marshes with abundant palustrine (wetlands lacking flowing water) vegetation (de Marmels 1983). Larva unknown.	eng
158819	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158819	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158820	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158820	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality and surroundings in Rondonia State, Brazil (Belle 1990, Belle 1994).	eng
158820	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species seen along trails in forest (Belle 1990); larva unknown.	eng
158820	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158820	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158821	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158821	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo states in Brazil (Selys 1876, Santos 1956, R.W. Garrison 2006)	eng
158821	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Slow moving clear-water streams (Santos 1956). Larva unknown.	eng
158821	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from six locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158821	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158822	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities known not within protected areas, but currently not threatened. Surveys to establish biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
158822	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in montane rainforest in Ecuador (Cook 1989).	eng
158822	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults collected along rivers and streams within montane rainforest (Cook 1989). Larva unknown.	eng
158822	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from nine localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158822	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158823	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to study biology and trends, and to establish if present in protected areas and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158823	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in the Rio Napo/Rio Pastaza watershed, on eastern slopes of Andes in central Ecuador (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158823	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along rivers in montane rainforest; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158823	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in a very small area although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
158823	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158824	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to find if it occurs elsewhere along eastern coastal area of Rio de Janeiro are needed; also studies on biology, trends and threats are required to better understand this species.	eng
158824	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in eastern Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Santos 1962, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158824	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Swampy margin of ponds with abundant marginal vegetation (<em>Typha</em>); also within forest (Santos 1962). Larva unknown.	eng
158824	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities one of which is where the species was last collected (in 1966).  The population status is unknown and requires urgent monitoring due to continuing decline in habitat quality.	eng
158824	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Urban development; known distribution area is situated in an ecological park (Chico Mendez) within populous Rio de Janeiro city.	eng
158825	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Type locality present within a protected area: Parque Nacional Chapada Diamantina, Bahia state, Brazil (Machado 1996).	eng
158825	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bahia and Paraiba states in northeastern Brazil (Machado 1996).	eng
158825	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at a clear pond with sandy bottom and scarce macrophytes, also close to a waterfall; perching on marginal vegetation and stones near water, and on bushes away from water (Machado 1996); female and larva unknown.	eng
158825	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is thought to be widespread although available data is only from the original description of 9 males.	eng
158825	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158826	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Parque Nacional Mburucuya, Corrientes province, Argentina (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006).	eng
158826	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs from Panama south to northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, Souza and Costa 2002, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158826	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly along forest trails, perching frequently (Ris 1911) and also found near streams, ponds and lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva described by Souza and Costa (2002) from permanent and temporary ponds with abundant aquatic vegetation within seasonally flooded grasslands.	eng
158826	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 20 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158826	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158827	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158827	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in lowland Amazon forest from western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia (Leonard 1977, R.W. Garrison 2006). One possible collection record (female in R.W. Garrison 2006) from Peru, Madre de Dios, Explorer's Inn.	eng
158827	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes streams and rivers according to collection data (R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158827	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Although this species is known only from 5 locations, the global population is assumed to be more widespread.	eng
158827	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158828	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158828	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Maranhao state in Brazil to Napo province in Ecuador and Madre de Dios department in Peru (Belle 1970, 1988; Paulson 1985).	eng
158828	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in lowland Amazon forest; larva unknown.	eng
158828	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158828	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158829	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish if distribution is as restricted as currently known, and if it does occur in any of the protected areas of Suriname.	eng
158829	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Para district in Suriname (Geijkes 1963, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158829	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly along banks of small open creeks crossing grasslands, often settling on tips of dry twigs (Geijkses 1963). Larva unknown.	eng
158829	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from three locations and none are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158829	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The habitat is being disturbed and altered through human use and development which is causing terrestrial and aquatic pollution.	eng
158830	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	According to de Marmels (1999) distribution included in well preserved and isolated area, not currently threatened.	eng
158830	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in cloud foothill forest and shrub-land on top of Venezuelan tepuis (table-top mountains) in Bolivar state (de Marmels 1985, 1997).	eng
158830	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes rivers, streams and marshes (de Marmels 1985, 1997; R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158830	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	No data is available for the estimated population size or trend.	eng
158830	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158831	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Guapi Azu Ecological reserve, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco, Peru and Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica (Jurzitza 1981, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158831	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in Neotropical region, from Costa Rica to northern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, de Marmels 1989, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158831	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, pools and swamps (collection data: D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158831	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 30 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158831	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	It is not known if this species is under any threat.	eng
158832	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Not known from any protected area. Surveys to find out if present in any needed, as well as studies on biology and trends, and evaluation of threats.	eng
158832	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in South America, in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and NW Argentina (Williamson 1917, 1918; Garrison 1999; Machado 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158832	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults hover just above water surface of streams and rivers, in bright or dappled sunshine, occasionally perching on reeds or grass tips overhanging water's edge (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Williamson (1918) reported females ovipositing in dead grassy debris caught in fences in irrigating ditches, and at water edge in solid mud banks. Larva unknown.	eng
158832	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species has a large extent of occurrence and many localities but information not known on population size or trends.	eng
158832	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158833	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known to occur in a protected area in Argentina: Parque Nacional Iguazu (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158833	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and northeastern Argentina (Fraser 1948, Jurzitza 1981, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158833	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species have been found along rocky streams, settled on leaves, were wary, rare, and took flight to upper story leaves when disturbed -needed long-handled net to secure (R.W. Garrison pers. comm. 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158833	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 11 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158833	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158834	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama; Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador; Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco department, and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158834	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador Peru and Paraguay (Rácenis 1953, Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158834	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, lakes, ditches, where adults perch on marginal vegetation; larva unknown.	eng
158834	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be widespread in ten locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158834	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158835	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158835	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Rondonia, Brazil (Belle 1995).	eng
158835	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat available, possibly rivers as type locality states 'Rio Pardo'. Male and larva unknown.	eng
158835	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	More research required on population status as only known from type specimen.	eng
158835	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158836	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981) and Reserva de Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Santos 1968).	eng
158836	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Bahia to Sao Paulo states in Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Selys 1854, Ris 1911, Belle 1973, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158836	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Clear sandy bottomed streams and rivers; larva burrows in sand, described by Santos (1968). Males patrol sections of stream, often chasing one another, only when sunny; land frequently on rocks returning to the same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007).	eng
158836	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from more than 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158836	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158837	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	None of the two known localities are situated within protected areas; surveys to establish distribution range and breeding habitat preferences of the species are needed, as well as studies on its biology, trends and threats.	eng
158837	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from two localities in Junin department, Peru (Bick and Bick 1985).	eng
158837	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in Andean mountain forest (Bick and Bick 1985); larva unknown.	eng
158837	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158837	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158838	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158838	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in South America, from Ecuador and Peru to Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina (Calvert 1909, Lencioni 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158838	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes marshy streams and rivers, ponds and pools (from label data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.	eng
158838	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158838	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158839	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N, 2007	Not known from any protected areas; surveys to find more locations, study biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
158839	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N, 2007	Occurs in Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil and Trinidad (Williamson 1915, Geijskes 1932, Calvert 1948, Machet 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158839	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N, 2007	Small muddy streams in forest; adults fly in the shade, and hover almost motionless near water surface; female oviposits in submerged leaves, with apex of abdomen brought almost directly beneath wing bases (Williamson 1915). Larva unknown.	eng
158839	population	von Ellenrieder, N, 2007	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158839	threats	von Ellenrieder, N, 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158840	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Presence in protected areas needs to be confirmed; probably not under threat due to wide distribution range within areas of virgin forest.	eng
158840	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Trinidad and the Guyanas (Ris 1919, Rácenis 1953, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158840	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes pools and ponds within lowland forest (R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158840	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species has a large occurrence in largely unthreatened areas although population numbers are unknown.	eng
158840	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158841	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama; Parque Nacional Palo Verde, Guanacaste province, and Reserva Biologica La Selva, Herdia province, Costa Rica (Donnelly 1992, Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158841	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Belize, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (Calvert 1907, Donnelly 1992, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158841	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland forest species; adults found on rivers, streams, sloughs, ditches and lakes, and along forest trails and open fields (Belle 1998, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158841	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 16 localities, three situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158841	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158842	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158842	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Subspecies <em>P. incurvatus incurvatus</em> in Lima department, Peru, and <em>P. incurvatus bivittatus</em> in northern Venezuela and Colombia (Belle 1973, de Marmels 1991).	eng
158842	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva of <em>Progomphus incurvatus bivittatus</em> live in streams with fine sand beds, where the current is sufficient to prevent deposition of plant debris; adults frequent open forested areas (de Marmels 1991).	eng
158842	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities, has two subspecies and no data is available on size or trend of any population.	eng
158842	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158843	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas; in Argentina: Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, and in Paraguay: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department.	eng
158843	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).	eng
158843	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of ponds, pools and lakes; larva described by von Ellenrieder and Muzon (1999) from road-side sloughs with abundant floating vegetation within a marginal forest.	eng
158843	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 15 localities, several situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158843	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158844	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158844	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known so far only from type locality in Loreto, Peru (Santos 1961).	eng
158844	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers (from type locality, Santos 1961). Larva unknown.	eng
158844	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	More research required on population status as only known from type specimen.	eng
158844	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158845	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158845	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Selys 1873, Belle 1980, Jurzitza 1981, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158845	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland forest species. Breeding habitat and larva are unknown.	eng
158845	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158845	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158846	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ducke, Amazonas state, Brazil (Santos 1964).	eng
158846	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Santos 1964, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158846	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found flying in the shade, at rivulet flowing out from black water swamp, with dense marginal vegetation of grasses (de Marmels 1989); larva unknown.	eng
158846	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158846	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158847	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Ibera, Corrientes province, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2000, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
158847	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and southeastern Paraguay (Calvert 1909, Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158847	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on tips of twigs, reeds and grasses along shore vegetation of marshes, permanent and temporary ponds and pools found in grasslands, shrub-lands, and open areas of forests; larva described by Souza and Costa (2002), and von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).	eng
158847	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 30 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158847	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158848	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only two known localities not within protected areas, but area currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158848	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Para and Amazonas states in Brazil (Machado 1964, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158848	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1964); female and larva unknown.	eng
158848	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.	eng
158848	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158849	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in a protected area only (Monumento Nacional Pichasca) and distribution range is not confirmed.	eng
158849	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from northern to central Chile: Atacama, Coquimbo and northern Valparaiso regions (R.W. Garrison 2006). Old records are vague 'South America' (Selys 1873) and 'Chile' (Martin 1909).	eng
158849	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	No information available on habitat and ecology; presumably streams at the foothills of the Andes. Larva unknown.	eng
158849	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population data is unavailable; many records for this species are old although recent habitat reduction is inferred so monitoring of population is required to place the species into a higher threat category.	eng
158849	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Inferred reduction and fragmentation of habitat by increased human development in metropolitan areas during the last few decades.	eng
158850	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuaca, Amazonas state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1999).	eng
158850	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela and Guyana (Calvert 1913; de Marmels 1982, 1989, 1997, 1999; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158850	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly swiftly along forest trails, swampy areas, small streams and creeks, and perch on ends of twigs.  Wings are held outspread and body horizontal, usually in the shade (Calvert 1913). Larva described by de Marmels (1999).	eng
158850	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158850	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158851	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected area: Reserva de Tingua, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
158851	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, from Paraiba to Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul states (Selys 1869; St. Quentin 1973; Belle 1970, 1984; Costa <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
158851	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small sandy creeks running through grasslands and secondary forest. Larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (1999).	eng
158851	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from seven localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158851	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158852	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known locality not within a protected area, and its conservation status. Field studies necessary to rediscover species, known only from type series collected in 1942, establish its distribution range, study its biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
158852	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Garrison 1999).	eng
158852	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.	eng
158852	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known only from the type locality and population numbers are lacking.	eng
158852	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158853	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158853	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Peru and Brazil north to Belize and south to Mexico (Williamson 1923, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158853	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults common in lowland forested shaded areas. Adults commonly perched on branches and leaves of shrubs and trees below 5 m. They also breed in vegetation-covered ponds and swamps (Williamson 1923); larva unknown.	eng
158853	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This is a widespread and common species.	eng
158853	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158854	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Mburucuya and El Palmar, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
158854	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Paraguay, southeastern Brazil, Uruguay and north half of Argentina (Ris 1904, 1913; Lencioni 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158854	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Ponds and pools with aquatic vegetation in grasslands and marginal forests; adults perch on twigs and leaves of emergent vegetation close to water surface and on bushes and grass blades near shore, and fly in a slow steady beat when sunny. Bulla (1970) described the larva, which lives among filamentous algae and roots of aquatic plants; von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).	eng
158854	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known to be widespread and common over a large area.	eng
158854	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158855	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158855	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in southeastern Peru and southwestern Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1930).	eng
158855	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly near creeks of muddy bottom in forest (Williamson and Williamson 1930); female and larva unknown.	eng
158855	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from two localities but thought to be widespread.  Further research is needed into understanding the size of its global population.	eng
158855	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	One of the localities (Porto Velho) has a past history of rubber production; currently a communications centre and cassiterite mining area. The second location within unthreatened forested area.	eng
158856	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in several protected areas in Argentina: Reserva Punta Lara, Reserva de Acambuco, Reserva Rincon de Santa Maria, Parque Nacional Calilegua, Parque Nacional El Rey (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158856	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia and northern half of Argentina (Fraser 1948, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Recorded from Venezuela (de Marmels 1990) without locality; presence in that country doubtful and records not included here.	eng
158856	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Standing water with dense floating vegetation, including ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges within forests and in grasslands; adults are inconspicuous because they perch and fly low over matted aquatic plants (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Bulla (1970) described the larva, and Muzon <em>et al</em>. (1990) studied its population dynamics.	eng
158856	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from over 30 localities, several situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158856	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158857	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but area not currently threatened. Field studies necessary to find out more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158857	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Para, Rondonia and Amazonas states in Brazil (Machado 1985, Lencioni 2005).	eng
158857	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1985); female and larva unknown.	eng
158857	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158857	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158858	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima in Bolivar, Venezuela, Reserva de Tambopata in Madre de Dios, Peru and Reserva Ducke in Amazonas, Brazil (Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158858	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana and French Guiana to Peru and Brazil (Ris 1909, Navás 1924, Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006 D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158858	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly in forest clearings in small swarms, at head height and higher; slowly and hovering to and fro for hours without settling (Ris 1913); breeding habitats are sandy streams and muddy pools (Garrison <em>et al</em>. 2006); larva described by Fleck (2004).	eng
158858	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 18 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158858	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158859	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela and Reserva Privada Peti, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (Garrison 1983, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158859	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Ris 1911, 1919; Borror 1931; Geijskes 1984; de Marmels 1989; Machado and Machado 1993; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158859	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Forest streams, marginal forest of large rivers, and small to large man-made lakes. Adults fly fast rarely settling for more than a few seconds on emerging snags (Garrison 1983), on leaves or on the ground at shore, with the abdomen horizontal or in the obelisk position (Machado and Machado 1993). Larva described by Machado and Machado (1993) and Fleck (2003) from artificial ponds and reservoirs.	eng
158859	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be widespread in at least 35 locations (three of which are within protected areas) but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158859	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158860	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158860	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Marowijne and Para districts in Suriname and Madre de Dios and Loreto departments in Peru (Belle 1997, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158860	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes swamps in forests; larva unknown.	eng
158860	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158860	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158861	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158861	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1973).	eng
158861	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; female and larva unknown.	eng
158861	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158861	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158862	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158862	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in the Andes of Cuzco Department, Peru (Ris 1918).	eng
158862	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species although in other species' of this genus, adults fly slowly on shaded areas of secondary forest for short distances before perching hanging down (Lencioni 2004); female and larva unknown.	eng
158862	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158862	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158863	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends.	eng
158863	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Espirito Santo State in Brazil (Santos 1961, Costa and Garrison 2001).	eng
158863	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species; female and larva still unknown.	eng
158863	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Since its original description in 1961, this species has only been recorded once more (2001) and data on population status is lacking.	eng
158863	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat alteration through clearing of forest and fires.	eng
158864	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158864	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Suriname (Belle 1966, 1977, 1992).	eng
158864	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers; larva described by Needham (1944) as "sp.# 15" in collection notes, and assigned to this species and re-described by Belle (1966, 1992).	eng
158864	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158864	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158865	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities within Parque Nacional Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela. Surveys to establish distribution area, biology, trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158865	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities in Sierra de Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158865	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Montane rainforest species; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158865	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description (2001) and thought to be more widespread, however population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158865	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158866	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi, Rio Negro, Argentina (Muzon 1997, von Ellenrieder 2000).	eng
158866	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Chile to Argentina, Uruguay and southeastern Brazil (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1989, Muzon 1993, Muzon 1997, Muzon <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
158866	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes temporary ponds with reeds in grasslands; oviposition is undertaken in tandem (Jurzitza 1989). Larva described by Muzon (1997) and von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).	eng
158866	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 30 locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158866	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158867	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158867	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Peru, Venezuela, Suriname and Brazil (Ris 1912, Geijskes 1964, de Marmels 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158867	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly over banks of rivers, streams, lakes, artificial ponds and swamps, and perch on the ground (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); when in copula male and female hover in the air for a short time, after which female dips off eggs on water surface, watched by male 30 cm above (Geijskes 1964). Larva unknown.	eng
158867	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158867	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158868	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158868	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Suriname and Guyana to Brazil, Ecuador and Peru (Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989, 1992; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158868	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes lowland forest; adults found along trails in forest, and on banks of streams, ponds and pools (de Marmels 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158868	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 13 locations and three are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158868	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158869	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Presence in protected areas yet to be confirmed. Surveys needed to study biology, trends and threats.	eng
158869	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Andean forest from Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru (Bick and Bick 1985).	eng
158869	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in forest; larva unknown.	eng
158869	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from ten localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158869	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158870	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158870	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Ris 1913, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Garrison and von Ellenrieder 2006).	eng
158870	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; larva unknown.	eng
158870	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from ten locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158870	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158871	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158871	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).	eng
158871	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.	eng
158871	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158871	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158872	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158872	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Cauca and Antioquia Departments in Colombia (Borror 1942, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158872	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is currently available; breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.	eng
158872	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats as it is described from only two male specimens.	eng
158872	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158873	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158873	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest of Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and northeastern Argentina (Santos and Machado 1960, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158873	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and creeks within lowland Amazon forest (Santos and Machado 1960). Larva described by Santos and Costa (1987).	eng
158873	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158873	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158874	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158874	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Minas Gerais, Goias and Mato Grosso states in Brazil (Selys 1874, May 1991).	eng
158874	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities situated in the cerrado shrub-land; no data available on habitat preferences. Larva unknown.	eng
158874	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from three locations across a wide distribution but population numbers are unknown.	eng
158874	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	It is not known if this species is under any threat.	eng
158875	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158875	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in Brazil and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158875	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva unknown.	eng
158875	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158875	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158876	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Reserva Florestal Acude do Prata, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru and Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999, Costa and Regis 2005, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158876	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in South America, from Venezuela and Guyanas to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1930; Rácenis 1953; de Marmels 1989, 1997; von Ellenrieder and Muzon 1999; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158876	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on vegetation along margins of pools, ponds, swamps, sloughs and streams in forest. Larva described by Costa and Regis (2005) from a small temporary muddy bottomed puddle devoid of vegetation.	eng
158876	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 50 localities, several situated within protected areas and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158876	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158877	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158877	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Central Argentina and Uruguay (Bulla 1973, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
158877	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lotic (moving water) environments; larva described by Bulla (1973) associated to submerged roots of riparian and aquatic plants.	eng
158877	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be a widespread species known from at least 13 locations.	eng
158877	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158878	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158878	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Hagen in Selys 1865, Schmidt 1942, Soukup 1954, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158878	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers (label data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158878	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 16 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158878	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158879	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158879	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Suriname, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru (Ris 1910, Rácenis 1953, Soukup 1954, de Marmels 1985, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158879	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found on trails in forest and near pools and ponds; de Marmels (1985) mentioned a female ovipositing on a ditch of slow moving water and 20 cm deep in a forest clearing. Larva . Extreme rarity relative to other <em>Orthemis</em>, lack of males at wetlands, observations high in trees, and lack of flange on segment eight of female make me speculate this is usually a tree-hole breeder (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158879	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158880	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Not currently known from any protected area. Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study trends and evaluate threats and protective measures.	eng
158880	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Buenos Aires province in Argentina (Rodrigues Capitulo 1992, Muzon <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
158880	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Streams and slow moving rivers in grasslands associated with marginal forest (Rodrigues 1992). Larva described by Muzon <em>et al</em>. (2006).	eng
158880	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158880	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Area subject to human alteration, due to agriculture, industry and increasing human population.	eng
158881	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158881	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in lowland Amazon forest from Para to Rondonia states in Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158881	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults reported perching on tip of leaves and twigs of bushes in full sun with wings folded, on clearings along banks of a large creek with firm sand bed and swift current (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Larva unknown.	eng
158881	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population trends and size are not known although this species has been found in 2 localities.	eng
158881	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158882	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Tingo Maria, Huanuco department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.	eng
158882	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bolivia and Peru (Calvert 1909, Sjoedstedt 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158882	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in mountain and lowland rain forest; female, breeding habitat and larva are all unknown.	eng
158882	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158882	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158883	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Possibly present in the Central Suriname Nature Reserve from the UNESCO (http://whc.unesco.org), which protects 1.6 million ha of primary tropical forest, including upper watershed of the Coppename River and headwaters of the Lucie, Oost, Zuid, Saramaccz, and Gran Rio rivers, covering a range of topography, montane and lowland forests, of notable conservation value due to its pristine state. Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.	eng
158883	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Suriname, Sipaliwini district (Belle 1989).	eng
158883	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Species has been found at a small creek along a patch to the airstrip (Belle 1989).	eng
158883	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from the type specimen in 1989 but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.	eng
158883	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	None known; Sipaliwini is the largest district of Suriname, and it is mostly unpopulated (except for northern and western areas).	eng
158884	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158884	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and Uruguay (Fraser 1947; Belle 1970, 1972, 1981; Jurzitza 1981; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006)	eng
158884	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams (Belle 1981, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158884	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from eight localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158884	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158885	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158885	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina (Borror 1942, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158885	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes pools and marshes; larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (2001).	eng
158885	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158885	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158886	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158886	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Colombia, between Cundinamarca and Boyaca departments (Calvert 1909, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, de Marmels 1997).	eng
158886	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Larva still unknown.	eng
158886	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158886	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158887	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158887	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (Calvert 1907; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1988, 1990; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158887	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva described by de Marmels (1990) from a large road side ditch devoid of vegetation. Adults found along banks of rivers and in swamps (Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158887	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 12 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158887	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158888	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1982). Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.	eng
158888	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southeastern Brazil to northeastern Argentina (Garrison 1990).	eng
158888	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva found among riparian vegetation in stony streams and rivers (von Ellenrieder 2007).	eng
158888	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from three locations since its recent description and is expected to be found in a wider distributed area.  No information is available on population size and trends.	eng
158888	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158889	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but probably not all under threat. Surveys needed to establish if present in protected areas, study trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158889	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, in Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo states (Santos 1962, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158889	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larvae, described by Santos (1969), found at margin of pond next to forest, rich in decaying vegetation.	eng
158889	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults very abundant, especially from June to September (Santos 1969).	eng
158889	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158890	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, and Reserva Biologica da Boraceia, Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Jurzitza 1981, de Marmels 2001).	eng
158890	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southeastern Brazil to northeastern Argentina (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158890	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within forest; larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158890	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	A widespread species known from a variety of locations included 3 within protected areas.	eng
158890	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158891	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158891	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from its type locality in Junin department, Peru (Kennedy 1942).	eng
158891	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; female and larva unknown.	eng
158891	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is only known from its original description and no information is available on population numbers.	eng
158891	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158892	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities seemingly not within protected areas; one of them 'Tapajos' of uncertain location, could be included in the Amazonia National Park, which straddles the Tapajós River near Itaituba, covering 9,935 km² but suffers from inadequate administrative capacity (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html); possibly present in other protected areas of Amazonia in northern Brazil (seven new protected areas encompassing 37 acres created in December 2006 in Para state). Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.	eng
158892	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities in Amazon forest of Brazil, one in Para state, and the second one 'Tapajoz' (river in central Brazil emptying into the Amazon, with headwaters in southern Brazil), of uncertain location (Borror 1931).	eng
158892	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Amazon lowland forest species; adults found along banks of flood creek basin, among grasses and bushes (Borror 1931). Larva unknown.	eng
158892	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known only from two localities and not been recorded since 1931.  There is no information available on population trends or numbers.	eng
158892	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known locality (Manaus) subject to human alteration due to mining, clear cutting of forest and growth of city.	eng
158893	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158893	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon region of Peru, Ecuador and Brazil (Borror 1931, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003).	eng
158893	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Banks of rivers and lakes in lowland Amazon forest (from locality data); larva unknown.	eng
158893	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from four locations (one occurring within a protected area) but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158893	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158894	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada, Merida state, Venezuela (de Marmels 2001). Surveys needed to establish distribution, study biology and trends, and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158894	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in the Cordillera de Merida in Eastern Andes of Venezuela (de Marmels 2001, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158894	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Natural lagoons in the 'paramo' above tree line (de Marmels 2001). Larva unknown.	eng
158894	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158894	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158895	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158895	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bolivia, Brazil and Venezuela (Belle 1973, St. Quentin 1973, de Marmels 1983, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158895	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on ground at margins of ponds, dams and ditches  (St. Quentin 1973) with mud and gravel substrate (de Marmels 1983); larva burrows near edge of water body, described by Limongi (1983).	eng
158895	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from more than ten localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158895	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158896	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional El Rey, Salta province and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios, Peru, Reserva Tingua, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, and Estacion Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica (Santos 1978, Jurzitza 1981, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158896	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Mexico, southern to northern Argentina and Brazil (Ris 1911; Santos 1978; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Donnelly 1992; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Gonzalez-Soriano and Novelo-Gutierrez 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Souza and Costa 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158896	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults frequent ponds, swamps and pools where they perch on tips of twigs, reeds and grass along shore vegetation with wings set (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva described by Santos (1978), breeds in lentic environments within forest. Behaviour described by May (1980).	eng
158896	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 40 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158896	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158897	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia, Costa Rica, Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuado, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158897	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in Neotropical region, from Belize and Costa Rica south to Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1906; Rácenis 1953; Geijskes 1971; de Marmels 1990, 1992; Donnelly 1992; Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158897	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults observed flying around pools, ponds, lakes, marshes, swamps, back waters of rivers and streams, also flying along forest edges, trails and clearings (de Marmels 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva described by de Marmels (1990).	eng
158897	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be widespread in 40 locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158897	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158898	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158898	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil (Williamson 1915; Fraser 1946; de Marmels 1992, 1997; Pessaq 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158898	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small muddy streams with banks covered with dense brush; adults found flying near water surface and perching in shade under overhanging bushes (Williamson 1915), and in tandem at a broad river in the forest; tenerals (state after moulting) perching on sunlit bushes in forest away from water (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.	eng
158898	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158898	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158899	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158899	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guadeloupe, Dominica and Costa Rica to Trinidad, Venezuela and southern Brazil (Selys 1876, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158899	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Ponds and pools with abundant aquatic vegetation (collection labels; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158899	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 13 localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158899	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158900	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, ecology and range, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158900	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in Panama to Trinidad, Venezuela and Brazil (Williamson 1916, Leonard 1977, Garrison 1985, de Marmels 1989).	eng
158900	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults found at small swamp, around water supply reservoirs (Williamson 1916) and at small swamp fed by a stream with abundant emergent vegetation (de Marmels 1989).	eng
158900	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.	eng
158900	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158901	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys needed to find more localities, establish distribution area, study biology and evaluate threats.	eng
158901	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Localities old and vague (McLachlan 1895, Förster1905, Martin 1909); Rio de Janeiro in Brazil to Aguaray river  (most likely in San Pedro province) in Paraguay (Williamson 1923).	eng
158901	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	One of the localities refers to the bank of Aguaray river in Paraguay (Foerster 1905); no further data is available.	eng
158901	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	This species is only known from two localities and there is no known population information.	eng
158901	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158902	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158902	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Suriname, French Guiana and Venezuela (Needham 1940, Geijskes 1946, Belle 1970, de Marmels 1985, Machet 1991).	eng
158902	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults in shady gallery forests of savanna and evergreen jungle, where they roost high on trees; females descend to water to oviposit, males never descend (Belle, 1986). Larva described by Needham (1944) and Belle (1970), breeds in sandy bottomed streams among decaying leaves.&#160; To metamorphose, it crawls to roots and twigs of bank vegetation or steams and leaves of water plants (Belle 1986).	eng
158902	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from seven locations and thought to be more widespread across lowland Amazon forest although no population data is available.	eng
158902	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158903	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158903	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from central Colombia to Ecuador (Garrison 2006).	eng
158903	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on small trees, 3-5 m above the ground, at the head of openings on steep, narrow and shady bedrock streams; larva described by Garrison (2006).	eng
158903	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known to be common from the ten locations it occurs in.	eng
158903	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158904	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department Peru (Loton <em>et al</em>. 1996, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158904	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Colombia, Venezuela and Suriname south to Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Ris 1910, 1919, 1930; de Marmels 1989, 1997; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006) [material from Panana and Costa Rica from original series corresponded to other species, see Ris 1930]	eng
158904	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes pools, ponds, sloughs, streams of sluggish current and muddy bottom (Ris 1930, Loton <em>et al</em>. 1996, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158904	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 15 localities, two situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158904	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158905	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Calilegua, Jujuy province, and Iguazu, Misiones, province, and Reserva Acambuco, Salta province, Argentina, and Ta (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006), Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, and Reserva Tapanti, Cartago province, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).	eng
158905	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in southern USA to northern Argentina (Calvert 1956, Ris 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158905	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults strong flyers over ponds and pools with abundant aquatic vegetation where the larva breeds (Calvert 1956).	eng
158905	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from 40 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158905	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158906	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Research needed to complete knowledge on taxonomy, biology, establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158906	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Garrison 1990).	eng
158906	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in forest (Garrison 1990). Female and larva still unknown.	eng
158906	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is only known from its type locality and so data is lacking on population size.	eng
158906	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158907	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158907	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Andes in Napo Province, Ecuador (Mauffray 1999).	eng
158907	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes stream tributaries and seepage areas; adults fly in sunlight down from vegetation overhanging water, and up to 1-3 m above landing on leaves (Mauffray 1999). Larva unknown.	eng
158907	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in a very small area although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
158907	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158908	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Possibly present in Chagres Panama Canal National Park but presence not yet confirmed. Surveys needed to find more localities, establish distribution area, study biology and evaluate threats.	eng
158908	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Colombia, Antioquia department (type locality) and Panama, Colon Province (Williamson 1923, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158908	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Information from type locality (Williamson 1918, 1923) describes the preferred habitat as a small, sluggish stream within forest of tall trees, spiny palms and lower shrubs and vines, 2-3 m in width and maximum depth of 1 m with a firm muddy bottom.	eng
158908	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	This species is only known from two localities and there is no known population information.	eng
158908	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Williamson (1918) indicated that the forest where the holotype was found was being destroyed to furnish fuel for a railroad.	eng
158909	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.	eng
158909	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in Andean rainforest in Junin, Peru (Schmidt 1942, Leonard 1977 as <em>Acanthagrion deceptum</em>).	eng
158909	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Previously found on banks of rivers (Schmidt 1942). Larva unknown.	eng
158909	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	No data available on population status or trends.	eng
158909	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158910	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro state and Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, Brazil, and Reserva Natural del Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158910	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread across South America, from Colombia and Venezuela to Paraguay and Argentina (Borror 1942, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006).	eng
158910	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Common at marshes, ponds and streams with abundant vegetation; larva described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (1991).	eng
158910	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158910	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158911	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Waorami, Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158911	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Colombia (Fraser 1946) to Ecuador R.W. Garrison 2006.	eng
158911	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species; female and larva unknown.	eng
158911	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in a very small area and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
158911	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158912	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158912	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Belize and Guatemala south to Bolivia and Brazil (Calvert 1906, 1948; Ris 1910, 1919; Fraser 1946; Geijskes 1971; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158912	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at ponds, lake shores, ditches, open fields and forest trails (R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva described by Fleck (2003).	eng
158912	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 32 locations, two of which are within protected areas.	eng
158912	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158913	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish if distribution is as restricted as currently known, as well as surveys to find out if it occurs in any of the protected areas in Brazil.	eng
158913	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Calvert 1946, Westfall 1992, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
158913	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along shores of small lakes (Calvert 1946); female and larva unknown.	eng
158913	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
158913	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Human development in the area could be causing habitat alteration.	eng
158914	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158914	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Type described from 'Amazon region in South America' (Martin 1909); later found in Amazon forest of Venezuela (Geijskes 1964).	eng
158914	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat and larva are unknown.	eng
158914	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is very little known about this species although it is thought to be widespread, however no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158914	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158915	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Callicebus, in Loreto department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158915	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (Bick and Bick 1986).	eng
158915	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within forest; adults active all year long except for December (Bick and Bick 1986). Larva unknown.	eng
158915	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from nine localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158915	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158916	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158916	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).	eng
158916	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.	eng
158916	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original descriptions and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158916	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158917	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Not possible to design conservation measures if identity of species is not solved first. Unknown location, habitat, biology, trends and threats.	eng
158917	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from original description, from Buenos Aires provinces, Argentina (Navás 1920).	eng
158917	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; habitat, female and larva are all unknown.	eng
158917	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	With a disputed taxonomy, there is no population numbers available for this species.	eng
158917	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158918	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158918	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Cayman Islands, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, French Guiana and Suriname (Hagen in Selys 1877, Calvert 1902, 1909; Santos 1961, Machet 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158918	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurring among littoral vegetation of ponds and marshes (R.W. Garrison pers. comm. 2006). This species thrives in tropical lowlands with well-developed dry seasons, where it apparently siccatates (spends the dry season) as an immature adult (de Marmels 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. obs. 2006) then matures and breeds rapidly as the rains come, with very rapid larval development and two broods during the rainy season. Other populations breed in permanent marshes.	eng
158918	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 50 locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158918	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158919	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Area mentioned as being currently protected (Lencioni 2001). Surveys needed to establish trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158919	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Sao Paulo, Brazil (Lencioni 2001).	eng
158919	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small streams in flooded areas of Atlantic forest (Lencioni 2001). Larva still unknown.	eng
158919	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on the population status of this species due to recent discovery (in 2001).	eng
158919	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surrounding area subject to deforestation (Lencioni 2001).	eng
158920	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Two known localities not within protected areas, of  conservation status; surveys to find more localities, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158920	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Loreto department, Peru (Cowley 1941, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158920	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest; habitat requirements, female and larva are all unknown.	eng
158920	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158920	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158921	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158921	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in the foothills of the Andean forest in Ecuador, from Sucumbios to Napo provinces (Dunkle 1991, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158921	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Shade dwellers of ponds, sloughs and swamps, perching on shaded emergent plants or waterside twigs and foraging among gloomy rainforest undergrowth (Dunkle 1991). Female and larvae unknown.	eng
158921	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	First described in 1991, this species is expected to be more widespread than originally recorded but data is lacking.	eng
158921	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158922	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Type locality situated within a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158922	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	So far known only from its type locality in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil (Costa and Santos 2000).	eng
158922	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Atlantic forest species; larva unknown.	eng
158922	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.	eng
158922	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158923	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends, evaluate threats and establish if present within existing protected areas.	eng
158923	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Rondonia and Para states in Brazil to French Guiana (Geijskes 1976, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158923	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within lowland forest; larva unknown. Usually found in rain.	eng
158923	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from only five locations but extent of occurrence is large currently not under threat, therefore the species is expected to be widespread.	eng
158923	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158924	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys needed to establish if species is still found at its original locality and if it is found elsewhere along eastern coast of Brazil and within protected areas.	eng
158924	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found along east coast of Rio de Janerio in Brazil; known only from type series which included 40 males and 15 females collected over a lapse of 12 years (from 1953 - 1965; Santos 1965).	eng
158924	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes ponds (Lagoa das Taxas, Santos 1965). Larva unknown.	eng
158924	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population status is not known because the species has not been seen since its description in 1965.	eng
158924	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Urban development leading to habitat alteration by clearing of forest and pollution. Type locality, and only locality known so far, situated in an Ecological park (Chico Mendez) in populous Rio de Janeiro.	eng
158925	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not under threat. Surveys needed to find out more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
158925	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazonas forest in Amapa and Para states, Brazil (Machado 1964).	eng
158925	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1964); larva unknown.	eng
158925	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from two locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158925	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158926	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas. Surveys needed to study biology and trends, to see if species occurs within protected areas and to evaluate threats.	eng
158926	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil (Santos 1968).	eng
158926	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes slow moving streams, with lentic areas and floating vegetation (Pontederiaceae), scarce marginal vegetation or bushes (Santos 1968).	eng
158926	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities not situated within protected areas with a very small extent of occurrence and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158926	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158927	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Taxonomic status doubtful, needs to be solved before any categorization is possible.	eng
158927	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality, in Bahia, Brazil (Machado 1996, Garrison 2006).	eng
158927	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small streams (Machado 1996); female and larva still unknown.	eng
158927	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Disputed taxonomy, therefore population assessment and information available is lacking.	eng
158927	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158928	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva de Tambopata, and Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158928	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest of Peru, Ecuador and Brazil (Dunkle 1982; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158928	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, pools, swamps and temporary streams in shady lowland forest (Dunkle 1982, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Dunkle described the egg and early larval stages (Dunkle 1982).	eng
158928	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities, three situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158928	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158929	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158929	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Mexico, south to Bolivia and Brazil (Belle 1973, 1991; St. Quentin 1973; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158929	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva described by Belle (1991), and by Limongi (1983) from rapid sections of stony river with sandy margins, where it burrows.	eng
158929	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158929	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158930	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Locality not within a protected area; status of conservation . Surveys to establish distribution area and breeding habitat, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158930	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in Caqueta department, Colombia (Dunkle 1986).	eng
158930	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat available, but most likely streams as in other species of the genus. Female and larva unknown.	eng
158930	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and two male specimens and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158930	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158931	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158931	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Para and Rondonia states in Brazil and Amazonas Federal Territory in Venezuela (Belle 1982, de Marmels 1989).	eng
158931	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes creeks, adults perch on dead branches and twigs or green leaves over water (Belle 1982). Larva and female unknown.	eng
158931	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158931	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158932	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158932	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in Espirito santo State, Brazil (Ris 1911, Belle 1973).	eng
158932	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; larva unknown.	eng
158932	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type series and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158932	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158933	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known location within a protected area: Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Santos 1970, R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys needed to find out if it is distributed elsewhere in similar environments of Atlantic forest; establish distribution range, study trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158933	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Santos 1970, Lencioni 1999, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158933	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in Atlantic forest (Santos 1970, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158933	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is known from only one location.	eng
158933	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158934	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species description vague and species validity doubtful, could correspond to another described species; taxonomic revision necessary.	eng
158934	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from its type locality in Loreto, Peru (Navás 1924).	eng
158934	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Female and larvae unknown.	eng
158934	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158934	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158935	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Ecologica do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE), Distrito Federal, Parque Nacional Serra do Cipo, Minas Gerais state, Parque Nacional Itatiaiia, Rio de Janeiro state, Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, and Parque Nacional Aparados da Serra, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Assis and Costa 1994; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158935	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil from Goias to Rio Grande do Sul states (Santos 1953; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158935	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva described by Assis and Costa (1994) from temporary ponds.	eng
158935	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 20 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
158935	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158936	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158936	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known only from type locality, lowland forest in Rondonia, Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924).	eng
158936	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults reported flying above bushes and grass along bank of stream, with irregular jerky flight, and perching with folded wings on tip of grasses in the sun; hard to see and catch - when perched inconspicuous, on the wing do not look like dragonflies but rather like flies (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Also common along forested edges of large oxbow lakes.	eng
158936	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Although this species is known only from one locality, it is thought to be more widespread.  Population data is lacking however.	eng
158936	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158937	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158937	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from S Panama through Peru to Bolivia (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2003).	eng
158937	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly along banks of rivers at dusk (collection data, University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology 2003, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva and larval habitat could be phytotelmata or temporary pools as in other known species in this genus (Garrison <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
158937	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from at least four locations although population details are lacking.	eng
158937	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158938	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158938	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from lowland Amazon forest from Rondonia, Brazil, to Beni, Bolivia and Madre de Dios, Peru (Garrison 1990).	eng
158938	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Creeks and small streams in forests and clearings of lowland forest (Garrison 1990).	eng
158938	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158938	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158939	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158939	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest of Brazil and Peru (Santos 1949, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158939	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along large oxbow lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); female undescribed and larva unknown.	eng
158939	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158939	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158940	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158940	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Amazon forest from Guyana to eastern Peru and Brazil (Belle 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158940	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes creeks and rivers in Amazon forest. Adults crepuscular (Williamson and Williamson 1930, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva found at small bush creek clinging to a grass blade in process of metamorphosis in the morning described by Belle (1989).	eng
158940	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Thought to be widespread in at least 22 locations but no information is available on size or trend of population.	eng
158940	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	None known.	eng
158941	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Garrison 1997). Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158941	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known so far only from type locality in Madre de Dios Department, Peru (Garrison 1997).	eng
158941	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Shallow palm swamps with submerged dead tree trunks and snags along margins; adults uncommon and flying low over water surface in and out of vegetation, and along trails within primary rainforest (Garrison 1997). Larva unknown.	eng
158941	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158941	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158942	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys on distribution, biology, trends and threats necessary.	eng
158942	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Cochabamba State in Bolivia (Daigle 2004).	eng
158942	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Shaded and tangled forest margin of large lakes (Daigl 2004). Larva habitat is unknown.&#160; Probably coincidentally associated with large lakes; more likely to breed in small water bodies, as seems to be the case with other <em>Metaleptobasis</em>, most or all of which very likely breed in seasonal forest pools and swamps because they are found spread throughout the forest during the dry season (admittedly no confirmation by larval collections).	eng
158942	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	A recently described species that requires further fieldwork looking at population status and trends.	eng
158942	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158943	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica, and Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158943	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and Ecuador (Ris 1918, Williamson 1919, Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158943	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along streams and rivers, perching with spread wings on twig tips. During the afternoon come out from the jungle to open places along creek, where they catch prey from advantageous perch, returning always to same spot. Males fight dancing rapidly head on before each other. Females oviposit unattended by males (Williamson 1919). Larva unknown.	eng
158943	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 16 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158943	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158944	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158944	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Suriname (Needham 1944, Belle 1966, 1973, 1977), Venezuela (de Marmels 1981, 1989) and Brazil (Belle 1994).	eng
158944	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers and creeks of sandy bottom. Males and females perch on leaves of branches overhanging water, flying swiftly close to water in sunlight; larvae burrow into sand of banks, emerge on bare sandy patches of banks or climbing up plants close to water's edge around midday (Belle 1966). Larva described by Needham (1944) and Belle (1966).	eng
158944	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species appears to be common in the ten locations it is found in.	eng
158944	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158945	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Not known from any protected area, but area of distribution not currently threatened, and probably more widespread than known within poorly sampled Amazon forest. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158945	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Williamson and Williamson 1924, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158945	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along creeks within lowland forest (Williamson and Williamson 1924); larva unknown.	eng
158945	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from five localities not situated within protected areas but thought to be widespread in the poorly sampled forests.	eng
158945	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158946	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known locality not within a protected area; surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158946	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in Tungurahua province, Ecuador (Bick and Bick 1991).	eng
158946	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in Andean Montane rainforest (Bick and Bick 1991); larva unknown.	eng
158946	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158946	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158947	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158947	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158947	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes marshes, ponds and streams (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Typical of small marshes within forests (Paulson pers. obs. 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158947	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158947	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158948	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known locations not within protected areas. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158948	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Sao Paulo and Bahia states in Brazil and San Pedro department in Paraguay (Santos 1957, Lencioni 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158948	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within forest (Machado 1957, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158948	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158948	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158949	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in several protected areas (von Ellenrieder 2003): Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta and Parque Nacional Puyehue (Chile); Parque Nacional Los Alerces, Parque Nacional Lanin and Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi (Argentina).	eng
158949	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in sub-Antarctic forests of the Austral biogeographic region of southwestern Argentina and southern Chile (von Ellenrieder 2003).	eng
158949	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly along streams, small rivers, and lake shores (von Ellenrieder 2003). Larva described by Calvert (1956) and von Ellenrieder (2001).	eng
158949	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from 200 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158949	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
158950	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158950	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Goias state in Brazil south to Paraguay (Calvert 1909, Costa 1978).	eng
158950	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva described by Costa (1981) from specimens collected in small temporary pools.	eng
158950	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 19 locations.	eng
158950	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158951	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158951	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Panama south to Peru and Brazil (Calvert 1907, 1948; Ris 1911; Navás 1923; Geijskes 1971; de Marmels 1989; Belle 1998; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158951	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Swamps, banks of rivers, streams and lakes within forest (Ris 1911, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158951	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 12 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158951	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158952	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
158952	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Paraguay and southern Brazil (Bulla 1971, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
158952	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva still unknown.	eng
158952	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Recently seen again since its first description although data regarding population numbers are lacking.	eng
158952	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158953	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158953	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Santa Catarina state, Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995).	eng
158953	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes Atlantic forest in Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995). Female and larva unknown.	eng
158953	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.	eng
158953	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158954	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Several new species described since the species was discovered (in 1877) in the genus; examination of other specimens described by Calvert (1909) and Bayer <em>et al</em>. (1900) is&#160; necessary to confirm specific identity.	eng
158954	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Described based on a single female from 'Amazonas' in South America (Selys 1877); Bayern <em>et al</em>. (1900) assigned a specimen from 'Colombia' to this species, and Calvert (1909) a male from Chapada, Brazil.<br/>Based on the similarity of the species in this genus and the potential difficulty in associating males and females (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006), it might be safer to base knowledge of this species on the type. Most species probably have limited ranges, and it seems unlikely that the Colombia and Chapada specimens are the same species.	eng
158954	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Association of male by (Calvert 1909) in doubt; possibly male still undescribed. Larva unknown.	eng
158954	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Limited information available from original description and population status is lacking.	eng
158954	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158955	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Daigle 2003). Surveys to establish trends and confirm absence of threats necessary.	eng
158955	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Sucumbios and Napo provinces in Ecuador (Daigle 2003, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158955	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Eutrophic (water body rich in nutrients) oxbow lakes; adults fly in shaded and tangled rainforest lake margins (Daigle 2003). Larva unknown.&#160; This species is common at the shore of a swampy permanent lagoon and may well breed in it. Abundant there on one visit in 1977 (D.R. Paulson pers. obs. 2006).	eng
158955	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	A new species known from two locations and thought to be widespread but no detail on population numbers are available.	eng
158955	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158956	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species validity doubtful, could correspond to many of the already described species of <em>Micrathyria</em>. Type specimen apparently lost.	eng
158956	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is only known from type locality in Loreto department, Peru (Navás 1922).	eng
158956	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes lowland forest; breeding habitat, male and larva are all unknown.	eng
158956	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Disputed taxonomy, therefore population assessment and information available is lacking.	eng
158956	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158957	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known locality is not present within a protected area, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology, trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158957	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Morona Santiago province, Ecuador (Kennedy 1946).	eng
158957	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes montane rainforest; breeding habitat, female and larva unknown.	eng
158957	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158957	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158958	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158958	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Peru and Paraguay (Ris 1913, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158958	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat available, adults have been found near rivers and lakes (collection data: Ris 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158958	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from six locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158958	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158959	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158959	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Uruguay, northeastern Argentina, Paraguay and southeastern Brazil (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1981, Muzon 1993, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158959	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat known to include temporary ponds (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158959	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 11 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158959	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158960	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158960	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1854, Selys 1873).	eng
158960	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).	eng
158960	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from two male specimens and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158960	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158961	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department, and Reserva Natural Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).	eng
158961	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Paraguay, Brazil, French Guiana and Venezuela (Ris 1910, 1919; Jurzitza 1982; de Marmels 1985, 1990; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158961	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds and marshes within forest (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158961	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 12 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158961	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158962	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Guaramacal, in Trujillo state and Perija, in Zulia state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1995).	eng
158962	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Montane rainforest in the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1992, de Marmels 1995).	eng
158962	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Streams and little brooks in montane rainforest. Females oviposit on decomposing twigs and pieces of wood fallen on stream bed and on nets of roots barely covered with water (de Marmels 1995). Larvae, described by de Marmels (1995), live under stones and pieces of wood under small waterfalls.	eng
158962	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 40 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158962	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158963	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1995), and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158963	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Andes from Venezuela to Peru (Bick and Bick 1995, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158963	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Marshes and trails within primary forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); widespread on forest trails in dry season, probably breeds in temporary swamp pools (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158963	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158963	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158964	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to complete knowledge on taxonomy, biology, habitat preferences, distribution, trends and threats	eng
158964	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known from type locality, in Bartica district, Guyana (Calvert 1948).	eng
158964	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No data is available. Male and larva unknown.	eng
158964	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No data is available on this species that is known only from its type locality.	eng
158964	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158965	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Biologica da Boraceia, Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001).	eng
158965	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Minas Gerais to Santa Catarina states in Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001).	eng
158965	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds and marshes in lowland Atlantic forest; larva habitat unknown but presumed to breed in bromeliads (Santos 1962).	eng
158965	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 16 locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158965	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158966	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
158966	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Williamson and Williamson 1924, Kennedy 1937, de Marmels 1982, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
158966	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly along trails, creeks and streams in dense forest (Williamson and Williamson 1924, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Larva unknown.	eng
158966	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from seven localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158966	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158967	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra do Cipo, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (R.W. Garrison 2006). Surveys needed to establish biology and monitor trends and threats.	eng
158967	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo states in Brazil (Williamson 1919, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158967	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers within Atlantic forest (R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158967	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158967	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Clear cutting of Atlantic forest.	eng
158968	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua state, Venezuela (Rácenis 1953).	eng
158968	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Calvert 1924; Rácenis 1953, 1959; de Marmels 1982; Bick and Bick 1988).	eng
158968	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva lives under stones, described by de Marmels (1982) from a stream of clear water and sandy bottom running through a gallery forest. Males dance head on like <em>Heteragrion</em>, one passing above the other; male holds female entirely by hind lobe of her prothorax; active until 4 PM (Calvert 1924).	eng
158968	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 15 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158968	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158969	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.	eng
158969	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Andean mountain forest in Bolivia (Ris 1918, Garrison 2006).	eng
158969	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small rocky streams (Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
158969	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Due to poor sampling effort, no population numbers are known.	eng
158969	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158970	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158970	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela and French Guiana (Borror 1957, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158970	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes marshes and ponds; larva unknown.	eng
158970	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from six locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158970	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158971	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158971	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is found in Huanuco and Loreto departments in Peru (Ris 1918, Schmidt 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006) and Venezuela (de Marmels 1990, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158971	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
158971	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 5 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158971	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158972	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158972	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil (Borror 1942, Muzon 1995, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
158972	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, pools and marshes; larva described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (1991).	eng
158972	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 25 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158972	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158973	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only two localities known not within protected areas, with  status of conservation. Surveys to establish distribution range, study biology, trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
158973	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from original description based on specimens from two locations in Colombia, in Antioquia and Boyaca states (Ris 1918).	eng
158973	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers (Ris 1918); breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
158973	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from two locations and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158973	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158974	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to study biology, trends, determine if present in protected areas, and evaluate threats.	eng
158974	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Costa Rica, Panama and Peru (Ris 1918, Williamson 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158974	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers and streams in mountain forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158974	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158974	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158975	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas.	eng
158975	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread from Mexico south to Colombia and Venezuela (Bick and Bick 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158975	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Stream and creeks within forest. Males defend an oviposition site (piece of decomposing wood fallen on margin or bed of stream), from other males from a perch; females arrive at stream around midday, and copula takes place on shoreline vegetation after a pre-copulatory display from the male; females oviposit unguarded (Gonzalez Soriano and Verdugo Garza 1984). Larva described by Novelo Gutierrez and Gonzalez Soriano (1985) and life history by Pritchard (1996).	eng
158975	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This is a widespread and common species.	eng
158975	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158976	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158976	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Cuzco department, Peru (Belle 1992).	eng
158976	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Holotype male collected at the Urubamba river, one of the headwaters of the Amazonas; female and larva unknown.	eng
158976	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
158976	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158977	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu and Reserva de Tambopata, in Madre de Dios Department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158977	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Range includes southwestern Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, northern Brazil and eastern Peru (Ris 1911, Geijskes 1971, de Marmels 1989, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, Costa and Oldrini 2003, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158977	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found in deep forest perching on leaves or sticks along small shaded rivulets (de Marmels 1989); also in palm swamps within primary forest (in lowland Peru, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Larvae camouflage with detritus, and were described by Fleck (2003).	eng
158977	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158977	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158978	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution and trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158978	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Possibly occurs in Suriname (Selys 1876); no known locality.	eng
158978	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva undescribed.	eng
158978	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known only from an incomplete holotype and therefore information on population status is lacking.	eng
158978	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158979	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Brazil (Costa 1978, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
158979	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southeastern Brazil, from Espirito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul states (Costa 1978).	eng
158979	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds and marshes; larva described by Costa <em>et al</em>. (2000).	eng
158979	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from only four locations (one inside a protected area) and the population status is not known.	eng
158979	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158980	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158980	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Tachira state in Venezuela and western Andean cordillera in Colombia (Bick and Bick 1992).	eng
158980	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams in montane rainforest; larva unknown.	eng
158980	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 10 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158980	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158981	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Acambuco, Salta, Argentina, and National Park Iguazu, Misiones, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
158981	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread in South America, from northern Argentina to Brazil and Trinidad (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1981, Muzon 1993, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158981	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Standing water bodies including ponds, pools and marshes within forests and in grasslands; larva described by Muzon and Weigel-Munoz (2006) from shallow temporary pools.	eng
158981	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158981	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158982	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158982	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (Williamson 1917, Geijskes 1941, R.W. Garrison 2006) to Trinidad (Paulson 2002) and Para State in Brazil (St. Quentin 1960, Garrison 1997).	eng
158982	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes swamps, pools and associated streams; adult fly slowly and heavily (Williamson 1917); larva described by Geijskes (1941).	eng
158982	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158982	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158983	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Estacion Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica (Jurzitza 1981, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158983	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread along Neotropical region, from Mexico south to Argentina and Paraguay (Calvert 1909; Ris 1913, 1919; Jurzitza 1981; de Marmels 1992; Boomsma and Dunkle 1996; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006; US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003).	eng
158983	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at streams and rivers within primary and secondary forest (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996), and hovering over open fields; larva unknown.	eng
158983	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 34 locations (several being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158983	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158984	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158984	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Espirito Santo state, Brazil (Belle 1973).	eng
158984	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; larva unknown.	eng
158984	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158984	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158985	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The Amazonia National Park straddles the Tapajós River near Itaituba, covering 9,935 km² but suffers from inadequate administrative capacity (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html); possibly present in other protected areas of Amazonia in northern Brazil (seven new protected areas encompassing 37 acres created in December 2006 in Para state). Surveys needed to establish its current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats and presence in protected area.	eng
158985	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Amazonas state in Brazil (Machado 2002).	eng
158985	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults crepuscular, flying along river banks in forest (Machado 2002); female and larva still unknown.	eng
158985	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from the type specimen in (2002) but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.	eng
158985	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Gold mining on the Tapajós river near the city of Itaituba (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0135_full.html).	eng
158986	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158986	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazonas and Bolivar states in Venezuela (de Marmels 1992).	eng
158986	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found in the forest away from water (de Marmels 1992); breeding habitat, female and larva are all unknown.	eng
158986	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158986	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	According to de Marmels (1992, 1999), the region is completely covered by a closed canopy of virgin rain forest interrupted only by meandering rivers, and it is not threatened due to its difficult access.	eng
158987	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158987	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from central Chile from regions Coquimbo in the north to Araucania in the south (Jurztiza 1974, 1975, 1986, 1989; Fraser 1957; R.W. Garrison 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158987	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults occur at lotic environments (Jurzitza 1989), and females oviposit in water plants (Jurzitza 1986).	eng
158987	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no population data available although the species appears to be common.	eng
158987	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158988	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela, and Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Garrison 1983, Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
158988	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Panama south to Bolivia and northeastern Argentina (de Marmels and Rácenis 1982; Garrison 1983; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158988	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly over river banks and open fields, forming small swarms (Garrison 1983, de Marmels 1989). Larva unknown.	eng
158988	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 32 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158988	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158989	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected area: Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158989	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Venezuela, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia (Williamson and Williamson 1924; de Marmels 1982, 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158989	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found in forest along creeks and streams, flying close to the ground or perching by hanging with folded wings from tips of leaves (Williamson and Williamson 1924). Larva unknown.	eng
158989	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from ten locations over are large area but population numbers are unavailable.	eng
158989	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158990	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Calilegua, Jujuy province, Argentina (Donnelly <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
158990	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs from Venezuela to northwestern Argentina along the Andean montane rainforest (Ris 1918, Belle 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158990	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Males patrol sections of stream, often chasing one another, only when sunny; land frequently on rocks and always return to same spot (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva burrows in soft sediments along stream margins and under leaves and detritus behind rocks in middle of rivers; described by Limongi (1983).	eng
158990	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 20 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
158990	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158991	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
158991	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is so far known only from type locality in Mato Grosso, Brazil (de Marmels 2003).	eng
158991	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Preferred habitat is probably river (Rio Papagaio - from collection labels of same province). Larva still unknown.	eng
158991	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on the population status of this species due to recent discovery (2003).	eng
158991	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158992	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but not currently threatened; field studies needed to find more locations and establish distribution area, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
158992	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Brazil and Venezuela (Machado 1985, de Marmels, 1989).	eng
158992	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers within lowland Amazon forest (Machado 1985, de Marmels 1989). Female and larva unknown.	eng
158992	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from two locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158992	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158993	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158993	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest of Bolivia and Peru (Belle 1973, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158993	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams on primary and secondary lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1973, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996); female and larva are unknown.	eng
158993	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and four locations (two within protected areas) but population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158993	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158994	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158994	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species occurs in forests from Ecuador and Peru to southwestern Brazil and northern Argentina (Leonard 1977, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158994	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Ponds, streams and rivers of mountain and foothill jungle. Adults perch on leaves and twigs of waterside vegetation, and on grass blades along shores, close to water surface. Females oviposit inside stems of floating plants or masses of algae while in tandem with males, and may go completely underwater to lay eggs (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva unknown.	eng
158994	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.	eng
158994	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158995	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158995	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in South Venezuela to west Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, 1961; Leonard 1977; de Marmels 1989b, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
158995	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly over water and along shore vegetation (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.	eng
158995	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Unknown population size or trend due to lack of sampling.	eng
158995	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158996	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected area: Parque Nacional Nahuelbuta, Chile (Schmidt 1941).	eng
158996	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Southern Chile, from Valparaiso and Metropolitan regions south to de los Lagos region (Selys 1878, Schmidt 1941, Jurzitza 1989).	eng
158996	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small streams along shaded ravines (Pirion 1933), larger streams with rocks and large rivers (Jurzitza 1989). Adults perch on stones or on the ground at river banks in the sun, and fly with an undulating pattern (Jurzitza 1975); female lays eggs on leaves of Lingue and Canelo at 40-50 cm over the water (Pirion 1933). Larva described by Needham and Bullock (1943).	eng
158996	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from ten locations, one being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.	eng
158996	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158997	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
158997	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Peru to Bolivia (Fraser 1946, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158997	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers (from label data, R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva unknown.	eng
158997	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158997	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158998	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not threatened. Surveys needed to find more locations, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
158998	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (Rácenis 1955, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
158998	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small rivers and forest streams (Rácenis 1955, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); larva unknown.	eng
158998	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
158998	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
158999	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Locality in Perija National Park, Zulia state, Venezuela. Surveys to establish distribution area, biology, trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
158999	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia state, Venezuela, near border with Colombia (de Marmels 2001).	eng
158999	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at small black water streamlets in upper cloud forest, near a peat bog (de Marmels 2001); larva unknown.	eng
158999	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
158999	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159000	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador, Reserva de Tambopata and Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159000	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Ecuador and Peru (Hoffmann 1991, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159000	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, sloughs, marshes, and swamps within forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); adults perch on dry twigs and vegetation overhanging shaded areas of ponds at about 1-2 m height (Hofmann 1991). Female undescribed and larva unknown.	eng
159000	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from ten localities, three situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159000	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159001	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159001	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Peru and Ecuador (Kennedy 1936, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159001	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown.	eng
159001	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from four localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159001	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159002	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area in Peru: Parque Nacional Manu (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
159002	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Ecuador to northwestern Argentina along the Yungas Andean rainforest (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2005, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006).	eng
159002	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults frequent forest trails close to mountain streams and seepage areas (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2005, locality data from Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); Beckemeyer (2002) reported females apparently ovipositing by flicking abdomen toward moss covering a cliff with dripping water. Larva undescribed, but most likely semi-terrestrial; larvae that would correspond to this species by association found on a moss covered slope by a dirt trail in Pakitza, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
159002	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more at least 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159002	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159003	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Muzon 1993).	eng
159003	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil to Misiones province in Argentina (Hagen In Selys 1862; Muzon 1993, 1997).	eng
159003	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds; larva unknown.	eng
159003	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159003	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159004	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159004	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and Peru (de Marmels 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159004	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Breeds in small clear stagnant pools with leaf litter within deep forest; males disappear when cloudy, and perch on leaves in the shade when sunny (de Marmels 1989); larva described by de Marmels (1992).	eng
159004	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159004	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159005	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159005	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Bahia to Parana states in Brazil (Selys 1871, Machado 2005); recorded from 'Suriname' by Martin (1907) with no locality.	eng
159005	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	'Restinga' (coastal broadleaf) forest with trees not higher than 8 m, sandy soil, abundant bromeliads, pools and marshy areas; adults present foraging flight around noon, flying in groups over sunny coastal roads (Machado 2005). Larva unknown.	eng
159005	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats are needed.	eng
159005	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159006	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	According to de Marmels (1999), area vastly unexplored, isolated and not currently under threat. Surveys needed to confirm absence of threats, establish distribution, and study biology and trends.	eng
159006	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Auyantepui (Guyana highland) in Bolivar state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1994).	eng
159006	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found over swampy strip with grassy vegetation, slowly running and stagnant water, between a small river and a forest (de Marmels 1994). Larva unknown.	eng
159006	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description (1999) and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159006	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	It is not known if this species is under any threat.	eng
159007	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159007	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Rondonia and Mato Grosso states in Brazil (Belle 1994).	eng
159007	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers of lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1994); larva unknown.	eng
159007	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159007	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159008	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159008	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from occurs in Lima department in Peru to La Paz province in Bolivia (von Ellenrieder 2003).	eng
159008	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults found at the high altitude Andean environments of the Puna plateau, near quieter and shallow sections of streams and adjacent marshy ponds, and at the Titicaca lake. Larva unknown (von Ellenrieder 2003).	eng
159008	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from at least 15 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159008	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159009	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159009	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in forest between eastern Brazil, Ecuador south to Peru and Bolivia (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159009	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes seeps, marshes and streams (R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159009	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Appears to be abundant and common in all field surveys.	eng
159009	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159010	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159010	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Para state in Brazil (Selys 1854, Belle 1988).	eng
159010	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on breeding habitat; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).	eng
159010	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159010	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159011	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159011	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Cochabamba department, Bolivia (Belle 1979).	eng
159011	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information on breeding habitat available; female and larva unknown (Belle 1979).	eng
159011	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159011	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159012	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios state, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159012	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (McLachlan 1881, Sjoedstedt 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159012	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found along forest trails (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 200, R.W. Garrison 2006); breeding habitat and larva most likely prefer phytotelmata (water-bodies held by plants) as in other species of genus (tree holes, bamboo internodes, bromeliads or fallen fruit or nut husks).	eng
159012	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from six locations (one being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159012	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159013	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva Ducke, Amazonas, Brazil (R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159013	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southern Venezuela to Brazil (Belle 1977, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159013	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes lowland Amazon forest; breeding habitat and larva are unknown. de Marmels (1989) noted that many adults were caught at night.	eng
159013	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159013	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159014	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys necessary to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and confirm absence of threats.	eng
159014	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from lowland forest from French Guiana to Suriname (Garrison 1990).	eng
159014	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small creeks in primary forest (Machet 1989); difficult to catch since it seems to prefer to perch on vegetation 5-7 m above the ground.	eng
159014	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Expected to occur in a wider distributed area than currently surveyed although no detailed information is known on population data.	eng
159014	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159015	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu and Reserva Cunapiru, Misiones province, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro State and Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159015	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (Ris 1910, Abenante and De Phillipi 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159015	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Swamps, pools, marshes, still waters at edge of streams and rivers, near to forested areas. Adults perch on grasses and reeds; pairs in copula land on bushes; females oviposit unguarded (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva burrows in soft sediments; described by Carvalho <em>et al</em>. (2002) and von Ellenrieder (2007).	eng
159015	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 30 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159015	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159016	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Garrison 1999).	eng
159016	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909; de Marmels 1989, 1992; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159016	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers in forest; adults fly under overhanging trees along river bank (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.	eng
159016	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from nine locations, one being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.	eng
159016	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159017	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
159017	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana and Rondonia state, Brazil (Williamson 1915, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159017	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1915, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159017	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from three locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159017	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159018	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
159018	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type specimen from Antioquia department, Colombia (Williamson 1919).	eng
159018	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adult found perching on twig tip of small dead bush on mid stream (Williamson 1919); female and larva unknown.	eng
159018	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159018	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159019	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159019	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Mexico to Colombia (Hagen in Selys 1853, Garrison 1990).	eng
159019	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Undisturbed streams; larva described by Zloty <em>et al</em>. (1993) who also provided electrophoretic information for 7 loci of adults of this species.	eng
159019	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 21 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159019	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159020	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159020	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Belle 1970).	eng
159020	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species; no information on breeding habitat or biology; female and larva unknown.	eng
159020	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on the population status of this species since its description.	eng
159020	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159021	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159021	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found in Venezuela and Guyana to southeastern Brazil (Leonard 1977, Lencioni 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159021	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes sluggish streams, slow rivers, small pools and marshes (Leonard 1977, collection data D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159021	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	A widespread species known from over 20 locations.	eng
159021	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159022	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species taxonomy needs to be further studied; so far known only from type specimen - later records probably refer to different species (i.e. Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000)	eng
159022	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found in Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1862).	eng
159022	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Atlantic forest species; female and larva unknown.	eng
159022	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159022	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Urban development leading to habitat alteration by clearing of forest and pollution.	eng
159023	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159023	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guyana, French Guiana, Venezuela and Brazil to Ecuador, Peru and Argentina (Montgomery 1940, de Marmels 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159023	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Ponds and marshes in lowland forests; adults perch with wings asymmetrically set on reeds and grasses (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.). Larva described by Fleck (2003) by supposition; he also postulates the species is likely univoltine (produce one brood per year).	eng
159023	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 20 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159023	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159024	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Baritu and Parque Nacional El Rey, Salta province; Parque Nacional Calilegua, and Reserva El Pantanoso, Jujuy province, Argentina (von Ellenrieder 2006).	eng
159024	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in montane rain forest from S Bolivia to northwestern Argentina (de Marmels 2001, von Ellenrieder 2006).	eng
159024	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Streams and rivers from foothill jungle to mountain forest of Andes cloud forest. Adults perch on vegetation overhanging water or on grass blades on shore. Freshly emerged individuals may perch with wings closed. Tandems perch on vegetation near shoreline. Females oviposit while still in tandem in moss covering rocks at stream margins and on leaves of riparian macrophytes (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Larva lives under stones and among riparian vegetation, described by von Ellenrieder (2006).	eng
159024	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 16 localities, four situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159024	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159025	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159025	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Federal Territory of Amazonas, Venezuela (Belle 1987, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159025	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species found along rivers (type locality) so far; female and larva unknown.	eng
159025	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159025	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159026	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
159026	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Selys 1869; Belle 1970, 1984; Machet, 1991).	eng
159026	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers; some adults collected at light; larva described by Belle (1970).	eng
159026	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 13 localities, none situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159026	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159027	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known to occur in one protected area: Parque Nacional Ybicuy, Paraguay (Garrsion 2006).	eng
159027	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in south Brazil to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Garrison 2006).	eng
159027	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Forested areas of narrow (maximum 2 m wide) streams of clear water, with waterfalls and with muddy or stony beds (Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.	eng
159027	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 30 locations and several are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking although it is widespread throughout its large range.	eng
159027	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159028	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina, and Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Brazil (Jurzitza 1981, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159028	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (Fraser 1947, Belle 1970, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159028	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Larva described by Costa (1968) from a pond built by a clear stream, with sandy and muddy bottom.	eng
159028	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159028	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159029	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996) and Reserva Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006)	eng
159029	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bolivia, Ecuador (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006); Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas (Calvert 1909, 1948; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159029	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found foraging along forest trails and near rivers and ponds (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996); breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
159029	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 19 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
159029	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159030	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department, Paraguay, and Reserva Natural Rincon de Santa Maria, Corrientes province, Argentina (Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159030	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in northeastern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil and Venezuela (Calvert 1909; Ris 1911; de Marmels 1983; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159030	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Permanent and temporary ponds with aquatic floating and submerged vegetation and margined with <em>Gramineae</em>, in open clearings in forest, shrub-lands and grasslands. Larva described by Souza and Costa (2002).	eng
159030	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 12 locations and two are within protected areas.  Population details are lacking.	eng
159030	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159031	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species description vague and species validity doubtful, could correspond to another described species; taxonomic revision necessary.	eng
159031	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Colombia (Navás 1935).	eng
159031	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Female and larva unknown.	eng
159031	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
159031	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159032	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Studies necessary to establish current distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm presence in protected areas and absence of threats.	eng
159032	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from central southern Chile, between Concepcion and Hornohuinco in Llanquihue province (Jurzitza 1975, 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159032	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Jurzitza (1975) states 'rare in Valdivia, more common in Concepcion'; wide rivers (Jurzitza 1975, 1989; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159032	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is assumed to occur within some protected areas, appears to be the least common but there is no detailed data available on population numbers and trends.	eng
159032	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159033	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159033	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas state, Brazil (Belle 1994).	eng
159033	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest; no information on particular habitat available. Female and larva unknown.	eng
159033	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available on this species and it is known only from the type specimen.	eng
159033	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159034	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159034	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Mexico to Venezuela (Leonard 1977, de Marmels 1983, Donnelly 1992, Boomsma and Dunkle 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159034	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and rivers (collection data, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva undescribed.	eng
159034	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	A widespread species but data on population size and trends are lacking.	eng
159034	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159035	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas but currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends and evaluate threats needed.	eng
159035	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela (Williamson 1915, de Marmels 1985, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159035	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1915, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159035	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159035	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159036	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159036	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from Venezuela (de Marmels 1988, Rácenis 1953) to Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006) along the Andes.	eng
159036	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes marshy areas (Garrison 1984).	eng
159036	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Population trends and size are not known although this species has been found in 8 localities.	eng
159036	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159037	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Peninsula del Paria, Sucre state, Venezuela. Surveys needed to study biology, establish trends and monitor threats.	eng
159037	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Eastern coastal cordillera in Sucre and Monagas states, Venezuela (de Marmels 1989).	eng
159037	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within forest (de Marmels 1989); larva unknown.	eng
159037	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159037	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat degradation through clear cutting of forest, forest fires and diversion of streams to build dams, especially on western portion of distribution range (de Marmels 1989).	eng
159038	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Two known localities not within a protected area, surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
159038	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Peru and Brazil (Kennedy 1941, Lencioni 2005).	eng
159038	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes creeks within lowland Amazon forest; female and larva unknown.	eng
159038	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159038	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159039	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159039	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs from Para state in Brazil (Selys 1854, Belle 1992) to Suriname (Belle 1970) and French Guiana (Belle 1972).	eng
159039	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Shaded creeks in lowland Amazon forest; adults perch on muddy banks or twigs, shy and difficult to approach within net-handle reach (Belle 1970). Larva described by supposition by Belle (1970) as <em>A. albinensis</em>.	eng
159039	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 5 locations but no population data is available.	eng
159039	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159040	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas in Costa Rica: Reserva Forestal San Ramon, Alajuela province and Reserva Tapanti, Cartago province (R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159040	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Costa Rica (Ris 1918, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006) to Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2007).	eng
159040	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, marshes, seepage pools (R.W. Garrison 2006 pers. comm.); larva unknown.	eng
159040	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from at least six localities (two are situated within protected areas) and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159040	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159041	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to study biology and trends, and to establish if present in protected areas and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
159041	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Eastern slope of the Andes from S Colombia to central Ecuador (de Marmels 2001).	eng
159041	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Montane rainforest species; adults collected along rivers; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).	eng
159041	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159041	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159042	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Eradication of invasive species, strengthening protected areas, and developing strong and effective community outreach programs (http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/ecuador/work/art5117.html).	eng
159042	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Galapagos Islands in Ecuador: Isla San Cristóbal (Chatham), Isla Santa Cruz and Isla Isabela (Albemarle) (Trueman 1967, Belle 1991, von Ellenrieder 2003). Surveys needed to establish and monitor trends.	eng
159042	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults found in the Pampa and <em>Miconia</em> zone (collection data, US National Museum, Smithsonian Institution 2003) and summit Grassland (Turner 1967). Belle (1991) reported males flying rather high around trees, and females hunting along the beach. Early larval instar described by Needham (1904).	eng
159042	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species occurs in a small area although over eight locations but no information is available on population size.	eng
159042	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Modification of habitat by invasive species (pigs, dogs, cats, rats, goats, donkeys, ants, quinine, guava, and blackberries) and increased human population growth on the islands. (http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/ecuador/work/art5117.html)	eng
159043	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.	eng
159043	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in eastern Para state in Brazil (Garrison 2006).	eng
159043	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species (Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159043	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Inferred as widespread but detailed information is lacking, including population size and trends.	eng
159043	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159044	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Peru (R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159044	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest from Venezuela to western Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Bick and Bick 1995, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159044	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, pools, sandy streams and marshes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006); larva unknown. Common at edge of oxbow lakes (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159044	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from ten localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159044	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159045	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159045	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Loreto and Huanuco departments in Peru (Belle 1976, Belle 1992).	eng
159045	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Presumably rivers (Paranapura river) in lowland Amazon forest (Belle 1992); larva unknown.	eng
159045	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Population data is lacking on population size and trends.	eng
159045	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159046	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159046	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known from type locality, in Amazonas State, Venezuela (Belle 1976).	eng
159046	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information available; female and larva unknown. Larvae of other species in this genus inhabit muddy or silt beds and banks of small creeks along gallery forests crossing the savanna (Belle 1966).	eng
159046	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159046	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159047	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There are currently no conservation measures in place.	eng
159047	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Colombia, Guyana, Suriname and Brazil (Williamson 1918, Calvert 1948, Belle 1982).	eng
159047	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Forest with <em>Heliconia</em>, bamboos and palms; adults perch on twig tips, not wary but once flushed flight is difficult to follow (Williamson 1918). Larva unknown. Particular breeding habitat for this species unknown, but most likely streams and rivers based on breeding habitat of other species of the genus and locality labels (Belle 1992).	eng
159047	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over four locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159047	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	It is not known if this species is under any threat.	eng
159048	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	One of the two known localities present in a protected area, Reserva Ecologica Taiama, Mato Grosso state, Brazil (Machado 2002). Surveys to establish its distribution range, biology and trends needed, as well as to evaluate threats.	eng
159048	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Pantanal wetlands of Matto Grosso state, Brazil (Machado 2002).	eng
159048	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of slow moving rivers, or hover close to water surface (Machado 2002); larva unknown.	eng
159048	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Species reported as very abundant (Machado 2002).	eng
159048	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159049	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish if it still occurs in type locality and in any other locations in Sao Paulo and other states of Brazil urgently needed; as well as establishment of protected area where it occurs.	eng
159049	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Sao Paulo state in Brazil (Borror 1942, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159049	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Breeding habitat, female and larva unknown (Borror 1942).	eng
159049	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.	eng
159049	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Inferred habitat degradation by human expansion in Sao Paulo area.	eng
159050	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159050	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found in Venezuela, Suriname and French Guiana (Belle 1983, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159050	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers within lowland Amazon forest; larva unknown.	eng
159050	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be more widespread than currently recorded however data on population numbers are lacking.	eng
159050	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159051	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159051	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from known only from vague original description, based on one male and one female from Santa Catarina state in Brazil (Navás 1916).	eng
159051	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species; larva unknown.	eng
159051	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats and it is described from only two male specimens.	eng
159051	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159052	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159052	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Rondonia and Para to Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Selys 1876, Santos 1961).	eng
159052	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Larva unknown.	eng
159052	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159052	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159053	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159053	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southeastern Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to Rio Grande do Sul states (Selys 1876, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, Lencioni 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159053	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lentic (still water) species, including marshes and swamps (Carvalho and Nessimian 1998). Larva unknown.	eng
159053	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from nine locations but population details are lacking.	eng
159053	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Area subject to human alteration, possibly for agricultural use.	eng
159054	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Yasuni, Ecuador (R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159054	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest of eastern Peru and eastern Ecuador (Daigle 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159054	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults fly close to water surface near or over quiet pools in shaded rainforest swamps and sluggish streams, from June to November (Daigle 2000). Larva unknown.	eng
159054	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Thought to be common within its range.	eng
159054	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159055	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159055	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known so far only from original description from Mato Grosso, Brazil (Machado and Costa 1995).	eng
159055	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Amazon forest species (Machado and Costa 1995). Male and larva unknown.	eng
159055	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from type locality only, therefore information lacking on population numbers.	eng
159055	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159056	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to study biology and trends, and to establish if present within protected areas and analyse threats.	eng
159056	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guyana and French Guiana (Williamson 1919, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159056	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers and creeks within lowland forest; female, breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
159056	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only three locations (none being within a protected area) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159056	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Area subject to human alteration, possibly due to agriculture.	eng
159057	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159057	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in La Paz department in Bolivia (Belle 1995).	eng
159057	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes montane rainforest but there is no information on breeding habitat available; female and larva are also unknown.	eng
159057	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159057	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159058	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Estadual Rio Doce; encompassing 35,976 hectares it contains the largest Atlantic forest patch in Minas Gerais (http://www.ilternet.edu/meetings/panama96/brazil/gustavo.html). Monitoring of species populations in park necessary, as well as surveys to find out if it occurs also in other areas of Atlantic forest in Brazil.	eng
159058	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Minas Gerais state in Brazil (Westfall 1992).	eng
159058	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds within Atlantic forest; larva unknown.	eng
159058	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from three locations including one within a protected area.  Population details are lacking and urgently needed due to industrial human disturbance.	eng
159058	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	A major threat is habitat alteration: the region had a subsistence agriculture and cattle farming economy which has now been developed into an important industrial area.&#160; The growth of large charcoal-based steel industries and accompanying urban growth caused deforestation and planting and managing of Eucalyptus forests with the aim of supplying steel plants with charcoal (http://team.conservation.org/portal/server.pt?open=512&objID=386&mode=2&in_hi_userid=124600&cached=true)	eng
159059	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159059	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Mato Grosso and Rondonia states in Brazil (Belle 1980, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159059	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers and streams in lowland forest; larva unknown.	eng
159059	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159059	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159060	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends, confirm absence of threats needed and look at taxonomic issues.	eng
159060	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Bolivia, southeastern Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza 1980, Lencioni 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159060	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults perch on leaves and twigs of waterside vegetation, and on grass blades along shores, close to water surface (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007). Female and larva still undescribed.	eng
159060	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Exact population details are unknown but assumed to be widespread.	eng
159060	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159061	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys necessary to find out current distribution of species, habitat preferences, and if it is present in some protected area of Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil.	eng
159061	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality, on north coast of Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Borror 1942).	eng
159061	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Locality situated in Atlantic forest, no other information available. Larva unknown.	eng
159061	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats as it is described from only six specimens.	eng
159061	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Possibly threatened by alteration of habitat in a densely populated area.	eng
159062	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159062	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana (Ris 1919, de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159062	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species; breeding habitat, male and larva unknown.	eng
159062	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only four locations and thought to be found in unsampled lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159062	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159063	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from males from two locations only, none within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution, habitat requirements, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats necessary.	eng
159063	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela and Brazil (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159063	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in lowland Amazon forest (de Marmels 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159063	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from only two locations and from two males specimens and there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159063	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159064	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish if it still occurs in type locality and in any other locations in Sao Paulo and other states of Brazil urgently needed; as well as establishment of protected area where it occurs.	eng
159064	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from its type locality in Sao Paulo state, Brazil (Machado 1954, 1992).	eng
159064	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lotic (moving water) environments within forests (Machado 1954). Larva unknown.	eng
159064	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available on the population status of this species since its description.	eng
159064	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Inferred habitat degradation by human expansion in Sao Paulo area.	eng
159065	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Only known locality not located within a protected area. Surveys to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats needed.	eng
159065	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from original description, from Pichincha province in Ecuador (Kennedy 1942).	eng
159065	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; breeding habitat and larva unknown.	eng
159065	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159065	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159066	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159066	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from central Chile from regions Antofagasta in the north to Araucania in the south (Jurzitza 1974, 1975, 1986, 1989; R.W. Garrison pers.comm. 2006; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006) and southwestern Argentina in Neuquen province (Muzon 1995).	eng
159066	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults frequent marshes. Jurzitza (1974, 1975, 1986) described females ovipositing in tandem or alone in the fern <em>Blechnum chilensis</em>. Larva unknown.	eng
159066	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Appears to be a common and widespread species.	eng
159066	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159067	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159067	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Espirito Santo to Santa Catarina states in Brazil (Costa and Garrison 2001, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
159067	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is no data available for this species. Larva unknown.	eng
159067	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 13 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159067	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159068	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica and Reserva Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159068	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in occurs from Costa Rica south to Peru and Brazil (Calvert 1909, 1948; Ris 1910, 1919; Fraser 1946; Rácenis 1953; Soukup 1954; de Marmels 1989; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159068	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at shallow pools overgrown with low grasses and sedges (de Marmels 1989), and in thinner areas of forest, where they perch high on summits of tall slender twigs (Ris 1910). When perching, wings are closed erect over the body, and brought down suddenly to a deflected position at times (Ris 1910). Adults spend much time in canopy, come down to breeding areas only briefly in midday sun (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007).  Larva unknown.	eng
159068	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 32 localities, two situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159068	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159069	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159069	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from southern Brazil to Paraguay and northeastern Argentina (Garrison 1990, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159069	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Middle reach of streams with marginal vegetation; larva described by Santos (1970).	eng
159069	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159069	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159070	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159070	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest, from Venezuela and the Guyanas' to Brazil and Paraguay (Williamson 1916, Geijkes 1943, Calvert 1948, Leonard 1977, de Marmels 1989b, Garrison 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159070	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Adults fly in vegetation bordering water (Williamson 1916); wary species, perching on small emergent vegetation and difficult to approach and capture (Garrison 1984). Larvae described from a small, partly widened creek, between water plants, along a railroad in the savanna (Geijskes 1943).	eng
159070	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is assumed to be more widespread than recorded, although it is already known from 16 locations over a very large area.	eng
159070	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
159071	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Ibera, Corrientes province, and Reserva de Punta Lara, Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159071	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Central Argentina north to Paraguay, Uruguay and southeastern Brazil (Ris 1910, 1919; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006; Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159071	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Males perch on weed tips or bushes along sides of ponds, pools or ditches from which they take frequent patrol flights along territory chasing other males; female oviposits guarded by hovering male (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007) Larva described by Rodrigues Capitulo and Muzon (1990), lives half buried in sediments of pond bed.	eng
159071	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from 32 locations, two of which are within protected areas.	eng
159071	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159072	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known from three localities, none within a protected area, but currently not under threat. Surveys to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats needed.	eng
159072	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil (Machado 1989, de Marmels 1992, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159072	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Streams and rivers in Amazon forest; adults observed flying under overhanging trees along river bank, where females in tandem oviposited on masses of small floating sticks (de Marmels 1992). Larva unknown.	eng
159072	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from only three locations, none being within a protected area, although details on population numbers are lacking.	eng
159072	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159073	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Tingo Maria National Park, Huanuco department, and Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159073	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Panama, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (Donnelly 1992, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159073	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and sloughs (collection data: D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006). Female and larva undescribed.	eng
159073	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from four locations (two being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159073	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159074	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159074	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bahia state in Brazil (Calvert 1909, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159074	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults in this genus fly slowly on shaded areas of secondary forest for short distances before perching by hanging down (Lencioni 2004); no information for this particular species available; larva unknown.	eng
159074	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159074	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159075	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys needed to establish current distribution area, trends, and confirm lack of threats.	eng
159075	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Andean forest of Ecuador (Muzon and Lozano 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159075	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Only reference to habitat mentions a stream at a lakes edge (Muzon and Lozano 2005). Female and larva unknown.	eng
159075	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Recently described species and population size is unknown as yet.	eng
159075	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159076	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Studies necessary to establish distribution, habitat requirements, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
159076	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is only known from its type locality in Mato Grosso, Brazil (Calvert 1909).	eng
159076	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No data is available. Larva unknown.	eng
159076	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
159076	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159077	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Argentina (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159077	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Pernambuco state in Brazil to Paraguay and northern Argentina (Calvert 1909; St. Quentin 1973; Belle 1970, 1988; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006; Museo de La Plata Collection 2006)	eng
159077	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within gallery forests; larva described by Belle (1992).	eng
159077	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 20 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159077	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159078	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province, Argentina (Jurzitza 1981).	eng
159078	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in northeastern Argentina, Paraguay and southeastern Brazil (Santos 1968, Jurzitza 1981, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159078	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults along margins of clear water streams within forest; larva described by Santos (1968).	eng
159078	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from ten locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159078	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159079	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Surveys on biology, trends, and to evaluate threats needed.	eng
159079	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in montane rainforest from La Paz department, Bolivia to Madre de Dios department in Peru (Bick and Bick 1988, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
159079	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams within Montane rainforest (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996). Female, breeding habitat and larva are all unknown.	eng
159079	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in two locations although it is likely to be widespread; further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
159079	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159080	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159080	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Para state, Brazil (Belle 1984).	eng
159080	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers in Amazon lowland forest; female and larva unknown.	eng
159080	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159080	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159081	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known locality is situated in pristine Amazon forest (Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana 2001) within a projected protected area (Reserva Comunal del Pucacuro). Surveys needed to establish current distribution, biology, trends and confirm absence of threats.	eng
159081	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in northeastern Peru, quebrada de Mishquiyacu (Belle 1989).	eng
159081	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Locality given as Mishquiyacu; according to literature (Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana 2001) stream in canyon (Quebrada de Mishquiyacu) located in the Pucacuro watershed, within Amazon tropical rainforest.	eng
159081	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Known only from the type specimen in 1989 but thought to be widely distributed, there is no detailed information available on the size of the global population.	eng
159081	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	None known.	eng
159082	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Manu, in Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Tapanti in Cartago province, Costa Rica (Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159082	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widespread along Andean slope of South America, from Argentina to Mexico (Ris 1918; de Marmels 1988, 1989; Limongi 1991; Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159082	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults frequent still waters of stream and river margins and seepages, perching on twigs and snags in open and forested areas (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2007); larva burrows in soft sediments; described by Limongi (1991).	eng
159082	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This is a widespread and common species.	eng
159082	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159083	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159083	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Amazonas State, Venezuela (Belle 1984, de Marmels 1989).	eng
159083	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes rivers and the larva unknown.	eng
159083	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the original description and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159083	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159084	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159084	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana (Calvert 1909; Ris 1913, 1919; de Marmels 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159084	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes banks of rivers and edges of forest; seen hovering together in large flocks for hours without settling (Ris 1913), at morning and evening, females predominate whilst males are rare (Ris 1919). Larva unknown.	eng
159084	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from six locations and thought to be found in unsurveyed lowland forest but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159084	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159085	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159085	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Trinidad, Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Cowley and Gloyd 1938, Rácenis 1955, de Marmels 1997, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159085	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found at small muddy creeks in dark woods, hovering just above the water in dark places (Cowley and Gloyd 1938), and narrow streams shaded by grasses, bushes and large trees (Rácenis 1955). Larva unknown.	eng
159085	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 17 localities, one situated within a protected area and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159085	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159086	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Palmar, Entre Rios province, Argentina. Surveys to study biology, trends and evaluate threats.	eng
159086	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Southeastern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (Ris 1912, Santos 1949, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159086	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Grasslands of pampas, where adults fly along banks of slow moving rivers and ponds in grasslands (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159086	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from eight localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159086	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Southern area of distribution range subject to human alteration of habitat due to agriculture, industry and increasing human population.	eng
159087	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela, Reserva de Tambopata, Madre de Dios department, Peru, and Reserva Tingua, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil (Santos 1972, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159087	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Suriname, Brazil to Peru, Ecuador Brazil and northeastern Argentina (Ris 1911; de Marmels 1989; Costa <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159087	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found near ponds, lakes, and streams in lowland forest. Larva described by Santos (1972); breeds in lentic (still water) environments within forest.	eng
159087	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 20 locations (three being within protected areas) but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159087	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159088	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Tapanti (Cartago, Costa Rica); Reserva Forestal San Ramon (Alajuela, Costa Rica); Parque Nacional Braulo Carrillo (San Jose, Costa Rica) (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159088	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Described from 'Colombie and Guyane' by Selys (1853) but never found again in the second, and record based most likely on misidentification (Garrison 1990); known by recent records from Costa Rica.	eng
159088	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams and rivers in forest (D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006); larva described by Zloty <em>et al</em>. (1993), who also provided an electrophoretic characterization at seven loci.	eng
159088	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159088	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159089	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish current distribution, trends, and threats.	eng
159089	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in the Orinoco drainage system of the Eastern slopes of the Andes in Trujillo state, Venezuela (de Marmels 1991, 1999).	eng
159089	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Artificial ponds and small lakes in cleared areas of Andean cloud forest. Natural breeding habitat . Males fly erratically over open water rarely approaching shore; oviposition in tandem or by unguarded females among floating vegetation. Emergence from shore to 30 m away from water; larva described by de Marmels (1992) from a fish-free lake; larvae absent at pond with introduced rainbow trout where adults were observed.	eng
159089	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from three localities only, has not been collected since 1993 and population numbers remain unknown.	eng
159089	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Introduction of rainbow trout (<em>Salmo gairdneri</em>).	eng
159090	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys on biology, trends, and to evaluate threats needed.	eng
159090	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in La Paz department, Bolivia (Bick and Bick 1988).	eng
159090	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Montane rainforest species; no information on breeding habitat available, most likely streams as in other species of the genus; female and larva unknown.	eng
159090	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type locality and two specimens but thought not to be under threat; population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159090	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159091	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Identity of species doubtful; described from a female from 'southern Brazil', later references in the literature could refer to other species, since information available not sufficient for positive identification, and numerous new species described before and after then. Taxonomic revision of genus necessary to know where species is distributed, and before being able to design surveys to find out habitat preferences, biology, trends and threats.	eng
159091	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in southern Brazil (Hagen in Selys 1862).	eng
159091	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Breeding habitat, male and larva are all unknown.	eng
159091	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	There is some doubt over the species identity and therefore population data is lacking.	eng
159091	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159092	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159092	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana,  Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Ris 1919, Montgomery 1940, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159092	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland forest, along banks of muddy creeks, very hard to catch (Ris 1919); larva unknown.	eng
159092	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159092	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159093	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas in Argentina: Parques Nacionales Mburucuya and Calilegua and Reserva  de Punta Lara (Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, von Ellenrieder 2000).	eng
159093	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is widely distributed in South America, from Guyana and French Guyana (Machet 1989, R.W. Garrison 2006), Bolivia and Brazil to Chile and Argentina (Selys 1876, Jurzitza 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159093	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Ponds, pools and still waters at stream and river edges with abundant aquatic plants; adults perch on leaves of floating vegetation, also on bushes and grass blades near shore; larva lives among aquatic vegetation. Fonseca and Pujol-Luz (1999) and von Ellenrieder and Muzon (2003) described its larva; von Ellenrieder studied seasonal variations in populations in Buenos Aires (2000).	eng
159093	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This widely distributed species is common throughout its range.	eng
159093	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159094	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159094	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and Peru (Williamson 1923, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159094	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Vegetated margins of ponds, marshes and rivers in lowland Amazon forest (Williamson 1923); larva unknown.	eng
159094	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159094	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159095	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Argentina, and Reserva de Tambopata, Peru (Paulson 1985, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159095	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil to Peru and northeastern Argentina (Navás 1933, Belle 1972, 1992; Paulson 1985, de Marmels 1989, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006).	eng
159095	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ditches, sloughs and rivers (de Marmels 1989, Belle 1992); larva described by supposition by Belle (1992).	eng
159095	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from over 18 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159095	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159096	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159096	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Mato Grosso, Para and Goias states in Brazil (Belle 1970, 1992).	eng
159096	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Presumably rivers in the Cerrado shrub-land of Brazil (Belle 1970, 1992); larva unknown.	eng
159096	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 4 locations but no population data is available.	eng
159096	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159097	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys needed to establish distribution range, biology, trends and threats, and if present in protected areas.	eng
159097	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Misiones province in Argentina (de Marmels 2001).	eng
159097	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Probably streams in forest; breeding habitat and larva unknown (de Marmels 2001).	eng
159097	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No population data is available; the species is only known from its original description in 1913.	eng
159097	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159098	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159098	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Venezuela and Colombia (Ris 1918, Rácenis 1955, de Marmels 1988, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159098	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small streams and swampy areas in sombre forests; adults hard to see because they fly seldom, and perch staying still  in twigs and bushes, sometimes crawling up slowly on them (Rácenis 1955). Larva unknown.	eng
159098	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from six locations due to secretive habitats and no population data is available.	eng
159098	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159099	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Intag has been located within a private reserve (Intag Cloud Forest Reserve) since 1989 (http://www.intagcloudforest.com/index.html). Surveys needed to establish distribution area, habitat requirements, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
159099	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Intag, Pichincha state, Ecuador (Bick and Bick 1992).	eng
159099	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No detailed information is available; most likely inhabitants of mountain streams as other species of the genus. Larva unknown.	eng
159099	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
159099	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159100	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159100	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazonas states in Brazil and Venezuela (Sjoested 1918, Santos 1961, de Marmels 1997, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159100	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland Amazon forest species (Sjoested 1918, de Marmels 1997). Larva unknown.	eng
159100	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from at least four locations and thought to be more widespread across lowland Amazon forest although no population data is available.	eng
159100	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159101	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in a protected area (Parque Nacional Guaramacal, Venezuela).	eng
159101	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in Paramo of Guaramacal range in the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela. Only known from type locality so far (de Marmels 1994).	eng
159101	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes small streams in montane forest (de Marmels 1999).	eng
159101	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	There are no details available on population data for this species.	eng
159101	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	According to de Marmels (1999) area of distribution is isolated, vastly unexplored and not presently threatened.	eng
159102	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159102	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Colombia and Ecuador, southwestern Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (Förster 1914, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159102	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small sandy streams, perching on exposed vegetation near ponds, also in forest (label data, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva unknown.	eng
159102	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least 12 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159102	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159103	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159103	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Occurs in forests and grasslands from Bolivia and Paraguay to Uruguay and N Argentina (Calvert 1909; Leonard 1977, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159103	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Frequent at pools, ponds and still waters at stream edges, from highland grasslands to foothill jungle. Larva lives among submerged aquatic vegetation (Pessacq <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
159103	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	This species is found in abundant numbers in the field.	eng
159103	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
159104	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The two localities known are within protected areas: Parque Nacional Duida-Marahuana, Amazonas state, and Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela.	eng
159104	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guayana highlands in Bolivar and Amazonas states, Venezuela (de Marmels 2004).	eng
159104	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Streams in Guyana forest; female and larva unknown (de Marmels 2004).	eng
159104	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known only from two locations since its recent description (2004) and population surveys are required to better understand the status of this species.	eng
159104	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159105	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional El Rey, Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).	eng
159105	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Bolivia and northwestern Argentina (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).	eng
159105	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Vegetated ponds, pools and still waters at stream edges. Larva lives among riparian vegetation (von Ellenrieder and Garrison 2006).	eng
159105	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is thought to be widespread as it is known from ten locations, one included within a protected area.	eng
159105	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159106	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Reserva Biologica La Selva, Heredia province, Costa Rica, Parque Nacional Soberania, Canal Zone, Panama, Parque Nacional Manu, Madre de Dios department, Peru, Reserva de Limoncocha, Napo province, Ecuador (Dunkle 1982, Donnelly 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159106	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Honduras south to Bolivia and Brazil (Ris 1930, Rácenis 1953, Dunkle 1982, Donnelly 1992, Louton <em>et al</em>. 1996, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159106	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults perch on marginal vegetation of ponds, lakes, pools, sloughs, swamps and streams; female oviposits on twigs 1-2 inches above water (Ris 1930). Larva described by Santos (1970).	eng
159106	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from 32 localities, several situated within a protected area and thought to be widespread although no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159106	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159107	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159107	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from type locality in Santa Cruz department, Bolivia (Belle 1973).	eng
159107	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; female and larva unknown.	eng
159107	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from the type specimen and population numbers not available due to lack of surveying.	eng
159107	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159108	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parques Nacionales Lanin and Nahuel Huapi, Argentina and Nahuelbuta, Chile. (Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159108	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in south central Chile and southwestern Argentina (Bulla 1973, Jurzitza 1989, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159108	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lentic (still water) environments in grasslands, including quiet areas of rivers, surrounded with Juncaceae; adults perch on marginal vegetation and on bushes in the sun; females oviposit in tandem or alone on marginal or aquatic plants, and can submerge completely to do so (Jurztiza 1989). Larva described by Bulla (1973).	eng
159108	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is found in at least 28 locations and some of those are in protected areas.	eng
159108	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159109	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Present in several protected areas: Parque Nacional Ybycui, Paraguari department in Paraguay; Parque Nacional Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro state in Brazil; Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province,  and Parque Nacional Baritu, Salta province, in Argentina (Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Paraguay 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159109	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Found from Venezuela and Ecuador south to northern Argentina and Uruguay; absent from northeastern South America (von Ellenrieder 2003).	eng
159109	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Habitat includes creeks, pools and temporary ponds in forest areas (von Ellenrieder 2003); larva described by de Marmels (1992) and von Ellenrieder (1999).	eng
159109	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	The species is known from over 125 localities although thought to be more widespread and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159109	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2006	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159110	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to establish distribution area, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
159110	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in lowland Amazon forest in Ecuador, Peru and Brazil (Kennedy 1937, Lencioni 2005, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159110	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes creeks and streams within lowland forest (Kennedy 1941); larva unknown.	eng
159110	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities not situated within protected areas and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159110	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159111	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159111	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Andes from Colombia to Bolivia (Selys 1876, Costa 1978).	eng
159111	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Yungas (montane rainforest) species; no data available on preferred aquatic environments. Larva unknown.	eng
159111	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from only three locations and the population status is not known.	eng
159111	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159112	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and threats, and presence within protected areas needed.	eng
159112	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Goias and Rio de Janeiro states in Brazil (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
159112	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults collected near small ponds within Atlantic forest (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2002); female and larva unknown.	eng
159112	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	A recently described species that has population data lacking.	eng
159112	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Breeding habitat within Atlantic forest is likely to be under threat due to human growth and development in the area.	eng
159113	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in a protected area: Parque Nacional Canaima, Bolivar state, Venezuela (R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159113	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Guyana and Venezuela (Kimmins 1943; de Marmels 1985, 1989; R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159113	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Adults found in swampy areas within forest and in open swamps with pools (de Marmels 1989). Larva unknown.	eng
159113	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known only from four locations and one is within a protected area.  Population details are lacking although inferred to be widespread.	eng
159113	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159114	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159114	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Found from Bolivia and Brazil to northeastern Argentina (Calvert 1909, Lencioni 2006, Museo de La Plata Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159114	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes ponds, marshes and large rivers in lowland forest (Calvert 1909, Jurzitza and Rácenis 1984, R.W. Garrison 2006). Larva still unknown.	eng
159114	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from at least seven locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159114	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159115	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159115	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs from Brazil, from Minas Gerais to Rio Grande do sul States (Belle 1973).	eng
159115	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information is available; larva unknown.	eng
159115	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from four localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159115	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159116	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Surveys to establish current distribution, trends and confirm absence of threats needed.	eng
159116	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Santa Catarina state in Brazil and Artigas department in Uruguay (Belle 1970, Belle 1981).	eng
159116	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes streams; female and larva unknown (Belle 1988).	eng
159116	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species is known from two localities and no data is available on population numbers.	eng
159116	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159117	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Localities known not within protected areas, but not currently threatened. Surveys needed to study biology, trends, evaluate threats and establish if present within existing protected areas.	eng
159117	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Brazil, Guyanas and Venezuela (Geijskes 1976; de Marmels 1989, 1992; D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006).	eng
159117	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Lowland creeks in savanna, sandy ridges and forest interior. Adults perch on tips of dry twigs in the shade of bush near a creek with wings spread. Oviposition observed in small creeks, with pairs in tandem, males upright while holding females, and females inserting eggs into fallen palm leaves (<em>Euterpe oleracea</em>) during heavy rainfall (Geijskes 1976). Larva unknown.	eng
159117	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Common in Suriname, adults observed all year long except June, with small peak in February and a maximum in September/October (Geijskes, 1976).	eng
159117	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159118	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Present in protected areas: Parque Nacional Iguazu, Misiones province,  and Parque Nacional Mburucuya, Corrientes province, Argentina, Parque Nacional Cerro Cora, Amambay department and Reserva Natural de Bosque, Canindeyu department, Paraguay (Jurzitza 1981, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006).	eng
159118	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (Borror 1942, de Marmels 1983, D.R. Paulson pers. comm. 2006, Florida State Collection of Arthropods 2006, Fundacion Miguel Lillo Collection 2006, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159118	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes pools, ponds and marshes. Larva described by Muzon and Garre (2005).	eng
159118	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from more than 40 locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159118	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159119	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Research needed to establish current distribution, trends, and threats.	eng
159119	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Delta of Parana River in Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Navás 1927, Bachman 1963).	eng
159119	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Small streams in marshes and vegetated areas of flood plains from Parana River. Adults reported as rare, observed flying alone during the month of February, always in areas with thick vegetation along small streams. Flight fast, at 3-5 m over ground, perching occasionally on aquatic vegetation and trees (Dallas 1941). Larva described by Bachmann (1963).	eng
159119	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	The species occurs in a very small area this is thought to be under threat and further research is needed to understand ranges and population numbers.	eng
159119	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Limited known distribution area possibly endangered by habitat degradation due to increasing human settlement and tourism in the area; not known from any protected area (Muzon & von Ellenrieder 1999).	eng
159120	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas; surveys needed to establish distribution range, habitat preferences, study biology and trends and evaluate threats.	eng
159120	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Andes in Antioquia department, Colombia (Ris 1918;  the specimen in R.W. Garrison 2006, mentioned by Bick and Bick (1992) as from Leticia in Amazonas department corresponds to a different species, R.W. Garrison 2007).	eng
159120	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	No information on breeding habitat available, most likely mountain streams as in other species of the genus. Female and larva unknown.	eng
159120	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Information is lacking on all aspects of this species' biology, including population size and threats.	eng
159120	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159121	conservation	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Known localities not within protected areas, but currently not all under threat. Field studies needed to find more locations, establish distribution range, study biology and trends, and evaluate threats.	eng
159121	distribution	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Occurs in Amazon forest in Brazil and Guyana (Calvert 1909, Williamson 1915, Machado 1985, R.W. Garrison 2006).	eng
159121	habitat	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Habitat includes small wooded streams (Williamson 1915). Larva unknown.	eng
159121	population	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	This species is known from five locations but there is no data available on population sizes.	eng
159121	threats	von Ellenrieder, N., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
159122	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The Palau Conservation Society (http://www.palau-pcs.org/) is heavily involved in raising community awareness of environment. In addition, a series of conservation areas have been established on the islands, including several in the forests of Babeldaob. Awareness of Palau’s natural resources has increased greatly in recent years as its uniqueness has been well publicized around the world.	eng
159122	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is endemic to the island Palau, Micronesia (recorded from Babeldaob Island).	eng
159122	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Information on the habitat and ecology is unknown but it probably occurs in small forest streams like congeners known from many other islands and the Asian mainland.	eng
159122	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There is no information available for the population size or trend of this species.	eng
159122	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	Deforestation is the most likely threat, but the island Babeldaob is apparently still heavily forested and lightly settled.	eng
159123	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are conservation measures in place, including monitoring the population size and trend of the species.  Whilst research into the biology of <em>Megalagrion koelense</em> is underway, further research is still needed as well as the restoration of its habitat.	eng
159123	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Megalagrion koelense </em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, it is known from Oahu, Molokai, Hawaii, Lanai and a historic record from Maui.	eng
159123	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species breeds in leaf pockets of water (phytotelmata) of native plants (<em>Astelia menziesiana</em> and <em>Freycinetia arborea</em>).	eng
159123	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The species is known to be widespread on the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
159123	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	The major threats to this species include deforestation of habitat and the introduction of exotic plants.	eng
159124	conservation	Paulson, D., 2007	This species is not present in any protected area. Conservation Society of Pohnpeis (http://www.serehd.org/html/about_us_.html) is the primary source of conservation actions on the island, mostly through raising community awareness.	eng
159124	distribution	Paulson, D., 2007	The species is endemic to Pohnpei, Micronesia (island-wide at all elevations).	eng
159124	habitat	Paulson, D., 2007	The species prefers fast-flowing rocky streams at all elevations and sedge marshes that are dominated by <em>Mapania</em> at higher elevations; essentially all freshwater habitats in the interior of island (not in open ponds or  coastal plain).  The breeding ecology is poorly known as mating pairs are rarely seen even where they are abundant. Tenerals (freshly moulted individuals) are found in both habitat types, so both used for breeding.  It is also frequently encountered in forest understorey well away from water.	eng
159124	population	Paulson, D., 2007	It is a common and widespread species on this rather small island.	eng
159124	threats	Paulson, D., 2007	Deforestation probably represents a threat, as most populations are found in forested areas. Two-thirds of lowland native forest was lost between 1975 and 1995.  There is continued rain-forest clearing at a slow rate and this may represent a threat over time to both terrestrial and aquatic habitats of this species.	eng
159125	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	There are a number of research actions underway, including investigations into population size and range, habitat status and threats, but further research is needed in areas such as monitoring the population trend.&#160;  The restoration of the species habitat is required, through the implementation of management and policy-based plans.	eng
159125	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	<em>Megalagrion paludicola</em> is endemic to Kauai Island (Hawaii).	eng
159125	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species prefers dark pools and ponds in upland bogs.	eng
159125	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species has a small range and there are no obvious indications of a decline in population size.	eng
159125	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2007	This species is affected by habitat destruction, introduced fish and other invertebrates to its habitat.	eng
159221	conservation	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	Preservation of old-growth forest and dead wood is recommended to provide habitat continuity for this species. The species occurs in several&#160; protected areas (e.g. Hungary). This species is considered Endangered in Poland, Slovakia and Germany (2009).	eng
159221	distribution	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species is widespread in southern and central Europe (Costa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003); reputedly a former native in southern Britain (Allen 1969).<br/><br/>In Hungary this species is very rare in the hilly regions and in riverine forests of the western part of the country (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). It is present in most German States. In the Czech Republic there are several sites and in eastern Slovakia there are recent records. In Italy it is present in mainland and Sardinia.	eng
159221	habitat	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decaying heartwood of old broadleaved trees, using both red-rot and white-rot. In France it is found in very large trees (diameter greater than 60 cm) with red-rotten heartwood (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2008). Know host trees are : <span style="font-style: italic;">Ulmus, Acer, Acacia, Populus, Quercus, Tilia, Juglans, Salix, Platanus, Castanea, Carpinus</span>. It is usually found in open forests, in old parks and similar places (Polish Red Data Book of Animals 2009); also in floodplain forests. It has also been found found in large hedgerow trees. It has been regarded as a typical old forest relict (Allen 1969) and a high quality forest indicator (Brustel 2005). <br/><br/>In Hungary this species occurs in undisturbed parts of broad-leaved forests, mainly in oak forests, ravine and slope forests and willow galleries (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In France, more than 20 specimens have been collected in a riverine forest 80 years old, grown on the Rhône river sands, and so the site need not be ancient forest, just have old trees (B. Dodelin pers. comm. 2008).	eng
159221	population	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>This species is very rare over much of its range.</p><p>It is known from just a single locality in Poland where it is likely to have become extinct (Polish Red Data Book of Animals 2009). In the UK, if native then now the species is Extinct. In Hungary this species is very rare, and its populations are small (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009). In Germany it is very rare. In France it is widespread but very localized with discontinuity between the stations; seems to be more abundant in riverine forests. There is no information about population size or trend in Italy. <br/></p>	eng
159221	threats	Mason, F., Schlaghamersky, J., Schmidl, J. & Petrakis, P., 2009	<p>Interruption of the continuous supply of suitable dead wood (ecological continuity) is a threat to this species, as this species needs a high volume of dead wood. Largely confined to old-growth forests and parkland with ancient trees (often there is no replacement for these trees once they die off). Regulation of water levels in floodplains reduces the amount of falling dead trees and therefore the habitat. <br/></p><p>In Hungary habitat loss may occur in several localities, but owing to the rarity of the species it is difficult to study the threatening factors (O. Merkl pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
159222	conservation	Das, I., 2009	The species occurs within the realm of a proposed protected area, Pulong Tau National Park (I. Das pers. comm. 2009). Enforcement of the park's boundaries is needed to address logging issues within the park.	eng
159222	distribution	Das, I., 2009	This species is currently only known from its type locality: Gunung Murud, Sarawak, East Malaysia (northwestern Borneo), at 2,120 m asl (Das 2008). It is   likely a      summit specialist, known from an area smaller than 5 km<sup>2</sup> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).	eng
159222	habitat	Das, I., 2009	It occurs in montane forests with canopies reaching about 20 m. Individuals have been found at night on the edges of forest trails, up to two metres above ground.&#160; The tadpole remains unknown, although the species is suspected to breed in the pitchers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepenthes</span> plants (Das 2008).	eng
159222	population	Das, I., 2009	It is a locally common species (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).<br/><p></p>	eng
159222	threats	Das, I., 2009	Even though this species' type locality is within the proposed <st1:place><st1:placename>Pulong</st1:placename> <st1:placename>Tau</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, it is subject to both subsistence and commercial logging. Clear-felling is also happening within parts of the proposed Park, although the type locality lies just outside the range of commercial hardwoods<u2:p></u2:p> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).	eng
159223	conservation	Das, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	The species occurs within the realm of a proposed protected area, Pulong Tau National Park (I. Das pers. comm. 2009). Enforcement of the park's boundaries is needed to address logging issues within the park.	eng
159223	distribution	Das, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from the summit of Batu Linanit, Gunung Murud, Sarawak, East Malaysia (northwestern Borneo), at 2,250 m asl (Das 2008). It is likely a summit specialist, known from an area smaller than 1 km<sup>2</sup> (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).	eng
159223	habitat	Das, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	It occurs in rhododendron forests. Individuals have been found at night, up to 15 cm above the forest substrate, at the edge of forest trails on exposed, wind-swept slopes. The tadpole is unknown, but the species is suspected to breed in pitchers of <span style="font-style: italic;">Nepenthes</span> plants (Das 2008).	eng
159223	population	Das, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	It is considered to be a   locally common species (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).	eng
159223	threats	Das, I. & Angulo, A., 2009	Even though this species' type locality is within the proposed Pulong Tau National Park, it is subject to both subsistence and commercial logging.   Clear-felling is also happening within parts of the proposed Park, although the type locality lies just outside the range of commercial hardwoods   (I. Das pers. comm. 2009).	eng
159250	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status,  distribution, population status, natural history and threats.</p>	eng
159250	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from the type locality: Ho Thau village, Ho Thau commune, Tam Duong district, Lao Chai Province, Northwest Viet Nam, between 2,050–2,400 m asl (Orlov and Ho 2007).	eng
159250	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species inhabits the area around a rapid stream on the slope of Mu Hum mountain, which is covered by primary subtropical forest. Individuals have been found at night on rocky outcrops and bushes along the banks of the stream (Orlov and Ho 2007). It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
159250	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
159250	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>There is no information available on threats to this species.</p>	eng
159251	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' taxonomic status, distribution, population status, natural history and threats.<br/></p>	eng
159251	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from Ho Thau village, Ho Thau commune, Tam Duong district, Lao Chai Province, northwest Viet Nam. It is found between 1,850 and 2,400 m asl (Orlov and Ho 2007).	eng
159251	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is known from a cascading stream on the slope of a mountain. Frogs were found active at night on rocks in the waterfall area of the stream, on the steep slope of Mu Hum mountain, which is covered by primary forest. Numerous waterfall cascades of of 5-30 m can be found in dark, granite-basaltic canyons, covered with trees, bushes and tree-ferns (Orlov and Ho 2007). It is presumed to breed in streams.	eng
159251	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The species was seen every day over the course of an eight day survey (Orlov and Ho 2007).	eng
159251	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>There is no information available on threats to this species.</p>	eng
159761	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
159761	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in the south of Europe: Spain very locally (Cuenca, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (eastern Pyrenees and Hautes Alpes), central Italy, the eastern Alps (Italy, Austria, Slovenia) and further through southwest Hungary to most Balkan countries. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey to Iran and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
159761	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mountain Small White likes warm and dry places and is found on dry, nutrient-poor grasslands, in rocky places, in open scrub and in large clearings in woods. The flight areas are usually on calcareous soil. The males can sometimes be seen in large groups on damp ground. Compared to other whites, this butterfly has a slow flight. The main larval foodplant is Burnt Candytuft (<em>Aethionema saxatile</em>), but <em>A. orbiculatum</em> and Woad (<em>Isatis tinctoria</em>) are also used. The eggs are laid singly. The pupa is normally fixed to stones and rocks. There are two or three generations a year and the pupa of the autumn generation hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), screes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
159761	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
159761	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
159785	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
159785	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in south and central Norway, in large parts of Sweden and Finland as far north as Lapland, in the Baltic States and northeast of Poland. It is furthermore present east to Siberia and North America and down to Mongolia, the Amur region and North Korea in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
159785	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Both in lowland and mountains, the Baltic Grayling occurs in peaty and swampy habitats. Most butterflies are found in damp habitats with a vegetation of grasses and sedges, often with open water in the middle and surrounded by coniferous woodland. The butterflies frequently visit the wood edge looking for flowers, because the peat vegetation is poor in nectar plants. They also rest on the branches or trunks of trees, or on dead wood. The Baltic Grayling shares its habitat with hardly any other butterfly. The female lays its eggs on various grasses, but which ones the caterpillars feed on is not known. The caterpillar’s development takes nearly two years. Habitats: raised bogs (70%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%).	eng
159785	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Latvia, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
159785	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
159799	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
159799	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in several separate areas. Its distribution is often not clear, because of confusion with <em>H. fagi</em>. It is found in Portugal, Spain (east and northeast), France (the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Basses-Alpes, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire and Jura), west of Italy (in the mountains), south of Switzerland, Austria, north of Hungary, east of Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, south of Poland, east of Lithuania, southeast of Latvia, south of Norway. 500-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
159799	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Rock Grayling can be found at the edge of very open woodland on poor steppe-like grasslands, as found, for example, near open coniferous woods growing on sandy ground. In these habitats, there are usually rockmasses or other forms of open ground. The butterfly often rests on the ground or against tree trunks, where the colours and pattern of the underside of its wings provide excellent camouflage. The eggs are laid on different grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate in a little hollow in the ground, after spinning a sort of cocoon. The Rock Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (34%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), inland sand-dunes (8%), mixed woodland (8%), broad- leaved deciduous forests (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), heath and scrub (5%).	eng
159799	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
159799	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
159814	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
159814	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common in large parts of Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from north and central Norway, Sweden and Finland, the British islands, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, the Ionian islands, Crete and the Cyclades. 500-2,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region, except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
159814	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Black-veined White can be found on many different types of vegetation in a variety of landscapes, but seems to prefer habitats in the neighbourhood of woods or scrub. It is, however, quite a mobile butterfly, that can be encountered everywhere. The numbers of this butterfly species can fluctuate greatly and the reasons for this are not well understood. It may build up huge populations at unusual places, such as hedges along motorways, but can also disappear from large areas for many years. They can often be seen drinking on such nectar plants as thistles. The eggs are laid in large clusters of often sixty or more, on the leaves of trees and bushes of the rose family (<em>Rosaceae</em>), such as hawthorn (<em>Crataegus</em> spp.), Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>), Cherry (<em>Prunus</em> spp.), Apple (<em>Malus</em> spp.), also in orchards. The caterpillars spend their time in a communal silken nest until they pupate, the nest in which they hibernate being more substantial. When they are ready to pupate, they disperse over the foodplant, the yellow pupa with black spots, suspended in a silken girdle. The Black-veined White has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), mesophile grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), heath and scrub (6%).	eng
159814	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. The species shows strong natural fluctuations, and can be absent in some years and almost a pest in others. It is reported extinct from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, France, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
159814	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
159880	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
159880	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs north of 68° N in Lapland in the north of Scandinavia. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore present east over the polar tundra of the Palearctic Region to Wrangel Island and Chukotka. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
159880	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Arctic Fritillary occurs in a harsh environment, the windy, dry, rocky tundra in the far north of Europe, with a vegetation of grass and dwarf shrubs. The foodplant is not certain, but <em>Cassiope tetragon</em> (<em>Ericaceae</em>) and violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) may be used. The butterflies, that only appear for about two weeks a year, fly close to the ground, seeking the shelter of rocks or hollows.  The Arctic Fritillary has one generation a year. The flight period is dependent on the weather. Usually the butterflies are on the wing starting from late June to early July, but the emergence may be delayed until early August in cold years. Habitats: heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%).	eng
159880	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Of the typical arctic butterflies in Fennoscandia, this is one of the more widespread and more abundant ones. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
159880	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations. In the long run, the species might be threatened by climate change (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008).	eng
159948	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
159948	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in south and central Spain and south of Portugal. 100-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and West Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
159948	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Baton Blue is found in stony areas with flower-rich vegetation and scrub. The foodplant in Europe is <em>Cleonia lusitanica</em>. The caterpillars feed on flower buds and the overwintering stage is the pupae. Larvae are regularly attended by <em>Plagiolepis</em> and <em>Crematogaster</em> ants. In Europe, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).	eng
159948	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
159948	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
159954	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
159954	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Tundra from the Polar Urals to eastern Chutkotka, in North America from Alaska to the North Territories of Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
159954	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Lowland or mountain tundra are the types of habitat where this butterfly can be found. At higher altitude, it also occurs on subalpine meadows. The caterpillars feed on <em>Polygonum</em> spp. and violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). This species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).	eng
159954	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
159954	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
159971	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
159971	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is resident in coastal areas of the Canary Islands, except Lanzarote, and in the Malaga province in the south of Spain. In other areas, it is only a vagrant. It is a relatively new species for Europe. It was first reported from the Canary Islands in 1880, but the populations in the south of Spain were only discovered in 1980. Sea level-100 m. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
159971	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	There are only a few populations of the Monarch in Europe and these are in the south. However, in America it is famous for its migration behaviour and it can even be found as a rare visitor in the coastal areas of North-west Europe. The populations are situated in warm to very warm dry places, such as erosion gullies. The butterfly can also be seen in parks and gardens. The populations are usually small and surrounded by agricultural areas. In Spain, the eggs are laid on the milkweed <em>Asclepias curassavica</em> and on the Canary Islands also on the related Bristly-fruited Silkweed (<em>Gomphocarpus fruticosus</em>). The butterflies breed continually and may have several generations a year. The use of herbicides and insecticides and the burning of refuse are threatening them with extinction. Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (40%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), scrub and grassland (20%), fallow land, waste places (20%).	eng
159971	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
159971	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
159982	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
159982	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the Northern Urals across Siberia, north of Mongolia and north. China to North Korea (Tuzov, 1997). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
159982	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on grassy forest places and edges, flowery hills and rocky slopes with meadow and steppe vegetation (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), mixed woodland (50%).	eng
159982	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
159982	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
160059	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160059	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central and East European species. It occurs from east and central France (Cher and Allier to Ardennes and Savoie) via the southeast of Belgium, north of Germany and of Poland eastwards. It is also found from the north of Italy via the Balkans to the north of Greece and the area in between. Above 400 m in the Ardennes, up to 2,200 m in the Alps. It is also present in Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals and S Siberia, the north of China and the north of Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160059	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Woodland Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grasslands and rough vegetation near or in woodland, in marshes, but also on calcareous grasslands. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>) and Wood Millet (<em>Milium effusum</em>) and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The caterpillar is active at night and mostly hibernates when half-grown, but at very high altitudes it may hibernate twice. It pupates in the litter layer and usually has one generation a year. However, the development from egg to butterfly may take one or two years. Habitats: coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).	eng
160059	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belarus and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160059	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
160143	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160143	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs north of 65° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 350-500 m. Across the northern areas of Eurasia to the north of Mongolia and the north of China; also in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160143	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Just like the Lapland Ringlet (<em>E. embla</em>), the Arctic Ringlet is a marsh butterfly, but the two species do not overlap, the Arctic Ringlet avoiding lowland marshes. It occurs above 350 m altitude, on open marshes in woods, namely marshes with a low cover of grasses and sedges without trees or bushes, although surrounded by birch trees. It also occurs at lakesides and near small streams and is also seen in woodland clearings in its search for nectar. Its foodplants are grasses. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mixed woodland (16%).	eng
160143	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160143	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
160163	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
160163	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of  Portugal, almost all of Spain, the southeast of France from the Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps and Italy in the western Ligurian Alps. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
160163	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Black-eyed Blue occurs in open shrub, or open woodland, whit Genista or large bushes of broom (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.). Eggs are laid on the flowers of various leguminous plants, such as <em>Dorycnium</em> spp., birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.), <em>Anthyllis</em> spp., brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.) and <em>Genista</em> spp.. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and are attended by ants belonging to one of the species of the genus <em>Camponotus</em>. The Black-eyed Blue hibernates in the pupal stage. It usually has one generation a year, although in Spain, sometimes two. Habitats: heath and scrub (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (40%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).	eng
160163	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160163	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160213	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
160213	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland and Denmark. In England, it is only present in Norfolk. In the Netherlands, it occurs mostly in South-Limburg, it is rarer northwards. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in rest of the Palearctic and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160213	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Swallowtail is a species of flower-rich meadows and small-scale farmland. The males and females meet at hilltops or above high trees, showing a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”, with the butterflies dancing up and down in the air. The Swallowtail needs a lot of nectar. In the south of the range, they also occur in parks and gardens. Eggs are laid on various umbellifers, including Wild Carrot (<em>Daucus carota</em>) and <em>Rutaceae</em>. The British population in the Norfolk Broads only uses Milk-Parsley (<em>Peucedanum palustre</em>) as a foodplant. The fully-grown larvae are very conspicuous, bright green with black stripes and orange spots. When disturbed they can suddenly show a Y-shaped, orange scent-gland or osmeterium, just behind its head, producing a strong, unpleasant smell. The caterpillars from autumn generations leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground and hibernation takes place as a pupa. The caterpillars of the summer generations pupate low down on the larval foodplant. Depending on the altitude of the breeding ground and its position in the distribution range, the Swallowtail produces one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), fallow land, waste places (8%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).	eng
160213	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160213	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160240	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160240	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of Portugal and large parts of Spain, in the south of France and of Switzerland, north of Italy, from Austria, Czech Republic, south and east of Poland to the south of Finland and further eastwards. It is also present throughout the Balkans, including Greece. Sea level-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, temperate Asia from Turkey to Mongolia, China and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160240	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dusky Meadow Brown occurs in many different grassland types. It is important that its habitat is dry and warm. In the north of its range, the grassland is steppe-like and more to the south the butterfly is found in more dense vegetations. It uses various grasses as foodplant, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and Feather-grass (<em>Stipa pinnata</em>) and other <em>Stipa</em> species. When the female is about to lay an egg, it first alights on the ground and walks to a foodplant, then it chooses a low-hanging grass blade on which to deposit an egg. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and only starts feeding in spring. At first, it feeds mainly during day, but when the weather gets too warm, it only feeds at night. Pupation takes place deep in the vegetation or litter layer. The Dusky Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).	eng
160240	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia, Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160240	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
160251	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2010	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
160251	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice </span>occurs west of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. 0- 2,500 m. The exact border to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span> is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice</span>, whereas more recent records seem to belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span>.&#160; It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160251	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2010	The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. daplidice)</span>, which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. edusa</span>), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis</span> spp.), <span style="font-style: italic;">Alyssum </span>spp. and also on mignonettes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Reseda </span>ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Bath White has two or more generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).	eng
160251	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2010	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160251	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2010	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160274	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
160274	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally, but sometimes abundantly, in southeastern and central Spain (from the southeastern and eastern coasts through to Burgos and Salamanca). It is also found in Russia and Ukraine. 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1,400 m. It is present from North Africa through Southern Europe to Eastern Kazakhstan, the Middle East and the north of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160274	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sooty Orange-tip is mostly seen in dry, flower-rich places, waste ground and abandoned agricultural land. Crucifers, such as London Rocket (<em>Sisymbrium irio</em>), the buckler mustard <em>Biscutella auriculata</em>, Hoary Mustard (<em>Hirschfeldia incana</em>) and radishes (<em>Raphanus</em> spp.), are usually abundant in its habitat. They are used by the butterflies for their nectar and as larval foodplants. The butterflies have a quick, zigzagging flight. The Sooty Orange-tip hibernates as a pupa. This pupal stage may last for one, two, or three years. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), fallow land, waste places (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), improved grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (10%).	eng
160274	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160274	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the long term, this species might become threatened due to climate change.	eng
160360	conservation	van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., ?a?i?, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T., 2010	In Lithuania and the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, (especially Western and Centreal Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. More research is needed to the ecology of this species, here again, especially in Western and Central Europe. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160360	distribution	van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., ?a?i?, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T., 2010	This is a species that occurs from the southwest to southeast of Europe: on the Iberian Peninsula, in the southwest and south of France, Italy, south of Switzerland, Austria and all over the Balkans. It also occurs locally in Poland and Lithuania. There are a few scattered and isolated populations in the Netherlands and Germany. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Morocco, Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
160360	habitat	van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., ?a?i?, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T., 2010	Especially in the northern part of its range, the Tree Grayling is a typical inhabitant of the open steppe. It occurs in very warm, dry and nutrient-poor areas with much open ground and sparse vegetation, such as on rockmasses and at the edge of blown sands. The size and markings of this butterfly are very variable. While remaining on the ground, the female deposits her eggs one by one on withered blades of grass. Grey Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Corynephorus canescens</span>), Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), Brown Bent-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis vinealis</span>), bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.), Feather grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>) and other grasses are used as foodplants. The small caterpillar passes the winter in a grass tussock and, if it does not freeze, remains active during the winter. However, growth only begins after hibernation. As development is very slow, the caterpillar only pupates towards the end of the summer in August. The flight period of the Tree Grayling, that only has one generation a year, is therefore very late. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), coniferous woodland (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%), inland sand-dunes (5%).	eng
160360	population	van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., ?a?i?, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T., 2010	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south, it is widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia, The Netherlands and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160360	threats	van Swaay, C., Maes, D., Wynhoff, I., Settele, J., Warren, M., Wiemers, M., ?a?i?, M., López Munguira, M., Verovnik, R. & Verstrael, T., 2010	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and (in West and Central Europe) open sand dunes and heathlands. Here also nitrogen deposition leads to a faster succession of open sand areas, thus reducing the area of suitable habitat substantially. In some Central European countries the abandonment of former military training areas also leads to the invasion of shrubs and trees, further reducing the habitat.	eng
160392	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Czech Republic and Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160392	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe: in mountainous areas in the north, southeast and central Spain, in the south of France (from the Pyrenees to the Dordogne and eastwards to the Alps), in the north of Italy and in Southeast Europe from Austria and Slovakia to central Greece and Romania. 100-1,700m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160392	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Twin-spot Fritillary can be found in flower-rich grassland, situated in the shelter of a woodland edge, or in scattered bushes. The most important foodplant is Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), although different species of <em>Dorycnium</em>, a leguminous plant, are named as a foodplant in Spain. It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg or caterpillar stage. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
160392	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160392	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160493	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160493	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in the alpine zone of southeast France and northwest Italy (from the Maritime Alps to the Hautes-Alpes and Cottian Alps).&#160; Found at altitudes between 1,800-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
160493	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Mnestra Ringlet occurs on grassy slopes and near woods. The female lays its eggs on <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca paniculata</span>, a fescue that only occurs locally. As it is the only foodplant known, this accounts for the rare occurrence of this butterfly. The False Mnestra Ringlet is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (33%).	eng
160493	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
160493	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160564	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
160564	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the northernmost part of the Urals through the arctic and temperate parts of Asia and North America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
160564	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly can be found on meadows and rocky tundras. The main larval hostplant is <em>Carex</em> spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).	eng
160564	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
160564	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
160590	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160590	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Scattered occurrence in several mountainous regions of Europe: Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central and the western and eastern Alps), central Italy, Romania (Carpathians), Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mountains.) and in the mountains of Serbia, Albania and Bosnia. Found at altitudes between 1,600-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
160590	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Common Brassy Ringlet occurs on dry, grassy slopes, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and scree. The female lays its eggs on dry stalks of grass, close to the ground. Its foodplants are various fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first or second larval instar and pupate the following year between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (58%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%).	eng
160590	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160590	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160595	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The most urgent action is the protection of the remaining habitat from further destruction by quarrying. Research is also needed on the ecology and habitat requirements of the species to ensure that a proper management plan can be drawn up to prevent the species from becoming extinct. The effects of the management should be monitored closely by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
160595	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in the Pletvar Massif near Prilep in the FYR of Macedonia, between 1,000-1,200 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
160595	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Macedonian Grayling inhabits dry, limestone rocks with grassy vegetation here and there. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).	eng
160595	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is possibly below 10,000 specimens in bad years.	eng
160595	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a European endemic, restricted to one location globally. The area of habitat for the species is shrinking due to active quarries. Without any intervention the species is critically threatened with extinction.	eng
160678	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160678	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It is absent from Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, north of Lithuania, north of Germany, the Netherlands, north and central Britain, Ireland, Portugal, south of Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts.and the Pyrenees. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and from the Southern Urals across the Caucasus and Asia Minor to the north of Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
160678	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Marbled White inhabits many different types of nutrient-poor grassland. It is common in the southern part of its range, also on road verges and in agricultural areas. The butterflies need a lot of nectar and are often seen on plants in bloom. Various grass species, mostly fine-leaved, are used as foodplants. The female usually just drops its eggs into the grass, sometimes while flying. The first instar caterpillar hibernates without eating first. In periods of hot weather, the other instars can also go without food. They pupate deep in the vegetation. The Marbled White has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).	eng
160678	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160678	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160695	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160695	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species, absent from the northwest and southeast of France, Scandinavia, Britain and Italy. In Spain, it is only found in the eastern Pyrenees.  Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in the temperate forest zone of Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160695	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Map is a common butterfly of woodland edges, coppices, hedgerows and wood banks. It has two generations a year. The butterflies of the spring generation are predominantly orange and those of the summer generation predominantly black on the upperside of the wings. In warm years, there may be a partial third generation that in colour is somewhere between the spring and summer form. The Map gets its name from the intricate pattern on the underside of its wings. These butterflies enjoy basking in the sun with their wings wide open, often on the ground. The Map has a dainty floating flight, but it settles again quite quickly. The foodplants are Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) and Small Nettle (<em>U. urens</em>). The eggs are deposited in short chains on the underside of the nettle leaves and look very much like threaded pearls. The caterpillar is black with red-brown spines and two prominent spines or ?horns? on its head capsule, absent in the caterpillar of the Peacock (<em>Inachis io</em>). The caterpillars are gregarious, but do not spin a nest. They pupate on the foodplants and pass the winter as a pupa. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mixed woodland (17%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%).	eng
160695	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It has expanded its original range spectacularly since the middle of the 20th century both in northern and southern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160695	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160704	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160704	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species. Not present in the south of Spain, large parts of Portugal, the southern coast of France, north Brittany, Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, large parts of Belgium, north of Germany, Denmark, south of Greece and many Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia it is only found in the south of Sweden and near the Oslo Fjord. Sea level-1750 m. It is also found across the Caucasus to Asia Minor. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
160704	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pearly Heath is found on dry, to moderately damp, grasslands and grassy places at the edges of woodland or scrub. The Pearly Heath is common in some areas. They are active butterflies that fly a lot and are therefore easy to find. The males can often be found, perched in scrub, basking in the sun, from where they chase any females that pass by. In the evening, the butterflies gather to roost communally in scrub or at wood margins. Meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.), melicks (<em>Melica</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and many other grasses are used as foodplants, the preferred species differing between regions. The female lays its eggs one by one, or in short rows, on blades of grass. When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a tussock of grass, also pupating there later, deep down in the tussock. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), mesophile grasslands (15%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).	eng
160704	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160704	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160753	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
160753	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In large parts of Europe to 69° N, it is widespread and common. It is absent from parts of southern Spain and southern Portugal, the Balearic Islands, Malta, Crete and Rhodes. 0-2,100 m. Further in the whole Palearctic except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160753	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Western Europe, the first Orange-tip gives us the feeling that spring has arrived. However, high in the mountains, these butterflies only appear in the middle of the summer. The Orange-tip occurs in damp to quite wet grasslands at the edge of woods, or near thickets. The eggs are laid singly on flowerheads of different crucifers and their bright-orange colour makes them easy to find. At first, the caterpillars feed on the flowerbuds of the foodplant and later on the fruits. They live alone, which accords with their cannibalistic nature. When ready to pupate, they move into rough vegetation, climbing up a little twig and turning into a light-brown pupa, suspended from the plant by a silken girdle. The Orange-tip hibernates in this stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), urban parks and large gardens (5%).	eng
160753	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Romania, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160753	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160777	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
160777	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the southeastern Urals across Siberia, northeast Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the north of China to Sakhalin, Korea, Japan (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
160777	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Tongeia fisheri </em>occurs on dry stony slopes on small hills and slopes in mountains at about 800-2,000 m. It is also found in rocky river and stream valleys and on glades in coniferous forests. Larval foodplants are <em>Orostachys spinosa</em>, <em>O. malacophylla</em>, <em>Sedum</em> spp and <em>Pseudosedum</em> spp. This species produces two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
160777	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
160777	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
160805	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160805	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in North and Central Europe to the north of Spain and Portugal, south of France, north of Italy and south of Bulgaria. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands and Ireland. Sea level-2,300 m. It is furthermore found in the whole central Palearctic zone and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160805	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary, is found in damp to wet meadows or on low intensity-grazed pastures. It is also found on raised bogs and in swampy habitats. Populations may occur in small, sheltered locations, but also in an open landscape. The butterflies can often be seen taking nectar, prefering various species of thistles. The eggs are laid on violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in a rolled-up leaf of the foodplant. They pupate low down on a stalk in the litter layer. At high altitudes and in the north, the Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary has one generation a year, but has two generations a year elsewhere. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (6%), coniferous woodland (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).	eng
160805	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160805	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
160844	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is in decline (mainly in Central Europe) important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
160844	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the north of Europe. In Central Europe, the distribution is much more fragmented and the species occurs south to Central France, south of Switzerland, Central Austria and Slovakia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160844	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cranberry Fritillary inhabits raised bogs and wet heaths, mostly in sheltered places at the edges of woods, or in clearings. Open water is often in the neighbourhood. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of Cranberry (<em>Vaccinium oxycoccos</em>) and Marsh Andromeda (<em>Andromeda polifolia</em>). The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the moss layer just after hatching, only beginning to feed and grow the following year. However, in adverse conditions, the caterpillar may hibernate a second time. It pupates low down in the vegetation. It is usually single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (43%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), blanket bogs (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).	eng
160844	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Romania, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160844	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160915	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
160915	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in Western and Central Greece. 550-2,000 m, above 1,100 m in the Peloponnesus. It is furthermore present through Turkey to Syria, Northwestern Iran and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160915	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Greek Clouded Yellow is found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes and in open coniferous woodland. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of its larval foodplant, <em>Astracantha rumelica</em> and the milk-vetch <em>Astragalus parnassi</em>, that are often abundant in the habitats. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a young caterpillar, finishing its growth and pupating in spring. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%).	eng
160915	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is local in part of Europe.	eng
160915	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
160929	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Spain. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
160929	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe in separate areas: Eastern Pyrenees (very local), in the Alps and in Scandinavia (mountainous areas of Norway, Sweden and extreme north of Finland). In central Europe 1,500-2,500 m, in Scandinavia 0-1,100 m. It is also found in South Siberia, Altai and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
160929	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Scandinavia, the Mountain Fritillary occurs in the mountains on wide, open, dry areas near the tree-line and on grassy, flower-rich slopes. At lower altitudes, it is also found in wet areas where birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) are growing. In the Alps, this fritillary can be found on dry, quite flat alpine and sub-alpine grassland on stony soil. As the evening falls, the butterflies roost communally, usually on rough vegetation in a wet place. The female lays its eggs singly on various violets, including Yellow Wood Violet (<em>Viola biflora</em>) and also on Alpine Bistort (<em>Polygonum viviparum</em>), or on plants growing in the vincinity. The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the climate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), blanket bogs (11%).	eng
160929	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
160929	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161033	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
161033	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in Spain (the Pyrenees, particularly in the East), in large parts of Southeast France (eastern Pyrenees, Massif Central, Provence, the French Alps) and in Italy (the western Alps, Apuan Alps and central Apennines). Found at altitudes between 500-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
161033	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Autumn Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings and on grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on different grasses, such as Crab-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Digitaria sanguinalis</span>), Alpine Meadow-Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>), Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa pratensis</span>), Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. annua</span>), Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and Meadow Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. pratensis</span>). This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), coniferous woodland (33%), screes (33%).	eng
161033	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
161033	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161036	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
161036	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in the Alps (from the foothills of the French Alps to the Niedere Tauern in Austria) and in the southwest of Bulgaria (Rila and Pirin Mts.). In the Alps, its elevational range is 900-3,000 m (most numerous at altitudes higher than the tree-line), in Bulgaria 2,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
161036	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cynthia's Fritillary occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grassland with short, grassy vegetation and low-growing shrubs and in rocky areas. They fly quickly, close to the ground and are fond of basking in the sun on rocks or bare patches of ground. The female lays its eggs in clusters under leaves of Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>) and Long-spurred Pansy (<span style="font-style: italic;">Viola calcarata</span>). The caterpillars are black and bristly with yellow bands between each segment. They can be very numerous and take two years to develop. The first hibernation takes place communally in a silken web. In the fourth larval instar, they hibernate a second time, solitary under stones, where they later pupate. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%).	eng
161036	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161036	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161078	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
161078	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the northern Urals and northern parts of Asia and North America. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
161078	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found on tundras and mountain swamps (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%).	eng
161078	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
161078	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
161092	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
161092	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Europe to 63° N. It is absent from central and north Scandinavia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found east to West Siberia and across Asia Minor and the Caucasus to Turkmenia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
161092	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Meadow Brown is a common butterfly of many different grassland types, both natural grasslands and not too intensively used farmland and semi-natural grassland. The butterflies are noticeable by their lively behaviour. The female deposits its eggs on a large number of grasses, including species of fescue (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-brome (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), cock's-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), dog?s-tail (<em>Cynosurus</em> spp.) and brome (<em>Bromus</em> spp.). Sometimes, it also just drops the eggs in flight. The caterpillar goes into hibernation in the litter layer when half-grown. It also pupates deep in the litter layer. The Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%).	eng
161092	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161092	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161130	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
161130	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the southern side of the Alps (Valle d'Aosta), south of Switzerland and southeast of Austria and further eastwards to the south of Poland and Romania. It is also found locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present throughout the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
161130	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Hungarian Glider is a butterfly of light, damp woodland, occurring in deciduous, as well as in mixed woods. It is similar to the White Admiral (<em>Limenitis camilla</em>), which is also a woodland butterfly. The butterflies are rarely seen drinking nectar from flowers. It glides from perch to perch with only an occasional flap of the wings. Goat's-beard (<em>Aruncus dioicus</em>), Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), Bridewort (<em>Spiraea salicifolia</em>) and <em>S. chamaedryfolia</em> are used as foodplants. The female deposits the eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the eggshell and then makes a shelter in the tip of the leaf. In four places, it eats out narrow grooves across the leaves and subsequently spins the edges of the leaves together. It only leaves the shelter to feed. In autumn, it makes another shelter in which to hibernate. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (19%), mixed woodland (15%).	eng
161130	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161130	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
161145	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
161145	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Cantabrian mountains in the northwest of Spain. Found at altitudes of 1,000 - 1,700 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
161145	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This large ringlet is found in grassy vegetation with scattered bushes, such as broom (<span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus </span>spp.) and Tree Heath (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erica arborea</span>), on acid soils. The caterpillars feed on meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) and fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). Chapman's Ringlet is single-brooded. It is not known in which stage hibernation takes place. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).	eng
161145	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
161145	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161189	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
161189	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in many mountainous areas in Europe: in the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Italy, Velebit Mountains. (Croatia), Dinarian Alps (Bosnia), mountains of southern Serbia, south of Albania and southwest of Bulgaria, Carpathians (Romania) and the Tatra (Poland / Slovakia). Found at an altitude between 1,600-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
161189	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Silky Ringlet can be found on screes, sunny, rocky slopes and dry grasslands with scattered rocks. The butterflies often bask in the sun on stones, but, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. They are rarely seen visiting flowers. The caterpillars are found on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. minor </span>and Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). The caterpillars take two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (47%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (9%).	eng
161189	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161189	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
161246	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>P. eroides</em> was formerly a separate species listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats, especially of the former <em>P. eroides</em>, should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.<em> P. eroides</em>: it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in the Czech Republic and Slovakia; not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Bulgaria and Poland.	eng
161246	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The mountain form, the former <em>P. eros</em>, occurs in the Pyrenees, the Alps (from French Alps as far east as Hoch Tauern in Austria), mid-Apennines and in mountains in the southwest of Croatia and the southwest of Serbia. 1,200-2,700 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. The former <em>P. eroides</em> occurs in scattered populations in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
161246	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eros Blue is a mountain butterfly occurring on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, on rocky places with flower-rich vegetation and on scree slopes. Purple Beaked Milk-vetch (<em>Oxytropis halleri</em>) and <em>O. fetida</em> are probably its major foodplants, but other leguminous plants such as <em>Astragalus sempervirens</em>, <em>A. leontinus</em> and Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>) have also been named. The former False Eros Blue occurs on dry grasslands on sand, calcareous soil, or rocky ground and at woodland edges. The males can often be seen in large numbers on damp ground taking in moisture and dissolved minerals. Various milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp. and <em>Oxytropus</em> spp.) are used as foodplants and possibly Dyer’s Greenweed (<em>Genista tinctoria</em>). <br/>The Eros Blue has one generation a year. Habitats of the mountain butterflies: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (11%). Habitats of the butterflies on hills in Eastern Europe: dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), mesophile grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%), inland sand-dunes (7%).	eng
161246	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161246	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The former <em>P. eros</em> is not considered threatened in the European part of its distribution. The former <em>P. eroides</em> is threatened by agricultural improvements and abandonment.	eng
161254	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
161254	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is an American species, with a small European distribution in the southwest of Europe. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
161254	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The American Painted Lady can be found on any place with a rich abundance of flowers. The eggs are deposited on a wide range of plants, such as several genera of <em>Asteraceae</em>, <em>Fabaceae</em>, <em>Malvaceae</em>, <em>Boraginaceae</em>, <em>Urticaceae</em>, <em>Balsaminaceae</em> and <em>Scrophulariaceae</em>. Except for February and November, they are on the wings throughout the year on the island of Tenerife. Probably, the adult butterflies can have a diapause in the cold winter months that might be interrupted when temperatures occasionally rise (Tolman & Lewington, 2008). Habitats: scrub and grassland (50%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%).	eng
161254	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is local in the southwestern part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Spain - Canary Islands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
161254	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
161317	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	None in place.	eng
161317	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Western central Atlantic: recorded from North Carolina to Florida Keys and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Also Bahamas (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>FAO area: 21, 31.	eng
161317	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Occurs primarily over sandy or muddy substrates (soft fine substrates) in deep waters off the continental shelf, off reef habitats (Ross and Quattrini 2007). Found at depths of 275?922 m. Specifically, the species is known at depths of 646?745 m off South Carolina, at 683?922 m off Florida, and from off the north coast of Cuba at 275?642 m (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/> <br/>Nothing is known of the breeding ecology of the Deepsea Blind Ray, although anecdotal information on size at maturity is available for males. The maximum known length is 49 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003). Size at maturity is reached by approximately 16 cm TL for males (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003). Young are 8?9 cm at birth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161317	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	The Deepsea Blind Ray appears to be abundant as it is caught in large numbers throughout its distribution, when it is taken.	eng
161317	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Occasionally taken as bycatch. If fisheries move into deep water the species is likely to be taken by trawlers as bycatch, but this is not considered likely in the foreseeable future. Discarded at sea but chance of survival is low (soft flesh, etc.) so levels of bycatch should be monitored.	eng
161318	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2007	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of catches and population trends is required.	eng
161318	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Western central Atlantic: throughout the Gulf of Mexico; from northwestern Florida, USA, to Yucatán, Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Records of this species from Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua (Robins and Ray 1986) may be misidentifications of <em>Leucoraja garmani</em>.	eng
161318	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This skate is found on soft bottoms along the outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 53?588 m, but is more common between 60 and 366 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of at least 44 cm total length (TL) and 25 cm disc width (DW), but is common to 40 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). This species is oviparous, like other skates, and little else is known of its biology.	eng
161318	population	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161318	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This species is potentially caught as bycatch in demersal trawls that occur off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, and in the Gulf of Mexico and probably discarded.	eng
161319	conservation	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	None in place. Further research is required on this species’ distribution, biology and habitat. Bycatch levels should be quantified.	eng
161319	distribution	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest and northeast Pacific: found in the Bering Sea and off the Aleutian Islands (Stevenson <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
161319	habitat	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Occurs at depths of 90 to 448 m (Stevenson<em> et al.</em> 2004). Maximum recorded size is 76 cm total length (TL) (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females are mature at 76 cm TL and males at 70.2 cm TL (Stevenson <em>et al</em>. 2004). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. No other information is available on the habitat or biology of this species.	eng
161319	population	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This recently described species is known only from a few dozen specimens.	eng
161319	threats	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is presumably taken as bycatch of fisheries operating in the Bering Sea, but no specific data are available on its capture.<br/><br/>Industrial trawl fisheries have operated in the Bering Sea for over 100 years, but have dramatically increased in capacity since the 1950s (Vaisman 2001). Bottom trawl and bottom seine fisheries targeting various teleost fishes (Alaska Pollack, cod, Pacific Herring; rockfishes, halibuts, plaices), crabs and shrimp operate in the Russian part of the Bering Sea and this species is likely vulnerable to bycatch in these fisheries (Vaisman 2001). During the 20th Century the rate of take in these fisheries increased to the point catches of target species declined, and effective management of these fisheries reportedly collapsed in during the 1990s. Both Russian and foreign fleets fish in these waters. The scale of illegal fishing activities in these waters is considered very high (Vaisman 2001). Deepwater skates generally have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity and produce relatively few young). These unproductive characteristics, in an area where fishing pressure is high and unregulated point to concern for this species.	eng
161320	conservation	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Recommended: Efforts should be made to quantify catch levels and determine population trends, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Measures to protect and restore this species habitat would also be beneficial, such as identification and management of Marine Protected Areas to conserve nursery grounds. Research is needed on the species? life-history characteristics. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.<br/><br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure impacting this species.	eng
161320	distribution	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: this species was first described from Accra, Ghana (Norman 1930) and is reported from southern Senegal to Angola (Schneider 1990, Bianchi 1986, Séret in press).	eng
161320	habitat	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	An inshore guitarfish occurring in shallow coastal waters to about 35 m depth (Schneider 1990). Maximum size is about 80 cm total length (TL) and the species commonly reaches 60 cm TL (Schneider 1990). Males mature at about 46 cm TL, females at about 52 cm TL, size at birth about 15 cm TL. Ovoviviparous with litters of 2?3 pups; a sluggish bottom-dweller feeding on benthic invertebrates mainly shrimps (Séret in press).	eng
161320	population	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	It has never been abundant but nowadays it has become evidently rare, taken in fisheries on an increasingly rare basis (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161320	threats	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Captured by bottom trawls, trammelnets and hook-and-line (Schneider 1990). This species is taken as bycatch in such fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing pressure is intensive throughout its range along the western coast of Africa. The small-scale fisheries that originally exploited elasmobranchs off western Africa in the 1950s have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear. Interviews with fishermen and traders strongly suggest that the shark fin trade is financing the overexploitation of shark resources and leading to declining catches throughout Africa (WildAid 2001, Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). Rhinobatos species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006). The targeting of these species for their fins has already led to population declines in several similar species of elasmobranchs (including R. cemiculus and R. rhinobatos), the extirpation of some Pristis species, and a significant transformation in the structure of small-scale fisheries (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Extensive coastal shrimp trawl fisheries for pink shrimp Paenus notialis are also known to operate off Cameroon and Benin (IGGC 2007b). This species is likely taken as bycatch of these and other trawl fisheries that operate within its inshore range.<br/><br/>As well as over-exploitation by fisheries, this species coastal habitat is threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b). In Ghana, 55% of the mangroves and significant marshlands around the greater Accra area has been destroyed through pollution and overcutting. In Benin, the figure is 45% in the Lake Nouake area, in Nigeria, 33% in the Niger Delta, in Cameroon, 28% in the wouri Estuary and in Côte d'Ivoire, about 60% in the bay of Cocody (IGGC 2007b).<br/><br/>Serious declines have been documented in other <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp where they are heavily fished. These include, <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos </em>and <em>R. cemiculus</em> which occur in the Mediterranean Sea along the western African coast, and are both assessed as Endangered, based on observed and inferred population declines as a result of targeted and incidental fishing pressure.	eng
161321	conservation	White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Further investigation is required to make a more detailed assessment of this species. Monitoring of fishing activities within the known range and habitat of this species may need to be increased to gain more detailed information on its susceptibility and population trends.	eng
161321	distribution	White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central and southwest Pacific: temperate waters of eastern Australia, and possibly New Zealand (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161321	habitat	White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This demersal shark occurs on the slope at depths of 360–640 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Attains 123 cm total length (TL) (White <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is viviparous. Very little is known about the biology of this species, however its productivity is presumably low.	eng
161321	population	White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	<em>Cirrhigaleus australis</em> appears to be locally rare which may be a natural characteristic of this species.	eng
161321	threats	White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	The two long dorsal-fin spines make this species particular vulnerable to nets and trawls. The very stout body of this species also most likely reflects a slow moving lifestyle thus making net and trawl evasion more difficult. The Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (including the East Coast Deepwater Trawl and Commonwealth Trawl sectors) operates within this species’ range off eastern Australia (see <a href="http://www.afma.gov.au/information/maps/sess_cts.htm">Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery Commonwealth trawl sectors and South Australian coastal waters sector</a>), which it is likely taken as bycatch. Although not utilised commercially at present, the liver is high in squalene oil and is often of high value.<br/><br/>The apparent low numbers of this species within its known range may be a result of the above factors, however, this species may have naturally low populations and more data are necessary.	eng
161322	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and possible importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161322	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2008	Southeast Atlantic: known only from west of Cape Town, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991, H. Holtzhausen 2004 pers. comm.).	eng
161322	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2008	A large deep-water skate known from a depth of 1,150 to 1,350 m (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2008, Hulley 1988). This species is likely to have a slow growth rate, long life span and low fecundity. Maximum size has been reported at 100 cm TL, 73 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161322	population	Smale, M.J., 2008	Information on population size, distribution and habitat is limited mainly because of limited surveys in deep waters. At present the species is believed to be endemic to South Africa.	eng
161322	threats	Smale, M.J., 2008	Because this skate occurs (1,350 m) deeper than most current deepwater benthic trawling (other than a small number of boats exploiting Orange Roughy) at about 700 m, there is currently little fisheries threat.	eng
161323	conservation	Pinto de Almeida, M., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Lúcia Góes de Araújo, M., 2003	Further data on this species' biology, ecology and population dynamics is required. Habitat protection and maintenance are very important conservation measures for this and other potamotrygonid species. The establishment of protected areas (more specifically protected from recreation and tourism activities) is recommended. Any captures for the ornamental trade must be regulated and adequately monitored. Public awareness to reduce persecution associated with tourism and the fear of sting accidents is essential.	eng
161323	distribution	Pinto de Almeida, M., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Lúcia Góes de Araújo, M., 2003	South American inland waters: endemic to Northern Brazil, in the lower Amazon drainage, from the Tapajós to the Pará River (Rosa 1985), although recent work suggests it may only occur in the lower Tapajós drainage.	eng
161323	habitat	Pinto de Almeida, M., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Lúcia Góes de Araújo, M., 2003	This species has been captured in permanent lagoons along the Tapajós River as well lagoons that are present only during the dry season. Mature males and females have been observed at ~15?20 cm disc width (DW) (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida, pers. obs.). Fecundity is low with only one or two embryos (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida, pers. obs.). There is no other life history and ecology information available.	eng
161323	population	Pinto de Almeida, M., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Lúcia Góes de Araújo, M., 2003	There are no further data on range and population available for this freshwater stingray.	eng
161323	threats	Pinto de Almeida, M., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Lúcia Góes de Araújo, M., 2003	There is very limited information concerning the threats facing this species. The small size of adult specimens makes this species of interest to the ornamental fish trade, however, captures for this purpose have not been observed thus far. This species is found in rivers and lagoons around the city of Santarém, a seasonally popular tourism area. This may lead to persecution due to fear of injury.<br/><br/>Impacts on this species' habitat (from mining, damming, agriculture, tourism) are also of concern. Water pollution, especially that associated with deforestation (sediment run-off) and agricultural waste, may be a threat facing this species, since at least part of its range is becoming a soyabean plantation frontier in the Brazilian Amazon basin.	eng
161324	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	The Galápagos archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galápagos Marine Reserve which includes strictly protected areas and prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisanal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking.<br/><br/>The species was discovered during surveys using manned submersibles, as its habitat is unsuitable for more traditional sampling methods (i.e., trawling) (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Further sampling would assist in better defining the distribution and occurrence of the species, which given the isolation of the Galápagos Islands and the associated high level of endemism, is likely endemic to the archipelago (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161324	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Species documented from four scattered locations around the Galapagos Islands in the Southeast Pacific as per the original species description (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). See Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) for exact collection details.<br/><br/>Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) notes that given the high degree of endemism of fishes around the Galapagos Archipelago, <em>H. alphus</em> is likely to be endemic to the islands.	eng
161324	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	All known specimens of the species were collected or observed at depths ranging from 630–907 m, within 3 m of the bottom (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Quaranta <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported habitat adjacent to capture sites as ‘slopes and ledges containing large volcanic boulders, cobbles, and gravels, frequently overlain by, or interspersed with, patches of sand and coarse silt’. Two measured specimens were an adult male of 41.9 cm TL and 24.9 cm body length (BDL), and a sub-adult female of 48.0 cm TL and 24.4 cm BDL (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161324	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This recently described species is known only from two specimens and an additional two observations, from four locations as recorded in the original species description (Quaranta <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161324	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Fishing activities around the Galápagos archipelago are mostly limited to the coastal zone, although pelagic longlining also occurs. The habitat of this species (steep rocky volcanic slopes and ledges) is unsuitable for trawling, and demersal deepwater fisheries are not presently operating within its range.	eng
161325	conservation	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the Northwest and Western Central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.	eng
161325	distribution	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Endemic to western north Pacific including southern Japanese waters, central and eastern north China Sea, western Taiwan Straits (Shuyuan 1994), and waters surrounding northern Taiwan (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007).	eng
161325	habitat	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Found on the continental shelf and caught in fisheries operating down to 600 m (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Maximum total length is 200 cm (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other Squatinids.<br/><br/>Individuals are caught at or near the bottom, often in sandy substrate (Compagno 1984). Other species of angel shark are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey. Reproduction strategy is aplacental viviparity (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161325	population	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Population size for this species is unknown, but individuals are found in local fish markets in Taiwan and Japan (H. Ishihara and D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Little data exist due to no known catch records for this species and confusing taxonomic information used to distinguish individuals of this species from other northwest and western central Pacific Squatinids, especially <em>Squatina formosa</em>.<br/><br/>In 1980, one specimen of this species was caught in each of seven surveys that were carried out in the East China Sea between 35 and 500 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161325	threats	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is taken as a retained bycatch in trawl fisheries which operate over large areas of its range. It is found in local fish markets, but it is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations (D. Ebert pers.obs. 2007). This species? bathymetric distribution extends deeper than other northwest Pacific <em>Squatina</em> species?, and may afford it some refuge from fishing in areas not exploited by deepwater fisheries.<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007b). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007b). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007b). Progress is being made in the introduction of ecosystem based management in the Yellow Sea and a fisheries recovery plan requires the cooperative effort of all countries bordering it. The Yellow Sea LME Project will assess fish stocks and establish TACs (NOAA 2004b). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007b). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick et al. 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161326	conservation	Ishihara, H., 2007	None in place. Further research is required on the taxonomic validity of this species, in the first instance.	eng
161326	distribution	Ishihara, H., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Southern Japan to Taiwan, Province of China, South China Sea (Mould 1994). The holotype was collected from the coast east of Cape Ashizuri, Kochi Prefecture, Japan (133°07.2'E; 32°43.2'N) (Eschmeyer 2008).	eng
161326	habitat	Ishihara, H., 2007	Virtually no information is available on the habitat and ecology of this poorly known species. The holotype was collected from a depth of 80 m (Eschmeyer 2008).	eng
161326	population	Ishihara, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
161326	threats	Ishihara, H., 2007	Potential bycatch of trawl fisheries operating within its range.	eng
161327	conservation	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	None in place. Further surveys and species-specific catch data are required to make a full assessment of threat status.	eng
161327	distribution	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from northeastern Taiwan, Province of China (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).	eng
161327	habitat	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Very little known about its habitat or ecology. It occurs between 300 and 600 m deep (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006). Size at maturity is 40.6 cm total length (TL) for females and 35.5 cm TL for males. Maximum recorded size is 40.6 cm TL (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).	eng
161327	population	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Known from four specimens collected in deepwater off northeastern Taiwan, Province of China, as described in Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert (2006). Apparently uncommon relative to other Etmopterid species (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006).	eng
161327	threats	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	The impact of fishing pressure on this species is unknown. It is occasionally taken in bottom trawls, but uncommon relative to other Etmopterid species (Schaaf-da Silva and Ebert 2006). Fisheries on the eastern coast of Taiwan are mainly coastal and deepwater. The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved from 100–300 m fishing depth, to over 300 m currently (2007). The fishery has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161328	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F.,Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Pheeha, S. & Human, B., 2003	Precautionary conservation measures should include the live release of individuals caught, improved monitoring of fisheries data, identification of important nursery areas and the establishment of protected areas for such demersal species. Research is also required on abundance, threats, population trends and capture in fisheries throughout the species range.	eng
161328	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F.,Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Pheeha, S. & Human, B., 2003	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: from the northern UK, south to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984).	eng
161328	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F.,Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Pheeha, S. & Human, B., 2003	<em>Torpedo marmorata</em> is benthic, dwelling on soft as well as stony bottoms, sea grasses and rocky reefs and recorded from 10 to 100 m depth (Serena 2005). Avoids temperatures above 20°C. Males reached a maximum size of 38.6 cm total length (TL) and 39.5 cm TL, and females, 61.2 cm TL, 58 cm TL, in studies in Egyptian and Tunisian Mediterranean waters, respectively (Abdel-Aziz 1994, Capape 1979). Males mature at ~21-29 cm TL and females at 31-39 cm TL (Abdel-Aziz 1994, N. Ungaro unpublished data, Capape 1979, Consalvo <em>et al.</em> 2007). Mellinger (1971) reported that females mature at ~12 years and live to 20 years of age, and males mature at five years and live to 12-13 years. Aplacental viviparours with a gestation period of 10-12 months (Abdel-Aziz 1994). Probably breeds every two years, and fecundity appears to increase with the size of the female (Abdel-Aziz 1994, Capape 1979, Consalvo <em>et al</em>. 2007). The breeding season is reported to be in November to December. Females produce 5-32 juveniles, measuring between 10-14cm, the number depending on the size of the female (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Nocturnal, usually burying itself during the day with only the eyes and spiracle jutting out. Feeds mainly on small benthic fishes, but also invertebrates. Can produce electric discharges of up to 200 volts. Electrocytes begin developing when the embryo weighs about 1 g and electric organs are functional before birth and newborns can use their electric organ discharge in capturing prey (Henneman 2001).	eng
161328	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F.,Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Pheeha, S. & Human, B., 2003	Found throughout the Mediterranean. This species has been reported to be more common than the other two <span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo </span>species in the Adriatic Sea (<span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo torpedo </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Torpedo nobiliana</span>) (Bini 1967). The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean. A total of 6,336 tows were performed during 1994-1999 in depths ranging from 10-800 m. Torpedo marmorata occurred in 317 of 6,336 hauls (Baino <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) indicating that it is relatively abundant in the Northern Mediterranean, compared to other elasmobranch species recorded. Bertrand <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) and Aldebert (1997) both found no evidence for a decline in this species in the northern Mediterranean (southern coast of France). Recent analyses performed using trawl survey data in the Northern Tyrrhenian sea showed that the population is increasing in the coastal zone, probably due to the low commercial value of this species (Ferretti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). Preliminary analyses seem to indicate that this species is increasing in abundance off all the Italian coasts (Ferretti unpublished data).	eng
161328	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F.,Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Pheeha, S. & Human, B., 2003	Taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, coastal trammel nets and bottom longlines. It is not commercially fished and is often discarded at sea due to its low commercial value (Minervini <em>et al</em>. 1985). Little information is available on catches of this species as a result of discarding at sea and aggregation of landings data. Fishing pressure from demersal trawl fisheries is relatively intensive on the continental shelf off western Africa.	eng
161329	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	None specific to this species. <br/><br/>Trawl fisheries in the area are under quota management. Fisheries management in Australia is starting to move from single species management to ecosystem management and all fisheries now have Bycatch Action Plans and have to be assessed for ecological sustainability. They are required to meet certain certification standards if they are to continue operating.	eng
161329	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Endemic to Australia: found on the continental shelf and upper slope of southern Australia from New South Wales to Western Australia, including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161329	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Occurring in depths of 20?470 m on soft bottoms. Females reach maturity at five years of age and 49 cm total length (TL) and males at four years and 47 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpublished data 2007). Longevity is nine years, with a generation period of five years, and they reach a maximum size 66 cm TL (M. A. Treloar unpublished data 2007). Size at birth is about 15 cm TL. This species feeds primarily on carideans (shrimp) although diet varies with size. Juveniles feed predominantly on shrimp and as they increase in size, octopus and bottom fish become of more importance (Treloar <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161329	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	The independent survey data from southern New South Wales, which documented declines of 83% over 20 years in ?skates? combined do not apply to this species because it is distributed just outside the survey area. However, given that fishing pressure is intense throughout its deepwater range off southeastern Australia, it is highly likely that this species has also declined in abundance in this area.<br/><br/>The species is considered common in the western part of its range. For example, Last and Stevens (1994) describe this as possibly the most abundant skate on the continental shelf of the Great Australian Bight.	eng
161329	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries operating off southern Australia, such as the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark (SESS) fishery. This fishery has operated since the 1900s and targets a number of teleost species such as tiger flathead, jackass morwong, eastern school whiting, John Dory, etc. These target species are under quota management, but sustainable catch levels for this skate will be much lower than for the more productive teleost species.<br/><br/>Independent surveys off southern New South Wales show catch rates for ?skates? combined have declined by 83% over 20 years (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). These declines do not apply directly to this species because its distribution begins at the southern extent of the survey area, in deeper water (Eden and Gabo). However, trawling is intense throughout this species? deepwater range off southeastern Australia and there is no reason to suspect that it has not also suffered significant declines in this area.<br/><br/>Otter trawl activities, in particular, in the southeast of Australia for target species such as blue grenadier and warehou, render its population susceptible. This species has good quality flesh but only about 2% were retained in 2005 in the Commonwealth Trawl Fishery based on observer information (ISMP data). While most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, there is now an increasing trend for the larger (adult) ones to be retained for the local market.  Increasing removals of adults, i.e., the breeding population is of concern.<br/><br/>The species also occupies lightly-trawled grounds along the southern Australian coast, in the Great Australian Bight.	eng
161330	conservation	Ormond, C.G.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Given the potential vulnerability of this species, research is needed to better define the species? distribution, habitat requirements (including any important areas for breeding etc.) and life history. The gathering of data on interactions with fisheries operating in the region is essential.	eng
161330	distribution	Ormond, C.G.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Western central Atlantic: restricted to the Florida Straits (USA) and along the north coast of Cuba (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161330	habitat	Ormond, C.G.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Benthic on the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 430?613 m. Very little information available on the biology of this species. Reaches ~34 cm TL, and is ovoviviparous bearing litters of two young (Compagno in prep). Females mature at about 28 cm total length (TL) and males at about 27 cm TL (Compagno in prep). Size at birth is >10 cm TL (Compagno in prep).	eng
161330	population	Ormond, C.G.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Formerly common in its limited range although no recent surveys (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161330	threats	Ormond, C.G.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	This species is not targeted and there are no trawl fisheries currently operating at the depths at which this species occurs off Florida (J. Castro pers. comm. 2004). There is little specific information concerning fisheries operating in the species? area of occurrence off Cuba (J. Castro pers. comm.). Shrimp trawl fisheries are reported to operate off Cuba, but target species that primarily occur in relatively shallow continental shelf waters (Penaeus notialis and P. schmitti), placing <em>E. barbouri</em> beyond their range of operation (Baisre <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161331	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161331	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central and southwest Atlantic: east coast of Florida (USA), throughout the Gulf of Mexico Guatemala, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Also off Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil (Soto <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
161331	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	A deepwater species that inhabits muddy bottoms on the upper slope, occurring at depths of 315–915 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Brazilian specimens were collected from depths of 360–437 m (Soto <em>et al</em>. 2004). Reaches a maximum size of at least 75 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else known of its biology.	eng
161331	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161331	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although no information is available.	eng
161332	conservation	Fahmi, White, W. & Manjaji, B.M., 2007	No conservation and management measures are in place, with the exception of Australian waters. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>An elasmobranch biodiversity study in Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) was initiated in 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in the region. The fishery is largely unregulated (licences being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).	eng
161332	distribution	Fahmi, White, W. & Manjaji, B.M., 2007	Indian Ocean to western Pacific: Red Sea, Persian Gulf and South Africa to Micronesia, Japan, Melanesia and the Arafura sea, Australia, Bangladesh, India, widespread in Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Maldives, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Thailand, Vietnam (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161332	habitat	Fahmi, White, W. & Manjaji, B.M., 2007	Found in intertidal lagoons, reef flats and reef faces (Michael 1993), sandy habitats and also inland in rivers (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989), at depths of up to 60 m (Last and Stevens 1994) although it prefers shallow water (including estuarine waters possibly close to freshwater) (W. White and C. Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007). This species is also found in intertidal mangrove estuaries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Two distinct forms of <em>P. sephen</em> are present in Southeast Asia; a thick-fold tail form and a thin-fold tail form. The thick-fold tail form reaches about 325 cm total length (TL) (Fahmi pers. obs.) (~300 cm TL in the literature (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996)), and 149 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dharmadi 2007). Females probably mature at >100 cm DW and males at 98?100 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth is approximately 18 cm DW (Last and Stevens 1994, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Very little is known of the life-history parameters of the smaller, thin-fold tail form, except that males may mature at ~30 cm DW (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). Fecundity is low, with one pup per litter (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161332	population	Fahmi, White, W. & Manjaji, B.M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161332	threats	Fahmi, White, W. & Manjaji, B.M., 2007	This species is caught regularly in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, longline, Danish seine and beach seine fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout parts of its range in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. <em>Pastinachus sephen</em> is also directly targeted (for the high value of its skin) in a bottom longline fishery in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It is captured in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). Typically all the catch is utilised for the species? meat, skin and cartilage.<br/><br/>The life-history parameters of this species also make it vulnerable to depletion (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels have to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fishermen in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>Catches in inshore fisheries suggest that mangroves estuaries may provide important nursery habitat for this species, and destruction of this habitat is very likely impacting this species. Juveniles and sub-adults are known to be targeted in mangrove areas and destruction of mangrove forest is having a significant impact on this species. Mangrove forests throughout Southeast Asia and large areas of the eastern Indian Ocean have been degraded (FAO 2007). In this region, ~1.9 million hectares of mangroves (or about 25 percent of the total 1980 area) have been lost during the last 25 years (FAO 2007). More than 90% of this loss has been caused by destruction of mangrove area in Indonesia, Pakistan, Viet Nam, Malaysia and India (areas where this species occurs) through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, conversion of land for agriculture or salt pans and degradation through oil spills and pollution (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery (Last and Stevens 1994), but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161333	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. If deep water fisheries develop in the future, catches will require careful monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161333	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western central Pacific: known from only a few records off Luzon, Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a,b).	eng
161333	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	This benthic, deepwater shark occurs on continental slopes at depths of 329–431 m, with one record on the outer shelf at 50 m depth (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Females mature at 27–30 cm and males at ~25 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a). The species reaches a maximum size of 30 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a). Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161333	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Known from only few records (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005b).	eng
161333	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	This species would be vulnerable to capture in trawl fisheries, although no data are available on its capture. Trawl fisheries are not thought to operate within this species’ main depth range off the Philippines at present (B. Séret pers. comm.).	eng
161334	conservation	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	There are no specific management measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>A set of national regulations, the Mexican Official Standard Rules for Shark and Ray responsible fisheries (NOM-029-PESC-2004-2006) entered into place in May 2007. These rules state that every individual kept aboard commercial shark fishery vessels must be completely utilised, however, oceanic vessels may discard the shark guts and head. They also state that shark finning is prohibited. No information is available on how effectively these regulations are enforced.	eng
161334	distribution	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	Eastern central Pacific: Cape Mendocino, northern California to Mazatlan in the southeastern Gulf of California (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Compagno 1984).	eng
161334	habitat	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	This species is found both inshore and offshore in warm-temperate to tropical waters. It is demersal, on continental shelves and enters shallow muddy bays (Compagno in prep). It moves into north-central Californian waters, USA in summer, but is resident in warmer waters from southern California and south (Compagno in prep). In California it is usually found in water less than 12 m deep, but has been caught down to depth of 67 m (Sandell 1973, Ebert 2003). In the northern Gulf of California it is abundant mainly at depths less than 100 m, although has been caught from 6?265 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). This species is viviparous with a yolk sac placenta, and litters range from 3?16 pups (Talent 1985, Yudin 1987, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Reproduction is annual and gestation takes about 10?12 months (Sandell 1973, Yudin 1987, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Data from central California indicates that males mature at 57?65 cm total length (TL) (Yudin and Cailliet 1990), and data from the Northern Gulf of California suggests they mature at 72?74 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Females mature at 70?90 cm TL (Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Maximum recorded size for this species is 160 cm TL (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Males mature at age 1?2.5 years, females mature at 2?3 years and longevity is nine years (Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Size at birth is 20?30cm (Sandell 1973, Talent 1985, Yudin 1987, Yudin and Cailliet 1990, Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Average reproductive age is estimated at 4.6 years (Cortés 2000). <br/><br/>This shark tends to move around in schools and has often been observed to congregate with leopard sharks in very shallow water (Ebert 2003). Marquez-Farias (2000) report that this, and another small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>), make seasonal migrations in Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) during the autumn and winter months. Elkhorn Slough and Anaheim Bay, California have both been reported as being nursery areas for this species. In Elkhorn Slough parturition occurs from January to May (Yudin 1987). In Anaheim Bay, mating reportedly occurs from February to June and parturition from March to June (Sandell 1973). In the Upper Gulf of California (the shallow (depth <30 m), tidal area at the head of the Gulf of California) mating and parturition is thought to occur from March to June and the region is considered a nursery area for this species (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). The diet of this species in California waters consist of crustaceans [Grapsidae (Hemigrapsus oregonensis), Cancridae (Cancer spp.), Hippidae (Emerita analoga), Callianassidae], echiuran worms [Urechidae (Urechis caupo)], cephalopods [Loliginidae (Loligo opalescens)], small teleosts, bivalves (Sandell 1973, Talent 1982, San Filipo 1995). In the Northern Gulf of California the diet consist of crustaceans (mainly Stomatopoda), cephalopods and teleosts (Méndez-Loeza 2004). Mustelus californicus is a relatively fast growing species, with relatively short longevity, early age at first maturity (Yudin and Cailliet 1990) and moderate fecundity, and therefore has a higher recovery capability from fishing pressure than other slower growing sharks (Smith 1998).	eng
161334	population	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	This species is considered common in most parts of its range, but it is rare north of Elkhorn Slough, California. It is common in inshore waters off southern California (Castro 1996, Ebert 2003, Compagno in prep).	eng
161334	threats	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	In the USA this species is regularly caught by recreational anglers in southern California and is of little economic value (Ebert 2003). In the northern Gulf of California <em>Mustelus</em> species have been caught by the artisanal fishing fleet since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by the medium size trawl fleet since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species out of the shrimp fishing season. When they are not being targeted, they are taken as bycatch by the shrimp trawl fleet (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997?1998). No catch data are available but these trawl vessels operate in shallow waters where this species is present. <br/><br/>In the Upper Gulf of California this species is frequently targeted with bottom gill-nets (4?6 inches mesh size) from March to July, especially when most valuable teleost species are not abundant. Neonates are not thought to be vulnerable to the gill-nets used because they are smaller than the mesh size (4, 6, 8 inches) in this area. In this region the catches can be as high as 500 kg per fishing trip. In the northern Gulf of California it is commonly caught by medium size trawl vessels that target finfish and elasmobranchs from April to July (at depths shallower than 100 m), and is bycatch in the shrimp fishery from September to January (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) report that this, and another small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>), in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California)  are sometimes caught in numbers as high as 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip. In three regions of the Gulf of California (Southeastern, Central and Northern) the highest catches of <em>M. californicus </em>obtained by a trawler vessel (operating at depths of 1-200 m) were: a) 51 kg/h<sup>-1</sup> during February-March at depths of 41?80 m in the Southeastern Gulf of California (Sonora and Sinaloa coasts) , b) 106.43 kg/ h<sup>-1</sup> during September at depths from 81?120 m in the Central Gulf of California (Midriff Islands)  and, c) 186 kg/h<sup>-1</sup> during May at depths of 81?120 m in the Northern Gulf of California (Ehrhardt <em>et al.</em> 1980). Although these authors state that these catches only included <em>M. californicus</em>, they may also have included <em>M. lunulatus</em> in shallower areas (from 1?80 m) and <em>M. henlei</em> in deeper areas (from 80?200 m). In Santa Rosalillita, Baja California (approximately 400 km south of Ensenada) 4,638 kg of <em>Mustelus</em> species were caught from May to September 2001 (Rodríguez-Medrano and Almeda-Jauregui 2002).	eng
161335	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.	eng
161335	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: from southern Baja, California and the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, R. Robertson per. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.	eng
161335	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A demersal species found on soft bottoms in coastal waters. This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 46.2 cm, but no other information is available on its biology or ecology (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995).	eng
161335	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Apparently common (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161335	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No information available but presumably taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries throughout its range and is sometimes utilized for human consumption (De La Cruz 1997). Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense, for example, coastal fisheries of Costa Rica are generally fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007).<br/><br/><em>Urotrygon</em> species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Pacific South America (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005), where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant. <br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ‘marine fishes, nei’, where nei stands for ‘not explicitly identified’ (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).	eng
161336	conservation	Burgess, G.H., Caldas Aristizábal, J.P. & Chin, A., 2004	Further information is required on the species’ life history.	eng
161336	distribution	Burgess, G.H., Caldas Aristizábal, J.P. & Chin, A., 2004	Endemic to the Caribbean Sea in the western central Atlantic: Caribbean Slope off Barbados, Lesser Antilles, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Jamaica, and the continental slope off Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia.	eng
161336	habitat	Burgess, G.H., Caldas Aristizábal, J.P. & Chin, A., 2004	Continental and insular slopes, at depths of 329–676 m (Compagno 1984). One specimen collected from 306–676 m by a Colombian research trawl (Saavedra 2000). Virtually nothing known of the species biology. Maximum size at least 54 cm TL and is presumably oviparous (Springer 1979, Compagno 1984).	eng
161336	population	Burgess, G.H., Caldas Aristizábal, J.P. & Chin, A., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161336	threats	Burgess, G.H., Caldas Aristizábal, J.P. & Chin, A., 2004	None identified. At present there are no fisheries targeting these deep waters in the region (FAOabc, J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161337	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>All elasmobranchs were commercially protected throughout Western Australian waters in November 2006, thus prohibiting the retention of their catches and bycatches in most fisheries. This prohibition applies to all commercial fisheries except for the State?s four shark fisheries, and prevents unmanageable by-catches in non-target commercial sectors (Fletcher and Head 2006). See Fletcher and Head (2006) for further information on management measures implemented off Western Australia.<br/><br/>Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161337	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: endemic to Australian waters, widely distributed between Perth and Broome (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161337	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	A small deepwater skate, found on the continental slope at depths of 200?460 m. Attains at least 35 cm TL with males maturing at about 32 cm TL and free swimming by about 14 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Its biology is virtually unknown, but small species of skate tend to be more biologically productive than large species (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Like other skates, it is oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161337	population	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	The most abundant and widely distributed skate on the upper continental slope off Western Australia (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161337	threats	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Although it is quite common and limited fishing is currently occurring within its range, it may become vulnerable if deep-water trawl fishing increases significantly.	eng
161338	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	None in place. Further information is required on this species’ life history parameters, catch levels, population trends and threats.	eng
161338	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: endemic to the Gulf of California, Mexico (McEachran 1995).	eng
161338	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	A benthic species found on the inner part of the continental shelf in subtropical waters (McEachran 1995). This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 38.5 cm (McEachran 1995). Males mature at around 34 cm (McEachran and Miyake 1988).	eng
161338	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161338	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	This species is a potential bycatch of trawl fisheries operating in the Gulf of California, but no information is available on catches. The Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, 70% of which operate on the Pacific coast, and almost all of these are concentrated in the Gulf of California (FAO 2007).	eng
161339	conservation	Morey, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	None in place. Research is required to determine this species’ full range, abundance, interaction with fisheries and population trends.	eng
161339	distribution	Morey, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	Occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, mainly in the western part and absent from the Black Sea (Serena 2005). The distribution may extend into the Atlantic Ocean, where it is reported from off Portugal and the northern coasts of Morocco, but these records require verification and may be misidentifications of other <em>Raja</em> species.	eng
161339	habitat	Morey, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	<em>Raja radula </em>is found from coastal waters to about depths of about 300 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). In the Balearic Islands, this species is relatively common at less than 40 m depth.<br/><br/>Like all skates, reproduction is oviparous. About 80–154 paired eggs are laid per skate, per year (Walker 1998). Egg-cases measure 5.1–5.7 cm and are laid throughout the year, mainly in spring and summer and embryos develop in about four months (Serena 2005, Stehman and Bürkel 1984). Females mature at 34 cm DW and males at 30 cm DW (Serena 2005, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Maximum size to about 70 cm TL (Serena 2005, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987). Most captured specimens in the Balearic Islands measure about 30–50 cm TL (G. Morey unpub. data).	eng
161339	population	Morey, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	Recorded in low numbers where data are available from trawl surveys in the Mediterranean Sea, however it may be more common in shallow waters (<40 m depth) which were not sampled by some of the surveys mentioned below.<br/><br/>In comparable trawl surveys of the Gulf of Lions (France) from 1957–1960, 1980–1984, 1992–1995, (from the coast to 800 m depth) this species was only captured during the period 1980–1984, on the shelf and slope (Aldebert 1997). In northern Mediterranean wide MEDITS scientific trawl surveys from 1994–1999 (at 50–800 m depth) <em>R. radula</em> was captured in only 21 of 6,336 tows (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). In surveys conducted in Italian waters, it occurred in only 3.31% of 9281 hauls performed between 1985 and 1998 (at 0–800 m depth). It was only present in two areas (Sardinian and Sicilian waters) and was absent elsewhere in these surveys (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000). It was not recorded during trawl surveys in the Adriatic Sea in 1948 or 1998 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>At least in the Balearic Islands, Spain, western Mediterranean, the species appears to be common in shallow waters. It was not recorded in 131 hauls during trawl surveys there from 1996–2001, at depths of 40–1,800 m (Massuti and Moranta 2003). However, it is the most abundant skate in shallow waters off the Balearic Islands (<40 m depth), comprising about 25% in abundance and 12% in biomass of total elasmobranch catch in the trammel net fishery there (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006). Therefore the absence of this species from trawl surveys deeper than 40 m, at least off the Balearic Islands, is considered a result of its preference for shallow waters and perhaps the sampling gear.	eng
161339	threats	Morey, G., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2006	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl, gillnet, trammel net and bottom longline fisheries. There is a high level of exploitation over the continental shelf and upper slope in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003, Aldebert 1997). In some areas, such as the Balearic Islands, this species is more common in shallow waters, where it is taken in trammel net (targeting cuttlefish Sepia officinalis and teleost fishes), gillnet (targeting Lobster (<em>Palinurus elephas</em>) and Red Mullet (<em>Mullus surmuletus</em>)) and bottom longline fisheries (targeting groupers <em>Epinephelus</em> spp. and Sparidae) (Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006). Trawl fisheries operating on the upper shelf, targeting red mullet Mullus surmuletus, caramel Spicara smaris and small hake Merluccius merluccius in this area also partially overlap with its range. Species specific data are not available because landings of skates are grouped as ‘rays’.	eng
161340	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology and ecology are required. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161340	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the type locality, in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Pakistan (Lloyd 1906).	eng
161340	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater skate. The holotype was taken on the deep slope at a depth of 1,500 m (Lloyd 1906). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, as for other skates. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161340	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161340	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The known depth distribution of the species is most likely beyond the depth of current fishing pressure. The species may be more widely distributed than currently known.	eng
161341	conservation	Smale, M.J. & Pheeha, S., 2008	No specific measures in place. Specimens should be collected and studied. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161341	distribution	Smale, M.J. & Pheeha, S., 2008	Southeast Atlantic: known only from the holotype collected off Hondeklip Bay off the Northern Cape Province of South Africa (not from off KwaZulu-Natal on the east coast, as suggested by the name), and a paratype (locality and depth unknown). Not recorded from African research cruises along the west coast of southern Africa (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
161341	habitat	Smale, M.J. & Pheeha, S., 2008	<em>C. durbanensis</em> attains at least 31 cm TL and is known from depths of about 860 m (Hulley 1988).	eng
161341	population	Smale, M.J. & Pheeha, S., 2008	A rare skate known only from two specimens. This southern African endemic may be more common than currently known in waters deeper than currently exploited or surveyed by research vessels.	eng
161341	threats	Smale, M.J. & Pheeha, S., 2008	At least part of its range in an area of high exploitation by the South African and Namibian trawl fishery centred on hake. Although there are no data indicating a decline, its limited distribution, large size and likely limiting life history traits make it vulnerable to fishing pressure. May be impacted by deeper fisheries in the future.	eng
161342	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	Total Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) on nets excludes many larger fishes from the trawls which has likely reduced mortality of this species in the northern prawn trawl fishery off northern Australia.	eng
161342	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Indo-West Pacific: northern and eastern coasts of Australia, to New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994), Indonesia and south coast of Papua New Guinea (Compagno 1997). Also in the Arafura Sea (Russell and Houston 1989).	eng
161342	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	A demersal species occurring from the intertidal to depths of at least 50 m (Last and Stevens 1994).This species reaches a maximum size of at least 73 cm disc width (DW) or 56 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999, Last and Stevens 1994). Little else is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Feeds on large fish species relative to the size of the animal (fish consumed almost filling entire abdominal and mouth cavities) (I. Jacobsen pers. comm.).	eng
161342	population	White, W.T., 2008	Relatively common (but not particularly abundant) in northern Australia.	eng
161342	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Of very little commercial interest to fisheries. This species is commonly taken as bycatch by shrimp trawlers within its range (Last and Stevens 1994). Introduction of bycatch reduction devices (BRDs) and turtle exclusion devices (TEDs) on the trawl nets has presumably reduced bycatch of this species. Probably caught in the Arafura Sea by the numerous trawlers (mainly Thai) which operate there but its range in this area needs to be confirmed.	eng
161343	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	None known.	eng
161343	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Eastern central Atlantic: apparently endemic on the shelf of Boavista and São Vicente, Cape Verde Islands (Stehmann 1991).	eng
161343	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Recorded at depths of 55–102 m (Stehmann 1991). Males and females mature from about 35 cm total length (TL) onwards, reaching a maximum size of 50–55 cm TL (Stehmann 1991). Little else is known of its biology, and it is presumed to be oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161343	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Moderately common within its restricted habitat range.	eng
161343	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Potential bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available.	eng
161344	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.K., 2008	None in place. Research is required on taxonomy, abundance, threats and population trends.	eng
161344	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.K., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: found in the Gulf of California, from Costa Rica south to Colombia, Ecuador (including the Galapagos Islands) and Peru (Acero and Franke 1995, McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Béarez 1996, Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
161344	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.K., 2008	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 35–140 m (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). The species reaches a maximum size of 75.6 cm total length (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of the species biology.	eng
161344	population	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.K., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161344	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.K., 2008	<em>Raja velezi </em>is known to be taken in shrimp trawl fisheries operating off Colombia, and is probably captured by trawl and other demersal fisheries operating throughout its range. The shrimp trawl fishery off Colombia operates from the shelf to depths of at least 300 m and this species is a retained bycatch of this fishery (Puentes <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161345	conservation	Stehmann, M., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Expanding deepwater fisheries and bycatch levels should be monitored to ensure that this potentially vulnerable species is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161345	distribution	Stehmann, M., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: Denmark-Strait, off south western Iceland, including Reykjanes Ridge, Rockall Trough along Ireland, in the northern region of the Bay of Biscay and south to off Rio de Oro in Western Sahara. It may occur throughout the area in very deep water and on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Stehmann 1978, Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: occurs off the northeastern coast of the USA and Canadian slope, north of 45°N and to the Flemish Cap (Stehmann 1995).	eng
161345	habitat	Stehmann, M., 2008	<em>Rajella bathyphila</em> is found on deeper continental slopes and probably abyssal plains, mainly deeper than 1,400 m (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Like other skates, it is oviparous with females producing around 40 egg capsules each per year. Size at birth is 11.5 cm (Stehmann 1978). Adults reach sexual maturity at about 65 cm total length (TL) for both males and females, with fully mature females of 83 and 93 cm TL recorded off Canada (D. Kulka pers. comm. 2006). The maximum recorded size for <em>R. bathyphila</em> is 93 cm TL (Stehmann 1978).	eng
161345	population	Stehmann, M., 2008	Moderately rare (McEachran and Stehmann 1977, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann 1978, Stehmann 1995).	eng
161345	threats	Stehmann, M., 2008	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch in deep-water fisheries locally and seasonally, and is mostly discarded. This species’ deepwater distribution (most records exceed 1,000 m) places them outside of the range of many fisheries.<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700–1,200 m), and 400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. comm.). About 10–20% of the northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. comm.).	eng
161346	conservation	Last, P.R. & McCord, M.E., 2008	All elasmobranchs were commercially protected throughout Western Australian waters in November 2006, thus prohibiting the retention of their catches and bycatches in most fisheries. This prohibition applies to all commercial fisheries except for the State’s four shark fisheries, and prevents unmanageable by-catches in non-target commercial sectors (Fletcher and Head 2006). See Fletcher and Head (2006) for further information on management measures implemented off Western Australia.	eng
161346	distribution	Last, P.R. & McCord, M.E., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: found off Western Australia between Shark Bay and Port Hedland (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161346	habitat	Last, P.R. & McCord, M.E., 2008	This species is found on the continental shelf in depths of 10–70 m (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>This ray feeds on the bottom on worms and other small invertebrates. The maximum recorded size is 29 cm TL, with young born at approximately 7 cm TL and females maturing at about 18 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Last and Stevens (1994) suggest that females are gravid throughout the year although only appear to breed between September and October.	eng
161346	population	Last, P.R. & McCord, M.E., 2008	This species is abundant throughout its distribution and is thought to aggregate, suggesting that population levels are relatively high.	eng
161346	threats	Last, P.R. & McCord, M.E., 2008	There is no significant threat to this species from the relatively limited fishing effort currently occurring within most of its range. There are five relatively small trawl fisheries operating within the species' range. All but one of these are confined to individual embayments and both fishing effort and the operational range of the fisheries are small relative to the species' distribution (R. McAuley pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>If large, shallow water fisheries are developed in the area in the future it will be necessary to monitor the population levels through catch data. If inshore trawling effort becomes high, the species may be impacted.	eng
161347	conservation	Stehmann, M., 2006	Further surveys to better define the species' range and careful monitoring of any fishing activities are required. The collection of further specimens is also needed to learn more about the life history of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161347	distribution	Stehmann, M., 2006	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: middle to deep continental slopes off Central West Africa. Known from three types off Gabon (2?3°S) and one postembryo from off Rio de Oro, Western Sahara (23°N) (Stehmann and Seret 1983).	eng
161347	habitat	Stehmann, M., 2006	Benthic at 900?1,550 m (M. Stehmann pers. obs.) depth on the middle to deep continental slope off central and north West Africa. Known from only four types therefore very little is known of the biology of the species. From limited reports, it is estimated that the species is mature from approximately 25 cm total length (TL) (male holotype was fully mature at 28.8 cm TL). The largest specimen reported to date was a female at 30.4 cm TL and the smallest was a postembryo at 13.1 cm TL (Stehmann 1990, 1991). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161347	population	Stehmann, M., 2006	Rare deep-water dwarf species (only four specimens known). Population size unknown.	eng
161347	threats	Stehmann, M., 2006	The only specimens recorded to date were taken in an area presently thought to be outside commercial fishing operations. However, as deepwater fisheries worldwide continue to expand, and given the species' potential narrow distribution, any fisheries which operate in the species' area of occurrence in the future will need to be monitored carefully to ensure that the current population is not threatened.	eng
161348	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	Protocols for managing any expansion of deep-sea fisheries in Indonesia need to be developed in the near future (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161348	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western central Pacific: known from the Bali Sea, Indonesia at 7°15'S, 115°15.6'E (Weber 1913).	eng
161348	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	A small, bathydemersal deepwater species found at 289 m on the continental slope (Last and Compagno 1999). Reported to 31 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161348	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Population size unknown. This species is possibly confined to the tropical Indo-West Pacific, and known from only a few individuals (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161348	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, however there are few data on the species or size composition of landings (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Commercial trawlers land substantial catches of elasmobranchs as bycatch (White <em>et al.</em> 2006), however trawling is at present restricted to shallower fishing grounds. There is also a small deep-sea longline fishery primarily targeting deep-sea squaloid sharks in Eastern Indonesia, operating from 200-600m but mostly below 300 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not recorded during surveys of deep-sea chondrichthyan catches undertaken between April 2001 and February 2003, and is probably too small to be capture by this fishing gear (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>New fishing methods (e.g., trawling) may be adopted in the future, especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). According to White <em>et al.</em> (2006), expansion of the deep-sea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely.	eng
161349	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	None.	eng
161349	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Indian Ocean: recorded from Yemen, Somalia and southwestern India (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
161349	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Occurs at depths of 787?1,071 m. Originally reported by Alcock (1898) from the Travancore coast of southern India at 787 m depth. Reported at 1,071 m off Yemen, and 823 m depth off Somalia.<br/><br/>Biology is little known, however males mature between 12?35 cm TL.	eng
161349	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	The Dark Blindray is not collected in abundance and is apparently the rarest representative of the genus <em>Benthobatis</em>.	eng
161349	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2008	Future threats may include the expansion of fisheries into deep water. Very little information is available on the depths fished throughout the species? range.	eng
161350	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	<em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within Alaskan waters within the ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented. Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.	eng
161350	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwest and northeast Pacific: Whiteblotched Skate is found in the Bering Sea, off the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska to southeast Alaska, USA, and Westward to Cape Navarin and the Commander Islands, southward to the Pacific off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands to Sea of Okhotsk and possibly to the northern Sea of Japan, Russia (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ormseth and Matta 2007, Bizzaro in prep, Tokranov <em>et al.</em> 2005, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161350	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Whiteblotched Skate ranges from 73?1,193 m depth, on outer shelves and upper continental slopes (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Stevenson 2004). Females reach maturity at 7?8 years of age and 94.3?101.1 cm total length (TL) and males at seven years and 88.8?95.8 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005). The species attains a maximum size of 120 cm TL  (Mecklenburg <em>et al. </em>2002) and egg capsules measure 97?110 mm length x 51?66 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).	eng
161350	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This is a common skate.<br/><br/>This species is common in the western Bering Sea, east Kamchatka and northern Kuril Islands appearing as one of the most abundant skate species in trawl surveys. For the northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka, CPUE has increased from 10 kg/hr in 1993 to 70 kg/hr in 2000 in trawl surveys (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Using biomass and mean weight of specimens in the Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka (2.6kg), the population can be estimated at about 165,380 animals in this area alone (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). According to 1977?1997 bottom trawl survey data biomass of whiteblotched skate in Russian waters is estimated as 75,300 t including 24,600 t in the Bering Sea, 4,300 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 46,400 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>In the eastern Bering Sea, this species is the fourth most abundant skate species recorded, and in the Aleutian Islands it was the most common skate recorded in the National Marine Fisheries Service Alaska Fisheries Science Center Surveys (NMFS AFSC) (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006). These surveys operate to 1,200 m depth. However, it is not common in the Gulf of Alaska (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161350	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Ormseth and Matta 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species. <br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600?800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, Japanese trawlers fishing in Russian waters took skate wings, but no information is currently available on historical catch levels. Foreign fisheries were prohibited in Russian waters in 2002.	eng
161351	conservation	Nakaya, K., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & White, W., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The taxonomy and distribution of this species require critical review. Research is also required on population trends and threats.	eng
161351	distribution	Nakaya, K., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & White, W., 2007	Northwest Pacific: the range of this species is not well defined due to confusion with the Saddled Carpetshark (<em>Cirrhoscyllium japonicum</em>). Compagno (2001) reports this species from the South China Sea off the coast of China between China and Luzon, Philippines, and in the Gulf of Tonkin off Viet Nam (Compagno 2001). However records from the South China Sea may be attributable to <em>C. japonicum</em>. Yano (1999) also recorded <em>C. expolitum</em> from the Nansei Islands, Japan.	eng
161351	habitat	Nakaya, K., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & White, W., 2007	Found on the outer continental shelf on the bottom at depths of 183?190 m (Compagno 2001). Two adult female specimens known measuring 30.6 cm and 33.5 cm (adult). (Compagno 2001). Maximum total length (TL) at least 33.5 cm (Compagno and Niem 1998). Probably oviparous, but eggs are not known (Compagno and Niem 1998).	eng
161351	population	Nakaya, K., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & White, W., 2007	Presumably rare or uncommon (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)	eng
161351	threats	Nakaya, K., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & White, W., 2007	This species is probably taken as bycatch in offshore trawl fisheries and likely discarded, although no specific information is available on its capture.	eng
161352	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to assess the threat status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161352	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Widely but patchily distributed in warm temperate and tropical seas, but possibly absent from the eastern Pacific (Ebert 1990, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Compagno in prep). Records from Mauritius, Madagascar, southern Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and the island chains, Geyser and Zelee Banks, east of Diego Suarez, Castor and Cordeliere Banks, were originally referred to as <em>H. griseus</em>, but Ebert (1990) re-identified these specimens as <em>H. nakamurai</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Western Indian Ocean: off southern Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Aldabra Island group (Aldabra, Diego Suarez, Castor and Condeliere Banks), Mauritius, Madagascar, Kenya, Geyser and Zeleé Banks (Ebert 1990). Eastern Indian: Australia (Western Australia) (Ebert 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Atlantic Ocean</strong><br/>Western central Atlantic: off Florida, USA and the Bahamas, northern Cuba, Cayman and Virgin Islands, Yucatán and Gulf coast of Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela and the Guyanas (Ebert 1990). Northeast Atlantic: Gulf of Gascony and Bay of Biscay, off France, Spain and Gibraltar. It occurs from the Straits of Gibraltar to Italy in the Mediterranean Sea (Ebert 1990). Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco and possibly Ivory Coast and Nigeria (Ebert 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Pacific Ocean</strong><br/>Northwest Pacific: off Taiwan Island, Japan (including Kochi, Ogasawara Islands and Okinawa). Western central Pacific: the Philippines (Negros, possibly Luzon), Australia (Queensland), New Caledonia, French Polynesia (Tahiti) (Ebert 1990). Southwest Pacific: Australia (northern New South Wales) (Ebert 1990).	eng
161352	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Primarily a deepwater species, found on the continental and insular shelves and slopes from 90–621 m depth, usually on or near bottom, but occasionally moving to near the surface or inshore in the tropics (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). May be more restricted in habitat and distribution than <em>H. griseus</em> and less tolerant of conditions beyond offshore continental habitat in warmer seas (Compagno in prep.). Size at maturity is 142–178 cm in males and 123–157 cm in females (Compagno in prep., Ebert 1990). Maximum size is approximately 180 cm (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with 13–26 pups per litter, measuring 40–45 cm TL at birth (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Probably feeds on small to medium-sized bony fishes, including hairtails (Trichiuridae), small tuna (<em>Euthynnus</em>), and crustacea (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990).	eng
161352	population	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Uncommon to rare where it occurs (Compagno in prep, Ebert 1990). Number and size of populations is unknown. Rare in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005, Ebert 1990). Misidentification with <em>H. griseus</em> has prevented a better understanding of this species' distribution.	eng
161352	threats	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Apparently uncommonly taken on line gear and in trawls, and considered of relatively minor importance to fisheries (Compagno in prep.). Small numbers are caught off Campeche Bank, Yucatán in Mexican shark fisheries, as bycatch of snapper fisheries in the Cayman Islands, and as bycatch of trawl fisheries off Taiwan (Ebert 1990). The species has also been recorded in very low numbers in catches of the artisanal deepwater long-line fishery operating off eastern Indonesia, where all landed elasmobranchs are utilised (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>It probably is a minor component of offshore demersal trawl and line fisheries elsewhere where it occurs, but no catch statistics are available (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The species may be under growing pressure with the expansion of deep water fisheries and there is an urgent need to collect species-specific catch data to determine accurate population trends.	eng
161353	conservation	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	None.	eng
161353	distribution	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Northeastern Argentina, central Paraguay, Western of Brazil in Mato Grosso found in Rio Cuiabá, Rio Paraguay, and in Rio Paraná (Middle and High) from Guaíra to Entre Rios (Rosa 1985). In Alto Paraná the species is found at Puerto San Jorge and in the Mouth of Uruguay River (Missiones) (Castex 1964, Castex and Maciel 1965).	eng
161353	habitat	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	There is very little information on the biology or ecology of this species. It inhabits deeper waters in channels with strong current (Castex 1965a in Rosa 1985). Maximum size 485 mm disc width (DW) and 892 mm of total length (TL) (Castex and Maciel 1963).	eng
161353	population	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161353	threats	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Fishing activities and habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Rio Paraná system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river.	eng
161354	conservation	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
161354	distribution	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	Northwest and west central Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Hokkaido, south to the east coast of the Philippines, off Boguato Islands (Ishihara 1990).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 61 and 71.	eng
161354	habitat	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	A large deepwater skate, with a maximum recorded size of 110.5 cm TL (Ishihara 1990). It is a benthic species living on sand and muddy bottoms at depths of 300–400 m. Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but virtually nothing is known of its biology.	eng
161354	population	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	This species is thought to be very rare and is known from less than 10 specimens.	eng
161354	threats	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	This species may be caught by bottom trawl and possibly other fisheries, however no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161355	conservation	Ruiz, C., Arauz, R., Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., Castillo-Geniz, J.L.& Soriano-Velásquez, S., 2008	There are no specific conservation or management measures in place for this species. In Nicaragua, finning is regulated for all shark species. In Mexico, shark fisheries are controlled through a permit program. In Ecuador, finning, as well as fishing in the protected zone of the Galapagos Marine Resources Reserve is prohibited but illegal fishing occurs. Ecuador also requires that fishermen record information on fishing trips.<br/><br/>Recommendations for conservation actions may include:<br/><br/>- Coastal zone management plans<br/>- Analyze and update laws and regulatory frameworks <br/>- Establish cooperative agreements between and among countries that may be sharing the same population (e.g., Mexico -Chiapas- and Guatemala) <br/>- Regular monitoring of all commercial artisanal and industrial landings <br/>- Continue monitoring on the biology of the species (morphometric measurements and biological information is needed)<br/>- Harmonization of regulatory frameworks and standardization of conservation strategies between and among countries of the same region <br/>- Long-term conservation actions may include buying of fishing rights.<br/><br/>There is also a requirement to obtain information on catches where little or no data are available (i.e., South America).	eng
161355	distribution	Ruiz, C., Arauz, R., Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., Castillo-Geniz, J.L.& Soriano-Velásquez, S., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: from Mexico to Peru including Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), Colombia, Ecuador (including the Galápagos Islands; Grove and Lavenberg 1997). In Mexico is found in the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Baja California, and the Gulf of California in Sinaloa (Compagno 1984, Ocampo-Torres 2001).	eng
161355	habitat	Ruiz, C., Arauz, R., Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., Castillo-Geniz, J.L.& Soriano-Velásquez, S., 2008	A tropical inshore and offshore shark, normally found over the continental shelves in shallow coastal waters (Compagno 1984, Fischer 1995). It is usually found at depths of 15?24 m, but occasionally can be found down to 192 m depth (Compagno 1984). In Guatemala it has been reported 20?60 miles from the coastline on the continental slope (Ruiz and Lopez 1999). In Mexico, it was also observed close to fresh water river mouths (Hernandez 1971); a few individuals have been observed in the Mexican Central Pacific (Pérez-Jiménez 2005). In Costa Rica they are found in the catches registered at 50?75 miles from the coast, and in demersal fisheries operating on the slopes of the continental shelf (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, and five to six young in a litter (Compagno 1984, Ruiz and Lopez 1998). It feeds on small bony fishes, including anchovies, and crabs. They reach a maximum size of 165 cm total length (TL) (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000). Size at birth is about 53 cm TL; males are immature at 92?106 cm but adult at 140 cm (Compagno 1984). Reproduction (mating and birth) may occur in the months of May through July, as recently born individuals have been observed towards the end of March (Ruiz and Mijangos 1998).	eng
161355	population	Ruiz, C., Arauz, R., Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., Castillo-Geniz, J.L.& Soriano-Velásquez, S., 2008	Formerly uncommon to rare where it occurs (Compagno 1984), although it has been recorded in unusually large numbers in the artisanal shark fishery of Puerto Madero, Chiapas, Mexico. No time series of CPUE exist for this species, and it is not possible to deduce population trends. Little is known of the population structure, but nursery grounds are thought to exist in shallow waters close to the coast, and in bays and estuaries.	eng
161355	threats	Ruiz, C., Arauz, R., Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., Castillo-Geniz, J.L.& Soriano-Velásquez, S., 2008	This species is captured as bycatch of gill nets and surface long lines in inshore fisheries and in some areas directed shark fishing is increasing (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is reported in the commercial landings of some Central America countries, Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia, but it is not reported in the catches of El Salvador and Panama. In Costa Rica, it is caught by pelagic and demersal long-liners. Adult sharks taken in Costa Rica?s demersal longline fishery are used for local consumption and fins may be exported to Hong Kong. Observations on board one fishing trip that included six sets and 3,400 hooks resulted in the capture of 35 whitenose sharks, constituting 12.1% of the total catch (CPUE = 10.3 individuals/1,000 hooks). It is assumed that in Costa Rica effort is increasing in the directed shark demersal longline fishery that catches this species along the continental shelf, however specific data and fisheries information is scarce (R. Arauz pers. obs.). Pups are incidentally captured on nursery grounds close to the coastal shallow waters, by fisheries operating with drift gill nets.<br/><br/>In the artisanal shark fishery of Puerto Madero, Chiapas (Gulf of Tehuantepec, México) this is the fifth most important shark species by number (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). During the period June 1996 to May 2001, a total of 1,149 individuals were recorded from the shark landings (529 females, 620 males) (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). A preliminary CPUE series indicated a stable trend during the study period (1996?2001), with an average CPUE of 1.74 individuals per trip. The highest average was 15 individuals per trip calculated for July 1998 (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al</em>. 2004). This unusually high CPUE was perhaps associated with the ENSO in 1998, which affected the oceanography of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, increasing the average seawater temperature, and possibly prompting the migration of a larger number of sharks to GOT (Soriano-Velásquez <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Artisanal net fisheries operate across the species? South American range, and although species-specific data are not available, the whitenose shark is likely captured by inshore fisheries in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Peru, pressure on inshore shark species is high, particularly houndsharks, but it is likely that <em>N. velox</em> is also a component of landings there.<br/><br/>The impact of trawl fisheries on this species should be evaluated. Although the species is less likely captured by trawl fishing gear than gillnets and longlines, this species? coastal nursery grounds are probably affected by habitat degradation through destructive trawling practices. Water pollution and coastal sedimentation may also threaten nursery grounds through habitat degradation.	eng
161356	conservation	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, I., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. Bycatch levels should be quantified to assess mortality in fisheries and determine population trends.	eng
161356	distribution	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, I., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from type locality in the East China Sea, 26-31°N, 125-128°E (Deng <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
161356	habitat	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, I., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 200 to 1,000 m. Attains a maximum total length of at least 44 cm (Deng <em>et al.</em> 1983). Very little is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161356	population	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, I., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Known only from the five specimens collected from the type locality.	eng
161356	threats	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, I., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Little specific information is available on fisheries operating within this species’ known range in the East China Sea.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is generally intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have generally declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004) (FAO 2007). Although little is known of the full depth range of fisheries operating in the East China Sea, this species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within this area. The lower part of its depth range probably affords it refuge from fishing pressure. The species’ apparently limited range, as presently known, is of concern, particularly as fisheries expand into deeper waters.<br/><br/>In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China, This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW. Although steps to reduce fishing effort will eventually decrease the level of impact on the marine environment, this level of fishing pressure is still very high.	eng
161357	conservation	Jeong, C.-H. Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161357	distribution	Jeong, C.-H. Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Japan, Korea, Okinawa Trough, China, and South China Sea marginal to the Western Central Pacific (where status is uncertain). Possibly found in waters surrounding Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola, 1984).	eng
161357	habitat	Jeong, C.-H. Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	A common inshore and offshore species, occurring on sandy muddy bottoms from intertidal habitats to depths of at least 220 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). A carnivorous species that feeds on benthic fauna, shrimp, crab, fish and clams (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>This species attains at least 114 cm disc width (DW) and 150 cm total length (TL) and males mature by 65 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Yamada i 2007)). All mylobatids are believed to be ovoviviparous (Compagno 1997) and <em>M. tobijei</em> may produce eight young per litter (H. Ishihara pers. comm.). Little else is known about the biology of this species.	eng
161357	population	Jeong, C.-H. Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	Data to determine population trends are not currently available.	eng
161357	threats	Jeong, C.-H. Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	This species is caught as bycatch by bottom trawl, longline and set net fisheries. It is retained for human consumption and used for fish meal (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although there are no species specific catch data, data on distribution and fisheries suggest that eagle rays are important components of the western central Pacific?s utilised batoid catch.	eng
161358	conservation	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys and quantification of bycatch are needed to determine population trends. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161358	distribution	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: East China Sea to South China Sea, known from  southern Japan, Taiwan Province of China, Hong Kong, China, Vietnam and the Philippines. The species may be more wide-ranging in the area (Last and Compagno 1999, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161358	habitat	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2008	A deepwater skate, <em>A. melanosoma</em> can be found at depths of 575-1,100 m (Last and Compagno 1999, H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). Maximum total length is reported at >59 cm and maximum width is at least 38 cm (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161358	population	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Although the species is apparently widely distributed throughout areas of the north and western central Pacific it is uncommon throughout its range (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161358	threats	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish off Japan, which operates at about 100?500 m depth (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). This fishery impacts the species over part of its depth range only.<br/><br/>Deepwater trawl fisheries also operate off Taiwan, Province of China (B. Seret pers. comm. 2007) and possibly elsewhere within the species? range. The incidental catch is retained and marketed (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are mainly coastal, but may range down to 500 m depth (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is no evidence that deepsea fisheries in the Philippines capture this species. Some deepwater fisheries operate off the Philippines, but they mainly use bottomset multiple hook-and-line gear to target dogfish sharks for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003).<br/><br/>The species is afforded some refuge from fishing pressure in the lower part of its depth range and in areas where deepwater trawl fisheries are relatively undeveloped (e.g., the Philippines).	eng
161359	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161359	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba, and Caribbean coast of Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161359	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 503–950 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 36 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161359	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161359	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	There is no specific information on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to being taken as bycatch by deeper trawl fisheries, especially as these expand to greater depths in the future.	eng
161360	conservation	Valenti, S.V., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2008	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species. The Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) has, however, introduced the following general measures for deepwater sharks within the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) in recent years, which may benefit this species:<br/><br/>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.<br/><br/>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (750 m in Great Australian Bight Fishery) (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html).	eng
161360	distribution	Valenti, S.V., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific: upper to mid continental slope off southern Australia from New South Wales (<em>ca</em>. 35°S) to the Great Australian Bight (33°S, 129°E).	eng
161360	habitat	Valenti, S.V., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2008	Found on upper to mid continental slopes at depths of 216–1,360 m (Last <em>et al. </em>2007). Females and males reach at least 83.2 cm total length (TL) and 85.6 cm TL respectively (Last <em>et al</em>. 2007). Males mature by 68.5 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161360	population	Valenti, S.V., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2008	A recently described species (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007). The description provides details on the holotype and 14 additional specimens.<br/><br/>Documented declines of approximately 97% of ‘greeneye dogsharks’ between 1976-77 and 1996–97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo Island area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) were reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas at depths of 220 to 605 m declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97 (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). It is likely that <em>Squalus chloroculus, S. montalbani</em> and <em>S. grahami</em> were all caught during these surveys (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007). <em>Squalus chloroculus</em> was possibly the predominant species in the southern survey areas (Ulladulla and Eden-Gabo Island) (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161360	threats	Valenti, S.V., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2008	Documented declines in fishery-independent scientific surveys for this species, and two other dogfishes, show that they are vulnerable to rapid population decline where they are heavily fished (see Population section above). Fishing pressure is intensive on trawl grounds around south-east Australia, where there is evidence that this species has been severely depleted. However the rest of the species’ deepwater range throughout southern Australia to the Great Australian Bight (representing about three quarters of the species’ total range) is relatively lightly fished, by comparison. The species’ depth range extends to 1,360 m depth, affording it some refuge from fishing pressure at the lower extent of its range (particularly now that the fishery has been closed below 700 m).	eng
161361	conservation	Soldo, A. & Freitas, M., 2008	No measures are in place. Further research is required to determine the true extent of the range of the species. Like many poorly known deepwater species, research is also required into life history characteristics.	eng
161361	distribution	Soldo, A. & Freitas, M., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: along the Atlantic Slope from Scotland (including the northern North Sea), to Ireland, southern England, France, Spain, Portugal, Madeira, the Canary Islands, the Azores (Compagno in prep, Azevedo, Sousa and Brum 2003). Also recently reported from the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Hareide and Garnes 2001).<br/><br/>Eastern Central Atlantic: Morocco, Mauritania, Sahara, Senegal, and possibly southwards to the Gulf of Guinea. Not recorded in the Mediterranean (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Based on the presence of this species in the Azores and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a bathybenthic habitat has been suggested, with spring reproductive migrations to the continental shelf. This represents a significant westward extension of its previously known geographic distribution. It is possible that <em>O. paradoxus</em> is continuously distributed along the north-eastern Atlantic floor, deeper than presently known. Alternatively, separate slope and ridge populations may exist (Azavedo <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161361	habitat	Soldo, A. & Freitas, M., 2008	An uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the continental slope at depths from 265–720 m. Its maximum size is about 118 cm total length (TL), while size at birth about 25 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous.	eng
161361	population	Soldo, A. & Freitas, M., 2008	Moderately abundant off the British Isles. Catches in the waters of the British Isles indicate that <em>O. paradoxus</em> is rare in inshore waters (three individuals were reported from Irish inshore waters by Quigley and Flannery 1994), but numerous others have been caught in deeper offshore waters (Ni Mhurachu and O’Connor 1987, Henderson 1996, Quigley and Flannery 1996).	eng
161361	threats	Soldo, A. & Freitas, M., 2008	This species is an uncommon bycatch of offshore trawling fleets (Compagno 1984). There is a continuing trend for deepwater fisheries in the northeast Atlantic, with overall concern for the status of deepwater species. Trawl and gillnet fisheries operate throughout the species’ known depth range in areas of the northeast Atlantic (see ICES 2006, 2007 for further information on the fisheries), but no information is available on the bycatch of this species.<br/><br/>The Mid-Atlantic ridge and southern part of the species’ range, off the western Africa coast, may offer some refuge from fishing pressure, particularly if the species’ is continuously distributed along the northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic floor, deeper than presently known.	eng
161362	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries, habitat status and population trends, as well as other threats to it.	eng
161362	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Presently known only from the rivers Oyapock and Maroni in French Guiana (Deynat 2006).	eng
161362	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Virtually no information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this freshwater species. Two juvenile males, measured 23.8–29.8 cm disc width (DW) (Deynat 2006). The largest specimen recorded is a female of 41.2 cm DW (Deynat 2006).	eng
161362	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Known only from five specimens.	eng
161362	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown at present.	eng
161363	conservation	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	None in place.	eng
161363	distribution	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Northwest Pacific: Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161363	habitat	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Slope on or near bottom, at 450 to 830 m (Yano and Tanaka 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). The holotype was an adult male and measured 101 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.). Size at maturity is apparently 126 cm for females and 89 cm TL for males. Maximum recorded size is 145.5 cm TL for a female (Yano and Tanaka 1984). Mature females measuring from 126 to 145.5 cm TL had 29 to 56 ova measuring 3 to 5 cm in diameter in their ovary (Yano and Tanaka 1984).	eng
161363	population	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	No information available. Only known from the holotype and several paratypes (Compagno in prep).	eng
161363	threats	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Caught by deepset line surveys and fisheries (Yana and Tanaka 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). A localised fishery targeting deepwater sharks operates in Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, using bottom longlines (Compagno in prep. and S.Tanaka, per. com.). It is unknown whether this species comprises part of the catch in this fishery, but this shark is very rare (S.Tanaka pers. comm.). Given the apparent restricted range of this species, the fact that fisheries operate across its depth range may be cause for concern. Particularly as deepwater squaloids are vulnerable to population collapse from overfishing (directed or bycatch) due to their limited life history characteristics.	eng
161364	conservation	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, S. & McCormack, C., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161364	distribution	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, S. & McCormack, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: southern Japan and East China Sea (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), including Taiwan, Province of China (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is also reported from Vietnam, but records from there may be inaccurate (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161364	habitat	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, S. & McCormack, C., 2007	Found in deep water on or near the bottom (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Suruga Bay, Japan it is reported to occur at depths of 100 m to as deep as 900 m (Horie and Tanaka 2000, Okamura <em>et al. </em>1984). Attains a maximum length of at least 40 cm total length (TL), probably reaching 50 cm (Compagno 1984, Horie and Tanaka 2000). Males mature at about 31–32 cm and females at around 36–37 cm (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005, Horie and Tanaka 2000). Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg laid per oviduct (Compagno 1984, Nakaya 1975). Females carrying egg-cases were observed from October to January (Horie and Tanaka 2000). The species shows sexual segregation in Japanese waters with reported schools of mostly females (Compagno 1984, Nakaya 1975). An immature male observed at a fish market in Taiwan, Province of China, measured 38 cm TL (S. Iglésias pers. obs.).<br/><br/>In Suruga Bay, Japan, females were recorded more frequently than males; yearly average CPUE of females was 1.84 per fishing tow compared to 0.53 per fishing tow for males from 1981 to 1996. This species mainly eats cephalopods and crustaceans, although prey items vary with size (Horie and Tanaka 2000).	eng
161364	population	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, S. & McCormack, C., 2007	The species is little known but apparently very common in Japanese waters (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161364	threats	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, S. & McCormack, C., 2007	This species is a bycatch of commercial deepwater trawl fisheries in the northwest Pacific, but no data are available on its capture (Horie and Tanaka 2000, S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is infrequently observed at the Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets in Taiwan, Province of China and is utilized with other bycatch species as fishmeal for aquaculture. The small mesh size of trawl nets means that both adults and most juveniles are captured and retained by trawls (S. Iglésias pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Although the species is taken as bycatch of deepwater fisheries, it is apparently still common off Japan. Furthermore, the species may have some spatial refuge, outside the range of current fishing pressure at the deeper extent of its bathymetric range.	eng
161365	conservation	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	The capture and the exportation of this species is regulated under a species-specific quota system and monitoring program. <br/><br/>Habitat protection and fisheries monitoring programs are recommended.	eng
161365	distribution	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	South America Inland Waters: Rio Negro basin in Amazonas State, Brazil, and Orinoco River Basin in Apure State, Venezuela.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.	eng
161365	habitat	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Food includes small fishes, shrimps, worms and insect larvae. <br/><br/>Inhabits shallow warm waters with temperatures around 25°C. Juveniles inhabit shallow water around sandy beaches and small creeks, and adults occupy main river channels and sandy beaches. It appears to show daily movements between these two habitats.<br/><br/>Reproductive mode is matrotrophic viviparity with trophonemata. The reproductive cycle is annual, with mating between May and August during the rainy season. Gestation period is estimated as six months. Ovarian fecundity is 3?7 and the average uterine fecundity is two embryos. Sexual segregation has been observed in this species. Size at birth 14 cm DW, size at maturity 42 cm DW (males) and 44 cm DW (females). It reaches a maximum size of 54 cm DW.	eng
161365	population	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	There is no information on population size or trends for this species.	eng
161365	threats	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Habitat degradation. Persecution in popular tourism areas due to fear of injury. The species is taken for the ornamental fish trade, but is uncommon.	eng
161366	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A.M., Devine, J.A., Baker, K.D., & Haedrich. R.L., 2006	Spinytail Skate is not currently protected or regulated, but it is a mid-priority candidate species for detailed status assessment by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada). Continued monitoring is essential to document catch, discard and retention levels.<br/><br/>While quotas exist in Canadian waters for Thorny Skate, there are none in place for Spinytail Skate. The Greenland Halibut fishery in which Spinytail Skate is taken as bycatch is regulated for the target species, and as such this has a secondary effect on levels of bycatch. Effort in fishing for both Greenland halibut and grenadier has decreased in Canadian waters.	eng
161366	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A.M., Devine, J.A., Baker, K.D., & Haedrich. R.L., 2006	Spinytail Skate is a deep-sea demersal elasmobranch found along the upper and middle continental slope from 140 to at least 1,650 m. In surveys off Canada (from 1995–2005), only 91 fish were taken for every thousand sets at depths <1,000 m, and 401 fish per thousand sets at >1,000 m. Increasing density with depth out to the deepest areas sampled may indicate that a large proportion of the population occurs in waters deeper than those surveyed or fished. Outside Canada, Spinytail Skate is typically reported at 400–850 m depth, but few data exist at greater depths. The species is probably cosmopolitan along the continental slopes (200–2,000 m) of the Arctic and boreal regions of the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence in the northwest Atlantic, concurrent with the annual survey footprint, is 300,000 km² although the species likely also occupies a large area below the depth of the annual surveys.<br/><br/>In the eastern Atlantic, it is found from eastern Greenland, Iceland, along the Iceland-Færoe-Shetland Rise to the coasts of Norway, the northern North Sea, and the Barents Sea (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Krefft 1956, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). In the western Atlantic Ocean, it occurs in the Davis Strait, off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador, the Grand Banks and Flemish Cap, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Scotian Shelf, the eastern slope of Georges Bank south to Nantucket, and occasionally in the Gulf of Maine (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Schroeder 1955, Krefft 1956, Leim and Scott 1966, Scott and Scott 1988, McEachran 2002).<br/><br/>There are also some records in the Southern Indian Ocean in the vicinity of Kerguélen Islands (Scott and Scott 1988, Hureau 1991, Froese and Pauly 2002). However, these Southern Ocean records require confirmation and may represent misidentifications.	eng
161366	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A.M., Devine, J.A., Baker, K.D., & Haedrich. R.L., 2006	Spinytail Skate is a deep-sea demersal elasmobranch found along the upper and middle continental slope from 140 to at least 1,650 m, but mainly >400 m in Canadian Atlantic waters. In surveys off Canada, only 91 fish were taken for every 1,000 sets at depths <1,000 m, 401 fish per thousand at >1,000 m (from 1995–2005). Increasing density with depth out to the deepest areas sampled may indicate that a large proportion of the population occurs in waters that exceed depths surveyed and depths fished (the continental slope extends to 2,000 m). Murua and Cardenas (2005) found that the range of Spinytail Skate in the area that they surveyed using baited longlines (the Flemish Cap and Pass, and nose and tail of the Grand Banks) was approximately 1,350–1,650 m. Northeast Atlantic records are typically at 400–850 m (deepest locations fished), but few data exist at greater depths. Icelandic deepwater fisheries, operating at 400–1,830 m, caught spinytail skate at depths ranging from 419–1,209 m (Magnússon <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>The species is typically recorded at temperatures <7.5°C (mainly at 2.5–5°C in the northwest Atlantic), and salinities ranging from 34.5–35.5‰ (Krefft 1956, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Haedrich and Merrett 1988, Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Canadian waters it is most densely concentrated where water temperatures are 2.5°–5°C (Kulka, pers. comm.). In the Barents and Norwegian Seas, spinytail skate are commonly found in water >0°C (Andriyashev 1954, Berestovskii 1994).<br/><br/>Spinytail Skate feeds on other skate species, redfish, sea bream, American plaice, cod, and pelagic fish species including capelin and sandlance (Baranenkova et al. 1962, Leim and Scott 1966, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Scott and Scott 1988) and in the Barents Sea were found to feed mainly on benthos as juveniles, switching to predominantly fish, up 90% of the diet of adults (Dolgov 2002).<br/><br/>Age or size at sexual maturation, growth, and lifespan of Spinytail Skate are unknown. This is one of the largest and hence potentially least resilient species of skate reported in the north Atlantic. The largest confirmed specimen in the northwest Atlantic is 172 cm total length (TL) (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and 182 cm TL in the northeast Atlantic (Dolgov 2002). Several female specimens exceeding 150 cm TL were shown to have reproduced (Kulka pers. obs.). The estimated generation time is about 20 years. A record in Baranenkova <em>et al</em>. (1962) of 330 cm TL far exceeds (nearly double) any other record and thus is questionable.<br/><br/>Egg cases thought to be Spinytail Skate have been found off the Labrador Shelf, the Banquereau Bank off Nova Scotia and the southwestern edge of Georges Bank (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953); however, problems exist with accurately identifying skate egg cases. Very recently, several large (>150 cm TL) female spinytail skates from the edge of the Labrador Shelf were found to have stretched oviducts, and fully formed egg cases indicate that reproduction takes place in that area (Kulka pers. comm.). In the eastern North Atlantic, juveniles are typically found in colder waters than adults; adults are believed to move into warmer waters before spawning (Krefft 1956).<br/><br/>There are no data on age or size of maturation for Spinytail Skate. Spawning was observed during June and July off Greenland; however, little is known about spawning elsewhere in the western north Atlantic (Breder and Rosen 1966). In the Barents Sea, females were found to have spawned in the latter half of October (Krefft 1956). The embryos in the egg cases of spinytail skate are very large, approximately 21cm long (Krefft 1956, Berestovskii 1994). Embryonic development is estimated at about 12 months (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). However, recent research on spinytail skate in the Barents Sea has estimated embryonic development in waters 0–5°C to be 3.5–4 years (Berestovskii 1994).	eng
161366	population	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A.M., Devine, J.A., Baker, K.D., & Haedrich. R.L., 2006	Spinytail Skate is the most common slope skate species in areas surveyed off Canada. Records are less common across the northern slope to the northeast Atlantic and the Barents Sea (but surveys are also less intensive here). Population size and degree of fragmentation or migration through its distribution are unknown.<br/><br/>Devine <em>et al</em>. (2006) reported that Spinytail Skate declined in excess of 80% over three generations in Canadian waters of the northwest Atlantic surveyed. However, a large proportion of the population occurs in deeper water than the sampled areas used in this analysis, since abundance increases with depth in areas that are surveyed and it may also be abundant (or more abundant) below survey depths (see depth distribution description and maps attached of distribution and survey coverage). It is unknown, therefore, whether the trend in survey abundance reported in this paper is a reflection of population decline or simply a reduction in local abundance.	eng
161366	threats	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A.M., Devine, J.A., Baker, K.D., & Haedrich. R.L., 2006	Skates (all species) are a minor part of the bycatch in many deepwater fisheries in Canada and elsewhere (e.g., Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996, Kulka and Mowbray 1999). Trawl fisheries catch the most Spinytail Skate. Skate bycatch, all species combined, made up only 1% of the catch in Canadian commercial offshore fisheries (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Based upon observer data, spinytail skate made up 10% of the skate bycatch in offshore Canadian commercial fisheries 1985–1995, or 0.1% of all catches (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 1996). Spinytail Skate are now taken predominantly in the northern deeper water fisheries, since the closure of several groundfish fisheries. Overall, deep water fishing effort in the northwest Atlantic peaked in the early 1970s and has since been greatly reduced from past years, both in terms of effort and area fished.<br/><br/>Spinytail Skate is a very minor bycatch species in the directed Thorny Skate <em>Amblyraja radiata</em> fishery located in relatively shallow water (average depth 165m) on the Grand Bank (Kulka and Mowbray 1999). The shallow water Scotian Shelf skate fishery does not capture spinytail skate either (Simon and Frank 2000). However, Spinytail Skate is the dominant skate bycatch species in the deepwater fishery for Greenland Halibut (Kulka pers. obs.). Most Spinytail Skate caught in this fishery were discarded; observed discards were 50% or greater than the total observed catch for years 1981–2001. Data provided by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), by fishery (line, trawl and gillnet) for Spinytail Skate 1981–2001 also indicate that trawl fisheries catch the largest proportion of the species. These fisheries reached depths of about 1,600 m, but catches tailed off with increasing depth below 1,250 m. Effort in the Canadian halibut fishery has fallen.<br/><br/>Devine <em>et al</em>. (2006) analysed DFO survey data for the shelf and slope to a depth of 1,485 m, restricting their data analysis to strata consistently sampled for at least half the time period and two years out of the first and last five years. They concluded that Spinytail Skate had declined 87.6% (95% confidence intervals 84.4–95.9%) in Canadian waters of the northwest Atlantic over the 17 year period 1978–1994. Extrapolating this to the estimated three generation period for this species resulted in a decline over 100% (theoretical regional extinction). Furthermore, declines in mean body size 1978–1994 were estimated to be 25.5% (95% confidence interval = 1.3–43.8%). However, other Red List assessors for this species considered that the DFO shelf surveys do not adequately measure the population status of slope species, including Spinytail Skate, which also occur below the depth range of the main survey data and are far more widely distributed than in the area surveyed. Thus, it was uncertain whether the reported reduction in survey index is the result of a change in density that did not occur elsewhere. Further data are required from deeper waters to enable trend analyses to be extended into deeper water.<br/><br/>Outside Canada’s 200 mile limit, skates are the second most common bycatch species in the Spanish trawl fishery for Greenland halibut (1991–1994); however, the majority of the skate bycatch is Thorny Skate <em>Amblyraja radiata</em> (Junquera and Paz 1998, Durán <em>et al.</em> 1996). Skates also make up a significant amount of the bycatch reported in other fisheries to NAFO (Durán and Paz 1997). Most of the skate bycatch of these fisheries is retained (Kulka and Mowbray 1999).<br/><br/>Fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic are moving into deeper water and effort is increasing, which is some cause for concern and requires careful monitoring.	eng
161367	conservation	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161367	distribution	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	The holotype was recorded from Choshi, Japan (Nakaya 1975). The species is distributed from Fukushima to Chiba Prefecture, northern Japan (Nakaya unpub. data). Records south of this (from southern Japan and southern Japanese Islands) are now considered incorrect and have resulted from misidentification with other species (Nakaya unpublished data).	eng
161367	habitat	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	The Japanese Catshark is reported from depths of 600 to 800 m. Males begin to mature at 51 cm TL and females begin to mature at 55 cm TL. All males are mature at 62 cm TL and all females at 57 cm TL. Reproduction is single oviparous species, with one egg case peroviduct (Nakaya 1975 unpublished data).	eng
161367	population	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	Apparently rare. No information is available on population size or abundance.	eng
161367	threats	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries operating within its range, but no data are available on catch levels or population trends. Given the species’ limited range and potential biological vulnerability, any bycatch may be of concern.	eng
161368	conservation	Nakaya, K., 2008	No specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on abundance, biology, population, threats and capture in fisheries.	eng
161368	distribution	Nakaya, K., 2008	Northwest Pacific: from Okinawa, Japan to Philippines, including the coast of Taiwan, Province of China (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004).	eng
161368	habitat	Nakaya, K., 2008	Probably found in inshore waters (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) at 90–100 m depth (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004). Produces five to eight pups per litter. Size at birth is 24 cm total length (TL). Males reach maturity at 76 cm TL and females at 81 cm TL. Maximum size is 96 cm TL (Takahashi and Nakaya 2004).	eng
161368	population	Nakaya, K., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161368	threats	Nakaya, K., 2008	Possibly a bycatch in gillnet fisheries but no information is available at this time (Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161369	conservation	Bates, H., 2007	None in place.<br/><br/>Information on life-history characteristics, population, range, and interactions with fisheries is required. Catches and population trends need to be assessed and carefully monitored.	eng
161369	distribution	Bates, H., 2007	Western central Atlantic: Gulf of Mexico.	eng
161369	habitat	Bates, H., 2007	This species occurs in tropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico at depths of 157?164 m (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al. </em>2006). Very little is known about the life-history characteristics of this species. Like other angelshark species it is most likely ovoviviparous. Attains a small maximum size of 49 cm TL (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161369	population	Bates, H., 2007	Known only from two specimens caught by bottom-trawl during the OGMEX VIII, IX and PROBEMEX II oceanographic cruises off Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161369	threats	Bates, H., 2007	Not known to be targeted, but potential bycatch in demersal fisheries. Shrimp trawl fisheries are intensive in the Gulf of Mexico. The majority of effort in the northern Gulf of Mexico is concentrated in shallow waters (less than 20 deep, but fisheries do operate to >100 m depth) (Shepherd and Myers 2005). However, the general trend for fisheries to expand into deeper waters as coastal waters become fully to over-exploited means that potential future fishing pressure is a major threat. Further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries and potential impact of fishing activities on the population.	eng
161370	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	None in place. Information is required on the biology of this species, as well as the impact of current levels of bycatch on the population.	eng
161370	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Australian endemic: occurs in southeastern Australia (including Tasmania) north to at least Newcastle (New South Wales) and west to Eyre (Great Australian Bight) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161370	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	A small skate, occurring on the continental shelf in depths of 30–390 m. Females reach sexual maturity at 92% of their maximum total length. Although no ageing studies have been conducted the species is likely to be more vulnerable to population depletion than some other small skates because females do not reach maturity until they are almost fully grown. Feeds mainly on shrimp (M. A. Treloar, CSIRO Hobart, unpublished data).	eng
161370	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	An abundant species on the continental shelf of southern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161370	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	It is caught often as bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery, (probably most commonly caught in the Commonwealth Trawl and Great Australian Bight Sector) and is mostly discarded (81% in observed catch from ISMP data), however nothing is known of post discard-survival rates. In 2001, 1,506 kg of Peacock Skate was caught as bycatch in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery. This is 5% of the total skate catch, but this represents a large number of individuals based on the small size of this species.	eng
161371	conservation	Orlov, A., Kulka, D., Barker, A.S. & Stehmann, M., 2008	None.	eng
161371	distribution	Orlov, A., Kulka, D., Barker, A.S. & Stehmann, M., 2008	Widely distributed in the north Atlantic.<br/><br/>Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: sporadic records from about 65°N to 10°N, from western Greenland, Rockall Trough along Ireland, western Bay of Biscay (Spain), northern Morocco, Azores Islands, off Rio del Oro (Western Sahara) and Guinea Conakry, including the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: Canada and USA from the Grand Banks off Newfoundland to the Norfolk Canyon, including the French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006; Kulka pers. obs.).	eng
161371	habitat	Orlov, A., Kulka, D., Barker, A.S. & Stehmann, M., 2008	This species is bathydemersal, found at depths of 367–4,156 m (mostly below 1,000 m) on continental slopes, abyssal plains and deepwater rises. The mean depth of existing records is 1,669 m. Like other skates, the species is oviparous. Maximum recorded size is 53 cm total length (TL) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006, Kulka unpubl. data). Size at birth is estimated at <8.9 cm TL (Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Small specimens (9–12 cm TL) captured off the USA, Canadian and western African coasts suggests that the species may reproduce there (Stehmann 1978, 1995).	eng
161371	population	Orlov, A., Kulka, D., Barker, A.S. & Stehmann, M., 2008	Little is known about the population size or the species’ abundance, but it is apparently rare at sampled depths.<br/><br/>Data are available from trawl surveys (47,141 hauls) conducted from the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf, to a maximum depth of 1,550 m. <em>Rajella bigelowi</em> were only rarely captured during these surveys (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161371	threats	Orlov, A., Kulka, D., Barker, A.S. & Stehmann, M., 2008	This species may be taken as bycatch by deepwater fisheries operating in areas of its range, and is likely discarded when caught. However, much of the range of this species occurs well beyond the deepest depths currently fished, most likely offering it significant refuge from fishing pressure.	eng
161372	conservation	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H & McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide and any expansion of fisheries should be closely monitored to ensure that the species is not negatively impacted.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161372	distribution	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H & McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: found off Japan and adjacent Pacific waters and the Sea of Okhotsk, (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992), and off the southern Kuril islands, Russia (Parin 2001).	eng
161372	habitat	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H & McCormack, C., 2008	A deepwater skate found on the continental slope at 1,200-2,004 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992, Parin 2001, Russian State unpub. data). Maximum recorded size is 120 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005), possibly up to 140 cm TL (Russian State unpublished data). Egg capsules are 12.2-13.0 cm in length and 5.5-5.8 cm in width (Dolganov 1998). Virtually nothing else is known about the species’ ecology and biology. Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161372	population	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H & McCormack, C., 2008	Apparently rare, but very little is known of the population. A bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk (160,343 m²), conducted during 1989 at depths of 300 to 2,025 m recorded catch rates of 0.2 specimens and 0.1 kg per hour for this species (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). <em>Bathyraja andriashevi</em> comprised 0.8% of the total catch and was captured at depths of 1,980-2,004 m. In Pacific Japan, the species is presently only known from two specimens recorded off Honshu in the original description (Dolganov 1985). A single specimen was recorded from the Pacific waters around the southern Kuril islands in 1998 (Russ. State Data). Few other catalogued specimens are available (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999).<br/><br/>There have been no other surveys since 1989 and no new records of this species (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161372	threats	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H & McCormack, C., 2008	Offshore bottom trawlers off Japan probably take some species of <em>Bathyraja</em> as retained bycatch (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007), but catch records are not species-specific. The depth range of this species probably lies outside the range of current fishing activity.<br/><br/>There are no deepwater fisheries operating at present at the depths occupied by this species off Russia (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). At depths greater than 1,000 m, the bulk of catches (up to 95% and more) consists of grenadiers with minor bycatch of snailfishes, morids, sculpins and skates. Skates are now imported from Russia to Japan, Korea and China but in very insignificant amounts. Official total Russian catch of skates in recent years does not exceed 200 mt (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161373	conservation	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	None currently in place. Research is required to provide data on take in fisheries, biology and ecology.	eng
161373	distribution	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Western Atlantic: Jamaica, the Lesser Antilles (including the countries of St Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados and Grenada), Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (Menni and Stehmann 2000, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Records of the species south to Mar del Plata (Argentina) apparently refer to <em>R. horkelii</em> and records from tropical waters of West Africa refer to <em>R. albomaculatus</em> (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161373	habitat	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Found on shallow, soft bottoms of the continental shelf at depths of 0?110 m. Reaches a maximum of 100 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002). Aplacental yolksac viviparous, but details of reproduction, or any other aspects of its biology are not known.	eng
161373	population	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	No population or catch data are available for this species. However, the closely-related <em>Rhinobatos horkelii </em>has suffered severe population depletion (>80% between 1986 and 2001) from overfishing in Brazil (Lessa and Vooren 2007). This species is captured by similar, intense fisheries (shrimp trawls, otter trawls, beach seines and gillnets) operating on the northern coast of South America. Therefore it is inferred that <em>R. percellens</em> populations in this area have also decreased.	eng
161373	threats	Casper, B.M. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	It is likely that this species is taken as bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries throughout large areas of its range. In some regions of its distribution (e.g. parts of South America) inshore fishing is intense. This species is taken as a utilized bycatch of artisanal trawl and net fisheries in South America (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002). Although the meat is considered of poor quality, it is often salted and consumed (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The continental shelf of Venezuela is thought to be intensively exploited. In Venezuela, demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency during the past 50 years (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Between 1990 and 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased from about 150 vessels to 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> spp.) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s, from about 150,000 t/year to over 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. No information is available on the composition of catches at this time.<br/><br/>Intensive trawling also occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 and the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Data reporting is poor in these artisanal fisheries and official catches for some species, in some areas or time-periods, may under-represent true catches by 200-500% (Medoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species may also be vulnerable to the artisanal gillnet fishery that targets mackerel in coastal waters off Trinidad and Tobago and takes sharks as bycatch (Chan A Shing 1999).<br/><br/>In Guyana there is a partially directed gillnet fishery for sharks (~600 vessels) which captures both demersal and pelagic inshore species. This fishery operates in estuarine and shallow coastal waters (at depths of <40 m) (Chan A Shing 1999). About 100 industrial shrimp trawlers also take sharks and finfish as bycatch, but no details are available on the composition of the bycatch.<br/><br/>Inshore fishing pressure is also generally intense off Brazil, where significant declines in <em>R. horkelii</em> have been documented. This species is also collected for the commercial aquarium trade in Ceará state, Brazil.<br/><br/>Threats to this species throughout its range off Caribbean Islands (north of Trinidad and Tobago) are not well known. Inshore fisheries appear to comprise beach seines, balahoo seine and gillnets that target small coastal pelagics and traps and handlines that target reef, deep slope and shelf demersals (Zeller <em>et al</em>. 2003). Trammel net fisheries have targeted Caribbean spiny lobster (<em>Panulirus argus</em>) off Grenada since the 1980s and take a significant bycatch. The use of trammel nets is now prohibited in Grenada but still continues illegally (McConney and Baldeo 2007).	eng
161374	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161374	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from east coast of Florida and Puerto Rico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161374	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	A bathydemersal deepwater species, found at between 457 and 896 m depth on the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported as 38 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161374	population	McCormack, C., 2006	Known only from a few specimens.	eng
161374	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	The threats to this species are uncertain. <em> C. cadenati</em> may occur beyond current fishing pressure; however any development of deep-sea fishing in the region should be closely monitored given the apparently narrow range of the species.	eng
161375	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161375	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	North Pacific: The Roughtail Skate inhabits waters in northern Baja California, Mexico including the Sea of Okhotsk, Pacific waters of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska (Isakson <em>et al</em>. 1971, Parin 2001, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161375	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	The Roughtail Skate is a deep-sea skate that inhabits waters from 213?2,550 m (Ebert 2003, Stevenson 2004) but the bulk of population occurs at greater depths. Dolganov (1998d) reported that the species is most common at 600?1,400 m depth and surveys that sample below 1,200 m depth in the eastern Pacific suggest that it becomes more abundant with depth (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). Females reach age at maturity at 5?6 years of age and 72.8?81.5 cm total length (TL); males at five years and 71.7?78.3 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c). Maximum size is 91 cm TL (Davis <em>et al</em>. 2007), and size at birth is 9?16 cm (Ebert 2003). Preferred temperature range is 1.9?3.6°C (Dolganov 1998a). Egg capsules measure 68?69 x 59?61 mm (Dolganov 1998c); egg capsule measurements from eastern Bering Sea 67?77 x 63?71 (Ebert 2005). Reported to feed on benthic invertebrates such as shrimps, crabs and worms, and small fishes such as rattails and flatfishes but a more detailed feeding study is needed (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Age at maturity in the eastern north Pacific is 11?14 years for males and 7?13 years for females; size range at maturity is 58.0?72.0 cm TL for males and 58.0?77.0 cm TL for females (from Davis 2006). Reproductive cycle appears to be continuous (Davis 2006). Size at maturity in the eastern Bering Sea is 73.5 cm TL females and 75.5 cm TL males (Ebert 2005).	eng
161375	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Biomass estimates in Russian waters, based on bottom trawl surveys conducted between 1977 and 1997 comprised 18,500 mt; including 16,700 mt in the western Bering Sea, 100 mt off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka and 1,700 mt in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>The estimated biomass of this skate on the eastern Bering Sea slope was 1,677 mt in 2004 (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006) and 139 mt in the Gulf of Alaska in 2005 (Gaichas 2006). Population numbers cannot be estimated as there are no data on mean body weight.	eng
161375	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species is taken occasionally as bycatch but discarded as it is not commercially valuable (Ebert 2003). There are no species specific data available to determine the quantity taken, however a significant portion of the population is thought to occur beyond the range of current fisheries. Trawl and longline fisheries operate down to 600?800 m depth in Russian waters and may take this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution, but it is more common below these depths (A.M. Orlov pers. obs.). In the eastern Pacific most groundfish fisheries operate at shallower depths. At present, the very wide depth distribution of the species likely offers a refuge beyond anthropogenic affects. The situation should be monitored, and this assessment may need to be re-visited if fisheries expand into deeper waters.	eng
161376	conservation	Pillans, R., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2007	None in place through much of its range. Fisheries catching this species in northern Australia are relatively well managed and reporting of catches is good.	eng
161376	distribution	Pillans, R., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2007	This species is wide-ranging throughout the tropical Indo-West Pacific, from South Africa and Mozambique, through the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, to Australia (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161376	habitat	Pillans, R., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2007	A common inshore shark, on continental and insular shelves found from close inshore to a depth of at least 140 m (Compagno and Niem 1998e). Common over mud and sand bottom in depths between 20?50 m but also occurs near coral reefs. Occurs throughout the water column but mainly in midwater or near the surface (Last and Stevens 1994). Young prefer very shallow, inshore waters. Attains at least 160 cm total length (TL) and is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Compagno in prep). In Australia, size at maturity 90 cm TL (males) and 95cm TL (females). Age at maturity is 2?3 years. Gestation period of 10 months and a reproductive periodicity of one year. Litter size ranges from 1?8 pups/litter (average three), with size at birth 50 cm TL. Growth rate of juveniles are 20 cm/year for the first year, declining to 5 cm/year when the sharks are about five years old (Stevens and Wiley 1986, Davenport and Stevens 1988). In Indonesia, size at maturity 112 cm TL (males), litter size 3?8 (average five), size at birth 52?55 cm TL in October (White 2007). In Bombay, birth occurs in spring (March-May) (Compagno in prep). Diet consists of bony fishes (e.g., Bonito and sea bass) and cephalopods (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161376	population	Pillans, R., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2007	Population genetic studies of Indonesian and Australian populations have shown that they are different stocks (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, unpubl. data). Genetic evidence suggested that this species forms one population in Australian waters (Lavery and Shacklee 1989). Tagging studies off Northern Australia have shown that 49% of sharks were recaptured within 50 km of the tagging site, however one shark was captured 1,116 km away (Stevens <em>et al</em>. 2000). These authors also showed that most animals moved along the coastline. Data from this study suggests that although there was sufficient movement to prevent stock differentiation, the degree of movement was not great enough to prevent a reduction in local populations as a result of heavy fishing pressure. This conclusion contradicts those of Lavery and Shacklee (1989) who had concluded that local populations would be well buffered by immigration of sharks from other areas and that under high fishing pressure, total population size rather than local population size was likely to be the limiting factor affecting production.<br/><br/>Further stock discrimination and assessment throughout its whole range is required. Variation in vertebral counts and litter sizes between <em>C. sorrah</em> in the Red Sea and southwestern Indian Ocean may suggest relatively isolated populations there, but this requires confirmation (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Very common off northern Australia. Relatively common off Indonesia but possibly not as common as would be expected (W. White pers. obs).	eng
161376	threats	Pillans, R., Stevens, J.D. & White, W.T., 2007	Regularly taken as utilized bycatch of longlines, gillnets, trawls and other line gear (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). Inshore fisheries are generally intensive throughout this species? inshore range in Southeast Asia and in many parts of the Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Spottail Shark is captured as both a target species and as bycatch in northern Australian shark, finfish and prawn fisheries, although current catch rates are highly unlikely to threaten the Australian population. Historically, Spottail Shark contributed about 20% by number to the Taiwanese gillnet fishery that operated in Australian waters between 1979 and 1986 (Stevens and Davenport 1991). This fishery?s annual catch was about 7,000 t processed weight of shark, tuna and mackerel. Sharks comprised about 80% of the total catch with <em>C. sorrah</em> and <em>C. tilstoni</em> accounting for about 60% (20% and 40% respectively). CPUE of sharks declined from 11 kg/km in 1979 to 3 kg/km in 1984 and then increased to about 6 kg/km in 1986, (Stevens and Davenport 1991). Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities have greatly increased in northern Australian waters in recent years. Indonesian fishers are increasingly fishing illegally in this area, the majority of whom are targeting shark (although a few target reef fish and trepang) (AMFA 2007, Vince 2007).<br/><br/>Spottail Shark is commonly caught in the Indonesian artisanal fisheries and marketed (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) but at a lower level than would have been expected for a typically very common species. Although this suggests a relatively low catch rate, there are no data on CPUE and it is therefore not possible to determine whether the low catches are due to small population size caused by overfishing. However, giving the extremely high level of fishing pressure in the Southeast Asian region and the problem of habitat degradation in inshore waters throughout much of its range (not Australia), this species is likely to be under great pressure. Nursery areas are extremely important for Spottail Shark, with juveniles inhabiting shallow inshore waters until they attain a larger size. These nursery areas are heavily fished in areas such as Indonesia and are also extremely susceptible to habitat degradation and even pollution, especially adjacent to riverine areas. This species is one of the dominant shark species in the landings of fisheries in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Most Spottail Sharks captured in these fisheries are immature (SEAFDEC 2006).<br/><br/>Threats to the species? inshore habitat from fishing pressure and habitat degradation are also high in many areas within its range in the Indian Ocean, for example India, where inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, declining recruitment and biomass, and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Sharks are heavily fished in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Fisheries have experienced increased demand for sharks in recent years due to the shark fin trade and effort is increasing in traditional shark fisheries in many areas as a result (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007, Bonfil and Abdullah 2004). Spottail Shark was the third most important species of shark in traditional fishery landings of the Sultanate of Oman during a study from January 2002 to December 2003, although landings between areas were highly variable (Henderson <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
161377	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Stenberg, C., 2006	None in place. Monitoring of population trends and capture in fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic should be implemented.	eng
161377	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Stenberg, C., 2006	Widely distributed in the northwest Atlantic, from the Grand Banks to East Greenland. In the northeast Atlantic, this species is presently known sporadically from south of Iceland, north of the Faroes and Shetland Islands, the Skagerrak, Barents Sea and Spitsbergen (Stehman and Burkel 1984, Dolgov and Igashov 2001).	eng
161377	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Stenberg, C., 2006	This skate is distributed more deeply in the Northwest Atlantic (316–1,455 m, deepest sets fished) than the northeast Atlantic (196–635 m) (ICES 2006). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, producing egg capsules that are 10.7 cm long and 7.7 cm wide deposited in sandy or muddy flats (Funicelli 1972, Breder and Rosen 1966). The species reaches a maximum recorded size of 114 cm (Ponomarenko 1961). Little else is known of its biology.	eng
161377	population	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Stenberg, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
161377	threats	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Stenberg, C., 2006	The main threat is fishing. Increasing density with depth in the northwest Atlantic suggests that its center of mass is well beyond areas surveyed and fished, placing them outside of the range of most human threats there. Catches are rare in the northeast Atlantic, where this species is only sporadically reported. It is very infrequently taken as bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries targeting cod, haddock and blue catfish above 300 m depth, and for Greenland Halibut below 300 m in the Barents Sea (Dolgov <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also taken in trawls in the Norwegian Deep and the Skagerrak (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001) and elsewhere in the northeast Atlantic. While this species is thought to have been previously more uncommon in Swedish waters, reports are now increasing from sports fishermen and commercial fisheries. Since Sweden banned landings of <em>D. batis</em> in December 2004 logbooks now report landings of <em>D. linteus</em> instead. These landings need to be further investigated to establish which species is actually landed.	eng
161378	conservation	Morgan, M., Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Lessa, R., 2008	In US waters this species is managed in the small coastal shark complex under the National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks. There are no specific measures in place elsewhere throughout its range. <br/><br/>It is recommended that population trends continue to be monitored.	eng
161378	distribution	Morgan, M., Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Lessa, R., 2008	Western Central and Southwest Atlantic: The Blacknose Shark ranges from North Carolina to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico. Recorded from North Carolina to Florida, USA, Bahamas, Gulf of Mexico, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Antilles, Guyana, Venezuela, southern Brazil (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161378	habitat	Morgan, M., Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Lessa, R., 2008	A common coastal tropical and warm-temperate shark of the continental and insular shelves, mainly over sandy, shell and coral bottom, depths of 18?64 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The species may possibly reach 200 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Depending on the area, size at maturity is between 84.8 and 100.5cm Fork Length (FL) for females and 84.8?91.8 cm (FL) for males (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Dodrill 1977, Schwartz 1984, Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007, Carlson <em>et al</em>. in press), In US South Atlantic waters males are reported to reach maturity at 4.3 years and females at 4.5 years of age (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004). Whereas in the Gulf of Mexico, males reportedly mature at 5.4 years and females at 6.6 years of age (Carlson <em>et al</em>. 2007). Longevity is estimated as 19 years in US South Atlantic waters and 16.5 years in the Gulf of Mexico, for females (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Carlson <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007). Generation period is estimated at eight years (Siegfreid and Brooks 2007) Reproduction is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. The species has a biennial reproductive cycle in US South Atlantic waters, but an annual cycle is reported in the Gulf of Mexico and off northern Brazil (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007, Hazin <em>et al</em>. 2002). Females give birth to 1?5 pups after a gestation period of 9?11 months (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004, Carlson <em>et al</em>. 1999, Sulikowski <em>et al</em>. 2007). Size at birth is 31?35 cm FL (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
161378	population	Morgan, M., Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Lessa, R., 2008	Common in coastal waters of the western north Atlantic Ocean from U.S. North Carolina to Florida, and throughout the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Recent stock assessment indicates the population in 2006 is 25% of virgin levels in the 1950s (Siegfried and Brooks 2007). Projections with zero fishing mortality indicates the stock rebuilds by 2019.<br/><br/>Preliminary analyses of data on Blacknose Shark from northern to northeastern Brazil (Recife and Maranhão State) show no indication of population decline and large, mature adults are still present in catches (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007). This is the most abundant coastal elasmobranch on the Pernambuco coast (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007). The R.V. Dr. Fridtjof Nansen conducted a survey of the northeast South American shelf in 1988 (the most recent known to date) (Chan A Shing 1999). This survey reported that Blacknose Shark was one of the most dominant species in the catch (with Caribbean Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon porosus</em>) and Bonnethead Shark (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>)) (Chan A Shing 1999). Chan A Shing reports that Blacknose Shark is a common species in landings in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, but no information is currently available to identify temporal trends.	eng
161378	threats	Morgan, M., Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Lessa, R., 2008	The species is apparently fished in large numbers in parts of its range (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005), and its inshore occurrence places it within the range of coastal fisheries throughout its distribution (Hazin <em>et al</em>. 2002). They constitute a substantial portion of the catch in coastal fisheries throughout their range and are often targeted due to their economic value (Driggers <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>In USA waters, this species is caught in coastal gillnets along the eastern coast of the U.S. (Carlson and Bethea 2007, and reference therein), and the directed bottom longline fishery that operates from New Jersey to Louisiana (Hale and Carlson 2007, and reference therein).  The major threat to this species is large removals as shrimp bycatch during juvenile life history stages (Siegfried and Brooks 2007).<br/><br/>This species is captured in coastal fisheries off Brazil, where inshore fishing pressure is often relatively intense. Although declines have been documented in other inshore Carcharhinid sharks off Brazil (e.g., Daggernose Shark (<em>Isogomphodon oxyrhynchus</em>)), this species is wider-ranging, distributed all along the Brazilian coast. CPUE data from northern and northeastern Brazil show no decline and large, mature adults are still present in catches (R. Lessa pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Trawl fisheries for shrimp operate throughout the Gulf of Mexico (mainly in inshore waters) and take a substantial bycatch of elasmobranchs (Shepherd and Myers 2005).<br/><br/>No data are available to determine the impact of fisheries on this species throughout the rest of its range off South America. However, shrimp trawl fisheries are intense in many areas and efforts should be made to collect data on the catches of this species where no data are currently available. Trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). Demersal trawl effort has increased in both effort and efficiency; 150 vessels were permitted to operate out of the port by the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture (DGSPAMAC) in 1990, each with 250?650 horse power (hp), giving a total nominal horse power of 37,500?97,500 hp (Mendoza and Marcano 1994). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). In addition, an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> species) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between five and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.	eng
161379	conservation	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Expanding deepwater fisheries should be monitored. Protocols for managing any expansion in deepsea fisheries in Indonesia need to be developed in the near future with management strategies included in the National Plan of Action for sharks (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Regular surveys of ports are also required to assess to what extent the catch composition of deepsea fisheries changes over the years (White <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
161379	distribution	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Northwest and Western Central Pacific: South China and East China Seas, off Taiwan, Province of China, Philippines, northern Borneo in eastern Malaysia (Sarawak) and the Okinawa Trough off Japan (Last and Compagno 1999, Ishihara 1984).	eng
161379	habitat	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater skate known from depths of 475 to >835 m depth (Last and Compagno 1999). Maximum size reported at 35 cm total length (TL) (Yuandung and Qingwen 2001, Shao 2005). Males mature at about 26 m TL (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161379	population	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Ten specimens are known from Taiwan, Province of China (P.F. Lee pers. comm. 2006). There are little data available in other areas.	eng
161379	threats	McCormack, C. Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	The known depth distribution of this species is beyond depths currently fished through most of its geographic range, offering refuge beyond current anthropogenic threats.<br/><br/>There is no evidence that deepsea fisheries in the Philippines capture this species. Some deepwater fisheries operate off the Philippines, but they mainly use bottomset multiple hook-and-line gear to target dogfish sharks for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003). Deepwater fisheries operate on the eastern coast of Taiwan, Province of China. The incidental catch is retained and marketed (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are mainly coastal, but may range down to 500 m depth (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>In eastern Indonesia, deep-sea longline fisheries also only operate to 600 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006) and this may also be the case for fisheries operating around Borneo where this species is known to occur. However, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer as new fishing methods (e.g., trawling) may be adopted especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). According to White <em>et al. </em>(2006), expansion of the deepsea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely.	eng
161380	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on the occurrence, abundance of this species, as well as threats and its capture in fisheries.	eng
161380	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: Malaysia (near the edge of continental shelf off Tanjong Sirik, Sarawak, 4°48?N, longitude.109°56?E to latitude 5°19?N, longitude 111º16?E) and Hainan Island, China (D.A. Ebert and W. White pers. comm.).	eng
161380	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This benthic shark is known from few specimens collected at the edge of the continental shelf at depths of 118-165m. The species reaches a maximum size of 40.8 cm total length (TL); males mature at 32.5?37.2 cm TL and females at 35.4?40.8 cm TL (Yano <em>et al. </em>2005). Very little is known of its habitat and biology. Egg cases observed within the uteri of a pregnant female measured 3.2 cm width by 9.8 cm length (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth is estimated at about 10 cm TL (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161380	population	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161380	threats	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Bycatch in deep water trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available.	eng
161381	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2004	<em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within Alaskan waters within the “other skates” assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in <em>Bathyraja</em> species is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented. Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species’ range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.	eng
161381	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2004	Northeast and Northwest Pacific: found off Japan, Russia and USA, from the southern Kuril Islands, east Kamchatka, western, eastern (including Aleutian Islands) and southern Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Fedorov <em>et al.</em> 2003, Stevenson 2004, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161381	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2004	Smallthorn Skate is a deep sea skate, found mainly on sandy-gravel (and also muddy-rocky) substrates at depths ranging from 150–1,420 m (Dolganov 1998a, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). The majority of the population in the Pacific waters of the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka occurs between 300–750 m depth (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Both sexes mature at 5–6 years of age and longevity is eight years for males and nine years for females (Dolganov 1998b, Dolganov 2005). Attains a maximum size of 83 cm total length (TL) (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002). Males mature at 64.0–67.2 cm TL and females at 63.4–68.6 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005). Egg capsules measure 6.6–8 cm in length and 4.6–5.9 cm in width (Dolganov 1998b). This species prefers bottom temperatures of 0.1–4.4°C (mean 2.47°C), and most frequently occurs at 1.5–4.0°C (Orlov <em>et al. </em>2006). Preys upon fish, decapods, and cephalopods (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov 1998, 2003).	eng
161381	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2004	According to biomass estimates, this is the sixth most abundant species within Russian waters (Dolganov 1999). In Russian waters, biomass estimation based on data from bottom trawl surveys during 1977–1997 comprises 21,700 t including 19,600 t in the Bering Sea, 200 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 1,900 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999). In the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka, CPUE trend appears stable from 1993 to 2000 (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the eastern Bering Sea slope area, the biomass estimate in 2004 was 1,755 mt, the fifth most abundant out of 12 skate species recorded in this area (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161381	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2004	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Ormseth and Matta 2007), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species’ deep bathymetric distribution offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species. <br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600–800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>Historically, Japanese trawlers fishing in Russian waters took skate wings, but no information is currently available on historical catch levels. Foreign fisheries were prohibited in Russian waters in 2002.	eng
161382	conservation	Francis, M. & McCormack, C., 2008	None in place. <br/><br/>Where taken, catches should be closely monitored to determine whether fisheries are impacting on the population of this endemic species. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161382	distribution	Francis, M. & McCormack, C., 2008	Southwest Pacific: endemic to New Zealand (M. Francis pers. obs. 2006).	eng
161382	habitat	Francis, M. & McCormack, C., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 300 m to at least 1,479 m and probably much deeper off New Zealand (Cox and Francis 1997, Anderson <em>et al.</em> 1998) Frequency of occurrence in research trawl tows increases steadily beyond 900 m and shows no sign of decreasing before 1,500 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998), suggesting that it extends well beyond that depth. Adults inhabit the continental slope and attain a maximum size of at least 140 cm total length (Cox and Francis 1997). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161382	population	Francis, M. & McCormack, C., 2008	Nothing is known of the population of this species. Occasionally caught by deepwater bottom trawlers (M. Francis pers. obs. 2006).	eng
161382	threats	Francis, M. & McCormack, C., 2008	Large deepwater trawlers targeting Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>) and Hoki (<em>Macruronus novaezelandiae</em>) operate over this species’ depth and geographic range, in  central and southern New Zealand. This species is undoubtedly taken as bycatch by these deepwater fisheries, but the quantities caught and population trends are unknown. Depths greater than 1,500 m are not commercially fished at present. Given that research trawls suggest that this species’ depth range may extend beyond 1,500 m, it may have a refuge from fishing pressure in deep water. There may also be some mortality in the Ling (<em>Genypterus blacodes</em>) longline fishery.	eng
161383	conservation	Stehmann, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Population trends need to be monitored through surveys or collection of species-specific data on catches by onboard observers.	eng
161383	distribution	Stehmann, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: known only from a limited range (possibly <10,000 km²) off southern Portugal and Spain, within the Bay of Cadiz (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
161383	habitat	Stehmann, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Occurs on the upper slope at depths of 270-670m, on fine sand and occasionally muddy sand substrates (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008). Attains a maximum size of 32.7cm total length (TL) (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Size at birth is unknown, but the smallest neonate measured 5.5cm TL and it is probably close to this (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
161383	population	Stehmann, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Moderately rare (Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). This species is known from 50 type specimens taken in a well-surveyed area (Stehmann <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
161383	threats	Stehmann, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries and discarded because it is too small to be considered commercially valuable. Although not taken regularly, it occurs in an area that has been commercially fished for groundfish and crustaceans for a long period (Borges <em>et al.</em> 2001, Monteiro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Fisheries targeting Rose Shrimp <em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em> and Norway Lobster, <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>, operate off the south coast of Portugal at depths of 200?700 m (ICES 2006). No data are currently available on the capture of this species and nothing is known about post-discard survival rates.	eng
161384	conservation	McCormack, C.,& White, W., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161384	distribution	McCormack, C.,& White, W., 2008	Western and eastern Indian Ocean: Somalia (Gulf of Aden), India and Sri Lanka (possibly southwest coast of India and probably Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan (Northeastern Honshu, Shikoku, and Okinawa), Taiwan, northern Papua-New Guinea and Indonesia (Compagno in prep, W. White pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Taxonomic revision of <em>Centrophorus</em> is currently underway and may reveal that more than one species is involved across the distributional range.	eng
161384	habitat	McCormack, C.,& White, W., 2008	A poorly known bathydemersal deepwater species found from depths of 150 to 450 m on the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes. Size data are available from Indonesia, based on 93 specimens. Maximum size for females was 78 cm total length (TL), and 60.3 cm TL for males (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Males mature at 55?58 cm TL. The smallest pregnant female was 73.5 cm TL (females probably mature at a smaller size) (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Size at birth is 36?42 cm TL (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is ovoviviparous. Other size and biological information available for <em>C. atromarginatus</em> may refer to other species.	eng
161384	population	McCormack, C.,& White, W., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161384	threats	McCormack, C.,& White, W., 2008	The Dwarf Gulper Shark is targeted by localized fisheries in Japan for its liver oil (Compagno in prep, H. Ishihara, pers. comm. 2006, S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007). This fishery targets deep water species of shark using gillnets and possibly other gear in Suruga Bay, Honshu. Catch of sharks and rays are cited from the Annual Statistics of Japan fisheries, Statistical Information Center of the Japan Fisheries Agency. However, the statistics are not species-specific but rather reported as ?general sharks and general rays? (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species is also caught in bottom trawls off Taiwan. No part of the catch is discarded in Taiwan (B. Séret pers. comm. 2006) and individuals are probably also used in the production of fishmeal.<br/><br/>No information is available on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range in the Indian Ocean. Industrial deepwater fishing for lobsters is reported off Somalia, perhaps down to 400 m, but the gear type is not reported and no data are available from the fishery. In the mid-1970s, deep-sea trawling was carried out by SOMALFISH, a Somali/USSR joint venture commercial fishing company off Somalia and since then several foreign fishing companies have been given fishing licenses to fish in the offshore EEZ of Somalia (FAO 2007a).<br/><br/>There are also an estimated 700 foreign-owned vessels that are fully engaged in unlicensed fishing in Somali waters (FAO 2007a). This illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing occurs offshore, as well as in the inshore (FAO 2007a). This makes it impossible to monitor total fishery production and the state of the fishery resources they are exploiting (FAO 2007a). There is also strong suspicion of illegal dumping of industrial and nuclear wastes along the Somali coast (FAO 2007a).<br/><br/>Little is known about deepwater fisheries operating off India at present. There were apparently 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India during 2004 (FAO 2007b). Marine fish production from near shore waters off India has reached almost a plateau and it is likely that fisheries will develop to exploit deeper waters off shore pelagic species further (FAO 2007b).<br/><br/>The threatened status of this species is uncertain, but of concern because of local deepwater fisheries, little knowledge of its biology, and its restricted distribution (Compagno in prep). Given the biological vulnerability of this genus and the rapid population declines observed in other exploited <em>Centrophorus</em> species (for example <em>Centrophorus harrissoni</em>), any bycatch is of concern. There is a need to collect species-specific catch data throughout this species? range, to assess the impact of fisheries on this species.	eng
161385	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2004	Base-line studies are required to acquire more information regarding the life history aspects of this species. More information about the trade is also needed in order to implement management plans, trade management and specific legislation to guarantee that catches are sustainable.<br/><br/>Bycatch captures should also be monitored and quantified in order to determine to what extent target (bony fish) fisheries represent a threat.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered since freshwater elasmobranchs are more susceptible to impacts due to their more restricted distribution in comparison with their marine counterparts (Araújo 1998, Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida<em> et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Mojica<em> et al </em>(2002) indicated needed for habitat protection, base-line studies and population evaluation for <em>P. yepezi</em>, which are probably valid recommendations for <em>P. magdalenae.</em><br/><br/>Public awareness is desired to minimize persecution, which probably occurs (as in other places where freshwater stingrays are present).	eng
161385	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2004	This species is restricted to the drainages of some rivers in Northern Colombia, including Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge, Atrato and Catatumbo rivers. It has not been registered in the Sinú River but is also found in the headwaters and throughout the rivers Tibú, el Sardinata and el Zulia (Galvis <em>et al</em>. 1997). The extent of occurrence is very unlikely to be extended.	eng
161385	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2004	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of<em> P. magdalenae.</em>. This species was indicated to be found in both headwaters and lower drainages of some rivers within its distribution range (Galvis <em>et al.</em> 1997). These same authors reported that this species prefers muddy substrates, murky and shallow waters.<br/><br/>The stomach contents of specimens collected from the Catatumbo River contained insect larvae stages and detritus (Galvis <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/>Most reproductive biology information available comes from a single research study carried out by Teshima and Takeshita (1992). Apart from them, only Dahl (1971), in a general study of the fish in Northern Colombia, mentioned that this species reached maturity with less than 25 cm of disc width. The information available suggests that this species reaches sexual maturity at a small disc width size and presents a low fecundity. Since most potamotrygonids present a defined reproductive period (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005), it is possible that Teshima and Takeshita (1992) could not observe this due to the short length of their sampling period.	eng
161385	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2004	This species was pointed out as common in the lower portion of the Catatumbo River (Galvis <em>et al</em>. 1997) but no further data are available on the population of this freshwater stingray.	eng
161385	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2004	There is little information regarding the threats for <em>P. magdalenae</em> but supposedly at least some of them are similar to ones indicated for <em>P. yepezi</em>, another freshwater stingray found in Colombia (Mojica <em>et al.</em> 2002). These same authors indicated <em>P. magdalenae</em> as being a vulnerable species (VU) in Colombia but no details are given concerning the criteria for the selection of this specific status.<br/><br/>This species is currently entering the ornamental trade (Gonella 1997, Ross and Schäfer 2000) without any specific regulation and monitoring. No information is available about how many specimens are exported and to what extent this might represent a threat for this species. Informal reports indicate that this species is also caught as bycatch in fisheries that target some bony fish of economic value in the river basins where <em>P. magdalenae</em> is found.<br/><br/>Intrinsic factors common to other elasmobranchs (Camhi <em>et al.</em> 1998) affect this species too and its restricted range must be taken into account.<br/>Other threats for this species are not well know but considering the main known threats for other potamotrygonids (included the ones cited for <em>P. yepezi</em> by Mojica <em>et al.</em> 2002) it is expected that it is susceptible to water pollution of different origins (agricultural, industrial and sewage pollution mainly), mining, infrastructure development and human disturbances. As in other parts of the North region of South America, it is expected that persecution of this species also takes place.	eng
161386	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Vidthayanon, D.A. & Samiengo, B., 2007	There are several marine protected areas (MPAs) within this species’ range (Wood 2007).	eng
161386	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Vidthayanon, D.A. & Samiengo, B., 2007	North Pacific Ocean: reported only from Hawaii and Taiwan, Province of China (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Cartamil <em>et al.</em> 2002). The record from Taiwan, Province of China requires confirmation.	eng
161386	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Vidthayanon, D.A. & Samiengo, B., 2007	A demersal species found in nearshore waters on sand or mud bottoms and sometimes near coral reefs (Michael 1993). Reaches a maximum size of at least 100 cm disc width (DW) (Michael 1993).	eng
161386	population	Ebert, D.A., Vidthayanon, D.A. & Samiengo, B., 2007	Common in nearshore waters of Hawaii (Cartamil <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161386	threats	Ebert, D.A., Vidthayanon, D.A. & Samiengo, B., 2007	No known threats. Fisheries off Hawaii are mainly pelagic, targeting tuna (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161387	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., Valenti, S.V. & McAuley, R., 2008	None in place. Catch levels need to be monitored and further surveys conducted to determine abundance and population trends. Further research on the species’ life-history is also required.	eng
161387	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., Valenti, S.V. & McAuley, R., 2008	Known only from two specimens collected from the Naturalist Plateau off southwestern Australia (Stehmann 2005): 33°42' S, 110°53' E. Probably more widespread at least in the Southeast Indian Ocean and further to the west.	eng
161387	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., Valenti, S.V. & McAuley, R., 2008	Known only from two specimens collected at 2,300 m depth. The mature male holotype measured 123 cm total length (TL) and the small juvenile male paratype measured 36 cm TL (Stehmann 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161387	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., Valenti, S.V. & McAuley, R., 2008	Known only from two specimens so far, collected during a scientific research survey.	eng
161387	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., Valenti, S.V. & McAuley, R., 2008	This species is a potential bycatch of the Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery, which targets orange roughy and oreos below 700 m depth off southwestern Australia (http://www.affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/pg204_221.pdf). This relatively small fishery (currently up to 11 vessels and 15 endorsements) takes some elasmobranch bycatch but its composition has not been determined (R. McAuley pers. obs. 2008). It is also a potential bycatch international deepwater trawl and longline fisheries targeting various bony fishes (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161388	conservation	Coelho, R. Blasdale, T., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Litvinov, F., Crozier, P. & Stenberg, C., 2008	There are no species specific management measures. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean in February 2005 and this came into force in September 2005. <br/><br/>In Swedish waters (e.g., Skagerrak and Kattegat) bottom-trawls are required to have a selective grid that should help to reduce bycatch of <em>E. spinax</em>.	eng
161388	distribution	Coelho, R. Blasdale, T., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Litvinov, F., Crozier, P. & Stenberg, C., 2008	Mediterranean Sea: found in the Western Mediterranean (Spain, France, Italy, Albania, Malta, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). <br/><br/>Northeast, eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Iceland and Norway south to Senegal, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria, Cameroon to Gabon, Azores and Cape Verde Islands (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161388	habitat	Coelho, R. Blasdale, T., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Litvinov, F., Crozier, P. & Stenberg, C., 2008	<em>Etmopterus spinax</em> is found on the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 70–2,000 m, mostly between 200 and 500 m (Compagno in prep.). In the Mediterranean <em>E. spinax</em> has been recorded from 300–2,000 m depth (F. Serena pers. obs. 2007). In the Adriatic Sea it is reported down to 1,200 m depth (Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001). In the Thyrrenian Sea, Italy, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. (2004) found the typical depth distribution to be 322–633 m. In the Gulf of Valencia, Spain it is commonly caught by commercial bottom trawls between 300 and 675 m, and is slightly more abundant below 550 m (Guallart 1990). In the northeast Atlantic <em>E. spinax</em> has been caught at depths of 400–1,000 m (Merrett <em>et al</em>. 1991a,b; Bridger 1978). In general, smaller (<30 cm) individuals tended to occur at depths of less than 500 m whilst mature individuals were found at mid-depths (500 to 600 m) (P. Crozier pers. comm.). In Sierra Leone <em>E. spinax</em> is found as shallow as 200 m but is a dominant species at depths greater than 400 m (Litvinov 1993). In Morocco <em>E. spinax</em> is captured at depths of 400–800 m, is a resident species at 400–500 m and is dominant at 600 m and sub-dominant at 600–900 m (Litvinov 1993).<br/><br/>Estimated age at maturity is five to six years (Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004), although longevity is unknown for the species. Size at maturity has various estimates: females mature between >30–46 cm total length (TL); 33–36 cm (Compagno in prep); 38–40 cm (Capapè <em>et al</em>. 2001, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004); 46 cm (n=76) in the northeast Atlantic (Crozier unpub. data); 31 cm in South Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2005); and >30 cm in the Adriatic (Ungaro pers. comm.). Males mature between 25–38 cm: 33–36 cm TL (Compagno in prep.); 35 cm (Capapè <em>et al</em>. 2001); 38 cm (n=105) in the northeast Atlantic (Crozier unpub. data); 25 cm in South Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2005); and 28–30 cm in the Adriatic (N. Ungaro pers. comm.). The maximum size recorded for <em>E. spinax</em> was a female of 60 cm TL but specimens are rarely larger than 45 cm (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The velvet belly is ovoviviparous producing 6–20 pups per litter (Compagno in prep, Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987), with a mean ovarian fecundity of 18 eggs (n=14) and a mean embryonic fecundity of 10 pups (n=15) (Crozier unpub. data). In the Thyrrenian Sea mature females were observed at 40 cm TL carrying six embryos of 6.5 cm TL in the uterus (Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). Females produce a litter once a year (Bini 1967, Tortonese 1956) and pups are between 8 and 14 cm TL at birth (12 to 14 cm (Compagno in prep.); 10–11 cm (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 1987); 11 cm (n=15) (Crozier unpub. data)). Smaller pups of 8–10 cm TL have been reported for the Adriatic (Marano <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>This species feeds on small fishes, squids, and crustaceans (Compagno in prep.). The diet of <em>E. spinax</em> has been analysed as follows: crustaceans 74.8%, fishes 16.9%, cephalopods 6.9%, polychaetes 0.9% others 0.5% (Bello 1998, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Rockall Trough in the Northeast Atlantic the diet of <em>E. spinax</em> was reported to consist mainly of benthopelagic organisms, with fish and crustaceans of secondary importance (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). Smaller specimens (<39 cm) of this species feed on mid-water fish that were completely absent from the stomachs of larger individuals. The differences in diet were thought to be partly due to prey selection and also because larger fish live at greater depths. In South Portugal a significant ontogenic variation in feeding ecology was observed, with specimens smaller than 17 cm TL feeding mainly on euphausiids, specimens from 17–27 cm TL feeding mainly on euphausiids and natant decapods and specimens larger than 27 cm TL feeding also on teleosts and cephalopods (Neiva <em>et al</em>. submitted). In Angolan waters, off the west African coast, the diet of this species has been described as follows: cephalopods (63%), crustaceans (33%) and teleosts (4%) (Zaera 2005).	eng
161388	population	Coelho, R. Blasdale, T., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Litvinov, F., Crozier, P. & Stenberg, C., 2008	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data collected from 1985–2002 by the Italian national GRUND project (Gruppo Nazionale Risorse Demersali) and from 1994–2002 by the MEDITS project (Mediterranean International Trawl Survey) (Relini 1998, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000) provided information on the abundance and bathymetric distribution of <em>Etmopterus spinax</em>. Analysis of trends in Biomass Index (BI kg per km²) of <em>E. spinax</em> from 1985–2002 indicated stable populations in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000, Cecchi <em>et al</em>. 2004). <em>Etmopterus spinax</em> was present at both high frequency (19% of the hauls) and high abundance (between 1 and 10 kg per km²) in the Mediterranean, with a standing stock biomass of 4% (2,248 t). The species was found to have an especially high presence in the western-central part of the Mediterranean basin (Morocco, Spain, France, Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily coasts) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Data collected in the Gulf of Valencia (Spain) during 1988–1989 from a bottom trawl fishery for Red Shrimp <em>Aristeus antennatus</em> revealed the presence of <em>E. spinax</em> in 87.5% of trawls carried out between 450 and 675 m depth, with a mean abundance of 1.04 specimens per hour trawl (Guallart 1990). All sizes were represented in the captures (from juveniles to adults of both sexes) and observations made in later years did not reveal any significant change in the abundance of <em>E. spinax</em> in this area (J. Guallart pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Catch rates in Scottish surveys from 1998–2004 were 81% of those in Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) surveys in the 1970s (T. Blasdale pers. comm. 2006). These surveys cannot be directly compared as they used different gear and vessels and fished different depth ranges, but they do appear to indicate that population levels have declined slightly from pre-fishery levels (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In southern Portugal Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for captures with deepwater longlines set from 450–780 m depth are 1.71/1,000 hooks (s.d.= 1.83) (R. Coelho unpubl. data). Deep water trawlers in the Algarve capture this species from 200–700 m depth and CPUEs are highest at 500 m depth with a capture rate of 15.74 specimens per hour (Coelho <em>et al. </em>2005b). CPUE (kg per hour fished) from French deepwater trawl vessels in ICES Division VIa (West of Scotland) showed discard rates of this species to peak at 18.3 kg/hr at 500 m and then decline to 1.3 kg/hr at 700 m (ICES WD, Crozier 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species was common off the coast of Northwestern Africa in the 1980s and was still very common in more recent surveys (Gulyugin <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161388	threats	Coelho, R. Blasdale, T., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Litvinov, F., Crozier, P. & Stenberg, C., 2008	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is caught as a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries and is known to be discarded by Italian (Abella and Serena 2002) and Spanish (Guallart 1990) fleets. Most specimens discarded are either dead or in very poor condition (J. Guallart pers. comm.). This species occurs at depths of 70–2,000 m, but mostly between 200–500 m in the Mediterranean. The main depth range of this species is within the range of Mediterranean fisheries. However, the ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean, adopted by all members of The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), will  afford protection in the deeper part of its bathymetric range. This measure came into force in September 2005.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>Etmopterus spinax</em> is most abundant in the northeast Atlantic between 400 and 800 m and large mature female <em>E. spinax</em> are found in waters around 600 m. This may suggest that these mature sharks are being affected more by the commercial deep-water fisheries than other life stages of <em>E. spinax</em> that are found in shallower waters. Therefore it is suggested that this species may also be susceptible to heavy commercial fishing in the northeast Atlantic (Coelho 2007).<br/><br/>It is caught as bycatch in bottomtrawls fishing for <em>Nephrops norvegicus</em> and <em>Pandalus borealis</em> in the Skagerrak and Kattegat by Swedish fishermen. It has never been recorded in logbooks and most is probably discarded at sea. Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), this species is captured in high quantities as bycatch of the deep water fisheries that operate at these depths, namely the bottom trawl fishery that targets Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). In both fisheries, all captured specimens are discarded (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005a), and even though most are still alive when returned to sea, they usually have severe injuries (due to the long trawling periods or as a result of the hooks) that are likely to impair their survival.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central and Southeast Atlantic</strong><br/>In general, very little is known of the threats that affect this species off the African coast. Off the Angolan coast, <em>E. spinax</em> is an uncommon species, captured rarely by bottom trawlers and always discarded. Where this species is common off Morocco (western Sahara), Mauritania, and Sierra Leone it is taken in trawls. However, catches are not recorded because of species identification problems and because this bycatch is discarded.	eng
161389	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on the taxonomy, occurrence, abundance of this species, as well as threats and its capture in fisheries.	eng
161389	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Central Pacific: known only from two specimens collected from Malaysia. Both the holotype and paratypes were captured off Tanjong Sirik, Sarawak, (at: latitude 5°10?N, longitude 111°00?E, and latitude 4°48?N, longitude 109°56?E, and latitude 5°19?N, longitude 111°11?E) (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161389	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This benthic shark is known from two specimens collected at the edge of the continental shelf, at depths of 118?165 m. Maximum size is 37.8 cm total length (TL) (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males are mature at 37.7 cm TL (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth is estimated at about 10cm TL (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2005). Very little is known of its habitat and biology.	eng
161389	population	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161389	threats	Ebert, D.A., Ali, A., Pek Khiok, A.L. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Bycatch in deep water trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available.	eng
161390	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161390	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Western central Pacific: an Australian endemic, restricted to the continental slope off Cairns (Queensland) in the Coral Sea (Last and Stevens 1994). Likely to only exist on seamounts offshore from North East Queensland.	eng
161390	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	A small, highly distinctive, deepwater skate,&#160;<em></em>this species occurs on the mid continental slope at depths of 800?880 m and attain at least 57 cm TL (Last and Compagno 1999). Its biology is virtually unknown as it is known from type specimens only.<br/><br/>A bottom-dwelling species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161390	population	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Population structure of the Eastern Looseskin Skate is unknown. Its range is narrow and the area of its occurrence is rarely surveyed.	eng
161390	threats	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	<em></em>The Eastern Looseskin Skate is unlikely to be of commercial value but is restricted to a narrow depth and geographical range. There is no current fishing pressure in its area of occurrence. Trawl fisheries could dramatically affect the population if they began to take it as bycatch, due its narrow geographic and depth range.	eng
161391	conservation	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed. A stock assessment for skates and rays taken as bycatch in the Heard Islands is underway and will provide further information on the status of this species in this part of its range.	eng
161391	distribution	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Antarctic and southern Indian Ocean: presently known only from around Kerguelen and Heard Islands (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990).	eng
161391	habitat	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	A small species, Murray's Skate (<em>Rhinoraja murrayi</em>) can be found at depths from 30–650 m, although it is apparently more abundant at shallow depths (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). It attains 60 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). The smallest recorded juvenile measured 11 cm TL (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161391	population	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Moderately abundant relative to other species of this genus in the Southern Ocean (M. Stehmann pers. obs.).	eng
161391	threats	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Regularly taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries targeting Channichthys (icefish) and Notothens (Antarctic Cod), as well as in longline fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish to some extent. Substantial catches of Antarctic cod icefish have been taken on the Kerguelen plateau since the early 1970s (Hender and Larcombe 2007). Fishing effort in the Patagonian Toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides fishery concentrated in the Southern Ocean, has increased in recent years, largely due to illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in this region (Lack and Sant 2001). Lack and Sant (2001) identified the Kerguelen and Heard Islands, where this species is possibly endemic, as hotspots for IUU fishing activity. High levels of unregulated fishing pressure throughout this species’ range are unlikely to be sustainable, particularly as this species is likely to have limiting life-history characteristics, similar to other deepwater skates.	eng
161392	conservation	Endicott, M., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>The CCAMLR Working Group recommend that, where possible, all rajids should be cut from the line while still in the water, except on the request of observers, and that areas with high bycatch rates should be avoided by Patagonian Toothfish fisheries.<br/><br/>Information is required to better define the distribution and the impact of fisheries across the species? entire range.	eng
161392	distribution	Endicott, M., 2008	Antarctic and Southern Indian Ocean: known from just south of the Crozet and Kerguelen Islands and well south of South Africa and Madagascar (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, Compagno and Ebert 2007).<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic Ocean: the South African records of <em>A. taaf</em> may prove to be of strays from its known range in sub-Antarctic seas (Compagno and Ebert 2007).	eng
161392	habitat	Endicott, M., 2008	Thought to be widespread in the Indian Antarctic ocean at depths of 150 to 600 m, though may be found at greater depths (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Dulvy and Reynolds (2002) give a minimum depth of 320 m and a maximum of 350 m, with a latitudinal range of two degrees. Maximum size is reportedly 90 cm total length (TL) and size at birth is about 17 cm TL (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Diet appears to be wide ranging from polycheates and crustaceans, to teleosts (Meissner 1987).<br/><br/><em>Amblyraja taaf</em> is reported to display sexual dimorphism (Meissner 1987), with males in general being larger than the females. Fecundity is unknown for this species.	eng
161392	population	Endicott, M., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161392	threats	Endicott, M., 2008	This species is taken as utilised bycatch by longline and trawl fisheries targeting Patagonian Toothfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dissostichus eleginoides</span>) <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>in the Antarctic and Southern Indian Ocean. This species, along with grenadiers <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrourus carinatus</span>, forms the bulk of bycatch of the Patagonian Toothfish fishery in the Crozet Islands EEZ. Bycatch of Rajids (<em>Amblyraja taaf</em>) in this fishery reported to Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) ranged from nothing in 1998/1999, increasing to 95 to 91 t in 2002?2004 and to 163 t in 2005/2006 (CCAMLR 2006).<br/><br/>Actual bycatch levels are likely much greater though as a result of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing for Patagonian toothfish throughout the area. Most IUU fishing is thought to have occurred in the Indian Ocean sector around Crozet, Heard, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands (Lack and Sant 2001). Increased surveillance within the EEZ of these states in recent years means that IUU fishing now occurs mainly outside the EEZ.<br/><br/>This species probably has limiting life-history characteristics similar to other deepwater skates, making it vulnerable to population depletion. Current levels of exploitation may therefore be unsustainable.	eng
161393	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E. Orlov, A. & Brash, J., 2004	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.	eng
161393	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E. Orlov, A. & Brash, J., 2004	Northwest and western central Pacific: found off Choshi, Chiba Prefecture, Japan to Hermanos Island, Philippines (where it is known only from a single record; 18°32'30"N, 122°01'E) (Ishimaya 1967, Ishihara 1987, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161393	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E. Orlov, A. & Brash, J., 2004	This skate is found on sandy and muddy substrates along continental shelf and slope at depths of 300–800 m. The largest known specimen was the holotype, an adult male measuring 134.5 cm total length (TL) (Ishiyama 1958, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161393	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E. Orlov, A. & Brash, J., 2004	Rare.	eng
161393	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E. Orlov, A. & Brash, J., 2004	Bottom trawl fisheries targeting demersal bony fish e.g., flounders are thought to capture this species as bycatch (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). However, no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161394	conservation	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on this species? biology, range, population and capture in fisheries.	eng
161394	distribution	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: known only from the Gulf of Panama, Panama (McEachran 1995, R. Robertson pers. obs.).	eng
161394	habitat	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A benthic species found on soft bottoms (McEachran 1995). Depth range information is not available for this species, but it is likely restricted to shallow inshore waters. This species reaches a maximum size of at least 26.7 cm TL (McEachran 1995).	eng
161394	population	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Apparently rare (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161394	threats	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries operating across its range off Panama, although no specific catch data are available. Both industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries operate off the Pacific coast of Panama (FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout this species? range. There are about 232 vessels with licenses in the industrial fleet, targeting shrimp using beam trawls in surface waters down to 200 m depth (FAO 2007). Legislation introduced in 1988 does not permit the replacement of shrimp vessels, so many are >20 years old and between 18-20 m length with engines between 150-380HP and refrigerated holds (FAO 2007). There are about 4959 vessels registered in the artisanal fishery, including canoes, boats and motor boats. Of these, 2937 vessels are authorized to catch fishes, 2022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern given its apparent rarity and restricted range in shallow waters, which are extensively fished by shrimp trawlers (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). Although the species may be discarded due to its small size, post-discard survivorship is likely to be very low and the population is strongly suspected to have been depleted through fishing pressure (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation may also pose a threat.	eng
161395	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species.	eng
161395	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest Pacific: southern Russia, Japan, Koreas, China (including Taiwan), (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161395	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Found on continental and insular shelves close inshore, on or near the bottom (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Often found in estuaries or shallow bays, on sand, seaweed and eel-grass flats (Nakabo 2002). Tolerant of reduced salinities. An aplacental viviparous species giving birth to 10-24 pups per litter. <br/><br/>Feeds on small fishes and invertebrates and grows to a maximum total length of 150 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the coastal water of Izu Peninsula, Japan, males mature at 93-103 cm TL and 5-6 years old, and females at 106-117 cm TL and 6-7 years old, respectively. The species is born in 18-20cm TL. Longevity is 15 years in males and 18 years in females (S. Tanaka unpublished data).	eng
161395	population	Ebert, D.A., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Common to abundant throughout its range (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161395	threats	Ebert, D.A., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Commonly fished off Japan in coastal gillnets and set nets, and probably Korea and Northern China. This species is not targeted, but is caught as bycatch and is sometimes used for meat. Also caught in Taiwan, although in lower abundance (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). The meat is thought of as of inferior quality to other houndsharks in Japan (Compagno in prep). The species is commonly exhibited in Chinese and Japanese aquariums (Y. Wang, pers. comm., Hagiwara 1996). This species is known to occur in rocky, un-fished, nearshore areas off Japan, providing it with refuges.	eng
161396	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	The Galapagos Archipelago is covered by the 133,000 km² Galapagos Marine Reserve (established in 1986), which prohibits industrial fishing but allows artisanal fishing (Wood 2007). However, both the enforcement of regulations and the prosecution of illegal fishers are often lacking.<br/><br/>Further surveys would help to accurately define this species, range and provide information on abundance. Further research is required on catches of this species in fisheries, population trends and life-history parameters.	eng
161396	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: known only from Panama (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
161396	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	This coastal eagle ray reaches a maximum size of at least 79 cm disc width (DW) (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). Eagle Rays are active swimmers and are generally capable of travelling long distances (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably aplacental viviparous, like other eagle rays, but virtually no information is available on this species? biology or life-history parameters.	eng
161396	population	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	No information available.	eng
161396	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	This species is likely taken in coastal artisanal fisheries off Panama and probably in the Galapagos Islands, and is vulnerable to capture in net, line and trawl gear. Coastal artisanal fisheries are relatively intensive off Panama, with 2,937 vessels authorized to catch fishes and 2,022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007). Extensive artisanal gillnet fisheries probably take this species as bycatch on the Pacific coast of Panama, with fishing pressure increasing during recent decades: studies suggest that the number of gillnets increased from 1,296 units in 1986 to 14,000 in 1995 (FAO 2007).	eng
161397	conservation	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Ungaro, N., 2003	Precautionary conservation measures should include the live release of individuals caught, improved monitoring of fisheries data, identification of important nursery areas and the establishment of protected areas for such demersal species. Improvement and implementation of elasmobranch monitoring programmes is required to obtain data from throughout the species range.	eng
161397	distribution	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Ungaro, N., 2003	Eastern Atlantic, including Mediterranean Sea: occurs from the southern Bay of Biscay (records as far north as Belgium are questionable), south to Angola. Also occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).	eng
161397	habitat	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Ungaro, N., 2003	This benthic ray is common in tropical waters, found on soft substrates, usually inshore, but also down to 70m or occasionally to depths of >300 m (Gulyugin <em>et al.</em> 2006). The maximum recorded size is reported at about 60cm total length (TL) (Serena 2005), although data from Egyptian waters suggests that maximum size is smaller at 38.6 cm TL (Abdel-Aziz 1994). This study in Egyptian waters reports that size at maturity is 18 cm for males and 22 cm for females (Abdel-Aziz 1994).  Aplacental viviparous. The species appears to have a restricted breeding season, and females appear to breed annually (Abdel-Aziz 1994). Births usually occur between March and September with 3-21 juveniles of 8-10 cm length (Serena 2005). Numbers depend on the size of the female. <em>Torpedo torpedo </em>feeds on small fishes, but also takes benthic invertebrates.	eng
161397	population	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Ungaro, N., 2003	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is more common along the northern African (southern Mediterranean) coasts. Surveys in the northern Mediterranean Sea suggest that it is uncommon and less abundant than <em>T. marmorata</em> there. Standardized index of abundance in Italian ‘Grund’ trawl surveys ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 specimens per hour (Ferretti unpublished analyses). <em>Torpedo torpedo</em> was recorded in 28 of 6,336 hauls conducted during MEDITS trawl surveys in the northern Mediterranean Sea, from 1994-1999 at depths of 10-800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species is rare around the Balearic Islands. In some regions <em>T. torpedo</em> was recorded in the past but now are under detectable levels by trawl surveys. For example in the Adriatic sea (northern Mediterranean), it was reported as rare in species lists but has not been recorded in recent trawl surveys (Ninni, 1912, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al.</em> 2001). The species has been recorded in trawl surveys along the western coast of Africa (Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006), but virtually no other information is currently available from throughout the rest of the species range.	eng
161397	threats	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Ungaro, N., 2003	This species is captured in demersal fisheries, including bottom trawls, trammel nets, and artisanal coastal fisheries. Even though it is edible, it is landed in very few fisheries and is most often discarded at sea. Post discard survival may be relatively high because it is often caught in shallow waters. <em>Torpedo torpedo</em> appears to be consistently present in the demersal catch of fisheries on northern Mediterranean shores. No information is currently available on catches throughout the rest of the species’ range in the eastern Atlantic, although inshore fishing pressure is relatively intensive across large areas of this range.	eng
161398	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Hareide, N.R., Guallart, J.,Coelho, R. & Crozier, P., 2003	No species-specific actions are in place for this species. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea in February 2005 (<a href="http://www.gfcm.org/gfcm/topic/16100/en">recommendation GFCM/2005/1 on the management of certain fisheries exploiting demersal and deepwater species</a>) and this came into force in September 2005. <br/><br/>In European Commission waters, a combined TAC is set for a group of deep-water sharks, which includes <em>G. melastomus</em>. In 2007, the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for deepwater sharks (including this species) in ICES Sub-areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX was 2,472 t (ICES 2007). In 2008, the TAC for these species in these areas was reduced to 1,646 t. In 2007 and 2008, the TAC for deepwater sharks was set at 20 t annually in Sub-area X, and 99 t in Sub-area XII (ICES 2007).	eng
161398	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Hareide, N.R., Guallart, J.,Coelho, R. & Crozier, P., 2003	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: from Faeroe Islands and Trondheim, Norway, northern area of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, Reykjanes Ridge, southwest Iceland (Hareide and Garnes 2001), southward to Senegal and Azores (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: throughout the Mediterranean Sea excluding the northern Adriatic Sea, the northern Aegean Sea and the Black Sea (Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).	eng
161398	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Hareide, N.R., Guallart, J.,Coelho, R. & Crozier, P., 2003	<em>Galeus melastomus</em> occurs on continental shelves and upper slopes, mainly at depths of 200–500 m, although it has been recorded between 55–2,000 m (Stefanescu <em>et al</em>. 1992, Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999, Moranta <em>et al</em>. 1998, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Found predominantly on slope bottoms (Carasson <em>et al</em>. 1992, Stefanescu <em>et al</em>. 1992, Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1993, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Abella and Serena 2005) and is less common in shallower areas such as the Northern Adriatic and Aegean Seas (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Size at maturity in females is documented as 38–51 cm and males as 34–45 cm in the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987, Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1993, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1994, Rey <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species reaches a maximum size of about 62–67 cm (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2002, Costa <em>et al</em>. 2005), although Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) documents 90 cm TL. The species is oviparous, with eggs hatching mainly in the spring and summer. Vitellogenesis occurs at any time during the year (Tursi <em>et al</em>. 1990). Females produce 2–8 eggs per litter (Tortonese 1956, Bini 1967).<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> feeds mainly on crustaceans, teleost fishes and cephalopods (Ungaro <em>et al.</em> 1994, Wurtz and Vacchi 1981). Analysis of the stomach contents of individuals caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea also found galley leftovers (Scali 2003).	eng
161398	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Hareide, N.R., Guallart, J.,Coelho, R. & Crozier, P., 2003	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species segregates by size and sex, with small, immature sharks generally found at depths of less than 500 m (P. Crozier pers. comm.). Norwegian exploratory fishery surveys found this species between depths of 500–1,000 m, where CPUE peaked at 750 m, with a catch rate of 140 kg/1,000 hooks (N-R. Hareide pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species was one of the most abundant elasmobranchs recorded in the Norwegian Sea according to fishery-independent Annual Autumn Bottom Trawl Surveys of the north Norwegian Coast, from 1992–2005 (ICES 2007). The total catch during these years was 8,376 individuals, with annual catch fluctuating widely between 26 and 1,883 individuals per year (averaging a catch rate of 644.3 over all years) (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Data obtained aboard commercial longline vessels operating off southern Portugal (Algarve) from 1997 and 1998 (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 1999) compared to 2003 (Coelho <em>et al|</em>. 2005) show an increase of 151% in CPUE Official fisheries landings statistics for this species in the Algarve show an increase in landings of 48% during the last decade (DGPA 1988–2001). It should be noted this increase refers only to commercial landings and not actual captures. This increase may be due to a reduction in discards of this species, since a decline in stocks of traditional target species has resulted in increased retention of this species. Despite this, off southern Portugal the population appears to be stable currently.<br/><br/>This species is very abundant in the northern area of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, especially in the Reykjanes Ridge (southwest of Iceland) where the CPUE can be as high as 58.5 kg/1,000 hooks (Hareide and Garnes 2001). It is also very abundant on the Hatton Bank, northwest of Ireland (Hareide unpubl. data).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is apparently relatively common in the Mediterranean Sea. It occurred in 1,702 of 6,336 tows during MEDITS research trawl surveys conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean from 1994–1999 (Alboran to the Aegean Sea, at depths of 10–800 m) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Data from the MEDITS bottom trawl surveys revealed high occurrence (>5% of the hauls) and abundance (>10 kg/km² or >10% of relative biomass) of <em>G. melastomus</em> (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005). Abundance was consistently >100 kg/km² in the Gulf of Lions and in Sardinian waters, with a maximum of 1,040 kg/km² recorded from the Alboran Sea. From estimates of the total biomass, 40% of the Mediterranean stock was found to occur in the Alboran Sea (2,600 t). Elsewhere, the only significant stocks (300–400 t) were in the central Tyrrhenian (off Corsica) and the Sicilian Channel (Serena 2005). In the Alboran Sea, maximum indices, obtained in 1997 and 2002, indicated no specific trend in abundance, whereas the biomass showed a slightly decreasing trend from 1994 (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> is very abundant off eastern Spain. CPUE from trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Valencia during 1988–1990 captured between 27 and 250 specimens per five hour trawl (Guallart 1990).<br/><br/>Monthly landings data from Viareggio harbour (Italy) from 1990–2001 and trawl surveys (GRUND project) from 1985–2001 (Relini and Piccinetti 1996) suggest a decreasing trend in abundance (expressed as catch in kg/hr), especially over the last three years. However, no robust statistical analysis of the time series was possible due to variability and a lack of data series (Abella and Serena 2005).<br/><br/>Comparable trawl surveys conducted in the Adriatic Sea in 1948 and1998 showed no significant difference in the abundance of this species on the slope (Jukić-Peladić <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>MEDITS survey data presented by Bertrand <em>et al</em>. (2000) showed no apparent trend in density indices between the years, although in some parts of the Mediterranean basin (Tyrrhenian Sea) <em>G. melastomus</em> showed a slight increasing trend and some seasonal fluctuations in biomass, with a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer (Baino and Serena 2000).Data from surveys suggests that juveniles occur in shallower waters, and adults at greater depths. For example, specimens captured at depths of 201–500 m in the Alboran Sea were generally all smaller than 20 cm (although they were also recorded at 501–800 m), whereas specimens larger than 20 cm were generally restricted to the 501–800 m range (Rey <em>et al</em>. 2004). Specimens captured by deep trawl nets (>800 m) tend to be of a larger mean size (Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2001, Massutì and Moranta 2002), similar to results obtained from bottom longline catches (Carasson <em>et al</em>. 1992, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 1999). High concentrations of juveniles have also been observed in the Alboran Sea, Sardinian waters and southeastern Tyrrhenian Sea (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161398	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Ungaro, N., Hareide, N.R., Guallart, J.,Coelho, R. & Crozier, P., 2003	This species is taken as bycatch by demersal trawls and longlines throughout large areas of its geographic range. It is generally discarded, but is retained and utilised in some areas.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Although a large portion of the population of <em>G. melastomus</em> avoided most of the commercial fishing pressure associated with the 1970s deepwater trawl fishery for Blue Ling (<em>Molva dypterygia</em>) in the northeast Atlantic at >600 m, it is concerning to note that mature individuals of this species are found at similar depths to the shallowest depth range of this fishery, and that commercial deepwater trawl vessels are now targeting these sharks. The targeting of mature individuals of this species may lead to similar detrimental impacts experienced by other deepwater species in this area (Crozier 2003).<br/><br/>Off the south coast of Portugal (Algarve), this species is captured in high quantities as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery that targets the Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and by the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). In both fisheries, most captured specimens are discarded (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most specimens are captured and returned to the sea alive, but usually with severe injuries (due to the long trawling periods or hooks) that are likely to impair their survival. However, declines in traditional target species during the last few years mean it is likely that fisherman are now landing larger quantities of “alternative” species, such as this catshark, so it may be increasingly retained and sold.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>The species is caught as bycatch by trawl nets and bottom longlines on slope bottoms. The species appears to suffer greater fishing mortality in the Ionian, south Adriatic and Aegean Seas, compared to along the coasts of Morocco, Spain, France and around Crete. Length Frequency Distributions (LFD) show that along the coasts of Morocco, Spain, France and around Crete specimens were mostly larger than 30 cm (78% of the total), while only 23% of the specimens around the coasts of Corsica, Sicily and in the Ionian, South Adriatic and Aegean Seas were over 30 cm (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>It seems that this species suffers relatively moderate effects from fishing pressure in the south Ligurian and northern Tyrrhenian sea, although it is an important bycatch of the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus fishery.<br/><br/><em>G. melastomus</em> constitutes a significant portion of the bycatch of the Viareggio fleet’s fishing efforts, but most of the individuals are discarded due to the limited market demand and low commercial value. Only a fraction of the larger individuals (TL>40 cm) are landed at Viareggio (about 700 kg in 2002) (Abella and Serena 2005). Considering the depths at which <em>G. melastomus</em> is caught (250–800 m) and the observed poor condition of the individuals immediately after their capture, it is likely that only a small fraction of the discarded individuals survive. However, it should be noted that the fishing grounds for the Viareggio fleet coincide only partially with the areas where <em>G. melastomus</em> is known to be abundant, and that higher densities of this species are found in deep waters off northern Corsica, where the fishing pressure is moderate. These areas could therefore act as a refuge for this species (Abella and Serena 2005).<br/><br/>In the Alboran Sea, where this species is very abundant, <em>G. melastomus</em> is the most important bycatch species in the recently developed bottom trawl fishery targeting the Deepwater Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) (Torres <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The recently developed ban on bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea probably offers this species some refuge from fishing pressure.	eng
161399	conservation	Ellis, J., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Haka, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Coelho, R., Schembri, T. & MacKenzie, K., 2008	None in place.	eng
161399	distribution	Ellis, J., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Haka, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Coelho, R., Schembri, T. & MacKenzie, K., 2008	Widespread in the northeast and eastern central Atlantic from the Shetland Islands and Norway in the north, to western Africa (Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauritania to Senegal, possibly along the Ivory Coast) in the south, including the Mediterranean Sea (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It does not occur in the Black Sea, although there may be occasional records of this species as a vagrant (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Though there is some spawning in shallow sublittoral habitats, where the eggs are laid on macroalgae, spawning also occurs further offshore on grounds with biogenic fauna (e.g., sponges, hydroids and bryozoans), such as the northern Bristol Channel, around the south and west coasts of Ireland and in the Irish sea loughs (Ellis and Shackley 1997, Sims 2003, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) programme indicates that this species occurs extensively throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). These surveys were carried out from the Alboran (western Mediterranean) to the Aegean Sea (eastern Mediterranean), between April and June, from 1994?1999. Across the 40 different survey subsectors and depth strata, <em>S. canicula</em> was caught everywhere with the exception of the northern and southwestern Adriatic Sea, northwestern and northern Ionian Sea and off eastern Sicily. Concentrations of juveniles are located on the upper slopes (~200 m), in particular around northeastern Corsica and northeastern Sardinia, which may be nursery grounds. Nursery grounds may also be found off Livorno, Tuscany (Baino and Serena 2000). The highest numbers of juveniles were found on the edge of the shelf off western Morocco. Length frequency distribution (LFD) data provided by Baino <em>et al.</em> (2001), in combination with other studies (D?oughia <em>et al</em>. 1995 and Relini <em>et al</em>. 1999), suggest that nursery areas are located on the seabed at depths of about 200 m. The species appears to segregate with size (Baino and Serena 2000).They move into coastal waters as they mature, and mature adults then return back to the shelf edge for reproduction.	eng
161399	habitat	Ellis, J., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Haka, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Coelho, R., Schembri, T. & MacKenzie, K., 2008	This is a small, temperate, bottom-dwelling catshark is found o from the shallow sub-littoral to the edge of the continental shelf to depths of at least 300 m in the north (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005), and occur deeper further south and in the Mediterranean Sea. Around the British Isles they are more common in waters <150 m deep. The species is widespread and abundant on a variety of substrates (sandy, coralline algal, gravelly or muddy bottoms). They are known to aggregate by sex and size, though it is unclear whether this sexual segregation is behavioural or habitat-linked. Within loughs, females exhibit strong philopatric behaviour to refuging sites, while males are wider ranging and less philopatric (Sims 2003). However, studies on the wider continental shelf are lacking.<br/><br/><em>S. canicula</em> is an oviparous species that deposits egg-cases protected by a horny capsule with long tendrils. These egg-cases are often deposited on macroalgae (e.g., <em>Fucus, Laminaria</em> and <em>Himanthalia</em>) in shallow coastal waters (Wheeler 1978, Compagno 1984, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1991). Further from shore, egg-cases are deposited on sessile erect invertebrates, including sponges, hydroids, soft corals and bryozoans (Ellis and Shackley 1997, Rodriguez-Cabello <em>et al</em>. 1998). Extrapolating egg-laying rates in captive specimens to a whole year provides an estimated fecundity of 29?62 eggs/year for Northeast Atlantic populations (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Capapé (1977) and Capapé <em>et al</em>. (1991) estimated annual fecundity at 96?115 and 45?190 respectively for Mediterranean populations. Fischer <em>et al</em>. (1987) estimated that females can deposit up to 100 eggs per year. Fecundity increases with maternal size (Capapé 1977, Ellis and Shackley 1997, Henderson and Casey 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning can take place almost all year round (Capapé 1977, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1991, Ellis and Shackley 1997), although there are seasonal patterns in spawning activity. In the northeast Atlantic, <em>S. canicula</em> has an annual cycle with a protracted 10?11 month breeding season (Ellis and Shackley 1997) In the Mediterranean Seathey breed annually from November to July, or possibly all year round (Capapé 1977).<br/><br/>Gestation lasts approximately 5?11 months (usually eight to nine months), depending on ambient water temperature, and the sex ratio of recently hatched fish is about 1:1 (Ellis and Shackley 1997). In the Northeast Atlantic, the gestation period has been estimated at five to six months (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Size at birth is 7?11 cm total length (TL) (Springer 1979, Ellis and Shackley 1997).<br/><br/>Size at maturity is reportedly 35 to 47 cm total length (TL) for females and 30?44 cm for males (Capapé 1977, Jardas 1979, Ungaro <em>et al</em>. 2002, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 2000). In the Northeast Atlantic, females reach maturity at 52?65 cm TL, and males at 49?55 cm TL (Ellis and Shackley 1997). Maximum size is reported at 80 cm TL by Ellis <em>et al</em>. (2005b) and Relini (1999), and at 100 cm by Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005). The species generally appears to grow to a larger size in the Atlantic than the Mediterranean (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>They feed on a variety of invertebrates (including polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs) and fishes (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
161399	population	Ellis, J., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Haka, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Coelho, R., Schembri, T. & MacKenzie, K., 2008	Common throughout its range. This species is one of the most abundant elasmobranchs within the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>The EU-funded Development of Elasmobranch Assessments project (DELASS) concluded that <em>S. canicula</em> would be best assessed as forming local populations (e.g., on the level of an ICES division) because of the limited movements and migrations of the species and its oviparous nature, assuming that immigration and emigration from adjacent populations are either insignificant or on a par (Heessen 2003). Survey trends in most shelf seas (including the North Sea, northwest Scotland, Irish Sea, English Channel, Celtic Sea and Cantabrian Sea) seem stable (Heessen 2003, MacKenzie 2004, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b, ICES 2007). There may be many separate sub-populations of this species, due to its lack of migration between different areas, e.g. Hebrides and west coast of Scotland, southern North Sea and English Channel. Stocks around northern Scotland, particularly the Shetlands and the Hebrides, may be increasing in size (MacKenzie 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>Data from the MEDITS trawl surveys indicates that this species is common in the Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). It had a high frequency of occurrence (28% of trawls) and high abundance in these trawl surveys, being particularly abundant in the Gulf of Lions and the Catalan and Aegean Seas. Maximum biomass indices were reported off northeast Corsica between 50 and 100 m depth (340 kg/km²) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Juveniles made up the main proportion of the population (78% of total population) sampled (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Comparison between trawl surveys in 1948 and 1998 showed no significant differences in distribution and abundance of <em>S. canicula</em> in the Adriatic Sea (Juki?-Peladi? <em>et al</em>. 2001) although there is evidence of constant increasing of trawl fishing pressure. Fishery independent and fishery dependent data from the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas were compared by Abella and Serena (2002) to determine population trends. No clear trends were found and apparent discrepancies for this species were considered attributable to a shift in target species and the range of operation of the fishery.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong>:<br/>This species is reported as the most frequent and abundant elasmobranch recorded at 25?300 m depth, and as common down to 400 m depth off Morocco and Sierra Leone (Litvinov 1993).	eng
161399	threats	Ellis, J., Mancusi, C., Serena, F., Haka, F., Guallart, J., Ungaro, N., Coelho, R., Schembri, T. & MacKenzie, K., 2008	This species is a moderately important commercial species in European waters, particularly around the British Isles. It is primarily taken by bottom trawls, but also fixed bottom nets and pelagic trawls (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Mostly taken as a bycatch in various demersal fisheries (especially trawl and gill net). In some areas larger specimens may be landed for human consumption or they may be landed as bait for whelk fisheries. They have a high survivorship when discarded from trawl fisheries. Revill <em>et al</em>. (2005) reported a 98% discard survival rate from a Western English channel trawl fishery and Rogriguez-Cabello <em>et al</em>. (2005) found a 90% survival rate for <em>S. canicula</em> discarded by commercial trawlers in the southern Bay of Biscay. Another study reports an almost 100% survival rate of released individuals of this species (Sanchez <em>et al.</em> 2000). <em>S. canicula</em> is frequently recorded misleadingly as ?dogfish? in fisheries landings data.<br/><br/>Although <em>S. canicula</em> has been reported to be locally extirpated from the Wadden Sea between the Netherlands and Germany (Wolff 2000a,b), this area is at the edge of the species? distribution. Therefore this localised depletion is not considered to have had a significant effect on the entire global population.<br/><br/>Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp (<em>S. canicula</em> and <em>S. stellaris)</em> in the Algarve (DGPA 1988-2001), show that average landings were 115,079 kg per year during the years 1988, 1989 and 1990, compared to averages of 154,820 kg per year during the years 1999, 2000 and 2001. These values show that there has been an increase of 34.5% in landings by the commercial fishing fleet of this genus in the Algarve during the last decade. However, this increase in landings could mean that there has been a great reduction in discards (DGPA 1988-2001). Only <em>S. canicula</em> were recorded during bottom longline and trammel net surveys off the Algarve (at depths of 200?550 m and 10?90 m, respectively) analysed by Erzini <em>et al</em>. (1998, 2001). No <em>S. stellaris</em> were reported in either of the surveys and therefore the huge majority of <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp. landings from the Algarve are considered to be <em>S. canicula.</em><br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Captured as bycatch in various demersal fisheries and retained for human consumption in some areas. For example, they are a commercially valuable species in Italy and only individuals <36 cm TL are discarded (Abella and Serena 2005). A semi-industrial fishery for this species operates in Spain, the Adriatic Sea, Sicily and Cyprus. Regularly found in fish markets in countries around the Adriatic Sea, Greece and Malta, where it is sold under the generic name of ?Mazzola?. Although demersal fishing pressure is intense in many parts of the species range in the Mediterranean, this species has a high post-discard survival rate. Local depletions may have occurred in some areas. Landings data from Malta indicate that catches fell from 1985?1995, but these may not be directly indicative of population trends.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Also taken as bycatch of demersal fisheries operating off the coast of western Africa, although little specific information is available from this area.	eng
161400	conservation	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed.	eng
161400	distribution	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	Northwest Pacific: widespread from Japan, southward to through the Yellow Sea to South China Sea; southern coast of Korean Peninsula; southward of Honshu of Japan (Ishihara 1990b, Jeong 1999).	eng
161400	habitat	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	A medium-sized skate, found at depths of 50?240 m. The species attains a maximum size of at least 75.7 cm TL (Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161400	population	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161400	threats	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries in the East China Sea and South China Sea, however no specific information is currently available on its capture. There is concern that the species may have declined, as it was historically (>10 years ago) commonly found on Korean fish markets, but nowadays very few are marketed (C.H. Jeong unpublished data). However no information is currently available on the level of decline and further investigation is required into threats, catch levels and population trends.	eng
161401	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Stingrays are banned as a commercial target species in New Zealand (Francis 1998). Bycatch levels should be quantified and population trends should be monitored.	eng
161401	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Indian Ocean to west Pacific: South Africa, Mozambique (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989), southern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994), and North Island, New Zealand (Cox and Francis 1997).	eng
161401	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	A large demersal species commonly found inshore (Last and Stevens 1994) but reported to 440 m depth (Cox and Francis 1997). This species is found on soft bottoms in estuaries, lagoons and around reefs (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). Thorntail Stingray feeds on crabs, mantis shrimps, bivalves, polychaetes and conger eels and reaches a maximum size of at least 180 cm disc width and 400 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161401	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	A relatively common stingray in New Zealand, but nothing is known about population trends.	eng
161401	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	This species is taken occasionally by recreational fishers and as bycatch of trawl, hook and net fisheries across its range, but the extent of the catch is unknown, although likely to be small. Most are likely to be discarded, although some are retained for local markets. Post capture survival is unknown. A common bycatch in Australia, where it may be persecuted by fishermen and therefore returned to the water dead. It is vulnerable to gill net and trawl fisheries operating in shallow coastal waters of New Zealand. Between 1986 and 1997 less than 15 tonnes of landings annually (combined catch with <em>D. brevicaudata</em>) were reported in New Zealand (Francis 1998), but this does not include unreported discards.	eng
161402	conservation	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is required.	eng
161402	distribution	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	The distribution of the Bering Skate (<em>Rhinoraja interrupta</em>) is poorly known outside the eastern Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. It may occur in the Aleutian Islands and elsewhere in the North Pacific (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>, 2002), but records of this species outside this area are unclear due to confusion with the sandpaper skate, <em>B. kincaidii</em> (D.A. Ebert unpubl. data).	eng
161402	habitat	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	<em></em>The Bering Skate is found in waters less than 1,372 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002) but little else is known about the habitat and ecology of this species. The species attains a maximum size of 86 cm TL (Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). Size at birth is ~16 cm TL and reproduction is continuous (Ebert 2005). Females mature at 70 cm TL and 7.5 years of age; males at 67 cm TL and 7 years of age (Ebert 2005, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007). Longevity is 12 years in males and 13 years in females (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007). Population growth rates suggest moderate growth potential which makes this species appear to be somewhat resilient (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161402	population	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161402	threats	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in groundfish fisheries in the upper part of its bathymetric range. Given that it has a wide bathymetric distribution that extends well below the depths currently fished, it is not thought to be threatened by fishing activities at present.	eng
161403	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Goldman, K.J. & Orlov, A.M., 2008	No current conservation measures are known.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require close monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161403	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Goldman, K.J. & Orlov, A.M., 2008	Northwest Pacific to northeast Pacific: Japan along the Kuril Islands, Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea (Russia) to the Chukchi Sea and southward to southern California (USA), and Baja California (Mexico) (Ebert, 2003). Also, recently found off Taiwan (Wang and Yang 2004). Its distribution above the Arctic Circle is unclear and may be misidentified with <em>S. microcephalus</em>. There are some records from off central Chile (Brito 2004) and Uruguay (de Asarloa <em>et al.</em> 1999), however these are probably misidentifications. Large sleeper sharks identified as this species from the southern hemisphere are most likely that of <em>S. antarcticus</em> (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Hulbert <em>et al.</em> (2006) studied the depth and movement behaviour of this species in the Northeast Pacific Ocean using electronic and numerical tagging. Most tags recovered (76%) were within 100 km of release locations, 16% were within 100–250 km and 8% were within 250–500 km.	eng
161403	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Goldman, K.J. & Orlov, A.M., 2008	A boreal and temperate shark found over continental shelves and slopes. At high latitudes with cold surface waters it ranges into the littoral and even the intertidal (one large individual was found trapped in a tide pool) as well as the surface; however in lower latitudes with temperate water it becomes a deep-water, epibenthic shark, never coming to the surface and ranging down to at least 2,000 m in the extreme southern end of its range (off southern California and Baja California) (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Archived depth data from recent tagging studies in the Northeast Pacific showed some sleeper sharks regularly ascended and descended at rates over 200 meters per hour, traveling below the photic zone during the day and approaching the surface at night (Hulbert <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Development is yolk-sac viviparity, but pregnant females have yet to be found, and for some reason are rare, as in the closely related Greenland shark (<em>S. microcephalus</em>). This is possibly due to segregation of pregnant females beyond the usual fisheries gear that capture these sharks or extremely low fecundity, with a small fraction of adult females pregnant at any one time. Although female sharks with ovaries containing over 300 large unfertilized eggs and many small undeveloped ova have been captured in trawls off Moss Landing and Trinidad, California (Gotshall and Jow 1965, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987). Size at birth is between 40–65 cm TL suggesting that fecundity may indeed be high for this species given the enormous size of the females. Neonates have been taken in midwater trawls indiciating that they occupy this habitat early in life before taking up a more demersal lifestyle (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Mature Pacific Sleeper Sharks have not been reported from the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands or the Gulf of Alaska, but we know of observers who have seen very large Sleeper Sharks, but they are usually just discarded.<br/><br/>The species attains a maximum length of at least 440 cm with unconfirmed records of up to 700 cm total length (TL) or more (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987, Ebert 2003). Adult females are 370–430 cm TL and larger individuals estimated at 700 cm TL or more have been photographed in deep water (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987, Yano <em>et al.</em> 2007). Males are mature by at least 397 cm TL (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987).<br/><br/>These sharks feed on a wide variety of surface and bottom animals, including flatfish, Pacific salmon, rockfish, harbor seals, octopi, squid, crabs, tritons, and carrion. It is not known if seals and fast-swimming pelagic fish such as salmon are captured alive by these lumbering, sluggish sharks or are picked up as carrion. The small mouths and long heads and oral cavities of these sharks suggest that they are powerful suction feeders, but this has yet to be observed. Pacific sleeper sharks commonly are attracted to traps set at great depths for sablefish (<em>Anoplopoma fimbria</em>), and get trapped themselves or else eat catch and bait-can and escape (Ebert 2003, Ebert <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
161403	population	Ebert, D.A., Goldman, K.J. & Orlov, A.M., 2008	Biomass estimates are available from the results of bottom trawl surveys in the Bering Sea, off the Aleutians and Gulf of Alaska no deeper than 1,000 m (i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range, where mainly juvenile Pacific sleeper sharks occur). In Alaska, sharks of 1.5–2.5 m are most common (e.g., Sigler <em>et al</em>. 2006) and sharks as large as 4.3 m have been caught (Orlov 1999). Data from the Gulf of Alaska and eastern Bering Sea are not robust enough to make statement about population numbers or changes in actual population size. The short-term fluctuations in biomass trend data presented herein are too large to represent trends in overall shark population biomass, but may be a result of sampling vagaries and/or population movements (i.e. changes in local density) rather than actual changes in population size, and could indicate changes in catchability.<br/><br/>Biomass apparently increased in the western Bering Sea from 1,170 mt in 1999 to 87,500 mt in 2002 (Glebov <em>et al.</em> 2003). On the eastern Bering Sea shelf, Pacific sleeper sharks were not well documented in survey catch until the mid-1990s. Biomass in 1999 was estimated at 2,079 mt and increased to 5,602 mt in 2002. However, biomass estimates have decreased since then and were down to 2,944 mt in 2006 (Heifetz <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>On the slope of the eastern Bering Sea no Pacific sleeper sharks were recorded in 1979 or 1981. In 1982 biomass was estimated at 12 mt and increased steadily through 1991 when the estimate was 1,235 mt. A new slope survey initiated in 2002 showed a very large biomass of sleeper sharks (25,445 mt in 2002, but dramatically decreased down to 2,260 mt in 2004 (Heifetz <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>No Pacific Sleeper Sharks were caught off the Aleutians in 1980. In 1983 biomass constituted about 254 mt. Biomass estimates slowly increased through 1991 when biomass was estimated to be 2,927 mt, but then sharply decreased in 1994 to just over 373 mt. Biomass estimates fluctuated from 1997 through 2004 with the highest biomass estimate being 2,638 mt in 2000 and the lowest estimate being 536 mt in 2002. The 2005 biomass estimate increased to 1,017 mt, and subsequently decreased down to 76 mt in 2006 (Heifetz <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as previously stated above, large short-term biomass fluctuations may be a result of sampling vagaries and/or population movements (i.e. changes in local density) rather than actual changes in population size.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Alaska biomass in 1984 was estimated as 163 mt. Since then it demonstrates gradual upward trend and reached 57,022 mt in 2005 (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2006b).	eng
161403	threats	Ebert, D.A., Goldman, K.J. & Orlov, A.M., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in several fisheries and usually discarded. It is notably affected by bottom trawl fisheries in the western Bering Sea (Orlov 2005), by longline fisheries for sablefish and Pacific halibut in the eastern North Pacific (Courtney <em>et al</em>. 2006a, b). Incidental catch in US waters in 2006 was 435 mt, in some years it has reached ~ 1,400 mt (Courtney <em>et al.</em> 2006a, b).<br/><br/>From 1997–2001 in the Bering Sea Aleutian Islands area, Pacific sleeper sharks were caught primarily by the Pacific cod longline fishery (30%), walleye pollock pelagic trawl fishery (26%), Greenland turbot longline fishery (17%), flatfish trawl fishery (12%), and sablefish longline fishery (10%). From 1997–2002 in the Bering Sea Aleutian Islands area, Pacific sleeper sharks were caught primarily in two statistical areas, which made up 57% and 20% of the total sleeper shark catch. There has been an increasing trend in catch of Pacific sleeper sharks from two statistical areas in the eastern Bering Sea between 1997-2002, however, this may reflect a change in fishing effort as opposed to any increase in the population size.<br/><br/>Fisheries in the western Bering Sea catch mainly juveniles of this species, present at shallower depths than adults. Greater depths that are not currently fished may provide some refuge for adult Pacific sleeper sharks, however the situation should be monitored.	eng
161404	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species. <br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>The below restrictions are in place within the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) in recent years, which may benefit this species:<br/><br/>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.<br/>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (see schedule 20 in the <a href="http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/LegislativeInstrument1.nsf/0/44D2415A87343CBFCA257309000CE12A?OpenDocument">Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (closures) direction 2007</a>).	eng
161404	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: known from Philippines, Indonesia and warm-temperate to tropical Australia (Last <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161404	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Demersal on the continental slope at depths of 154?1,370 m. In Indonesia, attains at least 101 cm; males mature at 62?67 cm and females at ~80 cm; largest embryo observed was 24 cm. Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency; gives birth to litters of 4?16 pups after an unknown gestation period. Diet consists primarily of small fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/><br/>In southeast Australia, mature at ~65?70 cm TL (males), 80?82 cm TL (females), and have between seven and ten pups/litter (K. Graham pers. comm.). Maximum size ~81 cm TL (males) and 96 cm TL (females) (Last et al. 2007). The species is ovoviviparous with size at birth ~25 cm TL (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Across all populations the gestation period may be up to two years (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Maximum ages recorded from counting bands on dorsal fin spines (assuming annual bands) were 18 years (males) and 27 years (females) (Last et al. 2007). It reaches a maximum size of at least 96 cm TL (males) and ~125 cm TL (females) and size at birth is ~21?30 cm TL (Last <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
161404	population	White, W.T., 2008	Documented declines of approximately 97% of ?greeneye dogsharks? between 1976?77 and 1996?97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) were reported from a fishery independent survey (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Total catches in the abovementioned areas at depths of 220?605 m declined from a mean of 44.8 kg/h in 1976/77 to a mean of 1.2 kg/h in 1996-97 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is likely that <em>Squalus chloroculus</em>, <em>S. montalbani</em> and <em>S. grahami</em> were all caught during these surveys (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007). It is possible that <em>S. montalbani </em>was the worse affected of the species off Sydney and Ulladulla. In the Eden-Gabo Island area, only a single <em>S. montalbani </em>was caught in 1996?97. Elsewhere, no data are available on population trends. No specific information is available on population trends throughout the rest of the species? range, but there is no reason to suspect that similar declines will not occur in other areas of high exploitation.	eng
161404	threats	White, W.T., 2008	A small number of vessels targeted dogfish (mainly <em>Centrophorus</em> ?<em>uyato</em>? with a significant bycatch of <em>Squalus montalbani</em>) out of Esperance, Western Australia (WA) during the mid-1990s for squalene (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). This fishery was short-lived, due to dramatic declines in catch rates after two to three years, and had all but ceased by 1999 (R. McAuley pers. comm.). Catches were not reported to species level thus precise trends in <em>S. montalbani</em> catch rates cannot be determined. However, given the fate of the target stock and the similar life-history characteristics of <em>S. montalbani</em>, it is likely that the stock was impacted to some degree. There is currently a negligible catch of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. montalbani</span> in the WA demersal gillnet fisheries, as its range is outside that of the fleet. There may be some continuing bycatch in the Commonwealth-managed trawl fishery (small quantities are sold in Australia under the marketing name of ?Greeneye Dogfish?).<br/><br/>Also caught commonly by demersal longline fisheries operating in deepwater in some parts of Indonesia and the Philippines. Although at present, deepwater fisheries are not operating below 600 m off Indonesia, this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species has a wide depth range, offering it some refuge from fisheries off Indonesia, Philippines,parts of Western Australia and at the deeper extent of its depth range at present.<br/><br/>The deep-sea fisheries resources of the Philippines are in many cases uncharted and unknown, and are believed to be relatively underexploited, however, dogfish sharks do have a documented history of wide-scale exploitation off this country, being targeted for their liver oil (Flores 2004, Gaudiano and Alava 2003). Fishing for dogfishes for their live oil began in 1967 in San Joaquin, Iloilo, and subsequently expanded and developed into nationwide fisheries. Mostly <em>Centrophorus</em> species are caught, but Squalus species also form part of the catch. They are mainly taken using bottomset multiple hook-and-line (Flores 2004). These fisheries appear to follow a typical ?boom and bust? cycle, with heavy, unregulated exploitation resulting in increasing initial catches followed by collapse after about ten years (Flores 2004). Fisheries following this pattern have been conducted in Batangas Bay, waters off Marinduque and as far south as Sarangani Bay, and the Mindanao area (Flores 2004).	eng
161405	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.	eng
161405	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Kenya to South Africa (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1989).	eng
161405	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Found offshore at depths of 68?348 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno unpublished data). The maximum total length recorded for this species is 127 cm for a male specimen (Compagno 1986).	eng
161405	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Reported as rare by Compagno <em>et al.</em> (1989), although it was recorded in >70% of the shallowest research stations (100?200 m depth) surveyed during recent scientific demersal trawl surveys (between 10th March and 10th April 2007) in waters off Mozambique at 100?700 m depth (Baro <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161405	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries, although no specific information is available on its capture. Industrial offshore trawl fisheries targeting crustaceans, squid and fish operate off South Africa, Kenya and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays in Mozambique, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).	eng
161406	conservation	Iglésias, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	None currently in place.	eng
161406	distribution	Iglésias, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: Taiwan, Province of China and Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a,b). This species does not occur off southern Japan (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161406	habitat	Iglésias, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	A bottom-dwelling catshark of the continental shelves, found on muddy sediments offshore at depths of 60–90 m in the Taiwan Strait and possibly deeper elsewhere (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005b). The species is caught at 100–200 m depth around Guei Shan Island, Taiwan (Chen<em> et al.</em> 1996). Males mature at 35–36 cm total length (TL), females mature at 41–42 cm TL (both 50% maturity) and the species reaches a maximum size of about 46 cm TL (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Reproduction is oviparous, with no more than one egg case per oviduct at the same time measuring about 3.9 x 1.5 cm (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species does not have a well defined reproductive season.	eng
161406	population	Iglésias, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	The species is very common around Guei Shan Island (Taiwan).	eng
161406	threats	Iglésias, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is a retained bycatch of bottom trawlers operating off Taiwan and presumably in other parts of its range (Compagno 1984, S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). It is a large component year-round of the incidental catch of shrimp bottom trawlers off Taiwan and is frequently observed in Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets. It is used with all other bycatch species (bony fishes, chondrichthyan fishes, crustaceans), as fish-meal for aquaculture farming of fishes and shrimps. It is caught by trawl with meshes about 2–4 cm diameter, so adults and most juveniles are retained by the trawl (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>It has been observed at fish markets in the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a) and is presumably a bycatch of demersal trawls there also, although no information is available on catches. Demersal trawls were the main fishing gear used in the Philippines for demersal fishes from the late 1940s until the mid-1980s (FAO 2007). Despite the continued expansion of the commercial fishing fleet, total fish catch reached a plateau at around 1.65 million tonnes in the early 1990s. It is thought that the country’s demersal fish stocks reached a peak as early as the late 1960s, except in the offshore hard bottoms around Palawan, Southern Sulu Sea and the central part of the country’s Pacific coast (FAO 2007). As a result of increases in fuel prices and depletion of demersal resources, trawl operations reduced and have been replaced in part by other fishing methods (FAO 2007).	eng
161407	conservation	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	No conservation measures presently in place and none are recommended at this time.	eng
161407	distribution	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Northwest, western central and southwest Pacific: off Australia, New Zealand, Taiwan, Province of China, and Japan. Possibly western Indian Ocean off Mozambique (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161407	habitat	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Found on outer continental and insular shelves, upper slopes, on or near bottom, at depths of 238–655 m. Adults reach ~46 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161407	population	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Nothing is known about its population.	eng
161407	threats	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	None known at the present time. Occasionally taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries, but generally too small to be taken in other fisheries.	eng
161408	conservation	Barnett, L.A.K., Ebert, D.A. & Henderson, A., 2008	There are several marine protected areas throughout the species? range (Wood 2007). However, there are no species-specific management measures. Research is ongoing on this species in Omani waters.	eng
161408	distribution	Barnett, L.A.K., Ebert, D.A. & Henderson, A., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: confirmed reports from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Oman only, but likely occurring off the adjacent coastlines of the Gulf of Aden and Northwestern Arabian Sea (Randall and Compagno 1995). Unconfirmed reports from the Mediterranean Sea (Ben-Tuvia 1966, Ben Souissi <em>et al</em>. 2007), and the coasts of India, Myanmar, Philippines, Vietnam, China, Australia, and West Africa (Fowler 1941).	eng
161408	habitat	Barnett, L.A.K., Ebert, D.A. & Henderson, A., 2008	Off Oman, juveniles and adults are apparently found in shallow (<5 m) inshore waters, mainly sheltered bays (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). The young of this species appear to stay in very shallow water, sometimes allowing the breakers to wash them up onto the beach (almost completely out of the water), before sliding back down into the water (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is exhibits aplacental viviparity (Compagno 1990). Maximum size is 171 cm total length (TL) (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Females aggregate in the northwestern Red Sea from May to October give birth in shallow, sandy habitat (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Females give birth to ?10 pups per litter. Size at birth is about 29 cm TL (Gohar and Mazhar 1964) (Gohar and Mazhar 1964).	eng
161408	population	Barnett, L.A.K., Ebert, D.A. & Henderson, A., 2008	Common in the northwestern Red Sea during the pupping season, from May to October (Gohar and Mazhar 1964). Frequent misidentification complicates any inference of relative population size. Elasmobranch research has been very limited so far within the northern Indian Ocean (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161408	threats	Barnett, L.A.K., Ebert, D.A. & Henderson, A., 2008	A target and utilized bycatch in fisheries, but the amount of catch relative to stock size is not known (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Aggregation behavior during spawning may make this species particularly vulnerable to exploitation.<br/><br/>Off Saudi Arabia, in the Red Sea, artisanal fisheries production is almost entirely from handline and gillnet methods, while the industrial fleet utilizes fish and shrimp trawl nets and purse seine nets (FAO 2007). The industrial vessels operating in the Red Sea utilize trawl nets to target both demersal fish stocks and shrimp, with the majority of these vessels belong to Saudi Fisheries Company and operate out of Jizan on the southern Red Sea coast (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Oman has a long established traditional shark fishery, which has experienced increased demand in recent years due to the shark fin trade (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). In Omani waters, elasmobranchs are mainly captured by artisanal fishermen using wooden dhows and fiberglass skiffs with bottom-set longlines, bottom-set gillnets and driftnets (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). The majority of fishing takes place in water shallower than 100 m and is therefore confined to inshore areas (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007). The presence of this species in shallow inshore areas would seem to put them at risk of capture in fisheries, but fishermen in Oman prefer to focus their fishing efforts in deeper waters where they catch grouper and other more valuable species (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). The fishermen operating in shallow coastal waters tend to surface-gillnet around reefs, or cast net for sardines and similar species, so the this species doesn't appear to be under much pressure in Oman (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). It is taken as incidental bycatch in Oman, and these catches appear to be limited to the Gulf of Oman (from Musandam in the north, to Muscat) (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2007). Landings of this species reported in (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007) all came from a single haul, thus artificially elevating the species' importance in the landings for that region.	eng
161409	conservation	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Recommended: Efforts should be made to quantify catch levels and determine population trends, which will require capacity-building, education and training programmes. Measures to protect and restore this species habitat would also be beneficial, such as identification and management of Marine Protected Areas to conserve nursery grounds. Research is needed on the species? life-history characteristics. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species in the region.<br/><br/>A seasonal ban on the targeted exploitation of this species elsewhere within the West African region would decrease the rate of capture of reproductively active individuals (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). A ban on finning and the dumping of carcasses should be considered, as this would represent the most effective method of decreasing the fishing pressure on this species. Otherwise, the implementation of licences for targeted and non targeted shark fishing and finning and a tax system on shark fins are recommended as measures to control the fishing pressure impacting this species.	eng
161409	distribution	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Morocco to southern Angola (Séret in press). A record from Namibia requires confirmation (Séret in press).	eng
161409	habitat	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	An inshore guitarfish occurring in shallow coastal waters to about 30 m depth (Séret in press). Maximum size is 100 cm total length (TL) and the species commonly reaches 60?66 cm TL (Séret in press). Males mature at about 42 cm TL. Ovoviviparous with litters of 1?3 pups. Feed on benthic invertebrates mainly shrimps (Séret in press).	eng
161409	population	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	It has never been abundant but nowadays it has become evidently rare, taken in fisheries on an increasingly rare basis (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161409	threats	Séret, B. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is captured by bottom trawls, trammelnets and hook-and-line, like other rhinobatids in this region. It is taken as bycatch in such fisheries throughout its range. Inshore fishing pressure is intensive throughout its range along the western coast of Africa. The small-scale fisheries that originally exploited elasmobranchs off western Africa in the 1950s have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear. Interviews with fishermen and traders strongly suggest that the shark fin trade is financing the overexploitation of shark resources and leading to declining catches throughout Africa (WildAid 2001, Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). <em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006). The targeting of these species for their fins has already led to population declines in several similar species of elasmobranchs (including <em>R. cemiculus</em> and <em>R. rhinobatos</em>), the extirpation of some Pristis species, and a significant transformation in the structure of small-scale fisheries (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005). Extensive coastal shrimp trawl fisheries for pink shrimp <em>Paenus notialis</em> are also known to operate off Cameroon and Benin (IGGC 2007b). This species is likely taken as bycatch of these and other trawl fisheries that operate within its inshore range. <br/><br/>As well as over-exploitation by fisheries, this species coastal habitat is threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b). In Ghana, 55% of the mangroves and significant marshlands around the greater Accra area has been destroyed through pollution and overcutting. In Benin, the figure is 45% in the Lake Nouake area, in Nigeria, 33% in the Niger Delta, in Cameroon, 28% in the wouri Estuary and in Côte d'Ivoire, about 60% in the bay of Cocody (IGGC 2007b).<br/><br/>Serious declines have been documented in other <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp where they are heavily fished. These include, <em>Rhinobatos rhinobatos</em> and <em>R. cemiculus</em> which occur in the Mediterranean Sea along the western African coast, and are both assessed as Endangered, based on observed and inferred population declines as a result of targeted and incidental fishing pressure.	eng
161410	conservation	White, W.T. & Couzens, G., 2008	None in place.	eng
161410	distribution	White, W.T. & Couzens, G., 2008	Western central Pacific: known only from Java, Bali and Lombok, and possibly Sumatra (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161410	habitat	White, W.T. & Couzens, G., 2008	Presumably found on or near the bottom of upper continental and insular slopes, but no depth information available; probably occurs in shallower water than other members of the genus but likely to be deeper than 100 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, 2007). Viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency; gives birth to litters of three to ten pups after an unknown gestation period. Diet unknown but presumably consists of small fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females and males reach at least 78 cm and 52.2 cm total length (TL) respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is 14?17.5 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Braccini (2006) found that female <em>S. megalops</em> matured around 20 years and attain 28 years of age. Generation period for <em>S. megalops</em> was estimated at 24 years using these data and the formula; age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle). As <em>S. hemipinnis</em> and <em>S. megalops</em> are similar species (W. White pers. obs. 2007) this provides a rough approximation of a potential generation period for <em>S. hemipinnis</em>.	eng
161410	population	White, W.T. & Couzens, G., 2008	Can be an extremely common catch of deepwater longliners.	eng
161410	threats	White, W.T. & Couzens, G., 2008	This species is a very common catch component of demersal longline fisheries operating in the deepwater areas off eastern Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Utilised for its flesh, fins and liver oil (high value).<br/><br/>Currently deepwater fishing in Indonesia is restricted to a relatively small number of locations, but this is likely to change in the future. Deepwater fisheries operate to 600 m depth off Indonesia at present (2007), but this is unlikely to be the case for much longer (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Future expansion of Indonesian deepwater fisheries for squaloid sharks is highly likely, and there is already anecdotal evidence to suggest squaloid shark catches have declined rapidly in the last ten or more years at one landing site, Cilacap, despite it being only a relatively restricted fishery (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no deepwater trawling in this area where this species occurs, but if this was to change in the future it would need to be monitored. As this species is apparently endemic to Indonesia, there would be no refuge from fishing pressure available to it if deepwater fishing practices develop throughout Indonesia in the future.<br/><br/>Other <em>Squalus</em> species have proved vulnerable to population depletion. For example, fishery independent surveys have documented declines of ~97% between 1976/77 and 1996/97 for other species of <em>Squalus</em> in a heavily fished area off southern New South Wales, Australia (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
161411	conservation	Pheeha, S. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	No specific measures in place. Research is needed to assess population trends and capture in fisheries, and other threats to this species.	eng
161411	distribution	Pheeha, S. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Eastern central Atlantic and southeast Atlantic: occurs from Senegal to Angola (Capapé and Desoutter 1990).	eng
161411	habitat	Pheeha, S. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	This species is found from shallow coastal waters to 50 m depth, on sandy and/or muddy bottoms (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001) and in the vicinity of estuaries.<br/><br/>Females mature at a larger size than males, at around 35 and 31.5 cm total length (TL) respectively (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).The largest female has been reported at 50 cm TL and the largest male at 38.2 cm TL (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Fully-developed foetuses observed in an adult female allow an estimate of the size at birth of 9.2 to 9.6 cm TL (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>Ovulation probably occurred in May-June and parturition in August or September and consequently, gestation could last four or five months and the reproductive cycle one year (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). The phenomenon of occyte growth being blocked during gestation until parturition has been observed in T. Mackayana as in other Torpedos (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).<br/><br/>Uterine fecundity ranged from six to 15 and ovarian and uterine fecundity were found to be correlated with the size of females (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).	eng
161411	population	Pheeha, S. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161411	threats	Pheeha, S. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Presumably taken as bycatch in demersal fisheries operating within its range, including trawls and trammel nets, although no specific information is available on its capture. Intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species? costal range and although torpedo rays are of little commercial value, they still suffer fishing mortality as bycatch. Fisheries off western Africa have undergone huge development during the past 20 years in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Parts of the species? coastal habitat is also threatened by degradation and destruction through coastal development, pollution (residential, agricultural, hydrocarbon and heavy metals) and mangrove deforestation (IGGC 2007a,b).	eng
161412	conservation	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2008	None in place. Bycatch levels and mortality in fisheries should be quantified and the population monitored. Further information is required on life-history parameters and the level of impact of fisheries on this species.	eng
161412	distribution	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Northwest Pacific: only found in the waters off the southern Izu Peninsula off Shirahama, Southeast Honshu, Japan (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161412	habitat	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Found at depths of 100–317 m (S. Tanaka pers. obs 2007, Shirai <em>et al. </em>1992). Hagiwara (1993) reported data on the biology from sharks bred in captivity. Reproduction is oviparous with a single egg-case in each oviduct. Females reach maturity at 35–38 cm total length (TL) and males at 35–41 cm TL and reach a maximum size of 41 cm TL (Hagiwara 1993, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). The species spawns all year round in captivity, with mating observed in March and June (Hagiwara 1993). Eggcases measure ~4.5 cm long. Apparently reaches maturity in five years or less (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Feeds on small bottom worms, crustaceans and bivalves (Shirai <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
161412	population	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2008	No information available.	eng
161412	threats	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Taken as unutilized bycatch in gill net fisheries for flounders but no further data are available at this time. Information is required on bycatch, the depths fished, and fishing mortality.	eng
161413	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	None in place.	eng
161413	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Western Pacific: one record in the South China Sea off China (in an area east of Hainan Island and south of Hong Kong) at 18°40' to 19°32'N, 112°31' to 113°57'E (Compagno in prep).	eng
161413	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Found on continental slope at a depth of 520 m (Compagno in prep). Distance off the bottom is unknown (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), presumably oceanic or semioceanic. The only known specimen was 44 cm total length (Compagno in prep). Nothing else is known of the biology.	eng
161413	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Known only from one specimen (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005)	eng
161413	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Unknown. The species is not recorded from fisheries catches as far as known (Compagno in prep).	eng
161414	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.	eng
161414	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Southwest Pacific: found all along the New Zealand continental slope including the Chatham Rise, Challenger Plateau, Bounty Plateau, and northern Campbell Plateau, and also on the southern Lord Howe Rise (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161414	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	The biology of <em>Brochiraja leviveneta</em> is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 900–1,100 m but extends from 300–1,200 m. <em>B. leviveneta</em> attains at least 51 cm TL (Last and McEachran 2006). Oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161414	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Uncommon.	eng
161414	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	<em>B. leviveneta</em> is taken as occasional trawl bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for orange roughy, oreos and hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished.	eng
161415	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161415	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: Honduras to Panama (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161415	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along continental slope, between 353 and 776 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 41 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known about its biology.	eng
161415	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161415	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries; however it would be vulnerable to incidental capture by deep bottom trawl gear. Given its narrow depth range and distribution, any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161416	conservation	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	None in place. <br/><br/>Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161416	distribution	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: South Carolina to Florida Keys, USA (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161416	habitat	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater species of skate known from the upper to middle slope at depths of 293–896 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum length reported to 29.4 cm TL (McEachran and Matheson 1985). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, as in other skates. Little else is known of the biology of this species.	eng
161416	population	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information is available on population.	eng
161416	threats	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries. Possible bycatch of deepwater fisheries in parts of its range.	eng
161417	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	None in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. A new shark monitoring log-sheet was introduced by the Seychelles Fishing Authority in August 2004 aimed at assessing the stocks of sharks fished locally and identifying the various species caught (Anon 2005).<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161417	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the holotype and paratype collected off Alphonse Island, Republic of Seychelles (Baranes 2003).	eng
161417	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	The holotype (female; 65.2 cm TL) and paratype (male; 79.7 cm TL) were collected by trammel net at 1,000 m depth off Alphonse Island (Baranes 2003). Appears to display sexual dimorphism in snout length and shape of the upper jaw teeth (Baranes 2003). Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161417	population	McCormack, C., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype. May be endemic to the region but population size is unknown.	eng
161417	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The depth distribution of the species is little known and it is highly probable that <em>C. seychellorum</em> has been caught by Seychellois fishermen without their knowledge that it was a new species (Anon 2005). Given the species’ apparently narrow range, the limited life history characteristics of Centrophorus species and the vulnerability of other <em>Centrophorus</em> species to rapid population depletion in fisheries, any bycatch is of concern. (For example, intensive trawl fishing on the slope off New South Wales, Australia, rapidly depleted stocks of similar species there (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001)). Although some trial deepsea fishing has been conducted in the Seychelles to date, there are apparently no commercial fisheries targeting resources below 600 m at present (M. Isidore pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161418	conservation	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D.W. & Gedamke, T., 2008	Currently there is no specific management plan in place for the little skate. In the USA, there is a framework that could implement restrictions to the fishery if biomass levels fall below threshold levels (NEFMC 2003).<br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action: Enforce U.S. species-specific landings reporting requirements and increase scientific research and government sea sampling attention to skates; begin developing estimates for target and limit reference points; reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating more careful handling and discard techniques.	eng
161418	distribution	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D.W. & Gedamke, T., 2008	Northwest Atlantic: occasionally from the Grand Banks and northeast Newfoundland, more common on the Scotian Shelf in Canada, south to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, USA (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, McEachran and Musick 1977, Michalopoulos 1990).	eng
161418	habitat	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D.W. & Gedamke, T., 2008	Habitat ranges from shallow shoal waters to 90 m depth, usually on sandy or gravelly substrates. This species reaches a maximum size of 60 cm total length (TL) (Johnson 1979). Males and females mature at 35?50 cm TL and size at birth is 9.3?10.2 cm TL (McEachran 2002, Richards <em>et al. </em>1963). Females produce 28?33 eggs per year after a gestation period of 9?12 months (Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, Johnson 1979).<br/><br/>Little Skates make no extensive migrations, although where it occurs inshore the species moves onshore and offshore with seasonal temperature changes (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Common prey items include hermit and other crabs, shrimps, worms, amphipods, ascidians (sea squirts), bivalve mollusks, squid, small fishes, and even some copepods (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002).	eng
161418	population	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D.W. & Gedamke, T., 2008	The Little Skate (<em>Leucoraja erinacea</em>) is distributed from Nova Scotia, Canada to Cape Hatteras, USA and is one of the dominant members of the demersal fish community in the USA portion of the Northwest Atlantic (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Richards <em>et al</em>. 1963, McEachran and Musick 1977, Michalopoulos 1990). Its center of abundance appears to be the northern section of the mid-Atlantic Bight and on Georges Bank, where it is found year-round (McEachran and Musick 1977). In fact, survey estimates since 1997 have been and continue to be the highest on record for little skates. The 1999?2001 three-year average of 8.47 kg/tow is well above the proposed biomass threshold of 3.27 kg/tow and even above the proposed biomass target. Due to the overall increases in little skate biomass over the last 20 years which was at its highest level (NEFSC 2000). However, recent trawl surveys (2006) conducted by the National Marine Fisheries surface suggest that the little skate is near the overfishing threshold (18.7 vs. 20%) and will likely be above the threshold as of 2007. It is also near the minimum biomass threshold (3.32 vs. 3.27 kg/tow) and may become overfished (NEFMC 2007).	eng
161418	threats	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D.W. & Gedamke, T., 2008	The principal threat to Little Skate is over-exploitation from commercial fishing and bycatch. Otter trawls are the primary fishing method associated with direct and indirect Little Skate catch. Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In US waters, a directed fishery exists for little skates in Rhode Island for utilization primarily as lobster bait. However, vessels from other ports (New Bedford, and Martha?s Vineyard, Massachusetts (MA); Block Island, Long Island, and, to a lesser degree, Chatham and Provincetown, MA) have been identified as participating in the directed skate bait fishery to some extent (NEFMC 2001). The time series of skate landings shows a significant increase in landings in the 1990s (6,700 mt in 1989, about 11,400 mt annually from 1990 to present). Fishermen and state fisheries managers attribute the increase in skate landings in 1990 to better reporting and documentation, rather than a significant expansion of the skate fishery. Total recreational landings for little skate varied between <1,000 and 56,000 fish, equivalent to <1?15 mt, during 1981 to 1998 (Packer <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
161419	conservation	Gedamke, T., 2008	There are currently no regulations or conservation actions in place for the Rosette Skate. Rosette Skate is not considered to be overfished (NFSC 2000a, b).	eng
161419	distribution	Gedamke, T., 2008	The Rosette Skate occurs from Nantucket Shoals to the Dry Tortugas, Florida (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953a,b; Bullis and Thompson 1965, McEachran and Musick 1975, McEachran 1977, Stehmann and McEachran 1978). In the Straits of Florida it is found on Pourtates Terrace (Staiger 1970).	eng
161419	habitat	Gedamke, T., 2008	The Rosette Skate is found on soft substrates, including sand to mud bottoms at depths of 33?530 m and is most common between 74 and 274 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953b, Bullis and Thompson 1965, Schroeder 1955, Struhsaker 1969, McEachran and Musick 1975). Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) reported its temperature range as 5.3?15°C. Although some suggestions have been made that the species moves inshore during the summer there is not enough data to evaluate seasonal differences in distribution related to depth and temperature. Size at maturity is reported for males and females combined, at 33.5?43.9 cm TL north of Cape Hatteras (McEachran 1977) and 25.0?31.4cm TL south of Cape Hatteras (McEachran 1977). Maximum observed size is 57 cm TL (Packer<em> et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>McEachran (1977) reported that maximum size and size at maturity increase with latitude. The major food sources are similar to that of the other western Atlantic skate species being comprised of shrimp (<em>C. septemspinosa</em>), Cancer and galatheoid crabs, amphipods, polychaetes, copepods, cumaceans, squids, octopods, and small fish (Stehmann and McEachran 1978, Bowman <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
161419	population	Gedamke, T., 2008	Historically, Schroeder (1955) reported the Rosette Skate to be fairly abundant from the eastern slope of Georges Bank to Cape Charles, Virginia while Struhsaker (1969) found it to be very abundant along the outer continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to Florida. As mentioned in the taxonomic notes that these reports may actually come from two distinct species. Currently there is very little information on the populations south of Cape Hatteras. However, NEFSC spring and fall groundfish surveys from Cape Hatteras to the northern edge of the rosette skates range have shown an increasing trend in biomass indices since 1967 (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003, NEFMC 2006).	eng
161419	threats	Gedamke, T., 2008	Skates are commonly taken as bycatch in groundfish trawling, scallop dredging and discarded recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total fishery landings. Landings in the USA are not reported by species, with over 99% of the landings reported as ?unclassified skates.? Skates are retained for the export of skate wings and for utilization as lobster bait. However, wings are taken from Winter Skate and Thorny Skate, whereas bait landings are believed to be primarily from Little Skates. There is no evidence of any directed fishery for the Rosette Skate with incidental bycatch as the primary threat to the species.	eng
161420	conservation	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.	eng
161420	distribution	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Southwest Pacific: New Zealand and adjacent deepsea plateaux.	eng
161420	habitat	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	The biology of the Prickly Deepsea Skate is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 300–1,200 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998) but probably extends to at least 1,500 m. The species attains at least 73 cm TL (McEachran 1984).	eng
161420	population	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Occasionally caught by deepwater trawlers but not common.	eng
161420	threats	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Prickly Deepsea Skate is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished.	eng
161421	conservation	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	No specific measures in place. Bycatch levels (if any) should be monitored.	eng
161421	distribution	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: known only from a few specimens from southern Mozambique, Kenya and Tanzania (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
161421	habitat	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	An uncommon skate living on the edge of the shelf and the uppermost slope at depths of 200?500 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007). The species attains at least 51.5 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991). Little is known about its biology. Presumably oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161421	population	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	An uncommon species, known only from few specimens collected off East Africa.	eng
161421	threats	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	The species is only known from a few specimens and is apparently uncommon, therefore very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. It is a potential bycatch of deepwater shrimp fisheries that operate within its range off Mozambique and Tanzania (www.wiofish.org).	eng
161422	conservation	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161422	distribution	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	Western central Atlantic: Panama to French Guiana (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161422	habitat	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species found on the continental slope at depths of 549–776 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains at least 44 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161422	population	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161422	threats	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	A potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries, but no information is available.	eng
161423	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	No conservation measures are in place specifically for this species in any portion of its range, although Mexico has developed a national management plan for elasmobranchs, which came into force in 2007 (Mexican Official Standard Rules for Shark and Ray responsible fisheries (NOM-029-PESC-2004-2006)).	eng
161423	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	Eastern central Pacific: ranges from southern Sonora, Mexico to Costa Rica and (disjunct) from the southwestern Gulf of California (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).	eng
161423	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	This species is reported from depths of 0?100 m, and is typically found on soft bottom habitats in shallow, protected areas of the continental shelf between 7.2?48.4 m (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).<br/><br/>Biological information for this species is limited. Specimens of around 5.4 cm total length (TL) are free swimming, with very faint yolk-scars (if present) (Carvalho 1999). Males mature at around 19 cm TL, but definitely by 20 cm and females are also thought to reach sexual maturity around 20 cm TL (Carvalho 1999). The species is reported to reach a maximum size of about 60 cm TL (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995), but specimens >30 cm TL have not been observed (Bizzarro, pers. obs.). In addition, size at maturity information presented by Carvalho (Carvalho 1999) suggests that maximum size is considerably less than 60 cm TL.	eng
161423	population	Bizzarro, J.J., Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	No information is available on the abundance, population structure, or population dynamics of this species.	eng
161423	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	This species is threatened by directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries, bycatch in other fisheries (including shrimp trawls) and habitat modification or loss by mobile fishing gears and aquaculture developments. This species was not observed in artisanal elasmobranch fishery landings in the Gulf of California, Mexico, but other narcinid species were captured (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). This, therefore, likely reflects a lack of abundance for this species in this northern fringe of its range and/or reflects inconsistent and incomplete sampling in Sinaloa and Baja California Sur, where it is known to occur. The latter is probably true for at least southern Sinaloa, where <em>N. vermiculatus</em> has been commonly observed among shrimp fishery bycatch (J. Bizzarro per. obs.). More than 12,500 boats are permitted to fish off Sinaloa, including 11,828 artisanal vessels (operating to ~18 m depth) and 785 industrial vessels (operating >18 m depth) (CONAPESCA 2004). Sinaloa is the greatest producer of shrimp in all of Mexico, and the bycatch problem is quite severe and not quantified or reported (J. Bizzarro pers. obs.).There are intensive coastal demersal trawl and gillnet fisheries throughout most of the remainder of its range, but no other fishery information is known to be available for these areas. This species is also likely to be affected by habitat modification. Many embayments and estuaries in Sinaloa, Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since <em>N. vermiculatus</em> is thought to frequent these areas, this activity could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.	eng
161424	conservation	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	No measures in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species? range is required, particularly as fisheries expand into deeper waters.	eng
161424	distribution	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Chiba Prefecture to the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk and southern Kuril Islands, off Russia (Ishihara 1990, Nakaya and Shirai 1992). Occurrence in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, and western Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1999a) is unverified.	eng
161424	habitat	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slopes, on sandy-gravel, sandy and sludgy-pebbly substrates, at depths of 120?2,000 m (Dolganov 1998a, Sheiko and Fedorov 2000), but is most common at 550?1,300 m depth (Fedorov 2000). The species occurs at temperatures from 0 to 5.5°C (mean 2.82°C), most frequently at 2.5-3.5°C (Orlov unpubl. data). The species reaches a maximum size of 126 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005). Females reach maturity at 88.6?104.8 cm TL and at 6?8 years of age, and males at 82.1?108 cm and 6?7 years (Dolganov 1998c). Longevity is estimated at nine years for females (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measure 8.5?11.3 cm x 5.2?6.9 cm (Dolganov 1998c). Large skates feed mostly on fish, cephalopods, while juveniles feed on worms and small-sized crabs (Dolganov 1998b, Orlov 1998, 2003).	eng
161424	population	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Apparently common. Bottom trawl surveys conducted from 1977?1997 (to depths of 2,000 m) in Russian waters estimated that total biomass was 117,600 t, including 32,100 t in the Bering Sea, 8,200 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 77,300 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999b). No data are currently available from other parts of the species? range.	eng
161424	threats	Orlov, A.M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Fishing pressure is thought to be relatively low in the depth range at which this species is most common (550?1,300 m). Some fisheries do operate down to 900?1,200 m depth, for rockfishes and Greenland halibut and this species and other skates may be taken incidentally in these fisheries. However, no species-specific data are available and there is some refuge in deeper waters (>1,200 m), below the range of current fisheries. Within the species? range in Russian waters, there are no fisheries on continental slopes in the eastern and southern Sea of Okhotsk, central and northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka. The species is an occasional bycatch of Japanese bottom trawl fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007) and some Japanese bottom trawl fisheries were conducted in Russian continental slope waters from 1992?2002, but have apparently ceased since then. Overall, fishing pressure is not considered significant throughout this species? range at present. However, if fisheries begin to target species in deeper waters (such as grenadier) in the future the threat to this species could increase significantly. Fisheries within this species? range should be carefully monitored and efforts should be made to collect species-specific data on bycatch levels of skates.	eng
161425	conservation	Coelho, R., Bertozzi, M.,Ungaro. N. & Ellis, J., 2003	There is no species-specific management in place for <em>Raja undulata</em>. Tralee Bay is voluntarily closed to commercial fishing to protect regionally important elasmobranchs such as <em>R. undulata</em> and angel shark, which are only found in localised populations on the Irish West coast (ICES 2007). Recreational fishing continues in this area. <br/><br/>The most recent ICES advice (2008) is for no target fishing in the North Sea, English Channel and Celtic Seas. Species-specific monitoring of catches and landings is required to determine the proportion of <em>Raja undulata </em>taken.	eng
161425	distribution	Coelho, R., Bertozzi, M.,Ungaro. N. & Ellis, J., 2003	This species has a patchy distribution in the eastern Atlantic, including the Mediterranean Sea, with discrete areas where it may be locally common (southwestern Ireland, eastern English Channel, southern Portugal).<br/><br/>Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: occurs from southern Ireland and southwestern England to the Gulf of Guinea, including the Canary Islands (Coelho and Erzini 2006).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western Mediterranean, a few records along the coasts of Israel and Turkey (Serena 2005). It has been recorded in the Ria Formosa coastal lagoon on the south coast of Portugal (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002), an important nursery ground for many bony fishes (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 2002). Smaller specimens of <em>R. undulata</em> have been reported in this coastal lagoon which may suggest that this species also uses these sheltered areas as nursery grounds (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161425	habitat	Coelho, R., Bertozzi, M.,Ungaro. N. & Ellis, J., 2003	This skate occurs in shelf waters to about 200 m depth, on sandy and muddy substrates and appears to be more common in shallow waters (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Coelho and Erzini 2006). Smaller specimens have been reported in coastal lagoons (specifically in the Ria Formosa coastal lagoon on the South coast of Portugal), which suggests that this species may use these sheltered habitats as nursery areas (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Estimated asymptotic maximum size is110 cm total length (TL) (Coelho and Erzini 2002). Significant regional differences have been observed in size at first maturity of this species: In Portugal, females mature (50% maturity) at 76.2 cm TL in the Algarve (southern) region and at 83.8 cm TL in the Peniche (western) region, while males mature (50% maturity) at 73.6 cm TL in the Algarve and at 78.1 cm TL in Peniche. Age at first maturity for the Algarve population has been estimated to occur at 8.98 years in females and 7.66 years in males (Coelho and Erzini 2006). An annual reproductive cycle has been observed, but differences occur between the different populations: In southern Portugal this species breeds mainly during the winter (Coelho and Erzini 2006), while in the Portuguese west coast it breeds during the winter and the spring (Moura <em>et al. </em>2007). These differences seem to be related to water temperature, with reproduction restricted to periods of colder water. The maximum observed age for this species is 13 years old (Coelho and Erzini 2002) but longevity has been estimated at 21?23 years (Coelho <em>et al. </em>2002). The population on the South Portuguese coast has a very slow growth rate (k=0.11) (Coelho and Erzini 2002). Natural mortality for this population has been estimated to be 0.20?0.219 year<sup>-1</sup> (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Generation period for this species varies from 14.9?15.9 years in females and from 14.3?15.3 in males. Generation period was estimated using the following formula: average reproductive age = age at maturity + 0.5* (longevity - age at maturity).<br/><br/><em>R. undulata</em> shows a dietary ontogenetic shift within three major length groups: 20?55 cm TL; 55?75 cm TL and 75?100 cm TL. This shift goes from small semi-pelagic to larger and benthic prey and from a generalised to a specialised diet. Shrimps and mysids are especially important in the diet of smaller specimens, while in larger specimens brachyuran crabs have an increased importance (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
161425	population	Coelho, R., Bertozzi, M.,Ungaro. N. & Ellis, J., 2003	There appears to be a discrete population of <em>Raja undulata</em> in Tralee Bay (ICES 2007). Angling records from Tralee Bay (Ireland) indicate a peak in records of undulate ray in 1981?1982, with lower (but stable) catches since then (ICES 2007). Undulate ray have traditionally been observed in English beam trawl surveys in the eastern English Channel, but have been absent for the most recent two years (ICES 2008). It is uncommon in the Bay of Biscay (ICES 2007). Determining accurate stock trends in surveys is problematic due to the patchy distribution of the species.<br/><br/>The species is also common off southern Portugal (Coelho and Erzini 2006), where it forms a separate population to that on the Portuguese west coast (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007). <em>Raja undulata </em>appears to be uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea, with only occasional records (Bertozzi <em>et al. </em>2003, Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).	eng
161425	threats	Coelho, R., Bertozzi, M.,Ungaro. N. & Ellis, J., 2003	This species is a bycatch of trawl, trammel net and other demersal fisheries operating within its range. <em>Raja undulata</em> has a patchy distribution and declines have been documented in areas where is it was formerly considered locally abundant. Catch records are available from two charter-angling vessels in Tralee Bay (southwestern Island), where this species forms a discreet population. These data show that catches of this species declined from a high of 80?100 fish per year in 1981 to 20?30 fish per year in the mid 1990s (a decline of 60?70%), before increasing to 40?60 per year in 2001?2003. Catches now appear to be declining again, with less than 20 fish recorded in 2005, although they fluctuate each year (ICES 2007). <em>R. undulata</em> has traditionally been observed in English beam trawl surveys in the eastern English Channel, but has been absent for the most recent two years (ICES 2008). ICES advice (2008) is now for no target fishing in the North Sea, English Channel and Celtic Seas (ICES 2008).<br/><br/><em>Raja undulata</em> is captured in large quantities as bycatch in the mixed species trammel net fishery that operates off the southern coast of Portugal (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2002). The species is retained and marketed for human consumption. It is mainly captured in shallow waters, with CPUE values in this fishery decreasing from 1.91 specimens/1000m net at 10-30m depth to 0.03 specimens /1,000 m net at more than 90 m depth (Coelho <em>et al</em>. 2005). Portuguese official fisheries statistics for landings of <em>Raja</em> spp. in the Algarve have decreased 29.1% between 1988 and 2004 (DGPA 1988-2004). <em>Raja undulata</em> is the most common skate species in this area and its size makes it more vulnerable to depletion than smaller skate species, and these declines may under-reflect changes in the population of this species (Erzini <em>et al.</em> 2001, Coelho <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>It is also a known bycatch of the Spanish demersal trawl fleet operating in the Cantabrian Sea, southern Bay of Biscay, which targets a mixture of gadoids and flatfish at depths of 100?300 m over the continental shelf (ICES 2007). Species-specific French landings data for the Celtic Seas report 12 t of <em>R. undulata</em> in 1995, 6 in 1996, 10 in 1997, after which landings fell to 2 t in 1998, 1 t in 1999, to 0 t in 2000?2001 (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>This species? preference for shallow waters places it within the range of intensive artisanal coastal fisheries operating along the western coast of Africa (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although no specific details are currently available on catches, this species is presumably a utilised bycatch of these, and demersal trawl fisheries operating in this area. Exploitation of the continental shelf is also high in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>Like many other larger skates, this species possesses life history characteristics that may increase vulnerability to exploitation, reduce rate of recovery and increase the risk of extinction: including delayed age at maturity, long generation time (14?15 years), low fecundity, and consequently slow population growth (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
161426	conservation	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	None known.	eng
161426	distribution	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	West Indian Ocean: currently reported as India, Pakistan, and the Persian/Arabian Gulf (Compagno 2001). However, the exact distribution of this species and the similar Grey Bamboo Shark (<em>Chiloscyllium griseum</em>) requires clarification; misidentification of these two species, at least in the Persian/Arabian Gulf, is likely to have led to erroneous distribution records for both. Distribution may be patchy: the species is not reported from widespread landings or surveys in Oman (A. Henderson, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, pers. comm., Henderson <em>et al</em>., 2007), or in India (Venkataraman <em>et al</em>. 2003), although the latter may be due to confusion with <em>C. griseum</em>.	eng
161426	habitat	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Found in coral reefs, lagoons, rocky shores and mangrove estuaries, between depths of 3?100 m on the bottom (Compagno 2001). This shark is less than 10 cm long when born and grows to a maximum length of 70 cm. Females lay up to four egg-cases on coral reefs, with hatching after 70?80 days (Compagno 2001). It feeds on squid, shelled molluscs, crustaceans and snake eels (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Known to associate closely with coral reefs in the Persian/Arabian Gulf: confirmed records of Arabian Carpetshark from reef environments in Bahrain (Randall 1986), Kuwait (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1997); and Saudi Arabia?s Gulf coast (Krupp and Almarri 1996).<br/><br/>Relatively hardy to capture by trawl and exposure to air (A.B. M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161426	population	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Common in summer in the Persian Gulf (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reported as fairly common on reefs in Kuwait, especially in the spring when it is often seen resting among corals (Carpenter <em>et al</em>. 1997). Apparently reasonably common in trawls in Kuwait (A.B.M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161426	threats	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Apparently little utilized in the Persian Gulf (Gubanov and Schleib 1980) but probably is used in Pakistan and India. <br/><br/>Common as bycatch in trawls in Kuwait, where ?cat sharks? (likely to contain most, if not all, <em>C. arabicum</em>) are reported as the second most abundant bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery, accounting for nearly 14% of all bycatch (Bishop 2002). Also reported as bycatch (as ?<em>C. arabicus</em>?) in the Bahrain shrimp fishery (Abdulqader 2001). Despite high levels of bycatch this species is only very rarely observed in local markets, at least in Kuwait (A.B.M. Moore, pers. obs. 2007), suggesting it is discarded. Caught in artisanal intertidal stake-net traps (hadra), at least in Kuwait (McEwan <em>et al</em>. 2001) and likely throughout The Persian/Arabian Gulf.<br/><br/>High levels of PAHs and benzo [a] pyrene reported from this species from Kuwait (Al-Hassan <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation is likely to be an important factor. <em>C. arabicum</em> is known to have close association with coral reef habitats, which are particularly prone to anthropogenic degradation. In the Persian/Arabian Gulf this includes changes due to the damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes (Al-Yamani <em>et al</em>. 2007), chronic and acute (e.g., war-related) releases of oil, rapid large-scale coastal development (e.g. megastructures in the UAE), and changes to benthic communities from demersal trawling. Coastal land reclamation has accelerated in this area in recent years and, as a result, coastal reefs and other habitat have been destroyed. For example, this has resulted in the almost total loss of mangrove areas around Bahrain (Morgan 2006a).<br/><br/>In India, declines in general catch rates, biomass, recruitment and shifts in regular landing patterns in inshore fisheries have been linked to steep increases in the fisher population, number and efficiency of craft and gears, and associated fishing effort, as well as the degradation of coastal habitats (mangroves, coral reefs, etc.) caused by pollution of coastal waters, urbanisation, coastal developments, etc. (Morgan 2006b). Although no specific data are available it is reasonable to assume that this species has been impacted.<br/><br/>Commonly used in aquaria, e.g., in Kuwait (Tony McEwan, Kuwait Scientific Centre, pers. comm. to AB. Moore 30.9.2006), although this is not thought to represent a threat to populations.	eng
161427	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161427	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central and southwest Atlantic: eastern and western Gulf of Mexico, Lesser Antilles, and Caribbean coasts of Central and South America (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161427	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along the outer shelf and upper slope, at depths of 183?549 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).Maximum size at least 77 cm total length (TL); males mature at around 76 cm TL and neonates are 17 cm TL at hatching (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, is oviparous, but nothing known of its biology.	eng
161427	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161427	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although information is not available.	eng
161428	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	No conservation measures are in place at present.<br/><br/>Compagno and Heemstra (2007) suggest that species of electric rays with limited ranges in the tropical-subtropical southwestern Indian Ocean, particularly species of insular <em>Torpedo</em> and quite possibly narkid genera such as <em>Electrolux</em> and <em>Heteronarce</em> and species of narcinids (<em>Narcine</em>) are a major concern for conservation. The Ornate Sleeper Ray would be an appropriate subject for an intensive dive survey project by fish-watchers, professional ichthyologists and conservationists on the numerous dive sites of the northeast coast of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mozambique to attempt to better understand its distribution and estimate its abundance.	eng
161428	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	As presently known this conspicuous, diurnal species is restricted to sandy patches of very limited inshore reef habitat off the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coasts of South Africa at five localities (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Known localities are from dive sites off south-central KwaZulu-Natal. These include from southwest to northeast:<br/><br/>1. Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape (<span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 31º58?S, 29º9?E); <br/>2. Manaba Beach, the type locality near Margate (30°51.4'S, 30°23.1'E, 6?12 m); <br/>3. Protea Banks, about 8 km off Shelly Beach near Margate (ca. 30°49.8?S, 30°28.8?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 28?35 m); <br/>4. Aliwal Shoal, 4.8 km. off Park Rynie (<em>ca</em>. 30°19.2?S, 30°48?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 14?30 m.); <br/>5. Tee (or T-) Barge north of Durban and about 3 km off Virginia Beach (an artificial reef habitat at <em>ca</em>. 29°47?S, 31°05?E, dive depths <em>ca</em>. 20?27 m.).<br/><br/>The Ornate Sleeper Ray (<em>Electrolux addisoni</em>) has only been recorded along approximately 310 km of coastline with a very narrow continental shelf (10?36 km wide to the 200 m isobath), but the few sightings were all inside the 50 m isobath. Manaba Beach is the only place that it has been seen on two occasions (or more).<br/><br/>An estimate suggests the real range may be less than 10 km² as currently known. If the areas where the rays were actually observed were less than 100 m², the area of occupancy could prove far smaller.<br/><br/>Although the Ornate Sleeper Ray may be more wide-ranging than presently known, offshore and inshore areas on the east coast of South Africa have been relatively well-sampled and this species has to be considered a rarity at present until we know otherwise (L.J.V. Compagno pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161428	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	The Ornate Sleeper Ray occurs in warm-temperate or subtropical waters along a very narrow continental shelf (10 to 36 km wide to the 200 m isobath). The few sightings of the species were all at less than 50 m depth. Found in subtidal environments in sandy and gravely patches on rocky reefs. Apparently sluggish, this sedentary ray belongs to the sleeper ray family.<br/><br/>It is the largest known narkid, with adult males measuring 50?52 cm  total length, and is extremely conspicuous because of its spectacular coloration (which is hard to miss on light sandy patches), diurnal foraging activity and boldness when confronted by divers (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).<br/><br/>Little is known of the biology of this ray. Juveniles are unknown, and the only specimens collected to date are adult males.<br/><br/>This species feeds on the substrate and vigorously thrusts its mouth into loose sand or gravel while walking actively on its spread pelvic fins. It may lie motionless on the substrate, but when approached can arch its back, curl its disk, and raise its tail to perform a possible threat-display directed at the photographer.<br/><br/>Like other South African narkids such as Cape Numbfish (<em>Narke capensis</em>), which mostly eats polychaetes (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989), and the Natal Electric Ray (<em>Heteronarce garmani</em>) (one specimen examined), which had a stomach filled with mud-balls, this species apparently feeds on infauna or meiofauna. Stomach contents of the paratype included the semi-digested and fragmentary remains of polychaete worms (including a tube-worm) and at least one small shrimp-like crustacean.<br/><br/>Compagno and Heemstra (2007) suggest that the bold color and possible threat display may act as a defense against sharks that feed during the day. The conspicuous dorsal color pattern of the Ornate Sleeper Ray, combined with the ray?s possible threat display, may be aposematic (an antipredator adaptation) and indicates that the ray is well-armed with electric organs and should be avoided. On the shallow, well-lit reefs where the Ornate Sleeper Ray has been found, its main potential predators may be large carcharhinoid sharks (requiem sharks, Carcharhinidae, and hammerheads, Sphyrnidae) and lamnoid sharks (ragged-tooth sharks and white sharks). Deepwater electric rays successfully defended themselves from much larger sixgill sharks (<em>Hexanchus</em>) which are apex predators with a broad prey spectrum, and a quick defensive shock apparently minimized damage by aborting such a predator?s attack. For the inshore Ornate Sleeper Ray, aposematic coloration and a threat display might prevent a shark attack if the visual warnings are reinforced by a shock.	eng
161428	population	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Apparently rare, there are no trend data for the Ornate Sleeper Ray because there are so few restricted records over a long time period. This species is mostly known by a handful of sighting and photographic records by recreational SCUBA divers, ichthyologists and professional underwater photographers, as well as from two type specimens procured by spear-fishing divers, over two decades from 1984 to 2004 (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).<br/><br/>A live specimen was photographed in 1984 on a patch of sand on Aliwal Shoal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in 1984 and was immediately recognized as an undescribed species of electric ray, but its familial allocation to the Narkidae and recognition as a new genus didn?t come until two specimens were procured twenty years later. The ray was subsequently rediscovered on Protea Banks off Shelly Beach, KwaZulu-Natal in 1997 where a single specimen was videotaped feeding. Another specimen was seen in the late 1990s off the Tee Barge, an artificial reef habitat in north of Durban, while a second specimen was seen at Coffee Bay, Eastern Cape but eluded capture. Two specimens were speared off Manaba Beach near Margate in southern KwaZulu-Natal in 2003 and form the type series. A few additional specimens were sighted at Manaba Beach before the types were collected but numbers are uncertain.<br/><br/>Wallace?s (1967) taxonomic review of electric rays from the east coast of southern Africa did not report any material of <em>Electrolux addisoni</em>. <em>E. addisoni</em> was not taken by the South African Marine and Coastal Management?s (MCM) research vessel Algoa during Cruise 014 off Mozambique in 1994 with 28 stations on soft bottom at 37 to 500 m depth. The Algoa collected torpedinoids in small numbers including the narkid <em>Heteronarce garmani</em> and the narcinids <em>Narcine rierai</em> and a second species of <em>Narcine</em> close to the Malagasy <em>N. insolita</em> but not <em>E. addisoni</em>. The MCM research vessel Africana did not collect <em>E. addisoni</em> in thousands of inshore and offshore bottom trawl stations at 17?200 m during two decades of fisheries survey (ongoing) on the east coast of South Africa from Cape Agulhas to Port Alfred. However, the smaller narkid <em>Narke capensis</em> was commonly caught by the large fisheries research vessel Africana in this area and between 27 m and 90 m depths (average depth 54.8 m). This occurs in shallow inshore waters in the Western Cape, South Africa, where a diver caught one by hand at 4.5 m depth in False Bay in the Western Cape. Divers have so far not seen <em>E. addisoni</em> from Cape seas south of Coffee Bay, nor at Mozambique dive sites. It also has not been recorded by the Natal Shark Board in the anti-shark nets deployed off numerous beaches off KwaZulu-Natal, although batoids are regular bycatch of the shark nets (S. Dudley pers. comm. to L.J.V. Compagno 2007).	eng
161428	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	The species? known habitat and geographic distribution suggest that the Ornate Sleeper Ray could be at risk from human activities including harassment and disturbance by divers as well as fisheries, pollution, and habitat degradation. It occurs on a heavily utilized and narrow strip of habitat with heavy and increasing human utilization including extensive and intensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with runaway coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization, shark netting, and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments.<br/><br/>There are no known fisheries that target this species or include it as bycatch, although it has potential interest for the aquarium fish trade, and it would make a spectacular aquarium exhibit provided one could collect live specimens and keep them successfully in captivity. Juveniles are unknown, and the only specimens collected to date are adult males.	eng
161429	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would aid in the collection of data on the wider range and depth distribution of the species. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161429	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Comoro Islands (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161429	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	Found on the sea-bottom, on insular slopes at depths of 200–400 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). The one known specimen was an adult, measuring 46 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161429	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Known only from one specimen (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161429	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	This species would be vulnerable to bycatch in trawl fisheries, although no information is available on fisheries operating within its geographic and depth range.	eng
161430	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2007	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska. <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in <em>Bathyraja</em> species is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented.<br/><br/>Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161430	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2007	North Pacific: found in the western Bering Sea, the Commander Islands and Sea of Okhotsk off Hokkaido and in the eastern Bering Sea, possibly including the Gulf of Alaska (Ishiyama and Ishihara 1977, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161430	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2007	The Commander Skate is found at depths of 126?1,193 m (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Males reach maturity at 78.4 cm total length (TL) and females at 84.6 cm TL (Ebert 2005). Maximum size is 93 cm TL (Ebert 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.	eng
161430	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2007	According to Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) bottom trawl surveys; this species is the second most abundant deepsea skate on the eastern Bering Sea slope. Biomass estimates on the eastern Bering Sea slope in 2004 were 4,194 mt (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006, Ormseth and Matta 2007).	eng
161430	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006, Ormseth and Matta 2007). Commander Skate makes up a very small proportion of the observed catch of <em>Bathyraja</em> species in Aleutian Island and eastern Bering Sea slope groundfish fisheries (0-2%), with observed catch ranging from 2.11?26.09 t between 2003 and 2006 (Matta <em>et al. </em>2006). A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery. Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution probably offers refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007ab). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species.<br/><br/>No information is currently available on catches of this species in western Pacific waters and further investigation is required into threats to the species there.	eng
161431	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T., Fahmi & Ishihara, H., 2004	No conservation and managment measures are in place, with the exception of Australian waters. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>An elasmobranch biodiversity study in Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia) was initiated in 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in the region. The fishery is largely unregulated (licences being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem. <br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).	eng
161431	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T., Fahmi & Ishihara, H., 2004	Eastern Indian Ocean: from the Gulf of Mannar, Sri Lanka along the eastern Indian coast, Bangladesh and Myanmar, Andaman Islands, Thailand and Malaysia.<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: throughout Indonesia (except southern Sumatra), Malasia (Borneo and Sabah), Papua New Guinea, Vanikoro, Pohnpei, Melanesia, and the Philippines. The range also extends through some Pacific Islands, including Guam and Fiji and along the entire northern coast of Australia. <br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 57, 71	eng
161431	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T., Fahmi & Ishihara, H., 2004	The species appears to prefer shallow inshore waters, including mangroves, estuaries, sand flats and broken rocky-sandy substrate, although adults may move offshore and it has been recorded to a depth of at least 85 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, B.M. Manjaji and W. White pers. obs 2007). The species also appears to be solitary rather than forming aggregations, like some other stingrays (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species reaches a maximum reported size of 141 cm disc width (DW), >275 cm total length (TL) (White and Dharmadi 2007, W. White pers. obs.) and size at birth is reported at 14?28 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Manjaji (2004) reports that males mature at 55?65 cm DW, but the biology and life-history characteristics of this species are generally poorly known.	eng
161431	population	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T., Fahmi & Ishihara, H., 2004	Not very commmon (W. White pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161431	threats	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T., Fahmi & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species is caught irregularly by tangle net, bottom trawl, and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, W. White pers. obs. 2007) and in other parts of its range. All specimens are typically retained and utilised.<br/><br/>This species? preference for shallow inshore waters makes it particularly vulnerable to extensive and intensive artisanal and industrial fisheries operating throughout large areas of its range, as well as habitat destruction and pollution (B.M. Manjaji and W. White pers. obs, Vidthayanon 1997). Juveniles and sub-adults are known to be targeted in mangrove areas and destruction of mangrove forest is having a significant impact on this species (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Mangrove forests throughout Southeast Asia and large areas of the eastern Indian Ocean have been degraded (FAO 2007). In this region, ~1.9 million hectares of mangroves (or about 25% of the total 1980 area) have been lost during the last 25 years (FAO 2007). More than 90% of this loss has been caused by destruction of mangrove area in Indonesia, Pakistan, Vietnam, Malaysia and India (areas where this species occurs) through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, conversion of land for agriculture or salt pans and degradation through oil spills and pollution (FAO 2007). Even in well-managed mangrove areas that are protected from destruction, for example, the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Ranong, Thailand (designated in 1997), this species may still face threats from local fisheries on which the people living in the reserve primarily depend (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The Sicklefin Lemon Shark (<em>Negaprion acutidens</em>) occurs at similar depths to this species? preferred bathymetric range. <em>N. acutidens</em> is rarely observed in recent times in Indonesia due to the very high level of exploitation of inshore waters and its slow growth rate (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is apparently uncommon compared to other large <em>Himantura</em> species in this region, making it particularly vulnerable. Given that <em>H. granulata</em> is a large stingray, probably with limiting life-history characteristics also, it is inferred that this species has also declined significantly in these areas.<br/><br/>The commercial gillnet fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia, takes this species as retained bycatch, which is landed for human consumption (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Artisanal inshore fishing pressure is also very intensive off eastern India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis and inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and increasing ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, declining recruitment and biomass, and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, it is inferred that this species has also suffered declines as a result of high levels of inshore exploitation in these areas also.<br/><br/>No data or information is available on catches in the Pacific Islands, but this species may be taken as bycatch in inshore subsistence and artisanal fisheries there also.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161432	conservation	Séret, B., Guallart, J., Vacchi, M., Mancusi, C. & McCormack, C., 2008	No species-specific management or conservation measures are currently in place.<br/><br/>The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) banned bottom trawling below depths of 1,000 m in the Mediterranean in February 2005 and this came into force in September 2005. The measure was adopted by consensus by all members of the GFCM, which include: Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, EC, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Romania, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and population trends are required to fully assess the status of this species and any future conservation needs.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161432	distribution	Séret, B., Guallart, J., Vacchi, M., Mancusi, C. & McCormack, C., 2008	The distribution of this species is poorly defined because there are few definite records anywhere (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong>:<br/>There are two records of this species from the northwest coast of Cuba (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong>:<br/>Madeira, Canary Islands, Portugal, France and in the Mediterranean Sea from Catalan Sea, Spain, France; Ligurian Sea off northern Italy; Sicily; Israel (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161432	habitat	Séret, B., Guallart, J., Vacchi, M., Mancusi, C. & McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deep water species reported at depths of 180–2,220 m (Barrull and Mate 2002, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Found on on or near the sea bottom, over sandy mud substrate on the outer continental shelves and upper slopes (Compagno in prep.). Serena (20005) reports that it appears to prefer bathyal grounds deeper than 1,000 m in the western Mediterranean basin.<br/><br/>Attains a maximum size of about 140 cm total length (TL); size at birth is between 21 and 28 cm TL; males are mature at 71 cm TL and females at 80 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with 8–17 pups per litter (Tortonese 1956, Barrull and Mate 2002, Compagno in prep.). Reproductive age, periodicity, gestation time, rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.<br/><br/>This species feeds on mesobathyal cephalopods such as <em>Histiotheuthis</em> spp. and <em>Todarodes sagittatus</em> (J. Guallart pers. obs. 2007). Although specimens of this species are usually captured with bottom fishing gears, the finding of these highly-mobile cephalopods in the stomach contents may be interpreted as an indicator that <em>S. rostratus</em> moves throughout the deeper reaches of the water column, a propensity that may partially explain the scarcity of captures in deep demersal fisheries.	eng
161432	population	Séret, B., Guallart, J., Vacchi, M., Mancusi, C. & McCormack, C., 2008	An apparently rare, poorly known species (Compagno in prep, L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). No information exists on the relationship between the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean populations. Mostly known from single records and a few specimens in the scientific literature (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). This species has not been recorded during the MEDITS (at depths of 10–800 m) scientific trawl surveys conducted throughout the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
161432	threats	Séret, B., Guallart, J., Vacchi, M., Mancusi, C. & McCormack, C., 2008	Occasionally taken as by-catch on longlines and with bottom trawls in the eastern Atlantic (Compagno in prep.), but often recorded under the general category “sleeper sharks" or simply “sharks”. In the Mediterranean coast of Spain it is regularly discarded at sea and not landed although post-discard survival is likely very low (J. Guallart pers. obs. 2007). No species-specific catch estimates are available.<br/><br/>Intense deepwater fisheries operate in areas of the northeast Atlantic. For example, a target fishery for deep-water squaloid sharks operated off Portugal at depths of 800–1,400 m since 1992 (DELASS 2003). Catches decreased rapidly and, by 1996, only one longliner was engaged in it at full time. Most of the catch consists of <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, though other deep-water species such <em>C. squamosus</em> and <em>C. coelolepis</em> are also caught in small quantities (DELASS 2003).<br/><br/>This species is also a bycatch of the general demersal and black scabbardfish fisheries in the Azores, although species-specific data are not available (DELASS 2003). A recent ban on bottom trawling below 1,000 m in the Mediterranean Sea (see Conservation Measures) may afford this species some protection, particularly if it is mainly distributed at greater depths. However, the species is still vulnerable to capture in fisheries in the upper half of its bathymetric range.<br/><br/>This species may be slow growing and slow to mature, like other deepwater Squaloid sharks, making it vulnerable to population depletion in fisheries. The relatively small range of this species, compared to most other sleeper sharks, and rarity in an area, which has been subject to very heavy fishing pressure for a long period, is of concern (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161433	conservation	Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>Where taken, catches to species level require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161433	distribution	Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest and central western Pacific: southeast Japan (southeast Honshu to Kyushu) and East China Sea, including the Republic of Korea and Taiwan (Compagno in prep.). Longsnouted forms off Philippines previously identified as <em>S. japonicus</em> have recently been identified as <em>S. nasutus</em> (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161433	habitat	Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Found on or near the bottom of temperate–tropical outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes. Depth range is reported at 120–340 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and between 52–100 m and 350–400 m in Suruga Bay, Japan.<br/><br/>Goto (1998) studied the biology of <em>Squalus </em>species in Suruga Bay, and provides biological data on <em>S. japonicus</em> from a total of 176 specimens, collected from the catch of a bottom trawl net fishery between 1982 and 1997. Estimated size at maturity for females is 56–80 cm total length (TL) and for males is 50–70 cm TL with a maximum size reported at 95 cm TL (Goto 1998, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Litters increase in size with the size of the mother, from two to eight per litter, with larger dogfish caught off Choshi, Honshu, averaging 5.3 per litter and smaller dogfish caught off Nagasaki, Kyushu, averaging 3.9 per litter (Compagno in prep). Goto (1998) reports a gestation period of 11–12 months and size at birth at 23–24 cm TL. Females reach maturity at seven to nine years of age and males at five years of age (Goto 1998). Longevity is estimated at 15 years for females and 12 years for males (Goto 1998).	eng
161433	population	Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Apparently common in its range (Compagno in prep.). No catch or survey data are available and the species is probably confused with other <em>Squalus</em> species.	eng
161433	threats	Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Taken as bycatch in fisheries off Japan and Taiwan (Compagno in prep.). Apparently confused with other <em>Squalus</em> species in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2006). A localised fishery targeting deepwater sharks operates in Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, using bottom longlines and trawls (Compagno in prep. and S. Tanaka, pers. obs. 2007). There are no species specific catch data available to determine the quantities retained or discarded. Off Taiwan, trawling occurs from 200 to 600 m, but mainly above 400 m (B. Séret, and P.F. Lee pers. comm. 2006). The depth distribution of the species lies entirely within the range of fisheries in Taiwan, where it is also likely taken as bycatch by trawl and longline fisheries.	eng
161434	conservation	Bates, H. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	None in place for this species. <br/><br/>Part of the Eastern Banded Catshark's known range falls within the boundaries of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park where commercial and recreational fisheries are managed by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 2008). Management plans are in place and implemented within the park and surrounding regions and biodiversity surveys are conducted. Approximately one third of this marine park is completely closed to fishing, and should thus provide refuge for this species. <br/><br/>Further information is required on the life-history, habitat preferences and population status of this uncommon species. Additional information is also required to determine the extent of the species? distribution.	eng
161434	distribution	Bates, H. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Western Central Pacific: Occurs across northeastern Australia in the Arafura Sea, the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Torres Strait, and on the east coast of Australia south to Gladstone (22°S) (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). Records of this species are sporadic across this distribution, but it may occur in other areas of northeastern Australia where it has not yet been recorded.	eng
161434	habitat	Bates, H. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	This demersal shark is known from depths of 11?74 m (mostly <50 m) on sandy to coarse rubble substrates (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). Very little information is currently available on this species? biology and ecology. The largest recorded specimen is a female, measuring 48.4 mm total length (TL). Females have been recorded as sexually mature at 35.4 cm TL, and males at 34.5 cm TL (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007). No details are available on reproductive biology, although the species is expected to be oviparous (Jacobsen and Bennett 2007).	eng
161434	population	Bates, H. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	The Eastern Banded Catshark appears to be an uncommon species, as it is known from only a moderate number of specimens, and despite extensive sampling across most of its known range, it is rarely recorded. When Compagno and Stevens (1993) described the Banded Catshark (<em>Atelomycterus fasciatus</em>) they included material from the Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Straits of what is now considered the Eastern Banded Catshark (<em>A. marnkalha</em>) (<em>A. fasciatus</em> is endemic to northwestern Australia). Until 2002 however, the species went unrecorded on the east coast of Australia, which is somewhat surprising as considerable sampling has occurred in its distribution, habitat and depth range.	eng
161434	threats	Bates, H. & Kyne, P.M., 2008	Eastern Banded Catshark is a minor bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries which operate across its range. It is caught in very low numbers in both the Northern Prawn Fishery, where it was recorded in only 0.5% of trawls (Stobutzki <em>et al</em>. 2002; as <em>A. fasciatus</em>) and in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, where despite extensive surveying, only three specimens have been recorded in the bycatch of the scallop sector (central Queensland coast) (P.M. Kyne, unpublished data). This species is of no commercial value and is discarded at sea.	eng
161435	conservation	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Iglésias, S., 2008	None in place.	eng
161435	distribution	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Iglésias, S., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan (Hokkaido and Honshu to okinawa), Korea, China and possibly Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161435	habitat	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Iglésias, S., 2008	Found close inshore to depths of at least 320 m on the continental shelf and upper slopes. Reproduction is oviparous. This species is at least 8 cm long when hatched and grows to a maximum length of 48 cm, with males maturing at 41?48 cm and females maturing at 39 cm and above (Horie and Tanaka 2002, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Further biological data is available from Horie and Tanaka (2002): Size at sexual maturity appears to increase with declining water temperature (Horie and Tanaka 2002).	eng
161435	population	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Iglésias, S., 2008	Thought to be common in its areas of occurrence (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161435	threats	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Iglésias, S., 2008	Captured incidentally by commercial trawl, nets, bottom gill-nets and bottom longline fishing, and  usually discarded (Horie and Tanaka 2002). This species comprised 40% of discarded fish in Yamaguchi Prefecture, southern Japan (Horie and Tanaka 2002). Discard survivorship may be high as the species appears to be hardy.	eng
161436	conservation	Stehmann, M., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess this species vulnerability and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161436	distribution	Stehmann, M., 2007	Occurs from about 35°N to 40°S on shallow shelves (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Western central and southwest Atlantic: from South Carolina, USA south to Patagonia, Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161436	habitat	Stehmann, M., 2007	Found inshore to a depth of at least 181 m (Menni and Stehmann 2000). This species is capable of travelling long distances (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). <br/><br/>This species reaches a maximum size of 99 cm disc width (DW), females mature at around 70 cm DW and males mature at around 45?55 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, M. Stehmann pers.obs.). Produces around six offspring per litter (M. Stehmann pers. obs.), but little else is known of its biology. Its food consists of crustaceans and bivalves (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161436	population	Stehmann, M., 2007	Apparently moderately common. It is possible that several subpopulations exist (M. Stehmann pers. obs.). Of much higher abundance than <em>M. freminvillii</em> off Argentina (Menni and Stehmann 2000), but it is easily confused with that species.	eng
161436	threats	Stehmann, M., 2007	This species is caught in artisanal fisheries with trammel nets and longlines. It is also a regular bycatch component in local and regional coastal trawl fisheries for shrimps and finfishes. (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, M. Stehmann pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on the inshore coastal environment is fairly intensive across large parts of this species? distribution, and its inshore coastal occurrence and low fecundity may make it susceptible to localised population reductions. Across Caribbean South America and parts of Brazil, trawling and inshore netting is intensive and this eagle ray is reported to be a regular bycatch of coastal trawl and other net fisheries in South America.<br/><br/>Snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana, although no information is available on bycatch (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium- and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Shrimp trawl fisheries are also intense in many parts of this region. For example, trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch. <br/><br/>Off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing activities are intensive, <em>Myliobatis</em> species are a bycatch of various artisanal and industrial fisheries (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Significant declines have been documented for other batoid species which rely on the inshore environment (i.e. the Brazilian guitarfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinobatos horkelii</span>), but it is uncertain how this fishing pressure has affected eagle rays.	eng
161437	conservation	Séret, B., 2008	Further surveys to better define the species' range and careful monitoring of any future deep sea fishing activities are required. The collection of further specimens is also needed to obtain biological data.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161437	distribution	Séret, B., 2008	Western central Pacific: Tablas Straits and Mindanao Sea (east of Bohol), Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161437	habitat	Séret, B., 2008	Bathydemersal deep water species known from two specimens collected from the insular slope 673?1,070 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). They are immature at 38 cm total length (TL) and the largest known specimen measures 51 cm TL (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Virtually nothing is known of the biology of this species.	eng
161437	population	Séret, B., 2008	Known only from two specimens.	eng
161437	threats	Séret, B., 2008	<em>P. profundicolus</em> is only known from two specimens and the threats to this species are thus little known. Deepwater fisheries are relatively restricted off the Philippines at present, and this species probably occurs beyond the range of current fishing pressure. The species may be vulnerable to fisheries if they expand in this area in the future.	eng
161438	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	None in place. Efforts should be made to collect species specific catch data. Future surveys should aim to further define this species? distribution and identify population trends.	eng
161438	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Northwest Pacific: southern Japan to the South China Sea including Ryukyu Islands and Viet Nam (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161438	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Habitat and biology are poorly known. The largest catalogued specimen is a female measuring 55.2 cm total length (TL). Adult males measure ~45 cm TL (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161438	population	White, W.T., 2008	Commonly caught in some areas of Japan and Taiwan and appears to be relatively abundant.	eng
161438	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Caught by bottom trawls and longlines in some parts of its range. Fisheries off the eastern coast of Taiwan, Province of China have moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, particularly around Ta-Shi, from 100?300 m fishing depth to >300 m currently (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Squlaus</em> species are recorded in catches off Vietnam (SEAFDEC 2006) but nothing is known of the amount of this species taken or the level and impact of fisheries on this species. For example, bottom longline fisheries operate around the Paracel islands, Vietnam at depths >100 m. Sharks account for 45?100% of the total catch with 400?4,000 kg captured per boat (N. long pers. comm. 2007), however, no species specific information is available. In southern Vietnam, off Phu Quy island only about a 100 boats are still targeting sharks due to a general decline in the level of shark catch (N. long pers. comm. 2007), however no data are available to confirm which species have been impacted. In this area fishing boats have switched to targeting snapper and grouper or cuttlefish and squid (N. long pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Other <em>Squalus</em> species in the northwest and Western Central Pacific are targeted and valuable for their liver oil, however, because of species misidentification and confusion no specific information on the utilization of this species is currently available.	eng
161439	conservation	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Further information on the species’ life history would also be beneficial for future assessments.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Southeast Asia and indeed elsewhere in the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. kuhliii</em> and other chondrichthyans. The capture of mobulid rays in the Philippines was banned with a Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO 193) (known as the “Whale shark and Manta Ray Ban”), issued in 1988.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.<br/><br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
161439	distribution	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific: the range of this species is not well documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b), but it is reported from South Africa (edge of range), Tanzania (Zanzibar), India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Seychelles (Compagno and Last 1997), Malaysia (Ahmed <em>et al.</em> 2004), Oman (Randall 1995), Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) and Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161439	habitat	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	An uncommon inshore, primarily shelf pelagic species found in continental coastal areas but not extending into the epipelagic zone (Compagno and Last 1999).<br/><br/>As with all Myliobatiformes, the reproductive mode of <em>M. kuhlii</em> is livebearing and histotrophic, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. A single, relatively large pup is produced per litter (Compagno and Last 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006b). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. This species feeds on planktonic crustaceans and possibly small fishes and cephalopods (Sommer <em>et al</em>. 1996, White <em>et al</em>. 2006b) and reaches a maximum size of about 119 cm disc width (DW) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b). Size at birth is around 31 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). Males mature at 115–119 cm (DW) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006b).	eng
161439	population	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Uncommon (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
161439	threats	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., White, W.T. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Mobulid rays are taken by surface gill net, longline, purse seine and directed harpoons throughout much of their range, however detailed information on these fisheries is poorly documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).<br/><br/><em>Mobula kuhlii </em>is vulnerable to net gear, in particular gill nets, and is taken as a target or utilised bycatch in Indonesia and likely throughout much of its range. In Indonesia mobulid rays are landed as bycatch by artisanal gillnet fishers who target tuna. White <em>et al.</em> (2006a) conducted a study of the bycatch of mobulid rays in the drift gillnet fishery for skipjack tuna off Indonesia. Of 409 mobulid rays observed at four landing sites in eastern Indonesia from April 2001 to October 2005, <em>M. kuhlii </em>was the most rarely recorded and composed only 2% of the total rays, in this part of its range.<br/><br/>The high value of gill rakers in some areas is driving a dramatic increase in the catch of mobulids in Indonesia, where some fishers are now targeting devil rays, and their meat, cartilage and skin are also utilised (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although specific catch details are unavailable because of poor documentation in fisheries, mobulid rays appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and a gestation period assumed to be 1–3 years) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).<br/><br/>Directed mobulid fisheries have also been reported in other areas of this species’ range, including India, Sri Lanka and Thailand (Compagno and Last 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Given the vulnerable life-history characteristics of this species, it is highly unlikely to be able to sustain continued directed fishing. Manta rays were targeted in the Philippines until protection was introduced for them in this area in 1988, as a result of international concern for the sustainability of such fisheries (see Conservation Measures below) (White <em>et al. </em>2006a). Directed artisanal elasmobranch and ray fisheries using surface and bottom gillnet and line, also operate off Tanzania and a variety of artisanal multi-species artisanal net and line fisheries operate off South Africa (www.wiofish.org).Traditional fisheries for rays operate off Oman, using bottom lines and fixed gillnets. Rays are also often caught incidentally using beach seines off Oman (FAO 2008). Furthermore this species’ preference for coastal waters places it within the range of inshore fisheries, which are known to be intensive in many parts of its range, including India, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Indonesia (Young <em>et al. </em>2005, Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Mngulwi 2006, Morgan 2006).<br/><br/>A recent review of the state of marine capture fisheries management in the Indian Ocean, noted that directed fisheries for sharks and rays exist in the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa and Tanzania and their status is considered probably fully to overexploited in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). The same review noted that ‘Rays, stingrays, mantas nei’ (a catch category that includes mobulid rays) are moderately to fully exploited in Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). The life-history characteristics of this species, including very low fecundity, make it more vulnerable to exploitation relative to other more productive species of elasmobranchs included under these categories.<br/><br/>Mobulid rays are valuable for their branchial fiter plates, which are exported from Indonesia to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore and ground down for use in traditional Chinese medicines (White <em>et al. </em>2006a). The skins, cartilage and flesh are also utilised for human consumption and the cartilage also used as a ‘filler’ for low-grade shark fin soup (White <em>et al.</em> 2006a).	eng
161440	conservation	Huveneers, C., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161440	distribution	Huveneers, C., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	Western Central Atlantic: from southern Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Lesser Antilles, Honduras, and Panama (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161440	habitat	Huveneers, C., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	A small deep-water skate, found at depths of 412?576 m (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Attains at least 58 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Its biology is virtually unknown. Presumably oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161440	population	Huveneers, C., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	This species may be rare and is known only from a few specimens (McEachran, J. pers. comm.). Population size is unknown.	eng
161440	threats	Huveneers, C., McEachran, J.D. & McCormack, C., 2008	Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries, but no specific information is available.	eng
161441	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	The biology of this species is virtually unknown. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution and range of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161441	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Molokai) (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161441	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species found at 406–911 m on or near the bottom on insular slopes (Compagno in prep.). The holotype is immature at 17 cm TL and maximum size is reported to 46 cm TL; however the species is known from very few specimens and its biology is virtually unknown (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161441	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Known from very few specimens.	eng
161441	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The bottom fish fishery operating in the Hawaiian Archipelago targets deepsea snappers (<em>Etelis</em> and <em>Pristipomoides</em> species), which are most common at <300 m depth (DLNR 2002). This species occurs beyond current fishing pressure. Any development of fisheries to greater depths in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this endemic species is not adversely affected.	eng
161442	conservation	Clarke, M., White, W. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	No measures in place. It is recommended that species-specific monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends is carried out, as well as monitoring of fisheries expanding within its range.	eng
161442	distribution	Clarke, M., White, W. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: Portugal, Morocco, Canary Islands, Senegal, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Gulf of Guinea, Cameroon (Compagno in prep). Records of this species from elsewhere may be misidentifications (see ?Taxonomy? for further information).	eng
161442	habitat	Clarke, M., White, W. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Found over the outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths between 300 and 1,400 m, and mostly between 300 and 600 m (Compagno in prep.). They have been taken at 370?610 m in the Eastern North Atlantic (Compagno in prep). It has also been reported at depths of 433?500 m off northern Mozambique, although this may refer to another species (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the biology of this species. Maximum size is about 100 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.). A juvenile male and an adult male both measured 75 cm TL (Compagno in prep.). Four adult females (one pregnant) were 86?95 cm long (Compagno in prep.). Ovoviviparous reproduction, with one to six pups per litter (Compagno 1984). Size at birth is uncertain, but a near-term foetus was 33 cm TL (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161442	population	Clarke, M., White, W. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Little specific information is available on the population of this species. However, information is available on population trends for the similar species, <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, which occurs within this species? range (see ?Threats? section).	eng
161442	threats	Clarke, M., White, W. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	This species is of concern because of its limited range, extremely low fecundity and subjection to deepwater fisheries in the northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic (Compagno in prep.). This species is utilized in the eastern Atlantic, and captured there in bottom trawls and with fixed bottom nets and line gear (Compagno in prep.). It is potentially threatened in any area where there is a targeted fishery.<br/><br/>The Portuguese longline fishery which targets Black Scabbard Fish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) at depths of 800?1,200 m off the coast of Portugal (ICES Subarea IX) takes a bycatch of the deepwater sharks, including <em>Centrophorus</em> species (ICES 2007). A Spanish longline fishery for <em>Pagellus bogaraveo</em> and a bottom trawl fishery off southern Portugal, which targets some deepwater crustaceans also take a bycatch of deepwater sharks (ICES 2007). In 2006 a new deep-water gillnet fishery was also initiated in this area and in waters northwest of Spain (ICES 2007). Off Portugal (ICES Subarea IX) the target species of this fishery are deep-water crab (283 tons) and several deep-water sharks (135 tons, plus 31 tons of livers and oil) (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Identification problems mean that this species is commonly confused with its congener <em>C. granulosus</em>. <em>C. granulosus</em> is estimated to have undergone declines of 80?95% where it is fished in the northeast Atlantic. ICES (2006) landings data from the Portuguese coast show a strong estimated decline in <em>C. granulosus</em> catch from about 1,000 t in 1990 to less than 100 t in 2004 (Guallart <em>et al</em>. 2006). As <em>C. lusitanicus</em> is present along with <em>C. granulosus</em> in the Portuguese fishery it is highly likely that it has also been impacted. <em>Centrophorus</em> spp are very slow to mature, have extremely low fecundity and reproductive output, making them intrinsically very vulnerable to population depletion (longevity >30 years and one pup produced every two years). This is a large, heavy-built species (possibly reaches greater than 1 m length) and may therefore be even more biologically vulnerable to depletion than other <em>Centrophorus</em> species.<br/><br/>Deepwater fisheries also operate in the Eastern Central Atlantic and deepwater sharks are known to be targeted in some areas off Senegal. Off Kayar and Dakar, Senegal, an artisanal fishery targets <em>Centrophorus</em> species (including <em>C. lusitanicus</em>) for their liver oil (Direction des Pêches Maritimes du Sénégal 2007). The fishery uses gillnets to target deepwater sharks for part of the year. Fisheries are beginning to operate in deeper waters due to declines in catches of more coastal species (L. Mbaye pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>There is an upper slope fishery off Mauritania for hake that takes <em>Centrophorus</em> species as a bycatch (Fernandez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Important species within this group are <em>Centrophorus granulosus</em>, <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Centroscymnus crepidater</em>, <em>Dalatias licha</em>, <em>Deania profundorum</em>, and <em>Deania calcea</em>. In their study of landed bycatch from this fishery from 1992?2001, Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005) report that the catch of these squalids declined from 158 tons (87% of elasmobranch landings) in 1992 to 22 tons (59%) in 2001, with a minimum of 3.5 tons in 1999. The decline may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species. The fishery operates from 140?750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). Although this species is not currently reported from Mauritania, the trend for fisheries to expand into deeper waters in the Eastern Central Atlantic is of concern. Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available to assess their impact on demersal stocks (Fernández <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161443	conservation	Coelho, R., Tanaka, S. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	None.	eng
161443	distribution	Coelho, R., Tanaka, S. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Widespread, but patchy distribution in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. <br/><br/>Western Central Atlantic: northern Gulf of México (USA, México). Southwest Atlantic: northeastern Brazil (States of Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco and Alagoas), southern Brazil, through Uruguay to Argentina. Central south Atlantic: oceanic between Argentina and South Africa. Northeast, eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Portugal, Madeira, Azores, Canary Islands, Liberia, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast to Gabon, Zaïre, Angola and Namibia. Western Indian: South Africa. Eastern Indian: Australia (Tasmania). Southwest Pacific: Australia (New South Wales) and New Zealand. Northwest Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984, Last and Stevens 1994, Cox and Francis 1997, Soto 2001, Compagno in prep. a).	eng
161443	habitat	Coelho, R., Tanaka, S. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Etmopterus pusillus</span> is found on or near the bottom of continental and insular slopes at depths of 150?1,000 m (possibly to 1,998 m); also oceanic in the Central South Atlantic from the surface to 710 m (Krefft 1980). In Moroccan waters, <em></em>the species is subdominant and mainly occurs at depths of 400?600 m (Litvinov 1993). The species is very common in Sierra Leone waters at depths of 200?500 m (Litvinov 1993). In Cape Verde this species is frequently caught at Nova Holanda Seamount, Maio, Santo Antao, South Nocolau, and Sal, between 400?1,100 m, but usually from 650?750 m. In Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, mature and immature <em>E. pusillus</em> are segregated by depth. Immature sharks (16.5?32.7 cm TL) are captured by bottom trawl nets at depths of 150?411 m. Mature sharks (<42.3 cm TL) are captured on bottom longlines in deeper water (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Very little is known about this species habitat, ecology and biology. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Total length (TL) at first maturity is 38?47 cm in females and 31?39 cm in males (Compagno in prep.). Data from off Portugal in the eastern Atlantic gives estimates of 38.1 cm TL for males and 43.6 cm TL for females (Coelho and Erzini 2005). Considering the observed maximum sizes of this population (47.9 cm for males and 50.2 cm for females), this species matures extremely late in its life cycle: 86.9% of the maximum size for females and 79.5% of the maximum size for males (Coelho and Erzini 2005). Size at birth (taken from final stage embryos) is 12.1?13.5 cm TL (Coelho unpublished data). Ovarian fecundity ranges from 8?18 eggs and uterine fecundity ranges from one to six embryos (Coelho unpub. data). In Suruga Bay, Honshu, Japan, female size at maturity is estimated at 47 cm TL and male size at maturity 38?41 cm TL (Shirai and Tachikawa 1993, S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Feeds on fish eggs, lanternfish, squid, and other small dogfish (Compagno in prep.). Off the coast of Namibia and South Africa, <em>E. pusillus</em> eats cephalopods, hake (Merluccidae, <em>Merluccius</em> spp.), lanternfish (Myctophidae, <em>Diaphus</em>), and small squaloid sharks (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161443	population	Coelho, R., Tanaka, S. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	<em>Etmopterus pusillus</em> is much less common than <em>E. spinax</em>, although it may occur within the same depth range off Morocco to Mauritania (Gulyugin <em>et al.</em> 2006). Catch per unit effort data are available from trawls conducted off Portugal in the eastern Atlantic, at depths of 84?786 m; abundance peaked at 400 m depth, with captures of 1.5 individuals per hour.	eng
161443	threats	Coelho, R., Tanaka, S. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Although <em>E. pusillus</em> is of little interest to global fisheries, it is a bycatch of bottom trawls operating in the eastern Atlantic, fixed bottom nets, and line gear (Compagno in prep.). Although discarded by fisheries off southern Portugal, it is probably a utilized bycatch elsewhere in the eastern Atlantic. In Suruga Bay, Japan, this species is taken as bycatch by trawlnet fisheries and is usually discarded.<br/><br/>This species is captured in several fisheries off the southern Portuguese coast. Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) data for deep-water longlines set at 200?780 m depth have increased from 2.23 specimens of <em>E. pusillus</em> per 1,000 hooks (s.d.=2.72) in 1997?1998 (Erzini <em>et al</em>. 1999, Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2005) to 4.03 specimens per 1,000 hooks in 2003 (s.d.=2.30) (R. Coelho unpub. data). This represents an increase in CPUE of 80%. All samples were taken aboard commercial fishing vessels, where a number of variables cannot be standardized, namely the number of fishing days per specific depth, the number of fishing days per specific site, the number of fishing days per specific season, the size of the hooks and the bait used. Off southern Portugal, the species is also captured in high quantities as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery that targets Norway Lobster (<em>Nephrops norvegicus</em>), Red Shrimp (<em>Aristeus antennatus</em>) and Deepwater Pink Shrimp (<em>Parapenaeus longirostris</em>), and by the near bottom longline fishery that targets European Hake (<em>Merluccius merluccius</em>), Conger Eels (<em>Conger conger</em>) and Wreck Fish (<em>Polyprion americanus</em>). <em>Etmopterus pusillus</em> are apparently discarded by all fisheries off southern Portugal, and therefore no landings data are available for these fisheries (Coelho <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Off the coast of western Africa (Namibia) in the southeast Atlantic, <em>E. pusillus</em> is caught occasionally in bottom and midwater trawls (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). The species is also presumably caught in deepwater trawls off Mauritania and Morocco as a result of the new silver scabbard deepwater longline fishery, which began in 2001, off Morocco (H. Masski pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries throughout the rest of its range, however these are not thought to pose a significant threat to the global population at present.<br/><br/>This species is utilized (dried-salted) for human consumption and for fishmeal in some areas (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161444	conservation	Orlov, A. M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on this species.	eng
161444	distribution	Orlov, A. M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Northwest Pacific: off the coast of Tohoku, Japan, and in the Sea of Okhotsk off western Kamchatka, eastern Sakhalin and southern Kuril Islands (Ishihara 1990, Russian Government Data).	eng
161444	habitat	Orlov, A. M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Found on the continental slope at 1,776?2,500 m depth (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). This species attains at least 94 cm TL (Russian State unpublished data). Virtually nothing is known about the species ecology and biology. Egg capsules measure 85 mm long x 49 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).	eng
161444	population	Orlov, A. M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	Apparently rare. Only one specimen is presently known from the Japanese waters (Dolganov 1985). Eight specimens have been recorded in the Sea of Okhotsk (Russian Government data). Frequency of occurrence in the Sea of Okhotsk during 1989 bottom trawl survey comprised 0.8% with catch rates of 0.2 specimens and 0.2 kg per hour trawling, which suggests that this species is very uncommon at the depths sampled (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).	eng
161444	threats	Orlov, A. M., Ishihara, H. & McCormack, C., 2004	The very deep distribution of the species means that it most likely occurs beyond the depths of most fisheries. The situation should be monitored if fisheries expand to greater depths in the future.	eng
161445	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E., Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. The full depth and distributional range of this species requires further research. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161445	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E., Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: Pakistan, west coast of India (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Eastern Indian Ocean: East coast of India (originally described from Tranquebar, south of Pondicherry), Myanmar (Carvalho 1999) and Sri Lanka (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra) (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Occurs in the Gulf of Thailand, although it is apparently rare there (Carvalho 1999). Northwest Pacific: Occurs in the South China Sea, although it appears to be rare there (Carvalho 1999). Occurs off China, Taiwan and Japan (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
161445	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E., Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	An inshore and offshore numbfish of continental tropical waters (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999). Males have been reported to mature at over 27 cm total length (TL) in the Gulf of Tonkin and over 24 cm TL off Malaysia (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005). Only one female specimen of 36.4 cm TL is known and is presumed to be mature (Carvalho 1999). Specimens of 5.5 cm TL may be free-swimming as they lack yolk sacs (Carvalho 1999). The maximum size reached by this species is at least 38 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>1999).	eng
161445	population	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E., Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	Locally common (Yano <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161445	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E., Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in areas of its range, although no specific details are available. Pollution and discharge of poor quality, heavily silted riverine waters may also be detrimentally affecting its habitat.	eng
161446	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological, range and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161446	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from southern Florida, Cuba, southern Gulf of Mexico, and eastern Yucatán (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161446	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2007	A demersal species found along the continental shelf and upper slope from 32?384 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).This species reaches a maximum size of at least 41 cm total length (TL) and mature males have been known at 41 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), but may mature at a smaller size). It is presumably oviparous as in other skates, but little else is known of its biology.	eng
161446	population	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
161446	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This species may be taken as bycatch by shrimp trawl fisheries, although no information on catches is available.	eng
161447	conservation	Marshall, A.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2004	None currently in place. Recommended: Monitoring of fishing effort within the region and specific catches of this guitarfish to detect potential declines in population size. Closer look at range of this species and use of specific critical costal habitats.	eng
161447	distribution	Marshall, A.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: from the northern Red Sea to Oman, including Sudan, Egypt and possibly Saudi Arabia (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).	eng
161447	habitat	Marshall, A.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2004	Tropical warm waters areas of the inshore continental shelf at depths of 10–70 (A. Henderson unpublished data). Bottom dwelling like other similar species of guitarfish, feeds on small crustaceans. Reproduction is ovoviviparous and the species reaches at least 88cm total length (TL) (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Maximum litter size is seven and size at birth is ~25 cm TL (A. Henderson unpublished data). The species appears to mature at <62 cm TL (A. Henderson unpublished data).	eng
161447	population	Marshall, A.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2004	Population size unknown, but this is not a rare species (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161447	threats	Marshall, A.D. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2004	Caught incidentally with bottom trawls in the northern Red Sea and utilized fresh for human consumption (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Target fisheries for guitarfish also currently exist in the Red Sea, especially in the north. The species is taken as bycatch off Oman and sold fresh for consumption, but it is usually only seen in small numbers at the markets (A. Henderson pers. obs. 2008). Taiwanese operated fishing vessels reportedly fish for shark fin off East Africa and the Middle East in the Western Indian Ocean (IOTC 2005). These vessels reportedly target hammerhead sharks and giant guitarfish (IOTC 2005). Guitarfish fins are highly valued and these vessels may take <em>Rhinobatos punctifer</em> off Oman, in the northern part of their reported range of operation. Little is known of this species’ biology or habitat but guitarfishes but, like other guitarfishes, their young may use coastal nursery grounds that are easily impacted by habitat degradation through pollution and coastal development.	eng
161448	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161448	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest  Pacific: Japan and Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: New Caledonia, Vanuatu (B. Séret. pers. comm. 2006) and possibly Java, Indonesia (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161448	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Probably demersal on outer continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 120–210 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also reported at depths of 561–564 m off Vanuatu 300–793 m off New Caledonia. Biology is unknown, but reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Attains a maximum size of approximately 30 cm total length (Compagno and Niem 1998). Feeds on squids (Compagno and Niem 1998).	eng
161448	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161448	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The depth distribution of the species may lie within the range of fisheries in Japan, Taiwan and possibly Indonesia. It is a rare and inedible species in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006) and is therefore not targeted, but may potentially be taken as bycatch and possibly utilized for liver oil. In eastern Indonesia, deepsea longline fisheries operate from 150–600 m with the majority of fishing occurring in depths of less than 300 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Commercial prawn trawlers are known to land substantial catches of elasmobranchs as bycatch. So far trawling is restricted to shallower water, however according to White <em>et al.</em> (2006), in the future, trawl methods may be adopted in deeper water, especially if foreign fishing vessels are allowed access to Indonesian waters. Future expansion of the deepsea fishery in Indonesia is highly likely, with the potential to rapidly deplete the vulnerable deepwater chondrichthyan fauna (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species has been found at greater depths off New Caladonia and Vanuatu. Deepwater fisheries are very uncommon in this region. Like other Etmopterus species, this species is not targeted, most likely discarded if caught, and unlikely to be caught frequently on large commercial fishing hooks.	eng
161449	conservation	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Further specimens are required to obtain information on life history.	eng
161449	distribution	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Restricted range in the western central Atlantic: USA (southern Florida), Bahamas and northern Cuba (Compagno in prep. b.).	eng
161449	habitat	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Upper continental slope at depths of 229?550 m (most records below 366 m) (Compagno in prep. b.). Virtually nothing known of the species? biology. Reaches a maximum size of ~32 cm TL (Compagno in prep. b.).	eng
161449	population	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	Reported to be uncommon (Compagno in prep. b.).	eng
161449	threats	Sherrill-Mix, S.A. & Burgess, G.H., 2004	May be taken in demersal deepwater trawl fisheries, but this species is very rarely caught (J. Castro, pers. comm.).	eng
161450	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.	eng
161450	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central Pacific: collected from the continental slope off Tanimbar Island in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161450	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Recorded on the continental slope at depths of 840–855 m. The only specimen, a juvenile male, measured 36 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161450	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Known only from a single specimen.	eng
161450	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Uncertain.	eng
161451	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161451	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Eastern central Pacific: Gulf of California, Mexico. East and north of Angel de la Guarda Island in the northern Gulf and west  of Santa Cruz and Monserrat Islands and in Bahia La Ventana in the southern Gulf. (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also off southwest coast of the Peninsula of Baja California, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161451	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This species occurs in the Gulf of California from 100?281 m depth. It is thought to occur from 100 m depth in the southern Gulf and below 200 m in the northern Gulf (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005). Males of this species reach at least 109 cm total length (TL) and females at least 118 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males and females are thought to mature at between 90?99 and 94?98 cm TL, respectively (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Reproduction in this species is placental viviparity, and liter size is 3?23 (mean 16); embryos measure 25?34 cm TL (mean 29 cm), suggesting young are likely to be born between 30?35 cm TL (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161451	population	Cronin, E.S., 2007	A recently described species; population size is unknown at present.	eng
161451	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2007	In some areas of the Gulf of California smoothounds represent 79% of the catch in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Márquez-Farias 2000). These catches have not been recorded for each species as they had not been adequately distinguished previously (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>In the Northern Gulf of California, this species was only caught in March of 2003 and 2004 as trawler vessels targeting Hake (Merluccius productus) only fish from January to April at below 150 m. During the rest of the year, the trawl vessels fish at shallower depths to target other teleosts, shrimps and some elasmobranchs (Pérez-Jiménez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). This may offer some refuge from fishing pressure during these periods, although no information is available on the capture of this species in other fisheries. Extensive artisanal coastal gillnet fisheries also operate in the Gulf of California and may take this species as bycatch.	eng
161452	conservation	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place for this species.<br/><br/>The trawl fisheries operating off California are slowly closing down and fleets are 25% of what they used to be (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). The Davidson Seamount, located 75 km off the central Californian Coast (within the known range of this species) has been proposed as a Marine Protected Area (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Like many deeper water species more information on biology and ecology are required.	eng
161452	distribution	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: from the Navarin Canyon, Eastern Bering Sea to Panama (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941, Ebert 2003).	eng
161452	habitat	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	A deepwater skate occurring on the continental slope at depths ranging from 846 to 2,324 m (Ebert 2003). Feeds on cephalopods, crustaceans, and small fishes (Ebert 2003). This species is often seen in ROV footage on deep rocky relief areas (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Males reach maturity at 86 to 83 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2003). Maximum size is 99 cm TL and size at birth ~23 cm TL (Ebert 2003).	eng
161452	population	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	The species is only known from few specimens scattered throughout its broad geographic range. Population size is unknown. Commonly seen in ROV footage below 1,500 m, along the whole of the eastern North Pacific Coast (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161452	threats	Davis, C.D. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Potentially taken as bycatch in deepwater sablefish longline fisheries (in southern California to approximately 600 to 1,200 m), operating in the shallower depths of this species’ range, although there are no records of this over the past five years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). However its wide depth range offers a refuge beyond the depths of most fisheries. This species’ apparent habitat preference for rocky reefs precludes its capture in most trawl fisheries (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161453	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Morey, G. & Ellis, J.R., 2003	<em>D. pastinaca</em> is protected within five of the six existing Balearic Island marine reserves. Although artisanal fishing is allowed within these marine protected areas (MPAs), these stingrays must be released alive if caught. Accurate monitoring of artisanal catch in those areas where the species is very commonly taken is needed to provide information on the size of the population.	eng
161453	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Morey, G. & Ellis, J.R., 2003	Eastern Atlantic: from southern Norway and the UK to South Africa, including the Canary Islands, Madeira, western Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Marmara (Bilecenoglu <em>et al</em>. 2002, Serena 2005). In Celtic Seas this species is regarded as a vagrant from more southern waters (ICES 2005a). The few observations of this species in the North Sea are restricted to Shetland waters and the southern North Sea, where they are occasionally caught in inshore surveys (ICES 2005b). This ray has a higher presence in the western-central Mediterranean area (coasts of Morocco, Spain, France, Tyrrhenian, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) than elsewhere in the Mediterranean region (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
161453	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Morey, G. & Ellis, J.R., 2003	<em>Dasyatis pastinaca</em> is a demersal brackish to marine water species, found over sandy and muddy bottoms from shallow waters to a depth of approximately 200 m (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984), although it seems to be most abundant in inshore waters. Bottom trawl surveys in the Mediterranean Sea suggest that it is more common in waters <50 m depth (Morey <em>et al.</em> In review, Massuti and Moranta 2003, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000). This species can sometimes inhabit areas close to estuaries and over rocky reefs. Depth distribution of the biomass index shows values of 1¬?10 kg/km² between depths of 0?100 m, and 0.1?1 kg/km² at depths of 100?200 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>D. pastinaca</em> reaches a maximum reported size of 140 cm disc width (DW) and 250 cm total length (TL) (Bauchot 1987, Fisher <em>et al. </em>1987, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). The size at maturity of females is estimated at about 38 cm DW (Capape <em>et al. </em>1996) and 60 cm TL/28 cm DW (Ismen 2003). Males mature at a smaller size, estimates ranging from 32 cm DW (Capape <em>et al. </em>1996) and 50 cm TL/26 cm DW (Ismen 2003). The age at maturity and longevity of this species is unknown.<br/><br/>Females reproduce twice a year (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998), however the reproductive age and period of gestation is unknown. In the northern Adriatic, reproduction takes place between September and May, during which pregnant females approach the coast. Bini (1967) reported that pupping occurred between July and August, and 4?9 pups/litter are produced (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Several localities where the species aggregates during mid June and July are known in the Balearic Islands. These aggregations of mature stingrays are probably related to reproduction (Morey <em>et al. </em>in review.). Young specimens are common in shallow waters over sandy bottoms, and parturition was reported to occur in early July in the eastern Mediterranean (Ismen 2003). Neonates are approximately 20 cm TL (8 cm DW) (Ismen 2003). The rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.<br/><br/><em>D. pastinaca</em> feed mainly on demersal and benthic animals, such as crustaceans, cephalopods, clams, polychaetes and fish (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead<em> et al.</em> 1984). In a study by Ismen (2003), crustaceans represented more than 99% of the diet when pooling all size classes, but teleost fish were of increasing importance in the diet of larger stingrays.	eng
161453	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Morey, G. & Ellis, J.R., 2003	<strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>There is no information on the size of the population of this species within the Mediterranean, however the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) from 1994?1999 revealed a low frequency of occurrence for <em>D. pastinaca</em>. It appeared in 49 hauls, which was only 0.5% of the total number of hauls, but these surveys only sampled depths from 50?800 m and this species is more common in shallow waters <50 m depth. Comparative trawl surveys conducted in 1948 (Hvar) and 1998 (MEDITS) in the Adriatic Sea (both up to 400 m depth) suggest that the abundance of <em>D. pastinaca</em> may have decreased during this period. The frequency of occurrence (frequency log transformed data) of <em>D. pastinaca</em> on the shelf according to the 1948 survey was ~0.5, whereas frequency of occurrence on the shelf in the 1998 survey was <0.1 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al. </em>2001). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Northeast Atlantic the common stingray is clearly less abundant than in the Mediterranean. <em>D. pastinaca</em> has reportedly disappeared from the Bay of Biscay (Quero1998), as observed for other demersal elasmobranch species. The average catch rate for this species caught during the quarter 1 IBTS in the North Sea, Skagerrak and Kattegat is 0.0006 (number per hour, 1977?2004) (ICES 2005b). Within UK groundfish surveys, <em>Dasyatis pastinaca</em> was only recorded occasionally in the western English Channel at depths of 17?160 m (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161453	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Morey, G. & Ellis, J.R., 2003	This species is taken as bycatch and is sometimes targeted in semi-industrial, small-scale and commercial bottom trawl, gillnet, beach seine, bottom longline and trammelnet fisheries. Commercial fishermen often cut off the tails of stingrays following capture and prior to discarding, although it is unclear as to how this affects discard survival (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998). Little data are available on catches as a result of discarding at sea. The species? preference for shallow waters (<50 m) makes it more vulnerable to small-scale inshore fisheries than to offshore trawling. For example, <em>D. pastinaca</em> made up more than 40% of the elasmobranch biomass captured in the trammel net fishery off the Balearic Islands (Morey <em>et al</em>. in review.). Small scale fisheries operating within this species? shallow water range in the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic make up an important component of the European fishing fleet (Stergiou <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species was not recorded in recent (1999-2000) experimental fishing trials with trammel nets conducted within several parts of this species? known range in the Mediterranean and northeast Atlantic (Stergiou <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a ban on trawling within 3 nm of the coast for EU countries, however there are some exceptions to this, and both legal and illegal trawling continues to occur in shallow waters in parts of the northern Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Important grounds for reproduction (mating, parturition, nursery areas) seem to be associated with shallow sandy bottoms, which human disturbance (e.g. tourism activities on beaches) or fishing pressure (trammel and gillnets targeting cuttlefish, mullets, bass and flatfishes, and trawling) impact.	eng
161454	conservation	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Assessment and monitoring of catches in fisheries and surveys is required to determine population trends throughout this species? range. There is a particular need to collect information on catches and population trends from the southern part of its range.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161454	distribution	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwest Pacific: this species occurs off Russia, Japan, China and Korea. It ranges from southeastern Kamchatka, along Kuril Islands south to Okinawa Islands in the East China Sea (Ishihara 1990, Fedorov <em>et al.</em> 2003) and possibly off Taiwan, Province of China (T.K. Shao pers. comm.). This species is also widely distributed in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1985). In the Sea of Japan it is distributed from Tatar Strait off the western Sakhalin in the north to both coasts of South Korea (Orlov and Tokranov 2005).	eng
161454	habitat	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This deepwater skate is found on the continental slope at 370?2,000 m depth (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). Off Japan it occurs at 450?1,480 m and off western Kamchatka it occurs at 650?1,200 m (Dolganov 1985, Ishihara 1990).<br/><br/>Females are reported to mature at 5?6 years and 67.2?71.6 cm total length (TL) and males at 4?5 years and 62.5?69.2 cm TL, respectively (Dolganov 1998). The species attains a maximum size of 78 cm TL (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Egg capsules measure 64?76 mm long and 46 x 48 mm wide (Dolganov 1998). Little else is known of the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
161454	population	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Dolganov (1985) reported that this is the most abundant skate in Pacific continental slope waters off eastern Japan (Dolganov 1985). In a 1989 bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk, conducted at depths of 300?2,025 m, frequency of occurrence of this species comprised 14.8%, with catch rates of 1.4 kg per hour of trawling. This species ranked fourth out of 16 skate species in catches from this area and is therefore assumed to be common here (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). The abundance of the species in the rest of its area of occurrence is unknown (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161454	threats	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species may be taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl and longline fisheries operating within its range, however it is primarily distributed outside the range of fisheries. Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries within the northern areas of this species? range (Japan and Russia) currently operate down to depths of 500?800 m (A.M. Orlov and H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008), offering the species refuge at the deeper extent of its bathymetric distribution (370?2,000 m). Currently no information is available on the depths at which fisheries operate at the southern extent of its range, off China and Korea, and information on the interaction of this species with fisheries there is required.	eng
161455	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on the species’ biology, abundance and capture in fisheries.	eng
161455	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: Southern Baja California and Gulf of California, Mexico (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161455	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A little known shark of the upper continental slope and outermost shelf, found on or near the bottom at depths of 155–927 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, with two pups per litter (Compagno 1984). A small shark of about 10 cm when born, and growing to a maximum length of about 28 cm total length (TL). Adult males mature at 19 cm TL and females at 24 cm TL (Compagno 1984).	eng
161455	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Thought to be abundant in the Gulf of California (Compagno 1984).	eng
161455	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A possible bycatch of trawl fisheries operating throughout its geographic range, but no specific information is available. Its depth range may extend beyond the range of current fisheries, offering refuge from fishing pressure. Fishing pressure from shrimp trawlers is intense within this species range, but no information is currently available on the depths fished. The Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, as well as 990 vessels catching finfish and other species like octopus (FAO 2007). Of these, 70% of the shrimp trawlers operate on the Pacific coast and almost all of them (around 90% of the Pacific shrimp fleet) are concentrated in the four states surrounding the Gulf of California (Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California and Baja California Sur) (FAO 2007).	eng
161456	conservation	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the northwest and western central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.	eng
161456	distribution	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: East China Sea (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007), continental waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China, and East Taiwan Strait (Shuyuan 1994).<br/><br/>Specimens from the Philippines previously identified as this species were misidentified. These specimens are likely an undescribed species (J.H. Walsh and D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161456	habitat	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	A little known species, caught at or near the bottom on the continental shelf, usually at depths of 100?300 m, although it is likely to occur in shallower depths also (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Other angel sharks are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey.<br/><br/>Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other species of angel shark. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Size at maturity is unknown, but large, in excess of 100 cm total length (TL) (D.A. Ebert unpublished data). Maximum recorded size is 150 cm TL and size at birth is ~30?40 cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpub. data).	eng
161456	population	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No details are available on the population of this species. Individuals are found in local fish markets in Taiwan. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records for this species and problems distinguishing individuals of this species from other northwest Pacific angel sharks.<br/><br/>Where population data are available for other angel sharks, declines greater than 80% have been observed in less than three generations, within areas where target or bycatch fisheries take place. For example, <em>Squatina squatina</em> has been extirpated from several parts of its range in the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, where it is taken as bycatch, as a result of continued intense fishing pressure (Morey <em>et al</em>. 2006, ICES 2004).	eng
161456	threats	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Taiwan?s main fisheries operate throughout the entire known range of this species (D.A. Ebert pers obs. 2007). It is caught in bottom trawl fisheries, which operate between 50 and 300 m (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). This species is utilized and is found in local fish markets, but it is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations.<br/><br/>The East China Sea is intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004). Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g. <em>Squatina californica</em>, <em>S. squatina</em>, <em>S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Squatina guggenheim and Squatina occulta, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161457	conservation	Bizzarro, J.J., 2008	None in place.	eng
161457	distribution	Bizzarro, J.J., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: ranges from Magdalena Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Galvan 2000) to Ecuador (Amezcua-Linares 1996), including the Gulf of California (McEachran 1995).	eng
161457	habitat	Bizzarro, J.J., 2008	Found in tropical waters over soft bottom (Beebe and Tee-Van 1941), from shallow, nearshore regions to 112 m depth (Amezcua-Linares 1996). The maximum total length recorded for this species is 89 cm (total length) (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous.	eng
161457	population	Bizzarro, J.J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161457	threats	Bizzarro, J.J., 2008	Caught by smallscale, artisanal gillnet fisheries off Bahia de Navidad, Mexico (Godınez-Domınguez <em>et al</em>. 2000). Caught in artisanal gillnet fisheries in Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico, especially during spring and summer months in association with reproductive aggregations in shallow nearshore and insular waters (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2007). Also reported in landings from Baja California Sur. Whereas <em>R. productus</em> is the dominant guitarfish in Sonora landings, <em>R. glaucostigma</em> replaces this species in coastal waters and in artisanal fisheries landings of Sinaloa (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161458	conservation	White, W.T., 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species. Research is required on this species’ range, habitat and ecology, population and threats to it.	eng
161458	distribution	White, W.T., 2007	Indo-West Pacific: this species is known only from very few specimens and its distribution is not well-defined. The holotype was taken from the “East Indies” but no specific station data are available to confirm the location. Three specimens were recorded from Dumaguete, Oriental Negros Province, Philippines but these require confirmation (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005 a,b). It is also possible that the “East Indies” locality of USNM–43749, collected by the RV Albatross on its 1907 to 1910 Philippine Expedition, was erroneous and that the holotype came from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005b).	eng
161458	habitat	White, W.T., 2007	Habitat and ecology are largely unknown. Largest specimen examined measured 36 cm total length (TL), but adult size is unknown (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a).	eng
161458	population	White, W.T., 2007	Known only from few specimens (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005 a,b).	eng
161458	threats	White, W.T., 2007	Uncertain. This species would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries, but no information is available.	eng
161459	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	None. Research is required on taxonomy, occurrence, abundance, life-history and fisheries related mortality.	eng
161459	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic: apparently only found on the shelf and upper slope of Madeira (Portugal) (Stehmann 1971, 1973, 1979; Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Reports of this species elsewhere in the eastern central Atlantic are misidentifications, and the identity of a similar form in the Azores still needs to be clarified (see Taxonomy section).	eng
161459	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	This species is found on the upper shelf and slope at depth to at least 150 m (Stehmann 1971, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Attains a maximum size of 70?80 cm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984) and probably matures at >50 cm TL (Stehmann 1971) but no other information is available on its biology.	eng
161459	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Moderately common, but no other information is available on the population.	eng
161459	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	The continental shelf and slope off Madeira is too rough for trawling and this species is only very rarely caught as bycatch in line fisheries (P. Wirtz pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161460	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2004	None. Fisheries operating within this species' relatively restricted range should be monitored.	eng
161460	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Restricted range in the western central Atlantic: Caribbean coasts of Panama and Colombia (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
161460	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2004	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 431–549 m (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous. Reaches a maximum size of 34.5 cm TL (largest verifiable size in the literature; Konstantinou and Cozzi 1998).	eng
161460	population	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161460	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2004	A potential bycatch of trawls, but very little information is available on fisheries operating within its bathymetric range. Deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Pacific Colombia, but are not known to operate in Colombia’s Caribbean waters (J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008). Demersal fisheries for shrimp also exist on the Caribbean coast of Panama, but again, no specific information is available on the depths fished. This species’ apparently restricted geographic and bathymetric range would make it vulnerable to depletion.	eng
161461	conservation	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2006	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this rare species (as well as other skates) may benefit from designated non-trawling areas to protect a fraction of the adult population and eggs (often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161461	distribution	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2006	Northeast Atlantic: occurs in the offshore waters of the continental shelf from Madeira and northern Morocco northwards to Iceland, Faeroe Islands and Norway, including the Skagerrak (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). It is an offshore species usually occurring on the outer parts of the continental shelf, and, in the northern part of its range, is typically encountered in the northern North Sea, off North-west Scotland, west of Ireland and Celtic Sea. It does not usually occur in shallower areas (e.g. southern North Sea and Irish Sea).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western and central-eastern Mediterranean to Tunisia and western coasts of Greece (except the Adriatic Sea). Countries of occurrence; Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain and Tunisia (Bauchot 1987, Bertrand <em>et al. </em>2000, Marano <em>et al.</em> in press, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Tinti <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
161461	habitat	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2006	Benthic in offshore shelf waters and on upper slopes, generally in waters of 30–550 m depth (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a). It is found mainly at depths of around 200 m on sandy and coarse bottoms. In the Mediterranean, this species occurs in relatively cold coastal waters and on upper parts of continental slopes in about 30–550 m, but has also been captured in deeper water down to 800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Bertrand <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stehmann and Burkel 1987). This species reaches a maximum size of 100–110 cm (Bauchot 1987). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, and egg-cases measure about 8 cm by 5 cm excluding horns (Stehmann and Burkel 1984).<br/><br/>Little is known of the life-history parameters of this species. Age and size at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are all unknown. Leucoraja fullonica feeds on a variety of bottom-dwelling animals, and is thought to mainly eat fish.	eng
161461	population	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2006	Accurate determination of abundance trends in the northeast Atlantic are not possible, as most earlier surveys have focused on shelf fishing grounds, with no long-term, standardised surveys sampling off the edge of the continental shelf. Reported French landings for this species were more than 370 tonnes in 1983, but since 1984 annual landings have been more stable and averaged about 75 tonnes. Species-specific landings data prior to this are not available. Trends in surveys are difficult to determine accurately due in part to limited time-series data for this species, and given some uncertainty in the taxonomic identification in earlier survey. English (Cefas) surveys in the North Sea have not recorded this species since 1998, though occasional specimens are taken in the Celtic Sea. Scottish (FRS) surveys continue to record shagreen ray in various surveys around Scotland. Given the low numbers caught in surveys in offshore shelf habitats, it is possible that the main part of the distribution is now in deeper water, such as along the edge of the continental shelf. Indeed, most of the recent captures of this species in Scottish surveys have been made in waters deeper than 200 m.<br/><br/>This species was captured in only seven of 6,336 tows (between 200–800 m depth) of the MEDITS research trawl surveys performed throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea from 1994–1999 in depths ranging from 10–800 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). The MEDITS trawl survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from western Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> was not captured in the Gulf of Lions, eastern Mediterranean in a time series of comparative trawl surveys. This time series runs from 1957–1995 and consists of eight separate surveys conducted by a four different of survey vessels (Aldebert 1997). A total of 1,359 tows were conducted in shelf and slope areas between depths from the coast down to 800 m, which includes the known depth range of this species (Aldebert 1997). <em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> was not captured in either recent or historical surveys of the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic 1999). Trawl surveys in the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian seas suggest that the species is rare there, with few specimens captured between 1985 and 2004 (at depths of 366–549 m) (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161461	threats	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2006	Taken as a bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries through much of its range. This species is a bycatch in mixed trawl fisheries operating in the outer parts and edge of the continental shelf in the northeast Atlantic. It may also be taken as a bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting anglerfish and longline fisheries targeting hake, though information on the catches in these fisheries are poor. The potential threat of deepwater fisheries within the deeper part of the species range is also a possible cause for concern. Due to its offshore habitat, it is of no importance to recreational fisheries. The relatively large body-size (100 cm) would also indicate that this species is vulnerable to over-fishing.<br/><br/><em>Leucoraja fullonica</em> occurs within the range of multispecies trawl fisheries operating on the continental shelf and slope of the Mediterranean sea. It is caught as bycatch by both bottom trawl and longline fisheries there also (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005).	eng
161462	conservation	Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	No management or conservation measures are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required. Given the species? limited range, catches need to be monitored and further study of the impact of fisheries on this species is required.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161462	distribution	Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan, Southern Hokkaido to Choshi, Honshu (Ishihara 1990, Dolganov 1998).	eng
161462	habitat	Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	A medium sized deepwater skate, found on lower shelf and upper continental slope at depths between 100-1,000 m (Ishihara 1990). Maximum recorded size is 87.7cm total length (TL) for females and 85.9 cm TL for males (Dolganov 2005). Females mature at 5-7 years, reaching a total length of 67-70 cm and males mature at 5?6 years, reaching a total length of 64-69 cm (Dolganov 1998). Egg capsules are 10.6-12.0 cm in length and 7.6-7.8 cm wide (Dolganov 1998). Virtually nothing else is known about this species? ecology and biology. Reproduction is presumably oviparous like other skates.	eng
161462	population	Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	Very little is known about the population of this species.	eng
161462	threats	Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. This fishery is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). Increased fishing pressure, particularly and expansion of pressure into deeper water, could pose a threat to this species.	eng
161463	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ducrocq, M. & Séret, B., 2006	Careful monitoring of catches is required. Further research is needed on the species? biology, life-history parameters and population trends.	eng
161463	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ducrocq, M. & Séret, B., 2006	Eastern central Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: from southern Portugal and along the western coast of Africa, off Morocco, Mauritania and Senegal. Infrequent records from the Mediterranean Sea (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006, Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>The large majority of individuals of this species recorded in the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin (PNBA), Mauritania were immature, suggesting that this National Marine Park may be a nursery area for this species (PNBA unpublished database, B. Séret pers. obs.).	eng
161463	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ducrocq, M. & Séret, B., 2006	This species is common in shallow waters on the continental shelf at ~30 m depth (B. Séret pers. obs.), although it may occur to at least 100m depth (it was found at 50-100m depth in MEDITS trawl surveys in the Mediterranean) (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>Limited data are available on the species? life history parameters from the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin, Mauritania. The PNBA database contains records of 1,500 females and 100 males of this species, most of which were immature, ranging from 66?75 cm disc width (DW) (PNBA unpublished database). Males were estimated to mature at 77 cm DW and females at 80 cm DW. Maximum size was 102cm DW, but the species may reach a larger size. Few females were gravid, with only one pup. Parturition appears to take place in April-May and breeding in June (PNBA unpublished database, B. Séret pers. obs.).<br/><br/>No age data are available for this species, but age data are available for its congener <em>R. bonasus </em>to use as a proxy for generation period. Neer and Thompson (2005) that <em>R. bonasus</em> reach age at maturity at 4?5 years and females live to 18+ years in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Using the formula age of maturity + 0.5*(length of reproductive period in life cycle), generation period can be estimated at 11.25 years (4.5+ (0.5*(18-4.5)) =11.25). Although the generation period for <em>R. marginata</em> may prove to differ from <em>R. bonasus</em>, 11 years could be considered a rough proxy.	eng
161463	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ducrocq, M. & Séret, B., 2006	Apparently common along the coast of western Africa, from Guinea to Mauritania (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). No data are currently available to analyse trends in abundance.<br/><br/>This species is apparently rare in the Mediterranean Sea and occurred in only two hauls (in the eastern Ionian Sea) of a total of 6,336 in scientific trawl surveys (MEDITS) conducted between 1994?1999 (at depths of 10?800 m) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
161463	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ducrocq, M. & Séret, B., 2006	This species is taken by bottom trawls, trammelnets, longlines, and on hook and line (Schneider 1990) and is retained and utilised. They are also easily caught in coastal fisheries along the coast of western Africa, with purse-seines and gillnets (M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). Rhinopterids have been heavily fished in areas along the western African coast and their aggregating habit makes them susceptible to capture in large schools. This species is most common in shallow waters on the continental shelf, where fishing pressure generally intensive. This species is important in fisheries landings in Mauritania, particularly in the trammel-net fishery (B. Séret, M. Ducrocq pers. obs.). Most individuals recorded in catches in the Parc National du Banc d?Arguin (PNBA) were immature and the species is still captured in gillnet fisheries targeting sciaenids there (PNBA unpublished database, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006). The Banc d?Arguin is threatened with overfishing, outside the Park, by international industrial-scale exploitation and by neighbouring pirate fishing fleets within it (UNEP-WCMC 2002).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from commercial trawl fisheries is generally intensive on the continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea (at depths ranging from 50 to 700?800 m), which this species may be vulnerable to, although no data are available (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>This species has very low fecundity, a generation period inferred to exceed 11 years and is relatively large. These limiting life-history characteristics, combined with its vulnerability to coastal fisheries, which are generally very intensive throughout much of its range, suggest that continued fishing pressure is likely to be unsustainable for this species.<br/><br/>Similar species (such as <em>R. bonasus</em>) are known to be destructive to commercial oyster and clam beds, so persecution from aquaculture operators may be possible also.	eng
161464	conservation	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Ellis, J., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>Future analyses should examine the long-term distribution and relative abundance of this species (ICES 2007). In the first instance, data on the occurrence of this species should be collated to enable this (ICES 2007). Appropriate non-trawling areas should be defined to protect a proportion of both the adult population and this skate’s eggs (which are often found in the trawl cod-end) (Ragonese<em> et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161464	distribution	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Ellis, J., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic, from northern Morocco northwards to Scotland, Iceland, southern Norway and northern part of North Sea and Skagerrak.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: Western Mediterranean to Libya and absent from the Black Sea. Countries of occurrence include: Albania, Algeria, Croatia, France, Italy, Greece, Montenegro, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Serena 2005).	eng
161464	habitat	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Ellis, J., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Benthic in offshore shelf waters and on upper slopes, in waters of 50–800 m depth. Traditionally, it was thought to be found mainly around 100 m depth on sandy and muddy bottoms, though it has been suggested that it is now more abundant in deeper waters. For example, within the Mediterranean, <em>L. circularis</em> was previously found on shelf and slope bottoms between 70 and 275 m (mainly at around 100m) but now it is found in deeper waters between 500 and 800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Reproduction is oviparous with eggcases 90 x 50 mm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984). The spawning period is undefined (Bauchot 1987, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998). The size at maturity of males is 70–80 cm in the Mediterranean (N. Ungaro pers. comm.) and the maximum recorded size is 120 cm (Serena 2005). This species is piscivorous, feeding on a variety of fishes, including both teleosts (Angulliformes <em>Clopsis bicolor</em>, <em>Osteichthyes</em> n.d) and chondrichthyans (<em>Etmopterus spinax, Galeus melastomus</em>) (Vannucci 2005). Age at maturity, longevity, size at birth, reproductive age, gestation time, reproductive periodicity, fecundity, rate of population increase and natural mortality are unknown.	eng
161464	population	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Ellis, J., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/><em>Leucoraja circularis</em> is comparatively rare in the Northeast Atlantic. Accurate determination of abundance trends are not possible, as most earlier surveys have focused on shelf fishing grounds, with no long-term, standardised surveys sampling off the edge of the continental shelf. Nevertheless, French landings data for this species have declined from about 500 tonnes per year in the early 1990s to about 300 tonnes per year. Species-specific landings data prior to this are not available. Trends in surveys are difficult to determine accurately due in part to limited time-series data for this species, and given some uncertainty in the taxonomic identification in earlier surveys. English (Cefas) surveys in the North Sea and Celtic Sea have not recorded this species since 1996 and 1997 respectively, though Scottish (FRS) surveys continue to record sandy ray in various surveys around Scotland. Given the low numbers caught in surveys in offshore shelf habitats, it is possible that the main part of the distribution is now in deeper water, such as along the edge of the continental shelf. Indeed, most of the recent captures of this species in Scottish surveys have been made in waters of 180–500 m depth. Given the decline in French landings in recent years, and that the distribution has contracted (or shifted) to deeper waters, it is assumed that the population has declined in the Northeast Atlantic. However, there is uncertainty in the magnitude of the decline in abundance for the population as a whole.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) covers the north Mediterranean coast, almost continuously, from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows have been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10 to 800 m. The Sandy Ray was recorded in only 12 hauls in the western area (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). The evidence that this species may now only be found in the western area of the Mediterranean points to a substantial reduction in area of occurrence of this species. Its depth range also appears to have contracted as it was previously found on shelf and slope bottoms between 70 and 275 m, mainly at around 100 m, but now it is found only in deeper waters between 500 to 800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). The overall biomass index assessed through MEDITS in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 0.1kg/km² (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>The occurrence of Sandy Ray in the Mediterranean appears to have decreased significantly in the last 50 years. <em>Leucoraja circularis</em> was present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys of the Gulf of Lions in 1957–1960 but is now absent from more recent comparable surveys. Between 1957 and 1960 the Sandy Ray was captured in >10% of hauls in shelf surveys and in approximately 17% of hauls in slope surveys. Whereas between 1966 and 1995 it was not recorded at all from 1,295 hauls in eight trawl surveys (Aldebert 1997).<br/><br/>In the south Ligurian and north Thyrrenian seas this species can be considered rare based on capture rates, from 1985–2005 only 10 specimens were caught in the bathyal zone (352–566 m of depth). The size range was 26–91 cm in total length (Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161464	threats	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Ellis, J., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is a bycatch in mixed trawl fisheries operating in the outer parts and edge of the continental shelf. It may also be taken as a bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting anglerfish and longline fisheries targeting hake, though information on the catches in these fisheries are poor. The potential threat of deepwater fisheries within the deeper part of the species range is also a possible cause for concern. The relatively large body-size (120 cm) would also indicate that this species is vulnerable to over-fishing. Due to its offshore habitat, it is of no importance to recreational fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>This species is of local fishery importance (Serena 2005). The sandy ray in the Mediterranean is captured as bycatch of multi-species trawl fisheries and offshore bottom longlines. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats with a total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp; more recently effort has increased to a total of 19,940 hp (1974–1987). Since then half of the fishing effort has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The Adriatic Sea is subject to trawling mainly by Italian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Albanian fleets, however, no landings data are available (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001). Although little is known of the life history we can presume from similar species that it will have slow growth, low fecundity and large size of juveniles making it especially vulnerable to fishing exploitation (Brander 1981, Walker and Hislop 1998, Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Moreover, although only large individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes, including the eggcases, are taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm (and eggcases reach 90 x 50 mm (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984)). The full retention of the cod end of the currently used gear types and the 20 mm mesh size commonly used in the Mediterranean mean that all life stages of this species are fished.<br/><br/>The potential threat of development of deepwater fisheries within this species is range is a possible cause for concern in the future. Although the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), the main intergovernmental decision-making body on fishery management in the Mediterranean, has made the decision to refrain from expanding deep water fishing operations beyond the limit of 1,000 m, this species is not known to occur below 800 m. For more information, see: iucn.org/places/medoffice/documentos/deepsea_en.pdf.	eng
161465	conservation	Fahmi, White, W., Manjaji, B.M., Vidthayanon, C., Badi, S. & Capuli, E., 2007	None in place. Full assessment and careful monitoring of population trends and catch data are required.	eng
161465	distribution	Fahmi, White, W., Manjaji, B.M., Vidthayanon, C., Badi, S. & Capuli, E., 2007	Western central Pacific: known only from Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak and southwestern Sabah), and Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java, Indonesia (Last <em>et al</em>. 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161465	habitat	Fahmi, White, W., Manjaji, B.M., Vidthayanon, C., Badi, S. & Capuli, E., 2007	This stingray occurs primarily in mangrove estuaries and turbid coastal marine habitats (Last <em>et al</em>. 2005, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Most commonly occurs in very shallow waters at <10 m depth, but possibly down to 30 m. Attains a maximum size of at least 72cm disc width (DW) (Fahmi unpublished data). Females mature at 50?60 cm DW and males mature at 28?40 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi unpublished data). Reproduction is presumably viviparous, with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is ~22?23 cm DW (Fahmi unpublished data). One pregnant female observed contained one pup.	eng
161465	population	Fahmi, White, W., Manjaji, B.M., Vidthayanon, C., Badi, S. & Capuli, E., 2007	Population size of this species is unknown.	eng
161465	threats	Fahmi, White, W., Manjaji, B.M., Vidthayanon, C., Badi, S. & Capuli, E., 2007	The major threats to this species are capture in fisheries and destruction and degradation of its shallow water habitat. It is captured in bottom longline fisheries targeting rays in eastern and western Kalimantan (Fahmi unpublished data). It is also caught occasionally by bottom trawl and demersal gillnet fisheries operating off Sumatra and Kalimantan (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). All catches are retained and utilised for meat and probably also its skin (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Fahmi unpublished data). The level of exploitation on its shallow water habitat is very high and it is considered to be at a very high level of threat throughout its range.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat to this species. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat in very shallow water (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007) and is therefore considered highly vulnerable to destruction of this habitat. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). This represents a loss of >30% of combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practices and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.	eng
161466	conservation	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Measures in place<br/><br/>California?s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).	eng
161466	distribution	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: known from the Straits of Juan de Fuca off British Colombia, Canada and Washington, USA, as well as Oregon, California, and central Baja California, Mexico. Also, from the Gulf of California (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2001, Miller and Lea 1972, McEachran and Notobartolo di Sciara 1995).	eng
161466	habitat	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Found on soft bottoms at depths of 17?671 m (Ebert 2003, Miller and Lea 1972). Males are reported to mature at about 47 cm total length (TL) and females at about 52 cm TL (Ebert 2003). The maximum reported size is 76 cm TL (Jordan and Gilbert 1881). Size at birth is 15?23 cm TL (Ebert 2003). They are reported to feed on small benthic invertebrates including polychaete worms and shrimp (Ebert 2003).	eng
161466	population	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Nothing is known on its population structure or status. Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. However, extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161466	threats	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Usually a utilized bycatch in commercial longline and trawl fisheries (Martin and Zorzi 1993). One of three commercially important skate species in California and it is marketed for human consumption (Rodel and Ripley 1950, Matin and Zorzi 1993). Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ?Skate, unspecified? indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~12 t and ~95 t from 2003?2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known. Given that this species appears to occur on the continental shelf it is likely not as affected as other species may have been, such as the longnose skate, <em>Raja rhina</em>.<br/><br/>The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Californian waters is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations which overlap with the habitat of this species (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161467	conservation	Rosa, R., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2003	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.	eng
161467	distribution	Rosa, R., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2003	Inland waters of South America: apparently endemic to the Parnaíba river drainage in Northern Brazil (Rosa 1985).	eng
161467	habitat	Rosa, R., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2003	This species probably migrates downstream along the Poty River (a tributary of the Parnaíba River) during the rainy season, and returns to the upper course in the dry period. Aside from this speculation, life history aspects of this freshwater stingray are completely unknown. It is certainly among the least known potamotrygonids and might present different biological and ecological characteristics since it is apparently more isolated than other species, occurring in a single river basin away from the Amazon and Paraguay-Paraná basins.	eng
161467	population	Rosa, R., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2003	No information.	eng
161467	threats	Rosa, R., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Charvet-Almeida, P., 2003	Details of threats facing this species are little known and studies are required. However, the species’ area of occurrence is experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.	eng
161468	conservation	McCormack, C., White, W.T., Tanaka, S., Nakayno, K., Iglesias, S., Gaudiano, J.P. & Capadan, P., 2008	Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161468	distribution	McCormack, C., White, W.T., Tanaka, S., Nakayno, K., Iglesias, S., Gaudiano, J.P. & Capadan, P., 2008	Wide ranging in the Indo-West Pacific, but with spotty records from:<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: reported from the Gulf of Aden (Yemen and Somalia) to Tanzania and India (Gulf of Mannar and Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Northwest and western central Pacific: reported from Viet Nam, Taiwan, Province of China and the Philippine Islands (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>This species has a much wider range compared to the limited ranges of other members of this genus (Compagno in prep).	eng
161468	habitat	McCormack, C., White, W.T., Tanaka, S., Nakayno, K., Iglesias, S., Gaudiano, J.P. & Capadan, P., 2008	This species occurs at depths of 71?766 m on mud bottoms, on the upper continental and insular slopes and the outer shelves. It is one of the smallest known living sharks. Size at birth is approximately 10?11 cm total length (TL). Males mature at 18?19 cm TL or less and reach 23 cm TL, and females mature at about 15?16 cm TL and reach 24 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous with one or two young per litter. The species feeds primarily on small bony fishes, crustaceans and squid (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161468	population	McCormack, C., White, W.T., Tanaka, S., Nakayno, K., Iglesias, S., Gaudiano, J.P. & Capadan, P., 2008	Apparently common in southern India and the Philippines (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). Population size is unknown.	eng
161468	threats	McCormack, C., White, W.T., Tanaka, S., Nakayno, K., Iglesias, S., Gaudiano, J.P. & Capadan, P., 2008	This species is too small to be commercially valuable. It is occasionally taken as bycatch by commercial bottom trawlers in the Philippines, but utilization is unknown (Compagno in prep.). The species may also be taken as bycatch of fisheries operating off Taiwan, Province of China, although no data are available. Fisheries off the east coast of Taiwan, Province of China have moved into deeper water over the past 20 years, from 100?300 m depth to >300 m (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries on the southwest coast are predominantly coastal, but may range down to 500 m (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>The species? relatively wide depth distribution (71?766 m) probably offers refuge beyond the range of fishing gears throughout most of the species range, in other areas where deepsea fisheries are less developed. Escapement may also be high for this small species.	eng
161469	conservation	Duffy, C., 2008	The type locality is situated within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve. This is a no-take marine reserve encompassing all of the islands and territorial sea within the Kermadec Islands archipelago. Maximum depth within the marine reserve varies between <em>ca</em>. 1,500?2,500 m. The reserve is therefore likely to span the entire depth range of the species, however the level of dispersal between the reserve and habitats outside it is unknown (C. Duffy pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161469	distribution	Duffy, C., 2008	Southwest Pacific: known only from the upper insular slope west of Napier Island (off Raoul Island), and north of Raoul Island, New Zealand, on the Kermadec Ridge. Not collected from the Kermadec Ridge south of Raoul Island (Duffy and Last 2007).	eng
161469	habitat	Duffy, C., 2008	A moderate-sized dogfish. The holotype was collected at 320 m depth. Females attain at least 72.9 cm total length (TL); males are probably smaller. Size at maturity is unknown but males are adult at 65.1 and 68.1 cm TL (Duffy and Last 2007).	eng
161469	population	Duffy, C., 2008	A recently described species known only from the holotype and two additional specimens.	eng
161469	threats	Duffy, C., 2008	Known only from the Kermadec Ridge north of 30<sup>o</sup>S, so is unlikely to appear in the New Zealand commercial catch except perhaps that of bottom longline boats working in QMA 10 (M. Francis pers. comm. 2007). There was some longline fishing in the Kermadec area in the 1990s, but there is virtually none at present (M. Francis pers. comm. 2007). There is no directed fishery for this species and no reported commercial bycatch.<br/><br/>The habitat is too steep and rocky for bottom trawling and the distance from port and low abundance of high value demersal fishes means there is little economic incentive for bottom-longliners to fish the area (C. Duffy pers. obs. 2007). The Kermadec Ridge and adjacent Colville Ridge within the New Zealand EEZ have just been closed to bottom trawling until at least 2013 (C. Duffy pers. obs. 2007). Reported levels of commercial fishing within the species? known range suggest fishing is unlikely to have had an impact on the population (C. Duffy pers. obs. 2007). Furthermore, part of the species? known range is protected within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve (C. Duffy pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161470	conservation	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. This is especially important in the species' Indian Ocean range where there is presently a lack of data. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161470	distribution	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia, Gulf of Aden, Oman.<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic: records from Namibia and South Africa are possibly erroneous (Compagno in prep, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161470	habitat	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater catshark found on the continental slopes at 1,289 to 1,840 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Biology and life-history parameters are virtually unknown. Immature sharks measure up to 34 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161470	population	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161470	threats	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Very little is known of the interaction of deepwater fisheries with deepwater sharks throughout the Smallbelly Sharks's known range. Off Somalia, the industrial fishery sector exploits two species of deep-sea lobster (<em>Puerulus swelli</em> and <em>P. carrinatus</em>), which are mainly found at depths of 150 to 400 m (FAO 2007). Deepwater trawling was conducted in the mid-1970s by a Somali/USSR joint venture commercial fishing company and since this partnership ended in 1977 several foreign fishing companies have been given licenses to fish in the offshore EEZ of Somalia. Recipients have included Italian, Korean, Spanish, Japanese, Greek and Egyptian vessels (FAO 2007). Another joint-venture industrial fishing operation was established between Somalia and an Italian high seas fishing company in 1983 and still operates off Somalia today, however they land their fishery products outside Somalia (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing poses a problem in offshore Somali waters, with an estimated 700 foreign-owned vessels that are fully engaged in unlicensed fishing there (FAO 2007).This makes it impossible to monitor fishery production, in general, let alone the state of the fishery resources and consequently no data are available on catches of this species, or other elasmobranchs that may be taken as bycatch by IUU offshore trawlers. There is also strong suspicion of illegal dumping of industrial and nuclear wastes along the Somali coast (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries targeting hake, mokfish and orange roughy (from 400 to 1,000 m) (NATMIRC 2003). As the catch records are not species-specific, catch trends cannot be calculated (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003) but in 2007 the Namibian government decided not to permit a commercial deepwater shark fishery (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007). The main species of shark taken by these fisheries are Deepwater Spiny Dogfish (<em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>), Portuguese Dogfish (<em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>), Longsnout Dogfish (<em>Deania quadrispinosa</em>), Shortspine Spurdog (<em>Squalus mitsukurii</em>), and Tope Shark (<em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>). Reports of Smallbelly Shark off Namibia are yet to be verified and is not known to be associated with any fishery there so far. If the species does occur there, it may be vulnerable to fisheries operating at greater depths.	eng
161471	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska “other skates” assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species’ range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161471	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Northwest and northeast Pacific: this species occurs off Japan, Russia and USA, including the Bering Sea and Commander Islands, the Sea of Okhotsk, Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002). Occurrence of this species in the northern Sea of Japan and Pacific Hokkaido is questionable (H. Ishihara and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161471	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This species occurs at depths from 17 m to about 400 m (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006), and in the eastern Bering Sea, it rarely occurs deeper than 300 m (Matta<em> et al.</em> 2006). This is mainly a shelf species with some of the population being found on the upper part of the slope, close to the shelf break. It is found on sandy-gravel, muddy-pebble and sandy-muddy substrates and at bottom temperatures of -1.0–6.8°C (most common between 3.0 and 3.5°C) (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Nursery areas are known in the north, central and south eastern Bering Sea Shelf (Hoff 2007). Alaska Skate attains a maximum size of 111 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2005). Females reach maturity at 8–10 years of age and 80.9–95.4 cm TL and males at 7–9 years of age and 79.5–93 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c, Ebert 2005, Gaichas <em>et al. </em>2006, Matta and Gunnderson 2007). Longevity is 15 years in males and 17 years in females (Matta and Gunnderson 2007). Research on this species in captivity showed that embryo development exceeds 3.5 years and size at birth is 22.4 cm TL (Hoff 2007). Reproduction peaked during summer months and during winter months peaks in hatching occurred (Hoff 1997). The natural mortality rate is 0.14–0.28 (Matta and Gunnderson 2007).	eng
161471	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This is the most abundant deepwater skate in the North Pacific. This species is the dominant skate species across the eastern Bering Sea shelf (where the main fisheries operate) accounting for more than 90% of the skate biomass. Biomass of all skates increased dramatically from 24,349 mt in 1975, to 442,556 mt in 2006 (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There are no long term data available for this species (Matta and Gunderson 2007). Recent (2004–2006) AFSC bottom trawl surveys on the shelf (max depth 200m) estimate total biomass from the eastern Bering Sea and off the Aleutians to be 443,243 mt (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is not so common in the Gulf of Alaska, where biomass estimates for this species have reduced between 1999 and 2005. In the Gulf of Alaska, total biomass estimates are available for 1999 (1,569 mt), 2003 (1,908 mt), and 2005 (700 mt) (Gaichas <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Time series data from bottom trawl surveys (at depths down to 500 m) is available for the Gulf of Alaska from 1999–2005, but does not show any trends. Generally the total biomass of all skates increased 41,000 mt in 1984, to 111,000 mt in 2005 (Gaichas <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species specific data are not available for this period.<br/><br/>According to 1977–1997 data from bottom trawl surveys (at depths of 50–2,000 m) in Russian waters, biomass of this species is estimated at 273,600 t including 45,100 t in the Bering Sea, 11,500 t off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands, 211,700 t in the Sea of Okhotsk, and 5,300 t in the Sea of Japan (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>In Pacific waters of the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka, bottom trawl survey (conducted at depths of 100–850 m) catches increased from 1 kg/hr in 1993 to 2.5 kg/hr in 1998, followed by a decrease to 0.7 kg/hr in 2000 (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161471	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Fisheries operate throughout large areas of this species’ range and it is taken as bycatch of longline, bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries. The majority of the population is found above 200 m and occurs within the depth range of trawl and longline fisheries (A. Orlov pers. comm. 2007 and Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). Bycatch rates of bottom trawl fisheries have increased in the eastern Bering Sea and off the Aleutians from 1,178 mt in 2003 to about 4,000 mt in 2006 (Matta <em>et al</em>. 2006). A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Trawling also affects the species’ nursery grounds on the eastern Bering Sea shelf by removing egg cases (Hoff 2007).<br/><br/>Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. There are few deepwater fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands.<br/><br/>There has been interest in this species as a prospective fishery target in the Sea of Okhotsk, Western Bering Sea (Orlov 2004). Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting Bathyraja species.	eng
161472	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	None in place. Further information is needed on fisheries operating within this species known range, as well as on other potential threats. Future surveys should attempt to locate further specimens.	eng
161472	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, Mikawa Bay, Aichi Prefecture, middle Japan (Jordan and Hubbs 1925).	eng
161472	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Nothing is known.	eng
161472	population	Ishihara, H. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	No information is available, as this species known only from the holotype. Subsequent records attributed to this species are unverified.	eng
161472	threats	Ishihara, H. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	The type locality, Mikawa Bay is a closed bay no deeper than 200 m. No specific information is currently available on the fisheries operating in this area and further investigation is urgently required.	eng
161473	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161473	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: southern islands of Japan (Amami-oshima, the Ogasawara and Izu islands) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161473	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	This deepwater species occurs on upper insular slopes at depths of 350?550 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). No adult females have yet been recorded with egg cases or young (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Attains a maximum size of at least 80 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males mature at ~66?71 cm TL and females at 68?78 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161473	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Reported as fairly common where it occurs, but little information is available (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161473	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	This species is probably taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries, but no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161474	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for the Sharpwing Eagle Ray.	eng
161474	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Indian Ocean and western central Pacific. The range of this species is poorly defined but it is likely to be widespread in the Indo-Malay Archipelago. It occurs off India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, and possibly Indonesia (Compagno and Last 1999). Possibly also from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161474	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A little-known eagle ray with biology poorly known, probably similar to that of <em>Aetobatus narinari</em> (Compagno and Last 1999). Eagle rays are predominantly inshore and semipelagic, but nothing is known of the depth range of this species. Maximum total length (TL) to possibly 400 cm or more, disc width (DW) to at least 125 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). Nothing else is known of the biology.	eng
161474	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161474	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no details of catches of this species throughout its range. Nevertheless its probable small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat, intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species? range, and its marketability make it vulnerable to population depletion. The size and inshore distribution of this species means it is susceptible to capture in a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl, etc.). The marketability of eagle rays and the generally intense and unregulated nature of fishing pressure across this species? range could make it vulnerable to depletion.This species is infrequently found in markets (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
161475	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Couzens, G., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Research is required to evaluate and monitor population size and trends for this species. Any expansion of deepwater fisheries further throughout this species? bathymetric range should be monitored. Further surveys are needed to fully define this species? distribution and depth range, and to collect information on its biology and life-history parameters. Some specimens captured incidentally by fisheries are being retained for scientific study in the port of Sesimbra.<br/><br/>In response to a request from NEAFC in 2007 and building on the response given to an EC request in 2006, WGDEEP made recommendations for the coordination of deep-water surveys in the NEAFC Convention Area. The recommendation included proposals for a number of new, dedicated deep-water surveys and extension of existing shelf surveys to greater depths (ICES 2007b).	eng
161475	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Couzens, G., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: known only from the continental slope of Portugal (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005). Seven specimens were captured off the Algarve (south of Portugal, 36?35 N; 8?35 W) and others from off Figueira da Foz (north of Portugal, 40?07 N; 9?45W) (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161475	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Couzens, G., 2008	The specimens detailed in the description were taken on the continental slope at depths of about 1,600 m (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2005). Of the 13 specimens caught, females ranged from 98.6?117.7 cm pre supra caudal fin length (Lpc) and males from 81.5?95.4 cm (Lpc) (Moura <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161475	population	Valenti, S.V. & Couzens, G., 2008	Known only from 22 specimens (including the 13 specimens mentioned in the original description) collected from the Portuguese continental slope (Moura <em>et al. </em>2005, T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). The species may be more common at depths greater than 1,600 m however there are currently no research surveys that sample to such depths; the only information available is from capture in fisheries which may not operate throughout the species? full bathymetric range (T. Moura pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161475	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Couzens, G., 2008	All known specimens of this species were caught by a commercial longliner operating along the Portuguese continental slope.<br/><br/>This species may be  taken infrequently as bycatch by the directed Portuguese longline fishery for Black Scabbard Fish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) with a bycatch of deepwater sharks, although the Portuguese monitoring program on Portuguese longline fleet discards has never reported <em>H. lusitanicus</em> (T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). All specimens are discarded by fishermen at sea when caught. Discard survivorship is most probably very low for a deep-living species such as this. Discarding at sea also means that no information is available on the numbers caught.<br/><br/>The deepwater longline fishery generally operates at depths of 800?1,200 m and is thought to only occasionally fish to within this species? depth range (>1,500 m) at present (Bordalo-Machado and Figueiredo 2007, T. Moura pers. comm. 2008). This species occurs below the depths currently fished by the deepwater demersal trawl fishery that targets crustaceans off southern Portugal.<br/><br/>Very little information is available on this recently described species, although it may have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity), like other deepwater elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to exploitation.	eng
161476	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	The Gulf of Mannar was established as a UNESCO Marine Biosphere Reserve by the Government of India and the State of Tamil Nadu in 1989 and was the first marine protected area to be declared in South and South East Asia (MCS 2007, UNEP-WCM 2007). The Reserve consists of a chain of 21 islets lying off Tamil Nadu on the southeast coast of India between 8°45' N and 9°25' N and 78°05' E and 79°30' E and covers approximately 10,500 km² (MCS 2007, UNEP-WCM 2007), but may not extend to the depths at which this species is present. Nothing is known of the level of management of elasmobranch species within the reserve is unknown.<br/><br/>Research on this species full distribution, population trends, life-history and interaction with fisheries is a priority. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on this species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161476	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: Gulf of Mannar, India (Eschmeyer 1999).	eng
161476	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Deepwater guitarfish known from the upper slope at a depth of 366 m (Eschmeyer 1999). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous. Virtually nothing is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161476	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Known only from very few specimens.	eng
161476	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	No data are available on catches of this species. It may be taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries operating off southern India. Fishing pressure is generally very intense with a large number of vessels in operation (FAO 2007). This species is only known from the Gulf of Mannar, a large proportion of which is now a designated Marine Protected Area (see conservation measures below). However, the reserve may not extend to the depths at which this species is present and nothing is known about the level of management of elasmobranch species within the reserve.	eng
161477	conservation	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D., Gedamke, T. & Barker, A., 2004	In the United States, there is currently a ban on landing this species.<br/><br/>There are currently no measures for this species in Canada, as its capture is only incidental in Canadian waters. <br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action are; begin developing estimates for target and limit reference points and reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating more careful handling and discard techniques.	eng
161477	distribution	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D., Gedamke, T. & Barker, A., 2004	This species occurs in the western Atlantic from the banks off Newfoundland and southern Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada to New Jersey, USA. The northern most record is at latitude 60° but records beyond latitude 56.5° are rare, and beyond that bound can be considered as vagrant. Similarly at the southern extent of its distribution, occurrences south of latitude 40° are also rare (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Important sites are; the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Laurentian Channel), southwest Grand Bank, Flemish Cap, northeast Newfoundland Shelf and in a small area of the Labrador Shelf. <em>M. senta</em> is located primarily in the troughs separating shallower banks, from the Hopedale Channel on the Labrador Shelf south to the outer Georges Bank.	eng
161477	habitat	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D., Gedamke, T. & Barker, A., 2004	This skate occurs in deep brackish and marine water over soft mud and clay bottoms of the deeper troughs and basins, sands and shells, gravel and pebbles of the offshore fishing banks (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The species is reported from a total depth range of 25–1,436 m, however depth range is narrower at specific latitudes, and 90% of survey sets containing <em>Malacoraja senta</em> occurs between 70 and 480 m (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). <em>M. senta</em> is found over a relatively narrow range of temperatures, from -1.3–15.7°C, with most records from 2.7–10°C, avoiding the coldest of locations (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>M. senta</em> is one of the smallest skates that inhabits the Northwest Atlantic reaching a maximum size of about 70 cm although fish >63 cm are rare in Canadian waters (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). There is some variation in size data across this species’ range. Females mature at 41–54 cm total length (TL) and between 8–9.5 years of age, and males mature at 49–57 cm TL and between 8 and 10 years of age (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006, Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> in review). Average reproductive age, or generation period, is 10–13 years (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006, Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> In review). Like all skates, reproduction in this species is oviparous, and eggs (5.9 cm long and 3.8–4.5 cm wide, with stiff pointed horns) are deposited in the sand or mud (Funicelli 1972). In the United states this species was found to be reproductively active year round (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006; Sulikowski et al. 2007). Size at birth is ~10cm TL and average annual fecundity is <100 (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In Canadian waters, average size of these skates decreased with depth. Average weight of fish was about 0.6 kg (equivalent to a TL of 50 cm) at 50–150 m, < 0.4 kg (45 cm) at > 250 m and 0.2 kg (35 cm) at 500–600 m indicating a distinct separation of fish with respect to size. This suggests that surveys using larger mesh gear and not reaching similar depths are underestimating the presence of smaller fish.<br/><br/>Feeding studies (McEachran 1973, McEachran <em>et al.</em> 1976, Bowman <em>et al.</em> 2000, McEachran 2002, González <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicate that <em>M. Senta</em> is quite selective in its diet, eating primarily small crustaceans throughout most of its life, and taking fish only at the largest sizes. This selective diet may further constrain where the species distributes and may relate to the size segregation observed (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161477	population	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D., Gedamke, T. & Barker, A., 2004	Little is known about the species’ population size or abundance except that it is not caught frequently enough to be of any importance to fisheries in both USA and Canada (McEachran and Dunn 1998). Population declines are described below.<br/><br/>This species is not distributed evenly within its global range. Rather, it forms four (possibly five) disjunct concentrations off Canada, separated by wide areas, where <em>M. senta</em> never occur (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). These four distinct concentrations were identified by Kulka <em>et al.</em> (2006) as Designated Units (Dus) for the purposes of their analysis and include: Hopedale Channel; Funk Island deep, northeastern Newfoundland Shelf; the Flemish Cap/Pass and northeast Grand Bank; Laurentian Channel, southwestern Grand Bank, and eastern Scotian Shelf; Gulf of Maine, Fundy and western Scotian Shelf.	eng
161477	threats	Sulikowski, J., Kulka, D., Gedamke, T. & Barker, A., 2004	The main human-related threat over the species’ entire range is incidental capture in a variety of fisheries. Species-specific catch levels are not known, but in Canadian waters and it constitutes <1% of the skate incidental bycatch (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Skate landings in the USA are only now being separated by species, so specific catch data will begin to become available in a few years.<br/><br/>Adult (and juvenile in some cases) Malacoraja senta have declined in abundance over much of the species’ range, since the 1970s. However, in some areas, it has subsequently undergone recovery, in some cases reaching near historic high levels over a very short period (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the Hopedale Channel, there is not a sufficient time series to quantify changes in abundance, but preliminary data from the fall 2007 indicates that catch rates are among the highest observed for that area. In contrast, directly to the south, abundance of population on the Funk Island deep, northeastern Newfoundland Shelf underwent the largest decline observed, 91% for both adults and juveniles, based on a log model to fit 28 years (1977–2005). The period of decline corresponds with the coldest period in the area (Colbourne <em>et al.</em> 2006). There has been no sign of recovery during the recent warm period in spite of apparently very low fishing pressure observed since the late 1990s. A decline of 80% was calculated for adults during 1971–2005 for the Laurentian DU (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>The southern-most Gulf of Maine DU straddles the Canada-USA border. The trend in abundance is similar on both sides of the line: the adult Canadian and adjacent spring USA survey trends were similar, undergoing a decline in the 1980s then increasing since the 1990s to where the indices are presently near historic levels. However, over the entire range in the United States, the biomass of this species has not increased and has remained at stable but low levels for the past 20 years.<br/><br/>Although there are no directed commercial fisheries for <em>M. senta</em>, it is taken in mixed fisheries or as bycatch in fisheries targeting other species (NOAA 2000a, Kulka 1986). However, the vulnerability of skates to depletion is well-documented, even when low levels of bycatch are taken. Many elasmobranch species have a low reproductive potential and a low intrinsic rate of increase, characterized by slow growth, late maturation, low fecundity and long reproductive cycles (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998), leading to low resilience to fishing mortality (Hoenig and Gruber 1990, Musick 2004; Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Frisk <em>et al.</em>’s (2001) analyses of several northwest Atlantic skates also suggested that these long-lived, slower-growing species are vulnerable to exploitation.<br/><br/>Average annual catch across this species’ range off Newfoundland and Labrador has declined since 2002. Most bycatch in commercial fisheries appears to be taken from the southwest Grand Bank and Laurentian Channel, by the skate longline, crab pot, cod otter trawl and scallop dredge fisheries. The lowest observed catches occurred in the most recent years, with catches amounting to 2 t (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Fishing grounds overlap extensively with this species’ distribution and fishing mortality has clearly impacted this species.<br/><br/>Trawl effort has not covered the entire shelf but has been concentrated in relatively small areas, particularly in recent years. A comparison of rates of decline in areas of high intensity trawling compared to areas of no trawling indicated no difference in decline rate. However, this analysis only relates to trawls; longlines, gillnets, dredges, seines and pots also capture this species (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). There may also be other factors contributing to the decline (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In the United States, there are also no directed fisheries for this species. Despite this, the species is near its biomass threshold (0.19 vs. 0.16 kg/tow), and biomass has not increased, despite reductions in groundfish effort over the last 20 years and a prohibited status since 2003. While the population is considered stable, albeit at low levels, it has the potential to become overfished. Thus, similar to the Canadian population, there appears to be some other cause for the failure to rebound to more sustainable levels.	eng
161478	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. <br/><br/>Information on the full distribution, occurrence, life-history parameters and threats are required to make a full assessment of this species threat status.	eng
161478	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Indian Ocean: India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and also possibly from the Gulf (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Bianchi 1985, Assadi and Dehghani 1997, Vossoughi and Vosoughi 1999).	eng
161478	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this guitarfish. Maximum total length is reported at approximately 56 cm (Assadi and Dehghani 1997).	eng
161478	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161478	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is presumably taken in a variety of fisheries; including demersal trawls, gillnets, trammelnets and setnets operating within its range, but no information is available on its capture.	eng
161479	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2004	None	eng
161479	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Geographic range is disjunct in the western central Atlantic with a northern population occurring along the southeast and northern Gulf of Mexico coast of the USA (South Carolina to the Mississippi Delta); and, northern Cuba to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. A southern population occurs along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica together with some neighbouring islands (Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. 2000). Its distribution may not be completely documented.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 31.	eng
161479	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2004	The northern population of the species is recorded from the continental shelf and upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 36-732m; the southern population occurs in deep waters of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 338–613 m (Konstantinou <em>et al. </em>2000). <br/><br/>Little is known about its biology. <br/><br/>Although the reproductive mode of this species has been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous, but Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest that this species is possibly ovoviviparous.  <br/><br/>Reaches a maximum size of ~33 cm TL (largest verifiable size in the literature; Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
161479	population	Heupel, M.R., 2004	The distribution as presently recognised (Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000) is disjunct and may represent separate subpopulations. <br/><br/>These sharks are irregularly distributed along the slope they inhabit and are encountered in large aggregations or are otherwise absent (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>There may be partial segregation by adults and juveniles based on depth. Few juveniles are collected below 450m, but mixed adults and juveniles can be found in waters less than 450m deep (Compagno 1984). <br/><br/>Springer (1979) suggests that nursery areas may exist on very rough bottom which is un-trawlable.	eng
161479	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Uncertain. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal fisheries would require monitoring, particularly as the species is irregularly distributed and intensive fishing may have localized impacts on the species. However, its small size would preclude it from capture in most fishing gear except trawls. <br/><br/>The northern population of this species is most likely taken by trawl fisheries, although no specific data are available on its capture. In the northern Gulf of Mexico, the majority of shrimp trawling effort is found near shore at depths less than 20 m (Shepherd and Myers 2005), so there is probably some spatial refuge for this species in the deeper portion of its bathymetric range. <br/><br/>Shrimp trawl fisheries also operate along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. However, current information suggests that these fisheries are primarily restricted to the shelf at present (<70m), outside the bathymetric range of this species in this area (FAO a,b,c).	eng
161480	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No known measures in place.<br/><br/>An assessment of catches and current abundance of this species throughout its range is required to determine its threat status.	eng
161480	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Indian Ocean: Red Sea, Gulf, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Also occurs off Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161480	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A bottom dwelling shark found on the continental shelf inshore and offshore and sometimes on coral reef, at depths of 20?250 m (Compagno 1984). Males mature at 63?67 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum size of 150 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reproduction is viviparous, and the species gives birth to 6?10 pups per litter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth is reported as 26?28 cm TL (Bass 1986).	eng
161480	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Common in its range (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161480	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is fished with bottom trawls, fixed bottom and floating gillnets, and line gear, and retained for human consumption in some parts of the Red Sea, Pakistan and India (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). It is apparently a particularly important commercial species in Indian waters (Bhathal 1998), but no catch data are available.<br/><br/>The species may also be adversely affected by habitat degradation from dynamiting reefs, tourism and increased siltation of marine areas (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161481	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No measures in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161481	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from Caribbean coast of Central America, and northern coast of South America (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161481	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	This deepwater skate is found along slope between 183 and 915 m depth. Maximum size is 38 cm total length (TL) and males mature by at least 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, the species is oviparous but nothing else is known of the biology.	eng
161481	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161481	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	There are no species-specific data available to quantify catches of this species, however it may form part of the bycatch of deeper trawl and longline fisheries. <br/><br/>For example, snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
161482	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species. Research needs to better define the species’ range, obtain information on biology and ascertain catch levels and trends in fisheries.	eng
161482	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest Pacific: China (including Taiwan, Province of China) (Compagno 1999, Randall and Lim 2000).	eng
161482	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	No information is currently available on habitat and ecology, but it is presumably similar to other species of the genus. Thornback rays occur in inshore waters and offshore on soft substrates to about ~50 m depth, but no specific depth range information is available for this species (Compagno 1998). All species are ovoviviparous as far as is known (Compagno 1998). Females reach a maximum size of 51.2 cm total length (TL) and males reach a maximum size of 47cm TL (Chen 1960, 1984).	eng
161482	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This apparently uncommon, poorly known species is known from relatively few specimens (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).	eng
161482	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Presumably taken as bycatch in gillnets, coastal setnets and bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is available.	eng
161483	conservation	Jeong, C.-H. & Ishihara, H.I., 2004	There are currently no conservation actions for this species. Research is urgently required on its abundance, interaction with fisheries and full range, including species-specific monitoring of catches.	eng
161483	distribution	Jeong, C.-H. & Ishihara, H.I., 2004	Northwest Pacific: this skate may be restricted to southern Korean waters. It is found in a relatively small area of the southwest to southeast coast of the Korean Peninsula, including the Jeju Strait, Heuksan Islands and Cheongsan Islands. Records of juveniles of this species from Goto Islands and Danjo Islands in Japan require verification (Jeong 1999, Jeong and Nakabo 1997, Nakabo 2002, Tokimura <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
161483	habitat	Jeong, C.-H. & Ishihara, H.I., 2004	<em>Okamejei koreana</em> is found at depths ranging from about 30?80 m (Jeong and Nakabo 1997, H.-M. Kim pers. comm.). This rare skate may hibernate around Heuksan-do Islands from November to April, and then move to inshore to the coast of the Korean Peninsula (H.-M. Kim pers. comm.). This species attains at least 82 cm total length (TL) (female) to 84 cm TL (male) (Kim <em>et al</em>. in prep.). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Egg capsules measure about 11.3 cm long and 4.0 cm wide (C.H. Jeong unpublished data). The female releases the egg capsules on muddy and/or sandy substrate. No other information is currently available on this species? biology or ecology.	eng
161483	population	Jeong, C.-H. & Ishihara, H.I., 2004	Little specific information is available on the population of this apparently rare skate. It does not seem to be regularly recorded but is observed in low numbers on fish markets. Only about 100 individuals were observed during fish market surveys conducted in southern Korea over 15 months (Sept. 2002?Dec. 2003) (Kim <em>et al.</em> in prep.). There is concern that it is now more rarely observed than historically, but no quantitative data are currently available on the scale or extent of any decline. The Jeju Strait and the area around the southern Heuksan-do Islands (southeastern Korea), where this species is more commonly found, appear to be important sites for this species (Jeong 1999).	eng
161483	threats	Jeong, C.-H. & Ishihara, H.I., 2004	This species is both a target and utilised bycatch of commercial fisheries. Skates are targeted using set gillnets off southern Korea. Declining catches have led to a decrease in target fishing in recent years, but no species-specific data are available, so it is difficult to identify which species are involved. No information is currently available on the historical abundance of this species, although there is concern that it may have declined. It is rare throughout its relatively small geographic range, except in relatively narrow areas of habitat around the Jeju Strait and the southern Heuksan-do Islands (southeastern Korea).	eng
161484	conservation	Ellis, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G., Guallart, J. & Schembri, T., 2006	This species is protected in six marine reserves around the Balearic Islands, but further monitoring and protection measures are encouraged throughout its range.	eng
161484	distribution	Ellis, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G., Guallart, J. & Schembri, T., 2006	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: distributed from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to Senegal in the south. Records further south in the Atlantic, to Gulf of Guinea and Congo may be misidentifications of Scyliorhinus cervigoni. It is found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but does not occur in the Black Sea. (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005, Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984, Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987, Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, this species appears to be more abundant in the eastern central basin (the Adriatic and Ionian seas and Albanian coasts) compared to the western regions (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was not caught in the trawl surveys conducted off the coasts of Morocco, Spain and France. However, it should be noted that the bottom trawl net is not the most appropriate gear for sampling this species. It is common on rocky bottoms or coralline grounds to 400 m of depth but more common between 20 and 150 m in the coastal areas of the continental platform (Bauchot 1987). The mating and nursery grounds as well as the extent of this species? movements throughout the Mediterranean are not known.<br/><br/>It also occurs in coastal and shallow shelf seas of the Northeast Atlantic, from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to north-west Africa in the south. Around the British Isles, it is uncommon in the North Sea, and more common off southern and western coasts. Areas where it seems most abundant include parts of the English Channel and Bristol Channel, Cardigan Bay and around the Lleyn Peninsula and Anglesey (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). It tends to be most abundant on coarse and rocky inshore grounds, and such habitats tend to be under-represented in trawl surveys.	eng
161484	habitat	Ellis, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G., Guallart, J. & Schembri, T., 2006	This species is found at depths of 1?2 m to at least 125 m, but is commonest in depths of 20?63 m (Compagno in prep.) or 20?150 m with a maximum depth of 400 m (Bauchot 1987, Serena, 2005). Within the northern Tyrrhenian and southern Ligurian sea, <em>S. stellaris</em> is distributed from 55?409 m depth (Baino and Serena 2000). It often occurs on rough or even rocky bottom or surfaces with algal cover and in the Mediterranean it is apparently prefers coralline algal substrates (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>The maximum reported size for <em>S. stellaris</em> in the Mediterranean is 150 cm (TL), and with a common range of 40?55 cm (TL) (Bauchot 1987). Adults are common to 125 cm (Compagno in prep.). Males mature at 77 cm total length (TL) and females at 79 cm TL (Bauchot 1987).<br/><br/>This is an oviparous species, with a single egg laid at a time per oviduct (Compagno in prep.). The large thick-walled egg-cases (10-13cm long with strong tendrils at each corner) are deposited on algae in the subtidal or extreme lower intertidal zone in spring and summer (Compagno in prep.). Once the eggs are deposited they take up to nine months to hatch (Compagno in prep.) with hatchlings measuring 10?16 cm at birth (Tortonese 1956, Bauchot 1987, Compagno in prep.). Egg-cases are often laid on macro-algae in inshore areas (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a).<br/><br/>The diet of <em>S. stellaris</em> mostly consists of crustaceans (including hermit crabs, swimming crabs, cancrid crabs and large shrimp), squid, octopi and other molluscs, a variety of bony fish (including mackerel, epigonids, dragonets, gurnards, flatfish, herring, small codfish and other demersal fishes) and other sharks (including <em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em>). Along the Tunisian coasts, <em>S. stellaris</em> is also reported to feed on cephalopods, teleosts and crustaceans (Capapé 1975). There was no seasonal variation observed in the diet of <em>S. stellaris</em>, however adults (both males and females) fed on more cephalopods and teleosts, and less crustaceans in comparison to that of juveniles (Capapé 1975, Ellis <em>et al. </em>1996).	eng
161484	population	Ellis, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G., Guallart, J. & Schembri, T., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scyliorhinus stellaris </span>is less abundant than <em>S. canicula</em> (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>This species was reported in only 34 of 6336 (1%) tows conducted during the Mediterranean wide trawl (MEDITS) survey from 1994-1999 (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001). Its overall biomass was estimated to be 0.6kg/km², with a higher presence in the eastern central Mediterranean area (Adriatic, Ionian sea and Albania: 1.2 kg/km²). The GRUND project (1985-1998), a series of experimental trawl surveys carried out on the continental and upper slopes of the central Mediterranean, reported 19.42% presence of this species in 22 surveys in Italian waters. Given percentage presence, this species was the 18th most common species, with the first and second most common species being Galeus melastomus and <em>Scyliorhinus canicula</em> (respectively 84.30% and 83.88% presence in trawls (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000)).<br/><br/>No accurate data on population size is available for the Northeast Atlantic, although <em>S. stellaris</em> tends to be caught in low numbers only during trawl surveys. The population may be fragmented, as there are certain areas where they are most abundant. This species is rarely recorded in trawl surveys over finer sediments of the continental shelf, and tends to concentrate on coarse, inshore habitats. Around the British Isles, such areas occur along the coastline of Wales (Anglesey, Lleyn Peninsula, Cardigan Bay, Pembrokeshire, Gower), south-western England (Devon and Cornwall) and also off the French coast (Brittany).	eng
161484	threats	Ellis, J., Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G., Guallart, J. & Schembri, T., 2006	Overfishing, together with habitat degradation, seem to be the major factors responsible for the decline of <em>S. stellaris </em>in the Mediterranean region. In addition, the capacity for population recovery of this species is affected by a low level of interconnectivity between isolated populations around islands far from the continental coast. The true extent of the impacts of fisheries on <em>S. stellaris</em> populations throughout the Mediterranean is difficult to evaluate, partly due to the lack of species-specific reports. In many areas, for example the Balearic Islands fishery and in Italian waters, <em>S. stellaris</em> is reported together with S. canicula or even as ?elasmobranchs?.<br/><br/>Taken as bycatch of the semi-industrial fisheries of Spain, the Adriatic Sea, Sicily and Cyprus and also in artisanal fisheries elsewhere and is regularly present in fish markets in Malta, Tunisia, Greece, Cyprus and Turkey (Compagno in prep.). In European waters, <em>S. stellaris</em> is less important as a fisheries species than <em>S.  canicula</em>, but is regularly taken in bottom trawls, gill nets, bottom set long lines, handlines and fixed bottom nets, and occasionally pelagic trawls (Bauchot 1987, Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, effort in trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean) evolved from a small low powered fleet (total nominal horse power of 2, 700), increasing to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974?1987). In a study of the long-term changes in groundfish diversity in the Gulf of Lions, Aldebert (1997) reports that there was a clear decrease in the abundance of this species since 1970. It was present in catches from the late 1950s to the 1980s and then disappeared from the catches after 1988 Aldebert (1997). Although not abundant, it seems that S. stellaris stocks have decreased in the Mediterranean.<br/><br/>A decline also seems to have occurred around Albania and the Balearic Islands: <em>S. stellaris</em> was frequently caught as bycatch by the bottom long-line and lobster fisheries, but catch numbers have decreased despite no change in the lobster fishing effort and equipment (G. Morey pers. obs.). Also of some concern is that the Balearic population has little connection with other populations of <em>S. stellaris</em> due the species? limited dispersal capacity. In the Balearic Islands S. stellaris was monitored from 131 hauls made between 40?1,800 m depth from 1996?2001 (Massutí and Moranta 2003), and while Galeus melastomus and <em>S. canicula</em> showed the highest abundances of all the elasmobranch species, S. stellaris was absent. Additionally, no specimens of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. stellaris</span> have been captured during 12 trammel net surveys carried out in the Balearic Islands between 2000 and 2003 (Morey et al. in press). Current captures for this species in the Balearic Islands are sporadic. Fishermen report the species as common about 15 years ago, and abundant in lobster gillnet fishery, but becoming very rare to date (G. Morey pers. obs.). Jardas (1984) classified the species as rare in the western half of the Adriatic Sea in 1984, although <em>S. stellaris</em> does appear in trawl surveys carried out in 1948 and 1998 (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In the northeast Atlantic abundance data are insufficient to ascertain the current status, though due to its large size and patchy distribution, it may be at risk of localised depletion.	eng
161485	conservation	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G. & Schembri, T., 2003	None in place. Research is needed on this species abundance, life-history and capture in and the effect of fisheries throughout its range, particularly from the southern Mediterranean and western coast of Africa. Further information from the southern Mediterranean Sea will become available on the species? biology and ecology shortly (M.N. Bradai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161485	distribution	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G. & Schembri, T., 2003	Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: Western Sahara and Mediterranean Sea (absent from the Black Sea) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161485	habitat	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G. & Schembri, T., 2003	The biology of this demersal, coastal shark is poorly known because of confusion with the more common <em>Mustelus mustelus</em> (Compagno in prep). It is found on the continental shelf, on sandy and gravelly substrates and amongst sea grass beds, to 200 m depth (Serena 2005). Reproduction is presumably viviparous. Attains a maximum size of at least 95 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males mature at 50?55 cm TL and females at ~60 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Size at birth is ~31 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161485	population	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G. & Schembri, T., 2003	Very little information is available on populations of this species, partly due to confusion with the more common species of <em>Mustelus</em> within its range, but it seems to be very rare where surveys have been undertaken in the northern Mediterranean Sea. <em>M. punctulatus</em> was recorded in only one of 6,336 hauls during northern Mediterranean scientific trawl (MEDITS) surveys (at depths of 50?800 m) from 1994?1999 (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Jukic-Peladic (2001) compared data from the Adriatic Sea collected during the Medits survey (1998) with that from the Hvar survey (1948). <em>M. punctulatus</em> was not reported from either survey, although <em>M. mustelus </em>and <em>M. asterias</em> were present in both surveys. This species was also absent from bottom trawl surveys conducted off the Balearic Islands between 1998 and 2001, (at depths of 40?1,800 m) (Massutí and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>The percentage presence of this species in 22 GRUND (Italian) surveys carried out from 1985?1998 in Italian waters was also very low (2.48%) and very few specimens of this species were caught in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea, northern-central Adriatic and south of Sicily island (Relini <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>The species is apparently more common in parts of the southern Mediterranean Sea. It is common along the Tunisian coasts (Bradai <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it seems to be more abundant towards the south, in the gulf of Gabès and also along the coast of Libya (M.N. Bradai pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161485	threats	Serena, F., Mancusi, C., Haka, F., Morey, G. & Schembri, T., 2003	This species is caught by demersal trawl and coastal small scale fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea (STECF 2003). There is a semi-commercial fishery for <em>Mustelus</em> spp in the Adriatic Sea (about 11,000 tons/year for <em>Mustelus</em> species). Regular visits to the central fish auction wharf of Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands) have not reported catches of <em>M. punctulatus</em> during 1999?2003 (G. Morey pers. obs.). Trammel nets, gillnets, bottom trawls and longliners operate in this area. Although Bradai (2000) observed that this species is common in the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia), it seems to be very scarce at least in the northern range of the Mediterranean, probably as a consequence of both overfishing and habitat alteration. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mustleus </span>spp have shown signs of depletion in the Mediterranean Sea, although they may be locally abundant in some areas (STECF 2003). Landings for <em>Mustelus</em> spp are often grouped as ?smoothhounds nei? in landings statistics and therefore no species-specific data are available on landings. Furthermore, at least for Italian catches, these reported catches do not correspond to the taxonomic group, but often consist of an aggregation of small-sized demersal sharks including <em>Mustelus</em> spp. (the true smoothhounds), <em>Squalus</em> spp., <em>Centrophorus</em> spp., <em>Dalatias licha</em>, <em>Scyliorhinus</em> spp., and <em>Galeus melastomus.</em> This is because these species are usually marketed headed, skinned and eviscerated, and sold under the commercial name of ?palombo?, the Italian name of <em>Mustelus</em> (STECF 2003). Therefore, direct observations are required to collect species-specific data on the volumes of catches for <em>Mustelus</em> spp, whose identification are difficult for non-biologist observers.	eng
161486	conservation	Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2004	The Davidson Seamount, located 75 km off the central Californian Coast (within the known range of this species) has been proposed as a Marine Protected area (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>At present, the species occurs mainly beyond the depth of fishing operations on rocky untrawlable substrate. It is unlikely then, that deep bottom trawl fisheries will develop in the area, however the situation should be monitored. Like other large deepwater skates, this species is probably intrinsically vulnerable to population depletion and therefore any bycatch would be of concern. Further specimens are required for research on the species’ biology and life-history characteristics.	eng
161486	distribution	Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2004	Northwest and eastern Pacific: Pacific White Skate (<em>Bathyraja spinosissima</em>) has a patchy distribution from northern South America to off Port Waldport, Oregon, USA, and the Sea of Okhotsk (Ebert 2003, Ebert, pers. obs. 2007 Dolganov 1999, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The distribution map for the Pacific White Skate in McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara (1995) depicts the species occurring in the Galápagos Islands (apparently also followed by Ebert (2003)). This appears to be an error, and the species has not been recorded around the Galápagos Islands (J.D. McEachran pers. comm. 2007). This species was described by Beebe and Tee-Van (1941) from a location ‘sixty miles south of Cocos Islands’ (04°50′N, 87°W), and it is this record that may have been confused for the Galápagos Islands.	eng
161486	habitat	Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2004	This is one of the deepest living skate species occurring from 800-2,906m deep on the western US coast continental slope (Ebert 2003). In the Sea of Okhotsk, the depth range is 1,250–2,025 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992). ROV photgraphs often show this species swimming 1–3 m off the bottom over rocky substrates (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Attains a maximum length of at least 203 cm (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous (Ebert 2003). An egg case measured 9.2 cm length and 6.65 cm width (Ebert and Davis 2007). Size at birth is reported at ~26 cm TL (Ebert 2003).	eng
161486	population	Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2004	In the waters of the western coast on the USA, Pacific White Skate is known mostly from photographs from ROV surveys and perhaps only about 4–6 specimens have been captured (Ebert pers. obs. 2007). In the Sea of Okhotsk, this species appears to be uncommon according to bottom trawl survey data. It was caught in 2.3% of 257 hauls in a deepwater survey in 1999 in a depth range down to 2,000 m (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).	eng
161486	threats	Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A., 2004	Pacific White Skate is known only from a few scattered records throughout its range occurring to nearly 3,000 m which is beyond the depth range of most trawl operations. Videotape footage of this species from 1,875 m deep off central California suggest that it lives on rocky substrate that also precludes its being caught by trawl fishing operations (D. Ebert pers obs. 2007).	eng
161487	conservation	Ishihara, H. Wang, Y., Ebert, D, Orlov, A. & Jeong, C-H., 2008	No specific measures in place. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161487	distribution	Ishihara, H. Wang, Y., Ebert, D, Orlov, A. & Jeong, C-H., 2008	Northwest Pacific: southern coast of Korea, Japan to the South and East China Seas and Taiwan, Province of China (Ishihara 1990, Zhu and Meng 2001).	eng
161487	habitat	Ishihara, H. Wang, Y., Ebert, D, Orlov, A. & Jeong, C-H., 2008	This species is found at depths of 30?90 m over sandy and muddy substrates (Ishihara 1990). Attains a maximum size of 38 cm total length (TL) (Zhu and Meng 2001). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Egg cases measure 3.4 cm long by 2.4 cm wide Ishihara 1990).	eng
161487	population	Ishihara, H. Wang, Y., Ebert, D, Orlov, A. & Jeong, C-H., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161487	threats	Ishihara, H. Wang, Y., Ebert, D, Orlov, A. & Jeong, C-H., 2008	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch of bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries operating in Japanese waters and likely throughout its range although it is not targeted, it is retained for human consumption. It is one of four species of skates commonly seen in the fish markets of Taiwan, primarily on the east coast.<br/><br/>No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161488	conservation	White, W.T., Compagno, L.J.V. & Henderson, A., 2007	None in place. Research is required on life-history, the impact of threats and potential and actual levels of bycatch. Surveys are needed to further define this species? distribution and abundance.	eng
161488	distribution	White, W.T., Compagno, L.J.V. & Henderson, A., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: Horn of Africa, Gulf of Aden, Somalia (Compagno 1984). Its restricted known distribution suggests extent of occurrence is less than 20,000 km², although the area is relatively poorly sampled.	eng
161488	habitat	White, W.T., Compagno, L.J.V. & Henderson, A., 2007	A largely unknown catshark, living on continental and insular shelves at depths of 37?91 m (Compagno 1984). This species is born at greater than 7 cm, and reaches a maximum size of 48 cm total length (TL), with male adults ranging from 42?48 cm TL and female adults ranging from 43?47 cm TL (Compagno 1984). The biology of this species remains largely unknown.	eng
161488	population	White, W.T., Compagno, L.J.V. & Henderson, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
161488	threats	White, W.T., Compagno, L.J.V. & Henderson, A., 2007	This species is small and would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries and some net fisheries. Sharks are reported to play an important role in both the artisanal and traditional Somali fisheries, although no information is available on the catch species composition and other demersal species are reportedly lightly exploited (FAO 2007). This species is very small and is probably not targeted, although it may be subject to bycatch. Although little specific information is available on artisanal fisheries in Somali waters, small-scale fisheries in nearby countries (such as Oman) tend to be opportunistic, using a variety of net-types to catch as much as possible, and similar practices may be used in Somalia (A. Henderson pers. comm. 2007). Fisheries in Somalia are largely unregulated, with numerous reports of widespread illegal foreign fishing in Somali waters (Young<em> et al. </em>2006, Somali Fisheries Society 2004). The potential for fisheries to expand and increase in effort is also high; Somalia reportedly intends to accelerate fisheries development (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species may also be affected by habitat degradation on the continental shelf, as a result of agriculture, coastal development and pollution.	eng
161489	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Restrictions on recreational gillnetting in some area in Tasmania will afford the species some protection.	eng
161489	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: an Australian endemic, occurring on the continental shelf from Jervis bay (New South Wales) to Beachport (South Australia), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161489	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Occurs in relatively shallow waters from the shore to 170 m, usually found in less than 40 m preferring muddy/silty bottoms (Last and Stevens 2004). Females reach maturity at 42 cm total length (TL) (M.A. Treloar unpub. data 2004), and males at 39 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). The species reaches at least 55 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpub. data, 2004). They have a gestation period of four to five months and size at birth is 9.5?10.8 cm TL (M.A. Treloar unpub. data, 2007). This species feeds primarily on crabs and squat lobsters; octopus and bottom dwelling fish are of less importance (Treloar <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161489	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	The most common inshore skate of southern Australian waters (Last and Stevens 1994). There are limited species-specific fishing data on skates with most being being lumped together in a category as ?rays?. Batoid sales and landing data from major markets such as Sydney and Melbourne are also limited, with only major categories such as Rajids recorded.	eng
161489	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Although <em>Dentiraja lemprieri</em> is caught as bycatch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) at the deeper extent of its range, it is more common at depths of less 40 m. Where otter trawls operate over parts of the species? range, these are considered its biggest threat. It may also be taken as bycatch in shallower waters by the Commonwealth Gillnet and Hook Sectors of the SESSF, although it is a demersal species and is therefore probably less vulnerable to capture with gillnet fishing gear. This species primarily occurs in inshore waters which are considered to provide refuge from fishing pressure to the majority of the population. If fishing pressure increased further throughout the species? relatively limited range it could be severely impacted though, so careful monitoring is required to ensure that it does not move into a higher category in the future.	eng
161490	conservation	Endicott, M. R. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	The South Georgia Government prohibited fishing in waters <500 m deep within the toothfish longline fishery in 2004.<br/><br/>CCAMLR recommend that whenever possible during longlining operations, live skates and rays should be cut from the line while still in the water, and vessels should be encouraged to develop methods to minimise bycatch of skates SC-CCAMLR (2002).	eng
161490	distribution	Endicott, M. R. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	Reported as possibly circum-Antarctic in the Southern Ocean, although taxonomic uncertainties preclude an accurate assessment of distribution at this time. Reports from the Falkland/Malvinas Islands in the southwest Atlantic appear to be erroneous and are based on another <em>Amblyraja</em> species (J. Pompert pers. comm.).	eng
161490	habitat	Endicott, M. R. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	<em>A. georgiana</em> occurs on the upper to mid continental slope at depths of 150?800 m (Endicott <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2002; Endicott 2003). Endicott <em>et al.</em> (2002) also indicate that where <em>A. georgiana</em> is commonly caught, peak captures are found to occur at depths of around 400 m. The species reaches a maximum size of 101 cm total length (TL) and size at birth is 16?18 cm TL (Endicott <em>et al</em>. 2002, Endicott 2003). Size at maturity is estimated at 84 cm TL, but this estimate is based on joint male and female data sets (Endicott <em>et al.</em> 2002). Like other skates, this species is oviparous, but little else is known of its biology. Reproduction takes place in both winter and late summer (Endicott 2003, Endicott <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em>A. georgiana</em>?s feeding ecology appears to be mainly opportunistic, ranging from small teleosts, to polycheates and crustaceans (Endicott, MRAG, unpublished data).	eng
161490	population	Endicott, M. R. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	Population size is currently unknown.	eng
161490	threats	Endicott, M. R. & Kyne, P.M., 2004	<em>A. georgiana</em> is taken by commercial longline and trawl fisheries operating within its range and it is caught as bycatch and discarded within the fishery around South Georgia (Endicott and Agnew 2003). The severity of bycatch mortality off South Georgia is thought to be low, due to restrictions on fishing depths implemented in 2004. Until the implementation of these measures <em>A. georgiana</em> was caught frequently. Further information on catches and population trends is required.	eng
161491	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2008	No regulations exist for this species.	eng
161491	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2008	Recent data suggests that the species has a continuous range in the northern Atlantic, from the USA coast to waters off Ireland, including the mid-Atlantic ridge (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: off Canada, slope waters of the Labrador Shelf (60°02’N), the Flemish Cap, the Grand Banks, Scotian,Shelf to southern New England, USA (Alpoim <em>et al</em>. 2002, Bigelow and Schroeder 1953,Templeman 1965, Leim and Scott 1966, Moore <em>et al</em>. 2003, D. Kulka pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Northeast Atlantic: only known from a few records north of Ireland (Gordon and Duncan 1987, 1989; Quero <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Note: <em>A. jenseni</em> may have a wider distribution in slope waters than described above, particularly in the northeast Atlantic as surveys and fisheries may not reach depths where they are distributed.<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 21, 27.	eng
161491	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2008	A bathydemersal species, occurring at depths of 167 to 2,548 m (at an average depth of 1,213 m) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the northwest Atlantic the species occurs in shallower waters (167 to 2,311 m, with mean 846 m) and deeper waters in the northeast Atlantic (1,800 to 2,190 m, with mean 2,052 m). Average depth of capture in Canadian waters (Grand Banks to Labrador Shelf) was about 1,100 m where the benthic temperature averaged about 3.5°C.<br/><br/>The species’ size also varies in different areas of its range, with the largest skates recorded on the mid-Atlantic ridge (measuring an average of 92.61 cm total length (TL)) and considerably smaller skates found on the USA and European continental slopes (49.68 cm TL and 46.85 cm TL, respectively) (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). Size range in the northwest Atlantic is 33 to 112 cm TL (n=163, D. Kulka pers. obs.). Overall, mean TL for female skates is 72.31 cm and for males, 80.3 cm TL (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006). Maximum recorded size is 112 cm TL (A. Orlov and D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Like other skates, the species is presumably oviparous.<br/><br/>Prey includes small teleost fishes and crustaceans (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).	eng
161491	population	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2008	Overall, the population size is not known and no data are available to show trends in abundance.<br/><br/>For the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf, out of 47,141 trawl survey sets to a maximum depth of the 1,455 m and dating back to the 1950s, only 85 sets contained 147 <em>A. jenseni</em>. Most trawls containing skates were recorded since 1995 when the maximum depths surveyed increased thus the increasing index may not reflect an increasing population (D. Kulka pers. comm.).<br/><br/>A scientific survey expedition during summer 2004, using bottom trawls (to depths of 3,500 m) and bottom longlines (to depths of 4,500 m) off the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, from the Azores to the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone collected only 14 <em>A. jenseni</em> (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Nothing is known of the population structure, but differences found in the external morphology of the species in different parts of its range may indicate that separate populations exist.	eng
161491	threats	Kulka, D.W., Orlov, A. & Barker, A., 2008	The main threat to the species is fisheries and it is probably taken as bycatch by some deepwater trawl fisheries operating in the northwest, and possibly northeast Atlantic. There is no directed fishery. In the northwest Atlantic, deepest fishing sets occur at 1,500 m off Newfoundland (most deep fishing in the range of 700 to 1,200 m), and <400 m off Nova Scotia (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). About 10 to 20% of the northwest Atlantic slope is fished annually (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006).<br/><br/>Although part of the species’ range is fished in the northwest Atlantic, the species’ wide depth range in this area (to 2,311 m), its occurrence over the mid-Atlantic ridge and at great depths in the northeast Atlantic, offer refuges from fishing pressure. Given that the species occurs mainly at depths exceeding 1,000 m, bycatch is expected to be minimal.	eng
161492	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Population trends and bycatch levels should be closely monitored. The impact of the longline fishery for hake on this species should be assessed.	eng
161492	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2008	This southern Africa endemic has been reported from southern Namibia to southern Mozambique at depths of 70–500 m. There are few detailed west coast records and it appears to reach Namibia only in the region of the Orange River. Most records off the west coast are concentrated in an area between Orange River and Cape Columbine and another area from Cape point eastwards to Cape Agulhas (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1991).	eng
161492	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2008	Found widely from southern Namibia to Mozambique on the outer shelf from 70 to 500 m, commonly between 150 and 300 m, all stages of the life history have been collected, particularly from the Agulhas Bank (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1991). This species reaches a maximum size of 92 cm TL, 53 cm DW (Hulley 1988). Both males and females reach maturity at about nine years of age (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al. </em>1999). Size at maturity for males and females is 40 cm DW and 39.5 cm DW, respectively (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al.</em> 1999). Longevity is estimated as 15 years (Walmsley-Hart <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
161492	population	Smale, M.J., 2008	Although an endemic species, it is widespread in its range and common in the Eastern Cape, especially the Agulhas Bank where scattered reefs make trawling dangerous in many areas, thereby likely providing refuge to it.	eng
161492	threats	Smale, M.J., 2008	At present, the potential threats are deep water and hake-directed trawling in parts of its range. These skates are taken as a bycatch that is normally discarded. Reef areas not suitable for trawling on the Agulhas bank afford it protection over part of its range. Recent (2004) initiation of a longline fishery for hake that includes fishing in untrawlable grounds means that monitoring of catches is essential.	eng
161493	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on the taxonomy of the species, occurrence, habitat and biology and threats.	eng
161493	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Aden.	eng
161493	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	The type specimen was collected at ~250 m depth. Virtually nothing is currently known about the habitat or biology of this species.	eng
161493	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161493	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown. Potential bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is currently available.	eng
161494	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161494	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Central Atlantic: recorded from the northern Gulf of Mexico, and parts of the Caribbean (Bahamas and Lesser Antilles) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161494	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater skate, occurring at depths of 520-1,052 m along the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 75 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Little else is known of the biology.	eng
161494	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161494	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	May be taken as bycatch, but no specific data are available. The species' wide depth range may afford it refuge beyond the depth of fishing pressure.	eng
161495	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	No specific conservation measures are in place at this time, although the Members of the West African Sub-regional Fisheries Commission and some other African States are developing National Shark Plans. Other range States should be encouraged to follow suit in order to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region, taking account of the vulnerability of this and other large inshore regional endemics to unregulated fishing activity. There is a need to identify correctly and monitor this species in catches and to clarify its geographic and depth range. There is an urgent need for accurate population surveys, and studies of biology and behaviour. Effective protected areas are needed to combat harvest mortality and habitat degradation for this and other inshore species.	eng
161495	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic/West African coast and islands, definitely from Senegal to Congo. Records outside this range (from Angola to Mauritania and the Canaries) may be based on <em>D. margaritella</em>, which has been confused with this species. As a result, the distribution of <em>D. margarita</em> may prove to be smaller than described here (Compagno and Roberts 1984, B. Séret  pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161495	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	Tropical. Formerly reported as common in marine and estuarine habitats (Compagno and Roberts 1984), but records may have included misidentified specimens of <em>D. margaritella</em>. Biology unknown, other than a reported maximum size of 100 cm disc width (DW) (Stehmann 1981). Ovoviviparous, with 1?3 pups (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161495	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161495	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Marshall, L.J., 2004	The main threats to <em>D. margarita</em> are fisheries and, to a lesser extent, habitat modification. Inshore rays are susceptible to a wide range of fishing gears. Fishing for <em>D. margarita </em>occurs in inshore waters in all its distribution range along West African coasts off Senegal, Ivory Coast and Ghana, where it is caught mainly by artisanal and small scale commercial fisheries using trammelnets, bottom trawls and beach seines (Stehmann 1981), but also by gill nets, fish traps, beach seines, and line fishing. These threats probably operate virtually throughout its range. Habitat modification/degradation attributed to agricultural chemicals and light industry development may also be a problem in some areas.	eng
161496	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Recommendation: better contemporary data of population size and distribution to evaluate the need to implement management practices. This may need to be done as a matter of urgency to avoid further depletion.	eng
161496	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Widely distributed throughout southern Australia on the continental shelf, often in the coastal zone from Wollongong (New South Wales) to Albany (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161496	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	It is one of few hard bottom dwelling skates occurring on reef but is also found on soft bottoms from depths of 0–170 m. Soft ground habitat, such as sand, mud and gravel is considered to be at moderately high risk from trawling activities (New South Wales Department of Primary Industries 2004).<br/><br/>There may be habitat partitioning between juveniles and adults. Large individuals are often seen on rocky substrates (Peter Last, CSIRO Hobart, pers. comm.). Despite several years of searching for pregnant females around Tasmania and in the southeast non-trawl and trawl fishery, only one individual with egg cases was found by a local fishermen in 5 m of water (Treloar unpubl. data).	eng
161496	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Populations are patchily distributed around southeast Australia. The species is relatively rare in outlying areas of Western Australia and northern New South Wales; it probably has a narrow home range making it vulnerable to localised fishing (Peter Last, CSIRO Hobart, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Fishery independent surveys off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped “skates” (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). A survey was carried out from 1976–1977 on the upper continental  to 275 m off Ulladulla and Eden mainly comprised <em>Dipturus australis, Dipturus</em> sp. A and <em>D. whitleyi</em>. In 1996–1997 the survey was repeated in the same area and showed that numbers of all skates had depleted. Off Ulladulla the mean catch rate for all species at all depth zones in 1976–1977 was 32.6 kg per hour and in 1996 to 1997, 3.9 kg per hour. Off Eden the mean catch for all species at all depth zones 1976–1977 was 32.4 kg per hour and in 1996–1997, 5.0 kg per hour (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>Despite several years of searching for pregnant females around Tasmania and in the southeast non-trawl and trawl fishery, only one individual with egg cases was found by a local fishermen in 5 m of water (Treloar unpubl. data).	eng
161496	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Young and sub-adults are caught as bycatch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and eastern Scalefish and Shark fishery. This species is harvested, with 16–55% of the 2002–2005 <em>D. whitleyi </em>catch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector being retained (Treloar unpub. data). There is a strong basis for inferring that sustained trawling over 20 years is the predominant and most likely cause of the observed changes in relative abundance of rays on the New South Wales upper continental slope (Graham <em>et al. </em>2001). Large individuals are most vulnerable to hook and line, but also to gill nets. In 2004, 31% of licences in the Tasmanian State fisheries were in the scale-fish fishery (netting and hooks). There are no trawlers in Tasmanian State waters; these consist of gill netters and hook and line fishers (ABARE 2005).<br/><br/>Based on observer data, standardized CPUE in the Southeast Fishery increased from 1992–1995, showed a decline from 1995–1998, then remained stable from 1998–2002 (Terry Walker, PIRVE, unpublished data). Despite this, the species presence in shallow waters also affords it refuge from fishing pressure. It may be more abundant in shallow water, for example it is frequently captured in inshore waters off Hobart (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161497	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No conservation measures are in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, more information on the biology and ecology of the species and its importance in fisheries is required to assess the status and future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the biology and wider distribution of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161497	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known from very few specimens taken in the South and East China Sea (off Hong-Kong and near Taiwan, Province of China), and Japan (Ryu-Kyu Isalnds) (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161497	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A poorly known deep-water catshark found on the upper continental and insular slopes, on mud bottoms at 540–835 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Maximum reported size is 85 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.	eng
161497	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Known from few specimens. The whole genus is poorly represented in collections and is considered rare.	eng
161497	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available.	eng
161498	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2004	None.	eng
161498	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Relatively restricted range in the western central Atlantic: Cuba, Cayman Trench (off northern Jamaica), Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico and Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. Its distribution may not be completely documented.	eng
161498	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2004	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 457–699 m (Konstantinou and Cozzi 1998). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, Konstantinou <em>et al</em>. (2000) reported this species as oviparous. Parsons (1986) reported on oviparity in <em>Galeus arae antillensis</em> off Puerto Rico, where <em>G. antillensis</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>G. springeri</em> and so it is not known which species his specimens belonged to. Reaches a maximum size of at least 48 cm TL (largest verifiable record in the literature; McLaughlin and Morrissey 2004).	eng
161498	population	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161498	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Uncertain. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal trawl fisheries in the species’ restricted range may be cause for concern and would require monitoring. Its small size would preclude it from capture in some fishing gear.	eng
161499	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries is required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deeper fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161499	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia (Compagno in prep). Type locality is Southwest of Cape Guardafui, Somalia (Springer 1968).	eng
161499	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	This species is found on the outer continental shelf, where it is thought to occur from 70?170 m depth (Springer 1968).<br/><br/>Maximum total length (TL) is reported at 46 cm (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). The mode of development of this species is uncertain, though the presence of a very thin-walled (rather than thick-walled) large egg-case in each uterus of the holotype suggests that the species may be ovoviviparous rather than oviparous, and if this is the case, the holotype is thought to have had two young in a litter (Compagno 1984).	eng
161499	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Known only from a few specimens (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and therefore population size is unknown.	eng
161499	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	This species is small and would be vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl fisheries and some net fisheries. Sharks are reported to play an important role in both the artisanal and traditional Somali fisheries, although no information is available on the catch species composition and other demersal species are reportedly lightly exploited (FAO 2007). This species is very small and is probably not targeted, although it may be subject to bycatch. Although little specific information is available on artisanal fisheries in Somali waters, small-scale fisheries in nearby countries (such as Oman) tend to be opportunistic, using a variety of net-types to catch as much as possible, and similar practices may be used in Somalia (A. Henderson pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161500	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.	eng
161500	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Southwest Pacific: known from the continental slope off northern New Zealand from the Three Kings Islands to Wellington (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161500	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	The biology of <em>B. microspinifera</em> is virtually unknown. This dwarf skate is concentrated at depths of 600?1,200 m and attains at least 33 cm TL  (Last and McEachran 2006). Like other skates, it is oviparous and deposits eggs in quadrangular egg cases.	eng
161500	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Uncommon.	eng
161500	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	<em>B. microspinifera</em> is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. This species is currently only known from a relatively restricted area off northern New Zealand (Three Kings Islands to Wellington in 600 to 1,200 m) and so more information is required on its range and the extent to which it is taken by fisheries. The population may be declining, but no information is available to ascertain the full impact of fisheries on this species at present. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.	eng
161501	conservation	Baranes, A. & McCormack, C., 2008	No specific measures in place. Where taken, catches require careful monitoring to assess the status of the population. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161501	distribution	Baranes, A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Indian Ocean: Red Sea and Gulf of Oman to Pakistan and southwest India and in the Bay of Bengal (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161501	habitat	Baranes, A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Most commonly found on continental shelves and slopes. Ranges from 110?1,000 m depth and possibly to as deep as 2,195 m in the Red Sea. In the Gulf of Aquaba, males apparently inhabit deeper waters, whereas females prefer shallower waters (300 m). Females also outnumber males in catches (Baranes 2007). The species is mostly caught between 100 and 250 m off Oman (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2006). Males are much smaller than females. Reproduction is viviparous with yolk-sac placenta. Females reach maturity at ~40 cm total length (TL) and males at 31?32 cm TL. Maximum size is 58 cm TL for females and pups are born at ~16 cm TL (Baranes 2007). Gestation lasts for 10?12 months and two to six pups are produced per litter (Baranes 2007). The species feeds on bony fish and cephalopods (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161501	population	Baranes, A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Apparently quite common off Oman (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161501	threats	Baranes, A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Taken by gillnet fisheries in southern India and also caught by hook and line fisheries in the Gulf of Aqaba (mostly artisanal) (Eilat) (Baranes 2007). Fisheries in the Gulf of Aquba take mainly female sharks, whereas fisheries in the Red Sea mainly impact large males in the population. This species segregates by sex with depth, the females occupying a shallower depth range (~300 m depth) than the males (Baranes 2007). Adult females in the population are therefore more vulnerable to capture in fisheries. In the Red Sea small-scale fishing boats are commonly used but in some areas larger vessels with long-range capabilities also take part in the fishery. Shrimp trawlers usually take this species as retained and marketed bycatch (Baranes 2007). Fisheries in the northern Red Sea have recently switched to deeper fishing grounds, which has apparently resulted in a reduction in the number of <em>I. omanensis</em> in the catches (Baranes 2007). In India, meat is utilized fresh for human consumption (Compagno in prep.). Off Oman, this species is caught as bycatch by longline fisheries, but it is mainly distributed outside the target species range (Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161502	conservation	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Close monitoring of the bycatch of the deepsea shrimp fishery off Madagascar is required to determine whether the species is taken as bycatch and in what quantities.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161502	distribution	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from a few records from off south-west Madagascar (Séret 1989).	eng
161502	habitat	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species occurring between 600 and 765 m depth on calcareous sandy mud (Séret 1989). The largest known specimen is 41.5 cm TL (Séret 1989). Presumably oviparous, like other skates but no other information is available on its biology.	eng
161502	population	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No information available.	eng
161502	threats	Holtzhausen, J.A., Compagno, L.J.V. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Potential bycatch of deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries, although no information is available. Given the restricted range and potentially narrow depth distribution of the species, monitoring should be undertaken to determine whether the fishery is impacting on the population.	eng
161503	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Recommended: Investigation into the taxonomy and validity of this species is recommended in the first instance.	eng
161503	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	Northwest Pacific: recorded only from Basargin Cape, off Askold Island, Peter the Great Bay, southern Russia (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Dolganov 1999).	eng
161503	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	This is a poorly known stingray, and very little data are available on habitat and ecology. It is thought to reach a maximum size of at least 232 cm total length (TL) and 178 cm disc width (DW) (Nishida and Nakaya 1990, Dolganov 1999).	eng
161503	population	Ishihara, H. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from two specimens (Dolganov 1999).	eng
161503	threats	Ishihara, H. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	This species would be vulnerable to bycatch in trawls, and probably other fisheries, however no specific information is available on fisheries operating within its range.	eng
161504	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Monitoring of bycatch, especially in deep-water longlining, for occurrence of this species.	eng
161504	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Known only from two type specimens found in deep water (1,700?2,240 m) in the southwestern Indian Ocean: southern Mozambique Channel and southernmost Madagascar Ridge (25°07'?12'7''S, 36°49'4''?48'2''E; 32°45'?42'2''S, 45°31'2''E) (Stehmann 2005). Probably more widespread at least in the Southwest Indian Ocean and further to the east.	eng
161504	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	A probably benthopelagic deep-water skate species found at 1,700?2,240 m depth in the southwestern Indian Ocean at two type localities. The adolescent female holotype measured 97 cm total length (TL) and a neonate female paratypes, 31 cm TL (Stehmann 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.	eng
161504	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Only two type specimens known so far, collected during a scientific research cruise.	eng
161504	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2008	Potential bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries. There is a commercial fishery for deepwater shrimps etc. along the slope of Mozambique (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161505	distribution	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Western central Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans: south of New Guinea and widely distributed throughout tropical Australia, between Port Hedland (Western Austraia) and Mackay (Queensland), including the Timor Sea (Last and Stevens 1994, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 57, 71.	eng
161505	habitat	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	This species is demersal, found on soft substrates, on the continental shelf at depths of 10?140 m and may occur on mangrove flats (Last and Stevens 1994, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy, but its biology is poorly known (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Presumably feeds on crustaceans and small fish (White <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
161505	population	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Very common in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Last and Stevens 1994). Fisheries survey by CSIRO scientists indicated this species as the most important in northern tropical Australia.	eng
161505	threats	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	This species is a common, utilised bycatch of bottom trawl and beach seine fisheries in the Arafura Sea (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Large numbers of (~650) Thai pair trawlers operate in the Arafura Sea, from the port of Merauke in West Papua, and presumably take substantial quantities of this species. Its meat, skin and cartilage are used (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Low numbers of juveniles are also caught by beach seine fishermen targeting penaeid prawns in southern Papua.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery (Last and Stevens 1994), but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161506	conservation	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Finning of sharks is prohibited in the likely range states of United Arab Emirates and Oman.<br/><br/>No other known conservation measures. None of the range states so far recorded (Persian/Arabian Gulf states, India, Sri Lanka) have an FAO Shark Plan in place.	eng
161506	distribution	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Currently documented as North Indian Ocean: Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, west and south coast of India (west of the Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat; off Quilon, Kerala; and off Cape Comorin, Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka, and the northeast coast of India (Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Its distribution, however, may be patchy. It is not reported in fisheries landings or surveys from Oman (A. Henderson, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, pers. comm.; Henderson <em>et al</em>. 2007) or India (Venkataraman <em>et al</em>. 2003). This may be as a result of misidentification as other hemigaleids species over its range, especially given that it was described only relatively recently.	eng
161506	habitat	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Found inshore in shallow water to depths of 18 m on the continental shelf. A viviparous species giving birth to two pups per litter. Pups are 29 cm when born and grow up to a maximum length of at least 81 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161506	population	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	The lack of elasmobranch monitoring in range states (such as fisheries surveys performing elasmobranch identification to species level, and species-specific landings data/market surveys) means that no population data are available. There are no known population estimates for this species.	eng
161506	threats	Moore, A.B.M., 2008	Reported in Carpenter <em>et al</em>. (1997) for the Persian/Arabian Gulf as being taken in trawls and gillnets and utilized for human consumption and fishmeal. Known to be caught in trawls in Kuwait (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1996, Bishop 2003). Recorded as being marketed whole in the UAE at least (ABMM, pers. obs., based on photograph supplied by Dr. J. Stevens taken in a Dubai fish market summer 2007), and likely in other range states.<br/><br/>Widespread, rapid and intensive habitat loss is likely to have an important effect on this species, which is probably predominantly demersal. In the Persian/Arabian Gulf this includes changes due to the damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes (Al-Yamani <em>et al</em>. 2007), chronic and acute (e.g., war-related) releases of oil, rapid large-scale coastal development (e.g., megastructures in the UAE), and changes to benthic communities from demersal trawling.	eng
161507	conservation	White, W. & participants of SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop, 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is recommended.	eng
161507	distribution	White, W. & participants of SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop, 2007	Northwest Pacific: China (not in Yellow Sea), southern Korea, Taiwan (Province of China), southern Japan (Compagno in prep). Records from New Caledonia and Indonesia are probably incorrect (W. White pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161507	habitat	White, W. & participants of SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop, 2007	This shark is found close to the bottom on the continental shelf, both inshore and offshore, to deeper than 100 m (Compagno in prep). Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with 8?22 pups per litter (measuring ~20 TL at birth) (Compagno in prep.). The species reaches a maximum size of at least 120 cm total length (TL); males mature at ~85 cm TL and four years of age; females at 82?102 cm TL and 4?6 years of age (Yamada 1986).	eng
161507	population	White, W. & participants of SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop, 2007	Common in temperate waters (Compagno in prep).	eng
161507	threats	White, W. & participants of SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop, 2007	This species is a regular utilised bycatch of gillnet, trawl, bottom longline and setnet fisheries off China, Taiwan, Korea and Japan (Compagno in prep). It is valued for its meat and fins and may be targeted in some areas of its range.	eng
161508	conservation	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	None in place. Like many deepwater species more information is needed on the biology, ecology and importance to fisheries to assess future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161508	distribution	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan (Honshu, eastern Hokkaido), Jingu and Lira Seamounts, northwestern Range (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161508	habitat	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Demersal deepwater species found on the slope at depths of 150–1,100 m (Taniuchi and Nose 1987). Females mature at 42–43 cm total length (TL) (Compagno in prep.) and the species attains at least 43.0 cm TL. Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous.	eng
161508	population	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown. No data are available to evaluate population trends.	eng
161508	threats	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Deep water sharks are targeted in a localized fishery in Suruga Bay, Japan for their squalene rich-livers (Compagno in prep., Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). This species is captured as bycatch in trawls and may be discarded, however post-discard survival rates are probably very low to nil (K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>While some offshore trawlers are only licensed to fish within their prefecture, others have licenses which allow them to fish beyond these borders and fishing extends out to the Emperor Seamount Chain east of Japan (Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). Species-specific catch data are needed to assess how fisheries may be impacting this species.	eng
161509	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is needed on the species? full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.	eng
161509	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central Pacific: known only from northern New Caledonia (Grand Passage) (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161509	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Recorded on the insular slope, at depths of 590?732 m. The only known specimen is an adult male, measuring 57.7 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161509	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Known only from a single specimen.	eng
161509	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Uncertain.	eng
161510	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Additional research is needed to quantify the extent of target and non-target fisheries take for this species throughout its range. Further research is also required on its life history.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout the range of this species, and attempts to regulate fisheries in these regions would greatly improve conservation of <em>M. rochebrunei </em>and other chondrichthyans.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.<br/><br/>The vulnerability of mobulids and increasing catches requires urgent international conservation measures. These will need to focus on harvest and trade management.	eng
161510	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: from Mauritania (Maigret and Ly 1986), Senegal (McEachran and Séret 1990), Guinea (Domain 1989), Guinea-Bissau (Sanches 1991), and Angola (Bianchi 1986).<br/><br/>Southwest Atlantic: known only from two records from Brazil in the southwest Atlantic, both from Paraná State (Barletta <em>et al. </em>1989, Charvet 1995, Gomes and Gadig 2003, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.). The first specimen was caught in coastal waters of Baía de Paranaguá (Barletta <em>et al. </em>1989) and the second from off Superagui, close to the border with São Paulo (Charvet 1995, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.).	eng
161510	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	A pelagic species that is usually found at the surface or close to the bottom (McEachran and Seret 1990). Like all Mobula, this species is viviparous, giving birth to one young per litter (McEachran and Séret 1990). Both Brazilian records were gravid females bearing a single near-term embryo (Barletta <em>et al</em>. 1989, Charvet 1995, Gomes and Gadig 2003, P. Charvet-Almeida pers. comm.). <em>Mobula rochebrunei</em> attains a maximum size of 133 cm disc width (DW), with near-term embryos 34?35 cm DW (Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1987) and feeds on small fish and plankton (Maigret and Ly 1986). No other information is available on its biology.	eng
161510	population	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	No specific data are available on population or catch trends for this species. This is probably a rare species in the southwest Atlantic.	eng
161510	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M., 2007	Mobulid rays are taken by surface gillnet, longline, purse seine and directed harpoons throughout much of their range, but detailed information on these fisheries is poorly documented (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Mobula rochebrunei is of commercial importance to fisheries throughout its range (McEachran and Séret 1990) and is taken either as a target species or a utilised bycatch of gillnet fisheries. Their aggregating habit makes them easy to target in large numbers as they travel in schools. There are no specific data, however, on landings in local fisheries where the species is taken in West Africa.<br/><br/>The northwestern African shelf is considered fully exploited (Zeeberg <em>et al</em>. 2006) and ranks amongst the most intensively fished areas in the world. Foreign industrial freezer trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate nearly year-round on the shelf off western Africa, with some of these vessels amongst the largest fishing boats in the world (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) examined the bycatch of megafauna in European trawlers operating off Mauritania between 2001 and 2005. They demonstrated considerable bycatch of ?manta rays? which most probably includes <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula rochebrunei </span>(note that while the authors refer constantly to ?manta rays?, figure 3 in their manuscript clearly shows an entangled <span style="font-style: italic;">Mobula</span>, and subsequent communications with the primary author indicated that they observed both <em>Manta birostris</em> and <em>Mobula</em> species). Zeeberg <em>et al. </em>(2006) extrapolated from their results that some 120?620 ?manta rays? are captured annually by the Irish and Dutch trawl freezer-trawl fleet. Actual bycatch levels off Mauritania will be considerably higher are there are also Russian, Icelandic and Lithuanian trawlers operating in the same areas.<br/><br/>The subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26?28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anon. 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the west African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Increased targeting of sharks and rays began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005).<br/><br/>Mobulid species appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is among the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and an assumed gestation period of 1?3 years (White <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
161511	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None.	eng
161511	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: southern Australia, from Port Headland (Western Australia) to off the Swain Reefs (Queensland), including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161511	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	A temperate and tropical offshore torpedo ray, found on continental shelves and slopes at 90 to 750 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). Grows to a maximum total length (TL) of at least 107 cm, with males maturing at 60 cm (TL) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161511	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161511	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Taken as bycatch by trawlers in parts of its range but not utilised as far as is known. Nothing is known about post-capture mortality in this species.	eng
161512	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161512	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southern Florida, throughout Gulf of Mexico, Florida Keys, Lesser Antilles, Colombia and Venezuela (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161512	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	A demersal species inhabiting the continental slope at depth of 731–1,280 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 45 cm total length (TL); males mature at 42 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else known of its biology.	eng
161512	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161512	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	At present, it is unlikely that fishing takes place at the depths at which this species occurs (731–1,280 m). Any future development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161513	conservation	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Mancusi, C., 2003	None in effect at this time. Research is required on abundance, range, population trends, life-history, threats and capture in fisheries.	eng
161513	distribution	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Mancusi, C., 2003	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and Western Indian Ocean: Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005), eastern Atlantic southward from Cape Verde Island to Senegal and Angola (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984) and the Indian Ocean (the Red Sea). The species is mostly known from the southern shores of the Mediterranean, with a single record from the northern Mediterranean (Tuscany: Serena <em>et al.</em> 1999), and one from Turkey (Basusta <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries areas: 27, 34, 47, 51.	eng
161513	habitat	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Mancusi, C., 2003	Benthic on soft bottoms, generally in shallow tropical or warm temperate waters, from shallow waters up to 100 m depth. Maximum size reported to be 100 cm disc width (DW) and 150 cm total length (TL) (Bauchot 1987, Serena 2005).	eng
161513	population	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Mancusi, C., 2003	No information is currently available regarding past or present abundance.	eng
161513	threats	Serena, F., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Mancusi, C., 2003	This species is vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl and trammel net fisheries, although no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161514	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161514	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: east coast of Florida and northern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161514	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along the slope, at depths of 475?1,079 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size 144 cm total length (TL); males mature between 107 cm and 144 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161514	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information available.	eng
161514	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Potential bycatch of trawl fisheries but no specific information is available. The species deep bathymetric distribution probably affords some refuge from current fishing pressure.	eng
161515	conservation	Human, B., 2004	The presence of multiple populations needs to be confirmed with genetic analyses. If multiple populations are present, each population must be monitored independently due to the variable intensity of fishing which occurs along its range and the proximity of populations to sources of industrial waste pollution. <em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> is perceived as a pest by line fishers and are frequently killed by them. A public education program must be put into place for both recreational and commercial fishers. This shark is attractive and is sought as a display animal for aquaria. The pressure placed on this shark due to the aquarium trade needs to be determined and fishing and trade may require management.	eng
161515	distribution	Human, B., 2004	Southwestern Indian and southeastern Atlantic Oceans: west of Cape Town to Durban in South Africa.	eng
161515	habitat	Human, B., 2004	Inshore and abundant, <em>P. pantherinum </em>is common on rocky reefs and in kelp forests. It also seems to be readily caught from sandy beaches (Human 2003, 2006a). It occurs from the shore to 50 m depth, but is usually found at less than 20 m depth.<br/><br/><em>Poroderma pantherinum </em>grows to a maximum size of at least 84 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Males are juvenile at 10.0?51.9 cm TL, adolescent at 46.9?67.2 cm TL, and mature at 60.7?77.4 cm TL. Females are juvenile at 9.4?48.5 cm TL, adolescent at 43.0?64.1 cm TL, and mature at 50.7?66.6 cm TL (Human 2003, 2006a).<br/><br/><em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> has an extended single oviparous reproductive strategy, with two egg cases laid at a time and no obvious reproductive season (Bertolini 1993, Dainty 2002, Roux 2002). One shark was observed hatching at 11 cm TL (Dainty 2002). Bertolini (1993) determined that these sharks have a longevity of at least 15 years, and size at 50% maturity was approximately 60.0 cm TL (=10 years). Dainty (2002) found that <em>P. pantherinum</em> lives for at least 19 years, and the age at 50% maturity was estimated to be 17 years. Roux (2002) determined that length at 50% maturity is 60.0 cm TL for males and 60.1 cm TL for females.	eng
161515	population	Human, B., 2004	It is probable that this shark has multiple separate populations along the coastline, suggesting that the population is severely fragmented. This needs to be confirmed and each population monitored (Human 2003, 2006a).<br/><br/>Apparently common at present, although no specific data are available on population numbers. It is commonly sighted by scuba divers and commonly taken in inshore fisheries.	eng
161515	threats	Human, B., 2004	This shark is an inshore endemic of South Africa and occurs in waters with intensive commercial and recreational line fishing activities. Perceived as a pest individuals are frequently killed by line fishers. <em>Poroderma pantherinum</em> is apparently common at present, however, it is probable that this shark has multiple separate populations along the coastline, suggesting severe fragmentation and reduced probability of recolonization. This needs to be confirmed and each population monitored. This species? inshore habitat is subject to heavy and increasing human utilizations, including extensive recreational diving and sport and commercial fishing along with coastal housing development, boating, commercial shipping, holiday-making, beach utilization and extensive pollution and habitat degradation of inshore environments. There is a demand for this species for the aquarium trade, although number of animals taken per year is unknown and needs to be determined.	eng
161516	conservation	Jacobsen, I., 2008	None in place.	eng
161516	distribution	Jacobsen, I., 2008	Western central Pacific and Indian Ocean: India (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987). However, <em>G. tentaculata</em> identified from Papua New Guinea may have been misidentified <em>G. australis</em> specimens and probably requires further clarification.	eng
161516	habitat	Jacobsen, I., 2008	Very little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. Reaches a maximum size of at least 23.5 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann 1974).	eng
161516	population	Jacobsen, I., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161516	threats	Jacobsen, I., 2008	Presumably taken as bycatch by fisheries throughout its range. The status of India’s inshore fisheries resources is portrayed as fully exploited, or overexploited (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006), but species specific data are not available.	eng
161517	conservation	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A. Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	None in place at this time and none are currently recommended.	eng
161517	distribution	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A. Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Northwest, western central and southwest Pacific: confirmed from Japan, South China Sea, Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand. Nominal records from Southeast Pacific, South Atlantic, central Pacific, and some Indo-West Pacific localities require confirmation (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161517	habitat	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A. Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Found on outer continental and insular shelves, upper slopes, on or near the bottom, at depths of 158–1,357 m (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 2005). Males mature at 29 cm total length (TL) and females at 34 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Maximum recorded size is ~42 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161517	population	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A. Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161517	threats	Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A. Ebert, D.A. & Schaaf-DaSilva, J.A., 2008	Occasionally taken in bottom trawls, but otherwise this species is generally too small to be taken by long-line or most other fishing methods (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161518	conservation	Jones, L.M., Kyne, P.M. & Carlisle, A.B., 2008	None in place. In the first instance, on-going research should determine the relationship of <em>M. norrisi</em> with <em>M. canis</em> (Jones unpubl. Data). Given its coastal occurrence and documented declines in other inshore <em>Mustelus</em> in areas of South America where <em>M. norrisi</em> occurs, there is an urgent need to determine population trends and catch status.	eng
161518	distribution	Jones, L.M., Kyne, P.M. & Carlisle, A.B., 2008	Historically thought not to occur on the U.S. east coast, but recent examination of specimens from South Carolina suggest that <em>M. norrisi</em> is present in these waters.	eng
161518	habitat	Jones, L.M., Kyne, P.M. & Carlisle, A.B., 2008	This shark is found on continental shelves, near the sea bottom, on sandy and mud sediments (Compagno in prep). It occurs close inshore to at least 84 m depth, although most records are shallower than 55 m (Compagno in prep). They have been observed to segregate by sex and size off Florida, and adult males are more common inshore during the winter. Apparently migratory in the Gulf of Mexico, this species moves inshore into water shallower than 55 m in the winter months and retreats into deeper water in other seasons. Males mature at 76–81 cm, and reach a size of at least 118 cm, and females mature at 76–87 cm and reach a size of at least 123 cm.  Maximum recorded size is 123 cm, and size at birth is 29–37 cm. They are viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, and the number of young range from 7–14 per litter.  They prey mainly on crabs and shrimp, but also small teleosts (Heemstra 1973, Heemstra 1997, Compagno in prep, Jones unpublished).	eng
161518	population	Jones, L.M., Kyne, P.M. & Carlisle, A.B., 2008	A common shark where it occurs (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161518	threats	Jones, L.M., Kyne, P.M. & Carlisle, A.B., 2008	This species is taken in unknown numbers in trawl fisheries in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and may be taken in the commercial smooth dogfish fishery off the east coast of the U.S. Throughout its range there are small commercial fisheries for this shark, and they are often taken in fishing nets close to shore (Compagno in prep, Jones unpublished).<br/><br/>Given its inshore and shelf occurrence, the narrowfin smooth hound is likely taken as bycatch in coastal trawl, net and line fisheries across its South American range. Little specific information is available, but inshore fishing pressure is generally intense where the species occurs off Colombia, Venezuela and southern Brazil.<br/><br/>Medina (2002) conducted a study on bycatch from the shrimp trawl fishery in the La Guajira area (Colombia) with an evaluation of 20 sets in Cabo de La Vela but had limited species records. The only record of a <em>Mustelus</em> species was for <em>M. norrisi</em> with low abundance (eight specimens), biomass (10 kg) and occurrence (3.9%). It is also likely that <em>M. norrisi</em> is taken by longline fisheries that operate in this area. It is not known if the species is discarded or retained and utilised when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Off northeastern Venezuela, shrimp trawl fisheries began in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). By 2003 the commercial trawl fleet had increased to about 400 shrimp trawlers operating on the continental shelf (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). In addition, an artisanal fleet of 20,000 small vessels and about 1,000 medium and long-range vessels exists (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). The medium and long range fleet targets medium pelagics using pelagic longline, and snappers and groupers (<em>Lutjanus purpureus</em> and <em>Epinephelus</em> species) using hand line and demersal longline (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between five and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.<br/><br/>The very similar Dusky Smooth Hound (<em>M. canis</em>) has declined significantly in catches in fisheries in Venezuela (Cervigón and Alaclá 1999, Tavares 2005). During the 1980s the species was a common component of commercial landings from benthic longlining in the Archipiélago de Los Roques, but now catches are very low to absent (Tavares 2005). There is no reason to suspect that <em>M. norrisi</em> has not faced similar declines.<br/><br/>Coastal demersal species including smooth hounds are commercially important in Brazil, and although specific details are lacking, <em>M. norrisi</em> is likely captured in coastal fisheries off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing pressure is generally intense. The striped smooth hound <em>Mustelus fasciatus</em> is thought to be nearing extinction in southern Brazil due to intense gillnet pressure on inshore habitat (Hozbor <em>et al.</em> 2004). Massive declines have also been documented for that species off northern Argentina and Uruguay, while fishing continues for more abundant species (Hozbor <em>et al</em>. 2004). Shrimp and multi-species trawl fisheries operate off southern Brazil, and pressure on the inshore environment remains intensive. If such declines have been documented for <em>M. fasciatus</em>, it is likely that <em>M. norrisi</em> has suffered a similar fate there.<br/><br/>Research has shown that this species is contaminated by mercury off of Brazil and has mercury concentrations above the limit established by Brazilian legislation (0.5 mu g.g super(-1)), but not as high as found in other co-occurring piscivorous sharks (de Pinho <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
161519	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on abundance, population trends, life-history, threats and capture in fisheries.	eng
161519	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco to Gulf of Guinea (Lloris and Rucabado 1998, Schneider 1990, Ishihara and Kimoto 2006). Records from India seem doubtful.	eng
161519	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A shallow water benthic ray, occurring in coastal waters from 10-60 m depth (but more common in shallow waters at 10-25 m depth in some areas) (Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006). Data collected during bottom trawl surveys on the northwestern coast of Africa indicated that total length (TL) ranged from 28-57 cm Gulyugin <em>et al. </em>2006). Reproductions is aplacental viviparous. Maximum size is approximately 100 cm TL (Lloris and Rucabado 1998). Feeds mainly on crustaceans (Patokina and Litvinov 2005).	eng
161519	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Nothing is known of the population, but the species is regularly reported from trawl surveys (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006).	eng
161519	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is not targeted, but is captured as utilized bycatch in commercial prawn, mixed species demersal and pelagic, and cephalopod fisheries off Guinea Conakry (F. Doumbouya pers. comm. 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is intense along the coast of western Africa. Throughout the West African region there is a general trend towards decline in the abundance and distribution of elasmobranch fishes, most notably larger coastal species (which are the most biologically vulnerable and occur in areas that have been heavily fished for a long time. However, this is a small species and may be relatively biologically productive compared to larger elasmobranchs, thus able to sustain higher levels of exploitation. Muñoz-Chápuli <em>et al.</em> (1994) noted that all available data suggested that skate and ray populations were decreasing throughout the area, especially those of the larger species (Walker <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161520	conservation	Marshall, L.J. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time, although the Members of the West African Sub-regional Fisheries Commission and some other African States are developing and implementing National Shark Plans under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks. Other range States should be encouraged to follow suit in order to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region, taking account of the vulnerability of this and other inshore regional endemics to unregulated fishing activity. Further biological, distribution and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.	eng
161520	distribution	Marshall, L.J. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: occurs from Cap Blanc, Mauritania to Angola (Séret 1990).	eng
161520	habitat	Marshall, L.J. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	This tropical demersal species occurs in both marine and brackish waters, where it has been known to enter lagoons and estuaries (Séret 1990). Its depth range is unknown, but may be similar to the 60 m depth of the sympatric <em>Dasyatis margarita</em> (Stehmann 1981).<br/><br/>This species reaches at least 30 cm total length (TL) (Séret 1990). Little else is known about the biology of this species, although it is be ovoviviparous, with 1?3 pups (B. Séret pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161520	population	Marshall, L.J. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Population size unknown.	eng
161520	threats	Marshall, L.J. & Cronin, E.S., 2007	Although little is known about the specific threats to this species, and there are no species-specific catch data, it is possible that the threats to this species are similar to those affecting <em>D. margarita</em>, the sympatric species with which <em>D. margaritella</em> is often confused.<br/><br/>Fishing for <em>D. margarita</em> occurs in inshore waters in all its range off Senegal, Ivory Coast and Ghana, where it is caught mainly with trammelnets, bottom trawls and longlines, and presumably also in other parts of its range. The wings of <em>D. margarita </em>are marketed fresh, smoked and dried salted. (Stehmann, M. 1981). Although the small size of <em>D. margaritella </em>may mean that it is not a targeted species in these fisheries, it is probably still taken in ?catch all? coastal fisheries in the region. <em>D. margaritella</em> is (was) much more common than <em>D. margarita</em>. So most of the ?historical? catches consisted mainly of<em> D. margaritella</em>. Despite efforts (training of the fishery observers) both species are still mixed in fishery statistics.	eng
161521	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Crozier, P. & Blasdale, T. & McCormack, C., 2008	This species is included in the total allowable catch (TACs) set for deepwater sharks by ICES in the Northeast Atlantic: In 2007, the TAC for deepwater sharks in sub-areas V, VI, VII, VIII and IX is 2,472 t. In 2008, the TAC for these species in these areas will be reduced to 1,646 t. In 2007 and 2008, the TAC for deepwater sharks is set at 20 t annually in Sub-area X, and 99 t in sub-area XII (ICES 2007). <br/><br/>Recommendations: Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess future conservation needs.	eng
161521	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Crozier, P. & Blasdale, T. & McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Atlantic: Greenland south to Canada (Baffin Island, Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia), United States (Scotian Shelf south to Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, possibly North Carolina and Gulf of Mexico off Alabama). <br/><br/>Southwest Atlantic: Argentina (Beagle Channel). <br/><br/>Northeast Atlantic: Iceland along Atlantic Slope and including Iceland-Faroe Ridge, Faroes, southern Norway, Rockall Trough and Porcupine Seabight.<br/><br/>Eastern central Atlantic: Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>Southeast Atlantic: Namibia and South Africa (west coast of Northern and Western Cape from the Orange River south to Cape Agulhas) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Areas: 21, 41, 27, 34 and 47.	eng
161521	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Crozier, P. & Blasdale, T. & McCormack, C., 2008	Unless stated otherwise, this information is taken from Compagno (in prep.).<br/><br/>A deepwater schooling shark of the outer continental shelf and slope found at depths from 180?2,250 m but mostly below 275 m. Off southern Africa the species is found from 275 to >1,300 m, but mostly below 500 m. In the Rockall Trough it has been recorded from the 1,250?1,500 m bathymetric zone (Mauchline and Gordon 1983). Off Iceland the species is most abundant between 800 and 1,200 m (range 436?1,653 m) (Jakobsdottir 2001). Off Greenland it is present from 338 to 1,299 m but more common below 500 m (Yano 1995) and in the NRA it is found from 400?1,400 m depth, with high concentrations between 350?500 m (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>At high latitudes in the north Atlantic it may move near the surface, especially during the winter. In the boreal North Atlantic at the northern extremes of its range, this species does not extend into truly Arctic waters but occurs at the fringe. Most commonly caught at the bottom of the ocean where water temperatures usually range from 3.5?4.5°C, with a minimum of 1.0°C. In the NRA, the largest catches came from the warmest available locations (between 5 and 6.5°C), primarily in the Laurentian Channel (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>Feeds on crustaceans, cephalopods, jellyfish, cod-like fishes and mackerel in the Northern Hemisphere. Off Namibia and the West Coast of South Africa it feeds primarily on crustaceans, especially penaeid shrimp but also euphausiids.  Secondary prey includes cephalopods, lanternfish, barracudinas and unidentified teleosts (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Reported size at maturity differs regionally (see Compagno in prep.; Yano 1995 and Jakobsdottir 2001) from around 51?70 cm and around 46?63 cm in females and males respectively. Maturity stages have been observed during two seasons indicating an undefined breeding season in Iceland waters (Jakobsdottir 2001).The species is ovoviviparous. Reports of litter size also range but has been reported at a mean of 16.4 (range 4?40) (Yano 1995). Size at birth has been reported from 15 cm (Compagno in prep.) and maximum size from 70 cm in South Africa (Compagno in prep.) to possibly 107 cm in the North Atlantic Ocean (Compagno in prep.). It is also sexually dimorphic; females grow to a larger size than males and are larger at first maturity.	eng
161521	population	Ebert, D.A., Crozier, P. & Blasdale, T. & McCormack, C., 2008	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>Although not commonly encountered, the species is found on the slope from central Africa to Iceland (Kulka 2006). In Icelandic waters it is most abundant off the west, southwest and southeast coasts (Jakobsdottir 2001).<br/><br/>Exhibits size structure segregation by depth for both sexes off Iceland with the smallest immature specimens found at 1,000 and 1,500 m, and larger individuals at depths in between. The overall sex ratio off Iceland was 1.00:1.19 in favour of females. Males were more numerous in shallower waters but in depths >1,000 m, the sex ratio was significantly in favour of females (Jakobsdottir 2001).<br/><br/>The species is apparently abundant off southern Africa, mainly below 500 m depth. There is some uncertainty as to whether the Southeast Atlantic and the Northeast Atlantic populations are in fact the same species.<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>Abundant on the upper and middle slope and along the Mid Atlantic Ridge (Kulka 2006). Common off southwest Greenland (Yano 1995) and Baffin Island, in slope waters off Labrador, Newfoundland, the Scotian Shelf and Georges Bank (Kulka 2006). In the Northwest Atlantic Ocean Fisheries Organisation Regulatory Area (NRA), <em>C. fabricii</em> occupy an area of 225,000 km² and are highly abundant in the Laurentian Channel where they are 10 times more densely concentrated than in the Grand Banks or Labrador Shelf slope waters (Kulka 2006). Recent population trends of adults in the NRA have been stable (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>According to Kulka (2006), in Canadian waters, large (pregnant) females migrate to the shallow (<400 m) portion of the Laurentian Channel where pupping occurs. The young then move into deeper waters of the channel. As they mature they move onto the slope, moving great distances north from the Grand Banks to the Labrador Shelf into deeper waters of the slope as they grow. The exception to this pattern is an area west of Greenland where juveniles of all sizes have been found in slope waters (Yano 1995). Kulka (2006) has suggested that there may be two separate stocks off Greenland and Canada even though the distribution is continuous between the two. Little information is available from the Southwest Atlantic at present.	eng
161521	threats	Ebert, D.A., Crozier, P. & Blasdale, T. & McCormack, C., 2008	<strong>Eastern Atlantic</strong><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern in the North Atlantic because of intensive fisheries operating on the deep slopes, following depletion of demersal fish stocks on the continental shelves and fishing-banks (Compagno in prep.). In the northeast Atlantic <em>C. fabricii</em> is frequently taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl and longline fisheries; however bycatch data is scarcely available.<br/><br/>ICES (2005) gives full description of the mixed trawl, deepwater gillnet and mixed and directed longline fisheries operating in the northeast Atlantic. Many of these fisheries operate throughout much of the species? geographic range in this area and bycatch pressure is likely to be significant. For example, off Iceland, a considerable amount of <em>C. fabricii</em>, are likely to be discarded by the commercial fishery for Greenland halibut <em>Reinhardtius hippoglossoides</em>. Records are rare and purely incidental, but Jakobsdottir (2001) estimated a bycatch of 98 and 109 t in 1996 and 1997 respectively based on trawl surveys in the area. Records of the catch proportions of the fleet in this area are needed for a full evaluation of the level of discarding of this species.<br/><br/><em>C. fabricii,</em> are landed by the French trawl fishery for mixed deep-water species. Initially this fishery was conducted in ICES sub-areas VIa, VIIc,k but in 2001 when the Irish deep-water trawl fishery started to operate in Subarea VII most of the French fishing fleet moved to Subarea VIa (ICES 2005). In sub-area  XII there have been some French landings of deep-water sharks, but it is not possible to detect any trends from the available data (ICES 2005). Note that this Sub-area contains both the western part of Hatton Bank and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (ICES 2005) where this species is known to occur. Landings in France (mainly from division Vb and sub-area VI) decreased from about 250 t in 2000 to nearly 30 t in 2004 (ICES 2005). Iceland reported few landings from division Va and the largest annual landings reported by Spain came from sub-area XII in 2000 (85 Tonnes) and 2001 (91 tonnes) (ICES 2005).<br/><br/>Despite the more northerly distribution exhibited by this species, concerns still exist that this species will be vulnerable to the growing trend of the French deep-water trawl and other fisheries to operate in deeper waters to the west of the British Isles. Furthermore, there is still a lack of data available on incidental catches. Although <em>C. fabricii</em> has higher ovarian fecundities than other squalid sharks of its size, females still attain a large size at first maturity (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2005), and therefore this species may also be subjected to overfishing by the deep-water fishery.<br/><br/>The species is occasionally taken as a bycatch off southern Africa, but generally occurs in deepwater beyond the hake fishery zone. The species is not considered to be threatened in this region; however the situation should be monitored if fisheries expand into deeper waters. There is little information on catches of this species in the eastern central Atlantic.<br/><br/><strong>Western Atlantic</strong><br/>In the northwest Atlantic, the species is taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries. In Canadian waters, there is no directed fishery but <em>C. fabricii </em>are taken as bycatch in a number of fisheries, primarily the Greenland halibut <em>R. hippoglossoides</em>, crab, redfish, monkfish and witch fisheries where removals averaged a total of 68t annually between 1996 and 2005 (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>In the NRA, there are no data on removals but bycatch would be significant on the <em>R. hippoglossoides</em> fishing grounds (Kulka 2006). Based on distributional information, it is expected that most of the fish that would be captured in the fisheries in the NRA slope waters would be large juveniles or adults (Kulka 2006). Samples from the Russian <em>R. hippoglossoides</em> fleet in the NRA support this (Kulka 2006). Although incidental catch of this species in the NRA has not yet been quantified, recent population trends of adults have been stable (Kulka 2006).<br/><br/>Little information is available on threats in the southwest Atlantic Ocean.	eng
161522	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2007	No specific measures in place. Research is required on the abundance of this species, its life-history parameters and capture in fisheries.	eng
161522	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina and northeastern Florida (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161522	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This skate is found on the continental slope at depths of 695?1,010 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum known size is 29 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology.	eng
161522	population	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161522	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available. Its wide and relatively deep depth distribution likely offers some refuge from fishing pressure, however this species has a relatively limited range and any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161523	conservation	Carvalho, M.R de,  McCord, M.E., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi, Samiengo, B., Capuli, E. & Manjaji, M., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known. It is necessary to discover the depth range and full distribution of this species. Further biological and fisheries data are also required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring. Reduction in coastal fishing pressure and pollution should benefit this and many other species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161523	distribution	Carvalho, M.R de,  McCord, M.E., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi, Samiengo, B., Capuli, E. & Manjaji, M., 2007	Northwest Pacific: South and East China Seas reaching as far north as Shanghai and perhaps further north into the Yellow Sea (Carvalho 1999). Countries of occurrence are Taiwan, China, Province of China and possibly Viet Nam, although its actual distribution may be more widespread in area (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). Off Japan this species is uncommon and often wrongly reported. (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: found off Cambodia (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Thailand (Carvalho 1999), Its presence in the Philippines requires confirmation (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: known from India and Myanmar (Carvalho 1999). Distribution in this area may be more widespread.<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: found off India and records from Pakistan of a spotted <em>Narcine</em> are probably of this species (e.g., Bianchi 1985, Carvalho 1999).	eng
161523	habitat	Carvalho, M.R de,  McCord, M.E., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi, Samiengo, B., Capuli, E. & Manjaji, M., 2007	An inshore and offshore numbfish of continental tropical waters (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999). Although it is thought to be found in shallow waters (Carvalho 1999), its depth range is currently unknown.<br/><br/>Sexual maturity for males is approximately between 24 and 27 cm total length (TL), whilst for females it is around 25 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).  Small animals are free-swimming by about 10.6 cm TL, and one specimen examined possessed a faint yolk-scar (Carvalho 1999). This species is believed to reach a maximum total length of about 33 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
161523	population	Carvalho, M.R de,  McCord, M.E., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi, Samiengo, B., Capuli, E. & Manjaji, M., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
161523	threats	Carvalho, M.R de,  McCord, M.E., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi, Samiengo, B., Capuli, E. & Manjaji, M., 2007	This species occurs in areas that are heavily fished by shrimp trawlers and other vessels, where it is taken as bycatch. The conservation status of <em>N. lingula</em> and other members of this genus is of concern in the northwest Pacific because of their inshore benthic habitat, low abundance, and the presence of intensive demersal fisheries (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Furthermore, when captured in trawl fisheries discard survivorship is likely very low, as <em>Narcine</em> species are soft bodied and easily damaged. These species may also be captured by push net and survivorship may be higher with this gear (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Trawl and trammel net fisheries operate across areas of its range off southeast Asia.<br/><br/>Fishing gear impacts, coastal pollution and siltation from rivers also threaten the habitat in which this species occurs (Simpfendorfer and Cavanagh 2005).	eng
161524	conservation	Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	<strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Finetooth sharks are managed under the US Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish, and sharks and management actions are underway to limit potential increases in fishing. Moreover, gillnet bans in state waters of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and Texas will give added protection to this species, as it primarily occurs in state waters. See http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/hms/hmsdocument_files/sharks.htm for up-to-date information and the regulations that apply to the small coastal shark complex.<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>No measures in place. Recommended: The status of this species in South American waters should be investigated. Research is needed into distribution, catch levels, impact of fisheries and population trends.	eng
161524	distribution	Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Northwest, western central and southwest Atlantic: USA (Possibly north as a vagrant to New York, rare off North Carolina, and normally from off South Carolina, Georgia, the Atlantic coast of Florida and the Gulf of Mexico coast of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Texas). A record from Cuba is apparently erroneous (Compagno in prep, Castro 1993). However, Wiley and Simpfendorfer (2007) recently extended the US range to approximately 25°N which increases the likelihood of exchange between the US and Cuba. In South America, it is known with certainty from São Paulo to Santa Catarina States in southern Brazil (Soto 2001, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is also reported from Trinidad and Guyana and may be more wide-ranging than currently documented (Garrick 1985, Castro 1993, Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Records of the species from the eastern central Atlantic, from Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, are unconfirmed and probably incorrect (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006).	eng
161524	habitat	Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A coastal shark, occurring in shallow waters from the intertidal to depths of ~20 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), which is common off beaches, in bays, estuaries and off river mouths. They often form large schools.<br/><br/>Throughout the southeastern USA and Gulf of Mexico, finetooth sharks use coastal bays and estuaries as nursery grounds (Carlson and Brusher 1999, McCandless <em>et al.</em> 2002). Adults and juveniles are common in shallow coastal waters off South Carolina, Georgia, northern states along the Gulf of Mexico during the warm summer months and migrate south when surface water temperatures drop below 68°F (20°C). In the Atlantic Ocean off the USA, they spend the winter months in the waters off the coast of Florida.<br/><br/>Estimates of size and age-at-maturity for male and female sharks from the Gulf of Mexico were different from those in the US Atlantic and northern Gulf of Mexico (Carlson <em>et al. </em>2003, Drymon <em>et al</em>. 2006). Fork length at which 50% of the population reached maturity is 1,022 mm in the US South Atlantic and 990 mm in the Gulf of Mexico for females and was found to be significantly different. Median fork length at maturity for males is 988 mm and 935 mm for the US South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, respectively. Median age-at-maturity was 6.2 and 4.2 years for females, and 4.9 and 3.5 years for males for sharks in the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, respectively (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Drymon <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Size at birth is 55?58 cm TL and fecundity is 4.0 (SD=0.79) pups for sharks in the US South Atlantic (Castro 1993). Off Louisiana, Neer and Thompson (2004) observed three gravid females with litters of three, four and five pups, respectively. The reproductive cycle is currently assumed to be biennial (Castro 1993).<br/><br/>Significant differences between von Bertalanffy growth curves were found between sharks in the US Atlantic and northern Gulf of Mexico for females but not males (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Drymon <em>et al</em>. 2006). In the US Atlantic, growth coefficients (K) were 0.19 yr<sup>-1</sup> for females and 0.33 yr<sup>-1</sup> for males whereas female growth coefficient were 0.24 yr<sup>-1</sup> and males were 0.41 yr<sup>-1</sup> in the Gulf of Mexico. The maximum observed ages, based on vertebral band counts, were 8.2 and 10.3 years for male sharks from the Gulf of Mexico and US Atlantic, respectively (Carlson <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Castro (1993) published descriptive diet data for the finetooth shark in the northwest Atlantic off the coasts of South Carolina and Daytona Beach, FL, and found teleosts (Atlantic Menhaden (<em>Brevoortia tyrannus</em>), Spot Croaker (<em>Leiostomus xanthurus</em>), Spanish Mackerel (<em>Scomberomorus maculatus</em>), and <em>Mugil</em> species) to be the primary prey. In northwest Florida, Finetooth Sharks fed almost entirely on menhaden and showed no ontogenetic shift in diet (Bethea <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
161524	population	Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	The population structure of this species is poorly known throughout its range, but it is reasonable to assume that little to no exchange occurs between the population of this highly coastal species off the US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico and the population off South America.<br/><br/><strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Common in inshore waters off the eastern coast of the USA and the Gulf of Mexico. It is abundant along the coast of the southeastern United States and the Gulf of Mexico (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2003, Wiley and Simpfendorfer 2007). Stock assessments for the US population of finetooth shark indicate that the current status of the population is above maximum sustainable yield and no overfishing is occurring (Cortés 2007).<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>This species is poorly documented off South America, but is apparently rare throughout its range there (Castro 1993, Soto 2001, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161524	threats	Carlson, J., Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	<strong></strong><strong>US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico </strong><br/>Targeted by recreational fishers, small gillnet fisheries and occasionally taken as bycatch in demersal shrimp trawls that occur along the southeast coast of the USA and Gulf of Mexico. Estimated commercial landings were 69,258 lbs dressed weight in 2000 while recreational catches of small coastal sharks were 86,167 lbs (Cortés 2002). Finetooth Shark makes up a small proportion of these landings but the actual number is unknown. The group ?small coastal sharks? includes Atlantic Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon terraenovae</em>), Blacknose Shark (<em>Carcharhinus acronotus</em>) and Bonnethead Shark (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>), as well as Finetooth Shark (<em>Carcharhinus isodon</em>).<br/><br/>The Finetooth Shark is vulnerable to overfishing and depletion because of targeted fishing in gillnet fisheries in the southeastern United States (Carlson and Bethea 2007). Despite this, recent stock assessments have shown that the US population of this species is above maximum sustainable yield, with current fishing levels not threatening its viability (Cortés 2007). This species is also restricted by its limited distribution (both bathymetric and geographic), with the majority of individuals living in shallow inshore waters adjacent to built-up areas, with extensive habitat degradation and some fisheries. However, the coastal nature of this species affords it some protection because many gillnet fisheries in US state waters have been banned (NMFS 2007).<br/><br/><strong>South America</strong><br/>Shark fisheries have increased dramatically in the southern part of the Finetooth Shark?s range during the past half-century (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2008). The species? apparent rarity is of concern in the southern part of its range because rare species captured as bycatch of coastal shark fisheries may become even rarer to the point of local extirpation as the fisheries continue, supported by the more common species (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Coastal species are the most important commercial elasmobranchs in the Southwest Atlantic, and inshore fisheries are generally very intense off southern Brazil (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005). Intensive fishing by pair trawl, shrimp trawl, gillnet and beach seine in near-shore waters is documented off Rio Grande do Sul State (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Although this species? range does not extend to Rio Grande do Sul, similar fisheries are likely to operate throughout much of the coast of Santa Catarina to São Paulo States, from which it is known.<br/><br/>Fisheries in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago are generally inshore and artisanal (Chan A Shing 1999). Intensive trawling occurs in Trinidad and Tobago's waters (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). Bycatch of the shrimp trawl fleet is considerably higher than the target catches. Total bycatch in these fisheries declined from 13,712 t in 1987 to 4,099 t in 2001 although the species composition of this bycatch has not yet been examined (Mohammed and Chan A Shing 2003). An artisanal gillnet and line fishery targets mackerel in coastal waters off Trinidad and Tobago and takes sharks as bycatch. This is the most widespread fishing method, accounting for over 85% of artisanal shark landings (Chan A Shing 1999).<br/><br/>In Guyana, there is a partially directed gillnet fishery for sharks (~600 vessels) which captures both demersal and pelagic inshore species. This fishery operates in estuarine and shallow coastal waters (at depths of <40 m) (Chan A Shing 1999). About 100 industrial shrimp trawlers also take sharks and finfish as bycatch, but no details are available on the composition of the bycatch. An artisanal demersal longline fishery targets sharks and catfish at depths of 9?20 m (Chan A Shing 1999).	eng
161525	conservation	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the Northwest and Western Central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.	eng
161525	distribution	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: South China Sea, waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005a), and northwestern Malaysia (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2005, Walsh and Ebert 2007).	eng
161525	habitat	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Found on the continental shelf. Very little is known about this species as few catalogued specimens exist. Individuals are caught at or near the bottom, at depths of between 100 and 300 m (D. Ebert unpub. data), often in sandy substrate (Compagno 1984). Other angel sharks are known to bury themselves in sediment and ambush their prey.<br/><br/>Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. Size at maturity is unknown, but mature males can reach at least 85.4 cm total length (TL) (Yano et al. 2005) and females may grow to 100 cm TL or more (D.A. Ebert unpub. data). The holotype was a female, measuring 63 cm total length (TL) (Chen 1963). Size at birth is ~30 cm TL (D.A. Ebert unpub. data).	eng
161525	population	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Population size for this species is unknown. Market observations of this species in Taiwan, Province of China indicate that it is not as common as <em>S. formosa</em> and <em>S. nebulosa</em>, but was not uncommon at some fish markets surveyed (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The one known record of this species from northwestern Malaysia was by a Department of Fisheries Malaysia Research Vessel in 1998. However, the species was not recorded once throughout market surveys in Sarawak, Sabah (in Borneo) Brunei Darussalam, and Peninsular Malaysia from 2000 to 2004.<br/> <br/>Like other Northwest Pacific Angel sharks, it is misidentified. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records and problems with misidentification.	eng
161525	threats	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is a retained bycatch of demersal fisheries within its range off China and Taiwan, Province of China. It is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations, but it is retained and can been found in local fish markets in Taiwan Island. In Malaysia, it is rarely taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries and not found in local markets.<br/><br/>The East China Sea is intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004). Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al.</em> 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim</em> and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al. </em>2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161526	conservation	Pillans, R., Medina, E. & Dulvy, N.K., 2007	No specific measures are in place for this species. Catch levels should be quantified and monitored throughout this species? range.	eng
161526	distribution	Pillans, R., Medina, E. & Dulvy, N.K., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: occurs in the Red Sea, off South Africa, Mozambique, Kenya, Madagascar, Aldabra Islands, Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: occurs off Indonesia, Taiwan (Province of China), Guam, New Caledonia, Philippines, Palau, Marshall, Solomon and Phoenix Islands, Tahiti, Tuvalu, Papua New Guinea (Compagno in prep). Also Northern Australian waters from Carnarvon (Western Australia) to Bundaberg (Queensland), with the exception of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea (Last and Stevens 1994, MIRC 2007, Jones <em>et al. </em>1991).<br/><br/>Eastern central Pacific: from Southern Baja California, south to Guatemala and Colombia, including the Revillagigedo and Clipperton Islands, Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the western central Atlantic (Mexico, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) (Compagno in prep.), although its presence in that region is unconfirmed (Grace 2001).	eng
161526	habitat	Pillans, R., Medina, E. & Dulvy, N.K., 2007	This species occurs on the continental shelf, offshore islands, coral reefs and offshore banks, from surface waters to depths of 600?800 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). It is also found inside lagoons, near drop offs and offshore (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Females give birth to 1?11 pups per litter (average six) biennially, after a 12 moth gestation period (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Last and Stevens 1994, White<em> et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is reported at 63?68 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) and 73?81 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Young are found in shallow water closer to shore, whereas adults are more wide-ranging (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). This is a large, slow-growing shark, which reaches a maximum size of 300 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) report that males mature at 160?180 cm TL and females at 160?199 cm TL. White <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that males mature at 190?200 cm TL and females at ~195 cm TL.<br/><br/>This species may not disperse widely between sites, potentially making remote populations vulnerable to depletion (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161526	population	Pillans, R., Medina, E. & Dulvy, N.K., 2007	Populations appear to be fragmented with apparently low potential for interchange among them.	eng
161526	threats	Pillans, R., Medina, E. & Dulvy, N.K., 2007	This species is subjected to bycatch in high seas fisheries and in artisanal longline, gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout its range. The number of pelagic sharks landed by fishing fleets in all oceans has become increasingly important in recent years (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, catch statistics are not available (Holts 1988, Smith 1998) and where they are, they are under-reported. This is one of the nine principle species landed by high-seas longline and net fleets. The majority of these fleets target tunas in all of the world?s oceans and as a result have a large bycatch of pelagic sharks (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species was not considered in Clarke <em>et al.</em>?s (2006a) recent analysis of the global shark fin trade, although this species? fins have been identified in the trade (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). It is a known bycatch of western Pacific tuna fleets (Ward <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/><br/>Coral reef associated species such as Silvertip Sharks are important in countries such as Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Maldives and Chagos, where reefs dominate coastal habitats (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). In this region elasmobranchs are most commonly taken as bycatch in non-target fisheries or catch-all artisanal fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has been reported, especially in offshore and highseas fisheries targeting tuna (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005).<br/><br/>This Silvertip Shark is landed in local markets in Indonesia, Myanmar and the Philippines (SEAFDEC 2006). In the Philippines it is in the top ten most landed species by number (0.73%) and weight (2.6%) with individuals ranging in size from 210?240 cm TL and averaging 23 kg in weight (SEAFDEC 2006). Most sharks were landed by longliners (~65%) and gillnetters (~30%) in Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. In Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia trawlers caught significant numbers of sharks, ~88%, 97% and 40%, respectively. Meat, jaws and teeth were sold in local markets and fins, cartilage, livers and skins entered the export markets (SEAFDEC 2006). It has been recorded in markets in Indonesia in small numbers (W. White, pers. comm. 2003). In a five year survey of Indonesian fish landing sites, only 95 individuals were observed out of a total of more than 21,000 sharks recorded (W. White pers. comm.).<br/><br/>There is evidence from northern Australia that finning can deplete and drive local populations to near extinction. Even remote populations are likely highly vulnerable to target fisheries for meat or fins, particularly given the limited dispersal and localised movement patterns (Stevens 1984). Acoustic and baited camera survey techniques were used to census shark abundance at two northern Australian reefs: Mermaid Reef in Rowley Shoals (a Commonwealth Marine Protected Area closed to all fishing) and Scott Reef (within MOU 1974 Box, where access by Indonesians using traditional artisanal fishing techniques is permitted). Shark abundance was an order of magnitude higher on Mermaid Reef (Meekan and Cappo 2004). Silvertip Sharks, noted to be the main target of shark finning fleets, were common on Mermaid Reef and absent at Scott (Meekan and Cappo 2004). Over-fishing is the most plausible explanation of differences in the composition and abundance of shark assemblages between Mermaid and Scott Reefs. Sharks preferentially targeted by fishermen, such as hammerheads and silvertip whalers were absent from counts at Scott Reef. Furthermore, catches of sharks in the local area (MOU74 Box) declined throughout the early 1990s to the point that Indonesian shark fishing vessels have been relatively uncommon in this area in recent years (Wallner and McLoughlin 1996, Fox and Sen 2002). There has been a large increase in the illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in northern Australia in the last few years (J. Stevens pers. obs.). Several initiatives are underway to identify which species are being taken and in what quantities. Some domestic boats are also suspected to be targeting species for their fins in the Northern Territory.	eng
161527	conservation	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161527	distribution	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: from east coast of Florida, Bahamas and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161527	habitat	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from the upper slope at depths of 366?522 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Maximum reported size is 40 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) but nothing else is known of the species? biology.	eng
161527	population	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Known only from limited number of specimens.	eng
161527	threats	McCormack, C., Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries; however it could be vulnerable to incidental capture by deep bottom trawl gear. Given its narrow depth range and distribution, any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161528	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. <br/><br/>Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161528	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western central Atlantic: recorded from Bahamas and southern Florida (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002).	eng
161528	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	Benthic along upper slope, between 366?411 m (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002). Biology is virtually unknown, but the maximum size is reported at 54 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and de Carvalho 2002).	eng
161528	population	McCormack, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
161528	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is currently available, and this species? bathymetric distribution may place it below most shrimp trawling effort within its range.	eng
161529	conservation	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161529	distribution	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Antarctic Atlantic: found in Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic waters, including Orkney and South Shetland Islands to the Antarctic Peninsula, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea (Ekau 1990, Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, Eastman and Hubold 1999).	eng
161529	habitat	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	A large deepwater skate, McCain's Skate can be found from the inshore shelf to depths of about 500 m. It attains a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.	eng
161529	population	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Moderately abundant larger species of <em>Bathyraja</em> in the Southern Ocean (Stehmann pers. obs).	eng
161529	threats	Stehmann, M. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Regularly taken as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries targeting <em>Chaunichthys</em> (icefish) and <em>Notothenus</em> (Antarctic Cod), as well as in longline fisheries for Patagonian Toothfish to some extent. An increase of fishing pressure in this location would have dramatic effects on this narrow ranging species.	eng
161530	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None at present. More data are required on its biology, ecology, distribution and the extent to which it is taken as bycatch in fisheries.	eng
161530	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Possibly an Australian endemic known only off Arnhem Land (Northern Territory) and eastern Australia from Cairns (Queensland) to Newcastle (New South Wales) but certainly likely to be more widespread in northern Australia.	eng
161530	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Attains at least 86 cm disc width, but little is known of its biology and ecology. Reproduction is viviparous (aplacental) and it probably feeds mainly on invertebrates, cephalopods and small fish. Sometimes netted on tidal mudflats of northern Queensland.	eng
161530	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Little is known about the abundance of this species.	eng
161530	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Vulnerable to gillnetting in the coastal fringe where fishing activities overlap with its range. However, the extent to which it is caught is currently unknown.	eng
161531	conservation	Human, B., 2008	None currently in place. The health of the habitat needs to be monitored, as does the expansion of commercial fisheries. Further research needs to be conducted to assess the species' range north of Kenya.	eng
161531	distribution	Human, B., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: <em>H. grennian</em> is endemic to a section of the east African coastline from northern Tanzania and southern Kenya, extending no more than four degrees of latitude, as is currently known. It is recorded from few localities within this range; off Ras Ngomeni, Kenya, and off the north coast of Zanzibar Island, Tanzania. The R.V. Fridtjof Nansen collected two specimens from an unknown locality, ?off Dar es Salaam?.	eng
161531	habitat	Human, B., 2008	<em>H. grennian</em> is a benthic shark with a depth range between 238?300 m (Human 2006). The life history of this shark is largely unknown. Males grow larger than females, a trait shared with all other <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks. Smallest of the <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks, the maximum size recorded for <em>H. grennian</em> is 273 mm total legth (TL). Males are juvenile at 165 mm TL, and mature at 267 mm TL and 273 mm TL. Females are presumably juvenile at 206 mm TL, however this may prove to be an underestimation of the maturity status, and size at maturity is not known for females. It is assumed that females develop a single egg case per uterus as reported for other <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks (Human 2006).	eng
161531	population	Human, B., 2008	As is currently known, this apparently rare shark is endemic to northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. It is assumed that <em>H. grennian</em> is comprised of a single population.	eng
161531	threats	Human, B., 2008	There appears to be no threat from local fisheries, as its depth range is probably beyond their capabilities, however, its depth range lies within the capabilities of industrial fishing, therefore pirate fisheries, and expansion of commercial fisheries, are also threats to this species. The restricted range of this species means that industrial pollution could have a large impact on it. The relatively deep area in which it occurs may act as a sink for pollutants, such as hydrocarbons.	eng
161532	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161532	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: it is reported from Japan to the South China Sea. In the South China sea it is reported from Taiwan (Province of China) to Nansha Islands (Spratly Islands) and the eastern coast of Vietnam.	eng
161532	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This skate is found in shallow waters, at depths of 67?87 m on sandy, muddy bottoms. Attains at least 42 cm total length (TL) (Nakabo 2002). Oviparous, like other skates. Very little information is currently available on its biology.	eng
161532	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Apparently common throughout its range.	eng
161532	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Taken as bycatch in shallow water bottom trawl fisheries. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947-1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
161533	conservation	Shark Specialist Group Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop & Valenti, S.V., 2007	No known conservation measures in place.	eng
161533	distribution	Shark Specialist Group Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop & Valenti, S.V., 2007	The distribution of this Indo-West Pacific stingray is not well known, but probably ranges from southern Japan to India, possibly including the Philippines (Compagno 1998, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). One record from Trinidad possibly refers to another species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161533	habitat	Shark Specialist Group Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop & Valenti, S.V., 2007	The biology and habitiat of Bennett's Stingray (<em>Dasyatis bennetti</em>) are poorly known. The species reaches a maximum size of at least 130 cm total length (TL) and about 50 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno 1998).	eng
161533	population	Shark Specialist Group Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Apparently more abundant in northwest Pacific than the Indian Ocean (Compagno 1998).	eng
161533	threats	Shark Specialist Group Asia Northwest Pacific Red List Workshop & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Bennett's Stingray is presumably taken in demersal trawl and net fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available on catches of this species. Ray fisheries are important in many areas of the western central Pacific, with substantial landings off Thailand and Singapore (Compagno 1998). Stingrays are also taken in various intensive demersal fisheries operating off India (Hanfee 1999).	eng
161534	conservation	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161534	distribution	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: from Paramushir Island, north of Japan, to the East China Sea, south of Japan (Ishihara 1990).	eng
161534	habitat	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	A medium deepwater species, the Dapplebellied Softnose Skate (<em>Rhinoraja kujiensis</em>) is found from 450 m depth, probably to 1000m (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It attains at least 104 cm TL and is mature at this size (Ishihara 1990). Its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161534	population	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	There are no time series data to indicate whether past fishing activities have impacted the population, however the species appears to be naturally rare, probably with a patchy distribution (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).	eng
161534	threats	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, B.M., Capuli, E., Orlov, A. & Huveneers, C., 2007	<em></em>This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However, this is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).	eng
161535	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	No species-specific measures in place.<br/><br/>Recommendation: To collect more reliable fishing data for this species. More population and distribution data is needed on this species. Improved catch data records are required throughout its distribution to better establish the status of its population. Close monitoring of the effects of fishing pressure and demand for skate wings is required.	eng
161535	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Endemic to Australia. Occurs along the outer continental shelf and upper slope of southern Australia from Shellharbour (New South Wales) to Geraldton (Western Australia) including Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161535	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope in deep waters. Occurs in relatively deep water on muddy substrates in depths of 160?700 m but most commonly in waters 400?550 m deep (Last and Stevens 1994). Females attain a maximum size of at least 185 cm total length (TL). Males attain at least 156 cm TL and mature at greater than 127 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). They live for at least 16 years (Treloar unpub. data).	eng
161535	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Fishery independent surveys on the upper continental slope trawling grounds off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped ?skates? (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001). In 1996 to 1997 the survey was repeated in the same area and showed that numbers of all <em>Raja</em> species had declined. Eight species of skates were recorded during this study, with data pooled into four depth zones. The principle species captured in the three deeper depth zones (330 to 605 m depth), on all trawl grounds were <em>Dipturus gudgeri</em> and <em>Dipturus</em> sp. B. Catch data were pooled for all species. In 1976 to 1977, mean catch rates for skates were similar on all grounds (range 32 to 33 kg per hour) but were substantially lower in 1996 to 1997 (range 4?8 kg per hour) (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>This species is commonly misidentified and incorrectly reported, often as the longnose skate, in fishery data.<br/><br/>Semi-virgin populations exist in parts of the Great Australian Bight. It may congregate but the extent of the distribution is unknown (P.R. Last pers. comm. 2004).	eng
161535	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Frequently caught on the Blue Grenadier (<em>Macruronus novaezelandiae</em>) grounds off Tasmania and western Victoria (Last and Stevens 1994). The species is particularly vulnerable to drop lining and trawl fisheries in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark fishery for target species such as Trevalla and Blue Grenadier (P.R. Last pers. obs. 2004). The species is retained for human consumption when taken as bycatch.<br/><br/>Most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, but most of the larger ones would now be retained for the local market. In 2005-07, 13 to 22% of <em>Dipturus gudgeri</em> were retained based on observer monitored catches (ISMP data) More recently, increasing management of major commercial species has resulted in fishers looking for alternate species to market, including skates and rays.<br/><br/>At the Melbourne wholesale fish market the only separate sales figures for batoids are for skates (Family Rajidae). For the year 2002, 43 tonnes of ?flaps? were sold which equates to 134 tonnes live weight. At the Sydney market, batoids are sold under a number of categories. Common names make it difficult to determine the exact species but most appear to be myliobatids, rhinobatids, rhynchobatids and smaller amounts of dasyatids.	eng
161536	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	None in place. Critical taxonomic revision of this species complex is required in the first instance to accurately define the distribution and make a full assessment of the population of this species.	eng
161536	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Undefined, due to taxonomic confusion with several different species. Nominally from eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: Mediterranean coast of France  (type  locality), possibly Republic of Congo, possibly Mozambique, possibly western Pacific off Japan, China and Taiwan Island, possibly Australia (New South Wales) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Nominal records from Bay of Biscay to Mediterranean and  Black Seas, Morocco, Canaries, Senegal to Namibia  are probably  based  on two or more species. There are also nominal records as <em>S. blainvillei</em> or <em>S. fernandinus</em> from the western and eastern Atlantic, western Indian Ocean, western and central Pacific, and eastern south Pacific but these are based in large part on <em>S. mitsukurii</em> or close relatives (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>FAO fisheries areas: 27, 34, 37, 47, 51, 61.	eng
161536	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	A benthic, rather sluggish species (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984) living at or near muddy bottoms, nominally recorded from the continental shelves and upper slopes, at or near the bottom at depths of 16 m to at least 440 m and probably deeper (Compagno in prep.). Off West Africa it is reported on muddy bottom in water of 11?18°C and salinities of 36 parts per thousand (16?255 m depth) (Compagno in prep.). The species apparently ranges from depths of 50?700 m in the Mediterranean (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Details on the biology of this shark are uncertain because of the taxonomic problems discussed above (Compagno in prep). The species is apalacental viviparous. In the eastern north Atlantic and Mediterranean nominal <em>S. blainvillei</em> is reported to form large schools (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Maximum total length of the large high-finned western north Pacific dogfish ascribed to this species by Chen, Taniuchi and Nose (1979) is at least 81 cm, about the same as a somewhat similar high-finned dogfish from Mozambique (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Detailed data on nominal <em>S. blainvillei</em> from the northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean is suspect because of confusion with two or more species (Compagno in prep.). Bauchot (1987) reports size at birth as 23 cm, with females maturing at 50?65 cm in total length (TL), and males at 45?50 cm TL. Data from about 119 specimens collected around Crete (Greece) estimated size at maturity as 52 cm for females and 47 cm for males (Chatzispyrou and Megalophonou 2005). In the Mediterranean, Bauchot (1987) estimated three to four pups per litter, while Whitehead <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported four to nine, with one litter produced every two years. The species apparently feeds on bony fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans (Bauchot 1987).	eng
161536	population	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Taxonomic confusion with several other species prevents accurate determination of population trends.<br/><br/>Data from the Mediterranean International Trawl Survey program (MEDITS) (scientific trawl surveys undertaken since 1994 along the European Mediterranean coasts at depths of 10?800 m, 10,000 hauls) were analysed by Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005). <em>Squalus blainvillei </em>composed 3% of the total catch of elasmobranchs during this survey (1,500 tons out of a total 55,000 tons). This species appears less abundant than <em>Squalus acanthias</em> which composed 6,700 tons of the total catch. No more than 10% of the individuals of these species sampled weighed more than 2 kg.<br/><br/>It was no possible to determine the trend in abundance of this species in the Mediterranean Sea because the data are highly uncertain (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161536	threats	Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2008	Taxonomic confusion makes it difficult to assess the full impact of threats on this species. Sharks referred to as <em>S. blainvillei</em> are fished with bottom trawls, gillnets and line gear in the tropical eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, however the catch is probably multispecies and includes members of the <em>S. megalops</em> and <em>S. mitsukurii </em>groups (including high and low-finned species) (Compagno in prep.). Catch levels are uncertain due to identification problems.<br/><br/>Apparently regularly present in fish markets throughout Adriatic ports, including Sicily, Tunisia, Morocco, Greece, Turkey and occasionally elsewhere (Bauchot 1987), although difficulties with identification may pose a problem.<br/><br/>There is evidence for significant catches of <em>Squalus</em> species in the northeastern Mediterranean, particularly in the northern Tyrrhenian sea (Serena pers. obs. 2006). <em>Squalus </em>species are taken as bycatch of the bottom trawl fishery targeting red shrimps in the Strait of Sicily. About one third of the catch of this fishery is chondrichthyan bycatch, of which <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em> compose about 5% (Ragonese <em>et al</em>. 2000). In this area both dogfish, <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em>, are captured in significant numbers due to the good quality of their meat, which is marketed for human consumption (1,200 tons of <em>Squalus</em> species were landed in 1982) (Cingolani <em>et al</em>. 1986).<br/><br/>In the Black Sea <em>S. acanthias</em> and <em>S. blainvillei</em> are taken as bycatch by purse seines targeting pelagic fishes like anchovy, sardines and horse mackerel. The abundance of dogfish in these catches has displayed similar fluctuations to the targeted species. Dogfish catch has gradually decreased and reached  645 metric tons for Turkish area and 430 metric tons for the Black Sea. According to Serena <em>et al</em>. (2005) catch data indicate that the Black Sea and eastern Black Sea catches have decreased to 67% and 62%, respectively (Turkish State Statistics Institute 2004 In: Basusta <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Directed fisheries for <em>S. acanthias</em> undertaken during the 1970s in areas of the northwestern Mediterranean (off the Balearic Islands) have ceased as a result of declines in the stock of <em>S. acanthias</em> (Fordham <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Squalus blainvellei</em> is of limited fisheries importance compared to <em>S. acanthias</em>, but may also have been impacted by fishing pressure in this area.	eng
161537	conservation	Valenti, S.V, 2008	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries and population trends, as well as other threats to it.	eng
161537	distribution	Valenti, S.V, 2008	Northwest Pacific: recorded off Shantou, Gwangdong, China, in the South China Sea (Jeong <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
161537	habitat	Valenti, S.V, 2008	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this species.	eng
161537	population	Valenti, S.V, 2008	No information currently available.	eng
161537	threats	Valenti, S.V, 2008	Presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is currently available.	eng
161538	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None in place.	eng
161538	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: only known from St. Vincent’s Gulf, South Australia (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161538	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	This species is only known from a few specimens taken in shallow water; the largest of these measuring 90 cm (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161538	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Very rare, known only from a few specimens taken from St. Vincent’s Gulf (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161538	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Susceptible to trawl, hook and net fisheries operating in the area (J. Stevens pers. obs. 2007). Given apparent rarity in shallow water, any bycatch would be of concern.	eng
161539	conservation	Simpfendorfer, C., White, W.T., Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northern Australian fisheries are typically well managed.	eng
161539	distribution	Simpfendorfer, C., White, W.T., Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Western Central Pacific: northern Australia and possibly Papua New Guinea (White <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161539	habitat	Simpfendorfer, C., White, W.T., Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	<em>Hemigaleus australiensis</em> is known from the insular and continental shelves of northern Australia from inshore bays to depths of 170 m. Males reach maturity at about 60 cm TL and females from 60–65 cm TL. Young are born at about 30 cm TL (White <em>et al.</em> 2005). Litter size is 1–19 (mean eight) with possibly two pregnancies per year thus a gestation of less than six months. A specialist feeder which feeds almost exclusively on cephalopods (White <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161539	population	Simpfendorfer, C., White, W.T., Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Not particularly common throughout its range. Appears to be naturally not abundant as with many other hemigaleids (White <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161539	threats	Simpfendorfer, C., White, W.T., Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	In northern Australia it is commonly taken in trawl fisheries, including those for prawns (including the Shark Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Gulf of Carpentaria and Queensland east coast fisheries) and fish (including the Pilbara trawl fishery) (Last and Stevens 1994, Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 1999). In northern Australia it is also taken in gillnet and longline fisheries, but not in big numbers.	eng
161540	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R., Fahmi, White, W.T., 2004	No conservation and management measures are in place. Further research is required on the species? life-history, full range and capture in fisheries. Data need to be collected to allow accurate monitoring of population trends.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), further research should be directed at population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.	eng
161540	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R., Fahmi, White, W.T., 2004	Indo-West Pacific: Widely distributed in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, including Borneo, Java and Sumatra (White <em>et al. </em>2006). Found throughout the inshore coastal waters off Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia, and in waters around the Indonesian archipelago (Pengaron, Batavia) (Bleeker 1852, 1853). Reports elsewhere in the region, e.g., Sri Lankan waters (Morón <em>et al.</em> 1999) require verification (Manjaji 2004). Not in Bali or Lombok (Fahmi pers. obs.).<br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 57, 71.	eng
161540	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R., Fahmi, White, W.T., 2004	This demersal species is found inshore on continental shelves, frequently in coastal embayment?s near large river mouths and in mangrove habitat (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). It is limited to the shallows, generally found no deeper than 30 m (Famhi pers. obs. 2007). The species reaches a maximum size of about 100 cm disc width (DW), and males probably mature at 43?46 cm DW (Manjaji 2004).<br/><br/>Reproduction is presumably viviparous, with histotrophy, like others of this genus, but biology little-known (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Fecundity is thought to be one pup per litter (Manjaji 2004). End term neonates of 15?16 cm DW have been observed from large females in fish markets (Manjaji 2004).	eng
161540	population	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R., Fahmi, White, W.T., 2004	Little information is available for this species, but it is a regionally common bycatch of fisheries off southern Borneo (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161540	threats	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R., Fahmi, White, W.T., 2004	This species? inshore habitat is under a very high level of unregulated exploitation throughout its range. It forms a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers, as well as tangle/gillnet, trawlnet, and dropline fisheries operating in Southeast Asia (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It is also a regionally common bycatch of bottom trawl and beach seine fisheries off southern Borneo (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). All size classes are captured by trawl fisheries and the species is retained and utilised for human consumption and its skin for leather. Even neonates from large specimens have been observed being chopped up on fish markets (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs.). Although no species-specific data are available, catches of stingrays are generally reported to have declined in inshore waters, with fishers having to travel further to sustain catch levels.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat throughout its range in Southeast Asia. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat, extensive areas of which have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practises and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.	eng
161541	conservation	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment of catches and further surveys are required to provide species-specific data on catch levels and population trends.	eng
161541	distribution	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: known only from Panama (McEachran 1995). Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification, and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.	eng
161541	habitat	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A benthic species found on soft bottoms at depths of 2-15 m (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). This species reaches a maximum total length of at least 24.1 cm (McEachran 1995). Very little is known of its biology.	eng
161541	population	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Apparently rare (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161541	threats	Robertson, R. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom trawl fisheries operating throughout its range, in shallow waters along the Pacific coast of Central America. Most Central American countries do not keep detailed records for reporting catches, neither internally, nor to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).<br/><br/>Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Both industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries operate off the Pacific coast of Panama (FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout this species? range, with approximately 232 licensed vessels in the industrial fleet, using beam trawls in surface waters down to 200m depth targeting shrimp (FAO 2007). Legislation introduced in 1988 does not permit the replacement of shrimp vessels, so many are >20 years old, between 18-20 m in length, with engines between 150-380 HP and refrigerated holds (FAO 2007). There are about 4,959 vessels registered in the artisanal fishery, including canoes, boats and motor boats. Of these, 2937 vessels are authorised to catch fishes and 2,022 to catch shrimp (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is of concern, given its apparent rarity and restricted range in shallow waters that are extensively fished by shrimp trawlers (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). Although the species may be discarded due to its small size, post-discard survivorship is likely to be very low and the population is strongly suspected to have been depleted through fishing pressure (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The destruction and degradation of its inshore habitat are also likely to have large impacts on this species.	eng
161542	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J., Gedamke, J., Pasolini, P. & Endicott, M., 2004	<strong>United States</strong><br/>Commercial and recreational fisheries for Thorny Skates are now prohibited in the continental U.S. as per the current fisheries management plan (NEFMC 2003, 2005, 2007). However, landings are not reported by species (even though this is now mandated under the fishery management plan), with over 99% of the landings reported as “unclassified skates.<br/><br/>Recommendations for future conservation action: Enforce U.S. species-specific landings reporting requirements and increase scientific research and government sea sampling attention to skates. Reduce bycatch by closing and/or reducing fishing effort (particularly otter trawling) in areas of high thorny skate concentration (USA and Canada). Reduce discard mortality by encouraging and/or mandating, gear modifications, more careful handling and discard techniques.<br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/>The current quota for skate (90%+ of the catch is thorny so we assess as thorny) on the Grand Banks is 13,500 t inside and outside Canada’s 200 mile limit, managed by NAFO. NAFO is presently setting the quota for the next three years. It has been recently recommended that thorny skate catches in the Grand Banks not exceed current levels. The rationale is that abundance as well as catch levels have remained relatively stable in years. Skates are recorded to species by fishery observers at sea but not reported in logs to species (Kulka <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/><strong>United Kingdom</strong><br/>Maintain current efforts to reduce the fishing effort of the demersal fleet.	eng
161542	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J., Gedamke, J., Pasolini, P. & Endicott, M., 2004	Eastern Atlantic: Svalbard, Greenland and Iceland to the English Channel, including the North Sea (except southern part) and the western part of the Baltic (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: Greenland (Davis Strait) and Hudson Bay, Labrador Shelf, Grand Banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Scotian Shelf (Canada), Gulf of Maine to mid-Atlantic (USA) (Robins and Ray 1986, Kulka and Miri 2003).	eng
161542	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J., Gedamke, J., Pasolini, P. & Endicott, M., 2004	The depth range of Thorny Skate is from approximately 18–1,400 m but is most common in 27–439 m (McEachran and Musick 1975, McEachran 2002, Kulka and Miri 2003). The temperature range for Thorny Skate appears to be from -1.3°C to 14°C. On the Grand Banks, they are concentrated in bottom temperatures between 2.5°C and 5°C. Thorny Skates are found over a wide variety of bottom types from sand, gravel, broken shell, pebbles, to soft mud (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002).<br/><br/>Along with this species’ broad geographic range, marked differences in size exist for specimens captured in different regions of the Atlantic. Moreover, a longitudinally increasing trend in size at sexual maturity in this species as one moves south from Labrador. For example, size at 50% maturity occurred within the ranges of 44–50 cm and 44–47 cm total length (TL), respectively, for males and females captured off West Greenland (Templeman 1984), but size at 50% maturity was about 55 cm for the Grand Banks (del Rio and Junquera 2001, del Rio 2002). In the Gulf of Maine, size at 50% maturity appears to be 87.5 cm TL for females and 86.5 cm TL for males (Sulikowski et al. 2006). In the North Sea size at maturity is reported at 44 cm TL for males and females (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000) and at 80 cm TL for females in the northern North Sea (Walker 1998). Maximum size in the Gulf of Maine is 111 cm TL (NEFSC 2000), whereas in the northern North Sea the species attains 90 cm TL and in the central North Sea, 60 cm TL (Walker 1998). This skate reproduces throughout the year in the Gulf of Maine and in autumn months on the Grand Banks (Sulikowski <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, del Rio 2001, 2002). Size at birth is 8–12 cm TL (Berestovskii 1994, Kulka and Miri 2003, Walker 1998). Litters of between 10–45 eggs are reported (Templeman 1987, Walker 1998).<br/><br/>Age estimates are available for the Gulf of Maine: Age at maturity is estimated at ~11 years and longevity at 16 years (Sulikowski et al. 2005). Generation period is estimated at 13 years (Sulikowski et al. 2005, 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Diet</span><br/>Prey of Thorny Skate in the western north Atlantic includes hydrozoans, aschelminths, gastropods, bivalves, squids, octopus, polychaetes, pycnogonids, copepods, stomatopods (larvae), cumaceans, isopods, amphipods, mysids, euphausids, shrimps, hermit crabs, crabs, holothuroideans, and fishes. However, the diet of Thorny Skate is size-dependent. Skates of less than 40 cm TL feed mostly on amphipods while fish >40 cm TL fed mostly on polychaetes and decapods. Mysids decreased in the diet while fishes increased with increase in size of the Thorny Skate. Fishes are a major component of the diet of skates >70 cm TL (McEachran <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1976). Scavenging behaviour has also been observed, Templeman (1982) recorded that nearly 14% of the stomach contents of A. Radiata >61 cm was composed of fish offal. In the northeast Atlantic the diet of juveniles and adolescents consisted mainly of polychaetes and crangonid shrimps. Upon reaching maturity, a major diet shift to fish, larger shrimps and squat lobsters occurred (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000).	eng
161542	population	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J., Gedamke, J., Pasolini, P. & Endicott, M., 2004	<strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>Tagging studies (Templeman 1984b for the northwest Atlantic, Grand Banks (Canada); Walker <em>et al.</em> (1997) for the northeast Atlantic) suggest that Thorny Skates are rather sedentary, as most (85%) were recaptured less than 90 km from the initial capture point (some after twenty years at liberty). This information along with differences in size of egg capsules (Templeman 1984a), and the great latitudinal differences in size (length) at sexual maturity among the areas sampled, led Templeman (1987) to conclude that no large-scale migrations of thorny skates occurred between the sampled areas. However, recent distribution studies showed that thorny skate on the Grand Banks undergo a seasonal migration, shifting to deeper waters during the winter/spring and to shallower waters in the summer/fall (Kulka and Miri 2003). They may also undergo a limited migration on the Scotian Shelf.<br/><br/>The centre of concentration of Thorny Skate in the northwest Atlantic is on the Grand Banks where it is managed as a single stock. Spring surveys there indicate a minimum estimate of biomass about 100,000 t, which has been stable or increasing slightly over the last 15 years. This compares to about 350,000 t observed in the 1970s (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2006). Since the mid-1980s, the range of Thorny Skate on the Grand Banks has been contracting (Kulka and Miri 2003). The centre of mass of this species on the Grand Banks underwent a ~68% decline in extent of occurrence (EOO) between the 1970s and early 1990s. Formerly covering the entire area in fairly dense concentrations, 80% of the biomass is now concentrated into 20% of the area along the southwest slope of the Grand Bank. Twenty-five percent of the area (to the north) is now devoid of thorny skate. This “hyper-aggregation” has progressed although the size of the population has been stable or slightly increasing since the early 1990s. The causes for this decline in EOO are unclear since the majority of the decline occurred in an area that is largely unfished. Recent work suggests that the decline coincided with a period of cold ambient temperatures.<br/><br/>Life history characteristics, such as size at sexual maturity, vary by area. Samples from the Scotian Shelf, (the southern most area sampled) indicated some mixing of small and large reproductive size groups, leading Templeman (1987) to suggest that more than one Thorny Skate stock may exist within this area. A more recent study by Simon and Frank (1996) in the Scotian Shelf found results comparable to those of Templeman (1987). Whether mixing of mismatched reproductive groups is occurring or if separate stocks exist, can not be determined based solely on Templeman’s (1984b, 1987) or Simon and Frank’s (1996) data. To some degree these lines of evidence would lend support for some degree of population segregation and sub-division into sub populations.<br/><br/>According to the 44th SAW report (NEFSC 2007), the NEFSC autumn survey biomass indices for Thorny Skate have declined continuously over the last 40 years and the 2005 index was a record low in the United States. The decline in Thorny Skate SSB is similar but more pronounced than for total biomass. In addition, Thorny Skate recruitment indices (number/tow between 25 and 35 cm) were relatively high although variable from 1963 to 1990, but have since declined to very low levels.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Landing statistics (1903–1993), International Bottom Trawl Surveys (1979–1993) and survey data collected in Dutch coastal waters between 1951 and 1994 reported that <em>A. radiata</em> is the most abundant species, representing 80% of the biomass and that showed a marked increase in the central North Sea between 1970 and 1993. (Walker and Heessen 1996).<br/><br/>Scottish trawl surveys in the central and northern North Sea for the period 1929–1956 and 1981–1995 shows that the starry ray was caught throughout the two periods and became more abundant between 1981 and 1995. The length-frequency pattern of the Thorny Skate was unchanged for the two periods (Greenstreet and Hall, 1996, Walker and Hislop 1998).<br/><br/>In and along the northeastern North Sea and the Skagerrak (Norwegian Deep) this species is very common and is the most abundant skate species (Bergstad 1990). In the research cruises carried out in the northeastern North Sea and Skagerrak from 1984–1987 and 1995–1996 the species was caught in 269 of total of 639 trawls (41%). In the central North Sea it has shown a marked increase between 1970 and 1983 (Heesen and Daan 1995) and from 1982–1991 in English groundfish surveys (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005). Catches of the Thorny Skate occurred in the entire area, but in the Skagerrak the catches were larger. Although a survey of this species indicated a decline recently in the North Sea, this is believed to be a result of a change in survey gear (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The average individual weight was three to six times higher in the Skagerrak that in the North Sea. The larger individuals were most abundant in waters less than 300 m but there were indications of a movement towards deeper waters in winter. Estimates of total biomass of this species in the North Sea are of the order of 100,000 t (Sparholt and Vinther 1991) but the sampling effort was restricted by depth and area hence the results were not representative of the deeper northeastern part of the North Sea and the Skagerrak. The comparatively shallow areas off the west coast of Norway are probably used as nurseries (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2000). The Barents Sea is considered a spawning ground (ICES 2006).	eng
161542	threats	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J., Gedamke, J., Pasolini, P. & Endicott, M., 2004	<strong>United States</strong><br/>Skates have been taken primarily as bycatch in groundfish trawl fisheries in New England waters for decades (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>A. radiata</em> is primarily landed for wings in the U.S. Since 1981, U.S. skate landings have increased substantially, primarily due to the increased export market for ‘skate wings’ and to a lesser extent because of the increased demand for lobster bait. It is thought that the winter <em>Leucoraja ocellata</em>, Thorny Skate (<em>A. radiata</em>) and Little Skates (<em>Leucoraja erinacea</em>) comprised most of this catch (Dulvy 2005). However, in the USA, landings are not reported by species, with nearly 100% of the landings reported as unclassified skates. “Skate landings reached 9,500 mt in 1969, but declined quickly during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981. Landings for all skates increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and then declined somewhat to 7,200 mt in 1995. Landings have increased again since 1995, and the 1998 reported commercial landings of 17,000 mt were the highest on record (from Packer <em>et al. </em>2003)”. <br/><br/>The biomass of large size skates (>100 cm TL max. Length; including Barndoor Skate, Winter Skate and Thorny Skate) has steadily declined since the mid-1980s. The abundance of Thorny Skate has declined to historic lows and current abundance is about 10–15% of the peak observed in the late 1960s to early 1970s. In addition, the most recent NEFSC autumn average biomass index of 0.55kg/tow is well below the biomass threshold level of 2.2 kg/tow (NEFMC 2007). Thus the Thorny Skate is considered to be overfished (population level is below threshold levels) in the USA.<br/><br/>The principal commercial fishing method used to catch thorny skates is otter trawling. In USA waters these skates are frequently taken as bycatch during groundfish trawling and scallop dredge operations and discarded. Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Canada</strong><br/>The main human induced threat in Canada is a directed fishery on the Grand Banks where an average of about 11,800 t have been removed during the past five years using trawl gears (Kulka <em>et al.</em> 2004). Thorny Skate are also taken as bycatch in much smaller amounts in other areas from the Scotian Shelf, north to the Davis Strait. Recent work also shows that the decline on the northern Grand Banks is correlated to the period of cooling in that area (Colbourne and Kulka 2004). The cause of the cooling and the likelihood of future similar occurrences are unknown. Summer survey biomass on the Scotian Shelf (which lies between the Grand Banks and U.S. Waters) is less than that on the Grand Banks, but has declined by 80% since 1970, with no obvious environmental cause. Survey biomass has been relatively stable at a low level over the past 12 years, and is correlated with greatly reduced groundfish fishing effort (McPhie 2007). About 3,000 of the 11,800 t of removals from the Grand Banks fishery from the Grand Banks and 100% of the landings are exported as wings to Europe. Most of the remainder of the landings are attributable to Spain, Portugal and Russia in the NRA (NAFO Regulatory area outside of Canada's 200 mile limit). All non-Canadian catches are landed in Europe.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is occasionally landed as bycatch of other demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic. Thorny Skates are known to be scavengers (Templeman 1982) and are less susceptible to fishing mortality in this region than other skates because of a low length at first maturity (~44 cm TL in the North Sea). Moreover, this species is distributed outside the major beam trawling areas in the southern and southeastern North Sea (Walker and Heessen 1996). They are bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries in the North Sea, Irish Sea and Barents Sea. They are not considered a desirable species and thus are not targeted.<br/><br/>Thorny Skate is the most abundant skate species in the North Sea and Skagerrak, and populations trends appear to be stable or increasing throughout this area. It is taken as bycatch in the Barents Sea and it is the dominant skate species in this area, comprising 96% by number of total number and about 92% by weight of skates caught in surveys or as bycatch (ICES 2006). Relative CPUE data for <em>A. radiata</em> in the Barents Sea from 1997–2003 indicate that biomass and abundance increased during this time period (ICES 2006). Obtained fishery-independent survey cruise data (from 1998–2001) on stocks of <em>A. radiata</em> in the Barents Sea remained almost unchanged during survey timeframe, possibly suggesting stable stocks in the examined area (Dolgov <em>et al.</em> 2004, ICES 2006).	eng
161543	conservation	Ebert, D.A., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2007	There are no known conservation measures within the range of this species. Catch data are required to assess the impact of fisheries on this species throughout its range.	eng
161543	distribution	Ebert, D.A., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: Thailand, Viet Nam, southern China (off Hong Kong), Taiwan, Japan (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Recent investigation suggests that records of this species from Malaysian Borneo and Indonesia refer to a similar, but distinct species.	eng
161543	habitat	Ebert, D.A., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2007	This is an inshore species but its depth range has not been reported (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Virtually nothing is known about the biology of this species.	eng
161543	population	Ebert, D.A., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2007	Nothing is currently known about the population status of this species.	eng
161543	threats	Ebert, D.A., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2007	Taken as bycatch in fisheries throughout much of its range, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, Province of China, Japan (D.A. Ebert pers. obs, Compagno in prep.). It is retained and utilised for its meat and fins, but no catch or landings data are available.	eng
161544	conservation	Burgess, G.H., Perez, M. & Chin, A., 2004	Further information required on life history.	eng
161544	distribution	Burgess, G.H., Perez, M. & Chin, A., 2004	Western central Atlantic: known only from Honduras, Nicaragua and Colombia, and between the Honduras bank and Jamaica (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161544	habitat	Burgess, G.H., Perez, M. & Chin, A., 2004	Outer continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 190–410 m (Springer 1979). Thought to prefer habitats with fine white calcareous substrate (Springer 1979, Compagno 1984).<br/><br/>Very little known of its biology. Maximum size 35 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Oviparous, probably laying one egg per oviduct (Compagno 1984).	eng
161544	population	Burgess, G.H., Perez, M. & Chin, A., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161544	threats	Burgess, G.H., Perez, M. & Chin, A., 2004	None identifiable at present. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the Caribbean coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua, but current information suggests that these fisheries are primarily restricted to the shelf at present (<70 m), outside the bathymetric range of this species in this area (FAOab). Deepwater shrimp trawl fisheries are not known to operate in Colombia’s Caribbean waters (J.P. Caldas pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161545	conservation	Wang, Y., Vidthayanon, C. & Samiengo, B., 2007	No specific measures are currently in place. Research is required on taxonomy, life history, population trends, capture in fisheries and other threats.	eng
161545	distribution	Wang, Y., Vidthayanon, C. & Samiengo, B., 2007	Northwestern Pacific: East China Sea off Shanghai China and Taiwan, Province of China and Gulf of Tonkin, Viet Nam (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: Java, Indonesia, Singapore and Andaman Sea, Thailand (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). May also occur off India, thus having a more widespread distribution, but this needs conformation (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
161545	habitat	Wang, Y., Vidthayanon, C. & Samiengo, B., 2007	This nominal species is found both inshore and offshore in continental waters, probably at 40-100 m (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999).<br/><br/>It grows to a maximum size of at least 40 cm total length (TL) (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). This species is presumably ovoviviparous, but little else is known of its biology.	eng
161545	population	Wang, Y., Vidthayanon, C. & Samiengo, B., 2007	Uncommon in Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). <em>Narcine</em> species appear to be less common in general now than historically in Thai waters (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161545	threats	Wang, Y., Vidthayanon, C. & Samiengo, B., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries. Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in areas of its range, although no specific details are available. Pollution and discharge of poor quality, heavily silted riverine waters may also be detrimentally affecting its habitat.	eng
161546	conservation	Manjaji, M., Fahmi, & White, W., 2007	None in place.	eng
161546	distribution	Manjaji, M., Fahmi, & White, W., 2007	Western central Pacific: Apparently restricted to Sarawak, Borneo and Sumatra in Indonesia. Despite intensive field and market surveys in eastern Indonesia and Borneo, including the more northerly Malaysian state of Sabah, this species has not been recorded north of Bintulu, central Sarawak (Manjaji and Last 2006).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries Area: 71.	eng
161546	habitat	Manjaji, M., Fahmi, & White, W., 2007	This species appears to be coastal, is found in brackish water on very muddy substrate and is associated with runoff from large rivers and mangrove forest (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007, Manjaji-Matsumoto and Last 2006). It occurs in very shallow waters, to not more than 30 m deep (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007). <br/><br/>Maximum size is 100 cm disc width (DW). Females mature by 70 cm DW, males by 49 cm DW and size at birth is >18 cm (Manjaji-Matsumoto and Last 2006).	eng
161546	population	Manjaji, M., Fahmi, & White, W., 2007	Common within its restricted range; most common in Sarawak (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161546	threats	Manjaji, M., Fahmi, & White, W., 2007	Captured in trawls and on bottom longlines (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007) and retained and utilised. Fishing pressure is generally intensive and unregulated throughout this species? range.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction and pollution (chemical) through aquaculture (specifically conversion of mangrove habitat into shrimp farms), mining and coastal development is a major threat to this species. This species is known to be associated with mangrove habitat in very shallow water (M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007) and is therefore considered highly vulnerable to destruction of this habitat. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms (Malaysia, East Java, Sulawesi and Sumatra), excessive logging, urban development (Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi) (FAO 2007). Indonesia lost about 1,300,000 hectares of mangroves from 1980?2005 (>30% of mangrove area in 1980) and Malaysia lost about 110,000 hectares during the same period (>16% of mangrove area in 1980) (FAO 2007). This represents a loss of >30% of combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition to loss of mangrove forests, extensive habitat degradation through destructive fishing practices and pollution has also impacted this species? shallow water habitat.	eng
161547	conservation	White, W.T. & Manjaji, B.M. & Fahmi, 2004	None.	eng
161547	distribution	White, W.T. & Manjaji, B.M. & Fahmi, 2004	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: from India to Java, Indonesia (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>FAO fishing areas: 57, 71.	eng
161547	habitat	White, W.T. & Manjaji, B.M. & Fahmi, 2004	This inshore stingray occurs on soft substrates, to depths of at least 30 m (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is known to range into rivers and estuaries in Sabah (Manjaji 1997), and one specimen was caught in an ox-bow (saltwater) lake, near the mouth of Kinabatangan River (Sabah) (Manjaji 2004). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species attains at least 119 cm disc width (DW) (300 cm total length), males mature at about 76 cm DW (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Size at birth is less than 24.2 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007). Nothing else is currently known of the life-history parameters of the species.	eng
161547	population	White, W.T. & Manjaji, B.M. & Fahmi, 2004	Unknown.	eng
161547	threats	White, W.T. & Manjaji, B.M. & Fahmi, 2004	<em>Himantura uarnacoides</em> is taken in very large quantities in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries off India, Indonesia and Malaysia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays (Compagno 1998, White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Authors pers. obs.). It is also captured by bottom longlines in Vietnam (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). In Indonesia, although this species is still caught in large numbers, the fishing vessels have to travel large distances from many cities to sustain catch levels (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Thus, it is apparent that many areas, particularly close to major cities, have been heavily fished. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. In Indonesia, the dried ray meat that is obtained from catches of the rhynchobatid gill net fishery is an extremely important source of protein for the country. This will presumably increase in the future, thus of great concern to batoid species such as <em>H. uarnacoides</em>.<br/><br/>Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species? known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia (and presumably in other parts of its range, such as India), most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are usually retained and marketed for human consumption (B.M. Manjaji, W. White, Famhi and Vidthayanon pers. obs.). Artisanal and industrial fishing pressure is intensive off India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis. Inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and increasing ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India and declines in demersal shrimp and fish stocks have led to fishery closures in areas of the western coast (Morgan 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, recruitment and biomass and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, this species may share the limiting life-history characteristics similar to many elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to depletion.<br/><br/>Marine pollution and coastal degradation has also impacted the coastal habitat of this species (including estuaries) (Morgan 2006). Extensive trawl and gillnet fisheries also operate off Pakistan (Khan 2006) and in other areas of this species? range in the Indian Ocean.	eng
161548	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Research is required on the species’ occurrence, life-history parameters, capture in fisheries and population trends.	eng
161548	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Indian Ocean: India, Myanmar (Gulf of Martaban) and Pakistan (Bianchi 1985, Weitkamp and Sullivan 2003).	eng
161548	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	A demersal species found on the deeper part of the continental shelf and upper slope at depths of 122–244 m in tropical waters (Bianchi 1985, McEachran and Dunn 1998). The species attains 22 cm disc width (DW). Presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else known about its biology.	eng
161548	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161548	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available.	eng
161549	conservation	Ebert, D., McCormack, C., Freitas, M., Biscoito, M., Francis, M., Tanaka, S., Ishihara, H., Holtzhausen, H. & Stewart, A., 2008	<strong>In place</strong><br/>There are no specific management measures in place for this species. The use of fixed gillnets at depths of over 200 m has been banned in the archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (ICES 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Recommended</strong><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161549	distribution	Ebert, D., McCormack, C., Freitas, M., Biscoito, M., Francis, M., Tanaka, S., Ishihara, H., Holtzhausen, H. & Stewart, A., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic: Madeira, possibly Azores, Canary Islands, Namibia, South Africa (Northern Province). Northwest Pacific: Japan and New Zealand (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>May be wider ranging than currently known (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161549	habitat	Ebert, D., McCormack, C., Freitas, M., Biscoito, M., Francis, M., Tanaka, S., Ishihara, H., Holtzhausen, H. & Stewart, A., 2008	A little-known benthic and probably epibenthic dogfish of the upper and middle continental and insular slopes, at depths of 471?1,900 m (Compagno in prep, M. Freitas pers. obs. 2007, H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). Off Namibia, they are most common between 550 and 1,000 m depth, but are also found up to 1,900 m (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). Attains a maximum total length (TL) of 111 cm (Compagno in prep.). Males are reported to mature at 81?84 cm and are adult at 84 cm (Compagno in prep.). Females mature at 92?106 cm and are adult at 106?109 cm (Compagno in prep.). Data from Madeira indicates that females range from 75?109 cm TL, while males ranged from 79?94 cm TL (Freitas and Biscoito in prep.). Reproduction is ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep.). Litter size is unknown however one female was found with 12 eggs suggesting a moderate litter size (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161549	population	Ebert, D., McCormack, C., Freitas, M., Biscoito, M., Francis, M., Tanaka, S., Ishihara, H., Holtzhausen, H. & Stewart, A., 2008	In Madeira the species is common and was captured with bottom long-lines during two research cruises in 2004 and 2005 (Biscoito <em>et al</em>. in prep).<br/><br/>Data from annual deepwater scientific research cruises conducted off Namibia from 2004?2006 (at 500?2,000 m depth), suggest that <em>Deania hystricosa</em> is the second most abundant shark (after <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>) (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007). However, the biomass is small at ~2,625 tons throughout Namibian waters. The species is more abundant in the northern part of Namibia than in the south (H. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is very rare in New Zealand with only one specimen known (A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). There are about a dozen records of the species in a trawl survey database in New Zealand but these come from only three trips out of more than a hundred and it is believed that the database records are misidentifications of <em>D. calcea</em> (M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).	eng
161549	threats	Ebert, D., McCormack, C., Freitas, M., Biscoito, M., Francis, M., Tanaka, S., Ishihara, H., Holtzhausen, H. & Stewart, A., 2008	<em></em> Rough Longnose Dogfish (<em>Deania hystricosa</em>) is caught minimally with deepset vertical longlines off Madeira, Porto Santo, Seine and Unicorn seamounts (Biscoito <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.) and off the Canary Islands, where it is utilized for liver oil and meat (Compagno in prep.). Off Madeira, this species is taken as bycatch in the Black Scabbardfish (<em>Aphanopus carbo</em>) fishery (operating at depths of 800 to 1,200 m) and used for human consumption (after drying it is reportedly similar to cod fish) and liver oil (M. Freitas pers. obs. 2007). No information on <em>Deania hystricosa</em> is available from the Azores where fishing occurs on the coastal areas, banks and seamounts (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006). The Azores deep-water fishery is a multispecies and multigear fishery (ICES 2007). It is predominantly small-scale (vessels <12 m; 90% of the total fleet) using mainly traditional bottom longline and several types of hand lines operating down to 1,000 m depth and mainly between 200 and 600 m (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>Probably also caught as bycatch of deepwater fisheries elsewhere (Compagno in prep.). The species may be rarely caught by offshore bottom trawlers off Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The species is very rare in New Zealand (only one known specimen collected at 930 m; A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006) and the threat to this species from fisheries is probably negligible there (M. Francis pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries and recorded as ?sharks? or ?other? (NATMIRC 2003). These fisheries target hake from 400?600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), monkfish at 600 m off Central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and orange roughy from 600?1,000 m off Northern Namibia (3 vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). The main species of shark taken were <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Deania quadrispinosum</em>, <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em>, <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em>. The exploratory directed deepwater licenses expired in January 2006.	eng
161550	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.	eng
161550	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Southwest Pacific: known from the continental slope off northern New Zealand from the Three Kings Trough (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161550	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	The biology of <em>B. albilabiata</em> is virtually unknown. The species is known from depths of 900?1,000 m, but may range more widely than this. It attains at least 65 cm total length (TL) (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161550	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Uncommon. Known only from five specimens.	eng
161550	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	<em>B. albilabiata</em> inhabits the depth range fished by trawlers targeting Orange Roughy and Oreos, but its known habitat in northern New Zealand is not fished by this fleet (S. Baird, NIWA, unpublished data), so the bycatch of this species may be low. The impact of fishing, however, cannot be determined until information is available on the full geographic and depth range of the species. This species is currently only known from a very restricted area (Three Kings Trough in 900?1,000 m) and so more information is required on its range and the extent to which it is taken by fisheries. The population may be declining, but no information is available to ascertain the full impact of fisheries on this species at present. The skates are probably not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.	eng
161551	conservation	Ebert, D.A., McCormack, C. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161551	distribution	Ebert, D.A., McCormack, C. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Western Central Atlantic: USA (Atlantic coast off North Carolina, Gulf of Mexico off Mississippi), and the lesser Antilles (Dominica). Eastern central Atlantic: Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Canary Islands, the Azores, Nigeria, Gabon, Zaire. Southeast Atlantic: Namibia, South Africa (Northern and Western Provinces). Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Walters Shoal, Gulf of Aden. Western central Pacific: Philippines (Mindinao, Leyte, Luzon, Marinduque, Siquijor and Bohol) (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161551	habitat	Ebert, D.A., McCormack, C. & Samiengo, B., 2008	The following information is taken from Compagno (in prep.) unless cited otherwise.<br/><br/>A deepwater species of continental and insular slopes found on or near the bottom at depths from 275?1,785 m. In the Northwest Atlantic it occurs at 412?617 m depth; in the Azores from 250?1,100 m, mostly commonly between 700 and 800 m (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006); off the Canary Islands it has been caught at 600?1,500 m; off southern Africa it occurs at 500?608 m; and off the Philippines it is known at 717?1,786 m. It has been trawled on mud and coral bottoms in the Philippines. Observations suggest they may be more common in the deeper end of their bathymetric range (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Size at birth is over 31 cm. Adult males are 43?67 cm. Females are immature at 60?77 cm, adolescent at 65?79 cm and adult at 62?80 cm. Maximum total length (TL) is reported at about 104 cm (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006), but most known individuals are smaller.<br/><br/>The species sometimes occurs in huge aggregations or schools. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. The probable litter size is five to seven judging from fertilized eggs in the uteri of females (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989). The species feeds on small benthic and midwater bony fishes, including lanternfish, as well as squids and crustaceans. Off the West Coast of South Africa squids (Ommastrephidae, <em>Abraliopsis</em> species, and unidentified cephalopods) and lanternfish (particularly <em>Diaphus</em>, Myctophidae) are important prey items (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).<br/><br/>Feeds on small bottom and midwater fish, squid and crustaceans (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 1992).	eng
161551	population	Ebert, D.A., McCormack, C. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Very little information is available on population throughout this species? range. <br/><br/>This species was recorded in annual deepwater scientific research cruises conducted off Namibia from 2004?2006 (at 500?2,000 m depth), down to 1,000 m (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007). It appears to be scarce off Namibia, with a small biomass of about 160 tons in the areas surveyed (H. Holtzhausen pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161551	threats	Ebert, D.A., McCormack, C. & Samiengo, B., 2008	This species is caught on longlines off the Canary Islands and utilized for liver oil and meat (Compagno in prep.). It is probably caught as bycatch by deepwater fisheries elsewhere in its range.<br/><br/>In the Azores, there is no information from the fishery but only a small number of individuals are caught as bycatch, because the core of the species' distribution is outside of the area where the local fleet usually operates (M.R. Pinho pers. comm. 2006). Some deepwater fishing has been conducted for deepwater sharks off Senegal. Off Kayar and Dakar, Senegal, an artisanal fishery targets <em>Centrophorus</em> species for their liver oil (Direction des Pêches Maritimes du Sénégal 2007). The fishery uses gillnets to target deepwater sharks for part of the year. <em>Deania profundora</em> is not reported in the catch and may occur at greater depths than currently fished off western Africa. Fisheries are beginning to operate in deeper waters due to declines in catches of more coastal species (L. Mbaye pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Off Namibia, a fairly small amount of demersal sharks are caught as bycatch by deep-water trawl fisheries and recorded as ?sharks? or ?other? (NATMIRC 2003). These fisheries target hake from 400 to 600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), monkfish at 600 m off central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and orange roughy from 600 to 1,000 m off northern Namibia (three vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species along the entire coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). Birdbeaked dogfish were being fished in this experimental deepsea fishery, but the identification of what <em>Deania</em> species was being caught is uncertain (D. Ebert pers. comm. 2007). The main species of deepwater shark taken by Namibian fisheries are <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em>, <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, <em>Deania quadrispinosum</em>, <em>Squalus mitsukurii</em> and <em>Galeorhinus galeus</em> (NATMIRC 2003). The experimental fishery ended in January 2006.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, there are some fisheries presently operating in deeper water. For example, Royal Red shrimp trawlers, golden crab traps (180?550 m), bottom longline for tilefish (around 150?350 m), deep drop hook and line boats in the Straits and the Gulf. Almost all the bottom longline boats that target deepwater grouper in the Gulf, and sharks in the Straits and in the Gulf, are setting in depths greater than around 150 m. These bottom long liners catch deep water skates and sharks sporadically. There is also a bottom trawler that fishes for butterfish in deep water and catches deep water skates and sharks fairly regularly (G. Davenport pers. comm. 2006). It is unknown whether this species is taken by any of these fisheries.<br/><br/>There are currently no deepwater fisheries operating within the species? range off South Africa or the Philippines; however, given the expanding trend in deepwater fisheries worldwide, the situation should be carefully monitored to ensure that the species is not adversely affected.	eng
161552	conservation	Francis, M. & Tanaka, S., 2008	No species-specific management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161552	distribution	Francis, M. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Known from only the northwest Pacific, southwest Pacific and possibly the southeast Pacific, but probably much more widespread.<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: central to southern Japan (including Okinawa Island) (about ten specimens or reports (Tanaka 1912, Higashi <em>et al</em>. 1954, Kuroda 1956, Shimma and Shimma 1969, Yano and Kugai 1993, Tanaka 1998, Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004, S. Tanaka unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Southwest Pacific: three specimens from New Zealand (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1988; Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004). Two other unpublished records of this species from New Zealand trawl surveys are unconfirmed (the 500 kg weight of one was too large to be <em>S. longus</em>).<br/><br/>Southeast Pacific: A specimen from the Sala Y Gómez to the Nazca ridges in Chile was reported as <em>S. rostratus</em> but no details were given (Parin <em>et al</em>. 1997); the Pacific Ocean locality suggests that this specimen was <em>S. longus</em>, but its presence in the Southeast Pacific requires confirmation.	eng
161552	habitat	Francis, M. & Tanaka, S., 2008	This species occurs on the upper to middle continental slope. The few known specimens have come from depths at least as shallow as 120?150 m (S. Tanaka unpub. data) to as deep as 1,116 m (Yano and Kugai 1993, A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). Several specimens have been caught in midwater, which may explain the rarity of this species in fishery and survey catches (A. Stewart pers. comm. 2006). Maximum length likely to be 150 cm or greater. Greatest reported length was 143 cm (Francis <em>et al</em>. 1988), but this specimen had shrunk following preservation; furthermore few specimens have been examined. Males are probably smaller than females (males of 98?110 cm TL were mature (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004, S. Tanaka unpub. data). Reproductive mode is unknown but is probably aplacental viviparity as in the closely related <em>S. rostratus</em>. A Japanese female of 128 cm TL was reported as ?having eggs? (Shimma and Shimma 1969), and was presumably mature, as was another female of 130 cm (Yano <em>et al</em>. 2004). Size at birth is unknown, but may be similar to the 21?28 cm reported for <em>S. rostratus</em> (Compagno 1984). Litter size is also unknown, but probably low (six to nine embryos reported for <em>S. rostratus</em>, Compagno 1984). Nothing else is known about the biology or ecology of this species.	eng
161552	population	Francis, M. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Apparently very rare.	eng
161552	threats	Francis, M. & Tanaka, S., 2008	This species been occasionally reported in catches by trawl, longline and crab pot fisheries (M. Francis pers. obs.). It may be slow growing and slow to mature, like other deepwater Squaloid sharks, making it vulnerable to population depletion in fisheries.	eng
161553	conservation	Huveneers, C., Stehmann, M. & Last, P.R., 2004	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed.	eng
161553	distribution	Huveneers, C., Stehmann, M. & Last, P.R., 2004	Occurs in the eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific inhabiting soft substrates. Its range is not well defined, but it is known to occur off northwestern Australia, Indonesia and the northern area of the Philippines. It is likely to be more widely distributed through the Indo-Malay Archipelago (Last and Compagno 1998).	eng
161553	habitat	Huveneers, C., Stehmann, M. & Last, P.R., 2004	A small, moderately common, deepwater skate found in the mid continental slope in depths from 600?1,200 m and attains at least 54 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1998, Last and Stevens 1994). Abundant at depths of 900?1,100 m (Last and Compagno 1998). Males and females mature at about 40?45 cm TL (Stehmann and Last pers. obs.). Its biology is little known. Like other skates this species is oviparous.	eng
161553	population	Huveneers, C., Stehmann, M. & Last, P.R., 2004	Common in some areas but its distribution is probably patchy. Possibly the most abundant skate in depths of 900?1,100 m throughout its known range (Last and Compagno 1998).	eng
161553	threats	Huveneers, C., Stehmann, M. & Last, P.R., 2004	This species is taken as bycatch by scampi deep trawlers and could be of minor commercial value but is currently discarded (Last and Compagno 1998).	eng
161554	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	None in place.	eng
161554	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the northwest and southwest coasts of Madagascar (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
161554	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Found in relatively shallow waters on the continental shelf. Maximum size is at least 27 cm total length (TL). Males probably mature at close to or >27.0 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161554	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Known from only seven specimens.	eng
161554	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Local trawls capture <em>N. insolita</em> as bycatch. Industrial and artisanal trawl fisheries for shrimp and fish operate throughout much of this species? range. Relatively intensive shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Madagascar (Soumy 2006). Pollution and oil exploration may also adversely affect the habitat of <em>N. insolita</em> (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161555	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.	eng
161555	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Mozambique, South Africa (Compagno <em>et al. </em>1989).	eng
161555	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Found inshore to a depth of 100 m. Feeds on bivalves, gastropods, shrimps, crabs and small bony fishes. The maximum size recorded for this species is a male specimen measuring 120 cm (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161555	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Apparently rare, known from few records (L. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161555	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species may be taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries, although no specific information is available on its capture. Various net and Inshore trawl fisheries operate off South Africa and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).	eng
161556	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161556	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: South Carolina to southern Florida, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and South America (Castro-Aguirre and Espinosa Perez 1996).	eng
161556	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along upper slope, at depths of 338?685 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reaches a maximum size of at least 32 cm total length (TL), although mature males have never been observed (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161556	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161556	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	A potential bycatch of demersal deeper water trawl fisheries, although there is no information available.	eng
161557	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	No conservation measures currently in place.	eng
161557	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, between Celebes and New Guinea), Borneo (Sarawak), Viet Nam (Compagno 2001).	eng
161557	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Found close inshore to 12 m depth on sandy, muddy bottoms. This shark is 9?12 cm when born and grows to a maximum length of 61 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Males mature at 44?54 cm TL. Oviparous, with eggs hatching in about December (Compagno 2001).	eng
161557	population	White, W.T., 2008	No information available. Rare in Indonesia, but more common in catches in Borneo.	eng
161557	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Taken in inshore fisheries off Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia and Borneo, and utilised for food. Likely to be threatened by overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat modification, including the damage and destruction of coral reefs throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>It is one of the ten most important shark species captured in Malaysian fisheries, using trawl gear, where it is consumed locally and also exported to markets in Hong Kong and Taiwan, Province of China (SEAFDEC 2006). It is also known to be captured, consumed and marketed in Thailand (SEAFDEC 2006). The flesh is marketed fresh for human consumption.	eng
161558	conservation	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No known specific conservation actions exist. <br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water. Individual Provinces are responsible for applying national regulations within China. They also can apply their own regulations, on basis of national regulations, but no specific information is available on the areas or timings involved or the effectiveness of enforcement.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Resolution of the taxonomic issues and identification problems associated with this genus in the northwest and western central Pacific should be a high priority to achieve this (Walsh and Ebert 2007). Management action will most likely be required to reduce bycatch of this species.	eng
161558	distribution	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Endemic to the northwest Pacific including the Sea of Japan, along the south eastern Japan coast, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, waters surrounding northern Taiwan, Province of China, and the Taiwan Strait (Shuyuan 1994, Randall and Lim 2000, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005a, Walsh and Ebert 2007).	eng
161558	habitat	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Little is known of the habitat of this species, but as it is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries, it can be assumed to be found over soft substrate on or near the bottom on the continental shelf down to 300 m deep (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Though life history parameters are unknown, this species is thought to be slow growing and late maturing like other angel sharks. Other species of angel sharks are known to bury themselves in the sediment and ambush their prey. Reproduction is aplacental viviparity. The species may grow up to 150 cm in length (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Size at maturity in females is reported at 80 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al. </em>2007). Size at birth is reported at 22 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). They reproduce in spring and summer, with litter sizes of two to ten pups (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Feed on fishes, molluscs and crustaceans (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Research has identified a parasite living in the uterus of females (S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161558	population	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Population size for this species is unknown. Little data exist due to a total lack of known catch records for this species and confusing taxonomic information used to distinguish individuals of this species from other Northwest Pacific angel sharks (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161558	threats	Walsh, J.H. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is apparently taken in large numbers in demersal trawl fisheries and is also likely caught as bycatch in set net and gillnet fisheries throughout large areas of its distribution (Compagno in prep.). It is unknown whether this species is truly targeted by fishing operations, but it is retained and can been found in local fish markets in Taiwan Island and Japan (S. Tanaka and D. Ebert pers.obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited, with several stocks declining due to overfishing and pollution (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure from trawl vessels is intense off China, despite bans on bottom trawling in various areas. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007b). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007b). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004 (FAO 2007b). Progress is being made in the introduction of ecosystem based management in the Yellow Sea and a fisheries recovery plan requires the cooperative effort of all countries bordering it. The Yellow Sea LME Project will assess fish stocks and establish TACs (NOAA 2004b). In February 2006, the Government of China issued the Programme of Action on Conservation of Living Aquatic Resources of China. This states that by 2010 they aim to reduce the size and power of the motorized marine fishing fleet and the corresponding domestic marine capture catch in China from 220,000 vessels with a total power of 12.7 million kW and catching 13.06 million tonnes marine organisms in 2002, to 192,000 vessels, 11.43 million kW (FAO 2007b). This represents a decline in fishing power of only 10%.<br/><br/>Other angel shark populations (e.g., <em>Squatina californica, S. squatina, S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for recolonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al</em>. 2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). <em>Squatina guggenheim </em>and <em>Squatina occulta</em>, which occur in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, have a triennial reproductive cycle, with a litter size of only two to eight pups. This extended breeding cycle means that they have a very low intrinsic rate of population growth. Consequently, these sharks are generally highly vulnerable to extirpation through bycatch in fisheries that are managed to sustain production of other, more productive, fishes (Musick <em>et al.</em> 2000, C. Vooren pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161559	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161559	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Western Central Pacific: Australian endemic known only from the continental slope off Cairns (Queensland) (Last and Stevens 1994). Likely to only exist on seamounts offshore from northeastern Queensland.	eng
161559	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	A small deep-water skate, <em>N. ochroderma</em> can be found in the mid continental slope at depths of 400–465 m and attain at least 36 cm TL. Males mature at about 35 cm (Last and Stevens 1994). Its biology is virtually unknown, as <em>N. ochroderma</em> is known from type specimens only. A benthic species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Oviparous and deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases, like other skates (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161559	population	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	Little is known of the population. Its range is narrow and the area of occurrence is rarely surveyed.	eng
161559	threats	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2008	<em>N. ochroderma</em> is unlikely to be of commercial value but is restricted to a narrow depth and geographical range. There is no current fishing pressure in its area of occurrence. However, trawling of <em>N. ochroderma</em> as bycatch could dramatically affect the population due its narrow range.	eng
161560	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>The full distribution of this species requires further investigation and further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161560	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	Western central Pacific: occurs off the Philippines (Sibuyan and Visayan Seas), Thailand (locality not specified) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999), Cambodia, Singapore (precise locality unknown) and Sabah, Malaysia (Carvalho 1999). May also occur off Pinang, Malaysia (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: found off China (Hong Kong), Taiwan Province of China and Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin) (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: found in the western Bay of Bengal off Colombo, Sri Lanka, Madras and Orissa coast, eastern India. Also from Andaman Sea off Rangoon, Myanmar and from Java, Indonesia (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161560	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	An inshore numbfish of tropical continental waters that occurs from depths of 30?80 m (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 1999). Male sexual maturity occurs between 28.2 and 30.2 cm total length (TL) (Carvalho 1999). The largest specimen caught was a female of 39 cm TL which was sexually mature (Carvalho 1999). Small specimens are free-swimming at before 12.5 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161560	population	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	Population size unknown.	eng
161560	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. Manjaji, M., Samiengo, B., Vidthayanon, C., Fahmi & Capuli, E., 2007	<em>Narcine</em> species are captured by trawl fisheries targeting resources such as shrimps, but are discarded at sea and not marketed. These species are benthic and sluggish and probably easily taken in trawls and discarded at sea, although post-discard survivorship is likely low.<br/><br/>This species may be impacted through habitat degradation throughout much of its range as a result of activities including coastal development and destructive fishing methods (Simpfendorfer and Cavanagh 2005).	eng
161561	conservation	Smale, M.J., Holtzhausen, J.A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Bycatch and discards of this species from trawls should be monitored.	eng
161561	distribution	Smale, M.J., Holtzhausen, J.A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Southeast Atlantic: South Africa and Nambia; Agulhas Bank along west coast to Walvis Bay (Compagno <em>et al.</em>1989, D. Ebert pers.comm. 2004, J.A. Holtzhausen pers. obs. 2004).	eng
161561	habitat	Smale, M.J., Holtzhausen, J.A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Found at depths of 250 to 1,020 m. Research is currently being conducted in Namibia on the life history parameters of this species. Feeds on bony fishes such as hake, barracudas, and dragonets, and invertebrates such as squid, octopus and shrimps (Namibia).	eng
161561	population	Smale, M.J., Holtzhausen, J.A. & McCormack, C., 2008	All stages of the life cycle have been recorded in experimental trawl surveys, but usually in low numbers. The juveniles of this species tend to occur in deeper water >800 m, and if this is generally the case, they will be out of reach of most trawl fisheries. The adults seem to move from deep to shallower (~400 m) water depending on the season of the year (D. Ebert pers comm. 2004). In Namibia, preliminary results show they are more abundant north of Walvis Bay than south.	eng
161561	threats	Smale, M.J., Holtzhausen, J.A. & McCormack, C., 2008	Continued or expanding trawl fisheries along the west coast are of potential threat. The area where this species occurs is subject to high levels of exploitation. There are currently fisheries targeting hake from 400 to 600 m off Central Namibia (around 100 vessels), Monkfish at 600 m off central Namibia (around 20 vessels) and Orange Roughy from 600 to 1,000 m off northern Namibia (three vessels) (NATMIRC 2003). Collectively, these fisheries operate over the entire depth distribution of the species although effort in the lower part of its depth distribution is minimal (i.e., only three vessels trawling below 600 m). This species is known to be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries (Comagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and are generally discarded (NATMIRC 2003); however, numbers taken are currently unknown. The juveniles of this species tend to occur in deeper water >800 m, and may be out of reach of hake and monk trawl fisheries.<br/><br/>Two vessels were also granted two-year exploratory rights to target deep-water shark species at 500 to 700 m along the coast of Namibia using tanglenets (NATMIRC 2003). This species is the most abundant batoid harvested by the exploratory deep-sea shark fishery. Wings are processed and exported overseas (to Asia). One of these vessels landed 10,133 kg of skate wings over three trips during 2002 (NATMIRC 2003). The experimental fishery ended in January 2006 and no decision has been taken as to whether it is to become a commercial fishery (J.A. Holtzhausen pers. obs. Nov 20. 2006).	eng
161562	conservation	Séret, B., Cronin, E.S. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	No specific measures in place. Further surveys and research are needed to provide further information on this species’ occurrence, habitat, life-history characteristics, population trends and capture in fisheries.	eng
161562	distribution	Séret, B., Cronin, E.S. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Eastern central and southeast Atlantic Ocean: recorded from Senegal to Angola (Cadenat <em>et al.</em> 1978, Capapé and Desoutter 1990, Carvalho and Séret in press).	eng
161562	habitat	Séret, B., Cronin, E.S. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Found from 5-60 m depth. Very little is known of this species’ habitat and biology. It is ovoviviparous and attains a maximum size of at least 60 cm TL (Carvalho and Séret in press).	eng
161562	population	Séret, B., Cronin, E.S. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown, but apparently rare throughout its range.	eng
161562	threats	Séret, B., Cronin, E.S. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Presumably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. Intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species’ known range and although torpedo rays are of little commercial value, they still suffer fishing mortality as bycatch. Fisheries off western Africa have undergone huge development during the past 20 years, in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161563	conservation	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y & Alava, M., 2007	None in place. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.	eng
161563	distribution	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y & Alava, M., 2007	Northwest Pacific: off Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan (Province of China), and Viet Nam (Compagno 2001). Records of this species from the Philippines possibly refer to another, undescribed species of wobbegong and require verification (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161563	habitat	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y & Alava, M., 2007	A temperate to tropical inshore shark, found on rocky bottoms and coral reefs at depths of 1?200 m (L.J.V. Compagno pers. comm. 2007). A nocturnal shark which measures 21?23 cm when born and grows to a maximum total length (TL) of more than 107 cm (Compagno 2001). Females reach maturity at 101?107 cm TL and males at ~103 cm TL. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with litters of up to 20?27 young after a gestation period of ~12 months (Captive records) (Compagno 2001).	eng
161563	population	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y & Alava, M., 2007	Nothing is known about the population of this species.	eng
161563	threats	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y & Alava, M., 2007	Caught in bottom set gillnets in Japan and used for human consumption; also taken in China, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Vietnam (Compagno 2001).	eng
161564	conservation	Pillans, R., Amorim, A., Mancini, P., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C., 2008	In US waters, under the Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (National Marine Fisheries Service 2007), <em>Carhcarhinus altimus</em>, is currently listed as a Prohibited Species.<br/><br/>Collection of data and assessment of catches of this species is required throughout its range. This species is taken on the high seas, outside waters managed by coastal States. This species is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See http://www.unclos.com for further details. Also of relevance is the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which specifically recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for sharks such as <em>C. altimus</em>, whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs, such as ICCAT, to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning, to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines.<br/><br/>The 2004 ICCAT shark stock assessment workshop (ICCAT 2005) reported that the current situation on submission of shark statistics indicates that the overall volume of catch reported to ICCAT does not represent the total removals of these sharks and the data are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. It is noted that improvements in the ICCAT shark database can only be achieved if the Contracting Parties increase infrastructure investment into monitoring the overall catch composition and disposition of the overall catch of sharks and other by-catch species. Therefore, the workshop group recommended that larger monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties. Above and beyond this main recommendation, the group identified a number of research activities that could provide for improved advice on the status of these species, if implemented. See ICCAT (2005) for further details. This situation applies to all RFOs and is included here as a standard that needs to apply internationally for fisheries that capture pelagic sharks such as this.<br/><br/>Two RFOs, IATTC and ICCAT, have adopted finning (the removal of fins and discard of carcasses at sea) bans, as have several range states (e.g., USA, EU, Australia, Brazil etc.) and the EU. These bans only affect a limited part of the geographic range of this wide ranging shark at present.<br/><br/>Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is needed for this potentially vulnerable shark.	eng
161564	distribution	Pillans, R., Amorim, A., Mancini, P., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C., 2008	This species is circumglobal, but patchily recorded in tropical and warm seas (Compagno in prep, White <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>Western central and southwest Atlantic: reported from Florida, Bahamas, Cuba, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Brazil (Compagno in prep.). Eastern central Atlantic: Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Ghana, and also in the Mediterranean Sea (Golani 2002, Compagno in prep). Indian Ocean: South Africa, Madagascar, India, Maldives, Red Sea and possibly  also Sri Lanka (Compagno in prep.). Northwest and western central Pacific: China, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Compagno in prep., White <em>et al. </em>2006). Eastern central and southeast Pacific: Gulf of California, southern Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Revillagigedo Islands (Compagno in prep.). Also occurs off Australia, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and Hawaii, in the Central Pacific (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>A transboundary/migratory species that has been tagged travelling distances between 1,000 and 2,000 miles (Kohler <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
161564	habitat	Pillans, R., Amorim, A., Mancini, P., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C., 2008	This species occurs mainly on the edge of continental shelves in deep water (12?430 m), and is more common between 80 and 220 m with very occasional captures in shallow water (Tester 1969). Between North Carolina and Florida, USA, it has a depth range from 12?200 m (Commercial Shark Fishery Observer Program unpubl data). Individuals have been caught at night near the surface over deep water in Hawaii, Maldives, Australia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. Therefore the species is thought to display diurnal vertical migrations (Anderson and Stevens 1996).<br/><br/>Average reproductive age is ~21 years. Males reach maturity at 216 cm total length (TL) and females at 226 cm TL. Maximum size is 282 cm TL and size at birth is 70?90 cm TL (Compagno 1984, Kohler <em>et al</em>. 1995, Jensen <em>et al</em>. 1996). Females give birth to 1?13 pups per litter.	eng
161564	population	Pillans, R., Amorim, A., Mancini, P., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C., 2008	The low tag and recapture rate (5.3%) of Bignose Shark (<em>Carcharhinus altimus</em>) does not necessarily reflect a low abundance of this species, but may be due to this species being undesirable or inaccessible to the main body of fishing and tagging effort in the Atlantic Ocean (Kohler <em>et al.</em> 1998). Soto (2001) notes that it is uncommon in Brazil, but that it is probably distributed offshore along the entire Brazilian coast. The species is reported as rare in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005).	eng
161564	threats	Pillans, R., Amorim, A., Mancini, P., Gonzalez, M. & Anderson, C., 2008	Globally, <em>C. altimus</em> is taken in pelagic longline fisheries in deep water (Anderson and Stevens 1996) and is therefore susceptible to capture in widespread tuna longline fisheries. The species is occasionally caught in bottom trawls.<br/><br/>In the US northwestern Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico waters this species is not targeted. It is rarely caught in the US commercial bottom longline fishery (from New Jersey to Louisiana: 46 individuals recorded by fishery observers monitoring ~4% of the fishery during 1994 to 2003) or the US pelagic longline fishery (east coast of the US, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean: 41 individuals observed recorded by fishery observers monitoring ~ 5% of the fishery during 1992 to 2000). There is no indication that catch rates for this species are increasing in either of these fisheries. However, this species is often misidentified by fishermen and biologists (J. Musick pers. comm.). It is related to the sandbar shark, which it may often be mistaken for, and which has been heavily depleted by fishing pressure in the Northwest Atlantic. Although no specific data are available for <em>C. altimus</em>, it is suspected that this species has also been impacted by longline fisheries operating in this region. It is possible non-US longline vessels targeting tuna (deeper sets) may catch this species as bycatch, however there are no data available to confirm this. In the Caribbean, this species is apparently taken on deep-set longlines (particularly off Cuba, but also southern Florida), and there it is utilized for fishmeal, oil and shagreen (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>In the eastern central and southeast Pacific, this species is taken as bycatch of gillnets, bottom longlines and trawls.<br/><br/>In the southwest Atlantic, off Brazil, <em>C. altimus</em> is taken incidentally by commercial fisheries on the outer continental shelf and continental slope. The species was first identified and recorded from the catches of tuna longliners operating out of Santos (São Paulo State, southern Brazil) by Sadowsky and Amorim (1977). They are seldom caught by this fleet but are retained when caught and sold as "other sharks" (Arfelli and Amorim 1994). The bignose shark is also taken in directed artisanal shark longline fisheries around Venezuelan oceanic islands (Tavares 2005).<br/><br/>It is also taken in bottom trawls in the western Indian Ocean and probably by line or gillnet off India. Taken by nearshore pelagic longline around the Maldives; catch rates reported by fishermen to have declined significantly in recent years (C. Anderson pers. comm. 2007). Whole individuals are consumed and traded at local markets in Thailand and the Philippines (Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 2006). In Indonesia this species is caught occasionally by shark longliners and is a utilized bycatch of gillnet fisheries (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been confirmed as present in the shark fin trade through genetic testing of fins collected in Hong Kong (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is not commercially harvested in Australia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean this species is known to be important bycatch of the pelagic longline fishery operating from eastern Algerian ports (Fowler <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161565	conservation	McCormack, C. Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161565	distribution	McCormack, C. Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: northern Gulf of Mexico and Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161565	habitat	McCormack, C. Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along upper slope, between 275 and 476 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Males mature at 96 cm total length (TL) and maximum size is 107 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161565	population	McCormack, C. Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161565	threats	McCormack, C. Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	A potential bycatch of fisheries operating on the slope, but no specific information is available. Little specific information is currently available on fisheries operating within this species’ range. Industrial fisheries on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua are apparently less developed than artisanal fisheries at present (FAO 2007).	eng
161566	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2004	In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), efforts in further research should be directed to also obtain the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.	eng
161566	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2004	Widespread in the eastern Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, but distribution is poorly defined. <br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean: occurs from India, Sri Lanka (De Bruin <em>et al.</em> 1995; Morón <em>et al.</em> 1998), and east to Myanmar. Records from elsewhere in the Indian Ocean (west of India) (e.g., Compagno 1986, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989) may represent a separate species, identified as <em>Himantura</em> sp. B (Manjaji 2004).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Taiwan, Province of China.<br/><br/>Western central Pacific: South and East China Seas (e.g., Annandale 1909, 1910; Shen 1993; Last and Compagno 1999), Samoa (Fowler 1956), South China Sea and Sulu Sea off Sabah (Fowler <em>et al. </em>1999).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Area: 51, 57, 61 and 71.	eng
161566	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2004	This species is demersal, found on the inner continental shelf, from inshore waters to depths of at least 60 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Presumably occurs on soft substrates (White <em>et al. </em>2006). It appears to occur more frequently in shallow trawls (20?33 m depth) in warmer months on the Tugela Bank, Natal, South Africa and this may be a nursery ground (Fennessy 1994). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy, and gives birth to litters of 1?4 pups after an unknown gestation period (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Small individuals are present in trawl catches all year round, suggesting that this species is able to reproduce all year round with no reproductive season (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Diet presumably consists of bivalve molluscs, crustaceans and small fishes (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males reach maturity at ~48 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dharmardi 2007). Size at maturity in females is >54 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species attains at least 100 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and size at birth is 18?21 cm (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161566	population	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2004	Appears to be a naturally common species. For example it is caught in very large amounts in Borneo and Indonesia (W. White pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Population size in Indonesia (and throughout much of its range) is still unknown, market observations were conducted at several landing sites in Java and Kalimantan from 2005 to present, showed that the species is quite common and they were recorded at almost all landing sites (fishing areas including the Java Sea, off southern Java (Indian Ocean), Sunda Strait, Karimata Strait, Makassar Strait, West Kalimantan, southern Natuna Islands).	eng
161566	threats	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2004	This species is captured in very large quantities in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Famhi pers. obs.). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species? known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia (and presumably in other parts of its range, such as India), most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are usually retained and marketed for human consumption (B.M. Manjaji, W. White, Famhi and Vidthayanon pers. obs.). In Sabah (Malaysia), this species constitutes an important component of inshore trawl and longline fisheries (20?50 landed per day). This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura gerrardi</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The Rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high.<br/><br/>It is also commonly caught in large numbers by trawl and Danish seine boats operating in the Java Sea. This species is the most important elasmobranch caught by the Danish seine fishery according to the total catch (biomass) (contributing ~ 1950 kg/boat average and also contributed to about 10?40% of the total catch according to the biomass) (Fahmi pers. obs.). Fishermen are having to travel further to maintain catches of the same level as previously throughout Southeast Asia , indicating that numbers have most likely declined in shallower water (W. White pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Artisanal and industrial fishing pressure is intensive off India (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Fisheries throughout India operate on an open access basis. Inshore marine species are thought to be fully or overexploited, with extensive use of illegal mesh sizes reported, and ever-increasing bottom trawl effort (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006, Morgan 2006). Demersal species, such as this, suffer more fishing mortality than pelagic species on the eastern coast of India and declines in demersal shrimp and fish stocks have led to fishery closures in areas of the western coast (Morgan 2006). India?s inshore fisheries are generally characterised by declining catch rates, recruitment and biomass and a shift from regular landing patterns (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). Although no species-specific data are available on catches, this species produces only 1-4 pups per litter and likely shares the limiting life-history characteristics similar to many elasmobranchs, making it vulnerable to depletion.<br/><br/>Marine pollution and coastal degradation has also impacted the coastal habitat of this species (including estuaries) (Morgan 2006). Extensive trawl and gillnet fisheries also operate off Pakistan (Khan 2006) and in other areas of this species? range in the Indian Ocean.	eng
161567	conservation	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161567	distribution	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: Japan, including the Ryukyu Islands and East China Sea (Nakaya 1975, Horie and Tanaka 2000, Senou <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Shinohara <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Yano 1999),	eng
161567	habitat	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	<em>Galeus nipponensis</em> is reported from depths from 362?540 m (Nakaya and Shirai 1992, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but has been recorded at depths of 15 0m in Suruga Bay, Japan (Tanaka pers. obs. 2008).<br/><br/>Biological data for this species are available from Suruga Bay, Japan (Horie and Tanaka 2000). Males mature at 51?62 cm total length (TL) and females at 55?61 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2000). The species attains a maximum size of 67.5 cm TL and size at birth is reported at 13.3 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2000). It is oviparous, and may spawn all year round with a peak in winter (Horie and Tanaka 2000). It is an opportunistic feeder and preys mainly on bony fishes (Sardinops, Engraulis, etc), cephalopods (Sepiolidae, etc.), and crustaceans (Horie and Tanaka 2000).	eng
161567	population	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	Reported as common in deepwater off Japan (southeast Honshu) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Catch per unit effort data for Suruga Bay, Japan, was 0.84 female sharks per fishing tow and 0.89 male sharks per fishing tow from 1981-1996 (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161567	threats	Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & McCormack, C., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl fisheries operating off Japan and in the East China Sea, but no specific details are available.	eng
161568	conservation	Stehmann, M., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Further information is required on catches and population trends, life-history and other threats for future reassessment and this species should be closely monitored. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161568	distribution	Stehmann, M., 2007	Northwest Atlantic: occurs from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA (rarely) to North Carolina. Western central Atlantic: Occurs from North Carolina to southern Florida, in the Northern Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas and the Caribbean coast of northern South America. Southwest Atlantic: Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161568	habitat	Stehmann, M., 2007	<em>M. freminillii </em>is found most frequently in coastal waters to 10 m depth, mainly in shallow estuaries (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). In the northern part of its range, this species migrates northward during early summer and southward during early winter (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It is capable of travelling long distances and occasionally leaps out of the water. Its food consists of bivalves, gastropods, and crustaceans (lobsters and crabs) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).<br/><br/>This species reaches a maximum size of 106 cm disc width (DW) (Refi 1975), but is common to 70 cm DW. Males mature at 60?70cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Neonates are around 25 cm DW at birth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). In the north of the species? range a fecundity of six embryos has been reported (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), but little else is known of its biology.	eng
161568	population	Stehmann, M., 2007	Not reported to be common (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953) and has been reported as scarce off northern Argentina (Refi 1975, Menni and Stehmann 2000).	eng
161568	threats	Stehmann, M., 2007	This species is caught mainly by artisanal fisheries on longlines and with trammel nets, but is also taken as bycatch in industrial trawl fisheries targeting shrimps and finfishes (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). It is marketed, salted, in limited quantities and occasionally consumed fresh.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure on the inshore coastal environment is fairly intensive across large parts of this species? distribution, and its inshore coastal occurrence, apparent low abundance and low fecundity may make it susceptible to localised population reductions. The Gulf of Mexico is the site of both an intensive bottom longline fishery and a demersal shrimp trawl fishery (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Across Caribbean South America and parts of Brazil, trawling and inshore netting is intensive and this eagle ray is likely taken in both coastal artisanal and industrial fisheries throughout its South American range.<br/><br/>Snapper and grouper fisheries operate over extensive areas of the continental shelf and slope off Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and French Guiana, although no information is available on bycatch (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Approximately 1,000 medium- and long-range vessels target snappers and groupers inside and outside the Venezuelan EEZ using handline and demersal longline gear (Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Shrimp trawl fisheries are also intense in many parts of this region. For example, trawl fisheries began off northeastern Venezuela in the late 1960s, subsequently showing considerable increases in both effort and efficiency (Mendoza and Marcano 1994, Mendoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). Overall temporal trends in total reported catches for Venezuela showed a steep increase in landings through the 1980s and 1990s; from about 150,000 t/year to more than 350,000 t/year (Mendoza <em>et al. </em>2003). Bycatch taken by shrimp trawlers off Venezuela was estimated at 96,000 tonnes annually and bycatch/shrimp ratios are typically between 5 and 15:1 in the region (Charlier 2000). Charlier (2000) indicates that, although only a small part of this catch is utilized, several species have apparently disappeared from the bycatch.<br/><br/>Off southern Brazil, where inshore fishing activities are intensive, <em>Myliobatis</em> spp are a bycatch of various artisanal and industrial fisheries (Vooren and Klippel 2005). Significant declines have been documented for other batoid species which rely on the inshore environment (i.e. the Brazilian guitarfish <em>Rhinobatos horkelii</em>), but it is uncertain how this fishing pressure has affected eagle rays.	eng
161569	conservation	Holtzhausen, J.A., Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2005	None in place.	eng
161569	distribution	Holtzhausen, J.A., Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2005	Eastern Atlantic Ocean: from Ireland and the North Sea, south to South Africa, including Madeira, Morocco and the Azores, and along the eastern African coast to Angola, Namibia and South Africa. It ranges throughout the Mediterranean Sea, but is absent from the Black Sea (Serena 2005). It is also found off Kenya and South Africa in the western Indian Ocean.<br/><br/>Populations in Europe may be regionally different compared to elsewhere.	eng
161569	habitat	Holtzhausen, J.A., Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2005	This semipelagic ray is found inshore and offshore, it appears primarily to occur in inshore, coastal areas (<50 m), readily entering shallow lagoons and estuaries, although it has been reported from depths of up to 537 m in some areas (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984). In the Mediterranean Sea it is reported to occur on sandy and muddy substrates, to 200 m depth (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Serena 2005). They can often be found in groups swimming close to the bottom. Reproduction is ovoviviparous (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Life-history parameters appear to vary regionally. In the Mediterranean Sea, M. Aquila reaches a maximum size of 150 cm disc width (DW) and 260 cm total length (TL) (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998, Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987). Females mature at 60 cm DW and males at 40 cm DW (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Serena 2005). Females give birth to 3–7 pups per litter, after a gestation period of 6–8 months (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1987, Whitehead et al. 1984, Serena 2005). Reproduction takes place between September and February (Notarbartolo and Bianchi 1998).<br/><br/>Off southern Africa, this species reaches a maximum size of 79.1 cm DW, with males maturing at 31.8 cm DW and females at 42.5 cm DW.<br/><br/>It feeds on invertebrates such as crabs, molecrabs and bivalves, and on small bony fishes.	eng
161569	population	Holtzhausen, J.A., Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2005	This species is common in the southern part of its range (southern Africa) (J.A. Holtzhausen and D.A. Ebert pers. obs.), however it appears to be less common in European waters. In South Africa, data on catches of this species in the Natal Sharks Board beach nets showed no trend from 1981–2001 (Young 2001).<br/><br/>Aldebert (1997) examined long-term changes in groundfish diversity in the Gulf of Lions, France, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. This study analysed trends in both commercial landings in the demersal fishery (mostly trawl) from 1970–1995 and data from bottom trawl survey from 1957–1995. Analysis of commercial landings showed a clear decrease this species during the study period, and after the late 1970s it remained absent (Aldebert 1997). Results obtained from experimental surveys confirmed that decreasing trends were most likely related to the continuous increasing fishing intensity, resulting in a general decline in stocks and not changing patterns of effort in the fishery.<br/><br/>This species occurred in low numbers in MEDITS surveys conducted from 1994–1999 at depths of 10–800 m. It was captured in 37 of 6,336 scientific survey hauls conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean during this period (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>No data are currently available on catch trends elsewhere.	eng
161569	threats	Holtzhausen, J.A., Ebert, D.A., Serena, F. & Mancusi, C., 2005	This species is susceptible to a variety of fishing gears, including bottom trawls, purse seines, gillnets and line-gear. It is taken as bycatch in various fisheries, including both commercial and artisanal, throughout its range in the Mediterranean Sea and presumably in the tropical Atlantic. There is no information on the catch of this species in targeted fisheries, although it is almost certainly taken in artisanal fisheries in the tropical Atlantic. This species’ schooling behavior means that large numbers could be fished out in one haul, and fishermen are known to target aggregations of rays off western Africa.<br/><br/>Fisheries have increased in both effort and capacity in the Mediterranean Sea during recent decades (Aldebert 1997). The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are subject to high levels of exploitation, down to a depth of 800 m (i.e., throughout much of this species’ bathymetric range) (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Data from trawl surveys and fisheries landings suggest that this species declined in the northern Mediterranean in the late 1970s and was absent from the catches until 1995.<br/><br/>In southern Africa is it only rarely taken as bycatch with bottom trawls, purse seines, longlines, or by shore anglers, and is not subjected to great fishing mortality. About 65–70% of <em>M. aquila</em> captured in Natal Sharks Board beach protection nets are released alive, with presumed high survival (S. Dudley pers. comm. 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation in inshore areas from coastal development and pollution may also affect this species’ in inshore habitat.	eng
161570	conservation	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Few specimens occur in museum collections and its current abundance where it was formerly reported as being common (India) needs to be investigated (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161570	distribution	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Indian Ocean and West Pacific: Pakistan, India, Burma, Indonesia (Makassar Straits), Sarawak, and China (Compagno in prep).	eng
161570	habitat	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Found inshore on the continental shelf (mostly close inshore). A viviparous species giving birth to four to eight pups per litter after an eight month gestation period. Pups are 40?60 cm long when born, and grow to a maximum of 168 cm TL. Males mature at 114 cm TL, whereas females mature at <130 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161570	population	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Rare throughout most of its range, but once known to be common off west coast of India (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161570	threats	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Taken regularly (but in low numbers) by local fishermen of India (Bombay), Pakistan (Karachi), Sarawak and Kalimantan (Indonesia). Taken in bottom and floating gill nets and with line gear. Meat is utilized for human consumption, fins dried for fin trade and livers used for vitamin oil (Compagno in prep.). Probably threatened by habitat removal and destruction (e.g., inshore mangrove areas) which is prolific throughout much of its range. As this species predominantly occurs inshore, pollution from river outflow is also a possible threat.	eng
161571	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	None in place.	eng
161571	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: possibly endemic to Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161571	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Biology and habitat unknown. Demersal on the continental shelf in depths exceeding 60 m. Attains at least 110 cm; males mature at 83–89 cm and females at >92 cm TL (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Mode of reproduction not known.	eng
161571	population	White, W.T., 2008	Not particularly common in fish landings and possibly not an abundant species.	eng
161571	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Caught occasionally by demersal longliners off Bali (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Utilised for its meat and fins, but of limited use due to its small size (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly occurs deeper than the majority of fisheries but more information required.	eng
161572	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Research actions to obtain baseline information are necessary to establish adequate conservation measures. Habitat conservation and impact mitigation measures are potentially important for the conservation of this species. Adequate management and legislation should be addressed. Education and public awareness are desired due to the negative image associated to this group of elasmobranchs due to fear of sting accidents often leading to persecution.	eng
161572	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	South America inland waters: known from the Paraná and Paraguay River basins in Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. This species is probably not present in the Amazon drainage (Guaporé, Beni, Solimões and Marañón River) and reports from Peru and Bolivia (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004 and others) probably correspond to misidentification with similar species (author?s personal observations).	eng
161572	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	With respect to habitat, ecology and biology, the original description (Castello and Yagolkowski 1969) only mentions that the holotype and paratypes were captured in a lagoon and that sexual heterodonty was absent. There are no further data available concerning habitat and life history aspects of this species.	eng
161572	population	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Population size and dynamics have never been estimated and are unknown for this species.	eng
161572	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	The threats facing this species are not well known. Environmental impacts, including habitat loss and degradation due to infrastructure development, agriculture and water pollution (agricultural wastes) seem to be among the main threats for <em>P. castexi</em>. There are no catch records and apparently this species is not used as a food source, nor often captured for the ornamental trade. International trade information indicates that this species is marketed (Araújo <em>et al.</em> 2004) but quantitative information is not available.	eng
161573	conservation	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Habitat protection is recommended in addition to the evaluation of captures by fishing activities including for the ornamental fish trade.	eng
161573	distribution	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	South America Inland Waters: endemic to the River Catacumbo and its tributaries in Colombia, and the Maracaibo drainage in Venezuela. <br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.	eng
161573	habitat	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	There is very little information on the biology or ecology of this species. It inhabits shallow waters with muddy bottoms. Diet includes insect larvae and detritus.	eng
161573	population	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	No information on populations. It has a low abundance around the Catumbo River. In the Catacumbo River the range of this species is the town of La Gabarra and Zulia River, to the municipality Riego de Zulia.	eng
161573	threats	Góes de Araújo, M.L., 2004	Little information available. Habitat degradation, particularly from agricultural run-off and mining activities may be of concern. Fishing activities, including for the ornamental fish trade.	eng
161574	conservation	Human, B., 2007	Appropriate monitoring of this species in the research trawl surveys that are regularly conducted in the area are sufficient at this time. Currently no specific management for this species is in place, although, under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) and a shark management plan has recently been implemented in Namibia (Anon 2004).	eng
161574	distribution	Human, B., 2007	Southern African endemic: ranging southwards from approximately 27°S (south of Lüderitz) in the southeast Atlantic off Namibia, continuing southwards and eastwards around South Africa and into the Western Indian Ocean, off Durban, South Africa (Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1991, Human 2006, Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
161574	habitat	Human, B., 2007	<em>H. regani</em> is a benthic shark that occurs on the continental shelf from a depth of approx. 100–500 m, and exceptionally from 40–910 m (Human 2006, Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000). There is marked sexual dimorphism in this species and the male is significantly larger than the female, an oddity in chondrichthyan fishes, where the opposite is normally true. Females mature between 40.0–45.0 cm total length (TL) and males mature between 45.0–50.0 cm TL. A single eggcase is found in each uterus in gravid females (single oviparity) and gravid females are present at all times of the year. Ovulation occurs when the ova reach 11 mm in diameter. Richardson <em>et al</em>. (2000) speculated that female fecundity may be high, with other species within the family Scyliorhinidae able to lay one egg pair every 15 days, this however remains to be confirmed for this species. Abundance of this species suggests that <em>H. regani</em> is highly fecund.	eng
161574	population	Human, B., 2007	The Izak Catshark appears to have a minor seasonal migration occurring on the southernmost tip of the Algulhas Bank, South Africa, with sharks migrating closer inshore in autumn (and possibly summer?). On the west coast of South Africa, the mean biomass of <em>H. regani</em> increased from 1,606 t  (for the period 1986–1993) to 3,012 t (1994–1999) as determined by periodic research trawl surveys in the area (Richardson <em>et al</em>. 2000). Biomass estimates for the south coast of South Africa are less well known due to non-periodic research trawl surveys in this area. Highest densities of this shark occur in areas where the continental shelf is broad.	eng
161574	threats	Human, B., 2007	There appear to be no threats for this species in the immediate future. A demersal trawl fishery for hake exists within the known range of <em>H. regani</em>, fishing between 200 and 600 m on the Agulhas Bank, south of Cape Town, South Africa. The Izak Catshark is a discarded bycatch species of this fishery. Survival rates are likely to be high due to the increase in biomass, in the presence of this trawl fishery, reported for this species by Richardson <em>et al</em>. (2000). Although biomass of <em>H. regani</em> has increased in recent times, it is endemic to a small area and could therefore be threatened by habitat degradation and localised catastrophic events.	eng
161575	conservation	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161575	distribution	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwest Pacific: relatively restricted distribution in the southern Sea of Okhotsk and off the southern Kuril Islands, also from Chiba Prefecture to southern Hokkaido Japan (Ishihara 1990, Parin 2001).	eng
161575	habitat	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Found on the continental slope, at depths 380–980 m off Japan (Ishihara 1990), and at 300–1,000 m in Russian waters (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). Prefers bottom water temperatures of 0 to 3.2°C (Dolganov 1998a). Females reach a maximum size of 69 cm total length (TL) and males, 62cm TL (Dolganov 2005). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measured 5.6–6.8 cm x 3.6–4.6 cm (Dolganov 1998b). Nothing else is known of the species’ biology and ecology.	eng
161575	population	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species is rare. Total biomass estimates from data collected during demersal trawl surveys in Russian waters, off the Kuril Islands from 1977–1997 comprised only 1,200 t (Dolganov 1999). No data available on population status or abundance in the rest of its range.	eng
161575	threats	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	<em>Rhinoraja longicauda</em> is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However, this is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).	eng
161576	conservation	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. & Vidthayanon, C., 2007	No conservation measures in place.	eng
161576	distribution	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. & Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: occurs off China in the East China Sea and Bohai Sea and off Korea in the Yellow Sea (Zhu and Meng 2001).	eng
161576	habitat	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. & Vidthayanon, C., 2007	An inshore coldwater stingray, probably occurring at less than 200 m deep although no specific information is available on its depth range (D. Ebert, Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).  Males reach 82 cm TL and females 72.5 cm TL (Zhu and Meng 2001). The biology and habitat of this species are largely unknown. The holotype is an adult male with a disc width of 39.5 cm (DW).	eng
161576	population	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. & Vidthayanon, C., 2007	No information on population.	eng
161576	threats	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. & Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Commonly captured as bycatch in demersal trawls operating off China (Zhu and Meng 2001), but only of low value. One of three most commonly marketed of dasyatids in China, although no information is available on trends. There are difficulties with accurate identification of Dasyatid species.	eng
161577	conservation	Huveneers, C., Last, P.R. & Francis, M., 2008	None in place.	eng
161577	distribution	Huveneers, C., Last, P.R. & Francis, M., 2008	Endemic to New Zealand. Ranges from the Three Kings Islands to Foveaux Strait (about 10° latitude) but most records are from the northern part of the range (8° latitude) (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
161577	habitat	Huveneers, C., Last, P.R. & Francis, M., 2008	A medium-sized, primarily deepwater skate, Longtailed Skate can be found on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope in depths of 90-800 m; most records are from between 200 and 600 m (Garrick 1954, 1957; Garrick and Paul 1974, Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998). It attains about 75 cm total length (TL) and matures at about 69 cm TL for males (Garrick and Paul 1974). Other biological characteristics are unknown.	eng
161577	population	Huveneers, C., Last, P.R. & Francis, M., 2008	The species is rare (it was caught in 38 out of more than 19,000 research bottom trawl tows; Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
161577	threats	Huveneers, C., Last, P.R. & Francis, M., 2008	Longtailed Skate is affected by bottom trawling but the level of impact is not known. The species is rare and much of its range is around the northern North Island, which is not intensively fished by deepwater trawlers. It is almost certainly taken as bycatch in the major hoki fishery centred around central New Zealand, but data on the extent of this bycatch are lacking. It is not known if the population of Longtailed Skate in central New Zealand has declined under the impact of trawling, but this is possible. The species is probably lightly impacted in the northern part of its range but may be moderately to heavily impacted in the central part of its range.	eng
161578	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	None in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to assess future conservation needs.	eng
161578	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Indian Ocean: Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161578	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A deepwater species found on the upper continental slope, near the seabed at depths of 521–1,262 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Very little is known of the biology. Maximum total length (TL) is reported at 30 cm, although the specimen may have been immature (Compagno 1984). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161578	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Possibly rare (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161578	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	Compagno <em>et al</em>. (2005) note that this species is apparently of no interest to fisheries at present. Very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. India has at least 100 deep-sea fishing vessels (FAO 2007), but specific information on deepsea fisheries in this area is not available.<br/><br/>The wide depth distribution of the species may provide some refuge beyond current fishing pressure, however the situation should be monitored as fisheries expand to greater depths.	eng
161579	conservation	White, W.T., Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & Samiengo, B., 2004	None. This species needs to be monitored in the future due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in Thailand and Indonesia.	eng
161579	distribution	White, W.T., Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & Samiengo, B., 2004	Western central Pacific. Indonesia (Java, Sumatra and Borneo), Singapore, Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak, Peninsula), Thailand (Last and Compagno 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006), Cambodia and Vietnam. Also recorded from the Philippines (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Reported off India but most likely confused with <em>Himantura imbricata</em>, thus its westward distribution in the Indian Ocean requires verification (B.M. Manjaji, W. White pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161579	habitat	White, W.T., Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & Samiengo, B., 2004	<em>Himantura walga</em> occurs on the inner continental shelf, in depths of typically <50 m, over flat, sandy substratum, and occasionally found in coastal embayments (Last and Compagno 1999, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Attains at least 24 cm disc width (DW). Both males and females mature at 16?17 cm DW, and size at birth 8?10 cm (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007, Manjaji 2004, Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy. The species produces 1?2 pups per litter, after an unknown gestation period, with no reproductive synchronicity (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Feeds primarily on small crustaceans, but also on small fishes (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161579	population	White, W.T., Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & Samiengo, B., 2004	Apparently more common than other <em>Himantura</em> species (W. White, B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161579	threats	White, W.T., Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & Samiengo, B., 2004	<em>Himantura walga</em> forms a significant component of the elasmobranch bycatch from fish and prawn trawlers operating in the Java Sea (W. White, pers. obs. 2007). This species is also found in Thailand where trawling for batoids is also very common practice (especially in the Gulf of Thailand) and it is also caught in commercial quantities there (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). It is also caught in large numbers by trammel netters throughout much of its range (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Typically all caught are retained and used for human consumption. There is very high level of exploitation on the habitat that this species occurs in throughout its range and since it is caught in such large numbers (in all size ranges) by trawlers, it is under a severe level of threat within most of its range. However, it is possible that this smaller species is more productive than larger <em>Himantura</em> species. It is still caught in relatively large quantities, although nothing is known of previous abundance levels, and fishermen are having to travel further to sustain catch levels. The size of individuals in the catch has also reportedly decreased.	eng
161580	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2004	Accurate monitoring of catches and research on historical abundance is needed to determine the status of populations of this species. Further research is also required on life-history.	eng
161580	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2004	This species has a wide distribution in the Atlantic Ocean. Western Atlantic: from Nova Scotia, Canada, south to Brazil. Eastern Atlantic: from Scotland (rare in North Sea), south to Morocco, including the Mediterranean Sea, and from Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea, and Namibia to Mossel Bay in South Africa (Whitehead <em>et al. </em>1984, <a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Atlantictorpedo/atlantictorpedo.html">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>).	eng
161580	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2004	This species occurs from the surface to depths of ~800 m. Juveniles are mainly benthic occurring on soft substrates and coral reef habitats, from 10-50 m depth (although sometimes considerably deeper). Adults are frequently pelagic or semi-pelagic, swimming singly and reported migrating over great distances. Specimens captured in MEDITS surveys in the Mediterranean Sea were present throughout the depth range surveyed (10-800 m) but found mostly between 200-500 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Reproduction is yolk-sac viviparity. This species reaches a maximum size of about 180 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Up to 60 embryos have been reported in large females, gestation period is about 12 months and size at birth is 20-25 cm TL (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1984, McEachran and Carvalho 2002). The diet is predominantly fish, sometimes quite large.	eng
161580	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2004	Few data are available on population trends in this species across its range. Data from trawl surveys suggest that <em>Torpedo nobiliana</em> is relatively rare in the Mediterranean Sea, with a low frequency of occurrence in bottom trawl surveys. It was captured in 73 of 6,336 hauls conducted throughout the northern Mediterranean during MEDITS surveys from 1994-1999 at depths of 10-800m, and appears to be more common in the western basin (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). During GRUND scientific trawl surveys in Italian seas, this species was reported in low numbers from several locations along the Italian coast, including Sicily, Calabria, Gulf of Taranto, Sardinia and Northern Tyrrhenian sea. It is only very rarely recorded off Tuscany and Corsica (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000, Betrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Maiorano <em>et al.</em> 2000, Ferretti <em>et al.</em> 2005). Historical records report this species in the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea (D?Ancona and Razzauti 1937, Foresi 1939), Ligurian sea (Brunelli and Bini 1934, Ariola 1904) and Gulf of Lion (Aldebert 1997). It is difficult to evaluate previous trends in abundance as most of these reports are qualitative and do not specify catch rates for this species. In the Adriatic Sea, it is captured in small numbers, only in the extreme south and all records are juveniles (N. Ungaro pers. comm.).	eng
161580	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Serena, F., Ungaro, N., Ferretti, F., Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2004	This species is occasionally caught with bottom trawls and line gear, including recreational fisheries. Torpedo rays are usually discarded at sea, resulting in very little data on catches of these species. Historically this species was valued for its liver oil for use in lamps, prior to the use of kerosene oil, but a lack of data on catches makes it difficult to determine population trends (<a href="http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Atlantictorpedo/atlantictorpedo.html">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>). This is a large, potentially vulnerable species, and the impact of bycatch on populations needs to be assessed. The species? preference for reef environments for spawning may make it vulnerable to the indirect effects of habitat degradation from destructive bottom trawling practices.	eng
161581	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No conservation measures are in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, more information on the biology and ecology of the species and its importance in fisheries is required to assess the status and future conservation needs. Where taken, catches should be closely monitored to ensure that the current population is not adversely affected.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161581	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: East China Sea, off Japan (southeastern Honshu and Ryu-Kyu Islands) and China near Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161581	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species found on the upper continental to insular slopes at depths of 358–895 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Attains at least 64 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males are immature at 56 cm TL and females are immature at 59–64 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably oviparous. Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161581	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown. The whole genus is poorly represented in collections and is considered rare.	eng
161581	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	Potential bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is available.	eng
161582	conservation	Fahmi, White, W.T., Manjaji, M. & Peirce, S., 2007	None currently in place. Collection of quantitative artisanal catch data on this species and other rare species is needed to provide better data for estimating population trends.	eng
161582	distribution	Fahmi, White, W.T., Manjaji, M. & Peirce, S., 2007	Indian Ocean to Western Pacific: India and Bangladesh (including Ganges river) (Annandale 1908, Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 1998, Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002), Maldives (Adam 1998), Gulf of Thailand, Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak) (Mohsin and Amnak 1996) and Indonesia (Borneo). One record from northern Australia (Last and Compagno 1999, G. Yearsley pers. comm. 2008). Also likely occurs in areas in between (Last and Compagno 1999). This species was also recently recorded from Mozambique, representing a western range extension of more than 5,000 km, indicating that it is likely to be more widespread in the Indo-Pacific than previously considered (Pierce <em>et al.</em>2008).	eng
161582	habitat	Fahmi, White, W.T., Manjaji, M. & Peirce, S., 2007	A large species found in coastal waters and river mouths (Kapoor <em>et al</em>. 2002). However it is also reported in deeper waters. No specific information is available on the full depth range of this species and its preferred habitat is poorly known. The species may extend into deep water and further investigation is required into its full bathymetric range. Attains disc widths of up to 222 cm (Garman 1913). The very large size of this species suggests that it may be more biologically vulnerable to population depletion than smaller stingrays. Observations of this species in mid-water off Mozambique indicate that this species is possibly a semi-pelagic species which may also account for its rarity in catches throughout its range compared to other dasyatid species (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
161582	population	Fahmi, White, W.T., Manjaji, M. & Peirce, S., 2007	The scarcity of recorded observations suggests that <em>D. microps</em> is rare and possibly patchily distributed (Pierce <em>et al.</em> 2008). Frequently sighted around reefs in southern Mozambique. In Indonesia it seems that this species is scarce, but no information is available to determine historical population trends.	eng
161582	threats	Fahmi, White, W.T., Manjaji, M. & Peirce, S., 2007	Probably taken as bycatch by bottom longline, trammel net and trawl fisheries throughout its range. In Indonesia, this species is caught occasionally as utilized bycatch in trawl and the Danish seine fisheries operating in west (between Natuna and Karimata Islands) and south Kalimantan waters (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). This species were recorded only twice at the Danish seine fishery during studies of catches in August 2005 and May 2007 (two individuals were captured measuring 222 cm DW and 245 cm TL). It is utilized for its meat and cartilage in Indonesia. One individual caught by artisanal spear-fishers in August 2006 in southern Mozambique (Pierce <em>et al</em>. 2008). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout large areas of its geographic range, but the species may occur deeper than is currently known, offering refuge from fisheries.	eng
161583	conservation	Séret, B., McCormack, C. & Pinho, M.R.R., 2008	Bottom trawling is banned by EC regulation 1568/2005 within the Azores EEZ.<br/><br/>Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161583	distribution	Séret, B., McCormack, C. & Pinho, M.R.R., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic: known only from the holotype caught on a seamount of the north Atlantic ridge north of the Azores, 40°22'N, 30°10'W and the second specimen captured south of the Azores, 34°25'N, 30°02'W.	eng
161583	habitat	Séret, B., McCormack, C. & Pinho, M.R.R., 2008	Mesopelagic deepsea species known from only two specimens (Kukuev and Konovalenko 1988, Kukuev 2006). The holotype (37.7 cm TL) was found at 300 m over a seamount (Kukuev and Konovalenko 1988).	eng
161583	population	Séret, B., McCormack, C. & Pinho, M.R.R., 2008	Very rare, known only from two specimens.	eng
161583	threats	Séret, B., McCormack, C. & Pinho, M.R.R., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown. However, it is a very rare species occurring in an area where deep longline fisheries are developing. To date this species has only been recorded from scientific surveys.<br/><br/>Deep-water sharks are caught as by-catch both in the general demersal and black scabbardfish <em>Aphanopus carbo</em> fisheries operating in Azorean waters, however landings data are not collected by species (Heessen 2003). Demersal longline fisheries operate to depths of 700 m, and the black scabbard fishery operates from 600–1,000 m, off the Azores (M.R.R. Pinho pers. comm. May 2007). Surface longlining also occurs but only to 100 m depth (M.R.R. Pinho pers. comm. May 2007). Landings of deepwater sharks reported to ICES are considered underestimated (ICES 2006). Data from observers or fishing logbooks are not available (ICES 2006). Longline fisheries for tuna also operate in this area. A directed fishery for deep-water sharks operated in the Azores from 1972-2001, in which the kitefin shark was targeted by both gillnets and handlines (Heessen 2003).<br/><br/>Trawlers have also operated over the mid-Atlantic Ridge for many years, particularly the Russian fishery targeting Alfonsinos and Roundnose grenadiers at depths from 600–1,000m (ICES 2006).	eng
161584	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in effect or proposed at this time. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further suveys would aid in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution of the species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161584	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from North Carolina, southern Florida, Bahamas and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161584	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species found at depths of 366?951 m on the slope (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Maximum size is reported at 29 cm total length (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Little else is known of the species' biology.	eng
161584	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161584	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	There is no specific information available on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to trawl fisheries, particularly as these expand to greater depths in the future. Information on any deepwater fisheries operating within the species range is required, and bycatch levels need to be quantified.	eng
161585	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	The biology of this species is virtually unknown. Like many deeper water species, more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit in the collection of data on the wider depth distribution and range of the species.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161585	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from the holotype, found just north of the area between the Viet Nam coast and Hainan Island, China. (Compagno and Niem 1998).	eng
161585	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype and therefore very little is known about its biology. It is a bathydemersal deepwater species which was found on or near the bottom between 512 and 692 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The adult male holotype was 29 cm total length (TL) (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous.	eng
161585	population	McCormack, C., 2008	<em>E. decacuspidatus</em> is a very rare species known only from holotype and population size is therefore unknown.	eng
161585	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The impact of fishing pressure on this species is unknown. As the species is only known from one specimen it is difficult to make a full assessment of threats to it. China has the largest number of fishing vessels and fishers in the world with a marine fishing fleet consisting of 279,937 motorized vessels in 2004 (1,996 of which were confined to distant waters), showing little change from 1999 (FAO 2007). Catches have declined as a result, leading to catches of immature, small-sized and low value organisms (FAO 2007). In 2004, the most common fishing gear used was the trawl net (in terms of production, trawlers accounted for 47.6% of catches in 2004) (FAO 2007). Although little is known of the full depth range of fisheries operating in the South China Sea, this species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within this area. The species’ limited range, as presently known, is of concern.	eng
161586	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2003	None.	eng
161586	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2003	Eastern Atlantic between about 20°N and 22°S and off southern Madagascar and Mauritius (Hulley 1988).	eng
161586	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2003	Common on the continental shelf of southern Africa and especially South Africa, at depths of 80–690 m. Attains a maximum size of 67 cm TL, 49 cm DW (Hulley 1988).	eng
161586	population	Smale, M.J., 2003	A widely distributed species around southern Africa and abundant in areas such as Orange River to Doring Bay, Saldanha to Cape Point and south to Agulhas point in 100–300 m. Also abundant on the Agulhas Bank to at least Port Alfred. This is the most common species of skate in southern African waters (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
161586	threats	Smale, M.J., 2003	Trawling on the continental shelf for teleosts such as hake, although no data available to investigate changes in population size or structure. Commonly taken as bycatch and used for human consumption as “skate wings”, catches should be monitored to investigate any trends over time. (Note “skate wings” is a generic term however, because of size and frequency in catch, the Raja clavata/straeleni species complex probably makes up the bulk of these “skate wings” in South Africa).	eng
161587	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Barker, A.S., Orlov, A. & Pasolini, P., 2008	There are no regulations related to this species.	eng
161587	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Barker, A.S., Orlov, A. & Pasolini, P., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: from the southeastern part of the Barents Sea (Novaya Zemliya Islands, Russia) to southern Norway, southern Greenland, Iceland, Faeroe Islands to Shetlands, western coasts of British Isles and Bay of Biscay (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984).<br/><br/>Northwest Atlantic: from Greenland to Nova Scotia, Canada, including the Labrador Shelf, Grand Banks and the French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Gulf of St Lawrence and the Scotian Shelf  (Leim and Scott 1966; Stehmann and Bürkel 1984; D. Kulka, pers. obs.).	eng
161587	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Barker, A.S., Orlov, A. & Pasolini, P., 2008	This species is bathydemersal, occurring in deeper shelf and slope waters between 170 and 2,050 m depth. Average depth of capture was about 400–800 m in the Northeast Atlantic and >500 m in the Northwest Atlantic. Very little is known of the biology, but data from the Northwest Atlantic indicate that females are mature at 49 to 50 cm total length (TL) (n=3) and males at 44–47 cm TL (n=4) (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Maximum recorded size is 57 cm TL (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005). Size at birth is estimated at <11 cm TL.<br/><br/>The species inhabits waters with bottom temperatures >10°C with maximum abundance between 4°C and 60°C (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005, D. Kulka pers. obs. 2006). Prey includes benthic invertebrates (mostly shrimps and polychaetes) and fishery discards (Dolgov 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates.	eng
161587	population	Kulka, D.W., Barker, A.S., Orlov, A. & Pasolini, P., 2008	The population on the Grand Banks and Labrador Shelf has been stable since the 1970s, possibly increasing in recent years (D. Kulka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Catch data from trawl and longline fisheries operating in the Barents sea, indicate that this species was taken at depths of <500 to 600 m and was not taken at depths >700 m. Average catch rate in the trawl fishery was 3 kg per hour haul (0.3% of the catch) and the maximum catch rate was <40 kg per hour haul (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005). The species’ abundance in this area appears relatively stable in recent years.<br/><br/>In Norwegian waters this species is especially abundant in the Skagerrak and off southwestern Norway. During a scientific trawl survey in the Norwegian waters in 1984–1987 this species occurred in 107 of the 639 trawls and with a concentration of catches off southern and southwestern Norway and at depths >240 m. The species was less common on the Norwegian Sea slope, a chartered trawler cruise fished the slope waters in December 1995 recorded only a single specimen (Skjæraasen and Bergstad 2001).	eng
161587	threats	Kulka, D.W., Barker, A.S., Orlov, A. & Pasolini, P., 2008	Presently, there are no directed fisheries for this species. It is captured incidentally in deepwater fisheries using trawls, longlines and gillnets on both sides of the Atlantic that operate within range of this species, and discarded. This species is one of three dominant skates taken as bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries operating in the Barents Sea, at depths of <300 to >800 m (Dolgov <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Although fisheries operate in parts of its range, the species wide depth distribution offers it refuge beyond the reach of most trawl fisheries in areas of its range. Furthermore, deep sea effort in the northwest Atlantic is regulated by quota and is presently much lower than during the 1960s to the 1990s.	eng
161588	conservation	Góes de Araújo, M.L. & Rincón, G., 2004	The capture and exportation of this species for the ornamental fish trade is illegal in Brazil. However, local people on Brazilian borders complain that specimens captured in Brazil are exported from Colombia or Peru. An international program to regulate the export of freshwater stingrays in the ornamental fish trade is necessary. <br/><br/>There are no regulations or controls on catches by commercial fisheries.<br/><br/>Habitat protection and fisheries monitoring programs are recommended.	eng
161588	distribution	Góes de Araújo, M.L. & Rincón, G., 2004	South America inland waters: Amazon?Solimões River and tributaries in Brazil and the Rio Orinoco drainage in Venezuela, Northern Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador.<br/><br/>FAO Area: 03.	eng
161588	habitat	Góes de Araújo, M.L. & Rincón, G., 2004	This species occupies shallow warm waters with temperatures around 25ºC. Juveniles inhabit areas with sandy beaches and small creeks while adults inhabit main river channels and sandy beaches, mainly during the night when it uses these areas to forage. In the Rio Negro, the species apparently shows daily movements between deeper and shallow water.<br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology is known only from Brazil and Venezuela. Reproductive mode is matrotrophic viviparity with trophonemata. The duration of the reproductive cycle is around two years. Gestation period is estimated as nine months. Ovarian fecundity is 3?5 and the average uterine fecundity is two embryos. Sexual segregation has been observed in this species. Size at birth 16 cm DW; size at maturity 60 cm DW (males) and 72 cm DW (females); maximum size is 130 cm DW.<br/><br/>Diet includes small fishes, shrimps, worms and insect larvae.	eng
161588	population	Góes de Araújo, M.L. & Rincón, G., 2004	This species is widespread around the Amazonas-Solimões River and tributaries. Around the Rio Negro in Brazil this species occurs in at least 42 tributaries, and is known to occur in high densities.	eng
161588	threats	Góes de Araújo, M.L. & Rincón, G., 2004	Habitat degradation. Persecution in popular tourism areas due to fear of injury. This species is taken as bycatch in commercial fisheries with trawl nets along the Solimões-Amazonas River. Commercial fisheries retain and market this species. Its export for the ornamental fish trade is illegal from Brazil, but it is regularly exported from Peru and Colombia.	eng
161589	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	There are no known conservation or management measures for this species. Assessment and monitoring of population trends throughout this species’ range is required.	eng
161589	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: Japan, China, Taiwan (Province of China), Korea, Vietnam and may be present in Indonesia (Compagno 1998).	eng
161589	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	This benthic ray is found inshore, from the surface to depths of 100 m on rock or rocky sand bottoms, but is most common at 30–40 m depth (Yamada et al. 2007). It prefers coastal areas, on fine sandy substrates (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). It reaches a maximum size of 68 cm total length (TL) (Compagno 1998). A recent study suggests that females reach maturity at 3–5 years of age and 39.2 cm total length (TL), and males at 2–4 years and 37.1 cm TL (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). Longevity in females is reported at 12 years and five years in males (Yamaguchi et al. unpublished data). <em>P. sinensis</em> feeds on small shrimps, mysids and small fish (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>unpublished data).	eng
161589	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	Little specific information is available on the population of this species, although it is reported to have declined in the East China Sea (see Threats section).	eng
161589	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	This species is taken as utilised bycatch in gillnet, coastal set-net, trawl fisheries, and almost all fishery types operating in shallow waters (Y. Wang pers. obs.). All bycatch is utilised in some areas of the species’ range, whereas it is discarded in other areas (Y. Wang pers. obs., Yamaguchi unpublished data). Yamada <em>et al</em>. (2007) report that this species was formerly caught by bottom trawl fisheries in the East China Sea, but has declined both in terms of abundance and extent of occurrence. However, in Shimoda, Izu Peninsula, southern Japan (at the northern extent of this species’ range), it is reportedly still common (S. Tanaka pers. comm.). Historical fishing pressure has been high throughout the much of its range and exploitation is continuing in many areas of this species’ inshore habitat. For example, fishing pressure on batoids is intensive in the South China Sea. Its preference for shallow waters and slow movement mean it is easily captured in demersal fisheries and vulnerable to depletion.	eng
161590	conservation	Fahmi & White, W., 2007	None currently in place. Research is required on taxonomy and population trends.	eng
161590	distribution	Fahmi & White, W., 2007	An apparently wide ranging species found from the Western Indian Ocean to the Eastern Pacific. However, this is considered a species-complex and more than five species in total may be involved. Taxonomic investigation will be vital to identify the species involved and their true distributions (W. White pers. obs. 2007). Reported from: American Samoa, Australia, Cambodia, Cook Islands, Guam, China (Hong Kong), Taiwan, Province of China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Ogasawara Islands, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Micronesia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Marianas, New Caledonia, Palau, Papa New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnam and Yemen (Compagno 1986).	eng
161590	habitat	Fahmi & White, W., 2007	A demersal species found on sandy bottoms near rocky or coral reefs at depths of 0?90 m (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species is usually found in deeper water but moves onto the reef flat and into shallow lagoons at high tide (Michael 1993). In Indonesia, this species often occurs on sandy mud bottom (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). It occasionally covers itself with sand, leaving only its eyes and tail visible (Myers 1999). <br/><br/>Size parameters differ between regions and areas because this is most likely a complex of more than five species. The Java form attains at least 38cm disc width (DW), with males maturing at 22?26 cm DW and females at 23?27 cm DW (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth for the Java form is 11?16 cm (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). The Bali form attains at least 45 cm DW, with males maturing at 31?35 cm DW (White <em>et al</em>. 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007). Size at birth for the Bali form is ~17 cm. Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy. Java and Bali forms give birth to litters of 1?2 pups after an unknown gestation period and there is apparently no reproductive synchronicity (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Dasyatis kuhlii</em> feeds on crabs and shrimps (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161590	population	Fahmi & White, W., 2007	Population size in Indonesia is still unknown. Market observations were conducted at several landing sites in Java and Kalimantan from 2005 to present, and showed that the species is quite common. They were recorded at almost all landing sites (fishing areas including the Java Sea, off southern Java (Indian Ocean), Sunda Strait, Karimata Strait, Makassar Strait, West Kalimantan, Natuna Islands) (Authors pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Extensive surveys of various fish landings sites in eastern Indonesia, conducted between April 2001 and March 2006 recorded a total of 28,385 individual batoids, comprising 54 species belonging to 12 families. The Java form of <em>D. kuhlii</em> contributed 42.7% by number to the total number of batoids recorded and only 3.9% by biomass. The Bali form of <em>D. kuhlii</em> contributed 3.4% by number to the total number of batoids recorded and only 0.7 by biomass (White and Dharmadi 2007).	eng
161590	threats	Fahmi & White, W., 2007	This species is of commercial interest to fisheries throughout its range. It is also taken from the wild for use in aquariums (Compagno 1986). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, this species is caught as utilized bycatch in trawl, trammel net and Danish seine fisheries targeting mixed demersal fishes. It is commonly caught in large numbers by trawl and Danish seine boats operating in the Java Sea.  This species is the second most important elasmobranch caught by the Danish seine fishery according to the total catch (biomass) and is the principle elasmobranch in terms of the total number of individuals (contributing ~ 700 kg/boat in average) (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). According to anecdotal observations of artisanal fisheries catches in Java during August 2006?May 2007, the production of <em>D. kuhlii</em> increased (from 231 kg/boat in August 2006, to 724 kg/boat in May 2007). Total production of rays in Indonesian fishery statistics also showed an increasing trend (DGCF 2005).<br/><br/>It is utilised for its meat but of limited value due to its small size. The meat is often smoked and salted or dried for marketing locally. This is a relatively small ray and it may, possibly, be more resilient to depletion in fisheries than some of the other larger ray species in parts of its known range.	eng
161591	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would help to define the species full range and depth distribution. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161591	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from off Quilon, India (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161591	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bottom-dwelling shark of the uppermost continental slope. The type series, including the holotype and three paratypes, were collected at 300 m depth with an otter trawl. Probably a dwarf species, as the largest known specimen, a male, is adult at 36 cm total length (Compagno in prep.). Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161591	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161591	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The species inhabits trawlable grounds and could potentially be vulnerable to bycatch by fisheries operating in deepwater throughout its range. Given the species’ apparently restricted range, any bycatch may be of concern. Little is known about deepwater fisheries operating off India at present. There were apparently 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India during 2004 (FAO 2007). Marine fish production from near shore waters off India has reached almost a plateau and it is likely that fisheries will develop to exploit deeper waters off shore pelagic species further (FAO 2007).	eng
161592	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and biology. Information is also required on any fisheries operating within this species’ range, and catch levels, if any, should be quantified.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161592	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: India and Sri Lanka (Eschmeyer 1998).	eng
161592	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	Bathydemersal deepwater species. Holotype was taken at around 1,093 m depth (Eschmeyer 1998). The wider depth distribution of the species is unknown. Reproduction is presumably oviparous. Virtually nothing known on biology of the species.	eng
161592	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Population size unknown.	eng
161592	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown. At present the species is only known from 1,093 m depth, possibly beyond the depth of operation of fisheries in the area.	eng
161593	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deepwater species, more information on biology, ecology, range and depth distribution and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161593	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: Arabian Sea, India (Talwar 1981).	eng
161593	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	The holotype of this species was collected from a depth of 300 m (Eschmeyer 2007). The biology and habitat of this species are largely unknown (Compagno 1999).	eng
161593	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Known only from few specimens at present.	eng
161593	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	It is a potential bycatch of multi species fisheries using gears such as trawls and drift nets, but no catch data are available (Hanfee 1991). The apparently restricted range of this species may make it vulnerable to depletion.	eng
161594	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment of catches and population trends is a priority and further surveys would provide species-specific data.	eng
161594	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	North Pacific: the Okhotsk Skate occurs off Russia and Japan, in the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean from the Commander and Kuril Islands to Hokkaido and Sea of Okhotsk. The species has also occasionally been reported from the eastern Bering Sea slope in Alaskan waters (Mecklenburg <em>et al. </em>2002), although recent surveys (1999–2004) have not recorded it (Stevenson <em>et al. </em>2008).	eng
161594	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Okhotsk Skate inhabit continental shelf and slope waters within the depth range 43–1,110 m on sandy-gravel, sandy and muddy-pebbly substrates, although the majority of the population occurs above 600 m (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2006, Dolganov 1998a). Preferred bottom temperatures ranged from -0.9 to 4.2°C (mean 2.42°C) and most skates occur within 3–3.5°C (Dolganov 1999, Orlov<em> et al.</em> 2006). Females mature at 5–6 years of age and 61.2–76.4 cm total length (TL) and males mature at 4–6 years of age and 53.9–73.2 cm TL (Dolganov 1998c). The species attains a maximum size of 107 cm TL and is estimated to live for nine years (Dolganov 2005). Size at birth is unknown but egg capsules measured 7–13.2 cm x 5.5–8.6 cm (Dolganov 1998c). Dolganov (1998c) suggested that reproduction takes place year-round, and females have been observed to deposit egg cases in December at depths of 300m (Orlov and Biryukov 2005). Feeds mostly on crustaceans, cephalopods and fishes (Dolganov 1998b, Orlov 1998, Chuchukalo and Napazakov 2002).	eng
161594	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This is the sixth most abundant skate species in Russian waters (Dolganov 1999). This species is common in the Sea of Okhotsk and the northern Kuril Islands and eastern Kamchatka (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). The mean total biomass estimate for this species during bottom trawl surveys conducted in Russian waters during 1977–1999 was 60,800 mt; comprising 17,300 t in the Bering Sea, 7,400 t off Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, and 36,100 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999). Few data are available on historical trends. CPUE data from 1999–2000 showed a gradual decreasing trend (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006), but there have been no further surveys in recent years.<br/><br/>It is not common in the eastern Bering Sea or the Aleutian islands, where it is only occasionally encountered by surveys (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161594	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Fisheries operate throughout the entire range of this species and it is a bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries for groundfish and gillnet fisheries for Greenland halibut. It is discarded, but post-discard survival may be low. In Russian waters, the Greenland halibut fishery usually operates down to 650m but most bottom trawl fisheries operate down to 450 m (A. Orlov pers. comm. 2007). Therefore, as the majority of this species’ population is distributed above 600m, it occurs primarily within the depth range of fisheries throughout its entire range. Bycatch rates for this species are low, compared to other more common skate species in the region, such as Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>), Aleutian Skate (<em>Bathyraja aleutica</em>) and Whiteblotched Skate (<em>Bathyraja maculata</em>) (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161595	conservation	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	<strong>Measures in place</strong><br/>California?s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>In Canada, the TAC for trawl in the Hecate Strait (area 5C/D) was set to 47 tonnes in 2002 (DFO 2007). Restrictions are not placed on other areas. As of 2007, directed skate fisheries are no longer allowed (DFO 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of population trends should continue.	eng
161595	distribution	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: distributed across the eastern Pacific coast, from the southeastern Bering Sea southward to the Gulf of California (Ebert 2003, DFO 2007).	eng
161595	habitat	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	This species is found on the shelf to upper slope and inhabits mud-cobble bottoms near vertical relief from nearshore to 1,000 m depth (Ebert 2003). However, records below 400 m are rare. Records of this species from the deeper end of its depth range may actually be that of other large deepsea skates (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Females reach maturity at 70?100 cm total length (TL) and males reach maturity at 61?74 cm TL (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, COSEWIC 2007). The maximum reported length is 137 cm TL but unofficial records indicate that it is likely greater (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ebert 2003, COSEWIC 2007). Size at birth is 12?17 cm TL (Zeiner and Wolf 1993).<br/><br/>Age at maturity is estimated at 10?12 years for females and 7?11 years for males (Zeiner and Wolf 1993, COSEWIC 2007). Longevity was reported as 12?13 years by Zeiner and Wolf (1993), but more recent literature suggests they live for a longer period. Maximum age was reported at 26 years (females) by McFarlane and King (2006), 25 years by Gburski <em>et al.</em> (2007) and 22 years by Thompson (2006). This species is preyed upon by sharks and sperm whales (Ebert 2003). The egg cases are preyed upon by mollusks that bore holes in them to feed on the protein-rich yolk-sac. Egg cases of this skate have also been found in the stomach of sperm whales (Ebert 2003).	eng
161595	population	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Little is known about the population structure of the longnose skate off Canada or whether it constitutes a distinguishable unit (DFO 2007). The longnose is readily identifiable by its long, pointed snout, although this species was not differentiated from other skates in landing records prior to 1996 off Canada (DFO 2007). The Hecate Trawl Survey and West Coast Triennial Survey indicate that the abundance of longnose skates within the survey area (Canada) is stable and perhaps increasing (DFO 2007). Furthermore, a recent status assessment of this species by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) designated this species as ?Not at Risk?. Survey data suggest that abundance has either remained stable or has increased since the early 1980s. North and south of its Canadian range, the species is either stable or increasing in abundance (COSEWIC 2007). Information on population trends throughout much of the rest of the range indicates that, overall, the population of <em>R. rhina</em> is stable. Analysis conducted for the Gulf of Alaska shows that <em>R. rhina</em> is not declining and similar trends are suspected throughout the rest of the species? range (Ebert <em>et al. </em>2007, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. Extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted. Further information should become available in the future, once analysis of this data is complete (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161595	threats	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Usually a utilized bycatch in commercial longline and trawl fisheries (Martin and Zorzi 1993). One of three commercially important skate species in California and it is marketed for human consumption (Roedel and Ripley 1950, Martin and Zorzi 1993). Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ?Skate, unspecified? indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~125 t and ~95 t from 2003 to 2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known.<br/><br/>The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Californian waters is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations which overlap with the habitat of this species (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Off Canada, this species is caught primarily in the trawl and hook-and-line fisheries and mainly as bycatch within the directed fisheries for groundfish (DFO 2007). Annual catches within the trawl ?eet average between 300 to 400 tonnes, with about 54% being retained. Bycatch and discard mortality is not well known for the hook-and-line ?eet, although it is estimated that the halibut directed fishery may catch upwards of 300 tonnes per year (DFO 2007).  The proportion of catches retained by these fisheries has increased in recent years which may have resulted in increased fishing mortality, depending on the mortality rate of the discarded individuals (COSEWIC 2007). Despite this, survey data suggest that the population has either remained stable or increased (see Population section).<br/><br/>Directed fisheries recently developed for this species (and <em>R. binoculata</em>) in the Gulf of Alaska, but data also indicate that abundance is not declining there (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161596	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The species occurs in several marine protected areas (MPAs) within New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland. In NSW waters these MPAs are mostly small, with limited fully protected areas. Within the species? Queensland range there are larger MPAs (i.e., Moreton Bay Marine Park and the Great Sandy Marine Park in Hervey Bay), but fully protected areas are again limited, and fishing (both commercial and recreational) occurs within the vast majority of these MPAs. At present, only 0.5% of the Moreton Bay Marine Park is fully protected in green zones (no extractive activities, including commercial and recreational fishing allowed). The Moreton Bay Marine Park is currently undergoing a review process, with a proposed 15% to be rezoned as green zones (to be called marine national park zones). The draft zoning plan is presently (February 2008) under public review (EPA 2007).<br/><br/>Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices are mandatory throughout the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery. In trials examining the effectiveness of these devices at reducing bycatch, the probability of capturing Eastern Shovelnose Ray was not significantly lower in nets fitted with a TED, a BRD, or a combination of both a TED and BRD, compared with standard nets (no devices fitted) (Kyne <em>et al</em>. 2002, Courtney <em>et al</em>. 2008). However, in the shallow water component of the ECTF eastern king prawn sector, the probability of capture (± standard error) in a net fitted with both a TED and BRD was lower (0.47± 0.06) than in a standard net with no TED or BRD fitted (0.56 ± 0.08) (Kyne <em>et al. </em>2002). TEDs are likely to reduce the capture of larger individuals, but both devices appear to have limited effectiveness at reducing overall capture rates.	eng
161596	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray is endemic to the east coast of Australia in the western Pacific from offshore of Halifax Bay, north Queensland (18°43?S) south to Jervis Bay, southern New South Wales (NSW) (35°08?S) (Last and Stevens 1994, Kyne and Bennett 2002). Its occurrence across this range is, however, not uniform, and it is particularly scarce in the northern part of its distribution. Its centre of abundance is south of about Bustard Bay, Queensland (24°06?S), through southern Queensland and into NSW waters (Last and Stevens 1994, P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). For example, in a fisheries-independent trawl survey in Queensland waters from 22°36?S to 24°55?S, 91% of <em>A. rostrata</em> individuals were taken between 24°06?S and 24°55?S, while the remaining 9% were taken north of 24°06?S (there was roughly equal effort and similar depths trawled in each of these two areas) (P.M. Kyne unpubl. data).	eng
161596	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray occurs inshore on the continental shelf in a variety of habitats including the surf zone, bays and estuaries, tidal mudflats and sandflats, seagrass beds, tidal river mouths (for example, the Brisbane River) and around rocky reefs. Bathymetric distribution is from very close inshore (<1 m) to 220 m. However, the species is generally found at depths <100 m (P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). The deepest records of the species are from the far northern part of the species? range where two individuals were collected at 210 to 220 m off northern Queensland (Kyne and Bennett 2002).<br/><br/>Maximum size is reportedly 120 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Sizes up to 85 cm TL are more typical (Kyne and Bennett 2002). The following reproductive information is taken from Kyne and Bennett (2002). Females reach maturity at 54 to 66 cm TL and males at 60 to 68 cm TL. Reproductive mode is aplacental yolksac viviparous with an annual, seasonal reproductive cycle where studied in Moreton Bay, southern Queensland. Ovulation and copulation probably occur in July to September, and parturition in November to December, resulting in a three to five month gestation period. Unlike <em>Rhinobatos</em> species, vitellogenesis does not proceed in parallel with gestation in Eastern Shovelnose Ray. Fecundity is related to maternal size, with litter sizes of 4 to 18. Size at birth is estimated at 13 to 15 cm TL (Kyne 2000).	eng
161596	population	Kyne, P.M. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	While exact estimates of population size are unavailable, the species is considered to be a ?fairly common? to abundant elasmobranch across the centre of its distribution, particularly in southern Queensland and northern-central NSW (Last and Stevens 1994, P.M. Kyne unpubl. data). In Moreton Bay (southern Queensland) an important site for the species, Johnson (1999) described its occurrence as ?abundant?.	eng
161596	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The Eastern Shovelnose Ray is a regular bycatch in both commercial and recreational fisheries. Within Queensland, the species is often the most abundant elasmobranch in the East Coast Trawl Fishery (ECTF). The ECTF is a multi-sector demersal trawl fishery principally targeting prawns (Penaeidae) and scallop (<em>Amusium japonicum</em>). In surveys of the shallow water component of the eastern king prawn sector (southern Queensland, ~26°30? to 28°00?S), it represented 38.6% by number and 52.5% by mass of the elasmobranch bycatch, and in the scallop sector (~22°30? to 25°00?S), 52.3% by number and 37.8% by mass (P.M. Kyne unpub. data). It is a minor bycatch in the deepwater component of the eastern king prawn sector (which operates outside the core depth range of the species) (P.M. Kyne unpub. data). It is also taken in the Moreton Bay sector of the ECTF. In these trawl fisheries, Eastern Shovelnose Rays and other elasmobranchs are discarded, as they are not permitted to be retained. Turtle Exclusion Devices and Bycatch Reduction Devices are now mandatory throughout the ECTF (see Conservation Actions section).<br/><br/>Within the ECTF the species is usually discarded alive, although post-release mortality is not known. There have been reports, however, of shovelnose rays (<em>Aptychotrema</em> and <em>Rhinobatos</em> species) and guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus </em>species) having their rostra snapped and broken by fishers before being discarded. This inevitably leads to mortality.<br/><br/>In addition to the ECTF, the species is also a bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Inshore Fin Fish Fishery (gillnet, seine net and tunnel net). Species-specific bycatch data are not available, but it is either discarded or retained and marketed.<br/><br/>Within NSW waters, the species is taken as bycatch in the Ocean Trawl Fishery (both the prawn trawl and the fish trawl sectors). Fishers are permitted to retain sharks and rays (with the exception of protected species, i.e., <em>Carcharias taurus</em> and <em>Carcharodon carcharias</em>) within this fishery, and the Eastern Shovelnose Ray may be retained.<br/><br/>Species-specific recreational catch data are not available, however, given its abundance in a variety of habitats in popular fishing areas (i.e., Moreton Bay), it is regularly caught. Recreational fishing activities are intense in heavily-populated parts of its range, particularly in and around Moreton Bay (an estimated >430,000 recreational fishers reside in the Moreton Bay region; DPI&F 2006). Shovelnose rays are either discarded or retained for consumption, and are reportedly ?good eating? (P.M. Kyne pers. obs.).<br/><br/>The specific impacts of coastal development on the species are unknown, but areas of its distribution (particularly Moreton Bay, but also elsewhere) have been subject to considerable inshore marine habitat loss from urban, commercial and industrial developments. These include canal estates, and shipping port and airport developments (i.e., the Port of Brisbane expansion and the Brisbane Airport).	eng
161597	conservation	Reardon, M., Márquez, F., Trejo, T. & Clarke, S.C., 2004	This species is mainly taken on the high seas, outside waters managed by coastal States. Family Alopiidae is listed as a highly migratory species under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (UNFSA). The Agreement specifically requires coastal States and fishing States to cooperate and adopt measures to ensure the conservation of these listed species. To date, there is little progress in this regard. See http://www.unclos.com for further details.<br/><br/>The FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) recommends that Regional Fisheries Organisations (RFO) carry out regular shark population assessments and that member States cooperate on joint and regional shark management plans. This is of particular importance for pelagic sharks such as <em>Alopias pelagicus</em> whose stocks are exploited by more than one State on the high seas. Although steps are being taken by some RFOs to collect species-specific data on pelagic sharks, and to ban the practise of shark finning (the removal of fins and discard of carcasses at sea), to date no RFO has limited shark catches or drafted a ?Shark Plan? as suggested in the IPOA-Shark guidelines. It is widely recognised that shark catch statistics submitted to RFOs by Contracting Parties do not represent the total removals of sharks and are also very limited with respect to the size-, age- and sex- composition of the catch. Much greater monitoring and research investments directed at sharks in particular, and other by-catch species in general, need to be made by the Parties.<br/><br/>Precautionary adaptive collaborative management by regional fisheries organizations and fishing States of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically and behaviourally vulnerable shark.<br/><br/>The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) is developing an agreement for the collaborative management of migratory shark species. This may be a useful supplement to traditional fisheries management measures, particularly since the latter are largely not being applied to pelagic shark stocks.<br/><br/>This animal requires careful monitoring because of its limiting life-history traits and the evidence of declines in parts of its range, although available data are currently insufficient to assess the global status of this species. The highly migratory nature of this species could cause seasonal fluctuations in catches or CPUE. However, for proper interpretation of the status of <em>A. pelagicus</em>, analyses combining CPUE from fleets operating in both international waters and within the EEZ of countries where <em>A. pelagicus</em> is captured should be performed as a matter of urgency.	eng
161597	distribution	Reardon, M., Márquez, F., Trejo, T. & Clarke, S.C., 2004	Oceanic and wide-ranging in the Indo-Pacific, Indian Ocean: South Africa (Kwa-Zulu Natal), Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea (off Somalia, between Oman and India, and off Pakistan), Australia (northwest Western Australia). Western North Pacific: China, Taiwan, Japan (southeastern Honshu). Western South Pacific: New Caledonia, eastern Micronesia, Tahiti. Central Pacific: Hawaiian Islands, equatorial waters north of Howland and Baker, Phoenix and Palmyra Islands. Eastern Pacific: USA (California) and the EEZ of Mexico including the Gulf of California), equatorial waters northwest of French Polynesia, and off Galapagos Islands (Compagno 2001).	eng
161597	habitat	Reardon, M., Márquez, F., Trejo, T. & Clarke, S.C., 2004	This species is poorly known. It is probably highly migratory and is epipelagic from the surface to at least 152 m depth (Compagno 2001). Factors such as temperature and oceanic currents influence its distribution, for example it is found near the Equator in winter, but not in summer (Dingerkus 1987). Its food preference includes squid.<br/><br/>The Pelagic Thresher Shark is aplacentally viviparous with oophagy, and a litter size of only two very large (158-190 cm) pups. In Ecuador, length at sexual maturity is reported at 140 cm precaudal length (PL) for males and 144 cm PL for females (J. Martinez per. comm.). Age at maturity near Taiwan is estimated as 8-9.2 years in females and 7-8 years in males (Liu <em>et al</em>. 1999). It reaches a maximum length of 330 cm. In the EEZ of Mexico, the breeding season ranges from October to March (Mendizabal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its potential annual rate of population increase under sustainable fishing is thought to be very low and has been estimated at 2-4% (S. Smith pers. comm.), or 0.033 (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008), (compared with the Common Thresher, which is between 4 and 7% (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998) or 0.254 (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
161597	population	Reardon, M., Márquez, F., Trejo, T. & Clarke, S.C., 2004	Few population data are available for the Pelagic Thresher throughout its epipelagic range. It is unknown whether its Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean populations are partly isolated. It is very likely that this species migrates between Central America and the Gulf of California.<br/><br/>An ongoing population genetic study of <em>A. pelagicus</em> using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates gene flow between populations in Mexico and Ecuador (Trejo 2004). However, there is a significant degree of population structure between Taiwan and both populations (Mexico and Ecuador) studied in the Eastern Pacific.	eng
161597	threats	Reardon, M., Márquez, F., Trejo, T. & Clarke, S.C., 2004	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries.<br/><br/>Thresher shark species (including <em>A. pelagicus</em>) were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Thresher shark fins are generally low value compared to other species because of their low fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 350,000 and 3.9 million thresher sharks (<em>Alopias</em> species) are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 12,000-85,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). These estimates are 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than catches of Alopiidae reported to FAO, which since the early-1980s have generally been less than 1,600 tonnes, and around 1,000 mt since 1998 (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006), Catches of thresher sharks are clearly hugely under reported globally. Although trend data are as a result largely lacking, these fisheries are unlikely to be sustainable. A recent FAO analysis states, ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider these species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>Alopias pelagicus</em> has a particularly low (2-4%) annual rate of population increase, which renders it particularly at risk from depletion in fisheries. It is subject to high levels of bycatch mortality from tuna fisheries and is a target of some smaller shark fisheries, for example in the Gulf of California, Red Sea and possibly Southeast Asia. Underreporting of catches means that trend data for this species are largely lacking, but data available for the Common Thresher (<em>A. vulpinus</em>), which is significantly more fecund and resilient to fisheries, indicate declines in CPUE as high as 80% in the northeast Atlantic over two decades (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Sharks have been fished heavily by pelagic fisheries operating in the Indian Ocean and significant reductions are thought to have occurred there as a result of intensive pelagic fishing effort (Compagno, L.J.V. pers. comm.). The area of these fishing operations included known pelagic thresher ranges, and this species is especially vulnerable to fisheries exploitation as it is readily caught in gillnets and on longlines, even getting its tail caught in the nets or on hooks. <em>Alopias pelagicus</em> is a known bycatch of the Spanish longline fleet targeting swordfish in the Indian Ocean (IOTC 2000). It has been fished by longline in the northwestern Indian Ocean, and is or has been caught in large numbers in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.<br/><br/>In Indonesia, and probably elsewhere in Southeast Asia, <em>A. pelagicus</em> are caught in very high numbers by tuna longliners throughout the region, especially south Java where they fish in or close to Australian waters (W. White pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The species is also fished in the Central Pacific and is currently an important catch off Taiwan, with about 222 t landed annually. A spawner-per-recruit (SPR) analysis of <em>A. pelagicus</em> in eastern Taiwanese waters suggests mean SPR of pelagic thresher for 1990-2004 was below the biological reference point (BRP) of SPR = 35% suggesting that this stock was slightly overexploited. The authors concede that this assumes a single stock, a hypothesis that cannot yet be accepted or refuted (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). This work also provided an untuned Virtual Population Analysis which indicated that the abundance of pelagic thresher stock decreased from 141,398 in 1990 to the lowest level of 97,551 in 2000, and increased thereafter to 153,331 in 2003 (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). However, the trend of abundance could not be validated with catch per unit effort series because fishing effort data were not available (Liu <em>et al.</em> 2006). The low population growth rate of this species means that the increase to 2003 could not have been caused by recruitment to a closed stock.<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that thresher shark (<em>Alopias</em> species) catch per unit effort increased in the 1990s (to near one shark per 1,000 hooks) over levels in the 1970s (near zero sharks per 1,000 hooks). However, this result is thought to be possibly attributable to an increase in hook depths in the latter period. In recent years, based on logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of thresher sharks worldwide ranged from 252 to 596 mt with an average of 347 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).<br/><br/>Pelagic Thresher is caught by shark fishermen in large numbers in the Gulf of California and the Pacific coast of Mexico. It is taken off Central America by artisanal fisheries and the local tuna fleet. Ward and Myers (2005) estimated the biomass of thresher sharks to be approximately 5% of the virgin biomass and estimated a decline in abundance of 83% in the East tropical Pacific (within the three generation period). These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/>When <em>A. pelagicus</em> occurs off the west coast of the USA during El Niño years, females comprise 83% of the catch, of which 41% are pregnant. This aggregating of females may possibly make them additionally vulnerable to entangling gear such as gillnets (S. Smith pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Off the Pacific coast of Mexico, Pelagic Threshers are bycatch of the pelagic longline fishery west of Baja California Sur and the opening of the Sea of Cortez down to the southern Mexican border. Unstandardised catch rates are relatively high with around three individuals caught 100 hooks (Mendizábal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). In addition to being caught in the high seas pelagic longline fishery this species is also caught in inshore coastal gillnets and longlines and offshore (but not oceanic) longlines and gillnets (Mendizábal-Oriza <em>et al.</em> 2000). Analysis of longline data from the EEZ of Mexico?s Pacific coast (from 1986-1999) shows that <em>A. pelagicus</em> represented 33% of the sharks and 19% of the total catch of all large pelagics. There is an apparent negative trend in the CPUE (No/100 hooks) from 1986-1999, but these data have not been standardized in order to determine the statistical significance of this trend. This trend is unreported and the data source is unknown. Recently, this fleet (now with fewer longliners) has moved towards the west coast of Baja California and Blue Shark is currently the most important species caught.<br/><br/>In the principal port in Ecuador, Manta, a total of 150,321 individual sharks have been landed between 2003 and 2006, of this <em>A. pelagicus</em> comprised 36%, with <em>A. supercilious</em> comprising 3%. Therefore <em>A. pelagicus</em> make-up 92% of thresher shark landings here.	eng
161598	conservation	White, W., Manjaji, M. & Fahmi, 2007	None in place.	eng
161598	distribution	White, W., Manjaji, M. & Fahmi, 2007	Western Central Pacific: known only from Papua (Irian Jaya) (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly southern Papua New Guinea (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/> <br/>FAO Area: 71.	eng
161598	habitat	White, W., Manjaji, M. & Fahmi, 2007	Found in coastal marine habitats, over shallow intertidal mud flats, and in estuaries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Depth range is probably from the shore to 10 m depth (W. White pers. obs, Last <em>et al.</em> 2006). Viviparous, with histotrophy. Little else is known of the biology. This is a moderately large stingray, reaching 70.7 cm disc width (DW) (Last <em>et al. </em>2006). Size at birth is <20 cm DW (Last <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161598	population	White, W., Manjaji, M. & Fahmi, 2007	Common within its restricted range (W. White pers. obs.).	eng
161598	threats	White, W., Manjaji, M. & Fahmi, 2007	Seine net fishermen targeting prawns are the main fishing threat to this species. Fishers try to avoid catching it, but it is still a regular incidental catch.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction is a major threat to this species. The removal of large areas of mangrove forest and mining practices (which are intense in this area) are most likely heavily impacting this species? shallow water habitat. Estimated mangrove area in Papua New Guinea fell from 545,000 hectares in 1980 to 380,000 hectares in 2005 (a reduction of >30%) (FAO 2007). This was caused primarily by human pressures for rural livelihoods, commercial activities and overexploitation of mangrove forest for timber for housing and carvings (FAO 2007). Pollution from the rivers also poses a significant threat.	eng
161599	conservation	Smale, M.J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	Further research is needed to better evaluate population structure to improve stock assessment of this species. It is recommended that catches are monitored throughout its range to determine existence and status of the subpopulations.	eng
161599	distribution	Smale, M.J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	Found in the eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean and western Indian Ocean where it apparently forms distinct subpopulations (northeast Atlantic from northern Portugal to Madeira, Mediterranean, Angola to southern Namibia in the vicinity of the Orange River in the southeastern Atlantic with an apparent gap in distribution along the Western Cape coast to False Bay, South Africa where it reappears and ranges north-east to KwaZulu-Natal, Mozambique and Kenya (McEachran <em>et al.</em> 1989, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
161599	habitat	Smale, M.J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	This small skate is found on the continental shelf, from the shallows to 530 m depth, but mainly at depths of 50?150 m (Serena 2005, Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is common on a range of substrates, from sandy-muddy bottoms to Posidonia beds. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. Egg cases are laid throughout the year with a peak in spring from spring (Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999). Size at birth in the Mediterranean is 10-11cm TL (Serena 2005). Data from the Mediterranean suggest that females mature at 39?44 cm TL and males at 36?40 cm TL (Jardas 1973, Relini <em>et al.</em> 1999, N. Ungaro unpublished data). Both males and females reach maturity at 2?3 years of age and live for a total of 10 years, according to Abdel-Aziz (1992). Maximum size is reported at 60 cm TL in the Mediterranean and 50 cm TL (35cm DW) off South Africa (Hulley 1988).	eng
161599	population	Smale, M.J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	<em>Raja miraletus</em> is found predominantly on the shelf and appears to be one of the most abundant skates in the Mediterranean. It was consistently caught in northern Mediterranean-wide (MEDITS) trawl surveys conducted from 1994?1999 at depths of 50?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was one of the most frequently recorded rays during these surveys, captured in 422 out of 6336 survey tows from 1994-1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the survey region is 1,729 tonnes. It was found throughout the survey area and greatest catch rates were in the western central area (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Although temporal fluctuations of abundance occurred, this species appears to be stable in most parts of the Mediterranean (Relini <em>et al.</em> 2000), even over longer time scales from 1948?1999 in the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001, Marano <em>et al.</em> 2003). The overall biomass index assessed with MEDITS surveys (0-800 m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was to 3.3 kg/km² (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). This species was also one of most commonly captured in the GRUND and MEDITS surveys of the Adriatic Sea. It appears to be more abundant in the north and central areas of the Adriatic Sea, where it was consistently captured in 4% of hauls. This species was not present in earlier (1985-1992) GRUND surveys in the southern Adriatic but since 1992, it is consistently captured in >2% of hauls (Marano <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In South Africa this species is common in the Eastern Cape, especially the Agulhas Bank where scattered reefs make trawling dangerous in many areas, thereby likely providing refuge to it. Research trawls from Cape Agulhas to Port Alfred commonly capture this species (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
161599	threats	Smale, M.J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	The small maximum size of this species suggest it is likely to have a relatively short generation time and a relatively high capacity to replace numbers lost to exploitation (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stevens <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is commonly caught as bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005), but there is no evidence to suggest that it has declined in this area. The species is occasionally caught by fixed gears also (nets, hooks). Most of the specimens are discarded at the sea while the bigger individuals are occasionally marketed.<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>R. miraletus</em> occurs in areas of the shelf trawled for hake and other teleosts, however it is widespread outside commercial trawl grounds and is therefore not considered to be threatened. <em>R. miraletus</em> may be fished in Namibia in subtidal waters, but this area is poorly sampled. There is a relative lack of deeper water fishing activities off Southeastern Africa at present.	eng
161600	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is currently being conducted on the species' age, growth and reproduction. Monitoring of catch levels and population trends is required.	eng
161600	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Northeast and northwest Pacific: western Bering Sea to the Pacific coast of Kamchatka, Russia and northern Kuril Islands (Dolganov 1985, Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002). Kruzenshtern Strait (central Kuril Islands) to the Commander and the Aleutian Islands and in the eastern Bering Sea (Dolganov, 1999 and Stevenson 2004).	eng
161600	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	The Mud Skate inhabits outer shelves and upper continental slopes within the depth range 81–1,000 m (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000). The majority of the population occurs between 250–500 m (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Females mature at 61.2–66.3 cm total length (TL) and four years of age; males at 53.1–66.2 cm TL and 3–4 years of age (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2005, Orlov and Tokranov 2005). Maximum size is 77 cm TL (Ebert 2005) and longevity is seven years (Dolganov 2005). It prefers bottom temperatures from -0.2–3.56°C (mean 2.56°C) with most skates occurring between 3–3.5°C (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006). Dolganov (1998a) found most skates on sandy-gravel (49.8 % of occurrence), sludgy-pebbly (35.4%), and sandy (14.8%) substrates. They feed on decapods, amphipods, polychaete worms, fishes and fisheries offal (Dolganov 1998a, Orlov and Tokranov 2005).	eng
161600	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This species is one of the ten most abundant skate species in Russian waters. According to bottom trawl survey data  (1977–1999) the total biomass of mud skate in the Russian waters comprised 17,400 t including 14,500 t in the Bering Sea and 2,900t off Kamchatka and Kuril Islands (Dolganov 1999). On the eastern Bering Sea slopes biomass was estimated at 1,677 mt for 2004 (Matta <em>et al.</em> 2006). No historical trend information is available for this species.	eng
161600	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries operating within its range. It is quite commonly captured by bottom trawl fisheries targeting groundfishes (cod, pollock, rockfishes, Atka mackerel, flatfishes, etc.) in Russian waters, but it is not taken in large numbers. These fisheries only operate in the upper part of its bathymetric range (mainly <200 m in the eastern Bering Sea, <600 m in Russian waters), therefore the species has a refuge in deeper waters, particularly in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (D. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161601	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and possible importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161601	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic and southeast Atlantic: reported from Senegal to South Africa. It has been reported from off Cunene River, Namibia to just southwest of the Orange River, South Africa (Compagno<em> et al.</em> 1991).	eng
161601	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2008	A deep-water skate found between 163 and 800 m, but is more frequently found deeper than 400 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991). Reaches over 95 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999), or 90 cm total length (TL) but is common to 60 cm TL (Schneider 1990).	eng
161601	population	Smale, M.J., 2008	No information is available.	eng
161601	threats	Smale, M.J., 2008	Because this species occurs at the depth range of commercial trawlers which target teleosts (such as hakes – <em>Merluccius</em> species) (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999), it is taken as a bycatch and may consequently be threatened by deep water trawl fisheries off the west coast of Southern Africa and by EU large-scale commercial trawling in other parts of its range off the west coast of Africa. Should such trawling expand in range or increase in effort, the threat to this species would increase.	eng
161602	conservation	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	None in place. Levels of bycatch and mortality in fisheries should be quantified.	eng
161602	distribution	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Southwest Pacific: found all along the New Zealand continental shelf and on adjacent seamounts and plateaus (Anderson<em> et al.</em> 1998, Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161602	habitat	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	The biology of <em>Brochiraja asperula</em> is virtually unknown. The species is concentrated at depths of 300–1,200 m (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998) but probably extends to at least 1,500 m. The species attains at least 64 cm TL (McEachran 1984).	eng
161602	population	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	Occasionally caught by deepwater trawlers but not common.	eng
161602	threats	Francis, M., Last, P. & Huveneers, C., 2008	<em>B. asperula</em> is taken as occasional bycatch and is discarded in unknown quantities across its range by deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy, Oreos and Hoki. The skates are not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. There is no information on the population status as catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it difficult to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently. The species may be declining in some parts of its range, but it is widespread throughout New Zealand (Anderson <em>et al</em>. 1998, Last and McEachran 2006) and parts of its range are not intensively fished, offering refuge.	eng
161603	conservation	Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Research is required to determine whether the species is valid.	eng
161603	distribution	Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, off Hong Kong in the South China Sea.	eng
161603	habitat	Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	A deepwater species found offshore. Virtually nothing is known of the habitat and biology of this species. Presumably it lives on soft sand and mud bottoms, similar to other skates.	eng
161603	population	Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Only known from the type specimens. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
161603	threats	Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Utilization and fishing gear are not recorded for the area this species is known from because these skates are small, uncommon and occur in deep water. But they are thought to be caught as a discarded bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161604	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161604	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western central Atlantic: Recorded from east coast of Yucatán, Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161604	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	Tropical demersal upper slope skate, between 192 and 457 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is 30 cm total length (TL), with males maturing by 26 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161604	population	McCormack, C., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
161604	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	The threats to this species are uncertain and very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range. Given the apparently narrow range of the species, any development in deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored.	eng
161605	conservation	Huveneers, C., Last, P. & Ishihara, H., 2004	None. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of its occurrence is needed.	eng
161605	distribution	Huveneers, C., Last, P. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwest Pacific: central Japan to south coast of Taiwan, Province of China.	eng
161605	habitat	Huveneers, C., Last, P. & Ishihara, H., 2004	A small deepwater species, the Leadhued Skate<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>can be found in depth from 60–900 m and attains at least 48 cm TL (Ishihara 1990). It is known from only a few specimens. Like other skates, it is presumably oviparous, but its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161605	population	Huveneers, C., Last, P. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Believed to be a rare species, it is known only from few specimens.	eng
161605	threats	Huveneers, C., Last, P. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species may be taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating within its range, but no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161606	conservation	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y. & White, W., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The taxonomy and distribution of this species require critical review. Research is also required on population trends and threats.	eng
161606	distribution	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y. & White, W., 2007	Northwest Pacific: the range of this species is not well defined due to confusion with the Barbelthroat Carpetshark (<em>Cirrhoscyllium expolitum</em>). Compagno (2001) reports that it is found off Japan, from Shikoku and Kyushu southwest to Yakushima Island and possibly the Ryukyu Islands. Zhu and Meng (2001) also report that it occurs in the South China Sea, off Guangdong and Hainan, China.	eng
161606	habitat	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y. & White, W., 2007	Found on uppermost slopes at depths of 250–290 m. This shark grows to a maximum length of 48.5 cm, with mature females measuring around 44.5 cm and mature males measuring 36.7–40.7 cm (Compagno 2001). The biology of this species is largely unknown. They are apparently oviparous, as cased eggs were discovered in a 445 mm female (Compagno 2001).	eng
161606	population	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y. & White, W., 2007	Nothing is known about the population of this species.	eng
161606	threats	Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K., Wang, Y. & White, W., 2007	This species is probably taken as bycatch of offshore trawl fisheries and likely discarded, although no specific information is available on its capture.	eng
161607	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Research is required on the species’ biology, occurrence, population trends and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161607	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: recorded from Oman and the Arabian Sea, off India (Compagno and Last 1999) and Pakistan (Bianchi 1985). Eastern Indian Ocean: records from India (at least off Orissa and Madras coasts) (Compagno and Heemstra 2007) and Malaysia (Pinang) (Compagno and Last 1999).<br/><br/>Western Central Pacific: recorded from Singapore, Indonesia (Malacca), Thailand, Viet Nam. Record from the Philippines is doubtful (Compagno and Last 1999, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Northwest Pacific: recorded off China, Taiwan Province of China and Japan (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
161607	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	A small ray found in tropical continental waters both inshore and offshore (Compagno and Last 1999) on sandy and muddy substrates. This species grows to a maximum total length of at least 35 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al. </em>2007). Females give birth to litters of 4–6 pups, measuring ~10 cm TL. Reproduction takes place from May to July (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161607	population	Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161607	threats	Ishihara, H. & Wang, Y., 2007	This species is not targeted but is taken as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs.) Demersal fishing pressure is intensive in many parts of its range, although no specific information is currently available on its capture. This species may be retained in ‘catch all’ fisheries and may also be discarded at sea or on the dock side.	eng
161608	conservation	Haas, D.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Assessment and monitoring of catches and population trends is required, as well as research on the species’ life-history characteristics.	eng
161608	distribution	Haas, D.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	Northwest Pacific: at present the species is only known from the northeast coast of Taiwan between Keelung and Suao (Haas and Ebert 2006). This recently described species may occur elsewhere, but may have been misidentified for other torpedo rays.	eng
161608	habitat	Haas, D.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	Very little is known about <em>Torpedo formosa</em>. It is a newly discovered species found at depths less than 300m (Haas and Ebert 2006). Members of the Torpedinidae exhibit aplacental viviparity. Size at maturity in males is ~62.2 cm total length (TL) (Haas and Ebert 2006). Size at maturity for females is unknown, but an immature female measured 36.6 cm TL (Haas and Ebert 2006). Size at birth is ~20.0-25.0 cm TL (Haas and Ebert 2006).	eng
161608	population	Haas, D.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	Nothing is known about the population of this species.	eng
161608	threats	Haas, D.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch in fisheries and has been observed in fish markets in Ta-chi, Taiwan (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007), although not commonly. No catch data are available. This species is usually discarded or utilized for fishmeal (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Fisheries on the east coast of Taiwan are mainly coastal and deepsea (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). The fishery on the east coast, especially Ta-Shi, has moved from 100 to 300 m fishing depth to over 300 m currently. The fishery has moved into deeper water over the past 20 years (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161609	conservation	Góes de Araújo, M.L., Pinto de Almeida, M., Rincón, G., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	The ornamental trade is regulated by export quota in Brazil.<br/><br/>Required Conservation Measures include development of fishery monitoring programs, specific legislation for the sport fishery, public education to reduce persecution in tourist areas and the protection of nursery areas.	eng
161609	distribution	Góes de Araújo, M.L., Pinto de Almeida, M., Rincón, G., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	Inland waters of South America: widely distributed in several river systems of the Amazon Basin. Recorded from the Rio Orinoco drainage in Venezuela, Colombian Amazon, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, to the lower Amazon, Tocantins and Araguaia, Brazil (Rosa 1985).	eng
161609	habitat	Góes de Araújo, M.L., Pinto de Almeida, M., Rincón, G., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	The distribution of this species in the Amazon estuary region is influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida unpublished data). It is found in temperatures ranging from 28 to 35°C (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996, Araújo, Charvet-Almeida and Almeida unpublished data). Adult specimens exhibit diel movements: during the day they occupy deeper water areas and during the night they are present in shallow areas (M.L. Araújo pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Different biological data have been observed in distinct river basins/regions, according to the following authors:<br/><br/>Venezuelan llanos (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996)<br/>Size at maturity: 23 cm DW (male), 29.5 cm DW (female)<br/>Maximum size: 31 cm DW<br/>Litter size: 1<br/><br/>Brazilian Amazon Basin (Charvet-Almeida, Araújo and Almeida 2005)<br/>Size at maturity: 39 cm DW (male), 44 cm DW (female)<br/>Gestation time: estimated at six months<br/>Reproductive periodicity: annual, birthing during the rainy season<br/>Litter size: 1?5 (average of 2).<br/><br/>Tocantins Basin (Rincón unpublished data)<br/>Size at maturity: 23 cm DW (male), 26?28 cm DW (female)<br/>Maximum size: 42.8 cm DW<br/>Size at birth: ~25?26 cm TL. The smallest neonate captured was 26.5 cm TL (13 cm DW). <br/>Reproductive periodicity: May breed year-round, but gestation period unknown.<br/>Litter size: 1<br/><br/>The feeding habit of this species includes mainly insects (Lasso <em>et al</em>. 1996; assessors unpublished data).	eng
161609	population	Góes de Araújo, M.L., Pinto de Almeida, M., Rincón, G., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	Nursery areas have been observed for this species along the shores of some islands located in the Marajó Bay region (State of Pará, Brazil). In this area, 98% (n=276) of the specimens captured corresponded to neonate or young juveniles (Almeida 2003, Charvet-Almeida, unpublished data). Nursery areas have also been observed in sandy beaches of the Negro River tributary (M.L. Araújo pers. obs.).	eng
161609	threats	Góes de Araújo, M.L., Pinto de Almeida, M., Rincón, G., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	This species is taken as food and juveniles enter the ornamental fish trade. In some areas, its habitat is threatened by illegal mining activities. The post-capture mortality in the ornamental fishery towards this species is estimated at 10% (Araújo unpublished data). There is also uncontrolled fishing pressure (both through persecution and sports fishing) on this species developed by the tourism industry around Negro River during the dry season. Although widely distributed, this species requires attention due to its apparent low fecundity. <br/><br/>Capture for the ornamental trade has been steady but in small quantities in the last five years (Araújo, personal observation). It has a low value in the ornamental market and so is not highly sought after.	eng
161610	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161610	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina to Florida Keys, throughout Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean coast of Central America, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Suriname and northern Brazil (Gomes and Picado 2001, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161610	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along upper continental slope, at depths of 311–732 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size about 84 cm total length (TL); males mature at 63 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Presumably oviparous, like other skates, but very little is known of this species’ life-history parameters.	eng
161610	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161610	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Potential bycatch of deepwater demersal fisheries, although no information is available.	eng
161611	conservation	Barnett, L.A.K., Quaranta, K.L., Ebert, D.A., White, W.T. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Some small protected areas do exist within the Irrawaddy River Shark's range, but they are lacking proper personnel for effective management (Rao <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
161611	distribution	Barnett, L.A.K., Quaranta, K.L., Ebert, D.A., White, W.T. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	The full extent of this species' range is unknown. The Irrawaddy River Shark is known from only a single specimen collected in the Irrawaddy River delta, near the city of Yangon, Myanmar (Steindachner 1896).	eng
161611	habitat	Barnett, L.A.K., Quaranta, K.L., Ebert, D.A., White, W.T. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	The Irrawaddy River where&#160; <em>G. siamensis</em> occurs is a very large tropical waterway, lined with mangrove forests in its lower reaches. One of the most heavily silted rivers in the world (Scott 1989), visibility is extremely limited, which potentially is a factor in the evolution of the Irrawaddy River Shark's notably small eyes (Compagno 1989). The species is assumed to be euryhaline, having been recorded from brackish water, and with congeners recorded from inshore marine waters.	eng
161611	population	Barnett, L.A.K., Quaranta, K.L., Ebert, D.A., White, W.T. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Known only from one specimen recorded in the original species description (Steindachner 1896).	eng
161611	threats	Barnett, L.A.K., Quaranta, K.L., Ebert, D.A., White, W.T. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2008	Mangrove forests, which potentially is important habitat for the Irrawaddy River Shark, are being depleted for fuel, construction materials, and non-timber forest products (Scott 1989, Rao <em>et al</em>. 2002). Pollution in this river system is also a major concern.<br/><br/>This species would be captured in the artisanal fisheries operating in the Irrawaddy River since <em>Glyphis</em> species elsewhere are susceptible to net and line fisheries, but there are no specific records of their presence or abundance in the catch. Fishing pressure is intense in the Irrawaddy River. During surveys for the Irrawaddy Dolphin <em>Orcaella brevirostris</em>, a total of 5,701 fishing gears were recorded in the main channel of the Irrawaddy River (November to December 2002) (Smith 2003). Gillnets accounted for the majority of gear (excluding sticks with multiple hooks). Electric fishing was also reported during the survey (Smith 2003).	eng
161612	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Catches and population trends need to be carefully monitored. Further research on the taxonomy of this species is also required.	eng
161612	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	Northwest Pacific: occurs from the northern part of the Sea of Japan to the western Bering Sea, through the Sea of Okhotsk. In Japanese waters of the Sea of Japan it is distributed south to Oki Island and in Russian waters from Peter Great Bay to Tatarsky Strait. Records of this species from the Pacific coast of Hokkaido (Nagasawa and Torisawa 1991) require confirmation (Ishihara pers. obs. 2004).<br/><br/>The geographic range of the Gloden Skate requires further study, its taxonomy remains uncertain and it has been misidentified with Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>). This skate has not been listed among species found in Russian waters (Sokolovskaya <em>et al</em>. 1998, Parin 2001). However, according to Ishihara (1990) and Novikov <em>et al</em>. (2002) Golden Skate occurs in the northwest Pacific from the northern part of the Sea of Japan to the western Bering Sea, through the Sea of Okhotsk. In Japanese waters of the Sea of Japan it is distributed south to Oki Island and in Russian waters from Peter Great Bay to Tatarsky Strait. Records of this species from the Pacific coast of Hokkaido (Nagasawa and Torisawa 1991) require confirmation (Ishihara pers. obs. 2004).	eng
161612	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This species occurs at depths of 100–1,125 m (Ishihara 1990). This species is born at around 22 cm total length (TL) (Ishihara 1990) and is thought to reach a maximum size of 116 cm TL (Ishiyama 1958). Estimates for size at maturity have been made at 100 and 92 cm TL for males and females respectively (Ishihara 1990). Very little information on species ecology and biology is available. In Japanese waters this species preys mostly upon crustaceans (shrimps and crabs), octopus and fish (Japanese sardine, Pacific saury, Japanese horse mackerel, and rockfish) (Ishihara 1990).	eng
161612	population	Ishihara, H. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	A common and dominant skate species in the Sea of Japan (Ishihara 1990). Also common in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea (Novikov et al. 2002). No other information on the population of this species is available. Its taxonomy remains uncertain and it has been misidentified with Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>), thus populations of this species are uncertain.	eng
161612	threats	Ishihara, H. & Orlov, A.M., 2007	This species is a common bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries in the Sea of Japan. It is taken regularly in Japanese fisheries as bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries targeting cod, spiny dogfish and angler fish, and retained for human consumption. Although it is a common bycatch component, fisheries are reportedly only operating in the upper part of this species’ bathymetric distribution, placing the majority of the population outside the range of current fisheries (H. Ishihara and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161613	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2008	No specific measures are in place. Research on its occurrence, capture in fisheries and distribution is required. Further study of its habitat and biology are also needed.<br/><br/>The implementation of the provisions of the development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region. Such plans have not yet been implemented in Yemen (Morgan 2006).	eng
161613	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the southern Red Sea at the harbour of Perim, Mocca, Yemen (Steindachner 1898). The true identities of photos of a species from the Sudanese Red Sea (by J. Randell) are uncertain, but it is thought that they may belong to <em>T. suessi.</em> Further specimens from off Port Sudan would be required to clarify this (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161613	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Specific details of this species habitat and depth range are unknown. This species is known to reach at least 29.1 cm total length (TL). Although size at maturity is unknown, the lectotype was a mature female of 29.1 cm TL and the paralectotype, a mature male of 23.2 cm TL (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2002). Little else is known of its biology.	eng
161613	population	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161613	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown. Its apparent endemism to the Southern Red Sea is a potential threat to this species. <em>T. panthera</em> and <em>T. sinuspersici</em>, both of which <em>T. suessi</em> has previously been thought to be a synonym of (see taxonomy) are known to be caught in bottom trawl and line fisheries in the area (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Industrial and artisanal shrimp trawl fisheries operate off Yemen and catches are retained (Morgan 2006).	eng
161614	conservation	Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2007	Parts of this species? range are protected by prohibitions on inshore trawling. Requires monitoring of catches and bycatch, if any.	eng
161614	distribution	Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2007	Southeastern Atlantic and southwestern Indian Ocean: South Africa from Cape Point to central Natal (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). Also recorded from Meob Bay, Namibia, with an unofficial report from Walvis Bay (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993). Possibly occurs off Mozambique and Madagascar (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161614	habitat	Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2007	Found in shallow waters down to a depth of 180 m, but mainly shallower than 100 m in muddy bays (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993). It has been caught by hand previously in South Africa at 4.5 m depth (M. Marks pers. Comm. in Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Feeds mainly on polychaetes (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989). Its maximum recorded size is 38 cm total length (TL) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/>The size at maturity in males is uncertain, but the largest immature male has been reported at 10.5 cm TL and the smallest adult male at 17.4 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Maturity in females occurs at around 15.5 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007).	eng
161614	population	Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2007	Mainly recorded from temperate bays of South Africa (eastern and western Cape Province) , where it is reportedly common (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). One specimen has been reported from central Namibia, with a further unofficial sighting (Biachi <em>et al.</em> 2003). A record from Madagascar requires investigation since this is significantly outside the main temperate coastal range of this species and is suspected to be a misidentification. Commonly trawled close inshore in shallow, muddy parts of bays <50 m deep along the Cape south coast, it may be limited by its specialist feeding constraints to particular substrate types.	eng
161614	threats	Holtzhausen, H.A. & Smale, M.J., 2007	No fisheries target this species in Namibia, but it may be caught as bycatch by shallow trawling in South Africa. Its inshore distribution makes it vulnerable to pollution from coastal settlements and industries.	eng
161615	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T. & Fahmi, 2004	<strong>Malaysia</strong><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range. Further research is also required on the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/><strong>Australia</strong><br/>The use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Maldives</strong><br/>In 1995, 15 popular dive sites were declared marine protected areas in the Maldives with further protective measures under consideration (Anderson and Hafiz 1997). <em>Himantura fai</em> is one of the species that is fed daily at a popular dive site. The Maldives recognised the large economic value in terms of tourism that ray-watching brought and banned all exports of rays in June 1995 (Anderson and Hafiz 1997).	eng
161615	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T. & Fahmi, 2004	This species has a wide, but poorly defined, range (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (Last and Compagno 1999), Suez, Egypt (R. Bonfil pers. comm.). Eastern Indian Ocean: Andaman Sea (Kuiter and Debelius 1994), Maldives (Anderson and Hafiz 1997), Myanmar.<br/><br/><strong>Pacific Ocean</strong><br/>Northwest Pacific: Ryukyu Islands (Yoshigou and Yoshino 1999). Western central Pacific: South China Sea and Sulu Sea off Sabah (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 1999), Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and north to Myanmar, northern tropical Australia including the Java Sea, down to New South Wales (Last and Stevens 1994, Whittington and Last 1994), Caroline Islands (Homma <em>et al.</em> 1994), Orangere Bay, Papua New Guinea (P. Kailola pers. Comm.), Eiao, Marquesas Islands (J. Randall pers. Comm.), and Apia, Samoa (Jordan and Seale 1906, Manjaji 2004), Philippines, Micronesia.<br/><br/>Large aggregations occasionally occur on atolls of the Great Barrier Reef and throughout the Caroline Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>FAO Fishing Area: 51, 57, 61, 71.	eng
161615	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T. & Fahmi, 2004	Found over soft substrates on the inner continental shelf, from the intertidal to at least 200 m depth. Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males reach maturity at 115.4?122.4 cm disc width (DW), but size at maturity for females is unknown (White and Dharmadi 2007). Maximum size is at least 184 cm DW and size at birth is reported at 30?55 cm DW (Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little is known of its biology and diet, but it is presumed to feed on bottom-dwelling invertebrates (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Images taken by divers indicate that this species aggregates on sandy bottoms and coral reefs (M. Manjaji pers. Obs. 2007). This species has sometimes been observed to sit on top of each other (up to ten animals) (W. White pers. Obs. 2007) and has also been observed "catching a ride" on other larger ray species (in Ningaloo Marine Park, W Australia) (W. White pers. Obs. 2007) .	eng
161615	population	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T. & Fahmi, 2004	Common but not abundant in some areas in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines (M. Manjaji, Famhi B. Samiengo pers. obs. 2007). Can be relatively common in reef sand adjacent areas along northern Australia (W. White pers. obs. 2007).Large aggregations occasionally occur on atolls of the Great Barrier Reef and throughout the Caroline Islands (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161615	threats	Manjaji, B.M., White, W.T. & Fahmi, 2004	This species is captured by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia and probably throughout other areas of its range (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species known range in Southeast Asia.<br/><br/>This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. Obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura fai</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fishermen in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.<br/><br/>This species may be more vulnerable to depletion given its large size at maturity and maximum size compared to other <em>Himantura</em> species (Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161616	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	None in place.	eng
161616	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Northeast Indian Ocean: Myanmar (Compagno 2001).	eng
161616	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Habitat and biology are virtually unknown. Eats small bony fish. The one known specimen is an adult male measuring 57 cm TL (Compagno 2001).	eng
161616	population	White, W.T., 2008	Only one known specimen, collected off Rangoon/Yangon (Compagno 2001).	eng
161616	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Unknown, but presumably utilized in local fisheries (Compagno 2001). Myanmar has a demersal trawl fleet for shrimp and finfish (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). This species would be vulnerable to this fishery and perhaps others in the area but no data are available. Little information is available on fisheries operating off Myanmar (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006).	eng
161617	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161617	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western Indian Ocean: Gulf of Aden and Travancore coast in India. Questionably from near Zanzibar, Tanzania. (McEachran and Dunn 1998).	eng
161617	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 457?549 m (McEachran and Dunn 1998). Very little is currently known about the biology or habitat preferences of this skate.	eng
161617	population	McCormack, C., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
161617	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	It is unknown whether fisheries currently operate at the depths occupied by this species. Given the potential narrow depth distribution and restricted range of the species, any fishing activity should be closely monitored to ensure that the current population is not affected. The species could potentially be taken as bycatch in deep bottom trawl and longline fisheries especially as fisheries expand to greater depths.	eng
161618	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., White, W.T. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Research is required on this species? life-history and threats. Further assessment and monitoring of catch and population trends is also needed.<br/><br/>Listed as Vulnerable A2d+4d in China, although there are no implemented measures for sharks and rays in China (Wang and Xie 2004).	eng
161618	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., White, W.T. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: Yellow Sea to East China Sea off Japan and sometimes in Taiwan Strait (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006, Zhu and Meng 2001).	eng
161618	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., White, W.T. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	A small stingray found in coastal inshore waters, from estuaries to 50 m depth (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Males measure up to 20 cm disc width (DW) and females up to 30 cm DW (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006). Little else is known of the biology. Presumably only up to one or two young (W. White. Pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161618	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., White, W.T. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Apparently common in southern Japan (Furumatsu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and northern China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Stingrays are difficult to identify and this species has been confused with Dasyatis akajei in Japan, making it difficult to determine population trends (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008).<br/><br/>In China, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that this species has declined. Historically this species was commonly observed at local markets in China, but it is observed far less frequently now (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161618	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., White, W.T. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Taken as bycatch in inshore fisheries targeting flat fish and other benthic fish in Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007). This species is generally discarded because of its relatively small size, but when they are retained and landed, they are marketed for human consumption (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>This species also is captured and marketed in China and has been observed in Shanghai fish market (Zhu and Meng 2001). This is one of three species of dasyatid captured and marketed in China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>The East China Sea and Yellow Seas are intensively exploited (NOAA 2004ab). Heavy fishing mortality has resulted in a shift from an older, traditional fishery based on high-value demersal species to faster-growing, smaller, and lower-value species such as shrimp and cephalopods (NOAA 2004a). The Yellow Sea was once one of the most intensively exploited Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) in the world and is considered severely impacted in terms of overfishing, with destructive fishing practices (NOAA 2004b).<br/><br/>Pollution and habitat modification may also pose a threat to this species. The Yellow Sea is affected by both land and sea based sources of pollution and habitat loss, resulting from extensive economic development in the coastal zone (NOAA 2004b). Waste water and sewage discharge into the East China Sea, with eutrophication and frequent red tides as results of coastal development also threaten marine life, particularly in coastal areas and estuaries (NOAA 2004a).	eng
161619	conservation	Stehmann, M. & Pompert, J., 2008	The CCAMLR Working Group recommend that, where possible, all skates should be cut from the line while still in the water, except on the request of observers, and that areas with high bycatch rates should be avoided by Patagonian Toothfish fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>South Georgia</strong><br/>No species-specific management measures are in place for <em>B. meridionalis</em>, however, this species may benefit from the following general measures and research in this area: The South Georgia Toothfish fishery was certified by the Marine Conservation Society (MCS) in 2004 and an assessment of the fishery is expected to conclude in 2009. Assessment of the impact of fishing on skate populations is a condition of this certification and it is anticipated that preliminary advice on assessments for skates will begin in 2008 (Rice <em>et al</em>. 2007). This should include information on IUU fishing effort estimates. A skate tagging programme has been initiated as a part of this work, resulting in just under 400 animals being tagged, with just one return so far (Rice <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong><br/>All licensed vessels in the Falklands are required to provide daily catch and effort details, including discards of commercial and non-commercial species to the Falkland Island Fisheries Department. However there is no requirement to report species-specific data. Scientific observers do quantify the catch composition by species at some of the stations. Longliners fishing within this species’ range do not report species-specific catch data either. Vessels fishing under general finfish licenses (these include the abovementioned longline vessels) are prohibited from targeting skates, although a small bycatch (below 10%) is allowed.<br/><br/>Information is required to better define the distribution and the impact of fisheries across the species’ entire range.	eng
161619	distribution	Stehmann, M. & Pompert, J., 2008	Southwest Atlantic: Argentina (Menni and Lucifora 2007), Scotia Ridge and Falkland/Malvinas Islands (M. Stehmann, J. San Martin pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Southern Ocean: South Georgia Island (Stehmann 1987).<br/><br/>Southeast Pacific: Recently recorded from 32 nm west of Noir Island (Chilean Patagonia) and 251 nm northwest of Cape Horn (P. Reyes and M. Stehmann pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Some reports from near Balleny Island in the western Pacific sector of Antarctica provisionally identified as <em>B. meridionalis</em> from photographs suggest that this species may have a circumglobal distribution in the Southern Ocean (M. Stehmann pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161619	habitat	Stehmann, M. & Pompert, J., 2008	Found on slopes and submarine rises. Depth distribution may vary throughout its range but this species is reported at depths of 65 to 2,240 m, although it may occur deeper (confirmed from 650 to 1,900 m in the Falkland/Malvinas Islands (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008)). A skate research programme instigated in 1999 South Georgia and Shag Rocks (CCAMLAR sub area 48.3) reported that this species was found at 400 to 1,900 m depth, with a small increase in captures at around 1,300 m.<br/><br/>Males and females mature at between 115 to 130 cm and 113 to 125 cm total length (TL) respectively and this species reaches a maximum size of at least 150 cm TL (Stehmann and Bürkel 1990, J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.	eng
161619	population	Stehmann, M. & Pompert, J., 2008	No information available.	eng
161619	threats	Stehmann, M. & Pompert, J., 2008	This skate is a bycatch of Patagonian Toothfish longline fisheries operating in the Southwest Atlantic and Southern Ocean, including around South Georgia, and the Falkland/Malvinas Islands.<br/><br/><strong>South Georgia</strong><br/>Trawl fisheries began operating around South Georgia in the 1970s. Longlining for Patagonian Toothfish initiated in the area in the late 1980s and early 1990s to allow exploitation of older, mature fish in areas where trawls could not be used (MCS 2007). Longlining is now the principle method used to capture Patagonian Toothfish in this area (around South Georgia and the associated plateau to the west around Shag Rocks, CCAMLR sub-area 48.3), although trawls still operate around some other sub-Antarctic islands outside the area of this fishery (MCS 2007). Bottom set longlines are used to target Toothfish (taking skates as bycatch), only between May and August (winter months) (MCS 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Falkland/Malvinas Islands</strong><br/>In December 1990 the Falklands Outer Conservation and Management Zone (FOCZ) was established, extending to 200nm from coastal baselines. Although this area is too deep for conventional trawling, two licensed longlining vessels targeting Patagonian toothfish operate in this area (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1999). These vessels are prohibited from targeting skates but are allowed a small bycatch below 10% of the total catch (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008) (see Conservation Measures below). Of the skate bycatch in this longline fishery, <em>B. meridionalis</em> is one of the most commonly caught species (Agnew <em>et al.</em> 1999). Catches are reported grouped with other <em>Bathyraja</em> species, as well as a large unidentified skate species that occurs in the area (Amblyraja cf. georgiana), although information on the species captured is available from on-board observers. Total annual catch of skates in this fishery during 2007 (Jan–Dec) was 42 t (including <em>B. papilionifera, B. meridionalis, </em>and <em>Amblyraja cf. georgiana </em>combined) (FIFD unpublished data). Previously, skates were generally discarded, but recently (since about June 2007) these vessels started to retain them for export to Korean markets (J. Pompert pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161620	conservation	Séret, B., Couzens, G. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Efforts are required to locate the type specimen, as well as further specimens through surveys at the type locality.	eng
161620	distribution	Séret, B., Couzens, G. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic: Nigeria (Old Calabar River) (Günther 1870), record from Sierra Leone is doubtful (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161620	habitat	Séret, B., Couzens, G. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A large, coastal stingray reaching a maximum size of at least 320 cm TL or 200 cm DW (Capapé and Desoutter 1990). The specimen recorded off Sierra Leone was collected from a depth of 30 m (Springer and Collete 1971) and the holotype was collected from ?Old Calabar? river in Nigeria. One female contained four embryos (Springer and Collette 1971).	eng
161620	population	Séret, B., Couzens, G. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown. This species is known only from the original description and the holotype is probably lost. There have been no further records to date (B. Séret pers. obs. 2008).	eng
161620	threats	Séret, B., Couzens, G. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are intensive local marine and riverine fisheries within this species? range in western Africa. Its known range is subject to inshore and brackish water artisanal demersal fisheries. Its presence in shallow waters presumably makes it accessible to a variety of artisanal fisheries. Fishing pressure in inshore and brackish waters is very high and the fisheries are considered over-exploited (FAO 2007). Habitat destruction and degradation are also major threats to this species? habitat, for example, oil pollution is a problem in brackish waters in Nigeria (FAO 2007).	eng
161621	conservation	Manjaji, B.M & White, W.T., 2004	Further research is required on taxonomy, as is assessment of catches throughout its range.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al. </em>2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), efforts in further research should be directed to also obtain the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.	eng
161621	distribution	Manjaji, B.M & White, W.T., 2004	Eastern Indian and western Pacific Oceans: widespread from India to southern Japan and south to northern Australia (White<em> et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161621	habitat	Manjaji, B.M & White, W.T., 2004	Found inshore on soft substrates (White <em>et al. </em>2006). The species attains at least 140 cm disc width (DW). Males mature at 85?90 cm DW and size at birth is ~20 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161621	population	Manjaji, B.M & White, W.T., 2004	Rare in Malaysia but caught regularly in Indonesia (B.M. Manjaji and W. White pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161621	threats	Manjaji, B.M & White, W.T., 2004	<em>Himantura undulata</em> faces many of the same threats as other <em>Himantura</em> species within its range, however, its large size at maturity and maximum size and preference for shallow waters (which are being heavily utilised and degraded in many parts of its range), suggest that it may be more vulnerable than its congeners (B.M. Manjaji, Fahmi, W. White, pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is captured by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and across large parts of its range. Its inshore distribution overlaps with coastal artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout large areas of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans.<br/><br/>It is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. Obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura undulata</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>Demersal fishing pressure has increased in both effort and capacity in many areas of this species? inshore range during recent decades. For example, demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand went from being lightly exploited to severely over-exploited between 1973 and 1994 (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Available time series data for grouped biomass of ?rays? for this area and period applied to an ecostystem model for the area, suggested that this group was one of the most severely impacted by the initial increase in fishing pressure, showing a steady declining trend (Pauly <em>et al</em>. 2005). Species-specific catch data are not collected, but aggregated landings data for ?Rays, stingrays, mantas, nei? are reported to FAO by some countries. Indonesian landings increased from ~10,000 t in 1975 to almost 60,000 t in 2003. Data are not available for India, but data for Pakistan show that landings increased to a peak of 53,000 t as early as 1982, after which landings dropped to ~10,000 t in 1983 and have not risen above 21,000 t since (FAO 2008).<br/><br/>This species? preference for inshore waters, shallow estuaries and lagoons means it is also threatened by extensive habitat degradation and loss of mangrove forest. It may also be affected by destructive fishing practices and pollution. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, urban development and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (FAO 2007). Between 1980 and 2005 combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia was reduced by >30% (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Although species-specific data are not available, given that this is a large species with a preference for shallow waters (where threats from coastal fisheries and habitat degradation are greatest), significant declines are suspected to have occurred as a result of over-exploitation in fisheries in Southeast Asia, the northern Indian Ocean, and elsewhere in areas of high exploitation.<br/><br/>Conversely, this species has refuge from fishing pressure in areas such as northern Australia, where fishing pressure is light and bycatch mitigation measures are in place. Large specimens are caught as bycatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161622	conservation	Orlov, A., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Assessment and monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends. Research is also required on the life-history of this species.	eng
161622	distribution	Orlov, A., 2008	Endemic to the northeast Atlantic and found from mid-Atlantic ridge to Iceland, Ireland and Faroes EEZ. Most frequently caught off the Rockall Trough, Bill-Baileys, Lausy and Hatton banks and southwestern corner of Faroes EEZ (Dolganov 1985, Clarke 2000, Orlov unpubl. data, ICES 2006).	eng
161622	habitat	Orlov, A., 2008	Bathydemersal species, found at depths of 775–1,500 m, with the majority of individuals captured at depths greater than 1,000 m (ICES 2006). The average depth of all known records is 1,179 m. Reaches a maximum size of at least 83 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 1985). Presumably oviparous, like other skates but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.	eng
161622	population	Orlov, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161622	threats	Orlov, A., 2008	Caught occasionally as bycatch in longline and bottom trawl deepwater fisheries. This species is most commonly caught in the Rockall Trough and in waters deeper than 1,000 m (ICES 2006).<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic such as the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s, with increasing concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). Since 1998 Norwegian trawlers and longliners have carried out trial and commercial fisheries in the Hatton Bank area at depths between 600–2,000 m (Kjerstad <em>et al. </em>2003).<br/><br/>French, Irish Spanish and Scottish deepwater trawl vessels operate within this species’ range, to the west of the British Isles, targeting species such as roundnose grenadier, black scabbardfish, orange roughy, monkfish, hake and siki sharks (ICES 2007). Fishing operations are conducted in a depth range of 800–1,600 m, mainly at depths >1,000 m or deeper (ICES 2007).<br/><br/>This species’ deep depth range may afford it refuge from fisheries in some areas of its range, whilst fisheries operate throughout much of its bathymetric distribution in others. Given that deepwater skates generally have limiting life-history characteristics (slow growth, late maturity and low fecundity), this species is probably biologically vulnerable to population depletion and will not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.	eng
161623	conservation	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	There are no species specific measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.	eng
161623	distribution	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwestern Pacific. Found in Japanese waters off Honshu and off Russia in the central and southern Sea of Okhotsk (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000, Parin 2001, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
161623	habitat	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Occurs at depths 447?2,025 m (Sheiko and Fedorov 2000, Fedorov <em>et al</em>. 2003). The huge majority of individuals have, however, been caught below 800m (Russian State database). The maximum size reached by this species is thought to be at least 150 cm total length (TL) (Russian State database). Size at birth is unknown. Egg capsules reach 75?86 mm long x 40?48 mm wide (Dolganov 1998).	eng
161623	population	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species is apparently rare compared to other skates in the region (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992, Dolganov 1985, Russian Government data), and is known from relatively few specimens. During a 1989 bottom trawl survey, covering the entire Sea of Okhotsk at depths of 300?2,025m, frequency of occurrence of <em>Bathyraja feodovri</em> in hauls was 8.9% in comparison to the most abundant skate captured in the survey; <em>Bathyraja parmifera</em> which occurred in 46.7% of hauls (Dudnik and Dolganov 1992).	eng
161623	threats	Orlov, A. & Ishihara, H., 2004	This species may be taken as bycatch in deepwater demersal trawl and longline fisheries operating within its range, however it is primarily distributed outside the range of fisheries. Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries within this species? range currently operate down to depths of 500?800 m (A.M. Orlov and H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2008), and this species is more common below these depths, offering it refuge.	eng
161624	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	None in place. More research into the status of this and other deepwater species is required in order to develop appropriate conservation and fisheries management plans.	eng
161624	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest Pacific. Known only from off Tungkang (22°28.0'N, 120°26.0'E), southwestern Taiwan, Province of China (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161624	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	Apparently occurs on the upper continental slope or outer shelf at depths of 300 m or less (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003). Male <em>Benthobatis yangi</em> are sexually mature between 19.1 and 21.5 cm total length (TL). The smallest male paratype (16.1 cm TL) possessed undeveloped claspers which did not project beyond the pelvic fins. The largest male specimen (21.5 cm TL) possessed fully developed claspers with calcified terminal cartilage components. The 19.1 cm TL male possessed claspers that projected well beyond the pelvic fin posterior margins, but was without fully calcified terminal cartilages and appeared to be an intermediate between the smallest and largest males. A large female (25.7 cm TL) was assumed to be sexually mature due to its relatively large size (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161624	population	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	No information available.	eng
161624	threats	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M. & Ebert, D.A., 2008	The primary threat to the Taiwanese Blind Electric Ray is shrimp trawling throughout its limited distribution, where it is taken as bycatch. Shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the southwestern coast of Taiwan Island and may range down to depths of 500 m (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Fine mesh nets are used in this fishery, thus it is unlikely that the species can avoid or escape the nets, which may also be causing habitat damage.	eng
161625	conservation	Cronin, E.S., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Research is required on this species? occurrence, life-history parameters, capture in fisheries and population trends.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161625	distribution	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: Somalia, India (Compagno 1984).	eng
161625	habitat	Cronin, E.S., 2007	A little known catshark preferring the tropical offshore waters of the continental shelf and found on or near the bottom at depths of 54?186 m (Compagno 1984). The biology of this species is largely unknown, but size at birth is ~8 cm total length (TL), males mature at 28?35 cm TL and it reaches a maximum size of about 35 cm (Compagno 1984).	eng
161625	population	Cronin, E.S., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161625	threats	Cronin, E.S., 2007	This species is presumably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and other demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is available. Demersal fishing pressure is very intensive off India and Somalia but little information is currently available on the elasmobranch catch (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161626	conservation	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g. mesh size regulations, effort reduction).<br/><br/>Recommended measures: Monitoring of bycatch levels and population trends.	eng
161626	distribution	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: occurs off coasts northward from the Shetland Isles and southern Norway in the north, to Morocco in the south, and also reported from Senegal (Stehmann and Bürkel 1989).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: northern, western and central-eastern waters, excluding the Adriatic Sea. Countries of occurrence include: Algeria, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, Spain and Tunisia. (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001, Stehmann and Bürkel 1989, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al. </em>2001, Relini <em>et al. </em>2000, Stehmann and Bauchot 1987, Tinti <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
161626	habitat	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Found on the continental shelf and slope at depths of 20?500 m, and is more common at ~200 m in the Mediterranean Sea. It is typically an offshore species, occurring further offshore than, for example, Spotted Ray and Thornback Ray. It is abundant on coarse sand/gravel substrates in the Irish Sea and western English Channel. The size at maturity is estimated at 55 cm for both males and females (Walker 1999) with a maximum size of about 72 cm (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b). <em>L. naevus</em> is benthic, occurring in waters of 12?290 m around the British Isles (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a), though it is occasionally recorded in deeper waters (to 500 m) west of the British Isles and in the Mediterranean. Age at maturity for females and males is estimated at 7.4 years and 6.8 years, respectively, in the North Sea (Walker 1999). Longevity is reported at 12 years (Du Buit 1976b). Females produce about 90?102 eggs per year after an eight month gestation period (Du Buit 1976a, Bauchot 1987, Clark 1922). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans with larger individuals becoming increasingly piscivorous (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
161626	population	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<strong>Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is abundant in the northern North Sea, off northwest Scotland, Irish Sea, Celtic Sea and is also one of the dominant rays around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006). It is only rarely observed in the inner parts of the Bristol Channel and in the eastern English Channel and southern North Sea. Preliminary stock assessments were made for the Celtic Sea stock during the DELASS project (Heessen 2003), though the results were inconclusive. Catch rates in trawl surveys in the Irish Sea appear to be increasing slightly, with a decrease in the Celtic Sea (Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005b), whereas IBTS data indicate a steady increase followed by a decline in the North Sea (ICES 2006). However, these catch rates refer to all individuals and not just mature fish. Observed increases/declines tend to be of a low magnitude, and overall the population may be stable. Cuckoo ray is a relatively small-bodied species that is most abundant on offshore grounds. It forms a relatively high proportion of skate and ray landings in those areas where it is abundant. More information on stock status is required, and the status of stocks in those areas where it is exploited most (e.g., Celtic Sea) need to be better assessed.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The Cuckoo Ray (<em>L. naevus</em>), is relatively rare in the Mediterranean however, it does not appear to have been previously common in the area. This species was rarely caught in the MEDITS trawl survey from 1994?1999. The MEDITS survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: western (Morocco, Spain, France), western central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), eastern central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the eastern (Aegean Sea). A total of 6,336 tows have been performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10?800 m. This species was recorded in only 42 of 6,336 tows during this survey (frequency of occurrence of 1%) and was more frequently captured in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Leucoraja naevus is now not found in the Gulf of Lions. A time series of comparative trawl surveys in the Gulf of Lions between indicate that <em>L. naevus</em> was historically present in both shelf and slope trawl surveys in 1957?1960 and in 1980?1984 (150?800 m), but was not present on the shelf or slope in comparable surveys in 1992?1995 (Aldebert 1997).<br/><br/>This species does not appear to have been captured in historical and recent trawl surveys of the Adriatic Sea (Jukic-Peladic 1999). It is still caught off the Balearic Islands, where Massuti and Moranta (2003) reported it in relatively recent trawl surveys.<br/><br/>Little is known of this species? current distribution and abundance along northwest African coastlines, however, it now appears to be uncommon along the Tunisian coastline.	eng
161626	threats	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Taken as bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries through much of its range. Due to it occurring further offshore than other rays (e.g. blonde and thornback rays), it is of less importance to recreational fisheries.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Rajids are an important component of demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic and <em>Leucoraja naevus </em>is landed and sold (Holden 1977, ICES 2006). It may be an important component in mixed demersal fisheries where abundant, and is landed as a bycatch in trawl fisheries throughout its Atlantic range, though smaller individuals tend to be discarded. This species is one of the more frequent species landed by the commercial fisheries operating in the Celtic Sea and Iberian waters.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>Presumably captured as bycatch of multispecies fisheries. Rajids are an important component of the demersal fisheries of northwest Europe and <em>L. naevus</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Holden 1977). The situation may be similar in the Mediterranean, where the cuckoo ray may be captured as part of the bycatch of multispecies trawl fisheries typical in the shelf seas of the Mediterranean. Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope areas of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987). Since then half of the fishing effort in this area has been displaced to targeting small pelagic fish (Aldebert 1997). The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700 to 800 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).<br/><br/>Moreover, although only adult individuals may be landed for consumption, most size classes are likely to be taken in fishing nets as the legal mesh size used in much of the Mediterranean is approximately 20 mm.<br/><br/>The relatively small size of this ray species suggests that its life history and demography may allow some capacity to withstand moderate fishing pressure (Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2000, Stevens <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
161627	conservation	Bates, H., 2007	None in place.<br/><br/>Information on life-history characteristics, population, range, and interactions with fisheries is required. Catches and population trends need to be assessed and carefully monitored.	eng
161627	distribution	Bates, H., 2007	Western central Atlantic: Gulf of Mexico.	eng
161627	habitat	Bates, H., 2007	This species occurs in tropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico at depths of 71?180 m (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al. </em>2006). Very little is known about the life-history characteristics of this species. Like other angelshark species it is most likely viviparous. Attains a maximum size of 88cm total length (TL) (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161627	population	Bates, H., 2007	Known only from a few specimens caught by bottom-trawl during the OGMEX VIII, IX and PROBEMEX II oceanographic cruises off Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161627	threats	Bates, H., 2007	Not known to be targeted, but potential bycatch in demersal fisheries. Shrimp trawl fisheries are intensive in the Gulf of Mexico. The majority of effort in the northern Gulf of Mexico is concentrated in shallow waters (less than 20?100 m deep). However, the general trend for fisheries to expand into deeper waters as coastal waters become fully exploited means that both current and future fishing pressure is a major threat. Further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries and potential impact of fishing activities on the population, given that large declines in other <em>Squatina</em> spp have been documented where they are heavily fished.	eng
161628	conservation	Treloar, M.A., 2008	None in place.	eng
161628	distribution	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Eastern Indian and southwest Pacific Oceans: widespread in southeastern Australia from Coffs Harbour (New South Wales) to at least Beachport (South Australia), and around Tasmania (Last and Stevens 1994). May also occur further west into the Great Australian Bight (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161628	habitat	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Around Tasmania, restricted to the continental slope (rarely deeper than 100 m and fairly common near the shore). Further north, mainly on the continental slope in 200–600 m depth (Last and Stevens 1994). A medium sized numbfish found on sand or mud bottoms, and sometimes near rocky reefs. Reaches at least 47 cm total length (TL). Males reach maturity at 21–26 cm TL and females at 20–26 cm TL (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data). Aplacental yolk sac viviparous; size at birth is 9–12 cm TL (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data). Litter size averages three and ranges from one to eight (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpub. data). The diet is dominated by polychaete worms but also feeding on garmarid (benthic) amphipods and crabs (R. Daley CSIRO Hobart unpublished data).	eng
161628	population	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Around southern Tasmania, populations of breeding females together with a number of mature males have been collected but no immature males (R. Daley CSIRO pers. comm. August 2004).	eng
161628	threats	Treloar, M.A., 2008	Caught as bycatch by trawlers in the South East Trawl Fishery and formerly by scallop dredgers. Discard mortality rate unknown but expected to be small.	eng
161629	conservation	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	<strong>Measures in place</strong><br/>California’s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18%) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing.<br/><br/>Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).	eng
161629	distribution	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Pacific: confirmed from off the coasts of northern California, from Eureka to Coronado Bank, northern Baja California, Mexico (Ebert 2003, Miller and Lea 1972). There are no confirmed records or voucher specimens of <em>Raja stellulata</em> from north of California.<br/><br/>Reported to range into the Gulf of Alaska, but these records may be <em>Bathyraja parmifera</em> and not <em>Raja stellulata</em> (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007, Ebert 2003, Mecklenberg <em>et al</em>. 2002). <em>Raja stellulata</em> is also reported from British Colombia, Canada, but its presence there is unconfirmed (Benson <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
161629	habitat	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Occurs mostly in rocky habitats (Ebert 2003). These skates can be found in water depths of 18–732 m (Miller and Lea 1972), although it is more common inshore to 100 m depth (Ebert 2003). Females reach maturity at 68 cm total length (TL) and males at 67 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Maximum size is 76 cm TL and size at birth is 12–16 cm TL (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/><em>Raja stellulata</em> feed on benthic shrimps, cephalopods, and bony fishes (Ebert 2003).	eng
161629	population	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	Nothing is known on its population structure or status. Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. This species has not been the subject of any research until very recently.	eng
161629	threats	Robinson, H.J., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2008	<em>Raja stellulata</em> appears to occur mostly on rocky substrates that appear to preclude its capture by bottom trawler fishing vessels. Therefore, it is only occasionally taken as trawl bycatch (Ebert 2003). Although total annual commercial landings data for grouped catch of ‘Skate, unspecified’ for California show that landings declined from 2000–2005, of the species that form this catch this is probably the least likely skate to be taken. This species is only very occasionally seen in samples of National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) trawl surveys, whereas it is one of the most common species caught in NMFS longline surveys on rocky, un-trawlable reefs (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Given the species’ shallow water occurrence it is likely only taken occasionally as a bycatch in recreational fisheries, but there are no data to confirm this (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Therefore current fishing pressure is not considered a significant threat to this species.	eng
161630	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y. & Jeong, C.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species. Further investigation is urgently required on population trends, catches in fisheries and this species? life-history.	eng
161630	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y. & Jeong, C.H., 2007	Northwest and possibly Western Central Pacific: occurs off both coasts of Japan (Hokkaido to Kyusyu) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007), Korea, China, Taiwan (Compagno 1998), Province of China (Shen 1993), Cambodia (Compagno 1998), Malaysia (Ahmed <em>et al</em>. 2004). Records of this species from Indonesia, Thailand and possibly the Philippines may be misidentifications of other <em>Gymnura</em> species (Compagno 1998, W. White pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161630	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y. & Jeong, C.H., 2007	A demersal species which inhabits sandy or muddy bottoms in inshore shallow waters (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Compagno 1998). Attains a maximum size of 145 cm disc width (DW) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Size at birth is 12.4 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). Females give birth to litters of 2?8 pups (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). The diet of <em>G. japonica</em> remains poorly documented, however, it is expected to contain a high proportion of teleost fishes as in other gymnurid species (Masuda <em>et al</em>. 1984, Capapé 1986; Raje 2003, Bizzaro 2005, Jacobsen 2008).	eng
161630	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y. & Jeong, C.H., 2007	Reported as locally common (Compagno 1998). The species is reported to have declined off Japan and China (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007, Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007), but no specific information is currently available on the extent or time period of the declines.	eng
161630	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y. & Jeong, C.H., 2007	This species is susceptible to a variety of gear types, including demersal trawl, gillnet, trammelnet and setnet fisheries throughout its range. It is commercially fished off China (Y. Wang pers. obs. 2007). Catches are retained and utilised for human consumption (Masuda <em>et al. </em>1975). Intensive demersal fisheries operate within this species? inshore range and population declines have been reported in some areas, although no specific information is currently available on the level of these declines. <em>G. japonica</em> is the largest Indo-West Pacific species in the region and, as such, may be an easier or more noticeable target for shallow-water fisheries i.e. net and hand fishing (I. Jacobsen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161631	conservation	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J. & Gedamke, T., 2004	COSEWIC (2005) assessed the Southern Gulf population as Endangered, the eastern Scotian Shelf Population as Threatened, the Georges Bank?western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy population, where the population is stable, as Special Concern (because of the life history characteristics of this species), and the northern Gulf-Newfoundland population, where the species is only infrequently recorded, as Data Deficient. The first two populations are currently being considered for listing on Schedule 1 of the Canadian Species at Risk Act.<br/><br/>In Canada, winter skate landings are under quota control in the Scotian Shelf (the only directed fishery in the Northwest Atlantic). The TAC was reduced from 2000 tons in 1994 to 250 tons in 2002 (Simon <em>et al.</em> 2003), and subsequently 200 t (DFO 2005b).<br/><br/>In the USA, the Skate PDT developed suggestions for potential management measures that would address winter skate management issues. These alternatives recognize the problems caused by skate species mis-identification, high amounts of discards, and present limitations in gear technology. Two suggestions that will be voted on in June of 2008 are a potential possession limit and/or a total allowable catch for this species. These measures are aimed at rebuilding the stock within 10 years to Bmsy.	eng
161631	distribution	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J. & Gedamke, T., 2004	Winter Skate has a narrow latitudinal ranges and high degree of endemicity. It is endemic to the shelf waters of the northwest Atlantic, from the Grand Banks, Gulf of St. Lawrence and occasionally to the Northeast Newfoundland Shelf in Canada (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989) and to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in the USA (Robins and Ray 1986, Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002, COSEWIC 2005). The population(s) (structure unknown) appear to be concentrated in four geographic locations: 1) southern Gulf of St. Lawrence; 2) Scotian Shelf; 3) Southern Gulf of Maine/Georges Bank; and 4) the Mid Atlantic Bight.	eng
161631	habitat	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J. & Gedamke, T., 2004	Winter Skate is a benthic species. Habitat ranges from shoreline to 317 m, but they are most abundant at depths <150 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002). The temperature range for this species is -1.2?19°C (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, McEachran 2002). This species prefers sandy and gravel substrate (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Scott 1982). Substrate type rather than depth appears more important in determining distribution (Scott 1982).<br/><br/>Size, reproduction and age data in life history table below. Winter Skates are slow-growing, produce few eggs each year. Size at maturity increases with latitude (McEachran and Martin 1977). On Georges Bank and Gulf of Maine, individuals mature between 70 and 109 cm total length (TL). The Gulf of St Lawrence population however matures at a smaller size and does not reach as large a size as other populations (McEachran and Martin 1977). Length at 50% maturity for female winter skate on the eastern Scotian Shelf is thought to be around 75 cm (Simon and Frank 2000).<br/><br/>Eggs of Winter Skate are deposited throughout the year off southern New England and from summer to autumn off Nova Scotia (Vladykov 1936, Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). However, a peak in the reproductive season was observed during the summer months in the Gulf of Maine (Sulikowski <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Industry has previously noted females extruding complete purses only in the late summer/early autumn west of Sable Island and suggestions were made that this may be a spawning area (Simon and Frank 2000). Frisk <em>et al. </em>(2002), suggest winter skate fecundity to be between 18?35 eggs per year.<br/><br/>Winter Skate migrate to deeper colder waters during summer months in some areas and the species is sometimes termed a winter periodic (Scott and Scott 1988). Research vessel survey data for the Scotian Shelf, however, show that winter skate appear to be concentrated in deeper warmer waters in the winter and move into shallower waters during spring and summer.<br/><br/>Most important prey items appear to be fish, decapods, amphipods and molluscs. Primary food sources shift from invertebrates to fish as skates increase in size. Moreover, the prey size also increases as the skates become larger and older. Studies of food habits of winter skate and little skate by McEachran <em>et al.</em> (1976) have shown that although the two species occur together over most of their range they avoid serious competition by eating different proportions of the same food resources. Winter Skate tended to eat infauna and Little Skate eat epifauna.<br/><br/>Little is known about predation on Winter Skate, but they are eaten by many predators including sharks, other rays (such as <em>L. erinacea</em>), and Grey Seals (Scott and Scott 1988). Winter Skate are also prone to several parasites, including protozoans, myxosporidian, haematazoa, trematodes and nematodes (Scott and Scott 1988).	eng
161631	population	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J. & Gedamke, T., 2004	The Winter Skate is a common species along its geographic range. In Canada, individuals in the Southern Gulf of St Lawrence and on the Eastern Scotian Shelf mature at a significantly smaller size and significantly larger size and a significantly different age, respectively, than those found elsewhere, suggesting population segregation. The species exists only in low concentrations in the Northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the coastal waters off the southern coast of Newfoundland, and on the southern portion of the Grand Bank. A quantitative analysis of spatial and temporal variation in population size is not possible because of the infrequency with which the species is caught.	eng
161631	threats	Kulka, D.W., Sulikowski, J. & Gedamke, T., 2004	Like many other elasmobranchs, the winter skate possesses life history characteristics that may increase vulnerability to exploitation, reduce rate of recovery and increase the risk of extinction: including delayed age at maturity, long generation time, low fecundity, and consequently slow population growth.<br/><br/>Otter trawling is the principal commercial fishing method used to target skates in the USA but are also taken as bycatch in gillnets and longlines off Canada. They are also taken as bycatch (and often discarded) in groundfish and shrimp trawls and scallop dredges. Eastern European factory trawlers fished west Atlantic shelf waters during the 1960s (at the beginning of the current three generation period) and into the early 1970s, causing population depletion. The stock possibly rebounded in parts of its range with the adoption of 200 mile EEZs and a reduction in fishing effort, with catch rates of juveniles increasing. The directed fishery in the USA began in the early 1960s, and the targeted Canadian fishery began in 1994.<br/><br/>The status of Winter Skate appears to differ throughout its Canadian range. Skate in the southern Gulf (where there is no directed fishery for Winter Skate) and on the eastern Scotian Shelf (where it is targeted) have shown a 98% and 90% reduction in abundance respectively since the early 1970s when surveys began. The probable cause is an unsustainable rate at which they were captured as bycatch in fisheries directed at other demersal species. In contrast, skate in the most southerly part of its Canadian range (western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy, Georges Bank) appear to have been relatively stable in abundance over the time period for which data are available (COSEWIC 2005). The COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report (COSEWIC 2005) and DFO Recovery Potential Assessments for Winter Skate (DFO 2005 a&b) provide detailed accounts of decline trends in the different population units for this species, which are only outlined in summary here.<br/><br/>DFO (2005a) reports that catch rates of adult winter skates on the eastern Scotian Shelf have declined 90% since 1970. The decline appears to be ongoing and is projected to continue in future at recent fishery removal levels. The area occupied by the population appears to have declined significantly since the mid 1980s. Larger, older individuals have been severely depleted from this population. Juvenile abundance, which was low in 1970s, increased during the 1970s, was fairly stable in the 1980s, but has been declining since the 1990s. At the current high rate of adult natural mortality, no recovery is expected even if target and by catches are held to zero. Recovery of this population is uncertain.<br/><br/>The quota for the directed fishery on the Scotian Shelf was reduced to 200 t in 2003 from 2,000 t at the start of the fishery in 1994, in response to the population decline identified by DFO surveys and is estimated as less than 300 t annually over the past decade, with a low bycatch.<br/><br/>For the Southern Gulf, where there has been no target fishery, DFO (2005b) reports a 98% decline in abundance of mature individuals in surveys since 1971 to the lowest level on record. Catch rates of juveniles increased in surveys from the early 1970s to the mid 1980s, but have since also declined to low levels. Catch rates in the DFO Northumberland Strait survey (conducted since 2000) declined by over 50% between 2001 and 2004. Bycatch is now very low in groundfish and shrimp trawls but is unknown in the scallop fishery. Adult mortality appeared to increase during the 1980s and 1990s. Abundance is projected to decline even with no bycatch.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Canada, winter skate are also taken in low numbers incidentally in fisheries targeting other species. The area of occupancy in the Georges Bank-Western Scotian Shelf-Bay of Fundy, in the centre of this species? range, has been stable and there has been no discernable trend over time (this population is shared with the US area of the Georges Bank).<br/><br/>In USA waters skate landings are not reported by species, with over 99% of the landings reported as ?unclassified skates?. ?Skate? landings in the USA reached 9,500 mt in 1969, but declined quickly during the 1970s, falling to 800 mt in 1981. Landings for all skates increased to 12,900 mt in 1993 and then declined somewhat to 7,200 mt in 1995. Landings have increased again since 1995, and the 1998 reported commercial landings of 17,000 mt were the highest on record. Winter Skate abundance is currently about the same as in the early 1970s (within the three generation period for this species), but is about 25% of the peak observed in the mid-1980s (from Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). The U.S. population of winter skate has also declined by almost 50% since the inception of a fisheries management plan (FMP) in 2003 (NEFMC 2007) and a reduction in groundfish effort. However, since the 2004-2006 NEFSC survey index was only 9% lower than the 2003?2005 NEFSC survey index, overfishing is not occurring for this species, but it is in an overfished state (NEFMC 2007). Recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total USA fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161632	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Research is required on this species? biology, occurrence and capture in fisheries.  The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161632	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Gulf of Aqaba, northern Red Sea (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004), Egypt, Jordan, Israel and Saudi Arabia. Its distribution is not known to extend to the Red Sea proper (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161632	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2007	Found in depths of 80?200 m on sandy or muddy substrates. The maximum known size of this species is 19 cm total length (TL). Little else is known of its biology (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).	eng
161632	population	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2007	Population size unknown. It is a rare torpedo, confined in deepwater; never collected in the Red Sea proper. (A. Baranes pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161632	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl and gillnet fisheries (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004). Individuals are discarded at sea and the estimated rate of survivorship is extremely low (M. de Carvalho pers. comm.). The apparent endemism of <em>H. bentuviai</em> to the Gulf of Aqaba is a potential threat.<br/><br/>Egyptian and Israeli catches from the Gulf of Aqaba are minimal comprising around one percent of the total landings for each country (FAO 2003, 2007). This is also true for Jordan with 170 tonnes taken from the Gulf in 2001 by about 40 small artisanal vessels. A decline in overall fisheries catch per unit effort (CPUE) in the Gulf of Aqaba has been noted, but no information is currently available on catches of this species. Increasing recreational fishing and environmental issues such as increased shipping into Aqaba are emerging as significant issues in Jordan?s marine fisheries (Morgan 2006).	eng
161633	conservation	Tanaka, S. & participants of the IUCN SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Workshop, 2007	There are no known specific measures in place for this species. Further information is required on the extent of declines and on threats to the species across its range and reassessment should be a high priority. <em>M. manazo</em> should be very closely monitored.	eng
161633	distribution	Tanaka, S. & participants of the IUCN SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Workshop, 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: Southern Siberia, Russia, Japan, Korea, China (including Taiwan, Province of China), Vietnam (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: Kenya (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161633	habitat	Tanaka, S. & participants of the IUCN SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Workshop, 2007	Found in temperate-tropical waters on the continental shelf, on mud and sandy substrates, at depths of 1?360 m. The species is aplacental viviparous, giving birth to 1?22 pups per litter (average is five) with a 10?12 month gestation period (Tanaka and Mizue 1979; Teshima 1981; Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1983; Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1997, 2000; Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Reproductive parameters appear to vary geographically, with northern populations growing to a larger size and living for a longer period (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1998, 2000). Females mature at 3?7 years old and at 59.2?97.4 cm total length (TL); males mature at 2?6 years old and at 54.7?92.0 cm TL (Tanaka and Mizue 1979; Taniuchi <em>et al</em>. 1983; Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000; Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Males reach a maximum size of 70.7?104.5 cm TL and live for 5?9 years and females reach 86.5?135 cm and live for 9?17 years (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000; Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Size at birth is 20?35 cm (Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>1997, 2000; Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mating takes place in May?July, with parturition in April?July. The diet of <em>Mustelus manazo</em> consists predominantly of crustaceans (Taniuchi <em>et al. </em>1983, Yamaguchi and Taniuchi 2000).	eng
161633	population	Tanaka, S. & participants of the IUCN SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Workshop, 2007	Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) reports that this species is generally abundant where it occurs. However, Chen <em>et al.</em> (1996) report that significant declines have occurred in Taiwanese waters, to the point where the species has almost completely disappeared, with the exception of the waters off Chinsham and Kueishan Island, northern Taiwan (see Threats below). The catch of <em>M. manazo</em> from the western waters of Kyushu, Japan also reportedly decreased (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161633	threats	Tanaka, S. & participants of the IUCN SSG Asia Northwest Pacific Workshop, 2007	Caught in demersal longline and trawl fisheries in the northwest Pacific and likely in other parts of its range, and utilized for human consumption and fish oil (Compagno in prep). It is of considerable importance to coastal fisheries and fishing pressure is high within its known range. Once a common commercial species, that was heavily exploited by coastal trawl fisheries and longliners throughout Taiwanese waters to the point of almost complete disappearance. It is now difficult to find in Taiwanese waters, with the exception of the waters off Chinsham and Kueishan Island, northern Taiwan (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1996). With the expansion of coastal trawl fisheries, <em>Mustelus</em> species have declined in the region, with a noted decline in catch over the past 10?20 years. Species-specific management in this region is problematic due to the multi-species nature of trawl-fisheries (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1996). A decline in catches has also been reported off Kyushu, Japan, and investigation into the extent of these declines is required. Little specific information is available on population trends and catches from elsewhere within the species? range.	eng
161634	conservation	Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>According to the Law of Fisheries of China, bottom trawling is banned within certain areas of Chinese waters (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Bottom trawling is restricted in certain zones and at different times in shallow water (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007). Individual Provinces must apply national regulation within China. They also apply their own regulations on the basis of national regulations (Y. Wang pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161634	distribution	Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	Northwest Pacific: this species is distributed throughout Japan (Southern Hokkido to Ryukido Island), off northern China (and also Taiwan, Province of China) from the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea, and southwest of Korea (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161634	habitat	Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	A sawshark of temperate waters over continental shelves and upper slopes on or near sand or mud bottom (Compagno in prep). Found at depths of 50?800 m (Yano 2000).<br/><br/>Usually produces 12 pups per litter (Compagno in prep.). It grows to a maximum total length of 136?153 cm, with males maturing at 80?100 cm and females maturing at approximately 100 cm (Compagno in prep.). Size at birth is approximately 30 cm TL (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Feeds on small bottom dwelling organisms (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>The species may make vertical migrations, according to water temperature, from shallow coastal waters to the upper continental slope (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). The species can only be collected in coastal waters of the Izu Peninsula, Shizuoka, in early spring when water temperature is at its lowest (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161634	population	Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	This species is apparently uncommon throughout its range (Yamada <em>et al</em>. 2007). No other information is available.	eng
161634	threats	Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2008	Probably of limited importance to fisheries, though in Japan its meat is considered of high quality and used for human consumption (Compagno in prep). <br/><br/>This species is captured as a utilised bycatch of gill nets, trawl nets and bottom longline fisheries. This is not a commercial species, but it is particularly susceptible to capture in gillnets because of the thorns on the snout (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries targeting spiny lobster set in less than 20 m depth. Although the fishery operates from September-April, the species only occurs as bycatch during March-April. It is thought that the species moves into deeper waters throughout the rest of the year. It is captured occasionally at depth of 200?400 m by trawl net fisheries in the East China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also an uncommon catch of trawl net fisheries operating in Suruga Bay, Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161635	conservation	Ebert, D.A. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	<strong>Australia</strong><br/>The Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) has introduced several management measures for deepwater sharks within the SESSF in recent years, which may benefit this species. These include:<br/><ul><li>Since 2003, vessels are required to land both the livers and carcasses of all dogfishes to enable accurate landing information to be recorded.</li><li>Since 2005, a ?basket? quota management system was introduced as a result of the difficulties involved in identifying deepwater dogfish. This set a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for 2005 and 2006 at about half the reported 2004 catch (200t) and the TAC was reduced to 22 t in 2007 (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html). This species is included under this quota system.</li><li>Since 2007, SESS Fishery was closed below 700 m to prevent targeting of deepwater species (750 m in Great Australian Bight Fishery) (See: http://www.mffc.gov.au/releases/2007/07005a.html).</li></ul>	eng
161635	distribution	Ebert, D.A. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Southeast Atlantic: Namibia, South Africa (Northern and Western Provinces). Western Indian Ocean: South Africa (Eastern Cape Province), southern Mozambique, Madagascar range of seamounts south of Madagascar and east of South Africa. Western central and southwest Pacific: Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales and Southern Queensland), New Zealand, deepwater between New Zealand, Queensland and New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Loyaute Island and Vanatu Island (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161635	habitat	Ebert, D.A. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A little-known deepwater bottom-dwelling dogfish of the outer continental shelves and upper and middle slopes and off seamounts at depths of 150?1,360 m, with most records on the slopes below 400 m (Compagno in prep.). Last and Stevens (1994) report that this species is common at depths of 400?820 m off Australia. Maximum total length (TL) is about 118 cm for females and 96 cm for males. Size at maturity is 80?90 cm TL for males and 85?100 cm TL for females (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Size at birth is ~25 cm TL, with litters of 5?17 (average 10) pups (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). <em>Deania</em> species have an extended gestation period, probably with a two or three year reproductive cycle that is non-continuous (i.e., with a resting period between parturition and the development of new oocytes) (Daley <em>et al</em>. 2002, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007).	eng
161635	population	Ebert, D.A. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species does not appear to be as common as other birdbeak dogfish.<br/><br/>Research surveys on the New South Wales slope over a 20 year period have shown a decline from 15.7?1.4 kg/h for <em>Deania quadrispinosa</em> (representing a decline of 87.3%) (Graham <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>Apparently rare to very rare in New Zealand waters (M. Francis, NIWA, Wellington, pers. comm. 2006).	eng
161635	threats	Ebert, D.A. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is a discarded bycatch of trawl fisheries off South Africa and Australia (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/><em></em>Longsnout Dogfish is captured in the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF), which extends across an extensive area of the southern and southeastern Australian Fishing Zone (Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Deepwater fishing on the slope developed off the east coast of Australia (New South Wales) during the 1970s and off southern Australia (Victoria and Tasmania) in the 1980s. Initial catch levels of deepwater sharks off NSW were reportedly high, as were discarding levels as there was no market for deepwater sharks at that time. The development of a market for liver oil (high value), relaxation of regulations on the mercury content of shark flesh and the introduction of a quota management system for target teleost (bony) fishes, lead to the targeting of deepwater dogfishes. Logbook data and the results of fishery-independent surveys document significant declines in several species, including a >80% decline in this species over 20 years on the NSW slope (total catch declined from 3,849 kg in 1976/77 to 216 kg in 1996/97) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>In the southeastern Atlantic this species has been targeted, along with <em>Centrophorus squamosus</em> and <em>Centroscymnus coelolepis</em>, by an exploratory fishery using set nets off Namibia since 2000. Exploratory licenses granted by the Namibian government to this fishery have been governed by strict management measures, including monitoring and logbook recording of all individuals caught (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). Data collected during three trips from January to June 2002 on one licensed exploratory vessel showed that 15.8 t of trunks, 9 t of fillets and 11.8 t of livers from <em>D. quadrispinosa</em> were landed, compared to 131.3 t of trunks and 4.5 t of fins from <em>C. squamosus</em> (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007). The exploratory directed deepwater licenses expired in January 2006. The species is also taken as bycatch by the Namibian non-directed trawl fishery at depths of 400?1,000 m, however species specific catch data are not available (NATMIRC 2003, Kyne and Simpfendorfer 2007).<br/><br/>Information on deepwater fisheries throughout other areas of the species? range is limited, however, there is evidence that deepwater fishing pressure is rapidly expanding and increasing in some areas. For example, deep water fisheries targeting fish and deepwater shrimp are expanding off Madagascar; since these deepwater fisheries were authorized in 2001, catch of deepwater fish reached 4,157 tonnes in 2002 (Soumy 2004). Low fecundity may make this species vulnerable to overfishing (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161636	conservation	Ishihara, H., Iglésias, S., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161636	distribution	Ishihara, H., Iglésias, S., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: South China Sea from, Sarawak, Borneo, north to Taiwan, Province of China, and East China Sea, and Sea of Japan to north of the Noto peninsula (Masuda <em>et al.</em>1984, Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
161636	habitat	Ishihara, H., Iglésias, S., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This skate is found on sandy muddy substrates at depths of 75?150 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995). Like other skates, it is oviparous. Reproduction takes place in June and July and egg cases are laid in February to June. Egg cases measure 90 x 25 mm. Very little is known of the biology of this species.	eng
161636	population	Ishihara, H., Iglésias, S., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Apparently common within its range.	eng
161636	threats	Ishihara, H., Iglésias, S., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal setnets off Japan, and in bottom trawls off Taiwan Island. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161637	conservation	Stevens, J.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	None specific to Sydney skate. Trawl fisheries in the area are under quota management.<br/><br/>Fisheries management in Australia is starting to move from single species management to ecosystem management and all fisheries now have Bycatch Action Plans and have to be assessed for ecological sustainability. They are required to meet certain certification standards if they are to continue operating.	eng
161637	distribution	Stevens, J.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Southwest Pacific: continental shelf of eastern Australia between Moreton Bay (Queensland) to at least Tathra (New South Wales, c. 36 45) (Last and Stevens 1994, K. Graham pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161637	habitat	Stevens, J.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	This skate occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 50?180 m (Last and Stevens 1994). They reach about 50 cm total length (TL) and adult males and females are similar in size. Males mature at 43?48 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). A bottom-dwelling species that probably feeds on invertebrates (including small to large crustaceans, cephalopods) and demersal bony fish. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous and the species deposits eggs in large, quadrangular egg cases. The biology of <em>Dipturus australis</em> is virtually unknown.	eng
161637	population	Stevens, J.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	The most common skate on the continental shelf of central eastern Australia. Fishery independent surveys off southern New South Wales have shown that catch rates have declined by 83% between 1976/1977 and 1996/1997 for grouped ?skates? (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997, Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Eight species of skates were recorded during this study, with data pooled into four depth zones. The principle species captured in the deeper depth zones (330?605 m depth), on all trawl grounds were <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus gudgeri </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus </span>sp. B. In the upper depth zone (200?275 m), catches mainly comprised <span style="font-style: italic;">D. australis</span>, but also included <span style="font-style: italic;">Raja </span>sp. A and C and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dipturus whitleyi </span>(Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Catch data were pooled for all species and mean catch rates calculated for the mix of species combined. In 1976?77, mean catch rates for skates were similar on all grounds (range 32?33 kg h<sup>-1</sup>) but were substantially lower in 1996?97 (range 4?8 kg h<sup>-1</sup>). Declines in the upper depth zone, where <span style="font-style: italic;">D. australis </span>comprised the majority of catch, where greatest off Eden, in the southern survey areas.<br/><br/>There are limited species-specific fisheries catch data for skates, with most being lumped into the category ?rays?. Batoid sales and landing data from major markets, such as Sydney and Melbourne, are also limited, with only major categories such as ?Rajids? recorded.	eng
161637	threats	Stevens, J.D. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Presumably, taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries operating in the area, such as the Commonwealth Trawl Sector of the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark (SESS) fishery. This fishery has operated since the 1900s and targets a number of teleost species such as tiger flathead, jackass morwong, eastern school whiting, John Dory etc.<br/><br/>These target species are under quota management, but sustainable catch levels for Sydney skate will be much lower than for the more productive teleost species. Independent surveys off southern New South Wales show catch rates for ?skates? combined have declined by 83% over 20 years (Graham <em>et al</em>. 2001). Commercial trawling on the upper slope off NSW began in 1968 and by the early 1980s more than 100 trawlers between 15?25 m were operating off NSW, landing about 15,000 t of fish per year. About 60 of these trawlers regularly fished on the upper slope. By the end of the 1990s, the number of trawlers regularly fishing the NSW slope grounds had reduced to about 40 (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><em>D. australis</em> is still impacted on NSW trawl grounds but also occupies large areas of lightly or non-trawled bottom off central and northern NSW (K. Graham pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Most skates caught off southeastern Australia used to be discarded, but most of the larger ones would now be retained for the local market. In 2005, 29% of <em>Dipturus australis</em> were retained based on observer monitored catches (ISMP data) More recently, increasing management of major commercial species has resulted in fishers looking for alternate species to market, including skates and rays. At the Melbourne wholesale fish market the only separate sales figures for batoids are for skates (Family Rajidae). For the year 2002, 43 tonnes of ?flaps?were sold which equates to 134 tonnes live weight. At the Sydney market, batoids are sold under a number of categories. Common names make it difficult to determine the exact species but most appear to be myliobatids, rhinobatids, rhynchobatids and smaller amounts of dasyatids.	eng
161638	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & White, W., 2008	No measures in place.<br/><br/>Catch levels need to be accurately quantified and monitored. Research is also required on this species? full distribution, habitat and life-history parameters.	eng
161638	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & White, W., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: known from few specimens collected from four fish landings sites in southern Indonesia (Palabuhanratu in West Java (06°59' S, 106°32' E), Cilacap in Central Java (07°44' S, 109°00' E), Kedonganan in Bali (08°45' S, 115°10' E), and Tanjung Luar in Lombok (08°48' S, 116°28' E)) (Last and White 2008).	eng
161638	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & White, W., 2008	This species is demersal, presumably occurring in deeper waters, probably on the continental slope. Detailed information on the depth range of this species is not available (all known specimens were collected from fish landings sites) (Last and White 2008). Presumably viviparous, with yolk-sac dependency (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). One female measured 47.1 cm total length (TL) and three adult males measured 125.2?134.1 cm TL (Last and White 2008).	eng
161638	population	Valenti, S.V. & White, W., 2008	Known from few specimens (Last and White 2008).	eng
161638	threats	Valenti, S.V. & White, W., 2008	This species is a rare utilised bycatch of demersal longline fisheries operating in continental shelf and upper slope waters (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Possibly an Indonesian endemic, as has not been recorded from adjacent regions. Only limited deepwater fishing currently takes place in Indonesia but if this was to change then this species may qualify for a threat category. Other angel shark populations (e.g. <em>S. squatina</em>, <em>S. argentina</em>) have proved particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure due to their low reproductive potential, vulnerability to trawl and gillnet fishing gear and low potential for re-colonisation (due to their sedentary habit) (Gaida 1997, ICES 2004, Morey <em>et al. </em>2006, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Monitoring of the deepwater fisheries of Indonesia should be established and maintained.	eng
161639	conservation	Bates, H., 2008	No conservation measures are in place. Further research is required on this species range, abundance, and threats.	eng
161639	distribution	Bates, H., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: reported only from Kosi Bay, South Africa (close to the border between South Africa and Mozambique) (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
161639	habitat	Bates, H., 2008	This species occurs in shallow coastal, tropical waters up to 20 m in depth (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its range appears limited and almost nothing is known about the biology of <em>Paragaleus leucolomatus</em>. The species attains a maximum size of 96 cm (TL). It is viviparous and has two pups per litter (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). <em>P. leucolomatus</em> may exhibit slow growth rates and late maturity like other members of the Hemigaleidae family.	eng
161639	population	Bates, H., 2008	Known from only one specimen.	eng
161639	threats	Bates, H., 2008	Like other members of the family Hemigaleidae it is possibly caught in artisanal and small commercial inshore fisheries within its range and utilised for human consumption (Compagno In prep.). While the full extent of this species? distribution is currently unknown, extensive artisanal fisheries operate in coastal waters of the southwestern Indian Ocean (www.wiofish.org), for example off Mozambique, and this species is a potential bycatch of these fisheries. Presumed life history characteristics would make it vulnerable to fishing pressure, however due to its small size it is of little commercial value (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
161640	conservation	Pérez Jiménez, J.C., Ruiz, C. & Carlisle, A., 2004	No specific measures. Catches and population trends need to be monitored and species-specific data collected to monitor the impact of fisheries on this shark.	eng
161640	distribution	Pérez Jiménez, J.C., Ruiz, C. & Carlisle, A., 2004	Eastern Pacific: Southern California to Panama (Compagno 1984, Castro 1996, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Records from South America appear to refer to an undescribed tropical lunulatus-type Mustelus (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161640	habitat	Pérez Jiménez, J.C., Ruiz, C. & Carlisle, A., 2004	An abundant, bottom-dwelling shark found close inshore (Compagno 1984). In the Northern Gulf of California it is abundant mainly at depths less than 100 m, although it has been caught from 9?144 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>In the Upper Gulf of California (the northernmost region of the northern Gulf of California) in February and May, observations have mainly consisted of pregnant females with terminal embryos, and ovulatory and postpartum females, indicating that this region is a nursery area for this small shark species (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/><em>Mustelus lunulatus</em> is a fast growing species, with low longevity and early age at first maturity, therefore having a high recovery capability from fishing pressure (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1998). It is a placental viviparous species with a relatively high fecundity (Northern Gulf of California: 6?19 pups every one year; with larger females producing more embryos (Pérez-Jiménez 2006)).<br/><br/>In the Northern Gulf of California the diet consists of crustaceans (mainly Stomatopoda), cephalopods and teleosts (Méndez-Loeza 2004), and in the Southern waters of the Gulf of California the diet consists of teleosts [Scorpaenidae (<em>Scorpaena</em> species)], Congridae (<em>Taeniconger canabis</em>), Batrachoididae (<em>Portichthys notatus</em>), crustaceans [Calappidae (<em>Mursia glaudicaudii</em>)], and Albuneidae (<em>Blepharipoda occidentalis</em>) (Galvan-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161640	population	Pérez Jiménez, J.C., Ruiz, C. & Carlisle, A., 2004	Common from southern California to the Gulf of California (Castro 1996).	eng
161640	threats	Pérez Jiménez, J.C., Ruiz, C. & Carlisle, A., 2004	<em>Mustelus </em>species have been caught by the artisanal fleet operating in the Northern Gulf of California since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by medium size trawler vessels since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species during non shrimp fishing season. It is also taken as bycatch of the shrimp trawl fisheries (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997-1998). Although no data are available on the magnitude of catches, this species may be frequently caught because the shrimp fishery operates within this species? depth range. In the Upper Gulf of California <em>Mustelus</em> spp are frequently targeted with bottom gill-nets (mesh size of 4-6 inches)from February to July, especially when most valuable teleost species are not abundant. Neonates are too small to be captured by these gillnets. In this region the catches can be as high as 500 kg per fishing trip. In the Northern Gulf of California this small shark species is commonly caught by medium size trawler vessels, targeting finfish and elasmobranch species from April to July (at depths of less than 100 m) and it is also a bycatch of the shrimp fishery from September to January (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Despite continuing fishing pressure, there is no evidence to suggest that this species has declined.<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) stated that in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) during the autumn and winter months, this and other small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. californicus</em> and <em>M. henlei</em>) make seasonal migrations, sometimes being caught in numbers from 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip.<br/><br/>In Guatemala <em>M. lunulatus</em> is also taken as bycatch during May to August in drift gillnets, with the largest catches estimated up to 100?200 kg per boat (C. Ruiz pers. obs.). Pregnant females and neonates are captured in these gillnets in coastal waters (C. Ruiz pers. obs.) and the impact of fisheries on this species in this area needs to be investigated.	eng
161641	conservation	Huveneers, C. Stehmann, M. & McCormack, C., 2004	Careful monitoring of any future deepwater fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161641	distribution	Huveneers, C. Stehmann, M. & McCormack, C., 2004	Eastern central Atlantic: west Africa on the eastern central Atlantic slope (Senegal, Guinea) (Stehmann 1995).	eng
161641	habitat	Huveneers, C. Stehmann, M. & McCormack, C., 2004	A deepwater skate found at depths of 750–2,200 m (Stehmann 1995). Attains at least 87 cm total length (TL). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates. Size at birth is unknown but a full term embryo is reported at 25.9 cm TL (Stehmann 1995). Both males and females mature at >34 cm TL (Stehmann 1995).	eng
161641	population	Huveneers, C. Stehmann, M. & McCormack, C., 2004	Only known from the type series (including four specimens and an egg capsule) and nine additional specimens captured during French trawl surveys in 1985 (Stehmann 1995).	eng
161641	threats	Huveneers, C. Stehmann, M. & McCormack, C., 2004	This species is thought to occur beyond the depth range of most fisheries currently operating off western Africa. Expanding deepwater fisheries should be monitored.	eng
161642	conservation	McCormack, C., 2007	Further surveys are required to better define the species' distribution, depth range and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161642	distribution	McCormack, C., 2007	Western central Atlantic: recorded from North Carolina to Florida Keys, Bahamas, northeastern Gulf of Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161642	habitat	McCormack, C., 2007	Bathydemersal deepwater species reported at depths from 293–1,024 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size 27 cm total length (TL), and males mature at about 23 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of this species.	eng
161642	population	McCormack, C., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
161642	threats	McCormack, C., 2007	No specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries off southern USA, in the Gulf of Mexico, and potentially elsewhere. There is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities.	eng
161643	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2008	Not targeted other than in competition angling after which they are generally released alive. They are protected by existing Marine Protected areas (e.g., Tsitsikamma MPA, Sardinia Bay MPA) and by the fact that embayments along the coast (e.g., Algoa Bay) are closed to benthic trawling. The Beach driving ban promulgated in 2000 with amendments in 2002 have made large areas of beach formerly used for fishing inaccessible to fishers thereby extending protected areas.	eng
161643	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2008	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: central Angola to at least St. Lucia, Natal, South Africa, possibly extending to Mozambique and beyond (Cowley and Compagno 1993).	eng
161643	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2008	This inshore stingray is often found in shallow bays and sheltered sandy beaches in summer, moving offshore to deeper waters of up to about 100m depth in winter (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species reaches a maximum size of about 75 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999). Females are mature at seven years of age and 50 cm DW and males at 40.8 cm DW and five years (Cowley 1990). Females live for 14 years and males for nine years. Females give birth to litter of 1?5 pups after a gestation period of about nine months. Size at birth is 17?20 cm DW (Cowley 1990).	eng
161643	population	Smale, M.J., 2008	This is a commonly caught recreational species. There have been no concerns raised about an apparent decline.	eng
161643	threats	Smale, M.J., 2008	Occasionally caught by shore anglers, but generally they are released alive (Bianchi <em>et al</em> 1999, Cowley 1990, Cowley and Compagno 1993). In the recreational fishery rays are released alive after measuring and/or weighing. Although no post-releases survival experiments have been undertaken, there is no evidence (i.e., direct observation) of high levels of post-release mortality from the sport fishery. This species is not targeted (other than the sport catch and release fishery), but is taken as a bycatch of trawlers (Cowley <em>et al</em>. 1991) including those targeting hakes and soles, but discarded (probably dead). However, there are extensive areas of the Agulhas Bank that are untrawlable, and several inshore bays are closed to trawling along the South African coast, offering it refuge.	eng
161644	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	None.	eng
161644	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Western central Pacific: south coast of Java and Bali, Lombok. Also Philippines (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161644	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	This species is known from the continental shelf throughout its range, probably on reef areas. Attains 53 cm and males mature at 40 cm, females mature by 40 cm. Pregnant females with 6–12 egg cases. Some egg cases containing mid-term embryos (approx. 5–6 cm TL) (White <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161644	population	White, W.T., 2008	Not known but caught occasionally by fishers throughout its range (White <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
161644	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Caught occasionally by fishers throughout their range but usually in low numbers. Members of this genus are most commonly caught by trawlers, which are minimal throughout the range of this species. Habitat removal and destruction possibly are threats but the species is likely to occur in somewhat deeper waters, where the effects of this are minimal.	eng
161645	conservation	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161645	distribution	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest Pacific: widespread throughout eastern Asian waters. China, from Bohai Sea to Shanghai, Amoi and Taiwan Island; Korea, Baereungdo Islands, Northern Yellow Sea to Jeju-do Islands; Japan from northern Hokkaido to off Kyushu; Yellow Sea, East Sea (Sea of Japan), Sea of Okhotsk, East China Sea, South China Sea (Ishihara 1990, Jeong 1999). Also known to occur in the Western Central Pacific (Last and Compagno 1999), but its extent of occurrence within this region is uncertain.	eng
161645	habitat	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This is a benthic species that lives on sandy, muddy bottoms. Occurs from 20?120 m depth (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Size at birth is between 8.2 and 9.5 cm TL (Abe 1983, C.H. Jeong unpublished data). It reaches a maximum size of 55?60 cm total length (TL) (Ishihara 1987, C.H. Jeong unpublished data). Ishihara <em>et al</em>. (2002) described the reproductive biology of this species based on 134 female specimens collected from Japanese waters, and observations of three live skates in the Oh-arai aquarium. Females were found to mature at 39 cm total length (TL).<br/><br/>The age at maturity of this species is around three years, which is very rapid compared to many other elasmobranchs, although no separate estimates have been made for each sex. Longevity is at least nine years in captivity .and may not exceed more than four years in the wild, although the lifespan of captive skates may reflect the life span in a natural environment (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002, Ishimaya 1951).<br/><br/>The gestation period is recorded at 63?80 days (at an average daily temperature of 25ºC) (C.H. Jeong et al. unpublished data), 128?146 days (average daily temperature 14.6ºC) and about 130 days (average daily temperature 14ºC in captivity Abe 1983). Females reproduce throughout the year, except in January, and their fecundity is estimated to be higher than many other skates due to a lifetime fecundity of at least 300 capsules, with some individuals producing up to 600 egg capsules over four years (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002). Egg-capsules are produced alternately from left and right oviducts and intervals between egg-laying were usually found to be three to six days (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002). C.H. Jeong (unpublished data) found that one or two egg-capsules were produced per day, with one to three day intervals between egg-laying. The fecundity of this species is aided by a switch from somatic to reproductive growth after it reaches around 55 cm TL (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Eggs are oblong capsules with stiff pointed horns at the corners deposited in sandy or muddy flats. Egg capsules are 4.8?6.6 cm long and 2.9?3.7 cm wide (C.H. Jeong unpublished data).	eng
161645	population	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	There is no population information for this species but it is reportedly common throughout its range (H. Ishihara pers. obs.).	eng
161645	threats	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is thought to be one of the most dominant batoid fishes from Korea (especially in the Yellow Sea), and also maybe in northern Japanese and northwestern Pacific waters. <em>Okamejei kenojei</em> is largely taken as commercial target species in South Korea, all year except in midsummer.<br/><br/>This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal set nets in Japan and China, and in bottom trawl in Taiwan. Although it is not a target species in these areas, it is retained and utilised. In Taiwan, Province of China, and China, it is used for fishmeal (Y. Wang pers. comm.). In Japan its wings are eaten dried or processed into fishcakes (Kamaboko), (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Areas of this species? range, including the East China and Yellow Seas have been intensively exploited during past decades (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al. </em>2002).	eng
161646	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de and McCord, M.E., 2007	None in place. Research is needed on the abundance of this species, its life-history parameters and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161646	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de and McCord, M.E., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: originally described from off Beira, Mozambique (Lloris and Rucabado 1991), <em>N. rierai</em> is now known to have a wider distribution along the continental slope of eastern Africa to Somalia, with specimens also collected from off Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161646	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de and McCord, M.E., 2007	<em>Narcine rierai</em> has been captured in waters ranging from roughly 169–500 m depth. However, it is probably not frequently found beyond around 300m depth, as the continental shelf and slope are very narrow off Tanzania and Somalia where it has been captured (Carvalho 1999).<br/><br/>The size at maturity of this species has been estimated at around 26.5 cm total length (TL) for females and 23.5 cm TL for males (Carvalho 1999). It is reported to reach a maximum size of at least 30.1 cm TL (Heemstra 1995). Size at birth is at least 7.3 cm TL (Carvalho 1999).	eng
161646	population	Carvalho, M.R. de and McCord, M.E., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161646	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de and McCord, M.E., 2007	Bycatch in local and foreign trawl fisheries. Offshore trawl fisheries target shrimp and lobster off Mozambique and may capture this species as bycatch (www.wiofish.org), although no specific information on its capture. Expansion of the deepwater shrimp fishery operating off Mozambique is likely (Afonso 2006). Shrimp trawl fisheries also operate off Somalia and Tanzania and may take this species, but no information is currently available on depths of operation.<br/>Some specimens of this species were captured together suggesting aggregation, which is a characteristic that increases the vulnerability of this taxon to depletion by fisheries.	eng
161647	conservation	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2004	Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161647	distribution	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2004	Eastern Indian Ocean: known only from off central Western Australia (between Shark and Nickol Bays) (in an area of possibly <20,000 km²) (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161647	habitat	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2004	A small deepwater species, the Ghost Skate is found at depths of 590?760 m and attains at least 44.8 cm total length (TL) and 22.2 cm disc width (DW) (Last and McEachran 2006). Males mature at >36 cm TL (Last and McEachran 2006). Its biology is virtually unknown as it is known from only a few localities. Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.	eng
161647	population	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161647	threats	Huveneers, C. & Last, P.R., 2004	This species is susceptible to capture as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries. Exploratory fishing for scampi and deepwater prawns began in the mid-1980s off Western Australia. This species is taken in reasonable numbers as bycatch of the scampi fishery. This fishery has seen a minor decline in the target species and fishing effort may also have affected the population size of this skate. Renewed interest in the prawn fishery could lead to this species becoming more seriously threatened. The Western Deepwater Trawl Fishery operates within this species? range, targeting other bony fishes (including boarfish, ?bugs?, snappers and breams) at depths >200 m, and may take this species as bycatch (http://www.affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/pg204_221.pdf). This relatively small fishery (currently up to 11 vessels and 15 endorsements) takes some elasmobranch bycatch but its composition has not been determined. The species? narrow geographic and depth distribution means that fishing activities could have a serious effect on the population and investigation is required to determine the impact of fisheries within its range.	eng
161648	conservation	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	No specific measures in place. <br/><br/>There is little effective management of inshore fishing activities in Ecuador and Peru. Specific management regulations have been lacking, but the recent development of a shark plan for Ecuador and recently introduced measures should lead to improvements. In Ecuador, Decree 2130 banned target fisheries and fin trade in 2004, but implementation and enforcement was insufficient and fins continued to be exported illegally. The export of fins is not banned in Peru. Subsequently, Decree 486 permitted trade in fins from bycatch, mandated the full utilisation of all shark meat, and required monitoring of all bycatch and a licensing system for the trade of fins. This decree provided an important means of monitoring shark catches.	eng
161648	distribution	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	Eastern central Pacific: Coos Bay, Oregon, USA to Gulf of California, Mexico (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). Southeast Pacific: Ecuador and Peru (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>This is one of the most commonly found sharks in bays and estuaries, particularly in San Francisco, Tomales, and Humboldt Bay (Compagno 1984, Love 1991). Nursery areas have been reported from central and northern California, specifically in Tomales Bay (Bane and Bane, 1971), San Francisco Bay (De Wit 1975, Yudin 1987) and Humboldt Bay (Yudin 1987). At the moment there are no known nursery areas for M. henlei in the Gulf of California.	eng
161648	habitat	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	An abundant inshore to offshore, cold-temperate to warm-temperate or subtropical bottom-dwelling shark of continental shelves, found from the intertidal region to at least 200 m depth, and very common in enclosed, shallow muddy bays (Compagno 1984). In the northern Gulf of California has been caught from 30?266 m but it is mainly distributed at depths greater than 100 m (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). It is seasonally abundant in inshore estuarine waters during the spring and summer when it pups, but moves offshore during the winter months when salinity drops due to increased freshwater runoff (Compagno 1984, Yudin 1987, Flemming 1999, Ebert 2003). Of the three species of smooth hounds off the west coast of North America, it is the most cold-tolerant, being apparently resident in cold-temperate northern California (Compagno 1984, Compagno in preparation).<br/><br/>It is viviparous, with a yolk sac placenta, and litter sizes range from 1?10 (Compagno 1984, Ebert 2003). They grow quite rapidly during the first few years of life, but growth slows at maturity. Age at maturity is 2?3 years for females and three years for males (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Size at maturity is 51?66 cm total length (TL) for females and 52?66 for males (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Longevity is about 13 years and the species reaches a maximum size of 100 cm TL (Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Reproduction is annual, with a gestation period of 10?12 months (Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin 1987) and litter size ranging from 1?10 off central California (Compagno 1984, Ebert 2003) and 1?21 (average 11) in the northern Gulf of California (Pérez-Jiménez 2006). Size at birth is 19?30 cm TL (De Wit 1975, Pérez-Jiménez 2006, Yudin and Cailliet 1990). Average reproductive age (generation period) is estimated at 4.7 years (Cortés 2000). Annual rate of population increase is 1.163 (95% C.I. 1.021-1.427) (Cortés 2000) and natural mortality is 0.295 (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>The movement patterns appear to be fairly localized, although one individual traveled 96 miles in three months. In the Gulf of California, they exhibit seasonal migrations. They move about in discrete groups of sharks of similar age, size, and sex. In San Francisco Bay, the sex ratio changes over time and space, with females predominating at times (4.5:1) and males predominating at other times (1:4). These sharks are an important prey item for the sevengill shark in Humboldt and San Francisco Bays (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>Off San Francisco, California parturition period reportedly occurs from March to May (Bane and Bane 1971) or from May to December (De Wit 1975), and between Santa Cruz and San Francisco, California from January to August (Yudin 1987).<br/><br/>Pregnant females with terminal embryos are abundant (sometimes 50% of sampled individuals) northeast and east of Angel de la Guarda Island (Northern Gulf of California) from late January-late April. So, parturition in the northern Gulf of California has been estimated to occur from late January to late April (Pérez-Jiménez 2006).<br/><br/>Because <em>M. henlei</em> is a fast growing species, with low longevity, early age at first maturity (Yudin and Cailliet 1990) and with a relatively high fecundity (1?21 pups every year and more in the largest females, in the northern Gulf of California according to Pérez-Jiménez 2006), it has a high capacity for recovery from fishing pressure (Smith 1998).<br/><br/>The diet of this species in California waters consist of crustaceans, cephalopods, echiuran and polychaete worms, bony fishes and their eggs, tunicates and bivalves (Herald and Ripley 1951, De Wit 1975, Talent 1982, Russo 1975, Haeseker and Czech 1993, Ebert 2003).	eng
161648	population	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	A common to abundant shark where it occurs. The microdistribution and population structure of this species may be very localized and spotty (Compagno in prep.). It is locally abundant in bays north of Monterey, California, with extensive populations in San Francisco, Tomales, and Humbolt bays (Castro 1996). No decline in catches or population has been observed in any region for <em>M. henlei</em>.	eng
161648	threats	Pérez-Jiménez, J.C. & Carlisle, A.B., 2004	Interest to fisheries is considerable (Compagno in prep.). The species is fished commercially in the Gulf of California, Mexico (Compagno in prep.). Off California they are probably taken as bycatch, although there is no commercial fishery for this species (Ebert 2003). They are primarily caught by recreational anglers in San Francisco Bay and elsewhere along the coast, but not in significant numbers (Ebert 2003).<br/><br/>In the northern Gulf of California, Mexico, Mustelus species have been caught by the artisanal fleet since the 1980s (Cudney and Turk 1998) and by medium size trawler vessels since 1996, when 59 shrimp trawler vessels obtained fishing permits to catch finfish and elasmobranch species during the non-shrimp fishing season. This small shark species is also caught as bycatch, although it is believed that only small numbers are caught because the trawling operations for catching shrimp are shallower than the main distribution area of this small shark species (Sustentabilidad y Pesca Responsible en México: Evaluación y manejo 1997?1998).<br/><br/>In the northern Gulf of California it is commonly caught (the highest catches being of 150 kgh<sup>-1</sup>) in demersal trawlers operating from January to June at depths greater than 100 m, which are targeting Pacific Hake (<em>Merluccius productus</em>). The species is very commonly caught by the artisanal fishery in the upper Gulf of California, which targets ?Baqueta? (<em>Epinephelus acanthistius</em>) using bottom set longlines. It is sometimes quite abundant in these catches from November to March (Cudney and Turk 1998). In this region it is less commonly caught in bottom gill-nets.<br/><br/>Marquez-Farias (2000) stated that in the Sonora state (northeastern Gulf of California) <em>M. henlei</em> was the most abundant shark species caught with gill-nets by the artisanal fishery at depths greater than 80 m. This mainly occurs during the autumn and winter months when this, and other small shark species (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>, <em>M. lunulatus</em> and <em>M. californicus</em>), make seasonal migrations. During this period, catch rates as high as 1,200?1,500 individuals per fishing trip have been reported. In the Pacific, off Santa Rosalillita, Baja California (approximately 400 km south of Ensenada) there are high catch rates of Mustelus species (possibly mainly M. californicus and M. henlei). During the period from May to September of 2001, 4,638 kg of <em>Mustelus</em> species were caught (Rodríguez-Medrano and Almeda-Jauregui 2002).<br/><br/>Various fisheries (mainly artisanal) along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru land sharks, including houndsharks, as bycatch. In some cases sharks have been specifically targeted, however target fisheries for sharks were prohibited in Ecuador in 2004 (see Conservation Measures section).<br/><br/>Catch statistics are generally limited, with inadequate monitoring of fishing activities and landings. Bostock and Herdson (1985) estimated that in the early 1980s small-scale fishers landed some 1,800?2,000 t of sharks per year off Ecuador. Later catch estimates from only a subset of landing ports amounted to ~4,000 t/year for 1993?1995. Martínez (1999) noticed a reduction in shark landings in small-scale coastal fisheries in Ecuador in more recent years when compared with those of the early 1980s.	eng
161649	conservation	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161649	distribution	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Western Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) and the Philippines (Compagno in prep.). Eastern Indian Ocean: Shark Bay, Western Australia (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno in prep.).	eng
161649	habitat	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater species is found at depths of 100–900 m on the upper continental slope (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 1989, S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). The species attains a maximum length of 50 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994). Reproduction is presumably ovoviviparous. Data from Suruga Bay indicates that males reach maturity at 33 cm total length (TL) and females at 40 cm TL, with size at birth 11–13 cm TL (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Eight pregnant females observed had 5–13 embryos (average 8.2) (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). In Suruga Bay, the maximum size observed was 44 cm for a male shark and 49 cm for a female (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Small sharks (less than 20 cm TL) feed on crustaceans, especially Euphausidae and Sergestidae, and cephalopods, and larger sharks feed mainly on fishes (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161649	population	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Population size is unknown. In Suruga Bay, CPUE (number of sharks per a tow of bottom trawl net) of this shark was 1.01 from 1996 to 1998 (S. Tanaka pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161649	threats	McCormack, C. & Tanaka, S., 2008	Not targeted in any fishery but may be caught incidentally in deepwater trawl fisheries. Deepwater fisheries are limited off the Philippines at present. Fisheries targeting deepwater dogfish do operate there, but these mainly target <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Squalus </span>species (Flores 2004, Guadiano and Alava 2003). In Suruga Bay, Japan, this shark is incidentally caught from 100–450 m depth (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). Off southern Japan, the number of bottom trawlers operating is decreasing with the declining catches of valuable fish (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007). This species is probably an occasional bycatch in the Western Deepwater Trawl fishery off Western Australia, but there are few boats in operation and this is not considered to pose a significant threat (J. Stevens pers. comm. 2007, Patterson and Whitelaw 2007).	eng
161650	conservation	Human, B., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. However the population appears to be stable given the anecdotal evidence. Appropriate habitat and catch monitoring is recommended for the near future.	eng
161650	distribution	Human, B., 2008	Southeast Atlantic Ocean and Western Indian Ocean. Southern African endemic occurring from north of Lüderitz, Namibia, south along the west coast of South Africa. A recent taxonomic revision of this genus has identified <em>H. pictus</em> ranging eastwards to at least the Storms River mouth, South Africa, southwestern Indian Ocean (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989, Human 2003, 2007).<br/><br/>No information available is available on its population structure, however it is likely, given the sedentary nature of this species that population sub-structuring may exist (Human 2003, 2007).	eng
161650	habitat	Human, B., 2008	Preferred habitat for this species appears to be kelp forest and rocky reef. Although not observed in sandy habitats, it presumably traverses these to move between rocky outcrops and fragmented kelp beds. Although the depth range is unknown, <em>H. pictus</em> is apparently confined to shallow inshore waters given that all specimens examined by Human (2003, 2007) were collected very close to shore and <em>H. pictus</em> not been taken in any research trawls undertaken by the research vessel ?Africana?, further confirming its inshore habitat.<br/><br/>A breeding season is apparently absent (Bertolini 1993). <em>H. pictus</em> has extended single oviparity, depositing one egg case at a time (von Bonde 1945a, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984b, Bertolini 1993, Dainty <em>et al</em>. 2001, and Dainty 2002). Gestation is six to ten months with hatchlings between 10.2?11.7 cm TL (Dainty 2002). Dainty (2002) determined that at 50% maturity <em>H. pictus</em> is 15 years old and that they live to be 25 years old.<br/><br/>Maximum size is probably about 60 cm TL (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975). Males are embryonic at 10.3 cm TL, juvenile at 16.5?36.9 cm TL, adolescent at 28.2?40.7 cm TL, and mature at 40.0?57.0 cm TL. Females are juvenile at 11.0?30.6 cm TL, adolescent at 43.0?53.3 cm TL, and mature at 35.9?59.7 cm TL (Human 2003, 2007).	eng
161650	population	Human, B., 2008	This is an apparently abundant species, regularly seen by divers and rock and surf anglers (Human 2003, 2007). There are no quantitative data available on abundance or population structuring.	eng
161650	threats	Human, B., 2008	The main threat is recreational fishing where this shark is commonly taken as discarded bycatch, generally regarded as a nuisance by the fishermen, and persecuted as such. Survival rates from recreational angling are unknown, although are presumed to be low (Human 2003, 2007). It is not seen in other inshore fishery activities (Human 2003, 2007). A possible threat, due to the very shallow habitat preference for this endemic species, is this sharks potential vulnerability to habitat degradation. The recreational catch of this species needs to be monitored, and the fishers educated. Habitat loss is a minor threat, as its range in southern Namibia and northwest South Africa coincide with relatively low human population densities, although its range east of, and including, Cape Town, falls within coastline that is relatively densely populated by humans.	eng
161651	conservation	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State’s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. parvimculatus</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed within specific regional limits via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery’s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery’s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30’ S latitude to 120' E longitude off the north coast, which may includes the northern extent of the species’ range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA	eng
161651	distribution	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia from Shark Bay (26°54′S, 113°00′E) to Mandurah (32°26′S, 115°41′E) (Last and Chidlow 2008).	eng
161651	habitat	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Found on the continental shelf at depths of 9–135 m. The species reaches at least 94.3 cm total length (TL). Male specimens were mature by 70.6 cm TL and female specimens by 87.6 cm TL. The smallest early postnatal juvenile known measured 20.8 cm TL (Last and Chidlow 2008).	eng
161651	population	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Unknown but is much less frequently observed in gillnet and trawl bycatches than other orectolobids (especially <em>O. hutchinsi</em>).	eng
161651	threats	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	<em>Orectolobus parvimaculatus</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs were also briefly targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery’s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35–68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007 unpublished data). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al. </em>2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. parvimaculatus</em> is believed to be a minor component of those aggregated catches.<br/><br/>Smaller orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow<em> et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs cannot generally be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson 1999). Assuming the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is similar to that of the commercial gillnet fishery, <em>O. parvimaculatus</em> is also likely to be a minor component of recreational catches.	eng
161652	conservation	Human, B., 2008	None currently in place. Recently an offshore observer program has been launched in South Africa, and observers should be placed on demersal trawlers in the KwaZulu-Natal region, and should be trained to identify and record all catches of this species (W. Sawer pers. comm. 2008). Recommend that surveys, including a habitat assessment for KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique be conducted below 200 m.<br/><br/>Under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) (Anon 2004).	eng
161652	distribution	Human, B., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: the known range of this shark, as assessed from Oceanographic Research Institute , Durban (ORI) records (Human 2006) is restricted to five degrees of latitude along the east African coast, from off Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (north of 30°S), and from off southern Mozambique (south of 25°S) (Human 2006).	eng
161652	habitat	Human, B., 2008	Very little data is available on the habitat and ecology of this shark. It is found on the upper to mid slope at depths of 200–1,000 m. Maximum size for <em>H. favus</em> is 51.5 cm total length (TL). Males are immature at 19.3 cm TL and mature at 51.5 cm TL. Females are adolescent at 29.1 cm TL and mature at 42.3 cm TL. It is probable that this shark develops one egg-case per uterus at a time, as do other members of this genus (Human 2006).	eng
161652	population	Human, B., 2008	<em>H. favus</em> probably exists as a single population. The population size is unknown, although it is presumed to have suffered a substantial decline in recent years.<br/><br/>This shark was historically regularly recorded from fishing trawls within its geographic range, however, it has not been recorded since the mid-1970s. It was historically recorded from commercial and research bottom trawls made at depths of 200–420 m off KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and 240–740 m in southern Mozambique. Examination of data sheets collected for this species by the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban, indicates that this shark was not uncommon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Since the 1970s no specimens have been collected, even with recent biodiversity research cruises (2002 and 2003) and biodiversity trawl surveys in that region as part of the Coelacanth (<em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>) project in progress (P. Heemstra pers. comm.; Human 2006). This species was not recorded from more recent FRS Algoa surveys conducted off Mozambique, or during a Fridtjof Nansen survey cruise off Mozambique during 2007, although other deepwater demersal sharks were captured (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2008). The cause for this apparent decline is not known. Catch rates for this species were stable during the late 1960s to the early 1970s (ORI datasheets), followed by an abrupt lack of occurrence in trawls, therefore the decline does not appear to be related to fishing pressure (although this is uncertain). The ORI data sheets, used to refer to the previous abundance of this species, are species-specific and include morphometric data as well as sketches and notes on the sharks appearance. There is little doubt that these records refer to <em>H. favus</em>, and are indicative of the previous abundance of this species.	eng
161652	threats	Human, B., 2008	An intensive crustacean trawl fishery exists off of Durban, and extends northwards into southern Mozambique. This deep water (100–600 m) crustacean fishery fishes towards the edge of the continental shelf in the area (Fennessy and Groenveld 1997).<br/><br/><em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks from the KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique region are still present in commercial fisheries landings, but apparently only rarely (N. Kistnasamy, pers. comm.), and species identification is not being recorded. It is not known whether the reduced catch is due to fisheries pressure, habitat loss, pollution, or an as yet unidentified threat (Human 2006).	eng
161653	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2008	Research is required to better determine population numbers and range, biology, ecology and habitat status of this species so that appropriate conservation measures can be formulated.	eng
161653	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2008	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: from at least as far north as Lüderitz in Namibia, off Port Nolloth and Cape Point and through to the Eastern Cape KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to Mozambique, Madagascar and Kenya.<br/><br/>FAO fishing areas: 47 and 51.	eng
161653	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2008	Found in deep waters at 50?970 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007), it may be more common in the Eastern Cape and deeper waters with most records from the upper slope at 400?500 m (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991). Attains up to 190 cm total length (Compagno and Ebert 2007). This benthic species probably exhibits the life history characteristics of large, deep demersal chondrichthyans: slow growth, late maturity, low fecundity and long life span which makes it ?potentially vulnerable to extinction? (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Feeds on fishes including rat tails and round herring, crabs and squids (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161653	population	Smale, M.J., 2008	Although relatively widely distributed, it appears uncommon in deep trawls and may be rare. It may be more common in the Eastern Cape and deeper trawls, but more exploratory work is required to determine this.	eng
161653	threats	Smale, M.J., 2008	Potential threats would be increased deep water and hake-directed trawling and long-line fishing on the slope in a greater proportion of its range. This is presently unlikely along the southern and eastern Agulhas bank where the Agulhas Current and reef structure along the shelf and slope makes deep water trawling dangerous. Increased fishing in deep waters is likely given the depletion of more readily accessible shallower resources. However, with the recent increase in fuel price and increase in availability of prawns from aquaculture operations, offshore deepwater trawling off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Dr S.T Fennessy, Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban pers. comm., May 2008), the threat to this species as a bycatch may have diminished locally at least off the east coast. Off Mozambique, there has been some EU exploratory fishing in deep water, but it is currently unclear how this will develop, although diminishing catches by fisheries worldwide will likely cause increased deepwater trawling which is a potential threat to this and other deepwater taxa.	eng
161654	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	None in place. Research is required on this species occurrence, habitat, life-history and threats.	eng
161654	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest Pacific: known only from the east coast of Taiwan, Province of China (Teng 1959, Chen and Chung 1971).	eng
161654	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	No information is available on the biology, ecology or habitat of this species.	eng
161654	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is known only from the type specimens, collected from Keelung fish market, Taiwan, and no information is available on the population.	eng
161654	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is available.	eng
161655	conservation	Brash, J.M., Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	No specific measures in place. Monitoring of population trends is needed.	eng
161655	distribution	Brash, J.M., Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: Australian endemic. Occurs from Geraldton (Western Australia) to Port Lincoln (South Australia) (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161655	habitat	Brash, J.M., Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	Occurs at depths of 50?200 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Males mature at 46 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum of ~52 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161655	population	Brash, J.M., Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The species does not appear to be common and is rare in collections (Last and Stevens 1994).	eng
161655	threats	Brash, J.M., Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D., 2008	The whole of this species? range off West and South Australia is lightly fished and therefore fishing pressure is not considered a major threat at present. <em>Irolita waitii</em> is caught as bycatch (P. Last CSIRO Hobart pers. obs. 2007.), although infrequently, despite several fisheries in its range that target multiple teleost species. Integrated Scientific Monitoring Program (ISMP) fishery observers noted that of 5,927 kg caught, (over an unknown time period) none were retained. Nothing is known about discard survival in this species. Habitat quality may be being reduced as a result of trawling practices, but the extent of the impact on this species is unknown.	eng
161656	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V. Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures in place. Further surveys are required to better define the species' distribution, depth range and biology. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region.	eng
161656	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V. Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida (USA), Bahamas, throughout the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, and the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, eastern Colombia and western Venezuela (McEachran and Carvalho 2002, J.D. McEachran pers. comm.).<br/><br/>FAO Area: 31.	eng
161656	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V. Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Occurs on the outer continental shelf and slope at depths of 56?1,096 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Males mature at 31?34 cm total length (TL) and the species reaches a maximum size of 36 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology.	eng
161656	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V. Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	No information available.	eng
161656	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V. Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be taken as bycatch in deeper water trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, and potentially elsewhere. There is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities.	eng
161657	conservation	Soto, J.M.R., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Policy-based and research actions are required to protect this species. Habitat maintenance and conservation actions are also needed, such as creation and maintenance of protected areas. The construction of hydroelectric plants in the Paraná-Paraguay River system should be controlled. Education and public awareness of potamotrygonids is essential due to the negative image of these species. Monitoring and regulation of harvest levels and trade for ornamental purposes is also needed.<br/><br/>Please also refer to checklist below.	eng
161657	distribution	Soto, J.M.R., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	South America inland waters: endemic to the Paraná and Paraguay River basins. Recorded from Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Rosa 1985, Nion <em>et al.</em> 2002, Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003, Araújo <em>et al.</em> 2004). Records from Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru and the Amazon basin probably represent misidentifications due to confusion with similar species (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2003, assessor?s pers. obs.).	eng
161657	habitat	Soto, J.M.R., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	There is little information available on the life history of this species. Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) suggested that reproduction takes place in the upper portion of the Paraná River. Newborns have been observed in early summer and adults with of 30?40 cm disc width (DW) are common. The maximum weight observed is ~15 kg. Two females from the lower Paraná River (33 and 36 cm DW) contained nine and six embryos, respectively (Soto unpublished data).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976), in general observations considering this and other species of potamotrygonids in the mid Paraná River system, indicated that neonates feed on plankton and then gradually change their diet to small molluscs, crustaceans (crabs), insect larvae, small fish and other food items.	eng
161657	population	Soto, J.M.R., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	There is no life history or population data for this poorly known freshwater ray. The main area of occurrence for this species is apparently the Paraná-Paraguay River confluence, where it is considered relatively abundant (Soto pers. obs.).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) indicate that this species is more abundant in the Paraná and Colastiné Rivers and seems to prefer ?open waters? (probably preferring to wider areas instead of small streams). Seasonal migrations (upstream of the Paraná River) have also been indicated (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976).	eng
161657	threats	Soto, J.M.R., Charvet-Almeida, P. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	This and other southern freshwater stingray species are taken as a food source and are considered to have delicious meat. They are harpooned by fishermen when sighted resting in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is a small amount of fishing for the more attractively patterned juveniles to supply the ornamental fish trade. This species is illegally exported from Brazil and no information is available regarding its captures for the international trade (Araújo<em> et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>The major threats are likely to be from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Paraná River system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river (infrastructure development). Agriculture, various kinds of water pollution, human disturbance and intrinsic factors also are considered threats for this species.	eng
161658	conservation	Ha, D., Luer, C. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Biological data for this species is over 50 years old. Before any further recommendation can be made, more life history studies (including age, growth, maturity, and fecundity studies) are necessary. Studies of stock structure are also needed to identify unit stocks.	eng
161658	distribution	Ha, D., Luer, C. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	Northwest and western central Atlantic: found from Massachusetts to southern Florida and eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. However, this species is rarely captured north of Cape Cod (Packer <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
161658	habitat	Ha, D., Luer, C. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	This skate prefers inshore areas and is found from saltwater estuaries to depths of 330 m. However, it is most abundant at depths <111 m (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species prefers inshore areas of 10–21°C and feeds mainly on decapod crustaceans, bivalves, polychaetes, squids and fishes. It breeds inshore, and reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, with oblong egg capsules deposited in sandy or muddy flats.<br/><br/>Both males and females are reported to mature at 49–58 cm total length (TL) (Fitz and Diaber 1963). Females are reported to mature at four to six years of age, and males at two to four years (Fitz and Diaber 1963). Longevity is >5 years (Fitz and Diaber 1963). The species reaches a maximum size of 84 cm TL (Fitz and Diaber 1963) and size at birth is 12–15 cm (Luer pers comm.).	eng
161658	population	Ha, D., Luer, C. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	No detailed information on population size or subpopulations exists, however, maximum size and size at maturity varies with latitude, the largest individuals occur at highest latitudes (McEachran 2002).The biomass of this species has steadily decreased over the last five years, over its reported range (NEFMC 2006). Average catch rates of this species during NMFS trawl surveys decreased from 0.75 kg/tow in 2002–2004 to 0.63 kg/tow in 2003–2005 (NEFMC 2006). Although the NMFS does not consider this species overfished in its 2006 assessment, the steady decline in biomass during the past five years, coupled with the species’ potentially limiting life-history characteristics suggests that population trends should be carefully monitored. The 2006 NMFS assessment made no projections or forecasts of expected future population trends, and fishing pressure is continuing. Myers <em>et al.</em> (2007) examined trends in abundance for this species along the eastern coast of the USA, from six different surveys and found it to be increasing in three surveys during 1984–2004, 1967–2005, and 1974–2005 (statistically significant, <0.0001), decreasing in one survey during 1966–2004 (statistically significant, <0.0001), with no apparent trend in two others during 1989–2005 and 1988–2004.	eng
161658	threats	Ha, D., Luer, C. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	The principal commercial fishing method that affects this species of skate (or any other skate species for that matter) is otter trawling. Although no directed fishery exists for this species, this skate is frequently taken as bycatch during groundfish trawling and scallop dredge operations (Packer <em>et al</em>. 2003). However, the quantitative impacts of this fishing method on this species is unknown at this time. Discarded recreational and foreign landings are currently insignificant, at <1% of the total fishery landings (Packer <em>et al.</em> 2003). In the past, imprecise reporting of fishery statistics combined skate species under one category. This has made assessment and monitoring of directed and indirect fishing pressure impossible. However, this has recently changed and should allow for the assessment of individual species and the impacts of commercial fishing practices on their populations.	eng
161659	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	No specific measures in place. Despite this skate occurring in areas protected by CCAMLR, pirate fisheries and accidental captures of this bycatch are a problem that may be mitigated by surface release of this skate.	eng
161659	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Antarctic and southern Indian Ocean: known only from slopes around Kerguelen Islands at present.	eng
161659	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	This skate is found at depths of 300–1,200 m (Stehmann and Burkel 1990). Reaches a maximum size of at least 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1990), possibly larger. Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of this species’ biology.	eng
161659	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161659	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	This species is threatened by increased longlining and trawling for fishes in the region, particularly the legal and pirate fishery for toothfish. This species is taken as bycatch of toothfish fisheries operating in this area and probably discarded. Fishing effort in the Patagonian Toothfish (<em>Dissostichus eleginoides</em>) fishery concentrated in the Southern Ocean, has increased in recent years, largely due to illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in this region (Lack and Sant 2001). Lack and Sant (2001) identified the Kerguelen Islands, where this species is possibly endemic, as a hotspot for IUU fishing activity. High levels of unregulated fishing pressure throughout this species’ range are unlikely to be sustainable, particularly as this species is likely to have limiting life-history characteristics, similar to other deepwater skates.	eng
161660	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	None known.	eng
161660	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Indian Ocean: known from Oman, the Gulf of Oman and from both sides of the Bay of Bengal, off Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Carvalho and Randall 2003).	eng
161660	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	A poorly known, inshore species that has been captured to depths of at least 27 m (Carvalho and Randall 2003).Three late-term male pups were extracted from one female caught in the Gulf of Oman (Carvalho and Randall 2003). Sizes ranged from 10.3?11.3 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003). One pup (10.7 cm TL) possessed remnants of the yolk stalk and sac. The size of free-swimming individuals is estimated to be close to 10.7 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003).  The in utero arrangement is unknown as pups were aborted upon capture. Male size at sexual maturity is unknown. Three adult females have been captured, with sizes ranging from 29.8?36.0 cm TL (Carvalho and Randall 2003).	eng
161660	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Apparently very patchy within range and only very rarely recorded.	eng
161660	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Intensive demersal fisheries operate across the known range of this species. Its shallow coastal habitat has been subject to repeated trawling over many years and fishing pressure is continuing. Few specimens have been studied and known specimens come from widely separated and patchy areas. Artisanal fishing pressure is intense in shallow waters of the northern Indian Ocean, for example, more than 15,022 small traditional craft (48% motorised) operate in the lagoons and coastal areas of Sri Lanka (Flewwelling and Hosch 2006). No specific information is available on catches of <em>N. atzi, </em>as species-specific data are not recorded, however, the high level of exploitation on its habitat is of concern. As <em>N. atzi </em>is only known to occur in shallow water it is also likely that habitat degradation due to pollution/human interference is impacting it in parts of its range.	eng
161661	conservation	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	Since 2005 target fishing has been prohibited for all skate species in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). <em>Bathyraja</em> species are presently managed within the Gulf of Alaska ?other skates? assemblage, but continued, accurate monitoring of skate landings is required to ensure that any increased commercial interest in Bathyraja spp is identified in time for appropriate management measures to be implemented (Ormseth and Matta 2007).<br/><br/>Monitoring of catches is also required elsewhere, throughout this species? range, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand world-wide. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161661	distribution	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	Northwest and Northeast Pacific: widespread, from Chiba Prefecture, Japan to Cape Navarin, western and northern Sea of Okhotsk, Russia. In the Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska, USA and British Columbia, Canada and to Cape Mendocino, northern California, USA (Hoff 2002, Ebert 2003, Ishihara 1990, Stevenson 2004, Orlov <em>et. al.</em> 2006, Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Dolganov 1999).	eng
161661	habitat	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	The Aleutian Skate is a large deepwater skate, reaching a maximum size of 154 cm total length (TL) (Ebert 2005). It inhabits the outer continental shelf and upper slope on muddy substrates (Ebert 2003), and occurs at depths of 15-1,602 m (Mecklenburg <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ormseth and Matta 2007a,b, Sheiko and Fedorov 2000).Females mature at 9-10 years (Dolganov 1998b), at a size of 112-133 cm TL (averaging 125 cm in the Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003). Males mature at 8-9 years (Dolganov 1998b), at a size of 108-116cm TL (averaging 113 cm TL in the Gulf of Alaska (Dolganov 1998b, Ebert 2003).<br/>In the eastern Bering Sea, egg cases are deposited between June and November, at depths of 250-500 m (Teshima and Tomonaga 1986, Ebert 2003), whilst in Asian waters, they are reportedly deposited all year round (Dolganov 1998b, Glubokov and Orlov 2000). Nursery grounds in the southern part of its range are unknown (Ebert 2003). Egg capsules measure 117-136 x 73-97 mm and size at birth is 12-15 cm TL (Dolganov 1998b).	eng
161661	population	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	The only bottom trawl surveys carried out in Russian waters were between 1977 and 1997, which resulted in biomass estimates of 87,700t for the Aleutian Skate (comprising 27,800 t in the western Bering Sea, 5,100 t off the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka and 54,800 t in the Sea of Okhotsk (Dolganov 1999).<br/><br/>A positive CPUE trend was observed in the Pacific waters off the northern Kuril Islands and southeastern Kamchatka between 1993?2000, however a slight decline in CPUE was detected in 2000 (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/><em>Bathyraja</em> species compose about one third of total skate biomass in the Gulf of Alaska, and the majority of these are <em>B. aleutica</em> (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). In the eastern Bering Sea, the Aleutian Skate is the dominant species on the slope (although Alaska Skate (<em>Bathyraja parmifera</em>) dominates skate biomass in shelf waters and overall in this area) (Ormseth and Matta 2007a,b). Biomass estimates of <em>B. aleutica</em> from fishery-independent bottom trawl surveys in the Gulf of Alaska increased from 11,293 in 1999 to 25,255 in 2007 (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). Inconsistencies in survey coverage and species identification were noted though. Nothing is known about the population status or abundance of this species in other parts of its range.	eng
161661	threats	Davis, C.D., Ebert, D.A., Ishihara, H., Orlov, A. & Compagno, L.J.V., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska (Gaichas 2003, Ormseth and Matta 2007ab), and probably elsewhere throughout its range in the eastern Pacific. A target fishery for skates (mainly Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>) and Big Skate (<em>Raja binoculata</em>)) developed in the Gulf of Alaska in 2003, but <em>Bathyraja</em> species constituted only a small proportion of the catch of this fishery (Ormseth and Matta 2007b). About 30% of the catch of Aleutian Skate is retained in the eastern Bering Sea (Ormseth and Matta 2007a). Directed fishing for skates was subsequently banned in the Gulf of Alaska (2005). Depth analysis of observed catch in longline fisheries targeting Pacific cod in the eastern Bering Sea, suggest that most of the skate catch occurs <200 m depth (98%) (Ormseth and Matta 2007a). Therefore this species? deep bathymetric distribution may offer refuge, outside the range of current fisheries. Although there is no target fishery at present (2008), there has been interest in developing markets for skates in Alaska and continued interest in skates as a potential future target in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands is expected (Ormseth and Matta 2007ab). Adequate monitoring is required to detect any interest in targeting <em>Bathyraja</em> species.<br/><br/>In Russian waters, this skate is a common bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries (targeting halibut and rockfishes) (Tokranov <em>et al.</em> 2005). Deepwater bottom trawl and longline fisheries are conducted in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, western and eastern Kamchatka, western Bering Sea and northern Kuril Islands but the fishing pressure is relatively low. These fisheries usually operate down to 600?800 m, i.e., within upper part of species' bathymetric range (D.A. Ebert and A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007). There are no fisheries activities in the southern and western Sea of Okhotsk, off Commander and southern Kuril Islands. There has also been interest in this skate as a potential fishery target in Russia (Orlov 2004).<br/><br/>This species is also regularly taken as bycatch in offshore bottom trawl fisheries around Japan, but no time series data are available to determine catch levels (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>No information is currently available on post-discard survivorship, but this is suspected to be low.	eng
161662	conservation	Smith, W.D., Márquez-Farias, J.F. & Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., 2008	A moratorium on the issue of elasmobranch fishing permits was issued in 1993, but no formal management plan has been implemented for R. longurio specifically or most other chondrichthyans in Mexico. However, legislation is currently being developed in Mexico to establish national elasmobranch fishery management.<br/><br/>Elasmobranch fisheries are unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate fisheries in Central America would greatly improve conservation of <em>R. longurio</em> and other chondrichthyans. Proposed measures would include a ban on shark finning and protection of specific shark species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of any fishing in the northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast is required to ensure there is no extensive removal of pups. Improved clarity in catch records would provide a basis for detecting potential trends in effort and landings. In addition to species-specific catch details, life history information including age, growth, longevity, and further reproductive studies are required.<br/><br/>There is also a requirement to obtain information on catches where little or no data are available (i.e., South America).	eng
161662	distribution	Smith, W.D., Márquez-Farias, J.F. & Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: USA, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (Compagno 1984, Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161662	habitat	Smith, W.D., Márquez-Farias, J.F. & Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., 2008	The Pacific Sharpnose Shark (<em>Rhizoprionodon longurio</em>) is a warm temperate and tropical species that occurs from the intertidal to 27 m over soft mud and sand on the continental shelf (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984). Trends in <em>R. longurio</em> landings from Sinaloa and the Gulf of California, Mexico indicate marked seasonal movement patterns (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005, Hueter <em>et al</em>. unpubl. data). The species is a primary component of artisanal elasmobranch fisheries during the Winter (January, February) and Spring months (March, April, May) but is not captured during the Summer and Autumn, when it is believed to move into deeper waters and possibly into the central Gulf of California (Kato and Hernández 1967, Márquez-Farías <em>et al. </em>2005). A tagged specimen was reported by Kato and Hernández (1967) to have travelled from the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula, north 600 miles along the Pacific coast of Baja California.<br/><br/>This species segregates by size and sex (Castillo-Géniz 1990). The northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast may serve as an important pupping area for the Mexican Pacific population (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is uncertain whether open coastal areas or estuaries are used for pupping grounds.<br/><br/>The maximum reported total length (TL) of 154 cm was recorded from Peru (Hildebrand 1946), but specimens from Mexico and Colombia are rarely observed at greater than 120 cm TL (Franke and Acero 1991, Márquez-Farías<em> et al.</em> 2005). Size at birth varies between 30 to 37 cm TL (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984, Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Castillo-Géniz (1990) reported that males mature at 93 cm TL and females at 83 cm TL. Earlier studies, however, report that males mature at 58?69 cm TL (Springer 1964, Compagno 1984) and that females are mature at 103 cm TL (Compagno 1984). Estimates of fecundity based on the number of embryos per female range between one and 12, with an average of 7.4 pups per litter (Márquez-Farías <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The gestation period is likely to be 10?12 months (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al.</em> 2005). Evidence of a potential resting period has been provided by Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. (2005), indicating that the species may possess a two year reproductive cycle. However, in the central Mexican Pacific (Nayarit coast) and in the upper Gulf of California gravid females with near-term embryos and postpartum females with extended uterus with oocytes close to being ready for ovulation have been reported. This suggests that the species has an annual cycle (Pérez-Jiménez <em>et al.</em> 2005), but further research is required to confirm this.<br/><br/>Congeners, including <em>R. taylori</em> and <em>R. terraenovae</em>, have been reported to possess a comparatively greater intrinsic rate of increase, faster growth, and higher fecundity than many elasmobranchs (Márquez-Farías and Castillo-Géniz 1998, Simpfendorfer 1999). It is possible that <em>R. longurio</em> may also be a moderately productive species. The diet of this species is dominated by teleosts and includes, to a lesser extent, cephalopods and crustaceans (Castillo-Géniz 1990, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161662	population	Smith, W.D., Márquez-Farias, J.F. & Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., 2008	Locally very abundant (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005), but no other information is available.	eng
161662	threats	Smith, W.D., Márquez-Farias, J.F. & Pérez-Jiménez, J.C., 2008	Major threats include bycatch in trawl and other artisanal fisheries using gillnets, longlines, or traps, as well as directed artisanal fisheries for elasmobanchs. This species is taken in directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries throughout the Gulf of California and Mexican Pacific using bottom set gillnets and longlines (W.D. Smith, J.F. Márquez-Farias and J.C. Pérez-Jiménez pers. obs.). Industrial trawl fisheries for shrimp are generally intense in areas of the Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific.<br/><br/>Artisanal net fisheries operate across the species? South American range, and although species-specific data are not available, the Pacific sharpnose shark is likely captured by inshore fisheries in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In Peru, pressure on inshore shark species is high, particularly houndsharks (family Triakidae), but it is likely that this shark is also a component of landings there.<br/><br/>Peak landings have been recorded from the Gulf of California and Sinaloa during the winter and spring months. The species? movement patterns, combined with changes in directed fishery effort result in relatively small landings during the rest of the year. Large juveniles and adults dominate the catches of Sinaloa and the northern Gulf of California but all size classes are present among artisanal landings (Bizzarro <em>et al</em>. 2000, Márquez-Farías <em>et al</em>. 2005). Some anecdotal evidence suggests that landings of this species may have decreased in some artisanal fisheries (W.D. Smith, J.F. Márquez-Farias and J.C. Pérez-Jiménez pers. obs.). As the northern Gulf of California and the Sonora coast may serve as an important pupping area for the Mexican Pacific population, fisheries operating in this area may pose a specific threat to the population.<br/><br/>Other human factors, particularly water pollution, probably impact this species and its inshore habitat in heavily populated areas.	eng
161663	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2005	None known to be in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, occurrence and capture in fisheries to enable reassessment. Fishery management, including National Shark Plans, and trawl fishery exclusion zones could contribute towards the conservation of this and other benthic species.	eng
161663	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2005	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea, the holotypes being from Yemen (Lloyd 1907) and subsequent records are from off Somalia (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). This species may have a wider Arabian Sea distribution, with unconfirmed reports of its occurrence from Kerala State, India (Talwar 1981).	eng
161663	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2005	Found in continental shelf waters of 73–346 m depth (Norman 1939).The maximum size reached by this species is the largest size a female has been recorded at of 25.5 cm total length (TL), with males reaching at least 22 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Males mature between 16.5 and 19.9 cm TL (Compagno and Heemstra 2007). Little else is known of this species biology.	eng
161663	population	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2005	The population size of this species is unknown, with very few specimens in collections. It appears to be rare.	eng
161663	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. and McCord, M.E., 2005	This species is taken as incidental bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries in areas that have been historically, and are currently, heavily fished, but no specific information is available. Some demersal species in the Gulf of Aden are believed to be heavily exploited, but no landings or catch data are available (Morgan 2006). Batoids are known to play an important role in Somali traditional fisheries (FAO 2008), but it is not known whether these fisheries operate within this species’ range. Further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range.	eng
161664	conservation	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	All sharks and rays are commercially protected under Western Australian law. This regulation essentially restricts the retention of all shark and ray products by commercial fishing vessels other than those operating in the State?s managed shark fishery.<br/><br/>Relative to the area known to be occupied by <em>O. floridus</em>, shark fishing effort (mainly demersal gillnet) is sparsely distributed and managed within specific regional limits via time-gear input controls. The managed shark fishery?s catches and fishing effort are routinely monitored through analyses of statutory daily/trip logbook data and the fishery?s target stocks are subject to regular stock assessments.<br/><br/>The use of commercial shark fishing gear (large mesh gillnets and demersal longlines) is prohibited north of 26°30? S latitude to 120° E longitude off the north coast, which may include the northern extent of the species? range.<br/><br/>The use of metal snoods (gangions) is commercially prohibited throughout Western Australian waters (except for a small amount of demersal longline effort in the managed shark fishery and pelagic mackerel troll lines).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers are subject to a daily bag limit of two sharks per person.<br/><br/>This species is potentially protected in the following Australian Marine Protected Areas, Marine Parks and nature reserves:<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA	eng
161664	distribution	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: an Australian endemic, known only from few individuals, all taken from the inner continental shelf off southwestern Australia between Geraldton (29°54?S, 114°30?E) and Augusta (34°33?S, 115°28?E) (Last and Chidlow 2008).	eng
161664	habitat	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Found on the inner continental shelf at depths of 42?85 m (Last and Chidlow 2008). All known specimens are either mature or almost mature. Two males are mature at 72.8 cm total length (TL) and 75 cm TL, and females varied from 67.4?71.4 cm TL (Last and Chidlow 2008). The biology of this species is poorly known but, as all known specimens were taken by demersal gillnets and none have been recorded in trawls, it is presumably associated with hard bottom habitats (Last and Chidlow 2008). The species is thought to feed on fishes, crustaceans and possibly cephalopods (Last and Chidlow 2008).	eng
161664	population	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	Known only from few specimens (Last and Chidlow 2008). Much less frequently observed in gillnet bycatches than other orectolobids (especially <em>O. hutchinsi</em>).	eng
161664	threats	Huveneers, C. & McAuley, R.B., 2008	<em>Orectolobus floridus</em> is a component of the bycatch of a commercial fishery that targets sharks, primarily with demersal gillnets off the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia. Wobbegongs were also briefly targeted by a few vessels using demersal longlines in the same fishery until the use of that gear was restricted in 2006. That fishery?s mean annual wobbegong catch was about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35?68 tonnes) between 1999 and 2006 (McAuley 2007, unpublished data). Although wobbegong catches are generally not reported to individual species, small wobbegongs (<150 cm) are selectively discarded alive (Chidlow <em>et al. </em>2007, McAuley unpublished data). Thus, <em>O. Floridus</em> is believed to be a minor component of those aggregated catches.<br/><br/>Smaller orectolobids also occur in commercial rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (Chidlow <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, as all sharks and rays are now commercially protected throughout Western Australia, wobbegongs cannot generally be retained by State-managed commercial fishing vessels unless they are operating in the managed shark fishery. <br/><br/>The retained catch of wobbegongs by recreational fishers off the west coast of Australia has been estimated at approximately 1,000 animals year<sup>-1</sup> (Sumner and Williamson 1999). Assuming the species composition of recreational wobbegong catches is similar to that of the commercial gillnet fishery, <em>O. floridus</em> is also likely to be a minor component of recreational catches.	eng
161665	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further surveys are needed to assess and monitor abundance. Research is also needed on the species’ biology and capture in fisheries.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161665	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	Northwest Pacific: occurs from off Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan Province of China, and the South China Sea near Hong Kong (Compagno and Last 1999).	eng
161665	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	A little-known but locally common inshore and offshore sleeper ray in temperate to subtropical waters (Compagno and Last 1999). Reaches a maximum total length (TL) of at least 37 cm (Compagno and Last 1999). Males mature between 23–37 cm TL and females at ~35 cm TL (Compagno and Last 1999). Little else is known of its biology.	eng
161665	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
161665	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2007	Taken as bycatch in both inshore and offshore trawl fisheries throughout its distribution where both historical and current fishing pressure is high. Batoids are heavily exploited in the Andaman Sea, where intensive trawl fisheries operate on the western coast of Thailand (Simpfendorfer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Probably not all bycatch of this species is landed, but survival of discards will presumably be very poor. Electric ray species appear to be generally less common now than previously off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Despite species-specific data on catches and population trends generally lacking for most electric rays, significant declines have been documented where data are available for species that have been heavily fished (e.g., <em>Narcine bancroftii</em>). The electric ray, <em>N. bancroftii</em>, occurs in the western Atlantic, matures at a very early age (two years) and is relatively fecund (up to 20 pups per litter). Despite this, Shepherd and Myers (2005) documented declines in <em>N. bancroftii</em>, to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5–5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by intense shrimp trawling. Similar declines were also documented in <span style="font-style: italic;">Narcine bancroftii </span>in US trawl surveys and diver surveys off Florida (Carvalho <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161666	conservation	Séret, B. & Stehmann, M., 2004	None. Monitoring of catches and further surveys are required to define the species’ full distribution, occurrence and interactions with fisheries.	eng
161666	distribution	Séret, B. & Stehmann, M., 2004	Northeast Atlantic: Iceland and slope of Rockwall Trough, northwest of Ireland, Bay of Biscay, mid-Atlantic Ridge (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Quéro <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
161666	habitat	Séret, B. & Stehmann, M., 2004	Occurs on muddy sand substrates, on the continental slope at depths of 600–1,260 m (Stehmann 1976, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008). Attains a maximum size of 32 cm total length (TL) (adult male) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Quéro <em>et al.</em> 2003). Like other skates, this species is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology. The hydrographic conditions where this species has been found suggest that appears to prefer temperatures higher than 6°C and salinity of more than 35 psu. If this is the case, then the depth range of <em>N. caerulea</em> will be limited to a maximum of about 1,300 m (Stehmann, 1976, Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
161666	population	Séret, B. & Stehmann, M., 2004	Relatively rare species, population size unknown. Since 1976, this species has been known only from the 12 specimens of the type series plus one additional damaged female, but several further records have recently been obtained with the development of deep bottom fisheries on the continental slopes and scientific exploration cruises in the eastern north Atlantic (records attested by specimens deposited in various museum collections).	eng
161666	threats	Séret, B. & Stehmann, M., 2004	This species is occasionally taken as bycatch by the expanding deep bottom trawl fisheries operating in the northeast Atlantic, although no data are available on catches. The species’ known geographic distribution appears to lie within the range of deepwater fisheries in this area.	eng
161667	conservation	Human, B., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for <em>H. kistnasamyi</em>. Habitat monitoring should be considered a priority, as habitat degradation is occurring within its known range. Environmental impact assessments need to be made for expansion of various industries around Durban.	eng
161667	distribution	Human, B., 2008	<em>Haploblepharus kistnasamyi</em> occurs in the western Indian Ocean. It is a rare South African endemic with a very restricted range; adults are known only from northern KwaZulu-Natal. The species' extent of occurrence is estimated at less than 100 km².<br/><br/>Individuals tentatively assigned as the juveniles of <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> occur in the Eastern Cape to west of Mossel Bay, Western Cape, (inshore, usually close to the coastline) (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006). These juvenile records require verification and therefore they have been excluded from this assessment.<br/><br/>Specimens have not been obtained from elsewhere, despite trawl surveys conducted between the Western and Eastern Capes (Wallace <em>et al.</em> 1984, Buxton <em>et al.</em> 1984).	eng
161667	habitat	Human, B., 2008	This shark occurs inshore, usually close to the coastline. Its preferred habitat appears to be rocky and coral reefs, and sandy habitats, with a depth range from intertidal to 30 m depth (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).<br/><br/>The life history of <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> is virtually unknown as most of the biological data available for this species is referable to <em>Haploblepharus edwardsii</em>. Males are juvenile at 31.5?35.4 cm total length (TL), and mature at 50.4 cm TL. Females are embryonic at 5.85?10.4 cm TL, juvenile at 10.6?40.1 cm TL, adolescent at 41.5 cm TL, and mature at 481 cm TL (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).	eng
161667	population	Human, B., 2008	The population size of this rare shark is unknown, but apparently it is small as it is known only from three adults. This species is probably represented by a single population (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006).	eng
161667	threats	Human, B., 2008	With its restricted, inshore range and apparently small population size, the main threat to <em>H. kistnasamyi</em> is habitat degradation (Human and Compagno 2006, Human 2006). Intensive habitat modification and destruction is known to be occurring within its known range, particularly around Durban, which has a rapidly expanding heavy industry sector, and is also expanding its tourist industry. This expansion includes increased industrial waste output and pollution, and land development for tourist resorts and attractions. The area around Durban is also under intensive fishing pressure from a number of fishing industries, most notably, the prawn fishing industry.	eng
161668	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. A new shark monitoring log-sheet was introduced by the Seychelles Fishing Authority in August 2004 aimed at assessing the stocks of sharks fished locally and identifying the various species caught (Anon 2005).<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161668	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the holotype and paratype off Alphonse Island, Republic of Seychelles (Baranes 2003).	eng
161668	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Known only from the holotype (female: 78.8 cm TL) and paratype (male: 61.5 cm TL) collected during a research cruise by trammel net at 1,000 m off Alphonse Island (Baranes 2003). The biology of the species is little known.	eng
161668	population	McCormack, C., 2008	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype. May be endemic to the region but population size is unknown.	eng
161668	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	The depth distribution of the species is little known and it is possible that <em>S. lalannei</em> has been caught by Seychellois fishermen without their knowledge that it was a new species (Anon 2005). Some trial deepsea fishing has been conducted in the Seychelles to date, but there are apparently no commercial fisheries targeting resources below 600 m at present (M. Isidore pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161669	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K. & Jeong, C-H., 2004	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further assessment and monitoring of catches in fisheries and population trends is required.	eng
161669	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K. & Jeong, C-H., 2004	Northwest Pacific: China, from Bohai Sea to Shanghai, Taiwan; Korea, Baereungdo Islands, uppermost of the Yellow Sea to Heuksan-do Islands; Japan; from northern Hokkaido to off Kyushu; Yellow Sea, East Sea (Sea of Japan), Sea of Okhotsk, East China Sea (Ishihara 1990b, Jeong 1999). This species is especially abundant in coastal waters around the Daecheong and Heuksando Islands, Korea, and around Hokkaido Island, Japan (Ishiyama 1958, Jeong 1999).	eng
161669	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K. & Jeong, C-H., 2004	A temperate water skate found on the shelf, and apparently especially abundant in coastal waters in some areas of Korea and Japan. It is usually caught in coastal waters from about 5m-30m depth (Sea of Okhotsk) to 100m (off the central main island of Japan to the East China Sea)(Chyun 1977, Ishiyama 1958, Ishihara 1990, Ueda <em>et al.</em> 2003). Inhabits waters at 5-15 in the Yellow Sea (Yeon <em>et a</em>l. 1997).<br/><br/>Males mature at 47.3 cm DW (Yeon <em>et al.</em> 1997), and females at 68.5 cm disc width (DW) (Yeon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Maximum size is reported at 111.9 cm total length (TL) (female) (Ishiyama 1958). Size at birth is at least 9.5 cm (Ishiyama 1967).<br/><br/>Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. An adult female produces about 240 eggs (98?556) annually (Yeon <em>et al</em>. 1997). Breeding season is year round, mainly spring (April to June) and November to December, except middle of summer. Egg-capsules measure 14?18.8 cm in length, 70?9.4 cm in width and are rectangular with deep notches on the middle portion of lateral sides, with short flattened horns on anterior and posterior corners. Each egg-capsule usually encloses more than one embryo (C.H. Jeong <em>et al</em>. unpublished data), varying from one to five (Ishiyama 1958). A lot of egg-capsules were found in the culturing cage of scallop farm in Hokkaido, Japan (Ueda <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>The stomach contents of 564 specimens of <em>Raja pulchra</em>, caught monthly from July 1991 to December 1995 by the large pair bottom trawl fishery in the Yellow Sea off Korea showed that this species mainly feeds on shrimps, fishes, cephalopods and crabs. The most important prey group was shrimp, which has an index of relative importance value of 93.1 %. Two species of shrimps, <em>Crangon affinis</em> (88.4 %) and <em>Trachypenaeus cuvirostris</em> (3.9 %), and the sandlance, <em>Ammodytes personatus</em> (3.9 %), were major food organisms (Yeon <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
161669	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K. & Jeong, C-H., 2004	This species was extremely common about twenty years ago in the northern Yellow Sea (especially around Daecheong-do Islands of Korea) and southern Yellow Sea (especially around Heuksan-do Islands of South Korea) and off the coast of Hokkaido, northern Japan, in historical reports (H. Ishihara pers. comm.).Although data are lacking, the decline of <em>Raja pulchra</em> in the Yellow Sea (South Korea) even exceeds that around northern Japan, where declines have been reported by fishermen (Nakaya, pers. comm, C.H. Jeong unpublished data).	eng
161669	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S., Nakaya, K. & Jeong, C-H., 2004	The species is targeted by commercial fisheries in South Korea. It is both targeted by gillnet fisheries and also as taken as bycatch of gillnets targeting flounder. In Japan, this species is also targeted by a fishery localized around Hokkaido (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2005). Although specific data on population size and catch size in fisheries is lacking, there have been reported declines in capture rates by fishermen (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Landings of skates in Korea, taken by fisheries from adjacent waters, have abruptly declined. In Korea, ?skates? are known as ?Hong-eo?, and is usually the species <em>Raja pulchra</em> (Jeong 1999). The average annual catch from 1991?1993 was 2,700 metric tonnes, but the catch in 2001?2003 was 220 metric tonnes (data from homepage of MOMAF of Republic of Korea 2004), reflecting a serious decline in the biomass collected.<br/><br/>This species is one of the most expensive fishes sold in South Korea (Chyung 1977, Jeong <em>et al.</em> 1995; Jeong 1999), reaching US $10 to US $ 30 per kilogram. Skates are also valued in Japan, for their dried wings and meat, but are less expensive than in South Korea (US $ 5). This species of Skate is often served at weddings in South Korea as a traditional feast (Ishihara, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species is not targeted in China, although it is still taken as bycatch in fisheries operating there.	eng
161670	conservation	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	None in place. Research is required to determine whether the species is valid.	eng
161670	distribution	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from the type locality, south of China in the South China Sea.	eng
161670	habitat	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	A deepwater species found offshore. Virtually nothing is known of the habitat and biology of this species. Presumably lives on soft sand and mud bottoms, similar to other skates.	eng
161670	population	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Only known from the original type specimen. No information is available on the population.	eng
161670	threats	Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2008	Utilization and fishing gear not recorded for the area because these skates are small, Uncommon and occur in deep water but thought to be caught as a discarded bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161671	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	No measures in place.	eng
161671	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Northwest Pacific: recorded off southern and northern, and in the Sea of Japan, southwest of Vladivostok, Russia (estimated ca. 40°36'N, 131°14.1'E) (Tokarev in Lindberg and Legeza 1958, Nakaya and Yabe 1989, Nakaya in Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Nishida and Nakaya 1990).	eng
161671	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	The habitat and biology of this species is poorly known. The specimen from the Sea of Japan was taken in a drift gillnet at the surface over a depth of 3,000 m (Nakaya in Matsuda <em>et al.</em> 1984), suggesting this species may be semi-pelagic as well as benthic. The species is also found on the continental shelf at 40–60 m depth. Attains a maximum reported size of ~120 cm disc width (DW) (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). No other information is available on this species’ biology.	eng
161671	population	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Apparently common but no data are available to determine previous abundance (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161671	threats	Compagno, L.J.V., Ishihara, H., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	This species is captured as bycatch in longline, coastal gillnet and set-net fisheries within its range. It is often captured by set-nets and, when caught, the species is retained, landed and marketed. Stingrays are among the dominant batoid components of landings in Japan, however, the relative importance of species on a regional basis is poorly known and species-specific landing data are virtually non-existent (H. Ishihara, pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161672	conservation	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161672	distribution	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	Western Central Pacific: known only from the holotype taken on the Makassar Straits slope between Borneo and Sulawesi, Indonesia at 00°32' S and 119°39' E (Nakaya 1989).	eng
161672	habitat	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	Known only from the holotype, a juvenile female measuring 21 cm total length (TL), taken at 655 m on the Makassar Straits slope (Nakaya 1989). The biology of this species is virtually unknown.	eng
161672	population	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	A rare catshark, only known from the holotype (Nakaya 1989).	eng
161672	threats	Nakaya, K. & McCormack, C., 2008	There are currently no deepwater fisheries operating in the Makassar Straits (Fahmi pers. obs. 2007) where the holotype (and only known specimen) was taken. The species may have a wider depth distribution than currently known and any future fishing effort should be carefully monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected. It is apparently rare, has a restricted distribution and probably displays similar life history characteristics to other deepwater sharks (slow growth, late age at maturity, low fecundity). These factors may make this species particularly vulnerable to overfishing, should fisheries expand to such depths.	eng
161673	conservation	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	None in place.	eng
161673	distribution	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	Endemic in the Mediterranean Sea (Serena 2005). Moderately common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and western central areas (Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Florio <em>et al.</em> 2003, Follesa <em>et al</em>. 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena 2005, Mancusi <em>et al.</em> 2005), rare in Adriatic and Ionian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), common along northern African coasts (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and eastern Algerian coasts (Bertozzi <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
161673	habitat	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	Benthic, mainly on soft bottoms from 100?400 m (Serena 2005), but with a wide depth range from 20?633 m. Both males and females are estimated to mature at 40?53 cm TL for (Bini 1967, Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998, Tortonese 1956, N. Ungaro unpublished data) with a maximum recorded size of 60 cm TL (Bauchot 1987, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005); common at sizes of 30?40 cm TL (Bauchot 1987). Like other skates, this species is oviparous. Reproduction is in winter and 20?62 egg cases (depending on size) are laid per year (Bauchot 1987, Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena 2005). Egg-cases measure 46 by 35 mm excluding horns (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Serena, 2005). <em>R. polystigma</em> feeds mainly on crustaceans (<em>L. typicus</em>, Anphipoda and Isopoda), decapods, cephalopods and bony fishes (Vannucci 2005).	eng
161673	population	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	<em>Raja polystigma</em> is moderately common throughout the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the western (Morocco, Spain and France) and western central areas (Tyrrhenia, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001 Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Florio <em>et al.</em> 2003, Follesa <em>et al</em>. 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena 2005, Mancusi <em>et al.</em> 2005), rare in Adriatic and Ionian Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Bianchi 1998), common along northern African coasts (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and eastern Algerian coasts (Bertozzi et al. 2003).<br/><br/>It is found predominantly on the shelf and has been captured in the Mediterranean International Trawl Surveys (MEDITS) down to depths of 500 m (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). The overall biomass index assessed with MEDITS surveys (0-800m deep) in the west, north and eastern Mediterranean was 1.1 kg/km² (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). It was captured in 171 out of 6,336 survey tows between 1994 and 1999 and its estimated standing stock biomass throughout the northern Mediterranean Sea is 568t. Following <em>R. clavata</em> and <em>R. miraletus</em>, <em>R. polystigma</em> is the third most abundant skate species captured in trawl surveys performed in the south Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian Sea from 1985?2004. In this area it occupies a very wide depth range (20?633 m) concentrating between 300 and 400m. Important catches of juveniles were recorded occasionally (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005). Most of the collected specimens measured between 12 and 49 cm in length (Serena <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161673	threats	Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Mancusi, C. & Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003	Caught as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries but is also fished with gillnets, longline and handline in artisanal fisheries (Bauchot 1987). There is a high level of exploitation over the continental shelf and upper slope, down to a depth of 800 m in the Mediterranean Sea (Massuti and Moranta 2003). Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was initially exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp), more recently effort has increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974?1987) (Aldebert 1997). <em>Raja polystigma</em> is known to be retained and marketed along the African coasts of the Mediterranean, where both trawl and artisanal fisheries operate (Bauchot 1987). This species is rarely landed in Italian Seas and it is not possible to monitor catches (C. Mancusi pers. obs.).	eng
161674	conservation	McCormack, C., Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	Close monitoring of catches in deep bottom trawl fisheries in the species range is required in order to assess the threats to this species. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161674	distribution	McCormack, C., Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific, and eastern Indian Ocean: South China Sea off China, Taiwan (Province of China), Indonesia, Philippines, Australia (Western Australia off Exmouth Plateau to Shark Bay; also from Queensland off Flinders Reef) (Compagno 1998).<br/><br/>Eastern central Pacific: Hawaii (Compagno 1998).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: off the east coast of South Africa (eastern Cape off Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred, possibly western Cape near Cape Agulhas) (Compagno 1998).	eng
161674	habitat	McCormack, C., Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	A deepwater, benthic ray, mostly found on the upper continental slopes at depths of 362?1,120 m, although there have been two records of the species stranding on beaches off South Africa and one additional live specimen photographed feeding at about 30 m depth off Japan by divers (Compagno 1998, H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It is found on sandy mud to rocky bottom substrates (B. Séret pers. obs). <br/><br/>The species is ovoviviparous and females have been observed with up to three term fetuses (Compagno 1998). <span style="font-style: italic;">Hexatrygon bickelli </span>reaches a maximum total length of at least 168 cm (adult female). Males are estimated to mature at 110 cm TL and females are estimated to mature at 113 cm TL (Compagno 1998, B. Séret pers. obs.). Size at birth is about 48 cm TL (Compagno 1998).	eng
161674	population	McCormack, C., Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	A rare species with a patchy, wide distribution.	eng
161674	threats	McCormack, C., Wang, Y., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	Infrequently captured in bottom trawl fisheries (Compagno 1998), however there are no quantitative data on the numbers caught or landed throughout its range. In Taiwan, Province of China, this species forms part of the bycatch in both coastal and offshore bottom trawl fisheries (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). It is of concern that the species appears in the landed bycatch of deep bottom trawl fisheries much less than it did only a few years ago (B. Séret pers. obs.). <em>Hexatrygon bickelli</em> is a large and presumably slow growing species, with a relatively large size at maturity; traits that make the species particularly susceptible to overfishing. In other parts of its geographic range, this species? bathymetric distribution may extend below the range of fisheries.	eng
161675	conservation	Human, B., 2008	None currently in place. Recently an offshore observer program has been launched in South Africa, and observers should be placed on demersal trawlers in the KwaZulu-Natal region, and should be trained to identify and record all catches of this species (W. Sawer pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Recommend that a habitat assessment for KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique be conducted below 200 m, and the population in Madagascar needs to be assessed and monitored. Madagascar may provide a much needed refuge for this species. Possible bycatch information on this species needs to be sought. Under the FAO International Plan of Action for the conservation and management of sharks (IPOA-Sharks), development of a shark management plan for all chondrichthyans is currently being considered in South Africa (finalisation and implementation of this plan should be considered a matter of priority and great urgency) (Anon 2004).	eng
161675	distribution	Human, B., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: from northeastern South Africa, southern Mozambique and Madagascar (Human 2003, 2006, Séret 1987). It is highly unlikely that this species occurs off Cape Point, Western Cape Province, South Africa as stated in the literature (Bass 1986, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Compagno 1984).	eng
161675	habitat	Human, B., 2008	Its known depth range is 220–420 m. Life history is unknown. Males appear to obtain a greater maximum length compared to females, a trait common to <em>Holohalaelurus</em> sharks. Maximum record size for <em>H. punctatus</em> is 34.0 cm TL. Males are immature at 17.6 cm TL, adolescent at 23.5 cm TL, and mature at 29.8–32.6 cm TL. Females are immature at 17.6–22.7 cm TL and adolescent at 23.6 cm TL (Human 2003, 2006). Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) report a gravid female with a single egg-case in each uterus. Juveniles are unknown for this species and Bass <em>et al.</em> (1975) speculate that they may occur in deeper waters.	eng
161675	population	Human, B., 2008	There may be two populations of <em>H. punctatus</em>, one occurring off the coast of South Africa and Mozambique, and the other off Madagascar, however in the absence of data this is speculative.<br/><br/>This species was historically common in commercial and research bottom trawls made at depths of about 220–420 m in its range, off the KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and southern Mozambique coasts (Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Bass 1986, Human 2006). Examination of species-specific data collected for this species by the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban, indicates this shark was common to abundant in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and yet, only a single specimen has been collected from this area since 1972, despite recent biodiversity trawl surveys in that region as part of the coelacanth (<em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>) project in progress in the region (P. Heemstra, pers. comm., Human, 2006). This species was not recorded from more recent FRS Algoa surveys conducted off Mozambique. A single specimen was collected during a Fridtjof Nansen survey cruise off Mozambique during 2007, but other deep demersal sharks were more common (P. Heemstra pers. comm. 2008). The Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI), Durban data is species-specific and included morphometric data, as well as sketches and notes on the sharks appearance, therefore there is little doubt that these data sheets are referring to <em>H. punctatus</em>.	eng
161675	threats	Human, B., 2008	An intensive crustacean trawl fishery exists off of Durban, and extends northwards into southern Mozambique. This deep water (100–600 m) crustacean fishery fishes towards the edge of the continental shelf in the area (Fennessy and Groenveld 1997).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Holohalaelurus </span>sharks from the KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique region are still present in commercial fisheries landings, but apparently only rarely (N. Kistnasamy, pers. comm.), and species identification is not being recorded. It is not known whether the reduced catch is due to fisheries pressure, habitat loss, pollution, or an as yet unidentified threat (Human 2006).	eng
161676	conservation	Haas, D.L., Ebert, D.A., Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Assessment and monitoring of catches and population trends is required, as well as research on the species? life-history characteristics.	eng
161676	distribution	Haas, D.L., Ebert, D.A., Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Northwest Pacific: from the Pacific coast of Tohoku District, Japan, southward to the East China Sea, Ryukyu Islands, and Taiwan (Huang 2001, Nakabo 2002, D.A. Ebert unpubl. data).	eng
161676	habitat	Haas, D.L., Ebert, D.A., Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	A little-known demersal species found in stone, sand or mud habitats at depths of 220-1,100 m (Nakaya and Shirai 1992, Nakaya <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1992). Members of the Torpedinidae family exhibit aplacental viviparity. Males mature by 67.5 cm total length (TL) and females are larger (Haas and Ebert 2006). Maximum size is 113.6 cm TL and size at birth is ~20.0 cm TL (Hass and Ebert 2006).	eng
161676	population	Haas, D.L., Ebert, D.A., Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	Very little is know about the population of this species, but it seems to be uncommon. Very few specimens were caught in an experimental otter trawl fisheries investigation, which was conducted in the 1980s and 1990s. The species was captured in trawls from 220 m deep in Okinawa Trough, East China Sea and 1,100 m deep from the Tohoku slope off northern Japan (Nakaya<em> et al.</em> 1992).	eng
161676	threats	Haas, D.L., Ebert, D.A., Nakaya, K., Tanaka, S. & Orlov, A., 2007	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch in bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries off Japan and Taiwan. This species has been observed in fish markets in Tokyo, Japan, and Tachi, Taiwan. In Taiwan, it is only known from these fish markets where it is occasionally seen (usually one or two a day) (D. Ebert pers comm. 2007). The electric discharge emitted by this species makes it unpleasant to handle and the meat is of poor quality. It is often discarded or utilized for fishmeal (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161677	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no known measures in place for this species. Research is urgently required on its full range, habitat, biology and interactions with fisheries.	eng
161677	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: the holotype was collected in the mouth of Hooghly River, India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
161677	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Virtually no information is currently available on this species? habitat or life-history. The holotype was collected in the mouth of Hooghly River, India, at a depth of ~70 m (Norman 1926).	eng
161677	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161677	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Likely taken as bycatch of trawl and gillnet fisheries operating much of its range, although no specific data are available. Inland and inshore marine fisheries in India are intense. Estimates of the number of fishing vessels suggest there are 208,000 traditional craft, 55,000 traditional motorized craft, 1,250 mechanized boats and about 100 deep-sea fishing vessels in operation off India (FAO 2007). Rhinobatids are known to be vulnerable to depletion due to their limiting life-history characteristics and they are often targeted for their fins which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).	eng
161678	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161678	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2007	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: occurs off Namibia and the western and eastern Cape coasts of South Africa, from Lüderitz to Algoa Bay and possibly East London (Compagno and Ebert 2007).	eng
161678	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2007	A benthic, upper slope and outer shelf species, found at depths of 39-620 m (Bianchi <em>et al. </em>1999, Compagno and Ebert 2007). Attains about 35 cm disc width (DW) (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates but little else is known of its biology. Feeds mainly on invertebrates such as crabs, shrimps, hermit crabs, squid, and polychaete worms (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
161678	population	Smale, M.J., 2007	Moderately common (Compagno and Ebert 2007). It is most common along the uppermost slope and outer shelf of South Africa from the Orange River to Cape Agulhas (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1991) and on the Agulhas Bank.	eng
161678	threats	Smale, M.J., 2007	Regularly taken as bycatch by hake trawlers in parts of its range (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1999).The presence of this species on the Agulhas Bank, on un-trawlable grounds caused by rocky reefs and the strong Agulhas current affords the species some refuge.	eng
161679	conservation	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide. Further study of this species range is required.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161679	distribution	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2007	Northwest Pacific: known only from 12 specimens collected off Kao-hsiung, Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno 2001).	eng
161679	habitat	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2007	Found on the outer shelf of Taiwan at about 110 m (Compagno 2001). Maximum recorded size is 39 cm total length (TL) and one adult male measured 35.9 cm TL (Goto and Nakaya 1996, Compagno 2001).	eng
161679	population	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2007	Known only from 12 specimens (the holotype and 11 paratypes) collected on bottom longlines (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno 2001).	eng
161679	threats	Nakaya, K. & Tanaka, S., 2007	This species is taken as bycatch by bottom longlines and presumably also as discarded trawl bycatch (Compagno 2001). The species? apparently restricted range in an area where fishing pressure is generally intensive if of concern.	eng
161680	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research on the species? range, life-history, taxonomy and threats.	eng
161680	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Northwest Pacific: from Japan to Philippines, including the Koreas, China and Taiwan, Province of China (Compagno<em> et al. </em>2005a, Compagno 1984).	eng
161680	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A small benthic shark found on the continental shelf at depths of 80?100 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Males mature at 36 cm total length (TL) and females at ~40 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Attains a maximum size of 49 cm TL (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Reproduction is oviparous.	eng
161680	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown, but apparently common in offshore waters (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161680	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A potential bycatch of demersal trawl and possibly line fisheries operating on the continental shelf, although no data are available.	eng
161681	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161681	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western Central Atlantic: Northern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161681	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater skate, benthic along the upper slope from 300 to 512 m depth (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of 58 cm total length (TL) for males and 62 cm TL for females (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161681	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161681	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	May be taken as bycatch of trawl fisheries, but no specific data are available. Very little is known of the interaction of this species with fisheries and further information is required to make a full assessment of potential threats.	eng
161682	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161682	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Patchy in the western central Atlantic: east coast of Florida and the Florida Keys, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean coasts of Central America and South America to Colombia, Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago) and the Bahamas and Greater and Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea (Castro-Aguirre and Perez 1996, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161682	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	A bathydemersal species occurring on the continental slope from depths of 366?1,007 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 49 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at close to 40 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but there is nothing else known of the biology of the species.	eng
161682	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161682	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	Potential bycatch of deeper water trawl fisheries, although no information is available.	eng
161683	conservation	Carlisle, A.B. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	None in place.	eng
161683	distribution	Carlisle, A.B. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	Northeast and Eastern Central Pacific: sporadic distribution from Washington State to about 300 miles southwest of San Diego, California, USA (Ebert 2003).	eng
161683	habitat	Carlisle, A.B. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	Very little is known about this deepwater skate, which is found in waters between 1,995 and 2,900 m deep (Ebert 2003). Confusion with other deepwater skates such as the Deepsea Skate (<em>Bathyraja abyssicola</em>) and Roughtail Skate (<em>B. trachura</em>) has precluded a better understanding of this species. It appears to assume the ecological niche of the Roughtail Skate (<em>Bathyraja trachura</em>), at the great depths at which it lives. Maximum size is 74 cm (D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Females mature at 60–70 cm. The largest recorded male was an immature specimen measuring 35 cm, and size at birth is about 17 cm. Little is known about their diet other than that they feed on deep-water shrimps (Ebert 2003).	eng
161683	population	Carlisle, A.B. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	Appears to be fairly common below 2,000 m depth (Ebert 2003). The only known specimens have come from scientific research cruises.	eng
161683	threats	Carlisle, A.B. & Ebert, D.A., 2004	This species is generally distributed in very deep waters, beyond the range of most fisheries.	eng
161684	conservation	Burgess, G.H., Marshall, A.D., Last, P., Compagno, L.J.V. & Séret, B., 2004	No specific measures in place. Research is required on this species? taxonomy, biology, life history as well as the distribution and habitat.	eng
161684	distribution	Burgess, G.H., Marshall, A.D., Last, P., Compagno, L.J.V. & Séret, B., 2004	Western Indian Ocean: known only from the type specimen, collected from Nosy Marirana Bank, between Ankilibé and Tuléar, west coast of Madagascar (Chabanaud 1929).<br/><br/>Efforts to find additional specimens in fish markets and in underwater surveys in other areas have failed to produce any other individuals.	eng
161684	habitat	Burgess, G.H., Marshall, A.D., Last, P., Compagno, L.J.V. & Séret, B., 2004	The biology and habitat of this species are unknown. It is known only from the type specimen, which may have been collected from a landing site.	eng
161684	population	Burgess, G.H., Marshall, A.D., Last, P., Compagno, L.J.V. & Séret, B., 2004	This poorly known guitarfish is known only from the type specimen, reported from Madagascar. Nothing known of population size or structure.	eng
161684	threats	Burgess, G.H., Marshall, A.D., Last, P., Compagno, L.J.V. & Séret, B., 2004	Restricted range and occurrence in areas frequented by fishing make this species potentially vulnerable to fishing pressure. Traditional fishing techniques are varied off Madagascar with various nets, canoes, baited boxes, tulles gathered by hand and harpooning, with or without diving (Soumy 2006). Industrial shrimp trawl fisheries also operate off Madagascar (Soumy 2006). Most of the bycatch of these trawls is retained and marketed locally (Soumy 2006).<br/>Guitarfish are vulnerable to fisheries given their limiting life-history characteristics and often narrow ranges, and significant declines in some Rhinobatos spp have been documented where they are heavily fished.	eng
161685	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Bycatch levels should be quantified and monitored. Efforts should be made to assess and monitor population trends and collect information on life-history parameters. Research is also needed on threats to this species, particularly in the southern part of its range.	eng
161685	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central Atlantic: off the western coast of Africa from Mauritania to Gabon (15–3°N) (Stehmann 1995).	eng
161685	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A demersal species occurring in deeper shelf and upper slope waters at depths of 70–600 m. Reaches a maximum size of ~80 cm total length (Stehmann 1990). Presumably oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of its biology.	eng
161685	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Species-specific catch data are not available; however, landings data for skates and rays combined are available from a study of the elasmobranch bycatch of the Spanish trawl fishery for black hake that operates off Mauritania. Landings of rajids in terms of weight for this fishery fell from 18 tons in 1992, to 9 tons in 2001 Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005). Although only small amounts are landed in the northern part of this species’ range in any year, the effect on the species’ population in that area is unknown.	eng
161685	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is taken as bycatch, along with other deepwater elasmobranchs, in the Spanish deepwater trawl fishery for black hake that operates off Mauritania (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005). Landings for all skates (family Rajidae) are grouped under the Spanish commercial name raya in this fishery; including <em>Raja straeleni</em>, <em>Raja miraletus</em>, <em>Leucoraja leucosticta</em>, <em>Rostroraja alba</em> and other species, all found in deeper waters. Landings of rajids are small and decreased between 1992 and 2001 in this fishery (see Population section). Fernández <em>et al</em>. (2005) suggest that the decline and shift in species composition of the landings in this fishery (including in other elasmobranch species) may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species. This fishery operates from 140–750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). Spanish deepwater trawl vessels targeting hake also operate off Senegal (FAO 2004).<br/><br/>Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available on them (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Little information is available on deepwater fishing pressure throughout the rest of this species’ range, to the south and throughout the Gulf of Guinea. Mensah and Quaatey (2002) state that the sea bottom is untrawlable at depths greater than 75 m in the Gulf of Guinea, and demersal stocks in offshore waters (i.e., 75–200 m) therefore remain under-exploited (Williams 1968, Martos <em>et al</em>. 1991). However, this species may be vulnerable to fisheries operating further offshore and in deeper waters.<br/><br/>Coastal waters and heavily exploited throughout the western African coast, and fisheries are expected to expand into deeper waters in response to declining fish stocks on the inner continental shelf. Further information is required to determine the level and impact of fishing pressure on this species.	eng
161686	conservation	Bethea, D.M., Carlson, J. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	None.	eng
161686	distribution	Bethea, D.M., Carlson, J. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	Western central Atlantic: from off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, Gulf of Mexico, and Yucatan Bank, Mexico (McEachran and Fechhelm 1998).	eng
161686	habitat	Bethea, D.M., Carlson, J. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	This species occurs in marine waters nearshore and offshore up to 183 m and temperatures between 14–28°C (Smith, 1997); however, it most commonly occurs at 15–110 m at temperatures of 16–25°C (McEachran and Fechhelm, 1998).  Young occur in shallow bays whereas adults tend to live offshore (Smith 1997); however, all sizes have been collected in bottom and pelagic trawls in NOAA fishery independent surveys in the US Gulf of Mexico (unpublished data NOAA Mississippi Labs, A. DeBose and A. Hamilton).<br/> <br/>This species is oviparous with a distinct sexual dimorphism between males and females. The ovaries of the female are functional on both sides. Once the eggs are mature, they are released from the ovaries, fertilized in the upper part of the shell gland, are enclosed with yolk and albumen in a capsule formed by the lower shell gland. These capsules vary widely in size and are believed to be associated with parental body size. The capsules are light brown and have the characteristic horns on the four corners. Typically, there is only one fertilized egg found in a single capsule. These capsules are flat on one side and convex on the other. The female will often deposit eggs in sandy or muddy flats. When the young hatch from the capsules, they are fully formed and are similar in appearance to adults (unpublished data, J. Sulikowski).<br/><br/>Analysis of stomach contents from 222 immature (195 non-empty; mean DW = 23.5 cm) and 191 mature animals (167 non-empty; mean DW = 32.2 cm) in the northern Gulf of Mexico indicate shrimp (mostly euphasiids) make up 91% IRI of immature skate diet. Fish make up the remainder of immature skate diet. Mature skate diet was also predominantly shrimp (65 %IRI); however, fishes made up a much larger percentage (25 %IRI). Crabs were also relatively important in the diet of mature animals (4 %IRI). This suggests that roundel skate exhibit ontogenetic changes in diet with size and maturity (Bethea <em>et al.</em> In prep).	eng
161686	population	Bethea, D.M., Carlson, J. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161686	threats	Bethea, D.M., Carlson, J. & Sulikowski, J., 2008	The species is potentially caught as bycatch in demersal trawls that occur off the southeastern coast of Florida, USA, and in the Gulf of Mexico and probably discarded. It is also taken as bycatch in the butterfish fishery.	eng
161687	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P., Soto, J.M.R. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Habitat maintenance and conservation are important measures for this species. The construction of hydroelectric and thermal stations should be controlled or restricted (not only to benefit this species but similar species and other wildlife in the area). Management plans, specific legislation and community management are also recommended in order to reduce and regulate sustainable use as a food resource and for the ornamental trade. Research actions and fishery monitoring are also required. Education and public awareness of potamotrygonids is essential due to the negative image of these species (often resulting in persecution due to fear of injury from the sting).	eng
161687	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P., Soto, J.M.R. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	South America inland waters: probably endemic to the Paraguay and lower Paraná river basins, it is found in Rio de la Plata, lower-mid Paraná River, mid Uruguay River and Paraguay River in Northeastern Argentina, western Brazil (States of Mato Grosso, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul), central Paraguay and western Uruguay (Rosa 1985, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003, Araújo <em>et al</em>. 2004, assessor?s pers. obs.). Citations of this species for the Orinoco and Amazon drainages probably represent misidentifications (Rosa 1985, assessor?s pers. obs.).	eng
161687	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P., Soto, J.M.R. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species but relative to information available on other potamotrygonid species the information on <em>P. brachyura</em> is significant. Castex and Maciel (1965) observed this species in very shallow waters and obtained most specimens from quiet waters of lagoons, brooks and streams in the region of Santa Fe, Argentina, during August and September 1962, when the Paraná River was at its lowest level, and during March and April in 1963 when water levels started to increase. They also mentioned that by early autumn, when water temperatures started to fall, this was the only species of river ray still found. The reproductive period of this species was indicated as commencing later in the year than <em>P. motoro</em> (pregnant individuals observed in January).<br/><br/>Achenbach and Achenbach (1976) found <em>P. brachyura</em> in all river systems in the mid Paraná River and this was the second most abundant potamotrygonid in their study. Captures took place mainly between mid-October and the beginning of November. During floods, specimens could be observed resting over vegetation, and fishermen took advantage of this behaviour to harpoon them.<br/><br/>An ovoviviparous species with gravid females usually over 40 cm DW. The highest number of births was observed during November and December, and the maximum litter size observed was 19 pups. Only the left ovary seems functional (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976).<br/><br/>According to Achenbach and Achenbach (1976), pups feed on plankton after birth. Juveniles complement their diet with small mollusks (Lamellibranches and Gastropods), crustaceans, larvae of aquatic insects, and fish (Loricariidae, <em>Astyanax</em> spp. and <em>Pimelodella gracilis</em> were recorded from adults).	eng
161687	population	Charvet-Almeida, P., Soto, J.M.R. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	The major concentration area for this species is apparently the middle Uruguay River, where it is considered relatively frequent (Soto pers. obs.).	eng
161687	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P., Soto, J.M.R. & Pinto de Almeida, M., 2003	As with some other species of river stingray in the southern region of South America, the flesh of P. brachyura is particularly highly rated and this species is therefore called ?raya fina? (fine ray) (Achenbach and Achenbach 1976) It is harpooned by fishermen when sighted resting in shallow water.<br/><br/>There is a small amount of fishing for the more attractively patterned juveniles to supply the ornamental fish trade. This species is illegally exported from Brazil but very limited information is available concerning this international trade. Due to its large size it is presumably not among the most commercialised species however it is still necessary to monitor the ornamental catches in order to determine trends and optimise management.<br/><br/>The major threats to the species are likely due to habitat degradation caused by the damming of the Paraná River system for navigation and hydroelectric plants, and the construction of many ports along the river (infrastructure development). Agriculture, livestock and various kinds of water pollution also affect the habitat of this species.<br/><br/>Expressive mortality close to "thermal stations" in Uruguay (generally in the winter months) require more specific studies (Soto pers. obs). These popular tourist sites (for recreation and health treatment) are natural thermal springs which are cleaned by flushing large volumes of hot water, resulting in mortality to river rays due to temperature shock.<br/><br/>Intrinsic factors, including restricted range, may also affect the threatened status of this species.	eng
161688	conservation	Stevens, J.D., 2008	None in place. Future surveys should attempt to record this species to determine its full distribution, as well as information on its population and biology.	eng
161688	distribution	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Southwest Pacific: known from a single specimen from the Wanganela Bank on the Norfolk Ridge (south of Norfolk Island) (Last and McEachran 2006).	eng
161688	habitat	Stevens, J.D., 2008	The biology of <em>Brochiraja aenigma</em> is virtually unknown. The only known specimen was collected from 422?437 m depth and was 44 cm total length (TL) (Last and McEachran 2006). It is presumably oviparous and deposits eggs in quadrangular egg cases, like other skates.	eng
161688	population	Stevens, J.D., 2008	Rare. This species is only known from a single specimen. Further surveys conducted in the type locality aimed to collect it again, but failed to record more specimens (P. Last and J. Stevens pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161688	threats	Stevens, J.D., 2008	The Wanganella Bank is rarely fished at depths shallower than 500 m (S. Baird, NIWA, unpublished data), so bycatch of <em>Brochiraja aenigma</em> may be low; however the impact of fishing cannot be determined until information is available on the full geographic and depth range of the species. When caught, these skates are probably not retained (unless converted to fish meal) but are probably all dead on return to the sea. Catches are not reported, and the species is uncommon, making it impossible to estimate relative biomass using trawl surveys. Taxonomic confusion with other New Zealand species of <em>Brochiraja</em> has exacerbated these problems until recently.	eng
161689	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.	eng
161689	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: southern Baja and the Gulf of California (Mexico) to Panama (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007), and from Ecuador (Béarez 1996) and Peru (M. Love pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.	eng
161689	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2008	A benthic species found in coastal waters over soft bottoms at depths of 5 to 100 m (M. Love pers. comm. via J.D. McEachran, R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). The largest recorded size for this species was a male specimen measuring 42.1 cm total length (McEachran 1995). Life-history is poorly known and no other biological data are available.	eng
161689	population	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2008	Locally common from Panama to El Salvador (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161689	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2008	Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). No specific information is available on catches, but this species is taken as bycatch of these fisheries throughout much of its geographic range. Inshore fishing pressure in this area is generally intense, although this species? depth range extends to 100 m, deeper than other Urotrygon species in this region.<br/><br/>Coastal fisheries of Costa Rica are often fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007). Although stingrays used to be discarded by fishermen because they are dangerous on the deck of fishing vessels, most large individuals are probably now retained and utilised (R. Robertson pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Urotrygon </span>species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Peru (Bonfil <em>et al</em>. 2005) and probably elsewhere in Pacific South America, where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant and generally unregulated.<br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting catches internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). This limits the available information to assess catches of this and other inshore elasmobranch species.	eng
161690	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	None known. Insufficient data available and capacity lacking for the development of species-specific conservation and management activities, but fisheries management and legislation to reduce the environmental impacts of trawl fisheries should improve the status of many species affected by fisheries in the region.	eng
161690	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Restricted to the Gulf of Oman and the Gulf of Aden off northern Somalia. The holotype was collected from Fahal Island near the capital city of Muscat, but is believed to be relatively uncommon in this area. Two specimens have been sighted in shallow waters off Ras Abu Dawood in the Gulf of Oman. The distribution is thought to be wider than known but is not believed to extend to Madagascar and the Mozambique channel (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161690	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Found in relatively shallow waters.  Has been seen in waters of 20?25 m in depth. Specimens at Ras Abu Dawoo were observed resting on rocky substrates.  The holotype caught in Oman was found 30 cm above a sandy bottom near a rocky reef area.<br/><br/>Three late-term fetuses were extracted from the right uterus of the holotype. Substantial egg masses were found in the left uterus, appearing to be composed of compacted fertilized eggs. This indicates that both uteri are functional but may not be synchronous. Both uteri are thin-walled, transparent and very fragile. There is no nutrient-supplying function of the uteri. Females reach sexual maturity by at least 32.5 cm TL. Males reach sexual maturity by at least 24.0 cm TL and possibly smaller (Carvalho<em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
161690	population	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161690	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de & McCord, M.E., 2004	Not targeted as fisheries species but caught incidentally. It is captured as bycatch by shrimp trawl fisheries, does not appear to be utilized and is discarded at sea, where the rate of survivorship is thought to be very low. Degradation from fishing and pollution are also major threats to its shallow water habitat.	eng
161691	conservation	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	There is a minimum landing size of 40 cm for skates and rays caught in the inshore waters of various parts of England and Wales, through Sea Fishery Committee bylaws. Though there are no species-specific management measures for this species, there is a TAC for skates and rays in the North Sea and adjacent waters, and they may benefit from more generic management measures for demersal fisheries (e.g., mesh size regulations, effort reduction). <br/><br/>Research is required on population numbers and trends, range, biology, ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
161691	distribution	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	Northeast and eastern central Atlantic: widely-distributed in shelf waters, from Madeira and Morocco in the south to the Shetland Isles in the north, including the Irish Sea, English Channel and south-western and north-western North Sea (Stehmann and Burkel 1984, Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a, ICES 2006).<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: western Mediterranean Sea, including the waters of Spain, France, western Italy, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Bauchot 1987, Bertrand <em>et al.</em> 2000, Baino<em> et al</em>. 2001, Bertozzi <em>et al.</em> 2003). One doubtful record from the northern Aegean Sea (Serena 2005).	eng
161691	habitat	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<em>Raja brachyura</em> is most common on sandy sediments in waters down to about 150 m deep (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2005a) in the Northeast Atlantic, though may occur deeper in the southern parts of its range. In the Mediterranean Sea it is mainly found at depths of 10?150 m to about 300 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). It reaches a maximum size of ~120 cm (TL) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984) and commonly reaches 40?80 cm TL. Like other skates, reproduction is oviparous. They reproduce from February to August and have a gestation period of almost seven months, with females producing about 30 egg cases/year (measuring about 12 x 8 cm, excluding horns) (Stehmann and Burkel 1984). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans (amphipods, natantids), with larger individuals more piscivorous and predating on dragonet and sand eels (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 1996). Little is known about its reproductive biology.	eng
161691	population	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>It is relatively common in the inshore and shelf waters (down to about 150 m) in the English Channel and Irish Sea, Bristol Channel and St George?s Channel (Fahy 1989, 1991; Ellis <em>et al. </em>2005a). It is less abundant in the North Sea and Celtic Sea (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005a). Blonde ray is also one of the more important ray species recorded in landings around the Iberian Peninsula (ICES 2006).<br/><br/>No formal stock assessments have been undertaken for this species. Although it has a relatively broad geographical range, this species is most abundant from the British Isles to Portugal. There are certain areas where it is locally abundant, for example in parts of the North Sea and Irish Sea. Hence, this species seems to have a fragmented population, possibly due to the fragmented nature of its favoured habitat. This species may have declined over the course of the 20th century (Rogers and Ellis 2000). Rogers and Ellis (2000) compared standardized catch rates of demersal fish from research vessel surveys in three areas around the British Isles (northwestern Irish Sea, Devon, and southern North Sea) from 1901 to 1907 with survey catches in the same areas from 1989?1997. In this analysis, skates of intermediate body size showed marked declines in relative abundance, especially the blonde ray <em>R. brachyura</em> and the thornbach ray <em>R. clavata</em>. Furthermore, the percentage composition of the blonde ray decreased by close to 30% between the two survey periods. Catch rates in beam trawl surveys in the English Channel and Irish Sea appear steady in recent times (Ellis <em>et al.</em> 2005b), and there is no consistent trend in the North Sea (ICES 2006). However, these catch rates refer to all individuals and not just mature fish.<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The blonde ray <em>Raja brachyura</em>, is relatively rare in the Mediterranean. It is not certain if it has always been rare there. The species is rare but consistently caught in the MEDITS trawl surveys from 1994 to 1999. The MEDITS survey covers the north Mediterranean coast almost continuously from west Morocco and Spain in the west Mediterranean to the Aegean Sea in the eastern Mediterranean (Baino <em>et al</em>. 2001). Six trawl surveys are carried out each year in the coastal areas of four arbitrary geographically defined areas: Western (Morocco, Spain, France), Western Central (Tyrrhenian, Corsican, Sardinia and Sicily coasts), Eastern Central (Adriatic, Ionian and Albanian coasts) and the Eastern (Aegean Sea). The blonde ray has been recorded in a total of 21 of 6,336 tows performed between 1994 and 1999 in depths ranging from 10?800 m (Baino <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was caught between 0?500 m and greatest catch rates were between 100 to 500 m (Baino <em>et al. </em>2001).<br/><br/>The blonde ray does not appear to have been captured in either historical or recent comparative trawl surveys of the Adriatic Sea or the Gulf of Lions (Aldebert 1997, Jukic-Peladic <em>et al</em>. 2001, Marano <em>et al</em>. in press).<br/><br/>Little is known of this species? current distribution and abundance along northwest African coastlines, however it appears to be uncommon off Tunisia (Bradai 2000). It also appears to be relatively rare in Italian Seas, with a low frequency of occurrence in GRUND (Italian), MEDITS trawl surveys and other surveys in this area (Follesa <em>et al.</em> 2003, Ragonese <em>et al.</em> 2003, Spedicato <em>et al.</em> 2003, Serena <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161691	threats	Ellis, J., Ungaro, N., Serena, F., Dulvy, N.K., Tinti, F., Bertozzi, M., Pasolini, P., Mancusi, C. & Noarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2008	<strong>Northeast Atlantic</strong><br/>Taken in targeted fisheries in areas where it is locally abundant and taken as a bycatch in mixed demersal fisheries elsewhere in its range. Also taken in recreational fisheries. Skates are an important component of demersal fisheries in the northeast Atlantic and <em>Raja brachyura</em> is landed and sold (Dulvy <em>et al</em>. 2000, Holden 1977). This species is one of the more frequent species landed by the commercial fleet on the Portuguese cost, accounting for 44% of the total individuals sampled in Peniche and 18% in Matosinhos (Machado <em>et al. </em>2004).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>The blond ray is caught as part of the bycatch of the semi industrial (Spain) and artisanal (Morocco and Greece) fisheries with bottom trawls, gill nets and long lines (Bauchot 1987). Benthic trawl effort has increased both numerically and in technological terms in the shelf and slope area of the Mediterranean over the last 50 years. For example, the Gulf of Lions area was historically exploited by small-scale benthic trawl fisheries, comprising 27 small low powered boats (total nominal horse power of 2,700 hp). Later effort increased to a total nominal horse power of 19,940 hp (1974 to 1987).  The continental shelf and upper slope of the Mediterranean Sea are highly exploited, with intensive commercial trawling occurring at depths ranging from 50 to 700 to 800 m (Colloca <em>et al.</em> 2003, Massuti and Moranta 2003).	eng
161692	conservation	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Further research is required on taxonomy, as is assessment of catches throughout its range.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the Shark Specialist Group together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range (New Guinea and Indonesia), efforts in further research should be directed to also obtain the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.	eng
161692	distribution	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Wide-spread distribution in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans, from South Africa to northern Australia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Compagno 1998, W. White and B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: South Africa to India, including the Red Sea and Gulf. Eastern Indian Ocean: India to Indonesia and northern Australia.<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands, southern Japan. Western Central Pacific: Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and Indonesia.<br/><br/>Mediterranean Sea: The species is thought to be a Lessepsian immigrant, having entered the Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea through the Suez Canal (Serena 2005).	eng
161692	habitat	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Often found off sandy beaches and in shallow estuaries and lagoons and may enter freshwater; also found in sandy areas of coral reefs. Also occurs offshore to depths of at least 50 m (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy. Attains at least 148 cm disc width (DW) (White and Dhamadi 2007) (up to 450 cm total length in Compagno 1998). Males mature at 82?84 cm DW and size at birth is 21?28 cm DW (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, White and Dharmadi 2007, Manjaji 2004). Fecundity is probably low; one pregnant female observed possessed two embryos (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs.).	eng
161692	population	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	Uncommon throughout much of its range (B.M. Manjaji pers. obs. 2007), but appears to be common in parts of northern Australia (W. White. pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161692	threats	Manjaji, B.M. & White, W.T., 2004	<em>Himantura uarnak</em> faces many of the same threats as other <em>Himantura</em> species within its range, however, its large size at maturity and maximum size and preference for shallow waters (which are being heavily utilised and degraded in many parts of its range), suggest that it may be more vulnerable than its congeners (B.M. Manjaji, Fahmi, W. White, pers. Obs. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is captured by demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, to a lesser extent, longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and across large parts of its range. Its inshore distribution overlaps with coastal artisanal and commercial fisheries throughout large areas of the Indian and western Pacific oceans.<br/><br/>It is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and <em>Himantura uarnak</em> is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White, unpubl. data).<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, <em>Himantura</em> species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) and are also taken by Danish seine fishing gear (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>Demersal fishing pressure has increased in both effort and capacity in many areas of this species? inshore range during recent decades. For example, demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand went from being lightly exploited to severely over-exploited between 1973 and 1994 (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Available time series data for grouped biomass of ?rays? for this area and period applied to an ecostystem model for the area, suggested that this group was one of the most severely impacted by the initial increase in fishing pressure, showing a steady declining trend (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 2005). Species-specific catch data are not collected, but aggregated landings data for ?Rays, stingrays, mantas, nei? are reported to FAO by some countries. Indonesian landings increased from ~10,000 t in 1975 to almost 60,000 t in 2003. Data are not available for India, but data for Pakistan show that landings increased to a peak of 53,000 t as early as 1982, after which landings dropped to ~10,000 t in 1983 and have not risen above 21,000 t since (FAO 2008).<br/><br/>This species? preference for inshore waters, shallow estuaries and lagoons means it is also threatened by extensive habitat degradation and loss of mangrove forest. It may also be affected by destructive fishing practices and pollution. Extensive areas of mangrove forest have been lost in Indonesia and Malaysia through conversion of land for shrimp farms, excessive logging, urban development and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (FAO 2007). Between 1980 and 2005 combined overall mangrove area in Indonesia and Malaysia was reduced by >30% (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Although species-specific data are not available, given that this is a large species with low fecundity and a preference for shallow waters (where threats from coastal fisheries and habitat degradation are greatest), significant declines are suspected to have occurred as a result of over-exploitation in fisheries in Southeast Asia, the northern Indian Ocean, and elsewhere in areas of high exploitation.<br/><br/>Conversely, this species has refuge from fishing pressure in areas such as northern Australia, where fishing pressure is light and bycatch mitigation measures are in place. Large specimens are caught as bycatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161693	conservation	McCormack, C., 2008	Further information on the biology, distribution (depth and range) and incidental capture in fisheries is required to make and assessment of the threats to this species and any future conservation measures. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161693	distribution	McCormack, C., 2008	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southeastern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161693	habitat	McCormack, C., 2008	Bathydemersal deepwater skate found on the slope at depths of 440?869 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 23 cm total length (TL), and males mature at 18?21 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Size at birth is ~7 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.	eng
161693	population	McCormack, C., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161693	threats	McCormack, C., 2008	There is no specific information available on the threats to this species but it may be vulnerable to trawl fisheries, particularly as these expand to greater depths in the future. Information on any deepwater fisheries operating within the species range is required, and bycatch levels need to be quantified.	eng
161694	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Research is required on this species? life history parameters, abundance and population trends. Efforts should be made to quantify and monitor catch levels.	eng
161694	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: Gulf of California, Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Galapagos Islands, Peru (McEachran and Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 1995, Robertson and Allen 2002).	eng
161694	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Occurs on the continental shelf at depths of 20?200 m (Robertson and Allen 2002). Reaches a maximum total length (TL) of 88 cm TL (Robertson and Allen 2002). Like other skates, this species is oviparous but little else is known of its life-history parameters.	eng
161694	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	No information is currently available.	eng
161694	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Presumably taken as bycatch of demersal fisheries operating throughout much of its geographic range, but no information on catches of this species is currently available. Shrimp trawl and ground fish fisheries are generally intense in many inshore areas of its range in the Eastern Pacific. For example, the Mexican industrial fleet includes 2,407 shrimp trawlers, 70% of which operate on the Pacific coast, and almost all of these are concentrated in the Gulf of California (FAO 2007). The shrimp trawl fishery off Colombia operates from the shelf to depths of at least 300 m and may take this species, although Puentes <em>et al.</em> (2007) did not record it in a study of the bycatch of this fishery.	eng
161695	conservation	White, W.T., 2008	None in place.	eng
161695	distribution	White, W.T., 2008	Indian Ocean and northwest and western central Pacific Ocean: the Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan, Province of China, Indonesia (Java, Sulawesi) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>FAO fisheries area: 51, 57, 71.	eng
161695	habitat	White, W.T., 2008	Found inshore on continental and insular shelves to depths of at least 59 m. Thought to be a viviparous species giving birth to four young per litter. Pups are born at ~20 cm total length (TL) and grow to a maximum total length of around 125 cm TL with males maturing between 83 and 97 cm TL (Compagno in prep., White 2007).	eng
161695	population	White, W.T., 2008	Apparently common in some parts of its range (Compagno in prep). Now rare off Indonesia (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161695	threats	White, W.T., 2008	Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout much of this species’ range. Commonly caught in inshore and offshore artisanal fisheries off Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and probably elsewhere in its range. Caught irregularly by fishers off Indonesia. Caught in drifting and bottom gillnets and on longlines. Meat is utilized for human consumption and offal is processed into fishmeal (Compagno in prep). Fins are utilized but of lower value due to their small size (White <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Gill net and trawl fisheries in Indonesia (especially the Java Sea) are very extensive and many shark species are highly exploited as result. Catches of sharks in south-east Asia are very high but are declining and fishers have to travel much further from the ports in order to sustain and increase catches (Chen 1996). Trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further afield, e.g., in Jakarta the gill net fishery at Muara Baru travels to waters around Kalimantan due to the decline in local shark populations (W. White unpubl. data).<br/><br/>Flewwelling and Hosch (2006) report that generally coastal fisheries in the Eastern Indian Ocean are all overfished and have been under considerable fishing pressures from uncontrolled, open access fisheries management schemes for several years in all countries in the region.	eng
161696	conservation	Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Clò, S., Clarke, S.C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	In Northwest Atlantic US waters, the Bigeye Thresher Shark (<em>Alopias superciliosus</em>), has been listed as a Prohibited Species under the Fishery Management Plan of the Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks (NMFS 2003) since 2000. The U.S Fishery Management Plan for Highly Migratory Species by the NMFS provides a biennial review of the status of Bigeye Thresher with management contingent on the health of the stock (PFMC 2004). No catch guidelines are recommended at this time on the West coast of the USA.<br/><br/>Family Alopiidae is listed on Annex I, Highly Migratory Species, of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which urges States to cooperate over the management of these species. No such management yet exists. Precautionary adaptive collaborative management of target and bycatch fisheries is urgently needed for this biologically vulnerable shark. It is also essential to improve data collection and develop stock assessments for this species. Listing on international resource management agreements, such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) could help to drive improvements in national and regional management and facilitate collaboration between states, for this species and other migratory sharks.<br/><br/>The adoption of shark finning bans by fishing states (e.g., USA, Australia), regional entities (EU) and regional fisheries organisations (e.g., ICCAT, IOTC, IATTC, WCPFC) is accelerating and should increasingly prevent the fishing of thresher sharks for their fins alone.	eng
161696	distribution	Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Clò, S., Clarke, S.C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	This oceanic and coastal shark is virtually circumglobal in tropical and temperate seas (Compagno 2001). The below distribution is taken directly from (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>Western Atlantic: ranges from New York to Florida, Mississippi and Texas, USA, Mexico (Veracruz to Yucatan), Bahamas, Cuba, Venezuela, Brazil (from Praia do Forte, Bahia to Rio Grande de Sul), Uruguay, and almost certainly Argentina.<br/><br/>Eastern Atlantic: from eastern Portugal and Spain, Madeira, near Azores, Morocco, Canary Islands, Senegal, Guinea to Sierra Leone, Angola, South Africa (Western Cape), including the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>Indian Ocean: South Africa (Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal), Madagascar, Arabian Sea (Somalia), Gulf of Aden, Maldives, Sri Lanka.<br/><br/>Western Pacific: Southern Japan (including Okinawa), Taiwan, Viet Nam, between northern Mariana Islands and Wake Island, Northwestern Submarine Rise, New Caledonia, Australia (northwestern coast), New Zealand. Also towards the Central Pacific in the area between Wake, Marshall, Howland and Baker, Palmyra, Johnston Islands.<br/><br/>Eastern Pacific: California, USA, Mexico (Gulf of California) to approximately 15°S latitude off Peru, including west of Galapagos Islands, Ecuador; possibly off northern Chile (Compagno 2001). Also Hawaiian Islands, USA, north and south of Hawaiian Islands, off east of Line Islands, and between Marquesas and Galapagos Islands.<br/><br/>The longest straight line movement of a conventionally tagged Bigeye Thresher Shark is reported at 2,767 km, from waters off New York to the Eastern Gulf of Mexico (Weng and Block 2004, Kohler and Turner 2001). A study of two bigeye thresher sharks using pop-up satellite archival tags in the Gulf of Mexico and Hawaiian Archipelago suggest a pattern of diel vertical migration (Weng and Block 2001). Nakano <em>et al.</em> (2003) also report distinct diel vertical migrations from acoustic telemetry studies in the Eastern Central Pacific, with the studied sharks staying at 200 to 500 m depth during the day and at 80 to 130 m at night.	eng
161696	habitat	Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Clò, S., Clarke, S.C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Found in coastal waters over the continental shelves, sometimes close inshore in shallow waters, and on the high seas in the epipelagic zone far from land; also caught near the bottom in deep water on the continental slopes (Compagno 2001). Ranges from the surface and in the intertidal to at least 500 m deep and has been recorded to 723 m deep (Nakano <em>et al. </em>2003), mostly below 100 m depth (Compagno 2001). Mediterranean captures are typically from offshore continental shelf waters.<br/><br/>Estimated age at maturity is years 12-13 (females), 9-10 years (males) (Liu <em>et al. </em>1998) (data from Taiwan waters, Northwest Pacific). Longevity is estimated at 20 years for females (19 years for males) (Liu <em>et al.</em> 1998). Males mature at 270-300 cm total length (TL) and females at 332-355 cm TL (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997, Liu <em>et al.</em> 1998, Moreno and Moron 1992, Stillwelli and Casey 1976). The maximum recorded size of <em>A. superciliosus</em> is 461 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Size at birth ranges from 64-140 cm TL (Golani 1996, Chen <em>et </em>al. 1997, Bauchot 1987). The gestation period is 12 months with average litter sizes 2-4 pups/litter, usually two (Compagno 2001). Of the thresher sharks, the Bigeye Thresher has the lowest rate of annual increase, estimated at 1.6% under sustainable exploitation (Smith <em>et al. </em>2008), or 0.002-0.009 (Cortés 2008, Dulvy <em>et al.</em> 2008). There have been several studies on the biology of <em>A. superciliosus</em> from Brazilian waters in the southwest Atlantic; see (Amorim <em>et al. </em>1998, Amorim <em>et al.</em> in press, Gonzalez and Magenta-da-Cunha in press).<br/><br/>A recent tagging study of two <em>A. superciliosus</em> (one from Hawaii and the other from the Gulf of Mexico) indicates strong diel vertical migration (Weng and Block 2004). These sharks spent most of the nightime in waters warmer than 20°C and commonly spent eight or more hours during the daytime in waters cooler than 10°C, requiring them to be eurythermal. Nakano <em>et al.</em> (2003) undertook acoustic tracking of this species in the eastern Pacific Ocean.<br/><br/>Reported diet consists of pelagic bony fishes including scombroids, clupeoids and small billfishes; hake and cephalopods (Compagno 2001). Uses its tail to stun the pelagic fishes on which it feeds (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Anecdotal reports from Maltese fishermen suggest a strong association between these sharks and highly mobile scombroids such as Bullet Tunas <span style="font-style: italic;">Auxis rochei</span> in the Mediterranean. Observations from Sardinia show that the Bigeye Thresher sometimes interacts with swordfish, receiving fatal wounds (Vacchi and Serena 2000).	eng
161696	population	Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Clò, S., Clarke, S.C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations are presumably largely isolated. An ongoing genetic study of global population structure in <em>A. superciliosus</em> using DNA sequences from the mitochondrial control region indicates no structuring of populations within the Pacific Ocean, but significant genetic structure between Bigeye Threshers in the northwest Atlantic and those in the Pacific Ocean (Trejo 2004). The existence of separate Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean stocks is unconfirmed.	eng
161696	threats	Amorim, A., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Clò, S., Clarke, S.C., Fergusson, I., Gonzalez, M., Macias, D., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Myers, R., Reardon, M., Trejo, T., Vacchi, M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Alopias</em>, thresher sharks, are threatened from a combination of slow life history characteristics, hence low capacity to recover from moderate levels of exploitation, and high levels of largely unmanaged and unreported mortality in target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries. The Bigeye Thresher Shark has the lowest intrinsic rebound potential and least resistance to fisheries of the genus.<br/><br/>Thresher shark species (including <em>A. superciliosus</em>) were found to represent at least 2-3% of the fins auctioned in Hong Kong, the world?s largest shark fin trading center (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006a). Thresher shark fins are generally low value compared to other species because of their low fin ray count (S. Clarke unpubl. data). It is estimated that between 350,000 and 3.9 million thresher sharks (<em>Alopias</em> species) are represented in the shark fin trade each year or, in biomass, 12,000 to 85,000 mt (Clarke <em>et al.</em> 2006b). These estimates are 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than catches of Alopiidae reported to FAO, which since the early-1980s have generally been less than 1,600 tonnes, and around 1,000 mt since 1998 (Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Catches of thresher sharks are clearly hugely under reported globally. Although trend data are as a result largely lacking, these fisheries are unlikely to be sustainable. A recent FAO analysis states, ?unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider these species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally? (Maguire <em>et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/>The life history of this species, including a late age at maturity (12-13 years) and very low fecundity (average two pups per litter) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1997), render it highly vulnerable to overexploitation. <em>Alopias superciliosus</em> has the lowest annual rate of population increase of all thresher sharks and is therefore particularly at risk from depletion in fisheries. Its epipelagic habitat occurs within the range of commercial longline fisheries in which it is readily caught. Caught or formerly caught in the oceanic longline fisheries operated by the former USSR, Japan, Taiwan (Province of China), Spain, the USA, Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico, and probably other countries. Especially important areas for these fisheries are the northwestern Indian Ocean, western and Central Pacific, eastern North Pacific, and North Atlantic (Compagno 2001). This species is also taken as incidental bycatch in fixed bottom and pelagic gill nets, in trawls, and as a rare catch of anti-shark nets off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It has been caught by anglers with sportsfishing gear (rod-and-reel) in the USA, South Africa, and New Zealand, in some instances by anglers targeting swordfish at night (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/>The Bigeye Thresher was formerly a very important component of the Cuban longline fishery, and more recently has been taken in considerable numbers by longliners off the northeastern USA and by gill net vessels off southern California (USA) and the eastern Atlantic (by Spanish vessels), and by longliners off Taiwan (Province of China; where about 220 t per year are landed) (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/><em>A. superciliosus</em> has been caught incidentally in the northwest and western central Atlantic for about four decades. The first longline fisheries in the Atlantic were begun by the Japanese in 1956 in the western equatorial waters (Uozumi and Nakano 1996). The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Fisheries monitoring of bigeye thresher shark catch is extremely limited because they are an incidentally caught species. In Canada and the U.S., less than 5% of the pelagic longlining fleets are monitored by observers, making it difficult to elucidate reliable trends in abundance from these data. Fisheries monitoring in international waters is even more limited. The pelagic longline fishing grounds for the US fleet extend from the Grand Banks (about 45°N) in the northwest Atlantic to 5-10°S off the South American coast, within which geographical areas of longline fishing are defined for classification (Cortés <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>The northwest and western central Atlantic regional assessment is based on several estimates of trends in abundance from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S. pelagic longline fishery, between 1986-2000, for thresher sharks (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). The analysis is not species-specific but, based on the location of the catches, the majority of threshers in the dataset are most likely bigeye thresher sharks (K. Goldman pers. comm.), and the sample size of threshers in these data is over 20,000. The estimated decline of thresher sharks combined (<em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. vulpinus</em>) is 80% during this fifteen-year time period, which is just over the length of one generation for bigeye threshers (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003). An alternative analysis of the same logbook dataset for 1986?2005 that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>, resulted in an overall decline of 63% (Cortés <em>et al</em>. 2007). Fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of this time series, thus the estimated declines are not from virgin biomass.<br/><br/>A more recent analysis of <em>Alopias</em> spp. trends from scientific observer data between 1992 and 2005 in the same U.S. pelagic longline fishery found an almost identical instantaneous rate of decline (-0.12 up to the year 2000) as in the logbook analysis (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). For this nine year period (1992-2000), the decline amounts to 68%, therefore the decline back to when the fishery started in the 1960s (less than three generation period of 51 years) would be much greater. However, because of recent increases in the catch rates in 2004 and 2005, the overall trend from 1992-2005 of -0.024 was non-significant, and would amount to only a 26% decline (Baum <em>et al.</em> unpublished manuscript). Cortés <em>et al.</em> (2007) also conducted an alternative analysis of this same observer dataset for the same time period that also combined <em>A. vulpinus</em> and <em>A. superciliosus</em>. This analysis of the observer dataset showed a trend opposite to that of the logbook analysis, with a 28% increase since 1992. In contrast, the nominal observer series showed a 39% decline and the logbook index for the same time period showed a decrease of 50%. Furthermore the sample size in the observer analysis was much smaller (n=14?84) than that in the logbook analysis (n=112?1292) and thus the trend estimated should be regarded with caution. Cortés <em>et al.?</em>s (2007) observer analysis was restricted to four out of the 11 geographical areas covered by the pelagic longline fishing fleet to keep a balanced statistical design (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007). Their full logbook analysis, which showed an overall decline of 63%, had much larger sample sizes and is thus better to estimate trends with more certainty (Cortés <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Bigeye Thresher is more biologically vulnerable than the Common Thresher (<em>A. vulpinus</em>), with which it is grouped in the logbook and observer datasets. Given this species? intrinsic rate of population increase is much lower and that fishing pressure on thresher sharks began over two decades prior to the start of these longline time series, the combined analyses may underestimate the decline in <em>A. superciliosus</em>. The area covered by the dataset analyzed, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the confirmed range of bigeye threshers in these two regions (Compagno 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean Sea</strong><br/>This species is a bycatch of the semi-industrial fisheries (swordfish and other pelagic fisheries) of southern Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Sicily and Malta, and of artisanal trammel and gillnet fisheries elsewhere in the Mediterranean Sea (Bauchot 1987). However, <em>A. superciliosus</em> has been poorly documented in the Mediterranean and is considered scarce or rare (Barrull and Mate 2002). As a result, no data are available on catch trends for this species in the region. In recent years, increasing numbers of new records from the eastern Mediterranean (sometimes multiple captures) demonstrate that this species also penetrates widely to the east of Malta, occurring in the waters off Israel (Levantine basin), in the Aegean Sea off Turkey and southern Greece, and off southern Crete (I. Fergusson pers. obs., Golani 1996, Clò <em>et al.</em> 2005, Clò <em>et al.</em> 2008). Evidence from offshore pelagic fisheries in southern Sicily and Malta indicate that <em>A. superciliosus</em> is caught in unknown numbers each year, but routinely discarded at sea (hence the vernacular name ?False Thresher?, because of a perceived low local value). Despite the apparent threat posed by bycatch and the species? vulnerable life-history characteristics, there is a lack of records and further information on the population of <em>A. superciliosus</em> in the Mediterranean Sea is required. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Central Pacific</strong><br/>The California drift gill net fishery for common thresher, <em>A. vulpinus</em> provided strong evidence that thresher sharks are highly vulnerable to rapid population decline when heavily fished, when landings of A. vulpinus declined to 28% of peak landings in 1982 by the late 1980s (Goldman 2005, Maguire <em>et al.</em> 2006). Pelagic fleets operating in the eastern central Pacific are known to take <em>A. superciliosus</em>, for example it is a bycatch of the purse seine fishery operating in the Eastern Pacific Ocean (Román-Verdesoto and Orozco-Zöller 2005). Ward and Myers (2005) estimated the biomass of thresher sharks to be approximately 5% of the virgin biomass and estimated a decline in abundance of 83% in the eastern tropical Pacific. These estimates were made by a comparison of pelagic longline research surveys in the 1950s carried out in the tropical Pacific Ocean with recent data (1990s) collected by observers on pelagic longline fishing vessels, which have been standardized to account for differences in depth and soak time (Ward and Myers 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Southwest Atlantic</strong><br/>This species is caught in tuna and swordfish longline fisheries, and to a lesser extent gillnets, with other wide-ranging oceanic shark species in this region. In the tuna and swordfish longline fisheries some vessels now also target sharks due to the increasing demand and commercial value of fins, particularly in Brazil and Uruguay (Domingo 2000). The landed catch and CPUE of Bigeye Thresher in the Santos (São Paulo) tuna longline fishery increased from 1971 to 1989, and then gradually decreased from 1990 to 1996 (Arfelli and Amorim 1994, Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998). In later years a switch to shallower set longlines in the fishery (to target swordfish instead of tuna) reduced the catch of most sharks and may have affected the CPUE time-series which continued to show a decrease to 2001 (A. Amorim pers. obs.). Both <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. vulpinus</em> are caught in the Brazil Santos longline fishery, with <em>A. superciliosus</em> comprising the large majority of the catch and <em>A. vulpinus</em> only a small proportion of captures (Sadowsky and Amorim 1977). <em>A. superciliosus</em> has also been documented as bycatch in the industrial tuna longline fishery operating out of Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, northeastern Brazil (Hazin <em>et al.</em> 1990). Off Uruguay, CPUE values obtained from the pelagic longline fishery observer program for 2001-2005 are very low and show no clear trend (Berrondo <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also taken by the Taiwanese tuna longline fishery operating in the South Atlantic (Joung <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Indo-West Pacific</strong><br/>This species is taken by a variety of pelagic fisheries throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The amounts of sharks caught by longliners targeting swordfish in the Indian Ocean have been constantly increasing since the mid-1990s and some have switched to targeting sharks in recent years (IOTC 2006). Large gillnet fisheries operating off India and Sri Lanka have also been taking important catches of pelagic sharks since the 1980s. Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005, IOTC 2006). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al. </em>2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited.<br/><br/><em>A. superciliosus</em> is known to be taken by the Spanish surface longline fleet for swordfish and sharks, Korean tuna longline fleet and others operating in the Indian Ocean (García-Cortés and Mejuto 2000, Yang <em>et al.</em> 2005). Mejuto <em>et al.</em> (2006) report that fishing effort in this Spanish fleet has increased since 1993. It is also documented in catches of Spanish experimental cruises in the Southwest Indian Ocean (Ariz <em>et al.</em> 2006). South Africa?s longline fisheries for tuna set a total of 21 million hooks between 2000 and 2005. Observer coverage (14%) indicated that the shark bycatch of this fishery comprised 4% thresher sharks, after Blue Shark, Shortfin Mako and Crocodile Shark (IOTC 2006). It is a known catch of tuna and shark longline and driftnet fisheries operating in the Indian Ocean and areas of the western Pacific (Rajruchithong <em>et al.</em> 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006). IOTC collects catch information for sharks, but this is considered very incomplete and cannot be used to estimate total catches of sharks in the Indian Ocean, even for species for which partial data are available (IOTC) (IOTC 2006). Both <em>A. superciliosus</em> and <em>A. pelagicus</em> have been reported in the catches but as noted above, no information is available to estimate the magnitude of catches or trends.<br/><br/>Japanese assessment of data from research longline surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans suggests that thresher shark (<em>Alopias</em> spp.) catch per unit effort increased in the 1990s (to near one shark per 1,000 hooks) over levels in the 1970s (near zero sharks per 1,000 hooks). However, this result is thought to be possibly attributable to an increase in hook depths in the latter period. In recent years, based on logbook data, recorded Japanese catches of thresher sharks worldwide ranged from 252 to 596 mt with an average of 347 mt. The resource is considered stable with no management action required other than ongoing monitoring (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006). Coastal longline fishermen off the coast of Japan report that they retain thresher sharks preferentially over other sharks because of their lower urea content. One fishermen cited values of 250 USD per shark for thresher shark carcasses (Gilman <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Although complete data on are not available for evaluation from this region, this species is a known catch of many fisheries operating throughout much of its range in this region, as described above. Given that this species has high biological vulnerability and a low intrinsic rate of increase, coupled with the declines observed in other areas of its range, declines are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.	eng
161697	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures in place. Research is required on life-history, abundance, interaction with and impact of fisheries and population trends.	eng
161697	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: southern Mozambique to the western Cape of South Africa (Compagno 1986).	eng
161697	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	A demersal species found offshore to depths of 60?185 m. This species reaches a maximum total length of 81 cm (Compagno 1986).	eng
161697	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is rare, with very few specimens in collections compared to other rhinobatids, despite its presence in a well-sampled area (Compagno 1989, L. Compagno pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161697	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is likely taken as bycatch in demersal trawl and net fisheries. Industrial offshore trawl fisheries targeting crustaceans, squid and fish operate off South Africa, and Mozambique (WIOFISH 2008). There are little published data on shark catches within the industrialised or semi-industrialised fisheries of Mozambique (AMAR/EOTH 2007). The prawn trawling industry produced a large bycatch of demersal sharks and rays, with approximately 1,500 metric tons of elasmobranch fishes caught as a prawn fishery bycatch in 1994 (AMAR/EOTH 2007). <em>Rhinobatos</em> spp. have been the main elasmobranch group accidentally caught in this fishery (AMAR/EOTH 2007). Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are now required in Mozambique trawl fisheries, which may have reduced bycatch of elasmobranch species, however, in practice uptake of this equipment has been low (S. Pierce pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><em>Rhinobatos</em> species are particularly valued for their fins, which fetch high prices in the shark fin trade (CITES Animals Committee 2006).	eng
161698	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2009	None in place. Research is required on this species' biology, abundance and range, capture in fisheries, habitat status and population trends, as well as other threats to it.	eng
161698	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2009	<em>Makararaja chindwinensis</em> is was described from a single specimen from the Chindwin River, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River in northern Myanmar (Roberts 2007).   No one else has sampled in this region since, and nothing further is known in addition to what Roberts reported.	eng
161698	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2009	No information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this species.	eng
161698	population	Valenti, S.V., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
161698	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Potentially taken in small scale fisheries operating within its range, although no specific information is currently available. Habitat degradation and destruction is a major threat and the potential impact of these within this species' range needs to be evaluated.	eng
161699	conservation	Charvet-Almeida, P., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	Most conservation measures for this species still need to be implemented and few are presently under way. Some research actions are being carried out and mainly involve studies on the biology, ecology and population dynamics of <em>P. iwamae</em>.<br/><br/>Conservation measures required for this species involve management plans, specific legislation (both development and implementation) and community management. Formal education and public awareness are essential to prevent persecution and the negative attitude that exists towards freshwater stingrays in general.<br/><br/>Ornamental catches must be regulated, limited by a quota system and properly monitored for sustainable use. Other fisheries should also be monitored.<br/><br/>Habitat maintenance and conservation, including reduction of several environmental impacts, are needed for the conservation of <em>P. iwamae</em>.	eng
161699	distribution	Charvet-Almeida, P., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	South American inland waters: Amazon drainage, from Ecuador to Manaus, Brazil including Peru. In the Rivers Napo and Solimões (upper to mid Amazon drainage) (Rosa 1985, Rosa <em>et al</em>. 1987), the Içá River (Charvet-Almeida pers. obs.), lower Amazon drainage (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 2003), and in the Amazon estuary (Charvet-Almeida 2001).	eng
161699	habitat	Charvet-Almeida, P., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	After its description (Rosa <em>et al. </em>1987), further captures provided measurements that increased the maximum known size of this species to: 65.0 cm DW and 200.5 cm TL (female specimens) (Charvet-Almeida 2001). Sexual dimorphism was also recorded for this species (Charvet-Almeida 2001).<br/><br/>Little information is available on the biology/ecology of this species. Some reproductive considerations are included in Charvet-Almeida<em> et al.</em> (2005) which indicate that copulation occurs during the rainy season; gestation period may last up to eight months; birthing season takes place in the transition from dry to rainy season and lasts three months; ovarian fecundity varies from 1?5 and litter size ranges from 1?4 pups (average two pups). Sexual maturity is attained at ~40 cm DW (males) and 50 cm DW (females) (Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>The distribution of this species in the mouth of the Amazon River and Amazon estuary region is highly influenced by seasonal salinity variations (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Almeida 2003 now included in the references). This same variation also seems to directly affect the reproductive cycle of this species in these regions (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is thought that pregnant females move towards the inner portion and channels of the Marajó Bay region as salinity levels rise with the approach of the dry season and this movement seems to coincide with the birth season for this species (Charvet-Almeida 2001).<br/><br/>Rosa et al. (1987) examined the stomach/spiral valve contents of three specimens that indicated the presence of catfishes (Scoloplacinae and Trichomicteridae), other teleosts, insects and decapod crustacean (Paleomonidae) remains. Other studies that analysed a higher number of stomachs (n=25) observed that this species feeds mainly on shrimps (Paleomonidae and others), isopods (Sphaeromatidae), fish (Gobiidae) and crabs (Portunidae) (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Bragança 2002).	eng
161699	population	Charvet-Almeida, P., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	There are no further data on range and subpopulations available for this freshwater stingray.	eng
161699	threats	Charvet-Almeida, P., Pinto de Almeida, M. & Rosa, R.S., 2003	<em>P. iwamae</em> is captured for the ornamental fish trade (juveniles), however, market demand for it is relatively restricted due to its large size and grayish color pattern (not among the most attractive when compared to other potamotrygonids).<br/><br/>This species is also used as a food source in some regions of the Amazon but is not among the main fishery target-species. It is usually caught as bycatch in longlines and driftnets. Persecution has also been observed for this species in some areas (Charvet-Almeida and Almeida pers. obs.). Any kind of fishery taking this species is of concern since it is not a very abundant species, has a low fecundity and probably has a very long reproductive cycle (Charvet-Almeida 2001, Charvet-Almeida <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Habitat loss and degradation are also threats for this species. The presence and increase of deforestation associated with mining, logging and farming activities certainly affect this species. These activities lead to sediment deposits and water pollution from agricultural wastes. The development of industries, construction of dams, water pollution (various origins), oil slicks, sewage and solid wastes certainly negatively affect its life cycle.<br/><br/>Human disturbances, mainly recreation and tourism, also pose a threat to this species because these activities degrade and disturb the species? shallow inshore nursery areas.	eng
161700	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M.E. & Stevens, J., 2008	None in place. At present the area is unfished, but fisheries within this species? range should be monitored.	eng
161700	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M.E. & Stevens, J., 2008	Eastern Indian Ocean: occurs on the outer continental shelf and upper slope off northwestern Australia, from north of Melville Island (Northern Territory) to Lancelin (Western Australia) (Carvalho and Séret 2002).	eng
161700	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M.E. & Stevens, J., 2008	Occurs offshore along the continental shelf in depths of 170?350 m. Its biology is poorly known, however this species is born at about 8 cm total length (TL), considered adult at 26 cm TL and reaches a maximum known length of 37 cm TL (Carvalho and Séret 2002). Males and females reach maturity at 26 cm TL or less (Carvalho <em>et al</em>. 1999). Females give birth to litters of about two pups (Last and Stevens unpub. data).	eng
161700	population	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M.E. & Stevens, J., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161700	threats	Carvalho, M.R. De, McCord, M.E. & Stevens, J., 2008	This species was caught occasionally by prawn and scampi trawling in the early 1990s but effort in this fishery has since declined and it is now rarely taken. It is therefore unlikely to be depleted through bycatch in commercial fisheries. Should deep-water trawl fisheries develop in the area the species would need to be reassessed because of its relatively narrow depth and geographical range.	eng
161701	conservation	Ishihara, H., Huveneers, C. & Orlov, A., 2004	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Careful monitoring of fishing effort in the area of occurrence is needed to ensure that the current population is not detrimentally affected.	eng
161701	distribution	Ishihara, H., Huveneers, C. & Orlov, A., 2004	Northwest Pacific: Eremo Skate (<em>Bathyraja trachouros</em>) is endemic to northern Japan, from Sendai, northern Honshu to southern Hokkaido (Ishihara 1990).	eng
161701	habitat	Ishihara, H., Huveneers, C. & Orlov, A., 2004	A medium sized deepwater skate, <em>B. trachouros</em> can be found at depths of 100?800 m and attains 102 cm total length (TL). The species is mature at ~88 cm TL (Ishiyama 1958, Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161701	population	Ishihara, H., Huveneers, C. & Orlov, A., 2004	An apparently rare species. No data on population status or abundance are available.	eng
161701	threats	Ishihara, H., Huveneers, C. & Orlov, A., 2004	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. However this fishery impacts the species over the shallow part of its bathymetric range only. The deeper extent of its range provides the Eremo Skate with a refuge as this depth is not fished in the area of occurrence. No data are available on catch levels of trends over time.	eng
161702	conservation	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. If taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.	eng
161702	distribution	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Western central Atlantic: recorded from northern Gulf of Mexico, Panama, Suriname, and French Guiana (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161702	habitat	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Benthic along the lower slope and continental rise, at depths of 732–2,010 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002) but very little information is available on the ecology or biology of this skate. Maximum size is reported at 51 cm total length (TL) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161702	population	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161702	threats	Kyne, P.M. & Valenti, S.V., 2007	At present, it is unlikely that fishing takes place at the depths at which this species occurs (732–2,010 m). Any future development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161703	conservation	White, W., 2008	None.	eng
161703	distribution	White, W., 2008	Southwest Pacific: known only from the Tasman Sea, on the Norfolk Ridge and New Caledonia (Last <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
161703	habitat	White, W., 2008	The biology of this dogfish is essentially unknown. It occurs at depths of 448–880 m. Attains at least 81 cm total length (TL) males mature by 66 cm TL.	eng
161703	population	White, W., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161703	threats	White, W., 2008	It is only known from very restricted areas on the continental slope of the Tasman Sea. These areas are subject to some deepwater fisheries. Thus, the species may be exploited but further information is required. Off southern New Caledonia, they are sporadically caught as bycatch of a small longline fishery targeting deep red snappers on seamounts.	eng
161704	conservation	Smale, M.J., Compagno, L.J.V. & McCormack, C., 2004	Further surveys are required to better define the species' range and depth distribution and to collect of further specimens for biological data. Careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region. The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161704	distribution	Smale, M.J., Compagno, L.J.V. & McCormack, C., 2004	Southeast Atlantic Ocean: known from a few records from the west coast of South Africa (including the holotype from northwest of Strandfontein) (Compagno and Ebert 2007, Stehmann 1995).<br/><br/>Western Indian Ocean: one record from south of Port Elizabeth in the Eastern Cape and one from off KwaZulu-Natal (Compagno and Ebert 2007).	eng
161704	habitat	Smale, M.J., Compagno, L.J.V. & McCormack, C., 2004	This skate occurs on the slope, at depths of 480–625 m (Compagno and Ebert 2007). All known specimens are juveniles and sub-adults, and adults possibly occur deeper. Males ranged from 13.6–51.7 cm total length (TL) (Ebert <em>et al.</em> 2008). The largest male was an adolescent measuring 51.7 cm TL, and the largest female an immature measuring 28.5 cm TL (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2008). Like other skates, it is presumably oviparous but nothing else is known of its biology. Egg cases have not been found for this species (Ebert <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
161704	population	Smale, M.J., Compagno, L.J.V. & McCormack, C., 2004	Apparently rare, although the bulk of the population may be found in deeper waters. Adults are yet to be observed.	eng
161704	threats	Smale, M.J., Compagno, L.J.V. & McCormack, C., 2004	Potential threat from deepwater hake trawl fisheries operating within its range on the western coast of South Africa, although no specific information is available.	eng
161705	conservation	Iglésias, S., 2008	No measures in place.	eng
161705	distribution	Iglésias, S., 2008	Northeast Atlantic and eastern central Atlantic: known from the west coast of Iceland to the Faeroes Channel (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005) and more recently recorded from Hebrides, Scotland, Ireland, France and Western Sahara, Northwest Africa (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> unpub. data).	eng
161705	habitat	Iglésias, S., 2008	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from the continental slopes and reported at depths of 380–1,250 m (Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005). Magnússon <em>et al.</em> (2000) reported it at depths of 656–1,731 m, but the data most probably included another species also, with which <em>G. murinus</em> was confused (see Taxonomy section).<br/><br/>Analysis of 101 specimens collected during fishery surveys on French trawl vessels from 1997–2003, suggests that size at maturity is 41.2 cm for females and 41.6 cm for males (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> unpublished data). Maximum observed size reported by Iglésias <em>et al</em>. (unpub. data) is 49.1 cm TL. Whereas Magnússon <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that the species reaches up to 85 cm, and the holotype of the synonym <em>P. jenseni</em> is reported at 63 cm TL. Taxonomic confusion causes uncertainties in the published life-history data for this species.<br/><br/>Size at birth is unknown but may be ~8-9 cm (TL), based on egg case sizes (Iglésias <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reproduction is oviparous, with a single egg case per oviduct carried at the same time (Iglésias <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>This species mainly feeds on shrimps (<em>Pasiphaea multidentata, Sergestes robustus</em> and small unidentified species), crustaceans (<em>Dorhynchus thomsoni</em>), and other fish (<em>Micromesistius poutassou</em> and unidentified species), and unidentified cephalopods (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161705	population	Iglésias, S., 2008	Apparently common in deepwater on the European slope (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). This species was caught during Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) trawl surveys in the Rockall Trough (Gordon 1999). Between 0.0037 (paired warp) and 0.0008 (single warp) individuals per 1,000 m² were caught at 1,000 m, which made up 0.03% and 0.02% respectively of the total catch of all species. At 1,250 m, 0.0003 (in both paired and single warp) individuals per 1,000 m² were caught, which made up 0.002% and 0.01% respectively (for paired and single warp) of the total catch of all species. This species was not caught in deeper waters than 1,250 m. The mouse catshark was also caught at 1,000 m and 1,250 m in Porcupine Seabight (Gordon 1999). The species is a common species in deep sea along the European slope.	eng
161705	threats	Iglésias, S., 2008	The species is a common bycatch of commercial deepwater trawlers operating on the northeast Atlantic slope. It is a small species and could potentially escape from the meshes of trawls used in northeast Atlantic waters.<br/><br/>Experimental deepwater fisheries have been conducted by Spain and Morocco off western Africa (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161706	conservation	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2004	California’s Marine Life Protection Act, effective from 21st September 2007, establishes a Central Coast Region, composed of 29 marine protected areas (MPAs) off the state. (See: http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/newsroom_083107.asp for further details). The 29 sites within the Central Coast MPA series represent approximately 204 square miles (roughly 18 percent) of state waters in the Central Coast Study Region. The implementation of these MPAs in currently ongoing. Southern California waters are largely closed to trawl fishing at this time (D. Ebert pes. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Assessment and monitoring of catches of this species is required to determine future population trends.	eng
161706	distribution	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2004	Northeast and Eastern Central Pacific: ranges from the Gulf of Alaska to northern Baja California (Ebert 2003).	eng
161706	habitat	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2004	The Sandpaper Skate is most commonly found between 200–500 m deep and is usually found in deeper water in the southern portion of its range, possibly to 1,372 m (Miller and Lea 1972, Ebert 2003). Male Sandpaper Skates reach sexual maturity around at 48 cm total length (TL) and reach a maximum length of 53 cm TL; females reach sexual maturity between 46–50 cm TL and a maximum length of 56 cm TL (Ebert 2003). Males and females mature at four years of age and the average reproductive period is estimated at 10 years of age (Perez 2005). It is an oviparous species, like other skates, producing one egg case per oviduct at a time and with a continuous reproductive cycle. Size at birth is 12–16 cm TL (Ebert 2003).	eng
161706	population	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2004	Scientific surveys suggest that this species is less abundant than the larger Longnose Skate (<em>Raja rhina</em>), which also occurs on the western coast of the USA (D.A. Ebert pers. comm.). Skates are generally not identified to species level and are often misidentified, precluding the collection of accurate species-specific catch data. Extensive surveys and collation of catch statistics for northeast and eastern central Pacific waters (including California, Oregon, and Washington) have been conducted. Further information should become available in the future, once analysis of this data is complete (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161706	threats	Flammang, B.E., Ebert, D.A. & Cailliet, G.M., 2004	This species is not presently targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for human consumption, but is an incidental catch in bottom trawl fisheries that operate within its range along the western coast of the USA.<br/><br/>Total annual commercial landings data into California for the grouped category ‘Skate, unspecified’ indicate that landings declined from ~577 t and ~633 t in 2000 and 2001 to ~82 t in 2002. Landings then fluctuated between ~125 t and ~95 t from 2003–2005 (California Department of Fish and Game 2007). However, the proportion of this species in the catches is not known. The trawl fishery in California has been slowly closing and a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) is being instigated, in response to declines in rockfish populations (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Most trawlers now have to work in deeper water and mostly in central and northern California. Southern California is largely closed at this time (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Effort in the trawl fishery in California waters has therefore reduced and not nearly as many are being taken as once might have been (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>While no information is available on population trends for this species, recent stock assessments and surveys show that populations of the longnose skate Raja rhina (which is larger and possibly more vulnerable to depletion) appear to be stable (COSEWIC 2007, DFO 2007, D.A. Ebert pers comm.).	eng
161707	conservation	Bates, H., 2008	No conservation measures are in place. Catch levels need to be quantified and monitored.	eng
161707	distribution	Bates, H., 2008	Distributed throughout the East Atlantic around the Cape Verde Islands, and from Mauritania down to Angola (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Possibly occurs as far north as Morocco (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005) and as far south as Namibia (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1999, Carpenter 2008). One northwest Atlantic record from 1906 (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). There are no further records from the tropical Atlantic, possible that the locality data from this specimen was erroneous (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161707	habitat	Bates, H., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The Atlantic Weasel Shark is a demersal species inhabiting both inshore and offshore waters around the continental shelf in tropical to warm-temperate waters. The species occurs in shallow waters up to 100 m, and can be found quite close to land in the surf zone. Common within its area of occurrence, little is known about the biology of this species (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>This shark is viviparous, bearing 1?4 pups per litter (mostly two), each about 47 cm in length. Off Senegal most young are born between May to June. This species reaches a maximum size of 138 cm in length, with males maturing at about 80cm and females maturing between 75 and 90 cm (Compagno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).<br/><br/>It is a specialist feeder, primarily feeding on cephalopods, including squid and octopi. Occasionally preys on small bony fishes such as soles and sardines to make up its diet (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161707	population	Bates, H., 2008	Common in the Eastern Atlantic.	eng
161707	threats	Bates, H., 2008	Important for commercial fisheries, this species is a common catch of artisanal and small commercial fisheries in the Eastern Atlantic, but also taken by offshore international fisheries. It is caught with a variety of fishing gear and retained for utilisation, including longlines, hook and line, gillnets and bottom trawls(Compagno in prep.). Inshore fishing pressure is generally intensive along the western coast of Africa, and fisheries have increased in both effort and capacity during recent decades (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). No specific data are currently available on catches of this species, however, and further investigation of the impact of fisheries on <em>Paragaleus pectoralis</em> is required.<br/><br/>The species may have life-history characteristics, such as slow growth that make it vulnerable to depletion.	eng
161708	conservation	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161708	distribution	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Western central Atlantic: North Carolina to the Florida Keys, with possible record from northeastern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161708	habitat	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Benthic along slope, between 366 and 671 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size at least 33 cm total length (TL); mature males from 33 cm TL. Presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of its biology.	eng
161708	population	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
161708	threats	Brash, J.M. & McEachran, J.D., 2008	No information is available on the capture of this species in fisheries; however it would be vulnerable to incidental capture by deep bottom trawl gear. Given its narrow depth range and distribution, any development of deep-sea fisheries in the region should be closely monitored to ensure that this species is not adversely affected.	eng
161709	conservation	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	As a result of the observed decline in New South Wales wobbegong catches, a discussion paper on wobbegong sharks was produced, seeking the views of various stakeholders on the future management of commercial and recreational fishing of wobbegong sharks (NSW Fisheries 2001). However, the management plan has not been finalised and management measures have not been implemented. NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) also requested commercial fishers to report catches for <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em> individually. Most recently, a review of NSW Recreational Freshwater & Saltwater Fishing Rules and the Fishery Management Strategy (FMS) for NSW Trap and Line Fishery have proposed a minimum size limit of 130 cm TL for wobbegong sharks and a trip limit of 12 wobbegongs caught in fish traps (NSW DPI, 2006). The FMS has also recommended that commercial fishers report their catches of each species separately and to collect additional biological data through the observer program.<br/><br/>Until late 2006, there were no management strategies specifically regulating the wobbegong commercial fishery in NSW. The only regulation in place was a recreational bag limit of two wobbegongs per day (later reduced to zero in September 2007) and a commercial gear limit of no more than ten lines each with a maximum of six hooks when setlining within three nautical miles of the coast. There were no gear limits outside three nautical miles, but as of 2008, amendments to the share management plans will instate a maximum of 1,200 hooks and 30 traps per endorsement holder.<br/><br/>Since September 2006, wobbegongs have been included in the daily trip limit for a specific list of shark species to one tonne for a 24 hour period and two tonnes for 48 hours or greater. NSW DPI also recommended that fishers in the Ocean Trap and Line and Lobster fisheries have in their codes of practice to release wobbegongs less than 130 cm TL caught in fish traps. Since July 2007, the use of wire trace, or other trace made of metal type materials, is prohibited to decrease instances of gut-hooking. Furthermore, a minimum size limit of 180 cm TL and a maximum trip limit of either six or 12 wobbegongs (including <em>O. maculatus</em> and <em>O. ornatus</em>) will also be implemented and is pending approval by the NSW Fisheries minister.<br/><br/>Site attached species may also benefit from habitat protection and suitably designed and implemented "No-take" MPAs, where all forms of harvesting or fishing are excluded. Some protection may be offered by those protected areas already being implemented for grey nurse sharks Carcharias taurus in NSW.<br/><br/>Australian Marine Protected Areas in which the species occurs:<br/>Moreton Bay Marine Park, Qld <br/>Cape Byron Marine Park, Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, off Byron Bay, northern NSW<br/>Solitary Islands Marine Park, north of Coffs Harbour, NSW<br/>Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, north of Sydney, central NSW<br/>Jervis Bay Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Batemans Marine Park, south of Sydney, NSW<br/>Shark Bay Marine Park, WA <br/>Ningaloo Marine Park, WA<br/>Jurien Bay Marine Park, WA<br/>All Victorian marine parks<br/>All South Australian marine parks<br/><br/>Possibly also occurs in the following areas:<br/>Great Sandy Marine Park, Qld <br/>Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, WA <br/>Shoalwater Islands Marine Park, WA<br/>Marmion Marine Park , WA<br/>Muiron Islands Marine Management Area, WA<br/>Rowley Shoals Marine Park , WA<br/><br/>Further protected areas might be necessary to ensure stable populations and are likely to be efficient due to the high site fidelity of wobbegong (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers may also have had an impact on this species in the past. An in-possession limit of two wobbegong sharks per person was introduced for recreational fishers in NSW and reduced to zero in September 2007. This new regulation may help to alleviate any adverse affects caused by recreational fishing practices.<br/><br/>Although a PhD project investigated the biology and ecology of wobbegong sharks, catch and effort is still poorly recorded preventing adequate stock assessments. Species-specific catches in addition to accurate effort data is required to correctly determine population status of wobbegong.<br/><br/>The improvement of species identification in catch records and a better understanding of biological parameters, including validation of age and growth are crucial in providing accurate data upon which to base stock assessments and demographic analyses. Outcomes from which can then be used to estimate wobbegong resilience to fishing pressure and recommend future conservation and management decisions.	eng
161709	distribution	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	<em>Orectolobus halei</em> is an Australian endemic wobbegong. <br/><br/><em>Orectolobus halei</em> has been recorded from warm temperate eastern Australia with confirmed reports from Moreton Bay, Queensland and likely reports from Hervey Bay southwards to Port Phillip Bay (38°14'S, 144°39'E), Victoria and north-westwards to Norwegian Bay (22°54'S), Western Australia (J. Chidlow, unpub. data). However, records from the southern coast of Australia and Western Australia need to be verified (P.R. Last pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Previous sources (Last and Stevens, 1994; Compagno, 2001) show that the global distribution of <em>O. halei</em> (formerly known as <em>O. ornatus</em>) includes Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Japan. However, wobbegongs from these areas are either misidentified <em>O. ornatus</em> or different undescribed species of wobbegongs.	eng
161709	habitat	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	<em>Orectolobus halei</em> is a common inshore bottom-dwelling shark of continental waters that is found in bays, on macroalgae-covered rocky reef areas, coral reefs (including lagoons and reef flats, reef faces, and reef channels), and around offshore islands (Compagno 2001). In a study in Port Stephens, NSW, a sympatric species of wobbegongs (<em>O. ornatus</em>) was shown to prefer sponge gardens, artificial structures and barren boulders habitats with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). However, <em>O. ornatus</em> did not seem to select habitat on the basis of prey availability and habitat selection may therefore be related to predator avoidance (Carraro and Gladsone 2006). <em>O. halei</em> occurs inshore on the continental shelf to at least 195 m depth (J. Chidlow unpub. data) and appears to prefer clear-water reefs (Kuiter 1993). It is often found in clearer water than the closely related <em>O. maculatus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A survey on wobbegongs shows evidence of site-attachment with divers observing individual sharks in exactly the same positions over consecutive dives (The Ecology Lab, 1991). Furthermore, <em>O. halei</em> has been recorded within the same area for over 2.5 years (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2006; Huveneers unpub. data), and a sympatric species of wobbegong (<em>O. ornatus</em>) has been re-sighted within a 75 hectares area for a period of over 211 days suggesting site fidelity (Carraro and Gladstone 2006).<br/><br/>Compagno (2001) describes this shark as a nocturnal species that rests on the bottom during the day in caves, under ledges on reefs, and in trenches and that undertakes nocturnal excursions away from resting areas. As a primarily nocturnal feeder, it preys on bottom invertebrates and fishes (Last and Stevens 1994). Compagno (2001) cites the prey of <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> as bony fishes, sharks, rays, cephalopods and crustaceans. A NSW study found elasmobranchs (including <em>O. ornatus</em>), osteichthyes (reef, benthic and a few pelagic fishes, and moray eels) and cephalopods as prey items (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007a), and only teleosts and cephalopods in a WA study (Chidlow 2003 - misidentified as <em>O. ornatus</em>). No crustaceans were found in the stomachs of <em>O. halei</em> caught in the NSW or WA study. Sampled sharks were, however, mostly large juveniles and adults (> 140 cm TL), and it is possible that crustaceans are part of neonates or small juveniles diet.<br/><br/><em>O. halei</em> (misidentified as <em>O. ornatus</em>) was previously believed to mature at about 175 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno 2001). Further studies confirmed this and estimated L50 at about 175 cm TL in NSW waters (Huveneers et al. 2007b) and 182 cm TL in WA waters (Chidlow 2003). Similar to <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. halei</em> as a triennial reproductive cycle with follicles taking two years to enlarge before ovulation. During the first year, follicles remain small, then grow rapidly during the second year prior to ovulation during November. Gestation lasts about 10–11 months with parturition occurring during September–October (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007b). <em>O. halei</em> is lecithotrophic viviparous (Huveneers <em>et al</em>. 2007b) with a litter size ranging from 30–45 and a size-at-birth of about 35 cm TL (R. Brislane pers. comm.). Maximum length is about 290 cm TL (Last and Stevens 1994).<br/><br/>Age and growth of <em>O. halei</em> was attempted but could not be verified or validated (Chidlow 2003; Huveneers 2007). Furthermore, different age estimations for wobbegongs were obtained if using whole vertebrae or thin cut sections (Huveneers 2007). Juvenile captive <em>O. halei</em> of about 120 cm TL grew about 12 cm TL year<sup>-1</sup> (Huveneers 2007).	eng
161709	population	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	No evidence of subpopulations. However, as stated above, <em>O. halei</em> population was previously considered the adult of <em>O. ornatus</em>. A genetic study looking at orectolobid phylogeny and phylogeorgaphy and assessing potential stock structure is currently being undertaken (S. Corrigan pers. comm.).	eng
161709	threats	Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J., 2007	Commercial fishing is probably the main cause of the decline of this species in eastern Australia. Furthermore, observed site fidelity is likely to increase wobbegong’s susceptibility to fishing pressure. On an Australia-wide basis, wobbegong sharks are commonly caught in trawls, beach seines, gillnets, lobster pots and traps, by hook-and-line, and also by spearfishing. The flesh is now highly regarded as food, but in the past has generally been of only limited commercial value. Historically, the attractive skin has been used as decorative leather (Last and Stevens, 1994). However, it is unknown if this practice is still occurring.<br/><br/>In New South Wales, three <em>Orectolobus</em> species (<em>O. maculatus</em>, <em>O. ornatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em>) are taken in the Ocean Trap and Line Fishery (OTL), in the fish and prawn sectors of the Ocean Trawl Fishery, and very few in the Estuary General Fishery. The majority of commercial wobbegong catches occur in the OTL Fisheries, where they have historically been taken as both a target species by setline methods and as by-product by other methods (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). Serious declines have been observed in NSW, demonstrating the vulnerability of this species to exploitation. The NSW total catch of wobbegongs (genus Orectolobus), combining all fishing methods and Fisheries, has declined from about 120 tonnes in 1990/1991 to about 55 tonnes in 1999/2000, representing a decrease of about 55% in less than a decade (Pease and Grinberg 1995, NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data). However, catches have since stabilised, and range 55–73 tonnes during 1998/1999–2003/2004. Fishing effort is mostly unknown and inaccurate because it has only been reported as the number of days fished. Additionally, the historical aggregation of the wobbegong species in catch data is a further complicating factor. Species-specific catch-per-unit-effort, required to obtain a more accurate estimation of wobbegong catches, is therefore unavailable. Although the strong decline in catches should be of concern for the resilience of wobbegongs to strong fishing pressure, the number of fishers landing wobbegongs has also decreased from about 520 in 1990/1991 to about 250 in 2003/2004 (NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpub. data).<br/><br/>Commercial fishing by a variety of methods is potentially threatening wobbegong species in southern Australian waters. In southern Australia, wobbegongs are taken within the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) (AFMA logbook data unpub. data). Most of the above fisheries take these species as bycatch, and like many bycatch species they are often utilised. Retained wobbegong from the Commonwealth Fisheries ranged 2.3–5.1 tonnes between 1994 and 1999.<br/><br/><em>O. maculatus</em> and <em>O. halei</em> are a component of the bycatch of a commercial shark fishery utilising demersal gill-nets that target carcharhinid whalers and other sharks along the southern and lower west coasts of Western Australia with an average total wobbegong catch between 1999 and 2006 of about 45 tonnes year<sup>-1</sup> (range 35–68 tonnes) (Simpfendorfer and Donohue 1998, Penn 2001, McAuley and Lenanton 2003, McAuley and Gaughan 2004, Gaughan and Chidlow 2005, McAuley 2006, McAuley 2007). Smaller catches of orectolobids also occur in commercial and recreational rock lobster pots throughout temperate coastal Western Australian waters (J. Chidlow, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Commercial catches of wobbegong are small in most parts of South Australia (about 0.5–2.5 tonnes) with the highest yearly catch being 3.1 tonnes in 1987/88 <br/><br/>Wobbegongs are not targeted in Queensland. <em>O. halei</em> has been recorded in low numbers in the bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries (Kyne et al., 2002), whereas small wobbegongs are sometimes caught by crab pots in Southeast Queensland and Moreton Bay, but are usually discarded (J. Stead, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Henry and Lyle, 2003) reported that 5,174 wobbegongs (all species combined) were caught and kept by recreational fishers in southern Australian states during the survey time period (May 2000 to April 2001), comprising 1,944 from NSW, 999 from Queensland, 252 from S.A., and 1,978 from W.A. In Western Australia, a WA Fisheries Department survey conducted in 1996–1997 between Augusta and Kalbarri, reported that up to 1,000 wobbegongs were caught and kept by recreational fishers during that period (Sumner and Williamson 1999).	eng
161710	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161710	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western Indian Ocean: one record off Tanzania (McEachran and Fechhelm 1982). Eastern Indian Ocean: one record from the Andaman Sea (Eschmeyer 1998).	eng
161710	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from two specimens collected in tropical waters at depths of 274 m off Tanzania (McEachran and Fechhelm 1982) and 511 m in the Andaman Sea (Eschmeyer 1998). The holoytype is 20.7 cm total length (TL) (Eschmeyer 1998). Like all skates, it is oviparous but little else is known of the species? biology.	eng
161710	population	McCormack, C., 2006	Population size unknown.	eng
161710	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	The known depth range of this species is beyond that currently fished off Tanzania; however, various surveys have identified potentially productive trawling grounds in the 200?350 m range (Brownell 1982). Therefore any expansion of fishing pressure into deeper waters should be carried out with species-specific bycatch monitoring. At the time of writing, there was no information available on deep-sea fisheries in the Andaman sea. Any current or future expansion of deep-sea fishing in the region should also be carefully monitored to ensure that this apparently rare species is not adversely affected.	eng
161711	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161711	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western central Atlantic: recorded from southern Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, Cuba, and southern Gulf of Mexico (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161711	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	Found along the slope, at depths of 366-870 m McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Attains a maximum size of 34 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at about 32 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Like other skates, <em>C. poeyi</em> is presumably oviparous.	eng
161711	population	McCormack, C., 2006	No information is available.	eng
161711	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is available.	eng
161712	conservation	McCormack, C., 2006	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161712	distribution	McCormack, C., 2006	Western central Atlantic: recorded from east coast of Florida, Florida Keys, Bahamas, and Cuba (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161712	habitat	McCormack, C., 2006	A bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 512?777 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Maximum size is reported at 34 cm total length (TL) and males appear to mature at 30 cm TL (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161712	population	McCormack, C., 2006	Population size is unknown.	eng
161712	threats	McCormack, C., 2006	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no information is available. Given the species apparently narrow range, any current or future expansion of fishing into the bathymetric range of this species should be closely monitored.	eng
161713	conservation	Compagno, L.J.V. & Ishihara, H., 2004	In the first instance, taxonomic issues need to be resolved. This will allow accurate mapping of the species? range.<br/><br/>There is a need to acquire accurate catch data from fisheries throughout the species? distribution. Better understanding of habitat requirements and critical area/habitats is required to establish best amelioration processes.<br/><br/>Future management will need to consider harvest and trade management with a focus on resource stewardship and livelihood alternatives.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g. under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all elasmobranch species. See Anon. (2004) for an update of progress made towards development and implementation of National Plans of Action for countries across the range of	eng
161713	distribution	Compagno, L.J.V. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Possibly endemic to the northwest Pacific, centered off Japanese Archipelago. From Ibaragi and Niigata Prefecture, Japan south to the East China Sea and South China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). See Taxonomy section for further details.	eng
161713	habitat	Compagno, L.J.V. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Benthic in inshore habitats, reported at depths of 80?230 m. Attains a maximum size of 97 cm total length (TL) (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Reproduction is aplacental viviparous with litter sizes from 2?7 pups and a gestation period of 12 months (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Diet consists of fishes, shrimps and cephalopods.	eng
161713	population	Compagno, L.J.V. & Ishihara, H., 2004	No specific data are available on temporal population trends, Due to heavy fishing and bycatch pressures throughout its range this species is suspected to be declining.	eng
161713	threats	Compagno, L.J.V. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Like other rhinobatids, this species? biology makes it highly susceptible to population depletion. It is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear including trawl, gillnet, and line. Net and line fisheries operate over much of the known range of this species and as such it is impacted by direct and indirect fishing pressure and landed where the flesh is utilised. It is unlikely to withstand the present level of fishing pressure across its range and habitat. This level of pressure will increase in the future as areas of the northwest Pacific are more heavily exploited due to an increasing human population and expanding global fisheries.<br/><br/>Habitat requirements are not well understood, but inshore areas are important as nursery areas for <em>Rhinobatos </em>species and these are being impacted upon by fishing activities and environmental degradation/pollution.<br/><br/>Historical fishing pressure is generally intensive in the northwest Pacific (NOAA 2004ab). However, increases in fuel prices have reportedly led to some decrease in fishing activities in recent years off Japan (H. Ishihara pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161714	conservation	Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	None in place. Population trends and changes in habitat quality should be monitored throughout the species? range. Research is also required on the species? biology.	eng
161714	distribution	Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Japan, northern China, northeastern coast of Taiwan (Province of China), Korea, northern (Compagno 2001, D. Ebert pers. comm.).	eng
161714	habitat	Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	A common, temperate-water, benthic shark found on the continental shelf, at depths of 6?37 m (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). Appears to prefer rocky areas. Including reefs, and kelp-covered substrates (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). This species reaches a maximum size of 120 cm total length (TL), males mature at ~69 cm TL and size at birth is 18 cm TL (Compagno 2001). Females lay pairs of eggs among rocks or kelp at depths of 8?9 m, during 6?12 spawnings (from March to September) (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942). Preys on molluscs, small fishes and sea urchins (Compagno 2001, Smith 1942).	eng
161714	population	Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Little is known about the population of this species, but it is very common in shallow waters of Japan (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161714	threats	Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is probably of little interest to fisheries, but is caught as bycatch by gillnet fisheries (Tanaka 2006) and possibly other fisheries in its range (Compagno 2001, S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007). In northern Japan, and possibly elsewhere, its inshore habitat is threatened by marine pollution and coralline flats. Algae are declining in abundance, which will affect this species? prey items; Batillus, top shells sea urchins, and in turn may impact populations of <em>H. japonicus</em> (S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>It is also a very popular aquarium species in Japan (S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161715	conservation	Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. <br/><br/>Catches and population trends should be very closely monitored. Further research is also required on this species’ life-history characteristics.	eng
161715	distribution	Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Japan, Koreas, China (South and East China Seas and northeast Taiwan, Province of China), Vietnam (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Unverified record from the Philippines may be another undescribed species (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
161715	habitat	Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	An inshore bottom-dwelling shark found down to at least 51 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005); Also dwells in semi-enclosed sea areas with sand bottom. Teshima (1981) studied the reproduction of this species in Japanese waters and report that females mature at 68–76 cm total length (TL) and reach a maximum size of 107.9 cm TL; males at 70–75 cm TL (Teshima 1981), and reach a maximum size of 91.2 cm TL. Compagno <em>et al.</em> (2005) report that females reach maturity at about 80 cm TL and males at 62–71 cm TL. Mating takes place in July, followed by a gestation period of about 10 months in Japanese waters, parturition in April-May (Teshima 1981, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006). Reproduction is viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta (Teshima 1981, D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). Females give birth to 2–20 pups in April-June, and size at birth is 28–30 cm TL (Teshima 1981, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Yamaguchi <em>et al. </em>2006). Probably feeds on benthic invertebrates, especially crustaceans (D.A. Ebert pers. obs.). This species is found in warmer waters than its congener, M. manazo (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161715	population	Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	Common where it occurs (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
161715	threats	Quaranta, K.L. & Ebert, D.A., 2007	This species is highly valued for meat and fins and is used for human consumption and may be targeted in some areas within its range. It is regularly caught as utilised bycatch off China, Taiwan (Province of China) and Japan in trawl, gillnet and longline fisheries (Compagno in prep, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2007, Yamaguchi et al. 2006). In the western waters of Kyushu, Japan, after 2001, the catch of <em>M. griseus</em> was stable or increased with the decrease of the catch of <em>M. manazo</em>, though no fishing effort remained constant (Yamaguchi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161716	conservation	Villavicencio Garayzar, C. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2004	In Mexico, a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993 and a national plan for elasmobranch management was passed in 2007 (NOM-029), but no formal management plan has been implemented for <em>N. entemedor</em> specifically. Elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged throughout Central America, and attempts to regulate these fisheries would greatly improve conservation of <em>N. entemedor</em> and other chondrichtyans.<br/><br/>Improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species? range. Expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in México, Central and South America are necessary to provide valuable information on the biology and population status of these rays.<br/><br/>In addition to species-specific landings and bycatch details, life history information including movement patterns, habitat use, and demographic studies are necessary throughout its range and age and growth and reproductive studies are necessary south of Mexico. Fishery-independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are required to provide estimates of abundance and biomass.	eng
161716	distribution	Villavicencio Garayzar, C. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2004	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: reported from the central Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico through the Gulf of California and south to northern Peru. Found in coastal and inshore waters from Laguna Ojo de Liebre, Baja California Sur, through northern Gulf of California and south to Caleta La Cruz, northern Peru (Love <em>et al.</em> 2005). Also reported (three specimens) from Socotra Islands, Isla Revillagigedos Archipelago, Mexico (de Carvalho 1999).	eng
161716	habitat	Villavicencio Garayzar, C. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2004	<em>Narcine entemedor</em> is a common nearshore species found from intertidal depths to 100 m (Chirichingo 1978). It is associated primarily with sandy substrates (including carbonate sands) (Breder 1928, Valadez-Gonzalez 2000). It may be nocturnally active, moving into shallow bays to feed (Michael 1993). Based on specimens collected near Colima, Mexico, the diet consists of polychaetes, crustaceans (esp. stomatopods), teleosts (Anguilliformes), and mollusks (Valadez-Gonzáles 2000). The diet is similar in Bahía Almejas (polychaetes, anguilliform teleosts, and gastropods; Bizzarro 2005).<br/><br/>This species sexually segregates, with females much more common in shallow embayments than males, especially during late spring and early summer (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005). In Bahía Almejas, Baja California Sur, Mexico, parturition occurs in June and July, with the birth of 4?12 pups, 10?12 months after copulation. The reproductive cycle is believed to be annual. Size at birth ranges from 14-16 cm TL with larger females typically producing larger litters (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000). Males enter Bahía Almejas during July and dominate sex ratios by August (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005). First maturity occurs at 43 cm TL for males and 65 cm TL for females, corresponding to ages of four and six, respectively. Maximum age is 11 years for males and 15 years for females (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000). Maximum size is 93 cm TL for females and 67 cm TL for males (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000).<br/>The available biological information from this species is limited to the Mexican Pacific, primarily from the Báhia Magdalena lagoon complex. Life history traits, habitat utilization, and diet may vary significantly for <em>N. entemedor </em>off Central and South America.	eng
161716	population	Villavicencio Garayzar, C. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2004	Little specific information on the abundance, population size, or degree of fragmentation of this species is known from anywhere within its range. It is a common species in Mexican artisanal fishery landings, especially during the late spring and early summer (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Márquez-Farías 2002, Bizzarro 2005, Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> 2007). Regional differences in size at maturity, suggest there may be two or more subpopulations, one in the Pacific coast of Baja California, and the other in the upper part of the Gulf of California. Almost nothing is known in its south distribution. It is reportedly very abundant in San Ignacio and Bahia Magdalena. In the Gulf of California it is abundant on the Sonora coasts.	eng
161716	threats	Villavicencio Garayzar, C. & Bizzarro, J.J., 2004	Directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries are a major threat to this species. In the Bahía Almejas summer batoid fishery, this species is the second most abundant in August (ca. 21% of catch, CPUE (#/vessel/day)=4.6) landings and third most abundant in June (ca. 10%, CPUE=4.2) landings. In Sonora, Mexico, it is the fifth most abundant batoid landed (ca. 5%) in the artisanal elasmobranch fishery (Márquez-Farías 2002, Bizzarro <em>et al. </em>2007).<br/><br/>This species has a relatively high fecundity (4?20), but since Mexican artisanal fisheries typically target gravid females, it is highly vulnerable to overfishing (Villavicencio-Garayzar 2000, Bizzarro 2005).<br/><br/>Indirect landings by demersal trawls (especially shrimp trawlers in Mexico), and gillnets in Mexico and likely throughout the species? range. Extensive artisanal fishery records from north-west Mexico do not indicate that they are captured with longlines. Elasmobranch landings in México and Central America are poorly monitored and lack species-specific details. Large sharks are typically grouped as ?tibur?nes? and small sharks as ?cazonés? while all batoids are generally broadly termed ?manta raya?. Although easily identified, these rays are not currently documented on a species-specific basis.<br/><br/>Habitat modification is also a threat. Many embayments and estuaries in eastern Pacific Mexico are being modified to accommodate shrimp farming. Since this species uses these areas for feeding and reproduction, this could have a detrimental impact on its abundance in affected areas.	eng
161717	conservation	Blasdale, T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. <em>Scymnodon ringens</em> is not included in the list of species covered by the European Union Total Allowable Catch for deepwater sharks, thus it is not covered by fisheries measures.<br/><br/>Recommended actions:&#160; The affect of deepwater fishing pressure on this species is of concern, particularly off Mauritania, where this species is taken of bycatch of expanding deepwater fisheries. It is strongly recommended that efforts be made to quantify and monitor bycatch in these fisheries and determine the impact of these on this species.	eng
161717	distribution	Blasdale, T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Northeast Atlantic: Atlantic slope from Scotland to Spain, Portugal (Compagno in prep). Eastern Central Atlantic: Mauritania and Senegal (Fernández <em>et al</em>. 2005, Compagno in prep).	eng
161717	habitat	Blasdale, T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	A little-known deepwater, temperate to subtropical shark, found on or near the sea bottom at depths of 200–1,600 m (Compagno in prep). Probably ovoviviparous (Compagno in prep.). Maximum size is reported at about 110 cm TL (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161717	population	Blasdale, T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Compagno (in prep) reports this species as relatively common in the eastern Atlantic. This temperate to tropical species is rarely caught in commercial or research trawling west of Scotland (T. Blasdale pers. obs.) and this is likely the northern fringe of its distribution.<br/><br/>The species is caught in very small numbers in commercial trawl catches and Fisheries Research Services (FRS) deep-water surveys west of Scotland fishing at depths between 500 m and 1,900 m (T. Blasdale pers. obs.). It is not mentioned in the report of the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF) surveys in the 1970s, fishing at depths between 366 m and 1,280 m, indicating that it was not common in this area at that time either (Bridger 1978). There is therefore no information from which to infer trends in this area or other areas of the eastern Atlantic.	eng
161717	threats	Blasdale, T. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Reportedly captured in bottom trawls, with line gear, and with fixed bottom nets in the eastern Atlantic, but apparently of limited interest to fisheries (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). The species is a known bycatch of the longline fishery targeting Black Scabbardfish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Aphanopus carbo</span>) at Sesimbra in the northeast Atlantic (ICES Subdivision IXa) (Walker <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). It is also taken by the Basque artisanal longline fleet targeting deepwater sharks in the Bay of Biscay (Heessen 2003).<br/><br/>Very infrequently caught by French and Scottish deep-water trawlers working west of Scotland (ICES sub-area VIa) (T. Blasdale pers. obs.). Very limited data exists on the catches of gill-netters in this area but one retrieved net did not contain any of this species (in a total catch of 8.5 tonnes) (STECF 2006).<br/><br/>This species is among a wide group of demersal squalids taken as bycatch in the Spanish deepwater trawl fishery for black hake off Mauritania (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). (Other important species within this group are <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus granulosus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. squamosus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Centroscymnus coelolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. crepidater</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalatias licha</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Deania profundorum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. calcea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Galeus polli</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Heptranchias perlo</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Oxynotus centrina</span>). In their study of landed bycatch from this fishery from 1992–2001, Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) report that the catch of these squalids declined from 158 tons (87% of elasmobranch landings) in 1992 to 22 tons (59%) in 2001, with a minimum of 3.5 tons in 1999. The decline may be attributable to a set of factors, including a shift in the depths fished, economic reasons (the value and quality of elasmobranch landings fell during the period of the study) and probable over-exploitation of both the target and bycatch species.<br/><br/>The fishery operates from 140–750 m depth, but currently tends to work at increasingly greater depths (with some variation according to the seasonal tides, and a recent average depth of up to 710 m per tide (2003 data from observers on commercial vessels)). The deep bathymetric distribution of this species (200–1,600 m) may afford it some protection from deepwater fisheries such as this, and others operating in the eastern Atlantic. However, the trend for this fishery to exploit deeper waters in an attempt to avoid catching small hake (when the Mauritanian government imposed a minimum legal length of 30 cm for black hake in 1996), may be of concern if this species is fished throughout its depth range in the future. Other fleets from Spain and other countries are also fishing in this area with both fresh and freezer vessels focusing on other demersal and semipelagic stocks, but little information is available to assess their impact on demersal stocks (Fernández <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
161718	conservation	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & Sulikowski, J.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Like many deepwater species, further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161718	distribution	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & Sulikowski, J.A., 2008	Western central Atlantic: northern Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas (USA) (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161718	habitat	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & Sulikowski, J.A., 2008	Benthic along outer continental shelf and upper slope, at depths of 55?384 m (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Females reach a maximum size of at least 69 cm total length (TL) and mature at around 59 cm TL, with males reaching at least 59 cm TL (J. Sulikowski pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161718	population	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & Sulikowski, J.A., 2008	Population size unknown.	eng
161718	threats	Brash, J.M., McEachran, J.D. & Sulikowski, J.A., 2008	Possibly bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries, although no specific information is available.	eng
161719	conservation	Vidthayanon, C. & Manjaji, M., 2007	None in place.	eng
161719	distribution	Vidthayanon, C. & Manjaji, M., 2007	Originally described from five specimens collected in the Maekhlong River. Also known from the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya River in Thailand (penetrates 100 km up the Maekhlong River) (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005), and possibly occurs in the Pahang River, Peninsula Malaysia.	eng
161719	habitat	Vidthayanon, C. & Manjaji, M., 2007	This small, freshwater stingray is found at depths of 5?20 m in mainstream rivers and penetrates into freshwater (Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007). This species? apparently prefers sandy or sandy-muddy substrates (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005). The largest specimen was a female measuring 28.5 cm disc width (DW) (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005). Males mature between 20?26.8 cm DW (Vidthayanon and Roberts 2005).	eng
161719	population	Vidthayanon, C. & Manjaji, M., 2007	Uncommon (Vidthayanon pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161719	threats	Vidthayanon, C. & Manjaji, M., 2007	The major threats to this species are capture in inland fisheries and habitat degradation throughout large areas of its known range. It is typically marketed for its flesh. The freshwater stingray <em>Dasyatis laosensis</em>, which also occurs in the Maekhlong and Chao Phraya Rivers, is suspected to have declined as a result of heavy fishing pressure from intensive fisheries for freshwater teleosts and large-scale habitat degradation from dam building and pollution (Compagno 2005). It is highly likely that this recently described species has also been impacted by these threats. Habitat degradation through removal of forest canopy leading to drought upstream and flooding downstream during monsoon conditions, dam building, leading to silt build-up and retention of agrochemicals behind impoundments and land development near rivers leading to destruction of freshwater habitats and run-off pollution are all threats to this species? freshwater habitat (Compagno and Cook 2005).	eng
161720	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is required on this species’ biology, abundance and full range, capture in fisheries and population trends.	eng
161720	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western Indian Ocean: recorded from the Gulf of Masira, central Oman (Baldwin 2005).	eng
161720	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	This species is found on the continental shelf, recorded at 72 m depth. Attains a maximum size of 61 cm total length (TL) (female) (Baldwin 2005).	eng
161720	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
161720	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Potential bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, although no specific information is currently available on catches (Bonfil and Abdallah 2004).	eng
161721	conservation	McCormack, C., Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Further surveys would benefit the collection of data on the wider range of this species. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161721	distribution	McCormack, C., Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	Western central Pacific: off eastern Indonesia, (Halmahera Sea and Banda Sea) (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
161721	habitat	McCormack, C., Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	Bathydemersal deepwater species known from depths of 400?830 m (Last and Compagno 1999). Attains 33 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999). Reproduction is presumably oviparous, like other skates. Little else is known of the biology of the species.	eng
161721	population	McCormack, C., Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	No information is available.	eng
161721	threats	McCormack, C., Wang, W., Ishihara, H., Fahmi, Manjaji, M., Capuli, E. & Orlov, A., 2007	This species would be vulnerable to capture in deepwater trawl fisheries. Although deepwater longline fisheries currently operate off Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006), deepwater trawl fisheries are yet to develop. The potential for deepwater fisheries to expand in depth range and effort off Indonesia is high. Given the species? apparently restricted range and potentially limiting life-history characteristics (like other deepwater skates), any expansion of fisheries within its range should be monitored.	eng
161722	conservation	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161722	distribution	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Northwestern Pacific: occurs in the Pacific waters of southern Kuril Islands and Japan south to 36°N, Sea of Japan and the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk (Novikov <em>et al.</em> 2002). A recent record from Taiwan, Province of China (Yeh <em>et al.</em> 2002) is questionable.	eng
161722	habitat	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Found on the lower shelf and upper continental slope at 70–900 m (Dolganov and Tuponogov 1999). It occurs in areas with a bottom temperature range of -0.1–3.6°C (Dolganov 1998a). The species reaches a maximum size of at least 102 cm total length (TL) (Dolganov 2005). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but nothing else is known of its biology. Size at birth is unknown, but egg capsules measure 10.6–13.2 cm in length and 7.6–8.6 cm in width (Dolganov 1998b).	eng
161722	population	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	From biomass estimates this species seems rare compared to other skates in the region. Biomass in Russian waters is estimated as 3,100 t including 1,900 t off Kuril Islands, 800 t in the Sea of Okhotsk and 400t in the Sea of Japan (Dolganov 1999). Off the Kuril Islands it comprises 4.4% of biomass of skates, 0.2% in the Sea of Okhotsk, 7.0% in the Sea of Japan and 0.5% only of total biomass of skates within the Russian Far Eastern waters. There are no historical data to help determine trends (A. Orlov pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161722	threats	Orlov, A.M. & Ishihara, H., 2004	Captured as an occasional bycatch of bottom trawl and longline fisheries and is discarded. Although some bottom trawling and longlining by Japanese and Russian fisheries for Pacific cod takes place within this species’ range, fishing pressure is much lower in comparison to the main fishing grounds. The majority of fisheries are coastal, targeting flatfishes using Danish seine at depths down to 100 m. There are few fisheries on the lower shelf and upper slope since there are few deepwater resources there. No data are currently available on trends over time.	eng
161723	conservation	Moore, A. & Jawad, L.A., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The apparently low abundance of this species is unlikely to facilitate targeted research. However, recording and reporting of any specimens of rajids in the Gulf is urgently required.<br/><br/>Formal education and awareness programs, especially for the illiterate people in the rural areas, and capacity-building and training at tertiary levels to facilitate data collection would benefit this species and other poorly known elasmobranchs in the region.<br/><br/>Research is needed on the taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, uses and harvest levels, conservation measures, and monitoring. Data are very limited or do not exist for most of the marine fish species in the region, and only patchy information exists for a number of common and commercial species usually chosen for study.<br/><br/>No protected areas are recognised yet in Iraq. The idea of protected areas is new to Iraqis and a well established education program is required before further steps can be taken to establish such areas.	eng
161723	distribution	Moore, A. & Jawad, L.A., 2008	The Pita Skate (<em>Okamejei pita</em>) is a western Indian Ocean species. The only known confirmed specimen was recorded from the northernmost corner of the Persian/Arabian Gulf at Fao, Iraq (29°54?N; 48°25'E). Fricke and Al-Hassan (1995) note that distribution is probably limited to mud bottoms along the Iraqi and part of the Iranian coast of the Gulf, possibly including Kuwaiti waters.	eng
161723	habitat	Moore, A. & Jawad, L.A., 2008	The Pita Skate is known only from one female specimen (46 cm total length), collected in March 1992 by a trawler over a mud bottom, in water not deeper than 15 m (Fricke and Al-Hassan 1995). The specimen did not contain any egg cases. Like other skates, this species is presumably oviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). No other information is available on biology.	eng
161723	population	Moore, A. & Jawad, L.A., 2008	Although species-specific surveys have not been performed (this would be unfeasible based on the apparent rarity of the species), there was certainly survey/fisheries work done in Iraqi waters prior to conflict in the 1980s. Blegvad (1944) trawled numerous stations along the Iranian coastline including near Iraq; and there are also several Iraqi studies/checklists in the Khor Zubair, which have not recorded this species. Military conflict and tensions since the 1980s has made further scientific collection within the species? known range extremely difficult and no specific information is available on population size, status or trends. However, based on the available evidence of only one confirmed specimen, it is likely that this species is, at the least, uncommon.	eng
161723	threats	Moore, A. & Jawad, L.A., 2008	Levels of fishing-related mortality are unknown and overfishing and illegal fishing occurs in this region. The main fishing methods used in the area in which this species was captured are longline, driftnet, gargoor (baited mesh cage trap), hadra (intertidal stake-net trap), and trawl (Jawad 2006). For religious reasons local Shia muslins in southern Iraq do not consume elasmobranch fishes, and hence this species is likely discarded if captured.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is increasing within the area where this species was collected. Since 2003, Iraqi fisheries have been expanding southwards, particularly along the east coast of Bubiyan and Warba Islands and are also apparently operating illegally in the waters of Kuwait and, to a lesser extent, the Islamic Republic of Iran (Morgan 2006). These expanding trawl and gillnet fisheries are totally unregulated. As a result of this expansion, it is believed that both fishing effort and landings of marine fish species into Iraq (mainly Basrah and Umm Qasr) have increased significantly during the latter part of 2003 and 2004 (Morgan 2006). Landings have probably returned to high values of about 12,000?13,000 tonnes seen in the late 1990s, but no detailed data are available (Morgan 2006).<br/><br/>Non-fishing anthropogenic impacts may be significant. Extensive damming of the Tigris-Euphrates river system in Turkey and the drainage of the Iraqi marshes during the 1990s are likely to have had implications for the Pita Skate's habitat. Rapid coastal development of previously pristine and uninhabited areas, such as Bubiyan Island in Kuwait, may also have impacts.<br/><br/>Other known or potential sources of anthropogenic threat impacting the area are habitat loss, degradation, and deteriorating water quality (Al-Saadi and Arndt 1973, Hussain <em>et al</em>. 2001, Hussain <em>et al</em>. 1999), including: destructive fishing practices, hydrocarbon pollution of sediment/water (Douabul 1984, Abaychi and Al-Saad 1988, Al-Saad 1990, Al-Saad 1995, Al-Saad <em>et al</em>. 1995, Al-Saad <em>et al</em>. 1996, Al-Saad and Altimari 1993, DouAbul <em>et al</em>. 1987), and radiological, chemical or biotic contamination (Carroll 2005, Birdlife International 2006).<br/><br/>In addition, this species may have intrinsic factors that make it more vulnerable to depletion, such as a restricted range and low abundance. Research is required to determine to what extent these factors may threaten the species.	eng
161724	conservation	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	None currently in place.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the taxonomy of this species, as well as species-specific information on abundance, capture in fisheries and population trends.	eng
161724	distribution	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	Northwest and western central Pacific: from Honshu, Japan, south to Korea and the Yellow Sea, China and Taiwan, possibly to New Guinea (K. Nakaya and S. Tanaka pers. obs. 2007, Compagno <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
161724	habitat	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	A bottom-dwelling catshark of the continental shelves, found offshore at depths of 90?200 m (Taniuchi 1988). The reproduction and diet of this species was studied in Choshi and Suruga Bay, Japan (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). In Suruga Bay the data collected from 1,377 specimens (992 and 385 specimens from western and eastern of the bay respectively) indicates that the minimum size of adults was 82.4 cm total length (TL) for males and 90.6 cm TL for females. Size at birth was about 18 cm TL (Horie and Tanaka 2002). Reproduction is oviparous. In Choshi, the study of 356 specimens suggests size at maturity is attained at 86?88 cm TL for males and at 92?94 cm TL for females (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). All males measuring greater than 96 cm TL and females over 104 cm were mature (Taniuchi 1988, Horie and Tanaka 2002). The largest observed male in Choshi was 114 cm TL and the largest female was 114.5 cm TL (Taniuchi 1988). The species does not have a well-defined reproductive season (Taniuchi 1988).<br/><br/>In Suruga Bay, the species preyed on a wide variety of marine organisms such as Gnathostomata, Cephalopoda and Crustacea. The diet of the young varies in different locations. In Choshi, the food items of the species consisted of at least 71 prey species, principally fishes. Pacific mackerel and Japanese sardine were the dominant prey. Ten species of Chondrichthyan fishes were also important in their diet (Taniuchi 1988).	eng
161724	population	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	No specific information is available on the population, but the species is apparently locally abundant.	eng
161724	threats	Iglésias, S., Tanaka, S. & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is a retained bycatch of commercial bottom trawl and longline fisheries off Japan (Taniuchi 1988). It is captured incidentally by shrimp bottom trawlers using nets with mesh ~2?4 cm in diameter, so both adults and juveniles are retained by the trawl (S. Iglésias pers. obs. 2007). The species is sometimes observed on the Tachi and Nan Fang Hao fish markets, Taiwan. It is apparently still abundant in areas that are heavily fished by trawlers (S. Iglésias, S. Tanaka and K. Nakaya obs. 2007).	eng
161725	conservation	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Jeong, C.-H., 2007	No specific measures in place. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161725	distribution	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Jeong, C.-H., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan from Miyazaki Prefecture to Miura Peninsula (Ishihara 1990).	eng
161725	habitat	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Jeong, C.-H., 2007	This skate occurs on sandy, muddy substrates at depths of 30–60 m. Attains a maximum size of 51 cm total length (TL). Reproduction is oviparous, like other skates, but little else is known of its biology.	eng
161725	population	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Jeong, C.-H., 2007	Apparently common within its range.	eng
161725	threats	Ishihaha, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S. & Jeong, C.-H., 2007	This species is captured as utilised bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal set nets off Japan. It is eaten as dried skate wings and processed into fishcakes (Kamaboko) (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). No information is currently available on catches, however, this endemic species has limited range in shallow waters. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947–1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), but this was mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea, where this species is not present. Further investigation into threats is urgently required and this assessment should be re-visited in the near-term.	eng
161726	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2008	None in place. Research is needed on the species’ full range and occurrence and potential threats to it.	eng
161726	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Western central Pacific: recorded from the slope off northern New Caledonia (Grand Passage) (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161726	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Recorded on the slope, at depths of 688–732 m. The only known specimen is an adult male, measuring 41.5 cm total length (TL) (Séret and Last 2007).	eng
161726	population	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Known only from a single specimen.	eng
161726	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2008	Uncertain.	eng
161727	conservation	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	No specific measures are in place.<br/><br/>Recommended: Bycatch in fisheries should be quantified and population trends monitored. Information is also required on the life-history characteristics.<br/><br/>Restrictions on trawling below 700 m in southern Australia, and basket quotas on deep-water dogfish.	eng
161727	distribution	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Southeast Atlantic and western Indian Ocean: Namibia, South Africa (Northern Cape near Hondeklip Bay, Western Cape from Saldanha Bay to Cape Agulhas, Eastern Cape from Plettenberg Bay to Algoa Bay, and northern kwaZulu-Natal) (Compagno in prep).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific: southern Australia (from Perth to in Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania), seamounts south of Australia including the Cascade Plateau and South Tasman Rise and from New South Wales, north to Taree (Compagno in prep). Yano (1997) recorded <em>E. unicolor</em> from the ridges to the north (Three Kings Ridge and Lord Howe Rise) of New Zealand waters, but further taxonomic study is required to determine whether Northern and Southern Hemisphere populations are con-specific (M. Francis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Northwest Pacific: Japan (southeastern Honshu) (Compagno in prep).	eng
161727	habitat	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Continental and insular slopes, often at the bottom and sometimes well off it. Found at depths of 402–1,380 m (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005). Maximum total length 79 cm total length (TL); size at birth about 17 cm (TL); immature males 23–51 cm (TL), adolescent males 45–51 cm (TL), adult males 48–68 cm (TL); immature females 26–56 cm (TL), adolescent females 37–67 cm (TL), adult females 53–63 cm (TL) (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>This species may have similar life-history characteristics to <em>E. baxteri</em>. A recent study by Irvine <em>et al.</em> (2006) on the age and growth of <em>E. baxteri</em> provided unvalidated age estimates for this species. These suggest that females reach maturity between 11.5 and 30 years of age, and males at 10.5–20 years. The lower and upper estimates are based on external growth bands, and internal growth bands, respectively. Although there is a large discrepancy between the preliminary upper and lower estimates, they both suggest that <em>E. baxteri</em> is a long-lived and late maturing species. <em>Etmopterus unicolor</em> may share similar life-history characteristics, making it susceptible to depletion by over-fishing.	eng
161727	population	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Common off the west and south coasts of South Africa, off southern Australia.  In these areas this species is caught with the larger <em>E. baxteri</em> (Compagno in prep). Both species were caught together in 29% of 65 short (half-hour) experimental trawls by research vessels on the slopes at 383–1,300 m off the west and southeast coasts of South Africa. In some instances in sufficient numbers to suggest, but not prove, mixed schools (Compagno in prep). It is known only from a few records on the Three Kings Ridge and Lord Howe Rise, north of New Zealand and has not been recorded within the New Zealand EEZ (Yano 1997, M. Francis pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161727	threats	McCormack, C. & Valenti, S.V., 2008	Probably an incidental bycatch of trawl fisheries for Deepwater Hake (<em>Merluccius paradoxus</em>) off the west coast of South Africa, and it used to be caught in deepwater trawl fisheries for Orange Roughy (<em>Hoplostethus atlanticus</em>, Trachichthyidae) off Australia, although these have now been much reduced through quotas and closed areas. It is also caught in the epipelagic zone, at up to 120 m depth, by Japanese longliners in the open ocean near Australia (Compagno in prep.). This species is sometimes caught in large quantities off southern Australia and discarded. However, discarded catch would probably have very low survival rates (J.D. Stevens pers. comm. 2007).	eng
161728	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R. & White, W.T., 2004	This species needs to be monitored in the future due to the very high quantities taken by the large number of prawn and/or fish trawlers that operate in Thailand,Indonesia and other areas of its range.	eng
161728	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R. & White, W.T., 2004	The range of this species is not well defined due to regular confusion with <em>H. walga</em> (Compagno 1998). Its distribution appears limited and may prove to be restricted to the Indian Ocean (P. Last pers. obs.). Western Indian Ocean: Red Sea, India (shore area, Coromandel coast; lower Bengal).<br/><br/>Eastern Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand. The species? range south of Thailand is uncertain, but includes Indonesia (Java and possibly southern Borneo) (M. Majaji pers. obs. 2007). <br/><br/>FAO fishing area: 51, 57.	eng
161728	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R. & White, W.T., 2004	Very little is known of the biology and ecology of this coastal, demersal stingray at present. Maximum size is reported at 65 cm total length (TL) and 22 cm disc width (DW) (Compagno 1998). The largest female examined by Manjaji (2004) (20.7 cm DW) was maturing. Size at birth is about 10 cm DW, and males mature ar 20.5?21 cm DW (Manjaji 2004).	eng
161728	population	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R. & White, W.T., 2004	Caught in considerable numbers by trawlers operating in the Andaman Sea (P. Last pers. comm.).	eng
161728	threats	Manjaji, B.M., Last, P.R. & White, W.T., 2004	This species is a utilised bycatch of demersal fisheries, and is taken in considerable numbers by trawlers operating in the Andaman and Java Seas (P. Last pers. obs.). Levels of exploitation on the habitat in which this species occurs are generally very high and unregulated throughout large areas of its range. As it is caught in large numbers (in all size ranges), it is considered to be under a severe level of threat. Flesh is utilized fresh or salted and dried for human consumption where it is caught.<br/><br/>The alteration of marine habitats by mining and mangrove deforestation poses a threat to many coastal species, such as this. In adjacent areas of Cambodia and Viet Nam, deforestation, residues of warfare chemicals and silting are the one of the main threats to coastal elasmobranch species such as Himantura imbricata (Vidthayanon 1997). Significant areas of mangrove forest have been lost from countries within this species? range (FAO 2007).	eng
161729	conservation	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	No species-specific measures in place. This species needs to be closely monitored. Efforts should be made to collect species-specific catch data and further monitoring through surveys is essential.	eng
161729	distribution	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Northeast Atlantic: fjords of central and southern Norway, southern Iceland, around Rockall Trough, and uncommon in Bay of Biscay. Vagrants are occasionally recorded in Celtic waters off western Ireland (ICES 2007). Records from elsewhere may be misidentifications.	eng
161729	habitat	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Found on slopes and submarine rises at 200 m to more than 1,000 m depth (Stehmann and Bürkel 1984, Stehmann 1990). This is a large skate, attaining at least 200 cm total length (TL) (Stehman 1990). Like other skates, this species is oviparous.	eng
161729	population	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	Moderately rare. ICES (2007) reports that this species is uncommon in the Norwegian and North Seas and Bay of Biscay. There are historical records from Rockall and the Norwegian Deep, where it was known to have occurred, but there have been no recent records in these areas (ICES 2007).	eng
161729	threats	Stehmann, M.F.W., 2007	This species is commercially exploited and occasionally occurs in landing statistics either as a target or utilised bycatch (ICES 2006). Little information is generally available on the landings of deepwater skates, although FAO statistics report landings of 19?393 t for <em>D. nidarosiensis</em> between 1982 and 1993 (Anonymous 1997). Dipturus nidarosiensis also accounted for 1% of skates recorded in biological sampling in Irish ports between 2001 and 2007 (ICES 2007). This is one of the largest skates and as such has low productivity and high catchability, similar to other large skates that have been heavily impacted by even moderate levels of bycatch (Dulvy and Reynolds 2002). Deepwater prawn trawl fisheries operate within its range. Areas of the northeast Atlantic, for example the Rockall Trough, where there have been no recent records of this species, have been subject to a fairly rapid increase in deepwater fishing activities since the 1990s with overall concern for the sustainability of deepwater fish stocks (Gordon 2003). There is a continuing trend of increasing deepwater fishing activities in the northeast Atlantic, with effort expanding into deeper water. This species? high intrinsic vulnerability, an absence of management or conservation measures and its apparent disappearance from Rockall and the Norwegian Deep (as described in Population, above) is of concern.	eng
161730	conservation	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.<br/><br/>Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required.	eng
161730	distribution	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2007	Eastern central and southeast Pacific: southern Baja and the Gulf of California (Mexico), throughout Central America to northern Peru (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).<br/><br/>Members of the genus <em>Urotrygon</em> are prone to misidentification and as such the occurrence of this species is not well defined.	eng
161730	habitat	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2007	A benthic species found in coastal waters on soft bottoms at depths of 5-50 m (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007). The maximum recorded size for this species is a male specimen measuring 28.8 cm (McEachran 1995). Life-history is poorly known and no other biological data are available.	eng
161730	population	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2007	Unknown.	eng
161730	threats	Valenti, S.V. & Robertson, R., 2007	No information is available but this species is taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries operating in the Eastern Pacific. Trawl fisheries targeting shrimp and demersal fish operate along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). No specific information is available on catches, but this species is taken as bycatch of these fisheries throughout large areas of its geographic range.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Urotrygon </span>species are also taken as bycatch in inshore artisanal fisheries in Perú (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005) and probably elsewhere in Pacific South America, where fishing pressure on the inshore environment is significant and generally unregulated. <br/><br/>Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting catches internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ?marine fishes, nei?, where nei stands for ?not explicitly identified? (Cailliet and Camhi 2005). This limits the available information to assess catches of this and other inshore elasmobranch species.	eng
161731	conservation	Baum, J., Bianchi, I., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Grubbs, R.D., Mancusi, C., Piercy, A., Serena, F. & Snelson, F.F., 2007	No specific conservation measures in place. Further efforts should be made to gather data from longline fishing vessels and other commercial fishing operations that may encounter this species. Continued research efforts aimed at careful monitoring of populations of this species is required.	eng
161731	distribution	Baum, J., Bianchi, I., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Grubbs, R.D., Mancusi, C., Piercy, A., Serena, F. & Snelson, F.F., 2007	This stingray is widespread, with an almost circumglobal distribution, throughout tropical and subtropical areas of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, between 52°N?50°S and 167°W and 180°E (Mollet 2002).	eng
161731	habitat	Baum, J., Bianchi, I., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Grubbs, R.D., Mancusi, C., Piercy, A., Serena, F. & Snelson, F.F., 2007	This is perhaps the only species of stingray that occurs in pelagic, oceanic waters (Last <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is usually found from the surface to 100 m depth over deep water (Mollet 2002), but has been reported to 238 m (Bester <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a relatively small ray, attaining a maximum size of 80 cm disc width (DW) (Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002). Females reach maturity at 39?50 cm DW (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007), and males at 37?50 cm DW (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008). Females mature at 3 years, males mature at 2 years and longevity is about 10 years (Wilson and Beckett 1970, Mollet <em>et al.</em> 2002, Neer 2008).<br/><br/>Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy and the gestation period is less than 2?4 months (Ranzi and Zezza 1936, Tortonese 1956, Wilson and Beckett 2002, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007). Copulation takes place in spring and females move inshore during summer to give birth (Whitehead et al. 1984, Tortonese 1956, Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007.). Females give birth to 4?13 pups per litter (average 6) (Ebert, 2003, Neer 2008, Tortonese, 1956, Fisher <em>et al. </em>1987), and newborn stingrays measure approximately 14.3?24.1 cm DW (mean range) (Mollet <em>et al. </em>2002, Mollet 2002).<br/><br/>In the northeast and eastern central Pacific there appears to be two discrete populations of this stingray, one migrating from eastern Pacific equatorial waters to off the California coast, and a second central Pacific population that migrates northwards, sometimes as far as Japanese and British Columbia waters (Ebert 2003). This suggests that these stingrays may have a fairly complicated population structure, but unfortunately virtually nothing is known about this or the abundance of this ray at this time. Females in the eastern Pacific population are thought to give birth in winter in warmer water off the coast of Central America, before migrating to higher latitudes nearer the coast including the Southern California Bight (Mollet 2002). Information from the western and central Pacific also suggests that females give birth in November-March in warmer water near the equator (Mollet 2002). In the Mediterranean Sea, the migration pattern appears to be different from that in the eastern Pacific, with females giving birth in the Bay of Naples before the rays migrate to warmer water (Lo Bianco 1909, Ranzi 1933, Mollet 2002). Rays in the Bay of Naples appeared to migrate as the water became colder. In the Southwest Atlantic, the population existing off Brazil possibly carries out its reproductive cycle in water southeast of Brazil and Uruguay on the slope and in oceanic waters, migrating towards the tropical zone to give birth (Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Data from pelagic longline fisheries in the Southwest Atlantic show that the proportion of males in the captures is greater than females (ratio of 1.8:1 (n=1317)). Conversely, other data available for the eastern Pacific and western Atlantic Oceans indicate that there is a significantly higher ratio of females to males observed. Females outnumbered males 2:1 to 7:1 in the eastern Pacific samples and at a ratio greater than 3:1 for the western Atlantic (Wilson and Beckett 1970, D.B. Holts, unpublished data, Neer 2008).	eng
161731	population	Baum, J., Bianchi, I., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Grubbs, R.D., Mancusi, C., Piercy, A., Serena, F. & Snelson, F.F., 2007	The population structure, migratory patterns and reproduction cycles are not well known throughout most of this species? range.	eng
161731	threats	Baum, J., Bianchi, I., Domingo, A., Ebert, D.A., Grubbs, R.D., Mancusi, C., Piercy, A., Serena, F. & Snelson, F.F., 2007	The major threats to pelagic stingray populations are pelagic longline fisheries for tunas, billfishes, and other pelagic shark species (Neer 2008). This species is caught frequently by tuna and swordfish longliners and mostly discarded, but is retained and utilised in some areas (for example Indonesia) (Domingo <em>et al</em>. 2005, Mollet 2002, Vaske 2002, A. Amorim pers. comm., Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007, White <em>et al. </em>2006). The magnitude of regional and indeed global catch is currently unknown.<br/><br/>There is evidence for skewed sex ratios in this species (see Habitat and Ecology above). Whether these ratios are obtained in actual fisheries bycatch is unknown, however if so, an asymmetric take of this species could potentially impact the long-term stability of pelagic stingray populations (Neer 2008).<br/><br/><strong>South Atlantic</strong><br/>Of 2.054 pelagic stingrays captured between 2001?2005 by the Uruguayan longline fleet in the South Atlantic Ocean, 35% were dead when discarded, 50% were discarded alive and the state of 15% could not be determined. However, these stingrays are often smashed against the side of fishing boats to remove the hooks as the fishermen are afraid of being stung. As a result most pelagic stingrays are discarded with serious mouth and/or jaw damage and therefore there is concern that survival is ultimately low, even in the group discarded alive above (Domingo <em>et al.</em> 2005, Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007.).<br/><br/>Annual CPUE data for the Uruguayan longline fleet, operating in the Southwest Atlantic, between 2000-2006, varied between 0.27 (2001) to 1.2 (2005) individuals per 1,000 hooks (0.76 in 2006), with no significant trend (Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007). Large aggregations are captured in some areas, resulting in very variable CPUEs and large numbers taken on fewer hooks (78.2 individuals/1000 hooks in the South Atlantic) (Forselledo <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Pacific</strong><br/>This stingray appears to be very common in the eastern Pacific, although catch data for this species is very uneven. There is some debate as to consistency of reporting of pelagic stingrays. Observers on pelagic shark research cruises and tuna longliners reportedly do not record catch records of these species in a consistent manner and discussions with observers in the North Pacific suggest that stingrays, most likely referable to <em>P. violacea</em>, are not being recorded on a regular basis (L. Jordan pers. comm. August 2004, D.A. Ebert pers. obs. 2004).<br/><br/>A study in the tropical Pacific Ocean comparing research surveys conducted with pelagic longlines in the 1950s with recent (1990s) observer data from the commercial pelagic longline fishery suggests that pelagic stingrays have increased in the region (Ward and Myers 2005). Surveys in the 1950s caught no pelagic stingrays, and interviews with scientists who conducted the surveys confirmed that they neither caught nor saw any pelagic stingrays, but certainly would have recorded them if they had (Ward pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Pelagic stingrays are also discarded with serious mouth/jaw injuries off South America in the eastern Pacific and probably low chance of survival (Jimmy Martinez pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northwest Atlantic</strong><br/>In the Gulf of Mexico, an analysis similar to that in the tropical Pacific Ocean, which compares 1950s research survey data with 1990s observer data from pelagic longlines suggests that there may have been a similar increase in pelagic stingrays in this region (R. Myers and J. Baum unpublished data).<br/><br/><strong>Indian Ocean</strong><br/>This species was believed to be rare in the Southwest Indian Ocean, until it was revealed that these stingrays are actually quite commonly caught as bycatch of the longline fleet, but generally unreported (Forselledo <em>et al. </em>2007.). Interviews with commercial longliners in this region have revealed that the fishermen were quite familiar with it, but that scientists were not (D.A. Ebert and P.D. Cowley unpubl. data). This species is scattered throughout Indonesia in open ocean areas, and is caught occasionally by pelagic gillnet and longline fisheries, whre it is retained for human consumption (White<em> et al. </em>2006).<br/><br/><strong>Mediterranean</strong><br/>This species is captured by pelagic longline fisheries operating in the Mediterranean Sea. This bycatch is almost certainly mostly discarded, with a low discard survival rate due to damage to jaws and/or mouth as a result of treatment on board fishing vessels. Again the magnitude of Mediterranean-wide catches is unknown. Reports of common stingrays Dasyatis pastinaca in pelagic fisheries catches in the Mediterranean may refer to pelagic stingrays <em>Pteroplatytrygon violacea</em>. In Italian seas pelagic stingrays are the most commonly caught elasmobranch species in the Albacore long line fisheries and the second most common elasmobranch catch in swordfish long line fisheries (Filanti <em>et al.</em> 1986, di Natale et al. 1995, Orsi Relini et al. 1999). Total bycatch of <em>P. violacea</em> in the swordfish fishery in the Ligurian Sea was estimated at ~2,000 (up to 20 per boat) in 1995, although the catch was smaller and more variable in 1996) (Mollet 2002). Rey and Alot (1984) reported the results of a swordfish longline surveys in Mediterranean Spanish waters, and recorded only two pelagic stingrays in 11 fishing operations (<0.001). The pelagic stingray is also occasionally taken by recreational fisheries (Fischer <em>et al. </em>1987), which presumably does not have a significant impact on population numbers.	eng
161732	conservation	Heupel, M.R., 2004	None in place. Fisheries operating within this species’ relatively restricted range need to be monitored.	eng
161732	distribution	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Relatively restricted range in the Western central Atlantic: Straits of Florida and Caribbean from Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico and Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles (Compagno 2002, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005). Its distribution may not be completely documented.	eng
161732	habitat	Heupel, M.R., 2004	A deepwater species of the upper continental and insular slopes at depths of 293–695 m (Konstantinou <em>et al. </em>2000). Little known about its biology. Although the reproductive mode of this species had been in question, it is reported to be oviparous (Springer 1979, Konstantinou <em>et al.</em> 2000). Parsons (1986) also reported on oviparity in <em>Galeus arae antillensis</em> off Puerto Rico. However, <em>G. antillensis</em> occurs sympatrically with <em>G. springeri</em> in this area so it is not known which species his specimens belonged to. Reaches a maximum size ~46 cm TL.	eng
161732	population	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161732	threats	Heupel, M.R., 2004	Threats to this species are uncertain. Little information is available on deepwater fisheries operating in this area that may take this species. Any future expansion of deepwater demersal fisheries in the species’ restricted range may be cause for concern and would require monitoring. Its small size may preclude it from capture in some fishing gears.	eng
161733	conservation	Ebert, D.A., 2008	None in place.	eng
161733	distribution	Ebert, D.A., 2008	Northwest and western central Pacific: northwest Java, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Province of China, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Southeast Japan (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161733	habitat	Ebert, D.A., 2008	A bottom-dwelling shark preferring tropical and warm-temperate continental and insular waters, found on the continental shelf at depths of 50?100 m (Compagno in prep). This species reaches a maximum total length of 65 cm with adult males measuring 42?57 cm and adult females measuring 51?65 cm (Compagno in prep). This is an oviparous species which feeds on bony fish, crustaceans and cephalopods (Compagno in prep).	eng
161733	population	Ebert, D.A., 2008	Uncommon throughout its range (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161733	threats	Ebert, D.A., 2008	This species is probably taken in bottom trawls in the Taiwan Straits and elsewhere throughout its range. Often seen in Taiwanese fish markets as a bycatch species. The conservation status of this species is uncertain but it is of concern due to the intense bottom trawling occurring in its range (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161734	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2007	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Where taken, catches require monitoring, particularly as deepwater fisheries expand worldwide.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161734	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2007	Western Indian Ocean: known only from 23°S off Mozambique and off Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Compagno and Ebert 2007, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
161734	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2007	This deepwater skate is recorded at depths of 65-680 m, with most records below 200 m. Attains a maximum size of 41 cm (total length) TL, and 24 cm disc width (DW) (Hulley 1988). Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous, but nothing else is known of its biology.	eng
161734	population	Smale, M.J., 2007	This species is reportedly extremely abundant in deeper waters near Durban (Wallace 1967). Compagno and Ebert (2007) report records from 22 research stations.	eng
161734	threats	Smale, M.J., 2007	There are few trawl fisheries at the depths this species occurs because the strong Agulhas current makes trawling there potentially dangerous (M.J. Smale pers. obs.). Any future expansion of fisheries to greater depths within the species range should be closely monitored given the species' apparently restricted distribution.	eng
161735	conservation	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S, & Nakaya, K., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place at this time. Research is needed to accurately define this species? distribution and abundance. Species-specific monitoring is required to determine and monitor population trends.	eng
161735	distribution	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S, & Nakaya, K., 2007	The distribution of this species is not well defined. It has been reported from the northwest and western central Pacific, from Java, Indonesia, north to Borneo, Philippines, South China Sea, Vietnam, Malaysia, East China Sea, China and Taiwan (Province of China), Korea and Japan (Last and Compagno 1999, Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, recent studies suggest that records of this species from the South China Sea and Indonesia could refer to other, as yet undescribed <em>Okamajei </em>spp. (Compagno <em>et al</em>. 2005, White <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
161735	habitat	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S, & Nakaya, K., 2007	This poorly known skate lives on muddy, sandy bottoms at depths of 20?175 m (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 2007). Attains a maximum size of at least 55 cm total length (TL) (Last and Compagno 1999, Yamada <em>et al</em>. 1995). Like other skates, it is oviparous. Spawning occurs from January to April in the East China Sea (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
161735	population	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S, & Nakaya, K., 2007	Apparently common within its known range.	eng
161735	threats	Ishihara, H., Wang, Y., Tanaka, S, & Nakaya, K., 2007	This species is captured as bycatch in gillnet fisheries, bottom trawl and coastal setnets off Japan, and in bottom trawls off Taiwan Island. Although it is not targeted, it is retained and utilised for human consumption and fishmeal. Areas of this species? range have been subject to intensive fishing pressure (NOAA 2004ab). No species specific information is currently available on catches or temporal trends. Total Japanese landings of skates and rays declined during 1947?1995 (from 18,000 t per year to ~4,000 t per year), mainly due to a decrease in catch in the East China Sea. This catch corresponds to small size Okamejei species and may be due to overfishing of these skates in the East China Sea (Ishihara <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
161736	conservation	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	None.	eng
161736	distribution	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Endemic to Bali. Known only from off Jimbaran Bay in southern Bali (White <em>et al</em>. 2006). Possibly has a very restricted range, with an estimated extent of occurrence potentially limited to <20,000 km², as none have been recorded during extensive surveys at localities on neighbouring islands (e.g., Lombok).	eng
161736	habitat	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Biology and habitat unknown; presumably reef-dwelling, inhabiting holes and crevices on reefs, like other related catsharks. The species attains 52 cm total length (TL) with males mature by 43 cm TL (White in review). Presumably oviparous. Diet unknown, but probably dominated by small invertebrates as with many other inshore scyliorhinid species (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161736	population	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Very little is known of the population of this recently described species.	eng
161736	threats	White, W.T., Fahmi & Dharmadi, 2008	Caught irregularly by longline (small) and dropline fishers operating over hard substrates off of Jimbaran Bay (Bali). Probably adversely affected by dynamite fishing due to the habitats occupied by this species (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161737	conservation	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., Baum, J., Domingo, A. & Menni, R., 2008	Assessment of catches and the impact of fisheries on this species throughout its range are required. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA?Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species across the regions where this ray occurs.	eng
161737	distribution	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., Baum, J., Domingo, A. & Menni, R., 2008	Northwest (marginally), western central and southwest Atlantic: distributed from Cape Lookout, North Carolina (USA), south through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil (including Fernando de Noronha Archipelago) and Uruguay, with one record from Mar del Plata, Argentina (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Cousseau and Menni 1983, McEachran and Carvalho 2002, Cousseau and Menni 1983, Soto 1997).	eng
161737	habitat	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., Baum, J., Domingo, A. & Menni, R., 2008	This species occurs pelagicaly in coastal and occasionally oceanic waters (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), and travels in schools (Robbins <em>et al</em>. 1986). As with all myliobatoid rays, the reproductive mode of <em>M. hypostoma</em> is aplacental viviparity, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. One pup is produced per litter (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. The maximum recorded size is 120 cm disc width (DW); males mature at 114 cm DW and females mature at 111 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). Size at birth is 55 cm DW (McEachran and Carvalho 2002), but nothing else is known of its life history. Prey items include zooplankton, small pelagic crustaceans, and ray-finned fishes (McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161737	population	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., Baum, J., Domingo, A. & Menni, R., 2008	Little information is currently available on abundance and population trends of this species throughout its range. At the time of writing, information was only available from the southern and northern extent of this species? distribution, and further information is required from throughout the rest of its range. Most published information on this species from Brazil refers to occurrence (Lessa 1986, Juras <em>et al.</em> 1987, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1995, Menni and Stehmann 2000). In Uruguay, towards the southern extent of its range, it is only occasionally captured in longline fisheries. Data from Uruguay?s national observer programme indicate that an average of 4.4 individuals per year were recorded during a 10-year period, 80% of which were released, suggesting that these fisheries are not a threat to the species (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2008). On the east coast of the U.S.A., at the northern extent of its range, the Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program is a research trawl survey that has been conducted each spring, summer, and fall since 1989 from approximately Cape Lookout to Cape Canaveral (available at: http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/mrri/SEAMAP/seamap.html). Through 2005, this survey captured the Atlantic devilray in 15 of the 17 survey years (n = 113), and the estimated instantaneous rate of change in the survey was 0.105 (95% CI: 0.037?0.173), suggesting that the species has been increasing in this region (Myers <em>et al</em>. unpublished data).	eng
161737	threats	Bizzarro, J., Smith, W., Baum, J., Domingo, A. & Menni, R., 2008	None of the Western Atlantic devil ray species are abundant enough to be considered of significant commercial interest to fisheries; however they are taken as bycatch in longline and net fisheries (McEachran and Carvalho 2002). This species may be susceptible to capture in surface gill nets, longlines, purse seines and directed harpoons, like other mobulid species. Very little specific information is currently available on the capture of this species in fisheries throughout its range. It is known to be occasionally taken incidentally in pelagic longline fisheries off Brazil and Uruguay, where it is typically discarded at sea (Amorim <em>et al</em>. 1998, A. Domingo pers. obs. 2008). The catch per unit of effort of Mobula spp, (probably consisting at least partially of <em>M. hypostoma</em>) by the pelagic longline fishery in an expansive, oceanic area of the southwestern Atlantic during 1998-2007 (among > 2.800.000 hooks) was 0.00001 individuals/ 1000 hooks. Mobulid rays appear to be particularly susceptible to overfishing as their fecundity is the lowest of all elasmobranchs (with litter sizes of typically only one pup and a reproductive periodicity of 1?3 years (White <em>et al</em>. 2006)). Therefore, further information is required on the interaction of this species with fisheries throughout its range, particularly in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and northern coasts of South America.	eng
161738	conservation	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	None in place. Further investigation is required into threats to this species, population numbers, catch levels and its life-history.	eng
161738	distribution	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Pacific coast of Japan (Choshi) southward to Miyajaki Prefecture of Japan, East Sea of Korea (Pohang; Sea of Japan), East China Sea (Taiwan) (Chyung 1997, Ishihara 1990, Jeong 1999).<br/><br/>FAO Fisheries Area: 61.	eng
161738	habitat	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	A large deepwater skate, <em>D. macrocaudus</em> is found on sandy-muddy bottoms from 300-800m depth. The species attains at least 120 cm TL (Chyung 1977, Ishihara 1990), but its biology is virtually unknown. Like other skates, reproduction is presumably oviparous.	eng
161738	population	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	This species appears to be very rare, with few specimens in collections in Japan and Taiwan, Province of China (Ishihara 1990, Joung and Chen 1989, Chyung 1977, Jeong 1999, Youn, 2002).	eng
161738	threats	Jeong, C.H. & Ishihara, H., 2007	This species is a retained bycatch of bottom trawl and possibly other fisheries, however no specific information is currently available on its capture.	eng
161739	conservation	Smale, M.J., 2004	None in place.	eng
161739	distribution	Smale, M.J., 2004	Antarctic Atlantic: reported throughout the Antarctic, but recent studies show that populations in the Atlantic are distinct from populations in the Pacific and Indian Ocean (see Taxonomy). Eaton's Skate may be restricted to Atlantic waters of the Antarctic, around the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, towards the Antarctic Peninsula, and in the north-eastern Weddell Sea.	eng
161739	habitat	Smale, M.J., 2004	An Antarctic skate found at depths of about 200–300 m in the Atlantic (Stehmann 1985). Attains a maximum size of about 120 cm total length (TL) (Stehmann and Bürkel 1985). Like other skates, it is oviparous, but little else is known of the biology.	eng
161739	population	Smale, M.J., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161739	threats	Smale, M.J., 2004	The increased trawling and longlining fishing for fishes in the region, including the legal and pirate fishery for toothfish, pose a threat for all predators of the Antarctic, including this skate. Despite this skate occurring in fisheries managed by CCAMLR, accidental captures in both legal and pirate fisheries are a problem that may be mitigated by surface release of this skate. Bycatch levels need to be defined and monitored.	eng
161740	conservation	McCormack, C., Nakaya, K. & Samiengo, B., 2008	No management or conservation efforts are currently in place. Like many deeper water species more information on biology, ecology and importance in fisheries are required to further assess status and any future conservation needs. Data are required to determine whether this species is captured in fisheries operating throughout its range.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161740	distribution	McCormack, C., Nakaya, K. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Northwest Pacific: known only from the Emperor Seamount Chain east of Japan and the Kuril Islands at the type locality, 38°37' to 49°59'N, 171°06' to 170°00'E (Compagno in prep.).	eng
161740	habitat	McCormack, C., Nakaya, K. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Found on or near the bottom at depths of 800?1,000 m. Only 21 specimens have been collected and biology is largely unknown. The species attains at least 63.6 cm total length (TL) (Shirai and Nakaya 1990). Mature specimens have measured from 53 cm TL and 52 cm TL for females and males respectively. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. A litter of 10 was found in one pregnant female and size at birth has been estimated at 8?9.3 cm (near-term fetuses). The Highfin Dogfish feeds on bony fishes (Shirai and Nakaya 1990, Compagno in prep.).	eng
161740	population	McCormack, C., Nakaya, K. & Samiengo, B., 2008	Only known from 21 specimens.	eng
161740	threats	McCormack, C., Nakaya, K. & Samiengo, B., 2008	The restricted distribution of the species may make it vulnerable to deep-sea trawl and longline fisheries, especially those that can accurately target deepwater teleosts on restricted deepwater bottom habitats including the slopes of seamounts (Compagno in prep.).<br/><br/>While some trawlers off Japan are restricted to fishing within the borders of their prefectures, others conduct fisheries on the Emperor Seamounts (H. Ishihara pers. comm. 2006). Fisheries have operated on the Emperor seamount chain since the 1960s. Some of these have led to dramatic declines in the target stock but there is no information to determine whether this species was taken as bycatch. For example, Japanese and former USSR vessels began targeting armourheads (<em>Pseudopentaceros</em> species) with trawls in the Emperor Seamount chain and the northern Hawaiian Ridge areas in 1969 (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). Between 1969 and 1977, the Japanese fleet sent two to five trawlers a year to this area and averaged catches of 22,800 to 35,100 tonnes a year. By 1977 to 1982 catches had fallen to 5,800?9,900 tonnes a year (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Pseudopentaceros</em> species occur to 600 m depth. There is no evidence that either of the fish stocks will recover enough to allow commercially viable fisheries in the near future (Maguire <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>There is no information to determine whether this species is taken in fisheries on the Emperor Seamount chain and the Kuril Islands, but any bycatch is of concern given the species? limited range. Furthermore, the species may have limiting life history characteristics, similar to other deepwater shark species, thus will not be sufficiently fecund to withstand high levels of exploitation.	eng
161741	conservation	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. and Vidthayanon, C., 2007	No conservation measures in place.	eng
161741	distribution	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. and Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Northwest Pacific: Yellow Sea, East China Sea, Bohai Sea to northern China and off Taiwan, Province of China (Nishida and Nakaya 1990). Taiwan, Province of China is the southern extent of the range.	eng
161741	habitat	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. and Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Primarily an inshore species, but no specific information is available on the depth range. Adult males measured 38 cm disc width (DW) (based on the holotype), 60?94 cm total length (TL) (Zhu and Meng 2001). Very little is known of the habitat and biology of this species.	eng
161741	population	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. and Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Difficulties with species identification among Dasyatids makes it very difficult to determine population trends. This is a cold water species, so is perhaps more common in the Yellow Sea than Taiwan, Province of China (D. Ebert and Y. Wang pers. obs.).	eng
161741	threats	Wang, Y., Ebert, D., Samiengo, B. and Vidthayanon, C., 2007	Taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries, including shrimp trawls operating on the continental shelf (D. Ebert pers. obs. 2007). Habitat destruction through industrialization may also be impacting shallow water species such as this off China and Taiwan Island (D. Ebert, C. Vidthaynon pers. obs.). <br/><br/>Commonly captured as bycatch in demersal trawls operating off China (Zhu and Meng 2001), but only of low value. One of three most commonly marketed of dasyatids in China, although no information is available on trends. There are difficulties with accurate identification of Dasyatid species.	eng
161742	conservation	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2004	None in place. Careful monitoring of fisheries within this species’ range is required. Species-specific assessment and monitoring of catches, as well as research on the impact of fisheries-related mortality is also needed.<br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161742	distribution	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Northwest Pacific: endemic to Japan. This species is recorded only from southern Japan, from <500 km of coastline, from Choshi to Kochi (Ishihara 1990).	eng
161742	habitat	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2004	<em></em> The Oda Skate (<em>Rhinoraja odai</em>) can be found at depths of 300–870 m. and attains at least 44.5 cm TL and are mature at that size. Its biology is virtually unknown.	eng
161742	population	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161742	threats	Ishihara, H. & Huveneers, C., 2004	This species is caught as bycatch and retained by the bottom trawl fishery targeting cod and rockfish. This fishery is reported to impact this species in the upper part of its bathymetric distribution only (to 500 m depth), offering refuge beyond the range of fishing pressure (H. Ishihara pers. obs.). Increased fishing pressure, particularly and expansion of pressure into deeper water, could pose a threat to this species.	eng
161743	conservation	Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H. & Shepherd, T., 2004	None in place.	eng
161743	distribution	Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H. & Shepherd, T., 2004	Southeast USA and coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico from North Carolina to Yucatán and Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997, McEachran and Carvalho 2002).	eng
161743	habitat	Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H. & Shepherd, T., 2004	Coastal species recorded inshore to 30 m depth, inhabiting sandy and weedy bottom types, sometimes near patch reefs. Aplacental yolksac viviparous. Jordan and Gilbert (1883) reported a litter of five from a single female, Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) reported a litter of 6 in a single female and Hensley <em>et al</em>. (1998) reported a mean litter size of 6.6 from 12 females from Florida and Texas. Parturition possibly occurs during late spring to early summer along the lower Texas coast with fertilization occurring after parturition (Hensley <em>et al</em>. 1998). Feeds primarily on benthic molluscs and crustaceans.	eng
161743	population	Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H. & Shepherd, T., 2004	Hensley <em>et al.</em> (1998) reviewed the literature and unpublished data, concluding that the species may be relatively rare along the Texas coast, and is only seasonally common at a few locations. This contrasts with Walls (1975) who stated that the species was locally common in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) state that Florida is the species? centre of abundance. Details of seasonal movements are not known although the species appears to display seasonality at least along the Texas coast (Hensley <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Analysis of research surveys conducted in the Gulf of Mexico and along the eastern coast of the USA show no trend for this species. This species was captured in every year that data is available for in the southeast USA SEAMAP survey (from North Carolina to Florida) from 1989?2005. The trend in abundance was not significant (144 individuals were captured in 44 surveys tows, out of a total of ~4223 survey tows sampled) (Shepherd and Myers unpublished data). Only four individuals were recorded during four years, one per year in the northern Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery survey and demersal longline fishery (1972-2002). This species was last recorded in 1994 (Shepherd and Myers 2005).	eng
161743	threats	Casper, B.M., Burgess, G.H. & Shepherd, T., 2004	Taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp trawl fishing is intense in the Gulf of Mexico, particularly in shallow waters, with 4?5 million trawl hours annually (Shepherd and Myers 2005). Trawl and artisanal fisheries also operate throughout this species? inshore range off Nicaragua (FAO 2008). <br/>Occasionally taken by recreational fishers along the Texas coast (Hensley <em>et al</em>. 1998) and probably elsewhere.	eng
161744	conservation	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2008	No specific measures in place.<br/><br/>In Malaysia, the SSG together with various government departments in Sabah and Sarawak States have initiated elasmobranch biodiversity studies since 1996 (Fowler <em>et al.</em> 2002). While the monitoring surveys should continue to ascertain the status and possible threats to this species here, as well as in other portions of its range. Further research is also required on the population, habitat and ecology and life history parameters. The fishery is largely unregulated (licenses being issued, but catches/ landings are not properly monitored), and presently there is no specific conservation actions in place to help address this problem.<br/><br/>In Australia, the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) and Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) has been compulsory since 2000 (Day 2000). The Northern Prawn Fishery Bycatch Action Plan (1998) also recommends that bycatch reduction targets be established and that bycatch levels be monitored (Day 2000).	eng
161744	distribution	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2008	Indian Ocean and western central Pacific: patchy occurrence from southeastern Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Socotra Islands, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, northern Australia and New Guinea (Last and Stevens 1994, Compagno and Heemstra 1984, Compagno <em>et al.</em> 2005, Stehmann 1995, Manjaji 2004).	eng
161744	habitat	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2008	An inshore ray, usually found at less than 50 m depth (Compagno and Heemstra 1984, Kuiter and Debelius 1994, Stehmann 1995, Manjaji 2004, White <em>et al</em>. 2006), but recently recorded from 100 m depth off northwest Australia (J. Pogonoski pers. comm. 2008). Seen in reef areas off Thailand (Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007). Attains a maximum size of at least 104 cm DW (~200 cm total length) (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, Last and Compagno 1999). Males mature at about 70 cm disc width (DW) and size at birth is between 20 and 27 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007, Last and Stevens 1994). Reproduction is viviparous, with histotrophy and diet presumably consists of crustaceans and small fishes (White <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
161744	population	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2008	Uncommon.	eng
161744	threats	Manjaji, B.M., Fahmi & White, W.T., 2008	Captured in demersal tangle net, bottom trawl and, occasionally, longline fisheries (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). Inshore fishing pressure is high throughout much of this species known range in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia.<br/><br/>This species is taken in commercial gillnet fisheries off Indonesia, particularly in the fishery that targets rhynchobatid rays in the Arafura Sea, and retained (Last and Compagno 1999, W. White pers. obs. 2007). It is thought to be heavily impacted in this area, where more than 600 trawl vessels operate (W. White pers. obs. 2007). The <em>Rhynchobatus</em> species gillnet fishery catches large numbers of stingrays and Himantura jenkinsii is important in this fishery. Catches in inshore waters have declined and these vessels are having to travel longer and longer distances to sustain catches. The rhynchobatid fisheries are very intensive in this region, thus the level of exploitation is extremely high. There is also evidence that fisherman in these regions increasingly illegally fish in Australian waters (Chen 1996, W. White unpub. data). This species is highly sought after for its valuable skin (W. White pers. obs. 2007) which can fetch high prices  due to the large thorns on the tail.<br/><br/>In Sabah (Malaysia) and Indonesia, these species are often caught and landed in the inshore fisheries (trawls and longlines) (M. Manjaji and Fahmi pers. obs. 2007). Also taken by the Danish seine fishing gear. In Southeast Asia, most specimens caught as bycatch by commercial fisheries (especially trawlers) are landed and sold as food fish.<br/><br/>In Australia, large specimens are caught as byatch in the Australian Northern Prawn Trawl Fishery, but the introduction of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) and other exclusion devices is thought to have greatly reduced bycatch of this species.	eng
161745	conservation	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Vidthayanon, C., 2004	None known to be in place. Fishery management, including National Shark Plans, and trawl fishery exclusion zones could contribute towards the conservation of this and other benthic species.	eng
161745	distribution	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Vidthayanon, C., 2004	Western central Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean: southern Thai-Myanmar border through the Straits of Malacca and the Malay Peninsula to Singapore and Vietnam, including Thailand (Compagno 1999).	eng
161745	habitat	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Vidthayanon, C., 2004	Found on soft substrates in inshore and offshore waters. The biology is little known, however one female was caught with four foetuses (Compagno 1999). Females are thought to mature at 11–12 cm TL and males at about 11 cm TL (Compagno 1999). Maximum total length is approximately 18 cm TL, although most specimens caught are below 15 cm TL (Compagno 1999).	eng
161745	population	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Vidthayanon, C., 2004	Unknown. Apparently rare off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161745	threats	Carvalho, M.R. de, McCord, M.E. & Vidthayanon, C., 2004	Inshore and offshore mixed species trawl and possibly other demersal fisheries operate throughout its range. Batoids are heavily exploited in the Andaman Sea, where intensive trawl fisheries operate on the western coast of Thailand (Simpfendorfer <em>et al. </em>2005). Probably not all bycatch of this species is landed, but survival of discards will presumably be very poor. Landed frequently as utilized bycatch in the Phuket market from Myanmar trawl fisheries, although rare in western collections. Although no specific data are available on the capture of this species, intensive trawl fisheries operate throughout its known geographic range. Electric ray species appear to be generally less common now than previously off Thailand (C. Vidthyanon pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161746	conservation	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2007	There are a number of Marine protected areas (MPA?s) implemented along the coast of South Africa that coincide with this species range (Wood 2007).<br/><br/>There are no species specific conservation measures in place. Further biological and fisheries data are required to assess any future conservation needs. Catches require monitoring. <br/><br/>The development and implementation of management plans (national and/or regional e.g., under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks: IPOA-Sharks) are required to facilitate the conservation and management of all chondrichthyan species in the region.	eng
161746	distribution	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Southeast Atlantic and southwest Indian Ocean: South Africa, found on the continental shelf from Algoa Bay to Natal (Compagno <em>et al.</em> 1989) and off southern Mozambique (Heemstra 1995).	eng
161746	habitat	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2007	<em></em> The Natal Electric Ray is caught in continental shelf waters of 73?329 m depth (Smith and Heemstra 1995). It has been recorded from canyons (at between 100 and 200 m depth) near Sodwana Bay, Natal. Nothing is known of the biology or life-history of this species; it reaches a maximum size of at least 25 cm total length (TL) (Smith and Heemstra 1995).	eng
161746	population	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Very few specimens of this apparently rare Southern African endemic electric ray have been caught since this species was described in 1921, despite much scientific sampling having occurred on the shelf and upper slope region.	eng
161746	threats	de Carvalho, M.R. & McCord, M.E., 2007	Fisheries operate throughout this species? depth range, offering it little refuge from fishing pressure. <em>H. garmani</em> is caught as incidental bycatch in trawl and longline fisheries in areas that are historically and currently heavily fished.<br/><br/>Potentially the greatest impact on chondrichthyans in South African waters is from the large bottom-trawl fisheries directing at the Cape hakes <em>Merluccius paradoxus</em> and <em>M. capensis</em> (Japp 1999). The offshore and inshore fisheries target hake, sole and horse mackerel. Annual demersal landings, including all shark and other bycatch in the South African trawl fisheries varies from year to year and in 1995 approximated 180,000 t (In recent years this figure has been reported to be well above 200,000 t). Japp (1997) estimated discards of elasmobranchs in South African bottom trawl operations at between 80?98% (depending on the area), i.e., between 2?20% of those caught in trawl nets are processed (Japp 1999). Fennessey (1994) reported extensively on the elasmobranch bycatch in the Natal prawn fishery, and pointed out that catches were dominated by small rays.<br/><br/>All of South Africa?s main commercial fisheries are believed to be fully exploited with the only possible exception being the mid-water directed fishery for Horse mackerel (Japp 1999). Although there are no species-specific catch data for <em>H. garmani,</em> and it is not known to be utilised, it is taken as bycatch in these fisheries.<br/><br/>Despite species-specific data on catches and population trends generally lacking for most electric rays, significant declines have been documented where data are available for species that have been heavily fished (e.g., <em>Narcine bancroftii</em>). The electric ray, <em>N. bancroftii</em>, occurs in the western Atlantic, matures at a very early age (twoyears) and is relatively fecund (up to 20 pups per litter). Despite this, Shepherd and Myers (2005) documented declines in <em>N. bancroftii</em>, to 2% (95% confidence intervals 0.5 to 5%) of its baseline abundance in 1972 in the Northern Gulf of Mexico, most probably caused by intense shrimp trawling. Similar declines were also documented in <em>Narcine bancroftii?s</em> in US trawl surveys and diver surveys off Florida (Carvalho <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
161747	conservation	Robertson, R., Rojas, R., Valenti, S.V. & Cronin, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into catch levels, threats and life-history parameters is required. A management plan for rays is being developed in Costa Rica.	eng
161747	distribution	Robertson, R., Rojas, R., Valenti, S.V. & Cronin, E., 2008	Eastern central Pacific: from the central eastern Gulf of California off central and southern Mexico, south to Panama (Miyake and McEachran 1988, R. Robertson unpublished data, Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data).	eng
161747	habitat	Robertson, R., Rojas, R., Valenti, S.V. & Cronin, E., 2008	This benthic ray is found over soft bottoms at depths of 2-15 m (R. Robertson, R. Rojas pers. obs. 2007) and is found close to mangrove forests (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). This species reaches a maximum total length (TL) of at least 25 cm (McEachran 1995). Data from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, suggest that these rays reach maturity at 17 cm TL (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). Fecundity is very low, with only one embryo per female (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). Size at birth is ~6 cm TL. Little else is known of its biology.	eng
161747	population	Robertson, R., Rojas, R., Valenti, S.V. & Cronin, E., 2008	Apparently uncommon in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Acevedo and Rojas unpublished data). From Panama to El Salvador, <em>U. nana</em> appears to be locally common (R. Robertson pers. obs. 2007).	eng
161747	threats	Robertson, R., Rojas, R., Valenti, S.V. & Cronin, E., 2008	Taken as bycatch by trawl fisheries throughout its range, targeting shrimp and demersal fish along the Pacific coast of Central America (Cailliet and Camhi 2005, FAO 2007). Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout its range; in Costa Rica, for example, the coastal fisheries are generally fished to maximum capacity or over-fished, as in the case of the Pacific shrimp fishery (FAO 2007). Coastal batoids in Costa Rica face several pressures, including, bycatch by trawl fisheries operations, water pollution, waste deposition, and the sedimentation process by land degradation (R. Rojas pers. obs.). <em>U. nana</em> is known to be captured by multispecies (snappers, grunts and groupers) fisheries operating in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica. Most Central American countries have not kept detailed records for reporting internally or to the FAO, but instead list sharks and rays within a larger category termed ‘marine fishes, nei’, where nei stands for ‘not explicitly identified’ (Cailliet and Camhi 2005).	eng
161748	conservation	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.M., Bradai, N. Serena, F. & Mancusi, C.M., 2003	No specific measures in place. In the first instance, further study is required to resolve the taxonomy of this species and to determine its full range. Assessment and monitoring of catches is also needed.	eng
161748	distribution	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.M., Bradai, N. Serena, F. & Mancusi, C.M., 2003	Reported from the Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Atlantic, however, further study is required to critically compare specimens from the two regions. Recorded from Gulf of Gabes and El Biban lagoon in Tunisia and from Israel in the Mediterranean Sea (Capapé <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995, 1996; Zaouali 1992, Golani and Capapé 2004).	eng
161748	habitat	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.M., Bradai, N. Serena, F. & Mancusi, C.M., 2003	Found on continental shelves on various types of sandy and muddy substrates from 12?65 m depth (Serena 2005). Males mature at around 30 cm total length (TL) and females at 32?34 cm TL (Capapé 1990, Capapé <em>et al</em>. 1996, Serena 2005). The species reaches a maximum size of 60 cm TL (Serena 2005).The species apparently produces four litters per year (after a gestation of three months), with up to nine pups per litter (Capapé 1990, Capapé and Zaouali 1993, Serena 2005).	eng
161748	population	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.M., Bradai, N. Serena, F. & Mancusi, C.M., 2003	No information currently available.	eng
161748	threats	Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.M., Bradai, N. Serena, F. & Mancusi, C.M., 2003	Occasionally caught as bycatch in bottom trawl fisheries (Bradai 2000, Serena 2005). Trawl fisheries and coastal artisanal fisheries operate within this species? range off Tunisia and elsewhere throughout the species? range, which may take it as bycatch. In 2003, about 404 trawl vessels were operating off Tunisia, with more than 46% of the fleet concentrated in southern Tunisia, where this species occurs (FAO 2007).	eng
161749	conservation	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	<strong>Northwest Atlantic and Western Central Atlantic</strong><br/>Canada and the USA have shark management plans (NMFS 1993; Joyce 1999).  In the US, this species is included in the Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP). The 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada established precautionary catch levels of 100 t for Shortfin Makos in the longline pelagic shark fishery. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) recently assessed shortfin mako in Canada as “threatened”. It has undergone a Recovery Potential Assessment and it is being determined whether the species will be placed on Sched 1 of the Species at Risk Act. License limitation, a ban on finning, restrictions on gear, area and seasons, by-catch limits and restrictions to recreational fishers permitting hook and release only were also implemented (Hurley 1998). Since 1993, shark fisheries in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters in the US have been managed under the Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean. The plan set commercial quotas for 10 species of pelagic sharks at 580 t dressed weight annually, with recreational bag limits also applied. <br/><br/>Within the North Atlantic and Mediterranean this species has been identified as a high priority for management. Anonymous (2003) suggested that a collaborative stock assessment should be carried out in the future.	eng
161749	distribution	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Western Atlantic: Grand Banks (Canada) to Uruguay and northern Argentina, including Bermuda, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Eastern Atlantic: Norway, British Isles and Mediterranean to Morocco, Azores, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, southern Angola, probably Namibia, and South Africa (west coast).<br/><br/>Casey and Kohler (1992) suggest that the core distribution in the western north Atlantic is between 20° and 40°N, bordered by the Gulf Stream in the west and the mid-Atlantic ridge in the east (see Habitat and Ecology section for more details). Shortfin Mako in Atlantic Canadian waters represent the margins of the distribution of the population (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the eastern north Atlantic, it is presumed that the Straits of Gibraltar are nursery grounds (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998 and Tudela <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The area between 17° and 35°S off the coast of Brazil is an area of birth, growth and mating (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Pregnant females with near term embryos have been found there, but not females in early pregnancy stages (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1995, Costa 1994). The presence of this species in Uruguayan waters year round has been confirmed by the observers on board the Uruguayan tuna fleet. Although a few new borns were captured, no pregnant females have been found (Domingo pers. comm. 2008).	eng
161749	habitat	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).	eng
161749	population	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Shortfin Mako in the north and the south Atlantic constitute genetically distinct groups (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996). Casey and Kohler (1992) hypothesized from tag-recapture data that western north Atlantic makos form a separate population from those in the eastern Atlantic although limited intermixing is possible as shown by crossings to the Azores and Europe. Mitochondrial DNA data indicate separation of female makos between the western and eastern north Atlantic, but a lack of differentiation in nuclear DNA suggests male mixing across the North Atlantic (Heist <em>et al.</em> 1996, Schrey and Heist 2003). For fishery assessment purposes, mixing between the western and eastern north Atlantic is considered minimal.<br/><br/>Mature males were occasionally caught in the western English Channel in the 1960s and 1970s but are now rarely encountered (J.D. Stevens, pers. comm.), suggesting possible range contraction in the north-east Atlantic.<br/><br/>Analyses of CPUE from US pelagic longline fishery logbooks reported that <em>Isurus</em> species may have declined by about 40% in the northwest Atlantic between 1986 and 2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003). A more recent assessment of observer data for the same fishery found a similar instantaneous rate of decline of 38% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al.</em> in prep). A similar analysis of the same dataset and species grouping that restricted the areas of analysis to account for unbalanced observations, resulted in an overall decline of 48% from beginning to end of the time series (1992-2005; Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press). A 2004 ICCAT stock assessment workshop reported that stock depletions for North Atlantic shortfin mako are likely to have occurred based on CPUE declines of 50% or more. Demographic model results varied widely, with one approach suggesting present stock size is about 80% of virgin level, and another approach suggesting reductions to about 30% of virgin biomass (1950s) (Cortes <em>et al</em>. in press). <br/><br/>In the south Atlantic, the magnitude of decline appears to be smaller than in the North Atlantic and the stock size appears to lie above MSY, although only one modeling approach could be applied to the available data and assessments results were more uncertain than for the North Atlantic.<br/><br/>For both north and south Atlantic populations, uncertainties about demographic parameters and catches, and the uninformative nature of available catch data indicate that further analysis is necessary to properly delineate stock status. If historical Shortfin Mako catch is higher than the estimates in this report, the likelihood of the stock being below the biomass at MSY will surely increase (ICCAT 2005). A standardized catch rate index from the commercial large pelagic fishery off Canada suggested a decline in the 1970s and stable abundance since 1988 (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). However, the analysis did not have the statistical power to detect anything less than a severe decline and these sharks represent the margins of the population. The most heavily fished areas lie outside of Canadian waters. The median size of mako sharks in the commercial catch has declined since 1988, possibly indicating a loss of larger sharks (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Off Brazil, the highest and lowest catches of Shortfin Mako from Santos longliners were 235 and 29 t from 1971–2001. The CPUE and average weight decreased from 4.5 to 4.1 kg/1,000 hooks and 60 to 37.3 kg respectively (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 2002). About 20 t/yr were caught by gillnetters in southern Brazil between 1993–94 (Jorge Kotas, pers comm, CEPSUL-IBAMA, Brazil). The unstandardised CPUE in the Uruguayan longline fleet was low and stable (average 35 kg/1000 hooks) from 1983 to 1998 and has increased steadily to 2004 (185 kg/1,000 hooks), lower in 2005 (90 kg/1,000 hooks) (ICCAT data). According to Mourato <em>et al.</em> (in press), based on the landings records and logbooks from the Sao Paulo fleet operating off Southern Brazil, the standardized CPUE for the period 1971–2006 was fluctuating but showed a slight decline. In contrast, the standardization of the CPUE of 29 years in the Brazilian tuna longline fleet showed a slight upward trend (Hazin <em>et al</em>. in press). In Uruguay, the total captures oscillated through the years, mainly in low values (8 to 21 tons per year), and reached maximum values in 2003–2005 (up to 200 tons per year) (Domingo 2002, Domingo <em>et al</em>. 2008). The standardization of the mako shark CPUE in the Uruguayan pelagic longline fleet for the period 1981-2006 show a slight increase between 1989 and 2003, and a decreasing trend towards 2006 (Pons and Domingo in press).<br/><br/>Shortfin Mako contribute some 9.5% to 10% of the pelagic sharks caught by Spanish longline fleets (targeting sharks and swordfish) in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Mejuto <em>et al</em>. 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007).	eng
161749	threats	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Shortfin Makos have been caught in large numbers particularly on the high seas in pelagic longline fisheries, but also in other commercial pelagic fisheries and recreational fisheries.  The first longline fisheries were prosecuted by Japan in western equatorial waters beginning in 1956 (Uozumi and Nakano 1996).  The fleet expanded rapidly in the 1960s, and covered almost the entire Atlantic by the late 1960s (Bonfil 1994), including the areas currently fished by the American fleet. Throughout the Atlantic, the fleet landed mako sharks and fins (Nakano 1993).  In the US and Canadian pelagic longline fisheries, shortfin mako is one of the most commonly caught sharks. The index of abundance in the commercial longline fishery off the Atlantic coast of US has shown a steady decline (Cramer 1996) and other reports on declines are now available (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003, Baum <em>et al</em>., in prep, ICCAT 2005, Cortes <em>et al.</em> in press: see Population section for details). As for recreational fishing, Casey and Hoey (1985) stated that the recreational catch of shortfin makos along the US Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico in 1978 was 17,973 fish weighing some 1,223 t. Between 1987 and 1989, the catch was about 1000 t/year (Casey and Kohler 1992) taken by longline and gillnet in the Southwest Atlantic (see population section). Shortfin mako shark is a high value bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries on the Atlantic coast of Canada and therefore retained (Campana <em>et al</em>. 2005). <br/><br/>In 1989, Bonfil (1994) estimated that 5,932 shortfin makos were caught by Korean longliners in the (mainly equatorial) Atlantic and that 763 t of makos were landed in the Spanish swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Mejuto (1985) noted that 304-366 t of mako shark was landed by longliners operating from northern Spain in 1983-84. More recently, Shortfin Mako sharks have comprised about 7% (~2,500 t) of the total catch of the large Spanish pelagic longline swordfish fleet in the Atlantic (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2005). Munoz-Chapuli <em>et al.</em> (1994) estimated that some 4,500 makos/year are landed from a longline fishery based at Algeciras, southern Spain (given an average weight of 20 kg this would represent about 90 t). The landings of shortfin makos as bycatch from the swordfish fishery of the Azorean fleet also showed a decrease (Castro <em>et al</em>. 1999). Shortfin mako landings reported to ICCAT from Portuguese surface longline fisheries in the North Atlantic averaged about 698 t during 1993–1996 and 340 t for the period 1997–2002. Off Namibia, the large pelagic fisheries caught an estimated 123 t in 2001, 399 t in 2002 and 393 t in 2003 by means of pelagic longline. The 2001 catch is an underestimate as many boats grouped different shark species as “sharks” (MFMR catch data). Domingo (2002) records high catches of Shortfin Makos by the Uruguayan fleet in the early-mid 1980s (to a maximum of 144 t in 1984), followed by much lower catches (10–20 t/annum) in the 1990s. This does not necessarily reflect stock abundance because changes in the distribution and depth of fishing operations and rising mean temperature of water masses in the area had also occurred.<br/><br/>It has been estimated that in the early 1990s, the Spanish longline fleet caught approximately 750 t/y of Shortfin Mako sharks in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). The Brazilian longlining fleet based in Santos landed between 13.3 and 138.3 t annually between 1971 and 1990 (Costa <em>et al</em>. 1996, Compagno 2001). Despite increasing fishing effort during this period, the CPUE of Shortfin Makos has remained relatively stable with an initial slight decreasing trend followed by a slight increasing trend (Compagno 2001). <br/><br/>No complete data are available for the northeast Atlantic, but the species is taken as a bycatch of the pelagic fishery. The area around the Strait of Gibraltar is considered a nursery area for Central Atlantic Shortfin Makos and most specimens caught are juveniles. This area is heavily fished by the swordfish longline fishery off the western coast of Africa and Iberian peninsula. There is also evidence that shortfin makos are becoming increasingly targeted in the western Mediterranean. EU vessels fishing for small pelagic species off the western coast of Africa are also known to take significant elasmobranch bycatch, including Shortfin Makos in unknown numbers.	eng
161750	conservation	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	No direct conservation measures in place in the Indo-west Pacific region. <br/><br/>New Zealand included Shortfin Mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>A vast improvement in the collection of data is required and effective conservation of this species will require international agreements. Fishing pressure must be considerably decreased through reduction in effort, catch limits, measures to enhance chances of survival after capture, when released and possibly through the implementation of large-scale oceanic non-fishing areas. Closed areas can only be effective if overall fishing effort is reduced, rather than merely displacing effort outside of the closed area (Baum <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Further informaiton is required on this population, it's range and interactions with fisheries.	eng
161750	distribution	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Indo-West Pacific: South Africa (east coast), Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Kenya north to Red Sea and east to Maldives, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Viet Nam, China, Taiwan (Province of China), North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Russia (Primorskiyi Kray), Australia (all states and entire coast except for Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Torres Strait), New Zealand (including Norfolk Island), New Caledonia, Fiji.	eng
161750	habitat	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).	eng
161750	population	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Unknown.	eng
161750	threats	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	This species is taken by tuna and shark longline fisheries in Indonesia (White <em>et al.</em> 2006) and throughout many areas of its range in the Indo-West Pacific. Pelagic fisheries have operated in the Indian Ocean for more than 50 years; Japanese long-liners in the eastern Indian Ocean since 1952 and in the western region since 1956. Russian, Taiwanese and South Korean vessels have fished there since 1954-1966 (Gubanov and Paramonov 1993). The Spanish swordfish longline fishery, which also targets sharks, is also active across the Indian Ocean (ICCAT 2006). Sharks are targeted in several areas, including off India where they are captured using hook and line and in large mesh gillnets, which are among the worlds largest (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). Finning and discarding of carcasses has also been reported, especially in offshore and high seas fisheries (Anderson and Simpfendorfer 2005). A recent review of fisheries in the Indian Ocean (Young <em>et al</em>. 2006) reported that sharks in this region are considered fully to over-exploited. Its distribution overlaps many intensive pelagic fisheries in this area. Although species-specific catch data are not currently available from this region, given the declines observed where it is heavily fished elsewhere, declines in this area are inferred based on continuing high levels of exploitation.<br/><br/>Big-game sports angling for mako sharks is widespread, New Zealand and South Africa being traditional places for offshore sports fishing.	eng
161751	conservation	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	On the west coast of the US, declines in the coastal driftnet fishery taking thresher and Shortfin Makos led to management actions in 1985. Management now comprises of limited entry, mandatory logbooks, and specific time-area closures. An experimental longline fishery targeting shortfin makos was terminated (Hanan <em>et al.</em> 1993, Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). Bag limits for recreational take of makos in California were introduced in 1991. The draft Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (PFMC 2003) indicates that the shortfin mako population is not overfished and they have set a harvest guideline of 150 t off California, Oregon and Washington.  US west coast based longline fishing for swordfish is currently prohibited and expected to reopen in the fall of 2005 under new restrictions. The Hawaii based swordfish longline fishery recently reopened with restrictions aimed at preventing turtle mortalities. New Zealand included shortfin mako shark in its Quota Management System in October 2004.<br/><br/>In Chile, there are gear regulations for the shortfin mako artisanal fishery and since 2002 fishing areas and register of boats in the National Marine Service is required, the access to the fishery is also regulated (E. Acuña pers. comm.).	eng
161751	distribution	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Eastern Pacific: USA (Washington and California) south to Mexico, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru and central Chile, from 20-50° between Australia and Chile, and to ~ 60° southeast of New Zealand.<br/><br/>There are comparatively few records of pregnant females, especially in the eastern North Pacific. However, there are a large number of juveniles and young of the year fish in the southern California Bight indicating that it is a nursery area. In summer, the Southern California Bight is home to a large population of Shortfin Mako sharks (Klimley <em>et al.</em> 2002, Holts and Kohin 2003). Abundance surveys and fishing reports indicate that juvenile mako sharks appear in the Bight in spring when water temperatures rise above 16°C and may depart from the area in fall when water temperatures decline.	eng
161751	habitat	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	<strong>Habitat and movements</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako is an active, offshore littoral and epipelagic species, found in tropical and warm-temperate seas from the surface down to at least 500 m, seldom occurring where water temperature is <16°C (Compagno 2002). It is probably the fastest shark and is among the most active and powerful of fishes. Like other lamnid sharks, the Shortfin Mako,is endothermic using a heat-exchanging circulatory system to maintain muscle and visceral temperatures above that of the surrounding seawater allowing a higher level of activity (Carey <em>et al.</em> 1981, Bernal <em>et al.</em> 2001).This shark occurs well offshore but penetrates the inshore littoral just off the surf zone in some areas such as parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa where the continental shelves are narrow. Off South Africa, shark meshing data suggests that this species occurs in clear to turbid water in water temperatures from 17–22°C. In the western north Atlantic it occurs in a similar range of temperatures, and only moves onto the continental shelf when surface temperatures exceed 17°C. In the eastern north Pacific, juveniles range into southern California waters and tend to be seen and caught near the surface. They appear to use these offshore continental waters as nursery areas (Taylor and Holts 2001). It was previously thought that they stay near the surface above 20 m depth, in waters between 20–21°C, seldom descending into cold subsurface waters below the thermocline (Holts and Bedford, 1992). However,this has been challenged by more recent tracking studies (summarized below).<br/><br/>Results from a large tagging study in the western north Atlantic show that Shortfin Makos make extensive movements of up to 3,433 km with 36% of recaptures caught at greater than 420 km from their tagging site (Casey and Kohler 1992). However, only one fish crossed the mid-Atlantic ridge suggesting that trans-Atlantic migrations are not as common as in blue sharks <em>Prionace glauca</em>.<br/><br/>Klimley <em>et al.</em> (2002) tracked three Shortfin Makos near La Jolla, California, for several days, and their movements were mainly offshore from the surface to 50 m. Holts and Kohin (2003) deployed pop-up archival tags on eight makos (118–275 cm TL) in June–July 2002 for 2–4 months. Pop-up locations ranged from 20–911 km from deployment locations. The sharks utilized near-shore and open-water areas off California and Baja California roughly between 23–43°N and out to 125°W. While the records indicate that greater than 90% of the time was spent above 50 m, several sharks showed a diurnal pattern of vertical excursions to beyond 200 m during daylight hours. Sharks frequently dove into water less than 10°C. These data demonstrate the range of habitats utilized by mako sharks and begin to shed light on their daily and seasonal behaviors. Sepulveda <em>et al</em>. (2004) found that seven tagged juveniles stayed near the surface at night, and went as deep as 200 m, mostly during the day. In addition, stomach temperatures were measured, indicating feeding occurred during the daytime, with meals taken during a dive causing stomach temperatures to drop noticeably.<br/><br/><strong>Life History Parameters</strong><br/>The Shortfin Mako reaches a maximum size of about 4 m (Compagno 2001). Initial age and growth studies in the western north Atlantic suggested that two pairs of growth bands are laid down each year in their vertebral centra, at least in young shortfin makos (Pratt and Casey 1983). However, recent evidence using marginal increment analysis in Mexico (Ribot-Carballal <em>et al.</em> 2005) and bomb radiocarbon (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002, Ardizzone <em>et al.</em> 2006) indicates that the alternative hypothesis (one pair of growth bands per year; Cailliet <em>et al</em>. 1983) is valid. Age at maturity has been determined recently in several populations, including New Zealand (7–9 years for males, and 19–21 years for females Bishop <em>et al</em>. (2006)), and the western north Atlantic (eight years for males, and 18 years for females (Natanson <em>et al. </em>2006)). Longevity has been estimated as 29–32 years (Bishop <em>et al</em>. 2006, Natanson <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>There is a large difference in size at sexual maturity between the sexes. In the northwest Atlantic, males reach maturity at about 195 cm and females at about 265–280 cm (Pratt and Casey 1983, Stevens 1983, Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). In New Zealand, males mature at 198–204 cm and females at 301–307 cm (Francis and Duffy 2005). Compagno (2001) reports males mature between 203–215 cm, reaching a maximum size of 296 cm, and females mature between 275–293 cm, reaching a maximum of almost 4 m.<br/><br/>The Shortfin Mako is ovoviviparous and oophagous, but what little is known of its reproductive cycle indicates the gestation period is 15–18 months, with a three year reproductive cycle (Mollet <em>et al</em>. 2000). Litter size is 4–25 pups (possibly up to 30, mostly 10-18), which are about 60-70 cm long at birth (Garrick 1967, Compagno 2001). There are comparatively few records of pregnant females. Among 26 shark species, the Shortfin Mako has an intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of its ability to recover from exploitation) in the mid-range (Smith <em>et al</em>. 1998). The annual rate of population increase is 0.046 yr<sup>-1</sup> (S. Smith pers. comm.) Cortes (2002) calculated a finite rate of increase (lambda) of 1.141 (1.098 to 1.181 95% CI, r = 0.13) and the average reproductive age as 10.1 (9.2 to 11.1 95% CI) years. <br/><br/><strong>Diet</strong><br/>The diet of Shortfin Makos has been reported to consist mainly of teleost fishes (including mackerels, tunas, bonitos and other scombrids, anchovies, herrings, grunts, lancet fishes, cod, ling, whiting and other gadids, salmon, yellowtails and other carangids, sea basses, porgies, swordfish) and cephalopods in studies from the Northwest Atlantic and Australia (Stillwell and Kohler 1982, Stevens 1984), while elasmobranchs were the most common prey category from Natal, South Africa (Cliff <em>et al.</em> 1990). A daily ration of 2 kg/day (based on an average weight of 63 kg) was estimated for makos in the northwest Atlantic (Stillwell and Kohler 1982). Large makos over (3 m in length) have very broad, more flattened and triangular teeth, perhaps better suited to cutting large prey than the awl-shaped teeth of smaller individuals (Compagno 1984a). There are several anecdotal accounts of makos attacking and consuming Broad-bill Swordfish (<em>Xiphias gladius</em>). It also eats sea turtles, dolphins, salps and occasionally detritus (Compagno 1984a).	eng
161751	population	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	In the Eastern North Pacific, tagging studies have been carried out by the California Department of Fish and Game (Anon. 2001), and more recently by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center (Holts and Kohin 2003, Holts <em>et al</em>. 2004). Using a consistent sample size of 28 sets of 200 hooks during each of eight years (1994–1997, 2000–2003), catch per unit effort (CPUE) data showed a slight decline (Holts <em>et al.</em> (2004); y = -0.0696x + 1.0982, R2 = 0.5107). However, it does not appear to be sufficient to warrant serious concern about the population.  The large horizontal (primarily north-south along the coastline, but with some inshore-offshore movements) (Holts <em>et al.</em> 2004) and vertical (up to ~ 500 m) (Holts and Kohin 2003; Sepulveda <em>et al.</em> 2004) movements of Shortfin Makos, a behavior that could make them more or less available to the gear spatially but not necessarily indicating a population decline. Likewise, for males and females, there appeared to be a slight increase in the average size caught over the same eight years (y = 1.8368x + 112.38, R2 = 0.3751). This, combined with the CPUE changes would suggest that the biomass indices had not changed. The variability among years in CPUE can also be attributed to inter-annual oceanographic and climate changes, especially water temperature (http://www.pcouncil.org/hms/hmsback.html). Thus, although there are no precise or accurate population estimates, it appears that the population of shortfin makos in the eastern north Pacific has been relatively stable. (Taylor and Holts 2001, PFMC 2003).	eng
161751	threats	Cailliet, G.M., Cavanagh, R.D., Kulka, D.W., Stevens, J.D., Soldo, A., Clo, S., Macias, D., Baum, J., Kohin, S., Duarte, A., Holtzhausen, J.A., Acuña, E., Amorim, A. & Domingo, A., 2004	Estimates of mako bycatch in various gillnet fisheries in the North Pacific are given in Bonfil (1994). Bycatch in the Japanese salmon fishery in 1989 was about 15 t, and about 63 t was taken in the squid fishery in 1990. In the Japanese large-mesh driftnet fishery in the South Pacific, about 286 t of Shortfin Mako was caught in 1990. The Spanish pelagic longline fishery for swordfish and sharks is expanding rapidly in the Pacific. Shortfin makos comprise about 5% (~600–700 t) of the total catch of this fleet (Mejuto <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Reported average catch rates for shortfin makos vary from 0.3-3.4 sharks per 1,000 hooks (Stevens and Wayte 1999). Stevens (in press) used stratified catch rates in conjunction with fishing effort and average weights to estimate a catch of 4,100 t caught by high-seas longlining in the Pacific in 1994. Longline fleets take about 100-200 t from around New Zealand each year (Ministry of Fisheries Science Group 2006) and about 100 t were taken in Australian EEZ waters by Japanese tuna vessels each season (Stevens and Wayte 1999).<br/><br/>A coastal driftnet fishery for juvenile shortfin mako shark developed during the late 1970s in California; landings reached 242 t in 1982, fluctuated between 102-278 t from 1983-91 and declined to less than 100 t after 1991 (Holts <em>et al.</em> 1998). An experimental coastal longline fishery targeting makos took between 50 and 120 t annually durung1988-91 before the fishery was closed. Bycatch will continue to be an issue in the drift gillnet and longline fisheries until effective measures are developed which reduce the bycatch to close to zero (Crooke 2001).  Although makos are not targeted in these fisheries, they are kept as the third most valuable species. The shortn mako shark was taken by the high seas shark and swordsh drift longline shery, which developed between 1991 and 1994 (Taylor and Holts 2001) outside the US 200-nm Exclusive Economic Zone prior to its closure in spring 2004. A small portion of the catch was landed in California with annual landings ranging from 9,523 to 128,116 pounds between 1991 and 1999.<br/><br/>The present status of the Shortn Mako shark in state and federal waters off California is not known but is of some concern (Taylor and Holts 2001). This is mainly because adult mako sharks do not frequent California’s coastal waters.  A possible threat to the mako population off California and in the eastern Pacic would be the potential for over-development of sheries within the coastal nursery. Therefore, continued efforts to monitor the shortn mako shark juveniles are needed.<br/><br/>Makos have long been prized game fish along the East Coast of the US (Taylor and Holts 2001). In the mid-to late-1980s, estimates of the number of California angler trips for sharks grew ten-fold from 41,000 to 410,000 annually: the principal target being Shortfin Mako. After the increase during the 1980s, the sport fishery has stabilized at a relatively high level. Total annual landings (sport and commercial) peaked in 1987 at 464,308 pounds and again in 1994 at 394,792 pounds. In both cases, landings declined rapidly in the two years following the peaks. Currently, commercial passenger fishing vessels run fishing trips on a regular basis from nearly all ports in southern California.<br/><br/>In Chile, the only target fishery for Shortfin Mako is a spring-summer longline fishery off the northern coast (Acuña <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Ecuador, there is evidence that catches of shortfin makos have declined from a high of 2,000 t in 1994 to lows approaching 100 t in 2000 and 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> in press).<br/><br/>Off California, early juvenile shortfin makos were targeted by a short-lived experimental drift longline fishery and are a welcome bycatch in the driftnet fishery for swordfish (Cailliet <em>et al.</em> 1993, Compagno 2001). Up to 475 t of Shortfin Makos were taken jointly by these fisheries in 1987, and although CPUE did not show a declining trend there, concerns over the heavy exploitation of immature fish prompted the closure of the experimental longline fishery in 1992 (O’Brien and Sunada 1994, Compagno 2001). Total bycatch of Shortfin Makos in the former high-seas driftnet fisheries in the North Pacific in the early 1990s was estimated at about 360 t/y (Bonfil 1994, Compagno 2001). This species is apparently very common in the tuna fisheries of Indonesia: unconfirmed reports indicate that landings of shortfin makos from Indonesian waters attained 5 200 t in 1995 and that the estimated potential is about 16 000 t/y (Priyono 1998, Compagno 2001).	eng
161754	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>The type locality is within a forested area owned by the government, although it has not been given a protected area status. This area is in the midst of town and local residents depend on the forest for resources (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009). The other known locality is also outside a protected area, and the surrounding forests are completely degraded (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009). Further research into this species' population status, life history and threats is needed.</p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
161754	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is known from two high-altitude (1,700 and 2,000 m asl) localities in the Palani Hills and surrounding areas, south of the Palghat Gap: Kodaikanal, in Tamil Nadu, and Mattupetti, in Kerala, India (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
161754	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species seems to be restricted to disturbed evergreen sholas (isolated montane forest patches). Individuals can be found close to mountain streams, in habitats such as leaf litter, rock patches, tall grass clumps and the undergrowth of shrub vegetation (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Foam nests can be deposited on rock surfaces, on the ground up to 2 m above water level, and near streams, and may contain ca 185 eggs (Biju <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
161754	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>This seems to be a rare species, and it appears to be declining. However, further field work is required to confirm this (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).</p>	eng
161754	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>The main threat to this species is the conversion of the forested areas that are its habitat. The species appears to be in decline at the type locality  primarily because of habitat alteration (the forest is within the town limits and is exploited by local residents), likely due to small-scale agriculture, rural and/or urban development and pollution (S.D. Biju pers. comm. October 2009).<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
161800	conservation	Angulo, A. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
161800	distribution	Angulo, A. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	The type locality was originally considered to be near Juliaca, Puno, Peru. However, the dry habitats of this area are not considered to be suitable for species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Phrynopus sensu lato</span> (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, there are suggestions that specimens collected by the original species collector came from the vicinity of the Inca Mine in Santo Domingo, a cloud forest locality at 1,690 m asl on the Andean Amazonian slopes in the Province of Carabaya, northern Puno (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Whether specimens were collected at this locality or along the route between Santo Domingo and Juliaca is unknown (De la Riva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008); thus, the location of the type locality is unclear and this species' range cannot be mapped at this time.	eng
161800	habitat	Angulo, A. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	No habitat and ecology information is currently available for this species. Presumably it breeds by direct development.	eng
161800	population	Angulo, A. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	No population status information is currently available for this species.	eng
161800	threats	Angulo, A. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	<p>No threats are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
161949	conservation	de Bélair, G., Bagella, S. & Rhazi, L., 2007	The species is listed in the Appendix I of  the Bern Convention and in Annex IV of the Habitats Directive. In France, the species is listed as protected at the national level. In North Africa (Morocco), there are no conservation measures in place.<br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)  <br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment)<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the existing sites   <br/>- To study the population dynamics towards an understanding of protection<br/>- Development of identification guidance to receive information on short-lived populations	eng
161949	distribution	de Bélair, G., Bagella, S. & Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>A. repens</em> is endemic to Europe and the Mediterranean and is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, and Morocco. There are also possibly populations of this species in Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Crete, Greece, and Turkey. The species is found in Slovenia but outside the Mediterranean region. <br/>The area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
161949	habitat	de Bélair, G., Bagella, S. & Rhazi, L., 2007	This is a perennial helophyte plant that grows in wet places, such as streams, ditches, marshes and pools (France); mires and banks of ditches (Italy), lakes and clayey wet grasslands (Morocco) at an altitude of 0 to 2,300 m. The flowering season is between June and September in France, and between June and August in Italy and Morocco.<br/>This plant is an opportunistic species, that often establishes as a first colonizer after disturbance.	eng
161949	population	de Bélair, G., Bagella, S. & Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations are scattered within the Mediterranean Region. <em></em>In Morocco, it occurs in the Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Middle Atlantic Morocco (Souss, Haouz), Mediterranean cost (Bkkoya) and in the Rif mountain (central of the Rif, Targuist, Tazzeka). The populations are in slow regression particularly in middle Atlantic Morocco and at the Mediterranean coast where the anthropogenic pressure is high and will increase in the near future. <br/>In Italy, <em>Apium repens</em> was considered Critically Endangered. It was previously indicated in four Italian regions (five sites) but is hat not been found recently and is suspected to be extinct (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). There is no information available about the species occurrence in Greece.<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, the species is very scarce in central Spain, but present at a reasonable number of sites although there has been a decline of more than 30 percent in the last 10 years. In Portugal, it is found in Beixo Alentejo, but the presence in Algarve is unconfirmed. In France, it has not been found recently in the Mediterranean part of France and is declining everywhere in the country.	eng
161949	threats	de Bélair, G., Bagella, S. & Rhazi, L., 2007	The threats to this species in Europe are intensification of agriculture and the subsequent effects of drainage, enlarging field areas and homogenisation of crops. Grazing is beneficial to this species and a change of grazing regimes, increase as well as abandonment, can lead to declines. Modification of water bodies to hold water for reservoirs is also potential threat.<br/>In North Africa (Morocco), the major threats are agriculture, water pollution and tourism infrastructure along the Mediterranean coast, threats that will increase in the future.	eng
161963	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Scientific research: inventory of its habitats, existing populations, biology, and taxonomy	eng
161963	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is listed in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive.<br/>Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures in North Africa<br/>- Scientific research: inventory of its habitats, existing populations, biology, and taxonomy	eng
161963	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is endemic to Portugal, Tunisia and Algeria. <em>Juncus valvatus</em> var. <em>echinuloides</em> (Brot.) Coss. is limited to central and south Portugal. In North Africa, it is known as var. <em>caricinus</em> Coss. & Dur. <em></em><br/>In Tunisia, only one site is indicated. In Algeria, it is scattered among 12 localities in the centre and east of the country, especially inland and on mountains up to 2,000 m. It is considered as rare (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1961).<br/>In Portugal, the estimated geographic range for this species is 5,402 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>   (Commission of the European Communities 2009).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence of <em>Juncus valvatus</em> is about 140,000  km². Since it is rare, its area of occupancy is probably less than 500 km² .	eng
161963	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> var. <em>echinuloides</em> (Brot.) Coss. is limited to central and south Portugal. In North Africa, it is known as var. <em>caricinus</em> Coss. & Dur. <em>J. valvatus</em> is endemic to Portugal, Tunisia and Algeria.<br/>In Tunisia, only one location is indicated. In Algeria, it is scattered among twelve locations in the centre and east of the country, especially inland and on mountains up to 2,000 m. It is considered as rare (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1961).	eng
161963	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte with a stem of 10-50 cm height. It is found in moist meadows, flooded depressions, banks of freshwaters of limestone and siliceous mountains, until about a height of 2,000 m.	eng
161963	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte with a stem of 10-50 cm height. It is found in moist meadows, flooded depressions, banks of freshwaters of limestone and siliceous mountains, up to an altitude of approximately 2,000 m.<br/>Flowering in Algeria and Tunisia is from May to July.	eng
161963	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations are limited in the Mediterranean to Portugal, Tunisia (one population: Dorsale tunisienne) and Algeria (12 locations at least). They are distributed along a strip of mountains from Guelma-Constantine to the Ouarsenis massif. The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of <em>Juncus valvatus</em> is about 140,000 km². Since it is rare, its Area of Occupancy (AOO) is probably below 500 km² .	eng
161963	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations in the Mediterranean are limited to Portugal, Tunisia, with one population in the Dorsale tunisienne, and Algeria, with at least 12 sites. They are distributed along a strip of mountains from Guelma-Constantine to the Ouarsenis massif.	eng
161963	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is not threatened in the short term in Algeria, because it is found at a number of locations. However, surveillance of the Tunisian population is needed. Its mountain habitats constitute a protection, but this species might be threatened, if the wetlands are not legally protected.<br/>In Portugal, cultivation, forest planting, urbanisation, discharges and drainage are the main threats to this species     (Commission of the European Communities 2009).	eng
161963	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus valvatus</em> is not threatened in the short term in Algeria, because of the numerous locations but surveillance of the Tunisian population is needed. Its mountainuous habitats constitutes some degree of protection but the species will be threatened, if the wetlandsare not legally protected.	eng
161993	conservation	Armiraglio, S., Bertolli, A., Comini, B., Ghidotti, B., Prosser, F. & Gentili, R., 2008	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> is included in Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the Habitats Directive 43/92/CEE. The plants community where it lives is listed in Annex I of the same Directive (habitat code 8210).</p>  <p>The greater portion of its distribution range is included in protected areas such as the Alto Garda Bresciano Park and in several Sites of European Interest (e.g. SIC: IT2070021-Valvestino, IT2070022-Corno della Marogna,&#160; IT3120093-Crinale Pichea- Rocchetta, IT3120094-Alpe di Storo e Bondone, IT3120103-Monte Baldo di Brentonico, IT3120104-Monte Baldo – Cima Valdritta, IT3120116-Monte Malachin, IT3120127-Monti Tremalzo e Tombea, IT3210039-Monte Baldo ovest).</p>    <p>During a LIFE project (LIFE03NAT/IT/000147) an experimental restoration plan of the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> was carried out. The LIFE Project promoted a series of investigations to identify the main growth sites of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> with the aim to monitor their ecological characteristics and the morphological and vegetative conditions of the species. </p>  Selective tree and shrub clearings were carried out at medium-altitude sites to increase the amount of light getting to the cushions and to re-establish ecological conditions more favourable to the growth and reproduction of the species. Seeds are stored in seedbanks (Lombardy and Trentino Alto-Adige).	eng
161993	distribution	Armiraglio, S., Bertolli, A., Comini, B., Ghidotti, B., Prosser, F. & Gentili, R., 2008	<p>This plant is endemic to the Italian Alps where it can be found in Lombardia, Veneto, and Trentino Alto-Adige.</p><p>    </p>  <p><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3">It is present in the southeastern </a>Alps, mostly in the eastern Lombardy Pre-Alps and Raethian Alps. It can be found in the Garda Pre-Alps, particularly in the Tremalzo-Caplone-Tombea group and the Cadria-Tofino group, marginally in the Bondone-Stivo-Baldo group. Some populations are also present in the Brescia Pre-Alps (C.ma Caldoline, Sonclino) and in the Southern Rhaetian Alps (Val di Non Alps).<br/></p>    <p>The extent of occurrence, measured by means of a GIS database, is 1,449 km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy is 120 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>  <p></p>	eng
161993	habitat	Armiraglio, S., Bertolli, A., Comini, B., Ghidotti, B., Prosser, F. & Gentili, R., 2008	<p>This is a chasmophytic species (cushion plant) that grows on limestone and dolomitic vertical cliffs. The cushions of this species can be found in rocky soils: rocky edges and longitudinal cracks of rocky walls. In these ecological niches <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> is present along with lithophylous species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla caulescens</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Daphne petraea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Physoplexis comosa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex firma</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Primula spectabilis</span>, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Paederota bonarota</span>. Its altitudinal distribution ranges from 700 m to 2,150 m. The subpopulations growing under 1,600 m of altitude, below the present treeline, show mainly a northern exposure.</p>	eng
161993	population	Armiraglio, S., Bertolli, A., Comini, B., Ghidotti, B., Prosser, F. & Gentili, R., 2008	<p>The subpopulations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Saxifraga tombeanensis</span> Boiss. ex Engler are severely fragmented and the species is rare within its range. The number of subpopulations with a mutual distance of more than 500 m are less than 40. There are no quantitative data about all of the subpopulations. Some studies conducted in the Garda Pre-Alps have estimated the presence of 1,000-1,500 cushions. The estimated population size is about 5,000 mature individuals.</p>	eng
161993	threats	Armiraglio, S., Bertolli, A., Comini, B., Ghidotti, B., Prosser, F. & Gentili, R., 2008	<p>This plant has a low degree of seed germination in nature and a low density of individuals within the subpopulations. Currently, a change in native species dynamics due to competitors such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ostrya carpinifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus sylvestris</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. mugo</span> takes place in its habitat and negatively impacts the survival of this species. It is also harvested by collectors and gardeners. </p>  <p>Global warming is another threat to this species. The trend of global warming has regionally been measured by a strong increase of the mean annual temperature in the last 30 years, which has been recorded in the meteorological stations close to the distribution range of the species. </p>	eng
162023	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In Europe, there are several conservation measures in place: <br/>- Protected by the Bern Convention (Annex I) <br/>- Habitat Directive of the EU (Appendices II and IV) <br/>- France: National and regional protection, Red List, Natural reserve statute for the site of Roque-Haute, <em>ex situ</em> Conservation: of the sporocarps by the Conservatory Botanical National Mediterranean of Porquerolles. <br/>- Italy: Red List (Vulnerable) and <em>ex situ</em> conservation (the species is cultivated in the Botanical Garden of Padova) <br/>- Spain: listed as threatened on regional lists, some localities are included in perimeters of Natura 2000 sites, creation of two micro-reserves (Province of Valencia, Balearic Islands), <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the sporocarps. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing) in order to limit competition by tall perennial species<br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
162023	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing) in order to limit competition by tall perennial species<br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
162023	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> has a mostly west-Mediterranean distribution, with localities in the north of the Caspian Sea. It is present in Spain (in 14 provinces but localized especially in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria, Extremadura and Castilla-Léon, Balearic Islands), France (Saint-Estève in the Pyrénées Orientales, Plateaux of Roque-Haute and Vendres in the Hérault), Italy (in Sardinia and in the south of the peninsula with some localities in the Province of Puglia, Region of Taranto), Morocco (Moyen-Atlas, Haut-Atlas, Anti-Atlas and the Atlantic plains in the Loukkos, Benslimane-Sidi Bettache, Haouz), Algeria (coastal sahels of the regions of Algiers and of Oran, coastal plains, Atlas Tellien), Egypt (valley and delta of the Nile), Romania and Ukraine (Crimea). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 2,500,000 km².	eng
162023	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is restricted to North Africa, only recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Globally, <br/><em>Marsilea strigosa</em> has a mostly west-Mediterranean distribution, with localities in the north of the Caspian Sea and in Europe.<br/><br/>In Africa, it has been recorded from Morocco (Moyen-Atlas, Haut-Atlas, Anti-Atlas and the Atlantic plains in the Loukkos, Benslimane-Sidi Bettache, Haouz), Algeria (coastal sahels of the Regions of Algiers and of Oran, coastal plains, Atlas Tellien), Egypt (valley and delta of the Nile).<br/><br/>The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of <em>Marsilea strigosa</em> in North Africa is about 940,000 km² with an area of occupancy (AOO) of 10 to 20 km².	eng
162023	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> is found mainly in oligotrophic and poorly mineralized temporary pools. It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizomes) but able to behave as an annual (Therophyte). The opening of the sporocarps and the sexual reproduction takes place within a shallow water blade, or even on saturated soil.	eng
162023	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Marsilea strigosa</em> is found mainly in oligotrophic and poorly mineralized temporary pools. It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizomes) but able to behave as an annual (Therophyte). The opening of the sporocarps and the sexual reproduction takes place within a shallow water blade, or even on saturated soil.	eng
162023	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are globally in decline and those that maintain themselves are in general very threatened because they are situated in fragile biotopes. <br/>- France: the species is very rare with three known localities occupied by populations of small size and scattered. It disappeared from some sites (Agde, Aigues-Mortes, Vendres, Saint-Estève) and of the fallow lands of Torremila. <br/>- Italy: considered as very rare (some localities only). <br/>- Spain: about 50 localities in the regions of Catalonia, Levante, Almeria and Extramadura, of which five are today extinct; very rare species on the Balearic Islands (some localities in the south of Mallorca and in the north of Menorca). The species is in regression (province of Valencia in particular) and a disappearance of 10% of the sites is expected in the next 20 years. <br/>- Morocco: the species is present in about 10 localities occupied by populations often isolated and at low density (in the mountains of the Atlas, the pre-Rif and the Atlantic plains). Some sites of the Atlantic plains have been destroyed these last years by road infrastructures and agriculture. <br/>- Algeria: the species is rare with eight to 10 localities and sites completely destroyed around Algier.	eng
162023	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The populations are globally in decline and those that maintain themselves are in general very threatened because they are situated in fragile biotopes.<br/>- Morocco: the species is present in about 10 localities occupied by populations often isolated and at low density (in the mountains of the Atlas, the pre-Rif and the Atlantic plains). Some sites of the Atlantic plains have been destroyed these last years by road infrastructures and agriculture. <br/>- Algeria: the species is rare (eight to 10 localities) with sites completely destroyed around Algier.	eng
162023	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of the species knows numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, cultivation and road infrastructures. <br/> <br/>In European countries, the abandonment of extensive grazing and the resulting emergence of shrubs or Helophytes (Roque-Haute, France) threaten the populations of <em>Marsilea strigosa</em> by competitive exclusion. <br/> <br/>Other threats are bound to the dynamics of its populations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites, in genetic isolation of populations and increases the risk of extinction.	eng
162023	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The habitat of the species knows numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, cultivation and road infrastructures.  Other threats are bound to the dynamics of populations. Their much reduced dispersal capacity results in a weak ability to colonize new sites, in genetic isolation of populations and increases the risk of extinction.	eng
162107	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Europe, the species is protected at different levels. It is included in Annex I of the Bern Convention and is classified as a priority species in Annex IIb of the Habitats Directive. The plant is classified as Endangered in the Andalusian and the Spanish Red List (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).<br/>An important part of the distribution of this species is included in the Doñana National Park: the important core is in the most protected area of the Park (the Biosphere Reserve).<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of Protected Species) <br/>- Enforcement of legal measures for the protection of the habitats <br/>- Conservation of the species in gene banks	eng
162107	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Micropyropsis tuberosa</em> is a Morocco-Iberian endemic species. It is found in southwest Spain, in the Guadalquivir freshwater swamp in Ayamonte and the Rocina river in Moguer, both in the province of Huelva, and in northwest Morocco at Loukkos. <br/>Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km², with an area of occupancy of less than 60 km² and it occurs at three locations.	eng
162107	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial, herbaceous plant (tuberous and rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits freshwater swamps, riverbeds and sometimes ecotones between heathers and freshwater swamps. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).	eng
162107	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Morocco, it is very rare and threatened, occurring in only one location. The population is small and has recently experienced a decline due to the partial destruction of its habitat by drainage.<br/>In Spain, there is only one metapopulation, with an estimated 549,650 individuals, that is spread out along the edges of the Doñana freshwater swamp.	eng
162107	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The major threats to this species are the sealing of humid soils, the decrease in groundwater levels and overgrazing that leads to a limited sexual reproduction. An increase in nutrient loads in the soil furthermore favours the growth of competitor plants that slowly out-compete the species (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
162344	conservation	Foggi, B. & Abeli, T., 2010	This species is classified as Critically Endangered in Italy (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). It is listed as an important species in Annex II of the Habitats Directive 92/43/CEE. All the existing sites are included in a SCI (Site of Community Interest) but the numbers of mature individuals are still decreasing.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation measures are recommended. More research on this species is needed.	eng
162344	distribution	Foggi, B. & Abeli, T., 2010	<em>Armeria helodes</em> is a species strictly endemic to Italy. It is found in seven very isolated locations in Friuli, with an extent of occurrence of 60 km² and an effective occupied area of 20 ha.<br/><br/>It is a neo-endemic species that resulted from the genetic isolation of <em>Armeria alpina</em> on the Friuli plains during the post-glacial age.<br/><br/>Pignatti (1982) lists this species as also being present in Lombardy but Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) report this species only for Friuli.	eng
162344	habitat	Foggi, B. & Abeli, T., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Armeria helodes</span> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits alkaline marshes of peaty soil that are saturated in water and rich in calcium and magnesium. It occurs in a habitat that is listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive: Alkaline fens (7230). This plant is oligotrophic, heliophilous and an unsuccessful competitor against others species. Flowering occurs during spring (April-May).	eng
162344	population	Foggi, B. & Abeli, T., 2010	The species is considered very rare and is threatened with extinction in Italy. At the beginning of the 20th century it was widespread throughout an area of about 60 km². Currently, it exists in seven isolated locations. The populations are in decline and each of the subpopulations has no more than five to 10 individuals, the total number of individuals is less than 50 (Pignatti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).	eng
162344	threats	Foggi, B. & Abeli, T., 2010	The main threats to the species are drainage of its habitat, and agricultural pollution with fertilisers and accumulation of organic material.	eng
162381	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Information on taxonomy and the biology and ecology of the species is already in place but further research on population numbers and range, as well as threats, is needed.	eng
162381	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to search for and verify the Egyptian localities.	eng
162381	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caldesia parnassifolia</span> is an Old-World tropical and subtropical species, only present in the Mediterranean basin in Egypt, recorded without locality (Täckholm & Drar 1941-1969). It furthermore occurs in Madagascar, tropical Africa, Asia (China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan) and Australia.	eng
162381	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is found in warm and tropical Old world, extending from Western Africa to Southern Africa to Botswana and Namibia, including Madagascar.	eng
162381	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	An aquatic plant with floating leaves and erect emergent flowering stem, of swamps and shallow water. Usually perennial in permanent water but in areas which dry out each year it may be annual. Mostly in shallow water, along the margins of lakes, on river banks and in swamps.	eng
162381	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Caldesia parnassifolia</span> is a perennial Helophyte growing in terrestrial places.	eng
162381	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	There is no information on the populations available.	eng
162381	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread so its presumed it will have an overall stable population.	eng
162381	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought. It may be impacted by habitat loss due to agro-industry farming. However, none of these constitute major widespread threats.	eng
162381	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
162393	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is included in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive 92/43 EEC and in the Bern Convention.<br/>The species has been classed as Vulnerable for Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) and as Endangered in Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). In France, it is considered Vulnerable in the national Red Data Book (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and is protected at national level (Annex 1). Some populations are included in Natura 2000 sites.<br/>More research on the populations and preferred habitats (including gametophyte habitats) are needed. Molecular analysis of the genetic diversity of the populations is needed in order to establish the dispersal capacity and potential rescue effects.	eng
162393	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a boreo-subtropical species that is found in southern Europe from the Azores to Crete, in Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Italy, and Sicily. In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.<br/>In Portugal, it has been found in the mountains of Gerês, Amarela, Freita, Arada and in the Trovela river valley (Ponte do Lima) (ICNB 2006). In Italy, it is found <span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>in two regions in the mainland (Calabria and Campania) and in Sicily (Pampanini 1911, Picone <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Pisani 2007). <br/>In Spain, it is only found in the north at the coast of Cantabria, Asturias and Galicia. Most of this area is outside the Mediterranean region boundaries (Anthos 2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>). In Greece, only two localities in the western part of Crete were found.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
162393	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is a Hemicryptophyte with a creeping rhizome. Its sporulation takes place in summer in Algeria and from February to September in Italy and Corsica.<br/>Its prefered habitats are damp ravines (châbas) in forests on siliceous hills or riverine forests and in caves. It prefers shadowy and wet places and shows hygrophilous and termophilous behaviour (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
162393	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is always considered as very rare. It has been seen in Corsica at two sites: Cap Corse near Siscu and Santo-Pietro-di-Tenda (Jeanmonod and Gamisand 2007,   Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). In Algeria, it was reported from one location in djebel Edough (near Annaba) where it has not been seen again. <em></em>In Portugal, it is known from less then 10 sites with a calculated number of 2,500 individuals (ICNB 2006). In Spain, there are more than 30 populations and the trend is stable, but most of these fall outside the boundaries of the Mediterranean region. In Crete, five populations with circa ten individuals each are present, these populations are declining (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).<br/>In Italy, there were 62 populations, 24 of them disappeared in the last 50 years, so it is now present in 38 sites plus one recently found in 2008. The area of occupancy in Italy is ca. 132 km<sup>2</sup>. A reduction of 42% of area in occupancy and 30% in extent of occurrence has been recorded in Italy in the last 50 years. The number of individuals is estimated to be about 6,000<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. In the next ten years a reduction of 10% for the number of individuals is estimated (Rossi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008)<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>.	eng
162393	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	One of the main threats to <em>Woodwardia radicans</em> is the clearing of forest. Agricultural activities and water extraction for irrigation are furthermore threatening the species in Crete and Italy. In Corsica, the dumping of garbage and lack of water body management and therefore the risk of competition with Rubus spp. is another threat to this plant. The invasion of Robinia in forests leads to further competition.	eng
163423	conservation	Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
163458	habitat	Asian Turtle Trade Working Group, 2000	Juveniles in freshwater areas of rivers; adults in estuarine areas. Terrestrial nest sites (beaches).	eng
163493	conservation	Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	It likely occurs in several protected areas.	eng
163493	distribution	Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from several districts in western Japan, i.e. Chubu District (Gifu and Aichi Prefectures), Kinki District (except for Kyoto and Hyogo Prefectures), Shikoku District, and Kyushu District (except for Saga and Nagasaki Prefectures) (Tominaga and Matsui 2008). Its   altitudinal range varies between 200 to 1,800 m asl (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
163493	habitat	Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species    is found in montane forests near the headwaters of streams (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009). It lays eggs in small, underground streams, where the larvae hatch and metamorphose without feeding (Tominaga and Matsui 2008). The breeding season for studied populations is from May to June, and clutch sizes vary from 7 to 19 eggs (Tominaga and Matsui 2008).	eng
163493	population	Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	This species is common within its distributional range (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
163493	threats	Matsui, M. & Angulo, A., 2009	In the southernmost part of this species’ range, locals have indicated that beech forests on the mountain top where the species lives are changing to bush forests (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009). The past condition and causes of change need to be further investigated. Local, disjunct populations may be at greater threat of habitat change (M. Matsui pers. comm. August 2009).	eng
163516	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
163516	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Known only from few localities (Colombo and Kandy District).	eng
163516	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits small brooklets meandering down the sides of the hills, presumably dense jungle or surrounding stream vegetation. Habitat type superficially similar to other representatives of the genus.  Larval form unknown.	eng
163516	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.	eng
163516	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	As for the whole genus, the species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forests. Apparently, its original area of occurrence has not been so restricted.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).	eng
163517	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; Many of the estuarine lagoons and wetlands are important from the ornithological point of view and some already have at least formal nature conservation status (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.	eng
163517	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka and only known from type locality (Kadaimparu, Puttalam District). Small, apparently rare and inconspicuous species, which is seldom collected and photographed. First record of supposed <em>Mortonagrion</em> sp. from Sri Lanka originates from Laidlaw (1924), who listed a single female collected in Galle District as “? Genus ? Species”. A specimen of <em>Mortonagrion cf. ceylonicum</em> from Colombo District is present in National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2007-2009) but its identity is not confirmed. Recently, the species was not recorded during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003), but on the other hand, the appropriate type of habitat was not researched well. Two recent photographic records of <em>Mortonagrion</em> sp. by Karen Conniff come from Galle and Colombo Districts. Since the female is still undescribed the determination is difficult to confirm. However, the observed characters do not agree with original description completely, so it might even be possible that there are actually two <em>Mortonagrion</em> species in Sri Lanka.	eng
163517	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Exact habitat unknown, most probably estuarine lagoons, marshes and lakes in the lowlands of Sri Lanka. Special vegetation structures or microhabitat determinants unknown.  Female and larval form undescribed.	eng
163517	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown.	eng
163517	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown. The general type of habitat listed above is not rare in the lowlands of western Sri Lanka. However, without knowledge of specific ecological demands of the species, it is impossible to define the threats although it is thought future industrial development of the area is a possibility.	eng
163518	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.<br/>If the above mentioned field work will be carried out, it will be possible to determine detailed distribution and population trend for <em>Paragomphus henryi</em> as well.	eng
163518	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Sri Lanka. Known from almost 40 localities, mostly in south-western and central part of the island.&#160; The species is present in all large odonatological collection, also those made by Naturhistorischen Museum Basle (Switzerland) and National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (2001, 2003).	eng
163518	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Moderately to fast flowing streams and rivers in hill and mountain regions.	eng
163518	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	At least locally, strong populations of the species exist although detailed information and trend are unknown.	eng
163518	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the south-western and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island, including <em>Paragomphus henryi</em>.	eng
163519	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p><br/>General Note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
163519	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Endemic to Sri Lanka. Rare species. Known from a dozen localities in southwestern and central part of the island (Ratnapura, Matara, Colombo, Kegalle and Galle Districts).&#160; Some individuals present in large odonatological collection made by National Museum of Natural History - Smithsonian Institution (USA) and Lund University (Sweden) (museum collections accessed by M. Bedjanic between 2005-2009). Also found during the author’s surveys in last years (1995, 2001, 2003).	eng
163519	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species inhabits small streams and rivulets in primary rainforest.  Larval form unknown.	eng
163519	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, small and fragmented.	eng
163519	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species’ habitat type is under great pressure mainly due to destruction of natural forest. Many potential habitats in southwestern and central part of the island were completely destroyed in last decades.&#160; Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island (Bedjanic 2004).	eng
163520	conservation	Bedjanič, M., 2007	<p>Apart from the general conservation guidelines, no "site specific single-species-oriented” conservation measures can be proposed for the moment.&#160; General guidelines for protection of rich endemic dragonfly fauna of Sri Lanka include (1) establishment of network of new small protected areas and corridors in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country), (2) conservation of forest corridors along streams and rivulets outside protected areas in the wet zone and (3) effective execution of appropriate nature conservation measures in partly damaged declared protected areas (Bedjanic 2004).<br/></p>General note: Knowledge on distribution, biology and taxonomy of several endangered endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka is very poor or insufficient. In the future special attention should be devoted to the work dealing with taxonomy of larval forms and adults. Serious odonatological faunistic mapping should cover the whole island and should be urgently focused on still preserved and protected areas. Simultaneously also the research of biology and ecology of selected endangered species should be carried out.  As far as species habitat and potential area of occurrence is concerned the Sri Lankan Moist Forests (Ecoregion 21: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests (IM0154)) and South-western Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 172) are included in the prestigious WWF’s global 200 list of the earth’s most biologically outstanding habitats. The conservation status of the ecoregions is judged as critical/endangered (Ecoregion 21) and vulnerable (Ecoregion 172) (Olson et al. 2000).	eng
163520	distribution	Bedjanič, M., 2007	The species is found in Sri Lanka and known and recently recorded from more than 10 localities; Badulla, Matara, Ratnapura, Galle and Matale District.	eng
163520	habitat	Bedjanič, M., 2007	It inhabits fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest, occasionally found also in streams between tea plantations.  Larval form undescribed.	eng
163520	population	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Population size and trend is unknown, presumably not so rare and populations not so small as the current data show.	eng
163520	threats	Bedjanič, M., 2007	Fast flowing streams with waterfalls and surrounding forest are the type of habitat under treat. However, fast flowing rivulets and streams with waterfalls are common in the 'wet zone' (mountains and the southwestern part of the country) of Sri Lanka.  Destruction of primary and secondary rainforests, destruction of forest corridors along streams, pollution and other pressures on streams and rivers in the southwestern and central part of Sri Lanka are the major threat for exceptionally rich endemic dragonfly fauna of the island.	eng
163522	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163522	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from Noonkanbah Station, Kimberley region, Western Australia (Watson 1991).	eng
163522	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163522	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Possibly rare, as only one specimen has been collected (Watson 1991).	eng
163522	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163523	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163523	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; found from latitude 21°S, Cairns area to Victoria-New South Wales border (Theischinger 1996, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163523	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits small to medium-sized streams, occasionally temporary, with the larvae generally occurring under logs, mostly in shady areas (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163523	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163523	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163524	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163524	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges Australia-wide, except southern Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163524	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, boggy seepages, riverine pools and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163524	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.	eng
163524	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163525	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Nososticta kalumburu</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163525	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Drysdale River, Roe River, Barnett River, Galvin Gorge and Adcock Gorge, all in Kimberley Region, Western Australia (Watson and Theischinger 1984).	eng
163525	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163525	population	Hawking, J., 2007	There is no data available on the size or trend for the population of <em>Nososticta kalumburu</em>.	eng
163525	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The farming agro-industry is projected to negatively affect the habitat of this species.	eng
163526	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163526	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; southeast Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and southeastern South Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163526	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163526	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163526	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163527	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eurysticta reevesi</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163527	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from the type locality at Torrens Creek, White Mountain National Park, Queensland, 20°28’50”S / 144°.55’03”E (Theischinger 2001).	eng
163527	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163527	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Presently only one population is known although detailed numbers and trend remains unknown.	eng
163527	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163528	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163528	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and southeastern South Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163528	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163528	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163528	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163529	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163529	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; Killarney, Bunya Mountains, Mapleton Falls Cedar Creek, Mount Tamborine, all localities in Queensland (Tillyard 1916, Watson and Theischinger 1980). Theischinger and Hawking (2006) record the distribution as coastal eastern Queensland and New South Wales.	eng
163529	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	The adults are crepuscular and usually fly very close to the ground (Theischinger 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larvae are terrestrial along small streams (Watson and Theischinger 1980).	eng
163529	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The population trend and size is not known for this species.	eng
163529	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Previous and future threats include the deforestation of the species habitat, for housing development.	eng
163530	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163530	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	Distribution includes southeastern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006), Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163530	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits still and sluggish waters; streams, riverine pools, ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163530	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
163530	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163531	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163531	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. They are known from southeastern New South Wales and Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163531	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits coastal and mountain streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163531	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A moderately common species with a stable population.	eng
163531	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163532	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163532	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cairns, Tully and Atherton Tablelands area, Queensland (Theischinger 1982).	eng
163532	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, often in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163532	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common in a small area.	eng
163532	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Threats occurring now and are going to continue include the deforestation of suitable habitat for housing development.	eng
163533	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163533	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	Southwestern Australia, from just north of Perth, south to Albany (Watson 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163533	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabit rivers drying to pools, permanent lakes, ponds and boggy swamps; larvae found on sticks and muddy weeds (Watson 1962).	eng
163533	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common (Watson 1977).	eng
163533	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no threats to <em>A. pusillus</em> at present.	eng
163534	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures presently in place and research into the effects of mining and housing developments are needed to halt the decline of viable habitat.	eng
163534	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Reported from brown acid dune lakes, Queensland; Brown Lake, perched swamp above Flinders Beach, Dunwich, Tortoise Lagoonall North Stradbroke Island; Lake Minker, Fraser Island; swamp east of Blue Lagoon, Moreton Island; New South Wales: Lake Hiawatha, Wooli (Watson and Moulds 1979).	eng
163534	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits brown, acidic dune lakes and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163534	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be rare.	eng
163534	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Restricted to brown, acidic dune lakes and swamps which are threatened by being in filled for urban development and sand mining (Hawking 1999).	eng
163535	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163535	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes southeastern New South Wales and Victoria (mainly alpine areas), with the northern-most locality Kanangra Walls, Blue Mountains, New South Wales (33º59’S) and southern-most locality Kinglake, Victoria (37º16’S) (Theischinger and O’Farrell 1986, Hawking and Theishinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)	eng
163535	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Adults frequent streams and boggy seepages (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larva has been recorded from amongst submerged aquatic vegetation in a deep, mountain stream pool (Hawking and Theischinger 1999) and is figured by Theischinger and Hawking (2006).	eng
163535	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163535	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163536	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163536	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution includes southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, southern South Australia and southeastern Western Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163536	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits lakes, permanent ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Larvae are commonly in acidic lakes and swamps (Hawking unpublished data 1990).	eng
163536	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163536	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163537	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163537	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known from localities in the Northern Territory: Katherine River, Katherine; Along the Stuart Highway (Berry Springs, Coomalie Creek and Adelaide River) and Jasper Gorge, northwest of Victoria River Downs (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991).	eng
163537	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163537	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Most probably a locally common species.	eng
163537	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Habitat is being lost for the agro-farming industry, and the degradation is thought to continue in the future.	eng
163538	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Indolestes alleni</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163538	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes northeast coastal, north Gulf, north coastal Queensland, Northern Territory; North Queensland (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163538	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits riverine lagoons, ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163538	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The population size and trend is unknown for <em>Indolestes alleni</em>.	eng
163538	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The farming agro-industry is negatively affecting the habitat of this species and is likely to have an impact on the species in the future.	eng
163539	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research actions into the effects the tourist developments are having on the habitat and breeding grounds need to be applied.	eng
163539	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Confined to the buttongrass plains of the Tasmanian Alpine region, Tasmania (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163539	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits montane trickles and swampy buttongrass plains of the Tasmanian Alpine region, Tasmania (Allbrook 1979, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163539	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The adult is moderately common and now known from 20 locations, but all sites confined to the alpine plains above 1,200 m (Tillyard 1917, Allbrook 1979, Sant and Hayes 1990).	eng
163539	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The species habitat is currently being degraded due to tourism use, and this loss is likely to continue in the future.	eng
163540	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed as no known threats exist at present.	eng
163540	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; southwestern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163540	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163540	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163540	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163541	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163541	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes North Territory to Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The southern limit appears to be the Kiewa River, Victoria (Hawking 1986). Hawking and Theischinger (1999) list the collection site in New South Wales.	eng
163541	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers, with the larvae found amongst gravel (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163541	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163541	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163542	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163542	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. South of 35°S in eastern New South Wales to Victoria (Theischinger 1995, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)	eng
163542	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	The larvae are semi-terrestrial, long lived and inhabit narrow trickles, sphagnum swamps and the splash-zones of waterfalls.  Adults have an altitudinal range from 600 - 1,800 m (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163542	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be scarce.	eng
163542	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Land is being cleared of viable <em>Austropetalia victoria</em> habitat for housing and tourism development and this looks set to continue into the future.	eng
163543	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present and further research into the life history of this species is needed.	eng
163543	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; it is only known from northeast Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163543	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	The only known information is that adults frequent ponds and swamps (Watson, Theischinger & Abbey 1991), where they are found in long grass bordering a swamp (Fraser 1960) and the larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Watson (1968) provided a photograph of the tiny adult (2-3 cm) from a swamp near Innisfail, Queensland.	eng
163543	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The population trend and size is not known for this species.	eng
163543	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Habitat is likely to be degraded in the future due to housing development and agro-industrial farming.	eng
163544	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163544	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Southwestern Australia, from Augusta to Albany (Watson 1977, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163544	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabit rivers drying to pools, permanent lakes, ponds and boggy swamps; larvae found on sticks and muddy weeds (Watson 1977).	eng
163544	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A scarce to uncommon species; population trend is unknown.	eng
163544	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Threats occurring now and are going to continue include the deforestation of suitable habitat for housing development and the agro-farming industry.	eng
163545	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Macromia viridescens</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163545	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cape York to near Coen, Queensland and New Guinea (Moulds 1979, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163545	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits small streams flowing through dense rain forests (Moulds 1979, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163545	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The population size and trend is unknown for <em>Macromia viridescens</em>.	eng
163545	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.	eng
163546	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163546	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; eastern Australia from central eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and eastern Victoria (Hawking 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006)	eng
163546	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Mostly inhabits lowland streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163546	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163546	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163547	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163547	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; ranges from north Queensland, near Cairns to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163547	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163547	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.	eng
163547	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163548	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163548	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Watson (1991) states “the known distribution of <em>Hemigomphus theischingeri</em> is limited to permanent streams in a narrow region extending approximately 400 km south-southeast along the coastal foothills from the mountains south of Cooktown to those northwest of Townsville” in northeastern Queensland.	eng
163548	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Known only from rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163548	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common although the trend is not known.	eng
163548	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163549	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, but research is needed to investigate the extent of damage the groundwater extraction is doing to the habitat.	eng
163549	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia.  Known from five localities: Deep Reach, Fortescue River, Millstream Station; Koomina Pools, Tanberry Creek; Palm Pool; Fortescue Crossing; Millstream Spring, Millstream area, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969)	eng
163549	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163549	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Most probably rare and/or a very restricted species.	eng
163549	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The habitat is being lost to the extraction of groundwater.	eng
163550	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163550	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known from northeastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163550	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits riverine pools, lakes, permanent ponds and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Adult is a predator and volant (quick and nimble in flight) (Houston and Watson 1988).	eng
163550	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163550	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163551	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163551	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from Cairns to Townsville, northeastern Queensland (Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Distribution: Northeastern Queensland (Watson 1974, Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006.)	eng
163551	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits rainforest streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163551	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be moderately common.	eng
163551	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163552	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163552	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; occurs from northern Queensland to southern New South Wales (Watson 1991, Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163552	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)	eng
163552	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The population trend and size is not known for this species.	eng
163552	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163553	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place or planned for this species.	eng
163553	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern Australia, from Fraser Island in southern Queensland to central Victoria (Watson 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163553	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits stream, rivers and lakes, where the larvae are found amongst detritus/mud in pools and on gravel beds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163553	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common (Watson 1991).	eng
163553	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The habitat continues to be degraded for human purposes.	eng
163554	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	<em>Lithosticta macra</em> occurs within a World Heritage Area, however Uranium mining is conducted and is proposed within the species range.  Research is needed to understand the effects of these proposals.	eng
163554	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Known from the following localities: Koongara; Oenpelli; Mount Brockman massif; Rock Hole Mine; Little Nourlangie Rock; Katherine (all Northern Territory) (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Hawking 1993).	eng
163554	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers, and rocky regions away from them (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163554	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Most probably a locally scarce with an unknown population trend.	eng
163554	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Quality of the habitat is being degraded due to increased mining and tourism.	eng
163555	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into the effects the proposed housing development will have on the habitat and breeding grounds.	eng
163555	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from Fraser Island in southeastern Queensland to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163555	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits boggy seepages and swamps and known only from low altitude (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163555	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species is scarce to very uncommon although the population trend is thought to be stable.	eng
163555	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The habitat this species occurs in is likely to under-go a change in management regime that is going to threaten the survival of <em>Petalura litorea</em> found there.  More houses are also due to be built in and around the same area, and continuous sand-mining is a threat.	eng
163556	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Nososticta koolpinyah</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163556	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Black Jungle, Koolpinyah Station to Darwin and on the offshore Melville Island, Northern Territory (Watson and Theischinger 1984).	eng
163556	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Frequents streams (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163556	population	Hawking, J., 2007	<em>Nososticta koolpinyah</em> is possibly rare to scarce, and the trend is unknown.	eng
163556	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The farming agro-industry and mining is projected to negatively affect the habitat of this species.	eng
163557	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163557	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from top end of Northern Territory; northeastern Queensland, including Cape York (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163557	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163557	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163557	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163558	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Griseargiolestes bucki</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163558	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	Theischinger and O’Farrell (1986) lists five scattered collection areas (Barrington Tops, Walcha, Dorrigo Rd, Upper manning River, Styx River in the north east of New South Wales, Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163558	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits seepages along streams and possibly sphagnum bogs (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163558	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appear to be abundant at the two locations it is known from.	eng
163558	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.	eng
163559	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163559	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; ranges from North Island and in Marlborough, Nelson, the West Coast, and Southland in the South Island.	eng
163559	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits rough forest land and scrub country (Rowe 1987).	eng
163559	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A moderately common species.	eng
163559	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163560	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eusynthemis netta</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163560	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Known only from the type locality, stream on Mount Lewis, northwest of Julatten, North Queensland (Theischinger 1999).	eng
163560	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Adults have been collected along streams in or near rainforest (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163560	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Present only one population is known.	eng
163560	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163561	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163561	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Known across the north of Australia from Western Australia to Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Hawking (1993) list 18 sites in the Kakadu area, Northern Territory where larvae of <em>Hemicorduli intermedia</em> have been collected, and Watson and Abbey (1980) list six locations in the Kakadu area, Northern Territory where adults have been collected.	eng
163561	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits sluggish rivers, riverine lagoons, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163561	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163561	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163562	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Spinaeschna watsoni</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163562	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Atherton Tablelands area (Theischinger 1982).&#160; Theischinger (1982) lists five collection sites in the Cairns and Atherton Tablelands area. Listed as northeastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163562	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, often in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163562	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be scarce as an adult, however, larvae and exuviae appear to be abundant (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163562	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The threats to this species are not known at present.	eng
163563	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163563	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes south Western Australia (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). Tillyard (1910) gave the range as from Perth to Cape Leeuwin.	eng
163563	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Tillyard (1910) suggested that it occurs fairly commonly on all running streams and mountain brooks, very occasionally also on freshwater lagoons.  Theischinger and Hawking (2006) list it as inhabiting streams, boggy seepages and swamps. The larvae can withstand drying out (Watson 1967, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163563	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species is common. Tillyard (1910) suggested that it occurs fairly commonly on all running streams and mountain brooks, very occasionally also on freshwater lagoons.	eng
163563	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163564	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163564	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes eastern Australia, from Cairns in northern Queensland to Sydney, New South Wales (Watson 1991).	eng
163564	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits stream and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163564	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common (Watson 1991).	eng
163564	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163565	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163565	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes Cooktown, in the north to Nambour in south of Queensland (Watson and Theischinger 1984).	eng
163565	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163565	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with a stable population.	eng
163565	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163566	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163566	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	Northern Territory and northeastern Queensland, Australia; Tanimbar Islands; Aru Islands; New Guinea; Solomon /islands; Fiji and Samoa (Houston and Watson 1988). Theischinger and Hawking (2006) give the extra-limitable distribution, as possibly from the Philippines to the southwest Pacific.	eng
163566	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits a wide range of still and sluggish waters, often shallow, sometimes temporary (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163566	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be a very common species with a stable population.	eng
163566	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163567	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present and further research into the life history of this species is needed.	eng
163567	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Theischinger and O’Farrell (1986) lists five scattered collection areas (Barrington Tops, Walcha, Dorrigo Rd, Upper manning River, Styx River in the northeast of New South Wales and Theischinger and Hawking (2006) add Queensland.	eng
163567	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Adults have been collected at streams and boggy seepages and the larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163567	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be scarce, however no surveys have been undertaken to determine its distribution and abundance.	eng
163567	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163568	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures are needed to prevent this species moving into a threatened category.	eng
163568	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known from four localities (Deep Reach, Fortescue River, Millstream Station; Nuntara Pools, Tanberry Creek; Palm Pool; Fortescue Crossing) Millstream area, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969).	eng
163568	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163568	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species is most likely rare and the trend is unknown.	eng
163568	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163569	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Eusynthemis ursula</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163569	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known only from specimens collected from Telegherry River and Whitehouse Creek, both Karuah catchment, Chichester State Forest, New South Wales (Theischinger 1999).	eng
163569	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits small streams very close to their origin; altitude approximately 980 m (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163569	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Presently only known from six adults from two populations and the population trend is not known.	eng
163569	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The species habitats are likely to be deforested in the future although the purposes are not detailed.	eng
163570	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163570	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Range includes southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and northeastern Victoria (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163570	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Tillyard (1910) stated its habitat as swamps and slow-running creeks in wooded country. Theischinger and Hawking (2006) list <em>Parasynthemis regina</em> habitat as sluggish streams that dry to pools, stagnant riverine pools and swamps; often associated with iron-rich clay substrata. Tillyard (1910) reports the life history and Hawking and Theischinger (1999) figure the known collecting sites in New South Wales.	eng
163570	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be a reasonably common species with a stable population.	eng
163570	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163571	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163571	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; range includes south Western Australia (Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163571	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and ponds (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163571	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be common with an unknown population trend.	eng
163571	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163572	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163572	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Known from northeastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163572	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, including sluggish and intermittent ones. Larvae were collected from under very large boulders when the stream dried out (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163572	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Not a very common species, although the population is stable.	eng
163572	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163573	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus doddi</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163573	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution: Watson (1991) stated that “<em>Austrogomphus doddi</em> appears to be confined to northern Queensland, north of the Paluma-Eungella gap ( Watson and Theischinger 1984b)”  Watson lists specimens as all being collected from a small area in north Queensland, at Kuranda, Cairns, Tully and Running River, Paluma.	eng
163573	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Known from streams and rivers (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163573	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears rare, as only nine specimens have been collected from 1906 to 1968 (Watson 1991).	eng
163573	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The species' habitat is currently being deforested but it is unclear for what purposes.	eng
163574	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into effective measures to halt the loss of habitat through mining and tourism development are needed urgently to prevent <em>Hemigomphus magela</em> moving into the Endangered category.	eng
163574	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Known only from permanent steams (Magela Creek, Radon Springs, Baroalba Springs, Jim Jim Falls and Dinner Creek), that drain to the west from the Arnhem Land escarpment, Northern Territory and Florence Falls, Litchfield National Park (Watson 1991, Hawking 1993).	eng
163574	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits only permanent steams that drain to the west from the Arnhem Land escarpment, Northern Territory (Watson 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163574	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Watson (1991) states that it is a common dragonfly in the permanent streams that drain from the west of the Arnhen Land Escarpment. Hawking (1993) list a population from Florence Fall, Litchfield Park.	eng
163574	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Presently the habitat is being lost due to mining and the development of tourism; both problems are thought to continue.	eng
163575	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Cordulephya bidens</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163575	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	The species is known only from Malanda and Cedar Creek, Northern Queensland (Houston and Watson 1988).	eng
163575	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams in rainforests (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163575	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Possibly rare species and trend is unknown.	eng
163575	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163576	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163576	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; Central and southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and Victoria (Stewart 1980, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163576	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163576	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A reasonably common species.	eng
163576	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163577	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but research into what actions would be effective to halt the decline of degraded habitat through mining is required.	eng
163577	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; known from Katherine River (Watson 1991) and Kakadu Area (Hawking 1993), with both locations in the top end of Northern Territory.	eng
163577	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams, rivers and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)	eng
163577	population	Hawking, J., 2007	<em>Antipodogomphus dentosus</em> is scarce in its habitat, and the population trend remains unknown.	eng
163577	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The habitat is currently being degraded due to mining and tourism development.	eng
163578	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	This species does not have any conservation actions in place due to lack of threats at present.	eng
163578	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	Cape York and northeastern Queensland, Australia and Port Moresby, New Guinea (Stewart 1980, Houston and Watson 1988, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163578	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits streams and rivers, including those that dry to pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163578	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Not a really common species and trend is unknown.	eng
163578	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no threats currently known to affect this species.	eng
163579	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163579	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Ranges from southeastern Queensland to northeastern New South Wales (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163579	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits montane swamps and small streams, with the larva often found in mud and detritus (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163579	population	Hawking, J., 2007	A moderately common species with a stable population.	eng
163579	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163580	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the biology and population numbers of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em> are needed.  It is not known if this species requires any conservation action either, so this needs to be explored.	eng
163580	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Species has been recorded over a substantial length of the Murray River, 900 km from Morgan in South Australia to Corowa, New South Wales (Watson 1991).	eng
163580	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	All records are from mature slow-flowing parts of the Murray River and is thought to be “probably not a stream dweller” (Watson1991, Hawking and Theischinger 1999, Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The larva is unknown (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The female is pictured by Theischinger and Hawking (2006).	eng
163580	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears rare, as only six specimens have been collected from 1909 to 1967 (Watson 1991).	eng
163580	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	Agro-farming is degrading the habitat of <em>Austrogomphus angeli</em>.	eng
163581	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163581	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia; range includes northern Western Australia, top end Northern Territory to Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163581	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabit streams and riverine pools (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163581	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Appears to be a commonly found species although the trend is unknown.	eng
163581	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163582	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, nor are any thought to be needed.	eng
163582	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Victoria and some alpine parts of southeastern New South Wales (Theischinger 1982, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163582	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Inhabits small montane streams, occurring mainly among macrophytes, but also on rocks (Theischinger and Hawking 2006)	eng
163582	population	Hawking, J., 2007	The species appears to be common.	eng
163582	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no known threats affecting this species nor are their likely to be in the near future.	eng
163583	conservation	Hawking, J., 2007	There are no actions in place; research into the effects the groundwater extraction are having on the breeding ground of <em>Nososticta pilbara</em> is urgently needed.	eng
163583	distribution	Hawking, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Australia. Distribution: Only known from the oasis of permanent waters, fed by the Millstream aquifer, along the Fortescue River, Pilbara, Western Australia (Watson 1969, Watson and Theischinger 1984).	eng
163583	habitat	Hawking, J., 2007	Occurs on streams and riverine pools; larvae found under stones in running water (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163583	population	Hawking, J., 2007	Watson and Theischinger (1984) state that “<em>Nososticta pilbara</em> is one of the most restricted of any Australian odonate”, and that “it is, however, abundant there occurring in both streams and deep river pools.”	eng
163583	threats	Hawking, J., 2007	The habitat is being lost due to the extraction of groundwater.	eng
163584	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species. Effective conservation planning can only proceed after locations where the species occurs are known.	eng
163584	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Distribution Maharashtra, Peninsular India.  Altitude range - recorded from Poona (now Pune) which is at 560 m and no further information is available.	eng
163584	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fraser (1934) states on habitat etc. around Poona he states "males may be seen resting on stones or rocks in the bed of the Byrobah Nullah and also in the neighbouring canal and Mullah River, Poona, or they may be beaten up from evergreens bordering these streams"	eng
163584	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fraser (1934) states on its occurrence around Poona "where I have found it rather common during the wetter months of the year".	eng
163584	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is undergoing continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163585	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.	eng
163585	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from foothills of the Malabar Wynaad near Tamaracherri in the Western Ghats, India (Fraser 1931, 1933).	eng
163585	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been found in dense jungle in densely shaded streams (Fraser 1933); it appears to be a species of hillside forest streams, but the known location was at sea-level.	eng
163585	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from a single population, described by Fraser (1933) as "not a common insect". Included by Lahiri (1989) in a list of Indian species not recorded since their original description.	eng
163585	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	As a lowland forest species in a heavily populated region there is cause for concern over this species.	eng
163586	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this species, at present it can only be classed as Data Deficient. Fresh searches need to be made in north and eastern India.	eng
163586	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Chlorogomphus fraseri</em> is known only from India, published records are from Arunachal Pradesh (Asahina 1986), Darjeeling (St. Quentin 1936, Fraser 1936, Asahina 1986), the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999) and Manipur (Asahina 1986).	eng
163586	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is little published information on this, but presumably the species breeds in mountain forest streams.	eng
163586	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are few records of this species; since the publication of Fraser's volumes in the Fauna of British India series (1933, 1934, 1936) there has been very few publications.  One is Asahina (1986), where three additional specimens are listed. The type series consists of three specimens (St. Quentin 1936).	eng
163586	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163587	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is insufficient information available on this species for effective conservation planning. There is a need for further sampling on Doi Inthanon and other high mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions. The type location is within a national park, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of conflicting interests in national parks in Thailand.	eng
163587	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Doi Inthanon, Chiang Mai, north-west Thailand (Yeh 2000, Hämäläinen 2002).	eng
163587	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The known specimens were collected at a small artificial pond in a small clearing in forest at 1,400 - 1,450 m on Doi Inthanon, with a stream running 20 - 30 m away. Presumably it breeds in small pools in montane forest.	eng
163587	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known from only two specimens (Yeh 2000).	eng
163587	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163588	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species; searches need to be made throughout Thailand, in Myanmar, northern Peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR. Without more information the only other conservation measure that can be recommended at present is the establishment of more lowland forest protected areas.	eng
163588	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macrogomphus kerri</em> is known only from Thailand where there are scattered records from many provinces from all parts of the country except the eastern most parts (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). The lack of records from eastern Thailand may reflect the fact that there has been less collecting there than in other parts of the country.	eng
163588	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Nothing has been recorded in the published literature on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a denizen of slow-flowing lowland forest streams with a sedimentary bottom, as is the case with other <em>Macrogomphus</em> species.	eng
163588	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) summarise what is known on this species: “widespread, but uncommon”. It is likely to be local in occurrence, and is probably under-collected, but on the present evidence it is a scarce species.	eng
163588	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is threatened by large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.	eng
163589	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is certainly present in protected areas in Thailand (e.g. Doi Suthep-Pui National Park), and may be quite common in suitable habitat. However, there is a need for more data on population and distribution, and it is unclear at present whether or not the species can survive in disturbed forest habitats. Until we have this information the planning of conservation measures will be extremely difficult. Fresh searches need to be made in Myanmar.	eng
163589	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Protosticta curiosa</em> is known from Myanmar (Fraser 1934) and south and west Thailand (Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990; Hämäläinen & Pinratana 1999; Hoess 2002; Dow 2004, 2007).	eng
163589	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Apparently breeds in forest streams in steep terrain, but is usually found away from the water in dense vegetation.	eng
163589	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is widely distributed in Thailand, and has been collected with some frequency, although usually only single individuals have been collected. It appears to be moderately common, but inconspicuous, on forested hills and mountains in Thailand; in Myanmar it must be regarded as data deficient as there is only a record of a single male (Fraser 1934).	eng
163589	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163590	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data, especially on the status of habitats in southern Kalimantan, before an accurate conservation assessment can be made for this species. The species should be searched for on mainland Sumatra.	eng
163590	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Borneo where there are (old) published records from south and west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1937, 1953). It was collected in Sarawak in 2006, at Binyo Penyilam in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007), suggesting that its distribution in Borneo may be wider than was previously thought. Also known from Bangka Island off the coast of Sumatra and Belitung island between Sumatra and Borneo (Lieftinck 1954). Given its occurrence on Bangka and Belitung, the species should be searched for on mainland Sumatra. Note that under Countries of Occurrence, Sumatra as ticked as "Native Presence Confirmed" and as "Native Possibly Present", the first case covers Bangka and Belitung, as satellite islands of Sumatra, the second case covers the possibility of the occurrence of the species in Sumatra.	eng
163590	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Sarawak the species was found on open pools within a naturally occurring acidic marsh in the middle of a peat swamp forest. In Kalimantan it was described as occurring in "marshes and pondy streams in shady surroundings" and as being "common in south Borneo over tiny brooks in peat-bog areas" (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163590	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The only recent record (albeit unpublished as yet; R. Dow pers. comm. 2007) is from one location in Sarawak, where the species was moderately common. It appears to have been common in south Kalimantan prior to 1954, but there is no current data available. It is not possible to make any further comment on population without further collecting, especially in Kalimantan. Similarly there is no recent data from Bangka or Belitung.	eng
163590	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss: lowland habitats in Kalimantan are severely threatened by human development. We have no recent data from Bangka or Belitung.	eng
163591	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data is needed for effective conservation planning, but there does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures in Borneo. The species should be searched for in northeast Kalimantan. There are no recent records of <em>C. bellona hoogerwerfi</em> from Sumatra and there is an urgent need for more data from the island. The taxonomic status of <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> may need to be reassessed.	eng
163591	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from north Borneo (records from Sabah and Sarawak) and Sumatra (subspecies <em>hoogerwerfi</em>). In Borneo its distribution appears to be centred around northeast Sarawak and Sabah. Two males from the type series are from Mount Matang (Laidlaw 1915), a problematic location; there is a peak named Matang just outside of Kubah National Park in west Sarawak, this is near to the Matang Road, a famous collecting location for odonates in west Sarawak. However there is also a peak named Matang in extreme northeast Sarawak, very close to the border with Sabah (J. van Tol pers. comm. 2007). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records of the species in Borneo from west of Miri Division in Sarawak (Dow 2007), so it appears likely that the species referred to as from Mount Matang is the one in northeast Sarawak. The majority of records from Borneo come from Sabah (Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1934; Orr 2003 and photographic records from various locations). <em>C. hoogerwerfi</em> was described from a single male from north Sumatra (Lieftinck 1940), taken at 1,500 m. There are no additional records until 1954 when Lieftinck gave its distribution in Sumatra as “north and southwest” without specifying details of the material that this was based upon. Subsequently Asahina (1967), using material from Lieftinck’s collection, gave the distribution as “C.W. Sumatra only”; the distribution of the subspecies in Sumatra seems to be a matter of some confusion.	eng
163591	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Borneo the species occurs at ponds, drains and in shallow weedy marshes. In the Kelabit Highlands of north-east Sarawak it breeds in shallow marshes in agricultural land and secondary forest (Dow 2007). Orr (2003) states that it inhabits  "disturbed habitats such as drains and ponds" in the Danum Valley in Sabah and recent photographic records from Sabah are from similar habitats. Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> in Sumatra is found in “forest-marshes and lakes in the mountains”.	eng
163591	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is not a well known species. In Sarawak it appears to exist in scattered populations but may be under-recorded. It appears to be quite common in Sabah. There is no recent data from Sumatra available.	eng
163591	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data is needed before a truly reliable threat assessment can be made. In north Borneo <em>C. bellona</em> occurs in disturbed habitats, and the species does not appear to be under any immediate threat. Relatively few populations are currently known, but this is likely to be the result of under-collecting rather than genuine rarity. In Sumatra <em>C. b. hoogerwerfi</em> may have more demanding habitat requirements, but we have so little information at present that it has to be judged as data deficient.	eng
163592	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species, but as an infrequently recorded lowland forest dweller there is cause for concern. Research is the priority here, with an emphasis on gathering more information on population and distribution, and on establishing how well represented the species is in protected areas.	eng
163592	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from India (Fraser 1933, Laidlaw 1914, Prasad and Varshney 1995) to Thailand (Lieftinck 1954, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), south and east Sumatra and south Java (Lieftinck 1954). Records from India are from the Western Ghats and possibly the northeast; Laidlaw (1914) records the species from Assam in the old sense, but expressed doubts about the identity of his material. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records from northeast India and Laidlaw's record has not been repeated in subsequent literature. Records from Thailand are from Nakhon Nayok, Chanthaburi and Trat (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Given the known distribution of the species it appears likely that, in India, it does occur outside of the Western Ghats, and it should be searched for in Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam and Cambodia. The position of the type locality is unknown.	eng
163592	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lowland forest streams and rivers (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163592	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are not many records of this species, but this may reflect difficulty of collection and a lack of expert sampling across much of its range.	eng
163592	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	As a lowland forest dweller, habitat loss is likely to be a very significant threat to this widely distributed but apparently scarce species.	eng
163593	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information on this species is needed. Searches need to be made in lowland swamp forest (including secondary forest) in Sumatra, Belitung, Sarawak and adjacent areas of Borneo. Once we have a better picture of the distribution and current populations of this species, conservation planning can begin, and will centre around the protection of suitable lowland habitats.	eng
163593	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Tetrathemis flavescens</em> is known from Sarawak (Kirby 1889, Dow 2007), Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163593	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat of this species as “lowland forest”; however this can probably be tightened to lowland swamp forest. The specimen from Bukit Sarang in Sarawak (as far as it is known, this is the only recent record) was collected in regularly flooded alluvial forest, where it was taken at the margin of a small pool in dense secondary forest. More information on the habitat requirements of this species is needed.	eng
163593	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a very poorly known species. It is either genuinely scarce, or seriously under-recorded; in any event it is certainly very local in occurrence. After the original record from Sarawak (Kirby 1889), the only record from the state is of a single teneral female captured at Bukit Sarang in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007). The record from Sumatra appears to be of a single male. The details of material from Belitung have not been published.	eng
163593	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lowland forest habitats in Borneo and Sumatra are generally threatened. The only location currently known in Sarawak is within a protected area which is likely to soon be given National Park status (it may already have been gazetted). The only recently collected specimen was taken in secondary forest.	eng
163594	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in north Kalimantan, East Malaysia and Brunei, in secondary as well as primary forest.	eng
163594	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to north Borneo. There are published records from northwest Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1934) and Brunei (Orr 2001), and a specimen was collected at Annah Rais in west Sarawak, close to the border with Kalimantan, in 2006 (Dow 2007).	eng
163594	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Little is known about this species. The type series was collected on a forest stream in hilly country. The male from Sarawak was collected at the side of a large stream running through secondary forest and agricultural land (shifting agriculture). The male from Brunei was collected in a canopy fogging exercise at the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, where the terrain is steep. Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat as "forest brooks in low hilly country".	eng
163594	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Very few specimens of this species are known: the type series (one male and two females), one male from Brunei and one male from Annah Rais in west Sarawak.	eng
163594	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163595	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for fresh material of this species, to clarify both its range and its taxonomic status.	eng
163595	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus verticalis</em> is apparently known from a single female. Fraser (1934) states that the type locality is unknown, but in India. Prasad (1996) lists this species from Maharashtra without any further details, it is unclear whether this record refers to the type female or some subsequent record.	eng
163595	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.	eng
163595	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus verticalis</em> appears to be known from a single female.	eng
163595	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163596	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The lack of recent data on this species makes effective conservation planning for this species impossible. Fresh searches need to be made in the Western Ghats.	eng
163596	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Caconeura ramburi</em> is known only from southern India. Fraser (1933) describes it as widely distributed in the Western Ghats, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records.	eng
163596	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is little information available on the habitats of this species. It breeds in forest streams on mountains (Fraser 1922).	eng
163596	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Caconeura ramburii</em> appears to have been quite common in parts of the western Ghats (Fraser 1933), at least prior to 1933.	eng
163596	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area where the species has been recorded is being deforested.	eng
163597	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species, as most records are from before 1954; this may merely reflect a lack of collecting in Sumatra in the intervening period. The two more recent records (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988, Hämäläinen 2007) suggest that the species is still widespread in Sumatra and at least moderately common in some areas, but more sampling is needed to verify this. The status of the habitats on Nias and Simalur needs to be determined, and fresh searches need to be made on these islands.	eng
163597	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> is known from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1915; Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1935, 1954; Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), Nias (Lieftinck 1931) and Simalur (Lieftinck 1954) Islands. It appears to be a widespread species in Sumatra.	eng
163597	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> breeds in rocky forest streams and rivers from the lowlands up to 1,200 m in North Sumatra. Lieftinck (1954) states that it is most common between 400 m and 500 m. Hämäläinen (2007) states that the streams he found it on in 1997 were “in lower elevations (at <em>ca</em> 400 - 600 m).  3 - 5 m fast flowing streams with boulders".	eng
163597	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea aspasia</em> appears to be at least moderately common in lowland forest in Sumatra, although this assessment is mostly based upon old records. The most recent published record is from 1987 (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), where seven specimens were recorded from three locations in north Sumatra. M. Hämäläinen visited Sumatra in 1997 (Hämäläinen 2007) and recorded the species from two locations in central Sumatra. There are only old records available from Nias and Simalur.	eng
163597	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	No data is known on the status of the habitats on Nias and Simalur, however the habitat in Sumatra is being threatened by human development.	eng
163598	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, apart from the need for monitoring of populations against any decline.	eng
163598	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Rhodothemis rufa</em> is a very widely distributed species, occurring throughout tropical and subtropical mainland Asia, the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, the Philippines, Taiwan, Hainan, the Solomon Islands, and as far south as New Guinea. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Cambodia or Lao PDR, but it is almost certainly present in these countries.	eng
163598	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in open ponds, marshes and lakes.	eng
163598	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a common species over much of its range.	eng
163598	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species does not appear to be under any significant threat at present, although in the future, some areas may come under threat from urbanization.	eng
163599	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is severely data deficient; we need further data before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches should be made in the Khasi Hills and adjacent areas.	eng
163599	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the vicinity of Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, northeast India (Lieftinck 1968).	eng
163599	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing is known of the habitats or ecology of this species. From the type location we can infer that it is a montane species. It is likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.	eng
163599	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species was described from a single female (Lieftinck 1968), R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any further specimens. It is either scarce or under-collected.	eng
163599	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163600	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Sarawak and Brunei the species is certainly present in a number of protected areas, and is probably quite common in these areas, but under-recorded. There are no recent records from Kalimantan, and fresh data is needed from that area, where lowland forest habitats are severely threatened, and there has been a lack of expert sampling for more than 50 years. There are also no recent records from Sabah. It is not clear what degree of disturbance from logging the species can tolerate. There is a need for further research across the range of the species.	eng
163600	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Endemic to Borneo. There are records from Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), two locations in west Sarawak (Dow 2007), two locations in Brunei (Orr 2001), old records from south and southeast Kalimantan and one record from the island of Banggi off the north coast of Borneo (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163600	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species breeds in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) in mixed dipterocarp forest (Orr 1994, 2001, 2003). Occurs in primary forest, and has been recorded in old secondary forest (Dow 2007; selectively logged approximately 70 years before the record was made), but may be absent from more recently disturbed forest.	eng
163600	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Because of its breeding habits (see under Habitat and Ecology), this species is probably under-recorded. It may be quite common in mixed dipterocarp (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree" title="Tree"></a>    mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees) forest, as evidenced by the occurrence of larvae in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) in Brunei, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
163600	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The major threat to this species is loss of, or heavy disturbance to its forest habitats. This species is likely to be vulnerable to selective logging as well as clear cutting and fire.	eng
163601	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	The status of this species in Java needs to be checked (existing data is from the 1930s). Further data on distribution is urgently needed to plan conservation measures. The species needs to be searched for in Java, Borneo and east Sumatra.	eng
163601	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from two disjointed areas: West Java (Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and Bako National Park, Sarawak (Dow 2005). In West Java the recorded locations are lake Njalindung and a few sites near Sukanegara, about 20 km to the east of lake Njalindung.	eng
163601	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Appears to prefer shallow, well vegetated marshes, shallow lake margins (Lieftinck 1954) and, in the case of the Sarawak population, small, shallow, open streams in kerangas (tropical heath) shrubland. The kerangas shrubland at Bako National Park is a scarce, possibly unique, habitat in Sarawak.	eng
163601	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is no current information available on the west Javan populations. Writing in 1934 Lieftinck described the species as "excessively abundant" at Lake Njalindung and as common at the other sites. The form at Bako in Sarawak was common on visits in March and May of 2005.	eng
163601	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to development or fire. The status of the habitats in Java is unknown, but doubtful. The known population in Sarawak is within a national park, but the habitat is very vulnerable to fire, and the area in which the species occurs is relatively small. The habitat in Sarawak is unusual, and possibly unique within the state.	eng
163602	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Whilst there is a need for further information on this species, it appears to be quite common in Sarawak at least, and is present in a number of protected areas. There does not appear to be any pressing need for extra conservation measures for this species at present. It should be searched for in western Sabah and northern Kalimantan.	eng
163602	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis atropha</em> is endemic to Borneo. All published records are from Sarawak or Brunei. It is widely distributed in Sarawak, with records from across the state (e.g. Lieftinck 1965, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007). It is only known from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001). It is highly likely to occur in Sabah and northern Kalimantan.	eng
163602	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Closed canopy streams in mixed dipterocarp forest, usually in hilly areas. It occurs in secondary as well as primary forest. It occurs from the lowlands to over 1,000 m in the Kelabit Highlands in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163602	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a relatively common species in lowland forest in hilly areas of Sarawak, based on published information and collecting carried out by R. Dow and G.T. Reels over six months in many parts of Sarawak in 2005-2006 (Dow 2007). It is only known from one location in Brunei.	eng
163602	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.	eng
163603	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a pressing need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made in Sumatra, both in and outside of protected areas.	eng
163603	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Podolestes coomansi</em> is known only from one location in east Sumatra (Lieftinck 1940, 1950, 1954).	eng
163603	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The type locality was described as a "marshy spot in second growth forest" (Lieftinck 1954). The other species of <em>Podolestes</em> known from Sundaland are predominantly swamp forest dwellers, some appear to be specialised to particular types of swamp forest (e.g. peat swamp forest). It appears likely that <em>P. coomansi</em> is similarly specialised. From the description of the type locality it appears to be able to survive in suitable secondary habitats.	eng
163603	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is known only from the type series, which is quite large, consisting of 34 individuals, suggesting that it was common at the type locality in the 1930s, but there are no recent records available.	eng
163603	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There has been extensive habitat loss and disturbance in east Sumatra since the species was last recorded; this is a cause for concern.	eng
163604	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches should be made in the Sullia region and adjacent areas.	eng
163604	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Karnataka and Kerala in India (e.g. Fraser 1931, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Fraser (1934) states that it occurs in “Kanara District ...  [on] the network of rivers about Sulia”, and that a single male had been collected near Tamaracherri.	eng
163604	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Forest streams and rivers. Fraser (1934) describes it as "a shade lover".	eng
163604	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records of this species since the 1930s, but this is likely to be due to a lack of expert sampling in suitable habitat since that time. From published information it is not clear how common the species used to be, it may have always been a scarce species.	eng
163604	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The known habitats of the species are in heavily populated areas, there is no definite information on their current status available, but some forest apparently remains (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullia), although suitable habitat is decreasing.	eng
163605	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this very poorly known species. More sampling is needed in south Viet Nam and adjacent regions.	eng
163605	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from one location in Lam Dong province, south Viet Nam (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001).	eng
163605	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series is from "a tiny (some 60 cm wide), slow-moving mountain stream at an altitude of <em>ca</em> 1,200 m" (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001).	eng
163605	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type series (two males).	eng
163605	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The type locality "was in the border area between a remaining upper mountain rainforest and an ascending coffee tree cultivation" (Hämäläinen and Karube 2001), suggesting an existing threat to this population at least.	eng
163606	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more information on this species, especially from Sumatra and southern Thailand. However the records of this species from secondary and plantation forest in Peninsular Malaysia suggest that the species is reasonably secure at present.	eng
163606	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1903, 1931; Lieftinck 1932, 1954; Kemp and Kemp 1989; Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996; C.Y. Choong pers. comm. 2007), southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Dijkstra and Kalman 2001) and south Sumatra (Lieftinck 1937).	eng
163606	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds around log jams in clear lowland forest streams (Orr 2005). There are records from secondary forest (e.g. Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>.1996) and from an “Rubber/Oil Palm” plantation (Kemp and Kemp 1989), so the species appears capable of surviving in disturbed and secondary forest habitats.	eng
163606	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Orr (2005) describes this species as "locally and sporadically common" in lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia. It appears to be scarce in southern Thailand, where there are only two records. In Sumatra the species appears to be known only from three males collected in the extreme south in 1937, we have no recent data. Based on the above we can say that the species is moderately common in lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia, the centre of its range, and probably scarce in southern Sumatra and southern Thailand on the edges of its range. There is a need for more data, especially from Sumatra and Thailand.	eng
163606	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to clear-felling appears to be the main threat to this species. Although it appears capable of surviving in plantation forest (Kemp and Kemp 1989), it remains to be seen whether it is adversely affected by the large-scale use of agrochemicals.	eng
163607	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Monitoring of populations is desirable, to check for any possible decline in numbers, but beyond this no conservation measures appear to be needed for this extremely common and widespread species.	eng
163607	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Crocothemis servilia</em> is an extremely widespread species, occurring throughout mainland tropical and subtropical Asia, Japan, the Ryukyu Archipelago, the greater and lesser Sunda isles, the Philippines and Sulawesi. In the west it extends into Iraq, Iran, Armenia and Turkey. It has been accidentally introduced into Florida in the USA.	eng
163607	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species breeds in ponds, ditches, marshes and open swamps.	eng
163607	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a very common species across much of its range, occurring in man-made and disturbed habitats.	eng
163607	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species does not appear to be under any major threats across most of its range.	eng
163608	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is severely data deficient, there is an urgent need for more data before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in lowland forest throughout Borneo.	eng
163608	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Oligoaeschna elactura</em> is known with certainty only from southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1968).	eng
163608	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown, but presumably breeds in lowland swamp forest, as is the case for other species of <em>Oligoaeschna</em>.	eng
163608	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known only from a female collected in southeast Kalimantan. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) knows of a female <em>Oligoaeschna</em> collected at Loagan Bunut National Park, northeast Sarawak in 2006 that might be this species; further study of this specimen is required. In any event this species is either scarce or under-collected.	eng
163608	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest, purpose-set and wildfire to use the land for wood plantations.	eng
163609	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Beyond the need for monitoring of populations to check for any decline, there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
163609	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The use of water and pollution levels should be controlled.	eng
163609	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> is a very widespread species, occurring as far west as Greece, Cyprus and Turkey, throughout Asia and southwards as far as northern New Guinea.	eng
163609	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> is a widespread oriental species which reaches its westernmost limit of distribution on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey, Cyprus and Rhodos, where it is rather common.	eng
163609	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Breeds in streams and rivers.	eng
163609	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Trithemis festiva</em> occurs in brooks, small rivers, and standing waters including ponds. It seems to tolerate a slight degradation of its habitat.	eng
163609	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common within its east Mediterranean range.	eng
163609	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a common species over much of its large range.	eng
163609	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appear to be no significant threats to this species at present.	eng
163609	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species does not face major threats at the moment. The water and pollution levels should be controlled as streams drying up due to over-irrigation and increased drought periods could lead to a decline in the future.	eng
163610	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh data and taxonomic work is required on this species. Searches should be made in northeast Thailand and adjacent regions.	eng
163610	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus kerri</em> is known only from Khon Khaen in north-east Thailand (Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163610	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, although it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of streams, probably forested ones.	eng
163610	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known from two females only (Fraser 1933).	eng
163610	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163611	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information on this species is needed before general conservation measures can be planned effectively (if needed). Further sampling is needed throughout its Himalayan range.	eng
163611	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus schmidti</em> is known from Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1955, 1974; Vick 1989) and Himalayan India, where there are records from Kashmir (Asahina 1988), Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997), Sikkim (Mitra 2004) and the Dehra Dun valley (Hämäläinen 1989).	eng
163611	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus schmidti</em> appears to breed in mountain streams.	eng
163611	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are not many records of this widely distributed Himalayan species, however it may not be uncommon in some locations, e.g. Hämäläinen (1989) lists seven males from the Dehra Dun Valley.	eng
163611	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a threat to this species.	eng
163612	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species, especially from Kalimantan, Sumatra and Java. Protection of suitable lowland forest habitats (including secondary forest) is vital for the conservation of this species.	eng
163612	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macrogomphus parallelogramma</em> is known from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, 1931; Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001), Borneo, Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Banka and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1954; Schmidt 1934). Records from Borneo are from Sarawak (Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911; Lieftinck 1935, 1953).	eng
163612	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) states: “confined to wooded districts of the alluvial plains, also in cultivated areas. Adults often wander far away from water, taking shelter in shrubbery and neighbouring woods. Often crepuscular. Breeds in sluggish streams with silty or muddy bottoms, but also in forest brooks with a bottom of clean sand or fine gravel”. The only known location so far for this species is in Sarawak on the Sungai Penyilam, a black water stream flowing through secondary peat swamp forest.	eng
163612	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This appears to be a relatively common, but local, species in lowland forest, and is probably under-recorded. There is a lack of recent records from the Indonesian part of its range, but this is likely to be a result of a lack of expert sampling over the last 50-60 years.	eng
163612	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Deforestation is the major threat to this species, which can survive in secondary forest. It remains to be seen if it can survive in streams running through plantations.	eng
163613	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species before conservation measures can be planned.	eng
163613	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macromia vangviengensis</em> is known only from the type locality: Ban Phon-Ngam, Vangvieng, central Lao PDR (Yokoi and Mitamura 2002).	eng
163613	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams.	eng
163613	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is only known from a single male.	eng
163613	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a recognized threat to this little-known species.	eng
163614	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species, especially from India, and it should to be looked for in Bhutan. Its montane habitats in Nepal are unlikely to be threatened at present.	eng
163614	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Neallogaster ornata</em> is a Himalayan species, known from Nepal (Fraser 1929; Asahina 1982; Vick 1986, 1989; van Pelt 1993; R.G. Kemp pers. comm. 2007), and from Assam, Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal in India (e.g. Asahina 1982, van Pelt 1983, Prasad and Varshney 1995).	eng
163614	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Asahina (1982) recorded the species as breeding in a sandy bottomed stream, clearly it is a montane species. We have no further information on the habitat or ecology of the species.	eng
163614	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Asahina (1982) listed 14 specimens, including Fraser's material of <em>A. parvistigma</em>. There are very few record available of other material, but Vick (1986) recorded Nepalese material collected in 1985. R. Kemp (pers. comm. 2007) recalls that T. Brockhaus collected a male of this species from the Shivapuri Hills outside of Kathmandu. The species may not be uncommon in Nepal and parts of India, just under-collected.	eng
163614	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163615	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its range. Searches need to be made in many parts of Sarawak to determine if the species is still present, in areas of Sabah and of Kalimantan close to Sarawak to determine if the species occurs there and in southeast Kalimantan to see if it is still present in that area.	eng
163615	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) gives the range of this species as northwest and southeast Borneo, however all other published records refer to material from Sarawak or Brunei, and no further information on the species in the southeast is given. There are records from across Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Paulson 2004, Dow 2007), and from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001). Locations in Sarawak include some fairly close to the border with Kalimantan in the west (Paulson 2004) and in the Kelabit Highlands close to the border with Kalimantan in the northeast (Dow 2007), so the species is likely to occur in northern parts of Kalimantan. The species is also likely to occur in Sabah close to the border with Sarawak.	eng
163615	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a species of forest streams. Most records from the lowlands are from closed canopy streams in primary forest. In the Kelabit Highlands it also occurs on streams and rivers in secondary forest and with a more open canopy, but always with a low gradient and at Gunung Mulu National Park it occurs on parts of the Sungai Melinau, a river with an open canopy and disturbed and secondary forest on one bank, as well as on pristine forest streams.	eng
163615	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are relatively few published records of this species. Orr (2001) described it as "sporadic and vagrant" at the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre, the only location known in Brunei. Recent collecting in Sarawak indicates that the species is moderately common in lowland forest at Gunung Mulu National Park, and common in parts of the Kelabit Highlands. In the latter area the species was common on the Pa'Dapur river in 2005 and was observed in a smaller, highly disturbed stream, running through Bario, a large settlement. Older records are from a number of locations; the westernmost record is from Paulson (2004) from 1980, of specimens from around Kota Padawan in west Sarawak. It is doubtful whether the species still occurs around Padawan, the town has expanded considerably since 1980 and has almost been swallowed by the expansion of the state capital Kuching. However this is an easily overlooked species, so it may be under-recorded.	eng
163615	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Although the species occurs on streams in secondary forest in the Kelabit Highlands and on the Sungai Melinau at Gunung Mulu National Park, there is little other evidence of its occurrence outside of primary (or near primary) forest in the lowlands. Currently its presence can only be confirmed in three areas: Gunung Mulu National Park and the Kelabit Highlands in Sarawak and the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre (KBFSC) in Brunei; all of these areas lie within a relatively small region of Borneo. Habitats at Mulu and the KBFSC are protected, but the known locations in the Kelabit Highlands are largely outside protected areas. Forest along large sections of the Pa'Dapur river is likely to be logged in the near future, what impact this will have on the species is unclear. The population on the stream running through Bario (see Population) is vulnerable to the effects of development and expansion in Bario.	eng
163616	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is Data Deficient, further data is urgently needed for the planning of conservation measures (if needed). The only known specimen was collected in a national park, so at least some suitable habitat is protected. Searches need to be made in central Viet Nam and adjacent regions.	eng
163616	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Planaeschna owadai</span> is known only from Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Fue, central Viet Nam (Karube 2002, 2004).	eng
163616	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing has been recorded of the habitat and ecology of this species, except that it may be an autumn species. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams, probably in hilly and mountainous areas.	eng
163616	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Planaeschna owadai</span> is known from a single male (Karube 2002).	eng
163616	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163617	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is needed from Meghalaya, and searches should be made in adjacent areas of India and in Myanmar. The known locations in Chinag Mai are in a national park, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of practices detrimental to odonate populations in National Parks in Thailand. Conservation measures for this species will centre around the establishment and proper management of protected areas in mountainous areas.	eng
163617	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Bayadera hyalina</em> is known from Meghalaya in India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1987) and from Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, and should be looked for there. Records from China appear to be misidentification's of other <em>Bayadera</em> species (e.g. Wilson and Xu 2007).	eng
163617	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in streams in montane forest.	eng
163617	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are not many published records of this species. It occurs with some regularity on Doi Inthanon in Chinag Mai, and there are a number of records from Meghalaya. It is likely to be under-collected, as it is not a very conspicuous species, and appears to be extremely wary.	eng
163617	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species habitat is certainly threatened by clear-felling, although it may be sensitive to lesser degrees of disturbance.	eng
163618	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further information is needed for this species, especially in India and Bhutan. It may be quite common in parts of the Himalayas and its montane habitats are unlikely to be threatened at present in Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
163618	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Neallogaster hermionae</em> is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1927, 1936; Asahina 1982, van Pelt 1993), Bhutan (Asahina 1982) and Nepal (e.g. Kiauta and Kiauta 1976, Asahina 1982, Mahato and Edds 1993, Vick 1989, R.G. Kemp pers. comm. 2007). In India known from Darjeeling, West Bengal and Assam in the old sense, but at least some of the Assamese material is from areas now included in Manipur; from the published information it is questionable if any of the known material is from areas within Assam as currently defined.	eng
163618	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species, but it appears to breed in mountain streams and rivers. Mahato and Edds (1993) have recorded the larvae from the Gandaki River in Nepal.	eng
163618	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Asahina (1982) lists 31 specimens from India, Nepal and Bhutan, most (but not all) of the material from India is more than 70 years old. Kiauta and Kiauta (1976) recorded "<em>N. sp. aff. hermionae</em> from Nepal", this record was treated by Vick (1989) as <em>N. hermionae</em>. Mahato and Edds (1993) recorded the larva from Nepal. This may be a quite common species in the Himalayas.	eng
163618	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163619	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information is needed on this data deficient species. Fresh searches need to be made in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.	eng
163619	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the Peninsular Malaysia (very few records from Pahang, Perak and Johore) and one location in Pattani in southern Thailand.	eng
163619	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Little has been recorded on the habitat of this species, and nothing on its ecology, but presumably it breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous country.	eng
163619	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>C. erici</em> appears to be known from less than ten specimens. This may not imply rarity, just under-collection.	eng
163619	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163620	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data on this species is needed for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made throughout Peninsular Malaysia, southern Thailand and Southern Myanmar.	eng
163620	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Drepanosticta sharpi</em> is known from a few scattered records from Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw and Förster 1907; Laidlaw 1924, 1931; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2005), where there are records from Perak, Pahang, Kelantan and Penang Island, and Nakhon Sithammarat in Thailand (Asahina 1984), and Mergui in Myanmar (Fraser 1934).	eng
163620	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. sharpi</span> has been recorded in small forest streams in hilly country.	eng
163620	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>D. sharpi</em> is known from scattered records of few individuals, mostly old.	eng
163620	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.	eng
163621	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data is needed for this poorly known species before a threat assessment can be made and effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned.	eng
163621	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known from two locations in North Viet Nam (Asahina 1997) and one in central Lao (Yokoi and Kano 2002).	eng
163621	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is found in forest streams in hills and mountains.	eng
163621	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	The type series consists of three males from Viet Nam, a further three males have been collected in central Lao PDR. The small number of specimens known is likely to be the result of a lack of expert sampling in Viet Nam and Laos, rather than actual rarity.	eng
163621	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163622	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is insufficient information on the range and habitat requirements of this species for effective conservation planning. Conservation measures for this species (if needed) must be focused on preservation of suitable habitat across its range; however, further data is needed before a meaningful threat assessment can be made.	eng
163622	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from two locations in northern Viet Nam: Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province (Asahina 1995) and Mount Pia Oac, Cao Bang Province (Karube 2002).	eng
163622	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is very little information on the habitat and ecology of this species available. The specimen from Ban Khoang was taken at 1,400 m in May (Asahina 1995). The specimens from Mount Pia Oac were collected in May of 1998 and 1999, the altitude is not given, Karube (2002) states: "this species was rarely found in the midway to the summit and usually flew along the road in the late afternoon." This appears to be a montane species, presumably it breeds in forest streams.	eng
163622	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	One specimen (the holotype) is known from Ban Khoang (Asahina 1995); seven specimens are known from Mount Pia Oac (Karube 2002).	eng
163622	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163623	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in Myanmar, concentrated in hill and mountainous terrain.	eng
163623	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Protosticta uncata</em> is known from two locations in Myanmar: “Maymyo, Mandalay District, and Gokteik, N. Shan States” (Fraser 1931, 1933).	eng
163623	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat is unknown, the type series were all taken at lamps or other light sources (not deliberate light trapping). However it is likely to be a species of hill forest streams.	eng
163623	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only the type series is known (three specimens from two locations).	eng
163623	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area where the species has been recorded is experiencing habitat loss through human development and deforestation.	eng
163624	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on the distribution of this species. If it is actually restricted to Mount Dulit then the proposed protection of that mountain in a national park will be a significant conservation measure, however illegal logging is likely to remain a threat.	eng
163624	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orthetrum borneense</em> is known only from the type series collected on Mount Dulit, on the border between Miri and Kapit divisions, in northeast Sarawak (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163624	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from montane forest on Mount Dulit, Sarawak; beyond this nothing is known, but it is likely to breed in forest pools.	eng
163624	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the type series of seven males and three females, collected in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163624	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss due to logging and fire are major known threats. Much of the Dulit range has been selectively logged (information from local inhabitants, forestry workers and from my own experience of visiting the area in 2006), but some areas of steep terrain above 500 m appear to remain in a pristine condition. The Dulit Range is a possible future National Park; it is to be hoped that the park can be established before further logging occurs in the area.	eng
163625	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appear to be no records of this species apart from the type series, collected in 1924. There is no data on the status of the habitats in the Mentawei Islands, but around 50% of Siberut is protected in a national park (Cochrane and Cubitt 2000), although much of the forest is likely to be secondary. Fresh data is urgently needed.	eng
163625	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Drepanosticta kruegeri</em> is known only from the Mentawei Islands off the coast of Sumatra, where it has been recorded from Siberut, Sipora and north Pagai islands (Laidlaw 1926; Lieftinck 1934, 1948, 1954).	eng
163625	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Presumably this species breeds in small forest streams, as is the case for other members of the Platystictidae.	eng
163625	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>D. kruegeri</em> appears to be known only from the type series of fives males and five females, collected in 1924 (Laidlaw 1926).	eng
163625	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area the species has been recorded from are experiencing continued habitat loss through human development.	eng
163627	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is needed on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in north and northeast India and Nepal, and also in Bhutan and Myanmar.	eng
163627	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type locality in Uttar Pradesh, India (Ram 1985) and one location at 200 m in Nepal (Vick 1989).	eng
163627	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	No information has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
163627	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series consists of four males and three females collected from one location over several years (Ram 1985). A single male has been collected in Nepal (Vick 1989). Evidently this species is at least local in occurrence, and possibly rare, but it may merely be under-collected.	eng
163627	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is threatening this species.	eng
163628	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this species before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned.	eng
163628	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orolestes durga</em> is known from two locations in northeast India, one in Meghalaya, the other in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163628	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is known to breed in montane streams (Lahiri 1987) but nothing further is known.	eng
163628	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens are known of this species (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163628	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163629	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches should be made in Manipur and Meghalaya as well as surrounding areas.	eng
163629	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Lestes garoensis</em> is known from Manipur and Meghalaya in India (Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999).	eng
163629	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The only available information is the following: "collected amongst some scanty vegetation inside a dried out ditch" (Lahiri 1987); from context it is assumed that this refers to the specimens from Meghalya.	eng
163629	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from only four specimens, two from Meghalaya and two from Manipur (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163629	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a currently known threat to this species.	eng
163630	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned across most of its range. In Thailand the status of the three known locations needs to be checked and monitored.	eng
163630	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Amphithemis curvistyla</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), where there are old records from three locations, Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1988; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), where it has been recorded from Tak, Chaiyaphu and Nakhon Nayok, and from north Viet Nam (Asahina 1981, an old record). Prasad and Varshney (1995) list it from “India” without details, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records from India, although its occurrence in the northeast is certainly possible. Fraser (1936) lists it from Malaysia, this may be an error, as R. Dow (pers. Comm. 2008) is not aware of any subsequent records.	eng
163630	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Little appears to have been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species; Fraser (1936) states “nothing is known of its habits, but it probably breeds in marshes like others of the genus”.	eng
163630	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species appears to be scarce and/or under-recorded, and is certainly local in occurrence. There appear to be no records from Myanmar since the 1930s (but this probably just reflects the lack of sampling there since that time). There are only a few records from Thailand, and no recent records from India or Viet Nam.	eng
163630	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area the species has been collected from is being degraded and lost through development of the area.	eng
163631	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species. There seems to be a lack of recent records from Doi Suthep, and there is a need to search for the species on other mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions.	eng
163631	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from streams (possibly only from one stream) between 1,150 m and 1,200 m on Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, north-west Thailand. It is unclear whether or not the holotype male was collected on the same stream as the other known specimens. It is to be hoped that the estimates of area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) given here are overly pessimistic; the species is likely to be present on other high mountains in northern Thailand and adjacent regions.	eng
163631	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in small streams in montane forest. Possibly has a short flight period from late May to mid July.	eng
163631	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This appears to be a scarce (or elusive) species. Hämäläinen listed 12 specimens in the type series, collected between 1987 and 1996. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has visited one of the sites on Doi Suthep where this species is found on three occasions in 2004 and 2006 without finding it. However there are certain to be many areas of suitable, but inaccessible, habitat for this species within Doi Suthep-Pui national park, so that the species may actually be quite common on this mountain at least.	eng
163631	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Although the known location(s) for this species are within Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, the main location has already been adversely affected by the building of a small dam (see Hämäläinen 2004 for more details), therefore habitat loss is its main threat.	eng
163632	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Conservation measures for this species must centre around preservation of suitable lowland forest habitats. There is a need for fresh data from Sumatra.	eng
163632	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1965), Singapore (Lieftinck 1965, Murphy 1997), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902 (as <em>V. amoena</em>), Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2005) and Thailand as far north as Kanchanaburi. (Asahina 1981, 1985; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163632	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in small lowland forest streams.	eng
163632	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species appears to be locally common in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, becoming less common in southern Thailand. There is a lack of recent data from Sumatra, but the species appears to have been locally there common before the 1950s.	eng
163632	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.	eng
163633	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Searches should be made throughout the Western Ghats.	eng
163633	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Idionyx minima</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1931, 1936; Lahiri 1989).	eng
163633	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1936) states “I took a few specimens of both sexes flying among tea off the Munnar Ghat road during June.” The species probably breeds in forest habitats, most likely in small streams.	eng
163633	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This appears to be a scarce species, it has not been recorded since its description (Lahiri 1989), however <em>Idionyx</em> species are often very difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture; the species may be under-recorded rather than rare.	eng
163633	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163634	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data on this species is urgently needed. Searches should be made throughout India and Myanmar, and in adjacent countries. Without such searches effective conservation planning will be extremely difficult. There is also a need for further taxonomic work.	eng
163634	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Lestes umbrina</em> is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1930, 1933; Ram <em>et al</em>. 1983; Tyagi 1984; Mitra 1992; Prasad and Varshney 1988, 1995) and Myanmar. Prasad and Varshney (1995) list the species as occurring in nine Indian states, this list is reproduced below, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of the sources of many of these records; some may be misidentifications. Records from Hainan are now known to be <em>L. nodalis</em> (Wilson 1997). Fraser (1933) notes a female from Yunnan, R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is unsure about the status of this specimen;  “records of <em>umbrinus</em> from China require confirmation” Wilson and Xu (2007).	eng
163634	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species. Fraser (1933) states that it is found “among long dried grasses”, but this cannot be the breeding habitat, which is likely to be marshes or well vegetated ponds.	eng
163634	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Lestes umbrina</em> is known from scattered records of a few individuals. It does not appear to be a common species, but may be under-recorded.	eng
163634	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to this species.	eng
163635	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data for effective conservation planning. As we do not know anything about the occurrence or not of the species in secondary swamp forest, the extensive loss of primary lowland forest habitats in Kalimantan and Java (at least) is a considerable cause for concern. Searches should be made throughout Java, Borneo, Belitung and Peninsular Malaysia, as well as Bangka and Sumatra.	eng
163635	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Platylestes heterostylus</em> is known from scattered records of few individuals from Java (Lieftinck 1932, 1934, 1952, 1960), southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, 1960), Pahang, Perak and Pulau Langkawi in peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1960, Norma-Rashid, Mohd-sofian and Zakaria-Ismail 2001, Orr 2005, Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007), Singapore (Murphy 1997), Banggi (Lieftinck 1960) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954, 1960). Given its occurrence on Belitung, it should be looked for on Bangka and mainland Sumatra.	eng
163635	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is known to breed in swamp forest; it is unknown whether it can survive in secondary habitats or if it is confined to primary swamp forest.	eng
163635	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species appears to be both scarce and local; relatively few specimens are known and there is a lack of recent records (although, at least in part, this may reflect a lack of recent collecting effort in Indonesia). The author is aware of only about 15 specimens having ever been collected (D. R. Paulson pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163635	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.	eng
163636	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is data deficient, effective planning of conservation measures will not be possible without further data. Fresh searches need to be made in Nepal and northeast India.	eng
163636	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Periaeschna unifasciata</em> is known from north-east India (Fraser 1935, 1936; Asahina 1981; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (Asahina 1981, Vick 1989).	eng
163636	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little information of the habitat of this species is known, but presumably it is a species of montane forest.	eng
163636	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only four specimens of this species has been recorded (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007); there is no detailed information available on population size or trend.	eng
163636	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163637	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There does not appear to be a need for any additional conservation measures for this species on Mount Kinabalu. However searches need to be made in the nearby Croker range for this species, to determine if it is in fact confined to Mount Kinabalu.	eng
163637	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1924, 1934; Lieftinck 1954; van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995). There are records from at least four streams on the mountain.	eng
163637	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea basalis</em> breeds in streams above 1,000 m in montane forest.	eng
163637	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is quite common on the Liwagu river and Silau-Silau stream near to the national park headquarters on Mount Kinabalu, and has been recorded on at least two further streams. It is likely to be equally common on other streams at similar altitudes on the mountain.	eng
163637	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Although on Mount Kinabalu the species is protected in a national park, it is confined to a relatively small area and thus vulnerable to natural disasters.	eng
163638	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for additional data on this species. That said, it appears to be fairly common in the Kerinci area of Sumatra, and at least some of its habitat is protected in Kerinci Seblat National Park (1,500,000 hectares). It is likely to be found in other parts of the Barisan range; searches should be conducted to confirm or deny this.	eng
163638	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from an area of west central Sumatra: "Mount Kerintji [Kerinci] (Peak of Indrapura) and surrounding mountain areas" (Lieftinck 1954). Hämäläinen (2007) has made more recent records of this species from the Mount Kerinci area. This area lie on the Barisan Range; the species may be more widely distributed in this mountain range than is currently known.	eng
163638	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Forest streams in montane areas. According to Hämäläinen it favours “small (1-2 m wide, with slow to moderate flow) streams” and was “lacking from wider (5 m) fast flowing mountain streams.”	eng
163638	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series consists of 14 specimens, suggesting that it may have been quite common at the type localities at the time of collection. There are no recent published records of this species, but M. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007), who visited the Kerinci area in 1997, states that “although this must be a local species with small range, it was a dominant chlorocyphid species in small (1-2 m wide, with slow to moderate flow) streams in Mount Kerinci region”.	eng
163638	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation.	eng
163639	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this species over most of its range at this time; it is a common species that can tolerate disturbance. As the species is known from only one site in Thailand, there may be a need for extra measures in that country. There is a need for further sampling in Sumatra and Kalimantan, from where we have no recent records, and from Sabah, where there are relatively few records.	eng
163639	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea impar</em> is a widespread species, known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Kemp and Kemp 1989; Orr 2005),  Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Kimmins 1936, Asahina 1966, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Dow 2007), Sabah (e.g. Lieftinck 1940, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995), Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2001), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1940, 1953; van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995) Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), the Anambas Islands (Laidlaw 1932), Bangka island (Lieftinck 1954), and southern Thailand (Asahina 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163639	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lowland forest streams. In Sarawak this species occurs in primary forest, but is also common in secondary and highly disturbed forest. It appears to be confined to lowland areas; R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has not found the species in apparently suitable habitats between 1,000 m and 1,100 m in the Kelabit Highlands, but it is common in nearby lowland areas.	eng
163639	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea impar</em> is a common species in lowland forest in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Only one site is known in southern Thailand (in Songkhla).	eng
163639	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss due to forest clearance.	eng
163640	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species for effective conservation planning; more sampling needs to be carried out on the Andaman Islands and suitable areas for the species need to be given some form of protected status.	eng
163640	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from the Andaman Islands, recorded so far from North Andaman, South Andaman and Little Andaman islands. Hämäläinen (2002) lists eight locations on these islands for the species. Prasad and Varshney (1995) stated that the species was also found on the Nicobar Islands, but Hämäläinen (2002) showed that this was an error.	eng
163640	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>L. andamanensis</em> breeds in forest streams.	eng
163640	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Hämäläinen (2002) lists 19 specimens collected between 1996 and 1998 in his re-description of this species. There are few records from before this time. It is likely to be quite common where suitable habitat exists, but there is a need for further data to gain an accurate picture of population for this species.	eng
163640	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163641	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information is needed on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous country in northeast India and adjacent regions.	eng
163641	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Burmargiolestes laidlawi</em> is known only from northeast India (Lieftinck 1960, Asahina 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995). There are records from West Bengal, Sikkim and Manipur.	eng
163641	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no information available on the habitat or ecology of this poorly known species. It is closely related to <em>B. melanothorax</em> (Selys, 1891), which breeds in streams on densely forested hill and mountain sides; it is reasonable to assume that <em>B. laidlawi</em> is found in similar places.	eng
163641	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Very few specimens of these species are known, most likely only nine specimens. It appears to be a scarce insect, but, like its close ally <em>B. melanothorax</em> (Selys, 1891), it is probably rather cryptic in its appearance in life, and in its habits, so may be under-recorded.	eng
163641	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163642	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This appears to be a common species at high altitudes in northeast India and Nepal; as such there does not seem to be any particular need for special conservation measures at the present. However there is a need for monitoring and for further sampling to establish the true limits of the species distribution. There is also a need to identify potential threats to the montane habitats of this species.	eng
163642	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gynacanthaeschna sikkima</em> is known from northeast India and Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1983; Vick 1989). Records from India are from Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936, Asahina 1981), West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Uttar Pradesh (Prasad and Kumar 1977, Hämäläinen 1989). Asahina (1981) records specimens from Assam; it is unclear if these refer to Assam in the current sense, or one or more of the states formerly included in Assam. It is likely to be widely distributed in mountainous areas of north and northeast India.	eng
163642	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Given the relatively large number of records of this species there is surprisingly little information on its habitats and ecology. It is clearly a high altitude species, with records from up to 2,100 m. Hämäläinen (1989), referring to material from Dehra Dun Valley, Uttar Pradesh, wrote “several other specimens were seen flying high over a small torrential mountain stream”. It seems likely that this species breeds in mountain streams.	eng
163642	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gynacanthaeschna sikkima</em> appears to be a fairly common species. In his works on Himalayan <em>Cephalaeschna</em> and their allies Asahina lists 31 specimens from various locations (Asahina 1981, 1983). Prasad and Kumar (1977) list seven specimens from Uttar Pradesh. Fraser (1936) stated  “quite the most common species of the <em>Cephalaeschna</em> group found in N.E. India.”. Asahina (1983) stated  “seems common in Central Nepal in autumn season”.	eng
163642	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163643	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need to establish the true extent of the distribution of <em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em>, and for fresh information from Myanmar; beyond this monitoring is required to see how the species copes with increasing urbanization in many parts of its range.	eng
163643	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em> is known from India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh (e.g. Fraser 1936, Prasad 1975, Mitra 1992, Andrew 1995, Mitra 1999, de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1985, 1989; Mahato 1988), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936, Asahina 1970), and Thailand (e.g. Fraser 1927, Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Laidlaw (1931) listed this species from Peninsular Malaysia, but this record appears to have been an error and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any subsequent records. Given the known distribution of the species, it might also occur in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.	eng
163643	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species breeds in ponds, water-filled ditches and marshes, including man-made habitats.	eng
163643	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Brachydiplax sobrina</em> appears to still be a very common species in India and Bangladesh. There is no recent information from Myanmar. In Thailand it is “widespread but not common” (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and may be approaching the edge of its range.	eng
163643	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There do not appear to be any obvious major threats to this species at present, although some parts of its range is undergoing urbanization.	eng
163644	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species, effective conservation planning will not be possible without it. Searches should be made in the Nilgiri Hills, Nepal and hilly and mountainous regions in between.	eng
163644	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus striatus</em> is known from the Nilgiri Hills in India’s Western Ghats (Fraser 1924) and from Nepal (e.g. Smith 1981, Mahato 1988, Vick 1989).	eng
163644	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to breed in rocky forest streams, as do many of its congeners.	eng
163644	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a very poorly known species. Only the holotype is known from India. There appear to have been at least three records from Nepal.	eng
163644	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163645	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species. Searches need to be made in Karnataka. Without new data the planning of effective conservation measures, if needed, will prove extremely difficult.	eng
163645	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus acinaces</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1924, 1934; Laidlaw 1930; Prasad and Varshney 1995); all records that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is aware of are from Karnataka.	eng
163645	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus acinaces</em> is a stream species. Females have been recorded ovipositing “over a deep pool formed by damming of the river below” (Fraser 1934). From published information the degree of forestation preferred by this species is not clear.	eng
163645	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	In the early 1930s and before this species appears to have been locally common in Karnataka. Fraser (1934), quoting C. Souter on an encounter with this species at one site, stated “after having taken about 50 males I grew tired of taking more”. However there appear to be no records after the mid 1930s; this is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Karnataka, but is a cause for concern.	eng
163645	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163646	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Fresh data are needed on this species in Meghalaya and Sikkim, and further searches need to be made in Thailand. Searches should also be made in other parts of northeast India and in Myanmar and Yunnan. The species is likely to be secure in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, but appears to be scarcer elsewhere; suitable habitat should be protected in Sikkim and wherever else the species is found in future.	eng
163646	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Anisopleura subplatystyla</em> is known from Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1927, 1934; Lahiri 1987; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Sikkim (Mitra 1999, 2004) and from Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). it&#160; was also recorded in Nepal, Kaski at Kimrong and on the Kali Lekh (published in Clausnitzer and Wesche 1996). Needham (1930) recorded it from Yunnan in China; it is not clear if this record refers to <em>A. subplatystyla</em> or to <em>A. yunnanensis</em> Zhu & Zhou, 1999.  Indeed the latter species may be a synonym of <em>subplatystyla</em> (see Taxonomic Notes). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2010 is not aware of any records from other countries, but given the known distribution it should be looked for in Myanmar at least.	eng
163646	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Breeds in forest streams on mountains.	eng
163646	population	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Anisopleura subplatystyla</em> appears to have been fairly common in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, Lahiri (1987) states that it is “one of the most commonly occurring odonate species around Shillong”. There are fewer records from Sikkim and Thailand.	eng
163646	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Habitat is being lost from clear-cutting of forests and may at risk in some localities from hydropower development.	eng
163647	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for fresh information from parts of the range of this species: India, Myanmar, Java and Sumatra, searches should also be made in Cambodia and Bangladesh. Beyond this few conservation measures appear to be needed at present, but protection of suitable forest habitats is vital.	eng
163647	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Tetrathemis platyptera</em> is widely distributed in tropical Asia, with records from India (e.g. Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1987, Mitra 1999; Prasad and Varshney 1995 give its distribution as “throughout India”), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969), China (e.g. Wilson 1999, 2005; Wilson and Reels 2001), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, Lieftinck 1954, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Norma-Rashid 1995), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934) and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Cambodia or Banglasdesh, but its occurrence in these countries is very likely.	eng
163647	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in pools in forest, including secondary forest.	eng
163647	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a rather local species, probably not uncommon, but often missed by non-experts.	eng
163647	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops is a potential threat to viable habitat of this species.	eng
163648	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. There has been a serious lack of expert sampling in Myanmar, which is likely to be the reason why there have not been more records of this species. Searches need to be made in Tenasserim and adjacent regions.	eng
163648	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus lilliputians</em> is known only from Tennasserim in Myanmar (Fraser 1925, 1934).	eng
163648	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat and ecology of this species are unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams.	eng
163648	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus lilliputians</em> is known from a single female collected in 1923.	eng
163648	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development is a continuing  threat to this species.	eng
163649	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh data is needed on this very poorly known species. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent areas. Conservation measures cannot be effectively planned without more information, but will centre around the preservation of suitable habitat.	eng
163649	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Nihonogomphus indicus</em> is known only from the southern Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163649	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The type series was collected on a forest river, this is the only information on habitat available.	eng
163649	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Nihonogomphus indicus</em> is known only from the type series, consisting of one male and one female (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163649	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use and small-scale wood extraction are major threats to this species.	eng
163650	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species, especially from Indonesia. Overall it does not appear to be threatened at present.	eng
163650	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1976, 1982, 1990 all as <em>A. d’abruei</em>; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (photographic records by O. Kosterin on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net], Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 2002, Orr 2005), Java (Lieftinck 1930, van Tol 1990) Sumatra and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2003).	eng
163650	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in swamp forest and shallow marshes in Indonesia, but has been recorded from rice fields in Thailand.	eng
163650	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	"Very local, but plentiful where found" reported Lieftinck in 1954. There is very little recent data on the Indonesian populations available; the species might be under threat from habitat loss in Kalimantan and Java at least.	eng
163650	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss from fires (purpose set and wild).	eng
163651	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further sampling to determine the range of this species.	eng
163651	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from north Viet Nam. The type locality is at Cuc Phoung, Gia Vien, Ninh Binh Province, north Viet Nam (Karube 1995, Asahina 1995). The only other known location is Mount Tan Vien, Ba Vi, Ha Tay Province, north Viet Nam (Asahina 1995).	eng
163651	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	"This species was found only along a fine stream in limestone tablelands, which flows the distance of about 100 m through the forest and then is inhaled below a cliff. Male has a habit of patrolling on the upper stream in dark forest, and female lays eggs into small muddy pools near the source stream." (Karube 1995). The altitude of the type locality is 440 m, that at the other known location is 250 m. All specimens have been collected in April or May.	eng
163651	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series consists of 16 specimens collected from 1991-1994 (Karube 1995), Asahina (1995) lists a further six specimens from the same location. Only one specimen is known from the second location. Judging by these records the species is quite common at the type location at least.	eng
163651	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163652	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Searches need to be made in central and east Java.	eng
163652	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from central and eastern Java (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163652	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in open standing waters and possibly slowly flowing ones.	eng
163652	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This appears to be a scarce species. The type series consists of two males and one female (Lieftinck 1934); the type series of <em>P. infracavum</em> (a synonym of <em>P. nigrofasciatum</em>) consists of four males. Writing in 1937 Lieftinck stated “... good series of specimens, collected by Mr. H. Overbeck, who says that it is a common species near Djokjakarta” (page 88 in comparison with <em>P. coomansi</em> Lieftinck, 1937). Lieftinck (1954) stated “found in similar situations to [<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion</span>] <span style="font-style: italic;">microcephalum</span>, but much scarcer”, and gave no indication of having seen any material not available in 1937. To summarize: The species appears to have always been scarce (or under-recorded) except possibly in a small area of mid Java, and there do not appear to have been any records since 1937 or before.	eng
163652	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss - there has been extensive habitat destruction in Java, giving grounds for concern over this species.	eng
163653	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this poorly known species. Searches need to be conducted in the Western Ghats.	eng
163653	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Idionyx travancorensis</em> is known only from the Western Ghats in India (Fraser 1931, 1936).	eng
163653	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1931) states that the species occurs from 3,000 - 4,000 ft in the Western Ghats and breeds in mountain streams. Nothing else is known of its habitat or ecology.	eng
163653	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are very few records of this species; it appears to be scarce or under-recorded. There appears to be no records since the 1930s. <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to capture, and generally impossible to identify without capture, and there has been a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s day (1930s); the lack of recent records is as likely to reflect these factors as it is actual rarity.	eng
163653	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163654	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species may be moderately common in Taiwan, other parts of China and in Viet Nam, but further sampling is needed to confirm this. Much further work is needed in other parts of its range, and some taxonomic issues need to be resolved. When this data is forthcoming we will be better placed to plan any conservation measures needed for the species. Preservation of suitable habitat will be central to any effective conservation plan for this species.	eng
163654	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Periaeschna magdalena</em> is known from northeast India (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (e.g. Mitra 1999), Viet Nam (Fraser 1936, Asahina 1981, Karube 2004) and China, including Taiwan (e.g. Needham 1930; Asahina 1956, 1961, 1981, 1982; Wilson and Reels 2001; Wilson 2005). <em>P. nocturnalis</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) has been recorded in Thailand.	eng
163654	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forested hill streams, and is a crepuscular species (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163654	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Periaeschna magdalena</em> appears to be moderately common in parts of Viet Nam and China, possibly less so north-east India. Asahina (1981) lists 13 specimens from Viet Nam and China, Karube (2004) lists a further 13 specimens from two locations in Viet Nam.	eng
163654	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.	eng
163655	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is best conserved by the protection of lowland swamp forest habitats, especially peat swamp forest. In Sarawak it is still quite common, but will become less so as unprotected swamp forest areas are cleared for agriculture etc. However it is certainly present in a number of national parks and other protected areas and there is no immediate cause for concern. The situation in Penisular Malaysia appears to be similar. We have less information from Kalimantan, and none of it is recent; known loss of lowland forest habitats is a cause for concern here, fresh data is needed, the same applies to Sumatra and Belitung.	eng
163655	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Heliaeschna idea</em> is known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001), Borneo, Sumatra (Lieftinck 1954) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954). Records from Borneo are from Brunei (Orr 2001, two locations), Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1953), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Hisamatsu and Sasamoto 2003, Dow 2007; records from Lambir Hills and Loagan Bunut National Parks, there are also specimens from Samarahan in the collection of University Malaysia Sarawak). There appears to be no details on material from Sumatra and Belitung (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008), Lieftinck (1954) merely states that the species occurs on these islands.	eng
163655	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Usually found in lowland swamp forest, but recorded up to 1,100 m. In Sarawak the species is most common in peat swamp forest, and occurs in secondary forest, for instance at Loagan Bunut National Park in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and at the University Malaysia Sarawak campus at Kota Samarahan in the west.	eng
163655	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species appears to be moderately common in swampy lowland forest in peninsular Malaysia and north Borneo. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) does not have any information on populations from Sumatra and Belitung, where there has been a severe lack of sampling in recent decades. There are fewer published records from Kalimantan, but this may reflects lower collecting effort and the fact that records of this species may not have been published.	eng
163655	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163656	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is needed on this species. Searches should be conducted in wetland habitats throughout peninsular India. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat. At least one (old) record is from within what is now the Ujani Wetland Reserve, Pune district, Maharashtra (Kulkarni and Prasad 2002), but its continued presence in this reserve needs to be confirmed.	eng
163656	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Cyclogomphus heterostylus</em> is endemic to India (e.g. Fraser 1926, 1934; Laidlaw 1930; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Records from Sri Lanka (e.g. Laidlaw 1930) appear to have been misidentifications.	eng
163656	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1934) records this species from a lake, and from “marshes along the course of the Coomb River”, there is no other information regarding its habitat or ecology known.	eng
163656	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are not many records of this species, and apparently no recent ones.	eng
163656	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163657	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data is needed on the distribution of this species. Fresh searches should be made in the Baram river valley in Sarawak, and adjacent areas.  There is an urgent need is for taxonomic work to clarify the status of forms associated with this species. A revision of <em>Coeliccia</em> in Borneo which will resolve these issues is planned.	eng
163657	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to Borneo, possibly restricted to north Borneo; all records (reliable or otherwise, see Taxonomic Notes) are from Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei. Laidlaw (1918) described the species from a male from “Baram”, referring to somewhere in the Baram River valley. Subsequently (1931) he recorded it from Bettotan in east Sabah, but this record seems to have been disregarded in all subsequent publications on the species and R. Dow cannot locate this specimen (pers. comm. 2008). The only other record that can be regarded as certainly of this species is from Brunei (Orr 2001), of two males from one location. The distribution of the species is best treated as northeast Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
163657	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Records from Brunei of confirmed <em>C. macrostigma</em> are from one freshwater swamp forest location, the habitat at the type locality is not entirely clear, but appears to have been similar.	eng
163657	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia macrostigma</em> is known with certainty only from three males (the holotype and two from Brunei).	eng
163657	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163658	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data to clarify the range of this species, and whether it can survive in non-timber plantations, but no particular conservation measures appear to be needed. Searches need to be made in Sabah, as there appear to have been no recent records of the species from that state, and in Kalimantan and peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163658	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Borneo and Peninsula Malaysia. There are records from Penang in Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1937 as <em>T. leonorae</em> 1954), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1912), Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Brunei (Orr 2001) and southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953). In west Sarawak it appears to be replaced by the similar <em>T. ruficollis</em> Selys (1877) (Dow 2007).	eng
163658	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Appears to prefer swampy forest locations, and often occurs in heavily disturbed forest and small remnant patches of forest.	eng
163658	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Borneo <em>T. rajah</em> appears to be common in Brunei and north-east Sarawak at least. There are fewer records from Peninsular Malaysia, but this species is easily overlooked and might be under-recorded.	eng
163658	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The only major threat to this species appears to be from large scale clear felling of lowland forest. Further data is needed to determine if the species can survive in non-timber (e.g. oil palm) plantations; as such locations are typically well drained, and are replacing lowland swamp forest (primary and secondary) at an alarming rate across the range of the species, there is some cause for concern.	eng
163659	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for further data on this species before effective conservation measures can be planned. In particular its true habitat must be determined.	eng
163659	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Viet Nam (Karube 2003, 2004). The type locality is given as Sapa, Lao Cai Province, north Viet Nam, however as the specimens were purchased from an insect dealer, there must be some doubt about this.	eng
163659	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The specimens which the species were described from were found in the collections of an insect dealer and lacked any date or habitat information. The altitude of Sapa is given by Karube (2003) as 1,500 - 2,000 m. The species is likely to breed in streams in montane forest.	eng
163659	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from three specimens; one male and two females (Karube 2003).	eng
163659	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163660	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more data for effective conservation planning. Since this species appears to be confined to just two islands in the Great Nicobar Group, there is cause for concern at least on the grounds of its very restricted range. The priority must be to ensure that suitable habitat has a long-term protected status.	eng
163660	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Libellago balus</em> is known only from the Nicobar Islands, where it appears to be confined to two islands of the "Great Nicobar" group (Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar), Hämäläinen (2002) lists two sites on Great Nicobar, the specimens from Little Nicobar are old, and vaguely labelled. Note that the upper limit of elevation is taken from the maximum elevation of the Nicobar Islands (data from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicobar_islands).	eng
163660	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Libellago balus</em> breeds in forest streams.	eng
163660	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Hämäläinen (2002) lists 15 specimens in the description of the species, of which two are old and the remainder were collected from 1996-2000. Possibly moderately common on the Great Nicobar Islands, but there is a need for further data.	eng
163660	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163661	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No specific measures appear to be needed for this species, beyond the need for more research. The species should be searched for in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.	eng
163661	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Aciagrion tillyardi</em> occurs from eastern India (e.g. Laidlaw 1924, Mitra 1999) to Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), China (e.g. Wilson 1999, 2004; Wilson and Reels 2001, 2003) and northeast Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954). Given the known distribution, it is also likely to occur in Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, peninsular Malaysia, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR.	eng
163661	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in shallow well vegetated ponds and marshes, including seasonally dry ones. Lahiri (1987) states that it occurs at “grassy edges of small streams or even stagnant water bodies”; but most records appear to be from lentic (still water) habitats.	eng
163661	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>A. tillyardi</em> is widespread but it appears to be very local in occurrence, but is inconspicuous and probably under recorded. It is certainly common in some areas, e.g. Lahiri (1987) describes it as common in Meghalaya.	eng
163661	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss appears to be the only threat to this species. However it can occur in rather disturbed habitats (e.g. roadside ponds); it does not appear to be under any major threat at present.	eng
163662	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution. It should be looked for in other montane areas of northern Thailand, in Myanmar and Yunnan at least.	eng
163662	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1976, 1981, 1985; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Most records are from Doi Inthanon and Doi Suthep-Pui National Parks.	eng
163662	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in mountain forest streams. Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) give an altitude range of 1,000 - 1,300 m, but this species has been found at a lower altitude on Doi Suthep in 2006 (Dow 2007). It appears to be most common during the wettest part of the year. So far it only appears to have been recorded in pristine forest habitats, although a number of individuals have been seen foraging amongst a grove of banana trees in a cultivated area on Doi Inthanon in 2006 (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007), however there is good forest near this location and the individuals seen appeared to be immature.	eng
163662	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species appears to be quite scarce, but may be under-recorded.	eng
163662	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163663	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data on the distribution of this species is needed, it should be searched for in Myanmar, Cambodia and parts of southern China (e.g. Yunnan), but no particular conservation measures appear to be needed across much of its range.	eng
163663	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gomphidictinus perakensis</em> is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 1902 etc., Fraser 1942, Vick 1993), Thailand (Asahina 1981, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any published records from Viet Nam, but in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London, there is a previously unidentified male from Viet Nam that belongs to this species.	eng
163663	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>G. perakensis</em> is a species of wooded streams. According to Orr (2005) the larvae occur “deep in accumulated leaf litter”. In Chiang Mai in Thailand the species occurs in secondary and disturbed habitats, as well as pristine ones, as long as there is some forest around parts of the stream (Dow 2007).	eng
163663	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>G. perakensis</em> is a common species across much of its range.	eng
163663	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.	eng
163664	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Preservation of suitable forest habitats is required for this species. The establishment and maintenance of forest corridors around suitable streams throughout its range would be a sensible measure to ensure the future of the species.	eng
163664	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychothemis testacea</em> is a widespread species, occurring from India and Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (e.g. Asahina 1970), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1989; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Orr 2005), Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China including Taiwan, Hainan and Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 2004, 2005).	eng
163664	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychothemis testacea</em> breeds in rifles in clear streams in forest or at its margins.	eng
163664	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This widespread species is locally common over much of its range, although it is rare in Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005), which appears to be on the edge of its range. It is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163664	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163665	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is needed on this species. The status of the habitats where the species was originally found in Kalimantan needs to be checked (but is doubtful). Expert searches need to be made throughout Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.	eng
163665	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Published records are from two locations in eastern Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953, 1954, 1964), Songkhla in southern Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia (Hämäläinen 2000, Orr 2005). Clearly this species is quite widely distributed in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand.	eng
163665	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is very little published on the habitat or ecology of <em>B. arthuri</em>, but it is likely to be a species of lowland, low-gradient forest streams, as is the case for many other species of <em>Burmagomphus</em>.	eng
163665	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Few individuals of <em>B. arthuri</em> have ever been collected. It was described from a single female (Lieftinck 1953), later Lieftinck reported three more females (1964). There was a single record from Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and two females and a teneral (moulted exoskeleton) male (in too poor a condition to describe) were collected in Pahang (Hämäläinen 2000). The species is certainly rarely collected, but there is insufficient information to say whether it is actually rare.	eng
163665	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163666	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for further data from parts of the species range, especially Indonesia and Palawan, but the species appears to be quite common over much of its range, and capable of surviving in secondary forest. Conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable forest habitats, but the species does not appear to be threatened across much of its range at present.	eng
163666	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macromia westwoodi</em> is known from Borneo, Palawan (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1950, 1954), Java (e.g. Fraser 1926; Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1950, 1954) and peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1922, 1931; Fraser 1942; Vick 1993; Orr 2005). Records from Borneo are from Brunei (Orr 2001, 2003), Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Dow 2007 – three locations in the Kelabit Highlands, also at Mount Dulit) and Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1935). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records from Sabah, but the species is very likely to occur there.	eng
163666	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a species of clear forest streams from the lowlands to at least 1,100 m. It occurs in hilly and mountainous terrain. Most records are from primary forest, but the species occurs in secondary forest in the Kelabit Highlands and on the lower slopes of Mount Dulit in northeast Sarawak.	eng
163666	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species appears to be quite common across much of its range, especially as it is likely to be under-recorded due to difficulty of capture. There is a lack of recent records from the Indonesian part of its range, but this is likely to reflect a lack of collecting effort.	eng
163666	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species habitat is being lost through clear-cutting of forests, although the rate and effect of this threat is not known.	eng
163667	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No conservation measures are needed for this species at present, beyond the need for further distribution and population information, and monitoring.	eng
163667	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis gracilis</em> is very widely distributed, occurring from eastern India to Viet Nam and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records from many parts of India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Bangladesh, Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Myanmar (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Asahina 1970), Thailand (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Asahina 1966), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Orr 2005), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Lao PDR (Fraser 1933, Yokoi 1999) and Viet Nam (e.g. Fraser 1934; Asahina 1969, 1996; van Tol and Rozendaal 1995). Records from southern China appear to be incorrect (Wilson 2007).	eng
163667	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in streams, including those in agricultural land, provided that some trees are present nearby.	eng
163667	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis gracilis</em> is a common species across much of its range.	eng
163667	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The only major threats to this species appear to be large scale development and canalisation of streams.	eng
163668	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further information is needed on this species, searches should be made throughout its range. Conservation measures will centre around the protection of suitable forest habitats. The possibility of encouraging this species to breed in an area by the creation of artificial ‘tree holes’ by attaching suitably sized containers to trees exists.	eng
163668	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Lyriothemis bivittata</em> is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1936; Lahiri 1987; Mitra 1999, 2004), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1936), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969, 1988, 1996) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 2001). Within India Fraser (1936) records the species from Darjeeling, Assam and Sibsagar, a location now in Madhya Pradesh, and Lahiri (1987) recorded it from Meghalaya. It has also been recorded in Sikkim (Mitra 2004). In Thailand records are from Chanthaburi and Kanchanaburi.	eng
163668	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Apparently this species breeds in water filled tree holes; Asahina (1988) states “the larva of this species is a tree-pot dweller as many other congeners. I have got one larva from a tree-pot in an abandoned rubber-tree forest, and bred out a single male adult”. However it may also breed in other forest habitats (e.g. pools), there is insufficient information to know if it is an obligate tree hole breeder.	eng
163668	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is not often recorded, Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) describe it as a “rare forest species”. However this is likely to be an under-recorded species; as a tree hole breeder it will not often be found at the streams, rivers, marshes, swamps, lakes and ponds where Odonata are normally searched for. It is likely to be not that uncommon in suitable forest habitats across its range.	eng
163668	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The greatest threat to this species will be from logging.	eng
163669	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information on this species is urgently needed. Searches should be made in south Viet Nam and adjacent areas.	eng
163669	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus jurzitzai</em> is known only from Lam Dong province, southern Viet Nam (Karube 2000).	eng
163669	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information on the habitat or ecology of this species has been published, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.	eng
163669	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Microgomphus jurzitzai</em> is known only from the type series of two males. This does not necessarily imply rarity; Viet Nam is poorly known for Odonata and <em>Microgomphus</em> species are notoriously elusive.	eng
163669	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163670	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data from Kalimantan is urgently needed, along with searches in suitable habitats in East Malaysia and Brunei.	eng
163670	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Endemic to Borneo. Known from Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954) and one location in Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993). The species has yet to been found in Sarawak, but is likely to occur there.	eng
163670	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Freshwater swamp forest.	eng
163670	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>M. alcyone</em> was described from Sabah, but appears to have been most common in alluvial forest in southeastern Kalimantan, however there is no recent data available from these areas, where swamp forest habitats are severely threatened, but there has been a severe lack of expert sampling in Kalimantan for more than 50 years. In north Borneo it appears to be a scarce insect, there is a recent record from Brunei, and an old record from Sabah, but the species has not yet been found in Sarawak. Lieftinck (1954) stated that <em>M. alcyone</em> is "common in the swampy alluvial forests of Borneo", but this statement appears to have been based on unwarranted extrapolation from large series from southeast Kalimantan. Orr (2003) states that the species is "widespread but uncommon"; this seems to be a more accurate summary.	eng
163670	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss is the major threat to this species. The status of its habitats in southeastern Kalimantan is unknown, but highly doubtful.	eng
163671	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in Perak and adjacent areas of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163671	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the type series from Batang Padang in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia at an altitude of 600 m (Laidlaw 1924, 1931; Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163671	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species had been found in forest streams and trickles on hills and mountains (Orr 2005).	eng
163671	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the type series consisting of one male and three females (Laidlaw 1931).	eng
163671	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163672	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this species; without such information effective conservation planning will not be possible. Searches should be undertaken in West Bengal and adjacent areas.	eng
163672	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Ictinogomphus distinctus</em> is known from one location in West Bengal (Ram 1985).	eng
163672	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	No information on the habitat or ecology of this species has been published.	eng
163672	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type series, consisting of three males collected in 1975 (Ram 1985).	eng
163672	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a major threat to this species.	eng
163673	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data from the known range of this species, and it should be searched for in regions of India adjacent to Meghalaya. Conservation measures (if needed) will centre around the protection of suitable habitat.	eng
163673	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Merogomphus martini</em> is known from India, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Fraser 1934). Records from India are from the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalya (Fraser 1922, 1934; Lahiri 1987) and West Bengal (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Fraser 1934).	eng
163673	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lahiri (1987) records the species from deep forest near streams, and also from a lake. Presumably the species breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous country.	eng
163673	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appears to be no really recent records of this species, but Fraser (1934) states that “the species is also moderately common at Shillong, Assam and Maymyo, Burma” and Lahiri (1987) reports 16 specimens collected at locations in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in the 1960s and 1970s, suggesting that the species was quite common at these locations at the time.	eng
163673	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163674	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	We need more information on this species, in particular on its distribution. Searches need to be made from India to Viet Nam to establish its distribution and gain a better picture of population sizes. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat.	eng
163674	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Indothemis carnatica</em> is known from India, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Records from India are from the Western Ghats and West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Miller 1992), there are a few records from Sri Lanka (e.g. in de Fonseka 2000) including a recent photographic record on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net], there are records from six provinces in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), but one of these is an old record from Bangkok; the species is unlikely to still occur in this city or its immediate vicinity. It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam and should be searched for in these countries.	eng
163674	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in small, heavily weeded ponds and lakes (Fraser 1936).	eng
163674	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	The only recent record from India is that of Miller (1992) from Tamil Nadu; this appears to be a scarce species in India, although it is likely to be under-recorded. In Thailand it is an “uncommon species in north and east” (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163674	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163675	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, beyond the need for further research on distribution and population sizes.	eng
163675	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Onychargia atrocyana</em> is a very widely distributed species. Known from India and Bangladesh (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Sri Lanka (e.g. de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1987), Mynamar (Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1966, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Orr 2005), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969), Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 2004), Yunnan in China (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007), Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1954), Borneo (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1953, Orr 2001), the Mentawei Islands, Lesser Sunda Islands, Belitung and Bangka (Lieftinck 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). It is also likely to occur in Lao PDR and Cambodia and to be more widely distributed in China than current records suggest.	eng
163675	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in ponds and marshes with trees, and swamp forest. This species can certainly survive in secondary habitats.	eng
163675	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>O. atrocyana</em> is somewhat local in occurrence, but often very common where it occurs.	eng
163675	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species, although habitat loss due to deforestation might be a problem in parts of its range.	eng
163676	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.	eng
163676	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion indicum</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (Fraser 1924, 1933; Prasad and Varshney 1995; Subramanian 2005), where there are records from Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.	eng
163676	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in marshes associated with small streams in sub-montane and montane areas of the Western Ghats (Fraser 1933, Subramanian 2005). Nothing further is known.	eng
163676	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are very few records of this species. Fraser (1924, 1933) makes no comment on population sizes. The only record of the species having been found since the 1930s is that in Subramanian (2005), where there is a photograph apparently of this species, but no information on population sizes.	eng
163676	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163677	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	At present this is quite a common species (at least in Sarawak) in Borneo, however it is absent from some apparently suitable habitat, and is certainly not present in deforested areas. There is a need for fresh information from Kalimantan, and monitoring in West Malaysia and Brunei.	eng
163677	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Widely distributed in Borneo, also known from peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996). In Borneo there are records from Kalimantan (e.g. Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1940), Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (e.g. Hincks 1930, Asahina 1966, Dow 2007) and Sabah (e.g. Huisman and van Tol 1989, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989).	eng
163677	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Clear, low gradient, forest streams from the lowlands to 1,100 m or above. Occurs in secondary (e.g. at Annah Rais in west Sarawak and in the Kelabit Highlands in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007)) as well as primary forest. The fact that the species has not yet been found in some apparently suitable habitats (e.g. on the Sungai Rayu in Kubah National Park, west Sarawak) suggests that we do not fully understand the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
163677	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Borneo this appears to be quite a common species on clear forest streams, but is absent from some apparently suitable habitats. There is less data available from Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163677	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss and possibly pollution.	eng
163678	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information on this species is needed before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches should be made in Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and eastern Thailand.	eng
163678	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Zyxommoides breviventre</em> is known from Lao PDR (Martin 1921) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (Asahina 1967).	eng
163678	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, but is likely to be ponds or marshes; it is also likely to be a crepuscular species.	eng
163678	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known only from the type series and a single specimen from Cambodia. It is likely to be a crepuscular species, which may at least in part account for the paucity of records; a lack of sampling in Lao PDR and Cambodia is also likely to be an important factor.	eng
163678	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163679	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh information on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in Assam and adjacent areas of India, and in Nepal and Myanmar.	eng
163679	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macrogomphus seductus</em> is known from India (Fraser 1926, Laidlaw 1930), where there are records from Assam and West Bengal (Fraser 1934), and from Nepal (Smith 1981, Vick 1989).	eng
163679	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Nothing has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of low gradient forest streams and rivers.	eng
163679	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Few individuals of this species have ever been collected. Fraser (1934) lists five specimens, the only more recent record appears to be that from Nepal, due to Smith (1981) of a single male. <em>M. seductus</em> may be a scarce species, but it may equally well be under-collected.	eng
163679	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest and fires for agricultural use.	eng
163680	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species, for which there are few records, and fewer still recent records. Searches need to be made throughout Sundaland. Larval sampling should be carried out in protected areas, to determine if the species is present, as the adults are likely to be elusive.	eng
163680	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalogomphus icterops</em> is known from Java (Laidlaw 1930; Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1934, 1935, 1941, 1954), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Belitung (Lieftinck 1954), west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1941), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914; Lieftinck 1934, 1935) and Pulau Langkawi, of the cost of Perlis state, Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005).	eng
163680	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Breeds in lowland forest streams; "restricted to undisturbed areas and never found away from its parent stream." (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163680	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalogomhus icterops</em> is either scarce or under-recorded, there are few records of adults, from scattered locations across Sundaland. However Lieftinck (1941) records finding “numerous” larvae from west Java, suggesting that the species may not be as uncommon as records of adults suggest. Nonetheless, almost all the records of adults are from before 1954, the most recent record is of a specimen caught in a mist net on Langkawi (Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007). S. Butler (pers. comm. 2007) has found the larva on Langkawi.	eng
163680	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.	eng
163681	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further sampling across the range of this species to gain a better understanding of its population and exact habitat requirements, and to find the male.	eng
163681	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Tetracanthagyna brunnea</em> is known from Java (Lieftinck 1934) Sabah and Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954), peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Orr 2005), southern Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Asahina 1986, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Palawan in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). It is likely to occur in Brunei, Sumatra and Kalimantan and should be looked for in these places.	eng
163681	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Tetracanthagyna brunnea</em> oviposits into dead wood at the edge of forest streams and rivers. It is not clear if the species occurs in secondary forest, but this is likely, as other <em>Tetracanthagyna</em> species do.	eng
163681	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are relatively few records of this species; it appears to be quite scarce. There is only one record from southern Thailand; this may represent the northern limit of its range. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any truly recent, definite records, but Butler has found and reared larvae from three locations in Peninsular Malaysia that are either this species, or <em>T. degorsi</em> (S. Butler pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163681	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163682	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is insufficient information for effective conservation planning for this species, except to say that effective protection of lowland swamp forest habitats (even if secondary) in south eastern Kalimantan will certainly be necessary. Searches need to be made in lowland areas of Kalimantan.	eng
163682	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura abbreviata</em> is known only from the type series taken in the vicinity of Ampah, southeast Kalimantan in 1948 (Lieftinck 1948).	eng
163682	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is very little information on the habitat (and none on the ecology) of this species, but the altitude of the type location is given as 0 - 20 m, suggesting that this is a species of lowland swamp forest. It is reasonable to assume that it is a stream species, as is the case for most species of <em>Prodasineura</em>.	eng
163682	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Judging by the size of the type series (29 males, 56 females) this was once a common insect at the type location at least, but there have been no published records since its description and a lack of expert sampling in Kalimantan since that time.	eng
163682	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no recent data on this species, but that there has been extensive habitat loss in lowland Kalimantan.	eng
163683	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further research, especially on distribution and population sizes, but beyond this no specific measures appear to be warranted. Searches should be made in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao PDR, where the species has not been recorded yet, but is likely to occur.	eng
163683	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Agriocnemis lacteola</em> occurs in India and Bangladesh (e.g. Laidlaw 1914, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Ghosh 1988, Andrew 1995, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Mahato 1988, Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1982, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), China (e.g. Needham 1930; Asahina 1961, 1977, 1978; Wilson and Reels 2003; Wilson and Xu 2007) and Hong Kong (e.g. Wilson 1997, 2004). Given the known distribution of the species, it also appears likely to occur in Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia.	eng
163683	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in reedy marshes, ponds and abandoned rice fields.	eng
163683	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>A. lacteola</em> appears to be rather local in occurrence, but not uncommon where it occurs, and it is probably under-recorded.	eng
163683	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss is a threat to this species, but perhaps not a major one at present.	eng
163684	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is severely data deficient; we need more data before the planning of effective conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Fresh searches should be made in Darjeeling and in adjacent regions of India.	eng
163684	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Darjeeling, north-east India (Karube 1998); the exact type location was not recorded.	eng
163684	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown, not even the altitude of the type location is known. It is likely to be a mountain species, and probably breeds in small forest pools.	eng
163684	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known from a single male (Karube 1998).	eng
163684	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163685	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Effective planning of conservation measures for <em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> will only be possible after it has been relocated and sufficient information on its habits and habitat have been accumulated. Expert sampling in west Java is urgently needed.	eng
163685	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> is known only from Mount Salak in west Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954).	eng
163685	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The only information we have on the habitat of this species is that it was “taken on the slopes of Mount Salak, presumably about 1,000 m” (Lieftinck 1954). It is almost certainly a species of forest streams.	eng
163685	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus banteng</em> is known from a single male (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163685	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163686	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for recent data on the status of the habitats in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and for searches in suitable habitat in other areas of northeast India, as well as for taxonomic work. Conservation measures for this species will centre around protection of suitable montane habitat.	eng
163686	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from Meghalaya, India, where it is known from the Khasi and Jaintia Hills (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1987). Lahiri (1987) states that it is found at high altitudes, but does not give an altitudinal range.	eng
163686	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	See Taxonomic Notes for a discussion of the two forms of this species. The larger form occurs on rocky mountain streams, the smaller form occurs in marshy areas at high altitudes (Lahiri 1987). Nothing further is known on the habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
163686	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Data from Lahiri (1987) suggests that this species is quite common at higher altitudes in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. However the stream form (see Taxonomic Notes) is less common than the smaller marsh form.	eng
163686	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163687	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, at present it can only be classed as Data Deficient. Searches should be made in north and east India.	eng
163687	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Chlorogomphus preciosus</em> is known with certainty only from India, where there are records from Arunachal Pradesh (Asahina 1986), Darjeeling (e.g. Fraser 1936), Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936) and Meghalaya (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. p.</span> <em>fernandi</em> from the Khasi and Jaintla hills, Asahina 1986). Fraser (1936) lists the species as "probably" occurring in Nepal, but there does not appear to have been any confirmation of this prediction; Vick (1989) includes the species in his checklist of the Odonata of Nepal purely on the basis of Fraser's record.	eng
163687	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little is known about the habitat requirements of this species. It appears to be a montane species. Fraser (1936) records seeing it "occasionally hawking at low levels over grassy places on hill sides". Fraser's observations are almost certainly of feeding flights, the breeding habitat is likely to be forest streams, but this needs to be established by fresh fieldwork.	eng
163687	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very few specimens of this species are known, Fraser (1929) lists seven specimens from northeast India, Asahina (1986) lists a further specimen from Arunachal Pradesh, and two more (subspecies <em>fernandi</em>) from Meghalaya. these specimens were collected in the early 1960s. There appears to be no further records from India nor from Nepal. This is either a scarce species, or an under-collected one.	eng
163687	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163688	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in Myanmar.	eng
163688	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>C. furcata</em> is known only from the Nam Tamai Valley in Myanmar (Hämäläinen 1986).	eng
163688	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The holotype was collected at an altitude of 3,500 ft, there is no other data on habitat, but it is reasonable to assume that the species breeds in forest streams on mountains, as is the case with many other species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.	eng
163688	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>C. furcata</em> is only known from the holotype.	eng
163688	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	As the species is known from a single site, the current status of which is known to be&#160; experiencing some level of logging and there is reason for concern.	eng
163689	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for additional data on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Peninsular India.	eng
163689	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>C. wilkinsi</em> is known only from India; there are records from Karnataka (e.g. Fraser 1926, 1934; Laidlaw 1930) and Maharashtra (Prasad 1996).	eng
163689	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the type series was collected at a small stream.	eng
163689	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very few specimens of <em>C. wilkinsi</em> have ever been taken; the type series consists of one male and two females from Mysore in Karnataka (Fraser 1926), the only subsequent record seems to be of a male from Maharashtra.	eng
163689	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163690	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	No specific conservation measures, beyond monitoring of populations, appear to be needed for this species at present.	eng
163690	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Neurothemis ramburii</em> is distributed from Sundaland to New Guinea. There are records from Peninsular Malaysia, Taiwan, the Andaman Islands, Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan), the lesser Sunda islands, the Philippines, the Bismarck islands and New Guinea.	eng
163690	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species haunts the grassy borders of lakes and marshes, from sea-level up to about 800 m and it is very local, but plentiful where found. (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163690	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is fairly common over much of its large range, but is less common in some areas (e.g. Sarawak, Peninsular Malaysia).	eng
163690	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss is the only threat to this species, and not a serious one across much of its range at present, but it may become one with increased urbanization and industrial farming.	eng
163691	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species should be systematically searched for across its known range. Research into the causes of its (apparent) decline is needed, and monitoring of existing populations.	eng
163691	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Urothemis abbotti</em> is known from Trang in Thailand (Laidlaw 1927), Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1954, Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007) and Singapore (Laidlaw 1927, Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163691	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Apparently this species breeds in ponds, lakes, slow sections of streams.	eng
163691	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) stated that it is “found at many localities in the Malay States and fairly common around Singapore.” However there has been a distinct lack of records since Lieftinck wrote these words, the only recent ones are from Pahang (Y. Norma-Rashid pers. comm. 2007). It is difficult to explain the recent paucity of records of this species; Lieftinck was occasionally guilty of unwarranted extrapolation, but there is no evidence that this is the case here. It is a conspicuous species, occurring in open and easily sampled habitats, so it is unlikely to be under-recorded; the species may be in decline.	eng
163691	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is possibly decreasing, although apparently suitable habitat still exists across the known range, therefore investigations are needed to understand the reason behind the decline.	eng
163692	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout Java.	eng
163692	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954). Writing in 1954 M.A. Lieftinck described this species as "universal in Java" on the basis of numerous specimens from many locations across the island, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records since 1954.	eng
163692	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been recorded in runnels and streams in shady surroundings, also in second growth forest, from sea-level up to 900 m (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163692	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species was once common in Java, but there appear to be no records later than 1954. This lack is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling on the island, but is cause for concern.	eng
163692	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	We have no recent data on this species, but know that there has been extensive loss of forest habitats in Java.	eng
163693	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh information on this species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in the Western Ghats.	eng
163693	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalogomphus superbus</em> is known only from a few locations in southern India (Fraser 1931, 1934).	eng
163693	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Breeds in forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.	eng
163693	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fraser (1931, 1934) states that the species was “very common” in the Bolovumpatti Hills, South Coimbatore district, although in 1931 he stated that all his records from this district came from a single river.  There appears to be no records of the species since the 1930s. This is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in south India, but loss of habitat is also likely to be a factor.	eng
163693	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through small-scale wood extraction.	eng
163694	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data, and investigation of the relationship of this species to <em>P. dorsalis</em> (see Taxonomic Notes), is urgently needed. Searches should be made throughout Borneo.	eng
163694	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura flammula</em> is known from south and east Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1948, 1954; Paulson 2004), and Sabah (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989, but the identity of this material needs to be checked). R. Dow (2007) has a single male from the Kelabit Highlands in northeastern Sarawak, close to the border with Kalimantan, that may be this species.	eng
163694	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura flammula</em> breeds in "rivulets and brooks in swampy forest of the lowlands." (Lieftinck 1954), it may also occur in similar habitat at higher altitudes, e.g. in the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163694	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Few specimens are known of this species; it appears to be scarce.	eng
163694	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	If this is a good species (see Taxonomic Notes) then there is considerable cause for concern due to loss of lowland forest habitats in Kalimantan.	eng
163695	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data on distribution and population sizes is needed, but beyond this there does not seem to be an urgent need for special conservation measures at present.	eng
163695	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Widely distributed from India to China and Viet Nam. Records from India (Laidlaw 1919, Fraser 1933, Asahina 1967, Lahiri 1985, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Asahina 1967, Vick 1989), Myanmar (Laidlaw 1916, Fraser 1933, Asahaina 1967, 1970), Thailand (Asahina 1981, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Hoess 2002, Dow 2004), China (Asahina 1967, Wilson 2007), Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), Viet Nam (Sasamoto and Cuong 2005). Records from India are from Meghalaya, Manipur, West Bengal, Mizoran and Arunchal Pradesh. Records from Thailand are from the north, extending southwards as far as Prachuap Khiri Khan. Records from China are from Guandong and Fujian.	eng
163695	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Ponds and lake margins, probably also stream pools. It has been recorded in a rice field in northern Viet Nam (Sasamoto and Cuong 2005). Occurs in open habitats and in sunny places in forest areas. It occurs on artificial as well as natural water bodies. The majority of records are from 1,000 m or above.	eng
163695	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Although this species is widely distributed, it appears to be rather scarce and local in occurrence. It can be common at some localities. For instance Fraser (1933) states that it was “not uncommon on the Ward Lake” near Shillong in the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya. It is likely to be under recorded as most expert collectors, when visiting the high altitude areas preferred by this species, ignore open habitats in favour of forest habitats.	eng
163695	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Although this species is not often recorded, it occurs in agricultural land as well as undisturbed habitats, and does not appear to be threatened at present.	eng
163696	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Without further information on this species no conservation measures can be planned. There is a need for taxonomic work, and, most critically, for searches in Myanmar and India. Searches in India should initially be concentrated in areas close to Myanmar.	eng
163696	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus saundersii</em> is known with certainty only from India (e.g. Fraser 1934) and Myanmar (Williamson 1907). The type locality is unknown, but apparently in India (Fraser 1934).	eng
163696	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.	eng
163696	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Very few (possibly only three) specimens that are definitely referable to this species have ever been recorded; besides the type specimens of a pair from Myanmar (Williamson 1907). Needless to say there are no recent records, but this may reflect a lack of expert sampling in suitable areas of India; there has certainly been insufficient sampling in Myanmar.	eng
163696	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to this species.	eng
163697	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more data from parts of the range of this species (e.g. India, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Nam), but overall there does not appear to be much need for specific conservation measures for this species, beyond the need for protection of more montane forest habitats and monitoring of populations.	eng
163697	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis smaragdina</em> occurs in Tripura and Meghalaya in India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1949, Mitra 1999), Myanmar (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1949, Asahina 1970), northern Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1985, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Dow 2007), Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000) and Viet Nam (Asahina 1996). Records from west China refer to <em>V. velata</em> (Ris 1912).	eng
163697	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forested streams in mountains.	eng
163697	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is not often collected, but appears to be fairly common in its montane habitats.	eng
163697	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development and deforestation of the area.	eng
163698	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on the distribution of this species. If it is actually restricted to Mount Dulit then the proposed protection of that mountain in a national park will be a significant conservation measure, however illegal logging is likely to remain a threat.	eng
163698	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Rhinoneura caerulea</em> is known only from Mount Dulit, on the border between Miri and Kapit divisions, overlooking the Tinjar river, in northeast Sarawak (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163698	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from montane forest on Mount Dulit, Sarawak; beyond this almost nothing is known except that it is a stream species.	eng
163698	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type series of two males and one female, collected in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163698	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to logging or fire. Much of the Dulit range has been selectively logged (information from local inhabitants, forestry workers and from my own experience of visiting the area in 2006), but some areas of steep terrain above 500 m appear to remain in a pristine condition. The Dulit Range is a possible future National Park; it is to be hoped that the park can be established before further logging occurs in the area.	eng
163699	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The priority for this species is for searches to be made in the Western Ghats, and in eastern India. Once we have a good picture of its current distribution and population size, further conservation measures can be planned.	eng
163699	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Hylaeothemis indica</em> is known from the Western Ghats of India. Fraser (1946) states that he found the species in the Nilgiri Hills, Malabar Wynaad, Annaimallai Hills, Coorg (Kodagu) and Travancore, at locations within Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There is also an old record of <em>H. fruhstorferi</em>, which must refer to <em>indica</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from Ujani Wetland Reserve, Pune district, Maharashtra (e.g. Kulkarni and Prasad 2002). There have been two records from eastern India, Lahiri (1985) reported it <em>H. fruhstorferi</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from the Namdhapa Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mitra (2000) recorded <em>H. f. apicalis</em> from Orissa.	eng
163699	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species breeds in the seepages from marshes along the banks of mountain streams (Fraser 1936). and it is usually found resting on the broad leaves of arums or ferns in swamps beside streams (Fraser 1946).	eng
163699	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appears to be almost no recent records of this species, but this is likely to be due to a lack of sampling in suitable habitats in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s time (1930s). The species was locally common in the Western Ghats, Fraser (1936, as <em>fruhstorferi</em>) states  “It occurs in numerous colonies” and (1918, as <em>fruhstorferi</em>) “not uncommon in the Nilgiris above Kalar at about 2000’ ... but is very local and unless its haunts be happened upon, it may escape notice altogether”. Without fresh, expert, sampling in the Nilgiri Hills it is not possible to make accurate statements about current populations of this species in west India. Lahiri (1985) recorded two males of <em>H. fruhstorferi</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) from Arunacahal Pradesh, and Mitra (2000) reported a male from Kotagarh in Orissa.	eng
163699	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163700	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species. Searches need to be made in west Bengal and adjacent areas of India.	eng
163700	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gomphidia williamsoni</em> is known only from the type locality at Hasimara in West Bengal (Fraser 1923, 1934). Lahiri 1989 includes it in a list of species not recorded in India since their original description.	eng
163700	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Presumably this is a species of forest streams, as is the case with its congeners.	eng
163700	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type series, consisting of several males and one female (Fraser 1923). Without extensive sampling in West Bengal and adjacent areas it is not possible to give any information on current populations.	eng
163700	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a major threat to this species.	eng
163701	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further information is the priority for this species. Sampling and habitat data from across its range are urgently needed.	eng
163701	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Lyriothemis acigastra</em> is known only from a few records from India (Fraser 1936, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (Fraser 1936), Tibet (Needham 1930) and Xizang in China (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007). Records from India are from Darjeeling and Assam.	eng
163701	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species. It is very probably a forest species, as is the case with other <em>Lyriothemis</em> species, and is likely to breed in either pools or possibly water filled tree holes.	eng
163701	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appear to be very few records of this species, Fraser (1936) lists a total of five specimens that he was aware of. Evidently this is a scarce and probably under-recorded species, there has also been a lack of expert sampling across most of the range of this species.	eng
163701	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163702	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Beyond the need for monitoring of populations to check for any decline, there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
163702	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Tramea virginia</em> is known from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Viet Nam, China including Hong Kong, Hainan and Taiwan, Korea, Japan. There is a single old record from Thailand, and there are single records from Sarawak in Borneo (Hincks 1930) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1942), presumably, as Lieftinck suggested (1954) these records were of “a migrant from the north".	eng
163702	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat breeds in ponds and lakes.	eng
163702	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	A fairly common species over much of its range.	eng
163702	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appear to be no significant threats to this species at present.	eng
163703	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The most urgent need is for more data on this species; searches need to be made in lowland forest throughout Borneo. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat.	eng
163703	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Pseudagrionoptera diotima</em> is known only from Borneo, where there are records from Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1953) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163703	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is a rare woodland species, breeding in swift running brooks in low country and it settles on foliage of shrubs overhanging the water (Lieftinck 1954). &#160; It has been reported to be scarce in sluggish forested streams and freshwater swamp throughout the lowlands (Orr 2003) and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) adds&#160; that with so few records of this species, we cannot be sure that we understand its habitat requirements at all.	eng
163703	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species has seldom been recorded. Aside from the type series (three specimens) the only other records are of a female from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920), a male from Sarawak (Lieftinck 1953) and a female from Brunei (Orr 2001). Evidently this species is either very under-recorded or genuinely scarce.	eng
163703	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is threatened by loss of lowland forest habitats throughout Borneo.	eng
163704	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data on this species is needed, especially for <em>A. b. palampurensis</em>, taxonomic work is also needed on this poorly known subspecies; it may not deserve subspecific rank.	eng
163704	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>A. b. basalis</em> is known from Himachal Pradesh (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Uttar Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Uttarakhand (Fraser 1929) and West Bengal (Fraser 1936). <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> is known from Sikkim (Fraser 1929, 1936) and Nepal (e.g. Fraser 1936, Vick 1989).	eng
163704	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	A species of mountains and high hills. Few altitudes are given for the known specimens, but Fraser gives 4,000 ft for at least one specimen of each subspecies. The exact breeding habitat is unknown, but is likely to be small forest streams.	eng
163704	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1929) lists fourteen specimens of <em>A. b. basalis</em>, including material from Selys's collection, and two specimens of <em>A. b. palampurensis</em>. More recently Kumar (1982) listed <em>A. b. basalis</em> from four locations in Uttar Pradesh (but did not give the number of specimens). The only record of <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> since it's original description is that of Vick (1989), this record refers to a single female initially identified as <em>A. b. basalis</em> (Vick 1987). <em>A. b. basalis</em> may be quite common in parts of India, <em>A. b. palampurensis</em> appears to be a scarcer insect, but much further sampling will be needed to confirm (or not) these impressions.	eng
163704	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163705	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Conservation measures for this species will have to be built around the protection of suitable areas of lowland forest in Borneo. Further data is needed on the distribution and habitat of the species; searches in east Kalimantan are urgently needed.	eng
163705	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Published records of <em>Oligoaeschna platyura</em> are from Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1940, 1968; Paulson 2004), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Sabah (Lieftinck 1968). Almost all the records from Kalimantan are from the Kutai area in the east. The species has yet to be found in Sarawak, but is likely to occur there.	eng
163705	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little information on the habitat or ecology of this species available, but presumably it breeds in lowland swamp forest, as is the case with other species of <em>Oligoaeschna</em> occurring in Borneo.	eng
163705	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Few specimens of this species have been collected, Lieftinck (1968) lists eight from east Kalimantan and Sabah, representing all the material known at the time, the specimen from Sabah is old, dating from the end of the nineteenth centaury. To these can be added two from Brunei (Orr 2001) and one from Kalimantan (D. Paulson unpublished data 2004) collected in 1974. However aeshnids in tropical Asia are often under-collected and it may be (or have been) quite common in lowland forest in parts of Borneo.	eng
163705	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Much lowland habitat is known to have been lost in east Kalimantan, in particular the Kutai area, where the majority of records of this species originate, is known to have been extensively damaged by fires, and much former forest is now plantation.	eng
163706	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data is needed on this species; it may be quite common in parts of the Khasi Hills, but this needs to be confirmed, and searches should be made in adjacent areas of India.	eng
163706	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalestes raychoudurii</em> is known from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999).	eng
163706	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is thought to occur in mountain streams, presumably in forest (although there is some uncertainty over where this information came from).	eng
163706	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	In the original description Lahiri (1987) lists 22 specimens from streams around Shillong and Mawphlong in the Khasi Hills. This suggests that the species may be quite common in this area, but there have been no further records. All the known specimens were collected between 1967 and 1974.	eng
163706	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development of the suspected area.	eng
163707	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The priority for this species is for more data; searches should be made in Myanmar, Lao PDR, and adjacent regions.	eng
163707	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orientogomphus circularis</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1924, 1934) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999).	eng
163707	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information available on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to breed in forest streams.	eng
163707	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no current data available on the population trends or numbers.	eng
163707	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163708	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is data deficient, effective conservation planning will not be possible without more information. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.	eng
163708	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Oligoaeschna khasiana</em> is known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya (Lieftinck 1968).	eng
163708	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The habitat is unknown. From the type location we may infer that it is a montane species, it is likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.	eng
163708	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species was described from a single male (Lieftinck 1968); no further records thought to exist.	eng
163708	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163709	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species before effective conservation planning can take place. Fresh searches need to be made in Lao PDR.	eng
163709	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Phatang, Vang Vieng area, Vientiane province, Lao PDR (Sasamoto 2003).	eng
163709	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series was collected at "a small, shallow trickle on a steep shadowy and rocky slope covered with dense tall bushes in an intact forest" (Sasamoto 2003) in a sub-montane valley area, at an altitude of <em>ca</em> 300 m. The species was "never observed at a sunny spot" (Sasamoto 2003).	eng
163709	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type series (three males) from one location (Sasamoto 2003).	eng
163709	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163710	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution. Fresh searches should be made in Yunnan, and it should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan. Beyond this, conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable habitat.	eng
163710	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Bayadera indica</em> is known from India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1934, Prasad 1975, Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Bangladesh (Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Smith 1978, Mahato 1989, Vick 1989) and Yunnan in China (Davies and Yang 1996). It is likely to occur in Bhutan and Myanmar and should be searched for in these countries.	eng
163710	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forest streams on hills and mountains.	eng
163710	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Bayadera indica</em> appears to be fairly common in Nepal and parts of north-east India.	eng
163710	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163711	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is data deficient. Further information is urgently needed for effective conservation planning. Fresh searches need to be made in north Viet Nam and adjacent regions.	eng
163711	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Tam Dao in Vinh Phu Province, northern Viet Nam (Asahina 1996).	eng
163711	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The only known specimen was collected at 930 m, nothing further is known on its habitat and ecology. It is likely to breed in forest streams.	eng
163711	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from a single female.	eng
163711	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163712	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is too little information available on this species for effective planning of conservation measures at the present time. Searches need to be made for it in Darjeeling and adjacent regions of India. Further sampling is also needed in Nepal.	eng
163712	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Mungpoo in Darjeeling, India (Fraser 1929) and from Nepal (e.g. St. Quentin 1970, Vick 1985).	eng
163712	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a montane species; records from Nepal are in the range 980 - 2,600 m, Fraser's records from India are from 3600 ft. According to Vick (pers. comm. 2007) the species is found at hill streams in warm temperate forest.	eng
163712	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only two males have been recorded in India (Fraser 1929, 1936). St. Quentin (1970) and Vick (1985) have both recorded the species from Nepal. St Quentin recorded six specimens, Vick's records are based on four specimens (pers. comm. 2007) from two locations. According to Vick, in Nepal the species is "not necessarily rare but is hard to catch and probably missed altogether by non-specialists". The lack of recent records from India is likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Darjeeling over the last 70 years.	eng
163712	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163713	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous areas throughout Sumatra. At least one record is of a male from the Mount Kerinci area of west Sumatra (Campion 1925, Ris 1927), where much habitat has some protection in a national park.	eng
163713	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus rappardi</em> is known only from Sumatra (e.g. Fraser 1932 (as <em>O. geometricus</em>), Lieftinck 1937, 1954; Orr 2004), the few records are scattered across the island.	eng
163713	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The little information that we have on this species suggests that it breeds in rocky streams on hills and mountains, probably in forest, but at least one specimen has been collected “over an exposed stream” (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163713	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are very few records of this species, all of single individuals or at most a pair. It is either scarce or under-recorded. All the records date from before 1954, but there has been almost no sampling of Odonata on Sumatra since that time.	eng
163713	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163714	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is needed before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Fresh searches should be made in northeast India.	eng
163714	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type series comes from northeast India (Asahina 1984), but it is unclear if the type locality, given as "Assam, 5 mi. W Digbol" is in Assam as currently recognised, or in one of the Indian states that were formerly part of Assam. Prasad and Varshney (1995) give its distribution as “India”.	eng
163714	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing is known of the habitats and ecology of this species. The type location is at an altitude of 110 m. It is likely to be a crepuscular forest species.	eng
163714	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gynacantha arnaudi</em> is known only from the type series, which consists of 14 specimens (Asahina 1984).	eng
163714	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163715	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this very poorly known species. Fresh searches need to be made in mountainous regions of Manipur and adjacent areas.	eng
163715	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from three locations in Manipur State, India (Asahina 1984).	eng
163715	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Largely unknown, but the type series was collected at altitudes from 3,800 - 5,000 ft. It is reasonable to assume that it is a species of montane forest streams, as is the case with many species of the genus.	eng
163715	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia rotunda</em> is a very poorly known species, it was described from four males from three locations in Manipur.	eng
163715	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a known threat to the montane forest of this species.	eng
163716	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>I. acutus</em> appears to be a rather specialised and local species, and as a lowland forest dweller it is at risk from habitat loss due to clear-felling and plantation establishment. The species can certainly survive in secondary forest; both locations in Sarawak where the species has been found recently are in secondary forest (Dow 2007), they are also in protected areas. There is no recent information from Kalimantan or Belitung Island. Further searches need to be made across its known range, and given its occurrence on Belitung Island, it should also be looked for on Bangka Island and in eastern Sumatra.	eng
163716	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Ictinogomphus acutus</em> is widely distributed in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. There are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914, Dow 2007), southern Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953), Belitung Island between Sumatra and Borneo (Lieftinck 1954), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001, Orr 2005). Norma-Rashid (pers. comm. 2007) has recorded the larva from Negeri Sembilan.	eng
163716	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>I. acutus</em> is a species of "sluggish lowland streams and bog-ponds, especially those on peaty soils in forest swamps" (Lieftinck 1954). The Sungai Penyilam in Bintulu Division in Sarawak, where the species is common, is a blackwater stream with a pH slightly below five, running through secondary peat swamp forest. Orr (2003) noted that in Brunei it "prefers blackwater drains on the edges of swamp forest or the marshy margins of mangrove". It is clear that this species can survive in secondary forest habitats.	eng
163716	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>I. acutus</em> is not a common species across its range, although it can be locally common.  There are recent records from Brunei, where it is known from two locations, at one of these it is “sporadically quite common” (Orr 2001), Sarawak, where it has been collected at two locations, at one of these it was common (the Sungai Penyilam, a stream running through secondary peat swamp forest in Bintulu Division, Dow 2007) and Pahang, where Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001 reported the species from five sites in the vicinity of Tasek Bera between 1997-2000.	eng
163716	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a threat to the species.	eng
163717	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data, and for taxonomic work on this species. The status of the type locality is unknown, but highly doubtful. Fresh searches need to be made in northwest Kalimantan and further sampling in Sarawak and Brunei is needed.	eng
163717	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to Borneo. The type series comes from north-west Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1933). More recently collected material from west and northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) may belong to one or more distinct, but closely allied, species.	eng
163717	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Species occurs in streams in mixed dipterocarp forest on hillsides.	eng
163717	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is known with certainty only from the type series (four individuals from one location, Lieftinck 1933). A <em>Protosticta</em> species found at Lambir Hills National Park in northeast Sarawak, and that may be a northeastern form of <em>P. feronia</em>, is common on small hill streams in mixed dipterocarp forest (Dow 2007). A similar, but not identical, form has been found at two locations in west Sarawak (Kubah National Park and Annah Rais; Dow 2007). However, until the status of these forms and material from Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) is clarified it appears best to treat this species as known only from the type series.	eng
163717	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat.	eng
163718	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before effective conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. It should be searched for in Arunacal Pradesh and adjacent areas.	eng
163718	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia prakritii</em> is known only from one location in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1985).	eng
163718	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species available. However it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams in hilly and/or mountainous areas, as is the case with most species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.	eng
163718	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only the type series (four males) is known.	eng
163718	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development is a likely threat to the species suspected habitat.	eng
163719	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Aside from monitoring of populations to check for any decline, no special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.	eng
163719	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Palpopleura sexmaculata</em> is a very widespread species in mainland Asia, with a distribution from Afghanistan to China, and covering most of India. It is found in northern and central Thailand, but has not been recorded in southern Thailand or Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163719	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in marshy areas and small pools.	eng
163719	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is at least locally common throughout most of its range, in the southern part of which it appears to be confined to uplands and mountains.	eng
163719	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species does not appear to be under any major threat at present, but future building developments could prove a risk to suitable habitats.	eng
163720	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is needed on distribution and population sizes of this species. It is certainly present in protected areas in Malaysia, and appears to be able to survive in secondary habitats, but further study is needed to confirm this. Extensive collecting in peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand is needed to gain an accurate picture of the species’ range and population size.	eng
163720	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Archibasis rebeccae</em> appears to be endemic to Peninsular Malaysia. Records are from Pahang (Kemp 1989) and Johore (Kemp 1989, Vick 1993) and Kelantan (Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996). It occurs in Endau Rompin National Park (Wilson 2007).  It might occur in southern Thailand, and should be searched for there.	eng
163720	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Occurs in lowland forest streams and rivers. The habitat where material was collected in Pahang was “a very slow-flowing, small (1.5 m width), rainforest stream” (Kemp 1989). The record from Kelantan was from “logged forest, mainly bamboo and wild bananas. Canopy cover 40%. ... Water slow flowing. Width 4.5-5 m; depth 0.4 m” (Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. 1996). The species appears to be able to survive in secondary forest, as is the case for four species of <em>Archibasis</em> occurring in Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163720	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	While there are not many records of this species, there has been a steady increase since its description. The type series consists of three males from Pahang and one from Johore. Hämäläinen <em>et al</em>. (1996) recorded three males from Kelantan. Vick (1993) describes it as quite common in the area around the Madek and Lenggor rivers near Mersing. It appears to be a rather local species, but probably not scarce where it occurs.	eng
163720	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The species appears to be able to survive in secondary forest habitats, but further data is needed to confirm this. The paucity of published records suggest that it is a scarce species, although possibly it is merely under-recorded. However until more data becomes available it should be treated as potentially under threat.	eng
163721	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more data from parts of this species range (e.g. India, Myanmar, the Sunda Islands, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and China), and protection of suitable lowland habitat, especially in the Sunda Islands, is a priority, but overall this species does not appear to be in need of special conservation measures at present.	eng
163721	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachydiplax farinosa</span> is known from India, where there are old records from ?Assam? and Bengal (Fraser 1936), Bangladesh, Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936; Asahina 1965, 1970), many provinces in Thailand (e.g. Fraser 1927, Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (e.g. Fraser 1919, Asahina 1969), Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), China (e.g. Wilson 2005) where there are records from Guangxi and Yunnan, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Fraser 1942, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Norma-Rashid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1996, Norma-Rashid&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">etal</span>. 2001), Sumatra (e.g. Schmidt 1934; Lieftinck 1934, 1954), South Java (Lieftinck 1954) and Borneo, where there are records from Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954), Brunei (Thompson and van Tol 1993) and Sarawak (Matsuki and Kitagawa 1992, D. R. Paulson pers. comm. 2004, Dow 2007).	eng
163721	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in lowland ponds and marshes, usually with forest at least nearby, and in the Greater Sunda islands exclusively in forest swamps and pools.	eng
163721	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is common across much of its range. Records from northeast India appear to be on the eastern edge of the range of the species; presumably it is less common here, accounting for the lack of records since the 1930s or before. It is also less common in north Borneo than it appears to be (or have been) in Kalimantan; there is only one record from relatively very well studied Brunei, and only a small number from Sarawak, where it is a scarce species, absent from much apparently suitable habitat.	eng
163721	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss is the only threat to this species, and this appears to be a greater threat in the southern part of its range, where it is a specialist swamp forest species, although it certainly occurs in some secondary swamp forest habitats in northeast Sarawak, it appears to be absent from other apparently suitable habitat, suggesting that we do not fully understand its habitat requirements. It was apparently once a common species in south and east Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954), but the extensive loss of lowland forest habitats there, as in Java and Sumatra, is a cause for concern.	eng
163722	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before any conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Extensive searches need to be made for it in Manipur and surrounding states in India.	eng
163722	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from a single male collected at Huiahu in Manipur, northeast India (Asahina 1978).	eng
163722	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing is known of the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forested montane streams. Asahina (1978) gives only a range (3,800 - 5,000 ft) for the altitude at which the holotype was collected.	eng
163722	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known from a single specimen.	eng
163722	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163723	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	It will not be possible to plan effective conservation measures (if needed) for this species without more data. Searches need to be made in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.	eng
163723	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia sarbottama</em> is known only from the Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).	eng
163723	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The only known specimen was “captured in thick jungle” (Lahiri 1987), we have no further information on habitat or ecology for this species. However, it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of forest streams in hilly and/or mountainous areas, as is the case for most <em>Coeliccia</em> species.	eng
163723	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the holotype male.	eng
163723	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the known area is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163724	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No conservation measures are needed for this common species over much of its range, but it may be less common in the eastern part of its range. There is a need for taxonomic work on material from Myanmar eastwards, which is likely to represent one or more different species.	eng
163724	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>C. coromandelianum</em> is a widespread species, known from India (e.g. Morton 1907, Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Pakistan (Yousuf and Chishti 1986), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1985, Mahato 1987) and Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1951, de Fonseka 2000), and possibly Myanmar (Asahina 1967) with suspect records from China (e.g. Needham 1931), Viet Nam (Asahina 1967) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999), these latter records almost certainly refer to different species (see Taxonomic Notes) and are not considered further here. Within India there are records from almost every state, Prasad and Varshney (1995) list it as occurring “throughout India”.	eng
163724	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Ponds, ditches, rice fields and other open standing waters. It has also been recorded from Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992).	eng
163724	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	A very common species over much of its range, especially in India.	eng
163724	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	No threats to this species are known.	eng
163725	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species; searches should be conducted throughout Meghalaya and adjacent regions.	eng
163725	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Paragomphus echinoccipitalis</em> is known only from Meghalya in India (e.g. Fraser 1922, 1924, 1934; Lahiri 1987; Mitra 1999). The only confirmed record appears to be of the type female, collected in the Khasi Hills.	eng
163725	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
163725	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known only from a single female. Lahiri (1987) recorded three further specimens (including two males) from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, but in 1989 he included it in a list of species not recorded from India since their original description; presumably the 1987 record was a misidentification.	eng
163725	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163726	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species before a truly accurate conservation assessment can be made. Further sampling needs to be carried out across its known range, and searches should be made in Myanmar, Cambodia and Viet Nam.	eng
163726	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Idionyx opata</em> is known from Meghalaya in northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1921, 1922, 1936; Lahiri 1987) and from Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1987; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; where records from the Chiang Mai, Phrae and Ranong, and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999). The species is very likely to occur in Myanmar and should be looked for in Viet Nam and Cambodia.	eng
163726	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species. It appears to breed in forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.	eng
163726	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are not many records of this species (but <em>Idionyx</em> species are often very difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture). Fraser (1936) gives no indication of its abundance, Asahina (1981) lists three specimens from Thailand and then a further four (1987). Lahiri (1987) recorded a male from the type locality (Cherrapunjee, near Mawsmai Cave) in Meghalaya, Yokoii (1999) recorded the species from Lao PDR (one male from Vangvieng).	eng
163726	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163727	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this common species at this time. However there is a need for more data from Kalimantan and from Palawan.	eng
163727	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea subcostalis</em> is known from Borneo and Palawan (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). Records from Borneo are from Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Hincks 1930, Kimmins 1936, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Kitagawa 1997, Dow 2007), Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989, Hämäläinen 1994, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Paulson 2004), Brunei (van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995, Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954, van Tol and Norma-Rashid 1995).	eng
163727	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species breeds in forest streams. Although Orr (2003) wrote "prefers small tributaries well within primary forest". R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) has found this species to be common at several secondary forest locations in Sarawak. It occurs from near sea level to over 1,000 m in the Kelabit Highland in northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163727	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea subcostalis</em> is a common species in lowland rainforest, at least in north Borneo.	eng
163727	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. subcostalis</span> is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163728	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	A revision is underway to resolve the taxonomic confusion surrounding the species and its allies. Until this revision is satisfactorily completed it is difficult to plan species-specific conservation measures, however there is a need for further data on distribution and population on all the <em>Coeliccia</em> species found in Borneo.	eng
163728	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to Borneo, all records that might be of this species are from Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei (e.g. Laidlaw 1918, 1920, 1931 and 1932; Kimmins 1936; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2001; Dow 2007). The only record that can be said to be definite at this time is the original one (Selys 1886).	eng
163728	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Forms that may be <em>C. borneensis</em> are found in small forest streams in steep terrain, and sometimes in alluvial forest. There are some morphological differences between the forms found in different habitats; they may represent separate species. Until this issue is resolved it is not possible to say anything more precise on the habitat of <em>C. borneensis</em> than ‘lowland forest’.	eng
163728	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	At present only one specimen is known that is definitely of this species (the type), but forms that might be <em>C. borneensis</em> are sparsely distributed in lowland forest in northeast Sarawak and Brunei.	eng
163728	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is certainly at threat from clear-cutting of lowland forest.	eng
163729	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	We have insufficient knowledge of this species for effective conservation planning. It is certainly present in protected areas in Brunei and Sarawak. Further sampling throughout Borneo, and taxonomic work, is urgently needed.	eng
163729	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from Sarawak, with definite records from Lawas (Laidlaw 1913), Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936) and Lambir Hills National Park (Dow 2007), and from two locations in Brunei (Orr 2001). All the certain records from Sarawak are from the north-east, so that the range of the species appears to be north-eastern Sarawak and Brunei. If <em>D. monoceros</em> (see Taxonomic Notes) proves to be a synonym, then the known range extends to east Kalimantan.	eng
163729	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species appears to favour small streams in mixed dipterocarp forest, but a few specimens, questionably referred to this species (see Taxonomic Notes), have been collected in alluvial forest at Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak.	eng
163729	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	We have little information on populations of this species. It was described from a single female taken somewhere in the Lawas area of north-eastern Sarawak (Laidlaw 1913), a second female is known from Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936). More recently it was found at two locations in Brunei by Orr (2001), but he gives no information on numbers of specimens. R. Dow collected a male at Lambir Hills National Park in Sarawak in 2005 (Dow 2007). Other recently collected material from several locations may represent one or more separate species (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163729	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species area is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163730	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this species. As well as further sampling in Thailand, it should be searched for in Myanmar and Lao PDR at least. Conservation measures must centre around preservation and proper management of suitable habitat.	eng
163730	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Indolestes anomalus</em> is so far known only from Thailand (Asahina 1985, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), where there are a few records from Tak, Lampang and Chaiyaphum. The type locality, "Siam, Doun Moi" (Fraser 1946) cannot be relocated. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007) found this species once in Lampang  province in a shallow pool in Huay Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve, and there is a specimen in A. Pinratanas' collection from Mae Sot in Tak province (Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163730	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information has been published on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the specimen from Huay Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve was collected at a “shallow pool” at an altitude of at least 300 m.	eng
163730	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Indolestes anomalus</em> is known from only a few records, it appears to be a scarce species, but may be under-recorded. The only recent records are of single specimens.	eng
163730	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163731	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed for this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Manipur and adjacent areas.	eng
163731	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia schmidtii</em> is known from two males from one location at 1,200 ft in Manipur State, India (Asahina 1984).	eng
163731	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no published information on the habitats and ecology of this species, but it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in forest streams on hills and mountains, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.	eng
163731	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens are known of this species. This is likely to reflect a lack of sampling in suitable habitats in east India and Myanmar rather than actual rarity.	eng
163731	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the known area of collection is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163732	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be conducted in the Western Ghats.	eng
163732	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Idionyx saffronata</em> is known only from the Western Ghats of India (e.g. Fraser 1924, 1931, 1936).	eng
163732	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1936) states that the species occurs of altitudes of 3,000 ft and more. Nothing else is known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
163732	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fraser (1936) records seeing swarms of 30 or more of this species flying near Coorg in the Western Ghats, but there appears to have been a total lack of records since that time. <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to capture, and generally impossible to identify without capture, and there has been a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats since Fraser’s day (1930s); the lack of recent records is as likely to reflect these factors as it is actual rarity.	eng
163732	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163733	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this Data Deficient species.	eng
163733	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from around Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1976).	eng
163733	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The only information that we have is the following: "the males were collected at the foot of a small spring falling from some height, shaded with overhanging plants, but the female was collected from dried up nulla (a steep, narrow valley), quite far away from water" (Lahiri 1976).	eng
163733	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the type series of three males and one female (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163733	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163734	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches should be made throughout the Western Ghats.	eng
163734	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Dysphaea ethela</em> is known from Karnataka and Kerala in India (Fraser 1924, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995).	eng
163734	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Subramanian (2005) gives the habitat as torrential hill streams, Fraser (1924) gave the habitat as rivers and <span style="font-style: italic;">D. ethela</span> is known to breed in streams and rivers.	eng
163734	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	At one time it appears to have been at least moderately common on rivers in Karnataka and Kerala, Fraser (1934) states that “in Coorg it is taken all along the course of the Cauvery and many of its tributaries, being less common on the Hatti and Harrangay Rivers”. The only apparent recent records are a photographic one on the Asia-Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net] from Kerala, and in Subramanian (2005) where there is also a photograph, and the species is described as “rare”, but no indication is given of numbers of individuals collected or seen. Fraser (1924) noted that <em>Dysphaea ethela</em> are “very shy insects and difficult to take”, suggesting that this may be an under-recorded species.	eng
163734	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163735	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on population sizes and trends; conservation depends on the preservation of suitable mountain habitats.	eng
163735	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Calicnemia miles</em> is known to occur in northeast and east India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad 1975, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Myanmar (Fraser 1933), Chiang Mai in northern Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1984, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), north Viet Nam (Asahina 1997), Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000, Yokoi and Kano 2002) and Guangxi in south China (Wilson and Reels 2003).	eng
163735	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is found in forest streams in hills and mountainous areas, apparently preferring steep damp cliffs near waterfalls (Asahina 1985).	eng
163735	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This appears to be one of the commonest <em>Calicnemia</em> species, but it has not often been recorded and occurs at low densities where found. However <em>Calicnemia</em> species are often inconspicuous, so it may merely be under-recorded.	eng
163735	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is known to be experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163736	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Conservation measures must centre around the identification and protection of suitable areas of lowland forest habitat in Java.	eng
163736	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macromia erato</em> is known only from a few scattered locations in west Java (Lieftinck 1950, 1954).	eng
163736	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is found in shallow lowland streams and brooks with a sandy bottom, preferably in densely forested areas. Larva found in shallow water, living buried in clean sand of shore deposits and sand-spits (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163736	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a poorly known species. Lieftinck (1950) lists 11 specimens, as far as is known, these are all that have ever been collected.	eng
163736	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There has been extensive destruction of lowland forest habitats in west Java. One of the few locations where the species was known from, and the most accessible, was a forest stream in the botanic garden at Bogor; since Lieftinck's time (1930s) the stream has been canalized and it appears that this species no longer occurs there.	eng
163737	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for more research on distribution, populations etc.	eng
163737	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a wide ranging species, in some of the works cited below it is referred to as <em>P. bengalense</em> Laidlaw, 1919 (see Taxonomic Notes). It is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1977, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (Vick 1987, 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1933),  Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Asahina 1966, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 19999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1931, Lieftinck 1954, Kalkman 2004, Orr 2005), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Hainan Island (Wilson and Reels 2001), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1934) and Java (Lieftinck 1935).	eng
163737	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in ponds and lakes, and has also been recorded in Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992).	eng
163737	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a fairly common insect over much of its range, but it appears to be rather local in occurrence and is probably under-recorded due to it superficial similarity to <em>P. microcephalum</em> and other blue and black coloured <em>Pseudagrion</em> species.	eng
163737	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	There do not appear to be any major threats to this species at present.	eng
163738	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species. Searches should be made in Pahang and adjacent areas of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163738	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Drepanosticta hamadryas</em> is known only from the type locality in Pahang, peninsular Malaysia (Laidlaw 1931).	eng
163738	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Presumably this species breeds in forest streams and trickles, as is the case with other members of the Platystictidae, but no indication of habitat was given for the single known specimen.  Orr (2005) gives the habitat as “lowland and montane forest springs and streams”, but it is not clear on what information this is based.	eng
163738	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	A very poorly known species, only known from a single male collected in 1921.	eng
163738	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Deforestation is a known threat to the area that this species has been previously collected in.	eng
163739	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data; until this is obtained effective conservation planning is impossible. Searches need to be made in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand.	eng
163739	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from one location in south Viet Nam (Asahina 1969) and one location in Lao PDR (Fraser 1933).	eng
163739	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, but hill and mountain forest streams is the likely habitat, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.	eng
163739	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>C. montana</em> appears to be a scarce species, with only two specimens known; however this might be the result of under-collecting in suitable habitat in Viet Nam and Lao PDR.	eng
163739	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Deforestation is a possible threat to this species suspected habitat.	eng
163740	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species. Searches need to be made in Peninsular Malaysia and in southern Thailand, where the species may also occur.	eng
163740	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	The adult of this species is known with certainty only from the type locality in Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia, although Murphy (1997) records the species from Singapore as "local", but the source of this record is unclear to R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008). Lieftinck (1932) lists a larva from Kedah and Lieftinck (1964) states that “I have received larvae ... from various other localities in Malaya”, without listing these localities. Norma-Rashid (pers. comm. 2007) reports finding the larvae "in most states". S. Butler (pers. comm. 2007) states "I found this larva in Endau Rompin (Johor) and Kanaboi (Negeri Sembilan)". Based on this information all that can be said is that the species appears to be widespread in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163740	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	A species of forest streams. “larvae ... among rubble in swift water” (Orr 2005). Nothing else is yet known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163740	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>H. kelantanensis</em> appears to be severely under-collected as the adult. Lieftinck (1964) states “though probably not rare in forested areas ... the sombre colours and arboreal habits of this dragonfly render it a very inconspicuous and easily overlooked insect”. Orr (2005) states that it is a “rare endemic inhabitant of forest streams”, but judging by recent unpublished records of larvae (Butler 2007, Norma-Rashid 2007) it may actually be quite a common species.	eng
163740	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a major threat to this species.	eng
163741	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data on <em>V. a. apicalis</em> and <em>V. a. submontana</em> is needed, searches should be made in all parts of India from which the species has been recorded. Conservation measures will centre around preservation of suitable habitat.	eng
163741	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis apicalis</em> is known from India and Sri Lanka (subspecies <em>V. a. nigrescens</em>). Records are from the Eastern and Western Ghats, north-east India and West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1934, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Subramanian 2005). Records of <em>V. a. submontana</em> are from the Nilgiri Hills and the Eastern Ghats, <em>V. a. nigrescens</em> is confined to Sri Lanka, where it appears to be quite widely distributed (e.g. de Fonseka 2000).	eng
163741	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forest streams in hilly areas.	eng
163741	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are few recent records of this species from India, but Subramanian (2005) states that <em>V. apicalis</em> is “commonly found along hill streams” in the Western Ghats. The lack of recent records from other parts of India is likely to be a result of a lack of expert sampling in these areas. <em>V. a. nigrescens</em> appears to be fairly common in parts of Sri Lanka.	eng
163741	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops.	eng
163742	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further data is needed on this species, especially on its distribution and exact habitat requirements. Conservation measures will have to centre around the protection of suitable forest habitats.	eng
163742	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Oligoaeschna niisatoi</em> is known only from Mount Piaoac, Cao Bang Province, north Viet Nam (Karube 1998, Kawashima 2002).	eng
163742	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Larvae have been recorded from a forest pool on Mount Piaoac (Kawashima 2002), close to the location where the type series was collected. It appears that this species breeds in forest pools. The altitude at which the specimens (adults and larvae) were collected has not been published.	eng
163742	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only four adults (Karube 1998) and a number of larvae (Kawashima 2002) of <em>Oligoaeschna niisatoi</em> have been recorded.	eng
163742	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163743	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh data is needed on this species; searches should be made in areas inland from the towns of Lawas and Limbang and in the Dulit range. Conservation measures will centre around protection of suitable habitat, at least part of the Dulit Range is a proposed National Park, however it is not clear whether or not the River Koyan will be within the boundaries of this protected area.	eng
163743	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura peramoena</em> is endemic to Borneo, where all records are from northeast Sarawak. The type series comes from Lawas and Limbang (Laidlaw 1913), but these are probably just the nearest towns to the actual locations at which the species was collected. There is a specimen labelled <span style="font-style: italic;">peramoena</span> from ‘Claudetown’ (now Marudi) in the British Museum of Natural History, but this appears to belong to the related species discussed in Taxonomic Notes. The only other known location is the river Koyan in the Dulit range (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163743	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	We have little information on the habitat requirements of this species. The river Koyan in the Dulit range is apparently a rocky upland forest stream; there is no information available on the habitat at the type localities.	eng
163743	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known with certainty from only nine specimens, however the exact type locations cannot be traced and the river Koyan in the Dulit range is a difficult to reach location, not sampled since the species was collected there in 1932 (Kimmins 1936).	eng
163743	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area is known to be experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163744	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made in west Bengal and adjacent areas.	eng
163744	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalogomphus flavicolor</em> is known only from West Bengal in India (Fraser 1923, 1934).	eng
163744	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unclear, but presumably it breeds in forest streams, as is the case with other <em>Megalogomphus</em> species.	eng
163744	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Megalogomphus flavicolor</em> is known only from two females (Fraser 1923). Lahiri (1989) includes it in a list of species not recorded in India since its description.	eng
163744	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development and forest clearance for agricultural crops.	eng
163745	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is not have enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made throughout Borneo, Sumatra and Belitung.	eng
163745	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gynacantha maclachlani</em> is known from a few records from north and west Borneo, Sumatra (Lieftinck 1954) and Belitung (Lieftinck 1954). Records from Borneo are from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001), “North Borneo” (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954), which presumably refers to Sabah, once known as British North Borneo and presumably from western Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163745	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) gives the habitat as lowland forest, nothing else is known.	eng
163745	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Judging by the scarcity of records, this appears to be a rare, or at least under-recorded species. The only recent record that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware of is of a single specimen from Brunei (Orr 2001).	eng
163745	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163746	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The planning of conservation measures for this species is dependent on the gathering of more data. Searches need to be made in north and northeast India, taxonomic work is also required.	eng
163746	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus cacharicus</em> is known only from India, where there is an old record from Assam (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Fraser 1934) and a relatively recent one from Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997). However, as this species was described from a female, and the male has never been described, the record of a male from Arunachal Pradesh needs some confirmation (see also Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163746	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any published information on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is almost certainly a species of streams and rivers, and is very likely to have some degree of dependence on forest.	eng
163746	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens of this species appear to have been collected (and some doubt as to the identity of one of them must remain, see Taxonomic Notes). Evidently it is scarce and/or under collected.	eng
163746	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163747	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species outside of Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia, but beyond this there does not appear to be much need for specific conservation measures for this species, which occurs in secondary forest and is well represented in protected areas in Sarawak and Brunei at least.	eng
163747	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Brachygonia oculata</em> is known from the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), where it is present on Borneo and Sumatra and many smaller islands (e.g. Belitung), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), southern Thailand (Pinratana 2003) and Cambodia (Asahina 1967). On Borneo and in Peninsular Malaysia at least it is very widely distributed in the lowlands.	eng
163747	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	"Inhabitants of a wide range of alluvial forest, peat swamp forest and other forested marshy areas" (Orr 2003); R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) adds that it occurs not only in flooded forest and forest pools, but also along slow flowing swamp forest streams.	eng
163747	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	In at least parts of its range this is a common species, for instance Orr (2001) records it from 12 locations in Brunei; Dow has recorded it from 10 locations in Sarawak (2007), at many of which it is abundant.	eng
163747	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a forest species, but one that can thrive in secondary forest. However it is threatened by clear-felling and plantation establishment.	eng
163748	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species, especially from Kalimantan and Sabah, where fresh sampling is needed on larger streams and rivers. There is cause for concern over this species, as a lowland forest dweller, conservation measures must centre around the protection of suitable habitat.	eng
163748	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Dysphaea lugens</em> is known from Borneo, where there are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, Asahina 1966, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001) and Kalimantan (Ris 1911; Laidlaw 1931; Lieftinck 1953, 1954). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from Sabah, but its occurrence there seems probable.	eng
163748	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Dysphaea lugens</em> appears to prefer larger, open canopy streams and rivers in lowland forest.	eng
163748	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>Dysphaea lugens</em> is "common over the wide sluggish streams of the southern alluvial plains", but we have no recent data on the species from Kalimantan, where we know that widespread habitat destruction has taken place. In Brunei and Sarawak it appears to be locally common; Matsuki and Kitagawa (1993) record five males taken over five days at Gunung Mulu National Park in 1989, Orr (2001) records the species from five locations in Brunei. However <em>D. lugens</em> is very similar to <em>D. dimidiata</em>, a much commoner species, so that there is considerable scope for misidentification.	eng
163748	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163749	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Although the available evidence suggests that this species is moderately common in the Himalayas, there is a need for further data on its distribution.	eng
163749	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Indolestes cyaneus</em> is known from northern India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Baijal 1955, Prasad and Kumar 1977, Kumar 1982, Tyagi 1984, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1974; Mahato 1986, 1989; Vick 1989), Bhutan (Fraser 1936) and Taiwan (e.g. Asahina 1966).	eng
163749	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in mountain streams.	eng
163749	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Indolestes cyaneus</em> appears to be moderately common in parts of India and Nepal at least.	eng
163749	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163750	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Pakistan.	eng
163750	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>A. vulvalis</em> is known only from one location (Mingora) in Pakistan (Yousuf and Yunes 1977).	eng
163750	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	No information is available on the habitat or ecology of this species. It is likely to be a species of forest streams in hills and mountains.	eng
163750	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>A. vulvalis</em> was described from two females; no other records have been found.	eng
163750	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is affected by habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163751	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species; searches should be made in the Maldives.	eng
163751	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Enallagma maldivensi</em> is known only from the type series collected on the islands of Mahlos and Hulule, Maldives (Laidlaw 1902).	eng
163751	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown.	eng
163751	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is known only from the type series (five specimens); there is no information on current populations, but given the amount of development that has occurred in the Maldives, very small land area and high human population density (<em>ca</em> 1,105 persons per square kilometre), it can be inferred that the species is in decline; it may already be extinct.	eng
163751	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. A potential major threat to this species is from rising sea levels due to climate change, as the maximum natural elevation in the Maldives is 2.5 m. Development is another major threat; much (or possibly most) of the surface of the larger islands has already been covered with buildings and it is questionable whether any suitable habitat remains for this species.	eng
163752	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Conservation of this species depends on the protection of suitable forest habitats (including secondary ones). It certainly occurs in a number of protected areas in Sarawak, Brunei and Peninsular Malaysia; as long as suitable habitats are protected in the rest of its range, its future should be secure.	eng
163752	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Cratilla metallica</em> is a widespread species, known from Nepal (Vick 1989), Thailand (Asahina 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) where it occurs as far north as Kanchanaburi, Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987, Kemp and Kemp 1989, Orr 2005), Singapore (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Borneo (e.g. Ris 1911, Hincks 1930, Laidlaw 1931, Kimmins 1936, Lieftinck 1953, Asahina 1966, Orr 2001, Dow 2007) where it has been recorded from Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan, Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935, Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), Java (Lieftinck 1954), many other islands in Sundaland (e.g. Lieftinck 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997). Fraser (1936) included Bengal in the distribution of this species, but R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of subsequent records from India or Banglasdesh.	eng
163752	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in forest pools, and occurs in secondary forest.	eng
163752	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Cratilla metallica</em> is a common species in forest across much of its range.	eng
163752	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163753	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, but there is a need for further research.	eng
163753	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known to occur in India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Mitra 1992, Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Sri Lanka (Fraser 1933, de Fonseka 2000), Nepal (Vick 1989), Thailand (Asahina 1982, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Java (Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997).	eng
163753	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Shallow lakes and ponds, where it keeps away from the waters edge and perches on floating vegetation. It has been recorded in tidal Mangrove forest in West Bengal (Mitra 1992) and in brackish lagoons behind a beach in Java (Lieftinck 1934). Writing about the Javan populations in 1954 Lieftinck noted that “essentially an insect of the plains, also found in montane areas” and that “the distribution and habitat suggest high adaptability coupled with involuntary dispersal by wind currents”.	eng
163753	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Apparently common where it occurs, but local. It is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163753	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163754	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	No conservation measures, except for monitoring, appear to be needed for this species.	eng
163754	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Neurothemis tullia</em> is an extremely widespread and common species, occurring throughout mainland tropical and subtropical Asia, Hong Kong, Hainan and Sri Lanka.	eng
163754	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species breeds in marshes, well vegetated ponds and lake margins and rice fields.	eng
163754	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a very common species across much of its large range.	eng
163754	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There do not appear to be any global threats to this very widespread and common species at present.	eng
163755	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for further information, especially from Kalimantan. However the species is certainly present in currently existing protected areas in Sarawak and Brunei, further measures, beyond the creation of additional protected areas, may not be necessary in Sarawak and Brunei. Searches should be made in Kalimantan and in Sabah, where it may also occur.	eng
163755	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> is a widely distributed insect in Sarawak, also occurring in northwest Kalimantan and Brunei. Records from Sarawak are from the Baram river area (Laidlaw 1913, 1920), Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936), Bau (Grinang 2004), Semmengoh Forest Reserve (Paulson 2004), Kubah and Gunung Mulu National Parks (Dow 2007). It is known from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001) and two locations in Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1948).	eng
163755	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> breeds in lowland forest streams.	eng
163755	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Prodasineura hosei</em> appears to be locally common in Sarawak. The record from Brunei is of a single male (Orr 2001), and the records from northwest Kalimantan are of four males (Lieftinck 1948). This is an easily overlooked species that is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163755	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The status of the habitats in Kalimantan is unknown, in Sarawak and Brunei it occurs in protected areas but in other areas the species habitat is experiencing being degraded.	eng
163756	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further sampling and taxonomic work on this species. Fresh searches are needed across its known range. Effective conservation measures will centre on preservation of suitable montane habitat.	eng
163756	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	As currently understood, <em>C. confusa</em> has a large range from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1987), Bhutan (Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Fraser 1934, Smith 1978, Vick 1989), Tibet (Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1948), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948), and north Viet Nam (Asahina 1996). There are a number of records from China, but most of these are probably misidentification's of <em>C. nitens</em> (Wilson 2007), however records from Sichuan and Xizang may be genuine.	eng
163756	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	A montane species. Fraser (1934) states that it “breeds in small brooks meandering through marshes on steep, heavily wooded hill-sides”. Fraser (1943) described the larvae, noting that it was found in "brooks flowing through marshes" and "sluggish irrigation channels". The species appears to be able to survive in some agricultural lands at least.	eng
163756	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species appears to have been common in at least part of its range. Fraser (1934) records it as being common around Shillong (in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) and the number of specimens mentioned by, for instance, Asahina (1977) suggests that it is common at high altitudes in Yunnan. Smith (1978) records it as being uncommon in Kathmandu valley in Nepal. Fewer specimens are mentioned in more recent publications, for instance Lahiri (1987) only records a single male from the Khasi Hills. It is unclear whether this is the result of a declining population, or (more likely) merely reflects a lack of collecting in suitable habitats, or a lack of publication.	eng
163756	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Deforestation is the most obvious threat, but as the species appears to be able to survive in some agricultural areas, pollution due to use of agrochemicals must also be a concern.	eng
163757	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	At present we do not have enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. Searches need to be made in Thailand and Lao PDR, and also in Viet Nam and Cambodia.	eng
163757	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from Lao PDR (Fraser 1933) and Thailand, where there are records from Chanthaburi (Asahina 1981) and Chaiyaphum (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163757	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are no details of habitat or ecology in the published records. Presumably <em>M. borikhanensis</em> is a species of slow flowing, sediment bottomed lowland streams, as is the case with its congeners.	eng
163757	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are few records of <em>Macrogomphus borikhanensis</em>. It was described from a male and a female from Lao PDR (Fraser 1933), the only subsequent records are of a single male from Chanthaburi (Asahina 1981) and a record from Chaiyaphum (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is either scarce or under-recorded.	eng
163757	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests and fires to use the land for agricultural growth.	eng
163758	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data, especially on the distribution of this species. There appears to be a need for better management for invertebrate conservation in Doi Inthanon and other national parks in Thailand.	eng
163758	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from montane forest on Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai, northwest Thailand (Hämäläinen 2003).	eng
163758	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Occurs on small streams in montane forest on Doi Inthanon.	eng
163758	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	A number of specimens have been collected on Doi Inthanon since 1980. Hämäläinen (2003) lists 12 specimens collected by T.W. Donnelly in 1980, plus 10 specimens collected by himself in 1998-1999. To this can be added at least one specimen from 2006 (Dow 2007). This is certainly a rather scarce species, but possibly locally common at times in suitable habitat on Doi Inthanon. Further sampling on Doi Inthanon, other high mountains in northern Thailand, and in adjacent regions in Myanmar and Lao PDR is needed to establish the extent of the distribution of this species.	eng
163758	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The known habitats of this species are all within Doi Inthanon National Park, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of conflicting interests and practices detrimental to odonate populations in national parks in Thailand.	eng
163759	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Research is needed into the species distribution and threats.	eng
163759	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species known to occur only from the central Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India and Maymyo, Toungoo and Karen districts of Myanmar. Lahiri  (1987) states that the species is also known from Bhutan, but R. Dow  (pers. comm. 2008) is unsure of the origin of this record.	eng
163759	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in hill streams.	eng
163759	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
163759	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Habitat degradation of hill streams by agriculture runoff and sedimentation are major threats to the species in the region.	eng
163760	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Conservation measures for this species must centre around preservation of suitable forest habitats. However there does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for the species at this time, although there is a need for further sampling across its range, especially in India and Myanmar.	eng
163760	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Polycanthagyna erythromelas</em> is a widespread species, known from India and Pakistan (e.g. Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1986), China including Hong Kong and Thailand (e.g. Wilson 1997, 1999, 2004, 2005; Wilson and Reels 2001), Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2000) and Viet Nam (e.g. Karube 2004).	eng
163760	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Apparently breeds in small pools near forest streams on mountains.	eng
163760	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Polycanthagyna erythromelas</em> appears to be a quite common species, and is probably under-collected. There is a lack of recent records from India, but this probably reflects a lack of expert sampling.	eng
163760	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163761	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	The status of this species needs to be examined. If it is a good species, conservation measures will centre around preservation of habitat. Fresh searches need to be made in the Khasi hills and adjacent regions of northeast India.	eng
163761	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Prasad and Ghosh 1984).	eng
163761	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is no known information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163761	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the holotype male (Prasad and Ghosh 1984).	eng
163761	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163762	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There does not appear to be a need for special conservation measures for this species at present. It is widely distributed, frequently common where it occurs, and can survive in secondary habitats. There is a need for monitoring, and for fresh data from the Indonesian part of its range at least.	eng
163762	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Podolestes orientalis</em> is known from peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Lieftinck 1954; Orr 2005), Sarawak (e.g. Kimmins 1936, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Paulson 2004, Dow 2007), Brunei (Orr 2001), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1954), Belitung (Lieftinck 1954) and other islands between Sumatra and the Malay peninsular (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163762	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Most common in swamp forest habitats. In Sarawak it occurs in both freshwater and peat swamp forest, also sometimes on streams in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. The larvae of the species in this genus are all unknown; the exact larval habitat remains something of a mystery. It occurs in secondary as well as primary forest.	eng
163762	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is common in suitable habitat in Malaysia (East and West), and was common in Sumatra and Belitung, but there is a lack of recent records from these islands, probably due to lack of collecting effort over the last 50-60 years.	eng
163762	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a threat to this species, although the severity needs to be monitored.	eng
163763	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.	eng
163763	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Neurobasis chinensis chinensis</em> is widely distributed in mainland Asia, occurring in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, China, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. subspecies <em>florida</em> occurs in Java. There are no known records from Cambodia, but its occurrence in this country is highly probable (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008).	eng
163763	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forested and partially forested streams, often in agricultural land.	eng
163763	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a very common species over much of its range.	eng
163763	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	This common species does not appear to be under any major threats at present.	eng
163764	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species, especially on its distribution. Searches should be made in northeast India and Myanmar. With more information planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place.	eng
163764	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Philoganga montana</em> is known from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1934, Prasad and Ghosh 1984, Lahiri 1987, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1986, 1989; Kemp and Butler 2001) and Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and possibly from Bangladesh. Indian records are from Meghalaya and West Bengal. In Thailand it has only been found at three sites in Kanchanaburi (Hämäläinen 2007).	eng
163764	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Most records of <em>Philoganga montana</em> are from mountain streams, but Kemp and Butler (2001) recorded the species from the Phewa Tal lake, observing reproductive behaviour and females ovipositing into the bark of trees overhanging the lake at up to 5 m above the shore; however they note that “the lake is essentially a regulated river controlled by a dam.”  Adults were observed to “remain on or about trees in which all reproductive and oviposition behaviour takes place”.	eng
163764	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species may be moderately common in mountains in northeast India and in Nepal; it is difficult to judge this from the available information. Kemp and Butler (2001) found the species to be fairly common around the Phewa Tal lake in the Pokhara valley in central Nepal in May 2000. Lahiri (1987) states that, in Meghalaya it is “commonly found along montane streams overhanged with bushes”, but only lists four specimens from different locations, collected in the early 1970s. In Thailand it appears to be very scarce; there are three records, each of single individuals, from separate streams in Kanchanaburi (Hämäläinen 2007). Given the arboreal habits of the species (see Habitat and Ecology) it is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163764	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. montana</span> is experiencing habitat loss due to deforestation.	eng
163765	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed on this species.	eng
163765	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from two locations in Ninh Binh Province, North Viet Nam (Asahina 1997).	eng
163765	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no published information on the habitat or ecology of this species, but the known specimens were collected at altitudes of 450 m and 370 m; it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of forest streams on hills and mountains, as is the case with many other species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.	eng
163765	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens are known.	eng
163765	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the known area is a threat to this species.	eng
163766	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed for this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Viet Nam.	eng
163766	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from a single male collected at 890 m on Ban A Chia, Hung Nga, Muong Lay, Lai Chau Province, Viet Nam (Asahina 1987).	eng
163766	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of streams in montane forest, as is the case with many species of <em>Coeliccia</em>.	eng
163766	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only a single specimen is known.	eng
163766	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the known area of this species is a likely threat.	eng
163767	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further information on this poorly known species is urgently needed. Searches need to be made in southern Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163767	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from two widely separated areas of Thailand: Nakhon Si Thammarat (Laidlaw 1931) and Nakhon Nayok (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163767	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat requirements are unclear from published information on this species, but it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in forest streams, as is the case with most other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.	eng
163767	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	A poorly known and apparently scarce species, known from very few specimens.	eng
163767	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Deforestation is a possible threat to the suspected habitat of this species.	eng
163768	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is severely data deficient. Further data is needed before the planning of conservation measures (if needed) can take place. Such data will only be gathered by extensive collecting in Sumatra.	eng
163768	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Oligoaeschna sumatrana</em> is known only from Mount Kerintji, west Sumatra (Lieftinck 1953, 1954, 1968).	eng
163768	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown. The holotype was collected at 1,600 m, presumably this is a forest species and is likely to breed in pools or swampy areas.	eng
163768	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only the holotype male is known (Lieftinck 1953, 1968).	eng
163768	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163769	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	New data is urgently needed, at present conservation planning is impossible due to lack of data. Searches need to be made on Banguey Island and in adjacent regions of Sabah, as well as further afield.	eng
163769	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from one location on Banggi (Banguey in older literature) Island off the coast of Sabah.	eng
163769	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown, but presumably a swamp forest species (as is the case for other <em>Amphicnemis</em> species).	eng
163769	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from a single, male specimen.	eng
163769	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The status of the habitat on Banggi Island is unknown.	eng
163770	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further information on the distribution of this species. We have no recent information from Kalimantan; searches need to be made there, and in Sabah, where there is only one record of the species. However it appears to be quite common in Sarawak and Brunei, and it is certainly present in a number of protected areas. Beyond the establishment of further protected areas in lowland forest across its range, there does not appear to be any current need for special conservation measures for this species.	eng
163770	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Leptogomphus coomansi</em> is endemic to Borneo. There are records from northwest Kalimantan (Laidlaw 1936, Lieftinck 1948), Brunei (Orr 2001), Sarawak (Dow 2007) and Sabah (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1989). R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any records from southern or eastern Kalimantan.	eng
163770	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) states that <em>L. coomansi</em> occurs in "runnels in forest-marshes of the lowlands." Orr (2003) states that it is “sometimes abundant in alluvial swamps where it may be found basking in sunlight on the fronds of Pinanga bordering muddy rivulets."  The species also occurs on larger streams with pebble bottoms (e.g. on the Sungai Rayu at Kubah National Park in west Sarawak and the Sungai Melinau and smaller streams at Gunung Mulu National Park in northeast Sarawak, Dow 2007); it appears that this species can occupy a variety of lowland forest stream habitats.	eng
163770	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Although there are not many records of this species, it appears to be quite common in parts of Brunei and Sarawak at least. It is an inconspicuous species, with rather sedentary habits; it is likely to be under-collected.	eng
163770	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is threatening this species.	eng
163771	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species appears secure in Sarawak, where it occurs in habitats such as roadside ponds, and is represented in several national parks (Gunung Mulu, Lambir Hills and Loagan Bunut). In Brunei it appears to occupy more specialist, less disturbed habitats, but this may reflect insufficient sampling in disturbed habitats. There is a need for more sampling, especially outside of Sarawak; the species should be searched for in Sabah and Kalimantan. In Brunei there may be a need for further conservation measures.	eng
163771	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from two locations in Brunei (Orr and van Tol 2001, Orr 2001) one of which is now severely degraded Brunei, and a number of locations spread across Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163771	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in ponds, lakes and open marshes, including acidic waters. So far only recorded in lowland areas.	eng
163771	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Sarawak this is quite a common insect, especially in the northeast of the state. In Brunei only two locations are known, one of which is now severely degraded; the species appears to be significantly less common here.	eng
163771	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through fire damage.	eng
163772	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for further data on this species before effective conservation planning can be carried out. Searches need to be made throughout Sumatra.	eng
163772	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to Sumatra, where it is known from the south and west of the island (Lieftinck 1935, 1954).	eng
163772	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been recorded at small streams in primitive forest at 300 - 600 m (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163772	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are no recent records of this species. The type series from south Sumatra comprised 20 individuals collected over six consecutive days in 1934, suggesting that the species was at least moderately common at that location at that time. The species was also found in west Sumatra at some time between 1934 and 1954 (Lieftinck 1954), but there is no published record of the numbers, or exact location.	eng
163772	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use.	eng
163773	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	The priority for this species is for more information; expert sampling is urgently needed in Java and Sumatra. Once we have adequate data to determine the current distribution of the species and what threats it faces, conservation planning can commence (if needed).	eng
163773	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus geometricus</em> is known from Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954; Schmidt 1934) and (subspecies <em>perplexus</em>) from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935, 1937, 1954).	eng
163773	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lieftinck (1954) reports this species is found at fast running streams in forested areas, upwards to 1,200 m, also in low cultivated areas. An arborical (relating to trees) species, widely but sparingly distributed.	eng
163773	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There have been no records of this species for at least 50-60 years, however there has been a lack of expert sampling in Java and Sumatra over this period (since M.A. Lieftinck left the region <em>ca</em> late 1940s). Writing in 1934 about the Javan population, Lieftinck stated  “a very scarce species, but apparently widely spread and possibly not uncommon locally”. As far as R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware <em>O. g. perplexus</em> is only known from a single male.	eng
163773	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163774	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is little recent data available on this species; fresh data is urgently needed for effective conservation planning. At least part of its habitat is protected in national parks. Fresh searches should be made on Engano and in mountainous areas of Sumatra.	eng
163774	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Sumatra (e.g. Campion 1925; Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1954) and Engano Island (Lieftinck 1948).	eng
163774	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	"Sub-montane and montane, by small torrential streams in shady situations, from 600 m to 1,700 m" (Lieftinck 1954); this summarises our knowledge of the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163774	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Lieftinck (1935) lists nine locations in Sumatra, but these records are all from 1935 or earlier. Hämäläinen (pers. comm. 2007) found this species at four sites in the Kerinci area, in West Sumatra and Jambi provinces, in 1997, stating that “I think that <em>E. uniformis</em> is not uncommon in montane forest streams in Sumatra.” These are the only recent records that R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is aware of. Only two specimens have been recorded from Engano.	eng
163774	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163775	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for more data on the distribution of this species and fresh information on population sizes, but no special conservation measures appear to be needed at present.	eng
163775	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Anisopleura lestoides</em> is known from India (e.g. Laidlaw 1917; Fraser 1927, 1934; Prasad and Singh 1976; Hämäläinen 1989; Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1959, Vick 1989).	eng
163775	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forest streams above 1,000 m.	eng
163775	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Anisopleura lestoides</em> appears to be fairly common in parts of its range, for instance Hämäläinen (1989) lists 32 specimens from two locations in the Dehra Dun valley in Uttarakhand.	eng
163775	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163776	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further information is needed on this species before conservation measures can be planned.	eng
163776	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Planaeschna chiengmaiensis</em> is known only from Chiang Mai, north-west Thailand (Asahina 1981, 1986; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163776	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is a montane species; no further information on its habitats or ecology is known.	eng
163776	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only a few specimens of this species are known.	eng
163776	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163777	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this poorly known species. Conservation measures must centre around preservation of suitable lowland forest habitats.	eng
163777	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macromia callisto</em> is known from scattered locations in Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1922, 1931; Lieftinck 1950, 1954, 1971), in Kelantan, Selangor and central Perak; Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1987; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), in Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Ratchasima, Trang and Songkhla; and one location in central Lao PDR (Yokoi 2000).	eng
163777	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia callisto</span> breeds in small streams in lowland forest and it is not known if it occurs in secondary forest.	eng
163777	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is a poorly known species, probably less than 20 specimens are known in total. <em>Macromia</em> species are difficult to capture, so the species may be under-recorded. However, on present evidence the species must be regarded as rare.	eng
163777	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	As a lowland forest dweller this species may be regarded as especially vulnerable to the ongoing habitat loss through clear-cutting for farming.	eng
163778	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this poorly known species. Searches need to be made in western and northeastern India.	eng
163778	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Endemic to India, where it is known from the western part of the peninsular (e.g. Fraser 1920, 1933), and apparently from the northeast (Prasad and Varshney 1995); the origin of this record is unclear to R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008).	eng
163778	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The type locality was described as scrub jungle near lakes but a single specimen was recorded from a stream (Fraser 1933); in the absence of further data it appears best to assume that this is a species of swamp forest and forest pools, like many other <em>Mortonagrion</em> species. Known to occur “at sea-level or on the foothills” (Fraser 1933).	eng
163778	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is no recent information available on this species. It was common at the type locality (Pawai lake) in western India near Bombay (Fraser 1933).	eng
163778	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The status of the type locality is unknown but doubtful. Further data on this species is urgently needed.	eng
163779	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	In Sarawak this species is present in a number of national parks (e.g. Bako, Gunung Mulu, Loagan Bunut) and other protected areas, and appears to be adequately protected at present. Insufficient data is available from Kalimantan; more information is needed. Searches need to be made in Kalimantan and in Sabah, further data from Brunei and under-sampled areas of Sarawak is also needed.	eng
163779	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Borneo, records from Brunei, Kalimantan and Sarawak. Recorded from one location in Brunei (Orr 2001), two locations in Kalimantan (Ris 1911, Lieftinck 1940) and Sarawak (Laidlaw 1913, 1920). Recent collecting in Sarawak has uncovered the species at 11 locations, many in protected areas, but also in unprotected swamp forest habitats. These locations are spread across the state (Dow 2005, 2006, 2007; Dow and Reels 2005).	eng
163779	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Most common in lowland peat swamp forest, but also occurring in freshwater swamp forest and occasionally on streams (these records may be of dispersing individuals). The species occurs from sea level to at least 100 m (at Bako National Park in west Sarawak); the species may well be found at higher altitudes where suitable swamp forest habitats occur.	eng
163779	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is common at a number of the locations known in Sarawak. The results from Sarawak suggest that the species is likely to be more common in northwest Kalimantan and in Brunei than published records suggest, and it is very likely to occur in Sabah as well.	eng
163779	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Swamp forest habitats are generally threatened in Borneo, especially in Kalimantan.	eng
163780	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Aside from the need to monitor populations, no specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this very widespread and common species.	eng
163780	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orthetrum glaucum</em> is distributed throughout tropical and subtropical Asia and south and east to New Guinea. There are a few countries from which R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of other records: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia and Lao PDR; it has probably been recorded from these countries, and its occurrence there is almost certain.	eng
163780	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species breeds in ponds, drains, ditches and other open lentic habitats.	eng
163780	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is common across much of its large range.	eng
163780	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species at present.	eng
163781	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout the Western Ghats.	eng
163781	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gomphidia kodaguensis</em> is known only from the Western Ghats in India, with records from Karnataka (Fraser 1923, 1934; Laidlaw 1930) and Kerala (Fraser 1934).	eng
163781	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species, but it is evidently a species of streams and rivers, and presumably requires some forest for its survival (as is the case with other <em>Gomphidia</em> species). It appears to be a species of hilly and mountainous areas.	eng
163781	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Writing in 1934 Fraser states that <em>G. kodaguensis</em> is “is common in Coorg, especially on the Sampaji and Bhagmandala Rivers, from where the type comes. It is a scarce insect elsewhere.” However, there appears to be no subsequent records of the species. This may reflect a lack of expert sampling in the Western Ghats, but it may also reflect a loss of habitat due to deforestation.	eng
163781	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural and timber crops is one of the major threats to this species.	eng
163782	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data on this very poorly known species is needed before conservation measures (if needed) can be planned. Searches need to be made in Arunachal Pradesh and neighbouring states in India.	eng
163782	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from India. The holotype is from Tahlia in Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1979). The second specimen is from "Salari, 4,000 ft., Kameng, Assam" (Asahina 1985); Kameng is now part of Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
163782	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no published information on the habitat or ecology of this species. However it is reasonable to assume that it breeds in streams in montane forest, as is the case for other <em>Megalestes</em> species.	eng
163782	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens are known.	eng
163782	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area the species has been recorded in is undergoing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163783	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species. Searches need to be made throughout Peninsular Malaysia, and in southern Thailand where this species might also occur. However the increasing number of records from protected areas suggests that the species is not under any great threat.	eng
163783	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Drepanosticta fontinalis</em> is known only from Peninsular Malaysia, with published records from Pahang (Lieftinck 1937, Kalkman 2004), Bukit Mertajam in Penang (Fraser 1942) and Bukit Larut (formerly Maxwell Hill) in Perak (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1987). Kalkman's record from Pahang is from Tioman Island, 50 km from the mainland. C.Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2007) has recorded this species at Gunung Jerai in Kedah, Panti Forest Reserve in Johor and, most recently, Angsi Forest Reserve in Negeri Sembilan.	eng
163783	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been recorded at springs and small streams in primary forest (Orr 2005).	eng
163783	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Orr (2005) states that <em>D. fontinalis</em> is the “commonest member of genus” in Peninsular Malaysia; it certainly appears to be widespread, and it certainly appears to be common at some locations, for instance Panti Forest Reserve in Johor (Choong 2007). It is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163783	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat that is likely to have a negative impact on this species.	eng
163784	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species. Searches need to be made in Myanmar.	eng
163784	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2010	Known only from Myanmar (Fraser 1930, 1933). The type is from "Palon".	eng
163784	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2010	No information available on the habitats or ecology of this species. The type was collected in September.	eng
163784	population	Dow, R. A., 2010	This species is known from three specimens only.	eng
163784	threats	Dow, R. A., 2010	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species at present.	eng
163785	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is data deficient; there is a need for more information before the planning of conservation measures can take place effectively. At present we do not even know the habitat of the species; conservation measures must be built around protection of the habitat.	eng
163785	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Lineaschna polli</em> is known only from two locations in western Sabah (Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1954, von Ellenrieder 2002). The type locality is Mount Marapok, near the border with Sarawak. The other location is in the Crocker Range.	eng
163785	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown habitat information. The two known specimens were both taken in mountainous areas, and the genus is thought to be closely related to <em>Sarasaeschna</em> Karube & Yeh, 2001 (see Lieftinck 1968, Karube and Yeh 2001 and von Ellenrieder 2002); on these grounds it might be best looked for around small pools or marshy areas in montane forest in north Borneo, but this is at best an educated guess.	eng
163785	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from two males, nearly 100 years elapsed between the capture of the specimens. The species is either rare, or under-collected.	eng
163785	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163786	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	We need fresh data on this species for effective conservation planning. The lack of recent records almost certainly reflects a lack of collecting effort in Sumatra over the last 50-60 years, as is suggested by the fact that both of the collections made on the island within the last 20 years included the species. There is a need for further sampling on the island to establish the true limits of its distribution and establish firmly how common it is.	eng
163786	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea bocki</em> is known only from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1929, 1935, 1954; Schmidt 1934; Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), published records are from the north and from central western areas.	eng
163786	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	"Rocky forest streams, from near sea-level up to about 1,000 m" reports Lieftinck in 1954. Hämäläinen (2007) raises the altitude range to <em>ca</em> 1,500 m (although this is a rough estimate) and states that “two of the streams were 4 - 5 m wide fast flowing mountain streams”	eng
163786	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Euphaea bocki</em> may be moderately common in parts of Sumatra, but there are few recent records, reflecting a lack of expert sampling on the island over the last fifty or more years. The most recent published record is from 1987 (Tsuda and Kitagawa 1988), where one specimen is listed from one location in the north. Hämäläinen (unpublished data 2007) recorded the species from three streams in the Mount Kerinci area. These relatively recent records suggest that the species may still be fairy common in the parts of the island from which it had been recorded in the 1930s and before.	eng
163786	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163787	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is urgently needed. If the species is indeed confined to Belitung, and any suitable habitat remains, then the setting up of suitable protected areas is a priority. It should also be searched for on Bangka Island and east Sumatra.	eng
163787	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from two locations on Belitung (formerly Billiton) Island (Lieftinck 1937, 1954). It might also occur on Bangka, between Belitung and Sumatra and should be searched for in Sumatra as well.	eng
163787	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Pools in swamp forest (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163787	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Judging by the number of specimens (49 are included in the type series) collected on Belitung between 1935 and 1937 (Lieftinck 1937) this was probably quite a common insect in swamp forest on the island at that time. There is no data available since that time so it is not possible to make any concrete statements about present populations.	eng
163787	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. The status of the habitats on Belitung is unknown, but doubtful.	eng
163788	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more information on this severely data deficient species. Searches need to be made in the Khasi Hills and other hill and mountain ranges in northeast India.	eng
163788	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (Cowley 1936).	eng
163788	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The habitat of <em>Bayadera kali</em> is unknown, but from the type location this is presumably a montane species.	eng
163788	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Bayadera kali</em> is known from two males (Cowley 1936).	eng
163788	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163789	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present. Although it is certainly local in occurrence, it is widely distributed and is often common where it occurs. It can tolerate disturbance and occurs in secondary habitats. However there is a need for more data, especially from Indonesia, as most recent records are from Malaysia and Brunei.	eng
163789	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orolestes wallacei</em> is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1902, 1931; Orr 2005), Sarawak (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, Lieftinck 1939, Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993, Dow 2007), Sabah (Laidlaw 1931), Brunei (Orr 2001), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1939) and Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935), south-west Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1939, 1954) and from Belitung (Lieftinck 1939, 1954). Records of this species tend to be from scattered locations; for instance in Sarawak there are recent records from Semengoh Forest Reserve (Matsuki and Kitagawa 1993) and Bako National Park (Dow 2007) in the west, Samarakan in Bintulu Division (Dow 2007) and Niah National Park in Miri Division (Dow 2007).	eng
163789	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in a variety of swamp forest situations, including secondary forest.	eng
163789	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Orolestes wallacei</em> is moderately common, but local, in swampy forest habitats. Despite being a large damselfly, it can be inconspicuous, and is likely to be under-recorded.	eng
163789	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.	eng
163790	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on the distribution of this species, it is likely to be more widely dstributed than known at present and should be searched for in the Croker Range in Sabah and at other montane locations in northeast Sarawak and Kalimantan. The habitats on Mount Kinabalu are protected within a national park, as is one known location and much suitable habitat in Pulong Tau National Park in the Kelabit Highlands, moreover there does not appear to be any threat to the other known location in the Kelabit Highlands. Mount Dulit is a proposed national park and although it has been logged, the logging so far was selective, and did not occur at all on the steepest terrain. Beyond the need for further research, there does not seem to be a pressing need for special conservation measures at this time.	eng
163790	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macromia euterpe</em> is endemic to Borneo, where it is known only from the north. Published records are from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1915, 1920, 1934; Hämäläinen 1994), Mount Dulit in Sarawak (Kimmins 1936) and from Mount Merinjak (Laidlaw 1920). The exact position of Mount Merinjak is unclear to me at present, but (contrary to the statement in Lieftinck (1965, footnote on page 355 under <em>Vestalis beryllae</em>) where he states that it is "in the upper Baram river valley, over 50 miles distant from Mount Murud in a northeasterly direction"), it is certainly in Kuching Division in the west, and is probably on or close to the border with Kalimantan. The species also occurs in the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak, where it has been found at two locations (Dow 2007); it is clearly widely distributed in north Borneo.	eng
163790	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Mountain streams in forest. The species appears to be commonest above about 1,100 m, but certainly occurs lower, having been recorded at 700 m or lower on Mount Kinabalu at Poring Hotsprings. Laidlaw (1920) records the species from Mount Merinjak at 600 ft, considerably lower, but this might be an error. It is quite common at around the altitude of the national park headquarters on Mount Kinabalu (<em>ca</em> 1,500 m), and it has been recorded at two locations in the Kelabit Highlands, one at approximately 1,150 m, the other at 1,350 - 1,450 m, where it appeared to be common (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007). One of the locations in the Kelabit Highlands is in secondary forest. The larvae was described by Butler (2002) from an exuviae found below the Kipungit waterfall at Poring Hotsprings on a torrential boulder stream, on the lower slopes of Mount Kinabalu, at 500 m; however the larvae may have originated at a higher altitude.	eng
163790	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species does not seem uncommon above 1,100 m in northeast Sarawak and on Mount Kinabalu on Sabah, and is likely to be found at these altitudes, where suitable habitats remain, at many more locations.	eng
163790	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a known threat to this species, although does not currently appear to be having a negative effect on population numbers.	eng
163791	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Fresh searches need to be made in Lao PDR.	eng
163791	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Protosticta trilobata</em> is known only from Muang Cha, Lao, at an altitude of approximately 1,100 m (Fraser 1933).	eng
163791	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The exact habitat is unknown, but it is reasonable to assume that this is a species of small streams in montane forest.	eng
163791	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the holotype.	eng
163791	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The area where the species has been recorded is experiencing habitat loss through timber extraction.	eng
163792	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More information is needed on this species, on population sizes, distribution and exact habitat requirements. The conservation of <em>O. castor</em> will depend upon the effective protection of suitable forest habitats.	eng
163792	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus castor</em> is known from Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1941, 1954; Orr 2005) and Thailand (Asahina 1986, 1990, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
163792	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Orr (2005) gives the habitat of this species as “clear forest streams”.	eng
163792	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are very few records of this species, each of one or at most two specimens; it is either scarce or under-recorded.	eng
163792	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163793	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Further data is needed on this species. Searches need to be made in hilly and mountainous areas throughout Thailand, and in Viet Nam.	eng
163793	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from Thailand where there are records from Chiang Mai and the Khao Soi Dao mountains in Chanthaburi (Asahina 1984, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Dow 2007) and possibly north Viet Nam (Asahina 1997, subspecies <em>satoi</em>, see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163793	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been collected on forest streams on hills and mountains.	eng
163793	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	At least 12 specimens have been collected in the Khao Soi Dao mountains in Chanthaburi (Asahina 1984, 1990 and a photographic record by O. Kosterin on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net] 2005), fewer have been collected in Chiang Mai. The record from Viet Nam is of a single female, and its identity is questionable (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163793	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.	eng
163794	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species across its known range. The lowland habitats of this species are certainly threatened, and may not be adequately represented in protected areas. The priorities are for searches in all areas where the species has been recorded and for protection of more lowland forest habitat.	eng
163794	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macrogomphus decemlineatus</em> is widespread in Sundaland, with records from east Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1935), Kalimantan (e.g. Lieftinck 1953), Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914), Belitung (Billiton) Island (Lieftinck 1954) and Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995, Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
163794	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>M. decemlineatus</em> is a species of slow flowing lowland forest streams. Orr (2005) summarises what is known about the habitat of the species: “a rare and local species confined to sluggish forest streams and alluvial channels where deep silt is accumulated”.	eng
163794	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species appears to be both scarce and local, although it may also be under-collected. It was described from a male from east Sumatra, subsequently only two more males have been reported from Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935). There are only two records from Kalimantan, and one (of two males) from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1914). Lieftinck (1954) gives no details about the record from Belitung. One male has been recorded in Pahang (Norma-Rashid and van Tol 1995).	eng
163794	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through forest clearance for agricultural crops by clear-cutting and fire is threatening this species.	eng
163795	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species before any reliable assessment of its threat status can be made. Searches need to be carried out in Meghalaya and surrounding areas.	eng
163795	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the vicinity of Shillong in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Fraser 1930, 1933; Lahiri 1989; Prasad and Varshney 1995).	eng
163795	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information available on the habitat or ecology of this species, although based on the type location it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of hills and mountains.	eng
163795	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known from a single female only.	eng
163795	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163796	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Aeshna petalura</em> appears to be quite a common insect where suitable habitat exists. There does not appear to be any immediate cause for concern. Conservation measures should be concentrated on preservation of suitable habitat. There is a need for further sampling to establish the true limits of its range; searches should be made in Myanmar, where its occurrence is likely.	eng
163796	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	A widely distributed species known from northeast India, Bhutan (e.g. Mitra 1999), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989, Mahato and Edds 1993), Guangxi in south China (Wilson 2005) and Taiwan. Records from India are from at least Darjeeling, Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1936; Prasad and Varshney 1995; Mitra 1999, 2004). Further sampling is likely to extend the known range of this species in southern China. It is also likely to occur in Myanmar.	eng
163796	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	A montane species. It breeds in standing water in forested areas. Females are encountered far more often than males.	eng
163796	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Based on published records this seems to be quite a common species in forested mountain areas.	eng
163796	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to clear-cutting forested areas.	eng
163797	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this poorly known species. Searches should be made in Himalaya and adjacent areas.	eng
163797	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>D. z. zallorensis</em> is known only from Himalayan India, but the position of type locality, “Le col de Zallore”, is unknown (Fraser 1934). <em>D. z. delineatus</em> is known from the type locality, Gantok in Sikkim (Fraser 1926, 1934; Lahiri 1987) Fraser states that Gantok is in Darjeeling District, but Lahiri places it in Sikkim), and from Godawari in Nepal at altitudes of 1,464-1,891m (Mahato 1989).	eng
163797	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing has been recorded of the habitat or life history of this species, except that it is clearly a montane species. It is likely to be found at streams or rivers in montane forest.	eng
163797	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>D. z. zallorensis</em> is known only from the type male. <em>D. z. delineatus</em> is known from the holotype male (which is teneral and damaged (Asahina 1955)), a female and from material from Nepal.	eng
163797	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species is continuing to experience habitat loss through human development.	eng
163798	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Further distributional data, and taxonomic work, is needed to make a truly accurate conservation assessment.	eng
163798	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	The range of <em>A. hisopa</em> as currently recognised is large, extending from India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (Vick 1989), Myanmar (Fraser 1933) to Thailand (Fraser 1927, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Viet Nam (Asahina 1969, 1997) and southwards to Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Fraser 1933, 1942; Kalkman 2004; Orr 2005), Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934 etc., as <em>A. aciculare</em>) and Sumatra (Lieftinck 1935 etc., as <em>A. aciculare</em>). However records are relatively scarce and it may exist in scattered, isolated populations. Moreover it is not clear if all records refer to the same species (see Taxonomic Notes).	eng
163798	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Appears to prefer shallow, weedy standing water habitats, often in open and disturbed areas.	eng
163798	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Judging by published records, <em>A. hisopa</em> seems to be quite scarce and local in occurrence over much of its range. However Orr (2005) states that it is “common around ponds and drains in open disturbed areas” in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
163798	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss from human development.	eng
163799	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data on this species is urgently needed, until such data is forthcoming we have inadequate information for conservation planning. Searches need to be made in Thailand, Myanmar, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.	eng
163799	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Gynacantha phaeomeria</em> is known from a few records from Thailand (e.g. Lieftinck 1960, Asahina 1986), from the following provinces: Kanchanaburi, Phrae, Sakon Nakhon and Chiang Mai (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Viet Nam and Lao PDR and should be looked for in these countries.	eng
163799	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Nothing is known of the habitat and ecology of this species. It is likely to be a lowland forest dweller.	eng
163799	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are very few records of this species, it is either rare or under-collected.	eng
163799	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163800	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for further data on the current distribution of this species. As its known range is quite small, and we only have recent records from four locations, it appears vulnerable.	eng
163800	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Endemic to north Borneo. <em>C. coomansi</em> (see taxonomic notes) was described from northwest Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1940). <em>C. flaviostriata</em> is quite common at a number of hill forest locations in Kuching Division in west Sarawak (Dow 2007). The eastern and southern limits of the range of this species are unknown, but it appears to be absent from Sabah and Brunei. Two specimens from the type series were collected at Mount Merinjak. The exact position of Mount Merinjak is confusing at present (to R. Dow pers. comm. 2008), but (contrary to the statement in Lieftinck (1965, footnote on page 355 under <em>Vestalis beryllae</em>) where he states that it is "in the upper Baram river valley, over 50 miles distant from Mount Murud in a northeasterly direction"), it is certainly in Kuching Division, and is probably on or close to the border with Kalimantan, in the vicinity of Gunung Penrissen. The other specimen in the type series was collected at Mount Matang, which presumably refers to the peak of the same name located outside of Kubah National Park near Kuching, however there is at least one more mountain in Sarawak that has been referred to as Mount Matang, located in the extreme northeast close to the border with Sabah. It is best to treat the range of the species as west Sarawak and northwest Kalimantan, at least until the location of the Mount Matang from which type material was collected is confirmed. The species is likely to be present on other forested hills and mountains in west Sarawak (e.g. Gunung Pueh, sometimes referred to as Bukit Karnyi).	eng
163800	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Small hillside streams in forest. Occurs in secondary forest at Annah Rais near to the border with Kalimantan in west Sarawak, and in primary forest in Kubah National Park, Gunung Gading National Park and on Gunung Santubong in west Sarawak (Dow 2007).	eng
163800	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Recently collected at four hill forest locations in west Sarawak (Dow 2007); it is quite common at these locations. We have no recent data from north west Kalimantan.	eng
163800	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is quite common at the known locations in west Sarawak, however these are all within a quite small area. Although two of these locations are national parks, they are small areas and vulnerable to fire. Of the other locations, Gunung Santubong is a proposed national park, but is unlikely to receive protected status in practice because of commercial interests, and at least small scale illegal logging has occurred recently on the mountain. The habitats at Annah Rais are in secondary forest, and are potentially threatened by forest clearance for agriculture.	eng
163801	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	No particular conservation measures appear to be necessary for this widely distributed and probably common species; there is a need for more data.	eng
163801	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Coeliccia didyma</em> is a widespread species, occurring from India to Thailand and Lao PDR and southwards to the Malay peninsula. There are a number of records of this species from China, but (K.D.P. Wilson pers. comm. 2007, Wilson and Xu 2007) those from south China are likely to be misidentifications of <em>C. cyanomelas</em>; however records from Sichuan and Xizang may be genuine.	eng
163801	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species occurs in forest streams in hilly country. In north western Thailand this species has been found in secondary forest (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163801	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This is quite a common insect where it occurs.	eng
163801	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163802	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Fresh data is urgently needed. Effective protection of a variety of swamp forest habitats in southeast Kalimantan is the only measure that can be recommended without further data.	eng
163802	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type locality at Ampah, southeast Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953).	eng
163802	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown, but presumably a swamp forest species like other <em>Amphicnemis</em>; nothing is known about the ecology of this species.	eng
163802	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from a single specimen.	eng
163802	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Swamp forest in Kalimantan is highly threatened.	eng
163803	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species. The association of the sexes needs to be confirmed and further sampling needs to take place both within the known distribution of the species, and in adjacent areas. Sampling in areas of Kalimantan adjacent to the borders with northeast Sarawak and south Sabah is needed. The present data is insufficient for effective conservation planning. Most of the few records of or likely to be of this species are from protected areas (the exception being the type locality).	eng
163803	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Leptogomphus pasia</em> is known with certainty from the Long Pasia area of southern Sabah, close to the border with Sarawak (van Tol 1990), the Kelabit Highlands of northeast Sarawak (Dow 2007) and from the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre in Brunei (Kalkman 2007). Males that may be of this species (see Taxonomic notes) have been collected at the Danum Valley in Sabah (van Tol 1990) and at Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (Dow 2007). Thus the distribution of the species covers northeast Sarawak, Brunei and southern Sabah.	eng
163803	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat in which the holotype was collected was a stream in lower montane rain forest at 1,250 m and the specimen from the Kelabit Highlands was collected in similar habitat. The specimen from Brunei was collected at a seepage in steep terrain in primary lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, the possible males were also collected in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. It is not possible to say at present if the species breeds over the entire altitudinal range from which specimens have been collected.	eng
163803	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only three specimens are known with certainty, if the possible male specimens are included (see Taxonomic Notes) the total is raised to five. This may not reflect actual rarity, just a combination of secretive habits and under-collecting.	eng
163803	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is experiencing habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163804	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data on this species. The majority of known sites are already within protected areas.	eng
163804	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1965, Orr 2003). There are records from Mount Kinabalu and Poring Hot Springs, the Croker Range and the Danum Valley at least. With this distribution the species should be searched for in northeast Kalimantan and it might also occur in extreme northeast Sarawak.	eng
163804	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis anacolosa</em> is "confined to small swift forest streams up to about 800 m in Sabah", Orr 2003. Nothing further is known.	eng
163804	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis anacolosa</em> is currently known from about five sites in Sabah, it is probably not uncommon where it occurs, and is highly likely to be more widely distributed than published records suggest.	eng
163804	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. There has been extensive replacement of lowland forest with oil palm plantation in Sabah, this is ongoing and likely to be the biggest threat faced by this species.	eng
163805	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data on this species is required. Searches should be made in mountainous areas of Sumatra. The species should be secure (except against threats posed by climate change) if suitable montane forest habitats are properly protected.	eng
163805	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Lyriothemis salva</em> is known only from Sumatra (Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1954).	eng
163805	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	“Confined to mountainous areas, from 1,000 m to 1,900 m. Breeds probably in forest pools and, presumably, also in old pitchers of Nepenthes” (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163805	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only two specimens of this species having ever been collected (Ris 1927, Lieftinck 1935).	eng
163805	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a known threat to this species.	eng
163806	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is urgently needed for this very poorly known species.	eng
163806	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the type series taken at Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province, North Viet Nam at an altitude of 1,400 m (Asahina 1997).	eng
163806	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species habitat is not currently known but is presumably streams in montane forest, as is the case with many other <em>Coeliccia</em> species.	eng
163806	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from two males and one female.	eng
163806	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a recognized threat.	eng
163807	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	New data is needed from across the known range of this species for effective conservation planning. It was once a common species across much of its range; this may still be the case. Fresh searches need to be made in Java and Sumatra.	eng
163807	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Vestalis luctuosa</em> is known from Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, Schmidt 1934), south Sumatra (e.g. 1935, 1954) and Bali (e.g. Lieftinck 1953, Belle 1994).	eng
163807	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in shady streams from sea-level up to about 2,000 m.	eng
163807	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	"Very common in Java" (Lieftinck 1954), but there is insufficient recent data to determine if this statement still holds. Judging by published records the species is not uncommon in Bali. In Sumatra it is known only from the extreme south, where it was quite common in the 1930s, but again there is little recent information, due to a lack of expert sampling in Sumatra in the intervening years.	eng
163807	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163808	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More data is needed on this species, but as it appears to be confined to primary lowland forest there is cause for concern. However recent field work has shown it to be commoner than might have been thought previously. Protection of suitable habitat is vital for the conservation of this species; at least some of the known locations are within protected areas, but it would is desirable for more suitable habitat to be protected.	eng
163808	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Acrogomphus malayanus</em> is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Laidlaw 1925, 1930, 1931; Lieftinck 1941; Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. 1996).	eng
163808	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in sandy bottomed closed canopy forest streams; so far all records are from primary forest. The larvae are sand burrowers (Orr 2005).	eng
163808	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are few published records of this species. For many years only the holotype male was known. Lieftinck (1941) recorded the larvae, the next record appears to be that of a female in Norma-Rashid <em>et al</em>. (1996). C. Y. Choong (pers. comm. 2007) has collected a male and a female in Johor, and photographed another specimen in Kelantan. S. Butler recently collected the larvae from Negeri Sembilan, writing (pers. comm. 2007) "it is reasonably common on rainforest streams as a larva (so much so that I wondered if Lieftinck's description was correct as it was commoner than <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragomphus</span>)" and "I have never seen an adult flying"; he also reared a male from a larva taken in Langkawi, where "it is also reasonably common"	eng
163808	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss due to large-scale clear-cutting; the land is being converted for using in agricultural farming.	eng
163809	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is a need for more data on this species (and investigation into its relationship with <em>R. borneense</em>). Sampling needs to be carried out in Sabah and adjacent regions of Kalimantan to determine the range of the species, to gain a better picture of populations and to determine whether or not it occurs in secondary forest.	eng
163809	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Rhinagrion elopurae</em> is known only from Sabah (e.g. Laidlaw 1920, 1924; Lieftinck 1954; Paulson 2004).	eng
163809	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species breeds in streams in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest.	eng
163809	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	There are few published records of this species. Lieftinck (1954) stated "only known from the type locality"; since then it has been recorded from other locations in Sabah and there are several recent photographic records (for instance on the Asia Dragonfly website [http://www.asia-dragonfly.net]). It may be quite common in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest in Sabah, and should be looked for in neighbouring parts of Kalimantan.	eng
163809	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	It is not known if the species occurs in secondary forest. There has been large scale replacement of lowland forest by oil palm plantations in Sabah, which must have had a negative impact on this species.	eng
163810	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fresh data is urgently needed on this species. Searches should be made in Maharashtra, both within and outside of protected areas. At least some of the old records are from locations in what is now the Ujani Wetland Reserve in Maharashtra (Kulkarni and Prasad 2002). When fresh data is available, effective conservation measures can be planned, if needed.	eng
163810	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Macrogomphus annulatus</em> is known from Maharashtra state in India, in areas bordering on the Western Ghats (Fraser 1926, 1934; Prasad 1996). Earlier Fraser (1919) recorded this species from Viet Nam, but no mention of this record was made later; presumably it referred to some other species of <em>Macrogomphus</em>. Similarly Needham (1930) recorded it from Tibet, again this record has not been repeated, and presumably referred to another species.	eng
163810	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Apparently breeds in streams and rivers. The extent of forest required around the river for this species is not clear, but certainly some is needed.	eng
163810	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Fraser (1934) states “Poona [Pune] or Satara, where I found the species quite common ... it breeds in the Moolah River ... nearly every Babul tree harbouring one or two specimens”. However the only record since that time appears to be of one male and one female collected in Pune (Prasad 1996). The species may still be common in parts of Maharashtra, with the paucity of recent records reflecting a lack of expert sampling in the area, extensive sampling is needed to determine this.	eng
163810	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is threatening this species.	eng
163811	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	Protection of swamp forest habitats in south Kalimantan. Fresh data is urgently needed.	eng
163811	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from the type series (three males and two females) from one location near Sampit in south Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953).	eng
163811	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	The species was discovered is swamp forest. Larvae may live in the leaf axils of <em>Pandanus</em> spp. (Lieftinck 1953, 1954), but this is unverified.	eng
163811	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is no current information on populations of this species. There are five individuals in the type series (Lieftinck 1953).	eng
163811	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Lowland swamp forest in Kalimantan is highly threatened. The status of the type locality is unknown.	eng
163812	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is Data Deficient, more information is needed before effective conservation measures can be planned. Fresh searches need to be made in montane areas of northeast India.	eng
163812	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known only from northeast India, where there are records from Darjeeling (e.g. Fraser 1936) and Sikkim (Fraser 1936, Lieftinck 1968). Recent publications in the Indian literature, e.g. Prasad and Varshney (1995) and Mitra (1999), state that the species is known from Meghalaya, the source of this record cannot be found (R. Dow pers. comm. 2008).	eng
163812	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Unknown, but presumably a species of hills and/or mountains, likely to breed in marshy areas or small pools in forest.	eng
163812	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	The records from Darjeeling and Sikkim are each of single individuals. The number of individuals that the record(s) from Meghalya are based on is unknown. Evidently this species is either scarce or under-collected.	eng
163812	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Continuing habitat loss through human development.	eng
163813	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. Fresh searches should be made in Java.	eng
163813	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Rhinagrion tricolor</em> is known only from Java (Krüger 1898; Laidlaw 1924; Lieftinck 1934, 1954), there is a lack of published information on its distribution on the island, however most, if not all, material in the collections of the National Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis, Leiden is from west and south-west Java (V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163813	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species prefers deeply recessed streams in dense primeval forest, 100 - 300 m above sea-level. Males rest on branches of trees fallen into the water. Females oviposits in moss-covered logs and boulders in midstream (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
163813	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	In 1934 only four specimens of this species were known (Lieftinck 1934). Material collected later is in the collections of the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis, Leiden, where a total of 17 specimens are preserved, presumably including some of the original four. Of these all but one date from 1937 or before, the other is from 1958. The paucity of records since 1937 is most likely due to a lack of expert sampling on Java since that time, but habitat loss is also likely to be a factor.	eng
163813	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	There has been extensive loss of lowland forest in Java; this is a serious cause for concern with regards to this species.	eng
163814	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is an urgent need for fresh data from Java and Sumatra, without which conservation planning will prove very difficult, if not impossible.	eng
163814	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Chlorogomphus magnificus</em> is known from Java (Fraser 1926, 1929; Lieftinck 1934, 1954) and Sumatra (Fraser 1929; Lieftinck 1935, 1954).	eng
163814	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	“Sub-montane brooks and rivers in dense primitive forest, from 300 to about 1,100 m. Oviposits in clear running water of shady forest brooks, in places where the current is swift and the shallow water flows over a gravelly bottom. Final larval stages migrate from tributaries to the rocky bed of larger and more open streams, living buried in coarse sand at the edge of the stream or on the foot of cascades. Emergence takes place here.” (Lieftinck 1954). It is not known if this species can survive in secondary forest.	eng
163814	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	This does not appear to be a common species, although it may have been under collected. There appears to be no records since before 1954, but this is merely reflects a lack of collecting in Sumatra and Java since that time.	eng
163814	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163815	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	More information is needed on this species, but effective conservation measures will centre on the preservation of suitable habitat.	eng
163815	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Chlorogomphus auratus</em> is known from Viet Nam (Martin 1910, Karube 1995) and central Lao PDR (Yokoi and Kano 2002). The only recent records from Viet Nam are from Mount Tamdao near Hanoi (Karube 1995).	eng
163815	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Apparently this is a montane species, breeding in forest streams, but little information has been published on its habitat or ecology.	eng
163815	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are few records of this species. For many years it was known only from a single female; in 1995 Karube described both sexes from a series of 14 specimens taken on Mount Tam Dao, north Viet Nam. Yokoi and Kano (2002) recorded a female, reared from the larva, from central Lao PDR. It is likely to be under-collected and may be moderately common in some areas of Indochina.	eng
163815	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163816	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is not enough information on this species for effective conservation planning. There is a need for further sampling across its range and in adjacent regions, clarification of its habitat and the identification of threats (if any) to the habitat.	eng
163816	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Cephalaeschna klapperichi</em> is known from Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1983, Vick 1989), Afghanistan (e.g. Asahina 1981) and Kashmir (Asahina 1983, 1988), for the latter it is not clear if the records refer to locations in Pakistan, India or both. Prasad and Varshney 1995 list it as occurring in “India”.	eng
163816	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	This is clearly a montane species, presumably breeding in mountain streams, but there is a lack of published information on its habitat requirements.	eng
163816	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Only a few specimens are known of <em>Cephalaeschna klapperichi</em>, the type series consists of two specimens (from Afghanistan), Asahina (1983) lists five specimens from Nepal and Kashmir. On this evidence it appears to be a rather scarce species, but there has been a lack of expert sampling across much of its known range; it may be under-recorded rather than genuinely scare.	eng
163816	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area.	eng
163817	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is severely data deficient; searches should be made in Madhya Pradesh and adjacent regions.	eng
163817	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Elattoneura nihari</em> is known from Chhindwara, Madhaya Pradesh, India.	eng
163817	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no data available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163817	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This species is known from a single male collected in November 1971.	eng
163817	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Although the habitat was not been recorded, the area of Chhindwara, Madhaya Pradesh, is experiencing urban development.	eng
163818	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	This species is widely distributed and probably under-recorded. However it is not known if the species occurs in secondary habitats and there are not many records, in particular there is a lack of recent records. Areas of suitable habitat are certainly protected within national parks on Sumatra and Java, and about 50% of Siberut in the Mentawei Islands is a national park (but much of the habitat may have been severely disturbed prior to the creation of the park). There is a need for much further sampling to determine the true rarity or otherwise of the species, and the full range of habitats that it can occupy.	eng
163818	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Idionyx montana</em> is known from Sumatra (e.g. Ris 1927; Lieftinck 1935, 1939, 1954, 1971), Java (e.g. Lieftinck 1934, 1939, 1954, 1971), the Mentawei Islands (Lieftinck 1954) and Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005), although Lieftinck (1939, 1954) expressed doubts over its occurrence in Peninsular Malaysia and R. Dow (pers. comm. 2008) is not aware of any recent records from this region.	eng
163818	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Breeds in forest streams on hills and the lower slopes of mountains. Lieftinck (1934) stated that the species breeds “in forest-pools and possibly also in slowly running waters” but subsequently (1939) stated that it breeds in forest streams, with no mention of pools, presumably the earlier statement was in error. Lieftinck stated that the species occurs from 500 - 1,000 m in Java, but later (1971) gave records of larvae from 150 - 300 m.	eng
163818	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	Appears to be a rare species (but <em>Idionyx</em> are generally difficult to capture, and impossible to identify without capture, so it is likely to be under-recorded). Lieftinck (1934) listed about 20 specimens from Java, and (1935) five specimens from Sumatra. Orr (2005) describes it as "rare and local" in Peninsular Malaysia. R. Dow (pers. comm. 2007) is not aware of any records less than 50 years old, but this is very likely to reflect a lack of expert sampling in Java and Sumatra over this period. In Peninsular Malaysia it appears to have always been rare.	eng
163818	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163819	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for further data, but conservation measures for this species must centre on the preservation of montane forest stream habitats. Records from Thailand are from national parks, but see Hämäläinen (2004) for an account of conflicting interests in national parks in Thailand. Searches need to be made in Myanmar, Meghalaya and adjacent areas.	eng
163819	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Planaeschna intersedens</em> is known from the Khasi Hills in Meghalya, northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1987), Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and Chiang Mai in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1985, 1986; Hämälainen and Pinratana 1999), where there are records from Doi Inthanon, Doi Saket and Doi Suthep.	eng
163819	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Very little is known on the habitat and ecology of this species: it is a montane species and apparently breeds in forest streams.	eng
163819	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	There are relatively few records of this species. Fraser (1936) implies that it was quite common in parts of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, but the only subsequent record from this area is of one specimen (Lahiri 1987), and in the Chin Hills in Myanmar. There are few other old records from northeast India. There are records of a few individuals from Doi Inthanon, Doi Saket and Doi Suthep in Thailand (Asahina 1985). This may be a quite common, but under-collected, species.	eng
163819	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests.	eng
163820	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	There is no recent information on this species, but this is almost certainly due to a lack of expert sampling in Java over the last 50 plus years. There is an urgent need for more data on this species, searches need to be made on Mount Slamat and adjacent areas.	eng
163820	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known only from the southern slopes of Mount Slamat in mid Java (Lieftinck 1929, 1934, 1954).	eng
163820	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The species has been found in small forest streams on Mount Slamat.	eng
163820	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Known from 12 males and 14 females.	eng
163820	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Large scale habitat loss through the clear-cutting of forest for agricultural use is a known threat to this species.	eng
163821	conservation	Dow, R.A., 2007	There is a need for much more data on this species before effective conservation planning can be carried out. Fresh searches should be made in northern Thailand, Viet Nam and Lao PDR.	eng
163821	distribution	Dow, R.A., 2007	Known from Doi Suthep-Pui National Park in Chiang Mai (e.g. Asahina 1976, 1985, 1990; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Tak (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) in northwestern Thailand, and from one location in Viet Nam (van Tol and Rozendaal 1995).	eng
163821	habitat	Dow, R.A., 2007	Streams in montane forest.	eng
163821	population	Dow, R.A., 2007	<em>Caliphaea thailandica</em> is known from only a few specimens, it appears to be a scarce species, but may be under-recorded.	eng
163821	threats	Dow, R.A., 2007	Habitat loss. Although at least part of the population in Thailand is in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, the comments of Hämäläinen (2004) on  conflicting interests and practices detrimental to odonate populations in national parks in Thailand should be noted.	eng
163822	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	Conservation measures cannot be planned for this species without more information than we have at present. Fresh searches need to be made in northern and central India, and the habitat requirements of the species must be determined.	eng
163822	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus grammicus</em> is known from central and northern India. Most publications since its description merely give its distribution as central and northern India (e.g. Laidlaw 1930, Prasad and Varshney 1995), there are few more precise records, but it has been recorded from Bihar (Fraser 1934, Prasad and Varshney 1988), Rajasthan (Bose and Mitra 1976) and Uttar Pradesh (Fraser 1924).	eng
163822	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	No information appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of <em>Onychogomphus grammicus</em>, but it is reasonable to assume that it is a stream species, and very likely a forest stream species.	eng
163822	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only four specimens of this species have been collected (as far as known from records), of which only the record of a male from Rajasthan (Bose and Mitra 1976) dates from after the 1930s. This is evidently either a rare or a under-collected (or both) species; there has been insufficient expert sampling across much of India since the 1930s.	eng
163822	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through human development of the area is a known threat to this species.	eng
163823	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	More data is needed on this species, searches need to be made in swamp forest throughout Borneo. It is vital that the extent of disturbance that the species can tolerate is determined; for this reason searches should be made in a variety of swamp forest habitats, including secondary and highly disturbed ones. Once more locations are known for the species, it must be ensured that some of them at least are within protected areas.	eng
163823	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Brachydiplax ophelia</em> is endemic to Borneo. Lieftinck (1954) lists it as “universal” on the island, but although there are scattered records across the island it seems to be very local in occurrence. There are records from Sarawak (Laidlaw 1920, from "4th Mile, Rock road" a location probably now vanished under the state capital Kuching), Kalimantan (Lieftinck 1953) and one location in Brunei (Orr 2001, V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163823	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	Little has been recorded on this species, Orr (2003) states that it occurs mainly in peat swamp and alluvial forest. It is certainly very local in occurrence. Orr’s record from Brunei (2001) was from a small pool in disturbed peat swamp forest, suggesting that the species can survive in disturbed forest habitats.	eng
163823	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	This appears to be a very scarce species. There are very few records, and the only recent ones are two from Brunei, both of single males. However it is a small insect that it is likely to be missed by non-expert collectors; it may be under-recorded.	eng
163823	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Lowland swamp forest habitats in Borneo are threatened by clear-felling and plantation establishment, and in some areas by the spread of cities.	eng
163824	conservation	Dow, R. A., 2007	We need more data on this species. Its habitat appears to be rather specialised, but is probably not uncommon on forested hills and mountains in north Borneo, and the species is certainly widely distributed in Sarawak. It may actually be quite common, but under collected because its habitat is freqently remote from the forest streams where most collecting has been carried out, and difficult to access.	eng
163824	distribution	Dow, R. A., 2007	<em>Bornargiolestes nigra</em> is known only from Borneo. Of six known specimens, four are from Sarawak: Mount Dulit in the northeast (Kimmins 1936) and Kubah National Park in the west (Dow 2007). One record is from Brunei (Orr 2001) and the other dates from 1894 from Liang Koeboeng, apparently a location in west Kalimantan (V. Kalkman pers. comm. 2007). There is also a photographic record of a female from Lambir Hills National Park in northeast Sarawak.	eng
163824	habitat	Dow, R. A., 2007	The habitat of this species has remained something of a mystery since its description in 1936. The holotype was collected in montane forest at high altitude on Mount Dulit (Kimmins 1936). The female from Brunei was caught by a trail in lowland mixed dipterocarp forest (Orr 2001). We have no precise information on the habitat in which the specimen from Kalimantan was collected. The discovery of a small colony of the species at Kubah may have shed some light on the habitat requirements of this species; all individuals collected or observed were at a small, very wet, cliff in steep terrain in mixed dipterocarp forest. The dense leaf litter at the foot of the cliff was very wet, and there were small water filled ledges on the cliff. It appears at least possible (especially since teneral individuals were observed here) that the species breeds in this location, with the larvae living in the leaf litter or the water filled ledges. Confirmation (or not) of this theory awaits discovery of the larvae, but some supporting evidence is available: Mount Dulit has a long cliff running along much of its length at the altitude where the holotype was collected, there is habitat similar to that at Kubah near where the female from Brunei was collected (A.G. Orr pers. comm. 2007) and the female photographed at Lambir Hills was in very steep terrain, where similar habitat is very likely to be present.	eng
163824	population	Dow, R. A., 2007	Only six specimens of <em>Bornargiolestes nigra</em> are known. Three of these were isolated individuals, but the other three were collected at one small site at Kubah National Park (Dow 2007), and teneral individuals were observed at the same location; there appears to be a colony at this site. There are also photographic records of females from a different location within Kubah National Park and from Lambir Hills National Park.	eng
163824	threats	Dow, R. A., 2007	Habitat loss through clear-cutting of forests is a recognized threat to this species.	eng
163826	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the population range and numbers of the species that is currently found in few localities.  The habitat appears to be safe from degradation although it is not known if it has a protective status.	eng
163826	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is known from three localities (1958, 1982 and 1997) in the province of Madang (Papua New Guinea).	eng
163826	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	'The species was found in forest at small, sandy-bottomed shady creeks' (Gassmann 1999).	eng
163826	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	'It appeared in comparatively low numbers of individuals, most often during the late afternoon.' (Gassmann 1999).	eng
163826	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat is being degraded through wood extraction although much of it is assumed to be safe.	eng
163827	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163827	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the male holotype and a female para-type both collected 75 km west of Port Moresby, Doa Estate, Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "on 20 October 1962 (male) and 24 September 1961 (female) by R. Straatman".	eng
163827	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163827	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163827	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163828	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	It is unknown how widespread or common the species is on Melville Island. Information on this is needed for a better assessment.	eng
163828	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	So far only found on Melville Island, off the northern coast of Australia:<br/>- Three males, Australia, Melville Island.  Collection notes: "Takamprimili Creek, Pickertaramoor, 11°46'S/130°53'E, 11 October 1996, G.R. Brown and G.M. Dally" (Brown and Theischinger 1998).<br/>- Five final instar exuviae, Australia, Melville Island.  Collection notes: "Pickertaramoor, 11°46.03'S/130°53.07'E, 4 October 2000, G.R. Brown" (Theischinger and Brown 2002).	eng
163828	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat is described in Theischinger and Brown (2002):<br/>'The exuviae were found at a small permanent pool 100 m downstream from where adults were collected. This pool is bounded by small waterfalls (2-4 m) upstream and downstream, and by a vertical rock wall to 4 m on one side and a vegetated flat sandy bank on the other side. The bottom of the pool is sloped and sandy. There are no rocks in the pool and there is very little live or dead plant material present.'<br/>The species is only known from Melville Island which is: 'approximately 132 km long and 100 km wide and is dominated by open Eucalyptus forest with predominant grass understorey. It has several freshwater streams: those flowing to the north coast are relatively long and empty into small mangrove lined bays, while those on the south coast are shorter (and perhaps steeper) and do not open into bays. Some streams may be seasonally dry as almost all rainfall occurs between October and April each year.' (Brown and Theischinger 1998)	eng
163828	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163828	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	None known but might be threatened by drought.	eng
163829	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163829	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from type series: <br/>- one male (holotype) and one female: Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Southern Bewani Hills, 300 m, Parfi, 20 June 1939, W. Stüber".<br/>- one female: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Araucaria Camp, 800 m, 28 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163829	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163829	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163829	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163830	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163830	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic for West Papua province, Indonesia. Known from one male from Misool, two males and five females from Waigeo and one male from Kaimana, southern part of the Bird Head's peninsula. It might be concluded that the species has a wide distribution all over the Birds Head's peninsula and adjacent island. It should however be confirmed that the specimen from the south of the Birds Head's peninsula is conspecific with the specimens from Misool and Waigeo.	eng
163830	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163830	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163830	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on habitat are known making it impossible to point out the main threats.	eng
163831	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163831	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type-series of 19 males and one female: West Papua province,  Indonesia.  Collection notes: "Sorong, ca 100 m, 24, 26 and 30 October 1948, M.A. Lieftinck." Holotype male and female in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire; para-types in British Museum of Natural History and Museum Zoologicum at Bogor, Indonesia.	eng
163831	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163831	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163831	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.	eng
163832	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	No recent information on the distribution on Sulawesi is known and no details on the habitat are available. This information is needed before a truly reliable threat assessment can be made and needed conservation measures can be formulated.	eng
163832	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is known from Indonesia (Sulawesi) and from the Philippines (Mindanao region: Basilan; Palawan sub-region: Balabac; Sulu region: Tawi Tawi, Sanga Sanga, Sibutu).	eng
163832	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on habitat are known.	eng
163832	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163832	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on habitat are known making it difficult to assess its main threats.	eng
163833	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place at present but it is thought the population is going to experience a decline as habitat disturbance increases.	eng
163833	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to Halmahera Island and known from four records:<br/>- One male (holotype): Mount Sembilan. Collection notes: "600 m, 8 October 1951".<br/>- One male: Telaga Rano.  Collection notes: "300-500 m, 19 September 1951".<br/>- One female: Mount Siu. Collection notes: "600-700 m, 28 September 1951".<br/>- One female: Biaur.  Collection notes: "600 m, 11 October 1951".	eng
163833	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details known, probably streams or seepages.	eng
163833	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163833	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The presumed habitat is possibly under threat from human disturbance.	eng
163834	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163834	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type-series of three males: Cape Vogel Peninsula, northeastern Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Menapi, up to 150 m, 25 March, 7 and 9 April 1953, G.M. Tate. Holotype and one other male in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, one male in American Museum of Natural History".	eng
163834	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163834	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163834	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.	eng
163835	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species occurs in an area that has and is not expected to experience any degradation; therefore there are no conservation measures in place but further research into biology and range is required.	eng
163835	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from a limited number of records originating from a large area in the Indonesian parts of the plains of South New Guinea. The subspecies <em>D. p. lethe</em> occurs on Misool.	eng
163835	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers.	eng
163835	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163835	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species has a very small area of occupancy and although over large areas of its range it does not suffer from habitat degradation, it is thought some parts are being affected from timber extraction.	eng
163836	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163836	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from male holotype:<br/>- Male (holotype): northeast New Guinea, Morobe District:  Collection notes: "stream at Gurakor, Wau Road, 500 m, 25 October 1972, near 72X044, Thomas W. Donnelly".	eng
163836	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The male holotype was found at a stream.	eng
163836	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163836	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163837	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163837	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type series: Papua New Guinea, D'Entrecasteaux Islands.  Collection notes: "Normanby Island, Mount Pabinama, three males east-northeast of Cape Prevost, 820 m, 10 May 1956, L.J. Brass". Might be endemic to this island.	eng
163837	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.	eng
163837	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163837	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.	eng
163838	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163838	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two localities on New Britain, Papua New Guinea: Yalom, northeastern New Britain and Matelen River, Ruango, central New Britain. Probably endemic to the island.	eng
163838	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, most likely to be present in brooks in forest.	eng
163838	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163838	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Details regarding any threats affecting the habitat are unknown although it is known that wood extraction is occurring at present.	eng
163839	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species and, currently, it seems none are required.  Field work is needed to fully understand the range.	eng
163839	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to West Papua province, Indonesia. Known from 15 to 20 localities from the western and eastern parts of the Bird's Head Peninsula (Vogelkop) and the West Papuan islands Waigeo, Batanta and Salawati.	eng
163839	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on habitat and ecology; probably small running waters.	eng
163839	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163839	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163840	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and fieldwork is desperately needed to fully understand the extent of this species range.	eng
163840	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to the northern part of the Papua province, Indonesia. Known from the surroundings of Jayapura and from records from the lower Cycloop Mountain and from the Bernhard camp (along the Idenburg river).	eng
163840	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Probably occurs in brook in forest.	eng
163840	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163840	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species habitat is being threatened by human development and timber extraction to a level that is causing a decline in the population.	eng
163841	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163841	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from Hollandia, the present day Jayapura (Papua province, Indonesia).<br/>- One female, Hollandia (Jayapura).  Collection notes: "Nov-Dec 1930, W. Stüber".<br/>- 21 males and one female: Hollandia (Jayapura). Collection notes: "Apr-Jun 1931; W. Stüber".	eng
163841	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably small running waters or seepages.	eng
163841	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163841	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There have been no recent surveys on this species, but its natural habitat has been degraded at a large level that could be affecting this species.	eng
163842	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163842	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type series from Papua province, Indonesia.  Collection notes: "southern Bewani Hills, upper course of Tami River, 5 days' journey southeast of Hollandia [Jayapura], 250m alt., Fumb (Keerom?) River, April 25-27, 1937, W. Stüber leg".	eng
163842	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163842	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163842	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163843	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so threats can be assessed and conservation measures implemented.	eng
163843	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from less then ten records from Sulawesi, Ambon and Buru. The species occurs in low numbers and has a fast flight making it difficult to catch: 'An den kleinen Buchten bei der Wa'Kasi [Buru] selten und unglaublich schnell' (Lieftinck, 1926) (Translated to: Rare and incredibly quick in the small bays of Wa'Kasi [Buru]).  The last published record dates back to 1921.	eng
163843	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only details on habitat are from Lieftinck: 'An den kleinen Buchten bei der Wa'Kasi [Buru] selten und unglaublich schnell' (Lieftinck 1926).  (Translated to: Rare and tremendously quick in the small bays of Wa'Kasi.)   This suggest that it breeds in running water.	eng
163843	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163843	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163844	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163844	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type-series of six males, two females: Papua New Guinea, Astrolabe Range, Moroka. Collection notes: "1,300 m, 27 July and 8 September 1893, Dr. Lamberto Loria". Three males and one female are in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire the rest in Museo Civico, Genoa.	eng
163844	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably lives in runnels and brooks in forest.	eng
163844	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163844	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163845	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place although the habitat is known to be relatively disturbed.  Further fieldwork is required to understand the biology and population range of this species.	eng
163845	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two locations (Bernhard Camp and Araucaria camp, Papua province, Indonesia) at 5 km distance from each other.	eng
163845	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Presumably lives in brooks in forest.	eng
163845	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163845	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163846	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163846	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from three localities: two in north New Guinea and one on the Tanibar Island (Jamdena). This wide distribution is strange considering the limited ranges of most species of this genus.	eng
163846	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, although it is thought to occur in brooks in the rainforest.	eng
163846	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163846	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although the habitat is not certain, the location were the species has been recorded has undergone some level of deforestation/disturbance, but not thought to be of consequence to<span style="font-style: italic;"> T. fissicollis</span>.	eng
163847	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	The are no known conservation measures in place; action appears to be needed as part of the habitat has been selectively logged, however the montane area is relatively undisturbed.	eng
163847	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the original description. The species is endemic to the island of Buru (South Moluccas) and is known from two localities:<br/>- One male (holotype): Nal'Besi.  Collection notes: "26 April 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- One male: Fakal.  Collection notes: "2 September 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163847	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is presumed to occur near brooks in the lowland forest on the island, and it is not known if it occurs higher up in the montane forest.	eng
163847	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on population numbers or trend.	eng
163847	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	If the species occurs in the lowland forest, this has been selectively logged, whereas the higher-up montane forest remains relatively undisturbed.	eng
163848	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163848	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two records: <br/>- six males and two females: Papua New Guinea (close to the border with Indonesia).  Collection notes: " southern Bewani Hills, upper course of Tami River, five days journey SE of Hollandia [Jayapura], 250 m alt., Fumb (Keerom?) river, April 26-27, 1937, W. Stüber".<br/>- two males and five females: Papua New Guinea (close to the border with Indonesia).  Collection notes: "Murr River near Uskwar, May 1-2, 1937, W. Stüber".	eng
163848	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163848	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163848	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163849	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163849	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic for Papua New Guinea. Known from less than ten records all from the Huon Peninsula. Considered an endemic for the Adelbert, Finisterre and Saruwaged Mountains by Polhemus <em>et al</em>. 2004.	eng
163849	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163849	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163849	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163850	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163850	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread species occurring from the Moluccas (Halmehera, Ternate, Batjan, Ceram) to northern Australia (Queensland). Widespread and common on New Guinea.	eng
163850	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Inhabits shady pools and tree holes (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). The species occurs in standing waters and is capable of breeding in man-made habitats.	eng
163850	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Often rather abundant and thought to be stable.	eng
163850	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163851	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There does not appear to be any conservation measures in place and fieldwork is needed to fully understand the habitat status and population numbers as it is likely the habitat is in decline.	eng
163851	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Guadalcanal (Solomon Islands) and known from six records all collected in the period 1953 to 1966.	eng
163851	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>From the habitat descriptions given when the specimens were taken, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lairdi</span> is known to occur at running water.&#160; These habitats include a river; a slow flowing pool formed by seepage alongside river, by ford; on a ridge above Sutakiki river and hill country of northwest Guadalcanal Island, upper reaches of Tenaru River, backwater of a stream near Betilonga Village (freshly emerged Zygopteron clining to half-submerged log).&#160; It is not unlikely that the species is confined to forest.	eng
163851	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163851	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	It is not known if the species is confined to forest habitats. If so then deforestation is the main threat. It is unknown what impact the mining on Bougainville has on the quality of the freshwater systems and on the species that inhabit them.	eng
163852	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements so threats can be assessed.	eng
163852	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type series from Humboldt Bay area, Hollandia (present day Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia) collected in July, September, November, December 1930 and January, February and March 1931. Probably more widespread in north New Guinea then presently known.	eng
163852	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163852	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163852	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163853	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat information of this species is based on suspicion only and fieldwork needs to be done for confirmation. If the species proves to be depended on brooks surrounded by forest than the species might be severely threatened as forest cover on Sumba has been declining rapidly and is below 10% in 2002. In that case it is needed to map the distribution of populations in order to see if any of them fall in protected areas.	eng
163853	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from ten localities on the Island of Sumba (Indonesia). The species was recorded at nine of the 18 sites during an expedition in 1949 (Lieftinck 1953). This suggest that the species was at that time not uncommon. Recent fieldwork is lacking and the present day status of the species is unknown. If the species is indeed depended on brooks in forest than the area were suitable habitat might occur is below 1,000 km².	eng
163853	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. The localities where the species was recorded in 1949 suggest that it occurs in forest brooks and that it is absent from deforested areas.	eng
163853	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163853	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Deforestation might make brooks unsuitable for the species and might be its most important threat.	eng
163854	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163854	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is known from a small number of records from the island of Misool and from the Bombarai Peninsula (West Papua province, Indonesia).	eng
163854	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Probably occurs in brooks in forest.	eng
163854	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163854	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163855	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so it can be assessed at a higher level.	eng
163855	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Sulawesi and known only from two records both made prior to 1934: six males and one female (as subspecies <em>I. c. celebensis</em>) from North Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Kalawara, 3 December 1912 - 23 February 1913".&#160; And 1 male (as subspecies <em>I. c. velox</em>): North Sulawesi, Toli Toli.	eng
163855	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Most other species of <em>Ictinogomphus</em> breed in standing water and are capable of reproducing in man-made habitats (fish ponds etc). The same might be true for <em>I. celebensis</em>.	eng
163855	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163855	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163856	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163856	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the original description based on one male from Bantimurang (southwestern Sulawesi) and two males and two females from Lompa Battau (southwestern Sulawesi) all from before 1900. Endemic to Sulawesi and only recorded from the southwestern peninsula of the island. Very little has been published on Sulawesi and the species might be far more widespread on the island than is currently known.	eng
163856	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163856	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers.	eng
163856	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163857	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163857	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known from the holotype male collected at the Otakwa river in Papua province of Indonesia in February 1913 (Campion 1915).	eng
163857	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163857	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163857	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163858	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163858	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known from two males and one female mentioned in the original description from Lompa Battau in southwest Sulawesi.	eng
163858	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Probably occurs in standing waters like other species of the genus.	eng
163858	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163858	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163859	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163859	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the male holotype:<br/>- One male: Indonesia.  Collection notes: "southern part of the Papua province, Bivak Insel in the northern part of the Lorentz River, January 1910, H.A. Lorentz Expedition".	eng
163859	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163859	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163859	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163860	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, despite the species apparently declining on the Moluccas.  The core area on New Guinea is not currently experiencing pressure to warrant concern.	eng
163860	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Recorded from New Guinea (including the islands Japen (or Yapen), Salawati and Waigeo) and from the Moluccas (the islands Obi and Ternate). On New Guinea known from about 10 localities from all over the island. So presumably widespread but rare, however some <em>Lyriothemis</em> species breed in phytotelmata; this might be true for <em>L. meyeri</em>, which could account for the lack of records. The last published record is from 1939.	eng
163860	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163860	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163860	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163861	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although it appears action is needed due to the likely increase in human and agricultural development continues to put pressure on the species habitat.  Further studies into biology, range and habitat status is needed to fully understand the locations of this species.	eng
163861	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from four records from three localities. Seems to be confined to the southeast tip of Papua New Guinea to the areas north and west of Port Moresby.	eng
163861	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers. At least three of the four records were made at estates or plantation suggesting that the species might be tolerant of some habitat degradation.	eng
163861	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163861	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat is being affected by human and agricultural development and this is likely to increase in the future.	eng
163862	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163862	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to New Guinea and known from a limited number of records. These records are however form a large area and from a wide altitudinal range: <br/>- Two males and one female: Indonesia, New Guinea.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 50 m, 19 and 29 September, and 23 December 1938, J. Olthof. (Lieftinck 1942)".<br/>- One male: Papua New Guinea, Huongolf.  Collection notes: "3.1900, C. Wahnes".<br/>- Two males and 16 females: Indonesia, New Guinea.  Collection notes: "southern Cyclop mountains, ca. 1,000 m, 1932, W. Stüber".<br/>- One female: collection notes: "'Tiefland' [probably near Cyclop mountains?], October 1932, W. Stüber".	eng
163862	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is assumed to breed in streams and seepages, and has been found in forest at a variety of altitudes.	eng
163862	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Population numbers are unknown although it is thought to be stable.	eng
163862	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163863	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There does not appear to be any conservation measures in place despite the habitat decreasing to an extent to cause a decline in the population.	eng
163863	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic for the island Sumba. It is known from 11 localities and the species seems to be widespread and not uncommon on the island.	eng
163863	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The site description given for the localities where <em>Indolestes bellax</em> was found suggest that the species occurs in brooks in forest.	eng
163863	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163863	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species might depend on forest for its existence and therefore the decline of the area of forest on Sumba might have a strong impact on the species. It is estimated that closed-canopy forest now covers 10% of the island. This gives reason to believe that <em>Indolestes bellax</em> has decreased in the last decades.	eng
163864	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163864	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Papua, Indonesia and known only from two records near Lake Paniai (Wissel Lakes) from 1939.	eng
163864	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163864	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163864	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163865	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163865	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the male holotype: Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Bismarck Archipelago, East Central New Britain, north slope of Nakanai Mountains, 150 m, 22 July 1956, E.J. Ford, Jr.".	eng
163865	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163865	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163865	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163866	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163866	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the holotype male from the Solomons collected on Guadalcanal Island, Aola in August 1938 by an unknown collector (Lieftinck 1949) and was deposited at Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.	eng
163866	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163866	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163866	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163867	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163867	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread on mainland New Guinea and known from one record from Halmahera (Lieftinck 1949).	eng
163867	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only note on habitat is a reference to 'swamp near lake Sentani'. Based on habitat of other species of the genus probably to be found in standing and slow flowing waters.	eng
163867	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Holotype male and female paratype are from northern Guinea.  (Collection notes "Humboldt Bay area, Tami River valley, 25-31 January 1933, W. Stüber.")  There are no details regarding current population numbers although it is thought to be stable.	eng
163867	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163868	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163868	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type series: two males and four females from Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Wissel Lakes group, Araboe Bivouac, 10 miles NE of Lake Paniai, ca 1,800 m, 15-29 October 1939, H. Boschma, Le Roux Expedition".	eng
163868	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details of the species habitat are known.	eng
163868	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163868	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163869	conservation	Dow, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to occur in a wider range.&#160; Field work is required to better understand the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
163869	distribution	Dow, R., 2007	The species is widespread and occurs in Peninsula Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and the Philippines.	eng
163869	habitat	Dow, R., 2007	Occurs in lowland swampy forest. Orr (2001) described its habitat in Brunei as: 'recorded from a variety of swampy areas in different forest types, but most commonly in alluvial freshwater swamp'. It certainly occurs in secondary habitats in Sarawak at least (R. Dow pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163869	population	Dow, R., 2007	Although the species has a wide range it is apparently rare throughout its range, but it often occurs in low numbers and is likely to be overlooked, so may well be under-recorded rather than rare.	eng
163869	threats	Dow, R., 2007	The species is dependent on (swamp) forest. Deforestation is therefore its main threat.	eng
163870	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163870	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type series of three males and four females: Papua New Guinea, Sandaun (West Sepik) province, Oksapmin District, Tekin Station, 2nd August 1994, J. Michalski.	eng
163870	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The type series was taken at a 'small clear brook with a bed of battleship-grey, clayish soil (or rock)'. The brook was 'something less than one meter across and only ankle deep'. The specimens were found perching on 'tall grasses and branches over the small ravine through which the stream runs'	eng
163870	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163870	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163871	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163871	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread in Australia, New Zealand, Lesser Sunda Islands, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Kermadec Islands.	eng
163871	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Inhabits rivers, riverine pools, lakes and permanent ponds (Watsons 1991).	eng
163871	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.	eng
163871	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163872	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it has a wide range.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163872	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Papua New Guinea and known from New Britain and the southeastern New Guinea (roughly east of the Huon Gulf).	eng
163872	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Like other species of its genus probably occurs in brooks and rivers.	eng
163872	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No detailed information is known but the species is probably, like its congeners, rather common within its range.	eng
163872	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species habitat is experiencing degradation through timber extraction and agricultural development but not to a level where it is thought to be threatening the population.	eng
163873	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163873	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from male holotype: West Papua, Indonesia. Collection notes: "Berau Peninsula (Vogelkop), Vengatap near Aja Maroe, 500 m alt., Dec 1937, J.M. van Raavenswaay Claasen leg".	eng
163873	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163873	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163873	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163874	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163874	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two records from the same general area:<br/>- Thirty three males, six females: Indonesia, Papua province, Cycloop Mountains. Collection notes: "southern slopes, 1,000 m alt., June 1931, 26 April 1932 and 9 June 1932, W. Stüber, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".<br/>- One male, two females: Indonesia, Papua province, Cycloop Mountains Collection notes: "southern slope, 900 m, 26 June 1938, J. Olthof".<br/><br/>The species is considered to be an endemic to the Cycloop Mountains.	eng
163874	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163874	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163874	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163875	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163875	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype male from Mount Sembilan on Halmahera Island, Moluccas province, Indonesia.	eng
163875	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163875	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163875	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163876	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163876	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two records from the Solomon Islands: one from Ugi Island (of the north coast of San Cistroval) and one from Guadalcanal. Probably also occurs on some of the other Solomon Islands. Last published record dates back to 1934.	eng
163876	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known but is likely to live in running waters.	eng
163876	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163876	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	It is not known if the species is confined to forest habitats. If so then deforestation is the main threat. It is unknown what impact the mining on Bougainville has the quality of the freshwater systems and on the species.	eng
163877	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat experiencing human development.  Further research is needed into the biology and threats facing this species; it is thought to occur in a protected area and increased field surveys should reveal this to be true.	eng
163877	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from three records all from the original publication. The records all originate from a relatively small area near Jayapura and the southern slopes of the Cycloop Mountains.	eng
163877	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably occurs in brooks in rainforest.	eng
163877	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163877	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat is being affected by human development and timber extraction at a serious level to cause a decrease in the population.	eng
163878	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163878	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread and not uncommon in the north of Papua province, Indonesia and in the north and east of Papua New Guinea.	eng
163878	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Occurs in brooks and small rivers in forest. The species is present in partly degraded brooks near villages or suburban areas.	eng
163878	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on population numbers are known. The species is not uncommon at the localities were it occurs.	eng
163878	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163879	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163879	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from four localities all recorded from a small area<br/>- Four males: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 8-10 April 1939"<br/>- One male, one female: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 13 April 1939".<br/>- Fourteen males, one female:  Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "above Bernhard Camp, 700-750 m, 11 February and 16-29 March 1939".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua. Collection notes "between Bernhard and Araucaria Camp, 800 m, 16 March 1939".	eng
163879	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably lives in runnels and brooks in forest.	eng
163879	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163879	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163880	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163880	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread on New Guinea and the coastal areas of Queensland (Australia).	eng
163880	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Inhabits a range of still waters (Theischinger and Hawkings 2006) and probably easily colonises newly created ponds.	eng
163880	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Often occurs in high densities.	eng
163880	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163881	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163881	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Buru, Indonesia and known from three records:<br/>- one male (holotype) and two females: Fakal.  Collection notes: "30 August 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one female: Ranasee. Collection notes: "18 May 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one male and one female: Mnges'waen.  Collection notes: "12-14 April 1921, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163881	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163881	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163881	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163882	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163882	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type series (68 males and 21 females) from Indonesia, Papua province, Hollandia [Jayapura] from Nov-Dec 1930, Jan-Feb, Mar and Apr-Jun 1931, W. Stüber. The specimens were presumably caught at different localities in the surroundings of Hollandia (present day Jayapura).	eng
163882	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	From the observations on the habitat and behaviour given in (Lieftinck 1932) it can be concluded that the species was found at a marsh along the Pim river with <em>Pandanus candelabrum</em> and <em>Metroxylon</em>. There the specimens were found flying low to the ground or sitting a few cm above the ground on roots and leafs making them hard to find.	eng
163882	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163882	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is presumably not confined to the surroundings of Jayapura. However if this is the case than the species might be threatened by habitat destruction for building activities.	eng
163883	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information on habitat and distribution are needed in order to assess the status of this species	eng
163883	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to mountains on Java and South Sumatra. Might be present in other parts of Sumatra. <br/><br/>On Java, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. karnyi</span> is known from: Tengger Mountains; Preangar, Sitoe Lembang; Mount Tangkuban Prahu; Batoerraden, Mount Slamat; slopes of Mount Gedeh and Pangrango; Mount Patuha, Mount Ardjuno, Djunggo, Mount Lawu. On Sumatra known from Lebong Tandai and Mount Dempo, Gunung Agung Estate (van Tol 1997).	eng
163883	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Possibly a species inhabiting running waters (van Tol 1997).	eng
163883	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163883	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on habitat are known but given the height the specimens were collected it seems likely that the species is present in forest. Deforestation is therefore the most likely threat to this species.	eng
163884	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163884	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread species ranging from the Philippines to the Solomon Islands and Queensland (Australia).	eng
163884	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Theischinger and Hawking (2006) say on the habitat: 'Probably also [refers to <em>B. denticauda</em>]  inhabits still and sluggish waters.'	eng
163884	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.	eng
163884	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163885	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163885	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from two records both in the Snow Mountain of Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- One male (holotype): collection notes: "Rattan Camp, 1,200 m, 1 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- Three males: collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 700 m, 27-29 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163885	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably breeds in small running waters in forest.	eng
163885	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163885	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163886	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163886	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from two nearby locations and original description in northern Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- two males: Idenburg river.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 10-11 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- one female: collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 50m, 7 February 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163886	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163886	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163886	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163887	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is probably not threatened. However basic information on abundance and habitat should be collected. The taxonomic status of the subspecies related to <em>Rhyothemis phyllis</em> is not clear and <em>R. apicalis</em> might be a subspecies of <em>R. phyllis</em>. A revision of this species group is needed.	eng
163887	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Occurs on Vanuatu and New Caledonia.	eng
163887	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known but has probably the same habitat preference as <em>R. phyllis</em>: standing, well-vegetated and often man-made waters.	eng
163887	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information on its abundance is lacking. The closely related <em>Rhyothemis phyllis</em> is often common and the same might be true for this species.	eng
163887	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163888	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163888	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Northeastern and eastern New Guinea from the northern hill ranges up to the northern half of the Papuan Peninsula (Gassmann 2000).	eng
163888	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species has been recorded at rivers, creeks and tributaries. One record is from a sago-plantation suggesting that the species is capable of surviving in degraded habitats.	eng
163888	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species can be abundant and has a wide distribution.	eng
163888	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163889	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163889	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the male holotype:<br/>- One male (holotype): Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "above Bernard Camp, 400 m, 11 February 1939, in heavy jungle far away from water', L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163889	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat was given as 'in heavy jungle far away from water'. It is known for <em>Podopteryx selysi</em> that the larva live in phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants). Probably the same is true for <em>P. casuarina</em>.	eng
163889	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163889	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163890	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163890	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type-series of 20 males and one female: North Moluccas, Indonesia. Collection notes: "Batjan Island, Salawaku River, 50-100 m, 12-13 June 1953, A.M.R. Wegner <em>et al</em>. Holotype male and female in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire. Rest of material in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense and the British Museum of Natural History".	eng
163890	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163890	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163890	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Range and habitat of the species are unknown making it difficult to assess the main threats.	eng
163891	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163891	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype collected prior to 1886 at Jobi (Japen Island, Irian Jaya, Indonesia).	eng
163891	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Likely to be found in brooks in forest	eng
163891	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163891	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163892	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is probably confined to Sangihe Island (Indonesia) where it probably finds its optimal habitat in forest. The forest on this island has largely been cleared and the habitat remaining is probably less than 10 km². Fieldwork is needed to get better information on the status and habitat of this species which is needed to assess whether or not the protected areas on the island include enough habitat for the survival of the species.	eng
163892	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to the island of Sangihe (Indonesia) and known from two records:<br/>- Three males and one female  (holotype from 19 May 1985), Indonesia, Sangihe Islands.  Collection notes: "NW slope of Gunung Sahendaruman (SSW of Liwung): 3°32'N 125°32'E, 600-650 m, 12-19 May 1985, F.G. Rozendaal".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Sangihe Islands.  Collection notes: "Manganitu, riverine gardens, coconut, plantations, secondary growth, 3°35'N 125°32'E, 10 May 1985, F.G. Rozendaal".	eng
163892	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Found in primary forest and forest edge and at riverine gardens, coconut, plantations, secondary growth.	eng
163892	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163892	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat continues to be cleared where it does not occur outside protected areas, causing the species population to show a decline.	eng
163893	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163893	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from one record: Solomon Island: one male, New Georgia Island.  Collection notes: "Bareki River, 30 August 1965, Royal Society Expedition of the British Museum 1966-1".	eng
163893	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163893	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163893	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163894	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163894	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from one female (Lieftinck 1942) from New Guinea, Indonesia. Collection notes: "at Bernhard Camp, Idenburg River, 50 m, 13 April 1939 by L.J. Toxopeus during the Third Archbold Expedition" and deposited at Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.	eng
163894	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163894	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163894	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163895	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163895	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Three records of this species are known all from Papua province, Indonesia:<br/>- one male (Holotype): Hollandia [Jayapura].  Collection notes: "April-June 1931, W. Stüber".<br/>- one male.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp, 12 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus, 50 m".<br/>- a few females: Tami River plain in the southern Bewani Hills, W. Stüber.	eng
163895	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163895	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163895	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Large parts of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anatya</span>'s range remains covered in rainforest and it is not thought to be currently under threat.	eng
163896	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163896	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known from the female holotype from Little Florida Island, (Solomon Islands).  (Collection notes: "caught on 15-31 March 1945, leg. G.E. Bohart".) It is likely that fieldwork will show that this species is not only present in Little Florida (Nggela Pile) but also on the adjacent Nggela Sule. But even in that case the species has a small Extent of Occurrence as both islands together are less than 300 km².	eng
163896	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163896	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163896	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163897	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163897	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type-series from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Huon Gulf, Sattelberg (Simbang), ca. 900 m, January - May 1899, west Wahnes. Seven males (including holotype in Museum Budapest)".  Other specimens of the same series, including females, are in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire and Michigan Museum (Ann Arbor).	eng
163897	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
163897	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163897	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163898	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163898	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Papua New Guinea. Known from three records all from 1955 or earlier:<br/>- One male: Busu River.  Collection notes: "15 September 1955, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".<br/>- One female: eastern New Guinea, Astrolabe Bay, Bongu, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.<br/>- Two males and two females: Huon Gulf, Morobe district.  Collection notes: "Sattelberg (Gegagalu), Sommer 1900, Carl Wahnes". The holotype and para-type are from this series and are in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire.	eng
163898	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No information known, probably occurs on seepages and brooks in forest.	eng
163898	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163898	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163899	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163899	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is known from north and northeast Australia, the Solomon Islands and New Guinea.	eng
163899	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Inhabits still and sluggish waters (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163899	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163899	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163900	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163900	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the male holotype and the female para-type: Indonesia, West Papua province.  Collection notes: "Fak-Fak, 30 December 1912; 1 January 1913".	eng
163900	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.	eng
163900	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163900	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.	eng
163901	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163901	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype: <br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua province, Waigeu Island.  Collection notes: "Camp Nok (Mount Buffelhoorn), 2,500 ft, April 1938, L.E. Cheesman".	eng
163901	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Presumably lives in brooks in forest.	eng
163901	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163901	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163902	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163902	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from three records from two localities:<br/>- One male (holotype): Indonesia, Sulawesi. Collection notes: "northeastern slope of Quarles Mountains, Todjamboe, 1,000 m, July 1936, L.J. Toxopeus, Indonesia, Sulawesi, Mandar Gulf, Polewali, 23 October 1940, J.J. van der Starre, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire and Indonesia, Sulawesi, Todjamboe, 800 m, 30 April 1941, H. and E. Vonk". <br/><br/>The species is endemic to Sulawesi and has only been recorded in central Sulawesi.	eng
163902	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163902	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163902	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species. It is not unlikely that the species is dependant on forest, in which case the degradation of forest habitats would be the primary threat.	eng
163903	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to be widespread.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163903	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Described from the surroundings of Jayapura (Papua province, Indonesia) from material taken in 1930 and 1931 (Lieftinck 1933). Has not since been reported from New Guinea but has been found in Australia, in Northern Territory and Queensland (Theischinger and Hawking 2006). It is likely that the species is present in large parts of New Guinea.	eng
163903	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Adults are known from streams, rivers, riverine lagoons and swamps (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163903	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.	eng
163903	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163904	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163904	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from types (two males) from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Bewani River territory, ca. 500 m, Fumb River, 26-27 April 1937, W. Stüber".	eng
163904	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known	eng
163904	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163904	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163905	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163905	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two specimens of which one has a doubtful label. The holotype is from:<br/>- One male, San Jorge islet off Santa Isabel.  Collection notes: "26 September 1965, '<em>Casuarina</em> forest, low herbage near stream', Royal Society Expedition for the British Museum, 1966". <br/><br/>The para-type is an old specimen (<1950) labelled with 'Bougainville' in the handwriting of R. Martin; Lieftinck (1987) states: 'I am not quite certain about the correctness of the locality 'Bougainville', as written on the label by R. Martin himself. In fact several instances are known of Odonata in Martin's collection whose reported habitats later proved to be erroneous'. For this reason the second record is not considered in this assessment.	eng
163905	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The holotype was caught at a '<em>Casuarina</em> forest, low herbage near stream'.	eng
163905	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163905	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163906	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163906	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic for Sulawesi. Occurs in southwest Sulawesi and the coastal region of the western part of central Sulawesi (van Tol pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163906	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Lowland streams with water depth of <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span> 10 - 50 cm. The males defend territories in the full sun, from boulders emerging just above the water surface, and usually not far from the banks. The species is capable of dealing with limited habitat degradation and occurs in streams in rural areas (van Tol pers. comm. 2007).	eng
163906	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Detailed information on population numbers are lacking although they are thought to be decreasing.	eng
163906	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163907	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Basic information (habitat and extent of distribution) on the species is lacking. Without this no conservation measures can be taken.	eng
163907	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the type description of two males from different localities from the Island of Nuku Hiva (French Polynesia) and a doubtful conspecific female from the island of Hivaoa (French Polynesia). The records are from 1930 and 1931.	eng
163907	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163907	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163907	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Nothing can be said on the habitat of the species which makes it difficult to say anything on the major threats.	eng
163908	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed on this widely distributed species.	eng
163908	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from Sulawesi, North-Halmehera, Ternate, Buru, Ambon and Seram.	eng
163908	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163908	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163908	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163909	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163909	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known from the type series (one male and three females) collected at Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea in the 19th century.	eng
163909	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163909	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163909	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163910	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163910	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the male holotype and female para-type which were caught in copula by A.M.R. Wegner. Collection notes: "Collected at Waimangura, Matakori, West Sumba (Indonesia) at 436 m. Locality described as 'dense forest at the border of the small stream Mata Kori'. (Lieftinck 1953, 1971)".	eng
163910	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Type locality described as 'dense forest at the border of the small stream Mata Kori'. (Lieftinck 1953, 1971).	eng
163910	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163910	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although there is very little known in this species, its habitat has experienced human and agricultural development and timber extraction which could be a threat.	eng
163911	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no indications that this species requires conservation actions and none are in place at present.  Further studies are needed looking at its population and habitat status.	eng
163911	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Occurring from New Guinea, Aru Islands, Solomon Islands and Northern Australia (Torres Strait Islands, Northern Territory, Queensland). Although it is relatively widespread it is not often observed.	eng
163911	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Probably inhabits standing waters but details are lacking (Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163911	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163911	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163912	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163912	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type series: two males, Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Wissel Lakes Group, Lake Paniai, 1742m, 22 August 1939 (para-type) and 4 September 1939 (holotype), H. Boschma, Le Roux Expedition".	eng
163912	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163912	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163912	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163913	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163913	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread on New Guinea. The subspecies "<em>H. a. diminuta</em>" is confined to the island of Misima (Louisiade Archipelago).	eng
163913	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Occurs in brooks in forest and rural areas.	eng
163913	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163913	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163914	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat experiencing human activity.  Further research is needed into the biology, current distribution and the extent of population decline due to the pressure on the forest ecosystem.	eng
163914	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Occurs on Sulawesi and the northern Moluccas (Halmahera, Ternate and Gebeh Island). Known from many localities all over Sulawesi (Lieftinck 1948).	eng
163914	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Habitat information from Lieftinck (1948): "several species with collector's note: 'primary forest at dusk' or ' forest-marshes' and forest brook'".	eng
163914	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163914	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Clear-cutting of forests is affecting the habitat of this species.	eng
163915	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163915	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from two males and two females from Herat, Afghanistan (Collection notes: "12 May 1956").	eng
163915	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known but likely to occur in running waters.	eng
163915	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163915	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163916	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163916	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is endemic to Lombok, Indonesia and is known from two records: <br/>- Two males, Lombok, Sapit.  Collection notes: "2,000 feet, April 1896, leg. H. Fruhstorfer".<br/>- One male, Lombok (probably also from the 19th century).	eng
163916	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Probably lives in seepages and small brooks like its congeners.	eng
163916	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163916	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is probably dependent on forest habitats like its congeners. If that is true then deforestation is the main threat.	eng
163917	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163917	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species occurs in the lowlands of south New Guinea and is thus far only recorded from the Indonesian part (Papua province). The species is known from three localities:<br/>- Setakwa;<br/>- Soengei Arja (near Umar), west of Uta;<br/>- Lorentz River, Bivak Islet.<br/>The last record is from 1941 but the area where it occurs has been poorly explored.	eng
163917	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163917	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163917	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat of the species is unknown making it difficult to say anything on possible threats. The Timika mining area lies in its range and there it habitat might be threatened. However large parts of its range remain intact.	eng
163918	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163918	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from Australia (southeast Queensland, northeast Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley region), Indonesia (Papua, Buru Island, Aru Island, Sulawesi) and Papua New Guinea (Lieftinck 1949, Watson 199, Asahina 1967). Doubtfully recorded from Guadalcanal Island (Lieftinck 1949: based on specimens lacking their terminal abdominal segments) and from Timor (Lieftinck 1936: based on a larva).	eng
163918	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Species has been found in ponds and swamps (Watson 1991)	eng
163918	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163918	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163919	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163919	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype male (a juvenile): Indonesia, southern part of Papua province, Lorentz River, Bivak Eiland, no date, H.A Lorentz Expedition.	eng
163919	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163919	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163919	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163920	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Research on distribution and habitat are required.	eng
163920	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to a small area in the southwest of Sulawesi. Found at Lompa Battau, Buluballija and three locations on Mount Lompobatang.	eng
163920	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Only known from mountains between 1,000 - 2,000 m and probably confined to forest.	eng
163920	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163920	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Deforestation is likely to be the main threat.	eng
163921	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163921	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	A map of the distribution is given in van Tol (2000). Widespread on Sulawesi but lacking from the northern peninsula.	eng
163921	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Details on habitat are given in van Tol (2000): 'Not uncommon in lowlands, where it is the dominant species [of its genus]; much less common above 500 m, but also found on Gunung Watuwila (c. 1,000 m), and Gunung Lompobatang (unknown altitude). Records are from various kinds of streams, mostly small streams in half-shade, to forest rivulets of several meters wide. <em>P. geijskesi</em> is less common on spring brooks in dense shade. It has also been found in semi-cultivated areas, and severely disturbed forest. Females are very uncommon in collections. I found only two females among 70 males at the foothill stream of Gunung Watuwila.'	eng
163921	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	This is a widespread species thought to be stable although detailed information on numbers are lacking.	eng
163921	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163922	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163922	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the male holotype:<br/>- Northeast Papua New Guinea, Huon Gulf (Bidung or Bulung?), Ogeramnang, 1914.	eng
163922	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163922	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163922	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163923	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163923	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two records from two localities: Klamono (Vogelkop), Irian Jaya province and Fakal (West Misool), Moluccas province, Indonesia.	eng
163923	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163923	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163923	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although there are no recent surveys on this species, it is thought to be affected by habitat degradation.	eng
163924	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place or thought to be needed for this species.	eng
163924	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread species occurring from Ceram (Moluccas) through New Guinea and the Aru Islands to the Cape York Peninsula in Australia. Although the species is widespread there are relatively few records. This is probably largely due to its crepuscular habits.	eng
163924	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably occurs at standing or slow flowing waters.	eng
163924	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details known but is probably not uncommon at suitable habitats.	eng
163924	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163925	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present although research into its habitat is needed.	eng
163925	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from less than 20 records but it the species seems to be widespread in New Guinea.	eng
163925	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163925	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers although it is thought to be stable.	eng
163925	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats currently thought to be affecting this species; the majority of areas on the island it occurs on is undisturbed.	eng
163926	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Details on habitat and the whereabouts of populations are lacking. Fieldwork is needed in order to get this information before any further decisions on conservation measurements can be made.	eng
163926	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from holotype male: collection notes: "North Moluccas, Obi Island, <1865" and one female: collection notes: "north Moluccas, Obi Island, Laiwui, sea level, 18 October 1953, A.M.R. Wegner".	eng
163926	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	See information given under 'population' from the description by Lieftinck (1957). The species likely occurs at brooks in forest however proof of this is lacking.	eng
163926	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Lieftinck (1957) remarks the following:&#160; 'While examining and sorting out the very extensive collection of Odonata brought home from Obi by Mr. Wegner and his assistants, only a single female (and no male!) of <em>optata</em> was found among the many thousands of zygopters gathered together. Besides this one individual, the collection included only one other <em>Argiine</em>, viz., a single male of <em>obiensis</em> sp. n. described in the previous pages. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that both species have habits similar to some other members of <em>Palaiargia</em> known by myself to be very inconspicuous insects, which frequent small rocky streams in deep ravines, keeping close to the water's edge'; this is all that is known.	eng
163926	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163927	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so threats can be assessed and conservation measures implemented.	eng
163927	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Has a large but discontinuous distribution. Is probably relatively common in much of its range. The species is known from the Moluccas, Kei Islands, Aru Islands, Papua New Guinea, The Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands. The species is also mentioned from the Philippines by Lieftinck (1974) but Hämäläinen and Müller (1997: Synopsis of the Philippine Odonata) consider <em>A. similis</em> a subspecies of <em>A. insignis</em> and do not give information on the distribution of subspecies.	eng
163927	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Probably inhabits standing and slowly flowing waters, often found in disturbed country.	eng
163927	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Has a large distribution but population numbers and size are not known.	eng
163927	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163928	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163928	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from two records:<br/>- Six males (including holotype): Indonesia, Papua province. Collection notes: "above Bernhard Camp, 750m, 19-25 March 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".<br/>- One male: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Bernhard Camp B, 100 m, 10 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163928	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably breeds in runnels in rainforest.	eng
163928	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163928	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163929	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163929	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from two records of: one male from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Maneau Range, north slopes of Mount Dayman, 1,550 m, 11 July 1953, G.M. Tate".&#160; And two males (holotype) from Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. Collection notes "40 km, inland, hill-forest, Rona Falls, 275 m, 17 February 1936, collector unknown."	eng
163929	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	One of the two localities is described as hill-forest. Probably occurs in runnels and brooks in forest.	eng
163929	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163929	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Distribution and habitat are poorly known making it difficult to assess the main threats of the species.	eng
163930	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is found in mostly virgin habitat and is thought to be in experiencing any threats, therefore there are no conservation measures in place or needed at present.  Further research into the biology and population range of this species is needed.	eng
163930	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from three records from southeast and east Papua New Guinea (Astrolabe Bay, Wampit river Valley and Peria creek and Kwagira river). The distance between the first and last mentioned localities is more than 500 km. The record by Ris (1915) belongs to <em>Bironides liesthes</em> as pointed out by Lieftinck (1963).	eng
163930	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably confined to rainforest habitats.	eng
163930	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163930	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat of this species has continuously been extracted but not at a rate or level to cause concern to the species yet.	eng
163931	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163931	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from Indonesia: Sumba, Tanibar island, Papua province; Papua New Guinea and north Australia: southeastern Queensland, northeastern Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley region of Western Australia.	eng
163931	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Primarily associated with still waters, particularly swamps (Watson <em>et al</em>. 1991, Theischinger and Hawking 2006).	eng
163931	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding size of population although it is thought to be stable.	eng
163931	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163932	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be degrading.  Further research is needed into the biology and population numbers of this species.	eng
163932	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from a large series from Misool (Kasim, Fage and Wartama Rivers) and from one location on the south side of the Doberai Peninsula, Indonesia. Lieftinck (1953) mentioned that it is "a moderately common species along the upper course of all rivers and open streams of Misool, and never found away from water".	eng
163932	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Lieftinck (1953) mentions that on Misool it occurs on the upper course of rivers and open streams. His description of the behaviour show that these rivers are stony and at least some of them are shaded by trees for long stretches.	eng
163932	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Lieftinck (1953) mentioned that it is a moderately common species on Misool.	eng
163932	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The habitat is not thought to be currently under pressure.	eng
163933	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures needed at present.	eng
163933	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from Australia (northeastern Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, top end of Northern Territory, Kimberley Region) and Indonesia (Papua province). In Papua only known from two records in the southern plains (Digoel river and Merauke).	eng
163933	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is found in still and flowing waters (Watson 1991).	eng
163933	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163933	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163934	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163934	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the very large type series:<br/>114 males and 158 females: Indonesia, Papua province.  Collection notes: "Araucaria Camp and River, 800 m, 1 March - 4 April 1939, L.J. Toxopeus".	eng
163934	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably breeds in small running waters in forest.	eng
163934	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	The type series is fairly large suggesting that in suitable habitat this species occurs in high numbers.	eng
163934	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163935	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place, the habitat does not appear to be experience a level of degradation to cause concern and it is thought to occur in a wider range.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163935	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from four records from the surroundings of Mount Wilhelm (Papua New Guinea) three from 1955 (Lieftinck 1959) and one from the 1990s (Michalski 1995).	eng
163935	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163935	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163935	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163936	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the population range and numbers of the species that is currently found in few localities.	eng
163936	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known from the Tanibar Islands (Southern Moluccas, Indonesia). It has been found on the main island (Jamdena) and on Larat Island. The species is known from three records. Its nearest relative, <em>Agrionoptera insignis</em>, is widespread and is not a habitat specialist. It is likely that the same is true for <em>A. cynthiae</em> and if so the species is probably not uncommon on the island.	eng
163936	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known although its nearest relative, <em>Agrionoptera insignis</em>, occurs in standing or slowly flowing waters and is often found in disturbed country. <em>Agrionoptera cynthiae</em> might have the same habitat.	eng
163936	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163936	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163937	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	At the moment no populations of the species are known and in order to find remaining populations, fieldwork should have priority. Protection of remaining forest in the vicinity of Tondano is needed as population might still be present.	eng
163937	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	van Tol (2000) gives the following information on the species:<br/>'The only specimen known was collected by A.R. Wallace, almost certainly at Tondano, northern Celebes (Sulawesi). Wallace collected in the vicinity of Tondano (Rurukan) in late June and early July 1859. He actually stayed at Tondano a few days after 29 June, so early July, only. He visited the waterfalls at the outlet of the lake, where probably the present specimen was taken . The area is now completely cultivated (own observations). Although the Minahasa, especially the easternmost part around Menado, was well explored in the 1930s and 1940s the species has not turned up on any of these sites.'	eng
163937	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species was originally collected at a waterfall opening onto a lake, and if further populations are found, it is likely to occur in seepages and brooks in the forest also.	eng
163937	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163937	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is likely to depend on forest and cultivation of the area has probably led to a dramatic decline in the available habitat.	eng
163938	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place despite the habitat declining due to pressure on the rainforest.	eng
163938	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Confined to Sulawesi and known from three records:<br/>- Male (holotype): Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "foot of Mount Lompobatang, Borong Rapao, 800 m, 12 August 1949, A. Diakonoff".<br/>- Three males and one female: Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Sulawesi Tenggara, S of Sanggona: Gunung Watuwila, Sunggai Lalonduwasi near Centipede camp. C. 1,050 m. 2-4 Nov 1989, J. van Tol".<br/>- One female, Indonesia, Sulawesi.  Collection notes: "Sulawesi Tengah, ca. 10 km west-northwest Palopo near Tojambu, 800-1,000 m, c 2°56'S, 120°07'E, Jul/Aug 1991, R. Yohan".	eng
163938	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Habitat and behaviour are described by van Tol 1994: 'I collected this species myself along a small, shaded stream in a steep valley in the Mengkoko mountain area. The insects appeared immediately after sunrise, and were active for approximately one hour. Males as well as females flew low over the water up and down the stream, more or less in a straight line. With a rather slow and small wing beat, they were not extremely fast. The specimens could be collected at a site where a big log of more than one meter diameter was laying in the stream. <em>Macromia</em> specimens crossed the log at a height of just a few centimetres to return immediately to the water surface. The female was caught on a dark day at 16.30h, i.e. 1.5 hours before sunset.'	eng
163938	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, although it is thought to be decreasing.	eng
163938	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is decreasing due to wood extraction of its habitat.	eng
163939	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is common in disturbed as well as pristine habitats and does not appear to require conservation action at present.  There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
163939	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	This species is common all over Sulawesi.	eng
163939	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Found in secondary, disturbed and pristine habitats.	eng
163939	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	The population trend is unknown, as are numbers although it is common where it is found.	eng
163939	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163940	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163940	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the type series:<br/>- three males: South Timor, Amarassi.  Collection notes: " December 1931-I.1932, leg. Ed. Handschin".	eng
163940	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163940	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163940	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163941	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although the species is common and not threatened it would be good to gather basic information on its habitat.	eng
163941	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Widespread and common on the Lesser Sundas and recorded from: Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Pantar, Alor, Sumba, Timor and Wetar.	eng
163941	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163941	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details known but records suggest that it is common and abundant.	eng
163941	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	It is not known if the species is depended on forest. If so the species might have declined. However most other oriental species of <em>Trithemis</em> inhabit habitats in open country or degraded forest and it is likely that this is also true for <em>T. lilacina</em>.	eng
163942	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163942	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from male holotype: Papua New Guinea, D'Entrecasteux Islands, Fergusson Island.  Collection notes: "mountain camp between Agamoia and Ailuluai, south coast, 900 m, 14 June 1956, L.J. Brass". The species might be endemic to this island.	eng
163942	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.	eng
163942	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163942	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.	eng
163943	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163943	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from the male holotype from Papua New Guinea. Collection notes: "Woodlark Island. (Murua), Kulumadau, 10 February 1957, W.W. Brandt". Might be endemic to Woodlark Island.	eng
163943	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably running waters in forest.	eng
163943	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163943	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	Destruction of forest for timber or agriculture is the most likely factor influencing the status of this species.	eng
163944	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Although a widespread species, there is no recent population and habitat preference information available to correctly assess if this species requires conservation action; there are currently no known measures in place.	eng
163944	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Solomon Island group and there seemingly widespread. Recorded from the following Islands (from north to south):<br/>- Buka Island (Papua New Guinea)<br/>- Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea)<br/>- Shortland Island (Solomons)<br/>- Mono Island (as Treasury Island; Solomons)<br/>- New Georgia Island (Solomons)<br/>- Savo Island (Solomons)<br/>- Guadalcanal Island (Solomons)	eng
163944	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Its near relative <em>Prothorthemis coronata</em> occurs at standing and slowly flowing waters and is often found at habitats which are influenced by humans.	eng
163944	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163944	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is widespread on island of the Solomon Island group and is probably not uncommon. As details on its habitat requirement are lacking it is not possible to say if the species it threatened by, for instance, deforestation.	eng
163945	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163945	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	The species is only known three records all prior to 1900:<br/>- One female (holotype): Papua New Guinea, Astrolabe Range.  Collection notes: " 09.1893, leg. L. Loria".<br/>- One male: Papua New Guinea, Milne Bay. Collection notes: "1898, leg Staudinger".<br/>- One male: labelled 'N. Guinea', probably from Papua New Guinea.  Collection notes: "10 February 1899, leg Biro".<br/><br/>The two records for which a locality is given are over 600 km apart. If these records pertain to the same species (see above) than the species had a relatively large range in east Papua New Guinea.  The male and female have not been found together. They resemble each other closely but there is a chance that the male and female pertain to different species.	eng
163945	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known, probably occurs in small brooks and seepages in forest.	eng
163945	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163945	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163946	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163946	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype male from Indonesia. Collection notes: "West Papua province, Waigeu Island, Camp Nok, 2,500 ft, April 1938, Miss L.E. Cheesman".	eng
163946	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known. Larvae probably found in running waters.	eng
163946	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163946	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163947	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163947	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Only known from male holotype: Waigeu Island, West Papua province, Indonesia.	eng
163947	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Probably breeds in brooks or rivers.	eng
163947	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163947	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There is no recent information on this species although it is predicted that its habitat is being threatened by timber clearing.	eng
163948	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is desperately needed to fully understand the species biology and habitat requirements for the species to be assessed to a higher level.	eng
163948	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from the holotype and a female para-type both from Papua New Guinea, Mafulu.  Collection notes:  "(roughly 8°30'S, 147°E), 4000ft, December 1933, leg. L.E. Cheesman".	eng
163948	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details on habitat are known. The larva of the species probably live in streams or seepages.	eng
163948	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163948	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163949	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no known conservation measures in place and the habitat does not appear to be experiencing a level of degradation to cause concern.  Field work is required to better understand population numbers and range.	eng
163949	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known from north Papua province, Indonesia (surroundings of Jayapura, Bernhard Camp, Waris) and north Papua New Guinea (surroundings of Waris). Probably widespread and not uncommon in north New Guinea.	eng
163949	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	Habitat given as 'shady forest-stream in heavy jungle'.	eng
163949	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers, however it is thought to be stable.	eng
163949	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
163950	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed to fully understand the species biology, habitat status and population numbers so it can be assessed at a higher level.	eng
163950	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Waigeo Island, West Papua province, Indonesia and known only from two records:<br/>- Waigeo Island, H.A. Bernstein, Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire (Holotype).<br/>- Eight males and four females: Waigeo Island.  Collection notes: "Camp Nik, 2,500 ft, April 1938, L.E. Cheesman, British Museum of Natural History except for para-type female which is in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire".	eng
163950	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known but probably occurs in seepages and brooks in forest.	eng
163950	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163950	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163951	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2007	Known only from two records prior to 1952 and details on habitat are lacking. First priority is therefore to gather information on its distribution and habitat.	eng
163951	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2007	Endemic to Halmahera (north Moluccas) and known from two localities and the type series:<br/>- five males (holotype): central Halmahera.  Collection notes: " Sembilan Mountains, 600 m, and Siu, 600-700 m, 27 September - 6 October 1951" (holotype in Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire, rest in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense)<br/>- one male: central Halmahera.  Collection notes: "Tolewang, 50m, 10-25 October 1951" (Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense).	eng
163951	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known.	eng
163951	population	Kalkman, V., 2007	Information is lacking regarding population numbers and trend.	eng
163951	threats	Kalkman, V., 2007	No details are known regarding threats affecting this species.	eng
163963	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	It has been recorded from some protected areas (e.g., Mare d'Oursi a Ramsar site - but may lose its status soon because of the increased number of cattle in the area).	eng
163963	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is found in Tropical Africa, Madagascar, India, Asia. It is widespread  through Tropical Africa. Also recorded from Northern Africa in the Nile region including the delta and Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique).	eng
163963	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>G. maderaspatana</em> is an annual (occ. perennial) plant of damp places and river rapids. It occurs in seasonally damp places, natural lakes and in rice fields. The ecology varies from country to country, in some places found in water, whereas in others only occurs after the water has receded. It is not strictly a wetland species (Cook 2004), it can grow in damp places where water stood during the rains but has dried out and therefore it may replace wetland species in dry season.	eng
163963	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread herbaceous species, important population.	eng
163963	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespread threats have been identified. However, occasionally trampling may be a threat to this species, as livestock are attracted to these areas because of the fresh grazing once the water recedes. Excessive trampling&#160; may lead to soil erosion. Habitat loss, due to global warming and human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, livestock agriculture, infrastructure development) may also threaten the species in the future.	eng
163964	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
163964	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in the Mediterranean region, Europe, and west and Central Asia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in the following countries: Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia,  former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete and East Aegean Islands, Malta, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
163964	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. spicatum</em> is found in marshy and damp grassy or sandy places near the sea. It prefers marshy ground, canal banks and springs, and the edges of fields with soils of high salinity.	eng
163964	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
163964	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
163966	conservation	Diadema, K., 2008	In France, the species is under regional protection in Languedoc and some populations are included in protected areas.<br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites as well as the population dynamics and to raise public awareness. Search for new sites and historic sites in Spain, the Balearic Islands and France is suggested.	eng
163966	distribution	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is endemic to France, Spain and Italy.<br/>In France, it is found in Languedoc and Roussillon (France). In Spain, it is present in Girona and the Balearic Islands. It occurs in central and south Italy, in Sardinia, in seven regions in total.	eng
163966	habitat	Diadema, K., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polygonum romanum</span> is a perennial shrubby plant with woody stock. The species is found in Mediterranean temporary pools and fluctuating water bodies and in all other temporary wet areas on neutral to acid soils. It also grows on volcanic soils. In Italy, it has been found in dry abandoned grasslands. For the site in Mallorca, it has been described as being present along fields and paths in anthropogenic influenced environments (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
163966	population	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is found at three to six locations in Pyrénées-Orientales (Baixas, Perpignan, Saint-Estève), Hérault (Agde, Portiragnes) and Aude (Moux).<br/>In Spain, there is only one population in Girona. It has also been found at one site in Menorca as <span style="font-style: italic;">P. romanum</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">balearicum</span>. This subspecies was originally described from Pont d'Inca in Mallorca but has disappeared now from this island (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1990).<br/>In Italy, the species is rare and scattered everywhere and there are signs of decline. Only old records are available for Calabria and the records for Basilica and Umbria are doubtful.	eng
163966	threats	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is rare and has a very restricted distribution. It is threatened by change of land management such as intensification of agriculture.	eng
163967	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In France, the species is under regional protection in Lorraine and Centre.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To estimate the size of the populations and to follow their dynamics <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
163967	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Samolus valerandi</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region it is found in Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos, Algeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Egypt, Sinai, France, Corsica, Spain, Balearic Islands, Israel, Jordan, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Libya, Lebanon and Syria, Palestine, Portugal, Morocco, Malta, Tunisia, Turkey. In North Africa, it is very frequent with many localities.	eng
163967	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is found in plains and low and middle mountains in brackish temporary pools and marshes, wet meadows, ditches, springs, wet rocks and rivulets. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms between April and October.	eng
163967	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known although they are presumably very large. They often show a reduction bound to the global destruction of wetlands.	eng
163967	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threats on the habitat of this species are drainage, filling-in of wetlands, overgrazing, the extension of agriculture and water eutrophication.	eng
163969	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Benhouhou, S., 2009	The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/>There are no conservation measures in place. Protection of this species is recommended in Tunisia and Morocco.	eng
163969	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Benhouhou, S., 2009	This species is present in parts of Europe, North Africa and West Asia. Countries where <em>Alopecurus arundinaceus</em> is found include Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Greece, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
163969	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Benhouhou, S., 2009	This species grows in damp or saline grassland and banks of waterways, or on mountains of up to 1,200 m.<br/>The flowering season occurs between April and July in Morocco, from May until July in Tunisia and France, and from May until June in Italy.	eng
163969	population	de Bélair, G. & Benhouhou, S., 2009	There is no information available on the populations of that species. Considering the range of the distribution and the habitats not apparently threatened, the populations are assumed not to be at risk. It is rare in Tunisia (two sites), France (two sites), Italy (one site), Morocco (eight sites), but common in Spain. In Israel, it is threatened and included in the Red Data Book.<br/><br/>In Algeria, the species is common and occurs at several sites. The species is found in the Constantine region, the eastern and central Saharan Atlas, the central and western Tell Atlas, western coast, and in the western valleys.	eng
163969	threats	de Bélair, G. & Benhouhou, S., 2009	There are no identified threats for this species.	eng
163971	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	No conservation measures are in place. It is necessary to preserve this species' habitat and to protect it from pollution (including landfills or wastewater) from the various facilities surrounding its habitats. Confirmation of the species' presence and its population size in the forest dayas of l'Alma is needed, as well as verification of the populations identified for Morocco.	eng
163971	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	The distribution of <em>R. algeriensis</em> is very limited as it is endemic to Algeria, present only near Algiers and in Numidia. In the first area, it is noted as var. <em>genuinus</em> (Maire and Weiller), and found in El Harrach (ex-Maison-Carrée) and Oued Smar. Those two locations were considered almost completely destroyed. It also occurs in the forest dayas of l'Alma where the plant's existence and the size of the population need to be verified.<br/>In Numidia, it is noted as var. <em>hipporegianus</em> Batt. and observed in the ditches and streams of Annaba. It is known to be in the area of Lake Oiseaux and probably in a wet grassland near the airport, but it is very rare, as highlighted by Quézel and Santa (1962) and Maire (1961).<br/>  The species has also been mentioned for northwest Morocco (Tetouan) by Ennabili and Gharnit (2003), but is not included in the Flora of Morocco. It needs to be verified if the species is present in Morocco or has been reported in error.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be well below the threshold of 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
163971	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Rumex algeriensis</em> is a perennial herb with a vertical rhizome that prefers the Mediterranean temperate to mild sub-humid bioclimate and is found, at least in Numidia, in heavy clay soils of alluvial or colluvial hydromorphic origin. It occurs along streams, ditches and in marshes and dayas of sub-littoral plains.<br/>Flowering occurs from April to June.	eng
163971	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	In Numidia, it is widely dispersed in the form of very small populations (two to three individuals), or even single individuals only. Three to four locations were observed.	eng
163971	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	A possible threat, which can affect this species survival in the future, is the modification and therefore reduction of its habitats due to the repair of ditches, destruction of riverine forests or various kinds of pollution, which can lead to the disappearance of this species.	eng
163972	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to study the inventory of habitats of the subspecies <em>mollis</em> and <em>menthaefolius</em> in Italy and Corsica, including their taxonomy, populations, locations.	eng
163972	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a paleotemperate (circumboreal) species that is found in Europe, west and north Asia, North Africa, and Macaronesia (Azores).<br/>In North Africa it is common in Morocco, rare in Algeria (Tell) and is found at eight localities in northern Tunisia. In Europe it extends from Portugal to the Balkans and is present in Turkey and the Levant.	eng
163972	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Lycopus europaeus</em> is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It grows in wet and marshy meadows, ditches, riparian forests, streams and pond banks.	eng
163972	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The species is widely present in the Mediterranean region, two of its subspecies seem to be rare.	eng
163972	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The species does not face major threats<em></em>.	eng
163973	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	More research on population numbers and range is needed as well as habitat maintenance and conservation.	eng
163973	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Tunisia and Algeria. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and is found at less than 15 locations.	eng
163973	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is mainly present in wetlands, peat soils and near the springs or the edges of streams, including in forests.	eng
163973	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Hypericum afrum</em> is relatively common in Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
163973	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Habitat destruction of the forests edges, desiccation due to water extraction for agricultural purposes and trampling by livestock are also impacting the species.	eng
163974	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the species and its sites it is recommended.	eng
163974	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. The following measures are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection<br/>- Application of legal conservation measures<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the population size<br/>- Study the population dynamics	eng
163974	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is an Old-World species common in most of Europe, particularly in the south. It is also represented in North Africa and throughout southeastern, central and western Asia. It has been introduced in North and South America.<br/><br/>In Africa the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
163974	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is an Old-World species common in most of Europe, particularly in the south. It is also represented in North Africa and throughout southeastern, central and western Asia. It has been introduced in North and South America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean the species occurs in all the northern and eastern Mediterranean countries and most of the big islands. In North Africa, it is found in Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In Lebanon, it is found near Beyrouth, Dora, Antélias, Tripoli, and Bequa. In Syria, it is present in Tartous, Nahr Séné, Lattaquié, Bhamra, Damas, Plaines du Hauran, Jbel Druze, Haute Jéziré.	eng
163974	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is a perennial amphibious herbaceous plant growing in marshes and on the edge of stagnant waters. It grows in association with <em>Typha</em> ssp. and <em>Phragmites australis</em>.	eng
163974	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Alisma lanceolatum</em> is a perennial amphibious herbaceous plant growing in marshes and on the edge of stagnant waters. It grows in association with <em>Typha</em> ssp. and <em>Phragmites australis</em>.	eng
163974	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia, but rare in North Africa.	eng
163974	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia, but rare in North Africa.	eng
163974	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The major threat to <em>A. lanceolatum</em> is the destruction of its habitat by infrastructure development and water pollution.	eng
163974	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The major threat to <em>A. lanceolatum</em> is the destruction of its habitat by infrastructure development and water pollution.	eng
163975	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to evaluate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
163975	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Carex fissirostris</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. The species is very rare and is restricted to the Haut Atlas, where it is known only from three localities (Ourika, Tifnout and between Marrakech and Oukeïmeden). The extent of occurrence of the species is 500 km², but the area of occupancy is probably slightly greater than 10 km² although it has not been quantified.	eng
163975	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Carex fissirostris</em> is found between 1,700-3,200 m elevation at the edges of streams and torrents on granite and porphyries substrates, in wet pastures and rocky places as well as along irrigation channels. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms from spring to summer under the semi-arid cold, sub-humid or high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
163975	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size and trends of the populations are not known.	eng
163975	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of <em>Carex fissirostris</em> is submitted to a high pressure from grazing, tourism (outdoor activities) and the development of infrastructures for tourism.	eng
163977	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa.	eng
163977	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Persicaria hydropiper</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, Europe, southwest Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is over 5,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
163977	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, marshes and humid environments. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.	eng
163977	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and overall the populations are assumed to be stable. <br/>In North Africa, the trend of the populations is unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, known in three locations distributed between the Middle Atlas (south of Col du Zad), northern Atlantic Morocco (Meknès) and the Rif (Açilah); fairly widespread in Algeria in Numidie and Jijel as well as on the Algérois coast; fairly common and present in six provinces in Portugal; very common in Spain (118 sites); common in all France; common and present in Italy in 14 provinces besides Sicily.	eng
163977	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage caused by agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.	eng
163978	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None.	eng
163978	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread in Africa up to the Sinai peninsula.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), possibly Swaziland. <br/><br/>The species is widespread in Eastern Africa, found in Central Kenya (Machakos), Lower Tana River in Mlango ya Simba, Northern parts in South Turkana, Ayangyani Swamp. Also found in western  Kenya in Mumias as well as Central Rift Valley in Lakes Baringo and Naivasha. In Tanzania it occurs in Arusha district Arusha National Park, lake Kawanja ya Matheo, Ufipa district lake Kwale, Songea district likonde R. south east of Songea. It has also been recorded in Lake Victoria.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa it is only found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Chad, and Egypt. In Egypt it is restricted to a small part of the Nile in the Aswan district and to Lake Nasser.	eng
163978	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial (occ. annual) hydrophyte is common and widespread in still and slowly flowing water, also in slightly brackish water. Found r=from 1 - 1550 m above sea level. It is a freshwater species that tolerates brackish conditions. It forms denser mats in standing water than in running water and it spends all its life cycle submerged. The species cannot tolerate drought and is therefore not found in temporary wetland habitats. <em>N. horrida</em> is mainly found in habitats that are characterised by either water of high sulphate, intermediate phosphate and low bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium concentrations; or hydrosoil of sandy clay loam texture with high potassium concentrations.	eng
163978	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
163978	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The main threats are agricultural activities that cause pollution, fisheries and invasive species that compete for this species resources. However, more research is needed to confirm whether these are major widespread threats to continental Africa.	eng
163979	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, it is under regional protection (seven regions: Ile-de-France, Haute-Normandie, Basse-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Aquitaine and Limousin). In Croatia, it occurs in a protected area.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures <br/>- Maintain the hydrological regimes of the sites <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of the fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks	eng
163979	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Utricularia australis</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan Euro-Siberian species with a large distribution that covers the temperate and tropical regions, India, southeast Asia, Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Crete, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In Morocco, it is present in Tangier and central Rif and in Algeria, it is found in Numidie, along the coast of the Algiers region and Petite and Grande Kabylie.<br/>Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,800,000 km² and it is present in many locations.	eng
163979	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a submersed, carnivorous, perennial plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in mountain lakes, wetlands of plains and shallow still waters, with a preference for non calcareous water that is low in minerals. Flowering occurs between spring and summer. It needs a lot of light and it can multiply very quickly.	eng
163979	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in more than 25 locations in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. In North Africa, the populations are in moderate regression due to the increasing anthropogenic pressures on the habitat. <br/>- Morocco: five locations distributed between the western Rif, the pre-Rif and the north Atlantic plains; <br/>- Algeria: quite rare, present in about seven locations situated along the coast of the Algiers region, in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: fairly common in the centre and north (present in five provinces in Portugal and 28 in Spain); <br/>- France: quite common (72 departments); <br/>- Italy: found in seven provinces in the north of the country; <br/>- Israel and Jordan: at least three locations along the Mediterranean coastline.<br/>- Croatia: not very common but classified as Data Deficient for Croatia, there is one big population in Dalmatia<br/>- Turkey: more widespread then <em>U. vulgaris</em>, located at 28 different lakes	eng
163979	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of wetlands, agriculture, water eutrophication, invasion by algae and exotic plants and the lack of light are the main threats to this species.	eng
163981	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no existing conservation actions in place. Recommended actions are:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Monitor the dynamics of the populations and the possible emigration from southern tropical populations.<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures <br/>- Maintain the hydrological regime of the sites <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks<br/>- Management of invasive species in its habitat	eng
163981	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Utricularia inflexa</em> is a species of tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its distribution is limited to North Africa, where it is found in Egypt, with six sites distributed along the Nile delta, mostly in rice fields and in Libya (two sites in the southwest of the country: Tunin and Ghat). Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km², with at least eight sites. As the Mediterranean region only covers the north of Egypt and Libya, only the sites in the Nile delta are included. They are classed as one location.	eng
163981	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a subaquatic, carnivore, perennial plant (floating Hydrophyte) that inhabits ponds, slow flowing rivers, ditches, rice fields, swamps and deltas. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. The flower is above the water. It needs a lot of light.	eng
163981	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The populations appear to be in slow decline. In Egypt, this species is considered as rare. The populations are scattered and small.	eng
163981	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture, water eutrophication, drainage, invasion by algae and exotic plants (e.g. <em>Azolla filliculoides</em>, <em>Salvinia natans</em>) and the lack of light caused by the proliferation of highly competitive species are the main threats to this species.<br/>In Egypt, the populations are furthermore threatened by the use of herbicides.	eng
163982	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Population numbers and range and habitat status are the major conservation measures needed.	eng
163982	conservation	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D. , 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
163982	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A cosmopolitan species which is present in Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America.<br/><br/>In North East Africa is is found in Sudan (Darfur, Jebel Murra), Ethiopia (in rivis prope Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea. Also recorded from Morocco, and Algeria. Widespread in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa.	eng
163982	distribution	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D. , 2007	<em>Potamogeton pusillus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Eurasia, Africa, Macaronesia and North America. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Serbia, Slovenia, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
163982	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. pusillus</em> grows in standing or slowly flowing water in wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, fenland lodes, and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
163982	habitat	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D. , 2007	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rooted Hydrophyte), that is found in standing or slow-flowing water in a wide range of habitats, including sheltered lakes and reservoirs, ponds, rivers, streams, canals and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
163982	population	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D. , 2007	This species is common in the Mediterranean, occurring in numerous locations and its populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in the Rif (Smir, Negro and Imzouren), the plains of oriental Morocco (Oued Za, near Taourirt and in Béni-Snassen), northern Atlantic Morocco (Inaouène) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Oued Issen and Marrakech); <br/>- Algeria: very common and occurring all along the Tellian Atlas and in Oranais (Saïda and the Saharan Atlas);. <br/>- Libya: present in Wadi Derna and Ghat; <br/>- Egypt: present in the western Desert oases; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring in more than 76 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common;<br/>- Italy: very widespread, occurring in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
163982	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is quite common.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it occurs in numerous locations and its populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in the Rif (Smir, Negro and Imzouren), the plains of oriental Morocco (Oued Za, near Taourirt and in Béni-Snassen), northern Atlantic Morocco (Inaouène) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Oued Issen and Marrakech); <br/>- Algeria: very common and occurring all along the Tellian Atlas and in Oranais (Saïda and the Saharan Atlas);. <br/>- Libya: present in Wadi Derna and Ghat; <br/>- Egypt: present in the western Desert oases.	eng
163982	threats	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D. , 2007	Habitat drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization are the main threats to this species. The main threat in Egypt is competition with introduced species. In Morocco, it is considered that general threats to wetlands such as agricultural pollution are the main problem.	eng
163982	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The main threast are water pollution and competition with introduced species.	eng
163983	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In France, the habitats are monitored in several locations (ligneous species and clonal plants dynamic, water level), the species is under national protection and included in the red list. The site of Roque-Haute is designated under a Natural Reserve statute since 1975 (but without any management plan). <br/>At the Balearic Islands, <em>I. setacea</em> is classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and search for new sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising awareness of the general public <br/>- Creation of protected perimetres where pastoral activities are maintained<br/>- To avoid the permanency of water in the pools<br/>- To reintroduce sheep grazing in Helophyte polls and in ligneous pools (after cutting) <br/>- To eliminate litter in the pool<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction and all new managements	eng
163983	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and to search for new sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising awareness of the general public <br/>- Creation of protected perimetres where pastoral activities are maintained<br/>- To avoid the permanency of water in the pools<br/>- To reintroduce the sheep grazing in Helophyte polls and in ligneous pools (after cutting) <br/>- To eliminate the litter in the pool<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction (and all new managements)	eng
163983	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a West-Mediterranean species. It is found in France (Hérault, Orientals Pyrenees), Spain (centre and west of the country and in Catalonia), Balearic Islands (Minorca) and Portugal (centre and south). <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is limited to Morocco where it has been recently discovered in only one locality (Benslimane) with an area of occupancy smaller than 1 km².	eng
163983	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a west Mediterranean species. It is found in France (Hérault, Orientals Pyrenees), Spain (centre and west of the country and in Catalonia), the Balearic Islands (Minorca) and Portugal (centre and south). <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is limited to Morocco where it has been recently discovered in only one locality (Benslimane) with an area of occupancy smaller than 1 km². In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is 530,000 km². The area of occupancy has not been quantified but may be less than 2,000 km² as the species is restricted to a particular type of habitat.	eng
163983	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte), characteristic for temporary humid zones and can support water levels of up to 50 cm. The species is restricted to temporary pools on quaternary basalt. It is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoëtes</em> sp. in fluctuating waterbodies (Corine biotope 22.3412). The vegetative growth generally takes place in winter while the maturation of the spores takes place in spring.	eng
163983	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes setacea</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte), characteristic for temporary humid zones and can support water levels of up to 50 cm. The species is restricted to temporary pools on quaternary basalt. It is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoëtes</em> spp. in fluctuating water bodies (Corine biotope 22.3412). The vegetative growth generally takes place in winter while the maturation of the spores takes place in spring.	eng
163983	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations are known to be declining due to the deterioration of the habitat. <br/>In France, the species is present in about one hundred ponds in the Natural Reserve of Roque-Haute, one pond in the plain of Béziers, one in Torremila, several ponds and ditches at Rodés plateau (Fenouillèdes). A more or less slow regression of populations of<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>I. setacea</em> has been reported as a result of the disappearance of the species in the ponds of Saint Estève (Oriental Pyrenees), Grammont (Hérault) and Redessan (Gard). <em>Isoetes setacea</em> is present in the centre and the west of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as in Catalonia and on the island of Minorca (13 provinces in Spain and six in Portugal). In Morocco, the species is very rare with populations that are reduced to only one locality.	eng
163983	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations are known to be declining due to the deterioration of the habitat. Furthermore, in Morocco, the species is very rare with populations that are reduced to only one locality.	eng
163983	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Big constructions (rental, roadwork, etc.), the drainage of pools or their infilling, the extraction of sediment, and permanent retaining of water, constitute serious threats for the populations of <em>I. setacea</em>. However, in France, besides these threats, the restriction of its environment followed by the abandonment of land uses favours the colonisation by competitive perennial plants of large size (woody, big Helophytes) and the accumulation of their litter that affects the populations negatively (heliophile species, sensitive to competition). The quality of the habitats of the species is deteriorating resulting from land and therefore grazing abandonment which increases the sediments and the shade.	eng
163983	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Big constructions (rental, roadwork, etc.), the drainage of pools or their infilling, the extraction of sediment, permanent retaining of water, constitute serious threats for the populations of <em>I. setacea</em>.	eng
163984	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, it is generally recommended to protect wetlands.	eng
163984	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan (circumboreal) species with a global distribution that covers Europe, Asia, southern and northern Africa, Macaronesia, northern America, and that is naturalized in Australia and New Zealand.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Juncus articulatus</em> is present in Tunisia (scattered in the North), Algeria (rather common at the coast -Tell, very rare in Saharian Atlas and central Sahara), Morocco where it is common everywhere, including the Atlas mountains (Maire 1957).	eng
163984	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan (circumboreal) species with a global distribution that covers Europe, Asia, southern and northern Africa, Macaronesia, northern America, and that is naturalized in Australia and New Zealand.<br/>It is present in most European countries and is common in Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily) and France with Corsica, extending to Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Israel.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus articulatus</em> is present in Tunisia (scattered in the North), Algeria (rather common at the coast -Tell, very rare in Saharian Atlas and central Sahara), Morocco where it is common everywhere, including the Atlas mountains (Maire 1957).	eng
163984	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs. Its flowering time in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corse, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria is from May to August and in France from June to September.	eng
163984	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus articulatus</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in shallow freshwater, mesotrophic to eutrophic habitats on limestone or siliceous substrate from plains to mountains, including ponds, ditches, wet meadows, banks of small streams and springs. Its flowering time in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria is from May to August and in France from June to September.	eng
163984	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>J. articulatus</em> is distributed rather widely in the Mediterranean region, except in its southeastern part. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean region.	eng
163984	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>J. articulatus</em> is not threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of degrading wetlands.	eng
163985	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	This species is protected at the regional level (Languedoc-Roussillon) in France. No further conservation measures are suggested.	eng
163985	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species, endemic to the Mediterranean basin and adjacent Atlantic regions. It occurs in the following countries:<br/>- Algeria: very common in the north.<br/>- Spain: very common in the south (including Balearic Islands).<br/>- France: very common in Corsica, more sparsely distributed on the continent (Maures, Estérel, Biot, Languedoc-Roussillon, Albères).<br/>- Greece: very common, widely distributed including the islands of Lesvos, Samos, Ikaria and Rodhos.<br/>- Italy: in most of the country, Sardinia and Sicily<br/>- Lebanon: coast and middle mountains (Saïda, Beyrouth, Nahr el Kelb, Nahr Ibrahim, Ras Chekka-Hamate, Broummana, Moukhtara, Salima, Ghazir, Tripoli, ?Akkar, Jbel ?Aqroum)<br/>- Morocco: High-Atlas, Middle-Atlas, Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, western mountains (Tazzeka, Targuist, Imzorène, Beni-Snassen), Rif.<br/>- Portugal: very common south of Rio Douro.<br/>- Tunisia: common in Kroumirie, Mogods (Sejenane, Kef en Nesour, La Galite), Northwest (Jbel Ichkeul), Tunis region, Cap Bon, Tunisian dorsale (from Bou Kornine to Jbel Chambi).<br/>- Turkey: Lydia, Caria, Lycia and islands; Izmir (from Torbali to Ephesus, 50 m), Mugla (from Marmaris to Emecik, 350 m), Antalya (Kemer, 0-100 m)<br/>- Eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, Cyprus and Malta.	eng
163985	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is a small terrestrial prostrate Pteridophyte, growing in extended carpets, on soils or rocks in humid and shadowy sites, such as river banks, talus, old walls, and edges of temporary pools. It almost uniquely occurs on siliceous substrates, but is locally limestone-tolerant, which happens rather in the southern regions.	eng
163985	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Selaginella denticulata</em> is abundant in the western Mediterranean basin and rarer in the eastern part.	eng
163985	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The small subpopulations of the eastern Mediterranean basin, for instance in Lebanon, are threatened by urbanization. The species is not threatened in North Africa or Europe.	eng
163986	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of the existing sites is recommended.	eng
163986	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Myosotis welwitschii</em> is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain). Its distribution covers the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula and the northwest of Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the species' extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², and it is present in more than 20 locations.	eng
163986	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams and permanent pools of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
163986	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and the populations appear to be stable. In Morocco, it is present in at least ten locations in the northwest (Tanger, western and central Rif and Loukkos). In Portugal, it is quite common in the northwest; and it is found at nine sites in the south of Spain.	eng
163986	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage, urbanization and agricultural usage are the main threats to this species.	eng
163987	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations are found in designated Ramsar sites. Moreover, it is suggested to conserve the habitat and observe the existing locations and to implement legal protection measures.	eng
163987	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species that is found in western and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In Africa, the species occurs in Libya (only one location, Barce: dayas), Tunisia (it is considered as rare with three locations: dunes at Cap Bon, Madjen el Ma, Sedjenane), but seen recently in 16 sites (Sejenane/Mogods), Algeria (common in the Tell with ten localtions, very rare elsewhere). It is common in Morocco, with many locations scattered between Tangier, Rif (Taounate), Northern-Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Sidi Boughaba, Mamora), Moyen Atlas and Haut Atlas (Tit Zill, Oued Tabant, Oued Dades, Assif Immini, Assif N’Toughoute, Oued Rdate, oued Nfiss).	eng
163987	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an Atlantic-Mediterranean species that is found in western and southern Europe: Portugal, Spain, France (west, middle and southern regions, including Corsica, where it is rare), Italy (rare with eight locations, including Sardinia and Sicily, Elba and Capri), Croatia, Greece and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Libya (only one location, Barce: dayas), Tunisia (it is considered as rare with three locations: dunes at Cap Bon, Madjen el Ma, Sedjenane), but seen recently in 16 sites (Sejenane/Mogods), Algeria (common in the Tell with ten localities, very rare elsewhere). It is common in Morocco, with many sites scattered between Tangier, Rif (Taounate), Northern-Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Sidi Boughaba, Mamora), Moyen Atlas and Haut Atlas (Tit Zill, Oued Tabant, Oued Dades, Assif Immini, Assif N’Toughoute, Oued Rdate, oued Nfiss).	eng
163987	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an annual Therophyte. It is found in wet meadows and sands or temporarily flooded (Isoetion) banks of ponds or freshwaters at plains and mountains up to 2,200 m.	eng
163987	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is an annual Therophyte. It is found in wet meadows and sands or temporarily flooded (Isoetion) banks of ponds or freshwaters at plains and mountains up to 2,200 m above sea level.	eng
163987	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	In Europe, the populations of <em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> seem to be scattered. In North Africa, <em>J. pygmaeus</em> has an extent of occurrence of more than 20,000 km², but its area of occupancy does not exceed 500 km². Where it is found in Morocco, it covers fragmented but numerous areas (> 12 locations). There are fourteen localities in Libya, Tunisia (> 15 sites) and Algeria (three of them probably destroyed by urbanization), where this species occupies always reduced and tiny areas.	eng
163987	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Where it is found in Morocco, it covers fragmented but numerous areas (> 12 locations). There are fourteen localities in Libya, Tunisia (> 15 sites) and Algeria (three of them probably destroyed by urbanization), where this species occupies always reduced and tiny areas.	eng
163987	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus pygmaeus</em> is threatened because its wetland habitats are threatened. Moreover, it always occupies small areas, bound to be destroyed by farming, grazing, urbanization, and drainage.	eng
163988	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	More information is needed on population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation is needed.	eng
163988	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant is endemic to southern Italy where it is known from five localities in the regions of Calabria and Basilicata. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> (maybe even less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
163988	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Its main habitat is humid woodland, but it has been expanding into nitrogen-rich habitats, e.g. streams with eutrophic waters.	eng
163988	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is a rare species.	eng
163988	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors, such as its restricted range and limited dispersal, and by natural disasters, such as drought.	eng
163989	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2007	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.<br/><br/>Proposed conservation measures include legal protection of habitat and surveillance of the existing stations.	eng
163989	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2007	This species is native to tropical Africa and Asia and naturalised elsewhere, for example in America and Europe. In Europe, it has been naturalised in Spain and the Azores. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt (Nile region including Delta; Helwan Near Cairo).	eng
163989	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alternanthera nodiflora</span> is an annual, or short-lived perennial, herb which grows in moist soil on Nile Banks.	eng
163989	population	de Bélair, G., 2007	Its populations are limited to the Helwan region near Cairo.	eng
163989	threats	de Bélair, G., 2007	<em>Alternanthera nodiflora</em> is restricted to only one Mediterranean country, Egypt. Therefore, intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal are the main threats.	eng
163990	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place but it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
163990	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures in place but it occurs in many protected areas throughout its wide range.<br/>The following future actions are recommended: <br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
163990	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Eleocharis palustris</em> is very widespread and colonizes the cold, temperate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. It is present in all the countries of Mediterranean Europe and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt).	eng
163990	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Eleocharis palustris</em> is very widespread and colonizes the cold, temperate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. It is present in all the countries of Mediterranean Europe and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt). <br/>This species is frequent in Morocco. It is not known however in the Saharian Atlantic part of Morocco, the Anti-Atlas, the Mountains of the east of the country, and along the Mediterranean coastline.	eng
163990	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) which develops in the mountains up to 2,100 m elevation, in marshes, pools, along edges of rivers, irrigation canals and lakes. Its flowering is spread from spring until the beginning of the autumn.	eng
163990	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size of the populations is available but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean region.	eng
163990	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Besides the destruction of the habitat under the effect of urbanization and road infrastructures, the main threats are water pollution, the expected increasing frequency of droughts (climate change), drainage and the extension of agriculture. However, these are not thought to be major threats to the persistence of the species in the Mediterranean region.	eng
163992	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	There is no legal protection for this species but some conservation measures are in place. It is included in the Red Book volume II, surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica and search of new sites is being carried out.<br/>Proposed actions are to follow-up of the dynamics of different populations, increase knowledge about the species biology, resilience, and conservation, and collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
163992	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Hypericum corsicum</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica of Eurasiatic origin. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica. Its extent of occurrence is more than 5,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².	eng
163992	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found in "pozzine", edges of springs, at mountain rills from 780 m to 1,800 m altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic or pyroclastic sediments.	eng
163992	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Hypericum corsicum</em> is present at more than 46 sites in Corsica. The last observations at the sites of Monte Rotondo and Manganello took place in 2007. The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no further information on the population dynamics. The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
163992	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	Presently, the main threat to this species is drought. In the future, feral pigs could become a threat as well as the increase of forest due to abandonment of stock breeding.	eng
163993	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection in Morocco where the species is very rare (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To reinforce the populations in the Moroccan sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
163993	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	This species is listed under Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulation 318-2008. Live specimens of this species as well as dried and fresh plants, including, leaves, roots/rootstock, stems, seeds/spores, and fruits are subject to this regulation.<br/><br/>There are no further conservation measures in place. For the Moroccan part of its range, legal protection and surveillance of the existing sites are recommended.	eng
163993	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Menyanthes trifoliata</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution. It is present in North America, in Europe and in North Africa. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Turkey, Albania, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal and Morocco. Its the extent of occurrence is about 1,000,000 km².	eng
163993	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Menyanthes trifoliata</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution. It is present in North America, in Europe (Turkey, Albania, Bulgaria, Corsica, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal) and in North Africa (Morocco).<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is very rare (southern limit of its distribution) with two known localities in the central Rif (Issaguène, Immezine) and an area of occupancy not exceeding 12 km².	eng
163993	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in various humid habitats: fens, pools, ditches, lake shores, swampy prairies. In Morocco it is restricted to peaty streams on flinty substrate. It is a perennial (fixed Hydrophyte), flowering in spring, with hydrochorous dispersal.	eng
163993	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in various humid habitats: fens, pools, ditches, lake shores, swampy prairies. In Morocco it is restricted to peaty streams on flinty substrate. It is a perennial, fixed Hydrophyte, flowering in spring, with hydrochorous dispersal.	eng
163993	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are not threatened but probably in decline similarly to their wetland habitats.	eng
163993	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are not threatened but probably in decline similarly to their wetland habitats.<br/>In Morocco, it is very rare as it reaches the southern limit of its distribution and it is known from two localities in the central Rif (Issaguène, Immezine).	eng
163993	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	In Morocco, the habitat is damaged by water pollution and a high grazing pressure.	eng
163993	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	In Morocco, the habitat is damaged by water pollution and a high grazing pressure. <br/>In Europe, water pollution and deterioration of the habitat are the main threats to the species.	eng
163994	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and to search for new ones as well as to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
163994	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and to search for new ones; to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa.	eng
163994	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex echinata</em> is a holarctic species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Macaronesia, western and oriental Asia, boreal America, Australia and New Zealand.<br/>In Africa it is solely found in Morocco, with six locations, all in mountainous regions, with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 10 km².	eng
163994	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex echinata</em> is a holarctic species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Macaronesia, western and oriental Asia, boreal America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread and present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
163994	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and acidic peat-bogs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
163994	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is fairly uncommon with very restricted populations. Their trend is unknown. <br/>It is considered as rare in Morocco, present in six locations distributed between the High Atlas (Aouljdid, the high altitude Jbel Guerdouz prairie and the Assif-n-Oukeïmeden) and the Rif (Ketama, Jbel Tidighine and the Tangerois).	eng
163994	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. It is considered as rare in Morocco, present in six locations distributed between the High Atlas (Aouljdid, the high altitude Jbel Guerdouz prairie and the Assif-n-Oukeïmeden) and the Rif (Ketama, Jbel Tidighine and the Tangerois). <br/>In Spain, it is present in 303 sites, fairly common in all of France, and present in 14 provinces in Italy.	eng
163994	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
163994	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species; in North Africa the low number of sites can be considered as a threat although recolonisation from the northern part of the range is possible.	eng
163995	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	More information about population numbers and range; biology and ecology; habitat status and threats is needed.	eng
163995	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on population numbers and range, biology, ecology, habitat status, and threats is needed.	eng
163995	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	In North Africa, this species is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
163995	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a cosmopolitan species. <br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in North East Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea) and Northern Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco). Also recorded from Western and Southern Africa. In South Africa it is present in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape.	eng
163995	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>C. muricatum</em> is a Hydrophyte that grows in standing waters and tolerates eutrophication and low light.	eng
163995	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. muricatum</em> is a perennial hydrophyte that grows in standing waters and tolerates eutrophication and low light.	eng
163995	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is a fairly common species although it is considered rare in North Africa.	eng
163995	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	It is considered rare in North Africa.	eng
163995	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats are known.	eng
163995	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	Unknown.	eng
163996	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species).<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
163996	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeotemperate) species, essentially located in central and eastern Europe and in Asia, from Caucasus to China and Japan.<br/><br/>In Africa it is only found in Algeria, in El Kala region where it is very rare and possibly introduced.	eng
163996	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Salvinia natans</em> is a free-floating fern, growing in wide populations at the surface of stagnant waters or in weak currents: ditches, canals, ponds. It is often associated to Lemnaceae and other floating plants. It is considered annual in the wild, but it can be perennial in vitro.	eng
163996	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The population trend is unknown.	eng
163996	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The main threats affecting <em>Salvinia natans</em> at its southern limit of distribution in the northern Mediterranean basin are related to the human-induced decline of wetlands.	eng
163997	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D. & Ali, M.M., 2008	In 1985, the Egyptian government declared Gebal Elba (35,600 km²) as a protected area (Natural Reserve, National Park) which is managed by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). More research is needed to know out its distribution in Sudan and Eritrea, and to understand better its habitat and existing threats.	eng
163997	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D. & Ali, M.M., 2008	<em>Cyperus microbolbos</em> is a tropical species of Africa, that occurs in Sudan and Eritrea. In North Africa, it only occurs in southeast Egypt, in the Gebel Elba region where it has been found in only 5 localities.	eng
163997	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D. & Ali, M.M., 2008	<em>Cyperus microbolbos</em> is a glabrous slender, stoloniferous perennial, with a basal bulb. This species grows in coastal sand.	eng
163997	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D. & Ali, M.M., 2008	It is very rare.	eng
163997	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D. & Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is intensively grazed by nomadic livestock.	eng
163998	conservation	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Flanagan, D. & Rhazi, M., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection (Rhones-Alpes and Ile-de-France). There are no other conservation measures in place except for research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology. More information on population numbers and range as well as habitat maintenance and conservation are needed.	eng
163998	distribution	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Flanagan, D. & Rhazi, M., 2009	<em>Sisymbrella aspera</em> is a western Mediterranean species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 1,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
163998	habitat	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Flanagan, D. & Rhazi, M., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers, brooklets, springs, pools, ditches and other habitats that are humid in winter. Flowering occurs during spring.	eng
163998	population	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Flanagan, D. & Rhazi, M., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. <br/>- Morocco: present in more than 15 locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, the <br/>mountains of oriental Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Aurès) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen mountains); <br/>- Spain: very common, present in 195 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common along the Mediterranean coast but absent in the north of the country.	eng
163998	threats	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Flanagan, D. & Rhazi, M., 2009	The agricultural usage and drainage of this species' habitat are the main threats. Droughts are likely to affect the species, in addition to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
163999	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
163999	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is an Eurasian-temperate species. It is found in west Asia and in Europe where it is common and occuring in most of the Mediterranean countries. It is common in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, France and Corsica, and Spain.<br/>It is very common in the Algerian Tell and in Morocco where it also grows in the Atlas mountains. It seems to be rather rare in Tunisia where it is only found at two locations.	eng
163999	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is a perennial species, equipped with a rhizome. It flowers from April-June in Italy and North Africa, and from April-July in France. <br/>The species is found in shallow water or saturated soils in marshes, along the shores of lakes or ponds with stagnant or slow flowing waters, and ditches. It is present on plains as well as at mountains from 0 to 300 m, in Italy with max. 1,000 m.	eng
163999	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Iris pseudoacorus</em> is present in all the sub-coastal plains and mountains of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco, where it is also found in the Atlas Mountains. It is common in Europe. Overall, the populations are very large.<br/>In Israel, the species exists at one location. It was believed to be extinct in the 1980s but has been reintroduced successfully. It is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).	eng
163999	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Owing to its abundance in the Mediterranean region, this species does not seem to be threatened.	eng
164000	conservation	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	No specific conservation measure are needed or in place.	eng
164000	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164000	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Cyperus bulbosus</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers Asia, Australia and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in the south of Algeria and in the south of Egypt. It was introduced in Portugal and Italy.	eng
164000	distribution	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	This species is present in north tropical Africa, through Arabia to North Australia. <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in Sudan, Ethiopia (Gerar Amaden, TU, Mt Schloda), Somalia, Eritrea, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Chad, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, and Mozambique. Also in Algeria and Egypt (Gebel Elba and the surrounding mountainous region).	eng
164000	habitat	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that inhabits riverbeds. Also present in dune slacks and damp sandy places. Flowering occurs in summer.	eng
164000	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that inhabits riverbeds. Flowering occurs in summer.	eng
164000	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is found in humid habitats of the Saharan region. It is fairly uncommon in North Africa with less than 10 locations and restricted but stable populations. <br/>- Algeria: very rare, present in northern and central Sahara; <br/>- Egypt: present in the southeast of the country (Gebel Elba and the surrounding mountainous region); <br/>- Portugal: introduced, its distribution is not well known; <br/>- Italy: introduced, found in three provinces in the north of the country.	eng
164000	population	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	This species is very common North Eastern Africa and Western Africa and rare in North Africa.	eng
164000	threats	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	Small-holder livestock and shifting agriculture are threating the species, but they are not major widespread threats.	eng
164000	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164001	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species due to its stable and numerous populations.	eng
164001	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Portulaca oleracea</em> is a cosmopolitan species with a large biogeographical distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Croatia, former Yugoslavian countries, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula. It has an area of occupancy >2,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations.	eng
164001	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual (Therophyte) to biennial plant that is found in fields, crops, debris in plains, low and medium mountains and accidentally in humid habitats. It is anthropochorous and nitrophilous. It blooms and fructifies in spring and summer. The plant is edible and extensively used in North Africa.	eng
164001	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable.	eng
164001	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164002	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known. Monitoring of the populations is recommended.	eng
164002	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha requienii</em> is endemic to the islands of Sardinia and Montecristo (Italy) and Corsica (France). The variety <em>requienii</em> is found in Corsica from the north to the south as well as in Sardinia and Montecristo, the variety <em>obovata</em> (Gand.) Litard is found in Corsica only and is very rare.<br/>The extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is less than 100 km².	eng
164002	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha requienii</span> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte that is present in wet meadows and pozzines.<br/>The flowering time is from April or June to August (Coste 1980).	eng
164002	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are about ten populations in Sardinia (Marras 2000) and&#160;they are probably more numerous in Corsica.	eng
164002	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<strong style="font-weight: normal; font-style: italic;">Mentha requienii</strong> is intrinsically vulnerable because its distribution is restricted to three islands (Corsica, Sardinia and Montecristo); however there are no major anthropogenic threats known at present.	eng
164003	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.	eng
164003	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex nigra</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, western Asia, boreal and southern America and Australia. <br/>In Africa it is only found in Morocco, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², 11 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 50 km².	eng
164003	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em></em>asses 4,0<em>Carex nigra</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, western Asia, boreal and southern America and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surp00,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164003	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, the edges of mountainous lakes, humid prairies and peat bogs of altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
164003	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, but is not very common in North Africa, with only 11 locations, all of them in mountainous regions. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, it occurs in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake), High Atlas (Jbel Ghat, Tizi-n-Ougdal, Tifenout, Goundafa, Reraya, Seksaoua, Acif Melloul, Tizi-n-Inouzan and Oukaïmden) and the Rif (Jbel Tidighine); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with over 369 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in 13 provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164003	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region (several locations and an AOO >400 km²). In North Africa it is not very common, with only 11 locations, all of them in mountainous regions, and an AOO <50 km². The populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is rare, it occurs in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake), High Atlas (Jbel Ghat, Tizi-n-Ougdal, Tifenout, Goundafa, Reraya, Seksaoua, Acif Melloul, Tizi-n-Inouzan and Oukaïmden) and the Rif (Jbel Tidighine).	eng
164003	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164004	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	This species is included in the Red Data Book of France (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). A natural reserve, the archipelago of the Lavezzis in Corsica, has been designated and it also occurs in conservatory properties of coastal space and riparian beaches (sites of San Giovanni). It is considered Endangered for <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).   <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, and to implement legal protection measures.	eng
164004	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Cressa cretica</em> is a thermo-cosmopolite species. Its global distribution covers the Mediterranean, western and central Asia, northern and central Africa, South America and Australia. It is known from numerous localities of North Africa as well as in Mediterranean Europe.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in most of the countries: Algeria, Albania, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Corsica, Israel and Jordan, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Libya, Lebanon and Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Malta and Tunisia.	eng
164004	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Cressa cretica</em> is a halophyte, perennial  plant (Hemicryptophyte) that lives in salty oases or in depressions in wet sandy areas, exonded in summer such as temporary pools and marshes. The period of flowering goes from the end of spring until the beginning of fall. At the ecosystem level, the species shelters a mushroom and a weevil that are rare.	eng
164004	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The size of the populations is unknown, but they seem to be stable or even in expansion in some localities of the south of France (Camargue). This increase would probably be a result of global warming. <br/>- Morocco: at least 12 localities are distributed between the Saharan regions (Western Sahara, Draâ basin), the Anti Coastal Atlas, middle and north Atlantic Morocco and the Rif;<br/>- Algeria: described as quite rare but present throughout the country. Appears to be in decline, especially in the Sahara, and again this may be linked to climate change;<br/>- France: Pyrenees Orientals (Torreilles), Aude (coastal close to Narbonne), Hérault (Frontignan, Vic-La-Gardiole, Pérols, Mauguio), Gard (Aigues-Mortes), Bouches-du-Rhône (Martigues, strands of the pond of Berre, Crau, Camargue), Var (Hyères, Porquerolles), Alpes-Maritimes (Gulf-Juan, Cannes) and Corsica (Barcaggio, anse d'Arbitru, marsh and pond of San Giovanni, bay of Figari, gulf of Ventilègne, archipelago of the Lavezzi, Santa-Manza, Porto-Vecchio, Bonifacio, pond del Sale);<br/>- Italy: Lazio (one locality), Puglia (one), Basilicata (one), Calabria (three localities of which two are possibly extinct), Sicily (five) and Sardinia (several). The species is scattered in a few, very fragmented populations (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005);<br/>-   Greece: scattered in saltmarshes throughout the country, r<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>ather common and not threatened.	eng
164004	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Urbanization and drainage constitute the main threats on the habitat of this species. Grazing is also a problem, especially in coastal marshes.	eng
164005	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	In France,<em> A. agrostidea</em> is included in the Red List of the rare and threatened plant species of the Armorican Massif. It is protected under regional legislation in France (Pays-de-la-Loire). There are no conservation measures in other Mediterranean countries.<br/><br/>For the future, it is recommended to carry out surveillance of the existing localities, to estimate the size of the population and to follow-up its dynamics.	eng
164005	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Antinoria agrostidea</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 400,000 km², with several localities.	eng
164005	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Antinoria agrostidea</em> is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools on siliceous soils with oligotrophic waters. Its flowering starts in spring and beginning of summer (April-June).	eng
164005	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is more abundant in the western extreme of the Mediterranean (Spain, Portugal and Morocco) and it is scarce in France, Italy, Algeria and Tunisia. It remains quite common in the Mediterranean and North Africa. Its habitat deteriorates under various human pressures. The size and the trend of the populations are unknown. <br/> <br/>- Morocco: it is relatively common with at least ten localities, distributed between the northern Atlantic Morocco (pool in the south of Benslimane; close to Souk-Larbaâ of the Shouls; southeast of Tiflet; toward the mouth of the Oued Ikem; close to Oulmès; Oulad Saïd; North of Oued-Zem) and the Middle Atlas. <br/>- Algeria: it is very rare in the coastal Sahels Oranais (M'Sila forest), the Algerois and Oranais High plains (Tiaret, pools of Tasselent) <br/>- Tunisia: it is rare, known from Kroumirie (Madjen el Ma) <br/>- Spain-Portugal: very common with 113 known localities <br/>- France: it is essentially confined to the northwest of the country. In the south of the country (Mediterranean), it is only present in one region.<br/>- Italy: present in Sardinia, Sicily and the provinces Lazio and Molise	eng
164005	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	Agriculture, drainage, water pollution and the development of road infrastructure constitute the main threats for the habitat of this species.	eng
164006	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are recommended:<br/>- Search for new populations.<br/>- Evaluate the size of populations.<br/>- Study the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164006	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Sedum bracteatum</em> is an endemic of Cyrenaica (Libya) where it occurs at the coast of Grande Syrte (Della-Cella), and Wady Sarak near Koubba.	eng
164006	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Sedum bracteatum</em> grows on humid rocks.	eng
164006	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The population size and trend are unknown.	eng
164006	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	It is unknown whether this species faces any threats.	eng
164007	conservation	Diop, F. & Ghogue, J., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or required.	eng
164007	distribution	Diop, F. & Ghogue, J., 2009	In western Africa, this species is widespread. Probably more widespread than the current records indicate. Also recorded from Egypt, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo and Mpumalanga). It is not very common in eastern africa, although it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.<br/><br/>Global distribution: Probably also present in Asia. Probably a pan-tropical species wherever rice is grown. A species of low-lying areas.	eng
164007	habitat	Diop, F. & Ghogue, J., 2009	Found in moist places, ditches, and rice fields. Is probably a weedy species occurring where there are anthropogenic activities.	eng
164007	population	Diop, F. & Ghogue, J., 2009	Good occurrence of species population throughout Africa.	eng
164007	threats	Diop, F. & Ghogue, J., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought, although these are not considered major threats.	eng
164008	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164008	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In the Mediterranean it is only native to Egypt in the Nile region including the delta, oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, and the desert east of the Nile. It has been introduced to Israel.	eng
164008	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	The plant grows in a wide variety of habitats including canal banks and gardens.	eng
164008	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is restricted to Egypt in the Mediterranean region, but it is common there.	eng
164008	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164011	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To limit the urbanization of the coastline and to enforce legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164011	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Limonium duriaei</em> is an endemic plant from Algeria and Morocco. In Morocco it is very rare with only one locality known on the Mediterranean coastline (Melilia) and another in the Moyen Atlas (region of Enjil). Its area of occupancy in Morocco is about 100 km². In Algeria, it is known in two sectors: the coastal plains near Oran (Chott El Hodna, Sebka of Arzew) and the high Plateau near Algiers and Oran in the west of the country (Chott Chergui, Zahrez Chergui and Zahrez Gharbi). The global extent of occurrence is about 48,000 km² and the global area of occupancy is around 400 km².	eng
164011	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) only found in salt marshes. It blooms in summer under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164011	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In Morocco, this plant's habitat is under pressure from grazing. However the populations seem to be stable because the species is rarely grazed by livestock. The last observations date to 1995 for the locality of Melilia and 1999 for the site of the Moyen Atlas confirming the presence of the species. <br/><br/>In Algeria, the species seems to be very rare, probably in decline and maybe even extinct. The observations of 1960 identify the species in Sebka Arzew and on the coastal plains of Oran. A bibliographic survey for the period 1953-2002 published by the Ministry of Forestry and Agricultural Development, shows the absence of the species in the Chotts of the Haut Plateaux from the east to the west of Algeria	eng
164011	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Deterioration of the quality of the habitat due to overgrazing, accumulation of pollutants drained from the neighbouring agricultural lands and the mosquito control campaigns, are negatively impacting on the species. <br/>Short-term threats in Morocco include the extension toward the east of the tourism resort of Melilia and in Algeria the fast development of urbanization in the coastal plains of Oran. Urbanization and development of tourism and transport infrastructure are the main threats in both Morocco and Algeria. Populations can easily be destroyed by trampling and disturbance of dune systems, so increased use of beaches by humans is a problem even if there is no construction.	eng
164013	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164013	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	Widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, Egypt.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Ethoipia.	eng
164013	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species grows in marshes, springs, swamps, moist ground, and canal banks.	eng
164013	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is common in North Africa.	eng
164013	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164014	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
164014	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164014	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is present in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean from southern Europe to the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Levant and North Africa.	eng
164014	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin. In Africa it occurs in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164014	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Its habitats are sandy or damp, grassy places, wet meadows, lake edges, streams, irrigation canals, gardens, rice fields.	eng
164014	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is fairly common in the region.	eng
164014	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Threre are no major threats for this species.	eng
164014	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Threre are no major threats to this species.	eng
164015	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164015	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phalaris elongata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Macaronesian species. Its worldwide distribution covers the Mediterranean region, western Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia; there is one site in the Tuscan Archipelago (Italy) and it is possibly present in Portugal. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km².	eng
164015	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that grows in tufts on plains and mountains up to 2,300 m in altitude. This species is found in varied, more or less humid, habitats: alluvium, depressions flooded in winter, brushwoods and other humid habitats in the Mediterranean arid, semi-arid or sub-humid bioclimate. Flowering occurs from the end of winter to the beginning of summer.	eng
164015	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and present in more than 30 locations. The size and trend of the populations are not known but presumed to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: it is not rare, occurring in eight locations distributed between the High Atlas, Haouz and the Souss plain; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region but quite rare in the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly uncommon, occurring in five locations distributed between the northeast (Carthage), the Mogods (Zouara river), Cap Bon (Zouadjag) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar and Djerissa).	eng
164015	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the major threats to this species.	eng
164016	conservation	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	No specific conservation measures are known for this species.<br/>As the current published information is inadequate to assess the conservation needs of the species, more research on population size and ecology are needed.	eng
164016	distribution	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche regis-jubae</span> is endemic to the Mediterranean<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span> In Europe, it appears to be widespread but scarce from Extremadura south to the province Cadiz in Spain and there is a single record from Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Outside Europe it is restricted to North Africa, where it has been recorded from Tunisia and Morocco. It appears to be widespread but local within its range. <br/></p>	eng
164016	habitat	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	The ecology of <em>C. regis-jubae</em> is poorly known. It occurs in backwaters and slower reaches of cobble- and gravel-bed rivers in acid waters with a pH of 5-6 (-6.5) in the Extremadura region of central western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Spain</st1:place></st1:country-region> and in wet pasture, ditches and river margins on clay soils. It has been recorded from up to 700 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> and over 800 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It commonly occurs with other <em>Callitriche</em> species, particularly <em>C. lusitanica</em> and <em>C. brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em>, but will also occur with <em>C. stagnalis</em> and in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region> with <em>C. mathezii</em> Schotsman. The most frequent associates are <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Apium nodiflorum</em>, <em>Glyceria fluitans</em> and <em>Eleocharis palustris </em>in more permanent waters and <em>Corrigiola littoralis</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes velata</em>, <em>Juncus articulatus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em> and <em>Mentha pulegium</em> in ephemeral water-bodies.	eng
164016	population	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	This species has rarely been recorded and most information derives from herbarium specimens. In Morocco, it is considered as Vulnerable as it is in decline and may become rare.	eng
164016	threats	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	It is not known if this species faces major threats.	eng
164017	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164017	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Alternanthera pungens</em> is found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. It is invasive in North America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, the species is only native to Egypt (Samanoud area and the Nile delta) and has been naturalised in eastern Spain.	eng
164017	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	There is no information on the habitat available.	eng
164017	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are limited to Egypt in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164017	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	No major threats are known.	eng
164018	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is protected at national level and classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of species (Olivier 1995).<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. It is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.	eng
164018	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The conservation measures proposed are to monitor the population dynamics of the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.	eng
164018	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hordeistichos</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164018	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hordeistichos</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br/>In Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 400,000 km², 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 500 km².	eng
164018	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ditches and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
164018	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (many locations) but rare in North Africa where populations are quite restricted due to spatial limitations (10 locations). The populations are in regression. <br/>- Morocco: considered rare, with only four locations, all in the Middle Atlas (Tafferte, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Isli Lake and Tislit Lake); <br/>- Algeria: considered rare, with two locations in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and two in the Constantinois Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, with two locations, both in the Tunisian Dorsal (Makthar and Garaet ouled Rhazam).	eng
164018	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (many locations) but rare in North Africa where populations are quite restricted due to spatial limitations. The populations are in regression. <br/>- Morocco: considered rare, with only four locations, all in the Middle Atlas (Tafferte, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Isli Lake and Tislit Lake); <br/>- Algeria: considered rare, with two locations in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and two in the Constantinois Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, with two locations, both in the Tunisian Dorsal (Makthar and Garaet ouled Rhazam); <br/>- Spain: present in 45 sites; <br/>- France: previously considered as common, it is currently classified as Vulnerable, solely occurring in six sites (destroyed in many places).	eng
164018	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization and agriculture are the main threats to this species.	eng
164020	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
164020	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Agrostis stolonifera</em> is a species with a circumboreal distribution covering Europe, Asia, North Africa, North America and is introduced in the southern hemisphere. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is widespread with numerous localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Portugal, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. <br/>In the North African part, it is known from numerous localities (>30) distributed in Morocco (Atlantic plains, Rif, Middlen Atlas, High Atlas, Tanger), Algeria (Numidie, petite and grande Kabylie, the plains of Alger, Oran), Egypt, and Tunisia (Bizerte, Tindjda, Ichkeul, Aïn Draham, Souk el Djema, Aïn Chrechira).<br/>The area of occupancy surpasses 2,000 km².	eng
164020	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Agrostis stolonifera</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) quite tolerant to salt. It is found in humid pastures, ditches, wadis carrying water in winter, rivers in karstic areas, channel banks, paths and waters both in plain and mountains up to 2,300 m. <br/>Its flowering takes place from spring to the beginning of summer (April-July).	eng
164020	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	The species is common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and stable populations.	eng
164020	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164022	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164022	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This tropical and subtropical species occurs in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia (rare: Tabarka), Algeria, Morocco. It does not occur in Europe, except for Spain where it has been recently reported form Cadiz and Huelva.	eng
164022	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species grows in marshes and wet places including canal banks, irrigation ditches, reed swamps and it occurs as a weed in rice fields.	eng
164022	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is widespread in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean, there is no information available on the population trend.	eng
164022	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats are known.	eng
164023	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but further research on the species and its environment are needed.	eng
164023	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is an holarctic species that is widespread in western and central Europe where it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France (with Corsica), Italy (with Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Slovenia, Turkey, and with a questionable presence in Greece and Portugal (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.	eng
164023	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is an holarctic species that is widespread in western and central Europe where it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, Portugal, France (with Corsica), Italy (with Sardinia and Sicily), Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Greece. <br/>In North Africa, it only occurs in Algeria.	eng
164023	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This Hydrophyte with a creeping rhizome, often produces winter-buds (turions). It grows in ditches, rather oligotrophe ponds and slow flowing streams, usually in calcareous water.	eng
164023	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This Hydrophyte with a creeping rhizome, often produces winter-buds (turions). It grows in ditches, rather oligotrophe ponds and slow flowing streams, usually in calcareous water. <br/>Flowering perior in France: VI-IX (Corsica: IV-VIII), in Italy: IV-VI; in Algeria: IV-X.	eng
164023	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is very common in Europe (extending to Sweden), except in Corsica and Italy where it is rare. In Spain it is found in 29 localities mostly in the eastern part. It is present in France throughout the country.<br/><br/>There are only three, probably destroyed, locations in Algeria near to Algiers; this country is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.	eng
164023	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is very common in Europe (extending to Sweden), except in Corsica and Italy where it is rare. In Spain it is found in mostly in the eastern part.   Some populations from Andalucia, Cataluña and Valencia region have disappeared in the last 50 years and now it is located in about 20 populations.   It is present in France throughout the country.<br/><br/>There are only three, probably destroyed, locations in Algeria near to Algiers; this country is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.	eng
164023	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Although <em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is rare in Europe here and there (Italy, Corsica), it is not threatened overall. The change of habitats to agriculture does effect the species.<br/>But in Algeria, the three locations have possibly disappeared owing to human settlement at its habitats.	eng
164023	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Although <em>Potamogeton coloratus</em> is rare in Europe (Italy, Corsica) and Africa, it is not threatened overall. <br/><br/>But in Algeria, the three locations have possibly disappeared owing to human settlement at its habitats.	eng
164024	conservation	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	No conservation measures in place. More research on the population size, trends and distribution is needed.	eng
164024	distribution	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<em>Callitriche truncata</em> is found in Portugal, Spain including the Balearic Islands, France including Corsica, Italy including Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece (the   Ionian Islands Lefkas and Corfu, northwest Peloponnisos and west Sterea Ellas), Albania, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Israel and Syria.	eng
164024	habitat	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	It occurs in coastal lagoons, mesotrophic to eutrophic lakes, canals, ditches, streams and rivers. In the Mediterranean basin it is one of the species typical of temporary pools. It often occurs with diverse charophyte assemblages, typically including <em>Chara aspera</em>, <em>C.&#160;connivens</em>, <em>C.&#160;globularis</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>&#160;and <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>.<em> </em>Other typical associates include <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>, <em>Callitriche lenisulca</em>, <em>Elatine hexandra</em>, <em>Elodea canadensis</em>, <em>E.&#160;nuttallii</em>, <em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em>, <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>, <em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R. peltatus</em>, <em>R. trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. In the Mediterranean region it often occurs in pools in <em>Salicornia</em>&#160;heath, characterised by <em>Salicornia</em> and <em>Sarcocornia</em>&#160;species, <em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em>, <em>Myosurus minimus</em>&#160;and <em>Phragmites australis</em>.	eng
164024	population	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. truncata</span> generally behaves as an annual in coastal, ephemeral wetlands, consequently annual population levels are likely to fluctuate widely with no relevance to its conservation status.	eng
164024	threats	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	Sites and habitats supporting this species are declining and being lost.<br/>It is likely that the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis</span> is still common, although threatened by the known pressures on coastal ephemeral wetlands, however ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">truncata</span> appears to be very restricted in range and abundance and may be severely threatened.	eng
164025	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164025	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant is native to Europe, North Africa, the Caucasus, West and Central Asia. In the Mediterranean, it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Sardinia,<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><strong></strong>Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009).	eng
164025	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in temporary pools, alluvial inundated soils, Nile and canal banks, moist ground. It likes heavy soils and disturbed environment and can be encountered in waste places and damp or sandy soils.	eng
164025	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a very common species.	eng
164025	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164026	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics.	eng
164026	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Isolepis cernua</em> is a subcosmopolite species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, Minor Asia, southern Africa, the Atlantic Islands, Australia and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Balearic Islands, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Turkey, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and a doubtful presence in Albania. The species is known from numerous localities.	eng
164026	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2008	This annual plant (Therophyte) develops in humid places, swamps and the banks of streams, at plains and low mountains on acidic soils. Its flowering takes place from spring to the beginning of fall.	eng
164026	population	Rhazi, L., 2008	The populations appear to be stable.	eng
164026	threats	Rhazi, L., 2008	The habitat of the species faces pressure from grazing, drainage, water pollution and extension of agriculture.	eng
164027	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164027	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phalaris paradoxa</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa, the Canary Islands and Madeira. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
164027	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of canals and slightly humid fields and pastures of clayey substrate. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (March-June).	eng
164027	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations are stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common, with numerous locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Rif, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole Tell region but rare in the Algérois, Oranais and Constantinois High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in northeast Tunisia, the Medjerda Valley and Cap Bon but rare in the Tunisian Dorsal (Le Kef and Maktar) and in south Tunisia (Djerba); <br/>- Libya: common in Benghazi, Derna and in the Tripoli region; <br/>- Egypt: very common along the Nile and the Mediterranean coastal strip, in the oases of the western Desert and in the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: common in nearly all of the peninsula, with more than 99 sites; <br/>- Italy: very common, present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164027	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is adapted to physical disturbances to the environment and no major threats are known.	eng
164028	conservation	Hugot, L., Bagella, S. & Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place and the species does not occur in protected areas. Appropriate habitat management and research on the trends and dynamics of the populations are needed.	eng
164028	distribution	Hugot, L., Bagella, S. & Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Corsica and Sardinia. Its area of occupancy is suspected to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164028	habitat	Hugot, L., Bagella, S. & Ali, M.M., 2009	The species grows on riverbanks, pond edges, ditches, but is also found in shrubland (garrigue). It can tolerate a degree of eutrophication and drought.	eng
164028	population	Hugot, L., Bagella, S. & Ali, M.M., 2009	There are three main populations in Corsica at relatively large sites. In Sardinia, there are two main sites. The populations are suspected to be decreasing. The total population is smaller than 10,000 mature individuals, and each subpopulation contains fewer than 1,000 mature individuals.	eng
164028	threats	Hugot, L., Bagella, S. & Ali, M.M., 2009	In Corsica, it is threatened by the decline of traditional agriculture, which is leading to succession in its habitat. In Sardinia, it is threatened by groundwater abstraction.	eng
164029	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place. The habitat trend of freshwater pools where this species is found, should be monitored.	eng
164029	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Poa dimorphanta</em> is an endemic species common to Morocco. It is known from the North Atlantic coastal zone of Tangier (Gharb, Maâmora, Zemmour, Zaër) and the western part of middle Atlantic Morocco (Safi, El Jadida, south of Sidi Bennour, close to Berrechid). The extent of occurrence of the species exceeds 25,000 km².	eng
164029	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	This pioneer annual plant (Therophyte) is present in sandy pastures, ditches and on the verge of pools in plains. It blooms in spring under the soft arid, semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164029	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations seem to be large and well adapted to open environments and to the known disruptions affecting them. However, the increasing destruction of its habitat, particularly freshwater pools, might affect their threat status in the medium-term.	eng
164029	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The species' habitat is affected by grazing pressure, but this does not affect the species itself. The main threat is notably habitat destruction through agriculture and urbanization, in particular in pools.	eng
164030	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164030	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species grows in paleo-temperate regions in central and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa and Macaronesia. Countries were <em>A. nodiflorum</em> is present include Portugal, Spain, France (and Corsica), Italy (and Sicily and Sardinia), Malta, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and possibly Libya.	eng
164030	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Adium nodiflorum</em> grows in a variety of habitats including the oases of the Egyptian desert, the wadis of southern Morocco, and along the coast of the Mediterranean. It is a perennial Helophyte species and prefers slow flowing rivers, springs and wet ditches, marshes, pools, and lakes. The flowering season for this species is June to September in France, May to July in Italy, and April to July in Morocco.	eng
164030	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are numerous and presumed to be stable.	eng
164030	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium nodiflorum</em> is not a threatened species because its populations are numerous in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164031	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are none conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
164031	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are none conservation measures needed or in place for this species.	eng
164031	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex divulsa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, boreal and western Asia, North Africa, the Canaries, Madeira, Azores and boreal America. <br/>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 500 km².	eng
164031	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex divulsa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers central and southern Europe, boreal and western Asia, North Africa, the Canaries, Madeira, Azores and boreal America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164031	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid forests and the banks of irrigation channels. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).	eng
164031	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable. <br/><br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas and in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; common in Algeria, in the Tell region, the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and in northern Sahara; fairly common in Tunisia, in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.), the Mogods (Majen Chitane) and Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, Jbel Cheban, etc.).	eng
164031	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable. <br/><br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas and in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; common in Algeria, in the Tell region, the Constantinois Saharan Atlas and in northern Sahara; fairly common in Tunisia, in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.), the Mogods (Majen Chitane) and Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, Jbel Cheban, etc.).<br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is very common with more than 242 sites; common in all of France and and Italy.	eng
164031	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164032	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164032	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Salix pedicellata</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Italy, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. There are records from Corsica but they are considered dubious. The species has been formerly reported for Sardinia and Sicily but according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007), the records for Sardinia describe <span style="font-style: italic;">S. atrocinerea</span>, and the records for Sicily belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. gussonei</span> (Giardina<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007).&#160; <br/>Its extent of occurrence surpasses 3,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164032	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers of low and medium mountains. Flowering occurs during winter and spring.	eng
164032	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean. The trend of the populations is unknown but presumed to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in all of the country with the exception of Saharan Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: common in all of the country; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly frequent, occurring in Kroumirie (Aïn draham, El fedja and Tabarka), the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan, Kessera, Jbel Serdj and Oued Thibar), central Tunisia (Aïn Cherichera) and south Tunisia (oases); <br/>- Spain: quite common, occurring in 48 sites; <br/>- France: only found in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in Basilicata and doubtfully in Calabria (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
164032	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The increase in urbanization and drought frequency, as well as the exploitation of this plant for the extraction of tannins, are the main threats to this species.	eng
164033	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164033	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>&#160;Limonium mouretii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco, rare and found only in three localities of the central Moyen Atlas (close to Ifran, Aguelman, Guigou) and at only one locality in the Haut Atlas (massif of Mgoun). The extent of occurrence is about 3,500 km² and it is found at six locations.	eng
164033	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in clear forests, stony pastures, the edges of pools and streams in low and medium elevation mountains. It reproduces in summer under the sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164033	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their trends is available.	eng
164033	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threats to the habitat are the pressure of grazing, agriculture, the development of tourist outdoor activities and the development of road infrastructures.	eng
164034	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to limit the urbanization through legal protection measures such as legislation on environmental impact assessments.<br/><br/>In Europe, some of the pools are listed as priority habitats by the EU, included in Natura 2000 networks and in nature reserves.	eng
164034	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Corrigiola litoralis</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, central and southern Europe, western Asia and central and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164034	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual (Therophyte) to biennial plant that inhabits temporary pools and humid, sandy depressions during winter. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September) in the arid, semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164034	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. The populations in the Maghreb are probably in similar decline to their habitat (temporary pools).<br/>- Morocco: very common, occurring in the Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Anti Atlas, Rif, Tangérois, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in the Tell region and in the High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in the Mogods (Sejnane, etc), Kroumirie and Tunisian Dorsal; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: fairly common, with more than 63 sites; <br/>- France: present in nearly all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in five provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164034	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa, the increasing urbanization, the expansion of agriculture and the drainage and infilling of this species’ habitat are its main threats.<br/>In Europe, the habitat knows a deterioration of its quality due to water pollution. In addition to that, the species' coastal sites in France are submitted to intense trampling.	eng
164035	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, to study the dynamics of the populations and to conserve the species habitat.	eng
164035	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Linaria fallax</em> is a species endemic to North Africa. It is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 20 km², and it is present in at least 12 locations.	eng
164035	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools of steppes and clayey wetlands. Flowering occurs in spring.	eng
164035	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is not very common and the trend of the populations is unknown, but according to the climatic change predictions for the Maghreb they might be threatened. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare, occurring in two locations in Saharan Morocco: El Ataïchat and between Chott Tigri and Aïn Chaïr. In Algeria, the species is rare, occurring in five locations in the High Plains. The plant is quite rare in Tunisia, occurring in five locations distributed between the Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia.	eng
164035	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threats to this species are overgrazing around water holes in steppe ecosystems and the higher frequency of droughts foreseen for the Maghreb due to climatic change.	eng
164036	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164036	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Veronica anagallis-aquatica</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Asia, Europe, northern Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It is very common in all of the countries. Its extent of occurrence covers wide over 200,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is more than 2,000 km², and it is present in numerous sites.	eng
164036	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) is found in plains and mountains up to 2,500 m. It inhabits swampy prairies, ditches and the edges of rivers, streams and rice fields. Flowering starts at the end of spring and lasts until the beginning of summer.	eng
164036	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the whole of the Mediterranean region with stable populations that are favoured by environmental disturbances, essentially ploughing.	eng
164036	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threat is habitat destruction due to urbanization but that does not lead to significant population declines at the moment.	eng
164037	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	This species is under regional protection in France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region.   It is considered Vulnerable for <st1:place w:st="on">Friuli</st1:place> and Extinct in the Wild in Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997), but classed as Data Deficient for Italy.<strong><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region></strong>  In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164037	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Fimbristylis bisumbellata</em> is a subcosmopolitan and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Europe, western and central Asia, Africa, Central America and Australia. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is present in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is known to be in seven localities in Morocco (Aït Melloul on the side of the Souss river, Cape of the Three Pitchforks, the Inaouène river, the Ouergha river, Sidi Slimane, Sidi Allal Tazi on the strands of the Sebou, Kerma-Oulad-Kadi in the north Rharb), one locality in Algeria (Beaches of Sebaou in the coastal sector of Algeria), and in three regions of Egypt (Nile, Mediterranean Coast, Channel of Suez).	eng
164037	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Fimbristylis bisumbellata</em> is an annual species (Therophyte) that grows on the alluviums of rivers, sands and humid gravels at subcoastal level. It has a late flowering in summer and fall.	eng
164037	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the population size. They seem to be stable at the level of the Mediterranean region. <br/>- Algeria: considered as very rare and limited to the Algerian coastal sector (Strikes of Sebaou of Reebeval to the sea) <br/>- Morocco: it is suspected to be rare (reported in seven localities) <br/>- Egypt: rather common in the regions of the Nile, the Mediterranean rating (from the border with Libya until the Port Saïd) and the Channel of Suez <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: present in nine provinces of Spain and six of Portugal <br/>- France: it is proposed for surveillance in the list of species. In the region of Provence Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, it is classified as protected.<br/>-   <st1:country-region w:st="on">Italy:</st1:country-region> found in <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veneto</st1:state>, Toscana, Calabria and there are old records from Friuli, <st1:state w:st="on">Liguria,</st1:state><st1:city w:st="on"> Abruzzo and </st1:city><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), <st1:state w:st="on">doubtful presence in Umbria and Piemonte</st1:state>.<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state></st1:place>	eng
164037	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Urbanization, frequent droughts, water pollution and grazing pressure are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164038	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures, but more research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164038	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2007	No specific measures are in place, monitoring the existing populations is recommended for the North African range, the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands.	eng
164038	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2007	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton lucens</span> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa, Asia, Macaronesia (Azores) and North America. In the Mediterranean, it is known from nearly all the countries in the region: Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece and Crete, the Balkans, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel.&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>	eng
164038	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread in temperate regions of Europe, NE Africa, W, N and E Asia.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from Algeria, Morocco, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda.	eng
164038	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. lucens</em> is calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-floating rivers, canals, flooded chalk- gravel- or borrow pits.	eng
164038	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2007	<em style="font-style: italic;">P</em><span style="font-style: italic;">. lucens</span> is a calcicole which grows in relatively deep water in lakes, slow-flowing rivers, canals; flooded chalk, gravel or borrow pits. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that colonizes oligotroph and mesotroph waters. It is an oxygenating plant that generally blooms between May and August.	eng
164038	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Common.	eng
164038	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2007	This species is very common in most of Europe,   but not very abundant in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands, where it is especially rare in the southern half of the Peninsula. It is also considered very rare in Morocco (four localities) and rare in Algeria and Tunisia. There is no data available on the size of the populations or their trend but they seem more fragile in North Africa as the habitat is under threat.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is known from four localities in Morocco (Nja River close to Fès, merja of Rhédira in the south of Larache, Benslimane, Aguelmame Sidi Ali in the Middle Atlas), two sectors in Algeria (Kabylie and the algerois), and three localities in Tunisia (Garaa Sejnane, Bargou, Gafsa).	eng
164038	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Impacts from general water pollutants threating the species, but these are not major threats.	eng
164038	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2007	There are local impacts from the general threats to wetlands, but these are not major threats to the species at Mediterranean level. In the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, eutrophication of water bodies caused by agricultural activities is a threat. In North Africa, especially   drainage, water pollution and urbanization are leading to habitat decline.	eng
164039	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164039	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex </em><span style="font-style: italic;">cuprina</span> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution covers Europe (except for the extreme north), the Mediterranean basin, Macaronesia, western Asia, southern and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164039	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex otrubae</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution covers Europe (except for the extreme north), the Mediterranean basin, Macaronesia, western Asia, southern and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) bigger than 20 km².	eng
164039	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies and swamps. Flowering occurs between winter and summer.	eng
164039	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>Its distribution in Morocco is limited to the northwest of Morocco, with seven locations distributed between the Rharb and the Rif. In Algeria it is fairly common in Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie, the Constantinois Tell and the Algérois Tellien Atlas. Fairly common also in Cap Bon and Kroumirie in Tunisia.	eng
164039	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: its distribution is limited to the northwest of Morocco, with seven locations distributed between the Rharb and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie, the Constantinois Tell and the Algérois Tellien Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Cap Bon and Kroumirie; <br/>- Spain: very common with 227 sites; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: common in all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164039	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage for agricultural usage (notably in North Africa) of this species’ habitat is the main threat but it is not considered as major.	eng
164039	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage (notably in North Africa) of this species habitat are its main threats.	eng
164040	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More research is needed to confirm the species existence in Egypt.	eng
164040	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is a subcosmopolitan species, occurring in Europe, Africa (Egypt, South Africa), Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Palestine to North India, Turkey) and in North America.<br/><br/>In Africa, it has been recorded in Egypt (Isthmic desert, Suez canal) where it is very rare. It is considered as introduced in southern Africa, possibly Namibia, and South Africa (North western Province, Mpumalanga, Free State, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
164040	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is a rhizamotous perennial helophytic sedge (45-150 cm high) growing in riverbanks and marshes, bogs. Flowering time is June to September.	eng
164040	population	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is noted as very rare in Egypt, where it was only found once in 1893 (Täckholm & Drar, 1941-1969). It is consequently considered as extinct in North Africa. It is widespread in Southern Africa although it is considered to be introduced.	eng
164040	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information for Africa. <em>Schoenoplectus triqueter</em> is threatened in Europe by the destruction and degradation of its habitat.	eng
164041	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is under regional protection only in France (Corsica).<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and estimate the population size.	eng
164041	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Fuirena pubescens</em> is a paleotropical species. Its world distribution covers southwest and southcentral Europe, Africa and Asia.&#160; <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, Corsica, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Turkey, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164041	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous substrate and canal embankments. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164041	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. <br/>In North Africa it occupies a relatively small surface (AOO >20 km²). The size and trend of the populations are unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, four known locations distributed between the northern Atlantic Morocco (north of Lalla Mimouna and in Bou Charen) and the Tangérois (Jbel Kébir and Koudiet Harcha); very rare in Algeria, with four known locations in Numidie; uncommon in Tunisia, present in the Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Fej el Saha); uncommon in Libya (Derna and Benghazi). In Egypt, it is found along the Nile, in the oases of the western Desert and along the Mediterranean coastal strip. <br/><br/>In Portugal and Spain it is fairly common with 36 known sites in the southwest of the peninsula; and it is present in two provinces in Italy besides Sardinia.	eng
164041	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture, especially in North Africa, are the main threats to this species.	eng
164042	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>Juncus bufonius</em> subsp. <em>mogadorensis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the west of the country between Essaouira and Agadir. It has been listed as Endangered for Northern Africa.	eng
164042	conservation	de Belair, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164042	distribution	de Belair, G., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> is a cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering all the temperate countries of the globe     <p>In North Africa, it is present in Egypt (common), Libya (Cyrenaïc and Tripolitan), in Tunisia (very common), Algeria&#160; (very common from the coast to Central Sahara) and&#160;Morocco (common in Tangier, Western Rif, Atlantic coast, Central Rif, Targuist, Zerhoun, Aknoul, Guercif, Mamora). <br/></p><p>It is furthermore found in Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, France and Corsica, Greece and Crete, Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, Slovenia, Serbia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria. <br/></p>	eng
164042	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a cosmopolitan species. It is widespread in Southern and Northern Africa, and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Madagascar.	eng
164042	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>J. bufonius</em> is found in moist places, edge of temporary pools, and in wet meadows on sandy soils in the plain and low mountains. It is an annual species that blooms in the spring and early summer (April-July).	eng
164042	habitat	de Belair, G., 2007	<p>This annual species (Therophyte) is of very small size (a few centimetres). It is found in various habitats, sometimes of very small size, temporarily flooded or with saturated soils on a large range of substrate: wet meadows, edges of ponds, lakes, streams, irrigated fields, gardens. It is found mostly in freshwater habitats but can be found also on coastal wetlands somewhat brackish. <br/></p><p>It flowers from early spring to early summer.<br/></p>	eng
164042	population	de Belair, G., 2007	<p>This species is widely distributed in the Mediterranean region and occurs often in large and numerous populations. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at Mediterranean level.</p>	eng
164042	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is common htroughout its range.	eng
164042	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
164042	threats	de Belair, G., 2007	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164043	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Some populations are included in a designated Ramsar site and in a protected area in El Kala in Algeria and in two protected areas in Tunisia. Further research on the populations and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and main threats is required.	eng
164043	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Solenopsis bicolor</em> is endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. In Algeria, it is rather common in Numidia and rare at Cap Sigli (Great Kabylia). In Tunisia, it is present in Kroumeria and in the Mogods Hills.<br/>The area of occupancy is less than 500 km².	eng
164043	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Solenopsis bicolor</em> is an annual plant that grows in temporary pools (dayas) and streams in peatlands.	eng
164043	population	de Bélair, G. & Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is relatively abundant, but the subpopulations are very scattered and form small patches.	eng
164043	threats	de Bélair, G. & Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is threatened by human disturbance, such as tourism and recreational activities in forests, by agriculture and infrastructure development (industry and tourism) and by habitat degradation (change in land use and abandonment of non-agricultural land).	eng
164044	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164044	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus repens</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes the northern Mediterranean region, North Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164044	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptohyte) that inhabits springs, the edges of streams and swampy environments on mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164044	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region, the trend of the populations is presumed stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, with at least eight locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas (Azrou, Ouiouane, Ifrane and Oued Tizguit), the oriental plains (Midelt) and the Rif (Tangier and Imassinèn); <br/>- Algeria: rare, found in Aurèses, the Blida Atlas and the Oranais High Plains; <br/>- Spain: very common, with 733 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164044	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.	eng
164045	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- To limit the extension of agriculture at the sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164045	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Cirsium ducellieri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and limited to Fes in the Moyen Sebou, and to two localities in the central Moyen Atlas (Békrit and Aghbalou-bou-Ichatefel in the valley of Senoual). Its extent of occurrence is about 500 km².	eng
164045	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wet pastures and on river banks, especially in mountains, up to 1,850 m. It blooms in summer (June-July) under the mild semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164045	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their trends, present and future, is available.	eng
164045	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitats are exposed to high grazing pressure, an extension of agriculture in the catchments, water pollution (notably in the Moyen-Sebou by heavy metals from tanneries) and the settlement of small villages close to the sites.	eng
164046	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164046	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Cerastium perfoliatum</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution includes Europe, temperate Asia (southern Russia, Caucasus, Iran) and North Africa.  <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Morocco. Its Mediterranean Extent of Occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
164046	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that prefers the slightly humid, muddy grasslands and agricultural land. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164046	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean basin with several locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is rare and known in four locations in the Middle Atlas (Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Itzèr, in the springs near Oued Zad and Oued Aguercif). In Spain, it is fairly common and present in 79 sites in the east and centre of the country. In Syria and Lebanon, it is quite common, known in Alep, Braij, Ma'arat-en-No'man and Sarmada. And in Turkey, it is present in west, east, central and south Anatolia, but not in the European part.	eng
164046	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is not under any major threat.	eng
164047	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under departmental protection in Alpes-Maritimes and Gers, and under regional protection in Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Haute-Normandie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Lorraine. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of Italy.<br/><br/>Proposed measures are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and apply national protection in Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164047	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Anagallis tenella</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species that extends to Ireland and the United Kingdom in the north, to Moldova and Crimea in the east and to the Azores in the west. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sardinia, Greece and Crete, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164047	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs in swampy and peaty prairies of low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May to September).	eng
164047	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and is particularly widespread in the west: Portugal, Spain, France and Morocco. In North Africa it is fairly common in Morocco but in Algeria and Tunisia the species is quite rare and the populations are fairly restricted.<br/>In Morocco, it can be found in the Rif (Tanger, Tetouan, western Rif, central Rif, Targuist and Tazzeka), the Middle Atlas and the mountains of oriental Morocco. In Algeria, it occurs in Numidie (La Calle), Oran, Tlemcen and Ghar-Rouban. The species is very rare in Tunisia, solely found in Kroumirie (Bab-Abrik spring). <br/>In Spain and Portugal, it occurs in over 221 sites; it is fairly common in France in the centre, west and northeast of the country; and present in six provinces of Italy.	eng
164047	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling, draining and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164048	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Croatia, this species is included in the national Red List, classified as Endangered.<br/><br/>In North Africa, no conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to monitor the population dynamics.	eng
164048	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to monitor the population dynamics.	eng
164048	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex flava</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa and boreal America. <br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco and in Algeria, occurring in seven locations, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².	eng
164048	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex flava</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers Europe, North Africa and boreal America. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco and in Algeria, occurring in seven locations. In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, and is also occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164048	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies, bogs, swamps and the edges of streams and springs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164048	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa it is fairly uncommon, occurring in only seven locations and with an AOO <100 km². The populations are very restricted and undergoing a slow reduction. It is rare in Morocco, with five locations in the northwest of the country (Loukkos valley, Lalla Mimouna, Oued Ouerdane springs, Talassemtane Massif and the Madissouka valley); rare in Algeria, with one location in the Grande Kabylie (Djurjura) and one in the Constantinois Tell (Constantine).	eng
164048	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In Mediterranean Europe, it occurs in 83 sites in Spain and is fairly common along the Mediterranean French coast, where it is present in 13 regions in addition to Corsica. In Italy it is present in 11 provinces. It is qualified as Endangered in the Red List of Croatia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is fairly uncommon, occurring in only seven locations and with an AOO <100 km². The populations are very restricted and undergoing a slow reduction. It is rare in Morocco, with five locations in the northwest of the country (Loukkos valley, Lalla Mimouna, Oued Ouerdane springs, Talassemtane Massif and the Madissouka valley); rare in Algeria, with one location in the Grande Kabylie (Djurjura) and one in the Constantinois Tell (Constantine).	eng
164048	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164048	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage for agricultural usage of this species’ habitat is the main threat.	eng
164049	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific measures are in place. Legal conservation measures and research are needed for this species.	eng
164049	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium inundatum</em> grows in western Europe and in northern African regions, with populations recorded in Portugal, Spain, France (not Corsica), Italy and Sicily. This species is less common but also present in Morocco (three locations), Algeria (one location, presence uncertain), and Tunisia (two locations, presence uncertain).	eng
164049	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This is a perennial species which is found in marshes, pools, streams and up to 500 m away from stagnant waters. In Tunisia <em>A. inundatum </em> is found in the dayas of the siliceous mountains. The flowering season for this species is from May until July in Tunisia and Morocco; May until June in Italy; and June until July in France.	eng
164049	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The extent of occurrence of <em>A. inundatum</em> is very large, but the populations are very scattered and the actual area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².	eng
164049	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium inundatum</em> appears to be under threat in southern France, because its populations are either fragmented or non-existent in this region. Major threats are loss or pollution of habitat due to agricultural development.	eng
164050	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Haute-Normandie, Centre, Auvergne, Midi-Pyrénées, and Pays-de-la-Loire. It is not protected in Spain and it is unknown whether any other conservation measures exist. It is recommended to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations.	eng
164050	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> is found in western Europe (Portugal, Spain, eastwards to southern France) and in northwest Africa (Morocco: Tanger, western Rif). It is possibly present in western Algeria. Outside the Mediterranean region it is also found on the British Isles.	eng
164050	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> grows in bogs and wet heaths. Flowering in France and Morocco is from April to July.	eng
164050	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> seems to be rare in its entire range. It occurs at slightly more than ten locations with an extent of occurrence below 20,000 km² and an area of occupancy smaller than 2,000 km² and probably even less than 500 km².	eng
164050	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Owing to its rarity, <em>Pinguicula lusitanica</em> is very threatened within the ecosystems it inhabits.	eng
164051	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Occurs in many protected areas, but no conservation measures are required for this weedy species.	eng
164051	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a cosmopolitan weed present in Tropical Africa and America. A pantropical species which is known in the whole tropical Africa countries and South Africa. <br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa, but mainly in the lowlands. Recorded from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). In Eastern Africa it is present in Burundi, where the species has been found in the medium altitude of the country. It has been met in Mahwa marshes, Gitanga peatland and all the stream of the Ruvubu basin. Its extent of occurrence is more than 10000 Km2 and less than 20000 Km2. In Malawi known from Lake Chilwa Island south shore, Lake Chilwa plains, Zomba at Chancellor College, Mangochi at Kamuzu Bridge and Pwepwe Fisheries, Chipoka in Salima, Cape Maclear, Monkey Bay Hills, Elephant Marsh, and Chiuta Island.	eng
164051	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Annual common tropical weed especially of damp places (sandy river borders) in savanna, as well as in forest up to 2,000 m above sea level.  It is not confined to wetlands but often occurs in and along the edges of pools, streams, rivers and ditches or in temporary flooded places, sometimes found in floating mats of vegetation. The plant is to some extent an anthropogene occurring frequently around houses, open spaces in towns and villages and on river-bank clearings, a weed of cultivation and in disturbed ground, along roadsides and railway lines.	eng
164051	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Quite widespread herbaceous species, therefore, important population.	eng
164051	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Wide spread with no major threats.	eng
164052	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) and its sites<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164052	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Cirsium chrysacanthum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to a small region of the Haut-Atlas where it is relatively common in the Mgoun (Assif Ghzef to the west of the Tirsal; springs of the Assif Mgoun; high valley of the Tessaout). It becomes rarer southwards where it is known from only one locality in the Siroua (jbel Amezdour). The extent of occurrence is about 1,000 km².	eng
164052	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	It is a vivacious plant (Hemicryptophyte) that develops on the banks of streams and among the gravels of rivers of flinty mountains, between 1,000 and 3,200 m of altitude. It blooms and sets fruits in summer under the semi-arid cold and sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164052	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available.	eng
164052	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threats on the habitat are the pressure of grazing, frequent droughts and an increasing anthropogenic pressure due to easier access (roads and paths) to the areas where this plant is growing.	eng
164053	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is listed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of France   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164053	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phyla nodiflora</em> is a pantropical and subtropical species. Its biogeographical distribution covers the Mediterranean region, tropical and subtropical America and Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km², occurring in numerous locations (>60).	eng
164053	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Chamaephyte) that inhabits temporary pools, stream edges, swampy alluvium and humid habitats of plains. Flowering occurs from spring to the beginning of autumn.	eng
164053	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. However, the populations are in decline, especially in the Maghreb (presumed extinct in Libya), due to the deterioration of their habitat. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, its distribution limited to the Atlantic coastline (from the Tangérois to Souss). It has been recorded in six locations, namely in the Tangérois (Tigisas), the Rharb (Moulay Bouselham and Kénitra) and mid-Atlantic Morocco (Safi, Aït Melloul, Souss estuary, Ksima and Taroudant); quite widespread in Algeria in Numidie, fairly rare in the Algéro-Constantinois Tell region and very rare everywhere else; in more than eight locations in Tunisia, distributed between the Mogods (Garaet El Ichkeul), the northeast (Menzel Djemil), Medjerda valley (Bordj Toum) and south Tunisia (Gafsa, Tozeur, Nefta, Kebilie, Gabès river, etc); very rare in Libya, where it is only found in one location (Ain Zara) that is currently considered extinct; very common in Egypt, along the Nile and the coastal Mediterranean strip, in the oases of the western Desert and other desert areas and in the Sinai Peninsula.<br/>It is present in Spain in 38 sites; present in France in Corsica and in one department on the mainland; present in Italy in six provinces and in Sicily; very common in Israel, occurring in several locations along the Mediterranean coast and in the wetlands of the steppic, sub-steppic and desert (Netanya) areas.	eng
164053	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage, infilling, agriculture, abandonment of grazing, and urbanization are some of the major threats to this species.	eng
164055	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	In France, the species benefits from a legal protection in the regions and departments of the Rhone-Alpes, Basse Normandie, Franche-Comté and Île-de -France. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:<br/>- Maintenance of the traditional activities on the sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics	eng
164055	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em> has a large geographical distribution: the Mediterranean basin, central and southern Europe, Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, <em>I. verticillatum</em> is found in more than 20 locations in Corsica, about ten locations in the Mediterranean part of France, the western half of Spain (absent from the Balearic islands), Portugal, Italy (Lombardy, Piedmont, Tuscany, Marche, Lazio, Sardinia), Greece, more than 30 locations in Morocco (with an extent of occurrence of about 31,000 km²), the Algerian Tell (Jijel, Numidie) and Tunisia (Sedjenane, Teskraia, Cape Serrat, Madjen Chitane, Madjen Choucha, Henchir Skira, Sraï el Madjed, Madjen Azoug, Madjen el Ma). The extent of occurrence of <em>I. verticillatum</em> in the Mediterranean region is about 2,500,000 km².	eng
164055	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>I. verticillatum</em> is an annual amphibious species that blooms in spring and germinates when soil is water saturated; it has an aerial sexual pollination. It is heliophilous, has high light requirements and does not stand shade from taller plants. Different growth forms are adapted to aquatic and terrestrial conditions. The main habitats of <em>I. verticillatum</em> are temporary pools and marshes of plains and low flinty mountains. It can also be found in the ruts of paths and small temporary pools within overgrazed meadows.	eng
164055	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, the degradation of temporary pools by urbanization tends to reduce the size of the populations.	eng
164055	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The species does not seem threatened at the global scale, however its habitats, temporarily flooded wetlands, are fragile and globally in reduction.<br/>The main threats in North Africa are the destruction of the habitat under the effect of urban and agricultural development but also a deterioration of habitat quality by water pollution. In Europe, the potential threats would be an abandonment of the traditional uses such as grazing which tends to modify the habitat through succession and reduces the effects of competitors such as tall herbaceous and shrub species.	eng
164056	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Some of the populations occur in Ramsar sites. It is recommended to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations and the locations.	eng
164056	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Frangula alnus</em> is a central European-Caucasian species that occurs in north and central Europe, West Asia, the Mediterranean and North Africa. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France (with Corsica: very rare, only one location), Italy (rare), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164056	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>F. alnus</em> is a perennial tall shrub or small tree. It is present in wet shrublands, forests, hedges and woods, riverine forests, peatbogs, acidic alder carrs, from 0 to 1,300 m. Flowering in Italy is from May to June, in France and Corsica from April to July (August), in Tunisia from February to April and in Morocco from March to April.	eng
164056	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are scattered, but present in many countries. The species tends to increase in remote areas in Europe resulting from abandonment of traditional land use.<br/>In North Africa, it is very rare in Tunisia with only two locations, and Algeria where it is foun in east Numidia only at three to four locations. In Morocco it is found near Tangier, west and central Rif and at the Atlantic coast.	eng
164056	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The species is probably threatened because of its rarity and its threatened habitats, particularly the alder carrs. The habitats are affected by tourist infrastructure developments and abandonment.	eng
164057	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation actions are in place in Central Africa. The habitat of this plant needs to be protected, promoting new policies to control loss of suitable sites and informing stakeholders about its importance. In Northern Africa, no specific measures are in place or needed as it occurs in many protected areas. Research on population numbers and range  is reccomended for the North eastern African region.	eng
164057	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed; it occurs in many protected areas.	eng
164057	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Lemna minor</em> is probably native to cooler regions of North America, Europe and western Asia. It is occasionally found elsewhere, probably introduced by human activity. In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. <br/>It is widespread in the Mediterranean basin.	eng
164057	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Native to Southern Africa, present in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape in South Africa, and in Lesotho. In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Lybia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In eastern Africa it occurs in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenia. It has also been recorded from Ethiopia and Eritrea.<br/><br/><em>Lemna minor</em> is probably native to cooler regions of North America, Europe and western Asia. It is occasionally found elsewhere, probably introduced by human activity. It is widespread in the Mediterranean basin.	eng
164057	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	This Free-floating macrophyte grows in a range of still, mesotrophic to eutrophic waterbodies. It occurs in a wide range of aquatic habitats in Southern Africa, from 1-1435 m asl. In central Africa it can be found on the pools surface at cooler altitudes, up to 1800 m asl.	eng
164057	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This Hydrophyte prefers still water that is mesotrophic to eutrophic.	eng
164057	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is very common with a stable population trend.	eng
164057	population	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a widespread species, very common and with a stable population trend.	eng
164057	threats	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats to this species in Southern Africa and Northern Africa have been described.  Threats will depend on water quality and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and water availability can be affected by drought or pumping for irrigation.	eng
164057	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164058	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No conservation measures are in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones together with monitoring the population dynamics.	eng
164058	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones together with monitoring the population dynamics.	eng
164058	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex acutiformis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, southern Africa and boreal America. In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is over 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164058	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is widespread in Africa, present in Algeria, Morocco, Lesotho, South Africa, Uganda (only in Echuya Forest Reserve), and Tanzania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is widely distributed in warm and temperate regions in Europe, Asia, North America and North and South Africa; its distribution follows bird migration.	eng
164058	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in swamps and along water courses. Flowering occurs in spring and summer.	eng
164058	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in swamps and ponds and along water courses. Usually rooted in water on the margins of ponds, along streams and rivers, it sometimes grows in shade. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164058	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In North Africa it is a rare species due to spatial limitations (six locations and an AOO <100 km²), occurring in restricted populations that are in slow regression (essentially in Algeria). It is rare in Algeria, with only four locations distributed between Numidie (Annaba), Kabylie (Jijel), the coastal Algérois (Alger) and Oranais (Moustaghanem) and very rare in Morocco, with only two locations, namely in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen at 1700m) and in the Oriental High Plains (Midelt at about 1,350 m). No specific information available for the other countries although it seems to be widespread.	eng
164058	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. <br/>In North Africa it is a rare species due to spatial limitations, occurring in restricted populations that are in slow regression (essentially in Algeria). It is rare in Algeria, with only four locations distributed between Numidie (Annaba), Kabylie (Jijel), the coastal Algérois (Alger) and Oranais (Moustaghanem) and very rare in Morocco, with only two locations, namely in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen at 1700m) and in the Oriental High Plains (Midelt at about 1,350 m). <br/><br/>In Europe, there are few populations in Montenegro and in Croatia, it is present in 77 sites in Spain, common in nearly all France, including Corsica, and present in 11 provinces in Italy, in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164058	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Generally there are no major threats known throughout the Pan-African region. In northern Africa the urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), the drainage of swamps and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.	eng
164058	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), the drainage of swamps and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.	eng
164059	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the population dynamics.	eng
164059	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ammannia auriculata</em> is a species with a pantropical distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is native in Egypt, including the Sinai Peninsula, and it has naturalized in Italy. Its presence in Turkey is doubtful. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 1,300,000 km². <br/>In Egypt, it occurs in numerous locations (Mediterranean coast, Nile delta, oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula).	eng
164059	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in ponds, damp dam banks, humid pastures of dark, clayey soil and rice fields. Flowering occurs from the end of spring to the beginning of autumn.	eng
164059	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations, with populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Egypt, it is present in at least 15 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the Mediterranean coastal strip, the oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula.<br/>In Italy, it is adventitious in two provinces to the northwest of the country (naturalized).	eng
164059	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species.	eng
164060	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection (Languedoc-Roussillon). <br/><br/> In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164060	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164060	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Cyperus laevigatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and central Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia, tropical America and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164060	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Cyperus laevigatus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and central Asia, north Africa, Macaronesia, tropical America and Australia. Widespread throughout Africa.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is  found in Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda in the medium lands between 1,450 and 1,600 m above sea level. Common and widespread in Kenya from sea level to 2,000 m asl. The species is found in saline Rift Valley Lakes (i.e. Nakuru, Elementaiata, Bogoria, Magadi) especially near springs where they forms dense sward on the lake shore. Common in Northern Africa, where it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.	eng
164060	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, marshes, pools riverbeds, drainage canals and humid sandy habitats. It prefeers moist alluvial and sandy soils, and can also grow in shallow brackish water, edges of salt marshes, shores of lakes, streams, and saline depressions. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.	eng
164060	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds, drainage canals and humid sandy habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.	eng
164060	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very widespread, it is present from the Rif to the Oriental Plains and also in the Dakhla region on the Atlantic coast; <br/>- Algeria: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Tunisia: present in the Mogods, northeast Tunisia, Cap Bon, central Tunisia and south Tunisia; <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile, in the Western Desert oases, along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coastal strips and in the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Spain: 29 sites; <br/>- France: fairly uncommon, present in two regions in the south of the country;<br/>- Italy: found in six provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164060	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is common in the Pan-African region and populations appear to be stable.	eng
164060	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Although no major widespread  threats have been described, agriculture, drainage of its habitat, and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
164060	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.	eng
164061	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is under regional protection in France (Midi-Pyrénées and Lorraine).<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164061	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164061	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis multicaulis</em> is a sub-Atlantic-European species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence over 2,500,000 km², 16 locations and an AOO <20 km².  It is very widespread in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164061	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis multicaulis</em> is a sub-Atlantic-European species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Crete, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164061	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July).	eng
164061	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa it occurs in 16 locations with an AOO estimated at about 60 km² but the populations are restricted and in slow decline as its habitat (peaty swamps) has been partially destroyed in Morocco and is threatened in Algeria. In Morocco, where it is classified as vulnerable, it occurs in 11 locations, namely in northern Atlantic Morocco (swamp north of Lalla Mimouna, pool north of Kénitra, Larache and Hendi-es-Soucar Cork Oak Forest) and the Rif (from Jbel Sougna to Tizi Ifri, Timellatine, Tidighine, Jbel Kebir, Jbel Zemzem, Jbel Darziro and Koudiate el Harcha). It is very rare in Algeria, with three locations in Numidie (La Calle, Senhaja and Bone). In Tunisia, it is found in the peaty swamps of Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Aïn Draham, Dar Fatma, Mejen Chitana).	eng
164061	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly widespread in the European Mediterranean region: present in eight provinces of Portugal, 94 sites in Spain, uncommon along the Mediterranean coast of France, and present in five provinces besides Sardinia in Italy.<br/><br/>In North Africa it occurs in 16 locations with an AOO estimated at about 60 km² but the populations are restricted and in slow decline as its habitat (peaty swamps) has been partially destroyed in Morocco and is threatened in Algeria. In Morocco, where it is classified as vulnerable, it occurs in 11 locations, namely in northern Atlantic Morocco (swamp north of Lalla Mimouna, pool north of Kénitra, Larache and Hendi-es-Soucar Cork Oak Forest) and the Rif (from Jbel Sougna to Tizi Ifri, Timellatine, Tidighine, Jbel Kebir, Jbel Zemzem, Jbel Darziro and Koudiate el Harcha). It is very rare in Algeria, with three locations in Numidie (La Calle, Senhaja and Bone). In Tunisia, it is found in the peaty swamps of Kroumirie (Bab Abrik and Aïn Draham, Dar Fatma, Mejen Chitana).	eng
164061	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of swamps and their transformation into agricultural or forestry land (pine and eucalyptus) are the main threats to this species.	eng
164061	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of swamps and their transformation into agricultural or forestry land (Pine and Eucalyptus) are the main threats to this species.	eng
164062	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In France, the species is under regional protection in Languedoc-Roussillon. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in North African countries) <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To promote the maintenance of extensive grazing <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164062	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Elatine macropoda</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Portugal, Spain (mainland and the Balearic islands), France (mainland and Corsica), Italy (mainland, Sardinia and Sicily), Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Libya, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. <br/>In North Africa, <em>E. macropoda</em> is considered as rare in Morocco, with only one locality in the Haut Atlas (Oukeïmeden), two localities in the Moyen- Atlas (Takka-Ichiane and khneg Merzoul) and three on the Atlantic plains (Mamora close to Rabat, Benslimane, Loukkos). It is very rare in Algeria (Aflou, Tiaret), rare in Tunisia (Madjen el Ma in Kroumirie, Sedjenane in Mogods, El Haouaria to Cap Bon), in Egypt (in the region of the Nile: El-Khanka; close to Cairo) and in Libya (Benghazi, Shahat-Derna). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence exceeds 4,700,000 km².	eng
164062	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is found in temporary pools and marshes on flinty substrate. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) of small size that germinates on flooded or saturated soil but reproduces only when emerged (aerial reproduction). It blooms in spring and early summer (April-July).	eng
164062	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In spite of its large geographical distribution, the real area occupied by <em>E. macropoda</em> remains low with populations which are globally in decline following the destruction of their habitat (in temporary pools). This destruction is more important in North African countries. In Bulgaria, the populations are presumed extinct because of the strong urbanization.	eng
164062	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats: overgrazing, drainage, extension of agriculture. Besides these threats, this small sized species is affected by the competition of large size plants (Helophytes or woody) that are favoured by the abandonment of extensive grazing and by the increasing frequency of droughts probably driven by climate change.	eng
164063	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations and reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures.	eng
164063	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum junceum</em> is a species that is found in the Mediterranean region and in Macaronesia (Canary Islands and the Azores). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It is present in numerous locations.	eng
164063	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wetlands and along the edges of permanent and temporary water courses of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m in altitude. Flowering occurs between May and July.	eng
164063	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is extensively represented in all of the countries of the Mediterranean region. Populations appear to be stable. In Morocco, it is present in nearly all of the country; in Algeria is present in all of the country; in Tunisia is very widespread, occurring in Kroumerie (Aïn Dramam, Jbel Rorra, etc.), the Mogods (Sedjnane, etc.), the northeast (Graet Ichkeul) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Nebeur, Oued Thibar, Oued Bargou, Jbel Zaghouan, Thala, Aïn Cherichera, etc.); in Libya, it is only recorded in the Gharyan region; in Egypt it is present in the Sinai Peninsula and all along the Mediterranean strip.	eng
164063	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization, drainage and infilling of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164064	conservation	Ferchichi, H., Hugot, L., Grillas, P. and Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place in Africa, it is recommended to monitor the site in Algeria and to maintain its habitat.<br/><br/>There is no legal protection. Measures of conservation in place are (at level of the subspecies <em>rotgesii</em>): it is in the Red Book tome II, surveillance of the existing stations is done by guards of the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica and search of new stations is carried out too.<br/><br/>Proposed actions are (for the sub-species <span style="font-style: italic;">rotgesii</span>): follow-up of the dynamics of different populations, increase acknowledgement about biology, resilience, conservation and collect seeds for ex situ gene bank.	eng
164064	distribution	Ferchichi, H., Hugot, L., Grillas, P. and Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Phalaris arundinacea</em> is widely distributed in southern Europe and Asia, it is considered invasive in North America. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Egypt and Algeria. In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Portugal, Spain, France and Corsica, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Italy and Sardinia, Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, and Turkey.<br/><br/><em>P. arundinacea</em> ssp. <em>rotgesii</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Eurosiberian origins. It is localized at the southern mountains of Corsica.	eng
164064	habitat	Ferchichi, H., Hugot, L., Grillas, P. and Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is found in wet grasslands, edges of rivers and in crops (adventice in Egypt), in torrent gravel runnels and “fruticées naines” or lands from 150 to 1,700 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte grows on granitic gravels and alluvium.<br/><br/>It is a widely cultivated variant of horticultural origin.	eng
164064	population	Ferchichi, H., Hugot, L., Grillas, P. and Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is fairly common and widely cultivated in Egypt.<br/>It is very rare in Algeria, with only one location at Maison carrée, Oued Reghaia, Mazafran where it is threatened by development and water pollution.<br/>The species occurs throughout Spain and France; at a few locations in Montenegro and Albania and it is common in Croatia. It is found throughout the country at low elevation in Turkey, is widespread in Italy on the mainland and in Sardinia.<br/>It is known from 23 sites in Corsica where the populations does not seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no data on the trend available. For instance, populations don’t seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
164064	threats	Ferchichi, H., Hugot, L., Grillas, P. and Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is not threatened at a global scale but suffers from local threats in regions where the species is uncommon.<br/>In Algeria, the only location is threatened by development. <br/><br/>In Corsica the habitat of the subspecies <em>rotgesii</em> is impacted by extensive pork breeding. In future, due to the decrease of stockbreeding this species will be affected by the competition of the woody plants.	eng
164065	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Legal conservation of the species (Lebanese List of Protected Species) <br/>- Conservation of the habitat	eng
164065	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus schweinfurthii</em> is a species strictly endemic to Lebanon. It is found at the western slopes of the Lebanese mountain chain between 1,400-2,000 m of altitude. It occurs in four locations (Jabal Kneissé sinkholes, north of Aïn Saoura'ir between Sannine and Kneissé, Rouessat and Jabal Barouk near the cedars) and it has an extent of occurrence under 5,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 20 km².	eng
164065	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits the bottoms of sinkholes or other places that are filled with snow for a long time in winter and in spring. Flowering occurs during summer (until September).	eng
164065	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species has a very restricted distribution and populations are quite fragmented. The trend of the populations is stable and the species is abundant.	eng
164065	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Tourist infrastructures in the mountains and winter leisure activities are two of the main threats to this species in the medium-term.	eng
164066	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164066	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species has a Pantropic distribution. In North east Africa it is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea. In Northern Africa it is only found in Egypt (along Nile banks). Also recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe,  Mozambique, Namibia, and South Africa.<br/><br/>Out of Africa, it has been recorded from Israel and Saudi Arabia.	eng
164066	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This species grows in moist ground, canals and along river banks.	eng
164066	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is fairly common in the region.	eng
164066	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164067	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place. It is suggested to carry out surveillance of the existing locations and to search for new ones and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164067	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Hemarthria altissima</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its geographical distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, tropical Africa and tropical America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Spain, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Italy, Sicily, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 500,000 km², with several localities.	eng
164067	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Hemarthria altissima</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the banks of permanent streams and swamps. Flowering occurs during summer.	eng
164067	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean, but less frequent North Africa, with a presence at more than 10 localities. The populations are in slow regression resulting from various anthropogenic pressures on its habitat in the swamps. It is very rare in Morocco, with only one known locality (edge of the Oued Tiflet); rare in Algeria, Numidie, in the Tellien Atlas Algerois and in the coastal plains oranais; rare in Tunisia, known in Kroumirie (Sidi Bader in the east of Tabarka) and in the northeast (Mensel Bourguiba (previously Ferryville). In Egypt, it is found along the Mediterranean coastal strip and on the banks of the Nile. <br/>In Spain, it is known from 18 localities in the south of the country; in Italy is present in three provinces in addition to Sicily.	eng
164067	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	Drainage and the transformation of the swamps into agricultural land constitute the main threats for the species.	eng
164070	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Backing of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164070	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Juncus maroccanus</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It has been described recently (2004) in the north of Morocco where it is known from only one locality near Larache (Ksar-El-Kebir. 35°11.15' N, 5°58.69'W). Its area of occupancy is less than 1 km². This species was only described recently, so more localities may be found in the future.	eng
164070	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Juncus maroccanus</em> is found in non-salty humid depressions on sand substrate. It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164070	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This species has only been described recently and therefore the population trends are unknown. However, it is only known from one locality with a very small area of occupancy. Furthermore, the locality is situated in close proximity of a busy road, making the population very fragile and putting it under immediate threat of destruction.	eng
164070	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Drainage, filling-in, overgrazing, road infrastructures and the extension of agriculture are the main threats to this species' habitat. The area in which the species occurs is currently under development.	eng
164072	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164072	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phalaris coerulescens</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution covers southern Europe, North Africa, the Canary Islands and Madeira. It was introduced everywhere else where it occurs. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
164072	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, ditches, temporarily flooded depressions, pastures that are flooded in winter and wetlands of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (April-July).	eng
164072	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. The trend of the populations is unknown but presumed to be stable.  <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed between the Rif, the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline;<br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: widespread throughout the country, from Tabarka to Djerba; <br/>- Libya: fairly common (in Derna and the Tripoli region); <br/>- Egypt: only found at the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Spain: quite rare, solely occurring at 16 sites; <br/>- France: limited to the south of the country where it is present in seven departments besides Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common, present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164072	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization is the main threat to this species’ habitat.	eng
164073	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations are included in Ramsar sites. Furthermore, the following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas.	eng
164073	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Some populations are included in Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas, etc.	eng
164073	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in North Africa, Ethiopia, west and middle Asia, America, central and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In North east Africa it is only found in Ethiopia (no material seen) and Somalia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at Tangier, western Rif, Pre-Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Settat and Volubilis (Maire 1957); in Algeria where five locations are named, scattered all over the country; and in Tunisia where it occurs at only one location: Bargou.	eng
164073	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in North Africa, Ethiopia, west and middle Asia, America, central and southern Europe. It is present in southern France, missing in Corsica, found at the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, Cyprus and former Yugoslavia (Pignatti 1997). <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at Tangier, West Rif, Pre-Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Settat and Volubilis (Maire 1957); in Algeria where five locations are named, scattered all over the country; and in Tunisia where it occurs at only one location: Bargou.	eng
164073	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is an annual species. It grows on clay along streams, in evergreen bushland with <em>Buxus</em> and <em>Cadia</em> on limestone. Its preferred habitats are ditches, riverbanks and damp, open habitats, marshes, and dayas on plains and mountains from 0 to 600 m above sea level.	eng
164073	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is an annual species. Its preferred habitats are ditches, riverbanks and damp, open habitats, marshes, and dayas on plains and mountains from 0 to 600 m altitude.	eng
164073	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus sphaerocarpus</em> is rare and scattered over most of its range (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964). In North Africa, its area is limited to one location in Tunisia, five locations in Algeria, and more than five locations in Morocco. It occurs at 38 localities in Spain and Portugal and is found in three northern regions in Italy: Aosta Valley, Piedmont and<em> </em><span class="mw-redirect">Trentino-Alto Adige.<em> </em>There is one locality in Montenegro (Smarda 1968). The species is extinct in Israel.	eng
164073	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is rare and often not presisting long in its localities in North Eastern Africa.  In North Africa, its area is limited to Tunisia (one location), Algeria (five locations) and Morocco (more than five locations).	eng
164073	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This species is threatened by agricultural expansion, grazing and various types of pollution. It is furthermore restricted to some countries and a few localities.	eng
164073	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is threatened by agricultural expansion, grazing and various types of pollution. It is restricted to few countries and a few localities. Due to its restricted range and  limited dispersal it may be affected by other threats.	eng
164074	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is legally protected on a regional level (Corsica) and is included in the French national Red List. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from both the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and Botanical Conservatory from Corsica; search for new locations is underway.<br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of different populations; to increase knowledge about its biology, resilience and conservation; and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164074	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Myosotis soleirolii</em> is an endemic species from Corsica and Sardinia with Paleotemperate origins. It is a rare species in the central mountains of Corsica from Rotondo to Incudine mountains. In Sardinia, it is found in the Gennargentu mountains.	eng
164074	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found on runnels, edges of streamlets from 160 m to 2,050 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows principally on granite. At the moment, information about germination, growing and flowering conditions is not available - more research is needed.	eng
164074	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<p><em>Myosotis soleirolii</em> is known from 35 sites in <st1:place w:st="on">Corsica</st1:place>. It has last been observed at the site of Rotondo in 2007.</p><p> The populations are affected by the hydrological conditions, but the global trend is not known. The lower altitude populations are found in flooded areas, so if the water level drops these are likely to disappear.</p>	eng
164074	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The major threats to this species are drought and decreasing water quality.	eng
164075	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164075	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in central, southern and western Europe, North Africa, Ethiopia, and west Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is common in Tunisia (Kroumirie and Sedjenane: three localities), Algeria (Tell and Aures mountains, Mountains of Tlemcen) and Morocco where it is common in the north and west, Middle and Great Atlas (Maire 1957), Tangier, West and central Rif, Targuist (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
164075	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is a Paleotemperate species that occurs in central, southern and western Europe, North Africa, Ethiopia, and west Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is common in Tunisia (Kroumirie and Sedjenane: three localities), Algeria (Tell and Aures mountains, Mountains of Tlemcen) and Morocco where it is common in the north and west, Middle and Great Atlas (Maire 1957), Tangier, West and central Rif, Targuist (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In the wider Mediterranean it is found in Portugal, Spain, France with Corsica, Italy (scattered and very rare in the north, rare in the centre, Sicily and Sardinia), the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean countries.	eng
164075	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is an annual Therophyte that is found in wet sands in Italy (siliceous), from 0 to 1,000 m, wet or temporarily flooded meadows (<em>Isoetion</em>), banks of ponds and lakes in Corsica, marshes, dayas on plains and mountains in North Africa.	eng
164075	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is an annual Therophyte that is found in wet sands in marshes, dayas on plains and mountains in North Africa.	eng
164075	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are limited to the western Mediterranean region: <em>Juncus tenageia</em> is missing in Egypt and Libya to the south and very rare to rare in Italy to the north. Nevertheless, its Extent of Occurrence (EOO) is wide in North Africa (from Morocco to Tunisia >20,000 km²).	eng
164075	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are more prominent in the western Mediterranean region: <em>Juncus tenageia</em> is missing in Egypt and Libya to the south and very rare to rare in Italy to the north. Nevertheless, its extent of occurrence is wide in North Africa (from Morocco to Tunisia >20,000 km²), in the north Mediterranean region probably as wide as in the south.	eng
164075	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus tenageia</em> is not threatened in the short term. This situation can change if the wetlands are threatened in the countries and are not legally protected.	eng
164076	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Currently, there are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, create a micro-reserve for this species' sites and to study size and dynamics of the populations .	eng
164076	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This species is an endemic plant from Tunisia (Medjerda valley: Borj, Toum, El Amri, Tébourba; northeast: Arriana, Aouina; central Tunsia: Ain Cherichera), Algeria (Sebkha of Oran) and Morocco (Sidi Âllal el Bahraoui in the north, Taourirt, valley of Oued Za in the east of Morocco). The area of occupancy is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164076	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It is found on clayey fields, in clearings and in moist fields. Flowering is from April to May.	eng
164076	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This species is very rare in Morocco (three sites) and Algeria. In Tunisia, seven sites are known. The distribution is restricted.	eng
164076	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Main threats to the species are urbanization and agriculture, as well as water pollution. Tourism development is threatening the species in Algeria. The species has a restricted range.	eng
164077	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise no conservation measures are in need.	eng
164077	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	In Africa it is only present in the Nile region including Delta, Oases, the Mediterranean coastal strip, and desert east of the Nile.	eng
164077	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Moist ground, Nile and canal banks.	eng
164077	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Common weed	eng
164077	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No major widspread threats are known.	eng
164078	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Some populations in the Iberian peninsula are included in protected areas. There are no further conservation measures in place. For North Africa, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the size and dynamics of the populations.	eng
164078	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Myosotis debilis</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean basin. It is found in Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km², and it is present at more than 20 locations.	eng
164078	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and marshes of plains and low mountains. It is found in wet meadows, banks of rivers and streams, on sandy, not calcareous, soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164078	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common on Mediterranean level, but the North African populations are confined and their trend remains unknown. <br/>In Morocco, the species is classified as very rare, known in only five locations distributed between the Rif (Tangérois, Issaguène valley and Oued Laou) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Chaouia-Benslimane and Mamora). In Algeria, it is also quite rare along the coastal strip of the Tell Atlas and very rare in Tiaret. In Portugal, it is fairly common and present in all provinces and in Spain, it is present in 18 provinces in the west and centre of the country. The populations in the Iberian Peninsula are stable.	eng
164078	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage for agricultural purposes, urbanization, and infrastructure development, such as the construction of roads, are the main threats to this species.	eng
164079	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164079	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A palaeo-temperate species that is widespread in the Mediterranean. It is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164079	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A palaeo-temperate species that is widespread in the Mediterranean. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sardina, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164079	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. fuscus</em> grows in wet places, sandy soils, rice fields, and edges of springs.	eng
164079	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common throughout its range.	eng
164079	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common throughout the Mediterranean.	eng
164079	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species faces no major threats.	eng
164080	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place in Algeria. In Morocco, some populations are included in the designated Ramsar site of Moulouya.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing locations and search for new localities <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- To reduce habitat loss by applying legal conservation measures	eng
164080	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It occurs at more than 10 sites. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and its area of occupancy surpasses 20 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164080	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte), that inhabits salty lands of the coastline and sebkhas. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.	eng
164080	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Limonium battandieri</em> is very rare in Morocco but more common in Algeria. The populations are in slow regression resulting from the tourist resorts that are intense at the coastline. <br/><br/>In Morocco, it is very rare with three known sites on the Mediterranean coastline (near Melilia, Nador, and Moulouya). In Algeria, it is common in the coastal plains of Oranais and the Tellien Atlas Oranais whereas it is rare in the High Plateaus Algerois and Oranais.	eng
164080	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	The tourist amenities at the Mediterranean coastline constitute the main threat for the species, especially in Morocco.	eng
164081	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	More research is needed on the species population numbers and range, threats and potential conservation measures.	eng
164081	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	Endemic to Egypt: Nile Delta, Alexandria, canals east of the Nile	eng
164081	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Moist ground, Nile and canal banks.	eng
164081	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare	eng
164081	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No information available.	eng
164082	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but for the future it is recommended to manage the harvest of this species.	eng
164082	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantum capillus-veneris</span> is a sub-cosmopolitan species. Its distribution encompasses tropical, subtropical, temperate regions and the Mediterranean. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Albania, Turkey, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Cyprus, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Israel, Palestine, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Malta, Lebanon, Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its Mediterranean occurrence area passes 5,000,000 km² with numerous localities.	eng
164082	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Adiantum capillus-veneris</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte to rhizome) that inhabits caves and humid rocks, banks of watercourses, banks of springs and also artificial lands such as wells and walls. It is very tolerant to the chemical nature of the substratum. Its development occurs in spring and its flowering in summer.	eng
164082	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing to be steady.	eng
164082	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are not major threats for the species.	eng
164083	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164083	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164083	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Cyperus esculentus</em> is a pantropical species and occurs in most of the countries along the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
164083	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	Widespread species with a Pantropical distribution, including the Mediterranean region and Madagascar. The plant has been dispersed by man under cultivation, and it has in turn become a serious and common weed of many crops especially in highland areas. It is widespread in western Africa and Southern Africa. In north Eastern Africa it is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Distribution in Djibouti uncertain.	eng
164083	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This sedge prefers moist ground, grows in rice fields and in sandy soils.	eng
164083	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	This sedge prefers moist ground, grows in rice fields and in sandy soils. It is also foun in other cultivated and waste sites.  It is of ancient cultivation. Tubers have been identified in the funery of tombs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, c. 2,000 B.C.	eng
164083	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common. The plant has been dispersed by man under cultivation, and it has in turn become a serious and common weed of many crops.	eng
164083	population	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is very common. The plant has been dispersed by man under cultivation, and it has in turn become a serious and common weed of many crops.	eng
164083	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species faces no major threats.	eng
164083	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is disturbed by agriculture pollution, but it is not a major threat.	eng
164085	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	There are some designated Ramsar sites in Algeria which help to protect this plant species. Future measures needed include the production of an inventory of the habitats of this species along with its population distribution and more detailed taxonomy.	eng
164085	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Cicendia filiformis</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species that grows in Morocco (Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, C Rif, Targuist), Algeria (very rare), and Tunisia (> six locations). The plant is also found in Portugal, Spain (including Balearic Islands), Italy (including Sicily and Sardinia), France (including Corsica), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey.	eng
164085	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	This an annually occuring Therophyte which is found growing in pools and wetlands on siliceous substrate in Italy and France; temporary ponds, meadows or moist ground in Corsica; wet depressions in winter, banks of dayas on siliceous ground in Tunisia; and dayas or temporary ponds (often peaty, sandy or siliceous) in Algeria. <br/>The flowering season is from April to May in Italy; May until September in France; April until August in Corsica; and April to June in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
164085	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	There is very little information available on the populations of this species. It is probably overlooked as it proves to be difficult to locate it in the field. In Tunisia, it is common in pools in the Mogods.	eng
164085	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	There are no major threats in the short term, but temporary ponds that provide a suitable habitat for <em>C. filiformis</em> are the most threatened type of wetland.	eng
164086	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Alsace, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté, Centre, and Midi-Pyrénées. In Italy, according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) it is classified as Vulnerable in Friuli-VeneziaGiulia and of Lower Risk in Marche. For Tuscany, it is classified as Critically Endangered (Sposimo and Castelli 2005).<br/>For the Mediterranean region there are no additional conservation measures needed.	eng
164086	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is an Old-World perennial sedge, only known in Africa from one locality in Egypt (Nile delta: Rosetta). Its further distribution in the Mediterranean region includes Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, where it is sparsely distributed along the Mediterranean coast.<br/><br/>The species is also found in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Australasia. It has been introduced to Mexico and the United States of America.	eng
164086	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is a perennial plant (40-90 cm) that grows in marshes, ponds and rice fields, where it is a weed.	eng
164086	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus mucronatus</em> is very rare in Egypt, found at one locality, and the population trend is unknown.<br/>In Turkey, it is found near Ankara, Artvin, Istanbul and Kastamonu and is not very common.<br/>In Croatia, it is present at one locality outside the Mediterranean region and is classed as Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). In Italy, several localities have been reported for northern Italy and for Tuscany, Marche, Umbria and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) confirm that it is found at several sites in Sicily. In Spain, it has a disjunct and localised distribution near rice fields and agricultural land. The species might be more frequent there, but not all potential habitats have been surveyed yet. It is found in all provinces of Portugal. In France, it has a disjunct distribution and is not common in the Mediterranean region - only 6 localities have been found there. In Greece, it is present in the north central and north western part, and there are unconfirmed reports from the Ionian islands.	eng
164086	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Agricultural development and changes in the hydrological regime are the main threats. Industrialisation is a local threat in Tuscany for example.	eng
164088	conservation	de Bélair, G. and Diadema, K., 2008	In France, the species is classed as Endangered in the National Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995) and is under regional protection in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. In Italy, the species is classified as Endangered in Liguria, Vulnerable in Tuscany, and of Lower Risk in Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). According to Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) it is classified as Vulnerable for Italy. The Northern Appenine site is a Natura 2000 site; new investigations on the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula</span> are currently being carried out there. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to monitor the population dynamics, the existing sites and to search for new ones; site management of the cliffs and control of infrastructure development; to assess the risk of hybridisation with alien <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula</span> species; to raise public awareness, in particular about the potential threat of species collection.	eng
164088	distribution	de Bélair, G. and Diadema, K., 2008	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a Mediterranean endemic. It is found in the mountains of south and northwest Italy (Appennin and Abruzze) where it is very rare, and is just extending to southeastern France (Maritime Alps). According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the main distribution of this species is in the Alpi Liguri (Piemonte and Liguria) and northern Apennine, with a more doubtful record for Abruzzo. The latter populations might belong to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. fiorii</span> Tammaro.<br/>The extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km².	eng
164088	habitat	de Bélair, G. and Diadema, K., 2008	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a perennial, carnivorous plant that grows on limestone and calcareous sandstone rocks, in the shade of crevices (from 400 to 1,600 m). This species is found on very wet inland cliffs of Mediterranean mountains, dripping, overhanging or vertical rocks of hills, that are colonised by specialised vegetation formed by <em>Adiantum capillus-veneris</em>, mosses, and <em>Pinguicula</em> spp.<br/>Its flowering time is from April to June.	eng
164088	population	de Bélair, G. and Diadema, K., 2008	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> has several scattered and very small populations but the population trend is suspected to be stable. In France, there are three populations, one in Roya valley, one in La Brigue valley and one in Vesubie valley. In Italy, there are <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 20 sites in the northern Appenines, probably two sites in the Maritime Alps and additional sites in the Alpi Liguri but their number is unknown.	eng
164088	threats	de Bélair, G. and Diadema, K., 2008	<em>Pinguicula reichenbachiana</em> is a very rare species with very restricted ecological requirements. It does not seem threatened at the moment, but there are potential future threats such as the collection of the plant, construction of a ski resort in the Apennines and the construction of transport infrastructures (roads) in France. The    population of Gorges de Paganin is directly threatened by an introduced species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Pinguicula chrystallina</span>) both for potential hybridization and for competition.  <span ;="">	eng
164089	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Spain, the species is classified as Endangered in the Red List and some sites are located in the Natural Park "Lagunas de Ruidera", in the Natural Reserve "Laguna de la Paja" and in the SCI "Laguna de los Ojos de Villaverde".<br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place and it is recommended to legally protect the species and include it in the Moroccan List of Protected Species, to reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures and to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size.<br/><br/>For all the populations, it is necessary to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to restore damaged habitats and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164089	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum baeticum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in western Spain in the regions Cataluña, La Alcarria, La Mancha and Andalucía; and in Morocco distributed between the Gharb, Zemmours-Zaër and to the south of Tamanar. It occurs in more than 10 locations and its extent of occurrence covers about 200,000 km². Its area of occupancy is probably less than 500 km².	eng
164089	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporarily flooded wetlands such as pools, marshes, wet depressions, generally on marly soil. The plant is very sensitive to annual rainfall fluctuations and needs wet winters and springs to develop in an optimal way (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164089	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species shows large inter-annual fluctuations related to the amount of rainfall. The populations are widely dispersed and are likely to be declining, probably due to the agricultural usage of their habitat. <br/>In Morocco, the species is considered rare. In Spain, the species is classified as Endangered (Moreno 2008). There is a strong reduction of its potential habitat and it has likely disappeared from many locations where it previously occurred. Four populations are threatened due to the urbanization, drainage and agricultural use of their habitat. The fragmented and isolated character of the habitat increases the intrinsic extinction risk.	eng
164089	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage, infilling (particularly of small temporary depressions), agricultural usage and urbanization of this species' habitat, as well as the use of herbicides, are the main threats to this species. Moreover, the species susceptibility to climatic variations such as rainfall deficit and the fragmented and isolated character of its habitat cause a high intrinsic risk of extinction   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
164090	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
164090	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures in place or in need.	eng
164090	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hispida</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. <br/>In Africa it is only found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 300,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 50 km².	eng
164090	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hispida</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers over 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164090	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, humid prairies and the banks of rivers and irrigation channels of plains and mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-June).	eng
164090	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and its populations appear to be stable.<br/> <br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the High Oriental Plains, the Tangerois in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; it is common in Algeria, in the Tell region and in the Saharan Atlas; fairly common in Kroumirie (El Fedja, Aïn Draham and Tabarka), northeast Tunisia (Tindjda and Ichkeul lake), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Korbous). In Tunisia it is found in the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar, Zaghouan, La Kessera, Aïn Cherichera, Jbel Chambi and Jbel Mrhila) and south Tunisia (Metlaoui, Gafsa); present in Libya in Derna.<br/><br/>It is common in Spain, occurring at 97 sites; it is fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France (present in eight departments and in Corsica); present in five provinces in Italy, besides Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164090	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa and its populations appear to be stable.<br/> <br/>It is very common in Morocco in the Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the High Oriental Plains, the Tangerois in northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco; it is common in Algeria, in the Tell region and in the Saharan Atlas; fairly common in Kroumirie (El Fedja, Aïn Draham and Tabarka), Northeast Tunisia (Tindjda and Ichkeul lake), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Korbous). In Tunisia it is found in the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar, Zaghouan, La Kessera, Aïn Cherichera, Jbel Chambi and Jbel Mrhila) and south Tunisia (Metlaoui, Gafsa); present in Libya in Derna.	eng
164090	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.	eng
164091	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The species is under regional protection in France: in Alsace and Rhône-Alpes.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of existing locations <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164091	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is widespread on the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known in several localities in Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Cyprus, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Israel.	eng
164091	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Lythrum hyssopifolia</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that prefers temporary ponds and the low depressions that are humid during the winter. It is indifferent to the nature of the substratum. The flowering period is between March and June.	eng
164091	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations appear to be stable.	eng
164091	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Urbanization, the drainage of ponds, their infilling, agricultural practices and overgrazing constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164092	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164092	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Coronopus squamatus</em> is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region where it occurs in most of the countries. In North Africa it is found in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
164092	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This Therophyte grows in highly enriched wet soils, anthropogenic and disturbed habitats as well as lake shores, river and canal banks.	eng
164092	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common.	eng
164092	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164093	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for Europe. In North Africa, the species' habitat should be protected from further decline.	eng
164093	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a circumpolar sub-Atlantic species with restricted distribution in the Mediterranean region. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Sicily, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Palestine, Israel, Jordan and Algeria.	eng
164093	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is found in swamps, streams, and flood plains of rivers.	eng
164093	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is common in the European part of the Mediterranean but rare in North Africa. In Spain, it is found in seven localities in the northwest of the country (Anthos 2009), but it is present throughout France, Croatia, and Italy for example. <br/>In Algeria, the species is very rare, found in La Calle, east of la Numidie (Quezel and Santa 1062), Guerbès-Senhdja (Samraoui and de Bélair 1997), and the Collo region (El Kol).	eng
164093	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species does not face major threats in its European range. In Algeria, it is threatened by agricultural expansion and the extraction of water from the lakes.	eng
164095	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164095	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Limonium cymuliferum</em> is an endemic plant of Algeria and Morocco. It is very rare in Morocco, known from only three localities on the Mediterranean coastline: Melilia, Nador and Moulouya with an extent of occurrence of about 60 km². In Algeria, it is more common, known in two regions in the western part of the country: The Haut Plateaux of Algiers to Oran and the coastal plains near Oran. The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region exceeds 108,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is about 1,500 km².	eng
164095	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in coastal salt-marshes and in sebkhas. It blooms in summer under the mild semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164095	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The global trend of the populations is not known. It is very abundant in parts of its range in Algeria. They persist well during dry years.	eng
164095	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The species is often used in ornamentation for dry bouquets. The main threats to its habitats are water pollution and the increasing urbanization on the Mediterranean coastline.	eng
164096	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164096	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus sardous</em> is a Mediterranean species and its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey-in-Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence covers well over 40,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164096	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in swamps and humid prairies. Flowering occurs in the spring.	eng
164096	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, it is found in northern Atlantic Morocco, in the plains of oriental Morocco and in the Rif (Tanger); <br/>- Algeria: common in all of country; <br/>- Tunisia: very common, it is present in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Col du Fedjedj, etc.), the Mogods (Madjen Choucha, Madjen Chitane and Garaet Sedjenane), Northeast Tunisia (Ichkeul marsh, Menzel Djemil, Belvédère, Hammam-Lif., etc.), Cap Bon (Hammamet and Kélibia), central Tunisia (Kalaa Srira and Bou Ficha) and in south Tunisia (oasis); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurs in 102 sites; <br/>- France: common in all the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164096	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling and drainage of its habitat for agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.	eng
164097	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. More research on biology and ecology, threats and habitat status is proposed.	eng
164097	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, west and north Asia and North America (Maire 1957, Coste 1980).<br/>In North Africa, <em>J. acutiflorus</em> is only indicated in Morocco (W and C Rif, Tangier, Targuist, Aknoul), probably at the southern limits of its area. It is very rare in this country (Maire 1957), some populations have been observed in Morocco at Souk-et-Tleta of Ketama (1,400-1,600 m) by Sennen & Mauricio, (Maire 1957) and five locations by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
164097	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, west and north Asia and North America (Maire 1957, Coste 1980). In Europe, it is found among others in Italy where it is common (except in Sardinia and Sicily, where it is rare), and in France. In Corsica it has not been seen since 1922. The species has quite a wide range, except for the southern Mediterranean region. It is present at the Balkan Peninsula.<br/>In North Africa, <em>J. acutiflorus</em> is only indicated in Morocco in the west and central Rif, Tangier, Targuist, and Aknoul, where it is probably at the southern limits of its area. It is very rare in this country (Maire 1957), some populations have been observed in Morocco at Souk-et-Tleta of Ketama (1,400-1,600 m) (Maire 1957) and five locations by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
164097	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is a perennial Geophyte species which extends by its horizontal rhizome. It is found in wet places, marshy meadows, at the banks of small streams, in acidic ponds and peatbogs. It has also been observed in the siliceous mountains from 1,400-1,600 m altitude in Morocco. This species flowers from June-July in Morocco, May-July in Italy, and June-August in France.	eng
164097	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. acutiflorus</em> is a perennial Geophyte species which extends by its horizontal rhizome. It is found in wet places, marshy meadows, at the banks of small streams, in acidic ponds and peatbogs. It has also been observed in the siliceous mountains from to 1,400-1,600 m altitude in Morocco. This species flowers from June-July.	eng
164097	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The populations of <em>J. acutiflorus</em> are numerous in Europe, but rather rare in the Mediterranean islands and in Morocco. The species is absent form Montenegro and listed as Data Deficient in the National Red List of Croatia.	eng
164097	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The populations of <em>J. acutiflorus</em> are rather rare in Morocco.	eng
164097	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The major threats to this species in North Africa are the destruction of its habitat due to small-holder farming or livestock keeping and agricultural and domestic land pollution.	eng
164098	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Conservation measures in place are research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology, regional protection in France (Centre, Basse Normandy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine, Alsace and Rhône-Alpes). It is included in the Red List of Italy and Croatia. There are none in North Africa.  <br/>Proposed actions are maintenance of the traditional management of the ponds (alternation between pond in water - pond drying out) and surveillance of existing locations.	eng
164098	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This is a circumboreal plant of the northern hemisphere. Its global distribution nearly covers all of Europe, western Asia, Siberia, Africa, America and Australia.  <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, France, Corsica, Spain, Italy, Croatia (not in mediterranean basin), Serbia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Morocco, and Egypt.	eng
164098	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Limosella aquatica</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that colonizes exonded banks of ponds, muddy margines of lakes, ditches and streams, along paths and in temporary pools. It is a species of waters that are rich in nourishing elements (mesotroph to eutroph). Its flowering takes place in July to October.	eng
164098	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	There is no data on the size of the populations available but they are rare throughout their Mediterranean range.  <br/>- In Morocco, the species is rare and present at three localities (Kelâat Sraghna, close to Souk-et-Tnine Marharha and western Jbilet)<br/>- In Egypt, it is solely present in the Nile region.<br/>- In France, the species is mainly present in the centre of France and generally in the north half of the country (region Centers, Basse Normandy, Nord-pas-de-Calais, Lorraine, Alsace and Rhône-Alpes) and in Corsica (where it was not found after 1974 in the Tre Padule: probably extinct). The populations benefit from a regional protection in six regions.<br/>- In Italy, it is classified as Vulnerable.<br/>- It is present in one locality in Montenegro and listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia.<br/>- In Spain, there are 33 populations in the northwest of the country.	eng
164098	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no general threats at the regional level but populations are scarce in the south of its range. Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal, but the species' habitat is affected by drainage, frequent droughts, overgrazing and urbanization.	eng
164099	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, and research of the populations, habitats, and occupied areas.	eng
164099	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a Europeo-Caucasian species which is found in northwest Africa, southwest Asia, western, central and southern Europe.<br/><br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164099	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a Europeo-Caucasian species which is found in northwest Africa, southwest Asia, western, central and southern Europe, i.e. in France and Corsica, Italy where it is common in the Alps but rare in the Apennins Mountains, Sicily and Sardinia. It is also common in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece and Turkey. <br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164099	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a perennial geophyte. It is found in&#160; marshy meadows, banks of small streams (châabas) on plains and mountains up to 2,500 m in northern Africa.	eng
164099	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in neutro-basophile ponds and low peat bogs, flooded meadows in Italy and Corse, marshy meadows, banks of small streams (châabas) on plains and mountains up to 2,500 m in northern Africa.	eng
164099	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations seem to be numerous in Europe but very rare or very threatened in North Africa. North Africa is the southern distribution limit of <em>Juncus subnodulosus</em>. It occurs in:<br/>- Morocco: Central Rif, Tazzeka (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) at two locations, Bekrit (Middle Atlas), Mt Aouljdid (Great Atlas), Tizi-n-Tichka (Maire 1957); <br/>- Algeria limited to the Algiers region: El-Harrach (destroyed), Mitidja, Koléa, Castiglione (=Bou-Ismaïl): four locations;<br/>- Tunisia: rare, only one location close to Hammamet.	eng
164099	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations seem to be numerous in Europe, very rare or very threatened in North Africa. North Africa is the southern distribution limit of <em>Juncus subnodulosus</em>.<br/>It was recorded in few localities near Skadar Lake in Montenegro, 174 populations in Spain and throughout France including Corsica. In Croatia, it is scaterred throughout the country.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Central Rif, Tazzeka (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) at two locations, Bekrit (Middle Atlas), Mt Aouljdid (Great Atlas), Tizi-n-Tichka (Maire 1957). In Algeria, it is limited to the Algiers region: El-Harrach (destroyed), Mitidja, Koléa, Castiglione (=Bou-Ismaïl): four locations. In Tunisia, it is found at only one location close to Hammamet.	eng
164099	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is threatened in Algeria owing to urbanization at the four locations close to Algiers. Further threats in North Africa are grazing, agricultural expansion and pollution.	eng
164099	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	In the northern Mediterranean region it is common and does not face major threats. <br/><em>Juncus subnodulosus</em> is threatened in Algeria owing to urbanization at the four locations close to Algiers. Further threats in North Africa are grazing, agricultural expansion and pollution.	eng
164102	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Extension of the National Park of the High Oriental Atlas in order to include the nearest sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164102	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Carum lacuum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the east of the Haut Atlas. It is known from two localities of the Plateau des Lacs between Imilchil and the Tislit lake with an area of occupancy estimated at 13 km².	eng
164102	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This species is found at the edges of cold waters in mountains, in wet meadows, on the shore of lakes and at streams of chalky mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms late in spring and early summer (June-July) under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164102	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size and the present trends of the populations are not known.	eng
164102	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The habitat of this species is threatened by high grazing pressure, increasing use for outdoor leisure activities and water pollution.	eng
164103	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In Northern Africa it is present in many protected areas throughout its range. In North-eastern Africa the species requires careful management and more information in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164103	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	Present in many protected areas throughout its wide range.	eng
164103	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Lemna gibba</em> is widespread and common in the Mediterranean basin. It is also found in many other parts of the world.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164103	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is native to South Africa, recorded from Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape, and possibly Swaziland. In Eastern Africa the species has been recorded from Central Kenya in Machakos District in Kibwezi, Chai Springs, South Rift Valley in Namanga River Hotel and Ondoni, as well as in Mau. In Tanzania, it has been recorded from Maswa district; Moru kopjes, Arusha district; East of Mt. Meru, Ngongongare. As for North-eastern Africa it grows in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It also occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, and Morocco.<br/><br/>This species is widespread throughout the world in warm and Mediterranean climatic regions. It has been naturalized in Japan.	eng
164103	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Lemna gibba</em> is a Hydrophyte that prefers still, eutrophic waters.	eng
164103	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This perennial hydrophyte plant is present in a very wide range of aquatic habitats in Southern Africa. It is a free-floating species which grows at the water surface and prefers still and slow-flowing, eutrophic waters. It is found in ditches, ponds, canals or quiet backwaters of rivers.	eng
164103	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is very common.	eng
164103	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common in Northern Africa and South Africa, and rare in North-eastern Africa.	eng
164103	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	Several threats affect the species but they are not a serious problem.	eng
164103	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are not known threats to this species in South Africa. In Northern Africa several threats affect the species but they are not considered as major. The species is of restricted range in North-eastern Africa where it could be threatened by drought.	eng
164104	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164104	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164104	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is found in Sudan, tropical west and central Africa. In the Mediterranean it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum and along the Mediterranean coastal strip.	eng
164104	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is found in Sudan, tropical west and central Africa. In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum and along the Mediterranean coastal strip.	eng
164104	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant grows in moist ground. In Egypt on the Nile and muddy canal banks.	eng
164104	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	This plant grows in moist ground, on the Nile and muddy canal banks.	eng
164104	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	It is a common weed.	eng
164104	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is a common weed.	eng
164104	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	The plant used to be rather abundant, especially in upper Egypt. However, after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, less and less silt was deposited in the Nile Basin north of the Dam, which resulted in the disappearance of most of the populations in upper Egypt.	eng
164104	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The plant used to be rather abundant, especially in upper Egypt. However, after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, less and less silt was deposited in the Nile Basin north of the Dam, which resulted in the disappearance of most of the populations in upper Egypt.	eng
164105	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no existing conservation measures. Research would be needed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, as well as <br/>on the dynamics of the populations. Habitat conservation is also recommended, as overgrazing in forests can heavily impact the ecosystem.	eng
164105	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lysimachia cousiniana</em> is a species endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. It is found in Little Kabylia, Great Kabylia and Numidie, in Algeria, and in Kroumirie in Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is greater than 20 km², and it is present at more than 10 locations.	eng
164105	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a creeping, perennial, herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte), that inhabits humid forests. Flowering takes place in the spring.	eng
164105	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in Little Kabylia but very rare in Great Kabylia and Numidie in Algeria. In Tunisia, it is confined to Kroumirie. The populations are supposed to be stable and fairly preserved in the mountainous regions of both countries.	eng
164105	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The habitat of this species, mountainous regions, is not threatened. Overgrazing might be a threat in some parts of its distribution range.	eng
164107	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are none conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.	eng
164107	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are none conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones.	eng
164107	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex ovalis</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its global distribution covers Europe, western and northern Asia, boreal-oriental America, North Africa and it was probably introduced in New Zealand. <br/>In Africa it is only present in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², few locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².	eng
164107	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex leporina</span> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its global distribution covers Europe, western and northern Asia, boreal-oriental America, North Africa and it was probably introduced in New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164107	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid pastures, edges of brooks and prairies of high mountains. Flowering occurs during summer.	eng
164107	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, very common in Portugal and Spain, with more than 340 sites; common in nearly all of France; common in all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.<br/><br/>In North Africa the species’ distribution is limited to the mountains of central Rif in Morocco and Grande Kabylie in Algeria. It is rare, due to spatial limitations, with only a few locations and an AOO <20 km². The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, only occurring in central Rif (Bab Amegas, Jbel Tidighine, etc.), and rare in Algeria, solely present in Grande Kabylie.	eng
164107	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region, very common in Portugal and Spain, with more than 340 sites; common in nearly all of France; common in all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.<br/>In North Africa, the species is limited to the mountains of central Rif in Morocco and Grande Kabylie in Algeria. It is rare, due to spatial limitations, with only a few locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) smaller than 20 km². The trend of the populations is unknown.  Also rare in Algeria where it is found in Grande Kabylie.	eng
164107	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164108	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but for North Africa it is recommended to legally protect the species, to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and to estimate the population size and monitor the population dynamics.	eng
164108	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in North Africa (List of protected species in Morocco and Algeria) <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones<br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa	eng
164108	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex paniculata</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, the Caucasus, Mediterranean basin, and Siberia.  In Africa it is only found in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 20,000 km², four locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².	eng
164108	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex paniculata</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Canary Islands and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164108	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits peaty swamps of plains and mountains and does not depend on soil type. Flowering starts at the end of winter and lasts until the beginning of summer	eng
164108	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits peaty swamps of plains and mountains and is indifferent to soil type. Flowering starts at the end of winter and lasts until the beginning of summer.	eng
164108	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is very rare, due to spatial limitations (four locations and an AOO <10 km²), with very restricted populations that are severely fragmented.  <br/>Very rare in Morocco, with only three localities, namely in central Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake) and northern Atlantic Morocco (in north Gharb, specifically Oued Lakhal and Bou Charen swamp near Larache); the populations are decreasing as their habitat is being drained, becoming unsuitable for this species (Gharb swamp). In Algeria it is very rare, with only two localities (Numidie and Jijel).	eng
164108	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is very rare, with very restricted populations that are severely fragmented.  <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only three localities, namely in central Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake) and northern Atlantic Morocco (in north Gharb, specifically Oued Lakhal and Bou Charen swamp near Larache); the populations are decreasing as their habitat is being drained, becoming unsuitable for this species (Gharb swamp);<br/>- Algeria: very rare, with only two localities (Numidie and Jijel); <br/>- Spain: very common, with 154 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common in all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in 12 provinces besides Sicily	eng
164108	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	At Mediterranean scale there are no major threats that lead to a population decline. However locally, drainage, agricultural expansion, water pollution, road infrastructures and urbanization are the major threats to the habitat of this species in Morocco. In Algeria, deforestation is the main problem and the sites where the species is present could easily disappear.	eng
164108	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage, agricultural expansion, water pollution, road infrastructures and urbanization are the major threats to the habitat of this species in Morocco. In Algeria, deforestation is the main problem and the sites where the species is present could easily disappear.	eng
164109	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Hugot, L., 2008	There are currently no conservation measures in place. It is suggested to study the taxonomy of the subspecies <em>timija</em>.	eng
164109	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Hugot, L., 2008	<em>Mentha suaevolens</em> is of Euro-Mediterranean origin and occurs in central and southern Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia, Macaronesia (except Cape Verde Islands), therefore missing in the south-east of the Mediterranean region. <br/>It is found in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164109	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Hugot, L., 2008	<em>M. suaevolens</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte. It grows at uncultivated places, field sides and path sides, banks of ditches and flooded places, wet meadows, riverine forests, banks of small streams and springs.	eng
164109	population	de Bélair, G. & Hugot, L., 2008	The populations of <em>M. suaevolens</em> are numerous.	eng
164109	threats	de Bélair, G. & Hugot, L., 2008	<em>Mentha suaveolens</em> is not threatened.	eng
164110	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservations measures are in place or needed.	eng
164110	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Pulicaria laciniata</em> is an endemic species of Tunisia, Algeria and Libya. It has been recently mentioned in Libya.	eng
164110	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in clayey soils that are seasonally flooded.	eng
164110	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is relatively common in Tunisia (from Medjerda Valley to the northern limit of the Sahara). In Algeria, it is rare in the High Plains and relatively rare in the northern limit of the Sahara.	eng
164110	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
164111	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	In Corsica,<span style="font-style: italic;"> M. </span><em>insularis</em> is included in the Red Book tome II and projects working with people using it for essentials oils are underway. Further research is needed to increase the knowledge on the species' biology, resilience and conservation. It is furthermore recommend to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164111	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Capraia and Menorca. Although reported from Sicily, Valsecchi (1982) affirms that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. insularis</span> is not present in Sicily where it was confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">M. microphylla</span>.	eng
164111	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	This herb grows in wet grassland and on the edges of small streams and springs. In Capraia, it grows in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Nerium oleander</span> community.	eng
164111	population	Hugot, L., 2009	In Corsica, the species is common, present at 50 sites and the populations are believed to be stable.<em></em> <br/>In Capraia, the only population holds <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 50 individuals and is found along one river in an area of <span style="font-style: italic;">ca </span>1 km<sup>2</sup>. The population seems stable as it has been recorded at this site since 1852, but the site is outside the range of a national park. In Sardinia, <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha insularis</span> should be present in at least in 30-32 sites (Valsecchi 1982) distributed from sea level to the mountains. <br/>There is only one record from Menorca; the species is considered as a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha suaveolens</span> according to Flora Iberica.	eng
164111	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The major threat to this species <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em>in Corsica is the hybridization with other <em>Mentha</em> species.	eng
164112	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size and to monitor their dynamics.	eng
164112	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Crypsis vaginiflora</em> is a tropical species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, tropical Africa, temperate Asia and it was introduced in North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt, occurring in 11 sites. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² but its area of occupancy is below 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164112	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found along the edges of lakes and water courses as well as in humid habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April-October).	eng
164112	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is found in 11 sites along the Nile and in the desert regions, with a few very abundant populations. The trend of the populations is not known.	eng
164112	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The intensification of agriculture along the banks of the Nile is the main threat to this species.	eng
164113	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions for North Africa are monitoring the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, control the urbanization of the coastline and enforcement of legal protection measures.	eng
164113	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Puccinellia festuciformis</em> is a paleotemperate species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers Europe, Siberia, North America and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164113	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in brackish swamps, humid habitats along the coast and inland Mediterranean salt-marshes and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn (April-October).	eng
164113	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region but its distribution in North Africa is quite restricted and populations are declining. It is very rare in Morocco, occuring in five locations (Tangier, Nefifik estuary, Ghebar estuary, Rabat and Oued Loukkos in Larache); in two locations in Algeria (La Macta swamps and Missergin on the Oran coastal plains); and in two locations in the Tunisian Dorsal (Kasserine and Garet des Ouled Rhezam). <br/>It is present in 12 regions in Spain; quite common in France where it is present in four departments in the south and in Corsica. It is present in Italy in nine provinces on the mainland and in Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164113	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture, drainage, urbanization and the development of road infrastructures along the coastline are the main threats to the habitat of this species in northwest Africa. The species is not threatened in Europe in the short term.	eng
164114	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further  knowledge population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164114	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164114	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Pycreus mundtii</em> is a tropical species. Its world distribution covers Africa, the Middle East, India and the south of Spain. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164114	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is present throughout the Tropical western, Central and east Africa. It is found in Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is common in Central Africa and has is present in may countries of western Africa. Widespread in Kenya , Tanzania, and Uganda . In Malawi known from Nkhata Bay, Machinga, Zomba, Chikwawa and Mangochi. Also common in Southern Africa where it is present in Namibia, South Africa, Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Lesotho.	eng
164114	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits swamps and the banks of rivers and drainage canals of non chalky substrate. Flowering occurs in spring and summer.	eng
164114	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	Stream and lake margins in or near open water, moist sandy ground, marshes, around wells.	eng
164114	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, with several known locations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very common, present along almost all of the Atlantic coast (from Tangier to Souss), along the Mediterranean coast and in the Haouz region: <br/>- Libya: present in the Libyan Desert oasis (Gat, Elbaracat, etc.); <br/>- Egypt: very common, found along the Nile and in the oases of the western Desert;. <br/>- Spain: present in five provinces in the south of the country: Cadiz, Granada, Huelva, Malaga, and Valencia (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
164114	population	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is common and dispersed throughout Africa.	eng
164114	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species although they are not considered as major threats.	eng
164114	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The expansion of agriculture and the drainage of this species habitat are the main threats to this species.	eng
164115	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size, and to study the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164115	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ludwigia stolonifera</em> is a pantropical species with a biogeographical distribution that covers Africa and Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Libya, Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula. Its extent of occurrence covers around 2,000,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations (>30).	eng
164115	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial, floating aquatic, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in lakes, shallow waters, ditches and rivers, sometimes in very high densities. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn. It can incorporate large amounts of heavy metals.	eng
164115	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean basin as well as in North Africa and the populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Libya: at least eight locations distributed along the rivers around Tripoli and Al Khums; <br/>- Egypt: at least 11 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the western Desert oases, the Mediterranean coastline and the Sinai Peninsula; <br/>- Syria and Lebanon: fairly common in the west; <br/>- Israel: it occurs at more than 30 sites<br/>- Turkey: known from two localities in the southern part of Turkey near Syria.	eng
164115	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.<br/>In Israel, at least 30% of the sites have become destroyed by drainage and its mechanical construction since the 1960s but it still occurs at more than 30 sites.	eng
164116	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Auvergne and Lorraine. In Italy, populations of this species seem to have vanished from several sites but further research is necessary.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, further research on this species taxonomy, populations, locations and its habitats are needed. The populations and sites of the species should be monitored in order to study the effects of decline of its coastal habitat.<br/><br/><br/>.	eng
164116	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found in temperate areas of Europe, west and north Asia, North Africa and America.<br/>In the Mediterranean it can be found in central Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, north and central Italy (rare in the north), former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey and Tunisia.<br/>In North Africa it only occurs in Tunisia where it is very rare, the population at La Goulette has never been observed again.	eng
164116	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> is a perennial Helophyte with short, thick rhizomes that are clothed with sheats of old leaves. It grows in brackish coastal marshes or salt marshes.	eng
164116	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of <em>T. maritima</em> are limited to the northern Mediterranean region, except Tunisia where it has been found at only one uncertain locality. Nevertheless, in the north its EOO >20,000 km² and AOO >2,000 km².<br/>In Italy, the species has been recorded for the northern area, southwards to Tuscany, where an old specimen record exists for only one locality. The record from Liguria is also very old (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
164116	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Triglochin maritima</em> seems to be sensitive to interventions at the coastal strip; therefore it can be threatened in the short term.	eng
164117	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In France, the species is under national protection and included as Endangered in the National Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). A backing of populations has been operated in 1987 at the site of Landes with plants cultivated at the Conservatoire Botanique National du Brest. It is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian Red List and also in the Red List of Andalucia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).  There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are being recommended:<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in North African countries) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To search for the historic sites in Portugal and to study the possibility of their restoration <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164117	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species found in the western part of the basin and along the south European Atlantic Coast. It is found in Morocco (Tangiers; near Lalla Mimouna; Aouamara; near Kénitra), Algeria (Numidia: Bône, El Kala and the Constantine Tell: Djbel Ouach), in Tunisia (Aïn Draham, Mogods, Col du Vent), Spain (southern Andalusia in Cadiz), in Portugal (Algarve), in Sardinia and in France (Gironde; Landes and a doubtful presence in the Pyrenees-Atlantiques). <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence of the species is about 1,033,000 km². The area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> and probably even smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164117	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Anagallis crassifolia</em> avoids calcium-rich substrates and is found in flooded places, marshes, peat-bogs and along streams especially in the areas usually flooded in winter and drying up in summer. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer.	eng
164117	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The populations are globally in decline. In Portugal, the populations are probably extinct. They were only known from one or two localities. There are about seven populations remaining in Cadiz, Spain. In France, it is currently only known from the margins of a shallow lake, the Etang de Seignosse (Landes) with only a few tens of individuals occupying an area varying from a few m² to 0.5 m² over the years. Its quasi-extinction is due to a conjunction of unfavourable factors: drainage of the wetlands or on the opposite the stabilization of the water-bodies at a high water level suppressing the temporarily flooded habitats. New range reductions near Bordeaux have been observed.<br/>In Sardinia, the species is very rare with only one isolated locality (Portoscuso) with very reduced populations.<br/>In Morocco, the species has never been mentioned again, since its discovery in the 1960s, in a very isolated peat bog of the Rif (Tangiers). At the localities of the Gharb (Lalla Mimouna; Aouamara; close to Kenitra), the populations regressed since 1980 following the drainage and the cultivation of the wetlands. Algeria is the stronghold of the species in North Africa, the species is common in some areas in the east of the country. In Tunisia, there are a few isolated and reduced populations in Khroumirie, of which some were destroyed about ten years ago by agriculture, and Mogods.	eng
164117	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threats to this species' habitat are overgrazing, stabilization of water levels, the colonisation of the habitat by Helophytes and competition with taller plants, drainage and the extension of agriculture.	eng
164118	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection outside the Mediterranean region (région Ile-de-France, Basse-Normandie and Alsace).<br/>  In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.	eng
164118	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Leersia oryzoides</em> is a species predominantly present in tropical and subtropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution includes Africa, Eurasia, Central America and Australia.  <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It occurs in numerous locations (>100).   <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Rif and the north Atlantic plains), Algeria (Numidie and coastal Algérois), Tunisia (Kroumirie), Libya (El Barkat and Ghat) and Egypt (Nile, oases of the Western Desert and the Mediterranean coastline).	eng
164118	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial Hydrophyte plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits coastal swamps, canals, rice fields and the edges of streams. Flowering takes place in Spring and Summer (March-July).	eng
164118	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa. Some of the populations are very abundant but their trend is unknown.  <br/>It is quite common in Morocco in the Rif and the north Atlantic plains (Merja Zerga, southern Loukkos swamp, etc.), occurring in at least 10 localities; rare in Algeria, occurring in Numidie and along the Algérois coast; rare in Tunisia, only found in Kroumirie (Tabarka). In Libya, it is only present in two locations (El Barkat and Ghat). It is quite common in Egypt, with more than 10 locations distributed between the Nile, the oases of the Western Desert and the Mediterranean coastal strip.  <br/>In Italy, the species has experienced a strong decline in the past 50 years, and is now only common in the northwest and becomes rare towards the south. In France, it is rather common in western Mediterranean region. In Spain, the populations are increasing and it is present in the centre, north, Salamanca, Basque country, Girona, south Galicia, and Caceres. In Portugal, it is found in Beira Litoral, Ribatejo, and Minho. It is present in Greece but restricted to the northern part of the mainland.	eng
164118	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164119	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, more information is needed on population numbers and range.	eng
164119	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Carex distans</em> is a pantropical species. In the Mediterranean, it is present in all the countries bordering to the Mediterranean from southern Europe to the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the Levant and North Africa.	eng
164119	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Carex distans</em> is a pantropical species which is widespread throughout the Mediterranean basin. In Africa it is present in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164119	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species habitat are marshy soils and shady/damp places, wadis, wet meadows, river banks (Nile) and streams.	eng
164119	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species habitat are marshy soils and shady or damp places, wadis, wet meadows, river banks (Nile) and streams.	eng
164119	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is fairly common in the region.	eng
164119	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats to the species beyond the general trend of destruction of the wetlands.	eng
164119	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to the species beyond the general trend of destruction of the wetlands.	eng
164120	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	It is recommended to study the locations and populations of <em>E. cuneifolia</em>.	eng
164120	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Euphorbia cuneifolia</em> is endemic to the western Mediterranean where it is found in Italy, France (only Corsica), Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164120	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	A Therophyte (5-20 cm), which grows at an altitude from 0 to 500 m, <em>E. cuneifolia</em> prefers wet meadows, banks of ditches, cool embankments and damp grassy places.<br/>Flowering times are May to June in Corsica, April to May in Italy, and March to May in Tunisia.	eng
164120	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations  in the Mediterranean region are limited to:<br/>- Corsica: west and east of the island <br/>- Italy: at the western Italian coast, Sardinia and Sicily <br/>- Algeria: rather rare, sparsely distributed in northeastern Algeria, the Tell of Algiers and Constantine<br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations.	eng
164120	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The main threat might come from the narrow distribution in the Mediterranean, isolating this species. In future, this species might be threatened if its habitats are developed or cultivated. But for the moment it remains widespread in its actual habitats.	eng
164121	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no specific measures in place. Monitoring and further research in populations, range and possible threats is recommended.	eng
164121	conservation	Foggi, B., Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Grillas, P. & Abeli, T., 2007	There are no specific measures in place. Some populations are included in Ramsar sites (e.g. Albania).<br/><br/>As the species is difficult to find and can easily be confused with another <em>Vallisneria</em> species, monitoring and dissemination of identification information on alien taxa are recommended. Studies on genetic variation and diversity in Europe is furthermore suggested.	eng
164121	distribution	Foggi, B., Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Grillas, P. & Abeli, T., 2007	This species is found in northwest Africa, northern Iraq, Afghanistan. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Greece, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Turkey (European part and north-west Anatolia), Algeria (in Senhadja). The Egyptian population in the Aswan district, Nile Valley region, is introduced.	eng
164121	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Europe to Indo-China and South Africa. It is widespread throughout Africa, occuring in all regions. The Egyptian population is introduced (Aswan district, Nile Valley region).	eng
164121	habitat	Foggi, B., Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Grillas, P. & Abeli, T., 2007	<em>V. spiralis</em> occurs mainly in habitats with nutrient rich water of high concentrations of bicarbonates, calcium and magnesium, neutral pH, in still or slow-flowing permanent waters, irrigation channels. This species is fully aquatic (Hydrophyte) and grows up to several metres depth.	eng
164121	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>V. spiralis</em> occurs mainly in habitats with water of high concentrations of phosphates, bicarbonates, calcium and magnesium, neutral pH, and low dissolved oxygen, sulphate, nitrates, nitrites and carbonates. It grows in hydrosoil of low potassium, phosphates, calcium, magnesium and organic matter. Found in Lakes, pools, ponds, dams and swamps	eng
164121	population	Foggi, B., Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Grillas, P. & Abeli, T., 2007	In Algeria, it is considered very rare and has not been seen for several years; it is present in three to four sites at El Kala, and a few sites near Constantine. It is extinct in Israel. The species has been found in the Syrian desert. It is common in Turkey. <br/>In Spain, it has been found at three sites in the provinces Valencia and Sevilla were the last record is from 19th century and extinct now. In Portugal, it was found in Beira Litoral near Coimbra, but this record is from the 1950s.<br/>In France, it is fairly common (Tela Botanica 2000-2008) and occurs at four river systems: Rhone, Herault, Durance and Aude and the connected irrigitation channels. In Italy, where it is present in the northern half of the country, the populations are strongly declining and are rare now.<br/>In Croatia, it is not common but occurs at more than five sites, there it is classed as Data Deficient because it has been observed only sporadically. In Greece, it is found in the northern part of the country, central and western Macedonia and western Greece, and is fairly common there. In Albania, it has been observed at Shkodra Lake and Buna river (Kashta 2007).<br/><br/>The populations are mainly declining in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164121	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread species.	eng
164121	threats	Foggi, B., Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Grillas, P. & Abeli, T., 2007	Changes in the hydrological regimes due to agriculture, that leads permanent water bodies to become temporary, is one of the main threats to the species. Another one is hyper-eutrophication, especially high concentrations of phosphorus can lead to this species' decline as the water system changes from rooted to floating plants. The main sources are urban and agricultural waste waters.<br/><br/>This plant is used as ornamental in aquaria - when those are thrown into natural water systems they can colonise and cause problems for the native flora.	eng
164121	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought. No major widespread threats have been identified.	eng
164122	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). <br/>In France, it is protected in some regions such as Champagne-Ardennes, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Rhone-Alpes and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and in the department of Gironde.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Research old sites and confirm whether species is still present<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Estimate the population size and study their dynamics <br/>- Conservation of the species and its habitat <br/>- Harvest control<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (of the seeds)	eng
164122	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Anacamptis laxiflora</em> is a Eurasian species. It is found in Europe, around the Mediterranean basin and in western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence is around 4,000,000 km² and it occurs in several locations. <br/><br/>In North Africa the species was present only in Algeria (in 1976 Baumann recorded this species in Koléa, near Algiers). The species has not been recorded since and considering the increasing urbanization and industrialization in the Algiers plain, it has probably gone extinct.	eng
164122	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (tuberous Geophyte) that inhabits humid pastures and marshes. It prefers humid soils and requires a lot of light. Flowering occurs during spring.	eng
164122	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in several locations in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations remains unknown. <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: widespread throughout the peninsula and present in 81 regions in Spain and seven provinces in the south of Portugal; <br/>- France: 73 departments and Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common and present throughout the whole country.	eng
164122	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, infilling and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164124	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164124	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a species native to the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian Regions. It is found in most of the Mediterranean countries.<br/><br/>In Africa, this species occurs in:<br/>- Egypt: common in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip and desert east of the Nile except that of Sinai.<br/>- Libya: two locations, with probability of a more extensive area, including oases of the Sahara<br/>- Tunisia: rather common in the north, more rare in the south (four locations)<br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell and High Plains, Saharian Atlas, oases of Middle Sahara, banks of Oran sebkha, in the south of Oran, in Middle Sahara (Hoggar)<br/>- Morocco: common in the north and west; Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, Imzorène, Gareb.	eng
164124	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a species native to the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian Regions. It is found in most of the Mediterranean countries, including central and southern Portugal, Spain with Balearic Islands, Italy, where it is rare (six locations) with Sardinia and Sicily, France at the Mediterranean coast and in Corsica where it is more rare. It is also found in Albania, Cyprus, Greece, Crete and East Aegean Islands, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Turkey.<br/><br/>In North Africa, this species occurs in Egypt where it is common in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the Mediterranean coastal strip and desert east of the Nile except that of Sinai. It occurs at two locations in Libya, with probability of a more extensive area, including oases of the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is rather common in the north, more rare in the south (four locations). It is common in Algeria, in the Tell and High Plains, Saharian Atlas, oases of Middle Sahara, banks of Oran sebkha, in the south of Oran, in Middle Sahara (Hoggar). In Morocco, it is common in the north and west; Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, Imzorène, Gareb.	eng
164124	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in marshes, wet sands and moist grounds, banks of freshwaters and briny waters. In Italy it is also present at saline coasts and more rarely inside, from 0 to 600 m.	eng
164124	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte. It is found in marshes, wet sands and moist grounds, banks of freshwaters and briny waters. In Italy it is also present at saline coasts and more rarely inside, from 0 to 600 m above sea level.	eng
164124	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are numerous in the whole Mediterranean region and in North Africa.	eng
164124	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus subulatus</em> is not threatened.	eng
164127	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164127	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phalaris truncata</em> is a Mediterranean endemic species. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, with a doubtful presence in Crete. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², occurring in at least 28 locations.	eng
164127	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) is a plant of plain and found in pastures, crops, along paths and on humid clayey soils in the semi-arid warm bioclimate. Flowering occurs during spring and the beginning of summer.	eng
164127	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The abundance of the species varies throughout the Mediterranean region. It is quite common in Algeria, Tunisia and Italy but less widespread elsewhere. The populations appear to be stable. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in only one location (Sidi Allal-El-Bahraoui in the Gharb); quite common in Algeria in the Tell region; fairly widespread in Tunisia in Cap Bon, the northeast and Medjerda valley and less common in the Tunisian Dorsal (Le Kef, Kalaat es Senam, Maktar, Fériana and Djerissa); present in Libya in Faidia on the Mediterranean plains.<br/>It is found at three locations in Spain, in the east of the country; found in four departments in France, of which three are in the Mediterranean strip; quite common in Italy, present in eight provinces and also in Sicily.	eng
164127	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164128	conservation	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	In France it is protected at regional level (Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur, Rhône-Alpes, Limousin), but no other conservation measures for its range are known. Suggestions for the locations in Algeria and Morocco include: legal protection of the species, protection of pools, which harbour many rare species in Algeria, study the biology and ecology of the species, implementation of legal measures and livelihood alternatives.	eng
164128	conservation	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Suggestions for the locations in Algeria and Morocco include: legal protection of the species, protection of ponds, which harbour many rare species in Algeria, study the biology and ecology of the species, implementation of legal measures and livelihood alternatives.	eng
164128	distribution	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is an Eurasiatic-temperate species with an Eurasian and Australian distribution. It is invasive in Canada and North America (Catling <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in Algeria and Morocco where it is very rare (southern limits of its range). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) in Africa is above 250,000 km², with four known localities and an Area of Occupancy (AOO) of 20 km².	eng
164128	distribution	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is an Eurasiatic-temperate species with an Eurasian and Australian distribution. It is invasive in Canada and North America (Catling <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/>In the northern Mediterranean region it is present in continental France (rather common, missing in Corsica), Portugal, Spain and Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia, Greece, extinct in Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. The extent of occurrence exceeds 500,000 km², it has many localities.	eng
164128	habitat	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is a perennial species that is found in pools, lakes, on sandy soils and peat bogs (Algeria) in ditches (Italy) and in stagnant waters (France). It reproduces sexually and vegetative (by stolons).	eng
164128	habitat	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is a perennial species that is found in pools, lakes, on sandy soils and peat bogs (Algeria) in ditches (Italy) and in stagnant waters (France). It reproduces sexually and vegetative (by stolons). <br/>The flowering times are: from May to June in Algeria, from July to September in Italy, and from June to August in France.	eng
164128	population	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	In the Mediterranean Region, this species is rather common in many localities.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is very rare with only four localities and some restricted populations in decline. In Algeria, two locations where the species was known in the past in the region of El Kala (Maire 1952) have now disappeared; two small populations in two ponds (counting as one location owing to their vicinity) have been found recently (de Bélair 2006, personal observations) near Oued Mafragh. This species is present at the banks and their overall size does not exceed 30 m². These ponds are found on the edge of the road from Annaba to El Kala. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare in three localities in the marshes of Gharb (Meria Bokka, marsh of Gharb, merjas of the lower part of Loukkos), and the populations are restricted and threatened.	eng
164128	population	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	In the Mediterranean region, this species is rather common in many localities. In Italy it is not common but localised and present in several regions:   Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentini Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Toscana, Emilia-Romagna, Umbria, Lazio. In Spain, only two populations are known and it is classified as Critically Endangered   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is not very common in the French Mediterranean part where it is present in about nine regions. It is common in the Balkans (Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece). In Syria it is known from four localities between Tell Nebi Mend and Joubaniyé, in the south of Lake Homs. It is extinct in Israel.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Hydrocharis morsus-ranae</em> is very rare with only four localities and some restricted populations on the decline. In Algeria, two locations where the species was known in the past in the region of El Kala (Maire 1952) have now disappeared; two small populations in two ponds (counting as one location owing to their vicinity) have been found recently (de Bélair 2006, personal observations) near Oued Mafragh. This species is present at the banks and their overall size does not exceed 30 m². These ponds are found on the edge of the road from Annaba to El Kala. <br/>In Morocco, it is very rare in three localities in the marshes of Gharb (Meria Bokka, marsh of Gharb, merjas of the lower part of Loukkos), and the populations are restricted and threatened.	eng
164128	threats	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	The draining of its habitat due to the extension of farming activities and water pollution are the major threats to <em>H. morsus-ranae</em>.	eng
164128	threats	Rhazi, L. & de Bélair, G., 2009	The draining of its habitat, the extension of farming and pollution are the major threats to <em>H. morsus-ranae</em>.	eng
164129	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place and regarding the abundance of this species no measures are necessary. Conservation measures and legal protection for the populations of <em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> in Egypt should be explored.	eng
164129	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place and regarding the abundance of this species no measures are necessary. Conservation measures and legal protection for the populations of <em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> in Egypt should be explored.	eng
164129	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coast of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it occurs in Algeria (common in the Tell), Croatia, Egypt (very rare; Nile delta), France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco (strait of Gibraltar), Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Turkey and Tunisia (particularly in north-east, Sejenane, Kroumirie and Cap Bon).	eng
164129	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coasts of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.<br/><br/>In the African Mediterranean region, it occurs in Algeria (common in the Tell), Egypt (very rare; Nile delta), Morocco (strait of Gibraltar), and Tunisia (particularly in north-east, Sejenane, Kroumirie and Cap BonNorth). It is found in Central Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi). In Democratic Republic of Congo, the plant is found in Lac Albert, Lacs Edouard and Kivu, the Kikeri volcanic swamps, at Kamatembe in the Bishakishaki River.<br/><br/>In north Eastern Africa it has also been found in Egypt (Lake Nasser), Sudan, Eithiopia and Eritrea. In Eastern Africa the plant is widely spread in Kenya. It has been recorded in Trans-Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, Embu, Nyeri, Nairobi and Narok district. It is a weed in rice fields. Also recorded from Tanzania and Uganda. It is widespread and not declining in Southern Africa where it is considered as introduced.<br/><br/><br/>Global distribution: <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em> is found throughout Europe and Asia, but is most common in temperate latitudes. It is common around the Mediterranean basin, as well as on the eastern coasts of Africa. It occurs in Australia, South America and North America, where it develops from the sub-tropical climate of Florida to the boreal forests of Canada.	eng
164129	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is a herbaceous perennial (facultative annual) amphibious Helophyte growing in marshes, shallow waters around lakes and slow-moving streams.	eng
164129	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial aquatic or marsh herb. The plant is partly emerged and fixed in the water bottom with thin roots densely covering a short tuberous rhizome.  In acidotrophic and oligotrophic to eutrophic habitats. Well associated with low water force and a silt or silt-mixed substrate, and usually growson channel edges. Muddy habitats in ponds, marshes, swamps or river margins, usually shallow water.	eng
164129	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is relatively abundant over its distribution area, except in Egypt where it is considered as very rare.	eng
164129	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>A. plantago-aquatica</em> is relatively abundant over its distribution area, except in Egypt where it is considered as very rare.	eng
164129	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164129	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. It may be impacted in the future by habitat loss due to agriculture and sudden droughts.	eng
164130	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Enforcement of the measures of legal protection (Law on the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Protection of the most important sites<br/>- To afforest the mountains neighbouring the sites and to limit the extension of the forests <br/>- Surveillance of the existing station and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164130	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Romulea antiatlantica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to the Anti Atlas with only one known locality (Jbel Amezdour at 2,500-2,600 m of elevation). The area of occupancy is reduced and does not exceed 8 km².	eng
164130	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Romulea antiatlantica</em> is restricted to the peat bogs (pozzines) of the high flinty mountains. It is a perennial plant (Geophyte) that blooms in the spring (April-May) under a Mediterranean sub-humid bioclimate.	eng
164130	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size and the trend of the populations are not known.	eng
164130	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The major threats to this species' habitat are grazing and the deterioration of the surrounding environments due to deforestation of the neighbouring mountains and extension of agriculture.	eng
164131	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures existing or needed.	eng
164131	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is present throughout the Mediterranean region.	eng
164131	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is present throughout the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is found in Algeria, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia.	eng
164131	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species inhabits a wide range of wetland habitats including irrigation channels and moist ground near springs.	eng
164131	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a very common species.	eng
164131	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Drainage is a potential threat to the species but does not cause a population decline at the moment.	eng
164132	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is protected at national level in France. There are no other conservation measures in place; it is generally recommended to monitor the existing sites and populations.	eng
164132	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus ophioglossifolius</em> is a Mediterranean species. Its distribution encompasses southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 50,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164132	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits swampy prairies, ditches and temporary pools of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).	eng
164132	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean, occurring in numerous locations, but populations are in slow reduction. <br/>- Morocco: common, occurring in more than 20 locations spread between the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco, Rif, the hills of oriental Morocco and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region but rare on the High Plains; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common, occurring in more than 10 locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Aïn Soltane, Sraï el Madjen and Tabarka), the Mogods (Madjen ech Chitane, Garaet Sedjenane, and the Ichkeul marsh), Cap Bon (Korbous) and northeast Tunisia (El Alia); <br/>- Spain: quite common, occurring in 35 sites; <br/>- France: rare and classified as protected on a national scale; <br/>- Italy: present in 13 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Croatia: classified as Endangered on the national Red List;<br/>- Israel: the species is extinct.	eng
164132	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization, habitat drainage and agricultural expansion are the main threats to this species.	eng
164135	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Spain, it is classed as Endangered in the national Red List (Moreno 2008) under the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Bulbostylis cioniana</span>. One of the locations is in the Doñana Biological Reserve.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164135	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (legislation on the protection and valorisation of the environment as well as on environmental impact studies)	eng
164135	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis cioniana</em> is an Afrotropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Spain, northern Italy (probably either introduced or a dubious record), Morocco and tropical Africa. <br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, with only one location and an AOO <2km². It has also been recorded in Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Chad.	eng
164135	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis cioniana</em> is an Afrotropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Spain, northern Italy (probably either introduced or a dubious record), Morocco and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is solely present in Spain, Italy and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with a very small area of occupancy and less than ten sites.	eng
164135	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that mainly inhabits temporary pools of sandy substrate. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.	eng
164135	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very rare in North Africa (Morocco) with very restricted populations that are threatened due to habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin the distribution of this species is very reduced because of area limitations (less than 10 sites). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare with only one known location which is situated near Kerma-Ould-Kadi in northern Rharb;<br/>- Spain: it is classified as Endangered (Moreno 2008) and its distribution is limited to three provinces in the west of the country (Cáceres, Huelva and Sevilla);<br/>- Italy: known only in the north of the country although it was recorded once in Tuscany but has probably disappeared.	eng
164135	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very rare in North Africa (Morocco) with very restricted populations that are threatened due to habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture. However, the species seems to be widespread in Western and Central Africa but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
164135	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The expansion of agriculture, habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.	eng
164136	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the countries of Maghreb (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Protection and setting up of a plan of management of the sites in Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164136	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Thelypteris palustris</em> has a Holarctic distribution: it is found in Europe, North America, and the centre and the east of Asia. In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in Albania, Turkey, Bulgaria, Corsica, France, Greece, Spain, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Syria, Portugal, Morocco and Algeria.	eng
164136	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found on flinty substrate or on peat substrate, in wetlands, humid ditches, shores of ponds, on alluvial deposits along rivers. It is a perennial plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that reproduces in fall (summer) under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164136	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	At the Mediterranean scale, the populations are likely to be declining following the general trend of destruction and degradation of shallow wetlands. It is not considered common anywhere in its Mediterranean range, although it is very widespread.<br/>It is very rare in Morocco and in Algeria. It is known in Morocco from two localities only (four sites): Bou Charen and close to Açilah in the western Rif with an occupied area of about 15 km². In Algeria, <em>T. palustris</em> is known from three localities including Senhadja in Numidie.	eng
164136	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	In the Maghreb countries, the grazing pressure is very high; furthermore the sites of <em>T. palustris</em> are threatened by the effect of drainage and agriculture on wetland habitats. <br/>In Europe, the threats are essentially water pollution and the deterioration of the habitat.	eng
164137	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164137	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Eryngium atlanticum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is essentially known in six localities to the west of Morocco: Benslimane, North of Salé (Mamora), Casablanca-Chaouia, Safi, Tissrarine and Souss with a extent of occurrence of 19,000 km². <br/>The last observations on the sites of Casablanca-Chaouia and Safi have been made in 1987. Those on Benslimane and Mamora are recent (2007) and show a destruction of sites of <em>Eryngium atlanticum</em> close to the city of Bouznika.	eng
164137	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is restricted to the temporary pools on sandy substratum (dayas) of the Atlantic Moroccan region. It is an annual species that blooms in spring and summer under the arid, semi-arid and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164137	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	There is no data available on the size of the populations. The global trend is probably towards decline with a reduction of the area of occupancy resulting from the disappearance of numerous pools on the Atlantic plains.	eng
164137	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M., 2007	The quality of the habitat of the species is deteriorating resulting from water pollution, drainage and grazing. Habitat destruction as a result of urban and agricultural development is rather frequent close to the large cities (Casablanca, Safi).	eng
164138	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Israel, this species will be included in volume two in the National Red List (A. Shmida pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics and to study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size.	eng
164138	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus trichophyllus</em> is a European species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, the Mediterranean region, northern and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 250,000 km², within which the AOO >2,000 km², and it occurs in numerous locations.	eng
164138	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual or perennial rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits streams and temporary pools of plains and mountains. Flowering takes place in spring.	eng
164138	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region (essentially in Mediterranean Europe), occurring in numerous locations. Populations are undergoing a slow decline. <br/>- Morocco: quite widespread, occurring in several locations distributed between the western Rif, Middle Atlas (Zrouka), High Atlas (Tifnoute river, Warzan river and Assif Tiourar), Anti Atlas, northern and mid-Atlantic plains and the mountains and plains of oriental Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: common throughout the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: not very widespread, occurring in six locations distributed between the Medjerda valley (Tessa river), the northeast (Menzel Djemil), the Mogods (Sedjenane), Cap Bon (Bezirk river and Menzel Temime) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Mdeina); <br/>- Libya: two locations along the Mediterranean coastline (Shahat and Saf Saf); <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring in more than 327 sites; <br/>- France: very common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in nearly all of the country, including Sardinia and Sicily<br/>- Lebanon: present<br/>- Israel: only observed at one site and extinct from at least five sites since the 1960s<br/>- Turkey: common	eng
164138	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling, drainage, water extraction, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164139	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164139	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Crypsis alopecuroides</em> is native to the Mediterranean and extends eastwards into Central Asia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region this species is widespread and found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164139	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant prefers seasonally wet places that are inundated in winter and grows also at roadsides and cultivated ground.	eng
164139	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common.	eng
164139	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164140	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Israel, the species is included as Vulnerable in the National Red List   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics and existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Conservation of this species’ habitat in North Africa (enforcement of legal protection measures)	eng
164140	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Conservation of this species’ habitat in North Africa (enforcement of legal protection measures)	eng
164140	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Sparganium erectum</em> is a Eurasian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, northern Africa and western and southwest Asia.  It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) is below 2,000 km², and it is present in at least 20 locations.	eng
164140	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Sparganium erectum</em> is an Eurasian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, northern Africa and western and southwest Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 200,000 km², within which the area of occupancy >2,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164140	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial rhizomatous, semi-terrestrial plant with the roots permanently under water that inhabits swamps, bogs, canals, lakes and rivers of plains and mountains up to around 2,100 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164140	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is found in at least 20 locations and it has an AOO <2000 km². The populations are restricted spatially and their trend is not known. <br/>- Morocco: two precise locations, one in central Middle Atlas (spring near Ouiouane) and the other in the Rharb (Merja Bokka). Talavera recently (2002) recorded it in western and central Rif, Loukkos, Prérif and Maâmora, but without precise indications. Therefore the number of locations in Morocco is probably 7; <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, found in only three locations distributed between Cap Bon (Oued Lebna), the northeast (Ichkeul marsh) and the Mogods (Madjen Echitane); <br/>- Libya: present in six locations (Tripoli, Aïn Zara, Tarhuna, Gubba, Ain Mara and Oued Derna).	eng
164140	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in several locations. The populations appear to be stable.<br/>- Morocco: two precise locations, one in central Middle Atlas (spring near Ouiouane) and the other in the Rharb (Merja Bokka). Talavera recently (2002) recorded it in western and central Rif, Loukkos, Prérif and Maâmora, but without precise indications. Therefore the number of locations in Morocco is probably 7; <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, found in only three locations distributed between Cap Bon (Oued Lebna), the northeast (Ichkeul marsh) and the Mogods (Madjen Echitane); <br/>- Libya: present in six locations (Tripoli, Aïn Zara, Tarhuna, Gubba, Ain Mara and Oued Derna); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: more than 232 sites; <br/>- France: very common throughout the country; <br/>- Italy: very common throughout the country.<br/>- Israel: rare, occurring at 19 sites and the populations have been declined by 50% since the 1960s<br/>- Turkey: it can be found at more than 50 different lakes	eng
164140	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, agricultural usage (especially of swamps) and the urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164140	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, agricultural usage (essentially of the swamps) and the urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164141	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Basse-Normandie, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Midi-Pyrénées. <br/><br/>There are no further conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164141	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164141	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex punctata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe and the countries of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>In  Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that covers over 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 20 km².	eng
164141	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex punctata</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe and the countries of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164141	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits marine marshes and wetlands of siliceous substrate. Flowering occurs in the spring.	eng
164141	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only five locations distributed between the Gharb (Oued Lakhal and Larache), the Tangérois, the central Rif and in the region of Ouezzane; <br/>- Algeria: widespread in Kabylie, Numidie and the Constantinois Tell (Constantine); <br/>- Tunisia: quite common in the Mogods and Kroumirie; <br/>- Spain: 32 sites; <br/>- France: not very abundant along the Mediterranean coastal strip; <br/>- Italy: present in 11 provinces in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164141	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The trend of the populations is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only five locations distributed between the Gharb (Oued Lakhal and Larache), the Tangérois, the central Rif and in the region of Ouezzane. Widespread in Kabylie, Numidie, and the Constantinois Tell (Constantine) in Algeria. Quite common in the Mogods and Kroumirie within Tunisia.	eng
164141	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Infilling and drainage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164141	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling and drainage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164142	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	Parts of the population are included in the designated National Park of Talassemtane since 2004. There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco). <br/>- Surveillance of existing sites and identification of new ones.<br/>- Research on the biology and ecology of the species, and estimate of the population size. <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness.	eng
164142	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potentilla maura</em> is an endemic from Morocco. This species is considered as rare due to its low frequency and the rarity of its preferred habitats. It is known from two localities of the Moyen Atlas, six in the High Atlas and one in the western Rif (massif of Talassemtane). Its extent of occurrence is about 75,000 km², with an area of occupancy of about 600 km².	eng
164142	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potentilla maura</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows in not very humid glades, muddy pastures and pools of chalky and siliceous mountains, between 1,600 and 2,300 m of altitude. It blooms and fructifies in summer (June-July) under the cold semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164142	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the size of the populations or most locations. The plant is generally found as isolated individuals. The plant is abundant at Aguelmam Afennourir (Moyen Atlas) (Chillasse <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). Populations appear stable at the site of Talassemtane, which was designated as a national park in 2004. The probability of the populations declining in the future remains due to the destruction of its habitat, especially freshwater pools.	eng
164142	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Except for the site of Talassemtane National Park, the major threat to this species is habitat destruction as a result of agriculture at freshwater pools. Other threats contributing to the deterioration of the quality of its habitat are related to the grazing pressure and the development of new approach routes (roads, tracks, paths) that increase the activity at these sites.	eng
164143	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164143	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species only occurs in Egypt within the Pan-African region. It is also found in other Mediterranean countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Outside the Mediterranean region it also occurs in the Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.	eng
164143	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. pachystylis</em> occurs in deserts, steppes and bathes. Dry, but periodically moist soils, slightly saline, sandy and stony ground.<br/>[IS THIS SPECIES REALLY A HELOPHYTE?]	eng
164143	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is common in its native range.	eng
164143	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats.	eng
164145	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164145	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in the western Mediterranean: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Morocco, Algeria and Tunsia.	eng
164145	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in springs and on the edges of seasonal streams and pools, mainly on silicious soils.	eng
164145	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is rare, with small populations.	eng
164145	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Drainage, in-filling, agriculture and urbanization are the main threats to the pools. In streams and springs, trampling, pollution and in-filling are locally important.	eng
164146	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The Lagoon of Khnifiss is a Ramsar site and within the National Park of Khnifiss that was created in 2006. It is classed as Vulnerable on the Andalusian Red List   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Italy, only <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina juncea</span> is reported as Endangered or Vulnerable for several parts of the peninsula (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) but some of those records might refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. maritima</span>. Confirmation of the identity of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina</span> spp. populations is needed. It is included in the Regional Park of the Po Delta in Italy.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164146	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Spartina maritima</em> is a widely distributed species. It is present from the western and southern European coasts of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, and at the African coasts of Morocco, Mauritania, Namibia and South Africa.	eng
164146	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Spartina maritima</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows in tidal mudflats. It flourishes in summer and fall. In general, the species forms dense populations and plays a significant role in salt marsh development.	eng
164146	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the size of its populations or on their present trends but the populations are possibly declining. The species is relatively rare in Europe. <br/><br/>In Italy, it seems restricted only to the northeastern regions Emilia-Romagna, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia (of the two sites one has now disappeared) and to Tuscany (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). The record for Tuscany could be erroneous as problems in the identification of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. juncea-S. maritima</span> are possible so all the data need further investigation. <br/>In France, it is present along the Atlantic coast but not in the Mediterranean (Tela Botanica 2008). In Spain and Portugal, it was scattered along the northern and southwestern coast. It has nearly disappeared from the south coast, last records date from the 1970s. Now it is present only in north Spain (Cantabrian coast and Atlantic coast of Galicia) and Portugal. In Slovenia, it is present in five sites. It is suggested that it might have been introduced to Europe due to the Atlantic trade (Kaligarič and Škornik 2006).<br/>In Morocco, it is very rare with three localities on the Atlantic coast: Larache,   Salé, lagoon of Khnifiss.	eng
164146	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The main threat is habitat loss due to disruption of coastal processes that stops coastal accretion. A further threat is development of tourism infrastructure along the coast. Invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartina densiflora</span> causes competition and leads to hybridisation and genetic erosion.	eng
164147	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164147	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164147	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan (tropical and subtropical) species, occuring in America, Africa and Asia.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Israel and Egypt where it is found in the Nile delta (Cairo), Nile valley (El Minya, Moheit canal, Ibrahimiya canal), western Mediterranean coast (Rosetta, El Ramla, Sidi Gaber, Khorshid, Alexandria, between El Qabbari and El Mitras, Nuzha at El Mahmudiya canal, El Mitras, Mariut lake, El Buseili at Edku lake), eastern Mediterranean coast (Baltim, between Baltim and El Hamul, Damietta, Port Saïd, El ‘Arish), Isthmic desert (Isma’ilia canal between Baltim and El Hamul, in canals between Cairo and Isma’ilia, Isma’ilia-Suez canal).	eng
164147	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	This is a widespread pantropical and pansubtropical species. It is present throughout all Africa mainly the Western, South, Eastern and North Eastern regions. Widespread in Egypt where it is found in the Nile delta (Cairo), Nile valley, along the Mediterranean coast and Isthmic desert. Its distribution includes Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea, Senegal; Cape verd Islands: st. Antonio, St. Nicolao, St. Iago; Gambia, Sierra Leonne: River Bagru; Gold Coast: Accra; Ashanti; Niger Territory: confluence of the river Quorra and the river Tchadda; Cameroon; Eritrea; Somalia; east side of the Albert Edward Nyanza; mombasa. Also in Gabon; Lower Congo; Angola; Congo; Pungo Andongo; banks of the river Cuanza. South central- Congo; Monbuttu; by the river Sankuru: Usambara, Masheua, Kilimandjaro, lake Yipe.	eng
164147	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on banks of canals, rivers, marshes and lakes.	eng
164147	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing on banks of canals, rivers, marshes and lakes. It also occurs in stagnant or weakly running water, sometimes alternatively fresh and salted water. It forms great reed marsh on temporary unflooded soils.  In Kenya it occurs from  sea level  to 1,700 m above sea level while  in south Africa between 2-1,065 m asl.	eng
164147	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is abundant in Egypt and Israel.	eng
164147	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Fairly common throughout Africa.	eng
164147	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	No major widespread threats have been described for this species. Use for incense, agriculture, pasture,  livestock pressure  and drought could threaten the species in the future.	eng
164147	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	While occupying a small area within the Mediterranean basin, <em>Cyperus articulatus</em> is presently not threatened.	eng
164148	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  No other conservation measures are in place. <br/>There are only a few endemic species of the sub-littoral plains in Numidia and thus they are particularly vulnerable. A policy of protection and conservation is urgently needed.	eng
164148	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is a species endemic to Algeria and Tunisia (de Bélair and Boussouak 2002; Delforge 2001, 2005). Maire (1952-1987) considers this to be a subspecies. It has been observed in El Kala, at Guelma (l'Aouara) and between Annaba and Lake Fetzara. At the latter site it has not been seen again. Quézel and Santa (1963) don't recognize this sighting. Four localities were found near the lakes Mellah and Oubeïra. In Tunisia, its presence in Kroumirie has been confirmed. Its extent of occurrence is below 5,000 km² and its area of occupation is very small and below 500 km².	eng
164148	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is a perennial orchid that blooms from late April to May. In the Mediterranean bioclimate with temperate to mild winters, this species forms small populations with scattered individuals at the shores of lake Mellah, the wadi El Aroug and ditches close to the lake Oubeïra. It usually grows on wet peat. It is widely distributed in the middle of grass associations of <em>Juncus maritimus</em>.	eng
164148	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<p><em>Serapias stenopetala</em> is extremely scarce and each known population numbers only a few individuals. The known locations are very scattered and the number of individuals at each location may vary from two to three up to 25 to 30 (in favourable years even sixty) individuals. Two additional sites have recently been discovered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tunisia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The total population is estimated to be below 250 mature individuals.<br/></p>	eng
164148	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<p>The major threats are the destruction of roadside ditches, trampling and grazing by cattle and the creation of an Animal Park (Brabtia) resulting in the destruction of its habitats.</p>	eng
164149	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164149	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Centaurium pulchellum</em> occurs in western Europe, eastern Mediterranean region, Sinai, and eastward to China. It is found in most Mediterranean countries. In North Africa, it is present in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
164149	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. pulchellum</em> grows in sheltered mountain crevices and around freshwater springs. It prefers open habitats and damp grassy places, especially near the sea.	eng
164149	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
164149	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species faces no major threats.	eng
164153	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departemental level (Ardennes). <br/>In Tunisia it occurs in the National Park of Ichkeul.<br/>In Turkey, <em>Trapa natans</em> is classified as Vulnerable on the national Red List<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection <br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.	eng
164153	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Basse-Normandie, Limousin) and at departmental level (Ardennes). In Tunisia it occurs in the National Park of Ichkeul. In Turkey, <em>Trapa natans</em> is classified as Vulnerable on the national Red List.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection <br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new and historic sites in North Africa and the Balkans.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.	eng
164153	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeo-temperate) species, introduced in Africa and North America, where it is locally invasive.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria (very rare, El Kala, Annaba), Tunisia (very rare, Ichkeul marsh), northern Greece (rare), Turkey, Balkans (Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia), and northern Italy. It is extinct in Spain.<br/><br/>It occurs in France and is widespread, but absent from the Mediterranean coast and Corsica (Tela Botanica 2009).<br/><br/>This species is also found in other parts of Europe and in Asia.	eng
164153	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an Eurasiatic (palaeo-temperate) species, introduced in Africa and North America, where it is locally invasive. It has been argued that the species in not native to Africa, however, as it has been collected from supposedly wild places, it is treated as native.<br/><br/>Its North Africa it is found in Algeria (very rare in El Kala, Annaba) and Tunisia (very rare, Ichkeul marsh).<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, this species is uncommon, only recorded in Lake Victoria Area in Kisii (K5). Tanzania T1,4. Lake Province Ukerewe, Kigoma district Lake Tanganyika. Also present in Uganda and Malawi. In South Africa, it is only present in KwalaZulu-Natal<br/><br/>In North Eastern Africa it is only found in Sudan (South reaches of the White Nile) and it has a scattered range in western Africa.	eng
164153	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes.	eng
164153	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	<em>Trapa natans</em> is an annual (up to 3 m height) floating-leaved plant, growing in stagnant waters, lakes, channels with weak currents, ponds and marshes.	eng
164153	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	<em>Trapa natans</em> is very rare in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa: Algeria (two sub-populations), Tunisia (one sub-population), Greece (two sub-populations), Turkey (common in the European part and present at three lakes in the southeastern part at the Marmara sea), it is common and even slightly invasive in the Balkans (Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Albania), France and Italy (unknown).	eng
164153	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Trapa natans</em> is very rare in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa: Algeria (two sub-populations), Tunisia (one sub-population), Greece (two sub-populations), Turkey (common in the European part and present at three lakes in the southeastern part at the Marmara sea), it is common and even slightly invasive in the Balkans (Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Albania). It is not clear whether the invasive species in the Balkans are <span style="font-style: italic;">T. natans</span> or other species belonging to the genus. <br/><br/>  In Spain, <span style="font-style: italic;">Trapa natans</span> had been recorded from Girona (Sils) and Mallorca (Albufera de Alcudia) many decades ago, but now it is Extinct in the Iberian Peninsula (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).	eng
164153	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	The subpopulations of Algeria and Tunisia are threatened by the changing conditions of the lakes where it develops. The same is the case for Turkey where the water extraction for agricultural purposes is a threat to the plant. In some parts of Turkey, the plant is taken from the wild and replanted in water gardens - this is not a threat now but could become one in the future.<br/>In Algeria, Lake Oubeira has been opened for fishing and that could impact on the existing population in the future.	eng
164153	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The subpopulations of Algeria and Tunisia are threatened by the changing conditions of the lakes where it develops. The same is the case for Turkey where the water extraction for agricultural purposes is a threat to the plant. In some parts of Turkey, the plant is taken from the wild and replanted in water gardens - this is not a threat now but could become one in the future.<br/>In Algeria, Lake Oubeira has been opened for fishing and that could impact on the existing population in the future.<br/>Overall, changes of habitat to agriculture and water eutrophication are the main threats to the species habitat.	eng
164154	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations and reduce the habitat loss through the enforcement of legal protection measures.	eng
164154	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum portula</em> is distributed in the Mediterranean region, Europe, western Asia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164154	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that grows in very scattered populations. It is found mostly on siliceous soils of temporarily flooded habitats such as ditches, springs, and mountain lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. It can be completely absent during dry years.	eng
164154	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is well represented in the countries of the Mediterranean region. Overall, the populations are stable and not fragmented. It is fairly common in Morocco; rare in Algeria (Numidie and the Kabylie); quite common in Tunisia, and fairly common in Portugal, Spain, France and Italy.<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is found in at least eight sites, in Ourika and Timi-n-Kar daya in the High Atlas, Tazekka in the Middle Atlas, Harcha in the Pays Zayane and Bou Meziat, Jbel Afechtal, Issagen, Jbel Souna, etc. in the Rif. It is present in four sectors in Algeria, i.e. Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie and the Constantinois Tell, and at least six locations in Tunisia: Sedjenane, Madjen ech Chitane and Madjen Choucha in the Mogods and Radjem Azoug, Madjen el Ma and El Boua in Kroumirie.	eng
164154	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of wetlands, the infilling of small temporary depressions and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species, but they currently don't cause severe declines.	eng
164155	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	In France, the species is protected at regional level in five regions. There are no conservation measure in place elsewhere. It is necessary to reduce the loss of the humid habitats and to carry out research on population numbers.	eng
164155	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Oenanthe silaifolia</em> is a Mediteraneo-Atlantic species. It occurs in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164155	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) grows in marshes, at springs, in wet meadows and at the banks of mountain streams.	eng
164155	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	This species is common in the Mediterranean.<br/>In North Africa, it’s very rare in Morocco with only one locality at the Middle Atlas mountains (Tioumliline). In Algeria, it is rare and scattered in all the Tell and very rare in the Algerois coastal strip (Rassauta). In Tunisia, it is quite common and it occurs in the Kroumirie mountains (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Marmel valley), in the northeast of Tunisia (Ichkeul), Cap Bon (Kelibia) and in the Tunisian Dorsale (Souk el Djema, Maktar). It is common in Egypt. The populations seem to be stable.	eng
164155	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	This species does not face major threats in the Mediterranean.<br/>In North Africa, essentially in Algeria, the major threat is touristic infrastructure at the coastal strip of Alger as well as urbanization.	eng
164156	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection (Aquitaine and Nord-Pas-de-Calais).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is necessary to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, and to estimate the size and monitor the population dynamics.	eng
164156	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Alopecurus aequalis</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
164156	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits the edges of lakes, reservoir lakes and temporary pools of mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.<br/><br/>It occurs up to 2,800 m in Turkey and therefore also grows in alpine wetlands.	eng
164156	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean basin with several locations. In North Africa it is rare and spatially limited. <br/>The state of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with three known locations distributed between the Rif (the Timellaline pool at 1800 m) and the High Atlas (Ourika and the Iferouane lake at 2,050 m);<br/>- Algeria: present in one location of the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Teniet el Haad near the Camps des Chênes);<br/>- Portugal and Spain: common, with more than 75 sites in the north of the country; <br/>- France: common in the centre and north of the country and present in 10 departments in the Mediterranean area in addition to Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in six provinces in the north of the country in addition to Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164156	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization, grazing and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species. Where the species occurs in coastal areas, infrastructure development is a further threat to this species habitat.	eng
164157	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under departmental (Ardennes) and regional protection (Midi-Pyrénées, Lorraine, Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Central region).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, no conservation measures are in place. It is recommended to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164157	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures are in place. It is recommended to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164157	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Cladium mariscus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164157	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has a cosmopolitan distribution and is widespread in tropical Africa, Asia and America. It has been recorded from Senegal, Benin, Ghana, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa (Cladium mariscus jamaicense) it is present in Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).<br/><br/>In Kenya (Cladium mariscus jamaicense) it has been recorded at only one site in Kiboko at altitude of 1,400 metres above sea-level. In Malawi it is known from Marymount Dambo in Mzuzu. Also recorded from Tanzania.	eng
164157	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>C. mariscus</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. <em>Cladium</em> spp. stands are an important habitat for numerous animal and plant species.	eng
164157	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in freshwater or weakly brackishwater, sometimes in great numbers. Because of its big rhizomes, Cladium mariscus is a quick colonizing plant. It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. <em>Cladium</em> spp. stands are an important habitat for numerous animal and plant species of patrimonial interest. This species grow as emergents in shallow water, up to 0.5 m depth, at the edge of lakes and ponds. Cladium mariscus is confined to calcareous and oligotrophic to mesotrophic habitats.	eng
164157	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is moderately abundant in Western Africa, common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa.	eng
164157	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa. The populations are undergoing a slow regression. <br/>- Morocco: frequent in Rharb and Middle Sebou but rare in Haouz, where it only occurs in four locations (Oued el-Arich, Oued Day, Oued Ouerna and Oued Dema), and in central Middle Atlas, where it is solely present in two locations (Dayet-Hachlaf and Lake Ouiouane); <br/>- Algeria: fairly widespread in Numidie, Kabylie and along the Algérois coast; <br/>- Tunisia: present in northeast Tunisia (Ichkeul, etc.); <br/>- Libya: present in Ain Zara; <br/>- Egypt: found in the oases of the western Desert (Siwa) and around the Suez Canal; <br/>- Spain: 159 sites; <br/>- France: present in nearly all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in most of the country including Sardinia and Sicily, although populations are considered threatened in some regions.	eng
164157	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage and infilling, the intensification of agricultural practices, water pollution, the modification of the hydrological regime of rivers and the abandonment of practices are some of the main threats to this species.	eng
164157	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The species has no known major widespread therats. Though throughout its range it is impacted by localised threats such as agricultural expansion in Western Africa, wetland drainage and infilling, the intensification of agricultural practices, water pollution, the modification of the hydrological regime of rivers in northern Africa.	eng
164158	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In Israel, <em>C. papyrus</em> is included in the National Red List and classified as Endangered.<br/><br/>In Egypt, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species) and application of legal conservation measures<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the population size and study the population dynamics	eng
164158	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	In Western Africa this species is within protected areas. In general no conservation measures are required although further research on application of legal measures of conservation, conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves, evaluation of the size and dynamics of populations, re-introductions and harvest management has been suggested.	eng
164158	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is distributed in tropical central Africa at the upper parts of the White Nile, from where it penetrates westward into Lake Tchad and the Niger region. It is cultivated in Egypt since the Ancient Empire (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> subsp. <em>antiquorum</em> (Willd.) Chiov.), and was introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin, and in America and Australia. While having been so important for paper-manufacturing in ancient Egypt, it was believed extinct in this country until its recent rediscovery by M.N. El Hadidi in Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus papyrus</span> occurs in Egypt, at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum. It is also cultivated in some parts of the Algerian littoral, in Spain, in Italy and in Israel. It has recently been confirmed as being native in Israel.	eng
164158	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	i>Cyperus papyrus is distributed in tropical central Africa, at the upper parts of the White Nile, from where it penetrates westward into Lake Tchad and the Niger region. It is cultivated in Egypt since the Ancient Empire (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> subsp. <em>antiquorum</em> (Willd.) Chiov.), and was introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin, and in America and Australia. While having been so important for paper-manufacturing in ancient Egypt, it was believed extinct in this country until its recent rediscovery by M.N. El Hadidi in Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum. The plant is cultivated elsewhere.<br/><br/>The plants in Western Africa have probably all been introduced in recent times (since 1,800 AD). Plants were introduced to Ghana, then deliberately erradicated to prevent them colonizing the Volta River Dam, and have been brought in again as ornamentals which have escaped to the river again. In Eastern Africa this species is found in the low and medium lands of Burundi: between 774 - 1,600 m above sea level. It is found in the Rusizi plain and the unexploited area of Nymuswaga and Akanyaru valleys. In Malawi it occurs in Zomba at Lake Chilwa, Monkey Bay and Elephant Marsh. The plant is widespread in Kenya from 450 - 2,100 m above sea level.  In Southern Africa, it is found in Botswana (Okavango Delta), Angola, Namibia, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Also found in Madagascar.	eng
164158	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is a giant perennial rhizomatous sedge (up to 3 m) which forms vast stands in marshes, shallow lakes, and along stream banks throughout the wetter parts of Africa. It prefers peaty soils where it can form vast stands, it is less abundant on different substrates.	eng
164158	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is a giant perennial rhizomatous sedge (up to 3 m) widely distributed throughout the wetter parts of Africa. It prefers peaty soils where it can form vast stands, it is less abundant on different substrates. It grows along stream banks, in marshes, swallow lakes, in rivers, forming rafts in open water and fringing lakes. Often dominant over large areas. Forms floating mats or islands. Is a popular ornamental plant so has economic value. Is also used for making sleeping mats and rafts in other parts of its range.	eng
164158	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> is present in Egypt, where it was limited to one sub-population at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.<br/>In Israel, there are now 24 populations out of 39 in the 1960s, 23 out of those are very small and include only a few individuals. Only at the nature reserve of Hula Lake it is present in big clumps.	eng
164158	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Its is quite common throughout Africa and can occur in very dense populations. In Egypt it has been limited to one sub-population at the Umm Risha Lake in Wadi Natroum.	eng
164158	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	In Western Africa the species is invasive so is often actively erradicated. Poses a threat to other species rather than having any threats to itself so it is not considered to have threats throughout Africa. Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species. Also, infrastructure development such as damming may be a threat. Local harvesting for sustainable use in medicine, fibre and building materials could threaten the species in the future.	eng
164158	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The threats to this species in Egypt are unknown.<br/>In Israel, the plants are being taken from the wild for gardening purposes.	eng
164159	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No conservation measures are in place in Morocco. Some specimens exist currently in botanical conservatories in France (Brest, Lyons). For the future, the following actions are needed: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164159	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Euphorbia nereidum</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to two known localities in the western Moyen Atlas: Bni Mellal and El Ksiba. The area of occupancy is small and does not exceed 50 km².	eng
164159	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Euphorbia nereidum</em> is found in wetlands, at the edges of ponds and along irrigation channels. It is a perennial plant (chamaephyte) able to reach 3.50m. It blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164159	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	This species was presumed extinct in the early 1970s. It was rediscovered thereafter in 1988 but with apparently important populations. The present state of the populations is not known.	eng
164159	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of the plant is exposed to pollution of soil and water by the installation of numerous oil plants in the regions of Blessed Mellal and El Ksiba and by intensive agriculture. Along the irrigation channels intensive grazing may result in limited plant growth through trampling.	eng
164160	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection (Nord-Pas-de-Calais).<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, search for new ones and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164160	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus penicillatus</em> is a sub-Atlantic species, its distribution covering Europe and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164160	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits cold streams of siliceous mountains. Flowering occurs in the summer.	eng
164160	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, particularly in the Iberian Peninsula, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in three locations in the High Atlas (Arround, Sidi Chamharouch at 2,400 m and Aouldjid which is located north of Tizi-n-Tichka); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, occurring at 482 sites essentially concentrated in the centre and west of the peninsula;<br/>- France: quite common, occurring in Corsica and five departments in the south; <br/>- Italy: rare, occurring in Sicily, Sardinia and three provinces in the north.	eng
164160	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threats to this species are water pollution and habitat deterioration caused by overusage.	eng
164161	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor of the existing sites <br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Avoid habitat loss by enforcing the legal protection measures	eng
164161	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Rumex dentatus</em> is a species of temperate and tropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution includes the Mediterranean region, Europe, temperate and tropical Asia and North Africa. Elsewhere, it has naturalized. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km² and it is present in at least 35 locations.	eng
164161	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits non saline wetlands (ponds and valleys) and disturbed and cultivation areas and it grows at the margins of most freshwater bodies. It is tolerant to pollution. <br/>Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July).	eng
164161	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean area (at least 35 locations). In North Africa its distribution is reduced (12 locations), with populations varying in size according to the subspecies. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/><br/>- Tunisia: known in at least five locations, distributed between the northeast (La Marsa), central Tunisia (between Kairouan and Dar Farik) and south Tunisia (Gabes and Djerba); <br/>- Egypt: quite common, occurring in at least seven localities distributed between the valley and the delta of the Nile, the coastal Mediterranean strip and the oases of the western Desert; <br/>- Spain: present in seven sites in the south of the country (Doñana) and populations are locally abundant; <br/>- France: only found in Bouches-du-Rhone (Tela Botanica 2000-2008)<br/>- Israel: very common along the Mediterranean coastal fringe and in steppic humid and desert habitats.<br/>- Turkey: southern and central Turkey	eng
164161	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.<br/><br/>It is not threatened at Mediterranean level.	eng
164162	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed.	eng
164162	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further information on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164162	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>T. elephantina</em> is a tropical plant and is found in Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, and Algeria. It has been introduced to Israel. Jordan is the northernmost limit of its distribution (locus terminus).	eng
164162	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>T. elephantina</em> is a tropical plant which is found in the Eastern Meditearranean, Africa and East Asia.<br/><br/>In Africa, it has been recorded in Egypt, Libya, and Algeria. Also recorded in Senegal (M'Boro, near Dakar), Mali, Benin, Togo, and Niger (the Sahel and Sahara).	eng
164162	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant is an herbaceous, rhizomatous Helophyte of up to 3 m height. It is found in gueltas, permanent wadis with water, marshy soil covered with sand, swamps. It is locally very common and aggressive.	eng
164162	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is common in North Africa, in wet areas in the Sahara.	eng
164162	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is common in North Africa, in wet areas in the Sahara. In Jordan, it has only been found in two canyons in the south.	eng
164162	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The major threat to this species is the harvesting for producing mats, roof covers, etc.<br/>In Jordan it only occurs at two sites and at one the species is cut, but at the moment the population is stable.	eng
164162	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The major threat to this species is the harvesting for producing mats, roof covers, etc.<br/>In Jordan it only occurs at two sites and in the past the species was cut, but at the moment the population is stable.	eng
164164	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164164	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164164	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Cyperus imbricatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan perennial species distributed through Africa, Asia and America, mainly in the southern hemisphere. It occurs in tropical Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, East Indies, Philippines, Central and South America.<br/><br/>Around the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt where it is indicated by Täckholm & Drar (1941-1969) as a southern species, which probably does not attain the Mediterranean region. According to Boulos (2005) it occurrs along the Nile banks.	eng
164164	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	<em>Cyperus imbricatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan perennial species distributed through tropical Africa including Madagascar, Asia and America, mainly in the southern hemisphere. It occurs in Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland. It is also widespread along western and Central Africa, from Mali to The Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
164164	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	In general, it grows mainly in moist ground and wet place such as muddy soils, border of freshwater, and rice fields.This plant is a robust tufted perennial with a short, thick, and woody rhizome. It is found in alluvial banks of the Nile.	eng
164164	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	This plant is a robust tufted perennial  with a short, thick, and woody rhizome. It occurs in moist ground and wet places, such as alluvial banks of the Nile.	eng
164164	population	Juffe, D., 2008	It si comon in most of Africa. In Northern Africa the species is rare but the populations are stable.	eng
164164	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The species is rare but the populations are stable.	eng
164164	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Agriculture and droughts have been described as threats in Western Africa. No threats have been described at a Pan Africa level.	eng
164164	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
164165	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Management of the cutting and use of the species <br/>- Surveillance of existing locations <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164165	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan plant that is present in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, equatorial and southern Africa, Asia, Australia and Polynesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is known in numerous localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Greece and Ionian islands, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164165	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a subcosmopolite plant, widespread in the tropics and temperate regions, that is present in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, equatorial and southern Africa (including Madagascar), Asia, Australia and Polynesia. <br/><br/>Present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia in Northern Africa. Widespread throughout Central and Eastern Africa. Recorded also from Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somali, Djbouti, and Angola.	eng
164165	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte that essentially propagates in a vegetative way (rhizomes). It grows at the verges of lakes, marshes, rivers, ponds and ditches of plains and low mountains. Its flowering spreads between June and August.	eng
164165	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Typha latifolia</em> is a vivacious Hydrophyte that essentially propagates in a vegetative way (rhizomes). It grows at the verges of lakes, marshes, rivers, ponds and ditches of plains and low mountains. Its flowering spreads between June and August.	eng
164165	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations appear to be stable.	eng
164165	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations appear to be stable..	eng
164165	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage, cutting and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat and the species.	eng
164165	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage, cutting and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat and the species. However, these are not considered as major for this species.	eng
164166	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is included in the Spanish Red List and classified as Critically Endangered (CR B1+2c). There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Search for the historic sites in North Africa <br/>- Monitor the existing sites <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the dynamics of the populations	eng
164166	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is included in the Spanish Red List and classified as Vulnerable; the Marquesado site will soon be classified as a Nature Reserve. It is also included in the Turkish Red List, classified as Vulnerable.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Search for the historic sites in North Africa <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size	eng
164166	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Sparganium natans</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, western Asia, Japan and North America. <br/><br/>In North Africa, this northern species was recorded in Morocco between Ceuta and Tétouan and in La Calle in Algeria in 1987. Its presence in the plains of North Africa is unlikely.	eng
164166	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Sparganium natans</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, western Asia, Japan and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is little widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, Turkey and Bulgaria, with a doubtful presence in Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km², and it is present in at least 19 locations.	eng
164166	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial rhizomatous Hydrophyte (10-50 cm height) with floating leaves that inhabits lakes, shallow water and permanent swamps with oligotrophic and very transparent freshwater. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn.	eng
164166	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is little widespread in the Mediterranean region (19 locations) and it has an area of occupancy below 2,000 km². The populations are in slow decline, especially in the west of the Mediterranean basin. <br/>- Spain: very rare, occurring in only one location (Laguna del Marquesado). This population is stable at the moment but vulnerable to any alteration of the habitat   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species is classified as Vulnerable in the national Red List (Moreno 2008); <br/>- France: quite common in the mainland (present in five departments in the Mediterranean strip) and in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in nine provinces in the north of the country.<br/>- Turkey: present in one location in the northeast outside the Mediterranean region<br/>In North Africa, this northern species was recorded in Morocco between Ceuta and Tétouan and in La Calle in Algeria in 1987. Its presence in the plains of North Africa is greatly unlikely.	eng
164166	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is little widespread in the Mediterranean. The populations are in slow decline, especially in the west of the Mediterranean basin. There is no specific information about African countries available.	eng
164166	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Eutrophication and hydrological changes are the main threats to this species.	eng
164167	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164167	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>B. eruciformis</em> is present in Spain, Italy, Sicily, France, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt and Morocco.	eng
164167	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Its habitat are ditches, damp, wet and waste places. It is considered a weed of cultivated fields.	eng
164167	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is generally common in the region but rare in Croatia (NT).	eng
164167	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats.	eng
164168	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, it is therefore recommended to monitor the existing sites and to manage the harvest and trade of the species.	eng
164168	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Bacopa monnieri</em> is a species of the tropical and subtropical regions of America, Africa and Australia and in the Mediterranean region it occurs in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Egypt.<br/>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is below 500 km², and it is present in more than six locations.	eng
164168	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a creeping, perennial, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits ponds, canals, humid ditches and swampy habitats. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April to October). It propagates by shoot multiplication.	eng
164168	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with relatively stable populations (large propagation by shoot multiplication). <br/>In Egypt, it is found along the Nile, the Suez Canal and in the Sinai Peninsula. It is very common in Israel, in the wetlands of the Mediterranean front and in the desert and sub-desert regions. In the Palestine Territories, the populations have gone extinct.	eng
164168	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threats to this species are the drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat.	eng
164169	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Centre, Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace, Pays-de-la-Loire, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. In Spain, it is registered in the Red List as Endangered (Moreno 2008). <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>The following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures<br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (seed banks)<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (Moroccan List of Protected Species)	eng
164169	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Utricularia minor</em> is a circumboreal temperate species with Eurasian distribution. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 1,900,000 km². <br/>In North Africa, it is solely present in Morocco, where it is very rare, occurring in only one location in the High Atlas (Tafraoute-n-Ouarra lake at 2,180 m, at the foot of Anromer).	eng
164169	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an aquatic, submersed, perennial and carnivorous plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in peatbogs, peaty swamps, mountain lakes, pool edges, dystrophic water bodies of acidic soil and calcareous fens. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.	eng
164169	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is not known, but they are probably moderately declining. In Morocco, it is considered very rare, occurring in only one location; the population is small and isolated but seems to be stable. In Spain, it is considered as Endangered, the populations are very dispersed, occurring in 13 provinces in the north half of the country in the mountains. In France, it is quite common and scattered, it is protected in 13 regions. In Italy, it is present in 11 provinces. The species is known from two localities in Turkey and is rare with only a few locations (five to six) in Croatia.	eng
164169	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Water eutrophication (mostly due to agriculture and livestock), changes in the hydrological regime, invasion by exotic species (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Baccharis halimifolia</span>), succession and the subsequent increase of shade, and infilling resulting from soil erosion of the surrounding deteriorated landscape, are the main threats to this species and its habitat.	eng
164170	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- To search for the historic sites, and for new sites and to monitor them <br/>- <em>Ex situ</em> protection if seeds can be taken in the wild <br/>- Backing of populations and to consider the introduction into potentially favourable sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection measures: list of legally protected species in Morocco, legal protection of the sites<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164170	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Lotus benoistii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco discovered in 1920. Its distribution is restricted to the Atlantic plains where only three localities are known (of which one has already been destroyed): Mamora, close to Salty Zemmour, Chaouïa near Casablanca airport and in the Gharb to the north of Kenitra. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 1,250 km² within which the occupied area is very small, not exceeding 3 km².	eng
164170	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Lotus benoistii</em> is found only in temporary pools on sandy soils (dayas). It is an annual species that appears and blooms only after fairly dry winters. The localities of <em>L. benoistii</em> are found under the sub-humid to mild and semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164170	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known, but the noted global tendency is a decline with the reduction of the area of occupancy resulting from the destruction of the largest known population in Mamora, 15 years ago. Beyond the risks of direct destruction, the populations show large inter-annual fluctuations under the effect of the climate, increasing the stochastic extinction risk. The three remaining site are:<br/>- Mamora/Salé (33.961 N; -06.835 W): The last observation dates 1995, the station was since destroyed by a road development. It is possible that the species still exists in neighbouring pools. <br/>- Casablanca/Chaouia (33.52 N;-07.708 W): airport of Casablanca-Anfa, no recent observation, uncertain situation because of recent constructions <br/>- Gharb: two sites in the documentation, no recent observation and very uncertain situation	eng
164170	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In addition to the pressure of grazing and water pollution, the situation of the temporary pools in Morocco are impacted by infrastructure and agricultural development. Habitat destruction resulting from infrastructure development is the most significant threat among the named ones.	eng
164172	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	This species is protected by law in Corsica. <br/>Possible conservation measures in North Africa include: studying the habitats of this species, taxonomy, populations, and the locations.	eng
164172	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	This species is endemic to the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, in three departments plus the island of Corsica, Spain, Portugal, Morocco (Mamora) and Algeria (six locations). It is present in Sicily (Italy) where it has not been seen again.	eng
164172	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>A. tenerrima</em> is an annual species that grows on sandy soils and sandy moors. It is flowering in France, Italy and Morocco between April and June.	eng
164172	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	The populations are probably tiny and very scattered in the countries in which <em>A. tenerrima</em> exists. Howewer, they exceed 10 locations.	eng
164172	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	General threats to the species' habitat include urbanization.	eng
164173	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The species is regionally protected in France (Iles-de-France, region Centers, Bretagne, Languedoc-Roussillon, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur). <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Conservation of the habitat of the species <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and of the existing sites<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164173	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Crassula vaillantii</em> is a widely distributed species. It is known to be in the Mediterranean, southern Europe, Ethiopia and South Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Greece including Crete, Cyprus, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Portugal, Malta, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.	eng
164173	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Crassula vaillantii</em> is a small annual plant (Therophyte) that is present in plains and low mountains, flooded depressions that inundate in winter, temporary pools on flinty soils or in hollows of chalky stone. Its flowering periods are winter and spring.	eng
164173	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the population size, but a decline is known due to the destruction of their habitat. Populations seem to be more abundant in the western Mediterranean (Morocco and Iberian Peninsula) and slightly rarer eastward. <br/>- Morocco: it is present in at least 12 localities that cover the Anti Atlas, High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Atlantic plains;<br/>- Algeria: it is rare in the Tell and very rare on the high plateaus of Algeria and Oran (Aflou, Sersou);<br/>- Tunisia: it was recently discovered (2007) in only one locality in Sejnane but its populations are very reduced and threatened by agriculture and drainage of the habitat;<br/>- Libya: only present in the regions of Benghazi, Lamluda and Tocra; <br/>- Greece:   rare and scattered, <st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>reported from the islands: Strofades (<st1:placename w:st="on">Ioanian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Sea</st1:placetype>), Gavdos (south of Crete), Naxos, Syros (old, not recently confirmed record), Agios Evstratios and <st1:place w:st="on">Lesvos;</st1:place>   <br/>- France: very rare in rocky ponds of the plain of the Maures, Estérel, Roque-Haute, coastal SW, Bonifacio, Cape Corsica, Agriate and have not been seen for more than ten years in Saint Estève and in Biot;<br/>- Spain and Portugal: present in most of the Iberian Peninsula.	eng
164173	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage, infilling, cultivation and abandonment of agricultural practices, overgrazing, urbanization and the enrichment with nitrates which leads to the ruderalisation of species are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164174	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164174	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Groenlandia densa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, western Asia and North Africa. It was introduced in boreal America and in Australia.  <br/><br/>In North Africa it can be found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 20,000 km², within which the AOO >100 km², and it is present in several locations.	eng
164174	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Groenlandia densa</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, western Asia and North Africa. It was introduced in boreal America and in Australia.  <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Croatia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164174	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hydrophyte) that inhabits stagnant and current water (springs, pools, streams and cold rivers). Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July). It is an indicator of oligotrophic water.	eng
164174	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, occurring in several locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, the High Atlas and the Zaiane district; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in numerous locations distributed between the coastal Algérois, the Tellian Atlas (Constantinois and Oranais regions), the Constantinois high plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, occurring in only two locations - south Tunisia (Gafsa) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Sakiet Sidi Youssef).	eng
164174	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: quite common, occurring in several locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, the High Atlas and the Zaiane district; <br/>- Algeria: fairly common, occurring in numerous locations distributed between the coastal Algérois, the Tellian Atlas (Constantinois and Oranais regions), the Constantinois high plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: rare, occurring in only two locations - south Tunisia (Gafsa) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Sakiet Sidi Youssef); <br/>- Spain: very frequent, occurring in 169 sites concentrated essentially in the north; <br/>- France: very common;<br/>- Italy: very common, occurring in 14 provinces in addition to Sicily.	eng
164174	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat but it is not considered as a major threat to the species.	eng
164174	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat. It is unlikely that this would lead to a severe decline in the near future.	eng
164178	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)	eng
164178	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is an endemic plant of Morocco. Its distribution is restricted to the central part of the Moyen Atlas between 1,400 and 2,000 m elevation. It is found in seven localities: Azrou, Boulmane, Tabainout, Tamalout, Timahdit, Aguelman and close to Kasba of Bou Arif. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 1,500 km², within which the occupied area does not exceed 150 km².	eng
164178	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is found in temporarily flooded habitats, along temporary streams, in fens (meadows on peat substrate) and around lakes of low to middle chalky mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms late in summer to fall. The species is found in localities under the humid and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164178	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The total population of <em>Eryngium maroccanum</em> is estimated to consist of 162,000 individuals. The populations seem stable even when submitted to high grazing pressure because the species is marginally browsed by livestock. This species is resistant to prolonged droughts.	eng
164178	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The lakes of the Moyen Atlas are exposed to high pressure from tourism activities and water pollution. Temporary wetlands are a habitat type that is under severe threat in Morocco, both from human impacts and from climate change.	eng
164180	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment, but it is necessary to encourage habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders.	eng
164180	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Present throughout almost all the African continent.	eng
164180	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Annual aquatic herb, submerged or not, preferring muddy and calm places on rocks at the border or rarely at the middle of flooded rivers, rapids and waterfalls.	eng
164180	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Very widespread species, important population.	eng
164180	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Main potential threats are water pollution, temperature extremes and sudden drought	eng
164181	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, this species is under regional protection (Picardie, Centre, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Alsace, Midi-Pyrénées, Limousin, Rhones-Alpes, Midi-Pyrénées and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur).<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to maintain their hydrologic regime.	eng
164181	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Utricularia vulgaris</em> is a circumboreal species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,500,000 km² and it is present in many locations.<br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Rif, Middle Atlas and northern Atlantic Morocco), Algeria (Petite and Grande Kabylie, Numidie and along the coast of the Algiers region) and Tunisia (Garaet Sedjnane in the Mogods).	eng
164181	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an aquatic, submersed, perennial, carnivorous plant (swimming Hydrophyte) that is found in lakes, swamps and stagnant water bodies. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.<br/>In Turkey, the species grows in alkaline waters.	eng
164181	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region (>30). The populations appear to be decreasing slightly.<br/>- Morocco: the species is quite common, occurring in at least seven locations (Smir, Dayet Roumi, etc); <br/>- Algeria: less than 10 locations (Kabylie, Numidie and along the coast of the Algiers region); <br/>- Tunisia: very rare, occurring in only one location (Sedjnane in the Mogods); <br/>- Spain: present in 12 provinces in the northwest and centre of the country; <br/>- France: well represented in a large part of France (68 departments) and regionally protected in nine regions; <br/>- Italy: present in nearly all of the country.<br/>- Turkey: six locations in the northwest and central Anatolia<br/>- Israel: found at one site	eng
164181	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of wetlands, agriculture, water eutrophication, invasion by exotic species, the closing in of the habitat and consequent increase in shade and the infilling of wetlands due to the deterioration of the landscape, are the main threats to this species and its habitat.	eng
164182	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164182	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Ranunculus aquatilis</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is in most of Europe, but is rarer in the north and east. It is not found at the Azores, Portugal and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco.	eng
164182	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This Hydrophyte of 20-150 cm height, is very polymorph and variable owing to the conditions of its environment. Its habitat are clear, stagnant or lentic waters, banks of rivers and pools with a slow flow.	eng
164182	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of <em>Ranunculus aquatilis</em> are scattered here and there from Libya to Morocco (var. <em>heleophilus</em>) in the southern Mediterranean region and from Spain to Greece.	eng
164182	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Water eutrophication is the main threat to this species.	eng
164183	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Currently, there are no conservation measures in place. The following conservation measures are recommended for the future:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species in Egypt).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study the population dynamics.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164183	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. In the Mediterranean it is only present in Egypt, in the Giza-Faiyum desert west of the Nile at only one locality.<br/><br/>Its general distribution includes Africa (Angola, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Tchad, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe), Asia (Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand) and Australia.	eng
164183	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is a procumbent annual herbaceous plant of 10-40 cm height, often forming mats of up to 80 cm diameter.	eng
164183	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Coldenia procumbens</em> is very rare in Egypt where only one subpopulation is known.	eng
164183	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Destruction and degradation of its habitat due to human settlement and tourism development are the main threats to this species.	eng
164184	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The locality of the Haut Atlas is within the National park of Toubkal, but this doesn't prevent the harvest of <em>Mentha gattefossei</em>. For the other localities there is no protection in place. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and implementation of the existing legal protection measures<br/>- To know the supportable harvest limit of the plant (sustainable use) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164184	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Mentha gattefossei</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is found at one site in the Moroccan Sahara (Ziz river), and at five sites in the Atlas Mountains (Haut Atlas: Toubkal, Moyen Atlas and Anti Atlas). The extent of occurrence is about 84,000 km². The area of occupancy is estimated to be slightly above<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> 2,000 km².	eng
164184	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in wet meadows, at the edges of pools and rivers of chalky and flinty mountains between 1,600 and 2,100 m altitude. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164184	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known. However, the populations may be declining as a result of the medicinal use of the plant.	eng
164184	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat is often damaged by overgrazing. The plant is exploited for medicinal purposes, such as the extraction of essential oils, at national and international level.	eng
164186	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are being proposed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, research of the populations, study their biology and protection of the last habitats.	eng
164186	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, the following ones are being proposed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures, research of the populations, study their biology and protection of the last habitats.	eng
164186	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean or steno-Mediterranean species.<br/>In Africa, it is indicated as, <em>J. bufonius</em> var. <em>condensatus</em>, from only one location in Algeria (El Kala) and two locations in Tunisia (Sejnane and Rajem el Ma).	eng
164186	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean or steno-Mediterranean species. In Corsica, it seems to have disappeared (Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). It is not indicated in mainland France. In Italy, it is very rare and is also found in western Sicily and Sardinia. It also occurs in Spain, Portugal, and Greece.<br/>In North Africa, it is indicated as, <em>J. bufonius</em> var. <em>condensatus</em>, from only one location in Algeria (El Kala) and two locations in Tunisia (Sejnane and Rajem el Ma).	eng
164186	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentini</em> is an annual therophyte of 5-20 cm height. It is found in temporary ponds, subjected to salty sea spray, and damp places on mountains.	eng
164186	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentini</em> is an annual Therophyte of 5-20 cm height. It is found in temporary ponds, subjected to salty sea spray, and damp places on mountains. Flowering is in Corsica and Italy is from June to August.	eng
164186	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In Algeria and Tunisia, the populations should be searched for. It was mentioned in Morocco by Dobignard but this source is unclear. It is only in two localities in Tunisia and one in Algeria.	eng
164186	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In Corsica, it seems that <em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is extinct as the species has not been seen since 1850. In Italy, the populations are very scattered and very rare. It was recorded at two sites in Tunisia and one in Algeria; these populations should be searched for. It was also mentioned in Morocco by Dobignard but this source is unclear. It has been recorded from five localities in Spain and three in Portugal (Anthos 2009).	eng
164186	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is very threatened, because of its rarity and small number of its populations. Its habitat is negatively impacted by tourism development, expansion of agriculture, grazing and pollution.	eng
164186	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus sorrentinii</em> is very threatened, including its possible extinction, because of its rarity and small number of its populations. Its habitat is negatively impacted by tourism development, expansion of agriculture, grazing and pollution.	eng
164187	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the Maghreb countries (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To assure a mastery of the urbanization and to enforce of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness.<br/><br/>Conservation measures in place outside Africa:<br/>- Protected in Europe (Convention of Bern, Annex I) <br/>- Protected in France (decree of August 31, 1995) <br/>- Red list in Spain (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Italy (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Greece (Vulnerable) <br/>- Croatia: classified as Critically Endangered <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Roque-Haute (France) <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Tre Padule of Suartone (Corsica)	eng
164187	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The following conservation measures are in place:<br/>- Protected in Europe (Convention of Bern, Annex I) <br/>- Protected in France (decree of August 31, 1995) and classed as Vulnerable on the Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995)<br/>- Red list in Spain (Vulnerable) (Moreno 2008)<br/>- Red list in Italy (Vulnerable) <br/>- Red list in Greece (Vulnerable) <br/>- Croatia: classified as Critically Endangered   (Nikoli? and Topi? 2005)<br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Roque-Haute (France) <br/>- Natural reserve for the pools of Tre Padule of Suartone (Corsica) <br/>- Harvest and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of the spores by the National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles (France) <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in the Maghreb countries (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To assure a mastery of the urbanization and to enforce legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- To maintain an extensive grazing in order to limit the development of a dense plant setting in the pools (France)<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164187	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Pilularia minuta</em> is a steno-Mediterranean plant. It is found in France, in the regions of Hérault and Alpes-Maritimes as well as in Corsica in Bonifacio, Lecci, and in the vicinity of Aleria and Ghisonnaccia. In Portugal, it is present in the Algarve, and in Spain, in the regions of Andalusia, Castilla y Leon, and Menorca (Anthos 2009). In Italy, it occurs in the region of Rome, Sardinia and Sicily. It has been found in Greece, in the west and northern islands of the Aegean Sea, as well as in Cyprus. In Croatia, it is present at the Dalmatian coast. Turkey has a subpopulation close to Izmir. In Morocco, it occurs southeast of Tiflet, west of Benslimane, and in Rommani. It is probably extinct in Algeria, but there are old records from Kabylie, Castiglione-Bou Ismaïl, Djebel Santo, Mudjardjo, Les Issers, Msabia. In Tunisia, it has been discovered lately in 2006 in Garâa Sejenane. <br/> <br/>It is considered as vulnerable in Italy, Greece, France and Spain, Endangered in the Balearic Islands and very rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence of <em>P. minuta</em> is about 2,300,000 km² within which the occupied area is very small, but nevertheless exceeds 10 km² when measured using a 1 km² grid.	eng
164187	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Pilularia minuta</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is considered as vulnerable in Italy, Greece, France and Spain, Endangered in the Balearic Islands and very rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/><br/>In Africa it is present in Morocco (south east of Tiflet, west of Benslimane, Rommani), Algeria (probably extinct; old records from Kabylie, Castiglione-Bou Ismaïl, Djebel Santo, Mudjardjo, Les Issers, Msabia), and Tunisia: discovered lately in 2006 in Garâa Sejenane. <br/> <br/>In North Africa, the extent of occurrence of the species does not exceed 105,000 km², with an occupied area lower than 10 km².	eng
164187	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The perennial species is found in temporary pools at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, matorrals or agricultural lands. It is a small amphibious fern of small stature, with a threadlike rhizome (Geophyte with rhizome). The germination of the spores requires very humid (water saturated) or flooded conditions; the maturation of the sporocarpes only takes place after complete exposure to air at the end of the spring.	eng
164187	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is found in temporary pools at low elevation in diverse landscapes such as forests, matorrals or agricultural lands. It is a small amphibious fern of small stature, perennial with a threadlike rhizome (Geophyte with rhizome). The germination of the spores requires very humid (water saturated) or flooded conditions; the maturation of the sporocarpes only takes place after complete exposure to air at the end of the spring.	eng
164187	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In spite of its large distribution along the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites as well as the real area occupied by <em>Pilularia minuta</em> remains very small resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the temporary pools. It is present in: <br/>- Morocco: about 12 sites, last observation in 2006 (Benslimane, Tiflet), <br/>- Algeria: six sites (last observation 1952) <br/>- Tunisia: 10 sites (last observation 2007) <br/>- Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalusia) on the mainland and three sites in Menorca (Anthos 2009)<br/>- Croatia: two sites (on islands), <br/>- France: on the continent at least three sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: 12 sites <br/>- Greece: three sites, <br/>- Portugal: three sites, (last observation 2010) <br/>- Italy: at least three sites (last observation 2007 in Sardinia, 1982 in Sicily) <br/>- Turkey: one site (last observation 1998) <br/>- Cyprus: one site (last observation 1998) <br/> <br/>The population sizes at all sites are very variable from one year to the next according to rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult, however they seem to be globally in decline following the destruction of the sites (pool of Biot in France destroyed in 1975, pools close to Alger destroyed by urbanization and agriculture). At the remaining sites, the populations are vulnerable and threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities, especially in North Africa. The populations are classed as being severely fragmented.	eng
164187	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	In spite of its large distribution along the Mediterranean basin, the number of sites as well as the real area occupied by <em>Pilularia minuta</em> remains very small resulting from the scattered distribution and the small size of the the temporary pools. It is present in: <br/>- Morocco: about 12 sites, last observation in 2006 (Benslimane, Tiflet), <br/>- Algeria: six sites (last observation 1952) <br/>- Tunisia: 10 sites (last observation 2007) <br/>- Spain: three sites (last observation 2003 in Andalusia) <br/>- Croatia: two sites (on islands), <br/>- France: on the continent at least three sites (last observation Roque-Haute 2001); Corsica: 12 sites <br/>- Greece: three sites, <br/>- Portugal: three sites, (last observation 2006) <br/>- Italy: at least three sites (last observation 2007 in Sardinia, 1982 in Sicily) <br/>- Turkey: one site (last observation 1998) <br/>- Cyprus: one site (last observation 1998) <br/> <br/>On all sites, the population sizes are very variable from one year to the next according to rainfall conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult which seem to be globally in decline following the destruction of the sites (pool of Biot in France destroyed in the years 1975, pools close to Alger destroyed by urbanization and agriculture). In the remaining sites, the populations are vulnerable and threatened notably by the increasing pressure from anthropogenic activities, especially in North Africa.	eng
164187	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The habitat of <em>P. minuta</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats (drainage, filling in, agriculture, overgrazing and urbanization) but also to natural threats bound to the encroachment of perennial competitive plants following the abandonment of previous extensive uses (pools of Roque-Haute in the Hérault, France).	eng
164187	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of <em>P. minuta</em> is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats, such as drainage, filling in, agriculture, overgrazing and urbanization. It is also exposed to natural threats bound to the encroachment of perennial competitive plants following the abandonment of previous extensive uses (e.g. pools of Roque-Haute in the Hérault, France).	eng
164188	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance is furthermore necessary.	eng
164188	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Persicaria limbata</span> is a tropical species that is found in tropical Africa and tropical Asia. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found solely in Egypt at the Nile and along the Mediterranean coastal strip. Its extent of occurrence covers about 30,000 km² and it occurs at less than 10 sites.	eng
164188	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers, canals, swamps and ditches. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164188	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species occurs in a very limited area in the Mediterranean region. It is present in less than 10 sites, distributed between the Nile and the coastal Mediterranean strip (Alexandria). The trend of the populations is not known.	eng
164188	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal and natural disasters such as drought.	eng
164189	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164189	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164189	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is found in Europe, North and central Africa, temperate Asia, North and Central America. <br/><br/>In North Africa it is restricted to Egypt and Algeria. Also recorded from Ethiopia and Sudan. It has a small area of occupancy, under 500 km² in North Africa in total.	eng
164189	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is found in Europe, North and Central Africa, temperate Asia, North and Central America. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in all of the European countries, Turkey, Israel and Palestine, but it is missing from some of the Mediterranean islands. In North Africa it is restricted to Egypt and Algeria. It has a small area of occupancy in both of those countries.	eng
164189	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species occurs in large water bodies, deep lakes and reservoirs, rivers, streams, canals. It is frequent in mesotrophic and eutrophic waters and occasionally found in oligotrophic lakes. <em>P. perfoliatus</em> tolerates intermediate water sulphates and hydrosoil potassium concentrations.	eng
164189	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in large water bodies, deep lakes and reservoirs, rivers, streams, canals. It is frequent in mesotrophic and eutrophic waters and occasionally found in oligotrophic lakes. <em>P. perfoliatus</em> tolerates intermediate water sulphates and hydrosoil potassium concentrations.	eng
164189	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	There is no information available on the population numbers or trends.	eng
164189	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	There is no information on the population numbers or trend available but the species is quite common in large parts of its range and the populations are presumed to be stable.	eng
164189	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164189	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164191	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In Spain, <em>P. incompleta</em> is included as Vulnerable in the national Red List (Moreno 2008), and it is protected at regional level in Andalusia (V) and the Canary Islands (E, Annexe II). The Spanish subpopulations are located within the Natural Park of los Alcornocales; the ones of the Canary Islands are located within the Natural Parks of Garajonay, Majona and Tamadaba, and in other protected areas: the Paisaje de las Cumbres, the Natural Reserve Tilos de Moya, Guelguen and del Pijaral, the Rural Parks de Anaga and de Teno, the protected landscapes of los Campeches Tagaiga and Ruiz, and the site of scientific interest Barranco de Ruiz.<br/><br/>In Morroco, there are no conservation measures in place, but the following measures are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of the subpopulations.<br/>- Study of dynamics of the subpopulations, the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164191	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Pteris incompleta</em> is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is limited to the Strait of Gibraltar in Spain, to the Rif in Morocco (Jbel Kbir, Cap Spartel), and to the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, La Gomera, Tenerife, La Palma). Its spontaneity in Portugal and in Turkey is doubtful and it is suspected that the populations in Portugal (Sintra) and Turkey are introduced.<br/><br/>Its area of occupancy in Spain is less than 9 km² (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004). The species' area of occupancy measured on the basis of grid squares would be larger, but presumably under 100 km².	eng
164191	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Pteris incompleta</em> is a perennial rhizomatous fern, which grows along streams in shadowy humid coastal forests. The Spanish sub-populations occur in lauri-leaved riparian vegetations composed of <em>Rhododendron ponticum</em>, <em>Frangula baetica</em>, <em>Diplazium caudatum</em>, <em>Vandenboschia speciosa</em>, <em>Alnus glutinosa</em> and <em>Culcita macrocarpa</em>. The Canaries ones develop in various plant formations (<em>Ilici canariensis-Ericetum platycodonis</em>, <em>Lauro-Perseetum indicae</em>, <em>Diplazio caudati-Ocoteetum foetentis</em> and <em>Rhamno crenulatae-Apollonietum barbujanae</em>), in association with <em>Persea indica</em>, <em>Laurus azorica</em>, <em>Dryopteris oligodonta</em>, <em>Salix canariensis</em>, <em>Diplazium caudatum</em>, <em>Myrica faya</em>, <em>Woodwardia radicans</em>, <em>Ocotea foetens</em>, <em>Vandenboschia speciosa</em>, <em>Apollonias barbujana</em>, etc. (Bañares <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
164191	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The Spanish subpopulations are dynamical, with numerous mature plants and juveniles. However, the species regresses as a result of the specificity of its habitat requirements. <br/><br/>The total population is smaller than 10,000 mature individuals and each sub-population is smaller than 1,000. Although there are several localities the number of individuals at each locality is very small.	eng
164191	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The major threat to this species is habitat loss caused by forestry, drainage, the increase of grazing pressure, competition with non-native species, trampling and the use of herbicides   (Bañares <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In Morocco, the species is restricted to the Rif mountains were there has been significant loss of natural habitats as a result of Cannabis cultivation.	eng
164193	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study the locations and populations of <em>E. paniculata</em>.	eng
164193	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia paniculata</span> is endemic to the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. It is found in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal and Spain.	eng
164193	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia paniculata</span> is a perennial plant that flowers between March and April in Morocco, and April to June in Tunisia. It prefers damp places, such as the banks of marshes.	eng
164193	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations are limited in the Mediterranean region. In Morocco, it is known from at least seven localities; in Tunisia, it is rare with two locations. Only in Algeria, the species is widespread and common in the coastal Tell. <br/>In Spain, it occurs in the south and in Portugal in the southeast. It is relatively common in Spain but rarer in Portugal.	eng
164193	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The main threat might come from the narrow distribution, isolating this  species. In future, this species might be  threatened if its habitats are developed or cultivated. But for the moment it remains widespread in Algeria.	eng
164195	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Italy, it is classified as threatened in the Red List and one of the sites (Laziale) is located in the Regional Nature Reserve Tor Caldara.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations <br/>- Protection of the species’ habitat	eng
164195	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Pycreus polystachyos</em> is a tropical and subtropical species. Its world distribution covers the tropical and hot temperate regions. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, Italy, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with less than 15 locations and an area of occupancy below 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164195	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools, ditches and peaty swamps of plains. Flowering occurs in summer (June-July).	eng
164195	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is uncommon in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is rare with only a few of locations. The populations are in slow regression. One of the sites in Morocco (Lalla Mimouna) has been partially damaged due to drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only three locations (in the swamps north of Lalla Mimouna, in a pool north of Kénitra and in a pool in Salé); <br/>- Algeria: very rare, with two locations in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); <br/>- Tunisia: rare, present in northeast Tunisia (Bizerte); <br/>- Egypt: found in two oases of the western Desert (Bahariya and Kharga);<br/>- Israel: the species is believed to only be episodic in this country; <br/>- Spain: only one site located in the south of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in only one province in the west of the country.	eng
164195	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of this species’ habitat is its main threat.	eng
164196	conservation	Diadema, K. & Rhazi, L., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164196	distribution	Diadema, K. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. In the Mediterranean region, its present in Spain and Balearic Islands, Portugal, France, Corsica, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164196	habitat	Diadema, K. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>S. auriculata</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant of up to 1 m height. This species is found in humid tall herb fringes, along water courses and shady woodland edge communities. Found in forests with <em>Alnus glutinosa</em> or mountain forests.	eng
164196	population	Diadema, K. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This species is quite common in France under the Mediterranean climate with around 100 known locations. It’s the same in other countries in Mediterranean Europe. The population are stable at the moment.	eng
164196	threats	Diadema, K. & Rhazi, L., 2009	This species does not face threats at the moment.	eng
164197	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco, in Algeria and Tunisia) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing areas and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- To avoid all modification of the hydrology of ponds (drainage,infilling) as well as the sediment extraction that destroys the seeds stocks <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- To maintain the vegetation open by cutting or reintroduce sheep grazing in Helophyte pools and in ligneous pools <br/>- To eliminate the litter in the pool if necessary<br/>- To evaluate the vegetation dynamic after sheep grazing introduction (and all new management) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164197	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is an Atlantico-Mediterranean species.<br/><br/>In the Maghreb, it is present in, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The subspecies <em>intermedia</em> and <em>tegulensis</em> are present in Tunisia, Algeria and in Morocco, the subspecies <em>perralderiana</em> in Algeria. The subspecies <em>velata</em> is present in the whole of the countries within its Mediterranean area of distribution.	eng
164197	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Isoetes velata</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte (bulbous Geophyte) that can behave like an annual (Therophyte). It is found in temporary streams, as well as ponds and swamps that are flooded during the winter. The germination of the spores begins in fall (November) in saturated or flooded soil whereas their maturation is aerial (after exondation). This species develops in general on a non-chalky oligotrophic and not very thick substratum. The species is found in Mediterranean aquatic quillwort swards, communities with <em>Isoetes</em> sp. in fluctuating waterbodies.	eng
164197	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations of <em>I. velata</em> are globally in decline according to the speed of deterioration of their habitat. This reduction is bigger in the North African countries, where the pressures on its habitats are higher.<br/>- In Morocco, this taxon is present in more than 100 sites distributed between the Atlantic plains (Benslimane, Mamora, Gharb, Haouz) and the Atlas chains (Middle Atlas, and Anti Atlas); <br/>- In Algeria, very widespread and considered rare to very rare according to the subspecies; <br/>- Tunisia, the species is rather common in the regions of the Cap Bon (El Haouaria), Mogd (Sedjnane, Abiod Mountain, Sidi Otman) and Kroumirie (Aïn Soltane, Madjen Azoug;<br/>In other countries, no data is available on the populations of this taxon.	eng
164197	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The expansion of agriculture, competition with perennial plants, urbanization, infilling, sediment extraction, drainage and other constructions affecting the soil constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species. Several pools have disappeared because of urbanization, infrastructure development and agriculture. The quality of the habitats of the species is also deteriorating resulting from land and therefore grazing abandonment.	eng
164198	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In France, the species is classified as rare on the national Red List (Olivier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995) and is under regional protection in Rhone-Alps. A natural reserve designation is in place for the Grande Sassière (Tignes) for two sites in Savoie and a designation of the National Park of the Vanoise as well as a decree on biotope conservation for the sites of the Cenis mount. <br/>According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) the species is classified as Lower Risk. <br/><br/>In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to legally protect the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and to extend the National Park of Toubkal in order to include the pozzines of the locality of Toubkal.	eng
164198	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	No conservation measures are in place in Morocco. The following have been proposed:<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Extension of the National Park of Toubkal in Morocco in order to include the pozzines of the locality of Toubkal<br/>- Conservation of its habitat <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new areas <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164198	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex maritima</em> is an arctic-alpine species. Its global distribution covers Iceland, boreal and central Europe, boreal and southern America and Greenland. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in France (Monetier-Les-Bains in the High Alps and Tarentaise, Maurienne in Savoie), Italy (Dolomites, Duron valley, Veni valley, Schlern, Isario) and in Morocco where it is very rare, with only two localities in the High Atlas (Massif Agoundis in the Goundafa at 2,300 m of altitude and the Toubkal at 3,600 m of altitude). Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean is 1,050,000 km², with an occupied area of more than 500 km².	eng
164198	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex maritima</em> is an arctico-alpine species. Its global distribution covers Iceland, boreal and central Europe, boreal and southern America and Greenland. <br/>In Africa, this nordic species is only known in Morocco, where it is very rare, with only two localities in the High Atlas (the high valley of the assif Agoundis in the Goundafa at 2,300 m of altitude and the Toubkal at 3,600 m of altitude) occupying an area of about 12 km².	eng
164198	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex maritima</em> is a perennial plant (rhizome Geophyte), indifferent to the nature of rock, heliophile and little competitive. It is found solely in the pozzines of high mountains, between 2,300 m and 3,600 m of altitude in Morocco and on the verges of streams and high mountain springs in France and in Italy. Its period of flowering is normally summer.	eng
164198	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex maritima</em> is a perennial plant (rhizome Geophyte), indifferent to the nature of rock, heliophile and little competitive. It is found solely in the pozzines of high mountains, between the 2,300 m and 3,600 m of altitude in Morocco and on the verges of streams and high mountain springs in France and in Italy. Its period of flowering is normally summer.	eng
164198	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the population size. They are fragile but not directly threatened. <br/>In Morocco, the species is considered as very rare and occurring in a habitat under strong grazing pressure. In Italy, it is present in five localities in the alpine chain. In France, it is also classified as rare and important species. It is present in 17 sites in Savoie and in one site of the Maritime Alps. Some of these sites benefit from protection that permits the conservation of this species and its habitat. Three former locations have not been confirmed.	eng
164198	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the population size. They are fragile but not directly threatened. <br/>- Morocco: considered as very rare and occurring in a habitat under strong grazing pressure<br/>- Italy: classified as rare, present in five localities <br/>- France: classified as rare and important species. It is present in 17 sites in Savoie and in one site of the Maritime Alps. Some of these sites benefit from measures of protection that permit the conservation of this species and its habitat. Three former locations have not been confirmed.	eng
164198	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing, big tourist affluence and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species. In North Africa, the limited distribution and the isolation of populations could constitute a potential threat for the species. In the longer term climate change could be a serious threat to this species.	eng
164198	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing, tourist development and recreational activities such as skiing and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species. In North Africa, the limited distribution and the isolation of populations could constitute a potential threat for the species. In the longer term climate change could be a serious threat to this species.	eng
164199	conservation	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <em>T. angustifolia</em> and <em>T. dominguensis</em>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164199	conservation	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <span style="font-style: italic;">T. angustifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. dominguensis</span>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164199	distribution	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a circumboreal species that occurs in most of Europe, northwards to 63° N in Finland, in North Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and doubtfully in Albania and Greece. It is introduced and a new colonizer in Israel and Jordan. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations and an AOO >500 km².	eng
164199	distribution	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a circumboreal species that occurs in most of Europe, northwards to 63° N in Finland, in North Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America.  It is very widespread in the Mediterranean <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 200,000 km², with several locations and an AOO >100 km².	eng
164199	habitat	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Typha angustifolia</em> is a rhizomatous Helophyte of 1-3 m height and a glabrous, aquatic or semi-terrestrial perennial herb, with fibrous roots and creeping rhizomes. Its prefered habitat are banks of ponds and slow streams, stagnant waters, lakes, rivers, canals and ditches.	eng
164199	population	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region with several locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common in nearly all of the country; it occurs at six locations <br/>- Algeria: very common in the Tell region and in the High Plains, Northern and central Sahara; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: common, with more than 143 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.<br/>- Turkey: common	eng
164199	population	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa with several locations. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common in nearly all of the country; it occurs at six locations <br/>- Algeria: very common in the Tell region and in the High Plains, Northern and central Sahara.	eng
164199	threats	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage is a local threat to this species. The species is considered as invasive in parts of the Mediterranean.	eng
164199	threats	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., M. Rhazi & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species. The species is considered as invasive in parts of the Mediterranean.	eng
164200	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Legal protection of the species in North Africa (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (environmental impact legislation)<br/>- Study the species' biology and follow-up the population dynamics	eng
164200	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eryngium corniculatum</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. Its distribution is limited to the west of the Mediterranean basin occurring in Portugal, Spain, Sardinia (Italy) and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in several locations.	eng
164200	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools, lagoons and along riverbeds. Flowering occurs during summer (June-July).	eng
164200	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations in the Iberian Peninsula. It is common in Portugal and Spain, occurring at 121 sites essentially concentrated in the east of the peninsula (14 provinces in Spain and seven provinces in Portugal). In Italy it is solely present in Sardinia. <br/>In Morocco, the species is present in only two locations in the west of the Rif (Malaliyine and Negro). The populations are very small, restricted and threatened due to coastal urbanization. The trend of the populations is unknown.	eng
164200	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threats to this species are the urbanization of the Moroccan coastline around Tanger and the related drainage of its habitat.	eng
164201	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is under protection in France in the departements Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, and in the regions Franche-Comté and Rhones-Alpes.<br/>Research on its habitat and taxonomy is underway and it is recommended to study this species' population size and range.	eng
164201	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocotyle vulgaris</span> is a European-Caucasian species. Its Mediterranean distribution includes Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Albania, Croatia, Greece, Jordan, Israel, Morocco, and Algeria.	eng
164201	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This plant is a Hemicryptophyte and grows in shallow fresh water and damp places, swamps and stagnant brooks.	eng
164201	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.<br/>It has been extinct in Israel (A. Shmida pers. comm.).	eng
164201	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats are known in the region as a whole, although the species was assessed in some Italian regions as threatened.	eng
164202	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is underway. It is suggested to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and range as well as study its dynamics.	eng
164202	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Rumex pulcher</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. Its biogeographical distribution includes the Mediterranean region, central and southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa, Canaries, Madeira and Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is very widespread and is found in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France and Corsica, Malta, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Syria and Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine. The area of occupation exceeds 2,000 km².	eng
164202	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Rumex pulcher</em> is a perennial to biennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers temporary pools, marshes and humid places, borders of canals and roadsides. Its flowering takes place in spring and summer (April-July).	eng
164202	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing steady. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous localities in the Rif (Msabeh Sania, Cap Negro), Mediterranean coastline, oriental plains, Middle Atlas, High Atlas (Amghass, Oued Taouzoult), north Atlantic Plains (Merja Zerga, Dayet Roumi, Merja Boukka, Tiflet, Oued Fouarat, Jemaa of Fedalate, Benslimane). <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole Tell <br/>- Tunisia: quite common in the non salty humid habitats, with numerous localities distributed between northeast Tunisia (Tunis), Kroumirie (Ain Draham, Tabarka), Mogod (Sejnane), Cap Bon (Cheban), Dorsal Tunisian (Bargou, Thibar) and south Tunisia (Gabes, Nefta) <br/>- Libya: localized on the Mediterranean coast at the east of the country (Shahat, Baida, Gebel Akhdar) <br/>- Mediterranean Europe: very common in Italy, France, Spain and Portugal	eng
164202	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	Agriculture and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164203	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No conservation measures in place nor needed.	eng
164203	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is present in temperate and subtropical regions throughout the Mediterranean, Europe, West Asia, Africa and America. <span style="font-style: italic;">Apium graveolens</span> is common along all parts of the Mediterranean coastal strip, in the desert to the east of the Nile and in the Sinai peninsula.	eng
164203	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is biennial and is a Hemicryptophyte. <em>Apium graveolens</em> is sub-spontaneous in cultivated or uncultivated soils in Italy and is found in damp places, often near the sea. The species grows in coastal salt marshes and salt springs in Corsica and Tunisia, and is cultivated in Egypt and North Africa. <em>A. graveolens</em> has its flowering season between April and September in Tunisia and Morocco; May and September in Italy; and May and August in Corsica.	eng
164203	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	Common throughout the Mediterranean region and parts of the southern Sahara.	eng
164203	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium graveolens</em> is not threatened as a species because of its widespread distribution.	eng
164204	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164204	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Galium elongatum</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution covers a large part of Europe, the southwest of Asia and the northwest of Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² with numerous locations.	eng
164204	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, riverbeds and flooded sites. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).	eng
164204	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa, occurring in several locations, and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, only present in northern Atlantic Morocco (on the edges of Oued Fouarate and in the marshes north of Lalla Mimouna); <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least eight locations distributed between the Kroumerie (Madjen Choucha, Aïn draham and Tabarka), Mogods (Sidi Othman el Haddad), northeast Tunisia (Menzel Djemil and El Alia), Cap Bon (Oued Mraïssa) and the Medjerda Valley (Oued Zarga); <br/>- Portugal: present in eight provinces; <br/>- Spain: fairly common, occurring in 29 sites in the north of the country; <br/>- France: common, especially present in the northeast of the country (287 sites) and also in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: common throughout the country and also in Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Israel: either extinct or a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">G. rivale</span> which is in the Red Data Book (A. Shmida pers. comm.).	eng
164204	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threat to this species is the drainage of its habitat but that does not lead to significant declines at the moment.	eng
164205	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise, no conservation are in need.	eng
164205	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	Widespread in Africa, from Senegal to Sudan and Ethiopia in the North to South Africa; also in tropical Asia and Australia	eng
164205	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Weed of cultivation and gardens, ruderal sites, grassland, a pioneer in dried -out floodplains, river-beds and waterholes.	eng
164205	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Common weed	eng
164205	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
164206	conservation	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In Sicily, the species was reported as Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) but it occurs in many protected areas including Natura 2000 sites.<br/>In Greece, it was listed as <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> and classed as Vulnerable (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). <br/>There are no conservation measures in place, but the following ones are recommended: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existing populations and search for new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, and raising public awareness.	eng
164206	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following are recommended: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search for new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation, and raising public awareness.	eng
164206	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei </em>is an endemic of the Mediterranean, which could be more widespread in the eastern Mediterranean, where the relative distribution of the three Mediterranean species of <em>Damasonium</em> is not well known.<br/><br/>Its African distribution extends to Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
164206	distribution	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei </em>is an endemic of the Mediterranean, which could be more widespread in the eastern Mediterranean, where the relative distribution of the three Mediterranean species of <em>Damasonium</em> is not well known.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Sicily and Sardinia (Italy), Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia.<br/><br/>- Algeria: present in the northeastern mountains, common in the Constantine and Algiers regions, more rare in the Oran region;<br/>- Egypt: very rare, found in the Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum (Tamia), Mediterranean coast (Alexandria), Isthmic desert (El Tih); <br/>- Morocco: common ( Tangier, Pre-Rif, Gibraltar strait, western coastal plain, Souss valley); <br/>- Tunisia: rather common, with 10 locations in the north (Kroumirie, Mogods, Cap Bon) and south at Gabès (Cuénod 1954);<br/>- Portugal: found at the Atlantic coast; <br/>- Spain: 25 well documented localities in southwest and west Spain and Balearic Islands, locally common; <br/>- Greece: six localities in total (initially classed as <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span>): Ipiros, Thessaly, in the western Peloponnese, one in the island of Evvia; <br/>- Italy: common in Sicily and southern Sardinia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005)<br/>- Malta: not abundant	eng
164206	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels.	eng
164206	habitat	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels as well as in temporary water bodies.<br/>The species is found on substrate that is rich in nutrients, often on limestone, also on clayey soil, and it can tolerate limited amounts of sea salt.	eng
164206	population	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is widespread and can be locally abundant over its distribution area. The populations are more abundant in the coastal strip of North Africa, but they are rare in the north of the Mediterranean region. It is known that the species is common in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, whereas it is very rare in Egypt.<br/>The population trend is assumed to be declining as the species' habitat, temporary wetlands, are declining in the Mediterranean.	eng
164206	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is widespread but never abundant over its entire distribution area. The populations are more abundant in the coastal strip of North Africa, but they are rare in the north of the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>- Algeria: present in the northeastern mountains, common in the Constantine and Algiers regions, more rare in the Oran region;<br/>- Egypt: very rare, found in the Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum (Tamia), Mediterranean coast (Alexandria), Isthmic desert (El Tih); <br/>- Morocco: common (Tangier, Pre-Rif, Gibraltar strait, western coastal plain, Souss valley); <br/>- Tunisia: rather common, with 10 locations in the north (Kroumirie, Mogods, Cap Bon) and south at Gabès (Cuénod 1954).	eng
164206	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation as well as pollution.	eng
164206	threats	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium bourgaei</em> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation. Changes in hydrological regimes are the main threats to the species, including drainage for agricultural purposes as well as the change of temporary into permanent water bodies (e.g. for reservoir use). Invasive species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Azolla filiculoides</span> can pose a threat too.	eng
164208	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	No conservation measures are in place.<br/>For North Africa, it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations, in order to define the partition between the species <em>T. angustifolia</em> and <em>T. dominguensis</em>, especially in Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164208	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M.M., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
164208	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	In the Mediterranean, this species is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece mainland and islands, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco.	eng
164208	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M.M., 2009	Tropical species, widespread throughout all the Pan_Africa region.	eng
164208	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	It occurs in canals, ponds, ditches, springs, edges of lakes and rivers.	eng
164208	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M.M., 2009	Tall aquatic herb, found in swamps, dams, lakes and rivers.	eng
164208	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is very common in the Mediterranean.	eng
164208	population	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
164208	threats	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats identified.	eng
164208	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164209	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is under national protection in France and included in the Red List where it is considered as a “priority species”.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164209	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum tribracteatum</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species that is found in southern and oriental Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, this taxon is fairly common, occurring in numerous localities that are in an increasingly deteriorated context.	eng
164209	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools of plains and low and medium mountains, back-coastal brackish prairies and depressions flooded in winter. It is found on flinty or chalky substrate, sometimes on salty substrate. Flowering generally occurs between the beginning of May and July.	eng
164209	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In the Mediterranean region the populations appear to be stable. <br/>The species is well represented in Morocco, occurring in the north Atlantic plains (dayas to the southeast of Tiflet, Mamora pools, Benslimane pools, Loukkos, etc.), the central plains (Haouz region) and in the mountainous regions (Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Rif and Tangier). The populations are fairly stable but increasingly at risk, that could cause a regression of the populations in the short or medium-term; quite common in all of Algeria; fairly common in eight locations in Tunisia (Sedjenane, Tindjda, Ariana, mouth of the river Miliane, Sidi Al Hani, Garaet el Fedjedj and Djerba); reported in Libya in Benghazi. In Egypt, it was reported in the region of the Nile, along the Mediterranean coastal strip and in the western Desert (Wadi Natrum, Siwa, Farafra, Bahariya, Kharga, Dakhla, Kurkur, Dungul and Uweinat).<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula it is not considered rare, occurring in most of the peninsula (six provinces in Portugal and 27 provinces in Spain).<br/>It is rare in all of France including the Mediterranean region (localized in the Languedoc, very rare in the PACA region and absent from Corsica). The populations are fairly stable in coastal Languedoc and in the low plain of Aude, but in regression in the other French locations, where a good part of the populations have notably been lost since the 19th century (in Aude and Gard). Exceptionally, in Var, ten locations have lately been discovered and therefore this species has returned to its less precarious state in the Red Book.<br/>Listed as Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and present in only two localities in Montenegro.	eng
164209	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The abandonment of grazing and the dynamics of perennial competitor plants, agricultural practices, urbanization, infilling with rubble, overgrazing, the use of dried pools (for example for parking), the high frequency of dry years and drainage are the main threats to this species.	eng
164210	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no specific conservation measures in place.	eng
164210	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a widely dispersed plant, found in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, St. Helena and Brazil. It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Egypt, Lybia, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. Also recorded from Western and Southern Africa.	eng
164210	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	The plant is considered a weed of canal banks and is found in damp usually sandy places, on muddy soil near springs and water reservoirs, mostly ruderal.	eng
164210	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is very common in the Mediterranean and North African region.	eng
164210	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species does not face any major threats.	eng
164211	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range are  needed.	eng
164211	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Egypt (Sinai, Oases, Desert east of the Nile) and has also been recorded in Sierra Leone, Kenya (Northern Frontier District and Mt. Elgon) and Algeria. No records for Southern Africa have been reported and Kenya's record is taxonomically doubtful. Also found in Israel, Pakistan and Madagascar.	eng
164211	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Moist ground, around wells and springs.	eng
164211	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This is are species. There is no information about its populations.	eng
164211	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	In addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal, the species is threatened natural disasters such as drought.	eng
164212	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the only known site in North Africa and to search for new ones, legal protection of the species in North Africa (list of protected species in Morocco), implementation of legal protection measures (environmental impact legislation) and study the dynamics of the population.	eng
164212	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epilobium angustifolium</span> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers the temperate and cool zones of the northern hemisphere: Europe, tropical and temperate Asia, North America and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal Spain, France, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Morocco. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164212	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits riverbeds, forest edges and chalky to slightly acidic wetlands. It is found also outside wetlands in forests and on mountains. Flowering occurs in summer.	eng
164212	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region but is found in only one location in North Africa (Morocco), with very restricted populations due to spatial limitations. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in one location in the Rif (Jbel Bouhachem); fairly common in Spain and Portugal, present in more than 126 sites; in France it is present in nearly all the country; in Italy it is also common and found in all the country.	eng
164212	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Mismanagement of forests edges and long droughts are the main threats to this species.	eng
164213	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The massif of Toubkal benefits from the status of National Park. There is no protection in place for the other localities. The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitoring of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Compliance with legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164213	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Epilobium psilotum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare; its distribution is restricted to the central Haut Atlas where it is known from three localities: Tachdirt; Angour and Toubkal. Its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km².	eng
164213	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found on oozing rocks and the sides of brooklets of porphyritic mountains. It blooms and fruits during spring and summer under the semi-arid cold Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164213	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.	eng
164213	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	Except for the site of Toubkal that is in a National Park, all the other sites are subject to high pressure from grazing and from large numbers of tourists facilitated by the creation of access paths to the sites.	eng
164214	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. The proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the population dynamics and to implement legal protection of the species in Algeria.	eng
164214	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Chrysosplenium dubium</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. In the Mediterranean region, it only occurs in Italy and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 2,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is smaller than 50 km², and it is present in four locations.	eng
164214	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) can be found along streams in mountainous regions. Flowering occurs in the spring between March and May.	eng
164214	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is found at four locations in the Mediterranean region (distributed between Algeria and Italy) and the populations are restricted. In Italy, it is present in three regions in the south of the country:   Campania, Calabria and Basilicata. The data for Campania is old and has not been confirmed recently. The presence in Basilicata and Calabria has been confirmed recently. In the latter it has been found in   Aspromonte, M.Giffone, and Sila Grande all on granite and sandstone. In these regions, the species is localized but with stable populations. It was previously considered in the category Lower Risk in the Italian Regional Red List (Conti <em>et al.</em> 1997). In a recent list of vulnerable species (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) it is not included anymore.<br/>In Algeria, it is very rare, occurring in only one location, namely in Kabylie (Collo).	eng
164214	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164215	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, it is therefore recommended to develop and implement legal measures for the protection of the habitat of this species.	eng
164215	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of one protected area in Central Africa Bambuko (Forest Reserve, Cameroon). It has been recommended to develop and implement legal measures for the protection of the habitat of this species.	eng
164215	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species found in Europe, Africa, Newfoundland, and it is naturalized in Australia. <br/><br/>In North Africa, it is found in Libya (one location), northern Tunisia (two locations, Kroumirie and Cape Bon), it is common in Algeria (Tell exclusively, rare in Sahara), and common in Morocco (six locations: Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, Targuist, Gareb, Mamora). In Central Africa, it has been recorded from one single description from high on Mount Cameroon. Also recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, and Lesotho.	eng
164215	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species found in Europe, Africa, Newfoundland, and it is naturalized in Australia. It is common in France (including Corsica), scattered in Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily) and appears in much of Europe, but it is rarer in the north. In the eastern Mediterranean, it extends its distribution to Turkey and Israel. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Libya (one location), northern Tunisia (two locations, Kroumirie and Cape Bon), it is common in Algeria (Tell exclusively, rare in Sahara), and common in Morocco (six locations: Tangier, W Rif, Loukkos, Targuist, Gareb, Mamora).	eng
164215	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is an annual dwarf species and Therophyte. It is found on wet sands, wet meadows, banks of dayas, temporary ponds (Isoetion) and lakeshores from the coastline to an altitude of 2,100 m. The species often germinates on saturated soils when waterlevel recedes in spring or summer. Flowering between April and August depending on latitude, altitude and hydroperiod.	eng
164215	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> is an annual dwarf species and Therophyte. It is found on wet sands, wet meadows, banks of dayas, temporary ponds (Isoetion) and lakeshores from the coastline to an altitude of 2,100 m. The species often germinates on saturated soils when waterlevel recedes in spring or summer. Flowering between April and August depending on latitude, altitude and hydroperiod.	eng
164215	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus capitatus</em> has a very dispersed population in the Mediterranean region. This species can form small populations and occupies threatened places. Thanks to its small size it is easily overlooked. But the data is insufficient to define the population trend. In Tunisia, it is present in three regions Mogods (14 sites Sejenane); Kroumirie and Cap Bon. It occurs at one location in Montenegro and is rare (Data Deficient) in Croatia. In Spain, it is reported in 191 sites, and widespread in France. The species is epizodic in Israel where it is found at one vernal pool.	eng
164215	population	Juffe, D., 2010	In Tunisia, it is present in three regions Mogods (14 sites Sejenane); Kroumirie and Cap Bon. No more information is available.	eng
164215	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The shallow wetlands where this species is found are easily transformed or cultivated and they are often affected by agricultural and domestic pollution.	eng
164215	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The shallow wetlands where this species is found are easily transformed or cultivated and they are often affected by agricultural and domestic pollution.	eng
164216	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In France, it is included in the Red Data Book   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). It is classed as Near Threatened in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). <br/><br/>In Morocco and Algeria, there are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the size of the populations and the possibilities of their restoration <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164216	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Elatine brochonii</em> is a species with a Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution. It is found in Morocco (Mamora, Benslimane, Timahdite in the Moyen Atlas and Malalène in the western Rif), in Algeria (Annaba, El Kala, Reghaïa, Corco), in Spain (Huelva, Léon, Caceres, Cadiz, Badajoz, Zamora, Toledo), in continental France (Gironde, Landes, Pyrenees Atlantiques) and in Corsica. It is considered as Vulnerable in Spain and it is very rare in Algeria, Corsica and Morocco. In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 1,060,000 km². The area of occupancy is suspected to be close to 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164216	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in habitats of plains and mountains (0-1,500 m altitude) submitted to temporary flooding. It prefers temporary pools, the edge of ponds and lakes, on sandy to clayey soils. It is an annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) that germinates on flooded soil (under some centimetres) but does not tolerate deep water because it has aerial reproduction. It blooms in the spring under the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164216	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Elatine brochonii</em> is present at eight sites in Morocco, nine in Algeria, at least seven in Spain and one only in Corsica. In continental France, thirteen sites were known once in the southwest, of which only one seems to subsist (Reserve of Saucat) and additionally one new site has been recorded (Salaunes in the Medoc).  <br/>The last observations date to 2006 at the Moroccan sites (Mamora and of Benslimane), 2001 at the Algerian ones, 2005 in Corsica and 2003 in mainland France (Landes). <br/>On the set of the sites, the populations show a big inter-annual instability bound to the hydrologic conditions. This makes the assessment of the status of the populations difficult. However the global trend shows a decline. Indeed, most sites in continental France do not seem to be occupied any longer or with much reduced populations; the Corsican population remains fragile (at only one site) and damaged by accumulation of sediments resulting from enhanced erosion in the catchment (4x4 vehicles).<br/>In Morocco and in Algeria, the populations appear better preserved but are essentially under increasing anthropogenic pressure in Mamora, Benslimane and in Numidie. In Spain, the populations are vulnerable and threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
164216	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<p>This species habitat is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats such as drainage, overgrazing, frequent passage of vehicles creating tracks on the sites (Mamora in Morocco), and deposits of sediment from erosion in the catchments (in Corsica). Besides the threats of anthropogenic origin, the species (that requires high light levels) is affected by the competition of woody plants or Helophytes. The species is dependent on specific hydrologic conditions that are not met every year. Climatic change is likely to have an important impact on this species by decreasing the frequency of favourable years resulting in a reduction in reproduction and consequently increasing the probability of extinction notably in the most isolated sites. The plant is of small stature and has small seeds. It requires high levels of insulation and the seeds are very sensitive to burying (Rhazi <em>et al.</em> 2007). The disruption by domestic animals or the passage of vehicles bury the seeds preventing germination. As pointed out by Rhazi <em>et al.</em> (2007), 87% of germination takes place when the seeds are on the surface compared to only 13% and 6% when the seeds are buried respectively under 2 mm and 5 mm sediment.</p>	eng
164217	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In Spain, <em>S. corymbosus</em> is found in the Doñana National Park (Huelva).<br/>There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa or needed.<br/>Research on the historic distribution and the origin of the species are recommended.	eng
164217	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> is a tropical Old-World sedge, widely distributed in Pakistan, India and Africa (Algeria, Cameroon, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Mali, Madagascar, Morocco, Tanzania, Zimbabwe). It is very rare in the Mediterranean basin. The populations in Morocco and Spain are either remnant populations or have, according to Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> (2007), recently naturally colonised this area<em></em>.<br/> <br/>Its Mediterranean distribution extends to Algeria where it is found at the Senadja plain (Lac des Canards) and El Kala (El Frin), to Egypt (Nile delta, Nile faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), Morocco (road from Tiflet to Maaziz), and Spain (Huelva, Cádiz).	eng
164217	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> grows in swamps and forest hollows, sometimes in or near water in forest. In Morocco and Spain, it develops on oligotrophic sandy soils, seasonally flooded by freshwater (Jiménez-Mejías <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
164217	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The subpopulations of <em>Schoenoplectus corymbosus</em> are estimated at six in Spain, one in Morocco, a few in Algeria, and a few in Egypt, where it is considered as rare.<br/>Depending on whether the populations in Morocco and Spain are seen as remnant or as a result of natural colonisation the population trend can be decreasing or increasing and is therefore selected as unknown.	eng
164217	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em></em>The main threats are related with the agricultural activities that eutrophicate the soils and water bodies, and the extraction of underground water for the crops, especially strawberry crops very frequent in sandy soils in the south of Huelva (Spain).	eng
164218	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	<p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  In France, the species is protected in one region (Centre), but there are no conservation measures in the French Mediterranean continental area.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended for North Africa:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size and to study their dynamics <br/>- Conservation of the habitat and the species <br/>- To control the harvest of the species <br/>- Conservation <em>ex situ</em> (seeds banks)<br/>- Legal protection of the species	eng
164218	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a Mediterranean species. It is known from southwestern Europe and northwestern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, France and Corsica, Sardinia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It is known in numerous localities with an extent of occurrence of about 1,600,000 km² and an area of occupancy greater than 500 km².	eng
164218	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Dactylorhiza elata</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that is found in humid grasslands of tall grasses and rushes with very wet calcareous soils or soils flushed by calcareous waters. It also grows at the sides of streams and springs and is a light demanding plant. <br/>Its flowering takes place in spring and in early summer.	eng
164218	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is present in numerous localities in the Mediterranean. The populations are in regression due to the reduction of their habitat. <br/>- Morocco: rather common but often as isolated individuals with more than 12 localities distributed in the Rif, the Moyen Atlas, the Haut Atlas, the north- and middle Atlantic Moroccan plains; <br/>- Algeria: rather common in the Tell algero-constantinois and rare on the Mounts of Tlemcen; <br/>- Tunisia: known in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, El Fedja);<br/>- France: present in Corsica and in the western and southwestern part of the country, from Pays-de-la-Loire to Languedoc-Roussillon (Lozere, Herault, Gard, Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales) for the Mediterranean part, but absent from eastern France (Provence). This species is quite rare in the French Mediterranean area;<br/>- Iberian peninsula: dispersed on most of the peninsula (present in 351 localities in Spain and in nine provinces in Portugal);<br/>- Italy: it is one of the rarest orchids in Italy with only one population in Sardinia with about 20 individuals.	eng
164218	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	The habitat of the species is submitted to numerous anthropogenic threats including drainage of the swampy prairies, their use for agriculture, their filling in and urbanization. The species is also intensively collected for gardening purposes.	eng
164220	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species occurs in the Al Hoceima National Park. There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164220	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Selaginella balansae</em> is a species strictly endemic to Morocco. <br/>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the AOO >20 km², and it is present in more than 10 locations.	eng
164220	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that grows on siliceous humid rocks of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs essentially during spring.	eng
164220	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common with populations appearing to be stable (fairly preserved in the mountainous regions). <br/>It is present in the Rif (Alcalâa Torres in Al Hoceima National Park and in Targuist), in northern Atlantic Morocco (along Oued Grou near Rabat), in mid-Atlantic Morocco (Lalla Haya springs near Oulmès) and on the mountains of the Anti Atlas and the High Atlas.	eng
164220	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164221	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Some populations of <em>J. anceps</em> are present in Ramsar sites. Apart from that there are no other conservation measures in place.<br/>Because of its fragmented distribution, this species can be threatened in the future if the wetlands near human settlements are destroyed. It is therefore suggested to make an inventory of the habitats and populations.	eng
164221	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus anceps</em> has a western Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution (Pignatti 1997). In Africa it is present in Tunisia (three locations in Kroumirie and garâa Sejnane (Maire 1957)), Algeria (rather common in the Algiers and Constantine Tell) and Morocco, where it has only been observed in Rif, Ketama mountains (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
164221	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus anceps</em> has a western Mediterranean-Atlantic distribution (Pignatti 1997). It is present in western Europe, where it is rare in Italy mainland and Sardinia, France (present in the west, centre and south, but probably missing from Corsica where it has not been seen since 1900), Greece, Spain, Portugal, Albania, and former Yugoslavia (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964-1980).<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus anceps</em> is present in Tunisia (three locations in Kroumirie and garâa Sejnane (Maire 1957)), Algeria (rather common in the Algiers and Constantine Tell) and Morocco, where it has only been observed in Rif, Ketama mountains (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
164221	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>J. anceps</em> is a perennial species and a geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in wetlands, wet meadows, marshy places and freshwater marshes, on chalky plains and mountains. The flowering in France is from June to September, in Corsica and Italy from May to July, and in North Africa from May to August.	eng
164221	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>J. anceps</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with rhizomes. It is found in wetlands, wet meadows, marshy places and freshwater marshes, on chalky plains and mountains. The flowering in France is from June to September, in Italy from May to July, and in North Africa from May to August.	eng
164221	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the western part of the Mediterranean region. It is very rare in Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
164221	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the western part of the Mediterranean region. It is very rare in Morocco, Italy and Tunisia. In France, it spreads in southern and western France. There are four populations in the south of Spain. It is rarer in the eastern Mediterranean where it is present in Montenegro in seven localities and Data Deficient in Croatia.	eng
164221	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The habitat of <em>J. anceps</em> is probably threatened by agriculture and pastoral activities, drainage, and urbanization.	eng
164222	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the population dynamics, the existing sites and search for new ones and to study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate its population size.	eng
164222	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex demissa</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution includes Europe, western Siberia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and Morocco. It occurs in numerous locations.	eng
164222	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte). Preferentially calcicole, this species is found in very humid pastures and along the edges of springs and streams of plains and mountains, in bioclimatic humid environments. Flowering occurs between mid spring and the beginning of summer.	eng
164222	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous localities, but it has a restricted distribution in North Africa (AOO <100 km²). The tendency of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: one location in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), four locations in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen in Arhbalou n'Aït-Amou at 1,700 m, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy path at the crossing of Oued Zad) and fairly common in the Rif (Tanger, Issaguène, Madissouka valley, Jbel Arhoud, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine). Its presence in the massif of Jbel Mtourzgane, near the Oued Ouerdane springs, is uncertain.<br/>- Portugal: fairly common; <br/>- Spain: 92 sites; <br/>- France: very common, occurring in numerous locations;<br/>- Italy: occurring in the north as well as the south and Sicily, absent from the centre	eng
164222	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threat.	eng
164223	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164223	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164223	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a cosmopolitan species that stretches from Europe (except Arctic) to temperate Asia and America, Atlantic islands and Madagascar.<br/>In North Africa, <em>Juncus effusus</em> is common in Tunisia (Kroumiria), common at the Algerian coast (eastern and central Tell, Akfadou, El Kantara, Djurdjura, Tlemcen), and is rather common in Morocco (Maire 1957) except for the north where it has only been found at three locations: Tangier, C Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
164223	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Tropical and northern Africa, Europe, Asia and north America.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. The species is common in Kenyan mountains from 1350 - 3100 m above sea level. Also present Tanzania and Uganda. In Northern Africa, <em>Juncus effusus</em> is common in Tunisia (Kroumiria), common at the Algerian coast (eastern and central Tell, Akfadou, El Kantara, Djurdjura, Tlemcen), and is rather common in Morocco (Maire 1957) except for the north where it has only been found at three locations: Tangier, C Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). Presence in Ethiopia needs to be confirmed.	eng
164223	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a perennial species and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found in marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, and wet meadows at plains and mountains with P >700 mm. <br/>Flowering occurs between May and October.	eng
164223	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is a perennial species and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, and wet meadows at plains and mountains with precipitation above 700 mm. <br/>Flowering occurs between May and October.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, the plant is found on wet ground in grassland, near streams and bogs. Also along paths in upland forests.	eng
164223	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus effusus</em> is widely present in Europe, in northwestern Africa, but are rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable on a Mediterranean scale.	eng
164223	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Northern Africa: <em>Juncus effusus</em> is widely present in Europe, in northwestern Africa, but are rare in the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.	eng
164223	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164223	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164226	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164226	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Rumex crispus</em> is a cosmopolitan species with a widespread distribution that covers Europe, Asia, northern Africa, Madeira, Azores, etc. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 600,000 km², within which the AOO >2,000 km², and it is present in several locations.	eng
164226	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid habitats, stream edges, canals and irrigated meadows of mountains up to about 2,300 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-July).	eng
164226	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean basin and in North Africa, with populations that appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common in the Rif (Smir, Jbel Alam, Msabeh Sania and Cap Negro), along the Mediterranean coastline, in the oriental plains, Middle Atlas, High Atlas (n'Izli springs), north Atlantic plains (Rwidate Dam, Tiflet, Oued Fouarat, Benslimane, etc.) and mid-Atlantic Morocco; <br/>- Algeria: very widespread in the Tell region, the Saharan Atlas (Aurès), etc; <br/>- Tunisia: very common in Kroumirie, the Mogods (Ichkeul lake), the Tunisian Dorsal (Saint Marie du Zit and Maktar) central Tunisia (Kairouan), south Tunisia (Gabes, etc) and the northeast (Potinville, Oued Miliane and Medjez el Bab); <br/>- Libya: present in Tripoli, Labrag, Gebel Akhdar and Al Qubbah;<br/>- Egypt: quite common in the valley and delta of the Nile; <br/>- Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Lebanon, Turkey, etc: very common.	eng
164226	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, water extraction, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.	eng
164227	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.	eng
164227	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place or needed.	eng
164227	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	North and Central America, Europe, Arabian peninsula, Africa from Western to Central and North Africa. Also found in Madagascar.<br/><br/>Relatively widespread in Western Africa and present in Central and Southern Africa. Also recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan (Jebel Murra – Blue Nile Province – Gazira canals).	eng
164227	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is subcosmopolitan, but <em>P. nodosus</em> in sensu strictu is usually considered to be a species of warm-temprate and subtropical regions of the northern Hemisphere. However, it penetrates into the tropics and in some areas even further south into the warm-temperate regions of the southern Hemishpere. In North Africa, it is present in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In Europe it extends from Portugal to Greece and Turkey, but is absent from the Levant.	eng
164227	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>P. nodosus</em> is usually found in slow to moderately flowing water and is confined to calcareous and moderately but not excessively eutrophic rivers.	eng
164227	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	Perennial aquatic herb, growing in ponds, swamps, marshes, paddy fields, irrigation ditches and channels, springs and streams.	eng
164227	population	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	Perennial species, widespread and diversify habitat, therefore important population.	eng
164227	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
164227	threats	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, Invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
164227	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164228	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need. Otherwise no conservation measures are in need.	eng
164228	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	Sudan, Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, India and Egypt (Nile region including Delta, Oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, Desert east of the Nile, Sinai)	eng
164228	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Canal banks, moist ground.	eng
164228	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Common / weed	eng
164228	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No major widespreading threats are known.	eng
164229	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
164229	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
164229	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This cosmopolitan species occurs in almost all Europe to North Africa and Asia. It is also present in America and Australia.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Egypt where it reaches the southern limit of its distribution.	eng
164229	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This cosmopolitan species occurs in almost all Europe to north Africa and Asia. It is also present in America and Australia. In north Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Egypt. It is widespread throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
164229	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or circumneutral waters. It grows in ponds, ditches, canals, and slow flowing water. It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or circumneutral waters.	eng
164229	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It grows in base-rich water in ponds, ditches, canals, and slow flowing water. It favours nutrient-rich, alkaline or neutral waters.	eng
164229	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is common in the northern Mediterranean. <br/>In Morocco, the species is very rare and restricted, present at only three sites.	eng
164229	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is common in the northern Mediterranean.  In Morocco, the species is very rare and restricted where it is only present in three sites.	eng
164229	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is threatened by other invading species (e.g. <em>Azolla</em>), however, this is not a major threat.	eng
164229	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	It is threatened by other invasive species (e.g. <em>Azolla</em>). This is not considered as a major threat.	eng
164230	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The localities of Jbel Ayachi and Maskers are within the National Park of the oriental High Atlas. For the future, the following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- To study the biology and the ecology for the species and to estimate its population size<br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164230	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Campanula mairei</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. Its distribution is limited to the High Atlas with three known localities (Jbel Ayachi, Masker, Tinerhir). The extent of occurrence is about 1,500 km².	eng
164230	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found at the edges of streams, wetlands and the debris of the middle and high flinty and chalky mountains up to 3,600 m altitude. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate typical for high mountains.	eng
164230	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known but they seem stable in the localities of Jbel Ayachi and Maskers situated in the national park of the High Oriental Atlas. The last observations of the species at these sites were made in 2003.	eng
164230	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Campanula mairei</em> is found in steppic habitats that are subject to large pressure of grazing by goats. In the light of this information, the number of locations is estimated to be between five to 10.	eng
164231	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164231	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Turkey, Cyprus, Greece, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, France, Spain and Balearic Islands, and Portugal (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).	eng
164231	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It inhabits arid soils, sandy, gravelly and silty alluvial soils, often saline.	eng
164231	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common.	eng
164231	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164232	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164232	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Polypogon monspeliensis</em> is a paleo-subtropical species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers western and southern Europe, western Asia, Ethiopia, the Hoggar, northern Africa, the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164232	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools, marshes, depressions flooded in winter, rice paddies, along stream edges, ditches and humid habitats of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m. Flowering occurs during spring and the beginning of summer (March-June).	eng
164232	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Moreover, populations appear to be stable.	eng
164232	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture, drainage and the development of road infrastructures are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164233	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Lebanon, a 500 m stretch on each riverside is protected by law and it is forbidden to make any development in this area.<br/> <br/>It is recommended to monitor the existing sites and study the dynamics of the populations as well as the regeneration process of the species. Harvest management should be put in place.	eng
164233	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Salix libani</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species with a distribution limited to the east of the Mediterranean basin. It is present in Turkey, Syria and Lebanon. <br/>Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the area of occupancy is greater than 100 km², and it is present in more than 20 locations.	eng
164233	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that is found on the edges of watercourses, sandy springs and in wetlands of limestone and sandstone substrate at middle elevation. It is found with <em>Alnus orientalis</em>, <em>Rhododendron</em> spp. and <em>Mentha aquatica</em>. Flowering occurs during spring (March-April).	eng
164233	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region occurring at more than 20 locations. The populations are very small with only a few individuals. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Turkey: present in the southeast of the country (Amanus mountanious range); <br/>- Syria: it is present in the anti-Lebanon mountainous range (Zebdani) and to the north of Lattaquié (Froulok); <br/>- Lebanon: it is found on the lower mountains of Qrayé, Abey, Bhamdoun, Araya, Broumana, Bikfaya, Dhour Choueir and on the middle mountains of Falougha, Aïn Zehalta, Bcharré, Bqerqacha, Bcharré, Ehden, Aïnata, Mreijatte, Chtaura and Qabbélias.	eng
164233	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The cutting down of the trees for wood and for the extraction of tannins, may become a threat to this species. Industrial river pollution is also threatening the species. The habitat of the species is an ecologically vulnerable zone.	eng
164234	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones in North Africa.	eng
164234	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Isolepis setacea</em> is a subtropical species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, Africa, Madeira, Azores and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and doubtfully in Albania. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164234	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits rivers, swampy soils and humid pastures of mountains. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (May-September).	eng
164234	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The size and trend of the populations are unknown. <br/>- Morocco: considered rare, with 14 known locations distributed between the Anti Atlas (Tachokcht), High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Rharb and Zaïane country), Tangérois, the Rif and probably along the western Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: fairly widespread in Numidie and Jijel but very rare in the Oranais Tellien Atlas; <br/>- Egypt: found along the banks of the Nile; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with more than 215 sites; <br/>- France: very common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: present in eight provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164234	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization, habitat drainage and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species.	eng
164235	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) and implementation of existing legal protection measures<br/>- To reinforce the reforestation of the mountains damaged <br/>- To limit grazing on the sites where the species occurs<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness and formation of site managers	eng
164235	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Pinguicula fontiqueriana</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It has often been confounded with <em>Pinguicula corsica</em> that is endemic to Corsica and <em>Pinguicula vulgaris</em> that is present in the west, north and centre of Europe. <br/>It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the Central Rif with three known localities: Jbel Tidighine, Jbel Lerz, Bni Seddat. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 800 km² within which the occupied area doesn't exceed 15 km².	eng
164235	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in acidic peaty swampy meadows between 1,700 m and 2,100 m altitude. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164235	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are isolated and seem to have a weak dispersal considering the reduced area occupied within the Central Rif. The size of the populations is not known but they remain fragile and threatened.	eng
164235	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In addition to the pressure of grazing on the sites (trampling), the main threat is the deterioration of the surrounding mountains by deforestation, which increases the soil erosion and therefore the silting up of the habitat of the species.	eng
164236	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research in population numbers, range, and actual threats are need. Habitat conservation and management is need.	eng
164236	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is protected under regional legislation in France.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164236	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A palaeotropical species that is widespread in the Mediterranean region, including Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt, and Algeria.	eng
164236	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is present in Egypt (Nile region including Delta) and Algeria.	eng
164236	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Moist ground, Nile banks and irrigation canals.	eng
164236	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This annual plant prefers moist ground and damp places.	eng
164236	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare.	eng
164236	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
164236	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threat to this species.	eng
164236	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is vulnerable to any disturbance due to its restricted range and limited dispersal. However, specific threats are not known.	eng
164237	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures except for some species occuring in designated Ramsar sites.<br/>For the North African populations it is recommended to study the inventory of their habitats, taxonomy, locations, etc.	eng
164237	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures except for some species occurring in designated Ramsar sites.<br/>For the North African populations it is recommended to study the inventory of their habitats, taxonomy, and locations.	eng
164237	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout the entire European continent, except for Crete. It is also rare at the Mediterranean islands Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (eight sites). <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present but rare in Morocco (western Rift), Algeria (four locations in Numidia and one location observed near Jijel), and was known in Tunisia at three locations among which one has disappeared (Sejenane) and one is in a protected site (Majen Chitane).	eng
164237	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout the entire European continent. It is also rare at the Mediterranean islands Sardinia and Corsica (eight sites). <br/>In North Africa, it is present but rare in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164237	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb that grows in ponds, rivers, stagnant freshwater bodies or slow-moving waterways. It prefers oligotrophic environments from 0 up to 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
164237	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nymphaea alba</em> is a perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb that grows in pools, rivers, stagnant freshwater bodies or slow-moving waterways. It prefers oligotrophic environments from 0 up to 1,500 m.	eng
164237	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In Europe, the species is overall abundant, but is has been extinct from Crete, Sicily, Lebanon and Syria (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).<br/>In Morocco, it is rare and found only in the western Rif, same in Algeria where it occurs at four locations in Numidia and one location near Jijel. It was known in Tunisia at three locations among which one has disappeared (Sejenane) and one is in a protected site (Majen Chitane).	eng
164237	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of <em>Nymphaea alba</em> in northwest Africa are small: nine locations in total (four of which are in the north of Numidia) with an Extent of Occurrence (EOO) <5,000 km² and Area of Occupancy (AOO) <500 km².	eng
164237	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	In North Africa, the species is threatened by the destruction of its aquatic habitats. It is not threatened at the scale of the Mediterranean region.	eng
164238	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but for North Africa it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, and to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164238	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Glyceria declinata</em> is a sub-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers Europe, North Africa and Macaronesia. It was introduced into North America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia and Morocco. There are old records from Corsica that are considered dubious. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km² with several locations.	eng
164238	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and swampy environments. Flowering occurs in the spring.	eng
164238	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. In North Africa it is very rare with only two locations. The state of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: recently discovered in the country (2006), the species is rare and solely present in the northwest of Morocco, namely in two locations (between Derdara and Kasar-el-Kebir and in the mountains of Jebala in the Tangier region);<br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common in nearly all of the peninsula with more than 967 sites; <br/>- France: common in the centre and north of the country and present in six departments in the south; <br/>- Italy: rare, present in only one province in the northeast of the country.	eng
164238	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.	eng
164239	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Some proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164239	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is only under regional protection in France (Midi-Pyrénées). It is classified as Critically Endangered on the Croatian Red List. <br/>Some proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones (North Africa) and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164239	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis uniglumis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, North America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece and Crete, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164239	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis uniglumis</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia, North America and North Africa. In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 2,500,000 km², 11 locations and an AOO <20 km². Very widespread in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164239	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies, temporary pools and swamps of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs in spring (April-May).	eng
164239	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Populations are very restricted and in slow decline due of the regression of their habitat. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, with only three locations, namely in central High Atlas (Glaoua and Jbel Guerdouz at 2000m) and central Middle Atlas (pool on the Causse d’Ito); rare in Algeria, with less than five locations distributed between Numidie and the Algérois coast (Chaïba swamp); probably very rare in Tunisia, with a few locations in the Mogods (Sejnane) and in Kroumirie (Dar Fatma).	eng
164239	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region; in North Africa it is rarer with only 11 locations. Populations are very restricted and in slow decline due to the regression of their habitat. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, with only three locations, namely in central High Atlas (Glaoua and Jbel Guerdouz at 2000m) and central Middle Atlas (pool on the Causse d’Ito); rare in Algeria, with less than five locations distributed between Numidie and the Algérois coast (Chaïba swamp); probably very rare in Tunisia, with a few locations in the Mogods (Sejnane) and in Kroumirie (Dar Fatma). <br/>It is present in two provinces in Portugal, 34 sites in Spain; fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France; present in 11 provinces of Italy and few populations in Montenegro. It is considered as Critically Endangered in Croatia, with several populations, including eight in the Mediterranean region, but threatened by habitat loss.	eng
164239	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization, agricultural expansion and the drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats (loss of habitats and degradation of habitat quality).	eng
164240	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164240	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Leptochloa ginae</em> is a strict endemic species of Morocco. It is very rare with a very restricted distribution. It is known from four localities of which two are located on the Atlantic coastline: on the right strand of the Massa river and on the right strand of the Arksis river (limit Anti Coastal Atlas and Saharan Morocco). The two other localities, situated in the Moroccan part of North Sahara, are slightly continental: El Aïoune of the Draâ, to about 500 m elevation and Jbel Bou tagount. Its extent of occurrence is about 1,500 km².	eng
164240	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Leptochloa ginae</em> is a perennial whose biological type varies from Chamaephyte to Geophyte. The plant grows on arid and hot quartzitic or dolomitic rocks of the banks of rivers. It blooms in summer under the arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164240	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available.	eng
164240	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threats to the habitat are the urban and tourist amenities, as well as the pressure of grazing by goats.	eng
164241	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	It is found in protected areas in West Africa. Further research in biology, ecology and population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164241	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	The species is listed on several national red lists: Endangered in Spain (Moreno 2008), Vulnerable in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005), Vulnerable in Greece (Phitos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), Vulnerable in Andalusia (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/>In Italy and Spain, some populations are included in protected areas.<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to increase knowledge about the species biology and ecology and to look at genetic variation and diversity in the populations.	eng
164241	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a Paleo-subtropical species that occurs in temperate and subtropical regions of the Ancient World. In north Africa, the species is present but rare in Morocco at Loukkos in the Atlantic coast. It has also been recorded in Dayas in Mamora (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and at lake Gedira (Maire 1957). It is very rare in Algeria where there is one confirmed location in Numidia. It occurs in Sudan and Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique, Botswana, and in South Africa in Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape. It is widespread in western Africa.<br/><br/>Globally, this species occurs in western and southern Europe, Africa and South Asia, especially tropical, Philippines, and Australia.	eng
164241	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a Paleo-subtropical species that occurs in temperate and subtropical regions of the Ancient World. It is found in western and southern Europe, Africa and South Asia, especially tropical, Philippines, and Australia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region the species is found in Morocco, Algeria, Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Sicily, Malta (considered as alien species in the latter two), Slovenia in Istria, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Israel and Palestine.	eng
164241	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is a free-floating rootless perenial plant on permanent water. Its prefered habitats are oligotrophic, acidic or neutral waters, marshes, and ditches. Often forming large populations on the water surface of pools, sheltered parts of lakes and ditches, betweeen 0-1600 m asl. Very small flowers.	eng
164241	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is found in marshes, ditches, permanent waters, artificial ponds, and rice fields. Its preferred habitats are eutrophic, neutral waters, sometimes acidic. It is not known to produce flowers in Europe and North Africa.	eng
164241	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Populations are scattered in a great area throughout the Mediterranean region. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is greater than 20,000 km², but it is rare and occupies some small areas so its area of occupancy is smaller. The species is commmon throughout its range.	eng
164241	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	The populations of <em>W. arrhiza</em> are scattered in a wide area in the Mediterranean region, but it is rare and occupies some tiny areas, therefore the area of occupancy is <500 km².<br/>In North Africa, the species is present but rare in Morocco at Loukkos (Atlantic coast), at dayas in Mamora (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and at lake Gedira (Maire 1957). It is also found but very rare in Algeria where there is one confirmed location in Numidia.<br/> In France, it is scattered on the continent. It has been seen in Corsica by Calvi in 1833, but neither seen again nor confirmed. The populations in Italy are instable and scattered in the north and east and in Sicily. In Croatia, it is found in Turopolje and Crnec Polje, probably in agricultural systems (Hulina 1998). In Bosnia-Herzegovina it has been reported from the Neretva river basin (The World Bank 2006).<br/>In Greece, there are scattered records from the north (Macedonia). It has been found at one site near Rentina in central Macedonia, two sites in Nestos river, and there are uncomfirmed records for southwestern Greece. <br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, the populations are very scarce with very few recent records: three in Spain (Huelva, Cadiz, Caceres) and two to three in Portugal (Estremadura and Ribatejo, Baixo Alentejo). It was more abundant in Portugal in the past. <br/>The overall population trend is declining.	eng
164241	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Wolffia arrhiza</em> is threatened by changes of agricultural practice, for example if water intensive rice production is changed to a dry production. In North Africa, infrastructure development for tourism is another threat.	eng
164241	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	It is probably threatened due to its rarity mainly due to touristic infrastructure development. In West Africa it is threatened by competitiors resulting from changes in native species dynamics. Drought and wetland "reclamation" (especially for urban expansion) are localised major threats.	eng
164242	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, more taxonomic research and conservation of the habitats is needed.	eng
164242	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. inuloides</em> is found in Turkey, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. It is also present in Iraq and Afghanistan.	eng
164242	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	In Africa, the species is found from Morocco to Egypt, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.	eng
164242	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. inuloides</em> is an annual plant. It grows in disturbed habitats within oases (Israel), moist wadi beds, near springs, irrigation canal banks, temporary pools, road sides, and fields. Flowering time is April to August.	eng
164242	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. inuloides</em> is an annual plant. It grows in disturbed habitats within oases (Israel), moist wadi beds, near springs, irrigation canal banks, temporary pools, road sides, fields.	eng
164242	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is only common in North Africa. In Algeria, it is common and found in several humid sites in the steppe and the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is found at several sites in the south and few in the north.<br/>In Morocco, its very common, found in many locations distributed in the Atlas mountains (Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Anti-Atlas) in the Rif mountains, in the south of Morocco, in the east and at the Mediterranean coastal strip.	eng
164242	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is only common in North Africa. In Algeria, it is common and found in several humid sites in the steppe and the Sahara. In Tunisia, it is found at several sites in the south and few in the north. In Morocco, its very common, found in many locations distributed in the Atlas mountains (Great Atlas, Middle Atlas, Anti-Atlas), in the Rif mountains, in the south of Morocco, in the east and at the Mediterranean coastal strip.<br/><br/>In Turkey, <em>P. inuloides</em> is found in five different cities (Adana, Antalya, Aydin, Izmir, Mugla) in southern and western Turkey. There is one stable population in the nature reserve Ein-Gedi in Israel, and one population near Petra in Jordan.	eng
164242	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	At Mediterranean level, the species is not threatened at the moment, but in Jordan the use its habitat for water extraction might be a threat in the near future. In North Africa, agricultural use and urbanization of its habitat could become a threat to this species in the future.	eng
164242	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North Africa, there are no major threats to the species as it seems quite resistant. But in the future agricultural use and urbanization of its habitat could become a threat to this species.	eng
164243	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. littoralis</span> is included in the Red List of Croatia where it is considered as Critically Endangered   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008). No further conservation measures are known for this species.<br/>Proposed conservation actions are to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164243	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Aeluropus littoralis</em> is a circum-Mediterranean species. It has a very large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, western Asia, North Africa and extends from the Arabian Peninsula to India. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Croatia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. It occurs in numerous locations and its AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164243	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits sandy stretches along the coastline, swamps and inland salty soils. Flowering occurs from spring to autumn (March-October).	eng
164243	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is found at more than 15 locations: Targuist, Imzourene, Gareb, Guercif, Tarfaya, Jbel Ouarkziz, Aïn Chegga, Tademricht, Tata, Laâyoune, Boujdour; mouth of the Ghebar river near Bouznika. <br/>It is common in Algeria, from the coastline to central Sahara; present in Tunisia in more than six locations (La Galite, Souk el Arba, Kairouan, Gafsa, Metlaoui, Oudref); Egypt in the Red Sea coastal strip and the Sinai Peninsula; and is found in at least six sites along the Mediterranean coastline of Libya (Misurata, Zuara, Benghazi, Giuliana, Bomba and Tobruk). <br/>It is very common in Spain (115 sites) and France; present in 10 provinces in Italy and also in Sicily; very common in Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine.<br/>It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008).	eng
164243	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The loss of habitats especially through urbanization of the coastline for the development of industry and tourism, is the main threat to this species and its habitat.	eng
164244	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	More research is required on the species population numbers and range, threats and potential conservation measures.	eng
164244	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is endemic to Egypt (Nile region including Delta).	eng
164244	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Moist ground, Nile banks and irrigation canals.	eng
164244	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare.	eng
164244	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No information available.	eng
164245	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164245	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164245	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is a Paleo-temperate species native to Eurasia, North and South Africa. It is introduced into North and South America, Java, Australia and New Zealand.<br/>In North Africa, it is common in northern Tunisia, in Algeria (Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aurès), in Morocco (Tanger, western Rif, Ouezzane, central Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul), and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula and wettest parts of wadis above 1,500 m). It is probable that the species occurs in Libya.<br/>In the northern and eastern Mediterranean region, it extends from Portugal and Spain to France and Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balkans, Turkey and to the Levant.	eng
164245	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Tropical and northern Africa, Europe, tropical and temperate Asia. Naturalized in Australia, New Zealand and North America. <br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. In North Africa, it is common in northern Tunisia, in Algeria (Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aurès), in Morocco (Tanger, western Rif, Ouezzane, central Rif, Tazzeka, Aknoul), and in Egypt (Sinai peninsula and wettest parts of wadis near 1,500 m above sea level). It is probable that the species occurs in Libya. Possibly present in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
164245	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus inflexus</em>is found in ponds, ditches, wet meadows, marshes and at the edges of permanent freshwater bodies across a large range of altitude (0-1,500 m in Italy, above 1,500 m in Egypt). It is less common in arid regions.<br/><br/>Flowering takes place from June to August in Italy and France, from May to August in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164245	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial herb iis found in ponds, ditches, wet meadows, marshes and at the edges of permanent freshwater bodies across a large range of altitude (0-1500 m in Italy, above 1500 m in Egypt). It is less common in arid regions.	eng
164245	population	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is present in large populations in many places of its wide distribution, both in Europe and Africa.	eng
164245	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is present in large populations in many places of its wide distribution, both in Europe and North Africa.<br/>It is common in France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Balkans, Turkey, but rare in Corsica and Israel.	eng
164245	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is not threatened in the short term, because it is common in the Mediterranean region. It is impacted by the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164245	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus inflexus</em> is not threatened in the short term. However, it may be impacted by the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164246	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed. It occurs in some protected areas.	eng
164246	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is a European endemic, only present in Corsica, Sardinia, and the small Italian islands of Capraia, Elba and Giglio. Pignatti (1982) reported it as occurring in mainland Italy, Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) report it as present in central southern Italy, but Baccheta and Mossa (2004) consider it to be endemic to Corsica, Sardinia and the Tuscan archipelago.	eng
164246	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is a high perennial sedge growing in wet and damp places, between 0 and 2,000 m asl. In Corsica, it occurs in wet lowlands and midlands.	eng
164246	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex microcarpa</em> is very common in Corsica. In Sardinia, it is represented by many subpopulations (Arrigoni <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1977-1991) which appear to be stable.	eng
164246	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species but it can locally suffer from the general degradation of its wetland habitats.	eng
164247	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The Aguelmame Sidi Ali (Morocco) is a classified Ramsar site since 2005, that benefits from an ecological sensitization programme by different NGO's, especially for its ornithological value. The following additional conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimation of the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics	eng
164247	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The Aguelmame Sidi Ali (Morocco) is a classified Ramsar site since 2005, that benefits from an ecological sensitization programme by different NGO's, especially for its ornithological value. The following additional conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimation of the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164247	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Eleocharis acicularis</em> is a very widespread species. It is found from the Arctic Circle to the mountains of the Mediterranean, Caucasus, from the Himalayas to Korea, from North America to Ecuador and in the mountains of the Atlas in North Africa. <br/>At the scale of the Mediterranean region, it is found in France (continental and Corsica), Portugal, Spain (continental and Island of Minorca), Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Morocco and a doubtful presence in Albania. <br/>In Morocco, this species of mountains is very rare. Its distribution is limited to two localities in the High Central Atlas (Ourika and daya Iferouane), one locality in the Middle Central Atlas (close to the Aguelmame Sidi Ali) and one locality in the oriental Rif (close to Tizi-Ifri). <br/>Its extent of occurrence is about 2,600,000 km² at the Mediterranean region level.	eng
164247	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Eleocharis acicularis</em> is a very widespread species. It is found from the Arctic Circle to the mountains of the Mediterranean, Caucasus, from the Himalayas to Korea, from North America to Ecuador and in the mountains of the Atlas in North Africa. <br/><br/>In North Africa, this species of mountains is only known from Morocco where it is very rare. Its distribution is limited to two localities in the High Central Atlas (Ourika and daya Iferouane), one locality in the Middle Central Atlas (close to the Aguelmame Sidi Ali) and one locality in the oriental Rif (close to Tizi-Ifri). <br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence is about 11,000 km² in North Africa.	eng
164247	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte or Hemicryptophyte) that develops in the swamps of mountains up to 2,100 m above sea level, on siliceous soil (flinty soil). It has a long flowering period from the end of spring until early fall.	eng
164247	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte or Hemicryptophyte) that develops in the swamps of mountains up to 2,100 m of altitude, on siliceous soil (flinty soil). It has a long flowering period from the end of spring until early fall.	eng
164247	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their present trends is available. It is a cold-climate species and is generally restricted to upland areas in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164247	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Extraction of water, overgrazing, organic pollution by animals and outdoor activities (causing trampling) are major threats to the habitat of this species in North Africa. Invasive alien species (competitors), e.g. <em>Paspalum paspalodes</em> are a problem locally in parts of the range.	eng
164247	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Extraction of water, overgrazing, organic pollution by animals and outdoor activities (causing trampling) are major threats to the habitat of this species. Invasive alien species (competitors), e.g. <em>Paspalum paspalodes</em> are a problem locally in parts of the range.	eng
164248	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164248	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Crassula alata</em> is a Euro-African species. Its world distribution includes North Africa, oriental Europe and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Greece, Crete, Karpathos, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164248	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits humid habitats like clearings in forests and gritty and stony pastures, from the coastline up to an altitude of about 2,000 m. Flowering occurs in winter and spring (February-May).	eng
164248	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: widespread, present in Saharan Morocco (northeast of Tan-Tan), Atlantic Morocco, the Anti Atlas, the Rif and the Mediterranean coastline; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: very common, with several locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Mogods, Cap Bon, Northeast Tunisia (Marsa, Radès, etc.) the Tunisian Dorsal (Oued Mellègue dam), central Tunisia (Sousse) and south Tunisia (Gabès, Douiret, Khanguet el Seldja, etc.); <br/>- Libya: present in Wadi Er'rabea (near Bir el Alam), Alfalfa and southeast of Tripoli; <br/>- Egypt: found along the Mediterranean coastal strip; <br/>- Syria: present in Jabal Dmeir and to the west of Homs;<br/>- Lebanon: present in Saïda, Khaldé, Beyrouth, Jbail, Tripoli, Beit-Méri, Broummana, Akkar, Menges and Aïn Saoua'ir.	eng
164248	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164249	conservation	Diadema, K., 2009	Two marshes where the species is found are included in Natura 2000 sites following the purchase during the "Temporary Marshes" LIFE project, but management is still not effective. <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation is realized in the Conservatoire Botanique National Méditerranéen de Porquerolles.<br/>It is recommended to legally protect the species in France (national level), to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites, to search for new sites and to raise awareness among the public.	eng
164249	distribution	Diadema, K., 2009	<em>Artemisia molinieri</em> is endemic to the central Var (France). The area of occupancy is very small, definitely less than 2,000 km² and probably less than 500 km².	eng
164249	habitat	Diadema, K., 2009	The species is restricted to temporary pools on karst. It is a perennial and amphibious species found in vegetation of tall annuals covered by deep waters during long periods.<br/>(Corine biotope 22.342: Tall Mediterranean amphibious swards)	eng
164249	population	Diadema, K., 2009	There are only a small number of populations but the number of individuals is quite high. Overall, the populations are decreasing.	eng
164249	threats	Diadema, K., 2009	The species is threatened by urbanization, wood cutting and agriculture in addition to changes in native vegetation dynamics.	eng
164250	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164250	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology have been conducted. Recommended conservations mesures are:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology, ecology, population numbers and range of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Habitat maintenance and conservation	eng
164250	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a tropical species. In addition to Morocco, it is known from the Cape Verde Islands, Africa (from Senegal to Uganda and Angola) and northwest India. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is only present in Morocco (northern limit of the species) where it is known from the plain of the Souss (Aït Melloul, Taroudant, Inzgane, Souss river) and from Saharan Morocco (West Desert and Sahara: Drâa river, oasis of Tafilalt). Its extent of occurrence in Morocco is about 7,000 km².	eng
164250	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	West Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and Somalia and Arabia, and south to Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Western Africa (Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Togo, Mauritania), and North Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it is only present in Morocco (northern limit of the species) where it is known from the plain of the Souss (Aït Melloul, Taroudant, Inzgane, Souss river) and from Saharan Morocco (West Desert and Sahara: Drâa river, oasis of Tafilalt).<br/><br/>North-eastern  and Eastern Africa: Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.	eng
164250	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a perennial plant (Chamaephyte) that develops on the banks of rivers, irrigation channels and oases. It blooms in spring under an arid to Saharan-Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164250	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Pluchea ovalis</em> is a vivacious plant (Chamaephyte), an aromatic glandular shrub that develops on the banks of rivers, irrigation channels and oases. Also occurs in savanna, marshes, river beds.	eng
164250	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Abundant and widespread in West Africa and North Eastern Africa and rare in Northern Africa.	eng
164250	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	No data on the size of the populations nor on their present trend is available, but the species is classified as rare.	eng
164250	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats throughout Africa. In Northern Africa, the threats on the habitat are multiple: pressure of grazing, agricultural expansion, tourist infrastructures and water pollution. In addition to those, <em>P. ovalis</em> is also affected by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
164250	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The threats on the habitat are multiple: pressure of grazing, agricultural expansion, tourist infrastructures and water pollution. In addition to those, <em>P. ovalis</em> is also affected by intrinsic factors such as restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
164251	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Research on population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and conservation are recommended. Implementation of water extraction restrictions should be reinforced.	eng
164251	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	In the Mediterranean, this tropical species occurs in Egypt, Algeria and Morocco. In Egypt, it is found in the Nile region including the delta, and the Mediterranean coastal strip. In Algeria, it is present in El Kala (Lac Oubeira), and Lacs et Mares des Senhadjas; and in Morocco, it is found at Merja Rhdira near Larrach, Merja Du Gharb, and Ed-Daoura near Nador.	eng
164251	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in lakes, pools, ponds, sub-littoral marshes, irrigation ditches, moist places. It is a weed in rice fields. It is a perennial stoloniferous freshwater species.	eng
164251	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is rare.	eng
164251	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Drainage, in-filling, water extraction for drinking water and agriculture are threatening the species.	eng
164252	conservation	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the true distribution and abundance of this species throughout its range.	eng
164252	distribution	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	The few records available suggest that <em>C.&#160;cribrosa</em> has a fairly patchy distribution, occurring in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, from Aveiro in Portugal to Castilla-La Mancha in Spain and south to the Algarve and Cadiz Province; in central Italy, Morocco and Algeria. The record for Italy (Latium) is doubtful (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is probably below 500 km<sup>2</sup>. The number of locations is estimated to be more than ten.	eng
164252	habitat	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<p><em>Callitriche cribrosa<em> </em></em>appears to be predominantly a plant of calcareous clay soils, where it occurs in ditches and streams. It appears able to tolerate nutrient enrichment. It has been recorded to an altitude of 1,640 m in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region>, but no higher than 1,100 m in <st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place>. <em>C. cribrosa</em> occurs most frequently with species typical of nutrient-rich, calcareous lowland ditches such as small <em>Glyceria </em>species, <em>Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum,</em> <em>Veronica catenata</em> and <em>Zannichellia palustris</em>. It has also been recorded with species such as <em>Alisma plantago-aquatica</em>, <em>Cyperus longus</em>, <em>Persicaria amphibia</em>, <em>P. hydropiper</em>, <em>P. maculosa</em>,<em> P. salicifolia</em>, <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>, <em>Typha</em> <em>angustifolia</em> and <em>T. latifolia</em>.</p>	eng
164252	population	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	This species is known from only a few sites in any of the areas from which it has been recorded. There appear to be between 25 and 30 currently known populations, with most information derived from herbarium specimens.	eng
164252	threats	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	The little information currently available suggests that this species typically occurs in naturally eutrophic water bodies, consequently it is likely to be at risk from hyper-eutrophication. One of the sources in Spain is pig farming.	eng
164253	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Northern Africa: There are no conservation measures in place or needed.<br/><br/>EA: None known or needed at present	eng
164253	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164253	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus schimperianus</em> is distributed in tropical Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, DR Congo, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan), especially in the Nile region. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt on the Nile banks, the delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 2005).	eng
164253	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus schimperianus</em> is distributed in tropical Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan), especially in the Nile region. In Egypt it grows on the Nile banks, the delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 2005). In Malawi it is known from Lilongwe Nature Forest Reserve, Ntchisi, east bank of Bua River in Kasungu, and Nkhotakota.<br/><br/>It has also been recorded in Saudi Arabia.	eng
164253	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This robust rhizomatous perennial cyperoid, without tubers, is found in marshes, alluvial banks, and rocky damp ground. Also on sandy or stony river banks, near or in water	eng
164253	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This robust rhizomatous perennial, without tubers, is found in marshes, alluvial banks, and rocky damp ground.	eng
164253	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Northern Africa: The species is common and widespread in Egypt.<br/><br/>EA: Not known	eng
164253	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The species is common and widespread in Egypt.	eng
164253	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
164253	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No major threats are known for this species although it may be affected by habitat conversion.	eng
164254	conservation		There are no conservation measures in place, but it is urgent to make an inventory of the locations of <em>Vicia fulgens</em> and to evaluate the populations, if it is not extinct, at least for the location of Barral. The remaining sites should be protected.	eng
164254	distribution		<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia fulgens </span>is endemic to Algeria and Tunisia. In Algeria, the plant is found at two locations: Tell of Constantinois (Barral - Chihani) and near Algiers (El Harrach and Alma), the second being probably destroyed by a human settlement. In Tunisia, it is found in north Ghardimaou (Kroumerie), on the edge of Oued Meramel.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 10 km² and it is found at less than five locations.	eng
164254	habitat		This perennial species is of one to two m height and its preferred habitats are undergrowth and damp meadows. It is a terrestrial species that likes moist places.	eng
164254	population		<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia fulgens</span> is rare and very restricted with only two known sites in Algeria and one in Tunisia. The population trend is suspected to be decreasing.	eng
164254	threats		This species is endangered owing to its small locations and is threatened of becoming extinct. Agricultural and infrastructure development are affecting its habitats.	eng
164255	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	More research on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164255	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean and occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164255	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	This perennial plant grows in marshes, usually near the sea.	eng
164255	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is common in the western Mediterranean.	eng
164255	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species does not face any major threats.	eng
164256	conservation	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., 2008	In Algeria, some populations are included in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>No other conservation measures are known, but it is recommended to carry out further research on the species and their locations.	eng
164256	distribution	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> has a Euro-Mediterranean to subcosmopolitan distribution (Pignatti 1982). It is found in most of Europe, except for the northernmost countries, western Asia, North and East Africa, Macaronesia, and America.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Egypt, where it is found in the Nile region and the oases of the western Desert; in most parts of Morocco; in Algeria, where it is common especially in the Tell; and it is also very common in Tunisia. In Europe it extends from Portugal to the Balkans and to Turkey and the Levant in the eastern Mediterranean.	eng
164256	habitat	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte. It grows in temporary ponds, wet meadows, marshes, stagnant waters, as well as places that are flooded in spring and dried up in summer, streams banks, ditches and canal banks.	eng
164256	population	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Mentha pulegium</em> is represented with numerous populations in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164256	threats	de Bélair, G., Rhazi, L., 2008	This species does not face any major threats.	eng
164257	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, population numbers and range are in need. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.	eng
164257	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Widespread presence in Subsaharan Africa. It also occurs in Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Mauritania and Egypt (Damietta).	eng
164257	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Herb of waste places, moist grounds and often on sandy soil. In roadside ditches, drainage trenches, in permanent and seasonal pools, on sandy soil and on black cotton	eng
164257	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	It is fairly common North Eastern and Eastern Africa but rare in Northern Africa.	eng
164257	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	In North Eastern Africa the future  infrastructure development and change of land management regime of non-agricultural areas could threaten the species in the future. However, no major widespreading threats at present.	eng
164258	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164258	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In North Africa, it only occurs in Egypt.	eng
164258	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	The plant grows in canals, ditches, and pools along the Nile river.	eng
164258	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is considered rare in Egypt.	eng
164258	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown, but eutrophication might be a threat.	eng
164259	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Currently no conservation measures are in place or needed in the northern Mediterranean. The species needs more attention at North African level.	eng
164259	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Currently no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are legal protection (lists of protected species), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the size of populations, study of the population dynamics and of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164259	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is widely distributed in Europe, it extends northwards to Scotland, central Finland and central Ural, but is absent from most of the south. <br/>In Africa <em>C. elata</em> is very rare in Algeria, where it is found in El Kala (Lac Noir at Bordj Ali Bey and pond east of Lac Melah) and Senhadja (Lacs des Canards).	eng
164259	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is widely distributed in Europe, it extends northwards to Scotland, central Finland and central Ural, but is absent from most of the south. <br/>In North Africa <em>C. elata</em> is very rare in Algeria, where it is found in El Kala (Lac Noir at Bordj Ali Bey and pond east of Lac Melah) and Senhadja (Lacs des Canards).<br/>Its Mediterranean distribution also comprises France (widespread, but rare in the Mediterranean region), Greece (rare, occurring in the north and the south), Italy (northeast, Sardinia and Sicily), the northern half of Portugal, central Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, central Spain, and only one locality in central Turkey.	eng
164259	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is a perennial tussock-forming sedge growing in weakly acidic fens and marshes found in coastal plains as well as inland.	eng
164259	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is a perennial tussock-forming sedge growing in weakly acidic fens and marshes of coastal plains in wet regions.	eng
164259	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is only present in three localities in North Africa, in Algeria (Senhadja-El Kala plains), among which one is completely destroyed (Lac Noir). It is rare and threatened over its entire Mediterranean distribution area.	eng
164259	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is only present in three localities in North Africa, in Algeria (Senhadja-El Kala plains), among which one is completely destroyed (Lac Noir). The species is very abundant in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, present in 39 provinces in Spain and in all the Portuguese provinces except for Algarve and Baixo Alentejo. In Italy, it is common in the north and centre, but becomes rare towards the south, e.g. only one site in Sicily. In Greece, there are records from central and western Macedonia and from Sterea Ellas.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carex elata</span> is a boreal species and therefore becomes rarer in its Mediterranean distribution area.	eng
164259	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Carex elata</em> is mainly threatened by destruction and loss of its habitat quality.	eng
164259	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em></em>Changing of the water level and eutrophication can lead to an invasion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites</span> spp. which causes competition for <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex elata</span>.	eng
164262	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is listed as VU in the Red List of Croatia.<br/>In North Africa no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are monitoring the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and monitor the populations' dynamics.	eng
164262	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is listed as VU in the Red List of Croatia. In North Africa no conservation measures are in place. The proposed measures are monitoring the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and monitor the populations' dynamics.	eng
164262	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex riparia</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² and it is found at several locations.	eng
164262	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex riparia</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is only present in Morocco and Algeria, with an extent of occurrence over 250,000 km², less than 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 20 km².	eng
164262	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) inhabits swamps, bogs and the edges of lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164262	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the species is rare, due to spatial limitations (less than 10 locations and an AOO <20 km²), with restricted populations that are in regression (mainly in Algeria). It is very rare in Morocco, with two locations in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf and Ras el-Ma), and rare in Algeria, with five locations along the Algérois coast (Maison-Carrée, Mazafran plain).	eng
164262	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In Portugal it is present in three provinces; in Spain it is very common and present in 31 provinces; it is very common in nearly all of France; and in Italy it is present in 15 provinces besides Sardinia and Sicily.<br/>In North Africa the species is rare with restricted populations that are in regression (mainly in Algeria). It is very rare in Morocco, with two locations in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf and Ras el-Ma), and rare in Algeria, with five locations along the Algérois coast (Maison-Carrée, Mazafran plain).<br/>In Syria, <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex riparia</span> has been reported from riversides and wetlands and from one site at the   Oronte river.	eng
164262	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	At Mediterranean level, there are no significant threats that would lead to the species decline. The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), and the infilling and drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats in North Africa.	eng
164262	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization of the coastline (in Algeria), and the infilling and drainage of the habitat of this species are its main threats.	eng
164263	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. It is proposed to legally protect the species and include it in the list of protected species in Tunisia and Algeria, and to monitor the Tunisian and Algerian subpopulations.	eng
164263	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> is a Mediterranean-Saharan species, found in North Africa, Botswana, Madagascar, Ethiopia and Sudan. Its Mediterranean distribution comprises Egypt, where it is relatively abundant, and Tunisia, where it is rare. It also occurs in Saharan Algeria and Libya.<br/><br/>In Egypt, it is found in the Nile delta (El Cairo), the Nile valley (El Riqqa, Dabsha island, Matania, Samalut, Esna, near Edfu), oases of the Libyan desert (Dakhla, El Rashda), the Mediterranean coast (Rosetta, El Farash island, Damietta, North of Damietta), the Isthmic desert (Tell el Kebir, between Tell el Kebir and Qassassin, Necho canal, El Wady between Tumilat el Sherif and Geraia, Geraia), and the northern Arabic desert east of the Nile between Tumilat and Qena-Qosseir road (Suez).<br/><br/>In Tunisia it occurs near Gabès at Sidi Boul Baba, Zarkine.	eng
164263	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> grows in canals, pools, flooded fields and rice fields.	eng
164263	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Marsilea aegyptiaca</em> is rare in Tunisia and Algeria, and relatively abundant in Egypt.	eng
164263	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The location of the species in arid and semi-arid regions limits the threats. The main ones are the non-intentional destruction of wetlands and their drainage for agricultural purpose.	eng
164264	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, this species is under regional protection in Poitou-Charentes. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics, to search for new sites and to conserve the species’ habitat.	eng
164264	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Rumex palustris</em> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164264	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous plant (Therophyte to Hemicryptophyte) of 10-100 cm high, that inhabits swamps, lake shores, shallow waters and the edges of streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (March-July), during fruiting time the colour of the stem changes from green to brown or red.	eng
164264	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with several locations. <br/>In North Africa, the species is rare and its populations are restricted (spatial limitations) and slowly receding. <br/>- Morocco: rare, present in the Rif (Tetouan and Negro) and in northern Atlantic Morocco (Oued Fouarat, Merja Zerga, Merja Sidi Saïd, Dayet Roumi and Bargha); <br/>- Algeria: very rare solely occurring in Numidie (Bône and La Calle); <br/>- Spain: very scattered distribution <br/>- France: quite common in the centre and north of the country but rare along the Mediterranean coast where it is present in only four regions; <br/>- Italy: fairly common, present in 11 regions in the east and north of the country besides Sicily; <br/>- Syria: present in Ghab swamp, near Qala.<br/>- Turkey: common	eng
164264	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of swamps for agricultural usage (notably in the Maghreb) and urbanization as well as grazing by cattle are the main threats to this species.	eng
164265	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is under regional protection in France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais). Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is being carried out.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics and to study population numbers, range and size.	eng
164265	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus peltatus</em> is a species of large biogeographical distribution covering the Mediterranean region, Europe and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in France, Corsica, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Spain, Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region exceeds 30,000 km², with numerous localities and an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164265	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus peltatus</em> is a fixed Hydrophyte, annual, that prefers soft and brackish waters, current or stagnant, canals and ponds. Its flowering occurs in spring and summer.	eng
164265	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region with several localities and populations undergoing a weak reduction. <br/>- Morocco: quite widespread with several localities distributed between the Rif, Middle Atlas, Anti Atlas, north and middle Atlantic plains <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with numerous localities distributed between the Kroumirie (Mouadene, Sraï el Madjen, Madjen Azoug), central Tunisia (Feriana, Kairouan), Tunisia of the North east (Hammam-Lif, Menzel Djemil, marsh of the Ichkeul), Mogods (Sedjenane, Madjen ech Chitane), Cap Bon (plains of Grombalia, El Houaria, Menzel Temime) and Dorsal Tunisian (Kalaat es Snam) <br/>- Libya: region of Benghazi <br/>- Egypt: present on the Mediterranean coastline (Alexandria) <br/>- Italy: three provinces in addition to Sicily and Sardinia <br/>- France: very common in nearly all the country <br/>- Spain and Portugal: very common with more than 535 known sites	eng
164265	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Drought caused by drainage, filling, transformation of the habitat into agricultural land, and urbanization constitute the main threats to the species and its habitat.	eng
164267	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The subpopulation in El Kala (Algeria) is included in the National Park of El Kala.<br/>The following additional conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species in Algeria and Tunisia).<br/>- Application of legal conservation measures.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study the population dynamics.<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164267	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is an endemic plant of Algeria and Tunisia. It is rare in Algeria and occurs in El Kala, Jbel Ouach and Mitija, the last one being probably destroyed. In Tunisia, it is found in Kroumirie (Jbel Bir, Fernana) and Mogods (Sejenane). The area of occupancy is less than 10 km<sup>2</sup> and it is known from less than five locations.	eng
164267	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is a perennial species growing in marshy meadows.	eng
164267	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	While no recent information on the present-day status of the populations of <em>Convolvulus durandoi</em> is available, this species is probably declining because of the degradation of most of its localities. The populations are severely fragmented.	eng
164267	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The main threats to this species are the destruction and degradation of its habitat, mainly due to drainage and agriculture. In Tunisia, the site of Sejenane, which was a seasonally flooded plain in the 1950s, is now entirely drained and cultivated.	eng
164268	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place; recommendations include:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in France and Italy).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164268	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place; recommendations include:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in France and Italy).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164268	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an endemic of the western Mediterranean where it can be found in the following countries:<br/>- Algeria: Kabylie de Collo, Forêt de Reghaïa, Tlemcen, Tiaret<br/>- Corsica: Santa Lucia di Porto Vecchio, San Ciprianu, Trinita di Bonifazio (very rare)<br/>- Italy: Tuscan Maremma<br/>- Morocco: Rif and maybe Tazzeka<br/>- Portugal: northern Atlantic coast and north-east<br/>- Spain: Gibraltar and centre<br/>- Tunisia: Kroumirie and Mogods	eng
164268	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an endemic of the western Mediterranean where it can be found in the following countries. In Algeria it is found in Kabylie de Collo, Forêt de Reghaïa, Tlemcen, Tiaret. In Morocco, in the Rif and maybe in Tazzeka. Also recorded from Kroumirie and Mogods in Tunisia.	eng
164268	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is an annual caespitose small sedge growing in damp places, temporary pools and peaty riparian swamps.	eng
164268	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is relatively common but never abundant. It is characterised by a scattered distribution in all its area.	eng
164268	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is very rare in Italy and Corsica, and relatively common but never abundant in the other areas where it occurs. It is characterised by a scattered distribution in all its area.	eng
164268	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is presumably affected by the general destruction of wetlands.	eng
164268	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isolepis pseudosetacea</em> is presumably affected by the general disappearance of wetlands.	eng
164269	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to manage the existing habitats appropriately and to review the identification of the populations in its Mediterranean range.	eng
164269	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is cosmopolitan extending from Asia Minor to Afghanistan and Japan and occurs in the north temperate regions. It is probably introduced in South Africa and America. In the Mediterranean it is found in northern Italy, from coastal Slovenia and Croatia to Greece, Egypt, Lebanon, and Turkey. The species is found in northern France, outside the Mediterranean region.	eng
164269	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	<em>R. rionii</em> is an annual or perennial Hydrophyte with most plant parts under the water except for the flowers growing up to 2 m depth. It prefers shallow waters at lake shores, especially mesotrophic lakes on fine sediment that can be temporarily dry. It is also found in pools, canals, oxbows, former quarries, ditches, former riverbeds. It can tolerate some salt.	eng
164269	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is common in Egypt and very common in Turkey. In Italy, it is found in two northern provinces. It has a scattered distribution in Greece. This is generally a poorly recorded and recognised taxa.	eng
164269	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Change of the hydrological regime (e.g. drainage) and subsequent out-competing by taller plants are the main threats to the species. This plant is also effected by mechanical control of vegetation and eutrophication.	eng
164272	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics. The conservation of the species’ habitat is necessary.	eng
164272	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Brachiaria mutica</em> is a tropical species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,200,000 km².	eng
164272	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found along bushy edges of rivers and in sandy pastures along the coastline. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-June).	eng
164272	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common, especially in the southeast of the Mediterranean basin, with more than 20 locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>It is very rare in Algeria, occurring in two locations in Numidie (La Cale and Bône). In Tunisia, it is rare and found only in Kroumirie. In Egypt, it is quite common at the Mediterranean coast, Nile and Sinai Peninsula. It is fairly common in Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestine.	eng
164272	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The agricultural use of this species’ habitat (river banks) and urbanization in the coastal area are its main threat.	eng
164273	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164273	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	<em>Rumex conglomeratus</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia, North and southern Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers much over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164273	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, temporary pools and wetlands of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
164273	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, mid-Atlantic Morocco, northern Atlantic Morocco, the plains and hills of oriental Morocco, the Mediterranean coast and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country; <br/>- Tunisia: very common with at least 11 locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Medjerda Valley (Oued Tessa), Northeast Tunisia (El Bathan and Sidi Fathallah), the Mogods (Sejnane), central Tunisia (Kairouan, Kelbia lake and Aïn Cherichera) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan, Kessera and Oued Bargou); <br/>- Libya: found in at least two locations (Derna and Tarhuna); <br/>- Spain: very common with 386 sites distributed all over the country; <br/>- France: very common; <br/>- Italy: very common occurring in 14 provinces in the centre and south of the country, in addition to Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164273	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	Locally, the drainage of swamps for agricultural usage and urbanization are leading to a habitat decline but the species occurs in numerous sites and has stable populations.	eng
164274	conservation	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	In Lebanon, the species is indirectly conserved as it grows in the protected 500 m stretch along the river banks.<br/><br/>For North Africa, there are no measures in place; future conservation measure recommendations are:<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamic of populations<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species	eng
164274	distribution	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis sieberiana</em> is a pantropical species which can be found in Africa, America, Asia and Oceania. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in in Algeria (very rare in central Sahara), Egypt, and Morocco.<br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it occurs mainly in the east, namely  Israel, Lebanon (coast: south of Saïda, Beyrouth, Antelias, Nahr Beyrouth, Nahr-el-Kelb; lower mountains: Broummana), Palestine, southern Syria (Hammé), Cyprus and southern Turkey. It is furthermore found in Crete and southern Spain.	eng
164274	habitat	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis sieberiana</em> is a protogyny, perennial Graminoid that grows in wetlands, bogs, river banks, wet road sides, and sandy sea shores. In Algeria it is found at springs (guelta) in the Central Sahara.<br/>In the southeastern Mediterranean this species is an indicator for good freshwater quality.<br/>Flowering time is from April to October in Israel, July to August in Turkey.	eng
164274	population	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	The population trend of the species on regional level is unknown. In Algeria, it is found in humid places in central Sahara and is very rare. In Turkey it is probably widespread, whereas it is classed as rare in Israel. In Lebanon, it is widespread but classified as threatened due to pollution. And it is only found in the province Castellón in Spain.	eng
164274	threats	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	The populations could be threatened by river pollution. In Turkey, it is found at roadsides and could therefore be threatened by transport development. In Israel, most of its habitat is threatened by urbanization and agricultural development.<br/>In Algeria, the gueltas are frequented by tourists.	eng
164276	conservation	Juffe, D., 2007	It occurs in protected areas in Western Afrcia (e.g., Yomboli Ramsar site). Further research on range, population size, habitat s status and threats of this species is needed.	eng
164276	distribution	Juffe, D., 2007	This species is widespread in Africa. It occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, South Africa, Namibia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, Mauritania, Madagascar, Mali and Djibouti.  In coastal and inland Kenya it is found between 0-1 to 700 metres above sea level.<br/><br/>It is widespread in temperate and tropical regions	eng
164276	habitat	Juffe, D., 2007	<em>Bolboschoenus maritimus</em> is a perennial herb (rhizome Geophytes) from salted marshes, brackish,  in shallow permanent or semi-permanent wate or freshwater temporary pools of the verges of mountain ponds reaching in some cases 2,100 m asl. Its flowering takes place between spring and summer. The formations of <em>B. maritimus</em> act as stepping stone for a lot of bird species and as shelter for small mammals. It is a very appetizing species for livestock. Its tubers are very appreciated by ducks, geese and wild boars.	eng
164276	population	Juffe, D., 2007	The size of the populations is unknown, but seems to be steady.	eng
164276	threats	Juffe, D., 2007	Drainage, urban expansion and agriculture, droughts, overgrazing and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species but they affect the species locally and hence, not considered to be major throughout the Pan-African region.	eng
164277	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. For North Africa, it is proposed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.	eng
164277	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in situ. For North Africa, to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones has been proposed.	eng
164277	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hirta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is only found in Morocco and Algeria with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 300,000 km², less than 10 locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².	eng
164277	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex hirta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164277	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the edges of temporary pools and mountain lakes as well as humid, sandy pastures. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
164277	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa it is rare, due to spatial restrictions (less than 10 locations), with very restricted populations that appear to be stable. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in four sites in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Oued Ifrane and Ifrane Biology Station); very rare in Algeria, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Lambèse)	eng
164277	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region (several locations). It is very common in Spain, occurring in 200 sites, and common in France and in Italy (not present in Sardinia and Sicily).<br/><br/>In North Africa it is rare, due to spatial restrictions (less than 10 locations), with very restricted populations that appear to be stable. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in four sites in the Middle Atlas (Daya-t-Hachlaf, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, Oued Ifrane and Ifrane Biology Station); very rare in Algeria, occurring in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas (Lambèse).	eng
164277	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164279	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)	eng
164279	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Juncus tingitanus</em> is a west Mediterranean species that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula (Spain).<br/><br/> It is very rare in Morocco with only one locality known in the Rif (Koudiate-El-Harcha in Tangiers) and two localities in the Gharb (Wadi Fouarat and Merja Zerga). The extent of occurrence of <em>J. tingitanus</em> in North Africa is in the range of 650 km², and the area of occupancy is less than 10 km². The last observations, for the Moroccan sites, date to 1995 for the locality of Tangiers and 2003 for those of the Gharb.	eng
164279	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>J. tingitanus</em> is found in the sandy depressions flooded in winter. It is an annual species that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164279	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations show large inter-annual fluctuations bound to the irregularity of the rainfall. The global trend is a reduction of the populations resulting from the development of road amenities close to the sites and from the partial drainage of some sites of the Gharb, notably those near of the Fouarat wadi.	eng
164279	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threats are the destruction and the degradation of habitats from drainage, water pollution, agricultural development, overgrazing and the development of road infrastructures.	eng
164280	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to carry out further research on the taxonomy, populations dynamics and habitats of this species and to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.	eng
164280	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
164280	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia cirrhosa</em> is found in South Africa, the eastern North Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Its distribution is unclear due to taxonomic confusion with <em>Ruppia maritima</em>.	eng
164280	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ruppia drepanensis</em> is a species with a widespread distribution. In the Mediterranean region.<br/><br/>In North Africa its extent of occurrence surpasses 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) over 500 km², and it is present in at least 13 locations. The trend of the populations is not known. It is found in Tunisia (two locations), northern Algeria (one location near Oran) and northwest Morocco (two locations in the north and three locations in the centre, near Rabat and Fès).<br/><br/>In South Africa it is present in Namibia and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
164280	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ruppia cirrhosa</em> is a submerged, perennial herb (rooted Hydrophyte) that inhabits brackish waters and grows usually near the sea. It is equally present in saline marshes inland and at mountains.	eng
164280	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In western Europe, this species occurs in brackish water sites, such as low-salinity ponds and mesohaline to polyhaline coastal lagoons. This species is rare in marine conditions. Abundance of this species can fluctuate considerably seasonally, and during severe winters it may disappear completely (Green and Short 2003). It is a fast growing species and colonises rapidly.	eng
164280	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. No information on Southern Africa populations is available. <br/>In Morocco, it is present in at least 10 locations distributed between the Rif (Msaben-Sania), northern Atlantic Morocco (Daya Douyet near Fès, Bou Regreg, Oued Ghebar and the Oued Mellah dam), mid-Atlantic Morocco (salt water springs at the foot of Jbel Amsittène, mouth of Oued Tamri, Oualidia and to the north of lake Zima) and Saharan Morocco (Mchrâa Sfi between Goulimine and Oued Noun). It is quite common in Algeria, in the Oranais coastal plains (La Senia). In Tunisia, it is present in Cap Bon (El Haouaria) and in the northeast of the country (Chikli island).	eng
164280	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is abundant within its range. There is no specific population information available and work is need on its taxonomy before accurate distribution information can be developed.	eng
164280	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164280	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is not threatened in the short term, but as it is rare everywhere, it could become threatened in the future. <br/>Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species.	eng
164281	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Nymphaea lotus</em> requires conservation measures, especially regarding its cultural relevance.	eng
164281	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	It occurs in some protected areas. However, <em>Nymphaea lotus</em> requires some conservation measures, especially regarding its cultural relevance, popluation numbers and range, and harvesting levels.	eng
164281	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Native to Asia, Madagascar, tropical and subtropical Africa from Egypt south to southern Africa. Is widely cultivated as an ornamental and has become established in north and south America, Australasia and in Europe.<br/><br/>The species is widespread in western Africa, from West to East Africa and Madagascar. Then from North Africa to Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the South.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: In Burundi, the species is only known in the Rusizi plain especially in the delta of Rusizi and in two or three locations in the Rusizi national park. In Kenya, this species is widespread but rare (K1,3,5,6,7) from sea-level to 2300 m. It has been recorded in Northern Kenya at Lake Turkana south, Ayangyani Swamp, South Rift Valley in Shombole Swamp in Magadi, Narok District and Lake Victoria region at Kisumu and Kisii. Also along the Kenyan Coast in Kwale District at Maji ya Chumvi, Western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Aberdare Ranges. In Malawi this species occurs in Nkhotakota at Dwambazi, Salima at Mpasa njoka, Chikwawa lower Vwaza and Elephant marsh. In Tanzania, it has been recorded from the Mbulu district; Lake  Manyara Nationa Park, Endabash; Tabora district; Ugala R., Isimbira (Isimbila), Kilosa district; Mikumi National Park, Makola (=Mkola) water - hole, Zanzibar - Mwera R.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Fayoum and Mediterranean area (Rosetta and eastwards). Also recorded from North-eastern Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia).<br/><br/>In Southern Africa the species occurs in from Namibia to Mozambique, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Cook, 2003).	eng
164281	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is native to tropical Africa, Madagascar, and southeast Asia. In North Africa, the species occurs in Egypt in the Nile Delta, Fayoum and in the Mediterranean area in Rosetta and eastwards.	eng
164281	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>N. lotus</em> occurs in aquatic habitats that are characterised by fine sediment, high organic matter and lowest water pH, conductivity, phosphates, total nitrogen, carbonates and sodium. Now it is only found in a rice field.	eng
164281	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	This robust plant, grows in permanent or temporary water up to depths of about 2.5 m. Found in ponds, rivers, water courses and in marshy areas. It is common and often locally dominant. The species is often so locally dominant  that phtosociological communities are named after this dominant. It is a very fragrant night-flowering species; after pollination the flowers loose their scent but still remain open for the next 2 or 3 days. <em>N. lotus</em> occurs in aquatic habitats that are characterised by fine sediment, high organic matter and lowest water pH, conductivity, phosphates, total nitrogen, carbonates and sodium.	eng
164281	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Quite widespread species and presumably important population.	eng
164281	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is very rare but was formerly much more widespread. It has a tiny range and area of occupancy now, with only one known site although this will contain more than one location. It is present at only one site in northern Egypt at the Nile Delta in rice fields around Lake Manzala.	eng
164281	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	In Northern Africa the spread of the species is suppressed as a result of continuous disturbance caused by agriculture practices. The species may also be affected by drought, invasion of alien species, sedimentation or decline in habitat quality due to human activities such as agriculture and development. None of these are considered as major threats.	eng
164281	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The spread of the species is suppressed as a result of continuous disturbance caused by agriculture practices.	eng
164282	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place; monitoring of the existing sites in North Africa is needed.	eng
164282	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus flammula</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers Europe, particularly central and North Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 40,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164282	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous and rhizamotuos plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swampy grasslands, wet meadows, lakes and ditches. Flowering occurs in spring (March-May).	eng
164282	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is rare and has a very restricted distribution (spatial limitations) and it is solely present in the mountainous regions (Rif and Numidie). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, present in three locations in the Rif (Issaguène, Jbel Khezana and Dayet Abartete); <br/>- Algeria: occurs in only one location (La Calle Lake in Numidie); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 374 sites essentially located in the north; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the mainland and rare in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: present in 12 provinces in addition to Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>  - Greece: rare<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>, according to Flora Hellenica (Strid and Tan 2002) there are only four verified records from n<st1:place w:st="on">orthern Greece;</st1:place>   <br/>- Turkey: known from Tuz Lake in central Anatolia.	eng
164282	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage, agricultural expansion and overgrazing are the main threats to this species.	eng
164283	conservation	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Flanagan, D. & M. Rhazi, 2009	In France, it is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie.<br/><br/>Proposed actions for North Africa are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, legal protection of the species (Moroccan list of protected species) and monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164283	distribution	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Flanagan, D. & M. Rhazi, 2009	<em>Oenanthe pimpinelloides</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution covers western and southern Europe, Anatolia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164283	habitat	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Flanagan, D. & M. Rhazi, 2009	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams, swamps of plains and low mountains and ditches and heavy soil. Flowering occurs during spring.	eng
164283	population	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Flanagan, D. & M. Rhazi, 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa the populations are very restricted and probably in slow decline. A site in Morocco has been partially disturbed due to its drainage. It is fairly uncommon in Morocco, where this species occurs in eight locations, distributed between the Middle Atlas (Jbel Tazekka), the Rif (Haouta-el-Melaïb, Beni Seidar, Jbel Zinat, Jbel Afestal and Beni Karrik), the Mediterranean coastline (near Al-Hoceima) and in northern Atlantic Morocco (near Larache).<br/>The species is fairly common in Portugal and Spain with more than 46 sites; fairly common along the Mediterranean coast of France; common in nearly all of Italy including Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164283	threats	Ali, M.M., Rhazi, L., Flanagan, D. & M. Rhazi, 2009	The deterioration of the neighbouring landscape and the drainage of this species’ habitat are some of its main threats.	eng
164284	conservation	Bilz, M. & Bergmeier, E., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> is found in two habitat types that are listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC: Mediterranean tall-herb and rush meadows (6420) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Liquidambar orientalis</span> woods (92C0). Most of the wetlands with <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> are included in the Greek Natura 2000 sites GR4340004 (Elos-Topolia) and 4340006 (Fassas-Limni Agias), but the threats are still remaining within these protected sites. Raising awareness of the public and administrative bodies is therefore needed. It is furthermore requested to implement water protection areas and to provide legal and factual means to control water extraction (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).<br/>  It is protected by the Greek Law (Presidential Decree 67/1981).	eng
164284	distribution	Bilz, M. & Bergmeier, E., 2010	<em>Carex cretica</em> is a Greek endemic found in western Crete and on the island of Ikaria.<br/>The area of occupancy is estimated to be below 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164284	habitat	Bilz, M. & Bergmeier, E., 2010	<em>Carex cretica</em> is a small, laxly tufted perennial sedge. It mainly grows in submontane riparian <span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus orientalis</span> woodland, steep banks of permanent streams (<span style="font-style: italic;">Adiantion capilli-veneris</span> communities), springs and seepage meadows (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodio-Holoschoenion</span> communities). It is occasionally found in damp <span style="font-style: italic;">Castanea</span> groves.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Carex cretica</span> morphology can vary, depending on grazing impact. In the absence of grazing, they can grow to more than 40 cm in height. When subject to sheep grazing, the plants have been found to be much smaller but were still producing flowers and fruits (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).	eng
164284	population	Bilz, M. & Bergmeier, E., 2010	The species has been recorded from 18 sites in Crete and one site in Ikaria (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007). The trend of the populations is unknown but the populations are likely to be declining as suspected from its declining habitat.	eng
164284	threats	Bilz, M. & Bergmeier, E., 2010	Small-scale wetlands in Crete are threatened by water extraction for irrigation purposes. This changes the hydrology of water bodies and mainly leads to them drying out. Another threat is the application of herbicides and fertilizers on nearby olive plantations (Bergmeier and Abrahamczyk 2007).	eng
164286	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To reinforce the reforestation of the mountains<br/>- To limit the pastoral load and to protect the sites inhabited by the species <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Genetic survey <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164286	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Ranunculus dyris</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is limited to the mountains of middle and high altitude. It is presents in seven localities of the Haut Atlas (Tizi-n-Tachdirt, Anromer, sources of Tessaout, Marrakech, Oukaimedene, Mgoun, Impetus-TS Tichki) and in two localities of the Anti Atlas (Jbel Siroua, Amezdour). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 12,000 km².	eng
164286	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found at the edges of streams, springs and humid rocks of middle and high flinty mountains (2,400 to 3,300 m altitude). It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid cold, sub-humid and high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.<br/>To the morphological level, some specimens present an intermediate pilosity between <em>Ranunculus dyris</em> and <em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> (being at the Moyen Atlas and the Haut Atlas) which suggests cases of hybridization within the species.	eng
164286	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The last observations of <em>R. dyris</em> at the sites of the Haut Atlas date to 2001 but do not give any information concerning the size or the state of the populations.	eng
164286	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species' habitat is declining in quality due to high pressure from grazing, tourist outdoor activities in the mountains and the extraction of material, such as rocks, for construction works. <em></em>Deterioration of the surrounding areas due to deforestation, soil erosion, and tourism infrastructures are some of the major threats to the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. dyris</span>.	eng
164287	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place, surveillance of the existing sites, raising public awareness, implementation of legal protection measures, monitoring of the population dynamics, biology and ecology of the species have been  recommended.	eng
164287	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164287	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a subcosmopolitan and subtropical species. Its global distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, and the Canary, Madeira and Azores islands. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in numerous localities in the countries: Albania, Bulgaria, continental France and Corsica, Greece and Crete, Spain and Balearic Islands, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Portugal, Turkey, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.	eng
164287	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a subcosmopolite and subtropical species. Its global distribution covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, and the Canary, Madeira and Azores islands. This species is widespread in western and Southern Africa and present in Northern Africa and north Eastern Africa. It occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Also in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.<em>C. longus tenuiflorus </em> is found in South Africa (Limpopo, North Western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
164287	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a perennial plant that can be considered as Hydrophyte or Geophyte. It is found on the verge of marshes and in humid places of plains and mountains, reaching 2,000 m of altitude. Its period of flowering goes from spring until the beginning of fall.	eng
164287	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Cyperus longus</em> is a perennial plant that can be considered as hydrophyte or geophyte. Prefers a moist sandy loam. It also grows well in up to 30 cm of water. It is found on the verge of marshes and in humid places of plains and mountains, reaching 2,000 m above sea level. Also in muddy and seasonally flooded depressions, marshes and border of water.Its period of flowering goes from spring until the beginning of fall.	eng
164287	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Its Population moderately abundant and the species is common.	eng
164287	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the population size.	eng
164287	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The main threats are related to urbanization, drainage and frequent droughts.	eng
164287	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The main threats to this species are related to urbanization, drainage, agriculture and frequent droughts.	eng
164288	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but it is recommended to conserve its habitat and to raise public awareness.	eng
164288	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Bellis caerulescens</em> is endemic to Morocco. It is frequent in the mountains of the Atlas with several areas between 1,000 and 3,500 m altitude. It is present in the Anti Atlas, High Atlas and northeast Middle Atlas (Ari Ben-Ij, Tichchoukt, Bou Iblane, Guelb-er-Rahal). Its extent of occurrence is about 62,000 km² within which the occupied area is very large: above 3,000 km².	eng
164288	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Bellis caerulescens</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that lives in the shade of cracks, on the verges of springs and mountain rivulets, between 1,000 and 3,500 m. It blooms under the semi arid cold, sub humid Mediterranean bioclimate or on high mountains. It flourishes in spring and summer.	eng
164288	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations appear to be stable.	eng
164288	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no major threats to this species, however frequency of droughts, extension of agriculture, grazing pressure, pollution and the increasing development of sites for leisure activities are the main pressures on its habitat.	eng
164289	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	This species is included in the Red List of the Flora of Andalusia (Spain). In Morocco, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco and enhancement of its populations <br/>- Protection of its unique site in Morocco and to protect the most important sites in the Iberian Peninsula <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164289	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Gratiola linifolia</em> is an endemic of Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. It is very rare in Morocco (southern limit of distribution) with only one locality in the western Rif (massif of the Jbel Outka) and an occupied area not larger than 1 km². It is found in the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, in 10 regions of Spain (Seville, Cordoba, Zamora, Salamanca, Caceres, Huelva, Jaen, Ciudad Real, and Toledo) and in seven regions in Portugal (Baixo Alentejo, Alto Alentejo, Estremadura, Beira Baixa, Biera Alta, Tras-os-Montes, and Douro Littoral). Its extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region is about 200,000 km².	eng
164289	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	This annual plant (Therophyte) is found between 700 and 1,400 m elevation in temporary (dayas) and permanent pools of flinty mountains, in damp areas and on peat soils. It blooms and set fruits in summer (July-September) under the humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164289	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size of the populations is available. In Morocco, the population is very isolated (only one locality), thus very fragile and exposed to a high risk of stochastic extinction. In the Iberian Peninsula, the populations seem stable but are threatened by the increase of anthropogenic pressure.	eng
164289	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In addition to the high grazing pressure and the increasing frequency of severe droughts which directly threaten the populations, the habitat of <em>Gratiola linifolia</em> is damaged by urbanization, agriculture and increasing tourism pressure facilitated by the creation of several access paths to the sites.	eng
164290	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164290	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cardamine pratensis</span> is a northern species, being found throughout almost all of Europe and it seems to reach the limit of its distribution in the Mediterranean. This species is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, and Morocco.<br/>Its presence in Greece is uncertain, as formerly confirmed records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pratensis</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">matthioli</span> are now treated as separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. matthioli. </span>Strid and Tan (2002) do not treat this species as being present in Greece.	eng
164290	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	It grows in wet meadows and on the banks of streams and creeks, occasionally found in marshes and peat bogs.	eng
164290	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is fairly common in the region and the populations are presumably stable. In France, it is present in all the departements, in Italy and the Iberian Peninsula it is common in the north. In Morocco, it is present in the High Atlas at 2,650 m.	eng
164290	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164291	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	This species is included in the French Red Book tome II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. The search for new sites is under way.<br/><br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of the different populations and the species' biology, resilience, and conservation, as well as to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164291	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Bellium nivale</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Mediterranean mountain origin. It is not very common but can be frequent locally. This taxon grows on granite only in the central and southern mountains of Corsica (from Rotondo to Bavella). Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².	eng
164291	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found in "pozzine", peat and grass around runnels, streamlets and springs from 1,200 to 2,000 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments.<br/>At the moment, there is no information about germination, growing and flowering conditions available. More research will be done in the future.	eng
164291	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Bellium nivale</em> is present at 23 sites in Corsica. It was last observed at the site in Sellola in 2007. The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend known.	eng
164291	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The habitat is subjected to an increase in trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzines, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the natural park around the different lakes. In the future, the lack of snow and rain, and dryness could be considered as threat factors.	eng
164294	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164294	conservation	Mahamane, A., FTEATS, 2006	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164294	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is a species of tropical and sub-tropical zones of the Old World. It is probably introduced in some parts of the Mediterranean basin. It occurs in southern and eastern Europe, tropical Africa and North Africa, Oceania and Asia. It has been introduced to parts of America.<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution includes Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley (Dandara, Aswan), Nile Faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), France where it is sparsely distributed near the Mediterranean coast (Bouches du Rhône, Vaucluse, Lozère) and in Corsica (Aleria, Pruprià), where it is suspected to be introduced. <em>C. difformis</em> is furthermore found on the Balkans, in Greece and Crete, Italy, Israel, Lebanon (Antélias), Libya, Morocco (Gharb plain), southern Portugal, Spain and Syria (rives of the Oronte, near Homs), and Turkey.	eng
164294	distribution	Mahamane, A., FTEATS, 2006	It is a cosmopolitan species present in the tropics and subtropics of the Old World. In Africa SE Asia, and Pacific.<br/><br/>Widespread in Western, Central and Southern Africa, whwee it has been recorded from almost all countries.<br/><br/>In East Africa including, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Also found in Malawi - Elephant Marsh in Nsanje, Nchalo near Sucoma Estate, Kalulu Forest Reserve in Thyolo, and Monkey Bay.<br/><br/>Its Northern Africa distribution includes Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley (Dandara, Aswan), Nile Faiyum, Oases of the Libyan desert, Mediterranean coast), Libya, Morocco (Gharb plain).	eng
164294	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is an annual sedge growing on silty soils in marshes, on canal banks and in rice fields. It constitutes a very troublesome weed in rice fields, notably in the Nile Delta.	eng
164294	habitat	Mahamane, A., FTEATS, 2006	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is an annual sedge growing on silty soils in marshes, on canal banks and in rice fields. t is not confined to wetlands but often found in shallow water in seasonally flooded areas, ponds and ditches.  It constitutes a very troublesome weed in rice fields, notably in the Nile Delta.	eng
164294	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is generally abundant over its natural distribution area.	eng
164294	population	Mahamane, A., FTEATS, 2006	<em>Cyperus difformis</em> is generally abundant over its natural distribution area.	eng
164294	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164294	threats	Mahamane, A., FTEATS, 2006	There are no major threats to this species although it may locally affected by drought and agricultural activities.	eng
164295	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Caldas, F.B., 2009	This species is listed as Critically Endangered in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008) and in the regional Red List of Andalucia   (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005). No further specific conservation measures are known. It is necessary to search for the historic sites in Portugal, to collect information about the species' status and   to raise awareness among the public. Furthermore, legal protection and habitat conservation are needed.	eng
164295	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Caldas, F.B., 2009	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. It is found in Algeria and Tunisia at five localities. It also occurs in the southwestern part of the Iberian peninsula, in the Spanish province Huelva and in Portugal in the regions Algarve, Baixo Alentejo and Beira Litoral (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).<br/><br/>The total area of occupancy for the species is thought to be less than 500 km².	eng
164295	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Caldas, F.B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Campanula alata</span> grows in humid Mediterranean climate and flowers between May and August. It prefers soils that are nutrient poor and grows in low lying temporary wet soils.	eng
164295	population	de Bélair, G. & Caldas, F.B., 2009	In the five locations where this species is found in northern Africa, the populations consist of only four or five individuals. In Spain, the species is only found at two sites in Huelva. These are currently being developed for irrigation and agriculture. In Portugal, the species was reported for almost all the country by Sampaio (1947) and Franco and Afonso (1984) and more recently from central Portugal and the Algarve (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). However, it is not known at how many sites the species is found at the moment or what the size and trend of the populations are.	eng
164295	threats	de Bélair, G. & Caldas, F.B., 2009	The main threat to the species is the change of land use to agriculture and the related effects of drainage, eutrophication and pollution. Moreover, the excess of cattle grazing represents an important threat on the Spanish populations.	eng
164296	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no specific measures in place, but it is suggested to study the population trends of this species.	eng
164296	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no specific measures in place, but it is suggested to study the taxonomy and populations of this species.	eng
164296	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Paleotropical subpaleotropical naturalised locally in Europa, America, Indonesia, Asia. <br/><br/>In Africa, this plant is distributed from North Africa down to South Africa. In Eastern Africa it is Found in Central Kenya (Machakos at Ngulia East, Kinani Hills) and coast in Tsavo National park, Kandere Dam. It occurs between 400 - 750 m above sea level. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Moshi district, Arusha Chini. In Southern Africa it occurs in Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, possibly North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal) possibly Namibia and Swaziland. <br/><br/>Also recorded from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Western and Central Africa.	eng
164296	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is found in Australia, New Caledonia, subtropical and tropical as well as North Africa. It is introduced in Europe.<br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. <br/>In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Turkey (southern part), Lebanon, Syria and is classed as an epizodic species in Israel.	eng
164296	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>N. graminea</em> is an annual Hydrophyte which is totally submerged and grows in little creeks, lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches and canals.<br/>Flowering time is in August.	eng
164296	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>N. graminea</em> is a perennial (occ. annual) hydrophyte which is totally submerged and grows in little creeks, lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches, canals and rice fields. Also in  stagnant freshwater with mud sediment.	eng
164296	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is rare throughout its range. It is not common in Egypt, is known from on site in Algeria and Turkey respectively. In Israel, it was foudn at one site in 1938 and has not been found since then.	eng
164296	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This plant is a quite widespread species and the population therefore should be large.	eng
164296	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The major threats are agriculture, development, invasive species as competitors for resources, and drought.	eng
164296	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The most important threats are agriculture, development, invasive species as competitors for resources, and drought. None of these are threatening the species survival at a Pan Africa level.	eng
164297	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, this species is protected at regional level in Basse-Normandie.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164297	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Galium debile</em> is an Eurasian species. Its distribution includes the west and south of Europe, the southwest of Asia and the northwest of Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km² with numerous locations.	eng
164297	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that prefers swamps, riverbeds and flooded sites. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).	eng
164297	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region and the populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with only one known location situated in the Rif (Issaguène plain); <br/>- Algeria: common in the whole country; <br/>- Portugal: present in seven provinces; <br/>- Spain: quite common and present in 30 sites in the northwest of the country (15 provinces); <br/>- France: fairly common, especially in the northeast of the country (189 sites), and also occurring Corsica; <br/>- Italy: common in almost all the country, occurring in 14 provinces besides Sicily and Sardinia; <br/>- Syria and Lebanon: the species went unnoticed for a long time in these countries; it is found in Aïn Saoua'ir and Elias Barr in Lebanon and in Nahr Séné, Bhamra, Homs, close to Oronte, south of Lattaquié and in the wetlands near Outaya in Syria.	eng
164297	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage and the invasion of pond edges by shrubs are the main threats to this species but they don't lead to significant declines at the moment.	eng
164299	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164299	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Glyceria fluitans</em> is a plant with a wide distribution, occurring in America, Europe, Asia and Africa. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is widespread along the European wetlands. It is found in Turkey and Lebanon. In the North African region, it is only found in Morocco.	eng
164299	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that prefers swamps and the edges of water bodies of plains and low mountains up to an altitude of 2,700 m. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
164299	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In the Mediterranean region, this species is widespread and abundant.<br/>In Morocco, the species is probably very rare, occurring in only four locations (Tanger, Talassemtan, Oued Fès and Benslimane). The populations are very restricted and their trend is not known. It is found in north-central and central Greece.	eng
164299	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In the Mediterranean region, the main threats are drainage and agricultural activities but they don't lead to significant population declines at the moment.	eng
164300	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed.	eng
164300	conservation	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range are needed in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.	eng
164300	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Callitriche brutia</em> is a mediterranean species. In North Africa it is present in Libya, Tunisia (six sites known), Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164300	distribution	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<em>Callitriche brutia</em> occurs in France, Corsica, Greece including the East Aegean Islands and Crete, Italy including Sardinia and Sicily, Morocco, Portugal and Spain including the Balearic Islands. It is likely to occur throughout the northern Mediterranean and possibly further east in North Africa, but no records have been confirmed.	eng
164300	habitat	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	<em>C.&#160;brutia</em> grows in a wide range of water-bodies, from ephemeral pools, lakes and canals to fast-flowing upland rivers. Var. <em>hamulata</em> appears to be more frequent in permanent, swift-flowing water, while var. <em>brutia</em> typically occurs in ephemeral water-bodies and at the margins of lakes. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs from sea level to at least 950&#160;m on Ben Lawers, Scotland. It grows with a wide range of species, often including <em>Callitriche</em> species such as <em>C.&#160;lusitanica</em>, <em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <em>C.&#160;platycarpa</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em>. Plants from the southern part of its range tend to be named as var. <em>brutia</em>, those in the north as var. <em>hamulata</em>. It seems likely that this is an artefact of habitat characteristics, since in the south water-bodies are more often temporary while in the north they are more likely to be permanent. In more permanent water-bodies, the two varieties may occur with <em>Ranunculus peltatus</em>, <em>Elodea nuttallii</em>, <em>Lythrum salicaria</em>, <em>Myosotis scorpioides</em>, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em>, <em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Sparganium emersum</em>, while in temporary pools var. <em>brutia</em> occurs with <em>Lythrum portula</em>, <em>Persicaria hydropiper</em>, <em>Ranunculus flammula</em>, <em>R.&#160;ophioglossifolius</em>&#160;and <em>Rorippa palustris</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> is often associated with marginal grasses such as <em>Agrostis stolonifera</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Alopecurus aequalis</em>&#160;and smaller <em>Glyceria </em>species and with small <em>Juncus </em>species. The communities associated with the two varieties have been obscured by the tendency to record var. <em>hamulata</em> in more oligotrophic or acid water-bodies, where <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> occurs with species such as <em>Apium inundatum</em>, <em>Eleogiton fluitans</em>, <em>Equisetum fluviatile</em>, <em>Isoetes lacustris</em>, <em>Littorella uniflora</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Lobelia dortmanna</em>, <em>Luronium natans</em>, <em>Nitella opaca</em>, <em>Potamogeton </em><em>alpinus</em>, <em>P.&#160;filiformis</em>, <em>P.&#160;</em><em>obtusifolius</em>, <em>P.&#160;polygonifolius</em>&#160;and particularly with diverse bryophyte assemblages including <em>Brachythecium rivulare</em>, <em>Fontinalis squamosa</em>, <em>Racomitrium aciculare</em>&#160;and <em>Scapania undulata</em>. <em>C.&#160;brutia</em> var. <em>brutia</em> often occurs with species typical of Mediterranean temporary pools, including <em>Cicendia filiformis</em>, <em>Cyperus fuscus</em>, <em>Elatine alsinastrum</em>, <em>Eleocharis ovata</em>, <em>Gnaphalium uliginosum</em>, <em>Illecebrum verticillatum</em>, <em>Isoetes histrix</em>, <em>I.&#160;velata</em>, <em>Juncus capitatus</em>, <em>J.</em><em>&#160;pygmaeus</em>, <em>Lythrum junceum</em>, <em>Mentha pulegium</em>&#160;and <em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em>.	eng
164300	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It grows in still, often shallow water.	eng
164300	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common on oligotrophic (non calcareous) substrate.	eng
164300	population	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	This species is fairly common, particularly in seasonal or ephemeral standing waters.<br/>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Callitriche brutia</span> is very rare on the Greek mainland (northwestern part in Ipiros - two localities)and scattered in the Aegean islands of: Psathoura, Agios Evstratios, Skyros, Lesvos (seven localities), Patmos, Naxos (two localities), Rodos (Rhodes), and recently been found in <st1:place w:st="on">Crete</st1:place>. There are old unconfirmed records from the Ionian Islands of Kerkira (Corfu), Levkas and from the central part of the mainland (<st1:place w:st="on">Thessaly</st1:place>).</span>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
164300	threats	Lansdown, R.V., 2009	There are no major threats specific to this species, however seasonal and shallow wetlands are under threat throughout the Mediterranean.	eng
164300	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to the species. However, the species distribution is restricted to the west of Europe and west of North Africa. The temporarily flooded pools where this species finds its optimum habitat are generally threatened and under high anthropogenic pressure in North Africa.	eng
164301	conservation	Lansdown, R., 2009	In France this species is currently protected at national level (Annexe 2). It is classified as Endangered on the Red List of Croatia.<br/>The conservation measures suggested are legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures and raise public awareness.	eng
164301	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The conservation measures suggested are legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures and raise public awareness.	eng
164301	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Alisma gramineum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species with the main focus of its distribution in sub-boreal regions throughout the world, especially in northern North America and northwestern Europe. It is rarer around the Mediterranean basin and in Asia.<br/><br/>The African distribution of <em>A. gramineum</em> includes Libya and Egypt where it is abundant in catchments such as the Nile delta and valley, Oasis of Dakhla, Mediterranean coast at Rosetta, Isthmic desert.	eng
164301	distribution	Lansdown, R., 2009	<em>Alisma gramineum</em> is an amphi-Atlantic species with the main focus of its distribution in sub-boreal regions throughout the world, especially in northern North America and northwestern Europe. It is rarer around the Mediterranean basin and in Asia.<br/>The Mediterranean distribution of <em>A. gramineum</em> includes Libya, Egypt (where it is abundant in catchments such as the Nile delta and valley, Oasis of Dakhla, Mediterranean coast at Rosetta, Isthmic desert), France (very rare in the Mediterranean region but found in Vaucluse, Alpes maritimes), Italy, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Greece, Turkey, Israel, and Syria.	eng
164301	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>A. gramineum</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial helophyte, growing submerged or immerged in shallow fresh or brackish waters in marshy areas.	eng
164301	habitat	Lansdown, R., 2009	<em>A. gramineum</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial Helophyte, growing submerged or immerged in shallow fresh or brackish waters in marshy areas.	eng
164301	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>A. gramineum</em> is abundant but localised in Egypt.	eng
164301	population	Lansdown, R., 2009	<em>A. gramineum</em> is widely distributed but never abundant in southern Europe. It is abundant but localised in Egypt.	eng
164301	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is sensitive to modifications of water quality and to the destruction of its biotope including cleaning and urbanization.	eng
164301	threats	Lansdown, R., 2009	This species is sensitive to modifications of water quality and to the destruction of its biotope including cleaning and urbanization.	eng
164302	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164302	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Crassula tillaea</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its world distribution includes the Mediterranean, Europe and Macaronesia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Greece, Crete, Karpathos, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164302	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that flowers in winter and spring. It inhabits temporarily flooded environments, especially of gritty substrate.	eng
164302	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region. The trend of the populations is unknown.	eng
164302	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling of this species’ habitat is its main threat.	eng
164303	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164303	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is considered by Pottier-Alapetite (1979-1981) and Greuter <em>et al.</em> (1984-1989) as an endemic of North Africa, and by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002) as an endemic of Morocco. Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009) consider this species as a doubtful taxon for Tunisia.<br/><br/>In Morocco, it occurs at the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts and in the mountains (Anti-Atlas, Haut Atlas, northeastern mounts, Rif). In Algeria, it is found at the Mediterranean coast, east of Alger. In Tunisia, the species is distributed in the centre (Sousse, Sfax, S. Kelbia, Sidi Bouzid, Fériana) and the south (Gabès, Zarzis, Djerba).	eng
164303	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is a small annual herbaceous plant growing in fresh and wet areas, in temporary pools and in seasonal streams (wadis).	eng
164303	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Centaurium candelabrum</em> is relatively abundant over its distribution area.	eng
164303	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164304	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In France, the species is protected at national and regional level (Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur) and is found in the Natural Reserve of Roque-Haute. It is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) and enforcement of the legal protection measures  <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size and to monitor the population dynamics<br/>- To maintain a favourable hydrological regime and an open vegetation by mowing or grazing&#160; <br/>- To know the supportable harvest limit of the plant (sustainable use) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164304	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Mentha cervina</em> has a western steno-Mediterranean distribution. It is found in France, Portugal, Spain, Morocco, Algeria and is presumed extinct in Italy. <br/> In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 800,000 km² with an estimated area of occupancy of 600 km².<br/><br/>In France, it is known in six departments and is considered as vulnerable.<br/>- Pyrenees Orientales: pool of Saint-Estève, Montalba, Saint-Nazaire, Collioure. <br/>- Aude: pech d'Agnel (near Narbonne), near Armissan. <br/>- Hérault: Castries, Gigean (Gardiole), Saint-Gely-du-Fesc, the Boissière, Saint-Paul-et-Valmalle, Cazevieille, Cournonterral, Portiragnes (Roquehaute), the Triadou, Puechabon, Assignan. <br/>- Gard: pond of Pujaut, vicinity of Nîmes. <br/>- Vaucluse: sides of the Rhone (vicinity of Avignon). <br/>- Bouches-du-Rhône: Crau (pond of Entressen, of the Alders), Arles, Tarascon.	eng
164304	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is found in wetlands and temporarily flooded habitats (pools, rivers, meadows). It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer. <span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha cervina</span> is an heliophilous species, sensitive to the shade and to the modification of water regimes.	eng
164304	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The populations are globally in decline and those that are more stable are generally very vulnerable because they are situated in fragile biotopes. The localities once known in Italy (Abruzzi) are presumed extinct. <br/><br/>In France, they seem in regression, except in the Hérault and Gard (important populations). It disappeared from numerous sites of Crau (Bouches-du-Rhône), from the sandy banks of the Rhône, from the pool of Saint-Estève and from the coastal Catalan in Pyrenees-Orientales. It is likely extinct in the Costière Nîmoise in Gard. <br/><br/>In Spain and Portugal, it is known in the western half of the Iberian Peninsula with some additional localities in the east. It is not very common in Iberia and the populations are possibly declining because of the destruction of their habitat. Healthy populations are found on some of the larger rivers but it is absent from other rivers.<br/> <br/>In North Africa, it is considered very rare in Morocco with only one locality known in the Rif (Tanger) and very rare in Algeria where it is found in the Haut Plateaux of the Regions of Algiers and Oran (region of former Géryville). In the countries of the Maghreb, the species is often harvested and marketed on a local scale for medicinal use.	eng
164304	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threat is the destruction of the habitat by anthropogenic activities such as changes of the hydrology by either drainage or permanent flooding, agriculture, filling-in, and dams. The largest remaining populations in Portugal are under imminent threat from the construction of dams. <br/>Other threats are bound to changes in habitat management (in France) such as the abandonment of grazing resulting in an invasion of the sites by woody competitors. <br/>The small number of populations, their reciprocal remoteness and their reduced strengths essentially expose them to risks of extinction in France and in the Maghreb countries.	eng
164305	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164305	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean western species.<br/><br/>In Africa, <em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present in Tunisia (rather common in Kroumiria, Kef Ennsour, Ghorra, Ouchteta), Algeria (rather common in Tell, present in Kabylia and the Algiers regions), and in Morocco (common, including the Middle Atlas and Zaian mountains: 10 locations).	eng
164305	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is a western European and Mediterranean species extending to Ireland, UK and Norway in the north. Its area stretches from Macaronesia to western Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, France), and western Africa.<br/>In northwestern Africa, <em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present in Tunisia (rather common in Kroumiria, Kef Ennsour, Ghorra, Ouchteta), Algeria (rather common in Tell, present in Kabylia and the Algiers regions), and in Morocco (common, including the Middle Atlas and Zaian mountains: 10 locations).<br/>In the Mediterranean the EOO is >20,000 km² and the AOO is >2,000 km².	eng
164305	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is an annual species and Therophyte that prefers damp, open habitats. It is found in wet meadows and sands at plains and mountains, at an altitude from 0 to 900 m above sea level. <br/>Flowering in Morocco and Algeria is from March to August.	eng
164305	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus foliusus</em> is an annual species and Therophyte that prefers damp, open habitats. It is found in wet meadows and sands at plains and mountains (cf. Kabylia and Mont Ghorra), at an altitude from 0 to 900 m. <br/>Flowering in Italy, Corsica and Tunisia is from April to June and in Morocco and Algeria from March to August.	eng
164305	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus foliosus</em> is present and rather rare in western Europe, more common in North Africa, but missing in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at the scale of the Mediterranean.	eng
164305	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.	eng
164305	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164306	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	In Algeria, some populations are included in designated Ramsar sites. It is furthermore suggested to strengthen research on this species such as setting up an inventory of the populations, habitats, threats.	eng
164306	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>M. longifolia</em> is a paleotemperate species, distributed from the Canary Islands, to Europe, southwest Asia to India, North and tropical East and South Africa.<br/>In the Mediterranean it is found in Portugal, Spain, France (except Corsica), Italy (except Sardinia), former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.<br/><br/>In North Africa it has been found in Morocco in the Pre-Rif, Tazzeka, Kert Ganc, and Mamora. It is very rare and scattered in Algeria, especially rare in the mountains of the central Sahara (Hoggar and Tefedest). In Tunisia, it is very rare and present at only one location. In Egypt, there are two subspecies present: <em>M. longifolia</em> subsp. <em>typhoides</em> in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the entire Sinai peninsula, and <em>M. longifolia</em> subsp. <em>schimperi</em> at the entire Sinai peninsula.	eng
164306	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>M. longifolia</em> is a perennial species. It is found on roadsides, meadows, stream banks, canal banks, ditches and pools, watersides. This species is often cultivated.	eng
164306	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>M. longifolia</em> is common to very common in the northern Mediterranean region but rather rare and scattered in North Africa, where it probably reaches the southern limit of its distribution.	eng
164306	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	In North Africa, <em>Mentha longifolia</em> seems to be threatened owing to its restricted distribution.<em> </em>It is not threatened in the northern Mediterranean region.	eng
164307	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The site of Azigza Aguelmane is classified as historic monument by the Vizier decree from 28.03.1950, which however does not bring any protective measure for the site. It has been proposed in the APM project (Moroccan protected areas) as a site that should benefit from urgent protection. There is no protection of the other sites.<br/> <br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To develop ecotourism <br/>- To create new protected sites <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164307	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Rorippa hayanica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and localized in the central part of the Moyen Atlas with four known localities (Bekirt to 1,850 m, Ifrane, Itzer, Aguelmane Azigza). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 800 km² within which the occupied area does not exceed 200 km². The most recent observations are from the sites of Azigza Aguelmane and Ifrane and date from 2003.	eng
164307	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in temporary pools, at the edge of springs and lakes. It is a biennial to perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164307	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations seem to be experiencing a decline, particularly those found in temporary pools, which suffer from increasing destruction and degradation in the Moyen Atlas.	eng
164307	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The destruction of the habitat by filling-in or drainage for agricultural development constitutes the main threat. Other threats contributing to the decline in the quality of its habitat are the development of leisure outdoor activities in the mountains, water pollution and overgrazing.	eng
164308	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
164308	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is occurring mainly in the northern hemisphere in Europe, Asia, Africa and America.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009).	eng
164308	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The plant is found at roadsides and fallow fields, Nile and canal banks, moist ground.	eng
164308	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164308	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164309	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is not protected at the moment. It is necessary to preserve the ecosystem that supports this species and to inform the residents about its rarity and its possible protection.	eng
164309	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is not protected in Algeria at the moment. It is necessary to preserve the ecosystem that supports this species and to inform the residents about its rarity and its possible protection in Algeria.<br/>In Italy, the species is considered as Endangered (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005)<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region></st1:place>.	eng
164309	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an Eurasiatic plant, occuring in most of Europe, northwards to the UK, the Baltic Sea and north-central Russia.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is only present in Algeria where it has been seen at one location only in Numidie in a ditch at Ouaja (daïra de Ben Azzouz, wilaya de Skikda).	eng
164309	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an Eurasiatic plant, occurring in most of Europe, northwards to the UK, the Baltic Sea and north-central Russia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Turkey and Algeria which is its only North African occurrence. In Algeria, it has been seen at one location only in Numidie in a ditch at Ouaja (daïra de Ben Azzouz, wilaya de Skikda).	eng
164309	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is an aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial herb with stems up to 160 cm, creeping and floating. This species prefers the sub-humid temperate Mediterranean bioclimate with mild or warm winters, and is found in ponds, rivers, still waters, ditches, wadis and prefers peaty or sandy clay soils. It is often associated with <em>Salix alba</em>.	eng
164309	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is present in Europe, but the number of populations is unknown.<br/>In Italy  , the species is present in Piemonte, <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Veneto</st1:state>, <st1:city w:st="on">Emilia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:state> and Lazio (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005); it is considered as “not natural” maybe as cultivated-ornamental in Trentino and <st1:place w:st="on">Friuli</st1:place> (Poldini 2001). Unpublished data for Emilia and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:place></st1:state> show the species is under strong reduction. <br/>In France, it occurs in all the country, but is rare in the south (Tela Botanica 2009). In Spain, the species is only found in the northern province Galicia and on the border to Portugal (Anthos 2009).<br/>  In Greece, it is found in Ipiros (Lake Pamvotis), west Macedonia (Lake Prespa), and east Macedonia (Lake Kerkini). There are a few additional localities in northern Greece but the two main localities for this species in Greece are Lake Prespa and Lake Kerkini. There is also and old record cited by Halácsy "in lacu Copais" (nom. Viotias) but as this lake is now drained, it is probably extinct in this locality. Like many aquatic plants is seems to&#160;fluctuate much in abundance from year to year. <br/></span>In Algeria, one single population has been found occupying an area of about 50 feet.	eng
164309	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	In Algeria, one single population has been found occupying an area of about fifty feet.	eng
164309	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is threatened in North Africa as it has only been found at one location.<br/>The cultivation of this pond, is disrupting the species' development.	eng
164309	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Nymphoides peltata</em> is threatened in North Africa as it has only been found at one location. The cultivation of this pond, is disrupting the species' development.   Water eutrophication, urbanization and agriculture are further threats in its European range.	eng
164310	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites in North Africa <br/>- Estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa <br/>- Study the species’ distribution in the Mediterranean region	eng
164310	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phalaris caesia</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers Europe, Africa and the Middle East. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its distribution is fairly unknown. It is present in France (in two departments in the south of the country) and Algeria. <br/>In North Africa it is a rare species that is only found in Algeria. <br/><br/>According to the Euro+Med Plantbase (2009) the species is also present in Spain, Portugal, Lebanon, and Asiatic Turkey.	eng
164310	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits the edges of streams. Flowering occurs in spring and summer (April-June).	eng
164310	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The distribution of this species in the Mediterranean region is fairly unknown. <br/>In North Africa it is very rare, with three locations in the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Mazafran, Reghaïa and El Alia near Maison-Carrée). These three sites are close to Alger and therefore threatened by urbanization. The populations are very restricted and their trend is not known.	eng
164310	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization (especially around Algiers) is the main threat to this species.	eng
164311	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place. It would be useful to clarify the relative status of the three taxa: <span style="font-style: italic;">N. officinale</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. microphyllum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. x sterilis</span> would be useful to assess the risk of genetic dilution of wild populations.	eng
164311	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nasturtium officinale</span> is native to Macaronesia, Europe, North Africa, West and Central Asia extending to India.<br/><br/>It is found throughout the Mediterranean region, in Portugal, Spain and Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164311	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Found in almost all water body types, particularly nutrient rich water bodies but less frequent or absent from oligotrophic or acidic habitats.	eng
164311	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is very common throughout its range with a stable population trend.	eng
164311	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164312	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
164312	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is widespread in Tropical Africa and Asia. Recorded from Egypt (Gebel Elba), Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania. However, its exact native range is unclear.	eng
164312	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Moist ground, around wells.	eng
164312	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Rare.	eng
164312	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
164313	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In France, it is protected at the regional level (Bourgogne, Ile-de-France). <br/>For the overall distribution range, the following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria)<br/>- monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- study of the dynamics of populations and study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164313	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria)<br/>- application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- study of the dynamics of populations and study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164313	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is widespread in Europe, where it develops southwards to central Spain, Corsica and southern Bulgaria. It is very rare in Africa where it only occurs in Algeria (Sebkha of Misserghin).	eng
164313	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is widespread in Europe, where it develops southwards to central Spain, Corsica and southern Bulgaria. It is very rare in Africa where it only occurs in Algeria (Sebkha of Misserghin). <br/>In the Mediterranean, the species is also found in Bulgaria, Italy, France (widespread but uncommon in France and Corsica), Croatia, Greece, northern Portugal (Castro-Laboreiro and Gerez), and Spain (Atlantic coast, Pyrenees and in some localities in central Spain).	eng
164313	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is a densely caespitose or tussock-forming plant, growing in damp and peaty places.	eng
164313	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is a densely caespitose or tussock-forming plant, growing in damp and peaty places.	eng
164313	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Kreczetoviczia caespitosa</em> is widespread but uncommon in southern Europe and very rare (only one locality in Algeria) in Northern Africa.	eng
164313	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichophorum cespitosum</span> is widespread but uncommon in southern Europe and very rare in North Africa (only one locality in Algeria). It is present in six localities in Croatia, in Spain in more than 100 localities mostly along the northern edge of the country, and throughout France.	eng
164313	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Destruction of its habitat is the main threat to this species.	eng
164313	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Destruction of its habitat is the main threat to this species (the causes are unknown).	eng
164314	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164314	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus granatensis</em> is a species endemic to Morocco and Spain. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 300,000 km², with numerous locations.	eng
164314	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid prairies and the edges of streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164314	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region with restricted but stable populations. In Morocco, it is fairly common in the High Atlas (between Seksaoua and Glaoua) and in Spain, it is present at several sites concentrated in the north and east of the country.	eng
164314	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164315	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is protected at national level in France (referenced in the national list and book of "priority species") and <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds is being carried out by the Mediterranean National Botanical Conservatory of Porquerolles.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but recommended actions are to establish <em>in situ</em> legal conservation measures for the species and its habitat, monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the population size, monitor the dynamics of the populations, avoid changes to the hydrological cycles of the pools (drainage, infilling), maintain the open vegetation through cutting or grazing and raise public awareness.	eng
164315	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum thymifolia</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is present in Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Italy and Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and it has a doubtful presence in Greece. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence covers 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.	eng
164315	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and the edges of streams, swamps and ponds. It generally grows on siliceous substrata (sandstone, schist, basalts, etc.). Flowering occurs between April and June.	eng
164315	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In the Mediterranean region, the populations are in slow regression because of the deterioration of their habitat.<br/>It is rare and threatened in Morocco, found in the pools of the Atlantic plains (Benslimane, El Harcha and Gharb) and of the mountains of the Rif (Melilia and Tangier); quite rare in Algeria, in the Tell region and very rare in Tiaret and Aflou; rare in central Tunisia (Sidi el Han, Sfax, Feriana and between Sousse and Mounastir) and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Ghoumerassen river and Djerba); considered as doubtful in Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009). In Libya, it is present in Aïn Mara (east of Benghazi); Egypt, in the Nile region. <br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is present in the Balearic Islands and dispersed in a big part of the peninsula, with the exception of the Cantabrian Ledge. In France the populations are in very strong regression with risk of local extinctions, especially as this species is on the northern limit of its distribution. It was reported in 12 departments (Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Haute-Loire, Ardèche, Drôme, Hautes-Alpes, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var and Alpes-Maritimes), although currently there is only evidence of its presence in three departments (the Hautes-Alpes, the Var and the Hérault). In Italy, it is present in the regions of Puglia and Basilicata, as well as in Sardinia. In Montenego, it was reported in a few localities, and it is quite common in Croatia.	eng
164315	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization, the drainage of pools and ponds, their infilling, agricultural practices, the closing in of sites followed by the dynamics of perennial competitor plants, as well as the high frequency of dry years, are the main threats to this species.	eng
164316	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Lake Oubeira in Algeria, where the species occurs is a designated Ramsar site.<br/>For North Africa it is proposed to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, and locations. etc.	eng
164316	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs almost throughout Europe, except for the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Crete. In North Africa it is only found in Algeria at two locations in Numidia (northeast Algeria around Lake Oubeira), one of which is extinct. North Africa is the extreme southern limit of its distribution area.	eng
164316	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb grows in ponds, lakes, rivers, fresh stagnant waters or slow flowing waterways. It prefers an oligotrophic environment and occurs from 0 to 1,500 m.	eng
164316	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This perennial, rhizomatous, aquatic herb grows in ponds, lakes, rivers, fresh stagnant waters or slow flowing waterways. It prefers an oligotrophic environment and occurs from 0 to 1,500 m. Flowering in Algeria: V-VIII; France, Italy: VI-IX.	eng
164316	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> has only one population in North Africa, in Algeria. Another nearby population was recently destroyed.<br/>It is abundant in Mediterranean Europe.	eng
164316	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Nuphar lutea</em> is abundant in Mediterranean Europe. It has only one population in North Africa, in Algeria. Another nearby population was recently destroyed.	eng
164316	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	In northwest Africa <em>N .lutea</em> is decreasing (one location lost) and only one populations remains and faces therefore a threat of extinction. There are no known threats in Europe for this species.	eng
164317	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, legal protection of the species in North Africa (list of protected species in Morocco and Algeria) and to monitor the dynamics of the North African populations.	eng
164317	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Epilobium obscurum</em> is a European species, extending to the Mediterranean basin, Africa and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 2,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164317	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid grasslands, springs, peatbogs and streams of siliceous substrate. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164317	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in several locations. In North Africa its distribution is limited to the mountains of the High Atlas and to the Kabylie. The populations are very restricted due to spatial limitations and their trend is unknown. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, present in two locations in the High Atlas (Oukeïmeden and Tachdirt), and rare in Algeria, present in the Grande and Petite Kabylie, in Numidie and in the Algérois Tellien Atlas.<br/>The species is fairly common in Portugal and Spain, occurring in more than 105 sites; fairly common in nearly all France; quite frequent in Italy and present in eight provinces in addition to Sardinia; present in few localities in Montenegro and in Croatia.	eng
164317	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Drainage of the habitat of this species for agricultural purposes is its main threat.	eng
164318	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164318	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Cathissa broteroi</em> is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco. Its distribution covers the west of the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) and the northwest of Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence exceeds 300,000 km² with several locations and an area of occupancy greater than 100 km².	eng
164318	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cathissa broteroi </span>is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte). It is found in open forests, scrubs and grasses, mainly on siliceous soil in littoral areas such as the edges of temporary pools and streams (Martínez-Azorín <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).	eng
164318	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region with several locations and stable populations. <br/><br/>In Morocco, the species is quite common with numerous locations distributed at the Rif: Tanger, Tetouan, Ksar el Kebir, Larache, Loukkos, Azilah, El-Krota, Jbel Outka, edges of the stream close to Bâb Mareklo, Beni Zeroual, west catchment of Jbel Outka, Chefchaouen, Bab Taza, oriental face of del Jbel Khizana, Benslimane region, right bank of Oued Nefifikh, Casablanca region and Mamora; <br/>In Portugal, it is also quite common with several locations situated in the regions of the Algarve, Alto Alentejo, Baixo Alentejo, Beira Alta, Beira Baixa, Beira Litoral, Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho and Ribatejo. It is common in Spain and present at 53 sites in the west of the country.	eng
164318	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164322	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
164322	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a cosmopolitan species, widespread in Africa and tropical Asia.<br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa, Northern Africa, and Southern Africa.  It has been also recorded from Eastern Africa, Tanzania in Moshi district Nyumba Ya Mungu reservoir off Mikocheni, Mpanda district, Lake Tanganyika Karema, Singida district and Lake Kindai. Also in Uganda.<br/><br/>In North-eastern Africa the subspecies <em>Najas marina armata</em> has been recorded from Ethiopia and Egypt (Lake Nasser). This subspecies also found in Namibia, Botswana, South Africa and possibly Swaziland.	eng
164322	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>N. marina</em> is a submerged aquatic plant, living in stagnating or slow waters, strongly mineralized, almost brackish. It is mainly found in waters of high temperature, pH, sulphates and high electrolyte concentrations (or in saline sites). <em>N. marina</em> grows on sand, silt, clay with shells and thick organic matter.<br/><br/><em>Najas marina</em> subsp. <em>armata</em> is mainly found in waters of high temperature,  pH, sulphates and high electrolyte concentrations (or in saline sites). It prefers sand, clay, silt, clay with shells and thick organic matter.	eng
164322	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a quite widespread species and presumably an important population.	eng
164322	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no major threats to this species throughut continental Africa.	eng
164323	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is under regional protection in France (Alsace and Rhône-Alpes) but not in any other country. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164323	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum salicaria</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found throughout the globe in North Africa, Europe, and in temperate and tropical Asia. It is introduced and often invasive in Australia and North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Libya, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km², occurring in numerous locations (in nearly all of the countries).	eng
164323	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Chamaephyte to Nanophanerophyte) that inhabits marshes, ditches and canals. It is indifferent to the nature of soil as long as it is not too acidic. Flowering occurs between March and August.	eng
164323	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In the Mediterranean region, the populations appear to be stable.	eng
164323	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species' habitat is degrading due to drought as a result of drainage, infilling, water pollution and urbanization. But the species is not threatened yet.	eng
164324	conservation	Diadema, K., 2009	The species is subject to <em>ex situ</em> conservation. The following conservation measures are being proposed: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Experimental management	eng
164324	distribution	Diadema, K., 2009	This is a subpontic species that occurs mainly in the Caucasus (Russian Federation; lowe valleys of Volga and Don). It has been recorded in France. There are also old records from Italy (two records from the Po plain).	eng
164324	habitat	Diadema, K., 2009	This species is found in post-estival vegetation of temporalily inundated terrains of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Lythrion tribacteati</span>, but its habitat is not well known.	eng
164324	population	Diadema, K., 2009	It occurs at seven localities in France:<br/>- Drôme (Pierrelatte)<br/>- Vaucluse (Caderousse and Orange)<br/>- Gard (Tresques, Capelle-et-Masmolène, Meynes and Jonquières-Saint-Vincent)<br/><br/>Most populations have not been seen for the last decades. In Italy, the species is considered extinct, with no records since the 19th century. In Hungary and the Russian Federation the species has also not been seen for a long time.	eng
164324	threats	Diadema, K., 2009	The habitats where this species is found are under decline caused by urban and agricultural development. Most of the populations have not been seen for the last decades.	eng
164325	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	None known but it may be within protected areas throughout its range.	eng
164325	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place except for research, more information on the species' threats is needed. As most of the current information is derived from herbarium specimen, field work is needed to gather more information on the size and trends of the populations and their habitat requirements.	eng
164325	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> is closely related to <em>P. lucens</em> and <em>P. illinoensis</em>. It is more widespread than formerly assumed. <br/><br/>It definitely occurs in East Africa and North Africa. However, the exact geographical delimitation from <em>P. lucens</em> is unknown, in particular in the Atlantic Islands, the Mediterranean and southwest Asia. Transitional forms of unknown status are known e.g. from Palestine, Greece, and Iraq.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the occurrence of <em>P. schweinfurthii</em> is restricted to Egypt (with records from the Nile Delta, Ismailia Canal and Lake Nasser). The records from the Nile Delta and Ismailia canal are very old, and recent searches did not find the species at these two sites. The species persists in Lake Nasser, and also in the river Nile at Aswan.<br/><br/>According to Kaplan (2005) the species is present, in the Mediterranean area, in the following sites: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Kefallinia and Crete. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) the species is reported for Sardinia. Recently the species is also found in several Italian peninsula sites from Tuscany to the south (Lastrucci comm. pers.). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed.	eng
164325	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	It is found in Africa, Mediterranean Island to Arabian Peninsula.<br/><br/>Plant widespread in Africa. Found from Western Africa to the East and down to southern Africa. Also recorded from Algeria, Libya and Tunisia.	eng
164325	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>P. schweinfurthii</em> occurs mainly in habitats with water of high phosphates, moderate bicarbonates, low sulphates and with hydrosoil of low potassium. It is found in permanent wetlands and most collections come from standing water such as lakes and water reservoirs.	eng
164325	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	Perennial aquatic herb, submerged in lakes, ponds, swamps, but also streams.  In static or slow-moving water. Also growing in lakes and dams.	eng
164325	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is rare in the Mediterranean presumably as it reaches the edge of its range there (Kaplan 2005). According to the herbarium specimen analysed by Kaplan the species is found at one site in Crete, one site in Kefallonia, four sites in Corsica and one site in Malta. It is found in five to six sites in Italy (Sardinia and Tuscany) (Bruno Foggi, pers. comm. 2010). The population trend is unknown.	eng
164325	population	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread, perennial, rooted and submerged species, important population.	eng
164325	threats	Ghogue, J.-P.,& Ali, M.M., 2009	No widespread threats have been identified.	eng
164325	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The main threats are unknown.	eng
164326	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place. The one remaining locality in Algeria is part of a Ramsar site, but nevertheless threats continue to impact this population. <br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Protection of the sites with a backing the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164326	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is present In numerous Protected Areas, i.e.,  Lochinvar National Park and North Luangwa National Park in Zambia. Also, the one remaining locality of this species  in Algeria is part of a Ramsar site, but nevertheless threats continue to impact this population.	eng
164326	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Marsilea minuta</em> is a species with a mostly tropical distribution. It is present in tropical Africa (Senegal, Mauritania, Chad, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Benin, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Madagascar, Comoros), tropical countries of Asia (India, Malaysia), Canary Islands and in the southern Mediterranean. <br/>The Mediterranean region constitutes the northern limit of the species, its distribution is discontinuous. It is found in Morocco (low valley of the Loukkos), Algeria (La Cale in Numidia; Fort de l’Eau near Algiers; Le Corso where it is presumed extinct), Egypt (Baharia), Israel (extinct), Palestine and Jordan. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, its extent of occurrence is about 1,500,000 km².	eng
164326	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread in tropical Africa from Morroco to Angola, including Madagascar and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Northern Africa <em>M. crenulata</em> it is mentioned for the Tibesti Mountains in the south of Libya by De Mire and Quezel (1959). It is found in Morocco (low valley of the Loukkos), Algeria (La Cale in Numidia; Fort de l’Eau near Algiers; Le Corso where it is presumed extinct), Egypt (Baharia). Also recorded from Sudan and Somalia.<br/><br/>It is also widespread in western Africa, found in Benin and Burkina Faso and further east to Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Central Africa, the species has been met in Democratic Republic of Congo: forestier central (Gbo sassa), Ubangui-Uélé (Baya-Pandu), Lacs Edouard et Kivu (Rutshuru), haut katanga (Upemba national park). In Rwanda, it has been met at Nyamata, cohoha lake and Bugesera. In Burundi, the species is known at Bujumbura in the Rusizi plain and at Randa in the province of Bubanza. Kenya - The fern is widespread in Kenya. It is found in Machakos, Isiolo, Tsavo and Coast. In Malawi it is known from Domas in Zomba, and Likoma Islands on Lake Malawi.	eng
164326	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in temporary, shallow oligotrophic pools, on the edges of rivers, rocks underneath waterfalls, in water holes, in seasonally dried up river beds, in seasonally flooded grassland depressions, in rice fields, in sublittoral marshes and swamps in shallow, slow-flowing backwaters, exposed or partially shaded.<br/>It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizome). The opening of the sporocarpes and the fertilization takes place under a weak water blade, or even on saturated soil. It occurs in shallow pools and it prefers sub-humid to temperate/warm Mediterranean climate with mild or warm winters. This aquatic fern grows on more or less peaty soils, based on clay colluvium of lake Tonga. It is associated at the time of fruiting (formation of sporocarps) with <em>Cyperus michelianus</em>, <em>Lippia nodiflora</em> and <em>Paspalum distichum</em>. One sub-population is located at the edge of an alder.	eng
164326	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This aquatic fern grows on more or less peaty soils, based on clay colluvium of lake Tonga. It is associated at the time of fruiting (formation of sporocarps) with <em>Cyperus michelianus</em>, <em>Lippia nodiflora</em> and <em>Paspalum distichum</em>. One sub-population is located at the edge of an alder.<br/><br/>It is found in temporary, shallow oligotrophic pools, on the edges of rivers, rocks underneath waterfalls, in water holes, in seasonally dried up river beds, in seasonally flooded grassland depressions, in rice fields, in sublittoral marshes and swamps in shallow, slow-flowing backwaters, exposed or partially shaded.<br/>It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte with rhizome). The opening of the sporocarpes and the fertilization takes place under a weak water blade, or even on saturated soil. It occurs shallow pools and it prefers subhumid to temperate/warm Mediterranean climate with mild or warm winters.	eng
164326	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The populations are restricted and very fragile in the Mediterranean region but very abundant in Western and Central Africa. Fairly rare in North Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Very rare in Morocco and in Algeria (three localities previously known; now extinct at two of these; currently only two small subpopulations known at one locality), and it is restricted to one site in Egypt. Its status is not known in Israel. . They know a reduction following the destruction from some sites in the Maghreb (case of Le Corso in Algeria where the populations are presumed extinct).	eng
164326	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is very rare in Morocco and in Algeria (three localities previously known; now extinct at two of these; currently only two small subpopulations known at one locality), and it is restricted to one site in Egypt. It is extinct in Israel. The populations are restricted and very fragile in the Mediterranean region. They know a reduction following the destruction from some sites in the Maghreb (case of Le Corso in Algeria where the populations are presumed extinct).	eng
164326	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	Drainage of wetlands, the extension of agriculture, overgrazing, groundwater extraction, land pollution (agriculture and domestic), the development of urban amenities and the increasing frequency of droughts (climate change) are the main threats identified to the habitat of this species. <br/>Other threats are bound to the populations who are at their northern distribution limit in the Mediterranean. Their geographical and genetic isolation, resulting from their weak capacity of dispersal and habitat disruption, could increase the risk of extinction on the long-term.	eng
164326	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No specific threats to the species have been identified.	eng
164327	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In France, <em>B. ranunculoides</em> is protected at regional level (Haute-Normandie, Champagne-Ardenne, Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Ile-de-France). <br/>It is Critically Endangered in Croatia and in Italy. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164327	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164327	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a western-Mediterranean and sub-Atlantic species, with its distribution centre located in western Europe.<br/><br/>In North Africa the species occurs in Algeria, where it is relatively common in the coastal mountains of Alger and Constantine regions, in Lybia, in Morocco near the Gibraltar strait, and it is found in Tunisia but rare.	eng
164327	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a western-Mediterranean and sub-Atlantic species, with its distribution centre located in western Europe. It occurs westwards along the Atlantic coast to Britain, southern Norway, southern Sweden and Gotland, southwards to the southern Mediterranean coast and the Balkan peninsula. Isolated populations developed in the Azores, in Spain, Portugal, at the French Mediterranean coast, in the Rhône valley in France, in Corsica, in southern Italy (south of Dalmatia, Sardinia and Sicily), in Croatia and in Argolide (Greece). <br/>In North Africa the species occurs in Algeria, where it is relatively common in the coastal mountains of Alger and Constantine regions, in Libya, in Morocco near the Gibraltar strait, and it is found in Tunisia but rare.<br/>This species can also be found at three sites in Turkey, in Syria, and in Lebanon around Beyrouth.	eng
164327	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a herbaceous perennial Helophyte, which typically occurs along the edge of shallow meso-oligotrophic lakes, ponds, reservoirs and pools, on the shorelines of slow streams, in marshes, fens, brackish dune pools and temporary slacks, summer dried bogs. It can also be found in more anthropogenic or disturbed habitats such as ditches, canals, flooded quarries, man-made dune wetlands, abandoned peat-drains and cuttings, fish ponds, and temporary flooded fields.	eng
164327	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em> is a herbaceous perennial Helophyte, which typically occurs along the edge of shallow meso-oligotrophic lakes, ponds, reservoirs and pools, on the shorelines of slow streams, in marshes, fens, brackish dune pools and temporary slacks, summer dried bogs. It can also be found in more anthropogenic or disturbed habitats such as ditches, canals, flooded quarries, man-made dune wetlands, abandoned peat-drains and cuttings, fish ponds, and temporary flooded fields.	eng
164327	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>B. ranunculoides</em> is rather rare and declining over its entire distribution area, while much rarer in North Africa, where the general decline of wetlands allows suspecting a strong decline of its populations.	eng
164327	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>B. ranunculoides</em> is rather rare and declining over its entire distribution area, while much rarer in North Africa, where the general decline of wetlands allows suspecting a strong decline of its populations.	eng
164327	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>.	eng
164327	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia ranunculoides</em>.	eng
164328	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas.	eng
164328	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. The following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupyied areas, etc.	eng
164328	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a circumboreal species occurring from west Siberia to Lake Baikal, south Greenland, North America, central and northern Europe <br/><br/>In africa it is present in Morocco as subspecies <em>eu-squarrosus</em> Maire & Weiller at the Middle Rif Mountains. Very rare to Isagen valley at an altitude of 1,400 - 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
164328	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a circumboreal species occurring from west Siberia to Lake Baikal, south Greenland, North America, central and northern Europe where it is found in France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Croatia. In North Africa, it is present in Morocco as subspecies <em>eu-squarrosus</em> Maire & Weiller at the Middle Rif Mountains (very rare to Isagen valley at an altitude of 1,400 - 1,600 m).	eng
164328	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> is a perennial species that is found in wet meadows on acid grounds of mountains, peat bogs and <em>Sphagnetum</em>, from 100 - 1,600 m. In Europe it also grows in moorland and damp heaths (Tutin <em>et al.</em> 1964).	eng
164328	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	In Spain, there are several hundred localities; it is common in central and northern France but rare in the south, and it is very rare in northwest Italy. It is listed as Data Deficient in Croatia.<br/>In Morocco, its area is limited to one locality in the Rif, where its AOO is less than 2 km².	eng
164328	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Its area is limited to Morocco with one locality in the Rif, where its AOO is less than 2 km² in very fragmented populations. Only one locality for <em>Juncus squarrosus</em> was reported (Maire 1957).	eng
164328	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus squarrosus</em> seems to be present in the Mediterranean region only accidentally. So, the few populations scattered in Italy or Morocco are very threatened. In Morocco, the draining of the marshy meadows constitutes the main threat towards this species.	eng
164329	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place, but conservation of the habitat and monitoring of the existing locations have been suggested as possible actions.	eng
164329	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place. It is recommended to manage the cutting of the rush, to conserve its habitat and to monitor the existing locations as well as the population dynamics.	eng
164329	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering western and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde. In Northern Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt. Also recorded from the southern part of South Africa (Free State, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Namibia, and Lesotho.	eng
164329	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a worldwide distribution covering western and southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde. It is known from several localities in Albania, Spain and Balearic Islands, France and Corsica, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.	eng
164329	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a perennial plant (Geophyte), growing in saline swamps, banks of rivers, and pools more or less brackish. Its flowering time is July-September. It provides shelter for some species of birds and small mammals.	eng
164329	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus acutus</em> is a vivacious plant (Geophyte), growing in saline swamps, banks of rivers, and pools more or less brackish. Its flowering time is July-September. It provides shelter for some species of birds and small mammals.	eng
164329	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable.	eng
164329	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2007	The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable on the Mediterranean scale.	eng
164329	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2007	Drought due to drainage and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species. Overall the species is very widespread and their populations are not in decline.	eng
164329	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Drought due to drainage and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species. Overall the species is very widespread and their populations are not in decline.	eng
164330	conservation	de Bélair G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, the following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Algeria and Morocco)<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamic of populations	eng
164330	distribution	de Bélair G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is a tropical and subtropical species, rare in Algeria and Morocco, and naturalised in Italy.<br/>Its global distribution includes South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela), Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria, Sudan) and Asia (China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Lao People Democratic Republic, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam).<br/><br/>In Algeria, the species is found in the northeast around Annaba and El Kala. In Morrocco, in the North Atlantic plains.	eng
164330	habitat	de Bélair G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is a perennial species growing in damp and wet places. It occurs on the edges of ponds and peatland soils.	eng
164330	population	de Bélair G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Fimbristylis squarrosa</em> is rare in Algeria and Morocco, but can be locally abundant.	eng
164330	threats	de Bélair G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Destruction of its habitat due to agriculture and human settlements, drainage, and in-filling are the major threats to this species. In Algeria, the habitat is under severe pressure, even though there is officially a national park, and the species might disappear very quickly.	eng
164331	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no existing conservation measures. Recommended actions are:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics <br/>- Reduce habitat loss through the implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164331	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ammannia senegalensis</em> is an Afrotropical species that occurs in Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and other countries. <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers around 300,000 km², occurring in more than 20 sites.	eng
164331	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found on sandy and silty-sandy soils of temporary marshes. Flowering occurs during summer.	eng
164331	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa the populations appear to be stable. In Libya, it is present in the Ghat region in the west of the country. In Egypt, it is present along the Mediterranean coast, the Nile delta, in the oases of the western Desert and doubtfully in the Sinai Peninsula.	eng
164331	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The agricultural expansion along the Nile delta and the use of herbicides are the main threats to this species.	eng
164335	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In France, <em>M. verticillatum</em> is protected at regional level (Basse-Normandie), but no further protection of this species is known for other countries. The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species	eng
164335	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In France, <em>M. verticillatum</em> is protected at regional level in Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Basse-Normandie. In Italy, it is classed as Endangered in Marche;   Vulnerable in Tuscany, Umbria, Molise and Basilicata; and Lower Risk in Trentino and<st1:state w:st="on"></st1:state> Lazio (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). No further protection of this species is known for other countries. The following conservation measures are being proposed:<br/>- Monitoring and protection of the sub-populations.<br/>- Management of water quality and tourism development.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species	eng
164335	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan circumboreal species, present in the Mediterranean basin, especially in its western part. Its North African distribution includes Algeria, where it is common in the entire country, and Morocco where it is present in more than ten locations distributed between the northern Atlantic coast (Gharb plain, Benslimane, Oued Fouarat, Merja Bokka) and the Middle-Atlas (Aguelmame Azegza, lac Sidi Ali, Ifrah, Wiwan, dayat Achlaf). <br/>In the Mediterranean, it also occurs in Spain (widespread but uncommon), France (widespread), Portugal (between Douro and Tejo), Greece, and Italy where it is present in all the territory (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>  <br/><br/>The species is furthermore found in North America (Canada, United States), Japan and northern Europe.	eng
164335	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan circumboreal species, present in the Mediterranean basin, especially in its western part. The species is also found in North America (Canada, United States), Japan and Europe (Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Poland, Romania, Russia).<br/><br/>Its North African distribution includes Algeria, where it is common in the entire country, and Morocco where it is present in more than 10 locations (Area of Occupancy >10 km²) distributed between the northern Atlantic coast (Gharb plain, Benslimane, Oued Fouarat, Merja Bokka) and the Middle-Atlas (Aguelmame Azegza, lac Sidi Ali, Ifrah, Wiwan, dayat Achlaf).	eng
164335	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is a free-floating, submerged, perennial aquatic plant which grows in ponds, streams and shallow lakes of lowlands and small mountains.	eng
164335	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Myriophyllum verticillatum</em> is rather common in the Mediterranean, with numerous locations and an AOO >2,000 km². The population dynamics are unknown.	eng
164335	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The destruction of wetlands by draining, agricultural development and water pollution are the main threats in northern Africa.	eng
164336	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place; protection of the species' habitat throughout the Mediterranean is needed.	eng
164336	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a Mediterranean-Touranian species. It is found in Algeria, Egypt, Israel, southeast Spain, southern France, Italy, Greece, Crete, Black Sea coasts, Albania, Bulgaria, the Balkans, and Turkey (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In North Africa, <em>J. littoralis</em> is found in Egypt along the Mediterranean coast, in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the desert east of the Nile, except Sinai. In Algeria it is noted from only one locality near Algiers as <em>J. acutus</em> var. <em>tommasinii</em> (Parl.) Arcang. = <em>J. tommasinii</em> Parl. (1852) which is probably destroyed.	eng
164336	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a Mediterranean-Touranian species. It is found in Algeria, Egypt, Palestine, Israel, northeast Spain, southern France, northern Italy, Greece, Crete, Black Sea coasts, Albania, Bulgaria, the Balkans, Turkey, south and southwest Caspian area, and southern Anatolia (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In North Africa, <em>J. littoralis</em> is found in Egypt along the Mediterranean coast, in the Nile region, the oases of the western Desert, the desert east of the Nile, except Sinai. In Algeria it is noted from only one locality near Algiers as <em>J. acutus</em> var. <em>tommasinii</em> (Parl.) Arcang. = <em>J. tommasinii</em> Parl. (1852) which is probably destroyed.	eng
164336	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus littoralis</em> is a perennial species. In Egypt it is found on wet sandy soils, often saline in interdunal depressions, fields, banks of canals (Boulos 2005). Typically restricted to wet saline coastal grasslands on sandy substrates, a habitat type which is seriously threatened throughout the Mediterranean.	eng
164336	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	Only present in Egypt throughout Africawhere populations are important. It is almost missing in western North Africa (only 1 site in Algeria where it is possibly extinct). The population is declining as a result of loss of coastal sand dune habitat.	eng
164336	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The species is generally rare in the western Mediterranean; also rare in Turkey and Greece. In the Northern Mediterranean region <em>J. littoralis</em> is present in southeast Spain, southern France (not observed by Coste 1980), noted from only one locality in Corsica by Jeanmonod and Gamisans (2007), is common in northern Italy along the Adriatic coast, rare in southern Italy and Sicily (Pignatti 1997).<br/>The only place where it is rather common is in Egypt. It is almost missing in western North Africa (only 1 site in Algeria where it is possibly extinct). The population is declining as a result of loss of coastal sand dune habitat.	eng
164336	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The habitat of <em>J. littoralis</em> is threatened in the Mediterranean region by the intense urban and agricultural development along the coastline and in the dune systems.	eng
164337	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species due to its stable and numerous populations.	eng
164337	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Polypogon viridis</em> is a subtropical species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, Macaronesia (Canary Islands, Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands). It has naturalized in America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 500,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164337	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in pools, ditches, rice fields, along streams and irrigation canals and in wetlands of plains and mountains up to 1,600 m in altitude. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn. The plant is not used and it is considered a weed.	eng
164337	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. The populations appear to be stable. It is listed as Data Deficient in the Red Data Book of Croatia.	eng
164337	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture, drainage, urbanization and the development of road infrastructures are the main threats to the habitat for this species, but it does not affect the species survival.	eng
164338	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In Europe, several conservation measures are in place: <br/>The species is under regional protection in France, in Alsace, Lorraine, Bourgogne, Picardie, Franche-Comté, and Ile-de-France. <br/>In Corsica, a Natural Reserve designation for three ponds in Tre Padules of Suartone is in planning. The species is classified as Vulnerable in the Italian National Red List (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997) and the Sicilian sites are included within the perimeter of a Regional Park.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species under the list of protected species of Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164338	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species under the list of protected species of Maghreb <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164338	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> is a species with a large geographical distribution. It is known in Europe, North Africa and North America. At Mediterranean scale it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Portugal (scattered in the whole peninsula), Italy (Lombardy, Lazio, Sila, Sicily and Sardinia), <br/><br/>Tunisia (Madjen Choucha, Sejnane, Ichkeul), Algeria (Kabylie and Algiers) and Morocco (Benslimane, Jbel Outka, Issaguene). <br/><br/>It is considered very rare in Morocco and rare in Algeria. Its extent of occurrence in North Africa goes beyond 280,000 km² with an area of occupancy of about 600 km². At the scale of the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 980,000 km² and the AOO exceeds 2,000 km².	eng
164338	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> is a species with a large geographical distribution. It is known in Europe, North Africa and North America. At Mediterranean scale it is found in France and Corsica, Spain and Portugal (scattered in the whole peninsula), Italy with Sicily and Sardinia, Tunisia (Madjen Choucha, Sejnane, Ichkeul), Algeria (Kabylie and Algiers) and Morocco (Benslimane, Jbel Outka, Issaguene). <br/>It is considered very rare in Morocco, rare in Algeria and vulnerable in Italy. At the scale of the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is about 980,000 km² and the area of occupancy exceeds 2,000 km².	eng
164338	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> grows in temporary pools, peat bogs, lakes, mountain ponds and rivers with very clear, cold waters (<20°C), on very soft, acidic to pH-neutral soil and exposed to intense light (heliophile species). It is a Hydrophyte species that germinates under water or on saturated soils in February-March and blooms out of water in spring. Together with the sexual reproduction, the plant shows a vegetative multiplication during the aquatic phase, that facilitates the colonization of new spaces by fragmentation and taking off cuttings.	eng
164338	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> grows in the temporary pools, peatbogs, lakes, mountain ponds and rivers with very clear, cold waters (<20°C), on very soft, acidic to pH-neutral soil and exposed to intense light (heliophile species). It is a Hydrophyte species that germinates under water or on saturated soils in February-March and blooms out of water in spring. Together with the sexual reproduction, the plant shows a vegetative multiplication during the aquatic phase, that facilitates the colonization of new spaces by fragmentation and taking off cuttings.	eng
164338	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The North African populations are found in an increasingly deteriorated context. Therefore, they show a bigger decline than in Mediterranean Europe. <br/><br/>- In Morocco, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> has been found in 14 ponds along the Atlantic plains (Benslimane) and in the mountainous region of the Rif. The anthropogenic pressure is high on these sites. <br/>- In Algeria, the species is considered as rare: the sites where <em>M. alterniflorum</em> is present are few (less than 10) and it was only localized in two sectors, the Algérois and the Kabyle sectors (Grande and Petite Kabylie and Numidie).	eng
164338	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The North African populations are found in an increasingly deteriorated context. Therefore, they show a bigger decline than in Mediterranean Europe. <br/>- In Corsica, the species is present in seven temporary ponds of the southeast of the island: four ponds in the Natural Reserve of the Tre Padules of Suartone and in three artificial ponds on the plateau of Frasselli.<br/>- In Italy, the species is present in <st1:city w:st="on">Lombardia</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:state>, <st1:city w:st="on">Lazio</st1:city>, <st1:state w:st="on">Calabria</st1:state>, <st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia (</st1:place>Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Lastrucci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Tuscany</st1:place></st1:state> many records are old and have not been confirmed recently apart from two sites of which one is under threat by the invasion of helophytes. In total, Scoppola and Spampinato (2005) report 16 localities: 13 are confirmed and one has been added in 2007 by Lastrucci <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) summing up to 14 localities.<br/>- In the Iberian Peninsula, the species is widely distributed within 40 provinces in Spain and five in Portugal.<br/>- In Morocco, <em>Myriophyllum alterniflorum</em> has been found in 14 ponds along the Atlantic plains (Benslimane) and in the mountainous region of the Rif. The anthropogenic pressure is high on these sites. <br/>- In Algeria, the species is considered as rare: the sites where <em>M. alterniflorum</em> is present are few (less than 10) and it was only localized in two sectors, the Algérois and the Kabylie sectors (Grande and Petite Kabylie and Numidie).	eng
164338	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Infilling, urbanization, overgrazing, agricultural practices and hydrological modification of the pools through drainage constitute major threats for this taxon. <br/>The frequency of dry years restricts the apparition of this species, and decreases its opportunities for seed stock renewal, which could pose some problems in the long-term. Moreover, the abandonment of grazing pressure at the sites (Corsica) constitutes a potential threat for the species due to the invasion of its habitat by woody plants and Helophytes.	eng
164338	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Infilling, urbanization, overgrazing, eutrophication, agricultural practices and the related hydrological modification of the pools through drainage constitute major threats for this taxon. <br/>The frequency of dry years restricts the apparition of this species, and decreases its opportunities for seed stock renewal, which could pose some problems in the long-term. Moreover, the abandonment of grazing pressure at the sites (Corsica, Italy) constitutes a potential threat for the species due to the invasion of its habitat by woody plants and Helophytes (e.g. Phragmites and <span style="font-style: italic;">Typha</span>).	eng
164339	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to research the species’ presence in Morocco, especially in the Rif (Tanger) and neighbouring regions.	eng
164339	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Galium uliginosum</em> is a European species. Its distribution covers northern and central Europe. <br/>In North Africa it has a doubtful presence in Morocco (Tanger). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Turkey, and probably in Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with numerous locations.	eng
164339	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that prefers swamps, humid prairies, ditches, stream edges and peaty environments. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May - August).	eng
164339	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region; the trend of the populations is unknown. It is common in Spain, with 93 sites in the north of the country; common in nearly all France (1399 sites) but quite rare in Mediterranean France; present in six provinces in the north of Italy; present in Croatia, where it is listed as Critically Endangered in the National Red List   (Nikolić and Topić 2005). <br/><br/>Its presence is Morocco is doubtful.	eng
164339	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage is the main threat to this species but does not lead to significant population declines at the moment.	eng
164340	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164340	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species was introduced into Europe and the Mediterranean region from Asia before 1500 and is therefore considered as archeophyte in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164340	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is cultivated in southern Europe and North Africa; widely naturalised in ditches and rivers.	eng
164340	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is fairly common and sometimes invasive.	eng
164340	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
164341	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book of Israel.<br/>No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are monitoring of the sites and estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164341	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Aeluropus lagopoides</em> is a Mediterraneo-Touranian (Mediterranean basin and Iran) species. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Sicily, Karpathos, Crete, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Euro+Med Plantbase (2009) suggests that the species is also present in Cyprus and Malta. Its extent of occurrence is about 4,000,000 km² with numerous locations and an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164341	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits sandy stretches along the coastline, inland swamps and salt marshes. Flowering occurs from spring to autumn (March-October).	eng
164341	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa, with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is in more than 10 locations; common in Algeria from the coast all the way down to central Sahara; very widespread in Tunisia; very common in Egypt (Mediterranean coast, Red Sea coastal strip, the Nile, the oases of the western Desert and Sinai Peninsula); at least seven locations in Libya along its Mediterranean coastline. <br/>It is present in Sicily (Italy) and very common in Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.<br/>In Israel, it is classed as Vulnerable in the Red Data Book (Shmida and Pollak 2008).	eng
164341	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization of the coastline for tourism and industrial delopment is the main threat to this species and its habitat.	eng
164343	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This species is included in Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The site of Talassemtane is classified as National Park, there are no conservation measures in place for any of the other sites. Therefore the following actions are needed: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164343	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This orchid is a strict endemic species of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the western Rif. It is only known from four localities: Talassemtane; Tidighine mountain; Ketama; and the side of the Amezlou River at 1,400 m elevation. Its extent of occurrence is about 2,000 km² and it is found at less than five locations.	eng
164343	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Geophyte) that develops as isolated individuals, more rarely in small groups, in the swamps and at the banks of streams at plains and mountains, up to 2,600 m altitude. It blooms and sets fruits in spring and summer under the Mediterranean humid bioclimate.	eng
164343	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.	eng
164343	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Except for the site of Talassemtane that is classified as National Park since 2004, this species' localities experience a high grazing pressure, and an increasing numbers of tourists facilitated by easier access to the sites (building of paths, tracks, and roads).	eng
164344	conservation	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed. Most of the cedar forests, where this species grows, are protected by law (E. Sattout pers. comm. 2009).	eng
164344	distribution	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Eleocharis macrantha</em> is an endemic of Lebanon, growing in the central mountains: Jisr-el-Hajar, Khan Sannine, Mayrouba, Qoubbeh towards Hammana.	eng
164344	habitat	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Eleocharis macrantha</em> grows on wet sandstones in high zones of Lebanon. It grows at the cedar and fir level.	eng
164344	population	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	The species is abundant.	eng
164344	threats	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	There are no threats to this species.	eng
164346	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164346	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Agrostis reuteri</em> is an Iberico-Mauritanian species. Its biogeographic distribution covers central and southern Portugal, southern Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is known in numerous localities with an extent of occurrence that exceeds 300,000 km² and an AOO >100 km².	eng
164346	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte). It inhabits humid pastoral land, banks of rivers and rivulets. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-August).	eng
164346	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and stable populations. <br/> <br/>In Morocco, it is common with numerous localities distributed between the Rif, the Mediterranean coastline, Northern Atlantic Morocco, Middle Atlantic Morocco, the plains of Oriental Morocco, Middle Atlas and High Atlas. In Algeria, it is also common in the Tell and the Aurès and rare in the Saharan Oranais Atlas and Algerois. It is rare in Tunisia, known in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham) and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Zaghouan). In Spain and Portugal, it is common in the centre and south of Portugal and in the south of Spain with 82 known localities.	eng
164346	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	No major threats for the species.	eng
164347	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164347	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Epilobium hirsutum</em> is a Euro-Mediterranean species. Its distribution encompasses the Mediterranean basin, Europe, Asia, Africa and it was introduced in North America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164347	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ditches, drainage canals and wetlands on plains and mountains, with a preference for chalky and clayey substrate. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. It multiplies by vegetative propagation (stolons) and exceptionally by germination.	eng
164347	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: very frequent with several locations distributed between the Anti Atlas, High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Saharan Morocco, northern Atlantic Morocco, mid-Atlantic Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: common in all the country except in central Sahara (Hoggar) where it is considered rare; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least nine locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka), the Mogods (Ouchteta), northeast of Tunisia (Garaet Ichkeula and El Alia) and the Dorsale Tunisienne (Oud Thibar, Jbel Zaghouan, Kessera and Jbel Bargou); <br/>- Libya: it is rare and confined to Gebel Akhdar, specifically to two regions (El-Gubba and Derna); <br/>- Egypt: common along the Nile, the Mediterranean coastline and in the oases of the western Desert; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common and present in more than 398 sites; <br/>- France: frequent in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in the whole country including Sicily and Sardinia.<br/>- Israel: very common	eng
164347	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164348	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or proposed for this species.	eng
164348	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Pycreus flavidus</em> is a subtropical species. Its world distribution covers southern Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, tropical Africa, Madagascar and Australia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164348	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits ditches and wetlands. Flowering occurs in spring and the beginning of autumn	eng
164348	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, but in North Africa its distribution is limited to only a few locations (<10) with very restricted populations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>In Morocco, its distribution is confined to the northwest of Morocco, the western Rif and the region of Ouezzane; very rare in Algeria, present in the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Miliana); found in Egypt in the eastern Desert (along the Suez Channel); present in Lebanon in Beirut, Nahr Beirut, Nahr-el-Kelb, along the edges of the Qadicha, Abey, Aley, south of Beit Méri and from Chouit to Hammana.<br/>It is fairly common in Spain, with 32 sites in the south and east of the country; found only in two regions of France (along the Mediterranean coast and in the centre of the country); present only in one province of Italy.	eng
164348	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of the habitat of this species is its main threat.	eng
164349	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164349	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Epilobium tetragonum</em> has a very large distribution that covers the Mediterranean region, Europe and southwest Asia. It was introduced in America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Karpathos, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence is about 6,000,000 km² and it occurs in numerous locations (>40).	eng
164349	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found along the edges of streams, springs and swampy humid habitats of plains and mountains of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164349	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean region, populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: at least eight locations (Tanger, Tétouan, Chaouène, Smir, Gharb, Siroua, Jbel Amezdour and the High Atlas); <br/>- Algeria: rare, occurring in six locations distributed between the Tellien Atlas, the coastal Algérois, Numidie and Petite and Grande Kabylie; <br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations distributed between the Kroumirie, the Mogods, Tunisian Dorsal and the northeast; <br/>- Portugal: present in 11 provinces; <br/>- Spain: very common, present in 118 sites; <br/>- France: common in all of the country including Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common in all the country including Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164349	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164350	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In Algeria, the site falls within the National Park of El-Kala that is a registered Biosphere reserve and a Ramsar site. However, protection is not effectively enforced and extent and quality of the habitat have declined.<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Protection of the site in Morocco <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164350	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Thelypteris interrupta</em> is a tropical species that is present in the Mediterranean region only in Morocco and Algeria. It is very rare in Morocco and is known from only one locality (Lalla Mimouna close to Larache) with an occupied area not exceeding 9 km². In Algeria, it is very rare and known in only one sector in Numidie (La Calle - Lake Tonga) in the east of the country, where it is found at four sites. It has a very dispersed distribution and only occupies a small surface area at the sites where it is found. Its Mediterranean area of occupancy does not exceed 150 km².	eng
164350	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The species is found in coastal wetlands on flinty lands. It is a perennial species (rhizomatous Geophyte) that reproduces in summer to fall under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164350	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size of the populations is not known. In Morocco, the populations seem to be declining following the cultivation of parts of its habitat. The last observations of the Moroccan site date to 2002. In Algeria, the habitat declined during the 1990s although since around 2000 the trend seems to have stabilised. The populations face major threats and certainly cannot be presumed to be secure in the future.	eng
164350	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In Morocco, the unique station of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thelypteris interrupta</span> has been partially drained and cultivated; the remaining part of the wetland is exposed to a high grazing pressure. <br/>In Algeria, the site is threatened by filling in of the water body (sedimentation) followed by the encroachment of invading vegetation, by the installation of a small village (douar) and by the development of agriculture upstream of the site that increases the risks of water and soil pollution. Industrial sand extraction is also a major threat to the catchments where this species occurs.	eng
164351	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Currently, there is no protection for this species in place. The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in the Syrian Arab Republic and Turkey)<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species	eng
164351	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Isoetes olympica</em> is an endemic species of the eastern Mediterranean, with a disjointed and very small distribution area comprising two small subpopulations: one in the Syrian desert at Jbel Druze (1,650 m), the other one in Turkey, in Bithynia at Bursa (Mount Olympus, 1,700 m). It has an extent of occurrence of approximately 100 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164351	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes olympica </span>is an essentially aquatic Geophyte, and remains under water during most of the year. It develops on clayey mud, in alpine meadows and in temporary pools on high mountain grasslands.<em></em></p>	eng
164351	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The populations of <em>I. olympica</em> are declining both in the Syrian Arab Republic and in Turkey where the species is possibly extinct (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.) as it has not been seen at the one location at Mount Olympus.<br/>In the Syrian Arab Republic, <em>I. olympica</em> was initially discovered at several places at Jbel Druze (Mouterde 1953). In May 2000, approximately one hundred plants were observed at the margin of a single dry depression, an intermittent wetland remaining after channelization of the stream. They were sparsely distributed within 0.5 ha. Associated plants included <em>Lythrum tribracteatum</em>, <em>Myosurus minimus</em>, <em>Ranunculus marginatus</em>, <em>Veronica</em> sp., <em>Phalaris</em> sp., <em>Juncus</em> sp., <em>Carex</em> sp. and innumerable weedy Asteraceae (Musselman 2002).	eng
164351	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The site in the Syrian Arab Republic, though disturbed by grazing, had not yet been destroyed in 2007 (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.). The small size of the subpopulation makes it very sensitive to any modification of the habitat. It is notably threatened with immediate destruction by the unprecedented expansion of irrigated agriculture in the region (Musselman 2002).<br/><br/>In Turkey, the subpopulations of Bursa are severely threatened, and maybe already destroyed, by the rapid expansion of skiing lodges in the region with little natural area remaining. A search conducted in July 2007 did not succeed in finding a single plant (L.J. Musselman pers. comm.).	eng
164352	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is protected in France at regional level (four regions: Basse-Normandie, Lorraine, Alsace and Franche-Comté). It is also included in the Red List of Israel where benign introductions are recommended as a conservation measure.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites <br/>- Estimate the population size; <br/>- Study the dynamics of the populations	eng
164352	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ludwigia palustris</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution covers the Mediterranean region, Europe, western Asia and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, western Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers around 5,000,000 km², occurring in numerous locations.	eng
164352	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial, aquatic, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in springs, streams and swamps of siliceous soil. It is typical for very shallow pools and very slow flowing water, it prefers permanent waters. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164352	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in numerous locations in the Mediterranean basin (>80). Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: at least 13 locations distributed between the western Rif and the north Atlantic plains (Fouarat swamp, Lalla Mimouna, Harcha, Oulmès, Tangier, western Rif and Mamora); <br/>- Algeria: very rare, mentioned from few locations in the lakes around La Calle; <br/>- Tunisia: more than six locations distributed between Kroumirie and the Mogods (Aïn Draham, Babouc, Radjem Azoug, Mouadgène, Cap Serrat and Sedjnane); <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: very common, present in 70 provinces; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: fairly common, present in 13 provinces.<br/>- Turkey: present at seven localities, four of them in European Turkey and three in western Anatolia<br/>- Israel: the species is probably extinct	eng
164352	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164353	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Picardie, Lorraine, Basse-Normandie, Limousin, Lorraine, Alsace and Nord-Pas-de-Calais. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but monitoring of the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations is needed.	eng
164353	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but monitoring of the existing sites and the dynamics of the populations is needed.	eng
164353	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis quinqueflora</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers northern and central Europe, boreal, western and Central Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco and Egypt, with an extent of occurrence over 3,000,000 km² and more than 11 locations.	eng
164353	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Eleocharis quinqueflora</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers northern and central Europe, boreal, western and Central Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164353	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits peaty prairies of siliceous soil, rice fields and canal banks. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-August).	eng
164353	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region, and in North Africa it occurs in at least 11 locations. In Morocco its distribution is limited to medium and high mountains, occurring in several locations in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Rif. It is found along the Nile (rice fields and canal banks) in Egypt.	eng
164353	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly widespread in the Mediterranean region, and in North Africa it occurs in at least 11 locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: its distribution is limited to medium and high mountains, occurring in several locations in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Rif; <br/>- Egypt: found along the Nile (rice fields and canal banks); <br/>- Spain: present in 85 sites; <br/>- France: uncommon along the Mediterranean coast; <br/>- Italy: present in 10 provinces.	eng
164353	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164355	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie, Pays-de-la-Loire, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, Rhones-Alpes, and Midi-Pyrénées. Some populations occur in Ramsar sites, but it is recommended to further study the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, its populations, and its locations in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164355	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Exaculum pusillum</em> has its main distribution in the western Mediterranean. It is found in Spain, Portugal, France where it occurs in the west, centre and south and in Corsica (localized and locally abundant), and in Italy where it is very rare and only occurs on the west coast, Sicily and Sardinia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the plant is very rare in Tunisia (three sites) and Algeria (Algiers region, Kabylie and Numidian regions), and it is found at eight localities in Morocco (central western Tangier, west Rif, Loukkos, central Rif, Targuist, Zerhoun, Mamora).	eng
164355	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Exaculum pusillum</em> is a Therophyte that grows in damp, sandy or grassy places such as mires, wet moors, marshes, banks of ponds, wet meadows or moist sands, temporary ponds. In North Africa, it is found in depressions that are wet in winter, on banks of dayas on siliceous ground or in temporary pools (peaty often or sandy and siliceous).<br/><br/>Flowering times are between May and August in France, Corsica and Italy, and from May to July in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164355	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species is often rare. Its extent of occurrence is higher than 20,000 km² but its area of occupancy is very probably below 2,000 km² in the Mediterranean. It is known from numerous locations, but with very small populations.	eng
164355	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The species is probably threatened because of its rarity in most of its range. Its habitats are not very rare in the Mediterranean region, although temporary ponds are severely threatened by agriculture and infrastructural developments.	eng
164357	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	In France, the species is under regional protection in Aquitaine and Alsace.<br/>No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164357	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164357	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species occurs in western, central, southern and eastern Europe; North, East and Southern Africa; west, southwest, north and central Asia.	eng
164357	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species occurs in western, central, southern and eastern Europe; North, East and southern Africa; west, southwest, north and central Asia. The species has a more southerly distribution in Europe than most <em>Potamogeton</em> species, being found from south Sweden and central Russia southwards to the Mediterranean area. It is also found in southwest Asia, and it is widespread in Africa. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Egypt, Morocco and Algeria.	eng
164357	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is an annual (occasionally perennial) herb. Found in permanent pools and marshes.	eng
164357	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This plant grows in shallow water, lakes, rivers, streams, canals and ditches.	eng
164357	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is common in Algeria and rare in Morocco and Egypt. In France, it is common in the north but nearly absent from the Mediterranean region except for Corsica (Tela Botanica 2000-2008). In Spain, it is scattered but fairly common throughout the country (Anthos 2009). In Italy, it is found in ten provinces, mainly in the north, as well as in Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164357	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
164357	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	It is not known whether this species is threatened.	eng
164357	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
164358	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place. It is suggested to search for the species in Egypt in order to confirm its presence and the status of its populations.	eng
164358	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In Southern Africa the species has been recorded from Zambia, Namibia, and Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).<br/><br/><em>Marsilea capensis</em> was found once in Egypt (Nile delta, eastern edge). This finding is however doubtful and should be confirmed in order to attest the presence of the species in North Africa (perhaps also in Iraq and Iran).	eng
164358	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial herb grows along rivers, around pools and in seasonally flooded places.	eng
164358	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information is available.	eng
164358	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Threats are unknown.	eng
164359	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Some proposed actions are to monitor the sites in North Africa, promote legal protection (list of protected species in North Africa), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the population size, study the population dynamics and the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164359	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	<em>Carex acuta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,000,000 km², with 13 locations.	eng
164359	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	<em>Carex acuta</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164359	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous sedge (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps, ponds, marshes, riverbeds and riversides. Flowering occurs in spring.	eng
164359	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	The species is very widespread in the Mediterranean region, occurring at several locations. <br/>In North Africa it is uncommon due to spatial restrictions, but populations, although small, appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, with four locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Oulmès and El Harcha) and the Rif (Ketama and the Oued Laou near Chaouène);<br/>- Algeria: rare, with four locations distributed between Numidie (Senhadja and Annaba), the Constantinois Tell region (Guelma) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen);<br/>- Tunisia: fairly common (Kroumirie, Mogods, Northeast Tunisia, Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia, El Fedja, Tinja, Korbous);<br/>- Spain: known from 91 sites<br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country<br/>- Italy: present in 14 provinces<br/>- Lebanon: in two locations (Akkar and Nahr Dennki), although one has been destroyed; <br/>- Syria: present in High Jéziré (Soutane Déré near Deirik).	eng
164359	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	This species is uncommon in North Africa due to spatial restrictions (13 locations and an AOO <100 km²), but populations, although small, appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: rare, with four locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Oulmès and El Harcha) and the Rif (Ketama and the Oued Laou near Chaouène);<br/>- Algeria: rare, with four locations distributed between Numidie (Senhadja and Annaba), the Constantinois Tell region (Guelma) and the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen);<br/>- Tunisia: fairly common (Kroumirie, Mogods, Northeast Tunisia, Tunisian Dorsal and central Tunisia, El Fedja, Tinja, Korbous).	eng
164359	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	<em>Carex acuta</em> is probably slightly declining over the whole Mediterranean basin because of the destruction and degradation of its habitats, but its situation is more severe in North Africa.	eng
164359	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M., Flanagan, D., Ghrabi Z. & Serge Muller, 2009	This species is threatened by destruction and degradation of its habitats due to human disturbance and agricultural activities.	eng
164360	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	This species is included in the French Red book tome II. Surveillance of the existing sites and the search for new sites is carried out by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica.<br/><br/>It is recommended to study the dynamics of different populations, the species' biology, resilience, and conservation, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation measures.	eng
164360	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Bellis bernardii</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European-orophytic origins. It is a rare species in the central mountains of Corsica localized at only three mountains: Cintu, Rotondo, Renoso. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².	eng
164360	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	'The species is found in 'pozzine', peat and grass around lakes, at an altitude between 1,650 to 2,400 m. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments. At the moment, germination, growing and flowering conditions are unknown.	eng
164360	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Bellis bernardii</em> is known from 11 sites in Corsica. The population at Lac de Melo has last been observed in 2007.<br/>The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend.	eng
164360	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The habitat is subjected to an increase in trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzines, and higher risk of fires. Therefore there are more guards from the natural park around the different lakes.<br/>The populations don't seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
164361	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new ones <br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (legislation on the protection and valorisation of the environment as well as on environmental impact studies)	eng
164361	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Mariscus hamulosus</em> is a tropical species. Its distribution covers oriental Europe, tropical and western Asia and tropical and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only present in Morocco and possibly Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 3,000,000 km², but the area of occupancy is likely to be below 500 km² with eight sites.	eng
164361	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits plains and in particular temporary pools of sandy substrate that dry out during the summer period. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164361	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very rare in North Africa (spatial limitations). The populations are very restricted, in regression and are inter-annually very unstable. In Morocco, it is very rare, known in five locations on the plains of northern Atlantic Morocco (pools in Kénitra, Salé, Mamora, Benslimane and Oued Cherrat). Some sites in Morocco (Salé) have been destroyed due to motorway construction. <br/> Le Houérou (1960) mentioned three sites distributed between the Mogods and Kroumirie, but newer flora and field work do not mention this species in Tunisia.	eng
164361	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage, urbanization and the construction of road infrastructures are the main threats to this species.	eng
164362	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some species are included in designated Ramsar sites.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- To reduce the loss of the habitat by the enforcement of existing legal protection measures <br/>- To maintain the hydrologic regime of the sites <br/>- To reduce agriculture around the sites and the use of the fertilizers and herbicides <br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation (seeds banks)	eng
164362	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a paleotropical species that stretches as far as Canada, northwest Africa, Madagascar, China, Japan, south Argentina, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and Tropical Asia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt with more than 16 known localities. The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean region passes 3,000,000 km².	eng
164362	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is a submersed perennial aquatic plant (submersed Hydrophyte) that is carnivorous. It is found in lakes, the swamps of plains and springs with a preference for acidic waters (poor in limestone). It is widely disbursed by birds.<br/>It proliferates in a vegetative way from fragments or turions (hibernating buds).	eng
164362	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is present in at least 16 localities in the Mediterranean region with populations who seem to know a light reduction. In North Africa, the populations are in regression under the effect of the increasing anthropogenic pressures on the habitats. <br/>- Morocco: the species is considered as very rare with five known localities distributed in the Gharb (oued El Akhal, oued Fouarat, swamp of Ghedira) and Mamora <br/>- Algeria: less than 10 localities, very rare in Numidie (La Calle) and in the central Sahara (Tassili n'Ajjers) <br/>- Tunisia: it is very rare with only one known locality in Mogods (Sedjnane) <br/>- Egypt: present in the oases to the west of the country <br/>- Libya: localized in the southwest with two localities (Ghat, Al Barkat) <br/>- Iberian peninsula: quite localized in the southwest (one province in Spain and one in Portugal) (Anthos 2009) <br/>- Israel: the species is epizodic and is only known from one introduced population	eng
164362	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Utricularia gibba</em> is probably threatened, because of its rarity. Drainage of wetlands, agriculture, the eutrophication of water and the invasion by algae and by exotic plants causing a lack of light constitute the main threats for the species and its habitat.	eng
164363	conservation	Foggi, B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> is considered Endangered in Sicily and Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Management of the existing sites and research on the populations size and trends as well as potential threats is needed.<br/>The Lake Gurrida site is included in the SCI ITA0070019 "Lago Gurrida e Sciare di S. Venera"and in the Regional Park of the Mt. Etna.	eng
164363	distribution	Foggi, B., 2010	This species is endemic to Italy and Sicily (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009). It has a confirmed presence in Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). It has also been reported as occurring in Calabria, but only data from 1880 for Marina di Madia (Catanzaro Province) is available. The population from Calabria should be considered extinct. The area of occupancy is approximately 16 km<sup>2</sup> and it is found at four locations.	eng
164363	habitat	Foggi, B., 2010	This species is found in wet muds and shallow temporary pools, as well as springs and river banks near the coast. It belongs to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Coronopo-Sisymbrielletum dentatae</span> association.	eng
164363	population	Foggi, B., 2010	The species is very rare in Sicily (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007) where it is present at seven localities. According to Messina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (in press) the species is found at four localities: Lake Gurrida, (close to Mt. Etna), Pantano (Castiglione di Sicilia), Mt. Carcaci and Polizzi Generosa. The total number of individuals is estimated to be less than 10,000.	eng
164363	threats	Foggi, B., 2010	The site at Marina di Maida has been lost due to urbanization. No information for three sites in Sicily is available. However, the main threat for the sites at Lake Gurrida is the decline in the quality of the habitat due to agricultural activities.	eng
164364	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book of Croatia. In France, it is under regional protection in Basse-Normandie, Lorraine and Midi-Pyrénées.<br/><br/>There are no conservation measures in the Maghreb and it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164364	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Alopecurus bulbosus</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species with a distribution that covers western Europe and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence is about 2,300,000 km² with numerous locations (>60).	eng
164364	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (bulbous Geophyte) that is primarily found in humid pastures, ditches and along the edges of temporary pools. Flowering occurs during spring (April-May). In Turkey, the species is also found in salt bogs.	eng
164364	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the Mediterranean region (more than 60 locations), with populations in slow regression especially in the Maghreb. <br/>- Morocco: five locations in central Rif (Targuist, Aknoul, Imzorène, Kert Ganc and Gareb); <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Numidie, Petite Kabylie and the coastal Algerois; <br/>- Tunisia: more than seven locations distributed between the Mogods (Garâa Sedjenane, Jbel Abiod and Madjen Chitane), Kroumirie (Tabarka, Jbel Rorra and El Fedja) and northeast Tunisia (Tindja); <br/>- Portugal: five locations along the Atlantic coast;<br/>- Spain: found in 10 regions; <br/>- France: more than 10 locations along the Mediterranean strip and quite common in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: very common (present in nearly all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily);<br/>- Croatia: present at one locality only in Istria, classed as Critically Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Nikolić and Topić 2005);<br/>- Turkey: it is only known from one locality at Istanbul.	eng
164364	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization, grazing, agriculture and drainage of this species’ habitats are its main threats.	eng
164366	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:<br/>- To carry out in situ measures of preservation of the sites. <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new areas<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Surveillance and limitation of the development of the perennial plants in the habitat by clearing and maintaining the grazing practices <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164366	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Isoetes histrix</em> is an Atlantico-Mediterranean species.  In Africa it has been recorded only from Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.	eng
164366	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>Isoetes histrix</em> is a perennial plant (bulb Geophyte) that prefers to grow on the borders of temporary pools, streams and diverse berms and humid glades within the scrubland. It doesn't tolerate long flooding; however, a humid substratum is necessary in the beginning of its life cycle that is more or less on oligotrophic substrate (generally on sablo limoneux soil).	eng
164366	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The populations of <em>I. histrix</em> appear to be steady but fragile in Corsica, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia due to their resistance to anthropogenic and natural threats:<br/>- Morocco: it is at the High Atlas, north Atlantic Morocco, Tangier, western Rif, central Rif, and Imzorène;<br/>- Tunisia: it is present in Rorra Mountain, Aïn Draham, Sedjenane, Abd er Rahman Mountain, El Haouaria, Korbous, Aïn Soltane; <br/>- Algeria: rather common in the Tell;	eng
164366	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Main threats are drainage and infilling of ponds by excavation (Maghreb) and agricultural practices constitute potential threats for the habitat of this species.	eng
164367	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is currently not legally protected. It is included in the Red Data Book: v olume II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica and Botanical Conservatory from Corsica and search for new sites is underway.<br/>It is recommended to follow-up the dynamics of different populations, to increase knowledge about the biology, resilience, and conservation needs of the species, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164367	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Veronica repens</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with Oro-West-Médeuropean origins. It is a common species in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other part of the island. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is less than 500 km².	eng
164367	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found in "pozzine", peat and grass around lakes, among dwarf shrubs, at spring borders and runnels, or lands from 780 m to 2,290 m of altitude with long snow periods. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite) and granitic glacial sediments.	eng
164367	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Veronica repens</em> is found at more than 30 locations in Corsica (36). It has last been observed at the site of Lac d'Argent in 2007 .<br/>The populations seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions but no decline has been noted. The populations do not seem to be threatened by the deterioration of their habitat.	eng
164367	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The habitat is submitted to the increase of trekking that includes more pedestrian passage on the pozzine and a higher risk of fires. Therefore, there are more guards from the natural parks around the different lakes.<br/>In the future, due to the decrease of stockbreeding, this species will be affected by the competition of the woody plants.	eng
164368	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level (Alsace, Bourgogne, Centre, Champagne-Ardennes, Franche-Comté, Haute-Normandie, Ile-de-France, Lorraine, Picardie, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur) and at departmental level (Ain, Isère). No further conservation measures are known except for the sub-population of Tazzeka (Morocco), which is included within the National Park of Tazzeka.<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are being recommended: legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of populations size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation and informating the public.	eng
164368	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species, sub-Atlantic in Europe, occurring around the Mediterranean basin, mainly in the western part in the following countries: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Greece, Crete, Aegean Islands, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Lebanon. <br/><br/>This species also occurs in southern Africa, America, Asia, New Zealand and northern and eastern Europe.	eng
164368	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is a meso-hygrophilous to hygrophilous perennial fern, which grows in peaty marshes, on stream banks and drains, on wet rocks, and in humid caves; it develops in riparian forests belonging to <em>Alnion glutinosae</em>, <em>Alno-Padion</em> and <em>Populion albae</em>.	eng
164368	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In Morocco, <em>Osmunda regalis</em> is classified as vulnerable, with less than 10 known locations. It is found in the northern Atlantic coast (Loukkos), Mediterranean coast, and the Rif (Tanger).<br/>In Algeria, it is present in the Mediterranean coast east of Alger.<br/>It is uncommon in Tunisia, where it is present in Kroumirie (Le Mouadjene, Le Meridj), Mogods (Sejenane, Sidi Mechrig), and Cap Bon (caves of Jbel Ab der Rahman).<br/>It is widespread in Portugal, but more common in the northern part; in Spain it is found at the Atlantic coast, in the north, west and some isolated populations in the southeast (Anthos 2009). The species is widespread in France, more rare in the south, common in Corsica. It occurs in the north and west of Italy; and it is rare in Croatia.<br/>In Turkey, the species is rare and occurs in Bosporus, Bithynia, Lazistan, Istanbul (Valide Bend, Belgrade forest, from Polonesköy to Cumhuriyet), Rize (from Ardesen to Findikli, 50 m), Çoruh (mountains above Artvin, 1,300 m).<br/>It is present at the coast of Lebanon (Dékouané, Bouchriyé), in lower mountains (‘Abey, sous Beit Méri, Broummana, Qrayé, Salima, Mayrouba), and middle mountains (Hammana, Falougha, ‘Aïn Qa‘a, ‘Aïn Zehalta, Khan Sannine, Col de Zahlé 1,700 m).	eng
164368	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Osmunda regalis</em> is declining in the whole Mediterranean basin as a result of the destruction of its habitat. Its biotopes regress in Morocco, notably in the northern Atlantic plains (marais du Loukkos).	eng
164369	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	It is classified as Critically Endangered on the national Red Lists of Italy and Croatia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following actions for conservation are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species).<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164369	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species occurring from North Africa to southern Scandinavia. <br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in Algeria (El Kala-Annaba region), Croatia (Istria), France (rare; centre and Atlantic coast), Italy (centre), Morocco, Portugal (northeast and Atlantic coast), Spain (centre, Balearic Islands), Tunisia (three populations in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka) and Mogods (Jbel Chitane)).<br/>In Northern Europe it is found in Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.	eng
164369	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a herbaceous perennial stoloniferous amphibious Helophyte, growing in weakly acidic water-bodies, on oligotrophic peaty soils, and on sandy banks of canals, pools and ponds, within the zone of water seepage.	eng
164369	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	While available data are insufficient to evaluate accurately the present-day status of <em>Baldellia repens</em>, it seems to be rare and declining over all its distribution area, especially in the Mediterranean region. It is Critically Endangered in Italy and Croatia (one subpopulation known in each country).	eng
164369	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia repens</em>.	eng
164370	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for the future include research of taxonomy, biology and ecology of <em>J. bulbosus</em>, and to gain knowledge of the habitat status and inventory of the populations.	eng
164370	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for the future include the application of the legislation to protect threatened species, research of taxonomy, biology and ecology of <em>J. bulbosus</em>, and to gain knowledge of the habitat status and inventory of the populations.	eng
164370	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> has a distribution that extends from Europe (except the southwestern region) to northwestern Africa and Macaronesia. In Italy (including Sardinia), it is considered as very rare and to be near extinction.<br/><br/>In Africa, the species is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Maire 1957). In Tunisia, it is restricted to Kroumirie and close to Sedjnane. In Algeria, it is found in the regions close to El Kala and Ben Azzouz and was noted as very rare in all of the country (Numidia) by Quezel and Santa (1962). In Morocco it is present in the Rif, Mont Outka, Mont Sougna, and the peninsula of Tanger (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it confines to limited small areas.	eng
164370	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> has a distribution that extends from Europe (except the southwestern region) to northwestern Africa and Macaronesia. In Italy (including Sardinia), it is considered as very rare and to be near extinction. In France, <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is restricted to the Mediterranean coast and to Corsica where it is common. It furthermore occurs in most of Europe, including Spain (widespread), Montenegro, Croatia, and Portugal.<br/>In North Africa, the species is present in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (Maire 1957). In Tunisia, it is restricted to Kroumirie and close to Sedjnane. In Algeria, it is found in the regions close to El Kala and Ben Azzouz and was noted as very rare in all of the country (Numidia) by Quezel and Santa (1962). In Morocco it is present in the Rif, Mont Outka, Mont Sougna, and the peninsula of Tanger (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), where it is confined to limited small areas.	eng
164370	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is a perennial species (Geophyte) that is found in marshes and permanently or temporarily wet places such as lakes and ponds. It prefers siliceous or peat substrate of plains and mountains and waters with acid to neutral pH. Flowering occurs in Italy and Corsica from June to July, in France from June to September, and in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia from May to July.	eng
164370	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> are distributed in the Mediterranean in restricted areas. Its extent of occurrence is of 10,000 km² in Tunisia, 2,000 km² in Algeria and 10,000 km² in Morocco. The area of occupancy in Algeria is less than 10 km², with four to five locations. In Morocco, there are two locations on the Rif and small populations near Tangiers. In Tunisia, it is present in two regions and one population has been seen recently in each.<br/>It is rare in Croatia and Montenegro.	eng
164370	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> are distributed in the Mediterranean in restricted areas: very rare in Italy, restricted in France (except for Corsica where it is common). Its extent of occurrence is 10,000 km² in Tunisia, 2,000 km² in Algeria and 10,000 km² in Morocco. The area of occupancy in Algeria is less than 10 km², with four to five locations. In Morocco, there are two locations on the Rif and small populations near Tangiers. In Tunisia, it is present in two regions and one population has been seen recently in each.<br/>It is rare in Croatia and Montenegro.	eng
164370	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The wetlands where <em>Juncus bulbosus</em> is found are often grazed and maybe cultivated and are affected by agricultural and domestic pollution.	eng
164372	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are furthermore needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations and their habitats.	eng
164372	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites. <br/>For North Africa, the following conservation measures are needed: conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, implementation of legal protection measures and research of the populations, habitats, occupied areas, etc.	eng
164372	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in southern Europe (Maire 1957) and North Africa.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Morocco at the West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds West Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas. It is also found at five locations in central and West Algeria.	eng
164372	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species that is found in southern Europe (Maire 1957) and North Africa. It is rare in central and southern Italy (including Sicily), occurs in south and southwest France, is very rare in Corsica, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey.<br/>In North Africa, it is found in Morocco at the West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas. It is found at five locations in central and west Algeria.<br/>According to Anthos (2009) it is also found at Gran Canaria and is therefore not endemic to the Mediterranean region.	eng
164372	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus striatus</em> is a perennial Geophyte that is found in dayas, wet environments, banks of freshwater streams and ponds from the hills to the low mountains on limestone or sandstone grounds.	eng
164372	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations of <em>Juncus striatus</em> are few and scattered in North Africa as well as in Europe. In the Mediterranean region, the extent of occurrence is higher than 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is below 2,000 km², if its rarity is confirmed.<br/>- Italy; rare including in Sicily<br/>- Turkey: common in the European part of the country<br/>- Algeria: five locations in central and West Algeria<br/>- Morocco: West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas<br/>- Spain: 43 localities all over the country<br/>- France: present throughout the south, very rare in Corsica	eng
164372	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations of <em>Juncus striatus</em> are few and scattered in North Africa as well as in Europe. The EOO <20,000 km² in North Africa and the AOO <500 km².<br/><br/>In Algeria it is found in five locations in central and West Algeria. In Morocco, it has been recorded from West Rif only (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Maire (1957) adds west Morocco, rather rare in central Morocco and Middle Atlas	eng
164372	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Juncus striatus</em> seems to be threatened, because it is generally very rare. Its habitat is often destroyed by farming and livestock in North Africa.	eng
164373	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164373	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> occurs in Macaronesia, in the west and east Mediterranean region up to Mesopotomia, south and southwest Europe and southwest Asia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is found in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In the Mediterranean it furthermore occurs in Portugal, Spain (Balearic Islands), France (Corsica), Italy (Sicily, Sardinia), Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Palestine, Syria.	eng
164373	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is an annual species that grows in cultivated fields, at roadsides, pastures, olive groves, vine yards of the coastal plains and low mountains. It prefers clayey soils.<br/>Flowering in Morocco, Italy, Algeria is from April to July.	eng
164373	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is a common species in all the Mediterranean countries and is often cultivated.<br/><br/>- Egypt: probably ssp. <em>typica</em>: the Nile region and the Mediterranean coastal strip <br/>- Libya: rather common from Benghasi to Derna in Cyrenaic, rare close to Tripoli<br/>- Tunisia: common in the north and the centre<br/>- Algeria: common in the north, rather rare in the High Plains and the Saharian Atlas<br/>- Morocco: common to the north and west, except Tazzeka and Guercif	eng
164373	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Phalaris brachystachys</em> is not threatened.	eng
164374	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is under regional protection in France, in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur. There are no other conservation measures in place, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to gather information about population size, trend and distribution.	eng
164374	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zannichellia peltata</span> is endemic to western Europe, Canary Islands and northwest Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Morocco and Algeria. Its presence in Bulgaria remains doubtful. Its extent of occurrence covers over 300,000 km², within which the area of occupancy exceeds 2,000 km², and it is present in several locations.	eng
164374	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This annual plant (Hydrophyte) is found in swamps, ditches, in the streams of plains and in the lakes of low and medium altitude mountains up to 2,100 m. Flowering occurs during spring and summer. The rate of germination of the seeds is maximum when salinity and temperatures are low.	eng
164374	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Although this species’ distribution range is limited to the Mediterranean basin, it is fairly common, occuring in numerous locations and the populations are fairly stable. <br/>- Morocco: very common with numerous locations distributed almost throughout the whole country (Tangerois, the Rif mountain range, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, the central Anti Atlas (along the Tata river valley and on palm groves at 1,200 m), Chaouïa, Doukkala, Haouz, Abda, Haha, northern Atlantic Morocco (Rharb, Middle Sebou-Prérif and Zemmour-Zaërs near Aouinet Kerrouche) and in the eastern high plains); <br/>- Algeria: quite common with numerous locations in the Tell region, the High Plains and the Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Portugal: present in two sites on the west coast; <br/>- Spain: quite common occuring in 67 sites but with declining populations; <br/>- France: solely present in one department in the south; <br/>- Italy: present in six provinces in the north.	eng
164374	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is threatened by the transformation of its habitat by drainage or infilling.   <span style="font-style: italic;">Z. peltata</span> is very sensitive to eutrophication which is caused by agricultural activities or contamination of streams by waste waters from farms, especially pig farms.	eng
164376	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p>It is considered Endangered for Italy (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).The species is protected at regional level in France (Iles-de-France, Picardie). <br/></p>There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Identification of the historic sites in Sicily <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164376	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The following conservation measures have been proposed:<br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas <br/>- Identification of the historic sites in Sicily <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164376	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a species from western Europe extending to the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, and The Netherlands. At Mediterranean level, it is found in Spain, Portugal, Bulgaria, France, Corsica and Morocco. It is probably extinct in Sicily and its presence in Greece is not confirmed. In the Mediterranean, its extent of occurrence is about 1,200,000 km².<br/><br/>In Morocco, it is considered as very rare. It was reported for the first time in the Zemzem mountain of Tangier. In Morocco, its area of distribution would also include the riff chain (western Rif and central Rif) (Valdes <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
164376	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a species from western Europe extending to the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, and The Netherlands. <br/>In Africa, its distribution is limited to Morocco, where it is considered as very rare. It was reported for the first time in the Zemzem mountain of Tangier. In Morocco, its area of distribution would also include the riff chain (western Rif and central Rif) (Valdes <em>et al.</em> 2002). Its extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 2,600 km².	eng
164376	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a perennial (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant. It prefers springs, oozing areas and rivulets to develop. In Sicily, it was found in swamps and swampy woods. It normally flourishes in spring.	eng
164376	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex laevigata</em> is a perennial (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant. It prefers springs, oozing areas and rivulets to develop. It normally flourishes in spring.	eng
164376	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the population size, but they seem to be very reduced and fragile in Morocco where there are very reduced populations and is limited to three mountainous localities in the north of the country. The species is thriving in the western Mediterranean (Portugal and Spain).	eng
164376	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the population size, but they seem to be very reduced and fragile in North Africa (Morocco) and thriving in the western Mediterranean (Portugal and Spain). <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: it was reported in 17 regions in Spain and almost in the whole of Portugal’s territory;<br/>- Corsica: it is rare;<br/>-   <span lang="IT">Italy: according to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) it is present in <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sicily</st1:place></st1:state> in only one locality - Madonie (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005, Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  <br/>- Morocco: it is very rare, it has very reduced populations and is limited to three mountain localities in the north of the country.	eng
164376	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Frequent droughts, agriculture and notable grazing pressure developed close to the sources constitute the major threats to its habitat.	eng
164377	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164377	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is native to Europe, Africa and Asia and has naturalised elsewhere. It is classed as obnoxious weed in the USA (USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program 2010).<br/>In the Mediterranean, this species is found on Sicily, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164377	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	This plant prefers moist soils and grows along water courses, and at the margins of cultivated land.	eng
164377	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
164377	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	No major threats are known.	eng
164378	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Although, research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, more information on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164378	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species grows throughout Europe and the east Mediterranean region. It is also found in West and Central Asia, North America, and Australia.<br/><em>Berula erecta</em> is common in Italy, France, Turkey and in the Nile Delta, the Wadi Natrun and the Mediterranean coast at Alexandria in Egypt.	eng
164378	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>B. erecta</em> is a perennial and geo-helophyte species that grows in slow or stagnant waters, including lakes, pools, marshes, various reed-groups, streams and ditches. In Egypt this plant is usually found growing in swamps, ditches, canals. <br/>Its flowering season is from May until July in Corsica; June until September in France; and June until August in Italy and Turkey.	eng
164378	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	Populations of <em>B. erecta</em> are commonly found in clusters in the northern and eastern Mediterranean region, but the species is not as common in the southeastern Mediterranean region. There is a substantial population in Eygpt.<br/>The species is extinct in Israel but expanded recently into Jordan where it is found at one site (A. Shmida pers. comm.).	eng
164378	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Berula erecta</em> is not threatened in the northern and eastern Mediterranean Region.	eng
164379	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>G. pneumonanthe</em> is protectected in France at regional level (Alsace, Bourgogne, Centre, Franche-Comté, Limousin, Lorraine, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Rhône-Alpes) and at a departmental level (Isère, Haute-Savoie). <em>G. pneumonanthe</em> ssp. <em>depressa</em> is classed as Vulnerable in the Spanish Red List (<em></em>Moreno 2008).<br/><br/>For its wider distribution range the following conservation measures are recommended: legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of populations size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal measures of conservation and information of the public.	eng
164379	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is an Eurasiatic sub-oceanic species, distributed in Europe from southern Scandinavia to northern Portugal and eastward into Russia. It is present in the northwestern Mediterranean basin, in Spain (northwestern quarter of Spain, and two small areas in the south), France (widespread, but never abundant; rare in the Mediterranean region), Italy (north), Portugal (between Minho and Estremadura), Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Albania.	eng
164379	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is a mesohygrophilous long-lived, diploid, herbaceous, perennial species that grows on wet soils presenting variations of wetness during the year. It develops in wet meadows (e.g. <em>Molinion caerulae</em>), in peaty marshes, in peatlands, in swamps (e.g. <em>Alnion glutinosae</em>) and in open wet forests (e.g. <em>Alno-Padion</em>). In the Mediterranean region it is restricted to mountains and cold situations.	eng
164379	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em> is rather rare and sparsely distributed over its entire distribution area (Raijmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985, Rameau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989-1993). It is particularly rare around the Mediterranean basin.	eng
164379	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is mainly threatened with local extinctions as a result of the general destruction, degradation and draining of wetlands, soil eutrophication, lowering of the groundwater level, and changes in small-scale agricultural land-use, such as sod-cutting and grazing. There is not only a decrease in the total number of populations, but the average number of individuals per population is declining as well. The decline was evaluated for the Netherlands at 40% between 1950 and 1981, and is considered to have increased since (Raijmann <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
164381	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation	eng
164381	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Carum asinorum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the Haut Atlas in two known localities: jbel Aouljdid and Azib-n-Oufla. The area of occupancy is about 50 km².	eng
164381	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found at the edges of brooklets of flinty mountains at about 2,600 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in the spring under the Mediterranean cold semi-arid bioclimate.	eng
164381	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known. However the species experienced a decrease of its abundance between 1987 and 2005 in the locality of jbel Aouljdid. The status of the populations at the site of Azib-n-Oufla is unknown.	eng
164381	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of the plant is submitted to a high grazing pressure. The reclamation of the lands for agricultural use encroaches on the habitat of this species. Very nutrient loaded waters contribute to the reduction of habitat quality.	eng
164382	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164382	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Chaerophyllum atlanticum</em> is a species strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare with a distribution restricted to mountainous regions. It is found in four localities in the central Moyen Atlas (Békrit, valley of the Senoual; Khneg Merzoul; Assif Soufouloud) and in at least two localities in the Haut Atlas (Rhate; Ourika). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 16,000 km².	eng
164382	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Chaerophyllum atlanticum</em> is found at high altitudes (between 1,700 and 2,500 m) at the edges of springs and rivers in chalky and flinty mountains. It is an annual (to biennial) species that blooms in late spring and summer (June-August). The localities where it is found are under the cold semi-arid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164382	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size of the population is available.	eng
164382	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of this species is threatened by high grazing pressure, expansion of agriculture on the banks of the rivers and pollution generated by outdoor leisure activities.	eng
164383	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is protected under the Spanish Red List where it is classified as Critically Endangered (Moreno 2008). Two populations are found in the National Park of Doñana. No other conservation measures are known, but the following actions are suggested: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing localities and search for new sites<br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size in Morocco <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- To reduce habitat loss by the application of legal conservation measures <br/>- To restore damaged habitats of importance to this species <br/>- Conservation of the species in the seed banks <br/>- Restoration of the populations <br/>- In-vitro culture <br/>- Creation of micro-reserves <br/>- Pest and disease control	eng
164383	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is a steno-Mediterranean that is endemic to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula. It occurs in the west of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and in the northwest of Morocco. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from nine localities distributed between Morocco, Spain and Portugal, with an extent of occurrence of about 300,000 km², and an area of occupancy well under 500 km².	eng
164383	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Genista ancistrocarpa</em> is a perennial plant (Nanophanerophyte to Chamaephyte) that inhabits peaty swamps of siliceous soils and hygrophilous matorrals. Its flowering begins in winter and spring.	eng
164383	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species has a very limited distribution with nine known localities. The populations are declining in the Mediterranean. In Morocco, it is very rare with three known localities (swamp of Larache, Mamora, Tanger). The population of the region of Larache is threatened by the drainage of the swamps. In Spain, there are three known localities (Pontevedra, Huelva, National Park of Doñana). The populations count about 300 individuals. They are in critical danger of extinction because of the intense drainage of the wetlands and the weak reproduction of the plant. In Portugal, it is known from two localities around Lisbon.	eng
164383	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	Urbanization, drainage, drought, parasitic attacks, weak reproduction, fires, water pollution and collection of the plant, constitute the main threats to the species and its habitat. The number of locations is therefore suspected to be five or less.	eng
164384	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To limit the extension of agriculture close to the sites sheltering this species <br/>- To develop the ecotourism <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation	eng
164384	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Carum jahandiezii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the central part of the Moyen Atlas, where it is known from five localities: Khneg Meghzoul, sides of the Guigou, Békrit, sides of the Senoual and springs of the Ari Hayan. The extent of occurrence of the species is about 3,000 km².	eng
164384	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found in wet meadows and on the edge of streams of the chalky mountains between 1,800 and 2,350 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the semi-arid cold or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164384	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the present trend of the populations is available.	eng
164384	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	All sites are submitted to a high pressure from grazing, outdoor tourist activities and from the extension of agriculture in the catchments.	eng
164385	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164385	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Limonium ornatum</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare with a distribution restricted to the western and central parts of the Haut Atlas, where it is found at three localities: Seksaoua, Rherhaya, and Imincelli, and to the plain of the Haouz where it is present at one locality. The extent of occurrence is about 500 km² and it is found at more than five but fewer than 10 locations.	eng
164385	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found only in the continental salty humid habitats, in the plains and the low mountains. It can bloom and can fructify from spring to fall under the arid Mediterranean bioclimate. The species is found generally in more or less dense populations.	eng
164385	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size of the populations or on their present and future trends is available.	eng
164385	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threats to this species' habitats are the construction of salt extraction plants, grazing pressure and the construction of road infrastructures.	eng
164386	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is under regional protection in France (Ile-de-France).<br/> <br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Maintain grazing where the species occurs <br/>- Legal conservation of the species in Morocco (Moroccan List of Protected Species)	eng
164386	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus tripartitus</em> extends from western and northern Europe to northwest Africa, and has scattered populations at the Balkan peninsula and in the Levant. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Greece, Lebanon and Morocco, with a doubtful presence in Algeria and Croatia. Its extent of occurrence covers well over 20,000 km², and it occurs in more than 65 locations.	eng
164386	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual, small rooted Hydrophyte that inhabits swamps, temporary pools and ditches. Flowering takes place in spring (March-May). It is an unsuccessful competitor against taller plants.	eng
164386	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is quite common in the north of the Mediterranean basin (Iberian Peninsula and France) but fairly restricted in North Africa with populations in regression as a consequence of the destruction of their habitat. <br/> <br/>- Morocco: rare, occurring in seven locations distributed between northern Atlantic Morocco (Sidi Mokhfi and Loukkos), central and western Rif (Tangier, Outka, Issaguène, Cap Spartel and Jbel Souna) with a presence to confirm in the Anti Atlas; <br/>- Portugal and Spain: fairly common, occurring in more than 55 sites; <br/>- France: quite common in the west of the country but doubtfully present in two departments in the coastal strip;<br/>- Croatia: it has been recorded once but has not been observed again<br/>- Lebanon: in Amiq wetland and in Ainata	eng
164386	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling, drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species habitat, as well as the abandonment of grazing, are its main threats.	eng
164387	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Research on population numbers and range is needed; habitat maintenance and conservation are recommended.	eng
164387	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. In Tunisia, the species is found between La Maison Forestière of Jbel Rorra and Ghardimaou in Kroumiria, in Maktar, Ellez and Bou Driès in the Tunisian Dorsale; in Algeria it occurs in the Tell; and in Morocco in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Rif, and the North Atlantic plains. The area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164387	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in marshes, on the edges of streams and in moist places, often in mountainous areas.	eng
164387	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is reported as common in Morocco and Algeria in an old flora, but is probably rare now. It is rare in Tunisia.	eng
164387	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats to the species are known in the mountainous areas. In the plains, drainage, agriculture and in-filling are affecting the species' habitat. Pollution might affect it in some parts of its range.	eng
164389	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Conservation measures in place include departmental (Haute-Savoie and Ain) and regional protection (Franche-Comté, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Alsace) in France. The species is included in the Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008). <br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to estimate the size and to monitor the dynamics of the populations.	eng
164389	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures in place in North Africa. Proposed actions are to monitor size and population dynamics of the existing sites and to search for new ones.	eng
164389	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex pseudocyperus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, northern Asia down to the Himalayas, Japan, North America, extratropical southern America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It is probably extinct in Israel. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km² and it is found at several locations.	eng
164389	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex pseudocyperus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species. Its world distribution covers Europe, northern Asia down to the Himalayas, Japan, North America, extratropical southern America, Australia and New Zealand. <br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that covers over 200,000 km², four locations and an AOO <50 km².	eng
164389	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swampy plains, and streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164389	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is very rare (four locations and an area of occupancy (AOO)  below 50 km²) with very restricted populations whose trend is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only two locations, both in the Gharb (Merja Âïn Chouk and Merja Bou Charen); very rare in Algeria with only one location, namely in Numidie (La Calle); and very rare in Tunisia, with only two locations, namely in Cap Serrat and El Alia (old data: 1955) where it has not been seen again.	eng
164389	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, with one locality in Montenegro, present in 36 sites in Spain, fairly common in France and present in 12 provinces in Italy. It is believed to be extinct in Israel.<br/>In North Africa it is very rare (four locations and an AOO <50 km²) with very restricted populations whose trend is unknown. In Morocco it is very rare, with only two locations, both in the Gharb (Merja Âïn Chouk and Merja Bou Charen); very rare in Algeria with only one location, namely in Numidie (La Calle); and very rare in Tunisia, with only two locations, namely in Cap Serrat and El Alia (old data: 1955) where it has not been seen again.	eng
164389	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of swamps is the main threat to this species.	eng
164390	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and existing sites and to search for new ones.&#160; <br/><br/>In Italy, it is classed as Vulnerable for Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, Latium and Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997).	eng
164390	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex panicea</span> is a Euro-Siberian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 4,000,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164390	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits swampy prairies, the edges of mountain lakes and peaty woods. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-June).	eng
164390	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it is very rare, due to spatial limitations, and the populations are very restricted (three locations and an AOO <5km²). The trend of the populations is unknown, although they could be threatened potentially by the construction of road infrastructures. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, only occurring in the Middle Atlas (Ouiouane lake, Oued Ifrane and Boudy road near Oued Zad); <br/>- Portugal and Spain: very common, with more than 256 sites; <br/>- France: common in nearly all of the country; <br/>- Italy: the species was reported for all the northern and central parts (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
164390	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threat to this species in North Africa is the construction of road infrastructures. There are no major threats to the species on Mediterranean level.	eng
164391	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164391	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus compressus</em> is a Eurasian species, not occurring in Africa. It occurs in most of Europe and extra-tropical Asia (Maire 1957). It is rare in Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia, missing from the Balearic Islands and Crete.<br/>In North Africa, it appears only as subsp. <em>gerardii</em> according to Maire (1957) which has been raised to the species level (<em>J. gerardii</em> Loisel) and has been assessed separately.	eng
164391	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	It is an perennial species and a Geophyte. This plant has a creeping rhizome or is laxly caespitose. It prefers damp grassland and disturbed ground, ponds and wet places. Flowering in France is from July to September, in Corsica from June to August and in Italy from June to July.	eng
164391	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus compressus</em> is present in the northern Mediterranean region exclusively. Its population trend is unknown, but this species is not threatened judging from its abundance in Europe.	eng
164391	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164392	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The locality of the mouth of Moulouya is a Ramsar site and is recognized as a Site of Biological and Ecological Interest (SIBE). <br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164392	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Spergularia doumerguei</em> is endemic to Algeria and Morocco where it is very rare. In Morocco, it is known in two localities along the Mediterranean coastline: Mouth of Moulouya and Saïdia with an occupied area not exceeding 200 km². In Algeria, it is known from two localities on the coastal plains near Oran and Macta to the west of the country. The extent of occurrence is about 6,000 km².	eng
164392	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is an annual species (Therophyte) found in salt marshes and sebkhas. It blooms in spring under the semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164392	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	In Morocco, the populations of Saïdia are likely to be declining as a result of the recent development of tourism resorts in the region in 2006. The populations of Moulouya are probably stable - the site is classified as a Ramsar site and as SIBE.	eng
164392	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threat is the deterioration of the habitats by the increasing development of tourism infrastructure notably in the locality of Saïdia. Development is also a problem in the Algerian part of the distribution.	eng
164393	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	More specific information on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164393	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None at the moment, but more information is needed on the species distribution and impacts of threats on population status.	eng
164393	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Najas pectinata</em> is an African endemic. In North Africa, the species is of limited dispersal and restricted to Egypt (at El-Fayoum) and Algeria, where it occurs at one site. However, it is present elsewhere in Africa (e.g. in Lake Tchad and in Madagascar).	eng
164393	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Najas pectinata</em> is an African endemic. In North Africa, the species is of limited distribution and is restricted to Egypt (at El-Fayoum) and Algeria, where it occurs at one site. However, it is widespread in Western Africa and found in South Africa. (e.g. in Lake Chad and in Madagascar). Widespread in Tropical Africa and Tropical Asia.	eng
164393	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	It occurs in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
164393	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in fresh and brackish waters. Submerged aquatic herb, perennial, rooted in the bottom of lakes, swamps, ponds, aquatic grasslands, rivers' borders  mostly in sandy bottoms, associated with Ceratophyllum and Potamogeton.	eng
164393	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is rare with limited occurrence in North Africa.	eng
164393	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread species, wide range of habitats, presumably important population.	eng
164393	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The limited dispersal of the species probably becomes a threat in the future.	eng
164393	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This plant is likely to be well adapted as it's a widespread species and tolerates a variety of habitats. Nevertheless, its major threats may be the invasion by alien species and industrial development.	eng
164394	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There is a national park in place for the locality of Toubkal but not for any of the other localities. <br/><br/>The following conservation measures are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164394	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Viola maroccana</em> is endemic to Morocco where it is suspected to be rare. The distribution is restricted to the mountainous regions. It is found in the Haut Atlas with at least six localities (Ourika, Aït Iren ; j. Guerdouz; Rherhaya; Toubkal, 3,100 m,; between Sidi Chamharouch and Netler shelter, Akka-n-Ouayad) and in the Moyen Atlas. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 9,000 km².	eng
164394	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Viola maroccana</em> is found in shaded wet meadows, cool ravines and on wet shaded rocks in high and medium altitude mountains. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that reproduces in spring (March-April) under the Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164394	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No data on the size of the populations is available. They seem to be stable at the localities of Toubkal, Ourikas, Rherhayas and Moyen Atlas according to observations made in 2003 and 2005. At the other localities, the observations date to 1987 and confirm the presence of the species	eng
164394	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This species' habitat is exposed to numerous anthropogenic pressures, such as tourist outdoor activities, grazing and the removal of rocks for construction work.	eng
164395	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no existing conservation measures. The species was classified as Endangered in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillet 1998). <br/>Further research is needed. It is particularly important to monitor the existing sites, to search for new sites and to estimate the size and study the dynamics of the populations. Legal protection of the species (Algerian list of protected species), conservation of the species and its habitat and <em>ex situ</em> conservation (seed banks) are also recommended.	eng
164395	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Epilobium numidicum</em> is strictly endemic to Algeria. It is found at two sites in Numidie (La Calle and Jbel Megris) and has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
164395	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in humid habitats. Flowering occurs during spring.	eng
164395	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is considered as very rare and the populations are very fragmented and in decline. <br/>It is found at only two sites: one in Numidie and the other near Sétif (about 250 km away) where the species has not recently been observed.	eng
164395	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Frequent droughts and the deterioration of the habitat by various anthropogenic pressures, such as agriculture and overgrazing, are the main threats to this species. Water extraction is also impacting the species. Drainage for agriculture purposes was a threat in the past, mainly in La Calle.	eng
164396	conservation	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is protected at national level in France (espèces végétales protégées sur l'ensemble du territoire: Article 2). <br/>There are no conservation measures existent for this species in North Africa.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa (Morocco) and search for new ones, to estimate the size and monitor the dynamics of the populations in North Africa and to apply legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco).	eng
164396	distribution	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Gratiola officinalis</em> is a circumboreal species. Its distribution covers central and southern Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa and northern America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,000,000 km² with numerous locations.	eng
164396	habitat	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits marshes and ponds. Flowering occurs during the summer (June-September).	eng
164396	population	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean basin but rare in North Africa (spatial restrictions) with very small populations. The trend of the populations is unknown. It is very rare in Morocco, with only four known locations in the western Rif and the Tangérois. <br/>This species is common in Spain, with 65 sites in the centre and north of the country; common in nearly all France (1399 sites) but rare in the Mediterranean part; present in nearly all of Italy (16 provinces) in addition to Sardinia.	eng
164396	threats	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species.	eng
164398	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level (department Creuse).<br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164398	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164398	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex pendula </em>is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, central, western and southern Europe, western Asia and Micronesia. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.<br/>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 200,000 km², several locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) over 20 km².	eng
164398	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex pendula </em>is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers North Africa, central, western and southern Europe, western Asia and Micronesia. It is widely introduced as an ornamental plant.<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164398	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits humid forests and shady ravines. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164398	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: fairly frequent, present in Bab Azhar, Harcha, Rharb, Tangérois and the Rif chain; <br/>- Algeria: quite common in Tell region and in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Kroumirie (Oued Marmel, Aïn Draham, Oued Oufred el Oussif and Mouadjen), the Mogods (Sidi Otman el Hadad), Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, etc.) and in Dorsale Tunisienne (Oued Thibar); <br/>- Spain: very common with 167 sites; <br/>- France: quite common; <br/>- Italy: common in all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily;<br/>- Lebanon: very common, present in the cities and villages of   Helaliye, Beyrouth, Dekwaneh, Araya, Qraye, Abey, Bikfaya, Jisr el Qadi, Col de Zahle, Cedar of Hadeth, Neba', Fou'ar vers Kfarzabad.	eng
164398	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. Populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is fairly frequent, present in Bab Azhar, Harcha, Rharb, Tangérois and the Rif chain. Quite commonin Algeria too, in Tell region and in the Constantinois Saharan Atlas. In Tunisia its fairly common in Kroumirie (Oued Marmel, Aïn Draham, Oued Oufred el Oussif and Mouadjen), the Mogods (Sidi Otman el Hadad), Cap Bon (Jbel Abd el Rahman, etc.) and in Dorsale Tunisienne (Oued Thibar).	eng
164398	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164399	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164399	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Rumex ginii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is limited to the Haut Atlas with two known localities (Aouljdid, Mgoun) and to the central part of Moyen Atlas (Ari-Hayan, Azrou, Keneg Merzoul, Bekrit, Ain Kahla close to Aïn Leuh). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 12,000 km².	eng
164399	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Rumex ginii</em> is found in mountains (between 1,400 and 2,600 m elevation) at the edges of streams and in wet meadows on basaltic and limestone substrates. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer. The localities where it is found are under the sub-humid, humid and semi-arid cold Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164399	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size and trends of the populations are not known.	eng
164399	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threat is the degradation of the habitat due to high grazing pressure and pollution of the waters drained from agricultural land in the catchments.	eng
164400	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones and to study the size and dynamics of the populations.	eng
164400	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	<em>Myosotis laxa</em> is a sub-Atlantic species. Its distribution encompasses Europe, Asia and North Africa. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region its extent of occurrence covers over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164400	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that occurs in temporary pools, marshes, wet meadows, small watercourses, damp places, lake margins, and rivulets. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164400	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The species is common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa, the populations are fairly common in Morocco but their distribution is almost unknown in Algeria and Tunisia. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>In Morocco, it is present in more than ten locations distributed between central Rif (Jbel Afchtal, Jbel Outka, etc.), the High Atlas (Tizi-n-Ougdal, etc) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Loukkos, Mamora). In the Iberian Peninsula, it is fairly common in Portugal and present in 27 sites in the centre and north of Spain. The plant is very common in France and fairly common in Italy where it is present in eight provinces in the north of the country. In Greece,   <em> Myosotis laxa</em> is scattered but not rare in the northern and central parts of the Greek mainland, growing in wet habitats from low altitude to c. <st1:metricconverter productid="1400 m" w:st="on">1400 m</st1:metricconverter>. There are 35 records in the Flora Hellenica Database, and it extends to northern Peloponnisos in the south. It is not threatened in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region> (A. Strid pers. comm. 2010).	eng
164400	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2008	The urbanization and drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes as well as the use of herbicides and fertilizers are the main threats to this species’ habitat.	eng
164402	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Research on taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology is in place, more information on the population numbers and range is needed.	eng
164402	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is widely dispersed in Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa.<br/><br/>In Africa it has been recorded from Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Morocco and Egypt.	eng
164402	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in most of Europe, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164402	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. vulgaris</em> is an annual, polymorph plant, that prefers dolines, river and canal banks, bogs, and is also found in flooded agricultural land and on roadsides.	eng
164402	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>P. vulgaris</em> is an annual, polymorph plant, that prefers dolines, river and canal banks, bogs, flooded agricultural land, roadsides.	eng
164402	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	In Algeria, it is very rare. The is no other information on the species' population.	eng
164402	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is very common between Spain and Turkey. In Israel, it only occurs in the north on the border to Lebanon and southern Syria. In Algeria, it is very rare. It is rather rare in Morocco and is found in Tunisia where it is probably not rare.	eng
164402	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. In some regions, war and development can threaten the populations.	eng
164402	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Locally, development can threaten the populations.	eng
164403	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Rivers and dams bank protection and conservation.	eng
164403	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	This species is spread throughout West, East and South Africa. <br/><br/>In West Africa, it has been recorded from Sudan Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo.	eng
164403	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	A small spreading herb with numerous slvery-woolly flowers-head crowd in spike-like clusters; florets pale yellow. It grows on river sand and wastes places. Also on moist soil on rivers banks or dams after water retreat.	eng
164403	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	It often gives a dense carpet on river bank under trees.	eng
164403	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No major threats identified although it may be affected by agriculture on river or dams bank.	eng
164404	conservation	Diop, F.N.& Ali, M.M., 2009	Mare aux Hippopotamus, in Western Africa, is a biosphere reserve and Mare d'Oursi is a Ramsar site. The species is invasive in places so no further conservation action is required. There are no specific measures in place  in Northern and North East Africa but awareness raising and research on the species taxonomy, populations, habitat status and needed conservation measures are recommended.	eng
164404	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place, but awareness raising and research on the species taxonomy, populations, habitat status and conservation measures is recommended.	eng
164404	distribution	Diop, F.N.& Ali, M.M., 2009	In Western Africa it is found on most rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It has been recorded on Lake Chad, Lac de Guiers (Senegal), Mare d'Oursi (Burkina Faso), and Mare aux Hippopotamus (Burkina Faso). It is also native to Egypt in North Africa and Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia in North Eastern Africa. It is widespread in Southern Africa and present in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>This is a cosmopolitan  species and occurs around the globe, except in Australia. It is primarily a pantropical species, but it also occurs in subtropical areas and even in more temperate regions. It has also been recorded from the Cape Verde islands.	eng
164404	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is cosmopolitan and occurs around the globe, except in Australia. In the Mediterranean, it is native in Egypt and Israel and has been introduced to Italy and France (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009).	eng
164404	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This Hydrophyte is found in canals, ditches, pools, and rice fields.	eng
164404	habitat	Diop, F.N.& Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a free-floating, aquatic annual, herb. It can be found in still freshwater, pools, bogs, polluted water, and flooded rice fields; often in abundance. It also grows in in canals, ditches, and springs. Flowers of this small hydrophyte are hard to see and the flowering period is very short. The population fluctuates depending on water availability and quality.	eng
164404	population	Diop, F.N.& Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is widesspread and common throughout its native geographical range. No population data are available.	eng
164404	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is common in its native range.	eng
164404	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	Changing agricultural practises may impact the species but this is not a major threat.	eng
164404	threats	Diop, F.N.& Ali, M.M., 2009	The main threats to this species in Western Africa are drought and reduced water quality, especially where water becomes brackish in drier conditions. However, this species is very tolerant to polluted water. In Northern Africa and North Eastern Africa changing agricultural practises may impact the species but this is not a major threat.	eng
164405	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<p>    </p><p>All orchids are included under Annex B of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</p>  <p></p>  In France, it is protected in some regions: Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Franche-Comté, Haute-Normandie and Nord-Pas-de-Calais and in the department of Dordogne <br/>In the Maghreb, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, to estimate the population size and study their dynamics, and to conserve the species and its habitat. Furthermore, the collection of the plants should be controlled and seeds should be stored for <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> conservation.	eng
164405	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Anacamptis palustris</em> is a Eurasian species that occurs in central and southern Europe, the Mediterranean basin, North Africa and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Croatia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers about 3,600,000 km², with more than 49 locations and an AOO <500 km².	eng
164405	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (tuberous Geophyte) that inhabits humid pastures. It prefers calcareous soils and it needs a lot of light. Flowering occurs during spring.	eng
164405	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in at least 49 locations in the Mediterranean basin, of which eight are in North Africa where the species occurs in very reduced and fragmented populations. The populations are in regression due to the destruction of their habitat. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in only one location (Chaouia).<br/>- Algeria: rare, with only three locations along the Algerois coast at the suburbs of Algier (Fort de l’eau, Mitidja and Castiglione) where it has not been seen since 1976. The site of Fort de l'eau is destroyed now and the other two sites probably endangered if not destroyed. <br/>- Tunisia: it has been described from four locations distributed between the northeast (Menzel Djemil, El Alia and Foundouk Djedid) and Cap Bon (Mraïssa), but it has not been found for a century. <br/>- Iberian Peninsula: found in the centre and east of the peninsula (present in 26 regions of Spain); <br/>- France: quite rare along the Mediterranean strip, but present in 11 regions and in Corsica; <br/>- Italy: occurs in eight provinces.	eng
164405	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, infilling, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat, as well as its intensive collection for ornamental purposes are its main threats.	eng
164406	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place; further research on populations numbers, range and habitat status is needed.	eng
164406	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Scrophularia tenuipes</em> is an Algero-Tunisian endemic species. It occurs in Tunisia at four sites (Babouch and Ain Draham in Kroumiria, Mellegue dam in Tunisian Dorsale, Ghardimaou in valley of Medjerda) and is found in Algeria, where it is rare in Numidia and Kabylia.	eng
164406	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This perennial plant grows at wet places, on the edges of streams and waterfalls. It is found mainly in mountainous areas. <br/>Flowering time is May to July.	eng
164406	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The tiny populations of <em>Scrophularia tenuipes</em> probably exceed 20 km², especially in Algeria. It occurs generally in small density.	eng
164406	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no major threats known to the species, but the habitat is being degraded through in-filling by garbage and solid waste in Great Kabylia and near human settlements.	eng
164407	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study its distribution in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
164407	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, Tropical Asia and northern America (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1962). <br/>Maire (1957) indicates that <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardi</em> var. <em>eu-gerardi</em> (=<em>J. gerardi</em> Loisel) has been observed in eastern Algeria (rather common in Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aures mountains) near Algiers and El-Harrach, and in Morocco (Moyen and Grand Atlas: five locations). The species is however not mentioned for Morocco in Hamada <em>et al.</em> (2002) nor in Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002). <br/><br/><em>J. gerardi </em>is common in France in coastal wetlands, but not common in Corsica, is found in Italy (except in Sardinia,) and Albania, Greece, Spain, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey.	eng
164407	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is a perennial species and Geophyte. It is found in brackish wet meadows, rarely flooded, on various substrates (peat, clay, sand) mostly in wetlands along the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Channel. It can be found more rarely inland in salty areas (e.g. France). <br/>Flowering in France: V-VIII, Corsica: V-VII, Italy and North Africa: V-VII.	eng
164407	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in large populations in Algeria and Morocco. This species is also widely distributed in Europe. Overall, it is not threatened, particularly in the northern part of the Mediterranean region.	eng
164407	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is not directly threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands.	eng
164409	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The mouth of the Moulouya is a SIBE and a designated Ramsar site.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for other sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164409	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Spergularia embergeri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is known in only four places on the Mediterranean coastline (Melilia, Marchica, Saidia and the mouth of the Moulouya). Its extent of occurrence is about 1,300 km².	eng
164409	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) found in open, dry and salty habitats, sometimes temporarily flooded in winter, in the periphery of lagoons and estuaries. It blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164409	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size of the populations is not known, but the global trend is likely to be a decline. Some populations are threatened in the short-term by the destruction of their habitat in the locality of Saidia due to the development of a tourist resort in the framework of the "Plan Azur".	eng
164409	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The main threats are the destruction by urban development along the coast and the deterioration of the water quality.	eng
164410	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164410	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a paleo-subtropical species found in the Mediterranean region, eastern Africa and western Asia (Maire 1957, Pignatti 1997, Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). <br/><br/><em>J. fontanesii</em> is considered to be polymorphic (no subspecies identified) in most of the western Mediterranean. <br/>- The subspecies <em>pyramidatus</em> is found in Egypt, Italy (Sardinia, Sicily), Greece, Cyprus, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Arabia (Boulos, 2005) and Iran, Ethiopia and Kenya (Maire, 1957).<br/>- The subspecies <em>fontanesii</em> Maire (=<em>eu-fontanesii</em> Maire in J. & M.) is present in Libya (Aïn-Mara), Tunisia (common in the north to Gafsa), Algeria (very common in the the Tell, High Plains and Saharian Atlas), in Morocco (very common in Northern to Anti-Atlas mountains), in Corse (very rare).<br/>- The subspecies <em>brachyanthus</em> has been observed at the banks of Mekerra (western Algeria), in Morocco (Taourirt, Oued Za); common in the mountains (Beni-Snassen, Rif, Atlas and Anti-Atlas). This subspecies, var. <em>melanocephalus</em> particularly, is considered as endemic to Morocco by Maire (1957) and forgotten by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
164410	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a paleo-subtropical species found in the Mediterranean region, eastern Africa and western Asia (Maire 1957, Pignatti 1997, Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). <br/><em>J. fontanesii</em> is considered to be polymorphic (no subspecies identified) in most of the western Mediterranean. <br/>- The subspecies <em>pyramidatus</em> is found in Egypt, Ethiopia and Kenya (Maire, 1957).<br/>- The subspecies <em>fontanesii</em> Maire (=<em>eu-fontanesii</em> Maire in J. & M.) is present in Libya (Aïn-Mara), Tunisia (common in the north to Gafsa), Algeria (very common in the the Tell, High Plains and Saharian Atlas), in Morocco (very common in Northern to Anti-Atlas mountains), in Corse (very rare).<br/>- The subspecies <em>brachyanthus</em> has been observed at the banks of Mekerra (western Algeria), in Morocco (Taourirt, Oued Za); common in the mountains (Beni-Snassen, Rif, Atlas and Anti-Atlas). This subspecies, var. <em>melanocephalus</em> particularly, is considered as endemic to Morocco by Maire (1957) and forgotten by Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
164410	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a perennial species with a short rhizome and a helophyte. It is found in "open soils permanently or seasonally flooded with fresh or slightly brackish water" (Boulos 2005), in wet sands or at the sides of stagnant waters.	eng
164410	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is a perennial species with a short rhizome and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found in "open soils permanently or seasonally flooded with fresh or slightly brackish water" (Boulos 2005), in wet sands or at the sides of stagnant waters. It flowers from May to August in Morocco, Algeria and France; in Tunisia from May to September; in Italy and Corse, from June-July.	eng
164410	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is widely present in the Mediterranean region, but a study of the subspecies is necessary. The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable.	eng
164410	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus fontanesii</em> is widely present in the Mediterranean region, but a study of the subspecies is necessary. The size of the populations is not known, but seems to be stable at Mediterranean scale.	eng
164410	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	There is no major specific threat to this species, but it is impacted by wetland degradation and destruction through drainage, and development.	eng
164410	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	There is no major specific threat to this species, but it is impacted by wetland degradation and destruction through drainage, development, etc.	eng
164412	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Research on population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation is recommended. Protection through national legislation should be applied, especially in Morocco, as it displays a disjuncted distribution and is only known from one location in this country.	eng
164412	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in Morocco (L. Rhazi, pers. comm. 2009), Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
164412	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This annual plant occurs on the banks of rivers, marshes or lakes, in shallow wetlands, mainly on peat soils.	eng
164412	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is rare in North Africa. It is only known from one locality in Morocco.	eng
164412	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Overgrazing, trampling, <em>Eucalyptus</em> sp. plantations, where the threats are both posed by logging and by the drainage of the wetlands, and cultivation of peanut crops in the wetlands during dry years are also impacting the species.	eng
164413	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p>In Italy, it is considered of Lower Risk (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005).</p>  Regional protection in France (Iles-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Picardie, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur) is in place, but no other conservation measures are in place in the Mediterranean region. The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new areas<br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Habitat conservation<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164413	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a species from the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In North Africa, this species is considered as rare in Morocco with a distribution limited to the Middle Atlas (Tazekka, Tioumliline, Ras-el-Ma, sources of the Ifrane river, the former biological station of Ifrane, Ouiouane lake and valley of the Senoual) and in the Rif (Bni Zedjel). According to Valdés <em>et al.</em> (2002), it is also present in Tangier, Ouezane and Tazzeka. In Algeria, it is present in Oranie. <br/>At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is about 960,000 km² within which the occupied area exceeds 2,000 km².	eng
164413	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a perennial, calcicole plant (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) that is present in mountain marshlands and is found in wetlands on limestone. Its flowering periods are spring and summer.	eng
164413	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The population size is unknown, but they seem to be fragile due to threats to its habitat. <br/>- Morocco: rare with a confirmed presence in eight localities and probable in three more;<br/>- Algeria: very rare, reported only in Oran (Ghar-Rouban);<br/>- Italy:    present only in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Liguria</st1:state></st1:place> (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) in only one locality (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005) <br/> - Spain: present in 28 provinces; <br/>- France: it is rare and scattered in the Mediterranean region (Provence, Alpes-Cote d'Azur, Languedoc, Roussillon) where it seems to have disappeared from low elevation and is now restricted to mountainous areas; it is also found in western France (Poitou), in the Parisian basin, and in the east of the country.	eng
164413	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing, drainage, agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts are the major threats to this species' habitat.	eng
164414	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No conservation measures needed. Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range should be encouraged.	eng
164414	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164414	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is found in tropical Africa and Madagascar. In North Africa, it is only found in Egypt, in the Nile region including the banks and the delta and the oasis of the Western Desert (Dakhla) (Boulos 2005).	eng
164414	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	This species is generally dispersed over tropical Africa and into Madagascar. Present from Mauritania to South Nigeria, including records from Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Niger, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Nigeria. In north Africa, it is only found in Egypt, in the Nile region including the banks and the delta and the oasis of the western Desert (Dakhla) (Boulos 2005). Also found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. It also found in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.	eng
164414	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus maculatus</em> is a rhizomatous, bulbous glaucescent perennial that grows on sandy river banks, in salty land and marshes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground.	eng
164414	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Northern Africa: <em>Cyperus maculatus</em> is a bulbous glaucescent perennial that grows on sandy river banks, in salty land and marshes, and in floodplanes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground. It is a rhizomatous species with radical stratification which is very typical, completely submerged during the period of high water. During this period the perennial organs are constituted by rhizomes. It is found on the Nile banks and moist ground.	eng
164414	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Abundant and common throughout its range, its forms dense meadows in waterlogged sand banks.	eng
164414	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The species seems common and widespread in Egypt.	eng
164414	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	No major threats are known at present.	eng
164414	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	No major widespread threats for Africa have been identified. In western Africa dams, agriculture, and extraction of rhizomes have been considered as threats. Also in North-eastern Africa natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.	eng
164415	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	In North Africa, the species is currently not subject to protection.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the size of populations.<br/>- Study of the dynamics of populations.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164415	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The Spanish populations of Laguna de Palos y las Madres and Los Alcornocales are situated in protected natural areas (Natural Parks) and are proposed as LIC; the habitat of Villanueva de Los Castillejos is property of LIC Andévalo Occidental.<br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is currently not subject to protection.<br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species) and application of legal conservation measures.<br/>- Conservation of the habitats within micro-reserves.<br/>- Monitoring of the subpopulations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation of the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164415	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is an endemic species of the southern Iberian peninsula and North Africa. <br/>In Africa this species is found in:<br/>- Algeria: Guerbès-Senhadja plain, Lake Sidi Freitis (Samraoui & De Bélair, 1997), El Kala, Lake Tonga (Lefranc, 1865) and Bou Merchen (Quézel & Santa, 1962-1963)<br/>- Morocco: Loukkos, Gharb (north of Lalla Mimouna)<br/><br/>The distribution area of <em>R. modesti-lucennoi</em> was initially extended to Madagascar (Castroviejo, 1995), but this population is considered to rather belong to the pantropical species <em>R. brownii</em> (M. Luceño Garcès, pers. comm.).	eng
164415	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is an endemic species of the southern Iberian peninsula and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean this species is found in:<br/>- Algeria: Guerbès-Senhadja plain, Lake Sidi Freitis (Samraoui and De Bélair 1997), El Kala, Lake Tonga (Lefranc 1865) and Bou Merchen (Quézel and Santa 1962-1963)<br/>- Morocco: Loukkos, Gharb (north of Lalla Mimouna)<br/>- Tunisia: Kroumirie, Bab Abrik (Cuénod 1954).<br/>- Portugal: southwestern coast.<br/>- Spain: Atlantic coast, from Galicia to Cadiz.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy is smaller than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>The distribution area of <em>R. modesti-lucennoi</em> was initially extended to Madagascar (Castroviejo 1995), but this population is considered to belong to the pantropical species <em>R. brownii</em> (M. Luceño Garcès pers. comm.).	eng
164415	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	<em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> grows in permanently flooded zones, on wet and peaty oligotrophic soils.	eng
164415	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The Moroccan distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is poorly known, but it is reported from only two localities.<br/>The Portuguese distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is also poorly known, but the subpopulation of Beira Alta is estimated to consist of around 50 individuals.<br/>The Spanish subpopulations of Villanueva de los Castillejos (Huelva) and of the Natural Park of Los Alcornocales (Cádiz) harbour four and 33 individuals respectively, on areas not exceeding 35 m². The subpopulation of the Laguna de Palos y las Madres (Huelva), with 95 plants, is the most important one. The individuals occupy a discontinuous area of 1,300 m² at the margin of the peatland.<br/><br/>The total population is estimated to be less than 1,000 individuals and the populations are classed as severely fragmented.	eng
164415	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The Moroccan distribution of <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> is poorly known, but it is reported from only two localities. The total global population is estimated in less than 1,000 individuals.	eng
164415	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The main threats affecting <em>Rhynchospora modesti-lucennoi</em> are draining of peatlands, lowering of the water table, and modifications of river courses. They are enhanced by both its small distribution area and the rarity of its habitat.	eng
164415	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2008	The main threats to this species<em></em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>are draining of peatlands, lowering of the water table, and modifications of river courses. They are enhanced by both its small distribution area and the rarity of its habitat.	eng
164416	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2008	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164416	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a Eurosiberian species, its area extends from Europe (except Balearic Islands, Albania and Crete) to northwestern Africa, eastern Asia, North America, and Australia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>In Africa, <em>J. conglomeratus</em> is present in Tunisia (four locations), Algeria (rather common in the the coast of the east and the centre, less common to the west), and in Morocco.	eng
164416	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a Eurosiberian species, its area extends from Europe (except Balearic Islands, Albania and Crete) to northwestern Africa, eastern Asia, North America, and Australia (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/>In North Africa, <em>J. conglomeratus</em> is present in Tunisia (four locations), Algeria (rather common in the the coast of the east and the centre, less common to the west), and in Morocco.	eng
164416	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>J. conglomeratus</em> is a perennial species with rhizomes and a Hemicryptophyte. It is found, marshes, small streams, shores of lakes and ponds, wet meadows on plains and mountains with rain over 700 mm, somewhat cacifuge. <br/>Flowering takes place between May and October.	eng
164416	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	<em>Juncus conglomeratus</em> is widely present in Europe and in northwestern Africa. The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable at Mediterranean scale.	eng
164416	population	de Bélair, G., 2008	The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be stable.	eng
164416	threats	de Bélair, G., 2008	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164417	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites<br/>- Study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164417	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Scorzoneroides atlantica</em> is endemic to Morocco with a distribution limited to the Atlas Mountains. It is rather frequent in the High and Middle Atlas; however, in the Anti Atlas it is only found on the Amezdour Mountain. Its extent of occurrence is about 35,000 km² with an area of occupancy surpassing 2,500 km².	eng
164417	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Scorzoneroides atlantica</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs in humid prairies, the edges of streams and pozzines of middle and high chalky and flinty mountains, between 1,600 and 2,800 m altitude. Its period of flowering goes from the end of spring to summer under the Mediterranean semi-arid cold, sub-humid, humid or high mountain bioclimate.	eng
164417	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the population size or on their present trends.	eng
164417	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing, a higher frequency of droughts and the deterioration of the surrounding environment by deforestation and extension of agriculture are the main threats to this species' habitat.	eng
164418	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Research is already being carried out, it is furthermore recommended to monitor the existing sites and population dynamics.	eng
164418	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is found in tropical regions, mainly in Africa from Angola to Zambia southwards.<br/>In the Mediterranean, it only occurs in Egypt, in the Nile region including the delta, valley and Faiyum. Its extent of occurrence covers less than 20,000 km² and it is present in 10 sites.	eng
164418	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) which inhabits sandy marshes and less often cultivated fields. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn.	eng
164418	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species has a fairly limited distribution in Egypt, occurring in 10 sites in sandy islands of the River Nile, Cairo, upper Egypt and Belbeys. The trend of the populations is unknown.	eng
164418	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
164419	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164419	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is widespread from Portugal to Greece. In North Africa, it is present in Morocco and Egypt.	eng
164419	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It prefers moist ground and grows on canal banks.	eng
164419	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164419	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164420	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164420	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Glinus lotoides</em> is a paleotropical species with a distribution covering the Mediterranean, Europe and the pantropical zones. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Albania, Turkey, France and Corsica, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, Spain, Israel and Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, Palestine, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Sinai. It is present in many localities in the Mediterranean region with an extent of occurrence about 6,800,000 km². <br/> In North Africa, it is present in 17 localities.	eng
164420	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Glinus lotoides</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte) that is found in temporary pools with clayey bottom and in the beds of temporary rivers, Nile and canal banks, moist ground where soils are inundated in winter and dried up in early summer.<br/>Its flowering takes place from spring to summer.	eng
164420	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	The populations appear steady with numerous localities at Mediterranean level. However the anthropogenic pressures increasing on the habitat of this species in North Africa, could threaten the populations in the medium-term. <br/>- Iberian peninsula: known in seven provinces in Spain and five provinces in Portugal;<br/>- France: present in Corsica and in only one region on mainland - Aveyron;<br/>- Italy: two provinces on mainland (Lazio and Calabria), Sicily and Sardinia;<br/>- Israel: three known localities distributed between the Mediterranean zone and the sub-steppique regions;<br/>- Morocco: considered as rare. Present in seven localities at least in the Rif (Tangier), the Saharian Morocco (Oued Chebeika close to Abattih) and the north Atlantic plains (About Kénitra, Salé, Tiflète and Benslimane);<br/>- Algeria: very rare in Numidie;<br/>- Tunisia: rare, present in central Tunisia (Merdja of Sidi El Hani); <br/>- Egypt: seven localities at least in the Nile, the oases of the west, the Mediterranean coast, the desert east from the Nile; Gebel Elba and the neighbouring mountainous regions; Peninsula of Sinai.	eng
164420	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2009	Drainage, agriculture and urbanization constitute the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164421	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is under protection in France: departmental (Moselle, Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Landes, Gironde) and regional protection (Alsace, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Basse-Normandie, Centre, Picardie, Pays-de-la-Loire). <br/>One of the locations where it is present in Morocco is the Toubkal National Park.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones and study the size and dynamics of the populations.	eng
164421	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Parnassia palustris</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution encompasses North America, all of Europe (but rare in the south), northern and central Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers much over 30,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164421	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and humid prairies of medium and high altitude mountains. Flowering occurs in summer and autumn (July-October).	eng
164421	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. In North Africa it is not common due to spatial limitations. The trend of the populations is unknown. It is considered as rare in Morocco, occurring in 12 locations distributed between the High Atlas (Jbel Toubkal, Aouljdid, Afougueur, Seksaoua, Acif Mgoun springs, Tessaout, Jbel Andromeur, Oukaïmden and Tizi n'Tichka), the Middle Atlas (Oued Immouzer and Bekrite) and the Rif (Jbel Iguermalez); very rare in Algeria, solely present in Numidie (around La Calle). <br/>In Spain, it is present in 347 sites, most of them in the north; present in most of France, but with an irregular distribution and practically absent along the Mediterranean strip; very common in Italy, occurring in 15 provinces in the centre and north.	eng
164421	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of swampy prairies for agricultural purposes is the main threat for this species.	eng
164423	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164423	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Teucrium scordium</em> is a Euro-Caucasian species that is found in southern, central and northern Europe, Caucasus, and Siberia. It is found in all the European Mediterranean countries and is present in Turkey and the Levant.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Tunisia under the synonym <em>T. scordium scordioides</em> where it seems to be common with more than 11 sites. In Algeria, it is common in the Tell, rare elsewhere, and in Morocco, it is found at two sites.	eng
164423	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This stoloniferous perennial plant grows in wet meadows, ponds and other wet and marshy places.	eng
164423	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	It seems that the populations of <em>Teucrium scordium</em> are very numerous in Europe and North Africa, except Morocco.	eng
164423	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164424	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is under regional protection in France, in Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, and listed as a species to monitor on a national level.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics. In the short term, it is necessary to control the urbanization in countries of the Maghreb.	eng
164424	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Crypsis schoenoides</em> is a paleo-subtropical species. It has a large biogeographical distribution that covers southern Europe, Asia, North Africa and tropical Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers over 400,000 km² and its AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164424	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found during the exposed summer phase in temporarily flooded habitats: temporary pools and marshes and also along river banks (during drawdown) of plains and low mountains. Flowering occurs between spring and autumn (April-October). This species requires large amounts of light and is not a successful competitor.	eng
164424	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region as well as in North Africa, with numerous locations and populations appearing to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: present in the Tangier Peninsula, northern Atlantic Morocco (Aïn Sferjila) and the Middle Atlas; <br/>- Algeria: common in the Tell region; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly common in Kroumirie and in the northeast;  <br/>- Libya: rare, only occurring in the southeast of the country (Jabal Uwainat); <br/>- Egypt: present along the Nile and the Mediterranean coastal strip and also in the oases of the western Desert and the desert east of the Nile; <br/>- Spain: widespread throughout all the country with a maximum frequency in the centre; <br/>- France: common in Corsica and also along both the Mediterranean (Roussillon, Languedoc and Provence) and the Atlantic coastline (from Gironde to Finistère); <br/>- Italy: present in numerous provinces (Trentin, Lombardie, Piémont, Ligurie, Emilie-Romagnie, Toscane, Lazio and Abruzze) as well as Sardinia and Sicily; <br/>- Israel and Palestine: very common.	eng
164424	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization, infilling, drainage (for agricultural purposes) and the setting in permanent water (for hunting purposes) of this species’ habitat are its main threats. <em>Crypsis schoenoides</em> is growing on mud expose in late spring when the marshes dry up. The managers of hunting marshes like to keep their wetlands permanently flooded for the development of the kind of vegetation the ducks like to eat in winter. Thus the species is drawn and disappears.	eng
164426	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2010	This species was classified as Endangered in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett 1998). There are no current conservation measures in place.<br/>Recommended conservation actions are to monitor the existing site and the populations and their dynamics, to legally protect the species (Tunisian List of Protected Species) and to conserve the species in seed banks.	eng
164426	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2010	<em>Rumex tunetanus</em> is strictly endemic to Tunisia. It is found at only one site in the Mogods namely near Garaet Sejnane (in the north of the country) and it has an area of occupancy that is smaller than two km². It was first described at the end of the 19th century and has not been observed for several years. It was believed to be possibly extinct until a recent survey in April 2010 confirmed its presence in Garaet Sejnane (where the species was mentioned by Pottier-Alapetite).	eng
164426	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2010	It is an annual to biennial herbaceous Therophyte that is found on the edges of freshwater bodies. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164426	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2010	The species has recently been found again at the site with two populations within a few metres of each other: one population has ca. 522 individuals and the other population counts less than 20 individuals (L. Rhazi pers. comm. 2010). Since the 1950s, this site has suffered significant changes due to various anthropogenic pressures, which has lead to the fragmentation of the habitat and consequently to the decline of the populations.	eng
164426	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2010	Drainage, agricultural expansion, grazing and the development of road infrastructures are some of the main threats to this species' habitat.	eng
164427	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. The proposed measures are legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures, to maintain the activities of grazing in order to limit the extension of high plants, to study the biology of the species and to raise public awareness.	eng
164427	conservation	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The species is protected at national level in France and populations are included in the following protected areas: Parc naturel régional de Camargue, Réserve de la Tour du Valat, Lanau (Bouches-du-Rhône), pools in central Var (management plan in progress). Fuerthermore,&#160; <em>ex situ</em> conservation of seeds is carried out by the Conservatoire Botanique National de Porquerolles. It is Critically Endangered in Sicily and Italy (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997, Scoppola and Spampinato 2005). It is classified as Data Deficient in the Croatian Red Data Book.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. <br/><br/>It is necessary to confirm the identity of <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span> populations in order to gather information about the species presence and distribution. Further proposed measures are: legal protection of the species, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics, application of legal conservation measures, to study the biology of the species and to raise public awareness.	eng
164427	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in France (from Biterrois to Hérault in Var, Rhone valley), Italy (coastal zone southwest of Sicily), central and southern Spain (widespread in the southwestern and eastern coast), Portugal (western coast), Croatia, Greece (Thessalia, east of Larisa and in northwest Peloponniosos near Kalogria) and Syria. <br/><br/>In North Africa, the species is present in Morocco (Tanger, Loukkos and Ito; Bou Jerirt; vicinity of the Sidi-Ali-ou-Mohand lake, Timahdit in the Middle Atlas, Rommani in the region of the Zaers), Algeria (the high Plateaux of the northwest, Oran mountains) and in Libya (El-Merj). <br/>The extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 400,000 km² with an occupied area of estimated 15 km². At Mediterranean level, its extent of occurrence is of 3,000,000 km² and the occupied area is estimated >700 km².	eng
164427	distribution	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy, Croatia, Syria, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. In Greece, all material that has been found has been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span> and therefore the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> has not been confirmed. In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> was reported only for Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). <br/>On the Iberian Peninsula, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. polyspermum</span> is more continental than <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span>. The main populations are in central Spain - it occurs in the coastal Mediterranean strip but is less frequent there. It is present at the western coast of Portugal (Beira Litoral). In France, it is found from Biterrois to Hérault in Var, Rhône valley.<br/>In Morocco, the species is present in Tanger, Loukkos and Ito; Bou Jerirt; vicinity of the Sidi-Ali-ou-Mohand lake, Timahdit in the Middle Atlas, Rommani in the region of the Zaers. In Algeria, it occurs in the high Plateaux of the northwest and the Oran mountains, and in Libya in El-Merj.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164427	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte), or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It prefers soft or weakly brackish waters, is indifferent to the nature of soil and can support slightly saline conditions. Its flowering is generally vernal (April-June); the maturation and the dissemination of the seeds take place in summer.	eng
164427	habitat	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is an annual plant (Therophyte), or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow pools and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels. It prefers soft or weakly brackish waters, is indifferent to the nature of soil and can support slightly saline conditions. Its flowering is generally from April to June; the maturation and the dissemination of the seeds take place in summer.<br/>The species is characteristic of one of the sub-types of Mediterranean temporary pools as indicated in the Habitats Directive.	eng
164427	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is relatively rare over its entire distribution area. The populations face a decline due to the deterioration of the habitat.<br/>- Morocco: there is no data on the size of the populations of this species that is considered rare; <br/>- Algeria: very rare, signaled solely in the high trays of Algier and Oran (Sersou);<br/>- Libya: only present in the El-Merj area at the Mediterranean coastline to the east of Benghazi.	eng
164427	population	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Damasonium polyspermum</em> is relatively rare over its entire distribution area. The populations face a decline due to the deterioration of the habitat. The species is common in the west extremity of the Mediterranean (Spain and Morocco) and becomes rare eastwards (Italy, Croatia). <br/>- France: it was known from 10 sites distributed between the departments of Hérault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhône and Var. Eight populations disappeared or have not been reviewed in Sauvian (plateau of Vendres), Portiragnes/Vias (Roque-Haute), Agde (pools of Riguaud), Redessan, Jonquières, Manduel (ponds of Jonquières, Campuget and Redessan), Bellegarde and the Barben (pool of the Estagnolet); only seven sites are confirmed presently;<br/>- Italy: several localities but only one has been confirmed after 1970 at Isola Grande (Giardina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007);<br/>- Spain: the presence of the species is noted in 20 provinces in the centre and the north of the country (between 50 and 100 sites) and&#160; in the south of the country (approximately 20 sites);<br/>- Portugal: only one site harbours this species;<br/>- Morocco: there is no data on the size of the populations of this species that is considered rare; <br/>- Algeria: very rare, signalled solely in the high plateaus of Algier and Oran (Sersou);<br/>- Libya: only present in the El-Merj area at the Mediterranean coastline east of Benghazi.	eng
164427	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation, pollution and alien-weed competition. The threats include drainage of depressions in relation to agricultural amenities, overgrazing, urbanization, and agrochemical pollution.	eng
164427	threats	de Bélair, G., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation. The main threat is the change of hydrological regimes, ranging from drainage of depressions for agricultural purposes to stabilising the water levels of temporary water bodies in order to use them as reservoirs. Overgrazing, urbanization and alien-weed competition, for example <span style="font-style: italic;">Azolla filiculoides</span>, are furthermore leading to population declines.	eng
164429	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place,  further research on population numbers and range is needed. Otherwise, no conservation are in need.	eng
164429	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in Tropical Africa, southern and southeast Asia. It has been recorded from western and Central Africa, also in Southern Africa.<br/><br/><em> E. conyzoides conyzoides</em> it is found Egypt, Ethiopia, tropical Africa, tropical Asia and eastwards to Indochina. It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. <br/><br/><em>E conyzoides kraussii =</em> is present in KwaZulu-Natal with 9 specimens in 7 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.	eng
164429	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This Herb is usually found in wet grassland or by rivers. Recorded from the Nile and canal banks, moist grounds. However, slalinity has a negative effect on the species.<br/><br/><em>E. conyzoides conyzoide</em>s  is weedy annual that grows in damp places or places where water stood during the rains but has dried out.  On moist ground, in shallow water or swampy places, on river and stream banks, in reed-beds sometimes rooted in <em>Salvinia sp</em>. Mats. Not strictly a wetland species. <br/><br/><em>E conyzoides kraussii</em> Cook (2004) is a weedy annual which grows in damp places where water stood during the rains but has dried out.  Not strictly wetland species but is sometimes found growing together with wetland species shortly after rain. It replaces wetland species in dry season.	eng
164429	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread herbaceous herb, important population.	eng
164429	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats have been identified.	eng
164430	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To estimate the population size <br/>- Follow-up of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164430	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Stellaria alsine</em> is a species with a wide distribution at the global scale. It is present in Europe, Madeira, Africa, North America and in the centre and northern part of Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in France (mainland and in Corsica), Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia and Morocco. The extent of occurrence is about 2,700,000 km² in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164430	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species can be annual or perennial. It s found in rivulets and springs in mountains as well as in wet soils on silica-rich substrate. <em>Stellaria alsine</em> blooms in spring and summer under the cold semi-arid, sub-humid, humid and high mountain Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164430	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known but they seem stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is present with at least nine known localities distributed between the Rif (Tizi-niIfri), the Anti-Atlas (Jbel Amezdour, near Tizi-n-Touggoukine, Siroua), the Haut-Atlas and the centre of the country (El Harcha, Ment, Aïn Bridila).	eng
164430	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	In Morocco, a high grazing pressure notably close to the sources could change the quality of the habitat (enrichment in organic matter). This hypothesis is supported by the recent installation of some nitrate-requiring species. <br/><br/>In the other Mediterranean countries, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
164431	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164431	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Hypochaeris angustifolia</em> is an endemic plant of Morocco. It is rather frequent in many localities of the High and Middle Atlas. It is also known in the Moroccan part of the Sahara (Errachidia and Kelaât Mgouna) and in Haouz on the bank of the Oum-er-Rbia river and around Oulad bou Moussa. Its extent of occurrence is about 45,000 km² with an area of occupancy greater than 3,000 km².	eng
164431	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Hypochaeris angustifolia</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers humid grassland and verges of springs at plains and mountains up to 2,500 m of altitude. Its flowering period spreads from spring to summer under the arid, temperate semi-arid, semi-arid cold, sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164431	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations seem to be stable.	eng
164431	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The habitat of this species is subject to grazing pressure, extension of agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts.	eng
164433	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2009	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. <br/>There are no other conservation measures known or proposed.	eng
164433	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is a thermo-cosmopolitan species. Its geographical distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, sub-tropical and tropical regions of the globe. <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Spain, Portugal, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, former Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 500,000 km², with several localities and an AOO >500 km².	eng
164433	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Geophyte) that inhabits temporary pools, river banks and irrigation channels as well as humid gritty lands. Flowering occurs between spring and summer (April-July).	eng
164433	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Imperata cylindrica</em> is very common in the Mediterranean with populations that are steady.	eng
164433	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164434	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place, the plant occurs in many protected areas.	eng
164434	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no specific measures in place, the plant occurs in many protected areas.	eng
164434	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species occurs in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and has been introduced in New Zealand, North America and South America.<br/><br/>In North Africa it is found in Egypt, Libya and Algeria. Also present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Egypt (Lake Nasser) in North East Africa. Widespread in Southern Africa where it occurs in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
164434	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species occurs in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and has been introduced in New Zealand, North America and South America.<br/>It is found in all the Mediterranean countries from Portugal to Egypt and Libya eastwards (Euro+Med Plantbase 2009). In the Maghreb it is only found in Algeria.	eng
164434	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Potamogeton crispus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drains, ditches and even very small water bodies. It is confined, however, to eutrophic or mesoeutrophic waters. <em>P. crispus</em> is found in aquatic habitats characterised by: a) water of moderate concentrations of alkalinity, inorganic nitrogen and sulphate and low concentrations of phosphates, calcium and magnesium; and b) hydrosoil of moderatre values of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and organic matter.<br/>Plants produce more turions (which constitute the main process of reproduction) than flowers under environmental stress to which aquatic habitats are subjected.	eng
164434	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Potamogeton crispus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drains, ditches and even very small water bodies. It is confined, however, to eutrophic or mesoeutrophic waters. <em>P. crispus</em> is found in aquatic habitats characterised by: a) water of moderate concentrations of alkalinity, inorganic nitrogen and sulphate and low concentrations of phosphates, calcium and magnesium; and b) hydrosoil of moderatre values of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and organic matter.<br/>Plants produce more turions (which constitute the main process of reproduction) than flowers under environmental stress to which aquatic habitats are subjected.	eng
164434	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is very common.	eng
164434	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common.	eng
164434	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	It is locally threatened by general threats to wetlands, but the species is not at risk.	eng
164434	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is locally threatened by general threats to wetlands, but the species is not at risk.	eng
164435	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the number of mature individuals <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)	eng
164435	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco with a distribution restricted to the mountainous regions. The species is found in two localities in the Anti<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>Atlas (Siroua; Jbel Amezdour) and two localities in the Haut Atlas (Tatrarate, Tiseldei). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 3,000 km².	eng
164435	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is found in temporarily flooded habitats between 900 and 2,600 m of elevation, along streams, in fens and on saturated soils. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in late spring and summer (June-August). <em>Eryngium variifolium</em> is found under the cold, semi-arid cold, humid or sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164435	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The total population is estimated to consist of 30,000 individuals. The dynamics are poorly understood.	eng
164435	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The threats to this species' habitat are essentially overgrazing and the extension of agriculture on the neighbouring lands. Temporarily flooded wetlands in Morocco are under severe threat from human impacts and climate change (dessication).	eng
164436	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164436	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A western subatlantic and Mediterranean species that is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. In Africa it occurs in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya and Morocco.	eng
164436	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A western subatlantic and Mediterranean species that is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. It occurs in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Cyprus, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.	eng
164436	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It grows mainly on sandy shores and maritime sand dunes, rarely far inland (oases).	eng
164436	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common in North Africa.	eng
164436	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common in the Mediterranean, present at numerous localities.	eng
164436	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats for this species.	eng
164439	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to carry out surveillance of the existing localities and search for new ones, and to monitor its population dynamics.	eng
164439	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It is found in eight known localities, all in mountainous regions. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 20,000 km² and its known area of occupancy is smaller than 100 km².	eng
164439	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits stream banks and humid rocks of the middle and high mountains. Flowering occurs between spring and summer.	eng
164439	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus aurasiacus</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria but its populations are stable. <br/>In Morocco, it is known from five localities, all in middle or high mountains, in the High Atlas (Jbel Ayachi, Jbel Rhat, Jbel Takreda) and the Middle Atlas (Jbel Hayane, Bou-Iblane). In Algeria, it is present in three localities in the mountains (Aurès, Djurjura, Hodna mountain).	eng
164439	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	There are no major threats to the species.	eng
164441	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	In Northern Africa, there are no conservation measures in place; the proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the dynamics of the populations and conservation of the habitat of this species. Despite of some populations being included in designated Ramsar sites (lakes Tonga, Oiseaux or Chichaya), these areas have no protection. Hence increasing the awareness of local residents and provide financial incentives is recommended. No conservation actions needed or in place in other regions.	eng
164441	conservation	Laila Rhazi, M. Rhazi, Flanagan, D., de Bélair, G., 2009	It is under regional protection in France (Franche-Comté, Auvergne, Rhones-Alpes and Midi-Pyrénées) and qualified as VU in the National Red List of Croatia. No other measures are taken elsewhere. <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place; the proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, monitor the dynamics of the populations and conservation of the habitat of this species. Despite of some populations being included in designated Ramsar sites (lakes Tonga, Oiseaux or Chichaya), these areas have no protection. Hence increasing the awareness of local residents and provide financial incentives is recommended.	eng
164441	distribution	Laila Rhazi, M. Rhazi, Flanagan, D., de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Cyperus michelianus</em> is considered as a paleosubtropical species by Quezel and Santa (1963) and a Eurasian species by Valdes <em>et al.</em> (2002). Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia and North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 5,000,000 km², with several locations and an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164441	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	<em>Cyperus michelianus</em> is considered as a paleosubtropical species by Quezel and Santa (1963) and a Eurasian species by Valdes <em>et al.</em> (2002). Its world distribution covers Europe, Asia and north Africa. In north Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt (Lake Nasser). Its extent of occurrence surpasses 2,500,000 km², with less than 10 locations and an AOO <20 km². Widespread in western Africa and present also in Kenya, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa (North western Province) Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia.	eng
164441	habitat	Laila Rhazi, M. Rhazi, Flanagan, D., de Bélair, G., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and riverbeds. Flowering occurs in the summer from May to August. <br/>In Numidia, Algeria, it only grows on soils more or less clayey after the withdrawal of water (lakes Tonga, des Oiseaux, Bourdim) or in ponds (Esstah or Chichaya). Its presence is related and dependent upon the summer drawdown phenomenon. In the temperate to mild Mediterranean bioclimate, it forms small grassy patches.	eng
164441	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that inhabits temporary pools and riverbeds. It prefers moist sandy and muddy edges of canal banks or river courses, lake shores, and rice fields .Flowering occurs in the summer from May to August.  In Numidia, Algeria, it only grows on soils more or less clayey after the withdrawal of water (lakes Tonga, des Oiseaux, Bourdim) or in ponds (Esstah or Chichaya).	eng
164441	population	Laila Rhazi, M. Rhazi, Flanagan, D., de Bélair, G., 2009	In North Africa, the species is relatively rare with restricted populations that are in slow regression. It forms dense mats on fairly restricted areas. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, with three locations (in south Rharb along the banks of Oued Sebou, on the edges of Oued Grou in the Zaër country and in Mamora);<br/>- Algeria: very rare, with four locations distributed between Numidia (La Cale and Bône), Little Kabylia and the Algérois Tellien Atlas (Alma Forest); <br/>- Egypt: it was found along the Nile. <br/><br/>The species is common in the Mediterranean region.<br/>- Spain: present in 78 sites; <br/>- France: quite common in the centre of the country but rare along the Mediterranean strip (present in the three Mediteranean regions including Corsica where it is found on one location and possibly introduced);<br/>- Italy: it occurs in seven provinces besides Sicily;<br/>- Syria: present in four locations (Amrith, East Alep, Ras-el-'Aïn and Qneitra);<br/>- Lebanon: found in the Ammiq pond;<br/>- Montenegro: one location (Skadar lake);<br/>- Croatia: considered as Vulnerable.	eng
164441	population	Juffe, D., 2009	This species is common thoughout Northern and Western Africa. In North Africa, the species is relatively rare with restricted populations that are in slow regression. It forms dense mats on fairly restricted areas.	eng
164441	threats	Laila Rhazi, M. Rhazi, Flanagan, D., de Bélair, G., 2009	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species. Another threat is primarily agricultural as the land is coveted by locals for summer crops. The resurgence of vegetation promotes grazing by cattle and sheep.	eng
164441	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	Urbanization and habitat drainage are the main threats to this species in Northern Africa. The threat is primarily agricultural as the land is covered by locals for summer crops. The resurgence of vegetation promotes grazing by cattle and sheep. In North Eastern Africa, management regime changes of non-agricultural lands and damming of water bodies threaten the species, but they are not  major widespread threats.	eng
164442	conservation	F. Cholo & W. Foden, 2006	No information	eng
164442	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no current conservation measures in place, but the following ones are proposed: monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the population size, study of the population dynamics and the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
164442	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Bolboschoenus glaucus</em> is an Old-World sedge, confused with <em>B. maritimus</em> worldwide until recently (Browning <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998). It is more thermophilic than the other European species. It develops in southern Europe, up to northern Spain, southern France, northern Italy, Hungary and northern Romania. Its most western localities are in Portugal, and it occurs eastwards to southern Ukraine and Russia, central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.<br/>In Africa it is found in Botswana, Senegal, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. This species has been introduced into the United States. <br/>This species is absent from North Africa. Its Mediterranean distribution comprises the south of France (Camargue), Greece where it is sparsely distributed around the Aegean Sea, Italy, Portugal, the northeast of Spain (Gibraltar strait and centre), Israel, and Turkey.	eng
164442	distribution	F. Cholo & W. Foden, 2006	This species occurs in Southern Africa and Northern Africa, Namibia and Botswana. In south Africa it is found in Limpopo, North West, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, and Northern Cape. Globally it extends throughout the warmer parts of the Old World and America.<br/><br/>Recorded also from Senegal and Egypt.	eng
164442	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Bolboschoenus glaucus</em> is a perennial rhizomatous sedge growing in shallow waters along brooks and rivers, around lakes, and in artificial depressions. It seems to be a typical weed in rice paddies. It is also well adapted to terrestrial summer-dry habitats.	eng
164442	habitat	F. Cholo & W. Foden, 2006	This perennial emergent hydrophyte grows along the banks of rivers, streams and pans, sometimes grows in water between 1 and 1,200m asl.	eng
164442	population	F. Cholo & W. Foden, 2006	No information	eng
164442	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is widely distributed but its actual abundance is not well known.	eng
164442	threats	F. Cholo & W. Foden, 2006	None known	eng
164442	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The main threats for this species are unknown.	eng
164443	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In Lebanon, it is indirectly conserved as some populations are found in a nature reserve in the south.<br/>No other conservation measures are in place or proposed.	eng
164443	conservation	Mahamane, A., 2006	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
164443	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is a tropical and sub-tropical species which extends to the Mediterranean through the Nile valley.<br/>Its global distribution includes tropical Africa (Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Comores, Madagascar, Tanzania), Asia (Sri Lanka, India, Indochina), the United States, Guadeloupe and Australia.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean the species is found in Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum, Mediterranean coast, Isthmic desert), Israel and the coast of Lebanon (Ras el Ain south of Tyr, Nahr Qazmiyé riversides).	eng
164443	distribution	Mahamane, A., 2006	This is a paleotropical species widespread and present in many countries throughout Africa including Madagascar. It has ben recorded from Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Egypt (Nile delta, Nile valley, Nile fayoum, Mediterranean coast, Isthmic desert), Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Erithrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Botswana, Swaziland, and South Africa (Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal).<br/><br/>Also present in Trpical Asia, Syria and Northern Australia.	eng
164443	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is a perennial sedge growing on riversides, drains, canals, ditches, pools, lakes, rice fields and marshy grounds.	eng
164443	habitat	Mahamane, A., 2006	This perennial sedge grows in stagnant freshwater; dispersed individuals or great planting on muddy soils. In swamps, pols and lakes and on the edge of water. It can also be found on riversides, drains, canals, ditches, rice fields and marshy grounds.	eng
164443	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus alopecuroides</em> is common in Egypt and Lebanon.	eng
164443	population	Mahamane, A., 2006	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
164443	threats	Mahamane, A., 2006	No major widesrpread threats have been identified although agriculture and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
164443	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164445	conservation	Hugot, L. & García Murillo, P., 2009	There are no specific measures in place or needed. Many of the populations are in the Sierra Nevada National Park and other protected areas.<br/>It is assessed as Data Deficient in the Red List of Andalucia    (Cabezudo <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>More information on the number of sites, preferred habitats and ecology is needed as well as information on the population trend and how the potential threats are affecting the species.	eng
164445	distribution	Hugot, L. & García Murillo, P., 2009	This species is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. It is found at an altitude of 1,300-3,000 m in mountains of two different distribution areas. The<br/>  Sierra Nevada (Granada) and Sierra de los Filabres (Almeria) are the southeastern nucleus, and Sierra Segundera (Zamora, Orense, Beira Alta - Portugal), Sierra de la Cabrera (León) and Sistema Central (Salamanca, Avila, Cáceres and Madrid, Guadalajara) are the northwestern and central nucleus where it is more disperse (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
164445	habitat	Hugot, L. & García Murillo, P., 2009	This perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) is found in oligotrophic waters, very wet turf meadows, peaty soil and springs.	eng
164445	population	Hugot, L. & García Murillo, P., 2009	The population size and trends have not been quantified.	eng
164445	threats	Hugot, L. & García Murillo, P., 2009	Livestock grazing and the associated soil modification and eutrophication, as well as tourist activities such as skiing, are the main threats. Climate change could affect the species in future.	eng
164446	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	In France, the species is protected at regional level in Alsace, Franche-Comté, Rhones-Alpes, Aquitaine and Pays-de-la-Loire.<br/>There are no other specific measures in place; research on the species population numbers and range, ecology, habitat status and threats is recommended.	eng
164446	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no specific measures in place; research on the species population numbers and range, ecology, habitat status and threats is recommended.	eng
164446	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is cosmopolitan, found in North Africa and is widespread in Mediterranean Europe.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt.	eng
164446	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is cosmopolitan, found in the North African countries Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt and is widespread in Mediterranean Europe and the East Mediterranean.	eng
164446	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This Hydrophyte prefers fresh and brackish waters.	eng
164446	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is common in North Africa.	eng
164446	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is common in North Africa. It has a scattered distribution in Spain and Portugal and is fairly common in France and Italy.	eng
164446	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	Changing agricultural practises may have a negative impact on this species.	eng
164449	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	Legal protection of the species in Morocco has been proposed. Surveillance and monitoring of existing sites and identification of new locations, further research on ecology and biology, and implementation of legal protection measures have also been proposed as conservation measures.	eng
164449	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	In Africa, this cyperaceous plant is only present in Morocco, where it is very rare and only known in two localities, the High central Atlas (on top of Zerekten in Guerdouz mountain) and on the edge of the Assif Melloul, at 2,000 m and 2,350 m of altitude, respectively) with a zone of occupation of about 14 km². However, the global distribution of <em>Blysmus compressus</em> includes Asia, Europe and the Mediterranean. In the Mediterranean, it is found in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy and Sardinia, Yugoslavia, and Lebanon.	eng
164449	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Blysmus compressus</em> is a vivacious plant (Geophyte) that develops in marshy prairies and on verges of rivulets and springs of average mountains. It has a vernal flowering (March-May).	eng
164449	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the size of its populations or their present trends. In Africa, the populations are reduced and restricted to two isolated localities of the High Atlas (Morocco). The state of the populations is unknown in the rest of the Mediterranean.	eng
164449	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage, expansion of agriculture, overgrazing, urbanization and frequent droughts are the main threats to its habitat.	eng
164450	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164450	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Epilobium parviflorum</em> is a paleo-temperate species. Its biogeographic distribution covers the Mediterranean, Europe, Asia and Macaronesia. <br/> <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs in Albania, Turkey, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Cyprus, Greece (including East Aegean Islands, Crete and Karpathos) Israel and Palestine, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Malta, Lebanon and Syria, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its Mediterranean extent of occurrence passes 5,000,000 km² with numerous localities.	eng
164450	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Epilobium parviflorum</em> is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits streams, humid places of plains and mountains with a preference for clayey and chalky soils. Its flowering starts in spring and summer.	eng
164450	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean with numerous localities and populations appearing to be steady. <br/>- Morocco: very common with several localities distributed between the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, Northern Atlantic Morocco, Middle Atlantic Morocco and the Rif <br/>- Algeria: relatively rare in Numidie and in Petite and Grande Kabylie; elsewhere it is very rare (Tlemcen, Aurès) <br/>- Tunisia: quite common with at least five localities between the Mogods (Aïn Sebaa); northeastern Tunisia (El Alia), Tunisian Dorsal (Jbel Zaghouan, Oued Bargou) and central Tunisia (Aïn Cherichera) <br/>- France: common in the whole of France and in Corsica <br/>- Italy: very common in the whole country in addition to Sicily and Sardinia <br/>- Spain and Portugal: very common and present in more than 732 localities	eng
164450	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	No major threats are known for this species, but the harvesting levels should be watched.	eng
164451	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is included in the Red List of Italy and is protected on a national scale in France (decree of January 20, 1982 modified by the decree of August 31, 1995) and included in the Red List of Threatened Plants (Danton and Baffry 1995). In Corsica, three sites are protected by the natural reserve statute and Ramsar statute. For Corsica, it is necessary to maintain the traditional uses of the sites (extensive grazing). <br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>- To promote a limitation of the livestock grazing pressure in the site to Morocco <br/>- To protect the sites and to control the pollution of the lakes in Italy <br/>- To reinforce the populations in Morocco and in Sardinia (limit of area) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to value the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164451	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Littorella uniflora</em> has a western European and sub-Atlantic distribution with a discontinuous distribution along the Mediterranean coast. In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Corsica, continental France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sardinia, Croatia, and Morocco. It is found from from 38°45' (Lisboa) until 68°20' latitude to the north and, from the Azores (31°W) until the Carélie (35°E). The area of occurrence is of about 1,800,000 km². <br/>In Morocco, <em>Littorella uniflora</em> is very rare with only one known location in the central Rif (Issaguène to 1,400 m altitude).	eng
164451	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>L. uniflora</em> is found in temporary pools, rivers on sandy soil, lake shores, peat bogs and fish ponds. It is a perennial species (fixed amphibious Hydrophyte) that requires flooding in winter for germination and the activation of the buds of the short rhizomes, and an air exposure in spring for flowering.	eng
164451	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are more concentrated in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) with about a hundred known sites. In Portugal it has gone extinct at most coastal sites, but in the interior some populations remain. In France, <em>L. uniflora</em> is present in the west, the center, the east and the north of the country. In Corsica six locations are known. In Italy, there are several sites scattered in the northern regions. In Sardinia as in Morocco there is only one site (the southern limits of the distribution of <em>Littorella uniflora</em>). The populations decline in northern Italy and are considered as vulnerable in France. In Morocco, only one population is known thus with a elevated risk of local extinction.	eng
164451	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is threatened by a deterioration of the quality of its habitat under the effect of drainage, overgrazing, water pollution and the development of competing large sized plants (<em>Eleocharis</em> spp., <em>Scirpus</em> spp., <em>Phragmites</em> spp.). The sites of temporary pools are very exposed to the risks of direct destruction by agricultural, industrial or urban development.	eng
164453	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are in need.	eng
164453	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Sudan, Eritrea, and Egypt (Nile region including Delta, Mediterranean coastal strip, Suez). Then down to Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and Zambia.<br/><br/>In North East Africa it has been recorded from Sudan (Fazokl District - Locis humidis insularum circa Sennar et Wolet Medine - Niamniam), Ethiopia (ad rivos, in paludosis prope Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea (environs d'Acrour).	eng
164453	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This is Perennial herb of damp places. Mostly found in moist grounds, along the Nile and in canal banks.	eng
164453	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Common species.	eng
164453	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
164454	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is recommended to conserve the habitat of the species, to monitor the existing locations, especially the ones in Morocco and Algeria, and to implement legal protection measures.	eng
164454	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place, the following ones are being recommended:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations, especially the ones in Morocco and Algeria <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164454	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is missing in Europe, but is present in North Africa and the Levant (the Golan plateau), Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, east, northeast and southern Africa (Boulos 2005). <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Algeria, as var. <em>mauritanicus</em> (Trabut) Buchen. & Trabut at four locations at Batna, Aflou and the Saharan Atlas (Maire 1957), in Morocco at the central Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Great and Middle Atlas, central Sahara: Fezzan, oasis of Serdeles (Maire 1957), and in Egypt in the Nile region and the entire Sinai peninsula.<br/>It is furthermore present in Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria.	eng
164454	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Southern Africa and north east Africa to Arabia and Pakistan.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:  Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Angola, and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Northern  it is found in Algeria, as var. <em>mauritanicus</em> (Trabut) Buchen. & Trabut at four locations at Batna, Aflou and the Saharan Atlas (Maire 1957), in Morocco at the central Rif (Valdès <em>et al.</em> 2002), Great and Middle Atlas, central Sahara: Fezzan, oasis of Serdeles (Maire 1957), and in Egypt (Nile region and the entire Sinai peninsula).<br/><br/>In Northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Sudan (Jebel Marra), Ethiopia (Abyssinia, in ripis uliginsos prope Adoam; TU, Adoam), Somalia and Eritrea.	eng
164454	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is a perennial graminoid. It is found near wells and permanent or temporary streams in Egypt, marshes, banks of fresh and slightly brackish waters of mountains up to 2,200 m in North Africa. <br/>Flowering occurs from June to August in Algeria and Morocco.<br/><br/>It prefers good quality freshwater springs in the Levant.	eng
164454	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial helophyte is found in permanently wet places, swamps, marshes, riverbanks or sometimes in shallow water. It is found near wells and permanent or temporary streams in Egypt and in slightly brackish waters of mountains up to 2,200 m above sea level in north Africa.&#160; Flowering occurs from June to August in Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164454	population	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus punctorius</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria. In Egypt, this species is found in two wide locations and overall occupies a large area in Africa and Asia (Boulos 2005). It is common in north eastern Africa. Also, quite common in southern Africa.	eng
164454	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In North Africa, <em>Juncus punctorius</em> is rare in Morocco and in Algeria. In Egypt, this species is found in two wide locations and overall occupies a large area in Africa and Asia (Boulos 2005).<br/><br/>In the Levant, the populations are very rare and fragmented and on the edge of extinction. There is only one population at the Golan plateau and six populations in Sinai in a very restricted area. It has been recorded from a few more locations in Lebanon but has not been observed recently (pers. comm. Elsa Sattout).	eng
164454	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespreading threats.	eng
164454	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The threats are unknown for North Africa.<br/><br/>In Lebanon, urbanization and agricultural or industrial water pollution are the main threats. <br/>At the Golan plateau, the overuse of the water resources by human settlements causes the water levels to drop.	eng
164458	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place; proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, study the biology and the ecology of the species and reduce the habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures.	eng
164458	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Molinia caerulea</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution covers Europe, boreal and western Asia and North Africa. It is present in the Mediterranean region with two subspecies including ssp. <em>rivulorum</em> which is endemic to the Mediterranean region (Dobignard) and present in Tunisia and Algeria. However for Le Floc'h and Boulos (2009) only ssp. <em>caerulea</em> is present in Tunisia.<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in numerous locations.<br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco (Mesfioua and the Afra river valley, both in the High Atlas), Algeria (Numidie and the Algérois Tellien Atlas) and Tunisia (Medjerda valley).	eng
164458	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous (Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte) plant that inhabits swamps, swampy prairies, waterfalls and other humid habitats essentially of siliceous soil. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September).	eng
164458	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa it has a very limited distribution and the populations are very restricted and in slow decline. <br/>It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in two locations in the High Atlas (Mesfioua and the Afra river valley); rare in Algeria, found in Numidie and in the Algérois Tellien Atlas; rare in Tunisia, found in the Medjerda valley (between the Tessa and the Zafran rivers). The species is very common in Portugal, very common in Spain (418 sites); very common in France, present in 14 provinces in Italy; common in mountains of Croatia, where it can spread after abandonment of pasture; present in three localities in Montenegro in the same mountain range.	eng
164458	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164459	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	Apart from research activities there are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164459	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
164459	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> is a cosmopolitan species. It is widespread in Europe including the eastern Mediterranean coast. It has a virtually cosmopolitan world distribution, being found in all continents except Antarctica.<br/><br/>It is present in nearly all the Mediterranean countries: Algeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Egypt (including Sinai), France and Corsica, Greece (with Crete and Karpathos), Israel, Jordan, Italy with Sardinia and Sicily, Libya, Lebanon, Portugal, Syria, Spain (with Balearic Islands), former Yugoslavia, Morocco, Turkey, and Tunisia. <br/>In North Africa it is very common with several localities between Egypt and Morocco.	eng
164459	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	From Western Africa to the Sudan and Ethiopia and south through east tropical Africa to Angola and Southern Africa. Almost worldwide in distribution, but not recorded from the Malay Peninsula; introduced into New Zealand and Mascarene Islands.<br/><br/>Is is widespread in West Africa. From Senegal to Sudan and elsewhere: Benin, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Sierra leone, Ghana. <br/><br/>In North Eastern and North Africa it is very common with several localities between Egypt and Morocco.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa, the species is widely distributed and common in Kenya.  In Malawi it occurs at Lake Kazuni in Mzimba District, Salima at Linthipe River opposite Maleri Island, and Chiromo in Nsanje. In Tanzania in Arusha district, Meru National Park Longil swamp, Ufipa district Rungwa R.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa where it is found in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
164459	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	A fresh water aquatic herb forming underwater meadows in shallow muddy sheltered places, or becoming detached floating in masses. It is a very common association in West Africa and is present in all man-made lake systems and in lake Chad. It is associated with <em>Azolla, Pistia, Nymphaceae </em>and reed (<em>Typha, Cyperus</em>) swamps. The species is tolerant to brackish estuarine conditions of high salinity. <em>C. demersum</em> does well under severe water level fluctuation conditions; high nutrient concentrations, in particular organic material, in the hydrosoil are favourable for its dense growth. It is rarely found in seasonal highly alkaline pools.<br/><br/>It grows in canals, shallow water, swamps, lakes, and is tolerant of brackish water. Abundant growth of <em>Ceratophyllum demersum </em>is confined to clay loamy hydrosoil. Such fine texture favours the establishment of the non-rooted submerged <em>C. demersum</em>, as the bottom leaves can anchor in the fine hydrosoil.	eng
164459	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This Hydrophyte grows in irrigation canals, shallow water, swamps, lakes, and is tolerant of brackish water. Abundant growth of <em>Ceratophyllum demersum </em>is confined to clay loamy hydrosoil. Such fine texture favours the establishment of the non-rooted submerged <em>C. demersum</em>, as the bottom leaves can anchor in the fine hydrosoil. <em>C. demersum</em> does well under severe water level fluctuation conditions; high nutrient concentrations, in particular organic material, in the hydrosoil are favourable for its dense growth.	eng
164459	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is very common.	eng
164459	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species is very common, widespread and abundant.	eng
164459	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Biocontrol (by grass carp) and industrial polutants may reduce local populations but it is not a major threat for the dispersal and spreading of<em> C. demersum.</em>	eng
164459	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	Biocontrol (by grass carp to reduce aquatic weeds) may reduce local populations but it is not a major threat for the dispersal and spreading of <em>C. demersum</em>.	eng
164460	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Proposed actions for Algeria are to monitor the only location and to provide legal protection of the species.	eng
164460	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lysimachia vulgaris</em> is a Eurasian species. In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Bulgaria, Turkey, Turkey-in-Europe and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164460	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte), that inhabits ditches and marshes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164460	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. <br/>In Portugal and Spain, it is present in more than 277 sites, essentially concentrated in the centre and north of the peninsula. It is also very common in France as well as in Italy where it is present in almost all of the country (16 provinces in addition to Sicily).<br/>In Algeria, it is very rare, occurring only in one location at the Algérois coast (Mitidja); this population is in decline.	eng
164460	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The infilling and drainage for urbanization are the main threats to the species preferred habitat, but they are currently not indicating a population decline.<br/>In Algeria, the sole population is threatened by destruction resulting from the strong urbanization of the Algérois coast.	eng
164461	conservation	Şenol, S.G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164461	distribution	Şenol, S.G., 2009	<em>C. acuminata</em> is found in southern Russia, western Sibiria, Iraq and Iran, Central Asia, and the eastern Mediterranean.<br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in western Syria, Turkey (south and western Anatolia), Cyprus, and the East Aegean Islands.	eng
164461	habitat	Şenol, S.G., 2009	<em>C. acuminata</em> grows in agricultural areas, around rice fields, and in wet grasslands.	eng
164461	population	Şenol, S.G., 2009	This species is very common.	eng
164461	threats	Şenol, S.G., 2009	The species is not threatened, but is classified as weed. It is subject to grazing.	eng
164462	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The site of Talassemtane is designated as National Park.<br/><br/>There are no conservation measures in place for the other sites, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Reinforcement of the existing populations <br/>- Extension of the National Park of Talassemtane to include the locality of Timmellaline within the protected area. <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and identification of new areas<br/>- Study of the biology and the ecology of the species and estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on enhancement of its environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness.	eng
164462	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Scrophularia eriocalyx</em> is an endemic plant from Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is limited to three localities in mountains of the western Rif (Jbel Timellaline; mountains of Ketama and Talassemtane). Its extent of occurrence is approximately 1,400 km².	eng
164462	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Scrophularia eriocalyx</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that occurs as isolated individuals on the verge of rivulets under cedars and in cool oak groves, on average siliceous and chalky mountains under the humid Mediterranean bio-climate. It blooms and fruits in summer.	eng
164462	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data is available on the population size but the populations appear to be globally in decline due to destruction of its habitat for agriculture.	eng
164462	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	The main threats to the species' habitat are grazing, frequent droughts and the degradation of surrounding forests for agriculture, especially the production of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cannabis</span> in the locality of Ketama.	eng
164463	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.<br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, study the biology and ecology of the species. More research on the identity of populations and their distribution are urgently needed.	eng
164463	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Glyceria spicata</em> is a species with a very restricted biogeographical distribution. This Mediterranean endemic is present in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in 50 locations.<br/>In France and Greece, the presence of the species is controversial and more information is needed. Confirmation of the presence in other Balkan countries is needed as well.	eng
164463	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that inhabits swamps, streams and lakes. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).	eng
164463	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species has a limited distribution in the Mediterranean region. In North Africa (15 locations) it is fairly uncommon in Morocco and Tunisia but well represented in Algeria. The populations appear to be in slow decline, especially in the Maghreb. It is considered as very rare in Morocco, occurring in only six locations (Jbel Tissouka, Issaguène plain and the Atlantic plains between Rabat and Casablanca); quite common in Algeria, found in Numidie, Petite and Grande Kabylie and the Oranais Tellien Atlas; rare in Tunisia, occurring in only two locations distributed between the Tunisian Dorsal (Garaet des Ouled Rhezam) and Kroumirie (Aïn Draham), Mogods (Sejenane). <br/>In Spain, the species is found in 24 sites in the west of the country; in France, it is present in only one department (Aude) in the south of the country; present in Italy in Tuscany, Lazio, and also in Sardinia and Sicily, but Extinct in Campania (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/>In Greece, there is insufficient information about the status and presence of this taxon available.	eng
164463	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of the habitat of this species are its main threats.	eng
164464	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	No specific measures are in place. It is recommended to study the taxonomy of the species and its subspecies (cf. the note of Pignatti 1982: "<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha viridis</span> auct., wrong expression, as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. longifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. sylvestris</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">M. niliaca</span>").	eng
164464	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha spicata</em> is a a species of Mediterranean origin, that is present at the Canary Islands, Azores, Portugal, Spain and the Balearic Islands, France and Corsica (only two locations), Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt, Libya (possibly present), Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia it is cultivated to subspontaneous or escaped.<br/>In Egypt, there seems to be taxonomic confusion regarding <em>M. longifolia</em> being a synonym of <em>M. spicata</em> L. var. <em>longifolia</em> (Pignatti 1982).<br/>It is difficult to determine where the species is native and where it has been introduced.	eng
164464	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>M. spicata</em> is a perennial Hemicryptophyte that is found in banks of rivers, rubble and meadows. It is mostly cultivated or escaped from ornamental gardens.	eng
164464	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha spicata</em> is scattered especially in the western Mediterranean region.	eng
164464	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164465	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>In France, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> is protected at the national level (Annex 1). In Italy, <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> alisma</span> was reported as Vulnerable in Tuscany, Extinct in the Wild in Umbria, of lower risk in Latium, and Critically Endangered in Puglia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997)<br/>Further proposed conservation measures are legal protection of the species in Portugal and Italy, monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities, evaluation of population size, monitoring of population dynamics. Especially an analysis of the past and present distribution of the species is required in light of the ongoing taxonomic confusion. Furthermore, ecological studies to define the necessary habitat conditions for this species are needed.	eng
164465	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span> sensu stricto was clearly identified from England, France, Italy, Portugal, Sicily, Russia and Ukraine (Rich and Nichols-Vuille 2001). Its distribution area is highly disjunct between eastern localities (Russia, Ukraine) and western ones. Confirmed locations in the Mediterranean are in northwestern, central and eastern France; western coast of Italy and Sicily (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005); and the western coast of Portugal.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>The majority of records were from France. <br/><br/>In addition, further records for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium aggregate</span> (species unclear) were traced for Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, India, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Malta, Malta-Gozo, Palestine, Sardinia, Spain and Turkey. Further investigations are needed in order to verify its presence in the eastern Mediterranean. It is the most widespread of the three European species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span>.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
164465	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> is an annual, or occasionally perennial, herbaceous amphibious Helophyte occurring in muddy or gravel margins of shallow ponds and lakes with seasonally fluctuating water levels.	eng
164465	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Throughout its range confusion between the three <span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium</span> species complicates identification and it is therefore difficult to determine the population sizes. The species is very rare in the Iberian Peninsula, with only one recognized collection in Montemor-o-Velho (Beira Litoral, Portugal) where the species co-exists with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. bourgaei</span> (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep.).<br/>The habitats of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. alisma</span>, especially temporary wetlands, are declining and a population decline is therefore likely.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
164465	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Damasonium alisma</span> is declining over its entire distribution area due to habitat destruction and degradation, pollution and alien weed competition (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Myriophyllum aquaticum</span> in Portugal and western France). Changing of water levels, such as changing temporary waters to permanent ones for the creation of reservoirs or the abstraction of water for agricultural purposes, is the main threat to this species.	eng
164466	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place but the following are being proposed for the future:<br/>- Legal protection of the species around the Mediterranean basin<br/>- Monitoring of existent populations and search of new localities<br/>- Evaluation of populations size<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164466	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is a western Mediterranean species that occurs in Algeria, Italy and Sicily, France, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, and Tunisia.	eng
164466	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is a facultative annual herbaceous plant growing in wet clayey fields, on wadi riverbanks and in temporary pools.	eng
164466	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cullen americanum</em> is very rare in Algeria and only found at the river banks of Cheliff (Oran region). In Morocco, it is found at the Atlantic coast, Loukkos, Gharb, central Rif, Zerhoun. The species is rare in Tunisia, where it is present in the northeast (Utique, Tébourba, Moghrane), Cap Bon (El Haouaria, Menzel Bouzelfa, Soliman), and central Tunisia (Kairouan, sidi El Hani). <br/>It is found in southern Italy (Apulia) and Sicily, and around Lisbon in Portugal. In Spain, it is present in the provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Ciudad Real, Badajoz, and Alava. In France, it is only present in the departement Gironde.	eng
164466	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The major threats to this species include agricultural and infrastructure development and agricultural water pollution. The main habitats for this species (temporary wet habitats) have been seriously degraded and destroyed in many parts of its range.	eng
164467	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North eastern Africa, the species requires careful management and the allocation of protected areas. Research on population numbers and range is needed. There are no conservation measures in place in Northern Africa. Research on habitats,  taxonomy, populations and locations should be encouraged.	eng
164467	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. trisulca</span> is classed as Critically Endangered in the Spanish Red List (Moreno 2008). There monitoring of populations and existing sites, search for new localities,&#160; and biological and ecological studies are recommended. <br/></p><p>There are no further conservation measures in place. For North Africa it is necessary to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, locations, etc.</p>	eng
164467	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is a cosmopolitan species that occurs in most of Europe except for some of the Mediterranean islands.<br/>In North Africa, the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria and is rare in both countries. It is also found in Turkey, Israel, Palestine and Jordan.	eng
164467	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is present in tropical Africa, mainly in northern temperate zones. In Northern Africa, the species occurs in Morocco and Algeria and is rare in both countries. In North eastern Africa it can be found in Ethiopia. It has also been recorded from South Rift Valley in Amboseli National Park, Central Rift Valley in Lake Naivasha and Central Kenya in Machakos District. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Arusha district, Lake Duluti, Lushoto district and Pangani river.	eng
164467	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is an aquatic plant that prefers running waters, ditches, ponds, freshwater springs, lakes of plains and mountains.	eng
164467	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a species of still or slow-flowing water, found in ponds, lakes of plains and mountains, ditches, freshwater springs, canals and in the back water of rivers. It prefers clear mesotrophic water and extends into eutrophic water and may be found in brackish ditches. <em>L. trsulca</em> dominates where nutrients levels are low.	eng
164467	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is very scattered in North Africa and very rare. In Morocco, it is present in one locality in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos) and in five localities in the middle Atlas: Lac Ouiouane; Aguelmame Ifounassine; dayet Hachlaf; Aïn El-Rhass; Aïn Kahla (Maire 1957). It is very rare in Algeria where it is found in two localities: One in El Kala (Lake Tonga) where the plant has not been seen again, and one in the small lakes of the djebel Ouahch (near Constantine). Rare in North eastern Africa.	eng
164467	population	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	On the scale of the Mediterranean region, it is common, except for the islands. <br/><em>Lemna trisulca</em> is very scattered in North Africa and very rare with population in slow regression. In Morocco, it is present in one locality in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos) that is threatened and in five localities in the middle Atlas (Lac Ouiouane; Aguelmame Ifounassine; dayet Hachlaf; Aïn El-Rhass; Aïn Kahla) that are not threatened (Maire 1957). <br/>It is very rare in Algeria and found in two localities: one in El Kala (Lake Tonga) where the plant has not been seen again, and one in the small lakes of the djebel Ouahch (near Constantine).<br/>It is common in Italy and France but rare in Sicily, Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula. In the latter it is only found at about five sites now and some of the older records from the 19th and 20th centuries have not been found again, for example, in Cataluña, Valencia, Castilla, and Cádiz.	eng
164467	threats	de Bélair, G. & Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Lemna trisulca</em> is facing threats in North Africa, the Mediterranean islands, the Iberian Peninsula but not in other parts of mainland Europe.<br/>In Morocco, the mountain localities are not threatened, but the site in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos), is threatened by drainage, in-filling and agriculture pressure. The two Algerian sites are under high pressure from organic pollution, eutrophication and tourism development and activities. In the Iberian Peninsula, the main threats are   water eutrophication and the modification of its habitats due to agricultural activities.	eng
164467	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North eastern Africa, natural disasters such as drought and changes in native species dynamics, that will increase competition, could threaten this species. <em>Lemna trisulca</em> is facing threats in North Africa. In Morocco, the mountain localities are not threatened, but one site in north Atlantic Morocco (marsh of Bas Loukkos), is threatened by drainage, in-filling and agriculture pressure. The two Algerian sites are under high pressure from organic pollution, eutrophication and touristic development and activities.	eng
164468	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No specific measures are in place or needed. The species occurs in many protected areas across its wide range.	eng
164468	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Glyceria notata</em> is a subcosmopolitan species with large biogeographical distribution that includes Europe, Asia, North Africa and America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It occurs in numerous locations (>150) and its AOO >2,000 km². <br/>In North Africa it is very common in Morocco (Rif, Middle Atlas, High Atlas, Anti Atlas, Mediterranean coastline, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco plains and the oriental Morocco plains), Algeria (Numidie, Petite and Grande Kabylie, Tell region, Algérois Saharan Atlas) and Tunisia (Kroumirie, the Mogods and the Tunisian Dorsal).	eng
164468	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial Hydrophyte (Geophyte) that is found in swamps, streams, lakes and temporary pools of plains and mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-May).	eng
164468	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable.	eng
164468	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, agricultural usage and urbanization of this species’ habitat are having an impact on some populations but are not considered to be major threats.	eng
164469	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To stop the encroachment of agriculture at the site of Maaziz and to monitor the population dynamics <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate its population size <br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising awareness of the public <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco)<br/>-   <em>Ex situ</em> conservation	eng
164469	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2008	It is a strict endemic to Morocco, very rare and known only from four localities (Massif of the Mtourzgane-Akzou in Oulmès, Aguelmouss, north of Maaziz and to the southwest of Tetouan). The extent of occurrence is about 3,000 km² within which the occupied area does not exceed 15 km².	eng
164469	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2008	<em>Callitriche mathezii</em> is found in pools, flooded places and streams with slow flow. It is an annual Hydrophyte that blooms in winter-spring under the Mediterranean mild semi-arid or sub humid bioclimate.	eng
164469	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2008	The size of the populations is not known. However, the global trend since 1990 is a decline of the populations because the site of Maaziz is frequently cultivated. The other sites are grazed but their localization in a forested environment preserves them from being destroyed.	eng
164469	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2008	The anthropogenic pressures differ according to the sites and include drainage, agriculture, grazing, and water pollution. However, the total or partial destruction of the sites due to agriculture remains the main threat to this species' habitat.	eng
164470	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164470	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Salix atrocinerea</em> is a western European species extending northwards to the British Isles. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 300,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164470	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that inhabits the edges of rivers of low and medium mountains. Flowering occurs during spring (March-April).	eng
164470	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Mediterranean region (several locations) as well as in North Africa (numerous locations). The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: apparently fairly common, occurring in the High Atlas, Middle Atlas, northern and mid-Atlantic Morocco and in the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: rare, occurs between the Bougie region and the Tunisian border; <br/>- Tunisia: fairly rare, found in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Aïn Kerma-Sefra, near Ghadimaou and El Fedja), Cap Bon and in the Tunisian Dorsal (Oued Thibar); <br/>- Portugal: present in nine provinces; <br/>- Spain: fairly common, occurring in 47 provinces; <br/>- France: fairly common along the Mediterranean coast and Corsica;<br/>- Italy: found in Sardinia and Tuscany only.	eng
164470	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The increase in urbanization and drought frequency are the main threats to this species.	eng
164471	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164471	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus ficaria</em> is a Eurasian species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean basin, Europe and western Asia. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin it is present in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 40,000 km² and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164471	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that prefers swampy prairies, mountains, wetlands and cool forests of plains. Flowering occurs during spring and autumn.	eng
164471	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: common, occurring in more than 12 locations distributed between the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: frequent in coastal areas except for the Oranais region; <br/>- Tunisia: common, occurring in more than 10 locations distributed between the Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Aïn Soltane), the Mogods (Sedjenane), the Tunisian Dorsal (Jbel Zit and between Maktar and Sers,Jbel Serdj), Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban) and northeastern Tunisia (Belvédère); <br/>- Libya: found near Benghazi and in Dernah; <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 217 sites; <br/>- France: very common in all of the country; <br/>- Italy: very common in all of the country including Sicily and Sardinia.	eng
164471	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The main threats to this species are the drainage and agricultural usage of its habitat but this does not lead to a population decline at the moment.	eng
164472	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	More research on this species is needed. Education on conservation of <em>A. crassipes</em> and implementation of legislation on a national and international level is required to ensure this species remains unthreatened.	eng
164472	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that is found in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, south Italy (Pontin marshes only), Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt.<br/>The extent of occurrence does not exceed 20,000 km² and the area of occupancy is smaller than 2,000 km² and may well be smaller than 500 km². Hence, although the extent of occurrence is large, the occupied area is generally very small.	eng
164472	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is a Helophyte perennial species. It grows to between 10 and 40 cm in height and is found in marshes, small streams, wet meadows and pools in Corsica, Egypt and Algeria. In Italy, this species is found in stagnant waters and it also grows from 0 to 300 m away from siliceous plains in Tunisia. Its flowering season is generally between May and June in Algeria and Tunisia, and between April and July in Corsica and Italy.	eng
164472	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The populations of this species are unequally distributed across the Mediterranean Region. <em>Apium crassipes</em> is common in Sardinia and Tunisia (at least six localities), rather rare in Corsica (although found in more than 20 localities), rare in Italy (one site) and Sicily (one to two sites), and very rare in Algeria where it is found in Numidia, Petite Kabylie and one locality near Algiers. It also grows in one locality near Alexandria in Egypt although records from this country are considered dubious.	eng
164472	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Apium crassipes</em> is threatened along the coastline of the Mediterranean region due to agricultural developments. Another major threat to the species' survival in Italy has arisen due to draining of the Pontin marshes, which are home to the only known population of <em>A. crassipes</em> in mainland Italy.	eng
164474	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is under regional protection in Languedoc-Roussillon (France) but no other conservation measures are in place. It is proposed to monitor the existing sites and search for new ones.	eng
164474	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Lythrum borysthenicum</em> is a sub-Mediterranean species. <br/>It is widespread and present in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In North Africa, its habitat is fragile and threatened in the short-term.	eng
164474	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This annual amphibious plant (Therophyte) prefers temporary pools of siliceous substratum such as sandstone, granite, quartzite, shale, and basalt, that are flooded in winter and dry in summer, to oligotrophic water. It is present along the edges of swamps and ponds, or shallow and slow flowing streams. Flowering occurs between April and July.	eng
164474	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is widespread in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations.<br/>This species is well represented in Morocco, it has been reported on the north Atlantic plains (Tiflet, Mamora, Benslimane, Casablanca, Gharb, Loukkos, etc.), the central plains of the Haouz region and in the mountainous regions of the Middle and High Atlas, Rif and Tangier. The populations are stable but the increasing threats on the habitat can generate a regression on the populations in the short or middle term.<br/>It is rare in Algeria in the Tell region and very rare in Tiaret and Ksila; rare in Tunisia, occurring in Kroumirie (Madjen el Ma) and in the Mogods (Sedjnane, Madjen Choucha and Getma); recently found in 15 ponds in the Mogods.<br/><br/>In Spain, it is frequent in the western half up to Gerona and Valencia, excluding a big part of Galicia and Asturias. It is found in all of Portugal except for the north. In the Iberian Peninsula, it could be extensively distributed as it easily colonizes new, artificial, habitats. It is very rare in France in the Languedoc-Roussillon, where numerous populations having already disappeared (Petite Camargue, Costière nîmoise, Grammont, Agde, Lamoure and Saint-Estève pool), while others are stable (Fenouillèdes, Vendres plains and Torremila). It is more abundant but localized in Provence-Alps-Côte d'Azur (Var), and quite frequent in the Corsican ponds. In Italy, it occurs in Tuscany, Lazio, Sardinia and Sicily.	eng
164474	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage, infilling, agricultural practices, urbanization, overgrazing, water pollution and the use of the dried pools as parking lots are the main threats to this species and its habitat.	eng
164475	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Italy, according to Conti et al. (1997) it is considered as Critically Endangered in Marche and of Lower Risk in Abruzzo.<br/>No other conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, and to monitor the populations' dynamics.	eng
164475	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex lepidocarpa</em> is a Euro-American species. Its distribution covers Europe, eastern North America and Morocco. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia, Greece, Bulgaria and Morocco with a doubtful presence in Albania. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 5,000,000 km², with several location.	eng
164475	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and the edges of springs and streams, with a preference for chalky soils. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July). In the southern parts of its distribution area, it was only found at high altitude at alpine springs and rivulets.	eng
164475	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring at several locations. <br/>It is rare in Morocco, occurring in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy road near Oued Zad) and the Rif (Issaguène, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine).<br/>It is present in Croatia (one population) where it is classified as Endangered on the national Red List; Montenegro; in one province of Portugal; in Spain it is present in 220 sites; fairly common in France.<br/>In Italy, it has been reported for the northern parts and for Marche and Abruzzo (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In these two regions, it was found in a few localities: Monti della Laga (Marche), Majella, Gran Sasso (Abruzzo).	eng
164475	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of its habitat is the main threat to this species.	eng
164477	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is included in the French red data book part I. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Natural Reserve of Bouche de Bonifacio on Lavezzi, by the guards of the Reserve des Finochiarola for the population located in Centuri and by the Botanical conservatory of Corsica for both Mezzumare and Isula Piana. The dynamics of different populations have been studied.<br/>Further research on its biology, resilience, and conservation is needed. Seeds should also be collected for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164477	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Nananthea perpusilla</em> is an endemic species from Corsica and Sardinia with steno-Mediterranean origins. It is a common species where it occurs in the central mountains of Corsica and a bit rarer in the other part of the island. Its extent of occurrence has not been quantified. The occupied area is lower than 500 km².	eng
164477	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	The species is found in granitic sandy depressions from 5 to 25 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte is also a Therophyte that grows on granite in littoral and thermo-Mediterraneen stages.<br/>At the moment, there is a lack of information about the germination, growing and flowering conditions and more research needs to be done in the future.	eng
164477	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Nananthea perpusilla</em> is only present at four locations in Corsica (Lavezzi, Centuri, Isula Piana and Mezzumare).<br/>It has last been observed at the site of Lavezzi in 2007. In Sardinia, it occurs in at least four or five sites.<br/>The populations don't seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions but the overall trend is declining.	eng
164477	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The populations seem to be threatened by the nitrification of their habitat due to sea bird occupation. Tourism doesn't seem to affect the Lavezzi, Mezzumare and Isula Piana locations, but seems to have an effect on the population of Centuri Island. In Sardinia, it occurs within a national park, but nevertheless it is threatened by the construction of a campsite at one of the sites.	eng
164478	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164478	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em> is a very widespread species in tropical Africa and America. It was introduced elsewhere where it occurs. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt, in the southern part of the Nile. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it has an AOO >2,000 km².	eng
164478	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in pastures with seasonal flooding, swamps and along the edges of channels and lakes. Flowering occurs from spring until autumn.	eng
164478	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The populations are abundant and quite stable.	eng
164478	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The intensification of agriculture along the banks of the Nile could threaten the species in the medium-term.	eng
164479	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites. <br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164479	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164479	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in the moderate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from numerous localities<br/><br/>In Africa, it is present in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya.	eng
164479	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a cosmopolitan species that is found in the moderate and tropical regions of nearly the whole globe. In the Mediterranean region, it is known from numerous localities in Albania, Spain, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, Malta, Turkey, Lebanon, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and an uncertain presence in Crete and European Turkey.	eng
164479	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a perennial Hydrophyte that is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, springs and marshlands. It colonizes equally eutrophic and oligotrophic waters. Its flowering period occurs between May and September. It is an oxygenating plant that forms very important herbaria for the development of the aquatic fauna and it is often used for construction on artificial ponds.	eng
164479	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Potamogeton natans</em> is a vivacious Hydrophyte that is found in rivers, lakes, ponds, springs and marshlands. It colonizes equally eutrophic and oligotrophic waters. Its flowering period occurs between May and September. It is an oxygenating plant that forms very important herbaria for the development of the aquatic fauna and it is often used for construction on artificial ponds.	eng
164479	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The populations appear to be stable.	eng
164479	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage, agricultural water pollution (eutrophication) and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164479	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164480	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no existing or recommended conservation measures.	eng
164480	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Alternanethera sessilis</em> grows in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. <br/>It is native to Egypt where it grows as a ruderal on the banks of the Nile, in oases in the desert, or next to the Mediterranean coast. It is also present in two locations in Tunisia (Sedjnane and Cap Serat in the Mogods) and seven in Algeria. However, the total area occupied by this species in the Maghreb does not exceed 100 ha.<br/><br/>The species has also been naturalised in northern and eastern parts of Spain.	eng
164480	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Alternanthera sessilis</em> is an annual or short-lived perennial herb. It is a ruderal species that grows in wet ground and is often found growing near canal or river banks in Egypt. In the northwest of Africa, this species grows on the edge of lakes and amongst siliceous rocks in well watered plains.	eng
164480	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In Tunisia and Algeria, this species is rare. In Egypt, the plant is relatively abundant next to rivers running through humid areas, where it grows in small populations.	eng
164480	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	Development of land to agricultural use in humid regions is a possible future threat to the species in its native environment.	eng
164481	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
164481	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Wetlands protection and conservation is generally recommended.	eng
164481	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Almost ubiquitous in the northern hemisphere; frequent in northern and southern Africa but rare in the tropics.<br/><br/>In Western Africa there is a poor occurrence of the species. Recorded only from Cameroon In North Africa it is introduced in Egypt, but native in Lybia, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. Also recorded from North Eastern Africa in Sudan (Widespread - Lake Nubia - Darfur, Jebel Murra), Ethiopia, and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, it is found in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
164481	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>Myriophyllum spicatum</em> is very widespread all over the world. It is cosmopolitan and found in the Mediterranean region, Europe, Asia, South Africa, North and South America. It is generally native to the Old World and introduced in the New World. In North Africa it is introduced in Egypt, but native in Libya, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It is native to all of Mediterranean Europe and the East Mediterranean.	eng
164481	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>M. spicatum</em> occurs in lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches. It prefers alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphat and organic matter contents.	eng
164481	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This Perennial Hydrophyte occurs submerged in permanent still and flowing water and even found in brackish conditions. <em>M. spicatum</em> occurs in lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches. It prefers alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphat and organic matter contents.<br/><br/>North-eastern Africa: Lakes, rivers, streams, canal, ditches. M. spicatum occurs in alkaline (hard water) water systems with high dissolved inorganic carbon, nitrate, nitrite, and pH and in hydrosoil with high phosphatse and organic matter contents.	eng
164481	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is a very common invasive aquatic macrophyte.	eng
164481	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is a very common invasive aquatic macrophyte.	eng
164481	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164481	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164482	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to study the inventory of the species' habitats, taxonomy, populations and locations.	eng
164482	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164482	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is a Paleotropical species occuring in Egypt (Nile region, oases of the western Desert, Mediterranean coastal strip), Sudan, Tanzania, India, Tropical Asia, China, northern Australia, western Asia, and North America. In Europe it is only found in Italy where it is rare and introduced.	eng
164482	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been considered as naturalized in Egypt, Sudan and Tanzania according to the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.<br/><br/>However, it has aldo been considered a Paleotropical species native to Africa, India, Tropical Asia, China, northern Australia, western Asia, and North America. In Europe it is only found in Italy where it is considered rare and introduced.<br/><br/>In Africa the species has been recorded from Central Sudan, Tanzania (Masai district Manyara Ranch Farm dam and Mbulu district Tarangire), Egypt (Nile region, oases of the western Desert, Mediterranean coastal strip).	eng
164482	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is an annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plant that grows at irrigation canals, pools, rice fields, often choking water courses up to 2 m wide (Täckholm and Drar 1941).	eng
164482	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is an annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plant that grows at irrigation canals, pools, rice fields, often choking water courses up to 2 m wide (Täckholm and Drar 1941).	eng
164482	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is abundant in Egypt (EOO >20,000 km² and AOO >2,000 km²) and rare in Italy (introduced to one location only).	eng
164482	population	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is abundant in Egypt (Extent of Occurrence >20,000 km² and Area of Occupancy >2,000 km²) and rare in Italy (introduced to one location only).	eng
164482	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is not threatened in Egypt.	eng
164482	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Ottelia alismoides</em> is not threatened in Egypt. It may be affected due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
164483	conservation	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eleocharis parvula</span> is classed as Endangered in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008). There are currently no other protection measures in place but the following measures are recommended for the future: legal protection (list of protected species), application of legal conservation measures, monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones, evaluation of the size of populations, study of the populations' dynamics, study of the biology and ecology of the species.<br/>Moreover, clarification of the identity of plants sold in horticulture and for the aquarium trade is needed.	eng
164483	distribution	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is distributed from central Fennoscandia southwards to Portugal, Croatia and southeastern Russia. It is very local over much of its range, notably in the Mediterranean countries. The species also occurs in America (Brazil, Canada, Nicaragua, United States, and Venezuela).<br/><br/>Its Mediterranean distribution includes Egypt (Damietta), Italy, Croatia, the northern Atlantic coast of Portugal, the Spanish Cantabrian and northern Atlantic coast and southern Pyrenees, and the Palestine region (Dead Sea). It is present in France, but not in the Mediterranean region. It has also been recorded from Greece, but there are doubts whether the species is native there.	eng
164483	habitat	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is a dwarf sward-forming perennial plant (2-5 cm) growing in salt marshes and brackish mud or sand along the sea coasts, rarely inland, and in salty lakes. In Egypt, it develops in rice fields.	eng
164483	population	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	<em>Eleocharis parvula</em> is indicated as very rare in Egypt, classified as Data Deficient in Croatia and Italy. In the latter, it is very rare with a very fragmented distribution in the northeast and in Sardinia. In Spain, there are six or more populations along the north coast and in the Pyrenees. About 50% of the Spanish populations have disappeared in the last 50 years. In Greece, it is very rare with only one record from Sterea Ellas.	eng
164483	threats	Limam-Ben Saad, S., Muller, S.D., Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., 2009	There is no data on threats available but it is suspected that the development of coastal infrastructure could pose a threat to the species.	eng
164484	conservation	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or in need for this species.	eng
164484	distribution	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ammannia baccifera</em> is a tropical species with a range that covers the tropical parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Philippines, etc.), America and Africa (Madagascar, Egypt, etc.).<br/>In the Mediterranean region it is present in Egypt and reaches its northwestern distribution limit in Turkey, Israel, and Palestine. It has naturalized in Spain.	eng
164484	habitat	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in swampy areas, rice paddies and water courses of low elevation. Flowering occurs between the end of spring and the beginning of autumn (May to October). It is considered a weed in rice fields where it is harmful during the drawdown phase.	eng
164484	population	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is present in several locations in the Mediterranean region and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In Egypt, it is found in at least 13 locations distributed between the Nile delta, the Mediterranean coastal strip, the oases of the western Desert and the Sinai Peninsula; it is adventitious in two provinces in the east of Spain (Cataluña and Valencia); <br/>In Israel, the species is only found at six sites and has become extinct from at least four sites and two large districts. In the 1940s, it was quite common in many of the swamps around Lake Hula until this wetland was drained in the 1960s and many populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Amannia baccifera</span> became extinct. The situation in the coastal plain wetlands was similar and the species survives in only one site there. It is listed as Endangered in the Red Data Book of Israel   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).	eng
164484	threats	Rhazi, L.,Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Except for the use of herbicides, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
164487	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	None	eng
164487	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	This species is widespread weed of the tropics and subtropics.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is widespread in Western and Eastern Africa and present in Central Africa, Algeria, Morocco, Chad, Sudan, Egypt (Aswan and Egyptian Nubia). It is considered as an introduced species in southern Africa (Pope 1992 in Flora Zambesiaca Vol. 6 part 1).	eng
164487	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Rivers and damp wet banks after waters retreat. Also in ditches, and rice fields. Is probably a weedy species occurring where there are anthropogenic activities.	eng
164487	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Good occurrence of species population throught Africa.	eng
164487	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
164488	conservation	de Bélair, G., Diadema, K. & Hugot, L., 2009	In France, at one location the habitats and species are monitored and one site is under protection. The subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is protected in France and the species is included in the Red List of France.<br/>In other parts of its range, there are currently no conservation measures in place. For the future the study of the inventory of the habitats of this species, taxonomy, populations, locations, is suggested.	eng
164488	distribution	de Bélair, G., Diadema, K. & Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Leucojum aestivum</em> is widespread in Europe extending from Ireland, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia, southwards to Sardinia, the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey and Crimea. This species is also present in the Mediterranean part of France (Var and Maritime Alps) and Corsica (where it is very rare). It does not occur in North Africa or the Levant.<br/>The subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is found on the Balearic Islands, Corsica (one location) and Sardinia.	eng
164488	habitat	de Bélair, G., Diadema, K. & Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Leucojum aestivum</em> is a perennial species and a Geophyte with a large bulb. The species is found in formations of <em>Carex riparia</em>, mostly characteristic of larger valleys and southern regions, intolerant to dessication. It prefers wet meadows and marshy alder carrs of plains. <em>L. aestivum</em> grows on mineral or thin peaty substrates, often in areas almost permanently inundated by somewhat lime-rich water (Corine biotopes 53.213 : greater pond sedge beds).<br/><br/>This plant is widely cultivated for ornamental purposes and naturalized both within and outside its native range.<br/>Flowering takes place between February and April.	eng
164488	population	de Bélair, G., Diadema, K. & Hugot, L., 2009	The populations of <em>Leucojum aestivum</em> are scattered among the named countries. There are probably more than 20 locations, with an Extent of Occurrence >20,000 km² whereas the Area of Occupancy is probably smaller than 2,000 km².<br/><br/>In France it occurs at Var (Toulon, Hyères, Porquerolles island, Ramatuelle, les Mayons-du-Luc, le Pradet, la Garde, Cogolin, la Garde-Freinet), Alpes-Maritimes (Grasse but naturalized) and Corsica with only two populations (Linguizzetta, around Aleria and Alistro). It is common in Montenegro and Croatia. In Spain, it is only in the Balearic islands. In Italy, the species is present in four regions in the north of Italy and the subspecies <em>pulchellum</em> is found in Sardinia.	eng
164488	threats	de Bélair, G., Diadema, K. & Hugot, L., 2009	Its habitats (alder carrs) are often deteriorating resulting from land and grazing abandonment and unfavourable land management.	eng
164489	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	It is unknown whether there are conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164489	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Clerodendrum acerbianum</em> grows in tropical regions. In the Mediterranean it is present in Egypt only, where it grows along the River Nile and in the Nile delta.	eng
164489	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This is a grey-pubescent perennial shrub (1-3 m) that grows on the banks of rivers and canals.	eng
164489	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	Populations of this species are only found in Egypt on the banks of the river Nile. The populations are abundant.	eng
164489	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no major threats to this species in Egypt, but the lack of suitable habitat in the Mediterranean region is a threat to the species' survival there.	eng
164490	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	It is not known whether there have been conservation measures in place.	eng
164490	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164490	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Laurembergia tetrandra</em> is a tropical species, originating from central Africa and South America. It occurs in Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Gabon, Mauritania, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, it is only present in Algeria, in the El Kala region at Lac Noir (Borj Ali Bey).	eng
164490	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in tropical Africa and the New World.<br/><br/>In western Africa it has been recorded from Senega, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria and Guinea. In Central Africa it ccurs in Angola, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo. Recorded from Algeria, in the El Kala region at Lac Noir (Borj Ali Bey), in Northern Africa. However, the species has become exctinct from this site.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, <em>T. tetranda brachypoda</em> has been found in Uganda: Masaka District at Sese Is.,  Mengo District at Entebbe. In Kenya in Trans-Nzoia District at Kitale, and in Tanzania.	eng
164490	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The habitat preferences of this herb are unknown.	eng
164490	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species grows in grassy edges of swamps, sandy lake margins, on mud by swamps in grassland areas, and pathsides. In Central Africa it prefers boggy and marshy grounds.	eng
164490	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species is extinct in Algeria since 1991.	eng
164490	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Wide occurrence of species in the world. Poor in West Africa, common in Eastern Africa and considered as extinct in Algeria.	eng
164490	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major widespread threats. However, the species may be potentially impacted by agricultural pollution, drought, habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries activities.	eng
164490	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	The only site known for this species has been destroyed in 1990-1991, due to water extraction for agriculture purposes. Once the lake was dry, two fires (at least one of them intentional) totally destroyed the ecosystem, including the seeds.	eng
164491	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Centre.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. The following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164491	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. The following actions are being proposed:<br/>- Conservation of the habitat and surveillance of the existing locations<br/>- Monitoring of population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures	eng
164491	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a western Mediterranean-Atlantic species.<br/><br/>In Africa, it is found in Tunisia (Kroumirie: four localities), in Algeria where it is rare (only Numidia and Kabylie: two localities), in Morocco at Tanger, Rif and Zaïan mountains (Maire 1957).	eng
164491	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a western Mediterranean-Atlantic species. It is a near-endemic to the Mediterranean assessment region (with the exception of populations in central France). It is distributed only in south-western Europe and northwest Africa. In Europe, the species is present in the western and central part of France, in Corsica where it is uncommon, in Italy, Sardinia, Sicily where it is rare, Portugal, and Spain. <br/>In North Africa, it is found in Tunisia (Kroumirie: four localities), in Algeria where it is rare (only Numidia and Kabylie: two localities), in Morocco at Tanger, Rif and Zaïan mountains (Maire 1957).<br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164491	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is a perennial species and Helophyte. It is found in temporarily or permanently flooded places such as marshes, ponds, small streams on acidic substrate, peat or sand.<br/>Flowering takes places in spring or summer according to latitude, altitude and hydroperiod.	eng
164491	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	In Italy and France, <em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> is rare, probably with scattered populations.<br/>In North Africa, the populations are numerous with about 20 locations, but probably with a small area of occupancy, like in Algeria (from 100 to 1,000 m²), and very scattered. The North African distribution range is very fragmented: one part includes western Tunisia and eastern Algeria, the other part includes the locations of Morocco.	eng
164491	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	In North Africa, the populations are numerous with about 20 locations, but probably with a small area of occupancy, like in Algeria (from 100 to 1,000 m²) and very scattered. Extent of occurrence is >20,000 km² but very taken apart: one part including western Tunisia and eastern Algeria, the other part including the locations of Morocco.	eng
164491	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus heterophyllus</em> and its habitat are severely threatened by the trampling of livestock and farming (ploughing), water-pumping, urbanization and various types of pollution.	eng
164492	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa but the following ones are recommended: <br/>- To confirm the presence of the species in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia <br/>- Habitat conservation and monitoring of the existing sites<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Investigation on the biology and ecology of the species and estimation of the populations 'size <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164492	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex illegitima</em> is a steno-Mediterranean plant. Its distribution is limited to the eastern Mediterranean countries of Croatia, Cyprus, Turkey, Greece, Sicily and Libya. <br/><br/>Except for Libya, where the species is known from three localities (Al Houssain river, Ras an-Hilal-Shahat, Akhadar mountain), the presence of this species, is uncertain for the North African countries of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Its extent of occurrence in North Africa is about 2,500 km². At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is of 700,000 km² but the occupied area is unknown.	eng
164492	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex illegitima</em> is a perennial plant (Geophyte with rhizome) that can be found along riversides.	eng
164492	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available on the size of the populations or on their present trends.	eng
164492	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Frequent droughts, urbanization and agricultural pollution are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
164493	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, and to estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics.	eng
164493	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Leptochloa panicea</em> is a species of the tropical regions. Its biogeographical distribution covers Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australia, North and South America. <br/><br/>In North Africa and the Mediterranean region it is only found in Egypt (Nile valley and delta), with an extent of occurrence over 2,000 km². It is often a bad weed of rice and sugar cane crops.	eng
164493	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in marshes, swamps, streams, rice fields and ditches. Flowering occurs during summer and autumn (July-October) and its seeds are dispersed by water and birds.	eng
164493	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is fairly common in Egypt (Nile valley and delta), with an AOO >2,000 km². The trend of the populations is not known.	eng
164493	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of this species’ habitat and the use of herbicides are its main threats.	eng
164495	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2009	In France, <em>R. lateriflorus</em> is nationally protected and classed as Vulnerable in the national Red List   (Olivier <em>et al.</em> 1995). The occurences at Roque-Haute are included in a Natural Reserve. <br/>In Italy, the species is included in the Red Book and classified as Vulnerable but no protective measure is put in place. In Israel, it will be included in the second volume of the National Red Data Book (A. Shmida pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place. It is proposed to monitor the existing localities and the population dynamics and to reduce habitat loss by applying legal conservation measures.	eng
164495	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is a temperate species. Its distribution covers the Mediterranean region; central and southern Europe; Russia, central and west Asia, northwest Africa.<br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Turkey, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Crete, Spain, Bulgaria, France, Israel and Palestine, Italy, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Lebanon and Syria, Morocco and Algeria. Its extent of occurrence surpasses 400,000 km² with numerous localities.	eng
164495	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte), that is restricted to temporary pools of plains and mountains, bogs, ditches and inundated prairies. Flowering occurs in spring (March-May). It is a species of oligotrophic pools that has its optimum on acidic mineral substrate.	eng
164495	population	Rhazi, L., 2009	<em>Ranunculus lateriflorus</em> is common in the Mediterranean region with more than 50 localities and the populations are stable overall. In North Africa, the species is rare with a very restricted distribution (because the area is limited) confined to mountainous regions and high plateaus. <br/>- Morocco: it is rare with six known localities (all in the mountains) spread between the High Atlas (Jbel Timinkar; Atoui; Oukeïmeden), the Middle Atlas (dayet-Ito; Mrirt) and the Rif (Bou Meziat)<br/>- Algeria: it is rare, present in pools of mountains and high plateaus. The number of localities is less than 10.<br/>- Italy: present in three provinces in addition to Sicily <br/>- France: very rare, it exists in three localities (Roque-Haute; Caux-Fontès-Pèzenas et Coiron). It disappeared from the Costière Nîmoise in the beginning of the years 1970. <br/>- Spain: common with 52 known localities essentially concentrated in the centre of the country <br/>- Israel: the Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands, part of the montane vegetation of Mt. Hermon, occuring at 14 sites but it is almost extinct in western Israel and is considered as threatened in Israel <br/>- Lebanon: rare, occurring in at least two localities (Jabal Aïn Tiné; Jabal Kneissé) <br/>- Syria: common (Homs; Khirbet-et-Tine; Dar es-Salam; North of Qneitra; Salkhad-Kafer; Qanaouat, etc.)<br/>- Turkey: common in the whole country	eng
164495	threats	Rhazi, L., 2009	Urbanization, drainage, infilling for agricultural use, overgrowing of the land by competitors, following an abandonment of the land constitute the main threats for the species and its habitat.	eng
164496	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is protected at regional level in France (Ile-de-France, Picardie, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Lorraine and Alsace).<br/>There are no further conservation measures in place, but it is proposed to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.	eng
164496	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is proposed to monitor the existing sites in North Africa.	eng
164496	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes Europe (western and central), North Africa, northeastern America and Macaronesia (Azores and Madeira). <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km², within which the Area of Occupancy (AOO) is below 50 km², and it is present in 12 locations.	eng
164496	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Potamogeton polygonifolius</em> is a paleotemperate species. Its world distribution includes Europe (western and central), North Africa, northeastern America and Macaronesia (Azores and Madeira). <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, and a questionable presence in Greece (Euro+Med Plantbase 2006-2009). Its extent of occurrence covers over 200,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164496	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rooted Hydrophyte), that inhabits stagnant waters (ponds, peaty pools, etc.) and weak water courses (streams, ditches, etc.) of siliceous substrate of plains and low and medium altitude mountains. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164496	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is present in 12 locations. The populations are fairly restricted (spatial limitations) and although threatened locally by habitat drainage, the trend is not known. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in the Rif (Tanger, Smir, Issaguen Plain, Tizi Ifri and Ketama) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Gharb swamp and between Lalla Mimouna and Larache); it is scarcely present in Algeria in Grande Kabylie (Akfadou) and in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); found in Tunisia in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka) and in the Mogods (Sejenane) from where it seems to have disappeared.	eng
164496	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region occurring in numerous locations and populations appear to be stable. <br/>In North Africa the species is present in 12 locations. The populations are fairly restricted (spatial limitations) and although threatened locally by habitat drainage, the trend is not known. It is very rare in Morocco, occurring in the Rif (Tanger, Smir, Issaguen Plain, Tizi Ifri and Ketama) and northern Atlantic Morocco (Gharb swamp and between Lalla Mimouna and Larache); it is scarcely present in Algeria in Grande Kabylie (Akfadou) and in Numidie (La Calle and Bône); found in Tunisia in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham and Tabarka) and in the Mogods (Sejenane) from where it seems to have disappeared.<br/>It is very common in Portugal and Spain, occurring in more than 108 sites located mainly in the north and the east of the peninsula; widespread in the centre, west and northeast of France; fairly common in Italy, occurring in 10 provinces in addition to Sicily; classed as Data Deficient in Croatia.	eng
164496	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage, infilling and agricultural usage are the main threats to this species.	eng
164497	conservation	Diadema, K., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Control of urbanization <br/>- Follow-up of the dynamics and the structure of the populations <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164497	distribution	Diadema, K., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Mediterranean: Algeria, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, and southern France. In Algeria the species is probably extinct since the only known sites are now within the suburbs of Algers and the habitat has been destroyed.<br/>In France, the species is found in Languedoc (Hérault).	eng
164497	habitat	Diadema, K., 2009	This species is found in formations of halonitrophilous annuals colonizing salty muds. It occurs in lagoons and river deltas.	eng
164497	population	Diadema, K., 2009	This species is found in only two populations in Mediterranean France at Vic-la-Gardiole and Perols (Hérault). In Spain, it is present at four sites in the southern provinces Alicante, Huelva, Jaén and Sevilla (Anthos 2009).<br/>In Morocco, it is relatively common and it occurs along the coast from the eastern border to the Rabat/Casablanca region. In Algeria, it may be extinct.	eng
164497	threats	Diadema, K., 2009	The species and its habitat are threatened by urbanization and filling in.	eng
164498	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Research on population numbers and range, as well as on biology, ecology and threats is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are in need.	eng
164498	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endemic to Algeria and Morocco where it is found in the Central Middle Atlas, Central Rif and Occidental Rif. <br/>The area of occupancy is probably below 2,000 km² and the number of locations is unknown.	eng
164498	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species occurs in marshes, in forests and moist degraded forests (matorrals). This is a perennial species (Geophyte).	eng
164498	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Quezel and Santa (1962-1963) report that this species is common in Algeria but has not been observed in the coastal and eastern part of recently. This species is very rare in Morocco, occurring at less than five sites.	eng
164498	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. Other threats are unknown.	eng
164500	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	In France the species is protected at regional level in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. There are no other conservation measures in place elsewhere but research on the population numbers is needed.	eng
164500	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Oenanthe crocata</em> is a sub-Atlantic species that is endemic to Morocco and western Europe, extending from the Mediterranean to Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the Mediterranean, it occurs in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, and Morocco.	eng
164500	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	It’s a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte). It prefers wet places such as rivers, streams, lakes and pools. Flowering is in spring.	eng
164500	population	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	This species is common in the Mediterranean. In North Africa it only occurs in Morocco in more than 10 localities distributed between the Middle Atlas, Rif Mountains, north Atlantic Morocco and middle Atlantic Morocco. The populations seem to be stable. In France it is present in Corsica but absent from the Mediterranean coastal strip (Tela Botanica 2000-2008). In Italy, it is found in Sardinia and Tuscany.	eng
164500	threats	Ali, M.M. & Rhazi, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164501	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics and control the urbanization of the coastline.	eng
164501	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Polypogon maritimus</em> is a species with a large biogeographical distribution that covers western and southern Europe, western and central Asia, northern Africa, the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Its extent of occurrence covers about 4,000,000 km², within which the AOO >500 km², and it is present in many locations. <br/><br/>In North Africa it is present in Morocco at Benslimane, Bouznika, Kenitra, Moulouya estuary, Sidi Amar, Marrakech, Ourzazate, Khenifra, Dayet Chiker. In Algeria, it is found in Numidie, Constantine, Tell region; and in Tunisia, in El Haouaria, Zembra, Utique, La Goulette, Sfax, Metlaoui, Zarzis, Zegzaou. It is present in Libya and Egypt, in the Nile region, Mediterranean coastal strip and the Sinai Peninsula.	eng
164501	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual herbaceous plant (Therophyte) that is found in inland and coastal saline wetlands (ditches and temporarily flooded depressions). Flowering takes place in the spring.	eng
164501	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is extensively distributed in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa, occurring in numerous locations. Populations appear to be stable. <br/>It is not very common in Montenegro and listed as Near Threatened in the Red Book of Croatia.	eng
164501	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The urbanization of the coastline, the development of road infrastructures and the expansion of agriculture are the main threats to this species’ habitat.	eng
164502	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To develop ecotourism in the mountains<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures in Morocco (Law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164502	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Myosotis atlantica</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is rare and its distribution is restricted to the mountains of the Atlas with five known localities: Oukaïmeden (31°13'N; 07°51'W), Ourika and Jbel Angour in the High Atlas, Itzer in the Moyen Atlas and Siroua in the Anti Atlas. The extent of occurrence is about 8,000 km².	eng
164502	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The species is found at the edges of streams, peat bogs (pozzines), wet prairies of flinty mountains and forests and humid rocks in mountains. It is a perennial species (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms from spring to summer (May-July) under the cold semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164502	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No data on the size or the present trends of the populations is available.	eng
164502	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The quality of its habitat is deteriorating resulting from increasing grazing pressure, cultivation of the flat lands, tourism development and outdoor activities the in mountains.	eng
164503	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Research on the species' taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are being carried out. More information on population numbers and range is needed. Furthermore, measures to maintain and conserve the habitat are needed.	eng
164503	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endemic to Algeria, and is found near Oran (Assi Ameur). It has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164503	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pulicaria filaginoides</span> occurs in flooded areas such as temporary pools.	eng
164503	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is very rare, found at one location only with an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
164503	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	In addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors, such as restricted range and limited dispersal, the species is threatened by natural disasters such as drought. Urbanization is also a major threat and this species might already have disappeared.	eng
164504	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164504	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex muricata</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America. <br/>In Africa it is found in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia with an extent of occurrence that surpasses 20,000 km², and numerous locations.	eng
164504	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex muricata</em> is a Eurasian species. Its world distribution covers Europe, western and boreal Asia, North Africa, Macaronesia and boreal America. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is very widespread, occurring in Portugal, Spain, Balearic Islands, France, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Crete, Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 4,500,000 km², with several locations.	eng
164504	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits forests and shady ravines as well as the edges of humid habitats. Flowering occurs between winter and summer.	eng
164504	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations appear to be stable. <br/>- Morocco: fairly frequent with eight locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Middle Sebou and the Zaïane country) and the Rif; <br/>- Algeria: very common in Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie (Babors and Djurjura), the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen Mounts) and the Saharan Atlas (Bskra); <br/>- Tunisia: common, with numerous locations in Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Jbel Abde Rahmane), Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.) and the Mogods (Majen Chitane); <br/>- Spain: very common, with 205 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common; <br/>- Italy: present in nine provinces.	eng
164504	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region and in North Africa. The populations appear to be stable. In Morocco it is fairly frequent with eight locations distributed between the Middle Atlas, northern Atlantic Morocco (Middle Sebou and the Zaïane country) and the Rif. Very commonalso in Algeria, in Petite Kabylie and Grande Kabylie (Babors and Djurjura), the Oranais Tellien Atlas (Tlemcen Mounts) and the Saharan Atlas (Bskra). InTunisia it is also common, with numerous locations in Cap Bon (Jbel Cheban and Jbel Abde Rahmane), Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka, Mouadjen, etc.) and the Mogods (Majen Chitane).	eng
164504	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164505	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Most populations occur in designated Ramsar sites but that does not necessarily prevent the species from damage.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164505	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Persicaria senegalensis</em> is described by Maire (1961) and Quezel and Santa (1962) as mainly distributed in Asia and Tropical Africa. <br/><br/>In Egypt, it is found in the Nile region including the Delta and the Mediterranean coastal strip (Boulos 1999). At the Maghreb, the authors note this species exlusively in Algeria, in Numidia (El Kala, lac Oubeïra). At the latter site it has been observed at Lake Oiseaux, Lake Bourdim, la garâa Chichaya, and Lake Tonga. It is furthermore present in Palestine and Israel.	eng
164505	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Persicaria senegalensis</em> prefers the subhumid Mediterranean bioclimate with mild and warm winters. It is found in freshwater lakes, rivers and canals. Its lower half survives fully submerged in water, the species blooms from April to November.  It seems to prefer clayey soils, but it is also present in environments more or less clayey based on sand dunes. This species is relatively tolerant to water pollution.	eng
164505	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>P. senegalensis</em> forms dense populations in Egypt, Israel and Algeria or individuals can appear more or less isolated. <br/>- In Egypt it is widespread and common with dense populations<br/>- In Algeria it has been recorded from two locations  in Numidia (Algeria) in the Wadi Messida which feeds Lake Tonga<br/>- In Israel it is present at 30 sites and it is locally dominant and the populations are stable	eng
164505	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	No major threats are known for the moment.<br/>A possible future threat for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. senegalensis</span> could be the modification of its ecosystem, the interference of agriculture near those wetlands or the trampling of the lake shores to get water.	eng
164507	conservation	Foden, W., 2010	No conservation measures in place.	eng
164507	distribution	Foden, W., 2010	Endemic to Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
164507	habitat	Foden, W., 2010	Essentially a plant of marshy depressions but frequently growing in standing water. Perennial herb	eng
164507	population	Foden, W., 2010	No information	eng
164507	threats	Foden, W., 2010	None known.	eng
164508	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	No specific measures are in place, it is present in many protected areas.	eng
164508	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific measures are in place, it is present in many protected areas.	eng
164508	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no conservation measures for <em>Ruppia maritima</em>. This species is listed as pest in some areas of its range.<br/><br/>The taxonomy of this species is confused and it is highly recommended that morphological and genetic studies be carried to determine the distribution limits of this species.	eng
164508	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is a circumglobal species, widespread in temperate and tropical regions.	eng
164508	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	In Europe <em>R. maritima</em> is found in coastal habitats and at scattered sites inland from Iceland to northern Scandinavia southwards. <br/>In North Africa, it dominates coastal shallow parts of Mediterranean lakes and lagoons in the northern parts of Africa, including Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. <br/>It is widespread in Asia, North America and Australia.	eng
164508	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	In Europe <em>R. maritima</em> is found in coastal habitats and at scattered sites inland from Iceland to northern Scandinavia southwards. It is widespread in Asia, North America and Australia.<br/><br/>In North Africa, it dominates coastal shallow parts of Mediterranean lakes and lagoons in the northern parts Africa: Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Present in Southern Africa where it has been recorded from South Africa, Namibia and Lesotho. Also recorded across the eastern coasts of Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djbouti.	eng
164508	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> has a wide salinity tolerance and occurs in fresh water, brackish water, marine environments and it can also be abundant in hypo- and hypersaline conditions. <em>Ruppia maritima</em> is known to survive in salinities ranging from 0 to 70 ppt (Kantrud 1991) but can be negatively impacted by repeated salinity changes (La Peyre and Rowe 2003). It can be found in canals, aquaculture ponds (traditional fish ponds), estuaries, tidal flats, and salt pans. It can even be found in coastal paddy fields (Burkhill 1936). In some cases, this species can become a pest by blocking aqua-ducts and canals. It only occurs in areas of low hydrodynamic regimes. This species can occur is a very wide variety of habitats (low-salinity ponds, coastal lagoons, mangroves, estuaries, marsh pools, tidal rivers, fishponds, mangrove salt marshes).<br/><br/><em>Ruppia maritima</em> is both and annual and perennial.	eng
164508	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is virtually confined to coastal brackish waters and to saline or alkaline sites inland, where salinity is relatively high.<br/><br/>Plants are self-pollinated by transfer of pollen within an inflorescence on the surface of air bubbles which develop when the anthers dehisce and which remain attached to the inflorescence for several hours.	eng
164508	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is virtually confined to coastal brackish waters and to saline or alkaline sites inland, where salinity is relatively high. Plants are self-pollinated by transfer of pollen within an inflorescence on the surface of air bubbles which develop when the anthers dehisce and which remain attached to the inflorescence for several hours.	eng
164508	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is extremely widespread although only locally abundant in some regions. For example, it forms massive seagrass beds in Argentina and Atlantic Chile. It is highly tolerant of disturbance, including eutrophication, turbidity, and high and low salinity. It is easily dispersed by waterfowl. It is sometimes present in high altitude lakes. Localized increases and decreases of this species have been observed, but overall global population trend is unknown, but is most likely stable.<br/><br/>Historically, this species was not recognized as a seagrass, but rather as a freshwater or brackish water plant.	eng
164508	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is common but declining in many places.	eng
164508	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is common but declining in many places.	eng
164508	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia maritima</em> is threatened locally by habitat loss from industrialization and agriculture. Coastal land reclamation is also a threat as this species grows in transitional environments between land and sea.<br/><br/>This species is grazed by geese, ducks and swans (waterfowl) throughout its range.	eng
164508	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The species is locally threatened by any kind of human development on coastlines.	eng
164508	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is locally threatened by any kind of human development on coastlines.	eng
164509	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place apart from some populations being included in a Ramsar site in Algeria.<br/><br/>In North Africa, more research on the species, its populations and habitat are needed as well as legal protection at national level.	eng
164509	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is a paleotemperate and subcosmopolitan species. It occurs in all of Europe, except for the extreme north, as well as in west Asia, northern and southern Africa, Macaronesia (Madeira, Azores), and America.<br/>In North Africa it is rare and has been found in Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Libya.	eng
164509	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This perennial Hemicryptophyte grows in ponds, marshes, wet and flooded places, riverine forests, marshy forests, small streams and spring seepages.	eng
164509	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is common in the north of the Mediterranean region, but rather rare and very scattered in North Africa, where it probably reaches the southern limit of its distribution: Tunisia (three locations), Algeria (Tell) , Morocco (two locations: Gharb, Mamora) and Libya.	eng
164509	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Mentha aquatica</em> is not threatened in the northern Mediterranean region, but probably in the south of the Mediterranean, particularly in North Africa due to the destruction and pollution of the wetlands.	eng
164510	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164510	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164510	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	A sub-cosmopolitan species distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Americas.<br/><br/>This plant is present in the major part of the afrotropical region, from Guinea and Mali to Gabon, then down to South Africa. It is also found in Egypt, where it is represented by the subsp. <em>auricomus</em> (Sieb. ex Spreng.) Kük. In the Nile delta, Nile Faiyum, on the Mediterranean coast, and in the Isthmic desert. In Eastern Africa it is known in Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania. In Malawi it is known from Lake Chilwa at Likangala River mouth and Tembwe-Namitete Road at Maloro River in Mchinji. Common and widespread in Kenya from 450-2,300 m above sea level.	eng
164510	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> is a sub-cosmopolitan species distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Americas. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it only occurs in Egypt, where it is represented by the subspecies <em>auricomus</em> (Sieb. ex Spreng.) Kük. In Egypt it is found in the Nile delta, Nile Faiyum, on the Mediterranean coast, and in the Isthmic desert.	eng
164510	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> grows in marshes, ditches, and moist places.	eng
164510	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial helophyte occurs in swamps, pools, depressions of freshwater, marshes, ditches, and moist places.  Also in or near water in swamps or seasonally flooded areas, and river banks. It flowers from September to March. It has a with short rhizome, 8 - 12 mm. Stem 50-160 cm high, 2-30 cm thick and 6-12 mm width.	eng
164510	population	Juffe, D., 2010	As herbaceous species, this plant is likely to have a locally important population. Common in the Nile delta and adjacent regions.	eng
164510	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Cyperus digitatus</em> is common in the Nile delta and adjacent regions.	eng
164510	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This species does not face major threats.	eng
164510	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species does not face major threats although agriculture, invasion of the water surface by alien species, water pollution by human activities, and habitat loss due to land reclamation might pose important threats.	eng
164512	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place in the Maghreb. The species is under regional protection in France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Pays-de-la-Loire). The proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, estimate the population size and monitor their dynamics, conservation of the species’ habitat (North Africa) and raise awareness amongst the public.	eng
164512	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Catabrosa aquatica</em> is a circumboreal species. Its world distribution covers the Euro-Siberian region, boreal America, the Mediterranean basin and the Irano-Touranian region. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Croatia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. Its extent of occurrence covers about 3,300,000 km², with numerous locations (>100).	eng
164512	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte that produces runners) that is found in marshes and streams. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (April-July). It is a good indicator of water quality.	eng
164512	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is very common in the Mediterranean region but Critically Endangered in Croatia   (Nikolić and Topić 2005) and Montenegro (one locality). It is quite rare in North Africa (southern limit of its range), occurring in only five locations. The populations in the Maghreb are very restricted and in slow decline. It is considered as very rare in Morocco, with only one location in the western Rif (Tangiers); very rare in Algeria, occurring in only two locations, namely in Petite Kabylie (Bougie) and Constantine; it is present in two locations in Libya near Matan Borgu.<br/>In Spain it is found in numerous sites (170) mainly in the north and centre of the country; in France: quite rare along the Mediterranean strip but fairly widespread in the north of the country; in Italy it is very common (present in nearly all of the country including Sardinia and Sicily).	eng
164512	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of the habitat of this species is its major threat.	eng
164513	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Found in some protected areas (e.g., Mare aux Hippopotamus in Burkina Faso; Keta and Songhor Ramsar sites in Ghana). No specific measures required.	eng
164513	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164513	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean, present in Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Albania, Greece, Crete, Croatia, Montenegro, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco.	eng
164513	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Tropical Africa, Madagascar and Mediterranean part of North Africa.<br/><br/>This is a widespread species in the Mediterranean.  In North Africa it has been recorded from Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. Also widespread in western and Eastern Africa Africa where it tends to be a lowland species, up to 200 m above sea level.	eng
164513	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	In Northern Africa the species is present on the Nile and canal banks. It colonises ruderal habitats, moist alluvial soils and maritime sands. Also around pools and in moist depressions.	eng
164513	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is present in ruderal habitats, moist alluvial soils, maritime sands, and on the Nile and canal banks.	eng
164513	population	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	It is very common in Northern Africa, sometimes grows as a weed in crops and in ruderal habitats. In Western Africa it is found in small localised colonies but is never abundant.	eng
164513	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	It is very common, sometimes grows as a weed in crops and in ruderal habitats.	eng
164513	threats	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Locally threatened by trampling by livestock and general pressures of human activities; but none of these are major threats.	eng
164513	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164514	conservation	Ali, M.M., Shmida, A., Pollak, G. & Fragman-Sapir, O., 2007	In Egypt, there is no natural habitat remaining for this species, so restoration of such habitat and reintroduction of the species would be beneficial. In agricultural land, appropriate management is needed so that remaining populations are not lost.<br/>In Israel, the species has been successfully re-introduced. It will be included in the second volume of the Red Data Book of Israel ((G. Pollak pers. comm.).	eng
164514	distribution	Ali, M.M., Shmida, A., Pollak, G. & Fragman-Sapir, O., 2007	<em>Nymphaea caerulea</em> has been present in Egypt since ancient time. It is native to Egypt and tropical Africa where it is widely cultivated.<br/>  In Israel, the plant is only found at two sites in the Akko plain and Sharon plain.	eng
164514	habitat	Ali, M.M., Shmida, A., Pollak, G. & Fragman-Sapir, O., 2007	In Egypt, there is no natural habitat remaining for this species, therefore it is found in ditches and and irrigation or drainage canals near rice fields. It is found in coastal wetlands in Israel.	eng
164514	population	Ali, M.M., Shmida, A., Pollak, G. & Fragman-Sapir, O., 2007	The species is not common in Egypt.<br/>The plant is found only in two natural sites in two districts (Akko plain and Sharon plain). In the past it was recorded in six more sites at the same districts, where it has gone extinct. In the Sharon plain, one population is still surviving at the Yarkon springs, which was reinforced by re-introduction from the Botanical Garden of Tel-Aviv University (the original plants came from the same site). The other site in the Akko plain, is located at the springs of Ein Afek, where it is native. A strong decline of that population was observed in the early nineties due to attacks of the snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis lampra</span> and by <span style="font-style: italic;">Myocastor coypus</span>. This population has recently recovered successfully by regrowth and protection by the staff of the Nature and Parks Authority. The plant was also introduced to another small spring in the Akko plain, where it was not found originally (G. Pollak pers. comm.).	eng
164514	threats	Ali, M.M., Shmida, A., Pollak, G. & Fragman-Sapir, O., 2007	Threats include agricultural practises (pollution and crop rotation between rice and dryland crops). The rhizome is edible and is sometimes harvested.<br/>In Israel, predation by snails reduced a population in the past. Nowadays, the main cause of the decline is the intensive water exploitation and the drainage of natural fresh-water bodies, the degradation of water quality and pollution (G. Pollak pers.comm.).	eng
164515	conservation	Hugot, L., 2009	This species is not legally protected but listed in the national Red Book, volume II. Surveillance of the existing sites is done by guards from the Regional Natural Park of Corsica, fishing organisations and the Botanical Conservatory of Corsica. Search for new sites is carried out. <br/><br/>For the future, it is recommended to analyse the dynamics of different populations, to increase knowledge about biology, resilience, and conservation of the species, and to collect seeds for <em>ex situ</em> conservation.	eng
164515	distribution	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Doronicum corsicum</em> is a strict endemic species from Corsica with European orophytic origins. It is a common species in the mountains of Corsica from north to south. Its extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 km² within which the occupied area is lower than 500 km².	eng
164515	habitat	Hugot, L., 2009	<p>The species is found on rocky stream edges and wet rocks (little springs) from 645 m to 1,750 m of altitude. This Hemicryptophyte grows on granite (granodiorite and monzogranite).<em></em></p>	eng
164515	population	Hugot, L., 2009	<em>Doronicum corsicum</em> is present at more than 55 sites in Corsica (58). At the site of Manganello, it has been last observed in 2006.<br/>The populations don't seem to be affected by the hydrologic conditions, but there is no global trend available.	eng
164515	threats	Hugot, L., 2009	The habitat is submitted to the increase of canoeing resulting in the construction of more passages and higher risk of deterioration. Awareness is starting with canoeing guide organisations and trout fishing organisations too.	eng
164516	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
164516	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	A subtropical species that is widespread in the Mediterranean region. It is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Albania, Greece, Crete, East Aegean Islands, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164516	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>C. aculeata</em> grows in damp, usually saline places, marshes and water courses that are dry in summmer. It is considered a weed in cultivated areas.	eng
164516	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean region.	eng
164516	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164517	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
164517	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. maritimus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found <em></em>in Europe, west Asia, Egypt, southern Africa, Atlantic islands, North America, Brazil, Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.<br/>In the Mediterranean it occurs in Albania, Spain, Balearic Islands, Bulgaria, France, Corsica, Greece, Crete, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, former Yugoslavia, Portugal, Turkey, Cyprus, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria.	eng
164517	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. maritimus</em> is a subcosmopolitan species that is found (var. <em>typicus</em>) in Europe, west Asia, Egypt, southern Africa, Atlantic islands, North America, Brazil, Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.<br/>In Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt.	eng
164517	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Juncus maritimus</em> is a short perennial Helophyte species. It is found in periodically or permanently wet brackish (sometimes freshwater) depressions, margins of watercourses, salt marshes (Maire 1957, Boulos 2005) in plains and mountains from sea level to 2,200 m.	eng
164517	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	In the Mediterranean Region, <em>J. maritimus</em> var. <em>typicus</em> is rather common in the west, the var. <em>arabicus</em> more common in the east.<br/><em>J. maritimus</em> var. <em>typicus</em> is common in the Mediterranean part of Europe: in Italy (including Sicily and Sardinia), France (including Corsica), Spain, etc.<br/>In North Africa: the var. <em>typicus</em> is common in all countries, the var. <em>arabicus</em> is rather rare from Libya to Morocco, including the Middle and West Sahara:<br/>- Tunisia: common as two subspecies;<br/>- Algeria: common except var. <em>arabicus</em> (only one location);<br/>- Morocco: Tangier, west Rif, Gharb, Tsoul, Imzorène, Mamora.	eng
164517	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	The var. <em>typicus</em> is common in all Northern African countries, the var. <em>arabicus</em> is rather rare from Libya to Morocco, including the Middle and West Sahara:<br/>- Tunisia: common as two subspecies;<br/>- Algeria: common except var. <em>arabicus</em> (only one location);<br/>- Morocco: Tangier, west Rif, Gharb, Tsoul, Imzorène, Mamora.	eng
164517	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	This species is not threatened and it is abundant and distributed in many parts of the world.	eng
164517	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	This species is not threatened, it is abundant and distributed in many parts of the world.	eng
164518	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of its populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco and Algeria)	eng
164518	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Lepidium violaceum</em> is endemic to Algeria and Morocco. In Morocco, it is known from three localities in the Moyen Atlas (Azrou, Mrirt, Dayet Ito) and two localities in the Gharb (Sidi Slimane, Moyen Sebou). The extent of occurrence in Morocco is about 4,300 km². In Algeria, the species is rare and is known in the Tell in the east of the country; it is not possible to map the species in this country because there are no point localities in the literature. The global extent of occurrence is about 170,000 km².<br/><br/>The area of occupancy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium violaceum</span> has not been quantified, but it is likely to be smaller than 500 km². There are more than five locations but probably fewer than 10.	eng
164518	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidium violaceum</span> is found in temporary pools and swampy depressions in the plains and low mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte to Chamaephyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164518	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known, but the global trend is a likely reduction because of the deterioration of some sites under the effect of agricultural intensification. The last observations date to 1984 for the sites of the Gharb.	eng
164518	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The main threat to this species is deterioration of the quality of its habitat due to water pollution, drainage, intensive grazing and the development for agriculture<em></em> (notably in the Gharb due to the cultivation of sugar beet).	eng
164519	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Reduce the agricultural exploitation of the riverbanks <br/>- Legal protection of the species (Moroccan List of Protected Species) <br/>- <em>Ex situ</em> conservation of the species in seed banks<br/>- Raise public awareness	eng
164519	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Plantago lacustris</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco. It is found at six sites, all situated in the Middle Atlas. Its extent of occurrence covers about 6,000 km² within which the area of occupancy is below 500 km².	eng
164519	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in wetlands of low and medium mountains (up to 1,900 m in altitude), specifically on the edges of lakes, in peaty meadows and on humid river banks. In the Mediterranean sub-humid to humid bioclimate, flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164519	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is rare in Morocco, occurring at only six sites in the mountains of the Middle Atlas (Kheneg Merzoul, humid banks of Guigou, Ouiouane lake, Azrou and Ras Elma). The populations are small and are in decline due to the recent agricultural usage of some riverbanks.	eng
164519	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Agriculture along the riverbanks is the main threat to this species' habitat.	eng
164520	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Syria, there are no conservation measures in place. The Azraq in Jordan is classified as a Ramsar site.<br/>The following actions are needed:<br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- Estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics <br/>- Legal protection of the species <br/>- Study the ecology of the species <br/>- Conservation of the species in seed banks	eng
164520	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Limonium palmyrense</em> is a steno-Mediterranean species. It is found in Syria and in Jordan. Its extent of occurrence covers about 15,000 km² and its area of occupancy is below 20 km².	eng
164520	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in oases and salt marshes. Flowering takes place in summer and autumn.	eng
164520	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species has a limited distribution, occurring in less than five locations: Palmyre salt marshes in Syria and the Azraq salt marshes in Jordan. The populations have a very restricted range and their trend is not known.	eng
164520	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The overexploitation of salt marshes and the artificialisation of the surrounding environment, as well as the overexploitation of the groundwater, especially in the Palmyre oasis in Syria, are the main threats to this species.	eng
164522	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	In Lebanon, the species is classified as threatened in the National Red List.<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164522	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is native to the Old World Tropics. In the Mediterranean it is found in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, West Bank, Libya, and Egypt.	eng
164522	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	<em>P. geminatum</em> is a perennial graminoid that forms dominate carpets along creek and river banks. It is an indicator for relatively good freshwater quality and is sensitive to water pollution. It can also occur in irrigation ditches and along canals.	eng
164522	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is common in North Africa; in Egypt it is common in the Nile region including delta, oases, Mediterranean coastal strip, and the desert east of the Nile. In Lebanon, the species is classified as threatened. It is also rare in the West Bank. In Israel, it is localized but dominant and relatively aggressive at the sites where it occurs.	eng
164522	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	The major threat to the species is droughts.	eng
164523	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The are not conservation measures in place or in need.	eng
164523	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The are not conservation measures needed or in place.	eng
164523	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Carex extensa</em> is present in Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Palestine, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164523	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Carex extensa</em> is widespread in the Meditarranean basin. In Africa, it is present in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.	eng
164523	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Its habitats are salt marshes including inland, sandy coastal wetlands.	eng
164523	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is fairly common in the region.	eng
164523	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is threatened mainly by infrastructure development in coastal areas.	eng
164524	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to monitor the existing sites and the population dynamics.	eng
164524	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Phragmites mauritianus</em> is a plant of tropical Africa and Madagascar. Its northern biogeographical limit reaches Ethiopia, Sudan and Zaire. <br/>In the Mediterranean region the species is only found in Egypt (along the Nile valley), occurring in more than 10 sites and it has a large area of occupancy exceeding 1,000 km².	eng
164524	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (rhizomatous Geophyte) that is found in rivers, lakes, dams and swamps. This plant needs to be partially submerged to be able to grow. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164524	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is found in more than 10 sites and populations are sometimes abundant. The trend of the populations is not known.	eng
164524	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The agriculture along the banks of the Nile is the main threat to this species.	eng
164525	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In Israel, the species is classed as Endangered in the Red Data Book   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).<br/>There are no other conservation measures in place. <br/>Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites, estimate the size of the populations and monitor their dynamics, conservation of the species’ habitat and conservation of the species in gene banks.	eng
164525	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Persicaria lanigera</em> is a species of tropical regions. <br/>In the Mediterranean region it is found in Israel, Jordan and Egypt, with a doubtful presence in Karpathos and Crete. Its extent of occurrence covers about 300,000 km² and it has an area of occupancy under 500 km².	eng
164525	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found on the edges of the rivers and lakes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-September).	eng
164525	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is threatened in the Mediterranean region. It is found in seven locations and its area of occupancy is very restricted. The trend of the populations is not known. <br/>It is present in Egypt in four locations distributed between the Nile and the oases of the western Desert. In Israel and Jordan, it is in three regions (Acco Plain, near Kfar Masarik and on the banks of River Na'aman), with a recent decline of about half of the AOO in Israel. There it is currently present in 11 sites   (Shmida and Pollak 2008).	eng
164525	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species’ habitat are its main threats.	eng
164526	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but some populations are included in the regional park of Corsica. It is furthermore proposed to conserve the habitat and carry out surveillance of the existing locations as well as to study the locations, populations, and taxonomy.	eng
164526	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus requienii</em> is of Euro-Siberian origin and endemic to Corsica (Jeanmonod and Gamisans 2007). It was noted by Coste (1980) under <em>J. alpinus</em> as special to Corsica.<br/>The populations are limited to Corsica, occuring from Cintu to Bavedda (or Bavella), i.e. from the north to the south.<br/>The extent of occurrence is 8,748 km²; owing to its habitat, it has probably an area of occupancy smaller than 500 km².	eng
164526	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Juncus requienii</em> is a perennial Geophyte of 2-18 cm height. It occurs at mountain and alpine level where it is found in pozzines, banks of small streams and springs.<br/>Flowering in Corsica takes place from June to September.	eng
164526	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	The species has been described as common by Jeanmonod and Gamisans (2007).	eng
164526	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	As a mountain species it may be particularly susceptible to climate change. At present there are no major threats to the species' habitat.	eng
164527	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Implementation of existing legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Environmental Impact Assessments) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164527	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the northwest of Morocco. Two subspecies are present in the country: <span style="font-style: italic;">N. africanum africanum</span> present in the Larach region, Lalla Mimouna, and Oued Fouarat, and <span style="font-style: italic;">N. africanum mesatlanticum</span> found in the Moyen Atlas and on the Central Plateau.<br/>The area of occupancy is less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and the extent of occurrence is around 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (based on river basins where the species is present). The number of locations is inferred to be fewer than five.	eng
164527	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is found at the edges of streams and swamps, and in wet meadows on peat soils of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m altitude. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164527	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This is a very rare species that is only known from six localities. The population trend is not known but suspected to be declining as the species' habitat is facing several threats.	eng
164527	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species' habitats are under a high grazing pressure, suffer from water pollution from small industrial plants (oil, tanneries), and are threatened by the filling-in of the edges of wetlands or drainage for agricultural development.	eng
164528	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	In France, the species is under regional protection in Ile-de-France, Champagne-Ardennes, Alsace, Bourgogne, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardie.<br/><br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place, it is recommended to monitor the existing sites.	eng
164528	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Ranunculus hederaceus</em> is a Mediterraneo-Atlantic species. Its distribution covers the west of the Mediterranean basin and northwest Europe. <br/>In the Mediterranean basin, it is found in Portugal, Spain, France, Croatia, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Its extent of occurrence exceeds 30,000 km², and it is present in numerous locations.	eng
164528	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial plant (rooted Hydrophyte) that inhabits ditches, swamps, streams and springs. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164528	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous locations. The trend of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: very rare, occurring in one location in northern Atlantic Morocco (springs between Kef-El-Baroud and El Krakech) and in one location in mid-Atlantic Morocco (12 km northeast of Ezzhiligua); <br/>- Algeria: fairly common in the Tell Atlas springs but very rare elsewhere, particularly in Numidie where it is present in only two locations; <br/>- Tunisia: quite common, with a widespread distribution in Kroumirie and present in the Mogods (Sejnane) and the Tunisian Dorsal (Thibar); <br/>- Spain: very common, occurring in 165 sites; <br/>- France: fairly common in nearly all of the country but rare along the Mediterranean strip;<br/>- Croatia: classed as Data Deficient.	eng
164528	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Habitat drainage and water pollution are the main threats to this species.	eng
164530	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no existing or recommended conservation actions.	eng
164530	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region where it is present in nearly all the countries.<br/>In North Africa, it occurs in Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco.	eng
164530	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is found in wet and marshy soil, irrigation canals and ditches.	eng
164530	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is very common, except in Algeria (Senadjans) and in Tunsia.	eng
164530	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164531	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The site of Aguelmane Azigza is listed as Historic Monument by Vizier decree of the 28.03.1950, but this does not protect the habitat. It has been proposed in the APM project (Moroccan protected areas) as a site requiring an urgent protection for its importance for biodiversity. <br/><br/>There are no other conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- To support ecotourism in the mountains <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">munbyana</span> (list of protected species in Morocco and in Algeria) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164531	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Sisymbrella aspera</em> subsp. <em>munbyana</em> is an endemic subspecies from Algeria and Morocco. It is rare in Morocco and has been found only in two localities: Aguelmane Azigza in the Moyen Atlas and Rhar Roubane in oriental Morocco with an occupied area not exceeding 100 km². In Algeria, it is known from the Aurès and the Mounts of Tlemcen; its area of occupancy in North Africa is about 700 km².	eng
164531	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrella aspera</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">munbyana </span>is found at the edges of lakes and streams. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the humid, sub-humid and cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164531	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known.	eng
164531	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	Its habitat is exposed to a high grazing pressure and a strong impact from campers during the summer period (litter, intense trampling). Therefore, the number of locations is suspected to be less than 10.	eng
164532	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164532	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Nasturtium africanum</em> ssp. <em>mesatlanticum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is only known from two localities in the centre of the Moyen Atlas (Zaïane, Imouzzer) and one locality on the central Plateau (Oulmès). The extent of occurrence is about 2,000 km² and it occurs at no more than 10 locations. The area of occupancy is suspected to be much less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164532	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is found at streams and wet meadows on peat soils of plains and mountains up to 2,000 m altitude. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the mild semi-arid to humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164532	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The populations are subject to a likely reduction because of the partial filling-in of some meadows of the Central Plateau.	eng
164532	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitats of this plant are submitted to high grazing pressure, but the main threat is the reduction of its habitat by in-filling of the edges of wetlands for agriculture.	eng
164534	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (List of plants protected in Morocco) <br/>- Protection of the remains of its habitat and to reinforce the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing station and search for new sites <br/>- To study its the biology and the ecology and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164534	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Puccinella distans</em> ssp. <em>embergeri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is very rare. The mouth of the Bou Regreg (Rabat) on the Atlantic coast is the only locality known for this taxon. Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 1 km².	eng
164534	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2008	The biologic type of this plant varies from Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte. It prefers the humid places of the coastline, under a mild arid to semi-arid bioclimate. It flowers from the middle of spring to the beginning of fall.	eng
164534	population	Rhazi, L., 2008	The size of the population is not known, but it is in decline resulting from amenities in the valley of the Bou Regreg that is the unique site known for this endemic taxon.	eng
164534	threats	Rhazi, L., 2008	This plant is currently experiencing a decline in the quality and extent of its habitat due to planning projects affecting the coast of Bou Regreg and due to water pollution.	eng
164535	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To limit the loss of habitats by implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Protection of the sites and establishment of management plans	eng
164535	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Reseda battandieri</em> ssp.<em> limicola</em> is an endemic of Morocco, where it is known in only four localities: Tiflète, Oulad Saïd, Souk Jemaâ oulad Abbou and the Haouz. Its extent of occurrence is about 11,000 km².	eng
164535	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is an annual plant that is found at the edges of temporary pools of flinty plains and in clayey and stony steppes. It blooms in winter, spring and summer under the semi-arid and arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164535	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known. The global trend is probably towards reduction resulting from the deterioration of some sites under the effect of agricultural intensification and urbanization in the regions of Haouz and Tiflète.	eng
164535	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Grazing and the development of agriculture and infrastructures (notably roads) are the main threats to this plant's habitat.	eng
164538	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Monitor the existing sites and search for new sites<br/>- Monitor the population dynamics<br/>- Legal protection of the plant in Algeria (Algerian list of protected species)<br/>- Reduce habitat loss by enforcing legal protection measures<br/>- Education and creation of awareness <br/>- Study its biology and ecology and estimate the population size <br/>- Reduce agriculture and the use of fertilizers and herbicides around the sites <br/>- Conservation in seed banks	eng
164538	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Najas marina</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">arsenariensis</span> is strictly endemic to Algeria. It is extremely rare, occurring at only one site along the Oranais coast line (Lake Melah near Arzeu). It has an extent of occurrence of less than 100 km<sup>2</sup> and an area of occupancy of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
164538	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that inhabits lakes and salt marshes. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164538	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The populations are very small, isolated and fragmented. They are in slow decline due to the increase in anthropogenic pressure.	eng
164538	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	Growing urbanization of the Oranais coast, water eutrophication, pollution due to the oil industry and the agricultural usage and drainage of its habitat are the main threats.	eng
164539	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To estimate the maximum rates of harvest for sustainable use of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology, and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Enforcement of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising awareness among the public	eng
164539	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Mentha suaveolens</em> ssp. <em>timija</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is rare and found in only four localities: Guelmim, Ouad Tata in the Anti Atlas, Ourika in the Haut Atlas and to the east of Agadir. The extent of occurrence is 18,000 km².	eng
164539	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha suaveolens</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">timija</span> is found along rivers in plains and mountains (low and middle). It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring and summer under the semi-arid cold and sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164539	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size and the dynamics of the populations are not known. However, the harvesting and the intensive use of the plant threaten the populations in the long term.	eng
164539	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of the plant is threatened by overgrazing and by the development of agriculture along rivers. It is also harvested for trade at a national and international level.	eng
164540	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Search for the distribution of the subspecies in the Rif mountains (a number of localities) <br/>- Study of the biology and ecology and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics and the existing locations <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on impact assessment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164540	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Lactuca virosa</em> ssp. <em>cornigera</em> is strictly endemic to Morocco, where it is suspected to be rare. It is apparently common in the mountains of the western Rif. It has also been reported from three localities in the Middle Central Atlas (Outa mountain; forest of Jaâba; Ifrane), two localities in the Haut Atlas (Oukaimeden, Tichka) and one locality in Zaïane (El-Harcha).	eng
164540	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Lactuca virosa</em> ssp. <em>cornigera</em> is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that is found in cool forests, the verges of streams and humid pastures of forests in the chalky and flinty low and middle mountains, between 1,000 and 2,300 m of altitude. It blooms from spring to summer under the sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164540	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	There is no data available neither on the size of the populations nor on their current trend, but the populations are presumed to be stable.	eng
164540	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing and urbanization, as well as frequent droughts, are the main threats to this subspecies' habitat.	eng
164541	conservation	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following ones are recommended:  <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Morocco (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites in Morocco and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164541	distribution	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This species is a widely spread taxon with a circumboreal distribution. It is found in Europe, in Asia, in Alaska and in North Africa. <br/>In the Mediterranean region, it is found in Albania, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Spain, Italy, former Yugoslavia, Turkey, Portugal, and Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, it is restricted to the high mountains of the High Atlas and the Anti Atlas. This taxon is very rare in Morocco with four known localities, two in the High Central Atlas (Massif of the Oukeïmeden; Tachdirt to the Ourika) and two other in the Anti Atlas (Jbel Amezdour; Siroua). The extent of occurrence in the Mediterranean exceeds 500,000 km².	eng
164541	habitat	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that develops in brooklets, prairies and peat-soil wetlands of high flinty mountains. It blooms and fructifies in spring under the cold semi-arid to sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164541	population	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size of the populations is not known. However, the intensification of the medicinal use of the plant (root system) can affect the size of the populations notably in Morocco where the number of localities is very restricted.	eng
164541	threats	Ibn Tattou, M., Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The pressure of grazing, high tourism pressure and deforestation of the neighbouring ecosystems for agriculture are the main threats to the habitat.	eng
164542	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (List of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Reinforcement of the populations <br/>- Surveillance of the existing locations and search for new locations <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate its population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164542	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2008	<em>Puccinella distans</em> ssp. <em>font-queri</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and is only known from one locality in Larache (northern Gharb). Its extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are smaller than 2 km².	eng
164542	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2008	The biologic type of this plant varies from Hemicryptophyte to Geophyte. It prefers the humid places of the coastline, under the Mediterranean sub-humid bioclimate. It flowers from the middle of spring to the beginning of fall.	eng
164542	population	Rhazi, L., 2008	No data on the size of the population is available, but it seems to be in decline due to its isolation (only one locality) and the destruction of its habitat.	eng
164542	threats	Rhazi, L., 2008	The major threats to this plant's habitat are water pollution, tourist amenities and agriculture.	eng
164543	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Surveillance of the existing site and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Legal protection of the existing site and establishment of a management plan <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Monitoring of the dynamics of the populations	eng
164543	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Spergularia media</em> ssp. <em>intermedia</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. Its distribution and therefore the occupied area are poorly known. It is currently known from only one site at the mouth of the Souss River.	eng
164543	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring. It is found in temporarily flooded meadows in salty habitats at the mouth of the river.	eng
164543	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No information on the size or the trend of the populations is available.	eng
164543	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<p>The pollution of water, as well as the intensive pumping of groundwater for irrigation in the Souss plain, threaten the habitat as this results in increased salinity that could lead to important changes in the vegetation.</p>	eng
164544	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Spergularia media</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">occidentalis</span> (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the size of the population <br/>- Monitoring of the dynamics of the populations	eng
164544	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Spergularia media</em> ssp. <em>occidentalis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco; its distribution is poorly known but it is considered to be very rare. It is known from only three sites: marshes of the Ghebar river, south of Bouznika and Ouarzazate. The extent of occurrence is about 2,400 km². The number of locations is supposed to be five to 10.	eng
164544	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring. It is found in marshes and in wet salty depressions near river banks.	eng
164544	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	No information on the size or the trends of the populations is available, but they are presumed to be declining.	eng
164544	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	All sites are under a high pressure of grazing. The site of the Ghabar river is exposed to water pollution. A future threat on the habitat would be the extension of the tourist resort north of Bouznika.	eng
164545	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The site of Mgoun is a SIBE (Biological and Ecological Site of Interest) and has been identified as an Important Plant Area (IPA).<br/><br/>The following conservation measures are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cardamine pratensis</span> ssp.<span style="font-style: italic;"> atlantica</span> (list of protected species for Morocco) <br/>- To maintain the communal management of the habitat and grazing <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology and to evaluate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164545	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Cardamine pratensis</em> ssp. <em>atlantica</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare with a distribution restricted to the Haut Atlas where it is known from two sites: Tizi-n-Inouzan (2,650 m elevation) and Mgoun. The occupied area is about 50 km². The number of locations is suspected to be less than five.	eng
164545	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Cardamine pratensis</em> ssp. <em>atlantica</em> is found in peatbogs (pozzines) and humid meadows in the high mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in summer under the cold semi-arid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164545	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	No information on the&#160; population size of this subspecies is available. However the populations in the peat bogs seem stable because they benefit from a communal management of the ecosystems by the practice of "the pastoral Agdal" (according to which the law customary of the group fixes the dates of the beginning and the end of grazing generally coinciding with the end of the cycle of the majority of the plants). The observations at the sites date from 2005.	eng
164545	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	Currently the threats to the habitat remain weak (light pollution of water). However, a change in the traditional grazing management could damage the quality of the habitat in the future.	eng
164547	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no existing conservation measures. Research is needed to monitor the existing sites and the size and dynamics of the populations.	eng
164547	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Morocco and Algeria. It is found in the west of the Rif (on the high summits of Gommara, between 1,400 and 2,000 m altitude) in Morocco and in the Grande and Petite Kabylie in Algeria, generally above 800 m. Its extent of occurrence covers over 20,000 km² and it is present at more than 10 sites.	eng
164547	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that can be found in humid prairies of high altitude, forests, on the edges of streams and on rocks. Flowering occurs during spring and summer.	eng
164547	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is rare in Morocco (present in only six locations in the west of the Rif), but fairly common in Algeria. The trend of the populations is unknown.	eng
164547	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164548	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	Research on population numbers and range, as well as habitat maintenance and conservation are needed.	eng
164548	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is endemic to North Africa and is found in Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.<br/>The area of occupancy is suspected to be less than 2,000 km² although it has not been quantified. The species is found at more than 10 locations and is not severely fragmented.	eng
164548	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species occurs in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
164548	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	It is very rare in Egypt. There is no information on the population trend available but it is suspected to be declining.	eng
164548	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	The major threats are competiton by introduced plants and intrinsic factors such as low dispersal.	eng
164549	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Legal protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164549	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Juncus bufonius</em> ssp. <em>mogadorensis</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare and its distribution is restricted to the west of the country between Essaouira and Agadir. It is known from four localities: Essaouira, Massa river, Souk-El-Arbaa of the Sahel and between Tiznit and Sidi Ifni (9°57'W, 29°36'N). The extent of occurrence of the species is about 2,000 km². The area of occupancy is difficult to quantify because it varies from one year to another.	eng
164549	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufonius</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> is found at the edge of temporary pools (dayas) and in wet meadows on sandy soils in the plain and low mountains. It is an annual species that blooms in the spring and early summer (April-July).	eng
164549	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the population is not known but a reduction is noted due to the destruction of the pools. High risks of decline are possible considering the existing projects of development of tourist amenities on the coastline and in the region of Essaouira (Plan Azur).	eng
164549	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus bufoniu</span>s ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">mogadorensis</span> is being destroyed by the development of tourist amenities, road infrastructures and intensification of agriculture.	eng
164551	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and search for new sites <br/>- To study its biology and the ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164551	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Nasturtium africanum</em> ssp. <em>africanum</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is very rare, found at only three sites to the northwest of the country (Bou Charen near Larache, Lalla Mimouna and Fouarat River). The extent of occurrence of the is about 1,000 km² and it is found at no more than 10 locations.	eng
164551	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	It is found at the edges of swamps and rivers. It is a perennial Hydrophyte that blooms in spring and summer under the sub-humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164551	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There is no data on the size of the populations but the trend is probably a decline because of the total or partial drainage of many swamps of the Gharb since 1975, including swamps inhabited by the plant.	eng
164551	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Besides the drainage of the swamps for agricultural development, the main threats are the deterioration of the quality of the habitat by high grazing pressure and by pollution of waters from small industrial plants (oil, tanneries) located upstream of the neighbouring rivers.	eng
164552	conservation	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the plant (list of protected species in Morocco) <br/>- To prepare and to enforce management plans of the sites <br/>- To enhance the project of reforestation of the Rif mountains <br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites <br/>- To study its biology and ecology and to estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact) <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
164552	distribution	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	<em>Oenanthe pimpinelloides</em> ssp. <em>callosa</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it is known from seven localities: one in the Moyen Atlas (Jbel Tazekka), four in the Rif (Haouta-El-Melaïb up to 1,350 m altitude, Beni Seidar, Jbel Zinat, Jbel Afestal, Beni Karrik), one on the Mediterranean coastline (near Al-Hoceima) and one near Larache. The extent of occurrence is about 12,000 km².	eng
164552	habitat	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	This plant is found at the edges of streams and in the swamps of plains and low flinty mountains. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in spring under the mild semi-arid, sub-humid and humid Mediterranean bioclimate.	eng
164552	population	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	The size and trends of the populations are not known but the populations are suspected to be declining.	eng
164552	threats	Rhazi, L. & Grillas, P., 2007	Apart from the generally high grazing pressure on all sites, the localities of the Rif are exposed to further threats bound to soil erosion in the mountains resulting from human activities (deforestation, agriculture) and from natural causes such as high rainfall.	eng
164553	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are needed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new sites <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the population size  <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Enforcement of legal protection measures (Law on the studies of impact, law on the protection and the enhancement of the environment) <br/>- Raising public awareness <br/>- Legal protection (list of protected species in Morocco)	eng
164553	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	<em>Aquilegia vulgaris</em> L. ssp. <em>ballii</em> is a strict endemic of Morocco. It is suspected to be rare and its distribution is limited to the High Atlas where it is found in eight localities: Toubkal, Gorges of Lépiney, Ourika, Tachdirt, Arround, Seksaoua, Assaga, Ghat. The extent of occurrence of the species is in the range of 7,000 km² within which the occupied area doesn't exceed 600 km².	eng
164553	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	It is found generally as isolated individuals, along streams and on humid rocks in mountains between 1,800-3,000 m elevation. It is a perennial plant (Hemicryptophyte) that blooms in the spring. Its localities are influenced by Mediterranean semi-arid cold, sub-humid, humid and high mountain bioclimate.	eng
164553	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The size of the populations is not known.	eng
164553	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P. & Rhazi, M., 2007	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">Aquilegia vulgaris</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">balliis</span> is the deterioration of the quality of the habitat due to a high grazing pressure on the sites, tourism (trampling), agriculture next to the springs, pollution of soil and water, and accumulation of materials (rocks) at the time of the frequent heavy downpours in the mountains.	eng
164562	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found in a Harran archeological protected area.  However, this site is managed protected for the conservation of the historical site and tourism.  More research is needed to understand the biology of the species.	eng
164562	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is currently known only from the ruins of the ancient city of Harran in Turkey, with a total known range of approximately 3.6 km² (Baran <em>et al</em>. 2005, Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006). The occurrence in adjoining poorly surveyed countries (northern Syria and northern Iraq) is possible, but needs to be confirmed (R. Sindaco in litt. October 2008). The species has been recorded at around 400 m asl.	eng
164562	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is found in rocky habitats including ruins, but not the surrounding intensive agriculture.  It lays eggs.	eng
164562	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is rare within its very limited habitat. There are believed to be fewer than 1,000 mature individuals at the Harran locality.	eng
164562	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is threatened by tourism of the historic site, and possibly also by continuing excavation of ruins. It is threatened by overgrazing of its habitat within the only known locality (Lise 2006). This species cannot tolerate intensive agriculture which occurs in the areas surrounding the historic site.	eng
164563	conservation	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	Populations are known from Dirijan National Park and Sevan Lake National Park. There is a need to prevent overgrazing of the species habitat and to undertake regular population monitoring programmes.	eng
164563	distribution	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded from northern Armenia and western Azerbaijan. The distribution divided into several isolated subpopulations. One population, now extirpated, formerly existed on the north-eastern shore of the Lake Sevan in Armenia. It has been recorded from 600 to 1,700m asl.	eng
164563	habitat	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	Populations inhabit arid slopes with outcrops of sedimentary stratum and sparse xerophytic vegetation. It is parthenogenic species, females lay two to four eggs in a clutch at the end of June to the beginning of July. Incubation period lasts about 55 days. The young appear at the end of August to beginning of September.	eng
164563	population	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	The species is uncommon and declining.	eng
164563	threats	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This narrowly distributed species is significantly threatened by habitat loss, resulting from overgrazing by goats.	eng
164565	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species is present in several protected areas throughout its range.	eng
164565	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species has been recorded from Iran, southern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan, western Afghanistan and southwestern Pakistan. Within Iran, this species has been recorded from Khuzistan Province, Central Province, Kerman Province, Sistan va Baluchistan Province and Mazandaran Province (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan it is present in northern Baluchistan (Minton 1966). The species occurs up to 2,400 m above sea level (Minton 1966).	eng
164565	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This is a poorly known species, which has been collected in gravel desert with considerable scrubby vegetation (Minton 1966). It is also present in takyr (clay) desert (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008). It is an egg laying species.	eng
164565	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species appears to be relatively common in Turkmenistan, otherwise there is no population information.	eng
164565	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	In parts of its Middle Asian range, the species is threatened by habitat loss through agricultural expansion resulting from the irrigation of its habitat (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008).	eng
164567	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Disi, M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Lymberakis, P., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Nilson, G. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is found in the protected area of the Azraq Wetland, Jordan. In Iran it has been recorded from Karkeh National Park (Anderson 1999) and the Kavir Protected Region (Nilson and Andren 1981).	eng
164567	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Disi, M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Lymberakis, P., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Nilson, G. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species ranges from central and eastern Jordan and southern Syria, through northern Saudi Arabia, southern Iraq, Kuwait and southern and central Iran as far south as Shiraz (Rastegar-Pouyani 2000). The species occurs from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
164567	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Disi, M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Lymberakis, P., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Nilson, G. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This ground-dwelling species is associated with low shrubs (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nitraria</span>) on the fringe of sandy dunes in arid areas and in sandy desert areas. It can be found perching on bushes. It is not found in modified areas.	eng
164567	population	Ahmad Mohammed Disi, M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Lymberakis, P., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Nilson, G. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	It can be moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
164567	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Disi, M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Lymberakis, P., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Nilson, G. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	In Jordan this species is threatened by loss of habitat through overgrazing by camels, and trampling by these animals of the 'green mantle' soil crust of the desert. But overall there are no major threats to the species.	eng
164568	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2008	It has been recorded from Khabr National Park (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). More research is needed to determine the full range of this little-known species, as well as research into possible threats.	eng
164568	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Zagros Mountains of Iran (Anderson, 1999). It may be present in northern Iraq (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This poorly known species is known only from a few scattered records over this wide range. It is found from the foothills to 1,500 m asl.	eng
164568	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2008	It has been recorded from both rolling foothills with a sparse vegetation of grasses, thorny shrubs, euphorbias and scattered pistachios and oaks (<em>T. h. helenae</em>); and from cooler and wetter open oak forest with willows and poplars (<em>T. h. fasciatus</em>) (Anderson 1999). Animals have been captured under flat stones close to, or within stream beds, and have been taken from cracks in loess brick walls (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999).	eng
164568	population	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2008	It is an infrequently seen small species.	eng
164568	threats	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2008	The threats to this species are not currently known.	eng
164569	conservation	Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2008	It has been recorded from Khabr and Rochon National Park and is possibly present in additional protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat preferences and distribution of this species is required.	eng
164569	distribution	Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it has been collected from Kerman, 340 km northwest of Kerman, and from Fars Province (Anderson 1999). It may be broadly distributed over the Central Plateau (Anderson 1999).	eng
164569	habitat	Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2008	Anderson (1999), reports that specimens were collected by Cerny under stones, in a "brushed wadi", on the shore of a small stream near a village and on a mountain ridge (Moravec and Cerny 1994). This is generally a terrestrial species, most often collected from under stones (S. Shafiei Bafti and T. Papenfuss pers. comms. September 2008). It has been recorded from pistachio open woodland and scrubland at low elevations (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164569	population	Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2008	It is a common species (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164569	threats	Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
164570	conservation	Crochet, P.-A., Lymberakis, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It has been recorded in protected areas in Lebanon. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. Further taxonomic studies of this species are needed, and there is a need to conserve areas of suitable habitat in Jordan. It is found in Hatay iskenderun Arsuz wildlife management zone and several other protected areas in Turkey.	eng
164570	distribution	Crochet, P.-A., Lymberakis, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species occurs in southern Turkey (Vilayets Hatay, Adana and Içel), western Syria, throughout Lebanon (where widespread, including on Palm Island), northern Israel and northwestern Jordan. It is found up to 1,800 m asl (in Lebanon).	eng
164570	habitat	Crochet, P.-A., Lymberakis, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This reasonably adaptable species is found in rocky forested areas, in meadows, in gardens, on walls of houses and in orchards. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164570	population	Crochet, P.-A., Lymberakis, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is common in suitable habitat.	eng
164570	threats	Crochet, P.-A., Lymberakis, P., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss in the southern parts of its range.	eng
164572	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164572	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This little-known species is known only from the type locality of '57 km W Schiras (= 8 km E Dashtarjan, an der alten Straße nach Schiras), ca. 2100 m ü. D' in Iran (Eiselt 1971).	eng
164572	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	It was collected from a dry stream bed, in the vicinity of a small limestone hill, with surrounding degraded shrubland (Eiselt 1971).	eng
164572	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is known only from the holotype.	eng
164572	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
164573	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species does not appear to be present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
164573	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from the type locality (11 miles west of Iranshahr) within the enclosed internal drainage basin of the Jaz Murian Depression of southern Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). It is likely to be reasonably widespread within the Depression (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008). It has been collected at around 500 asl.	eng
164573	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This nocturnal species lives in loose, low sand dunes with scattered shrub vegetation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008). It is probably a live bearing species.	eng
164573	population	Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Although it is only known from the type series, this species appears to be relatively common based on high numbers of tracks in the sand (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164573	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species or its habitat.	eng
164574	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Anderson, S. & Khan, M.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which may provide small safeguards. Further research into the population numbers, threats, trends and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
164574	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Anderson, S. & Khan, M.S., 2009	This little-known species has been recorded from Afghanistan, Pakistan (Balochistan region) and eastern Iran.	eng
164574	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Anderson, S. & Khan, M.S., 2009	In Iran, this species has been recorded as being active at night on low sand dunes, with an animal reported from an area with both shifting and consolidated sands (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).<br/><br/>This fossorial species inhabits wind-blown dunes where it lives close to roots of bushes and other vegetation (Khan 2002). It is nocturnal, feeding on small lizards and arthropods; the prey is constricted (Khan 2006). It is oviparous, with clutch sizes of two to four eggs (Khan 2002).	eng
164574	population	Papenfuss, T., Anderson, S. & Khan, M.S., 2009	This species is known only from a few records in Iran, however, there have been few surveys within the species' Iranian range. There is no information available on the population elsewhere in its range.	eng
164574	threats	Papenfuss, T., Anderson, S. & Khan, M.S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species. There appear to be no significant threats to this species in Iran; the area of distribution in this country contains very few people (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164575	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is found in several protected areas in Turkey.	eng
164575	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species ranges from Turkey (eastern and southeastern Anatolia, occurring as far west as Adana), to northern Syria, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran. It is found from 300 to 2,300m asl.	eng
164575	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is found in stony, rocky or pebbly areas and outcrops with sparse vegetation and rock mounds. It is occasionally seen in wooded areas. The females lay between three and seven eggs. It is not known from modified habitats.	eng
164575	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is a common species in Turkey (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164575	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species.	eng
164576	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is found within the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve and the Sochi State Natural National Park. There is a need to conserve suitable remaining areas of forest habitat for this species.	eng
164576	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is found in the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from Georgia, southern Russia, northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Ardahan, Artvin, Trabzon and Rize) and just into western Azerbaijan (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is found up to 1,700m asl.	eng
164576	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is typically associated with damp areas in forested montane habitats; animals are occasionally recorded from rocks or walls. The subspecies <em>D. d. silvatica</em> populates mesophilous flood plains, beech and fir tree forests usually from 600m up to 1,300m, and occasionally up to 1,600m asl. <em>D. d. boehmei</em> inhabits forests and subalpine meadows from sea level (in Ajaria) to 1,800m asl (Trialetsky ridge). It is absent from sea shore xerophilous habitats. The female lays a clutch of between four and eight eggs (Baran and Atatur 1998).	eng
164576	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is a locally common species in good habitat.	eng
164576	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Ongoing habitat loss through deforestation is considered to be a major threat to this species. The montane habitats of this species are believed to be increasingly threatened by climate change.	eng
164577	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Hyrcan Reserve in Azerbaijan, and is possibly present within protected areas of Iran. There is a need to regulate collection of this species. In general, this appears to be a poorly-known snake and additional studies are needed into the species natural history, distribution and threats.	eng
164577	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is restricted to the Caspian area of southeastern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Within Iran, it is found along the Eburz mountains from lowland areas to mountain forests, with observations from several places in Gilan and Mazanderan provinces, and photographic records from south of the mountains (in Ghom [Qom] province) (Göran Nilson pers. comm. November 2008) (map provisional). It has been recorded from sea level to 1,700m asl.	eng
164577	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, 2008	It is found in areas of Hyrcanian vegetation, including montane temperate forests. Animals can be found among ruins. The female lays clutches of between four and nine eggs.	eng
164577	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, 2008	This is a common species in the appropriate habitat.	eng
164577	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, Steven Anderson, 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. It is collected for the pet trade in parts of its range, and is locally threatened by the conversion of land to agricultural use, logging, and general urbanisation.	eng
164578	conservation	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas (including Sevan Lake National Park). Further studies are needed into the distribution and threats to this species, with monitoring of populations also required.	eng
164578	distribution	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is restricted to the Caucasus, where it occurs in Armenia, northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Erzurum, Ardahan and Agri) and southern Georgia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It ranges to 2,000m asl.	eng
164578	habitat	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is present in rocky and stony areas, and high steppe habitat. The females lay clutches of about five (two to seven) eggs (Baran and Atatur 1998).	eng
164578	population	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	It is found at low densities compared to sympatric species.	eng
164578	threats	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	It is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing of habitat by domestic livestock (sheep and cattle).	eng
164579	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species occurs in many protected areas across its extensive range and it is protected in a number of countries by national legislation because it is currently listed on Appendix I of CITES. Further research into the harvest levels, threats, trends and habitat status of this species is needed. The establishment and management of new protected areas where it is illegal to hunt this species should be carried out to provide a refuge from persecution.	eng
164579	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This wide ranging Varanid is found from southeastern Iran, through south central Asia (ranging from Afghanistan in the north as far south as Sri Lanka) and eastwards throughout Southeast Asia, as far as Java and the Anambas Islands in Indonesia. However, in the last century, this species has been exterminated from parts of Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh. Although there are some old specimens purportedly from Sumatra, no recent records seem to exist (e.g. Auffenberg 1994). This species has an upper limit of 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
164579	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats, from desert areas to floodplains, scrubland to forests, at moderate elevations (Auffenberg 1994, Pianka 2004). It can also inhabit agricultural areas (Auffenberg 1994).	eng
164579	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	In some agricultural areas, this species has been found to be common (Auffenberg 1989). Density estimates varied greatly between different habitats in northern India and Pakistan, from an average of two individuals per km² recorded on the edge of a seasonally flooded evaporation basin in Rajasthan to just under 40 individuals on average per km²<sup></sup> in marsh habitat in Pakistan (Auffenberg 1994). Various techniques were used to derive these estimates, so that the numbers are not directly comparable (Auffenberg 1994). Densities were also found to be relatively high in agricultural habitats, from around 14 to 30 individuals per km² (Auffenberg 1994). In the more arid parts of its range it probably occurs at reasonably low densities. Although present on Java, the species is reportedly very scarce and localized (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
164579	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is possibly threatened by habitat destruction, however, as it can utilize a wide range of habitat types this is not considered a major threat at this time. This species is indirectly affected by pesticides which reduce the food resource availability in agricultural areas. However, perhaps the greatest threat to this species is hunting as it is hunted commercially for its skin, and its meat is commonly eaten. The fat of this species is also used in traditional medicine. In Iran, it is killed by people who mistakenly consider it to be dangerous; it is not hunted for food or skins in that country.	eng
164581	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species has been listed in the Red Data Book of the USSR (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is currently listed in the Red List of Turkmenistan. It is present in the Central Kopet Dagh protected area and the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve of Turkmenistan.	eng
164581	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is known only from the western and central Kopet Dagh Mountains in southern Turkmenistan and possibly adjacent Iran, where it appears to be known from a single record (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is found up to 1,000m asl.	eng
164581	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is found in rocky and stony foothills and slopes, covered with dry scrub and herbs (e.g.. <em>Artemisia</em>) and sometimes trees (Anderson, 1999). Animals prefer northern and northwestern slopes, and are often found close to areas with small mammal burrows (e.g.. <em>Ochotona</em>) (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). The female usually lays clutches of two eggs.	eng
164581	population	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It has been rarely found in Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996), with less than 30 specimens known (Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164581	threats	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. In parts of its range there is some localized overgrazing by domestic livestock.	eng
164583	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species does not occur in any protected areas. Urgent actions are needed to conserve any remaining areas of habitat for this species.	eng
164583	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is restricted to the Armenian Plateau of Armenia, Azerbaijan (including the disputed territory of Nakhichevan), northwestern Iran and Turkey (vicinity of Igdir in eastern Anatolia) (Baran and Atatür, 1998; Anderson, 1999). The distribution is highly restricted to areas of suitable sandy semi-desert habitat over a very wide area, and therefore occupies a small fraction of its estimated extent of occurrence. In Turkey it occurs between 500 and 1,700m asl.	eng
164583	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is generally associated with sandy semi-desert enclaves. In Iran, it has been recorded from semi desert sandy or stony soils of Artemisia steppes (Anderson, 1999). In Turkey, it is found in semi-desert sandy and partly rocky areas (Baran and Atatur, 1998). Animals generally hide under stones when disturbed. The female lays between two and four eggs, laying two clutches each season.	eng
164583	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is found at low densities.	eng
164583	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has almost no remaining suitable habitat remaining within its range (sandy areas) due to human disturbance of its restricted distribution. Threats include salinification and the placement of trash dumps on suitable habitat.	eng
164586	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
164586	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This recently described species is known only from Iran, where it has been collected at the type locality of Nosratabad, 90 km west of Zahedan in Sistan-Baluchistan Province, and from 100 km north-northwest from Iranshehr, near Bazman (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007). It is probable that the species occurs throughout the whole of southeastern Iran and in parts of adjacent Pakistan, although this needs to be confirmed (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007).	eng
164586	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	Animals have typically been recorded from very dry low clay hills, with the sparse shrub vegetation typical of southern Iran (Nazarov and Rajabizadeh 2007). The habitat in the area of Bazman is a small, more humid intermontane valley, with a coarse alluvium substrate, and rather dense shrub vegetation.	eng
164586	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It appears to be a common species.	eng
164586	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. The range is within a lightly populated, rocky and dry area that is generally unsuitable for agriculture.	eng
164587	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It has been recorded from numerous protected areas. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164587	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species occurs in the northern Caucasus in southern Russia and northern Azerbaijan. It occurs in the montane Dagestan, southern Chechnya, Ingushetia and south-east of north Ossetia, from the lower part of the Dar'yal ravine in the west up to Gimrinsky range in the east. The northern border of the distribution area passes through the foothills of the Skalisty range and the upper tributaries of Sunja River. It can be found close to the city of Makhachkala. Populations occur between 1000 and 2000m asl.	eng
164587	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species inhabits relatively arid montane slopes and river valleys. Animals are generally associated with rocky outcrops and boulder piles within forest and mountain steppe habitats. The females lay clutches of four or five eggs.	eng
164587	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this species are stable and it is generally abundant.	eng
164587	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164589	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Shafiei Bafti, S., 2009	Large populations are present in the Repetek (Turkmenistan) and Tigrovaya Balka (Tajikistan) protected areas. Due to the absence of confirmation of records for this species in the European part of its range after 1935, it was included into the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) as an extinct species (category 0).	eng
164589	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Shafiei Bafti, S., 2009	This species is found east of the Caspian Sea, from Kazakhstan to Khorasan and Sistan in northeastern Iran and as far east as northwestern China. There are no records of it from Afghanistan, possibly because of under-surveying within its range. This species was declared extinct in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation (2001) due to the lack of confirmation of the species existence after 1935 (border of Chechnya and Kalmykia). It occurs up to 2,000 m asl in parts of its range (Naryn Depression, Kyrgyzstan) and has a lower elevational limit of 45 m below sea level.	eng
164589	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Shafiei Bafti, S., 2009	This nocturnal species is found in flat sand or clayey desert and semi-desert where it is associated with available shrubs and trees (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). It can also be found in loess foothills, it is common on cliffs in river and ravine plains, under rocks and on inhabited and abandoned buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Anderson 1999). <br/><br/>The species hibernates from early November to March-April, The female lays clutches of one or two eggs, and may lay two clutches in a season. The hatchlings emerge at the beginning of August. Collective clutches are known.	eng
164589	population	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Shafiei Bafti, S., 2009	This species can be locally common. It is common in Central Asia, but rare in Kazakhstan and Russia. It is extinct in the Kalmykia region of Russia.	eng
164589	threats	Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Papenfuss, T. & Shafiei Bafti, S., 2009	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species. This species may be locally threatened in places by the conversion of virgin or long-fallow land to agricultural use (which is possibly the reason for its disappearance in parts of its range), and when repairs are made to old buildings and fences.	eng
164591	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
164591	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2008	This species is known only from the coastal plain of Fars Province, southern Iran (Anderson 1999). It has been collected at 100 m asl. It is possible that the only known records represent outlying populations of a main distribution in the rocky areas of the nearby Zagros Mountains (S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164591	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2008	It has been collected at a mud brick building at the margin of the coastal plain (Anderson 1999). Little additional information is available on this poorly-known species.	eng
164591	population	Anderson, S.C., 2008	This species is known only from the type series and a single additional specimen.	eng
164591	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2008	The threats to this species are not known. The area of collection has been under the same system of seasonal agriculture (wheat fields) for many hundreds of years.	eng
164592	conservation	Papenfuss, T. Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is likely that it occurs in several of the protected areas of Iran. Research into the harvest levels should be carried out to ensure it does not cause significant declines in this species.	eng
164592	distribution	Papenfuss, T. Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is distributed on the Central Plateau of Iran and adjacent areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan (as far east as Sind and Waziristan) (Minton 1966, Anderson, 1999). It is found from around 30 to 1,900 m above sea level.	eng
164592	habitat	Papenfuss, T. Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This is a largely nocturnal species found in a wide range of dry habitats, including plains, hillsides, cliffs, rocky terraces and slopes, gravelly creek beds, and silty, gravelly and sandy soil. The vegetation cover is largely open steppe scrubland (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999).	eng
164592	population	Papenfuss, T. Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This is a very common species.	eng
164592	threats	Papenfuss, T. Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species. This species is used in the commercial pet trade, but there is no information to suggest this is causing a significant decline in population abundance.	eng
164595	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Boris Turiyev, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas within its range, these include the Samursky zakaznik (reservation) in Daghestan (Russia). Within the Turkmenistan, as a species with a limited distribution it was formerly included in the national Red Data Book (1985); presently  it is not included into the lists of protected species (Red Data Book of Turkmenistan, 1999). In Transcaucasia, this species is protected in several state reserves such as Khosrov, Shikahoh (Armenia), Vashlovani (Georgia), Kyzyl-Agach, Shirvan and Tyrianchay (Azerbaijan). There is a need for additional research into the range of this species in Syria and Jordan.	eng
164595	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Boris Turiyev, 2008	This species ranges from west-central Turkey, Syria and Jordan, into the Caucasus region of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and southern Russia, eastwards to northern Iran, and south-western Turkmenistan. It is currently known only from one area in northwestern Syria and one in northwestern Jordan but it most likely occurs in suitable habitat in between these places. It has a fragmented range in the lowlands and foothills of the Caucasus. It occurs from sea level up to 2,000m asl (in Armenia and Turkmenistan).	eng
164595	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Boris Turiyev, 2008	Populations of this snake are found along rocky, stony and bushy river banks, in deserts, semi-deserts, on rocky outcrops, on hillsides, in montane steppe, in cultivated fields, gardens, vineyards and other rural areas. Animals are often close to large rodent colonies on which they prey.  It can be found close to human habitation and can tolerate human disturbance. The female lays between seven and 11 eggs.	eng
164595	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Boris Turiyev, 2008	It can be a very common species in the southern part of its range, but it is uncommon in the Caucasus.	eng
164595	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Uğur Kaya, Göran Nilson, Boris Turiyev, 2008	There are no major threats to this adaptable and widespread species. As with many snakes, this species is subject to general human persecution. Animals are collected for the pet trade, but it is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
164597	conservation	Shafiei Bafti, S., Papenfuss, T., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is present in several protected areas in Iran. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species. More research is needed into the threats to this species and its habitat status.	eng
164597	distribution	Shafiei Bafti, S., Papenfuss, T., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is present over much of the Iranian Plateau, through Afghanistan south of the Kabul River Valley, and in the region of Waziristan and Baluchistan, Pakistan (Anderson 1999).	eng
164597	habitat	Shafiei Bafti, S., Papenfuss, T., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is found in rocky mountainous areas, presumably with some shrubby cover. It does well in cultivated areas with plots divided by stone walls. It can be found close to villages, and is common on stone walls (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164597	population	Shafiei Bafti, S., Papenfuss, T., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	This is a very common species (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164597	threats	Shafiei Bafti, S., Papenfuss, T., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2009	There are no threats to this species as a whole (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008), although there is some localized habitat loss due to agricultural expansion.	eng
164601	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	As the species has a limited distribution in Turkmenistan, it has been listed in the USSR and Turkmen SSR Red Data Books (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is present in the Kopet Dagh protected area and Badkhyz Nature Reserve.	eng
164601	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is known only from the Kopet Dagh mountain range, western Badkhyz and Balkhan of northeastern Iran and southern Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999; Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). It is found at elevations of around 500 to 1,500m asl.	eng
164601	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is a mostly nocturnal species that has been recorded from rocky areas and clay slopes with sparse, shrubby vegetation (sagebrush and fescues) (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is usually found on northern exposed slopes (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). Animals hide in rock crevices and underneath stones. The female lays clutches of one or two eggs.	eng
164601	population	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This appears to be a rare species.	eng
164601	threats	Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There is some habitat loss within its range, through overgrazing of vegetation by domestic livestock.	eng
164602	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is present in protected areas in Israel and Jordan. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Turkey, there is one protected area within its range, Gaziantep Tahtaköprü Baraj Gölü Wildlife Management Zone.	eng
164602	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species ranges from the eastern Mediterranean region of southern Turkey, through western Syria and Lebanon, to northern and central Israel and western and northwestern Jordan. It might be present in northern Iraq, but records need to be confirmed. It ranges from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
164602	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species is found under rocks in bushy areas. The female lays between three and five eggs in a clutch. It can be found in agricultural areas such as vineyards and possibly orchards.	eng
164602	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	In general, this is an uncommon species. However, there are only a few specimens from Lebanon.	eng
164602	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species over most of its range. In Jordan it is threatened by habitat loss due to urbanization.	eng
164603	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	It has been recorded close to the Dinar Kuh Protected Area in Iran (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164603	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species has been recorded from Iran and Iraq. Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Esfahan Province, Khuzistan Province, Kordestan Province, Hamadan Province and Elam Province (Latifi, 1991; Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164603	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is associated with rocky places, scrubland and montane areas (Latifi, 1991), and rocky steppe habitat (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). It is an oviparous species.	eng
164603	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	It appears to be relatively common for a snake in Iran (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164603	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
164604	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	Populations are present in a number of protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, distribution and natural history of this species.	eng
164604	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	This species has been recorded from southern Syria, eastern Lebanon, northern and western Jordan and west and central Iraq. It is not present in Israel.	eng
164604	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	This species is found in Mediterranean-type shrubland in the Iran-Turano biotope. It can be found under, and amongst, rocks in dry habitats with scattered vegetation. It has been recorded from modified habitats such as olive groves, orchards and rural gardens.	eng
164604	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	It is generally a common species.	eng
164604	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Yehudah Werner, 2008	There are no major threats as a whole for this species. As for many snake species, there is some localized persecution.	eng
164606	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It appears to be present in the Golestan National Park, although this requires confirmation (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
164606	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of Gole-Loweh near Minou-dasht, at the edge of the subtropical moist forest at the edge of the Kopet Dag in northeastern Iran (Anderson, 1999). It might be more widely distributed in suitable habitat, although further surveys are needed to confirm this.	eng
164606	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The species is believed to inhabit well-vegetated, rocky area ecotone adjacent to virgin subtropical moist forest (Anderson, 1999). The habitat requirements of this species are still poorly known.	eng
164606	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There appears to be no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
164606	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The threats to this species are unclear, although any populations existing outside of protected areas might be impacted by degradation of the associated forests.	eng
164607	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable habitat for this species.	eng
164607	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is present in central and south-eastern Armenia, south-eastern and south-western Azerbaijan, Turkey (Vilayet Van), northern and western Iran (and the Zagros Mountains) and southern Turkmenistan (Kopet Dagh only) (Baran and Atatur, 1998; Anderson, 1999). It is known from between 2,000 (Turkey) and 3,600m (Iran) asl.	eng
164607	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	It is found in areas with loose rocky slopes, steppe grassland and open thorny shrubland (Baran and Atatur, 1998; Anderson, 1999). Animals hide amongst shrubs when disturbed. Populations can be found in flat area of semi-desert with sparse vegetation. In Transcaucasia it is associated with Astragalus vegetation. Females lay clutches of four to five eggs.	eng
164607	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is found at very low densities in fragmented populations. In Transcaucasia it is found as relatively stable, low density, populations.	eng
164607	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is a habitat specialist that is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural conversion, grazing and expanding human populations.	eng
164608	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The species has not been confirmed from protected areas within Iran. There are no records from protected areas in Turkey. This species is generally poorly known, with more research needed into its natural history, distribution and threats.	eng
164608	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This little-known species has been recorded from northeastern Syria, northern Iraq, west-central Iran (western foothills of the Zagros Mountains and the upper Tigris-Euphrates drainage), and from two localities in Turkey, in the valley of the Euphrates in south-eastern Anatolia. The distribution may be more continuous than currently known.  It occurs from around 300 to 1,000m asl in Iran; and has been found at 500m asl in Turkey.	eng
164608	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a nocturnal ground dwelling species of semi-desert areas, gypsum, stony hills, and ruins. Animals have been observed on surfaced roads (Anderson, 1999). This species feeds on invertebrates and small lizards. It is active for a short time in the Spring and secretive the rest of the year (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008). It is an egg laying species, which probably lays several clutches of two eggs each year.	eng
164608	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The species may be locally abundant (Anderson, 1999), but patchily distributed (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008). In Turkey, it is known from two specimens from two distinct localities (Telctek mountains and Birecik from the city of Urfa) and is considered to be very rare.	eng
164608	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Roberto Sindaco, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. It has been recorded from the international pet trade, and additional studies are needed to determine if this trade poses a significant threat to wild populations.	eng
164609	conservation	Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Avci, A., Üzüm, N. & Sindaco, R., 2009	This species is present in several protected areas. It is protected by national legislation in Israel.	eng
164609	distribution	Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Avci, A., Üzüm, N. & Sindaco, R., 2009	There are records of this species from south and southeastern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, northern and central Israel and northwestern Jordan, and eastwards into northern Iraq and Iran.  The range in Syria is poorly known. It occurs from about 500 up to around 2,000 m asl.	eng
164609	habitat	Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Avci, A., Üzüm, N. & Sindaco, R., 2009	This species is found in sparsely vegetated rocky areas of pine and oak forest. It can also be found in orchards and rural gardens.	eng
164609	population	Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Avci, A., Üzüm, N. & Sindaco, R., 2009	This is a common species.	eng
164609	threats	Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Avci, A., Üzüm, N. & Sindaco, R., 2009	While in some areas of its range, including Jordan, this species may be threatened by the deforestation of its habitat, overall there are no major threats to this species.	eng
164613	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and possible threats to this little-known species.	eng
164613	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is known only from two specimens collected in the western Zagros foothills of Iraq and Iran. The type specimen was collected in Iraq at 'Pirman Hotel, Salahedin, Salahedin Nahiya, Erbil Liwa'; the Iranian specimen was collected about 400km southeast of the type locality (Anderson, 1999) at around 1,500m asl.	eng
164613	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly-known. The type specimen was collected at a hotel and may have been brought in with firewood; the Iranian specimen comes from an area of semihumid Zagrosian oak forest (Anderson 1999).	eng
164613	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Known only from two specimens.	eng
164613	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Much of the semihumid Zagrosian oak forest in Iran has been deforested (Anderson, 1999), however the impacts of this on the species remain unclear.	eng
164616	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species in found in Bendimahi Delta Wetland Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, population dynamics, natural history and threats to this species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution. Habitat maintenance, conservation and restoration are needed, as is the identification, establishment, and management of additional protected areas.	eng
164616	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to Turkey, where it has been recorded from the northeastern part of Vilayet Van and the southeastern region of Vilayet Ağr in eastern Anatolia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It has been recorded at three localities in Van, Bendimahi Waterfall, 9 km northeast of Muradiye (type locality) (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994); Uzunyol, approximately 60 km northeast of Muradiye (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994); and 11 km northeast of  Çaldıran (Y. Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008). It is currently only known Doğubeyazit in Ağrı (Schmidtler <em>et al</em>. 1994). It has recently been recorded as still present at the Bendimahi Waterfall and 11 km northeast of  Çaldıran (2004) (Y. Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008). It ranges between 1,800 and 2,300m asl.	eng
164616	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found in stony or rocky grassland, usually close to water. This is a parthenogenic species; two eggs are laid in a clutch (Baran and Atatür, 1998).	eng
164616	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is rare (Kumlutas, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164616	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	Because it has specific habitat requirements and a small range, habitat loss from tourism and water extraction represent major threats. The planned Muradiye (Ayrancılar) Hydroelectric Santral dam project, threatens the range of this species (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).. There is also significant overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock in parts of the species range (Eken <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
164617	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov & Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164617	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov & Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in the northern Caucasus of southern Russia north of the Georgia border. The species is largely distributed on the northern slopes of the Rocky mountain range, within the Karachaevo-Cherkesskaya Autonomous Region, south of Stavropol Territory and Kabardino-Balkaria, from here it is found in the valley of the upper Kuban' River and its tributaries in the west to the ravines of the middle section of the Chegem River in the east. The most northern population (which as considered as extinct) was present in the southern foothills of the Stavropol Upland, in the Alexandrovsky region of Stavropol Territory. The southernmost part of the distribution passes along the northeastern spurs of Mount Elbrus, in the ravine of the Kuban River, and, crossing the Rocky range (known from the Mariinsky pass), continues further in this watershed into the upper reaches of  several rivers, notably the Kuma, Podkumok, Alikanovka, Beryozovaya and Zolka. Along the Baksan River it reaches Tyrny-Auza town, and along Chegem River it reaches the Chegem waterfalls.	eng
164617	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov & Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It prefers arid rocky areas in montane and foothills. The females lay two to five eggs in a clutch at the end of June - beginning of July. The incubation period is 55 to 60 days.	eng
164617	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov & Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is common and populations are stable.	eng
164617	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov & Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.	eng
164618	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164618	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is only known with certainty from the northwestern part of the Central Plateau, Iran. There is a record for Djebel Amri, northeastern Syria, however this requires verification (Anderson, 1999). The species might be more widely distributed than is currently known, but additional surveys are needed to investigate this. It is found at elevations of between 1,000 and 2,000m asl.	eng
164618	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This is a little-known species. Animals have been collected under earth and moving among short bushes, at the edge of a cultivated alluvial plain (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded at night on the fairly arid steppe plain of the Plateau (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164618	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is known only from a very few specimens.	eng
164618	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The threats to this poorly known species are not known. It is not known if it can persist in modified habitats. There is some agriculture within the area, but it is not known if the species is impacted by this.	eng
164619	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and any possible threats to this little-known species.	eng
164619	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This recently described species has been recorded from the type locality, '30 km southwest of the Yasug, Kohgi-luye-va-Boyerahmad Province, western Zagros Mountains of Iran. It is likely to occur on several hillsides within the Zagros Mountains. It has been recorded at 2,200m asl.	eng
164619	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is associated with large white rocks in open oak forest (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). The habitat is not generally restricted, but much of its potential range has yet to be surveyed (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164619	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is a very difficult species to catch, with only four specimens collected, but more seen at the type locality (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164619	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	Although the species is little known, there appear to be no major threats to the rocky areas of habitat in which the species lives.	eng
164621	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Although it has yet to be collected from a protected area, there are protected areas within the species possible range. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164621	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is endemic to southwest Iran, where it is known only from the type locality of '35 km E Gach Saran [30º20'N, 50º48'E], Fars Province' and more recently from Shiraz, Fars Province (Anderson 1999). It is found in the foothill zone of 200 to 500 m asl (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). The map shows the approximate area where this species might be present, although the range is still very poorly known.	eng
164621	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is a little-known species. Animals have been collected under small, flat stones adjacent to a dry watercourse in an area with sparse vegetation and a few oak trees (Anderson 1999; S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164621	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is known only from three specimens.	eng
164621	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The threats to this species are poorly known. It is possible that there are no major threats to the species at present, largely as there is little collection of firewood or timber from the oak forest now.	eng
164622	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas in Turkey. Because of declines in its small range in Armenia, it was included into the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) - category 3 and Armenia (1987) - narrow-ranged rare species.	eng
164622	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species is known from Armenia (in the valley of Razdan River), various parts of central, southern and southeastern Turkey (where its range is fragmented) and possibly northern coastal Syria. Records from Syria are likely from a different species, <em>A. rueppellii</em> (P. Lymberakis pers. comm. 2008). Its range is poorly known. It occurs from 500 to 2,200m asl.	eng
164622	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	This species lives amongst small stones in open areas with some bushes, in sparsely wooded areas, in open coniferous forest and in grassland. It occurs in the mountain-xerophytic steppe on gentle slope (in Armenia). Animals are generally found hiding under ground cover, stones, and leaves.  It is not known to live in modified habitats.  It appears after hibernation in the end of March. This species leaves in the deep shelter in the hot months (July and August) and starts to appear in September. The female lays about four eggs in June.	eng
164622	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	It is generally a common species.	eng
164622	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Ferdi Akarsu, Petros Lymberakis, 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. In Armenia, it is locally declining because of general human settlement activity.	eng
164625	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164625	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is only known with certainty from the type locality of 'Aptan, near Bampur' in the Jaz Murian depression in Baluchistan, Iran and it may be endemic to this distinct area. Within Iran there are records of this species from Fars Province and additional records from Baluchistan, however confirmation of the identity of these records is needed (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164625	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The holotype was collected from an open sandy plain with scattered vegetation (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164625	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is known only with certainty from the holotype.	eng
164625	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Although the species is poorly known, it has been recorded from an extremely arid area with no plausible major threats (such as agricultural encroachment).	eng
164627	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is not present in protected areas in Jordan or Lebanon.	eng
164627	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species has been recorded from northern Lebanon, central and western Syria and western Jordan. The eastern extent of this species range is unclear, the current map may include some populations of <em>A. orientalis</em> (R. Sindaco pers. comm.). Records from Iraq appear to pertain to <em>A. orientalis</em> (Sindaco and Jeremčenko 2008).	eng
164627	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	This species inhabits fairly hard substrates, in the mesic-steppe, with sparse vegetation, in semi-desert regions. It is generally confined to mesic-steppe type habitats. In Jordan it can occur in some types of lightly-modified agricultural area. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164627	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	It is common in Jordan. The species has not been recorded in Lebanon for a few decades.	eng
164627	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Roberto Sindaco, 2008	In Jordan this species is threatened by trampling of the soil crust habitat by grazing animals.	eng
164628	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, 2008	It occurs in several protected areas in Turkey and Iran. It is protected on the territory Khosrov and Erebuni reserves in Armenia and in the Shakhbuzsky reserve (Azerbaijan). As with other species in the genus, it has rarely been studied and there is a need for more basic ecological research.	eng
164628	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is present in southern Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, eastern and southeastern Turkey, western Iran and possibly northeastern Iraq. In Turkey, it is known from 700 to 2,000m asl.	eng
164628	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, 2008	It occurs in Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, as well as in grassy regions at higher elevations. These open areas have mainly been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. This species is secretive spending most its time under rocks, and is usually associated with rocky areas within the main habitat. As with other species in the genus, its main source of food is invertebrates. It is an oviparous species, the number of eggs in a clutch varies between six and eight.	eng
164628	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is abundant within its range.	eng
164628	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Göran Nilson, Claus Andrén, Uğur Kaya, Steven Anderson, 2008	There are no known threats to this species at present.	eng
164629	conservation	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y. & Avci, A., 2008	In Turkey it is not present in any protected areas.  More research is needed on the natural history of this species.	eng
164629	distribution	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y. & Avci, A., 2008	This species occurs in northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, southwestern Iran (the central Zagros Mountains), and possibly northern Iraq. The species may not be present in northeastern Iraq, resulting in two disjunct populations (Anderson pers. comm. 2008). In Turkey it ranges between 800 and 2,200 m asl.	eng
164629	habitat	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y. & Avci, A., 2008	This species is found in rocky areas in open oak woodland and shrubland, and sometimes in open grassland. The female lays between five and ten eggs. It is not present in modified habitats or close to human habitations.	eng
164629	population	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y. & Avci, A., 2008	In Turkey it is an uncommon species.	eng
164629	threats	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y. & Avci, A., 2008	There are no threats to the species in Turkey as the human population density within its range is very low.	eng
164630	conservation	Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S.C., Papenfuss, T., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It does not appear to be present in any protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164630	distribution	Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S.C., Papenfuss, T., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species is distributed in Afghanistan in the Helmand River basin and in the desert basins of the Chagai and Nushkai districts and western Las Bela of Pakistan (Minton, 1966, Anderson, 1999). There are currently no records of the species from Iran, however it may be present in the eastern Sistan region (Anderson, 1999, S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). The species may be present in India, however this requires verification.	eng
164630	habitat	Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S.C., Papenfuss, T., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species is found in areas of fine windblown sand, including sand dunes, with sparse vegetation (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The females presumably lay a clutch of two to four eggs.	eng
164630	population	Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S.C., Papenfuss, T., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species is common in suitable habitat (Minton 1966, T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164630	threats	Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S.C., Papenfuss, T., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species.	eng
164631	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is present within the well-protected Kavir National Park. The species remains poorly known, and further general studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and ecology of this species.	eng
164631	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from the type locality of '40-45km E Daryacheh-ye Namak, Dasht-e Kavir' (Nilson and Andrén, 1981; Anderson, 1999).	eng
164631	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is found in isolated areas of semi-stable sands in stony desert (Anderson, 1999). It is largely found in the low areas between dunes among grasses and low shrubs (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164631	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is known from very few specimens. Animals are reported to be numerous within suitable habitat (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164631	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species within its restricted, but well-protected range. Few people are found within the range of this species.	eng
164633	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It occurs in protected areas throughout its range. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
164633	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species occurs in northern coastal Turkey, Georgia, Russia and Azerbaijan. There are five known subspecies in Turkey and two known in Georgia and Russia. It occurs from sea level up to 2,400m asl.	eng
164633	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It occurs in rocky areas in temperate forest. Sometimes it occurs in montane-steppe area. It can live on the walls of buildings and other human structures. The female lays four to eight eggs.	eng
164633	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is a common species. Densities can be 17 - 23 individuals or more for 1 km2 (on average).	eng
164633	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There are not considered to be any major threats to this species.	eng
164635	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There are no protected areas within the range of the species. Further research is needed to determine the range, population status, and threats to this species.	eng
164635	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is known from a small area around the town of Van, next to Lake Van in eastern Turkey. The subspecies <em>E. t. hakkariensis</em> is known from two locations near the towns of Bahcesaray (city of Siirt) and city of Hakkari.  It has been recorded between 1,800-2,000m asl.	eng
164635	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in rocky or stony upland areas, with sparse vegetation. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164635	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	<em>E. thospitis</em> is known from only three locations in close proximity and two locations of <em>E. t. hakkariensis</em>. It is known from a total of 13 specimens collected since 1912 (Schmidtler, J.F. and Lanza, B., 1990).  It is most likely a restricted-range species, but little is known about the population status of this species because of the limited research presently undertaken within its distribution.	eng
164635	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
164636	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in protected areas, although the suitable habitat is available in two protected areas where the species might occur. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
164636	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	This species has been recorded from eastern Iraq, and Iran (southwestern Kermanshah, Elam, Khusestan, Lorestan and Bosher) (Anderson, 1999). It is possibly present in Kuwait, however this needs to be confirmed. This is probably found from around sea level to 300m asl.	eng
164636	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	This species is associated with flat plains and valleys with sparse vegetation. Animals lives in burrows, and form colonies. It has been seen as a colony on the banks of a canal next to a field. It is not found in areas with sand dunes. This is an egg laying species.	eng
164636	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	It is an uncommon species found at low densities throughout the range (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti  pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164636	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species in Iran (Theodore Papenfuss and Soheila Shafti  pers. comm., September 2008). It doesn't appear to be regularly available in the international pet trade.	eng
164637	conservation	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	It has been recorded from Zay Wildlife Reserve in Jordan, and Saint Katherines protected area in Egypt. In Turkey, there are a few protected areas within its range. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. There is a need to develop national legislation to protect the species in Egypt. As a rare species threatened by habitat destruction (category 3), it is included into the Red Data Book of USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987). More research is needed to understand the taxonomy and ecology of this rarely seen species.	eng
164637	distribution	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species ranges discontinuously from eastern Turkey, southwards to western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and western and central Jordan, and eastwards to Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern Iraq and western Iran (Central Province and Khuzistan Province). It also occurs as an isolated population at Santa Catarina on the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt). Records from Serbia and Montenegro are misidentifications. It is present up to 1,600m asl (Sinai). The range of this species remains poorly known.	eng
164637	habitat	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is found in humid areas of garrigue scrub habitat with rocks and stones, and can also occur in open pine forest and high-elevation scrubland. It can be found in ruins, olive groves and other rural areas. It can be found under stones mainly in May until the end of June. The rest of the year it has fossorial behavior, inhabiting the upper layer of soil.	eng
164637	population	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	This is a largely subterranean and difficult to collect species with few records. Populations appear to be small and fragmented although little is known about its population status. It is considered to be a rare species in the south of its range, and uncommon in Turkey. It is rare and localized on the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt.	eng
164637	threats	Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Petros Lymberakis, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Riyad Sadek, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Göran Nilson, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole. It is locally threatened in parts of its range, such as Israel, by fragmentation of populations through habitat loss. On Sinai it is threatened by overgrazing, collection of firewood, off-road vehicle use and roads.	eng
164638	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species might be present in protected areas, although this needs to be confirmed. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species. Populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
164638	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in the Caucasus region in Turkey (Vilayet Giresun) and possibly southwestern Georgia (Baran and Atatur 1998). It occurs between 800 and 2,000m asl. The recent distribution range forms some more or less extensive isolates. Isolated populations live on the southern slopes of Lechkhumsky and Rachinsky ranges in the foothills of Great Caucasus, where this lizard is known from the vicinity of the town Kutaisi, Tkvibuli and the health-resort Labarde. Its possible distribution in the foothills of the Great Caucasus Range is still not sufficiently studied.	eng
164638	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is associated with highly humid habitats. Populations are found in high steppe and rocky or stony areas close to streams (Baran and Atatur, 1998). The female lays a clutch of between two and five eggs.	eng
164638	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is usually locally common (up to 40 - 50 specimens per km2) in isolated patches.	eng
164638	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is restricted to only a few locations and is considered to be potentially threatened by increased habitat loss and population declines.	eng
164639	conservation	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is included in the "Annotated list of taxa and populations required a special attention to the status in the wildlife" (Appendix to the Red Data Book of Russian Federation, 2001). This species is listed under Appendix III (Protected Fauna Species) of the Bern Convention.<br/><br/>It is found in the protected areas of Khosrov, Shikachogh and Erebuni in Armenia; Vashlovani and Lagodechi in Georgia; Zakataly, Shakhbyzsky and Shirvansky in Azerbaijan.<br/><br/>Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164639	distribution	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species has a large distribution in far eastern Europe and West Asia. It can be found in eastern Turkey, between the Black and Caspian Seas, adjacent areas of Iraq and Iran (including Kermanshah and Lorestan provinces and Kurdestan [G. Nilson pers. comm. November 2008]) (map provisional for this country), southeastern Georgia, southern Armenia, Azerbaijan and the foothills of Dagestan (Russia). It generally occurs below 1,600 m asl.	eng
164639	habitat	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This generally subterranean species largely occurs in foothills, and often prefers sparsely vegetated slopes which are not steep. Populations have also been recorded from open desert and semi-desert areas with some shrubs and stones (not rocky steep areas or outcrops). Animals can be found under, and between, stones. The females lays clutches of four to eight eggs.	eng
164639	population	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species appears common in at least part of its range (Gasc <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). Up to eleven specimens may be found in an area of 100 m² (Szczerbak 2003).	eng
164639	threats	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no major threats to the species as a whole. It is locally threatened through conversion of land to agricultural use (including vineyards) and housing. Overgrazing of the species' habitat by domestic animals represents an additional threat.	eng
164640	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Nilson, G., Anderson, S.C., Andrén, C., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas throughout its distribution.  Efforts should be made to ensure that rare species such as <em>P. persicus</em> are not collected for anti-venom production.  One solution could be to only pay snake collectors for common species.  There is also a growing pet trade market for this species.  Monitoring of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. persicus</span> should be carried out to ensure harvest levels do not increase.	eng
164640	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Nilson, G., Anderson, S.C., Andrén, C., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species ranges from northeast Iraq, northwest Iran and southern Azerbaijan to northern Oman, and then east to India. The species is widespread in Iran (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan it ranges as far east as Manguli in southwestern Kalat (Minton 1966). It has been recorded up to 1,800 m above sea level in Pakistan. It might be present in northern Iraq. This species is unlikely to occur in southeast Turkey and northwest Azerbaijan, and presence in these areas needs to be confirmed.	eng
164640	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Nilson, G., Anderson, S.C., Andrén, C., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species is present in sandy areas, rocky areas and scrubland (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). Animals may be found under rocks and in burrows.  It prefers to hide in and under bushes. There is seasonal movement following its food source, birds. In the winter, the species occur in higher densities in more suitable habitat (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008). It is presumably a ovoviviparous species.	eng
164640	population	Ananjeva, N., Nilson, G., Anderson, S.C., Andrén, C., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	This species was common in some parts of its range and may still be in less well known areas (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164640	threats	Ananjeva, N., Nilson, G., Anderson, S.C., Andrén, C., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., 2009	In Iran, the greatest threat for this species is over-collection for the production of anti-venom.  Because of its habit of   congregating in smaller areas of suitable habitat in the winter, it is relatively easy to extirpate local populations.  In the case of Snake Mountain (Northern Kavir desert), extensive collecting has made the population, which gave the mountain its name, locally extinct (G. Nilson pers. comm. 2008).  This species is also collected for the pet trade in Iran and Turkmenistan.  In the past, this species was hunted for its skin to make shoes, purses and other decorative items, but this is no longer a threat, as most of the supply appears to be animals bred in captivity.	eng
164641	conservation	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	The species does not require special protection measures and occurs in numerous protected areas.	eng
164641	distribution	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species appear to occur as two disjunct populations. The first ranges from southern Armenia and Azerbaijan (in Zuvand, Nakhichevan and south-western Azerbaijan) into northwestern Iran and Turkey (eastern Anatolia region in the vicinities of Igdir and Tuzluca). The second population is present in the Kopet Dagh of northwestern Iran (northern Khorasan and eastern Mazanderan) and southern Turkmenistan. It may also be present in the isolated mountain regions of the Iranian Plateau (Baran and Atatur 1998; Anderson 1999). It is found up to 3,500m asl in Turkey.	eng
164641	habitat	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	In Iran, the species has been recorded from silty soil, red sandstone, slopes, ridges and alluvial valleys. The vegetation at known sites is generally sparse, overgrazed dry shrubs and steppe (Anderson 1999). In Turkey, it is found in desert-like, dry open places with pebbly substrates and little vegetation (Baran and Atatur 1998). It hides in cracks and crevices and can also burrow. The female lays two clutches of between three and seven eggs annually.	eng
164641	population	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	It has been recorded at three to five animals per hectare in Turkmenistan.	eng
164641	threats	Aram Agasyan, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole. Subpopulations around the Aras (Araks) River (Turkey, Armenia and Iran) are threatened by habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and intensification.	eng
164642	conservation	Wuster, W., 1996	It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
164645	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species is present in the Badkhyz Nature Reserve in Turkmenistan, and there are protected areas within the species' Iranian range. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164645	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species is present in northeastern Iran, in the vicinity of Mashhad, in southeastern Turkmenistan and in northern Afghanistan north of the Central Massif and south through the mountain passes to Paghman (Anderson 1999). It ranges between 900 and 2,500 m above sea level.	eng
164645	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species is found in areas of clay and sandy-loamy soils, usually in areas containing the burrows of the ground squirrel-like <em>Rhombomys</em>. These burrows may be used as retreats by <em>Laudakia</em> (Anderson 1999). This species basks on man-made piles of rock, but avoids rocky outcrops and vertical slopes (Anderson 1999). It has been recorded from gorges with Pistachio (<em>Pistachio vera</em>) in Turkmenistan (Ananjeva and Tuniyev 1994). This is an egg laying species.	eng
164645	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This is a common species within its limited range.	eng
164645	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species, although it has a generally limited geographic range.	eng
164647	conservation	Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There are protected areas within its range, and it is possible that populations of this species are present here.	eng
164647	distribution	Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The species is distributed as fragmented populations in the northwestern and western parts of the Central Plateau in Iran. There are records from the highlands of Zuvand in Azerbaijan, but there are no records from the past 50 years and it is possibly extinct here. It has been recorded up to 1,150 m asl.	eng
164647	habitat	Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species inhabits plateaus, where it is generally found in saltwort and wormwood semi-desert with sparse xerophytic herbaceous vegetation, grassy areas, and on takyr-like soils. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164647	population	Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is fairly common in suitable habitat (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008), but it is patchily distributed.  Overall, this species is found at low population densities (Shafti, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164647	threats	Steven Anderson, Boris Turiyev & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is significantly threatened by conversion of land to intensive agricultural use, including ploughing, overgrazing, and irrigation of semi-desert habitats.	eng
164648	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The type locality is not within a protected area. Further surveys are needed to better determine if the habitat is significantly declining over the species range.	eng
164648	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is endemic to southeastern Iran, where it is known only from the Jaz Murian Depression in Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). Although it has only been recorded from the type locality, it might be more widely distributed in the Depression where there are suitable patches of habitat. It is found at about 500m asl.	eng
164648	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Animals have been collected on trunks and branches of dry woodland (acacia), and on the walls of an old underground building (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164648	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It appears to be relatively common where there are suitable patches of acacia trees within the Depression (Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164648	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The major threats to this species are unclear. It is possibly a habitat specialist, restricted to acacia trees. These trees are often pruned for firewood collection and it is not know if this is a threat to the species. It is possible that the trees might be impacted by climate change or other forms of increasing aridity in the region.	eng
164650	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas, although in view of its wide range it might be present in several. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164650	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in western Georgia and southern Russia (west and central Caucasus and Black Sea coast). It does not appear to be present in Turkey. Populations are widely distributed in the western part of the Great Caucasus Range, from the northern, western and south-western slopes of the Black Sea chain of the Great Range in Krasnodar Territory, to Abkhazia and northwestern and southwestern Georgia, and to the canyons of the Kodory and Ingury Rivers in lower and upper Svanetia. The northern limits to its distribution pass through the middle sections of many left-side tributaries of the Kuban River. The most northern populations have been recorded from the area of Goryachyi Klyuch on the Psekupsa River and from the vicinity of the town Maikop. The southern limits to the distribution are found on the southern slopes of the Great Range and on the western spurs of the Gagra range. Lowland populations are found south of Krasnodar Territory and western Abkhazia, where it is sporadically recorded on the coast from Anapa town in the north up to the Khoby and Riony river canyons in southwestern Georgia. It ranges from sea level to 1,800m asl.	eng
164650	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This montane species is largely associated with rocky outcrops, but populations have been recorded from woodlands and sea coasts. It can be common in modified areas, where it is found on walls of stone buildings, fences, roadsides and ruins. The females lay clutches of two to six eggs with incubation lasting 55 - 60 days.	eng
164650	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Over most of its distribution it is a common species.	eng
164650	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species.	eng
164654	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this species have been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164654	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in eastern and southeastern Georgia, Armenia and southern Azerbaijan. The main distribution of this species is along the right-bank of the valley of the middle Kura River, and the ravines of its right-side tributaries within Georgia, northern Armenia and north-western Azerbaijan. Populations have been recorded from Gori in the west, to the northern foothills of Lesser Caucasus range, and in the lower and middle sections of rivers flowing into the Kura River (Algeti, Khrami, Debet, Akstafa-chai, Gyandzha-chai and others) in the southeast. A large isolated population is present within the valley of the middle part of the Iori River (a left-side tributary of the Kura River) on the southern slopes of the Zivgamborsky mountain range. A second interesting isolated population has been discovered in southwestern Azerbaijan, in the ravine of upper Akar River (part of the Aras River basin). It has been recorded from 300 to 1,700m asl.	eng
164654	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It inhabits relatively arid rocks along riverbanks and mountain slopes with xerophytic shrubby and herbaceous vegetation. It is tolerant of a degree of habitat modification. It is a parthenogenic species, the female lays two to five eggs in a clutch.	eng
164654	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Over most of it's range populations are high and stable (up to 40 - 55 specimens per km2).	eng
164654	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Overall the species is not experiencing significant declines. There are some local declines in locations with many people, (especially urban areas).	eng
164657	conservation	Göran Nilson and Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is present in the Lar River Valley Protected Area (Central Province). There is a need to prevent overgrazing and better regulate the collection of topsoil within the limited range of this species.	eng
164657	distribution	Göran Nilson and Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it has been recorded from alpine meadows in the Elburz Mountains. Populations have been recorded between around 2,500 to 3,000m asl. It exists as highly fragmented populations, perhaps occupying only 10-15% of the mapped distribution (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164657	habitat	Göran Nilson and Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is associated with alpine meadows or alpine steppe habitat. The diet generally consists of crickets (orthoptera) and lizards. It is a ovoviviparous species.	eng
164657	population	Göran Nilson and Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is a comparatively rare species, although in places it can be locally common (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164657	threats	Göran Nilson and Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	The species has a restricted habitat type which is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock in some areas (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008). and by the removal of the fertile alpine topsoil for commercial horticultural use in others (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). A small number of animals have been reported in the international pet trade (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164658	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	In view of its wide range, it is presumably present within some protected areas, however this requires confirmation. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164658	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is found in northeastern Turkey, ranging approximately from Erzerum in the west and the valley of upper Aras River in the south, into the northern and southern foothills of the Meskhetsky range within Ajaria and neighbouring regions of Georgia, and from the Black Sea coast in the west to the middle Kura River in the east. There are local isolated populations in the ravines of several tributaries of the Kura River (Akhaldaba, Baniskhevi, Azkuri and others). It ranges from sea level to 1,700m asl.	eng
164658	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is found in a number of habitats. It can be found in rocky and stony areas of forest clearings, and also at sunny sites along rivers. The female lays a clutch of between two and four eggs (Baran and Atatur, 1998).	eng
164658	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This is an abundant species. Over most of it's range the number of animals is high and populations are stable (25 - 35 specimen per km2). It is especially numerous on rocky steep slopes along sunny river banks.	eng
164658	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread species as a whole. It is locally susceptible to habitat destruction around urban areas.	eng
164659	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further general studies are needed into the natural history of this little=known species.	eng
164659	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is present in southeastern Khuzestan and southern Fars Provinces, Iran (Anderson, 1999). It has been reported from southeastern and central Iraq by Afrasiab (1987).	eng
164659	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This little-known species has been collected under stones in a cultivated field, and at night on an unpaved road running through a flat terrain of silty alluvium (Anderson, 1999). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164659	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It might be a common species, although this requires confirmation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164659	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are probably no threats to this species (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164663	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S.C. & Khan, M.S., 2009	It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Iran. No direct research measures for conservation purposes are currently needed for this species.	eng
164663	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S.C. & Khan, M.S., 2009	This species is present in through the eastern deserts of Khorasan, Iran, through the Helmand River basin of Afghanistan and desert basins of Baluchistan, Pakistan (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The southeastern part of its range does not extend past the Sistan Basin and the Farah-Rud River (Golubev 1998).	eng
164663	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S.C. & Khan, M.S., 2009	It is found on areas of fine windblown sand, sand dunes, stabilized sand, and in areas of bare stony ground bordering dunes and along rivers in gravel plains (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). Animals are generally found close to bushes and shrubs (Minton 1966). It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164663	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S.C. & Khan, M.S., 2009	It is locally common in Iran near the Afghan border (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164663	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Anderson, S.C. & Khan, M.S., 2009	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
164664	conservation	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It has been collected from no hunting areas, but it is not clear if these are protected areas. More research is needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
164664	distribution	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This newly described species is known from the Zagros Mountains of western Iran (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006), ranging from Qasr-e-Shirin to Khuzestan (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has been recorded from '70km southwest of Ilam [probably on the road to Amirabad and Mehran], Ilam Province' (the type locality); from '25km south of Qasr-e-Shirin on road to Gilan-e Gharb, Kermanshah Province, at 200m asl' (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006); and most recently from Khuzestan Province (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The map indicates the extent of potentially suitable habitat, as the species is presumably more widely distributed within the Zagros Mountains and is likely to be present in adjacent areas of Iraq (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).	eng
164664	habitat	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The species is found in hilly areas, and is associated with deep cracks in the rocky gypsum substrate habitat (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Animals can be encountered lying in ambush under small shrubs near to their burrows (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). It has been collected at night from an open level area in an agricultural region (Bostanchi <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is possible that it has a specialized diet, and preys on birds (although perhaps not exclusively) (Fathinia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The breeding system is not known.	eng
164664	population	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The species is currently only known from a small number of specimens.	eng
164664	threats	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The threats to this species are not known, it is an unusual snake and is potentially threatened by future overcollection for the international pet trade. Presumably animals are killed when encountered by villagers.	eng
164665	conservation	Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The species has been recorded from the very well-protected Kavir National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164665	distribution	Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species known only from the type locality of Siah Kuh on the Dasht-e Kavir in the western portion of Central Plateau of Iran (Nilson and Andrén, 1978; Anderson, 1999). The species appears to be distributed within an isolated area of perhaps less than 100km2. It has been collected at perhaps 1,000m asl or less.	eng
164665	habitat	Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The three known specimens were collected under stones on almost bare gravel, in low hills, at the border of north-facing slopes of Siah Kuh. There was scattered shrubby vegetation at the site. The general area is of broken rocky mountains and alluvial plains (Nilson and Andrén, 1978; Anderson, 1999).	eng
164665	population	Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is currently known only from three specimens. Animals in the genus <em>Ophiomorus</em> are secretive and hard to find, with most specimens being discovered under rocks and stones.	eng
164665	threats	Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	Although this species is believed to have a relatively restricted range, it is found in a very remote area that is inhospitable to people, and is unlikely to suffer any significant threats.	eng
164670	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are a number of protected areas within the species range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
164670	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is restricted to the central Zagros foothills of Iran and Iraq. It has been recorded from Kermanshah and Lorestan Provinces in Iran and from Palegawra Cave, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164670	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is a poorly-known species. Animals have been recorded in the humid environment of a limestone cave and on a limestone cliff next to a brook (Anderson, 1999). It is always associated with rocky areas (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164670	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It appears to be locally common in suitable rocky habitats (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164670	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species in its boulder-type habitat.	eng
164673	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas in the Middle Asia. It is listed in the national Red Data Books of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.	eng
164673	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species is found from Sri Lanka, the Indian states of Sikkim and Maharashtra, throughout most of Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, southern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan, southeastern Tajikistan and Iran. Within Iran, the species has been reported from Khorasan Province, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, Kerman Province and Hormozghan Province (Latifi 1991). The species is believed to occur throughout most of Pakistan, with the exception of higher elevations (Minton 1966). The subspecies <em>B.t. melanocephala</em> is found from around 0-800 m asl	eng
164673	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This is a nocturnal and secretive species. In Pakistan it is found in a range of habitats from gallery forest to sparse desert shrubland, generally avoiding highly arid, rocky or sandy areas (Minton 1966). Animals can be found in urban gardens (Minton 1966). In Iran, it is found in deserts, fields, rocky areas with soft sand and occasionally in grasslands and rural gardens (Latifi 1991). In Turkmenistan it can be found in areas of arid scrub vegetation, amongst sand dunes with sparse vegetation, and in rocky localities (N. Orlov pers. comm. September 2008). It is an oviparous species.	eng
164673	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This is a cryptic and nocturnal species in the north of its range. It is generally considered to be a rare species in Turkmenistan and appears to be uncommon in Iran.	eng
164673	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
164674	conservation	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It occurs in several protected areas throughout its range. It is included in the Red Data Books of USSR (1984) and Armenia (1987) as an endangered species. It is protected by Appendix II of the Bern Convention.	eng
164674	distribution	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species is widespread in central and eastern Anatolia, Turkey, from where it ranges eastwards to Armenia and possibly also to northwestern Iran. It is found between 800 and 2,400 m asl.  There is a locality reported from European Turkey (Venchi and Bologna 1996), but this is believed to be in error so is not shown on the map.  At present the species is preserved mainly in the Spitak region in Armenia where it is observed only on unploughed and difficult to access areas.	eng
164674	habitat	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species inhabits upland steppe areas with sparse vegetation and stony substrates. Animals hide within the crevices of rocky mounds. It also lives in regions where cattle graze. <br/><br/>This species appears after hibernation at the middle of April and disappears in the end of September. The females lay up to three clutches of two to five eggs per year. The first clutch is laid up in the end of June - beginning July, second - in the end of August. Young appear from end of July. Sexual maturity comes after second hibernation.	eng
164674	population	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is a very common species. Its density is estimated to be 25 individuals per hectare (in Armenia).	eng
164674	threats	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A. & Akarsu, F., 2008	There are no major threats to this species at present.	eng
164675	conservation	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are protected areas within the species general range, but it is not known with certainty if the species occurs here. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology and general ecology of this species.	eng
164675	distribution	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Based on the few known specimens, this rarely recorded species probably has a wide distribution in the southern Zagros Mountains and their foothills (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). The type specimen was taken from somewhere between Shiraz, Kazerun and Takt-e Jamshid (Persepolis) in Fars Province, southwestern Iran (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). It has also been recorded from the Chambachid valley on the southern side of the river and on the Paris Massive, five kilometres south of Gharun station, in Lorestan Province (Schätti 2001; Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006); and from the locality of Siah makan junction, 57 km northwest of Genaveh city on the road to Behbahan, Bushehr Province (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006. It has also been collected from two localities in Kermanshah Province, without exact localities (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Specimens in the southern Zagros Mountains have been collected at around 1,650-3,100 m asl. The specimen from Bushehr Province was collected at an elevation of <100 m asl close to the Persian Gulf (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).	eng
164675	habitat	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	The Bushehr Province specimen was collected at night on the road, in an area of sedimentary steppe located between a series of small hills and lower elevation mountains and the Persian Gulf. All other specimens have been collected within mountainous areas (Rajabizadeh and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).	eng
164675	population	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is known from only a very few specimens.	eng
164675	threats	Steven C. Anderson, Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, in view of its wide range it seems unlikely that there are any major threats to the species.	eng
164679	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations are present within the grasslands of the Khosrov and Dilijan Reserve (Armenia).	eng
164679	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has been recorded from Armenia, Azerbaijan (Nachitschevan) and northeastern Turkey (Kars and Erzerum provinces) at the altitude of 1,000 to 3,000m asl.	eng
164679	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This is a mountain-steppe species that is almost always found around rocky outcrops in short grass steppe. It inhabits slopes of mountains, rocky outcrops and talus slopes, rocky-mountain steppes, humid steppe meadows, and banks of canyons that are overgrown with bush vegetation. It has been recorded from rural areas. In hot part of the summer it changes from diurnal activity to being active in the morning and evening hours. The species is viviparous, with litters of up to 10 young are born (Latifi, 1991). The period of activity before hibernation lasts from April - May to October.	eng
164679	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The population density is generally low, but as many as eight to ten animals can be found per hectare in foothill areas.	eng
164679	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by the overgrazing of its habitat by domestic livestock (sheep). It is more generally threatened by the overall degradation of mountain habitats. An additional threat is the conversion of suitable habitat to intensive agricultural use at lower elevations.	eng
164686	conservation	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	It is not known with certainty if the species is present in protected areas within Iran.	eng
164686	distribution	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	This species is present in the Sistan Basin of Iran and Afghanistan, and the sandy tracts along the Afghan-Pakistan (northwestern Baluchistan) border (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded at around 450 m asl in Iran (Anderson 1999), and at around 1,100 m asl in Afghanistan (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164686	habitat	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	Anderson (1999) found the species in loose drifting loess in an abandoned village in Sistan, Iran. Minton (1966) recorded it on dune slopes.	eng
164686	population	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	This is a common species in loose sand (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164686	threats	Ananjeva, N., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species in its remote and inhospitable habitat.	eng
164687	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known lizard.	eng
164687	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Iran, where it is known only from the arid Dasht-e Lut region in Baluchistan (Anderson, 1999). It has been collected between 800 and 1,000m asl.	eng
164687	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The natural history of this species is poorly known. The region of collection has low precipitation and humidity, with salty and sandy soil with few shrubs (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164687	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is known only from three specimens.	eng
164687	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The threats to this very poorly known species are not known.	eng
164688	conservation	Mousa Disi, A.M., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Vogrin, M., 2009	In Jordan it is present in Wadi Rum Reserve. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164688	distribution	Mousa Disi, A.M., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Vogrin, M., 2009	This species is found in southwestern Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran and possibly Pakistan. It also occurs in Africa where it is found in Djibouti, Eritrea (including islands in the Dahlak Archipelago), Ethiopia and Somalia. It may have been accidentally introduced in parts of its range (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). It can be found from sea level up to 3,000 m above sea level.	eng
164688	habitat	Mousa Disi, A.M., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Vogrin, M., 2009	This species occurs in rocky formations within flat, hard, sandy desert and gravelly plains (dry wadis). It also occurs in open, dry woodland and shrubland. It can be found under stones, on the walls of abandoned buildings, on beaches and among rocks. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164688	population	Mousa Disi, A.M., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Vogrin, M., 2009	This is a very common species throughout its range.	eng
164688	threats	Mousa Disi, A.M., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Vogrin, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
164689	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in Bitlis-Adilcevaz Süphandaği Wildlife Management Zone. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
164689	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Turkey, where it is known from the vicinity of Lake Van, within the boundaries of Vilayets Van, Bitlis, and Agri (Baran and Atatür, 1998 and Franzen and Heckers, 1999). It has been recorded up to 2,400m asl.	eng
164689	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found in desert-like, dry open places with pebbly substrates and little vegetation (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It hides in cracks and crevices and can also burrow. The female lays between three and seven eggs.	eng
164689	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is common.	eng
164689	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
164690	conservation	Boris Turiyev, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, Göran Nilson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
164690	distribution	Boris Turiyev, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, Göran Nilson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species ranges from central and southern Turkey though most of Syria, northeastern Lebanon and western and northern Jordan, eastwards into northern Iraq and western Iran (mostly the Iranian Plateau) and southern Azerbaijan. It is not present in Israel. It is know from two southern regions of eastern Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan), where it occurs in the valley of the lower reaches of Aras River (Jebrail, Zangelan) and in the montane-steppe region Zuvandin the Talysh mountains. It The species occurs from sea level to 2,100m asl.	eng
164690	habitat	Boris Turiyev, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, Göran Nilson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found close to rocky areas in semi-arid and steppe habitats. It does not appear to climb bushes or trees. Populations can be found in marginal agricultural areas. Anderson (1999), found the species in open stony places and on walls. The female lays between four and 14 eggs in a clutch. It begins to reproduce on second year of life.	eng
164690	population	Boris Turiyev, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, Göran Nilson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	In Turkey, this species is common in suitable habitat.  It is relatively rare in the southern Azerbaijan (no more than 1 - 1.5 specimen per hectare).	eng
164690	threats	Boris Turiyev, Steven Anderson, Claus Andrén, Göran Nilson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is widespread and does not have any significant threats over much of its range because it is relatively tolerant of agricultural areas. In certain areas, such as Lebanon, it is threatened by poisoning by pesticides (consumption of contaminated invertebrates).	eng
164691	conservation	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas.	eng
164691	distribution	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The species is known only from the type locality, a mountain plateau in the vicinity of the village of Lalehzar, south-central Iran (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). It is unclear if this species has a restricted range and additional research is needed to better understand the distribution.	eng
164691	habitat	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It has been recorded from a mountain plateau with degraded steppe habitat, rural gardens and fields and wet meadows (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). Specimens were collected in open fields of soil and stones washed down the slopes of Mount Lalehzar (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999). Animals were observed along the banks of an irrigation ditch and in the vicinity of irrigated gardens (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999)	eng
164691	population	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is not uncommon at the type locality (Moravec, 1994; Anderson, 1999; Soheila Shafti pers. comm. September 2008). It has been recently collected at the type locality (Soheila Shafti pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164691	threats	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Although the species is known only from a relatively restricted area, it is somewhat adaptable and there appear to be no major threats.	eng
164693	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N. & Nilson, G., 2009	In Turkmenistan it is present within the Central Kopet-Dagh protected area. Within Iran there are many protected areas within the species range.	eng
164693	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N. & Nilson, G., 2009	This species is present in western Pakistan, southern Iran, southwestern Afghanistan and south Turkmenistan (Kopet-Dagh only). The species has been recorded from Waziristan and Baluchistan in Pakistan (Minton 1966). Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, Khorasan Province, Seman Province, Fars Province and Kerman Province (Latifi 1991, S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008). It has been recorded up to 700 m asl (Pakistan), up to 1,500 m asl in the Kopet-Dagh, and up to 1,750 m asl in Iran.	eng
164693	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N. & Nilson, G., 2009	This is a little-known species, found in arid rocky places, montane regions and areas of scrubland (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). It is probably an oviparous species.	eng
164693	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N. & Nilson, G., 2009	In Turkmenistan it is a very rare species. It also appears to be comparatively rare in Iran.	eng
164693	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N. & Nilson, G., 2009	There are currently no major threats to this species. It is presumably threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
164697	conservation	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2008	The conservation status of this species is uncertain due to poor knowledge about this species. Therefore further research is needed into its distribution, ecology, habitat, and threats.	eng
164697	distribution	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2008	This species is present in northwestern Iran in East Azerbaijan Province and discontinuously in Esfahan Province. It is also present in southern Azerbaijan (Anderson, 1999). It has been recorded between 500 and 2,600 m asl in Iran. There are doubtful records in the Caucasus.	eng
164697	habitat	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2008	The species occurs within gullies and on slopes and hillsides, in overgrazed steppe and shrubland habitat on volcanic tuff, or amongst boulders (Anderson 1999).	eng
164697	population	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2008	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
164697	threats	Tuniyev, B., Ananjeva, N., Agasyan, A., Orlov, N., Tuniyev, S. & Anderson, S., 2008	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
164698	conservation	Nilson, G., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
164698	distribution	Nilson, G., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species is endemic to southwestern Iran where it is known only from the type locality of "Maidan Mihaftan, 30 miles east of Schustar in southwest Persia".	eng
164698	habitat	Nilson, G., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	Other than it being a burrowing snake, there is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
164698	population	Nilson, G., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species is probably known only from the lost holotype.	eng
164698	threats	Nilson, G., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
164701	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	In Turkmenistan this species has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve and Badkhyz Nature Reserve.	eng
164701	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This widespread species has been recorded from eastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan (distribution might be more continuous than is currently known), Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. In Iran, it has been collected in the Dashley Boron region of Mazandaran Province (Latifi 1991). The species ranges up to 2,000 m above sea level (Latifi 1991). In Pakistan, it occurs in the lowlands from the delta of the Indus north to Rawalpindi and west to Bela (Minton 1966). It has been recorded up to around 520 m asl in Pakistan.	eng
164701	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This species has been recorded in flat clay desert, oases, traditionally cultivated fields and suburban gardens (Minton 1966, Latifi 1991). It is an oviparous species.	eng
164701	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	This is a very rare species within Central Asia and Iran.	eng
164701	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2009	There are no major threats overall to this globally widespread species. In Central Asia, it is threatened in parts of its range by overgrazing (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comms. September, 2008).	eng
164702	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas, including Golestan National Park (Iran).	eng
164702	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This species is distributed along the southern and southeastern coasts of the Caspian Sea in Iran and Azerbaijan, ranging as far east as the Atrak River of northern Khorasan (Anderson, 1999). It is found from slightly below sea level to up to around 1,500m asl (Anderson, 1999).	eng
164702	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	This temperate forest species (including Hyrcanian mixed deciduous forest), can be encountered climbing on tree trunks and walls, in heaps of brushwood, or among the grass of the forest floor. The females lay a clutch of three to ten eggs.	eng
164702	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	It is common to abundant over most of its range.	eng
164702	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, Sako Tuniyev, and Steven Anderson, 2008	In some areas the species is locally threatened by deforestation.	eng
164706	conservation	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species occurs in a number of national parks and nature reserves (including Khosrov National Park and Sevan Lake National Park [both Armenia]).	eng
164706	distribution	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is present in the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Trabzon, Ardahan and Kars), northwestern Armenia, western Azerbaijan and southern Georgia. It has been introduced to northern Ukraine. It is found up to 2,500m asl (Turkey).	eng
164706	habitat	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This is a montane species that is found in rocky areas, and high steppes, where lives among herbaceous vegetation. It is sometimes common in ruins and on the walls of buildings. This is a parthenogenic species; three or four eggs are laid in a clutch (Baran and Atatur, 1998) in middle of June - early the July. Large females can to lay second clutches. The incubation period of eggs lasts about 55 days, and the young hatch at the end of July to the beginning of August. Animals emerge after hibernation from the end of March to the beginning of May (in depending on altitude of  habitat). It reaches maximum size by about the fourth year.	eng
164706	population	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	It is common, sometimes numerous species (up to 200 specimens for 1 km of route).	eng
164706	threats	Aram Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	There are no overall major threats to the species, however some subpopulations are locally threatened by overgrazing of their habitat by domestic livestock (cattle) and the associated habitat destruction. The species is adaptable to some habitat change and populations can be found living on churches and similar old buildings.	eng
164707	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	Its range includes a few protected areas in Turkey and Armenia. Other than general research, no direct conservation measures are currently needed from the species as a whole.	eng
164707	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is present in west and central Anatolia, Turkey, southwestern Armenia and southwestern Georgia. Within the Caucasus it is found as isolated populations in Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Georgia and eastern Turkey. The most extensive areas of the distribution range in the Caucasus are the high mountain areas of the Gegamsky range to the shores of Lake Sevan in the north, the high mountain area of the Aragaz Peak, and the high mountain plateau in the foothills of the Childyrsky and Javakhetsky ranges in the extreme north-west of Armenia and adjoining regions of southern Georgia. It is also found on the Ardenissky mountain range, and further east it inhabits the high-mountains of the Karabakh Upland within the limits of Nagorny Karabakh. The species is widely distributed in north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern Turkey. It is probably found in the high mountains adjacent Iran, although this needs to be confirmed. It might have been introduced to Ohio in the United States. In Turkey it has been recorded from 1,300 to 3,000m asl.	eng
164707	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It occurs in rocky areas in montane shrubland and grassland areas in Anatolian and Transcaucasia steppe. The species lays four or five eggs.	eng
164707	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It is a common species. Over most of the distribution around nine to 25 animals can be found per km2. It is locally abundant, but fragmented at higher altitudes.	eng
164707	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Boris Turiyev, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and common species.	eng
164708	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Yakup Kasaka, Aziz Avci, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species is protected in the Borzhomsky reserve, Russia. There is a need to establish specialized protected areas in the areas of the highest population density of this species in the Meskhetsky and Trialetsky mountain ranges. The species was included into the Red Data Books of the USSR (1984) and Georgia (1982) - category 3. It is protected on the territories of Algeti and Borjomi Reserve in Georgia.	eng
164708	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Yakup Kasaka, Aziz Avci, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in northern Turkey (from the Bosporus to northeastern and northern Anatolia) extending into Georgia. Museum specimens exist for Azerbaijan which need verification.	eng
164708	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Yakup Kasaka, Aziz Avci, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The characteristic habitats are situated in the zones of xerophytic forests and rocky areas. Animals prefer rocky slopes overgrown with oaks, pines and hornbeams. They are frequently noted on forest edges, stony screens overgrown with lichens and rocky outcrops in river valleys. In the mountains it can be found up to the zones of montane steppes. Hibernation begins at end of October. After hibernation, mating begins in March - April. It is ovoviviparous species. Female give birth 4 - 10  young in August - September. During the summer snakes are active in the morning and evening.	eng
164708	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Yakup Kasaka, Aziz Avci, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Locally common where appropriate habitat exists.	eng
164708	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Yakup Kasaka, Aziz Avci, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The major threats to this species are overcollecting for the pet trade and conversion of rocky habitats for agricultural development.	eng
164710	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species currently has no conservation measures in place or that are needed. It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas.	eng
164710	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species is present in Kerman, Sistan and Baluchistan Provinces in Iran and northwestern Las Bela in Pakistan (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). It has been collected at around 200 m above sea level in Pakistan (Minton 1966).	eng
164710	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	It has been recorded from rock-strewn desert, other rocky areas, building ruins and similar habitats (Minton 1966, Anderson 1999). The species is active in the daytime, but only in shaded areas (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
164710	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
164710	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are currently no major threats to this species or its habitat.	eng
164711	conservation	C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is not known to occur in any protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range are needed.	eng
164711	distribution	C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to the sub-montane and temperate zones of the Bolkar Mountains and western Taurus Mountains in southern Anatolia, Turkey.  It has been recorded from the provinces of Adana and Içel (= Mersin).  It has been recorded up to 300-1,300m asl.	eng
164711	habitat	C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	Populations are found in open Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation including open forested areas.  These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164711	population	C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This is a rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164711	threats	C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Mehmet Ǒz, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There are no major threats to the species' habitat at present. Forest fires are a potential threat.	eng
164713	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations have been recorded from several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164713	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is widely distributed on the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Range from the northern foothills of Mount Elbrus in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west, up to the southeastern extreme point of the Caspian mountain chain within Azerbaijan in the east. The southwestern limits of its distribution pass through the southern foothills of the Megrel'sky, Svanetsky and Lekhchumsky mountain ranges in lower Svanetia, and from here through South Ossetia approximately to the area of the Dzhava health-resort. The species is found along the southern spurs of the Kharul'sky, Kartalinsky and Kakhetinsky mountain ranges, as far as the Water Dividing (Watershed ) Range in the Alazan River valley of Georgia. In Azerbaijan it is found in the upper reaches of rivers beginning in the Great Range, and to the east of here, from the slopes of the mountains Baba-Dag and Dyubrar, and in particular valleys of the Pirsagat and Sumgait rivers. This species is also widely distributed on the northern slopes of the Great Caucasus range, from the Baksan ravine in Kabardino-Balkaria in the west to the Samur range in south Dagestan in the east. The northwestern limit of the distribution passes through the Baksan ravine, approximately from the town of Tegenekly in the south, continuing to the east on the northern foothills of the Skalisty and Bokovoi ranges. The most northern populations are known from the Adyr-su ravine, near to the waterfall in the Chegemskaya gorge, and from the vicinity of the Blue Lakes in Kabardino-Balkaria and the vicinity of Alagir, to the settlement of Balta in the lower part of the Dar'yal ravine of North Ossetia. It has been recorded up to 3,200m asl (Darevsky 1984).	eng
164713	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this montane species inhabit rocky outcrops, piles of stones, ravine slopes and river banks. Animals have also been recorded from woodlands and alpine meadows. The females lay two to five eggs.	eng
164713	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is common.	eng
164713	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread species as a whole.	eng
164716	conservation	Göran Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	There are many protected areas within the species Iranian range. It is present in the Kopet-Dagh Reserve in Turkmenistan.	eng
164716	distribution	Göran Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran and the Kopet Dagh Mountains of Iran and adjacent Turkmenistan (only at Sushankaa Bol'shie Kazanki) (Anderson, 1999). It has been found from close to sea level to 3,355m asl.	eng
164716	habitat	Göran Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	It is generally found on slopes in rocky areas with shrubby vegetation, although it has also been recorded from grassy alpine landscapes and close to the upper limits of Hyrcanian forest (Anderson, 1999). It is not known whether the species can persist in degraded habitats.	eng
164716	population	Göran Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	It is extremely common in the Alborz Mountains (observations from the Lar Valley) (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). It is uncommon in Turkmenistan (Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164716	threats	Göran Nilson, Natalia Ananjeva, Nikolai Orlov, Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Steven C. Anderson, 2008	There are no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
164717	conservation	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is not present in any protected areas, and there is an urgent need to restrict (or even prevent) the collection of this species. The snake is not considered to be a great threat to people, as it lives in a remote area.	eng
164717	distribution	Göran Nilson, 2008	This species is endemic to the Zanjan Valley of northwestern Iran. It is found at elevations of around 2,500m asl.	eng
164717	habitat	Göran Nilson, 2008	It is generally associated with rocky habitats, including rock walls, scree and cliff edges within the Zanjan Valley. It is not present in the steppe-like habitat or agricultural areas of the valley floor (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164717	population	Göran Nilson, 2008	It was formerly a common species, although it is much rarer now (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164717	threats	Göran Nilson, 2008	Beginning around the late 1950s to early 1960s and continuing until today, this species has been overcollected by commercial snake collectors for its use in serum production (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008). There has been a corresponding decline in populations. The habitat appears to remain in a suitable condition for the species (Göran Nilson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164718	conservation	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Baft, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	In Jordan it is found in the protected areas of the Azraq Wetland and Ahawmary Reserves. In Israel it may be present in a protected area, but this requires confirmation. In Turkmenistan, it has been recorded from the Badkhyz Preserve. This species is protected by national legislation in Israel. It has been included in the Russian Red Book (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
164718	distribution	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Baft, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	This species ranges from the Arava Valley in southern Israel, through Jordan, northeastern Syria, to Iraq, Iran and Central Asia (southern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan). It is also widespread on the Arabian Peninsula in much of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and northeastern Yemen. It occurs from the lowlands up to 2,100 m above sea level (Afghanistan)	eng
164718	habitat	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Baft, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	This nocturnal, ground dwelling species is found on a variety of different desert soil substrates, both soft and hard.  Animals can be found resting in dead palm trees and under ground cover. The female lays clutches of two eggs. It can be found in lightly modified habitats, such as sandy fields, in rural areas.	eng
164718	population	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Baft, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	This species is generally not uncommon. It is considered to be common to abundant in Iran, but extremely rare in Turkmenistan (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996; T. Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164718	threats	Mousa Disi, A.M., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Baft, S. & Sharifi, M., 2009	There are no specific threats to this species, especially as it can be found on a variety of soil substrates.	eng
164719	conservation	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2008	There are several protected areas within the range of this species in Iran. In Turkmenistan it has been recorded from the Suntkhasazdag Nature Reserve. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little known species.	eng
164719	distribution	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2008	This species is restricted to southern Turkmenistan (central and southern Kopet-Dagh) and Iran. Within Iran, it has been recorded from Central Province, Zanjhan Province, West Azarbaijan Province, Khuzistan Province, Ghilan Province and Khorasan Province (Latifi 1991). It has been recorded at 1,100-1,600 m asl in Kopet-Dagh Mountain Range.	eng
164719	habitat	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2008	This is a nocturnal and fossorial species that has been recorded from fields, montane and rocky regions and in semi-desert areas (Latifi 1991). In the Kopet-Dagh, the species has been found on rocky slopes within intermontane depressions, and has also been found in gravel desert (N. Ananjeva and N. Orlov pers. comm., September, 2008). It is often found under rocks. It is an oviparous species.	eng
164719	population	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2008	This is a secretive and difficult to find snake, with animals only being encountered in the springtime. In Turkmenistan it is very localized and infrequently found.	eng
164719	threats	Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S., Sharifi, M., Ananjeva, N. & Orlov, N., 2008	There are currently no major threats overall to this species. It is locally threatened by overgrazing of its habitat in parts of the Kopet-Dagh.	eng
164720	conservation	Arman Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	It is not known if this species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution and natural history of this species. There is a need to regularly monitor population and record and reductions in the numbers of animals.	eng
164720	distribution	Arman Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus, where it has been recorded from eight locations in northern Armenia and southern Georgia. It is comparatively widely distributed the foothills of the Kura River valley. Populations are patchily distributed and isolated. The species has been recorded from 900 to 1,700m asl.	eng
164720	habitat	Arman Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	Populations are usually encountered in moderately arid slopes of gorges and rocky outcrops. It can be found among overgrown wooded ruins, and on stone walls and fences. It is a parthenogenic species. The females lay clutches of two to five eggs (most often four eggs).	eng
164720	population	Arman Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This is a rare species.	eng
164720	threats	Arman Agasyan and Natalia Ananjeva, 2008	This species is threatened by increasing urbanisation and road construction, with settlement of people around the remaining fragmented populations. There appears to be increasing competition with sympatric species.	eng
164721	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the range of this species.	eng
164721	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, 2008	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality, approximately 10km northwest of Sarvabad, between Marivan and Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province, in western Iran (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). It has been collected at around 1,850m asl. This species is likely to be more widely distributed than is currently known.	eng
164721	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, 2008	The species has been collected from the northern Zagrosian oak forest, largely consisting of <em>Quercus brandtii</em> and <em>Q. persica</em>, with members of the families Rosaceae and Graminaceae among the dominant plant species (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). The type locality is situated in a mountainous area with large boulders and rocks (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006). The paratypes were collected near the mouth of small caves (Rastegar-Pouyani <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
164721	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, 2008	It appears to be easy to collect (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164721	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Göran Nilson, Theodore Papenfuss, Steven Anderson, 2008	Although it is not well known, and has only been recorded from a limited area to date, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its rocky habitat.	eng
164722	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. There is a urgent need to maintain existing areas of suitable forest habitat for this species.	eng
164722	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region where it is found in northeastern Turkey (near Hopa, Artvin Province) and could extend north into the Pontic area of southwestern Georgia (Adzharia). It ranges between 50 and 700m asl.	eng
164722	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations inhabit narrow ravines containing large boulders and rocky outcrops, usually under canopy of subtropical forest with evergreen undergrowth. The species is not adaptable to habitat modification.	eng
164722	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations are severely fragmented and occur in relatively low densities across its limited range.	eng
164722	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by general deforestation. Populations are limited to increasingly threatened forest fragments. Ongoing tourism development along the Black Sea coastline is a threat to the species.	eng
164723	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, 2008	It has been recorded from a protected area in Syria, and is perhaps present within other protected areas within the region.	eng
164723	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, 2008	This species is known from central and southern Syria, northern Jordan and western and central Iraq.	eng
164723	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, 2008	It occurs on fairly hard substrate in dry steppe habitat with scattered vegetation. It can be found in heavily grazed areas in the 'Syrian Desert' region.	eng
164723	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, 2008	It is a common species.	eng
164723	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, 2008	There appear to be no significant threats to this species.	eng
164728	conservation	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Baha El Din, S.M., Kaska, Y., Kumluta, Y., Avci, A. & Üzüm, N., 2009	This species occurs in many protected areas. Further studies into the taxonomy and distribution of this species complex are needed.	eng
164728	distribution	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Baha El Din, S.M., Kaska, Y., Kumluta, Y., Avci, A. & Üzüm, N., 2009	This species ranges from two localities in Turkey, through much of Syria, eastern Lebanon, and most of Jordan to the northern Arabian Peninsula (northern Saudi Arabia, Kuwait United Arab Emirates), east to Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Punjab, northern India. It occurs from sea-level up to at least 900 m. There is an isolated population in the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), and on the Tiran Islands.	eng
164728	habitat	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Baha El Din, S.M., Kaska, Y., Kumluta, Y., Avci, A. & Üzüm, N., 2009	This species is found in a wide variety of arid areas with hard  substrates. It can be found on gravelly plains with sparse vegetation,  and in coastal areas. In southern Sinai it lives in coastal sand with very small hillocks. In Lebanon it inhabits open areas in semi-desert. It is also known from gravel plains and blown sand areas in wadis. The female lays five clutches of between one and six eggs per year.	eng
164728	population	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Baha El Din, S.M., Kaska, Y., Kumluta, Y., Avci, A. & Üzüm, N., 2009	This is a common species in Jordan, but is rare and restricted in Lebanon and Egypt. It is uncommon in Turkey where it is found.	eng
164728	threats	Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Mousa Disi, A.M., Werner, Y., Baha El Din, S.M., Kaska, Y., Kumluta, Y., Avci, A. & Üzüm, N., 2009	While there are local threats to some populations there are no widespread, major threats to this species.<br/><br/>The Lebanese population of <em>M. brevirostris</em> is on the edge of its range, and it could be at the limits of its ecological tolerance. In Egypt, it is threatened outside of protected areas by urban development and off-road vehicles. Overgrazing appears to be a problem in parts of the range. In Iraq, it may have been affected by recent wars.  In Turkey, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
164730	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164730	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This species is known from southeastern Turkey, northern and eastern Syria, Iraq and Iran (Hamadan, Kermanshahan and questionable records from Persepolis, Fars Province [Anderson, 1999]).  It has been recorded from 400 to 1,000m asl.	eng
164730	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	This primarily nocturnal species occurs in rocky areas, sparsely vegetated areas, shrubland, semi-desert habitats, and can also be found in ruins of old buildings near human habitation. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164730	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	It can be a reasonably common species. In Iran, it is known only from four specimens.	eng
164730	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, Uğur Kaya, 2008	There are no known threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
164734	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	About a half of species range is within the Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation legislation and education programmes within the species range.	eng
164734	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it occurs in the Black Sea coastal area of Russia. It is found along the southern slope of Skalistyi mountain range in the Republic of Adyghea (the mountain Afonka) and the Krasnodar Territory (the mountain range Malyi Bambak). Probably, it is present also in the Karachaevo-Cherkesskaya Republic. The species occurs as several very fragmented populations within a very limited range. It has been recorded  between 700 and 1,000m asl.	eng
164734	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this species are associated with light grassy oak woodlands, and areas of dry meadow and bushland, on rocky limestone massifs.	eng
164734	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is extremely rare (naturally) and is found at low densities. There are estimated to be fewer than 2000 mature individuals.	eng
164734	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from fires within its limited range, and the conversion of land for tourism development.	eng
164735	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	Its range includes a few protected areas. It is often bred in captivity and is easy to breed.	eng
164735	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This species is endemic to the central-southern coastal region of Turkey where it ranges from the Göksu valley to the area of Antalia. It might occur more widely. It can be found from sea level up to 1,500m asl.	eng
164735	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	It is a ground-dwelling species of Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices. It can occur in areas with some disturbance of the habitat, but not in intensive agriculture. It lays between seven and 20 eggs.	eng
164735	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	It is an uncommon species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164735	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, 2008	This species is locally threatened by forest fires.	eng
164736	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has been recorded from several protected areas, including the Nosacetia State Reserve, Caucasian State Biosphere Reserve, Teberginski State Biosphere Reserve, Alania National Park and Prielbruskia National Park. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation education programmes within the species range.	eng
164736	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is restricted to the Caucasus region, where it has been recorded from southern Russia and Georgia. It is distributed in the  North Caucasus in Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Chechnya, Ingushetia (all Russia) and adjacent regions of Georgia from 1,000 up to 2,000m asl.	eng
164736	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species inhabits steppe habitats, alpine meadows (at upper limits), and semi-arid slopes of mountains with xerophytic eastern-Mediterranean vegetation. Most frequently it is found in the rocks overgrown with lichens and sparse bushy vegetation, as well as in rodent colonies on the slopes. In some areas the species is sympatric with Dinnik's viper (<em>V. dinniki</em>) (such as the Abishir-Akhuba mountain range, upper reaches of the river Tiberda, slopes of the Elbrus mountain and the Itum-Kalinskaya hollow), in these areas <em>V. lotievi</em> inhabits semi-arid hollows, while the more mesophilic <em>V. dinniki </em>occupies the upper wet mountain zones	eng
164736	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species is relatively common where it is protected.	eng
164736	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species habitat is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock (sheep) and the conversion of areas to pastoral use. As with many snakes it is generally persecuted by local people.	eng
164737	conservation	Mousa Disi, A.M., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2009	This species is present in Wadi Rum Reserve, Jordan. It has not been recorded from any protected areas in Iran. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164737	distribution	Mousa Disi, A.M., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2009	This species ranges from southeastern Jordan into the Arabian Peninsula, including much of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and Iran (known only from the Mesopotamian Plain in the vicinity of Ahvaz). It is possibly present in southern Iraq.	eng
164737	habitat	Mousa Disi, A.M., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2009	This species is found in areas of soft, wind-blown sand, but can also occur on harder and drier substrates with sparse vegetation.  It is not found in rural agricultural areas. Animals can be found on small boulders. The females lay between one and two eggs in a clutch.	eng
164737	population	Mousa Disi, A.M., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2009	This species is fairly common in Jordan. There appears to be only a single record from Iran (S. Anderson pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164737	threats	Mousa Disi, A.M., Anderson, S., Sharifi, M. & Papenfuss, T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is possible that there is some localized loss of habitat through destruction of the soil crust caused by off-road vehicles. This species is not found in the pet trade.	eng
164739	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	Its range in Turkey includes one protected area, Harran Historical Site. In Iran, it is found in several protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
164739	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species ranges from southern Turkey (restricted to a few localities along the Euphrates River valley in southeastern Anatolia), to eastern Syria (known from two localities; Abu Kamal and Al Salhyeh), northern and eastern Iraq, and western Iran. It is found from around 150 to 1,000m asl.	eng
164739	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in rocky areas with sparse vegetation. It can also be found in caves, the ruins of old buildings and in houses (Iraq and Iran). It is an adaptable species to human modified environments. The female lays between one and two eggs with at least two clutches per year (Anderson, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164739	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	In Iran, this species is fairly common. It is a very common species within its very restricted range in Turkey.	eng
164739	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Steven Anderson, Uğur Kaya, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There are no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
164740	conservation	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is not known from any protected areas.  Further research is needed to determine the range, population status and threats to this species before conservation measures can be formulated.	eng
164740	distribution	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality and one other location only a few kilometres away near the town of Halfeti, on the upper slopes of the Euphrates River valley, in south-eastern Turkey. It has been recorded around 500 m asl. It may also occur in Iraq.	eng
164740	habitat	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This is a largely subterranean species. It has been recorded in semi-arid, karstic areas with grassland or open woodland vegetation. Animals have been found under rocks.  It is presumably an egg-laying species.	eng
164740	population	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	There is no information known about the population of this species.  It is possibly a rare, or at least difficult to find species as there have been significant surveys of the area in the past but it has only recently been discovered (A. Avci and Y. Kumlutaş pers. comms. 2008).	eng
164740	threats	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W., Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., Yeniyurt, C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	The habitat close to the known range of the species has been impacted by the building of a dam. It is not known what effect this has had on the species.	eng
164741	conservation	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It has been recorded from within the Khabr va Rouchon Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and ecology of this poorly-known species.	eng
164741	distribution	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is endemic to Iran, where it is known only from a few localities on the western slope of the Zagros Mountains (Anderson, 1999). The type locality is the indistinct 'Kurdistan'; Anderson and Leviton (1966) recorded it from Fars Province in Iran, five kilometres southeast of Pol-e Ab Abgineh (approx 29 33 N 51 45 E). A third record from Frynta <em>et al</em>. (1997) in Fars Province, 10 km east of Sivand at 1,700m asl (30 05 N 52 55 E). And also from 20 km east of Khabr (28 48 N 56 32 E) in the Khabr va Ruchoun Protected Area in the south-southwest of the Kerman Province of Iran (Kiabi <em>et al</em>. 1999). There might be an additional specimen collected at Maranjab (Ted Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008) although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
164741	habitat	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The habitat and ecology of this secretive species is very poorly known. It has been recorded from the transitional area between a mountain side and alluvial fans, within the Irano-Turanian steppe with desert climate and sandy -clay soil. The vegetation is dominated by <em>Artemisia</em> bush.	eng
164741	population	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This is a poorly known species (Soheila Shafti pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164741	threats	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	There appear to be no major threats within the range of this species. No significant habitat loss within the known range.	eng
164742	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas. Further research is needed to better determine the range of this species.	eng
164742	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This recently described species is known from the Zagros mountains of western Iran. The type specimen was collected at Shah Bazan, 12km NNE of (km 347 on the railway) near the small affluent Ab-I-Khornos at 600m asl (Werner 2006; Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Additional specimens have been collected from the vicinity of the type locality (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September, 2008).	eng
164742	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	The type locality consists of temperate oak forest (<em>Quercus brandti</em>), and has been described as xerophilus deciduous steppe-forest (Zohary 1973; Werner 2006). It appears to be restricted to large boulders within this habitat (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164742	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is known from only a few specimens.	eng
164742	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	Although it is not well known, and has only been recorded from a limited area to date, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its rocky habitat.	eng
164743	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It might be present in the Nibandan Wildlife Refuge. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164743	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species is endemic to the remote Dasht-e Lut desert in eastern Iran (Anderson, 1999). Reports from Pakistan require confirmation (Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164743	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	This species has been recorded in Iran from open gravel desert with no or very little, vegetation (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996; Anderson, 1999).	eng
164743	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	It is known from only a few specimens.	eng
164743	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Soheila Shafiei Bafti & Mozafar Sharifi, 2008	There are no major threats to the species, it is found within a remote desert environment containing very few people.	eng
164744	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	Its range includes several protected areas.	eng
164744	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is present in Turkey in the mountains of southern Anatolia and on part of the southern coast. It ranges from sea level up to 2,100m asl.	eng
164744	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found in rocky areas and on loose stone walls in forested or wooded areas and Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation. It can be found in some degraded habitats. The female lays between three and eight eggs.	eng
164744	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a very common species.	eng
164744	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species can be threatened in parts of its range by forest fires.	eng
164748	conservation	Werner, Y., Mousa Disi, A.M., Varol Tok, Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Baha El Din, S. & Nilson, G., 2009	This species is present in protected areas in Jordan, Turkey and Egypt. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
164748	distribution	Werner, Y., Mousa Disi, A.M., Varol Tok, Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Baha El Din, S. & Nilson, G., 2009	This species ranges from Ethiopia and Eritrea, through Sudan and Egypt, Israel (introduced to Eilat), southwestern and northeastern Jordan, eastern Syria, Turkey (southeast Anatolia only), most of Iraq, western and southwestern Iran, northwestern, northern and eastern Saudi Arabia (with isolated central populations), southwestern Yemen, Kuwait, Qatar, northern United Arab Emirates, eastern and southern Oman, eastwards to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. It has been introduced to the USA (Texas) where it is currently believed to be expanding its range. The natural range of this species is not clear, since it appears to have been introduced over much of its range (S. Baha El Din pers. comm.). Populations on the African coast have almost certainly been introduced by human agency and the only report from Eritrea is that of Heyden in 1827, so there is considerable doubt about whether the species still survives in this country. This species can be found from sea level to 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
164748	habitat	Werner, Y., Mousa Disi, A.M., Varol Tok, Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Baha El Din, S. & Nilson, G., 2009	This species is found in rocky coastal areas. It occurs in stony areas, on gravelly plains, moderately sandy desert with sparse vegetation, dry wadis and in dry grasslands. It can be found in urban areas, villages and on building walls and ruins. In general, this is a very commensal species.	eng
164748	population	Werner, Y., Mousa Disi, A.M., Varol Tok, Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Baha El Din, S. & Nilson, G., 2009	This is a common to abundant species, particularly in coastal urban areas. It is generally expanding its range and population size.	eng
164748	threats	Werner, Y., Mousa Disi, A.M., Varol Tok, Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Baha El Din, S. & Nilson, G., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Animals are occasionally persecuted in tourist resorts, and there is some collection of the species for the pet trade, although this does not seem to have a significant impact on the overall population.	eng
164749	conservation	Agasyan, A., Tuniyev, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Lymberakis, P., Crochet, P.-A., Mohammed Mousa Disi, A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I. & Sevinç, M., 2008	The species is included into the Red Data Book of Russian Federation (2001): category 3 - a rare species within the limits of Russia with distribution on the extreme northern border of its range. This species has been recorded from protected areas in Lebanon and Turkey. It is protected by national legislation in Israel. In Israel there have been recent attempts to captive-breed this species for conservation purposes. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, range, population size and threats to this species.	eng
164749	distribution	Agasyan, A., Tuniyev, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Lymberakis, P., Crochet, P.-A., Mohammed Mousa Disi, A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I. & Sevinç, M., 2008	This species ranges from central, southern and eastern Anatolia (Turkey) into the Caucasus of northwestern Iran, Armenia, extreme northeastern Azerbaijan, northeastern Georgia and southern Russia (in southern Dagestan). It also occurs south of Turkey in northwestern Syria, Lebanon, northern Israel (extinct in the Judean hills in central Israel), and northwestern Jordan. It is found between 600 and 2,000m asl.	eng
164749	habitat	Agasyan, A., Tuniyev, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Lymberakis, P., Crochet, P.-A., Mohammed Mousa Disi, A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I. & Sevinç, M., 2008	This diurnal species is found in woodland with a scrub or grassy understory, with stony and rocky areas. It can also be found in cultivated land, plantations and rural gardens. It is restricted to humid or moist areas in the south of its range. It is often found in trees. The female lays two clutches of between nine and eighteen eggs annually. The young are sexually mature after two years.	eng
164749	population	Agasyan, A., Tuniyev, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Lymberakis, P., Crochet, P.-A., Mohammed Mousa Disi, A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I. & Sevinç, M., 2008	It is common in the north of its range, and is rare in the south of its range. It is declining in Jordan. Subpopulations distributed on the northern Black Sea coastline are declining.	eng
164749	threats	Agasyan, A., Tuniyev, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Wilkinson, J., Ananjeva, N., Orlov, N., Lymberakis, P., Crochet, P.-A., Mohammed Mousa Disi, A., Hraoui-Bloquet, S., Sadek, R., Werner, Y., Tok, V., Ugurtas, I. & Sevinç, M., 2008	In Turkey this species is present in a wide range of habitats and there are no significant threats. In the southern parts of its range it is possibly threatened by habitat loss, and populations may be significantly impacted by predation by cats (in Israel). It has been recorded in the pet trade, but this is not believed to be a significant threat.	eng
164751	conservation	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
164751	distribution	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This endemic Iranian species is known only from the type locality of '60km NE of the city of Kermanshah 47 5 E - 34 52 N Kermanshah Province' Iran, at about 1,800m asl; and from the Alvand Mountains (part of the Zagros Mountains), in southern regions of Hamedan Province, about 21 km southwest of Hamedan city (ca. 48º 25´ E, 34º 33´ N) at 2,800m asl. It is not known if this species is relictual or quite widespread on the Iranian plateau and Alvand Mountains (Rastegar-Pouyani & Rastegar-Pouyani, 2001; Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). It is presumably more widely distributed in the upland and mountainous steppes of northeastern Kermanshah Province.	eng
164751	habitat	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is associated with upland and mountainous steppes, with luxurious vegetation. Animals forage among shrubs and hide in holes when disturbed. In the Alvand Mountains, this species has been recorded from stony hills and mountainous steppes (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Vegetation at the type locality is mainly <em>Astragalus</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, <em>Gondelium</em> as well as various other species of the families Graminaceae and Compositeae (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). The area is snow-covered during the winter, with a relatively short mild summer period (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006). Animals may be found foraging among shrubs, and take refuge in these shrubs when alarmed (Rastegar-Pouyani and Rastegar-Pouyani 2006).	eng
164751	population	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
164751	threats	Soheila Shafiei Bafti, Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss Mozafar Sharifi & Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	In Kermanshah, there appear to be no major threats to this species in this sparsely populated area, with very little habitat disturbance taking place (Mozafar Sharifi and Theodore Papenfuss pers. comm. September 2008). In the Alvand Mountains it is possible that the steppe-type vegetation in which this species has been recorded could be converted to agricultural use (Mozafar Sharifi pers. comm., September 2008). Further details are needed to confirm that this is a threat to the species.	eng
164752	conservation	Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are no protected areas to the north of Shiraz where this species could possibly be present. More research is needed into its distribution range, threats, and habitat status of this species.	eng
164752	distribution	Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species is endemic to south-central Iran, where it is currently known only from the type locality of '150 km NE of Shiraz, Fars Province' (Rastegar-Pouyani and Nilson 1998, Anderson 1999). It has been recorded at about 1,800 m asl. It seems probable that this is a widely distributed species, and that it is sympatric with <em>Eremias persica</em>, <em>Trapelus agilis</em> and <em>Phrynocephalus scutellatus</em> (S. Shafiei Bafti pers. comm. September 2008).	eng
164752	habitat	Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	It is found in areas of open silt and gravel plains with luxuriant steppe vegetation (Anderson 1999).	eng
164752	population	Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	It is known only from the type series of a few animals.	eng
164752	threats	Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	The threats to this species or the habitat within its range are currently not known.	eng
164753	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations of this species have been recorded from numerous protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
164753	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is present in the Caucasus region of western Armenia, southern Azerbaijan, northwestern Iran, southern Georgia and northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Kars, Erzurum, Agri and Van) (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It may be present in Turkmenistan. It is present from 600m to 2,500m asl.	eng
164753	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	It is a typically species of high steppe habitats and rocky areas close to streams. Populations can be found in high altitude forests. The female lays two clutches of four eggs. Unlike some other members of the genus, this is not a parthenogenic species.	eng
164753	population	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Over most of it's range populations are high and stable (40 to 60 animals per km2).	eng
164753	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although some localised declines have been recorded.	eng
164754	conservation	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	Populations occur in several protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species at present although further research to determine the species’ population status and range, particularly whether or not it occurs in Syria, would be desirable.	eng
164754	distribution	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	This species is present in southern and southeastern Turkey and also presumably in northern Syria, although there are currently no records from this country. It has been recorded between 400 and 1,900 m asl.	eng
164754	habitat	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is found in open Mediterranean-type shrubland.  These open areas have been created over many years by non-intensive agriculture and livestock practices.  It is an egg-laying species.	eng
164754	population	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	It is a common species (Avci pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164754	threats	Tok, V., Ugurtas, I., Sevinç, M., Böhme, W. & Crochet, P.-A., Kaska, Y., Kumlutaş, Y., Kaya, U., Avci, A., Üzüm, N., C. & Akarsu, F., 2008	There are no major threats to the species or its habitat at present.	eng
164756	conservation	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there is need to establish suitably managed reserves for this species. There is a need for further general research into the distribution and natural history of this species, and to develop conservation legislation and education programmes within the species range. There is a need to regulate trade in this species, and populations of this species should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution.	eng
164756	distribution	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus region, where it occurs in the Black Sea coastal area of Russia. It is distributed in the Krasnodar Territory and covers the both slopes of the lowest north-western part of the Great Caucasus from Papai mountain in the west to the peak of Bol'shoy Pseushkho mountain in the east. It has been recorded between 200 and 950m asl.	eng
164756	habitat	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	Populations have been recorded from different Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean habitats. These range from intrazonal clearings near to rivers, up to meadows, transformed steppes and the juniper forest ecotones.	eng
164756	population	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is considered to be extremely rare.	eng
164756	threats	Boris Tuniyev, Goren Nilson, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is highly threatened by overcollection of animals for the pet trade.	eng
164757	conservation	Nilson, G., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are several protected areas within the general range of this species. More research and monitoring is needed into the status of the population and habitat status. Additional surveys are needed to determine if the species is present in Iraq.	eng
164757	distribution	Nilson, G., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	This species is endemic to eastern and central Iran. It has been recorded from Fars Province, Central Province, Hamadan Province, Khuzistan Province, Lorestan Province and Esfahan Province (Latifi 1991). The distribution map based on Latifi (1991) is tentative . The species might be present in Iraq, although this requires confirmation.	eng
164757	habitat	Nilson, G., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	It has been recorded from mountainous areas, foothills, fields, grasslands and semi-desert regions (Latifi 1991). The female lays between three and five eggs during the summer (Latifi 1991).	eng
164757	population	Nilson, G., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	Although it is infrequently found, it is more commonly collected than many other snakes.	eng
164757	threats	Nilson, G., Sharifi, M., Anderson, S., Papenfuss, T., Shafiei Bafti, S. & Ananjeva, N., 2008	There are probably no major threats to this reasonably adaptable species.	eng
164759	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, 2008	This species has been recorded from the Gorovanskie perski protected area in Armenia; although protection measures for this species within the park need to be improved. There is an urgent need to identify and protect any remaining populations of this declining species. Formerly this species was included into the Red Data Book of the USSR (as <em>P. h. persicus</em>) (1984) - category 1. It is included in the Red Data Book of Armenia (1987).	eng
164759	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, 2008	This species occurs as several isolated populations within the Araks River valley of Armenia, Nakhichevan (Azerbaijan), and Turkey. It is a lowland species found up to 500 m asl.	eng
164759	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, 2008	Population of this species are largely limited to a limited patches of saltwort and wormwood semi-desert with sparse xerophytic herbaceous vegetation and takyr-like (clay desert) soils. Animals are particularly numerous on weakly-stabilized sandy soils (such as that found in the Gorovanskie peski protected area, Armenia). Animals can marginally also be found on traditional arable land. The females lay clutches of eggs two or three times in a season. This species is difficult to reproduce in captivity.	eng
164759	population	Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, 2008	The total number of animals in the Araks River is unlikely to exceed 1,500 - 2,000 individuals. Approximately four to six animals are found per hectare.	eng
164759	threats	Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, 2008	The habitat of this species is being significantly fragmented by conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanization in the Araks River valley. Much of the appropriate habitat has been lost within the past few years.	eng
164762	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas. More general research is needed into the natural history, distribution and possible threats to this little-known species.	eng
164762	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is currently known from the single locality of Amanos Mountain, near Hatay, Turkey. It has been recorded at 1,300m asl.	eng
164762	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in rocky and bushy areas near or surrounded by forest. As with similar species in this genus, it species is difficult to find because it lives in the soil. It is not known if this species lays eggs.	eng
164762	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is rare.	eng
164762	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	The threats to this recently described species are poorly known. It is possible that there are no major threats to the species in its rocky habitat, although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
164763	conservation	Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	The only known locality is not within a protected area. Further surveys are needed to determine the range of this species.	eng
164763	distribution	Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is known only from the type locality of 'Mianrahan region, Zagros Mountains, 40 km NE city of Kermanshah, Kermanshahan Province' in western Iran (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It was recorded at 1,450m asl. It probably occurs in a wider area in the vicinity of the type locality.	eng
164763	habitat	Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is known only from inside a small cave at the type locality. The cave is within a narrow fault valley through the Zagros Mountains (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). The species is active at night, hiding in rock crevices during the day (Rastegar-Pouyani, 1996; Anderson, 1999). It is probably not a cave specialist, although more details are needed on the natural history of this species.	eng
164763	population	Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is currently known only from a few specimens.	eng
164763	threats	Theodore Papenfuss, Göran Nilson, Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	Although it is not well known, there appear to be no major threats to this species within its very rocky habitat.	eng
164765	conservation	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	In Turkey it is present in the Ceylanpinar protected area. In Jordan it has been recorded from the Al Shawmary protected area.	eng
164765	distribution	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	This species ranges from far-southeastern Turkey (Avci, pers. comm. 2008), northern and northeastern Iraq, and western and central Syria to northern Jordan.	eng
164765	habitat	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	It is found in scattered steppe vegetation on solid earth. It can be found under or between stones. It can be found in lightly cultivated agricultural areas. It lays eggs.	eng
164765	population	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	This species is rare.	eng
164765	threats	Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Yehudah Werner, Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Pierre-André Crochet, Sherif Baha El Din, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
164766	conservation	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	It is present within the well-protected Kavir National Park.	eng
164766	distribution	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This recently described species is endemic to the Kavir Desert of northern Iran. It is currently known only from the type locality of the Maranjab sand dunes in Isfahan Province (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). It is believed to be a restricted range species (Mozaffari and Parham 2007).	eng
164766	habitat	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is believed to be endemic to the Maranjab sand dune habitat (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). Animals are found in the sand dunes, and are not present in surrounding gravelly areas. The dune weed <em>Stipagrostis pennata</em> dominates the vegetation at the type locality (Mozaffari and Parham 2007). It is presumably an egg-laying species.	eng
164766	population	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	This species is currently known only from the type series.	eng
164766	threats	Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss, 2008	Although it has a specialized habitat in a relatively restricted area, there is no habitat degradation (very few people are found within the species range) and the species appears to be secure.	eng
164768	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species occurs in the protected cedar forest reserve Ciglikara Ormani in the Turkish western Taurus Mountains (Göran Nilson pers. comm., October 2008). Further research is needed to confirm the range, population status of this species, and the impact of collection.	eng
164768	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is known only from one locality, Kohu Dag, 20km east of Elmali, in southwestern Anatolia, Turkey (Nilsen and Andrén, 2001). It has been recorded around 1,500-1,900 asl. It might occur more widely but surveys for this species in the region have failed to find it, suggesting that it is probably a range-restricted species.	eng
164768	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is known from montane, open, Mediterranean forest. It prefers open areas so can benefit from some logging. It is a ovoviviparous species (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164768	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is an extremely rare species (Avci and Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164768	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a very restricted range species. There is some collection of the species for the pet-trade and possibly for scientific collections. Farmers that seasonally use the area persecute the snake as they are not sure if it is dangerous. The species' habitat is not currently threatened.	eng
164770	conservation	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is not found in any protected areas. More research is needed to understand the distribution and population dynamics of this species.	eng
164770	distribution	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is endemic to eastern Turkey, where it is known only from the vicinity of Ercis within Vilayet Van of eastern Anatolia (Baran and Atatür, 1998). It is present at an altitude of around 2,000m asl.	eng
164770	habitat	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is found on rocky and stony open slopes and high steppe habitats. The females typically lay a clutch of between three and four eggs (Baran and Atatür, 1998). This species cannot tolerate modified habitat (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164770	population	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is rare within its limited range (Kumlutaş, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164770	threats	Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
164771	conservation	Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov, 2008	It is not present in a protected area, and there is a urgent need to conserve the remaining small area of habitat.	eng
164771	distribution	Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species has a restricted distribution in the vicinity of the Bami Station in southern Turkmenistan. It is a lowland species found below 100m asl.	eng
164771	habitat	Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov, 2008	It is limited to a very distinct soft salt-flat like area (solonchak soil). It is not found outside of the primary habitat type. It is an egg laying species.	eng
164771	population	Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov, 2008	This species is generally rare in suitable habitat (Natalia Ananjeva pers. comm., September, 2008).	eng
164771	threats	Natalia Ananjeva and Nikolai Orlov, 2008	The restricted habitat of this species is threatened by agricultural expansion (croplands). The region has been irrigated allowing the conversion of land from the solonchak-type soil.	eng
164773	conservation	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It has not been recorded from any protected areas, and there do not appear to be any protected areas within the range of this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
164773	distribution	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is endemic to the southern Central Plateau, Iran, where it is known only with certainty from the localities of Kuh-e Taftan, Sargad and eastern Kerman (Anderson, 1999). Records of this species from several localities between Sistan and Bampur need to be confirmed, and might represent an undescribed species (Anderson, 1999, Steven Anderson pers. comm., September 2008).	eng
164773	habitat	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	This species is found in mountainous rocky areas, cliffs, river banks and dry channels and plains (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996). It is most often found on granite, but can also be found on conglomerates and other rocks (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996).	eng
164773	population	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	It is abundant between the Sistan and Bampur Depressions (Szczerbak and Golubev, 1996).	eng
164773	threats	Steven Anderson, Mozafar Sharifi, Theodore Papenfuss & Soheila Shafiei Bafti, 2008	There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.	eng
164774	conservation	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is found in a few protected areas in the north east Black Sea region.	eng
164774	distribution	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is known from northeastern coastal areas of Turkey, and has also been recorded from two localities in northwestern coastal Turkey. It is found from sea level up to around 2,000m asl.	eng
164774	habitat	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	This species is found in rocky areas, in hills, with bush, scrubland and oak forest. It is a ovoviviparous species.	eng
164774	population	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is a very rare species (Avci, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
164774	threats	Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Murat Sevinç, Wolfgang Böhme, Pierre-André Crochet, Ulrich Joger, Yakup Kaska, Yusuf Kumlutaş, Uğur Kaya, Aziz Avci, Nazan Üzüm, Can Yeniyurt, Ferdi Akarsu, 2008	It is collected by specimen hunters as well as for the international pet trade, and the level of harvest is probably unsustainable. It is persecuted by the local people as it is seen as potentially dangerous. There is also significant development for tourism along the coast where this species is found.	eng
164776	conservation	Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need to maintain areas of suitable habitat and monitor populations.	eng
164776	distribution	Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This species is endemic to the Caucasus where it is restricted to northeastern Turkey (Vilayets Erzurum and Kars). The species does not appear to be present in adjacent areas of Armenia and Azerbaijan. It has been recorded up to 2,200m asl.	eng
164776	habitat	Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The species is found in rocky or stony areas with sparse vegetation, and sometimes in rocky clearings within forests (Baran and Atatür, 1998).	eng
164776	population	Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	This is a rare and narrowly distributed species.	eng
164776	threats	Ferdi Akarsu, Boris Tuniyev, Natalia Ananjeva, Aram Agasyan, Nikolai Orlov, and Sako Tuniyev, 2008	The habitat of this species is threatened by overgrazing by domestic livestock (cattle) and unsustainable collection of firewood. Three large dam projects (Karakurt, Denizgölü and Kuloğlu) are scheduled for the region over the next ten years, and these are anticipated to impact parts of the species range.	eng
164778	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>No conservation actions are currently known for this species.</p>	eng
164778	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality: Pishin, Baluchistan, Pakistan (Frost 2009).	eng
164778	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	It has been found in a breeding pond in a cultivated area on the outskirts of Pishin town (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009). It appears to do well in traditional agricultural areas  (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009).	eng
164778	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>It was a common species when last seen on&#160; April 2005, where there were over 50 adults in a pond about 20 meters in diameter (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009). It is thought to occur commonly in the general area (T. Papenfuss pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/></p>	eng
164778	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole.</p>	eng
164783	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place or are required for this species.	eng
164783	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Anax nigrofasciatus nigrofasciatus</em> is known from central and southern China including Hong Kong and Taiwan, Japan (not including Hokkeido) and South Korea. The subspecies <em>A. n. nigrolineatus</em> is known from Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Thailand (Tsuda 2000). There is probably an overlap between these two subspecies in Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan.<br/><br/>The Blue-spotted Emperor (<em>Anax nigrofasciatus</em>) is a common and widespread species in China, where its range includes Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Xizang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006) and it has also been recorded from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000). The species' range extends to South Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan, not including Hokkeido (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Tsuda (2000) lists <em>A. n. nigrofasciatus</em> from Philippines but no other data for this species are available from there. The type locality for the nominate subspecies is in Japan and the type locality for the subspecies <em>A. n. nigrolineatus</em> is in Darjeeling, India.	eng
164783	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Blue-spotted Emperor frequents montane ponds, lakes and reservoirs.	eng
164783	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Anax nigrofasciatus</em> is a common and widespread species.	eng
164783	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The species is not thought to be under any serious threat at present.	eng
164784	conservation	Wilson, K.D.P., 2007	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are required for this species.	eng
164784	distribution	Wilson, K.D.P., 2007	The nominate subspecies occurs in Myanmar, southwestern China (Yunnan) and northern Thailand, with intermediate forms (between the subspecies <em>Mnais andersoni andersoni</em> and <em>M. a. tenuis</em>) occurring in Vietnam and Laos (Asahina 1975a,b,c). The subspecies <em>M. a. tenuis</em> is common and widespread throughout much of central and southern China and Taiwan.	eng
164784	habitat	Wilson, K.D.P., 2007	The species prefers tropical moist montane forest with permanent water courses; streams, rivers and creeks.	eng
164784	population	Wilson, K.D.P., 2007	<em>M. andersoni</em> is a common and widespread species.	eng
164784	threats	Wilson, K.D.P., 2007	<em>Mnais andersoni</em> is not believed to be under threat at present.	eng
164785	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	A conservation priority for this species is to raise awareness through educational programmes.	eng
164785	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Sympetrum eroticum</em> has been recorded from China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Russia. <br/><br/>The nominate subspecies (<em>S. e. eroticum</em>) is recorded from northeast China, Japan (including Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and the Ryukyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), and Korea (Lee 2001). Needham (1930) described the synonym <em>Sympetrum ignotum</em> from 'Weisohn, Manchuria'. Hua (2000) records <em>S. ignotum</em> from Jiangxi, northeast China and Zhejiang, but the records from Jiangxi and Zheijiang probably refer to the subspecies <em>Sympetrum eroticum ardens</em> (McLachlan). Zhang and Zhang (12006) record <em>S. eroticum</em> (as <em>S. ignotum</em>) from Shaanxi. Kosterin and Malikova (2007) record <em>S. e. eroticum</em> from southern, far-eastern Russia. <br/><br/>The subspecies <em>S. e. ardens</em> is widespread in Tawian (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984) and is known from southern China, including Fujian, Jiangsu, and Sichuan. Wilson (1999) recorded <em>S. e. ardens</em> from Guangdong.  Hua's (2000) records of <em>S. e. eroticum</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Yunnan relate to the subspecies <em>S. e. ardens</em>.  The two subspecies are not clearly differentiated, apart from minor size differences although they overlap in distribution.	eng
164785	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	This species occurs in lentic habitats including ponds, lake margins, rice paddies and marshes.	eng
164785	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The population of <em>S. eroticum</em> is stable and commonly found over its widespread distribution.	eng
164785	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no known threats currently affecting this species.	eng
164786	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed.	eng
164786	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Davidius davidii</em> is known from China and India. The nominate subspecies was described from two females collected from "Moupin, Thibet". Asahina (1988) considered the type location to be Moupin in western Sichuan near Tachenlu ("Tatsienlu" now officially Kangtang located 2,600 m asl at the Ta River), northwest Mt. Omei (van Pelt 1993). Chao (1990) records the nominate subspecies from Sichuan, and it has also been recorded from Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006). In 1916, Laidlaw described the subspecies <em>D. d. assamensis</em> from one male and two females collected from Gopaldhara, Darjeeling (Fraser 1934). The subspecies <em>D. d. shaanxiensis</em> was described from Miaotaizi, Shaanxi and this taxon is also known from the type locality of the synonym <em>Davidius qinlingensis</em>, which was described from Ningshan, southern Shaanxi. Yang and Davies (1996) described the subspecies <em>D. d. yunnanensis</em> from Lijiang, Yunnan.	eng
164786	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The species occurs around forested streams.	eng
164786	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There is no detailed information known on this species, except that it has a wide range and is not under threat at present.	eng
164786	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at this time.	eng
164787	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	No conservation actions are in place for <em>T. citimus</em>, nor are any thought to be needed at present.	eng
164787	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Trigomphus citimus</em> is distributed from Russia, China, Korea and Japan. It was described from a single male collected from Manchuria. Chao (1990), who studied the type at Cornell University, lists <em>T. citimus</em> from Jilin (southeast Manchuria). Kosterin and Malikova (2007) list <em>T. citimus</em> from southern, far-eastern Russia, but the species' status there is uncertain. Lee (2001) lists three records of the nominate subspecies from Korea including Seoul, Gwangneung and Cheongnyangni. <br/><br/>Asahina (1949) described the subspecies <em>T. c. tabei</em> from Japan. Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2001) report the distribution of <em>T. c. tabei</em> from western Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.	eng
164787	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	Members of the <em>Trigomphus</em> genus frequent lentic waters and sluggish rivers with muddy substrates.	eng
164787	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no detailed numbers available for the species population, although it is common in its widespread range.	eng
164787	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are currently no known threats affecting this species.	eng
164788	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at this time.	eng
164788	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Dusky Lilysquatter (<em>Paracercion calamorum</em>) has a range that extends from southern far-eastern Russia to Japan, and to India and Indonesia. The nominate subspecies (<em>P. c. calamorum</em>) is known from central and eastern China, Korea and Japan. The subspecies <em>P. c. dyeri</em> occurs in southern China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, Nepal, and Thailand (Tsuda 2000).	eng
164788	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	This species occurs in streams and rivers.	eng
164788	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The species endures a stable population and is common throughout its range.	eng
164788	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no threats known that are currently affecting this species.	eng
164789	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place at present, and none are thought to be needed.	eng
164789	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Common Blue Jewel (<em>Heliocypha perforata</em>) has a wide range. The nominate subspecies is known from China, Hong Kong, Laos, Taiwan and Viet Nam (Tsuda 2000). Within China <em>H. p. perforata</em> has been recorded from Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan and Yunnan (Hua 2000), and from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). The subspecies <em>H. p. beautifica</em> is known from the Naga Hills in India. The subspecies <em>H. p. limbata</em> is known from Yunnan (China), India, Laos (Tsuda 2000), Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia (Orr 2005) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
164789	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	The Common Blue Jewel frequents swift flowing streams and rivers in low hills and mountains.	eng
164789	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	This species has a stable population is common throughout its range although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
164789	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
164790	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or thought to be needed at present.	eng
164790	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	<em>Ceriagrion auranticum</em> has a wide range. The nominate subspecies <em>C. a. auranticum</em> is known from Indonesia (including Sumatra, Java and Sumba), Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam (Hämäläinen 1987, Tsuda 2000). The subspecies <em>C. a. ryukyuanum</em> is known from southern China (including Fujian (Hua 2000), Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001)), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Taiwan (Wang 2000), Korea (where it has been collected from several spots in the mid-south of the Korean peninsular (Lee 2001)), and the Ryukyus Islands in Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
164790	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	This species frequents marshes, pond margins, sluggish streams and irrigation channels.	eng
164790	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	A common species throughout its range although detailed population numbers and trends are not available.	eng
164790	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2009	There are no known threats currently affecting this species.	eng
164791	conservation	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.</p>	eng
164791	distribution	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	This species is currently known only from the type locality: Abra Esperanza, District of Oxapampa, Province of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It occurs between 2,790-3,000 m asl.	eng
164791	habitat	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	This species inhabits an area of humid elfin montane forest just below the crest of the Abra Esperanza (±3,000 m asl) (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). All individuals were found at night on low vegetation, 30–100 cm above the ground, during the dry season (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
164791	population	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	<p>A total of 14 individuals were found in the course of two field surveys conducted in 2007 (N=13 individuals) and 2008 (N=1 individual) (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).</p>	eng
164791	threats	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
164792	conservation	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	<p>This species occurs in Yanachaga Chemillén National Park (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009). More research on its population status, distribution, habitat requirements and threats is needed.</p>	eng
164792	distribution	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	This species is currently only known from the type locality: Santa Bárbara, at 3,300 m asl, District of Huancabamba, Province of Oxapampa, Pasco region, Peru (Duellman and Chaparro 2008).	eng
164792	habitat	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	It is only known from the upper limits of the elfin forest or “ceja de montaña” (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). The holotype was found perched on a leaf ca 60 cm above the ground at night in the dry season (Duellman and Chaparro 2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
164792	population	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	This species is currently known only from the holotype (see Duellman and Chaparro 2008) and one other individual found in one of two recent surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 (J.C. Chaparro pers. comm. June 2009).	eng
164792	threats	Angulo, A. & Chaparro, J., 2009	<p>There is no information on major threats to this species.</p>	eng
164814	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.	eng
164814	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> (a small lake south of Lake Skadar, <st1:place w:st="on">south of Montenegro</st1:place>, near the town of Ulcinj).	eng
164814	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>This species lives between the emergent (<em>Phragmites communis) </em>and floating (<em>Nymphaea alba</em>, <em>Nuphar luteum</em>) vegetation in the littoral zone of   <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake.</st1:placetype></st1:place></p>	eng
164814	population	Pešić, V., 2009	The population size and trend is unknown for this species.	eng
164814	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>There is a rapid process of eutrophication observed at least in the last decades. </p><p>The dimension of the lake is small (3.5 km2), the water of Šasko Lake comes originally from the Bojana river and several springs. The communication with the Bojana river is interrupted during summer period (July and August) resulting in a decrease in the level of water of the lake.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
164824	conservation	Pesic, V., 2009	This species is protected in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro. On-going transboudary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. monitoring of the habitat is needed.<br/></st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
164824	distribution	Pesic, V., 2009	<em>Valvata montenegrina </em>is endemic to&#160;Montenegro, where it is known from several closely located sites,&#160;from&#160;the river Mareza drainage (canals and pools), the Skadar lake (Podlum and Karuc spring) and Maol Brato.&#160;Lake Skadar is split between Montenegro and Albania,&#160;only 25 km from the Adriatic Sea.&#160;Lake Skadar has a surface area that can vary between 370&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;and&#160;in winter, its waters swell and expand to cover all of 540 square kilometres, but is very shallow(between 5 and 8 metres on average). &#160;It is possible that this species may exist in the Albanian part of the lake.	eng
164824	habitat	Pesic, V., 2009	This species   lives in canals between the emergent (<em>Phragmites communis) </em>vegetation (Mareza canals). Also in littoral part of the Skadar lake between vegetation consisting of <em>Ceratophyllum </em>and <em>Myriophyllum</em>, which covers partially decomposed organic matter and red clay (Karuc spring) or in emergent (<em>Scirpus lacuster</em>, <em>Phragmites communis</em>, <em>Typha angustifolia</em>) and floating (<em>Nymphaea alba</em>, <em>Nuphar luteum</em>, <em>Trapa natans</em>) vegetation (Malo Blato, Podhum).	eng
164824	population	Pesic, V., 2009	No information about population.	eng
164824	threats	Pesic, V., 2009	The primary threat is considered to be the eutrophication of all the sites. In addition, there has been loss of habitat at Mareza area, due to the use of water taken for drinking to the capital Podgorica.&#160; IThere has been rapid process of eutrophication in sublacustrine spring at Karuc with a rapid declining of the lake depth in last 25 years due to the use of this sublacustrine spring for the aquaculture.&#160; There are also proposals to use spring water from Karuc for drinking water in towns along the coast of Montenegro.	eng
164845	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is strictly protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List where it is deemed to be Extinct (EX). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
164845	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythiospeum wiaaiglica </span>is endemic to Austria, specifically the north east Alps in Lower Austria <span id="result_box" class="long_text">on the  northwestern outskirts of the Pielach Schwarzenbach and it is only known from the type locality, where only dead shells have ever been found, and none for the last 20 years.	eng
164845	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species is known from dead shells from groundwater sources and water from rock fissures.	eng
164845	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is considered very rare, possibly extinct, as there have been no living specimens collected in the last twenty years.	eng
164845	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater level. There is also a threat from pollution, mainly from fertilizers as a result of agricultural practices.	eng
164849	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None conservation measures needed.	eng
164849	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
164849	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
164849	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Gyraulus ehrenbergi</em> is presen in Egypt, Nile Delta. According to more recent information it was also found in Giza, Lake Qaron (Fayoum) and Lake Nasser. Therefore, it is expected to be all over the Nile (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is in Egypt	eng
164849	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) and two dubious records from north Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999). The type locality is in Egypt.	eng
164849	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is known from the Nile Delta, Egypt. More recently it has been reported in Giza, Lake Qaron (Fayoum), and Lake Nasser, therefore it is expected to be present throughout the Nile (Ibrahim 1999).	eng
164849	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found among dense vegetation - <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> and <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>.	eng
164849	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is found among dense vegetation - <span style="font-style: italic;">Eichhornia crassipes</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum demersum</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton crispus</span>.	eng
164849	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives among dense vegetation - <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Ceratophyllum demersum</em> and <em>Potamogeton crispus</em>.	eng
164849	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available	eng
164849	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
164849	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is locally abundant.	eng
164849	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No current threats to the species.	eng
164849	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
164849	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
164850	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is found on the Austrian Red List, as Critically Endangered (CR). It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends and&#160;surveys of other springs in the region.</p>	eng
164850	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	This species is endemic to Austria. It is only known from the type locality, at the&#160;spring of the Schlauchgraben south of Moosbrunn, Southern Vienna Basin, Lower Austria.	eng
164850	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This freshwater species lives probably in interstitial parts of groundwater and gravel deposits, since it was found in a drainage pipe (only empty shells).</p>	eng
164850	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	There is no population information available.	eng
164850	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>The main threats to the species are habitat destruction, the abstraction of groundwater and the subsequent lowering of the groundwater and pollution in the form of eutrophication.</p>	eng
164864	conservation	Cianfanelli, S. & Bodon, M., 2010	There are no known conservation actions in place for this species. Habitat should be monitor and communication actions, to raise awareness of the local communities, are needed.	eng
164864	distribution	Cianfanelli, S. & Bodon, M., 2010	This species is endemic to Italy, where it is only known from the Graie Alps, NW of Turin.&#160;The range is very restricted, and the living specimens have only been found in three springs (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2004).	eng
164864	habitat	Cianfanelli, S. & Bodon, M., 2010	The species is only found in freshwater in karst systems	eng
164864	population	Cianfanelli, S. & Bodon, M., 2010	The population status of this species is unknown. About 200 shells and 40 specimens have been collected in the 3 sites, as published in the paper (Bodon and Cianfanelli 2004).	eng
164864	threats	Cianfanelli, S. & Bodon, M., 2010	The species is rare, with a restricted range and given that it occurs in springs, the species could be affected by habitat destruction (improving the water capture points), &#160;pollution and possibly, introduction of alien molluscs (like&#160;<em>Potamopyrgus antipodanum</em>). Most of the sites occur outside of protected areas, and as such the springs could be captured to feed aqueducts. In other cases, the spring is near the road, so it could be sufficient to have some roadworks with a manhole to alter the habitat.	eng
164870	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions exist for this species. Monitoring of the habitat is recommended.	eng
164870	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> (south of<st1:place w:st="on"> Montenegro</st1:place>, near the town of Ulcinj).	eng
164870	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species lives between the emergent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites communis</span>) and floating (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum</span>) vegetation in the littoral zone of the Lake   <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko</st1:placename>.	eng
164870	population	Pešić, V., 2009	Current population and population trends are unknown for this species.	eng
164870	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	The Lake    Šasko is undergoing rapid eutrophication, which has been evident in the last decade. The dimension of the lake is small (3.5 km<sup>2</sup>), the water of Lake   <st1:placename w:st="on">Šasko </st1:placename>comes originally from Bojana river and several springs. The communication with the Bojana river is interrupted during summer period (July and August) resulting in a decrease in the level of water of the lake.	eng
164881	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>Ongoing trans-boundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Skadar lake area. &#160;Habitat monitoring is recommended to determine future changes in conservation status for this species.&#160;</p>	eng
164881	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is endemic to&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake, and at present known from 5 sites in the Montenegro part of the lake (Virpazar,Vranjina, Tanki Rt, Karuč, island Grmožur). However as</st1:placetype>&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> extends to&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Albania</st1:placename>, it is expected that species should be found on the Albanian side of the <st1:place w:st="on">Lake</st1:place>. Among more than 100 samples collected in different waters of Montenegro, no specimens of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">R. skutaris</span> could be found, thus it is presumed that the species <span style="font-style: italic;">R. skutaris</span> is endemic to Sakdar Lake (Gloer and Pesic 2008).<br/><strong><br/></strong>	eng
164881	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>This species lives in the emergent and floating vegetation in littoral zone of this freshwater lake. </p>	eng
164881	population	Pešić, V., 2009	No population data available to show declines, but it is not recorded outside the lake.	eng
164881	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	Primary threat is considered to be the rapid process of eutrophication in <st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>; further the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc should be captured for coastal (part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region></st1:place>) water drinking, leading to additional reasons for lake level fluctuation, which could impact littoral zone habitats.	eng
164884	conservation	Reischutz, P., 2010	<p>This species is not currently protected by law in Austria. It is not known whether it exists in a protected area and there are no species-specific recovery plans in place. It is suggested that monitoring of this species' habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
164884	distribution	Reischutz, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella angelitae</span> is restricted to small region on either side of the border in Austria and Slovenia. It is only known from springs in the area of Lake Bled in Slovenia and in the Tscheppaschlucht just across the Austrian border in Carinthia (Haase <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
164884	habitat	Reischutz, P., 2010	This freshwater species inhabits springs.	eng
164884	population	Reischutz, P., 2010	Although recently described, the population trend for this cryptic species is unknown. It is considered to be a 'very rare' species (Reischutz pers. comm. 2010)	eng
164884	threats	Reischutz, P., 2010	According to Reischutz (pers. comm. 2010) the main threat to this species is pollution, mainly from the over use of fertilisers, as a result of agricultural practices.	eng
164887	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	On-going transboundary projects focus on ecosystem management of the Lake Skadar area, however, there are no direct conservation measures for this species. &#160;Monitoring habitat quality would provide information on future trends that would impact this species.	eng
164887	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	This species is endemic to and known only from Lake Skadar, based in Montenegro and Albania,&#160;only 25 km from the Adriatic Sea.&#160;Lake Skadar has a surface area that can vary between 370&#160;km<sup>2</sup>&#160;and in winter, its waters swell and expand to cover all of 540 square kilometres, but is very shallow(between 5 and 8 metres on average).&#160;This species is expected to be present in the part of the Lake Skadar which belongs to the Republic of Albania and is found at 4 sites of Virpazar, Tanki Rt, Karuč and Malo Blato on the Montenegro part of the Lake.	eng
164887	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>This species lives in the emergent and floating vegetation in littoral zone of the freshwater lake.&#160; </p>	eng
164887	population	Pešić, V., 2009	The population size and trends for this species are unknown.	eng
164887	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	There are multiple threats for this species in the lake. Rapid eutrophication has been observed in Lake Skadar (especially in the area of Malo Blato) (V. Pesic pers. comm. 2009) and this is leading to declining habitat quality. In addition, spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc is captured for coastal drinking water (in a part of Montenegro) leading to fluctuating water levels. In the future there is a planned infrastructure project (bridge) in the area of Tanki Rt.	eng
164890	conservation	Köhler, J., Glaw, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	The only confirmed animals were collected from an unprotected locality (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It is possible that the species is present in Ranomafana National Park, although the identity of this population needs further verification (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This is a secretive, or seasonal, species for which the range is very poorly known. Additional directed surveys are required to better determine the distribution of this species and its presence in protected areas. Additional research is needed to identify any threats to this species.	eng
164890	distribution	Köhler, J., Glaw, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	This recently described species is endemic to Madagascar, where it is currently known only with certainty from a pair in amplexus, and subsequently a number of tadpoles, collected at the type locality of "from km 6 on road Ifanadiana–Tolongoina, 21°21'21'' S, 47°36'47'' E, 468 m asl, Fianarantsoa Province, Southern Central East of Madagascar" (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). A further pair in amplexus, tentatively assignable to this species, has been recorded at a site locally known as Imaloka in the Ranomafauna National Park (21°14'32'' S, 47°27'55'' E, approximately 900-1,000 m asl) (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The identity of animals in Ranomafauna needs confirmation and the species is provisionally mapped at this locality. It appears to be a somewhat secretive species and may have been overlooked at additional localities in the eastern tropical moist forests of Madagascar (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
164890	habitat	Köhler, J., Glaw, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	The type specimens were collected at night from low vegetation in a swampy area formed by a slowly moving stream that flooded large parts of a small patch of dense palm forest next to highly degraded tropical moist forest (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The possible specimens from Ranomafana National Park were sitting about 1.5 m high on the leaves of a shrub above a small, rather slow moving stream with sandy substrate (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
164890	population	Köhler, J., Glaw, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is currently known with certainty from two animals collected at the type locality. It appears to be a secretive species with estimates of its abundance difficult.	eng
164890	threats	Köhler, J., Glaw, F., Vences, M. & Cox, N., 2009	This species is still quite poorly known and the threats are not known.	eng
164914	conservation	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This is a newly described species, and hence there are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the abundance of this species, whether it occurs in more locations, and to what extent it is impacted upon by urbanization.	eng
164914	distribution	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is restricted to one locality in northern Alabama along the southern border of the Highland Rim in the southern Appalachians although may exist in one or two other caves nearby (Buhay and Crandall 2009).	eng
164914	habitat	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This is a cave dwelling species which inhabits subterranean hydrological systems such as small standing water pools and stream beds (Buhay and Crandall 2009).	eng
164914	population	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	Five specimens were recorded from the type locality (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). It is believed that there are more specimens in other caves although none have been found during extensive surveys (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006).	eng
164914	threats	Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The type locality of this species was blasted open for road construction and is currently found underneath a highway (Buhay and Crandall 2009) so is subject to traffic pollution.	eng
164915	conservation	Buhay, J., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the exact nature of the threats driving the decline in the number of mature individuals.	eng
164915	distribution	Buhay, J., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is endemic to Marshall county, Alabama. It is distributed northwest and downstream of the Guntersville Dam, along both sides of the Tennessee River (Buhay and Crandall 2009). Its range is restricted by two towns, Mount St. Olive and Cushion along the Paint Rock River, to the southwest and eastern sides of the Tennessee River (Buhay and Crandall 2009). This species is known from 4 caves within its range. Extensive surveys in surrounding areas have failed to find further localities (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
164915	habitat	Buhay, J., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is cave dwelling and is found in streams less than one meter wide (Buhay and Crandall 2009).	eng
164915	population	Buhay, J., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is declining in numbers (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
164915	threats	Buhay, J., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There are a number of potential threats to this species including close vicinity to urban development and pollution of the freshwater aquifer, vicinity to roads, and alteration of the water table through damming of rivers (Buhay and Crandall 2009). There is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals of this species (Buhay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
164916	conservation	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are several protected areas near Villa Tunari, including Parque Machia and <st1:place><st1:placename>Carrasco</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>. It is possible that the species may be found in one of these.</p>  <p></p>	eng
164916	distribution	Angulo, A., 2009	This species is known from the Carretera Antigua (old road) from Villa Tunari to Cochabamba (ca 800 m asl), above the Village of El Palmar, Province of Chapare, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia (Angulo and Reichle 2008).	eng
164916	habitat	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>This species can be found on open ground and at the base of dense, grassy vegetation in montane rainforests. Males call in the evening and after a heavy downpour during the day from dense clusters of grass as well as from open areas (Angulo and Reichle 2008).</p>	eng
164916	population	Angulo, A., 2009	The species is only known from the type series, comprised of three specimens.	eng
164916	threats	Angulo, A., 2009	<p>It is not known whether this species is facing any significant threats.<br/></p>	eng
164917	conservation	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	Some known sites are in protected areas, but others are not. No specific conservation measures for this species are in place. Habitat protection and appropriate habitat management (to protect old trees with decaying heartwood) are needed. Monitoring is needed.	eng
164917	distribution	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	This species is endemic to southern mainland Italy. According to CKmap 2000 (2009) there are 14 sites.	eng
164917	habitat	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	Like other <span style="font-style: italic;">Osmoderma</span> species, it is dependent on decaying heartwood in large old and hollowing trees; consequently it is restricted to mature broad-leaved forests with old trees.	eng
164917	population	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	It is a rare species.	eng
164917	threats	Nardi, G. & Mico, E., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is restricted to veteran trees, so any activities which destroy these trees (e.g. cutting down avenues) is strongly detrimental to the species. Therefore it is threatened by loss and degradation of suitable habitat (for example inappropriate management of woodlands that results in the loss of mature trees). <span lang="EN-GB">Fragmentation and increasing isolation of beetle populations are also key factors. Habitat loss caused by agricultural intensification and urbanization is also a problem.</p>	eng
164918	conservation	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	More research is needed, particularly on the distribution, population dynamics and ecology and its habitat. The relationship between<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. globulicollis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaehleri</span> should be verified by molecular techniques.	eng
164918	distribution	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	This species is found in most of Europe, absent from the Mediterranean islands, extending from Spain to the Balkans, mainly in the Mediterranean area.	eng
164918	habitat	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	The habitat of this species is broad-leaved trees, with preference for <span style="font-style: italic;">Acer</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, distributed in the area of <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus pubescens</span>. The precise ecology is unknown as it has mainly been found in window traps. It is assumed that the ecology is similar to <span style="font-style: italic;">P. kaehleri</span>, being also present in small branches.	eng
164918	population	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	In France it has been considered a myth, never collected, but it has been recently collected by window trapping which suggests that it is hard to find rather than rare; in total 66 specimen have been found in 20 years of search in the Rhone-Alps area. In Spain it is very rare and it is only known from seven localities. In Italy it is very rare and there are 11 scattered localities. In Slovakia and Hungary it is present in warmer areas. There is no information for the Balkans populations.	eng
164918	threats	Campanaro, A., Horák, J., Tezcan, S., Mico, E. & Dodelin, B., 2009	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
164919	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. speculum</em> is present in La Selva Protected Zone and other smaller protected areas.  There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
164919	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Costa Rica from many localities (Garrison 1985) and Nicaragua, at Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002).	eng
164919	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. speculum</em> frequents ponds and pools in slow streams with open water and/or abundant littoral growth of sedges and grasses and/or floating water lilies.  Water may or may not be surrounded by forest, although most known localities are associated with forest or at least a riparian strip. Also occupies seasonal pools and marshes. Elevation range sea level to 1,200 m.	eng
164919	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. speculum</em> is abundant in many areas throughout its range.	eng
164919	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
164920	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is protected in Braulio Carrillo National Park and around Monteverde and appears not to require further conservation actions at present.	eng
164920	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica from a variety of locations: Cartago, Juan Viñas (Calvert and Calvert 1917); Cartago, Carrillo (Calvert 1907); Cartago, Turrialba, 430 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); Alajuela, streams between 4.7 and 10.0 miles north Varablanca, 850 - 1,400 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); San José, stream above Rio Tiribí at Rancho Redondo, 1,500 m (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967); Volcán Poas, unknown province (D. Paulson personal collection 1966-1967) and Monteverde area (W. Haber pers. comm. 2006).	eng
164920	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found at waterfalls on upland rocky streams in forest.	eng
164920	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. underwoodi</em> is fairly common at numerous localities where stringent habitat requirements are met; the population trend remains unknown.	eng
164920	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164921	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, including national parks, national wildlife refuges, and state and regional parks.  No further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
164921	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in throughout the United States of America, and occurs to the north in one province in Canada and to the south in one state in Mexico.	eng
164921	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at slow-flowing rivers and streams down to fairly narrow ones, in or out of woodland. Mostly in large drainage canals at western end of range. Also inhabits sandy lakes in Florida.	eng
164921	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. plagiatus</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164921	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164922	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
164922	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in British Columbia in Canada, Baja California Sur in Mexico and four states in the United States of America.	eng
164922	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found at small rocky or muddy woodland streams with moderate current, rocky and muddy bottom. In northern part of range, typically found in relatively warm streams that flow out of lakes.	eng
164922	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. specularis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164922	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164923	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several protected areas in Costa Rica, including La Selva Protected Zone; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
164923	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Telebasis digiticollis</em> occurs throughout Mesoamerica into South America in the following areas: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia and Limón in Costa Rica; Libertad and San Salvador in El Salvador; Izabal and Zacapa in Guatemala; Cortez and Francisco Morazan in Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; the Canal Zone in Panama; and Aragua and Táchira in Venezuela.	eng
164923	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at seasonal and permanent ponds and marshes, usually with dense grasses, sedges, and/or <em>Typha</em>. Not as tied to floating vegetation as most other <em>Telebasis</em>. Immatures' often found in forests, and common in marshes within forest, but forest not essential to presence.	eng
164923	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. digiticollis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164923	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164924	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species may be present in Braulio Carrillo and/or Chirripó National Parks, as both have sufficient high-elevation wetlands, although it is not confirmed.  There are no action plans in place and investigation into its habitat and range is needed.	eng
164924	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Sympetrum nigrocreatum</em> is found in Costa Rica and has been recorded from these locations (with collection notes):<br/><br/>- Alajuela Province, Poas Volcano, 2,600 m (Calvert 1920)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 1.0 mi S El Empalme, 2,300 m (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 3.1 mi W La Trinidad, 2,600 m (Cannings 1982, D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Cartago/San José Province, 23 km NW Villa Mills, <em>ca</em> 2,500 m (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Heredia Province, 6 km ENE Vara Blanca, 2000 m (D.R. Paulson collection)	eng
164924	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in open boggy and marshy ponds and slow-flowing marshy streams high in mountains (2,000 - 2,600 m). Forest may be nearby but not necessarily close.	eng
164924	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population numbers and trend are not known for <em>S. nigrocreatum</em>.	eng
164924	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats currently affecting this species, nor in the future either; the area of occurrence is at an altitude that is too high&#160; for agriculture or ranching, so it unlikely to be heavily settled any time soon.	eng
164925	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, especially state parks and no further conservation actions appear to be required as yet.	eng
164925	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Enallagma traviatum</em> is found in twenty eight states in the United States of America.	eng
164925	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. traviatum</em> is found at lakes and ponds, open or with abundant vegetation.	eng
164925	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. traviatum</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164925	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164926	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in several protected areas in Texas (national wildlife refuges, state parks). The situation is not known south of the United States border, but doubtless occurs in most lowland preserves through tropical America.  Investigations of <em>T. calverti</em> habitat are required to enhance possible conservation actions.	eng
164926	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Argentina: Catamarca, Corrientes, Jujuy, Misiones and Salta; Belize: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo; Bolivia; Brazil: Rio de Janeiro and Rondonia; Cayman Islands: Grand Cayman; Colombia; Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Limón and Puntarenas; Cuba; Dominican Republic: Azua, La Vega, Monte Cristi, Peravia and Samaná; Ecuador: Guayas and Pichincha; El Salvador: San Miguel; Galapagos; Guyana; Guyane Française; Honduras; Jamaica: St. Andrew and St. Catherine; Lesser Antilles: Guadeloupe; Mexico; Netherlands Antilles: Curacao; Nicaragua; Panama: Canal Zone, Chiriqí, Darien and Panama; Peru; Surinam; Trinidad; United States of America; Venezuela: Amazonas, Aragua, Barinas, Cojedes, Falcón, Guárico, Mérida and Táchira; and the Virgin Islands: Tortola.	eng
164926	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found at shallow ponds with much open water and beds of vegetation. Not known if it coexists with fish or not.	eng
164926	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. calverti</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164926	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164927	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Some lakes occupied by <em>E. davisi</em> are in state parks and other protected areas, others on private land not likely to be developed.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
164927	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five southeastern states in the United States of America.	eng
164927	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found at shallow sand-bottomed lakes and ponds with shore band of sedges and other emergent vegetation, sometimes with floating vegetation as well.  More restricted in habitat choice than many other species of <em>Enallagma</em>.	eng
164927	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. davisi</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164927	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The preferred habitat of <em>E. davisi</em> is prime real estate for suburban development and therefore considered a future threat.	eng
164928	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The known populations of <em>P. spinulata</em> are protected in Altos de Campana National Park and Biological Reserve. Populations should be sought away from Cerro Campana.	eng
164928	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Palaemnema spinulata</em> is found in Cerro Campana, Panama (Donnelly 1992).	eng
164928	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat type has not been reported, but is presumably small rocky streams in cloud forest.	eng
164928	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. spinulata</em> population numbers are not known, but it is probably locally common; ten were collected on one visit in 1970.	eng
164928	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a possible current threat in its presumed habitat, although not likely in its known locality. Drought is an increasingly likely threat due to the global climate change and could be in evidence in the future.	eng
164929	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to say whether this species has or is in need of conservation measures.	eng
164929	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Belize (Cayo), Costa Rica (Guanacaste) and Mexico.	eng
164929	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species habitat includes low-flowing muddy lowland rivers in forested or semi-open landscapes.	eng
164929	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. mexicanus</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but most of its range is not regularly visited by odonatologists.	eng
164929	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
164930	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous protected areas; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
164930	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
164930	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in shallow, open, often somewhat saline ponds with abundant emergent vegetation, usually or perhaps always drying up by mid or late summer. Also marshy pools in small slow-flowing streams, not really associated with open water.	eng
164930	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. madidum</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164930	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164931	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., state parks.  It is very common in national forests in southeastern coastal plain.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
164931	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Cuba and fourteen states in the United States of America.	eng
164931	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. doubledayi</em> occurs in shallow grassy ponds, less often lake borders and slow streams, in open or open woodland.	eng
164931	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. doubledayi</em> is an abundant and widespread species, less so in the western part of its range.	eng
164931	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164932	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. minusculum</em> probably occurs in some protected areas, although none are known for certain to the assessor.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
164932	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada and seven states in the United States of America.	eng
164932	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found on ponds and lakes with sparse emergent, submergent, or floating vegetation and sand bottom.	eng
164932	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. minusculum</em> is reasonably widespread and locally common throughout its range and there is no indication of any population decline.	eng
164932	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Possibly human development that affects its somewhat specialized lake habitats is a future threat.	eng
164933	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2009	The species is present in numerous protected areas but entire watersheds are not protected; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
164933	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2009	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
164933	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2009	Species preferred habitat is sand-bottomed streams and small rivers with riffles in forested regions. Adults spend much time in forest canopy, so best surveyed by collecting larvae and exuviae (moulted exoskeletons).	eng
164933	population	Paulson, D. R., 2009	<em>S. scudderei</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164933	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2009	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164934	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and conservation measures appear not to be needed at present.	eng
164934	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Mexico in Acaponeta, Nayarit (Belle 1987) and Sonora.	eng
164934	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in rocky and muddy rivers with moderately swift current.	eng
164934	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. nayaritensis</em> is known in literature only from the type description from Nayarit, but was found in recent years to be common and widespread in Sonora, so presumably occurs in-between in Sinaloa as well.	eng
164934	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164935	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. henshawi</em> occurs in protected areas, including Tapantí National Park, Guanacaste National Park, and others in protected reserves around Monteverde. Additional survey work elsewhere in mountains of Costa Rica and adjacent countries is needed.	eng
164935	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Lestes henshawi</em> occurs in Costa Rica; Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Puntarenas, San José.<br/>-San José Province, Camino de la Palma (Calvert 1907)<br/>-Guanacaste Province, Estación Pitilia, N side Volcán Orosi, 680 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>-Guanacaste Province, Estación Santa Rosa, 300 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>-Alajuela, Guanacaste, and Puntarenas Prov., vicinity of Monteverde, Lower Montane up to 1,600 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>-Cartago Prov., Tapantí, 1,200 m (D. Paulson collection)	eng
164935	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is best-known at a site with a boggy, apparently permanent, marsh at the foot of a forested hill at 1,200 m at Tapantí. Also at temporary and permanent ponds and pools in forest above 1,500 m in Monteverde area. Breeds in permanent pools in root holes of large fallen trees in the swampy areas.	eng
164935	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Detailed information on <em>L. henshawi</em> populations are unknown, however it is fairly common when found at Tapantí in the 1960s, and is still present in Guanacaste in the 1980s and Monteverde area in 2007.	eng
164935	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation, drainage and/or introduction of exotic predators could be threatening to this species. Drought from global warming a possibility for any species that breeds in shallow wetlands.	eng
164936	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is mostly present in national forests, also protected state parks and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164936	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in four states in the United States of America.	eng
164936	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in medium to large rivers with alternating pools and riffles, gravel and silt to sandy bottoms, mostly in forested areas.	eng
164936	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. ozarkensis</em> is locally common in numerous populations.	eng
164936	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164937	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Research is required looking into the population structure and habitat status of <em>R. vazquezae</em>.	eng
164937	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Known only from one locality each in Guerrero and Nayarit, Mexico, with an elevation range of  3,100 - 3,800 feet.	eng
164937	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults have been seen on a small fairly swift woodland stream in mountains, presumably breeding habitat.	eng
164937	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	So far, <em>R. vazquezae</em> is known only from two sites, probably with small populations.	eng
164937	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The threat of forest clearing is likely only if <em>R. vazquezae</em> depends on forests adjacent to its breeding habitat. Breeding streams may be small enough to be threatened by drought brought on by climate change, although agricultural water run-off is causing pollution in the stream habitats at present.	eng
164938	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. joanetta</em> is found in protected areas and no further actions appear to be needed to help increase population numbers.	eng
164938	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is known from Panama at the following locations:<br/>- Rio Indio (Kennedy 1940)<br/>- Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, Barro Colorado I. (May 1979, Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- San Blas, 1 km N United States of Americagandi (Donnelly 1992)	eng
164938	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat has not been reported, but presumably small rain-forest streams.	eng
164938	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. joanetta</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
164938	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a future threat in some areas that are not protected.  Drought is increasingly likely with global climate change in the future.	eng
164939	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and no further conservation methods appear to be needed at present.	eng
164939	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and eighteen states in the United States of America.	eng
164939	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prefers swiftly flowing rocky forest streams and rivers; also rocky-shored lakes.	eng
164939	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>B. grafiana</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164939	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164940	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
164940	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in ten provinces and two territories in Canada and nine states in the United States of America.	eng
164940	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at open sedge- and moss-filled fens, at foot of hillside below seepage or in wide-open meadows.	eng
164940	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. franklini</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164940	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164941	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. stella</em> occurs in Everglades National Park and numerous other protected areas; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
164941	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in the United States of America.	eng
164941	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at lakes, ponds, marshes such as Everglades, and ditches.	eng
164941	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. stella</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164941	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164942	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.	eng
164942	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been recorded from Costa Rica and Guatemala in the following locations: <br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, near Estancia La Virgen, 700 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, near San Agustin Ac., 1,200 - 2,000 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: El Progreso, between Morazá and San Jerónimo, 1,300 m (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Guatemala: Suchitepéquez, Finca Moca Grande (Donnelly 1984)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Prov., 4 mi S San Vito de Java, 1,200 m (Donnelly 1984)	eng
164942	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. aurimaculata</em> has been found feeding away from water. Habitat presumably forested mountain streams, as is the case in other upland <em>Macrothemis</em>.	eng
164942	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. aurimaculata</em> was not uncommon at the Costa Rican locality 40 years ago, but no details are known of present populations.  It does occur in five locations.	eng
164942	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is little data available to assess the threats to this species, however it is thought that deforestation could cause a problem in the future.	eng
164943	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164943	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and twenty nine states in the United States of America.	eng
164943	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has a wide habitat choice, including slow streams, ponds, sandy lakes, and even bogs. It appears more restricted to ponds in the northern part of its range.	eng
164943	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. exilis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164943	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164944	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no conservation actions needed or in place for this species.	eng
164944	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found throughout the United States of America, Mexico and Mesoamerica including the following locations: Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Guanacaste and Puntarenas in Costa Rica; Libertad in  El Salvador; Izabal and Petén in Guatemala and Rivas in Nicaragua.	eng
164944	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has a very broad habitat tolerance, prefers mud bottoms for larval habitat. Ponds, ditches of all size, and open marshes with mud bottoms, also scummy stock tanks and slow-flowing streams. May be tall emergent vegetation or virtually none, but open water seems necessary. Completely open or wooded country. May breed in very small, including artificial, water bodies.	eng
164944	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. ferruginea</em> is abundant and widespread; it appears to favour landscapes affected by some human alteration.	eng
164944	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164945	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
164945	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Aeshna palmata</em> occurs in three provinces and one territory in Canada, fourteen states in the United States of America and Russia in Kamchatka where it is probably not resident.	eng
164945	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Lakes, ponds, and slow streams, even small ones, usually with dense shore vegetation is the type of habitat <em>A. palmata</em> is usually found in. For the most part in forested landscapes, but some populations in open country. Colonizes small suburban ponds readily.	eng
164945	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. palmata</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164945	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164946	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some federal, state, local, and private reserves and further conservation measures appear not to be needed.	eng
164946	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in two states in Mexico and three in the United States of America.	eng
164946	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in large streams and small rivers with some current, often rocky, in open country or with bordering woodland.	eng
164946	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. annulata</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164946	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164947	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
164947	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in twenty one states in the United States of America.	eng
164947	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes rocky rivers in most parts of its range. Also found at sand-bottomed lakes in Florida.	eng
164947	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. obsoleta</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164947	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164948	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. allopterum</em> is present in several protected areas (Braulio Carrillo and Tapantí national parks, Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas at Turrialba) in Costa Rica and appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.	eng
164948	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Puntarenas, San José), Guatemala (Sacatepéquez, Sololá), Honduras, Mexico (three states) and Nicaragua (Matagalpa).	eng
164948	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. allopterum</em> is found in marshy ponds and slow streams in uplands, in or out of forest. Elevation range at least 600-1800 meters.	eng
164948	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. allopterum</em> is presumed still locally common in many populations, but little surveyed; the population trend remains unknown.	eng
164948	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164949	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is abundant in Everglades National Park and a variety of coastal national wildlife refuges, also state parks, national forests, and other preserves.  There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
164949	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in sixteen states in the United States of America.	eng
164949	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Preferred habitat is mostly lakes, often those with relatively low odonate diversity. Also at large coastal marshes in Texas and may be on large drainage canals and artificial lakes. Tolerates high alkalinity and perhaps some salinity.	eng
164949	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>B. gravida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164949	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164950	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. amatoria</em> is present in a number of national parks, for example Corcovado in Costa Rica and Soberania in Panama. Occurrence in protected areas to north and south of those countries not known but likely.	eng
164950	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found throughout Mesoamerica and South America as the following locations: Toledo, Belize; Alajuela, Guanacaste and Puntarenas, Costa Rica; Pichincha, Ecuador; Izabal and Zacapa, Guatemala; Cortez, Honduras; Canal Zone, Panama; and Anzoategui, Aragua, Cojedes, Guárico, Miranda, Monagas, Táchira and Trujillo in Venezuela.	eng
164950	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in rain forest streams, from small to moderate in size, with pools and riffles.	eng
164950	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. amatoria</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164950	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Currently there are no threats affecting the habitat of this species, although deforestation is forecast to cause a decline in suitable rain forest streams for <em>P. amatoria</em>.	eng
164951	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some reserves in Arizona (Chiricahua National Monument, Ramsey Canyon Preserve) but its presence in protected areas farther south have not been established.  Further research into its range is required.	eng
164951	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala, seven states in Mexico and three southwestern states in the United States of America.	eng
164951	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found in small, forested streams in mountains.	eng
164951	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. diadema</em> occurs in many small populations scattered over a rather large range; the population trend remains unknown.	eng
164951	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Future threats include deforestation in Middle American cloud forests and drought (from global climate change) will affect the small streams that are the preferred habitat of <em>C. diadema</em>.	eng
164952	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The entire known range of <em>E. letitia</em> is along three miles of Pipeline Road within Soberania National Park. More populations should be sought outside that area and populations monitored within it.	eng
164952	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (Donnelly 1992).	eng
164952	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults of <em>E. letitia</em> are known to fly over quiet waters of forest streams (Donnelly 1992).	eng
164952	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. letitia</em> is apparently common in its so-far-known very restricted range.	eng
164952	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Due to lack of information on this species, threats remain unknown although the entire range occurs within a protected area.	eng
164953	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
164953	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in two provinces in Canada and thirty one states in the United States of America.	eng
164953	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The preferred habitat of <em>A. longipes</em> is lakes and ponds, typically with extensive beds of grasses. Larvae probably survive best in shallow ponds without fish.	eng
164953	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. longipes</em> is locally common in many populations throughout its range.	eng
164953	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164954	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in protected areas in south Texas and south Florida. There is no documentation for occurrence in protected areas south of the United States border.	eng
164954	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in two provinces in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, two states in Brazil, the Cayman Islands, Colombia, Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste), Cuba (Isla de Juventud), Dominican Republic (Barahona, Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel), Ecuador (Napo), El Salvador, Galapagos, Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras, Isla San Andres, Jamaica (Clarendon, Kingston, St. Catherine, St. James), Lesser Antilles, nine states in Mexico, Paraguay (Itapúa), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, three states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Amazonas, Barinas, Bolivar, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Falcón, Guárico, Monagas).	eng
164954	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>B. herbida</em> is found at lakes, ponds, and marshes, usually with more vegetation than typical of other <em>Brachymesia</em>. Males typically present at outer edge of band of aquatic emergents.	eng
164954	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>B. herbida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164954	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164955	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in national forests and tribal lands; both lands have many uses, but it is also found in some protected areas, including state parks.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
164955	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
164955	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in low-flowing sandy and gravelly streams and rivers, in forested or open country. Frequently found on lakes in northern, upland parts of range, although it is not known if they breed there.	eng
164955	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. occidentis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164955	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164956	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present at some reserves in the Lower Rio Grande Valley and elsewhere in Texas; occurrence in reserves in Mexico and Central America are unknown and it appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.	eng
164956	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Belize, Costa Rica (Guanacaste), Guatemala, Mexico (nine states), Nicaragua (León, Rivas) and in Texas, United States of America.	eng
164956	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. protracta</em> enjoys a variety of lakes and ponds with mud bottom, seen less often at areas with running water.	eng
164956	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. protracta</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164956	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164957	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several protected areas in its limited range in the United States of America. Status at lower latitudes is less well known but probably occurs in most lowland protected areas in tropics.	eng
164957	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in nine provinces in Argentina, Belize (Corozal, Orange Walk), three states in Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia (Magdalena), Costa Rica (Guanacaste), Cuba (La Habana, Oriente), Dominican Republic (Barahona, Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Sánchez Ramírez, Santiago), Ecuador (Guayas, Napo), Guatemala (Izabal, Zacapa), Guyane Française, Haiti (Samana), Honduras (Cortez), Jamaica (St. Andrew, St. Elizabeth), Lesser Antilles (Les Saintes), thirteen states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí), Paraguay (Central), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, two states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Falcón, Miranda).	eng
164957	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. adnexa</em> is found at ponds, usually covered with floating vegetation such as water lettuce (<em>Pistia</em>), water hyacinth (<em>Eichhornia</em>), or duckweeds (<em>Lemna, Spirodela</em>).  It is usually associated with forest.	eng
164957	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. adnexa</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164957	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164958	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected reserves in the United States (national and state parks, national wildlife refuges, private reserves).  It is an abundant and widespread species, so is likely to be found in most lowland reserves throughout tropical America.	eng
164958	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in many locations across South America, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Mesoamerica and United States of America.	eng
164958	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species prefers marshy ponds, including temporary ones; also fly over pools in streams, although may not breed there.	eng
164958	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. vesiculosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species with a stable population.	eng
164958	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164959	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some parks, reserves, and national forests; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.	eng
164959	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has been recorded from seven states in the United States of America.	eng
164959	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prefers sand-bottomed lakes and large ponds with both emergent vegetation along shore and open water.	eng
164959	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. bertha</em> is found locally common in many populations.	eng
164959	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species and <em>C. bertha</em> occurs with protected areas.	eng
164960	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been documented in protected reserves; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.	eng
164960	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in six states in Mexico.	eng
164960	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in swift rocky rivers in open or semi-wooded country with riparian vegetation along banks.	eng
164960	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. apiculatus</em> is reasonably widespread and locally common throughout its range and there is no indication of any population decline.	eng
164960	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurrence of <em>P. apiculatus</em> in protected reserves has not been documented, however there are no known threats affecting it at present.	eng
164961	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to be present in protected areas but is very widely distributed and common.	eng
164961	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Costa Rica (Guanacaste, Puntarenas), El Salvador, Guatemala (Escuintla), six states in Mexico and Panama.	eng
164961	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in lowland ponds and marshes in open or semi-wooded country. Typically in lowlands but taken up to 1,300 m in Jalisco, Mexico.	eng
164961	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. schumanni</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164961	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species. <em>M. schumanni</em> appears to have good dispersal abilities, so it is unlikely to suffer from local population extinction.	eng
164962	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas, e.g., state parks in United States of America, although occurrence in protected areas in Mexico has not been documented.	eng
164962	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in ten states in Mexico and eight states in the United States of America.	eng
164962	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. lugens</em> is found in small to medium open rocky streams with a good current; habitat may be bordered by riparian zone.	eng
164962	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. lugens</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164962	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164963	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in numerous protected areas, especially in state parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
164963	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in twelve states in the United States of America.	eng
164963	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found in sandy ponds with abundant shore vegetation, usually dense grass, and/or beds of floating vegetation. In open or surrounded by woodland or forest. Also few have been found at well-vegetated slow streams.	eng
164963	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. dubium</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164963	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164964	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The presence of <em>A. garrisoni</em> in protected areas has not been documented although no further conservation measures appear to be required at present.	eng
164964	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in three states in Mexico.	eng
164964	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes shallow, spring-fed rivers with waterfalls in the Tamaulipan scrub forest in Mexico.	eng
164964	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. garrisoni</em> has recently been found in small numbers at several known localities and probably has many healthy populations. However, it is considered relatively scarce by the describer.	eng
164964	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164965	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its population trend is required.	eng
164965	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Colombia, Costa Rica (Alajuela, Puntarenas), El Salvador (La Libertad), Guatemala (Suchitepéquez), Honduras and two states in Mexico.	eng
164965	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. pocomana</em> is found in rocky streams with some current, in or out of forest; sometimes associated with waterfalls and its known elevation range lies between 500 - 900 m.	eng
164965	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. pocomana</em> is presumed to be locally common in many populations, but is little surveyed.	eng
164965	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164966	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, including national and provincial and state parks in both Canada and the United States of America.  There appears to be no need for further conservation actions at this time.	eng
164966	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in two territories and eleven provinces in Canada and twenty five states in the United States of America.	eng
164966	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. resolutum</em> is found at sedge marshes and fens and well-vegetated pond and lake edges, at large lakes in sedge beds. Often in stands of water horsetail <em>Equisetum hiemale</em>.  It is common in habitats of both other North American <em>Coenagrion</em> specis.  Found in shadier, cooler habitats in the southern parts of its range.	eng
164966	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. resolutum</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164966	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164967	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurrence in protected reserves are not known for <em>H. infecta</em>.  Research into population range and habitat is needed.	eng
164967	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Hetaerina infecta</em> occurs in seven states in Mexico.	eng
164967	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species prefers forested sandy/rocky streams in lowlands and occurs up into the foothills.	eng
164967	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. infecta</em> was previously known to be locally common in many populations and this is probably still the case although detailed information is lacking.	eng
164967	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation of <em>H. infecta</em> habitat, at a variety of levels from small to large-scale logging, is likely to have an effect on population numbers, but due to its widespread range, there does not appear to be a problem at present.	eng
164968	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
164968	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and eleven states in the United States of America.	eng
164968	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in open sand-bottomed streams and rivers with gravelly or rocky riffles.	eng
164968	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. aspersus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164968	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164969	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. mithroides</em> is present in Tambopata Reserved Area, Peru.  Its occurrence in other protected reserves has not been documented.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164969	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five provinces in Argentina, Bolivia (Beni), two states in Brazil, Colombia (Atlantico, Magdalena), Costa Rica (Guanacaste, Puntarenas), Guyane Française, Nicaragua, Panama (Panama), Paraguay (Central, Concepción, Del Guaira), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Surinam, Trinidad (Nariva, St. Andrew) and in Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Falcón, Guárico, Portuguesa, Táchira, Zulia).	eng
164969	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes swamps (wooded wetlands) with well-vegetated water surface, typically <em>Pistia</em> or <em>Lemna/Spirodela</em> (aquatic plants).	eng
164969	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. mithroides</em> is a locally common species, found in many populations.	eng
164969	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164970	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Present in numerous protected areas, e.g., national wildlife refuges, national monuments, and state parks, in US range. Occurrence in protected areas not documented south of that.	eng
164970	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Guatemala, fifteen states in Mexico and twelve states in the United States of America.	eng
164970	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species likes small to medium shallow streams, rocky and sandy substrate, in or out of woodland; may be on quite small spring runs and hillside trickles, often found in tiny seeps with no other species of <em>Argia</em>. Considered indicative of presence of springs in some parts of range.	eng
164970	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. plana</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164970	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164971	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. celeno</em> is not known to occur in any protected areas. At least some populations on each island should be monitored for persistence.	eng
164971	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Macrothemis celeno</em> is found in Cuba, Dominican Republic (Azua, Barahona, Dajabón, Elías Piña, Independencia, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez, San Juan, Santiago, Valverde), Jamaica (Portland, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. James, St. Thomas), Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas).	eng
164971	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs at streams with some current in forest and woodland above lowlands.	eng
164971	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Detailed population numbers of <em>M. celeno</em> are unknown; it has been found common at many sites, and known to be still common at some.	eng
164971	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation, agricultural pollution and ground-water depletion are just some threats affecting <em>M. celeno</em>. Much of range also suffers from human overpopulation and associated pollution of rivers and streams.	eng
164972	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is little information available on this species and there are no conservation measures in place; research is needed in the population and biology of <em>P. amarillus</em>.	eng
164972	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been recorded from Mexico.	eng
164972	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat type of this species is not known.	eng
164972	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. amarillus</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
164972	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
164973	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is protected in Tambopata Reserved Zone, Peru, and probably in other lowland reserves in its range with swamp habitats.	eng
164973	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs Meso- to South America including these locations: Argentina: Corrientes, Jujuy and Salta; Brazil: Sáo Paulo; Colombia: Antioquia and Bolivar; Ecuador: Napo; Peru: Huanuco, Loreto and Madre de Dios; and Venezuela: Aragua, Miranda and Táchira.	eng
164973	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species frequents swampy pools, probably both seasonal and permanent, in forest. Grassy margins do not have to be present.	eng
164973	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. limoncocha</em> is common in most areas where it is found. Huge parts of its presumed range have never been surveyed for Odonata.	eng
164973	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164974	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. westfalli</em> occurrence in protected areas has not been documented; there are no conservation measures in place and it is thought that none are needed at present.	eng
164974	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in six states in Mexico.	eng
164974	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. westfalli</em> is found at clean streams with some current, often associated with large springs and/or waterfalls. Can be in or out of forest.	eng
164974	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. westfalli</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164974	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164975	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some parks and reserves; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.	eng
164975	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and thirty six states in the United States of America.	eng
164975	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. elisa</em> is found at ponds and lakes with vegetated margins, including bog ponds.	eng
164975	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. elisa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164975	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164976	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some preserves in Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas, but subject to variations of water levels and floods in Rio Grande. Protected areas in Mexico have not been documented.	eng
164976	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Phyllocycla breviphylla</em> is found in Cayo, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Izabal, Guatemala; Mexico; Rivas, Nicaragua; and the United States of America.	eng
164976	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species habitat includes sandy/muddy rivers, including Rio Grande, and streams.	eng
164976	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. breviphylla</em> is locally common in many populations	eng
164976	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164977	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas (national parks, national wildlife refuges, state parks) in its United States range. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico have not been documented.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.	eng
164977	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Libellula comanche</em> is found in two states in Mexico and twelve in the United States of America.	eng
164977	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in springs, seeps, and pools in clear streams.	eng
164977	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. comanche</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164977	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164978	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place or apparently needed for this Least Concern species, although monitoring of population numbers and habitat is possibly needed to understand the projected effect of climate change.	eng
164978	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
164978	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in shallow marshy ponds and lake edges that dry up during summer. Many of these habitats have dried up in regions of the West with persistent drought, and the species has disappeared from parts of its former range because of this.	eng
164978	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. internum</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164978	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prolonged drought, perhaps correlated with global warming, is likely to be a concern for the future of <em>S. internum</em>'s habitat.	eng
164979	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its general biology and range requires investigation.	eng
164979	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has only been recorded from Chiriquí in Panama.	eng
164979	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown although probably forested rocky stream/rivers as is typical of <em>Phyllogomphoides</em>.	eng
164979	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. litoralis</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
164979	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
164980	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The occurrence of <em>S. georgiana</em> in protected reserves is likely but not known for certain. More effort should be expended to discover breeding populations.	eng
164980	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in the United States of America.	eng
164980	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat for <em>S. georgiana</em> is probably primarily streams in forest and swamps; although this is poorly known. Most individuals collected have been in mixed feeding swarms in clearings and at forest edge with other species of <em>Somatochlora</em> and other corduliids.	eng
164980	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Generally <em>S. georgiana</em> is quite scarce. There are many isolated records that have not led to populations being discovered.	eng
164980	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no known threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164981	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. tibialis</em> is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., state parks and appears not to require further conservation actions at present.	eng
164981	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Ontario, Canada and thirty states in the United States of America.	eng
164981	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at small wooded sandy streams with a slow to moderate current and with or without riffles, less often larger rivers. Most closely associated species tied to forest streams than other <em>Argia</em> in its range.	eng
164981	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. tibialis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164981	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164982	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas in the United States, its status in protected are outside of the United States are not known; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
164982	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Tramea onusta</em> occurs in the Bahamas on Cat Island, San Salvador and South Bimini; Belize in Cayo, Corozal and Orange Walk; Canada; Cayman Islands; Costa Rica at Guanacaste; Cuba; Dominican Republic at Duarte; Guatemala at Huehuetenango and Petén; Honduras; Lesser Antilles on Guadeloupe; Mexico; Netherlands Antilles on Bonaire and Curaçao; Nicaragua; Panama; United States of America; Venezuela and the Virgin Islands on St. Thomas.	eng
164982	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in lakes and ponds, also ditches and canals and large pools of slow rivers. Probably breeds most successfully in fish-free waters such as rainy-season ponds.	eng
164982	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. onusta</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164982	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164983	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
164983	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is known from Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Izabal, Guatemala and Mexico.	eng
164983	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species frequents streams and small rivers in lowland wet forest.	eng
164983	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. cupida</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveying has been completed recently.	eng
164983	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and farming practices have affected <em>P. cupida</em> in the past and are likely to continue.	eng
164984	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been found in protected reserves.  There are no conservation actions required at present.	eng
164984	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala (Suchitepéquez), El Salvador (Ahuachapán), Honduras (Comayagua, Francisco Morazán), four states in Mexico and in Nicaragua (Chontales, Managua).	eng
164984	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found at forest streams and small rivers.	eng
164984	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. constrictor</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164984	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164985	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The type locality of this species is within protected area, Chagres National Park.  Studies are needed to investigate all aspects of its biology and range.	eng
164985	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Coclé, Cerro Azul, Panama (Belle 1994).	eng
164985	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presumed habitat preference of <em>E. compactus</em> is rain-forest streams, typical of its genus.	eng
164985	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available to assess <em>E. compactus</em> population size or trend.	eng
164985	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.	eng
164986	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Research actions are required to study and monitor the population numbers and habitat status.	eng
164986	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Costa Rica (Heredia, Limón; collection notes: "Limón, Guápiles, 1000"), ), Nicaragua (Chontales; collection notes: "La Flor, 45 7, km 159, 4 mi W Acoyapa jct"; Belle 1972) and Panama (Canal Zone).  Its presence is uncertain in Colombia and Ecuador.	eng
164986	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	From known collections, the habitat of <em>D. paucinervis</em> is presumably small rain-forest streams.	eng
164986	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults of <em>D. paucinervis</em> are always rare, but its range is quite extensive so presumably there are scattered populations in appropriate habitat from Nicaragua to Ecuador, and much forest habitat in that range.	eng
164986	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164987	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Populations present in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Preserve, but that preserve under pressure from surrounding human populations.	eng
164987	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Baja Verapaz, Guatemala and Mexico.	eng
164987	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference is small hill streams and spring-fed seeps under rain-forest canopy. Elevation range at least 140 - 620 m.	eng
164987	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. quinta</em> is locally common in many populations, some of them not surveyed in recent years.	eng
164987	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Threats of <em>P. quinta</em> habitat include deforestation by numerous causes; raising of livestock and the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, and other crops. Population growth throughout the region of occurrence is also high.	eng
164988	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. pentacantha</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164988	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and thirty one states in the United States of America.	eng
164988	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in wooded wetlands of all kinds; swamps, lake edges, and slow streams. A border of at least shrubs if not trees seems necessary. Floating and emergent vegetation does not seem to be needed.	eng
164988	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. pentacantha</em> is locally common and widespread.	eng
164988	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164989	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. apicalis</em> is present in some protected areas, including national forests and national wildlife refuges that contain its preferred habitats all over its range.	eng
164989	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada (Ontario), Mexico (Nuevo León) and the United States of America (forty one states).	eng
164989	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. apicalis</em> has a very wide habitat choice including rivers and streams, less often lakes and ponds. More typical of larger, muddier rivers than smaller streams. Often associated with woodland, but trees are not essential.	eng
164989	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. apicalis</em> is abundant and widespread throughout its range.	eng
164989	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164990	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. vulnerata</em> is present in some reserves in Arizona, e.g., Chiricahua National Monument, Ramsey Canyon Preserve. Also in La Michilia Biosphere Reserve, Durango, Mexico. Occurrence in other protected areas in Mexico not known but should be in any reserve on the high plateau that includes mountain streams.	eng
164990	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Hetaerina vulnerata</em> is found in Guatemala (Baja Verapaz), Honduras, sixteen states in Mexico and three states in the United States of America.  Published records from South America are considered an error (Garrison 1990).	eng
164990	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in wooded canyon streams with rocky riffles; it is more attracted to shaded streams than <em>Hetaerina americana</em> and more likely to be found at a higher elevation.	eng
164990	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. vulnerata</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164990	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164991	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presence of <em>P. paulitaba</em> in protected reserves has not been documented. Continued monitoring of known populations and searching for additional ones is necessary.	eng
164991	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	At least two probably separated populations in Los Tuxtlas of Veracruz and forested hilly parts of Chiapas and Tabasco, perhaps more in Mexico.	eng
164991	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes small, rocky rain forest streams.	eng
164991	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. paulitaba</em> has been found in numbers at known localities in both Veracruz and Chiapas.	eng
164991	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and drought (the latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are all threats that have been recorded for <em>P. paulitaba</em>, and are likely to continue into the future although they do not appear to be affecting the species to a point of decline so far.	eng
164992	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected reserves within the United States (Texas and Florida). Its status in protected areas south of the United States border are not known.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164992	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in South America, Greater and Lesser Antilles, Mesoamerica and two states in the United States of America.	eng
164992	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. plebeja</em> is found in ponds and open marshes of all sizes, edges of canals and lakes, even temporary pools.	eng
164992	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. plebeja</em> is an abundant and widespread species, and the population is increasing.	eng
164992	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164993	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous protected reserves in Canada and the United States, including national, state, and provincial parks.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.	eng
164993	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in ten provinces in Canada and twenty states in the United States of America.	eng
164993	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in lakes and ponds in forested regions, often with boggy margins; preference varies from very little to abundant aquatic vegetation.	eng
164993	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. glacialis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
164993	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164994	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. gracilis</em> is present in numerous protected areas, as bogs have often been the subject of protection.	eng
164994	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty three states in the United States of America.	eng
164994	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in sphagnum bogs and fens. Usually but not always associated with woodland.	eng
164994	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. gracilis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164994	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164995	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. uhleri</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164995	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty one states in the United States of America.	eng
164995	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. uhleri</em> is found in small rocky woodland streams to fair-sized open rivers, all with a good current.	eng
164995	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. uhleri</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164995	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164996	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in the protected area of Rodeo Forest Reserve in Costa Rica and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
164996	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Puntarenas, San José and in Panama: Chiriquí.<br/>Collection notes:<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Oricuajo (Calvert 1912)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Estación Maritza, Volcán Orosi, 600 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Nicoya (Williamson 1918, Garrison 1994)<br/>Costa Rica: Guanacaste, Quebrada Azul, 2.5 mi W Tilarán, 1,400 m	eng
164996	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers rocky streams in lowland forested areas.	eng
164996	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. tristani</em> is at least fairly common at several known localities.	eng
164996	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is likely to be a concern of deforestation in the future for <em>E. tristani</em> habitat, although at present it appears not to be a threat and it does occur in a protected area.	eng
164997	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Present in many federal, state, local, and  private reserves.	eng
164997	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in the Bahamas, Cuba and ten states in the United States of America.	eng
164997	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is typically found in wooded country with associated ponds and swamps, although may be seen feeding over open areas and larvae is commonly found in open ponds as well.	eng
164997	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. ingens</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
164997	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164998	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
164998	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and twenty four states in the United States of America.	eng
164998	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. saucium</em> is found in spring upwellings and seeps at pond, bog, or stream margins. Often associated with forest vegetation, but trees not essential.	eng
164998	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. saucium</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164998	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
164999	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
164999	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Gomphus lineatifrons</em> occurs in fifteen states in the United States of America.	eng
164999	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. lineatifrons</em> is found in small to medium clean streams with gravel bottoms.	eng
164999	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. lineatifrons</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
164999	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165000	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in at least some federal, state, local, and/or private reserves; it appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165000	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in seven states in the southeastern United States of America.	eng
165000	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes small spring-fed streams with muck bottom.	eng
165000	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>D. armatus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165000	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165001	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, e.g., Everglades National Park and most national wildlife refuges in the southeast; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
165001	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
165001	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species frequents ponds, both marshy and open, and lakes with much submergent vegetation.	eng
165001	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. carolina</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165001	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165002	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. sulfurata</em> is present in La Selva Protected Zone and probably Corcovado National Park (from occurrence at nearby Rincón de Osa) in Costa Rica. Monitoring of known populations and search for additional ones would be advised.	eng
165002	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Protoneura sulfurata</em> has been recorded from the following locations: <br/>Costa Rica: Limón, 3 km E Siquirres (Donnelly 1989)<br/>Costa Rica: Heredia, La Selva (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Nicaragua: Rio San Juan, 68 km downstream from San Carlos (Daigle 2002)	eng
165002	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in pools in small forest streams and forest swamps.	eng
165002	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. sulfurata</em> has been found to be common at a few locations. Not common on a widespread basis.	eng
165002	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165003	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous protected areas, including national and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165003	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada and sixteen states in the United States of America.	eng
165003	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found at the marshy edges of lakes, ponds, and slow streams, especially in sedge and grass beds. More common on streams than most other <em>Ischnura</em>.	eng
165003	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>I. perparva</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165003	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165004	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been recorded protected areas and further studies are required into its habitat and ecological status.	eng
165004	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Veracruz, Mexico in numerous streams in vicinity of Teocelo, Jalapa, Fortín de las Flores, and Cordoba.	eng
165004	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. viperinus</em> found at mid-elevation streams with good current, mostly in the forest.	eng
165004	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size and trend of <em>E. viperinus</em> is not known, although it is found in thirteen locations, many of them occurring close to each other.	eng
165004	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165005	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and appears no to require any further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165005	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in eight provinces and one territory in Canada and twenty eight states in the United States of America.	eng
165005	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found at clear streams of all sizes and rivers with moderate current. Can be common in places on rather tiny wooded streams, as long as there is some sun penetration. Also seen at rocky shores of large lakes in some areas.	eng
165005	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. aequabilis</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165005	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165006	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in at least some protected areas, e.g., state parks; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165006	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
165006	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in ponds, including temporary ones, in or out of woodland; more characteristic of wooded swamps than any other North American <em>Sympetrum</em>.	eng
165006	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. ambiguum</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165006	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165007	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presently known populations of <em>E. armatus</em> are in La Selva Protected Zone; further research into all aspects of its biology and range are needed.	eng
165007	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species has been recorded from Costa Rica; Limón, Guápiles (Calvert 1920) and Heredia, La Selva. It has been reported from Peru, but this is questionable.	eng
165007	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prefers small rain-forest streams.	eng
165007	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size of <em>E. armatus</em> is not known but the global trend appears to be stable.	eng
165007	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation on a variety of levels, from local wood collection to large-scale logging, continues to be of concern for the survival of <em>E. armatus</em>.	eng
165008	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in streams that run through some protected reserves, but most watersheds not under effective protection.  No further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165008	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Stylurus ivae</em> occurs in the United States of America.	eng
165008	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in small to medium sandy streams.	eng
165008	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. ivae</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165008	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165009	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Some populations are protected in national parks and reserves, at least in Costa Rica and Panama.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165009	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been recorded from many locations in Belize (Toledo), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, San José), El Salvador, Guatemala (Izabal, Zacapa), Honduras, Mexico (Chiapas), Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí) and Venezuela.	eng
165009	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference is small to medium-sized rocky streams and rivers with cover of forest or woodland at least in riparian belt.	eng
165009	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. nathalia</em> has been found quite common at numerous locations.	eng
165009	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165010	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in at least a few protected areas, including state parks; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
165010	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in California in the United States of America.	eng
165010	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers pools in slow small to moderate streams, usually in wooded country.	eng
165010	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Z. exclamationis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165010	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165011	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in several national forests and on tribal lands, both lands have many uses; there is uncertainty if it occurs in other protected areas.  Currently, it appears no further conservation actions are required.	eng
165011	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Ophiogomphus arizonicus</em> is found in Arizona and New Mexico in the United States of America.	eng
165011	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species likes small, rocky, mountain streams with moderate current and open banks; typically in open pine forest.	eng
165011	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. arizonicus</em> is locally common in rivers in several mountain ranges.	eng
165011	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165012	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The only United States of America occurrence of <em>A. concolor</em> is in Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge. It is not well known or documented if it is found in protected areas in its tropical range.  There appears to be no need for further conservation actions.	eng
165012	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in many countries throughout South and Mesoamerica, and in one southern state in the USA (Texas).	eng
165012	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Open ponds in or out of woodland is the preferred habitat for <em>A. concolor</em>.	eng
165012	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. concolor</em> is a reasonably widespread and locally common species throughout its range; although the population trend is unknown, there is no indication of any population decline.	eng
165012	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165013	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. trifida</em> is present in the Everglades National Park and several state and local preserves in Florida. It is probably not well protected in its Caribbean range.	eng
165013	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in the following locations: Bahamas at San Salvador; Cuba at Ciudad de la Habana, La Habana, Oriente and Pinar del Rio; Dominican Republic at La Vega, Samaná and San Cristóbal; Haiti at the Centre, Samana and Tortuga; Jamaica at Saint Thomas; the Lesser Antilles; Puerto Rico; and the United States of America.	eng
165013	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults of <em>T. trifida</em> are found in woodland and forest. Breeds in swamps, probably both permanent and temporary, also in artificial ponds in woodland. Larvae found in water during rainy season, adults probably spend dry season in dense forest waiting for next rains. Probably only one generation/year.	eng
165013	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. trifida</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165013	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Forest clearing in the West Indian range is a threat that affects the habitat of this species.  The likelihood of drought, in the future due to the global climate change, would affect temporary wetlands in which the species breeds.	eng
165014	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurrence in protected areas of <em>L. candelaria</em> has not been documented and confirmation of status in western Cuba is needed.  Further research is also required, looking at its biology and population trends.	eng
165014	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Leptobasis candelaria</em> occurs in Cuba; Pinar del Rio, Candelaria (Alayo 1968) and Mexico; Campeche, Quintana Roo, Veracruz.  In Veracruz there are numerous localities in Cordoba region (D. Paulson collection).	eng
165014	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at lowland marshy ponds and slow streams, some of them seasonal. Known elevation range is 90 - 700 m.	eng
165014	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is no information available for <em>L. candelaria</em>.	eng
165014	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165015	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Some populations protected in several Panamanian national parks. Searches for populations outside the known fairly restricted range would be of interest.	eng
165015	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is known from Panama at the following locations:<br/>- Canal Zone, Pipeline Rd. (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, K-2 Rd and Pan-American Hwy (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Rio Piedras, 2 mi SE Maria Chiquita (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Azul (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Panama, Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)	eng
165015	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat for this species is presumably small rain-forest streams, as with other <em>Palaemnema</em>.	eng
165015	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. melanura</em> population numbers are not known, but it is found commonly at some locations. At least 22 specimens were examined for original description (Donnelly 1992).	eng
165015	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a threat in areas outside protected reserves and drought is increasingly likely in the future with global climate change, although neither appear to be impacting the species at present.	eng
165016	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
165016	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found in Canada in three provinces and  fourteen states in the United States of America.	eng
165016	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. clepsydra</em> prefers marshes and bogs with open water, coastal plain ponds, small lakes, and bays of larger lakes.	eng
165016	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. clepsydra</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165016	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165017	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. popoluca</em> is present in the La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica and also in Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.	eng
165017	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Costa Rica (Alajuela, Heredia), Honduras, Panama and two states in Mexico.	eng
165017	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers small, slow-flowing lowland forest streams, often associated with swamps; adults are found in heavily forested low areas with some movement of water through flooded surroundings.	eng
165017	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Usually found in small numbers were it occurs, probably because preferred habitat is usually limited and supports only low populations.	eng
165017	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165018	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The occurrence of this species in protected areas has not been documented, although <em>T. graffinii</em> is to be expected at any lowland reserve with appropriate habitat.	eng
165018	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Belize (Orange Walk), Costa Rica (Cartago, Guanacaste), Guatemala (Izabal, El Petén), Ecuador (Napo), Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama (Canal Zone, Darien, Panama).	eng
165018	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species frequents ponds and lakes, both seasonal and permanent, with extensive, if not complete, coverage by floating aquatic vegetation (<em>Pistia</em> or <em>Eichhornia</em>).	eng
165018	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. griffinii</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165018	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165019	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. canis</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
165019	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
165019	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in rivers and slow streams; sloughs seem preferred over ponds and lakes in Northwest, but latter also used. Aquatic vegetation usually prominent. Males more likely at moving water than other <em>Epitheca</em>, sometimes even over swift streams. More likely over bog ponds in eastern part of continent.	eng
165019	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. canis</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165019	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165020	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. cyanea</em> is present in numerous state parks and nature reserves and apparently does not require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165020	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found throughout the United States of America in thirty two states.	eng
165020	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in lakes and ponds, primarily those with silty/muddy bottoms, in open or woodland.	eng
165020	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. cyanea</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165020	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165021	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and conservation measures appear not to be needed at present.	eng
165021	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in four states in Mexico.	eng
165021	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers rocky forest streams.	eng
165021	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. liopeltis</em> is locally common in small number of known populations.	eng
165021	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165022	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurs in protected national forests and St. Croix National Scenic Riverway, which may offer some protection.&#160; The species is listed as endangered in both states of occurrence: Minnesota and Wisconsin.	eng
165022	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Ophiogomphus susbehcha</em> is present in the north of the United States of America.	eng
165022	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prefers larger streams than other regional <em>Ophiogomphus</em>, with fast flow and clean water and with abundant cobble and gravel with sand substrates in largely forested watersheds. Larvae have only been found in deep water where wading is difficult or impossible.	eng
165022	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. susbehcha</em> has a stable population and is thought to be abundant throughout its range.	eng
165022	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165023	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. remotus</em> probably occurs in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica, as it is known from nearby similar habitat. Also protected near Monteverde, Costa Rica, and on Barro Colorado Island in Soberania National Park, Panama. Much more field work is needed to establish its parameters of occurrence.	eng
165023	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Perissolestes remotus</em> is found in Antioquia, Colombia; Guanacaste and Puntarenas, Costa Rica; Izabal, Guatemala; Rio San Juan, Nicaragua; Canal Zone and Panama, Panama and Madre de Dios, Peru.	eng
165023	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes small lowland rain forest streams and trickles on sandy or muddy soil, often with many rocks. Found at streams with no more than narrow forest borders, but always with trees.	eng
165023	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. remotus</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
165023	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is likely to be a threat to this species habitat in the future, although at present, there do not appear to be any impacts affecting the status of <em>P. remotus</em>.	eng
165024	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas in national wildlife refuges in the United States of America, although occurrence in protected areas has not been documented in Mexico and Guatemala.	eng
165024	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Argia pallens</em> is found in Guatemala, eight states in Mexico and three southern states in the United States of America.	eng
165024	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. pallens</em> prefers open, rocky parts of shallow streams and rivers.	eng
165024	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. pallens</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165024	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165025	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
165025	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs throughout the United States of America.	eng
165025	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species inhabits swampy woodland ponds.	eng
165025	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. spinosa</em> is probably locally common but is very poorly known at present.	eng
165025	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165026	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
165026	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Phyllogomphoides indicatrix</em> has been recorded from Chiapas, Ixhuatan at 400 m (Belle 1989) in Mexico.	eng
165026	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown although presumably forest stream as all other tropical <em>Phyllogomphoides</em>.	eng
165026	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. indicatrix</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
165026	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
165027	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The occurrence of <em>N. griphus</em> in protected reserves is not known; investigations into the range and biology of this species are needed.	eng
165027	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Neocordulia griphus</em> is present in Costa Rica and Guatemala.	eng
165027	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Nothing specifically recorded about this species habitat but, from the localities in the type description, probably lowland forest streams.	eng
165027	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Population numbers and trend are unknown for <em>N. griphus</em>.	eng
165027	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
165028	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several protected areas in the United States; its occurrence in such areas have not been documented south of the United States border.	eng
165028	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found from southern United States of America, Mexico, Mesoamerica to South America. It has an uncertain record from Brazil. However, in Belize it is found in Cayo; Costa Rica in Guanacaste, Puntarenas and San  José; El Salvador in La Unión; Guatemala in Escuintla, Izabal, Zacapa, Honduras in Cortez and Valle; Nicaragua in Managua and in Panama in the Canal Zone and Panama itself.	eng
165028	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers small streams to good-sized rivers, mostly open but may have wooded banks; rocks are usually, but not always, present. Also at large upland lakes with wave-washed shores.	eng
165028	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. inacuta</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165028	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165029	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. brevistylus</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165029	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five provinces in Canada and thirty four states in the United States of America.	eng
165029	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species prefers a wide variety of streams and rivers, less commonly on lakes. Like other top predators (cougars, wolves, great horned owls), they appear to be able to utilize all habitats. This may be because the larva is not a burrower (it rests among detritus), therefore not tied to any particular substrate.	eng
165029	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. brevistylus</em> is common and widespread.	eng
165029	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165030	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in the Everglades National Park and numerous other protected reserves and it appears not to require any further conservation measures at present.	eng
165030	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in nine states in the United States of America.	eng
165030	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurring in slow streams and rivers, canals, and a great variety of sand-bottomed lakes and ponds, <em>A. williamsoni</em> is amongst the most ecologically broad-based of American clubtails.	eng
165030	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. williamsoni</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165030	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165031	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Present in Guanacaste National Park and protected areas at Monteverde. More surveys needed between known areas at Monteverde and in Cartago Province.	eng
165031	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Philogenia peacocki</em> occurs in Costa Rica at the following locations (with collection notes):<br/>- Guanacaste: Volcan Cacao, Estacion Mengo, 1,100 m (Brooks 1989)<br/>- Guanacaste: 6 km from Monteverde, 1150 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>- Puntarenas: Monteverde, 1,600 m (Brooks 1989); Monteverde: 1,100 - 1,450 m (W. Haber, pers. comm.)<br/>- Cartago: Turrialba, Santa Cruz (Ramírez and Novelo 1994)	eng
165031	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in narrow, shallow gentle streams, some adjacent to fast-flowing small rivers in densely shaded rain forest. Elevation range 1,100 - 1,600 m.	eng
165031	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. peacocki</em> population numbers are not known although it has been found common at a few sites.	eng
165031	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a possible threat to <em>P. peacocki</em> although it is not likely in the most known populations.	eng
165032	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165032	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in seven south and southeastern states in the United States of America.	eng
165032	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at small to medium slowly flowing streams with sand and muck bottoms, usually in woodland.	eng
165032	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. alabamensis</em> is poorly monitored but is probably locally common in many populations.	eng
165032	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165033	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas, although most localities on public or private land that are not managed to preserve wetlands.  Further occurrences within protected areas are required.	eng
165033	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in fifteen states in the United States of America.	eng
165033	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species likes shallow sedge marshes, is often associated with hot springs in the northern part of the range. Also small sandy streams that flow out of such springs, with slight current and abundant sedges.	eng
165033	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. alberta</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165033	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Populations of <em>A. alberta</em> apparently disappeared from southeastern Arizona during a drought period of late 1990s and have not been detected since.  Drought that would eliminate small spring runs, presumably an increasingly likely threat from global warming, would cause a decline in the population.	eng
165034	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	None of the few known localities of <em>A. percellulata</em> are in a protected area and further research in all aspects of this species are needed.	eng
165034	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Argia percellulata</em> is found in three states in Mexico.	eng
165034	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat of this species is not known but presumably occurs in streams.	eng
165034	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size and trend of <em>A. percellulata</em> is unknown.	eng
165034	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.	eng
165035	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165035	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in twelve states in the United States of America.	eng
165035	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species frequents medium to large rivers with some current in wooded country.	eng
165035	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. virginiensis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165035	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165036	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some state parks and other protected areas in New Mexico and Texas. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico are not known.	eng
165036	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Phyllogomphoides stigmatus</em> occurs in Mexico and the United States of America.	eng
165036	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in slow-flowing streams and rivers and large open ponds.	eng
165036	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. stigmatus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165036	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165037	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. furcillata</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165037	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and twenty six states in the United States of America.	eng
165037	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. furcillata</em> is found in shallow pools and ditches in swampy areas or sphagnum bog ponds.	eng
165037	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. furcillata</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165037	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165038	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas in state parks in the United States of America.	eng
165038	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces Canada, nine states in Mexico and forty one states in the United States of America.	eng
165038	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in streams and rivers, from muddy to sandy but often rocky substrate, with wooded or open banks. This is typical habitat of the largest rivers inhabited by <em>Argia</em> species but may also be found on quite small streams. Also on large lakes in northern parts of range.	eng
165038	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. moesta</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165038	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165039	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several protected areas in Texas and Arizona. Status of occurrence in protected areas south of the United States border has not been documented.	eng
165039	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Perithemis domitia</em> is found from southern United States of America, Mesoamerica, Greater and Lesser Antilles and South America, including Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Guanacaste and Puntarenas in Costa Rica; Barahona, Dajabón, Distrito Nacional, La Romana, La Vega, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez and Santiago in Dominican Republic; Pichincha in Ecuador; St. Andrew, St. Catherine and St. Thomas in Jamaica; and Carabobo, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Miranda and Yaracuy in Venezuela.	eng
165039	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at wooded pools in streams and sloughs, less often at ponds, but always where trees present. May be at very small and isolated water bodies or narrow channels.	eng
165039	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. domitia</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165039	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165040	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in protected areas in Costa Rica (La Selva Protected Zone), Guatemala (Tikal National Park), and Florida (Fakahatchee Strand Preserve). Much effort should be put into searches for this species in the Fakahatchee Strand area of the Big Cypress Swamp. Last seen there in 2000; several subsequent searches came up empty.	eng
165040	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Chrysobasis lucifer</em> is found in Belize (Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek), Costa Rica, Guatemala, two states in Mexico and Florida, United States of America.	eng
165040	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found at seasonal marshes or swamps in forested landscape.	eng
165040	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. lucifer</em> is fairly common in the right season in one population, that at La Selva, Costa Rica. Otherwise poorly known. Very uncommon in Florida, where two specimens taken years apart in Big Cypress Swamp.	eng
165040	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Drought is most likely to affect <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lucifer</span>, caused by global warming; if the seasonal rains do not arrive to replenish the marshes and swamps, possible breeding habitat like be lost.<em><br/><br/></em>	eng
165041	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in several protected areas in Panama (Barro Colorado Island, Soberania National Park) and is likely to be present in protected areas in Costa Rica (e.g., Braulio Carrillo National Park).	eng
165041	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Epigomphus quadracies</em> is found in Costa Rica, Guatemala and Panama in the following areas:<br/>Guatemala: Quetzaltenango - possibly recorded in error.<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, San Isidro (Calvert 1903, 1905)<br/>Costa Rica: Limón, Rio Chirripó (Calvert 1920)<br/>Costa Rica: Alajuela, Alajuela, 975 m (Calvert  1920)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Chiriquí (Calvert 1903, 1905)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (D. R. Paulson collection)	eng
165041	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preferred includes rain-forest streams.	eng
165041	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. quadracies</em> is widespread and at least locally common with a stable population trend.	eng
165041	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165042	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, virtually all such with wetlands within its range; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165042	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Belize (Cayo, Orange Walk, Toledo), five provinces in Canada, Guatemala, three states in Mexico and thirty seven states in the United States of America.	eng
165042	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in ponds, lake shores, swamps, ditches, and slow streams with abundant herbaceous vegetation, including spring-fed pools. Often seen in dense grass or sedge beds like other <em>Ischnura</em> species but also common in other herbaceous plant beds in shady wooded situations.	eng
165042	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>I. posita</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165042	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165043	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some state and local reserves; no further conservation methods appear to be needed at this time.	eng
165043	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Nova Scotia in Canada and ten states in the United States of America.	eng
165043	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes vegetated ponds and lakes, typically on sandy coastal-plain soils.	eng
165043	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em> C. martha</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165043	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Development of the habitat could become a threat to this species, especially on its preferred habitat of sandy coastal-plain soils.	eng
165044	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The presence of <em>L. foliata</em> in protected areas has not been documented. Continued searches for additional populations is advised.	eng
165044	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Libellua foliata</em> is found throughout Mesoamerica, including these areas: Cartago in Costa Rica and Baja Verapaz and Sacatepéquez in Guatemala.	eng
165044	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. foliata</em> is found in upland ponds, marshes, and slow streams; usually in open areas.	eng
165044	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Details for <em>L. foliata</em> population numbers are not known at present.	eng
165044	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165045	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
165045	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in the Lesser Antilles; Dominica (Donnelly 1970), Grenada (Kirby 1894), and Guadeloupe and Martinique (Meurgey 2006b).	eng
165045	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference for <em>B. grenadensis</em> is not known although it is probably mountain streams.	eng
165045	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Population size and trend remains unknown for <em>B. grenadensis</em>.	eng
165045	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Threats to this species are not currently known.	eng
165046	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
165046	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Belize at Toledo: Blue Creek (Garrison 1994).	eng
165046	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers rain forest streams.	eng
165046	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size and trend of <em>E. leptophis</em> is not known.	eng
165046	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is not information known on <em>E. leptophis</em> to understand if there are any threats affecting it.	eng
165047	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Probably not present in any thoroughly protected reserve, as the Ouachita National Forest, its stronghold, is a land of many uses.	eng
165047	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Cordulegaster talaria</em> is found in Arkansas in the United States of America.	eng
165047	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Prefers small sandy streams in forest.	eng
165047	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. talaria</em> is found in small local populations and its trend is unknown.	eng
165047	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The logging of hardwood has a slight chance to negatively affect the habitat of this species.	eng
165048	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas, especially state parks, but not protected in watersheds; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165048	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in two provinces in Canada and fourteen states in the United States of America.	eng
165048	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs at medium to large slow-flowing to rapid rivers with varied bottom types, in or out of woodland.  Adults not always easily found and so the species is best surveyed by larvae and exuviae (moulted exoskeletons).	eng
165048	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. amnicola</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165048	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165049	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in a protected area in at least Soberania National Park in Panama and would benefit from a monitoring study into population numbers, habitat status and general life histories.	eng
165049	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Colombia, Panama and Venezuela at the following locations:<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Pipeline Road (May 1979, Garrison 1994)<br/>Colombia: Antioquia, Cristlina, 28 km above Puerto Berrio (Garrison 1994)<br/>Colombia: Tolima, Maraquita (Garrison 1994)<br/>Venezuela: Táchira, Táchira (Garrison 1994)	eng
165049	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers rain forest streams.	eng
165049	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. sabaleticus</em> is apparently rather rare where it occurs, very few have been seen.	eng
165049	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is likely to be a concern of deforestation in the future for <em>E. sabaleticus</em> habitat, although at present it appears not to be a threat.	eng
165050	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in the Everglades National Park and at least several state, local, and private reserves in the United States.  It probably occurs in most forested lowland reserves throughout New World tropics.	eng
165050	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in the following areas: Bahamas (South Bimini), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Toledo), Bolivia (Santa Cruz), two states in Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia (Antioquia, Bolívar, Magdalena, Tolima), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, San José), Cuba (Pinar del Rio), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, El Seibo, La Romana, La Vega, María Trinidad Sánchez, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Sánchez Ramírez, Santiago), Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Rios, Napo), Guatemala (Escuintla, Petén), Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras, Jamaica (Saint Thomas), Lesser Antilles, twelve states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone, Chiriquí), Peru (Loreto, Madre de Dios), Puerto Rico, Suriname (Paramaribo), Trinidad (Caroni), four states in the United States of America and Venezuela (Amazonas, Aragua, Barinas, Bolivar, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Miranda, Táchira).	eng
165050	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. nervosa</em> is found in wooded swamps and low-lying woodland, even in garden pools; there is no minimal size for larval habitat.	eng
165050	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. nervosa</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165050	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165051	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been found in protected reserves.  There are no conservation actions required at present.	eng
165051	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Costa Rica (Guanacaste), El Salvador (Ahuachapán, La Libertad), Guatemala (Baja Verapaz, Chiquimula, Zacapa), twelve states in Mexico and in Nicaragua (Managua).	eng
165051	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in shallow rocky and muddy rivers in and out of forest.	eng
165051	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. bothrops</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165051	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no known threat currently affecting this species.	eng
165052	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. championi</em> is presumably present in Corcovado National Park, as it is common at Rincón de Osa, near the park and in the same habitat.  Investigations to establish its presence there are needed.	eng
165052	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in the following locations (with collection notes): <br/>Panama: Chiriquí, Boquete, 4000 ft (Calvert 1924)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, Rincón de Osa, sea level (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas, 4 mi S San Vito de Java, 4000 ft (Bick and Bick 1988, D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, Golfito, sea level (D. R. Paulson collection)	eng
165052	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at small rocky streams with some current in dense rain forest.	eng
165052	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. championi</em> has been found to be very common at several of the Costa Rican locations listed above.	eng
165052	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165053	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some federal, state, local and private reserves and it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165053	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in eight states within the United States of America.	eng
165053	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. dilatatus</em> occurs in slow-flowing sandy rivers with mud in pools. Also at some lakes with similar substrates.	eng
165053	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. dilatatus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165053	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165054	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurrence of <em>N. gladiolatum</em> in protected areas have not been documented; there are no conservation measures in place and it is thought that none are needed at present.	eng
165054	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in six states in Mexico.	eng
165054	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes ponds, lakes, and backwaters of rivers with both large areas of open water and floating and/or submerged vegetation.&#160;&#160; Has been recorded at seasonal as well as permanent wetlands.	eng
165054	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. gladiolatum</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveyed recently.	eng
165054	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165055	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
165055	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada; eleven provinces and two territories, and the United States of America; forty-four states.	eng
165055	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. umbrosa</em> is found at lakes, ponds, even small ones, and slow streams. More common on streams than other <em>Aeshna</em> in its range. Colonizes small suburban ponds readily.	eng
165055	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. umbrosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165055	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165056	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. abbreviatus</em> is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.  It is listed as Endangered in Massachusetts (Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife: www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/nhesp/species_info/mesa_list/mesa_index.htm).	eng
165056	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in fourteen states within the United States of America.	eng
165056	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in clean sandy or rocky streams and also rivers with muck (a type of soil mostly made up from humus from drained swampland)  <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp"></a> deposits.	eng
165056	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>G. abbreviatus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165056	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165057	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. tikalus</em> is protected in Tikal National Park in Guatemala and Corcovado National Park and La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.	eng
165057	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Lestes tikalus</em> is found in Mesoamerica in the following countries and locations: Belize (Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek), Costa Rica (Heredia, Puntarenas), Guatemala (El Petén), Honduras, Nicaragua, eight states in Mexico and Panama (Canal Zone).	eng
165057	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers shallow ponds and marshes in forest zones, typically those that are drying in dry season and re-flooded in next wet season.	eng
165057	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. tikalus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165057	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. tikalus</em> is likely to be affected by drought and deforestation in the future; it is a widespread species occurring in protected areas.	eng
165058	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to occur in protected areas and further research into its habitat status, population and ecology is required.	eng
165058	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in six states in Mexico.	eng
165058	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers rocky mountain streams and small rivers, usually with adjacent riparian belt.	eng
165058	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. sipedon</em> is common in at least some populations, and the trend is thought to be stable.	eng
165058	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165059	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, including national and state parks and national wildlife refuges; it appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165059	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in the Bahamas (Andros, Biminis, Cat Island, Crooked Island, San Salvador), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Brazil, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia (Atlantico), Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Azua, Barahona, Distrito Nacional, Elías Piña, Independencia, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, Santiago, Valverde), Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala (Guatemala, Petén, Retalhuleu), Guyane Française, Haiti, Honduras (Cortez), Isla San Andres, Jamaica (Clarendon, Portland, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth, St. James), Lesser Antilles (Guadeloupe, Martinique), twenty two states in Mexico, Nicaragua (Chinandega), Panama (Canal Zone), Paraguay, Peru (Lima), Puerto Rico, Surinam, Trinidad, twenty five states in the United States of America, Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Carabobo, Cojedes, Falcón, Guárico) and the Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas).	eng
165059	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>I. ramburii</em> occurs in a great variety of habitats in lowland range - lakes, ponds, marshes, ditches, even brackish waters; as long as some shore vegetation such as grasses and sedges are present. Also found at high elevations at large lakes in Mexico and Central America, and one such locality in Arizona, Point of Pines Lake in ponderosa pine zone at 1,900 m.	eng
165059	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>I. ramburii</em> is superabundant and widespread and the population is increasing.	eng
165059	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165060	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. dissocians</em> is not known to be present in any protected area. It apparently has good powers of dispersal, so it is not likely to be threatened by local populations going extinct.	eng
165060	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Micrathyria dissocians</em> occurs in Belize, Cuba (Las Villas), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, San Cristóbal), Guatemala, Jamaica (Clarendon), six states in Mexico and Puerto Rico.	eng
165060	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preference includes marshy ponds, both permanent and temporary, in open or lightly wooded habitats in lowlands.&#160; It has been found also at slow streams.	eng
165060	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Detailed population numbers of <em>M. dissocians</em> are unknown. It has been found commonly at some sites.	eng
165060	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165061	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	All known populations appear to occur in protected areas and no further conservation measures are required.	eng
165061	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Philogenia leonora</em> is found in Panama and has been recorded from these locations (with collection notes:)<br/>- Canal Zone: Barro Colorado Island (May 1979, Bick and Bick 1988)<br/>- Canal Zone: Cerro Campana (Donnelly 1992)<br/>- Cerro Campana: near Chica, 640 m (D. R. Paulson collection)	eng
165061	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found inside rain forest on Barro Colorado Island; presumed to breed in small forest streams.	eng
165061	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. leonora</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
165061	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165062	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165062	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in seven provinces and one territory in Canada and six states in the United States of America.	eng
165062	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. colubrinus</em> occurs in clear rapid streams and rivers with pools and riffles, gravelly or rocky beds.	eng
165062	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. colubrinus</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165062	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165063	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in numerous protected areas, e.g., national, state and provincial parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165063	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in ten provinces in Canada and twenty nine states in the United States of America.	eng
165063	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Occurs at lakes and ponds of all sizes, typically bordered with abundant emergent vegetation, in open or woodland. Less likely than very similar <em>Enallagma hageni</em> at bog ponds and other acid waters.	eng
165063	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. ebrium</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165063	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165064	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas all across North America.  There does not appear to be any further need for conservation measures at this time.	eng
165064	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in three provinces in Canada, two states in Mexico and forty four states in the United States of America.	eng
165064	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species frequents lakes, ponds, and pools in slow streams of all kinds with mud bottoms and often with vegetation, in open and wooded habitats. Common at farm ponds and other created habitats.	eng
165064	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. luctuosa</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165064	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165065	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165065	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in eleven provinces in Canada and eight states in the United States of America.	eng
165065	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Preferred habitat for this species is lakes, with or without much floating and/or emergent vegetation; also large, slow-flowing rivers.	eng
165065	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. cingulata</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165065	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165066	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas in the United States, such presence has not been documented south of the United States border.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165066	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in eleven provinces in Argentina, Belize (Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Bolivia (Beni, Santa Cruz), four states in Brazil, Colombia (Atlantico, Magdalena, Valle), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Guanacaste), Cuba (Matanzas), Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Monseñor Nouel, San Cristóbal), Ecuador (Guayas, Pichincha), El Salvador (Libertad, San Salvador), Guatemala (Sololá), Guyana, Guyane Française, Honduras (Comayagua, Cortez), Jamaica (St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth), Lesser Antilles (Guadeloupe, Martinique), sixteen states in Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama (Canal Zone), Paraguay (Central, Concepción, Paraguari), Peru (Loreto), Puerto Rico, Trinidad, nine states in the United States of America, Uruguay and Venezuela (Aragua, Barinas, Bolivar, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Distrito Federal, Falcón, Guárico, Miranda, Monagas, Táchira, Zulia).	eng
165066	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at ponds and lakes with abundant water hyacinths or water lettuce, less commonly over other floating vegetation. Water hyacinth seems the most important variable in its habitat choice.	eng
165066	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. marcella</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165066	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Removal of water hyacinths from large areas (in a bid to 'control' their spread) limits the breeding grounds for <em>M. marcella</em> although this does not appear to have caused a decline in numbers at present.	eng
165067	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Presence in protected reserves have not been documented for <em>P. paulina</em>. Searching for persisting and additional populations is needed, but much of the presumed range has never visited by odonatologists.  Further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165067	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is known to occur in the following locations:<br/>Belize: Toledo (Boomsma and Dunkle 1996)<br/>Guatemala: Izabal, Las Escobas (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Guatemala: Chiquimula, Rio Carcar (D. R. Paulson collection)<br/>Honduras: Atlantida, Jilamo (Calvert 1931)<br/>Honduras: Atlantida, La Ceiba (D. Paulson collection)<br/>Nicaragua: F. Sibley (pers. comm. 2006)	eng
165067	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species habitat preference is presumably small forest streams, as in other <em>Palaemnema</em>.	eng
165067	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. paulina</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
165067	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and drought (the latter increasingly likely with global climate change) are all threats that have been recorded for <em>P. paulina</em>, and are likely to continue into the future although they do not appear to be affecting the species to a point of decline so far.	eng
165068	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous protected areas but entire watersheds are not protected; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165068	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada and the United States of America.	eng
165068	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species frequents mud- and sand-bottomed rivers in forested regions; occasionally streams or lakes. Adults spend much time in forest canopy, so best surveyed by larvae and exuviae.	eng
165068	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. spiniceps</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165068	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165069	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Most of the Cerro Azul-Cerro Jefe area is preserved in Chagres National Park where this species occurs, some of which is also on private lands.  Searching for persisting populations of <em>P. bilobulata</em> at Cerro Azul and other populations is of great importance, as is investing its life histories and range.	eng
165069	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Donnelly (1992) recorded <em>Palaemnema bilobulata</em> in Cerro Azul, Panama.	eng
165069	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat is unknown for <em>P. bilobulata</em> but presumably small streams in wet forest, like other <em>Palaemnema</em>.	eng
165069	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population size and trend of <em>P. bilobulata</em> are not known.	eng
165069	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a possible future threat to the habitat of <em>P. bilobulata</em>, although not likely in national park area. Fires are a possibility, although most of the forest is too wet. Drought from global warming could cause an increase in fire danger and/or dry up small streams that are preferred by <em>Palaemnema</em>.	eng
165070	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in national forests but perhaps not large protected areas; further conservation measures appear not to be required at this time.	eng
165070	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in the United States of America in three states.	eng
165070	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species found at swift rocky streams bordered by willows, mostly in forested habitats, from lowlands to well up in mountains.	eng
165070	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>O. bison</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165070	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165071	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165071	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found throughout the United States of America.	eng
165071	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in shallow, mucky seeps in forested areas, flat or on hillside and associated with either streams or ponds; also sedge-covered fens in Ozarks, central United States of America.   Breeding habitat ranges from open woodland to pine Flatwoods.  Larva is found in soft sediments beneath decaying vegetation, usually dead leaves, in or at edge of shallow water in seeps or stream margins.	eng
165071	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. thoreyi</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165071	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165072	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. obliqua</em> is present in at least some state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation actions appear to be needed at this time.	eng
165072	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Ontario and Quebec in Canada and thirty states in the United States of America.	eng
165072	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found at small swift streams and muddy seeps in forested habitats.	eng
165072	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. obliqua</em> is locally common in many populations in small numbers but is widespread.	eng
165072	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165073	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.	eng
165073	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in Mexico at the following locations: <br/>Veracruz: El Muro, 1,100 m<br/>Hidalgo: Pemuxtitla, Rio Zacuala, 1,000 m<br/>Hidalgo: Molango, 1,450 m	eng
165073	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species prefers cloud-forest streams.	eng
165073	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. erici</em> is thought to be rare, and is known only from three locations.	eng
165073	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is little known on the threats to this species, although deforestation is likely to be of course for concern in the future.	eng
165074	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves and does not appear to need any further conservation measures.	eng
165074	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Aeshna canadensis</em> occurs in ten provinces and one territory in Canada and twenty four states in the United States of America.	eng
165074	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. canadensis</em> is often associated with bogs and beaver ponds; also occurs at lakes and ponds with abundant emergent vegetation in forest zone. <em></em>	eng
165074	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. canadensis</em> is abundant in many areas throughout its range.	eng
165074	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165075	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has not been documented in protected reserves; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.	eng
165075	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in Mesoamerica, including the following locations: Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo, Belize; Alta Verapaz, El Progreso and Zacapa, Guatemala; and Cortez in Honduras.	eng
165075	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found in rocky forest streams and rivers.	eng
165075	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. duodentatus</em> is presumed to be locally common still in many populations, but little surveying have been completed recently.	eng
165075	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is expected to be a threat to <em>P. duodentatus</em> in the future but at present, there are no known threats.	eng
165076	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. mortoni</em> is protected in La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica and Soberania National Park in Panama.  Further research in all aspects of its biology is required.	eng
165076	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been recorded from Costa Rica: Heredia, Puerto Viejo (including La Selva); Limón, 9 km southwest Pandora and Panama, Canal Zone, Pipeline Road, Barro Colorado Island, Gamboa, Frijoles (Donnelly 1992).	eng
165076	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>C. mortoni</em> has been collected from primary forest. It is associated with wooded swamps at La Selva (D. Paulson unpublished data 2006).	eng
165076	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The population of <em>C. mortoni</em> is unknown.  It is not common and not found in numbers within its known range.	eng
165076	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat of <em>C. mortoni</em> is likely to be affected by deforestation of its primary habitat, although the species also occurs in protected areas (see conservation measures).	eng
165077	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	One population of <em>L. mariae</em> occurs in Tapantí National Park and another in Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve. Surveying for additional populations is needed.	eng
165077	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Libellula mariae</em> occurs in Costa Rica and has been recorded at the following locations: <br/>- Cartago Province, Tapantí (Garrison 1992)<br/>- San José Province, Rio Claro on La Palma-Carrillo Road, 1,200 m (D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>- Puntarenas Province, Monteverde area, two locations 5 km apart (W. Haber in litt. 2006)	eng
165077	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	One male was found at a pool in a small swift, clear, sand- and rock-bottomed stream with grassy banks. Found breeding at a permanent root hole caused by tree fall in swampy area in primary forest. Also at a pool in a spring seep in secondary forest 5 km from tree fall site (W. Haber pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165077	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Details for <em>L. mariae</em> population numbers are not known at present although it is found in four locations.	eng
165077	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is little data available to assess the threats to this species, however it is thought that deforestation could cause a problem in the future.	eng
165078	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in state parks and national wildlife refuges in south Texas, also in La Selva Protected Zone in Costa Rica. Occurrence in protected areas are not otherwise documented.	eng
165078	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs throughout Mexico in ten states, one in the United States of America and in Mesoamerica including these locations:  Alajuela, Guanacaste, Heredia and Limón in Costa Rica; La Libertad in El Salvador; Baja Verapaz, Escuintla, Izabal and Zacapa in Guatemala; Chinandega in Nicaragua and the Canal Zone in Panama.	eng
165078	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Quiet backwaters at edges of rivers, pools in streams, and large ponds, often muddy are preferred by this species. Range of water bodies from quite small to quite large. Pairs oviposit in floating detritus that has collected in eddies.	eng
165078	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>N. amelia</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165078	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165079	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected areas, including national, provincial, and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165079	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in nine provinces in Canada, Baja California in Mexico and thirty two states in the United States of America.	eng
165079	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. carunculatum</em> is found at marshy and open lakes, ponds, and slow streams and rivers, occurring commonly at larger and more eutrophic lakes than some of its relatives. In Pacific Northwest, may be common at lakes and ponds with tall cattail growth where other <em>Enallagma</em> lacking. Also found in some saline lakes, but not as characteristic of extreme environments as <em>Enallagma clausum</em>.	eng
165079	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. carunculatum</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165079	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165080	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in Big Bend National Park and several state parks and other reserves in the United States. Occurrence in protected areas in Mexico has not been established.	eng
165080	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in Mexico (Baja California Sur, Durango, Guanajuato, Mexico, Oaxaca, Sonora, Veracruz) and the United States of America (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas).	eng
165080	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species frequents slow streams and drainage ditches in open and wooded country, also isolated pools, even garden ponds.	eng
165080	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>R. dugesi</em> is a locally common species in many populations.	eng
165080	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165081	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Not applicable.	eng
165081	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves in Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America.  The migratory nature of <em>A. junius</em> mandates cross-border cooperation, although so far no reason for concern.	eng
165081	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Anax junius</em> is a common species in central and north America which has crossed the Atlantic up to Europe. The only European records are those of six individuals on the Isles of Scilly and in Cornwall in September 1998 and a male caught on the French coast near Nantes in September 2003 (Meurgey and Perron, 2004; Pellow, 1999). The British records coincided with an Atlantic depression with strong westernly winds.	eng
165081	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in nine provinces in Canada, fifty one states in the United States of America, eighteen states in Mexico, Kamchatka in the Russian Federation and many Caribbean Islands within the Greater and Lesser Antilles.	eng
165081	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. junius</em> is found at lakes and all but the smallest ponds, also slow streams. Because of migratory nature, it is liable to be seen anywhere at or away from water.  It has a relatively rare breeding strategy: large proportion of populations in most areas are migratory. Mature adults move north in spring throughout North America, they appear before any can be found emerging. These individuals breed, their larvae develop during summer, and their offspring emerge in late summer, then they fly south in immature colours. At times migrants are seen in large numbers, especially on Atlantic coast but also in the Great Lakes. Occasionally found far out at sea off southern California in fall, commonly seen from oil platforms in Gulf of Mexico. These individuals presumably breed somewhere in Mexico and the Caribbean, probably also in far southern United States, their larvae developing during winter and their offspring moving north in spring. This scenario is speculative but with strong circumstantial evidence. Fewer individuals in same regions are more like other dragonflies, emerging in spring from larvae that overwintered locally.	eng
165081	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Central and North America it is found at standing, marshy waters including temporary or slightly brackish ones.	eng
165081	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. junius</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165081	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species occurs in large numbers in its Central and North American range. It does however not reproduce in Europe and only a handful of specimens have been observed.	eng
165081	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Not relevant.	eng
165081	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165082	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. volsella</em> occurs within La Selva Protected Area in Costa Rica and Soberania National Park in Panama and does not appear to require any further monitoring.	eng
165082	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in Cayo, Belize; Guanacaste and Heredia, Costa Rica; Izabal and Zacapa, Guatemala; Mexico; and the Canal Zone in Panama.	eng
165082	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in slow-flowing muddy lowland rivers in tropical dry and wet forest.	eng
165082	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. volsella</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165082	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165083	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Searching for existing populations of <em>P. brucei</em> is urgently needed. Unstable social situation in Colombia and inaccessibility of much of the rain forest in that country make this difficult but it has also played some part in protecting those forests.  The area of the type locality is severely deforested since its description.	eng
165083	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Calvert (1931) recorded <em>Palaemnema brucei</em> in Colombia at Antioquia, Cristalina at 320 m altitude.	eng
165083	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat includes small, shallow rocky streams in wet forest. Adults lurk in shadows near ground during day, becoming active at water in the shade in late afternoon.	eng
165083	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. brucei</em> population numbers are  not known, although 80 individuals were collected in a week at Cristalina in 1912. Most likely to be common where it occurs.	eng
165083	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a continued threat to <em>P. brucei</em> and is likely to carry on into the future. Drought is also a possibility in the future, due to global climate change.	eng
165084	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is not known to be in any protected area. Additional surveys for populations outside this restricted area are much needed.	eng
165084	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Paltothemis cyanosoma</em> occurs in Mexico and has been recorded from the following locations (with collection notes):<br/>- Jalisco: 6 mi N Guadalajara (Garrison 1982)<br/>- Jalisco: El Tuito, 860 m (20.34278 N, 105.31888 W) (E. González-Soriano in litt. 2006)<br/>- Guerrero: Acahuizotla, 17.5 km S Chilpancingo, 3,500 m	eng
165084	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in streams in woodland or forest.	eng
165084	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. paulina</em> population numbers are not known. Apparently no one has found it common.	eng
165084	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is not enough available data to assess threats to this species.	eng
165085	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. westfalli</em> is present in Soberania National Park in Panama and very likely in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica.  There appears to be no need for further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165085	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in Costa Rica and Panama in the following areas:<br/>Costa Rica: Puntarenas Province, Rincón de Osa (D.R. Paulson collection)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Barro Colorado Island (Cumming 1954, Donnelly 1992)<br/>Panama: Canal Zone, Chiva Chiva Road, Morgan and Colón	eng
165085	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Adults have been found rather common in tall grass in shade at forest edges above large seasonal ponds surrounded by forest; most males 1-2' up in 2' grass, also tandem pair in same grass.	eng
165085	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>M. westfalli</em> is common at one locality each in apparently optimal habitat in Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
165085	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165086	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There is a population of <em>L. spumarius</em> in Key Deer National Wildlife Refuge, Big Pine Key, Florida. Otherwise, occurrence in protected reserves has not been documented.	eng
165086	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs throughout much of the Antilles in the Bahamas (Biminis, Cat Island, San Salvador), Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Distrito Nacional, La Vega, Samaná), Puerto Rico and Florida in the United States of America.  Its presence is uncertain in Haiti.	eng
165086	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. spumarius</em> occurs in shallow ponds, marshes, and sink holes, usually in wooded landscape.	eng
165086	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. spumarius</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165086	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Introduction of fish or other exotic predators and perhaps drought from global warming could all impact <em>L. spumarius</em>.	eng
165087	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some state parks and local reserves, including Dolan Ranch property managed by The Nature Conservancy and most likely in Big Bend National Park.  There appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165087	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Dythemis fugax</em> is found in Mexico (Tamaulipas), and eight states in the United States of America.	eng
165087	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>D. fugax</em> occurs at slow streams and rivers and open lakes, sometimes ponds, usually in open country with a shore belt of low trees or shrubs.	eng
165087	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>D. fugax</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165087	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165088	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many federal, state, local, and private reserves; no further conservation measures are apparently required.	eng
165088	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in five provinces and two territories in Canada and four states in the United States of America.	eng
165088	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species frequents lakes, ponds, and slow streams, especially large muskeg pools.	eng
165088	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. husdonica</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165088	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165089	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in at least some federal, state, local, and private reserves; it appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165089	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada and thirty four states in the United States of America.	eng
165089	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species likes rocky and muddy streams and rivers from small to large, more often in woodland. Also in rocky lakes in northern part of its range.	eng
165089	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>D. spinosus</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165089	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165090	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in many protected reserves.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165090	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in the Bahamas (Cat Island), Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Toledo), two provinces in Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic (Barahona, Bahoruco, Samaná), El Salvador, Honduras (Cortez), Jamaica (Clarendon, Cornwall, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth), eleven states in Mexico, Nicaragua (León) and forty two states in United States of America.	eng
165090	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. simplicicollis</em> can be found at almost any body of water.	eng
165090	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. simplicicollis</em> is an abundant and widespread species, and the population is increasing.	eng
165090	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165091	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in at least several state parks and other protected reserves in the United States, although the occurrence in protected areas in Mexico is not known.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165091	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in three states in Mexico and fourteen states in the United States of America.	eng
165091	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species is found at streams and rivers with slow to moderate current, less often pond and lake shores. Usually wooded or shrubby banks.	eng
165091	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>D. velox</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165091	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165092	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is present in numerous protected areas, especially in state parks.  It appears to not require further conservation actions at this time.	eng
165092	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in four provinces in Canada, three states in Mexico and thirty four states in the United States of America.	eng
165092	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs at medium streams to large rivers, slow to moderate current, often with an abundance of water-willow (<em>Justicia americana</em>). Also found at vegetated lake shores in northern part of range. Preferred habitats usually bordered by forest and woodland.	eng
165092	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. exsulans</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165092	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165093	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although this species does occur within a protected area; further research is needed on the population size, trend and biology.	eng
165093	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species has been recorded from the Canal Zone in Panama.	eng
165093	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The habitat has not been reported, but presumably small rain-forest streams.	eng
165093	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. cyclohamulata</em> population numbers are not known.	eng
165093	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation is a possible future threat, although presently known range is protected. Drought could also be a threat, increasingly likely with global climate change.	eng
165094	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	New Mexico localities of this species are in semi-protected national forests, whilst occurrence in protected reserves in Mexico has not been documented.  There are no conservation actions required at present.	eng
165094	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in eleven states in Mexico and two states in the United States of America (with the following collection notes):<br/><br/>Arizona: Cochise County, San Bernardino Ranch (Garrison 1994)<br/>New Mexico: Eddy County, Sitting Bull Falls, Guadalupe Mountains (Garrison 1994)<br/>New Mexico: Eddy County, Rattlesnake Springs (R. Larsen pers. comm. 2006)<br/>New Mexico: Grant and Catron counties (Evans 1995)	eng
165094	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Habitat preferences include shallow muddy and rocky rivers in open country, mostly Chihuahuan desert. Riparian trees and shrubs are present at many locations, perhaps important for feeding areas and shelter.	eng
165094	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>E. crotalinus</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165094	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165095	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas (national parks, national wildlife refuges, state parks) in the United States. Occurrence south of the United States border have not been documented.  It does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.	eng
165095	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs throughout Mexico, Mesoamerica and into Colombia, and four states in the United States of America.  In Belize it has been recorded from Cayo.	eng
165095	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species prefers clean streams and flowing ditches, usually wooded but sometimes in the open. Also found in garden ponds in Texas.	eng
165095	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. croceipennis</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165095	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165096	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. incolmis</em> is not known to occur in any protected area, and is unlikely to within its range and habitat.  Investigations are needed to look at its habitat and ecology status.	eng
165096	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found in the west of Mexico.	eng
165096	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found at pools of all sizes in slow-flowing, rocky streams and rivers in open or semi-wooded country. Pools typically isolated except during brief rainy periods. Adults prefer shaded sites so may be more dependent on presence of trees (often a narrow riparian zone) than  <em>T. salva</em>, with which it occurs everywhere.	eng
165096	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>T. incolumis</em> is typically found in small numbers at preferred habitats, along with larger numbers of closely related and very similar <em>Telebasis salva</em>.	eng
165096	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Perhaps the removal of riparian vegetation could have a threat to suitable breeding habitat for <t. incolumis=""> in the future, however there are no known threats at present.</t.>	eng
165097	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. tarascana</em> occurs in protected areas in southern Arizona. Occurrence in such areas have not been documented for Mexico, although the populations do not appear to require further conservation actions.	eng
165097	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in eleven states in Mexico and Arizona in the United States of America.	eng
165097	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. tarascana</em> is found at stream and river banks, wooded or open, with overhanging vegetation; more likely to be at pools than riffles. Irrigation ditches farther south in Mexico are preferred.	eng
165097	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. tarascana</em> is a locally common species found in many populations.	eng
165097	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165098	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in some protected areas in the United States, e.g., national and state parks and national wildlife refuges.  It appears not to require further conservation measures at this time.	eng
165098	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in twelve states in Mexico and four states in United States of America.	eng
165098	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species habitat prefers slow-flowing small streams and ditches with much streamside herbaceous vegetation. It is often associated with spring runs and may become established in garden ponds. Preferred habitats are usually in woodland or with a riparian zone.	eng
165098	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>H. heterodoxum</em> is abundant and widespread.	eng
165098	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165099	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. aurantiaca</em> is present in some protected areas, e.g., La Selva Protected Area in Costa Rica; there appears to be no conservation measures needed at present.	eng
165099	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is found throughout Mexico and Mesoamerica including the following locations: Cayo, Orange Walk, Stann Creek and Toledo in Belize; Limón, Costa Rica; and Izabal, Guatemala.	eng
165099	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Species occurs in small forest streams with slow flow and frequent pools.	eng
165099	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>P. aurantiaca</em> is presumed to still be locally common in many populations, but little surveying has been completed recently.	eng
165099	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Deforestation and possibly drought, due to the forecast global climate change, are likely threats to affect <em>P. aurantiaca</em> in the future.	eng
165100	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species is present in numerous protected reserves throughout its range and it does not appear to require further conservation measures at present.	eng
165100	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in six provinces in Canada and seventeen states in the United States of America.	eng
165100	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species is found in bog- and marsh-bordered ponds and lakes.	eng
165100	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>L. frigida</em> is an abundant and widespread species.	eng
165100	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165101	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. illotum</em> is present in many protected areas in the United States, some in Costa Rica and undocumented in-between.	eng
165101	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species occurs in Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, Costa Rica (Cartago, San José), El Salvador, Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Sacatepéquez), Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.	eng
165101	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	This species inhabits lakes and ponds in the northern part of its range, even very small ones such as backyard pools. Also common on pools in rocky streams in southern US and northern Mexico, increasingly restricted to montane marshy ponds farther south in Mexico and Central America. Often in same breeding habitat as <em>Sympetrum corruptum</em> in Northwest but, unlike that species, rarely seen at any distance from water.	eng
165101	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>S. illotum</em> is locally common in many populations.	eng
165101	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165102	conservation	Paulson, D. R., 2007	The species occurs in many protected areas in Costa Rica, also in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz and appears not to require further conservation measures.	eng
165102	distribution	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>Argia frequentula</em> occurs in Belize (Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo), Costa Rica (Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limón Puntarenas), Guatemala (Izabal, Petén, Zacapa), Honduras (Cortez), Mexico (nine states), Nicaragua (Rio San Juan) and Panama (Canal Zone).	eng
165102	habitat	Paulson, D. R., 2007	Found at small streams and ponds associated with them. Usually associated with forest, but apparently persists where forest has been partially cleared as long as aquatic habitat remains suitable. Less common in completely open country than closely related and very similar <em>Argia pulla</em>.	eng
165102	population	Paulson, D. R., 2007	<em>A. frequentula</em> is still locally common in a few recently observed populations, but little surveyed elsewhere.  The global population is thought to be stable.	eng
165102	threats	Paulson, D. R., 2007	There are no threats presently affecting this species.	eng
165290	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2009	None in place.	eng
165290	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2009	This species is known from the Indian Ocean. It is thought to occur off India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar, may venture into Indonesian waters; possibly off Mozambique (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
165290	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Very little information is available for this species. Maximum total length at least 345 cm; maximum disc width 179 cm (Last and Compagno 1999).	eng
165290	population	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Unknown.	eng
165290	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Presumably taken as bycatch in artisanal and industrial trawl and other net fisheries.	eng
165291	conservation	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	There are no species-specific measures in place for <em>S. lewini</em> in the Eastern Pacific, although steps are being taken towards the management of elasmobranch fisheries. In Ecuador the current regulations prohibit shark fishing in the core zone of the Galápagos marine reserve, however extensive poaching has been reported. Ecuador issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec). In Mexico, some known adult aggregating sites are protected within the Revillagigedo Island archipelago, however enforcement is lacking and there are many reports of poaching. Protection of known nursery adult aggregating sites is recommended. Estimates of acceptable catch rates should be viewed with precaution until there is more certainty in age and growth parameters.	eng
165291	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the eastern Pacific, this species occurs in southern California and the Gulf of California to Panama, Ecuador and possibly to northern Peru (Compagno in prep).	eng
165291	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
165291	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Throughout this species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, juveniles and neonates are heavily exploited in directed fisheries, and are also taken as bycatch of shrimp trawlers and coastal fisheries targeting teleost fish. Fishing pressure directed at juveniles also appears to have increased in parts of the Gulf of California and in Costa Rica, and is likely to be increasing elsewhere as other, more valuable fishery stocks are depleted. Patchy distribution resulting from aggregating behavior of adults and the use of historic nurseries, where neonates shoal with spatially confined movements, make this species particularly easy to target. As in other areas, the large fins of this species are highly prized for their value in the international shark fin trade. Increased fishing pressure from international longline fleets in the Eastern Central Pacific and Southeast Pacific, driven by increasing demand for fins, is of concern. Furthermore, as traditional and coastal fisheries in Central America are depleted, domestic fleets have increased pressure at adult aggregating sites such as Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), or along the slopes of the continental shelf where high catch rates of juveniles can be obtained (Vargas and Arauz 2001).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of California, <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is a common catch in the directed artisanal elasmobranch fisheries of Sonora, Sinaloa, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, Mexico. Juveniles, including neonates, dominate the overall landings of this species; most are less than 100 cm total length (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> in press). Bottom set gillnets and longlines produce the majority of the catch. Adults are landed in artisanal pelagic longline and gillnet fisheries, but represented less than 20% of the total <em>S. lewini</em> observed in artisanal catches during 1998 and 1999 fisheries surveys (Bizzarro <em>et al.</em> In Press). The indirect take by trawlers and artisanal teleost and shrimp fishermen is unknown. Landings data for 1996–1998 from the Gulf of Tehauntepec, Mexico, indicates that Scalloped Hammerheads were the second most important shark caught in the artisanal shark fishery, representing 36% of the total catch from a sample of 8,659 individuals (Soriano-Velassquez  <em>et al.</em> 2002). The size of the individuals in this sample is unknown. Marquez (2000) reports that this species represented only 4.61% of the total catch of the artisanal fishery in the Gulf of California, contrasting with reports for Sinaloa, Mexico in 1994, 1995 and 1996, in which scalloped hammerheads represented 80.3%, 52.54% and 85.68% of the shark catch respectively (Marquez 2000). Off Pacific Guatemala, the importance of this species in the fishery landings appears to vary across areas, from 6% (n=339) to 74% (n=800) of the total catch from 1996–1999 (Ruiz and Ixquiac 2000). Data from El Salvador collected from July of 1991 to June of 1992, indicate this species represented 11.9% of the landed catch in a sample of 412 (Villatoro and Rivera 1994).<br/><br/>The number of adult individuals at a well-known <em>S. lewini</em> aggregation site in the Gulf of California (Espiritu Santo seamount) has declined sharply since 1980. In 1981 Klimley and Nelson estimated the size of a school at 525 individuals using Lincon Index mark recapture methods. Between 1998 and 2004 at least 20 attempts have been made to recreate this study, however in most cases fewer than 8 individuals have been observed at one time (Klimley 1999, Klimley and Jorgensen unpublished data).<br/><br/>Large hammerheads were formerly abundant in coastal waters off Central America, but were reportedly depleted in the 1970s (Cooke 1990). Industrial longlining initiated in the early 1980s, and again large hammerheads provided valuable fins for this market. A comparison of standardized catch rates of pelagic sharks (species-specific information was not available) in the EEZ of Costa Rica from 1991–2000 showed a decrease of 60% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 1991, sharks formed 27% of the total catch. In 2000, only 7.64% of the total catch was sharks, and in 2003 this decreased further to 4.9% of the total catch, 58.2% (Arauz <em>et al.</em> 2004). In 2001 and 2003, scalloped hammerheads only constituted 0.14% and .09% of the total catch by individuals, respectively.<br/><br/>In Ecuador, catch records (grouped for the entire family Sphyrnidae) indicate a peak of approximately 1,000 tons in 1996, followed by a steady reduction until 2001 (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Landings in the port of Manta (accounting for 80% of shark landing in Ecuador) of <em>S. lewini</em>, caught by artisanal longline and drift net fleet were about 160 t in 2004, 96 t in 2005 and 82 t (2006). Artisanal fishery landings into the port of Manta for <em>Sphyrna</em> spp declined by 51% between 2004 and 2006 (Martínez-Ortíz <em>et al. </em>2007). According to Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) the percentage of juveniles in landings is 83% for females and 71% for males. Most of the landings for this species (74%) take place between January and June.<br/><br/>Divers and dive guides in the Galapagos have noted a severe decrease in shark numbers and schools of hammerhead sharks (P. Zarate pers. comm.). Illegal fishing around the Galapagos is not only practiced by fishermen from the Galapagos, but also by the industrial and artisanal fleet from continental Ecuador and international fleets (Coello 2005). These illegal fisheries target sharks for their fins. There are no species specific data for these fisheries, but <em>S. lewini </em>is one of the most common species around the Galapagos (J. Martinez pers.obs.), and given the high value of fins of this species, it is very likely that it is targeted in illegal finning activities. In an effort to help stopping the illegal finning occurring in the Galapagos, the Ecuadorian Government issued Decree 2130 in 2004 prohibiting fin export from Ecuador. Unfortunately, the Decree had the reverse effect of establishing illegal trade routes, with fins being exported mainly via Peru and Colombia where there is no finning ban in place. Interviews with fishermen and traders in both Ecuador and Peru suggested that illegal trade routes operated for fins transported both from Ecuador and directly from Galapagos to Peru (Saenz 2005, WildAid 2005). Ecuador then abolished Decree 2130 and issued two new Decrees (482 and 902) in 2007 which establish better controls; traceability of the exported products; re-confirm the prohibition of finning established in 1993; a database on trade and establish as State policy the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Ecuadorian Sharks (PAT - Ec).	eng
165293	conservation	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the U.S. this species is included in the Large Coastal Shark complex management unit, on U.S. Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (National Marine Fisheries Service: Federal Fisheries Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish and Sharks). There are, however, no management measures specific to this species, and no stock assessments. Efforts to limit catches of this species, and increased monitoring of incidental catches in commercial fisheries are both recommended.	eng
165293	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the western Atlantic, this shark occurs from New Jersey (United States) to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).	eng
165293	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
165293	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the USA this species is caught in both commercial coastal shark bottom longline and gillnet fisheries and the pelagic longline fishery, where it suffers high mortality (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also taken in recreational shark fisheries. The USA pelagic longline fishery has operated since the 1960s and encompasses the entire range of this species in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, from the equator to about 50°N. Although this is quite a fecund shark, its late age at maturity in this region (15 years) will render it quite vulnerable to overexploitation, and limit its recovery potential.<br/><br/>Estimates of trends in abundance of <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. are available from standardized catch rate indices of the U.S.A. pelagic longline fishery, from logbook data between 1986 and 2000 and from observer data between 1992 and 2005. The area covered by this fishery, ranging from the equator to about 50°N, encompasses the range of this species in these two regions. Although this fishery will not sample individuals closest to the coast, the sample size of hammerheads recorded in the logbook data (the majority of which are thought to be <em>S. lewini</em>) is substantial, with over 60,000 recorded during this period. This subpopulation of Scalloped Hammerhead sharks is estimated from the logbook data to have declined by 89% over the 15 year time period, from 1986–2000 (Baum <em>et al</em>. 2003), which is less than one generation. A more recent analysis of the pelagic longline observer data indicates that <em>Sphyrna</em> spp. declined by 76% between 1992 and 2005 (Baum <em>et al</em>. in prep.). The pelagic longline fishery has operated in these regions since the 1960s, thus declines from 1986 were certainly not from virgin population abundance.<br/><br/>Using logistic regression of <em>S. lewini</em>, Ha (2006) showed that the probability of capture in a fisheries independent sampling program off Virginia, USA, declined by an order of magnitude between 1975 and 2005. Species-specific trends in abundance are available for <em>S. lewini</em> from a shark-targeted longline survey conducted annually between 1972 and 2003 near Cape Lookout, North Carolina, by Dr. F.J. Schwarz at the University of North Carolina. Standardized CPUE from this research survey based on a sample size of 495 <em>S. lewini</em> indicates that it has declined by 98% over this 32 year time period (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). Off southern Carolina, Ulrich (1996) reported a 66% decrease between 1983/84 and 1991/95. In contrast to all other data, a more recent research survey (1989–2005) along the southeast U.S. coast shows a significant increase in juvenile scalloped hammerheads (Myers <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Off the Atlantic coast of Belize hammerheads were fished heavily by longline in the 1980s and early 1990s (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Hammerheads are a favoured target species for their large fins. Interviews with fishermen indicate that the abundance and size of Sphyrnids has declined dramatically in the past 10 years as a result of over exploitation, leading to a halt in the Belize based shark fishery (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). However, the pressure is still sustained by fishers driving into Belizean waters from Guatemala (R.T. Graham pers. obs. 2006). Fin prices are rising above US$50/lb in the neighbouring countries of Guatemala, driven by Asian buyers, according to these interviews (R.T. Graham pers. obs). This species is probably caught in other fisheries but is usually placed in a combined "hammerhead" category. Species identification (<em>S. mokarran</em> vs. <em>S. lewini</em>) is a large obstacle in the proper assessment of this species. The high at-vessel fishing mortality for both species of hammerhead makes the threat of fishing high. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is also taken in various fisheries along the Caribbean coast of South America. It is taken in artisanal gillnet fisheries targeting mackerel off Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and in pelagic tuna fisheries of the eastern Caribbean (Chan A Shing 1999).	eng
165294	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the Indian Ocean, the Scalloped Hammerhead Shark occurs from South Africa (Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), Maldives, and Red Sea to Pakistan, India, Myanmar (Compagno in prep).	eng
165294	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
165294	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Reliable species-specific catch information is available for shark nets set off the beaches of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, in the southewestern Indian Ocean, from 1978–2003 (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Catch per unit effort of <em>S. lewini </em>declined significantly during this period from approximately 5.5/km net/year to approximately 2/km net/year (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). This fishery independent data indicates a decline of approximately 64% over a 25 year period. About 120 longline vessels were reportedly operating illegally in coastal waters of the western Indian Ocean prior to 2005, and this number was expected to increase (IOTC 2005). These vessels are primarily targeting hammerhead sharks and Giant Guitarfish (<em>Rhynchobatus djiddensis</em>) for their fins (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006). Illegal fishing by industrial vessels and shark finning are reported in other areas of the Indian Ocean also (Young <em>et al. </em>2006). Dudley and Simpfendorfer (2006) also report large catches of newborn <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> by prawn trawlers on the Tudela Bank, South Africa, ranging from an estimated 3,288 in 1989 to 1,742 in 1992, with almost 98% mortality. An inshore, artisanal fishery that uses multiple gear types (including seine nets and gillnets) along the coast of Mozambique and takes sharks as bycatch also potentially affects <em>S. lewini</em> (Dudley and Simpfendorfer 2006).<br/><br/><em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is captured in various other fisheries throughout the rest of its range in the Indian Ocean. Few species-specific data are available from other areas, however, declines are also likely to have occurred in other areas where this species is heavily fished. Other countries with major fisheries for sharks include the Maldives, Kenya, Mauritius, Seychelles and United Republic of Tanzania (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Sharks are considered fully to over-exploited in these waters (Young <em>et al.</em> 2006). Landings data are available from FAO for Oman since 1985. <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> is one of five dominant species in the catches of Oman. Landings of sharks for Oman varied between 2,800– 8,300 t, since 1985, with peaks noted from 1986–1988 and 1995–1997. After 1997 landings continued to decline to under 4,000 t in 2000 (FAO 2008). Oman has a long-established traditional shark fishery (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) surveyed landings sites in Oman between 2002 and 2003 and report a notable decline in catches of <em>S. lewini</em> in 2003, although the trend varied between areas. Henderson <em>et al.</em> (2007) note that large pelagic sharks such as <em>S. lewini</em> were displaced during 2003 by smaller shark species. Although it is possible that this is due to sampling bias, informal interviews with fishermen revealed a general trend of declining shark catches over the last number of years, particularly large pelagic species (Henderson <em>et al.</em> 2007). Artisanal gillnet and longline fisheries also target sharks off Madagascar for their fins, which are exported in the international shark fin trade. A study of directed shark fisheries at two sites in southwest Madagascar from 2001–2002 showed that hammerhead sharks represented 29% of sharks caught and 24% of the total wet weight, but species-specific data are not available because fishermen do not differentiate between <em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em> (McVean <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Fishing pressure is also high in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, with many countries in this region among the largest shark fishing nations in terms of global catch in the world (Clarke and Rose 2005, SEAFDEC 2006). Indonesia has the largest chondrichthyan fishery in the world, with a reported 105,000 and 118,000 tonnes landed in 2002 and 2003 respectively (White <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is a target and bycatch of shark longline, tuna gillnet fisheries and trawls in several areas of this region (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). The species is utilised for its fins (high value in adults), meat, skin and cartilage (White <em>et al.</em> 2006, SEAFDEC 2006). White <em>et al.</em> (2008) suggest that this species is prone to overfishing in Indonesian waters, where substantial catches of <em>S. lewini</em> are taken in gillnet and longline fisheries. They found that almost all of the <em>S. lewini </em>caught by gillnetting, and the majority caught by longlining, were immature, and were therefore removed from the population before they had the opportunity to breed. Inshore fishing pressure is intense throughout Southeast Asia and juveniles and neonates are very heavily exploited, with large numbers of immature sharks in catches in other areas also (SEAFDEC 2006). Foreign vessels are also reported to target sharks in eastern Indonesian waters (Clarke and Rose 2005). Given the marked declines in this species’ abundance in areas for which data are available, there is every reason to suspect that declines have also occurred in other areas of the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where fishing pressure is high.<br/><br/>Japanese data on hammerhead species are limited, but reported landings in Japan’s coastal ports totaled 11–34 mt annually between 2000 and 2004 with an average of 24 mt per annum.  No CPUE trends are available (Japan Fisheries Agency 2006).	eng
165296	conservation	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In Brazil, there are laws restricting the length of pelagic gillnets and banning trawl fishing at a distance of less than three nautical miles from shore (equivalent depths of less than about 10 m), however enforcement of these laws has been difficult. Therefore trawling in inshore nursery grounds has continued and gillnetting within nursery areas is not regulated. Some fisheries along the coast are poorly documented and the multi-species nature of many of the fisheries makes species-specific regulation very difficult. Therefore, it is recommended that coastal protected sea areas are established, in which fishing is banned, to protect nursery grounds.<br/><br/>In 1998, the Brazilian Government’s Environmental Agency (IBAMA - Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) made a first effort to control "finning" by issuing a federal regulation (Portaria IBAMA nnordm; 121 of August 24th, 1998), prohibiting shark finning by all vessels licensed to fish in Brazilian waters (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002). The enforcement of this law has been proven difficult and probably will require international financial aid, trained personnel for sampling work along the main fishing harbours and the establishment of a national observer program (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
165296	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the western Atlantic, this shark occurs from New Jersey (United States) to Uruguay, including Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007, Compagno in prep).	eng
165296	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
165296	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the southwest Atlantic, the Scalloped Hammerhead faces two main threats related to fisheries: 1) fishing of juveniles and neonates on the continental shelf by gillnets and trawl nets (Vooren and Lamónaca 2003, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Doño 2008); and 2) fishing of adults by gillnets (only in Brazil) and longlines on the continental shelf and oceanic waters, mostly for fins (Kotas <em>et al.</em> 2001, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Kotas and Petrere 2003, Zerbini and Kotas 1998). The species therefore faces intensive fishing pressure throughout its range in this area and at all points in its life cycle. Because all Brazilian fisheries statistics for hammerhead sharks are grouped under the headings “shark” or “hammerhead shark”, it is not possible to determine species-specific trends. Annual landings of hammerhead sharks (six species of hammerhead sharks occur off Brazil) in the ports of Rio Grande and Itajaí (Brazil) combined increased rapidly from ~30 t in 1992 to 700 t in 1994, after which catches decreased, fluctuating between 100–300 t from 1995–2002. The majority of this catch was taken by surface gillnet fisheries that targeted hammerhead sharks on the outer shelf and slope between 27° and 35°S (Kotas 2004, Vooren <em>et al.</em> 2005). Neonates and small juveniles are caught in coastal waters by directed gillnet fishing and as bycatch by bottom trawls (Vooren and Klippel 2005). In the inshore nursery area (depths down to 10 m), neonates are fished intensively by coastal gillnets and are also caught as bycatch by shrimp trawl, pair trawl and intensive recreational fisheries. Their abundance in coastal waters has decreased markedly as a result (Haimovici and Mendonça 1996, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, 1998, Kotas and Petrere 2002, Vooren and Lamónaca unpublished data). Finning of hammerhead sharks, with discarding of the carcasses at sea, is often practised (Kotas 2004, Vooren and Klippel 2005). Fisheries statistics only refer to the landed carcasses and therefore the true extent of catches is unknown.<br/><br/>In southern Brazil and northern Uruguay, adult hammerhead catches (<em>S. lewini </em>and <em>S. zygaena</em>) by monofilament longliners are highest in winter and spring at the shelf edge and the continental slope between 30° and 35°S (Kotas and Petrere 2002). The Brazilian pelagic fishery based in Santos catches significant numbers of sharks, including <em>S. lewini</em> (Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1998). Until 1997, most of this shark catch was discarded but greater demand for fins and flesh has resulted in a substantial increase in retention rates and targeting of sharks (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). Because hammerhead shark fins are highly valued for their high fin-ray count, this species is unlikely to be released alive. The artisanal fishing fleet in São Paulo has operated since 1996 and also takes sharks. The majority of the hammerheads caught by this fishery were newborns or juveniles (Bonfil <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Uruguay (oceanic coast) some neonates are also captured (together with <em>S. zygaena</em>) in artisanal gill nets, in summer (between December and February) (A. Domingo pers. obs. 2007). In view of the intensive fisheries in the coastal and offshore areas where <em>S. lewini</em> occurs in this region and documented declining trends where the species has been heavily fished in other areas of its range, the species is assessed as Vulnerable in the Southwest Atlantic.	eng
165297	distribution	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	In the eastern Atlantic, the Scalloped Hammerhead possibly occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Azores. The species is probably present all along the western Africa coast, confirmed from Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Gabon, and Congo (Compagno in prep, M. Ducrocq pers. obs. 2006).	eng
165297	habitat	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	This is a coastal and semi-oceanic pelagic shark, found over continental and insular shelves and in deep water near to them, ranging from the intertidal and surface to at least 275 m depth (Compagno in prep.). The pups of this species tend to stay in coastal zones, near the bottom, occurring at high concentrations during summer in estuaries and bays (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Castro 1983). They have been observed to be highly faithful to particular diurnal core areas (Holland <em>et al. </em>1993) and sometimes form large schools which migrate to higher latitudes in summer (Stevens and Lyle 1989).<br/><br/>Horizontal migration is observed from inshore bays to a pelagic habitat as the sharks grow. This species segregates by sex, with females migrating offshore earlier and at smaller sizes than males. In the Gulf of Mexico and northern Australia, it was observed that males less than 1 m long were more abundant over the continental shelf, but females bigger than 1.5 m dominated areas near the edge of the shelf. Adults spend most of the time offshore in midwater and females migrate to the coastal areas to have their pups (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al.</em> 1975, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Branstetter 1987, Klimley 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989). Nursery areas are found in shallow inshore waters, while the adults are found offshore (Compagno 1984, Holland <em>et al. </em>1993, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1995, Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998). Neonates and juveniles are known to shoal in confined coastal pupping areas for up to two years before moving out to adult habitat (Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993). In the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic, the coastal area between South Carolina and central Florida is believed to be an important nursery area (Castro 1993). In southern Brazil, near-term gravid females migrate inshore to nursery grounds (at 2–10 m depth; bottom water temperature of 20–24°C) and give birth in spring (November–February) (Dono <em>et al</em>. in prep., Vooren and Lamónaca 2003). Juveniles then remain between the shore and 100 m depth (Vooren 1997, Kotas <em>et al.</em> 1998). In northern Brazil (latitude 3°S), this species appears to breed at a smaller size and have lower fecundity than reported elsewhere (Lessa <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>Throughout the species’ range in the Eastern Pacific, parturition is thought to occur between May and July in shallow nursery areas (Ruiz <em>et al.</em> 2000, Torres-Huerta 1999). The northern Gulf of California and Bahía Almejas on the Pacific coast of Baja California Sur appear to be important pupping and possible nursery grounds.<br/><br/>The species is viviparous with a yolk-sac placenta. Only the right ovary is functional. In Taiwanese (POC) waters, ovum development takes approximately 10 months and ova reach a maximum diameter of 40–45 mm. The number of oocytes in the ovarium can be as many as 40–50 per female (Chen <em>et al</em>. 1988). The gestation period is around 9–12 months, with birth in spring and summer. The average number of embryos in the uterus ranges from 12–41 and females pup every year. Newborn size ranges from 31–57 cm (Castro 1983; Compagno 1984; Branstetter 1987; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988; Stevens and Lyle 1989; Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990; Oliveira <em>et al.</em> 1991, 1997; Amorim <em>et al.</em> 1994; White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Predation on pups and juveniles is high, mainly by other carcharhinids and even by adults of the same species. This is probably the most significant source of natural mortality on the population (Clarke 1971, Branstetter 1987, Branstetter 1990, Holland <em>et al.</em> 1993), and may explain, in evolutionary terms, the higher fecundity of this species compared to some other sharks.<br/><br/>Maximum size reported by different studies, ranged from 219–340 cm TL for males and 296–346 cm for females (Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al. </em>1975b, Schwartz 1983, Klimley and Nelson 1984, Stevens 1984, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1988, Stevens and Lyle 1989, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990). Males mature between 140–198 cm TL and females at around 210–250 cm TL (Compagno 1984b, Branstetter 1987, Chen <em>et al.</em> 1990, Carrera and Martinez in prep., White <em>et al.</em> 2008). Branstetter’s (1987) growth study in the Gulf of Mexico found asymptotic length for both sexes of 329 cm TL and 253 cm fork length (FL), with an index of growth rate of k = 0.073 y<sup>-1</sup>. Piercy <em>et al.</em>’s (2007) more recent study used Fork Length (FL) rather than total length (TL) and suggested faster growth, with asymptotic length of 214.8 cm FL for males and 233.1 cm FL for females, with an index growth rate of k=0.13 year<sup>-1</sup> for males and k=0.09 year<sup>-1</sup> for females. It is unclear whether these differences are related to sample size, methodology or changes resulting from a density-dependent compensatory response to population depletion. In Ecuadorian waters, Carrera-Fernández and Martínez-Ortíz (2007) found that females matured at 225 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 302 cm TL, and males matured at 190 cm TL, reaching a maximum size of 282 cm TL.<br/><br/>The age and size of first maturity has been studied in several different areas; the Gulf of Mexico, Western Central Atlantic, Taiwanese (Province of China) waters, Northwest Pacific and Mexican waters, Eastern Central Pacific. Branstetter (1987) estimated that males mature at 10 years, 180 cm TL and females at 15 years, 250 cm TL in the Gulf of Mexico. During a recent study by Piercy <em>et al</em>. (2007) on the age and growth of <em>S. lewini</em> in the Gulf of Mexico the oldest age estimate obtained was 30.5 years for both males and females. Whereas, Chen <em>et al</em>. (1990) estimated that males mature at 3.8 years, 198 cm TL and females at 4.1 years, 210 cm in Taiwanese Pacific waters and Anislado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza (2001) estimated that males mature at 4.3 years and females at 5.8 years in the Mexican Pacific waters. Both studies in the Gulf of Mexico show that this species appears to grow more slowly and have smaller asymptotic sizes than reported in the Pacific Ocean. The vast differences in age and growth reported between Taiwanese Pacific waters/Mexican Pacific waters and other oceanic regions may arise from different interpretation of vertebral band formation rather than true geographic variation (W. Smith pers. comm.). Current published age estimates of <em>S. lewini</em> from the Mexican Pacific and Taiwanese Pacific are based on growth estimates that assume the deposition of two centrum annuli per year (Chen <em>et al. </em>1990, Ansilado-Tolentino and Robinson-Mendoza 2001), whereas studies in the Gulf of Mexico assume the deposition of one growth band per year (Branstetter 1987, Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007). The Pacific estimates have not been validated and the deposition of two centrum annuli has not been confirmed in any other shark species to date (W. Smith pers. comm.), therefore these estimates should be viewed with caution. Previous evidence of the deposition of two annual bands in the Shortfin Mako Shark (<em>Isurus oxyrinchus</em>), has not proven to be valid and this may be the case for <em>S. lewini</em> (Campana <em>et al.</em> 2002). If growth data presented by Chen <em>et al.</em> (1990) were converted to reflect a one growth band per year hypothesis, then the results of these studies would agree more closely. Validation of the periodicity of growth-band deposition is required for both the Pacific and Atlantic populations to resolve this issue (Piercy <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Comparing different estimates for the values of k on <em>S. lewini</em> (0.054–0.160 yr<sup>-1</sup>), by different authors, suggests that this is a ‘medium growth species’ (Branstetter 1987). Smith <em>et al.</em> (1998) estimated the intrinsic rate of increase at MSY of 0.028.<br/><br/>Adult <em>S. lewini </em>feed on mesopelagic fish and squids. In certain areas stingrays of the (<em>Dasyatis</em> spp.) are the preferred food. Pups and juveniles feed mainly on benthic reef fishes (e.g., scarids and gobiids), demersal fish and crustaceans. (Bigelow and Schroeder 1948, Clarke 1971, Bass <em>et al</em>. 1975, Compagno 1984, Branstetter 1987, Stevens and Lyle 1989).	eng
165297	threats	Baum, J., Clarke, S., Domingo, A., Ducrocq, M., Lamónaca, A.F., Gaibor, N., Graham, R., Jorgensen, S., Kotas, J.E., Medina, E., Martinez-Ortiz, J., Monzini Taccone di Sitizano, J., Morales, M.R., Navarro, S.S., Pérez, J.C., Ruiz, C., Smith, W., Valenti, S.V. & Vooren, C.M., 2007	Data to indicate trends in abundance are generally not available for the Eastern Central Atlantic. Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> (2006) suggest that similar population trends for hammerheads (grouped) to those documented in the Northwest Atlantic can be expected in the Northeast and Eastern Central Atlantic because longline fleets in this area exert comparable fishing effort, and effort is seen to shift from western to eastern Atlantic waters (Buencuerpo <em>et al.</em> 1998, Serafy <em>et al.</em> 2004, Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006). European industrial freeze trawlers targeting small pelagic fish (Sardinella, sardine, and horsemackerel) operate on the northwestern African shelf nearly year-round with five to ten large vessels (9,000-18,000 horse power). A study of bycatch rates in more than 1,400 trawl sets off Mauritania from 2001–2005, showed that <em>Sphyrna</em> species combined represented 42% of total bycatch during this period (Zeeberg <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Hammerheads are caught by both inshore artisanal fisheries and offshore European fisheries operating along the coast of western Africa. The Subregional workshop for sustainable management of sharks and rays in West Africa, 26–28 April 2000 in St Louis, Senegal (Anonymous 2000) noted the high threat to sharks in the West African region and a noticeable decline in the CPUE of total sharks and rays. Walker <em>et al.</em> (2005) also noted that there is concern for <em>Sphyrna lewini</em> off Mauritania, with catches comprised exclusively of juveniles, often newborn. Increased targeting of sharks began in the 1970s, when a Ghanaian fishing community settled in the Gambia and established a commercial network throughout the region, encouraging local fishermen to target sharks for exportation to Ghana. By the 1980s many fishermen were specialising in catching sharks, resulting in a decline in overall shark populations (Walker <em>et al</em>. 2005). There has been rapid growth in the shark fin market in this region, for export to the Far East, and yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau alone is estimated at 250 t (dry weight) (Walker <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is frequently caught along the western African coast and is heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). There is anecdotal evidence for some declines in catches off Senegal and Gambia (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles are very susceptible to coastal fisheries using drift or fixed gill nets such as sole, sciaenid and Sepia spp fisheries (M. Ducrocq pers. comm. 2006). They were taken as bycatch in the milk shark fishery and in the Banc d'Aguin national park, Mauritania, until the fishery was stopped in 2003 and they are still caught in large quantities in the Sciaenid fishery. A specialized artisanal fishery for carcharhinid and sphyrnid species was introduced in Sierra Leone in 1975, and since then fishing pressure has been continuous (M. Seisay pers. obs. 2006).	eng
165299	conservation	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Recent (Jan 2003) management changes to the SETF by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority limit the combined catch of <em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes to a maximum of 150 kg trunked weight per trip. In addition, livers of <em>Centrophorus</em> are not to be retained unless the individual carcasses from which they were obtained are also landed (J. Stevens, CSIRO, pers. comm. March 2003).<br/><br/><em>Centrophorus moluccensis</em> has also been nominated for listing as a Vulnerable species on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). If listed as Vulnerable, the EPBC Act requires that a Recovery Plan be put in place within a five-year period (Sara Williams, Environment Australia, pers. comm. March 2003).	eng
165299	distribution	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The taxonomy of <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus </span>species in Australia needs further attention and this species may also warrant closer examination of its distribution and populations. It is still to be determined whether <span style="font-style: italic;">C. moluccensis </span>may in fact be a different (related) species in South Africa, Taiwan, and elsewhere from that known from the Australasia region (D. Ebert, pers. comm., April 2003). In addition, records from the Great Australian Bight (SA) and Tasmania require further investigation.	eng
165299	habitat	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	Demersal on the outer continental and insular shelves and upper slopes in 125 to 820 m, but in Australian waters most common in 300 to 500 m (Last and Stevens 1994). Ovoviviparous, mostly with litters of two pups (Last and Stevens 1994). The diet of this species consists of bony fishes, cephalopods, elasmobranchs and crustaceans (Last and Stevens 1994). Resilience is very low, minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years (Fishbase). Males mature at 69 to 73 cm and reach 86 cm and females mature at about 88 cm and reach 98 cm (Compagno 1984, Daley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Born at about 31-37 cm (Daley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). The low fecundity, high longevity (closely related species live for at least 46 years according to preliminary ageing studies by Fenton (2001) and probable late age at first maturity of this species prevent it from quick recovery after sustained fishing of its populations in the last 20 to 30 years (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Daley <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002).	eng
165299	population	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The population size (although suspected to be small on the east coast) and number and size of subpopulations is unknown. Given the susceptibility of <span style="font-style: italic;">Centrophorus </span>species to overfishing all remaining populations of this species need to be conserved.	eng
165299	threats	Pogonoski, J. & Pollard, D., 2003	The species is fished throughout its entire depth range on the east coast of Australia.  <br/> <br/>1) Demersal trawling (South East Trawl Fishery) in NSW, eastern Victoria and SA (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/>2) Droplining off NSW (NSW Fisheries jurisdiction) <br/>3) South-East Non-Trawl Fishery (SE Australia) <br/> <br/>Documented declines of over 95% between 1976-77 and 1996-97 between the Sydney area (central NSW) and the Eden-Gabo I. Area (southern NSW/northern Victoria) by the trawl research vessel Kapala (fishery independent survey) (Graham <em>et al.</em> 1997, Graham <em>et al.</em> 2001, Andrew <em>et al.</em> 1997). Catches in the abovementioned areas in 220-605 m (i.e., most of the preferred depth range of this species) declined from a mean of 12.3 kg/h in 1976-77 to a mean of 0.2 kg/h in 1996-97. The populations of this species in WA waters have not been overfished like those along the east coast of Australia. <br/> <br/><em>Centrophorus</em> dogfishes are marketed for their flesh and liver oil (squalene) (Daley <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
165300	conservation	Ishihara, H., 2007	<p>None in place. Research is required on taxonomy, range, habitat, biology, threats and exploitation.</p>	eng
165300	distribution	Ishihara, H., 2007	The Multispine Giant Stingray   occurs off the Pacific coast of Japan and in the Sea of Japan.	eng
165300	habitat	Ishihara, H., 2007	Virtually no information is currently available for specific habitat requirements for this stingray.	eng
165300	population	Ishihara, H., 2007	There is no information available on population size or trends for this species.	eng
165300	threats	Ishihara, H., 2007	<p>Potential bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries, however no specific information is currently available.</p>	eng
165301	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2009	<p>None in place.</p>	eng
165301	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Indian Ocean: The holotype was recorded off Puri, Orissa coast, India (Annadale 1909). The wider distribution of this species is poorly known.	eng
165301	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Very little information is available for this species.	eng
165301	population	Valenti, S.V., 2009	There is no information on population size or trends for this species.	eng
165301	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2009	Presumably taken as bycatch in artisanal and industrial trawl and other net fisheries.	eng
165302	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2003	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.	eng
165302	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2003	<p>Inland waters of South America: Amazon and Solimões River basin, Brazil and Colombia.</p>	eng
165302	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2003	This freshwater stingray reaches a maximum disc width of 62 cm (Reis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
165302	population	Valenti, S.V., 2003	No information is available on population size or trends for this species.	eng
165302	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2003	Details of threats facing this species are little known and studies are required. However, freshwater habitats within this stingray's range area are experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.	eng
165303	conservation	Valenti, S.V., 2003	Research actions are urgently required for this species since so little is known about its life history and population dynamics. Management plans and habitat conservation, possibly including protected areas, are also recommended, despite the lack of information. All fishing activities, if existent, should be monitored also.	eng
165303	distribution	Valenti, S.V., 2003	<p>Inland waters of South America: Pedreira River and south of Mexiana Island in the Amazon River, Brazil.</p>	eng
165303	habitat	Valenti, S.V., 2003	This freshwater stingray reaches a maximum length of 20 cm disc width (DW) (Reis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Very little else is currently known of the life history characteristics of this species.	eng
165303	population	Valenti, S.V., 2003	There is no information available on population size or trends.	eng
165303	threats	Valenti, S.V., 2003	Details of threats facing this species are little known and further investigation is required. However, freshwater habitats within this stingray's range area are experiencing a large expansion of human activities including urban development and agriculture. Dams are also impacting on its habitat. It is not known whether other threats facing other potamotrygonid species, such as fishing for consumption, the ornamental trade or persecution also affect this species.	eng
165311	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165311	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about levels of exploitation and other threats.	eng
165311	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165311	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165311	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various populations, especially among the major river systems of Africa and Madagascar. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Etheria elliptica</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
165311	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various populations, especially among the major river systems of Africa and Madagascar. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Etheria elliptica</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
165311	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in Africa. In the Nile Basin, it was historically reported from the Great Lakes till the Delta. It is now considered as rare in the Nile. It is present in Upper Egypt (outside of our region) and at one site in Lower Egypt (Ibrahim 1999).	eng
165311	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in the Afrotropics, from throughout the Nile, through the Chad-Chari system and West Africa, and south through the entire Congo Basin to Angola and Zambia. Also in northern Madagascar.	eng
165311	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in the Kunene River (recorded from Otjinungua, Ondorusu Falls and at the confluence with Chabicua) and the Cuanza River (recorded from Lucala river and Rio Lui) in Angola. It is also found in the Cassai (Cuango) River in Angola but this is outside the region in the Congo drainage. Also found in Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution: </span>Distribution covers tropical Africa and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165311	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, northern Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread throughout much of Africa.	eng
165311	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The distribution of this species covers tropical Africa and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988). <em>Etheria elliptica</em> is widespread in the Afrotropics, it is known from throughout the Nile, through the Chad-Chari system and West Africa, and south through the entire Congo Basin to Angola and Zambia. It is also present in northern Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward and Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the Nile Basin it was historically reported from the Great Lakes to the Delta. Now it is rare in Nile, with just one known site in lower Egypt (Ibrahim 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Kunene River (recorded from Otjinungua, Ondorusu Falls and at the confluence with Chabicua) and the Cuanza River (recorded from Lucala river and Rio Lui) in Angola. It is also found in the Cassai (Cuango) River in Angola but this is outside the region in the Congo drainage.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is not found in northwest Africa. Inhabited rivers include Senegal, Gambia, Mao, Abitifi, Sacbayere, Sewa and Lake Chad (Leveque 1967).	eng
165311	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within western Africa it is found in rivers including Senegal, Gambia, Mao, Abitifi, Sacbayere, Sewa and Lake Chad (Leveque 1967). It occurs throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar, except for northwest Africa.	eng
165311	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. <em>Etheria elliptica</em> cements to hard substrates: freshwater oysters.	eng
165311	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits hard substrates in large rivers and lakes.	eng
165311	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. <em>Etheria elliptica</em> cements to hard substrates: freshwater oysters.	eng
165311	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in large rivers (where the species forms huge reefs) and margins of large lakes.	eng
165311	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Prefers fast flowing rivers, cataracts, rapids and waterfalls (Mandahl-Barth 1988, Pilsbry and Bequaert 1927).	eng
165311	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found on rocky shores of great lakes, and fast running rivers.	eng
165311	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165311	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165311	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165311	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
165311	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is locally abundant.	eng
165311	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	This species is locally abundant especially below waterfalls (Appleton pers com).	eng
165311	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Dams are proposed for the Kunene which would heavily impact the habitat of this species. The dams would change flow regimes and this would impact the species because it requires fast flowing water.	eng
165311	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be affected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, building of dams, and pollution.	eng
165311	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution.	eng
165311	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution is a major threat for the species.	eng
165311	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Sedimentation and water turbidity threaten this species.	eng
165311	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance and water pollution from mining is known to be a  threat to bivalves in general. It is harvested for subsistence, though its not known at what quantities, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
165349	conservation	Tomovic, J., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cioboiu, O. & BERAN, L., 2009	It is considered to be a Category 1 threatened species in Germany (Falkner and Niederhorf 2008).&#160; In the Czech Republic it is viewed as Critically Endangered. In Slovakia it is viewed as Threatened.&#160; Whereas in Italy it is viewed as Least Concern as it is widespread in the catchments draining into the Adriatic (CK Map 5.3.8).	eng
165349	distribution	Tomovic, J., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cioboiu, O. & BERAN, L., 2009	Found in central and eastern Europe, this species is mainly present in rivers of the Danube Basin (Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Romania) as well as other river basins and lakes south of the Alps from northern Italy  to  Slovakia, Ukraine and Bosnia-Herzegovina . <br/><ul><li>In Germany it is restricted to Bavaria.&#160; <br/></li><li>In Czech republic it is only present in Moravia. </li><li>In Romania <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus danubialis</span> “var. <span style="font-style: italic;">serratilinea</span>”&#160; was described from Episcopiei resort near Oradea (Soós, 1943) where it lived in the thermal waters, however it hasn't been sampled live since the 1870’s and is thought to be extinct at Crioana.</li><li>The range has&#160; declined in  Austria, and the last known sub-populations in Donauauen National Park may have disappeared (P. Reichshutz, pers. comm. 2009).</li><li>In Italy known from over 50 sites including lakes and rivers.</li><li>In Serbia recorded from over 30 sites (on the Danube and Sava rivers)<br/></li></ul>	eng
165349	habitat	Tomovic, J., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cioboiu, O. & BERAN, L., 2009	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> species are all freshwater nerites, which like well oxygenated water conditions, often fast-flowing, where the species are found living on rocks on the river bottom.	eng
165349	population	Tomovic, J., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cioboiu, O. & BERAN, L., 2009	No detailed population trend information, although some data to suggest the populations have been declining.	eng
165349	threats	Tomovic, J., Bodon, M., Giusti, F., Manganelli, G., Cioboiu, O. & BERAN, L., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
165352	conservation	Seddon, M. & Killeen, I., 2010	There are no conservation efforts known for this species. <br/><br/>In Red Lists of Latvia, Italy, UK, Republic of Ireland it is viewed as Least Concern.&#160; In The Netherlands it was considered to be Vulnerable. In Switzerland the species was considered to be highly threatened (CR equivalent) and in Czech Republic it is listed as Extinct.	eng
165352	distribution	Seddon, M. & Killeen, I., 2010	This is a widespread species with a Western Palaearctic range, occurring principally in the lowlands of northern, central and eastern Europe plus southern Scandinavia to 60 degrees. It is widespread in suitable habitats from Ireland north to Sweden&#160; and south to Italy, Portugal and Spain, and is now expanding towards the Black Sea Basin and the Carpathian Basin where this species is invasive.	eng
165352	habitat	Seddon, M. & Killeen, I., 2010	This species can be found in rivers, larges lakes, estuarine section of rivers and springs (within the Mediterranean part of the range).&#160; It requires a solid surface such as rocks, concrete, stones to be able to attach itself to.	eng
165352	population	Seddon, M. & Killeen, I., 2010	The trends are unknown over the range, but some countries report a decline.&#160; In other parts of the region it is expanding. The species has a life span of 2-3 years and the eggs are laid from mid-April  to October, with juveniles hatching after 30 - 60 days.	eng
165352	threats	Seddon, M. & Killeen, I., 2010	The principal threats to the species are pollution of its habitats through eutrophication or  other chemical sources, alteration of water courses, changes to flow regimes,  and over-frequent dredging, however these threats don't seem to create major declines in the species.&#160; Mouthon (1996) showed that <em>T. fluviatilis </em>was relatively insensitive to biodegradable pollution.&#160; In the Danube, where it is an invasive species it is replacing the original <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> spp, as it seems to tolerate the polluted waters.	eng
165354	conservation	Zettler, M. & Van Damme, D., 2010	Habitat monitoring recommended.	eng
165354	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.	eng
165354	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Theodoxus meridionalis</em> is a Mediterranean endemic that in northern Africa is restricted to Tunisia. Its type locality is in Syracuse, Sicily.	eng
165354	distribution	Zettler, M. & Van Damme, D., 2010	This species is considered endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is apparently restricted to Sicily (Europe) and Tunisia (North Africa).   The species is restricted to cold water in brooks and springs of Sicily and north-western Tunisia. In Sicily the species is known from 14 locations from north and south streams/springs, and as such is thought occupy an area of 500 km². In Tunisia van Damme and Ghamizi suggested that a conservative estimate of the area of occupancy should be about 50 to 100 km² maximum, where it was present in less than five sites.	eng
165354	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in small streams and springs of cold water (for example, in the part of the stream just next to the spring). It is dispersed by birds.	eng
165354	habitat	Zettler, M. & Van Damme, D., 2010	<p>Small streams and springs (ie the part of the stream just next to the spring). This species is dispersed by birds and is found in cold water.</p>	eng
165354	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165354	population	Zettler, M. & Van Damme, D., 2010	<p>The Current Population Trend is Decreasing. </p>	eng
165354	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	All species of <em>Theodoxus</em> genus are in decline due to human alteration of habitat such as water pollution. The species is also threatened by global warming.	eng
165354	threats	Zettler, M. & Van Damme, D., 2010	<p>All species of Theodoxus are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution. Possible other factors include drought induced by Global warming. </p>	eng
165364	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It occurs in many protected areas.	eng
165364	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	This species ranges very widely in West Africa in both the forest and the savanna zones from Senegal, east to northern Cameroon. It has not been recorded from Guinea-Bissau and Niger, but it almost certainly occurs in these countries.	eng
165364	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It lives in wooded and open savanna, secondary forest, heavily degraded former forest (farm bush), agricultural areas, and inselbergs in rainforest. It avoids closed primary rainforest. It breeds in temporary ponds, puddles, and roadside ditches.	eng
165364	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is an extremely common species.	eng
165364	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schiøtz, A., 2004	It is a very adaptable species that is not facing any significant threats.	eng
165375	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165375	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Liberia to Ghana.	eng
165375	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in streams and lakes.	eng
165375	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165375	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165376	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165376	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to Ghana.	eng
165376	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in rivers	eng
165376	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165376	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165377	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165377	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is found in five localities over quite a large area in Chad (Brown 1994).	eng
165377	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in freshwater streams, rivers. It is possibly a desert species, so probably includes temporary water bodies.	eng
165377	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165377	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165378	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place. It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology.	eng
165378	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to Sierra Leone, probably limited to the type locality.	eng
165378	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water.	eng
165378	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165378	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation.	eng
165379	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats. Most important is a taxonomic evaluation.	eng
165379	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire (two rivers). The type locality for this species is East Ghana, Oti River at Mangu (located by Thiele in Togo). In Côte d'Ivoire it is recorded from Comoe River near Adzope (DBL) and Oniassoue (MNHN) (Brown 1994).	eng
165379	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available. This species occurs in rivers. The genus occurs usually in muddy bottom lowland places, but can also be in sand and gravel. The genus can occur in degraded places, but little is known about this species in particular.	eng
165379	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165379	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species.	eng
165380	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165380	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from the coastal regions of Côte d'Ivoire, Togo and Benin.	eng
165380	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in freshwater species, very small, possibly with salinity tolerance.	eng
165380	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165380	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165381	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165381	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa at Lagune Ebrié, Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
165381	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in freshwater in Lagune Ebrié, Côte d'Ivoire. It may have some salinity tolerance. It is a very small species.	eng
165381	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165381	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Traditional fishing occurs in the lagoon, using brushpark fisheries.	eng
165382	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165382	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Ghana, Togo, Benin and west Nigeria (Ofoeziel 1999).	eng
165382	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Fast flowing rivers and streams, heavily shaded with gravelly or rocky substrates.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165382	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165382	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165383	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165383	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa, Ghana. It was once present throughout the Volta until the creation of the dam, reducing its original distribution by approximately one third.	eng
165383	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams generally within forest, often rapids. <br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165383	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165383	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165384	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165384	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Senegal to western Nigeria and Chad-Chari. This species is endemic to West Africa region.	eng
165384	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. It lives buried in sediments.	eng
165384	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165384	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
165385	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165385	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
165385	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest, often rapids. <br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165385	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165385	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165386	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165386	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Very limited distribution in western Africa. It is probably located only in certain rivers in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire (not Ghana or Mali) - only in the northern part of the Cote D'Ivoire. It is found very rarely. Also found in the Cross River Basin, Nigeria (Asor <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
165386	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The habitat of this species is varied, including ditches, creeks and small rivers. It needs high levels of oxygen and areas of clean water.	eng
165386	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165386	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is threatened by human induced habitat loss and degradation (damming and agricultural pollution).	eng
165387	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165387	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species occurs in the southern shores of Lake Chad and Yobe River at Yo in Cameroon and in Lake Lere in Chad (Brown 1994).	eng
165387	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found in plant and debris material in Lake Chad and Lake Léré. Also in rivers.	eng
165387	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165387	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and probably a lowering of the water level in the lakes.	eng
165388	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population size, habitat status and threats.	eng
165388	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. It occurs in the Sahel and dry savannah zone. It is known from lower Senegal River Basin eastwards to Niger.	eng
165388	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in permanent streams.	eng
165388	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165388	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat loss and degradation threatens this species.	eng
165389	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).	eng
165389	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Sierra Leone only. It has been reported from Jong River, Moa, Rokel, Great Scarcies River and Sewa River (Nagel 1991).	eng
165389	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing water, high oxygen.	eng
165389	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165389	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). Large bauxite mine proposed that will affect the Jong River.	eng
165390	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165390	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is limited to Liberia and Sierra Leone.	eng
165390	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in streams, small pools and swamps. It needs reasonably clean water.	eng
165390	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165390	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat, as well as drought and temperature extremes.	eng
165391	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).	eng
165391	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. It is located in the Little Scarcies River, and near by on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park (less than 10 km away).	eng
165391	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing water, high oxygen.	eng
165391	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165391	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). Large bauxite mine proposed that will affect the Little Scarcies River.	eng
165392	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The overwhelming need at the moment is to find out if this species is still present here, and if it has been mentioned in the EIA for the dam.<br/>No conservation measures known of. It would be valuable to have more information about population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165392	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality in Guinea, Konkoure River, above Kaleta Rapids near Soapiti. It was discovered when the river section was drained for engineering work.	eng
165392	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It has been collected on a drained riverbed.	eng
165392	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165392	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat destruction. 2 dams currently exist on this river, and one is proposed at Kaleta (unsure where the dams are in relation to the location of this species).	eng
165393	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165393	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
165393	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in streams and rivers.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke), also occurring in crabs, with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165393	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165393	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Mining and development is leading to general degradation of the rivers in these areas.	eng
165394	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165394	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from eastern Ghana and Togo.	eng
165394	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available. The genus described from freshwater rivers and streams within forest.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165394	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165394	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165395	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).	eng
165395	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from Sierra Leone only. It has been found in two catchments (Little Scarcies (Kaba) River and Moa River). The absence between these two catchments is believed to be real, as other species have been sampled for in this area.	eng
165395	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found on the underside of stones in rapidly flowing waters (Little Scarcies River and Moa River in Sierra Leone). Live in rivers with high oxygen and low calcium content. Prefer rapids.	eng
165395	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165395	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes as this is a riffle species, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning, and sedimentation).	eng
165396	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of.	eng
165396	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to West Africa.	eng
165396	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It can be found in various flowing and standing waters, moderately polluted shaded sites.	eng
165396	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165396	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known.	eng
165397	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
165397	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found only in Lake Chad on the south east shore. This species is known only from the four original shells (Brown 1994).	eng
165397	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a shore living species.	eng
165397	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165397	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is threatened by the lowering water level in Lake Chad - the overall area has decreased significantly recently.	eng
165398	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but more information is needed on taxonomy, and other aspects of this species.	eng
165398	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. Mainly Sahelian, it is known from Senegal and Gambia to Niger.	eng
165398	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in seasonal pools, rice fields, irrigation channels. It can survive 6-8 months without water. It is a good host for <em>Schistosoma haematopium</em>, causing Schistosomiasis.	eng
165398	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165398	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is potentially threatened by molluscicides used because of the threat to human health.&#160;It is an opportunistic species which benefits from the conversion of land to agricultural land.	eng
165399	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy,  ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165399	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is only known from the type locality in Liberia, at Saint Paul's River near Bambia.	eng
165399	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Liberia, rocks in the St Paul's River near Bavia. It lives in rapids. This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest.<br/>This genus may act as a host for <em>Paragonimus</em> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and <span style="font-style: italic;">Potadoma</span> species.	eng
165399	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165399	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat. There is also a possible threat from a dam on St Paul's River (it is uncertain where this dam is relative to the collection site of this species). The dam was damaged in the 1990s but there are plans to repair it.	eng
165400	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165400	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa, in Ghana and Togo. Distributional data on this will be difficult to assess as many of the papers have misidentified species.	eng
165400	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found in Lake Togo and in Yesor swamp near Ada in Ghana. Type locality is quarry near Accra. This is a very small species.	eng
165400	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165400	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165401	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place, but species have been found just on the border of Otamba-Kilimi National Park. However, no conservation management is yet implemented for this conservation area (BirdLife International, 2005).	eng
165401	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is limited to Sierra Leone (Brown 1994, Brown and Kristensen 1993). It is found in four catchments (Mabole, Rokel, Jong (Taia), Little Scarcies and possible the Tabe (Brown 1988).	eng
165401	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is found in stony rapids, but most abundant on tree roots in slower stretch of Little Scarcies River, Sierra Leone (Brown 1988). It uses tree roots like rocks to crawl on.	eng
165401	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165401	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species. Local fishing methods, which employ small-mesh-size nets and poisonous herbs, may pollute or degrade the aquatic systems in the rivers of nearby Outamba-Kilimi National Park (BirdLife International 2005), and thus very likely to affect this species habitat. Also damming (resulting in flow changes, and will also affect temperature), and mining (poisoning and sedimentation). There is the possibility of bauxite mining 100m from Freetown that would use water from Rokel River and Little Scarcies River, and there is also proposed diamond mining in the same area.	eng
165402	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size, distribution and usage.	eng
165402	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to western Africa. It is known from Sierra Leone (recorded in two rivers; Nagel 1991), Senegal (one river), and possibly Liberia. It is unknown whether it is in the region between these sites.	eng
165402	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species inhabits rivers. It is found in sandy areas of rivers (Nagel 1991).	eng
165402	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165402	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	In Sierra Leone this species is harvested for food (Nagel 1991). Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Mining is known in Sierra Leone.	eng
165403	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165403	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found from Mali to Togo. It might also be found in Burkino Faso and in southwestern Nigeria (Adewunmi <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
165403	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information for the species, but in general the genus is found in lakes, rivers and less commonly in small water bodies. Rarely in habitats that dry out.	eng
165403	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165403	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165404	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165404	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is known from eastern Ghana. It is found at several localities within this area.	eng
165404	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
165404	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is a rare species.	eng
165404	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Habitat degradation/loss is a likely threat.	eng
165405	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution, and threats.	eng
165405	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The type locality for this species is Cania River, Côte d'Ivoire. Also collected in some localities in Ghana and Liberia. However the species distribution is still unclear.	eng
165405	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species occurs in rivers, but very little is known. It lives in sediments.	eng
165405	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165405	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
165406	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known of. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165406	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to west Africa. It occurs in eastern Ghanaian tributaries of the Volta River, near Frankadua, Apaso and Balakuna (DBL) and Kpong (BM) Volta River (Adapaso).	eng
165406	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The genus occurs usually in muddy bottom lowland places, but can also be in sand and gravel. The genus can occur in degraded places, but little is known about this species in particular.	eng
165406	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165406	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation threatens this species.	eng
165407	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	We need to know more about the taxonomy, population size, range, ecology.	eng
165407	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is endemic to middle Niger.	eng
165407	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is presumably a large river species (given its distribution). It lives in bottom sediments.	eng
165407	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165407	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Two proposed dams in Niger and gold mining in the upstream part of this species distribution are threats. The dams are not certain because they would affect flow to a large dam downstream, so this is a political issue at the moment. If the dams were built, it would divide the population into three locations. Dams are major causes of bivalve extinctions.<br/>Additionally water hyacinth is an invasive species causing major problems in this region, affecting temperature, turbidity, fish movements and the whole ecosystem.	eng
165433	conservation	Lansdown, R., 2009	In France, most of the populations are included in protected areas. Several other populations also benefit from site protection. It is recommended to search for new sites in the western Mediterranean.	eng
165433	distribution	Lansdown, R., 2009	<em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em> is restricted to the Atlantic coast of France (where it may now be extinct) and the northern Mediterranean coast eastwards to Israel. It has been reported from sites from the Isle d’Oléron in France and from the Camargue in southern France, namely Bouche-du-Rhône (four sites), Alpes-Maritime, and Gard. In Spain, it was present in the province Cadiz in southern Spain and in Menorca - the species has not been found at either site again and is considered extinct. It was reported from western Greece and Kos, but the population on mainland Greece, near Athens, has probably disappeared. In Italy, it is found in Brescia in Lombardia, Emilia-Romagna, Sardinia and Sicily. The species occurs in Turkey, in Muğla on the southwestern coast, and in the Sharon Plain in Israel. It is probably present in southern Albania.	eng
165433	habitat	Lansdown, R., 2009	Little is known about <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em>. Many populations are situated close to the upper edge of saline influence and in areas of saline soils fed by fresh water. <em>C.&#160;lenisulca</em><em> </em>appears to be strongly associated with neutral or slightly basic marine soils and clays. It appears to be exclusively a lowland species with a maximum altitude record of 170&#160;m and all confirmed records are from within 100&#160;km of the sea. Within this habitat it occurs in ditches, streams and temporary ponds, often bordered by stands of <em>Phragmites australis</em>. It occurs with species such as <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;obtusangula</em>, <strong></strong><em>C.&#160;stagnalis</em> and <strong></strong> <em>C.&#160;truncata</em>, <em>Potamogeton nodosus</em>, <em>P.&#160;pectinatus</em>,<em> </em>&#160;<em>Ranunculus baudotii</em>, <em>R.&#160;trichophyllus</em>&#160;and <em>Veronica catenata</em>&#160;as well as a number of charophytes, particularly <em>Chara aspera</em>&#160;and <em>C.&#160;vulgaris</em>, but also <em>C.&#160;galioides</em>, <em>C.&#160;hispida</em>, <em>Tolypella glomerata</em>&#160;and <em>T.&#160;hispanica</em>.	eng
165433	population	Lansdown, R., 2009	Although there are a number of recent records, there is also evidence of a population decline and the populations are severely fragmented.	eng
165433	threats	Lansdown, R., 2009	Coastal development for tourism is the main threat to the species, but also farming and associated water pollution are causing species decline.	eng
165459	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is included on the EU Habitats Directive Annex IV and for this reason it is likely that for many reproduction sites management plans will be made in the near future. Especially for isolated occurrences as found in West Europe and the Alps management plans are needed. In Italy, the distribution of the species is poorly known making it presently impossible for this country to give this species the protection required according the EU legislation. <br/><br/>The habitats used by <em>S. paedisca</em> in West Europe for reproduction are almost always of high biodiversity value and often these habitats have a very rich dragonfly fauna. The species is therefore a strong indicator of habitat quality.	eng
165459	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> has a huge range occurring from western Europe to Japan. Most of its range lies in the temperate zone and the species is largely lacking from the boreal region. In Europe the species is rather common and widespread in the northeast only. This area includes northern and eastern Poland, the Baltic States, Belarus, northern Ukraine and Russia. In western Europe, it is limited to a small band running from the Netherlands across northern Germany. The species has a relict distribution in the Alps (in Italy in Piedmont region) and the mountains in the west of the Czech Republic.<em> Sympecma paedisca</em> went through a severe decline in both western Europe and the Alps. Recently it is increasing in the Netherlands, Germany and expanding its range in Finland and probably Sweden.	eng
165459	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> is found in a remarkably wide variety of habitats. In Europe, it occurs in mesotrophic to moderately eutrophic standing, or seldom slowly flowing, waters. These range from large lakes, fenlands, peat bogs to gravel pits. The habitat always has an abundant bank side and aquatic vegetation. As in <em>S. fusca</em>, the adults hibernate during winter and mate and lay eggs in early spring. Emergence of the larva takes place in the second half of the summer after which most adults leave the vicinity of the reproduction site to hibernate at localities often at several kilometres distance of their larval habitat. Different habitat types can be suitable for wintering as long as there is a vegetation of knee-high herbs or grasses on several sides bordered by higher bushes or trees. The low vegetation is used in autumn for foraging and as hideout in winter whereas the surrounding higher vegetation provides shelter from the wind. In the Netherlands it was noted that the adults prefer relatively dry conditions during winter probably as moisture increases the chances on fungus diseases.	eng
165459	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympecma paedisca</em> is widespread and often common in parts of eastern Europe. In the west of its range, it is scarce and localised. The localities where it occurs are, however, often formed by large systems such as lakes or large fenlands. Due to this fact, most populations are relatively large and not seldom the species is found in high numbers.	eng
165459	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	There are no threats known in eastern Europe. <br/>As for many dragonflies, habitat destruction played a major role in its decline in West Europe during most of the 20th century. The degradation of habitat quality seems to have become the key factor in its decline in the last decades. Eutrophication resulting in a decrease of the quality and quantity of aquatic and floating vegetation played a role in large parts of West Europe. In the Netherlands and in northern Germany, the abandonment of traditional management might have been a key factor. The ceasing of the extraction of peat and the decrease in land area where reed is mowed, resulted in a dramatic drop of the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation and the increase of woodland in traditionally more open fenland (Ketelaar <em>et al.</em> 2007). At least in the Netherlands the extraction of peat in order to restore the amount of aquatic and floating vegetation resulted in a subsequent increase of <em>S. paedisca</em>.	eng
165460	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of good quality water bodies and rivers, including both chemical and structural aspects.	eng
165460	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Preservation of good quality water bodies and rivers, including both chemical and structural aspects, through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165460	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The presence of this species in Europe is dependent on a relatively small number of larger water bodies. Fieldwork in order to confirm the presence and estimate the abundance of this species at lakes where this species has been recorded is needed. Based on this the local conservation status of the waterbodies needs to be determined. In many cases these waters will also have a high conservation value for fish, mollusc and waterbirds. In these cases action plans based for these groups could well be combined. The species is included in the EU Habitats Directive.	eng
165460	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is an Irano-Turanian species, distributed from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the western Mediterranean (eastern Spain). Its main global range spreads from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to Arabia. <br/><br/>This is a very mobile species and is known to migrate long distances from its reproductive site; many records may be ascribed to vagrant imagoes. However, some localities have proved to be inhabited during several years, supporting at least a temporary reproduction at these sites. In particular the species has been recorded twice in the Maghreb, and although the Algerian population (dated 1849) has now disappeared, the Tunisian population is much more recent (2000, 2002) and may be considered as presently valid.	eng
165460	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is an Irano-Turanian species, distributed from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the western Mediterranean (eastern Spain). Its main global range spreads from Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to Arabia. This is a very mobile species and is known to migrate long distances from its reproductive site; many records may be ascribed to vagrant imagoes. However, some localities have proved to be inhabited during several years, supporting at least a temporary reproduction at these sites. In particular the species has been recorded twice in the Maghreb, and although the Algerian population (dated 1849) has now disappeared, the Tunisian population is much more recent (2000, 2002) and may be considered as presently valid.	eng
165460	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is found in Mediterranean, Arabia and southwest and Central Asia (Schorr <em>et al.</em> 1998). The easternmost populations are found in Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. In the Mediterranean, it is mainly found in the east with populations known from the Levant, Turkey, the Balkan Peninsula, Italy (mainland and Sardinia) (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). The westernmost populations are found in Spain (probably extinct) and the Maghreb (Tunisia) where it was found in 2000 after a century without records (Kunz and Kunz 2001). All European records are confined to the Mediterranean. The species has found to be strongly migratory in Arabia and for that reason a part of the records in Europe could pertain to wandering specimens.	eng
165460	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Europe <em>Lindenia tetraphylla</em> is mostly found at lakes and more rarely at slowly flowing, larger waters (Schorr <em>et al.</em> 1998). Detailed information on larval requirements of the species is lacking. The species has been found to occur at large beds of reed at several lakes in Croatia and Italy but has in Tunisia been noted from a lake with hardly any vegetation and was found at two barrage lakes with no or little vegetation at the Turkish island of Gökçeada (Hacet and Aktac 2006).	eng
165460	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	This species reproduces mainly in lakes, sometimes in slow-flowing rivers.	eng
165460	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species reproduces mainly in lakes, sometimes in slow-flowing rivers.	eng
165460	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Only one population is still valid in North Africa. Although the initial Tunisian records (two males recorded in 2000) were initially considered as vagrant insects (Kunz and Kunz 2001), Boudot again found the species at the same site two years later (Boudot 2002: two males recorded 25th June and 13th July 2002). The northern African locality should therefore be considered as valid. However, only a small number of imagoes have been recorded.	eng
165460	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Only one population is still valid in northern Africa. Although the initial Tunisian records (two males recorded in 2000) were initially considered as vagrant insects (Kunz and Kunz 2001), Boudot again found the species at the same site two years later (Boudot 2002: two males recorded 25th June and 13th July 2002). The northern African locality should therefore be considered as valid. However, only a small number of imagoes have been recorded.	eng
165460	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The number of populations in Europe is low and probably many populations are relatively small although it is sometimes fairly abundant.	eng
165460	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	European populations are mainly found at lakes. Pollution of the water by wastewater or due to nearby agricultural practices are important threats to this species. Over-exploitation of water due to the increased water demand in combination with climate change are important present and future threats. At some sites in Italy over-collections is a problem.	eng
165460	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, aquaculture, over-irrigation and water harnessing for human use with river drying up are the main threats for this species.	eng
165460	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution, aquaculture, over-irrigation and water management for human use with river desiccation are the main threats for this species.	eng
165461	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Actions need to be taken towards the conservation of natural dynamics of running waters, conservation of natural structure of streams and rivers, as well as control of pollution.	eng
165461	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Perennial management of running and standing waters; control of pollution; conservation of streams natural structure.	eng
165461	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Perennial management of running and standing waters; control of pollution; conservation of streams natural structure through policy-based actions. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165461	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus simillimus</em> is a West European Atlanto-Mediterranean endemic ranging from south Iberia to northeast France eastwards to the upper Rhine river between Germany and Switzerland. The occurrence of this species in Slovakia and Czech Republic needs confirmation.	eng
165461	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Gomphus simillimus</em> occurs in southwestern Europe, mainly in central, western and southern France to southern Spain, and western Maghreb. The taxonomic status of some east Moroccan and west Algerian populations (the contact zone between <em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em> and <em>G. lucasii</em>) need further studies; one record from western Algeria (Schmidt 1936) and three others in eastern Morocco need further confirmation. One record in eastern Algeria is considered as erroneous. In Morocco the species is known from 32 localities.	eng
165461	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus simillimus</em> occurs in southwestern Europe, mainly in central, western and southern France to southern Spain, and western Maghreb. The taxonomic status of some east Moroccan and west Algerian populations (the contact zone between <em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em> and <em>G. lucasii</em>) need further studies; one record from western Algeria (Schmidt 1936) and three others in eastern Morocco need further confirmation. One record in eastern Algeria is considered as erroneous. In Morocco the species is known from 32 localities.	eng
165461	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, this species reproduces mostly in slow-flowing large rivers and small streams, and rarely in abandoned gravel pits near to rivers and oxbow pools with phreatic waters.	eng
165461	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Maghrebian populations are widespread in streams and mountain lakes.	eng
165461	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Maghrebian populations are widespread in streams and mountain lakes.	eng
165461	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The Maghrebian population (<em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em>) is widespread and often common throughout the Atlas ranges and the Riff mountains in Morocco.	eng
165461	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The Maghrebian population (<em>G. simillimus maroccanus</em>) is widespread and often common throughout the Atlas ranges and the Riff mountains in Morocco.	eng
165461	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is irregularly abundant in the southwestern half of France and is rare and very scattered in the rest of the country. It is scarce in Iberia, where it remains very scattered.	eng
165461	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	As for any other stream species, it is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, channelization and streams, and suppression of riparian trees. Drainage and over-irrigation constitute other obvious threats.	eng
165461	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	As for any other stream species, this species is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, straightening of rivers and streams, suppression of riparian trees, etc. Drainage and over-irrigation constitute other obvious threats.	eng
165461	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is very sensitive to water pollution and stream structure degradation such as gravel pitting directly in major stream beds, dredging, regulation of rivers and streams, construction of dams, suppression of riparian trees, etc. Drainage, over-irrigation and stream dessication as a result of climate change and related rainfall deficit constitute other threats.	eng
165462	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed for the northern part of its range. In the south of its range, the protection of breeding habitats is needed and locally habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry through natural succession or abnormal drought periods.	eng
165462	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora alpestris</em> is a typical boreoalpine species showing a fragmented area extending from eastern France to northern Fennoscandia, Siberia and northern Japan. Populations in Central Europe are confined to mountain ranges above 600 m a.s.l. only and are disconnected from the populations of Fennoscandia, northwest Russia and Siberia, which occurs down to sea level. The species is scattered throughout the Alps as well as in the Central European mountains ranging from the Vosges in France to the Harz in Germany and to the Carpathians in southwest Ukraine.	eng
165462	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>S. alpestris</em> favours small water bodies in <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and transition mires. It also occurs in peat excavations. Adults show great sensitivity to summer weather conditions and are decimated by summer snowfalls exceeding 3 - 4 days. The species is tolerant to deep freezing and desiccation.	eng
165462	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Adults of <em>S. alpestris</em> are easily overlooked and the total number which can be observed in a locality does not reflect the total number of exuviae which can be found during the emergence period. Based on exuviae, the population sizes are varying from one locality to another and are dependent on the micro-habitats that fit larvae requirement. The species is fairly common in the Alps and Fennoscandia, but occurs in small isolated populations in the rest of Central Europe.	eng
165462	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In the northern part of its range, <em>S. alpestris</em> does not face any threats. In the southern part of its range, the species is threatened at lower altitudes. The pollution and destruction of peat bogs, peaty swamps and moorlands due to livestock excrements with eutrophication and trampling is a strong threat in the mountains of Central Europe. Tourism development may destroy some localities in the Alpine region. In addition, the natural succession of peaty habitats to dry lands may lead to the extinction of the species. Therefore, the abandonment of artisanal small scale peat extraction activities lead to peat bog closure in favour of "dry" heath, grasslands and forests. Climate change can reinforce this process.	eng
165463	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed.	eng
165463	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The middle large streams were this species is occurring have a rich aquatic fauna and are under threat throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. In order to secure this species for Europe it is needed that on all of the European islands were it occurs (Cyprus, Karpathos, Ikaria and Rhodos) one or more locations become protected and are included in a nature reserve. Fieldwork in order to map the distribution of the species on the islands is needed.	eng
165463	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Anax immaculifrons</em> is an Oriental/Indomalayan species distributed from China through West Bengal, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan with its main distribution in southern Asia (India, Sri Lanka) and its western limit along the Levantine and Aegean Coast (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Only since the 1990th it became clear that the species is less rare along the Mediterranean than hitherto believed. Populations have been found in the lower mountains all along the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. In Europe the species is marginally present and confined to Cyprus (four locations) and to the Greek islands of Karpathos (5 locations), Ikaria (1 location) and Rhodos (>3 locations).	eng
165463	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<em>Anax immaculifrons</em> is a widespread species, occurring from Greece in Europe to China.	eng
165463	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is found at streams, especially in hilly and mountainous areas. Larvae are found in the muddy bottom of the pools or very slow-running marshy side-streams (e.g. Kumar and Mitra 1998).	eng
165463	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Unlike other <em>Anax</em> species, in the eastern Mediterranean the species avoids open stagnant waters and is found at permanent, often partly shaded, rocky streams of a few meters wide. The larvae are found at still sections of brooks or in rock pools.	eng
165463	population	Mitra, A., 2010	This is a widespread species, but it appears to be uncommon in parts of its range.	eng
165463	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species generally occurs in low densities. All European records refer to one to five individuals. It is likely that in Europe at most several dozens of specimens are present at a single site.	eng
165463	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	An increased extraction of water or pollution of water in Europe can easily lead to the destruction of habitats. The species in Europe is depended on permanent running water. An increased intake of water for tourism or agricultural purposes can cause desiccation of stream habitats. Climate change is an important threat.	eng
165463	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	This is a widespread species with no threats effecting its entire range known. Potential localised threats include excessive development for tourism, urbanisation and possibly pollution.	eng
165464	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species does not need attention on European scale. Action needs to be undertaken on a regional scale as the trends of the species and its habitat choice vary from region to region. In some regions the species might be threatened by the abandonment of traditional agricultural activities. Here nature organisations could consider taking over this role. In areas were the species is mostly found in man-made waters the focus should be on helping water management organisations and farmers to establish a management protocol for ditches and channels which both facilitates the drainages and the nature value.	eng
165464	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum pedemontanum</em> ranges from Europe through the warmer, non-arid parts of temperate Asia to Japan. In Europe, its main distribution is in Central Europe. The westernmost European records, Galicia in Spain and northwest France and Wales, probably all pertain to vagrants. The westernmost populations are found in Catalonia (Lockwood 2007), the Camargue, Belgium and the Netherlands. The species is found throughout Central and East Europe but it is generally scarce and absent in some regions. The species seems to have decreased in many areas in the second half of the 20th century. The situation since the 1990s is unclear. In some areas like Baden-Württembergs it has shown a strong decrease since 1990 (Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006) but in other areas such as the Netherlands (Bouwman 2008) it has strongly expanded its range in the last decade.	eng
165464	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum pedemontanum</em> shows a strong regional variation in habitat preferences. In most cases it seems to be associated with sunny, seepage fed waters, which may explain why it is most frequently found in hilly areas. Many habitats where it occurs become partially inundated in winter and early spring. This can be either along standing or along running waters. In northern Italy, the species is found in this kind of environment in rice fields. Most often the species is found at waters with a high calcium content but this is not a requirement as it can also be found at seepages and runnels at more acid environments such as lakes or bogs. In most of its range <em>S. pedemontanum</em> has a preference for man-made waters like slowly running ditches, channels and complexes of ponds. These are often seepage-fed and have a fair amount of vegetation, which does not get too high or dense as these habitats are cleaned every few years. Other man-made waters that can be occupied are ponds and quarries.	eng
165464	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a patchy distribution in Europe being rare to absent in many areas but common and widespread in others. Populations can be large.	eng
165464	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is rare in many regions and habitat destruction due to water pollution and developments could regionally lead to extinction. As for the habitat and the trend, the threats for <em>S. pedemontanum</em> probably vary strongly from region to region. In areas where the species is largely dependent on man-made waters an increased intensification of agricultural practise could lead to the loss of habitats. However <em>S. pedemontanum </em>is one of the few uncommon European species which is capable to have sizeable populations in agricultural areas. The abandonment of inundation areas along running waters as grazing areas may regionally lead to a decline of the species as it does not occur in situations where the vegetation becomes to high. In the Mediterranean the changing patterns of temperature and precipitation might become a threat to the species.	eng
165465	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and conservation of natural river dynamics and structure are necessary conservation measures.	eng
165465	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> ranges from the southern Balkans to Iran. Its northern limit is unclear and conflicting due overlapping, hybridization or clinal variation with <em>G. vulgatissimus</em> from Montenegro to European Turkey. The species is known to be common in Greece.	eng
165465	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> reproduces mostly in slow rivers and streams with sandy and silty bottoms. It also breeds occasionally in large lakes.	eng
165465	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus schneiderii</em> is widespread in the Peloponnese, but is more scattered in north and northeast Greece. Records from  European Turkey, northeastern Greece, Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are very scarce and refer mostly to mixed populations with <em>G. vulgatissimus</em>.	eng
165465	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution, stream desiccation and related rainfall deficit, regulation of rivers and gravel pitting directly in the river bed are the main threats for this species.	eng
165466	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>G. flavipes</em> is included in the European Habitats Directive. There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
165466	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus flavipes</em> is an Eurasian species ranging from the Atlantic coast of France to east Siberia where it is confined to large lowland river systems (e.g., Rhine, Rhône, Loire, Po, Elbe, Danube). The species showed a strong decline in West Europe in the 20th century but has shown a strong increase since the 1990s (e.g., Bouwman <em>et al.</em> 2008, Brockhaus and Fisher 2005, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
165466	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus flavipes</em> is confined to large lowland rivers with sandy to silty bottom with organic sediment; the larger the river, the stronger the population. However, it is now increasingly found in tributaries and has probably a more diffuse distribution. For example, in the plain of the Po River it is scatterred over the network of channels used to rice field management.	eng
165466	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species went extinct in large parts of western Europe due to a decline in the 20th century. The species has increased strongly since the 1990s and it has re-colonised most of its former range. This increase in records is partly due to increased research but is mostly due to a genuine increase. This increase is probably due to a combination of climate change, a decrease of stream pollution and better river management.	eng
165466	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Currently, no major threats are known for this species. Only at the margins of its extent, the species might have been more susceptible to threats such as pollution in the past.	eng
165467	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The countries in Southeast Europe should map the distribution of the species and assess the percentage of populations found in protected areas. Based on this it must be judged if additional protected areas are needed. Legislation for the use of water from brooks needs to be made or further implemented in many of those countries. Monitoring is needed to better understand the ecology of this species and the impact of conservation management.	eng
165467	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Caliaeschna microstigma</em> is a largely Southwest Asian species which occurs as far east as Afghanistan. The species occurs in the Caucasus but from there it does not reach into Europe. Its European range is limited to Cyprus, Greece and its islands and the Balkan Peninsula (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is widespread in Bulgaria but does not reach Romania. Along the Adriatic it is found as far north as Croatia. In addition to this there are some old records from the Neretva river in Bosnia and Herzegovina.	eng
165467	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Caliaeschna microstigma</em> occurs in stony brooks and small rivers which are at least partly shaded. The habitats are fast running with sections of stiller water where the larvae are present (Breuer and Douma-Petridou 2000). The species is mostly found in hilly or mountainous regions but most European populations are found below 500 m.	eng
165467	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is often fairly abundant when found.	eng
165467	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Habitat destruction due to building activities or more intensive agricultural use of areas are important threats. Removal of trees or forest on the banks of brooks and rivers will lead to local extinction of the species. In the future the increased demand for water and the increase of prolonged dry periods due to climate change will be the main threat.	eng
165468	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species seems to be relatively safe in most of its range and there are no conservation measures needed. At the western and southern margins of its range, e.g. in the Alps, restoration projects of peat marshes and bogs are required.	eng
165468	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>L. rubicunda</em> is fairly common and widespread in northern and Central Europe. Its continuous area of distribution reaches south to northern Belgium, central Germany and the mountains of northern Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and the northern Ukraine. The species occurs further south in the Ural area where it is still common in the south of this mountain range (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The species becomes rare to the south of its Central European range and its southernmost populations are found in the northern parts of the Alps.   The species decreased in Central Europe and has probably become extinct in the North of France. In the Alps less than 20 populations are known which are confined to Bayern and Baden-Württemberg, most of which are isolated and small.	eng
165468	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species occurs frequently in acidic waters with a vegetation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum</span> although its habitat spectrum is wider. Most populations are found in forest areas.	eng
165468	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is fairly common to common in the north and parts of Central Europe and is often abundant.	eng
165468	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species does not face threats in northern and eastern Europe. In the last century <em>L. rubicunda</em> declined in Central Europe due to habitat destruction such as large-scale transformation of peatland for agricultural purposes and the large-scale introduction of drainage systems. These kinds of habitat destruction have now largely ceased. In the south, present day threats are increased ground water extractions, vegetation succession leading to the decline of open water and desiccation due to periods of hot weather. Especially the latter might increase due to climate change and might be a threat for the remaining populations in the south.	eng
165469	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
165469	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserves through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165469	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
165469	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
165469	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> has a wide range and occurs from Europe and Morocco to Kamchatka and Japan, and to Canada and the USA. The species is widespread and common across most of its range, but becomes scarcer towards the south.	eng
165469	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> has a wide range and occurs from Europe and Morocco to Kamchatka and Japan. The species is widespread and common in most of Europe but becomes scarcer towards the south and is absent from most of the Mediterranean islands.	eng
165469	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> is a western palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except northernmost parts, and reaches northwestern Africa in Morocco.	eng
165469	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Libellula quadrimaculata</em> is a western Palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except northern most parts, and reaches northwestern Africa in Morocco.	eng
165469	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In Morocco, <em>L. quadrimacualta</em> is mostly confined in standing waters between 500 and 2,500 m asl. It is known to be migratory only when infested with trematodes. Migratory behaviour has not been recorded in this species in Morocco.	eng
165469	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Morocco, <em>L. quadrimacualta</em> is mostly confined in standing waters between 500 and 2,500 m asl. It is known to be migratory only when infested with trematodes. Migratory behaviour has not been recorded in this species in Morocco.	eng
165469	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This dragonfly is widespread and generally abundant in any kind of standing and most slow-flowing waters often with well developed vegetation. Its habitat preferences vary over the region.	eng
165469	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	This species is widespread and generally abundant in any kind of standing and most slow-flowing waters often with well developed vegetation, although its habitat preferences vary over its range.	eng
165469	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe and occurs in large populations.	eng
165469	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species is very common over much of its range, and occurs in large populations.	eng
165469	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	This widespread Euro-Siberian species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe at any altitude below 2,500 m. It also occurs in a small area in the Riff and Atlas mountains in Morocco, where only 11 locations are known.	eng
165469	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This widespread Euro-Siberian species is one of the most common dragonflies in Europe at any altitude below 2,500 m. It also occurs in a small area in the Riff and Atlas mountains in Morocco, where only 11 locations are known.	eng
165469	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Pollution and desiccation of the habitat are threats to the species.	eng
165469	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Pollution and drying up of the habitat.	eng
165469	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Presently, there are no threats to this species.	eng
165469	threats	Dow, R., 2010	There are no threats known to this species across its range.	eng
165470	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
165470	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165470	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
165470	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None needed at present.	eng
165470	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	None needed at present.	eng
165470	conservation	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None needed at present.	eng
165470	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Orthertrum sabina</em> is an oriental species, whose range extends to Australia and China. It is also found in Algeria, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Egypt and Tunisia.	eng
165470	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthertrum sabina</em> is a very widespread and common oriental species, whose range extends to Australia and China. The westernmost populations are found in the Maghreb and along the Turkish Mediterranean coast. Its European distribution is limited to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Samos, Kos and Rhodos where less than 20 localities are known.	eng
165470	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum sabina</span> has a huge range from southeastern Europe and North Africa to Japan and south to Australia and Micronesia.	eng
165470	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from northern Africa and Asia along the tropical belt to Australia. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea; occurrence in Djibouti and Egypt assumed.	eng
165470	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from North east Chad. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is one of the most ubiquitous dragonflies in tropical Australasia, extends along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coast into Turkey, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Chad.	eng
165470	distribution	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is one of the most ubiquitous dragonflies in tropical Australasia, extends along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coast into Turkey, Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Tunisia and Chad.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is found in Algeria, Libya, Egypt and Tunisia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Socotra, and its occurrence in Djibouti is assumed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from northeast Chad.	eng
165470	habitat	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Found at springs and oases, all kinds of still and slow-flowing waters in northern Africa; permanent and seasonal water bodies in dry areas.	eng
165470	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Oases in African desert, but any open water in main Asian range.	eng
165470	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	permanent and seasonal water bodies in dry areas	eng
165470	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Springs and oases, all kinds of still and slow-flowing waters.	eng
165470	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species inhabits all kind of unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters. It is found at channels, runnels, ponds and easily inhabits man made waters like ditches.	eng
165470	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This species occupies a broad range of slow flowing and still water habitats, from ponds to wet rice fields and marshes. It is very tolerant of disturbance.	eng
165470	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally fairly abundant.	eng
165470	population	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Locally fairly abundant.	eng
165470	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
165470	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165470	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and often abundant at the Turkish coast. Most European records (Cyprus, Kos, Samos and Rhodos) pertain to less than 10 individuals.	eng
165470	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This is a very common species over much of its huge range.	eng
165470	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Ground water extraction.	eng
165470	threats	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Groundwater extraction is a threat to the species.	eng
165470	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
165470	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The habitat of the species is not under any specific threat.	eng
165470	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
165470	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165471	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Coastal wetland areas are under threat in the Mediterranean due to all kinds of infrastructure developments of which tourism is one of the most important. Limiting the amount of infrastructure developments in coastal areas and designating protected areas is needed for species dependent on these habitats.<br/>Data on the population size is scant in Europe and fieldwork is needed. Information on habitat requirements are largely absent and no information on trends is available.	eng
165471	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Coastal wetland areas are under threat in the Mediterranean due to infrastructure developments, especially for tourism. Limiting the amount of infrastructure developments in coastal areas and designating protected areas is needed for species dependent on these habitats. Data on population sizes is scarce and fieldwork is needed. Information on habitat requirements is largely absent and no information on trends is available.	eng
165471	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of good quality water bodies and streams.	eng
165471	conservation	Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Preservation of good quality water bodies and streams through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165471	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is mainly a species from central Asia, the Middle East and Arabia. Its range extends into the western Mediterranean and northern African, but here it is confined in shallow waters, which undergo rapid temperature increases in sunny conditions.	eng
165471	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The main area of distribution of <em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is found in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Its European distribution is almost completely confined to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. The only exceptions are records from the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and two records from the Black Sea coast of the Ukraine. The species is known from all European Mediterranean countries with the exception of France and Slovenia. It has however a very scattered distribution being rare in many countries although it seems slightly more abundant along the east coast of Spain, on Sicily and especially in Croatia.   <br/>Northernmost records are now from the extreme north of Spain (at no more than 25 km south of the French border), to the north of Italy, the east of Bulgaria, Ukraine and the southwest of the Ural.	eng
165471	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The main area of distribution of <em>Selysiothemis nigra</em> is in Central Asia, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Its European distribution is almost completely confined to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. The only exceptions are records from the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and two records from the Black Sea coast of the Ukraine. The species is known from all European Mediterranean countries with the exception of France and Slovenia. It is widespread in the Middle East and occurs as far east as Kashmir and Rajasthan in India. However it has a very scattered distribution and is rare in many countries.	eng
165471	distribution	Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is mainly found in central Asia and the Middle East; scarce along the Mediterranean Sea in southern Europe and in oases in the Sahara. Recorded from Arak, 250km northwest of the Hoggar in southern Algeria and may just penetrate Afrotropics.	eng
165471	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	In Europe<em> S. nigra </em>seems to be mostly confined to coastal, shallow standing waters that are unshaded and often brackish. <em>S. nigra</em> is a strong migrant and probably has a short larval phase which allows it to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies.	eng
165471	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Europe<em> S. nigra </em>seems to be mostly confined to coastal, shallow standing waters that are unshaded and often brackish. <em>S. nigra</em> is a strong migrant and probably has a short larval phase which allows it to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies.	eng
165471	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	This species is often confined in coastal or continental shallow standing waters, often brackish, is dry or semi desert areas. It also in occurs streamlets.	eng
165471	habitat	Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is often confined in coastal or continental shallow standing waters, often brackish, is dry or semi desert areas. It also in occurs streamlets. In northern Africa it is confined in shallow waters, which undergo rapid temperature increases in sunny conditions.	eng
165471	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Seventeen localities have been reported for this species in North Africa.	eng
165471	population	Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Seventeen localities have been reported for this species in northern Africa.	eng
165471	population	Dow, R., 2010	The species has a scattered distribution in at least the European part of its range and is scarce in many areas. However it can be locally very abundant.	eng
165471	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a scattered distribution in the European part of its range and is scarce in many areas. However it can be locally very abundant.	eng
165471	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Drying up through climate change and over-irrigation and water pollution are the main threats for this species.	eng
165471	threats	Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Drying up through climate change and over-irrigation and water pollution are the main threats for this species.	eng
165471	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Europe <em>S. nigra</em> is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism is therefore a threat to the species. The species is adapted to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies and will therefore be less impacted by climate change than other species.	eng
165471	threats	Dow, R., 2010	In Europe <em>S. nigra</em> is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism is therefore a threat to the species. The species is adapted to reproduce in ephemeral water bodies and will therefore be less impacted by climate change than other species. I have no information on threats in other parts of its range.	eng
165472	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
165472	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
165472	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	It is necessary to control water pollution, control over-irrigation for agricultural purposes, and to control water extraction for urban and industrial needs.	eng
165472	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Boyeria irene</em> is a West Mediterranean endemic that extends north along the Atlantic area of France up to Brittany and Normandy. More to the east, it extends up to Franche Comté in France whereas a permanent isolated population is known for a long time in central Switzerland in the Lucerne lake and its tributaries. Scarce vagrant specimens have been recorded on the southernmost borders of Germany at the confines of Switzerland and Austria as well as in the southernmost part of the Vosges mountains in France. Such behaviour may be favoured by the current climate warming. In Italy, it is distributed in the western Mediterranean part. The species also occurs in northern Africa, where it is confined to the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165472	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Boyeria irene</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean area, extending north to Brittany. In northern Africa, the species is confined to the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria.	eng
165472	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Boyeria irene</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean area, extending north to Brittany. In northern Africa, the species is confined to the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria.	eng
165472	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. irene</span> is found in streams and rivers with a shaded environment. It sometimes occurs in large lakes, particularly in Switzerland and the French pre-alpine area.	eng
165472	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Streams and rivers, often with shaded banks. Sometimes in great lakes	eng
165472	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Streams and rivers, often with shaded banks. Sometimes present in great lakes.	eng
165472	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, this species is widespread in the mountains of Morocco and is scattered within the north coastal area of Tunisia. However its crepuscular peak of activity make it to be often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers. The gap of knowledge in most of Algeria is probably explained by insecurity and lack of surveys, but habitat degradation may be responsible as well.	eng
165472	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In northern Africa, this species is widespread in the mountains of Morocco and is scattered within the north coastal area of Tunisia. However its crepuscular peak of activity means it is often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers. The gap of knowledge in most of Algeria is probably explained by insecurity and lack of surveys, but habitat degradation may be responsible as well.	eng
165472	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread over nearly all rivers in southern France and is probably also widespread in most parts of Iberia and the western part of Italy (except Sicily, where there is only one record). However, its habit of being most active at dusk may cause it to be often overlooked during the day, except in shady rivers.	eng
165472	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Pollution and destruction of habitat are the main threats. Drought in connection to global warming, over-irrigation and related lowering of underground water tables results in the desiccation of rivers and local extinction.	eng
165472	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Pollution and destruction of habitat. Drought in connection to global warming. Over-irrigation and lowering of underground water tables.	eng
165472	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats to the species are pollution and destruction of habitat and drought and wildfire in connection to global warming. Over-irrigation, dams, urban development and lowering of underground water tables may also affecting the species.	eng
165473	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific actions for this species are needed. Monitoring of this species in isolated southern localities is recommended.	eng
165473	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum danae</em> is common and widespread in Central and North Europe. The species is largely absent from the southern third of Europe and is there found only at higher elevations (Alps and Pyrenees).	eng
165473	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum danae </em>is most often found in acidic waters such as bogs, moorlands and acidic lakes. More rarely it is found in drying ponds, ditches, fens, old gravel pits. In the Mediterranean region it is confined to bogs and lakes in mountainous areas.	eng
165473	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is widespread and often abundant in Central and in large parts of northern Europe. In South Europe it is only found in mountain areas where it is fairly common.	eng
165473	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific treat. Acidification and nutrification, which impacted many species of bogs and heath lakes have not lead to a decline of this species. In the future breeding habitats in the mountains of the Mediterranean region may be affected by climate change.	eng
165474	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into habitat status, conservation measures and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
165474	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	None.	eng
165474	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> is a Maghrebian endemic which was recorded once in the Canary Islands (Kalkman and Smit 2002) as a single male probably brought by African storm winds (passive vagrancy).	eng
165474	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> is endemic to the northern Africa region, being present in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
165474	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Breeds in permanent running waters as well as large, seasonal wadis.	eng
165474	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Africa, <em>Platycnemis subdilatata</em> reproduces successfully mostly in permanent running waters.	eng
165474	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Abundant across its range in northern Africa.	eng
165474	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No reproducing population has been identified in Europe, although one adult has been recorded in the Canary Islands.	eng
165474	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No resident population is known in Europe.	eng
165474	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Water pollution and dam building threaten the species.	eng
165475	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
165475	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes sponsa</em> ranges from western Europe to Japan and is very common across almost the whole of Europe. The southern border of its range extends from northern Spain to the central Balkans. In the British Isles, it was found to have expanded its range upon about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming. Its northern limit goes presently from northern Scotland to the north of the Bothnian Bay and north Russia.	eng
165475	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species inhabits a wide range of standing waters with emergent vegetation. It may also be numerous at newly created shallow localities, but it is not specifically a pioneer species. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring to end summer but hatch usually after winter.	eng
165475	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread, represented by large populations, and is one of the most common damselflies. A decline has been observed in some western areas (e.g. northwestern Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium).	eng
165475	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not threatened on the European scale.	eng
165476	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of pollution and preservation of habitats.	eng
165476	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of pollution and preservation of habitats through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165476	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Necessary conservation measurements are the control of water pollution and preservation and management of the habitats where the species occurs.	eng
165476	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Coenagrion caerulescens</em> extends over the whole western Mediterranean area. In the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco (where it is very widespread), Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165476	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion caerulescens</em> extends over the whole western Mediterranean area. In the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco (where it is very widespread), Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165476	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion caerulescens</em> is a west Mediterranean endemic species.	eng
165476	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. caerulescens</em> reproduces in sunny rivers, brooks, spring and seepages with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation. It is replaced by the close relative <em>C. scitulum</em> in standing and slowly flowing waters.	eng
165476	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Sunny rivers, brooks, spring and seepages, with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation.	eng
165476	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Sunny rivers, brooks, springs and seepages, with grassy borders and/or aquatic vegetation.	eng
165476	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	The species is widespread in Sardinia, Sicily, Spain and in the Maghreb, although about half of the Algerian data are old and should be presently reexamined. It is more scattered in the southernmost 2/3 of mainland Italy and is very rare in France, although good localities exist there.	eng
165476	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is widespread in Sicily and Spain but is much more scattered in Portugal and the southernmost two thirds of mainland Italy. It is very rare in France, although strong populations exist there.	eng
165476	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread in the Maghreb, although about half of the Algerian data are old and should be presently re-examined.	eng
165476	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	&#160;The main threats to the species are water pollution, urban development, water management, destruction of wetlands through draining, over-irrigation, and drought in connection to global warming.	eng
165476	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution and harnessing for human use, destruction of wetlands due to draining, over-irrigation, and droughts in connection to global warming, are the main threats to this species.	eng
165476	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution and harnessing for human use, destruction of wetlands through draining, over-irrigation, drought in connection to global warming.	eng
165477	conservation	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Halt habitat degradation and develop public awareness through education.	eng
165477	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measure is needed.	eng
165477	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165477	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura saharensis</em> is mainly a North African species that extends in Europe only to the Canary Islands (where it was recorded initially  as <em>I. senegalensis</em>), and presumably to the Madeira archipelago (sub. <em>I. maderae</em> and <em>I. senegalensis</em>).	eng
165477	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Its distribution is peripheral in western Africa with records in Mauritania, Niger and southern Algeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from saharan oases and Canary islands.	eng
165477	distribution	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from the Sahara belt from the Canaries to Libya (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in the southern parts of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Libya, as well as Mauritania. It is also present in Niger, and probably in Mali but no records have been confirmed there yet. Northern records could pertain to another species (probably <em>graelsii</em>); absent from the coastal strip.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is peripheral, with records in Mauritania, Niger and southern Algeria.	eng
165477	habitat	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Breeds in lotic and lentic habitats. Desert oases.	eng
165477	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Desert oases.	eng
165477	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura saharensis</em> is very mobile and new rain pools in desert areas are quickly colonised (Dumont 2007). The species is well adapted to arid environments and is known to disperse easily and  successfully colonize ephemeral water bodies appearing during the rain season (Boudot 2008). Its larval period is short and adults appear before the pools, ponds and lakes will be dried up.	eng
165477	population	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Abundant across its range except in the Canaries where it is rare (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
165477	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165477	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The insular European populations of<em> Ischnura saharensis</em> are widely scattered and the species is not rare in the Canary Islands.	eng
165477	threats	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation due to sewage run off.	eng
165477	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There is no present threat for this species, which is a rapid colonizer of any new water body, but an increased desertification of the Canary Islands would lead to a severe decline.	eng
165477	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown	eng
165478	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	None required at present.	eng
165478	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	None required at present.	eng
165478	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common in large parts of its range and is expanding northwards. No conservation action is needed.	eng
165478	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> occurs in central and southern Europe, northern Africa, the Levant, and Asia. Its range is expanding northwards in Europe: the species used to be absent from parts of the northwest, where it became one of the commonest species in the 1980-1990s.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Algeria (where it is widespread in the haute plateau and coastal areas), Tunisia and Morocco (where it is known from six localities).	eng
165478	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> occurs in central and southern Europe, northern Africa, the Levant, and Asia. Its range is expanding northwards in Europe: the species used to be absent from parts of the northwest, where it became one of the commonest species in the 1980-1990s.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is present in Algeria (where it is widespread in the haute plateau and coastal areas), Tunisia and Morocco (where it is known from six localities).	eng
165478	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The main range of <em>Erythromma viridulum</em> lies in southern and central Europe. In North Africa the species is limited to the Maghreb. In the east it occurs in the Ukraine, the southern parts of Russia, and in the eastern Mediterranean up to Turkmenistan. Since the 1980s it has expanded its range over 100-500 km to the north. It was first found in Belarus in the end of the 1990s  (Tishchikov and Tishchikov 2000), in 1999 in the United Kingdom (Dewick and Gerussi 2000), in 2001 in Denmark, and in 2000 in Sweden.	eng
165478	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Erythromma viridulum</em> is found in largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing, sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. It is especially common at waters with rich aquatic vegetation where the males can be seen perching on algal mats, hornworts (<em>Ceratophyllum</em>), water-milfoils (<em>Myriophylum</em>) and other plants.	eng
165478	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Stagnant or slightly flowing sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. Typical emergents include algal mats, hornworts (<em>Ceratophyllum</em>), water-milfoils (<em>Myriophylum</em>) and other plants. It may also appear on other emergent vegetation, including floating peatmoss (<em>Sphagnum</em>) in bogs and water lilies.	eng
165478	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Stagnant or slightly flowing sunny waters with aquatic vegetation, including brackish waters. Typical emergents include algal mats, hornworts (<em>Ceratophyllum</em>), water-milfoils (<em>Myriophylum</em>) and other plants. It may also appear on other emergent vegetation, including floating peatmoss (<em>Sphagnum</em>) in bogs and water lilies.	eng
165478	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally quite abundant. The species is doing well in North Africa.	eng
165478	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Locally quite abundant. The species is doing well in northern Africa.	eng
165478	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is often abundant when found.	eng
165478	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	No major threats at present.	eng
165478	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	No major threats at present.	eng
165478	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not considered threatened.	eng
165479	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No specific measures are needed.	eng
165479	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	No specific measures are needed.	eng
165479	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura elegans</em> occurs from Ireland and Spain to Japan, including the whole of Europe except the most northern and southwestern parts. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range for about 140 km to the north since 1970, that was attributed to global warming (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
165479	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> occurs from western Europe to Japan.	eng
165479	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in a wide variety of standing and slow flowing waters. It is very common at eutrophic and mesotrophic sites, but avoids acid waters. It is tolerant of salinity.	eng
165479	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species reproduces in standing and slow-flowing running waters. It is very common on eutrophic and mesotrophic sites, but avoids acid waters. It is rather tolerant to salinity.	eng
165479	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura elegans</em> is a widespread and one of the most common and abundant damselflies in Europe.	eng
165479	population	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> is an extremely common species over much of its range; in Europe it is one of the most common damselflies.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
165479	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>I. elegans</em> is able to colonize a wide range of habitats and is not threatened.	eng
165479	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura elegans</span> is able to colonise and breed in a wide range of habitats and is under no threats.	eng
165480	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In some localities, water regime is managed for salt production, that may eliminate the species, therefore these activities should be regulated. Prevention of development in coastal areas for tourism and industry and protected areas should be established.	eng
165480	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> ranges from West Europe to Mongolia. It has a scattered distribution and shows strong fluctuations in numbers from year to year. It occurs mostly in coastal areas and in the Central European Pannonian Basin (Hungary and eastern Austria, Neusiedlersee area).	eng
165480	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> is mostly confined to shallow brackish waters with rushes, sedges and <span style="font-style: italic;">Salicornia</span> spp. in coastal wetlands. It is also known from inland basins with low rainfall and strong evaporation favouring continental brackish waters (Central and Eastern Europe with a continental climate). Some populations from Corsica were claimed to reproduce in fresh waters, but this should be confirmed through chemical analysis.	eng
165480	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes macrostigma</em> shows strong fluctuations from year to year. Flourishing and fairly stable popluations are known from the south of France, east Austria and Hungary. <br/>Although the Neusiedlersee area is rather well protected, only 23 Hungarian 10X10 km UTM squares out of a total of 44 have been recorded from 1960 onwards (Devai 1994), so that it is probable that the species experienced a decrease in this country during the 20th century.	eng
165480	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species has a very scattered range and shows isolated populations. The main threat is the conversion of natural brackish ponds into commercial salt exploitations. Besides, the natural instability of this species is an intrinsic threat.	eng
165481	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of stream structure, pollution and water use are needed to preserve this species.	eng
165481	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Calopteryx xanthostoma</em> is a southwest European endemic abundant in the south and the southwest of France and in most of Iberia. In the latter area, it becomes more scarce towards the south. In Italy, it is recorded with certainty from Liguria only; records from Sicily may be due to a confusion with some infrarank forms of <em>C. splendens</em> without or with a very narrow hyaline fringe at wings tip (<em>C. s. caprai</em>, <em>C. s. balcanica</em>).  Records from North Africa were old and unclear and were most probably erroneous. In the contact area between <em>C. xanthostoma</em> and <em>C. splendens</em>, both taxa are reported to hybridize, for example in Liguria and between the Loire and Garonne in France, with decrease of <em>C. xanthostoma</em> in favour of <em>C. splendens</em> through genetic assimilation.&#160; This and genetic distance analysis between both taxa suggest that <em>C. xanthostoma</em> is a relict taxa that survived the Pleistocene glaciations in the west Mediterranean refugium but is presently challenged by post glacial invaders, with introgression and replacement processes.	eng
165481	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species favours open and moderately shaded running waters. It avoids cold torrents, high mountains and deep shade, but is found in slow-flowing areas in large water courses where <em>C. splendens</em> also occurs (for example, lowland rivers and canals).	eng
165481	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is fairly common and abundant in its main area.	eng
165481	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Destruction of habitat through gravel pitting and tourism infrastructures as well as water pollution by human activities are the main threat for this endemic species. The drying up of streams during the summer is now occurring throughout its range as a result of climate change, over irrigation and human consumption in urbanized areas, so that a strong regression of the species is to be expected in the future if drought periods increase in time and frequency.	eng
165482	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
165482	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Epitheca bimaculata</em> is an Eurasian species ranging over an enormous area from the west of France to east Siberia and Japan. It has a scattered and patchy distribution in the west and the south of its range. It is extinct in the Netherlands and has not been recorded for a long time in Italy and Bosnia and Herzegovina although this might be due to lack of fieldwork. It is missing in the north and the very south of the continent.	eng
165482	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main habitat are oligotrophic to eutrophic lakes, frequently with abundant submerged and floating vegetation, but partly or completely surrounded by trees or bushes in Europe. Also found in pools, oxbows, old abandoned gravel pits and fishponds.	eng
165482	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This is a relatively poorly known species, which was for a long time believed to be threatened with extinction in the west of Europe. In the last two decades it was found that its scarceness can at least partly be explained due to the behaviour of the imagos which spent most of their time in the forest and are scarcely met. However, based on exuviae collection at emergence, it was recorded in many areas where it was not expected to occur and some populations were found to be large (1,000-5,000). Population density ranges from one single exuviae to more than 5,000 for apparently similar habitats.	eng
165482	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The extreme variation in population density for apparent similar habitats is far from being elucidated, so that it is difficult to decide which parameters are favourable and which are unfavourable for the species. However, intensive aquaculture and any strong human impact on a water body such as calibration with abrupt banks and mowing grass to have clean banks for fishermen or picnicking people are clearly unfavourable. The species disappeared from large parts of Germany due to transformation of "wild" lakes and ponds into "clean" waterbodies for fishermen and Sunday picnics.<br/>In the southern part of its range, it could be threatened in the future by droughts due to climate change.	eng
165483	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific actions are needed for <em>S. vulgatum</em> on a European scale. However, fieldwork and monitoring to establish its conservation status in the Mediterranean and to assess if climate change is impacting on the species is needed. This is especially true for the subspecies <em>S. v. ibericum</em> and work on its taxonomy and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
165483	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum vulgatum</em> has a wide distribution and occurs eastwards to China and Japan. It is a common and widespread species in Central and eastern Europe. The species is largely absent from the southern third of Europe where it is mainly confined to higher elevations (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Italy, it is probably the rarest species of <em>Sympetrum</em> (E. Riservato, pers. comm.). The species is in Britain only known from wanderers and is largely absent from the northern third of Fennoscandia. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">S. v. ibericum</span>, which is found in the French Pyrenees and northern Spain, is generally rare.	eng
165483	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in all kinds of standing, largely unshaded waters. In the Mediterranean region it reaches its southernmost distribution, constrained by climatic factors, and confined to areas of high elevation. Details on the habitat of<em> S. vulgatum ibericum</em> are lacking.	eng
165483	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and widespread in northern Central and Eastern Europe and frequently occurs in large populations. In the south, the species is rare and easily overlooked between the far higher numbers of <em>S. striolatum</em> and <em>S. meridionale</em>.	eng
165483	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened in most of its range. However, climate change in the Mediterranean region may affect its subspecies <em> S. vulgatum ibericum</em>.	eng
165484	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species does not need specific conservation measures on a European scale. Monitoring the trend of the populations in western Europe and research of the threats causing the decline are needed and appropriate conservation measures need to be developed on the base of those findings.	eng
165484	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is widespread from West Europe to West Siberia. In the north it extends to central Fennoscandia. In the British Isles, and locally in Fennoscandia, it was found to have expanded its range to the north since 1970 (Hickling <em>et al.</em> 2005, Flenner and Sahlen 2008) which was attributed to global warming. In the south it reaches the north of Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia.	eng
165484	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is mostly linked to standing waters with a rich riparian vegetation. It is also found in slow-flowing waters.	eng
165484	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion pulchellum</em> is an abundant species. In the south of France, Spain, Italy, the Balkans and Anatolia its range becomes fragmented and it turns rare to very rare.<br/>In several regions in western Europe (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium), a declining population trend has been noted over the last decades.	eng
165484	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not threatened at the European scale. Drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit in connection to global warming is a future threat with regards to the survival of the species in the south of its range.	eng
165485	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In most part of its range no conservation measures are needed at present. In some member states, the species is included in national Red Lists (Germany: EN; Austria: EN). Therefore, local conservation measures such as restoration of marshy areas are recommended.	eng
165485	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora flavomaculata</em> extends from France and southern Fennoscandia to Siberia and Mongolia. In the south only scattered populations are recorded from Italy and the Balkans.	eng
165485	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species generally prefers peaty water bodies with abundant vegetation. It occurs in fens, wet meadows, ponds, ditches, and edges of <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs. It is rarely found in slow-running waters.	eng
165485	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>S. flavomaculata</em> is fairly common in Fennoscandia and northeast Europe and is scattered in the western and southern parts of its range. It occurs locally in large populations, however southern and western populations are frequently small. Since the 1980s an increase in abundance has been observed in the north and in the east.	eng
165485	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species in northern and eastern part of its range where populations are increasing. In western and southern Europe the species is much more scarce and declined strongly in the 1960s to 1980s due to intensive land use (e.g. drainage). This decline seems to have stopped and recently an increase has been noted in part of this range. Increased drought periods related to climate change may lead to the drying up of additional marshes and to the extinction of several southern populations in the future. In Fennoscandia, climate change might favour this species development.	eng
165486	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is one of the protected dragonflies listed in the Habitats Directive of the European Union. According to this law the distribution within the 27 member states has to be monitored and measures should be taken to prevent a further decline. The distribution of this species is in most member states relatively well known. However distribution information in parts of the Balkan is still scant. Large-scale habitat destruction has largely ceased and the intensity of eutrophication has dropped. Any remaining threats are more local and need local activities.	eng
165486	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Leucorrhina pectoralis</em> is a palearctic species ranging from western Siberia to western Europe. The species is scarce to fairly common in northeastern and Central Europe including southern and central Fennoscandia. Compared to its congeners it has a relatively southern distribution being found across the Alps, in northern Italy and in a large part of the Balkans.	eng
165486	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Compared to other <em>Leucorrhinia</em> species, it is found in a relatively wide array of habitat types such as borders of bogs, forest lakes and pools (sometimes acidic), fenlands, marshy ditches, oxbows and even sluggish rivers or canals. Its habitats are often largely unshaded, permanent, at most weakly eutrophic waters with rich vegetation thus avoiding fish predation. Its optimal habitat varies very much from region to region.	eng
165486	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>L. pectoralis</em> is fairly common in north and eastern Europe where the populations are frequently large. The species experienced a strong decline in at least western and parts of Central Europe. It is now rare in this part of its range and many populations are isolated and relatively small.	eng
165486	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>L. pectoralis</em> has suffered from large-scale conversion of fenlands and peat systems for agricultural use and from eutrophication. In the Netherlands and Germany, the species is regionally showing signs of recovery. Hence, the species does not face major threats at the moment.	eng
165487	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Relatively little is known on the biology and the main habitat of this species adjacent to the Baltic Sea. Information on this is needed to better understand its conservation status. The range of this species in southern Russia outside the Ural and eastern Ukraine is unknown. Information on this would help to understand the conservation status of this species.	eng
165487	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The main range of this species is found in the open and half open steppes of the temperate parts of Asia from where it occurs east to Kamchatka (Dumont 2005). In the west it is known from single records from Armenia and from lake Van in Turkey. In the south of the Ural it is common at steppe and forest-steppe lakes (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is likely that it is occurring in parts of southern Russia, however information on this area is poor. There are two old records from the eastern parts of the Ukraine and one recent record but all these records need to be validated. Suitable habitat might be present and given the fact that this region is poorly explored it seems not unlikely that populations of the species are present here. An isolated occurrence of the species is found around the Baltic Sea. Here the species is found at one Russian island, the coast of Estonia, Finland and Sweden, only in the latter country it is also found in inland localities. Recently a male was found in the north of Denmark. It is unknown if the records in Denmark refer to just a vagrant or whether there is a local population. There is one record from the Komi Republic in northern Russia. This record has however not been verified and is here regarded as doubtful (Peters 1997).	eng
165487	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna serrata</em> is found in larger standing waters and is, compared to the closely related <em>A. crenata</em>, more found in open landscapes. In the southern Ural the species is found in steppe and forest steppe lakes' (Dumont  <em>et al.</em> 2005). In the interior parts of Sweden, it occurs at open eutrophic lakes and pools with extensive beds of reed (<em>Phragmites</em> sp., <em>Typha</em> spp.). In the surroundings of the Baltic Sea the species seems to have a preference for brackish waters. The species is found at vegetation of reeds on the banks of the Baltic sea and at nearby wetlands.	eng
165487	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the southern Ural the species was found to be common (Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The paucity of records west of the Ural seems to suggest that it is here much more scarce or absent. Although the species has a small range along the Baltic sea it is often common and abundant when found.	eng
165487	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	At the moment no specific threats are known. Little is known on the situation in the southern Ural but presumably the species is not strongly threatened there. The Baltic population is dependent on coastal wetlands. Development for tourism on the coast of Estonia and Finland could be a threat to the species. It is not unlikely that the majority of the Baltic population breeds in the Baltic Sea or in habitats strongly influenced by the Baltic Sea. Changes in the water quality of the Baltic Sea could therefore potentially be a threat to this species.<br/>In Sweden, populations are included in protected bird areas. Flooding the area for bird protection measures has negative impacts on the reed bed habitat.	eng
165488	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
165488	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
165488	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	None needed.	eng
165488	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
165488	conservation	Ferreira, S., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Not needed at present.	eng
165488	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	This is a widespread species, and specific conservation measures are not needed.	eng
165488	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Anax parthenope</em> is common in the Mediterranean area but absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. Its global range extends to Japan and China, and into the Sahara; it is widespread in northern Africa, occurring across the whole region. Its range has expanded since the 1990s and although it is not expanding as quickly as <em>Anax imperator</em>, northwards vagrancies are more often observed than in <em>Anax ephippiger</em>.	eng
165488	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<em>Anax parthenope</em> ranges from Europe and North Africa over the Arabian Peninsula eastwards, through Nepal and India, to China and Japan. Recently a young female was found near Omsk constituting by far the most northern record of the species on the Siberian plain (Kosterin 2007). These records suggest that the northwards expansion of the species is taking place over very wide range.	eng
165488	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Anax parthenope</em> ranges from Europe and North Africa over the Arabian Peninsula eastwards to China and Japan. In the east of its Asian range the subspecies <em>A. p. julius</em> occurs, which might proof to be a distinct species. The species is common in large areas of the Mediterranean and Southeast Europe but is absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. In Central Europe it is scarcer, occurring more northerly in the east due to the warmer summers in that part of Europe. The species has expanded its range to the north since the 1990s. The first successful reproduction in Great Britain was found in 1999 (Parr <em>et al.</em> 2004) and in the Netherlands in 2006 (Bouwman <em>et al.</em>. 2008). Recently a young female was found near Omsk constituting by far the most northern record of the species on the Siberian plain (Kosterin 2007). These records suggest that the northwards expansion of the species is taking place over very wide range.	eng
165488	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Egypt, Sudan and Somalia, occurrence in northern Ethiopia; Djibouti and Eritrea likely.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in the Mediterranean countries, and has expanded northwards since 1990s. Range extends east to India and China and south into Sahara. The subspecies found in Japan (<em>Anax parthenope julius</em>) is most likely a separate species.	eng
165488	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known just entering the Afrotropics in the Sahara of Chad (Ennedi) and Algeria (Hoggar).Listed for Senegal by Tsuda (2000), but this is most doubtful. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread species of warmer regions of Palearctic from North Africa and Europe to Japan and China,	eng
165488	distribution	Ferreira, S., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is widespread species of warmer regions of Palearctic from northern Africa and Europe to Japan and China. It is present across northern and northeastern Africa. The known locality in Senegal is uncertain.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anax parthenope</span> is common in the Mediterranean area but absent from most of the northern half of Iberia. Its global range extends to Japan and China, and into the Sahara; it is widespread in northern Africa, occurring across the whole region.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is present in Sudan, Egypt and Somalia, and likely to occur also in northern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present just entering the Afrotropics in the Sahara of Chad (Ennedi) and Algeria (Hoggar).It was listed for Senegal by Tsuda (2000), but this is most doubtful.	eng
165488	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Larger warm standing waters.	eng
165488	habitat	Ferreira, S., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Standing, often large waterbodies, and slightly running waters, sometimes brackish. Adults move a lot, but usually stay close to water bodies.	eng
165488	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Standing, often large waterbodies, and slightly running waters, sometimes brackish. Adults move a lot, but usually stay close to waterbodies.	eng
165488	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Standing, often large waters, often in arid regions.	eng
165488	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species occurs at standing, often large and sometimes brackish waterbodies, more rarely at slowly running waters.	eng
165488	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	The species occurs at standing, often large and sometimes brackish waterbodies, more rarely at slowly running waters.	eng
165488	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165488	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available, but this is a wide-ranging species.	eng
165488	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
165488	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common in its Mediterranean and Southeast European range although observed numbers are generally low. <em>A. parthenope</em> is rare in large parts of Central Europe and many records at the northern limit of its range pertain to wandering individuals.	eng
165488	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	This species is widespread and is often abundant within its range.	eng
165488	population	Ferreira, S., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This species is widespread and is often abundant within its range.	eng
165488	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No information available.	eng
165488	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
165488	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	None identified at present.	eng
165488	threats	Ferreira, S., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	None identified at present.	eng
165488	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
165488	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The habitat of the species is not under any specific threat.	eng
165489	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
165489	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions as well as policy-based actions and increasing awareness are also required.	eng
165489	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus</em> occurs in North Africa, continental Europe and southwest Asia. In northern Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165489	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus</em> occurs in northern Africa, continental Europe and southwest Asia. In northern Africa it has been recorded from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165489	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Found in largely unshaded (usually rocky) rivers and streams; occasionally occurs at large lakes (Dijkstra and Lewington).	eng
165489	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Found in largely unshaded (usually rocky) rivers and streams; occasionally occurs at large lakes (Dijkstra and Lewington).	eng
165489	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	The species is relatively common in parts of Morocco, but becomes rarer in northern parts of Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
165489	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	The species is relatively common in parts of Morocco, but becomes rarer in northern parts of Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
165489	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications (reservoir building, pollution and gravel mining).	eng
165489	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications (reservoir building, pollution and gravel mining).	eng
165490	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No measures are needed in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. The protection of breeding habitats is needed throughout Central Europe and habitats should be preserved from access by livestock. The creation of water holes and small excavations in <em>Sphagnum</em> peat bogs is likely to create favourable micro-habitats for this species and should be recommended whenever peat bogs become dry. In several EU member states it is Red Listed (e.g., Germany: CR; Austria: VU; Poland: VU; Denmark: CR).	eng
165490	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	It ranges from southwest France, Ireland and Scotland to North Japan. <em>Somatochlora arctica</em> is common in Fennoscandia and the Alps but is scarce to rare in other parts of Central and Eastern Europe. It occurs in some isolated areas in southwest Bulgaria and the Pyrenees.	eng
165490	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>S. arctica</em> favours <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphagnum </span>peat bogs and transition mires where the larvae are found at places with a very small amount of open water. These situations can be found at depressions, water holes, margins of small pools, peat excavations, moorlands and tundra. In its southern range it has a preference for higher altitudes.	eng
165490	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is often difficult to find as the habitats may look unsuitable for dragonflies. Populations of adults of <em>S. arctica</em> are mostly small to medium large.	eng
165490	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No threats are present in the Fennoscandian and northern Russian part of its range. However, the species is threatened in Central and southern Europe. The destruction of peat bogs due to access by livestock, industrial peat extraction, forests and peaty waterbody management are a threat in lowlands and low elevation mountains and probably led to the destruction of habitats in the past. More recently, desiccation of several habitats has been reported under the influence of climate change (Ott 2006). Natural succession of the vegetation can lead to the reduction of available habitats.	eng
165491	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The occurrence of this species in Europe is doubtful.	eng
165491	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus ubadschii</em> replaces <em>G. flavipes</em> in Anatolia and further east to Syria, Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia. There is no proof that this taxon occurs within the European territory. There is an old record from Lemnos island in the Aegean (Werner, 1938) which could either refer to <em>Gomphus flavipes</em> or to <em>G. ubadschii</em> (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). The species is known from the foothills of the Caucasus and might therefore occur in the southeastern parts of Europe.	eng
165491	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>G. ubdaschii</em> is found in rivers throughout its range.	eng
165491	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No data are available. A single old record of <em>G. flavipes</em> from Lemnos was ascribed to <em>G. ubadschii</em> by some authors without valid arguments.	eng
165491	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The occurence of this species in Europe is doubtful and hence no information on threats is available.	eng
165492	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
165492	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation needed.	eng
165492	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species does not need specific conservation measures on the European scale.	eng
165492	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Lestes virens</em> occurs in North Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and western Europe to the eastern Mediterranean.	eng
165492	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Lestes virens</em> occurs in northern Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and western Europe to the eastern Mediterranean.	eng
165492	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes virens</em> ranges from west France and Iberia to Asia. Its northern limit includes the south of Sweden and the Baltic States.	eng
165492	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes virens</em> is found in a variety of standing waters, either seasonal or permanent e.g. lakes, ponds, marshes and acid peat bogs. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from late spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter, when all water bodies are filled. Then the larval period is short (2-3 months), so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation. This allows the species to successfully colonize temporary pools.	eng
165492	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Found in seasonal and permanent lakes, ponds and marshes.	eng
165492	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Found in seasonal and permanent lakes, ponds and marshes.	eng
165492	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
165492	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	Locally abundant.	eng
165492	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is generally widespread and locally abundant, although locally it is rare in some European provinces. It has been expanding its range to the north in the last decade.	eng
165492	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modification and water extraction.	eng
165492	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat modification caused by agriculture and infrastructure development, and water extraction.	eng
165492	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is not threatened on the European scale but locally it may be eradicated from fish ponds if they are maintained too intensively . As any other <em>Lestes</em>, it is very sensitive to fish predation, so that it maintains high populations only in water bodies with microhabitats preserved from fish access. On a local scale, the species can be sensitive to agricultural land and water pollution.<br/>Climate change is causing the decline of some west Mediterranean populations (strong rainfall deficit in autumn and winter will give dry pools in spring, so that larvae will not develop) but leads to more favourable habitat situations in northern Europe at the same time.	eng
165493	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water extraction for agriculture and urban use must be controlled.	eng
165493	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The exact range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes parvidens</span> is not precisely known because of its similarity with <em>L. viridis</em> and its former inclusion in the latter as a subspecies. All older literature data from the Balkans referred to <em>L. viridis</em>, but Olias <em>et al.</em> (2007) showed that a large part of these records pertain to <em>L. parvidens</em>. <em>Lestes parvidens</em> ranges from Corsica, Italy to southern Ukraine, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Levant. <em>Lestes parvidens</em> and <em>L. viridis</em> overlap in large parts of Italy and the Balkans and their precise distribution in this area is not yet clear.	eng
165493	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes parvidens</em> shows the same biology and ecology as <em>L. viridis</em> and reproduces both in standing and slow-flowing waters surrounded by trees and bushes with soft bark and wood. The eggs are inserted in these bushes and trees from spring to autumn but hatch usually after winter.	eng
165493	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Due to the long-lasting confusion between <em>Lestes parvidens</em> and <em>L. viridis</em>, the respective distribution of these two taxa is not precisely known in the Balkans and the characteristics of their populations can not be assessed. In the Ukraine, it is quite common in large river deltas. The size and trend of the Italian populations is unknown.	eng
165493	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Drying up of rivers and standing waters due to over-irrigation and increased drought periods as a result of climate change is the main threat to this species.	eng
165494	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use for agriculture and urbanized areas and prevention from water pollution are necessary conservation measures.	eng
165494	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora meridionalis</em> occurs in southeast Europe, Italy, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Czech Republic and some scatterred localities in Asian Turkey. Southeast France is the westernmost limit of its range and its type locality is in Italy. Its distribution in the Balkans is not yet clear due to confusion with <span style="font-style: italic;">S. metallica</span> (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009, Wildermuth 2008).	eng
165494	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is mostly found in shaded running waters and occasionally reproduces in standing waters.	eng
165494	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species can be locally common.	eng
165494	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Habitat destruction due to over-irrigation, rainfall deficit, forest fires, human settlement are the main threats to the species. Increased drought and drying up of brooks as a result of climate change is already a threat, as the species has its main range in the Mediterranean countries.	eng
165495	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In northern Italy and on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea the species can serve as indicator for habitat quality of brooks and seepages. The distribution of the species in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania should be carefully mapped and for each country an assessment should be made of the conservation status of the populations. Based on this, local measurements should be proposed and information should be disclosed to the local authorities and conservation officers. The need of local measurements to counterbalance the impact of climate change should be considered.	eng
165495	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Protection of habitats and management of livestock are proposed measures. Some populations are within protected areas, but better management of these areas is required as current management and protection is inadequate.	eng
165495	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Protection of habitats. Management of livestock. Some populations within protected areas, but better management of these areas is required as current management and protection is inadequate.	eng
165495	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Ceriagrion tenellum</em> is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including North Africa), extending into northwestern Europe, where it is locally common. It is rare in Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia and Albania. It is present on Crete and probably occurs on Ios.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present only in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165495	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Ceriagrion tenellum</em> is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including northern Africa), extending into northwestern Europe, where it is locally common. It is rare in Slovenia, Montenegro, Croatia and Albania. It is present on Crete and probably occurs on Ios. In northern Africa, it is present only in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165495	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Over three-quarters of the distribution of<em> Ceriagrion tenellum</em> lies in Europe. The species is widespread in the western Mediterranean (including northwest Africa), extending into northwest Europe. Its most northern populations are found in the south of Great Britain, the Netherlands and western Germany. The species is widespread in Italy but is rare and local on the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea where it is found in a small coastal fringe in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. It is absent from mainland Greece but is found on Crete and nearby Ios.<br/><br/>The species is largely absent in a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium. This corridor splits the European area of the species in two. At least in the Netherlands and Flanders the species is showing a strong increase and is expanding its range. This is likely to happen in other parts of its northern range also and expansion of the species from northern France into the corridor is likely.    <br/><br/>Several records of unidentified specimens of <em>Ceriagrion</em> are known from Lesvos and from continental Greece and might belong to <em>C. tenellum</em>.	eng
165495	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	As already remarked, the European distribution of the species is split in two by a corridor running west to east in northern France and southern Belgium where the species is largely absent. South of this corridor the species is mainly found at seepages, small brooks or seepage fed standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation although it is regionally also found in bogs (eg. Brittany and Haute-Saône). In the north of France the species is rare although suitable habitats seem to be present. This suggests that climatic conditions are here limiting the distribution of the species. The occurrence of the species further north seems to be facilitated by the use of a different type of habitat. In northern Belgium, the Netherlands, and adjacent Germany and in Great Britain the species is mainly found in bogs with <em>Sphagnum</em>. In this area the species has shown an increase in the last decade and the species is increasingly found in other types of habitats such as small brooks.	eng
165495	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Stagnant waterbodies and small streams, peats, bogs and seepages.	eng
165495	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Stagnant waterbodies and small streams, peats, bogs and seepages.	eng
165495	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	The species can be locally abundant. It is known from a number of localities in Morocco.	eng
165495	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The species can be locally abundant. It is known from a number of localities in Morocco.	eng
165495	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is generally widespread and populations are scattered and often found in small and localised waters. The species is often abundant when found and at least in the north of its range, where it is found in bogs, it often occurs in high densities.	eng
165495	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>C. tenellum</em> is in most of its range not threatened and there are no indications of a decline. The situation is different for the population in northern Italy and those on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Here the species is limited to often small and isolated populations. It is likely that many of these have been impacted by habitat destructions due to agricultural practises and building activities. Moreover, these populations will likely be impacted by climate change. Prolonged dry and hot periods might result in desiccation of streams or the diminish of seepages.<br/>The populations in Baden-Württemberg (Germany) and Switzerland are relatively small and isolated. Most of these lie in nature reserves and there are no indications for a continuing decline.	eng
165495	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Livestock impacts on the breeding areas, especially vegetation. Drainage and extraction of water.	eng
165495	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The main threats to the species are livestock impacts on the breeding areas, especially on vegetation, and water extraction.	eng
165496	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific action on European scale is needed. In southern parts of its range, it is advisable to monitor the populations and to assess the regional conservation status.	eng
165496	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Libellula fulva</em> has a wide range in southern and Central Europe and occurs east to the Caspian sea and the Caucasus. In many regions the species is scarce to absent and almost completely absent from the Iberian Peninsula. At least in the 1970s and 1980s a decline was noted in large parts of its western European range but in the last two decades the species seems to be stable in most regions and in some areas an increase has been noted, especially in the northeast.	eng
165496	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is most often found at sunny, standing and at slow-flowing waters, and often near forest. It prefers mesotrophic to eutrophic non-acidic waters. It is mainly present at places with extensive, high and dense riparian vegetation such as beds of reed (<em>Phragmites</em>), reedmace (<em>Typha</em>) or sedges. In some areas it is found in large wetlands such as low peat marshes or coastal wetlands. Less often it is present at channels or at deeper waters in quarries.	eng
165496	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is moderately represented to fairly common across its range. The populations are often large.	eng
165496	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the north and east of its range, the species does not face any threats.<br/>The local decline in the 1970s and 1980s was probably caused by large scale habitat destruction, water pollution and poor management of wetlands. In these areas, the types of habitat where<em> L. fulva</em> is found are nowadays often part of protected areas and improved legislation has in many countries resulted in a strong improvement of the water quality. Due to this the decline of the species largely stopped. Currently the species is mainly threatened on a local scale by poor management of wetlands. An increased demand for water in the Mediterranean might result in an increase of groundwater extraction which will impact the species.	eng
165497	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In most of its range specific actions are not needed. The isolated populations in Italy and in the southern parts of the Balkans are threatened. It is advisable to map these populations in order to assess their conservation status.	eng
165497	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Erythromma najas</em> is a widespread species ranging from west Europe to Japan. Its main European range lies in Central and northeastern Europe where the species is common and widespread in the lowlands. It reaches north to the central parts of Fennoscandia. It becomes less common to the south of central Europe but is still fairly widespread in parts of southern France and the north of Italy. <em>E. najas</em> is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, very rare in Italy and known from scattered records in the Balkans only. The situation in Romania and the Ukraine is not clear but it is likely to be common in the north.	eng
165497	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Erythromma najas</em> occurs at largely unshaded, standing or slow-flowing waters. Frequently, an important characteristic of the habitat is the presence of aquatic vegetation with floating leaves (<em>Nuphar lutea</em>, <em>Nymphaea alba</em> or <em>Potamogeton natans</em>). The species occurs in eutrophic as well as mesotrophic waters. In smaller abundance the species inhabits distrophic waters.	eng
165497	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and often abundant in central and northeastern Europe. The density of populations is high in large parts of its range. In the south of its range populations are more scattered, smaller and often isolated.	eng
165497	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not considered threatened in most of its range. It is however likely to be impacted by climate change in the south of its range. Drought and poor water management are the most important threats for highly isolated populations in the south. The only population in the south of Italy (Lago Monticchio) may be impacted by tourist developments as these two lakes are not in a pristine environment and are surrounded by a road.	eng
165498	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Necessary conservation measures include the preservation of good quality water resources, particularly in headwaters, and the preservation and restoration of broadleaved open forests. A better knowledge of the breeding sites of the Sicilian subspecies is in need.	eng
165498	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster bidentata</em> is endemic to Europe occurring in western, south, southeast and central Europe. The eastern limit of the species are the Carpathians in the west of the Ukraine.	eng
165498	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The larvae are confined to the sources and upper courses of brooks. The species is thus highly specialized and reproduces mainly in headwater streams, with the best habitats in tufa springs and calcareous small brooks. Its reproducing habitat is often difficult to find. In some areas it seems to have been extirpated in acidified brooks as a result of acid rains, but in other areas it is still recorded in streams with a pH <4.	eng
165498	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is much more localised than <em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> but is moderately scattered in central and western Europe. It shows very variable densities from one locality to another, ranging from only one visible (reproducing) individual to obviously flourishing populations.<br/><br/>Adults are often hidden and are quite difficult to find. Their larval sites are sometimes difficult to access or recognize, particularly in mountainous areas. As a result, this is a poorly known species that is often overlooked by odonatologists and was in the past erroneously considered to be extinct in some countries. <br/><br/>There is no recent record referring to the Sicilian subspecies (<em>Cordulegaster bidentata sicilica</em>) in Sicily, which was always very rare - the last record from Sicily was in 1981 (Galletti and Pavesi 1985, Verschuren 1989). Only few records of <em>C. b. sicilica</em> may correspond to identified breeding sites.	eng
165498	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The major threats to this species are drought as a result of global warming, particularly in the south of its range, and water extraction for human use and irrigation. Some populations are threatened by water acidification due to acid rains or conifer plantations and forest closure whereas other populations show not to be affected by this. In the south of France, former flourishing populations are known to be extinct as a result of rainfall deficit and recent very hot summers and related spring exhaustion. In north Greece and other Mediterranean countries, some populations were extinct as a result of water capture directly at the source for irrigation.	eng
165499	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Conservation of breeding and aestivating habitats.	eng
165499	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Conservation of breeding and aestivating habitats through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
165499	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	No specific conservation measures are needed for <span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span>.	eng
165499	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Specific conservation measures for this species are not needed.	eng
165499	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> has a wide range occurring from Europe to the north of Asia eastwards to Japan although it is absent from most of Siberia. The species is also found in the northern parts of the Maghreb. The species is common across a large part of Europe but is in Fennoscandia limited to the south of Sweden and the utmost south of Norway and Finland. It reaches its highest abundance in central Europe. In the last two decades it has been steadily expanding its range towards the north, increasing in Britain, reaching Ireland in 2000 (Nelson and Thompson 2003) and Finland in 2003 (Karjalainen 2007). In Sweden, it has been expanding 300 km towards the north in the last ten years. In Ukraine, the species is widespread and common in all the country; in the south huge migrations occur at the end of the summer.	eng
165499	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> is widespread in Europe and northwestern Africa, ranging eastwards to Japan (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northwestern Africa, it is fairly common in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165499	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> is widespread in Europe and northwestern Africa, ranging eastwards to Japan (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In northwestern Africa, it is fairly common in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
165499	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> has a very wide range, from Europe to the north of Asia and eastwards to Japan, although it has not been recorded in most of Siberia. It has also been found in the northern parts of the Maghreb. It is common over much of Europe, and reaches its peak abundance in central Europe. In Europe it has been expanding its range northwards (for example Kalkman 2010).	eng
165499	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	In northwest Africa, the species aestivates at high altitude forest sites before moving down to reproduce in the autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It can tolerate brackish water.	eng
165499	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	In northwest Africa, the species aestivates at high altitude forest sites before moving down to reproduce in the autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998, Samraoui and Corbet 2000b). It can tolerate brackish water.	eng
165499	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> reproduces mainly in standing, largely unshaded waters, but is also found at slowly flowing streams and rivers. It occurs in a wide range of waters, it can occur in brackish habitats, but is seldom found in acidic ones. It is mainly found at larger waterbodies with abundant riparian vegetation and large populations are found both in natural and artificial habitats.	eng
165499	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species reproduces mainly in standing, largely unshaded waters but is also found at slowly flowing waterbodies. It occurs in a wide range of waters, although seldom in acidic waters and can occur in brackish habitats. It is mainly found at larger waters with abundant riparian vegetation and large populations are found both in natural and artificial habitats.	eng
165499	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna mixta</em> is common and widespread in most of its range. In Central Europe it is the most common larger dragonfly in the autumn.	eng
165499	population	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aeshna mixta</span> is common over most of its range.	eng
165499	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	The species is very abundant across the coast of northwest Africa.	eng
165499	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	The species is very abundant across the coast of northwest Africa.	eng
165499	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Forest fires, habitat draining, fish introduction and water pollution (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Bélair and Samraoui 1994).	eng
165499	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are forest fires, habitat draining, dams, human disturbance, fish introduction and water pollution (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1992, Bélair and Samraoui 1994).	eng
165499	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is among the most common European dragonflies and is currently not threatened.	eng
165499	threats	Dow, R., 2010	This species is common over much of its range and is not threatened.	eng
165500	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
165500	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
165500	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not considered threatened and no specific conservation actions are required.	eng
165500	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western Palaearctic species that is widespread over a large part of Europe. It is absent from northernmost Fennoscandia and from most of the Mediterranean islands. The species is getting less common to the east of its range and is absent from parts of European Russia and most of the eastern Ukraine. To the southeast it extends to the Caucasus and the north of Iran. In North Africa it is only found in the north of Morocco.	eng
165500	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except its northernmost areas. A relict population also occurs in the mountains of Morocco.	eng
165500	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Pyrrhosoma nymphula</em> is a western Palearctic species that is widespread over nearly the whole of Europe, except its northernmost areas. A relict population also occurs in the mountains of Morocco.	eng
165500	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In most of Europe the species is found both in standing and slow flowing waters. In eastern and northern Europe, the species is less common in standing waters and mostly reproduces at running waters. In most cases habitats have rich aquatic vegetation. The species is mostly absent from temporary habitats.	eng
165500	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In North Africa, this species breeds only in streamlets and mountain brooks, often with rapid current.	eng
165500	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In northern Africa, this species breeds only in streamlets and mountain brooks, often with rapid current.	eng
165500	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	In northern Africa, the population is confined to the Middle Atlas and the Riff Mountains in Morocco. Nothing is known of the population status and trends in this region.	eng
165500	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In northern Africa, the population is confined to the Middle Atlas and the Riff Mountains in Morocco. Nothing is known of the population status and trends in this region.	eng
165500	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species is in large parts of Europe one of the most common damselflies and occurs frequently in large populations.	eng
165500	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats to the species are water pollution and desiccation of mountain brooks and rivers in connection to over-irrigation, water management and climatic drought.	eng
165500	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened in most of its European range. In the Mediterranean it might be impacted by climate change and combined with general habitat degradation, this might locally lead to extinction.	eng
165500	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution and drying up of mountain brooks and rivers in connection to over-irrigation, water harnessing and climatic drought.	eng
165501	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species does not require action on European scale. The species is probably threatened with extinction in some countries in southern Europe and considered endangered in some western countries (Germany: EN, Switzerland: CR, Austria: CR). Here fieldwork is needed to map the main population so that the regional conservation status can be assessed.	eng
165501	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum flaveolum</em> ranges from western Europe to Japan. The species is widespread in Eastern and Central Europe and the southern half of Fennoscandia. In Britain and Ireland the species only occurs as a vagrant. In southern and western Europe the species has a patchy distribution and in the south it is largely limited to mountain areas only occurring in the lowland after invasions from Central and Eastern Europe.	eng
165501	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In Eastern Europe the species is found at all kinds of standing waters. In the west and south of Europe it mainly inhabits shallow unstable waters, such as flooded meadows, swampy depressions or dune lakes that may partially dry up during summer. In the south of its range it is limited to mountain areas.	eng
165501	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is very common in Eastern Europe but numbers fluctuate from year to year in the south and west of its range depending on invasions.	eng
165501	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not threatened in most of North, Central and East Europe. In the west of its range the numbers largely depend on invasions and there are no indications that its preferred habitats are declining. In West Europe the species is regarded as Endangered in several countries. In the south of its range, where it is generally rare, it is limited to mountain areas. Here habitat degradation, for instance due to climate change, is probably affecting the species.	eng
165502	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of agricultural practices and water use.	eng
165502	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of agricultural practices and water use are recommended conservation measures.	eng
165502	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of agricultural practices and water use through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165502	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion scitulum</em> extends from the west of Europe to the Maghreb and to Iran. It is rather common in  western and central France and in most of Iberia, but is generally more scattered elsewhere. It is extinct in the British Isles. It is extending its range north and increases in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany (e.g. Rheinland-Pfalz, Hessen), where several populations already occur. The latest expansion northwards seems to have been initiated during the last 15 years with the first records in Lorraine in northeast France (1995), Luxembourg (1996), Belgium (1998), Switzerland (2001), the Netherlands (2003), Germany: Nordrhein-Westfalen (2002), Bayern (2006).	eng
165502	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Coenagrion siticulum</em> is scattered throughout the whole Mediterranean region and in the French Atlantic countries. Presently it is extending its range into temperate areas.	eng
165502	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion siticulum</em> is scattered throughout the whole Mediterranean region and in the French Atlantic countries. Presently it is extending its range into temperate areas. In northern Africa, found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.	eng
165502	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Sunny standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, as well as grassy pools and swamps.	eng
165502	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Sunny standing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, as well as grassy pools and swamps.	eng
165502	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species occurs at sunny standing or slowly flowing waters with rich aquatic vegetation of <em>Myriophyllum</em> and <em>Ceratophyllum</em>, as well as grassy pools and swamps.	eng
165502	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	About 50 north African records have been traced in the literature. According to the current knowledge, the species  is not common although flourishing populations are known.	eng
165502	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	About 50 North African records have been traced in the literature. According to the current knowledge, the species  is not common although flourishing populations are known.	eng
165502	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is fairly common when found.	eng
165502	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no major threats for this species. Some threats may include water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming. It is expected that the species range will shift to the north as a result of global warming.	eng
165502	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water pollution, lowering of the water table due to water extraction, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming are threats to the species.	eng
165502	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, over-irrigation with lowering of the water table, draining of swamps and drought in connection to global warming.	eng
165503	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No specific measures are needed for this species.	eng
165503	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis acutipennis</em> is an Atlanto West Mediterranean endemic which is known from Iberia and France only, where it is generally common.	eng
165503	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Platycnemis acutipennis</em> occurs mainly in low to fairly fast running waters but may be also found in standing waters in large amounts.	eng
165503	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and occurs often in large populations.	eng
165503	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and is not threatened in spite of its restricted range.	eng
165504	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use and gallery forest preservation are required. The capture of springs and headwaters should be absolutely prohibited, whereas this kind of alteration clearly increases throughout Greece as a reaction to climate change. Erection of natural reserves involving the upper course of Cretan brooks is necessary. Mapping of populations is also needed, as current records are limited (only 13 from 1980 onwards).	eng
165504	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion intermedium</em> is endemic to Crete (Greece) (Battin 1989, 1993; Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Most of its populations are isolated by high mountain systems and dry areas.	eng
165504	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Jödicke (2005) mentions <em>Coenagrion intermedium</em> from both running and standing waters. The former is probably the most important habitat as running waters are more common on the island. The species was found at brooks near the coast but also in those stretches more inland. It is absent from brooks without vegetation. The species has a preference for stretches of brooks with a slow current. Larvae have been collected from between submerged tree roots.	eng
165504	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	According to Jödicke (2005), the species is widespread and common on Crete.	eng
165504	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. intermedium</em> has presumably declined as a result of rapid habitat destruction and degradation, human exploitation of water, water pollution, eutrophication and forest destruction. <em>C. intermedium</em> is threatened due to its restricted distribution and its few numbers of known localities (currently 13 places on nine streams). The current agricultural policy leads to the decrease of <em>C. intermedium</em> by allowing for and favouring the cultivation and irrigation of olive trees, the change of water regime of streams and streamlets and the destruction of bank side vegetation. Climatic change will also have a negative impact on breeding sites in the future, but this is already exacerbated by the increased water demand for agriculture and urbanized areas.	eng
165505	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water pollution and reserve establishment through policy-based actions, increasing awareness, and research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
165505	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Control of water pollution and reserves.	eng
165505	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed.	eng
165505	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>C. virgo</em> is a typical species in the western Mediterranean area, but it is very rare in North Africa. It may already be extinct in Algeria (only two records from 1849 and 1910 are known from there). Only two current localities are known, both in Morocco.	eng
165505	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. virgo</em> is a typical species in the western Mediterranean area, but it is very rare in northern Africa. It may already be extinct in Algeria (only two records from 1849 and 1910 are known from there). Only two current localities are known, both in Morocco.	eng
165505	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread and generally common all over Europe. It is absent from northwest Fennoscandia and parts of the Iberian peninsula. In the Ukraine it occurs mostly in the north. The nominal subspecies inhabits the cold and temperate climatic areas, whereas the subspecies <em>C. v. meridionalis</em> is confined to the western Mediterranean area and the French Atlantic districts.	eng
165505	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species reproduces in flowing waters and prefers small and medium-sized cooler running waters which are at least partly shaded.	eng
165505	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	This taxon reproduces in mountain brooks.	eng
165505	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This taxon reproduces in mountain brooks.	eng
165505	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. virgo</em> is generally common over its whole range and regularly occurring in hilly and mountainous areas, in streams with high oxygen levels. In lowlands, it is present mainly in forest areas and much more rare in agricultural landscape.	eng
165505	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Only four localities have been recorded for this taxon in the Maghreb. The two valid present subpopulations count only a few imagoes.	eng
165505	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Only four localities have been recorded for this taxon in the Maghreb. The two valid present subpopulations count only a few number of imagoes.	eng
165505	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Regionally large scale logging or forest closure by natural succession are threats to this species but they do not seem to impact the species on European scale.	eng
165505	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Water management, water pollution and drought in connection to global warming as well as urban development and changes in the structural features of brooks are the main threats for this species.	eng
165505	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution and harnessing, drought in connection to global warming as well as changes in the structural features of brooks are the main threats for this species.	eng
165506	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.	eng
165506	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
165506	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<em>Orthetrum taeniolatum</em> has a wide known range of distribution from eastern Europe to China.	eng
165506	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum taeniolatum</em> is found in the Indian peninsula and Southwest Asia. It extends from the Indian subcontinent to the Middle East and reaches the Mediterranean coast in Israel, Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, and some Greek islands. Records south of Jordan and Israel need re-examination as these might belong to <em>Orthetrum kollmannspergeri</em> (Clausnitzer and Dijkstra 2005, Dumont and Verschuren 2005). In Europe it is confined to Cyprus and the Greek islands of Rhodos and Lesbos (Boudot <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Lopau and Adena 2002). The species might benefit from climate change.	eng
165506	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>O. taeniolatum</em> is found at unshaded standing and slow-flowing waters.	eng
165506	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Orthetrum taeniolatum </em>is a stream breeding species </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">but also breeds in the side pools</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>. <strong style="font-weight: normal;">They prefer medium to slow-flowing marshy streams. </strong>Flight period is almost around&#160; the year and oviposition takes place from July to September. They are very common during the dry season or prior to the bursting of the monsoon. Emergence occurs in May - June. Larvae are found in slow-flowing marshy streams. Adults are common around open rocky and sandy beds of the streams.  <strong><em></em><br/></strong>	eng
165506	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is generally common within its range. It is fairly common on the three European islands of Cyprus, Rhodos and Lesbos.	eng
165506	population	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is locally common throughout most of its range.	eng
165506	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	The species does not appear to be under any threat at present.	eng
165506	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific threat.	eng
165507	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use by humans and preservation of forests are needed, but no current conservation actions are in place.	eng
165507	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In Europe, <em>Cordulegaster insignis</em> is recorded from some eastern Greek islands (Samothraki and Thassos) and from easternmost parts of Bulgaria, Romania as well as the European part of Turkey (Thracian Turkey and Göckçeada island) (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
165507	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Small shaded brooks, streams and tiny streamlets with rocky and sandy beds, ditches along roads, spring areas with seepage waters. As in several <span style="font-style: italic;">Cordulegaster</span> species, the larvae seems to be able to resist short drought periods by moving into depth in moist sediments.	eng
165507	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Population size seems to be small in Europe, where the species is only scattered as local isolated populations. The species is more common in the Asian part of its range.	eng
165507	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Habitat destruction (forest fires, water extraction, etc.) is the main threat to the species. Drought and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change led already to the extinction of the species in critical localities.	eng
165509	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	Habitat maintenance/conservation is needed.	eng
165509	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	No information available.	eng
165509	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures needed at present.	eng
165509	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> occurs in a large part of Europe. The core of the range extends from western Europe up to Fennoscandia and western Poland. A broad marginal zone covers eastern Europe up to the Ural where it is severely fragmented. Its southeastern limit is uncertain due to a frequent confusion with <em>C. heros</em> in the literature, but the species reaches at least eastern Slovakia and northern Ukraine. A further record of <em>C. boltonii</em> from the Urals may be well this species. The species is lacking from the Balkans, where it is replaced by <em>C. heros</em>.	eng
165509	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> occurs in Europe and northern Africa (where it is restricted to northern Morocco). Its eastern limits unclear, but it is possibly present as far as the Urals.	eng
165509	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster boltonii</em> occurs in Europe and northern Africa (where it is restricted to northern Morocco). Its eastern limits unclear, but it is possibly present as far as the Urals.	eng
165509	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Flowing waters: streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. Often in forest but also in open moors and heaths.	eng
165509	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	Flowing waters: streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. Often in forest but also in open moors and heaths.	eng
165509	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is found in flowing waters, streams and sometimes small rivers, including mountain torrents. It often occurs in forest but also in open moors and heaths.	eng
165509	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.	eng
165509	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	Nothing is known about population abundance or trends in northern Africa.	eng
165509	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common and fairly abundant within the core of its range.	eng
165509	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Climate change and ongoing habitat degradation.	eng
165509	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	Climate change and ongoing habitat degradation caused by livestock and groundwater extraction are threats to the species.	eng
165509	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	None, though water pollution may be an issue in some locations. Droughts are posing a threat to the southern populations. The species has been eliminated from some sites due to channelisation, technical maintenance of running waters. In Poland, in the past chemical, industrial pollution was eliminating some populations in the 1970s.	eng
165510	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific measures required at present.	eng
165510	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	No specific measures required at present.	eng
165510	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	No specific measures required at present.	eng
165510	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs from southern Europe and the Maghreb to Central Asia. The species is generally common in the southern third of Europe but is scarce in the Iberian Peninsula. It can be very abundant in some areas, for instance in the Donau delta in the Ukraine and Romania. The species is rare in Central Europe but has shown a strong increase in the last decade and the most northern records are from the German Wadden Islands.	eng
165510	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs in North Africa, the southern half of Europe, and the Middle East extending to Central Asia. In northern Africa, the species is present in northern parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It may also occur in Egypt.	eng
165510	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Sympetrum meridionale</em> occurs in northern Africa, the southern half of Europe, and the Middle East extending to central Asia. In northern Africa, the species is present in northern parts of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. It may also occur in Egypt.	eng
165510	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum meridionale </em>favours unshaded, hot and often shallow standing waters which partially or totally dry up during summer. These are mostly well vegetated and marshy. The species is also found in coastal wetlands, on rivers, backwaters and marshes.	eng
165510	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	In northern Africa, the species aestivates in high altitude refuge sites before moving to low altitude breeding sites in the autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998). Breeds in seasonal as well as permanent lentic habitats.	eng
165510	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	In northern Africa, the species aestivates in high altitude refuge sites before moving to low altitude breeding sites in the Autumn (Samraoui <em>et al</em>. 1998). Breeds in seasonal as well as permanent lentic habitats.	eng
165510	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Abundant across the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria.	eng
165510	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	Abundant across the northern parts of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria.	eng
165510	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is scarce in the north of its range but common and often abundant in the southern half of Europe, except for Iberia.	eng
165510	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Forest fires and breeding habitat modifications.	eng
165510	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	Forest fires and breeding habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction, infrastructure development and water pollution are threats to the species.	eng
165510	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is not under any specific threat.	eng
165511	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed in the core of its range. Climate change might lead to a further decline of the isolated populations in the west and southwest of its range. Increasing the amount of habitat by restoration or maybe by the creation of new habitats might be successful in maintaining the presence of the species. <br/>In Germany, it is classed as Critically Endangered in the national Red List.	eng
165511	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion lunulatum</em> ranges from western Europe (Ireland and France) to central and northern Europe and further to North Japan. In the west and the south its range is fragmented in isolated aggregates of post-glacial relict populations confined to both cold lowlands (Ireland) and mountainous areas (France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia). In the Ukraine, it is very rare in the northwest and extremely rare in the central part.	eng
165511	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is mostly a spring and early summer species which reproduces in pools bound by <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs and transition mires, in swamps, marshes, lakes, and in field and forest pools and lakes.	eng
165511	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is very rare in its relict areas in the west and western Central Europe. It becomes more common further east and north of continental Europe and in Fennoscandia.	eng
165511	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. lunulatum</em> is highly endangered by global warming and multiple abnormal drought periods in its western and southern range, where it is disconnected from its main area and is present only as post-glacial relict populations. Several good localities in the Massif Central in France have been found completely dry during the torrid summer 2003 and it is not known if the species re-established subsequently. Also in northern Germany it is endangered by changes in the water table and partly drying out of the waters. However, the species is widely scattered to widespread over large areas and in innumerable potential localities in the core of its range, so that it is not threatened at the European scale.	eng
165512	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Considering the relatively low number of strong populations in most countries it is advisable that for each of these the conservation status is determined and, if necessary, management plans are made. Protection of breeding sites is absolutely needed, preventing the intensive use of ponds for angling and through regulation of rice field management. The current agricultural practises at rice fields make them unsuitable for <em>S. depressiusculum</em>. It is however not unlikely that relatively small adaptations in the management of rice fields will increase the biodiversity without decreasing the production of rice. Research in order to see if this applies for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. depressiusculum</span> is needed.	eng
165512	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum depressiusculum</em> ranges from Europe to the Pacific coast of Asia. In Japan, it is an invasive species from the Asian mainland. Its European range covers Central, East and Southeast Europe. The species has a patchy distribution and there are large areas within its main range where it is rare to absent. A strong decline has taken place nearly everywhere from the second half of the 20th century onwards. The species is very rare (close to extinction) in Italy and in southern France with the last record from the Camargue dating back to 1987. The only known populations in France are found in the Rhone Valley and it seems to be extinct in the rest of the country. Strong declines and regional extinctions are also known from Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland.	eng
165512	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species shows strong regional differences in habitat preferences. The key factor seems to be that it needs unshaded, often shallow and warm waters. Typically they become dry towards the end of the summer until next spring. Those situations can be found at borders of large lakes and in marshes. These kinds of situations are also found in fishponds and rice paddies in South Europe.	eng
165512	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum depressiusculum</em> is scarce throughout its European range and population numbers have dropped in many areas in Europe. In the past the species was locally very abundant. In Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy the number of sites and populations has decreased by more than 50% in the last decade (De Knijf <em>et al.</em> 2006, Deliry <em>et al.</em> 2008, Ott <em>et al.</em> in press). However, in Poland, the species seems to be stable but this is possibly due to a lack of recent data.	eng
165512	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Major threats to this species are changes in rice cultivation in southern Europe and fish aquaculture and increasing use of ponds for angling in northern and central Europe, that has led to changes and destruction of its habitat. As a consequence to this habitat loss there is higher larval competition with other dragonflies species and predation by fish.<br/>Climate change will probably impact this species but it is difficult to predict if this will be positive or negative.	eng
165513	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There is no need for specific conservation measures.	eng
165513	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion johanssoni</em> ranges from Scandinavia, where it is not uncommon in peaty areas, to the Baltic states, where it is rare, and to north and east Siberia.	eng
165513	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. johanssoni</em> occurs in pools and lakes bounded with <em>Sphagnum</em> bogs, transition mires, in peaty swamps, and fens.	eng
165513	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is widespread over almost all of Fennoscandia and northern Russia in peaty habitats. Moderate-sized populations are generally observed, but adults are easily overlooked due to their small size.	eng
165513	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is moderately common to widespread and is not threatened in Europe.	eng
165514	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is safe in most of its Central European range. The species is much more rare in the south of its range and here isolated populations deserve attention. For populations on the Iberian Peninsula, in Italy and the countries of the Balkans fieldwork is needed to retrieve information on the distribution and the conservation status of populations. Monitoring is needed in order to gather information on the impact of climate change.	eng
165514	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Brachytron pratense</em> is largely confined to Europe. It is absent from North Africa and occurs east to the Ural but does not reach Siberia. The only occurrences outside Europe are found in Turkey, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Georgia where the species occurs over a wide area but is generally rare. The main range of the species is found in Central Europe. In the north it occurs to the south of Scandinavia and Finland. In Southern Europe it becomes rare being largely absent from the Iberian Peninsula and the hottest and dryest parts of Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. It is present in most of Ukraine.	eng
165514	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Most populations are found at standing or slow-flowing waters and it is in these habitats that it reaches its highest numbers. The species is also found close to the shore of the Baltic Sea. The species needs abundant vegetation and is most often found at sites with reed (<em>Phragmites</em>), bulrush (<em>Typha</em>), bur-reed (<em>Sparganium</em>), club-rush (<em>Schoenoplectus</em>) and in some parts of its range in vegetations of Water Soldier (<em>Stratiotes aloides</em>). Suitable vegetation can be found in lakes, pools, oxbows, canals, marshes, (fish)ponds and less often in bogs, dune ponds and ponds in parks.	eng
165514	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common and abundant throughout most of its range. In south Europe many populations are small and isolated. It can occur in low numbers but it can be fairly abundant at its breeding localities.<br/>The species declined in large parts of western Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 1990s the species seems to be recovering there and it has, at least regionally, shown a strong increase. A decline is expected to take place in the south of Europe, were the species is much more rare and often occurs in isolated population.	eng
165514	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the 1970s and 1980s the species declined in large parts of western Europe due to poor water management and nitrification. The impact of these threats is declining. Another threat to the species is the introduction of grass carps which often leads to the destruction of the aquatic and bankside vegetation. In South Europe the species is likely to be threatened by climate change and locally by poor water management.	eng
165515	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	This species has a limited European range and an evaluation should be made of the number of populations within reserves. Legalisation for the use of natural water resources for agricultural practices should be made.	eng
165515	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Epallage fatime</em> has a largely southwest Asian distribution. The easternmost records are from Afghanistan and Pakistan. From there it occurs widespread in the hills and lower mountains of Iran and Turkey to the mainland of Southeast Europe. It is absent from the Arabian Peninsula and the more arid parts of Iran, Iraq and Syria. It reaches south along a small fringe of the eastern Mediterranean occurring in western Syria, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian Territories. The species is not uncommon in Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and occurs in the Russian parts of the Caucasus but is absent further north. In Europe <em>Epallage fatime</em> is confined to Cyprus, some Greek islands and the southeast mainland of Europe. It is not rare in mainland Greece, European Turkey and the southeast of Bulgaria. Only one record is known from Macedonia but it is likely that some populations are present there. There is one published record from Hungary. This records is however very unlikely and is here considered invalid.	eng
165515	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Epallage fatime</em> occurs in areas with hills and lower mountains. It is exclusively found in running waters and seems to be limited to habitats with a stony substrate. Most often it is found in brooks and smaller rivers although it also occurs in small numbers in larger rivers. Larvae live under stones at places with high current. The legs are placed in an outstretched position and the abdomen and legs are flattened, both are probably adaptations to living in a strong current. In addition to this they are the only European species with sausage shaped lamellae and gills on the sides of their abdomen, both adaptations for the intake of oxygen. Based on this it has been suggested that they would be able to survive in stagnant water in times when current of the water stops due to desiccation. There is however no proof for this and the species seems to be lacking from habitats where there is no year-round current. Adults are found near the water resting on stones or, preferably, on higher vegetation near the water.	eng
165515	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Epallage fatime</em> has a limited range in Europe but seems to be relatively common in the areas where it occurs. It is often abundant when found and often several dozens of specimens are present in a stretch of one hundred meters.	eng
165515	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Agricultural practices along or nearby brooks resulting in pollution and canalisation of the habitat have probably had the most severe impact on this species in Europe. However many habitats where this species occurs lie in mountainous areas and are therefore relatively save from large scale agricultural practices. The main present and future threat seems to be climate change. Not only will this result in the desiccation of the habitat during spells of hot weather but this will also increase the use of the limited water resources for agricultural practices. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit.	eng
165516	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Conservation of breeding sites through the control of livestock to prevent over-grazing, as some grazing is required to maintain structure.	eng
165516	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	Conservation of breeding sites through the control of livestock to prevent over-grazing, as some grazing is required to maintain structure.	eng
165516	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No special measures are required, as the species is widespread.	eng
165516	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is an holarctic species which inhabits mostly the northern part of Eurasia and America. It is widespread in Europe although it became more scattered in the Mediterranean area. The species also occurs in North Africa as a last glacial relict.	eng
165516	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is widespread in Europe but relatively sparse in southern Europe. It is absent from most of northern Africa, only occurring in the Riff and middle Atlas mountains in Morocco. The species also occurs in North America and temperate Asia.	eng
165516	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is widespread in Europe but relatively sparse in southern Europe. It is absent from most of northern Africa, only occurring in the Riff and middle Atlas mountains in Morocco. The species also occurs in North America and temperate Asia.	eng
165516	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	A wide variety of still waters, which typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. Sites usually have dense growths of rushes or sedges (for example, dune lakes, reedy shallows, small meadow ponds or edges of bogs) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). The larvae over-winter within vegetation.<br/><br/>This is a higher altitude species within the region.	eng
165516	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	A wide variety of still waters, which typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. Sites usually have dense growths of rushes or sedges (for example, dune lakes, reedy shallows, small meadow ponds or edges of bogs) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). The larvae over-winter within vegetation. This is a higher altitude species within the region.	eng
165516	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes dryas</em> is a specialist of temporary water conditions, including waterbodies that typically dry out in the course of summer or have shallow borders providing warm micro-habitats for the larvae. These conditions can also occur at the margins of permanent waterbodies. Sites usually have dense growth of rushes and sedges. The eggs are inserted in the vegetation from spring or summer to autumn but hatch usually after winter, a period where the temporary pools are filled. Then the larval period is very short (6-10 weeks) so that the reproductive cycle completes before habitat desiccation.	eng
165516	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In the west of its range, <em>Lestes dryas</em> is common mostly in the mountainous areas. It is more regularly found at any altitude in the centre and the east of Europe.	eng
165516	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Small populations occur in the Riff and Middle Atlas mountains	eng
165516	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	Small populations occur in the Riff and Middle Atlas mountains.	eng
165516	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Climate change may impact the species as it is a holoactic species. Livestock eat the eggs with vegetation, and also poaching by livestock on marginal vegetation.	eng
165516	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	Climate change may impact the species as it is an Holoactic species. Livestock eat the eggs with vegetation, and also livestock grazing.	eng
165516	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is not threatened on the European scale.	eng
165517	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species occurs in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve. No specific conservation measures are recommended at the moment. However more information on distribution and habitat is needed.	eng
165517	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is a Siberian species extending from North Japan to the western border of central Siberia and shows a relict disjunct area over the whole Ural range (Yanybaeva 1999a, Kosterin 2005, Yanybaeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
165517	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In the south Ural, <em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> inhabits oxbows in the forest zone but seems to be absent from lakes.	eng
165517	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is said to be abundant in the Bashkirian Nature Reserve and has been recorded in the Balaya River headwaters as well (both in the Bashkortostan Republic). No precise information has been published about this species within the European part of the Ural Mountains.	eng
165517	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Somatochlora graeseri</em> is probably not threatened in the Ural Mountains.	eng
165518	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is safe in much of its northern and central European range. Isolated occurrences in central Europe and in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans require attention. Fieldwork is needed in Iberia and the Balkans in order to identify the main populations. Based on that, areas can be selected for which management plans are required. Monitoring of  isolated populations is needed in order to have an early warning of the impact of climate change.	eng
165518	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna juncea</em> has the largest range of all <em>Aeshna</em> species occurring in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe it is widespread and common in the north. Towards the south it becomes scarcer and in southern central Europe it is largely confined to higher altitudes. In Ukraine it is not numerous, distributed mostly in the northwest and north. It is fairly common and widespread in the Alps and the Pyrenees but is scarce and known only from scattered localities in the mountains of the Balkans and of the Iberian Peninsula.	eng
165518	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna juncea</em> is confined to standing, largely unshaded habitats. Throughout its range bogs seem to be the preferred habitat. The species favours cooler climates and can be found in a wider range of habitats in Scandinavia and at high altitudes (>1,000 m) in central Europe including slow flowing waters. At lower altitudes in Central Europe the vast majority of the populations is found in bogs with <em>Sphagnum</em> and sedges or rushes. More rarely and in lower numbers it is found in other habitats such as quarries, garden ponds, dune pools, fens or low peat areas with fields of Water Soldier. In the southwest of its range it is largely confined to nature reserves and it is found mostly in natural or semi-natural habitats.	eng
165518	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is  fairly common in most of its range and often abundant when found, especially in mountain areas (alpine areas). It is rare in Iberia, but locally common in the Pyrenees.	eng
165518	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In the past, the populations in Central and Southern Europe have decreased due to habitat destruction such as deforestation and agricultural expansion. Most southwestern populations are found in nature reserves. Nutrification had a negative impact on the species but it seems less susceptible to this than many other species occurring in bogs. The most important future threat is likely to be climate change resulting in the alteration of peat bogs. This will certainly impact the more isolated populations in South and southcentral Europe such as the populations on the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans.	eng
165519	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of cattle displacement and any measures to mitigate eutrophication are needed. Several localities are situated in nature reserves and should be in practice protected.	eng
165519	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura hastata</em> is a widespread American species which presumably reached the Azores thanks to storms winds. The species is known to be a strong disperser in spite (or thanks to) of its small size, and was caught by nets attached to planes 300 m above the ground.	eng
165519	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is common on oligotrophic unpolluted standing waters but disappears with eutrophication due to cattle breeding (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009)	eng
165519	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is said to be widespread and common in the Azores and has been recorded from about 20 localities on every islands of the archipelago, except on Graciosa. In Santa Maria it is very rare, as suitable habitats are almost non existent. One locality has been lost during the last decenniums due to cattle breeding and related water pollution and consumption. Only females have been found in the Azores and it was demonstrated that reproduction proceeds via parthenogenesis (Cordero <em>et al.</em> 2005). This is the single case of parthenogenesis which is known in Odonata until now. Population size might be over 2,000 reproductive females in ponds of 100 m diameter in favourable localities.	eng
165519	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is more and more threatened in the Azores through water eutrophication and consumption, which occur at an accelerated rate due to increasing farming (cattle breeding). Eutrophication extirpates the species, which subsists in abundance only in oligotrophic ponds. Water use for cattle drinking lowers water levels and produces ponds without emergent vegetation, where female damselflies cannot lay eggs.<br/><br/>Obviously, this remarkable species is very sensitive to water pollution, and despite the high density that some ponds might show, it becomes rapidly more and more at risk. The species became extinct in at least one pond (Lagoa do Capitão) in Pico since the visit by Belle in 1988 (Belle and van Tol 1990), and is now very rare in Lagoa do Caiado (where it was common in 2003). The density of cattle in the islands is very high and the demand for water increases rapidly, that, together with the proliferation of cyanobacteria due to nutrient inputs to pastures through dejections, accelerate eutrophication (Lorenzo-Carballa 2009).	eng
165520	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>C. ornatum</em> is included in Annex II  of the European Habitats Directive and thus all its habitats should be preserved from any kind of alteration. In some areas, the continuation of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape contribute to the conservation of the species, but the application of hard cleaning technologies to brooks and ditches as well as the developement of draining procedures to wet soils and grasslands destroy the habitat of this specialised species.	eng
165520	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion ornatum</em> ranges from West and Central Europe, where it is very rare after a strong decrease, to East and Southeast Europe, where it is probably more widespread. Most localities in the west and the north are presently disjunct from its main area, but it is unclear if this multiple fragmentation is natural or resulting from human activities.	eng
165520	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion ornatum</em> is a specialized species confined to seepage waters with a thin water film and small sunny brooks, streamlets and ditches with organic mud and dense hygrophilous herbaceous vegetation (Scirpus, <em>Iris pseudacorus</em>, <em>Mentha aquatica</em>, <em>Nasturtium officinale</em>, <em>Sparganium </em>  spp.).	eng
165520	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Small to moderate-sized populations are generally reported. The species is very rare in the west but its present status in the east and southeast of Europe is poorly documented.	eng
165520	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Draining operations for intensive agriculture, habitat drying up and destruction due to rainfall deficit, drought periods, water extraction and over-irrigation with lowering of the watertable, hard cleaning and correction of brooks and ditches, abandonment of soft cleaning of ditches in traditional agricultural landscape and trampling by livestock are responsible for the continuous extinction of this highly specialized species in large parts of Europe.	eng
165521	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
165521	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation through policy-based actions and increasing awareness. Research into habitat status, conservation status, and trends/monitoring of the species would also be valuable.	eng
165521	conservation	Kalkman, V., 2009	No specific actions are needed.	eng
165521	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No specific actions are needed.	eng
165521	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species reaching well into southwest Asia. In North Africa, the species is largely limited to northern parts of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
165521	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species reaching well into southwest Asia. In northern Africa, the species is largely limited to northern parts of Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.	eng
165521	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species which occurs eastwards over central Asia (Baijal and Agarwal 1955, Calvert 1898, Dasgupta 1957, Fraser 1918, 1936; Kumar 1982, Kumar and Prasad 1981, Mitra 2002, Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1955) to the northern parts of China and Arunachal Pradesh in India (Mitra 2002). It is found throughout European continent (Benken 1980, Buczynski and Pakulnicka 2000, Fraser 1918, 1936; Huber 2000, Kormann 1966, Ris 1909, Tsuda 1991) including the Mediterranean islands (Fraser 1936) but is absent in the north of Britain and the northern half of Fennoscandia.	eng
165521	distribution	Kalkman, V., 2009	<em>Orthetrum cancellatum</em> is a widespread European species which occurs eastwards over central Asia to the northern parts of China. It is found all over the European continent including the Mediterranean islands but is absent from the north of Britain and the northern half of Fennoscandia.	eng
165521	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Found in freshwater ponds, lakes and dunary slacks.	eng
165521	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Found in Freshwater ponds, lakes and dunary slacks.	eng
165521	habitat	Kalkman, V., 2009	The species is found in largely unshaded standing or slow-flowing waters.	eng
165521	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is found in largely unshaded standing or slow-flowing waters.	eng
165521	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
165521	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	Locally abundant.	eng
165521	population	Kalkman, V., 2009	This is one of the most common European species and frequently occurs in large populations.	eng
165521	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This is one of the most common European species. It frequently occurs in large populations.	eng
165521	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications.	eng
165521	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on any existing threat.	eng
165521	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat modifications caused by groundwater extraction and water pollution.	eng
165521	threats	Kalkman, V., 2009	The species is not under threat.	eng
165522	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
165522	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165522	conservation	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
165522	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The habitats of this species are probably not under any specific threat and specific conservation measures for this species are not needed. The information on the types of habitats used in Spain is limited and it would be useful to have more specific information on habitats, possible threats and trends of this species.	eng
165522	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Sympetrum sinaiticum</em> occurs in North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and the Middle East. The species is also present in the southern and central parts of Spain.	eng
165522	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Sympetrum sinaiticum</em> occurs in North Africa and the Levant. In Europe, the species is confined to east and south Spain where it is regionally common.	eng
165522	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Algeria (Hoggar).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species extends from the Middle East through northern Africa to Spain.	eng
165522	distribution	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species extends from the Middle East through northern Africa to Spain.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, it is present in Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Southern Algeria (Hoggar).	eng
165522	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Aestivate far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
165522	habitat	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In northern Africa, the species aestivates far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in small bodies of standing water in dry areas.	eng
165522	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small bodies of standing water in dry areas.	eng
165522	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in both running and standing waters for reproduction. It also occurs in temporary conditions and ditches with running waters. It can be expected that a broad habitat spectrum is occupied by this species. <em>S. sinaiticum</em> aestivates during the summer and can be found far away from wetlands before reproducing in autumn (Jödicke <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
165522	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Locally abundant.	eng
165522	population	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Locally abundant in northern Africa.	eng
165522	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
165522	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species has a small European range but is reasonably common and locally abundant.	eng
165522	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications (mainly pollution in dry areas).	eng
165522	threats	Samraoui, B. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is affected by habitat modifications, mainly pollution in dry areas.	eng
165522	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in a wide variety of habitats and often occupies man-made waters. There are no specific threats to the habitat of this species besides general habitat degradation. The species is probably not strongly impacted by climate change as it is univoltine and aestivates as adult during the hot period of the year. Due to this, larvae are only present in the winter and spring and are not affected by desiccation of the habitat during summer.	eng
165522	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165523	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are necessary at present.	eng
165523	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus vulgatissimus</em> is present from northern Iberia to southwest Siberia. Little information is available about this Siberian distribution. To the north it reaches the southern half of Fennoscandia. In the British Isles it was found to have expanded its range upon about 100 km to the north since 1970, which is attributed to global warming. In the south it extends to the northern half of Greece, whereas in the southern half there is an overlap with <em>G. schneiderii</em> where hybridisation is possible.	eng
165523	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Gomphus vulgatissimus</em> is typical from small to large rivers with sandy to silty or clayey sediments but is also found in streamlets and ditches. It reproduces also in standing waters when these are well oxygenated (lakes and river backwaters or gravel pits furnished with phreatic water). It avoids fast flowing rocky-bottomed waters. The larvae burrow in fine sand and silt preferably covered with organic detritus.	eng
165523	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species remains generally common and is increasing in most of its range.	eng
165523	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species does not face any threats at the moment. In the past, chemical pollution and channelisation together, have been reducing populations, but the general population trend is now increasing.	eng
165524	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation is needed.	eng
165524	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation is needed.	eng
165524	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific measures are needed.	eng
165524	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> has a western Palaearctic distribution and almost its whole range lies within Europe. It is most abundant in central Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and is rare in Scotland. In Fennoscandia it is found in the southern thirds of Finland and Sweden and in the southern fringe of Norway. The species is expanding its range towards the north. To the east it occurs to the Ural but it is absent from most of the Siberian lowland. The species becomes scarcer to the south of Europe being absent from many of the Mediterranean islands. It is highly localised in northern Africa with only a few sites. The species is mainly confined to mountain areas in the Balkan Peninsula. In the Ukraine, it is distributed mostly in the northwest, north and centre of the country. The species is found in the mountains of north Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and the Caucasus and reaches east to the mountains of north Iran.	eng
165524	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is a one of the commonest species of the genus in central Europe. It becomes scarcer towards the northeast (to Urals) and the southern parts of its range.<br/><br/>Northern African populations are genetically distinct from the European populations (based on ecology, but no genetic data to date; Samraoui, pers. comm.). It is highly localised in northern Africa, where it is only known from two localities in Algeria. The population is severely fragmented. The presence if the species in Morocco is uncertain and needs to be confirmed.	eng
165524	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is one of the commoner species of the genus in central Europe. It becomes scarcer towards the northeast (to Urals) and the southern parts of its range.<br/><br/>Northern African populations are genetically distinct from the European populations (based on ecology, but no genetic data to date; B. Samraoui, pers. comm.). It is highly localised in northern Africa, where it is only known from two localities in Algeria. The population is severely fragmented. The presence if the species in Morocco is uncertain and needs to be confirmed.	eng
165524	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna cyanea</em> is mostly found in standing and running waters with a slow current. It has a clear preference for small and at least partly shaded waters. When it occurs at larger water bodies it shows a clear preference for those parts which are visually demarked from the main part of the water, for instance by some higher vegetation. The species needs waters where at least parts of the bottom are free of emerging vegetation. These situations can be found in pools which are still in the early stages of succession or more often in pools where leaves from nearby trees and bushes cover a part of the bottom. It is often the only dragonfly to be present in small, largely shaded forest pools often with no substrate other than leaf litter and in this situation larvae can occur in very high densities. In Central Europe it is also one of the most common dragonflies at garden ponds. The species is able to resist weeks of desiccation.<br/>Adult males are highly territorial and often only a small fraction of the actual adult population is found at the waterside. For this reason many adults are found in nearby forest were they often hunt low by the ground in the shade of trees or bushes.	eng
165524	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Strictly a Nilotic species that is confined to high altitudes (very different from European range). It avoids the plains.	eng
165524	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Strictly a Nilotic species that is confined to high altitudes (very different from European range). It avoids the plains.	eng
165524	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is abundant throughout most of its range and it exists frequently in large populations. Despite those large populations, adults are seen in small numbers at the waterbodies because they have a territorial behaviour.<br/>The populations are stable overall and even increasing in Fennoscandia.	eng
165524	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	This species is inferred to be declining due to habitat loss. It is rare.	eng
165524	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	This species is inferred to be declining due to habitat loss. It is rare.	eng
165524	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat loss, often livestock-related (as is true generally across the North African region).	eng
165524	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss related to livestock and water extraction. Habitat loss through the fire is an ongoing threat.	eng
165524	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is common in most of its range and occurs in habitats that are not threatened in any way.	eng
165525	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Not needed at present.	eng
165525	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Protection of habitat at some locations.	eng
165525	conservation	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Protection of habitat at some locations.	eng
165525	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> has a wide range, covering central and southern Europe, parts of Asia and parts of northern Africa. It is a fugitive species, which moves with vegetation succession. Within the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Populations show large fluctuations.	eng
165525	distribution	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> has a wide range, covering central and southern Europe, parts of Asia and parts of northern Africa. Within the northern African region, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Populations show large fluctuations.	eng
165525	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura pumilio</em> is a powerful colonizer which spreads from the Azores to Mongolia over the whole of Europe (except most of Scandinavia), the Maghreb, the Levant and West Asia.	eng
165525	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation can bear huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs, brooks, and ditches. Populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession. <em>I. pumilio</em> is a species which benefits from climatic changes, as it “likes” waters with changing water tables (Ott 2008).	eng
165525	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation (for instance, in quarries) can harbour huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites, such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs and ditches. Populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession.<br/><br/>This is a pioneer species.	eng
165525	habitat	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	Recently created habitats with sparse vegetation (for instance, in quarries) can harbour huge populations, but the species can also be found in a wide variety of sites, such as small or temporary ponds (also nutrient-poor and acidic ones), springs and ditches. This is a pioneer species and populations are often short-lived, disappearing with vegetation succession (fugitive species).<br/><br/>.	eng
165525	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	This species fluctuates greatly over time. It is never abundant or common in northern Africa region.	eng
165525	population	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	This species fluctuates greatly over time. It is never abundant or common in northern Africa region.	eng
165525	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is widely spread as scattered populations, mostly confined to newly created or ephemeral waterbodies over its whole range. In these kinds of habitats, populations are generally first abundant, then will decrease progressively with colonization by vegetation and animals. Besides, it subsists as small populations in swamps, peat bogs, springs, brooks, and ditches.	eng
165525	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2007	None at present. Livestock and water over-abstraction may be an issue at some locations.	eng
165525	threats	Ferreira, S. & Samraoui, B., 2009	None known at present. Livestock and water over-abstraction may be an issue at some locations.	eng
165525	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Rainfall deficit can cause the species extinction over wide areas in the south of its range. Change in the management of rice cultivation and water management led to a decline in Italy.	eng
165526	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use is needed.	eng
165526	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster picta</em> ranges mostly from the South Caucasus countries (Azerbaijan) to northeast Greece over the whole of Turkey (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009; Donath 1987; Lopau 1999, 2000, 2005; Lopau and Wendler 1995). A recent record from Montenegro changes the western limit of the species from about 300 km to the northwest (Gligorovic<em> et al.</em> 2008).	eng
165526	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species reproduces in running waters ranging from tiny shaded streamlets to middle-sized rivers in hilly to mountainous areas.	eng
165526	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Populations can be large but from most populations precise data is lacking.	eng
165526	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Increased drought periods and drying up of habitats due to rainfall deficit and over irrigation as a result of climate change is the most important threat for this species. Woodlogging, forest fire and forest destruction are other threats contributing to stream desiccation.	eng
165527	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat conservation.	eng
165527	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2009	Habitat conservation is required.	eng
165527	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No measures on European scale are needed. This species would benefit from a better regulation of water use for agriculture and urban needs and from conservation of riparian forests.	eng
165527	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is an Atlanto-West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from southwest Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from most Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. Additional disjunct but flourishing and long-lasting populations occurred formerly on the Rhine river on the Switzerland/Germany border. There it is almost extinct as the species was not found since 1991 in spite of thorough fieldwork (last record 1991 in  Germany, 1979 in Switzerland) (Sternberg and Buchwald 2000, Wildermuth <em>et al.</em> 2005, Hunger <em>et al.</em> 2006). Isolated records from Belgium (1975, 1979), Vaud province in Switzerland and Doubs Department in France refer only to vagrant individuals.	eng
165527	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean. In northern Africa it is present in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.	eng
165527	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> occurs in the western Mediterranean. In northern Africa it is present in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.	eng
165527	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is typically found in fast-flowing streams with a preference for partially shaded environments.	eng
165527	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Shady, fast-flowing streams. Often co-occuring with <em>Gomphus lucasi</em>.	eng
165527	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2009	Shady, fast-flowing streams. Often co-occuring with <em>Gomphus lucasi</em>.	eng
165527	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	A fairly abundant species in the region.	eng
165527	population	Samraoui, B., 2009	A fairly abundant species in the region.	eng
165527	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus uncatus</em> is fairly common in most of the region.	eng
165527	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat modifications (tree-cutting, pollution, damming and water extraction, fires).	eng
165527	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats are stream desiccation and pollution due to climate change and human activities and the elimination of the riparian vegetation resulting in the destruction of bank structure.	eng
165527	threats	Samraoui, B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat degradation, water pollution and modifications caused by agriculture, tree-cutting, damming, water extraction, and fires.	eng
165528	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Information on habitat, distribution and trends is scant. Therefore, fieldwork is needed to clarify the distribution and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
165528	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
165528	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	Not needed at present.	eng
165528	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> is endemic to the Maghreb and southwest Europe. The species seems to be most common in the Maghreb, while in Europe it is found in Sicily, Sardinia, near Naples (Italy), Portugal and Spain with the exception of the more humid northwest (Boudot <em>et al.</em> 2009). Relatively few records from 1980 onwards are known for its European range suggesting that the species has declined.	eng
165528	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> principally occurs in north west Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), and is more localised in southern and eastern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily and near Naples (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is one of the most widespread species in the region. The species is a strong flier and can easily move from populations outside the region.	eng
165528	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Orthetrum nitidinerve</em> principally occurs in northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), and is more localised in southern and eastern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily and near Naples (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). It is one of the most widespread species in the region. The species is a strong flier and can easily move from populations outside the region.	eng
165528	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Standing, including seepages and brackish waters, and flowing waters in rather arid areas (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). Only one record from standing water in Morocco.	eng
165528	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	Standing, including seepages and brackish waters, and flowing waters in rather arid areas (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). Only one record from standing water in Morocco.	eng
165528	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is found in standing but mostly flowing waters in rather arid areas. All records of <span style="font-style: italic;">O. nitidinerve</span> from Tunisia presented by Jödicke <em>et al.</em> (2000) refer to running waters.	eng
165528	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	A widespread and abundant species.	eng
165528	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	A widespread and abundant species.	eng
165528	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is rare in the European part of its range and only small numbers are seen.	eng
165528	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	Dams and water abstraction are common threats across the region.	eng
165528	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Dams and water abstraction is a common threat across the region.	eng
165528	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Regulation of rivers, water extraction and water pollution are the main threats to this species.	eng
165529	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are presently required.	eng
165529	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not needed at present.	eng
165529	conservation	Ferreira, S., 2009	Not needed at present.	eng
165529	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2007	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread in a large part of Europe, but its range is more limited in northern Africa. The species is common in the Iberian Peninsular and in Italy, but has a more scattered distribution in the Balkan area. It is absent from parts of the eastern Mediterranean. It is seldom the dominant <em>Lestes</em> species (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).<br/><br/>In Africa this species is largely confined to the northern parts of northwest Africa (Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria).	eng
165529	distribution	Ferreira, S., 2009	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread in a large part of Europe, but its range is more limited in northern Africa. The species is common in the Iberian Peninsular and in Italy, but has a more scattered distribution in the Balkan area. It is absent from parts of the eastern Mediterranean. It is seldom the dominant <em>Lestes</em> species (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006). In Africa this species is largely confined to the northern parts of northwest Africa (Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria).	eng
165529	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes viridis</em> ranges from western and Central Europe to the Maghreb. A slight range expansion towards Denmark and northeastern Poland has been observed. The species is common in its European range, although its status in the Balkans and eastern Europe is still unclear due to confusion between this taxon and <em>L. parvidens</em>.	eng
165529	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2007	Almost any type of standing or slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, does not favour ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
165529	habitat	Ferreira, S., 2009	Almost any type of standing or slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, it does not favour ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans) (Dijkstra and Lewington 2006).	eng
165529	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes viridis</em> reproduces in any kind of standing and slow-flowing water with bordering trees or bushes with soft bark and wood. The species has a strong dependence on this kind of vegetation as it is needed for egg laying and its reproductive ecology. Unlike other <em>Lestes</em>, it does not occur in ephemeral conditions (for example, shallows, drying-out pans), although its biology would allow it to reproduce in temporary habitat.	eng
165529	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Lestes viridis</em> is widespread and fairly common over a wide range of habitats, occurring in large populations.	eng
165529	population	Ferreira, S., 2007	Locally abundant within its range.	eng
165529	population	Ferreira, S., 2009	Locally abundant within its range.	eng
165529	threats	Ferreira, S., 2009	None known at present.	eng
165529	threats	Ferreira, S., 2007	Not known at present.	eng
165529	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is presently not threatened on the European scale.	eng
165530	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A protection of standing waters in all the Mediterranean islands is recommended.	eng
165530	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura genei</em> is endemic to Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Malta and two small islands of the Archipelago Toscano (Capraia and Giglio). It is absent from the mainland.	eng
165530	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species breeds in all kinds of standing waters and sometimes in slow flowing rivers and ditches.	eng
165530	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Ischnura genei</em> is generally common.	eng
165530	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The species is presently not threatened.	eng
165531	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	No specific measures are needed.	eng
165531	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Libellula depressa</em> is a largely western Palaearctic species which is widespread in Europe and ranges east to Central Asia. The species is common and widespread in most European countries but is absent from Ireland and confined to the southern third of Fennoscandia.	eng
165531	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Libellula depressa</em> is found in largely unshaded, standing and slow-flowing waters, often occurs in small, shallow, sunny water bodies and biotopes in early succession stages. The species is often one of the first to colonize new man-made waters.	eng
165531	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	It is one of the most common and widespread species of Europe, except for the far north.	eng
165531	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The habitats of<em> Libellula depressa</em> are not under any specific threat.	eng
165532	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The presence of this species in Europe is poorly known and specific information on its habitat choice and potential threats is lacking. A field survey is needed for this species.	eng
165532	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion ecornutum</em> is an Asiatic species which ranges from Japan and Korea to the West Altai and shows a relict isolate in the south Ural (Yanybaeva 1999b; Kosterin 2005; Yanybaeva <em>et al.</em> 2006). The European part of this isolate seems restricted to parts of the Bashkortostan Republic and is about 2,000 km apart from the main range of the species.	eng
165532	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagrion ecornutum</em> reproduces mostly in standing waters, in the European part it is known mainly from lakes but has been recorded in running waters as well.	eng
165532	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Coenagron ecornutum</em> is stated to be quite abundant at the four localities published.	eng
165532	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The potential threats to this species are not known.	eng
165533	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Forest conservation and control of water use are needed. Any installation of irrigation device in springs and headwater courses should be prohibited, but these are increasing throughout Greece.	eng
165533	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Cordulegaster helladica</em> is endemic to the southernmost part of northern Greece and the Peloponnese Peninsula. This collective taxon involves three weakly differentiated subspecies, namely <em>Cordulegaster helladica helladica</em> from the whole Peloponnese and Euboea island, <em>C. h. buchholzi</em> from Naxos, Tinos and Andros islands and <em>C. h. kastalia</em> from the Delphi archeological site only.	eng
165533	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The preferred habitat of the species are mountain brooks (headwaters) and spring areas.	eng
165533	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	A number of populations are still flourishing but some of the south Peloponnese populations are now extinct due to desiccation of springs.	eng
165533	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threats are water harnessing for human use as well as forest fires. Several springs in the Taygetos mountains in South Peloponnese where good populations were known ten years ago have been found to be dry in July 2008 (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm.) due to forest fires and/or rainfall deficit, depending on the locality. Many new irrigation devices starting from tiny springs and headwater courses have been recently installed throughout Greece to compensate the present rainfall deficit. Even olive trees and vineyards are now sometimes irrigated (J.P. Boudot, pers. comm. 2008) - in both north and south Greece that is problematic to many species confined to these habitats.	eng
165534	conservation	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	In its central European lowland range, large-scale restoration of peat moors will help the long-term survival of this species in the region. In areas with isolated populations the species might be threatened by natural succession of the vegetation. The creation of pits in peat bogs may offer in these cases new reproductive habitats. In the future this species might be strongly impacted by climate change especially in central Europe. Monitoring of populations, especially those ones that are isolated is therefore advisable.	eng
165534	distribution	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	<em>Aeshna subarctica elisabethae</em> occurs in the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, the species is largely confined to the northeast. It is probably common in large parts of the north of European Russia from where its range continues to Finland, Sweden and Norway. The species is also moderately represented in the Baltic states, northern Poland and probably in northern Belarus although only a handful of records are available. Its lowland area continues from there to northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. More to the south it is known from more isolated occurrences at higher altitudes in Belgium, France, southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, southern Poland. An isolated record is known from Bulgaria. The occurrence of this species in the Balkans was never confirmed and this record is considered to be doubtful.	eng
165534	habitat	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	The species is confined to moors and bogs with vegetation of <em>Sphagnum</em>. These are most often natural waters in large moors but can also be habitats created by peat extraction. Its specific habitat requirements make that it is confined to higher altitudes in central Europe. The majority of the populations are found in bogs with floating peatmoss, which serves as larval habitat. Less often the species is found in habitats where the peatmoss is part of the bankside vegetation or is lying on the bottom.	eng
165534	population	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Its specific habitat requirements make the species uncommon and sparse in large parts of its range. Densities at suitable sites can however be high.	eng
165534	threats	Kalkman, V.J., 2009	Most populations are found in areas with relatively little human activity or in nature reserves and this species is therefore safe from large-scale habitat destruction. In areas where only small pieces of moors and peatbog still exist the ceasing of peat extractions is an increasing problem. In these places the aquatic habitats might fall dry as a result of natural succession of the vegetation. The same effect could be caused by climate change in southcentral Europe.	eng
165536	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	There is no need for specific conservation measures.	eng
165536	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is a West Mediterranean endemic which ranges from South West Europe to the Maghreb. It is lacking from the Mediterranean islands, although it extends over almost the whole mainland Italy (except the ultimate NE), it is surprisingly replaced by <em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> in Sicily.	eng
165536	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) unguiculatus</em> is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.	eng
165536	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is common throughout its range.	eng
165536	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus forcipatus unguiculatus</em> is presently not threatened at the European scale.	eng
165537	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No specific action on European scale is needed.	eng
165537	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> ranges from the west and north of Europe to the south of the Balkans and western Siberia. It is missing from the northern half of Scandinavia. The populations from Sicily are clearly disjunct from the main range.	eng
165537	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) forcipatus</em> is found mostly in unshaded rivers and streams. It is rarely found at large well oxygenated lakes and river backwaters.	eng
165537	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus f. forcipatus</em> is common throughout Europe and occurs generally in medium to high densities.	eng
165537	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	The main threat is posed by habitat modifications such as construction of dams, pollution and gravel mining in the main river bed.	eng
165538	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Control of water use and pollution are needed to maintain the European populations of <em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em>.	eng
165538	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> is an Asiatic taxon widespread mostly over the whole of Anatolia, Iran and south Turkmenistan. European localities occur in the Greek and Turkish East Aegean islands as well as in Cyprus, all these countries constituting the western limit of the taxon.	eng
165538	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	In its European range, <em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> reproduces in running waters, but in Turkey it is known to reproduce also in large lakes	eng
165538	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus (f.) albotibialis</em> is common throughout its European range.	eng
165538	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Stream desiccation due to over-irrigation, construction of dams, rainfall deficit and climate change as well as water pollution are the main threats for this taxon.	eng
165542	conservation	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>      </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165542	distribution	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<em>Garra annandalei</em> is distributed in India (northern Bengal, Bihar and Assam), eastern and central Nepal (Kosi drainage), and Bangladesh.	eng
165542	habitat	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>It inhabits swift and clear mountain streams with rocks and bounders.</p>	eng
165542	population	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Population information has been documented by Jha (2006) in seven rivers of Nepal. </p>  <p></p>	eng
165542	threats	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>  Dams, urbanization, agricultural runoffs, industrialization etc., can cause decline of the species due to habitat destruction.<br/></p>	eng
165561	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
165561	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistoides senkhiensis</em>&#160;was described from the Senkhi Stream, a tributary of the Dikrong River (itself a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Arunachal Pradesh, India (Tamang&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). Known from the confluence of Senkhi and Chimpu streams at Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India. The Senkhi stream meets with Dikrong River in the south; the Dikrong River itself is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Assam.	eng
165561	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits streams with moderately clear to turbid running water and with a substrate of pebbles, cobbles and sand.	eng
165561	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
165561	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The impact of the proposed Dikrong 100 MW hydropower dam needs to be studied and the impacts of the dam on the species better understood.	eng
165562	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
165562	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The nominate subspecies is known from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and China and Indochina. <em>U. s. insignata </em>(Selys, 1872) is known from Sundaland, <em>U. s. yiei</em> Asahina, 1972 is known from Taiwan, <em>U. s. aliena</em> Selys, 1878 from Australia and New Guinea. </p>	eng
165562	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in ponds and slow flowing rivers, typically in lowland areas.</p>	eng
165562	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species over much of its range.</p>	eng
165562	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>	eng
165592	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend, ecology of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
165592	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<em>Sphaerium austeni</em> occurs only in the montane pools of Nagaland (Naga Hills) and Manipur in India (Subba Rao 1989). The distribution in the hills is estimated to be less than 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and could even be less than 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
165592	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is generally found in stagnant water. Individuals are usually attached to aquatic vegetation, sometimes they are attached to the surface film of water by slime threads.	eng
165592	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
165592	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Specific threats to this species are not known. However, the stagnant water habitats are affected by anthropogenic influences such as pollution, destructive fishing practices and conversion for development, which may potentially affect the population of this species.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
165594	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165594	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no research or conservation actions recommended for this species. Awareness is needed as the species is intermediate host for many parasites.	eng
165594	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Indoplanorbis exustusis</span> is a widely distributed species, known from<span class="definition"><span class="definition">&#160;Iran, Arabian Peninsula, China, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, Myanmar, Pakistan, Persia, Sumatra, <span class="definition"><span class="definition">Celebes, Java, Malaya, <span class="definition"><span class="definition">Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka <span class="definition"><span class="definition">and Nepal (Yueying Liu 1979, Subba Rao 1989).<br/></span></span>	eng
165594	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species was introduced to West Africa from India. It is found in two localities, one in Nigeria and one in Ivory Coast.	eng
165594	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Found in a rice-growing area in Nigeria and vegetation at the margins of artificial lakes in Ivory Coast.	eng
165594	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in various types of stagnant waters with dense vegetation. It remains attached to floating plants and it also occurs in very polluted waters.<br/><span lang="EN-GB"><br/>It is a vector and intermediate host for many parasites of domestic and wild animals. Cercarial larval stage of many trematode parasites of domestic animals such as cattle, human and wild animals develop in this snail. Some important parasites that use the snail as intermediate hosts are <em>Artyfechinostomum sufrartyfex</em>, <em>Schistosoma indicum</em>, <em>Schistosoma nasalis</em>, <em>Schistosoma spindalis</em>, <em>Fasciola gigantica,</em> <em>Paramphistomum mehrai</em>, <em>Paramphistomum</em> <em>explanatum</em>, <em>Gastrodiscus secundus</em>, <em>Petagifer srivastavi, Plasmiorchis orientalis, Pscudodiscus collinsi, Gastrothylax crumenifer, Enterohaemotrema paleorticum, Cotylophoron cotylophorum,&#160; Cotylophoron indica, Cotylophoron bhaleraoi,&#160; Cotylophoron mathurapurensis, </em><span lang="EN-GB">and <span lang="EN-GB"><em>Echinostoma</em> sp. <span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition"><span class="definition">(Yueying  Liu 1979, Subba Rao 1989)<span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB"><span lang="EN-GB">.</span></span></span>	eng
165594	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165594	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This is a very common species.	eng
165594	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	&#160;None known.	eng
165594	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No major specific threats known for the species.	eng
165607	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon falcula</em>. This species is likely to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is&#160; needed to establish the dietary requirements for this species.	eng
165607	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species ranges throughout the tropical Indian Ocean from Kenya to northern South Africa on the east African Coast, Madagascar including the western and central Indian Ocean islands, Southern India, Sri Lanka, Nicobar and Andaman Islands (India) and western Thailand east to Java (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-15 m.	eng
165607	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species occurs in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons or on seaward reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually seen in pairs or small aggregations that may contain as many as 20 individuals (Allen 1980). There is not data on the diet of this species, but it is assumed to feed on hard and soft corals, like the sister species <em>C. ulientensis</em> (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165607	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is common. While it is may be reliant on live coral, there is no information on population trends for this species.	eng
165607	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species probably feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165608	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.	eng
165608	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Maldive Islands, the southwestern tip of India, Sri Lanka and the east coast of India, Thailand, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and along the western coast of Sumatra to the Seribu Islands and the tip of northern Java. It has a depth range of 1-25 m.	eng
165608	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in areas of rich coral growth. It occurs as solitary individuals, in pairs, or in aggregations of up to 20-30 individuals. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates and zooplankton (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is probably a facultative corallivore.	eng
165608	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.	eng
165608	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165609	conservation	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.</p>	eng
165609	distribution	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Red Sea (Hurgada southwards) and the Gulf of Aden, east to the Arabian Sea coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;It is generally found between 1-20m (Allen 1980).	eng
165609	habitat	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs where plate-forming corals of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> abound (Allen 1980). It is a territorial species occurring singly or in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore that feeds exclusively on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165609	population	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species is especially common around Jeddah in the Red Sea (Allen 1980), and it is rare in the northern third of the Red Sea.	eng
165609	threats	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165610	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165610	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, along the East African coast from Zanzibar northwards to the southern Red Sea (including the Farasan Archipelago, Saudi Arabia) and Oman, and the Seychelles Islands (including the Aldabra Group) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and Socotra. It has been recorded between 7-80 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165610	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations have been recorded in coral and rocky reefs, as well as open rubble, in deep water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found as solitary animals or in pairs.	eng
165610	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165610	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. <br/></p>	eng
165611	conservation	Rocha, L.A., 2009	Present in several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean and Brazil.	eng
165611	distribution	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species has been recorded from New England south to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda. Larvae are carried north in the Gulf Stream, but recruits do not survive the winter (Carpenter 2002). It is found from 1-30 m depth. There is one record (one specimen, 3 cm) from Musquodoboit Harbor, Nova Scotia, Canada (Allen 1980).	eng
165611	habitat	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This is predominantly a shallow coral and rocky reef species feeding on various benthic invertebrates. It occurs commonly in pairs (Carpenter 2002).	eng
165611	population	Rocha, L.A., 2009	It is common throughout its range.	eng
165611	threats	Rocha, L.A., 2009	It was driven to local extinction in some localities along the Brazilian coast due to extraction for the aquarium trade (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009); however, its global population does not seem to be under any major threat.	eng
165612	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral, and the threat of coral loss.	eng
165612	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the western Indian Ocean, from Yemen south to the East African coast as far south as Durban, South Africa, east to the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory, UK) (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), including the Seychelles (including Aldabra), Mauritius, Réunion, Rodrigues, Comoro Islands and Madagascar. It has been recorded at depths of 1-40 m.	eng
165612	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is usually encountered in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reef slopes, being particularly abundant where staghorn corals (<span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> spp.) occur. It is most often observed singly or in pairs, but may aggregate where staghorn coral is plentiful (Allen 1980). This species is an obligate corallivore. It is likely to be specialised like its sister species in the Pacific, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plebeuis.</span><br/>    <p>This species most likely recruits in very low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).</p>	eng
165612	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Occasionally sighted to common at East African localities (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010). Generally rare at Madagascar. For example, Allen (2003) recorded less than 10 individuals during 45 hours of scuba diving around the northwestern tip of the island.	eng
165612	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165613	conservation	Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas along the Brazilian coast.</p>	eng
165613	distribution	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This recently described southwest Atlantic species is known only from Brazil, from south of the Amazon River mouth to the State of Sao Paulo. It is found at depths between 20-75 m.	eng
165613	habitat	Rocha, L.A., 2009	Animals are found solitary or in pairs, usually occurring in deep, rocky reefs. Feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates.	eng
165613	population	Rocha, L.A., 2009	It seems to be common in deep reefs in southeastern Brazil (J.L. Gasparini pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165613	threats	Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165614	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165614	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found in the north-western Indian Ocean, where it has been recorded from the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden,  Gulf of Oman, the south Arabian Coast and west coast of India (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 33-274 m.	eng
165614	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G. R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165614	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165614	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165615	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is likely that this species occurs within marine protected areas.	eng
165615	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species occurs throughout western and southern Pacific from Vietnam and the Philippines to Easter Island, north to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands (in Japan), and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe Island and Rapa. It is absent from Indonesia apart from Halmahera to northern Papua. It has been recorded from 10-120 m.	eng
165615	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is associated with rocky or coral-covered reefs of lagoons and outer slopes. It is frequently seen adjacent to steep slopes and drop-offs (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found as pairs or solitary animals (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It has an omnivorous diet (Pyle 2001).	eng
165615	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).	eng
165615	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and not considered to be affecting the global population.	eng
165616	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends, habitat status and harvest levels of this species is required.</p>	eng
165616	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in northern Australia, from Abrollos in the west to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of 1-30 m.	eng
165616	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs mainly on coastal coral and rocky reefs, including outer reef slopes and drop-offs, and near shore islands (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001). It is mainly found in pairs (Pyle 2001).	eng
165616	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165616	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165617	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is unknown if this species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Additional field studies are needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this species.	eng
165617	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs at Pitcairn Island (UK), Easter Island (Chile), and at least one of the Austral Islands in the southeastern Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found at depths of 40 to 50 m.	eng
165617	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits deep seaward coral reef slopes, and forms aggregates in midwater (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is probably a planktivore based on its tendency to aggregate in mid-water, but its biology and ecology are unknown.	eng
165617	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common within its restricted range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165617	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165618	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to establish the dietary requirements, general biology, and habitat use of this species.	eng
165618	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the central Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Socotra (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded to depths of 1-25 m (Allen 1980).	eng
165618	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally associated with rocky and coral reef habitats (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The biology of this species is unknown, but given it is successfully kept in aquaria it probably is not reliant on live coral.	eng
165618	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is uncommon. Population trends are unknown.	eng
165618	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165619	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>	eng
165619	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This Indian Ocean species ranges from the coast of East Africa (north of Durban, South Africa) to Christmas Island (Australia), the Andaman Sea coast of western Thailand and parts of Indonesia (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 1-45 m in depth.	eng
165619	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations are usually found on the coral reef areas of lagoons and seaward reef slopes. Animals occur singly, in pairs, or in small groups.   This species is most likely an obligate corallivore and may decline in abundance following a significant decline in coral.	eng
165619	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165619	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, no major declines were documented for this species in the Seychelles following extensive coral loss (Graham 2007). There appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p><p><br/></p>	eng
165620	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further information is needed on the ecology of this species, as well as the&#160;taxonomic status of several populations.</p>	eng
165620	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This deepwater species inhabits the western Pacific Ocean, where it has been recorded from a number of locations including southern Taiwan (Green Island), Indonesia (Flores, Sulawesi, and Raja Ampat Islands), Sabah (Malaysia), Palau; the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia) and Tonga (Allen 1980, Randall 2003, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 20-80 m, although it can be rarely found as shallow as 12 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2009). Population records from the Marshall Islands and Tarawa Island (Gilbert Islands, Kiribati) are considered to be hybrid populations (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). A record from Guam likely represents a vagrant record (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165620	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are found in steep drop-offs on outer reefs, usually in areas with abundant gorgonians and black coral (Allen 1980). This is an infrequently sighted fish, usually occurring in pairs (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998).	eng
165620	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally uncommon, and there is no evidence of any decline in abundance.</p>	eng
165620	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although there is some collection for the aquarium trade this is not believed to substantially impact the species.<br/></p>	eng
165621	conservation	Rocha, L.A. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. It is a poorly-known species with additional research needed.<br/></p>	eng
165621	distribution	Rocha, L.A. & Myers, R., 2009	This species has been recorded from Florida (USA), through the Gulf of Mexico to the Campeche Bank. It has been recorded as a straggler as far north as Cape Hatteras (North Carolina, USA) (Allen 1980, Burgess 2002). It has been recorded at depths between 20 and 200 m (Burgess 2002), but is more common in deeper waters. Most specimens have been collected by trawlers working in deeper waters (Allen 1980).	eng
165621	habitat	Rocha, L.A. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is normally found in deep subtropical waters. Occurs on rocky slopes of shelf areas and also on soft bottoms. Feeds mostly on small, benthic invertebrates found on reefs and rocks (Burgess 1978, 2002).	eng
165621	population	Rocha, L.A. & Myers, R., 2009	There is very little known about the population of this species. However this species may be common as it is recorded as bycatch in trawl fisheries.	eng
165621	threats	Rocha, L.A. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165622	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required on the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
165622	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, and occurs from the Maldive and Chagos Islands in the west to Samoa in the east, and from southern Japan in the north to Shark Bay (western Australia), and northern New South Wales in the south. It has been recorded from 2-50 m in depth.	eng
165622	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found at coastal, inner and outer reef slopes. Also frequently sighted on shipwrecks. Juveniles are usually seen in shallow lagoons but may also be found in deep waters around caves and other refuges. The diet is generally comprised of coral polyps, benthic invertebrates and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;This species is reported to feed on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.	eng
165622	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.	eng
165622	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165623	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.	eng
165623	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Indo-west Pacific from Sri Lanka to the Solomon Islands (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998) north to southern Japan and south to Scott/Serangapatam reefs of northwestern Australia. It is found at depths 1-20 m.	eng
165623	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is most often found in areas of shallow, protected lagoons (often turbid and silty) and inner reefs with extensive coral growth. The adults are usually found alone or in pairs, and occasionally in small groups. Juveniles shelter amongst branching corals (genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span>). It is an obligate corallivore.	eng
165623	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There are no data on population trends for this species.	eng
165623	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). There has been extensive coral reef degradation throughout the range of this species, but no data is available on population trends. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.	eng
165624	conservation	Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165624	distribution	Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean from tropical East Africa to the East Andaman sea and Indian Ocean coastline of Sumatra, and Java (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). It also occurs at the Seribu Islands (Java Sea off Jakarta) and is occasionally sighted at Bali (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010).&#160; It has been recorded from depths of 3-15 m.	eng
165624	habitat	Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs where plate-forming corals of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> abound (Allen 1980). It is a territorial species occurring singly or in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore that feeds predominantly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165624	population	Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165624	threats	Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165625	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165625	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Red Sea and neighbouring Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been observed between 1-40m in depth (Allen 1980).	eng
165625	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations of this species are found over rubble patches and coral-covered reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly seen in pairs or small aggregations. This is an omnivorous species which feeds on coral polyps, algae, polychaetes and crustaceans (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165625	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).	eng
165625	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165626	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended (such as in the Philippines).	eng
165626	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout much of the tropical Indo-Pacific region. It ranges from the East African coast and the Arabian Gulf in the west to the Society Islands (French Polynesia) in the east, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is not known from Hawaii (USA) and the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) (Pyle 2001). It ranges in depth from 2-75 m, usually being found below 10 m.	eng
165626	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is associated with coral and rocky reefs, and is often found in deep lagoon areas and outer reef slopes, although animals may inhabit shallower water in protected reef areas. Adults occur alone, in pairs or sometimes in small groups, almost always swimming close to the reef substrate. The species feeds mostly on plankton, but supplements this diet with benthic invertebrates. Juveniles are solitary and have been observed picking parasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165626	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and&#160;the most common species of the genus (Steene 1978). There are believed to have been some localized declines in the Philippines, mostly due to aquarium collectors.	eng
165626	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is intensively harvested for the aquarium industry within the Philippines (K. Carpenter pers. comm. 2009), however there appear to be no overall major threats to this widespread species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165627	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. There is a need to monitor populations within the Caribbean to record any declines. Further monitoring of numbers of animals entering the aquarium trade is recommended.</p>	eng
165627	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This widespread species has been recorded from southern Florida (USA), the Bahamas, and the Gulf of Mexico, along the Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles to Venezuela and Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles) on the coast of South America. Also recorded from Bermuda (Allen 1980, Burgess 2002). It is generally found in deep reefs (20 to 91 m), but has been observed at depths of around one m (Allen 1980) to at least 100 m.	eng
165627	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	Normally inhabits moderate to deep tropical waters around reef or rocky areas. Occurs most abundantly at 15 to 55 m, but has been found from 1-100 m depth. Has an elongate snout used for selecting small benthic invertebrates from coral and rock crevices and between sea urchin spines (Burgess 2002). It is frequently found adjacent to steep dropoffs or on their upper ledges and is sometimes seen in caves or caverns (Allen 1980). Off southern Florida, the habitat consists primarily of large head-forming corals, sponges and alcyonarians (Allen 1980). It is generally a solitary species, but sometimes moves around in pairs; the young occasionally form aggregations of eight to 10 fish (Allen 1980).	eng
165627	population	Rocha, L.A., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	There have been widespread declines of reef fishes inferred by a meta-data analysis for the Caribbean region (Paddock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), however from 1993-2009 no substantial declines in abundance were recorded (REEF Database) for this species. It is a common species most abundant at 15 to 55 m (Burgess 1978).	eng
165627	threats	Rocha, L.A., Myers, R. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. However, habitat degradation has been implicated in causing declines in reef fishes in the Caribbean region (Paddock <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Collection for the aquarium trade is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
165628	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is&#160; present within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
165628	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout most of the Indo-Pacific region, from coastal East Africa to central and western Pacific, including the Hawaiian Islands and Rapa Iti to the east, extending northwards to southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (Australia). Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific and at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Occurs at depths from 2-61 m but usually below 10 m.<br/><br/>  Range size ~66.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165628	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with rocky reefs and coral-rich areas (sometimes interspersed with sandy bottoms) of lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes. Occurs singly, in pairs, or occasionally in larger aggregations of up to about 30 individuals (Myers 1991), sometimes high in the water column. It is a facultative corallivore, feeding on hard and soft corals, as well as algae, hydroids and zooplankton.	eng
165628	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is common in New Guinea and Queensland (Australia) (Steene 1978). This species was not observed during a recent survey conducted at the Galapagos Archipelago (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>    <p>Common species: mean of 0.87 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).</p>	eng
165628	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165630	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.	eng
165630	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is very widespread from Socotra south to Natal, South Africa across the Indo-Pacific to the Line and Gambier Islands in Polynesia, north to southern Japan and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe and Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).   Its geographic range is estimated to be ~76 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It is found at depth of 1-30m.	eng
165630	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in most coral reef habitats, from inner coastal reef flats to outer seaward slopes. Occurs singly, in pairs, or in small groups. The diet consists of anemones, coral polyps, polychaete worms and algae. The species tolerates a wide range of ecological conditions including influx of freshwater near stream mouths and turbid water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species rarely consumes coral on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2005), but does so frequently in the Seychelles (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It has declined at Moorea between 1979 and 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006), though the explanation for this is unknown, given that it is not thought to be reliant on live coral.	eng
165630	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is very abundant (e.g.,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">&#160;mean of 1.3 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in the northern </a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008) throughout much of its geographical range. There have been slight declines in abundance recorded in Moorea, French Polynesia, between 1979 and 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006), but it is otherwise stable (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
165630	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	While this species has exhibited long-term declines in Moorea, there is apparent no reason why this species should depend on live coral. There do not appear to be any other major threats to this species.	eng
165631	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon auriga</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of&#160;&#160;catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.</p>	eng
165631	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the entire tropical Indo-Pacific region. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west to the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Ducie Atoll (Pitcairn Islands, UK) in the east. It is found in the north from southern Japan and south&#160; to south eastern and western Australia including Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). It has been recorded at depths of one to 61 m.<br/>Range size ~82.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).<sup> <br/></sup>	eng
165631	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits a wide variety of coral reef habitat, and can be encountered in coastal, lagoonal, and outer reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  It feeds mainly by tearing pieces from polychaetes, sea anemones, coral polyps, and algae (Myers 1991). It may be found singly, in pairs and in aggregations. This species only very rarely consumes coral on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2005), but consumes mainly live corals in the Indian Ocean (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It declined significantly in Moorea between 1979 and 2003, following shifts in coral community structure (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165631	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species is generally common (e.g.,&#160;mean of 0.7 individuals per 20 0m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). It has however, exhibited significant declines in abundance on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett 2001) and in French Polynesia (Berumen and Pratchett 2006) following extensive coral loss.</p><br/><br/><p></p>	eng
165631	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>While declines in abundance of <em>C. auriga</em> have been observed following localized coral loss, it is unknown why this species should have any reliance on live corals. It neither feeds or recruits on live coral (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species is collected for the aquarium trade however there is no data on how this affects the population. This species is harvested by artisanal fishers, accounting for 72% of the butterflyfishes caught (Mangi and Roberts 2006).<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165632	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p></p><p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. <br/></p><p>Further research&#160; is required to address issues of hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pelewensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. punctofasciatus</span>. <br/></p>	eng
165632	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Mainly distributed throughout the south Pacific, from western Indonesia to the Line Islands, also ranging north to the Ryukyu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at 1-45 m depths (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1998). Range size ~28.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165632	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon punctatofasciatus</span> inhabits coral reefs, is corallivorous and forms pairs (Pyle 2001). The species is most commonly found on outer reef slopes, but also occurs in clear water lagoons and reef flats rich in coral growth.	eng
165632	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165632	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165633	conservation	Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Allen, G., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Robertson, R., 2009	There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these. This species has been recorded from the area of the Cocos Island National Park (Costa Rica).	eng
165633	distribution	Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Allen, G., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Robertson, R., 2009	This species is found in the tropical eastern Pacific, where it ranges from Baja California (including the Alijos Rocks and the Benito Islands) (Mexico) as far south as Mapelo Island off Colombia (Allen 1980).  It has been recorded from the Cocos Island (Costa Rica), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Malpelo Island (Colombia) and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) (Burgess 1978). It is found at depths of 6-40 m.	eng
165633	habitat	Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Allen, G., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Robertson, R., 2009	This reef-associated species is often found in large schools (Humann and Deloach 1993) over rocky reefs.&#160; It feeds on algae, gastropods, and small crustaceans (Schneider 1995). This species removes parasites from larger fishes such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Paranthias colonus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Mulloidichthes dentatus</span> (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). In the Gulf of Chiriqui (Panamá), this species can be found over almost all kinds of substrata, except for sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island (Colombia), this fish is occasional in intertidal pools, frequent over rocky and sandy substrate, and abundant on coralline substrata.	eng
165633	population	Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Allen, G., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Robertson, R., 2009	This is generally a common species throughout its range. It is the most common species of butterflyfish in the Gulf of California (Allen 1980). According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is frequent enough to have a possible resident population at Clipperton Atoll. This fish was studied in the Galapagos archipelago, and had an overall mean density of 6.03 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this is a dominant species in Gulf of Chiriqui (Panamá).<br/><br/>In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo (Costa Rica), it had a mean density of 0.01+/-0.03 ind/m<sup>2 </sup>(Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Golfo Dulce (Costa Rica), this species had a density of 0.001+/-0.003 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.033% (Figueroa 2001).&#160; It still was observed 120 times in three coral zones north of Costa Rica (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species was considered common, with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).	eng
165633	threats	Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Allen, G., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Robertson, R., 2009	There are no known threats. This species has some localised exploitation for the aquarium trade. However, at current levels this extraction comprises only a trivial proportion of the total population. The Galapagos Islands population declined 50% during the 1997/98 El Nino event, but recovered to pre-El Nino levels by 2001.	eng
165634	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>	eng
165634	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, east to the Arabian Sea coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found to a depth of around 20 m.	eng
165634	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in lagoonal and fringing coral-rich reefs with clear water (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Solitary individuals or pairs are most often encountered, with small shoals less frequent. It is an obligate corallivore, but gastropod eggs and anemones are also consumed. Juveniles inhabit a single coral head until they reach maturity (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165634	population	Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common throughout the Red Sea, particularly in the Gulf of Aqaba and farther to the south off Jeddah and Port Sudan; populations are stable (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165634	threats	Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165635	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G. & Edgar, G., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however its range includes marine protected areas.	eng
165635	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G. & Edgar, G., 2009	This eastern Pacific species ranges from Redondo Beach (Los Angeles, CA, USA) to the coast of Peru in the south. Populations are present around the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Malpelo Island (Colombia). It is known from depths of 2-55 m, usually from 3-12 m.	eng
165635	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G. & Edgar, G., 2009	This rocky reef-associated species is usually observed in pairs or small groups in rocky areas near the shore (Allen 1985). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá this species can be found over all kinds of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this fish is occasional in intertidal pools, frequent over rocky and sandy substrate and abundant in coralline substrata. According to Cooke (1992), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. humeralis </span>may be occasional in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons along the Eastern Pacfic coast.	eng
165635	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G. & Edgar, G., 2009	It is a common species in the shallow waters of its range (Allen 1980). It is common in rocky tide pools and on the shores of small islands nearer Panama City; it is rare in the mid-Peruvian coast (Burgess 1978). It is rare north of San Benitos Islands, Baja California, MX.<br/><br/>In the Galapagos Archipelago, this species had an overall mean density of 0.83 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density of 0.01+/-0.01 ind/m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.007+/-0.010 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.118% (Figueroa 2001).<span style="font-style: italic;"> Chaetodon humeralis</span> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).	eng
165635	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G. & Edgar, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>    The population in the Galapagos Islands was apparently unaffected by the 1997/98 El Niño event.	eng
165636	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.	eng
165636	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed from southern Japan (including the Izu Islands) in the north, through South Korea, to the northern Philippines Islands in the south (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from five to at least 20 m, but probably occurs much deeper (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165636	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is primarily associated with rocky coastal reef habitats (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates; animals form small to large aggregations (Pyle 2001).	eng
165636	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is common in the Izu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165636	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165637	conservation	Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	In view of the species' wide range, populations are present within several marine protected areas.	eng
165637	distribution	Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Caribbean from Florida and Gulf of Mexico to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Strays north to Massachusetts (Allen 1980) and has been reported from the eastern Atlantic. Also recorded from Bermuda (Carpenter 2002). It is known from 2-55 m depth.	eng
165637	habitat	Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species inhabits rocky and coral reefs and can occur singly or in pairs.  The diet is diverse, consisting of polychaete worms, coral polyps, crustaceans and mollusc eggs. Animals are monogamous (Whiteman and Côté 2004), forming pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).  Adults may form plankton-feeding aggregations of up to 20 individuals, and occasionally clean other reef fishes which join the group, such as grunts, parrotfishes and surgeon fishes (Sazima and Sazima 2001).	eng
165637	population	Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	It is generally a common species throughout its range.	eng
165637	threats	Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	No apparent major threats.	eng
165638	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>	eng
165638	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific (Pyle 2001), from the east African coast from as far south as Durban, South Africa (Burgess 1978), east to the Line Islands (Kiribati and USA) and Hawaii (Steene 1978), north to the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia and Tonga (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants have been recorded as far east as the Galapagos Islands (Chile) and the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico). It has been recorded from depths of 2-30 m.	eng
165638	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations of this species are associated with areas of rich coral in clear water lagoons and on seaward reefs. Adults occur as individuals or in pairs, and exhibit home-ranging behaviour. Juveniles are usually observed among branching corals. It is an obligate corallivore, but probably feeds on coral mucus, rather than coral tissue.	eng
165638	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread, but generally uncommon.&#160;This species is reliant on live coral for food, but population trends in relation to coral loss have not been studied.	eng
165638	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165639	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>	eng
165639	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is known only from the main Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Guam (USA), but populations are thought to probably be more widespread on the deep reefs of the central Pacific Ocean (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Usually occurs between 90-291 m in depth (Mundy 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165639	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165639	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165639	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165640	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended.	eng
165640	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the west, to the Pitcairn group in the east, north to South Korea, southern Japan, and south to southern New South Wales. This species has a depth range of 1-45 m.	eng
165640	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits areas of heavy coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs. Solitary individuals are most often encountered, but pairs or small groups are sometimes seen. Juveniles are common in shallow areas with coral and algal cover (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is a facultative corallivore.	eng
165640	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). No declines have been reported, even in areas with extensive coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165640	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species feeds on live coral, but there have not been any declines reported following coral loss (e.g., Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165641	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>	eng
165641	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indo-west Pacific from the Seychelles and Maldives to the Pitcairn group north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, and south to Lord Howe and Rapa Iti Islands. Records from the western and central Indian Ocean from the Seychelles and Maldives are likely based on vagrants (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). This species is found at depths of 1-36 m.	eng
165641	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in coral-rich areas, in lagoons and on outer reefs. Depth range is from 1-36 m. Feeds exclusively on coral polyps and exhibits home-ranging behaviour. Juveniles occur singly among the branches of hard corals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is unique among coral-feeding butterflyfishes as it tends to feed on mucous rather than coral tissue (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
165641	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common. This species has shown a substantial decline following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) in 1981, but has since recovered (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
165641	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment and was shown to decline following coral depletion in 1981 in a small part of its range, but has since recovered (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165642	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165642	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indian Ocean from the East African coast and Madagascar, to Sri Lanka, Cocos-Keeling Islands, Christmas Island, and western Sumatra, including all oceanic islands in between (Allen 1980). Found at depths from 8-60 m.	eng
165642	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Rocky or coral-covered reefs of lagoons and outer slopes (frequently seen adjacent to steep slopes and drop-offs), from 8-60 m. Feeds on algae and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165642	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is considered common in many parts of its range.	eng
165642	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165643	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165643	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Malayan region from northern Java east to northern Papua New Guinea and north to Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and Kashiwa-jima in southern Japan (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from 8-50 m in depth, however it is rare in less than 15 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165643	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with coastal reefs, usually in moderately deep water, and with rubble and sand slopes with scattered live coral outcrops. It is generally seen in pairs, although juveniles occur singly around coral outcrops. Adults prefer rubble or sandy bottoms where they forage on benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165643	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally uncommon.There is little data on the population, but there is no evidence for declines.	eng
165643	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. This is a generalist species and therefore coral loss in not thought to be a major threat.	eng
165644	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is present in any marine protected areas. It is recommended that further research is undertaken on the taxonomy, ecology, threats and distribution for this species.	eng
165644	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species has mostly been recorded from the western Indian Ocean at the Comores, Réunion (France), and Mauritius. However there are also sight records or collections from Indonesia (Bali and Sulawesi [Manado]), and the species is probably widespread on the deep reefs of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals are usually found at depths below 80 m, and are most common at depths of about 100-140 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165644	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Inhabits rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water. Specimens have been collected with a set-net at a depth of 80 m in the Bay of Saint Paul, Réunion (Allen 1980).	eng
165644	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Only a small number of specimens have been collected.	eng
165644	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
165645	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is present in any marine protected areas. It is recommended that further research is undertaken on the taxonomy, ecology, threats and distribution for this little-known species.	eng
165645	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species has been recorded from Palau (video observation) northwards along the Palau-Kyushu Ridge, and in the Maldive Islands in the central Indian Ocean. This species has been recorded between 125-332 m in depth (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It likely occurs in areas between the known distribution records (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165645	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations inhabit rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water.	eng
165645	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Only a small number of specimens have been collected.	eng
165645	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There is no information on major threats to this species.	eng
165646	conservation	Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. It is a poorly-known species with additional research needed into its habitat and ecology.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
165646	distribution	Rocha, L.A., 2009	<span>This Western Atlantic species ranges through parts of the Greater Antilles (including the islands of <span>Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola<span>) and Lesser Antilles to the northern Caribbean coast of Central America, and the northern coast of South America (where it ranges from Venezuela to Sã<span>o Paulo State in Brazil). It is found at depths of 60-250 m.</span>	eng
165646	habitat	Rocha, L.A., 2009	Inhabits rocky and/or reef slope areas in relatively deep water, usually between 100-200 m. The type specimen was taken at 60 to 250 m depth. Feeds on benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).	eng
165646	population	Rocha, L.A., 2009	Little is known about the population status mainly because the species occurs over deeper reefs. It is mostly known from specimens collected during trawls.	eng
165646	threats	Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165647	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>	eng
165647	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is restricted to the southern Red Sea, northern Gulf of Aden where it reached Oman (Kuiter 2002). Possibly as far east as Pakistan. This species inhabits depths of 1-30 meters.	eng
165647	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in most coral reef habitats, inner coastal reefs to outwards slopes. Also found on rocky reefs with areas of dead coral. Found predominantly in pairs, diet likely consisting of sessile invertebrates including coral.	eng
165647	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There is very little information known about the this species. Abundant in the Gulf of Aden and coast of Oman (Lieske and Myers 2004).	eng
165647	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.The sister species has showed some declines in population in French Polynesia but the reason for the declines are unknown (Berumen and Pratchett, 2006).<br/></p>	eng
165648	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas.	eng
165648	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed from the northwestern Indian Ocean to Thailand and southeast Indonesia as far east as Timor (Pyle 2001). Records include Oman, Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands and Ashmore Reef (Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Australia) in the Timor Sea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-40 m.	eng
165648	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits rocky, rubble or coral-rich areas, and is particularly common in turbid water (Allen 1980). It is a benthic feeder, and occasionally feeds from live corals (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165648	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common, especially on reefs in Sri Lanka (Allen 1980). There is no evidence of species declines.	eng
165648	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165649	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165649	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean from Socotra, the Gulf of Aden, along the Arabian Sea coast from Oman to Sri Lanka, and a record from northern Sumatra (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is found at depths from 2-65 m, often below 25 m.	eng
165649	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations are most often encountered on shallow continental shelf reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in pairs or small groups. The diet is omnivorous and includes algae and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165649	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common. There is no data on population trends for this species, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).	eng
165649	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165650	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.	eng
165650	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific, from southern Somalia to Cape Vidal, South Africa, to the Pitcairn group, north to southern Japan, south to central New South Wales and Lord Howe Island, Australia. It occurs at depths of 2-25 m but usually not above 15 m.	eng
165650	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits areas of prolific coral growth including both lagoons and outer reefs. The adults occur alone, in pairs, or sometimes in large groups; juveniles are solitary. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165650	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is relatively uncommon at most areas. There is no evidence for declines in the population.	eng
165650	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165651	conservation	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species occurs in marine protected areas.	eng
165651	distribution	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout most of the Indo-Pacific region. It has been recorded from the East African coast in the west to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Ducie Island (Pitcairn Islands, UK) in the east. The range extends from southern Japan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti (Austral Islands, French Polynesia) in the south. Vagrants are occasionally seen in the eastern Pacific at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). The species is very widespread with an approximate range size of ~81 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It is found at depths of 1-60 m.	eng
165651	habitat	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in lagoons and on outer reefs where it is most  commonly observed in rocky areas, either slopes or in the inter-tidal  zone (especially juveniles). Animals occur singly, paired, or in small  aggregations. Favoured food items include nudibranchs, tubeworm  tentacles, coral polyps and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It rarely feeds on live corals (Pratchett 2005), but has exhibited a decline in abundance from 1979 to 2003 at Moorea (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165651	population	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is a common species often with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165651	threats	Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165652	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.&#160;Research is required on the biology and ecology of this species.	eng
165652	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the western and central Pacific from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean and peninsular Malaysia) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), north to southern Japan, south to southern Great Barrier Reef, New Caledonia, and Tonga. It has a depth range of 2-30 m.	eng
165652	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is usually found in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on seaward reef slopes. Animals appear to prefer the shelter of caves rather than open areas (Steene 1978). It can be found as single individuals, in pairs, or in aggregations numbering up to 30 individuals. This species feeds on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.	eng
165652	population	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no evidence for declines in the population.	eng
165652	threats	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165653	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.   Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.  </p><p>    </p><p>Further research&#160; is required to address issues of hybridization between <em>C. pelewensis</em> and <em>C. punctofasciatus</em>.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
165653	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Found in the Southern Pacific Ocean, from Papua New Guinea to the Tuamotu Archipelag, south to Lord Howe Island. Abundant on the Great Barrier Reef and in the Coral Sea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 1-45 m in depth. Range size ~19.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165653	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Inhabits coral reefs  to at least 45 m and forms pairs (Pyle 2001). Feeds mostly on coral polyps, but also consumes benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Unlike most corallivorous butterflyfishes, it tends to prefer <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span> over <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165653	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/>    <p>Currently the most abundant species in Moorea, French Polynesia (mean of 4.1 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) and has increased in abundance over time due to increasing abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span> at this location (Berumen and Pratchett 2006)</p>	eng
165653	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165654	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas.	eng
165654	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean where it ranges from Somalia in the north to KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Populations have also been reported from the Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion and are probably found at Madagascar (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is generally found at depths from 30-200 m, although juveniles can be found as shallow as 8 m.	eng
165654	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This little-known species inhabits deep offshore reefs with rocky or coral rubble substrates.	eng
165654	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Relatively few specimens have been collected.	eng
165654	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165655	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures for <em>Chaeotodon multicinctus</em>. It occurs in protected areas (e.g., the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument encloses nearly 2/3 of the species' range). Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.</p>	eng
165655	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Burgess 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It generally occurs between five and 30 m depth, but may occur at depths up to 114 m (Chave and Mundy 1994).	eng
165655	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<em>Chaetodon multicinctus </em>is an obligate corallivore that shows a strong preference for the coral <em>Pocillopora meandrina</em> (Tricas 1989b, Cox 1994),<em> </em>is territorial (Tricas 1989a) and is a monogamous pair spawner (Reese 1975) with an elaborate courtship behaviour (Lobel 1989a) observed from March to July (Lobel 1989b, Tricas and Hiramoto 1989).   Tricas and Hiramoto (1989) report the onset of reproductive maturity for male <em>C. multicintus </em>at 62 mm, and for females at 44 mm corresponding to less than one year for both sexes (Tricas 1986).&#160; <br/><br/>Lagoon and seaward reef areas with prolific coral growth (particularly <span style="font-style: italic;">Porites</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pocillopora</span>). Frequently observed in pairs or small aggregations (Allen 1980). Juveniles present on shallow inshore reefs from April to September (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/><p></p>	eng
165655	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally very common with stable populations. <br/></p>	eng
165655	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion. Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165656	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It seems probable that the range falls into marine protected areas.	eng
165656	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed around the western Pacific Ocean rim, from southern Japan including the Izu Islands south to the Philippines and Indonesia (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in Palau as a vagrant (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths between 10-50 m.	eng
165656	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations of this species are typically found on outer reef slopes and drop-offs among live coral. Animals usually occur alone or in pairs, roaming widely across reefs in search of food (small benthic invertebrates and algae). The juveniles are shy, solitary, and tend to be restricted to confined areas close to shelter (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165656	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no reason to believe that it is declining (or increasing).	eng
165656	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is collection for the aquarium trade, but it is not thought to have an impact on the global population.	eng
165657	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165657	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the western Pacific from Vietnam to Fiji, north to southern Japan and south to Perth (Western Australia) and Lord Howe Island (Eastern Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Absent from Indonesia apart from northern Papua. There are most likely only juveniles found in the warm temperate parts of the range (M. Pratchett and M. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165657	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species lives in a range of coral reef habitats, from shallow lagoon environments to outer reef slopes. It occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs. Adults of this species are specialized, obligate corallivores, tending to feed mostly on <em>Pocillopora&#160;</em>(Pratchett 2005).&#160;Juveniles have been observed cleaning ectoparasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>This species recruits in low numbers and settles in live branching coral in reef habitats (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008). Consequently, there has not yet been any apparent recovery from population collapses recorded on the Great Barrier Reef in 2001 (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).	eng
165657	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This is a generally common species in most of its range. It is common  in the northern Great Barrier Reef (e.g., mean abundance of 0.58 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>)<st1:place w:st="on"> </st1:place>(Pratchett and Berumen 2008), but went locally extinct&#160; following severe coral loss in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
165657	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and recruitment. The population declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). There is no data on population trends elsewhere, but it feeds predominantly on <em>Pocillopora damicornis </em>(Pratchett 2005), <em></em>such that this coral species may provide a proxy for population declines; <em>P. damicornis</em> is currently listed&#160;as Least Concern. Coral loss has been very patchy throughout its range and it is unlikely that there have been substantial declines in the global population.	eng
165658	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Zapata, F., Lea, B., Merlen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	The range of this species overlaps with marine protected areas in the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands. Additional taxonomic research is needed to distinguish this species from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. falicifer</span>.	eng
165658	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Zapata, F., Lea, B., Merlen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This little known species appears to be largely endemic to the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), where the holotype was collected from Española (Hood) Island at a depth of 30 m, with additional records from Malpelo Island (Colombia) and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). It can be found a depths between 12 and 270 m (Robertson and Allen 2008).	eng
165658	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Zapata, F., Lea, B., Merlen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Little is known about the natural history of this species. This species inhabits rocky reefs in deeper waters.	eng
165658	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Zapata, F., Lea, B., Merlen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is moderately common below the thermocline at recreational diving depths in Galapagos, and is common in deep water in Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island.	eng
165658	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Zapata, F., Lea, B., Merlen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species has a restricted range with an area of occurrence likely to be on the order of only several thousand square kilometres. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.	eng
165659	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends, habitat status and harvest levels of this species is required.	eng
165659	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from southern Japan and Taiwan throughout the Coral Triangle, northern Thailand and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the Solomon Islands and the northern coast of Australia from the Gulf of Carpenteria to Sydney. It lives in depths of 1-25 m. Range size ~17.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165659	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits coastal and inner reefs, often in turbid water. It occurs either singly or in pairs. The elongated snout is adapted for feeding on benthic invertebrates from small crevices (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165659	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence of changes in its abundance.	eng
165659	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade, however, there is no data on how this affects the population.&#160;There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165660	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.	eng
165660	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is limited to the coastal tropical waters of northern Australia, where it ranges from the Kimberly Archipelago of northwestern Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-20 m.	eng
165660	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations are generally found on shallow coastal reefs (lacking live coral cover) with a muddy or silty substrate, or extensive algal cover as well as estuaries (Steene 1978). Adults are usually encountered in&#160; pairs (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001). It feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165660	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165660	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165661	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165661	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This Indo-Pacific species is distributed from India and Sri Lanka eastward throughout the Indo-Malayan region northward to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Ogasawara Islands (= Bonin) (Japan), Fiji, southward to the Great Barrier Reef and New South Wales (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 3-95 m.	eng
165661	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found in coastal and inner reef habitats, often in sandy or silty flat-bottom areas littered with sponge growth. Animals are sometimes found among seagrass. Generally occurs in pairs. Feeds on small benthic invertebrates and possibly sponges (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165661	population	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165661	threats	Rocha, L.A., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165662	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources). It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve which covers roughly two thirds of the known range of this species. <strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong></p>	eng
165662	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands where it is common and abundant throughout. It has been recorded at depths between 1-28 m (Chave and Mundy 1994).	eng
165662	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Although it is found in a variety of habitats, this species prefers rocky and coral reefs (Allen 1980). Juveniles frequent shallow, protected reef flats from April to September (Allen 1980). Most often observed as solitary individuals, but rarely in small groups of about 3-15 individuals (Allen 1980). It is omnivorous, feeding mostly on benthic invertebrates, especially polychaete worms (Randall 2005). Reproduction occurs in pairs (T. Tricas and P. Lobel pers. comm. 2008). Generation time is estimated at two years (T. Tricas pers. comm. 2008).	eng
165662	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Craig, M.T., 2009	The second most common butterflyfish in Hawaii during surveys during 1967-1968 (Allen 1980). It is common around the high islands in the southeast of Hawaii and in the leeward group (Allen 1980).	eng
165662	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Current levels of collection for the pet trade do not appear to be a threat to the species.<br/></p>	eng
165663	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Research on its natural history is recommended.<br/></p>	eng
165663	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This Western Pacific species is distributed from southern Japan (Ryukyu Islands and Izu Islands) as far south as the northern Philippines and east to the island of Taiwan (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of five to 20 m.	eng
165663	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Inhabits outer coral or rocky reef slopes and drop-offs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In the Japanese part of its range it is found over rocky areas, but farther to the south it is associated with coral reefs (Allen 1980). It is generally encountered in pairs or small aggregations (Allen 1980). It is an omnivorous species.	eng
165663	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In Japan it is reported to be common from Tanabe Bay (southern Honshu) southward (Allen 1980).<br/></p>	eng
165663	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There is some habitat degradation within the range of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165664	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species occurs in marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.	eng
165664	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species occurs in the Indo-west Pacific&#160;from the Maldives Islands and Sri Lanka to Papua New Guinea, north to the Philippines Islands and Palau, south to the northern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 2-40 m. Range size ~14.9 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165664	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are generally associated with coral-rich areas including both coastal and seaward reefs. It is usually found in pairs and feeds on corals and other sessile invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;Few detailed feeding observations have been completed for this species, but it is expected to feed on corals only rarely (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009). Recruits have only ever been observed within shallow coral reef habitats with rich growth of corals (mostly <em>Montipora</em>), but their reliance on live coral is currently unknown.&#160;This is among the largest of all butterflyfishes, and it is probably long-lived (>50 years) like its sister species <em>C. lineolatus</em>. Due to its longevity, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion.	eng
165664	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is rare on the Great Barrier Reef (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165664	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species appear to be reliant on live coral at settlement, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion.&#160;Currently, there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss.&#160;There is no data on effects of aquarium collections on this species. It is also targeted by artisinal fishers, however this is not thought to be a major threat to the global population. There do not appear to any other major threats to this species.	eng
165665	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon ulientensis</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165665	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Widespread throughout the central and western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to Tuamotu Islands and Pitcairn, north from southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrants have been found in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu).&#160;Its overall geographic range is ~45.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165665	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occupies habitats with good coral growth from lagoons to outer reefs slopes. Mostly seen in pairs, but also occurs singly or in aggregations. Large shoals sometimes occur at Tahiti and Fiji.&#160;Generally feeds on hard and soft corals (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), but can live in areas without coral.	eng
165665	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), b<a name="OLE_LINK3">ut uncommon in the northern Great Barrier Reef (mean of 0.06 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>;&#160;</a>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). There have been significant (50%) population declines detected in shallow reef habitats at Moorea (French Polynesia) and no recovery since 1981. However, this species is common on the deep reef slope in Moorea, especially at fish feeding sites (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).<p>&#160;</p>	eng
165665	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There is no data on the effects of aquarium collections, but collections are unlikely to have substantially affected the global population. This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165666	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165666	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This deep-dwelling species has been recorded from several scattered Indian Ocean localities including Coco-Keeling Atoll (Australia), Christmas Island (Australia), the Maldives Islands, Mauritius, Réunion (France), Amirante Islands and Cosmoledo Island (Seychelles), and the Chagos Archipelago (British Indian Ocean Territory, UK) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Ranges in depth from 22-80 m, but is usually encountered below 50 m.	eng
165666	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species generally inhabits steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs with growth of black corals and sea fans, with individuals also reported from deep rubble areas (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals usually occur in pairs or in small groups. This species feeds on benthic invertebrates and planktonic items (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165666	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165666	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165667	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish whether it is reliant on live coral.	eng
165667	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific, from Socotra to Mozambique in East Africa, to the Hawaiian Islands and Pitcairn group north to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, south to New Caledonia and the Austral Islands. This species has a depth range of 2-208 m. Range size ~74 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165667	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in outer reef areas, often in the vicinity of drop-offs. Usually occurs alone or in pairs. The diet composed mostly of small invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165667	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Declines in its abundance (50% decline) were documented following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) in 1980, and there has been no recovery to 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165667	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species was observed to decline in abundance following coral depletion at Moorea (French Polynesia) but it is unknown why this species would be sensitive to coral loss. There are currently no other threats to this species.	eng
165668	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determining the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165668	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) from the East African coast in the west to the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands and Tuamotu Islands including the Gambier group and Rapa (French Polynesia) in the east. Populations have been recorded as far north as southern Japan and south to New South Wales, Western Australia and Lord Howe Island (all Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths of 1-36 m. Range size ~71.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>	eng
165668	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is occurs on&#160;inner reef flats, in lagoons,&#160;and on&#160;moderately exposed outer reefs. It may be seen in areas with sparse coral growth (Steene 1978). Often occurs in pairs, but may also be seen alone or in small groups (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is a facultative corallivore, feeding on hard corals, as well as algae, polychaetes, and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
165668	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally very common, especially in Papua New Guinea and on the Great Barrier Reef (e.g., mean of 1.23 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). While populations have been lost following extreme coral depletion in Japan (Shibuno <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999), there was no decline reported during recent coral depletion in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <em>et al. </em>2006). Overall the population is stable.<br/><br/><span times="" new="" ;="">	eng
165668	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	While <em>Chaetodon citrinellus</em> has been shown to decline following very extensive coral depletion in Japan, there are no records of population declines elsewhere (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009). There are no other major threats to this species.	eng
165669	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for&#160;<em>Chaetodon lineolatus</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required. Research is required to confirm or understand the apparent reliance on live corals for this species.	eng
165669	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the East African coast and the Red Sea in the west to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA),&#160; from southern Japan in the north to southern New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 2-171 m.<br/>    <p>Very widespread: Range size ~78.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).</p>	eng
165669	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally associated with coral-rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs. It usually occurs in pairs, but solitary individuals and small aggregations are sometimes encountered (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species does occasionally feed on coral, but mostly&#160;consumes non-coral sessile invertebrates, such as <em>Spirobranchus</em>, zooanthids and clams (Pratchett 2005). Recruits have been found in areas with rich coral growth, but their reliance on live coral is currently unknown.&#160;This is the largest of all butterflyfishes, and there are unpublished reports that it may live >50 years. Because it is very long-lived, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion.	eng
165669	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. It settles in areas of rich coral growth (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008), but there have not been any documented declines in its abundance.	eng
165669	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species has been seen to recruit to live coral, but there have been no documented declines in abundance associated with extensive coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Adults are associated with coral reef habitats but do not rely on live coral for food. Because it is very long-lived, effects of recruitment failure may not be apparent for decades after coral depletion. There is no data on effects of aquarium collections on this species. It is also targeted by artisanal fishers, however this is not thought to be a major threat. There do not appear to any other major threats to this species.	eng
165670	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165670	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, northeast to the southern coast of Oman (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-20 m.	eng
165670	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with areas of rich coral growth in relatively shallow water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It usually occurs in pairs or as larger aggregations of up to about 20 animals. Generally rests beneath <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora </span>plate corals during the day becoming active in late afternoon. This species is an obligate corallivore.	eng
165670	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence to suggest any declines.	eng
165670	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species generally feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165671	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165671	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indian Ocean, ranging from the East African coast to Durban, South Africa and Madagascar, east to Sri Lanka, western Thailand and northwestern Sumatra (G.R.. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-30m.	eng
165671	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations are generally associated with rocky reefs rich in algae and coral-rich areas of lagoons (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It prefers areas with a high percentage of live corals (Allen 1980). Animals are generally found alone or in pairs, and roam widely over the reefs. Feeds on benthic algae and coral polyps (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165671	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Although populations appear to be stable, this species is relatively uncommon at most areas (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165671	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165672	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165672	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the central and western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to Pitcairn north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian Islands, south to northern New South Wales and Rapa Iti. It has a depth range of 3-60 m.	eng
165672	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs on outer reef slopes exposed to currents, and is particularly abundant in the vicinity of drop-offs. Forms large shoals containing up to several hundred individuals in some areas. Feeds high in the water column on zooplankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165672	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.</p>	eng
165672	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There is concern that global plankton productivity is going to decline with climate change, but it is currently unknown to what extent that climate change will alter availability of planktonic foods adjacent to coral reef habitats. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165673	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.<br/></p>	eng
165673	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, ranging from coastal East Africa to Raja Ampat (Indonesia),&#160; and Christmas Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of up to  20 m.	eng
165673	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in coral rich, protected areas in lagoons and on seaward reefs (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually encountered in pairs roaming the reef, avoiding other individuals of the same species (Steene 1978). It is an obligate corallivore that feeds on a wide range of different corals.	eng
165673	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	The species has declined significantly in Seychelles (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. It is unclear to what extent this affects the global population.	eng
165673	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has been shown to decline substantially (67%) following climate-induced coral depletion (Graham<em></em> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).</p>	eng
165674	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a few marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165674	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is widespread along the coastal deep waters of tropical West Africa (Allen 1980). It ranges from Senegal to the vicinity of the Congo River (Allen 1980). It occurs at the Cape Verde Islands and probably inhabits the offshore islands in the Gulf of Guinea (1980). It is a deep-living species, typically found between 15 to 140 m, however it has been photographed at 12 m in the Cape Verde Islands (Burgess 1978).	eng
165674	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is associated with deeper rocky reefs, it feeds on benthic invertebrates and is usually found in pairs.	eng
165674	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is common in the Cape Verde Islands and around the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, little is known about the population status of mainland African populations.	eng
165674	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165675	conservation	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known to occur in any marine protected area.</p>	eng
165675	distribution	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This southeastern Pacific species is known only from Pitcairn Island (UK) and the Illots de Bass (Rapa Iti and Marotiri, French Polynesia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is vagrant at Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1988). It has been recorded between 10-30 m in depth.	eng
165675	habitat	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs covered with algae and with some coral growth (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It commonly occurs in large aggregations, swimming in mid-water and feeding on zooplankton (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165675	population	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is particularly abundant on the reefs and rocky shores of Rapa Iti (Allen 1980).	eng
165675	threats	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165676	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Data is required to establish effects of extensive aquarium collecting for this species. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring. Research is required to establish the dietary requirements and coral reliance for this species.	eng
165676	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from northern Borneo (Malaysia) and Java to the Solomon Islands and north throughout the Philippines and south to Scott/Seringapatam reefs off the northwest Australian shelf and northern Great Barrier Reef. It occurs at depths of 1-50 m.<br/><br/>  Range size ~14.9 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165676	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in coral-rich areas of lagoons and outer reefs. It is most common on steep outer reef slopes and in reef crest channels. Occurs singly or in pairs. Feeds mainly on hard and soft corals (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). No detailed feeding information is available for this species, but it is likely to be an obligate corallivore like its sister species <em>C. melannotus</em>.	eng
165676	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. The sister species (<em>C. melannotus</em>) has been shown to decline substantially following extensive coral loss, but there is no data on population trends for this species.	eng
165676	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Almost definitely relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and is expected to decline following climate-induced coral depletion. There has been extensive coral reef degradation throughout the range of this species, but no data is available on population trends. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.	eng
165677	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species -conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Further general information is needed on the taxonomic status of several populations and ecology of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165677	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This deep-water species appears to be widely distributed in the western Pacific region, from southern Japan to northern Philippines (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). At tropical localities, the species ranges between 120-190 m in depth, but also occurs as shallow as 20 m in the temperate waters of Japan (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165677	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Populations are found in deep rocky areas, and feed mostly on benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, Gerald R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165677	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is seldom collected for the aquarium trade (Allen 1980).	eng
165677	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165678	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to assess the effects of aquarium collections on this species. Monitoring of this species is also needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.	eng
165678	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the tropical northwestern and central Pacific Ocean, from Taiwan to Fiji and Polynesia (including the Hawaiian Islands, Marquesas and Pitcairn Group), northwards to southern Japan including the Ryukyu, Bonin and Izu Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006) and&#160;south to Rapa. Single individuals have been found in the eastern Philippines and Solomon Islands which are most likely vagrants. <br/>The overall geographic range of the species is ~32.8 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).	eng
165678	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs almost exclusively on exposed seaward coral reefs, but is recorded at low densities within other coral reef habitats. It commonly forms pairs, but single individuals maybe also be seen. It is an obligate corallivore and feeds predominantly on <em>Pocillopora</em>&#160;(Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165678	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally uncommon except in some areas of the Hawaiian Islands, such as the Kona coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is also very common in Moorea, French Polynesia where a mean   of 1.35 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> was recorded in 2003&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This density is actually higher than densities recorded in 1979 and 1981 at the exact same locations. The global population is most likely stable.	eng
165678	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance following coral loss at Moorea (French Polynesia) &#160;in 1980-1881 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). It has since recovered and is now more abundant than it was prior to the coral loss, probably due to increases in the abundance of its preferred food, <em>Pocillopora</em>. There is no evidence that aquarium collections have substantially affected the global population for this species, and there appear to be no other major threats.	eng
165679	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in some marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165679	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is known only from the Society Islands, Rapa Iti, Marquesas Islands, and Tuamotu Archipelago (all French Polynesia) in the central-south Pacific Ocean (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found between 3-25 m in depth.	eng
165679	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is mainly found on shallow coastal habitats and in rocky reefs. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, but can form small aggregations (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001). There is limited knowledge of its diet, but it has been seen to feed off the substrate (M. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009) and plankton (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165679	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165679	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165680	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Research is required to assess its reliance on live corals for settlement.	eng
165680	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed from Sri Lanka&#160;and the Andaman Sea&#160;across the tropical southern Pacific Ocean to the Tuamotu Archipelago (Pyle 2001), north to southern Japan and the Ryukyu Islands and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia and Tonga. It inhabits&#160;depths between 1-20 m.<br/><br/>The overall geographic range of the species is ~34.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165680	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in areas of rich coral growth from coral reef lagoons to seaward reefs. It is usually observed in pairs.&#160;It feeds on a variety of items including coral polyps, anemones, and polychaetes. This species appears to settle in live coral (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998), but there have not been any documented declines in the abundance of this species following coral bleaching and coral loss.	eng
165680	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally uncommon, with the exception of some parts of&#160; New Guinea (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are no reported declines in the abundance of this species.	eng
165680	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Aquarium collections are limited and this species has not exhibited any declines in abundance following coral bleaching and coral loss.	eng
165681	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of its wide range this species is likely to be present within many marine protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of catches by aquarium collectors is required.	eng
165681	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed from the Indo-Malayan region throughout the tropical insular Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Sri Lanka (most likely a vagrant) in the west as far east as the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), and from southern Japan in the north south to New South Wales (Australia) and Rapa (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-30 m. Range size ~10.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>	eng
165681	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations inhabit a wide variety of coral reef habitats, being frequently found in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs. It occurs as solitary animals, in pairs or in small groups. The diet includes coral polyps, algae, sponges, fish eggs and benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species lives exclusively within coral reef habitats, but has&#160;limited direct reliance on live corals (Pratchett 2005).	eng
165681	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (mean of 0.46 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008). There have not been any recorded changes in abundance, even in coral reef habitats with extensive coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). The global population is most likely stable.<br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
165681	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade however there is no data on how this affects the population. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165682	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species appears to be present in marine protected areas surrounding both Lord Howe Island and the Kermadec Islands, with populations also likely to occur in other regional marine conservation sites. Additional research is generally needed into the natural history of this little-known species.	eng
165682	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species appears to be limited to the southwest Pacific, where it has been recorded from Lord Howe Island (Australia);  Norfolk Island (Australia); New South Wales and southern Queensland (presumably occurring along the eastern Australian coast) (Australia); the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand); New Zealand; and the Chesterfield Islands (New Caledonia) (Burgess 1978, Steene 1978, Francis 1993). It has a preferred depth of 10 to 150 m and is seldom encountered in shallow water (Steene 1978, May and Maxwell 1986).	eng
165682	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is commonly associated with rocky reefs containing areas of live coral (Burgess 1978, Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). While little appears to have been recorded on the natural history of this species it is presumed to form pair bonds during breeding, and to be oviparous. The diet is believed to largely consist of small invertebrates.	eng
165682	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Burgess (1978) notes that it is 'uncommon' in collections.   It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165682	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165683	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within several marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population and collection levels are recommended.	eng
165683	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, from the Red Sea and coast of East Africa in the west to the western Pacific rim in the east, recorded from southern Japan in the north to New South Wales (Australia) and the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) in the south (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Also found at the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and the Solomon Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between depths of 5-210 m, but is usually found below 15 m.	eng
165683	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is generally encountered on deep outer reef slopes, with populations inhabiting shallower water in cool upwelling areas in the tropics. Both adults and juveniles are usually encountered in aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Animals swim up to several meters off the bottom while feeding on zooplankton. The juveniles have been observed cleaning parasites from other fishes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165683	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species in common, and most abundant in sub-tropical localities (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are have been localized declines in the Philippines (K.Carpenter pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165683	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is some localized threat from the aquarium trade in the Philippines (K.Carpenter pers. comm 2009).	eng
165684	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral, and the threat of coral loss.</p>	eng
165684	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, from the East African coast from Socotra to South Africa, east to northern Sumatra and western Thailand including all islands in between and southern India (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). It is found at depths ranging between about 2-45 m.	eng
165684	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with lagoon and seaward reefs, where it is usually found in areas with abundant soft or hard corals. Occurs alone or in small groups. Feeds on a varied diet comprising hard and soft coral fragments, sponges, polychaetes, and filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165684	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165684	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species likely relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Currently this is not considered a threat, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165685	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to be present within marine protected areas.	eng
165685	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from the southwest tip of south Korea and southern Japan and the Ryukyu Islands, south to northern Java along the upper continental shelf including the Gulf of Thailand (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from four to at least 25 m in depth.	eng
165685	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with rocky reefs and coral areas. It is usually solitary, but pairs can be observed. Animals graze on algal-covered rocks, presumably supplementing this diet with other food items such as benthic invertebrates and coral polyps (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165685	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is most common off the coast of China (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165685	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165686	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, though it will require specific sampling methods to reliably estimate its abundance.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.</p>	eng
165686	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and western and southern Pacific Ocean. It has been recorded from the coast of East Africa and Madagascar in the west to the Mangarava (French Polynesia) in the east. It is found as far north as southern Japan (Kashiwa-jima), ranging south to Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths of 5-30 m.Range size ~66 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>	eng
165686	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Generally found in lagoons and outer reefs where coral growth is prolific (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles most often seen in shallower water among branching corals belonging to the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span>. Individuals have very large home ranges. While detailed feeding observations have not been completed, this species is an obligate corallivore.	eng
165686	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This is an uncommon species, occurring in low abundance throughout its range (e.g., mean of 0.03 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in Moorea, French Polynesia; Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This species is likely to decline in abundance following coral loss, but it is too rare to reliably sample using standard survey techniques. However, it is widespread and the global population is potentially large. It is usually observed as solitary individuals, but sometimes in pairs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>  <p></p>	eng
165686	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently, there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165687	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The geographic range of this species is partly within the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.<table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 364px; height: 1px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
165687	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island (Australia), and northern New South Wales on the east coast of&#160; Australia in the south-western corner of the Pacific Ocean (Steene 1978).  It is found at depths from 1-15 m.	eng
165687	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species has been observed in areas of rich coral growth in lagoons and on outer reefs (Steene 1978). There is no data on the biology, ecology or phylogeny of this species.	eng
165687	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is abundant in the lagoon at Lord Howe Island (Steene 1978). There is no data on population trends, but no reason to suspect it is declining.	eng
165687	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.&#160;It is unknown to what extent this species may be reliant on coral reefs and corals. The coral reef habitats within its known range have not been substantially affected by climate change and other disturbances. There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165688	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within marine protected areas.	eng
165688	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the southern tropical Pacific Ocean, from the Great Barrier Reef to southern New South Wales (Australia) and Lord Howe Island (Australia) to Easter Island including New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Samoa, Rapa, and the Pitcairn Islands (UK) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between 2-20 m in depth. The record at Easter Island is a vagrant based on a single record. Range size ~61.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>	eng
165688	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in a variety of marine habitats. It is usually encountered in outer and more sheltered inner reefs in areas of rich coral growth. It is occasionally found in estuaries, as well as rocky areas dominated by algal growth. Juveniles prefer protected inner reef areas. This species is most commonly seen alone or in pairs, but forms larger aggregations at some localities (e.g. Lord Howe Island).&#160;This species is reported to feed on coral (Cole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008), but appears to have limited reliance on live corals by virtue of its persistence in areas with no live coral (M.S. Pratchett pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165688	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no reason to suspect that populations are declining (or increasing).	eng
165688	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species feeds on coral when available, but also occurs in areas with no coral cover. Therefore, it is unlikely to be threatened by coral reef degradation. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165689	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Data is required to establish effects of extensive aquarium collecting for this species. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.	eng
165689	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the Indo-west Pacific, from the Red Sea through the Indian Ocean to Samoa. Northern limit of range is southern Japan, to south New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths ranging from 1-25 m.<p>  Range size ~60.3 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).</p>	eng
165689	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoons, seaward reefs, and reef flats. Occurs as individuals or in pairs, but noted to form aggregations, possibly to mass-spawn (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is an obligate corallivore, but feeds on both hard and soft corals (e.g., Pratchett 2005). It recruits to shallow coral reef habitats with rich coral growth, settling among branching <em>Montipora</em>.	eng
165689	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This is a generally common species. However, this species declined substantially (90% decline) following extensive coral loss in the central Great Barrier Reef in 2001 (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the population has shown no evidence of recovery (Pratchett <em>et al.</em> 2009). Declines in other parts of its range are unknown.	eng
165689	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Indian and Pacific Ocean, and localized declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There are no apparent major threats other than coral loss.	eng
165690	conservation	Rocha, L.A. & Pyle, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The species is not believed to be present in any marine protected areas.	eng
165690	distribution	Rocha, L.A. & Pyle, R., 2009	This little-known species is endemic to the mid-Atlantic Islands, where it has been recorded from Saint Helena and Ascension islands (both UK Overseas Territories) (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). It is primarily restricted to depths below 12 m (found to at least 35) but can be observed from 1-12 m at Hummock Point (Allen 1980).	eng
165690	habitat	Rocha, L.A. & Pyle, R., 2009	This species is found on rocky reefs, occasionally encountered in the shallower waters of its range in caves or at the bases of overhangs. Usually occurs in pairs, sometimes in large groups, which browse over the rocky substratum in search of benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980).	eng
165690	population	Rocha, L.A. & Pyle, R., 2009	It is rarely seen, but large groups can be observed in deeper reefs.	eng
165690	threats	Rocha, L.A. & Pyle, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165691	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within&#160;marine protected areas.	eng
165691	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is endemic to the Red Sea (common in the Gulf of Aqaba) and the adjacent Gulf of Aden (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths from 1-50 m.	eng
165691	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	This species is associated with coral reefs. It is most often encountered alone or in pairs, but large aggregations are also found. The juveniles may form large aggregations, especially in deep reef areas where corals are sparse. Diet includes zooplankton and benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;This species feeds on live coral, though it is not known whether this species is reliant on live coral for food.	eng
165691	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	It is generally common. There is no evidence that this species is declining.	eng
165691	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T., Pratchett, M. & Carpenter, K.E., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165692	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.	eng
165692	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed from Christmas Island (Australia) in the eastern Indian Ocean through Indonesia, New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Philippines east to Fiji. It ranges as far north as southern Japan, to northern New South Wales (Australia) and New Caledonia in the south (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found between 1-20 m in depth. Range size ~31.7 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).<sup> </sup>	eng
165692	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found within the clear waters of fringing reefs&#160;(Allen 1980). It is a territorial species&#160;and actively chases away other butterflyfishes encroaching on its food supply (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Mostly occurs in pairs. It is an obligate corallivore and feeds predominantly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals (e.g., Pratchett 2005), but it also occurs in habitats with no <em>Acropora</em> corals.	eng
165692	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It has declined significantly on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, in the Pacific bleaching has been patchy, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population.<br/>    <p>In some areas it can be a very common species: in the northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> the estimated mean is 1.67 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160; (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).</p>	eng
165692	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006).&#160;However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Pacific Ocean, and localized declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There do not appear to be any major threats other than coral loss.	eng
165693	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.&#160;</p>	eng
165693	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in the western Pacific Ocean from southern Vietnam, north and east to southern Japan (including Ryukyu, Izu, and Ogasawara Islands, north to southeast Honshu) including the southern coast of China, Taiwan, and southwest South Korea. It is found at depths of 1-30 m.	eng
165693	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs with some growth of coral and algae. The juveniles generally occupy tidal pools and shallow, protected rocky areas. Animals form aggregations but are also commonly seen alone. The species feeds mostly on small benthic invertebrates. Animals can survive in temperatures as low as 10°C in Japan (Allen 1980,  G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165693	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is reported to be common at southern Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu in Japan (Allen 1980).<br/></p>	eng
165693	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.&#160;Coral reef degradation has occurred within its distribution, but this species has no specific reliance on coral habitats.&#160;</p>	eng
165694	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2010	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.	eng
165694	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2010	This species occurs from western Sumatra and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, east to Tonga, north to southern Japan and south to central western Australia and southern New South Wales and Lord Howe Island (Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;Its geographic range is ~24.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). Found at depths from 1-30m.	eng
165694	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2010	This species inhabits coral-rich reefs of outer lagoons and seaward slopes, to a depth of 30 m. It is predominantly found in pairs, but often seen as solitary individuals. It is an obligate corallivore, but there is no data on its species dietary requirements.	eng
165694	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2010	This species is generally common. It is an obligate corallivore, but there is no data on population trends. It is presumed to be stable.	eng
165694	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2010	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165695	conservation	Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. There is a need to monitor populations within the Caribbean to record any declines. Quantitative data on catches for the aquarium trade are required.	eng
165695	distribution	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is known from the tropical northwestern Atlantic, where it ranges from the Carolinas (USA) to Venezuela. Populations occur in Bermuda and the Gulf of Mexico with vagrants being found as far north as Massachusetts (USA) in late summer (Burgess 1978, Carpenter 2002). It is found at depths of around 2-20 m.	eng
165695	habitat	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is relatively common in shallow rocky and reef areas with juveniles more common in seagrass beds (such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span>) (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002). Seen as individuals or in pairs. Feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002).	eng
165695	population	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This is the most common butterflyfish in the Caribbean (Allen 1980, Carpenter 2002). From 1993-2009 no substantial declines in abundance were recorded (REEF Database) for this species.	eng
165695	threats	Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. However habitat degradation has been implicated in causing declines in reef fishes in the Caribbean region (Paddack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). Collection for the aquarium trade is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165696	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.	eng
165696	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula to about 20 degrees north (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of between 1-40 m.	eng
165696	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are generally found on shallow coral or rocky reefs and in sandy lagoons (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Individuals roam widely over the reef while foraging (Allen 1980). It is most often encountered as single animals or in pairs (Allen 1980). It feeds predominantly on live corals.	eng
165696	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165696	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently, there have been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165697	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
165697	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed from the Andaman Sea in the west, from southern Thailand to the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia and north from southern Japan throughout the Coral Triangle and down the east coast of Australia to Sydney (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 3-30 m.	eng
165697	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs with live coral cover, as well as silty areas, in relatively shallow water (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in pairs (Pyle 2001). This is an omnivorous species (Pyle 2001), but like other <em>Coriadon</em> probably feeds predominantly on sponges.	eng
165697	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165697	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165698	conservation	Carlson, B., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is likely not within any protected areas due to its depth range, although this needs verification.<br/></p>	eng
165698	distribution	Carlson, B., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only from a few locations in the central Pacific Ocean including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Johnston Atoll (USA), and the Marshall Islands (Enewetak Atoll). It is presumably more widespread, but remains undetected because of its preference for deep water (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges from 6-160 m in depth, but is usually found from 30-160 m, being&#160; most abundant at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span> 122 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165698	habitat	Carlson, B., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs. Feeds on crabs, worms, and other invertebrates; forms pairs (Pyle 2001). Often found in the vicinity of steep slopes, solitary or in pairs and occasionally in small aggregations (Allen 1980).	eng
165698	population	Carlson, B., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is relatively common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There are localized periodic declines in some specific areas due to collection for the aquarium trade (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). However, this does not affect the global population.<br/></p>	eng
165698	threats	Carlson, B., Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Colletion is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.<br/></p>	eng
165699	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is present in marine protected areas, for example in the Ogasawara Islands.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
165699	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Japan where it has been recorded in southern mainland Japan (Sagami Bay southward), the nearby Ryukyu Islands, the  Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands, and the Izu Islands (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found in shallow waters to around 20 m depth.	eng
165699	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are found on rocky shoreline reefs in clear, shallow water. It forms large aggregations which range widely over rocky reefs grazing on algae and small benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165699	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Relatively rare at most localities except at the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165699	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165700	conservation	Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is not known from any marine protected areas.	eng
165700	distribution	Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in the tropical eastern Atlantic. It ranges from Cape Blanc and Levrier Bay (Mauritania) south to Congo.  It is also present at the Canary Islands (Burgess 1978).&#160; It occurs at depths of 10-150 m.	eng
165700	habitat	Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This coastal species is largely associated with rocky substrate, also trawled on sandy or muddy bottoms.  The species feeds mainly on bottom invertebrates. Animals are seen solitary or in pairs as adults, and usually forms pairs during breeding.	eng
165700	population	Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Very little is know about its abundance and population status. It is relatively common in Cape Verde (L. Rocha pers. obs.)	eng
165700	threats	Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	No apparent major threats.	eng
165701	conservation	Lea, B., Allen, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Robertson, R., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these.	eng
165701	distribution	Lea, B., Allen, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Robertson, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Santa Catalina Island in southern California, USA along the Baja California coast to the southwestern Gulf of California, Mexico, including Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands. It occurs at depths of 10-150 m.	eng
165701	habitat	Lea, B., Allen, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Robertson, R., 2009	This reef-associated species is usually solitary and is found in rocky, boulder strewn areas (Humann and Deloach 1993). It also feeds on crustaceans, worms and other small invertebrates (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975), and is known to remove parasites from other species.	eng
165701	population	Lea, B., Allen, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Robertson, R., 2009	Little is known about the population status mainly because it prefers deeper reefs. This species is common in deep water at Cabo San Lucas, as observed from submersible.	eng
165701	threats	Lea, B., Allen, G., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Robertson, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited in its deepwater habitat and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165702	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
165702	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from the Andaman Sea in the west, from southern Thailand to the Solomon Islands, and north from southern Japan and Taiwan, throughout the Coral Triangle and south to the central-northern and northern Great Barrier Reef and western coast of Australia to Shark Bay. It ranges in depth from 3-60 m	eng
165702	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is usually found on coastal reefs, sometimes among rocks or over rubble where coral growth is relatively sparse (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs as solitary animals or in pairs and is most abundant in relatively deep water and cooler areas exposed to upwelling. It is omnivorous, mainly eating sponges and tiny invertebrates which live on the sponge’s surface (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165702	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).&#160;It is very common at the Franklin Island Group off north Queensland (Steene 1978).&#160;There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165702	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165703	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Chaetodon aureofasciatus</em>. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>	eng
165703	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species ranges from southern Papua New Guinea to the tropical Australian coast between North West Cape and the Great Barrier Reef. It occurs at depths of 1-20 m. Range size ~2.7million km<sup>2 </sup>   from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998)<sup> </sup>	eng
165703	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Inhabits coastal and offshore reefs&#160;at depths of 1-20 m. It can tolerate relatively high percentages of freshwater and is frequently encountered in coastal areas in the vicinity of river mouths (Steene 1978). It forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001). It is an obligate corallivore (Pratchett 2005), but persists in areas of sparse coral growth.	eng
165703	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Common on the inner and coastal reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978). Mean of 0.3 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).<br/></p>	eng
165703	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165704	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring.</p>	eng
165704	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Widespread in the western Pacific from eastern Australia northwards to Japan and eastwards to the Tuamotu Islands and Hawaii. Also along the Western Australia coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at depths of 1-25 m. Range size ~56.6 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165704	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	The species is found in rich coral areas of lagoons and seaward reefs to depths of about 25 m. Animals are predominantly found in pairs. The species is an obligate, but generalist corallivore, capable of feeding on a very wide array of different corals (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Like most butterflyfishes, this species recruits in relatively low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently, recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
165704	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It has declined significantly in French Polynesia and the Great Barrier Reef (Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, in the Pacific bleaching has been patchy, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population. <br/>    <p>Very common species: mean of 2.38  individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern <st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef</st1:place> (Pratchett and Berumen 2008)</p>	eng
165704	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).&#160;However coral bleaching and coral loss has been patchy throughout the Pacific Ocean, and localised declines due to coral loss have not substantially affected the global population. There are no apparent threats other than coral loss.	eng
165705	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to occur within marine protected areas.	eng
165705	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is restricted to the Red Sea and adjacent Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be encountered at depths between 2-25 m.	eng
165705	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in coral-rich areas, especially over reef flats. Typically occurs as solitary animals or in pairs. It is a generalist feeder that feeds partly on live corals.	eng
165705	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common. There is no data on temporal trends in abundance, but no reason to suspect that it is declining (or increasing).	eng
165705	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There has been some habitat degradation of coral reefs in the Red Sea region, but it is not thought to have impacted the population. <br/></p>	eng
165706	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It believed to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
165706	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is distributed in the temperate coastal waters of southwestern and southern Australia, ranging from Shark Bay to Adelaide (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 9-60 m.	eng
165706	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found along coastal rocky reefs, particularly on vertical rock faces. The adults generally occur in pairs. The diet is comprised of small worms, crustaceans, and algae.	eng
165706	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165706	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165707	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals. Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165707	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This eastern Indian Ocean species has been recorded from Sri Lanka; southwestern India; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India);  the Maldives; the Mergui Archipelago (Myanmar); the Similan Islands (Thailand); and Weh Island (northwest of Sumatra, Indonesia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs in shallow waters up to 10 m in depth.	eng
165707	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species has been recorded in shallow coastal reefs and islands where it lives among live coral. The diet consists mainly of coral polyps. There have been no detailed specific feeding observations of this species but the sister species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. plebeius </span>is an obligate and specialised corallivore.<br/>    <p>This species most likely recruits in very low numbers and requires live branching coral for recruitment. Consequently, recovery from population collapse is likely to be slow (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
165707	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species is thought to be common. There is no information on the population trends. There may be inferred declines due to coral cover loss within its range due to bleaching events. Since this species relies on corals for its food, declines in coral cover would also mean declines in the population of this species. The sister species, <em>C. plebeius, </em>went locally extinct on the central Great Barrier Reef following severe bleaching and coral loss (Prattchet <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).<br/></p>	eng
165707	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). This species may also take a long time (10 years) to recover from a collapse in population due to its low   recruitment rate. Although there have been no documented declines, there has been substantial coral loss in the Maldives.</p><p>    </p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
165708	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165708	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia), Phoenix Islands (Kiribati), and Line Islands (Kiribati and USA) in the South Pacific Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 20-80 m.	eng
165708	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Found on rocky reef and coral reef slopes and steep walls adjacent to sandy bottoms, usually below 20-30 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165708	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is relatively common at depths of 25 to 40 m. The population at Christmas Island (in the Line Islands) is believed to be stable.	eng
165708	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165709	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas.&#160;</p>	eng
165709	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This west Indian Ocean species ranges along the East African coast from Kenya to Bashee (South Africa); with populations also present at Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius Islands and Réunion [France] and Rodriguez) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-55 m.	eng
165709	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found on rocky reefs with some coral growth. It occurs alone or in pairs. It is an omnivorous species which feeds on small benthic invertebrates (e.g., amphipods and polychaetes) and zooplankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165709	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165709	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165710	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165710	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed in the eastern Indian Ocean, mostly in the subtropical and temperate waters of Western Australia, from Montebelo Islands to Recherche Archipelago (Steene 1978). It has been recorded at depths of 1-40 m. Records from Bali, Indonesia, are probably misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. guentheri</span> (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998).	eng
165710	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are associated with coral and rocky reefs. This species forms aggregations that feed on algae and zooplankton (Steene 1978).	eng
165710	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165710	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165711	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is presumably present in a number of regional marine protected areas. Further field surveys are needed to better determine the distribution, natural history (its diet is unknown) and possible threats from coral reef degradation.</p>	eng
165711	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species ranges from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and the island of Taiwan in the north; through the Philippines; Indonesia (including Java, and the Anambas and Natuna Islands); the island of Borneo (Malaysian Borneo); to northwestern Australia (a few records from Western Australia and the Dampier Archipelago [Steene 1978]). It has been encountered between 1-30 m (Pyle 2001).	eng
165711	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species inhabits coral reefs and reef slopes (Pyle 2001), where it is often encountered in pairs or groups near soft coral. The species feeds on corals, crabs, worms, and other invertebrates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165711	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165711	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There has been widespread coral degradation throughout its range which may have impacted the population, although it is not known to what extent. <br/></p>	eng
165712	conservation	Carpenter, K.E. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165712	distribution	Carpenter, K.E. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is very widespread throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, from the Red Sea to the Society Islands. North to southern Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island and Rapa (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded as a vagrant from the Hawaiian Islands. The range size is ~76.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998). It is found at depths of 2-30 m.	eng
165712	habitat	Carpenter, K.E. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p><em>Chaetodon trifascialis</em> is an obligate corallivore with a strong preference and apparent survival dependency (Berumen and Pratchett 2008) on <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> but it has also been observed feeding on:&#160; <em>A. intermedia</em> (now recognized as <em>A. nobilis</em> and <em>A. formosa</em>), <em>A. gemmifera</em>, <em>A. millepora</em>, <em>A. florida</em>, <em>A. cytherea</em>, <em>A. tenuis</em>, <em>A. robbusta</em>, <em>A. cerialis</em> (Pratchett 2005), <em>A. clathrata</em>, <em>P. damicornis</em> (Graham 2007), <em>A. aspera</em> (Reese 1981), <em>Stylophora pistillata</em>, and <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> (Samways 2005).&#160;&#160;Most commonly occurs singly, sometimes also in pairs.</p>	eng
165712	population	Carpenter, K.E. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (e.g.,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">mean of 0.66 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> in northern </a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008), but very vulnerable to changes in the abundance of its preferred coral prey, tabular <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora </span>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It went locally extinct (100% decline in abundance) before and after a severe bleaching event (90% coral loss) in the central Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).&#160;The abundance and persistence of this species is highly linked to <span style="font-style: italic;">Acropora</span> corals (including <span style="font-style: italic;">A. hyacinthus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. cytherea</span>). The declines of these coral species can be used as a proxy for declines in abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. trifascialis</span>.	eng
165712	threats	Carpenter, K.E. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p><em>Chaetodon trifascialis</em> is an obligate corallivore on a number of corals that are susceptible to bleaching events and have undergone population declines throughout the Indo-Pacific ranging from 20 to 37% because of reef loss and have been assessed under Red List Criteria (Carpenter <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). It has been observed feeding on: <em>Acropora hyacinthus</em> (with a strong preference and apparent survival dependency); <em>A. intermedia</em> (now recognized as <em>A. nobilis</em> and <em>A. formosa)</em>; <em>A. gemmifera</em>; <em>A. millepora</em>; <em>A. florida</em><span style="font-style: italic;">;</span> <em>A. cytherea</em>; <em>A. tenuis</em>; <em>A. robbusta</em>; <em>A. cerialis</em> (Pratchett, 2005); <em>A. clathrata</em>; <em>P. damicornis</em> (Graham, 2007); <em>A. aspera</em> (Reese, 1981); <em>Stylophora pistillata</em>;&#160; and <em>Pocillopora eydouxi</em> (Samways, 2005). On reefs where it was observed in transects, it has been completely absent from transects after massive bleaching events (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).</p>	eng
165713	conservation	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.	eng
165713	distribution	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the tropical western and central Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It ranges from Taiwan and the Philippines to Polynesia, including the Hawaiian Islands (USA), Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) and the Pitcairn Group, in the north from the Ryukyu Islands in Japan, south to New Caledonia (France), Rapa Iti (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Ti is found at depths from 1-30 m.	eng
165713	habitat	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is most commonly encountered on exposed outer reefs, but is also occasionally found in coral-rich lagoons (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It usually occurs in pairs, but solitary individuals and small aggregations have also been recorded. This species is an obligate corallivore (Cole<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008), feeding predominantly on <em>Acropora </em>(Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165713	population	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>This species is generally common (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is v<a name="OLE_LINK3">ery common in Moorea, </a><st1:place w:st="on">French Polynesia</st1:place> (mean of 3.25 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>; Berumen and Pratchett 2006). This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance (by 60%) following coral depletion at Moorea in 1980, but populations had recovered by 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).</p>	eng
165713	threats	Allen, G. & Myers, R., 2009	This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and declined in abundance (by 60%) following coral depletion at Moorea in 1980, but populations had recovered by 2003 (Berumen and Pratchett 2006). There is currently no data on the specific dietary composition of this species, but it may be an <em>Acropora </em>specialist and thereby could be very vulnerable to sustained and ongoing loss of <em>Acropora </em>corals throughout the Pacific. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165714	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165714	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from Christmas Island (Australia) and Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) in the Indian Ocean, across the tropical Pacific (Pyle 2001), to Polynesia including the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and Easter Island, north to southern Japan and south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Rapa Iti Island.Vagrants occur in the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). It is found at depths of up to 60 m. Range size ~59.1 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165714	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs in small groups in coral reef flats, clear lagoons and seaward reefs. Particularly abundant where soft leather corals (<em>Sarcophyton</em> and <em>Sinularia</em> spp.) occur. Occurs in pairs and small aggregations. It feeds on soft and hard corals, and also on polychaetes, small crustaceans, and filamentous algae. This species is oviparous and forms pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is an obligate corallivore.&#160;While it feeds predominantly on soft corals in the western Pacific (Pratchett 2005), it feeds entiely on hard corals in Moorea, French Polynesia (M.S. Pratchett pers. obs.).	eng
165714	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common (e.g,&#160;<a name="OLE_LINK3">mean of 0.4 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;</a><st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160; </st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008).&#160;There have not been any reported declines in abundance, even in areas with substantial coral loss (Berumen and Pratchett 2006).	eng
165714	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There is no data on the effects of harvesting for this species, but it is unlikely that aquarium collectors and artisanal fisheries have substantially affected the global population. This species relies on live coral for food and/or recruitment, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165715	conservation	Rocha, L.A., 2009	It is not present in any protected areas.	eng
165715	distribution	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is endemic to Ascension and Saint Helena islands (both UK Overseas Territories) in the mid-Atlantic Ocean (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980). Vagrants have been found in the Canary Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). It prefers rocky areas from 1-25 m.	eng
165715	habitat	Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is associated with rocky reefs in shallow waters. Usually observed in pairs or large groups.  The species is monogamous, oviparous and forms pairs during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966, Whiteman and Côté  2004). The juveniles of <em>Thalassoma sanctaehelenae</em> have been observed cleaning this species of its parasites (Whiteman and Côté  2004). It is most often seen in pairs, but groups of 20 to 30 fishes are sometimes encountered (Allen 1980). The species often gathers to feed on refuse dumped into the Saint Helena harbour (Allen 1980).	eng
165715	population	Rocha, L.A., 2009	It is a moderately common species at Ascension and abundant at Saint Helena (Allen 1980).	eng
165715	threats	Rocha, L.A., 2009	There are no apparent major threats to this species.	eng
165716	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
165716	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This is the most widely distributed of all butterflyfishes (Range size ~106 million km<sup>2</sup>) from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998). It occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific from central Red Sea to Durban, South Africa to the west coast of central and northern South America north to southern Japan and the Hawaiian islands, south to central New South Wales, Lord Howe, Rapa and Easter Islands, including virtually all intervening tropical islands. It is absent from the Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea north of northern Yemen and the Laccadive Islands (India). It has been recorded at depths of 2-145 m.<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
165716	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species typically inhabits exposed outer reefs (particularly the crests) with abundant coral growth and caves and ledges. It is occasionally found within lagoon reefs. This species usually occurs in pairs, but may also be encountered as solitary animals or in small groups. It feeds on a wide variety of animal prey including hydroids, fish eggs, and small crustaceans, but prefers tube feet of echinoderms, pedicilaria of sea urchins, and polychaete tentacles (Myers 1991). This species may settle in live coral but is not not likely to be reliant on corals given its' latitudinal distribution beyond that of coral reefs. It is found on outer reef flats at various depths from shallow flats to very deep along walls (Kuiter 2002).	eng
165716	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no evidence of population declines.<br/><br/>There is a small resident population in the tropical eastern Pacific. It is moderately common at Clipperton, but is only occasionally seen elsewhere in tropical eastern Pacific. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is observed frequently enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll.&#160; According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), it is one of the rarest species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species was not found, even though it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). This species was not observed during a survey conducted at the Galapagos archipelago (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004).<br/>    <p><a name="OLE_LINK4"></a><a name="OLE_LINK3"></a></p>	eng
165716	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165717	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas (>50% of its distribution is contained within Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park). Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.	eng
165717	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species has a restricted range, and is distributed from Papua New Guinea along the Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island (Pyle 2001). Its geographic range size is estimated to be 1.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projections of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1998).	eng
165717	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Inhabits coastal and offshore reefs&#160;at depths of 5-20 m. It occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs (Pyle 2001).&#160;This species is an obligate corallivore (Pratchett 2005), which is consistent with marked declines in abundance following extensive coral loss (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). The species (like <em>C. aureofasciatus</em>) recruits in high numbers, which may enhance recovery potential.	eng
165717	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>This species is generally common (e.g., mean of 0.5 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>&#160;in northern&#160;<st1:place w:st="on">Great Barrier Reef;&#160;</st1:place>Pratchett and Berumen 2008).&#160;It has declined significantly on the Great Barrier Reef (Berumen and Pratchett 2006, Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006), where there has been coral loss and bleaching. However, bleaching has been patchy across the Great Barrier Reef, and it is unclear to what extent this affects the global population. This species is found on nearshore habitats, where there is considerable ongoing coral loss since the 1950s (MacCulloch<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2003). It is possible that there have been declines across more than 30% of this species' distribution, but this would need to be confirmed against data from the Australian Institute of Marine Science Long-term Monitoring Program.</p><p><br/></p><p> &#160;</p><p><br/></p>	eng
165717	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Relies on live coral for food and recruitment, and has declined significantly following climate-induced coral depletion on the Great Barrier Reef (Pratchett&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2006). Aside from coral loss and habitat degradation, there are no other major threats to this species.	eng
165718	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is likely to be present in many marine protected areas (e.g. Lord Howe Island Marine Park).	eng
165718	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This western Pacific Ocean species ranges from the island of Taiwan and southern Japan in the north, to southeast Australia in the south (Pyle 2001). Records include the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Indonesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Lord Howe Island, coastal New South Wales and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from five to at least 50 m.	eng
165718	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are usually found over rocky reefs as well as coral-rich outer slopes. In tropical areas it frequents slopes adjacent to deep water exposed to cool upwellings (e.g. Bali, Komodo, and northern Sulawesi [all Indonesia]). Feeds on plankton and forms small to large aggregations (Pyle 2001).	eng
165718	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  It is probably more common in the subtropical and temperate portion of its range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165718	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165719	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.	eng
165719	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout the Indian Ocean,&#160; from coastal East Africa, south to Sodowana Bay, South Africa in the west, to western Thailand in the Andaman Sea and Java in the east, and north to the eastern tip of Oman, including Madagascar and all major western Indian Ocean island groups. It ranges in depth from 1-60 m.	eng
165719	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is typically encountered on outer reef slopes exposed to currents. It is a planktivorous species which forms large aggregations numbering up to several hundred individuals (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species retreats to coral reef habitats when threatened.	eng
165719	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is common and abundant (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165719	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There is concern that global plankton productivity is going to decline with climate change, but it is currently unknown to what extent that climate change will alter availability of planktonic foods adjacent to coral reef habitats. There appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165720	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is believed to occur within marine protected areas.&#160;Monitoring of the population trends and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
165720	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the temperate coastal waters of southeastern Australia from southern Queensland to Jervis Bay, New South Wales (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-70 m.	eng
165720	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is found in coastal bays and estuaries along deep rocky walls. The adults are usually observed in pairs, and the juveniles are often solitary (Steene 1978). It feeds on small crustaceans, worms, and filamentous algae (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165720	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is no reason to believe that the population is declining.	eng
165720	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165721	conservation	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources.). It is present within marine protected areas, for example, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument<strong style="font-weight: normal;">, a no-take marine reserve that encompasses 2/3 of the species range.<br/></strong>	eng
165721	distribution	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Burgess 1978, Randall 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is known to occur to at least 250 m depth.	eng
165721	habitat	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Habitat for this species includes coastal fringing reefs, lagoons, and outer reefs to at least 250 m depth. Juveniles are found on shallow inner reefs from April to June. The species feeds in mid-water on zooplankton, supplementing the diet with benthic invertebrates (especially polychaete worms) and fish eggs (particularly those of damselfishes) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).<br/><br/>The species may form large groups and spawns in groups from January through May (Ralston 1981).   Ralston (1976a) reported that the onset of reproductive maturity in <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodon</span><em> miliaris </em>begins at 90 mm standard length, which is equivalent to one year of age (Ralston 1976b).<br/><br/>  The mean size of <em>C. miliaris</em> in Hawaii reported by Ralston (1981) was ~105 mm corresponding to approximately two years of age.<br/><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
165721	population	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is very abundant in the Hawaiian Islands, but very rare at Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, M. Craig pers. obs. 2005, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, P. Lobel pers. comm. 2007). Populations are generally stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165721	threats	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165723	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Ongoing monitoring of&#160;&#160;catches by aquarium collectors is required.&#160;Research is required to establish its specific dietary requirements and reliance on coral.	eng
165723	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This Indo-Pacific species is distributed from the southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula, the Gulf of Oman and Maldive Islands in the east to the Indo-Malayan region, the Spratley Islands and the Philippines (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found at depths from 1-20 m.	eng
165723	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs on rocky shoreline reefs and coral-rich outer reefs in relatively shallow water (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually seen in pairs, but can form large aggregations. It feeds predominantly on coral polyps when available, but also occurs in areas where coral is scarce (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165723	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165723	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species feeds on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). However, it naturally occurs in coastal habitats with limited coral, where it appears to feed on algae (Allen <em>et al. </em>1998). There have been no documented declines in the abundance of <em>C. collare </em>associated with coral loss, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165724	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely present within marine protected areas. Monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring, as well as determination of the degree of co-dependence between this species and corals.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165724	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is restricted to the Arabian Gulf, southern Arabian Peninsula (Gulf of Oman to Gulf of Aden), and southern Red Sea (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Randall (1994) showed that the alleged type locality of Réunion is probably an error.   It is found at depths between 2-16 m.	eng
165724	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is usually found in coastal reefs rich in coral growth interspersed with sand patches (Allen 1980). Animals are usually encountered in pairs, but sometimes observed in larger aggregations numbering in excess of 20 individuals (Allen 1980). It feeds predominantly on live corals.	eng
165724	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165724	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A., Craig, M.T. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species feeds predominantly on live coral, and may therefore decline in abundance following climate-induced coral depletion (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;et al.&#160;</span>2008). Currently there has been no documented declines in its abundance, and there appear to be no other major threats to this species.	eng
165725	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165725	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species occurs from Sri Lanka to the Marquesa and Gambier Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to the central Great Barrier Reef, Tonga and Cook Islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-50 m, but usually less than 25 m. Range size ~41.2 million km<sup>2</sup>, from values estimated by Jones <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2002) based on projection of distribution maps from Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (1998).	eng
165725	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Found in areas of prolific coral growth on lagoon, coastal reefs and semi-protected outer reef slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The species is omnivorous and occurs solitary or in pairs (Pyle 2001).	eng
165725	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	The population is thought to be stable and is relatively uncommon throughout its distribution (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species is rare in the northern Great Barrier Reef&#160; (mean of 0.01 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) (Pratchett and Berumen 2008).	eng
165725	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165726	conservation	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	There appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165726	distribution	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is known from the Arabian Sea along the coast of Oman and Yemen.  It has been recorded from depths of 5-25 m.	eng
165726	habitat	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This species is associated with rock and rubble slopes, but may also be found around coral patches on sandy slopes. Animals are usually found in pairs, but can also be encountered singly or in larger aggregations. The diet is comprised mostly of benthic invertebrates and algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165726	population	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165726	threats	Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
165727	conservation	Pyle, R., 2009	<p>It is not known if populations of this species are present within protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this little-known species.</p>	eng
165727	distribution	Pyle, R., 2009	This species is known only from a few specimens collected from the San Felix Islands of Chile (Burgess 1978, Allen 1980), and recorded from Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Animals at the San Felix Islands were captured at a depth of 30-40 ft (~9-12 m) (Burgess 1978) and below 60 m asl at Easter Island (DiSalvo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007, R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165727	habitat	Pyle, R., 2009	The natural history of this species is quite poorly-known. It is generally considered to be associated with rocky reefs.	eng
165727	population	Pyle, R., 2009	It has only been recorded on a few occasions and little is known about the species' abundance.	eng
165727	threats	Pyle, R., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165728	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. orizabensis</em>, and the species is not currently  known to occur within the protected areas network.	eng
165728	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea orizabensis</em> is endemic to Mexico (Jalisco and Veracruz provinces). <em>D. orizabensis</em> was believed to be restricted to Veracruz province, but Espejo Serna and Lopez Ferrari (1996) report that the species also occurs in Jalisco province.	eng
165728	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. orizabensis</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in mountain forests.	eng
165728	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165728	threats	Contu, S., 2009	Specific threats to this species are unknown.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165729	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>Dioscorea bernoulliana</em>, but the species might occur in some protected areas such as the Sian Ka'An Biosphere Reserve, The Balaan Kaax Flora and Fauna Protection Area (Mexico), Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve (Honduras), as specimens have been collected from areas near to the above mentioned protected areas.	eng
165729	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea bernoulliana</em> is distributed in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras.	eng
165729	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. bernoulliana</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in moist or wet thickets or forest, also found in mangrove swamp in the middle of forest.	eng
165729	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165729	threats	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known threats for the species. The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165730	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. longituba</em> and the species is not currently known to occur within or near any protected area.<br/><br/>Further botanical surveys should be carried out in order to better understand the distribution of this species and its population trends, to ensure that <em>D. longituba</em> does not fall into a threatened category in the future.	eng
165730	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea longituba</em> is distributed in Mexico (México State, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Nayarit, Michoacan de Ocampo and Jalisco).	eng
165730	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. longituba</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which has been collected on stone fences, on cliffs and near water. <em>D. longituba</em> has been collected in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests ecoregion (WWF Ecoregions, accessed 2009).	eng
165730	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165730	threats	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known threats for the species. The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165731	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. wallichii</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network.	eng
165731	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea wallichii</em> is distributed from India to China and to Peninsula Malaysia (China, Assam, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand).	eng
165731	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. wallichii </em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows on various large shrubs or trees in mixed deciduous forests, on mountain slopes, also occurs in disturbed areas along roadsides and margins of cultivated areas.	eng
165731	population	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. wallichii </em> is a common species found in forests and in disturbed habitat.	eng
165731	threats	Contu, S., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165732	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. pseudomacrocapsa</em>, but the species is known to occur in some protected areas (e.g., Santa Genebra Reserve).	eng
165732	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea pseudomacrocapsa</em> occurs in southeastern Brazil.	eng
165732	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. pseudomacrocapsa</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte which grows in tropical forests.	eng
165732	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165732	threats	Contu, S., 2009	There are no major threats known for the species.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165733	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. trilinguis</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network (e.g., Serra de Paranapiacaba Natural Reserve).	eng
165733	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea trilinguis</em> is distributed in southeastern Brazil.	eng
165733	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	This climbing tuberous geophyte grows in ombrophile (tropical) forest, and has also been found growing in the Brazilian dry forest habitat, Caatinga (Mattos Silva 283a) and on clay soil (Sucre 6627).	eng
165733	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no precise population data available for this species, but <em>D. trilinguis</em> appears to be widespread and hence common.	eng
165733	threats	Contu, S., 2009	Although there are no known direct threats to <em>D. trilinguis</em>, Caatinga forest has been severely modified through farming, agro-ecosystem development, afforestation and very little of the habitat was actually protected (1%), until the remaining habitat was finally included in the UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve in 2001.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165734	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. sericea</em>, but the species is currently believed to occur within the protected areas network, as one collection from Peru was made either within or along the perimeter of the Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve. Seed of <em>D. sericea</em> should be collected and stored in the Millennium Seed Bank as an <em>ex situ</em> conservation measure.	eng
165734	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea sericea</em> occurs in Colombia and Peru.There are two collections from Colombia, one of which is the type specimen (<em>Triana</em> s.n.) and another one which was collected in 1876 (<em>Andre</em> 1790), but no recent herbarium specimens are known for this species. <em>D. sericea</em> is also currently known to occur in two provinces of Peru: Piura (<em>Díaz</em> 2738) and Loreto (<em>Gentry</em> 31321); however, the species was not listed in a recent monograph on Peruvian Dioscoreaceae (Flores 1998).	eng
165734	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. sericea</em> is a climbing tuberous geophyte. Precise data on habitat and ecology for this species is not currently available, but the species is believed to occur in moist and montane forests (Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests ecoregions, (WWF Ecoregion, accessed 2009)), and the altitude range is between 130 - 2,800 m.	eng
165734	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165734	threats	Contu, S., 2009	No specific threats to this species are known, but the Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests and Napo moist forests ecoregions are generally threatened by forest clearance for agricultural conversion, especially for cattle pasture and coca (<em>Erythroxylum coca</em>) plantations.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165735	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. tenuifolia</em>, but the species is currently known to occur within the protected areas network.	eng
165735	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea tenuifolia</em> is found from Thailand to Sumatera (Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatera and Peninsular Thailand).	eng
165735	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	This climbing tuberous geophyte grows in mixed deciduous forest on slopes with well-drained soils and in moist evergreen forests between 50 and 450 m elevation.	eng
165735	population	Contu, S., 2009	This appears to be a common species in Singapore and occurs over a wide area (Thapyai <em>et al</em>. 2005), it has also been described as common on hill slopes in mixed deciduous forests (Narathiwat province, Thailand).	eng
165735	threats	Contu, S., 2009	No direct threats to <em>D. tenuifolia</em> are known, but a more general threat to the mixed deciduous forests and to the evergreen forests is the large-scale clearance for plantations and agriculture (WWF Ecoregion, accessed 2009).<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165736	conservation	Contu, S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures specifically for <em>D. nana</em>, but the species is known to occur in a protected area (Nahuelbuta National Park).	eng
165736	distribution	Contu, S., 2009	<em>Dioscorea nana</em> is endemic to Chile.	eng
165736	habitat	Contu, S., 2009	<em>D. nana</em> is a tuberous geophyte which was discovered by Poepping on the Antuco cordillera, Chile (Gay 1853).	eng
165736	population	Contu, S., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
165736	threats	Contu, S., 2009	Specific threats to this species are unknown.<br/><br/>The genus <em>Dioscorea</em> (the yams) contains a number of species exploited for economic purposes; these include for nutrition and materials for the pharmaceutical industry (for the production of sex hormones and corticosteroids). Other species are not exploited or are only cultivated locally on a small scale.	eng
165760	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165760	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165760	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
165760	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Pisidium langleyanum</em> is mainly a South African species, but is also recorded in Lake Bangweulu.	eng
165760	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Pisidium langleyanum</em> is mainly a southern African species, and is also recorded in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded in Lake Bangweulu (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is described from Port Elizabeth and known widely across South Africa, including Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Northwest Provinces (Kuiper 1964, 1966). It is also present in the karstveld of Namibia (Curtis 1999, Appleton and Curtis in press).	eng
165760	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Described from Port Elizabeth and known widely across South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Northwest Provinces) (Kuiper 1964; 1966a). Also the karstveld of Namibia (Curtis 1999;  Appleton & Curtis in press) and Lake Bangweulu (Zambia) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165760	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in freshwater rivers and lakes.	eng
165760	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Genus found in lakes and rivers, and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988). One of the localities for <em>P. langleyanum</em>, Lake Chrissie, is seasonal.	eng
165760	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.	eng
165760	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
165760	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165760	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165760	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165760	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165760	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165761	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165761	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165761	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None.	eng
165761	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None conservation measures are proposed.	eng
165761	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165761	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
165761	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165761	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lymnaea natalensis</em> is widespread in most of Africa.	eng
165761	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Lymnaea natalensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa, but it is rare in the northeast coastal area.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Ranging from the Nile Delta and throughout, and is very common. In the Maghreb it is only found in a few localities (three sites in Algeria). There were many prehistoric location in Algeria (8-10,000 years ago).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is probably prevalent in the the whole region<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in southern Africa apart from ephemeral systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the western Cape Province of South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in all countries in western Africa.	eng
165761	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a very common species ranging from the Nile Delta to the Cape. In the Maghreb it is only found in few localities (three sites in Algeria), although it is known from many prehistoric locations in Algeria (8-10,000 years ago). Its type locality is in Natal, South Africa.	eng
165761	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Widespread in Southern Africa apart from ephemeral systems in Namibia and Botswana, and the Western Cape Province of South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution: </span>Widespread in tropical Africa, but rare in the north-east coastal area.	eng
165761	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from outside eastern Africa.	eng
165761	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is probably preent in the the whole region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species distribution ranges from the Nile Delta to the Cape and very common.  The type locality is Natal, South Africa.	eng
165761	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is present in all of the countries in western Africa.	eng
165761	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	All kinds of stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies. Rare and seasonal pools (aestivation up to 6 months has been reported). Vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock and eradication is attempted.	eng
165761	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in all permanent freshwater systems including artificial ones such as dams, irrigation canals and rice paddies. Not found in headwaters.<br/><br/>Host for <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> (Giant Liver Fluke).	eng
165761	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Inhabits permanent water bodies.	eng
165761	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in permanent water bodies.	eng
165761	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Occurring in most regional permanent streams and impoundments like small dams where they can withstand drought for several months. Can withstand moderate pollution. Very adaptable to newly constructed dams. Concentrated in wetland sections characterized by high density of aquatic vegetation.	eng
165761	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This rare species is present in all kinds of stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies. It has been reported on seasonal pools (an aestivation period up to 6 months has been reported). It is vector of <em>Fasciola gigantica</em> which affects livestock and therefore considered as a pest.	eng
165761	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in permanent streams and impoundments, such as dams. It is very common throughout sub-saharan Africa. It is tolerant to disturbance, present everywhere and can cope with some drying out (but not pools which completely dry out).	eng
165761	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	A very common species.	eng
165761	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165761	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165761	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165761	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165761	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165761	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
165761	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	In southern Africa, it may be being displaced by the invasive <em>Lymnaea columella</em>.	eng
165761	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Main threat is eradication for disease control.	eng
165761	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
165761	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165761	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None known.	eng
165761	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165761	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None main threats known to the species.	eng
165762	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165762	conservation	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165762	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165762	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Gwebi river Zimbabwe (flows south to Lake Manyame, approximately 50km west of Harare) (Kuiper 1966b). Also in the Maunachira Channel (Moremi Game Reserve, Okavango Delta, Botswana (19<sup>o</sup>0922.1S : 23<sup>o</sup>1612.8E) (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also Madagascar (Nosi-Be) and the southern part of Lake Malawi.	eng
165762	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from southern Lake Malawi to 30-40 feet deep. It also occurs in other parts of Africa.	eng
165762	distribution	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Madagascar (Nosi-Be), Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is restricted in southern Lake Malawi to 30-40 feet depth. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Gwebi river Zimbabwe (which flows south to Lake Manyame, approximately 50 km west of Harare) (Kuiper 1966). It is also found in the Maunachira Channel (in Moremi Game Reserve, Okavango Delta, Botswana (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
165762	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented as thriving in lakes to 30-40 feet deep.	eng
165762	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S and Appleton, C., 2006	Genus found in lakes and rivers, and small water bodies (Mandahl-Barth 1988). This species is found in fine sandy substratum (75-300µm) out of the flow at channel margins (Appleton et al 2003). It is rare.	eng
165762	habitat	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is documented as thriving in lakes to 30-40 feet deep.	eng
165762	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S and Appleton, C., 2006	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
165762	population	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165762	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165762	threats	Appleton, C., Darwall, W., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165762	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165762	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165763	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165763	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165763	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2003	No information available.	eng
165763	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165763	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165763	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Nicayenzi, F.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165763	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Segmentorbis kanisaensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
165763	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Nicayenzi, F.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Segmentorbis kanisaensis</em> is widespread in tropical Africa (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Ethiopia and south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in northern Angola, Lower Zambesi, Okavango and Chambezi rivers, northern Mozambique and the lowland coastal strip of KwaZulu-Natal to Durban. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in West Africa from Chad to Gambia.	eng
165763	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Northern Angola, Lower Zambesi and Chambezi rivers, northern Mozambique and the lowland coastal strip of KwaZulu-Natal to Durban. An outlying record exists from the Okavango river at Rundu (Namibia).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> mainly the tropical regions of Africa (Brown 1994).	eng
165763	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.	eng
165763	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2003	The species is found in marshes as well as temporary rain pools across tropical Africa.	eng
165763	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in West Africa from Chad to Gambia. It also occurs in other areas of Africa.	eng
165763	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in permanent marshes, marginal vegetation of streams and rivers and also temporary rainpools (Brown 1994).	eng
165763	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in various smaller waterbodies both permanent and temporal.	eng
165763	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits permanent marshes and also found in temporary rainpools (Brown 1994).	eng
165763	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2003	Lives in marshes and pools.	eng
165763	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in marshes and pools.	eng
165763	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Nicayenzi, F.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in various smaller waterbodies both permanent and temporal.	eng
165763	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165763	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2003	No information available.	eng
165763	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165763	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Nicayenzi, F.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165763	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information, but likely to be overlooked because of its small size, and likely to be more common than is currently known (Brown 1994).	eng
165763	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165763	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165763	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is threatened by water pollution, and sedimentation.	eng
165763	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Nicayenzi, F.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165763	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165763	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2003	Threats include water pollution, sedimentation.	eng
165763	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165764	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165764	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165764	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B. and Kristensen, T.K., 2006	One of the populations is found in the Kafue National Park.	eng
165764	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	In central Africa, <em>Lobogenes michaelis</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. It is recorded from the Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe from different sites close to the Zambian border. This species was originally described from specimens collected from the source of the Kimilolo River. It is also known from Zambia on Kafue River. DBL has additional records from Elizabethville (Lumbumbashi). The species was last recorded by Hershler and Thompson (1992) from Lake Katebe. It is easily overlooked in survey samples therefore it may be under-recorded.	eng
165764	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B. and Kristensen, T.K., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Three, possibly four, separate populations are known. In Namibia, it is found in the Kwando river floodplain at Singalamwe (East Caprivi) (Brown et al 1992). It is also found in the Kafue river south of Kafue and in the Moshi salt spring in Kafue National Park. An unconfirmed record of the species in the panhandle of the Okavango delta was given by Jansen van Rensburg (2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from DRC Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe (South Eastern DRC).	eng
165764	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	This species is found in central and southern Africa in DRC, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Lobogenes michaelis</em> occurs in southeastern DRC. It is recorded from the Lubumbashi area and Lake Katebe, from different sites close to the Zambian border. This species was originally described from specimens collected from the source of the Kimilolo River. DBL has additional records from Elizabethville (Lumbumbashi). The species was last recorded by Hershler and Thompson (1992), from Lake Katebe. It is easily overlooked in survey samples therefore it may be under-recorded.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> There are three or possibly four separate populations known. In Namibia, it is found in the Kwando river floodplain at Singalamwe (East Caprivi) (Brown <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is also found in the Kafue river south of Kafue and in the Moshi salt spring in Kafue National Park. A record of the species in the panhandle of the Okavango delta was given by Jansen van Rensburg (2001).	eng
165764	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B. and Kristensen, T.K., 2006	Found in a wide variety of habitats including rivers and streams, muddy pools and also recorded from warm salty springs.	eng
165764	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	Highly varied: streams flowing over gravel, muddy pools, salty springs with blue-green algae (Brown 1994). In regions with swamps.	eng
165764	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Highly varied: streams flowing over gravel, muddy pools, salty springs with blue-green algae (Brown 1994). In regions with swamps.	eng
165764	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	Low population densities, not common.	eng
165764	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165764	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B. and Kristensen, T.K., 2006	This species is apparently rare (Brown et al 1992).	eng
165764	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B. and Kristensen, T.K., 2006	Increasing water extraction for the area of Kafue, including Lusaka, has the potential to impact the population south of the city in the Kafue river (Kristensen pers com). There are also two dams downstream from this population, the impacts to the species are unknown.<br/><br/>The population in the Kwando river floodplain was last recorded in 1985. Since then a large molluscide trial has taken place along the river but no surveys have taken place so the impacts of the trial are not known (Curtis pers com).	eng
165764	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No known major threats.	eng
165764	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats in region.	eng
165765	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165765	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165765	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to gain information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165765	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165765	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165765	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None conservation measures proposed.	eng
165765	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165765	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Pila ovata</em> ranges from Lower Nile, Sudan, southwards to northern Mozambique and westwards to southern Nigeria. Also found in DRC, eastern Africa, and in an oasis in Egypt (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The species occurs in southeastern DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common and widespread in Nile (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), and is also present in Lake Qarun, Siwa, Nasser. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Sudan. Records from south Ethiopia need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The only record of the species in this region is from northern Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is recorded in southern Nigeria.	eng
165765	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pila ovata</em> ranges from Sudan to Mozambique and westwards to southern Nigeria. In central Africa, the species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
165765	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Northern Mozambique, only one record of the species exists in this region.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Lower Nile, Sudan and southwards to northern Mozambique.	eng
165765	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Widespread. Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi. <br/>Distribution map restricted to Uganda and Kenya due to limited geographic information.	eng
165765	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan. Records from south Ethiopia need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Lower Nile, Great Lakes region south to Mozambique and westwards to Nigeria.	eng
165765	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is wide spread in northern Africa and known from the Lower Nile till Mozambique. In northern Africa, it was found throughout the Nile, and in Qaron, Siwa and Nasser. It is common and widespread in the Nile (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
165765	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within the region it occurs in southern Nigeria.<br/>It is also found in south eastern DRC, north of Mozambique, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and in an oasis in Egypt (Brown 1994). It is probably distributed throughout most of central Africa.	eng
165765	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Brown (1994) reports that the species exists in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, and in Lake Victoria on stony beaches.	eng
165765	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Brown (1994) reports that the species exists in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and in Lake Victoria on stony beaches. The ongoing study reports having recorded the species in nearly all substrates in Lake Victoria.	eng
165765	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and stony beaches.	eng
165765	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps and stony beaches (Lake Victoria).	eng
165765	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Found in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, stony beaches of Lake Victoria (Brown, 1994) and probably permanent rivers.	eng
165765	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs on rivers and oases, lower banks of rivers, swamps, ponds and lakes. It prefers clear slow-flowing waters with vegetation (Ibrahim 1999).	eng
165765	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species occurs in temporary pools, papyrus swamps, stony beaches of Lake Victoria (Brown 1994). It is a slow breeder, producing only a few eggs, probably living up to 2-3 years.	eng
165765	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information.	eng
165765	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165765	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165765	population	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165765	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165765	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Not fully understood. An ongoing study in Lake Victoria proposed that there could be over 100,000 specimens in Kenyan side of Lake Victoria.	eng
165765	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	Outside the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">northeastern Africa region</strong>, an ongoing study in Lake Victoria proposed that there could be over 100,000 specimens in Kenyan side of Lake Victoria.	eng
165765	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165765	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165765	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat.	eng
165765	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat. There is some exploitation of this species, which could be a threat if done at high levels. From other similar species in aquaria, temperature may have a strong effect on the reproductive cycle.	eng
165765	threats	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165765	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats known.	eng
165765	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165767	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165767	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165767	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165767	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165767	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165767	conservation	Van Damme, D, 2008	None known.	eng
165767	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165767	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Gyraulus costulatus </em> is a widespread and common Afrotropical species, which appears to be moving northwards (Brown 1994). In the northern African region, it is known from the Tassili N'Ajjar region (Algeria), Tejerhi in Fezzan (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and a few localities in southern Egypt (e.g., Upper Nile at Asyut) (Brown 1994). The species is in the northern part of its range in the region, and widely spread further south. Its type locality is in Umgeni River, Natal.	eng
165767	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Gyraulus costulatus</em> is widespread in the tropical region of Africa.	eng
165767	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Gyraulus costulatus</em> is widespread in the tropical region of Africa. Its main range extends from Ethiopia and southern Sudan westwards to the Senegal River and Southwards to Angola, Okavango and eastern South Africa (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Lake Mutanda, Uganda, and is believed to occur in other eastern Africa Wetlands (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the region under consideration known from the Tassili N'Ajjar region (Algeria), Tejerhi in Fezzan (Libya) and a few localities in southern Egypt e.g., Upper Nile at Asyut (Brown 1994). This is the northern part of its range, widely spread further south.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the region of Lake Nasser, Sudan, and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In the southern African region it is distributed over the northern and eastern highveld, KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Zimbabwe and the Okavango River system (Appleton 1996). There are records from Angola but the locations are not precisely known.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found throughout western Africa.	eng
165767	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In the southern African region, it is distributed over the northern and eastern highveld, KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Zimbabwe and the Okavango River system (Appleton 1996). There are records from Angola but the locations are not precisely known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Africa: mainly in the tropical region. Main range extends from Ethiopia and south Sudan westwards to the Senegal River and southwards to Angola, Okavango and eastern South Africa (Brown 1994).	eng
165767	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from Lake Mutanda, Uganda, and is believed to occur in other Eastern Africa Wetlands (Kenya Uganda and Tanzania).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is a widespread species in tropical Africa.	eng
165767	distribution	Van Damme, D, 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser, Sudan, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species (Brown 1994), appears to be moving northwards according to the Red List assessment for northern Africa (2007). The type locality is the Umgeni River, Natal.	eng
165767	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found throughout western Africa, and found in many other parts of Africa.	eng
165767	habitat	Van Damme, D, 2008	All kinds of vegetation rich waters, but absent from waters that dry out seasonally. Spread by birds (all pulmonates are spread by birds). Not a widespread species, locally common. Can also be transported with vegetation by humans.	eng
165767	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found amongst aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams and rivers, large dams and lakes (Brown 1994). Prefers warmer climates to those preffered by <em>G. connollyi</em> (some overlap on the eastern escarpment of South Africa).	eng
165767	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Found in aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams, rivers, dams and large lakes. Ndifon and Ukoli (1989), reports that the species is tolerant to shade and organic pollution. However, Brown (1994) suggests that the species is seemingly absent from wetlands that regularly dry out.	eng
165767	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found among vegetation and stones in various permanent standing and running waterbodies.	eng
165767	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives on all kinds of vegetation rich waters, but is absent from waters that dry out seasonally. It is spread by birds (all Pulmonata are spread by birds). It is not considered as a widespread species, although it is locally common. It can also be transported with vegetation by humans.	eng
165767	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in aquatic vegetation, marginal grass and stones in slowly flowing streams and rivers, large dams and lakes (Brown 1994). Also in man-made habitats.	eng
165767	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Vegetation and stones in various permanent waterbodies both standing and running.	eng
165767	population	Van Damme, D, 2008	No data available.	eng
165767	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165767	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165767	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165767	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165767	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165767	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is common.	eng
165767	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Brown (1994) reports that the species is seemingly absent from wetlands that regularly dry out. Sedimentation which threatens most regional wetlands may also be a threat.	eng
165767	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation due to agriculture could be a threat.	eng
165767	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No known threats to the species.	eng
165767	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165767	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None known.	eng
165767	threats	Van Damme, D, 2008	None known.	eng
165767	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165768	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
165768	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165768	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165768	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is widespread in eastern Africa, known from streams from southern Tanzania to Zimbabwe (Graf and Cummings 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in rivers in Malawi. It possibly also occurs in southern Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi and even beyond eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from rivers in Zimbabwe and also in Zambia. South Africa should be included if <em>C. framesi</em> is considered a synonym.	eng
165768	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and possibly also in Zambia. South Africa should be included if <em>C. framesi</em> is considered a synonym. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Widespread in Eastern Africa, known from streams from southern Tanzania and Malawi to Mozambique (Graf and Cummings 2006).	eng
165768	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is found in rivers in Malawi. It possibly also occurs in southern Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and even beyond Eastern Africa.	eng
165768	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in rivers.	eng
165768	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Found in rivers.	eng
165768	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species occurs in rivers.	eng
165768	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information.	eng
165768	population	Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165768	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165768	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165768	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165768	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165769	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165769	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165769	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165769	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165769	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pachymelania aurita</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.	eng
165769	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Pachymelania aurita</em> ranges from the coastal waters of Senegal to Angola.	eng
165769	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It inhabits brackish waters of the coast of Angola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Senegal to Angola	eng
165769	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found from Senegal to Angola.	eng
165769	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in brackish water on sandy substratum.	eng
165769	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in brackish water on sandy substratum.	eng
165769	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found on sandy substrata, in coastal areas. This is considered to be a pollution indicating species, because it may be found in polluted areas (Zabi 1982).	eng
165769	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Tolerant of a wide salinity range, found on sandy substrates.	eng
165769	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No information.	eng
165769	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165769	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165769	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165769	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165769	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165769	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165769	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	There are no known threats.	eng
165770	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165770	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165770	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Zimbabwe, and also known from few localities in Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988) and Okavango system (Appleton 2002) . In South Africa recorded only from north-eastern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).	eng
165770	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Zimbabwe, and also from a few localities in Zambia and Shaba, upper Congo (Mandahl-Barth 1988). In South Africa it is recorded only from northeastern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).	eng
165770	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in sandy bottoms of permanent rivers, streams and lakes. It can tolerate oxygen depleted conditions (Appleton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).	eng
165770	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Sandy bottoms of permanant rivers, streams and lakes. Can tolerate oxygen depleted conditions (Appleton et al 2003).	eng
165770	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	The species often occurs together with <em>S. capense</em>, and at moderately high densities, e.g. 41 per square metre (Appleton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
165770	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	The species often occurs together with <em>S. capense</em>, and at moderately high densities, e.g. 41 per square metre (Appleton et al 2003).	eng
165770	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165770	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165771	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legislation development and implementation are needed, as well as research and habitat conservation mesures.	eng
165771	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165771	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
165771	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165771	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165771	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165771	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165771	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Africa: mainly in the tropical region (Brown 1994).	eng
165771	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is believed to occur in several wetlands of Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and Malawi. It is widely distributed in tropical Africa.	eng
165771	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan, possibly also Lake Nasser (Egypt) and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species. Toquor River at Mekerka, Ethiopia.	eng
165771	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is widespread throughout tropical Africa.	eng
165771	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a widespread and common afrotropical species. (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to occur in several wetlands of Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is recorded during the 20th Century from Djanet Oasis in southeast Algeria and from Tibesti (Brown 1994) but this is south of this region. In Egypt, it has been recorded from lower and upper Nile, Lake Qaron, the edge of Lake Maryut, and west of Alexandria but it is rare in these sites. The area has been well-surveyed, so it is unlikely to be more widely distributed. Egypt is not a typical area for this species, and its major distribution is further south in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan, possibly also Lake Nasser and Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and the Okavango System in Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has a limited distribution in West Africa, mostly found in the Lake Chad catchment.	eng
165771	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a widespread and common Afrotropical species. It was recorded during the 20th Century from Djanet Oasis in south east of Algeria and from Tibesti (Brown 1994) an area that is to the south of the northern Africa assessment region. In Egypt, it is present in the Lower and Upper Nile, Lake Qaron, edge of Lake Maryut, and west of Alexandria although is rare in these sites. The area has been well-surveyed, so there is evidence that it is only found here. Egypt is not a typical area for this species, which major distribution is further south in Africa.	eng
165771	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species has a limited distribution in West Africa, mostly found in the Lake Chad catchment, but it is present elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
165771	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in bordering vegetation.	eng
165771	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives on the bordering vegetation of the Nile River Delta.	eng
165771	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Occurs on vegetation in permanent marshes and rivers and also on rocks in streams.	eng
165771	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Occurs on vegetation in permanent marshes, rocks in streams and stony beaches of Lake Victoria.	eng
165771	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits vegetation in permanent marshes, on rocks in streams (and on stony beaches of Lake Victoria). It does not occur in temporary rainpools.	eng
165771	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in various permanent waterbodies.	eng
165771	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Various permanent waterbodies.	eng
165771	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165771	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165771	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165771	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165771	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165771	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165771	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	This is a widespread but uncommon species.	eng
165771	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165771	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is threatened by pollution, drought and drying up.	eng
165771	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Most regional wetlands are threatened by sedimentation, industrial waste, sewage, agro-pesticide pollution and human related disturbances.	eng
165771	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165771	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165771	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution, drought and desiccation are main threats to the species.	eng
165771	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165773	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	In southern Africa, ecological impact studies are required for all coastal developments affecting the environment.	eng
165773	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165773	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165773	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal as far south as Durban), Mozambique (coastal plain). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also in Kenya, the Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Mascarene Islands and Seyschelles.	eng
165773	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is widespread from the eastern African coast to South Africa.	eng
165773	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from the East African coast south to South Africa. Also found in the Comoro Islands, Madagascar, Mascarene Islands and Seychelles.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread on the East African coast.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal as far south as Port St Johns), and Mozambique (coastal plain).	eng
165773	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and streams near the tidal influence of the Indian ocean.	eng
165773	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Known from rivers and streams near tidal influence.	eng
165773	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Rivers and streams near the tidal influence of the Indian ocean.	eng
165773	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165773	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165773	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165773	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Habitats threatened by shrimp farming and degradation due to use for firewood.	eng
165773	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Major threats include Alcoa titanium and dune mining, and sedimentation mainly occurring in the southern African region. Residential and recreational development (marina construction) in South Africa and aquaculture in Tanzania (Rufiji River delta), both of which lead to habitat destruction. In Mozambique, tractor harvesting for prawns is also destroying habitat.	eng
165773	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Residential, recreational and industrial development and dune mining (titanium) along the KwaZulu-Natal coast (South Africa) which may disrupt the natural tidal flow regime due to siltation.	eng
165774	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165774	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165774	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165774	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra nsendweensis</em> occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola, northern Namibia and northern Botswana.	eng
165774	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known from one site on the Kunene River at Ruacana (it may be more widely distributed in Angola but no surveys have been undertaken). It  is also known from the Okavango River (not the delta) and may be in the upper Okavango in Angola but, again, no surveys have been undertaken. It occurs in  the Chobe River above Victoria Falls. In the Zambezi system it occurs from below the Victoria Falls to the Mozambique border (it may be found further downstream but this needs confirmation) including the Kafue River and Lake Kariba.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also found extensively distributed in the DRC from Kinshasa southeastwards.	eng
165774	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	This species occurs in DRC, Zambia, Angola, northern Namibia and northern Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found extensively distributed in the DRC from Kinshasa southeastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from one site on the Kunene River at Ruacana (it may be more widely distributed in Angola but no surveys have been undertaken). It is also known from the Okavango River (not the delta) and possibly in the upper Okavango in Angola but, again, no surveys have been undertaken. It occurs in the Chobe River above Victoria Falls. In the Zambezi system it is known from below the Victoria Falls to the Mozambique border (it may be found further downstream but this needs confirmation) including the Kafue River and Lake Kariba.	eng
165774	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Inhabits lakes and rivers.	eng
165774	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	It is found in lakes and rivers.	eng
165774	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	The species is found in slowly flowing margins of rivers and other lentic waterbodies as well as lakes.	eng
165774	population	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	An uncommon species, found in low densities.	eng
165774	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165774	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165774	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A. & Kristensen, T.K., 2009	No known major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165774	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165774	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165775	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation actions needed.	eng
165775	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165775	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
165775	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165775	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165775	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
165775	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165775	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Afrogyrus coretus</em> is widespread in Africa. In the region, it has been reported in Dakhla and Kharga oases and Lower Nile in Egypt, Brak in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and from Mauritania (Brown 1994). It is absent in the Maghreb. In total, there are five locations in northern Africa. Lower Nile and Dakhla reference may be from an old record. Two of the records, namely from the Lower Nile and Dakhla Oasis may pertain to fossil shells that were described as <em>Planorbis gibbonsi</em> and <em>Ceratophallus natalensis</em> (Gautier 1980). The type locality is Podor, Senegal.	eng
165775	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Afrogyrus coretus</em> probably occurs throughout tropical Africa.	eng
165775	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Widespread, known from various localities in Namibia (Kwando River, Karstveld area (in permanent springs not in caves), Namkluft, Cuvelai drainage and scattered springs and seepages throughout Namibia as well as the Okavango river in Namibia and its delta in Botswana. In South Africa it has been collected in Lake Sibaya and Pietermaritzburg (KwaZulu-Natal). Presumed to occur throughout Southern Africa apart from extreme western areas and the arid interior of Western Cape province. Widespread in Zimbabwe and Zambia (Kristensen pers comm). Not found in Lesotho.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Widely distributed in Africa.	eng
165775	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is believed to be rare. Found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and maybe Burundi. Specific information exists only from Lake Tanganyika as a result of the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity project (Ntakimazi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is documented as widespread in several parts of tropical Africa.	eng
165775	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from Ethiopia by Brown (1994) but probably also occurring in Somalia and Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is documented as widespread in tropical Africa.	eng
165775	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in Africa, from Libya to South Africa.	eng
165775	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widely distributed in Africa, it is known from Libya to South Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and maybe Burundi. Specific information exists only from Lake Tanganyika as a result of the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity project (Ntakimazi <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species has also been reported from Dakhla and Kharga Oasis and lower Nile in Egypt, Brak in Libya and from Mauritania (Brown 1994). However, the Lower Nile and Dakhla references may be very old (possibly from fossil remains, after Gautier 1980 paleo specimen, under <span style="font-style: italic;">Planorbis gibbonsi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophallus natalensis</span>. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Ethiopia by Brown (1994) but probably also occurring in Somalia and Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from various localities in Namibia (Kwando River, Karstveld area (in permanent springs not in caves), Namkluft, Cuvelai drainage and scattered springs and seepages throughout Namibia as well as the Okavango river in Namibia and its delta in Botswana. In South Africa it has been collected in Lake Sibaya and Pietermaritzburg (KwaZulu-Natal). Presumed to occur throughout southern Africa apart from extreme western areas and the arid interior of Western Cape province. This species is widespread in Zimbabwe and Zambia (Kristensen pers. comm.) but not found in Lesotho.	eng
165775	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	A wide variety of permanent freshwater habitats from springs to lakes.	eng
165775	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation.	eng
165775	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation. It is a very small species. Not an abundant species.	eng
165775	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It inhabits rich water bodies with permanent vegetation, oases. It is carried by birds.	eng
165775	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in permanent waters with rich aquatic vegetation. This is a very small species.	eng
165775	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Species is documented to favour permanent water bodies i.e., Lakes and rivers especially those rich in aquatic vegetation. The snails then colonise the under leaf surfaces of the vegetation like the water lily leaves and bottom leaf litter.	eng
165775	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Species is documented to favour permanent water bodies i.e. lakes and rivers especially those rich in aquatic vegetation. The snails then colonise the underside of floating vegetation like  water lily leaves, also found in  bottom leaf litter.	eng
165775	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165775	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Populations are stable in northern Africa.	eng
165775	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species, but not abundant.	eng
165775	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is locally common but not an abundant species. It easily colonises areas with human disturbance.	eng
165775	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
165775	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
165775	population	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Widespread but apparently not common.	eng
165775	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information about current threats.	eng
165775	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
165775	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Possible threats from sedimentation and human wetlands disturbance.	eng
165775	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Possible threats from sedimentation and human wetlands disturbance in Tanzania.	eng
165775	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	The only likely threat is widespread removal of vegetation.	eng
165775	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The only likely threat is widespread removal of vegetation and other indirect affects that cause this loss of vegetation.	eng
165775	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165776	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
165776	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
165776	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> widely distributed from the Kunene River (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. mouti</em>) in the west to the east-flowing highveld rivers of South Africa and northern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996). However, not found in the Okavango river system since 1939 (Connoly 1939). The distribution also includes the Cuanza basin in Angola (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. welwitschi</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Known to occur from Tanzania to north-eastern South Africa.	eng
165776	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found throughout Africa, except for the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in associated waters of Lake Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile - Mountain Nile, Omo river, and the rivers of south Somalia and coastal Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from the Kunene River (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. mouti</em>) in the west to the east-flowing highveld rivers of South Africa and northern Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996). However, not found in the Okavango river system since 1939 (Connoly 1939). The distribution also includes the Cuanza basin in Angola (according to Graf and Cummings 2006 this is <em>C. welwitschi</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Senegal to Chad.	eng
165776	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Known to aestivate for up to 2 and a half years (Cockson 1971). They also have a parasitic larvae that rely upon fish (species unknown) for both development and dispersal. <br/>Found in sandy muddy substrates in rivers. Its has not been recorded from natural lakes but has been recorded from Lake Kariba. Thrives in small farm dams.	eng
165776	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known to aestivate for up to 2.5 years (Cockson 1971). They also have a parasitic larvae that rely upon fish (species unknown) for both development and dispersal. It is not an all-year-round breeder.<br/>It is found in sandy muddy substrates in rivers. It has not been recorded from natural lakes but has been recorded from Lake Kariba. This species thrives in small farm dams.	eng
165776	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Population density of  30 to 50 per square metre in ZwaZulu-Natal and Lake Kariba (Appleton pers com).	eng
165776	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is a population density of  30 to 50 per square metre in ZwaZulu-Natal and Lake Kariba (Appleton pers. comm.).	eng
165776	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Also threats to the host fish species would impact the species.	eng
165776	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance e.g.mining is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Also threats to the host fish species would impact the species. Often used by fishermen as bait.	eng
165777	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165777	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165777	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165777	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	None.	eng
165777	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165777	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165777	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Bulinus globosus</em> occurs over much of Africa south of the Sahara.	eng
165777	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found in much of Africa south of the Sahara. The northern limits are in southern Sudan, Lake Chad, the middle Niger basin and the Senegal Basin. Its southern limits are the Okavango Delta and coastal plain of eastern South Africa (Brown 1994), where it occurs in the Mpumalanga lowveld southwards to Lakes Nhlabane and St. Lucia on the coastal strip of Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bulinus globosus</em> occurs over much of Africa south of the Sahara.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa. Regional distribution information is very general.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Kunene and Okavango river systems in the west of the region to the eastwards flowing Limpopo and Incomati systems in the east, southwards to Lake Nhlabane in KwaZulu-Natal (de Kock and Wolmarans 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
165777	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Occurs in the Kunene and Okavango river systems in the west of the region to the eastwards flowing Limpopo and Incomati systems in the east, southwards to Lake Nhlabane in KwaZulu-Natal (de Kock & Wolmarans 2005).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: In much of Africa south of the Sahara. Northern limits in southern Sudan, Lake Chad, the middle Niger basin and the Senegal Basin. Southern limits are the Okavango Delta and costal plain of eastern South Africa (Brown 1994), where it occurs in the Mpumalanga lowveld southwards to Lakes Nhlabane and St. Lucia on the coastal strip of Kwazulu-Natal (Appleton 1996).	eng
165777	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa and spread in many other parts of Africa. The regional distribution information is very general.	eng
165777	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is documented as common in certain parts of eastern Africa and spread in many other parts of Africa. Its regional distribution information is very general.	eng
165777	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, and throughout sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
165777	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various waterbodies: streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, earth dams, irrigation systems and older rice-paddies. This species prefers shallow water with rich vegetation.	eng
165777	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in various water bodies including streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, dams, irrigation systems and older rice paddies. Favoured by moderate organic pollution.It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">S. boeis</span>, which cause Schistosomiasis in humans and cattle.	eng
165777	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Thrives well in various water bodies i.e. streams, rivers, seasonal pools, earth dams, irrigation systems and old rice paddies. In wetlands prefer areas with vegetation. Tolerates moderate organic pollution and a wide range of calcium carbonate concentration.	eng
165777	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives well in various water bodies i.e., streams, rivers, seasonal pools, earth dams, irrigation systems and old rice paddies. In wetlands prefer areas with vegetation. Tolerates moderate organic pollution and a wide range of calcium carbonate concentration.	eng
165777	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Various water bodies including streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, dams, irrigation systems and  rice paddies. <br/>One of the most important intermediate hosts of <em>Schistosoma haematobium </em>and  <em>S. mattheei</em>  (agents of human urinary and cattle schistosomiasis respectively).	eng
165777	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Various waterbodies: streams, rivers, seasonal pools, lakes, earth dams, irrigation systems and older rice-paddies. Prefer shallow water with rich vegetation.	eng
165777	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally common.	eng
165777	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165777	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165777	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165777	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165777	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
165777	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165777	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165777	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats.	eng
165777	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats.	eng
165777	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No major threats. Has been subject to snail control measures at local scales.	eng
165777	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control measures. It is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation.	eng
165778	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165778	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165778	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Angolan coastal rivers inland to 200 - 300 m altitude.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Fernando Po, Ile du Prince, Saõ Tomé, Cameroon, Angola.	eng
165778	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species has been recorded from Fernando Po (Bioko), São Tomé, Cameroon and Angola, in coastal rivers inland to 200 - 300 m altitude.	eng
165778	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in streams from 200-300 m altitude. Otherwise in coastal areas.	eng
165778	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Torrential streams up to 200-300 m altitude and in brackish coastal localities.	eng
165778	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No information.	eng
165778	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes but this species is usually found at low densities.	eng
165778	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165778	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165779	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165779	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165779	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known. It would be valuable to have more information about  population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
165779	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165779	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pachymelania fusca</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.	eng
165779	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Pachymelania fusca</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present all along the coast, penetrating up the Congo River to Malela.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the brackish waters of the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is spread from Senegal to Cameroon.	eng
165779	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It inhabits brackish waters of the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to Angola, penetrating up the Congo River to Malela.	eng
165779	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found from Senegal to Angola.	eng
165779	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in brackish water, 0.02-15 ppt.	eng
165779	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Occurs in brackish and fresh water.	eng
165779	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits brackish and fresh water (but coastal regions only). It can have very different shell forms according to where it lives.	eng
165779	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in brackish water, 0.02-15 ppt.	eng
165779	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Little information. Reasonably common (Kristensen pers com).	eng
165779	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165779	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165779	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165779	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat.	eng
165779	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165779	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
165779	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165780	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165780	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165780	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165780	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165780	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Neritina glabrata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Angola.	eng
165780	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Neritina glabrata</em> is a coastal species ranging from Gambia to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It can be found along the coast of central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the estuarine waters along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon along the coast.	eng
165780	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Estuarine waters along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Gambia to Angola	eng
165780	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found along the coast from Senegal to Cameroon.	eng
165780	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in brackish water; estuaries and lagoons.	eng
165780	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts.	eng
165780	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Sheltered coves, in brackish water, estuaries and lagoons.	eng
165780	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in brackish water in estuaries and lagoons.	eng
165780	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It is often abundant in estuaries.	eng
165780	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No information.	eng
165780	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165780	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165780	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats	eng
165780	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165780	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
165780	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165781	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known.	eng
165781	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
165781	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Known sporadically from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape (Appleton 1996). Also known from Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> It is also fround in Shaba (Congo River near Zambia Border) and Funa River (Lower Congo River) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165781	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known sporadically from Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Mpumalanga to eastern Cape (Appleton 1996). It is also known from Zambia (Mandahl-Barth 1988). It is also found in Shaba (Congo River near Zambia Border) and Funa River (Lower Congo River) (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165781	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in rivers, impoundments and streams with sandy bottoms. Often found with <em>C. fluminalis</em>.	eng
165781	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species occurs in rivers, impoundments and streams, sandy bottoms. Often found with <em>C. fluminalis</em>.	eng
165781	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165781	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165781	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165781	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is no information on specific current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165782	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165782	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165782	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165782	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	None.	eng
165782	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165782	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165782	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Although it is an extremely common and widespread Afrotropical species, in northern Africa Biomphalaria pfeifferi is only known from isolated populations at Aïn Kerma, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tin Tahart (south eastern Algeria) and from Ghat (southern Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) (Van Damme 1984). It is possibly present to the north and south of the Nile Delta in Egypt and the Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt). However, it is very hard to distinguish it from <em>B. alexandrina</em>, which is very closely related genetically, because it arrived from South America only 200,000 years ago and therefore it have not suffered much genetic differentiation yet. The species is in the northern extreme of its range in the region. Van Damme has found it in Mauritania but no location data is available. Its type locality is the Umgeni Valley, Natal.	eng
165782	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi</em> occurs throughout tropical Africa. It is more of a savannah type species, therefore mostly misses central Africa.	eng
165782	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found in Africa, mainly in the tropical regions, and also southwest Arabia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi</em> occurs throughout tropical Africa. It is more of a savannah type species, therefore mostly misses Central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread species in eastern Africa. In particular Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi and probably Uganda. It occurs in streams and man made water channels, but is absent from great lakes and coastal zones.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from isolated populations at Aïn Kerma, Tassili N'Ajjer and Tin Tahart (southeast Algeria) and from Ghat (south Libya) (Van Damme 1984). It is possibly present south of Nile Delta in Egypt and maybe in Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt) but it is very hard to distinguish from <em>B. alexandrina</em>. This is the northern extreme of its range. It has been seen in Mauritania (Van Damme, pers. comm.) but there is no location data.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It can be found throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland and northern and eastern South Africa southwards to Port St Johns. Also found in four isolated springs (possibly relict populations) in Northwest Province (de Kock <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Namibia it occurs in the Karstveld region, Kunene River (and Olushandja Dam to the east of the Kunene River) and the Okavango River to its delta in Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in western Africa.	eng
165782	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Throughout Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland and northern and eastern South Africa southwards to Port St Johns. Also found in four isolated springs (possibly relict populations) in Northwest Province (de Kock et al 2004). In Namibia it occurs in the Karstveld region, Kunene River (and Olushandja Dam to the east of the Kunene River) and the Okavango River to its delta in Botswana.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Africa, mainly in the tropical region and also southwest Arabia.	eng
165782	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is widespread through the region.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern Africa, Chad, Mauritania, Senegal, etc.  Intermediate host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma mansoni</span>; considered as a pest.	eng
165782	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in western Africa, and occurs throughout sub-saharan Africa.	eng
165782	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various permanent and seasonal waterbodies (not briefly filled rain pools). Not common in the major lakes.	eng
165782	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found everywhere. The species is a vector of <em>Schistosomia</em>, treated as a pest. It lives in ponds. Its distribution has been expanded to Upper Egypt after the High Aswan Dam slowed the flow.	eng
165782	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	The species appears tolerant to some pollution. It is not affected by forest destruction near streams and is tolerant to changes in water salinity. An intermediate host for parasites that cause human intestinal bilharzia (Schistosomiasis).	eng
165782	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in various waterbodies such as streams, irrigation channels, reservoirs, dams and some seasonal waters. <br/>This is the most important host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma mansonii</span>, and therefore represents a major cost to human populations.	eng
165782	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Various permanent and seasonal waterbodies (not briefly-filled rain pools). Not common in the major lakes.	eng
165782	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Various waterbodies such as streams, irrigation channels, reservoirs, dams and springs. Intolerant of high temperatures (this is the reason for lower population numbers on the eastern coastal strip). The species lives on submerged vegetation, rocks and shallow sediments.	eng
165782	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally common but uncommon along the coastal plain of south-eastern Africa.	eng
165782	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165782	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165782	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165782	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165782	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
165782	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165782	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
165782	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165782	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165782	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	The species is the most important intermediate host for <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em>  and there have been attempts in the past to control the species through the use of molluscicides. This practice is becoming less common. Populations are only temporarily reduced and they soon return to previous levels.	eng
165782	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control measures.	eng
165783	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165783	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165783	conservation	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165783	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Bellamya capillata</em> has scattered localities but occurring throughout a large range. From Tanzania southward into northern Natal; westwards into lower Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and the Okavango River.	eng
165783	distribution	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern Africa to Natal, South Africa, and from Tanzania westwards to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from scattered localities but occurring throughout a large area of lower DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas of Kenya, around Lake Victoria, Lake Jipe, Lake Nyasa and Bukoba in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has an extensive range, it is known from Tanzania to north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, westwards into Angola and Okavango River, but in scattered localities.	eng
165783	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from the coastal areas of Kenya, around Lake Victoria, Lake Jipe, Lake Nyasa and Bukoba in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from eastern Africa to Natal, South Africa. Tanzania and westwards through narrow zone to Senegal and Gambia.	eng
165783	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in lakes, rivers and small permanent water bodies. Micro-habitat details are unknown.	eng
165783	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It is found in lakes, rivers and smaller permanent waterbodies.	eng
165783	habitat	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	It is found in lakes, rivers and smaller permanent waterbodies.	eng
165783	population	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165783	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165783	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Unknown.	eng
165783	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165783	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats for this widespread species.	eng
165783	threats	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No major threats known for this widespread species.	eng
165785	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165785	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
165785	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165785	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165785	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Bulinus africanus</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa; it has a scattered distribution.	eng
165785	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa; it has a scattered distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Kenya (near Lake Victoria, Nairobi, Embu), Uganda westward to Arua and Lake Albert region, and Tanzania near Iringa and Mwanza.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Jimma, Lake Tana and northeast of Gondhar (Ethiopia). This is the most northern location of this species' range.              <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu region), southern Mozambique, and Swaziland. Reports from Namibia and Lesotho have not been confirmed. In South Africa found on the northern highveld and lowveld southwards through Kwazulu-Natal (except the coastal plain between Mozambique border and Lake st. Lucia) to the Kromme River in eastern Cape (Appleton 1996).	eng
165785	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in northern Zambia (Lake Bangweulu region), southern Mozambique, and Swaziland. Reports from Namibia and Lesotho have not been confirmed. In South Africa found on the northern highveld and lowveld southwards through Kwazulu-Natal (except the coastal plain between Mozambique border and Lake st. Lucia) to the Kromme River in Eastern Cape (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern and Southern Africa; scattered distribution.	eng
165785	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Jimma, Lake Tana and  northeast of Gondhar (Ethiopia). This is the most northern location of this species' range.                            <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.	eng
165785	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Common in streams and small dams.	eng
165785	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is common in streams and small impoundments. Also occurs less commonly in rivers and lakes.	eng
165785	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in streams and small dams where water is more permanent, adapts well to irrigation schemes.	eng
165785	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Occurs in most freshwater systems including seasonal ones as it is an efficient aestivator. Attempts were made in the 1970s to control it in Northwest Province using molluscicides but these were not successful (Appleton 1986).	eng
165785	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	A common species.	eng
165785	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165785	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165785	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165785	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165785	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
165785	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None.	eng
165785	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None recorded from literature. Like other Bulinus snails, appears to adapt well to natural and manmade wetlands.	eng
165786	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165786	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165786	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165786	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165786	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165786	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165786	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
165786	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Eupera ferruginea</em> occurs in all countries in tropical and southern Africa.	eng
165786	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a widespread and common Afrotropical species, which occurs in the Upper and Lower Nile, and is absent from the Maghreb. The exact sites in the Nile are unknown due to lack of information. The type locality for the species is the Knysna River, Cape, South Africa.	eng
165786	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span>  It is known from Okavango River and delta. Mozambique south to Durban. And then Northwards through Zambia and Angola. The Type locality is Knysna river in the southern Western Cape Province in 1848, but the species has not been found here since (Appleton and Curtis in press).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Common throughout Africa south of the Sahara. Also known from Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.	eng
165786	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Tanganyika. It also occurs in many other localities in other parts of Africa.	eng
165786	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Nile in Sudan,  and Lake Tana. It probably has a much wider range in the region (Daget 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread and common Afrotropical species, spread by birds. The type locality is in Knysna River, Cape, South Africa.	eng
165786	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is common throughout Africa south of the Sahara. It is also known from Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eupera ferruginea</em> occurs throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lake Tanganyika basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Upper and Lower Nile, but is absent in the Maghreb.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from the Nile in Sudan, and Lake Tana. It is probably has a much wider range in the region (Daget 1998)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Okavango River and delta, and Mozambique south to Durban. Also northwards through Zambia and Angola. The type locality is Knysna river in the southern Western Cape Province in 1848, but the species has not been found here since (Appleton and Curtis 2006).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout the region south of the Sahara.	eng
165786	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is distributed throughout Africa south of the Sahara, extending to Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius.	eng
165786	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Different types of freshwater habitats. Spread by birds and insects.	eng
165786	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Genus free-living at the bottom or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165786	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits freshwater (all types).	eng
165786	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in freshwater (all types). May attach itself to submerged vegetation using a byssus. It is spread by birds.	eng
165786	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in different types of freshwater habitats, spread by birds and insects.	eng
165786	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165786	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This genus is free-living at the bottom or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165786	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is rare in the Egyptian Nile.	eng
165786	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165786	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165786	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165786	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No quantitative information.	eng
165786	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is abundant when present.	eng
165786	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Widespread but nowhere common (Appleton pers com).	eng
165786	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Main threats to the species are unknown.	eng
165786	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165786	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M.,  Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165786	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165786	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	None traced from literature specific for the species. Sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution are the most likely threats.	eng
165786	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165786	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Localised impact from domestic sewage and sedimentation may also affect this species.	eng
165787	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165787	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165787	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165787	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165787	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165787	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: Coastal drainages from Mozambique to near Durban, South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Lake Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan and eastern Africa southwards to near Durban (South Africa).	eng
165787	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is reported from Zanzibar.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is believed to spread southwards to Durban, South Africa and several other parts of Africa.	eng
165787	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia, south Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southwards to Durban, South Africa and several other parts of Africa.	eng
165787	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread through tropical Africa, and is reported from Zanzibar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It may be found throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Ethiopia, and south Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the coastal drainages from Mozambique to near Durban, South Africa.	eng
165787	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Widespread through tropical Africa.	eng
165787	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Aquatic vegetation in marshes, slow flowing rivers and streams.	eng
165787	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Aquatic vegetation in marshes, slow flowing rivers and streams.	eng
165787	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found among aquatic vegetation in marshes, slowly flowing rivers and streams.	eng
165787	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found amongst aquatic vegetation in marshes, &#160;slowly flowing rivers and streams (Brown 1994).	eng
165787	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found among aquatic vegetation in marshes, slowly flowing rivers and streams.	eng
165787	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165787	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165787	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165787	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165787	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165787	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is threatened by water pollution, anthropogenic disturbance and sedimentation.	eng
165787	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165787	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165787	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165787	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Water pollution, anthropogenic disturbance and sedimentation.	eng
165788	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165788	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165788	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165788	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165788	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Neritina adansoniana</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Central Africa it occurs all along coastal the region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in river mouths and estuaries (brackish waters) along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon, but is limited to coastal regions only.	eng
165788	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Neritina adansoniana</em> ranges from Senegal to Angola. In central Africa it occurs all along coastal the region.	eng
165788	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> River mouths and estuaries (brackish waters) along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Distributed from Senegal to Angola	eng
165788	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species occurs from Senegal to Angola. It is limited to coastal regions only.	eng
165788	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	This is a coastal species. Found in varying salinity ranges at the upper limit of the tidal influence but although it can survive in freshwater, it is never far from brackish water.	eng
165788	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits brackish and fresh water near coasts; estuaries, lagoons, sand, rocks and vegetation (Brown 1994). It can live in a range of salinities, but always where there is some connection with saline water.	eng
165788	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is tolerant of varying salinity and strong wave-action.	eng
165788	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Tolerant of varying salinity and strong wave-action.	eng
165788	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165788	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes but this species is usually found at low densities.	eng
165788	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165788	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Where they occur, they are abundant.	eng
165788	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat degradation, including oil slicks, could pose future threats.	eng
165788	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165788	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Unknown.	eng
165788	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165789	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165789	conservation	Appleton, C., Lange, C.N., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165789	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165789	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165789	distribution	Appleton, C., Lange, C.N., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa. It is quite common in South Africa within the central area.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Kano plains in Kenya and Tanzania. (The map only shows Kenyan distribution based upon available information.)<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found on the highveld plateau (de Kock <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found throughout Zimbabwe, east and north-east Zambia and northern Mozambique. There are also records in the Cuvelai drainage and the Nyae-Nyae area in Namibia.	eng
165789	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In South Africa it is found on the highveld plateau (de Kock et al 2002). It is also found throughout Zimbabwe, east and north-east Zambia and northern Mozambique. There are also records in the Cuvelai drainage and the Nyae-Nyae area in Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern and southern Africa. Quite common in South Africa within the central area.	eng
165789	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It has been recorded from the Kano plains in Kenya and Tanzania. Map only shows Kenyan distribution based upon available information.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs beyond east Africa into southern Africa.	eng
165789	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.	eng
165789	habitat	Appleton, C., Lange, C.N., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It lives in small temporary pools and swamps. The species aestivates for the main part of the year, only becoming active during the rainy season. It is tolerant of cool temperatures.	eng
165789	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Lives in small temporary pools and swamps. Species hibernates for the main part of the year, only becoming active during the rainy season.	eng
165789	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in small temporary pools and swamps. Species hibernates for the main part of the year, only becoming active during the rainy season.	eng
165789	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Small, briefly-filled pools (Brown 1994), seasonal pans and ephemeral habitats. It aestivates for most of the year.	eng
165789	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No data traced.	eng
165789	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data traced.	eng
165789	population	Appleton, C., Lange, C.N., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165789	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165789	threats	Appleton, C., Lange, C.N., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165789	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165789	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165789	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165790	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165790	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and  Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165790	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165790	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165790	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and  Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> It is found in Mozambique from the lower Zambesi northwards.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Also found in south east DRC and marshes near Lake Malawi.	eng
165790	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs in swamps associated with Lake Malawi.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also documented to occur in other African regions like the Zambesi River.	eng
165790	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in Mozambique, Malawi and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
165790	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is known from Mozambique, Malawi and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in south east DRC<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in swamps associated with Lake Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in Mozambique from the lower Zambesi northwards.	eng
165790	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to occur in clear streams flowing over marshy areas near Lake Malawi.	eng
165790	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and  Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	Generally found in clear streams flowing over gravel and is also found in marshes next to Lake Malawi.	eng
165790	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Streams and marshes.	eng
165790	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in streams and marshes.	eng
165790	population	Kristensen, T.K. and  Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information available.	eng
165790	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165790	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165790	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165790	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
165790	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165790	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and  Stensgaard, A.S., 2006	No information, but habitat degradation/loss could be a likely threat.	eng
165790	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Rivers and marshes are most likely declining from impacts of pollution and sedimentation.	eng
165791	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165791	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165791	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165791	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165791	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165791	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Bulinus scalaris</em> is mainly an eastern and southern African species. In central Africa it occurs only in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.	eng
165791	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs only in southeastern DRC and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Reported to occur in a few areas in Uganda and Western region of Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Highland Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is known from scattered localities in Angola, throughout Namibia and the Okavango system. It has been recorded from Zimbabwe but the precise locations are not known.	eng
165791	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: The species is known from scattered localities in Angola, throughout Namibia, and the Okavango system. It has been recorded from Zimbabwe but the precise locations are not known.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Eastern and southern Africa. Highland Ethiopia, Uganda, W Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia.	eng
165791	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> Reported to occur in a few areas in Uganda and Western region of Kenya.	eng
165791	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern  and southern Africa. <br/>.	eng
165791	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in seasonal rain pools and irrigation channels.	eng
165791	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in seasonal pools that lack vegetation in Ethiopia and western Kenya.	eng
165791	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Lives in seasonal pools that lack vegetation in western Kenya.	eng
165791	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Permanent rivers (slow flowing margins), seasonal pools and springs usually lacking vegetation, and probably irrigation channels. Frequently found in temporary freshwater habitats such as rainpools in north-eastern Botswana (Appleton et al 2003). This species is able to aestivate.	eng
165791	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Seasonal pools, irrigation channels.	eng
165791	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Locally common.	eng
165791	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165791	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165791	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165791	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165791	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
165791	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165791	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165791	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165791	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	None known.	eng
165792	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165792	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165792	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165792	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165792	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In addition to the Type locality in northern Namibia, the species has been reported from the southern coastal strip of Western Cape Province and the Olifants River in Gauteng Province (Kuiper 1966a). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Distributed in East Africa from Ethiopia to South Africa as well as the DRC and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988). In Uganda and Kenya found mostly in the mountains.	eng
165792	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread, particularly in the region's highlands: Ruwenzori and Mt. Elgon in Uganda and Mt. Kenya of Kenya. It is also documented to occur in other African regions as southern Africa and Ethiopia.	eng
165792	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/>It is also documented to occur in Kenya, Uganda, Congo, Namibia and Madagascar.	eng
165792	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is distributed from Ethiopia to South Africa as well as the DRC and Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread, particularly in the region's highlands. It is recorded form Ruwenzori and Mt. Elgon in Uganda and Mt. Kenya of Kenya. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In addition to the type locality in northern Namibia, the species has been reported from the southern coastal strip of Western Cape Province and the Olifants River in Gauteng Province (Kuiper 1966).	eng
165792	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165792	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species thrives in streams in mountains in western and eastern Africa but also occurs elsewhere.	eng
165792	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in streams in the mountains.	eng
165792	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Thrives in streams in the mountains.	eng
165792	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
165792	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165792	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165792	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165792	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats, but there is localised deforestation.	eng
165792	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation and forest/catchment destruction are the most likely threats.	eng
165792	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Sedimentation and forest/catchment destruction are the most likely threats.	eng
165792	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165793	conservation	Appleton, C., 2006	None known.	eng
165793	distribution	Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>It is known from the coast of southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, from Southbroom to Amanzimtoti.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Madagascar, Indo pacific islands, Phillippines, Sri Lanka.	eng
165793	habitat	Appleton, C., 2006	Found on rocks and reed stems in brackish water.	eng
165793	population	Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165793	threats	Appleton, C., 2006	Habitat degradation from industrial, residential and recreational development.	eng
165794	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165794	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165794	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165794	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165794	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None.	eng
165794	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
165794	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
165794	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Distribution of this common Afrotropical species ranges from Lower Egypt to the Cape, in South Africa. In the northern African region, it occurs only in Egypt, which is considered the northern extent of the species distribution. Recent records from Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt), northern region of delta, and Nasser (Nasser is considered outside of the region of this assessment). Its type locality is in Damietta, Egypt.	eng
165794	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Bulinus forskalii</em> is widespread all over Africa.	eng
165794	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from widespread all over Africa. It is essentially an afrotropical species reaching the Mediterranean only in lower Egypt. Its range extends west to Senegal and southwards to eastern and soutern South Africa (Brown 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In the region under consideration it occurs in Egypt only. Recent records in Lake Qaron (Fayoum, Egypt), northern region of delta, and Nasser. Egypt is northern extent of species.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Sudan, scattered locations in Ethiopia, and Uebi Shebeli River in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is distributed widely over southern Africa except in the arid western and central parts (Appleton 1996). It occurs in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe and eastern and southern South Africa. The species may also be present in the lower Orange river (although this may be <em>B. scalaris</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa, throughout the Senegal River Basin and Middle Niger Basin.	eng
165794	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe and eastern and southern South Africa. The species may also be present in the lower Orange river (although this may be<em> B. scalaris</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Essentially afrotropical reaching the Mediterranean only in lower Egypt. In West Africa northwards to the Senegal River Basin and Middle Niger Basin. Range extends southwards to eastern and southern South Africa (Brown 1994). Distributed widely over southern Africa except in the arid western and central parts (Appleton 1996).	eng
165794	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is widespread in eastern Africa and most other African regions.	eng
165794	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan, from scattered locations in Ethiopia, Uebi Shebeli River in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
165794	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa. It is found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
165794	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in lake margins, swamps, marshes, wetland areas. Present in both permanent and temporary habitats.	eng
165794	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a rare species that inhabits on all types of water bodies, but is most abundant in small ones. It is able to aestivate, and only emerges for a short period of time. It occurs on Lake Qaron, which is affected by a high variability in size each year as well as increasing its salinity. It is known for being host of two <em>Schistosoma</em> species.	eng
165794	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in lake margins, swamps, marshes, wetland areas. Present in both permanent and temporary habitats. Rarely in slowly flowing water. An efficient aestivator.	eng
165794	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in various natural and artificial water bodies, including lake margins, permanent swamps and irrigation systems (Brown 1994). It can act as an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma intercalatum</span> (a parasite giving a not very potent infection of schistosomiasis) in Cameroon only; does not act as a host elsewhere.	eng
165794	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in permanent swamps, irrigation systems, small stagnant or flowing water bodies which sometimes may become polluted. However, does not thrive well in short-lived temporary rain pools.  Is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bovis</span>.	eng
165794	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Thrives in permanent swamps, irrigation systems, small stagnant or flowing water bodies which sometimes may become polluted. However, does not thrive well in short-lived temporary rain pools.  It is an intermediate host for <span style="font-style: italic;">S. bovis</span>.	eng
165794	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Various natural and artificial water bodies, including lake margins, permanent swamps and irrigation systems (Brown 1994) and occasionally in slow flowing rivers. The species can aestivate and therefore survive in temporary and seasonal freshwater systems, e.g. rainpools.	eng
165794	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165794	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165794	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165794	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165794	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread.	eng
165794	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
165794	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Widespread, densities are variable.	eng
165794	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165794	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165794	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165794	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165794	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
165794	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control.	eng
165794	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165795	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Ecological impact assessments should be undertaken where dune mining exists.	eng
165795	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165795	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165795	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165795	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Indo-pacific coasts including Madagascar and East Africa from Somalia southwards into KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed along the entire eastern Africa coast.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Somalia, recorded from one coastal location (Jumba) only (Connolly 1928).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers in Mozambique and Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996).	eng
165795	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Found in the lower reaches of rivers in Mozambique and Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Indo-pacific coasts including Madagascar and East Africa from Somalia southwards into KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
165795	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Somalia, recorded from one coastal  location (Jumba) only (Connolly 1928).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is distributed along the eastern Africa coast to South Africa (Brown 1994).	eng
165795	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is distributed along the eastern Africa coast from Somalia to South Africa.	eng
165795	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in streams just above the limit of tidal influence (Brown 1994). Upper parts of estuaries and lagoons and into lower reaches of freshwater (tolerant  of low salinities).	eng
165795	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	It inhabits streams just above the limit of tidal influence.	eng
165795	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in streams just above the limit of tidal influence.	eng
165795	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The species is tolerant of brackish water and lives in streams just above the limit of tidal influence.	eng
165795	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165795	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165795	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.	eng
165795	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.	eng
165795	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Habitat loss/degradation of estuaries is occuring especially in KwaZulu-Natal, mainly due to infrastructure development and titatanium mining. No threats are known in  Mozambique .	eng
165795	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Major threats include sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbance from dune mining in Kwazulu-Natal. It may also be impacted by the invasive snail <em>Tarebia granifera</em>.	eng
165795	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165795	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Probably sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
165796	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	A management plan is being developed for the Okavango River. However, this needs to be finalised and implemented. Information about the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts would be beneficial.	eng
165796	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165796	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various Congolese populations and their relationships to similar morpho-species in western and southern Africa. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
165796	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various Congolese populations and their relationships to similar morpho-species in Western and Southern Africa. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
165796	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>A. pfeifferiana</em> has a wide distribution from Chad to Botswana, but in East Africa only known from a single locality in Uganda (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is widespread from Cameroon and Gabon, south through the Congo, it is known from the mouth up to the Chambeshi River in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Appleton (1996) describes it as an uncommon species known only from Kunene, Okavango (including Delta) and upper Zambesi River systems. (see also Curtis 1991, Appleton and Curtis, in press). According to Graf and Cummings (2006) it is also found in the Kafue and Luangwa (this distribution is under <em>A. subreniformis</em>). It also is known from Nigeria to Zimbabwe and northern Namibia and South Africa.	eng
165796	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Aspatharia pfeifferiana</em> is widespread from Cameroon and Gabon, south through the Congo, from the mouth up to the Zambezi River in Zambia.	eng
165796	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Appleton (1996) describes it as an uncommon species known only from Kunene, Okavango (including Delta) and upper Zambesi River systems. (see also Curtis 1991; Appleton and Curtis in press). According to Graf and Cummings (2006) it is also found in the Kafue and Luangwa (this distribution is under <em>A. subreniformis</em>).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Based on Mandahl-Barth (1988), <em>A. pfeifferiana</em> has a wide distribution from Chad to Botswana, but in East Africa only known from a single locality in Uganda (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165796	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is recorded from Lake Chad and surrounding basins. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sinuata</span> in Nigeria (Gledhill and Vidrine 2002) are considered to be <span style="font-style: italic;">A. pfeifferiana</span> (Kristensen, pers. comm.). It also occurs from Nigeria to Zimbabwe and northern Namibia.	eng
165796	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
165796	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
165796	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It resides in river systems, lakes and reservoirs (Saliu 2002) . It provides habitat for two commensal water mites (Gledhill and Vidrine 2002).	eng
165796	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Primarily a riverine species (Appleton 1996). Very little known regarding habitat and ecology - juveniles never found.<br/><br/>These species have a parasitic stage which rely upon fish for development and dispersal.	eng
165796	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	An apparently uncommon species in the southern region (Appleton 1996).	eng
165796	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165796	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
165796	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165796	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
165796	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B., Graf, D.L., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165796	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	There are no current threats to the species. However, there are plans to build dams on Kunene (hydropower) and Okavango (smaller hydropower) in Namibia. The potential impacts of this would be to host fish species and to the species itself. <br/><br/>Currently there are mines in Zambia but their impacts are unknown.	eng
165796	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
165797	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165797	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165797	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165797	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Gabbiella kisalensis</em> ranges from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, northern Mozambique, Gabon, Angola, northeastern Namibia and northern Botswana.	eng
165797	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is found from the species is found in DRC, Zambia, Mozambique, Gabon, Angola, Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Gabbiella kisalensis</em> is found throughout the Congo River system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> northern Mozambique, the Kafue, Luangwa and upper Zambesi rivers in Zambia, the Okavango and the Cuije River systems in Angola, Namibia and Botswana. It is possibly more widespread in Angola.	eng
165797	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>Northern Mozambique, the Kafue, Luangwe and upper Zambesi rivers in Zambia, the Okavango and the Cuije River systems in Angola, Namibia and Botswana. Possibly more widespread in Angola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> In addition to the regional distribution the species is found in the Congo River system and Gabon.	eng
165797	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in rivers, lakes and residual pools.	eng
165797	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Slowly flowing waters and residual pools on flood-plains (Brown et al., 1992).	eng
165797	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in rivers, lakes and residual pools.	eng
165797	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165797	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165797	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165797	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165797	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
165797	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No specific threats known.	eng
165798	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures are currently carried out to the species.	eng
165798	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165798	conservation	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165798	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165798	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165798	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Research into the distribution and ecology of this species is required.	eng
165798	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known only from Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Kuiper 1964; 1966).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Endemic to Africa, known from from Egypt to South Africa and westwards to Mali (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165798	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded from all countries except Eritrea and Djibouti. Most widespread and common African species among the Pisidia.<br/><br/>The species has a Pan African distribution.	eng
165798	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is found in Lake Victoria. It is considered the most widespread and common species among the <em>Pisidium</em> genus. It also occurs in several other places in Africa.<br/>.	eng
165798	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is the most widely distributed of the African pisidia. It is known from Egypt to South Africa, and westwards to Mali.	eng
165798	distribution	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread and ubiquistic Afrotropical species. It is known from Egypt to South Africa and westwards to Mali (Mandahl-Barth 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Victoria. It is the most widespread and common species among the <em>Pisidium</em> species in East Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present in Egypt probably along the whole of the Lower Nile. It is not found in the Maghreb. Kuiper (1964) and Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999) found it in Nile Delta only but it is rare there.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from all countries except Eritrea and Djibouti. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known only from Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces (Kuiper 1964, 1966).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found throughout west Africa to Mali.	eng
165798	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Widespread and ubiquistic Afrotropical species that in northern Africa is probably present along the entire Lower Nile in Egypt, but not in the Maghreb. According to Kuiper (1964) and Ibrahim (1999), it is known only from the Nile Delta. Its type locality is in Harasa, Sudan.	eng
165798	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in lakes.	eng
165798	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Documented to thrive in lakes.	eng
165798	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in lakes and temporary and seasonal floodplain pans. Sandy substrata with organic debris up to 3m depth (Kuiper 1968).	eng
165798	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in the river delta.	eng
165798	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Pisidia are found both in lakes, rivers and small water bodies.	eng
165798	habitat	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is documented to thrive in in lakes in East Africa, but also occurs in floodplains elsewhere.	eng
165798	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Members of this genus may be abundant, reaching 1000 per m<sup>2</sup> (Appleton 2002).	eng
165798	population	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165798	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165798	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165798	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165798	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
165798	threats	Appleton, C., Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165798	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165798	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165798	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The major threats to the species are unknown.	eng
165798	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165798	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to this species; drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
165799	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165799	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165799	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about habitat status, population size and distribution.	eng
165799	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165799	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165799	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165799	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes ovum</em> is known from scattered localities throughout much of tropical Africa.	eng
165799	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Lanistes ovum</em> is known from scattered localities throughout much of tropical Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from south Sudan and south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the lower and middle Zambesi westward to Namibian border, and the Okavango delta and upstream as far as Bagani. It is found throughout Mozambique and Zimbabwe and southwards to Pongola River floodplain in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton 1996). It has also been recorded from an unknown locality in Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common from Senegal to Chad.	eng
165799	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Lower and middle Zambesi westward  to Namibian border. Okavango delta and upstream as far as Bagani. Throughout Mozambique and Zimbabwe and southwards to Pongola River floodplain in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Appleton, 1996). It has also been recorded from an unknown locality from Angola (to be confirmed by T Kristensen.)<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Scattered localities over a large area: Southern Sudan, Southern Somalia, coastal Kenya and southwards to  north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Westwards through Chad to South-western  Nigeria, southwards to Angola and the Okavango Delta, Zambesi and KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
165799	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa in scattered localities.	eng
165799	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan and south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in the coastal regions of Kenya, Burundi and Lake Malawi. It occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa in scattered localities.	eng
165799	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within western Africa this species is common from Senegal to Chad. <br/>Elsewhere it has scattered localities throughout tropical Africa; southern Sudan, southern Somalia, coastal Kenya and southwards to northeast Natal.	eng
165799	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Highly varied ranging from standing to slowly flowing waters. Reported in wetland areas characterised by muddy bottoms and vegetation to seasonal pools and irrigation systems (Brown 1994).	eng
165799	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Highly varied ranging from standing to slowly flowing waters. Reported in wetland areas characterised by muddy bottoms and vegetation to seasonal pools and irrigation systems (Brown 1994).	eng
165799	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Highly varied. Standing and slowly flowing waters with muddy bottoms and vegetation, seasonal pans, rainpools, fishponds. Became a pest in rice paddies in Swaziland in the 1960s (Crossland, 1965).	eng
165799	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various waterbodies, standing and flowing, permanent and temporal.	eng
165799	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in a range of habitats; standing and slowly flowing waters with muddy bottoms and vegetation, seasonal pans, rainpools, fishponds. It is abundant where it occurs.<br/><br/>It also plays host to a species of water mite (Gledhill 1985).	eng
165799	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Various waterbodies, standing and flowing, permanent and temporal.	eng
165799	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	Brown (1994) states that a population of 75,000 snails/acre caused damage to rice plants.	eng
165799	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Brown (1994) states that population of 75,000 snails/acre caused damage to rice plants.	eng
165799	population	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally common benthic species. In the Okavango Delta it was recorded at 1 per square metre in channels.	eng
165799	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165799	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165799	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165799	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss and degradation is a likely threat, particularly from agricultural practises. This species is also harvested for human consumption.	eng
165799	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165799	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165799	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No known threats.	eng
165799	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165799	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165800	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	No conservation measures known, but information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.	eng
165800	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	Globally, this species is found only from the south east coast of Africa. It occurs in a coastal strip (to about 10 km max inland) of Mozambique, Komati estuary and South African coast to Knysna.	eng
165800	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	A rock and mangrove dwelling species found in fresh and brackish water (euryhaline species) (Appleton 2002, Brown 1996).	eng
165800	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	No information available.	eng
165800	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2007	No specific threats known, but habitat degradation and loss, especially of estuaries and mangroves (which is occurring) is a likely threat. Another threat is the siltation of lagoons and estuaries which decreases tidal influence and the salinity of the water, this is occurs mainly as a result of poor agricultural practices inland.	eng
165801	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2009	The taxonomy of <em>Aspatharia rugifera</em> needs to be re-evaluated, and additional sampling is needed to assess population demography and other aspects of biology. Host-fish studies would be valuable for determining the effects of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
165801	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Cameroon south to Niari River in the DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aspatharia rugifiera</em> is known from coastal streams It is known from Cameroon south to the Niari River in Congo (Brazzaville). Limited specimen records also exist for this species from Senegal in western Africa (MNHN, Paris).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is only recorded from the confluence between the Chabicua and Kunene Rivers, Angola by Germain (1925) - this needs to be verified (Graf and Cummings 2006).	eng
165801	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Only recorded from the confluence between the Chabicua and Kunene Rivers, Angola by Germain (1925) - this needs to be verified (Graf and Cummings 2006).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Cameroon south to Niari River in the DRC.	eng
165801	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
165801	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165801	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165801	population	Graf, D.L., 2009	No information available.	eng
165801	threats	Graf, D.L., 2009	No specific threats are documented for <em>Aspatharia rugifera</em>, but fresh waters in Cameroon are known to be impacted by the effects of logging, oil exploration, pollution and impoundments (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165801	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S., Curtis, B. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general	eng
165802	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165802	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known of, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165802	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165802	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165802	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Burnupia caffra</em> probably occupies much of the range known for the genus: Ethiopia and eastern Africa, southward into Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zimbabwe, and widespread in South Africa.	eng
165802	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Lange, C.N., 2009	Globally, <em>B. caffra</em> is reported from the highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa, southwards into DRC, Angola and Zimbabwe with an isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia. It is widespread in South Africa. The map follows Brown's (1994) suggestion that the distribution of this species probably follows that of the genus as a whole. It probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). (Refer to the map for <em>B. caffra</em> which represents the whole genus.) The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of Sout.	eng
165802	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Angola and Zimbabwe, widespread in South Africa. Isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Probably occupies much of the range known for the genus (Brown 1994). The genus is widely thought to occur only in Africa but reports of its presence in the southern part of South America (dos Santos 1990, 1998) cast doubt on this. <em>B. caffra</em> is reported from the highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa, southwards into DRC, Angola and Zimbabwe with an isolated living population in Naukluftberge, Namibia. It is widespread in South Africa.	eng
165802	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is found in east, central and southern Africa. It occurs in Lake Tanganyika.	eng
165802	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in streams and rivers.	eng
165802	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Generally found in splash zone of&#160; lakes. In Lake Tanganyika recorded from 70 - 100 meters depth (Leloup 1953, in West <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Also thrives in tributaries flowing in to Lake Tanganyika (ref unknown).	eng
165802	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Lange, C.N., 2009	It is found in streams, lakes and rivers.	eng
165802	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. and Appleton, C., 2006	Stones or vegetation in streams, but also found at 70-100m depth in Lake Tanganyika (Brown 1994).	eng
165802	population	Kristensen, T.K. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165802	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165802	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165802	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165802	threats	Kristensen, T.K. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information, but habitat loss/degradation could be a likely threat	eng
165802	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No known major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165802	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threat to this widespread species.	eng
165802	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.	eng
165803	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165803	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known.	eng
165803	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of or needed.	eng
165803	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165803	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Tympanotonus fuscatus</em> ranges from Senegal to southern Angola.	eng
165803	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Tympanotonus fuscatus</em> ranges from Senegal to southern Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found all along the coast of central Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the river mouths along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Senegal to Cameroon.	eng
165803	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> It inhabits river mouths along the Angolan coast.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to southern Angola.	eng
165803	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is known from Senegal to Angola.	eng
165803	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Fresh and brackish coastal waters.	eng
165803	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Inhabits brackish water.	eng
165803	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in brackish coastal waters and further upriver. Abundant where found.	eng
165803	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in brackish water.	eng
165803	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
165803	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165803	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165803	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165803	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165803	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No threats currently known.	eng
165803	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165803	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Oil spills may reduce populations significantly (Ewa-Oboho and Abby-Kalio 1994).	eng
165805	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165805	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165805	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about ecology, population size and distribution. The taxonomy of the species is clear in the area, but not elsewhere.	eng
165805	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
165805	conservation	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165805	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	According to Brown 1994 this species is limited to Lake Chad in the assessed area. However Same-Ekobo (1984) also found it in northern Cameroon.<br/>It is not endemic to the region, but found throughout the rest of sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
165805	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Ceratophallus natalensis</em> occurs in eastern Africa, ranging southwards into Cape Province. In central Africa, there are various localities for the species in Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.	eng
165805	distribution	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern Africa, and is known from the highlands of Ethiopia southwards to the western Cape, South Africa, though rarely found near the tropical coast (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There are various localities for the species in DRC and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is believed to be very widespread in eastern Africa, including western and south Kenya, south Uganda and north-western Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present on the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Kunene River, Okavango delta, and throughout South Africa (unlikely to be present in the arid western parts and central Karoo of South Africa (Appleton, pers. comm.), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It is probably present in Swaziland.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> According to Brown 1994 this species is limited to Lake Chad within this region. However Same-Ekobo (1984) also found it in northern Cameroon.	eng
165805	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Kunene River, Okavango delta, and throughout South Africa (unlikely to be present in the arid western parts and central Karoo of South Africa (Appleton pers. comm.), Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Probably present in Swaziland.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern Africa from the highlands of Ethiopia southwards to the Western Cape, South Africa,  though rarely found near the tropical coast (Brown 1994).	eng
165805	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in Africa.	eng
165805	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in marshes, slow flowing streams, and rain pools.	eng
165805	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Found in various permanent waterbodies.	eng
165805	habitat	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various permanent waterbodies.	eng
165805	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Little is known but it does occur in marshes, slowly flowing streams and rain pools.	eng
165805	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits marshes, slowly flowing streams and seasonal pools, also lakes and rivers.	eng
165805	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
165805	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165805	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165805	population	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165805	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165805	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat. Also drying out for the Lake Chad population.	eng
165805	threats	Appleton, C., Curtis, B.,  Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
165805	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	None known.	eng
165805	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
165805	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
165806	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165806	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165806	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165806	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: In the region only known from the type locality; Murie stream, a tributary of the Cuanza River, Angola. The species could be more widespread as very little survey work has been undertaken.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Angola (type locality), DRC (plain south of the Congo River) and Congo Republic (Kouilou River).	eng
165806	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found from Angola, DRC and Congo Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Within Central Africa, <em>Melanoides recticosta</em> occurs in the plains south of the Congo River, and the Kouilou River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In the region it is only known from the type locality; Murie stream, a tributary of the Cuanza River, Angola. The species could be more widespread as very little survey work has been undertaken.	eng
165806	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Within central Africa, <em>Melanoides recticosta</em> occurs in northern Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo Republic.	eng
165806	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in streams with beds of mud or gravel.	eng
165806	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in streams with beds of mud or gravel. This species occurs in tributary streams with banks of sand. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
165806	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Streams with beds of mud or gravel. Occurs in tributary streams with banks of sand. Perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
165806	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165806	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165806	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165806	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	None known to be affecting the global population. Localised threats only.	eng
165806	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	None known to be affecting the global population. Localised threats only.	eng
165806	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165807	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165807	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Type locality is Knysna river in southern Western Cape province but it &#160;has not been found there since. Type locality possibly erroneous (Appleton and Curtis in press). It is currently distributed in the Okavango system, Zambia, Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique and eastern South Africa to Durban.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> Also found on Madagascar (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165807	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Species has been found in sandy substrates in calm habitats in rivers, lakes and permanent streams.	eng
165807	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Locally common.	eng
165807	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165810	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known of	eng
165810	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None major conservation measures needed.	eng
165810	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Introduced from the Americas. In this area, it is found in Nigeria, Benin and Cameroon.	eng
165810	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Widespread Holartic species that has been recorded from different regions in Africa. Many of these records pertain according to Brown (1994) to introduced American species. The anatomical studies of Ghamizi (1998) clearly show that Maghrebian populations belong to <em>P. acuta sensus stricto</em>. In northern Africa, it is common in the Maghreb and also has been recorded from the Nile Delta (Van Damme 1984, Brown 1994). It is present all over the Nile from Lake Nasser to Nile Delta (Soliman pers. comm.). It is not known from Libyan Arab Jamahiriya but it is suspected to also be in this country. Its type locality is Garonne River in France.	eng
165810	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Common in stagnant and flowing waters in or near towns. Well tolerant of pollution.<br/>A very fast moving species.<br/>It resembles Bulinus which is a host for shistosomiasis.<br/>It has been suggested that it could be introduced to compete with native snails that carry schistosomiasis as a control mechanism (Dobson, 2004).	eng
165810	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a parasite vector that occurs almost everywhere, e.g., in channels, streams, and even polluted places. It's a pioneer species (i.e., first to arrive in new habitats) that is very easily spread by birds.	eng
165810	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information	eng
165810	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Widespread species common in northern Africa.	eng
165810	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None	eng
165810	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None major threats are known to the species.	eng
165811	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165811	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Known in Africa only from two localities (Siyayi river and Tongaat river) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Possibly occurs in-between these two locations and perhaps further north along the coast, possibly into Mozambique.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands	eng
165811	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Found in streams on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Occurs at the fresh and brackish water interface.	eng
165811	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Unknown.	eng
165811	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Habitat degradation from dune mining, and industrial, residential and recreational development along the KwaZulu-Natal coast.	eng
165812	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures are known, information about ecology, population size and distribution would be valuable.	eng
165812	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165812	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It is found from Zimbabwe and Zambia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Also found in Uganda (westernmost of the two crater lakes at Fort Portal and Buyende), Zambia, Zimbabwe.	eng
165812	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in Uganda (westernmost of the two crater lakes at Fort Portal and Buyende), Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
165812	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Type locality is crater lakes in Uganda. Genus found to be free living at the bottom, or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988).	eng
165812	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Type locality is crater lakes in Uganda. The genus is found to be free living at the bottom, or amongst vegetation (Mandahl-Barth 1988)	eng
165812	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
165812	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
165812	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
165812	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
165814	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165814	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165814	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165814	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra elata</em> occurs in southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
165814	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Cleopatra elata</em> occurs in southeastern DRC, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found from southeastern DRC in the Lualaba River (part of the Congo system)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known to occur in the Okavango system from Rundu to the delta (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1992) and perhaps also in the Angolan part of the river upstream of Rundu - but this needs to be confirmed. In the Zambesi system it is found above the Victoria Falls (in Namibia) and in the upper Zambesi in Zambia and Angola but this also require confirmation. It appears not to be present in Lake Kariba itself (based on limited surveys) but does occur immediately below the dam at Chirundu. More survey work is required to identify the species full distribution.	eng
165814	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa</span>: It is known to occur in the Okavango system from Rundu to the delta and perhaps also in the Angolan part of the river upstream of Rundu - however this needs confirmation.  In the Zambesi system it is found above the Victoria Falls (in Namibia) and in the upper Zambesi in Zambia and Angola but again this needs confirmation. It appears not to be present in Lake Kariba itself (based on limited surveys) but does occur immediately below the dam at Chirundu. More survey work is required to identify the species full distribution.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global Distribution:</span> South-eastern  DRC in the Lualaba River (part of the Congo system), Upper Zambezi River, E Caprivi, Okavango River and Delta (Brown et al., 1992)	eng
165814	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits rivers.	eng
165814	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and slow flowing waters of the Okavango delta.	eng
165814	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Species found in slow flowing margins of rivers and waterbodies, not found in Lake Kariba.	eng
165814	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is locally common.	eng
165814	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
165814	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Not a common species. However it has been recorded on sand in the shallows of the Okavango River at 15 to 20 per square metre (Curtis & Appleton 1987).	eng
165814	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known specific major threats to this species.	eng
165814	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
165814	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	Proposed dams on the Okavango River could have serious impacts upon the species as it appears not to tolerate standing  water as evidenced by its absence from Lake Kariba.	eng
165815	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165815	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165815	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
165815	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165815	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165815	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Bulinus natalensis</em> occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa. In Cameroon it occurs in western crater lakes separated from its main range by over 2,000 km.	eng
165815	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is known from Ethiopia to the coastal regions of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Similar snails occur in the western crater lakes in Cameroon (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in eastern Africa from Kenya southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in Lakes Zwai and Awasha (Ethiopia) (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in East coast drainages down to northern KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga lowveld and perhaps Swaziland. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in four crater lakes in Western Cameroon: Nchout Monoun, Monoun Ngouondam, Petponoun-East and Petponoun-West (Arouna and Remy 2005) but these are separated from its main range by over 2,000 km, and identification as <em>B. natalensis</em> needs confirmation.	eng
165815	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> East coast drainages down to northern KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga lowveld and perhaps Swaziland. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Ethiopia to the coastal regions of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Similar snails occur in the western crater lakes in Cameroon (Brown, 1994).	eng
165815	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Lakes Zwai and Awasha, Ethiopia (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widely distributed in eastern Africa from Kenya southwards.	eng
165815	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in four crater lakes in Western Cameroon: Nchout Monoun, Monoun Ngouondam, Petponoun-East and Petponoun-West (Arouna and Remy, 2005). It also occurs in eastern and southern Africa.	eng
165815	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found all types of freshwater.	eng
165815	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It can be found in various waterbodies. Crater lakes in Cameroon.	eng
165815	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is only found in crater lakes in this region, but in other areas it is found in various water bodies, including small pools, slowly flowing rivers, lakes (Brown, 1994). This species is not a host for schistosome parasites.	eng
165815	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Various waterbodies. Crater lakes in Cameroon.	eng
165815	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Various water bodies including small pools, lakes and slow flowing rivers (Brown 1994).	eng
165815	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Locally abundant species. The most common species in Lake Sibaya.	eng
165815	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
165815	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165815	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165815	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165815	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Crater lakes are at risk of CO<sub>2</sub> 'burping'. They are also suffering from human induced habitat degradation.	eng
165815	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat loss and water pollution are likely to be threats: habitat disturbance is a particular threat as it lives in the margins of the crater to a depth of one metre. Explosions and release of poisonous gas venting from under the crater lakes is also a threat.	eng
165815	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
165815	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165815	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	None known.	eng
165817	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
165817	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165817	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165817	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	None.	eng
165817	conservation	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
165817	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Bulinus tropicus</em> is mainly an eastern and southern African species. In central Africa, it occurs in northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
165817	distribution	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southern Africa. It is known from the Ethiopian highlands to Western Cape (South Africa) and Namibia, but not found over most of the eastern coastal region (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in northeastern DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported to be widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in central Namibia to the Okavango River (not the delta), South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique.	eng
165817	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> Central Namibia to the Okavango River (not the delta), South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Eastern and southern Africa, from the Ethiopian highlands to Western Cape (South Africa) and Namibia, but not found over most of the eastern coastal region (Brown 1994).	eng
165817	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been reported to be widespread. Has been reported in areas like Lake Naivasha.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in southern Africa.	eng
165817	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the Ethiopian highlands.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from eastern and southern Africa.<br/>.	eng
165817	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Adaptable to many regional wetlands including streams, seasonal dams and lakes.	eng
165817	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Adaptable to many regional wetlands including streams, seasonal dams and lakes.	eng
165817	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Common in small earth dams and residual pools in seasonally flowing streams, it also occurs in marginal vegetation  of perrenial rivers and in rainwater pools (Brown et al 1992).	eng
165817	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Earth dams and residual pools of seasonally flowing streams. Also found in some lakes.	eng
165817	habitat	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in impoundments behind earth dams, swamps and residual pools of seasonally flowing rivers and streams. Also found in some lakes.	eng
165817	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	Common.	eng
165817	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165817	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165817	population	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
165817	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
165817	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
165817	threats	Curtis, B., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
165817	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
165817	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
165817	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Curtis, B., 2006	None known.	eng
165822	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas. </p>	eng
165822	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Southeast Asia eastwards to the Line Islands (certainly Kiribati and possibly US Line Islands) (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Indonesia (Lieseke and Myers 1994), Kiribati (Myers 1991), Naura (Myers 1991), the Solomon Islands (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009), and Papua New Guinea (Lieseke and Myers 1994). It has been observed at depths of 10 to 110 m.	eng
165822	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species has been recorded from outer coral reef slopes, rocky ledges and drop-offs, where it is usually observed as solitary animals, in pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165822	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	In general the species is common with stable populations.	eng
165822	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection of specimens is limited and is not believed to constitute a threat.<br/></p>	eng
165823	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however it almost entirely occurs at Johnston Atoll which is within the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. Additional research into the biology and natural history of this species is needed to better determine its vulnerability to possible stochastic threats (e.g., ocean warming events).<br/></p>	eng
165823	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found at Johnston Atoll in the central Pacific; a single specimen was collected in the Hawaiian Islands (Kosaki 1989, R. Kosaki pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths of 25-75 m.	eng
165823	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits deep outer coral and rocky reef slopes, and is usually found on rubble substrates (Kosaki 1989).	eng
165823	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Little is known about the population status of this species, however it is common at Johnston Atoll and is believed to have stable populations within its limited range (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, M. Craig pers comm. 2009, R. Kosaki pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
165823	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species has a highly restricted distribution with the entirety of its population confined to reef habitat in the Johnston Atoll, with a limited area of occupancy.<br/><br/>In the Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000,  Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.	eng
165824	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this deepwater species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165824	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This little-known species is known only from Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands in the South Pacfic, although it likely occurs in other areas in the southeastern tropical Pacific. It has been recorded at depths of 55-120 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165824	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It has been recorded from coral rubble areas, ledges and caves on steep outer reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm.). Natural diet is unknown; it forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165824	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Little is known about the global abundance or population status of this species, although it is locally abundant at Rarotonga, and generally presumed to be stable (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
165824	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>While it possibly has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <br/><br/><p></p>	eng
165825	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a small number of marine protected areas in Cape Verde and São Tome.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165825	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits the eastern Atlantic region, where it ranges from Cape Verde and Senegal in the north to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south (including the Gulf of Guinea islands). Found at depths of 1-40 m.	eng
165825	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is associated with clear water rocky reefs. It has a non-specialized diet.	eng
165825	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is very common in Cape Verde and São Tome (L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). The status of the coastal population in West Africa and Central Africa is poorly known but is considered likely to be stable (L.A. Rocha pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165825	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
165826	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
165826	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	This poorly known species has been reliably reported only from the Java Sea, Indonesia. Records from elsewhere (e.g., Philippines and Taiwan) are most likely attributable to other species notably <span style="font-style: italic;">C. caeruleopunctatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. cephalareticulatus</span>. The most recent sighting was approximately eight years ago at Karimnjawa, Java Sea in 20-25 m depth.	eng
165826	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	The natural history of this species is poorly known, but populations are probably found on deep rocky reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
165826	population	Allen, G., 2009	The population abundance is not well known, although it seems to be a relatively rare species   (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006)	eng
165826	threats	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165827	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas (the Ogasawara Islands are possibly protected).</p>  <p></p>	eng
165827	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is known only from the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands and the relatively isolated Minami-Tori-Shima (= Marcus) Island (both of Japan) (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1997). It is usually found at depths between 25 and 60 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165827	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This little-known deep dwelling species is generally associated with the outer slopes of coral reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165827	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165827	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. It has not been collected for the marine fish aquarium trade.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165828	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in many marine protected areas (e.g., Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument of Hawaii).</p>	eng
165828	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This widely distributed species occurs throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, ranging from East Africa (Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania) in the east, throughout the Indo-Malayan region and tropical Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (both USA) and the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia). It is found as far north as southern Japan ranging to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Found at depths between 3-60 m.	eng
165828	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species inhabits areas with coral rubble in lagoon channels and over outer reef slopes (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can often be found in small loose groups. It feeds on algae.	eng
165828	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations throughout its range.	eng
165828	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting and habitat loss is localized and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165829	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
165829	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the central and eastern Indian Ocean and Indo-Malayan region, eastward to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and the Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia and Palau), northward to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), and as far south as New Caledonia (France) and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of  between 5-30 m.	eng
165829	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in areas of prolific coral growth in lagoons, channels and outer reef slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is especially associated with areas that have caves and large crevices. It occurs as solitary animals or in pairs. This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165829	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165829	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165830	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is not believed to be present in any marine protected areas.	eng
165830	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is known from several scattered localities in the eastern Pacific including Raivavae and Rapa Iti in the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Pitcairn Islands (UK) and Easter Island (Chile) (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 14-45 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165830	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found in rocky or coral reef areas with abundant crevices (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The natural diet is unknown. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165830	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common (being abundant at Easter Island [R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009]) with stable populations.</p>	eng
165830	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>Although it has a restricted distribution, there appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165831	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.<br/></p>	eng
165831	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the Gulf of Aden in the north to Kwa-Zulu Natal (South Africa) in the south, with populations also recorded from the Seychelles, Comoros Islands and Madagascar (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually recorded between between 1-30 m in depth.	eng
165831	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This relatively little-known species has been recorded from shallow reefs, often with rich coral growth and rocky reefs.	eng
165831	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165831	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.<br/></p>	eng
165832	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Present in several conservation areas throughout its range. The collection and sale of this species in Bermuda is prohibited by law. <br/></p>	eng
165832	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This West Atlantic species has been recorded from Bermuda, the Bahamas, Florida to Yucatán, including the Gulf of Mexico, and as a vagrant north to New Jersey (Burgess 2002). This species has been recorded at depths between 2-92 m, but is most common between 5-25 m.	eng
165832	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs. Feeds primarily on sponges and small benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).	eng
165832	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is common in coastal reefs with turbid waters in Florida, and in deep reefs in the Gulf of Mexico.	eng
165832	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165833	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
165833	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species has been recorded from the Arabian Peninsula including the Red Sea (around Eilat [Israel] and Jeddah [Saudi Arabia]), the Gulf of Oman (common near Muscat) and the Persian Gulf (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges as far south as Kenya on the East African coast (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of between 4-50 m.	eng
165833	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Usually found in coral-rich areas, rocky areas, and protected silty bays with coral.	eng
165833	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165833	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade and subsistence fisheries is localized and do not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165834	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Johnston Atoll and also form part of the The <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.<br/></strong>	eng
165834	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago and Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1985, Mundy 2005, Endoh 2007). It is seldom seen at depths of less than 10 m (Allen 1980, Endoh 2007) but has been recorded as deep as 183 m at Johnston Atoll (Randall 1985). It is most abundant between 25-50 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165834	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is most often found in locations with rocky reefs, particularly where there is an abundance of ledges and caves (Allen 1980). It has been less frequently observed in areas of rich coral (Allen 1980). Endoh (2007) notes that juveniles occur in rocky areas at greater depth. The diet largely consists of sponges, with some algal matter (Allen 1980, Endoh 2007).	eng
165834	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is abundant (especially in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and on deep reefs in the main Hawaiian Islands) but infrequently seen. Anecdotal reports suggest that populations on Oahu at scuba diving depths may have declined (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). There do not appear to have been any reported declines on other islands, and the global population is believed to be stable.	eng
165834	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Williams <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2008) reports unpublished 2007 data from the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (HDAR) that this species is targeted by the aquarium trade, and has substantially declined in abundance within normal diving depths on heavily collected reefs.	eng
165835	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It occurs in some marine protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165835	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is very widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and the tropical western Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded from Mozambique and Tanzania in the west, to Samoa in the east, and from southern Japan in the north of its range to New Caledonia and northern Australia in the south. It is found at depths of 10 to 80 m.	eng
165835	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Inhabits outer coral reef slopes and drop-offs at depths of 10 to 80 m, where it occurs as solitary animals in pairs, or in small loose groups (Pyle 2001). It is most likely encountered on outer reef drop-offs due to its preference for steep slopes (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles secretive and occur below 25 m (Myers 1991). This species feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165835	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165835	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165836	conservation	Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There do not appear to be conservation measures in place for this species. The species does not appear to have been recorded from any marine protected areas. This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and reef-restricted habitat.<br/></p>	eng
165836	distribution	Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This little-known species is endemic to Clipperton Island (France) in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It is present nearshore at 6-10 m, but also occurs at deeper depths to 100 m (Baldwin 1963, Allen 1980). Clipperton Island has an estimated area of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and less than 4 km<sup>2 </sup>of reef habitat.	eng
165836	habitat	Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appears to be little information other than it has been collected at a coral atoll locality (Clipperton Island).	eng
165836	population	Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Baldwin (1963) reports that it was fairly common close to shore. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is commonly seen and locally abundant at Clipperton Island.	eng
165836	threats	Craig, M.T., Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>This species has a highly restricted distribution with the entirety of its population confined to reef habitat in the Clipperton Atoll,with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than <10 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.<br/><br/></p>	eng
165837	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165837	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species ranges from Bermuda, to Florida (USA), the Bahamas, and the southern Gulf of Mexico to northern South America. Found at depths of 5-80 m.	eng
165837	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Associated with reef and rocky regions in warm waters. Prefers depths of 30 m or more, but can be found in moderate numbers in much shallower waters. Moderately secretive and territorial, but inquisitive. Feeds on algae and small benthic invertebrates (Burgess 2002).	eng
165837	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is not common.	eng
165837	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is relatively limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165838	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species probably occurs within some marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165838	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species has been recorded from scattered locations in the north-east Indian Ocean and western Pacific including the Spratly Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Marshall Islands, Cocos Keeling Islands (Australia), Fiji and Guam (USA) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is an unconfirmed report from the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands, Japan. Found at depths of 20 to at least 100 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165838	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This seldom seen species inhabits, ledges crevices and caves on steep outer reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The natural diet is unknown. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165838	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It appears to be uncommon but is believed to have stable populations.	eng
165838	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165839	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within some marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165839	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, south to the island of Zanzibar (Tanzania) (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded between 3-30 m in depth.	eng
165839	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is usually found along protected shallow shoreline reefs with a rich growth of hard and soft corals, often mixed with occasional areas of silty substrate. It is a solitary, relatively shy species, that is not easy to approach (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Usually observed near large crevices or caves on the reef, and seldom venture away from these refuges (Allen 1980). It feeds mainly on sponges and tunicates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165839	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165839	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is limited to a few locations and does not seem to represent a global threat.<br/></p>	eng
165840	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
165840	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region to the Solomon Islands and east and west coasts of Australia (including the Rowley Shoals) and New Caledonia (France), north to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Palau (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Pyle 2001, R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It occurs between 1-60 m in depth.	eng
165840	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from coastal, lagoon and outer reef slopes in clear or murky water. It tends to show a preference for coral-rich areas, especially on steep reef walls. The juveniles are more common on shallower protected reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates. Usually solitary or in pairs (Pyle 2001).	eng
165840	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165840	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165841	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The populations of Howland Island and Baker Island are within the <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.<br/></strong></p>	eng
165841	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This Pacific Ocean species is distributed from the Gilbert Islands to the Line Islands (Pyle 2001). Localities include: Kapingamarangi Atoll (eastern Caroline Islands [Federated States of Micronesia]) (Allen 1980); Canton (Phoenix Islands [Kiribati]); Nauru (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006); Howland Island and Baker Island (USA); and Fanning Island<strong> </strong>(<strong>=</strong>Tabuaeran) and Christmas Island (<strong>=</strong>Kiritimati) (Kiribati) (Endoh 2007). It is found at depths of 10 to 65 m (Pyle 2001).	eng
165841	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits outer reef slopes and drop-offs, where it can be encountered as solitary individuals, in pairs or as small groups (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded in the vicinity of coral reefs in lagoons, on seaward reef slopes, and in channels connecting these two zones (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001). Juveniles occur on deep outer reef ledges.	eng
165841	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165841	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165842	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within some marine protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165842	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean where it has been recorded along the East African coast from Delagoa Bay (Mozambique) to Knysna (South Africa). Animals have been reported at depths between 5-30 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165842	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Associated with rocky reefs and shoreline areas. Juveniles may be encountered in shallow tidal pools. Groups of adults (20 to 30 animals [Endoh 2007]) can occasionally be seen swimming above reefs in mid-water, sometimes coming close to the waters surface when feeding on plankton (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165842	population	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165842	threats	Rocha, L.A., Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is very limited and localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165843	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165843	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This widespread species is distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region in the west to the southwestern Pacific Ocean in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) in the north to New Caledonia and Fiji in the south (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has recently been recorded from Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has been recorded between 20-80 m in depth.	eng
165843	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is usually associated with outer reef slopes among rich coral growth or in rubble areas, often interspersed with sandy substrate (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is also frequently seen at the base of outer reef drop-offs. Animals usually occur in pairs or small harems of one male with several females (3-7 individuals). This species feeds on zooplankton up to a few meters above the bottom (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165843	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165843	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165844	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165844	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the western Indian Ocean where it has been recorded from localities in Mauritius (including Rodrigues), Reunion, Sri Lanka, the east coast of India, and the Maldives (Allen 1980, Randall and Anderson 1993, Fricke 1999, Letourneur <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). It has occasionally been recorded from western Thailand (Allen and Stone 2005), with a single recent record from Sulawesi (Indonesia) (M. Craig pers. comm. 2009). It is found from around 5-45 m.	eng
165844	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky reefs, where it occurs as solitary individuals or in pairs (Allen 1980).	eng
165844	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is likely to be common throughout its range, though Endoh (2007) states that it is common only in the Maldives.	eng
165844	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>	eng
165845	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165845	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea south to KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), including Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius and Réunion. It has also been recorded from northwestern Sumatra (Weh Island) (Allen and Adrim 2003). It is found at depths of 15-70 m.	eng
165845	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits moderate to deep waters on steep slopes. A single male is usually seen with several females.  Feeds on plankton several meters above the bottom.	eng
165845	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There is little population data available for this species, however it is generally considered common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It appears to be rare along coastal Africa (Allen 1980). In the Red Sea it is relatively common in the Gulf of Aqaba at depths between 25 and 50 m (Allen 1980).<br/></p>	eng
165845	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165846	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is not known to be present within any marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165846	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This little-known species has only been recorded from a few localities in the South Pacific including the islands of Raivavae and Rurutu in the Austral Islands (French Polynesia), Dulcie Atoll in the Pitcairn Islands (UK Overseas Territory), and the island of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009). It is typically found at depths ranging from 30 to at least 80 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165846	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are usually found at outer rock and coral reef slopes where they form zooplankton-feeding aggregations that swim in mid-water (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Harems of two to five animals may be formed (Pyle 2001). The diet is probably supplemented by benthic organisms (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165846	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165846	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165847	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Although there appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place, the Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters), it is also expected to be present within marine protected areas on the coast of New South Wales (such as </a>the Solitary Islands Marine Park). Additional general research is needed into the natural history of this poorly-known species.<br/></p>	eng
165847	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the southwest Pacific where it has been recorded from northern New South Wales (Coffs Harbour, Ballina, North Solitary Islands) and Lord Howe Island both in Australia (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 10-80 m depth (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165847	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Little is known about the natural history of this species. It is generally associated with coral and rocky reef habitats (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found singly or in pairs (Endoh 2007).	eng
165847	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There is little known about the general abundance, although it appears to be a naturally rare   species (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165847	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>  Although the species has a limited range, there is no collection for the aquarium trade, most populations are within well-managed protected areas, it is a deepwater species with no habitat degradation expected, and consequently there appear to be no major threats. </p>	eng
165848	conservation	Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within some marine protected areas. </p>	eng
165848	distribution	Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the central and western Pacific where it ranges east from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), and as far south as the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It may be encountered at depths of between 8-45 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165848	habitat	Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is largely associated with outer coral reef slopes, but may also encountered on shallower lagoon reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae; forms harems of two to four animals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165848	population	Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165848	threats	Pyle, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165849	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands).<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165849	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This western Pacific species ranges from southern mainland Japan through the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (both Japan) to the southwestern tip of Taiwan and the Philippines (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Unconfirmed report of a vagrant from Palau. It is typically encountered between 6-30 m in depth.	eng
165849	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species inhabits rocky seaward reefs and rubble areas, particularly where algae growth is extensive. Animals are usually encountered in small groups, most often observed grazing on mats of filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165849	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165849	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165850	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165850	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	This species is restricted to central Indonesia (western Java, Bali, Komodo, Flores, Sulawesi, and northeastern Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah), and the Philippines (Sulu Archipelago, Cebu, and southern Luzon), occurring at depths of about 5-30m (G.R. Allen, pers. comm. 2010). Records from other areas represent misidentifications of other similar species.	eng
165850	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	This species inhabits coastal and outer rocky or coral reefs, often exposed to strong currents and cool upwelling (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates; animals are solitary or encountered in pairs (Pyle 2001).	eng
165850	population	Allen, G., 2009	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165850	threats	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165851	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
165851	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. It ranges from coastal eastern Africa (including South Africa) in the west, through the Indian Ocean to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa in the Pacific Ocean. It has been recorded as far north as southern Japan, ranging as far south as the east coast of Australia and Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 1-40 m.	eng
165851	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Populations of this species are generally associated with protected coastal reefs with rich coral growth (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The adults are sometimes seen in caves and on wrecks. Juveniles tend to prefer shallow reefs mixed with sandy substrates. Food items include sponges, tunicates and algae (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165851	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165851	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165852	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165852	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed from the eastern Indian Ocean across most of the Pacific Ocean from Cocos-Keeling Island (Australia) to the Society Islands (French Polynesia), northward to the southern Ryukyu Islands (= Nansei-shoto) (Japan) and south to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Can be found at depths of 7 to 70 m, usually living in excess of 20 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165852	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is generally found in crevices and caves on steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs. It is occasionally observed on shallower lagoon reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is a secretive species that rarely moves far from an escape hole. Natural diet unknown; forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165852	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165852	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is no substantial habitat loss. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165853	conservation	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within some marine protected areas. </p>	eng
165853	distribution	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found throughout much of the Red Sea, from the Gulf of Aqaba southward, and occurs in the adjacent Gulf of Aden (Allen 1980). It has been recorded from Socotra Island (Yemen). Recently recorded from the Andaman Sea at western Thailand (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Transient population recorded from Kenya following 1998 El Niño event (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has been observed between 10 to 80 m.	eng
165853	habitat	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is associated with coral reefs and rocky reefs, where it is usually observed in pairs or less frequently in small groups. It probably feeds on algae, sponges, and benthic invertebrates (Allen 1980).	eng
165853	population	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165853	threats	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165854	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas, although it is assumed that populations are present within the Aldabra World Heritage Site.<br/></p>	eng
165854	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species has only been recorded from the islands of Mauritius, Réunion, and Aldabra (Seychelles) in the southwestern Indian Ocean (Fricke 1999, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 48-90 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165854	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This little-known species is associated with steep outer rocky reef drop-offs and caves, especially where vertical walls are covered with algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Endoh 2007).	eng
165854	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165854	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>While it has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165855	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no specie- specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165855	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean, ranging from the Maldives and Sri Lanka to north-western Australia, through much of Indonesia as far east as Flores (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is most frequently encountered between 3-25 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165855	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165855	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165855	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>	eng
165856	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands). </p>	eng
165856	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species ranges along the western Pacific Ocean rim from the northern Philippines to the island of Taiwan; the Ryukyu and Izu Islands, the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (all three in Japan); and southern mainland Japan (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found from 15 to over 200 m in depth (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
165856	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is often found as harem groups of a single male and several females on the seaward slopes of rocky or coral reef areas (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165856	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations. In Japan it is generally rare except around the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands.	eng
165856	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is very limited and is not impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165857	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is likely to be present within several marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165857	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed from coastal northern Australia (from northwestern Western Australia to Queensland), the Aru Islands (Indonesia) and southern Papua New Guinea, southward to Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006, Endoh 2007). It is found at depths of 5-20 m.	eng
165857	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found in shallow coastal and continental shelf coral reefs, most commonly on open flat areas or over rock and coral-covered substrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates  (Pyle 2001). It usually forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165857	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165857	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165858	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.</p>	eng
165858	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the northwestern Pacific Ocean where it may be found from central and southern Japan to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (USA). In Japan it has been recorded along the southern coast extending from Tosa Bay (Shikoku) to Tokyo (Honshu), being particularly common at Izu Peninsula, and is found as far south as the Izu Islands and the Ogasawara (= Bonin) Islands. Within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands it is known from Midway Atoll and Kure Atoll to as far south as Pearl and Hermes Atoll (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Although Shen (1993) reports in from Taiwan, this requires confirmation. It can be found at depths of 15 to 60 m (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165858	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is generally associated with rocky shores and areas of moderate coral growth at the foreslope (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165858	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165858	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is no substantial habitat loss, there is limited collection for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165860	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.	eng
165860	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific region from Christmas Island (Australia) in the west, throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago, to Vanuatu and the Marshall Islands in the east, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). Ranges in depth between 1-25 m.(G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165860	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165860	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165860	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is regularly collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>	eng
165861	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Robertson, R., 2009	<p>This species is almost entirely limited to the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area with collection of animals prohibited in Mexican waters (Endoh 2007). This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and shallow reef-associated habitat.<br/></p>	eng
165861	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Robertson, R., 2009	This eastern central Pacific species appears to have a limited distribution. It is primarily found around the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), including Clarion Island (Isla Clarión). Occasional vagrants are recorded from the southern tip of Baja California (Mexico), the southeastern Gulf of California (Mexico), and Clipperton Island (overseas possession of France). It is found at depths of 3-30 m.	eng
165861	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Robertson, R., 2009	This species inhabits clear water rocky reefs. Little additional information is currently available on the natural history of this species.	eng
165861	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Robertson, R., 2009	This species is considered abundant at the Revillagigedo Islands where an estimated 99% of the total population is present, and presumed to be stable. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is considered vagrant at Clipperton Island, with fewer than 20 individuals recorded.	eng
165861	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Robertson, R., 2009	<p>This species has a restricted distribution with the majority of the population confined to a reef habitat in a single location (two locations if Clarion is considered separate from the other three islands), and its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than <50 km<sup>2</sup>. It has previously been collected for the aquarium trade. <br/></p><p>In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/></p>	eng
165862	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures known for this species. It is present within several marine protected areas.	eng
165862	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the Indian Ocean and the western and central Pacific Ocean. It ranges from coastal East Africa and the Red Sea in the west to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia), Line Islands (Kiribati and USA). It is a vagrant in the Hawaiian Islands (USA). Populations have been recorded as far north as southern Japan (including the Ogasawara Islands [=Bonin Islands] and Izu Islands) to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), New Caledonia (France) and the Austral Islands (French Polynesia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between depths of 1-100 m (Pyle 2001).	eng
165862	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits a wide variety of habitats with individuals usually reported from coastal and outer reefs, deep lagoons, often in areas of rich coral growth (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly seen near ledges and caves. The juveniles usually occur under ledges or in holes on shallow reefs. It feeds mainly on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165862	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165862	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.</p>	eng
165863	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is commonly encountered at the Raja Ampat Islands within gazetted MPAs.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
165863	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	This species is distributed in eastern Indonesia including the seas surrounding northeastern Sulawesi, the Moluccan Islands, Halmahera, and West Papua Province (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It occurs at depths between 5-40 m.<br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
165863	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	This species is usually encountered on outer reef slopes or flat areas exposed to occasional strong currents and cool upwelling. It is frequently associated with localities containing rich growths of sessile invertebrates such as gorgonains and seawhips (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).  Juveniles are sometimes found in sheltered coastal bays (5-15 m) with small coral outcrops on muddy substrates.	eng
165863	population	Allen, G., 2009	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165863	threats	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165864	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165864	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from scattered localities mainly in the western Pacific Ocean. Records include Tahiti in the Society Islands (French Polynesia), Guam (a single specimen), Palau, Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), Cook Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Philippines (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006), Japan (Okinawa) (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), and southern Indonesia (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). It has also been recorded from Cocos-Keeling Atoll (Australia) in the eastern Indian Ocean. The species is probably widespread, but undetected in many areas due to its deep habitat (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths between 25-100 m, being uncommon below 50 m.	eng
165864	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Populations of this species inhabit steep outer rocky reef slopes and drop-offs (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on plankton, with animals forming harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165864	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165864	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165865	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is present in some protected areas, for example the Abrolhos Marine National Park, Brazil. A maximum quota of 5,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels. It will be included in the Sao Paulo State Red List (A. Carvalho-Filho pers. comm. 2009), which will regulate trade.	eng
165865	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in the Lesser Antilles, Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles), Venezuela on the northern coast of South America and southern Brazil (Burgess 2002, L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). The type specimen was collected in about 15 to 20m deep in a patch of staghorn coral, but specimens have been taken in traps off Saint Lucia in excess of 300 m (Burgess 2002).	eng
165865	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is associated with reef and rubble rock areas. It appears to be territorial, always maintaining a certain distance from their neighbors.   Feeds mainly on algae and sponges.	eng
165865	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Common among isolated patches of staghorn coral <em>Acropora cervicornis</em> in the southern Caribbean. In Brazil, it is abundant and stable over rubble bottoms of the state of Espirito Santo and Bahia, and common in deep reefs in the northeastern coast. There are accounts of up to 75% localized declines in abundances in the Brazilian states of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo as a result of harvesting for the aquarium trade (C.E.L. Ferreira pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165865	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	The main threat to this species is extraction for the aquarium trade, especially in Brazil, where it is sold both locally and exported to the US and Europe.   While there is evidence of localized declines due to commercial collection, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population.	eng
165866	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. The Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters), and the Kermadec Islands population is within the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve. </a></p>	eng
165866	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is known only from Lord Howe Island (Australia) and the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand) in the south-western Pacific Ocean (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be found at depths of 10 m, but is more abundant below 35 m and has been recorded up to 100 m (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
165866	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is generally associated with the outer slopes of deep coral reefs and rocky reefs. It is often seen in harems of four or five animals (Endoh 2007).	eng
165866	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is fairly common at Lord Howe Island, but its is reported to be uncommon elsewhere in its range. Populations are generally thought to be stable.	eng
165866	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is extremely limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165867	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures. It occurs within several marine protected areas throughout its wide range.<br/></p>	eng
165867	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found throughout the Indo-Australian Archipelago and western edge of Micronesia, including Rowley Shoals (off Western Australia), New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), the Solomon Islands, northwards to the Philippines Islands, Palau and Yap Island (Federated States of Micronesia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 3-40 m.	eng
165867	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is associated with areas of rich coral growth in lagoons, channels and on outer reef slopes. The juveniles are mostly in shallow protected reef areas. Usually solitary or in pairs. The diet is comprised mostly of sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165867	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165867	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for aquarium trade does not seem to influence the global population.<br/></p>	eng
165868	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. In view of the species extensive distribution it is presumably present in some protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165868	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This western Pacific species has been recorded from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan); Taiwan; Hong Kong; the Philippines; Indonesia; Papua New Guinea; the Solomon Islands; Palau; Kapingamarangi (Caroline Islands, Federated States of Micronesia); the Great Barrier Reef (Australia); and New Caledonia (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Occupies depths from 10 to at least 70 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165868	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is commonly found in rich coral areas and sometimes over rubble, most usually on sheltered outer reefs, but also in lagoons and passages (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae; forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165868	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165868	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165869	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There do not appear to be any marine protected areas surrounding Réunion. Further studies are needed into the natural history and possible threats to this little-known species.</p>	eng
165869	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This little-known species has only been recorded from the island of Réunion (Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean (Fricke 1999). It might also be distributed around the islands of Mauritius and Madagascar although this needs confirmation (Allen 1980). It has been recorded at depths of 60 to 80 m.	eng
165869	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	The natural history of this species is not well known. It is found on deep outer rocky reefs. The species is only known to occur in depths not safely accessible to conventional scuba divers (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It was first collected using gill nets between 60 and 80 m at Réunion (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165869	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is known only from a very few specimens, and is considered to be uncommon (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165869	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There is insufficient information available to determine if there are any major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165870	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The Lord Howe population is within the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters). </a></p>	eng
165870	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species has been recorded from the southern Coral Sea, southern Great Barrier Reef (Australia) and adjacent coast, south to central New South Wales (Australia), New Caledonia (France), Lord Howe Island (Australia) and Norfolk Island    (Australia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has generally been recorded at depths of 20 to 40 m (Steene 1978).	eng
165870	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Populations of this species inhabit outer coral reefs (Pyle 2001). The juveniles are frequently seen shallower in lagoons, harbors or protected bays especially in areas of abundant soft coral (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates; and forms pairs (Pyle 2001).	eng
165870	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	While this species appears to be uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165870	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is rarely collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165871	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165871	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is widely dispersed in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. It ranges from East Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa) to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia) in the South Pacific, extending northwards to the Izu Islands (Japan), and as far south as Lord Howe Island (to Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is not found in the Red Sea, Hawaii (USA), and southeastern Pacific Ocean (Pyle 2001). Found at depths of five to 50 m (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165871	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is associated with coral reefs of lagoons, rubble areas and exposed outer slopes. It is most abundant on outer reef drop-offs (Pyle 1991, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It can be found as single animals or in aggregations, often as harems of three to seven individuals (Myers 1991, Pyle 1991). This species feeds on algae (Myers 1991, Pyle 1991).	eng
165871	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>	eng
165871	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165872	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of the species wide range it seems possible that populations are present in a number of marine protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165872	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is distributed in the western and central Pacific, where it ranges from the island of Taiwan in the west to the Cook Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), and north from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) as far south as New Caledonia and the Austral Islands (French Polynesia) (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is more rarely found in the Australia-New Guinea region (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually encountered at depths between 12-81 m.	eng
165872	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations of this species are often found at steep seaward reefs and drop-offs, most frequently in areas swept by strong currents. It occurs in small or large mixed sex aggregations (including harems of two to five animals) which swim in mid-water, high off the bottom (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). The diet mostly consists of plankton supplemented with benthic invertebrates (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165872	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165872	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165873	conservation	Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165873	distribution	Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This wide ranging species is distributed throughout the Indo-west Pacific region. It ranges from coastal East Africa (north of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) in the west, through the Indian Ocean to Indonesia, the island of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea), and the Solomon Islands in the east. It ranges from as far north as southern Japan to the island of New Caledonia (France) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths of 1-60 m.	eng
165873	habitat	Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Populations of this species inhabit coastal reefs, and is sometimes encountered in caves, on wrecks, or underneath jetties in sheltered coves or harbors (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is frequently seen in murky water. It is most usually encountered singly or in pairs. This species feeds on zooplankton, sponges, and tunicates (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165873	population	Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations. Steene (1978) suggests that the species is rare in the eastern portion of its range.	eng
165873	threats	Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165874	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument.<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong></p>	eng
165874	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago (USA) where it is more common in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. It is found at depths beginning at 10 m to at least 150 m (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165874	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found over rocky reefs and on outer reef slopes. It feeds on the green algae <span style="font-style: italic;">Codium</span>, planktonic organisms, and fish eggs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Juveniles occur at depths of 60 m and greater.	eng
165874	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165874	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is extremely limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165875	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas (e.g., the Ogasawara Islands).	eng
165875	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is found in the western Pacific Ocean, where it is known only from the Northern Marianas Islands, Guam, and the Ogasawara (=Bonin) Islands (Japan). It is also reported from the Izu Islands (Japan), where it is probably a vagrant. Records from Palau and the Philippines (Dioneda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995), need to be confirmed. It ranges at depths between 10 to 56 m (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001).	eng
165875	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is generally found in exposed outer reef slopes on mixed substrata of both living and dead corals with numerous shelter holes and passages. Animals are sometimes encountered in coral-rich areas of clear lagoons (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on benthic algae. The species forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165875	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165875	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165876	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165876	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	This widely distributed species is found throughout the western and northern Indian Ocean, where it ranges from the East African coast (Tanzania and Mozambique) and Red Sea (Oman) in the west to western Thailand and Sumatra (Indonesia) in the east. There is a questionable record from Darwin on the north coast of Australia (Steene 1978). It may be present in Madagascar, but this needs to be confirmed. It has been recorded at depths of 1-30 m.	eng
165876	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	Populations of this species are usually found over rubble areas close to coral reefs, but may also be found among coral in lagoons and on outer reefs (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165876	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is the most abundant member of the genus in the Indian Ocean, being particularly common at the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165876	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Pratchett, M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species, however a localized population decline of 33% in association with general habitat degradation occurred following a 1998 coral bleaching event in the Seychelles Islands (Spalding and Jarvis 2002).</p><p><br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165878	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165878	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is known from throughout the Central Pacific Ocean, with records from the Ogasawara Islands and the Ryukyu Islands (both Japan) to the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), excluding Hawaii and Johnston Atoll (both USA), as well as an unusual population in the insular eastern Indian Ocean. Also reported from the Coral Sea and Great Barrier Reef (Australia) (Pyle 2001). Records from the western side of its distribution (Palau, Philippines, New Guinea, Indonesia, and Japan) are likely vagrants (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2009). It is found from 3-25 m and perhaps deeper.	eng
165878	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Coral rich areas of lagoons and seaward reefs, occasionally in surge channels. Most common in shallows (above 20 m), but also occurs below 25 m. Usually occurs in harem groups comprised of a single male and several females. Can undergo male to female sex change, which takes two to three months. Feeds mostly on filamentous algae (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165878	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	It is common and stable at localities throughout Micronesia, exceptions being at Palau and Yap where it is rare. The species is generally uncommon within the Indo-Australian Archipelago, Caroline Islands and at Easter Island (presumably vagrants) (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165878	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is regularly collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165879	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within many marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165879	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species ranges from Bermuda, Georgia and Florida in the USA, throughout the Caribbean to Rio de Janeiro in southeastern Brazil (Carpenter 2002). In the Gulf of Mexico it only occurs in the Flower Gardens Banks (Texas, USA), Veracruz (Mexico) and Campache Bank (Mexico). It is found at depths of 3-92 m.	eng
165879	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Inhabits a variety of habitats including rock jetties, rocky reefs and rich coral areas (Allen 1980). Juveniles are commonly found in stands of the stinging coral <span style="font-style: italic;">Millepora</span>. This species has a non-specialised diet.	eng
165879	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is the most common angelfish on the coral reefs of the tropical western Atlantic (Allen 1980).	eng
165879	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165880	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas and populations are believed to be present in these.<br/></p>	eng
165880	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This eastern Pacific species is distributed from the Gulf of California in the north to coastal Peru in the south. Populations are present at the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), the Revillagigedo Islands (Mexico), Malpelo Island (Colombia), and Cocos Island (Costa Rica). It is found from 1-80 m in depth.	eng
165880	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is typically found over rocky areas with clear water (Allen 1980). It feeds on sessile invertebrates, algae and plankton but is more specialised to feed on sponges. Females are more territorial and form pair bonds with the males. The adults clean parasites from sharks (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165880	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is common throughout much of its range. This species was studied in different sites in the Galapagos Archipelago, being the second most abundant species in that region, with an overall mean abundance of 13.2 individuals/500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2004). This fish was studied in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) with a density of 0.01 ±0.01 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. This low density may be due to great exploitation of this fish for aquaria activity. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.002 ±0.009 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, and a relative abundance of 0.066% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site study survey at Catalinas Islands this fish could be observed in all sites, with an overall observations of 92 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">H. passer</span> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common — 1-5% of the overall abundance registered — with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured just once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms, frequent in sandy substrata while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 2.128 ±1.511 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 98.8%.	eng
165880	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade (Fenner 1995, Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005); however, this is not thought to be major threat to the global population. This species was affected by El Niño during the 1997/98 event, with a temporary population decline of more than 50%, but had returned to pre-El Niño numbers by 2000.<br/></p>	eng
165881	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165881	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is widely distributed in north-western Australia, from the Abrolhos Islands in the north to off the Kimberly coast in the south (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded from 10-40 m in depth.	eng
165881	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is associated with coastal and inner reefs and nearby flat areas with rocky or coral-covered outcrops (Steene 1978, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is generally seen alone or in small aggregations (Steene 1978).	eng
165881	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>	eng
165881	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is very limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165882	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p><p><br/></p>	eng
165882	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	Populations of this species are distributed at southern Japan, southern Korea, China and the island of Taiwan (Debelius <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2010). It is found at depths between 5-60 m.	eng
165882	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	This species is found in areas of rocky or coral-covered coastal reefs (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually observed as single animals (Allen 1980). It feeds on sponges and tunicates (Pyle 2001).	eng
165882	population	Allen, G., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165882	threats	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).</p>	eng
165883	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is present in numerous protected areas. A maximum quota of 10,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.	eng
165883	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the Western Atlantic, from  Florida (USA) and Gulf of Mexico to Brazil, the Caribbean including Antilles and south American coast, and in the Eastern Central Atlantic at  St. Paul's Rocks (Brazil). It occurs at 1-70 m in depth.	eng
165883	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Found on coral and rocky reefs.  Generally occurs solitarily or in pairs.  Stomach contents of 26 specimens indicate that the species feeds almost exclusively on sponges supplemented by small amounts of algae, tunicates, hydroids and bryozoans.  The young pick ectoparasites from other fishes.	eng
165883	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is common around shallow reefs in the Caribbean and Brazil.	eng
165883	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Collection by the aquarium trade is a local threat to some populations, however, there are no apparent major threats to the global population. The population at St. Paul's Rocks is potentially susceptible to overcollection. However, St. Paul's Rocks is a very isolated island, only accessible by boat, and is located 1,000 miles from the Brazilian coast. Thus, collection of specimens from this island is very expensive.</p>	eng
165884	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas throughout its range.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165884	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the western Indo-Pacific region, where it ranges from Japan in the north to Indonesia (including the Mentawai Islands), east to the Bird's Head Peninsula (Randall and Rocha 2009) of New Guinea, and southward to northern Australia (Pyle 2001). It has been recorded between 1-20 m in depth.	eng
165884	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is found in areas of rich coral growth on silty inner coastal reefs and lagoons. Adults occur alone or in pairs. Feeds on sponges, tunicates and algae&#160; (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165884	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.<br/></p>	eng
165884	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165885	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no known species-specific conservations measure for this species, however its wide range includes several protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165885	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widely distributed throughout the Indo-west and central Pacific, from the Red Sea to the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia), northwards to the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and south to New Caledonia (France). It is found at depths of 1-80 m.	eng
165885	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Occurs in coral rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of 80 m or more.  Often found in the vicinity of caves and feeds on sponges and tunicates.  Juveniles are cryptic, remaining well hidden in cracks and crevices. Solitary or in pairs, or in groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165885	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is a common species, with generally stable populations throughout its range.<br/></p>	eng
165885	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>While animals are collected extensively for the aquarium trade in some areas, this does appear to constitute a major threat to the species. There are no other major threats to the species.<br/></p>	eng
165887	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>  There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas. A maximum quota of 3,000 specimens for export from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.</p>	eng
165887	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the western Atlantic from New York (probably not overwintering north of Florida) (USA), throughout the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, to Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) (Burgess 2002). Reported by Burgess (2002) to have been introduced to Bermuda. It is found at depths of 2-30 m.	eng
165887	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Fairly common on coral and rocky reefs. Seen mostly in pairs, but also as individuals and in small groups. They feed on various invertebrates (mostly sponges) and algae (Burgess 2002).	eng
165887	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This is a relatively common species with stable populations.	eng
165887	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>Collection for the aquarium trade is a local threat, but it does not seem to be affecting the population globally.<br/></p>	eng
165888	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165888	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Malayan region in the west, to the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in the east, being found as far north as southern Japan, southward to the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It has been recorded at depths from 10-50 m.	eng
165888	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations most often occur on seaward coral and rocky reef slopes and steep drop-offs, with animals sometimes seen in more protected areas (e.g., near the wharf at Samarai Island, Papua New Guinea) (Steene 1978). This species forms aggregations that swim well above the bottom, feeding on zooplankton (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found in harems of between three to seven animals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165888	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165888	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165889	conservation	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The distribution overlaps with several protected areas and populations of this species are believed to be present in a number of these.</p>	eng
165889	distribution	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the eastern Pacific Ocean. It ranges from the northern Gulf of California (from Puerto Peñasco, Mexico) in the north, to Peru in the south. This species may be vagrant in southern California (USA), the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Malpelo Island (Colombia); it has not been recorded from Clipperton Island (France). It is usually found at depths of 6-12 m, but can occur up to 50 m.	eng
165889	habitat	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is typically associated with rocky reefs and adjacent sandy areas (Allen 1980, Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). The juveniles can be found in tidal rock pools. Adults often range widely over the reef in pairs or loose aggregations whereas juveniles tend to be territorial and solitary. The diet consists largely of colonial tunicates and sponges (Allen 1980). Breeding occurs from midsummer to early fall and juveniles are most abundant from August through November.	eng
165889	population	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is common and generally stable throughout its range on the continental coast, but is considered more uncommon at the extremities of its range. It has not been observed recently in Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) nor Malpelo Island (Colombia).<br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005) with a density of 0.01±0.01 ind./m<sup>2</sup>. This low density may be due to great exploitation of this fish for aquaria activity. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.006±0.009 ind./m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.154% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be rarely observed in just two sites, with five overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <span style="font-style: italic;">P. zonipectus</span> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce at 0.1-1% of relative abundance (Villarreal-Cavazos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2000). However, it is frequently seen at Cabo Pulmo, but primarily as individuals or in pairs (Lea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1989).<br/><br/>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline bottoms, frequent in sandy substrata while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.009±0.040 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 6.1%.	eng
165889	threats	Pyle, R., Allen, G., Myers, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Robertson, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade (Fenner 1995, Dominici-Arosemena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005), but the impacts of collection are believed to be localized.<br/></p>	eng
165890	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within marine protected areas at the Cocos-Keeling Islands.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165890	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only in the eastern Indian Ocean from the Cocos-Keeling Islands (Australia) and Christmas Island (Australia). It is found from a depth of 15 to at least 70 m, occasionally being found at 8-10 m (Allen 1980).	eng
165890	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is found in coral or rubble areas on steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs. It is generally found in small groups of four to five individuals, but occasionally is encountered in pairs or as solitary individuals (Allen 1980).	eng
165890	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is a common species throughout its range and populations are generally thought to be stable.	eng
165890	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>    </p><p>While it has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is only occasionally collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165891	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is present in the <a id="top" name="top">Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Commonwealth Waters) and is presumably present in several marine protected areas along the eastern Australian coast.<br/></a></p>	eng
165891	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This western Pacific species is distributed along the eastern coast of Australia (from Queensland [rare on the Great Barrier Reef] to New South Wales) southward to Lord Howe Island (Australia) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths of 10 to 50 m. Adults are usually found deeper than 30 m, but juveniles are often seen shallower on the protected inner reefs and around jetties (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165891	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is associated with coastal reefs and lagoons on open flat bottoms with rock and coral patches, frequently with sponge and seawhip growth (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It feeds on sponges and tunicates, and may be found as solitary individuals, pairs, or small groups (Pyle 2001).<p></p>	eng
165891	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165891	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population. There does not seem to be substantial habitat loss within the species range.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165892	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Further studies into the distribution, natural history, and possible threats to this little-known species are needed.</p>	eng
165892	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This little-known western Pacific species has been collected from Macclesfield Bank (a disputed territory close to the Paracel Islands), about midway between Viet Nam and the Philippines in the middle of the South China Sea, and from Wakayama and Kochi prefectures, southern Honshu (Japan) and the Ryukyu Islands (Japan). It likely occurs in between known localities where there is suitable deepwater habitat available. It has been reported from depths of around 20-80 m, but is believed to primarily inhabit depths in excess of 60 m.	eng
165892	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	The natural history of this species is not well-known. It occurs on rock and coral bottoms (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Only juveniles are observed near coasts (Endoh 2007).	eng
165892	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	The population abundance and status of this species is not well known, although it appears to be relatively rare (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165892	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>While it is poorly-known there appear to be no major threats to this species overall. There is no substantial habitat loss within its range, and any collection for the marine aquarium fish trade is unlikely to impact the global population.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
165893	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within some marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165893	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This western Pacific species ranges from the eastern parts of Indonesia to Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987), the Solomon Islands, Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia) (Pyle 2001), Palau (Myers 1999), Vanuatu, Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003), American Samoa (Steene 1978), Samoa (Wass 1984) and the Great Barrier Reef (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is found at depths from 3-20 m.	eng
165893	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species inhabits rubble and thick, rich, coral areas, often characterized by abundant encrusting sponges in crevices (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165893	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is extremely cryptic and is seldom seen by divers (Pyle 1991). The populations are likely to be stable overall.	eng
165893	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collecting is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165894	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may be found in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). More information on population, habitat and ecology are needed. Catches need to be monitored in the aquarium trade.<br/></p>	eng
165894	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	This species is known only from Cebu, central Visayas.	eng
165894	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	This species is reef-associated (Lieske and Myers 1994) and feeds on sponges&#160;and tunicates. Maximum size from collected specimens is 14.0 cm (TL) (Allen 1985).	eng
165894	population	Allen, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chaetodontoplus caeruleopunctatus</span> is known only from the type specimen collected by an aquarium fisherman in Cebu in 1972 (Yasuda and Tominaga 1976, Anonymous 1999). There is no population trend information available for this species.	eng
165894	threats	Allen, G., 2009	Possible threats to this species may come from habitat destruction associated with cyanide and/or blast fishing. It is exported, although rarely, through the aquarium trade (Pyle 2001).	eng
165895	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165895	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is present in the western Indian Ocean, where it ranges from Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the west to the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand to Indonesia (Allen and Adrim 2003) in the east (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is unclear whether the species is present in the Andaman Islands (India). It is found at depths between 3-20 m (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165895	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is associated with areas of coral rubble (with little coral growth) and reef margins (G.R. Allen pers. comm.). It occurs in small groups over this semi-open substrate.	eng
165895	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165895	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade, but harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165896	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present in a few marine protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165896	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species has been recorded from numerous island groups throughout western and central Oceania. Records include Palau; the Caroline Islands (Federated States of Micronesia and Palau); Guam (USA); Republic of the Marshall Islands; the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati); Fiji; Tonga (Randall <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003); the Cook Islands; and the Society Islands (French Polynesia). Vagrants have been recorded from the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is usually found between 20-90 m.	eng
165896	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species can be found at steep outer reef slopes and drop-offs in deep water, usually among coral rubble or under ledges, between areas of rich coral growth (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It typically forms harems of three to seven individuals.	eng
165896	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations, for example it is common around the island of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia.<br/></p>	eng
165896	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species, it is only occasionally collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats overall.</p>	eng
165897	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. Johnson Atoll forms part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. It is likely to be present in additional protected areas.<br/></p>	eng
165897	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This poorly-known species has been recorded from a number of scattered locations in the central and western Pacific including Johnston Atoll (USA); Fanning Island (= Tabuaeran) Kiribati; the Northern Mariana Islands; Guam; the Admiralty Islands (Papua New Guinea); Ouvéa Atoll (Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia); the Samoan Islands (presumably present in both Samoa and American Samoa) and likely occurs at other areas within this general range (Allen 1980, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It is typically encountered at depths between 4-15 m (Allen 1980).	eng
165897	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is generally associated with areas of dead coral rubble in lagoons, and on outer reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165897	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	While this species appears to be relatively uncommon, populations are generally thought to be stable. It is a very cryptic species that is seldom seen except for at collecting stations using poison (Pyle 2001). No live specimens are believed to have been collected to date.	eng
165897	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>      While it is a poorly known species, it has a wide distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is not threatened by the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165898	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>  This species is present within many marine protected areas. A maximum export quota of 5,000 specimens from Brazil has been established for this species, which exceeds the current collection levels.</p>	eng
165898	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found from Florida and the Bahamas to Brazil and straggling north to New York in the Gulf Stream. Has been introduced to Bermuda but not established, however, rare waifs reported from Bermuda. Also reported from St. Helena and Ascenscion Islands in the eastern Atlantic (Burgess 2002). It has been reported as vagrants from West Africa (Allen 1980). Present at depths of 3-100 m.	eng
165898	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is common in shallow rocky and coral reefs.  It is usually found in pairs, often near sea fans.  The species feeds on sponges, algae, bryozoans, zoantharians, gorgonians and tunicates.  Spawning pairs are strongly territorial, with usually both members vigorously defending their areas against neighbouring pairs. Juveniles tend cleaning stations where they service a broad range of clients, including jacks, snappers, morays, grunts, surgeonfishes and wrasses.	eng
165898	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Relatively common throughout its range with stable populations.	eng
165898	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>The only threat is collection for the aquarium trade, however, present harvest levels do not seem to be impacting the global population.<br/></p>	eng
165899	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is present within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Johnston Atoll forms part of the The <strong style="font-weight: normal;">Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.</strong></p>	eng
165899	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (USA) and Johnston Atoll (USA) in the central Pacific (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Adults are usually found below 10 m and seen to at least 120 m.	eng
165899	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations are usually associated with rocky, rubble or coral-covered areas often of seaward reefs (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae and general detritus.	eng
165899	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is usually very common with stable populations, but is less abundant at Johnson Island (Allen 1980, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006).	eng
165899	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165900	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species is present within some marine protected areas.</p>	eng
165900	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found along the western Pacific Ocean rim from the island of Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands (Japan) and Izu islands (Japan) in the north, to the Philippines in the south (recorded from the north of Luzon Island) (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). There is an unconfirmed report of a vagrant from Palau (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). It is found at depths between 10 to 40 m (Pyle 2001).	eng
165900	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is often found in caves and ledges, usually on steep outer coral and rocky reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Natural diet unknown; forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165900	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>It is generally common with stable populations.</p>	eng
165900	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>While it has a relatively limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species overall.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165901	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). In view of the species large range it seems probable that populations are present within several protected areas (e.g., Lord Howe Island Marine Park).<br/></p>	eng
165901	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region, being distributed from the northwestern Australian coast and Christmas Island (Australia) in the east, throughout Indo-Australian Archipelago to Vanuatu and Tonga in the west, and from southern Japan and the island of Taiwan in the north to Lord Howe Island (Australia) in the south (Steene 1978, Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). It ranges from 4-35 m in depth.	eng
165901	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations inhabit coral and rubble areas in lagoons and on seaward reefs (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Feeds on algae. It forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165901	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It is generally common with stable populations.	eng
165901	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population. There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
165902	conservation	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures currently in place for this species. It is found in several marine protected areas.<p></p>	eng
165902	distribution	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	This species is widely distributed from the Indo-Malayan region eastward across the tropical Pacific Ocean to the Line Islands, northward to southern Japan, and southward to New Caledonia (Pyle 2001). It is found at depths of 1-25 m.	eng
165902	habitat	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Areas of rich coral growth on seaward facing reefs, drop-offs and in lagoons. Also occurs in rubble areas. Most commonly observed between 3-20 m. Swims close to the bottom grazing on algae, but never strays far from shelter of reef crevices. Occurs singly, in pairs, or small aggregations (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Forms harems of three to seven individuals (Pyle 2001).	eng
165902	population	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	Populations are stable and common throughout most of its range, but it is rare at Palau to the eastern Caroline Islands, Marianas Islands, and Marshall islands (G.R. Allen pers. comm. 2006). Vagrant to the Line Islands (single specimen collected at Christmas Island, Kiribati). It is a common species at New Guinea and on the Great Barrier Reef (Steene 1978).	eng
165902	threats	Pyle, R., Myers, R. & Rocha, L.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is often collected for the aquarium trade, harvest levels are not considered to be impacting the global population.   There is no substantial habitat loss in the range of this species.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
165903	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to better understand the distribution of this deepwater species.</p>	eng
165903	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	This little-known species is known only from Rarotonga island of the Cook Islands in the South Pacfic, although it likely occurs in other areas in the southeastern tropical Pacific. It is found at depths of 100 to at least 120 m.	eng
165903	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	It has been recorded from ledges and caves on steep outer coral reef slopes (Pyle 2001, G.R. Allen pers. comm.). The natural diet is unknown; it forms pairs or small groups (Pyle 2001).	eng
165903	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	Little is known about the global abundance or population status of this species, although it is locally abundant at Rarotonga, and generally presumed to be stable (R. Pyle pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165903	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2009	<p>While it possibly has a limited distribution, there is no substantial habitat loss, it is rarely collected for the marine aquarium fish trade, and there appear to be no major threats to this species.</p>	eng
165905	conservation	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place. It is unknown if the species occurs in any protected area.	eng
165905	distribution	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs primarily in the Iberian Peninsula, mainly along the Mediterranean coast, but it has also been found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Morocco</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Algeria</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Sánchez-Ruiz <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002). Cobos (1959) in a catalogue of Iberian Eucnemidae indicates that it does not occur beyond the <st1:place w:st="on">Pyrenees</st1:place>, but Chassain (1991) states that it is also found in Cerdanya<span lang="EN-GB">, in the region of Mont-Louis (<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>).</p>	eng
165905	habitat	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. Larvae develop in decayed wood of broad-leaved trees. It has been collected from <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus nigra</span>, and from forests with <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus lycioides, Quercus faginea</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus</span>. The adult is crepuscular or nocturnal. This species is difficult to find and is easily overlooked.	eng
165905	population	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	This species has been found in 31 localities along the Mediterranean coast so it is considered to be relatively common.	eng
165905	threats	Büche, B., Alexander, K. & Méndez, M., 2009	There appears to be no major threats to this species.	eng
165907	conservation	Alexander, K. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The species occurs in protected areas. In Greece, it is present in the Pholoe plateau forest (9,723 ha) which is a  protected area, but this did not protect the site from a fire in 2007.<br/><br/>A fire protection plan is needed for all known sites.	eng
165907	distribution	Alexander, K. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This species occurs in southern Europe and in the Balkans. <br/><br/>In Italy it is present in Calabria and in Sicily (Dajoz 1975).<br/>    <p>In <st1:country-region w:st="on">Greece</st1:country-region> it occurs on some places in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Peloponnesus</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In particular it was found in Pholoe, north-eastern of <st1:city w:st="on">Olympia</st1:city>, Ilia-Arcadia boundary on <em>Quercus frainetto</em>. There is also a record from Aghios Nikolaos, Eurytania (central <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Greece</st1:place></st1:country-region>) but it is possibly erroneous (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).<u1:p></u1:p></p><p>It also occurs in Slovenia and the Caucasus.</p>	eng
165907	habitat	Alexander, K. & Petrakis, P., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species. It lives in   decayed wood of broad-leaved<span lang="EN-GB"> trees, more often in larger pieces that are wet and not sun exposed.   In Greece it lives in areas where there are fallen trees of <em>&#160;</em><em>Quercus frainetto</em> and <em>Pinus halepensis, </em>but it has only been found in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span>, not the <span style="font-style: italic;">Pinus</span>. It seems to feed on almost everything edible in the dead wood (fungi, dead insects and other animal remains). It prefers wet biotopes not exposed directly to the sun &#160;probably to keep the humidity of the trunk high. Ideally it is found on dead trunks in mountain springs and water pools (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).  <span calibri?,?sans-serif?;color:#1f497d?="">	eng
165907	population	Alexander, K. & Petrakis, P., 2009	It seems to be a rare species with fragmented population in Europe.<br/><br/>In Greece it has only been found as single specimens in fallen trees (P. Petrakis pers. comm. 2009).	eng
165907	threats	Alexander, K. & Petrakis, P., 2009	The main threat to this species is the destruction of old trees in the areas in which it occurs. In Greece most of the Pholoe plateau forest (780 m above sea level), its habitat, was burned in a fire in  July 2007.	eng
165910	conservation	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<p>    </p><p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, some of this species' habitat is protected through the establishment of Marine Protected Areas in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> (Geoghegan <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is commonly collected for the aquarium trait (Thresher 1980), however breeding and farming programs are being developed (Wabnitz <em>et al</em>. 2003).</p>  <p></p>	eng
165910	distribution	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<p>This is a tropical species, which is found on coral reefs in Bermuda, southern <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state> and the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean Sea</st1:place> (Randall 1968).&#160;</p>	eng
165910	habitat	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<p>This is a shallow water fish, which is commonly found at depths of three to five m (although it can be found at depths down to 25 m below sea level) (Thresher 1980, Humann 1994). It maintains territories on the reef face, but often swims in the water column above the reef to feed on plankton (de Boer 1980, Humann 1994). It is a fairly solitary species, which is often seen alone or in small groups, and it tends to stay close to the reef (Thresher 1980). Juveniles are found close to the bottom to escape predators (Thresher 1980). The males of this species are solitary spawners that have a solitary breeding territory. They spawn with numerous females and guard the eggs until the planktonic larvae hatch (after approximately three days) (Thresher 1980).</p>	eng
165910	population	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<p>There is no population information for this species, however it is considered to be abundant in the Caribbean and common in <st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state>, the <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bahamas</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on">Bermuda</st1:place> (Randall 1968).</p>	eng
165910	threats	Collen, B. & Richman, N., 2009	<p>This species is commonly collected for the aquarium trait (Thresher 1980). It is unknown to what level it is being collected, however the Family Pomacentridae tends to be one of the most intensely collected fish groups, making up almost half of the aquarium trade (Wabnitz <em>et al.</em> 2003). Furthermore, the Indo-Pacific lionfish has been invading the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> and tropical Atlantic coast. The lionfish has been found to reduce the abundance of coral reef fish due to its rapid population explosion and aggressive behaviour (Hixon <em>et al</em>. 2009). Degradation of coral reef habitats in the <st1:place w:st="on">Caribbean</st1:place> has also led to a significant decline in the density of coral reef fish for more than a decade (Paddack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). The loss of live corals due to climate change is also likely to reduce the density and diversity of coral reef fish species (e.g. Graham <em>et al</em>. 2006).</p>	eng
165912	conservation	Richman, N., Ram, M. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.</p>	eng
165912	distribution	Richman, N., Ram, M. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to the northeast coast of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is found in the tropical waters of the Coral Sea, <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Queensland</st1:place></st1:state> (McCulloch 1930, Munro 1956). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 1,500,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
165912	habitat	Richman, N., Ram, M. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>This is a demersal fish species that lives on the continental slope, down to approximately 2,500 m (Munro 1956, Sazonov and Markle 1999). Data on its mode of reproduction are not available, however for species in this family fecundity tends to be low (Sazonov and Markle 1999).</p>	eng
165912	population	Richman, N., Ram, M. & Collen, B., 2009	There is no population information for this species.	eng
165912	threats	Richman, N., Ram, M. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>There are no specialized fisheries for this species, however it may be trawled as bycatch of deep-sea fisheries (Sazonov and Markle 1999).</p>	eng
165913	conservation	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>There are no conservation measures in place for this species.&#160; Population dynamics, habitat and ecology should be further investigated in the future.</p>	eng
165913	distribution	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>This species is restricted to the northwestern Pacific. It is found in the deep-water off <st1:city w:st="on">Honshu</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, and Okinawa Trough, <st1:place w:st="on">East China Sea</st1:place> (Kido 1985, Chernova <em>et al</em>. 2004). It has an estimated extent of occurrence of more than 650,000 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
165913	habitat	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>This species is bathydemersal and can been found at depths of 1,000 to 1,188 m (Kido 1985, Chernova <em>et al</em>. 2004).</p>	eng
165913	population	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>There is no population information on this species, however it is only known from two records (Kido 1985).</p>	eng
165913	threats	Richman, N. & Collen, B., 2009	<p>There are no known threats to this species.</p>	eng
165914	conservation	Mathews, L.M., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species has been given the heritage rank of G3, vulnerable, by NatureServe&#160;(Taylor&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2007, NatureServe 2009). A recent ecohydrological study of the Quinebaug River has identified key areas which require action, including a reduction in low-flow times by pulses of water from upstream, reservoirs, restoration of the rivers connection with adjacent floodplains, and&#160;identifying&#160;causes&#160;of temperature fluctuation and sources of pollution with a view to mitigation (NEIWPCC 2004).<br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its taxonomic status, distribution and threats.	eng
165914	distribution	Mathews, L.M., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species is currently known from a few locations in central and western&#160;Massachusetts, USA (Mathews and Warren 2008, Mathews <em>et al.</em> 2008), notably the Quinebaug River in Worcester County. This species was also collected from a pond near Charlton, from the East Branch on the Ware River, Lake Ripple near Grafton, the Millers and Housatonic rivers, Puffers Pond near Amherst and the East Branch of the Swift River (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species range may be more extensive as&#160;differentiation&#160;between this species and <em>Orconectes virilis</em> is difficult (Mathews and Warren 2008, Mathews <em>et al.</em> 2008), meaning previous specimens of<em> O. virlis</em> may in fact represent the present species.	eng
165914	habitat	Mathews, L.M., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	This species occurs in small and medium size streams with gravel and rocky substrate, usually found under and among rocks or patches of vegetation (Mathews and Warren 2008). In addition this species may be found in shallow ponds with muddy substrate with fewer rocks (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species is&#160;usually&#160;found in association with the closely-related <em>Orconectes virilis, </em>the females of which are difficult to distinguish&#160;morphologically&#160;from the present species (Mathews and Warren 2008). This species is&#160;also&#160;found in&#160;association&#160;with <em>Orconectes limosus </em>and <em>Procambarus acutus.&#160;</em>	eng
165914	population	Mathews, L.M., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species, although within suitable habitat this species was found to occur in dense subpopulations (Mathews and Warren 2008). In addition, during summer months large numbers of juveniles can be observed in suitable habitat (Mathews and Warren 2008).	eng
165914	threats	Mathews, L.M., Crandall, K.A. & Cordeiro, J., 2010	The Quinebaug River, from which the type specimen of this species was collected, has a history of impoundment, channelization and industrial use (NEIWPCC 2004). In addition it is likely to have been harvested in the past, mistaken for <em>Orconectes virilis</em> (Taylor <em>et. al</em>. 2005). There is ongoing decline in the quality of this species habitat across much of its range (K. Crandall and L. Mathews pers. comm. 2010). It is thought that this species may in fact be hybridising with <span style="font-style: italic;">Orconectes virilis</span> (L. Mathews pers. comm. 2010).	eng
165915	conservation	Adams, S., 2010	<em>Orconectes hathawayi </em>has been given a Global Heritage Status Rank of G3 and are considered Vulnerable due to limited range by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
165915	distribution	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi </em>is found in the Teche-Bayou Boeuf and Bayou Blue systems, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Mermenteau</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system in Rapides, possibly Evangeline, and Allen Parishes (Walls 2009).</p>	eng
165915	habitat	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi </em>is found in cool, well-oxygenated, permanent flowing streams with sandy or rocky substrates, no aquatic vegetation and shaded banks and in <st1:placename w:st="on">Cotile</st1:placename> Lake (Penn 1952, Walls 2009).</p>	eng
165915	population	Adams, S., 2010	<p><em>Orconectes h. hathawayi</em> is quite common in many spots, especially where somewhat protected in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Kisatchie</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Forest</st1:placetype></st1:place>. (J. Walls pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
165915	threats	Adams, S., 2010	<p>Localized declines result from stream dewatering due to logging, water pollution from oil and gas exploration and agriculture, and alterations due to urbanization and dams (S. Adams pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
165917	conservation	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Sian Ka?an Nature Reserve (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
165917	distribution	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known from the type specimens collected 1 km from the coast, within Sian Ka'an Nature Reserve, Municipio de Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo, Mexico (Alvarez<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
165917	habitat	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	This species is known to occur in a salt-marsh 1 km from the coast, within Sian Ka?an Nature Reserve. It was collected from a marsh at a depth of 0.4 m,&#160;with a water temperature of 29  ºC, salinity 5.5 %, pH 8.2 and a dissolved oxygen content of 1.65?4 mg/l (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160;Furthermore, this species is known to reproduce within brackish water, as during collection of the type specimens a female was observed carrying 35 young within the same habitat (Alvarez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
165917	population	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	There is no population information available for this species, as this species is known from the type specimens.	eng
165917	threats	Alvarez, F., López-Mejía, M. & Pedraza Lara, C., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
165918	conservation	Walls, J., 2010	There are no current conservation plans in place for this species. Further research into population, ecology, and threats are required.	eng
165918	distribution	Walls, J., 2010	This species is found in&#160;Louisiana across six parishes: Allen, Beauregard, Calcasieu, Jefferson Davis, Rapides and Vernon (Walls and Black 2008). More specifically it is found in the Calcasieu river drainage to which it is restricted (Walls and Black 2008).	eng
165918	habitat	Walls, J., 2010	This species occupies rivers and creeks within its range (Walls and Black 2010).	eng
165918	population	Walls, J., 2010	There is no population information for this species, however it has been described as common within the Calcasieu river drainage (Walls and Black 2010).	eng
165918	threats	Walls, J., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
165919	conservation	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species (J. Coughran and J. M. Furse pers. comm. 2008).     Research should be initiated to include population assessment and monitoring, biological and life history information, habitat requirements, investigations into thermal tolerance, population genetics and resilience to exotic species. <br/><br/>In New South Wales, a minimum recreational size limit of 90mm OCL is in place for any spiny crayfish (NSW DPI 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Euastacus maccai</span> does not attain that size, and so is indirectly protected by this restriction.	eng
165919	distribution	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p><em>Euastacus maccai</em> is endemic to <st1:state w:st="on">New South Wales</st1:state>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Australia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. <em>Euastacus maccai</em> has a relatively large, highland distribution (850 - 1,400m above sea level). The most northern locality is around the Retreat, approximately 60 km north of <st1:place w:st="on">Tamworth</st1:place>. The distribution then extends south to near Hanging Rock, and east to Yarrowitch (McCormack and Coughran 2008). As a highland species, it inhabits upper reaches of different drainages, and the species can thus be considered severely fragmented across its range due to the barrier effects of mountain ridges and unsuitable habitat in the intervening lowlands (Morgan 1997, Ponniah and Hughes 2006). The highland distribution of this species extends across both the eastern and western sides of the <st1:place w:st="on">Great Dividing Range</st1:place>. The estimated extent of occurrence is 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
165919	habitat	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	<p>This species does not appear to inhabit open water habitats, building elaborate burrows with capped chimneys in cattle pastures and other terrestrial or ephemerally wet habitats (McCormack and Coughran 2008).</p>	eng
165919	population	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	There are no population data available for this species<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>It may be abundant at the sites it inhabits, but capture is extremely difficult due to its burrowing, terrestrial ecology (McCormack and Coughran 2008).	eng
165919	threats	Coughran, J. & Furse, J., 2010	Given its highly restricted range, this species is extremely susceptible to localized threats, including bush fires, forest management practices, habitat destruction and over-exploitation by collectors (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009). This species is also susceptible to climate change, including increasing temperature, alterations to hydrological regimes, severe weather events and loss of suitable highland habitat (Chiew and McMahon 2002, Howden 2003, Hughes 2003, Pittock 2003, Hennessy 2006, Westoby and Burgman 2006, IPCC 2007). <br/><br/>There is a potential large scale threat from Cane Toads (<em>Bufo marinus</em>) (DEH 2004b) although there is no specific information on impacts upon this species. Other introduced exotic species (cats, foxes, pigs, goats) that have generally been found to impact on crayfish (Green and Osbourne 1981, Horwitz 1990, Merrick 1995, Eyre<em> et al.</em> 1997, ACT Government 2007, O'Brien 2007) also occur in this species' range (DEH 2004a,c,d,e) and given this species highly restricted distribution, could have serious impacts by contributing to declines in its distribution and/or abundance (J. Coughran and J.M. Furse pers. comm. 2009).   Due to the narrow thermal tolerance of this species, and its restricted range (restricted to cool, headwater streams in forested catchments), global temperature increase has resulted in range contraction. This species is further compromised by the presence of exotic species (feral pigs, goats, foxes, Cane Toads and cats) which are known to predate on crayfish and degrade riparian habitat; while the precise effects of these threats on this species are not yet well understood, they are believed to be significantly <st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>pacting the long term viability of the population (J. Furse and J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010).  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
165920	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	There are no species-specific threat processes in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance and distribution of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
165920	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known from the Ajamaru Lakes and the Ajamaru River, which belong to the Kais River drainage, Western Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008).	eng
165920	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known to occur in rivers and lakes. The Ajamaru Lakes comprise of Jow, which has a length of 7 km and a width of 2 km; Semitoe (Maroemega) that has a length of 2 km and a width of 1.5 km; and Jate (Hain) that has a length of 3 km and a width under 1 km. The lakes are surrounded by low marsh, and beyond that by hills and mountains reaching 1500 m in height, which are covered by forest (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008). <br/><br/>Several small streams enter the lakes, which have an altitude of 250 m above sea level, and a depth of rarely more than 3 m. The streams have clear water, which is almost stagnant except near the mouth of rivers and outlets. They have a pH of approximately 6.4, and a soft muddy substrate covered with rich aquatic vegetation (Lukhaup and Pekny 2008).	eng
165920	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
165920	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
165921	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
165921	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species was collected from Tamu Creek within the Fly River Drainage, Western Province, Papua New Guinea (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008).	eng
165921	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is usually found in slow flowing, still water, in parts of southern New Guinea with pronounced wet and dry seasonality.&#160; The Tamu River (near the West Papua border) is muddy during the flood season, becoming clear after the initial floods, and then becoming stagnant, with dark (tannin stained) water full of rotting leaves, and almost anaerobic (DO<1mg/L) in the dry season. This species is known to live under logs, and in crevices and holes in submerged timber. It is also known to live in burrows in the clay in the banks of the river. When the water level it remains in all water depths and in holes (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008)..<br/><br/>Generally its habitat is in monsoon gallery forest, however it is known to persist where habitat modification has been severe (clearing and siltation), and breed and maintain populations in small creeks around Kiunga (e.g. near the Kiunga school). These modified creeks have moderate flow throughout the year, and are highly turbid (secchi <50mm), and DO >4mg/L. Water temperature in small streams around Kiunga is between 18°C and 29°C. A few of the creeks in which it occurs dry out completely, so it is probably able to survive in moist conditions for a couple of months, in burrows or moist logs. Furthermore, in the streams this species was sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax albertisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. quadricarinatus</span> (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008).	eng
165921	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
165921	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is harvested on a subsistence level for human consumption (Lukhaup and Herbert 2008), but it is not known to what extent this is impacting populations of this species.	eng
165922	conservation	Austin, C.M., 2009	<p>There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to determine the abundance of this species, and whether it is impacted upon by any major threat processes. <br/></p>	eng
165922	distribution	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species has been collected from Ibele River, 15 km northeast of Habbema Lake and Balim River Camp on Balim River, East of Habbema Lake, Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Holthuis 1950).	eng
165922	habitat	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is known to occur in rivers and pools up to an altitude of 3300 m (Holthuis 1950).	eng
165922	population	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species has been described as common within the Balim River (Holthuis 1950).	eng
165922	threats	Austin, C.M., 2009	This species is harvested on a subsistence scale for human consumption (Holthuis 1950), though it is not known to what extent this is impacting populations of this species.	eng
165924	conservation	Rathbun, G. & Smit, H., 2008	Concerted efforts should be made to assess the relative abundance of the new species and further document its apparent limited distribution. It is unknown whether the species occurs in any protected areas other than the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Karoo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Beaufort-West. The species is limited to a region of local endemism and shares a distribution with other <st1:place w:st="on">Karoo</st1:place> endemic mammals, such as <em>Bunolagus monticularis</em> and <em>Aethomys grantii</em>, which may be an important consideration in identifying and establishing additional protected areas in the region.	eng
165924	distribution	Rathbun, G. & Smit, H., 2008	The new species is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">South Africa</st1:country-region> in the Northern Cape Province and the north-western edge of <st1:place w:st="on">Western  Cape Province</st1:place>. The species therefore appears limited to the Nama-Karoo vegetation biome in the south-central semi-arid Karoo of South Africa. The Nama-Karoo is subdivided into Bushmanland and the Upper and <st1:place w:st="on">Lower Karoo</st1:place> bioregion vegetational units (Mucina and Rutherford 2006). Based on genetic evidence, <em>E. pilicaudus</em> is divided into two clades. Specimens from the Upper Karoo bioregion have a different genetic profile than those from the <st1:place w:st="on">Lower Karoo</st1:place> bioregion. Because there are only five known locations where the new species occurs, the distribution is not well understood, although it appears to be highly restricted. It is possible that the distributions of the <st1:place w:st="on">Cape</st1:place> Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>edwardii</em>) and the Western Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>rupestris</em>) do not overlap with <em>E</em>. <em>pilicaudus</em>. Within the range of the new species, it is not likely to be continuously distributed because its boulder and rock habitats are highly fragmented. All known locations are >1,300 m above sea level.	eng
165924	habitat	Rathbun, G. & Smit, H., 2008	<em></em>This species is confined to rocky or boulder-strewn habitats against mountain slopes or on ridges. Based on the five locations where it has been trapped, the species may have similar ecology as its sister species the Cape Rock Sengi (<em>E. edwardii</em>), and the boulder- and rock-dwelling Western Rock Sengi (<em>E</em>. <em>rupestris</em>) (Corbet and Hanks 1968).	eng
165924	population	Rathbun, G. & Smit, H., 2008	The abundance and population size is unknown. Despite numerous field excursions in the region, only 17 specimens of the new species from five locations in the Nama Karoo are known (three live trapped by Hannelie Smit; two trapped by Galen Rathbun, and 12 museum specimens housed in South African museums). In October 2008, a farm near Calvinia in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, where three live specimens were trapped in September 2006, was revisited by H. Smit and an effort to trap additional live specimens was unsuccessful. This reinforces the evidence of a species with a low abundance.	eng
165924	threats	Rathbun, G. & Smit, H., 2008	The species occurs in an area of ongoing livestock farming, which poses no direct threat to the species. Because it occupies rocky and boulder habitats that are not suitable for most agricultural or urban development, there are no known threats to the Karoo Rock Sengi.	eng
165925	conservation	Goodman, S., 2009	Anjozorobe has been classified as a protected area, known as the Coulior  Forestier d'Anjozorobe-Angavo. Further research is needed into the population status of this species.	eng
165925	distribution	Goodman, S., 2009	Known only from the forest surrounding Anjozorobe, along the eastern edge of the Central Highlands, in central eastern Madagascar, between the elevations of 1,250 and 1,425 m (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Soarimalala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). Currently, it is separated from <span style="font-style: italic;">V. gymnocaudus</span> to the north by some 450 km.	eng
165925	habitat	Goodman, S., 2009	This species is recorded only from montane tropical forest. The holotype was captured in a Sherman trap placed on a 8-cm diameter <span style="font-style: italic;">Uapaca densifolia</span> (family Euphorbiaceae) branch about 150 cm off the ground (Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
165925	population	Goodman, S., 2009	At the time of its description in 2005, this species was known only from three specimens collected during 2002, after 429 pit-fall trap-nights and 1,164 Sherman and National trap-nights in the Ankaibe Forest and after 396 pit-fall trap-nights and 1,164 Sherman and National trap-nights in the Analamahavery Forest. Goodman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) remarked then that it was unclear whether this species is spottily distributed in the forests of the Anjozorobe area, whether it shows notable cyclic variation in abundance, or whether it is simply difficult to capture. The species subsequently has been recorded at several sites throughout the&#160; region during surveys conducted in late 2005 and early 2006 and at some forested sites was found to be quite common (Soarimalala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
165925	threats	Goodman, S., 2009	The main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation as a result of slash and burn agricultural activities (tavy).	eng
166023	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166023	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166023	conservation	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
166023	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
166023	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
166023	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Occurs in many reserves.	eng
166023	distribution	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has a virtually Pan-African in distribution. In Asia,  it occurs in Jordan, Syria and southern Turkey (Skelton 2001). It has also been  introduced into Brazil and Southeast Asia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In  Lower Guinea it occurs naturally in the upper Sanaga River, Cameroon. Following  widespread introductions the species is currently caught in the Ogowe basin, and  in small coastal basins in southern Gabon and in the Kouilou, Republic of the  Congo. <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has been introduced as aquaculture species and  for predation on stunted <em>Tilapia</em>, in 1972 and 1973 from Central Africa to  Cameroon. For the same reasons it was also introduced from Central Africa to  Gabon between 1972 and 1978, and to Congo in 1972 and 1973. Two specimens  collected from the Djerem basin (Sanaga River basin) in Cameroon are probably  due to escapees from the Fisheries Station at Yaoundé (Southern Cameroon) of  stocks originating from the Benue River (Northern Cameroon). A less likely  alternative explanation is that they result from contacts between the Logone  system and the Djerem system. There are museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and  Congo. The species is naturally reproducing and established in the wild.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in eastern Africa,  including Lakes Victoria, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika, Rukwa, Bangwelo, Malawi and  their affluent rivers and wetlands. It has been introduced into the upper  Akagera system.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in lower and This  species is known from upper Egyptian Nile and freshwater regions of coastal  lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is found in  Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Nile, Lake Nasser (also known as Lake  Nubia), Lakes Kundi and Keilak, and several water systems of  Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range has been extended along the  coastal rivers of South Africa through translocations and accidental  introductions. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the  Lake Chad, the basins of the rivers Shari, Logone, Benue, Niger, Oshun, Ogun,  Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Bandama, This species is known from upper Comoé and Senegal.	eng
166023	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Clarias gariepnus</em> is common in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile and freshwater regions of coastal lakes.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River system, Syria, Lake Albert, lake Edwards, Chad, Senegal, Nigeria and Congo.	eng
166023	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has a virtually Pan-African in distribution. In Asia, it occurs in Jordan, Syria and southern Turkey. In Lower Guinea it occurs naturally in the upper Sanaga River, Cameroon. Following widespread introductions the species is currently caught in the Ogowe basin, and in small coastal basins in southern Gabon and in the Kouilou, Republic of the Congo. <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> has been introduced as aquaculture species and for predation on stunted <em>Tilapia</em>, in 1972 and 1973 from Central Africa to Cameroon. For the same reasons it was also introduced from Central Africa to Gabon between 1972 and 1978, and to Congo-Brazzaville in 1972 and 1973. Two specimens collected from the Djerem basin (Sanaga River basin) in Cameroon are probably due to escapees from the Fisheries Station at Yaoundé (southern Cameroon) of stocks originating from the Benue River (Northern Cameroon). A less likely alternative explanation is that they result from contacts between the Logone system and the Djerem system. There are museum records from Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. The species is naturally reproducing and established in the wild. The trade is restricted in Germany.	eng
166023	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Lake Chad, the basins of the rivers Shari, Logone, Benue, Niger, Oshun, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Bandama, Upper Comoé and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Almost Pan-Africa, absent from Maghreb, the upper and lower Guinea and the Cape province and probably also Nogal province. Asia: Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southern Turkey. Widely introduced to other parts of Africa, Europe and Asia.	eng
166023	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded throughout sub-Saharan Africa as well as in Israel, Lebanon and Turkey (Skelton 2001). Its range has been extended along the coastal rivers of South Africa through translocations and accidental introductions. It has also been introduced into Brazil and south east Asia.	eng
166023	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	The species is widespread in eastern Africa, including Lakes Victoria, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika, Rukwa, Bangwelo, Malawi and their affluent rivers and wetlands. Has been introduced into the upper Akagera system.	eng
166023	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	A widely distributed species which is most common in shallow inshore waters, swamps and floodplains around lakes and rivers. Omnivorous, but mainly predatory on small fishes. Other food items include insect larvae, molluscs and plants.<br/>This species has been introduced in many areas for aquaculture.	eng
166023	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing rivers and in rapids (Teugels 1986). This species is widely tolerant of extreme environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. It remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the mouth (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It can leave the water at night using its strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into the breeding areas through very shallow pathways (Burgess 1989). <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface (Teugels 1986). It forages at night on a wide variety of prey (Burgess 1989). It feeds on insects, plankton, invertebrates and fish but also takes young birds, rotting flesh and plants (de Moor and Bruton 1988). Individuals of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> migrates to rivers and temporary streams to spawn (Witte and de Winter 1995). <br/><br/>During intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate electric organ discharges that were monophasic, head-positive and lasting from 5 to 260 ms (Baron <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is known as sharptooth catfish in aquaculture, a highly recommended food fish in Africa (Okeyo 2003). <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is an oviparous species and spawning takes place during the rainy season in flooded deltas. The fishes make a lateral migration towards the inundated plains to breed and return to the river or lake soon afterwards while the juveniles remain in the inundated area. The juveniles return to the lake or river when they are between 1.5 and 2.5 cm long (Witte and de Winter 1995). The first sexual maturity occurs when females are between 40-45cm and males between 35-40 cm. Aquaculture production for Cameroon is respectively 9 and 8 metric tonnes in 1988 and 1989, decreasing to 2 metric tonnes in 1992 and 1993, and no production between 1994-1997.	eng
166023	habitat	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs  mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing  rivers and in rapids (Teugels 1986). This species is widely tolerant of extreme  environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables  this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. It  remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the  mouth (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It can leave the water at night using its  strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into  the breeding areas through very shallow pathways (Burgess 1989). <em>Clarias  gariepinus</em> is a bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface  (Teugels 1986). It forages at night on a wide variety of prey (Burgess 1989). It  feeds on insects, plankton, invertebrates and fish but also takes young birds,  rotting flesh and plants (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is known to hunt in packs  in the Okavango River, herding and trapping small fishes. During  intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate  electric organ discharges that were monophasic, head-positive and lasting from  5-260 ms (Baron <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is known as sharptooth catfish in  aquaculture, a highly recommended food fish in Africa (Okeyo 2003). <em>Clarias  gariepinus</em> is an oviparous species and spawning takes place during the rainy  season in flooded deltas. It breeds in summer after rains, when large numbers of  fish migrate to shallow grassy or reedy verges of rivers and lakes. Eggs are  laid on vegetation and hatch within 25-40 hours. Larvae are free-swimming and  feed within 2-3 days, remaining inshore within vegetation cover. Growth is rapid  but variable depending on local conditions. It tolerates a wide range of  pollution, and can endure harsh conditions such as high turbidity or dessication  and is frequently the last inhabitant of drying pools, where it may form  burrows.	eng
166023	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Occurs in almost any habitat but favours floodplains, large sluggish rivers, lakes and dams (Skelton 2001). Can endure harsh conditions such as high turbidity or dessication and is frequently the last inhabitant of drying pools, where it may form burrows. Moves overland under damp conditions. Omnivorous, feeding on virtually any available organic food source. Hunts in packs in the Okavango River, herding and trapping small fishes. Breeds in summer after rains, when large numbers of fish migrate to shallow grassy or reedy verges of rivers and lakes. Eggs are laid on vegetation and hatch within 25-40 hours. Larvae are free-swimming and feed within 2-3 days, remaining inshore within vegetation cover.Growth is rapid but variable depending on local conditions.	eng
166023	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Occurs mainly in quiet waters, lakes and pools but may also occur in fast flowing rivers and in rapids. It tolerates a wide range of pollution. This species is completely omnivorous and feeds on fish, insect larvae, molluscs, planktonic organisms and water weeds. It breeds in summer and eggs are laid in vegetation. It migrates to rivers and temporary streams to spawn lives for 8 or more years. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. Remains in the muddy substrates of ponds and occasionally gulp air through the mouth. Can leave the water at night using its strong pectoral fins and spines in search of land-based food or can move into the breeding areas through very shallow pathways.	eng
166023	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species migrates upstream for reproduction. Widely tolerant of extreme environmental conditions. The presence of an accessory breathing organ enables this species to breath air when very active or under very dry conditions. Bottom feeder which occasionally feeds at the surface. Omnivorous, feeds on insects, crabs, plankton, snails and fish but also take young birds, rotting flesh, plants and fruits. During intra-specific aggressive interactions, this species was noted to generate electric organ discharges.	eng
166023	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Abundant and widespread.	eng
166023	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
166023	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166023	population	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	Population not known, but well represented in many regional fisheries with a decline in catches reported in Lake Victoria.	eng
166023	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Populations of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, are observed in shoals on a feeding migration. This feeding migration can be defined as pack-hunting. Pack-hunting commences with the drawdown of the annual flood level (Merron 1993).	eng
166023	population	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<strong>Central Africa:</strong> Populations of <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> of the Okavango  Delta, Botswana, are observed in shoals on a feeding migration. This feeding  migration can be defined as pack-hunting. Pack-hunting commences with the  drawdown of the annual flood level. (Merron 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> Population not known, but well represented in many regional  fisheries with a decline in catches reported in Lake  Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>North East Africa:</strong> Unknown but very  common.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Abundant and  widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Northern and Western Africa:</strong> No information available.	eng
166023	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias gariepinus</em> is an important fish in the aquaculture trade.	eng
166023	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
166023	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
166023	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
166023	threats	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	The main threats to the species are overfishing, regression of swamps and wetlands and competitive exclusion by Nile perch in Lake Victoria.	eng
166023	threats	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
166077	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this is a common, very widespread species, more information about its population size and trends, biology and potential threats (even if localized) facing this species is required. &#160;At the present moment, no species-specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
166077	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166077	conservation	Cambray, J., 2006	The species is protected in some coastal reserves.	eng
166077	conservation	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., & Snoeks, J., 2009	The species is protected in some coastal reserves in southern Africa.	eng
166077	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Found in rivers, estuaries and coastal regions throughout the Indo-West Pacific, from the eastern coast of Africa to the Hawaiian Islands. Some populations in parts of its range appear to reside in freshwaters.	eng
166077	distribution	Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from the East coast south to Transkei, also Indo-West Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).	eng
166077	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone.	eng
166077	distribution	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is widespread along the Indian Ocean coastal zone, also Indo-West  Pacific: East Africa to French Polynesia (Skelton 2001).<br/> <br/> <strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Tanzania  southwards<br/> <br/> <strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast,  Mozambique south to Transkei, South Africa.	eng
166077	habitat	Cambray, J., 2006	Inhabits lagoons, estuaries and freshwater. Juveniles are found mainly among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries.	eng
166077	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Inhabits lagoons, estuaries and rivers. Juveniles are mainly found among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2003). Commonly found under logs and rootstocks in muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps and freshwater streams leading into coastal lagoons (Skelton 1993). Carnivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
166077	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a variety of habitats, ranging from freshwater streams to brackish estuarine and coastal areas.	eng
166077	habitat	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species inhabits lagoons, estuaries and rivers. Juveniles are mainly found among mangrove roots in the more saline areas of lagoons and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2003). Commonly found under logs and rootstocks in muddy reaches of estuaries and mangrove swamps and freshwater streams leading into coastal lagoons (Skelton 1993). Carnivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
166077	population	Cambray, J., 2006	Common and widespread.	eng
166077	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Given the very wide distribution of this species and the absence of any significant threats, the global population can be considered stable.	eng
166077	population	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
166077	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166077	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166077	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no large-scale threats to the global population of this species. Even if populations of this species are threatened locally, this species is abundant and wide-ranging enough that no significant effects of such threats on the global population are to be expected.	eng
166077	threats	Cambray, J., 2006	The species is widespread with no major threats.	eng
166077	threats	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., & Snoeks, J., 2009	The species is widespread with no major threats.	eng
166084	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166084	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is found in the upper reaches of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River and the Xiajiang (West) River, and in the lakes in the eastern part of Yunnan province.	eng
166084	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits rivers and lakes.	eng
166084	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
166084	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. yunnanensis</em> is locally threatened, for example in lake Dianchi, which is heavily polluted from both domestic and industrial sources. Bycatch is also a potential threat to the species.	eng
166091	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166091	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. hoffmanni</em> is only known from the type locality, the Wuzhou county of Guangxi Province.	eng
166091	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. hoffmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
166091	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166091	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Overfishing and pollution are general threats to fish in the Guangxi province, although their direct effect on<em> T. hoffmanni</em> are not known.	eng
166101	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Dayaoshan Mountain is well protected, the area is designated as a National Forest Park.  This species is protected within the Park, although it may range beyond this area.	eng
166101	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. pachycheilus</em> is only found in small mountain brooks flowing into the Xi Jiang River in the Dayaoshan Mountain of Guangxi.  The Extent of Occurrence is approximately 15,165 km², estimated by locating the mountain in a gazetteer and finding the area of the surrounding basins.	eng
166101	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. pachycheilus</em> is a demersal species which inhabits small mountain streams.	eng
166101	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166101	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
166102	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Research into suitable harvest level and population trends has been recommended.	eng
166102	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>H. umbrifer</em> is found in South China and North Viet Nam, in the Xijiang River basin, which is the western (and main) tributary of the Pearl River.	eng
166102	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>H. umbrifer</em> is a benthic fish.	eng
166102	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
166102	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Fishing is a threat to the species, but it is still common on the local markets (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.)	eng
166109	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Part of the range of <em>C. dabryi</em> is protected in the Khankayskiy Biosphere Reserve.	eng
166109	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. dabryi</em> is found in East Asia, from the Yangtze to the Amur basin.	eng
166109	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. dabryi</em> is a pelagic species, sometimes found in lakes and slow flowing main courses of rivers.	eng
166109	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Populations are declining as a result of overfishing.	eng
166109	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. dabryi</em> is threatened by overfishing across its whole range.	eng
166123	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Urgent taxonomic revision is required for this species complex.	eng
166123	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species has a very wide distribution; it is recorded from Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore.	eng
166123	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Present in almost all wetlands.	eng
166123	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Population is unknown, but as presently grouped, it is common and widespread.	eng
166123	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Threats are not expected, but further investigation is required following taxonomic revision.	eng
166139	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166139	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. hemispinus</em> is endemic to China, known from the Min Jiang basin (a tributary of the Yangtze River) in Fujian Province and the Qiangtang Jiang basin in Zhejiang Province.	eng
166139	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. hemispinus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
166139	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This is quite a common species that can usually be easily caught, however it is thought that the population is declining (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).	eng
166139	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The area in which this species is found is heavily populated, and the species, although not targeted, will be affected by bycatch and pollution as a result of human settlement.	eng
166146	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There are no conservation efforts directed towards this species, nor is one required.	eng
166146	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It occurs in northern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. This species, however, has been introduced in other parts of India and adjacent countries (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166146	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits rivers and tanks. In natural environment it attains a length of 99 cm and weight of 12.7 kg. It breeds during south-west monsoon in shallow pockets in marginal areas, and in bunds. The depth of water of breeding grounds is 0.5 to 1 m. Mrigal is a detritus feeder with narrow range of food variety. It is a bottom feeder subsisting mainly on decaying vegetation (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166146	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is present throughout India and is also cultured in captivity. The species is common but population estimates are not available.	eng
166146	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There are no major threats recognized for the species.	eng
166148	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Monopterus albus</span> is a species complex and requires taxonomic revision.	eng
166148	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Recorded from India, throughout southeast Asia, probably including Bangladesh, China and Japan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). This species is introduced to USA.	eng
166148	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">        Found in hill streams to lowland wetlands.   Also, occurs in streamlets, canals and estuaries.   Lives in muddy ponds, swamps and rice fields; burrows in moist earth  in dry season surviving for long periods without water. Inhabits still water of swamps and ponds, but sometimes found in  gently flowing streams.   Nocturnal predator devouring fishes, worms, crustaceans, and other  small aquatic animals;  also feeds on detritus.	eng
166148	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Members of the species complex are common throughout its range.	eng
166148	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There are no known widespread major threats to the species.	eng
166157	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166157	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is endemic to Fuxian Lake (198 km²), Yunan Provence, China.	eng
166157	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
166157	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. fuxianensis</em> is very rare, possibly extinct, in the lake since population declines as a result of competition and hybridisation with introduced species, overfishing and pollution.  During survey work in 1995 no specimens were caught (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).  It is suspected that the population has declined by over 80% in the past 21 years.	eng
166157	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Fuxian Lake is heavily impacted by overfishing and pollution from domestic and industrial sources, which became major threats in the 1980s.  Tourism is one of the major industries around the lake.  <br/><br/><em>Cyprinus carpio</em> was introduced into the lake in the 1980s to improve fishery catches, and has hybridised with and outcompeted <em>C. fuxanensis</em>.	eng
166164	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166164	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>X. xiurenensis</em> is endemic to southern China; this species is found 'throughout the Zhujiang (Pearl) River, northward to Lijiang River near Guilin, Guangxi, southward to Zoujiang River near Longzhou, Guangxi' (Chen and Lundberg 1994).  This species is hardly known beyond it's type locality (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
166164	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>X. xiurenensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
166164	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166164	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are potential threats to <em>X. xiurenensis</em> within it's range, including hydrological alterations such as dams and water diversion projects, overfishing, and pollution, however, as little is known about the species, it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to <em>X. xiurenensis</em>.	eng
166174	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. chinensis</em> has been classified as CR in a regional assessment in Japan in 1999; rehabilitation of small Japanese population found in 1994 continues (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).	eng
166174	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. chinensis</em> is found in Japan northeastern Kyushu, the Korean Peninsular and in the Xi Jiang (Pearl River) China.	eng
166174	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. chinensis</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits flowing water and rice fields.	eng
166174	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166174	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Japanese population has decreased considerably due to development of agricultural land and reconstruction of irrigation systems.  Pesticides and herbicides may also have contributed to the decline (Environment Agency of Japan 1999)	eng
166177	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166177	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. andersoni</em> was described from a 'lake at Yunnan Fu, China' and subsequently has only been known from Xing Yun Lake in Jiangchuan County, China (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  Xing Yun Lake has an area of approximately 33 km².	eng
166177	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. andersoni</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
166177	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
166177	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Domestic pollution is causing habitat degradation in Xing Yun Lake which, combined with overfishing, severely impacts the species. <br/><br/><em>Salanx cuvieri</em> (noodle fish) species was introduced into the lake in the early 1990s to increase the fishery production, which has severely impacted <em>A. andersoni</em> through competition for zooplankton, causing serious population declines.	eng
166189	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Management of subsistence fishing is needed in some areas so that breeding stocks are preserved in part of their ranges. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Collection of glass eels or elvers for aquaculture should be limited.	eng
166189	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Management of subsistence fishing is needed in some areas so that breeding stocks are preserved in part of their ranges. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Do not allow collection of glass eels or elvers for aquaculture.	eng
166189	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from African east-coast rivers from the Eastern Cape province (South Africa) north to at least Kenya. Also eastwards through the Indian Ocean territories, including Madagascar, through to parts of the western Pacific. In Africa more common south of the Limpopo River (Skelton 2001).	eng
166189	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Within the African continent it is restricted to southern Africa, more common south of the Limpopo River (Skelton 2001). Elsewhere it is found throughout the Indo-Pacific.	eng
166189	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels>elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.	eng
166189	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	<span>This species breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels, elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.	eng
166189	population	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Fairly common.	eng
166189	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This is a fairly common species.	eng
166189	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	In upper catchments in Mozambique all <em>Anguilla</em> species are susceptible to hook and line fishing and poisoning by subsistence fishermen. Within southern Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future. Aquaculture initiatives threaten this species because this will require the collection of glass eels and elvers in estuaries. The specific impacts of this are unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed.	eng
166189	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	In upper catchments in Mozambique all <span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla</span> species are susceptible to hook and line fishing and poisoning by subsistence fishermen. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future. Aquaculture initiatives threaten this species because this will require the collection of glass eels and elvers in estuaries. The specific impacts of this are unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed.	eng
166206	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166206	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. fasciata</em> is known from Guangdong Province of China, in the drainages of Han Jiang and its river mouth, Dong Jiang, Bei Jiang, Xi Jiang and Zhu Jiang delta.	eng
166206	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. fasciata</em> is a demersal species.	eng
166206	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is rare throughout it's range (N. Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).	eng
166206	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. fasciata</em> is likely to be fished for human consumption, and there is a number of threats within the region, including pollution, damming and other hydrological alterations.  However as there are no reports of these factors as direct threats to <em>P. fasciata</em>, they are not considered major threats.	eng
166258	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Further information is required on the species population, habitats and ecology.	eng
166258	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is distributed in south and southeast Asia; widespread in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and eastwards to New Guinea and Japan.	eng
166258	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in swamps, lakes, ponds along with rich macrophytes. This species acts as intermediate hosts of many trematode parasites such as<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;Fasciolopsis buski</span>&#160;and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus westermani</span>. Human intestinal parasites&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrodiscoides homines&#160;</span>and&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Cercaria helicorbis&#160;</span>were also reported from this snail.	eng
166258	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	Although there is no information on population status and trends, however, this is a very common species.	eng
166258	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	There are no known threats to this species across its range.	eng
166259	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There are no data available on conservation status for this species.	eng
166259	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is distributed widely in China (including Sichuan and Inner Mongolia) and is also reported from Mongolia, Democratic Republic  of Korea, Japan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, <span class="definition">Myanmar and Marianas (Yueying Liu 1979)<span class="definition">.	eng
166259	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species inhabits the coastal calm water of lakes, brooks, ditches with shallow water, pools, rice field and marshes. They prefer muddy&#160;substratum. A large number of individuals inhabit together in the favoured environment for egg laying. They feed on algae, decaying&#160;organic  matter and aquatic plants.	eng
166259	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The current population trend and population size are not known.	eng
166259	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Habitat destruction and loss may be threats to this species.	eng
166311	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	None in place. The species is certainly extinct in Lake Yilong, but further surveys are required to confirm whether any individuals remain in lakes Datunhai, Qilu and Xingyun.	eng
166311	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species occurs in Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs in Lake Xingyun (34 km²) and Lake Qilu (37 km²). The species was found to still be present in these lakes in 2006 and 2007 respectively. Previously it was known from Lake Yilong, Lake Dianchi, and Lake Datunhai (also called Lake Datun). Relatively recently it was known from Lake Yilong (32 km²) and Lake Datunhai (12 km²). However in 1983, Lake Yilong dried up for about two months, and the species is now considered extirpated from this lake. Lake Datunhai did not dry up but became very shallow. Both these lakes were surveyed in 2006 and this snail was not found (Du Lina, pers. comm. 2008), and another survey of Lake Datunhai in May 2008 by Du Lina also did not find it, so it is probably no longer present in there. Du Lina also surveyed Lake Dianchi in May 2008 and could not find the species; it has probably also been extirpated from there. <br/><br/>The species was previously listed in the China Red List (2004) as also occurring in Lakes Fuxian and Erhai, but Du Lina believes these records to be errors.	eng
166311	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Small lakes.	eng
166311	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The species has been lost from three lakes where it previously occurred. In its current known range it is very rare.	eng
166311	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Lake Yilong is used to irrigate farmland and water abstraction is a major problem here; the drying up of the lake in 1983 is the likely cause of the species being lost from this lake. Pollution is an ongoing problem. Lake Datunhai (which also previously held a population of this snail) is very small and becomes green each year so it is probably eutrophic; the water level also changes quickly. The small sizes of these lakes makes them very vulnerable to drying out, and if the entire lake dries out the snail population dies. Fish harvesting in the lakes also results in this species being take as bycatch but the snails themselves are not used.	eng
166399	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Impact of threats on the species distribution and population requires detailed studies.	eng
166399	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is recorded from the Brahmaputra basin in India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam, northern West Bengal, Nagaland, Tripura, and is likely to be present in other northeastern Indian states) and Bangladesh.<br/><br/>The species also recorded from the Salween and Irrawaddy basins in China (Ximeng and Yunnan; Froaese and Pauly 2010; Kottelat 1989; <a href="http://www.loaches.com/species-index/botia-rostrata">http://www.loaches.com/species-index/botia-rostrata</a>), though these records require confirmation. If the Chinese records are confirmed it should be looked for in Bhutan, and in parts of the Salween and Irrawaddy in Myanmar.	eng
166399	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>This species is reported to live in medium to fast current waters. <br/></p>	eng
166399	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Population estimates of this species were carried out in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Catch frequency of <em>Botia rostrata</em> was 60% during 2004 (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007) but during 2009 it came down to 20% probably because it is a much sought after species firstly due to its good taste and secondly due to its ornamental value (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. obs.</em>, 2010).	eng
166399	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The main threats facing this species is sand and boulder mining which destroys its habitat. Other major threat is destructive fishing practices of electrocution and poisoning (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007)<strong> </strong>	eng
166400	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the the biology of this species is needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166400	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Present in   India (Chindwin basin), Thailand, Myanmar (Mandalay area and Shweli River).	eng
166400	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species inhabits mountain streams and large rivers, with sandy and gravel substratum.&#160;  It prefers dark and is often found near submerged boulders and fallen  trees.	eng
166400	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166400	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This is a high priced ornamental fishes and exploited from the wild.	eng
166401	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166401	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidocephalichthys berdmorei </span>was  described from Sittang River basin (Kottlat and Lim 1992) Myanmar.&#160; In Manipur (Irrawaddy drainage), India, Thailand (<span>Chao Phraya, Mekong and Meklong basins). The species is also reported (FishBase 2009) <span>from Bangladesh (Brahmaputra), and China. <span><span>The records from the Indian Brahmaputra are doubtful because the <span><span>species is closely related to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. guntea</span> and identification can be confused. </span>	eng
166401	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2009	It is a clear water species of hillstreams.	eng
166401	population	Dahanukar, N., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
166401	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2009	Hill stream habitats are degraded across much of this species range by deforestation. Habitats are most likely intact within Myanmar.	eng
166402	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166402	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India and Bangladesh.	eng
166402	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>This species is found in swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and gravel.</p>	eng
166402	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Although there is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively abundant species in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent.</p>	eng
166402	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166403	conservation	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>The species is subjected to over-exploitation and habitat loss due to anthropogenic and natural events and needs immediate conservation measures.&#160;&#160;</p>	eng
166403	distribution	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	Recorded from India; Assam, Manipur, <span>Nagaland and Meghalaya in the Brahmaputra River system, and from the River Alaknanda of the Garhwal Himalaya<span> (Joshi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); a wider presence in the Ganges system is likely.	eng
166403	habitat	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>Inhabits large rapid streams with rocky bottom (Menon 1999).  </p>	eng
166403	population	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166403	threats	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<p>Whilst no information is available at present, a significant number of dams are currently planned or being constructed within this species range, and these will impact upon the species. In addition, the species habitat is impacted by pollution from a number of sources.<br/></p>	eng
166404	conservation	Pal, M., 2009	More catch data and information on harvest levels throughout the range of this species is needed. &#160;The threats to this species also need to be further ascertained.	eng
166404	distribution	Pal, M., 2009	<em>Pangasius pangasius </em>is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and the Irrawaddy River delta in Myanmar (Roberts and Vidthayanon 1991). &#160;Shrestha (2008) reports it from Nepal.	eng
166404	habitat	Pal, M., 2009	It inhabits large rivers, streams, lakes, coastal waters and estuaries. &#160;It mainly inhabits estuaries where it&#160;breeds&#160;during the rains. &#160;It does not breed in ponds. &#160;It feeds on plants, molluscs, worms and shrimps (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
166404	population	Pal, M., 2009	It was previously abundant in Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, but serious declines have been reported (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;There is no empirical evidence to support this decline for this species throughout its range. &#160;However, localized catch data suggests that this species is being overfished (Hoq 2007).	eng
166404	threats	Pal, M., 2009	Thia species is said to be susceptible to threats such as overexploitation, destruction of habitats and breeding grounds from damming and pollution (Hossain <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160; Other than catch data that suggests that this species is indeed overexploited, there is no empirical evidence to suggest that the other threats hold true (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166405	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The conspecificity of the material reported as this species from Sikkim, India await further verification.	eng
166405	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in Nepal and India (Himachal Pradesh). &#160;It has been reported from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Sikkim (Jayaram 1999) and Tibet (Wu and Wu 1992), but these records await verification.	eng
166405	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166405	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166405	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166406	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;The taxonomy of this species also requires further study and the conspecificity of <em>Rama rama</em> with this species awaits verification.	eng
166406	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is recorded from Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal in India, and Bangladesh (W. Vishwanath, S.C. Dey, S. Chaudhry and H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166406	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166406	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population seems to be stable in upper Assam in the Brahmaputra River (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;There is no information on the population and its trends for this species in other areas of its range (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166406	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Collection for aquarium trade is a potential threat to the species in some areas of its distribution. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166407	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>More research on this species is needed.</p>	eng
166407	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2009	The species occurs in Ganges-Brahmaputra river drainage known from Jiri River in Manipur,  Barak River in Silchar, in Brahmaputra River, Ujjan Bazar in Assam, and in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab in India, and in Bangladesh. &#160;Presence in southern India and from the Indus drainage in India and Pakistan needs to be verified. &#160;<em>O. cotio peninsularis</em>&#160;from peninsular India is a different species and will be published soon (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166407	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2009	The species has been found in freshwater rivers, ponds and lakes in lower foothill areas.	eng
166407	population	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>The population and trends for this widespread species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166407	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>The major threat to this species is extensive loss of habitat caused by pollution and deforestation.<br/></p>	eng
166408	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166408	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the lower Ganges River drainage.	eng
166408	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand and/or gravel.	eng
166408	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, data from recent field surveys suggest that it is still relatively common in the lower Ganges River drainage.</p>	eng
166408	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166409	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed from areas other than southern West Bengal.	eng
166409	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Subarnarekhar and Godavari river drainages in northern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. &#160;The conspecificity of material identified as this species from the Indus River drainage awaits further verification (Chakrabarty and Ng 2005).	eng
166409	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater habitats, although it is chiefly found in larger rivers, primarily with a sandy or muddy substrate (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166409	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Mishra <em>et al</em>. (2009) reported a mean decline of 29.9% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal (lower Ganges-Brahmaputra system and Subarnarekha River) for the period 1960-2000, and an average decline of 57% each decade from 1980-2000; there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;Data from throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system suggests that this species is still relatively common.	eng
166409	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is a marked decline in the population in southern West Bengal due to overfishing, the threats to this species in other areas of its distribution are unknown. Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although IUCN Bangladesh (2000) identify habitat loss as a major threat to this species, this has not been verified by an empirical evidence.	eng
166410	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No conservation efforts are required.	eng
166410	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Recorded from India (eastern coast), Sri Lanka, Indo-Malayan region, Philippines, South China Sea (western Pacific Ocean off the southeast Asia), New Guinea, and Australia (Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Jameela Beevi and Ramachandran 2009; Hortle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004; Randall and Lim 2000; Kroon 2004). &#160;<span>Asia and Oceania: India and Sri Lanka to southeastern Asia, Indonesia, Philippines and New Guinea. Recorded from Australia and Palau (FishBase).<br/><br/>A coastal fish that enters freshwater systems.	eng
166410	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">Inhabits estuaries and freshwater within the influence of tides and is an efficient burrower (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Adults inhabit both fresh and brackish waters of rivers and swamps or near the river mouth (Coates 1993<span class="sheader5">). They occur mainly in thick vegetation of muddy, still water bodies, such as lagoons, swamps, canals and rice fields (Pethiyagoda 1991<span class="sheader5">). Lives in soft bottom sediments in quiet, well vegetated backwaters of brackish estuaries and nearby swamps, usually in burrows (Allen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002<span class="sheader5">).</span>	eng
166410	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information on population status is available. Not commonly found in collections. Species is fairly common in <st1:place w:st="on">West Bengal</st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)	eng
166410	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No known major wide spread threats.	eng
166411	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>	eng
166411	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chagunius chagunio</span> is distributed in the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of northern and northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166411	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chagunio</span> is generally found in large rivers characterised by rocky bottom, clear and fast water, and little or no vegetation. Adults are found in habitats with stronger current than juveniles prefer.	eng
166411	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More research is needed to estimate current population.<br/></p>	eng
166411	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Habitat of this species is being degraded due to deforestation and illegal fishing techniques, dams, sand quarry, and mining.</p>	eng
166412	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166412	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	The species is known widely from northeastern India. It is reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, India.	eng
166412	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra naganensis</span> inhabits hill streams and river with moderate to fast flowing water. It is a b<span class="mw-headline" id="Benthopelagic_fish">enthopelagic fish.<br/></p>	eng
166412	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166412	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>There are no major threats to the species, but threats affecting the hill stream habitat are a concern.</p>	eng
166413	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2009	Further information on the species habitat and population trends is required.	eng
166413	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2009	The species is recorded from northern India (the Brahmaputra and Ganges drainage), Bangladesh and Nepal (Havird and Page 2010).&#160; Currently the species is recorded throughout Peninsular India except some parts of southern Western Ghats. Populations in peninsular India are believed to be introduced due to linking of Krishna River to other southern drainages (Rema Devi <em>per</em><span style="font-style: italic;">s. comm</span>.) and aquarium trade (Marcus Knight 2010)	eng
166413	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2009	It occurs in low land rivers, lakes with fringed vegetation and wetlands with dense vegetation.	eng
166413	population	Dahanukar, N., 2009	The species is very common and widespread.	eng
166413	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
166414	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>None required or known at present. Harvest for the ornamental trade should be monitored.<br/></p>	eng
166414	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species is known from the Himalayan and Indo-Gangetic Plains (Roberts 1994) and also from Nepal and Bangladesh. &#160;This species is present in the Western Ghats of India where it is rare and in fragmented populations; it is possible that this species is accidentally introduced in southern India (Rema Devi and N. Dahanukar <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166414	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits freshwater ponds, ditches, pools and rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166414	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The population is decreasing within India and Nepal.<br/></p>	eng
166414	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Although the fish is harvested for food and for aquarium trade, the impacts of these harvests on the status is unknown. &#160;Other threats to the species, apart from the general decline and degradation in wetland habitats, are unknown.</p>	eng
166416	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166416	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in India and Nepal, and the Indus River drainage in India and Pakistan. &#160;Report of this species from Myanmar (Oo 2002) is not considered valid until further study.	eng
166416	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166416	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166416	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Kullander <em>et al.</em> (1999) did not consider this species to be under any threat.	eng
166417	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166417	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Ganges River drainage in India and Nepal although only two collection localities are known until now. &#160;The inferred range along the Nepal and India border is more than 20,000 km<sup>2</sup>&#160;(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166417	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is said to inhabit rapid running rivers (Shrestha 2008).	eng
166417	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, as museum holdings of this species are very scanty. &#160;This species is not considered to be common in Nepal (D. Edds, <em>pers. comm.</em> to H.H. Ng)</p>	eng
166417	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166418	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166418	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistes pusillus</em> was descibed from Assam and&#160;is known from Bangladesh, India and Nepal (the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages), although its exact distribution within these river drainages is not fully ascertained.	eng
166418	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits slower stretches of the upper reaches of rivers. It can be found in areas where the substrate is comprised primarily of sand and where considerable vegetation (whether overhanging or growing in the water) is present.	eng
166418	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown. However, it is a relatively abundant species throughout its range.</p>	eng
166418	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166419	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place.<p><span style="font-style: italic;">------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></span></p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">M. elanga</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>	eng
166419	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Megarasbora elanga</span> has an South Asia distribution. It is know from inland waters in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Rahman 1989, Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It was also reported from Nepal (Shrestha 1990) and Pakistan (Mirza 2003).<br/><br/>-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/>The species is known from Arunachal Pradesh (West Kameng District), Assam, Bihar, Hooghly River system in West Bengal, India; Bangladesh; and western Myanmar.	eng
166419	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Megarasbora elanga inhabits ponds and the middle and lower reaches of rivers (Menon 1999).<br/></p><p>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>The species is found in the middle and lower reaches of rivers and ponds. </p>	eng
166419	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information available on the species population.<br/></p><p>-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>This species is rare in Asssam (Nath and Dey 2008). Population is beleived to be declining due to overfishing and habitat destruction (Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).<br/></p>	eng
166419	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No information available on the threats to the species. <br/></p><p>------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br/></p><p>This species is threatened by overfishing.<br/></p>	eng
166420	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Currently there is no conservation action plan directed towards this species. </p>	eng
166420	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Head water drainage of the Ganges (Menon 1999). Record of the species from Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991) and Assam (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1999) are not considered by Menon (1999). Nevertheless, Menon (1999) notes that species was earlier known from Assam. Menon (2004) suggests that this species is probably extinct from Assam thus the species is now confined only to the headwaters of the Ganges. According to Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius chelynoides</span> is found only in the upstream regions and not in down streams.	eng
166420	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p><span class="sheader5">Inhabits fast-flowing mountain streams (Menon 1999). Feeds on diatoms, algae and insects, breeding begins from June (Menon 2004).<br/></p>	eng
166420	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No information available. Menon (2004) and Dey (<em>pers. comm.</em> 2010) suggest that this species is possibly extinct from Assam. Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) suggest that this species is rare.<br/></p>	eng
166420	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The fish seems to have become locally extinct in Kumaon lakes because of introduction of Mahseer (Menon 2004).<br/></p>	eng
166421	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>  </p><p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166421	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra kempi</span> is known from Abor and Naga hills of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland of India.	eng
166421	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p>It inhabits swift flowing water of rivers and mountain streams, where they adhere to the surface of the underwater gravel and rockey substrates mainly by the mental adhesive disc.&#160; </p>	eng
166421	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166421	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Specific threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species, arising from hydropower development and siltation from deforestation and agricultural sources.<br/></p>	eng
166422	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>Further information on the species life history, populations and threats are required.</p>	eng
166422	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<em>Sicamugil cascasia</em> is recorded from Pakistan (Indus River) and India (Ganges, Jamuna and Brahmaputra river systems, Patna, Uttar Pradesh) and Bangladesh. This species has been introduced into the Cauvery River system.	eng
166422	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2009	This is purely a freshwater species. The lowermost point on the Ganga river system where this has been recorded is Patna. This mullet attains a length of 10 cm and is very common in the upper waters of the Ganges and the Jamuna (Talwar and Jhingran1991). It may be migratory.	eng
166422	population	Dahanukar, N., 2009	This is very common in the upper waters of the Ganges and the Jamuna, but there is no information on other parts of its range.	eng
166422	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166423	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166423	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from the states of Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam, in India, and also from Bangladesh. These regions lie within the Brahmaputra River basin.	eng
166423	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. irrorata</em> is a demersal bottom feeder, which inhabits flowing water.	eng
166423	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166423	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Brahmaputra River basin has a very high population density, has lost over 70% of its original forest cover, and a large percentage of the basin is now agricultural land (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).  It is therefore possible that river and stream habitats are threatened by increased sedimentation, and domestic and agricultural pollution.<br/><br/>This species is utilised for food and, as a result, is threatened by overfishing.	eng
166424	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is found in some of the national parks of Nepal, e.g., Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Chitwan National Park and Karnali National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166424	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed throughout the Himalayan foothills, in India, Nepal, and China. Also found in Bangladesh. It has been introduced in peninsular India and Sri Lanka.	eng
166424	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader5">The species is found to inhabit torrential hill-streams in shallow waters. Adults migrate to  warmer regions of lakes and streams during winter.	eng
166424	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Information on the population data of this species is available from four out of nine surveyed locations (rivers) in Nepal.<br/></p>	eng
166424	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since the fish is a torrential hill stream species, the possible threat may be habitat degradation, dams and other human activities.	eng
166425	conservation	Tenzin, K., 2009	<p>There is no need for conservation because it has been widely introduced and thrives well in in all types of water bodies viz., streams, rivers, reservoirs and wetlands. </p>	eng
166425	distribution	Tenzin, K., 2009	Distribution of this species include Pakistan: Indus plain & adjoining hills; India: northern India, Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Bangaledesh; Nepal; and Myanmar. The species has been introduced into some of the rivers of peninsular India, notably river Cauvery, and in more recent times into Sri Lanka and China.	eng
166425	habitat	Tenzin, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Catla </span>is non-predatory and its feeding is restricted to the surface and mid-waters. These features render the simultaneous introduction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Catla</span> with bottom and column feeding cultivable fishes like <span style="font-style: italic;">Rohu, Mrigal,</span> etc advantageous. &#160;Natarajan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1978) have observed strong indications of existence of three infra-specific populations from Rihand reservoir (Uttar Pradesh) each of which showing specific 'roles' corresponding to 'niches' in the ecosystem. These ecological populations are also distinguished by distinct morpho-biological features.	eng
166425	population	Tenzin, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Catla </span>is widely cultured out side its original range of distribution. In peninsular India it is considered to be an invasive species in reservoirs.	eng
166425	threats	Tenzin, K., 2009	<p>There is no known threats for this species.&#160; It is invasive in areas of introduction.<br/></p>	eng
166426	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>	eng
166426	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Tetraodon cutcutia</em> is present in India (Meghalaya, Khasi hills (Shella), Jaintia Hills (Dawki, Muktapur), Garo Hills (Baghmara, Phulbari, Mahadev, Tura); Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Manipur, Orissa; Arunanchal Pradesh. &#160;Elsewhere it is present in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.	eng
166426	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It inhabits fresh and brackish waters.	eng
166426	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166426	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The collection for ornamental trade in India is not considered a threat.	eng
166427	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166427	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the upper Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh in India and Yunnan in China.	eng
166427	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of rocks, where it feeds on invertebrates.	eng
166427	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.</p>	eng
166427	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166428	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Research into life history traits, population and distribution, and potential threats is required.	eng
166428	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It is recorded from India (West Bengal and Orissa), Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. Occurrence in the Bangpakong River in Thailand (Suvatti<a href="http://fishbase.de/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=1632"></a><a href="http://fishbase.de/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=1632"></a> 1981), Mekong and Bangladesh need confirmation (FishBase 2009).<span>	eng
166428	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits rivers and estuaries, and <span class="sheader5">coastal areas of Bay of Bengal (Kapoor <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).	eng
166428	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166428	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There are no known threats to the species.	eng
166429	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The taxonomic status of the Myanmar population needs confirmation.<br/></p>	eng
166429	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species is recorded from Pakistan (Indus plain), India (most river systems), Nepal; Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The <span style="font-style: italic;">N. nandus</span> in Myanmar is most likely a different species (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.). The extent of the species into central parts of India is uncertain.	eng
166429	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	It inhabits fresh waters. Found in rivers and in agricultural lands. It is commonly collected in the summer months when it is collected from dried-up beds of tanks, beels, bheries, etc. &#160;The species changes colour to camouflage against its environment.	eng
166429	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	It is commonly collected in the summer months when it is collected from dried-up beds of tanks, beels, bheries, etc. Generally, a common species.	eng
166429	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166430	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;is required.	eng
166430	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The type locality for <em>Glyptothorax stolickae</em> is the Yamuna (Jumna) River in the Ganges watershed. It is also recorded from the western Himalaya in India and Pakistan.	eng
166430	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Like congeners, it is presumed to inhabit fast flowing streams with rocky bottom.	eng
166430	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Information on population and trends is not available.	eng
166430	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The Yamuna River is highly polluted and has at least one dam. The impacts of these threats can not be ascertained.	eng
166431	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>It is also known from Namdapha National Park. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
166431	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys elongatus</span> is distributed in North Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India. &#160;Nath and Dey (2000) reported the species to occur in different parts of Arunachal Pradesh, but the distribution is fragmented.	eng
166431	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to occur in streams with pebbly bottoms; most likely in clear ozygenrich water. &#160;It is a mountain stream specialist.	eng
166431	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166431	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys elongatus</span>&#160;is known from hill streams which vary in volume with season. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. &#160;Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline or is undergoing natural population fluctuations. &#160;In Darjeeling, part of the species currently known range, hill streams are pollutde from agricultural run-off and the there is reported widespread use of poison fishing.	eng
166432	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Information on threats and impacts are needed. &#160;Life history studies are recommended.	eng
166432	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed in the eastern Himalaya (Menon 1987).	eng
166432	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits high elevation fast-flowing streams with gravel bottom.	eng
166432	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
166432	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No known major threats are identified for this species.	eng
166433	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research into population trends in the wild is required to understand the status of this widespread species.</p>	eng
166433	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Viet Nam, Malaysia and Indonesia.	eng
166433	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species inhabits fresh and brackish waters, and appears to thrive well in lentic waters.<br/><br/>Owing to its carnivorous nature, this fish can only be cultivated in wild waters or in fattening ponds in which large fish are present. It breeds in stagnant or running water in the rainy season. A ripe female bears relatively fewer eggs; they are laid in small clumps on submerged vegetation. Fingerlings are available in upper reaches of Cauvery in July-August. This fish is relished both in fresh and dried state.	eng
166433	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	It is common throughout its range.	eng
166433	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166435	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available (evidence is needed to verify its supposed decline since the 1800s). &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data for this species is badly needed.	eng
166435	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages of Nepal, India and Bangladesh.	eng
166435	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms. &#160;Although the type locality includes estuarine habitats,&#160;there is no current evidence to suggest that this species is found in brackish water.	eng
166435	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species. &#160;<em>Gagata gagata</em> is thought to have declined since the early 1800s (Roberts and Ferraris 1998), but this requires empirical evidence. &#160;It is not considered to be common in Nepal (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166435	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166436	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This is a wide spread species and there are no conservation actions in place for this species. Monitoring populations and trade trends have been suggested as a conservation measure.<br/></p>	eng
166436	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is distributed in northern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan.	eng
166436	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>It inhabits rivers. This species breeds during monsoon season (July and August) and is a very prolific breeder (Khan 1934, Ahmad 1944, Joshi and Khanna 1980). It also breeds in paddy fields (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. obs.</em>).<br/></p>	eng
166436	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information about the population status. However, this species is often cultivated in ponds along with other major carps (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). This species is common in West Bengal, and Bangladesh. Capture frequency of 1.9 % in Senkhi River, Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166436	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This is a wide spread species and there are no known large scale threats known for this species. However, this species may be threatened by quarries, excessive harvesting and blasting in the wild.</p>	eng
166437	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Widely distributed species with little information on population, trends, and threats. &#160;Research on these aspects are recommended.	eng
166437	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is recorded from Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (western Rakhine Yoma only). A record from Yunnan (China) is doubtful, and the species is possibly present in Bhutan.	eng
166437	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers, ponds and tanks, generally in the plains. Also found in rice fields and irrigation channels.	eng
166437	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is a prolific breeder and rapid developments; breeds in ponds almost throughout the year by building circular nets between marginal weeds; peak breeding before and during monsoon months.	eng
166437	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
166438	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166438	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is recorded only from near Shillong in Meghalaya, part of the Brahmaputra basin in India.	eng
166438	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is a bottom dweller of medium- to fast-flowing streams.	eng
166438	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166438	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is prone to threats due to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects.&#160; Already habitat destruction is seen in Meghalaya due to mining and human habitation.	eng
166439	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species (because it is only known from a single specimen) and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.&#160;</p>	eng
166439	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is only known from the holotype locality, the Hooghly estuary in West Bengal, northeastern India.	eng
166439	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the lower courses of rivers and possibly estuaries.	eng
166439	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Because it is only known from a single specimen, no information on the population and its trends is available.</p>	eng
166439	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>No specific information is available. The Hooghly River is highly polluted.<br/></p>	eng
166440	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More research in biology, population trends and impacts of threats needed.</p>	eng
166440	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rasbora rasbora</span> is known from the Gangetic provinces and Assam in India; also present in  Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan and Thailand.	eng
166440	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is found in swamps and marshy areas. An attractive little purple-and-orange creature, it spawns readily but, if left to its own devices, will cannabilise its eggs.<br/></p>	eng
166440	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;More research is needed to investigate the population structure and trends.<br/></p>	eng
166440	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166441	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>More research is required on distribution, biology, population, habitat, trends and threats to the species.</p>	eng
166441	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is known from Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya (Yazdani and Talukdar 1975, Yazdani 1976,   Engeszer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Sen (1985) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> from Assam, however, point locality is missing and subsequent studies from Assam have not recorded this species.	eng
166441	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is common in  streams, lakes and ponds (Yazdani and Talukdar 1975). <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span>   spawns in rice paddies (Engeszer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007).</p>	eng
166441	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Yazdani and Talukdar (1975) have suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius shalynius</span> is common in streams, lakes and ponds of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, while Yazdani (1976) collected 1739 specimens from twenty localities in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya. However, no population estimates were given in both the studies.	eng
166441	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Coal mining is widespread throughout the area and there are reports of heavy metal affecting to this species (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). Therefore, quality of habitat is declining.<br/></p>	eng
166443	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No research, conservation or management recommendations are made for this species.</p>	eng
166443	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius chola</em> is distributed throughout India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166443	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This fair-sized (12 cm) species is peaceful and active (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It inhabits rivers, streams and tanks in the plains (Menon 1999).<br/></p>	eng
166443	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This is a very common species but no systematic population studies are available.	eng
166443	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>	eng
166445	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Potential threats to this species and impacts of aquarium trade on the populations need to be identified.</p>	eng
166445	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster lalius</span> is widely distributed in India (lowland Ganges and Brahmaputra basins), Pakistan (rare), Bangladesh, and Nepal.	eng
166445	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the species are known from slow moving streams, rivulets and lakes with plenty of vegetation. Also from rice fields, irrigation channels and other agricultural lands.	eng
166445	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No detailed information available. It is reported as present in large quantities in the breeding season in Assam.	eng
166445	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may suffer from overexploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
166447	conservation	Pal, M., 2009	Fisheries need to be restricted for this species, especially during breeding periods.	eng
166447	distribution	Pal, M., 2009	<em>Setipinna phasa</em> is recorded form India <span>(Ganges system, from Diamond Harbour on the Hooghly to as far up as Allahabad on the Ganges, perhaps further; also rivers and estuaries of Orissa), and from the Brahmaputra basin. Reported from Bangladesh and Myanmar (FishBase 2009) (though it has been confused with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Setipinna </span>species in Myanmar), and from Nepal (B.R. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). Present in <span>fresh and brackish waters.	eng
166447	habitat	Pal, M., 2009	Inhabits rivers and estuaries.	eng
166447	population	Pal, M., 2009	It breeds possibly throughout the year, but with peaks in October-November in the Hoogly estuary or March to May in the Gange at Allahabad (Whitehead <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1988). It has declined in upper reaches of freshwater systems in India (Assam) and Nepal (S.C. Dey, B.R. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.)	eng
166447	threats	Pal, M., 2009	<p>Degradation of habitat quality in lower reaches of freshwater systems (siltation and general habitat degradation), and possibly a decline in reproductive success.<br/></p>	eng
166448	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
166448	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Mahanadi river drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. A single museum record from Bombay most probably refers to Bombay Presidency, rather than the city. Since the eastern portion of the Presidency had rivers draining into the Mahanadi, this is more likely to be the case. Most of the available museum records do not give precise locations and indicate only the general area the specimen was collected from.	eng
166448	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.	eng
166448	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166448	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166449	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166449	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India. &#160;It is thought to be widely distributed in the northern and northeastern parts of the Indian subcontinent (Ferraris 2007).	eng
166449	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Inhabits flowing and standing waters.	eng
166449	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
166449	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	This is a fairly widespread species and there are no major threats.	eng
166450	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>There are no current threats, but the level of collection for the aquarium trade should be monitored.<br/></p>	eng
166450	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster chuna</span> is known from Gangetic provinces, and from Assam, and Manipur in India, and from Nepal and Bangladesh. It appears to be a low altitude species.	eng
166450	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>Most species has been found in pools, ditches, innundated fields, ponds and beels. &#160;Occurs in rivers and lakes with vegetation. </p>	eng
166450	population	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166450	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>Level of collection for the aquarium trade varies, but the threats to this species remain unknown.<br/></p>	eng
166451	conservation	Ng, H.H. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than West Bengal) is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.	eng
166451	distribution	Ng, H.H. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila </span>was described from freshwater rivers of Bengal (Hamilton 1822). According to Talwar and Jhingraan (1991) and Menon (1999) this species is confined to Jamuna, Ganga, Bramhaputra and Mahanadi in India, Indus plains in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Record of this species from Godavari (Pradhan 1997) based on Talwar and Jhingran (1991) is wrong as Talwar and Jhingran (1991) do not mention the distribution of the fish in Godavari. Similarly, Record of this species from Krishna river system (Jayaram 1999) is also doubtful because in an extensive survey of Krishna river system (Jayaram 1995) the species was not reported. <br/><br/>Thus, the species is <span>present in Rajastan (Prusty et al. 2007<span>), Uttar Pradesh (Shrivastava and Shrivastava 2009; Sarkar et al. 2010), Bihar (<span><span>Venkateswarlu 1976; <span><span>Khan and Kamal 1979), West Bengal (Patra et al. 2005; Mishra et al. 2009<span><span><span><span><span>), Assam (Wakid and Biswas 2005; Kar et al. 2006; Saha and Bordoloi 2009),<span> <span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Mizoram (Kar and Sen 2007), <span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Tripura (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Kar and Sen 2007<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">), <span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Madhya Pradesh (Sarkar and Lakra 2007), Chhattisgarh<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span> (<span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span>Sarkar and Lakra 2007<span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"></span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span>) and Arunachal Pradesh (Bagra et al. 2009) in <span>India. The specie may also be present in </span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"></span><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">Manipur<span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr">, </span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span>Orissa, <span><span></span><span>Haryana, Andhara Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi<span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span><span><span><span></span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span></span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><span><span>. It is also recorded from <span>Pakistan (Mirza and Alam 2002), Bangladesh (Hossain and Haque 2005) and Nepal. </span><span class="adr" id="adr" dir="ltr"><br/></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>	eng
166451	habitat	Ng, H.H. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila</span> inhabits large rivers (Menon 1999) and lakes (<span><span>Shrivastava and Shrivastava 2009) with turbid water and a substrate of sand or mud. It attains a total length of 30 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It is a surface to midwater fish which lives in shoals (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Habitat degradation is considered a major driving force for the decline of this species in West Baengal (Mishra et al. 2009).	eng
166451	population	Ng, H.H. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This species is suggested to be relatively abundant throughout its distribution. No empirical data on declines in its entire range is available, however, there are two studies which have given quantitative estimates of population decline in West Bengal (Patra et al. 2005; Mishra et al. 2009). In the northeastern Sundarbans area, Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005) reported a decline of 80% over the period of four decades (1960-2000) with the average decline per decade of roughly 30% and in the decade 1990-2000 the decline was 41%. A further analysis of the data given by Patra et al. (2005) for five years (from 1997 to 2001) suggests that the decline is exponential with a decay rate of 0.34 (Neelesh Dahanukar, unpublished). Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2009) report an average population decline of 28.6% per decade over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal.&#160; The average decline per decade since 1980 is about 61% and the total decline for the four decades is 87%  (Mishra et al. 2009). <br/></p><p>Based on the above localized studies it is difficult to extrapolate the data for the global population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailia coila</span>, however, since harvesting of the fish is common throughout its range, it is expected that the global population of the species could also be declining.<br/></p>	eng
166451	threats	Ng, H.H. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in marked population declines (Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2010).	eng
166452	conservation	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	<p>No specific conservation effort and priority to this species. Some populations are automatically protected by being within protected areas of its range. Some small scale aquaculture is reported mainly for its consumptive use rather than for its conservation. <br/></p>	eng
166452	distribution	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heteropneustes fossilis</span> is recorded from South and Southeast Asia: Pakistan, India,  Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Laos (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2009). It is introduced in&#160;Iran and Iraq. Records from India include the Andaman Island and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital).	eng
166452	habitat	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	Inhabits freshwater, rarely brackish waters. This is primarily a fish of ponds, ditches, bheels, swamps and marshes, but it is sometimes found in muddy rivers. It is able to tolerate slightly brackish water. Its air-breathing apparatus enables it to exist in almost any kind of water. Generally, during the dry season singi lives in semiliquid and semi-dry mud, and even when the mud dries up they take their bodies to the bottom of fissures and crevices formed by the cracking mud. Fertilised eggs are adhesive, demersal and spherical in form.	eng
166452	population	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	It is a commonly occurring species throughout its range. It is also cultivated in some parts of its range; fishermen stock tanks with singhi during the rainy season.	eng
166452	threats	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	<p>Habitat destruction and conversion, pollution, over-exploitation, disease and effect of climate change have been reported from almost all of its range. However, the species does not seem to be affected by any of these threats.<br/></p>	eng
166453	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout its range is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.</p>	eng
166453	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Indus river drainages in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. Described as present (as <span style="font-style: italic;">Ailiichthys punctata</span>)   from "Jumna at and below Delhi, also in the lower Punjaub rivers".	eng
166453	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>According to Jayaram (1963), this species is found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. coila</span>, i.e. large rivers with turbid water and a substrate of sand or mud.</p>	eng
166453	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>No information is available on the status of this species.</p>	eng
166453	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Overexploitation of this species for food is possibly a major threat, although its effects on population levels remain unstudied. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).	eng
166454	conservation	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166454	distribution	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2009	<p>Found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-IN">India (Assam)</st1:country-region><span lang="EN-IN">, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is reported from the Brahmaputra and Barak river drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>. Record from Myanmar needs to be confirmed.</p>	eng
166454	habitat	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-IN">It is a benthopelagic species inhabiting tropical rivers (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002).</p>  <p></p>	eng
166454	population	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">The species has a narrow distribution, but is decreasing due to overexploitation and loss of habitat from damming and other anthropogenic factors. &#160;The decline is estimated at around 25% in its range (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).</p>  <p></p>	eng
166454	threats	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-IN">The fish is harvested for its ornamental value. This species has food value and may be subject to overfishing. Other threats in the area are damming, logging and deforestation.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166455	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No information available. &#160;Further research in population size, distribution and trends, harvest, use and livelihoods is needed.<br/></p>	eng
166455	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<st1:country-region w:st="on">It is found in India</st1:country-region> (West Bengal and <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166455	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>  Inhabits large rivers generally in higher reaches (Menon 2004). Attends 26 cm total length (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>	eng
166455	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Talwar and Jhingran (1991) have considered this species to be fairly  common. Currently the species is rare and population is declining although exact rate needs to be confirmed. This species seems to be near extinction in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Chakraborty <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
166455	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>  Hussain and Mazid (2002) have considered this species Critically Endangered in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> without giving any rationale for this threat status. Main threats to this species are habitat destruction due to deforestation and other anthropogenic activities.<br/></p>	eng
166458	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166458	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>E. danricus</em> occurs in Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and throughout India.	eng
166458	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>E. lineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species, usually found in ponds, tanks, ditches and canals.  They are active fish that swim and feeds on insects close to the surface, and prefer well-aerated water.  The species has also been found in brackish waters.	eng
166458	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>E. danricus</em> is quite common throughout it's range, particularly in the flood-prone areas of Chennai city.	eng
166458	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
166459	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No specific conservation measures in place for this species. Some research in taxonomy, population size, ecology and threats is needed.</p>	eng
166459	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario aequipinnatus</span> is widely distributed all over India.	eng
166459	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Hill sttream fish, inhabits streams as low as 300 m elevation . The fish is accustomed to life under varying water conditions in nature. It thrive well along with considerable number of other fishes. It proves to be peaceful and hardy in aquariums. Giant danios abound in running streams and rivers, and are generally acustomed to moderately cool and well-aerated water.	eng
166459	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166459	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Since the species is a good aquarium fish, it might suffer the threat of overexploitation.<br/></p>	eng
166460	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.</p>	eng
166460	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Olyra horae</em>&#160;was described from Indawgyi Lake (Prashad and Mukerji 1929),&#160;and it may possibly be found in adjoining areas of the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).	eng
166460	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been found in the shallow areas of a lake, but is also likely to be found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand like other congeners (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166460	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166460	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166462	conservation	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and its effects on populations of this fish better understood. the species has been assessed as 'Endangered' in India (Lokra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/></p>	eng
166462	distribution	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Although also reported from the Indus River drainage in Pakistan, the conspecificity of this population needs further investigation (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
166462	habitat	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential streams and rivers with a substrate of rocks and pebbles, spending most of its time amongst the crevices. &#160;It is also said to be able to survive the drying up of the streams and living in pool-type habitats (Prasad <em>et al</em>. 1997). <em>Amblyceps mangois</em> is capable of breathing air (Singh <em>et al</em>. 1989), which is what enables it to survive the lower oxygen content of the pool-type habitats.	eng
166462	population	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;However, current evidence indicates that this species is relatively abundant throughout the subHimalayan region. In Nepal, this species has been encountered at 0.17 CPUE (Jha 2009)</p>	eng
166462	threats	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although Prasad <em>et al.</em> (1997)&#160;identified habitat modification via the removal of river substrate (for construction) and overfishing as accidental bycatch as major threats for this species, no empirical studies have been conducted on the effects of either of these supposed threats on fish populations. &#160;These are deemed to be based on speculation on should not be considered here.</p>	eng
166463	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Research on threats and their impacts are needed.	eng
166463	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed from western Himalaya to North Bengal through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Nepal.	eng
166463	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Found in hillstreams with pebbles.	eng
166463	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166463	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No known threats to this species.	eng
166464	conservation	Chaudhry, S. & Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Detailed research into distribution, biology, population, habitat trends, threats and impacts are needed.</p>	eng
166464	distribution	Chaudhry, S. & Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Bihar, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa in India; Bangladesh; Myanmar and Nepal.	eng
166464	habitat	Chaudhry, S. & Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is found in many rivers of northern and north eastern India, in clear streams with rocky beds. &#160;This species was introduced into Walwham and Lonavla lakes (Poona District) in 1926, where they have successfully bred. &#160;The fish breeds during early monsoon season (June) in heavily inundated areas. It breeds approximately after attaining three years of age. &#160;Its wide mouth and stream-lined body are well suited for a predaceous life.	eng
166464	population	Chaudhry, S. & Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
166464	threats	Chaudhry, S. & Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The population of these species seems to be affected by destructive fishing methods (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010)<br/></p>	eng
166465	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166465	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. botia</em> is found in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand and China; the species is distributed from the Indus basin in Pakistan to the Mae Khlong basin in Thailand, through the Ganges, Chindwin, Irrawaddy, Sitang and Salween basins.  It is also recorded from Yunnan and the Yangtze River basin in China (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
166465	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. botia</em> is a demersal and omnivorous species, which inhabits swift flowing streams in hilly areas with clear water and rocky, pebbly and sandy bottoms.  It lays about 100-150 eggs.	eng
166465	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
166465	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In the hilly areas in Pakistan and India habitat quality is declining in as a result of deforestation, leading to siltation.  Furthermore, drought has led to a loss of suitable habitat of between 21% and 50% in the past 30 years in Pakistan; the species is assessed as Near Threatened in Pakistan (CAMP workshop, Pakistan 2004).<br/><br/><em>A. botia</em> is still common and widespread in China (F. Fang, Pers. Comm.).	eng
166467	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
166467	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Salween basins, the northern Malay Peninsula, and westwards to the Indus and Sri Lanka. In Indonesia, this species is known from Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
166467	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. daniconius</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species.  It occurs in a variety of habitats: ditches, ponds, canals, streams, rivers and inundated fields, but is primarily found in sandy streams and rivers.  It is also found in brackish waters.  It sometimes forms large schools.	eng
166467	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. daniconius</em> is reported to be common in the Muthurajawela Wetland Sanctuary, Sri Lanka, but likely to have a variable abundance over its range.	eng
166467	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and for poultry food but the scale does not appear to be causing a decline in the population.	eng
166468	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	The conspecificity of populations from within and outside of the Indian subcontinent requires critical evaluation. &#160;Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.	eng
166468	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Wallago attu</em> occurs all across India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Java in Indonesia.	eng
166468	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	Inhabits freshwater and tidal waters, in rivers, tanks, channels reservoirs etc.<br/><br/>This catfish inhabits large rivers, tanks and lakes. It is one of the largest, voracious and predatory of the local catfish which thrives well in rivers and tanks also, especially in jheels with gassy magin. The fish prefers muddy tanks subject to periodical flooding from a nullah or river. A tank where this fish exists, usually contains no other good fish. In order to have other fishes in the tanks and reservoirs, it is very necessary to eliminate this fish.  It is rather sluggish and stays at the bottom of water in search of food.	eng
166468	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	It is widely distributed and hence has a very large population. &#160;However the species is overfished causing considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 26.7% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 (Mishra <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;In another study in northeastern Sunderbans, the species is known to have declined by 99% in four years (1997-2001) (Patra <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
166468	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009; Patra <em>et al</em>. 2005). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166469	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>More research about the the biology and trends of this species is needed, especially due to rampant fishing for the ornamental trade.</p>	eng
166469	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It is distributed in Iran; Pakistan: Swat River drainage; northern and northeastern India: Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Nepal; Bangladesh; Myanmar; and Thailand. The taxonomic identity of the records in Iran, Myanmar, Pakistan and Thailand needs to be confirmed.	eng
166469	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Found in streams, rivers and ponds in plains and mountainous regions. This is an oviparous species; they scatter their egg after laying them and are externally fertilized (Menon 1999, Breder and Rosen 1966). It attains 17.5 cm of length.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166469	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Population of this species is widely spread across different lowland riverine areas from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> to northeastern India.<strong> </strong><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166469	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The fish is being harvested for its ornamental value and for its food value, using destructive fishing methods. The areas is also affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166471	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The possibility that more than one species is involved in what is now identified as <em>P. shawi</em> also needs to be investigated.</p>	eng
166471	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India and Bangladesh.	eng
166471	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>This species is found in swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and gravel.</p>	eng
166471	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Although there is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively abundant species in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent.</p>	eng
166471	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166472	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166472	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura prashadi</span> is only known from Manipur, India in Chindwin drainage. It is a hill stream fish and confined to upstreams of rivers in Manipur, and is considered fragmented in distribution. It is known from three localities (Thonagpal Tank, Thoubal Stream and Sikmai Stream).	eng
166472	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	They are the small benthic fishes which inhabits running waters particularly fresh and oxygenated small hill streams.	eng
166472	population	Singh, L., 2010	This is a rare species occurring only in hill streams. &#160;Population and trends information are lacking.	eng
166472	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The locations where the fish occur are present is facing threats due to deforestation, detergent pollution from washermen and pesticide pollution from the adjoining paddy fields. &#160;The type locality is now a big township.	eng
166474	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data also needed.</p>	eng
166474	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in Nepal and India. &#160;It may be absent in the lower Brahmaputra and Meghna river drainages, where <em>G. laevi</em><em>s</em> is found.	eng
166474	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with a moderate current and a sandy substrate.	eng
166474	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population size and trend for this species.</p>	eng
166474	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>This species is under moderate fishing pressure in some parts of its range, so overfishing should be considered a potential threat. Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166476	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166476	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Ganges and Indus river drainages, and also occurs in several major rivers in peninsular India at least as far south as the Krishna River (Ferraris and Runge 1999). &#160;Records of this species from south of the Krishna River drainage (e.g. the Cauvery River) may represent introductions (Jayaram <em>et al. </em>1982). &#160;There is a single specimen collected from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar deposited in the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet in Stockholm. &#160;If the locality information is correct, then this species is also found in the Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
166476	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers and lakes.	eng
166476	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166476	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Being a large predatory fish that is intensively fished for food, <em>Sperata seenghala</em> is most likely vulnerable to overfishing. However, there is no catch data to suggest that current levels of harvest are adversely affecting its population. Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166477	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Conservation not required; research into the species taxonomy is required, as it may be a species complex.	eng
166477	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Reported from Pakistan (Lower Indus plain and adjoining hilly areas), India (mainly northeastern and northern), and from Bangladesh, Myanmar,Sri Lanka, and Nepal. The taxonomic status of records from Viet Nam, Cambodia and the Indo-Malayasian archipelago must be verified. It been introduced in some areas for mosquito control (R. Britz <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166477	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It inhabits clear, shallow and brackish waters at low attitudes.	eng
166477	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	No information available, but wide ranging.	eng
166477	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
166478	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Further information on the species life history, populations and threats are required.<br/></p>	eng
166478	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Rhinomugil corsula</em> is recorded from a number of states in India (including Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa), Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Menon 1999). &#160;This species is also found in Godavari River, upper reaches of Bhima and Cauvery rivers where it must have been accidentally introduced along with major carps (Menon and Jayaram 1977; Yadav 2005). &#160;In Assam the species ascends to the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River during the rainy season.	eng
166478	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits rivers and estuaries, found above tidal influence in freshwater (Menon 1999).	eng
166478	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No systematic population data is available. However, this is a very common species.	eng
166478	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166479	conservation	Arunachalam, M., 2009	<p>Conservation efforts are in action along with <span style="font-style: italic;">mahseer </span>species because it is a co-occurring species. <br/></p>	eng
166479	distribution	Arunachalam, M., 2009	The species is recorded from Nepal (Gandaki, Trisuli, Koshi, Karnali, Mahakali river basins; Shrestha 2003), Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), China, Indonesia (Sumatra), and India (Uttarakhand (introduced), Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling Dt. and the Damodar river system), Arunachal Pradesh (E. Kameng Dt.), Meghalaya, Nagaland Rivers (Arachu, Dhansiri, Dikhu, Doyang, Intangki, Likhimro, Meguiki, Milak, Tesuru, Tizit, Tizu and Tsurang). Presence within other states in India within the Ganges basin is likely.<br/><br/>  Menon (2004) considered the species to be distributed in small in numbers through the eastern Himalayas in India (Assam), Bangladesh and Myanmar.   Presence of this species in China is doubtful (Menon 1999), though it may be present in the tributaries  of the Brahmaputra (Tsangpo) in Tibet and China. The records from Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), Indonesia (Sumatra) also need confirmation (N. Dahanukar, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). Kullander  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1999) surveyed the Kashmir valley (Indus drainage) and did not  report the species.<br/><p>The report of the species from Myanmar and Thailand may be due to misidentification because there is another species <span style="font-style: italic;">Neolissochilus stracheyi, </span>which Day (1871) described  from Akyab and Moulmein (Irrawaddy basin) in Myanmar. It is not known  if the two species occur syntopically. But these  are coldwater species, restricted to coldwater regimes and are not  widely distributed. <br/></p>	eng
166479	habitat	Arunachalam, M., 2009	Inhabits streams with fast flowing water mostly in high gradient and low gradient riffles and pools (Menon 1991). It prefers rocky and boulder areas with high flow.   Siltation caused by deforestation could act as a threat.<br/><br/>The species is known to breed from April to October with a peak in  August to September. The male of this species mature at an early size of  9 cm. It breeds in pools with running water.	eng
166479	population	Arunachalam, M., 2009	Much information is available on population decline due to habitat loss and over-exploitation. The species habitat has been lost due to the removal of sand and gravel, siltation caused by deforestation, pollution, and the construction of dams which degrade habitat and disrupt upstream breeding migrations (Menon 2004). It is inferred that the population has declined by 50-60% due to over exploitation of this species, and the occurrence has been limited to smaller areas. <br/><br/>Our  experience shows (and also informed by Dr. Debojit, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010), there is great  decline in its population. We know the flow modifications caused to  northeast Indian waters (for example, the Teesta River) in Sikkim. We also know that due to global warming, coldwater  regime has dwindled and warm water species have already invaded uplands.<p>Work on captive breeding of the species with the aim to release back into the wild is progressing, with studies on the population genetics of  the species using polymorphic microsatellite markers and fast evolving  regions of mtDNA with a view to initiate stock specific propagation  assisted rehabilitation is progressing well in NBFGR (A. Gopalakrishnan, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm., </span>2010).</p>	eng
166479	threats	Arunachalam, M., 2009	<p>Major threats include habitat loss due to deforestation and erosion, urbanisation, including road construction, and over-exploitation. This migratory species is also threatened in parts of its range by current and planned hydropower developments e.g. the proposed&#160; Pancheshwar Dam in the Ganges basin on the border between India and Nepal (Everard and Kataria 2010).</p><p>Dams and weirs at higher reaches of the Brahmaputra have affected the spawning run of the fish (Menon 2004).<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
166482	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Although the species was collected from Namdapha National Park, it may occur outside the protected area.<br/></p>	eng
166482	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known only from Namdapha River, Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh in India.	eng
166482	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is found in hillstreams. </p>	eng
166482	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Since 1983, no record of occurence has been reported, more research is needed.<br/></p>	eng
166482	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species might suffer from habitat loss caused by siltation, and other human activities.<br/></p>	eng
166483	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is some catch data for this species, it is fragmentary and more data is badly needed to build up a more accurate picture of the status of this species.	eng
166483	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the lower reaches of river systems and coastal areas throughout the Indian subcontinent eastwards to the lower reaches and delta of the Irrawaddy River.	eng
166483	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Inhabits the lower reaches of rivers and is able to ascend upriver beyond the tidal reach.	eng
166483	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Patra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2005) report a mean decline of 32.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2009) report a mean decline per decade of 28.4%, and 57% average each decade between 1980 and 2000, in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed.	eng
166483	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Overexploitation for food fish is the major threat to the species which has resulted in population declines throughout its range.	eng
166484	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not present in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>	eng
166484	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	McClelland (1839) did not mention exact type locality. It has been collected from Brahmaputra River at Dibrugarh in 2004 (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166484	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species thrives well under stones and pebbles in river beds.	eng
166484	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166484	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since the species is a hillstream fish, it might suffer from habitat destruction from sedimentation due to logging and deforestation.	eng
166485	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166485	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster fasciatus</span> is known from India (Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, Western Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh), Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and upper Myanmar.	eng
166485	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens are known from large river and estuaries, also tanks, ditches, rice fields, and ponds. A rather shy species, it is easily bred and adapts well to life in community aquaria. It is a very hardy species.	eng
166485	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is fairly common in the Hooghly estuary (West Bengal). It is fairly abundant in West Bengal during the rainy season. It is easily bred and adapts well to life in community aquaria. Generally fairly common.	eng
166485	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species may suffer from overexploitation since it has both ornamental and food value, but at present is is a very widespread species.<br/></p>	eng
166486	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166486	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Eutropiichthys murius</em> was described from the Mahananda River (part of the Brahmaputra River drainage) in Bengal (Hamilton 1822), and is&#160;known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in northern and northeastern India, southern Nepal and Bangladesh. Although Ferraris and Vari (2007) consider records of this species in Orissa (in the Mahanadi River drainage) to be&#160;<em>Eutropiichthys murius,&#160;</em>erroneously following Menon (1999), they include material collected from Orissa in the list of specimens examined. &#160;Pending further investigation, the record of this species in Orissa is considered questionable (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166486	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud.	eng
166486	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
166486	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166487	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>Although it has been reported from Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, it is also distributed in many unprotected areas. Thus, clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to confirm whether or not this species is experiencing a widespread decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations. </p>	eng
166487	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio rerio</span> is a widely distributed species, known througout India to Nepal in the north and from Sutlej River in the west and in the east in West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
166487	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The species is an annual species. Adults inhabit streams, canals, ditches, ponds and beels occur in slow-moving to stagnant standing water bodies, particularly rice-fields  and lower reaches of streams common in rivulets at foot hills. Feed on worms and small crustaceans,&#160; also on insect larvae. Breed all year round. Spawning is induced by temperature and commences at the onset of the monsoon season. Food availability also acts as cue for breeding.  </p>  <p></p>	eng
166487	population	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>    </p>  <p>It is difficult to assess the population of the species. It is not common in the natural water bodies. It breeds easily in nature. Aquarists have also artificially bred the fish successfuly. In Nepal the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of this species is up to 1.88 %. In Arunachal Pradesh the catch rate is 1.9 % (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/></p>	eng
166487	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>Being a popular aquarium fish, it might suffer from over exploitation resulting in fluctuation of individuals.<br/></p>	eng
166488	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed; especially, impacts of harvest.</p>	eng
166488	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It has a wide distribution from the Indus plains and adjoining hilly areas in Pakistan; Ganges-Brahmaputra basin, Barak basin in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh; Mahanadi, Krishna, Cuvery, and some smaller basins in southern India; Karnapouli and adjacent smaller basins in Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh; and Myanmar (Roberts 1997, Menon 1999).	eng
166488	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits clear rivers and tanks. &#160;A plankton and detritus feeder. Breeding takes place in flooded shallows in June-September. &#160;Growth fairly repaid; grows to about 30 cm in natural waters. &#160;Male smaller than female (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166488	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No population status data is available but the species is fairly common in most parts of its distribution range. This species is also locally cultivated for consumption.	eng
166488	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166489	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in Kaziranga National Park, (IUCN category II), which is one of the last areas in eastern India almost undisturbed by man (UNEP-WCMC 2006).	eng
166489	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, and in the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary in the Barhmaputra basin in Assam, India.  The Garo Hills and Kaziranga National Park cover areas of approximately 8,559 km² (Kumar <em>et al</em>. 2002) and 1,166 km², respectively.	eng
166489	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. khajuriai</em> is a demersal, omnivorous fish.  In the Garo Hills it was found in paddy fields and rivers.  Members of the Chaudhuriidae family usually live among dense vegetation in standing or slowly flowing waters.	eng
166489	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166489	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Overfishing is a threat to <em>G. khajuriai</em> along with loss of natural habitat due to agricultural development, though the species does survive in paddy fields.	eng
166491	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.	eng
166491	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Eutropiichthys vacha</em>&#160;was described from the larger freshwater rivers of the Gangetic provinces (Hamilton 1822)&#160;in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Ferraris and Vari 2007). &#160;This species is known from the northern part of the Indian subcontinent southwards to the Mahanadi River.	eng
166491	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits fluviatile habitats, particularly in larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166491	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a mean decline of 29.2% in catch for this species in southern West Bengal for the period 1960-2000, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. However, indications are that this is still a relatively common and abundant species.	eng
166491	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Because this species is heavily utilized as a food fish, overfishing is a potential major threat. Indeed, published data for parts of its natural distribution suggest that overfishing is a major cause of local population declines (Mishra <em>et al. </em>2009). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Although IUCN Bangladesh (2000) identify habitat loss as a major threat to this species, this does not appear to be supported by any empirical data.	eng
166492	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.	eng
166492	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius bonarensis</span> was described from Bonar, Uttarakhand, India. There are no further records.	eng
166492	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in large hill streams and shallow clear rivers along  foot hills.	eng
166492	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166492	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Being a hillstream fish, the possible threat may be habitat destruction. Abstraction of water for irrigation, drinking water; damming for water harvesting and power generation could be potential threats to hill streams.	eng
166493	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166493	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura zonata</span> was reported by McClelland (1839) from upper Assam. Exact type locality is not known.	eng
166493	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura zonata</span> inhabits hillstreams.	eng
166493	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166493	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
166495	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166495	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is widely distributed. It has been recorded from Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage to Yunnan, China through Myanmar.	eng
166495	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader5"><span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius barila</span> is found to inhabit large hill streams and shallow clear rivers along  foot hills in a&#160;<span>benthopelagic environmemt.	eng
166495	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Catch per unit effort (CPUE) in Nepal is more than 11 (Jha 2009).<br/></p>	eng
166495	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Over exploitation can be considered as a threat to this species. It is also an ornamental and game fish.<br/></p>	eng
166496	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Effects of threats such as damming in the upstream areas must be studied, and further information on the species distribution is required.	eng
166496	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species is thought to be restricted to small streams in Assam, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009; Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) and the upland areas of West Bengal in the eastern Himalayas. There are records from Nepal which should be confirmed (e.g. Sharma 2009), and the species is likely present in other upland areas of northeastern India states and Bhutan. Its known range is greater than 20,000 km² but has an inferred restricted area of occupancy due to its habitat requirements.	eng
166496	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It occurs in cleaner swift streams with pebbles in upland areas.	eng
166496	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, however it is considered fairly common in the Teesta River, North Bengal. A survey from around Kalimpong, West Bengal (Antti Vuorela, <a href="http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=141&title=Exploring+West+Bengal+for+aquarium+fishes">http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=141&title=Exploring+West+Bengal+for+aquarium+fishes</a>) reported the species to be the most common.<br/></p>	eng
166496	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Destructive fishing practices in some areas threaten local populations. The impact of other widespread hill stream threats (including impacts of hydropower development, and sedimentation from forest clearance and agricultural development) require further study but are likely to be significant as the species is found in cleaner, faster-flowing streams.	eng
166497	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Menon (2004) has recommended awareness, reduction of pollution of hill streams, some of the deep pools in the course of rivers at base of the <st1:place w:st="on">Himalaya</st1:place> where the fish rests during periods of  low discharge should be declared as sanctuaries.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166497	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is widely distributed in India (Ganga and the Brahmaputra drainage systems of the Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Vindhya-Satpura ranges, Deccan plateau: Godavari and Krishna River systems), Pakistan, Buthan, Nepal and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 1999).	eng
166497	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits mountain streams, rivers, lakes and ponds (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Menon 2004).	eng
166497	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Menon (2004) has reported that even though this species is widely distributed, populations are steadily declining.&#160; However, it is not possible to determine exact population decline without further  research.</p>	eng
166497	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>  This species is affected by indiscriminate killing by damming the streams and using explosives for fishing in the upper reaches (Menon 2004).</p>	eng
166498	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	More research into biology and trends required.	eng
166498	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span>It occurs in India, Bangladesh, <span>Pakistan and Myanmar <span><span><span>(Talwar and Jhingran 1991).<span><span> This last record from Myanmar is doubtful<span>.</span></span>	eng
166498	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Inhabits ponds, ditches and rivers in plains and submontane regions (Menon 1999).&#160;<span class="sheader5">Breeds freely in ponds, tanks and small streams (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>	eng
166498	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Systematic population data is not available but the species is fairly common and abundant (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166498	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Threats to this species not known.</p>	eng
166499	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166499	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepidocephalichthys annandalei</span>   is known from West Bengal (Mahananda River, Tista River, Darjeeling);&#160;Meghalaya (Garo Hills); and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital); Bihar; Uttarankhand; and Uttar Pradesh (Menon 1992).&#160; The species is likely to be present in Nepal, and is reported in Bangladesh (Havird and Page 2010).	eng
166499	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2009	It inhabits sandy bottoms of clear water streams, paddy fields, and other types of wetlands.	eng
166499	population	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166499	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2009	This species is very widely distributed along the hills streams of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins, and there are no known significant threats.	eng
166501	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166501	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India (in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi and Orissa rivers), Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.  It has also been reported from the Mekong basin.	eng
166501	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. barna</em> is a benthopelagic bottom feeder, that inhabits clear hill streams with gravelly substratum, and large rivers.	eng
166501	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. barna</em> is reported to be common in the Narayani River system in Chitwan, Nepal.	eng
166501	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. barna</em> is locally threatened by destructive fishing techniques such as dynamite fishing, overexploitation, loss of habitat, and siltation.	eng
166502	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166502	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from Pakistan, (the Indus drainage), northern India (the Ganga-Brahmaputrta and Mahanadi drainages in Orissa), Bangladesh and Nepal.  It is also reported from Afghanistan.	eng
166502	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. bacaila</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species, usually found in slow running streams, but also occurring in rivers, ponds, inundated fields in sub-montane regions, and brackish waters. <em>S. bacaila</em> is an omnivorous surface feeder.	eng
166502	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. bacaila</em> is reported to be common in the Himalayan waters of Nepal.	eng
166502	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
166503	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The taxonomic identities of all populations from South and Southeast Asia considered to belong to this species are badly in need of further investigation, as it is very likely that what is now considered to be a single species consists of more than one (geographically circumscribed) species.	eng
166503	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this species is said to be widely distributed throughout south and southeast Asia (Roberts 1983), future studies on its taxonomy may show it to be conspecific with <em>B. bagarius</em> sensu stricto and restricted to the Indian subcontinent (whether in part or whole).	eng
166503	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a variety of fluviatile habitats, although it is typically associated with swift, clear rivers with a substrate of rocks and sand.	eng
166503	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is little information on the population and its status (in part exacerbated by the taxonomic confusion surrounding the group), there are indications that this species is suffering declines in parts of its range. A considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 29.2% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 reported for <em>B. bagarius</em> may refer to this species (Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
166503	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	As a large, predatory fish that is actively caught for food, this species is in some danger of being overexploited. Even though current indications are that this species is still relatively abundant, the current fishing pressure on this species (at least on the Indian subcontinent) is likely to be unsustainable; local declines reported in some studies for <em>B. bagarius</em> may refer to this species (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009). However, more empirical data is needed to support this claim. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166504	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in Song River in Rajajai National Park, Uttarakhand.	eng
166504	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius dimorphicus</span> is distributed in Song River, eastern Doon Valley, Rajaji National Park, Dehra Dun and Pauri-Garhwal&#160;districts, Uttarakhand, India (Tilak and Husain 1990)<span style="font-style: italic;">.&#160; </span>This species may be endemic to this area although this needs to be confirmed.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
166504	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	They are the hillstream fishes inhabiting streams with gravelly bottom.	eng
166504	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information found. However, it must be small as it is restricted to Rajaji National Park.	eng
166504	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species is not affected by specific threats as it is within a national park other than the continuing decline in habitat quality from sedimentation due to deforestation and agricultural practices. However, the species is known only from a small locality and this makes it vulnerable to any future threat.	eng
166505	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No conservation efforts are currently in place for the species. Species populations and the impact of fishery and collection for the ornamental trade require monitoring, <br/></p>	eng
166505	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chanda nama</span> is known from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Roberts (1994) has suggested that <span style="font-style: italic;">Chanda nama</span> definitely occurs in the Indus, Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna, and other river basins in India; however, records from Myanmar and Malaysia are probably erroneous.	eng
166505	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits fresh and brackish waters, both in standing and running waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). &#160;It is a nocturnal or crepuscular, midwater fish. &#160;It spends most of its time in small shoals, under the cover of marginal roots (also mangrove) or floating vegetation (Daniels 2002). &#160;It breeds throughout the year and often a large number of eggs are found scattered on submerged marginal vegetation (Daniels 2002). &#160;It is also found (in Assam) in paddy fields when flooded.	eng
166505	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>It is a very small fish, but is considered common within India (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>	eng
166505	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This species is widely distributed. The ornamental fish trade should be monitored. In some areas, it is sold in large quantities durring the monsoon. Numbers have been reported to have declined due to loss of wetlands (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>	eng
166507	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2009	Further information is required about the species distribution, ecology, and threats.	eng
166507	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2009	The species was described from India in the Namdapha wildlife sanctuary (Arunachal Pradesh). It has also been recorded from the following additional locations; Kalpangi River at Yachuli, Lower Subansiri River, Labia River at Dev, Papum Pare District, Sipu River at Doji, West Siang District, and Noadhing River (Bagra<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2009). <br/><br/>Further survey work is required to determine the species current range, and it may be present in other Indian states, including Assam.	eng
166507	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in rivers with pebbly substrates (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).	eng
166507	population	Vishwanath, W., 2009	No information available.	eng
166507	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2009	All the known localities are under serious threat as several dams are being constructed and are likely to cause flow modification in the future (Vishwanath, pers. comm., 2010).  It is likely that the species' habitat would also be impacted by sedimentation caused by deforestation and agricultural activities.	eng
166508	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Research on distribution, biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.</p>	eng
166508	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	The species is recorded from Sittwe (formerly Akyab) and in Tandaung Township, Sittaung River Drainage (C. Ferraris, NMNH), Myanmar, and from locations in northeastern India (Kolodyne (Kaladan) and Mat (a tributary of the Koladyne) Rivers of Mizoram) The species is apparently restricted to the Koladyne River and its tributaries; records from Arunachal Pradesh (two records in the Brahmaputra drainage; Centre for Environmental Management and Participatory Development, 2009) most likely refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. semiplotus</span> (V. Waikhom, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).	eng
166508	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p>The species inhabits moderate to fast flowing mountain streams and rivers with rocky bed.<br/> </p>	eng
166508	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Talwar and Jhingran (1991) considered it a rare species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.       </p>	eng
166508	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_River#cite_note-4"><span></a><p>Hill streams are threatened by sedimentation due to deforestation and agricultural practices resulting in continuing decline in the quality of habitat.</p><p>The Kaladyne River is subject to development as part of joint Indo-Myanmar project to develop river transport links to the Myanmar port of Sitwe. In addition, the impact of the Shwe Gas Project on the river and its habitats requires further study.<br/><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaladan_River#cite_note-4"><span></a></p>	eng
166509	conservation	Tenzin, K. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained. &#160;The taxonomic status of this species in its currently known distribution needs verification.	eng
166509	distribution	Tenzin, K. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The species is distributed in West Bengal and Tripura states of India, and Bangladesh. &#160;Its distribution in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and other northeastern states of India needs verification (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;This species has been recorded from the Indus River drainage in Pakistan (Rafique 2000), but this awaits further verification.	eng
166509	habitat	Tenzin, K. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The species inhabits lotic habitats such as rivers and larger streams. &#160;Lentic habitats such as lakes and ponds are likely to be marginal for this species (H.H. Ng pers. comm.).	eng
166509	population	Tenzin, K. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Mishra&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2009) report an average population decline of 35.3% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal; the average decline per decade since 1980 is about 69%. &#160;However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout its presumed distribution range make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.	eng
166509	threats	Tenzin, K. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166510	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Captive breeding of the species is being undertaken in parts of India to provide food fish (Ponniah and Sarkar 2000). Further research is required to understand the impact of harvesting across the species range.<br/></p>	eng
166510	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India (Manipur, Uttaranchal, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar), Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia and  Thailand. It is widespread in the western and eastern Himalayas.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/><br/></span>However, <span style="font-style: italic;">Chitala chitala</span> is likely restricted to the Indian subcontinent; the genus appears to be absent from Myanmar (misidentification of records may be based on very large <span style="font-style: italic;">Notopterus notopterus</span>), and in Southeast Asia, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. borneensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hypselonotus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. lopis</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. ornata </span>have been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. chitala</span> (H.H. Ng, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>, 2010; Roberts 2007).	eng
166510	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Inhabits freshwaters, particularly the larger rivers, but is also found in swamps. The species congregates, making it easily caught where it is present.	eng
166510	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Limited information is available; it has declined in some parts of its range, including Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and northeastern India due to declining water quality (siltation) and, mainly, overexploitation (S.C. Dey, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em>, 2010; S. Chaudhry <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). In Nepal, very few specimens were recorded in recent surveys (B. Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010). Specific figures are not available.<br/></p>	eng
166510	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>No information available for all of its range. In parts of India the species has declined due to over exploitation and decline in habitat quality.<br/></p>	eng
166511	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Further research is required into the impacts of the collection for the aquarium trade.<br/></p>	eng
166511	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p><em>Parambassis lala </em>is known from the lowlands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Mahanadi basins in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and the Irrawaddy basin in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Roberts 1994). &#160;It is very common in Assam.<br/></p>	eng
166511	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits ponds, ditches and pools; perhaps also brackish waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166511	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The level of collection within India is considered a potential threat as population levels have declined due to wetland loss and over-exploitation. The species is also harvested by lower income groups as a subsistence food.</p>	eng
166511	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This fish is over-exploited for the ornamental fish trade. &#160;Wetlands are also under threat from draining and development activities.<br/></p>	eng
166512	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>More research on its biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.</p>	eng
166512	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-IN"><em>Securicula gora </em>is known form the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Presence in Pakistan and Punjab, India needs to be confirmed.<br/></p>	eng
166512	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is pelagic and freshwater species which occurs<span class="sheader51"> in rivers, beels and canals. It feeds at the surface on insects, insect larvae and crustaceans. (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)</p>	eng
166512	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>  <span class="sheader51">No estimates of natural population are not available although the species is common and widely distributed. </p>	eng
166512	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p><span class="sheader51">Most of its habitat is affected by siltation which is caused by <span class="sheader51">deforestation for logging.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166513	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166513	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in India (Uttaranchal) and Nepal (Mahakali River in the Tarai of the far West and the Kali Gandaki River in the hills of central Nepal, in shallow riffles with rocky substrate in strong current; Edds and Ng 2007). It was described from the Alaknanda River in India.<span>	eng
166513	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits relatively swift flowing rivers with a sandy/rocky substrate.	eng
166513	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species	eng
166513	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The proposed Kotli Bhel project of damming the Alaknanada River will be a major threat to the species and its habitat in future. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166514	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166514	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India (the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage) and Orissa, Bangladesh and Myanmar.	eng
166514	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. sardinella</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs in the lower reaches of rivers.	eng
166514	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166514	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
166515	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166515	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Hara horai</em>&#160;was described from the&#160;Terai and Duars, West Bengal. This species is known from the middle and upper Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India.	eng
166515	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Although information regarding the habitat and ecology of this species is lacking, it most likely inhabits moderately slow-flowing streams with a substrate of sand, as for other congeners.</p>	eng
166515	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166515	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166519	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Further information on the species population, range and habitat requirements is needed.	eng
166519	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Ganialosa manmina</em> is recorded from India (Ganges: Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; Brahmaputra: Assam; and several rivers of Orissa), Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.	eng
166519	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits rivers and associated water bodies.	eng
166519	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166519	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
166520	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been recommended that this species requires strict conservation, and management in recreational ponds and public aquaria and exhibits (Menon 2004).	eng
166520	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Laos.  It has also been reported from China.	eng
166520	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. trilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which is found in pool and riffle areas of rapid-running mountain streams.	eng
166520	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. trilineatus</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.	eng
166520	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. trilineatus</em> may be locally threatened by destructive fishing techniques.	eng
166521	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>More research about the the biology of this species is needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166521	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Amblypharyngodon mola</em> is recorded from Pakistan (Indus plain and the adjoining hills), India, and Bangladesh. Its presence in Myanmar (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm.</em>) and in southern India (Rema Devi and M. Arunachalam <em>per. comm.</em>) needs further verification.	eng
166521	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>Found in all freshwater bodies.&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166521	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166521	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>No information to suggest risk (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010)<br/></p>	eng
166522	conservation	Dey, S.C., 2009	Information is required on the scale and impact of threats (especially habitat degradation) on the species.	eng
166522	distribution	Dey, S.C., 2009	Recorded from Pakistan, India (Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, West Bengal, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Orissa, and Bihar), Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand.	eng
166522	habitat	Dey, S.C., 2009	Inhabits freshwaters, primarily rivers. In North Bengal it occurs in clear, gravelly, perennial streams and ponds of Terai and Duars .	eng
166522	population	Dey, S.C., 2009	The species is fairly common in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. In Nepal, it is not common. No information is available for other parts of its range.	eng
166522	threats	Dey, S.C., 2009	There is habitat degradation in some parts of its range in India due to siltation caused by deforestation, and habitat loss and modification due to the loss of wetlands, especially the infilling of ponds.	eng
166523	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Further information on the species population changes is required.	eng
166523	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Recorded from India (chiefly the Ganges and Brahmaputra systems and Mahanadi river of Orissa), and from Nainital (Uttaranchal). Also recorded from Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166523	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Restricted to lowland, slow-flowing rivers, with sandy beds.	eng
166523	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Within India and Nepal (Ganges), the population is declining, whilst in the Brahmaputra drainage the population is stable.	eng
166523	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Siltation from deforestation and agricultural practices and overexploitation for consumption are the two main identified threats to the species.	eng
166524	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166524	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Conta conta</em>&#160;was described from the Mahananda River (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Bengal (Hamilton 1822).&#160;The records of this species from India and the Ganges River drainage in Nepal need verification as to whether they refer to <em>C. conta,&#160;</em><em>C. pectinata</em>, or another unnamed species.	eng
166524	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits hillstreams with a rocky or sandy substrate.	eng
166524	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The population size and trend of this species is unknown.</p>	eng
166524	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166525	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This species requires urgent protection and proactive conservation efforts to save it from becoming extinct in most of its range. &#160;There is an urgent need to stop the release of exotics in the upland areas throughout its range (M. Arunachalam, Remadevi, W. Vishwanath, <em>pers. comm</em>.).</p>	eng
166525	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<em>Schizothorax richardsonii</em> is distributed in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In India, it is found in Uttarakhand (Ramganga River, Joshi 1994; Negi and Negi 2010), Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh), Nagaland (Dzulakie, Chokla, Dzuna, Tepuiki, Tesuru, Tizu, Zungki; Remadevi <em>pers. comm</em>.) and Jammu and Kashmir (in Indus drainage, Gulmarg; M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;In Nepal, it occurs in Janakpur, Bagmati and Narayani zones.	eng
166525	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This species inhabits rivers, prefers to live among rocks and is primarily a bottom feeder, preferably near big submerged stones. It feeds on algal slimes, detritus and insects encrusted on the rocks (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.; Shreshta 1990). &#160;It breeds during April-May, before the monsoon flood the rivers and streams; the fry grows to such a size as to bear the rigours of the flood waters.<br/></p>	eng
166525	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This is a widespread and sometimes abundant species in the Himalayan foothills of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;However, the species is undergoing rapid declines in several locations along the distribution range due to several anthropogenic threats such as dams, overfishing, tourism, alien species introductions, and in some areas fishing for ornamental purposes. &#160;It is rare in Ladakh (Sivakumar 2008). &#160;Local fishermen in Kashmir have observed dramatic declines (>90%) in the last 5 years due to rampant release of exotic salmonids (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;The species is observed to be declining throughout its range, but there is no empirical study conducted (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>	eng
166525	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Introduction of exotic salmonids in hill streams and reservoirs of the Himalayan foothills are a serious threat (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;Fishing for ornamental trade is a threat in Nagaland (Remadevi <em>pers. comm</em>.) and fishing for food is a general threat in northeastern india (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).</p>	eng
166526	conservation	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	Conservation of freshwater habitats from destruction and pollution help to improve the conservation of this species in general.	eng
166526	distribution	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	It has a wide distribution in Pakistan; India: all along the Himalaya, Chota-Nagpur plateau and the Vindhya-Satpura mountains of the Indian Peninsula, Uttar Pradesh: (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh); Nepal: all along the Himalaya (Bagmati, Bheri, Lumbini, Narayani zones); Bangladesh and upper Myanmar.	eng
166526	habitat	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	<span style="background-color: white;">This species is found in fast flowing streams with boulders and rocks along the Himalayan ranges.<br/></span>	eng
166526	population	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	It is found in the streams and lakes of the Himalaya. Population studies are limited for this species<em></em>. The population information here is based on the survey of Jha (2006) which was carried out on nine rivers of Nepal. <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra gotyla</span> was reported in eight of the nine rivers surveyed (Jha 2006).&#160; In Nalgaland it is found in Rivers Meguiki, Milak, Tepuiki and Tesuru (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
166526	threats	Rayamajhi, A. & Jha, B.R., 2009	Even though the species is widely distributed it is a substrate specialist.&#160; Throughout its range, the boulders and gobbles are removed leading to habitat loss accompanied by other threats due to deforestation, damming and siltation.	eng
166527	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166527	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra lamta</span> is known in India from Assam, Bihar, Darjeeling, Kumaon Himalaya, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Reports from Pakistan, Sri Lanka and southern India need verification.	eng
166527	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	The species inhabits hill streams.	eng
166527	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166527	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species.</p>	eng
166528	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No conservation measures targeted to this species, it may occur in protected areas but it cannot be confirmed. </p>	eng
166528	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Bengal, northern India to Krishna-Godavari river system (its occurrence in Krishna-Godavari and Western Ghats needs to be confirmed); Nepal and Bangladesh plains and adjoining hilly areas.	eng
166528	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	&#160;The species is found in the plains and submontane regions.	eng
166528	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine population trends.	eng
166528	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No information available, although general habitat destruction may cause significant decline in its population.<br/></p>	eng
166529	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The confused taxonomy surrounding the identities of <em>Bagarius</em> species in the Indian subcontinent is badly in need of resolution in order to accurately assess their conservation status. There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Being a large predatory fish that is often fished for food, catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.&#160;&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;</p>	eng
166529	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this species is said to be distributed in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages (Kottelat 2001), further studies on its taxonomy may show it to be restricted to the Indian subcontinent (whether in part or whole) (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166529	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a variety of fluviatile habitats, although it is typically associated with swift, clear rivers with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166529	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is little information on the population and its status (in part exacerbated by the taxonomic confusion surrounding the group), there are indications that this species is suffering declines in parts of its range. A considerable decline in the population in southern West Bengal of 29.2% over four decades from 1960 to 2000 has been reported (Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
166529	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>As a large, predatory fish that is actively caught for food, this species is in some danger of being overexploited. Even though current indications are that this species is still relatively abundant, the current fishing pressure on this species (at least on the Indian subcontinent) is likely to be unsustainable, as evidenced by local declines reported in some studies (Mishra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). However, more empirical data is needed to support this claim. The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span>.).</p>	eng
166531	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been recommended that caution should be taken when stocking major Gangetic carps (carp species from the Ganges) in the river systems in Peninsular India, to avoid the extirpation of the locally commercially important carps, such as <em>C. cirrhosus</em>. <br/><br/>Deep pools in the courses of rivers should be declared as sanctuaries and fishing strictly prohibited within them, to protect the brooders especially when they rest during the period of low discharge in summer months.	eng
166531	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. cirrhosus</em> is presently known only from the Cauvery River system in India (Menon 2004).  Historically the species was wider ranging, being known from the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery Rivers (Day. F 1978, referenced in Menon 2004).	eng
166531	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. cirrhosus</em> is benthopelagic and potamodromous plankton feeder.  It inhabits fast flowing streams and rivers, but can tolerate high levels of salinity.  Spawning occurs in marginal areas of the water body with a depth of 50-100 cm over a sand or clay substrate.  A 6 kg female can lay a million eggs.  Juveniles are omnivorous to about 5 cm total length (TL), adults are almost entirely herbivorous.  This fish has a rapid growth rate; by the age of two individuals can reach a length of 60 cm and can weigh as much as 2 kg.	eng
166531	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A decline in catch data has been observed in the past; in Indian reservoirs, the <em>C. cirrhosus</em> comprised 20-47 % of the catch in 1943 - 1944, but declined to 2% of the catch in 1965 - 1966 due to the introduction of the Gangetic major carps <em>Catla catla</em> and <em>Labeo rohita</em>.	eng
166531	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. cirrhosus</em> is threatened by introduced Gangetic major carps.  In Indian reservoirs, the <em>C. cirrhosus</em> comprised 20-47 % of the catch in 1943 - 1944, but declined to 2% of the catch in 1965 - 1966 due to the introduction of the Gangetic major carps <em>Catla catla</em> and <em>Labeo rohita</em>.<br/><br/>Present threats to<em> C. cirrhosus</em> are loss of habitat, introduced species, overexploitation and pollution.	eng
166532	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>More research on biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats needed.</p>	eng
166532	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<span lang="EN-IN">This species is widely spread across different drainages across <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)<strong></strong>	eng
166532	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Usually found in slow <span class="tooltipelement">running <span class="tooltipelement">streams<span lang="EN-IN">. <span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement"><span class="tooltipelement">It is a <span class="tooltipelement">surface feeder on larvae and <span class="tooltipelement">adults of insects. It is adapted to different kinds of water bodies like ponds, river, beels, canals and ditches etc. (Menon 1999)</span></span>	eng
166532	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166532	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The species is an ornamental fish and also has minor food value. Overfishing and human induced changes in water bodies may affect this species.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166533	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
166533	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	None	eng
166533	conservation	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
166533	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River and Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>East coast rivers in Kenya and Tanzania and estuaries south to Transkei. Indo West Pacific.	eng
166533	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from east coast rivers and estuaries south to Transkei, Eastern Cape (Skelton 2001). Also throughout Indo-Pacific. Occurs hundreds of kilometres inland in large rivers, e.g., in Lake Chiuta in the headwaters of the Rovuma River system in Malawi.	eng
166533	distribution	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known throughout east coast rivers and estuaries from Kenya to  South Africa. Also known from throughout Indo-Pacific. It occurs hundreds of  kilometres inland in large rivers, e.g. in Lake Chiuta in the headwaters of the  Rovuma River system in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in  coastal rivers of Kenya and Tanzania, as well as in the lower Shire River and  Lake Chiuta, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found from Mozambique  south to Transkei, Eastern Cape (Skelton 2001).	eng
166533	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Found mainly in freshwater and estuaries, but also enters the sea. Also occurs in canals, ditches and ponds, and in large lakes such as Lake Chiuta. Found in clear to turbid streams with rock, gravel or sand bottoms. Food - small insects, crustaceans and small fish. Spawning - can breed in freshwater and in estuaries during summer.	eng
166533	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	Inhabits quiet, usually sandy, zones of streams and backwater habitats and floodplains (Skelton 1993). Juveniles feed on bottom-living invertebrates. Larger individuals prey on fish and tadpoles (Skelton 1993). Breeds in freshwater and estuaries in summer (Skelton 1993).	eng
166533	habitat	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species inhabits quiet, usually sandy, zones of streams and backwater  habitats and floodplains (Skelton 1993) but also enters the sea. Also occurs in  canals, ditches and ponds, and in large lakes such as Lake Chiuta. This species  is found in clear to turbid streams with rock, gravel or sand bottoms. Juveniles  feed on bottom-living invertebrates, and larger individuals prey on fish and  tadpoles (Skelton 1993). It breeds in freshwater and estuaries in summer  (Skelton 1993).	eng
166533	population	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Common and widespread.	eng
166533	population	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Common and widespread.	eng
166533	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	No population estimates	eng
166533	threats	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Dam walls and water abstraction threaten this species in southern Africa.	eng
166533	threats	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	It is threatened by dam walls, water abstraction	eng
166533	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2002	No information available.	eng
166534	conservation	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	<p>Conservation actions are needed for this species as the population is declining rapidly.<br/></p>	eng
166534	distribution	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	Recorded from Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Pakistan, and India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, sub-Himalayan range (Ganga and Narbada river systems; Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh), Nepal (Trishuli, Arung, Sabha, Narayani, Mahakali, Tinau, Koshi, Karnali river systems)).	eng
166534	habitat	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	It grows better in rivers with a rocky bottom. It can grow upto 78 kg or more. It breeds during August-September and continues up to December. After spawning downstream migration occurs in large shoals.	eng
166534	population	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	In India and Nepal, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tor tor</span> breeds during August-September and continues up to December. In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in the Narmada river near Hoshangabad and in Tapti near Barhanpur, the species figured prominently in the commercial catches until about 20 years ago, but the landings are reported to have dwindled remarkably in recent years. In the lakes in Rajasthan as well as in the Chambal river between the Gange-Sagar and Rana Pratap Sagar reservoirs, the species occurs in fairly good numbers. In Assam the population are fast depleting and are presently localised to certain major river systems. In Punjab this species ascends rivers during March-April. In Nepal (Gandaki and Mahakali river systems) also it has been recommended for legal protection due to its decreased population which are rarely seen at present.	eng
166534	threats	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	In Madhya Pradesh, particularly in the Narmada river near Hoshangabad and in Tapti near Barhanpur, the species figured prominently in commercial catches but catches have declined in recent years due to over-exploitation. In the lakes in Rajasthan as well as in the Chambal river between the Gange-Sagar and Rana Pratap Sagar Reservoirs, the species occurs in fairly good numbers. In Assam the population are fast depleting and are presently localised to certain major river systems. In Punjab this species ascends rivers during March-April. In Nepal, this species is declining to a great extent and rarely seen.	eng
166535	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Distribution and life history studies and impacts of potential threats on the species are needed. The populations in Myanmar, Pakistan and Meghalaya in India need to be verified taxonomically.	eng
166535	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This is a fairly widely distributed species occurring predominantly in the Ganges River drainage in Indian Himalaya in Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh in Uttar Pradesh; North Bengal; and Nepal. Reports of its occurrence in Pakistan, Myanmar&#160;and parts of the Brahmaputra River drainage in&#160;Garo Hills in Meghalaya&#160;need to be verified.	eng
166535	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This is a species of hill stream fast-flowing rivers dwelling at the sandy gravelly bottom.	eng
166535	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Information on population and trends is not available.	eng
166535	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	At least in some parts of its range, this species faces threats from habitat loss caused by natural calamities and human interferences.	eng
166536	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166536	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio dangila</span> is known from mountain streams belonging to Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage of Bihar, northern Bengal, northeastern India, and Nepal. It was also reported from Umroi Stream and rheophilic torrent near Barapani, Khasi Hills Meghalaya, India.	eng
166536	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens were collected from the rocks and stones which compose the bottom of several clear mountain streams.	eng
166536	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Recent field surveys show that population in the wild might be reducing due to ornamental fish trade (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010) </p>	eng
166536	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Exploitation from natural habitats for ornamental fish trade.</p>	eng
166538	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Impacts of threats need to be better understood.	eng
166538	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species is recorded from India (Manipur and Nagaland) and from Myanmar. &#160;It has a widespread distribution in the Irrawady and Chindwin basins.	eng
166538	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It inhabits hill streams in low lying areas with pebble bottom.	eng
166538	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is rare.	eng
166538	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Deforestation for teak harvest is a major threat to the habitat, which results in sedimentation and siltation of rivers.	eng
166539	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166539	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166539	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing larger rivers with a substrate of sand and gravel/rocks.	eng
166539	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
166539	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166540	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166540	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>In India the species is reported form northern Bengal, Assam, Manipur (Menon 1999). In Myanmar it is reported from Indawgyi Lake.<strong></strong></p>	eng
166540	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Found in rivers, streams and lakes with good vegetation cover. &#160;<strong></strong>It is found in good numbers in Indawgyi lake where there are hanging roots and hence removal of vegetation may affect the habitat of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166540	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166540	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
166542	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More information is required on the species population, distribution, ecology and habitat requirements.<br/></p>	eng
166542	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus pancalus</span> is widely distributed in India (Ganges and Brahmaputra), Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan (Indus).	eng
166542	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This beautiful species of the plains inhabits slow and shallow waters, not found above an altitude of 366 m. It inhabits the river bed and spawns in the upper water-level. Courtship being with the more slender (and generally smaller) male showing the female out of her recess and then pursuing her rapidly. Several males may join in this activity.	eng
166542	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural populations elsewhere within India. During a one-year research project in Nepal, the species was only found in one of nine rivers during four collecting trips, and only at very low numbers (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166542	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No information available; the species is fished and collected for the aquarium trade in small quantities. </p>	eng
166543	conservation	Pal, M. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	The taxonomic problems surrounding the identity of this species need to be resolved. More information about the population size and trends, as well as harvest levels and threats are also needed.	eng
166543	distribution	Pal, M. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species complex is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan (most likely), Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Malaysia, Indonesia,&#160;Brunei,&#160;Singapore and introduced to the Philippines.	eng
166543	habitat	Pal, M. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	It inhabits fresh waters; mostly in rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, swamps and paddy fields.	eng
166543	population	Pal, M. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	Although this is considered to be a widespread and abundant species, it almost certainly consists of more than one species that would be more geographically circumscribed. Therefore, information on the population status should be considered to be poorly known (H.H. Ng and R. Britz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
166543	threats	Pal, M. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	There is no information available about the threats to this species. This is compounded by the taxonomic problems associated with this species (H.H. Ng and R. Britz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
166544	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study, as it is very likely that the populations from Myanmar and Thailand currently identified as this species represent different species.</p>	eng
166544	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Olyra longicaudata</em>&#160;was described from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India (McClelland 1842). This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India, river drainages in Myanmar and the Mae Khlong River drainage in western Thailand.	eng
166544	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>).	eng
166544	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166544	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166545	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166545	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura savona</span> is found along the eastern Himalaya in Tista drainage at Darjeeling through Nepal, to Karnali and Kali drainages in Uttar Pradesh (Menon 1987)	eng
166545	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to inhabit rapid hillstreams with gravel.	eng
166545	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166545	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No known major threats known to this species. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166548	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is a need to resolve the uncertainty surrounding the identity of this species. More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is also needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166548	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Indus River drainages in India. Although it has been recorded from the Mahananda River (part of the Brahmaputra River drainage), this record may be questionable.	eng
166548	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166548	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166548	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166549	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166549	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species was described from the Mishmi Hills in Meghalaya, India (McClelland 1842). &#160;It&#160;is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya: Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007) and China (Tibet).	eng
166549	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates and grazes on aufwuchs (Wu and Wu 1992).	eng
166549	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
166549	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166550	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166550	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. garhwali</em> has been reported from various sites within the Uttaranchal state of India (R. Devi, pers. comm.).	eng
166550	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. garhwali</em> is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
166550	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166550	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The habitat in the region in which <em>G. garhwali</em> occurs is in an area of rapid population growth, hence potential threats to the species include pollution, habitat loss and degradation, however the extent to which these factors pose a direct threat to the species is not known.	eng
166551	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed; especially, impacts of harvest.	eng
166551	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana almorae </span>is distributed in  Almora, Uttarakhand, India in the Ganges basin. There is a record from Salween basin but needs verification (Doi 1997).	eng
166551	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This hill stream species is a bottom dweller.	eng
166551	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166551	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may be affected by habitat degradation due to destructive fishing methods, poisoning and other human activities. It occurs in an area affected by logging and deforestation.	eng
166552	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166552	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
166552	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are required&#160;at present.<br/></p>	eng
166552	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Pisodonophis boro</em> has a very wide distribution in the Indo-West Pacific region. In India, mainly freshwater, recorded from Assam (including Brahmaputra and Barak drainages) and Chennai. Also recorded from Bangladesh, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Indonesia, Taiwan, Philippines, Australia, South Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles and elsewhere.	eng
166552	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from the eastern African coastal zone.	eng
166552	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in coastal zones from Tanzania to South Africa, as well as  southern India and Sri Lanka. Also widespread elsewhere from the east Indian  coast through Indonesia to Polynesia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It can be  found along much of the east African coastal zone.<br/><br/><strong>Southern  Africa:</strong> It is present from Mozambique south to Natal, South Africa.	eng
166552	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Found in lagoons and estuaries. It also enters freshwater and is found in paddy fields (Sommer <em>et al. 1996).</em>	eng
166552	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits lagoons and estuaries; entering freshwater and paddy fields. Mainly marine, and very widespread.	eng
166552	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in lagoons and estuaries. It also enters freshwater and is  found in paddy fields (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
166552	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166552	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
166552	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>It has a wide distribution, though thinly populated.<br/></p>	eng
166552	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Generally low threats given its widespread range, though it is easily caught in ricefields, and is subject to agricultural pollution.	eng
166552	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166552	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
166554	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Taxonomic investigation is required to clarify possible confusion between <span style="font-style: italic;">M. cuchia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">M. albus.</span>	eng
166554	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region><st1:country-region w:st="on">The species is recorded from India</st1:country-region> (northern and northeastern states), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Menon 1999; Mirza and Alam 2002). However, there are differences between populations different parts of its range and further taxonomic investigation is required.	eng
166554	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits fresh and brackish waters and has been found in the altitudinal range 76-1350 m above sea level (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Ocassionally found during the drought season in mud holes in paddy fields in Terai and Duars of North Bengal (Menon 1999). It is an obligatory air-breather, which inhabits holes and crevices in the muddy banks of swamps, lakes, ponds and slowly running rivers containing fresh and brackish waters (Munshi <em>et al.</em> 1989)	eng
166554	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information on the species population status is available. However, the fish is very common in <st1:place w:st="on">West  Bengal</st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166554	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No known major widespread threats.	eng
166555	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">B. vagra </span>might be in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>	eng
166555	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is widely distributed, from Afghanistan to Barak basin in Manipur through Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages of northen India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Reports from Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Pakistan needs confirmation.	eng
166555	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in hill streams with gravelly and rocky bottom.	eng
166555	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>In Nepal the CPUE is 1.65 (Jha 2009). It is common throughout the foothills of northeastern India.<br/></p>	eng
166555	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Destructive fishing may pose a threat to this species.<br/></p>	eng
166556	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
166556	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	It is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India, Nepal and probably Bangladesh (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166556	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166556	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166556	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166557	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Possible junior synonyms (if any) also need to be identified.	eng
166557	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species was described from material collected from an unknown locality in India.	eng
166557	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the habitats and ecology of this species because it was collected from an unknown locality and no additional material has been discovered since its original description. <em>Glyptothorax brevipinnis</em> most likely inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers like other members of the genus.	eng
166557	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166557	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166559	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified and more information on catch data (and its effects on the population) is needed. &#160;Furthermore, the conspecificity of the population from the Indus River drainage with that from the Ganges-Brahmaputra and Mahanadi systems needs to be verified.	eng
166559	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known throughout the Mahanadi, Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages.	eng
166559	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits large rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
166559	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although information on the global population and trend for this species is not known, it is a fairly common species throughout most of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus and Mahanadi river systems.	eng
166559	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166560	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no conservation recommendations for this species.</p>	eng
166560	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius terio</em> occurs widely in northern India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Manipur, and Meghalaya), Bangladesh and Pakistan (Jayaram 1991). Recently recorded from Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007). Record from Hyderabad (Chandrasekhar 2004) needs to be confirmed.	eng
166560	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius terio</span> inhabits rivers, canals, ponds, ditches, and inundated fields, over a silt and mud substrate. It attains a length of 9 cm. The females are more robust when mature (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>	eng
166560	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available although it is common.	eng
166560	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>	eng
166561	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species might be in protected  areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this  species is experiencing a decline.	eng
166561	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Kosi, Ganga, Yamuna, Barak and Brahmaputra rivers.	eng
166561	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens have been found in rivers and streams.	eng
166561	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is rare in Nepal (Jha <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010), but common in India.	eng
166561	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may be affected by fishing for ornamental purposes and for food.	eng
166563	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	This is a species complex and requires taxonomic revision.	eng
166563	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is recorded from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Thailand and southern China. Possibly present in Bhutan.	eng
166563	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits swamps, freshwater ponds, streams and tanks in the plains; prefers stagnant muddy waters and grassy tanks. &#160;It breeds in the rainy season.	eng
166563	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166563	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
166565	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166565	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainage in India, Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
166565	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166565	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
166565	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166567	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Detailed information on use, harvest rates, population trends and threats to the species are needed.</p>	eng
166567	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	In India it is widespread (except peninsular India south of Krishna River), and is also found in Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166567	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This barb is very widely distributed all over India in rivers and tanks.  It attains a length of 31 cm. It breeds during monsoon in running  waters amongst submerged boulders and vegetation (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Spawning occurs in two stages once between May to mid September but prominent in June and the second spawning time in the months of August and September (Chakraborty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166567	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This barb is very widely distributed all&#160; northern and north east India in rivers and tanks and it is fairly common in many areas of its known distribution.	eng
166567	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The threats to the species are not known. &#160;However, it is considered to be endangered in Bangladesh (Chakraborty <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).  </p>	eng
166568	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166568	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the lower and middle reaches of the Irrawaddy River, the Sittang, Bago, and the Salween river drainages in Myanmar.	eng
166568	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the main channels of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
166568	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
166568	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166569	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Further information is needed into the species ecology and habitats, as well as the impacts of habitat loss and trade.<br/></p>	eng
166569	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species is found in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Nepal, and Malaysia (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166569	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits fresh and brackish waters. &#160;It breeds everywhere during the rains. It attains a maximum length of 7  cm, seldom exceeding 5 cm, remaining appreciably smaller in captivity (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166569	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This is an exceedingly common fresh water fish in the Indian region and adjacent countries (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).</p>	eng
166569	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no known major threats for this species. &#160;Threats to this species include habiat loss (loss of wetlands) and the ornamental trade.<br/></p>	eng
166570	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Further information on the species range, ecology and potential threats is needed.	eng
166570	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is recorded from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins in Nepal, India (northern Bengal, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh), and Bangladesh.	eng
166570	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It inhabits muddy hill streams.	eng
166570	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	This species is not as common as <em>Mystus bleekeri</em>. &#160;It is a hardy fish compared to other hill stream fishes. &#160;Population and trends are not known for this.	eng
166570	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There are no recorded threats to this species.	eng
166571	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166571	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistoides montana</em>&#160;is recorded from the Brahmaputra and Meghana river drainages in India (Assam: Gumti River, Tanhla River; West Bengal: Darjeeling; and Tripura) and Nepal.	eng
166571	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Found in streamlets with swift current (Fishbase 2009).</p>	eng
166571	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The population size and trend of this species are unknown.</p>	eng
166571	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166573	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. The conspecificity of the populations from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra river drainages require further investigation.</p>	eng
166573	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Hara jerdoni</em>&#160;was described from Sylhet District, Bangladesh (Day 1870). &#160;This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh and northeastern India. &#160;The conspecificity of populations from the Brahmaputra and the Ganges river drainages probably requires further investigation.	eng
166573	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Inhabits slow-moving hill streams, with sandy substrate amongst aquatic weeds and decaying leaves.	eng
166573	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166573	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>Destructive fishing practices and shifting agriculture are the threats although the impact in the species' entire distribution range is unknown.</p>	eng
166574	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information on the species distribution and threats is required, and the taxonomic status of the two known populations confirmed.	eng
166574	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species is reported distributed in the Chindwin-Irrawady basin of Manipur, India and Myanmar. However, as they are found only in the upper reaches (torrential hill streams) and not in the middle and lower part of the rivers, they may be considered fragmented. Neotype designated by Kottelat's (1990) was also from Rehndal's material collected long ago. &#160;This species is also reported from southwestern Yunnan and in Burma in the vicinity of Myitkyina and Putao, Assam,&#160;Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland&#160;in India (Yazdani 1977; &#160;Menon 1987).	eng
166574	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species inhabit streams with gravelly bottoms; a benthic species found in cool, fast-flowing waters.	eng
166574	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available. However, the type locality, Sikmai stream at Pallel (Manipur) is polluted due to human population increase. The town has become a commercial centre. Collections in the past few years show that the species is not there; although some specimens were collected in the 1980s, it has not been collected in the last 20 years from different localities in the Chindwin basin (W. Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm</span>.).	eng
166574	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Pallel, type locality of the species is polluted and there is no trace of the species. Similar is the situation where the species was distributed in the past (in Manipur).	eng
166576	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Impacts of habitat degradation and mining on the species requires urgent studies. &#160;This species is also in need of some taxonomic work and needs to be properly diagnosed from its congeners.	eng
166576	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Meghna and Brahmaputra river drainages in India and Bangladesh. &#160;The distribution range is restricted to less than 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
166576	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166576	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166576	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	In Khasi Hills the habitat is affected by deforestation, logging and coal mining, which might cause population declines. &#160;This needs detailed studies for future conservation action.	eng
166577	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>More research on biology, population, threats and trends are needed.</p>	eng
166577	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius gelius</em> has a wide distribution in India (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Bihar) and Bangladesh (Jayaram 1991, Menon 1999). Report from Pakistan (Sheri and Saied 1975) needs confirmation. This species is introduced into the natural water bodies in other parts of India due to aquarium trade (R. Devi <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166577	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits still waters. Attains a length of 4 cm. Sexes are alike. They eat their eggs just as soon as they drop them (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166577	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available although it is common and introduced in other areas.	eng
166577	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no threats identified for this species.</p>	eng
166578	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>further work is required to confirm the species distribution, especially the records from Myanmar and Orissa, India. The species was reported from the Namdapha National Park and Tiger Reserve (Datta and Barman 1985). Menon (2004) considered it endangered and recommended a sanctuary may be set up in a suitable stream in upper Assam.<br/></p>	eng
166578	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	The species is known from India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, North Bengal, Sikkim, Darjeeling); Nepal (Narayangarh, Khairenitar, Tribeni, Nepal Terai); Bhutan (Tora River, Phuntshaling). Day (1878) reported that it inhabited the rivers of Assam, especially in the upper portion but was also found as low as Goalpara and Myanmar. However, Menon (2004) remarked that the fish is confined to upper Assam. Mukerji (1933) included this species in the list of fishes of Mali Hka river, upper Myanmar without giving systematic accounts. However, Vishwanath and Kosygin (2000) remarked that the species is perhaps present only in the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage. A record from Mahanudi, Orissa, in India, requires confirmation given the habitat requirements of the species.	eng
166578	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	The species inhabits moderate to fast flowing mountain streams and rivers with rocky beds. Juveniles inhabit shallow and fast flowing water, while larger ones inhabit deeper water where water current is comparatively slow. Benthopelagic. The species is gregarious and susceptible to population depletion.	eng
166578	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Day (1978) reported that the fish is found in rivers of Assam especially in the upper portion but found as low as Goalpara. However, Menon (1989, 2004) and Sen (1985) reported that the fish is restricted to upper Assam and has declined in number and size. Population of this species is declining due to overfishing. Population during the past years has declined in more than 30% although further research is needed to confirm actual rates (Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).<br/></p>	eng
166578	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>The species is threatened mainly due to overexploitation, habitat loss, deforestation and pollution. During recent survey number of mature individuals were rarely observed.<br/></p>	eng
166580	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166580	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. aor</em> occurs in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and upper Myanmar.	eng
166580	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. aor</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which inhabits rivers, ponds, lakes, channels and reservoirs.  This species breeds before the onset of the monsoon in the Ganges.	eng
166580	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
166580	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
166581	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
166581	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Clupisoma montana</em>&#160;was described from the Tista River, a&#160;tributary&#160;of the Brahmaputra River, in West Bengal, India (Hora 1937); it&#160;is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra river drainage in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166581	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the upper reaches of river drainages, typically in mainstreams that are moderately swift with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
166581	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trends of this species are unknown. &#160;However, compared to <em>C. garua</em>, this species is less abundant and restricted. &#160;It is inferred from damming activities that the species is likely to be undergoing a decline.	eng
166581	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;However, it is inferred that damming activities across the northeastern rivers may have had a continuing negative impact and predicted to impact populations in the future (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166582	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166582	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	<em>Crossochilus latius</em> is widely distributed in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In India the fish is reported from drainages of the Ganga and Brahmaputra in northern India; Mahanadi River drainage in Orissa; and Western Ghats, south to the headwaters of Krishna River, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, India. Its presence in Western Ghats, south to the headwaters of Krishna River needs to be confirmed.	eng
166582	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Crossocheilus latius</span> inhabits streams, rivers and lake preferably with gravelly bottom in benthopelagic environment.</p>	eng
166582	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166582	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166583	conservation	Ng, H.H. & Tenzin, K., 2009	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained. The taxonomic status of this species in its currently known distribution needs verification.	eng
166583	distribution	Ng, H.H. & Tenzin, K., 2009	This species has been recorded in the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Jamuna river basins in India, and in Bangladesh. Records from Pakistan and Myanmar require verification (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009).	eng
166583	habitat	Ng, H.H. & Tenzin, K., 2009	Ecological information about this species is lacking, but it is presumed to be similar to other congeners in the Indian subcontinent. It therefore most probably inhabits rivers, streams and lakes (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009<em></em>).	eng
166583	population	Ng, H.H. & Tenzin, K., 2009	Mishra&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;(2009) report an average population decline of 36.8% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal; the average decline per decade since 1980 is about 80%. However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout its presumed distribution range make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.	eng
166583	threats	Ng, H.H. & Tenzin, K., 2009	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in population declines (Mishra&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2009). The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng pers. comm. 2009).	eng
166585	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Although there is some catch data for this species, it is fragmentary and more data is badly needed to build up a more accurate picture of the status of this species.	eng
166585	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage of India and Bangladesh. &#160;It has been reported from the Ganges River drainage also, but these records need to be verified as they might refer to <em>B. macronotus</em>.	eng
166585	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with a predominantly sandy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166585	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a mean decline of 27.6% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal (lower Ganges-Brahmaputra system and Subarnarekha River) for the period 1960–2000, and an average decline of 52% over two decades since 1980; there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;Data from the ornamental fish trade in the Brahmaputra River drainage suggests that this species is still relatively common (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166585	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this species has undergone declines due to overfishing in a small part of its range (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009), similar threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. &#160;Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of other potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166586	conservation	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	<p>More information is required on the species population and distribution.<br/></p>	eng
166586	distribution	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	Fresh and brackish waters in Bangladesh; Pakistan; Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Nepal; Thailand; Cambodia; Vietnam, and northeastern India; found in the Hoogly and Bhagirathi River systems in West Bengal; the Lohit district Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh: (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Pauri, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh). It is likely present in other northeast Indian states. <br/><br/>  In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the distribution of <em>Mastacembelus armatus </em>(Lacepede) is documented by Jha<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (2006). Its occurrence was reported in seven rivers including Aandhikhola, Arungkhola, Karrakhola, Narayani, East Seti and Tinau river from central and western region of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The six rivers, Aandhikhola, Arungkhola, Karrakhola, Narayani East and Seti are the members of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Gandaki</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> system. Tinau is an independent system. Aandhikhola accounted for the highest abundance of <em>Mastacembelus armatus </em>among the rivers sampled.	eng
166586	habitat	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	Inhabits fresh waters in plains and hills.	eng
166586	population	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	In Nepal, the species is found commonly at quite high altitudes in river Tawi (Jammu) and its tributaries.   Seasonal availability of some important fishes in some rivers of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> could be found mentioned in the literature, but a detailed seasonality of the species is lacking.	eng
166586	threats	Rayamajhi, A., Jha, B.R. & Sharma, C., 2009	<p>No information available on threats to this species. It is caught by local level fisheries.</p>	eng
166588	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed.	eng
166588	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Clupisoma garua</em>&#160;was described from the rivers of the Gangetic provinces (Hamilton 1822), and is&#160;known from the northern part of the Indian subcontinent to the Mahanadi River drainage. It is also known from the Indus River drainage.	eng
166588	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits fluviatile habitats, particularly in larger rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom.	eng
166588	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Patra <em>et al. </em>(2005) report a mean decline of 30.4% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a decline of 27.7% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. &#160;However, indications are that this is still a relatively common and abundant species.	eng
166588	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Because this species is heavily utilized as a food fish, overfishing is a potential major threat. Indeed, published data for parts of its natural distribution suggest that overfishing is a major cause of local population declines (Patra <em>et al.</em>, 2005; Mishra <em>et al.</em>, 2009). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166589	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Menon (2004) has suggested that a suitable stream in Naga Hills at Kairong should be selected as sanctuary for the protection of this rare species.<br/></p>	eng
166589	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It occurs in India (Assam, Manipur in Brahmaputra basin, Sikkim, West Bengal) and Bangladesh (Vishwanath and Kosygin 2001).&#160; It is also reported from Nepal (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.).&#160; The species reported from Myanmar is known to be <span style="font-style: italic;">P. burtoni</span> (Vishwanath and Kosygin 2001).	eng
166589	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>It occurs in streams and rivers.<br/></p>	eng
166589	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>It is not a very common species.&#160;<br/></p>	eng
166589	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No information available. Nevertheless, Menon (2004) has considered this species as one of the threatened species of India as it is rarely found. This species is affected by mining and destructive fishing methods, such as blasting. Both threats lead to habitat degradation. Other threats may be logging, deforestation and damming.<br/></p>	eng
166592	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information is requred on the species distribution and population. &#160;Investigation is required to stablish the taxonomic identity of the two known populations in Myamanr and India.	eng
166592	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys kempi</span> is known from Garo Hills in Meghalaya, Abor Hills in Arunachal Pradesh, India and Putao, Myanmar (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166592	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Demersal environment with freshwater is the main habitat of this species. &#160;It is also mostly found in streams with pebbly bottoms; a mountain stream specialist requiring clear oxygenated water.	eng
166592	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166592	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is a hill stream fish. There is continuing disturbance it its habitat due to siltation, change in the course of streams and human intervention.	eng
166593	conservation	Chaudhry, S. & Pal, M., 2010	<p>  No conservation measures are documented for this species at present but it is believed to be reared for fishery purpose.</p>	eng
166593	distribution	Chaudhry, S. & Pal, M., 2010	This species is found in tropical freshwaters of India, Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007), and Bangladesh, and may have a wider distribution (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010).	eng
166593	habitat	Chaudhry, S. & Pal, M., 2010	<p>This is a tropical, benthopelagic freshwater fish, common at water temperatures of 22-28 ⁰C.<strong>&#160;</strong>&#160;It is f<span class="sheader51">ound in lakes, ponds, ditches and paddy fields and is able to live out of water for protracted periods (Fishbase 2009). <em>Anabas</em> are carnivorous, living on a diet of water invertebrates and their larvae. They guard their eggs.<strong></strong></p>	eng
166593	population	Chaudhry, S. & Pal, M., 2010	<p>  No information on population is available but it spawns once during rainy season from May-July. The impact of fisheries on the species population requires research.<br/></p>	eng
166593	threats	Chaudhry, S. & Pal, M., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The species is of major commercial interest and there are large scale fisheries for this fish. The species is also threatened by infection by <em>Aplanes brauni</em>&#160;(fungi) that causes death of this species (De and Mandal 2003).</p><p>The impact of other regional threats (including siltation caused by deforestation and agricultural activities, pollution, and habitat alteration resulting from hydropower and irrigation dam development) require further research.<br/><strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166594	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.  </p>	eng
166594	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius bendelisis </span>is found throughout India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Also recorded as present in Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010).	eng
166594	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to inhabit streams and rivers along the base of hills with pebbly and sandy bottom.	eng
166594	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This species is fairly common throughout its range.<br/></p>	eng
166594	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The possible threat to this species are over-exploitation, habitat destruction due to natural and certain human activities.<br/></p>	eng
166595	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166595	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in India and Bangladesh, and is also reported from Pakistan.  <em>L. bata</em> has also been introduced into reservoirs where the species is cultivated.	eng
166595	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. bata</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species, which inhabits rivers.  It is a herbivorous column feeder.	eng
166595	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A study which surveyed fish species availability in the fish landing centres of the Khulna District in Bangladesh, reported <em>L. bata</em> to be endangered, on the basis of abundance.	eng
166595	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. bata</em> is an important commercial species for aquaculture.  It is a much sought-after fish with a high value in the market, however fishing is not considered to be a great threat to the species due to the extent of aquaculture.<br/><br/>Loss of habitat and overexploitation may be local threats to wild populations.	eng
166596	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Further information on the species habitat, ecology and population is required. E<span style="font-style: italic;">x-situ</span> breeding may be possible, but is difficult, and would have to be strongly justified by conservation need. &#160;Impacts on the populations from harvests for trade needs to be studied and monitored.	eng
166596	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Presence confirmed from Assam (type locality: Goalpara) and Nagaland (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>). Reported from Bangladesh and Nepal, but records are doubtful.	eng
166596	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	It inhabits rivers in hill areas.	eng
166596	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	This species has been collected very rarely, and the species is also likely to be rare.	eng
166596	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The threats to this rare species are not known, but it is presumed that over exploitation for the aquarium fish trade is a threat.	eng
166597	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More information on population size and trends and the geographic distribution of this species is needed. A larger series is needed to ascertain the validity of this species. The potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166597	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Pterocryptis indicus</em> is only known from the type locality in Namdapha River, Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India.	eng
166597	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	Ecological information for this species is lacking. However, it is expected to occupy habitats similar to those of its congeners, i.e., hill streams with rocky and sandy bottom (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).	eng
166597	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
166597	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166599	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>Information is need on the threats to the species, and the status of its habitats.<br/></p>	eng
166599	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenops nobilis</span> is distributed in India (Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Sikkim) and in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>.	eng
166599	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2009	Most of the species is found in small muddy streams and pools. It is a mouth-brooder.	eng
166599	population	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>More information is needed to understand its global trends. In Assam it is declining (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).<br/></p>	eng
166599	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2009	<p>In northeastern India, the species habitat is declining due to wetland loss (agricultural conversion) in Assam. No information is known on the threats from other parts of the species range.<br/></p>	eng
166601	conservation	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	Further information is required on the species range, population and ecology is required. The condition of the species' habitat needs to be surveyed, and the impacts of agricultural practices on the aquatic habitats confirmed.	eng
166601	distribution	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	Known from northeastern India (Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya), and from Umsing nearby, collected from an altitude of 1069 - 1524 m. It appears, from current collections, to have a very restricted range estimated at and Extent of Occurrence of 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
166601	habitat	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	This little fish is very inactive and mostly spends its time lying at the bottom, either buried in mud or clinging to some submerged vegetation along the edges of streams where the water is moving very slowly. It avoids light and tries to hide into the mud (Yazdani 1976, 1978).	eng
166601	population	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	No population datasets are available for this species and it is reported to be scarce in capture by Menon (1999).	eng
166601	threats	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2009	The areas surrounding the streams in which the species has been found are under threat from deforestation, causing siltation within the streams.	eng
166602	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Although there is some catch data that suggests that this species is in decline in southern West Bengal, catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed. The identity of material identified as this species collected from the northern Western Ghats requires verification.	eng
166602	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	It is present in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166602	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is found primarily in the main channel of large rivers, sometimes descending to tidal stretches of these rivers (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166602	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Although Mishra&#160;<em>et al</em>. (2009) report a decline of 33.5% in catch for this species in southern West Bengal for 1960-2000, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current observations indicate that this species is common and abundant throughout much of its range (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166602	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	Overfishing is a major threat as known from studies in southern West Bengal (Mishra et al. 2009)	eng
166603	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Impact of threats on species population requires confirmation. &#160;The species may be declining due to ornamental fish trade, but this information is not quantified.	eng
166603	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<em>Botia dario</em> is distributed in the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainages in India, and Meghna basin in Bangladesh.	eng
166603	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is a species of rivers and streams.	eng
166603	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This is the most common of all <em>Botia</em> species.	eng
166603	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Though habitat destruction is rampant throughout its range of distribution, the species is hardy and  widespread. The impact of harvest for the aquarium trade should be monitored.	eng
166605	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>No conservation measures are in place although it may be present in protected areas. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.</p>	eng
166605	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius tileo </span>is distributed in the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainage of northern and northeastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.	eng
166605	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is found in hill streams and rivers with pebble or sand bottom.&#160; </p>	eng
166605	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is quite common in the catches in the eastern Himalayas.	eng
166605	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The threats to the species are not known.<br/></p>	eng
166606	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166606	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species occurs throughout India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Yunnan (southern China) (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166606	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">Occurs in rivers and ponds;  in slow-moving waters of rivers and it is essentially a bottom feeder that <span class="sheader5">feeds on plants,  filamentous algae and diatoms (<span class="sheader5">Ahmad and  Niazi 1988, <span class="sheader5">Talwar and Jhingran 1991, <span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">Arunachalam <em>et al</em>. 2000<span class="sheader5">).   Fecundity of this species ranges between 193,000 and  238,000 (<span class="sheader5">Rahman 1989<span class="sheader5">).</span></span>	eng
166606	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5"><span class="sheader5">This is a very common fish throughout India and in adjacent countries. However population trends are not known.<br/><span class="sheader5">	eng
166606	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No known widespread major threats to the species. </p>	eng
166607	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Threats to the species need to be identified.</p>	eng
166607	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius guganio</em> is widely distributed in India (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yamuna river systems in the Gangetic Provinces, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bangal), Bangladesh. Jayaram (1991). This species which had been recorded in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are considered as <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ambassis</span> which was earlier synonymized with <span style="font-style: italic;">P. guganio</span>. Currently both species are treated separate.	eng
166607	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This species breeds in upper reaches of permanent rivers, ponds and lakes.<br/></p>	eng
166607	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166607	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no threats identified for the species currently.</p>	eng
166608	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166608	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nasuta</span> is known from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland in northeastern India. Presence in Myanmar and Viet Nam is doubtful.	eng
166608	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p>The fish inhabits moderate to fast flowing hill streams with rocky beds.<br/></p>	eng
166608	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166608	threats	Singh, L., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are not known, however, hill stream habitat threats are a concern.</p>	eng
166609	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166609	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is widely distributed, known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in India, Bangladesh and Tibet (China).	eng
166609	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in swift hillstreams, typically with torrential areas and riffles, and a substrate of coarse gravel and fine sand mixed with rock.	eng
166609	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and trend for this species. Current indications from field surveys are that it is still a relatively abundant species.</p>	eng
166609	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>All hill stream species are threatened due to dams, shifting cultivation and destructive fishing. &#160;However, due to this species' wide distribution the threats are not considered major.</p>	eng
166610	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166610	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura manipurensi</span>s is distributed in the Chindwin basin of Manipur and Nagaland, India. Kottelat (1990) also reports the species from the Brahmaputra basin (Kottelat 2005), but this requires confirmation.	eng
166610	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	A bottom-dwelling hill stream species; i<span class="sheader5">t inhabits shallow, swift, clear streams with pebbly bottoms.	eng
166610	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166610	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	They are prone to threats such as dynamite and other destructive fishing; human interference and poisoning.	eng
166611	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
166611	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra-Ganges system, as well as the Indus and Mahanadi River drainages (Roberts 1994).	eng
166611	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a large variety of freshwater bodies, primarily rivers and lakes.	eng
166611	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size or trends for this species, although this is a fairly common species in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system.	eng
166611	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The current rate of fishing for this species is not a threat in eastern and northeastern India. In other regions, the threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Despite the paucity of knowledge regarding potential threats, this species is still relatively abundant and widespread. This may be an indication that there are no major widespread threats to this species at the moment.	eng
166612	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	More information is required on the species distribution, habitat and ecology.	eng
166612	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Channa amphibeus</em> is known from the type locality in India (Chel River, Assam and northern Bengal). The species has been reported from the Brahmaputra River by local people (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010). It is also reported from Bhutan (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2010; Froese and Pauly 2010), but identifications require confirmation, as the species has been confused in the past with<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. barca.</span>	eng
166612	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Very limited information available; it is a hill stream species.	eng
166612	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There is very limited information for this species as it&#160;has been confused with <em>C. barca</em> in the literature (Reddy 1981) and hence its interest to fisheries is not clearly known. Reported to be fairly common in northern Bengal .	eng
166612	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Specific threats to the species are not known, but threats to hill streams include decline in habitat quality due to sedimentation from deforestation and agricultural practices.	eng
166614	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166614	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. dukai </em>has been recorded from the Ramganga River, Pithorgarh District, Uttar Pradesh and the Teesta River near Darjeeling, Assam, India.  It is thought that the species occurs on the southern slopes of the Himalayas (F. Fang, pers. comm.)	eng
166614	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. dukai </em>is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits fast flowing rivers and streams with rocky bottoms.	eng
166614	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166614	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are a number of potential threats to <em>N. dukai</em> in the relatively highly populated region, including pollution, habitat degradation and overexploitation of fisheries, however it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to the species.	eng
166615	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166615	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. sinensis</em> occurs in the Yangtzee river basin in China; the species was described from Tungting Lake in the River basin but it's range throughout the Yangtzee is not known.	eng
166615	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G sinensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish, found in mountain rapids.	eng
166615	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166615	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are a number of potential threats to <em>G. sinensis</em> including destructive fishing techniques in hill streams, and the invasive species <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> and <em>Clarias gariepinus</em>, however the extent to which these species affect <em>G. sinensis</em> is not known.	eng
166616	conservation	Ng, H.H., Tenzin, K. & Pal, M., 2009	Empirical data on exploitation levels for this species throughout the rest of its range (other than southwestern Bengal) is needed. &#160;The identity of the population from Myanmar requires further study, as there is some evidence to indicate that it is not conspecific with the populations from the Indian subcontinent (Ng and Hadiaty 2009). &#160; Even the populations within the subcontinent need to be studied to ascertain if they are indeed conspecific. &#160;The effects of other anthropogenic threats such as pollution and habitat destruction on population declines need to be further ascertained.	eng
166616	distribution	Ng, H.H., Tenzin, K. & Pal, M., 2009	<em>Ompok bimaculatus</em> is widely distributed in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Ng and Hadiaty 2009). However, given the uncertainties surrounding the identity of this species, it is possible that its range is more geographically circumscribed.	eng
166616	habitat	Ng, H.H., Tenzin, K. & Pal, M., 2009	Inhabits plains and submontane regions, and is found in rivers, lakes, tanks and ponds.	eng
166616	population	Ng, H.H., Tenzin, K. & Pal, M., 2009	This species is relatively abundant throughout its distribution. &#160;No empirical data on declines in its entire range is available, although&#160;Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report an average population decline of 29.3% over a period of four decades (1960-2000) for this species in southwestern Bengal. &#160;The average decline per decade since 1980 is about 60% (Mishra <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;However, the difficulty in extrapolating data from a localized study and the taxonomic uncertainties surrounding the populations from throughout the subcontinent make it difficult to definitively consider this species to be in decline.	eng
166616	threats	Ng, H.H., Tenzin, K. & Pal, M., 2009	Overexploitation of this species for food is a major threat and has resulted in marked population declines (Mishra <em>et al.</em> 2009). &#160;The effects of other potential anthropogenic threats such as habitat destruction and competition from alien species need to be further ascertained (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166617	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166617	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura corica</span> is reported from the Himalayan foothills of Ganges River drainage in India (Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and West Bengal) and Nepal. Its occurrence in Numaligarh in Assam, Salane River in Orissa and reports from Bangladesh need to be verified.	eng
166617	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species inhabits clear waters with sandy bottom.	eng
166617	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166617	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The threat to this species are damming and destructive fishing.	eng
166618	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Monitoring of population trends, distribution, and threats to <em>P. hodgarti</em> is recommended.	eng
166618	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is distributed in India and Bangladesh.  It has also been reported from Nepal and Tibet.	eng
166618	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. hodgarti</em> is a demersal and omnivorous fish that inhabits cold torrential streams and mountain rapids.	eng
166618	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A 15% decline in 20 years has been reported (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).  No recent population trend data is available, and it is though that the reported decline is for the Indian population only, however threats to the species are ongoing.	eng
166618	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In India the species may be locally threatened by deforestation, damming and pollution.  As the species is specialised to a habitat type that is particularly susceptible to environmental changes, in particular damming and siltation that results from deforestation, it may be more threatened by these factors than other species in the region.	eng
166619	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Threats to the species in the wild need identification.<br/></p>	eng
166619	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It occurs widely in northern and central India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar and Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It has been introduced into some of the rivers of peninsular India and Sri Lanka.	eng
166619	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Rohu is the natural inhabitant of freshwater sections of the rivers. Rohu thrives well in all fresh waters below an altitude of approximately 549 m. Rohu is a bottom feeder and prefers to feed on plant matter including decaying vegetation. Rohu is a bottom feeder and prefers to feed on plant matter including  decaying vegetation. Rohu attains maturity towards the end of the second  year in ponds. The spawning season of rohu generally coincides with the  southwest monsoon. Spawning takes place in flooded rivers. The  fecundity of rohu varies from 226,000 to 2,794,000, depending upon the  length and weight of the fish and weight of the ovary . The spawn of  this fish is collected from rivers during monsoon and reared in tanks  and lakes (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166619	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information is available about the population status of wild populations although this species is very common throughout its range.	eng
166619	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no large scale major threats to the species. </p>	eng
166621	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no conservation recommendations made for this species.</p>	eng
166621	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius ticto</em> is found in Pakistan, in lower Swat River drainage; India (throughout except western face of Western Ghats); Nepal; Sri Lanka; Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166621	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits mostly montane and submontane regions, and flood plains.	eng
166621	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No systematic information is available about the population trends. Nevertheless, the species is very common throughout India and adjacent countries.<br/></p>	eng
166621	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No major widely distributed threats are known. </p>	eng
166622	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2009	Further information on the species distribution, population and ecology is required. The extent if the impact of sedimentation and general habitat degradation needs to be better understood. The type specimen was collected from the Namdapha National Park, but the quality of suitable habitat within the protected area is not known.	eng
166622	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2009	Recorded from India (Namdapha National Park, Tirap District (Arunachal Pradesh). A recent extensive survey of Arunachal Pradesh did not report the species (Bagra <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), and other surveys in the area have also not reported the species (Tamang<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2007). The AOO is estimated at under 500 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the extent of suitable habitat within the protected area.	eng
166622	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2009	The type locality is Namdapha River, a hill stream species.	eng
166622	population	Dahanukar, N., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166622	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2009	There is extensive deforestation and logging activities within the type locality leading to sedimentation which will impact the species. The species is found under rocks in gravely streams, a habitat which will be degraded by siltation. The type locality is in a National Park, but the effectiveness of protection is uncertain.	eng
166623	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>More studies into the threats and impacts of harvest on the species is needed.</p>	eng
166623	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Puntius sophore is distributed throughout India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan (China).	eng
166623	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits plains and submontane regions. A very plentiful shoaling fish, remaining upperciably smaller in the  domestic aquarium and becoming mature at 7-8 cm. It attains a length of  13 cm. It is  very common in ponds of West Bengal.	eng
166623	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is very common throughout India in rivers and ponds.	eng
166623	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No known major widespread threats.</p>	eng
166624	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166624	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aborichthys garoensis</span> is known from the Garo Hills, Meghalaya (southern tributary of the Brahmaputra) and Dikrong River (northern tributary), Arunachal Pradesh, India (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;No information is known on presence in intermediate basins.	eng
166624	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to occur in streams with pebbly bottoms; a moutain stream specialist requiring clear oxygenated water.	eng
166624	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information is available on the species population. &#160;Species may be affected by change in their habitat.	eng
166624	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Being a hillstream fish, the species is prone to habitat destruction caused by deforestation and siltation during monsoon season.	eng
166625	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Information on threats to the species required.<br/></p>	eng
166625	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is widely distributed in India (all along the Himalaya, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Urtanchal, West Bengal, Bihar), Bangladesh and Nepal (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Recently reported from Mekong and Bassac rivers of Mekong Delta, Viet Nam (Tung <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), although it may be introduced in these areas. Also reported from Pakistan and Afghanistan possibly related to a valid subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo dyocheilus pakistanensis</span>.	eng
166625	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Inhabits clear active currents of large rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Increasing day length and water temperature are favorable  for ovarian development in female under both captive and wild conditions, and it breeds during monsoon season (Singh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
166625	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is a common species in the Himalaya up to Sikkim and in Assam&#160; (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166625	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No known widespread major threats to the species.</p>	eng
166626	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166626	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Throughout India except western face of the Western Ghats. Also Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Menon 1999).	eng
166626	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo boga</span> inhabits large rivers and their tributaries, above tidal influence (Menon 1999). It attains a length of 30 cm and it spawns in flooded rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166626	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This carp is common in the tributaries of the Ganga and also in the Godavari and Krishna rivers (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166626	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No information available. Affected by pollution, siltation, and overfishing throughout its distribution. How this threats are affecting the population it is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166628	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
166628	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in the Indo-Gangetic basin and in Mahanadi in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and probably Myanmar.	eng
166628	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. silondia</em> is a demersal, amphidromous, and carnivorous fish that generally occurs in shoals.  Adults ascend from estuaries into large rivers for breeding during monsoons.  After the water level recedes, this fish often gets stranded in small pools.	eng
166628	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Reported to be a common species in Nepal and in the Gangetic estuary.  However, there is evidence that populations may be declining in a reservoir in Orissa, India.  The 1998 CAMP workshop (Molur & Walker) reported a 20% decline in <em>S. silondia</em>.	eng
166628	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. silondia</em> is commercially fished, but has a very low resilience to fishing pressures, according to parameters suggested by the American Fisheries Society.  Its minimum population doubling time is more than 14 years.  It contributes to the commercial fishery in the Hirakud reservoir, Orissa, India, where available information indicates a decreasing trend in the populations of carnivores, of which <em>S. silondia</em> is a part.	eng
166629	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>  Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166629	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra gravelyi</span> is known from southern Shan States of Myanmar and Manipur (Chindwin basin), and Mizoram, in northeastern India. Vishwanath and Tombi Singh (1987) reported the fish for the first time from Chindwin River basin of Manipur in northeastern India. They remarked that distribution of the fish in Manipur may be due to the water connection between the Myanmar and Manipur through the Chindwin drainage. The report of <em>Garra gravelyi</em> from&#160;<st1:place><st1:placename>Tuirini</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place> (<st1:place><st1:placename>Barak-Brahmaputra</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River   basin</st1:placetype></st1:place>) in Mizoram in northeastern <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Kar and Sen (2007) needs further confirmation on the identity of the specimens.    <p><em></em></p>	eng
166629	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species occurs in fast flowing hill streams and lakes.<br/></p>	eng
166629	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.      </p>	eng
166629	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The Lokchou, Litan and Chakpi streams in Manipur and Inle lake, from where the species was reported are disturbed by various anthropogenic activities.<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166630	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>Population trends and potential threats to this species need to be studied. &#160;Conservation measures are needed.</p>	eng
166630	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species is found in Pakistan, India (Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Arunanchal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Assam, and Nagaland (Tsurang River)), Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. It is also recorded from southeast Africa (Indian Ocean distribution).	eng
166630	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	The species inhabits larger freshwater rivers although it also occurs in estuaries and in the sea during early life and near maturity. &#160;It is a benthopelagic, catadromous species.	eng
166630	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	No information is available on the species global population. &#160;In India (Nagaland and Assam) the population is moderate. &#160;For other parts of India, there is limited information.	eng
166630	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	No information available. &#160;In India harvesting is not considered a threat generally, but in some areas (e.g. Manipur) it is electro-fished. &#160;Large dams in Africa is believed is a immediate threat to migration and breeding of this species.	eng
166631	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166631	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barilius dogarsinghi</span> is found in Chindwin drainage of Manipur and Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) in India. It may also occur in the neighbouring parts of Myanmar. &#160;The range of the species is estimated to be less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
166631	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>It is a hillstream species which inhabits rocky streams.<br/></p>	eng
166631	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This species is not very common throughout its range.<br/></p>	eng
166631	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Since the species is a hill stream fish, it may be affected by habitat degradation caused by certain human activities like damming, logging, overexploitation, and harvesting.<br/></p>	eng
166632	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>More research about the the biology and trends of this species is needed, especially due to rampant fishing for the ornamental trade.</p>	eng
166632	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	In India <em>Aspidoparia jaya</em> species is found in the Gangetic provinces and Assam and Uttar Pradesh (Dehra Dun, Nainital), and also in Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
166632	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>This is lastly fish but rare in the catches.  It may be found in <span class="tooltipelement">freshwater environments.&#160;<span class="tooltipelement">&#160;Inhabits <span class="tooltipelement">streams and <span class="tooltipelement">ponds in <span class="tooltipelement">plains and mountainous regions. &#160;Typically found at an altitude of 0 to 1,769 meters (Menon 1999, British Oceanographic Data Center).  </span></p>	eng
166632	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>Catch frequency of this species is 3.8 % in Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It is rare as compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. morar</span>.<br/></p>	eng
166632	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The fish is being harvested for its ornamental value. This is also harvested indiscriminately for its food value by use of destructive fishing.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166633	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed. The identities of the Southeast Asian populations require study to resolve their identities.	eng
166633	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in coastal regions and the lower reaches of rivers throughout the Indian subcontinent eastwards to the Indochinese peninsula and southwards to Sundaic Southeast Asia.	eng
166633	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits estuaries and tidal rivers and lakes, ascending to freshwater, often entering the sea (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166633	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Patra <em>et al.</em> (2005) report a mean decline of 33.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960-2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al.</em> (2009) report a decline of 27.8% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current indications are that&#160;this is a widespread, common species.	eng
166633	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the southern West Bengal population is threatened from overfishing, threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. Since there is no information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166634	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166634	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India and Nepal, where it is known from the Kosi River, the Terai of the Eastern Himalayas, the Rihand river in Uttar Pradesh, and the Ghaggar river in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.	eng
166634	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. indicus</em> is a benthopelagic and carnivorous species, which occurs only in fast-flowing hill streams.	eng
166634	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. indicus</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.	eng
166634	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In India <em>G. indicus</em> is affected by destructive fishing techniques although it is not targeted itself, and this is not thought to cause large population declines of the species.	eng
166635	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.</p>	eng
166635	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in northeastern India.	eng
166635	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).</p>	eng
166635	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166635	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166636	conservation	Singh, L., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra rupecula </span>is reported from Noa Dihing River, Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh which is a protected area. <br/></p>	eng
166636	distribution	Singh, L., 2009	<p><em>Garra rupecula</em> is known only from Arunachal Pradesh (Mishmi Hills) and Meghalaya (Khasi Hills), <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Sen (1995) remarked that in Meghalaya the species was recorded only from Khasi Hills only. </p>	eng
166636	habitat	Singh, L., 2009	<p>This species inhabits streams and rivers with rocky bed.<br/></p>	eng
166636	population	Singh, L., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Sen (1995) remarked that the occurrence of the species in Meghalaya was not common. Report of Bagra <em>et al.</em> (2009) didn’t collect any specimens of <em>Garra rupecula</em> while making systematic survey of 35 rivers in Arunachal Pradesh including the type locality of the species.&#160; &#160;<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166636	threats	Singh, L., 2009	This area is affected by habitat degradation and fragmentation due to damming, mining, logging and deforestation.	eng
166637	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The conspecificity of what is currently identified as&#160;<em>P. atherinoides</em>&#160;throughout India&#160;requires further investigation. Catch data for this species are also needed.	eng
166637	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent.	eng
166637	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in a variety of lentic and lotic habitats, although it appears to primarily inhabit rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom.	eng
166637	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Current evidence indicates that it is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
166637	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166639	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166639	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Microphis cuncalus</em>&#160;was described from the estuaries near Kolkota, India (Hamilton 1822).&#160;This species is said to be found throughout India and on Sri Lanka (Dawson 1985). However, Pethiyagoda (1991) does not record the presence of this species in Sri Lanka, so the record from this island is highly doubtful.	eng
166639	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Inhabits freshwaters, estuaries or low salinity habitats.	eng
166639	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. However, this species is relatively widespread and considered to be common, despite the lack of definitive data.	eng
166639	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Chhapgar and Pande (1986) report the extinction of a population of <em>M. cuncalus</em> from the Bhatsa River in western Maharashtra state in India as a result of the construction of the Pise Dam, but this likely represents an isolated case and dam construction is not likely to be a large-scale threat to this species.	eng
166640	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Research is required into the impacts of the aquarium trade on this species, and education of fishers and traders. A species management plan is required in some parts of its range.	eng
166640	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<em>Chaca chaca</em> is recorded from the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainages in India, Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
166640	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	<p>  The species is a bottom-dweller, often found in mud, where it burrows. &#160;It is a lentic water species and is found in lakes, ponds, and in wetlands around small rivers.<br/></p>	eng
166640	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	A limited population, generally present in low numbers.	eng
166640	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Capture of the species for the aquarium trade is thought to have led to declining populations in some parts of its range (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
166642	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs further study. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166642	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar.	eng
166642	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks..	eng
166642	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
166642	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166643	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
166643	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura kangjupkhulensis</span> is distributed in Chindwin Basin, Manipur; India. The record of this species from the Brahmaputra basin in Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 2008) is doubtful. Occurs upper reaches of Tizu, Imphal and Nambul rivers only.	eng
166643	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura kangjupkhulensis</span> is found to inhabit<span class="sheader51"> <span class="sheader51">shallow, swift streams with gravelly bottom	eng
166643	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is very rare. There is an inferred decreasing trend in the population due to the threats to its habitat and distribution. Due to some dams and other proposed construction of dams in the species range it is predicted that the species is undergoing a decline and will undergo more than 50% decline in the next 10 years.	eng
166643	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Destructive fishing methods and human interference like water abstraction, damming and poisoning are the threat to this species which cause the mass destruction of the species. Construction of Singda dam for water supply and irrigation has disturbed its type locality: Kanjupkhul. Similar dams have also been constructed in other areas where the species is distributed.	eng
166644	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The taxonomy of this species requires further study to understand better its range within the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins; it may be a species complex. Information on the species range, habitats and threats is needed.	eng
166644	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Lepidocephalichthys menoni</em> is recorded from the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins as far as Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand and recorded in Assam and other states in the Brahmaputra drainage. Also recorded from Nepal and may well be present within Bhutan and Bangladesh. &#160;The type locality is the Someswari River at Baghmara, South Garo Hills District, Meghalaya<span style="font-style: italic;">. L. menoni</span> is certainly present within the Brahmaputra basin; it is currently in synonomy with<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. caudofurcatus</span>, and as such has a very wide distribution within the Ganges basin. If the taxonomy is revised, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. menoni</span> will be restricted to the Brahmaputra basin.	eng
166644	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits clear streams with sandy bottom (Menon 1992).	eng
166644	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166644	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species hill stream habitat is being impacted across its whole range by deforestation and logging causing siltation of hill streams.	eng
166645	conservation	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	<p>Further research is required in to the impact of threats, especially over-harvesting and habitat degradation.</p><p>The species has the potential for being ranched in rivers/artificial channels of Nepal and other countries of the Trans-Himalayan region.</p><p>At present, attempts to culture and conserve&#160;Tor spp. have been initiated in&#160;most trans-Himalayan countries&#160;to compensate for the decline. Strategies for preservation of existing stock by habitat conservation,&#160;development of seed&#160;production technology for restocking and culture have been undertaken&#160;to promote the population.</p>   <p></p>	eng
166645	distribution	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	<p>The species has been reported from across the Himalayan region and elsewhere in south Asia and southeast Asia, ranging<st1:city w:st="on"></st1:city> from<em></em><span lang="EN"> Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Darjeeling to Kashmir), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, western Iran to eastern Thailand. <br/></p><p><span lang="EN">D<span lang="EN">avid Edds reported the species from<span lang="EN"><span lang="EN"> Nepal from Mulghat, on the road from Dharan to Hile, Kachali river confluence, Kahare, Sabha river confluence, just east of the Tumlingtar, Brahamadev, Andhi Mohan-Andhi river confluence, Piluwaa river confluence, Gorangi - about 4 km west of Chisapani, Khalte, Chapang, purchased at Koshi barrage, just east of Katasi, Khairenitar, Narayangarh. </span></p>	eng
166645	habitat	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	Inhabits the montane and submontane regions, in streams and rivers.<em> T. putitora</em> is a major tor distributed in mid hills stretches of Himalayan region. <span class="sheader51">It inhabits rapid streams with rocky bottom, riverine pools and lakes. It seems that Sahar neither inhabits the warm terai climate nor streams of very cold climate; but in natural conditions it inhabits moderately cold and climate regions of tropical highlands. The fish is a column feeder in freshwater found in pH ranges 7.4 - 7.9 and in subtropical condition 13°C-30°C. It is omnivorous in nature during their adult stage and feed on periphytic algae and diatoms in juvenile stage. The feeding and breeding habitats are lost almost throughout their distributional range.&#160; <span class="sheader51">	eng
166645	population	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	It is the most common <span style="font-style: italic;">mahseer </span>of the Himalaya and is also sometimes  known as the golden, yellow-finned, grey-hound or the thick-lipped  mahseer. It grows up to 2.7 m. <br/><br/>Annual productivity of the species declined from 0.198 gm<sup>2</sup> per year to 0.054 gm<sup>2</sup> per year (73%) in the Tehri Dam located in the Garhwal Himalaya, India   (Sharma 2004). Since it is a heavily fished species, population declines in the entire range is inferred to be anywhere between 40-50% over the last ten years.<br/><br/>Catches have declined in some areas (e.g. in the valley lakes around Pokhara, Nepal) due to overfishing.	eng
166645	threats	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2009	In Assam the population <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> is fast depleting and at present are chiefly localised to certain major river systems and is fast approaching extinction in the streams and lakes of northern India. Large fishes are only found in some of the perennial pools.<br/><br/>This species is declining from its natural habitat due to urbanization, illegal encroachment, over fishing and chemical and physical alterations of their natural habitats.<br/><p>Fishery productivity declined in the Tehri Dam in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. The stress on the population is not only due to its over exploitation, but also due to the rise in developmental activities, especially the growing number of hydroelectric and irrigation projects which have fragmented and deteriorated its natural habitat. <br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
166646	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There is a need to understand its biology, population and trends as well as potential threats and their impacts.</p>	eng
166646	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius conchonius</em> is found in Afghanistan, Pakistan (Indus river drainage), India (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery river systems and other west-flowing rivers), Nepal, and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166646	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Generally inhabits lakes and streams. It is one of the hardiest of the barbs; a hardy and very  popular Asian minnow. It is most impressively coloured during the mating  period, when the normally silvery male takes on a rich claret flush and  the slightly larger female becomes more luminous. It attains a length of  14 cm and matures at 6 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166646	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>No systematic information is available. Nevertheless, species is common in most of its distribution range. </p>	eng
166646	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There are no known threats to the species.</p>	eng
166647	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166647	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is widely distributed, known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system in the northern and northeastern parts of the Indian subcontinent.	eng
166647	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in slower-flowing rivers and streams, typically with a sandy substrate.	eng
166647	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>It is a commonly occurring species. &#160;There is insufficient information on the trends for this species.</p>	eng
166647	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166649	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">L. laubuca</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>	eng
166649	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. laubuca</span> is found throughout India, Sri Lanka and Myitkyina, Myanmar. Presence in southern India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar needs to be confirmed.	eng
166649	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species breeds freely in ponds, tanks and small streams, and in these habitats whenever they occur are found in large numbers. This very beautiful shoaling fish prefers the upper water-layers and proves to be very hardy and undemanding in aquaria having a large surface area.	eng
166649	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species is common in most of its range.	eng
166649	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>It may suffer from overexploitation as it is commonly collected for ornamental purposes.<br/></p>	eng
166650	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Further information on the species' threats is required. Public awareness around the causes of soil erosion and the impacts of the ornamental trade is required.	eng
166650	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is recorded from Assam (Cachar), Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. &#160;It is also present in the mid-hills and plains in Nepal. &#160;It possibly occurs in Bangaldesh.	eng
166650	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It inhabits hill streams.	eng
166650	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
166650	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The level of off-take for ornamental trade is slightly increasing (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.). Siltation is a common problem in hills streams caused by deforestation.	eng
166651	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species in other areas of its natural distribution is also needed. The conspecificity of the populations found throughout the entire Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka also needs further verification.	eng
166651	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from inland and coastal rivers throughout the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166651	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits a wide variety of freshwater habitats, including lakes, rivers and streams (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
166651	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although Patra <em>et al.</em> (2005) report a mean decline of 36.6% in catch for this species in the Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra estuary) for the period 1960?2000&#160;and Mishra <em>et al</em>. (2009) report a decline of 34.3% in catch for this species in southwestern Bengal for a similar period, there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed. Current observations indicate that this species is common and abundant throughout much of its range (H.H. Ng<em> pers. comm.</em>).	eng
166651	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
166653	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Impact of harvest on the wild population must be studied.</p>	eng
166653	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Puntius phutunio</em> is widely distributed in India (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura) and Bangladesh (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1991). Recently this species was recorded from Himachal Pradesh (Johal and Rawal 2005).	eng
166653	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>Small sized fish (3.5 cm), inhibits clear streams and rivers, also muddy waters (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Breeds by substrate egg-scatterering. Adults do  not guard the eggs. It spawns near dawn between plants near the surface  of the water. Eggs hatch in 2 days at 75&#160;°F (24&#160;°C) (Innes 1966).<br/></p>	eng
166653	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166653	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>This species may be affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation and other anthropogenic activities.<br/></p>	eng
166676	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	New surveys are recommended along with studies on life history and identification of species specific threats.	eng
166676	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is recorded from a few places in Myanmar: Arakan, Mandalay, Pegu,    Houngdaran, and Tavoy (Preston 1915) in the Chindwin, Irrawaddy and Sittang river basins. There is also a record from Bombay (Mumbai) (GBIF; National Museum of Natural History, USA), but this record require verification.<br/></p>	eng
166676	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The species is recorded from freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams, where it burrows in the mud. </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166676	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Information on species population and trends are not available.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166676	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166677	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This species is easily confused with <em>L. marginalis</em>, hence detailed taxonomic studies is recommended. Habitat information, population trends, threats and uses are not known, which require detailed studies. There are no conservation actions in place for this species. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166677	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The type locality of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens consobrinus</span> is given as "China", however Preston (1915) considered this probably an error; "The locality as given by Lea is probably a mistake; the variety is  widely distributed over India and Ceylon."<br/></p><p>It is known from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Recently, it has been reported from various locations of upper and lower Gangetic plains including Uttar Pradesh (Yamuna River at Allahabad, Gomati River at Lucknow), Jharkhand (Damodar River downstream from Panchet Dam), Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Bihar (Ganga River at Patna) within India, and Kamdai Nadi, Rautahat District in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). A wider distribution within India and Nepal can be expected.<br/></p>	eng
166677	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It occurs in both large and small rivers in the Ganga River system. It is recorded both in lotic and lentic water bodies with a very rich macro-zoobenthic community (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166677	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>A recent study in Nepal reported this species to be abundant in a single locality at Kamdai Nadi, Rautahat District (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007). However, information on population in its distribution range is unknown.</p>	eng
166677	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No information on threats is available   for this species, however water pollution and habitat loss are general known threats that affect freshwater molluscs.  </p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166678	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed distribution studies, life history, threats and population trends research are recommended for this species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166678	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia viola </span>is found only from Loktak lake of Manipur and from Dimapur in Nagaland, India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Further expert study is required, and it should be looked for in neighbouring drainages in Myanmar and other Indian states.<br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
166678	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in lakes and remains attached to under surface of floating objects or on submerged stones, pebbles, grass stems in sluggish muddy stream. <br/></p>	eng
166678	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166678	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166679	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed into the species full range, ecology and threats.	eng
166679	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent, including most of India (confirmed present in Karnataka, Kerela, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Sikkim, Manipur and Assam  (Annandale <em>et al</em>. 1921) and it has been reported from&#160;Simla Hills of Bilaspur District, Himachal  Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, India (Agrawal 1976, 1977)), Pakistan (Peshawar, Sindh), Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166679	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in rivers, streams and lakes and it prefers fine gravel, sand or mud substratum; mostly confined to lowland rivers up to around 250 m a.s.l. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
166679	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a very common species in India and likely to be common elsewhere.	eng
166679	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a widespread species with no major known threat though it is consumed as food in certain parts of its distributional range.	eng
166680	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution studies, population trends, life history, and impacts of threats are recommended studies.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166680	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span lang="EN-GB">The species is common throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, and also present in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and Myanmar. A record from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Australia is most likely an introduction if valid.</st1:place></st1:country-region> In <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>, it is widely distributed, and some areas it has been studied include West Bengal (Kolkata, Hugli estuary, North 24 Parganas) and Tamil Nadu (Porto Novo).	eng
166680	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It generally occurs <span lang="EN-GB">in estuarine waters (low saline water), rarely extending into freshwater (Subba Rao 1989, Dey 2007).	eng
166680	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166680	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166681	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>It is a widespread and common species and hence no recommendations for research or action identified.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166681	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus convexiusculus</span> is a very common and a widely distributed species. Its range extends from Iran and Saudi Arabia to the Philippines and Japan. In India it is recorded from most states (including Meghalaya (Ri-Bhoi), Tripura (West), Uttar Pradesh (Nainital), and Himachal Pradesh (Chamba, Una), and is recorded from Turkey, Afghanistan, Thailand, Viet Nam, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Nepal.</p>	eng
166681	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>This species is found in various types of running water and stagnant water bodies such as lakes, ponds, ditches and rice fields. It is an intermediate host of many trematode parasites. Larval forms of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Gastrothylase crumenifer</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Paramphistomum explanatum</span>,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola elongates</span>&#160;and other cercariae viz.,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">C. chugathi , C. ggraulusi, C. rithorensis, C. furgobnsis&#160;</span>have been recorded from this species.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166681	population	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>There is no information on its population status, however it is the most common species throughout its distribution range.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166681	threats	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>This is a widespread species with no known major threats.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166682	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Research and conservation recommendations are not urgent for this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166682	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is distributed throughout south and southeast Asia. The species is recorded from Bangladesh, Nepal, southern China, throughout India, Iran, Malaysia (both the peninsular and the archipelago), Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand (in Thailand there is only one certain population in a small pond at Ban Kung Khayan (Thung Yai district, Province of Nakhon Si Thammarat) known; K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010), and Tibet (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166682	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The species is not very particular about its habitat. It is often found in temporary water bodies, which dry up in summer, and it tides over the unfavourable conditions by burying itself in the mud. It is also found in water that has a salinity of 0.3 mgl<sup>-1</sup> (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1985). <br/></p>This snail is an intermediate host of some parasites of cattle, pig and dog, e.g.,&#160; <em>Schistosoma&#160; indica , S. nasalis , S. spindalis, S. suis, S. incognitum, Fasciola gigantic</em>,<em> F. hepatica, Clinostomum&#160; giganticum, Echinostoma&#160; revolutum, Orientobilharzia&#160; dattae, Echinoparyphium bugulai</em>.<br/>This is a pest of paddy and aquatic plants (<span style="font-style: italic;">Azola</span>) which are&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>used to produce bio fertilizer in West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166682	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common across its range.<br/></p>     <p></p>	eng
166682	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is common and widespread species with no known widespread threats.</p>	eng
166683	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Research is needed for this species particularly on taxonomy.	eng
166683	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from the type locality in Manipur, India.	eng
166683	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The habitat and ecology of the species are unknown.	eng
166683	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species has not been reported after the type specimen. Population details are not known.	eng
166683	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
166685	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Distribution, taxonomy, threats from use are the main gaps in the knowledge of this species.</p>	eng
166685	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species has a wide distribution in&#160; the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins.  It is present in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and India (reported from Darjeeling, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Rajesthan,   Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal&#160; (Subba Rao 1989,   Ramakrishna and Dey 2007)).<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 34px; height: 10px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
166685	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>      </p><p><em>Parreysia caerulea</em> colonizes in gravel, sand and mud substrate of lowland streams, rivers, ponds and lakes (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>  <p></p>	eng
166685	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Abundant in running waters originating in the mid-mountains up to 250 m a.s.l and common in large ponds with high nutrient and well oxygenated water (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/></p>	eng
166685	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Specific threats to this species are not known. Pesticide use, fish poisoning, encroaching marginal land of aquatic habitats (wetlands: ponds, lakes, marshes etc.) are common threats to most of the freshwater molluscs in Nepal including other parts of the Himalayan range. Impacts on populations are not fully understood.<br/></p>	eng
166686	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No research or conservation action recommendations have been suggested for this species.<br/></p>	eng
166686	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known throughout the Ganges and Brahmaputra watersheds; records are from Bangladesh,  India, Myanmar<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>, Nepal and Pakistan (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bhutan.	eng
166686	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Usually occurs in permanent water bodies with abundant vegetation. It also occur in polluted water bodies. It is found in streams, ponds, lakes and wetlands with meso and eutrophic condition. It has been recorded at an altitude up to 1450 m asl. <br/><br/><em>L. acuminata</em> is an intermediate host of various human and animal parasitic helminths. Fifteen species of trematodes which are important parasites of sheep, cattle and human were reported from<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lymnaea</span> sp. that will include<span style="font-style: italic;"> Fasciola gigantic</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma indicum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. nasalis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. spindalis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Clinostomum&#160; giganticum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostoma revolutum, E. malayanum </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;">Orientabilharzia turkestanicum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>&#160; from <span style="font-style: italic;">L</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">acuminata&#160; f. typica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">ruescens</span> (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166686	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166686	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There are no major threats to the species.<br/></p>	eng
166687	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Research is needed into the species distribution, ecology and potential threats.	eng
166687	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens</span><em> lamellatus </em>is known from the lower Gangetic plain in West Bengal, and a lake in the Damodar River basin (Tenughat reservoir) in <st1:city w:st="on">Jharkhand</st1:city> in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India. It is also reported from Sri Lanka</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mandalay, Pegu and Bhamo) (Preston 1915, Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007). It is likely to be present in further Indian states and expert survey is required to confirm this; several of the known records are nearly a century old (Preston 1915).<br/></p>	eng
166687	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Major habitats are river systems, lakes and reservoirs. It has been reported to inhabit the Tenughat Reservoir which is very clear and unpolluted oligotrophic reservoir in Damodar River system (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This taxon inhabits gravel and sand substrate of the littoral zone.	eng
166687	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species has a wide distribution, but is rare and sporadically distributed in its range, though this may be a result of inadequate survey. Population status is unknown.	eng
166687	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166688	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Habitat information, population trends and threats are not known, which require detailed studies. Although the species is used, there are no conservation action in place.	eng
166688	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em>L. corrianus</em> is distributed throughout India, Bangladesh and Nepal; also reported from Myanmar (Nesemann et al. 2007, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). &#160;Nesemann et al. (2007) provide some details regarding its distribution in northern india and Nepal:&#160;found in upper and lower Gangetic plains in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is reported from <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city> and Fatuha in Bihar, Yamuna River at Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh and Damodar River downstream from Panchet Dam in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jharkhand</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In Nepal, it is reported from Kamdai and Dodi Nadi near Gaur of Rautahat District. &#160;It is also reported from the Brahmaputra River basin in Garo Hills (East) and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, Bishenpur, Chandel, Churachandanpur, and Imphal of Manipur. &#160;It is also reported from   Myanmar.</p><p>Although records are not available, the species is likely to be found in Bhutan, and other states in India.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
166688	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It is found in sand, silt and mud substrate of large lowland rivers. &#160;This species prefers lotic water bodies with a very rich macro zoobenthic community (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>	eng
166688	population	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is the most common freshwater bivalve in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. However, the population details are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
166688	threats	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The main threat to the species is harvesting from the wild for human consumption.	eng
166689	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166689	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><em>Paludomus globulosa</em> is only known from literature records from Kopili River, Assam, in India (Preston 1915).<br/></p>	eng
166689	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The species was recorded only from a river.<br/></p>	eng
166689	population	Madhyastha, A. & Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166689	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>	eng
166690	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>the taxonomic status of the species needs to be confirmed. Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166690	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">Sulcospira huegeli</span> is reported from India (Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam: Khasi hills, Garo hills; Karnataka: Upper Cauvery river, Mangalore, Coorg; Kerala: Wynaad, Cochin) (Subba Rao 1989).<br/></p>	eng
166690	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Little is known of the habitat and ecology of this species; it is reported from hill streams in the Western Ghats in southern India.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
166690	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166690	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known; if restricted to hill streams, it may be impacted by deforestation and sedimentation in some parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166692	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Research on distribution, biology, population, habitat, trends of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166692	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus blanfordiana </span>is found in scattered localities in south Asia and some southeast Asian countries. It is known from India (Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur: Chandel, Churachandpur, Imphal, Thoubal; Assam: Guwahati; Meghalaya: Siju cave, South and West Garo hills, Ri-Bhoi; West Bengal, Darjeeling), and Myanmar (Pegu, Arakan). It is likely to be present in Bangladesh and other Indian states in suitable habitat. It should also be looked for in other parts of the Chindwin and Irrawaddy drainages in Myanmar.<br/></p>	eng
166692	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	Inhabits moving waters like streams, rivers; usually remains attached to stones, boulders etc.	eng
166692	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166692	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.<br/></p>	eng
166693	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.</p>	eng
166693	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Widely distributed. The species range extends from India to New Caledonia and from southwest Australia to south Japan. It is recorded from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Singapore, Indonesia, Timor, New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, Australia, Philippines, Japan, and India (records from Andaman Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in suitable habitats within other countries within the above range.	eng
166693	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<em>Neritina&#160;violacea</em> generally occurs in river mouths and mostly in brackish waters. At times it occurs in fresh or almost freshwater near the upper tidal limit, such as in Orissa and in the Ganges delta. It is found mainly in upper mudflat, attached to pillars or in crevices of the bricks or rocks.	eng
166693	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166693	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>The impact of pollution and sedimentation, especially in the Ganges delta, needs to be investigated.<br/></p>	eng
166694	conservation	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	Studies into the impact of harvesting on the population of the species is required.	eng
166694	distribution	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pila globosa</span> recorded from Nepal, southwestern Asia, Africa, north and south  America (Subba Rao 1989). It is a common species in India except southern India and Punjab; it is found in Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya (South Garo Hills), Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.	eng
166694	habitat	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	This species lives in permanent and temporary stagnant water bodies and uses dry areas for breeding. Adults survive the dry season buried in soil. A number of trematodes like <span style="font-style: italic;">Artyfechinostomum  sufratyfese, Echinostoma cercaria, Cercaria andhraensis, C. pigmentata,  Diplodiscus</span> sp., and <span style="font-style: italic;">Xiphidocercaria</span>  sp. are&#160; reported from this species (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166694	population	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	There is no population level information about this species. Though the population is widespread, in certain regions like Nepal the population is decreasing due to habitat loss, agricultural intensification and fish poisoning.	eng
166694	threats	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	No information is available on specific threats apart from general threats that exists in most of the habitats of this species. The population of this species in Nepal is decreasing due to habitat loss, agricultural intensification and fish poisoning and over harvesting are some inferred threats to this species.	eng
166695	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats and impacts of harvests need to be identified.</p>	eng
166695	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia theobaldi</span> is known from the Brahmaputra basin in India. It is recorded from Manipur (the type locality) and from a number of&#160; records in Assam (Subba Rao 1989). It may also be present in Arunachal Pradesh, and should be looked for in Bangladesh and other parts of the Eastern Himalayas region, including Bhutan.	eng
166695	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It inhabits freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams and burrows in the mud . </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166695	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166695	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown and the impact of harvests remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
166696	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.</p>	eng
166696	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<em>Thiara granifera</em> has a widespread&#160;distribution in the Indomalayan realm as well as in the Oceaniania realm, recorded from Thailand, India (type locality is "Timor"), Nepal, Sri Lanka, southern China, Indonesia,&#160;Madagascar, Malaysia, Philippines, the Pacific Islands, New Guinea, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, and the Philippines. In India it is known from Meghalaya (West Garo Hills, East Khasi Hills, Tripura (west and north), Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal). It has been introduced into United States of America (Abbott 1952).	eng
166696	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in slow running rivers and streams with rich invertebrate fauna and good water quality; it is also common in lakes, ponds, canals, and creeks. It occurs also in the tidal zone, but does not tolerate high salinity. It harbours <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus westermani,</span> which causes Lung Paragonimiasis.	eng
166696	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is insufficient information on population trends of this species globally. Recent studies in the Gangetic plains, recorded this species only from a few places in the Ganga River near Patna (Bihar, India) and its tributaries in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).<br/></p>	eng
166696	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Water pollution is the main threat to this species locally, but it is not likely to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>	eng
166697	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>A very widespread and common species with no recommendations identified for research or action.</p>	eng
166697	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	This species is widely distributed in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Myanmar. It is known from several states in India (Tamil Nadu: Mettupalayam; Maharashtra: Khandala; Madhya Pradesh; Uttar Pradesh; Punjab; West Bengal: Kolkata), Nepal (Tarai and inner valleys)&#160;and Myanmar (He Ho Gorge, Shan States)&#160;(Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
166697	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in small to large sized stagnant water bodies with rich vegetation and slow running rivers.	eng
166697	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166697	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is widespread  with no significant threats.	eng
166698	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures proposed for this Regionally Extinct species.	eng
166698	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
166698	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">No research or conservation actions are recommended for this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166698	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a widespread Holartic species which occurred during the Holocene colder phase in northern Africa (Van Damme 1984) but has not been recorded since the 19th Century. It was recorded from Lake Qaron in Lower Egypt (Gardner 1932) and Komombo in Upper Egypt (Leigh and Butzer 1968). However, these are not recent records and the species is now considered as Extinct from these locations (original records are possibly from tombs/temples). It has been recorded in Algeria in the 19th century but this location is now highly urbanized and polluted, being not found there anymore.	eng
166698	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>In Asia the species is present in Afghanistan, India, Moldova, Oman, Russia and Ukraine. In India, it has been reported from Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. In Europe it is found as far north as&#160;Sweden and as far south as Spain and Italy. The species is introduced in the United States.</p><p> <br/></p>	eng
166698	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is a widespread holartic species which was present during the Holocene colder phase in northern Africa (Van Damme 1984) but has not been recorded since the 19th Century. It is recorded from Egypt but these are not recent records. In lower Egypt it was recorded from Fayoum, Lake Qaron (Gardner 1932) and upper Egypt at Kom Ombo (Leigh and Butzer 1968); it is now extinct from these locations (original records possibly came from tombs or temples). It was recorded in Algeria in 19th century but this location is now highly populated and polluted so certainly not there anymore. Therefore it is believed to be extirpated in northern Africa.	eng
166698	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It can be found in swamps, standing waters, cold areas, with abundant vegetation. Or slowly flowing parts of the river.	eng
166698	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in swamps, standing waters and cold areas with abundant vegetation, as well as slow flowing parts of the river.	eng
166698	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in stagnant water bodies. It is a carrier of two known parasites <span style="font-style: italic;">Orientobilharzia turkestanicum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola gigantica</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. turkestanicum</span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> was recorded to develop in this snail in Srinagar area (Dutt and Srivastava 1964). <br/></p><p>It is a widely spread species inhabiting in small puddles, pools, lakes, reservoirs,  brooks, irrigation  canals, water field, brackish lakes and spas. They  can also live in water fields with deficient oxygen and 6-9 pH. It has been found at more than 6,000  meters above sea level.<br/></p><p>&#160;</p>	eng
166698	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
166698	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
166698	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166698	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Major threats to this species include pollution and climate change.	eng
166698	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There are no known threats to this species.<br/></p>	eng
166698	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species was threatened by water pollution and climate change.	eng
166699	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166699	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea beddomeana</span> occurs in India in West Bengal (North and South 24 Parganas (Hugli-Matla Estuary)), and in Myanmar (Irrawaddy Delta) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in Bangladesh, but no records exist.	eng
166699	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is a detritus feeder found in<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> holes and crevices of muddy substratum. &#160;August to December is the breeding period, when copulating pairs are frequently observed; juveniles are found from January to April (Subba Rao <em>et al</em>. 1983).	eng
166699	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Subba Rao <em>e</em><em>t al</em>. (1983) recorded a maximum population density from 2 to 544 m-² in the Hugli-Matla Estuary.&#160; However, population details for the entire range is not known.	eng
166699	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known. <br/></p>	eng
166700	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166700	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is found in India (South 24 Parganas in&#160;West Bengal and in Orissa), Myanmar, Thailand (Provinces of Rayong, Trat, Chanthaburi, Chachoengsao, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Samut Prakan), Indonesia (Sumatra), Hong Kong and China. It is not reported from Bangladesh, but its presence should be looked for.	eng
166700	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It lives in brackish water in the drainages of mud-flats, nipa palm and mangrove swamps. It was also found in the estuarine area of rivers. This species was found partly buried in mud feeding on decaying organic material. It is also reported from the bark of wood in the jetties.	eng
166700	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166700	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>  The threats to this species are not known.&#160; <br/> <br/> </p>	eng
166701	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No conservation measure is in place. Research is needed.	eng
166701	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from India (Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal), Nepal, Bangladesh (Assess-HKH), and Pakistan (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166701	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is commonly found in stagnant shallow water of the lower Gangetic plain such as paddy fields, oxbow lakes and slow running river and streams.	eng
166701	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on population status is not available.	eng
166701	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a widespread species and the threats specific to this species are not known.	eng
166702	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>Impacts of harvest for food and handicrafts needs to be studied in detail.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166702	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia corrugata</span> is a common species throughout India (including Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Punjab, Sylhet, and Assam), Bangladesh (Sylhet District and Chittagong Hills), Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It should be looked for in Bhutan.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 451px; height: 1px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 26px; height: 14px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 30px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
166702	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>It is found in rivers, ponds and lakes.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166702	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>It is a common species in some areas of its range (Ramakrshna and Dey 2007).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166702	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166703	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research into threats and life history studies are recommended.</p>	eng
166703	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>In India it is known from Uttar Pradesh (Ramganga near Moradabad), Assam (Cachar, Barak River, Silchar), West Bengal (Kolkata) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and in Nepal it is reported from Rautahat District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). It should be looked for in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and other northeastern India states.<br/></p>	eng
166703	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in soft mud and fine sand substrates of slow running lowland rivers and streams in the lower and upper Gangetic plain and Brahmaputra river basins (Nesemann<em> et al</em>. 2007).	eng
166703	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This species is not common like other bivalves and was recently found in small numbers&#160;from new localities&#160;in Uttar Pradesh and Nepal in Rautahat District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).&#160;</p>	eng
166703	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166704	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified, and the full distribution of the species determined.<br/></p>     <p></p>	eng
166704	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<em>Gangetia miliacea</em> is reported from the Gangetic Delta (West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh), Chilka Lake, Orissa, India, and the Gulf of Oman. Although the Oman record may be an introduction, it is likely that the species has a much wider distribution than presented by the currently known data.	eng
166704	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	Commonly found among weeds in brackish water pools.	eng
166704	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166704	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>The threats to this species are unknown. &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;&#160;</p>	eng
166705	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research on biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166705	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">sikkimensis</span> is found in the Terai region of eastern Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, northwestern Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim of India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bangladesh and possibly present in Bhutan.	eng
166705	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in rivers and steams, preferably forest streams.<br/></p>	eng
166705	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The population status of this species in not known, however it is the most common member of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia</span> in eastern Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166705	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.</p>	eng
166706	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Research on species population and trend is required.	eng
166706	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is widely distributed all over the southern Asia region; Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and throughout India.	eng
166706	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is present in almost all types of lowland water bodies, mainly stagnant water and low saline water resources such as rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands, marshes, ditches, paddy fields, etc. &#160;According to (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) it can tolerate a maximum level of salinity of 0.2mg/l.	eng
166706	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population size and trends of this species is not well known. &#160;However, it is a common and abundant species found in high numbers in all kinds of freshwater bodies.	eng
166706	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no major known threat to this species.	eng
166707	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166707	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<em>Paludomus conica</em> is distributed in the Brahmaputra basin in northeastern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. It is known from a number of locations in India including Meghalaya (Teria Ghat, South Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills, Kopili River, West Khasi Hills), Tripura, Assam, (Sibsagar); and&#160;Nepal (Mechi River system of Jhapa District) (Subba Rao 1989,&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). It is likeley to be present in other Indian states within the Brahmaputra.	eng
166707	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in small low land rivers and streams with pebble, gravel or sand substrate (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
166707	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a rare species but can be found in very dense population in optimal conditions. &#160;However, population details are not known.	eng
166707	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.	eng
166708	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166708	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The species is known from India (West Bengal (Medinipur, South 24 Parganas) and Orissa), Bangladesh, and from Indonesia (Sulawesi) and Singapore. It is likely to be present in other countries within the above range and further research is required. In the Ganges delta, it is recorded from some way inland, as far as Balurghat (India) on the border with Bangladesh.	eng
166708	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. sulculosa</span> was found adhering to wood under the bark or in the empty tunnels of shipworms and crevices of dykes which are not completely exposed during low tide. They are also in&#160;mangrove streams, on stones&#160;submerged in running water.	eng
166708	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166708	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>No information available.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166709	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Some sites where the species has been recorded are in the Sunderbans, within a protected area. No particular species conservation plans are in place for the species. Research is needed into the impact of pollutants on the species.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166709	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<em>Tanysiphon rivalis</em> is known from the Ganges Delta (River Hugli, around Calcutta, South&#160;24 Paraganas, Sagar Island, Midnapore, Geonkhali) in West Bengal, India, (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and from Bangladesh.	eng
166709	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species inhabits estuarine waters, sometimes extending into freshwaters. It was observed at Gangasagar and Geonkhali on the muddy substratum. This bivalve prefers low salinity (up to 4.0 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) areas (Subba Rao<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1995).	eng
166709	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	In a study by Subba Rao <em>et al</em>. (1995), the population density was observed to be 80 to 90 m-² at Geonkhali, India. Another study showed that the population of this species is one of the highest in the community showing that it is an abundant species.	eng
166709	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The localities where it occurs are highly disturbed. The disturbance which is prevalent in that region are due to pollution from land run off, non-point source pollution, and loss of habitat quality</p>	eng
166710	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>Research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be further studied.<br/><br/>&#160;</p>	eng
166710	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia nuttalliana</span> has been reported from Cachar, Assam, in India (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007), and there is an additional unverified report from the northern Assam/Arunachal Pradesh border. </p>	eng
166710	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>This species is seen burrowing in the mud in freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams. </p>	eng
166710	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends of this species.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166710	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2009	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known, though sedimentation and alterations to river flow patterns may impact the known habitats of the species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166711	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166711	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus ornatus </span>is reported from a number of locations in the Brahmaputra basin in India (Assam, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh), and from Pegu and "Mandalay" in&#160; Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
166711	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p> </p>This species is found in rivers and streams.	eng
166711	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166711	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation,  sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential  threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166712	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	A poorly studied species with highly fragmented distribution. There is an urgent need for taxonomic validation of the specimens from the two populations and other ecological and threat studies.	eng
166712	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known to occur in Imphal in Manipur, India and in Sri Lanka (Subba Rao 1989). The identity of the specimens from these two localities require further detailed studies.	eng
166712	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is generally found in ponds.	eng
166712	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population and trends in this species are unknown.	eng
166712	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
166713	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>  </p><p>Taxonomic studies to validate it as a species is required and more research on its distribution and biology.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166713	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The species has only been recorded from the type locality in Cachar in Assam, India (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166713	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Information on habitat and ecology of this species is not available.&#160;</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166713	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166713	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166714	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend and ecology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Work on taxonomic stability through molecular analysis is suggested.</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166714	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><em>Pisidium nevillianum</em> is distributed in south and <st1:place w:st="on">southeast  Asia</st1:place>. <br/></p><p>This species is reported from Narmada River in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> (Bolaganj), <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region> (western mid hills: Phewa Tal and Begnas Tal, Kaski District; Central Terai and mid hills: Bishajari Lake, Chitwan District; Cha Khola, Ashi Khola and Chaukot Khola near Dhulikhel, Kavre District) and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region> at an altitude between 75 m and 1430 m a.s.l. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Presence Myanmar and other states of northeastern India is likely but is not confirmed.<br/></p>	eng
166714	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><em></em>This is found in wide range of lowland streams, small rivers and wetlands including muddy substrate of highly eutrophic lake. This subtropical species require high water temperature during summer and monsoon; it also needs organic matter and detritus to flourish.<br/></p>	eng
166714	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em></em>This is a<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> very common species. It is the most dominant species in the lakes in the Terai and mid hills of Nepal and often found in high densities in agricultural channels (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007. However, the population status is not known.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166714	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not fully understood. General perceived threats include pollution, construction of dams etc. </p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166715	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research is needed into understanding distribution and threats to the species and its habitat.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166715	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Originally described from the Ganges delta, the species is recorded from India (West Bengal: Port Canning,&#160;Chandpal Ghat,&#160;Kolkata), and Bangladesh. Its presence in Myanmar (GBIF 2009) requires confirmation.	eng
166715	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra deltae </span>was recorded crawling in the muddy areas of the Hugli Estuary. It prefers lower salinity zones (not less than 1.65 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) and almost absent towards the higher salinity area (above 20 mgl<sup>-1</sup>) (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).	eng
166715	population	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The population density in one study (Subba Rao&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;1995) varied from 2 to 485 m<sup>-</sup>² and it was maximum during the month of September.	eng
166715	threats	Madhyastha, A., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No threats at present are known, but further information is required on the water&#160;quality&#160;in the Ganges Delta.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166716	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Research into population and trends are needed.</p>	eng
166716	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is found only in India and Nepal. It is known from Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins including Darjeeling (Sikkim), Meghalaya, (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and from Kathmandu Valley and Punyamata Valley of Kavre District in Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166716	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is largely confined to the small to medium sized streams and almost absent in forest streams and stagnant water bodies.	eng
166716	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is a dominant bivalve reaching several hundred individuals per square metre. There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166716	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is slightly tolerant to moderate level water pollution. The species is not under any major threat.	eng
166717	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.</p>	eng
166717	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species has a very wide global distribution. It is reported from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Timor, Indonesia, including Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea, Fuji, Philippines, India, and Thailand. In India, it is found in the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands, Tamil Nadu, and South 24 Paraganas in West Bengal.	eng
166717	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Its a freshwater limpet. It is also found in saline water (Subba Rao 1988). Its habitat is benthic attached to rocks.	eng
166717	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Chatterjee <em>et al.</em> (2008) have studied population dynamics for two years and correlated limnological factors. Naturally, the population in the study site in West Bengal, India, varied from 3 to 40 individuals per km<sup>2</sup>. At some regions the populations are rare (Chatterjee&#160;<em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
166717	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	&#160;Pollution and habitat degradation are two major threats for this species.	eng
166718	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Potential threats to this species need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166718	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p> <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia baconi</span> is known from India (Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, and Manipur), Nepal, Myanmar (He-Ho Gorge), northern Thailand and the Philippines.It is almost certainly present in Bangladesh, and should be looked for in other regional states. The record from the Philippines requires further investigation.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166718	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It is usually found attached on stones, wooden material and vegetation in lowland streams in Nepal and in the Ganga river (Nesemann <em>et al. </em>2007). It is also found in ponds and ditches. <br/></p>	eng
166718	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166718	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
166719	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Although widely distributed there is lack of information on its biology, trends and impacts of threats.&#160;</p>	eng
166719	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula deltae</span> is known from Myanmar (in the district of Pegu (Bago); Subba Rao 1989) and India (West Bengal: Calcutta, Gangetic delta, Rabindra Sarobar, Howrah, North 24 Parganas; Orissa: Mahanadi River). Presence in Bangladesh is likely but not recorded.	eng
166719	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. deltae&#160;</span>is known only from Gangetic delta. It is the first species of the genus that has been found in brackish water. It was recorded in the region between Barrackpore and Diamond Harbour where the salinity varied from trace to maximum of 4 mgl<sup>-1</sup>. The uppermost record of this species is up to Patna, Bihar. Several specimens of this species were found attached to algae, weeds or even to the mud by the help of fine byssus threads.&#160; It is also reported from large rivers far above the influence of tide.	eng
166719	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.<br/>&#160;</p>	eng
166719	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>	eng
166720	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Distribution surveys, life history studies, and research on threats, population and trends are recommended.<br/></p>	eng
166720	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>Corbicula assamensis </em>is present in the lower <st1:place w:st="on">Ganges</st1:place> River and the Gangetic Delta. In India, it is found in Assam, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh upstream to Varanasi, and in Bangladesh it is found in Phenchooganj, Sylhet, and Olipura (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, 2007).<br/></p>	eng
166720	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em></em>This species is found in various types of habitats such as rivers, streams and lakes. It lives in fine sand substrates (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2003, 2007).<br/></p>	eng
166720	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p>The population structure and trends of this species are unknown. &#160;  <p></p>	eng
166720	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known, but it could be impacted by sedimentation.<br/></p>	eng
166721	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.	eng
166721	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra echinata</span> is not recorded beyond its type locality in the Pussur River, Khulna in&#160;Bangladesh (Annandale and Prashad 1919).	eng
166721	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found to occur in rivers. Detailed habitat and ecology of this species is not known. Congeneric species are known to inhabit brackish and estuarine habitats (Annandale and Prashad 1921).	eng
166721	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Described from a single shell, there is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166721	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat processes. However, records are restricted to a single locality in Bangladesh, an area of high human population density and severe freshwater ecosystem degradation (Gopal and Chauhan 2006).	eng
166722	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed distribution, life history, ecology, threats and population trends need to be studied. &#160;</p>	eng
166722	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea theobaldiana</span> was described from West Bengal (Hugli-Matla Estuary)  India (Subba Rao 1989). There are numerous recent records from the Hugli-Matla esturary in West Bengal, and a record from the Mahanadi estuary (near Cuttack, India), suggesting that it may have a wider distribution in suitable habitats. It should also be looked for in Bangladesh.	eng
166722	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species occupies sloping muddy shores. It is a detritus feeder.	eng
166722	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on population status is available.	eng
166722	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The Hugli-Matla estuary is known to be heavily polluted from urban, industrial, and agricultural sources. The impacts of these threats on the species are not known.	eng
166723	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Very little is known about this species with respect to life cycle, population, trends, threats and use, hence requiring research.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166723	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found widely distributed in the Ganges delta, Brahmaputra (Tezpur) and the Irrawaddy lowland basin. It has been reported from India (Bihar (Bhagalpur), Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh), Bangladesh (Dacca, Mirpur, Nabalegang (Jessore Dist) and Sylhet), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) and Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Presence in other Indian states is likely with further survey (e.g. West Bengal, Meghalaya, and Tripura)	eng
166723	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in the large rivers basins, stagnant water bodies including man-made ponds.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166723	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Information on population and trends are unknown for this species.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166723	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is widely distributed in India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar with no known widespread threats. Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.<br/></p>	eng
166724	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Survey, threats and population trends are important areas for research in this species.<br/></p>	eng
166724	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is recorded from India (Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) and Bangladesh (Subba Rao 1989). </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166724	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>It inhabits freshwater pools; also found burrowing in the mud formed by the side of the streams (P. Buddha pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
166724	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no documentation on population status of this species.&#160; <br/></p>	eng
166724	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166725	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research into distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166725	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra ornata</span> is known from Bangladesh and India (West Bengal: Kolkata; Bihar; Uttar Pradesh: upstream of Ganges River up to Varanasi) (Brandt 1974, Nesseman <em>et al</em>. 2007). Type specimen collected from "Dhappa near Calcutta".	eng
166725	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found both in fresh and brackish waters of the Ganges River and Gangetic estuary. It prefers soft mud and silt substrate.	eng
166725	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166725	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is a common species with no specific threats.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166729	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are recommended. Its status in the highly disturbed Sylhet region of Bangladesh needs study.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166729	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus stephanus</span> has been reported from India in Meghalaya (East and West Khasi hills, Jaintia hills) and from Sylhet in Bangladesh (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166729	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>It is found in both lentic and lotic habitats. </p>  <p></p>	eng
166729	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166729	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166730	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No conservation action in place. Research is needed into the species distribution, population and threats.<br/></p>	eng
166730	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from northeastern India, Myanmar and from Nepal. <span style="background-color: green;"></span>	eng
166730	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found in ponds and lakes.	eng
166730	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population status and trends not known	eng
166730	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information available, though rivers in parts of the species range are impacted by sedimentation and pollution.	eng
166731	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No conservation measures are in place for the species.	eng
166731	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens marginalis</span> is found in the lower and upper Gangetic plains in India and Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Subba Rao 1989) and Terai region of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166731	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in ditches, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams and prefers stagnant waters.	eng
166731	population	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	In India, populations are between 10 to 15 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> with variations between ponds (A. Dey pers. comm.). It is found in dense populations in stagnant water bodies.	eng
166731	threats	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Although there are no known major threats reported, it is among the most preferred food species in Nepal, India and Bangladesh. Over-harvesting, use of pesticides for fishing are some inferred threats to this species. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166732	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.	eng
166732	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>According to Annandale and Prashad (1921), this species is only known from one locality in Jharkand, Sikrigall, West Bengal, on the Ganges River, "300 miles from the sea and about 200 miles above the extreme tidal influence", but may occur further down the Ganges.	eng
166732	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in slow flowing rivers.	eng
166732	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166732	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on threats to this species. However, the possible threats are pollution from agricultural run off and habitat degradation and loss.<br/><br/>If it is restricted to a single locality on  the Ganges River it is highly vulnerable to threats such as impoundment,  pollution, exploitation resulting from growing human populations  (Dudgeon 2005).<br/>  <br/>  Threats coding: 7.2, 7.3, 9.1, 9.3 (Stresses: Ecosystem conversion/degradation)	eng
166733	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population trend and ecology of this species are needed. </p>	eng
166733	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina cantori</span> was described from Barrackpore, north of Kolkata, North 24 Parganas district in West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).</p>	eng
166733	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The habitat and ecology of this species are not known, but it is presumed to have been collected from freshwater river or lakes.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
166733	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no population level information about this species. The species is only known from the literature.</p><p></p>	eng
166733	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
166734	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The different taxa within the species complex need to be studied in detail. &#160;Research on impacts of use and threats needed.	eng
166734	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is widely distributed, recorded from Bangladesh, India (Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharastra and other states), and in the Terai region of Nepal.	eng
166734	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. favidens </span>is found in silt of running water such as lowland streams and rivers.	eng
166734	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a common species of the family Unionidae with many forms. However, studies on population details are lacking.	eng
166734	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No specific threats are known for this species, but agricultural intensification, use of fertilizer and pesticide, fish poisoning as well as collection for consumption are inferred threats to this species.	eng
166735	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This&#160;species&#160;is utilised for food and (locally) for jewellery. Further information is required on the species range and population, and monitoring should be undertaken to assess the impact of use on the species.</p>	eng
166735	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em>Parreysia bonneaudi</em> is widely distributed in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, Bihar, Manipur and Uttar Pradesh), <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">from central to the far-western Terai region of Nepal, Bangladesh, and from Myanmar&#160;</st1:place></st1:country-region>(Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007,   Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, 2005). Presence is likely in Bhutan, but survey is required to confirm this.<br/></p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166735	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It occurs in muddy substrate of lentic zones in large lowland rivers and in ponds (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166735	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em></em>This species is reported to be rare since it was collected only in small numbers from several localities in the lower and upper Gangetic plains from western to central Nepal and India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh)&#160;(Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007); however it appears to have wide geographic spread.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166735	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Collection for food and jewellery may be a local threat to this species. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166736	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Taxonomic clarification of the Uttar Pradesh population and more detailed studies on distribution, life history, threats and population trends are needed.	eng
166736	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Though it has been&#160;regarded&#160;as endemic to Manipur Valley (Annandale 1921)., this species has also been recorded, along with other freshwater molluscs, from the Ghaghara River (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar), a northern tributary of the Ganges (Gajurel <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006) at an altitude of 74 m, and from Patran and Kapurthala in Punjab (Sharma and Battish 1991). It is not known whether this species occurs between these two localities.	eng
166736	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is commonly found in stagnant freshwater bodies like ponds, lakes, pools, ditches or slow flowing streams (Subba Rao 1989).<br/><br/>This species  inhabits muddy substrates in small streams, pools and swamps. According  to Annandale (1921), "it crawls slowly on the lower surface of floating  grass-stems and water-weeds and can float shell downwards on the lower  side of the surface film. It is resistant to drought, and individuals  brought dry to Calcutta [sic] revived on being placed in water after  over a fortnight's desiccation.	eng
166736	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is only known from three disjunct localities - Manipur in east India, Uttar Pradesh in the north and Punjab in the northwest of the country. Annandale (1921) stated that "the species is abundant and generally distributed in the Manipur valley, outside which it has not been found".	eng
166736	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/><br/>Manipur, where one of the three populations of this species was recorded, has a high human population density and its freshwater resources suffer from high levels of organic pollution (Dhamendra and Kosygin 2005). There is also significant habitat fragmentation due to dam construction and modification of rivers for agriculture and other uses (Kumar 2008). However, it is not known what effect this is having on this species.	eng
166738	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Very little is known about this species since its description and detailed studies on distribution, life history, ecology, threats and population trends are recommended.</p>	eng
166738	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula sylhetica</span> is not known beyond the type locality at Phenchooganj, Sylhet in Bangladesh, described in 1909 (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166738	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species inhabits freshwater streams.	eng
166738	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No information on population status or trends is available. <br/></p>	eng
166738	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
166739	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Research on use for livestock can be done.	eng
166739	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clithon reticularis</span> is common throughout India, and also present in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Australia (this record should be checked and may be an introduction). In India, it is widely distributed and reported from West Bengal (Kolkata, Hugli estuary, North 24 Parganas),&#160;Assam, Bihar, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur (Bishenpur, Chandel, Churachandanpur, Imphal), and Tamil Nadu. It appears to be present through out much of the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins.	eng
166739	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Found in estuarine and freshwater rivers.	eng
166739	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
166739	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
166740	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research on the distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166740	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia smaragdites</span> is known from Brahmaputra River, Assam in India and Chindwin and Irrawaddy river basins in Upper Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). Its presence should be looked for in Bangladesh, other northeastern Indian states, and in other parts of Myanmar.	eng
166740	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It occurs in river systems.	eng
166740	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166740	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166741	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="background-color: yellow;"><span style="background-color: white;">Studies on harvest and threats and monitoring use and harvest trends are critical actions required for this species.<br/></span>	eng
166741	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Angulyagra microchaetophora</span> has been recorded from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam, Manipur (Imphal) and Nagaland in India (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166741	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species inhabits all kinds of water bodies (A. Dey <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2010). It is found attached to floating grass stems and other aquatic plants on water (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166741	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is found in abundance within its range.	eng
166741	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Collection for food is a threat for this species locally. This is sold in local markets.	eng
166742	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166742	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<em>Neritina smithi</em> is reported from India (West Bengal (Gangetic Estuary) and Myanmar (Irrawaddy Estuary) (Subba Rao 1989), from the Irrawaddy estuary in Myanmar, and from Mauritius (GBIF; Museum of Zoology, University of Navarra), most likely an introduction. It probably also occurs in the estuaries in Bangladesh.	eng
166742	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is primarily a brackish water species occasionally extending into freshwaters.	eng
166742	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166742	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
166743	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Biology and population trend studies are recommended.</p>	eng
166743	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia verruca</span> is distributed throughout India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and northern Thailand. Records of its distribution in India include Uttarakhand (Bhimtal, Kumaon), Meghalaya (East and West Khasi Hills), Manipur (Churachandpur), Bihar (Patna), Jharkhand (Damodar River) and in Nepal (Chandeswari Khola, Kavre)&#160;(Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it was found in the provinces of Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai and Nan Provinces. It is also known from Tonkin, Viet Nam and occurs probably in northern Lao PDR (K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm., </span>2010).	eng
166743	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in rivers, streams, and small pools along the stream side where decaying plant material is deposited. <br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166743	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Population details and trends are not known. <br/></p>	eng
166743	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>	eng
166744	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Detailed surveys and research on the biology and taxonomy of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166744	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus loricatus</span> is recorded from several locations in India (Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) and from Sri Lanka (including Callo Ganga, above Ratnapoora; Colombo, Kandy; and Kadagamara Pass, Kandy; and Kadaganara Pass, Colombo; Malacology Collection, ANSP). The disjunct distribution of the species requires confirmation; if confirmed, then the species should be looked for in suitable habitat in other upland areas.<br/></p><p></p>	eng
166744	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>  This is found in slightly acidic and slow flowing mountain streams. </p>	eng
166744	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166744	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>	eng
166745	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Further&#160;information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;and threats is required.	eng
166745	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in India, and the Terai region of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2007, Subba Rao 1989,   Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It should also be looked for in Bangladesh, other northeastern Indian states, and suitable drainages in Bhutan.	eng
166745	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>Parreysia <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">lima</st1:place></st1:city></em> is a typical species of rivulets and streams of southern Himalayan slopes along the foothills of the mountains, and is also reported from a lake (Chimdi Lake, Nepal). This species is known from northern tributaries of the Ganges River up to 800 m asl and well known from the Mechi, Sapta Koshi and Kaligandaki watershed in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).</p>	eng
166745	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p>    </p>There is little documentation on the population size and trends of <em>P. lima.</em><p></p>  <p></p><p></p>	eng
166745	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no documented threats to this species. However, water pollution in lowland rivers due to nutrient load from agricultural run-off, use of pesticides and fish poisoning are some inferred threats. Hydroelectric dams are also likely to impact upon the&#160;species.	eng
166746	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>    </p><p>  </p><p>Research into distribution, biology and threats to the species is urgently required.</p>Part of the lake where the species is found is encompassed by the Keibul Lamjao National Park, and the lake is also a Ramsar Site.     <p></p>	eng
166746	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	It appears to be restricted to its type locality in Loktak Lake, Manipur, India. The area of the lake is around 287 km<sup>2</sup> (Wikipedia contributors 2009).	eng
166746	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	The species has only been reported from a lake.	eng
166746	population	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166746	threats	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>Loktak Lake is under severe stress from impacts of human habitation surrounding it, especially sedimentation and siltation caused by the loss of vegetation cover from the surrounding catchment, and from the effects of a hydroelectric project nearby. Habitat threats to the floating islands of '<span style="font-style: italic;">phumdi</span>' (heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter at various  stages of decomposition) have been observed due to the dam, but its effects on the mollusc is unknown.</p>	eng
166747	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Surveys and research on the biology, threats, population size and trend of this species are needed.</p>	eng
166747	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara lineata</span> is widespread throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra Rivers systems. It is recorded from Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Nepal (Subba Rao 1989), and India (Meghalaya: Khasi hills; West Bengal: Barddhaman, Kolkata, Haora, Hugli, Nadia, North & South 24 Parganas; Assam; Bihar; Madhya Pradesh; Maharashtra; Orissa; and Uttar Pradesh).	eng
166747	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in all type of rivers and streams in lowlands. &#160;It is the most abundant and pollution tolerant species and found in organically polluted alpha-mesosaprobic rivers of water quality II (Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007). Usually occurs in ponds, remains attached to vegetation or crawls on muddy bottoms. It has been observed in the upper zone- Nabadwip to Konnagar with salinity at 0.3 mgl<sup>-1</sup>.	eng
166747	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is common species in the Ganga River system and often found in high densities (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). However, the population at global level is not known.	eng
166747	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Lowland rivers are subject to pollution and sedimentation, whilst hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.	eng
166748	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Detailed surveys, biology and threat research are required to understand the status of this species. The taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation.<br/></p>	eng
166748	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known only from the type locality, Sorupeta in Assam, India.	eng
166748	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It was found in clear water with muddy&#160;substratum, attached to rotten twigs.	eng
166748	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166748	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The threats to this species are not known. Hillstreams within Assam, the type locality of the species, are impacted by sedimentation caused by deforestation, but the impacts of this on the species are not known.	eng
166749	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Although reported from several areas there is very little known about the biology, population, trends and threats to the species. Furtehr research is required into the species distribution.<br/></p>	eng
166749	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	It occurs in the Gangetic River system in Bangladesh and India (West Bengal (Calcutta,  Barrackpore, Hugli, North 24 Parganas), Uttar Pradesh (Nainital,  Banaras)) and is also recorded from Tibet.	eng
166749	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It is found in lentic habitats such as pond, lakes and ditches.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166749	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166749	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known. The Ganges river system is highly polluted in parts and subject to sedimentation, and the impact of these threats require investigation. &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; <br/></p>	eng
166750	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166750	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara paludomoidea</span> was described from the type locality in Matlah River near Port Canning, West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989), and appears to be restricted to the Ganges delta in West Bengal, though it is likely to be present also in Bangladesh.	eng
166750	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2009	This species was observed on mangrove vegetation up to the height of 40 cm above the ground level. They were very common on plants locally known as "Nonagira".  Found on trunks and aerating roots of mangrove trees submerged at high tide, in the Mutlah River at Port Canning.<p></p>	eng
166750	population	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166750	threats	Budha, P.B., 2009	<p>The Ganges delta is highly polluted from industrial, urban and agricultural sources. The impact of these pollutants on the species requires study.<br/></p>	eng
166751	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Information on distribution, population, trends, threats, effects of harvest are required and research in these areas are recommended.</p>	eng
166751	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found in Bhamo, Zayleyman, Teinzo in the Mule stream, northeast of Bhamo in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).   In India, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia burmana</span>&#160;is  found in Manipur (Bishenpur), and is likely to be present in other Chindwin River drainages within eastern India. It is  inferred to have a wide distribution in the Chindwin and Irrawaddy river  basins<p>&#160;</p><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 1px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
166751	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This species is found burrowing in the mud in water pools formed on the sides of the streams (Subba Rao 1989).<br/></p>	eng
166751	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information is available on the population status of this species	eng
166751	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known. Harvest for food is not considered a major threat, and other threats are not known for the species.</p>	eng
166752	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2009	<p>More research is needed on population trends, habitat and ecology.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166752	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea persica</span> has a very wide distribution, from southern Europe to central and south Asia. The species is recorded from Afghanistan,  India, Nepal, Spain, Italy, and Iran. In India, it has been recorded from Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir,  Mizoram, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh (Kumaon Lakes, Tehri) (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166752	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2009	<p>It inhabits stagnant water bodies. The species is a carrier of trematode larvae.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166752	population	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2009	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166752	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2009	<p>The species is unlikely to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>	eng
166753	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Due to wider distribution range no specific conservation action required.	eng
166753	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium clarkeanum</span> is distributed in south and southeast Asia (Brandt 1974);&#160; Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Nepal, Vietnam and India (Manipur (Chandel), Bihar (Harrapur, Bhagalpur), Maharashtra (Bombay), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris alt. 2,256 m.), Uttar Pradesh (Roorkee, Tehri, Pithoragarh), and West Bengal (common in Calcutta tanks). The species is likely present in Bhutan, but presence is not confirmed.	eng
166753	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. clarkeanum</span> is abundant in slowly running streams and rivers in the Gangetic plain and Terai region of Nepal. It is occasionally found in the littoral zone along the shores of lakes and large ponds where it prefers lentic areas with a soft muddy bottom. In the mid-altitudinal range, it is very often restricted to lentic microhabitats, preferring sediments such as mud enriched with detritus or silt.	eng
166753	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em>Pisidium clarkeanum </em>&#160;is abundant in the slow running river and streams. Isolated populations were found from the eutrophic lake effluents (Phewa and <st1:placename w:st="on">Begnas</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, western <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>).<strong></strong></p>  <p></p>	eng
166753	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
166754	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed studies on distribution, life history, threats and population trends are required.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166754	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea hungerfordiana</span> is distributed in West Bengal (Hugli-Matla estuary) in India (Subba Rao 1989). It may also be present in adjoining Bangladesh.	eng
166754	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found on sloping muddy shores of estuaries.	eng
166754	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166754	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to the species are not known. The susceptibility of the species to domestic and industrial pollutants and sedimentation needs to better understood.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166755	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>A very widespread and common species with no recommendations identified for research or action.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166755	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is known from Iraq (Euphrates River floodplain), Iran (Seistan), Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Baluchistan and Punjab (Salt range)), Bangladesh, India (Bihar, Manipur: Chandel, Bishenpur, Thoubal), and China (eastwards to the Kiangsu Province) and Nepal.	eng
166755	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It is found in lentic habitats rivers such as lakes, ponds and slow running rivers and streams with rich plants and lowland valleys up to 1,330 m asl.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166755	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166755	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>This species is widespread  with no significant threats.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166756	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats and impacts of threats to the species need to be studied.	eng
166756	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea brevicula</span> is distributed widely in Asia; India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, Japan and Thailand.<br/><br/>Within these countries it is specifically known from West Bengal, Maharashtra and the Andaman Islands in India; Manila, Luzon Island, Busuanga Island, Masbate Island, Negros Island, Samar Island, Cebu Island and Mindanao Island in the Philippines; Java, Sumatra, Brunei and Kalimantan in Indonesia; Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia; and the Irrawaddy Delta in Myanmar (Abbott 1958).	eng
166756	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This estuarine species is common in the more sheltered parts of mangroves and nipa-palm swamps, and the muddy areas in monsoon drains. It can be found either crawling on the mud or remaining attached to grass in all muddy localities. Its vertical distribution is restricted to 10 m downward from the high water mark. Its shell is usually bright red but occasionally black. It probably feeds mainly on algae (Brown 1971, Brandt 1974, Subba Rao <em>et al.</em> 1992, Tan and Ng 1992).<br/><br/>Abbott (1958) collected this species from wet logs on the muddy banks of the estuarine exit of Bantayan River, north coast of Samar Island, Philippines. He stated that the area is alternately covered by saltwater at high tide and freshwater during low tide. Choy and Booth (1994) documented that this species disappears completely during periods of flooding, but it quickly recovers its pre-flood population levels.	eng
166756	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species appears to be common. Berry (1964 in Brown 1971) recorded up to 243 individuals of this species from 1 m² of mud surface in a Malaysian mangrove swamp. Murty and Balaparameswara Rao (1976) describe the species as common in the south Indian and Malaysian mangrove swamps; Sasekumar and Chong (1998) found this to be the most abundant species recorded in their study of faunal diversity in Malaysian mangroves; and Lin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) found it to be the dominant species in their study of the macrofaunal community in Fenglin mangrove area, Xiamen, China.<br/><br/>There are some short term studies in Thailand which deal with populations in different sampling sites within the region (Sri-aroon <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Hugli-Matla estuary the population density recorded was 200-1000 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (A. Dey pers. comm.). &#160;No information on population trend is available.	eng
166756	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No specific threat has been identified.	eng
166757	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>	eng
166757	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus pustulosa</span> is reported from Manipur and Mizoram in India (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166757	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Found in the pebbly bottom of clear and rapid flowing streams (Annandale 1921)	eng
166757	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166757	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.	eng
166758	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Further information is required on the species range and population size.	eng
166758	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<em>Camptoceras lineatum</em> is known from the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy river systems in Bangladesh (Mymensingh), India (Manipur (Loktak lake), Bihar, and Assam (Deepar wetlands). Recently it has been reported from Ganges river system in Nepal (Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2007). It is likely to also be present in Myanmar, and should be looked for in other Indian states within the Ganges drainage.	eng
166758	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB"></em><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in lakes, ponds and their effluents, in slowly running streams with submerged vegetation primarily <em>Hydrilla verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, Potamogeton octundrus, Ceratophylum demersum, Utricularia flexuosa</em> and the under water parts of <em>Panicum auritum </em>(Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Kalita and Goswami 2007).</p>	eng
166758	population	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The population density of <em>C. lineatum</em> was studied in Deepar wetland of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The highest population density (45± 10 n.m<sup>-2</sup>) per square meter was reported in&#160;<em>Hydrilla verticillata</em>&#160;by Kalita and Goswami (2007). It is a very rare species in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal,</st1:country-region>&#160;reported from the Terai wetlands including <st1:placename w:st="on">Ghodaghodi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, Kailali; <st1:placename w:st="on">Beeshajari</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype>, Chitwan; and downstream of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Begnas</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Kaski.</p>	eng
166758	threats	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
166759	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Ecological impact assessments should be undertaken where dune mining exists, particularly in South Africa.	eng
166759	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
166759	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166759	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found in Tanzania and Kenya as well as Socotra. It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, including Madagascar and Comoros.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found at Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers. Also in Kenya at Mambrui. <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found on Socotra, in rivers up to 500 m. This species was first collected on the island during the limnological survey in 1999 - 2004 (Lab of Ecology, Ghent University) and is not mentioned in older literature (e.g. by Godwin-Austen, 1883, see also Brown 1994). Since it hardly can be overlooked, <em>Thiara scabra</em>, wide spread in the Indo Pacific, seems hence to be a recent arrival on Socotra and may be a species in expansion.	eng
166759	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara scabra</span> is found throughout Bangladesh, India, Nepal (Gangetic plains), Indonesia (Java), Japan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Thailand, Philippines (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007,&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). This species is also listed as present in Oman, South Eastern Arabia  (Brown & Gallager 1985). However Feulner and Green (1999) list it  as a ‘probably introduced species’ in the UAE (United Arab Emirates).<br/><br/>The species is also recorded from Africa; Tanzania  (Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers), Kenya and Socotra. It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, including Madagascar  and Comoros. The record from Socotra, in rivers up to 500 m; widespread in the Indo Pacific, seems perhaps to be a recent arrival and may be a species in expansion (D. van Damme, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2008) or resulting from accidental introduction.<br/><br/>This species is considered an invasive species in the south pacific, including; the Samoan archipelago, Fiji, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Federated States of Micronesia and Guam (Eldredge 2000)	eng
166759	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is found at Zanzibar, Pemba and Tanzania mainland at Wami and Kingani rivers. It is also present in Kenya at Mambrui.  <br/>It is generally an Indo-Pacific species, with a distribution range that includes Madagascar and Comoros.	eng
166759	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It occurs in rivers.	eng
166759	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	River, streams and ponds.	eng
166759	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in rivers, streams and ponds. It is tolerant of brackish water.	eng
166759	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.	eng
166759	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Reported to be uncommon, but population estimates not certain.	eng
166759	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on population trends on this species but it is common species throughout the tributaries of river Ganga (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166759	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is a widespread species and there are no widespread threats identified for this species. This species is effected locally by the heavy pollution in the River Ganges, India (Sinha and Das 1993).	eng
166759	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Most likely sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution.	eng
166759	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The most likely major threats to affect this species are sedimentation, anthropogenic disturbances and pollution. Dune mining in South Africa threatens the species and it may also be impacted by the invasive snail, <em>Terebia granifera</em>.	eng
166761	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research into the distribution and biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166761	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>Parreysia pachysoma</em> is recorded from the lower Ganges and Brahmaputra plains in Bangladesh <st1:country-region w:st="on">and India (Assam</st1:country-region>, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, <st1:place w:st="on">Meghalaya, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Orissa and Tripura), </st1:country-region></st1:place>and the Irrawaddy basin in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989,&#160;Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003,&#160;Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).</p>	eng
166761	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>Parreysia pachysoma</em> is found in sand and occasional mud substrate of stagnant water bodies and large rivers with rich benthic fauna (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).</p>	eng
166761	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166761	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The inferred threats are habitat loss (through development and hydropower dams), degradation and pollution. However, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166762	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed along with identification of threats to this species.</p>	eng
166762	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Camptoceras terebra</span> is a very rare species according to Subba Rao (1989). It shows very restricted distribution, reported from only two locations in India (Uttar Pradesh and West&#160;Bengal (Mogra)). This species clearly requires further research and expert survey to determine if the species is actually rare or simply under-reported, and to confirm the taxonomic status of the sub-species described from Japan.	eng
166762	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Found in deep pool of river beds with aquatic weeds (Subba Rao 1989). Detailed ecology of this species is not known.	eng
166762	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166762	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	No data is available on threats to this species. However, the area where it was found is highly disturbed from pollution from agricultural run-off, urbanization and habitat degradation.	eng
166763	conservation	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Surveys, life history studies, research in population trends and threats are recommended.	eng
166763	distribution	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is recorded only from the Brahmaputra River, Assam, India (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166763	habitat	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on habitat and ecology of this species is unknown.	eng
166763	population	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population density and other information is unknown.	eng
166763	threats	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
166764	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Research on distribution, life history and threats is needed.	eng
166764	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Apparently known only from the type locality in Assam (type locality not recorded) in northeastern India, in 1900. Little is known of this species.<em></em></p>	eng
166764	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>This is species likely occurs in streams and rivers.</p>	eng
166764	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166764	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Threats for this species are not known.	eng
166765	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No information on conservation status is available.</p>	eng
166765	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>Parreysia andersoniana</em> is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> (Bihar: <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city>; Uttar Pradesh: Yamuna River at Janghola near Palla, 22 km upstream from <st1:city w:st="on">New Delhi</st1:city>; <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>: Silchar; West Bengal: Siliguri; Sikkim, and Meghalaya), Bangladesh, and the Irrawaddy River drainage in&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Myadong). It was reported from ponds in <st1:city w:st="on">Patna</st1:city> and Yamuna River near <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">New Delhi</st1:city></st1:place> by Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007). with further survey, it is likely to be found in other Indian states, including Jharkand, Assam, and other northeastern Indian states)<br/></p>	eng
166765	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em></em>It inhabits sand substrate in ponds and lentic portions of rivers, observed burrowing in the mud freshwater pools formed by the side of the streams.&#160; </p><p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166765	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em style="font-style: italic;"></em>Information on population remain unknown. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166765	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no enough information on specific threats to the species. However, general threats to rivers, streams and ponds from human activities such as damming, pollution and agriculture are inferred threats to the species' habitat.<br/></p>	eng
166766	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Although according to Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>(2001) the species is considered to be intolerant to pollution, it has been recorded from polluted waters (A Dey pers. comm. 2010). Therefore, the impacts of organic pollution, ongoing human activities such as use of fertilizer, pesticide and discharge of drainage into rivers and solid waste need to be studied and monitored.&#160;</p>	eng
166766	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula bensoni</span> is found in West Bengal (Kolkata, Nadia), Bihar (Bhagalpur) in India, and Chittagong and the delta in Bangladesh (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be found in other Indian states within its range (e.g. Jharkand).	eng
166766	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is a freshwater species restricted to lowland rivers of the Gangetic watershed. It inhabits sand or slightly muddy substrate. Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2001) state that the species can not tolerate high organic pollution and&#160;that it is a good indicator for betamesosaprobic water quality.</p>	eng
166766	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166766	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not clearly understood, but it is likely to be impacted by agricultural and industrial pollution<br/></p>	eng
166767	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended. The impact of harvest for food and other potential threats need to be studied.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166767	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus regulata</span> is reported in India from Assam, Meghalaya (Garo and Khasi hills) and West Bengal; and from Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). It is inferred to occur in areas between these known localities.	eng
166767	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>It is a stream resident.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166767	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166767	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166768	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Expert survey is required across the species range to determine its current distribution, as well as its ecology and threats.	eng
166768	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens phenchooganjensis</span> is from Bangladesh. It is endemic to the lower Gangetic plains in Bangladesh and India (Jharkhand, Mizoram and Bihar (Nesseman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;(2005) reported this species from Bihar (Mamu Bhanja Pokhra at Hajipur)&#160;but the identification of specimens require verification)). Presence in West Bengal, India, is likely.	eng
166768	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in stagnant water bodies such as an oxbow-lakes under dense macrophytes (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2005, 2007).	eng
166768	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) consider the species to be a rare species limited to stagnant waters.	eng
166768	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to the species are not known, though the loss of wetlands such as ponds, pools and other stagnant waters through development and agricultural clearance is a likely threat.	eng
166769	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research is needed to know about the species distribution, habitats, ecology, use and threats; no conservation actions are in place.<br/></p>	eng
166769	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Ghonghi<span style="font-style: italic;"> (Bellamya crassispiralis)</span> in not known beyond the type locality in Chapki Stream in the south of the Manipur Valley, India, near the Myanmar border (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166769	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is reported to be found in streams.	eng
166769	population	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Information on population status is not available.	eng
166769	threats	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
166770	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The&#160;species&#160;is&#160;utilised&#160;as a food (for human and domesticated animal consumption), and in the&#160;production&#160;of jewelry and&#160;construction&#160;materials. &#160;Further information on the impacts of this use is needed.	eng
166770	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<em>Solenaia soleniformis</em> was described from Cachar, Assam. It is distributed in rivers of Brahmaputra drainage in Assam (Cachar Hills: type locality) and Mizoram and Tripura in India, and the Dhaleswari River in Bangladesh, a tributary of the Brahmaputra (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166770	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Godwin-Austen (1919) and Annandale (1919) have studied burrows and habitat of this species. According to Godwin-Austen (1919) "they prefer fairly rapid running water. Their borings are generally on the outside of curves or bends, where the current is fairly high. They seem to change about from hole to hole, descending as the river falls".	eng
166770	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Two specimens were taken in November 2003 in Mizoram, India (23.23N, 92.85E) (Zoological Survey of India 2003). Other than this, there is no known population information for this species.	eng
166770	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The major threat for this species is collection from wild populations. The other threats such as pollution from agricultural runoff, habitat loss and degradation are understood to impact the habitat of the species and therefore are inferred threats to the species itself.	eng
166772	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution and life history studies and threats and their impacts on populations are recommended research requirements.</p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
166772	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is known only  from Andhra Pradesh (Secunderabad and Hyderabad), and Uttarakhand (Dehra Dun, Tehri, Kumaon, Nainital) in India. Its type locality is Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh. <br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166772	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in stagnant water bodies.	eng
166772	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166772	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown.</p>	eng
166773	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>Research is needed to understand the species population, distribution and threats.<br/></p>	eng
166773	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	The species is widely distributed in southern and eastern Asia. Its global distribution includes Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia (Java,  Sulawesi, and Sumatra), Philippines, China and Japan (GBIF 2010). Its  presence in Bangladesh is inferred. In India it is reported from Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura (south) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166773	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	It is found in all freshwater bodies.	eng
166773	population	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	Females are more abundant than males (Subba Rao 1989). However, information on population and trends is not available.	eng
166773	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	Use for food and shell in jewellery industry may be considered as a threat to this species, however, no documentation is available to substantiate this.	eng
166774	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Studies to understand impacts of harvest from the wild, population trends and other threats to the species are needed urgently.</p>	eng
166774	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polymesoda bengalensis</span> is common in the Indo-Pacific region; recorded from Thailand, Malaysia, Bangladesh, India (West Bengal (Gangetic Delta), Orissa (Mahanadi estuary), Andra Pradesh and Nicobar Islands. It is also present in the Philippines (a possible introduction; Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be present in other coastal east Indian states and in Myanmar.	eng
166774	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found buried in stiff mud in mangroves, being able to tolerate long periods of low tide, and has the ability to resume filter feeding rapidly when inundated (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166774	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166774	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is a significant trade in the shell that is collected for food and handicrafts. These could be inferred threats to the species but there is no precise information.	eng
166775	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The&#160;species&#160;is&#160;utilised&#160;as a food for human consumption. Further information on the impacts of this use is needed. Study on life history and other threats to species and habitat requires understanding.</p>	eng
166775	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species has been recorded from Myanmar (Mandalay, Pegu (Bago), Bhamo, Tenasserim, Zayleymann), India (Manipur (Thoubal), Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland), Cambodia (including Peam  Chelang), and Thailand. It is likely to have a wide range within the Eastern Himalayas and Indo-Burma regions.	eng
166775	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It inhabits ponds.	eng
166775	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166775	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Collection from the wild for food may be a localised threat, but this needs to be studied.	eng
166776	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">More information is needed on the impact of pollution and other threats on the species.<br/></p>	eng
166776	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is widely known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra systems (India (Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh), and from Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java), Malaysia and Nepal. It should also be looked for in Bangladesh.<br/><br/>This species is widely distributed across southeast Asia from the Ganges region in India to the island of Sumatra (Kohler and Glaubrecht 2001). The occurrence of this species is conceived to range from North East India (Ganges, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Skiim, West-Bengal), Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam to the Malaysian Peninsula (abundant in the Pahang River system) and Sumatra. It has been reported from the Mekong where it is the only cerithiodean species found (Brandt 1974: Davis 1982 in Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).<br/><br/>Kohler and Glaubrect (2001) found specimens from museum collections confirming that this species is found in lakes on Sumatra, such as Lake Toba, Lake Maninjau, Lake Singkarah, and Lake Ranau. <br/><br/>Kohler and Glaubrect (2001) considered reports from Sri Lanka (Annandale, 1920), Java (Rensch, 1934; Benthem Jutting, 1956) and Borneo (Brandt 1974) as dubious due to confusion with other species.<br/><br/>More research or clarification is needed on the area of Bangladesh that this species is distributed, as there are 230 small and large rivers in Bangladesh (Reuters 2009).	eng
166776	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in moderately fast running streams and rivers with rich invertebrate diversity (P. Budha pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>This species is a eurytopic species, occurring in habitats ranging from clear, narrowly tangled jungle creeks, comprising of sandy bottoms, to large muddy rivers (Abbott, 1948, Davis 1971 <em>in</em> Kohler and Glaubrect 2001). This species lives on rocks, mud, sand and root systems, often among leaf litter in the water column (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001). <br/><br/>There have been reports implying a preference for this species; Davis (1971) found this species in quiet, marginal waters in comparison to the spiny forms of this genus that are found among rocks in rapids (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001), Subba Rao (1989) states that this species lives in ponds and does not occupy swift streams. And according to Krautrachue, Upatham, Vichasri and Baidikul (1990) the species inhabits mainly streams and rivers, only rarely still waters (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).<br/><br/>Recent samplings by the Kohler were taken in Lake Toba, clear streams and muddy irrigation channels of rice fields on Sumatra (Kohler and Glaubrect 2001).	eng
166776	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166776	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Major threats occur to part of the species range, but as there is not a complete range for this species, there may be further threats to this species. <br/><br/>The Ganges River, India is extremely polluted from increase in human population, sewage discharge, and industrial action (Sinha and Das 1993). Other areas of India (such as Assam) are heavy tea producers - however whether this causes a direct threat needs further research.<br/><br/>Bangladesh rivers, and in particular the Buriganga river, are threatened by pollution, encroachment, tannery discharge, and chemical discharge from cadmium, chromium and mercury (Reuters 2009). Some portions of most rivers, particularly when located near urban and industrial areas, are highly polluted, due to untreated industrial effluents and the continuing dumping of raw sewage (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). The most polluted reach of the Buriganga is the area of Dhaka City, during the dry season the dissolve oxygen content goes down to almost zero (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). The Buriganga is considered to be biologically dead, and the rivers of the Sitalakhya, Turag and Balu also receive a high influx of waste water therefore with the potential to be as polluted as the Buriganga (Reuters 2009). A large number of small rivers as well as wetlands located near small towns also become highly polluted (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). Other polluted areas within Bangladesh are the Sitalakhya in Narayanganj; the Rupsha in Khulna, and the Karnafuli in Chittagong (Nishat, A. pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>The distribution of this species in Myanmar is under threat from unregulated pollution and habitat degradation, as there is no up-to-date laws for the regulation of pollution, and there is an increasing pressure on farmers to double and treble rice crops, which has lead to massive deforestation (Gutter 2001). Additionally, there is a lack of crop rotation, damaged water supply, and the use of fertilizers is leading to soil depletion and pestilence (Gutter 2001). There are further threats from large hydroelectric projects on Myanmar's rivers, and rapidly expanding industries such as mining, oil and gas (Gutter 2001).<br/><br/>In 2005, Malaysia declared a pollution emergency, which was predominantly air pollution, however more research is needed into the levels of water pollution and other threats to this species within Malaysia (abc online, 2005).	eng
166777	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.	eng
166777	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nerita articulata </span>has a wide distribution in southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from West Bengal (South&#160;24 Paraganas&#160;(Matla River, Sunderban, Port Canning, Sajnakhali, Namkhana, Arbesy block (Sunderban), Gosaba, Chhota),&#160;Bhitarkanika, Muriaganga, and the Andaman Islands). It is also recorded from southern Thailand (Phang-Nga Province), Viet Nam, Singapore, Australia and Malaysia (Subba Rao 1989). It is also known from New Guinea and Indonesia (K. Richter, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>, 2010).<br/><br/>It is likely to be present in Bangladesh, other east-coast Indian states, Myanmar, and other regional countries.	eng
166777	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	It is seen on rocky shores especially those near mangroves. The study by Tan and Clements (2008) found this snail on mangrove tree trunks and roots, monsoon canal walls, muddy banks, and rocky areas in or near mangroves. It is also common in nipa-palm swamps.	eng
166777	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no population estimates for this species in the eastern Himalayan region. In the other regions, there are quite crude reports on the population fluctuation attributed to natural factors (Tan and Clements 2008).	eng
166777	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Tan and Clements (2008) reports that this species affected by human activities such as reclamation and pollution.	eng
166778	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166778	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra soluta </span>is recorded only from the Gangetic Delta at Basanti in West Bengal in India (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to be&#160; present in Bangladesh.	eng
166778	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a brackish water species found on slopes of muddy shores.	eng
166778	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166778	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The Ganges at it's delta is heavily polluted from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources. The impact of these pollutants on the species requires research.<br/></p>	eng
166779	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Potential threats and long term impacts of pollution on the species are recommended research.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166779	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula celox</span> has been reported widely from India: West   Bengal (Kolkata, North and South 24 Parganas), Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh (River Cane near Banda (Bundelkhand)) (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166779	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scaphula celox </span>is restricted to tributaries of the Ganges River. It remains attached to stones and concrete, as well as on the shells of other molluscs, mainly fixed on the posterior part of living large bivalves and on other living snails such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Bellamya crassa</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">B. bengalensis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brotia costula</span>&#160;(Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
166779	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It is very commonly seen during winter and spring season. However, its population and trends are unknown.<br/></p>	eng
166779	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It is found in the Ganges, and even in polluted waters, implying water pollution is not considered a major threat to the species.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166780	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Potential threats to this species need to be identified	eng
166780	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The species is widely distributed in the Ganges and Brahmaputra basins. It is recorded from<em> </em>Nepal, India (Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,  Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal) (Subba Rao 1989), Bangladesh and Myanmar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). A record from the United Kingdom needs verification. This species was found from the middle reaches of the Ganges River and its tributaries originating in the Himalayan foothills.</p><p><strong></strong></p>	eng
166780	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in rivers.	eng
166780	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><em>P.</em><em> occata</em> is fairly abundant in West Bengal, Bihar and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. This species is very common throughout the Terai region from central to far-western region of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Nepal</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2003) collected 29 specimens plus numerous single shells from Mahendrughat and Gandhighat from Ganga and three specimens from the zoological park near Patna.<br/></p>	eng
166780	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no documented major threats to this species. However, water pollution in lowland rivers due to nutrient load from agricultural flush out, use of pesticide and fish poisoning are some inferred common threats in Himalayan foot hills and floodplains of freshwater fauna.	eng
166781	conservation	Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Studies to understand threats, impacts and population trends are required.</p>	eng
166781	distribution	Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea microsculpta</span> is present in India (24 Paraganas,&#160;Port Canning, Kolkata, and the Andaman Islands), Thailand, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java) and Malaysia Sematan (Sarawak) (Subba Rao 1989; Brandt 1974; Nevill 1884). It probably also occurs in brackish waters of Bangladesh and Myanmar.	eng
166781	habitat	Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This is found in brackish water of mangrove forests in south and southeast Asia.	eng
166781	population	Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No population studies have been made even though it is a common&#160;brackish water species.	eng
166781	threats	Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The possible threats to this species are habitat loss, degradation and pollution from urban sources. However, no major threats are confirmed for the species.	eng
166782	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research into the species ecology, distribution, and threats is required.<br/></p>	eng
166782	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cipangopaludina lecythis</span> is a widely distributed species. It is reported from India (Manipur: Churachandpur, Chandel, Bishenpur, Imphal, Thoubal; Meghalaya; Mizoram; Tripura; Nagaland: Kohima, Naga Hills, Zunheboto), Myanmar (Upper Myanmar to the Southern Shan States), China (Yunnan), and Viet Nam. Presence in other countries within the region (Bhutan, Bangladesh, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia) is possible (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166782	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in freshwater habitats such as ponds and rice fields.	eng
166782	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166782	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.<br/></p>	eng
166783	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research into distribution, biology, population, trends, ecology, habitat and threats are recommended for this poorly studied species.</p>	eng
166783	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<em>Stenothyra blanfordiana</em> is known only from India (Port Canning in West Bengal, Chilka Lake in Orissa, and Madras in Tamil Nadu). It is likely to be present in other river basins in Andhra Pradesh.	eng
166783	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a brackish water species found on slopes in muddy shores.	eng
166783	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166783	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160;</p>	eng
166784	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166784	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stenothyra woodmasoniana</span> has only been recorded from South 24 Parganas in Port Canning, West Bengal, India (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166784	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is recorded in the Gangetic Delta in West Bengal, India. No other information is available.	eng
166784	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
166784	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are many threats affecting the Sundarbans region where this species occurs. These include: chemical pollution, salinization, impoundment and diversion of watercourses for irrigation, and sedimentation (Gopal and Chauhan 2006). It is unknown what impact these threats are having on this species.	eng
166785	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No research or conservation action recommended for this species.<br/></p>	eng
166785	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found in India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan and it should be looked for in Bangladesh and Bhutan. In India, it has been reported from Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Pondicherry (Univ. of Michegan Mus. Zool.) Punjab, Sikkim, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Jharkhand, Manipur, Nagaland (Naga Hills), Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal (Subba Rao 1989;&#160; Ramakrishna and Dey 2007, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). A record from the Malay Archipelago requires confirmation.	eng
166785	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in stagnant waters such as small ponds, paddy fields and small streams. This species is the intermediate host of many (Cercariae) trematodes (Sewell 1922).</p>	eng
166785	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This species is abundant in stagnant water bodies but the population trend is unknown. <br/></p>	eng
166785	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is a widespread species  with no significant threats.</p>	eng
166786	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Apart from the type description nothing is known about this species, which makes it a prime candidate for intensive survey, and research in life history, threats and population trends.<br/></p>	eng
166786	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is recorded from a number of locations in Assam, India, from the Brahmaputra river and tributaries.	eng
166786	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found burrowing in the mud of water pools formed by the side of streams (Subba Rao 1989). </p>	eng
166786	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Information on population status is not available.</p>	eng
166786	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166787	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Information is required on the threats and population size of the species.	eng
166787	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium indicum</span> is found in northern India and Nepal. It is known exclusively from small to medium sized streams and rivulets  of mountains in northern India (plains and Himalaya: Manipur (Chandel),  Uttarakhand (Nainital),  Himachal Pradesh (Bilaspur)) and Nepal (upper Bagmati river basin in the   Kathmandu Valley, Punyamata Khola, Ashi Khola, Cha Khola in Kavre District, Phewa Tal, Begnas Tal and Khudi Khola in Kaski District) (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
166787	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. indicum</span> is mainly restricted in the Himalayan mountain streams and rivulets from 800 to 1600 m a.s.l. The preferred habitat is sandy gravel or muddy substrate closed to the banks. Occasionally it is also found under stones with sandy substrate.It  apparently prefers slow-running water bodies, with some records from   lakes and ponds including lower gradients of inner valleys of the   Himalayas. No specimens were recorded in fast flowing mountain streams,   terai region of Nepal or anywhere in the Gangetic plain. It is found in small and medium sized midhill streams with rich organic  matters. &#160;It is also reported from paddy fields and temporary ponds. It  is not found in upstream headwaters, springs and forest streams (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
166787	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>This species is restricted to the mountain range of the Himalayas. This is one of the most abundant bivalve species of the region. There is no systematic study report available on the population status of this species.&#160; <br/></p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166787	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known. <br/> </p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166788	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Surveys to understand actual distribution of this species is needed along with proper taxonomic studies of the populations in different localities as known presently. Research on biology and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166788	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species has been recorded from Bangladesh and India (West   Bengal (Puruliya, Calcutta), Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh (Narmada River), Gujarat (Rann of Kutch), Sepree, Sahib Ganje and Maharastra   (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bhutan and Nepal.<br/><table x:str="" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 451px; height: 20px;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">	eng
166788	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It is found in rivers and ponds.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166788	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166788	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
166789	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	More research on distribution and life history of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166789	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Scabies crispata</span> is recorded from India (a number of records from Assam, including Sibsagar<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> and Arunachal Pradesh), Myanmar (Tavoy, Bhamo), Cambodia (Battambong), and Thailand (Khon Kaen) (Subba Rao 1989). It is likely to have a wider distribution within the region.	eng
166789	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is generally found in rivers, ponds and reservoirs.	eng
166789	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166789	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species has a wide range and is not likely to threatened across its range.	eng
166790	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Detailed surveys and research on the population trend and threats of this species is needed.	eng
166790	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina calatha </span>is a widespread species in northern India from Kashmir in the west to Manipur in the east, and appears to be present throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system. It is also known from Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand (Subba Rao 1989), and likely to be present in Bangladesh.	eng
166790	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	This species is found in swamps, ponds, lakes and wetlands in decaying plant material and leaf litter.	eng
166790	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166790	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Large parts of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system are impacted by a range of threats that include sedimentation (from deforestation and agriculture), pollution (from agriculture, domestic sources and industry), and the impact of hydropower developments. The scale and impact of thesse threast on the species are not understood and needs to be researched.	eng
166792	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	No research or conservation actions are recommended for this species.	eng
166792	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gyraulus rotula</span> has a wide distribution in India and some parts of southeast Asia. In India it has been recorded from&#160;Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (type locality: Moradabad), and Rajasthan. It is also recorded from Sri Lanka and Thailand (e.g. Ubolratana, Khon Kaen Province). Whilst records have not been foumnd, it should be looked for in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and other southeast Asian countries.	eng
166792	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This is very&#160;ubiquitous&#160;species, found in ponds, tanks, ditches,&#160;reservoirs and other stagnant water pools, with aquatic vegetation.	eng
166792	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	No information available.	eng
166792	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There are no perceptible threats to this species.	eng
166793	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No research or conservation actions are recommended for this species.<br/></p>	eng
166793	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea andersoniana </span>is present in India, Myanmar  (Southern Shan States), China (Yunnan), and Nepal. In India, it has been recorded from Assam, Himachal Pradesh (Kullu, Una,  Simla Hills, Kashgar, Kangra Valley), Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) and Manipur (Churachandpur, Chandel, Bishenpur, Thoubal) (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166793	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It occurs in stagnant waters with ample vegetation as well as in streams. The species is an intermediate host for many parasites.<br/></p>	eng
166793	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>     <p></p>	eng
166793	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
166794	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p><p></p>	eng
166794	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Novaculina gangetica</span> is endemic to Ganges River system. It is known from the whole lower Ganges in Bihar, West Bengal and Bangladesh. It was recorded from the upper reaches of the Ganges up to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, 2007).	eng
166794	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">N. gangetica</span> inhabits freshwater as well as slightly oligohaline water of the of the Hugli River downstream from Howra, West Bengal. It colonizes the littoral of the tidal zone. It is found upstream to Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh India in the Ganges River. It prefers soft sand and silt bottom of lotic reaches and remains fixed in the substrate even in strong water waves.<br/></p>	eng
166794	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166794	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known; some parts of the rivers within the species range are highly polluted, and the impact of these threats need to be investigated.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
166795	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no conservation actions in place and more research is needed.	eng
166795	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens generosus</span> has been recorded from Houngdaran River and Pegu in Myanmar (Preston 1915, Subba Rao 1989). In India, it is found in Arunachal Pradesh, and West Sighbhum in Jharkhand (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It is presumed to have a wide distribution in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India and Bangladesh.	eng
166795	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is found in large river systems.	eng
166795	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on population or trends available for this species.	eng
166795	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no major threats known to this species; however, water pollution and habitat loss are general threats known to affect freshwater molluscs.	eng
166796	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>ALthough basic research is required, no immediate research or actions are recommended for this widespread species.&#160;</p>	eng
166796	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is common throughout India (including Andaman Islands), Malay Archipelago (including  Batu Caves (Selangor State, West Malaysia), Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. &#160;Records from Brandt (1974) from Chiang Mai and Lamphun Province in Thailand are considered likely to be introduced.	eng
166796	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is found in rivers and wetland ponds and lakes.	eng
166796	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Population structure of this species is not known.	eng
166796	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no significant threats reported for this species.	eng
166797	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Research on the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient specific information available. The impact of use and potential threats to this species also need to be further studied.<br/>&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
166797	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<em>Parreysia olivaria</em> is found in the Ganges and Lower <st1:place w:st="on">Brahmaputra</st1:place> River systems, recorded from the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Bengal (Subba Rao 1989)</st1:city></st1:place>. It is widely distributed in the Ganges and  Brahmaputra basins, and is likely to be found in Bangladesh, and lower parts  of Bhutan.	eng
166797	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>It inhabits unstable sand substrate of lotic habitats in the main channel of Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Yamuna rivers (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).<br/></p>  <p>&#160; &#160;</p>  <p></p>	eng
166797	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but literature suggests that it is relatively widespread.<br/>&#160;</p><p></p>	eng
166797	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The rivers where it occurs are highly polluted, however, the impact of this on the species is not known.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166798	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Research is needed into the species distribution, ecology and threats.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166798	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	The species is recorded from Port Canning (type locality) and the South 24 Parganas in&#160;West Bengal, India. It is also reported from the Mahanadi Estuary (GBIF; near Cuttack, Orissa, India), and from Guntur District (Andre Pradesh; Ram and Radhakrishna 1984).	eng
166798	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	Found on the sloping muddy shores. It is a detritus feeder.	eng
166798	population	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	The population details of this species is not known.&#160; The species is found spawning during August to December.	eng
166798	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>Urban and agricultural runoff is one of the major threats to the species.</p><p>&#160;</p>	eng
166799	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research is needed on species distribution, ecology, use and threats.  </p>	eng
166799	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems of India and Bangladesh, and from other basins in eastern and southern India. In India, it is reported from Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Nadia) (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007). It's presence in other states within India is likely.	eng
166799	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in mud and silt in shallow waters of streams (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
166799	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This has a wide distribution but population studies are lacking. Population status of this species is not known.&#160; <br/></p>	eng
166799	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Water pollution and habitat loss are known to be the general threats that affect freshwater molluscs in this region; however, no specific threat has been recorded for this species. <br/></p>	eng
166800	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Studies on distribution, life history, threats and population trends are required.</p>	eng
166800	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is present in India (West Bengal: Calcutta, North and South 24 Parganas), Myanmar and Bangladesh.	eng
166800	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is the only species of <em>Assiminea</em> that is freshwater in habit, within areas of tidal influence. It is a detritus feeder that occurs in ponds and canals linked to the Hugli River, and extends as far north as Bandel (India). This species either crawls on the mud or remains attached to bricks, stones, wood, grass etc. on the bank (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
166800	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Spawn densities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Assiminea</span> spp. were observed more than 1000 m<sup>-2</sup>&#160; (A. Dey pers. comm. 2010) from August to December in India. &#160;The maximum population density recorded in the Hugli-Matla estuary was 230 m-² on average (Subba Rao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995).	eng
166800	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known. Further information on the impact of domestic and industrial pollutants and sedimentation is needed.<br/></p>	eng
166801	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166801	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina obtusa</span> is reported from West Bengal (on the bank of the Ganges in Kolkata), India (Subba Rao 1989) and from Bangladesh.	eng
166801	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	A primarily estuarine species, it is found in freshwaters as well (e.g. the Ganges delta).	eng
166801	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known, however there are numerous records from the delta.<br/></p>	eng
166801	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known, and the impact of pollution and sedimentation should be investigated.<br/></p>	eng
166802	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This is a very poorly studied species, nothing known since its description in 1989. &#160;Surveys are critical to establish the distribution of this species and to understand its status.	eng
166802	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia annandalei</span> has been recorded only from Gowahati (Gowhatty), Assam, India in 1912 (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
166802	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on habitats and ecology of this species is not available.	eng
166802	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population status is unknown.	eng
166802	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
166803	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population, trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
166803	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentina trochoidea</span> is widespread in south and southeast Asia, and is likely present throughout the Ganges/Brahmaputra basins. It is known from India (West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Assam) , Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Balapiti), Malaysia, Myanmar (Inle Lake), Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Indonesia (Java and Sumatra) (Subba Rao 1989, Brandt 1974, Gilman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1982, Temcharoen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1982, Subba Rao 1989, Pallabi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).	eng
166803	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in stagnant water bodies such as lakes, ponds in submerged vegetation.	eng
166803	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	No detail information on population trends and status is known for this species. However it is not commonly found.	eng
166803	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There are no specific threats identified apart from general habitat threats that exist in most of the range areas of this species.&#160;</p>	eng
166804	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Rresearch on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>	eng
166804	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	Records for<em> Paludomus reticulata</em> are restricted to the Brahmaputra system in northeastern India: Assam (North Cachar), Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya (West Garo Hills) (Subba Rao 1989). It should be looked for in Bangladesh and Myanmar.	eng
166804	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  This is found in running water.</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>	eng
166804	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.&#160;&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160;&#160;</p>	eng
166804	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p>Hill streams across the species range are impacted by deforestation, sedimentation, and hydropower development; the impact of this potential threats on the species need to be better understood.	eng
166805	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Detailed research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
166805	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species was collected in India only from Chandipal, Kolkata, West Bengal (Subba Rao 1989). Brandt (1974) has reported this species from Ranong Harbour in Thailand. The taxonomic identity of the two disparate populations needs to be studied carefully and verified.	eng
166805	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	&#160;This species occurs in streams and rivers. It is a brackish water species.	eng
166805	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
166805	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
166806	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>This is a very poorly studied species requiring immediate attention to distribution and life history studies as well as research on ecology, threats and population trends.<br/></p>	eng
166806	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>This species is known only from the type locality in Nazipur, Shushong, Mymensing District, Bangladesh. </p>	eng
166806	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>It is found on weeds in deep river water pools. It naturally lives beneath the water surface. It secretes an epiphragm to tide over unfavourable conditions (Subba Rao&#160;1989).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
166806	population	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>It has only been collected from its type locality.<br/></p>	eng
166806	threats	Budha, P.B. & Dutta, J., 2010	<p>The type locality, Mymensing, not far from Dhaka, is heavily developed and rivers may be impacted by pollution, abstraction, and sedimentation (from agriculture). Further information on the impact of possible threats is required. <strong><br/></strong></p>	eng
166808	conservation	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Use and trade details are required. &#160;Also impacts of threats from harvest, if any, needs to be studied.&#160;<br/></p>	eng
166808	distribution	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a widespread species from south and southeast Asia; reported from the Terai and inner valleys of Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, northern Laos, northern Thailand (Lampang, Yala, Ubon Ratchathani, Saraburi, Ayutthaya, Khon Kaen, and Chiang Mai), Pakistan, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is present throughout India, including Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, West Benghal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.	eng
166808	habitat	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is abundant in stagnant water bodies, wetlands and temporary water bodies but it is less common in rivers.	eng
166808	population	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>  <p></p>	eng
166808	threats	Budha, P.B., Dutta, J. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Though there is no specific threat for this species collection from the wild for food and medicine could be a potential threat.&#160; <br/></p>	eng
166856	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166856	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.	eng
166856	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Occurs in shallow coastal waters entering the brackish to freshwater regions of rivers (Nakabo 2002). Spawning takes place in larger aggregations at sea (Nakabo 2002). Feeds on small algae, diatoms, benthic polychaets, crustaceans, molluscs, organic matter and detritus (Nakabo 2002).	eng
166856	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166856	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166868	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
166868	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2006	This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Indo  Pacific.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River,  Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range extends down the east African  coast to Natal, South Africa. It is widespread in the Lower Zambezi River  channels up to Marromeu and in the Micelo River up to Malingapanzi, and is  present in the Save-Runde junction in Zimbabwe.	eng
166868	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2006	Adults are generally found at sea, but the young fish inhabit river mouths,  inner bays, and mangrove forests. In freshwater, it occurs in rivers, lagoons,  lakes, and swampy backwaters (Allen 1991). It tolerates salinities from 0 to  100. Mainly diurnal (Coates 1987). Predaceous, feeding mainly on fishes and  crustaceans (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). It breeds offshore, possibly  throughout the year. Larvae are transparent and resemble larval eels (Bell-Cross  and Mishull 1988). It is known to breath air, rising regularly to the surface to  do so. Cultured in ponds, the fry being sourced from the coasts (Kottelat <em>et  al.</em> 1993). Popular angling fish (Smith 1986). Edible but not esteemed (Smith  1986) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). In the Lower Shire River it has been  reported to be caught in gill nets but not in large numbers.	eng
166868	population	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
166868	threats	Kazembe, J., 2006	This species is locally threatened by overfishing.	eng
166884	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
166884	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. gerlachi</em> is known from China, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam; this species has been reported from the Chao Phraya, Mekong, Nam Ma, Hong (Red River) and Nanpangjiang basins.	eng
166884	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. gerlachi</em> is a benthopelagic species which lives in rapid currents of mountain streams.	eng
166884	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
166884	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Many of the river basins in which <em>O. gerlachi</em> is found,  in particular the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, have been greatly affected by water pollution,; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, which are an additional threat to <em>O. gerlachi</em>; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>Details of the threats within the Nam Ma, Hong and Nanpangjiang basins are not known, however it is likely that these are also affected to at least some extent by pollution and man made hydrological changes; the Hong (Red) river basin in particular is known to have a relatively high population density, and therefore pollution associated with urbanisation is likely.	eng
166892	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166892	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from lower reaches of the east African coastal rivers.	eng
166892	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Found over shallow sand substrate in the vicinity of river mouths. Enters estuaries and rivers (Rahman 1989). Omnivorous feeding on fishes, insects, algae and sand-dwelling invertebrates (Yamada <em>et al. 1995). Spawns in the sea but the juveniles migrate into freshwater.</em>	eng
166892	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available but it is a widespread common species.	eng
166892	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
166894	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Several species are cultured artificially in Asia and Europe. &#160;This species is also raised commercially in Philippines for economic purposes. &#160;</p>	eng
166894	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>The species is known to inhabit tropical and subtropical regions of the world between 22⁰N- 27⁰S. &#160;It has so far not been reported from eastern Himalaya, though its congener (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anguilla bengalensis</span>) has been reported from Nepal.<br/></p>	eng
166894	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Most of life is subsequently spent in lakes, streams and rivers but as the maturity approaches the adults migrate seaward to spawn. &#160;The eels spawn in deep tropical/subtropical oceans. &#160;The larvae are transported and dispersed by ocean currents which metamorphose into glass eels. &#160;These glass eels/elvers in estuaries migrate to freshwater and these juveniles/yellow fin eels (non migratory) grows to silver form (migratory). &#160;The silver form migrates to sea for spawning before they die. </p>	eng
166894	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	In studies conducted at southern Sri Lanka the species was stated to be fairly uniform as reflected in the catch per unit effort.	eng
166894	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The adult individuals migrating back to sea for spawning are the most difficult phase of its life as they are vulnerable to fishing. &#160;The migratory routes cease to exist due to multiple impoundments in small streams and rivers.	eng
166923	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information is required on the species habitat and populations, as well as the impact of habitat loss.	eng
166923	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	The species occurs in India (Priang River near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya and in Arunachal Pradesh), Bangladesh, and Nepal. It may also be present in Bhutan.<br/><span>	eng
166923	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	It is found in mountain streams (high gradient streams); mostly found in water falls and high gradient riffles.	eng
166923	population	Britz, R., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
166923	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Hill streams are threatened across the region by deforestation causing siltation. This species inhabits streams with boulder, and mining and quarrying are potential threats to its habitat and populations.	eng
166925	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166925	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Monodactylus argenteus</em> is recorded from the Red Sea coastal areas in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Red Sea and East Africa to Samoa, north to the Yaeyamas Islands in Japan, south to New Caledonia and Australia. It is known from the freshwater tidal zone of the Mekong delta.	eng
166925	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is found in bays, mangrove estuaries, tidal creeks, and lower reaches of freshwater streams. Occasionally occurs in silty coastal reefs. It feeds on plankton and detritus. Commonly seen in schools, small juveniles either solitary or in small aggregations. It is highly territorial. It is caught with throw nets.	eng
166925	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166925	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166933	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166933	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
166933	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
166933	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Oreochromis aureus</em> is common in coastal lagoons, the Delta, Ismailia Canal, confined to the Nile Delta. It is also present in Manzalah and Abu Zaabal Lakes in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in western Africa (Senegal and Niger River systems), the Nile River system, Middle East (Jordan Valley, Syria).	eng
166933	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within western Africa the natural distribution area of this species comprises, is the River Senegal, the Middle Niger (up to Busa in Nigeria), Upper Benue, Lake Chad, Lower Logone and Lower Chari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Jordan Valley, Lower Nile, Chad Basin, Benue, middle and upper Niger, Senegal River.	eng
166933	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is widespread in western Africa, from Senegal to Chad, as well as  being known from the Nile Delta.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is confined  to the Nile Delta region in Egypt, but is common in coastal lagoons, the Delta  and Ismailia Canal. Also present in Manzalah and Abu Zaabal Lakes in  Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within Western Africa the natural  distribution area of this species comprises the River Senegal, the Middle Niger  (up to Busa in Nigeria), This species is known from upper Benue, Lake Chad,  Lower Logone and Lower Chari.	eng
166933	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Benthopelagic, potamodromous species. The spawning season is between March-August, spawning in shallow waters. They are mouth brooders where females incubate eggs in their buccal cavity. It can tolerate salinities up to about 20%. It reaches a length to 30 cm. Able to survive 10°C. Hybridization between <em>O. niloticus</em> females and <em>O. aureus</em> males can results in high ratio of male offspring depending on genetic make-ups including the genetic purity of bloodstock.	eng
166933	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<p><span class="sheader51">This is a benthopelagic species, potamodromous species which feeds on phytoplankton and small quantities of zooplankton. Young fish have a more varied diet which includes large quantities of copepods and cladoceran. This species forms schools, and is sometimes territorial. It inhabits warm ponds and impoundments as well as lakes and streams. Spawning season is March-August, and it spawns in shallow, fresh and brackish waters. They are mouth brooders where females incubate eggs in their buccal cavity. It can tolerate salinities of up to about 20%. Hybridization between <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> females and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. aureus</span> males can result in high ratio of male offspring depending on genetic make-up including the genetic purity of broodstock.</p>	eng
166933	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in occurs at temperatures ranging from 8°-30°C. Forms schools; is sometimes territorial.  Inhabits warm ponds and impoundments as well as lakes and streams.  Reproduces in both fresh and brackish water.  Feeds on phytoplankton and small quantities of zooplankton.  Young fish have a more varied diet which includes large quantities of copepods and cladocerans.	eng
166933	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
166933	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
166933	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
166933	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
166933	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction.	eng
166933	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction threaten this species in north Africa.	eng
166946	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. obscurus</em> was listed as a Class II protected animal within the Yunnan Province of China.	eng
166946	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. obscurus</em> is found in the Xijiang River system in Southwest China.  It occurs in the Guangxi Province (known from Bama and Baise divisions) to Yunnan (Fuyuan and Yiliang Counties, and Yuangjiang River) (Wang 1998).  This species has also been reported from the River Gam, Vietnam (Forest protection Department and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 2002).	eng
166946	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. obscurus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits streams in mountainous areas, often in caves.	eng
166946	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The natural population of <em>S. obscurus</em> is reported as small (Wang 1998).	eng
166946	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. obscurus</em> may be locally threatened by overfishing and pollution.	eng
166959	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166959	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. laevelli</em> is known from the Hong (Red) River in China (Guangxi province) and Viet Nam, and the Nam Ma and Nam Mat river basins in northeastern Lao PDR.	eng
166959	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. leavelli</em> is a benthopelagic species which is tolerant of changes to it's environment and can be found in heavily polluted waters.	eng
166959	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
166959	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. leavelli</em> is tolerant of heavily polluted water, so pollution in the area is not thought to be a major threat to the species (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  Likewise, fishing is not thought to be a great threat to <em>R. leavelli</em>.	eng
166960	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
166960	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. tonkinensis</em> is known from the Nam Xam basin, Lao PDR and northern Viet Nam.	eng
166960	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. tonkinensis</em> is a demersal species found in slow flowing streams and swamps.	eng
166960	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
166960	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity within the range of <em>N. tonkinensis</em>, however as the precise range of this species is not know it is not possible to know the direct threats to <em>N. tonkinensis</em>; some parts of northern Viet Nam are densely populated and highly modified, however there are more remote areas where there are less environmental threats.	eng
166965	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
166965	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.  It is also reported from Mae Klong River.	eng
166965	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. aurotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs near the surface of ponds, canals and streams.  It is often found in turbid waters.	eng
166965	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
166965	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
166975	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
166975	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
166975	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, the natural distribution area covers the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benue and Chad and in the Black Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1958), Pra and Bia basins. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). Recorded from the Densu River at Weija. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> is one of Africa’s most important fish culture species; it has been introduced in many fish culture stations, from where it has regularly escaped. Therefore it has often been reported from several coastal western African basins. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Coastal rivers of Israel; Nile from below Albert Nile to the delta; Jebel Marra; Lake Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Benue, Volta, Gambia and Sénégal. It is widely introduced for aquaculture, with many existing strains.	eng
166975	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The species is native to Lakes Tanganika, Kivu and Edward  and associated waters, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi systems. Also native to Lakes Baringo, Turkana and the Suguka River. This species has also been introduced to nearly all the African tropical waters systems (even beyond) for aquaculture including Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Nagunmbo Nakivali, Kacheran and Kijanebarola.	eng
166975	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Intolerant of high salinities and with an upper lethal temperature limit of 39 to 40°C. Rarely found in deeper parts of rivers usually favouring well-vegetated canals (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is capable of using a wide range of food materials, but from a total length of about 5 cm it is almost entirely herbivorous. Where phytoplankton are abundant they form the bulk of its diet (Trewavas 1993). Although macrophytes are not its typical food they do form a significant part of its diet in certain waters. The young fry are omnivorous feeding on copepods, aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae, aufwuchs and detritus (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is a maternal mouthbrooder and the males build nests in firm sand at depths between 0.6 and 2.0 m. Schools of ripe females gather at the surface above the nesting territories and from time to time a female descends to spawn. The female leaves the territory of the male with the brood (de Moor and Bruton 1988; Trewavas 1983). This species represents the most important element in fisheries catches in many lakes in tropical Africa and is a favoured species for aquaculture.	eng
166975	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, sewage canals and irrigation channels. Mainly diurnal. Feeds mainly on phytoplankton or benthic algae. Enters lagoons from upstream riverine areas with the onset of the rainy season. Marketed fresh and frozen. Inhabit the littoral zone of lakes and are abundant in Lakes Turkana (Rudolf) and Albert. Although a freshwater species they are also found in brackish water like in the Nile Delta. The area occupied by the species extends from 8° S to 32° N and from 6000 ft (1830 m) to sea level. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span> of Lake Edward form very large schools of 100 m<sup>2</sup> or more at the lake surface when feeding.	eng
166975	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
166975	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Widespread and abundant.	eng
166975	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
166975	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are overfishing, as native stocks may be locally overfished, and hybridisation.	eng
166994	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
166994	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. n. formosanus</em> is found in China and in northern and northeastern Taiwan.  <em>R. n. nagoyae</em> is found in China, Taiwan, and Honsu, Kyushu, the Ryukyu Islands of Japan.	eng
166994	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>R. nagoyae</em> is a benthopelagic and amphidromous species.	eng
166994	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
166994	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are a number of potential threats to <em>R. nagoyae</em> including pollution and hydrological projects such as dams and water diversion projects, however it is not known whether these pose a direct threat to the species.	eng
167002	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
167002	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. dispar</em> is known from the Mekong and Nam Ma basins in Lao PDR, central and northern Viet Nam, and southern China.  It has also been reported from the Yangtze River basin (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
167002	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. dispar</em> is a benthopelagic species, which is found in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
167002	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
167002	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to <em>P. dispar</em>, in both the Mekong and Yangtze river basins, is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (Fu <em>et al</em>. 2003, International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>Pollution, from agriculture, industry, and urban areas, is also a major threat to biodiversity in both the Mekong and the Yangtze.  Furthermore, these rivers are used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No information about the levels of these threats in the Nam Ma basin is readily available, therefore it is assumed to be at a similar level to the other river basins within the range of this species.	eng
167009	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
167009	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. tonkinensis</em> is found in Viet Nam and the Yunnan province of China.	eng
167009	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. tonkinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167009	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
167009	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in Yunnan and Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the Mekong delta was once a mosaic of wetlands and forest, but today the majority of the area is agricultural.  Any remaining wetland areas are likely to be lost in the future if current trends continue.  Likewise, the delta of the Red River in north Viet Nam was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).	eng
167013	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known, but policy-based actions are recommended. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
167013	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This subspecies is widely distributed from Senegal to Somalia, and north to the Nile delta. This subspecies has also been introduced to nearly all the African tropical waters systems (even beyond) for aquaculture.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus</span> was introduced mainly after 1955, from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon, but Moreau <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1988) and Welcomme (1981, 1988) give 1958 as the year of introduction, with unknown origin. In both cases, introduction was for aquaculture purposes. The subspecies has also been introduced, in 1975, from Bangui, Central African Republic, to Cameroon. It is self reproducing and established in the wild, more specifically in the Noun marsh, Djerem River and Sanaga River, where it has already replaced native species. In Cameroon it is now the most important fish used in aquaculture and is used in fish stations throughout the country. It has also been introduced, for aquacultural purposes, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo. The subspecies is reproducing and established in the wild. Further, it is listed by FAO (1999, 2005) for aquacultural production in Gabon, introduced at an unknown date. It is unknown whether the subspecies is established or not. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> It is native to Lakes Baringo, Turkana and the Suguka River. It has been widely introduced elsewhere, including Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Nagunmbo Nakivali, Kacheran and Kijanebarola.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Africa:</span> This subspecies is found in the Juba system, Somalia, throughout the Nile basin to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, several water bodies in Ethiopia and Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> In West Africa, the natural distribution area covers the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benue and Chad and in the Black Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1958), Pra and Bia basins. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999). Also recorded from the Densu river at Weija. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. niloticus</span>&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>is one of Africa’s most important fish culture species; it has been introduced in many fish culture stations, from where it has regularly escaped. Therefore it has often been reported from several coastal western African basins. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.	eng
167013	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<p><span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus </span>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous fish that occurs in a wide variety of freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, sewage canals and irrigation channels. Although a freshwater subspecies they are also found in brackish water like in the Nile Delta. It is rarely found in deeper parts of rivers usually favouring well-vegetated canals (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is capable of using a wide range of food materials, but from a total length of about 5 cm it is almost entirely herbivorous. Where phytoplankton are abundant they form the bulk of its diet (Trewavas 1993). Although macrophytes are not its typical food they do form a significant part of its diet in certain waters. The young fry are omnivorous feeding on copepods, aquatic and terrestrial insect larvae, aufwuchs and detritus (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It enters lagoons from upstream riverine areas with the onset of the rainy season. This subspecies is oviparous, with mouth-brooding by females. Sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 months depending on temperature, reaching about 30 g. Reproduction occurs only when temperatures are over 20°C. Several yearly spawnings every 30 days. Females incubate eggs inside their mouths (approximately for a week) where larvae hatch and remain until the vitellus is reabsorbed. The egg size is 1.5 mm, the larval length at hatching is 4 mm. It spawns in firm sand in water from 0.6 to 2 m deep of lakes. Males set up and defend their territory which are visited by the females. The courtship lasts for several hours. The eggs are shed in batches in shallow nest and fertilized by the male. Each batch of eggs is picked up into the oral cavity by the female. Only the females are involved in the broodcare. The female carries up to 200 eggs in her mouth where the larvae hatch and remain until after the yolk-sac is absorbed. This fish represents the most important element in fisheries catches in many lakes in tropical Africa and is a favoured subspecies for aquaculture.</p>	eng
167013	population	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widespread and abundant.	eng
167013	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis niloticus niloticus</span> is a highly commercial subspecies and is used for commercial aquaculture. It is also threatened by degradation of suitable habitat, and hybridisation.	eng
167015	conservation	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available	eng
167015	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population  numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as  monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
167015	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
167015	distribution	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). East coast from Tanzania southward. Tana River (Copley 1958). Possibly also occurring in other eastward flwing rivers (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Currently not in collections from Kenyan rivers (Seegers <em>et al. 2004).	eng
167015	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	The subspecies has been recorded from eastern African Rivers, only present in lower coastal plain sections. In Zimbabwe only known from the Save-Runde confluence.	eng
167015	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This subspecies is found in east African coastal rivers, from South Africa to  Tanzania, and probably extending all the way to Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern  Africa:</strong> This subspecies is found the length of the east coast from Tanzania  southward including Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Tana River  (Copley 1958). Possibly also occurring in other eastward flowing rivers (Seegers  <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Although there are  currently no collections from Kenyan rivers (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), the  known locality in Somalia suggests that this species is present the entire  length of the African east coast<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the eastern African  Rivers, only present in lower coastal plain sections. In Zimbabwe only known  from the Save-Runde confluence. Nowhere common.	eng
167015	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Largely restricted to the coastal plain, although recorded inland from the Lower Shire River, a tributary of the Lower Zambezi in Malawi (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
167015	habitat	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Migratory species, breeds in the ocean (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Lives in freshwater  areas as an adult, in estuaries and seas as young (Rainboth 1996). Inhabits freshwater streams and pools, preferring marshy habitats. Descends to the sea to spawn (Menon 1999). Restricted to lowland coastal reaches of river systems (Skelton 1993). Found in rivers and creeks, commonly over rock bottoms and in deeper pools. Seldom occurs in large rivers (Pethiyagoda 1991). Feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. Reported to breed east of Madagascar; the south equatorial current probably carries the eel larvea and elvers towards the east coast of Africa where local coastal currents guide the elvers to suitable rivers which they invade and they stay there until sexually mature, when they return to their breeding grounds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). <br/>Max size: 100.0 cm Tl (after Froese and Pauly 2003).</em>	eng
167015	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This is a migratory subspecies which breeds in the ocean (Seegers <em>et al.</em>  2003). It lives in freshwater areas as an adult, and in estuaries and seas as  young (Rainboth 1996). This subspecies inhabits freshwater streams and pools,  preferring marshy habitats. Descends to the sea to spawn (Menon 1999). This  species is restricted to lowland coastal reaches of river systems (Skelton 1993)  although recorded inland from the Lower Shire River, a tributary of the Lower  Zambezi in Malawi (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). This species is found in rivers  and creeks, commonly over rock bottoms and in deeper pools. Seldom occurs in  large rivers (Pethiyagoda 1991). It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Reported to breed east of Madagascar; the south equatorial current  probably carries the eel larvea and elvers towards the east coast of Africa  where local coastal currents guide the elvers to suitable rivers which they  invade and they stay there until sexually mature, when they return to their  breeding grounds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<span class="sheader5">	eng
167015	population	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available	eng
167015	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No population information is available.	eng
167015	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Uncommon.	eng
167015	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No major threats are thought to occur, though overfishing could be a potential  problem.	eng
167015	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known at present.	eng
167015	threats	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
167041	conservation	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	No information is available on the conservation of this species.	eng
167041	distribution	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region>The species is recorded from China (Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Taiwan and  Guangdong provinces), Japan, Viet Nam (Ky Cung and Bang Giang rivers in Cao Bang, Lang Son  provinces,  Taiwan (Ba Be lake, Bac Can  province), India, Thailand (in the northernmost parts of the provinces of Mae Hongson, Chieng Mai, Nan and Chieng Rai) and  Myanmar. The record for India is for "Culcutta" (GBIF data; ANSP) and the actual location and current distribution within India requires confirmation.	eng
167041	habitat	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	This species inhabits pools, tanks, ponds and other stagnant water bodies, and other lentic water bodies such as rice fields,  ditches, the coastal bank of shallow brook and lake. They especially  like water bodies with large amounts of aquatic plants and feed on them. In Thailand, it is known to harbour a blood fluke (<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma incognitum</span>) which may cause cercarial dermatitis in humans. It is also the first intermediate host of <span style="font-style: italic;">Fasciola hepatica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">gigantica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Orientobilharzia harinasutai</span> and several avian species of blood-flukes. <span style="font-style: italic;">L. swinhoei</span> serves also as second intermediate host for several species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinostomatidae</span>.	eng
167041	population	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	No data on population density of this species are available.	eng
167041	threats	Madhyastha, A., Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in those developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>	eng
167059	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167059	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Ranges across south China including Taiwan. Recorded from type-locality in Fujian, Taiwan and Zhejiang (Chao 1990). Lieftinck <em>et al</em> (1984) provides details of records from five sites in central and northern Taiwan. It is more abundant in north Taiwan (Wang 2000). Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) records <em>deflexus</em> from Nanling, north Guangdong.	eng
167059	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	This species prefers moderately fast flowing streams with stony substrates in forested areas.	eng
167059	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167059	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sieboldius deflexus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
167060	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species. However this a need for additional distributional information and for fresh data from large parts of the species range.<br/></p>	eng
167060	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<em>Gynacantha bayadera</em> is widespread, with scattered records from India to south China and northern New Guinea. It has been recorded from a number of mainland Chinese provinces, but Wilson & Xu (2008) consider its distribution in mainland China to be uncertain. There are many old records from Sumatra and Java, but fewer records from Borneo, where it has not yet been found in Sarawak.	eng
167060	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>This is a crepuscular species which probably breeds in forested swamps and marshy areas, or in forest pools. Although it has been recorded at high altitudes, it appears to mainly be a lowland species.<br/></p>	eng
167060	population	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>This species is known from scattered records, but it is crepuscular in it its habits and almost certainly under-recorded. It is likely to be quite common where it occurs.&#160; </p>	eng
167060	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Deforestation is likely to be the major threat to this species. However, it does not appear to be under any major threat at present.</p>	eng
167061	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
167061	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from China, including Anhui, Fujian, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Zhejiang (Hua 2001) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Japan, including Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), Korea (Lee 2001) and the Ussuri river basin, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).	eng
167061	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents lentic habitats including ponds, lake margins and marshes.	eng
167061	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167061	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167062	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167062	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Wilson (1997) described <em>Protosticta beaumonti</em> from three sites in Hong Kong including Lantau and Hong Kong Island and also Dinghushan, central Guangdong. Later Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded <em>beaumonti</em> from Diding, northwest Guangxi and Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded it from four sites in Guangdong at Qixingkeng, Heishiding, Nanling and Dinghushan. Wilson (2004) lists seven sites where it has been recorded in Hong Kong.	eng
167062	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents trickles and head streams in shady forest.	eng
167062	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed although appears to be uncommon.	eng
167062	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167066	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
167066	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Copera ciliata </em><span lang="EN-GB">is widely distributed from southern China to Himachal Pradesh in India and southwards to Sumatra.</p>	eng
167066	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found on shady ponds and similar habitats, and sometimes on slow flowing forest streams. It is tolerant of a high degree of disturbance.</p>	eng
167066	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species.</p>	eng
167066	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened globally.<br/></p>	eng
167074	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167074	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Indolestes peregrinus</em> is known from China, including Fujian, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Yunnan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000: as <em>Indolestes peregrinus</em> Ris and as <em>Indolestes extranea</em> Needham) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Korea [Lee 2001: as <em>Indolestes gracilis</em> (nec Hagen)] and Japan including Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
167074	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	This species is found in forest near small montane streams.	eng
167074	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167074	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167077	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167077	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from south China including Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007) and Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and northern Vietnam. Kimmins (1936) did not give further details of the type-locality other than "Tonkin".	eng
167077	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Prefers broad stony streams in at foothills of mountainous areas.	eng
167077	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167077	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167082	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167082	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zygonyx iris</span> is a widely distributed species, occurring from northeast India to China and south to Borneo.	eng
167082	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	The species breeds in the swift rocky streams, including those in open and agricultural land. Larva are adapted&#160; to cling on rocks .	eng
167082	population	Sharma, G., 2010	A common species over much of its range.	eng
167082	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	There are not thought to be threats to the species across its range.	eng
167084	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
167084	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Common and widespread across much of central and eastern China, Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan. It is absent from Hokkeido, Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and less common in southern China. Hua (2000) reports it from Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Zhejiang. The type-locality is Zhejiang province. It is less common in south China where limited material has been reported from Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007).	eng
167084	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents slow-flowing streams and rivers in flatlands and hill areas. May occur in open or forested areas and urban streams with good water quality.	eng
167084	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
167084	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167085	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Specific conservation measures for this species are unlikely to be needed, but there is a need for more data on distribution and biology.<br/></p>	eng
167085	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Anotogaster gregoryi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (Vick 1989), China with records from Yunnan (e.g. Fraser 1924) and Guangdong (Wilson 2010) and possibly Sichuan (Asahina 1988), Chiang Mai in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), possibly Tibet (Asahina 1988), Viet Nam and Laos (Yokoi 2003). Based on the known records it is to be expected in Bhutan, Arunchal Pradesh in India and possibly other north-eastern states in India (see below), and Myanmar. Asahina (1988), in a very unclear piece of text, recorded specimens labelled as from "Thibet", but he appears to consider that these actually come from Sichuan. Asahina (1986) also remarks on a specimen of this species in the Natural History Museum, London, labelled only as "Khasia Nat. Coll."; possibly this specimen originated in northeast India. Only the records from Guangdong and Laos are recent.</p>	eng
167085	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This appears to be a montane species, presumably breeding in forest streams, although little has been recorded about its habitat.</p>	eng
167085	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although not many specimens of this species have been collected, this is typical of fast flying Anisoptera from poorly sampled regions; it is likely to be fairly common across much of its range.</p>	eng
167085	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Some populations of this species are likely to be threatened by deforestation or large-scale hydroelectric projects, but with its wide distribution it is unlikely to be globally threatened.<br/></p>	eng
167090	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for more data on this species, particularly on habitat and distribution.	eng
167090	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species appears to be widely distributed, with records from India, Nepal, Thailand, Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Yunnan in China. No records have been seen from Myanmar, but it is to be expected there.	eng
167090	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available on the habitat requirements of this species, but it almost certainly breeds in streams.	eng
167090	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No information for the hole range, but it is reported to be common in West Bengal.	eng
167090	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167093	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167093	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobasileus croceus </span>is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and southwards to Java and the Philippines.	eng
167093	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	The species breeds in weedy ponds and lakes.	eng
167093	population	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is quite common across its range.	eng
167093	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167095	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167095	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Chao (1990) records <em>tantulus</em> from Fujian, Zhejiang. Hua (2000) also records <em>tantulus</em> from Henan.	eng
167095	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of this genus prefer clear mountain streams with gravel substrates.	eng
167095	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167095	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
167096	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need to resolve the taxonomic issues surrounding this species, and for more data on its distribution outside of Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. There does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures to be made for <em>P. v. verticalis</em> on Borneo or for <em>P. v. humeralis</em> in Peninsular Malaysia. </p>	eng
167096	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> was described from Borneo (Selys 1860) and is a very common species in many parts of the island (e.g. Lieftinck 1954, Tsuda & Kitagawa 1989, Orr 2001, 2003, Dow and Reels 2008, 2010, Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008); most of these records are from Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah but it certainly occurs in Kalimantan as well. It is somewhat doubtful if any of the records from outside Borneo really refer to the nominate subspecies, but Tsuda and Kitagawa (1988) record it from Sumatra, Fraser records if from southern Myanmar (1933a) and from Laos (1933b) as do Yokoi and Souphanthong (2004), and Schmidt (1964) also records it from Myanmar, Wilson and Reels (2003) record it from Guangxi in southern China. Asahina (1983) recorded it from locations in Thailand, but Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) treat these records as <em>Prodasineura</em> sp. nec. <em>verticalis</em>. <em>P. v, andamanensis</em> is known from the southern Andaman Islands (Fraser 1933, Chhotani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1983). <em>P. v. annandalei</em> is known from southern India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Bedjani? 1996, Prasad 2000), where it appears to be widely distributed. <em>P. v. burmanensis</em> is known from Myanmar (Fraser 1933) and Mizoram in India (Prasad 1997). <em>P. v. delia</em> is known from Sumatra and Nias (e.g. Lieftinck 1931), other records of <em>P. verticalis</em> from Nias (e.g. Selys 1889) apparently do not refer to either <em>P. v. delia</em> or <em>P. v. verticalis</em> (Lieftinck 1931). <em>P. v. humeralis</em> is known from Peninsular Malaysia (e,g. Orr 2005); probably all records of <em>P. v. verticalis</em> (e.g. Brooks 1981) and most or all records of <em>P. autumnalis</em> from mainland Malaysia actually refer to this subspecies. </p>	eng
167096	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">On Borneo <em>P. v. verticalis</em> occupies a wide range of forest streams, including streams in highly disturbed forest, and/or with only a narrow buffer zone of forest surrounded by cleared land or plantations. In Peninsular Malaysia <em>P .v. humeralis</em> seems to occupy a similar range of habitats. There is little information on the other subspecies and forms.</p>	eng
167096	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is common in Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah at least. <em>P. v. humeralis</em> appears to be common in Peninsular Malaysia. There is insufficient data to make definitive statements about populations in other parts of the range of this species.</p>	eng
167096	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">P. v. verticalis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> does not appear to be threatened in Borneo, neither does <em>P. v. humeralis</em> in Peninsular Malaysia. We have insufficient data to assess threats to other populations.</p>	eng
167097	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	The taxonomic issues need to be resolved and there is a need for further data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.	eng
167097	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	As currently understood this is a widespread species occurring from west India to Japan and south to Java and the lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
167097	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	&#160;Breeds in small tanks and also pools in river beds. <span style="font-style: italic;">O. p. schneideri</span> at least is more dependent on forest than many <span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum</span> species.	eng
167097	population	Sharma, G., 2010	<p>This is a common species across parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
167097	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	<p>Individual populations are likely to be threatened by development of one kind or another, but overall this species is not threatened.<br/></p>	eng
167098	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed at this time.</p>	eng
167098	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Orthetrum triangulare</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is widely distributed in Asia.</p>	eng
167098	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is usually found in hilly and montane areas. It breeds in small ponds and marshy areas, and is tolerant of disturbance.</p>	eng
167098	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species can be somewhat local, but is common where it occurs across much of its range.</p>	eng
167098	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>	eng
167106	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<p>Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.<em></em></p>	eng
167106	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	May (1933) described <em>Lestomima flavostigma</em> from 'Wen-Tu-Wei', Guangdong based on two males collected by Mell 18 July. No year is given but in keeping with other material collected by Mell in north Guangdong it is presumably 1910. The location of 'Wen-Tu-Wei', is unknown but Ris (1916) described <em>Philoganga vetusta</em> based on a male specimen collected by Mell on 20 July 1910 from Tsa-Yiu-San, north Guangdong, (25º30’N, 114ºE). It is therefore highly likely that the <em>Lestomima flavostigma</em> was collected from a location very close to Tsa-Yiu-San since it was collected just two days later.	eng
167106	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane streams.	eng
167106	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167106	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167110	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167110	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A southern Chinese species ranging from Guangdong through Fujian to Zhejiang and may also occur in Sichuan. Needham (1930) described <em>Megalestes heros</em> from two males; one collected from 'Yen Ping', Fujian and the second, a teneral specimen, from 'Suifu', Sichuan. Chao (1965) synonymised <em>Megalestes suensoni</em> Asahina, described from 'Tien-Mu-Shan', Zhejiang, with heros and provided details of specimens of <em>heros</em> from 'Ta-chu-lan, Shaowu Hsien (1,500 m)', Fujian. Asahina (1985b) listed additional records of <em>heros</em> from 'Tschung Sen (2,300 m), Kuatun, Fujian. Both Chao (1965) and Asahina (1985b) are uncertain as to the true identity of Needham's (1930) teneral '<em>heros</em>' specimen from Sichuan. Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) reported <em>heros</em> from Nanling, north Guangdong and Wilson and Xu (2007) provided details of five specimens from five sites within Nanling, north Guangdong and also provided a photo of an ovipositing female. Wilson and Xu (in press) has examined specimens of <em>heros</em> collected by Professor Xu, South China Agricultural University, collected from Wuyanling Provincial Nature Reserve, Zhejiang Province.	eng
167110	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents montane forested streams.	eng
167110	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known to have a stable population although numbers are lacking.	eng
167110	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167113	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place to regulate the use of pest control substances that are affecting this species.	eng
167113	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	The species has wide distribution in eastern Asia and is known from Western Japan (southwest Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu, Yakushima, Tanegashima, Tsusima); Taiwan; China and Korea.	eng
167113	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species is usually found in lowland ponds, swamps and paddy fields.	eng
167113	population	Karube, H., 2007	Recently their distribution has expanded towards the north, because of global warming; especially in the south Kanto area.	eng
167113	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The species has experienced and is continuing to be affected by the use of pesticides in pest control and the associated agricultural and domestic pollution.	eng
167117	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167117	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Stylurus clathratus</em> is restricted to central, southern and southwestern China including Fujian, Guangdong, Hubei and Sichuan. Described from a pair collected from Fujian by C.R. Kellogg, a female from Shanghai Museum, and two males and a female collected from 'Foochow' , Fuzhou or 'Amoy' , Xiamen (Needham 1930). Asahina (1978) recorded <em>Stylurus amicus</em> Needham, collected by Kellogg, from plains of Foochow, which was re-identified as <em>clathatrus</em> Chao (1990). Chao (1990) provides details of specimens collected from Fujian, Guangdong and Sichuan [Taiwan was also listed by Chao (1990) in error]. Wilson (1999) recorded <em>clathratus</em> from Dinghushan, Guangdong. Hua (2000) also lists <em>clathratus</em> from Hubei.	eng
167117	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.	eng
167117	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167117	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
167119	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Planning controls have been put in place which have afforded 'conservation' and 'green belt' status. However, the area would best be served by incorporation into the surrounding Country Park, which would safeguard the site's future.	eng
167119	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male collected from "Ling Sioh", Fujian (Needham 1930). There is a Ling-Sioh Monastery located in Fuqing County, southeast Fuzhou, Fujian. No further records until a population discovered in Sha Lo Tung, Hong Kong (Wilson 1995). Wilson (1997a) made recommendations to protect this area due to its high conservation value for dragonflies. There has been some damage to the site during the late 1990's but the population may now be stable.  However there are continued development proposals for Sha Lo Tung, which is an unprotected site (Wilson 1997b), although it now benefits from planning control legislation. The area is classed, in planning terms, as “Conservation Area” and “Green Belt”. Any proposed development requires approval from the Hong Kong planning authority.	eng
167119	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Small, shallow gradient streams with gravel and mud substrates.	eng
167119	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The main population at Sha Lo Tung occupies a small catchment area (<em>ca</em> 80 ha), containing several small streams.	eng
167119	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The Sha Lo Tung site in Hong Kong has been damaged in the past by uncontrolled site clearance. Major threats are from ongoing development proposals for housing and 'spa' style development.	eng
167123	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
167123	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Ris (1917) described <em>buchi</em> from a series of specimens collected from Fujian by P.A. Buch, in summer 1916.  Needham (1930) recorded it from 'Lo-chen-tsien', Guangxi and 'Foochow', southeast Fujian. Asahina (1979) recorded <em>buchi</em> from 'Shaowu', north Fujian and noted a male specimen from 'Canton' Guangdong, (collection notes: leg. Mell), in the Eric Schmidt collection. Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded it from Mulun, north Guangxi. Vincent Kalkman (2007) has also posted a good series of photos taken from Longsheng, north Guangxi, on the 'AsiaDragonfly' web pages. Sui and Sun (1984) lists <em>buchi</em> from Fujian and Sichuan.	eng
167123	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Philosina</em> prefers slower margins of forested stream and rivers.	eng
167123	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167123	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Philosina buchi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams, roads and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
167124	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The species is common and widespread.	eng
167124	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Has a broad range from Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam through to southern, southwestern and central China including Taiwan (Tsuda 2000), Macau (Easton and Liang 2000) and Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) to Korea (Lee 2001), Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and southern, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007). Tsuda (2000) records the subspecies <em>clavatus phaleratus</em> Sélys, from Myanmar, Nepal and Thailand, which is a synonym (Steinman 1997).	eng
167124	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Prefers lentic waters i.e. lakes, ponds and reservoirs.	eng
167124	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167124	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167125	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
167125	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from type-locality in Sichuan, Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003) and Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007).	eng
167125	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found on large slow flowing broad rivers.	eng
167125	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167125	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Water pollution is causing a major threat to <em>Indocypha katharina</em> habitat; sewage from commercial and domestic sources are degrading the wetlands.	eng
167126	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167126	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Fujian (Chai 1954) and recorded from Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Jiangxi and Zhejiang (Hua 2000).	eng
167126	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in rivers and streams.	eng
167126	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167126	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Amphigomphus hansoni</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.	eng
167131	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167131	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from just four locations: (i) the type-locality in Fujian (Chao 1990), (ii) Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), (iii) Dinghushan, Guangdong (Wilson 1999), and (iv) Nanling, north Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
167131	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Prefers forested hills streams.	eng
167131	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167131	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sieboldius alexanderi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
167133	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167133	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is widely distributed from India to Japan.	eng
167133	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is found in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, paddyfields, irregation canals etc.	eng
167133	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is often a very common where it occurs.	eng
167133	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not theatened.	eng
167136	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Any conservation actions that might be needed for this species cannot be planned without additional data, especially on its habitat requirements. The priority is for expert sampling across its known range to gather the necessary data.	eng
167136	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Periaeschna flinti</span> is known from scattered locations in China (e.g. Wilson and Xu 2008) and the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Asahina 1981).	eng
167136	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitats of this species, although it is clearly a species of uplands and mountain, and is likely to require forest for its survival.	eng
167136	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Little information is available on this species, but judging from the number of specimens that have been recorded it is likely to be fairly common in mountainous parts of southern China. Subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. f. assamensis</span> is known only from the type series of two specimens.	eng
167136	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Without definite information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to assess any threats it might face, although deforestation is likely to be the main threat. However it is widely distributed in China at least and not likely to be threatened across its entire range.	eng
167139	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
167139	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Prodasineura autumnalis</em> (Fraser) is a common and wide ranging Asian species listed by Tsuda (2000) from China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsula Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam. Within China Hua (2000) lists it from Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong, Yunnan and Zhejiang. Easton and Liang (2000) also record it from Macau. Fraser (1933) records <em>autumnalis</em> from Assam, Myanmar, Tonkin and Java. Lieftinck (1954) provides distribution records for <em>autumnalis</em> within Malaysia and Indonesia recording it from Sumatra and Borneo.	eng
167139	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents streams in open and forested country.	eng
167139	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167139	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167147	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167147	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<p><em>Ceriagrion olivaceum</em> is a widespread species in South Asia. Its known range encompasses most of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Nepal</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Lao PDR</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Viet Nam</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Cambodia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">peninsular Malaysia</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Mitra 2002).</p>	eng
167147	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<em>Ceriagrion olivaceum</em> occurs at slow running marshy streams, ponds, rice fields and irrigation channels.&#160;<h1 style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">  </h1>	eng
167147	population	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is common in much of its range.	eng
167147	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167148	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
167148	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Brachydiplax chalybea</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species, extending from the east of India to Japan and southwards to Java and Sulawesi.</p>	eng
167148	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is found in marshes and weedy ponds, may be able to tolerate brackish water, and is tolerant of disturbance.</p>	eng
167148	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a very common species across most of its range.</p>	eng
167148	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are unlikely to be threats to the species cross its full range, though habitat loss (through deforestation and agriculture) will certainly impact the species in some parts of its range.<br/></p>	eng
167149	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167149	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Rhyothemis fuliginosa</em> is widespread throughout China and east Asia. It has been recorded from China, including Fujian, Hainan, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Hupei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shangdong, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006); central and southern Japan including Honshi, Shikoku, Kyushu and Ryukyus (Suginura <em>et al</em>. 2001); Korea (Lee 2001); and may occur in Vietnam and Myanmar (Tsuda 2000). Its distribution in Hainan also requires confirmation.	eng
167149	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents weedy ponds.	eng
167149	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167149	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167150	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<p>Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.</p>	eng
167150	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Wilson (2004) described <em>Calicnemia chaoi</em> from Nanling, Guangdong.	eng
167150	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Calicnemia chaoi</em> was collected from montane trickles and streams at almost vertical, sunlit rock faces in forested areas.	eng
167150	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167150	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167151	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167151	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Guangdong and subsequently recorded from two further locations in central Guangdong; Liuxihe and Nankunshan (Wilson and Xu in press).	eng
167151	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the <em>Leptogomphus</em> genus prefer streams with gravel substrates.	eng
167151	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167151	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167156	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167156	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from 'Kwa Tun' (Kuatun), Wuyi Shan, Fujian, Chao (1990) records additional but limited material from Fujain Province.	eng
167156	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane streams.	eng
167156	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167156	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sinogomphus telamon</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams are an ongoing problem.	eng
167159	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.	eng
167159	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from southern and eastern China, including Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Henan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Zhejiang (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Macau (Easton and Liang 2000) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984), South Korea (Wilson, material collected 2005), Japan, including Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and several offshore islands, including the Ryukyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001) and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000).	eng
167159	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Habitat preferences include ponds and lakes.	eng
167159	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The species has a stable population and it is common and widespread.	eng
167159	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167163	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures, beyond further research, appear to be need for <em>M. tibetanum</em> at the present time.</p>	eng
167163	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. tibetanum</span> is known from northwest Myanmar and central Sichuan, China (Yu and Bu 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">M. t. australe</span> is known from central Sichuan to Yunnan and northern Myanmar (Yu and Bu 2009). A record in Schmidt (1964) of a male from Hejunta in Yunnan might be of either subspecies. There is an additional record of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span> from Chiang Mai, Thailand (see Taxonomic Note). From the known distribution, it is likely to occur also in Laos and northern Vietnam. The only recent (e.g. within the last two decades) records are from about seven locations in Yunnan and Sichuan, and from Doi Inthanon in Thailand. Records from Shaanxi and Zhejiang refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. yachowensis</span>.	eng
167163	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Kalkman (2008) provided observations on the habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span>, noting that at Emei Shan in Sichuan it was found “along a small path bordering a larger, at least partly sunny, rocky stream at 1,400-1,600 m. … it was not clear if this stream or if the nearby runnels served as larval habitat” and at Wolong in the same province “along a partly channelized, stony brook less than 1 m wide and 40 cm deep. This largely unshaded brook flowed through agricultural fields.” These observations suggest strongly that <span style="font-style: italic;">M. tibetanum</span> can survive in disturbed habitats.</p>	eng
167163	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although not many specimens of this species have ever been collected, given the available information on habitat and distribution, it is likely to be quite common, just under-recorded.</p>	eng
167163	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Based on the habitat information available it appears unlikely that <em>M. tibetanum</em> faces any serious threats at the present time.</p>	eng
167164	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167164	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Asahina (1966) described <em>Zygonyx takasago</em> from Taiwan where it is restricted to northern and central hill forests (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). Wilson (1999) recorded <em>takasago</em> from Dingushan, Guangdong and Wilson and Reels (2001) recorded it from Hainan. Wilson and Xu (material collected 2003-2005) also have records of <em>takesago</em> from southeast Gunagdong.	eng
167164	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents cascades and waterfalls in forested hill streams.	eng
167164	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167164	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167165	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
167165	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality 'Kuatun', Fujian. Known from Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hunan and Zhejiang (Wilson and Xu 2007).	eng
167165	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species occurs at montane streams.	eng
167165	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167165	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167168	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.</p>	eng
167168	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Anaciaeschna jaspidea</em> is a very widely distributed species, with records from Australia to Java and the lesser Sunda islands, to India, Nepal, China, and Japan, and a number of territories in the Pacific Ocean.	eng
167168	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Lieftinck (1954) states that this species is found at "Weedy ponds, marshes, shallow rushy lakes, abandoned rice-fields, &c., from the coast upwards"; this statement sums up its habitat requirements succinctly.</p>	eng
167168	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is possibly rather local in occurrence, with just single records from some areas, but it is often common where it occurs, and may be merely under-recorded due to its crepuscular habits.</p>	eng
167168	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be threatened.</p>	eng
167176	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific conservation measures are likely to be needed for this species.	eng
167176	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	The species has been recorded from Nepal, Bangladesh, south China, Hong Kong, Pakistan and India (Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh). It has not been recorded in Myanmar, but is likely to occur there.<span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>	eng
167176	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and lakes.	eng
167176	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
167176	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Because of its breeding habitats, this species is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
167185	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167185	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Chao (1990) records <em>semanticus</em> from Fujian and Guangdong. Wilson and Xu (in press) has recorded this species from Qujiang Xiaokeng, north Guangdong and Nankunshan, central Guangdong.	eng
167185	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Prefer montane stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.	eng
167185	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.  A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167185	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Nihonogomphus semanticus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and industrial sewage are an ongoing problem.	eng
167187	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	The species would benefit from a trend monitoring project and threats need to be investigated.	eng
167187	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	One of the most widespread Asian species occurring from the Indian Peninsula to Australia.	eng
167187	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits standing waters	eng
167187	population	Karube, H., 2007	In good habitat, populations are still strong.	eng
167187	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The species has, is and will continue to experience habitat loss due to shifting land-use to agricultural practices; crop production and the abandonment of farmed land affects <em>Nannophya pygmaea</em>s' preferred breeding habitat.  Infrastructural development of domestic housing and industrial growth is also causing a decline in viable habitat.  The conversion of swampy areas combined with natural disasters, especially drought, compromises decent breeding habitat too.  These factors are consequently have an effect on the species dispersal abilities, which is presently limited.	eng
167188	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
167188	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from China, including Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006),  Korea (Lee 2001), Japan, including Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and the Rukuyus (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), southern far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007) and Luzon in the Philippines (Hämäläinen and Müller 1997).	eng
167188	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents reservoirs, ponds and lakes.	eng
167188	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167188	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167190	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167190	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Sinolestes</em> is a monotypic genus restricted to southern China including Taiwan. Needham (1930) described <em>Sinolestes edita</em> from 'Tien Tai', Zhejiang, the synonym <em>Sinolestes ornata</em> from 'Pinglan, Shang-fang, Lo-chen-hsien', Guangxi and the synonym <em>Sinolestes truncata</em> from 'Zakow', Zhejiang. May (1933) listed <em>ornata</em> from three sites near 'Kanton' (Guangzhou). Chao (1947b) recorded <em>edita</em> from 'Ta-Chu-Lau', Shaowu Hsien, Fujian. Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded <em>edita</em> from Damingshan, Guangxi and Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded <em>edita</em> from three locations within Guangdong: Dinghushan, Nanling and Liuxihe and Reels found it from Hainan (Wilson <em>et al.</em> 2008). Yeh (2006) recently recorded <em>Sinolestes edita</em> from Yilan County, northeast Taiwan.	eng
167190	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents montane forested streams. According to Yeh (2006) the habitat in Taiwan comprises small puddles in semi-shaded brooks, with clear, slow-flowing water.	eng
167190	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known to have a stable population although numbers are lacking.	eng
167190	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167191	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
167191	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Tachulan, Shaowu, Fujian with paratypes from Yenping, Fujian (Asahina 1982). Also recorded from Nanling, Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003) and Nanling and Shimentai (Wilson and Xu in prep.), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004) and Zhejiang (Hua 2000). <em>Periaeschna rotunda</em> Wilson (2005) described from Dayaoshan, Guangxi is a synonym of <em>Cephalaeschna klotsi</em>.	eng
167191	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents small forested montane streams.	eng
167191	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species has a stable population although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
167191	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams and transport systems.	eng
167194	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167194	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Mangshan Nature Reserve, south Hunan, which forms part of the Nanling mountain range. Wilson and Xu (2007) recorded <em>chaoi</em> from Dadingshan, Guangdong.	eng
167194	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.	eng
167194	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167194	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
167199	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.	eng
167199	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality Bombay, India (Bridges 1994). Wide distribution from both Orient and Australasia. Recorded from western, northern and eastern Australia (Theischinger and Hawking 2006), China, including Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2003), Guangdong (Wilson and Xu 2007), Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Jiangxi (Hua 2000) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984), India, Burma and Sri Lanka (Fraser 1933), Ryukyus in Japan (Sugimura 2001), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Laos, East Malaysia, Peninsula Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000).	eng
167199	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Habitat preferences include ponds, lakes and streams	eng
167199	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A widespread and common species lacking in detailed population numbers or trend.	eng
167199	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167202	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
167202	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Bartenev (1913) described <em>parvulum</em> from the Ussuri river basin in southern, far eastern Russia. The synonym <em>Sympetrum eroticoides</em> Oguma (1922) was described from Sachalin. Hua (2000) lists <em>parvulum</em> from China including Heilongjiang, Henan and Sichuan. Wilson (2005) recorded <em>parvulum</em> from Guangxi.	eng
167202	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents marshes and ponds.	eng
167202	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167202	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167208	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The taxonomic issues need to be resolved; but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.</p>	eng
167208	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Agriocnemis femina</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is very widely distributed, from India to China, Japan, Australia and islands in the Pacific Ocean.</p>	eng
167208	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	This species breeds in a variety of shallow weedy habitats, from marshes and the margins of lakes to water filled wheel ruts. It has been reported in polluted drains and ditches inside cities, and it is possibly more common in the lowlands but it has been recorded from above 1,000 m in Borneo (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).	eng
167208	population	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a very common species across most of its range.</p>	eng
167208	threats	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.</p>	eng
167216	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread common species does not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
167216	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia.	eng
167216	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species breeds in small stagnant pools, ponds, swamp forest and slow flowing rivers.	eng
167216	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is under-recorded in many areas because of its crepuscular habits and swift flight, but it is very common over much of its range.	eng
167216	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species has not threats across its range.	eng
167255	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	There is a need for more data on the distribution and habitat of this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. In addition, the taxonomic status of the species requires confirmation.	eng
167255	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	The species is known to occur in Duars (West Bengal), Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
167255	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	A record from Nepal (Claustnitzer and Wesche 1996) is from "rain forest streams", the habitat in west Bengal was "along the banks of the Silli Torsa River" (Fraser 1933).	eng
167255	population	Dow, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
167255	threats	Dow, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
167256	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed van be planned.	eng
167256	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known to occur in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim and Assam (Fraser 1933), but all records are old.	eng
167256	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The habitat of the species is similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Protosticta </span>sp. They are usually found in small forest streams.	eng
167256	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
167256	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Pollution of breeding habitats (streams) due to agricultural run off, urbanization and tourism may be affecting the species. But no specific information is available at present.	eng
167258	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This common and widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
167258	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is widely distributed in India, Nepal,  Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand. It is likely to be present within Bangladesh.	eng
167258	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in stagnant water bodies covered with aquatic plants. Adults can be found throughout the year near such wetlands.	eng
167258	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No detailed information is available, however the species is very common across much of its range.	eng
167258	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	There are no immediate widespread threats to the species.	eng
167259	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is an urgent need for more information on distribution and habitat for this species, without such information conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned. The priority for this species is for systematic expert sampling of Odonata to take place across the Himalayan region.	eng
167259	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in Nepal (Asahina 1965) and in India, where there are records from West Bengal (Darjeeling dist.), Assam, Sikkim (Fraser 1934) and&#160; Meghalaya (Mitra 1999). Of these records, the only one that dates from after the 1930s is Asahina's record from Nepal, made in 1964.	eng
167259	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is found at hill streams.	eng
167259	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	There have only ever been a few records of this species, and none are recent.	eng
167259	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	More detailed information on habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance, and fresh information on distribution, is needed for this species before any threats it might face can be assessed.	eng
167260	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, which will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in northeast India and Myanmar.	eng
167260	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known from northeast India and Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1936). Although it has been reported from Bangladesh, and its occurrence there is certainly possible, the source of the record is not known and consider it requires confirmation. There appears to be no reliable records since the 1930s.	eng
167260	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species breeds in marshes and small weedy pools and tanks in forest areas.	eng
167260	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There are few records of this species and all those that are reliable are more than 70 years old. However this is as likely to be due to a lack of expert sampling in northeast India and Myanmar as to any decline in the species or genuine rarity; nothing can be reliably be inferred from the paucity of records.	eng
167260	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	More data are needed before any threats that this species might face can be assessed. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167261	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species,without such data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Extensive expert sampling of Odonata is needed across he known range of the species, without such sampling the needed data will not be generated.	eng
167261	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This poorly known, elusive and possibly composite species is known from old records from West Bengal in India, Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 2001).	eng
167261	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Little or nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species. However a record from Chiang Mai arboretum in Thailand suggests that it may not need pristine habitats.	eng
167261	population	Sharma, G., 2010	There are very few records of this species, and most of these are from Thailand. Moreover, in view of the taxonomic uncertainties it is not possible to know if all records really refer to the same species.	eng
167261	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	It is not possible to assess any threats that this species may face from the available data.	eng
167262	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on habitat, threats and distribution is needed, but at present it does not appear as if any specific conservation measures are necessary.</p>	eng
167262	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ictinogomphus angulosus </span>is known from Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal (Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Madhaya Pradesh (Suri Babu and Srivastava 2001) in India, and from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Ram <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1982) list it from the Kolkata area in West Bengal, but the source of this record is not clear. If it is really a distinct species, then it is likely to be present in a number of other states in India.	eng
167262	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Suri Babu and Srivastava (2001) state that “The adults perch on vegetation near the lake, or on stones near the perennial streams”. They also note that several specimens were collected in “forest near Sagar Lake”. Mahato (1987) records finding specimens in Nepal at a pond. It appears to prefer open breeding habitats, but may be dependent on forest for foraging and roosting.</p>	eng
167262	population	Dow, R., 2010	According to Suri Babu and Srivastava (2001), this species is abundant at locations in Madhya Pradesh; no other information on populations is available.	eng
167262	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">From the (albeit scanty) habitat information available, it appears unlikely that this species is seriously threatened at this time, but further information is needed to confirm this. The extent and impact of widespread deforestation and hydropower development across the region needs to be better studied.<br/></p>	eng
167263	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh searches need to be made for this species in Myanmar and north-east India, and further information on its distribution to the north and east of Thailand is needed. Beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time, although the protection of additional suitable habitat across the range of the species is highly desirable. However, there is no evidence that this species is tolerant of disturbance to its habitats, so that there is some cause for concern in the future.</p>	eng
167263	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia imitans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Laos (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2005), Viet Nam, and Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram in India (e.g. Lahiri 1987, Asahina 1985). It should be looked for in other northeastern India States, and in Cambodia and Yunnan.</p>	eng
167263	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Not much has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it appears to be typical of the genus: small high gradient streams and trickles in forest, or at least well shaded.</p>	eng
167263	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species may be rather local in occurrence, but appears to be fairly common where it occurs.	eng
167263	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Deforestation and large-scale hydroelectric projects are likely to be threats to some populations.</p>	eng
167264	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	There is an urgent need for additional data on this poorly known species, especially on precise habitat requirements and distribution.	eng
167264	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is known from Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1934) in India, and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Presence in other areas (e.g. southern China) might be expected.	eng
167264	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This is a hill stream species. No more information is available.	eng
167264	population	Mitra, A., 2009	There have only ever been a few records of this species. However, many <span style="font-style: italic;">Bayadera </span>species are wary, which means that they are likely to be under-recorded, additionally there has been insufficient sampling in the region; nothing definite can be inferred about populations of this species from the available data.	eng
167264	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Random change of biota resulting from human activities (particularly due to development and logging) has been predicted to be the major threat (Lahiri 1989), but there is no concrete evidence to suggest that this species is threatened at present. More data on distribution, precise habitat requirements and population sizes is needed before any threats that this species might face can be reliably assessed.	eng
167267	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No conservation measures are needed for this species, although more data on its distribution is needed.	eng
167267	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aciagrion occidentale</span> is widely distributed. Its geographical range much of India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Sri Lanka (e.g. Fraser 1933), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (e.g. Asahina 1967) and Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It is likely to occur in Myanmar and Lao PDR.	eng
167267	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Suitable habitat is shrub dominated wetlands although it can also be found in bogs, marshes, swamps, fens, peatlands, small streams and permanent freshwater lakes.	eng
167267	population	Mitra, A., 2010	The current population trend for the species is not known, but it is quite common across its range.	eng
167267	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threats are known to exist, and the&#160;species&#160;is present over a very large area.	eng
167269	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Further research is required into the species range and population, and potential threats. However, no conservation measures are likely to be needed.	eng
167269	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion decorum </span>has a wide distribution from Oman (Schneider and Dumont 1997) to Myanmar (Tsuda 1991), occurring in Pakistan, India (Tsuda 1991), Nepal (St. Quentin 1970) and Bangladesh (Tsuda 1991).	eng
167269	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Larvae are common in slow flowing marshy streams and reservoirs.	eng
167269	population	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is quite common across its range but no information is available on the population status.	eng
167269	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is very unlikely to be threatened.	eng
167270	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Further research is required into the population, distribution and ecology of this species, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed.	eng
167270	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aethriamanta brevipennis</span> is widely distributed across the Indo-Malayan region, occurring in Sri Lanka (Fraser 1920), southern and eastern India (Selys 1891, Fraser 1920, 1924, 1931, 1936; Fraser and Dover 1922, Dasgupta 1957, Prasad and Varshney 1995, Mitra 2002), Bangladesh, Myanmar (Selys 1891), Thailand (Tsuda 1991) and Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1954, Choong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and south to Sumatra (e.g. Lieftinck 1954).	eng
167270	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This species breeds in ponds and lakes.	eng
167270	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is rather local in occurrence, and not generally common.	eng
167270	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No major threat to the species is known to exist.	eng
167272	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	<p>There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, in particular on its distribution and habitat requirements, but is relationship to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia </span>species should also be re-examined.<br/></p>	eng
167272	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	The species is known only from old records from Mungpu, Darjeeling.	eng
167272	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream breeder.	eng
167272	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	<p>No population information is available.<br/></p>	eng
167272	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
167274	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This widespread common species may not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
167274	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. hypomelas </span>is found in eastern India, Nepal, Tibet, Myanmar, Bangladesh and China. In eastern India, it is reported from Bihar, Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
167274	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	The species is found in open country.	eng
167274	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Judging from literature records (e.g. in Asahina 1984) this species is not uncommon in the Himalayas.	eng
167274	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	There is no apparent widespread threat to the species.	eng
167275	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this very common species.	eng
167275	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis fulvia</span> is widely distributed from India to China and south to Sumatra.	eng
167275	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This species breeds in weedy ponds, reservoirs and marshes, and in agricultural or open fields (Mitra 2005), and occupies a broad altitudinal range.	eng
167275	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This is a common species over much of its range.	eng
167275	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167277	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed for this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
167277	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known from old records from Myanmar and Margharita in Assam, and records from 1967 from locations in Meghalaya.	eng
167277	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is likely to be a stream species.	eng
167277	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167277	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167278	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
167278	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sympetrum orientale </span>is known from north-east India (e.g. Asahina 1984) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). China has incorrectly been included in the range of the species, e.g. by Tsuda (1991).	eng
167278	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	No information appears to have been published on the habitat and ecology of the species, but it is likely to breed in ponds and similar habitats, and it is clearly montane.	eng
167278	population	Mitra, A., 2010	There are not many records of this species, which does not appear to be common.	eng
167278	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	Without definite information on habitat&#160;requirements&#160;it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face.	eng
167279	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available. More research is needed on the population trend and existing threats to the species.	eng
167279	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bradinopyga geminata</span> is a widespread species all over India (Mitra 1988, 2002; Dasgupta 1957, Sahni 1964, Baijal and Agarwal 1955, Singh and Prasad 1976, Prasad and Thakur 1981, Prasad 1966, Fraser 1924, 1931; Joseph and Satyarani 1988), Sri Lanka (Tsuda 1991) and Thailand (Kiauta and Kiauta 1983).	eng
167279	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Adults are common along small pools of water or small stagnant water  bodies nearby agricultural fields (Mitra 1998). They also breed in wells,&#160; tanks, drums, rainy hollows in the rocks and invariably settling with wings flattened on the granite face, with which their marbled grey coloured body harmonies to such an extent that they become practically invisible.	eng
167279	population	Mitra, A., 2010	Although no information is available on the current population trend, the species is quite common along its range but hard to spot due to their cryptic colouration.	eng
167279	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
167280	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread species does not require immediate any conservation attention.	eng
167280	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is distributed in west, central, south and southeast Asia, and Australia.	eng
167280	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is found in diverse natural and man made habitats. Larvae commonly occur among the aquatic weeds and algae.	eng
167280	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is a common species across much of its range, and is likely to be under-recorded due to its tiny size.	eng
167280	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread species has no immediate threats.	eng
167281	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167281	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Potamarcha congener</span> is widespread, occurring from India to China and Taiwan and south to Australia and New Guinea.	eng
167281	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	This species inhabits a wide range of standing water habitats, from small weedy ponds and water-filled wheel ruts to wet rice fields.	eng
167281	population	Mitra, A., 2010	This is a common species over much of its range.	eng
167281	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167282	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2009	Further data on this species, in particular on habitat requirements and distribution, is needed for this species. However it is clearly a montane species and may not need any specific conservation measures, as montane habitats in the region are likely to be under less pressure than lowland habitats.	eng
167282	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2009	The species is known to occur in India and Nepal. Records from India are from Kumaon (Uttaranchal) and Darjeeling (West Bengal) and are old, there are more records, and more recent, from Nepal.	eng
167282	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2009	The species is reported from montane areas, but little else appears to have been recorded on its habitat requirements, although it is likely to be a stream species.	eng
167282	population	Subramanian, K., 2009	There have been very few records of this species from India,   but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this. There are more records from Nepal, and these are more recent, this reflects a spate of sampling of Odonata that took place in Nepal in the 1980s and does suggest that the species is not uncommon there.	eng
167282	threats	Subramanian, K., 2009	The threats, if any, faced by this species, cannot be assessed reliably without further data, especially on habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.	eng
167283	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Without further data on distribution and habitat any conservation measures that might be needed for this species cannot be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling across its known and possible range.	eng
167283	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species occurs in West Bengal, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995, Asahina 1981, Kumar 1997), and in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It should be looked for throughout northern India, in Bhutan and in Myanmar.	eng
167283	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species except that it is montane.	eng
167283	population	Sharma, G., 2010	The majority of relatively recent records are from Nepal, and suggest that this species may not be uncommon there, but further data is needed. There have been fewer records from India, and fresh searches are needed there.	eng
167283	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information on threats is available; further data on habitat requirements are needed.	eng
167284	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling of Odonata to take place across the Himalayan region.	eng
167284	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	&#160;This species is known from Nepal, India and Bangladesh. Records from India are from Meghalaya and Darjeeling. Most records are from Nepal.	eng
167284	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is found in hill streams. There is a need for more data on precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.	eng
167284	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	There are few records of this species, and all remotely recent ones are of single individuals.  A scarcity of records is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphids except where extensive expert sampling and larval rearing has taken place, so that nothing can reliably be inferred from the paucity of records of this species.	eng
167284	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Although some populations of this species are undoubtedly threatened from a variety of sources, we have insufficient data on distribution, habitat and tolerance to disturbance to reliably assess the threats it faces. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167285	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The taxonomic issue needs to be resolved, and fresh searches must be made for this species in West Bengal and adjacent areas. Until more information becomes available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>	eng
167285	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Drepanosticta polychromatica</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from Gopaldhara in West Bengal (Fraser 1933), there appear to be no records dating from after 1933 and Lahiri (1989) lists it as not found in India since it description.</p>	eng
167285	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is almost certainly confined to forest, and probably breeds in small to tiny high gradient streams and trickles.</p>	eng
167285	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on populations of this species.</p>	eng
167285	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is not enough information to assess any threats that this species might face, although if it is genuinely confined to West Bengal it may be threatened by habitat loss.</p>	eng
167289	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.	eng
167289	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from India, with records from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Assam (Gopaldhara) and Meghalaya, and also from Nepal.	eng
167289	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Little has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is clearly montane and probably breeds in streams.	eng
167289	population	Sharma, G., 2010	Judging from literature records this species is fairly common in Nepal at least.	eng
167289	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Without more information on habitat requirements it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face, but as a montane species its habitats are likely to be under less pressure than those of lowland species.	eng
167290	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is widely distributed and is&#160;unlikely&#160;to be facing immediate threat. However,&#160;further research is required into the population, distribution and ecology of this species.	eng
167290	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species occurs in India (northern parts of eastern and central India states), Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Thailand.	eng
167290	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Adults are found at stagnant water bodies and slow flowing streams.	eng
167290	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No specific population information is available, but judging from the literature, this species can be at least quite common where it occurs.	eng
167290	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No threats are known for this species.	eng
167292	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is an urgent need for further data on the distribution of this species, and on the threats that it faces. The species is currently not under any conservation programme, and should be checked for in protected areas in northeast India, if it is not present in such areas then the only effective conservation action that can be taken is the creation of new protected areas including populations of the species.	eng
167292	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species currently only known to occur in Cachar (Assam) and Nongpoh (Kahsi Hills) Meghalaya in northeastern India. The species was last recorded in the mid 1980s, however there is no information available to say that there has been any survey work undertaken since this time. Also, it is possible that the species may be found in other locations and possibly in Myanmar (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010), more survey work is required.	eng
167292	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Unlike other members of the genus, <span style="font-style: italic;">R. vitrinella</span> is found in stagnant water bodies inside jungle.	eng
167292	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
167292	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	The known localities are under threat from deforestation and agricultural expansion.	eng
167294	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species, especially on habitat and distribution. Such data will only be generated by extensive expert sampling across its known range and adjacent regions.	eng
167294	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur from Assam and Sikkim in India, and possibly from Bangladesh, although I do not know the source for this latter record.	eng
167294	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to breed in streams.	eng
167294	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	There are very few records of this species, and none of them are recent,   but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.	eng
167294	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available .	eng
167296	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available. The taxonomy of this species must be resolved.	eng
167296	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known only from India (Hasimara, Duars, West Bengal .	eng
167296	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available	eng
167296	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Only one individual specimen of this species is known.	eng
167296	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
167301	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for much more data on this species, especially on its habitat requirements, tolerance to disturbance and distribution.	eng
167301	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in West Bengal, Assam&#160; and Uttar Pradesh in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Only the records from Uttar Pradesh and Nepal are remotely recent.	eng
167301	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but Macrogomphus species typically inhabit lowland, or at least low gradient, slow flowing streams.	eng
167301	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.</p>	eng
167301	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing can be reliably inferred about any threats that this species might face without further information on its habitat requirements and distribution. Deforestation due to small-scale and shifting agriculture is common across the species range.	eng
167303	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	The priority for this species is more information on its habitat requirements and much more information on its distribution. Only once this information is obtained can any threats it faces be properly assessed and conservation measures, if required, planned.	eng
167303	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Himalagrion exclamationis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the type locality at Sitong in West Bengal (e.g. Fraser 1933), and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It should be looked for in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan and Tibet.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167303	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fraser (1933) speculated that this species was a "riverine breeder", but Mahato (1988) reports the species from "a large pond, covered by dense moss vegetation, and subject to the Hindu devotion"; the altitude at this site is 2,438 m, that at the type locality is said by Fraser to be "about 4,000" feet. It seems likely that it is a specialist in well vegetated montane ponds and possibly lakes.</p>	eng
167303	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Very little information is available about this species, but it does not appear to be common.</p>	eng
167303	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information on the habitat requirements of this species it is difficult to assess the threats it might face. However it does appear to be rather local in occurrence and, on the available information, not all that widely distributed, and so potentially threatened by habitat loss.</p>  <span lang="EN-GB"><br/><p></p>	eng
167304	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Without further data it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species. The priority must be for expert searches across its known range.	eng
167304	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudotramea prateri</span> is known from a few scattered records from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). Only two records from Nepal (Vick 1985, Mahato 1986) and a record from Pathum Thani in Thailand are relatively recent, dating from the 1980s. It should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan.	eng
167304	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing has been recorded of the habitats of this species, but it is likely to be a standing water species.	eng
167304	population	Sharma, G., 2010	There have only ever been a few records of this species, possibly this is due to difficulty of capture.	eng
167304	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Without information on the habitat requirements of this species it is not possible to assess any threats it might face.	eng
167305	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Further information on habitat requirements and distribution is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.	eng
167305	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Idionyx stevensi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from West Bengal in India (Fraser 1936) and  Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). There is apparently a record from Yunnan in China, but this  should be checked before its occurrence there is considered certain. It should  be looked for in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.</p>	eng
167305	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Butler (2007) records finding a freshly emerged female in bushes “overhanging a small roadside runnel”, and a larva “in the sluggish margin of a nearby torrential stream”. Little else appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species.	eng
167305	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fraser (1936) states that it was “especially common” in Darjeeling and “quite common” at Mungpoo but the few more recent records available are of single individuals (where numbers are given). However <em>Idionyx</em> species are difficult to collect and impossible to identify without capture, so it is likely that this species is merely under-recorded. <span lang="EN-GB"><br/></p>	eng
167305	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Without more information on distribution and habitat requirements (e.g. is it dependent upon forest and how much disturbance can it tolerate) it is very difficult to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species. There are high levels of deforestation in some parts of the species range.	eng
167306	conservation	Sharma, D. & Subramanian, K., 2010	More data on distribution, habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance are required before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
167306	distribution	Sharma, D. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India it is found in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya. It is widespread across the plains of the Ganges (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010).	eng
167306	habitat	Sharma, D. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species appears to require shallow streams in relatively open habitats above 1,100 m.	eng
167306	population	Sharma, D. & Subramanian, K., 2010	A locally common species across at least the Indian part of its range (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010)	eng
167306	threats	Sharma, D. & Subramanian, K., 2010	The known locations are potentially impacted by agricultural expansion and deforestation, but how much of a negative impact this might have on the species is unknown.	eng
167307	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention.<br/></p>	eng
167307	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from India (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Java, and Viet Nam.	eng
167307	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species breeds in weedy tanks and ponds. Adults can be found far away from breeding habitats.	eng
167307	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>Though the species is widespread, no where is it abundant. However, no specific population information is available.<br/></p>	eng
167307	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>    </p><p>No specific threat to the species have been recorded. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
167308	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for thiss species.	eng
167308	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis intermedia</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to Viet Nam and southwards to Java. However (see Taxonomic Note) the species is absent from Borneo and Sumatra, and subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">excelsa</span> occurs in Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands instead of the nominate subspecies.	eng
167308	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species breeds in a variety of standing water habitats.	eng
167308	population	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species is widely distributed, common is some parts of its range, but not generally common.	eng
167308	threats	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167309	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
167309	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Orthetrum luzonicum</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species, known from Afghanistan and India to Japan and southwards to Java.</p>	eng
167309	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in habitats such as marshes, boggy areas and wet abandoned rice fields.	eng
167309	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species across much of its range. </p>	eng
167309	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No threats are known at present.<br/></p>	eng
167310	conservation	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, additional data, especially on habitat and distribution, is needed. The priority must be for expert searches in eastern India.	eng
167310	distribution	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha albistyla</span> is only known from West Bengal (Jalpaiguri district) and  Bihar (Pusa) (e.g. Fraser 1936) in India.	eng
167310	habitat	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Unusually for a <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span>, this is said to be a diurnal species. No other information on habitat or ecology has been recorded.	eng
167310	population	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	This species is only known from five specimens mentioned in Fraser (1936), all collected more than 70 years ago.	eng
167310	threats	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Without fresh data, especially on habitat requirements, it is not possible to assess the threats faced by this species.	eng
167311	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further data on the distribution of this species would be desirable, but there does not appear to be any need for specific conservation measures.</p>	eng
167311	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia renifera</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and a number of Indian states in the Himalayas (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995). It should be looked for in Bhutan and Myanmar.</p>	eng
167311	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species occurs on a variety of forest streams, and does not require pristine forest.</p>	eng
167311	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">In Nepal at least this is a fairly common species at middle altitudes.</p>	eng
167311	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation or hydroelectric projects.</p>	eng
167313	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.	eng
167313	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	<em>Phaenandrogomphus aureus</em> is known only from the Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India. The type series comes from Tura (e.g. Fraser 1934) and there is a more recent record from Songsok, dating from 1973 (Lahiri 1987).	eng
167313	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	The only information on the habitat of this species is in Lahiri (1987): “near a stream, just after its emergence”.	eng
167313	population	Dow, R., 2009	The type series consists of&#160; “three pairs” (Fraser 1934) suggesting it might be quite common where it occurs, but only two other individuals appear to have ever been collected. Without more data we cannot assess populations sizes.	eng
167313	threats	Dow, R., 2009	We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. However, if it is genuinely confined to the Garo Hills, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss.<br/><br/>More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas within the Garo Hills ecoregion are known to have already been deforested. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) an ,d he development of hydropower resources.	eng
167314	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	Further information is required on distribution, population and habitat status within its present known range.	eng
167314	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudagrion laidlawii</span> is known from India and Pakistan. Records from India are from Rajaji National Park and Dehradun, Uttranchal, and Punjab, but it appears to be more common in Pakistan where quite a number of locations are known (Khaliq and Yousuf 1993).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
167314	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	In India the flight period is from October to December. Emergence takes place during October to November. Larvae are found in slow running streams and near the banks of rivers.	eng
167314	population	Dow, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
167314	threats	Dow, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
167315	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	More data is needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling of Odonata across its known range. It is present in at least two protected areas in Thailand (Doi Suthep-Pui and Doi Inthanon National Parks).	eng
167315	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Periaeschna nocturnalis</span> was described from the Shillong area in Meghalaya, India (e.g. Fraser 1936), and for many years was only known from the type series, until it was found at locations in Thailand in the 1980s (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and then in Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004). It seems likely that this species also occurs in other north east Indian provinces and in Myanmar. Presence within suitable habitat in intermediate countries (Bhutan , Myanmar, and Bangladesh) is possible.	eng
167315	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is clearly a species of uplands and mountains, and is likely to be dependent upon forest for its survival.	eng
167315	population	Sharma, G., 2010	Few records have ever been made of this species and most records of this species are of single individuals, however this is as likely to be due to under-sampling, unusual habits and difficulty of capture as it is to genuine rarity.	eng
167315	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Without definite information on its habitat requirements it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species, but deforestation is likely to be the most serious.	eng
167316	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This common and widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
167316	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in Pakistan and in India. It should be looked for in Bangladesh.	eng
167316	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Adults are usually found in riparian zones of streams and among emergent vegetation in shallow streams. The species can also be found in stagnant water bodies (A. Mitra pers. comm. 2010) and in rice fields (e.g. Khaliq and Siddique 1995).	eng
167316	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No specific information is available. However, in India the species can be very common during the monsoon and post monsoon periods.	eng
167316	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species does not face any immediate widespread threats.	eng
167317	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Fresh data on the distribution of this species, and data on its habitat requirements, are required before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned.	eng
167317	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933), with records from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Sikkim, Mizoram, and from Nepal (Asahina 1985). Most records of the species are old.	eng
167317	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Specimens were collected by Mr. Chas. M. Inglis at Gangtok (Sikkim) at c.1,500 - 1,800 m, and records from Nepal (Asahina 1985) are from as high as 4,000 m, so this species is clearly montane, but no other information on the habitat requirements of this species has been seen.	eng
167317	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
167317	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167318	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, and for definite information on its breeding habitats, but specific conservation measures do not appear to be needed.	eng
167318	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	This species is widely distributed in India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Prasad and Varshney 1995, numerous other sources) and Bangladesh (Biswas<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>1990) and also known from Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999); it is to be expected in Myanmar.	eng
167318	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	In southern and central India this species is commonly found in dry season and is to be sought for among long grass. Aestivating adults commonly found in thick forest from October to April amidst dry vegetation. However nothing appears to have been recorded on its breeding habitat, which is presumably ponds and similar habitats, probably including intermittent ones.	eng
167318	population	Dow, R., 2009	Judging from literature records this species is common in parts of India at least.	eng
167318	threats	Dow, R., 2009	There is a lack of information for this species, but it is widespread and there are unlikely to be threats across the entire range of the species.	eng
167321	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Fresh data is urgently needed for this species, and will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.	eng
167321	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known only from type locality Laitlyngkot, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.	eng
167321	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is found in hill streams.	eng
167321	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
167321	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	The Khasi Hills are subject to pressures from mining (including uranium mining), hydropower development, and especially, deforestation caused by shifting agriculture and logging.	eng
167322	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	<p>There is an urgent need for data on the distribution and habitats of this species, without such information any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.<br/></p>	eng
167322	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	This species is known only from India, from old records from West Bengal and Maharastra.	eng
167322	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	No information is available, but this species almost certainly breeds in streams.	eng
167322	population	Dow, R., 2009	<p>No records of this species dating from after the 1930s, but this probably merely reflects a lack of truly expert sampling in India since that time and difficulties of identification with <span style="font-style: italic;">Macromia </span>species.<br/></p>	eng
167322	threats	Dow, R., 2009	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
167323	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for further data, especially on distribution, but this species is not likely to need specific conservation measures.	eng
167323	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from Karnataka and from northeast India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005). The disjoint distribution in India is somewhat puzzling and the species should be searched for elsewhere in the country, it should also occur in Myanmar.	eng
167323	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in well vegetated drains and ponds.	eng
167323	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Fraser (1933) records the species as having been common at Coorg, but not much other information on populations is available. From the literature it seems that this species is very local and not all that common over much of its range. However it is likely to be under-recorded due to misidentification as other similar <span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes</span> species.	eng
167323	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened.	eng
167325	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Further research into the species populations, distribution, and threats is required. However the species is widely distributed in India and unlikely to need specific conservation actions at this time.	eng
167325	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is recorded from India (West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Arunachal Pradesh). Its range may also extend into Bangladesh.	eng
167325	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	The species frequents grassy marshlands, in which it breeds. It is very conspicuous on the wing in spite of its small size, owing to its pearly blue colouring.	eng
167325	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
167325	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
167327	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be required.	eng
167327	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Megalestes major</span> is widely distributed in the Himalayan region with records from India, Nepal (Asahina 1965, Fraser 1929, Kiauta 1975, Mahato 1986, 1989, Vick 1985), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1948) and Bhutan (Lieftinck 1977, Mitra, A. 2002). Earlier records from beyond this range actually refer to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Megalestes</span> species.Within Indian limits, it occurs in Uttarakhand (Asahina 1963, Hamalainen 1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998, Laidlaw 1920, Prasad 1974), Sikkim (Fraser 1929, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Darjeeling district of West Bengal (Laidlaw 1919), Assam (Fraser 1929), Meghalaya (Asahina 1963, Fraser 1929), Mizoram (Mitra, T.R. 2002) and Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997).	eng
167327	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Larvae inhabits sandy and gravelly slow flowing marshy streams. Adults perch on partially submerged stones or on overhanging vegetation around the larval habitats.	eng
167327	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available on the current population but the species is quite common along its range.	eng
167327	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threats have been reported.	eng
167328	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167328	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is very widely distributed from India to China and south to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is very common over much of its range, but apparently absent or very scarce in the north of Borneo, where there is just one questionable record from Sabah.	eng
167328	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Found in ponds, puddles, canals and streams.	eng
167328	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a very common species over much of its range.	eng
167328	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened globally.	eng
167329	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This common species is not likely to require specific conservation actions, but further research is required into the species population and ecology, and into potential threats.	eng
167329	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is widely distributed from Pakistan to eastern India, mostly in the drier parts of the region.	eng
167329	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is commonly found among aquatic vegetation in ponds and lakes. They are also found in riparian zones of stagnant wetlands.	eng
167329	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information available.	eng
167329	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species does not appear to be threatened.	eng
167330	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention, however&#160;further research is required into its population, distribution and ecology.	eng
167330	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in China (Guangxi, Sichuan, Guangdong), Bangladesh, Thailand, Taiwan, and northern parts of India, with records from Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and West Bengal. A record from Tibet (McLachlan 1896) actually refers to a location in Sichuan (e.g. Yu and Bu 2009). It is likely to occur in Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and other parts of China.	eng
167330	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in pools and lakes, usually forested.	eng
167330	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information is available.	eng
167330	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is no&#160;information&#160;available on threats to this&#160;species.	eng
167331	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	Specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.	eng
167331	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Drepanosticta carmichaeli</span> is widely distributed across the Himalayan belt starting from Uttarakhand (Prasad 1974, Prasad and Singh 1976) in Western Himalayas to Bhutan (Mitra 2008) in the Eastern Himalayas. Within this range it has been recorded in Uttar Pradesh (Bhasin 1953) in India, Nepal (St. Quentin 1970, Tsuda 1991), Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Pasoke (Fraser 1931, 1933; Laidlaw 1917) in India.	eng
167331	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Flight period is from June to August. Oviposition takes place during June to July. Emergence takes place during June. Larvae are found in hill streams in flat areas. The species is common around the fast flowing streams in the upper reaches of the mountain, where the gradient is very steep and the stream bed is stable with larger stones and jammed boulders, consisting of side pools with scarce vegetation.	eng
167331	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No population data is available but it is a common species throughout much of its range.	eng
167331	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known for the species.	eng
167333	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167333	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	A widespread species, known to occur in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Bangladesh.	eng
167333	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is found in wetlands, ponds, wet rice fields and irrigation channels in hilly and mountainous areas.	eng
167333	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species can be abundant where it occurs.	eng
167333	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167335	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species, especially on distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance of disturbance.	eng
167335	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Although there are not many records, it has already been recorded from a number of Indian provinces, is probably severely-under recorded in India and appears to be quite widespread.	eng
167335	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	In the lowlands of Nepal this species was found on a rainforest stream (Claustnitzer and Wesche 1996). Nothing else has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
167335	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	<p>There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.</p>	eng
167335	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167336	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	More data on this species, particularly on distribution, habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance, and on its taxonomy, is urgently needed. The priority is for searches to be made in the Khasi Hills and adjacent regions.	eng
167336	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	The only records of this species are from locations in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, India (e.g. Fraser 1933, Lahiri 1987). Fraser lists two locations, Lahiri a further eight (but see Taxonomic Note).	eng
167336	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Fraser (1933) noted that this species was found on bushes near a stream, and at locations far from water; Lahiri (1987) notes that it was commonly found in dry grass covered fields and hill sides. However the breeding habitat is more likely to be ponds and pools, as is the case with most <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes</span> species where the habitat is known.	eng
167336	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Judging from Lahiri's records (Lahiri 1987), which date from the 1960s and 1970s, this species was not uncommon in the Khasi Hills. However no data is available since the 1970s.	eng
167336	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	More information on distribution and habitat requirements is needed before the threats to this species can be assessed. However, if it is really confined to the Khasi Hills then, whatever its habitat, it may be threatened as the area is not large.<br/><br/>More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Khasi Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, however, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments (Rawat and Wikramanayake 2010).	eng
167337	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167337	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anax guttatus</span> is very widely distributed from India to Japan and Australia and Pacific Ocean Islands.	eng
167337	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species inhabits open weedy ponds and lakes, and is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167337	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is often a common species where it occurs, with a very wide&#160;distribution.	eng
167337	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167339	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Further data are needed, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.	eng
167339	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from Sikkim and West Bengal in India, and from Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal, and almost certainly occurs in Tibet.	eng
167339	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Little or nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this montane species, but it is presumably a stream species.	eng
167339	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific information is available, but there are quite a few records of this species from Nepal at least, suggesting that it is not uncommon.	eng
167339	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	More data on habitat are needed before any threats that might be faced by this species can be assessed, but as a fairly widely distributed  montane species, it is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
167341	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Further research is required into the population,&#160;distribution&#160;and ecology of this species, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed.	eng
167341	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	In India, the species is known to occur in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal. It also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Bhutan (Mitra 2008)	eng
167341	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to breed in marshes at the bottom of hill slopes.	eng
167341	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information is available for this species.	eng
167341	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available on the threats to this species.	eng
167343	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167343	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Argiocnemis rubescens</span> is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and New Guinea and Australia.	eng
167343	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is found at a variety of stagnant water bodies such as permanent pools, bogs, fens, marshes and swamps.	eng
167343	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This is a common species in many parts of its range.	eng
167343	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167344	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2009	There is a need for much further information on the distribution of this  species, and on its precise habitat requirements and tolerance to  disturbance.	eng
167344	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species is widely distributed from northern and eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh to Thailand and Lao PDR and south to peninsular Malaysia.	eng
167344	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species breeds in rocky forest streams, typically in hilly country.	eng
167344	population	Subramanian, K., 2009	No information available.	eng
167344	threats	Subramanian, K., 2009	Individual populations of this species will be threatened by  deforestation and other causes, but the species is unlikely to be  threatened across its entire range.	eng
167345	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, particularly on its distribution and habitat requirements.	eng
167345	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coeliccia bimaculata</span> is endemic to northeastern India occurring in Sangsak (Mitra 2002) and Dejoo (Laidlaw 1914) in Assam, Tura at Garo Hills (Fraser 1932, 1933; Lahiri 1987) in Meghalaya as well as in Abor Hills (Laidlaw 1914, 1917) and Daparijo (Prasad 1997) in Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
167345	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
167345	population	Mitra, A., 2010	There are not many records of this species, and many of them are old. However there has been a lack of expert sampling in northeast India, so that nothing can be reliably inferred from the paucity of records.	eng
167345	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
167346	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	More data are needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert searches to be made across its known range and adjacent regions.	eng
167346	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from India (from Himachal Pradesh in the northwest to numerous states in the northeast) and Pakistan.	eng
167346	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species.	eng
167346	population	Sharma, G., 2010	Fraser (1934) stated that this is very rare species but that "may be overlooked by its weak flight and colourless  body and wings". However there are at least as many records of this species in the post0-colonial Indian literature as there are for any other non-pond breeding member of the Gomphidae. Nothing definite can be inferred about populations of this species from the available data.	eng
167346	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Without more data, especially on habitat requirements, any threats that might be faced by this species can only be guessed at.	eng
167347	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Further research into the&#160;species population, distribution,&#160;habitats&#160;and ecology is required, but no specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
167347	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	The species is known from eastern India: Manipur, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh. It should be looked for in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar.	eng
167347	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds both in streams and stagnant pools.	eng
167347	population	Sharma, G., 2010	Limited information is available.&#160;It occurs in huge numbers in the Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya (India).	eng
167347	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
167348	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	More data are needed on the taxonomy, population trend, habitat ecology and existing threats to the species are needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive expert sampling across its known range.	eng
167348	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	The species is known to occur in West Bengal and Assam in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995) and in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). It is likely to occur in orther parts of north-east India, and in Bhutan.	eng
167348	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	This high altitude species is known to occur between 980 m to 2900 m.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>No more information is available on the habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
167348	population	Mitra, A., 2010	Very few individuals of this species appear to have ever been collected, with the only fairly recent records from Nepal. However this is as likely to be due to under-sampling and difficulty of capture as it is to genuine rarity.	eng
167348	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	Without more information on habitat requirements any threats that might be faced by this species can only be guessed at.	eng
167349	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Research into the identity of the eastern Himalayas populations is required.	eng
167349	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is widely distributed in eastern India, Myanmar, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, China, Taiwan and Japan, although records from eastern India and Myanmar may not refer to this species but to variants of either<span style="font-style: italic;"> I. rapax</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">I. decoratus</span>.	eng
167349	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in ponds and lakes and is highly disturbance tolerant.	eng
167349	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is a common species across much of its range.	eng
167349	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167350	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	No specific conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is need for further distributional data.	eng
167350	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Aciagrion pallidum</em> is a widespread species, known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933), India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Cambodia (Asahina 1967), Laos (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004) and Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It is likely to be found in Bhutan, Yunnan in China and northern Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
167350	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species appears to prefer drier areas, and to occur seasonally in the wetter parts of its range. It inhabits marshes, and the weedy margins of ponds and lakes and streams, but is often found away from water.</p>	eng
167350	population	Dow, R., 2010	This is a common species across much of its range, although its distribution appears to be somewhat fragmentary.	eng
167350	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be under any widespread threats.</p>	eng
167351	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	More data is urgently needed on this species, without such data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed.	eng
167351	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is only known from from Hasimara, Duars of Bengal and Dimapur, Nagaland.	eng
167351	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167351	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	No population information available for the species.	eng
167351	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Growing population pressures have led to migration to and settlement in the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010). It is likely that similar threats are also present in Nagaland.	eng
167353	conservation	Kakkasery, F., 2009	No specific conervation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167353	distribution	Kakkasery, F., 2009	This species is very widespread, occurring from India to Viet Nam and south to New Guinea and Australia.	eng
167353	habitat	Kakkasery, F., 2009	This species breeds in ponds, marshes, swamp forest and shallow forest pools. It has been found in Kalimantan on small pools in oil palm plantations where agrochemicals are heavily used, so it is tolerant of disturbance and pollution.	eng
167353	population	Kakkasery, F., 2009	This is a common species over much of its range.	eng
167353	threats	Kakkasery, F., 2009	No threats are known for this species.	eng
167356	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data is needed on this species before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167356	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia miniata</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from India, with records from Darjeeling in West Bengal (e.g. Selys 1886, Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1984) and probably other districts, Sikkim (Selys 1886, Fraser 1933) and Mizoram (Prasad 1997), and from Nepal (Asahina 1974, Lieftinck 1977, Kiauta and Kiauta 1982, Vick 1989). Most of these records are old and none of those dates from after 1979 except that from Mizoram. It is likely to be found in additional northeastern Indian states, Bangladesh and possibly Myanmar and Bhutan.<br/></p>	eng
167356	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is reasonable to assume, both from the areas in which it has been found and from the known habitats of other <em>Calicnemia</em> species, that it breeds in forest streams and seepages in steep terrain.	eng
167356	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">We have no information on populations of this species.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167356	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Without fresh data on distribution it is difficult to assess any threats faced by this species, but deforestation and dams are potential threats.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167357	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2009	No conservation actions appear to be needed, but there is a need for more data on distribution.	eng
167357	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Orthetrum japonicum</span> is a widespread species, extending from Pakistan to China and Japan. It is primarily a palearctic species, occurring also in the northern part of the Indomalayan region.	eng
167357	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2009	Generally the species breeds in ponds and lakes.	eng
167357	population	Subramanian, K., 2009	Across at least parts of its range this species is not very common.	eng
167357	threats	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species does not appear to be threatened.	eng
167358	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Further research is required&#160; into the species distribution, ecology, and potential threats, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.	eng
167358	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mortonagrion aborense</span> occurs from India to Thailand and Lao PDR, and south to Borneo and Sumatra. It should occur in Myanmar, but has not yet been recorded there.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>	eng
167358	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Found in forest streams, shady marshes and ponds. Although this species can sometimes be found outside of forest, it is always in the vicinity of forest and probably depends on some forest cover for its survival. It is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167358	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No specific population information is available. However in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand this species is quite common, if local, but in Borneo it appears to be much scarcer, with all records to-date from Kalimantan.	eng
167358	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Whilst individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, it is unlikely that this disturbance tolerant species will become globally threatened	eng
167362	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, fresh data on this species are needed.</p>	eng
167362	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	<em>Gynacantha biharica</em> is known only from two specimens from Pusa in Bihar, India, collected more than 70 years ago (Fraser 1936).	eng
167362	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species. <em>Gynacantha</em> species typically breed in forest pools, but they are also typically crepuscular, whereas <em>G. biharica </em>is stated to be diurnal (Fraser 1936).</p>	eng
167362	population	Dow, R., 2009	There are no data available on populations of this species.	eng
167362	threats	Dow, R., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We have insufficient information on this species to assess any threats it might face.</p>	eng
167363	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention. However more data on its tolerance to disturbance and potential threats are needed.	eng
167363	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from India, Bhutan and Nepal. In India it is known from Sikkim, Darjeeling (West Bengal), Assam, Himachal  Pradesh, Chandigarh and Uttrakhand.	eng
167363	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is found in torrential streams and adults are usually found perched on emergent rocks and overhanging vegetation.	eng
167363	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No specific population information is available, but judging from literature records the species is not uncommon where it occurs.	eng
167363	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No species specific threats have been recorded. However, in parts of its range it may be suffering from habitat degradation due to agricultural run-off and/or recreational use, but further information on the extent of these threats is required.	eng
167364	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	More data is urgently needed on this species, both on distribution and on habitat requirements. Until such information is obtained it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed. The priority must be for extensive expert searches across its known range and adjacent regions.	eng
167364	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Burmagomphus hasimaricus</span> has been recorded in Pokhara, Nepal (Vick 1985, Kemp and Butler 2001) and Duars of West Bengal, India (e.g. Fraser 1926).	eng
167364	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species. Possible habitats are montane rivers, creeks and streams.	eng
167364	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No specific information is available on populations the species. There have only ever been a few records of this species, but this is typical of stream breeding tropical and subtropical gomphids and nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can be inferred from it. It has been found in the Pokhara area of Nepal several times, suggesting that it is not uncommon there at least.	eng
167364	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Deforestation due to urbanization might act as a major threat (Lahiri 1989), but this is speculative without much further data. However, the mid-hills across the region, and especially within Nepal, have been heavily deforested by small scale subsistence clearance for agriculture.	eng
167365	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167365	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ictinogomphus rapax</span> has a wide range of distribution across the Indo-Malayan region, occurring in Sri Lanka (Fraser 1934), and wide-ranging across the whole of India (Prasad and Varshney 1995), Nepal (St. Quentin 1970, Vick 1985, Kemp and Butler 2001), Bangladesh (Chowdhury and Akhteruzzaman 1981, Chowdhury and Mohiuddin 1994), Myanmar (Lieftinck 1971, Mitra 2002), becoming scarcer in Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia (from where there is a sight record that might actually refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">I. decoratus</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">I. pertinax</span>).	eng
167365	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	It breeds in perennial ponds (Kumar 1985), reservoirs (Mitra 2000) and in rivers (pers. obs.).	eng
167365	population	Mitra, A., 2009	Although it is common across much of its range, no exact population data is available.	eng
167365	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	The species does not have threats across its whole range, but deforestation is common across the region in hill areas.	eng
167366	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Research is needed into the taxonomy of this species in order to confirm if it is a valid species.	eng
167366	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes nigriceps</span> has only been recorded in Bihar in India (Fraser 1924, 1930, 1933).	eng
167366	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on the habitats and ecology of the species.	eng
167366	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No population information is available.	eng
167366	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on any existing threats to the species.	eng
167367	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Specific conservation measures are not likely to be needed for this species, but it would certainly benefit from any additional protection of suitable habitat.	eng
167367	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known to occur in Pakistan, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Assam (India) and Nepal.	eng
167367	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species breeds in montane streams.	eng
167367	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information available for this species.	eng
167367	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	The threats to this species are not known, but as a widely distributed montane species it is not likely to be threatened.	eng
167368	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167368	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachythemis contaminata</span> is a wide spread species, extending from India to Japan and south into Indonesia.	eng
167368	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species inhabits weedy ponds, lakes and slowly moving streams. It is very tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167368	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a very common species across much of its range.	eng
167368	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened across its range.	eng
167369	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167369	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplacodes nebulosa</span> is a widespread species, extending from India to south China and southwards to New Guinea and Australia.	eng
167369	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is found at marshes, well-vegetated ponds and lake shores.	eng
167369	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This species seems to be rather local in occurrence.	eng
167369	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened across its range.	eng
167370	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167370	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trithemis pallidinervis</span> is distributed from Iran to Taiwan and south to Sumatra and the Philippines. It has not yet been recorded from Borneo, but is very likely to occur there.	eng
167370	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species breeds in marshes, ponds, lakes etc.&#160; In parts of its range it appears to be a pioneer species, colonising new created ponds and wetlands. It is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167370	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	In India this species is very common, elsewhere in its range it appears to be more local, but can be common where it occurs.	eng
167370	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167371	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any specific conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167371	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anisopleura comes</span> is fairly widely distributed across the Indo-Malayan region from Punjab hills (Fraser 1934, Sharma and Kumar 2008) and Himachal Pradesh (Kumar 1982) of India to Yunnan (Morton 1928). In India it is also found in Uttarakhand (e.g. Kumar and Mitra 1998), Sikkim (e.g. Mitra 2002), West Bengal (e.g. Mitra 2002), Assam (e.g. Fraser 1934), Mizoram (Prasad 1997) and Nagaland (Mitra 2002). The species also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), Bhutan (Mitra 2002, 2008), Bangladesh.	eng
167371	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Adults are found at fast flowing hill streams. They usually perch on partially submerged stones or on nearby vegetation, hanging over the water. The larvae prefer the stony beds of the hill streams.	eng
167371	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is common over much of its range.	eng
167371	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No major threats are known to exist for the species.	eng
167372	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
167372	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Diplacodes trivialis</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to China and Japan and southwards to New Guinea and Australia.	eng
167372	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in ponds, wet rice fields, shallow lakes, drainage ditches and similar habitats.	eng
167372	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is a common species across much of its range.	eng
167372	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	&#160;across its range, though there are likely to be local threats arising from the loss of wetlands due to agriculture and developmental activities.This species is not threatened.	eng
167373	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Although further data on distribution and threats are needed, no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed for this species.	eng
167373	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the Himalayas. It has been recorded from locations India: in Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Assam, Uttarakhand (Kumaon) and Himachal Pradesh, and from Nepal, from where there are many recent records (e.g. Vick 1989).	eng
167373	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anisogomphus bivittatus</span> is found in hill streams, between 700 and 3,600 m asl (Vick 1989).	eng
167373	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on the exact population of the species, but it appears to be quite common in Nepal at least.	eng
167373	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on threats to this species, but it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range. Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species hill stream habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging), tourism development, and hydropower development.	eng
167374	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Sharma, G., 2010	This widespread species does not require immediate conservation attention. However there is a need for further data on tolerance to disturbance and on distribution.	eng
167374	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Sharma, G., 2010	Reported from India, Nepal, Thailand, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India  the species is found in West Bengal (Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri), Assam,  Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir,  Meghalaya, Sikkim and Uttarakhand.	eng
167374	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Sharma, G., 2010	The species is found in torrential open streams; adults are usually found perched on bare rocks emerging from the stream.	eng
167374	population	Subramanian, K. & Sharma, G., 2010	No specific population information available, but the species is widespread and not uncommon.	eng
167374	threats	Subramanian, K. & Sharma, G., 2010	No specific threats recorded, however agricultural runoff and sedimentation might be affecting larval habitats, and hydroelectric dams may impact upon the species larval hill stream habitats.	eng
167375	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</p>	eng
167375	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Ischnura aurora </em><span lang="EN-GB">is a very widely distributed species, occurring from Pakistan and India to China and Taiwan, and to Australia and many Pacific Islands. It has yet to be recorded from Peninsular Malaysia, Kalimantan or Sumatra, but may occur at high altitudes in these areas.</p>	eng
167375	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in a variety of habitats, from marshes and tidal mangrove swamps, to ponds and lakes and wet rice fields. In parts of its range it occurs from the lowlands to high altitudes, but in other parts (e.g. Java) it appears to be confined to higher altitudes.</p>	eng
167375	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Across much of its range this species is common.</p>	eng
167375	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species does not appear to be threatened.</p>	eng
167376	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more information on this poorly known species, which will only be obtained through expert sampling of Odonata in north-east India. Without such information it will not be possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed.	eng
167376	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from two locations in northeast India, Zuhenoboto in Nagaland (Mitra 2002) and Tura in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1933).	eng
167376	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species.	eng
167376	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from two individuals only.	eng
167376	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Garo Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, though, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments. Without more information on distribution and habitat, any threats that  might be faced by this species cannot be assessed.	eng
167377	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	More information is urgently needed on the distribution of, and potential threats to, this species. The priority is for extensive expert searches to be made in north-east India and adjacent regions. Once more data on distribution and habitat is avaialable, any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
167377	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petaliaeschna fletcheri</span> is only known from Meghalaya and Sikkim (e.g. Fraser 1936). It should be looked for in other north-east Indian states, in Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
167377	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This is probably a crepuscular species (Fraser 1936). No more information is available, but it appears to be a montane species, and is likely to be dependent upon forest for its survival.	eng
167377	population	Mitra, A., 2009	All records of this species are more than 70 years old; we have no information on current populations.	eng
167377	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Without more information on habitat requirements and distribution any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed.	eng
167379	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Without more data it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed for this species.	eng
167379	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha spuria</span> has an Indo-Malayan range of distribution. In India it is found in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram (Mitra 2002), Meghalaya (Fraser 1934), Nagaland (Bhasin 1953) and Nainital of Uttarakhand (Kumar and Prasad 1981). The species also occurs in Myanmar (Fraser 1934) and Yunnan in China (Fraser 1924).	eng
167379	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Adults perch on partially submerged large stones in streams or on hanging vegetation along the fast flowing channels. Oviposition occurs on the floating twigs of <span style="font-style: italic;">Debregeasia longifolia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Bidens </span>sp. and among some water grasses. Larvae are found in fast flowing hill streams or in water channels with stony beds. From the published information it is not clear how dependent upon forest this species is.<br/></p>	eng
167379	population	Mitra, A., 2009	Judging from published records this species can be quite common where it occurs.	eng
167379	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Without knowing how dependent upon forest or how disturbance tolerant this species is, it is difficult to assess any threats it might face. However it appears to be widely distributed, so is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
167381	conservation	Sharma, D. & Babu, R., 2009	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, however it is likely that no specific conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167381	distribution	Sharma, D. & Babu, R., 2009	This species appears to be endemic to India, where it is found in Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal (Darjeeling District). It should be looked for in Myanmar and Bhutan.	eng
167381	habitat	Sharma, D. & Babu, R., 2009	It is known to inhabit montane streams in comparatively open habitat.	eng
167381	population	Sharma, D. & Babu, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
167381	threats	Sharma, D. & Babu, R., 2009	Given that this species occupies comparatively open habitats, it is not likely to be threatened, however further data is needed to confirm this.	eng
167382	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This very widespread and common species does not require conservation attention.	eng
167382	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion fallax </span>is very widely distributed from India to China and south to peninsular Malaysia.	eng
167382	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in a variety of still and slowly flowing waters.	eng
167382	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is often a very common species where it occurs.	eng
167382	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167383	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed, but specific conservation actions are not likely to be needed for this species.</p>	eng
167383	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>    </p><p>    </p><p><em>Macromia moorei</em> is widespread from Northern India to Peninsular Malayasia. In India it occurs from Himachal Pradesh (Prasad 1976, Kumar 1982), Uttar Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Uttarakhand (Bhasin 1953, Sahani 1964, Kumar 1973, Singh and Prasad 1976,   Hämäläinen   1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998), Bengal (Martin 1906), Assam (Fraser 1921, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Khashi Hills, Shillong (Fraser 1921) and an isolated observation from Deccan (Fraser 1921). It is also known to occur in Nepal (St. Quentin 1970; Vick 1989; Mahato 1986, 1989), Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002, 2006), Myanmar (Martin 1906), south China, Thailand, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia (Wilson 1998), Lao PDR, Sumatra and Java, but is absent from Borneo. </p>  <p></p>  <p></p>	eng
167383	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Larvae occur in side pools of hill streams and are found clinging to the aquatic grasses and the roots of some submerged trees along the sides of the stream (Kumar and Mitra 1998).	eng
167383	population	Mitra, A., 2009	&#160;The species is quite common throughout much of its range.	eng
167383	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>  There are not thought to be threats across the entire range of the species.<br/></p>	eng
167386	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a pressing need for further data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, until such information becomes available it will not be possible to assess any threats it might face or to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Extensive expert sampling of Odonata in the Himalayan region must be undertaken to generate the required data.	eng
167386	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known only from Turzum (Darjeeling, India) and one location in Nepal.	eng
167386	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is probably a stream species.	eng
167386	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from two specimens only.	eng
167386	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
167387	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2009	There is a need for a review of this species complex, which could form a basis for determining further research actions which must be carried out. Possibly some forms currently treated as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. vittata</span> will need conservation measures.	eng
167387	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species is widely distributed from India to Viet Nam and south to Java.	eng
167387	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2009	This species occupies a variety of standing water habitats, these may vary across its range, and include ponds, lake margins, swamp forest and sometimes streams.	eng
167387	population	Subramanian, K., 2009	This is a common species in parts of its range.	eng
167387	threats	Subramanian, K., 2009	As currently understood, this species is not threatened.	eng
167388	conservation	Sharma, G., 2009	This widespread species may not require immediate conservation attention, but there is a need for further data.	eng
167388	distribution	Sharma, G., 2009	The species is known to occur in Pakistan, India and Thailand, and presumably will be found in Myanmar.	eng
167388	habitat	Sharma, G., 2009	&#160;The species is usually found perched among undergrowth near wetlands.	eng
167388	population	Sharma, G., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
167388	threats	Sharma, G., 2009	There are unlikely to be any widespread threats to this species.	eng
167390	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167390	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Macromia pallida</em> is known only from three males collected in West Bengal (Fraser 1936, Lahiri 1989) prior to 1936. It should be looked for in adjacent Indian states.	eng
167390	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p>  Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is reasonable to assume that it is a species of streams and/or rivers.</p>	eng
167390	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information on population sizes is available.</p>	eng
167390	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
167391	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available. Research is needed to determine if this is a valid species.	eng
167391	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is only known from Kolkata, India.	eng
167391	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
167391	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is known from a single specimen.	eng
167391	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
167392	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for more information on habitat requirements, especially on how dependent on forest the species is, and how tolerant of disturbance, and on distribution. Beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.	eng
167392	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Anotogaster nipalensis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from India, with records from Sikkim and West Bengal (Fraser 1936), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989), and Bhutan (A. Mitra, pers. comm. 2010). Most records are from Nepal and there do not appear to be recent records from India. It should also be looked for in Arunachal Pradesh and Tibet.</p>	eng
167392	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but Fraser (1936) reports finding exuviae (cast larval skins) "clinging to rushes in a small stream meandering through a swamp", and Butler (2007) records the larva from the "sluggish margin" of a torrential stream. It is likely that it has some dependence upon forest cover and that it occupies a variety of small stream habitats. Most &#160;records appear to be from 1000 m or above; this species can be considered to be montane.</p>	eng
167392	population	Dow, R., 2010	G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) reports that this species is common at middle altitudes in Nepal at least, especially in the Kathmandu Valley area. This statement is supported by the most recent records (Sasamoto and Usijima 2000).	eng
167392	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without more information on its habitat requirements (e.g. how dependent upon forest is it and how tolerant of disturbance) it is difficult to assess the threats faced by this species. However it appears to be fairly widely distributed in the Himalayan region, and it occupies a broad altitudinal range, so it is unlikely to be more than locally threatened.<br/></p>	eng
167393	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167393	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Libellago lineata</span> is widespread across southern Asia, from western India to Malaysia and China. In India the species is recorded from Manipur, Tripura (Mitra 2002), Assam (Laidlaw 1917, Fraser 1928, 1934), Arunachal Pradesh (Prasad 1997), Uttarakhand (Prasad and Singh 1976, Kumar and Prasad 1981), Himachal Pradesh (Kumar 1982), Rajasthan (Prasad and Thakur 1981), Madhya Pradesh (Prasad 1996) and other provinces. Records from the Nicobar Islands refer to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. blandus</span> which was treated as a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. lineata</span> until recently. The species also occurs in Nepal (e.g. Smith 1978), Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1934), Sumatra, Java and southern Borneo (e.g. Lieftinck 1954), Taiwan (e.g. Lieftinck <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1984), south China (e.g. Wilson and Reels 2003), Lao PDR (Yokoi and Souphanthong 2005), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen & Pinratana 1999), Vietnam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007) and Malaysia (e.g. Choong <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
167393	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is found in comparatively open habitats in vicinity of clear streams or rivers. In Thailand at least it occurs on streams in agricultural land.	eng
167393	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This is a common species across much of its range.	eng
167393	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is not threatened.	eng
167395	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species does not require any conservation actions.	eng
167395	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	The species is found throughout the Indian subcontinant and south east Asia, extending to Japan and south to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
167395	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	The species uses diverse wetland habitats such as ponds, lakes, marshes, wet paddy fields, streams, rivers, and irrigation canals.	eng
167395	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
167395	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167396	conservation	Mitra, A., Babu, R. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167396	distribution	Mitra, A., Babu, R. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known from India (Mitra 2002), Nepal (Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936), and possibly Tibet (Martin 1909), although this record appears suspect and the location is probably an error (e.g. see Fraser 1936). Bangladesh has also been included in the range of this species (e.g. Mitra 2002) but the source of this record is not known, and it is considered to be suspect. The species should be looked for in Bhutan. Only the record from Nepal is recent.	eng
167396	habitat	Mitra, A., Babu, R. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167396	population	Mitra, A., Babu, R. & Dow, R., 2010	Few individuals of this species have been collected and nearly all records are more than 70 years old, the exception being that from Nepal which dates from the 1980s. This may indicate genuine scarcity, but may just as well reflect a lack of expert sampling across the species range since the 1930s, and difficulty of capture.	eng
167396	threats	Mitra, A., Babu, R. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
167397	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	There is as need for more distribution data, especially from India, but no specific conservation measures are likely to be needed for this species.	eng
167397	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from India, Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
167397	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in hill streams, with larvae found in side pools.	eng
167397	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific information is available, but judging from the literature, this species is fairly common in Nepal at least.	eng
167397	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information is available, but although individual populations may be threatened by one cause or another, it is unlikely that this species is globally threatened. Hill habitats within the region are at risk deforestation (caused by agriculture and small scale forestry and clearance) and from hydropower development.	eng
167398	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further distributional data, and more information on potential threats. Clearly the protection of more areas of suitable habitat is highly desirable, but there does not appear to be a need for specific conservation measures at this time. <br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
167398	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Calicnemia pulverulans</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and north and northeastern India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995). Lieftinck (1984) raised doubts about records from Myanmar, but, based on its known distribution, it is to be expected in the east of that country, and in Bhutan.</p>	eng
167398	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species in found at forest streams. In Nepal it is common on most running waters in forest at middle altitudes, and is not confined to pristine forest (G.S. Vick, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
167398	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species may be somewhat local, but appears to be quite common where it occurs. In Nepal it is common in forested areas at middle altitudes (G.S. Vick, pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
167398	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Individual populations are vulnerable to deforestation and large-scale hydro-electric projects, but the species does not appear to be globally threatened. <br/></p>	eng
167399	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	More information on the distribution of this species, and on its habitat requirements and population sizes is needed, before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. However, its range is quite large and there is no evidence to suggest that it is threatened at present.	eng
167399	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species appears to be confined to northeastern India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Myanmar (Schmidt 1964); there is only a single record from Myanmar.	eng
167399	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in clear montane streams.	eng
167399	population	Sharma, G., 2010	There are few records of this species, suggesting that it is local in occurrence and possibly genuinely scarce.	eng
167399	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species might be vulnerable to deforestation, but more data on habitat requirements and distribution are needed before such a threat can be considered as more than speculative.	eng
167400	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Further information on this species is urgently needed and will only be obtained through extensive expert sampling in Meghalaya and adjacent regions.	eng
167400	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known only from the type locality in the Shilong area of the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.	eng
167400	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available. Fraser (1934), mention that one female was found emerging from a cement tank. He also remarks that the species is interesting because of its extraordinary breeding place. It is possible that the larvae could have reached the cement tank from the water source, which is unknown. Hence it is safer to conclude that the breeding habitat of this species is unknown and rivers and streams could be a possible breeding habitat, as is more typical for members of the Gomphidae.	eng
167400	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available.	eng
167400	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	The Khasi Hills are subject to pressures from mining (including uranium  mining), hydropower development, and especially, deforestation caused by  shifting agriculture and logging.	eng
167403	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No conservation measures are needed for this species, however there is a need for further distributional data.	eng
167403	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhyothemis plutonia</span> is a widespread species, occurring from northeast India to China and south to the Malay peninsular and Sumatra. The only records from China are from Hainan (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010), but it must be present in other parts of south China and should be searched for there and in Bhutan.	eng
167403	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	This species breeds in lakes, ponds and even in the side pools of reservoirs and irrigation channels. Adults are quite shy and weakly fluttering insects.	eng
167403	population	Mitra, A., 2010	<p>This species is somewhat local but can be common where it occurs.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
167403	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167405	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
167405	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Tsuda (2000) lists <em>Calicnemia erythromelas</em> from Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. According to Fraser (1933) <em>Calicnemia erythromelas</em> was described from 'Leiktho, Toungoo Dist.', Myanmar and he also provided additional records from several locations including Copado, Mount Karen, and the Chin Hills, within Myanmar. Asahina (1985b) provided details of numerous records and specimens from Thailand and Hämäläinen, and Pinratana (1999) produced a distribution map revealing the Thai distribution to be restricted to northwest Thailand. Asahina (1997) also recorded <em>erythromelas</em> from Ban Khoang, Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province in northern Vietnam. Sui and Sun (1984) recorded <em>erythromelas</em> from Yunnan.	eng
167405	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species found at montane trickles and streams.	eng
167405	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
167405	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
167408	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167408	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is widely distributed from India to south China and southwards to Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
167408	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Common in marshes, ponds, lakes, sluggish streams and irregation canals.	eng
167408	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>This species is common over much of its range.<br/></p>	eng
167408	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167409	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not in need of immediate conservation actions, although further data on distribution is desirable.	eng
167409	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha fenestrella</span> is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical parts of south and east Asia, with records from Myanmar to south China and Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsular. Records from Hainan have recently been shown to refer to a separate species.	eng
167409	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a species of rocky forest streams.	eng
167409	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a common and widespread species.	eng
167409	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Deforestation is a threat to some populations, but this species is not globally threatened.	eng
167415	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Specific conservation measures are not likely to be needed for this species.	eng
167415	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea masoni</span> is widely distributed from northeast India to Viet Nam and southern China. There are no published records from Cambodia, but there are photographs probably of this species from that country (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
167415	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in streams. In northern Thailand at least it is frequently on streams flowing through open country and is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167415	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a common species in parts of its range.	eng
167415	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not likely to be threatened across its range, though most likely to be locally impacted by habitat loss.	eng
167418	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from <st1:placename w:st="on">Country</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype> in Hong Kong and Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
167418	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality is Tsa-Yiu-San, Guangdong. Although also reported from Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Henan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Zhejiang (Hua 2000) <em>Philoganga vetusta</em> has been mistakenly identified from <em>Phloganga robusta</em> material (Chao 1953b). It has been reliably recorded from Fujian and Guangdong (Chao 1953b, Wilson 1999) and also occurs in Hainan (Wilson unpublished data) and Hunan (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is common and widespread in many locations throughout Hong Kong (Wilson 1997, 2004).	eng
167418	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Larvae recovered from hill streams in forested areas.	eng
167418	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167418	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167420	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
167420	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Restricted to Sichuan, China. Described from single female collected from Sichuan (Needham 1930). Zhou (1986) recorded and described the first male '<em>trox</em>' (not of Needham) material from Luku in Yunnan but Chao (1995) described this material as a new species <em>Davidius zhoui</em>.  According to Chao (1995) Yang and Davies's (1993) records of '<em>trox</em>' from Yunnan also belong to <em>Davidius zhoui</em>. Asahina (1990) illustrated a teneral female collected in Thailand which he thought might belong to this species but Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) and Chao (1995) did not think the Thai specimen belonged to <em>trox</em>. Chao (1995) studied several males collected from 'Lusha County' central Sichuan. Asahina (1996) also considered male and female material collected from north Vietnam may belong to this species.	eng
167420	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners frequent forested streams.	eng
167420	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
167420	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
167423	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from <st1:placename w:st="on">Country</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Parks</st1:placetype> in Hong Kong and Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
167423	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	May (1933) described <em>Agriomorpha fusca</em> from 'Fan-Chi-Schan', Guangdong. Asahina (1965) first recorded it from Hong Kong, where it is considered abundant by Wilson (2004). Wilson (1999) also recorded it from Dinghushan, Guangdong, three sites in Hainan (Wilson and Reels 2001) and two sites in Guangxi (Wilson and Reels 2005). Wilson and Xu (2007) records it from western, central, northern and southern Guangdong. Xu Qi-han (pers. comm. 2007) has collected material of <em>Agriomorpha fusca</em> from Nanjing County, southwest Fujian.	eng
167423	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents forest seepages and small forest streams.	eng
167423	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167423	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167427	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation measures appear to be needed for this species, although there is a need for more information on its distribution and on the full range of habitats that it can occupy.	eng
167427	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Camacinia gigantea</span> is widely distributed from India to Viet Nam and southwards to New Guinea.	eng
167427	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in shallow stagnant waters. It is mainly found near the coast, at lagoons and shallow ponds, and at the rearward edges of mangrove, although it is also sometimes encountered far inland (e.g. Chiang Mai in Thailand). In Sarawak numbers of this species have been reported on shallow coastal pools that dry up after a few days without rain. It appears to be tolerant of disturbance.	eng
167427	population	Sharma, G., 2010	<p>This species appears to be somewhat local but can be common where it occurs.<br/></p>	eng
167427	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Individual populations are threatened by development in coastal areas and loss of mangrove, but overall this species does not apear to be threatened.	eng
167431	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Detailed research into population size, trends and threats is needed, but specific conservation measures are unlikely to be needed for this species.</p>	eng
167431	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<em style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia eximia</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is widespread across the Himalayan belt, occurring from Jammu and Kashmir in India to south China, with records from Nepal (Asahina 1965, 1974; St. Quentin 1970; Vick 1985; Mahato 1986,  1989), Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002, 2006, 2008), China (Needham 1932, Chao  1981), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891), and Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hoa 2007). In India it is known to occur in Assam<em> </em>(Fraser 1932), Bengal (Darjeeling), Sikkim (Fraser 1932, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Arunachal Pradesh (Lahiri 1985, Mitra, T.R. 2002), Meghalaya (Lahiri 1987), Mizorum (Prasad 1997), Nagaland (Mitra, T.R. 2002), Uttar Pradesh (Bhasin 1953), Jammu & Kashmir (Lieftinck 1984), Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand (Hämäläinen  1989, Kumar and Mitra 1998, Mitra 2000). It might occur in Pakistan.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em></em><em></em><em> </em>	eng
167431	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	This species breeds in small streams and has often been observed in the vicinity of water falls. It has been observed on the vegetation, mainly ferns, adjacent to water falls. They oviposit endophytically among the adventitious roots of plants kept wet by the sprinkling water of these falls. The larvae occur in the same habitat where oviposition takes place as well as among the mosses and ferns adjacent to water falls (Kumar and Mitra 1998).	eng
167431	population	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Current population size is unknown although the species is common in parts of its range.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
167431	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>Although individual populations are certainly threatened from a variety of sources, this species is not threatened across its entire range. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
167443	conservation	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements, but specific conservation measures may not be needed for this species	eng
167443	distribution	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known to occur in India (Darjeeling), China, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Taiwan.	eng
167443	habitat	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in bogs, swamps and sometimes slow flowing streams, all in forested areas. There is no data on tolerance to disturbance, but other <span style="font-style: italic;">Orolestes</span> species are certainly quite disturbance tolerant - eg. not requiring pristine forest habitats.	eng
167443	population	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	There is little information on populations of this species, but it is probably under-recorded. Wilson and Reels (2003) record finding several hundred males aggregated in a copse in Guangxi, China, where there were presumably sitting out the winter dry season.	eng
167443	threats	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Individual populations of this species are undoubedly threatened by deforestation and other causes, but it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.	eng
167444	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
167444	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Ceriagrion cerinorubellum </em>is a widespread species, ranging from Pakistan to southern Vietnam and south to Java.	eng
167444	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species breeds in a wide variety of standing water habitats, from drains in town and cities to marshes and swamp forest, and even the landward margins of mangrove swamp.</p>	eng
167444	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a common species across most of its range.</p>	eng
167444	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened.	eng
167445	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<p>A common and widespread species.</p>	eng
167445	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Copera annulata</em> was described from Shanghai and ranges from southwest and central China. where it is common, through to Korea, where it is considered uncommon (Lee 2001) to Japan including Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) listed many records of <em>Copera annulata</em> from Taiwan and Asahina (1965) recorded <em>annulata</em> from Hong Kong but all these and other southern Chinese specimen are not true <em>annulata</em> but <em>Copera ciliata</em> Sélys (Asahina, 1984). Zhang and Zhang (2006) record <em>annulata</em> from Shaanxi. Hua (2000) lists <em>annulata</em> from Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan, in central and southwest China but also records it from Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Fujian in south China. The latter south Chinese records refer to <em>Copera ciliata</em> (Wilson and Xu 2007, Wilson and Reels 2003,  Asahina 1984). There may be an overlap in range between southwest China, central China and south China.	eng
167445	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species is found at marshes, pond and lake margins.	eng
167445	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167445	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167455	conservation	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for further information on the distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance of this species.	eng
167455	distribution	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia mortoni</span> is known to occur Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
167455	habitat	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Adults are found in banks of streams with good vegetation cover. They frequently perch on ferns and other riparian plants.	eng
167455	population	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information is available for this species.	eng
167455	threats	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>No species-specific threat are known, however deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
167459	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for further data on distribution of this species, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
167459	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species occurs from Meghalaya in northeast India to south China and south to the Malay Peninsular. There do not seem to be records from Myanmar or Yunnan, but it should occur there.	eng
167459	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>The species is known to occur in rocky forest streams in hilly and mountainous areas.<br/></p>	eng
167459	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	In parts of its range this species is quite common in suitable habitat.	eng
167459	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Some populations of this species are undoubtedly threatened by deforestation and other causes, but it is not threatened across its entire range.	eng
167462	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<p>A common and widespread species.<em></em></p>	eng
167462	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from a wide range in southeastern and eastern Asia, including Vietnam (Tsuda 2000), though China, including Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hebai, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Zheijiang (Hua 2000) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006), Hong Kong (Wilson 2004), Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984) to Korea (Lee 2001) and Japan, not including Hokkaido (Sugimura <em>et al</em> 2001).	eng
167462	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents ponds and lakes.	eng
167462	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
167462	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167463	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	No immediate conservation measure is required. Further research on the taxonomy, population, distribution, ecology and threats of this species is needed.	eng
167463	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis dabreui</span> appears to have a wide distribution from Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997) in India to Viet Nam (e.g. Do Manh and Hua 2007), however (see Taxonomic Note) records from some intervening locations have already proved to refer to a different species and those from the easternmost part of its range appear suspect. There is also a record from Pakistan (Khaliq and Yousuf1992), but specimens from Pakistan are said to "differ greatly" from the description given by Fraser, and must be considered in need of verification.	eng
167463	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	There is little clear information on the habitat requirements of this species, but it appears to occupy a variety of standing and slowly flowing waters.	eng
167463	population	Mitra, A., 2010	The population trend and size is not known for this species.	eng
167463	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known to exist for the species.	eng
167474	conservation	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	No specific conservation actions appear to be needed for this species. There is a need for further data on distribution, and clarification of its occurrence on Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
167474	distribution	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tetracanthagyna waterhousei</span> is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical mainland Asia, with records from eastern India to Vietnam and Lao PDR. The type location is supposed to be in Borneo, but no further details were recorded and I know of no other record from the island; the type may have been mislabelled and the occurrence of this species on Borneo is considered doubtful here. Similarly records from Sumatra, already questioned by Lieftinck (1954) are considered doubtful.	eng
167474	habitat	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	This species breeds in forest streams, including some in highly disturbed forest.	eng
167474	population	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	This species is both widespread, and common in at least parts of its range (e.g. Hong Kong).	eng
167474	threats	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Deforestation is a threat to some populations, but this species is not threatened across its entire range.	eng
167476	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No particular conservation measures appear to be needed for <em>Merogomphus parvus</em> at the present time, although there is a need for more data.</p>	eng
167476	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Merogomphus parvus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Sumatra (e.g.   Krüger<span lang="EN-GB"> 1898, Lieftinck 1941), Peninsular Malaysia (Lieftinck 1964, Hämäläinen et al 1996, Orr 2005), Thailand (Asahina 1981; Kitagawa and Ichii 1999; Kitagawa and Katatani 2002, 2005), Myanmar (Asahina 1970), Vietnam (Asahina 1969), Laos (Yokoi 1999, Sasamoto and Honda 2003, Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004). The record from Laos from Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004 is from close to the Chinese border; this species is likely to occur in southwestern China as well, and should be looked for in Cambodia.</p>	eng
167476	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Lieftinck (1941) gives the habitat where he found this species in Sumatra as "small clear streams with a sandy or somewhat gravelly bottom." Later (1954) he gave the habitat as "hill forest streams". Hämäläinen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> (1996) recorded it from a logged over forest, consisting mostly of wild banana and bamboo, with 40% canopy cover. I have found this species on a stream in highly disturbed riparian forest surrounded by agricultural land in Chiang Mai, north west Thailand. Orr (2005) gives the habitat as forest streams and notes that the larvae "burrows in gravel". This species is clearly capable of breeding in a variety of lowland forest streams, including heavily disturbed ones.</p>	eng
167476	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p>Most records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Merogomphus parvus </span>are of one or a few individuals, but this is typical of tropical and subtropical forest stream gomphids. Although the currently available data is insufficient to make any estimates about population sizes past or present, there is no reason to suppose that this species is currently suffering any strong decline.</p>	eng
167476	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The major threat that is likely to be faced by this species is clear-felling of large areas of forest. As it is tolerant of disturbance, it might be able to survive in plantation streams, but until this has been established, large scale plantation establishment must also be regarded as a threat, albeit one that could easily be avoided by leaving adequate buffer zones of original forest around plantation streams.<br/></p>	eng
167478	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167478	conservation	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	None.	eng
167478	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
167478	distribution	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	A migrating species found on many islands in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius, Ceylon, southeast Asia, Samoan Islands, Caledonia).Recorded from Socotra frequently; southern African endemic is likely a vagrant and hence no range given.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Socotra and Somalia within the region.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is an occasional migrant to South Africa. There is no evidence for breeding in the southern Africa region.	eng
167478	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Macrodiplax cora</span> is a very widespread species and a migrant, occurring in Asia, Australia and on Pacific Ocean Islands. It has also been recorded from northeastern South Africa, but whether it reproduces there is uncertain.	eng
167478	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is an occasional migrant to South Africa. There is no evidence for breeding in the southern Africa region. Globally, it is widespread around the Indian Ocean and the Pacific area.	eng
167478	habitat	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	In northeastern Africa, the species occurs in stagnant water bodies in arid areas.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, it was found in coastal freshwaters.	eng
167478	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	It breeds in marshes, coastal lagoons and estuaries, the larvae are salt tolerant.	eng
167478	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	This species grows best in January.	eng
167478	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size is unknown.  No breeding populations are known in the southern Africa region.	eng
167478	population	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Population size is unknown. No breeding populations are known in the southern Africa region.	eng
167478	population	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is often common where it occurs.	eng
167478	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.<br/><p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
167478	threats	Suhling, F. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Not known major widespread threats.	eng
167478	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened across its range.	eng
167485	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167485	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes praemorsus </span>is very widely distributed from India to China and south to New Guinea.	eng
167485	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and similar habitats. It has even found it breeding in shallow water filled wheel ruts.	eng
167485	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	<p>This species is somewhat local, and in some places populations are rather intermittent, but it is generally common.<br/></p>	eng
167485	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	<p>There are no known widespread threats for this species.<br/></p>	eng
167488	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
167488	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neurothemis fluctuans </span>  is a widespread species in tropical Asia, extending from eastern India to Viet Nam and southwards to Java.	eng
167488	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is found at ponds, marshes, swamps and other stagnant waters.	eng
167488	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>This is a common species over much of its range.<br/></p>	eng
167488	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	<p>This species is not threatened.<br/></p>	eng
167489	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	Taxonomic work is required to resolve this species complex. If it should prove to consist of just one species, then it is unlikely that any specific conservation measures would be needed, but if not then each species involved will have to be re-assessed.	eng
167489	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	As understood here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Ischnura rufostigma</span> is a widespread species, occurring from India to China. In India the species has also been recorded from Himachal Pradesh (Prasad 1976), Uttarakhand (Kumar and Prasad 1981), Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997), Bihar (Kumar and Prasad 1981), West Bengal (Mitra 2002), Assam (Laidlaw 1914, 1916), Meghalaya (Lahiri 1987), Manipur (Lahiri 1977, Mitra 2002) and Nagaland (Mitra 2002). It has not yet been recorded from Bhutan, but is very likely to occur there, and must be more widespread in China than records suggest.	eng
167489	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	&#160;This species inhabits a variety of standing water habitats.	eng
167489	population	Mitra, A., 2010	The current population trend is not known, but the species is quite common across its range.	eng
167489	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat has been reported for this species.	eng
167492	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for more data on distribution, but no specific conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
167492	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is widely distributed from Myanmar to Viet Nam and south to Philippines and the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
167492	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species occupies a broad range of habitats, from ponds and wet rice fields to lakes and reservoirs and to open sections of slow flowing rivers. It is disturbance tolerant.	eng
167492	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This is a common species over much of its range, although under-recorded due to difficulty of capture.	eng
167492	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
167493	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for further distribution data and fresh data from Myanmar.</p>	eng
167493	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia chromothorax</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widely distributed species with records from Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891; Asahina 1970, 1984), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990, 1993; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; Hoess 2002), Laos (Fraser 1933, Lieftinck 1948, Yokoi and Kano 2002, Sasamoto and Honda 2003, Yokoi and Souphanthong 2004) and Vietnam (Asahina 1997, Do Manh and Hoa 2007). It has also been recorded from China (Sui and Sun 1984), probably from Yunnan.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
167493	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Small forest streams in hilly and mountainous terrain. Judging by some of the sites where it occurs in Chiang Mai in Thailand it is tolerant of at least a moderate degree of disturbance to its forest habitats.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167493	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is typically quite common where it occurs. There are many recent records and no reason to believe that any strong decline in populations is occurring.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167493	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The only threat to this species is likely to be from deforestation.</p>  <p></p>	eng
167629	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167629	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Paraná and Paraguay River basins in Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay.  The species is common in relatively undisturbed areas such as the upper portions of the Paraguay basin in Brazil.  Still regularly found in several localities in the upper Paraná that have not experienced drastic changes, at least in natural flow.	eng
167629	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. striatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species that inhabits fast flowing water, but more common in small tributaries than in large rivers.	eng
167629	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Relatively common and regularly found despite threats to the area in which it is found.	eng
167629	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There have been major damaging events to the Paraná River, particularly effecting the ichthyofauna, such as pollution and damming.  However, as this small species prefers smaller tributaries and is not dependent on migration, it is unlikely to be under threat.	eng
167630	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167630	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the lower Tapajós River basin, including its tributary, the Curua-Una, Brazil.  Recent sites where this species has been collected were at Itaituba (4d 21m S, 56d 10m W) and Pimental (4d 34m S, 56d 15m W), both within the Tapajos basin.	eng
167630	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. puchripinnis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Most <em>Hyphessobrycon</em> species are found in shallow, heavily vegetated areas of rivers and creeks.  The species prefers slow flowing water.<br/><br/>Based on aquarium observations, males defend territories during the morning spawning period while females school, periodically entering a male's territory individually to spawn.  After a brief courtship, there is a short spawning rush near some suitable substrate such as clumps of aquatic plants.  There is no parental care, males leaving their territory after the spawning period to school with the females.	eng
167630	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167630	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is harvested for the aquarium trade, though this is not thought to adversely impact the species.	eng
167631	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167631	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins, in Brazil and Venezuela.	eng
167631	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. xyrekes</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits streams.  Members of this genus have a major ecological role as a high-level predator (Berra 2001).  The species lives in large rivers in the mid water.  It is an elongated fast swimming fish.	eng
167631	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Less common than its congeners.	eng
167631	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
167632	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species does occur within a protected area, although further research is needed into the population trends.	eng
167632	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Rio Xingu, Brazil.  <em>M. elongatus</em> has been collected recently in some sites of the Upper Xingu River.  The species also apparently occurs in the Rio Araguaia basin (the uncertainty is due to the fact that a proper comparison between specimens from both river basins need to be undertaken to confirm this assumption) (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167632	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in rivers in spite of being a small fish. Occurs on sandbars.	eng
167632	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a very common species.	eng
167632	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Though the headwaters of the Xingu basin are being deforested at a quick pace, still much forest cover remains in the basin that will probably not be cut down (e.g., the large Indigenous Park of the Xingu). <br/><br/>The building of the Belo Monte dam will certainly affect deleteriously many highly rheophilic (prefers fast-flowing water) species known to occur at that site, but <em>M. elongatus</em> is not a highly rheophilic species and its known area occurrence is considerably upstream from Belo Monte.	eng
167633	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park.	eng
167633	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Iguaçu River and Uruga-í Creek basins.	eng
167633	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. myersi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in medium and large sized rivers.	eng
167633	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common species.	eng
167633	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167634	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Monitoring of the population is considered urgent to understand the continued threats and how the levels of exploitation have effected the species numbers.  Possible habitat protection areas need to be looked at.	eng
167634	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge and Sinú River basins in Colombia.	eng
167634	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. mivartii</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Very little is known of its general ecology.  Its natural environment is small streams.	eng
167634	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167634	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is eaten.  Because of the decline in catfish catch in the Magdalena, this species is becoming increasingly pressured by over fishing.  Its inclusion as a commercial species has caused a decline, along with other migratory species in the basin (Lima pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>It is possible that <em>C. mivartii</em> is also threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).&#160; Catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades, (Harvey 1998), it is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>In the Cauca River Valley system, 88% of mapped wetlands were lost between the 1950s and 1980s. Land reclamation, drainage, river regulation, and pollution were cited as the major causes (Moser <em>et al.</em> 1996).  The Sinú River basin has also suffered from habitat degradation.  Since the construction of the Urrá Dam in the basin, fish in the Upper Sinú river and its tributaries have declined (Colombian Human Rights Network 1999).	eng
167635	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed.	eng
167635	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs from Southern Sao Paulo to northern Santa Catarina coastal rivers in eastern Brazil.  It also occurs in the upper Rio Paranapanema.	eng
167635	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. ehrhardti</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs in small streams, shallow small rivers with soft bottom.  Lives in small schools.  Occurs in relatively disturbed habitats as well.	eng
167635	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is very common in the Southern portion of its range, less so in the north.	eng
167635	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown and further research is required.	eng
167636	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167636	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed in the coastal rivers of Rio Grande do Sul and southern Santa Catarina in Brazil; Uruguay; the Buenos Aires region and the rivers draining into La Plata River estuary; and in the lower Paraná and Paraguay River basins.	eng
167636	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. voga</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species that inhabits large rivers and lagoons.	eng
167636	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Extremely locally common and abundant.	eng
167636	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known threats currently affected this species.	eng
167637	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167637	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Guaporé River basin of Brazil, and in the Paraguay River basin.	eng
167637	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. fimbriatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  A benthic fish that swims in small to medium size schools, in clear waters inhabits both rivers and flood plain areas.	eng
167637	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common and abundant fish.	eng
167637	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Pantanal is being subjected to pressures such as the Cuiabi Dam, which is interfering with the flood regime.  Fishermen have reported a drop in the fisheries below the dam.  There are further problems with pollution.  These are general threats to the area which could prove important in the future, though not at present.	eng
167638	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167638	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Meta River basin, Colombia.	eng
167638	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. rosae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167638	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167638	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to affect this species.	eng
167639	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167639	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A poorly known species.  This species occurs in the Tapajós River basin, Brazil.	eng
167639	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small rivers and creeks, swimming in the mid water catching insects that fall into the water.	eng
167639	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>Bryconops</em> is a very common genus within the Tapajos river basin.	eng
167639	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The headwaters of the Tapajos are under severe anthropogenic disturbance.  The area was a mix of tropical forest and savanna forest.  These forests have been extensively replaced with large scale agriculture and plantations.  In many areas the only forest left is the riparian zone.  <br/><br/>A new road (A364) is built between Cuiaba and Santa Rem is a cause of great concern to the region as it is providing access into the Amazon.<br/><br/>It is unclear how these threats are impacting this species directly, as it is so poorly known but there is no particular reason to consider <em>B. gracilis</em> threatened.	eng
167640	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167640	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Uruguay, in the Uruguay River basin.	eng
167640	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. valenciennis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in large wide rivers and lagoons with soft bottom.	eng
167640	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information available, but the species is very common.	eng
167640	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A significant loss of natural habitats and degradation of the environment has taken place in La Plata River basin as a consequence of damming and reservoir construction for hydroelectric power plants and the development of large urban areas.  Agrochemical effluents, organic discharges, hydrocarbon pollution and gas oversaturation due to dam<br/>operations have resulted in fish mortalities.  The development of a large number of reservoirs in the main river reaches and its tributaries has turned fluvial lotic systems into lentic or almost lentic ecosystems (Mugetti 2004).  However, none of these threats are likely to impact the species in a significant way.	eng
167641	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167641	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Venezuela.	eng
167641	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. apurensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Generally an overlooked species in collections as they live in the bottom of river channels and are therefore difficult to collect.	eng
167641	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information available.	eng
167641	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
167642	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167642	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is extremely widespread and occurs in the Amazon, the Orinoco, the Paraguay River and watercourses in the Guianas.	eng
167642	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. affinis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).  Lives in the shallow waters of large streams, flood plain areas and ponds.	eng
167642	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common species with a stable population trend.	eng
167642	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	At present, there are no threats known to be affecting this species.	eng
167643	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are some indigenous areas in the upper Tapajós and some conservation units near the confluence of the Teles Pires and Juruena (the two main rivers of the region, which together form the Tapajós).	eng
167643	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is now known to occur all over the upper Rio Tapajós basin, Brazil.	eng
167643	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>J. poranga</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in fast flowing clear water rivers of the upper Tapajos basin.  Swims in small groups.	eng
167643	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167643	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Tapajos basin is now in the heart of the large soybean plantations in Brazil. The valleys of the rivers are in a healthier state than the top of the tablelands, and consequently the rivers does not appear to be up to now significantly disturbed.  There are several dams planned or being built in the area, however, though most will probably not interfere with natural flows.  Herbicides are also a concern in this area.  All in all, the conservation status of <em>J. poranga</em> does not seem at this moment particularly serious, but its habitat is being disturbed at a large scale and it is possible that in a near future that might change.	eng
167644	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.	eng
167644	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is apparently restricted to the Coppename River, Saramacca district, Suriname.	eng
167644	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. coppenamensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Corydoras</em> tend to prefer slow-moving streams with sand or mud bottoms.	eng
167644	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information available.	eng
167644	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The area in which this species lives may be threatened by an increase in small-scale gold mining operations. The species itself is collected for the pet trade, but the harvesting level is thought, currently, to be low.	eng
167645	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is needed into the localised threat of over-exploitation.	eng
167645	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in western Amazon basin and also in the Rio Orinoco and in the River Essequibo in Guyana.	eng
167645	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. amazonicus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams and lakes.  The larvae of <em>B. amazonicus</em> are found in the main stem of the Amazon River, and possibly in other high-nutrient tributaries.  Juveniles live in the adjacent floodplain, mostly under the floating macrophytes (floating or submerged aquatic plants)). Adults are distributed throughout the floodplains, including the flooded forests of white and black water rivers.<br/><br/>The migration of this species is complex.  Near Manaus, <em>B. amazonicus</em> joins multi-species schools and migrates downriver from the Negro River to spawn in the Amazon River in December and January, as water levels there begin to rise.  A similar pattern was also observed for <em>Brycon</em> sp. in the Madeira River. The embryos and larvae develop while drifting in the Amazon River, and probably get washed into the white water floodplains.  After spawning (February to March) the adult fish return to the black-water tributaries. Later in the year (May to August) these fish move downstream again from the Negro River or other nutrient-poor tributaries into the Amazon or Madeira rivers, where they remain until the end of the wet season in September. At this time, they move upstream again to the next nutrient-poor tributary and into forest streams, where they spend the dry season before the next spawning migration (Araujo-Lima and Ruffino 2004).<br/><br/>Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).	eng
167645	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. amazonicus</em> is the most widespread and abundant species of matrinxa (common name).	eng
167645	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is very important in fisheries in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia.  It is also stocked in aquaculture farms in Brazil and Venezuela. It is certainly not a threatened species, even though probably over-exploited in part of its range.	eng
167646	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends of the species is required.	eng
167646	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Paranapanema basin in the upper Paraná River drainage and Ribeira de Iguape River basin, Brazil.  The species is restricted to the headwaters in both basins.	eng
167646	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. schubarti </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species inhabits fast flowing creeks and small rivers with stones and rocky bottom.	eng
167646	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167646	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There is a lot of disturbance in the area in which this species is distributed.  The major threat in the upper and middle Paraná basin is degradation of the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  In addition, intense hydroelectric development of the Paranapanema has nearly completely changed the natural profile of the river (Diegues 1994).  However, the southern part of the distribution is some of the best portions of the Atlantic forest.  The area is probably less disturbed than it was 20 years ago, with some areas of forest showing recovery.	eng
167647	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167647	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in southern and southeastern tributaries to Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.  These tributaries drain into an area of 20,960 km².	eng
167647	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. paralacus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167647	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167647	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Due to the small nature of the streams in which the species occurs, it is likely that a good proportion of habitat remains intact enough to support this species.  Even considering the extent of disturbance (heavy pollution and habitat degradation) in the Lake Maraciabo basin, the species is likely not to have suffered unduly.  <em>Creagrutus</em> species are relatively resilient to habitat modification.	eng
167648	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167648	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins.	eng
167648	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. rousseauxii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Current evidence suggests a complex life cycle that includes the longest reproductive migration known for a freshwater fish species (Batista and Alves-Gomes 2006).	eng
167648	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167648	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Heavily fished for food but it does not seem to have a severe impact on this species. Also, a large dam is planned for Madera river which will cut through their migratory routes at Teonio waterfalls.	eng
167649	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species does not have any conservation measures in place.	eng
167649	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from several river drainages in the Guyanas, and from the Brazilian Amazon basin at the Uatuma, Tocantins, and Aripuana.	eng
167649	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. granti</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that is confined to river stretches with rapids.	eng
167649	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Relatively abundant and with a stable population trend.	eng
167649	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not threatened.  Most of the area inhabited by the species has experienced little anthropogenic disturbance.	eng
167650	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167650	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Amazon and Orinoco basins and parts of the Guyanas.	eng
167650	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. elegans</em> is abundant in a variety of habitats, including the shallow and deep waters (up to 50 m) of swiftly flowing large rivers such as the nutrient-rich turbid white-water Amazon and Orinoco rivers, and in nutrient-poor black-water rivers.  It is also common in the shallow lakes of Varzea floodplains and in the oxbow and mouth bay lakes of black-water rivers (Crampton <em>et al.</em> 2003).  The members of this family tend to live within aquatic substrates such as leaf litter or floating vegetation.  They are often highly resistant to low oxygen levels.	eng
167650	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Extremely abundant.	eng
167650	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Although the species is collected for the pet trade, it is not causing a decline.&#160; There are no current threats known.	eng
167651	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167651	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Upper Amazon and lower Ucayali River basins.	eng
167651	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. wrightiana</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in medium sized rivers.	eng
167651	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A not very common species.	eng
167651	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to this species.	eng
167652	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167652	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Orinoco River basin, in Venezuela.  It is likely also to occur in Colombia.	eng
167652	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. incompta</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Live in large rivers and in flood plain areas.  Migrate in large schools to smaller tributaries.	eng
167652	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species occurs naturally in high densities.	eng
167652	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).	eng
167653	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.	eng
167653	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Ecuador, in Andean tributaries at the margin of the Amazon River.  Potentially more widespread and likely to occur more widely in Peru and possibly Colombia.	eng
167653	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. purpuratum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, which is either omnivorous or insectivorous.  A study discovered that this species increased in occurrence in deforested sites, probably because of the increase in macro-invertebrate density (Bojsen and Barriga 2002).	eng
167653	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167653	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Some threats occur in the known distribution area for this species including oil exploration (with associated water pollution) and plans for a major road to be built.	eng
167654	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167654	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Atrato River basin in Colombia.  It is likely restricted to the upper portion of the Atrato, extending higher than <em>Bryconamericus ichoensis</em>.	eng
167654	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. carrilloi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in areas with steep gradients in the slope of the Andes cordillera in fast flowing streams.	eng
167654	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167654	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not known to be threatened mainly because the Atrato River basin is still pristine.	eng
167655	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A large part of the Napo River basin is protected by the 9,820 km² Yasuni National Park.	eng
167655	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Napo River basin, on the east slope of the Andes and the lowlands of northeastern Ecuador.  It is only known from the holotype which was collected in the upper part of the basin.	eng
167655	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. wieneri</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Live in large rivers which are clear with white water.	eng
167655	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167655	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species at present.	eng
167656	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and detailed surveys into the extent of decline of the population and habitat status and size are required, with a look into the possibility of gazetting suitable habitat into protected areas.	eng
167656	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the northern tributaries of Laguna dos Patos in southern Brazil.	eng
167656	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. tordilho</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It lives in very small, shallow creeks full of floating and submerged vegetation.	eng
167656	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167656	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Destruction of habitat by deforestation in order to replace with rice paddies.  Exotic species have invaded (Tilapias and carp), though this is not the main threat.  Pollution is a problem due to proximity to large urban areas.	eng
167657	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167657	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Essequibo River basin, in Guyana.  It is possible that the species occurs more widely than distribution reflects, most likely in Suriname.	eng
167657	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. pteroides</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species occurs on sandbars in small rivers.	eng
167657	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167657	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  This has undoubtedly had major downstream effects, however, the localities which exist for the species are all upstream of the mine, and would not have been effected.  Also, this mine is located in the lowest portion of the basin where only around 5% of the catchment is downstream of it.	eng
167658	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167658	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the upper Potaro (Essequibo River basin) in Guyana, Nickerie and Kabalebo basins in Suriname, and also from the upper Rio Araguari and upper Rio Trombetas in Brazil.	eng
167658	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. bovallii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits stony rivulets.	eng
167658	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167658	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not under major threat.	eng
167659	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place nor thought to be needed at present.	eng
167659	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Atrato River basin, Colombia.	eng
167659	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. ichoensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A small fish that occurs in streams and small rivers in the mid-water.  Moderate to fast flowing rivers.	eng
167659	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167659	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167660	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Good management of the headwater area is urgently needed.  The only way to stop the decline is to set up protected areas to save the biodiversity of the region.	eng
167660	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the headwaters of the Tietê river at Paranapiacaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.  Only known from a few unprotected localities.  Subpopulations have been extirpated.	eng
167660	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. tietensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small creeks and small sized rivers.  It can be found attached to the grass along the river margin and in the middle of the river among rocks and pieces of wood in fast current water.	eng
167660	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not abundant and difficult to collect.	eng
167660	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has been impacted by many threats, the largest being habitat destruction due to urbanisation, but other threats are also pollution, deforestation, invasive species (Tilapia and trout).<br/><br/>It is highly likely that <em>P. tietensis</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  Untreated effluents from 1,200 industries are dumped into the Tiete River every day as it flows through São Paulo. As a result, the river contains high concentrations of lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals. The city also dumps some 1,000 metric tons of sewage into the river each day, of which only 12% gets any treatment whatsoever (Tufts Climate Initiative 2006).  It has been estimated that 36% of the Tietê river has been altered by infrastructure development, (such as the nine hydroelectric plants), which have the affect of turning fluvial lentic systems into lotic ecosystems (Mugetti <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
167661	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.	eng
167661	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Titicaca in Peru, which has an area of 8270.6 km².	eng
167661	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. ctenolepis</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), non-migratory fish.  It is not a seasonal killifish and is a lentic (prefers standing or slow-moving water) species.	eng
167661	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167661	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Pollution is a major threat to Lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as Silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.	eng
167662	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and further taxonomical research is needed.	eng
167662	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Amazon River basin Andean slope in, Peru.	eng
167662	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. alfredae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167662	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167662	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	None known.  The area in which this species is distributed is a pristine so there is no reason to suspect that the species is impacted by any significant threatening processes.	eng
167663	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167663	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the upper Amazon River basin and the Urubamba River in Peru.	eng
167663	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. pachacuti</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167663	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167663	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Rio Urubamba has almost pristine conditions and it is unlikely that <em>B. pachacuti</em> is currently under threat.	eng
167664	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167664	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the rivers of the Atlantic coast of southern Santa Catarina and northern Rio Grande do Sul states, Brazil.  It can be found inland only up to the mountains just along from the coastal plains, thereby restricting its range.	eng
167664	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. rostrata</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in small creeks.	eng
167664	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	An abundant with a stable population.	eng
167664	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There have been threats acting on the range over the past century, such as habitat degradation, banana plantations, urbanisation.  However this is not a major threat.	eng
167665	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends of the species is required.	eng
167665	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This restricted species occurs in a small region in the upper course of the Rio Negro by Sao Gabriel de Cachoeira in Brazil.	eng
167665	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. adolfoi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that commonly inhabits small streams and black-waters in flooded forests, (ion-poor, black-stained, low pH waters).  It is an oviparous fish; breeding takes place in swamps, ponds, or streams. The area around the distribution is pristine.	eng
167665	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167665	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. adolfoi</em> may be threatened by over-collecting.  When it was first discovered and became available to aquarium hobbyists, the demand almost certainly exceeded supply.  Importers in the USA and in all major European countries requested this catfish species from Manaus and Miami exporters and importers over the last decade since its discovery and subsequent publicity in 1982.  It is not known what effect the removal of thousands of adult specimens before, during and after the breeding season could have on this species (Sands 1995).  Probably occurs in regions beyond the reach of fishermen who know how to collect it.	eng
167666	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.	eng
167666	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Upper São Francisco River basin, Brazil.  It is found of the tributaries of this river.  Low collection rates in the area could lead to this species being distributed further, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
167666	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. longipinna</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is found in fast flowing rivers with rocky bottoms.  The genus is typical of rapids.	eng
167666	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally distributed in the river basin.  This genus does not tend to be abundant where found.	eng
167666	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The environment of this river basin has been and continues to be under many different threats, including increased agriculture, industry, and urbanisation.&#160;  Deforestation has been extensive but this occurred over many decades ago.&#160;  Now, the development of HEP complexes could disturb the smaller rivers in which this species lives and become a major threat.  However, more research is needed to assess the affect of threats acting in the area on this species.	eng
167668	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167668	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the type locality, Rio Juma, a tributary of the Rio Aripuanã on the transamazonian highway, (6d 9m S, 59d 55m W) and from Juruti (2d 34m S, 56d 24m W), para, Brazil.	eng
167668	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. gracilis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The female holds 2-4 eggs between her pelvic fins, where the male fertilizes them for about 30 seconds.  Then the female swims to a suitable spot, where she attaches the very sticky eggs. The pair repeats this process until about 100 eggs have been fertilized and attached.  Very unique <em>Corydoras</em> spp. in terms of its morphology.	eng
167668	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not rare, but poorly known.	eng
167668	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No known threats specific to the species but the area in which it is found has been subjected to some deforestation.	eng
167669	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167669	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the lower Paraná and Uruguay River basins, in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil.	eng
167669	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. terofali </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It occurs in medium and small sized rivers and swims in small schools.	eng
167669	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally abundant species.	eng
167669	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is very likely that <em>D. terofali</em> is threatened by habitat degradation and water pollution.  The Uruguay River basin has undergone intense deforestation since the onset of colonization.  There is almost no original vegetation left, (there has been a 92.4% loss of original forest cover) and this has greatly affected the ecological balance, causing a desertification process to occur in the area (Diegues 1994).  In addition, with there being at least 13 dams, there is a high degree of river fragmentation within the basin (Water Resources eAtlas 2005), and as a result, populations of most migratory fish species are severely diminished in the middle and upper Uruguay river (FAO 1996).  However, it is unknown how this habitat alteration would have affected <em>D. terofali</em>.<br/><br/>The Paraná basin is also threatened by degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents (Diegues, 1994), however, this is largely in the upper part of the basin, whereas the lower Paraná basin has a relatively low human population and is still in a rather pristine condition over large parts (Junk 2005).<br/><br/>However, the extent to which the above threats are acting on this species now is likely to have weakened significantly over the last decade and are probably not causing major decline now.	eng
167670	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167670	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Upper Paraguay and Guaporé River basins, in Bolivia and Brazil.	eng
167670	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. megalopterus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in slow flowing waters, associated flood plain areas.  Aggregates around submerged vegetation.	eng
167670	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species was recently collected in great numbers in both the Paraguay and Guaporé basins (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167670	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is not currently under threat; the harvesting levels for the pet trade are very considered small.	eng
167671	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167671	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in French Guiana, occurring at the rivers Maroni, Mana, Sinnamary, Conte, Approuague, and Oyapock.  It also occurs at the Silipaliwini River in Suriname and at the upper Rio Paru do Oeste in the Brazilian Amazon basin.	eng
167671	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. georgiae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits the counter current zones of rivers where it hides under the rocks.	eng
167671	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Although not highly collected in surveys, it is not likely to be rare in nature either (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167671	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. georgiae</em> is harvested from the wild for the aquarium industry (Grosman 2002) but not to any significant degree.	eng
167672	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends), taxonomy and threats are required.	eng
167672	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Guaporé River basin, Brazil.	eng
167672	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. guaporensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167672	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167672	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In spite of the fact that much of the headwaters of the Rio Guapore basin are now deforested, the basin still holds a diverse ichthyofauna.	eng
167673	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167673	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Central and South America; in the Chagres, Tuira, Bayano, and Santa María River basins in Panama and the Baudó, San Juan, Atrato, and Pacific coastal drainages in Colombia and in Panama.	eng
167673	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. emperador</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits streams and rivers.  It is an active, schooling fish that eats fruit, seeds and insects.  They have been found to spawn in temporary tributaries in June with the first floods of the rainy season (Kramer 1978).	eng
167673	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally abundant species.	eng
167673	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
167674	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167674	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This restricted species occurs in the Tubarão River basin in Santa Catarina, Brazil.  It has not been recently collected from the river but it may be found in the surrounding area.	eng
167674	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. catharinensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167674	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species of this genus are often locally abundant.	eng
167674	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Wetlands in Santa Catarina are impacted from activities connected with coal production (Diegues 1994).  For many years coal mining was the largest productive activity in southern Santa Catarina.  In the past, coal mining was executed with little environmental care and was the principal cause of water pollution in the region.  The improper management of residues generated by the exploration and processing of coal, in some cases still practiced today, has resulted in acid mine drainage which has contaminated water and soil with sulphuric acid and toxic metals. The consequences of this pollution are still found in the regional environment (SIECESC 2004).&#160; However, it is unknown what degree these threats are having on the species.	eng
167675	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167675	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is occurs in the upper Parana basin in Brazil.  Its type locality is at Bataguacu (21d 42m S, 52d 22m W), however, its exact range is not known.	eng
167675	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. apiamici</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Members of the genus <em>Rivulus</em> often inhabit overgrown borders of streams, ditches and canals, and can be found at the borders of ponds and lakes among vegetation.  They also have the ability to leave their habitat by "flipping" themselves across land to find better habitats, avoid predators or search for food.  As long as they are kept moist, they can live for long periods of time (Schoenfelder 2006).	eng
167675	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population at present.	eng
167675	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Despite all the environmental problems in the upper Paraná basin posed by damming, water pollution and agriculture, <em>Rivulus apiamici</em> seems relatively unaffected since it occurs in small streams and it is presumably relatively resilient to disturbances, as are other species of the genus (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167676	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Mamirauá lake system lies within the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, (11,240 km²).  Mamirauá communities are responsible for patrolling the vast landscape to prevent outsiders from Manaus or beyond from illegally extracting natural resources (WCS 2006).  This area also lies within the Central Amazon Conservation Complex; a UNEP-WCMC World Heritage Site.  In addition, this area is a WWF/IUCN Centre of Plant Diversity, and one of BirdLife International.	eng
167676	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Mamirauá lake system near Tefé, Amazonas State, Brazil.	eng
167676	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. jonasi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that has been recorded from root mass of floating meadows in the white-water floodplains of the Tefé region, where it is common, although patchy, in distribution.  Adults both breed and forage in the meadows and are never encountered in other floodplain habitats such as flooded forests (Albert and Crampton 2001) .	eng
167676	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167676	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Due to Mamirauá's remoteness, this area is relatively isolated from many threats that effect other parts of the Amazon, such as deforestation and commercial harvesting.  Nevertheless, poachers, loggers and commercial fishermen are increasingly drawn to the abundant natural resources inside the reserves (WCS 2006).  These threats are not likely to have a major impact on this species.	eng
167677	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167677	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in rivers on the Pacific slope of the Andes, from the Reque River, Lambayeque (07ºSouth) in Peru, to the Loa and Codpa Rivers, Iquique (22ºSouth) in Chile.    <p><br/></p>    <p>  <br/></p>	eng
167677	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. semotilus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits streams above 2,000 m and lives in mid water.	eng
167677	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167677	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Threatened by habitat contamination and water loss in Chile (Campos <em>et al</em>. 1998).  It is not known whether this species is threatened in Peru.	eng
167678	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.	eng
167678	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the São Francisco River basin.	eng
167678	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. fowleri</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  A nocturnal species which spends the day amid submerged structures.  It occurs in medium to large sized rivers.	eng
167678	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information available.  Uncommon, but probably overlooked due to its nocturnal habit.	eng
167678	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction, mineral extraction, deforestation and predatory fishing have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>The areas with the highest population and industrial concentration along the Basin are located in the upper São Francisco.  Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters from these areas, as well as the disposal of mineral extraction and processing wastes, are the main sources of water degradation along the Basin (Diegues 1994).<br/><br/>It is unclear at this time how severe an impact these threats are having on the species.	eng
167679	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research and action is needed to establish if the inferred decline of population is correct, and the increase in water pollution needs to be reversed; this major problem in the São Francisco River basin affects many freshwater species.	eng
167679	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in northeastern Brazil.  As with its congeners, the distribution of the species is very restricted (Lima pers. comm. 2007).  It is only known from the type locality given as Bahia, Volta das Pedras, Sao Francisco River basin, but its exact location is unknown.	eng
167679	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. picturatus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Occurs in small ephemeral bogs and swamps.	eng
167679	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167679	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The restricted nature of the species means that it is particularly vulnerable to human impacts.  Its other major threat is from the modification of the wetlands in which it inhabits.<br/><br/>Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction and mineral extraction have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river.  It was one of the main fishing resources in Brazil, but the fisheries are presently experiencing a decline (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).  <br/><br/>In addition, there has been extensive deforestation in the region.  The São Francisco basin has lost 64.4% of its original forest (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact), and the basin is now primarily cropland (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).<br/><br/>The areas with the highest population and industrial concentration along the Basin are located in the upper São Francisco.  Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters from these areas, as well as the disposal of mineral extraction and processing wastes, are the main sources of water degradation along the Basin (Diegues 1994).	eng
167680	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.	eng
167680	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Amazon mainstream and its tributary the Rio Negro in Brazil.&#160;  It is also found in the Orinoco basin in Venezuela.	eng
167680	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. mormyrus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  <em>Sternarchorhynchus</em> species appear to prefer the deeper areas of large rivers (Campos-da-Paz 2000).	eng
167680	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species are not very common in collections, though this is indicative of their habitat preferences (bottom dwelling in river channels).	eng
167680	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be affecting this species currently.	eng
167681	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167681	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the middle-lower Corantijn and Nickerie River drainages in Suriname; and probably ranges westward to the Essequibo drainage, Guyana.	eng
167681	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. brachybranchus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits rivers.  It is a larvophil mouthbrooder and an eurytropic (occurring throughout the tropics) species. The two rivers in which the species occurs are relatively untouched.	eng
167681	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A locally abundant species.	eng
167681	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats currently known.  Plans to build dams in the Nickerie river but this should not threaten the species, and may even benefit because the species' of this genus generally like lentic habitats, as has been seen in certain areas of the Amazon with congeners.	eng
167682	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although the population trends are being monitored.  It is recommended research into the effects of threats are carried out, following the findings, actions should be implemented to try and decreased/ halt the negative impacts the water pollution is causing.	eng
167682	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the type locality at Santa Rosa (6d 26m N, 73d 18m W) but is probably found more generally in the upper Suarez River (which drains an area of 10,100 km²) in the Magdalena River drainage, Colombia.	eng
167682	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. plutarcoi </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167682	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167682	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Suarez River begins at the outlet of Lake Fúquene.  Lake Fúquene has deteriorated extensively due to excessively high levels of phosphates and nitrates and the proliferation of aquatic plants, which have accelerated eutrophication (the rapid increase of nutrients into the water).  Cattle producers are responsible for 80% of the pollutants that flow into the lake; the remaining pollution comes from industry and human settlements around the lake, and upstream potato growers who use high amounts of fertilizers (Estrada and Quintero 2005).  It is suspected that any pollution in Lake Fúquene will also affect the Suarez River and therefore threaten <em>B. plutarcoi</em>.	eng
167683	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.	eng
167683	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Known from floodplains lakes in the Solimões River (local name of the Amazon River above its confluence with the Negro in Brazil).  There are no reliable records in Peru but the species probably more than likely occurs there (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167683	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. hyanuary</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in flood plain lakes.	eng
167683	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167683	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Even if ornamental and as such exploited for the aquarium hobby, the harvest of the species is probably negligible for the species as a whole, considering that the species is probably not harvested in most of its range.  It is however a species poorly known in nature.	eng
167684	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy of the species.	eng
167684	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the western Amazon River basin.	eng
167684	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. knerii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species that occurs in ponds, forest creeks and small rivers rich in plant debris.  It spawns eggs on sandy substrate, in groups.	eng
167684	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167684	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
167685	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167685	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Magdalena River basin, Colombia, with recent records from both the middle and upper portion.  The type locality is near the Cauca.	eng
167685	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. tenuicauda</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167685	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population data available.	eng
167685	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is not under any major threat.  However, the area in which it is found is suffering through pollution, habitat change and degradation.	eng
167686	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167686	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the headwaters of the Rio Itapicuru, a small coastal river drainage at Bahia, eastern Brazil.  The species was originally collected by John Haseman in 1909 in several small tributaries of the Itapicuru, apparently all quite close to each other.  One specific locality where the species was recently recorded was Rio Paiaiá, between Jacobina and Senhor do Bonfim (10d 53m S, 40d 24m W).  Therefore its distribution is wider than previous thought.	eng
167686	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. maculosus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Members of the Genus <em>Aspidoras </em>are usually found in shallow creeks.  Occurs in small streams in places with sandy / muddy substrate.  It is a bottom dweller.  From where the species was most recently collected in 2005, the river basin was almost completely deforested.	eng
167686	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167686	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known current threats.  A potential future threat could be collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
167687	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167687	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known fro the Rio Negro basin, downstream from Sao Gabriel rapids.  It is also recorded from the Rio Tomo and Rio Vichada, both part of the Orinoco basin in Colombia.  It has been suggested that this species maybe found in Venezuela but this is unlikely as there are no records, even for the genus collected in the country.	eng
167687	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. ferreirai</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits streams, but also enter the forest during high water.  In the dry low water season this species moves to shallow quiet backwaters, marginal lagoons and small tributaries in the dry low water season and are suited to areas of dense vegetation.  It is a surface feeder that generally swims close to the surface searching for small fish and insects.  In the low water season they can be observed jumping clear from the water to catch flying insects.  They can reach more than a metre in length.  They prefer neutral to slightly acidic water and a temperature range form 25- 30 degrees Celsius (Werner and Coward 2006).  Females may produce 50 - 250 eggs per year.  Males are mouth brooders, and incubate eggs for 60 days.	eng
167687	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common species.	eng
167687	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Collected for the aquarium trade, though the threat is not thought to be significant.	eng
167688	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.	eng
167688	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is currently only known from its remote type locality on the upper plateau of the Guyana; Oung Creek, a tributary of Chenapou Creek, a southern tributary of the Potaro River.  This is in the Essequibo River drainage, Guyana.  It is likely that the distribution of the species is highly restricted.	eng
167688	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. kaiei</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Specimens of <em>Corymbophanes kaiei</em> were collected amongst cobble and submerged logs in sun-lit, swift riffles of a small, clear, forested creek.	eng
167688	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167688	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No known threats.  Whilst the type locality is remote, and therefore understudied, it is not likely that any threats exist.	eng
167689	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and more research is needed on the status of the species habitat.	eng
167689	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is fairly widespread in the Orinoco basin in Venezuela.	eng
167689	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. tenuirostre</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167689	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A relatively common species (Ghazzi 2003).	eng
167689	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently affecting this species.	eng
167690	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167690	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Trans-Andean river basins of Ecuador and Colombia.  The species is very poorly known.  Lack of records reflect lack of collection and difficulties in collecting rather than rarity.	eng
167690	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. posadae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).	eng
167690	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167690	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.  The areas that the species occurs in are unlikely to be particularly heavily impacted.	eng
167691	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Studies into the threats of the specialized habitat preferred by <em>L. camposi</em> is needed, as these are lacking.	eng
167691	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has been described from the Rio Ribeira do Iguape basin, southern São Paulo State and also found in Ribeirão da Ilha, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina State.  Only known from two localities (one of which is the Poco Grande).  Several recent expeditions failed to find additional specimens.<br/>Ribeirao Poco Grande: 24d15m S, 47d37m W<br/>Ribeirao da Ilha: 27d43m S, 48d35m W	eng
167691	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. camposi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in very shallow (a few cm) and very slow flowing water with a dense litter layer or vegetation.  This means that they are often overlooked, however, even considering this, they are known from very few localities.	eng
167691	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167691	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Rio Ribeira do Iguape Basin is a heavily impacted habitat, that has less than 5% of its original forest intact (Wosiacki and Oyakawa 2005).  The species occurs only in very specific and uncommon habitat type.	eng
167692	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.	eng
167692	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known only from Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².	eng
167692	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. pentlandiii</em> is a  benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species within the lake.	eng
167692	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167692	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. pentlandii</em> in Lake Titicaca has been considerably reduced in abundance since the introduction of the rainbow trout (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>).  However, the contribution of introduced species to this decline is obscured by recent overfishing and other bad management practices (Kerr and Lasenby 2000).  The threat posed by introduced species is shown by the disappearance of <em>Orestias cuvieri</em> from Lake Titicaca.  Both <em>Odontesthes bonariensis</em> (Pejerrey) and <em>O. mykiss</em> were implicated in its decline.  Lake Titicaca is also being degraded because of pollution.	eng
167693	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167693	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the western Amazon River basin; along the Amazon-Solimões River from Tabatinga to Óbidos. Depth zone is likely only down to a few metres.	eng
167693	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. semifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Found in larger streams, rivers and lakes associated with flood plains.	eng
167693	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	At least compared with other cichlids on the area it is not very common, though it is collected from across the region.	eng
167693	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are known.&#160; Since the aquatic systems in the area are relatively good (though the flood plain forests are being logged - mostly selective), there is little concern about it's threat.  It is occasionally found in markets, but it is not a food fish per se.	eng
167694	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Three main conservation working units: Part of the Madre de Dios River basin falls within the Manu National Park, or Manu Biosphere Reserve, and the Bahuaja-sonene reserve.	eng
167694	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Madre de Dios River basin in Peru.  Depth zone is very shallow (0-2 or 3 m).	eng
167694	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. urteagai</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish that inhabits small streams and swamps.  Its eggs are attached to the ceiling of caves, and the female cares for the eggs and larvae. Note that this information is general for the genus, rather than the species.	eng
167694	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167694	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The area as a whole is quite pristine.  Gold mining in the upper Madre de Dios River basin is a major environmental threat to aquatic ecosystems - this is however not a species specific threat.  These activities alter water quality, quantity, and the timing of flows in downstream freshwater systems. There is some collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
167695	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.	eng
167695	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in the La Plata and São Francisco basins in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and probably also Bolivia. It also occurs at the Rio Jacuí, an independent coastal drainage in Rio Grande do Sul.	eng
167695	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. obtusidens</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species.	eng
167695	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Several wild populations of <em>L. obtusidens</em> have been suffering a drastic reduction in the last years.  A decrease in the amount of collected individuals in the recent years has been reported by fishermen of Guaíra, Paraná State, Brazil, (Martins <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
167695	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	When compared with another large migratory fishes from the La Plata basin, <em>Leporinus obtusidens</em> seems to be in a relatively good conservation status.  It is regularly found in river stretches both polluted or confined by river dams, even when those impacts have been disturbing these stretches for decades (as the upper Rio Piracicaba basin in São Paulo).  Doubtless, however, its population has experienced a considerable decline in the last fifty years in the upper Paraná basin, mainly as a consequence of the disappearance of almost all meaningful natural-flowing river stretches.	eng
167696	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167696	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Upper Japurá River basin, in Brazil and Colombia.	eng
167696	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. varimaculosus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Its habitat is relatively untouched and found in larger white water rivers.	eng
167696	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167696	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167697	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167697	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The exact distribution of this species is unknown, but the genus <em>Rineloricaria</em> is widespread; from Panama to the La Plata basin in South America.  The Extent of Occurrence is likely to be an over-estimation (16684039 km²).	eng
167697	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. lima</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167697	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167697	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is not known if there are any threats to this species.	eng
167698	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167698	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only known from a restricted area at the upper Oelemari River, a tributary of the Marowijne River, Marowijne District, Suriname.	eng
167698	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. oelemariensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits rivers.  The genus generally prefers fast flowing river sections.	eng
167698	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167698	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known, however this species is severely restricted.	eng
167699	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although the restoration and maintenance of the species preferred habitat is needed to see what effect the invasive species and water pollution is having.&#160;  A monitoring programme should also be implemented to follow the trends of this threatened species.	eng
167699	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known only from Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².	eng
167699	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. olivaceus</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), non-migratory fish.  It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
167699	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167699	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Pollution is a major threat to lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.	eng
167700	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167700	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins.	eng
167700	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>E. electricus</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom) (ecological region at the lowest level of water body), nocturnal species that generally inhabits the muddy bottoms of rivers, streams, pools and swamps, favouring deeply shaded areas.  This species is an obligatory air breather and can withstand poorly oxygenated water.  Juveniles feed on invertebrates, whilst adults feed on fish and small mammals.   <br/><br/><em>E. electricus</em> is a fractional spawner; there are three successive batches of eggs deposited in a spawning period.  Males construct foam nests and guard the growing larvae until mid-January when the first seasonal rains flood the breeding area, causing the young eels to disperse.  First-born larvae prey on other eggs and embryos coming from late spawning batches.  There is a male-biased sex ratio, (3:1) and males are also considerably larger than females.	eng
167700	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167700	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Small specimens are collected for the aquarium trade, they are harvested for human consumption and also for science although none of the collections are causing a decline in the population.<br/><em></em>	eng
167701	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167701	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Caquetá River basin, in the upper Japurá River drainage, Colombia.  A recent taxonomic revision has increased its distribution significantly to include much of the Amazon basin.	eng
167701	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. caquetae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in rivers with rocky bottoms and fast flowing water.	eng
167701	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Very common throughout its distribution.	eng
167701	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats to this species are currently known.	eng
167702	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The upper watershed of the Coppename river is protected by the Central Suriname Nature Reserve (UNESCO 2007).	eng
167702	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Coppename, Nickerie, Suriname, and Oyapock River basins, in Brazil, French Guiana and Suriname.	eng
167702	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. simulata</em> is a benthopelagic (area of water not near the bottom), oviparous species, which exhibits distinct pairing.  The size of the eyes, which is relatively large in relation to body size, suggests a crepuscular activity (Planquette <em>et al.</em> 1996).  Occupies large and medium rivers generally on sandbars.	eng
167702	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167702	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
167703	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Although the Ribeira de Iguape River basin is located between two large metropolitan regions (São Paulo, to the north, and Curitiba, to the south) and was one of the first and most intensely exploited regions in Brazil during the colonial and imperial eras, the Ribeira Valley today is extremely well conserved.  There are 24 conservation units that are entirely or partially located in the Ribeira Valley, and 51% of its total area is legally protected (Instituto Socioambiental 2006).	eng
167703	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in coastal basins of southeastern Brazil in Paraná State and in the Ribeira de Iguape River basin.	eng
167703	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. lanei</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits slow flowing forest creeks, often with black water.	eng
167703	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This was found to be one of the most abundant freshwater species in a study of the Itanhaem River basin, Southeastern Brazil (Leung and Camargo 2005).  This is a common species in eastern Brazil, occurring in a relatively limited area.	eng
167703	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There is a problem in the coastal areas with urbanisation, however there is extensive habitat available where this species still thrives.	eng
167704	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167704	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Tocantins River basin, Brazil. Has a relatively restricted distribution.	eng
167704	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. amazonica</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  This species occurs in relatively large streams and small rivers.	eng
167704	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common fish, though it does not seem to occur at high densities.	eng
167704	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Although the Rio Tocantins basin is being dammed gradually by the Brazilian government, small sized species that are not highly rheophilic (preferring fast-flowing waters) such as <em>Steindachnerina amazonica</em> are probably not facing a major threat since much adequate habitat will still be available for them.  Also <em>Steindachnerina</em> species tend to be resilient to habitat modification.	eng
167705	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167705	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Uruguay River basin, Brazil.	eng
167705	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. prenda</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in fast flowing rivers that run on bedrock, including in main tributaries.  It shelters amongst submerged vegetation within forest rivers.	eng
167705	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not an abundant species.	eng
167705	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Uruguay River basin has undergone intense deforestation since the onset of colonization.  There is almost no original vegetation left, (there has been a 92.4% loss of original forest cover) and this has greatly affected the ecological balance, causing a desertification process to occur in the area (Diegues 1994).  In addition, with there being at least 13 dams, there is a high degree of river fragmentation within the basin (Water Resources eAtlas 2005), and as a result, populations of most migratory fish species are severely diminished in the middle and upper Uruguay river (FAO 1996).  However, it is unknown how this habitat alteration would have affected <em>C. prenda</em>.	eng
167706	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although it may be possible to monitor the harvest trends.	eng
167706	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the lower Amazon and Tocantins rivers, and northward to the Marowijne River.  It may also occur in the Rupununi and Negro rivers.	eng
167706	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. nuchalis</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that inhabits the slow flowing lower courses of the larger rivers and flood plain lakes.  It prefers eroded zones, where it appears in large numbers, and occurs less frequently in flood zones.  It is a nocturnal species, which is also active during dusk and dawn.  Known to adapt to and even thrive in dammed portions of rivers.	eng
167706	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167706	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species are harvested for human food and in the pet trade, but it is not a threat to the population.&#160; In some areas, the species is actually increasing.	eng
167707	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167707	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Uruguay River basin in Brazil.	eng
167707	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. luteus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in the large and medium sized rivers with strong currents and rocky bottoms.	eng
167707	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Fairly common species.	eng
167707	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There have been several dams constructed along this river.  However, most of the waterway is not affected and as this species is not migratory, the damming is not a major threat.	eng
167708	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167708	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This restricted species is only known from one tributary of the Amazon River near Manaus.  It is probably slightly more widespread though.	eng
167708	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. longirostris</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is found in small rivers with open terrestrial vegetation for sun light to reach the waters surface.	eng
167708	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is not rare but difficult to find.	eng
167708	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No major threats known but the region in which it is found has been disturbed.	eng
167709	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167709	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Upper Esequibo drainage of Guyana, with a possibly wider distribution.	eng
167709	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. hemiurus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small tributary environments, having sandy and or rocky bottoms.	eng
167709	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. hemiurus</em> is reported to be common in nature (Grosman 2002).	eng
167709	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
167710	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167710	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed from Paíta, Peru to Aysén, Chile.	eng
167710	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. regia</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that occurs in schools.   The juveniles are found in estuarine environments (Dyer 2000).  It feeds primarily on the eggs of <em>Engraulis ringens</em>.	eng
167710	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167710	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167711	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Surveys for this species are urgently needed, as are investigations into the extent of damage caused by the threats.	eng
167711	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Xingu River, in the vicinity of Altamira, Pará, Brazil, at the point where the Xingu leaves the Brazilian shield (approximately 200 m from the mouth).  It is only known from the type locality (described in 2002).  It could also be known from the Iriri.  It is possible that the species occurs further up the river basin in similar habitat.	eng
167711	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. centisquama</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and rheophilic (prefers running water) species that dwells on rocky bottom rapids in streams.  It perches solitary on top of boulders, and forages on rock surfaces and picks mostly on benthic preys. Highly specialised rheophilic fish.	eng
167711	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information is available.	eng
167711	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	An electricity company is proposing the construction of a large dam on the Xingu, near Altamira, called Belo Monte and has plans for the Babaquara Dam upstream to store water during the dry season.  As originally designed, Babaquara would flood 2,400 square miles of the rainforest. The Xingu dams complex would cause environmental problems such as flooding, drought and interruption of the river flow, thus disrupting the ecosystem (International Rivers Network 2006).  If the dams are built then the habitat required for this highly specialised rheophilic (preferring fast-flowing water) fish will no longer exist.  <br/><br/>It is very likely that this species is threatened by habitat degradation.  Members of communities situated on the banks of the Xingú say that pollution in the Xingu river is increasing; as a result of agricultural activities, such as the massive cultivation of soy beans, and cattle ranching, in close proximity to the tributaries of the river (Turner 2006).   Satellite photos show that almost 30% of the Xingu River headwaters have been deforested (Greenpeace 2006), although it is not known how this would effect <em>T. centisquama</em>.	eng
167712	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167712	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Villa Montes, Monte Bellos, and Rio Tomolosa in Tarija state in Bolivia.  It is also in Rio Pilcomayo and Bermejo basins in Argentina.	eng
167712	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. bolivianus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species live in relatively large streams and small rivers.  The species is carnivorous, preying on insects and small fish.	eng
167712	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167712	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not likely to be threatened because of its distribution in a remote area.	eng
167713	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167713	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Venezuela and is endemic to the Maracaibo Lake basin.	eng
167713	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. venezuelae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167713	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a common species but was collected in great numbers at the time of its description in the 1940s.	eng
167713	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The area in which this species has been found has been severely impacted but it is unknown how this would have affected, or if it is still affecting this species.	eng
167714	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167714	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Ucayali River basin, Peru.	eng
167714	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is demersal, occurring in small to medium size rivers with soft bottoms.	eng
167714	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167714	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167715	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A large portion of Amapá (around 55%) is protected under 12 conservation areas and five indigenous lands (Conservation International 2003).	eng
167715	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in coastal streams in Amapá, northern Brazil, on the border with French Guiana in the Amazon basin.  The species is poorly known.	eng
167715	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. brevirostre</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits coastal streams.  Most <em>Characidium</em> species are rapid dwelling inhabitants preferring fast flowing water - though this is not a rule.  Some members of the genus are an exception and occur in low velocity waters and lagoons.	eng
167715	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The genus is very common, even in quite disturbed areas.	eng
167715	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Amapa basin is one of the best preserved in Brazil.	eng
167716	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.  Looking into the proposal that that dam is benefitting the species could yield encouraging results.	eng
167716	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread and known from the middle portions of the Amazon River basin.	eng
167716	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. britskii</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Lives in open rivers in areas with slow flow.	eng
167716	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species of the genus are fairly common.	eng
167716	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Currently, there are no known threats to this species.	eng
167717	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167717	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.  It is found in the Paraná River basin, the Paraguay River drainage, the Guapore River drainage, Uruguay basin and along the coast of the Rio Grande do Sul.	eng
167717	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. lepidota</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) fish.  Found in lagoons, larger rivers, small streams - if you are in the plains and there is water, it is likely you will find this species. It is a typical dweller of streams, lagoons and flooded areas.	eng
167717	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A widespread and abundant species.	eng
167717	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Very resilient to habitat modification and certainly not threatened.&#160; The species is collected for the pet trade, but it is not at a level that is a cause for concern.	eng
167718	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167718	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in French Guiana, however, an exact description of its range cannot be found.	eng
167718	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. lungi </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that occurs in shallow waters of flooded savannas and coastal swamps, and favours sunlit areas.  It can also inhabit brackish waters.  Juveniles are released from eggs measuring 1.2 mm.  Sexual differentiation is possible at four months; and sexual maturity is reached at five months of age.	eng
167718	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167718	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. lungi</em> is collected from the wild for the aquarium trade (Grosman 2002) but this does not constitute a major threat.  The area that the species inhabits is unlikely to have the degree of disturbance required to trigger a threatened listing.  Much of the area is still intact and pristine.	eng
167719	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167719	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Jequitinhonha and Pardo rivers in eastern Brazil.	eng
167719	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. crassilabris </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A large sized fish which occurs in large and medium sized rivers in a variety of habitats.	eng
167719	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167719	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species might be locally threatened as the Jequitinhonha River has received a considerable impact in the last decades, mostly from deforestation and mining and in the last few years also from damming.	eng
167720	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place; monitoring of the harvesting trends could be implemented.	eng
167720	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in the Amazon basin and can also be found in the upper Orinioco basin.	eng
167720	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. vittata</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) that lives in large rivers and flood plain lakes.	eng
167720	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A very common and widespread species.	eng
167720	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is harvested on a local scale for human food consumption, and at an international level for the pet trade but neither are thought to be at a rate to cause a decline in the population.&#160; There are no other threats known to this species at present.	eng
167721	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167721	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only known from the upper Amazon basin in the area of Iquitos, Peru, and in the Essequibo River basin in Guyana (Langeani 1996).	eng
167721	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. amazonum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is oviparous, and distinct pairing occurs.	eng
167721	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Very common species with a stable population trend.	eng
167721	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Unlikely to be under any threat; currently collected for human consumption but not a cause for concern.	eng
167722	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167722	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Rio Uaupés (Rio Negro drainage) in Amazonas, Brazil, specifically from the Rio Uaupés itself and its tributary, the Rio Tiquié.  It is also known from the Rio Caquetá basin and upper Rio Guaviare (a tributary of the Orinoco River) basins in Colombia.	eng
167722	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Occurs in a large and pristine area in mid sized rivers.	eng
167722	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167722	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is harvested in the Rio Tiquie (upper Rio Negro) for the aquarium trade, but the effects of harvest seem to be negligible.	eng
167723	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from a small area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park which is relatively well protected.	eng
167723	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from a small area of the Chapada Diamantina National Park.  The total area of this protected area is 1,520 km².	eng
167723	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. pecten</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small fast flowing dark water creeks with rock substrate.  These run across open natural field areas on the upper plateau.  Swim in the middle of the day, slowly in the mid-water, feeding on algae.	eng
167723	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167723	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Mining was a threat in the past, but this has been controlled and there is very little current mining.  It has recently been suggested that a fish, the <em>Hoplias malabaricus</em>, might be predating on the species.	eng
167724	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Most of the information is genus specific.  Therefore more species specific data needs to be collected.	eng
167724	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Rio de la Plata, but it is not clear whether it occurs only in the estuary, or in the La Plata River basin which drains into the estuary in Argentina.	eng
167724	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. albicrux</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species of the genus are adaptable to different freshwater habitats, including ponds, ditches, burrow pits along roads and dammed areas.	eng
167724	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species of this genus are generally widespread and common.	eng
167724	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Due to the uncertainty regarding this species distribution and habitat, it cannot be determined what threats this species may face.  Inferring from other members of the genus however, it is unlikely that there are any significant threats to the species	eng
167725	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167725	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Magdalena River basin in Colombia and Panama.	eng
167725	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in large streams and rivers, nocturnal, lives on sandy bottom and clear mid stream waters.	eng
167725	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A relatively common species, although it is thought the population is decreasing (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167725	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is likely to have decreased slightly because of many threats to the Magdalena River.  It is likely that <em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>S. aequilabiatus</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>However, none of these threats are having a drastic effect on this species which is still common.	eng
167726	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends is required.	eng
167726	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is know from the south and west basins off Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela.	eng
167726	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. maracaiboensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Prefers relatively fast flowing waters, feeding on benthic invertebrates from the bottom.  Occurs in small to medium sized streams, but not rivers.	eng
167726	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167726	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Due to the small nature of the streams in which the species occurs, it is likely that a good proportion of habitat remains intact enough to support this species.  Even considering the extent of disturbance in the Lake Maraciabo basin, the species is likely not to have suffered unduly.  <em>Creagrutus</em> species are relatively resilient to habitat modification.	eng
167727	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167727	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in Parmaiba, one river basin in Piauí, northeastern Brazil.	eng
167727	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. haroldoi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The river in which it is found is not known for its high levels of biodiversity.	eng
167727	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a common species.  Not many collections have been made in this river.	eng
167727	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known.	eng
167728	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Found in Santa Teresa Biological Reserve.	eng
167728	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	As far as is known it is only known from a very small area in Espírito Santo near Santa Teresa.  It is possible that it is more widespread, but the genus is generally fairly restricted in their distribution.	eng
167728	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. longibarbatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small streams and creeks with moderate to fast flowing water.  They live hidden among rocks and submerged vegetation.	eng
167728	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population data available.	eng
167728	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This particular region has problems with deforestation, however there are a number of reserves in which it occurs which are well protected.	eng
167729	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167729	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Upper Meta River basin, Colombia.	eng
167729	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. pediculatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Poorly known as nobody collects in the area, though the area is relatively untouched.  Likely to be a species that occurs in fast flowing water with rocky bottom.	eng
167729	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167729	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Economic activity is frozen in the area so little is known but almost definitely not threatened by any process.	eng
167730	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167730	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This is a severely restricted species found in the Rio Preto, a tributary of the Paraíba do Sul, southeastern Brazil.  Only known from the type locality and a location next to the type.	eng
167730	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. papillatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits small, shallow streams, with clear water and moderate to strong current, and bottoms of rocks, loose stones and gravel.  Forest and grass is usually present on the margins.	eng
167730	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not commonly encountered. Although appears to have a stable population.	eng
167730	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Paraíba do Sul basin is today one of the most industrialized areas of Brazil but this species would not be impacted in its tributary.  The area in which the Rio Preto flows in relatively unspoilt.	eng
167731	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167731	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found throughout the Amazon River basin.  Several collection have occurred of this species over the past few years (Lima, pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167731	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. macrostomus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, only known from white-waters.  The species is restricted to feeds on invertebrates and lives amid aquatic grasses.	eng
167731	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	An uncommon species, although the population appears to be stable.	eng
167731	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to currently affect this species.	eng
167732	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167732	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Guaporé River basin and in the upper Madeira River drainage, Brazil.	eng
167732	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species occur in big streams, rivers and lagoons.	eng
167732	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>Charax</em> species are generally relatively common.	eng
167732	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The river basin is deforested in certain areas, but still maintains a biodiverse assemblage of fish.	eng
167733	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed.  Surveys into the habitat status and population numbers are needed, plus information on the affects of the known threats (dam construction and increase in water pollution) are necessary on the hope that <em>A. trierythropterus</em> can be down listed in the future.	eng
167733	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Paraná River basin, Brazil.  The species is only known form its type locality of the Mogi-Guaçu River basin.  More specimens have been collected from the type locality, though not from elsewhere.  It is probable that the species occurs more broadly, but collection attempts have not been made.	eng
167733	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. trierythropterus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in ponds and small lakes near the flood plain areas.	eng
167733	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167733	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Damming of the upper Paraná River in Jupia has seriously affected the aquatic environment.   There are over 130 dams in the region, which affect virtually all the principle tributaries.  The dam interrupts the migration of many species that travel upstream to reproduce (Agostinho and Gomes 2001).  However, it is not known how this would have specifically affected <em>A. trierythropterus</em>.  <br/><br/>The major threat in the upper and middle Paraná basin is degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  The construction of Itaipu, Rosana and Taquaracu hydroelectric power plants has attracted more people to the region to work (Diegues 1994).	eng
167734	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167734	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the upper Amazon in Peru, Brazil and Ecuador; in the Amazon River basin, from the Napo River to Marajó Island.	eng
167734	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. cincta</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It inhabits larger rivers, streams and lakes.	eng
167734	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Broad distribution, but is not particularly common in collections, therefore probably not very abundant.	eng
167734	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are currently no threats known to be affecting this species.	eng
167735	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167735	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from Quisto Cocha, Peru (Seegers 2000).  The distribution is restricted, though maybe present beyond the range of the current map.	eng
167735	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. rectocaudatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167735	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167735	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is collected for the aquarium trade but not at a significant level.	eng
167736	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed; research looking into the localised threats would aid in future assessments.	eng
167736	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Patia River basin, Colombia.	eng
167736	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. patiae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species which inhabits freshwater at high altitudes.  It occurs in fast flowing streams with rocky bottom.	eng
167736	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167736	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	None known.  Ecological surveys are not possible due to political unrest.  However, the area is thought to be relatively well conserved.	eng
167737	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167737	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is a widespread river channel gymnotiform (order of knifefishes that have organs adapted to use bioelectricity) of the Amazon basin.	eng
167737	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. conirostris</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) river channel species.  Species of the genera <em>Distocyclus</em> are essentially nocturnal animals that remain undercover during the day.	eng
167737	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common species with a stable population trend.	eng
167737	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167738	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167738	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in Brazil.  It is known from a relatively restricted distribution inhabiting coastal rivers from Itajaí-Açú, Itapocú and Cubatão River basins in Santa Catarina State and Paranaguá River basin in Paraná State.	eng
167738	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. pappenheimi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits coastal streams and rivers.  Reproduction is generally seasonal, and is synchronized with the rainy period.  Multiple spawning occurs and reproductive females exhibit burrowing behaviour, to protect the brood from being washed away (Amaral <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
167738	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167738	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	None known to affect the species directly but it does inhabit disturbed areas.	eng
167739	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167739	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Lake Maracaibo basin.	eng
167739	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. coprophagus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The species was described in the 1940s in Lake Maracaibo.  Generalist habits, and can withstand salinity to some degree.	eng
167739	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information available, though the species is thought to be very abundant.	eng
167739	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In areas which are undisturbed, they are one of the most common species, and can even survive disturbance.	eng
167740	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167740	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Colombia.  All species of the genus <em>Malacoglanis</em> are endemic to the Amazon River basin (Costa <em>et al</em>. 2004).  The species is also known from Ecuador.  Distribution is likely to be much larger than is currently recorded.	eng
167740	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. gelatinosus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species is very small and lives burrowed in the sand.  It is very likely under collected, but recent studies have found it to be locally very abundant when the correct measures are used to collect it.	eng
167740	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population data available, but possibly quite locally abundant.	eng
167740	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167741	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167741	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Colombia, in the San Juan River basin.	eng
167741	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>I. spurrellii</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167741	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167741	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The region in which the San Juan basin lies is impacted by deforestation, industrial production of African palm oil, uncontrolled gold mining and illegal growing of coca (WWF 2001).  However, these threats do not seem to be impacting greatly on this species.	eng
167742	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167742	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The genus has a very patchy distribution across South America.  This species occurs in the Caquetá River basin, within the Japurá River basin, Colombia.  The distribution of the species is likely to extend across the western Amazon as well, beyond the Japurá River basin.	eng
167742	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. euacanthagenys</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Found in small and medium sized rivers.  Occurs on soft substrate.	eng
167742	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No known population data.	eng
167742	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known.	eng
167743	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into population trends and threats are required.	eng
167743	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Lake Maracaibo drainage.	eng
167743	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. venezuelae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Species of the genus inhabit sandbars in tributary streams.	eng
167743	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167743	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There is very little natural habitat remaining in the Lake Maraciabo basin due to a high population density and intensive land use.  Grazing has especially affected the southeastern and southwestern areas of Lake Maracaibo.  The main impact on the natural vegetation has been caused by shifting cultivation, and by an extensive network of roads surrounding Lake Maracaibo.  Further conversion of remaining natural habitat in the southern part of the basin is of great concern.  Also of concern is recent findings that some of the rivers that traverse the basin and flow into the Maracaibo Lake are polluted with pesticides and fertilizers (WWF 2001).  It is not known what effect these threats have on the species, however there are many rivers in the area which are well conserved.	eng
167744	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place at present, and a population monitoring programme is urgently needed to better understand the threats and numbers remaining, with a recovery programme in mind.	eng
167744	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Lower São Francisco River basin in Brazil but not below the great dam of Sobradinho.	eng
167744	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. orthotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of the water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).	eng
167744	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167744	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is suspected that the species has declined considerably over the past several decades in the São Francisco basin.  It is likely that due to damming over the lowest portion of the region it is no longer present. <br/><br/>Human population growth and an increase in agricultural and industrial activities, as well as dam construction, mineral extraction, deforestation and predatory fishing have caused environment degradation in the São Francisco river.  It was one of the main fishing resources in Brazil, but the fisheries are presently experiencing a decline. Taking this into consideration, <em>B. orthotaenia</em>, which is an important species for commercial fishing, is threatened with extinction in some regions of the São Francisco basin (Gonçalves <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.  The São Francisco basin has lost 64.4% of its original forest (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact), and the basin is now primarily cropland (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).	eng
167745	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although research is possibly are needed, especially to look at threats of the Guaporé River basin.	eng
167745	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Guaporé and Beni River basins, in Bolivia and Brazil.	eng
167745	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. beni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in large streams and rivers in shallow areas.	eng
167745	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Species of the genus are common wherever they occur.	eng
167745	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known that are causing a problem to the species.	eng
167746	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place although they are needed; a local survey into the harvesting rates could yield interesting results into population trends.	eng
167746	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This Brazilian species occurs in the Amazon, lower Negro and Madeira rivers (Castro and Vari 2004).	eng
167746	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. taeniurus</em> is a potamodromous (migrating within freshwater only) species that inhabits streams, main river channels and floodplain lakes.  It is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that feeds on detritus on the bottom of the river.  The jaraqui (members of the genus <em>Semaprochilodus</em>) have a complex migratory pattern, which has probably contributed to its widespread dispersal to both fluvial and lacustrine (prefers lakes or ponds) habitats in all the major water types of central Amazonia.  They undertake annual spawning, feeding and dispersal migrations timed to the hydrological cycle (Ribeiro and Petrere 1990).	eng
167746	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This is one of the most common fish in the Amazon basin (Henderson 2006), and the most abundant <em>Semaprochilodus</em> species (Ribeiro and Petrere 1990).	eng
167746	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. taeniurus</em> and <em>S. insignis</em> together account for nearly 85 per cent of the catches in central Amazonia. There is much evidence to demonstrate that catch levels in central Amazonia are being sustained despite increasing fishing effort, especially with regard to the genus <em>Semaprochilodus</em> (Ribeiro and Petrere, 1990).&#160; Further research is required to confirm if the harvesting is sustainable, and if other threats are causing concern to the populations.	eng
167747	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park.	eng
167747	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Iguaçu River basin.	eng
167747	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. stawiarski</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in small rivers and creeks with fast flowing water and rock bottoms.  It lives hidden among the rocks.	eng
167747	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a common species but perhaps locally quite abundant.	eng
167747	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	At some point there may be reason for concern as the species does not occur in any protected areas, and the river system is being impacted by industrial pollution and damming.  It is not yet possible to list these as threat to the species, as it occurs in tributaries, however they may become significant in the future.	eng
167748	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required.	eng
167748	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Orinoco River basin, Venezuela from the following localities as stated by Buckup (1993): Rio Caroni, below the Guri dam (7d 38, N, 64d 50W); Rio Orinoco, Raudales de Ature (5d 35m N, 67d 31m W); and Rio Ventuari (4d 4m N, 66d 56m W).	eng
167748	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. melanopteron</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Highly rheophylic (prefers running water), the species occurs in rapids in fast flowing water.	eng
167748	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167748	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006). <br/><br/>Damming in the basin might change the present situation in the short term.  The building of the Guri dam has dramatically changed the surrounding habitat.  Very probably the species has disappeared from the dammed area, as the species is highly rheophylic (preferring running water).	eng
167749	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population trends of the species, as well as monitoring the habitat to relation to the problems highlighted in the threats section.	eng
167749	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Rio Caquetá drainage, within the Japurá River basin, Colombia.  The distribution is wider than this but is still not published (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167749	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. euspilurus</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Occurs in flood plain lakes, not common in even small rivers.  Benthic slow flowing areas.	eng
167749	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally this species can be highly abundant.	eng
167749	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Caquetá River basin habitat is being polluted by the processing of coca leaves into coca paste and cocaine.  Sulphuric acid, ethyl ether, acetone, and kerosene are poured directly into the ground by cocaine processors working in the Caquetá River basin, which is the primary coca growing region.  The consequences of this pollution are quickly felt in small rivers where the aquatic life is devastated (Trade and Environment Database 1997).<br/><br/>However, it is unlikely that these threats have impacted across the range sufficiently to be thought of as major threats.	eng
167750	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167750	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is restricted in the upper Amazon River basin - above 400-500 m above sea level (asl), but below 600 m in the piedmont areas.  It was described from Peru and also occurs in Ecuador.	eng
167750	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. eigenmanni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Likely to occur in small rivers and large streams in areas with a moderate gradient.	eng
167750	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167750	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are currently no known threats to this species.	eng
167751	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167751	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic from the Pilcomayo River basin, in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay.	eng
167751	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. microcephala</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  A high natural level of siltation occurs in the river.  Over a historical time period, this means that the river is constantly moving laterally.&#160; The species prefers slow flowing water.	eng
167751	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167751	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting this species.	eng
167752	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167752	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in tributaries around Motatán River in the Lake Maracaibo basin.	eng
167752	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. maracaiboensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species and occurs in tributaries around Motatán River in the Lake Maracaibo basin.	eng
167752	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167752	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There has been large amounts of habitat degradation around Lake Maracaibo which has lead to water pollution in the area as well.  However, these environmental problems are not adversely affecting <em>T. maracaiboensis</em>.	eng
167753	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167753	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Meta River basin, and the Apure and Masparro River basins.  It is a poorly known species, but appears to have a large distributional range across Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
167753	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. stroudi</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits white-water streams and rivers.  It is found in near-shore areas with sand and gravel bottoms in moderate to fairly swift currents.  The species is nocturnal.	eng
167753	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a very common species and it is likely to be overlooked because it is nocturnal.  There is a specific method needed to collect this species.	eng
167753	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known.	eng
167754	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167754	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This coastal species is found from Barcelona to Maracaibo in Venezuela.	eng
167754	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. koperi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is euryhaline (able to live in waters of a wide range of salinities) and can survive in both fresh and brackish waters.	eng
167754	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common species (Lima per. comm. 2007).	eng
167754	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not threatened.	eng
167755	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167755	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Araranguá River basin of southern Santa Cantarina State, Brazil.	eng
167755	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>E. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, that was collected from small, shallow rivers with very clear, transparent water and slow to moderate currents.  The bottom comprised of rocks, loose stones, gravel, sand and mud (Reis and Schaefer 1998).	eng
167755	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Easy to collect and locally fairly common.	eng
167755	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Pollution from coal mining is apparent in part of the basin, but only a very small section.	eng
167756	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.	eng
167756	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Taxonomic problems notwithstanding, it is thought that this species occurs quite widely in the Guaporé River basin in Brazil.	eng
167756	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. aulopygia</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Nocturnal species which is a surface swimmer eating insects that fall in the water.  Hides inside submerged structures during the day.  The species display internal fertilisation (as do the other members of the family).	eng
167756	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167756	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Although taken for the pet trade, the level of fish being removed from the population is thought to be small and is not considered to be a current threat.	eng
167757	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167757	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and occurs in the western and eastern tributaries of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.	eng
167757	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. suttonorum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167757	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167757	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is collected for the aquarium trade.  There is also significant habitat disturbance in the basin.  A recent conservation assessment of Venezuelan fish has listed this species as Data Deficient (in press).	eng
167758	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Morro dos Seis Lagos is located inside the Yanomami indigenous reserve, itself part of the Pico da Neblina National Park.	eng
167758	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Morro dos Seis Lagos lake complex, in the upper Negro River basin, Brazil.  It is known only from the holotype which is from an indigenous reserve within a national park in a very remote area.	eng
167758	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, and is the only known fish so far known to occur in the remote Morro dos Seis Lagos lake complex, which is a region with high levels of natural radioactivity (de Pinna 1998).<br/><br/><em>G. niobium</em> is currently only known from one specimen, which was collected in water about 1m deep, hiding within a thick layer of leaf litter on the bottom.	eng
167758	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. niobium</em> is currently known only from one specimen.	eng
167758	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known to be affecting this species but the species is only known from one specimen.	eng
167759	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.	eng
167759	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Parnaíba River basin in Brazil.	eng
167759	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. rostratus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species. It is a relatively large herbivorous species, grazing on grass and living in large rivers.	eng
167759	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Species of this genus are generally abundant.	eng
167759	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats currently known.	eng
167760	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167760	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Found in the upper Amazon River basin, from Manaus and into the Ucayali River (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
167760	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Occupies small forest streams, it feeds on a wide variety of insects, insect larvae and plant matter (Berra 2001).	eng
167760	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167760	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though this probably has negligible effects on populations.	eng
167761	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167761	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Amazon River basin, in Brazil, Colombia and Peru.  Widely distributed, though not common.	eng
167761	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>I. amazonica</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that occurs in large river channels.	eng
167761	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a particularly abundant species.	eng
167761	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species has been found for sale in markets, although the extent of harvesting is not known.&#160; Other threats are also not known.	eng
167762	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167762	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Ucayali River basin, in the Peruvian Amazon.	eng
167762	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. wolfei</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species occurs in small to medium sized rivers with muddy bottoms.  Most of the information on this species is indicative of the genus rather than the species itself which is poorly known.	eng
167762	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No known population data.	eng
167762	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known to be affecting the species.	eng
167763	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167763	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is widespread in the Orinoco River basin, Venezuela.	eng
167763	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. haemomyzon</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167763	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A relatively common species.	eng
167763	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).	eng
167764	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167764	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only known form the type locality, though the distribution is likely to be much wider in the middle and lower Paraná River, and in marshlands in Chaco and Formosa, Argentina.	eng
167764	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. wajat</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Type locality is an inundated area.  Species occurs in slow flowing areas of water, associated with submerged vegetation.	eng
167764	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167764	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A major threat to the Paraná basin is degradation in the quality of the basin's water resources, due to the disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents.  The Paraná basin has the highest urban-industrial density in the inner country.  The presence of herbicides and fungicides used in farming and cattle-rearing development may also become a considerable source of pollution.  The construction of Itaipu, Rosana and Taquaracu hydroelectric power plants has attracted more people to the region to work (Diegues 1994).  However, these threats are greater in the upper Paraná basin.  The lower part of the basin has a very low human population and large parts of it are still in a rather pristine condition (Junk 2005).<br/><br/>Unlikely to be threatened to a large extent because the specific area occupied by the species has a relative low human presence.	eng
167765	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.  The extent of damage the water pollution is causing to the species and habitat needs to be addressed.	eng
167765	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Uruguay River basin.	eng
167765	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. affinis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It is a bottom spawner, with four months incubation.  Lives in very small shallow temporary pools.	eng
167765	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167765	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The largest threat to <em>A. affinis</em> is habitat degradation from conversion of land to rice paddies in particular.  The basin has lost 92.4% of its original forest cover, (based on an estimate of the extent of closed canopy forest in existence 8,000 years ago in the absence of human impact) (Water Resources eAtlas 2005).  <br/><br/>The Uruguay River Basin is also being polluted by inadequate treatment of urban and industrial wastewater, application of agro-chemicals (fertilisers and biocides), inefficient irrigation practices, and soil erosion (Mugetti <em>et al.</em> 2004a).<br/><br/>The species is also traded internationally in the pet and aquarium business, but it is not clear if they are from the wild or captive bred stock.	eng
167766	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167766	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Sandó River basin, on the Pacific versant of Colombia.  The species is poorly known.	eng
167766	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. album</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167766	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167766	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Probably not considered threatened although threats are not known.	eng
167767	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
167767	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Oyapock River in French Guiana and Brazil, and also in the Suriname and Nickerie River basins in Suriname.	eng
167767	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. nijsseni</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  The basins in which this species occurs are still relatively pristine and intact.	eng
167767	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167767	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
167768	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167768	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Paraguay and lower Paraná River basins.  It is common in the Pantanal wetlands and in other areas of the Rio Paraguay basin.	eng
167768	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. bonariensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).  Occurs in slow flowing rivers, flood plain lakes and large streams.	eng
167768	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Common in parts of its range.	eng
167768	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are many threats to the upper Paraná River ichthyofauna, including the construction of dams, and water pollution (Mugetti <em>et al</em>. 2003; Diegues 1994), but the lower Parana River and Paraguay River basins have very low human population and are over large parts still in rather pristine conditions.  However, human impact is steadily rising and increasingly impacting aquatic habitat health and biodiversity (Junk 2005).  Also the habitat degradation of the Pantanal and surrounding area is not thought to be significantly impacting this species.	eng
167769	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population trends of the species.	eng
167769	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. chaparae</em> may possess a wider distribution than merely the Rio Chapare basin, Bolivia, where it is definitely known from.  <em>Gephyrocharax</em> species are generally common along the headwaters of the Madeira, Ucayali, Marañon and other upper tributaries of the upper Amazon basin.	eng
167769	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. chaparae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  It occurs in relatively large streams, and is probably a mid-water fish.	eng
167769	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Species from this genus are common.	eng
167769	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known for this species.	eng
167770	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167770	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found widespread in the Amazon River basin.	eng
167770	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. coracoideus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that occurs in ponds, forest creeks and small rivers rich in plant debris.  It spawns eggs on sandy substrate, in groups.  Unlike the other species of Aspredinidae, the female does not carry her eggs (4,000 to 5,000 per spawning) in bags (cotylophores).	eng
167770	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Probably the most widespread and common species in the genus.	eng
167770	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently affecting the species gloabally.&#160; Although it is a common pet, it is bred in captivity and the wild populations appear unharmed by this trade.	eng
167771	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.	eng
167771	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Specimens have been collected from near the Una River in the coastal drainages of Bahia, Brazil.  It is likely to be distributed further but its range is fairly restricted.	eng
167771	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. unae</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  This species is found in medium sized rivers.	eng
167771	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167771	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is probably resilient and so not majorly affected by pollution in the area.	eng
167772	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167772	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. polylepis</em> is found in Lake Maracaibo.  This species was also recorded for the Orinoco basin in Venezuela, in the Rio Tocantins basin in Brazil and in the upper Amazon basin (Rio Madre de Dios) in Peru (Lima 2004; Lima in prep.)	eng
167772	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. polylepis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Plant material is an important part of the diet of adult <em>Brycon</em> species; and thus these fish play a role in the dispersal of plants whose fruits they eat (Berra 2001).  Occurs only in small rivers.  Specimens have been found in caves.	eng
167772	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Nowhere throughout its range is this species common.	eng
167772	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is very sensitive to disturbance.  They are generally the first species to disappear when disturbance occurs.  There is very little natural habitat remaining in the Lake Maracaibo basin due to a high population density and intensive land use.  Grazing has especially affected the southeastern and southwestern areas of Lake Maracaibo.  The main impact on the natural vegetation has been caused by shifting cultivation, and by an extensive network of roads surrounding Lake Maracaibo.  Further conversion of remaining natural habitat in the southern part of the basin is of great concern.  Also of concern is recent findings that some of the rivers that traverse the basin and flow into the Maracaibo Lake are polluted with pesticides and fertilizers (WWF 2001).  Due to their dependence on plant material in their diet, the destruction of rainforests surrounding their habitat could have serious consequences for this species.<br/><br/>While the species is of concern in the Maracaibo basin, it is still present in the Orinoco basin and Western Amazon where populations are not under threat.  In the Tocantin basin, it is likely less common, but on balance across it range, it is not thought that the species is threatened.	eng
167773	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) and threats are required.	eng
167773	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Acaray River basin in the middle Paraná River drainage, in Argentina and Paraguay.  It is possible that the species ranges beyond the basin, but there is little evidence to support this currently.	eng
167773	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. piriformis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs in mid sized streams and rivers with rocky substrate.	eng
167773	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167773	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A large hydroelectric dam was built on the Acaray River in 1969, however the species has been collected after that time.  There are no other known threats to this species.	eng
167774	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167774	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only known from the Rio Preto da Eva, a small black-water tributary of the River Amazon immediately to the east of the Rio Negro and Manaus (c. 60 km from the latter) in Brazil.	eng
167774	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. maculipinna</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167774	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The only specimens known were collected in the late 1970s of the past century.  An expedition leaded by Mônica Toledo-Piza from the Universidade de São Paulo in July 2003 spent more than a week collecting in the Rio Preto da Eva and failed to collect any additional specimens (though specimens of the very similar <em>Acestrorhynchus nasutus</em> were collected).  Nor did ichthyologists from INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia) collect any specimens of the species in the Rio Preto da Eva or at any other tributary of the Amazon nearby Manaus.	eng
167774	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In spite of restricted distribution and unsuccessful expeditions to collect this species, this species is unlikely to be threatened. There are huge areas, even close to Manaus, that are never systematically collected for fishes. Though with forest clearance expanding and some sewage disposal on the river, the Rio Preto da Eva still seems to be in a relatively good condition, as evidenced by a high fish diversity (c. 200 fish species).	eng
167775	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167775	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Caura River basin in Venezuela.	eng
167775	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. imitator</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that is often found in large rivers in swift current, and in rapids among dense stands of the rooted vegetation.  It also inhabits small streams, rapids, bays and backwaters over sand, gravel and rocky bottoms.	eng
167775	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167775	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known threats to this species as the Caura River basin which it inhabits is relatively pristine tropical forest (Caura Futures 2006).	eng
167776	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.  The extent of damage the water pollution is causing to the species and habitat needs to be addressed.	eng
167776	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only found in the Primero River and the Segundo River in the Province of Cordoba, western Argentina (Miquelarena and Menni 2005).	eng
167776	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. cordovae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167776	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	With less than ten localities known, the population is thought to be decreasing.	eng
167776	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A study on the conservation status of the ichthyofauna of Sierras Pampeanas, Cordoba, concluded that <em>A. cordovae</em> had one of the highest conservation priorities (Orlandini <em>et al.</em> 2001).  This is largely due to it being endemic to Cordoba; an area which is threatened by alterations in vegetation cover, water pollution and the indiscriminate use of biological resources.  The Rio Primero goes through Cordoba City where pollutants enter through mostly untreated effluents. Along the Río Segundo, different industries exist that also pump effluents into the river without treatment (Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network 2003).  Fish species in the region have also been impacted by the introduction of economically important fish species, which compete with the native species for resources such as food and breeding sites (Orlandini <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
167777	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and range of the species are required.	eng
167777	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known to occur in the Essequibo River basin.  It is poorly known, but the distribution is likely to be much wider as similar forms have been collected in the Rio Negro and Amazon basin near Manaus.	eng
167777	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>M. potaroensis</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species is very habitat specific, living on banks of submerged litter, in rivers with relatively fast flow.  Can occur in relatively small forest streams with sufficient flow to keep the litter banks from becoming anoxic.	eng
167777	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167777	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion cubic litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  However, this affected area is likely to constitute only a small part of this species range, and may not be a major threat.	eng
167778	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167778	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Upper Amazon River basin, in Brazil, Peru and Colombia	eng
167778	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. monitor</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Much of the natural habitat within the Upper Amazon basin, which it inhabits, remains intact due to its inaccessibility (World Wildlife Fund 2001).	eng
167778	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A common and abundant fish.	eng
167778	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is harvested in the wild for the pet trade, although it is thought not to be at a level that is causing concern.	eng
167779	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.	eng
167779	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species inhabit high-gradient streams of the Amazon basin at the eastern slope of the Andean cordillera in Peru.	eng
167779	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. tridens</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in high altitude fast flowing streams in the Andean slope of the headwaters of the Amazon.	eng
167779	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167779	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.  The upper portions of the river valleys are developed with plantations but these have been present for many hundreds of years.  The lower portions are still well forested.	eng
167780	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167780	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species was previously known only from the upper Rupununi River in Guyana. This species has a poorly documented range, in part due to collecting bias (nocturnal species).  There is a recent record for the Rio Preto da Eva, a small tributary of the Amazon River about 60 km east from Manaus, Brazil.  The species is probably widespread but overlooked.	eng
167780	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Nocturnal species which hide amongst logs during the day.  This has contributed to the bias in their data collection.	eng
167780	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167780	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is unlikely that this species is threatened by any processes even in the Rupununi.	eng
167781	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167781	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Magdalena River basin, and possibly in the Catatumbo River.  Recent collections of this species have occurred in the middle of the Rio Cauca river.	eng
167781	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. filamentosa</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs on sandbars like most probably most of the members of the subfamily.	eng
167781	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167781	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  However, these threats are unlikely to have impacted this species greatly.	eng
167782	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends and threats affecting the species are required in order to better assess the species.  If it is found that the species has declined more than the 20-25% inferred, the species will become uplisted.  Investigation into the possibility of protecting the habitat needs to take place also.	eng
167782	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is restricted to the upper Paranaiba River, in the upper Rio Parana basin, Brazil.&#160;  <em>Steindachnerina corumbae</em> was collected in the Rio Corumbá, an upper tributary of the Rio Paraná basin which was now turned into a series of dams.  The species was however recently also found in the Rio Paraopeba basin (a tributary of the Rio São Francisco).	eng
167782	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. corumbae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167782	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167782	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in one of the most severely damaged basins in Brazil, especially by damming which is ongoing.  <br/><br/>The habitat of the upper Paranaiba basin is being impacted by agriculture and forestry in the area, which is resulting in modification of the stream flow and sedimentation.  Pollution comes from mining activities, as well as various municipalities in the basin which discharge their sewage and industrial effluents directly into the river without any treatment.  In addition, the introduction of invasive species is likely to have a negative effect on native species  (Global International Waters Assessment 2006).<br/><br/><em>Steindachnerina</em> species seems to be resilient to disturbances such as those detailed above.  Of course, we cannot assure that the same is true with <em>S. corumbae</em>, which has the additional problem of possessing a restricted distribution.	eng
167783	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167783	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Tubarão River basin and coastal drainages between its mouth and the Da Madre River, in southeastern Brazil.	eng
167783	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. singularis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Small rivers, clear water fast flowing rock bottom.  Feeds on insects and other small invertebrates and graze on plant matter, grazing on it on rocks.	eng
167783	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167783	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>D. singularis</em> may be threatened with habitat degradation in some parts of its range, as wetlands in Santa Catarina are impacted from activities connected with coal production (Diegues 1994).  For many years coal mining was the largest productive activity in southern Santa Catarina.  In the past, coal mining was executed with little environmental care and was the principal cause of water pollution in the region.  The improper management of residues generated by the exploration and processing of coal, in some cases still practiced today, has resulted in acid mine drainage which has contaminated water and soil with sulphuric acid and toxic metals. The consequences of this pollution are still found in the regional environment (SIECESC 2004).  Although a restricted species, <em>D. singularis</em> is unlikely to be under threat by these processes throughout its entire range, or with great severity.	eng
167784	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167784	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Caura River basin and in the Orinoco River drainage in Venezuela.  This is probable underestimation of distributional range.	eng
167784	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. imitator</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Occurs on sandbars in moderate to large rivers, but not in small creeks.  This species is a mimic of <em>Corydoras</em> and therefore shoals with them.	eng
167784	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Previously common in parts of its range.	eng
167784	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Caura River basin which it inhabits is a largely pristine tropical watershed (Caura Futures 2006).  However the species is collected for the aquarium trade, though perhaps not intensively.  The species used to be locally common.	eng
167785	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and more information is needed to understand the population trends.	eng
167785	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the lower Negro River basin, in the Amazon River basin, Brazil, in a relatively restricted distribution, though its range is probably larger than evidently known.	eng
167785	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. gephyra </em>is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species which inhabits small streams with fast water flow.	eng
167785	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167785	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though not at a level that is threatening.	eng
167786	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place but research is needed concentrating on the levels of use and consumption by humans.	eng
167786	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the lower course of the Branco River basin, and off the Rio Negro in their major tributaries in Brazil.	eng
167786	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. oncinus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits tributary rivers.  It is a nocturnal species and is completely inactive during daylight hours. Inhabits the channel of large river tributaries particularly seeking out submerged trunks and logs.	eng
167786	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is uncommon and poorly known, though certainly as a result of collecting bias.	eng
167786	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Harvested for the aquarium trade, though this is probably not a major threat.	eng
167787	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167787	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has been recorded (with museum specimens) in Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil from the Paraguay basin in the upper reaches and not in the lowlands.&#160; It is likely to be found in Paraguay itself, although this awaits confirmation.	eng
167787	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>S. nudiventris</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  Prefers rivers which are of medium flow rate, which are draining the plateau areas.  Shallow clear water rivers with mixed rock and sandy bottom.	eng
167787	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Not a common species.	eng
167787	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species has disappeared from Manso dam area due to flooding of its river.  However this represents a very small proportion of the river basin, and so is not considered a significant threat to the species.	eng
167788	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167788	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Santa Lucia River basin, in Uruguay but it is only known from the type series.	eng
167788	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. thrissoceps</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.	eng
167788	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167788	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Across the river basin as a whole, the area is not especially threatened.  In the mouth of the basin, <em>R. thrissoceps</em> may be threatened by water pollution.  Contamination and eutrophication of surface water in the Santa Lucia River basin occurs due to discharges from urban centres, industries, and intensively used farm land areas (National Environmental Study 1992).  This represents a very small proportion of the species probable range though.	eng
167789	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167789	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper-course of the Rio Guaporé in Rondonia, Brazil.	eng
167789	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. cervinus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species. Clear water river species.  Lack of information a consequence of lack of collection in the Guaporé.	eng
167789	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Population information unknown, though not a very common species.	eng
167789	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Some collection for the aquarium trade occurs, though impacts are thought to be negligible.  Most of the upper Guaporé area is now deforested, though this seems not to have had much of an impact on the river system.	eng
167790	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the taxonomic issues are required.	eng
167790	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Essequibo River basin in Guyana.	eng
167790	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. altipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Inhabits shallow creeks and small rivers.	eng
167790	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167790	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	In August 1995, the holding pond at the Omai gold mine in Guyanese Amazon broke. In what was probably the worst cyanide spill in history, some 3.2 billion cubic litres of cyanide-laced waste poured into a tributary of the Essequibo River, killing nearly all the fish in the river (Chatterjee 1997).  In 2000, the Essequibo once again suffered from mine pollution.  It caused widespread harm including rashes, diarrhoea, and vomiting among the residents after using the river water.  We do not know the extent of impact on this fish.	eng
167791	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species occurs in at least one conservation unit (Terra Ronca State Park in northern Goiás).	eng
167791	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the upper Tocantins River basin in Brazil.	eng
167791	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. britskii</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occurs in moderate sized tributaries, generally bottom swimmers feeding on benthic aquatic insects.  Swim in small schools in fast flowing water.	eng
167791	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167791	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Damming is in fact a factor of major concern in regard to the conservation of the ichthyofauna of the upper Rio Tocantins area.  Within the range of <em>C. britskii</em> the huge Serra da Mesa dam was built, which undoubtedly destroyed much habitat formerly occupied by the species.  However, since <em>C. britski</em>i is a small-sized species which occurs in moderate-sized streams, only the building of large dams would not probably result in its demise.	eng
167792	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167792	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is known from the upper Urubamba drainage in the Amazon versant of Peru. Known localities are in the following areas: Cuzco and Junín: Santa Ana (12°52’S, 72°43’W), Rio Compursiato (12°28’S, 73°07’W), Rio Chanchamayo at San Ramos (11°8’S, 75°20’W), and Marcapata (13°30’S, 70°55’W) (Chernoff and Machado-Allison 1990).  A tentative record is from area: Pasco, Rio Santa Cruz (10°02’S, 75°34’W).	eng
167792	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. binghami</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species.  Inhabits high gradient streams.	eng
167792	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Likely to be common but very few surveys of the area have been carried out.	eng
167792	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This area of the Andean slopes is relatively pristine and there is no reason to believe that this species is threatened.	eng
167793	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167793	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the upper Magdalena River, Colombia.	eng
167793	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. huilae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that generally inhabits high altitude freshwaters.	eng
167793	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167793	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is likely that <em>B. huilae</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, interrupting longitudinal connectivity and leading to river floodplain degradation, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>B. huilae</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades, (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.<br/><br/>However, as this species inhabits the upper reaches, and the threats are most severe in the lower basin near the river mouth, these are unlikely to constitute serious threats.	eng
167794	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167794	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Cauca River Basin, Colombia.  The species is present more in the head waters.	eng
167794	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. caliensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.	eng
167794	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167794	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The following threats have certainly impacted the species in the lower reaches of the Magdalena.  However it is present in the headwaters and as such it is not likely that the threats listed below have threatened the species to an extent that would trigger a threatened listing.<br/><br/>In the Cauca River Valley system, 88% of mapped wetlands were lost between the 1950s and 1980s. Land reclamation, drainage, river regulation, and pollution were cited as the major causes (Moser <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>The Cauca River lies within the Magdalena River basin.  The Magdalena River basin has a high human population, of about 32 million, which results in major threats such as reservoir construction, and large scale agro-industrial projects in the catchment that leads to accelerated aquatic habitat degradation because of increased soil erosion and pesticide input.  In addition, large amounts of untreated sewage is emptied into the basins waterways (Junk 2005).  Though <em>P. caliensis</em> is not known to be harvested, it is interesting to note that catches in the Magdalena River have declined by 78% over the past two decades (Harvey 1998).  It is not clear whether this is due to over-fishing, habitat degradation or both, but it is likely to have implications for other species in the Magdalena River basin.	eng
167795	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167795	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed in the Lower Uruguay River basin.  The species was described from an Argentinean species but is also known from Brazil.  Two collecting localities have been identified but the species is probably found in the surrounding area too.	eng
167795	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>L. edentatus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species inhabits medium to large rivers.	eng
167795	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is not abundant.  Collections have only been made in small numbers because it is naturally rare.	eng
167795	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Lower Uruguay River has not been greatly disturbed and this species is unlikely to be under major threat.  However, it should be noted that the Upper Uruguay River has been dammed.	eng
167796	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167796	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is possibly restricted to the upper Tocantins basin, known from tributaries of Das Almas River, a tributary of Tocantins River in Goias State, central Brazil.  It could however be found in the surrounding area as well.	eng
167796	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. stigmosum</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species and is a pool/swamp dweller, unlike other species in the genus.	eng
167796	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167796	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The upper portion of the Tocantins basin is currently facing anthropogenic impact in the form of wetland drainage for conversion to agricultural land.  This threat has likely had an impact on the species. It is unclear how extensive this drainage has been.	eng
167797	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Part of the Iguaçu River lies within the Iguaçu National Park; the possible threats of water pollution and dams should be monitored for future disturbance to the species.	eng
167797	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Rio Iguaçu basin, in Brazil and marginally in Argentina.	eng
167797	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in relatively large streams and small rivers.	eng
167797	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167797	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There has been a lot of recent disturbance in the Iguacu basin, but it is unlikely to significantly affect this species.  Several stretches of the Rio Iguaçu are now dammed.  Pollution is also a problem, specially in the upper portion of the basin, in the densely populated area near Curitiba.  There are several fish species currently considered threatened in Brazil from the Rio Iguaçu basin, but that does not seems to be the case with <em>Oligosarcus longirostris</em>.  Species of the genus tend to be relatively resilient to habitat modifications, damming and pollution included.	eng
167798	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167798	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is only definitely known from the type locality; Viana Lake, Pindaré-Mearim river system, Maranhão State, Brazil.  Viana Lake, is formed by the flooding waters of the Pindaré River, a tributary of the left bank of the Mearim River.  Very probably more widespread than has previously been described as the genus has been reported for other areas of the Mearim river system as well as for nearby drainages such as the Paranaiba.	eng
167798	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. atlanticus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Large fish with long snouts, eats insects.  Live on the bottom of rivers or amid submerged vegetation.	eng
167798	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Species of the genus are relatively common.	eng
167798	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed in one of the most developed areas of Amazonia.  However, it is unknown whether this fish is under threat.	eng
167799	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167799	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is distributed in the Amazon River basin, Brazil.  It occurs in the tributaries of the Amazon in the Negro, Uatumã, Tapajós, Xingu and Trombetas River basins.  Never found in the Amazon itself, only the tributaries.	eng
167799	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>C. macrophthalma</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) fish.  From the fact that it has so far only been found in the tributaries of the Amazon, and not the main river itself, it is assumed that it is a clear or black-water species, rather than a white water species.  There are records of the species being collected from down to 10 m.	eng
167799	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is an uncommon central Amazon species.	eng
167799	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known.	eng
167800	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167800	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species lives in the small tributaries of the upper Jacuí River basin, in the Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.  It is only found at altitudes over 600 m.	eng
167800	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>E. limulus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species, that was found inhabiting a small river with moderate water currents, a bottom of mostly rocks and is not found in areas with sandy bottoms.	eng
167800	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally this species is very common and abundant.	eng
167800	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats to this species.  Whilst there is damming in the area this species is only found in the smaller tributaries and therefore not threatened by this disruption.  There could possibly be a minor threat of pollution in the area.	eng
167801	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required.	eng
167801	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Chapare River area in Bolivia.  It is currently only known from the type locality but possibly has a wider distribution than a single basin.	eng
167801	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>K. mizquae</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Occur in relatively fast flowing waters	eng
167801	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No population information known.	eng
167801	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The threats to this species are not known and need to be researched.	eng
167802	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167802	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the estuary and lower reaches of the Rio de la Plata in Argentina and Uruguay and associated rivers such as the Paraná and Uruguay rivers.	eng
167802	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>R. melanostoma</em> is a pelagic (area of water not near the bottom) species that is apparently confined to freshwater at mouths of rivers and their lower reaches.  It is a schooling fish.  <em>Ramnogaster melanostoma limnoica</em> is typical in lentic (prefers standing or slow moving water) habitats, while <em>R. m. melanostoma</em> is riverine.	eng
167802	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167802	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
167803	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into general biology and ecology (habitat status and population trends) are required to understand the full effects of the introduced species in the Lake and how the water pollution is affecting both the population numbers and health of the habitat.	eng
167803	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is probably endemic to Lake Titicaca which has an area of 8270.6km².	eng
167803	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>O. silustani</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species in the lake.	eng
167803	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed information is not yet available.	eng
167803	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Pollution is a major threat to lake Titicaca.  Rainbow trout have been introduced as well as Silverside, the former predating on, and the latter competing with this species.	eng
167804	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167804	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Very widespread and abundant, this species occurs in the Amazon River basin and coastal drainages of the Guianas.	eng
167804	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. rotundatus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits large rivers and flood plain lakes where there is little current.  It is an omnivore which feeds on fruits, seeds and insects which float on the surface of the water.  Reproduction takes place during the rainy season.	eng
167804	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A very common and abundant species.	eng
167804	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The species is collected for the pet trade, but not at a level for there to be a cause for concern for the global population.	eng
167805	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Found in several conservation areas south of Sao Paulo including Serra do Mar state park (in particular in the Picinguaba area), and Parque Estadual do alto Ribera.	eng
167805	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in coastal streams from Espirito Santo to Santa Catarina, Brazil.	eng
167805	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. leptos</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits streams.  Occurs in small coastal creeks and streams with submerged roots and vegetation debris.	eng
167805	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	A relatively common species although the populations thought to be decreasing.	eng
167805	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The entire region is subject to intense human disturbance, as it coincides with the most populated area in Brazil.  The area suffers from pollution, urbanisation and land conversion.  The only large tracts of forest lay south of Sao Paulo, where the species is well preserved.  Whilst a contraction of available habitat for this species has occurred, it has clearly done so several decades ago and it is unlikely that this species is threatened.	eng
167806	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although the population trends are being monitored.	eng
167806	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in the Orinoco River and Maracaibo Lake basins, in Venezuela and Colombia.	eng
167806	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>B. deuterodonoides</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) and potamodromous (migrating within fresh water only) species.	eng
167806	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	One of the most common species in the Orinoco basin. It is considered to be very common and widespread in the Venezuelan Llanos and piemont areas (Taphorn 1992).	eng
167806	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Orinoco basin is one of the most intact river systems in the world with a relatively low population density (13 inhabitants per square kilometre), and very limited infrastructure development (World Wildlife Fund 2006).  Lake Maracaibo, however, is heavily polluted and under habitat degradation but this area only constitutes a minor part of its range and is therefore not a major threat.	eng
167807	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167807	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is found in the Amazon River basin, in Brazil and Peru.	eng
167807	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. bentosi</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species that inhabits creeks.  Lives in moderate flow streams and small rivers, associated flood plain lakes.  Likes to be around submerged vegetation.	eng
167807	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167807	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats are currently known to be causing a concern to this species; it is thought to be harvested on a small scale for the pet trade, with the majority being bred in captivity.	eng
167808	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167808	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Atrato River basin, Colombia.	eng
167808	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>G. atrotoensis</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species in medium and large sized rivers.	eng
167808	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167808	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	None known but is distributed in a fairly pristine area.	eng
167809	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167809	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This widespread species occurs throughout the Amazon River basin.	eng
167809	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. dolichopterus</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that inhabits fast flowing, clear waters with submerged wood.  The male of this species guards the clutch of eggs, which is usually hidden between roots.	eng
167809	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Locally very common species.	eng
167809	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	No threats known.&#160; The species is bred in captivity for the pet trade, having no impact on the wild populations.	eng
167810	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
167810	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This widespread species is distributed along the Amazon River, from Pará (Brazil) to upper Amazon (Rio Marañon in Peru); Rio Napo in Ecuador and upper Rio Purus in Brazil.	eng
167810	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>A. nattereri</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  It is a flounder, and therefore lives on the bottom on consolidated material (mud and sand) in larger rivers, not streams.	eng
167810	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This is an uncommon species, as are all species of the genus.	eng
167810	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
167811	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required.	eng
167811	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species appears to be relatively common around Iquitos and probably in another localities in the Peruvian Amazon. The species apparently also occurs in Colombia and Brazil, although in the latter the similar-looking <em>Hemigrammus haraldi</em> also occurs and misidentification of collections may have been made (Lima pers. comm. 2007).	eng
167811	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Lives in large streams and rivers, and probably associated flood plains.  A generalist mid-water swimmer, feeding on insects, plant matter, and the like.	eng
167811	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167811	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	It is harvested for the aquarium trade, but probably not as intensively in a way that could jeopardize natural populations.  There are no other meaningful impacts are known to affect the species.	eng
167812	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place currently and further research is needed looking at the taxonomy and population range of the species.	eng
167812	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species occurs in Guyana, Peru and French Guiana and throughout the Amazon basin.  It is likely that the species is more widespread, but this is complicated by the current taxonomic debate.	eng
167812	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>P. cristata</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species that occurs over sand in creeks and rivers.	eng
167812	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species has a stable population trend at present.	eng
167812	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>Pimelodella cristata</em> is known to be caught in the lower Ucayali River for the ornamental fish trade (Government of Peru <em>et al.</em> 1987).  The species is not a target of commercial fishing, though it is eaten at a subsistence level but the harvesting is not at a rate to cause concern to the population.	eng
167813	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
167813	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species mainly occurs in the Das Velhas River basin, in Brazil.  Its distribution also extends throughout the upper San Francisco river basin.	eng
167813	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>H. macrops</em> is a demersal (living at or near the bottom of the water body) species.  The species of this genus live in large creeks and streams and rivers.	eng
167813	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Species of this genus is common.	eng
167813	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The Das Velhas River drains a largely industrialised and populated urban area, and carries a heavy pollutant load.  Fishing is prohibited in this river due to alleged pollution (Sato and Godinho 2004).  Water in this river is now being treated and its quality is improving.  The pollution has not majorly affected this species though.	eng
167814	conservation	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Before this species can be officially declared extinct, an intensive monitoring program, with methods including electro-fishing, has to be carried out in the rivers at altitudes of between 2,000 and 3,300 m, (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
167814	distribution	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	This species is known from the Páramo de Cruz Verde, Cundinamarca, Colombia.	eng
167814	habitat	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	<em>T. venulosus</em> is a benthopelagic (ecological region at the lowest level of water body) species.  Species from the Trichomycteridae family inhabit areas at 3,000 m.	eng
167814	population	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	Only two specimens of this species exist, which were collected by the entomologist A. H. Fassl in March 1911.  An investigation aimed at verifying the presence of <em>T. venulosus</em> in the Páramo de Cruz Verde was carried out between November 2004 and August 2005, by Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>. (2006).  <br/><br/>The investigation was based on the rivers Teusaca, Idaza, La Laguna (Quebrada Blanca), del Salteador creek, Marlene creek (affluent of the del Salteador creek), Blanca creek (Mataredonda-Reserve) and El Charco creek (affluent of Santa Barbara creek).  All the rivers, with exception of the river Teusaca (Magdalena river basin), are part of the El Palmar river basin (Orinoco river basin); (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>, 2006).  <br/><br/>Despite the efforts made, the investigation was not successful for <em>T. venulosus</em>. This suggests that <em>T. venulosus</em> may be considered the second species of fish that has become extinct in Colombia (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em>, 2006).	eng
167814	threats	Reis, R & Lima, F., 2007	The introduction of the trout in high mountain rivers, deforestation in the study area, and the regular use of pesticides for potato farming, may be some of the factors which have caused the decline of <em>T. venulosus</em> (Prada-Pedreros <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
167833	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p>In France, the species is protected at regional level in Normandy, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la  Loire, and Auvergne.   <span lang="IT">In Italy, it is considered of Lower Risk in Trentino and Abruzzo), Vulnerable in&#160; Friuli and Sicily, and Critically Endangered in Lazio and Puglia (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1997). In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place.</p><p>It is recommended to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites, to study the biology and ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations and to conserve the habitat of this plant. It is furthermore necessary to raise public awareness especially regarding the threats of emptying the aquariums into waters such as lakes, rivers, and pools.&#160; </p>	eng
167833	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum submersum</span> is a sub-cosmopolitan species with a distribution covering the Mediterranean and Europe. In the Mediterranean region, it is present in Algeria, Albania, Asiatic Turkey, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, France and Corsica, Greece, East Aegean Islands, Israel, Jordan, Italy and Sicily, FYR Macedonia, Morocco, Slovenia, Spain and Balearic Islands, and Tunisia.&#160;&#160; </p>            <p>North Africa seems to be the&#160; distribution limit of this species with a number of very restricted localities. In Tunisia, it is rare and indicated for the northeast in Utique and the south in El Hamma of Gabes. In Algeria, it is very rare with a sole presence in the lakes of the Bône-La-Calle region (in Numidie). In Morocco, it was considered as extinct before or of doubtful presence but its presence has been confirmed lately (in 2004). It is present in only one locality in the swamps of the low Loukkos (Merja Bou Charen). Its presence in Egypt is doubtful in the region of the Nile Delta.&#160; <br/></p><p>  In Italy, it is found in the north, in two central regions, in <st1:state w:st="on">Puglia</st1:state> and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Sicily</st1:state></st1:place> (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). In <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Campania</st1:place></st1:state> it is not longer recorded (Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).    In Greece, it is scattered throughout the central and northern parts of the mainland<st1:country-region w:st="on"></st1:country-region> and also found in Kefallinia (<st1:place w:st="on">Ionian Islands</st1:place>). Older literature records from the Aegean islands (Lesvos and <st1:place w:st="on">Tinos</st1:place>) have not been confirmed.&#160;   </p>  <p>&#160; </p>	eng
167833	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Ceratophyllum submersum</span> is a swimming or floating Hydrophyte in the swamps, springs, marshes,  shallow lakes, canals with fresh or sometimes brackish water. It develops in slight eutroph waters that are standing or have weak currents. It reproduces vegetatively by cutting which facilitates a fast colonization of new surroundings. Its fast growth and its high production of oxygen make it very usable in aquaria. Its flowering generally takes place in summer.&#160; </p>	eng
167833	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	<p>The populations seem stable at Mediterranean level but remain fragile in North Africa with risks medium-term decline considering the speed of destruction of their habitat.&#160; </p>	eng
167833	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Drainage and infilling of the species habitat for agriculture and frequent droughts are the main threats. The species is tolerant to water pollution, but excessive pollution can be a threat for this plant.	eng
167871	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
167871	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Eastern Europe to Asia, and Africa. This species is considered a weed in many countries. In Africa it has been recorded from Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa the species is uncommon and present from 770-1950 m above sea level. It has been reported in Lake Victoria region, western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Nairobi.	eng
167871	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	An aquatic herb of tanks, ponds and streams, rivers, lakes and ditches. It is a submersed, freshwater perennial herb, generally rooted on the bottom in depths of greater to 20 feet where water clarity is good. The plant is a pest of water-storage systems in India hindering anti-malarial measures and fish-culture.	eng
167871	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
167871	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats known. Potentially locally impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought	eng
167874	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More information about the distribution and biology of this species, as well as potential threats, is needed.	eng
167874	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality (stream near Sha Du Zup)&#160;on the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
167874	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	It is found in small mountain streams in well-oxygenated, fast-flowing waters.	eng
167874	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
167874	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified.	eng
167875	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution, biology and the potential threats facing this species is needed.	eng
167875	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known only from the Kamaing area in upper Myanmar. This lies in the Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
167875	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is said to inhabit hillstreams (Britz 2003).	eng
167875	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
167875	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified.	eng
167876	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More studies on the population size and trends are needed, despite the relative abundance of this species. Such studies may be useful in projecting future impacts on this species. The taxonomy of this species is also not fully resolved, and its conspecificity with <span style="font-style: italic;">D. brachynotopterus </span>awaits further study.	eng
167876	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermogenys burmanica</span> is known from the Bago, Irrawaddy and Sittang River drainages in Myanmar.	eng
167876	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Dermogenys burmanica</span> has been found in smaller tributaries of large river systems, irrigation channels and small lakes. Unlike some other congeners (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">D. pusilla</span>) that are found in brackish water, this species appears to be restricted to freshwater.	eng
167876	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is little information on the population size and trend of this species. However, collection data from recent expeditions in its native range indicate that this is a widespread, common species.	eng
167876	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
167880	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species from dams on its rivers need to be further studied.	eng
167880	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic; ">Ilisha novacula&#160;</span>was described by Valenciennes (1847) from material collected in Rangoon (Yangon).&#160;This species is known from the Irrawaddy and the Sittang river drainages; it is believed to reach up as far as 650 km up the Irrawaddy (Whitehead 1985). The Chindwin River has not been well surveyed and it is possibly present within this system. Records of this species from China (Zhang 2001) need verification from specimens collected.	eng
167880	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits large rivers.	eng
167880	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Current population size unknown. Although most riverine clupeids are relatively abundant, this species is poorly represented in museum collections. This might be indicative of true scarcity, but is uncertain (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
167880	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Like many river sprats, this species is probably potadromous, and the construction of dams in the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers might have an adverse effect on the riverine migrations of this species, but the impacts are uncertain	eng
167897	conservation	Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Abeli, T. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. It is necessary to control eutrophication and agricultural water pollution at this species' habitat. Moreover, it is recommended to study its distribution as the species is sometimes difficult to distinguish from <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pusillus</span>.	eng
167897	distribution	Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Abeli, T. & Grillas, P., 2009	This is a circumboreal temperate species. <em></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Potamogeton berchtoldii</span> is present in Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Greece, Turkey, Spain, France and Corsica, Italy.<em></em>	eng
167897	habitat	Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Abeli, T. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Potamogeton berchtoldii</em> is a perennial plant that grows in freshwater pools more or less permanent and in the lower part of rivers. It prefers mesotrophic waters.	eng
167897	population	Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Abeli, T. & Grillas, P., 2009	In Greece, it is rare and scattered and reported from very few localities in western Greece and the Peloponnese. Sites include the Sithonia peninsula and Lake Mitrikou, and there are herbarium specimen for a small river east of Aridea, a rivulet on the island of Andros and in 2005 it has been found in a wet depression known as Dobro Polje in Mt. Voras at 1,700 m where it was locally gregarious.   <br/>In France and Corsica, it is present everywhere but rare in the Mediterranean coastal strip. It is common in Corsica. In Italy, it is present in all northern regions and in two regions in southcentral Italy. Pignatti recorded only one site in 1982, now it is more widespread as it was probably not recognised by botanists before.<br/>In the Iberian Peninsula, it is only found in Spain where it is scattered in the northern half. There it was more frequent in the past with more records from the early 20th century.	eng
167897	threats	Bazos, I., García Murillo, P., Abeli, T. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>Potamogeton berchtoldii</em> is threatened by eutrophication due to agricultural activities and livestock grazing in Spain.	eng
167916	conservation	Foggi, B. & Rhazi, L., 2010	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">brachypodus</span> is classified as Vulnerable in the Red List of Spain (Moreno 2008). According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) and Scoppola and Spampinato (2005), the species is classified as Vulnerable in Italy. There are no conservation measures in place in North Africa.<br/><br/>The following actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species &#160;<br/>- Conservation of the habitat &#160;<br/>- Monitoring of the existing localities and search for new ones<br/>- Taxonomic surveys <br/>- To study the biology and the ecology of the species and to estimate the size of the populations <br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics &#160;<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
167916	distribution	Foggi, B. & Rhazi, L., 2010	This plant is endemic to the Mediterranean, where it is found in Spain, Sardinia (Italy), Algeria, and Morocco (Euro+Med 2009). It has a very restricted geographical distribution and generally occurs in mountainous regions.&#160;   <p>In Morocco, it is known from eight localities (High Imdrhas and Tizi-n-Ouarro in the High Atlas; Itzer, Tazzeka, Timahdit, Azrou and Ifrane in the Middle Atlas; Gada Debdou on the oriental high plateaus). In Algeria, it is present in three localities of the high Tell (Ouach Mountain, Tiaret, Mounts of Tlemcen). In Spain, it is signalled in three provinces in the centre of the country (Ciudad Real, Salamanca, Zamora). In Sardinia, the species is found at only two sites (Arrigoni 2006). <br/></p>  <p>At Mediterranean level, the extent of occurrence is about 800,000 km² and the occupied area does not exceed 400 km².&#160; </p>	eng
167916	habitat	Foggi, B. & Rhazi, L., 2010	It is an annual plant (Therophyte) that occurs in small temporary pools that are dry in summer. In Sardinia, it is found in seasonally submerged habitat on basalt at 300 m altitude (Scoppola and Spampinato 2005, Arrigoni 2006). It blooms in spring from March to May.	eng
167916	population	Foggi, B. & Rhazi, L., 2010	<p>The size of the populations is not known, but they seem to be fragile and in decline due to the vulnerability of the suitable habitat (i.e., temporary pools). <em>Ranunculus batrachioides</em> is considered very rare in Sardinia, vulnerable in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>, very rare in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Algeria</st1:country-region> and rare in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Morocco</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The species has been more abundant in the past in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region> but became very rare following the drainage of its habitat. Now it is found at only one locality in <st1:place w:st="on">Sardinia</st1:place> (Macomer). It is found in the centre of <st1:country-region w:st="on">Spain</st1:country-region> (<st1:city w:st="on">Ciudad Real</st1:city>, <st1:city w:st="on">Badajoz</st1:city>, Zaragoza, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Salamanca</st1:place></st1:city>).</p>  <br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><p></p>	eng
167916	threats	Foggi, B. & Rhazi, L., 2010	Drainage, infilling of the habitat, agricultural extension, water pollution, overgrazing and urbanization are the main threats to the habitat of this species.	eng
167942	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167942	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167942	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
167942	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into the taxonomy of this species complex, as well as its biology and ecology.	eng
167942	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a species complex of three or four different species, and is in need of further taxonomic study. As it is currently recognized, this is a widespread species, known from Senegal to Central Africa Republic, and south to Namibia and Botswana. It is absent in the rift valley lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea found throughout the region (Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kienke, Ntem, Benito, Como, Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou, Loeme and Chiloango rivers). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango and Cunene systems, but absent from the Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread from Sénégal to Cameroon. Including the Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe. In Ghana, also known from the Pra and Tano (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999)	eng
167942	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>Widespread from Sénégal to Cameroon. Including the Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe. In Ghana, also known from the Pra and Tano (Dankwa<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Widespread from Sénégal to Angola including Niger, Volta, Chad, Ogowe, Dem. Rep. Congo and Upper Zambezi Rivers; as well as in the Cunene, Okavango, and Kafue systems.  Absent in the Nile River,  Zambian Congo and the Great Lakes. (Skelton 1993).	eng
167942	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea found throughout the region (Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kienke (also known as Kribi), Ntem, Benito (also known as Mbini, also known as Woleu), Como, Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou, Loeme et Chiloango. Elsewhere, widespread from west Africa to the Zambezi (including the Kafue), the Congo, Cunene and Okavango. It is absent in the rift valley lakes.	eng
167942	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango and Cunene systems, but absent from the Zambian Congo and  the great lakes (Skelton 2001). Apparently absent from northern Zambian upland tributaries of the Upper Zambezi. As currently recognised, the species occurs in western Africa also. First recorded from Lake Kariba in the Middle Zambezi in 1989.	eng
167942	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) where it prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. The adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish.  Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. It is relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years (Skelton 1993). It builds a free-floating bubblenest.  <em>Hepsetus</em> seems to prefer the upper courses of small rivers where <em>Hydrocynus</em> is absent or less abundant.	eng
167942	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hepsetus odoe</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) where it prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. The adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. It is relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years (Skelton 1993). It builds a free-floating bubblenest. <em>Hepsetus</em> seems to prefer the upper courses of small rivers where <em>Hydrocynus</em> is absent or less abundant.	eng
167942	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Rivers and floodplain habitats, usually with vegetation, but it can inhabit the main stream provided cover is available. In the Kafue system, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus</span> is absent, it inhabits the main channel of the river.	eng
167942	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps (Roberts 1984) Prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets (Skelton 1993).	eng
167942	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Common and widespread.	eng
167942	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
167942	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167942	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is common and widespread.	eng
167942	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
167942	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
167942	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
167942	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa, and is a commercially collected aquarium fish.	eng
167944	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167944	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167944	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167944	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection.	eng
167944	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species widely distributed from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in Kwanza River (Lucala River, Kwanza River ) and  Bengo River systems.	eng
167944	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the lower course of the Ogowe River to the lower course of the Kouilou River (Congo-Brazzaville). Elsewhere, it is present in the lower course rivers in Senegal and lagoons of the Ivory Coast.	eng
167944	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Lower reaches of rivers in Senegal, in lagoons of Cote d'Ivoire and Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is known from Senegal to Angola.	eng
167944	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the lower course of the Ogowe River to the lower course of the Kouilou River (Congo). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in Kwanza River (Lucala R., Kwanza R.) and  Bengo River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers in Senegal, in lagoons of Cote d'Ivoire and Niger delta.	eng
167944	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is a pelagic species that is found in rivers and streams. It also known from lagoons (Gourene and Teugels 1990).	eng
167944	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa ansorgii</em> is a pelagic species that is found in rivers and streams. It also known from lagoons (Gourene and Teugels 1990).	eng
167944	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in rivers and streams, also in lagoons.	eng
167944	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	This species occurs in the lower part of rivers and streams. Its biology is not known.	eng
167944	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
167944	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167944	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167944	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
167944	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	As no conservation and biological works/projects have been carried out in the region, threats are unknown.	eng
167944	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Importance: subsistence fisheries	eng
167944	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
167944	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is an important species in subsistence fisheries in central Africa. Further possible threats to this species are unknown.	eng
167945	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167945	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa losera</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Gourene and Teugels 1991). It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
167945	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa losera</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams.	eng
167945	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167945	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
167946	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat restoration and implementation of legislation.	eng
167946	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167946	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species would benefit from habitat restoration and implementation of legislation. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
167946	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Wouri (Cameroon) Rivers. Elsewhere it is known from the lower course of the Volta and Lake Volta (Ghana).	eng
167946	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within the area considered here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Odaxothrissa mento</span> occurs in the lower reaches of the River Volta, the Niger delta, the Benue, and the Cross.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also in lower Benue and rivers of Cameroon; apparently not in Congo system (Whitehead 1985).	eng
167946	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Ghana to Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Wouri (Cameroon) Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> occurs in the lower reaches of the River Volta, the Niger delta, the Benue, and the Cross.	eng
167946	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, e.g. Yegi and Kete Krachi. <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. It possibly migrates upstream to breed.	eng
167946	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It occurs in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, e.g., Yegi and Kete Krachi. <em>Odaxothrissa mento</em> feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. It possibly migrates upstream to breed.	eng
167946	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in rivers and streams and in the most riverine parts of the man-made Lake Volta, i.e., Yeji and Kete Krachi (Dankwa <em>et al. </em>1999).<em> </em>Feeds on small fishes, including its own juveniles, and on aquatic insects. (Irivine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1947). Possibly migrates upstream to breed.	eng
167946	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
167946	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167946	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167946	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Importance: subsistence fisheries	eng
167946	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil spills in Niger Basin and deforestation and sedimentation in the Volta Basin.	eng
167946	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa. Oil spills in the Niger Basin and deforestation and sedimentation in the Volta basin threaten west African populations.	eng
167949	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2003	None known.	eng
167949	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
167949	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
167949	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species has no protection other than small national parks and reserves on the large lakes.	eng
167949	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</em> is known from the Upper Kasai and the Upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from Lakes Malawi and Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi River system . It has also been found in the Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Lake Rukwa drainage.	eng
167949	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Distributed in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), Lake Nyassa, Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi (De Vos <em>et al. 2001) rivers. Also in the Mtera dam, and Lake Malawi and its catchment and the Shire River.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo, Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango systems;	eng
167949	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widespread in the Zambezi River system, with the exception of the Kafue River. It is also found in the upper Congo and Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi, and in the Buzi and Pungwe rivers to the south of the Zambezi.	eng
167949	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, south to Namibia, Botswana and Mozambique.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</span> is known from the Upper Kasai and the Upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> It is distributed in Lake Rukwa (Seegers 1996), Lake Nyassa, Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers (De Vos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Also found in the Mtera dam, and Lake Malawi and its catchment and the Shire River.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa:</span> This species is widespread in the Zambezi River system, with the exception of the Kafue River. It is also found in the Buzi and Pungwe rivers to the south of the Zambezi.	eng
167949	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cyphomyrus discorhynchus</em> is a demersal species. It is a nocturnal shoaling species which favours large river channels with a soft bottom and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).  Found mainly in sheltered bays, lagoons and swampy areas.  Occurs also in typical sandy or rocky rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds on insect larvae at night (Konings 1990).  Known to migrate up tributary rivers of Lake Kariba during rainy season, though it is not yet clear whether this is a breeding migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Breeds during the rainy season; females carry up to 5,000 eggs. It prefers streams, lakes, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.	eng
167949	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Found in riverine habitats, floodplains and weedy areas of lakes and in river channels with soft bottoms and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).  It is a nocturnal shoaling species which, like other mormyrids, can generate a weak electric field around its body using specialized skeletal muscles, which it uses to detect small invertebrates on which it preys at night. It feeds mainly on aquatic, benthic invertebrates, mainly insect larvae . It breeds during the rainy season.  Females can carry up to 5,000 eggs.<br/>Max Size: 25 cm  in length.	eng
167949	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	Large river channels and lakes with a soft bottom. Prefers deeper water to other small mormyrids but  also occurs under fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. During the Zambezi flood in 2003, the species was caught in a stream overflowing from the rising main river into inland pans, and in a newly flooded field, suggesting lateral movements from the main river for breeding, stimulated by rising water levels (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). It is a nocturnal shoaling species feeding on bottom-living invertebrates, often caught in large numbers by subsistence fishermen.	eng
167949	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This&#160; is a demersal species. It is a nocturnal shoaling species which favours large river channels with a soft bottom and fringing vegetation (Skelton 1993).&#160; Found mainly in sheltered bays, lagoons and swampy areas.&#160; It prefers deeper water to other small mormyrids but also occurs under fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. During the Zambezi flood in 2003, the species was caught in a stream overflowing from the rising main river into inland pans, and in a newly flooded field, suggesting lateral movements from the main river for breeding, stimulated by rising water levels (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>2004). It is a nocturnal shoaling species which, like other mormyrids, can generate a weak electric field around its body using specialized skeletal muscles, which it uses to detect small invertebrates on which it preys, and is often caught in large numbers by subsistence fishermen.&#160; It feeds on insect larvae at night (Konings 1990).&#160; Known to migrate up tributary rivers of Lake Kariba during rainy season, though it is not yet clear whether this is a breeding migration (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).&#160; Breeds during the rainy season; females carry up to 5,000 eggs.	eng
167949	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
167949	population	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Information for Mtera dam shows a decline in the population from 1987 to 1993 (Tamatamah 1996) althoug it is still common in fisheries catches.	eng
167949	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167949	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	This species generally prefers deeper waters to the other small mormyrid species and thus is less commonly sampled, although in some areas it can also be found commonly in fringing vegetation of sandy rivers. The populations are healthy.	eng
167949	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are illegal fishing, especially by use of poisons and small meshed nets across rivers, pollution of the inshore riverine environment, silt loading and deforestation and encroachment of wetlands for agriculture.	eng
167949	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widely distributed throughout the Zambezi River and large lakes. Fishing may have some impact on populations in the lakes	eng
167949	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species has commercial importance as an aquarium fish. As well as a risk of overfishing (particularly in lakes), illegal fishing, especially by use of poisons and small meshed nets across rivers threatens this species. In east Africa it is also threatened by pollution of the inshore riverine environment, silt loading, and deforestation and encroachment of wetlands for agriculture.	eng
167949	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance.	eng
167950	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167950	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus macrops</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from the Luvua River, This species is known from upper Congo Basin.	eng
167950	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
167950	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167950	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167951	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167951	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167951	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Policy based action is required, and more research os needed biology and ecology, habitat status, and possible conservation measures needed.	eng
167951	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Niger and Benue River, the Voltas, the Oueme and the Ogun Rivers.	eng
167951	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The western African distribution of this species area is relatively restricted. It has been reported only from the basins of the Niger, Benue, Volta, Ouémé and Ogun. Full distribution can't be mapped, need more information.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Congo River.	eng
167951	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Cyphomyrus psittacus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The West African distribution of this species area is relatively restricted. It has been reported only from the basins of the Niger, Benue, Volta, Ouémé and Ogun. Full distribution can't be mapped, need more information.	eng
167951	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located  (Møller 1995). It is found in large rivers.  Edible fish (Poll 1967).	eng
167951	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus psittacus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is found in large rivers. Edible fish (Poll 1967).	eng
167951	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a demersal fish. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, on the ventral region (except abdominal area) and the dorsal region of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located.  The species is found in large rivers.	eng
167951	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
167951	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167951	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban and forestry developments and oil exploration in Nigeria.	eng
167951	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance.	eng
167951	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance in central Africa. In west Africa, it is locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban and forestry developments and oil exploration in Nigeria.	eng
167952	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167952	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus wilverthi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.	eng
167952	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
167952	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167952	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167953	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167953	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hippopotamyrus aelsbroecki</em> is only known from the type locality, Shaba, upper Congo River basin.	eng
167953	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
167953	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167953	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167954	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
167954	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Kasanka National Park.	eng
167954	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Kasanka National Park in central Africa. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status.	eng
167954	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167954	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, Buzi, and Pungwe river. An isolated population occurs in the Ruo River (lower Zambezi system) in Malawi. It is also known from the Cuanza River, Angola.	eng
167954	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Ruo River, a tributary of the Lower Shire River in Malawi where it is generally rare (Bell-Cross 1976). It is, however, common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls (a 60 m barrier separating the Ruo fishes from the Lower Zambezi fauna) (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Upper Zambezi systems as well as the Pungwe and Buzi rivers and the Cuanza (Angola).	eng
167954	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species occurs in the Cunene in Angola and Namibia, east into the  Okavango and Upper Zambezi. The <em>H. ansorgii </em>complex is widespread in the Upper Zambezi system. Isolated populations occur in the upper Ruo River in Malawi, and in Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.	eng
167954	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is likely to be a species complex. However, as it is currently recognized, this species is found from Angola to Mozambique, as well as Malawi, Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.  It is also known from the Cuanza River, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ruo River, a tributary of the Lower Shire River in Malawi where it is generally rare (Bell-Cross 1976). It is, however, common in the Ruo River above the Zoa falls (a 60 m barrier separating the Ruo fishes from the Lower Zambezi fauna) (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Cunene in Angola and Namibia, east into the  Okavango and This species is known from upper Zambezi. The <em>H. ansorgii</em> complex is widespread in the upper Zambezi system. Isolated populations occur in Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.	eng
167954	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> complex occurs in two main habitats, under rocks in rapids and in dense vegetation bordering the main river channels. They are demersal species. The species feeds on small aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae (Skelton 1993). The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al.</em> (2004).	eng
167954	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hippopotamyrus ansorgii</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rocky habitats in flowing waters. The species feeds on small aquatic invertebrates such as insect larvae (Skelton 1993).	eng
167954	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Occurs in fast flowing waters in rocky habitats.  Its diet consists of small aquatic invertebrates.	eng
167954	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Hippopotamyrus ansorgii </span>complex occurs in two main habitats, under rocks in rapids and in dense vegetation bordering the main river channels. The species feeds on small insects. The electric organ discharge is illustrated in Kramer <em>et al. </em>(2004).	eng
167954	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167954	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
167954	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is fairly common in its preferred habitats.	eng
167954	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species is fairly common in its preferred habitats in southern Africa.	eng
167954	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
167954	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	In central Africa, artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In southern Africa, the Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. In the Upper Buzi River (Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area), <em>H. ansorgii</em> is collected using local fish poisons. This method is highly effective in small streams, destructive, and appears to be widely used.	eng
167954	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Overfishing.	eng
167954	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The Zambezi River is a large river system in a lightly populated rural area with no immediate anthropogenic threats. There are many small tributaries where the species can survive and restock the main river in the unlikely event of a major pollution event. In the Upper Buzi River (Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area), <em>H. ansorgii </em>is collected using local fish poisons. This method is highly effective in small streams, destructive, and appears to be widely used.	eng
167955	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Its distribution falls within the Cross River National Park.	eng
167955	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Within the Cross River National Park.	eng
167955	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It has been reported only from the River Cross in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is mainly known from coastal basins of Cameroon, it has also been reported in the upper Kom River in Gabon.	eng
167955	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic restricted to the Sanaga, Wouri, Lokoundje, and This species is known from upper Cross Rivers of Cameroon.	eng
167955	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This mormyrid grows to 26 cm SL. It is a demersal species, and uses a weak electrical discharge to locate prey.	eng
167955	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This mormyrid is a demersal species. Uses a weak electrical discharge to locate prey. Non-migratory.	eng
167955	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
167955	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167955	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None as its regional range is within the Cross River National Park.	eng
167955	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
167956	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
167956	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167956	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Niger, Chad basins and Ghana. Though more information is needed on the species exact distribution within these systems. The species could not be mapped.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> This species is found in White Nile, Niger River, Chad basin.  It is also reported from Ghana.	eng
167956	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the Nile. It occurs in the Sobat River and have also been caught at the junction of the Blue and White Niles. Reports from West Africa refer to <em>H. pictus</em> (Lévèque and Bigorne 1985).	eng
167956	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish.	eng
167956	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is a demersal fish. Maximum size 30.5 cm SL.	eng
167956	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
167956	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No available data, but it is thought to be a very rare species.	eng
167956	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
167956	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
167957	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167957	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus macroterops</em> is only known from Poko, the Bomekendi River, affluent of the Uele in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
167957	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
167957	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167957	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167958	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
167958	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is restricted to the Atlantic side of the Guinean massif: <span style="font-style: italic;">H. paugyi</span> has been found in most of the rivers from Fatala (Guinea) to Saint Paul (Liberia).	eng
167958	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
167958	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
167958	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Deforestation and mining in Sierra Leone and Liberia.	eng
167959	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167959	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
167959	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Occurs in the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Also collected in the Sassandra, the Mono, in Ghana and in Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>White Nile, Cameroon (Bénoué, Chari, and Logone Rivers), Nigeria, Ghana (Gold Coast), Burkina-Faso (Upper Volta), as well as in Togo (Mono) and Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra River). Also known from the Niger and Chad basins.	eng
167959	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile at Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Also collected in the Sassandra, the Mono, in Ghana and in Cameroon.	eng
167959	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps. Prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Demersal<br/>Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets.	eng
167959	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species occurs in most coastal rivers, lakes and swamps. It prefers quiet, deep water, like channels and lagoons of large floodplains. Demersal. Juveniles and fry inhabit well-vegetated marginal habitats. Adults feed on fish, juveniles feed on small invertebrates and fish. Multiple spawner; breeds over the summer months. Relatively short-lived, only 4-5 years. Also caught with drawnets.	eng
167959	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
167959	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No recent records.	eng
167959	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally impacted by deforestation.	eng
167959	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Locally impacted in western Africa by deforestation.	eng
167960	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167960	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hippopotamyrus retrodorsalis</em> is only known from the type locality, Neap, a small forest brook tributary of the Bima River, Uele River basin, Central Congo River basin.	eng
167960	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is only known from a small forest brook tributary of the Bima River.	eng
167960	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167960	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167963	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167963	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brachypetersius altus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
167963	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
167963	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167963	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167964	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167964	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167964	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species native from Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea Equatorial, and Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in Bengo River (Lake Kilunda, Lake Rumango), Chiloango River (Loango River, Lukula River, Luali River, Lake Chiloango) systems.	eng
167964	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannopetersius ansorgii</em> is known from the Benito, Chiloango, Kouilou, Loeme and Ogowe Rivers and from Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Bengo and Congo from Congo-Brazzaville to Angola. The record from Matadi from the Lower Congo and the type locality in Angola are doubtful though.	eng
167964	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is native to Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea Equatorial, and Angola. The record from Matadi from the Lower Congo and the type locality in Angola are doubtful though.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the Benito, Chiloango, Kouilou, Loeme and Ogowe Rivers and from Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Bengo and Congo from Congo to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in Bengo River (Lake Kilunda, Lake Rumango), Chiloango River (Loango, Lukula and Luali Rivers, and Lake Chiloango) systems.	eng
167964	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannopetersius ansorgii</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
167964	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.	eng
167964	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167964	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
167964	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
167964	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are unknown.	eng
167965	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167965	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus aurantiacus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ogowe and Ivindo River systems in Gabon.	eng
167965	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167965	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167965	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167966	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167966	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus bleheri</em> is only known from the type locality, a small tributary of the Bari River, Ubangui River basin, Equateur Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
167966	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167966	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167966	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167967	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167967	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus deheyni</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
167967	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167967	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167967	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167968	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
167968	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. interruptus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin.	eng
167968	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. interruptus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on worms, small insects, crustaceans and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). In a tank, after vigorous driving by the male, the female lays up to 300 eggs, sometimes more, which sink to the bottom. The eggs hatch after about 6 days (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
167968	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
167968	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is collected commercially for the aquarium trade.	eng
167969	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167969	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus major</em> is known from the Dja (Sangha) basin, Central Congo River basin. It occurs in the Lower Guinea region, found in the Nyong, Ntem, and Sanaga River basins of Cameroon.	eng
167969	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus major</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167969	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167969	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167970	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167970	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus polli</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
167970	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus polli</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167970	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167970	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167971	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167971	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus stigmatura</em> is only known from 30 km east of Kribi, Kienké River, Cameroon.	eng
167971	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
167971	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167971	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
167972	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167972	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus taeniatus</em> is only known from the type locality Libongo village in the middle Sangha River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon.	eng
167972	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phenacogrammus taeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167972	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167972	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167973	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167973	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Ntem and Ogowe River basins of Cameroon to Gabon. It has been recorded at Doeme, Sangha basin, but this record is doubtful.	eng
167973	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
167973	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167973	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
167975	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167975	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the region of Oyem (Gabon) and the Rio Kie, Equatorial Guinea (holotype).	eng
167975	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. The maximum TL is 44.5 cm.	eng
167975	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167975	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
167976	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.	eng
167976	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167976	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Channallabes apus</em> has the widest distribution of all anguilliform clariids and occurs from Republic of Congo and Central African Republic to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is found in the coastal regions of the Kouilou (Congo) and the whole of the Congo River basin. The holotype originates from the coast of Angola (Ambriz).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species is present in the Chiloango River (Lubuzi River) and Loge River systems.	eng
167976	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species occurs from Congo River to Angola. In Angola, the species is present in the Chiloango River (Lubuzi River) and Loge River systems.	eng
167976	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds in land on terrestrial beetles.	eng
167976	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds in land on terrestrial beetles.	eng
167976	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167976	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
167976	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167976	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
167977	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167977	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo River. This species occurs in the Makokou region, Gabon.	eng
167977	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL is 32.3 cm.	eng
167977	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167977	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
167978	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167978	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ogowe River system. The specimens are found in the Franceville region, Gabon.	eng
167978	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
167978	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167978	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
167979	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167979	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Channallabes sanghaensis</em> is only known from the type locality the Mbessy River, Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin.	eng
167979	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	The maximum TL is 41.6 cm. All sampling sites were characterised by shallow, muddy, still water (Devaere <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
167979	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167979	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167980	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167980	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo River system in the region of Makokou, Gabon and the upper Ogowe tributaries in the region of Zanaga, Ndengué, Magogo, Congo.	eng
167980	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
167980	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167980	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
167982	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167982	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Coptostomabarbus bellcrossi</em> is only known from the type locality: Luongo River, Zambian Congo system. It has been collected in Lake Mweru.	eng
167982	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Coptostomabarbus bellcrossi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
167982	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167982	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167983	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167983	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue floodplain.	eng
167983	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves, such as the Kafue floodplain.	eng
167983	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is found from Democratic Republic of Congo in the north of its range, and Namibia to Zimbabwe in the south. It is probably closely related to the sicklefin barb, <em>Barbus haasianus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from floodplains of the upper Lualaba system of the upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is presnet in the Okavango Delta, This species is known from upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and floodplains of the Lualaba tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, there is one record from below the Victoria Falls.	eng
167983	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is known from floodplains of the Upper Lualaba system of the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango Delta, upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and It is Probably closely related to the sicklefin barb, <em>Barbus haasianus</em>.	eng
167983	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango Delta, Upper Zambezi system, Kafue floodplains and floodplains of the Lualaba tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, one record from below the Victoria Falls.	eng
167983	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Characteristic of swamps and shallow floodplain lagoons, using the fringes of rivers for migration, thus it was caught in enormous numbers below a road culvert where the Zambezi River was flooding through onto the Barotse floodplain beyond (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>	eng
167983	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in swamps and floodplains in shallow densely vegetated still-water habitats. <em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> feeds on minute planktonic organisms (Skelton 1993).	eng
167983	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in swamps and floodplains in shallow densely vegetated still-water habitats. <em>Coptostomabarbus wittei</em> feeds on minute planktonic organisms (Skelton 1993).	eng
167983	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Abundant.	eng
167983	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Limited information available for all of its range. Characteristic of swamps and shallow floodplain lagoons, using the fringes of rivers for migration, thus it was caught in enormous numbers below a road culvert where the Zambezi River was flooding through onto the Barotse floodplain beyond (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
167983	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167983	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
167983	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
167983	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167985	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
167985	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys brevis</em> is known from the Lufira River, from Lubumbashi, Kilobilobe River and the Koki River, from upper Congo River basin.	eng
167985	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys brevis</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits fairly shallow water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It occurs over sand, usually buried with just the eyes protruding. <em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> feeds on minute organisms. The eggs are few (12-16) and large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).	eng
167985	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167985	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
167988	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167988	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys dorae</em> is only known from the Luachimo River, Angola, Central Congo River basin (Roberts 2003).	eng
167988	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys dorae</em> is a demersal species that occurs over fine sand, lying buried with only its eyes protruding (Skelton 1993). The type specimens were caught in the rapids of the Luachimo River, in a small pool of residual water drying, downstream of a dam (Poll 1967).	eng
167988	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167988	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
167989	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167989	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys flavomaculatus</em> is only known from the Lufume River in the Kasai region, Central Congo basin (Roberts 2003).	eng
167989	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys flavomaculatus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
167989	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167989	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
167990	conservation	Mico Balaguer, e. & Nardi, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in at least one protected area. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
167990	distribution	Mico Balaguer, e. & Nardi, G., 2009	This species is found in southern Europe;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> in Italy, Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete), Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon and Israel. In Cyprus reported from the south and west slopes of Troodos Mountains (Preiss and Platia 2003). <br/><p></p>	eng
167990	habitat	Mico Balaguer, e. & Nardi, G., 2009	This is an obligate saproxylic species, although details on its specific habitat requirements are not available for much of its range. In Cyprus it has been found<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> in orchards, maquis and valleys with <em>Platanus orientalis</em> and <em>Alnus orientalis</em>. Adults are attracted to light and to wine traps (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009); they have been found also in rotten wood of&#160; <em>Alnus orientalis </em>(Preiss and Platia 2003) and are assumed to develop in this tree species at least.	eng
167990	population	Mico Balaguer, e. & Nardi, G., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. In Cyprus the the population size and trend have not been quantified, although the species locally is not rare (C. Makris pers. comm. 2009).<p>    </p>	eng
167990	threats	Mico Balaguer, e. & Nardi, G., 2009	No information available. It is presumed to be threatened by water extraction and reduction of river side forest vegetation in Cyprus.	eng
167991	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167991	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys heterurus</em> is known from Kisangani in the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), the Lufira River, the Avokoko River (tributary of the Congo River on the route Kisangani-Wanie Rukula), and from the Lulindi and Lukuga Rivers (Lualaba system), Democratic Republic of the Congo .	eng
167991	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys heterurus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in clear, swift flowing tributaries lying to the east of the Congo River mainstream (Roberts 2003).	eng
167991	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167991	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
167992	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167992	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys mandevillei</em> is known from the type locality Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) in the Congo River, from the Ubangui River and from the Wagenia Falls (Roberts 2003). It is probably widespread.	eng
167992	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys mandevillei</em> is a demersal species that is confined to sandy reaches of the mainstream of the Congo River and its largest tributaries (Roberts 2003). It is the most slender-bodied and perhaps the smallest species of <em>Zaireichthys</em> (Roberts 2003).	eng
167992	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167992	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167993	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	None known	eng
167993	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167993	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> is known across a wide distribution from Democratic Republic of Congo to Kenya, and south to South Africa.  However this species is probably restricted to the Roaha River system, and all other records are under revision. As it currently stands, this species represents a complex of several different species (Skelton 1993). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lumbumbashi River, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003). However, Skelton P. says that is not in the Congo River basin (pers. comm.). These specimens are probably <em>Leptoglanis brevis</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in the Lake Malawi catchment area as well as tributaries of the Shire but is not found in the main Shire River. Also listed as occuring in the Malgarasi system and Lake Victoria drainage (affluent rivers).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the middle Zambezi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It has also been found in the Cunene, Okavango, Pungwe, Buzi and Save systems.	eng
167993	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Known to occur in the Lake Malawi catchment area as well as tributaries of the Shire but is not found in the main Shire River. Also known from the Malgarasi system and Lake Victoria drainage (affluent rivers).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems as well as Pungwe, Busi and Save systems.	eng
167993	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits fairly shallow water (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It occurs over sand, usually buried with just the eyes protruding. <em>Zaireichthys rotundiceps</em> feeds on minute organisms. The eggs are few (12-16) and large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).	eng
167993	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Found over sand, usually with just eyes its protruding (Skelton 1993) where it feeds on minute organisms (Skelton 1993). It has few eggs (12-16) which are relatively large (3-5 mm diameter) suggesting possible parental care (Skelton 1993).	eng
167993	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information	eng
167993	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Not known.	eng
167993	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	A change in stream and river biotypes is threatening east African populations.	eng
167993	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is the change in stream and river biotypes.	eng
167994	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167994	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys zonatus</em> is only known from the two type specimens collected in the rapids at Kinsuka just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Roberts 2003).	eng
167994	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Zaireichthys zonatus</em> is demersal species. Although the habitat was very rocky, specimens were only collected on the edge of a sandy area (Roberts 2003).	eng
167994	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167994	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167996	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167996	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167996	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is the most widely distributed Clupeidae in West Africa, and is known from Senegal to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is found from the Cross (Nigeria) to the Kouilou rivers (Congo), also in lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Democratic Republic of the Congo, though apparently not in This species is known from upper parts of Congo system (Gourène and Teugels 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in lagoons, lakes and lower, as well as This species is known from upper, courses of rivers, from the Senegal to the Cross river in Cameroon.	eng
167996	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:  </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pellonula leonensis</span> is the most widely distributed Clupeidae in western Africa. It is found in lagoons, lakes and lower, as well as upper, courses of rivers, from the Senegal to the Cross River.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside western African also in lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Dem. Rep. Congo, apparently not in upper parts of Congo system. (Gourene and Teugels 1991).	eng
167996	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pellonula leonensis</em> is a pelagic, anadromous species. It is found chiefly in rivers and streams, but also in lakes, reservoirs and lagoons. The species is apparently able to enter brackish and seawater bodies. <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> forms schools and is mainly nocturnal. It feeds on terrestrial and aquatic insects, also on ostracods, entomostracans and fish larvae (Ikusemiju and Graham-Douglas 1983). In Lake Volta, <em>Pellonula leonensis</em> breeds from September to July.	eng
167996	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species has been found chiefly in rivers and streams, but also in lakes, reservoirs and lagoons. Apparently able to enter brackish and seawater bodies. Can tolerate high salinities (reported from the beaches at Hann near Dakar and near Pointe Noire, Congo). Maximum salinity (2.99%) for populations in Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria. (Ikusemiju, <em>et al. </em>1983). Upper Niger fish do not leave the main river to enter floodwater pools; appears well-established in Lake Volta and to some extent in Kainji Lake, Nigeria (Daget 1954).	eng
167996	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
167996	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167996	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No major threats known, though it has minor commercial importance in central Africa.	eng
167996	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
167997	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167997	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
167997	conservation	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
167997	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167997	distribution	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Pellonula vorax</em> is known from the coastal rivers from Liberia to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present the entire length of the coast from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Lukula, Luali and Loango Rivers), and Bengo River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Pellonula vorax</em> has been found in lagoons and lower coastal basins from the River Lofa (Liberia) to the Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire). It also occurs in the Lake Nokoué (Benin), the Niger delta and the lower Cross (Nigeria).	eng
167997	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pellonula vorax</em> is known from the coastal rivers from Liberia to Angola.	eng
167997	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pellonula vorax</span> has been found in lagoons and lower coastal basins from the River Lofa (Liberia) to the Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire). It also occurs in the Lake Nokoué (Benin), the Niger delta and the lower Cross (Nigeria). <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside western Africa, it has been found in the lower reaches of coastal river basins from Cameroon to Angola.	eng
167997	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	The species is widely distributed from Liberia to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River), Chiloango River (Lukula River, Luali River, Loango River), Bengo River systems.	eng
167997	habitat	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Pellonula vorax</em> is a pelagic, anadromous species that occurs in rivers and streams. It forms large schools in the lower reaches.	eng
167997	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pellonula vorax</em> is a pelagic, anadromous species that occurs in rivers and streams. It forms large schools in the lower reaches.	eng
167997	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species occurs in rivers and streams where it forms large schools.	eng
167997	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	This species occurs in the lower part of rivers and streams. Biology is not known.	eng
167997	population	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
167997	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167997	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information on population	eng
167997	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
167997	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Locally impacted by harvesting for food	eng
167997	threats	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Major threats are unknown, but it is important in subsistence fisheries, and is locally impacted by harvesting for food.	eng
167997	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries.	eng
167997	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are unknown.	eng
167999	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
167999	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
167999	conservation	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
167999	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
167999	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> River, streams and swamps along the western coast of Africa from the Gambia drainage (Gambia) to the Quanza (Angola) (Dawson 1981, 1986). In contrast to <em>M. brachyurus aculeatus</em>, <em>E. ansorgii</em> is found only in some smaller tributaries of the Lower Kouilou (Congo-Brazzaville) and not in the main river (Snoeks pers. obs.).	eng
167999	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from rivers and marshes from Gambia River basin, does not appear to be collected in marine environment, nor in estuaries.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Gambia River drainage to the Cuanza river, Angola.	eng
167999	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species is present from Gambia to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system.	eng
167999	distribution	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is present in river, streams and swamps along the western coast of Africa from the Gambia drainage (Gambia) to the Quanza (Angola) (Dawson 1981, 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present along the coast from Cameroon to Angola.  In contrast to <em>M. brachyurus aculeatus</em>, <em>E. ansorgii</em> is found only in some smaller tributaries of the Lower Kouilou (Congo) and not in the main river (Snoeks, pers. obs.).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from rivers and marshes from Gambia river basin, it does not appear to be collected in marine environment, nor in estuaries.	eng
167999	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Enneacampus ansorgii</em> seems confined to freshwater habitats and breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981). Clausen (1956) found this species (mentioned as <em>Syngnathus pulchellus</em>) in rapid flowing rivers in south west Nigeria, in clear water over sandy substrates where it occurs singly, mainly between submerged <em>Eichornia</em>. They fed mainly on copepods. He observed many males with young in the pouch (period May-June). In the Lower Kouilou, specimens have been found in two rivers in forested areas. In the Moyondzi, they were caught in moderately flowing, clear water of about half a meter deep above sandy substrate, typically on one spot among plants (reed) (Snoeks pers. obs.). Demersal; Occurs in coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986).  Ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).  The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). It prefers tropical climate.	eng
167999	habitat	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Enneacampus ansorgii</em> seems confined to freshwater habitats and breeds in freshwater (Dawson, 1981). Clausen (1956) found this species (mentioned as <em>Syngnathus pulchellus</em>) in rapid flowing rivers in S.W. Nigeria, in clear water over sandy substrates where it occurs singly, mainly between submerged <em>Eichornia</em>. They fed mainly on copepods. He observed many males with young in the pouch (period May-June). In the Lower Kouilou, specimens have been found in two rivers in forested areas. In the Moyondzi, they were caught in moderately flowing, clear water of about half a meter deep above sandy substrate, typically on one spot among plants (reed) (Snoeks, pers. obs.). Dawson (1981) reported 17 to 36 postlarvae in the brood pouch of males of respectively 75.5 and 82.5 mm SL. A larger male (MRAC 143259: 136.4 mm SL) caught in December 1964, in a swampy area, about 200m from the coast in Fernando Po, has its brood pouch filled with several hundred of postlarvae (Vreven, pers. obs.). Demersal; This species is occurs in coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986). Ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
167999	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
167999	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
167999	population	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167999	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
167999	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
167999	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
167999	threats	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
167999	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
167999	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
167999	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No threats are known.	eng
168000	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
168000	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
168000	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is required into this species population range and numbers.	eng
168000	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from Liberia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
168000	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Guinea to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The distribution area of this species is believed to extend along the African coast from Guinea to Congo. It is specially known from freshwaters.	eng
168000	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria.	eng
168000	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries (Dawson 1986). It has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C (Blaber 1980). The species lives among algae where it mimics the coloration of the vegetation. <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> feeds on small prey and organic debris. It is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males (Maigret and Ly 1986). According to Dawson (1981) this species lives mainly in freshwater where it also breeds. However, most of the localities within Lower Guinea where the species is found, are from brackish water, with only a very few putative freshwater localities. Dawson (1981) reported over 800 postlarvae in a male of <em>E. kaupi</em>.	eng
168000	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries (Dawson 1986). It has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C (Blaber 1980). The species lives among algae where it mimics the colouration of the vegetation. <em>Enneacampus kaupi</em> feeds on small prey and organic debris. It is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males (Maigret and Ly 1986). According to Dawson (1981) this species lives mainly in freshwater where it also breeds. However, most of the localities within Lower Guinea where the species is found, are from brackish water, with only a very few putative freshwater localities. Dawson (1981) reported over 800 postlarvae in a male of <em>E. kaupi</em>.	eng
168000	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in coastal rivers and estuaries.  Has been recorded in waters with a temperature range of 26.0-29.0 °C. It is a demersal fish. The species lives among algal where it mimics the colouration of the vegetation and feeds on small prey and organic debris. The incubation of the eggs takes place in a marsupial pouch found in front of the tail of the males.	eng
168000	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
168000	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
168000	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
168000	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
168000	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
168000	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is collected commercially for the aquarium trade in central Africa.	eng
168002	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
168002	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168002	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168002	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Okavango River system. Globally, it is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.	eng
168002	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia; likely to be present within Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
168002	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from the Congo River system in Angola and northern Zambia, Okavango in Botswana, and is likely to also occur in Namibia, but has not yet been recorded there.	eng
168002	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps or stagnant pools with grasses or sedges.	eng
168002	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Swamps or stagnant pools with grasses or sedges.	eng
168002	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps or stagnant pools with grasses or sedges.	eng
168002	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168002	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
168002	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
168002	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168002	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
168002	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168003	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
168003	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168003	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
168003	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168003	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Angola. Globally, it has been recorded from Zambia and Angola to DCR and across to Sierra Leone.	eng
168003	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from northZambia to south east Nigeria. Old record Sierra Leone is doubtful<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Zambia and the Central African Republic; it is assumed to be present in Angola.	eng
168003	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon. An old record from Sierra Leone is very doubtful<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from north Zambia to south east Nigeria.	eng
168003	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been recorded from the Congo Basin and Lower Guinea, from north Zambia to southeast Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in Zambia and Angola<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon. An old record from Sierra Leone is very doubtful.	eng
168003	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy grasslands or reeds.	eng
168003	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy spots in forest.	eng
168003	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy spots in forest.	eng
168003	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy spots in forest.	eng
168003	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168003	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168003	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168003	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
168003	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
168003	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
168003	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
168003	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
168004	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
168004	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168004	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Not known from any protected areas. More research is required to determine range, population status and current threats.	eng
168004	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa a total of six records are known from four locations in the Upper Zambezi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, but data are required to confirm this. Globally, it is confirmed to be present in Cameroon, Gabon and Zambia.	eng
168004	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from records from north-west Zambia (Mwinilunga), Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo (holotype from Bambesa), north Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from various localities all over the Congo basin (Gabon, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon).	eng
168004	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Zambia, including southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, a total of six records are known from four locations in the upper Zambesi catchment in northwest Zambia. It may also occur in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, but data are required to confirm this.	eng
168004	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Pools in forest streams (Pinhey 1984).	eng
168004	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Quiet pools along forest streams.	eng
168004	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Quiet pools along forest streams.	eng
168004	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168004	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168004	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168004	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation and water pollution.	eng
168004	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Potentially deforestation.	eng
168004	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are deforestation and water pollution.	eng
168005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168005	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168005	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
168005	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168005	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Zambezi River basin in Angola and Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola and Zambia to West Africa.	eng
168005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Congo Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia. Assumed in appropriate habitats in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon as well.	eng
168005	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north Zambia.	eng
168005	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola and Zambia to western Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and an unconfirmed record from Gabon. Assumed in appropriate habitats in Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Cameroon as well.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the Zambezi River basin in Angola and Zambia. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria.	eng
168005	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Riparian bush and gallery forest.	eng
168005	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown but possibly present in swamp forest.	eng
168005	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown — possibly swamp forest.	eng
168005	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.	eng
168005	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168005	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168005	population	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168005	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168005	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats in the region are unknown.	eng
168005	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168005	threats	Clausnitzer, V. Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168005	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168006	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168006	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168006	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Congo Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin) and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin).	eng
168006	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species currently is known only from northern Zambia (Zambezi River Basin). Globally, it is recorded from Zambia and Congo Kinshasa.	eng
168006	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy pools or streams.	eng
168006	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy pools or streams.	eng
168006	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168006	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168006	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168006	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168007	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168007	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
168007	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	<em>Hemicordulia asiatica</em> is recorded mainly along the coast of the Indian  Ocean from South Africa to Kenya, also Uganda and Malawi. However, this may  include more than one species (see taxonomic notes). Within the southern Africa  region, it is recorded from a couple of records in South Africa only.	eng
168007	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from various localities always close to large water bodies in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Semliki National Park in north-western Uganda, which lies in the Congo Basin, presence in Democratic Republic of Congo likely.<br/><br/><em>Hemicordulia asiatica</em> is recorded mainly along the coast of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to Kenya, also Uganda and Malawi. However, this may include more than one species (see taxonomic notes). Within the southern Africa region, it is recorded from a couple of records in South Africa only.	eng
168007	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Open forest sites near large water bodies, no information on the breeding site (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).	eng
168007	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Streams in forest (Tarboton and Tarboton 2002).	eng
168007	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168007	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends within the region are unknown.	eng
168007	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168007	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168008	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Taxonomic work is needed to identify the record within the Okavango delta. If it is confirmed, more research will be necessary to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
168008	conservation	Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Taxonomic work is needed to identify the record within the Okavango Delta. If it is confirmed, more research will be necessary to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
168008	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, the only record for this species is one specimen from the Okavango delta, Botswana (Pinhey 1976), however there are taxonomic doubts over this record, therefore the occurrence of the species in the region remains unconfirmed. Globally, this is a west African species: Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Cote D'Ivoire.	eng
168008	distribution	Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	This is a western African species, present in Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia and Cote D'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the only record for this species is one specimen from the Okavango Delta, Botswana (Pinhey 1976), however there are taxonomic doubts over this record, therefore the occurrence of the species in the region remains unconfirmed. <br/><br/>There is also a new record from the Central African Republic.	eng
168008	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Not yet confirmed within the southern Africa region.	eng
168008	habitat	Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known from wetlands.	eng
168008	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168008	population	Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168008	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
168008	threats	Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168009	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Not known from any protected areas. More research is urgently required to determine the range, population status, habitat and threats for this species.	eng
168009	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Currently only known from the upper Zambezi and Congo catchments in north-west Zambia. It is also likely to occur in the Democratic Republic of Congo and may also be present in Angola, although more information is needed to confirm this.	eng
168009	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	The taxon occurs in swampy streams (Pinhey 1984).	eng
168009	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168009	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2008	Specific major threats to the species are unknown. However, more data is required to confirm if the species is affected by deforestation.	eng
168010	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
168010	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia. Only one record is known from outside the region (DRC). Globally, it is recorded from north and northwest Zambia, and can be expected to occur in the Congo (Shaba). It is a very mobile species.	eng
168010	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).	eng
168010	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
168010	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.	eng
168011	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Conservation measures in place are not known.	eng
168011	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168011	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy and population range.	eng
168011	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, and habitat status.	eng
168011	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Distribution limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria,</em>. It is possibly mainly present in the Congo Basin and absent from western Africa. The records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone correspond to <em>A. Victoria</em> (Dijkstra pers. comm.). The records from Namibia and Botswana might pertain to another species.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, but it this record needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northwestern part of the region; northwest Zambia, the Caprivi, southwards to the Kwando/Linyanti River. It is likely to also occur in southern Angola.	eng
168011	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the northwestern part of the region; northwest Zambia, the Caprivi, southwards to the Kwando/Linyanti River. It is likely to also occur in southern Angola. Globally, it is known from Botswana and Namibia through Angola and Zambia to Sudan, westwards to Gabon.	eng
168011	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria</em>, possibly the species is mainly in the Congo Basin and absent from western Africa; records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone correspond to <em>A. victoria </em> (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from the Congo Basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Zambia and Angola).	eng
168011	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan, although this record needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its distribution limits are unclear due to confusion with <em>A. victoria,</em> possibly mainly Congo-Basin and absent from West Africa: records from Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone are <em>A. Victoria</em> (Dijkstra pers. Com.). Records from Namibia and Botswana might pertain to another species.	eng
168011	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and swampy spots in forest.	eng
168011	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Pools and swampy spots in forest.	eng
168011	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy pools and swamp fringes of rivers and streams.	eng
168011	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are not known.	eng
168011	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168011	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168011	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are not known.	eng
168011	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168011	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168012	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
168012	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168012	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
168012	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168012	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango River catchments. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, Botswana, Congo Kinshasa, Namibia, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.	eng
168012	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Botswana, Congo Kinshasa, Namibia, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo; likely to be present in Zambia.	eng
168012	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the holotype of the synonym <em>P. royi</em> from Senegal.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread but extremely scattered records from Senegal (the only western African record is the <em>P. royi</em> holotype from that country) to Uganda and Botswana.	eng
168012	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is widespread in Africa but only extremely scattered records are known from Senegal (its holotype from that country is <em>P. royi</em>) to Uganda and Botswana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the Zambezi and Okavango river catchments.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the holotype of the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">P. royi</span> from Senegal.	eng
168012	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	At savannah rivers with gallery forest.	eng
168012	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	At savanna rivers with gallery forest.	eng
168012	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	It occurs in savannah rivers with gallery forest.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is probably present in swamps in woodland and savannah.	eng
168012	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably swamps in woodland and savannah.	eng
168012	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168012	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168012	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168012	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168012	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Current threats are unknown.	eng
168012	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Current threats within the region are unknown.	eng
168012	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats within the region are unknown.	eng
168012	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168013	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into the population, range and habitat status of this species.	eng
168013	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific measures are in place or are planned at present. In South Africa at least, it is important to carry out more searches for the species (Samways 2006).	eng
168013	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No specific measures are in place or are planned at present. In South Africa at least, it is important to carry out more searches for the species (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
168013	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, it occurs from South Africa to Tanzania (and possibly Kenya) and Democratic Republic of Congo. Western Tanzanian records pertain to <em>D. deminuta</em>, and therefore should be ignored.<br/><br/>In central Africa, <em>D. pumila</em> occurs from Kwazulu-Natal through Zimbabwe and Zambia to south Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species has been recorded in South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In South Africa, it was formerly known from "Klipfontein, Transavaal" and Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park, but it has not been rediscovered at St. Lucia despite intensive searches and currently there are no known populations in South Africa (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
168013	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> <em>D. pumila </em> The species occurs from Kwazulu-Natal through Zimbabwe and Zambia to south Katanga in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
168013	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, this species has been recorded in South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  In South Africa, it was formerly known from "Klipfontein, Transavaal" and Greater St. Lucia Wetlands Park, but it has not been rediscovered at St. Lucia despite intensive searches and currently there are no known populations in South Africa (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it occurs from South Africa to Tanzania (and possibly Kenya) and DRC.	eng
168013	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps.	eng
168013	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swamps.	eng
168013	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps or marshy pools.	eng
168013	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168013	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168013	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168013	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Habitat destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the range. It appears that drought plays a major role, but his is exacerbated by further extraction of water for urban and agricultural purposes (Samways 2006).	eng
168013	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168013	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.<br/><br/>Habitat destruction is inferred to be a threat in parts of the range. It appears that drought plays a major role, but his is exacerbated by further extraction of water for urban and agricultural purposes (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
168014	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
168014	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
168014	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168014	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168014	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa this species is known from the coastal region of Angola (Cuanza River catchment). No precise locality information is known. Globally it has been recorded from Angola, Congo Kinshasa, Cameroon, and Nigeria.	eng
168014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north west  Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Angola, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; its presence in Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea is assumed.	eng
168014	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to north west Angola.	eng
168014	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Presence is assumed in Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, for Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from the coastal region of Angola (Cuanza River catchment). No precise locality information is known. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
168014	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	It occurs in rainforest streams.	eng
168014	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Perennial rivers and streams (inferred from general ecology).	eng
168014	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
168014	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
168014	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168014	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168014	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168014	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168014	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area as a result of mining for example, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
168014	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
168014	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
168014	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168015	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Te species is found in some protected areas. Further information is required in the species range, ecology, and habitat requirements. Further information is required in the species range, ecology, and habitat requirements.	eng
168015	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Known only from the holotype (Mwinilunga, Zambia) and a male from Caianda, Angola (also in NMBZ), collected at most 95 km further west.	eng
168015	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, swampy areas of streams and swamps most likely.	eng
168015	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168015	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168016	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status, habitat and threats.	eng
168016	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168016	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168016	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.	eng
168016	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa it is only recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). Records from Angola are not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region. Globally it occurs in Zambia and DRC, westwards in forest habitat to Sierra Leone.	eng
168016	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon and assumed for Equatorial Guinea.	eng
168016	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
168016	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from north Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo to Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo<br/><br/>In southern Africa, the species has only been recorded from northwest Zambia (upper Zambezi catchment). Records from Angola are not yet confirmed. It is estimated that less than 5% of the global range falls within the southern Africa region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
168016	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forested streams and forest (Pinhey 1984a).	eng
168016	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
168016	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
168016	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
168016	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168016	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168016	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168016	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168016	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
168016	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
168016	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
168016	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Specific threats are unknown.	eng
168017	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
168017	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research in to biology and ecology, threats and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
168017	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168017	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northern Zambia. Globally. it has been recorded from northern Zambia and DRC (Shaba Province).	eng
168017	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong>  The species is known from northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
168017	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from northern Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northern Zambia, southern Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs only in northern Zambia.	eng
168017	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Found in reedy pools and open swamps.	eng
168017	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy pools and open swamps.	eng
168017	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy pools and open swamps.	eng
168017	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168017	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168017	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
168017	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168017	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168017	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
168018	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on threats, range, population size and trends, habitat, etc.	eng
168018	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
168018	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Globally, the species has been recorded from Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and northwest Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo: Gorges de la Pelenge, Mubale River, both in the Upemba National Park.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from north-west Zambia. It may also occur in eastern Angola, but data are not available to confirm this.	eng
168018	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from northwest Zambia. It may also occur in eastern Angola, but data are not available to confirm this. Globally, it has been recorded from Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and northwest Zambia.	eng
168018	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Forested or bush-fringed streams (Pinhey 1984).	eng
168018	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Streams/ rivers in rainforest.	eng
168018	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Current population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168018	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
168018	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
168018	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Deforestation is a main threat to the species.	eng
168019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
168019	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168019	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
168019	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Not known to occur in protected areas. More research is needed to gather data on taxonomy, range, population size, etc.	eng
168019	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from three sites in Angola, in the Zambezi and Cuanza River catchments. Globally, it is recorded from Angola, Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia (Congo Basin).	eng
168019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to north east Democratic Republic of Congo and north Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, presence in Cameroon is assumed.	eng
168019	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only recorded from single site in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to north east Democratic Republic of Congo and north Zambia.	eng
168019	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Congo Brazzaville, Congo Kinshasa, and Zambia (Congo Basin). Some records confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. wittei </span>(naming and identification errors).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Zambia, for Cameroon assumed.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species is known from three sites in Angola, in the Zambezi and Cuanza River catchments. <br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from single site in Nigeria.	eng
168019	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably streams in savannah or woodland.	eng
168019	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
168019	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
168019	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Small streams and rivers.	eng
168019	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
168019	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168019	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168019	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are unknown.	eng
168019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
168019	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
168019	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
168019	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. But may infer potential threat of deforestation based on activities in the region.	eng
168020	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
168020	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research is required into the population numbers and range, and biology and ecology for this species. Conservation measures and trends/monitoring are also needed.	eng
168020	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown.	eng
168020	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, mainly in Zambia. Globally, it has been recorded from Angola, DCR (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.	eng
168020	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species has been recorded from Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and northern Angola	eng
168020	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) and Zambia. The occurrence in Namibia is doubtful, because the type locality Otiembora, which is designated to Namibia, cannot be identified in the country. It may well be in Angola.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Southern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Zambia, and likely to be present also in northern Angola.<br/><br/>In southern Africa, this species occurs in the tropical north, mainly in Zambia.	eng
168020	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Local in swamps and reedy pools or lakes.	eng
168020	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Local in swamps and reedy pools or lakes.	eng
168020	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Local in swamps and reedy pools or lakes.	eng
168020	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
168020	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
168020	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
168020	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2009	Degradation of swampy habitats is an inferred threat. No precise information is available on current threats.	eng
168020	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown. Degradation of swampy habitats is inferred.	eng
168020	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown. Degradation of swampy habitats is inferred.	eng
168021	conservation	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2006	Known to occur within protected areas. No specific conservation measures necessary throughout the taxon's range. In South Africa, monitoring recovery of rivers in the Kruger National Park and improvement of catchments to reduce flooding is recommended (Samways 2006).	eng
168021	distribution	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2006	In southern Africa, this is a common subspecies along rivers in the tropical north. The southern limits are the Okavango and Limpopo Rivers. It has not yet been recorded from Mozambique, but is expected to occur in southern Mozambique. In South Africa, it is known only from the Lower Sabie weir, Kruger National Park (Clark and Samways 1994). Globally, it has been recorded from Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana to Chad, and possibly Tanzania (but this record needs to be confirmed).	eng
168021	habitat	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2006	Swampy river courses. Shaded or open riverine pools in savannah (Samways 2006).	eng
168021	population	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2006	The subspecies is locally common. In South Africa, it is not abundant (Samways 2006).	eng
168021	threats	Suhling, F. & Samways, M.J., 2006	No serious threats to this subspecies are known at present. In South Africa, flooding, exacerbated by poor catchment management, may be a threat (Samways 2006).	eng
168022	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
168022	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This South African endemic has been recorded from the Western Cape to south of Johannesburg. According to Tarboton and Tarboton 2005) all records of <em>P. inconspicuum</em> from South Africa belong to this species.	eng
168022	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Well-vegetated streams, rivers and pools at low altitudes.	eng
168022	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Locally abundant.	eng
168022	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats are unknown.	eng
168023	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168023	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from Sichuan and Shaanxi (Chao 1999).	eng
168023	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There has been no habitat preferences recorded for this species.	eng
168023	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168023	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168024	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168024	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality in Fujian, southern China	eng
168024	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.	eng
168024	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168024	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Chlorogomphus montanus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
168025	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species.	eng
168025	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality at Diaoluoshan in southeast Hainan, China and one an additional site at Yinggeling, Central Hainan (pers. comm. email 2006).	eng
168025	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality at mountain stream between 500 and 900 m. Narrow and shallow stream with boulder and gravel substrate, moderately fast-flowing.	eng
168025	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168025	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Hainan has lost a considerable proportion of its lowland forest since the 1950s (Chan <em>et al</em> 2005). Yinggeling has protected status but the site is under threat of damage through illegal logging (Reuters 2007) involving the creation of access roads, logging of natural forest and the establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> forest.	eng
168027	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2003	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168027	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2003	Only known from two sites; the type-locality in Guangxi at Mount Tiantang Ling, Jinxiu (Karube 1995) and Nankunshan in Guangdong (Wilson 2005).	eng
168027	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2003	Occurs in shallow, moderately fast-flowing, montane streams with gravel and boulder substrates.	eng
168027	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2003	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168027	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2003	Forested areas are being cleared to support the growing telecommunications development.	eng
168028	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place>.	eng
168028	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Lieftinck (1955) described <em>Macromia malleifera</em> from a single male specimen collected from Kuatun, Fujian Province (collection notes: alt. 2,300 m, 6 July 1938, leg. J. Klapperich). Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1994) recorded two males and two females from Baishanzu, Zhejiang and Fellowes <em>et al</em>. (2003) recorded it from both Guangdong and Hunan within the Nanling National Nature Reserve. Wilson and Xu also possess unpublished records from Guangdong.	eng
168028	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents swift flowing montane streams with stony substrates.	eng
168028	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168028	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168029	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
168029	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Amphicnemis glauca</em> is a Philippine endemic species, with its type locality recorded as 'Luzon' without any specific site given.	eng
168029	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Habitat is probably a forested stream or pond, based on observations of some related species.	eng
168029	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The male of the species has remained unknown since <em>A. glauca</em> was described more than a century ago. To date, nothing is known about its population and its whereabouts. The type locality is very vague giving only Luzon Island.	eng
168029	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on its assumed habitat (forested streams or ponds), <em>Amphicnemis glauca</em> is under threat from deforestation, habitat conversion and pollution. However, the exact status of the species at present cannot be fully evaluated until more data are gathered.	eng
168030	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168030	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Zhou <em>et al</em>. (1994) described <em>Macromia macula</em> from one male [27º05'N, 119ºE (sic) alt: 850 m, 20 August 1993 and four female paratypes collected from Baishanzu, Zhejiang Province. (Note: The correct GPS for Baishanzu Protected Area is 27° 44' 25 N, Longitude: 119° 11' 3 E.)	eng
168030	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Southeastern Asian congeners frequent swift flowing streams in montane districts.	eng
168030	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168030	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromia macula</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
168031	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168031	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Lieftinck (1929) described <em>Macromia icterica</em> from a single male collected from 'Canton', (collector: K.J. Morton). Wilson and Reels (2001) described a single female collected from Limushan, Hainan, which they considered may belong to this species.	eng
168031	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Its close congeners (<em>moorei</em>-group sensu Lieftinck, 1929) frequent rivers and streams.	eng
168031	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168031	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromia icterica</em>; clear-cutting of forests continue to cause a decline in the available habitat.  Expansions of towns and cities, building of dams and roads and the associated pollution and sewage are all ongoing threats.	eng
168032	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168032	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Navás (1936) described <em>rubripes</em> under the genus <em>Taolestes Needham</em> based on a single male and a single female collected from 'Kuling' Jiangxi (collection notes: 9-26 July 1935, leg. Piel).	eng
168032	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners frequent seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.	eng
168032	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168032	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168033	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168033	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Wilson (2000) described <em>Rhipidolestes alleni</em> from Damingshan, Guangxi (23º24'-23º30'N, 108º20'-108º32'E) and later Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded additional specimens from Chunxiu, Guangxi.	eng
168033	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.	eng
168033	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168033	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168034	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168034	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Zhu and Yang (1998) described <em>Rhipidolestes bastiaani</em> from 'Zheng ping to Hua ping', Shaanxi, China (alt. 1,200 m, 22 July 1986).	eng
168034	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners frequent seepages, trickles and headstreams in montane forested areas.	eng
168034	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168034	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168035	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168035	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male and two females collected from Xiaguan, Yunnan, China (Zhou and Li 2000).	eng
168035	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.	eng
168035	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168035	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.	eng
168036	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168036	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Holotype from Gutianshan (collection notes coordinates: 29.3 N, 118.2 E), Keihua County, Zhejiang with paratype from Moganshan (collection notes coordinates: 30.6 N, 119.9 E), Deqing County, Zhejiang (Zhou and Wu 1992).	eng
168036	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.	eng
168036	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168036	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to expansion of and pollution from industrial and agricultural development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168037	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168037	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Asahina (1982) described <em>Petaliaeschna lieftincki</em> from a single male collected in 1936 (collection notes: "leg. E. Suenson") from 'South Shensi' (south Shaanxi).	eng
168037	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners frequent forested streams.	eng
168037	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information available on population due to species being known from type specimen only.	eng
168037	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams and transport systems.	eng
168038	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168038	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Moupin, Tibet but Asahina (1988) considered the type location to be Moupin, Sichuan near Tachenlu ("Tatsienlu" now officially Kangding located 2,600 m asl at the Ta river), northwest Mount Omei (van Pelt 1993). Also known from "Siaolu (Hsiao-lu)" a location between Tientsuen and the Maan Shan pass (300 m asl) at the shortest road from Yaan to Tatsienlu (50-100 km southeast Tatsienlu (van Pelt 1993). The locality 'Xiao Lu' is believed to be the same as 'Siao-Lou' the location of some of McLachlans's specimens considered to belong to this species (van Pelt 1994).  Asahina (1982) reported one female from Kashmir, which may be conspecific with this species. Zhang and Zhang (2006) report <em>Cordulegaster lunifera</em> (as <em>Cordulegaster luniferous) from Shaanxi.</em>	eng
168038	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Although the habitat has not been recorded, the species is most likely found in low to high elevation forest, along river courses.	eng
168038	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168038	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168039	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168039	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality in Guizhou (Chao and Li 1990)	eng
168039	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners prefer stony forested streams.	eng
168039	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168039	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168040	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168040	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from Zhou and Wilson (2001) who described <em>Priscagrion kiautai</em> from specimens collected from Chishui Alsophila Nature Reserve, Guizhou (28º20'N, 105º57'E).	eng
168040	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Priscagrion</em> frequents small forested trickles and streams.	eng
168040	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168040	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168041	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168041	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from male and female material collected from Shawou, Fujian (Chao 1953). Asahina (1976) recorded <em>beatus</em> from Huangkang, Hupeh (Hubei) and Hsin-shih, Hunan. Chao (1982) records <em>beatus</em> from Guangxi and Chao (1990) lists <em>beatus</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Hubei and Hunan.	eng
168041	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The preferred habitat for <em>T. beatus</em> has not been recorded.	eng
168041	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168041	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168042	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168042	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Adults known to be common and widespread below 100 m in lowland plains in Jiangsu Province from May to July and its range is considered continuous from Jiangsu, Shangdong, Hebei and northeast China to Japan through Korean Peninsular (Jiang 2000). Also widespread in Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001), which is the type-locality. It is rare and local in Korea (Lee 2001) and present in southern, far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).	eng
168042	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Associated with ponds, streams and rivers in lowland plains.	eng
168042	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Jiang (2000) reports adults to be common and widespread below 100 m in lowland plains in Jiangsu Province from May to July and its range.	eng
168042	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168043	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168043	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from a single females collected from 'Chungking' (Chongking), eastern Sichuan. Sui and Sun (1984) provided details of the first male collected from Sichuan. Chao (1990) provides further details of material collected from Sichuan.	eng
168043	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.	eng
168043	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168043	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168044	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168044	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only know from type-locality at Yuanshan, Yilan County, north Taiwan and Shenmihu Lake, Yilan County, north Taiwan (Yeh and Che 2000).	eng
168044	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Oviposition sites are wet and soft soil in bog or lake margin habitat bordering wood and semi-shaded.	eng
168044	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Population range is severely restricted although there is no evidence of a decline in population.	eng
168044	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168045	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
168045	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Hua (2000) lists <em>Deielia phaon</em> from China including Fujian, Hebei, Henan, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shandong, Sichuan, Yunnan, Zhejiang and Zhang and Zhang (2006) have recorded it from Shaanxi. Wilson (material collected 2003-2006) has recorded this species from Guizhou. Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) records <em>phaon</em> from north and central Taiwan from just two sites. Lee (2001) records <em>phaon</em> from Korea and Sugimura <em>et al</em>. (2000) lists <em>phaon</em> from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu and many offshore islands. Is also known from far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).	eng
168045	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents ponds, lakes, marshes and rice paddies.	eng
168045	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
168045	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168046	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168046	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Zhu, Yan and Li (1988) described <em>yuanbaensis</em> from Yana, Shaanxi province based on four males. Chao (1990) listed no further records and none have been published since the description.	eng
168046	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners frequent forested streams.	eng
168046	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168046	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168047	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China.</st1:place></st1:country-region>	eng
168047	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recorded from south China, including Fujian, Henan and Zhejiang (Chao 1990). Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. (1984) reported a single locality at Wenlansi, Hwalien, Taiwan. Hua (2000) listed its occurrence in Hunan province and Wilson and Reels (2003) reported it from Guangxi. <em>A. pacificus</em> also occurs in Nanling, north Guangdong (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
168047	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Larvae of congeners are known to prefer muddy margins of streams and rivers.	eng
168047	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168047	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168048	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168048	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from male and female material all collected from Dali, Yunnan (Yang and Davies 1993). No further records.	eng
168048	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.	eng
168048	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168048	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.	eng
168049	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species; it is known from three sites at Wuzhishan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Limushan (Wilson and Xu unpublished data) and Yinggeling (Reels unpublished data) which have protected status but the latter site is under threat of damage through illegal logging and establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> plantation (Reuters 2007).	eng
168049	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from three sites in Hainan Province, China; the type-locality Wuzhishan (Wilson and Reels 2001), Limushan (Wilson and Xu pers. comm. email 2007) and Yinggeling, Central Hainan (Reels pers. comm. email 2007).	eng
168049	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found at forested mountain streams.	eng
168049	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168049	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Hainan has lost a considerable proportion of its lowland forest since the 1950s (Chan <em>et al</em> 2005). Yinggeling has protected status but the site is under threat of damage through illegal logging (Reuters 2007) involving the creation of access roads, logging of natural forest and the establishment of <em>Eucalyptus</em> forest.	eng
168050	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168050	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male type and single female paratype collected from Huangguoshu, southwest Guizhou (on 18 June 2000). Huangguoshu (yellow-fruit tree) is the site of Guizhou's famous series of waterfalls (latitude: 25° 58' 60 N, longitude: 105° 37' 60 E), located on the Baihe River in Anshun, Guizhou Province (Zhou and Li 2000). The largest waterfall (reputed to be the largest waterfall in Asia) is 74 m (243 feet) high and 81 m (266 feet) wide. Altitude <em>ca</em> 1,100-2,000 m.	eng
168050	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane streams <em>ca</em> 1,100 m.	eng
168050	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168050	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168051	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A common and widespread species.	eng
168051	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Needham (1930) described <em>Potamarcha puella</em> from several pairs collected from 'Soochow' (Suzhou) Jiangsu. Hua (2000) also records this species from Guangzhou, Guangdong, which is a record requiring confirmation.	eng
168051	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Habitat preference is unknown but the only congener <em>Potamarcha congener</em> (Rambur) prefers shallow, weedy ponds and marshes.	eng
168051	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168051	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168052	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168052	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single female type specimen collected from Pinglan, Shang-fang, Lo-chen-hsien, Guangxi (Needham 1930). I presume this location refers to Lushan in southwest Guangxi. Hua (2000) records <em>dolus</em> from Anhui, Guangxi and Jiangxi.	eng
168052	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners prefer stony forested streams.	eng
168052	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168052	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168053	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168053	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from single female collected from 'Nanshanchi' near Puli, Nantou County, central Taiwan on 20 June 1965 (Asahina 1966).	eng
168053	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.	eng
168053	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168053	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168054	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168054	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from limited material collected from Sichuan and Hubei. <em>Stylurus gideon</em> was described from 'Chengtu' (Chengdu), central Sichuan. Chao (1953) provided further details of the material collected from Chengdu. Asahina (1976) recorded a male specimen from Wuchang, Hupeh (Wuhan, Hubei). Chao (1990) summarised the records of <em>Stylurus gideon</em>.	eng
168054	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.	eng
168054	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168054	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168055	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168055	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from "Kuyung", Sichuan. Chao (1990) records this species from Fujian, Hubei, Jilin, Shanxi and Sichuan. Hua (2000) lists <em>ringens</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Hainan, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jilin, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang. The Hainan and Guangxi listings by Hua (2000) are questionable and require confirmation. Zhang and Zhang (2006) recorded <em>ringens</em> from Shaanxi. Lee (2001) lists several records from Korea as <em>Onychogomphus ringens</em> Needham.	eng
168055	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Lamelligomphus congeners</em> prefer swift flowing streams with stony substrates.	eng
168055	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168055	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams is an ongoing problem.	eng
168056	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168056	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Chao (1990) lists <em>scissus</em> from Hubei and Sichuan, and Zhang and Zhang (2006) record it from Shaanxi. It was described from a single female collected from Siao-Lu, Sichuan. The synonym <em>Sinogomphus nigrofasciatus</em> May (1935) was also described from Sichuan.  Li (1989) described the synonym <em>Sinogomphus shennongianus</em> from Hubei. Klots (1947) recorded <em>scissus</em> from 'Mupin' (Moupin), Sichuan and Needham (1930) recorded the synonym <em>Gomphus edax</em> from Kwanhsien, Sichuan.	eng
168056	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane streams.	eng
168056	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168056	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Sinogomphus scissus</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams are an ongoing problem.	eng
168057	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China.	eng
168057	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Cangshan, Dali, Yunnan at 1,700 m. Paratypes from Nhjiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan and  Fugong, Yunnan (Zhu and Zhou 1999). Wilson and Reels (2003) recorded this species from Diding, Guangxi (altitude 978 – 1,100 m).	eng
168057	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species occurs at montane streams.	eng
168057	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168057	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168058	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168058	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Endemic to the Korean peninsula with a very few records from North and South Korea (Lee 2001). The type-locality is "Pyeongyang, Taeneung, Goseong" (Lee 2001).	eng
168058	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the <em>Asiagomphus</em> genus prefer muddy stream margins.	eng
168058	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168058	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168059	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168059	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Northern Bangladesh and northwestern India (Assam). The type-locality is the Himalayas and reported to come from Tibet (Fraser 1934). Tsuda (2000) also lists <em>cuneata</em> from Nepal.	eng
168059	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas.	eng
168059	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168059	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168060	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168060	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Endemic to Hainan. Chao recorded first male from Jiangfengling as <em>Leptogomphus hainanensis</em>, which he later synonymised with <em>celebratus</em> (Chao 1990). Wilson and Reels (2001) recorded <em>celebratus</em> from several sites across south Hainan including Bawangling, Wuzhishan, and Diaoluoshan.	eng
168060	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the <em>Leptogomphus</em> genus prefer streams with gravel substrates.	eng
168060	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168060	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat; large-scale clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines is an ongoing problem.	eng
168061	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.	eng
168061	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality Japan (Sélys 1883). Recorded from central and north China including Fujian, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsi, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Sichuan (Hua 2000), Japan including Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu (Sugimura 2001) and Korea (Lee 2001).	eng
168061	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The species prefers ponds in flat lands.	eng
168061	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168061	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168062	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168062	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Wilson and Reels (2003) described <em>Calicnemia haksik</em> from Cenwanglaoshan, northwest Guangxi.	eng
168062	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane forested streams and trickles.	eng
168062	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168062	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168063	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168063	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Huoditang, Ningshan County, south Shaanxi (Cao and Zheng 1988). The synonym <em>Davidius miaotaiziensis</em> was described from Miaotaizi, southwest Shaanxi (Zhu <em>et al</em>. 1988). Zhang and Zhang (2006) report <em>Davidius chaoi</em> from Shanxi.	eng
168063	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents forested streams.	eng
168063	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168063	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168064	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168064	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male type and single female paratype collected from 'Malipo County, Miaozu Autonomous Prefecture' (Wenshan Zhuang-Miao Prefecture), southeast Yunnan on 28 May 2000 (Zhou <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
168064	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species occurs at montane streams.	eng
168064	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168064	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168065	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168065	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male from Fujian (Needham 1930). Chao (1947) described the female from Fujian and Chao (1954, 1984, 1990) provided details of many more specimens collected throughout Fujian.	eng
168065	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Burmagomphus congeners</em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.	eng
168065	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A widespread species lacking in detailed population numbers.	eng
168065	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168066	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China. Systematics	eng
168066	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Widely distributed across southwestern and southern China including Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Zhejiang (Hämäläinen 2004, Wilson and Xu 2007).	eng
168066	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Occurs in moist forested areas and wetlands.	eng
168066	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168066	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168067	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Conservation measures are currently not known for this species.	eng
168067	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	According to Fraser (1933) the type in the British Museum of Natural History is from Maymyo, upper Myanmar. Tsuada (2000) lists <em>Coeliccia poungyi</em> from Myanmar and Thailand. Hämäläinen and Pinratana (1999) provide a distribution map for <em>poungyi</em> in Thailand, where it is occurs throughout much of the montane districts of north Thailand. Sui and Sun (1984) recorded <em>poungyi</em> from Yunnan.	eng
168067	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane, forested streams.	eng
168067	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168067	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168068	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168068	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male holotype and single female paratype, material collected by D.C. Graham in 1930 from Kwanshien, Sichuan and housed in the US National Museum (Asahina 1978).	eng
168068	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Larvae of congeners are known to prefer muddy margins of streams and rivers.	eng
168068	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168068	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168069	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168069	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Wilson and Reels (2001) described <em>Rhinagrion hainanense</em> from a single male collected from Lumu, Hainan in June 1999.	eng
168069	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Rhinagrion</em> congeners frequent forested streams.	eng
168069	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168069	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown, although the habitat is thought to be declining.	eng
168070	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168070	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Recently described from Henan (Chao and Wang 1990).	eng
168070	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.	eng
168070	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168070	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for agriculture.	eng
168071	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168071	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Tsuda (2000) lists <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> from Hong Kong and does not list <em>Paragomphus capricornis</em> Förster, which is the only species of <em>Paragomphus</em> recorded from Hong Kong (Wilson 2004). <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> males are easily confused with those of <em>capricornis</em>. The drawing provided by Chao (1990) of a male <em>pardalinus</em> caudal abdomen is that of a <em>capricornis</em> male. For their comparison and distinction see Wilson and Reels (2001) and Wilson (2005). <em>Paragomphus pardalinus</em> was described from Hainan (Needham 1941), from a single male. Hua (2000) lists <em>pardalinus</em> from Yunnan, Fujian, Korea, Japan and Vietnam but none of these localities appear to be correct. Lee (2001) does not list any species of <em>Paragomphus</em> from Korea and none are recorded from Japan (Sugimura <em>et al</em>. 2001). Chao (1995) recorded a <em>Paragomphus capricornis</em> female from Fujian, which was the first mainland Chinese record, following its discovery in Hong Kong. The confirmed range of <em>pardalinus</em> is Hainan, where it is quite widespread (Wilson and Reels 2001, Wilson and Xu in press). <em>P. pardalinus</em> has also been recorded in Guangxi and Guangdong (Chao 1990) but as already stated, Chao's (1990) drawings of male <em>pardalinus</em> have been confused with male <em>capricornis</em>. Nevertheless Chao (1990) lists records of female <em>pardalinus</em>, which is easily distinguished from <em>capricornis</em>, from Guangdong and Guangxi.	eng
168071	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Prefers open aspect, streams with coarse sandy substrates and coarse sandy shoals.	eng
168071	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
168071	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168072	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168072	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from one male and three females from type-locality Maymyo, Upper Myanmar (Fraser 1936) and three females from Diding, west Guangxi (Wilson 2005).	eng
168072	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Species habitat is known to include streams.	eng
168072	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168072	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Idionyx unguiculata</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and powerlines are an ongoing problem.	eng
168073	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168073	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Common throughout Yunnan (Asahina 1974), the type-locality near Chitsung, Yangtse Valley, Yunnan, China. The synonym <em>Mnais maclachlani</em> Fraser was described from Yunnan and also recorded from Zhejiang (Needham 1930) and Shaanxi (Zhang and Zhang 2006). However, Asahina (1974) considers Needham's record from Zhejiang should be ignored as it is not true <em>maclachlani</em>. Hua (2000) lists <em>maclachlani</em> from Yunnan, Sichuan and Zhejiang. Also recorded from Laos, as the synonym <em>Mnais incolor</em>, and Vietnam (Tsuda 2000). The synonym <em>semiopaca</em> was also described from Yunnan and the type-locality of the synonym <em>incolor</em> is Laos.	eng
168073	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There is no information recorded for habitat preference for <em>M. gregoryi</em>.	eng
168073	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168073	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168074	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168074	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China.	eng
168074	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat type is unknown although the genus is known to frequent wooded streams.	eng
168074	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168074	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Infrastructural development is affecting the habitat of <em>Macromidia hangzhouensi</em>; clear-cutting of forests for the building of dams and power-lines are an ongoing problem.	eng
168075	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168075	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male collected from Lushan, County, in central Sichuan (Chao 1999).	eng
168075	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners prefer forested streams.	eng
168075	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168075	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168076	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168076	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Endemic to Japan. Sugimura (2001) lists this species from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Tsushima and Iki. It is reported as less common in northeast Honshu and south Kyushu.	eng
168076	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Frequents forested streams.	eng
168076	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168076	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168077	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<p>There are no conservation measures currently known.<em></em></p>	eng
168077	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from three males collected in Burma by R.A.Earnshaw and also recorded from Yunnan (Chao 1990).	eng
168077	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Burmagomphus </em>congeners<em></em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.	eng
168077	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168077	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168078	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168078	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from male, female and larval material at the type-locality Nanshanchi, Nantou County, central Taiwan, at about 500 m (Asahina 1968, Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984).	eng
168078	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane streams with gravel substrates.	eng
168078	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168078	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168079	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168079	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Known from single type female collected from Nodoa, northwest Hainan. Hua (2000) also records it from Yunnan but this record requires confirmation.	eng
168079	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners prefer sandy shoals of streams.	eng
168079	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168079	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168080	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168080	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Asahina (1997) described <em>ambigua</em> from Tam Dao in northern Vietnam. Wilson and Reels (2003) subsequently recorded it from three sites from west to east Guangxi namely, Damingshan, Baidu Village, Nongshan Nature Reserve and Dayaoshan.	eng
168080	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in montane forested streams.	eng
168080	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168080	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168081	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168081	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Originally described from female material collected in Fujian (Chao 1954, 1990). Chao (1995) synonymised <em>Nihonogomphus zhejiangensis</em> Chao and Zhou (1990), described from Zhejiang, with <em>shaowuensis</em>.	eng
168081	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Congeners of <em>Nihinogomphus</em> prefer stony rivers, which can be forested or relatively open.	eng
168081	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168081	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage and the building of dams.	eng
168082	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168082	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Fujian it is widely distributed in China, including Guangxi, Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Zhejiang (Chao 1990) and Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984). It has also been recorded from Vietnam (Tsuda 2000) and southern and far eastern Russia (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).	eng
168082	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	According to Lee (2001) it occurs in lakes. Other congeners frequent stony rivers.	eng
168082	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168082	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168083	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168083	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality at Zhong-dian, Yunnan.	eng
168083	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas.	eng
168083	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168083	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168084	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
168084	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality at Dali, Yunnan (Davies and Yang 1996).	eng
168084	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas and moist forest.	eng
168084	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168084	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168085	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in China.	eng
168085	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from Hongmiao, Nanzheng County, Shaanxi, Province (Yang 1996).	eng
168085	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The genus prefers montane streams.	eng
168085	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168085	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168086	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168086	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Needham (1931b) described the female type, which was collected from Fujian, by Kellogg. Chao and Xu (1986) transferred <em>flavicornis</em> to <em>Stylurus</em> Needham and provided details of male material from Fujian. Chao (1990) summarised the material collected from Fujian.	eng
168086	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Members of the genus <em>Stylurus</em> in Asia generally prefer broad, deep, slow flowing rivers with mud substrates and may inhabit lentic waters.	eng
168086	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168086	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is being degraded and lost due to pollution from industrial development and the accompanying sewage.	eng
168087	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168087	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Widely distributed all over Taiwan (Lieftinck <em>et al</em>. 1984, Wang 2000) and single record from Xiamen ("Amoy"), Fujian (McLachlan 1870), which was the original description of the synonym <em>Euphaea compar</em>.	eng
168087	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Streams in low and hill country up to 1,000 m.	eng
168087	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population; a common and widespread species.	eng
168087	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168088	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Populations recorded from Protected Areas in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China.</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
168088	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Described from single male from Dali, Yunnan (Yang and Davies 1996).	eng
168088	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Genus is known to prefer montane streams.	eng
168088	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168088	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168089	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No conservation measures are needed as this species is common and widespread.	eng
168089	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality Chunking, Sichuan (Bridges 1994). Recorded from central and eastern China including Sichuan, Hubei and Jiangsu (Hua 2000), Shaanxi (as <em>Coenagrion barbatum</em> in Zhang and Zhang 2006) and Guizhou (Wilson, material collected 2005), Korea (Lee 2001) and Russia including southern Siberia and southern far east (Kosterin and Malikova 2007).	eng
168089	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Habitat preferences include ponds and lakes.	eng
168089	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The species endures a stable population and is common and widespread.	eng
168089	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no threats known to be presently affecting this species.	eng
168090	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168090	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Type-locality Fujian (Needham 1930). Chao (1990) records <em>Burmagomphus sowerbyi</em> from Fujian, Guangxi, Henan, Hunan and Zhejiang. Tsuda (2000) lists <em>sowerbyi</em> from Korea and China but the Korean record relates to <em>Burmagomphus collaris</em> Needham. Note: Lee (2001) lists <em>Burmagomphus campestris</em> from Korea overlooking Chao's (1990) synonymisation of <em>campestris</em> with <em>collaris</em>.	eng
168090	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	<em>Burmagomphus congeners</em> prefer small streams, which can be forested or open.	eng
168090	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	A stable population and widely distributed.	eng
168090	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168091	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known.	eng
168091	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality at Wuyishan, Fujian in China (Zhou and Wu 1992).	eng
168091	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The genus <em>Anisogomphus</em> prefers montane streams.	eng
168091	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168091	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168092	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168092	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality in Yunnan.	eng
168092	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat has not been recorded for this species.	eng
168092	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168092	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168093	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168093	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Endemic to southern China. Described from single male from 'Chengtu' (Chengdu), Sichuan.<br/><br/>Wilson (2005) also recorded <em>Boyeria sinensis</em> (not belonging to the '<em>Boyeria sinensis</em>' taxon described by Asahina, 1978) from three sites in Guangxi at Maoershan, Dayaoshan and Dapingshan and (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2003) recorded <em>Boyeria sinensis</em> (not belonging to the '<em>Boyeria sinensis</em>' taxon described by Asahina 1978) from four sites in Guangdong, including three at Nanling, north Guangdong and one at Shimentai, central Guangdong. (Wilson and Xu in prep.) has shown these records from Guangxi and Guangdong should be attributed to <em>Boyeria karube</em> Yokei, 2002.	eng
168093	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Occurs in evergreen forested rivers and streams in montane environments.	eng
168093	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is available on population size although it is stable.	eng
168093	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	The habitat is threatened by clear-cutting of forest for the development of dams.	eng
168094	conservation	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known for this species, and it is unknown if it occurs within protected areas.	eng
168094	distribution	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Only known from type-locality at Ruili, Yunnan.	eng
168094	habitat	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Found in permanent wetland water areas.	eng
168094	population	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	No information is known on the population size or trend.	eng
168094	threats	Wilson, K. D. P., 2007	Threats to this species are currently unknown.	eng
168095	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	Some subpopulations are present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Research into this snail's life history and ecology is needed.	eng
168095	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	A Seychelles endemic, this snail is found on the islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, Marianne, and La Digue. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 58 km².	eng
168095	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is found in forest habitat, from 150-700 m in elevation.	eng
168095	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain over 4.4 million individuals.	eng
168095	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Habitat change threatens some populations, but the species is adaptable to signficant levels of alien plant invasion. Small-holder wood plantations and logging operations have caused habitat deterioration in the past.	eng
168096	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present  in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Research is needed to study this snail's life history and ecology and population status, and its habitat must be monitored. Artificial propogation  and preservation of the species' genes in a genome resource bank should be considered.	eng
168096	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands, and is found from sea level to 6 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 150 km², and are currently declining.	eng
168096	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail inhabits coastal scrub and woodland habitats.	eng
168096	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	No population estimates are currently available, though the population is generally believed to be decreasing.	eng
168096	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The principle threat this snail faces is sea-level rise, as most of Aldabra atoll is only 1-2 m above sea level.	eng
168099	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Research on its population status, life history and ecology is needed.	eng
168099	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands. Its range has decreased since 2000; its current extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to measure 150 km².	eng
168099	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail inhabits dry coastal scrub and woodland, from sea level to 6 m.	eng
168099	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	No specific population data is known, though the population is generally believed to be decreasing.	eng
168099	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The primary threat this species faces is sea-level rise, as most of the areas it inhabits are no more than 2 metres above sea level, and none are more than  6 m.a.s.l. Predation by invasive exotic species is also a threat.	eng
168100	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	Present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Maintenance and restoration of the species' habitat, as well as establishment of additional protected areas, are needed. Research into the species' life history and ecology would be beneficial.	eng
168100	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse (extinct), La Digue (extinct), Felicite and Fregate. Extent of occurrence is estimated to measure 600 km² and area of occupancy (AOO) is 58 km².	eng
168100	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species, this snail is found in tropical forest habitats from sea level to 700 m.	eng
168100	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated at 149,200 individuals.	eng
168100	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Threatened by habitat degradation: habitat loss historically, and now degradation by invasive plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>), though the effect of invasive species on the populations are negligible to date.	eng
168103	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation actions have been taken. Protection of Silhouette island is needed to secure the habitat. Further research is required into the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
168103	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Seychelles, this snail is found only on Silhouette island, where it is restricted to two locations spanning an area of 0.02 km² (area of occupancy, AOO, is 0.02 km²). Its extent of occurence (EOO) is 5 km².	eng
168103	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species, this snail is found in the axils of the Vulnerable plant <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus hornei</span>. It inhabits forests from 500-600 m.	eng
168103	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population has been estimated to contain 5000 individuals.	eng
168103	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Problematic native species are currently the main threat to this species, as they cause ecosystem degradation throughout this species' habitat. The species was recently highly threatened by a road development proposal, which would have destroyed all the species' habitat. Fortunately this development proposal was halted, so this is no longer an imminent threat.	eng
168105	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is present and protected in Praslin National Park. Restoration within Praslin National Park is recommended. Invasive species in the Seychelles must be controlled.	eng
168105	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found only on the granitic island of Praslin. Historically it was found on the islands of Curieuse and La Digue, but it is extinct on both islands today. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and its area of occupancy (AOO) have been estimated at 12 km².	eng
168105	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This is an arboreal species found in moist lowland woodland areas from 100-300 m, especially on palm trees. It is viviparous: the females give birth to live young, rather than laying eggs.	eng
168105	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population on Praslin island was estimated at 12,000 individuals.	eng
168105	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Habitat degradation and fire threatens this snail throughout its small range. While small-scale farming, resulting in habitat degradation, was a threat  in the past, invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) have and continue to directly impact this species' habitat. The impact of these exotic species is expected to remain a threat into the future. Fire is also a minor threat.	eng
168106	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	Some populations are protected in Morne Seychellois National Park (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. unidentata</span>) and Praslin National Park <span style="font-style: italic;">(S. u. praslina</span>). The other subspecies require the protection of Mt. Sebert on Mahé island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. sebertae</span>); the La Reserve/Brullee area on Mahé island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. pyramidata</span>); Silhouette island (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. globata</span>); and the summit of La Digue (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. u. parva</span>).	eng
168106	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles. It is found on the islands of Mahé, Therèse, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Felicite; it has become extinct on the island of St. Anne. Its total area of occupancy (AOO) is 87 km². Most of the populations on the different islands represent different subspecies; the distribution and the area of occupancy (AOO) of each is as follows: <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">unidentata</span>:  North Mahé, St. Anne (extinct), Therèse and Conception; AOO = 22 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> sebertae</span>: West Mahé; AOO = 11 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> pyramidata</span>: South Mahé; AOO = 22 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> globata</span>: Silhouette; AOO = 19 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> praslina</span>: Praslin and Curieuse; AOO = 8 km²<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> parva</span>: La Digue; AOO = 5 km²	eng
168106	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is a terrestrial lowland forest species, found in leaf litter, and is one of the most important detritivores in the forest ecosystem. It does not lay eggs, but rather gives birth to live young.	eng
168106	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The total population size of this species has been estimated to be 7.2 million individuals, though some subspecies are much more abundant than others. The numbers of individuals of each subspecies is estimated to be:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;">unidentata</span>:  145,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> sebertae</span>: 1,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> pyramidata</span>: 15,000<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> globata</span>: 7 million<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> praslina</span>: 700<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">S. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">u.</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> parva</span>: 50,000<br/><br/>This snail's populations are considered to be stable.	eng
168106	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	It is threatened on Mahé and Praslin islands by habitat degradation caused by invasive exotic plants, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum,</span> and predation by the Common Tenrec (<span style="font-style: italic;">Tenrec ecaudatus</span>), a small mammal that was introduced to the Seychelles. Small-scale farming and wood plantations have threatened this snail's habitat in the past.	eng
168110	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place for this snail. The forests on Silhouette island should be protected.	eng
168110	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal snail endemic to Silhouette island, Seychelles, this species has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of 15 km².	eng
168110	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species, this snail is found in lowland forest from sea level to 400 m. It is an adaptable species, capable of recolonizing&#160;abandoned coconut plantations, but is less tolerant of invasion by other plant species (especially&#160;<em>Cinnamomum verum</em>).	eng
168110	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population size was estimated to be 46,600. The population is currently increasing, as the species actively recolonizes abandoned coconut plantations.	eng
168110	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation, which was caused in the past by both small- and large-scale wood plantations and is currently taking place due to the impacts of invasive alien plant species, such as <em>Cinnamomum verum</em>.	eng
168111	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in Praslin National Park. Research is needed into its life history and ecology. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands.	eng
168111	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Praslin island, in the Seychelles islands, this snail has an extent of occurrence (EOO) and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 7 km².	eng
168111	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is an arboreal species found in palm woodland, from 150-250 m.	eng
168111	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 7,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168111	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, especially that caused by invasive species. Historically, it was considerably more widespread, with an AOO of some 20 km², but extensive fires in the 1800s and early 1900s destroyed most of the woodlands on the island. The threat of fire is ongoing. Predation, probably by introduced rats and tenrecs, is a small additional cause of mortality, but is not thought to be signficant.	eng
168112	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This extinct snail species was endemic to La Digue island, Seychelles.	eng
168112	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This was probably a terrestrial forest species, occupying moist lowland forests.	eng
168112	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	It is known only from subfossil material; extinction likely took place in the mid-1800s.	eng
168112	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The cause of extinction is believed to be habitat destruction, as natural woodlands were replaced with large-scale wood plantations in the 1800s.	eng
168113	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. The La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé should be protected. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles.	eng
168113	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is endemic to Mahé island, in the Seychelles. It's extent of occurence (EOO) is estimated to be 15 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 12 km².	eng
168113	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species, this snail can be found in high forest and palm forest, from 250-600 m.	eng
168113	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	An estimated 101,000 individuals were recorded in 2005.	eng
168113	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Currently, the main threat to this snail species is habitat degradation caused by impacts from invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Small-scale wood plantations have caused habitat degradation in the past.	eng
168114	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	The species is protected within Morne Seychellois National Park. Invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into this species' life history and ecology.	eng
168114	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	A Seychelles endemic found on Mahé island, this snail's extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) have both been estimated to be 15 km².	eng
168114	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This is an arboreal species, found in high forest (350-990 m).	eng
168114	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 545,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168114	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, small-holder farming and wood plantations also threatened the species' habitat, but these are no longer considered a threat.	eng
168115	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are in place for this species. The La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé should be protected, and invasive plant species must be controlled.	eng
168115	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This terrestrial snail is endemic to Mahé island, in the Seychelles. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 10 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 6 km².	eng
168115	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is an arboreal species, found in high forest from 250-600 m.	eng
168115	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to consist of 50,500 adults.	eng
168115	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Small scale wood plantations threatened the species' habitat in the past, but are no longer considered a threat. However, this snail is still vulnerable to ongoing habitat degradation across its range, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).	eng
168116	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	A Seychelles endemic, this extinct snail species was known only from Curieuse island.	eng
168116	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	It is suspected that this was probably a lowland forest species.	eng
168116	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is known only from subfossil material.	eng
168116	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Extinction was probably caused by extensive fires in the early 1800s, which destroyed all forest habitat on the island.	eng
168117	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	<em>P. n. subfuscus</em>&#160;is present in the Praslin National Park.	eng
168117	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles. Its extent of occurence (EOO) is estimated to be 300 km², and it has a total area of occupancy (AOO) of just 8 km². The two subspecies are distributed on two different islands:&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em>&#160;on north Mahé island (AOO = 5 km²) and&#160;<em>P. niger subfuscus</em>&#160;on Praslin island (AOO = 3 km²).	eng
168117	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species found in forest habitats,&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em>&#160;inhabits high forest while&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">P. n. subfuscus</span>&#160;is found in&#160;palm forest.	eng
168117	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the total population was estimated at&#160;8,000 adults: 5,000 of the subspecies&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em> and 3,000 of the subspecies&#160;<em>P. n. subfuscus</em>.	eng
168117	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is threatened by habitat degradation, due to invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which directly impact this snail's habitat. In the past, small-scale farming caused declines in habitat quality.&#160;<em>P. n. niger</em> has also hybridized with <em>P. velutinus. </em>Fortunately,&#160;however, the hybrid form has not expanded into the range of <em>P. n. niger</em>.	eng
168118	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures have been taken. Silhouette island's forests should be legally protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles.	eng
168118	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to Silhouette island in the Seychelles. It's extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 17 km².	eng
168118	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species found in all forest habitats, this snail is most abundant in high forest.	eng
168118	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	An estimated 89,700 adults were recorded in 2005.	eng
168118	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	While habitat degradation from small- and large-scale wood plantations were a threat in the past, degradation from invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact this snail's habitat is ongoing.	eng
168119	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are in place. The forest areas of Silhouette should be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles.	eng
168119	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	A Seychelles endemic, this snail is known only from Silhouette island and has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of just 3 km².	eng
168119	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This is an arboreal species restricted to high moss forest, above 450 m.	eng
168119	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	Population estimates showed 423,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168119	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	<em>P. oxoniensis</em>&#160;is vulnerable to habitat deterioration and habitat change resulting from climate change (changes in rainfall patterns), as well as habitat degradation caused by the impacts of invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).	eng
168120	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	A captive assurance colony is maintained by the Zoological Society of London, and habitat restoration is in place. Continued monitoring of the population status is necessary.	eng
168120	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This terrestrial snail is endemic to Fregate island, Seychelles. It occupies a single, continuous range of only 2 km² (extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) both calculated at 2 km²).	eng
168120	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail, the only surviving terrestrial <span style="font-style: italic;">Pachnodus </span>species, is found under logs in lowland woodland, from 1-100 metres above sea level.	eng
168120	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	Eradication of rats using Brodifacoum poisoning was associated with an 87% population decline in this species between 1999 and 2001. In 2005, the population was estimated to be 7,700 individuals.	eng
168120	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Predation by rats was speculated to be a threat in the 1990s. Eradication of rats using Brodifacoum poisoning was associated with an 87% population decline in this species between 1999 and 2001. The successful completion of the rodent eradication means that neither of these threats remain. Currently no active threats are known. Large-scale agro-industry farming and plantations caused some habitat degradation in the past.	eng
168122	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail was present in the Aldabra Special Reserve.	eng
168122	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Aldabra atoll, in the Seychelles islands, this species' area of occupancy (AOO) was estimated to be 150 km².	eng
168122	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species that was found on trees in open woodland, in the prolonged dry season this snail aestivated (remains in a dormant state) on trees.	eng
168122	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail was locally abundant in the 1970s, though it was believed to have declined since then; the only change in this time was an increase in dry years. Its shells were found as recently as 2000. However, despite extensive searches, no evidence of its continued survival has been found since.	eng
168122	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species was restricted to Aldabra atoll (area of occupancy estimated to be 150 km²), all of which is less than 8 m above sea level and mostly 1-2 m above sea level. Sea level rise was therefore a major threat throughout its range. A small number of rat-eaten shells have been found, indicating that low levels of rat predation were a minor threat. In the 1970s, the species was common and widespread, but declined rapidly thereafter. Only isolated individuals were found in the 1980s and the last one in 1997. An increase in the frequency of relatively dry years has been linked to this species' decline: it is thought that prolonged dry conditions led to mortality of juveniles and recruitment failure, ultimately causing population senescence and extinction.	eng
168123	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are in place. The forest areas of Silhouette island should receive legal protection. Research is also needed into this snail's life history and ecology.	eng
168123	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to the Seychelles islands, this snail is only found on Silhouette island, from 550-600 m. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 2 km², and it is found in only 1 location.	eng
168123	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An arboreal species found in moss forests, this snail inhabits the axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena reflexa</span> plants.	eng
168123	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 1,200 individuals. The population is believed to be stable.	eng
168123	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The principle threat to this species is habitat degradation across its entire range, caused by invasive non-native species. Habitat shifting as a result of climate change will likely affect the species in the future.	eng
168128	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Its range on Silhouette island should also be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles. Research into this snail's population status, life history and ecology is needed.	eng
168128	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is endemic to the Seychelles, and is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 300 km² and its area  of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 7 km².	eng
168128	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail has specific habitat requirements, being restricted to mist forest species. It is found from 600-990 m a.s.l.	eng
168128	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 3,200 individuals.	eng
168128	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	It is vulnerable to habitat degradation, currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). Climate change also poses a potential threat. Small-scale farming caused habitat degradation  in the past.	eng
168130	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present at low densities in Morne Seychellois National Park. The main population on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.	eng
168130	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Seychelles islands, and found only on Mahé and Silhouette islands, this species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 300 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 25 km².	eng
168130	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to high forest from 500-900 m, this species is found in leaf litter on the ground and in epiphytes.	eng
168130	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at over 3 million individuals in 2005.	eng
168130	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasive alien plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).	eng
168135	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. The substantial populations on Silhouette island should also be protected.	eng
168135	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its area of occupancy (AOO) has been estimated to measure 25 km² and its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 300 km².	eng
168135	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to high forest, this is a predatory species that feeds on small invertebrates (including arthropods).	eng
168135	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to contain 90,000 individuals.	eng
168135	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is vulnerable to habitat degradation. Currently, invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which alter this snail's habitat are the principle threat. Small-scale wood plantations and farms have caused habitat degradation in the past.	eng
168137	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in the Morne Seychellois National Park. Additional protected areas should be established, and research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.	eng
168137	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been estimated to measure 300 km², and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 25 km².	eng
168137	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is restricted to high forest.	eng
168137	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The populations was estimated to contain 1.5 million individuals in 2005.	eng
168137	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is threatend by habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and both small- and large-scale farming, and is currently taking place due to changes in native species dynamics.	eng
168139	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. The substantial popualtion on Silhouette island should be protected.	eng
168139	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on Mahé and Silhouette islands. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to measure 300 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated at 19 km². It is known from 4 locations.	eng
168139	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to high forest, this snail is a specialized carrion feeder.	eng
168139	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimted at 29,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168139	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and farming, and is currently taking place due to invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly alter the habitat.	eng
168141	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found only on Fregate island. It is found in only 1 location, and has an extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) of just 1 km².	eng
168141	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is a woodland species found in leaf-litter and rotten wood.	eng
168141	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The species is possibly extinct, after secondary poisoning in 2000 caused a population decline of 80-100%. If the species is still extant, the population is almost certainly less than 50 mature individuals.	eng
168141	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The species' disappearance in 2000 may be linked to secondary poisoning following rodent eradication using the poison Brodifacoum.	eng
168142	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation actions are in place. Legal protection of Silhouette island is required to protect the main popualtion.	eng
168142	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, and is found in an elevational band from 540-600 metres above sea level. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be only 4 km², while its extent of occurrence (EOO) is only 5 km².&#160; However, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. moreleti</span> was last recorded on Mahé in 1972, despite surveys looking for this species since then, it has not been found.&#160;	eng
168142	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to high forests from 540-600 m, this snail is found in the axils of <span style="font-style: italic;">Dracaena reflexa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus hornei</span> plants. It is the only streptaxid known to be herbivorous, feeding on algae and detritus. An ovoviviparous species, it produces eggs but retains them inside the female's body until hatching occurs.	eng
168142	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 84,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168142	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is threatened by habitat deterioration, caused in the past by small-scale wood plantations and currently caused by invasion by <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum </span>plants.	eng
168143	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	Two subspecies are present in protected areas: <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. dussumieri</span> in Morne Seychellois National Park and <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. praslina </span>in Praslin National Park<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. Legal protection is required for the La Reserve-Brullee area of Mahé island (to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. reservae</span>) and Silhouette island (to protect <span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. silhouettae</span>). Invasive species must be controlled.	eng
168143	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands. Its total extent of occurrence is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is  47 km². It is found from 100-900 metres above sea level. The four subspecies are distributed on three different islands within the Seychelles:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dussumieri</span> - northern Mahé island (AOO = 20 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">reservae</span> - southern Mahé island (AOO = 1 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">silhouettae -</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Silhouette island  (AOO = 19 km²)<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">praslina</span> - <span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Praslin island  (AOO = 7 km²)<br/><br/>There are pre-1800 sub-fossil records of this species on La Digue, although it is now extinct on the island.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
168143	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	A predatory species feeding on medium-sized snails, this snail inhabits mid- to high-altitude forest.	eng
168143	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to be over 2 million individuals. The estimated populations of each subspecies are:<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">dussumieri</span> - 2,005,000 individuals<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">reservae</span> - 1,000 individuals<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">silhouettae</span> - 112,400 individuals<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. d. </span><span style="font-style: italic;">praslina</span>:&#160; - 31,500 individuals	eng
168143	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat deterioration, which was caused in the past by small-scale farming and large-scale wood plantations, and is currently caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that alter the habitat. However, to date any population declines appear to be negligible.	eng
168144	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Further research is required to establish the species' taxonomy, and additional areas should be protected.	eng
168144	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this species is found on the islands of Mahé, Therèse, Silhouette, Praslin, Curieuse, La Digue and Félicité.	eng
168144	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	A predatory species that feeds on other snails, this snail is found in primary forest habitats at all altitudes.	eng
168144	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated to be 17 million individuals.	eng
168144	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, currently caused by invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) and previously caused by small-holder farming and small- and large-scale wood plantations.	eng
168145	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Protection of Silhouette island is required, as is control of invasive species.	eng
168145	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Edemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé and Silhouette, this snail has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 300 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 25 km². It is found in 3 locations.	eng
168145	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	A predatory species, this snail feeds on small invertebrates. It is found in high-altitude forest, from 400-800 m.	eng
168145	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 877,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168145	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, caused in the past by small-holder farming and wood plantations and currently caused by invasive alien species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). The severity of the effects of these invasive plants on this species are unknown.	eng
168146	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation actions have been taken, though a systematic monitoring scheme is in place. Silhouette island needs legal protection in order to protect the range of this species.	eng
168146	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail species is found on the summit of Mt. Dauban, on Silhouette island. Its  extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 0.07 km².	eng
168146	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	The species is restricted to the water-saturated leaf litter in montane  moss forest, from 750-770 m.	eng
168146	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated to be less than 7,560 individual in 2005.	eng
168146	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is highly vulnerable to habitat change, especially changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change. Such changes are apparent, with increasing intensity of dry periods causing prolonged dessication of previously water-saturated habitat. In addition, invasion by introduced <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span> plants may be a stress.	eng
168147	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is present in Morne Seychellois National Park. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology, and invasive species must be controlled.	eng
168147	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Seychelles, this species is found on Mahé island. It has an estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) of 60 km² and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 20 km².	eng
168147	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail inhabits high altitude forest, from 350-900 m.	eng
168147	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated at 527,400 individuals.	eng
168147	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The main threat to this species is habitat degradation, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) which impact this snail's habitat. Small-scale wood and farming plantations caused habitat deterioration in the past.	eng
168149	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation action has been taken.  Its range on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species must be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into its life history and ecology.	eng
168149	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands and found only on Silhouette island, this snail is found in just one location measuring 2 km² (extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) both estimated to be 2 km²).	eng
168149	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to high montane forests from 500-770 m.a.s.l., this snail is a predator specializing on small, soft-bodied invertebrates.	eng
168149	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated to consist of 64,700 individuals in 2005.	eng
168149	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is vulnerable to habitat deterioration, caused by invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact the natural habitat.	eng
168150	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures have been taken.  Its range on Silhouette island should be protected, and invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.	eng
168150	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail species is endemic to Silhouette island, in the Seychelles islands. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are estimated to be 14 km².	eng
168150	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	Found only in high forest from 400-770 m a.s.l., this snail is a predator specializing on small, soft-bodied invertebrates.	eng
168150	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated at over 1 million individuals.	eng
168150	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat degradation, caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that directly impact the natural habitat.	eng
168151	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation actions have been taken. The signficant popualtion at La Reserve-Brullee, on Mahé island, should be protected. Invasive species should be controlled throughout the Seychelles islands. Research is needed into the species' life history and ecology.	eng
168151	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail is found on the islands of Mahé, Curieuse, La Digue, and Felicite. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) is 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 8 km².&#160; It is possibly extinct on Praslin; there are no records of this species on the island since the 1800s.	eng
168151	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	A forest species, this snail is mainly found in lowland or palm forest.	eng
168151	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population is estimated to have 8,000 individuals.	eng
168151	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Vulnerable to habitat deterioration, this species is currently threatened by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) that degrade its habitat. Fires and small-scale wood plantations have caused habitat loss/degradation in the past.	eng
168153	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures have been take, though a systematic monitoring scheme is in place. Silhouette island should receive legal protection in order to protect threatened habitats, and invasive species must be controlled. Research into this species' life history and ecology would be beneficial.	eng
168153	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to Seychelles islands, this snail species is found only on Silhouette island. Both its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are estimated to be 18 km².	eng
168153	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is restricted to high montane forest, from 300-770 m.	eng
168153	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 1.7 million individuals in 2005.	eng
168153	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Habitat  degradation caused by invasive exotic species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>) is currently the main threat this snail faces. Small-scale wood plantations were a threat in the past.	eng
168155	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata </span>is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. There are no protected popualtions of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span>; protection of Silhouette island is required.	eng
168155	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Seychelles islands. It has a total extent of occurrence (EOO) of 600 km² and a total area of occupancy (AOO) of 48 km². <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span> is found on Silhouette island, and has an AOO of 19 km². <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata</span> is found on the islands of Mahé, Praslin and La Digue, and has an AOO of 29 km².	eng
168155	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	A predatory species feeding on medium-sized snails, this snail inhabits mid- to high-altitude forest.	eng
168155	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	In 2005, the population was estimated at over 1 million individuals: 526,000 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. nevilli</span> and 669,000 of  <span style="font-style: italic;">S. n. parvidentata</span>.	eng
168155	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	The main threat to this species is habitat deterioration, caused in the past by small-scale wood and farming plantations and currently caused by invasive exotic plant species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>).	eng
168159	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is present in the Aldabra Special Reserve. Monitoring of the habitat throughout this area is recommended.	eng
168159	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is endemic to the Aldabra atoll and Assumption Island in the Seychelles islands. Its  extent of occurrence (EOO) is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 160 km².	eng
168159	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is found in scrub and woodland habitat, from 0-3 metres above sea level.	eng
168159	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	No information on the population is known.	eng
168159	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	All of the localities in which this species is found are at sea level; sea level rise resulting from climate change is therefore a major threat.	eng
168162	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are in place. The area of La Reserve-Brullee should be protected. Research is needed to study this snail's biology and ecology.	eng
168162	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is found on the southern part of Mahé and is possibly extinct on Felicite island. It has become extinct on Praslin island. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be 8 km².	eng
168162	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is an arboreal species found in high forest, from 250-600 m.	eng
168162	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated to contain 8,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168162	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, fires and small- and large-scale wood plantations were a cause of habitat deterioration.	eng
168163	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	No conservation measures are currently in place. The forests of Silhouette should receive legal protection, and invasive non-native species must be controlled. Research is also needed into the species' biology and ecology.	eng
168163	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Restricted to the Seychelles, this snail is only found on Silhouette island. Its estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both 3 km².	eng
168163	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This is an arboreal species found in high forest, from 350-770 m.	eng
168163	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 44,000 in 2005.	eng
168163	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation across its range, caused by invasive non-native species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, large-scale farming was a cause of habitat degradation.	eng
168164	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	The entire range of this species lies within the Morne Seychellois National Park. Research into the species' biology and ecology is needed.	eng
168164	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is restricted to the northern part of Mahé island in the Seychelles. Its extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both estimated to be 5 km².	eng
168164	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	An high forest species found from 350-900 m, this snail is usually arboreal but is occasionally found in leaf-litter.	eng
168164	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at 500,000 individuals in 2005.	eng
168164	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Currently, this snail is threatened by habitat degradation throughout its range, caused by invasive non-native plants (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>). In the past, small-scale farming and wood plantations were a cause of habitat deterioration.	eng
168167	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is present in Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. Protection and management of the habitats it occupies is needed.	eng
168167	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands of Mahé, Silhouette and Praslin, this snail species has an area of occupancy (AOO) of 53 km² and an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 600 km². It inhabits areas from 10-990 metres above sea level.	eng
168167	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is found in lowland forest habitats.	eng
168167	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	The population was estimated at over  1 million individuals in 2005.	eng
168167	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Though invasive species are currently impacting this species' habitat, these impacts have not resulted in any declines in this species to date. Small-scale agriculture led to habitat degradation in the past.	eng
168170	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is found within the Aldabra Special Reserve. Further research is needed into its taxonomy, life history and ecology, and population status. The status of both the population and its habitat need to be monitored, in order to assess the effects of climate change. A captive breeding program and/or conserving the species in a genome resource bank may be required.	eng
168170	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles, this snail is restricted to Aldabra atoll. It's extent of occurrence (EOO) is 150 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is just 1 km².	eng
168170	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This species is found in dry coastal woodland and scrub habitat.	eng
168170	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	No specific population data are known, though the population is severely fragmented and is believed to be declining.	eng
168170	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Rat predation has been recorded, but this appears to be only a minor contribution to mortality. The main threat to the species is sea level rise. Aldabra atoll  is mostly only 1-2 m above sea level, and in no place is it higher than 8 m above sea level. The species' entire range is therefore at risk. This sea level rise and the associated habitat alterations could cause fluctuations in the population.	eng
168171	conservation	Gerlach, J., 2006	The species is present in the Morne Seychellois and Praslin National Parks. New protected areas should be identified, and its habitat should be conserved and restored. Further research is needed into this species' biology and ecology.	eng
168171	distribution	Gerlach, J., 2006	Endemic to the Seychelles islands, this snail species is found on the islands of Mahé, Round (Mahé), Moyenne, Conception, Silhouette, Praslin, Grande Soeur and Felicite. Its extent of occurrence EOO) is estimated to be 600 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is 52 km².	eng
168171	habitat	Gerlach, J., 2006	This snail is found in forest habitats from sea level to 700 m.	eng
168171	population	Gerlach, J., 2006	A locally highly abundant species, in 2005 its population was estimated at approximately 14 million individuals.	eng
168171	threats	Gerlach, J., 2006	Habitat degradation is a threat, historically though forest clearance and currently through invasive species (e.g., <span style="font-style: italic;">Cinnamomum verum</span>), although the species is adaptable.	eng
168175	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	This species is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Baling, Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).	eng
168175	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	Occurs on lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone outcrop.	eng
168175	threats	Clements, R., 2007	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alycaeus balingensis</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
168177	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma elephas</span> is only known the limestone karst at Bukit Tenggek, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It has a restricted range within the forest of 0.08 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
168177	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This species is found in leaf-litter on the forest floor in limestone karst region.	eng
168177	threats	Clements, R., 2007	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma elephas</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
168178	conservation	Clements, R., 2007	No actions currently in place.	eng
168178	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma perigyra</span> is only known from the limestone karst region of Bukit Takun, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It has a restricted range within the forest of 0.06 km²<sup></sup> showing that it is a species with an extremely restricted distribution.	eng
168178	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma perigyra</span> is a small terrestrial gastopod found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor under moist diptocarp forest on limestone.	eng
168178	threats	Clements, R., 2007	The habitat of this species is threatened by possible future encroachment of a golf course. Within the range, the quality of habitat could be suspectible to future declines if there was disturbance opening the forest area, as changing habitats would impact the microclimate under the forest, which could lead to decreasing humidity drying the forest floor leaf litter.	eng
168179	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma michaelis</span> is only known from the limestone karst Bukit Takun, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is only known from an area of 0.06 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
168179	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This species occurs on lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone.	eng
168179	population	Clements, R., 2007	There is no information available on population size.	eng
168179	threats	Clements, R., 2007	The karst faces encroachment from a golf course (Price 2001), and given the restricted range of the species, future<br/>developments might impact resident populations.	eng
168180	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma sciaphilum</span> is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Panching, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It occurs in an area with an extremely small possible area of occupancy, however the site has recently been quarried away, and hence it is possible that the species is no longer extant.	eng
168180	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	Lowland forest species which lived in leaf litter on the forest floor.	eng
168180	population	Clements, R., 2007	There have been no recent surveys to establish if the species is still extant.	eng
168180	threats	Clements, R., 2007	Limestone quarrying has removed the habitat of this species.	eng
168181	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma thersites </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Panching, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It occurs in an area with an extremely small possible area of occupancy, however the site has recently been quarried away, and hence it is possible that the species is no longer extant.	eng
168181	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma thersites </span>is a species that would be found amongst leaf-litter on the forest floor in tropical moist forest on limestone karst.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
168181	population	Clements, R., 2007	It is not known whether this species still exists.	eng
168181	threats	Clements, R., 2007	The karst has been quarried away (Schilthuizen and Clements 2008).	eng
168183	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paraboysidia serpa </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Baling, Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).	eng
168183	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This species is found in lowland dipterocarp forest on limestone. The habitats are changing, in that quarrying seems to be leading to a decline in the humidity within the forest, possibly as the result of changing forest structure or possibly due to pollution from quarrying (see Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005 for a discussion on the declining habitat quality.	eng
168183	threats	Clements, R., 2007	The karst is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and this is leading to loss of habitat that will impact and eventually destroy the remaining resident populations. A secondary impact of quarrying is the drying out of the karst forest, which has been observed to cause population declines (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
168185	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gyliotrachela luctans </span>is only known from&#160; from the limestone karst at Gunung Pondok, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is only known from a single location, with an area of 4.16 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
168185	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This small gastropod lives in leaf litter within lowland tropical Dipterocarp forest on limestone.	eng
168185	threats	Clements, R., 2007	This karst region is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and the destruction of it's habitat is resulting in the loss of the resident populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gyliotrachela luctans</span>. The process of quarrying also increases the dust content in the forest, as well as changing the microclimate with reduction in humidity, causes drying out of the karst forest which can result in declining numbers within the populations (Schilthuizen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
168186	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	This species has a restricted range, found only within small area near Bukit Charas, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).	eng
168186	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hypselostoma megaphonum </span>is a small terrestrial gastopod found in the leaf-litter on the forest floor under moist forest on limestone.	eng
168186	threats	Clements, R., 2007	The karst faces encroachment from oil palm plantations and given the restricted range of the species, future development might impact resident populations. Three other karsts in the vicinity are already being quarried.	eng
168188	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma retrovertensis</span> is only known from the limestone karst region of Bukit Cintamanis, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). It is restricted to an area of 0.11 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
168188	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This is a small gastropod found within leaf litter on forest floor within moist diptocarp forest on limestone.	eng
168188	threats	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma retrovertens</span> was under threat, as it occurred in an area with intensive quarrying. Although quarrying activities have now ceased on the small remaining area of karst, this endemic species is still susceptible to impacts from future quarrying activities and to any other type of disturbance to the small remaining forest fragment that contains the species.	eng
168189	conservation	Clements, R., 2007	No actions are currently in place, but management plan recommended.	eng
168189	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma senex </span>is only known from the limestone karst at Bukit Charas, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001). The species has a restricted range of 0.25 km².	eng
168189	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	This species lives in leaf litter on the forest floor on limestone karst in moist tropical forest.	eng
168189	threats	Clements, R., 2007	Although this area is currently still undisturbed, there are two future threats. The most likely threat is the possible encroachment from oil palm plantations that would convert the forest to plantations and the secondary threat is possible loss of habitat to limestone quarrying, which is already ongoing in the adjacent limestone regions.	eng
168190	conservation	Clements, R., 2007	No conservation actions in place.	eng
168190	distribution	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> is only known from the limestone karst at Gunung Kantang, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia (Maassen 2001).	eng
168190	habitat	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> found in leaf litter in lowland dipterocarp forest floor on limestone.	eng
168190	threats	Clements, R., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> lives in forest on karst which is currently being quarried (Price 2001) and this activity will eventually destroy the forest habitat for the resident populations. A secondary effect of the quarrying is the decrease in humidity within the forest, drying out the karst forest, which can also impact <span style="font-style: italic;">Opisthostoma trapezium</span> causing population declines (Schilthuizen<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2005). Given that the region has greater mean annual increases in rates of limestone quarrying (5.7% per year; Clements <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) than other tropical regions (e.g., South America, Central America, Africa), this single locality endemic species faces a high extinction risk.	eng
168191	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
168191	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
168191	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
168192	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
168192	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
168192	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
168193	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was endemic to Raiatea, Society Islands.	eng
168193	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
168193	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
168194	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	It is essential to prevent the introduction of Euglandina rosea.	eng
168194	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Endemic to Ua Pou, Marquesas Islands.	eng
168194	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Probably restricted to high mountain ridges. Formerly found in lowland habitat.	eng
168194	population	Coote, T., 2007	No quantifiable data are available for this species.	eng
168194	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The current threat is the limited distribution as <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>has not been introduced to the island. Area of occupation has declined for reasons unknown.	eng
168195	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	In situ management and protection. Species of this genus do not appear to survive in ex situ breeding colonies.	eng
168195	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Endemic to Tahiti, Society Islands.	eng
168195	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	High altitude cloud forest.	eng
168195	population	Coote, T., 2007	Confirmed as existing in very few high altitude locations.	eng
168195	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The principal threat is the carnivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, but there is some loss of habitat due to communications installation and clearances to enhance tourists views. Intrinsic threats associated with small population size.	eng
168196	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> management and protection. Did not survive in <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding colonies.	eng
168196	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Recorded from Hiva Oa and Tahuata but not confirmed on the latter.	eng
168196	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Currently persists in high altitude cloud forest.	eng
168196	population	Coote, T., 2007	Very small populations persist	eng
168196	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The principal threat is the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea </span>within the populations. Also the intrinsic threats associated with small population size.	eng
168197	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Endemic to Raivavae, Austral Islands.	eng
168198	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	The captive population died out after 10 years in the <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> breeding programme.	eng
168198	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic found on Tahuata and Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands.	eng
168198	population	Coote, T., 2007	It is not known whether this species is still extant.	eng
168198	threats	Coote, T., 2007	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the most likely threat to this species.	eng
168199	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Raivavae, Austral (Tubuai Islands).	eng
168199	threats	Coote, T., 2007	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the most likely threat to this species.	eng
168200	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species was found on Hiva Oa and Tahuata, Marquesas Islands.	eng
168200	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species is now extinct.	eng
168200	threats	Coote, T., 2007	The extinction of this species is attributed to predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
168201	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Fatu Hiva.	eng
168201	population	Coote, T., 2007	The species may no longer be extant.	eng
168201	threats	Coote, T., 2007	Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> is the biggest threat to this species, if it is still extant.	eng
168202	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Endemic to Rapa, Austral (Tubuai) Islands.	eng
168203	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	Endemic to Raivavae, Austral (Tubuai) Islands.	eng
168203	threats	Coote, T., 2007	This restricted range species is vulnerable to ongoing habitat loss and the potential introduction of the carnivorous snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>, which has caused the extinction of other partulid snails on other islands in French Polynesia.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
168204	conservation	Coote, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Ex-situ</span> management and protection of this species are needed. <span style="font-style: italic;">Samoana</span> species appear not to be surviving well in <span style="font-style: italic;">in-situ</span> breeding colonies.	eng
168204	distribution	Coote, T., 2007	This species still survives on Nuku Hiva and Ua Huka, Marquesas Islands.	eng
168204	habitat	Coote, T., 2007	Currently found only on highest ridges on Ua Huka whereas formerly it was fairly abundant at low altitudes in the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>. Very rare on Nuku Hiva in the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span>.	eng
168204	population	Coote, T., 2007	Extremely rare on Nuku Hiva. The species occurs in reasonable densities on Ua Huka but now restricted to highest ridges.	eng
168204	threats	Coote, T., 2007	On Nuku Hiva the principal threat is <span style="font-style: italic;">Euglandina rosea</span> and the intrinsic problems associated with small population sizes. On Ua Huka the natural range has contracted for reasons unknown.	eng
168208	conservation	Mitra, A. & Babu, R., 2010	There is a need for more data on distribution, but no specific conservation actions are likely to be needed for this species.	eng
168208	distribution	Mitra, A. & Babu, R., 2010	The species ranges from Himachal Pradesh to Nagaland in India, occurring in Nepal in between. It is likely to be found in additional east Indian provinces beyond those listed under Occurrence and also in Bhutan and Bangladesh and maybe Myanmar.	eng
168208	habitat	Mitra, A. & Babu, R., 2010	This species is found at fast flowing streams and irrigation channels. They generally perch on partially submerged large stones and on over-hanging vegetation along streams.	eng
168208	population	Mitra, A. & Babu, R., 2010	Judging from literature records this species is not uncommon, but more data are needed.	eng
168208	threats	Mitra, A. & Babu, R., 2010	No specific threat is known to exist for the species but, pollution in streams might have an impact. However, given that it occurs on irrigation channels it appears to be tolerant of disturbance and is unlikely to be threatened.	eng
168210	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this<a class="x-tab-right" href="http://sis.iucnsis.org/SIS/index.html#" onclick="return false;"><em class="x-tab-left"><span class="x-tab-strip-inner"><span class="x-tab-strip-text  "></em></a> species. More extensive surveys are required to confirm whether this species is now extinct.	eng
168210	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species is known from Lake Dianchi in Yunnan Province, China. Recent surveys have found only dead shells which were still articulated with intact periostracum, indicating that they were recently dead. Local fishermen also say that the species has disappeared in recent years.	eng
168210	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Recorded only from a lake.	eng
168210	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	No live individuals are known; dead shells can still be found. However, more surveys are required to confirm whether the species is now extinct or not.	eng
168210	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Pollution and loss of host fish species are the main threats to this species, and both threats continue to occur in Lake Dianchi.	eng
168211	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	None in place. There is a closed fishing season in the lake which may help to protect this snail.	eng
168211	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species occurs in the south part of Lake Dianchi (292 km²), in Yunnan Province, China.	eng
168211	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The species lives in deeper water in the lake (>2 m depth).	eng
168211	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species is common in the southern part of the lake.	eng
168211	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The main threats to this species are pollution (organic and inorganic); overharvesting (for both food and medicine); habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.	eng
168212	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	None in place. Surveys are required to find out the current status and population levels in lake. If it is still present, then reducing pollution levels and restoring the habitat is necessary, along with raising awareness amongst local people.	eng
168212	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Margarya bicostata</span> is endemic to Yunnan Province, China, where it occurs in Lake Fuxian (212 km²) and in an artificial pond connected to the lake (the pond is very small). This species was assessed by Liu Yueing and Wu Min in 2004 for the Chinese Red List who noted it was present in five lakes (Fuxianhu, Qilhu, Xingyunhu, Yilonghu and Erhai). Four of these lakes are closely localised, but the fifth is further away. Du Lina has checked the assessment, and found the other records are in error, and that the species is only found in Fuxian lake (1949) and since then has only been seen in the pond in 2006 (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species used to be common and was found in Lake Dianchi and Lake Fuxian. It is almost certainly no longer present in Lake Dianchi due to the high levels of pollution there. In Lake Fuxian, it was found both near the shore and in the deeper water, but recently it has not been seen at all near the shore. There are some reports from local people that it may still be present in the deeper parts of the lake but this is unconfirmed. The only recent confirmed record is from an artificial pond which is connected to the lake (Du Lina pers. comm. 2006).	eng
168212	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Lakes and ponds (artificial). Currently, it lives in deep water, however in the past it was found near the lake shore but according to local people it hasn't been seen there since around the 1980s.	eng
168212	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species probably is still present in the deeper waters in the middle of the lake, where people cannot collect it. Local people say they have seen it here. Only one specimen was found in the artificial pond connected to the lake. Therefore it probably is not abundant, but there is not enough information available to confirm this.	eng
168212	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Pollution and invasive predatory fish species. The species is not harvested because its current deep water habitat makes this difficult.	eng
168213	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	No conservation measures are currently in place for this species. Measures needed include fisheries management of harvest levels for the snail, and perhaps ex-situ propagation programmes.	eng
168213	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species occurs in Yunnan province, China. Originally it was known from Lake Dianchi (292 km²), Lake Er-hai (251 km²), Lake Cibi (98 km²) and Lake Jianchuan. It was last collected in Lake Jianchuan in 1933 and has not been found there recently. The species was also not found during a 2004 survey of Lake Er-hai (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008). It is now found only in Lake Dianchi and Lake Cibi (Du Lina pers. comm. 2008).	eng
168213	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Lakes. This snail lives on the bottom, occurring throughout the lake bed. It occurs in deeper water as well as in shallow. Is not associated with any particular vegetation. Probably it is a deposit feeder, feeding on detritus in mud.<br/><br/>The species matures after one year. It gives birth to 3–7 young at a time (it is viviparous) and it reproduces throughout the year. The new-born snail shell length is about 8 mm; after one year, it is about 30 mm. Du Lina <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. measured the longest shell length to be 62.7 mm. From their data they estimate that it has a generation length of about three years (Liu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1979).	eng
168213	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Originally this species was abundant in Lake Er-hai but it is no longer found there (the lake was surveyed in 2004 by Du Lina). It is still abundant in Lake Dianchi and is present but less abundant in Lake Cibi; the population is declining very rapidly. It was once an important commercial species but due to its decrease in numbers it is not very important any more.	eng
168213	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The main threats to this species are pollution (both organic and inorganic); harvesting for both food and medicine; habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.	eng
168214	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	Currently there are no conservation measures in place for this species. Fisheries management of harvest levels, and perhaps <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ </span>propagation programmes are required.	eng
168214	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species is endemic to Lake Dianchi (292 km²) in Yunnan province, China. There is also a record from Qingshuihe River but surveys in June 2008 by Du Lina were not able to find it here. In Lake Dianchi, the species is found only in the part of the lake that is near the outflow, representing an area of about one sixth of the lake area (approximately 50 km²).	eng
168214	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	It is found only in the part of Lake Dianchi that is near the outflow, so it may be a species that needs slightly flowing water.	eng
168214	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This snail is not abundant in its only known location.	eng
168214	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The main threats affecting this snail are organic and inorganic pollution; overfishing (the species is harvested for food and medicine); habitat degradation; introduced predatory fish species; and dyke construction.	eng
168215	conservation	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	No conservation measures are in place for this species. More surveys are required to confirm whether the species is still extant in the lake. There also needs to be awareness raising about this species among local people, and pollution levels in the lake need to be reduced.	eng
168215	distribution	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This species is (or was) endemic to Lake Yangtsunghai (32 km²) in Yunnan Province, China. The species has not been found since 1949.	eng
168215	habitat	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	This snail was recorded from deep areas in the lake.	eng
168215	population	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The species has not been recorded since 1949; it may already be extinct.	eng
168215	threats	Di, L., Jiang, Y., Min, W., Yeuing, L., Aldridge, D. & McIvor, A., 2008	The main threat to this species, if it is still extant, is ongoing pollution of the lake. The species is not harvested. When surveyed in 2006, no live specimens were found from the previous site in the lake where the species was known to occur. It was last seen in 1949.	eng
168216	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168216	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Garra compressus</span> is known only from the Wanze Stream (Chindwin basin) near Khamsom, Ukhrul District of Manipur, in northeastern India. Kullander and Fang (2004) remarked that the species need to be considered as potentially occuring in Myanmar.<br/></p>	eng
168216	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits shallow, fast-flowing hill streams with rocky bed.	eng
168216	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168216	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The species is threatened mainly due to habitat destruction indiscriminate killing of fishes using dynamites and deforestation (Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003).	eng
168217	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra elongata</span> is not present in protected areas. There is a need to raise awareness within communities for conservation of this rare species and its habitat. Also, more survey works and studies are yet to be carried out to confirm the distribution pattern of the fish (L. Singh <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
168217	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra elongata</span> is known from a hill stream near Tolloi, Ukhrul District (Chindwin drainage) of Manipur, India. Sen and Mathew (2008) reported the fish from Chenla River, Tuensang District, Nagaland, India. Kullander and Fang (2004) remarked that the species also needs to be considered as potentially occurring in Myanmar.     The sites from where the fish was reported are separating areas of different river basins so the actual distribution range is yet to be clarified (L. Singh <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
168217	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits shallow, fast-flowing hill streams, with rocky bed and clear waters.	eng
168217	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168217	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The major threat to this fish are habitat destruction and indiscriminate killing of fishes using dynamites and chemicals (Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003).</p>	eng
168218	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified in Myanmar. &#160;Surveys in Manipur are recommended.	eng
168218	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Although Valenciennes (1844) reported the species from Bengal, future workers reported it from Myanmar (Day 1878) and Chindwin basin in Manipur only (Hora 1921). Fishbase (2009) has recorded its presence only from Myanmar. <br/><strong> </strong>	eng
168218	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in rivers and lakes. It is a local migrant.	eng
168218	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population in India.	eng
168218	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The extinction of this species in Manipur was due to construction of dams, habitat degradation and introduction invasive species which caused fragmentation. Threats to this species in Myanmar are unknown.	eng
168219	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Conservation is needed as the population of this species is declining in some areas. &#160;More research on impacts of threats on population and trends needed.	eng
168219	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is known from northeastern India (Nagaland), Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Malay peninsula, and China.<br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
168219	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD2');"><span class="toolTipElement"> Most species have been found in shady areas and muddy <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD3');"><span class="toolTipElement">bottoms  in deep <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD4');"><span class="toolTipElement">hill  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD5');"><span class="toolTipElement">streams.  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD6');"><span class="toolTipElement">Adults  usually collected in clear water with moderate to swift <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD7');"><span class="toolTipElement">currents, <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD8');"><span class="toolTipElement">juveniles  in quiet <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD9');"><span class="toolTipElement">pools  further <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD10');"><span class="toolTipElement">downstream.  Found in medium to large-sized <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD11');"><span class="toolTipElement">rivers, flooded <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD12');"><span class="toolTipElement">fields  and rapid-running mountain streams.  <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD13');"><span class="toolTipElement">Diet  consists of insects and small <span class="zoodio" onclick="soundManager.play('SoundD14');"><span class="toolTipElement">fishes. Rarely seen in markets.</span></span></span></span></span></span>	eng
168219	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
168219	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The major threat to this species is damming, dynamiting and other destructive fishing, human interference, poisoning.	eng
168245	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168245	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Acanthocobitis rubidipinnis</span> occurs in several regions of Myanmar.	eng
168245	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Hill stream fish dwelling in streams with colourful pebbles on the bottom.	eng
168245	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It has a widespread distribution and is fairly common throughout its range.	eng
168245	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It may be threatened by habitat destruction due to human interference.	eng
168246	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168246	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura multifasciata</span> is distributed in eastern Himalaya, from Tista, through the base of the Nepal Himalaya, as far as the Ghaghra and Kali drainages (Menon 1987).	eng
168246	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species inhabits gravel bottom of hill streams.	eng
168246	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168246	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Ornamental trade could be a threat to this species.	eng
168247	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. radiolatus</span> is not known from outside its range of distribution. No information is available on population trends, use in fisheries, aquarium trade and threats.	eng
168247	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species was considered endemic to central India; the type locality is Malva, Madhya Pradesh, India. Its occurrence in Nepal and in other states of India has to be verified and may be a result of introductions.	eng
168247	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This is a surface dweller found in high altitude streams.	eng
168247	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population fluctuations occuring.	eng
168247	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
168248	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. acuticephala </span>is not known from any protected areas. There is need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not ths species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168248	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario acuticephala</span> is known from Ukjhang sang (most likely 'ukhongsang') road, one mile from Yairibok, in the state of Manipur, India. It is also reported from Dikhu River in Nagaland (Ao <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). &#160;It is endemic to this region restricted to less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup> in its distribution.	eng
168248	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Almost all the specimens were collected from rivers and streams.	eng
168248	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species has been collected from Khuga and Iril rivers by future workers after its report from Yairobok by Hora (1921). But there is no more information on its population.	eng
168248	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Habitat destruction is being caused by human activities such as small dams for irrigation.	eng
168249	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168249	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra lissorhynchus</span> is widely distributed in the northeastern India. &#160;It is so far reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya, India. &#160;Vishwanath (1993) remarked that the species is widely distributed both in the hill streams of Manipur River and Barak River drainages.	eng
168249	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits hills stream with rocky bed.	eng
168249	population	Singh, L., 2010	The fish is very common in the hill streams and rivers of northeastern India.	eng
168249	threats	Singh, L., 2010	Threats to the species are not known, however, habitat threats are prevalent as for all hill stream species.	eng
168250	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<em></em></p>	eng
168250	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nigricollis</span> is known only from Rakhine State of Myanmar. The type specimens of the species was collected from Taunggok market. However, Kullander and Fang (2004) presumed that they are collected from the Taunggok River which drains to the Bay of Bengal.	eng
168250	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits fast flowing rivers.	eng
168250	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168250	threats	Singh, L., 2010	This species is found in a high populated area where habitat degradation and destruction is taking place. It may also be threatened by overexploitation for food.	eng
168252	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>  Further survey work is needed to determine the distribution pattern of the species and also whether it is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168252	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Vishwanath and Sarojnalini (1988) mentioned the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> in the Manipur River at Sherou (Chindwin basin), Manipur. Vishwanath and Kosygin (2002) reported the fish from Barak River  (Brahmaputra basin) in Manipur, India.<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Nebeshwar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) remarked that the type locality as given in the original description might be due to wrong labelling as several subsequent collections from the Manipur River did not represent the species. Thus <span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> is presently  known only from Barak River (Brahmaputra basin) in Manipur, India.	eng
168252	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra manipurensis</span> inhabits hill streams and rivers with rocky bed.	eng
168252	population	Singh, L., 2010	This species is not very common throughout Barak drainage.	eng
168252	threats	Singh, L., 2010	This species is found in an area affected by habitat degradation due to damming, quarrying (removal of boulder and gravels) and fishing.	eng
168254	conservation	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Adams, S., 2010	This species has been assigned a status of Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007) and G2,&#160;imperilled, by NatureServe (NatureServe 2009).&#160;<br/>Further research on this species is recommended to clarify its threats and population trends. In addition, monitoring of its already limited habitat is recommended to swiftly detect a decline in quality.	eng
168254	distribution	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Adams, S., 2010	This species is currently known from a few specimens collected from small and medium size tributaries&#160;of the North Fork Obion River in western Tennessee, USA (Schuster 2008). This species is currently known from 5 locations, namely the&#160;Clear, Mill, Sandy and Terrapin creeks, and an unnamed spring feeder (Schuster 2008).	eng
168254	habitat	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Adams, S., 2010	This species has been collected from among woody debris along the banks of&#160;sandy-bottomed streams not usually deeper than 0.25 m with a slow to moderate flow (Schuster 2008). This species was not found in watercourses which have been heavily modified or channelized (Schuster 2008).	eng
168254	population	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Adams, S., 2010	There is insufficient population data available for this species.	eng
168254	threats	Schuster, G.A., Taylor, C.A. & Adams, S., 2010	Specific threats affecting this species are unknown; however this species range is situated amongst intensive agricultural land and therefore may be threatened by habitat conversion due to expansion, and from agricultural run-off (nutrients, herbicides and pesticides) and increased sedimentation.	eng
168255	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Studies on impacts of threats very urgently needed.	eng
168255	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><em>Clarias magur</em> is distributed in Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins in northern and northeastern India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Ng and Kottelat 2008).</p>  <br/><strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
168255	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>It is<strong> </strong>Omnivore. Walking catfish are mainly active at night and prey on items such as insect larvae, fish eggs, fish and occasionally plant material. Commercial pond aquaculture of the catfish, <em>Clarias batrachus </em>(Linnaeus), commonly known as "pIa duk dan" in Thailand, "ikan lele" in Indonesia, and walking catfish in the U.S.A., first developed in Thailand in the late 1950s (Tamchalanukit <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1982, Areerat 1987). Its impact on introduction is largely unknown. In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Florida</st1:state></st1:place>, walking catfish are known to invade aquaculture farms, entering ponds where these predators prey on fish stocks. In response, fish farmers erect fences to protect ponds, though they are inefficient in floods.</p><p></p><p>Air breathing catfish (<em>Clarias magur</em>), attains maturity within the first years of life and normally spawns from April to August in both open and confined waters (Ahmed&#160;<em>et al. </em>1985, Bhuiyan 1964, Chowdhury 1981). Talwar and Jhingran (1991) reported, that the C<em>. batrachus</em>&#160;spawn for short period just from July to August. In southeast Asia C.&#160;<em>magur&#160;</em>generally spawn during the rainy season, when rivers rise and fish are able to excavate nests in submerged mud banks and dykes of flooded rice fields. It breeds in shallow marginal waters of ponds, ditches and natural depressions, and inundated paddy-fields during summer monsoon and rainy season and attains a maximum length of 35 cm and a weight of 250 g (Chowdhury 1981). In Southeast Asia C.&#160;<em>magur&#160;</em>generally spawn during the rainy season, when rivers rise and fish are able to excavate nests in submerged mud banks and dikes of flooded rice fields. Culture practice in&#160;<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region></st1:place>&#160;consists of collecting by hand from 2,000 to 15,000 one-week-old fry per nest, which are then transported to nursery ponds (Knud-Hansena 1990).<strong></strong></p><p></p><p>They are commonly found in freshwater and brackish water. They can exist in cloudy, low-oxygen waters.</p><p><em>C.&#160;</em><em>magur</em><em>&#160;</em>is abundant in ponds, rivers and in the mud they lie to concealed for hours. Found in all types of waters but more so in derelict and swampy waters. It can live out of water for quite some time and move short distances. This is a rather hardy fish.&#160;<em>C.&#160;</em><em>magur&#160;</em>is widely distributed all over the&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;in rivers, ditches, streams', canals and ponds.</p><p></p><p></p>  <strong></strong><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
168255	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The population of this species is declining throughout its range due to drying up of wetlands. &#160;Pesticide pollution of paddy lands where the species breeds is a major threat.</p>	eng
168255	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is a highly priced food fish throughout its range and is overfished. &#160;The wetland habitats are under grave threat from human activities. &#160;Pesticides threaten the breeding grounds of this species in paddy fields (W. Vishwanath pers. comm.).</p>	eng
168256	conservation	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	Further information on the&#160;species&#160;distribution&#160;and&#160;threats&#160;is required.	eng
168256	distribution	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	This fish is reported from India, Bhutan and Nepal. In India: Jammu and Kashmir Valley, Ganga River in Uttar Pradesh, and Brahmaputra River in Assam, but likely to be more widely present in the Ganges and Brahmaputra systems; Nepal: Bagmati, Seti, Bheri and Mechi Zones; Bhutan: distribution not known.	eng
168256	habitat	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	This species inhabits hill-streams of Himalaya. &#160;It is primarily carnivorous. &#160;It breeds in the higher reaches and travels down after breeding.	eng
168256	population	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	The population information of this species is scanty.	eng
168256	threats	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	Dams, mining, industrial and residential development are the main threats to this species and its habitat.	eng
168257	conservation	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	The Lake Rara is inside the protected area of Nepal (Rara National Park). It is also classified as a Ramsar site (Kafle and Savillo 2009). This is one of the efforts to conserve this species in its natural condition. More research in relation to its ecology, habitat management and pollution status in and around its habitat is necessary.	eng
168257	distribution	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schizothorax raraensis</span>&#160;is endemic to Lake Rara in Nepal&#160;at an altitude of 2,990 m.	eng
168257	habitat	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	It is found in high mountain freshwater lake in dense schools in streams adjoining the lake. It is a short distance migrant, spawning in adjoining creeks in the vicinity of Rara Lake. It spawns in deeper waters of 5-6 m (Dimmick and Edds 2002).	eng
168257	population	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	There is no information available on population of this species. &#160;As the lake is facing threats such as siltation and pollution, the population may be in decline.	eng
168257	threats	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	The highly restricted distribution of this species may be threatened by pollution by army personnel and tourists, and minor forest produce collection by locals (Kafle and Savillo 2009). Overgrazing, siltation, pollution and over-exploitations have been reported by many.	eng
168258	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168258	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span>It has been recorded only from the Barak River system in Manipur, India.	eng
168258	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Prefers the habitat of clear water, fast flowing with rocky and boulder substrates. It is an omnivore and generalist in food and habitat usage.	eng
168258	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168258	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Currently there are no known threats, however, a proposed dam on Barak River will affect the habitats of this species as this prefers fast flowing water.	eng
168259	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Other potential threats to this species need to be identified.	eng
168259	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is only known from one location in the Barak River drainage (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Manipur, India at about 200 m elevation. &#160;The river drainage around the type locality is around 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and the area is approximately 264 km<sup>2 </sup>(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).&#160;&#160;Further studies have not revealed the existence of this species in areas other than the type locality.	eng
168259	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams with a sandy and rocky bottom.	eng
168259	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168259	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The proposed Tipaimukh Dam on Barak River (construction activities have begun and the dam is proposed to be commissioned in less than 10 years time) would be a major threat to the species and its habitat.	eng
168263	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	As this species has not been recorded since its original description, there is no information on its population, biology and potential threats, all of which are badly needed.	eng
168263	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species was described from Inlé Lake, but has not been recorded from there subsequent to its description. It is possible that the fish may be found in the streams draining into the lake, or elsewhere in the Salween River drainage.	eng
168263	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species was described from Inlé Lake, where it presumably lives amongst aquatic plants in the shallower areas. As this is an atypical habitat for <em>Pterocryptis</em> (other congeners are typically found in hill streams), this awaits verification.	eng
168263	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168263	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information its biology and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168264	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168264	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages. &#160;Although it was described from the Ganges River, no recent material of this species has been collected, suggesting that the type locality is possibly in error.	eng
168264	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	Like other congeners, this species most likely inhabits swift-flowing hillstreams with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168264	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168264	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168267	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research on the geographic distribution, population size and biology of this species is needed.	eng
168267	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known only from the Chindwin River drainage (part of the Irrawaddy River drainage) in India (Manipur) and Myanmar (Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
168267	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species occupies hill streams with sand and gravel bottom (W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. obs.</span>).	eng
168267	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	No information about population size is available for this species.	eng
168267	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
168268	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research on the geographic distribution of this species is needed.	eng
168268	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	Known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in the Lake Indawgyi/Kamaing area in Myanmar and in the Lokchao area (Chindwin River system) in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
168268	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits, streams, rivers and shallower areas (i.e. along the shores) of lakes, typically in areas where the water is clear and the substrate sandy/rocky (H.H. Ng and W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).	eng
168268	population	Ng, H., 2009	Occasional collecting for the ornamental fish trade in Myanmar is projected not to adversely affect population size and it is considered stable at the present moment (H.H. Ng <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). The species is fished only as a bycatch in Manipur and is not sought after either as an ornamental or food species (W. Vishwanath <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).	eng
168268	threats	Ng, H., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
168269	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research on the geographic distribution, population size and biology of this species is needed.	eng
168269	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is only known from the headwaters of the Ann Chaung drainage in the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar. Given the distribution patterns of other freshwater fishes endemic to this region (Kullander and Fang 2004), it is expected to be found in other rivers draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma.	eng
168269	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	No information on the habitat of this species is available from the original description, but based on the biology of other congeners in the region, this species is likely to inhabit fast-flowing hillstreams with clear water and a sandy/rocky substrate (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).	eng
168269	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	No information about population size is available.	eng
168269	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
168270	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	Despite recent studies (e.g. Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009),&#160;information on the distribution and biology of this species is scanty. &#160;The threats this species faces also need further study. &#160;The taxonomy of the population in the Tista River drainage needs further research to see if it is conspecific with material from Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. &#160;Fishermen should be educated about the impacts of various fishing methods currently used.	eng
168270	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in West Bengal, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh (Ng 2005; Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009). The type locality is the Dikrong River, Arunachal Pradesh, India.	eng
168270	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits fast-flowing and torrential hill streams, and is occasionally found in slower-flowing streams.<span>&#160;&#160;The streams they inhabit have a substrate of rocks and boulders, and the fish feed on aquatic invertebrates (Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009).	eng
168270	population	Ng, H., 2009	There is no detailed information on the population and trends for this species, but this species is reported to be abundant in Nagaland (Humtsoe and Bordoloi 2009). &#160;It is moderately abundant in West Bengal.	eng
168270	threats	Ng, H., 2009	Specific threats to this species are not well known. &#160;This species is not heavily targeted by fishing but is impacted by electro-fishing in localised areas (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Across the species range its habitat is destroyed by dredging for substrate and building materials.	eng
168271	conservation	Chaudhry, S. & Ng, H.H., 2009	More research on the distribution and the biology of this species is required, as there is insufficient information available. The impact of threats need to be researched and better understood.	eng
168271	distribution	Chaudhry, S. & Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known two rivers in the Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2007). It is at present thought to be restricted to the Dikrong River (where the type locality is also recorded), estimated at 30 km long, and the Subansiri River about 25 km. The estimated extent of occurrence for the species is less than 150 km² calculating the length of the rivers by 2 km width.	eng
168271	habitat	Chaudhry, S. & Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom.	eng
168271	population	Chaudhry, S. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, as museum holdings of this species are scarce. Tamang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2007) report that this species is extremely rare (3.8% of catch frequency) in the Senkhi River.	eng
168271	threats	Chaudhry, S. & Ng, H.H., 2009	There are threats to the species from sand quarrying, as well as from fishery activities targeting other species (electro-fishing, poisoning, and blast fishing). The Pare Hydel dam project on the Dikrong River is already under construction. The species distribution is likely to become more localised due to the dam; the species is primarily below the dam (including type locality), and threats include decrease in water flows and sedimentation.<br/><br/>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168272	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. &#160;The taxonomy of this species also needs some clarification. &#160;A detailed study as to whether or not the population from the Mekong River drainage is truly conspecific with that from the Salween is also needed. &#160;Should the Mekong River population not be found conspecific with the Salween River population, the former should be referred to <em>A. mucronatum</em>.	eng
168272	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	This species is known from the Mekong, Salween and Irrawaddy River drainages (Ng and Wright 2009).	eng
168272	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits hill streams and the upper reaches of larger rivers.	eng
168272	population	Ng, H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168272	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168273	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168273	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	Known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168273	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits hillstreams with a sandy/rocky bottom (Ng 2005).	eng
168273	population	Ng, H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, as museum holdings of this species are scanty.	eng
168273	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168274	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168274	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Meghalaya and northern West Bengal, India and in Sylhet, Bangladesh (Ng 2005). Locality records that mention Chittagong in Bangladesh for this species are erroneous.	eng
168274	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks (Ng 2005).	eng
168274	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.	eng
168274	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. &#160;Menon (2004) identified habitat modification via the removal of river substrate (for construction) as a threat for this species, but the effects of such modification on this species remains poorly-known, as we have little information on the biology of this species.	eng
168275	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168275	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168275	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing hillstreams and rivers, usually with a substrate of gravel/rock (NRM collection website).	eng
168275	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.	eng
168275	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
168276	conservation	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168276	distribution	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Ganges River drainage in Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh, India.	eng
168276	habitat	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Like all <em>Amblyceps</em> species, this most likely inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks (H.H. Ng and R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168276	population	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species are unknown. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scarce.	eng
168276	threats	Pal, M. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168277	conservation	Vishwanath, W. & Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168277	distribution	Vishwanath, W. & Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Yu (Laniye) River headwaters in the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India.	eng
168277	habitat	Vishwanath, W. & Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams.	eng
168277	population	Vishwanath, W. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species are not known. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.	eng
168277	threats	Vishwanath, W. & Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168278	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168278	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	Known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India, although it is very likely to be also found in the same drainage downstream in Myanmar (H.H. Ng <em>pers</em>. <em>comm</em>.).	eng
168278	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits faster-flowing hillstreams and rivers with a bottom of sand/rocks.	eng
168278	population	Ng, H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is not known. &#160;Museum holdings of this species are scanty.	eng
168278	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168279	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats required.	eng
168279	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The <span>was described from a specimen collected at Mandalay market, Myanmar. It is known from the Irrawaddy and Sittang basins, Myanmar (Roberts 1997). This species has not been recorded since its first description. Its range of distribution is still uncertain.	eng
168279	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168279	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168279	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Threats to the species not known.	eng
168280	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168280	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Crossocheilus burmanicus </span>is known from  <st1:placetype>Chindwin basin</st1:placetype>  of <st1:placename>Manipur</st1:placename>, in northeastern <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.	eng
168280	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species inhabits streams and rivers with gravelly bottom in benthopelagic environment.</p>	eng
168280	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168280	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The rivers of Ukrul District of Manipur where the fish is distributed is facing problems due to over exploitation, poisoning and dynamiting (Selim and Vishwanath 1997, Kosygin and Vishwanath 2003). In other areas of its range no widesrpread threats have been identified.	eng
168281	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168281	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bispinosa</span> is known only from the Daying Jiang, a tributary flowing to the Yiluowadi Jiang (Irrawaddy River) basin  in Yingjiang, Yunnan, China. Extent of Occurrence is estimated at approximately 6,649 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the area of the sub-basin in which it is recorded.	eng
168281	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra bispinosa</span> inhabits mountain streams.	eng
168281	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168281	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The area is near a road and a human settlement and it may be subjected to habitat destruction and degradation.<br/></p>	eng
168282	conservation	L. Kosygin Singh, 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.<br/></p>	eng
168282	distribution	L. Kosygin Singh, 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra flavatra</span> is known only from Myanmar at three locations namely, western slope of Rakhine Yoma, the Kananmae Chaung, Baw Di Chaung and Kamyit Chaung.<br/><br/>Endemic to the Rakhine Yoma/Arakan mountain range in Rakhine state,  western Myanmar which forms a natural barrier cutting off the state from  the remainder of the country. It was originally collected from a  handful of streams and rivers of the western, interior, slopes of which  the type specimens originated from the Kananmae Chaung, a coastal  rivulet draining into the Bay of Bengal (Kullander and Fang 2004);&#160; abundant where encountered and almost  certainly has a wider distribution; his team had only four days in which  to complete their fieldwork which proved insufficient to explore the  region fully. Subsequent commercial collections may therefore have occurred at localities additional to those given in the description  paper.	eng
168282	habitat	L. Kosygin Singh, 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra flavatra</span>   inhabits small streams and rivers with clear water and pebbles or rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type localities, the Kananmae Chaung are small forest streams with almost stagnant to slow flowing water current, which reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. They further remarked that, the Kamyit Chaung, was a moderately large river in a riparian agricultural environment. On the other hand the Baw Di Chaung, was a small river between hills covered with secondary low shrub forest.	eng
168282	population	L. Kosygin Singh, 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168282	threats	L. Kosygin Singh, 2010	<p>    </p><p>This fish inhabits small streams which are reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. Such types of habitats may dry up during winter seasons. Even though, the Kamyit Chaung, was a moderately large river; it is in a riparian agricultural environment which may receive discharge from the surrounding agricultural fields.&#160; This area is also threatened by the construction of dams which will degrade the habitats.<em></em></p>  <p></p>	eng
168283	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra litanensis</span> is not known fronm any protected areas and has a restricted distribution. Further survey work is needed to determine   whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168283	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra litanensis</span> is known only from Litan Stream (Chindwin River basin) in Manipur, India.	eng
168283	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits hill streams with rocky bed. Vishwanath (1993) remarked that it seems to be the most advanced among the <span style="font-style: italic;">lissorhynchus</span> complex of the genus for adaptation to torrential life by smoothening off the chest and belly.	eng
168283	population	Singh, L., 2010	It is suspected that the population is declining, but more research is needed to determined the present population and distribution of the fish. There is no report on the fish since 1993.	eng
168283	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The fish and its habitat are threatened due to poisoning and dynamiting.	eng
168284	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine distribution pattern of the species and also whether the species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168284	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra nambulica</span> is known only from the Ireng Lok and Conchak Lok (stream of Nambul River), Singda Village of Manipur, India.	eng
168284	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits hill streams with rocky bed with small pebbles.	eng
168284	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168284	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The major threat to this fish is extensive habitat loss due to tourism and deforestation.</p>	eng
168285	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168285	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra paralissorhynchus </span>is known only from the Khuga River, Churachandpur District, Manipur, India.	eng
168285	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The fish inhabits moderate to fast flowing river.	eng
168285	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168285	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The major threat to this fish is Khuga Dam, which was constructed recently across the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khuga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is the only known habitat of the fish.</p>	eng
168286	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experienciong a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations	eng
168286	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra poecilura </span>is known only from the type locality, the Naung Pin Thar Chaung, a small stream on the eastern slope of the Rakhine Yoma, draining to the Irrawaddy basin.	eng
168286	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits hill streams with clear water and moderate current. The type locality of the species is a small forest stream with 1-2 m wide and 0.5 m depth having streambed consisting of rocks and gravel (Kullander 2004).	eng
168286	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168286	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
168287	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168287	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<p><em>Garra propulvinus </em>is known only from the two small coastal rivers, the Kamyit Chaung near Paukdu Village and Baw Di Chaung at Baw Di bridge in the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:place></st1:place>southern Myanmar.</p>	eng
168287	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species which inhabits rivers and streams.<br/></p>	eng
168287	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168287	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168288	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168288	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Garra qiaojiensis</span> is known from Mang Tong He stream, a tributary of the Hotha He River, above Tian Xin village on the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in China. Type locality is Qiaojie, Yunnan Province, China. Another record is from close to the Myanmar border (on road from Tengchong to Myanmar border at Tengchong or Guyong, Latitude:   25.3167, Longitude:   98.3) (GBIF).	eng
168288	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The fish inhabits mountain streams and rivers and it is a bottom dweller.	eng
168288	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168288	threats	Singh, L., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
168289	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168289	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<p><em>Garra rakhinica </em>is known only from the type locality, the Yan Khaw Chaung, a small stream on the coast of the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> draining to the <st1:place>Bay of Bengal</st1:place>.</p>	eng
168289	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>This species inhabits small forest river and streams with clear water and rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type locality of the species is a small forest river reduced to series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 m and not more than 1 m deep, with slow flowing or standing water. The river bed was made of pebbles, gravel and rocks. </p>	eng
168289	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168289	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168290	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168290	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<p><em>Garra spilota</em> is known only from the type locality, the Naung Pin Thar Chaung, a small forest stream on the eastern slope of the Rakhine Yoma, <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region> draining to the <st1:place>Irrawaddy</st1:place> basin.</p>	eng
168290	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>This species inhabits small stream with clear water and rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type locality of the species was a small forest stream with moderate water current, 1-2 m wide and 0.5 m depth. The stream bed was made of gravel and rocks. </p>	eng
168290	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168290	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168291	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	No information available.   Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168291	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<p><em>Garra vittatula</em> is known only from two small streams (the Yan Khaw Chaung and the Kananmae Chaung) on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, southern Myanmar, draining to the <st1:place>Bay of Bengal</st1:place>.</p>	eng
168291	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>This species inhabits small forest streams with clear water and pebbles or rocky bed. Kullander and Fang (2004) reported that the type localities, the Yan Khaw Chaung, the Kananmae Chaung are small forest streams with almost stagnant to slow flowing water current, which reduced to a series of connected pools with a combined width of 2 to 3 m and not more than 1 m deep. Other fishes inhabiting with the <em>Garra</em> <em>vittatula</em> are <st1:place><em>Anguilla</em></st1:place> sp., <em>Garra rakhine</em>, <em>Xenentodon cancila</em>, <em>Danio</em> <em>feegradei</em>, <em>Danio</em> sp., <em>Devario</em> sp. <em>Puntius</em> sp., <em>Puntius binduchitra</em>, <em>Rasbora daniconius</em>, <em>Rasbora</em> <em>rasbora</em>, <em>Lepidocephalichthys</em> sp., <em>Lepidocephalichthys</em> <em>berdmorei</em>, <em>Pangio</em> sp. <em>Pterocryptis</em> sp. <em>Batasio elongatus</em>, <em>Olyra burmanica</em>, <em>Aplocheilus panchax</em>, <em>Mastacembelus</em> sp., <em>Channa</em> sp., and <em>Sicyopterus fasciatus </em>etc..</p>	eng
168291	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168291	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168292	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168292	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species is presently known from the Lockchao River in Manipur which is a tributary of the Yu River. These river systems drain into the Chindwin River in Myanmar and the species was recorded in Myanmar from the Tamu market probably brought from nearby streams. The species maybe restricted to the Yu River basin. The extent of occurrence is approximately 20,000km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
168292	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species inhabits the subtropical hill streams of Manipur and possibly Myanmar.	eng
168292	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Currently there are no population data available.	eng
168292	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Threats to the species include hydropower development, deforestation and habitat loss due to logging for teak, and growth of urban centres in Moreh and Tamu. Some streams are also subjected to destructive fishing practices, which could impact the fish.	eng
168293	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	No conservation measures about this species is documented.	eng
168293	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>It is found in the freshwaters of Bangladesh, Indian Ocean, Andaman Islands, Mozambique, Malawi, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168293	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">The species occurs in Padma River in Bangladesh and in the freshwaters of Andaman Islands. &#160;Adults occur rarely in coastal swamps, with a wide temperature tolerance. &#160; It is a cryptic species found in mud substrates of dry zones. &#160;It is also found in pools in rivers in the wet zones. &#160;It probably feeds on small fish, crustaceans, worms and molluscs.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168293	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168293	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Threats to this species remains undocumented.	eng
168294	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about distribution, biology and trends of this species is needed, especially impacts of harvest for the ornamental trade.	eng
168294	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><em>Aspidoparia ukhrulensis</em> has been reported from two localities of the Ukhrul River in the Chindwin drainage of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The type locality is given as "Rivers at foot of Sikkim Mountains, India".</p>	eng
168294	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>This is a benthopelagic and freshwater fish species inhabiting streams and rivers of Manipur. </p>	eng
168294	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>This is a benthopelagic and freshwater fish species inhabiting streams and rivers of Manipur. </p>	eng
168294	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The fish is being harvested for its ornamental and food value, but is not known whether they contribute to its decline and therefore are threats to the species.	eng
168297	conservation	Ng, H.H. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168297	distribution	Ng, H.H. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is known from the tidal reaches of the lower Irrawaddy River, Myanmar.	eng
168297	habitat	Ng, H.H. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species inhabits large, tidal rivers, which have a mud or clay substrate and where there are strong currents that reverse daily; it feeds on large aquatic invertebrates such as prawns (Roberts 2001).	eng
168297	population	Ng, H.H. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends available for this species.	eng
168297	threats	Ng, H.H. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168298	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No conservation measures in place. More research in taxonomy is recommended as this species belongs to a wide species complex.	eng
168298	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found from Manipur, India to peninsular Thailand near the Malay border. It has been collected from Chindwin, Sitang and Salween basins, and smaller streams along west coast of peninsular Thailand, all draining to the Andaman Sea and in the Mae Khlong and Tapi basins, draining to the Gulf of Thailand. Although not yet collected in the Irrawaddy, it most probably occurs there. <strong></strong>    <p><strong></strong></p>         <p><br/><strong></strong></p>  <span style="background-color: black;"></span>	eng
168298	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Found in a variety of streams from river mainstreams to small brooks.&#160; Seems to prefer shallow riffles over small pebbles above which its marmorated color pattern makes it inconspicuous from the surface. Also collected on a muddy to sandy substrate with a few stones and numerous gastropod shells in depths ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 m.<span class="sheader51"><strong></strong></p>	eng
168298	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available although it is common throughout its range.	eng
168298	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may be affected by many threats such as destructive fishing using dynamite, and habitat destruction.	eng
168299	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168299	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana devdevi</span> is distributed in Manipur (India), Myanmar and Thailand.	eng
168299	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bangana devde</span><em>vi</em> is found in benthopelagic environment.	eng
168299	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available although it is common throughout its range.	eng
168299	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The area where this species occurs may be affected by dam construction and other human activities which lead to habitat destruction and degradation.	eng
168300	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168300	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed in Pakistan and India	eng
168300	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is a freshwater stream fishes found to inhabit in a benthopelagic environment.	eng
168300	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to be rare in the upper Jhelum River. It is found at a  higher altitude than is otherwise common for <em>Bangana</em> species. It is  abundant but migratory. Current Kashmir Valley population is a captive  remnant of a much larger migrating population. The population frequency  is low in Jhelum due to stronger initial reaction to changes in the  environmental condition.	eng
168300	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may be exposed to many threats caused by change in environmental condition.	eng
168301	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. Urgent survey work is needed to determine its total range and whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>	eng
168301	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in Chatrickong River, Ukhrul District, Manipur, India. More research is needed to confirm other localities as its total range is not yet confirmed.	eng
168301	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	A hillstream fish inhabiting medium to fast torrential mountain streams. Thrive well in a benthopelagic environment.	eng
168301	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168301	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The area where this species has been found is affected by habitat degradation due to logging and deforestation and it is presumed that the species is being affected.	eng
168302	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline in the wild after detailed surveys and studies on its biology.	eng
168302	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species has only been recorded from Lairok Maru, Moreh, Chandel District, Manipur, India. The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 4,800-5,000 km<sup>2</sup>, based on the area of the river sub-basin that it has been recorded in.	eng
168302	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens have been collected from streams.	eng
168302	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the population structure and distribution.	eng
168302	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may suffer from habitat destruction caused by siltation due to deforestation.	eng
168303	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">   <p>More research about distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</span></p>	eng
168303	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known only from Sherou River, (tributary of Manipur River), south of Imphal, Chindwin drainage, Manipur, India. &#160;The range of this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
168303	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens are collected from the rivers which is mostly shallow, but there are rocky pools where the depth exceeds 3.5 m. The river has a luxuriant growth of shrubs, trees and bamboos on both banks, and paddy fields wherever there is human habitation.	eng
168303	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168303	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is overexploited for consumption.	eng
168334	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Lower reaches of Brahmaputra are extensively fished areas. Apart from the above the habitat shrinkage of this species is other problem. Protected areas holds some promise for this species.</p>	eng
168334	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<em>Badis assamensis</em> is reported from the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River in India. Type locality is the Dibru River.	eng
168334	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This is benthic freshwater fish species. As per observation it feeds on insects, earthworms and some plankton. Neotype locality was a swamp-like tributary over 1 m deep with stagnant, brownish water, situated in plains, in a forest landscape, and with trees close to the bank, trees and waterlilies in the water; sandy bottom (Kullander and Britz 2002)	eng
168334	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The population estimates of this species are still unknown during capture conditions.	eng
168334	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The areas where this species is found is under deforestation and also the species is harvested in small scale for food value but this species is extracted from wild for its ornamental value as camouflage fish.	eng
168335	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Research into the species population trends and distribution.<strong></strong>	eng
168335	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is reported from tropical waters of India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal. In India and Bangladesh the species is reported from both Ganges, Mahanadi and Brahmaputra river drainage.<strong> </strong>	eng
168335	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Occurs solitarily in rivers, ponds and ditches. Also found in swamps. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. It lives in tropical freshwaters in temperatures of 23 °C - 26 °C, pH range: 6.0 - 8.0. </p>	eng
168335	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The population estimates of this species are still unknown during capture conditions.	eng
168335	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species is extensively used in study of fish behaviour and used as aquarium fish.<strong></strong>	eng
168336	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><a href="http://www.fishbase.org/Glossary/Glossary.php?q=dorsal%20fin&language=english&sc=is"></a>  The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known. </p>	eng
168336	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<em>Badis blosyrus</em> is found in the lower reaches of Brahmaputra in Assam and Nagaland (Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>), and a species tentatively identified from Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India. Collected only once by the German Expedition in 1957. It may be present in Bhutan.	eng
168336	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This is a benthic species, inhabiting tropical waters.	eng
168336	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The population estimates of this species are still unknown.	eng
168336	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species is extensively used in study of fish behaviour and used as aquarium fish.<strong> </strong>Water quality changes and habitat destruction is major threat to this species.	eng
168337	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More information the species distribution is required and the impact of fishery activities.	eng
168337	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Hill streams near Chittagong in Bangladesh, including the Matamohuri River drainage. No other material exist north of the type locality, in the adjacent Indian states of Tripura or Mizoram, or the eastern coast of Myanmar, but these areas are still to be properly surveyed (FishBase 2009).	eng
168337	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is a tropical, pelagic freshwater species.<strong> </strong>	eng
168337	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	No information available.	eng
168337	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Harvest for ornamental trade and subsistence fishing may be threats to the species.	eng
168338	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Further information on the species ecology and distribution required.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168338	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><em>Badis corycaeus</em> is recorded in streams and from Indawgyi Lake, Myanmar. </p>	eng
168338	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>In stream, up to 30 m wide but not very deep, about 1 m in the low water season; water colourless and clear, current moderate, surroundings consisted of secondary forest and pasture, the bank with grasses; with long-leafed submerged plants (<em>Cryptocoryne</em> sp.) growing in clumps whose bottom consisted of sand and pebbles. <br/></p><p>Described from Indawgyi Lake and several small streams around Myitkina.<br/></p>	eng
168338	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It appears to be stable; common within its range.	eng
168338	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Deforestation may lead to population reduction in future, but the threats to the species are not currently known. Lake Indawgyi is impacted by sedimentation caused by upstream logging, as well as pollution from human development around the lake.	eng
168339	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Further information is required on the species population and distribution.	eng
168339	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The species is found in rivers in Myanmar. The species was first identified from a market (Kalaymyo). It has now been found in several Chindwin and Irrawadyy drainages, on the eastern slopes of the Chin Hills. It is also present in Manipur, India.<br/></p>	eng
168339	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is tropical, benthopelagic freshwater species.<strong> </strong>This species is known to be omnivore and feeds on insects and planktons.	eng
168339	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The population estimates of this species are unknown.	eng
168339	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is deforestation within the Chin Hills and most likely in other parts of its range.	eng
168340	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known, but protected areas in lower Assam may hold good for this species. &#160;More information on the species population, distribtion, and threats is required.<br/></p>	eng
168340	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is reported from the middle reaches of the Brahmaputra River in India (German-Indian Expedition, 1957, type locality unclear; given on type specimen label as 'Raimona' (Assam)). Concluded to mean Raimana by Kullander and Britz (2002).&#160; There are also records from the Bhoroli, Janali, and Sukajan Rivers and&#160; from Kokrajhar in Assam. It has also been collected more recently (W. Vishwanath&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010) from one other locality in western Assam.	eng
168340	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The more recent specimen was collected from a hill stream, with sandy and gravel bottom.	eng
168340	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168340	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Threats to this species are not known but the lower reaches of Brahmaputra are extensively fished areas. Apart from the above habitat loss and degradation an increasing problem. Protected areas like Manas holds some promise for this species.	eng
168341	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>The conservation measures undertaken for this species is not known. &#160;Protected areas in the region hold a key for fostering conservation measures. &#160;Research into population and distribution needed.<br/></p>	eng
168341	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>  Widely spread distributed in southern Myanmar up to Mandalay (Irrawady, Sittang and Salween rivers, as well as smaller drainages). Also reported from the Mekong in Thailand.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168341	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits freshwaters<strong>, </strong>small creeks with dense vegetation; it is common in roadside ditches and similar lentic habitats in lowland.	eng
168341	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
168341	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Illegal fishing, habitat destruction and commercial exploitation for ornamental value are causes for concern, but the threats to the species are not known.	eng
168342	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The impact of the Tuvai Dam on the species known range needs to be urgently investigated.	eng
168342	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Badis tuivaiei</em> is reported from Manipur from Tuivai and Irang rivers, in India. The species has a very restricted range of less than 5,000 km² and the area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km²<sup>.</sup>	eng
168342	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p> It inhabits clear water montane streams and also lentic water bodies during summer; it is unlikley to be present in lowland rivers where the water is muddy. It feeds on small invertebrates and some plankton. </p>	eng
168342	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Currently population size is unknown.	eng
168342	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Most of the areas are extensively fished and is also subject to deforestation. The Tuivai Multpurpose Dam project will start construction in 2010 on the Manipur-Mizoram border 500 m downstream of the confluence of Tuivai&#160; River with the Barak River and will severely impact upon the two known populations.	eng
168343	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information is required on the species distribution, and the impact of habitat loss and degradation.	eng
168343	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Recorded from Meekalan, Myanmar it occurs in the Tennasserim and Salween basins (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005) and reported from the Irrawaddy River by Talwar and Jhingran (1991).	eng
168343	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Mountain and streams (high gradient streams); mostly found in water  falls and high gradient riffles.	eng
168343	population	Britz, R., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
168343	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Hill streams are threatened across the region by deforestation causing  siltation. This species inhabits streams with boulders, and mining and  quarrying will degrade its habitat.	eng
168344	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168344	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is&#160;known only from the Baw Di Chaung and Kanamae Chaung drainages on the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar.	eng
168344	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits hillstreams with a predominantly rocky bottom interspersed with patches of sand (Ng 2004).	eng
168344	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species as it has been collected from just two nearby localities.	eng
168344	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168345	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168345	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh in India and probably in Assam, India, and Bangladesh (H.H. Ng and S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168345	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168345	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;In Arunachal Pradesh the species is caught in fewer numbers as compared to <em>Batasio batasio</em> and <em>B. tengana</em>, implying that its population is naturally rare (S. Chaudhry <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168345	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168346	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168346	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in eastern Nepal. &#160;It is presumably found in the rest of the Ganges River drainage, although the exact extant to which it occurs here is unknown.	eng
168346	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been found in large rivers with turbid water, overlying mainly sand substrate in lotic areas, and sand/mud substrate with some submerged and emergent vegetation in lentic backwaters (Ng and Edds 2004).	eng
168346	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168346	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168347	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168347	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from Meriani and in Gurfhula River near Kumapara in Assam Brahmaputra River drainage, India (Ng 2009).	eng
168347	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers with a sandy or muddy bottom as inferred from its congeners (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168347	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168347	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168348	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats of this species.	eng
168348	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168348	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species has been collected from cool, fast flowing streams with a sandy/rocky bottom and with riffles (Ng 2008; R. Britz <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168348	population	Ng, H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168348	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168349	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More information on the distribution, biology and potential threats of this species is needed.	eng
168349	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in the vicinity of Dibrugarh in Assam, India.	eng
168349	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no precise information on the biology of this species, since the collection locality of the only known specimens is imprecise. &#160;This species is most similar to <em>B. tengana</em>, and it is likely that it inhabits similar habitats, i.e. larger streams and rivers.	eng
168349	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.	eng
168349	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168351	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.&#160;The taxonomy of the species also requires study, as the conspecificity of the populations from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system and the Irrawaddy River drainage needs confirmation.	eng
168351	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system eastwards to the Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
168351	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower and middle reaches of rivers.	eng
168351	population	Ng, H., 2009	Although this species appears to be fairly common in the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005), there is almost no information to the status of this species in the Ganges-Brahmaputra system.	eng
168351	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168353	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168353	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	<em>Clupisoma roosae</em>&#160;was described from the Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar (Ferraris 2004).	eng
168353	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	Although the exact habitat of this species is unknown, it most likely inhabits the main channels of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries, like other congeners.	eng
168353	population	Ng, H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, although Ferraris (2004) reports it as being uncommon.	eng
168353	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168354	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Further research on livelihood, uses, and population trends is recommended.	eng
168354	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<st1:country-region w:st="on">It occurs in India</st1:country-region> (Western Himalaya) and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Mirza and Alam 2002).	eng
168354	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It inhabits mountain streams and rivers.	eng
168354	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information on population status is available.	eng
168354	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168355	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information is available and further research on this species is needed.	eng
168355	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Known from "Moulmein" (type locality; now known as Mawlamyaing) on the Salween, and from the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
168355	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
168355	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168355	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168356	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Further information is required on the species taxonomy, population, distribution and threats.	eng
168356	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Known only from Upper Rotung, Abor Hills, Arunachal Pradesh in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Chaudhuri 1913), from an elevation of 2000 ft (ca. 600 m).	eng
168356	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span class="sheader5">Found in shallow hill streams, buried in mud (Chaudhuri 1913). This genus only enters rivers and streams for breeding, when they migrate upstream; the remainder of the time it is found in mud and marshy areas.	eng
168356	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information on population status is available. The species is known only from the type locality and from the original description. No subsequent records of the species are available, and the area has not been surveyed in recent years.	eng
168356	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The habitat in the type locality is considered to be relatively unimpacted by development. The species migrates upstream in rivers and streams to breed and may be impacted by dams and other river obstructions.	eng
168357	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
168357	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The species is known from the Khujairok Stream (a tributary of Yu River) at Moreh, near the adjoining borderland area of Manipur (India) and Myanmar.	eng
168357	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits mountain streams.	eng
168357	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>	eng
168357	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species occurs in a degraded area where human habitation and deforestation are causing reduction of the quality of its habitat.<br/></p>	eng
168358	conservation	Lambe, A., 2008	<p>Puyas are   officially considered endangered and protected by legislation in Peru (Law No 043- 2006-AG). But the practical enforcement of this measure   are not evident outside of one national park and the law must be strengthened   and enforced. Likewise, Peru’s pertinent authorities should be   urged&#160;to   promote Puya communities as a tourist attraction and to raise awareness of   the plant’s value among both children and adults living near existing groves.   Acción Ambiental  plan to select at least one reserve for   specific conservation measures. This   may be the huge Titankayoc site or one nearer the major tourist destination, Cusco.</p>   <p>The plant also needs to be far   better known and steps should be taken to strengthen communities of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span> genetically. To this end, we plan to collect seeds from   the most divergent Puya sites, altitudinally and latitudinally, to reproduce   in nurseries as a reserve. Following   further research and if endorsed by experts seeds might ultimately be used to   cross-seed (some) existing populations. Reproducing and extending the plant, which   in a sparse habitat has significant ecological importance, is another   priority. Establishing one or more new   rodales in promising sites will be   evaluated.</p>   <p>The   ‘Queen of the Andes’ is also   of considerable ornamental value and introducing it as a dramatic landscaping   element internationally as well as nationally is another goal. The author is aware of only a few specimens   being used for such purposes in Peru’s   Puno and Cusco provinces. Preliminary contacts have already been   established with several foreign botanical gardens.</p>	eng
168358	distribution	Lambe, A., 2008	This plant<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>usually occurs at around 4,000 m in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, but it ranges from 3,000 m up to 4,800 m (both extremes occur in Bolivia). Its communities are often very isolated from each other and can be found in pockets from Calipuy in northern Peru, Huaraz in the centre to Apurimac and Ayacucho in the south, crossing into western Bolivia’s La Paz province, Cochabamba in the centre and Potosí in the south. The most important site by far in Peru is Titankayoc - Chanchayoc in Ayacucho, while Bolivia’s largest known community is in Rodeo, Arani province. A single reference to <span style="font-style: italic;">Puya</span> species in southern Ecuador and northern Chile has not been verified.	eng
168358	habitat	Lambe, A., 2008	Typical habitat for this species occurs at about 4,000 m but can extend from 3,000–4,800 m. At these levels, air temperatures range from very cold (as low as -20ºC or less) to an estimated maxima of 8–24ºC. Precipitation, as rain, hail or snow falls mainly from October to March. The ground is almost invariably rocky and usually sloping and friable. Drainage requirements or an inability to compete with other flora in&#160;more fertile land may account for the rarity of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span> in damp gullies although a few specimens have been seen close to standing water. Still less clear is why a plant known to thrive in very different <span style="font-style: italic;">ex-situ</span> conditions confines itself to a single spot on a mountainside when surrounded by seemingly similar terrain; or why population densities can vary considerably among and within communities.<br/><br/>  The Puya’s ability to grow and even thrive in quite different conditions (low altitude, high humidity, high temperature) in which maturity can be reached in half the time needed in the wild, makes the plant a candidate for a range of <em>ex situ</em> environments.	eng
168358	population	Lambe, A., 2008	Thanks to a single enormous subpopulation, which could represent most of the world’s population of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. raimondii</span>, the number of these plants in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region> may number 800,000 individuals. <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bolivia</st1:place></st1:country-region> is estimated to have 30,000-35,000 plants.	eng
168358	threats	Lambe, A., 2008	<p>The Puya is susceptible to threatening events because its communities are generally small and very isolated from each other. This has apparently rendered populations extremely homogeneous genetically due probably to autogamous inbreeding depression and so at greater risk to disease, parasites or predators accompanying climatic change. The latter is well documented and manifest in Peru’s rapidly receding glaciers. &#160;For possibly related but as yet unknown reasons, at least one population has not flowered for decades.</p><p>The major risk in most communities, however, is due to human impact including repeated fires to generate or maintain pasture land and usage as fuel or building material by local populations. An added incentive is the fear that Puyas may ‘capture’ grazing animals with their leaves’ (fearsome) inward-curving spines. This is probably very rare but not inconceivable. Native birds have been ensnared and killed this way.</p>	eng
168359	conservation	Britz, R. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropuntius </span>group from Myanmar requires further taxonomic work.	eng
168359	distribution	Britz, R. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span>Currently recorded from Yunnan, China and from Myanmar, on an eastern tributary of the Irrawaddy. <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropuntius margarianus</span> occurs in Longchuan Jiang and Daying Jiang and its type specimen was collected from Nampoung River (Xiao-yong and Jun-xing 2003).	eng
168359	habitat	Britz, R. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is found in larger streams and rivers, faster-flowing clear water.	eng
168359	population	Britz, R. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168359	threats	Britz, R. & Dahanukar, N., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168360	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.	eng
168360	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan and known from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu and Yakushima.	eng
168360	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits very shallow swampy areas often associated with <em>Alnus</em> trees. Larvae live under fallen leaves. The species inhabits abandoned paddy fields.	eng
168360	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168360	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The habitat of this species continues to be affected by water pollution from agricultural and domestic development.	eng
168361	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Some localities are threatened with overgrown vegetation, meaning that the species preferred breeding habitat of under 20 cm is limited.  Trial conservation projects are under way to cut back the vegetation in order to provide decent oviposit conditions.	eng
168361	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan and known from Honshu. The distribution range is very limited, mainly around Japan sea area (northwestern half of Honshu); a record is known from Shikoku although this is doubtful.	eng
168361	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species occurs in swampy areas in the lowlands. Found at small artificial ponds and often at places where water control takes place in the autumn season. The larvae need very clear water. The habitat of the species is usually below 20 cm high and situated in areas uninhabited by humans.	eng
168361	population	Karube, H., 2007	In the locality, the population is usually not common.  Very few sites are known with some 100 populations.	eng
168361	threats	Karube, H., 2007	This species appears to be very sensitive to habitat change.  Recent land reclamation and abandonment has resulted in the habitat becoming overgrown with vegetation, including tall reeds, which are not suitable breeding sites for <em>Sympetrum maculatum</em>.  This has caused local extinctions and there are many examples of the problem in the Tohoku-Shinshu area.  An unusual report of water pollution is also affecting the quality of the habitat through excessive debris left over from feeding swans in some ponds has been reported to cause local extinctions a few years later.	eng
168362	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Although the species is being studied, more is needed into its taxonomy, population numbers and range.  Some degraded habitat has been restored, although more policy-based actions are needed to keep it at this level, and to continue to restore other degraded habitats.	eng
168362	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan (Honshu, Shikoku).	eng
168362	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits artificial ponds but it is unclear if it is found in non-man-made habitats.	eng
168362	population	Karube, H., 2007	In the good site, populations still strong.	eng
168362	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The major threat to this species is the abandonment of the water-controlled Japanese paddy field system.  In the Set-sea area, artificial ponds have been left to dry out in the autumn season; when the area was managed, the shore areas were humid and covered with decent low vegetation providing the adult pair with suitable breeding environments. Recently this type of water control system has not been used resulting in a lack of viable breeding sites for this species, causing local extinctions.  Land reclamation and water pollution also negatively affect <em>Sympetrum gracile</em>.	eng
168363	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
168363	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan. Most western part of Fossa magna line in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu. Partly restricted in the southern Kantou area in the eastern distributional range (Boso-penisula, etc).	eng
168363	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species is found in running waters, mostly in mountains or hills.	eng
168363	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168363	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The habitat of this species is being degraded and lost for industrial and domestic housing development.  This also brings in the common problem of water pollution to the remaining habitats.	eng
168364	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.	eng
168364	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan and recorded from Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.	eng
168364	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits streams, rivers and sometimes lakes.	eng
168364	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species has a limited distribution and is decreasing throughout its range.	eng
168364	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Water pollution and the destruction of riverside forest have affected <em>Stylurus nagoyanus</em> habitat.  Emerging larvae are being seriously impacted by the artificial waves caused by leisure boats on some lakes.	eng
168365	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.	eng
168365	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic species for Japan and known from Honshu, Shikoku, Kyusyu.	eng
168365	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species occurs in medium sized rivers with clear water and a sandy bottom. Sometimes inhabits lakes.	eng
168365	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168365	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Considering all of Japan, the population is still strong, but around the Kanto area (near Tokyo) the river environments are being altered and will soon not be viable for the species and in some sites they are already extinct.  The situation shows this species is rather sensitive to environmental change, so it needs monitoring.	eng
168366	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.	eng
168366	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic for Japan and found on the Koshiki-islands of Kamikoshiki and Simokoshiki (Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu).	eng
168366	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species is found in upper to median parts of streams: usually larvae is found in seepage areas.	eng
168366	population	Karube, H., 2007	Recent studies show it is common on the islands and the populations are strong.	eng
168366	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The habitat of this species is likely to be affected in the future by water pollution from agricultural, domestic and commercial development.	eng
168367	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.	eng
168367	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic species to Japan known from Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu.	eng
168367	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits streams and the upper and middle parts of rivers. Sometimes inhabits lakes.	eng
168367	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168367	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The habitat has been and continues to be affected by the pollution from agricultural, domestic and commercial development.  The future predictions of a change in weather, specifically drought, is likely to have a negative affect on the species also.	eng
168368	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.	eng
168368	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic species to Japan. Occurs in the northern parts of Japan: Hokkaido and Northern Honshu.	eng
168368	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The largest populations are found in  mountain swampy areas. Smaller populations occur in spring areas at lower altitudes.	eng
168368	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168368	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Some localities have become extinct by reclamation.	eng
168369	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although monitoring needs to be put in place to see how the habitat threats are affecting the populations.	eng
168369	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Widespread species known from Eastern Russia, Japan and Korea.	eng
168369	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species occurs in river and stream habitats; sometimes in mountain ponds and lakes.	eng
168369	population	Karube, H., 2007	Common species throughout Japan; in the city area local extinction has expanded mainly due to pollution.  But the status is not serious at present and there remain many strong colonies.	eng
168369	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The main threat to this species is the continued problem of water pollution from farming, domestic and industrial developments.	eng
168370	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, and none appear to be needed at present.	eng
168370	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic to Japan, but common within its range.	eng
168370	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits running waters.	eng
168370	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168370	threats	Karube, H., 2007	There are no known threats to this common species.	eng
168371	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, and none appear to be needed at present.	eng
168371	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Widely distributed in the southwest of Japan and southeast Asia.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei"><br/></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam"></a>	eng
168371	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species is found in ponds, lakes, slow running streams, swamps.	eng
168371	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168371	threats	Karube, H., 2007	There are no known threats to this common species.	eng
168372	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Policy actions are in place, although the detail of these policies are not known.	eng
168372	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	The species is endemic to Japan and is known from Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Yakushima.	eng
168372	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits mountain streams; often seen as it is one of the most abundant species of its family.	eng
168372	population	Karube, H., 2007	The species is common within its range.	eng
168372	threats	Karube, H., 2007	The species preferred habitat is becoming degraded due to logging; present and predicted changes in the climate, specifically drought, is also going to have a damaging effect on the remaining habitat.	eng
168373	conservation	Karube, H., 2007	Protected areas need to be established and restored to allow this species adequate breeding sites.  Research into its life history, population status and trend is needed.	eng
168373	distribution	Karube, H., 2007	Endemic species to Japan and recorded only from Honshu.	eng
168373	habitat	Karube, H., 2007	The species inhabits streams and large lakes.	eng
168373	population	Karube, H., 2007	Distribution is very limited, almost all localities without Shiga and Nagano prefecture became extinct in the 1960-1970’s, but in the Japanese largest lake areas of  Biwa-lake and Suwa-lake, there are still very strong populations and there are many localities.	eng
168373	threats	Karube, H., 2007	Almost all river sites have been damaged by water pollution.  Emerging larvae are being seriously impacted by the artificial waves caused by leisure boats on some lakes.	eng
168374	conservation	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. Populations are present within several marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
168374	distribution	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species has been recorded from southern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Palau (Randall and Rocha 2009). It occurs at depths of 2-25 m.	eng
168374	habitat	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	Inhabits coral-rich areas in back-slopes and lagoons with calm, usually silty waters.	eng
168374	population	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It is common in both Palau and Papua New Guinea (Randall and Rocha 2009). Populations are presumed to be stable in general.	eng
168374	threats	Pyle, R., Rocha, L.A. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Collection for the aquarium trade is localized and does not seem to affect the global population.	eng
168397	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Information on the threats to this species are urgently required.	eng
168397	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>The species has been reported from a restricted area of Mandalay,  Myanmar and from Manipur near the Myanmar border (Selim and Vishwanath 1996).<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"></p>	eng
168397	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is a benthopelagic freshwater fish inhabiting the clear streams and rivers of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;&#160;and Manipur in India (Talwar and Jhingran 1991)</p>	eng
168397	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">There is hardly any literature to suggest about its natural population size although it is believed to be common.<br/></p>	eng
168397	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168398	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed on distribution, life history, population, trends, habitat, and impacts of threats.	eng
168398	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality in Kiphire, Nagaland, India.	eng
168398	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader5">It inhabits small streams with pebbles.	eng
168398	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168398	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No known major threats are identified for the species, however like all hill stream fishes the habitat of this species is threatened from deforestation and jhumming practices..	eng
168399	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168399	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages in Myanmar.	eng
168399	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably inhabits large rivers like its congeners.	eng
168399	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168399	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168400	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168400	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Nangra bucculenta</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River delta in Bangladesh.&#160;This species is only known from the Tangail District of central Bangladesh, a flood plain area between large tributaries in the Ganges delta (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168400	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.	eng
168400	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species; the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.	eng
168400	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168401	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline.<br/></p>	eng
168401	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed in Karong in Barak River and Noney in Iyei River (Brahmaputra drainage) in Manipur, India. &#160;It has a restricted distribution less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;The area of occupancy is inferred to be highly restricted.	eng
168401	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in streams and rivers.	eng
168401	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168401	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species might suffer from habitat decline caused by deforestation and other human impacts. <span style="font-style: italic;">Jhum </span>cultivation resulting in siltation has been causing damage to hill stream habitat. Destructive fishing is also widely practised in interior hill areas. &#160;The proposed Tipaimukh Dam will destroy the habitats of some populations of this restricted species.	eng
168402	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168402	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known only from the Baw Di Chaung drainage in western Myanmar, but is expected to be found in other river systems draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma.	eng
168402	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been collected from slow-flowing streams with a substrate of rocks and sand.	eng
168402	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168402	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168403	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168403	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in central Nepal (in Tanahun, Khirenitar in Seti River drainage, and in Mahesh Khola).	eng
168403	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers with&#160;plenty of cool and swift, rocky riffles.	eng
168403	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168403	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168404	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168404	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from Barak River in Jiri, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Manipur, India.	eng
168404	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.	eng
168404	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168404	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The Tipaimukh&#160;Dam, a large hydroelectric dam, is planned for the Barak River. The&#160;impacts&#160;of the dam on this&#160;species&#160;are not known.	eng
168405	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Some populations may be present in protected areas, such as Nameri National Park and Pakke Tiger Reserve. Further research on population and distribution is needed.	eng
168405	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from streams near Tangla, Darrang District and in Dibrungharh, Kalmoni drainage between Assam-Arunachal border in India. There are less than 10 locations although the exact number cannot be confirmed with the information available.	eng
168405	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the species have been found in flowing streams with a sandy bed.	eng
168405	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species which attains a length of about 7.5 cm; is very rare.	eng
168405	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The habitat of this species is affected by deforestation, damming, and commercial and industrial developments.	eng
168406	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No conservation action is in place. &#160;Information on the species range, habitats and threats is needed.	eng
168406	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is known from the Salween, Sittang, and Irrwaddy drainage in Myanmar and the Brahmaputra drainage in Bangladesh and Assam, India <span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(Havird and Page 2010).	eng
168406	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Bottom dwelling species inhabitaing mid reaches of rivers.	eng
168406	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168406	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	General threats due to urbanisation, logging, deforestation and sedimentation	eng
168407	conservation	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2010	Research is needed to clarify its taxonomic status, total range of distribution, actual population structure, trends and identify threats and their impacts.	eng
168407	distribution	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2010	<p>It is endemic fish species of <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> and reported from <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sikkim</st1:country-region> (Teesta River) and it is possible that this species is found in the adjoining <st1:place w:st="on">Ganges</st1:place> drainage.</p>	eng
168407	habitat	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2010	It is a benthopelagic species inhabiting the subtropical streams and rivers in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Sikkim</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kapoor <em>et al.</em> 2002)	eng
168407	population	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2010	<span class="sheader51">No population details are available but this species seems to have a narrow distribution.	eng
168407	threats	Chaudhry, S. & Barbhuiya, A.H., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">It is be fished as a sport fish and it has a food value, it may be subject to overfishing. </p>	eng
168408	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168408	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China. &#160;It is found at an altitudinal range of 3000-4000 m only.	eng
168408	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits the deeper areas of clear, fast-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate and at altitudes of above 3000 m (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Reproduction is between May and July (Wu and Wu 1991).	eng
168408	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its size for this species, although this species is stated to be uncommon (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995; Yue and Chen 1998).	eng
168408	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is thought to be overfished, particularly after the 1950s, when migrant Chinese began arriving in Tibet in large numbers (the species, as with other fishes, are not eaten by the Tibetan people; Yue and Chen 1998). Other threats to this species are unknown. &#160;Slow growth and prolonged sexual maturity affects the survivability of this species with respect to anthropogenic threats (Qi <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
168410	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168410	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages of Myanmar and the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India.	eng
168410	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.	eng
168410	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population of this species in Manipur is relatively rare compared to <em>H. microphthalmus </em>(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although this is a fairly common species in Myanmar (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168410	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168411	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.	eng
168411	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Nujiang (upper Salween), Shiquan (upper Indus) and Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) drainages in Tibet, as well as from numerous lakes of central Tibet (e.g. Dochen Tso, Namtso, Pangong Tso, Siling Tso, Yamdrok Tso) (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995). &#160;It has also been recorded from Kashmir in India by Hora.	eng
168411	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Found in slower-flowing rivers and lakes, living amongst rocks and aquatic vegetation. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and reproduces in June-July (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
168411	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is no information on the population and its trends for this species, this is a relatively widespread and abundant species.	eng
168411	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.	eng
168412	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about the taxonomy, distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is significant confusion in its taxonomy. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168412	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species   <span lang="EN-IN">is found in the Ganges drainage of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Kullander <em>et al.</em> 1999); originally described from the northern rivers of Bengal and Bihar, especially the Mahanunda. Records are from the Giri River (Himachal Pradesh) and Nilgiri (Neilgherris or rivers on or around their base; <span lang="EN-IN">Tamil Nadu). The full distribution of the species<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN">, as well as the records from southern India,<span lang="EN-IN"><span lang="EN-IN"> requires confirmation.</span>	eng
168412	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This is demersal freshwater species, flowing in the subtropical regions. It occurs in areas of the stream where water is moving very slow.<strong><span lang="EN-IN"></strong></p>	eng
168412	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">No population datasets are available for this species.</p>	eng
168412	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Habitat destruction and increasing fishing pressure may affect its population. However, the threats to this species are yet unknown.<strong></strong>	eng
168413	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Monitoring of the species fishery and collection for the aquarium trade is essential. Further information on the species habitat and ecology is required.<br/></p>	eng
168413	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The range of <span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus balitora</span>  was formerly considered to include northern and northeastern India (northern &#160;Bengal, and the Gomti River at Lucknow), Nepal and Bangladesh.<br/><br/>   Recent (2008) work (K. Conway, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers comm.</span>) designated a neotype for <span style="font-style: italic;">P. balitora</span> (the type locality of which is now northwestern Bangladesh in the Ganges drainage) which restricted the species to a much smaller area (including the Ganges and Brahmaputra drainages in eastern Nepal, northeast Bangladesh and adjacent West Bengal and northwest Assam only). It is not known from Myanmar.	eng
168413	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span class="sheader5">This species occurs in hill streams                    and rapids with pebbly and sandy bottom,                    usually associated with hard substrates.	eng
168413	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Limited information is available on the species populations. In the Barak river system there are good populations (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm</em>.). Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.      </p>	eng
168413	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Dams are likely to effect the species habitat and population in some parts of its range (e.g. the Barak River in Assam, S.C. Dey, pers. comm.). The species is widely caught, and is taken in large quantities for the commercial ornamental trade.<br/></p>	eng
168414	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats are identified, but the impacts need to be monitored.	eng
168414	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Jhelum River in the Indus River drainage in Pakistan (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). It has also been reported from the Ganges River drainage in Nepal (Shrestha 1999)<span style="font-weight: bold;">,</span> and from Jammu and Kashmir, India (Rema Devi and Indra 2009). The Nepal record requires confirmation.	eng
168414	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168414	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	The population in Jhelum River is predicted to be affected in the next 5–10 years from dam construction (including the already constructed Mangla dam). Since the species is a fast flowing river specialist, damming will alter its habitat irreversibly causing drastic population declines. In addition the practice of fisheries department to release exotics into reservoirs may push to species to local extinctions in several or most locations (M. Arunachalam and W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).	eng
168414	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	Several dams proposed on Jhelum River are potential threats to the species and its habitat within the next 3-5 years. Kullander <em>et al. </em>(1999) do not consider this species to be threatened and indicated that this species may efficiently use fish ladders if provided. However, the current situation with development activities on the river are of serious concern to the species (M. Arunachalam <em>pers. comm</em>.). The species will be affected drastically as it is a fast flowing river species, with dams causing pools. Also, from experience it is seen that reservoirs are stocked with exotics, which could eliminate this species.	eng
168415	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. browni</span> is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168415	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is only found in Northern Shan States, Upper Myanmar. It is endemic to the region.	eng
168415	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This fish is accustomed to varying water conditions and the presence of a considerable number of other fishes.	eng
168415	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available, but the species may be declining due to over-exploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
168415	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since the species is utilised in the aquarium trade, it might suffer the threat of overexploitation.	eng
168416	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The confused taxonomy of this species requires resolution and fresh material is critically needed to reassess the identity and taxonomic status of this species. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is no information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168416	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	The exact distribution of this species within the Indian subcontinent is unknown. Although suspected to be found in the vicinity of Pharphing, Nepal (in the Ganges River drainage) by Regan (1907), a glyptosternine catfish matching the description of<em> M. blythii</em> has not been found in recent surveys in the area.	eng
168416	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The habitats and ecology of this species are unknown, although it most likely inhabits torrential hillstreams with a rocky substrate like other glyptosternine catfishes.	eng
168416	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168416	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168417	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	More detailed study into its biology, population trends and threats is required. Lake Indawgi is a national park, and fishing activities are controlled.	eng
168417	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	The species is described from Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.&#160;Restricted to Myanmar, the species is recorded from Lake Indawgyi, Irawwaddy tributaries around Myitkina, and recently found in southern Myanmar near Einme (R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
168417	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	In heavily vegetated areas at the border of the lake and small rivers.	eng
168417	population	Britz, R., 2010	In Indawgyi Lake it is quite abundant; no information for other localities.	eng
168417	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Threats include logging and agriculture development that result in  sedimentation. Pollution such as domestic, industrial and mining. The  impacts of these on the lake are not known and require urgent study. Not  specifically targeted by fishers, though it is collected for the aquarium trade in small quantities.	eng
168418	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168418	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Rangoon, Sittang and lower Salween river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168418	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with muddy bottoms (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005), particularly in the lower reaches (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168418	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. melanopteru</em>s is a relatively abundant species throughout Myanmar (it was the most abundant species taken at its type locality; Roberts and Ferraris 1998) and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment.	eng
168418	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168419	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Research on life history, threats and their impacts on the species and populations trends are needed.	eng
168419	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in upper Assam, India and China.	eng
168419	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It inhabits hill streams with pebbled bottom.	eng
168419	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on populations and trends.	eng
168419	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There are no major threats recorded for this species.	eng
168420	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168420	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is only known from Tista River, Brahmaputra drainage, West Bengal, India.	eng
168420	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>This is a hillstream loach.&#160; This species is a bottom dweller. <br/></p>	eng
168420	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Population estimates and trends of this species are unavailable.<strong> </strong>	eng
168420	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The population of this species is not known but there may be threats due to anthropogenic activities causing habitat alteration and loss.	eng
168421	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168421	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to be distributed in Maklang, Lokchao and Wanze streams in Manipur (Chindwin basin), India.	eng
168421	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura reticulata </span>is a hillstream fish.	eng
168421	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This is a rare species occurring only in hill streams. &#160;Population and trends information are lacking.	eng
168421	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Some populations, especially in Lokchao River at Moreh are under severe threat due to development and border trade. &#160;In other areas the species is under threat from destructive fishing through poisoning and dynamiting. &#160;</p>	eng
168422	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified	eng
168422	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar and China.	eng
168422	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168422	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
168422	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on its biology and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168423	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168423	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River drainage in eastern Nepal (at Sanghu in Mewa Khola River in Dhakuntha District).	eng
168423	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.	eng
168423	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168423	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168424	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	None required, but further information on distribution and range.	eng
168424	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Recorded from Irrawaddy and Sittang basins in&#160;Myanmar.	eng
168424	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Small streams and rivers, flooded agricultural land and rice fields, irrigation channels, and ponds,	eng
168424	population	Britz, R., 2010	It is a common species in southern Myanmar.	eng
168424	threats	Britz, R., 2010	No significant threats known.	eng
168425	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information on the species distribution is required.	eng
168425	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Reported from upper Myanmar, Irrawaddy drainage, (Prashad and Mukerji 1929; Menon 1987; Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
168425	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	High altitude streams with rocky substrates mostly in water falls.	eng
168425	population	Britz, R., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
168425	threats	Britz, R., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
168426	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168426	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the middle and upper Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China, typically at an altitude of 4000 m.	eng
168426	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits the deeper waters of tributaries and river meanders.	eng
168426	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species, although it has been reported to be locally abundant by Li <em>et al.</em> (2009).	eng
168426	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168427	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168427	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Ganges River delta of Bangladesh and India, extending inland at least as far as Bisrampur (Ferraris and Runge 1999).	eng
168427	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits lower reaches of larger rivers.	eng
168427	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168427	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168428	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168428	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistoides ascita</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River drainage in southern and eastern Nepal (Ng and Edds 2005).&#160;Known from the tributaries of the Ganges River flowing through the Terai, or lowland plains, of southeastern Nepal, at the base of the foothills of the Himalaya, along or near Nepal's eastern and southern border with India (Ng and Edds 2005).	eng
168428	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits&#160;pebble and cobble riffles with moderate depth (ca. 20 cm) and current velocity (ca. 25-50 cm/sec). The areas were well oxygenated, with dissolved oxygen of 7-8 ppm, and a pH of 7.5-8.0 (Ng and Edds 2005).	eng
168428	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168428	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168429	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The species is present in Indawgyi lake Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
168429	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius thelys</span> is known only from the streams near Myitkyina, and also in Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.	eng
168429	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius thelys</span> inhabits ponds, swamps, streams, rivers and lakes.<br/></p>	eng
168429	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168429	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The threats to the species are not known.</p>	eng
168430	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since nothing is known about this species studies on life history, distribution, population, trends, threats and impacts are recommended.	eng
168430	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed in Daying River, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River, Yingjiang County, Yunnan Province,  China.	eng
168430	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found to inhabit the bottom of streams.	eng
168430	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Population trends are not known for this species.	eng
168430	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The possible threat to the species may be of habitat destruction caused by natural environmental factors.	eng
168431	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. &#160;Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168431	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in India (Chindwin), Myanmar and Thailand.	eng
168431	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams.	eng
168431	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species is declining rapidly in Manipur due to destructive fishing and habitat loss from sand and pebble mining for dam construction in Manipur River (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;In other areas there is no information on the population and its trends for this species (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168431	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The Manipur population of this species is threatened due to destructive fishing and habitat loss from sand and pebble mining. &#160;However, the threats to this species in its core area of distribution in Myanmar are unknown. &#160;There is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168432	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168432	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from the Irrawady (Yangon to Mandalay), Sittang and Salween (Moulmein) in Myanmar.  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
168432	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been found in rivers. It is a lowland species.	eng
168432	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to estimate the species population.	eng
168432	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on threats to this species.	eng
168433	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since nothing is known about this species, distribution, taxonomic and life history studies are recommended along with identification of threats and impacts of the same on the population.	eng
168433	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura tirapensis</span> is distributed in Tirap District in Arunachal Pradesh, India.  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
168433	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura tirapensis</span> inhabits hillstreams with pebble substrate.	eng
168433	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168433	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is assumed that the species is exposed to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects.	eng
168434	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168434	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River in Tibet, China.	eng
168434	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits the main channels of larger rivers. &#160;Mature adults migrate to incoming streams where they breed in gravel and sandy beds (Raina and Petr 1999). &#160;It is a bottom detritus feeder.	eng
168434	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Although faunistic surveys of the region (e.g. Zhang <em>et al.</em> 1995) suggest that this species is still relatively common, it has also been noted that catches of individuals heavier than 500g have been declining in the mid-1990s. This suggests that the population may be in danger of being overfished.	eng
168434	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The decline in the number of large individuals reported by Zhang <em>et al. </em>(1995) may indicate that overfishing is a potential threat to this species. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168435	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	As this species has not been recorded since its original description, there is no information on its population, biology and potential threats, all of which are badly needed.	eng
168435	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species has not been recorded since its original description. Its type locality is in the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168435	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species presuambly inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of sand and rock, like its congeners.	eng
168435	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168435	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168436	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. strigillifer </span>is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168436	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from a small stream tributary to the Irrawaddy River, Myaing, central Myanmar, with an additional record for<span> Mytkyna, northern Myanmar.	eng
168436	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens are collected from fast running water, bank vegetation bamboo forest, stream usually with some 50% shadow.	eng
168436	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to determine population trends.	eng
168436	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The threats to this species are not known, though hill streams across the region are impacted by sedimentation and hydropower development.	eng
168437	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168437	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Longchuanjiang and Dayingjiang drainages in Yunnan, China. Both of these river drainages are tributaries that form part of the upper Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
168437	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate.	eng
168437	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168437	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168438	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The taxonomy of the populations identified as this species are in critical need of a revision to resolve the true identity of <em>G. chuno</em>. More research about the true distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168438	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the lower part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, Chilka Lake and Ennur backwaters (Tamil Nadu) eastwards to the lower part of the Mekong River drainage. In Sumatra, this species is known from the lakes in the Bukit Barisan Range in western Sumatra. However, there is a possibility that the populations from South Asia are not conspecific with those from Southeast Asia.	eng
168438	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from both a variety of estuarine and freshwater habitats, although a badly-needed taxonomic study might show it to be more restricted in habitat.	eng
168438	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although this species appears to be wide-ranging enough that the global population size is considered very large and not under threat, the confusion surrounding its taxonomy has made it difficult to assess whether or all subpopulations are conspecific.	eng
168438	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown; this is exacerbated by the confusion surrounding the identity of this species. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168439	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information is required on the impacts of Tilapia, and the species distribution.	eng
168439	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Known only from the Salween basin in the southern Shan States, Myanmar. Recorded from Inle Lake, as well as tributary streams.	eng
168439	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader51">Found in Inle lake and in small tributary streams on the plateau (cold water streams, in karst areas).	eng
168439	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information is available; requires further research.	eng
168439	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Likely to be impacted in part of its range, especially in Inle Lake, by the introduction of Tilapia, as well as pollution form domestic and agricultural sources.	eng
168440	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas. There is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>	eng
168440	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Only known from the type locality (Hwe-gna-sang River).<em> Schistura acuticephalus </em>is distributed in the Irrawady basin, Shan plateau, northern Shan States in Myanmar.	eng
168440	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	A bottom-dwelling fish. Schistura are generally found in well oxygenated, cooler, fast-flowing rivers.	eng
168440	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Population may be affected by habitat destruction.	eng
168440	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	None are known, but the known location is not well studied.	eng
168441	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	The taxonomy of the nominal taxa currently considered its junior synonyms require thorough study to ascertain if they are distinct species. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168441	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (Upper Brahmaputra) River drainage, as well as the numerous endorheic mountain lakes in its vicinity.	eng
168441	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift rivers with a rocky substrate, and mountain lakes.	eng
168441	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Little information and its trends for this species is available, but Chen<em> et al. </em>(2009) record this species as being locally abundant in the middle Yarlung Zangbo drainage.	eng
168441	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The nominate subspecies is under severe threat from fishing as it is one of the most important commercial species (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2009). &#160;However, the&#160;threats to the species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168442	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168442	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Eutropiichthys burmannicus</em>&#160;was described from an unknown locality in Myanmar (Day 1877). This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar eastwards to the Salween River drainage in western Thailand.	eng
168442	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168442	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown, although Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>(2005) mention that it is uncommonly encountered in markets.	eng
168442	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168443	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kakhinensis</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168443	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kakhinensis</span> known from western Yunnan, Irrawady drainage, China.	eng
168443	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in small mountain streams, rivers and lake. Feeds on terrestrial insects.	eng
168443	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168443	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since the species is a mountain stream fish, it might suffer the threat of destruction in habitat quality due to certain natural calamities and human interference.	eng
168444	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	No information on current conservation measures. Further information is required on the extent and impact of collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
168444	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	It is endemic to Myanmar and is known from Waloun Chaung in Rakhine State, Myanmar.	eng
168444	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Found in tropical freshwaters in a small stream with shaded forested banks flowing down a steep hill and with cool (c.22<sup>o</sup>C), clear, highly-oxygenated fast running water.	eng
168444	population	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168444	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Over-collection for the aquarium trade is a possibility, but further information is required.	eng
168445	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to determine natural populations, range of distribution and possible threats.	eng
168445	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Assam, India in small streams. It was also abundant in parts of Bengal (McClelland 1839). There have no further records since it was described.	eng
168445	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from rivers, canals, ponds, beels and inundated fields. Feeds on worms, small crustaceans ans insects.	eng
168445	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species was common when it was first identified (McClelland 1839). More research is needed to know current population trends and abundance.	eng
168445	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168446	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168446	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Pillaia kachinica is known only from two streams in the area of Myitkina, Myanmar.	eng
168446	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	The known specimens are from clear streams with a large amount of aquatic vegetation.	eng
168446	population	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168446	threats	Britz, R., 2010	No information, but being a remote area it is unlikely to be affected.	eng
168447	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified. &#160;Furthermore, the taxonomic status of the material from the Irrawaddy River drainage needs to be further investigated and its conspecificity with the type material from the Sittang River drainage needs to be verified.	eng
168447	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known only from two localities in the Sittaung and Irrawaddy River drainages respectively. The type locality (Pathe Chaung) is a left bank tributary of the Sittang River in southern Myanmar (Britz and Ferraris 2003), while the other locality in which it has been recorded lies in the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168447	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The type locality (Pathe Chaung) is a small hill stream, with fast running, clear water, a sandy bottom and numerous rocks and boulders. Aquatic vegetation was absent. Water temperature was 24°C, with a pH of 8.5 and a conductivity of 70 ?S (Britz and Ferraris 2003).	eng
168447	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from 17 specimens.	eng
168447	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168448	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The taxonomic identity of populations from Myanmar and other regions where it has been identified from need further study to verify their conspecificity. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. The degree of impact arising from known and potential dams within the species known range need to be investigated.	eng
168448	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Based on museum records, this species is known from the rivers draining the western face of the Rakhine Yoma in western Myanmar. It might be endemic from this area; other suitable areas have not been intensively surveyed, but those collections that do exist, do not contain this species. The area of suitable habitat stretching north up the coast towards and into Bangladesh has not been surveyed, and there may be populations present in these areas.	eng
168448	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Like other sicydiine gobies, this species is found in relatively swift streams with a substrate of gravel and rocks. The species is diadromous, and its larvae drift to the sea where they mature.	eng
168448	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species has been collected a number of times from its locality, and appears common (R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). There is no information on its population trends.	eng
168448	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no specific information on threats to the species' known habitats. However, the species is diadromous, and dams on its known rivers would have severe impacts on the species reproductive success. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.<br/><br/>There are at least three existing or planned dams on the three largest rivers that drain the western slopes of the Rakhine Yoma. The exact location in relation to the course of the rivers of these dams and their status is not known, and therefore the severity of the impacts can not be determined.	eng
168450	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius manipurensis</span> is known only from the Loktak Lake, Manipur, India. which is&#160; a protected area. The state Government of Manipur is greately conserned about the deteriorating conditions of the <st1:place><st1:placename>Loktak</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype>Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. During 1986 the Loktak Development Authority (LDA) was constituted by the state Government to check deterioration of Loktak lake and to bring improvement in the areas of power generation, fisheries, tourism and siltation control etc. Recently, the Government of Manipur has notified the Manipur Loktak lake (Protection) Act, 2006 and Loktak lake (Protection) Rules, 2008, which would improve functioning of the authority by reorganizing and bringing legislative basis for lake management.</p>	eng
168450	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius manipurensis</span> is known only from the Loktak Lake of Manipur, in northeastern India.	eng
168450	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits shallow lakes.	eng
168450	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species is not very common and the population is declining steadily since it was first described (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
168450	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threat to this fish is habitat loss, deterioration of water quality and over exploitation. The Loktak Lake, type locality of the fish, is facing numerous threats like siltation, eutrophication, water quality deterioration, proliferation of <span style="font-style: italic;">phumdis </span>(heterogeneous mass of soil, vegetation and organic matter) and encroachment (Kosygin and Dhamendra 2009).	eng
168451	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168451	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Salween and Tenasserim river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168451	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with sandy or muddy bottoms (Vidthayanon <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
168451	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. dolichonema</em> is a relatively abundant species throughout Myanmar and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment.	eng
168451	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168452	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.	eng
168452	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Arunkumar and Singh (2000) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrognathus morehensis</span> from Maklang River, Chindwin drainage (Moreh Bazar, Chandel District) Manipur in India and also from the Chindwin basin (Kalaimyo and Tamu) in Myanmar (Arunkumar and Singh 2000, Fishbase 2009, Britz 2010).<strong> </strong>	eng
168452	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. morehensis</span> has a habit of actively burrowing in the swampy and vegetated stream bed. The inhabitants of Kwatha Village near Moreh, of the Indo-Myanmar border call it&#160; 'Tou-ngaril', according to the habitat of the fish. The fish hides under pebbles, stones, gravel, sandy beds of clear torrential stream. It makes small pits and holes in the swampy and vegetated beds of stagnant streams and water bodies (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168452	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is possible that the species occurs in more than the two localities it is now found in. More research is needed. There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168452	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Overexploitation, and pollution from expanding township are possible threats.	eng
168453	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168453	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	This species is only known from Imphal Valley (Chindwin basin), Manipur, India from where it was collected from Iril and Imphal rivers, ponds and lakes.	eng
168453	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius ater</span> inhabits rivers, lakes and ponds.	eng
168453	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168453	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The species is found in areas where local fishing, invasive introduced fishes, eutrophication and siltation are known threats.	eng
168454	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	Further studies on the biology of this species and migratory habits (if present) are needed. &#160;Information on catch data is also needed. Given that there appear to be no significant declines in population, no species-specific conservation measures are needed at present.	eng
168454	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Gudusia variegata</em> is known only from the Irrawaddy River drainage, but is likely to be present in the Chindwin and perhaps other rivers within Myanmar.	eng
168454	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is apparently restricted to freshwater, where it has been found in the main channel of the Irrawaddy and its tributaries, as well as larger lakes such as Lake Indawgyi.	eng
168454	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is said to be very common in the central part of Myanmar (Vidthayanon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>&#160;2005), and is deemed to have suffered no significant decline in population. Although the population is currently deemed stable, current trends are unknown.	eng
168454	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The biology of this species is not well known, and like many river sprats, this species is probably potamodromous. The construction of dams in the Irrawaddy River drainage might thus adversely affect riverine migrations.	eng
168455	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Research on impacts of threats to populations and appropriate actions are needed.	eng
168455	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em>Schistura inglisi </em></strong>is described<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><em> </em></strong><strong><em> </em></strong>from rivers below Darjeeling and Sikkim, eastern Himalaya.<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
168455	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	They are bottom dwellers found in torrential hill streams.	eng
168455	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168455	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is threatened by dams in Sikkim. &#160;Poisoning is a major threat to populations in the region of its distribution.	eng
168456	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Further confirmation of the species range is required, and monitoring of the impacts of the ornamental trade collection.	eng
168456	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus gracilis</span> was described from Bangladesh (Rainboth 1983) but recent studies have given the range extension of this species from Mizoram, India, (Kar and Sen 2007) and Nepal (Edds and Ng 2007). Rainboth (1983) predicted from the extent of the preferred habitat of the fish that the fish should be widely distributed throughout lower reaches of Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, and more recent collections in Assam and West Bengal have confirmed this.	eng
168456	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus gracilis</span> is found over small pebbles in shallow running waters where the bottom is primarily sandy (Rainboth 1983).	eng
168456	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There are no records on population trends.	eng
168456	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168457	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168457	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Salween and Irrawaddy river drainages in Myanmar. Although it has been reported from the Salween River drainage in China (Chu and Mo 1999), this record is questionable as it likely refers to <em>G. ngapang</em> and requires verification (H.H. Ng, <em>pers. comm</em>., 2010).	eng
168457	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168457	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168457	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168458	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168458	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra River) drainage in Tibet, China.	eng
168458	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits the shallower regions of relatively fast-flowing mountain-fed streams and rivers with a substrate of gravel or rock (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168458	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168458	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168459	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168459	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	This species is so far reported from Chakpi Stream (Vishwanath and Tombi 1986) and Manipur River (Chindwin basin), Manipur (Kosygin and Singh 2008).	eng
168459	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Punitis jayarami</span> inhabits moutain streams and rivers with moderate to fast flowing water.	eng
168459	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168459	threats	Singh, L., 2010	Kosygin and Singh ( 2008) reported that water quality of downstream of the Manipur River is deteriorated due to discharge of sewage from the Imphal Valley, pesticides and insecticides from the surrounding agricultural lands, polluted water from Loktak Lake and nutrients rich soil erosion from catchment area. As a result low fish diversity and catch of the river is observed in the river.	eng
168460	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168460	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Found in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, northern Bengal and Assam<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
168460	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><span class="sheader51">It occurs in shallow slow moving streams with gravel bottom.<span class="sheader51"><strong> </strong></p>    <p>&#160;</p>	eng
168460	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168460	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is prone to threats due to habitat loss caused by removal of gravel and sand.	eng
168462	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	The taxonomic status of the two subspecies (<em>G. chui chui</em> and <em>G. chui longimandibularis</em>) require further study to fully confirm their status as conspecific. In addition, more research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168462	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from four endorheic mountain lakes in southern and western Tibet, China: Langtso, Gongzhu, Mafamu and Langa (Tchang&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>1964; Wu & Wu, 1992).	eng
168462	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits endorheic mountain lakes, where it frequents the bottom and nearshore waters.	eng
168462	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995) report this species as being abundant.	eng
168462	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168463	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Reserach is required into the species distribution, and the impact of potential dams within the Barak drainage.	eng
168463	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is known only from its original description from Iyei River in Manipur, India.</p>                 <p>&#160;</p>	eng
168463	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is a bottom-dwelling species of streams.	eng
168463	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168463	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Being a hillstream fish, the species is prone to habitat degradation.&#160; The construction of Tuivai Multpurpose Dam in Manipur-Mizoram border 500 m downstream of the  confluence of Tuivai River with the Barak River will potentially impact the species by changing the flow regime of the river.	eng
168464	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168464	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">It is found in the ditches and pools of Myanmar.</p>	eng
168464	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">This is tropical surface dwelling freshwater species. Inhabiting ditches and pools of Myanmar.</p>	eng
168464	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The population status of this species is unknown.	eng
168464	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Threats to the species remain undocumented.	eng
168465	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as well as the population needs to be continuously monitored.	eng
168465	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Described from streams around Myitkina and Indawgyi Lake in northern Myanmar. Another population was discovered in the Irrawaddy delta near Einme. A third locality was identified near Mandalay in 1996; the site was resurveyed in 2003 but the species was not found.	eng
168465	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Small streams and stream-side pools with dense aquatic vegetation. In Indawgyi lake is lives at the border of the lake amongst dense vegetation.	eng
168465	population	Britz, R., 2010	There are no detailed data, but it is expected to be stable.	eng
168465	threats	Britz, R., 2010	There is potential for the species habitat in Indawgyi lake to decline in quality due to urbanisation and pollution. The southern location Einme in the delta was likely destroyed in the 2008; its current status is not known. The third locality near Mandalay was resurveyed in 2003 but the species was not found.	eng
168466	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.	eng
168466	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Myersglanis jayarami</em>&#160;was described from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath and Kosygin 1999). &#160;This species is only&#160;confirmed from the&#160;Laniye River at Jessami,&#160;Chindwin River drainage in Manipur. &#160;Its presence in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar is doubtful as this species is recorded from the hill stream at 1,000 m, while Myanmar lies to the east of the location at around 200m (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;The extent of occurrence of this species may be restricted to less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the high elevation zone.	eng
168466	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a rocky substrate.	eng
168466	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168466	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Jhumming (slash and burn agriculture) may have some impact on the habitat, and destructive fishing may be threatening the population (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168467	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is a hill stream specialist and has a narrow area of occupancy.&#160; The distribution of the species its life history, population and impacts of threats need to be studied.	eng
168467	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species was originally described from Pagladia River, a tributary of Brahmaputra. Vishwanath & Juliana (2001) also reported the species from Jiri River in Manipur (Brahmaputra drainage). &#160;The inferred range of this species is just under 25,000 km<sup>2</sup>. &#160;However, being a hill stream species, its area of occupancy is quite restricted.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168467	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species dwells in streams with pebble bottom.	eng
168467	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168467	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species might suffer from natural calamities such as drought in hill streams and also destructive fishing by poisoning and dynamiting.	eng
168468	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. anomalus</span> has ornamental value. It is essential to study its range of distribution, breeding habits and population. Its population in nature may show sharp decline due to overexploitation. Thus planning for conservation would be essential.	eng
168468	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Devario anomalus</span> is known only from a small stream originating in the hill tracts south of Cox's Bazar, southern Chittagong Division, Bangladesh (Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009).	eng
168468	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known only from the type locality. It was collected from a small pool at the base of a waterfall and from a short stretch of stream downstream of the waterfall and upstream of a highway crossing. The stream originates from the hill tracts south of Cox’s Bazar, southern Chittagong Division.	eng
168468	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species was recently described in 2009 (Conway <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009) based on five individuals. There are no further studies on its population. Research is needed to assess its population.	eng
168468	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information is available. But this colourful fish will attract ornamental fish traders. Unless proper planning is done, it is feared that there may be natural stock depletion due to overfishing.	eng
168469	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and the likely&#160;impacts&#160;of the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam studied.	eng
168469	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Exostoma barakensis</em>&#160;is known only from one locality in the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River (itself part of the Brahmaputra River drainage) in Manipur (Vishwanath and Joyshree 2007). &#160;There have been no further studies to indicate a wider distribution.	eng
168469	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks.	eng
168469	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168469	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Exostoma barakensis</em>&#160;is known from the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River. A large (1500 MW) dam, the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam, is planned on the Barak River. The impact of this dam, should it be&#160;constructed,&#160;are&#160;not known, but population studies should be undertaken before&#160;construction so that impacts can be monitored.<br/>There is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains&#160;uncertain.	eng
168470	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168470	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the middle Irrawaddy River drainage (type locality:&#160;Myitkyina District)&#160;in northern Myanmar (Ng and Kottelat 2007).	eng
168470	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been collected from hillstreams (Ng and Kottelat 2007).	eng
168470	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168470	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168471	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to determine true range, population and threats.	eng
168471	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. manipurensis</span> is known only from the type locality&#160; in Manipur, India. However, Barman (1987) did not clearly mention the type locality.	eng
168471	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species was found in clear hill streams. Standard length is 3.8 cm (Menon 1999).	eng
168471	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species&#160; has not been recorded since description and there is no information available on its population.	eng
168471	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Specific threats to this species are not known, however hill streams across the region are impacted by sedimentation and hydropower development.	eng
168472	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is badly needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168472	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Eutropiichthys britzi</em>&#160;was described from the Irrawaddy River in northern Myanmar (Ferraris and Vari 2007) and is also present in the Sittang River drainage.	eng
168472	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits the main channel of large rivers, as well as its larger tributaries. The substrate in such habitats is generally sand or mud (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168472	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168472	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168473	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168473	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Glyptothorax ventrolineatus</em>&#160;was described from the Iril River, which forms part of the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2005). It is a widespread species with recent collections from other areas attesting this: e.g. Lokchao River at Moreh (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;Its presence in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar is to be expected.	eng
168473	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168473	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168473	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The population at Moreh may be threatened due to development activities for township development and border trade (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;A water pollution&#160;incident&#160;in the&#160;Iril River killed fish and other aquatic life, but the&#160;cause&#160;was not confirmed (E-PAO, May 2008).	eng
168474	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.	eng
168474	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the upper reaches of the Yellow, Yangtze, Salween, Mekong, Indus and Brahmaputra river drainages, as well as the alpine lakes in the Tibetan plateau (Wu and Wu 1992).	eng
168474	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in shallow streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168474	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168474	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.	eng
168475	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species (for wild populations) is also needed.	eng
168475	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Sittang and Irrawaddy river drainages in Myanmar.	eng
168475	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers in the lowlands (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
168475	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it appears to be moderately common in the wild and large numbers are being bred commercially in Thailand for the ornamental fish trade (Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
168475	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168477	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	No conservation measures are documented for the species. &#160;More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.<p></p>	eng
168477	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	K<span>nown only from Yangon, Myanmar.	eng
168477	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It inhabits rivers.	eng
168477	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on population structure of this species.	eng
168477	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Threats to the species are not known at present.	eng
168478	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168478	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is reported from the Sittang, <strong></strong>Salween and Ataran basin, Myanmar (Britz and Maclaine 2007).	eng
168478	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Found in pools with turbid muddy water with marginal and dense aquatic vegetation.<br/></p>	eng
168478	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	No estimates of its population or trends are available.	eng
168478	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The threats to the species are not known.	eng
168479	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on population, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168479	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from Lake Indawgyi and surrounding areas, and the Irrawaddy River drainage in the vicinity Myitkina.	eng
168479	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been collected from streams and lakes amongst dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
168479	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168479	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. Lake Indawgyi is being impacted by increasing settlement and consequent pollution and other impacts.	eng
168480	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	More information is required on the species ecology, population and distribution.	eng
168480	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is known only from Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar (Datta and Chaudhuri 1993), and from streams in the adjacent area (flowing into the Irrawaddy river).	eng
168480	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Although apparently only recorded from Indawgi Lake and adjacent areas, it is reported as a <span>demersal species, present in freshwater and brackish waters (FishBase 2010).	eng
168480	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168480	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168481	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168481	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The species is known from Lokchou River, Moreh, Manipur, India and Yu Chaung near Yantan Village, Myanmar.	eng
168481	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The fish inhabits mountain streams and rivers.	eng
168481	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168481	threats	Singh, L., 2010	No information available. However,   Lokchao River, the type locality of the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities. The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The town is being expanded and the river is under severe threat.	eng
168482	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Catch data for this species is also badly needed to confirm the purported decline of this species due to overfishing. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168482	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from a few localities, but is presumed to be widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China.	eng
168482	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits deeper waters of river channels with a rocky substrate. Its chief diet is aquatic invertebrates and it spawns en masse from April to June (Wu and Wu 1992).	eng
168482	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is little information on the population and its trends for this species. However, Zhang <em>et al</em>. (1995) report a decline in the weight of the fishes being commercially captured as food (from more than 500 g per individual to 200-300 g in the mid 1990s), indicating a possible decline in population.	eng
168482	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	Because it is heavily utilized as a food fish, there is some evidence that the average size of the fishes caught is in decline (Zhang <em>et al. </em>1995). Other threats to this species are unknown.	eng
168483	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>There are no known conservation measures documented for the species. Although it is a hardy species, the impacts of threats and ornamental fish trade need to be studied and monitored to understand population trends.</p>	eng
168483	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>The species is reported from Bihar (Jamwari River: Saram; Shalkia River: Chapra District), Rajasthan (Gambhir River: Sawai Madhopur), Uttar Pradesh (Rapti River: Gorakhpur; Koshi River: Almorha; Markonda River: Almorha), Nepal (Gandak River; Narayani River, Narsi) (Menon 1992).&#160; </p>	eng
168483	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It appears to be migratory as the young ones are found in the lower hills and adults at the higher elevation;<strong>&#160;</strong>prefers rocky and gravelly streams.<em></em>	eng
168483	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is a fairly hardy species and has been reported fairly common in catches (CPUE) in Ramganga River.	eng
168483	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The areas where the species is found is deforested and siltation causes choking of water body. Besides this, sand mining and quarrying and ornamental fish trade are the other concerns. However this species is hardy and widespread.	eng
168484	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Ecology and population trends of this species remains unknown.	eng
168484	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is known from the Ganges River drainage of India (Assam, Manipur, foothills of northern Bengal, Saharanpur, Dehradun of the Gangetic plains and Garo and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya (Menon 1999; Arunkumar 2000)), and Bangladesh.	eng
168484	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<strong></strong>It is known to inhabit<strong>&#160;</strong>clear streams with sandy bottom.	eng
168484	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168484	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There are no threats identified for this species.	eng
168485	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168485	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam, India.	eng
168485	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.	eng
168485	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168485	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168486	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Indawgyi Lake, which is one of the type localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span>, is within the confines of Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
168486	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> is currently known only from Myitkyina and <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Indawgyi</st1:placename> in northern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Myanmar </st1:place></st1:country-region>(Kullander and Fang 2005). It may be possible that the species occurs in other areas but this has not been confirmed.<em></em>	eng
168486	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Kullander and Fang (2005) have reported the type locality of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> as fast flowing stream with clear or brownish water (pH 6.5, temperature 23.2 <sup>0</sup>C). The bottom consisted of mud mixed with stones. Land vegetation consisted of bamboo forest providing 60% shadow. No aquatic vegetation.	eng
168486	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Population studies are not available for <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius didi</span> but it is suggested that <em>P. didi </em>is either relatively rare or  stenotopic (Kullander and Fang 2005).	eng
168486	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	As this species is found in a remote area, currently there are no identified threats.	eng
168487	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information is required on the species distribution.	eng
168487	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Physoschistura raoi </span>is known from the type series from Mongyai, northern Shan States, Myanmar, in the Salween drainage. It has not been collected since original description. Kottelat (1990) has seen a possible specimen from Yunnan, China.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168487	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physoschistura raoi</span> is a bottom-living fish, as are all loaches. Found in rivers.	eng
168487	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information is available; requires further research.	eng
168487	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available.	eng
168489	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168489	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Triplophysa tibetana</em> is widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangpo (upper Brahmaputra) River and the Shiquan (upper Indus) River in Tibet&#160;(Wu and Wu 1992, Zhang <em>et al.&#160;</em>1995).	eng
168489	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Found in slower flowing, shallow areas in lakes and rivers where there is ample aquatic vegetation. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates and reproduces in June (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al. </em>1995).	eng
168489	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it is fairly widespread and abundant species.	eng
168489	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.	eng
168490	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Indawgyi Lake, which is one of the type localities of&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">Puntius didi</span>, is within the confines of Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
168490	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius erythromycter</span> is occurs in most of the smaller water bodies near Myitkyina, and in Lake Indawgyi, Myanmar.	eng
168490	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits lakes and ponds.	eng
168490	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168490	threats	Singh, L., 2010	As this species is found in a remote area, currently there are no identified threats.	eng
168491	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information is required on the species distribution.	eng
168491	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacembelus dayi </span>is known from lowland areas of the Irrawaddy basin (including the Chindwin) of western Myanmar. &#160;Its distribution in the region is wide.	eng
168491	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from lowland areas of the Irrawady basin.	eng
168491	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<em>Mastacembelus dayi</em> has been confused with other species, but is likely fairly common.	eng
168491	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No immediate threats are known.	eng
168492	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	Potential threats to this species also need to be better studied immediately, especially potential impacts from proposed dams on the Barak River.	eng
168492	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Barak River drainage (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in Manipur, India. The Extent of Occurrence is estimated at 42,000 km<sup>2</sup> (the area of the Barak drainage), but the Area of Occupancy of is likely to be much less, around 1,800 km<sup>2</sup> (estimated on the length of the Barak River (c. 900 km long).	eng
168492	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168492	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	The proposed Tipaimukh Dam across Barak River will inundate at least 50% of the species' distribution range in the next five to ten years, thereby impacting the population by more than half (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em> 2010).	eng
168492	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Glyptothorax manipurensis</em>&#160;is known from the Iyei River, a tributary of the Barak River. A large (1500 MW) dam, the&#160;Tipaimukh Dam, is planned on the Barak River. The impact of this dam on this fast flowing stream specialist needs to be monitored. &#160;It is predicted that more than 50% of the range of the species may be inundated (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em> 2010). In addition, the reservoir is likely to be stocked by alien invasive fish species by the fishery department as is the practice to date.	eng
168493	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Not much information on conservation status is available. &#160;Further information on the species habitat and population trends is required.	eng
168493	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is known from Yu River system, Irrawaddy drainage of India (Manipur) and Myanmar.	eng
168493	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It occurs in streams and mid reaches of rivers.	eng
168493	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168493	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Urbanisation (road construction) and habitat loss.	eng
168494	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified, and catch data also needed.	eng
168494	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Jamuna and the Meghna River drainages, which form part of the lower Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh (Ng 2005).	eng
168494	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits large rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom.	eng
168494	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend for this species.	eng
168494	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168495	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168495	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Only present in Myanmar, in Mergui Malaya (Jayaram 1991). Probably endemic to Myanmar.	eng
168495	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168495	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168495	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information available.	eng
168496	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work is needed to know more about the current range and abundance of this species, as well as the impact of collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
168496	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is only known from east of Hopong, southern Shan States although there it is not certain that it is not present in other localities.	eng
168496	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Specimens have been collected from rivers and streams.	eng
168496	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population variations. However it may suffer from declination and fluctuation of mature individuals due to overexploitation.	eng
168496	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The area where this species has been recorded is remote and no major threats seem to be taking place. Since the species is used as an ideal aquarium fish, it might suffer from over exploitation but this has to be confirmed.	eng
168497	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species (other than possible over-harvesting for the ornamental fish trade) also need to be identified.	eng
168497	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known only from the Ichamati River, India, a tributary of the Hooghly River (not to be confused with a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh bearing the same name).	eng
168497	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the habitat of this species.	eng
168497	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and its trends for this species.	eng
168497	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.<br/><br/>It is possible that this species may be over-harvested for the ornamental fish trade, but collections for the trade have been sporadic and we do not have sufficient information on global population size to gauge its effects.	eng
168498	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168498	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<st1:country-region w:st="on"><em>Neolissochilus stracheyi</em> is found in Myanmar</st1:country-region> through <st1:country-region w:st="on">Thailand</st1:country-region> and possibly to the Cardamon Range, Cambodia known from Salween, Maeklong, Chao Phraya, Mekong and peninsular and <st1:place w:st="on">southeastern Thailand</st1:place> river systems. It is also found in Manipur, India.	eng
168498	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span class="sheader51">Inhabits clear forested streams and rivers. Occurs in swift flowing streams. Disappears when human activities degrade aquatic habitats, as seen in other members of the genus (Rainboth 1996)</p>	eng
168498	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species is common in its range of distribution.	eng
168498	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It is a game fish with food value and hence its population is prone to overfishing. It may be affected by habitat destruction due to human disturbance.<strong> </strong>	eng
168499	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168499	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is found in Brahmaputra basin in Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, India. It has not been reported from any other location by subsequent workers. <br/></p><p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>	eng
168499	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	This species inhabits streams with pebbles.	eng
168499	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168499	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species may suffer from habitat loss due to natural calamities and anthropogenic effects endangering the species.&#160; Deforestation and habitat loss are acute problems in Meghalaya, particularly near Barapani in Meghalaya.<br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
168500	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research on population parameters and biology is needed.	eng
168500	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	Known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and western Thailand (Ferraris 1999; Vidthayanon <em>et al. </em>2005).	eng
168500	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers and larger streams with a substrate of sand or mud. &#160;It has also been reported to be found in estuaries (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
168500	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available for this species, although it is still relatively common in Myanmar.	eng
168500	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
168501	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168501	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parasphaerichthys ocellatus</span> is described from a muddy stream along Kamaing Jade Mines Road, Kamaing, Myitkyina District, upper Myanmar. It also occurs in Ayeyarwady tributaries around Myitkyina and in Lake Indawgyi, where it is abundant (surveyed in 1998, R. Britz&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). &#160;There is a single record (from a market) in Mandalay, central Myanmar.	eng
168501	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been collected from small muddy streams, but it has also been collected from heavily vegetated lake margins.	eng
168501	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is abundant in Lake Indawgyi (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168501	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168502	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information is required on the habitats, ecology, population, and distribution of this species, as well as the impacts of collection for ornamental purposes.	eng
168502	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	The species was described from the Kyeintali Chaung basin in Rakhine Yoma, western Myanmar.	eng
168502	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Fast flowing cool, clear, highly oxygenated mountain streams.	eng
168502	population	Britz, R., 2010	Nothing is known of this recently described species.	eng
168502	threats	Britz, R., 2010	<p>No information available for this recently described species. It is utilised in subsistence fisheries and appears in the ornamental fish trade, but there is no information available on whether these uses pose a threat to the species.<br/></p>	eng
168504	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No conservation measures are recommended for this species.	eng
168504	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It occurs in Myanmar (Chindwin Basin), India (Chindwin basin in Manipur), Thailand and Laos (Linthoingambi and Vishwanath&#160; 2007).	eng
168504	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It occurs in streams and lakes.	eng
168504	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No information is available. Although it is a relatively common species throughout its range it is not as abundant as other <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius </span>spp.	eng
168504	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	No known major threats to this species.	eng
168505	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168505	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges River at Patna and at Delhi in the Ganges River drainage.	eng
168505	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat of this species, but it likely inhabits swift rivers with a substrate of sand, like its congeners.	eng
168505	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168505	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species may have ornamental value, but aquarium trade needs to be investigated. &#160;The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168506	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further information is required on the impact of the commercial ornamnetal fish trade, and the impact on the species populations should be monitored. A better understanding of the species distribution is also required.<br/></p>	eng
168506	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus homaloptera </span>is known from India, Myanmar, Nepal and Tibet. &#160;However, Vishwanath and Manojkumar (1995) pointed out that the species is restricted to the Ganges-Brahmaputra drainage. &#160;The species is also recorded from Nagaland (S.C. Dey <em>pers. comm.</em>)	eng
168506	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus homaloptera </span>inhabits pebbly beds of small rapid running streams at the base of hills and pools with muddy bed (Mukerji and Hora 1935). Hora (1936) remarked that this species was not strictly localized in its distribution. However, Vishwanath and Manojkumar (1995) pointed out that the species is restricted to the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage.	eng
168506	population	Singh, L., 2010	No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168506	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known. &#160;Harvest for ornamental fish trade needs to be monitored and may be a threat in some regions, but is not fully understood.</p>	eng
168507	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species has been considered threatened in Nepal and proposed for legal protection (Rajbanshi 2002). Further information is required on the species range, potential threats, ecology and population.	eng
168507	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis</span> is recorded from eastern Nepal (Hewa Lake, Pokhara). It has also been reported from a number of sites in central and western Nepal as well (Indrawati River, Melamchi River, Arun River, Mewa Khola (Dhankuta District); B. Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2009). The latter records require confirmation but the species can be inferred to have a wider distribution. Previously considered endemic to Nepal, the species is also recorded from India (Rema Devi and Indra 2009).	eng
168507	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species inhabits rapidly flowing torrent water streams by adhering to rocks and has modifications such as higher number of simple rays in the pectoral fins and transverse folds of skin along the belly (Yazdani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991, Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
168507	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species is considered rare (Ranjan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006) in Nepal. CPUE data never increases above 0.01 (Jha 2009) across it's range. It appears to be very much depleted, though it is probably naturally scarce (B. Jha, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm. </span>2009<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>).<br/><br/>Jha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2006) have considered this species to be Endangered on the grounds that the species is rare based on the very low CPUE data, but there are no known threats to the species. Sampling is difficult and they are possibly under-represented in survey data, and the population in India requires confirmation.	eng
168507	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species is migratory and is found in rapidly flowing torrent hill streams, and might be threatened by flow regimes changes and siltation resulting from hydropower developments and sedimentation, but research is required to understand the extent of potential impacts.	eng
168508	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168508	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from a few localities, but is presumed to be widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangbo (upper Brahmaputra) River drainage in Tibet, China.	eng
168508	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits clear, fast-flowing rivers with a rocky substrate (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168508	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although it has been reported to be locally abundant by Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995), and He and Chen (2009).	eng
168508	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168509	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168509	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage between Kamaing and Mogaung in northern Myanmar.	eng
168509	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudolaguvia tuberculata</span> inhabits fast-flowing hillstreams with a sandy substrate.	eng
168509	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species,&#160;as the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.	eng
168509	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168510	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Research is needed into threats, populations and distribution.<br/></p>	eng
168510	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<em>Psilorhynchus breviminor </em>is known from the Ma Gawe River, along Kalaw-Thazi highway, close to state border between Mandalay  and Shan near village of Nampantet, 20°43.33'N, 96°29.91'E, Shan State, Myanmar. There is no information on the distribution of the species in neighbouring watersheds.	eng
168510	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species is found in freshwater rivers.<br/><br/><span class="sheader5">Collected from algae mats on which the species seems to be resting/feeding. The type locality is a cool, fast-flowing stream, with sand and gravel substrate, moderately shallow 30 cm deep. Associated to this species include species of the genera <em>Acanthocobitis</em>, <em>Schistura</em>, <em>Danio</em>, <em>Puntius</em>, and <em>Barilius</em> (FishBase 2009).	eng
168510	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>  </p><p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>     <p></p>	eng
168510	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is a dam downriver on the river where the type series was collected (Ma Gawe River), and there are numerous dams on river within the watershed. The species is adapted to hillstreams, and the dam is below the known habitat. The impact of the dam on the type locality is unknown.<br/></p>	eng
168511	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.	eng
168511	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from Peigu (Paiku) Lake and Chuocuolong Lake in southern Tibet, China. The total area of both lakes is estimated at 350 km² (H.H. Hg pers. comm.).	eng
168511	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits mountain lakes, but enters the streams draining into the lakes to breed.	eng
168511	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al. </em>(1995) report this species as being abundant.	eng
168511	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Despite its purported abundance, the effects of its harvest as a food fish on the population needs to be ascertained. The small EOO of this species makes it vulnerable to an unregulated fishery.	eng
168512	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. The impact of habitat decline within both the Ganges (where the population was reported to be stable in 1991 (Talwar and Jhingran), and the Brahmaputra (where the the population is known to be declining).	eng
168512	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India (Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh) and Bangladesh.	eng
168512	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits clear stream and rivers with abundant aquatic vegetation.	eng
168512	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Although never common, in Assam, the population has become very rare (S.C. Dey&#160;<em>pers. comm.</em>). It was recorded as common in the Gangetic basin (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). &#160;Although always present in low numbers, in the Ganges the population was reported to be stable in 1991 (Talwar and Jhingran), but in the Brahmaputra the population is known to be declining (estimated to be greater than 30% over the last decade; S.C Dey&#160;<span style="font-style: italic; ">pers. comm.</span>). Identified threats include siltation and habitat degradation in the Brahmaputra; the status of threats within the Ganges are not known.	eng
168512	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown, although habitat degradation and siltation has resulted in a large populating decline in Assam. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168513	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. jayarami</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168513	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from streams near Mongyai, northern Shan States, Myanmar. More data is required to confirm its distribution.	eng
168513	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens are collected from streams.	eng
168513	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No further report after the original description.	eng
168513	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available.	eng
168514	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168514	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistoides sicula</em>&#160;was described from a single locality in Schutunga River at Ansole in the Brahmaputra River drainage (Mansai River drainage)&#160;in West Bengal, India (Ng 2005).	eng
168514	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The type locality of this species is a large, shallow, fast-flowing stream with a sandy bottom. The fish were usually found hiding in clumps of aquatic vegetation (Ng 2005).	eng
168514	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168514	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168515	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168515	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known only from rivers of the Middle Hills and Tarai (lowlands) of western (Karnali drainage) and central (Gandaki drainage) Nepal. &#160;It is a widespread species with a range of more than 50,000 km<sup>2</sup> in Nepal. &#160;It probably also occurs in the Indian state of Uttarakhand bordering Nepal on the west.	eng
168515	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species was captured exclusively in riffles, which were typically broad and shallow, well-oxygenated, and had swift water velocities over rocky substrate. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates such as caddisfly larvae (Ng and Edds 2005).	eng
168515	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168515	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168516	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2008	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168516	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2008	This species is known from the type locality in the Koilla Khal Creek of the Feni River drainage in&#160;Bangladesh (Ng 2005). The Feni River enters into the Bay of Bengal to the east of the mouth of the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, and drains the western end of the Chittagong&#160;Hill Tracts.	eng
168516	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2008	This species&#160;was collected from a clear, shallow, moderately&#160;flowing stream with a predominantly sandy bottom (Ng 2005).	eng
168516	population	Ng, H.H., 2008	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from five specimens. Rahman (2005) mentions that a 'large number' of specimens were obtained at the type locality, but this information dates from the late 1970s, and cannot be considered to be accurate now.	eng
168516	threats	Ng, H.H., 2008	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168517	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species throughout its range also need to be identified.	eng
168517	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (in the Iril and Lokchao rivers). &#160;It is also likely to be found in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar.	eng
168517	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168517	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168517	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The population at Lokchao River in Moreh is under threat from development activities and border trade. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species.	eng
168519	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from scanty museum records and it is necessary to obtain fresh material to verify its identity. In addition, there is&#160;no information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168519	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	The exact distribution of this species is unknown, although it is likely to be found in the Indus and Ganges river drainages.	eng
168519	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species, although it presumably inhabits large rivers like its congeners.	eng
168519	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168519	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168520	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is newly described and needs further research in distribution and impact of threats.	eng
168520	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known only from the type locality, Barak River at Khunphung, Tamenglong District, Manipur, India.	eng
168520	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> tigrinum</span> is found to inhabit a large swift flowing hill stream with pebbles.	eng
168520	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is rare. &#160;There is no documentation on population structure or trends.	eng
168520	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is overexploited for subsistence fishery and the population is known to be affected by destructive fishing.	eng
168521	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168521	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Rangapani Khal Creek of Sylhet District, Jubaneshwari River of Rangpur District, Ghaghat River of Rangpur District, Tangam River of Dhinajpur District of Brahmaputra River drainage in Bangladesh and the Tista River (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in northeastern India (West Bengal).	eng
168521	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The type locality is a clear, shallow, slow-flowing stream with a mixed substrate of sand and detritus, with the fish being found amongst detritus in areas with current (Ng 2005). In the Tista River where this species is also found, its habitat is a swift, turbid river with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168521	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, as museum holdings of this species are very scanty.	eng
168521	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168522	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168522	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Siren River of Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. &#160;Subsequent surveys have not resulted in new populations.	eng
168522	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.	eng
168522	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168522	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species is threatened by the proposed dams on Siang River. &#160;The fast-flowing stream specialist's habitats will be converted to pools due to the construction of dams, which could impact drastically on the populations (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168523	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Detailed research into distribution, biology, population, habitat trends, threats and impacts are needed.</p>	eng
168523	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius yuensis</span> is known only from the Yu River system of Manipur at the lower zones of Maklang River and Lokchao River near Moreh, Manipur, India.	eng
168523	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits mountain streams and rivers.	eng
168523	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.</p><p></p>	eng
168523	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Lokchao River, the type locality of  the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities.  The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for  international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>  and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  The species is threatened from decline in habitat quality in due to sedimentation from deforestation and agricultural practices around hill streams.<br/></p>	eng
168524	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Populations should be monitored for impacts of dams.	eng
168524	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is known from northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.	eng
168524	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	The species is found in fast flowing water and it inhibits primarily the edges of sandy streams. It is abundant near emergent of overhanging vegetation in lowlands (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).	eng
168524	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, it is likely to be stable.	eng
168524	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Shrestha (1990) has documented that the dams on several rivers in Nepal have caused shallow tail water regions below dams which are exploited by fisherman, poachers and predatory animals killing species like <span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus sucatio</span>.	eng
168525	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is an urgent need for surveys in the river where this species was recorded from to understand its current status in other parts of the river not impacted by the Khuga dam. &#160;Also, identification of threats, population, trends, biology and habitat needs are critical.</p>	eng
168525	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	This species is known only from the Khuga River (Chindwin basin) in Churachandpur district of Manipur, in northeastern India.	eng
168525	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius khugae</span> inhabits moderate to fast flowing river.	eng
168525	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168525	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The major threat to this fish is Khuga Dam, which was constructed recently across the <st1:place><st1:placename>Khuga</st1:placename> <st1:placetype>River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, which is the only known habitat of the fish.</p>	eng
168526	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168526	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy and Sittang river drainages in Myanmar, and from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
168526	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits floodplains and lowland rivers (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
168526	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in central Myanmar (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is rarely collected and occurs only in remote areas&#160;in Manipur&#160;(W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168526	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168527	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data and information on the population (and its trends) for this species is also absent.	eng
168527	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the lower reaches and estuaries of the Irrawaddy and Salween drainages eastwards to the western part of the Malay peninsular.	eng
168527	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers.	eng
168527	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.	eng
168527	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168528	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>	eng
168528	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The species is known from the Lake Indawgyi, the Nan Kywe Chaung in Myitkyina, the lower Bago River and the upper Sittoung River in Myanmar.	eng
168528	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius pugio</span> occurs in the lakes, rivers and swamps and pools.	eng
168528	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Kullander (2008) remarked that <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius pugio</span> seems to be somewhat less abundant than other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius</span> in Myanmar.<br/></p>	eng
168528	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
168529	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168529	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage in northern Myanmar.	eng
168529	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing streams with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168529	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168529	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168530	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.	eng
168530	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Gymnocypris scleracanthus</em>&#160;was described from Langtso (Langcuo) Lake in Tibet, China (Tsao, Wu, Chen and Zhu, in Wu and Wu 1992).&#160;This species is known only from Langtso (Langcuo) Lake, an endorheic mountain lake 4300m above sea level in southern Tibet, China. The lake is approximately 7.2km<sup>2</sup> in area (calculated by drawing a polygon around a satellite photograph of the lake in Google Earth).	eng
168530	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits mountain lakes.	eng
168530	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although Zhang <em>et al.</em> (1995) report this species as being abundant.	eng
168530	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. Despite its purported abundance, the effects of its harvest as a food fish on the population needs to be ascertained, the very small EOO for this species makes it vulnerable to a fishery, even if regulated.	eng
168531	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168531	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This small species is known from the lower Irrawaddy River drainage in south central Myanmar, and is likely restricted to the Irrawaddy Delta (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). However is is likely to have been under-sampled (S. Kullander <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010). &#160;The species is found in the vicinity of Rangoon and is known from the Sittang and Bago river basins (Shafer, undated).	eng
168531	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits ponds and small streams.	eng
168531	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. Anecdotal information from the ornamental fish trade, where this species is harvested as an aquarium fish suggests that this species is still reasonably abundant in the wild (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168531	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168532	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168532	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em><em>Erethistoides cavatura</em>&#160;</em>was described from tributaries of the Ganges River flowing through south-central Nepal (Ng and Edds 2005), from the lowland inner Terai valleys of south-central Nepal, in or near the Chitwan National Park.	eng
168532	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species was collected in shallow (ca. 10-20 cm) gravel and pebble riffles of streams and rivers with predominantly sandy bottoms, in moderate to fast current (ca. 25-75 cm/sec). They were captured in March through December, in clear to turbid waters, at water temperatures 18-26° C, with dissolved oxygen concentrations of 8-9 ppm, and a pH of 8.0 (Ng and Edds 2005).	eng
168532	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168532	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168533	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	It is advocated that this general area should be conserved by declaring it as a National Park (<st1:city w:st="on">Renner</st1:city> <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
168533	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Known only from the vicinity of Putao in northern <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar (</st1:country-region></st1:place>Kullander and Fang 2005<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">).</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
168533	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius tiantian</span> has been collected from small rapidly flowing hill stream, with clear and colorless water, low water level, flowing through low forest, with grass and shrub along banks, and over a varied bottom with rock, gravel, and sand but no aquatic vegetation. Only one specimen of the fish was collected in a major river.	eng
168533	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Kullander and Fang (2005) note that despite extensive collecting efforts very few specimens of <em>Puntius tiantian </em>were collected. Thus the species appears to be rare.	eng
168533	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Currently there are no threats documented for this species or this area. However, the place is tourist attraction. Since the species shows restricted distribution even limited tourism can be threatening.	eng
168534	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168534	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Nangra ornata</em>&#160;was described from northeastern Bangladesh (Gowain River and Khal at Gowainghat, northern Sylhet Province) from the Surma or Meghna river drainages (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168534	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.	eng
168534	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species; the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.	eng
168534	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168535	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. shanensis</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168535	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Hsipaw, northern Shan States, Myanmar and Salween drainage (Kullander <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span> 2010). Total range of this species needs to be confirmed.	eng
168535	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most of the specimens have been collected from rice-fields, small ponds, and pools of hill streams.	eng
168535	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to investigate the possibility of natural population fluctuations occurring.	eng
168535	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further research into the impact of the aquarium trade on the species is required given its likely limited distribution.	eng
168536	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168536	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	Described from Yamdok Lake (about 4500m elevation) in southern Tibet, this species is known from the endorheic mountain lakes and associated drainages in southern Tibet, China.	eng
168536	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species occupies shallower areas (0.5-1.0 m deep) in slower-flowing regions of rivers and mountain lakes.	eng
168536	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is little information on the population and its trends for this species, but this species is reported to be abundant (Wu and Wu 1992; Zhang <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
168536	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168537	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168537	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the upper reaches of Giri River in Chaila area of Himachal Pradesh in western part of the Ganges River drainage.	eng
168537	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The type locality was a wide (ca. 20 m), shallow (1m) river with a rocky/sandy bottom. The water was clear and swift-flowing (Ng 2006).	eng
168537	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168537	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168538	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about the taxonomy, distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is significant confusion in its taxonomy. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168538	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>The species is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-IN">Nepal, India (several states)</st1:country-region><span lang="EN-IN">, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Bangladesh</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Thailand</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <br/></p>	eng
168538	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">This species is found in wide variety of habitat including streams, rivers, ponds and ditches. </p>	eng
168538	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-IN">Population of this species was estimated to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh but its population in other areas is not known (Tamang <em>et al.</em> 2007) </p>	eng
168538	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	This species might be threatened by overfishing.	eng
168539	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Further information required on threats, population, and ecology.	eng
168539	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus rahmani</span> is known from a small hill stream north of Chittagong University (22°28'25.8"N, 91°46'59.3"E),  Chittagong Division, Bangladesh.	eng
168539	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus rahmani</span> inhabits small hill streams, requiring high levels of oxygen.	eng
168539	population	Singh, L., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether this species is experiencing a decline.	eng
168539	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168541	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. The taxonomic identity of this species also needs further study.	eng
168541	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Olyra burmanica</em>&#160;was described from the Bago Yoma in south-central Myanmar (Day 1872).&#160;There are at least three river systems draining this range of mountains (Bago, Irrawady and Sittang), but the exact distribution of this species is unknown.	eng
168541	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is found in swift streams, generally with a substrate of rocks and sand (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168541	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and trends for this species.	eng
168541	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168542	conservation	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	Further information on the species threats, ecology, population and distribution is required.	eng
168542	distribution	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	The species was described by Hamilton (1822) from the Ganges-Brahmaputra system in India. It is found in Western Bengal and the neighbouring areas of Assam. It is also likely to occur in Bhutan.<span style="background-color: green;"></span>	eng
168542	habitat	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	Found in shallow freshwater streams of <span class="sheader51">depth 30-70 cm; the water is crystal clear and around 26 °C; dense vegetation of aquatic plants (e.g. <em>Limnophila</em>, <em>Hygrophila</em>, <em>Vallisneria</em>, <em>Ottelia</em>, and <em>Rotala</em> species); bottom cover was sand and fine gravel (Kullander and Britz 2002). It is known to breed in tank with good water quality and dense vegetation (<span class="sheader51"><a href="http://www.aqua-fish.net/show.php?h=scarletbadis">http://www.aqua-fish.net/show.php?h=scarletbadis</a>)	eng
168542	population	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168542	threats	Britz, R. & Chaudhry, S., 2010	The area where it is occurring naturally is under deforestation and siltation and human disturbance. This species is extensively traded as aquarium fishes.	eng
168544	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	Research on distribution, biology, habitat use, population, trends and threats are needed.	eng
168544	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Semiplotus cirrhosus</span> is known from Myanmar (Putao, Myitkyina and Machanbaw).	eng
168544	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	It inhabits mountain streams and rivers.	eng
168544	population	Singh, L., 2010	No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168544	threats	Singh, L., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168545	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>  </p><p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
168545	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	Psilorhynchus arunachalensis&#160;is known only from the Dirang River at Dirang, West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh, India.	eng
168545	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The species inhabits rivers and streams.	eng
168545	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;natural population fluctuations.      </p>	eng
168545	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
168546	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species' known location, cave systems, are threatened by limestone quarrying.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
168546	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura papulifera</span> is currently known with certainty only from the Krem Synrang Pamiang system, in the Jaintia Hills, eastern Meghalaya. Synrang Pamiang is an extensive system, with over 14 km of mapped cave passages and five known&#160;entrances.	eng
168546	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Meghalaya experiences extremly high rainfall during May to October, but water levels remains low in winter. <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura papulifera </span>inhabits pools of standing water, rather than in flowing streams. It appears to be most abundant in areas where the pools are both deep and extensive. It is likely that it retreats to such areas as the onset of the dry season results in falling water levels, and that the larger pools offer the best resources in terms of food and relatively stable oxygen levels (Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)	eng
168546	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known only from two individuals, one holotype and one paratype which Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) described. Habitat destruction might affect the population of the species.	eng
168546	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The main threat to this species is the destruction of its habitat due to limestone extraction industry near the Synrang Pamiang. Kottelat <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) suggested that the species should be moved to the Critically Endangered category in the near future.	eng
168547	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available.</p>	eng
168547	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	This species is known from Manipur (Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage), in northeastern India and Myanmar.	eng
168547	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>This species is found in permanent rivers, streams, lakes and pools.<br/></p>	eng
168547	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available although it is beleived to be common&#160; in the Chindwin drainage in Myanmar based on recent collections from Tamu east to around Monywa (Kullander pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
168547	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available. However,   Lokchao river, the type locality of  the species has several disturbances due to anthropogenic activities.  The river flows near Moreh town, which is an active centre for  international trade between <st1:country-region><st1:place>India</st1:place></st1:country-region>  and <st1:country-region><st1:place>Myanmar</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  Thus threats are expected.</p>	eng
168548	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. <br/></p>	eng
168548	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Kottelat (1990) described <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura  malaisei</span> from Putao, Myanmar, in the Irrawaddy basin of northern Myanmar. Also known from the Irrawady basin in Yunnan, China, but without precise locality data.	eng
168548	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura malaisei</span> is a bottom-dwelling species in fast-flow, well-oxygenated, cool water.	eng
168548	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168548	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Potentially impacted by siltation caused by deforestation.	eng
168549	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168549	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India. &#160;It probably occurs in Myanmar in the Irrawaddy and Salween River drainages. &#160;In Manipur it has been recorded from Iril River in Bamonkampu Village, Lokchao River in Moreh and Imphal River in Sekmaijin (Vishwanath and Linthoingambi 2007).	eng
168549	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168549	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
168549	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168550	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Further survey work or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168550	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is only found in Lokchao River, Manipur, India and in Myanmar.	eng
168550	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in river, streams. Their eggs are scattered, breeds in the rainy season. Feeds on small insects and copepods.	eng
168550	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to confirm trends of natural population.	eng
168550	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Lokchao River in Manipur is experiencing water pollution and destructive activities due to human inhabitation. It flows through Moreh Town, a fast developing place of international trade. The species is also threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to damming, logging and deforestation.	eng
168551	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168551	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (in the Iril, Thoubal, Ithai and Lokchao rivers). &#160;It is also likely to be found in the Chindwin River drainage in Myanmar.	eng
168551	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand and rocks.	eng
168551	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trend for this species.	eng
168551	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The species is threatened in two locations -- in Ithai due to the Loktak Hydroelectric project and in Moreh due to development of city and border trade. &#160;Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168552	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs further study. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168552	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in Myanmar.	eng
168552	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat and biology of this species, but like other glyptosternine catfishes, it is likely to inhabit torrential streams with a substrate consisting of medium to large rocks.	eng
168552	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168552	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168553	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168553	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Conta pectinata</em>&#160;was described from the Brahmaputra River drainage in Assam (Ng 2005), and is also present in Meghalaya (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
168553	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The habitats and ecology of this species is unknown, since the type series (and only known specimens) were obtained via the ornamental fish trade. The habitat this species inhabits is presumed to be similar to that of <em>Conta conta</em>.	eng
168553	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168553	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168554	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168554	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ukhrul District of Manipur, in the Chindwin River drainage (part of the Irrawaddy River drainage), in India. &#160;This is a high altitude species occupying a restricted range of less than 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168554	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the habitat of this species is not known, it most likely inhabits swift rivers with a sandy or rocky bottom, as with other congeners.	eng
168554	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168554	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	General threats such as shifting cultivation and destructive fishing may impact this species. &#160;However, these are not recorded as major threats to this species (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168555	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168555	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Nangra assamensis</em>&#160;was described from the&#160;Brahmaputra River at Neematighat, 14 km from Jorhat, Assam, India (Sen and Biswas 1994). &#160;This species is known from larger rivers in the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages.	eng
168555	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits swift-flowing rivers, typically with turbid water and a substrate of sand or fine gravel.	eng
168555	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species,&#160;as the museum holdings of this species worldwide are scanty.	eng
168555	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168556	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. nicholsi</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168556	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chagunius nicholsi</span> is known from Chindwin River at Monywa and Nam Kawng Chaung Stream at Kamaing, Myityina District, Myanmar; Manipur River at Samlong, Lokchao River at Moreh, Maklang River and Chatrickong River in Manipur, also River Meguiki and Tizu in Nagaland, India.	eng
168556	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in warmer months, ie., April to September. In winter months, it does not occur in these rivers, probably migrating upstream for breeding. It is a migratory fish, most commonly found in the lower course of the river system.	eng
168556	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Report of the species from Manipur in 1998 extended its occurrence from its type locality in Myanmar. More research is needed to investigate the populations from these two localities. The species is however, widespread but not very abundant.	eng
168556	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss. The species is migratory. Construction of dams for water harvesting, irrigation and mini-hydel projects restrict their migratory routes. Destructive fishing is also affecting the species.	eng
168557	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available. Research is required into the impacts of dynamite and poison fishing on this species, as well as the species distribution and population size.<br/></p>	eng
168557	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus microphthalmus </span>is known only from Chapki Stream, Chindwin basin of Manipur, India. It has been found once on a tributary of the same river, but not in other rivers within this area (W. Vishwanath, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>). It is likely only found in the upper areas of this stream.	eng
168557	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The fish inhabits fast flowing hill streams with rocky bed.	eng
168557	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information available. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.      </p>	eng
168557	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The species is threatened due to declining habitat quality due to poisoning, dynamiting, sedimentation from deforestation and jhum cultivation practices.<br/></p>  <p></p>	eng
168558	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Further information is required in this species and its habitat, especially its population, distribution and threats.<br/></p>	eng
168558	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The species is known only from the Baleshwar River (Barak River basin), Silchar, Assam, in northeastern India.	eng
168558	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus amplicephalus</span> occurs in moderate to fast flowing water with sandy bottom.	eng
168558	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168558	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No detailed information on threats to the species is available. The Baleshwar River is a coastal river within a degraded agricultural landscape.<br/></p>	eng
168559	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	The taxonomy of this species requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy river drainages are conspecific. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168559	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage in southern China (Yunnan) and northern Myanmar. &#160;It has also been recorded from the upper Brahmaputra River drainage in China (Wu and Wu 1992), but the conspecificity of this population with that from the Irrawaddy River drainage needs verification.	eng
168559	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential streams with cool water and a substrate consisting of rocks, where it feeds on aquatic invertebrates (Chu and Mo 1999).	eng
168559	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168559	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168560	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.</p>	eng
168560	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura paucifasciata</span> is known only from Hwe-gna-sang River in Myanmar.	eng
168560	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	A bottom-dwelling species found in hill streams with cool, fast flowing watrs.	eng
168560	population	Singh, L., 2010	The species has not been collected since its description. No information is available.	eng
168560	threats	Singh, L., 2010	Nothing is currently known of threats to the species.	eng
168561	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>More research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats are required.</p>	eng
168561	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	The species is known only from small streams near Myitkyina, Myanmar.	eng
168561	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<p>This species inhabits small streams.<br/></p>	eng
168561	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168561	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no threat information available.</p>	eng
168562	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to understand the species population, distribution, threats, and ecology. Indawgyi Lake is a National Park.	eng
168562	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">The species is found in Indawgyi </st1:city></st1:place>Lake<st1:place w:st="on">, and from its tributary, the Nant Yen Khan Chaung, Kachin State, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Myanmar.</st1:country-region></st1:place>	eng
168562	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in demersal, freshwater habitat.	eng
168562	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168562	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Threats include logging and agriculture development that result in sedimentation. Pollution such as domestic, industrial and mining. The impacts of these on the lake are not known and require urgent study. Not specifically targeted by fishers.	eng
168563	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168563	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Vishwanath and Laishram (2004) described<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;<em>Rasbora ornatus</em>&#160;from Lokchao River, Manipur (Chindwin drainage).</span>&#160;<em>R. ornatus</em> is known from Chatrickong River and Lokchao River, both tributaries of the Yu River, Manipur, India.	eng
168563	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been found in hill streams.	eng
168563	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Population may be affected by habitat destruction and other stresses. &#160;It is reported to be common (S. Kullander&#160;<em>pers. comm.&#160;</em>2010<em>)&#160;</em>in the Chindwin.	eng
168563	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Lokchao River, the type locality of the species has several disturbances. The river flows near Moreh town, which is an acive centre for international trade between India and Myanmar. The Moreh population is threatened from development activities and pollution (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168564	conservation	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	Lake Rara is a national Park (Rara National  Park) and is also classified as a Ramsar site. This is one of the efforts to conserve this species in its  natural condition. More research in relation to its ecology, habitat  management and pollution status in and around its habitat is necessary.	eng
168564	distribution	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	<em>Schizothorax nepalensis</em> is endemic to the high altitude Lake Rara in southwestern Nepal at 2,990 m.	eng
168564	habitat	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	It is found in a high mountain freshwater lake.	eng
168564	population	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	There is no information available on population of this species. As the lake is facing threats such as exploitation, siltation and pollution, the population is thought to be in decline (e.g. Rai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).	eng
168564	threats	Jha, B.R. & Rayamajhi, A., 2010	The highly restricted distribution of this species may be threatened by pollution by army personnel and tourists, and minor forest produce collection by locals (Kafle and Savillo 2009). Overgrazing, siltation, pollution and over-exploitations have been reported by many.<br/><br/>Rai <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>(2002) reported the populations are decreasing rapidly due to a heavy fishing pressure, natural calamities, as well as human disturbances such as construction of dams and roads.	eng
168565	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Type locality of the species is not a protected area. There is need for protection of habitat of the species. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168565	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from the Rangriang Jowai, Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya, India. &#160;The extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
168565	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Hill stream with gravel bottom.	eng
168565	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168565	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species may be affected by habitat degradation due to deforestation, quarrying, limestone extraction and coal mining.	eng
168566	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuation.	eng
168566	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Osteobrama feae</span> is known from Maklang River, Manipur, India; Myitkyina District Bhamo, Mandalay and Kakarait, Kalewa, upper Chindwin drainage, Myanmar.	eng
168566	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species has been found in rivers.	eng
168566	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to estimate the population of this species but it is common throughout its range.	eng
168566	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The major threat to this species is contruction of dams, which may disturb its habit of local migration.	eng
168567	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Further information is required into the species habitat and population, and the likely impact of hydropower dams and the ornamental trade collection on the species populations and habitats.	eng
168567	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Recorded from the Brahmaputra River basin, upper reaches of Assam, India (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2002). Also found in the Dikrong River of Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
168567	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It occurs in hill streams.	eng
168567	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168567	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Little is known of the habitats where the species has been reported to date. &#160;There are a number of proposed dams within Arunanchal Pradesh, and these could impact upon the species, but the nature and impact is unknown; the species is not migratory. &#160;The species is collected for the ornamental trade and is highly valued.	eng
168568	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168568	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Erethistoides infuscatus</em>&#160;was described from the Brahmaputra and Meghna river drainages in India and Bangladesh&#160;(Ng 2006).	eng
168568	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	In Bangladesh, <em>E. infuscatus</em> was collected from a large, moderately deep, fast-flowing river with a sandy/muddy bottom. The water was relatively cool (18<sup>o</sup>C) (Ng 2006).	eng
168568	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species.	eng
168568	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168569	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. There is some evidence that what is currently identified as <em>P. acutirostris</em> may consist of more than one species, so further research into its taxonomy is necessary. Catch data for this species are also needed.	eng
168569	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Bago river drainages in Myanmar.	eng
168569	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers.	eng
168569	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although it is still a relatively common species.	eng
168569	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168570	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Research is required into the extent of the impact of introduced Tilapia fish in Inle Lake and tributaries.	eng
168570	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Known only from tributaries and the shores of Inlé Lake, near&#160;Taunggyi, in southern Shan States, Myanmar.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168570	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found dwelling <span class="sheader51">in a shallow lake, with dense bottom and floating vegetation, and in tributary rivers.	eng
168570	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information is available; requires further research.	eng
168570	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Invasive species of fish (e.g. Tilapia) have been introduced to Inle  Lake, and there have been declines in the number of small fish (R.  Britz,<span style="font-style: italic;"> pers. comm.</span>) as a result.	eng
168571	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species (aside from fishing mortality) also need to be identified. Catch data and the effect of fisheries on this species is critically needed.	eng
168571	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is only known from Xigong Lake and nearby mountain streams (that most likely drain into the lake). The lake is&#160;a closed (i.e., endorheic) mountain lake 1,300 m above sea level in southern Tibet, China and is approximately 0.15 km² in area.	eng
168571	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits mountain lakes and its associated drainages.	eng
168571	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, although this information is urgently needed.	eng
168571	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	As this species is captured for food in artisanal fisheries, this should be considered a major threat considering its very small area of occupancy.	eng
168572	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168572	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality in the Tista River at Tista Barrage (in the Brahmaputra River drainage) in West Bengal, India (Ng 2006).	eng
168572	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species has been caught in swift, turbid rivers with a mixed sandy/rocky bottom (Ng 2006).	eng
168572	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
168572	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168573	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Habitat of<span style="font-style: italic;"> D. kyathit</span> is not protected. But there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168573	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. kyathit</span> is known from Upper parts of three right bank tributaries of the upper Irrawady near Myitkyina, the Hpa-Lap Chaung, Nogaung and Chindwin rivers in Myanmar.	eng
168573	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It inhabits small stream with clear or brownish and fast running water with deep bamboo forest on both banks, more than 80% shaded, with mud and small stones on the bottom.	eng
168573	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168573	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species might potentially suffer from overexploitation due to its ornamental interest in the near future and habitat destruction caused by destructive fishing.	eng
168574	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available; catch data for this species is also badly needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168574	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<em>Glyptosternon maculatum</em> was described from Lhasa in Tibet, China (Regan 1905); the upper Brahmaputra River drainage. &#160;It is also reported from Arunachal Pradesh in India (Jayaram 2007)	eng
168574	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits shallow, rocky rivers with a moderate current, where it feeds on invertebrates. It breeds from March-May (Wu and Wu 1992).	eng
168574	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Although there is no information on the population and its trends for this species, information from current studies (e.g. Li and Xie 2008) indicates that this is still a relatively common species.	eng
168574	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is intensively fished for food via gillnet, but more destructive methods such as electricity and poison have been utilized that may pose a threat to the population (Li and Xie 2008). Other threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168575	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168575	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Oreoglanis macropterus</em>&#160;was described from the Kachin Hills (Vinciguerra 1890) and is&#160;currently&#160;known from the Irrawaddy and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and China.	eng
168575	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of large rocks.	eng
168575	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although little information about the population size and trend for this species, recent surveys in China suggest that this species is relatively abundant (Kong <em>et al.</em> 2005; Chen <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
168575	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168576	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168576	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Sisor rheophilus</em>&#160;was described from the Ganges River drainage in Uttar Pradesh in Kali Nadi near Muzzaffarnagar and Ganga River at Patna, India (Ng 2003).	eng
168576	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Sisor rheophilus</em> has been found at the bottom of fast-flowing rivers with a sandy substrate, where it feeds on aquatic insect larvae and oligochaetes (Mahajan 1967).	eng
168576	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168576	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The species may have ornamental value, however, this needs verification. &#160;The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168577	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168577	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>This species is only found in Chindwin basin in Manipur and Nagaland, and has not been recorded since in subsequent surveys. Further survey is required, and it should be looked for in adjacent basins in Myanmar. Extent of Occurrence is estimated (based on the area of the river sub-basins in which it is currently known to be present) at 18,000-19,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/></p>	eng
168577	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in benthopelagic freshwater environment.	eng
168577	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available. But it must have been reduced because of ongoing habitat destruction.	eng
168577	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Continuing habitat destruction due to damming for water harvesting and hydroelectric generation may have reduced its population to minimum.	eng
168578	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168578	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>Presently only known from its type locality at Nan Kwe stream near Myitkina, Myanmar.</p>	eng
168578	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	It inhabits streams.	eng
168578	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168578	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
168579	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168579	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is found in the Irrawaddy, Sittang and lower Salween river drainages of Myanmar, and from the Chindwin River drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
168579	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits floodplains and lowland rivers (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
168579	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in Moreh market, a border town between Manipur and Myanmar (W. Vishwanath<em> pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168579	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168580	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
168580	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Trichogaster labiosus</span> is known from northeast India only from the Chindwin drainage, Manipur, and from Myanmar.	eng
168580	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been found in rivers, as well as ponds, irrigation channels, and rice fields.	eng
168580	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
168580	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	None known for this species at present.	eng
168581	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168581	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Irrawaddy, Sittang and Salween river drainages in Myanmar and Thailand (Froese and Pauly 2009).	eng
168581	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits torrential streams with a rocky substrate, where it feeds on algae.	eng
168581	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168581	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168582	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168582	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the middle Irrawaddy River drainage in central Myanmar.	eng
168582	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers, streams and lakes with a sandy or muddy bottom with a lot of aquatic vegetation and not very fast flowing waters (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168582	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168582	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although the species is caught as a food fish, the harvest levels are not of the level to threaten its population. There are no other known threats to this species.	eng
168583	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing&#160;extreme population fluctuations.</p>  <p></p>	eng
168583	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius padamya</span> is was described from an artificial pond in Toe Gyi village, situated just above the Anisakan Falls near Pyin Oo Lwin, on the road Mandalay-Hsipaw (Irrawaddy basin) and from the lower Chindwin River.	eng
168583	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	This species inhabits artificial ponds and rivers.	eng
168583	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168583	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>No information about threats to the species is available. The impact of wild collection for the aquarium trade should be studied.<br/></p>	eng
168584	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168584	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra river drainages in India, Nepal and Bangladesh (Roberts and Ferraris 1998).	eng
168584	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits larger rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168584	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	Although there is no information on the population and trend for this species, <em>G. sexualis</em> is a relatively abundant species throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra system and the population can be considered to be stable at this moment (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;The species used to be more common in Nepal in the 1980s, but since 2000, it has become rare (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
168584	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The use of more destructive fishing methods is believed to be the cause of decline in this species in Nepal (B. Jha <em>pers. comm</em>.). &#160;However, the threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown. &#160;Since there is little information on the biology of this species, the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168585	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168585	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Nujiang (Upper Salween) and Longchuanjiang (Upper Irrawaddy) drainages in Yunnan, China.	eng
168585	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits torrential hillstreams with a substrate of rocks, where it feeds on invertebrates.	eng
168585	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, but data from recent field surveys (e.g. Chen <em>et al</em>. 2006) suggest that this species is locally uncommon.	eng
168585	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168587	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
168587	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage eastwards and southwards to the Tenasserim River drainage in Myanmar and the Chindwin drainage in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
168587	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers, predominantly with a muddy bottom (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168587	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available on the global population and its trend for this species, but this is a relatively common and abundant species in central Myanmar (Vidthayanon<em> et al</em>. 2005).	eng
168587	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168588	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations.	eng
168588	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Danio choprai </span>is known from Irrawady drainage, Upper Myanmar.	eng
168588	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been collected from small rocky streams.	eng
168588	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available. The species is fairly common (R. Brtiz <em>pers. comm. </em>2010) although more research is needed to know its distribution and population trends.	eng
168588	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No threats have been identified.	eng
168589	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	The taxonomic status of the different populations (particularly those from the Ganges and Irrawaddy river drainages) require resolution. More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168589	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is definitively known from the Brahmaputra River drainage. Records of this species from the Ganges and Irrawaddy river drainages (e.g. Shrestha 2008) may refer to other species. &#160;Report of this species from Yunnan by Chen and Cao (2000) needs verification.	eng
168589	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits swift rivers with a rocky substrate.	eng
168589	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168589	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168590	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;More information on catch data is needed and potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168590	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Irrawaddy River drainage eastwards and southwards to the Tenasserim River drainage. &#160;It has been collected from different parts of Imphal and Lokchao rivers and their tributaries in Manipur, India (Vishwanath <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
168590	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species inhabits rivers and larger hillstreams with a sandy or muddy bottom. &#160;This species spawns by building crater-like nests in the substrate and exhibits parental care of fry (Vidthayanon <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
168590	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information available for this species, although it is still relatively common in Myanmar and in the lower stretches of Imphal River in India.	eng
168590	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168592	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168592	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is found in Lokchao River, Moreh, Manipur (Myanmar border), 85 kilometers southeast of Imphal, Manipur. It can also be expected in the Chindwin basin, Myanmar.	eng
168592	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	They are mostly found amongst pebbles and shingles in rapid running hill streams and rivers.	eng
168592	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168592	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is prone to threats such as habitat destruction caused by deforestation, siltation, and other human interference.	eng
168593	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>Information is required on the species ecology, distribution, population, and potential threats to its habitat.<br/></p>	eng
168593	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Psilorhynchus nepalensis </span>is known from tributary rivers of the Kali Gandaki, central Nepal, and the Kosi River in eastern Nepal. It is also found within the boundaries of the Chitwan National Park (K. Conway <em>pers. obs</em>.)	eng
168593	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	The fish inhabits mountain streams and tributary rivers, more common in the mid-hills.	eng
168593	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>It is a very common species and locally abundant, however it is difficult to catch, and populations are difficult to estimate. <br/></p>	eng
168593	threats	Singh, L., 2010	No threats are known at present.	eng
168594	conservation	Singh, L., 2010	<p>More research into distribution, biology, population, trends and threats are recommended.</p>	eng
168594	distribution	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius macrogramma </span>is known only from the<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>streams near Myitkyina<span style="font-style: italic;">,</span> Kachin State, Myanmar.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
168594	habitat	Singh, L., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Puntius macrogramma </span>inhabits <span style="font-style: italic;"></span>mountain streams of Myanmar.<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span>	eng
168594	population	Singh, L., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
168594	threats	Singh, L., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.</p>	eng
168595	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168595	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Dayingjiang drainage in Yunnan, China, one of the tributaries in the upper Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
168595	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits hillstreams with rocky substrates, where it feeds on the periphyton (H.H. Ng <em>pers. comm.</em>).	eng
168595	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168595	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168596	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>	eng
168596	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura nagaensis </span>is distributed in Tizu River, Chindwin basin in Nagaland and Manipur, India. The species may be found within Myanmar in the Tizu River, but <em>Schistura</em> are often highly localised.<strong></strong></p>	eng
168596	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span class="sheader51"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura nagaensis</span> inhabits swift mountain streams with gravelly bottoms; a bottom-dwelling species.	eng
168596	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168596	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Shifting <em>j</em><span style="font-style: italic;">hum </span>cultuvation in the hills, particularly in the interior areas (Manipur-Nagaland border) cause harm to hill stream habitats. Another threat is use of destructive fishing: dynamiting and poisoning. &#160;The impacts of the proposed Tiju Dam is not known as the reach of the project is unknown.	eng
168597	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species.	eng
168597	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Tista River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River in northeastern India.	eng
168597	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	The holotype was collected from a swift, turbid river with a sandy/rocky substrate (Ng 2005).	eng
168597	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population size and trend of this species, since it is only known from the holotype.	eng
168597	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168598	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the distribution and biology of this species. The taxonomy of this species also requires further study to ascertain if the populations from the different river drainages are conspecific.	eng
168598	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species is known from the Upper Yangtze, Upper Mekong, Upper Salween and Upper Brahmaputra river drainages in China.	eng
168598	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species lives in swift-flowing streams, where it moves amongst rocky crevices by swimming in a saltatory manner. It feeds on algae and aquatic invertebrates. Ripe individuals are only observed in October, and the eggs are approximately 0.7 mm in diameter (Wu and Wu 1992).	eng
168598	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species. However, this species appears to be relatively common and widespread.	eng
168598	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	There are no known threats to the continued survival of this species in the wild.	eng
168599	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
168599	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Ganges and Brahmaputra River drainage in India (and presumably Bangladesh).	eng
168599	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits large, swift-flowing rivers with a sandy/muddy bottom.	eng
168599	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and trend for this species.	eng
168599	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
168600	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Further information is required on the species habitat, ecology and distribution.	eng
168600	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Its type locality is Dibrugarh, the most northeastern area of Assam, it&#160;is found in the Brahmaputra River basin in Assam.	eng
168600	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Forest streams, ponds, and swamps adjacent to the Brahmaputra River in subtropical rainforest conditions (Musikasinthorn 2000). This species grows to 16 in (40&#160;cm). It is a mouthbrooder as the most of the smaller snakeheads. It is probably carnivorous like other members of this genus.	eng
168600	population	Chaudhry, S., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168600	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2010	Limited information available; the only confirmed exploitation is for the aquarium trade.	eng
168601	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	The species is not recorded from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.	eng
168601	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neonoemacheilus peguensis</span> is distributed in the Pegu Yoma, the mountain range between Sitang and Irrawaddy basins in lower Myanmar. It is also recorded from the Chindwin basin in Manipur. There is no information on the species distribution between these two known disjunct populations.	eng
168601	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	The species inhibits the stream with pebbly bottoms; likely to be a mountain stream specialist.	eng
168601	population	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168601	threats	Britz, R., 2010	The species is prone to threats such as deforestation, siltation and removable of pebbles leading to habitat loss.	eng
168602	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">O. cunma</span> is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection sites where this species is known to occur. Further survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing extreme population fluctuation.	eng
168602	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is known from Chindwin drainage which covers Manipur in India and Myanmar.	eng
168602	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Most specimens have been found in rivers and streams.	eng
168602	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	More research is needed to estimate natural populations although the species is widespread throughout its range.	eng
168602	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss across its range caused by damming, use of dynamite, and destructive fishing,&#160;which restrict its local migratory habits.	eng
168603	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p>The species is not known from any protected areas, and clearly there is a need for improved habitat protection at sites where this species is known to occur.<br/></p>	eng
168603	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura khugae</span> is recorded only from the Khuga River in Manipur (Chindwin basin), India.<strong></strong></p>                       <p><strong>&#160;</strong></p>	eng
168603	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schistura khugae</span> is a bottom-dwelling hill stream fish.	eng
168603	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
168603	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since it is a hillstream species, it might suffer from habitat degradation such as siltation.	eng
168788	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.	eng
168788	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia and Australia. In Africa, from West (Senegal, Mali, Liberia etc.) To East (Kenya, Tanzania etc.), then downwards to South Africa. Also found in Madagascar.	eng
168788	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Floating, almost totally submerged aquatic plant, growing in lakes, ponds, swamps, paddy fields and running waters.	eng
168788	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, habitat generalist, therefore important population.	eng
168788	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
168790	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	The species is present in some Protected Areas such as Parc national de Kalamaloué (National Park IUCN Cat. II, Cameroon), Lavushi Manda (National Park IUCN Cat. II, Zambia), and Victoria Falls/Mosi-Oa-Tunya (National Park, World Heritage Site and IUCN Cat. II, Zambia).	eng
168790	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Widespread in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, India, China and Japan, Malaya and the Philippines, the New Guinea mainland and Australia.<br/><br/>In Africa, present in Madagascar, almost throughout all tropical Africa from Senegal and Sudan south to north KwaZulu-Natal.<br/><br/>It is widespread across Western, Central and Eastern Africa down to Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). <br/><br/>In Tanzania it is known from Mpanda district Mahali Mts., Lubulungu stream, Ufipa district Kalambo village, Kondoa district 3km. E. of Kondoa. In Kenya, this species is widespread and has been recorded in Uasin Gishu, Kericho, Kisii, Kakamega and Kajiado.	eng
168790	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	This is a free floating fern on water in a wide variety of aquatic habitats (ponds and backwaters of rivers) up to 1000 m above sea level.	eng
168790	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Abundant and relatively widespread.	eng
168790	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought although these are not major threats.	eng
168832	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
168832	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in Western Africa and also recorded in North East Africa from Sudan (Kordofan - Taiare). Also found in Madagascar and Subtropical Asia.	eng
168832	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Aquatic grass, it forms great population in the edges of shallow pools, lakes and temporary water. The plants are submerged or floating with flowers spike above water. A perennial but sometimes annual.	eng
168832	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Abundant and well distributed.	eng
168832	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There's no known major threats.	eng
168863	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
168863	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is found in tropical Africa and Asia.<br/><br/>It occurs From Senegal to west Cameroon. Also in  Namibia, Zambia, South Africa and Swaziland.	eng
168863	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It is common on seasonal wetlands, marsy places near towns and villages, fields rice, humid ditches, pools, often brackish, littoral or estuarine waters.	eng
168863	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Great occurrence on pools and shallow water.	eng
168863	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought	eng
168916	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	None at the moment, the protection of its natural habitat (permanent pond) is required.	eng
168916	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This Species has a very good occurrence in West Tropical Africa. It is present in many countries of West Africa . <br/><br/>In Central Africa: <em>N. indica</em> is found in all tropical Africa, from Senegal to South-West Africa, in Botswana and Zimbabwe<br/><br/>Recorded from Uganda,  between 1,100 m and 1,700 m above sea level; Tanzania (Pemba, Kigoma Lake chagu), Senegal to Ethiopia, Namibia and Mozambique. Tanzania T4 &7 - <br/><br/>In North-eastern Africa, the subspecies <em>N. indica occidentalis</em> is found in Sudan (Gafala, in Lande der Bongo) and Ethiopia (Lake Zana near Gabmatoseh).<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, the subspecies <em>N. indica occidentalis</em> is found in Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).	eng
168916	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	This powerfull, perennial aquatic herb, grows floating in permanent ponds of sudano-guinean savannas. In favorable conditions, brought by big rivers, this plant can still grow in dryer regions. It generally occurs in eutrophic ponds, flooded zones of rivers and border of rice fields.  It is also found in abundant populations in shallow ponds and swamps. It can tolerate considerable variation in water levels and can withstand temporary drying up of pools (when it may root at the nodes). It reproduces very effectively by vegetative means and can become a weed of waterways.	eng
168916	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Widespread plant with an important population. Rare in North-eastern Africa.	eng
168916	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future:<br/>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br/>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.<br/>- Filling up of the pond for human settlement	eng
168917	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None needed	eng
168917	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is widespread occurring in Asia and in Africa. Naturalized in Asia.<br/><br/>In Africa it is found from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa, but is also found in Madagascar and the Comoros.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has been recorded in Tanzania in Musoma district, Mbulu district in Lake Manyara National Park and Tanga distric. Also found in South Western Uganda. In North-eastern Africa it is found in Sudan (Imatong Mountains), Ethiopia (Lake Tana) and Somalia.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa as <em>N. nouchali caerulea</em>, it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, possibly Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa.	eng
168917	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Aquatic herb, floating in rivers, lakes, swamps and pools. It grows in permanent or temporary water in shallow pools, dams, and swamps, seasonal ponds, lake-edges and slow-flowing streams and rivers, mostly in water 30 to 90 cm deep, but also in water up to 3 m deep.	eng
168917	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, presumably important population.	eng
168917	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no major threats to this species although it will potentially be affected by habitat loss and degradation by human activities.	eng
168929	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation meaures in place.	eng
168929	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	the species occurs in the Old world tropics, extending south of Africa to Kwazulu-natal.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Western Africa, Central and Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Central Africa: L. obtusifolium is a Paleo-tropical species with a Soudano-zambesian distribution in Africa. The plant is also found in Asia and Madagascar.<br/><br/>Eastern Africa: Kenya - The is widely spread from sea-level to 1140 m. Described as rare, it is found in Northern Kenya districts, Kilifi, Lamu, Kisii and Magadi.<br/><br/>North-eastern Africa: Sudan (Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia, Somalia.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). <br/><br/>Global distribution:	eng
168929	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial aquatic herb, helophyte of ponds, permanent or temporary marshes, water pools, inundated grasslands with <em>Echinochloa</em> spp. and <em>Oryza</em> spp., preferably in stagnating or slow water, on clayish or clayish-sandy soil.	eng
168929	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is widely spread from sea-level to 1140 metres.	eng
168929	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought, and water pollution. However, none of these have been identified as major and widespread.	eng
168936	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	More research in taxonomy, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
168936	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species has a Paleotropical distribution. It occurs in Africa, Asia and Australasia.<br/><br/>There are records from some countries in western Africa. The speces distribution outside western Africa is not known, possibly only found in western Africa.	eng
168936	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	An aquatic herb with broad floating leaves and sometimes submerged linear phyllodes. It grows isolated or sometimes in very small tufts in still water, pools, ponds, reed bed, still handles of rivers. At the edge of permanent swamps.	eng
168936	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
168936	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
168937	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
168937	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Widely distributed throughout the tropics except probably the pacific islands and Australia.<br/><br/>Widespread in Western Africa, extending to Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. In North Africa the species is present in Morocco and north of Egypt.	eng
168937	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	This floating herb, propagates mainly by stolons and forming immense colonies. It roots in shallow water on the surface of lakes, ponds, rivers and other bodies of water.<em> Pistia stratiotes</em> is a freshwater invasive weed that is found throughout the tropics and subtropics.	eng
168937	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Gregarious species and population generally important. Widespread and not declining	eng
168937	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	This is a normally invasive species, no major threats have been identified.	eng
168962	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2007	No specific measures are in place or needed.	eng
168962	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Raising public awareness and further research on habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.	eng
168962	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	North to East then extending to Southern Africa. It is found from Morocco to Egypt, across the mediterranean coast down to South Africa through Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in the East.	eng
168962	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is cosmopolitan, occurring in Europe, North and central Africa, Australia, North and Central America.<br/>It can be found in all the Mediterranean countries.	eng
168962	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2007	<em>P. pectinatus</em> occurs in fresh or brackish water. It tolerates high salinity, pH, and alkalinity. It is highly tolerant of eutrophic waters, and it can be present in heavily polluted sites. Turbidity is the factor that most frequently limits the growth of this species.<br/>It is an important food species for many animals (including some rare species of swans).	eng
168962	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial aquatic herb, submerged in lakes, rivers and brackish waters up to 2100 m. Often forms submerged monophytic meadows.	eng
168962	population	Ali, M.M., 2007	This species is extremely common.	eng
168962	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, abundant population.	eng
168962	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major threats have been identified, although water pollution, invasion by alien species and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
168962	threats	Ali, M.M., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
168964	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	In Algeria, the species is found in the El Kala National Park. In France, it is protected at regional level in Rhône-Alpes. The species is classed as Critically Endangered in the National Red Data Book of Israel (Shmida and Pollak 2008). Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1997) report the species as Vulnerable for Italy and Extinct in the Wild in Latium. All this data is uncertain and new investigations on this species are necessary.<br/>In North Africa, there are no conservation measures in place<br/>The following conservation and research actions are recommended: <br/>- Legal protection of the species in Algeria and Egypt<br/>- Monitoring  of population dynamics and of existent populations, historic sites and search for new localities<br/>- Evaluation of population size<br/>- <span style="font-style: italic;">Ex situ</span> conservation<br/>- Study of the species ecology and understanding of its habitat requirements	eng
168964	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is occurring in southern and central Europe, western Asia and North Africa, Australia and North America.<br/>The species is found nearly everywhere around the Mediterranean Sea. In North Africa, it is found in Algeria (Alger region - Reghaia forest, El Kala) and Egypt where it is present in the Nile delta, oases of the Libyan desert (El Dakhla, 'Ain Shirif at El Qasr, El Bahariya at El Bawiti and at 'Ain Musafir), western Mediterranean coast (Mariut), and eastern Mediterranean coast (Damietta). In the eastern Mediterranean it extends from Israel, Jordan, Syria to inner Anatolia and European Turkey. It is present in Greece and extends to Italy, France, where it is sparsely distributed in the centre and the east, to northeastern and central Spain and Portugal. In Italy the distribution of this species need further investigations. According to Conti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) the species occurs in northern Italy (Piedmont and Lombardia). In the Mediterranean area it is reported with doubt for Tuscany and not found anymore in Latium.	eng
168964	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is an annual sedge growing in temporary pools, depressions, rice fields, alluvial flats, inundated sandy lands, damp places and around lakes, reservoirs and ponds. The species needs open, sandy places to establish a population. <br/>It is also found in low intensity rice fields and it is unlikely that it could cope with the ongoing intensification of rice field management.	eng
168964	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is rare in Egypt and very rare in Algeria. In Israel, it appears at two localities which are not protected. It is known from at least six different localities in southern Turkey.<br/>In Italy, it is known from two sites in Lombardia, of which one disappeared and from one in Piedmont. It was reported for other regions (e.g. Tuscany and Latium) but its presence could not be confirmed recently. In Spain, it is found in 13 provinces (Castroviejo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Its presence in Portugal needs to be confirmed, it has been reported only for São Facundo. In France, it is only known from the Camargue and has not been seen in other regions for a long time. It is present at two sites in Croatia, where it is Critically Endangered, but these sites are outside the Mediterranean region   (Nikolić and Topić 2005).	eng
168964	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectus supinus</em> is threatened by the destruction of its habitat due to urban development. The site in Lombardy occurred in rice fields and was lost when the agricultural regime changed. The species is also sensitive to hydrological changes. It is not clear why the species is scarce in the Mediterranean region.	eng
168967	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
168967	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is present in Africa, Tropical and Subtropical Asia to North western Pacific.<br/><br/>In Africa the species has been found in Tanzania, Mozambique and Madagascar. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Rufiji district and Mafia Island.	eng
168967	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Still or flowing water up to 2 metres deep; near sea level.	eng
168967	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
168967	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
168969	conservation	Juffe, D., 2005	In Western Africa it ccurs in a protected area and no further measures are needed. Further research on population numbers and range is needed for North Eastern Africa.	eng
168969	distribution	Juffe, D., 2005	A pantropical and subtropical species found in the Guineo-Congolian and Sudano-Zambezian regions. It is widespread in western Africa, common and widespread in Eastern Africa, and present in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in South and Central America, South East Asia and Australia.	eng
168969	habitat	Juffe, D., 2005	It grows in flooded rice fields or old rice fields, and in flooded or moist places in Western Africa. There are an increasing number of dams in the area which will help to increase the size of the population. In North Eastern Africa it can be found in Open moist places. Perennial and sometimes annual, with a short rhizome, generally growing in tuft. Found from sea level to 1,700 m asl.	eng
168969	population	Juffe, D., 2005	It is abundant in  Western Africa but rare in North-eastern Africa.	eng
168969	threats	Juffe, D., 2005	Increasing frequency of droughts and expanding agricultural activities (mainly cereal crops) are the main threats. It is also more vulnerable to disturbances due to its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
168991	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No specific conservation measures are needed.	eng
168991	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is native to the tropical and warm regions of the world. In Africa, it is found in Egypt, South Africa and Namibia. Some authors (RBG Kew, 2010) consider this species as introduced in Egypt.	eng
168991	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This hydrophyte is found in stagnant water, ponds, lake shores, pools, and ditches.	eng
168991	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is common in North Africa.	eng
168991	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species may be affected by competition with other invador species but this is not a major threat.	eng
168994	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	At least found in one protected area (Mkuze Game Reserve, South Africa) but it may be present in more. No conservation actions are required, except for better research on the popualtion dynamics. It has been listed as Critically endangered in South Africa.	eng
168994	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	A Pan-tropical species (south and south east Asia, Australia, tropical Africa south to South Africa). Tends to be highly localised around lakes and dams in low lying areas.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Western Africa and Central Africa.  Only found in one locality in South Africa (PRECIS) Mkuze Swamps, KwaZulu-Natal.	eng
168994	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Annual or perrennial growing in marshy places, pans, pools, dams, reservoirs, ditches or sometimes floating.  It may from large floating populations and can be hazardous (Cook 2004:68).	eng
168994	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Generally found in small subpopulations.	eng
168994	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespread threats. The Mkhuze Swamps is one of the few Southern African localities for this species and the only place in South Africa. This area is threatened by quick wildfires and heavy cattle grazing, informal (illegal agriculture).	eng
169015	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In the United Arab Emirates, there has recently been implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts. This species is also protected under the UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation) and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls. This species also is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve, and is included in the integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme.&#160;&#160; <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila ovalis </span>is found in a marine park in Swan River and in Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4000 km² of seagrass beds of high density in Western Australia.&#160; It cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland. <br/><br/>It also occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, the largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. Management policies were proposed in 1998 by the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning in Thailand. <br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovalis </span>is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas. There are also NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve. Additionally, it is included in the management guide in the Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan drafted by the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC), and monitored in SeagrassNet located in Puerto Galera (Philippines) which shows the impacts of eutrophication at the site adjacent to a coastal town (Green and Short 2003).	eng
169015	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila ovalis</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it occurs from southern Japan throughout Southeast Asia, many islands of the western Pacific, and through all but the southern coast of Australia as well as Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands and as far east as Tonga and Samoa. In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. ovalis</em> is found from southwestern Australia to East Africa and the Red Sea, including Madagascar, with some exceptions of islands or coastlines with no records. Recently <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovali</span>s has been discovered in the Atlantic Ocean on the Island of Antigua (Short <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).	eng
169015	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila ovalis</span> is rapidly growing, with high turn-over, wide ecological range, and is considered a pioneering species. This species is one of the most common foods of the Dugong.<br/><br/>In Arabian Gulf, this species tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 practical salinity units (psu) and temperatures of 10-39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore) (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Photosynthetic studies in Tanzania indicate an enhanced photosynthetic rate in the high, frequently air-exposed, intertidal zone which may have been related to a capacity to take up the elevated HCO<sub>3</sub> levels directly. This is a pioneer species in Mozambique in exposed sandy areas close to the coastline (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It grows rapidly and survives well in unstable and depositional environments in eastern Australia (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It is widely distributed in Thailand because of its ability to grow in different habitats, such as mud, muddy sand and dead coral fragments in the upper littoral and subtidal areas (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Peninsular Malaysia, it is common all around the coast on muddy shores and areas exposed at low tide. This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western islands of the western Pacific, it is found in intertidal habitat mixed with <em>Enhalus acoroides</em> in Palau or <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> in Yap, commonly found in deep water at the offshore edge of mixed seagrass meadows (Green and Short 2003). In Micronesia, it is tolerant of 40°C temperature and low salinity (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, it has a wide vertical range, from the intertidal zone down to more than 20 m depth, and grows specially well on disturbed sediments such as the mounds of burrowing invertebrates (Green and Short 2003).	eng
169015	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a common species. Its global population trend is stable or increasing as it can tolerate disturbances.<br/><br/>A 1988 survey established the existence of approximately 1,200 km² of seagrass habitat in southwestern Hervey Bay, Australia. Surveys in 1992 and 1993 add an additional 400 km² of habitat in the northeastern portion of the bay which was not surveyed in 1988. <em>Halophila spinulosa</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em> were the most common seagrasses. Following two floods and a cyclone in 1992, virtually all of the seagrasses in southwestern Hervey Bay had disappeared which represents approximately 24% of the known area of seagrass along the east coast of Queensland. This die-off is unprecedented in the past 100 years. Initial recovery was restricted to deep water (>10 m) as recorded in 1993. Only a few, unpredictable shallow sites showed signs of recovery. Deep-water recovery was resulting from germination of seeds. Communities in deeper waters were expected to recover in a few years. Recovery for the shallow water region is unpredictable but recovery from other events has taken 10 or more years (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, Western Australia, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production has reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t dry weight/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>, <em>P. australis</em>, <em>P. coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Heterozostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and <em>A. antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).	eng
169015	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> ovalis</em> is more susceptible to elevated temperatures than some species of seagrass (Campbell <em>et al</em>. 2006). Climate change is also a threat for this species, and it is collected and sold internationally for aquaria.<br/><strong></strong><br/>Oil globules and oily black films discharges negatively affect<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. ovalis</span> in the Arabian Gulf (Green and Short 2003), and overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material) occur in Kenyan and Tanzanian shores. Declining water quality due to increasing populations in coastal towns and cities is also an issue (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction materials. Anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, threats include human activities such as direct physical damage caused by port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging, excessive loads of nutrients causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering by epiphytes, and land based activity associated with ports, industry, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In eastern Australia, population reduction is caused by the result of light reduction due to sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments, and minor damage from boating and shipping activities. This species also could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, and land-based activities, especially mining, reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Malaysia, loss was caused by intensive sand mining for reclamation activities in mangrove swamps as part of the construction of a condominium which resulted to suspended particles in the water settled on its leaves, blocking sunlight for photosynthesis and causing considerable stress and mortality through burial. This species also was damaged by intense winds, waves and sediment movement during the northeast monsoon storms of October 1998 to January 1999 (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, threats include coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ovalis</span> is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources, and by over exploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, threats occur from industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting to loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
169017	conservation	Juffe, D., 2005	No inmediate conservation actions are need. Taxonomy, biology and ecology are known. Further research on population numbers and range are needed.	eng
169017	distribution	Juffe, D., 2005	This species is present from the old world tropics and subtropics extending into U.S.A. It is widespread in western Africa and north eastern Africa. Also present in Eastern Africa and Southern Africa.	eng
169017	habitat	Juffe, D., 2005	Border of water bodies and temporary flooded depressions on sandy to muddy soils ; rice fields and market gardening.  Rhizophytic which grows in the edges of pools. In upland Kenya it is found scattered from 900-1,400 m above sea level.	eng
169017	population	Juffe, D., 2005	Fairly common throughout its range. Populations can fluctuate due to the decrease of rains and as a consequence of a reduction of the number of pools.	eng
169017	threats	Juffe, D., 2005	Agriculture and drought have been described as possible threats to this species.	eng
169037	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
169037	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Present in Tropical Africa, Tropical and Subtropical Asia to Australia and Argentina. The species is widespread in western Africa. Also found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Songani in Zomba, Lingadzi River on Kasungu Road. The species is common and widespread in Kenya from sea level to 1,800 m above sea level. In Uganda it occurs between 1,100 and 1,400 m asl Recorded from Karamoja and Teso in the north Eastern part of Uganda.	eng
169037	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	It grows in flooded soils, shallow waters and on banks of streams and lagoons.	eng
169037	population	Juffe, D., 2006	the species is common throughout its range.	eng
169037	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Although no major widespread threats have been described, agriculture, drought, water pollution and recreation activities on shores could threaten the species locally.	eng
169050	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	No specific conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
169050	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	Native to Madagascar, east tropical and South Africa and introduced in other parts of the tropics. It is present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Etitrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.	eng
169050	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	It occurs in permanent and intermittent water courses, pools, lakes, and marshy and swampy areas. It is widely cultivated.	eng
169050	population	Juffe, D., 2008	Very common	eng
169050	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	No major threats identified.	eng
169092	conservation	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is well represented in National Parks and other protected areas in parts of its range, e.g. Malaysia. Elsewhere it occurrence in protected areas needs to be verified and the protection of additional forest areas is desireable. However no specific conservation actions need to be taken for this species.	eng
169092	distribution	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known from India to Thailand and south to the Philippines and Java.	eng
169092	habitat	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lyriothemis cleis</span> breeds in water filled tree holes, depressions in fallen tree trunks and small pools on the forest floor. It has been frequently found in logged over forest in Borneo, so it is tolerant of disturbance (R. Dow, pers. comm., 2010).	eng
169092	population	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	This is not an uncommon species in forest areas, but probably under-recorded because of its breeding habits.	eng
169092	threats	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Replacement of original forest by plantation is the main threat to populations of this species, but it is widely distributed and present in many protected areas, so cannot be considered to be globally threatened.	eng
169093	conservation	Sharma, G. & Babu, R., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species; expert searches must be made in Assam and other north eastern Indian states in forested areas. Until such searches are made it is difficult to plan any conservation measures that might be needed, although any such measures will centre around the preservation of areas of suitable habitat.	eng
169093	distribution	Sharma, G. & Babu, R., 2010	This species is known from Assam (Cachar, India) from one locality (recorded in 1921), it is also known from Goalpara (Assam) where it was last observed in 1973 (T.R. Mitra pers. comm. 2010), it is unknown if other surveys have taken place since then. It is has also been recorded from Tibet (China), however according to Laidlaw (1917)&#160; "The locality ' Thibet ' given for this species by Selys should almost certainly be rather Assam. I have not seen an example of&#160; this, one of the smallest and probably one of the rarest of the Rhinocyphas"; Tibet is considered here to be extremely doubtful as part of the range of this species. It is likely to be found in other northeast Indian provinces (see comments under Population and Assessment Rationale).	eng
169093	habitat	Sharma, G. & Babu, R., 2010	It was observed in Goalpara in forest habitat, and appears to be a species of forest streams.	eng
169093	population	Sharma, G. & Babu, R., 2010	&#160;There is no information on the population status of this species, but it does appear to be extremely local in occurrence. However there has been insufficient expert sampling across most of northeast India, and judging by the types of records that have appeared from provinces such as Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunchal Pradesh in the last 70 years, it appears that most collectors have barely entered forest whilst searching for Odonata, so are unlikely to have found this species. As it is very small for a chlorocyphid, it is also likely to have been overlooked.	eng
169093	threats	Sharma, G. & Babu, R., 2010	No specific threats to the species are known. However there is a general threat of deforestation across the region, but without more data on this species, in particular if it really is as local in occurrence and dependent on forest as it appears to be from the current scanty data, it is difficult to judge how severe a threat this is.	eng
169094	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Fresh data on this species are urgently needed, without such data any conservation actions that might be needed cannot be planned.	eng
169094	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorogomphus mortoni</span> has only been recorded from Sikkim, India (Fraser 1936) and one record of a female from Nepal (Mahato 1988).	eng
169094	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available on habits and ecology of the species. However most species of this genus require forest and riverine habitats, and this species is very likely to be montane.	eng
169094	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information is available for this species.	eng
169094	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information on specific threats to the species exists. Sikkim is a remote area and relatively undisturbed, however, parts of both Nepal and Sikkim are impacted by agricultural degradation and impacted in some places by hydropower development, especially within montane areas.	eng
169095	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	Before any conservation measures hat might be needed for this species can be planned, more data must be obtained. In particular the taxonomic issue must be resolved and, if it is a good species, information on its habitat requirements and distribution must be obtained.	eng
169095	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is known only from the holotype female from Kurseong (Navas 1930) in Darjeeling District in India.	eng
169095	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
169095	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
169095	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
169096	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Without more information on habitat, distribution and threats it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed by this species. The priority must be for extensive expert sampling to take place in north eastern India and adjacent areas.	eng
169096	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is only known to occur in Margherita and Guwahati (Assam) and Kolkata (West Bengal) in India. It should be looked for in adjacent parts of India, and in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar	eng
169096	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species was recorded from bamboo thickets near a river (Fraser 1936), but this tells us little about its breeding habitat, which could be pools in bamboo or forest, or it could be a riverine species (although this would be unusual for a <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha</span>).	eng
169096	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Few individuals have ever been collected of this species. Fraser (1936) implies that the species was quite common at locations in Assam more than 70 years ago, but there are no more recent records from there. The details of the record from Kolkata are not known.	eng
169096	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Without additional information on habitat and distribution it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.	eng
169097	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh data on this species, without such data any conservation actions that might be needed&#160; cannot be planned.	eng
169097	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	This species is known only from the type locality in West Bengal.	eng
169097	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
169097	population	Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
169097	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
169098	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	Further research on the existing populations, habitat and ecology and threats to the species is needed, but it is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
169098	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemicordulia asiatica </span>is known from southwest India and northeast India and Myanmar (Dijkstra 2007).	eng
169098	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	The species breeds in montane lakes and stream pools (Fraser 1936).	eng
169098	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No concrete information is available on the current population trend of the species, but judging from the available records and the fact that it is likely to be difficult to capture, it is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat.	eng
169098	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known to exist for the species, however the species high altitude habitats are under threat from&#160; degrdation from agriculrtral clearance and deforestation, as well as hydropower development.	eng
169099	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh searches for this species in the Khasi Hills and adjacent regions, without such searches it is not possible to plan the conservation measures that may well be needed for this species. The first priority is to determine if the species is present within any protected area in the Khasi Hills, and to check that it is really endemic to these hills, which seems likely, as the species is sufficiently conspicuous and easy to capture that it should have been found elsewhere by now.	eng
169099	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	Known to occur only from Mawpat, Mawphlong, Barapani, Shilong and Upper Shilong, all in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India.	eng
169099	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species breeds in streams.	eng
169099	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Based on records in Lahiri (1987) this species was quite common in the Khasi Hills in the 1960s and 1970s, but there has been no information since that time.	eng
169099	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	More than two-thirds of the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion, of which the Khasi Hills are part, have been cleared or degraded; however, extensive stretches of intact habitat can still be found in the northeastern parts. Little of the ecosystem is formally protected, however, several patches of habitat are included within sacred forests that have been traditionally protected. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity stem from the following; deforestation, especially resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal, limestone, and potentially uranium; and current and potential hydropower developments (WWF 2010). Hydropower development, deforestation, road construction, tourism and expansion of agriculture are affecting the Khasi hills, but we have no concrete information on the extent and impact of these threats on this or any other species.	eng
169100	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Without more data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.	eng
169100	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series from the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India.	eng
169100	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing was recorded on the habitat of this species, although it is clearly montane.	eng
169100	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169100	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169101	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Further data is needed on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
169101	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is only known from the type series and location in 'Assam', the exact location is not known.	eng
169101	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing is known of the habitat of this species.	eng
169101	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series of four specimens.	eng
169101	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.	eng
169102	conservation	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for further data on this species, particularly on its distribution.	eng
169102	distribution	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2010	This species occurs in northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR.	eng
169102	habitat	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in forest streams. In Chiang Mai in Thailand it has been reported on a stream in a narrow corridor of woodland in agricultural land, suggesting that it is tolerant of disturbance (R. Dow, pers. comm 2010).	eng
169102	population	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2010	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, and not particularly common.	eng
169102	threats	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2010	No information is available on any existing threats.	eng
169103	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	There is a need for further information on distribution and habitat requirements, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed.	eng
169103	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anax indicus</span> is a widely distributed species in Nepal (e.g. Vick 1988), Pakistan (Chaudhury and Aslam 2010), Sri lanka (De Fonseka 2000), India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen 2002). There are holes in its known distribution (e.g. Myanmar) but these are likely to be due to under sampling and misidentification as the closely related <span style="font-style: italic;">A. guttatus</span>, with which it has frequently been confused.	eng
169103	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	This species breeds in ponds and possibly lakes.	eng
169103	population	Mitra, A., 2010	There is little information on populations of this species, but it appears to be quite common in parts of India at least.	eng
169103	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known to exist for the species.	eng
169104	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on the distribution and habitat requirements of this species, without this data it will not be possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed. Expert searches must be made in Assam and adjacent regions sooner rather than later.	eng
169104	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series from Ledo in Assam, India.	eng
169104	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing was recorded on the habitat in which this species was collected.	eng
169104	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series of one male and three females.	eng
169104	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Without further information on distribution and habitat requirements it is not possible to do more than guess at any threats that this species might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
169106	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169106	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Rhipidolestes malaisei</em> is known only from the holotype male, collected at Kambaiti, Kachin State, northeast Myanmar, in the 1930s (Lieftinck 1948).	eng
169106	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	There is no information available on the habitat of this species, although it is likely to breed in small high gradient forest streams.	eng
169106	population	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing can be said about populations of this species without further data.	eng
169106	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.	eng
169107	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is an urgent need for fresh information on this species.	eng
169107	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known from Cheerapunji, Meghalaya, India.	eng
169107	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available. Probably hill streams like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anisopleura</span>.	eng
169107	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
169107	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Although no specific information is available,&#160; it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development	eng
169109	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is found in Melghat Tiger Reserve, Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kulkarni and Talmale 2008), Kanha National Park (Raju and Narayanan 2008), Gir National Park and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (www.asia-dragonfly.net).	eng
169109	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Disparoneura quadrimaculata </span>is endemic to India and widely distributed from Gujarat (www.asia-dragonfly.net) and Rajasthan (Tyagi and Miller 1991) in west to West Bengal (Mitra 2002) in east occurring in Madhya Pradesh (Fraser 1919, Raju and Narayanan 2008, Srivastava and Babu 1997) and Bihar (Mitra 2002) in between. Southwards from Gujarat its distributional range goes as far as Tamil Nadu (Benstead 2009) occurring in Maharashtra (Fraser 1924, Kulkarni and Talmale 2008, Laidlaw 1915, 1917; Patankar <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Tiple <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and Karnataka (Fraser 1931, Subramanian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) in between.	eng
169109	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Adults are confined to hill streams and rivers of forested landscapes. Frequently perches on emergent aquatic plants and overhanging vegetation. Breeds in hill streams (Andrew <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
169109	population	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Disparoneura quadrimaculata</span> is quite common throughout the northern part of its range although no information on the exact population is available.	eng
169109	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known to this species.	eng
169110	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169110	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Onychogomphus maclachlani</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from a single female collected in north Myanmar prior to 1894 (Selys 1894, Fraser 1934).</p>	eng
169110	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169110	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Only a single female of this species has ever been recorded.</p>	eng
169110	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169111	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No conservation measures are needed for this species.</p>	eng
169111	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Rhyothemis obsolescens</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is widely distributed in southeast Asia, with records from Myanmar to Vietnam, the Philippines and southwards to Kalimantan.</p>	eng
169111	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	This species is found in marshes, swamps, well-vegetated ponds and slow flowing rivers. It appears to require at least some forest in the vicinity of its habitats, but is tolerant of disturbance. It is most common in the lowlands, but it has been found it at over 1,000 m in Borneo (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).	eng
169111	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species can be somewhat local, but is common where it occurs.</p>	eng
169111	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is not threatened across its range at known at present.<br/></p>	eng
169113	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	It is not possible to determine any conservation actions that might be needed for this species without further data on taxonomy, distribution and habitat requirements.	eng
169113	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	This species is known with certainty only from the type location in Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961). A subsequent record from Afghanistan of a single poorly preserved individual (Asahina 1966) and records from a location Kashmir (Asahina 1978) do not definitely refer to the same species.	eng
169113	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	No information is available on the habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
169113	population	Dow, R., 2009	No information is available on the existing population of the species.	eng
169113	threats	Dow, R., 2009	No information is available.	eng
169114	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Detailed research into population size, trends and threats are needed, and further distributional data, but no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.	eng
169114	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<em>Anaciaeschna donaldi</em> is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Sri Lanka</st1:country-region> (Fonseka 2000) and Western Ghats in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Fraser 1922, 1943; Kimmins 1966, Prasad and Varshney 1995). Subramanian (2007) has designated the species as endemic to <st1:place w:st="on">Western Ghats</st1:place>, although there are also records from Nepal (Shrestha and Mahato 1984, Vick 1985, 1989).	eng
169114	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Prefers forests near medium to fast flowing permanent streams, and swampy bogs, ponds and marshes. It is a species of uplands and mountains.	eng
169114	population	Mitra, A., 2009	The species is sometimes considered to be rare, although no detailed data on population numbers and trends exists. It is more likely that it is simply under-recorded.	eng
169114	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Deforestation is likely to be the major threat to populations of this species, but it does not appear to be globally threatened at this time.	eng
169115	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.	eng
169115	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Megalogomphus bicornutus </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known only from Shillong in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya (e.g. Fraser 1934, Lahiri 1989).</p>	eng
169115	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat requirements of this species except that the female type was “taken in June whilst ovipositing by a roadside stream” (Fraser 1934); this suggests that it may not require pristine forest habitats.</p>	eng
169115	population	Dow, R., 2010	No information on population sizes is available.	eng
169115	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information on this species to assess any threats it might face. If it is actually confined to the Khasi Hills, then it is likely that it is threatened by habitat loss, especially if it is dependent upon forest.</p>	eng
169116	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for fresh data on this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned.	eng
169116	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Known from Dehradun, Uttaranchal and Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh, India.	eng
169116	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Like other species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hylaeothemis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. gardeneri</span> is found in forested marshes, it may occur in small marshy areas at the heads of small streams in saddles in hilly country, a common habitat for <span style="font-style: italic;">Hylaeothemis</span>.	eng
169116	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	No population information is available	eng
169116	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	General widespread threats such as deforestation and draining of forested swamps could be affecting populations.	eng
169117	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169117	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Indolestes inflatus</em> was described from, and is still only known  from, a single male collected from Maymyo, (Pyin U Lwin) Mynamar in 1925 (Fraser  1933). <em>Indolestes </em>species are often very local and hard to  find; <em>I. inflatus</em> is likely to be more widespread than the  single record suggests.	eng
169117	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is no information available on the habitat of this species, however <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes </span>species typical breed in standing water.</p>	eng
169117	population	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the currently available information.	eng
169117	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.	eng
169118	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	More information is needed before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. The type locality is protected and has good forest cover.	eng
169118	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known only from the type locality at Chirapunji, Meghalaya, India. There is no recent information about the species.	eng
169118	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available. Probably similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx </span>sp., which breed in streams flowing through evergreen forests.	eng
169118	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information available.	eng
169118	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Like other higher altitude species, the species habitat may be at risk from forest loss from agriculture and clrearance, as well as impacts form hydropower developments.	eng
169119	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169119	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p>Descri<span lang="EN-GB">bed from Nepal without any specific location being given (Selys 1854). Later Selys (1869) recorded it from north India, again without any specific location. The only other record is from the Doon valley in Dehradun, Uttarkhand (Singh and Prasad, 1976), however some doubts must remain over the identification of this material until it is compared with the type material.</p>	eng
169119	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>	eng
169119	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We have no information on populations of this species.</p>	eng
169119	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development. However, without further data on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.	eng
169120	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Better information on the distribution, populations and habitat of this species is needed, but beyond this no conservation measures appear to be needed at this time.</p>	eng
169120	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are records of <em>Gynacantha incisura </em>from Myanmar (Fraser 1935, 1936), Nepal (Asahina 1955, 1984, Mahato 1989, Vick 1989, Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). The only records from Myanmar are old, from the South Shan States. Records from Nepal are mostly from the Kathmandu valley area. The only records from Thailand are from Loei province. It is likely to occur in Lao PDR.</p>	eng
169120	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Gynacantha incisura</em> appears to be a submontane to montane species, and judging by the recent records from Kathmandu valley, it may be tolerant of at least some degree of disturbance. Beyond this nothing is known about its habitat requirements, although it is likely to be a forest species and to breed in standing water, like other <em>Gynacantha</em> species.	eng
169120	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Although there are not many records of this species, the most recent records from Nepal (Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) are of eight individuals taken in a few days in the Kathmandu valley area. This suggests that the species may be quite common where it occurs, and it is at present assessed as Least Concern. Further information on threats to the species and its habitats is required.<br/></p>	eng
169120	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without better information on the habitat requirements of the species it is difficult to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species.</p>	eng
169121	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species. The priority is for expert sampling in the western Ghats and adjacent areas, and for the re-examination of the material from Nepal.	eng
169121	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	In India known only from the Western Ghats, where it has been recorded from Kunnoth, North Malabar (Fraser, 1934) and Silent Valley National Park, Kerala (Subramanium, 2005). However Asahina (1995) recorded this species from Nepal - this may have been a mistake, but the record cannot be discounted without examination of the specimens.	eng
169121	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a stream species.	eng
169121	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific information is available.	eng
169121	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without more information, especially on habitat requirements and distribution.	eng
169122	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, additional data on this species must be gathered.	eng
169122	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorogomphus schmidti</span> is known only from the type location in Manipur, India (Asahina 1986).	eng
169122	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
169122	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species is known only from a single female, however this is just as likely to be due to a lack of sampling in northeast India as it is to genuine rarity.	eng
169122	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data, especially on its habitat requirements.	eng
169123	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	No specific conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
169123	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Rhyothemis triangularis is distributed from India to south China and south to Java. Records from India are from Assam and from southern India.	eng
169123	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species breeds in well vegetated ponds and similar habitats (e.g. drains). It is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
169123	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species, although it can be somewhat local, is common across much of its range.	eng
169123	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is not threatened.	eng
169124	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Further research is required into the taxonomic status, population, distribution and ecology of this species, as well as threats to its known location.	eng
169124	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This dubious species is known only from the Dehradun valley in Uttaranchal, India. However, only <span style="font-style: italic;">Agriocnemis pygmaea</span>  and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. clauseni</span> have been recorded from Dehradun  valley  during six years of faunal surveys between 1994  to1999.	eng
169124	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	According to Kumar and Prasad (1981) the species was found on the wing during March to April at Dehradun. Emergence was recorded during March. Larvae were found to inhabit perennial marshy ponds. Adults were rare and occurred within grasses at the marshy bank of ponds.	eng
169124	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information on the current trend of the population is available.	eng
169124	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available.	eng
169125	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169125	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Platygomphus feae</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the type series collected at Bhamo in Myanmar in 1885 (Selys 1891, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1960).</p>	eng
169125	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169125	population	Dow, R., 2010	Known only from the type series collected more than a century ago.	eng
169125	threats	Dow, R., 2010	The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.	eng
169126	conservation	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	There is a need for further data on this species, but specific conservation actions appear unlikely to be needed.	eng
169126	distribution	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Heliogomphus selysi </span>is known from Meghalaya in India (e.g. Fraser 1934), at least two locations in Myanmar (Selys 1891, Schmidt 1964) and several locations in Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).	eng
169126	habitat	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Nothing appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it breeds in forest streams.	eng
169126	population	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Although most records are of single individuals, the number of records suggests that this might not be an uncommon species.	eng
169126	threats	Dow, R. & Subramanian, K., 2010	Although individual populations may be threatened by deforestation, this species is sufficiently widely distributed that it is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.	eng
169127	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The status of this species must be resolved; if it should prove to be a valid taxon, then conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>	eng
169127	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The type locality of <em>Gynacantha rotundata</em> is in the vicinity of Mumbai, India (Navás 1930); no other locations are known.	eng
169127	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	No data are available on the habitat of this species.	eng
169127	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No data are available on populations of this species.</p>	eng
169127	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.	eng
169128	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	More information on habitat and distribution is needed, but beyond this no specific conservation measures appear to be needed at present.	eng
169128	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Watanabeopetalia atkinsoni</em> is known  from India, with records from Assam, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (e.g. Prasad and Varshney  1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Chiang Mai in Thailand (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999). It is likely to occur in other northern and northeastern Indian states, Myanmar and Bhutan, and might occur in Yunnan and Tibet.	eng
169128	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little appears to have been recorded on the habitat of this species, except that it is montane; however Butler (2007) records the larva from the "sluggish margin" of a torrential stream, and Brockhaus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) record larvae and freshly emerged adults as associated with steep mountain streams at three locations.</p>	eng
169128	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but Fraser (1936) states that he found it "quite common at Mungpoo" and G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) stated that it is "less common [than <span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster nipalensis</span>] but this is mainly due to its habits<span lang="EN-GB">."</p>	eng
169128	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is difficult to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without more information on its habitat requirements, in particular how dependent upon forest it is and how tolerant of disturbance to its habitats it is. However, it appears to be fairly common in Nepal, and probably under-recorded, so is not likely to be seriously threatened in that country at least. Further information on the impact of ecosystem degradation caused by agricultural expansion and clearance and hydropower development is required.	eng
169129	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Further data on distribution and habitat requirements is needed for this species, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.	eng
169129	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sympetrum commixtum</span> is widely distributed in Himalayan India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Bhutan (e.g. Mitra 2006).	eng
169129	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	No information on the habitat requirements of this species is available, but it is likely to breed in ponds and similar habitats (R. Dow, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
169129	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, but is probably under-recorded because of its high altitude occurrence.	eng
169129	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Without definite habitat information it is not possible to assess any threats that this species might face, but given the altitudinal range that it occupies and its likely habitats, it is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
169130	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Additional data, especially on habitat and distribution, is needed before any consrvation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for expert sampling across the known and possible range of the species.	eng
169130	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	This species is known to occur in Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim and West Bengal in India (e.g. Prasad & Varshney 1995, Asahina 1981), Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989) and Myanmar (Fraser 1936). A number of records from Nepal are relatively recent (within the last 30 years). It should be searched for in other parts of north and north east India, and in Bhutan.	eng
169130	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Very little information is available about this species, except that it is montane.	eng
169130	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	Very little information on populations of this species are available, but quite a number of records are known from Nepal, suggesting that it is quite common in that country at least.	eng
169130	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Further information on habitat requirements is needed before any threats that this species may face can be assessed.	eng
169131	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>  <p><span lang="EN-GB">&#160;</p>	eng
169131	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from the holotype female from Bhamo in Myanmar (Selys 1878, Fraser 1934).</p>	eng
169131	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas.	eng
169131	population	Dow, R., 2010	Known only from a single specimen.	eng
169131	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169132	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>	eng
169132	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Nihonogomphus pulcherrimus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar (Fraser 1927, 1934), two sites in Kanchanaburi in Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Orr 2003) and Vang Vieng in Laos (Sasamoto and Honda 2003).</p>	eng
169132	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>	eng
169132	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The type series consists of three males (Fraser 1927); the records from Laos and Thailand are of single individuals.</p>	eng
169132	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169134	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">In Sri Lanka, although the species does not appear to be threatened, monitoring of populations would be advisable in view of its restricted range. Elsewhere the priority is for more information on habitat and threats.</p>	eng
169134	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Indolestes gracilis gracilis </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known only from the highlands of southern Sri Lanka (e.g. Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160;</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes</span><span lang="EN-GB"><em> birmanus</em> is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1933) and Thailand (Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and, as the synonymous <em>I. davenporti</em>, from the India, with records from the Western Ghats (Fraser 1933) and Western Himalaya (Prasad and Kumar 1977). The record from the Western Himalaya may have been a misidentification, as Prasad and Varshney (1997) list neither <em>gracilis</em>, <em>birmanus</em> or <em>davenporti</em> from India.</p>	eng
169134	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<em><span lang="EN-GB">Indolestes gracilis</em><span lang="EN-GB"><em> gracilis</em> is found at "Grassy edges of ponds, lakes, and marshes in the hills and mountains" of Sri Lanka (Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007). Very little information on the habitat of <em>I. g. birmanus is available</em>, but it is likely to be similar (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010).	eng
169134	population	Dow, R., 2010	In Sri Lanka <em>I. g. gracilis</em> is locally common (Bedjanič <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). <span style="font-style: italic;">Indolestes gracilis</span><em> birmanus</em> also appears to be a local species, but possibly common where it occurs.	eng
169134	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Given its habitats, <em>I. g. gracilis</em> does not appear to be threatened in the uplands of Sri Lanka, although its range is certainly restricted. We do not have enough information on the populations in other parts of the range of this species (as currently understood) to assess any threats it might face.	eng
169135	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Fresh data on this species are urgently needed, without such data any conservation measures that might be needed cannot be planned.	eng
169135	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorogomphus olympicus</span> is known from the type, collected at Kufri (Fraser 1936, Kumar 1982) in Himachal Pradesh, India and also from a record from Nepal (St. Quentin 1970), however the later record needs careful checking.	eng
169135	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Nothing has been recorded on the habitats and ecology of this species except that it is montane.	eng
169135	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on populations of this species.	eng
169135	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	It is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species without further data.	eng
169137	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No special conservation measures appear to be needed for this species at present, although there is a need for further distribution data and fresh data from Myanmar.</p>	eng
169137	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia loogali</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is a widespread species with records from Myanmar (Laidlaw 1932, Fraser 1933, Schmidt 1964, Asahina 1970, 1984), Mizoram in northeast India (Prasad 1997), Thailand (e.g. Asahina 1981, 1984, 1990, 1993, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999, Katatani <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), Laos (Yokoi 2000). There is also a record of a female from Nepal (Asahina 1955), however Asahina noted differences from typical <em>loogali</em> and this record is likely to refer to a different species. It is also likely to occur in Yunnan in China, and might be found in Viet Nam.<br/></p>	eng
169137	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Usually found at small forest streams in hilly and mountainous country. It is tolerant of at least some degree of disturbance.	eng
169137	population	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Coeliccia loogali</em> is often abundant where it occurs. There are relatively many recent records and no reason to suppose that any strong decline is taking place in most of its populations.	eng
169137	threats	Dow, R., 2010	The only threat to this species is likely to be from deforestation.	eng
169138	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">For effective conservation measures to be planned, if needed, fresh searches must be made in Myanmar for this species, and the taxonomic issues need to be resolved.</p>	eng
169138	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only certain records of <em>D. walli</em> are those from the type locality Maymyo, northern Myanmar (Fraser 1927, 1928, 1934). At least some records of <em>Dysphaea dimidiata </em>from three provinces in Thailand (Tak, Kanchanaburi and Ranong), all situated on the border with Myanmar, are considered to possibly be <em>D. walli </em>(Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999; note 6 page 123).</p>	eng
169138	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but the clearly at least  closely related <em>D. dimidiata</em> inhabits a variety of low gradient streams  and rivers, typically in forest areas, but is certainly tolerant of  disturbance. It will be a species of running waters.	eng
169138	population	Dow, R., 2010	Without the resolution of the taxonomic issues and much more data from Myanmar and west Thailand it is not possible to say anything about populations of this species.	eng
169138	threats	Dow, R., 2010	It is difficult to assess the threats to this species, if any, without the resolution of the taxonomic issues and definite information on its habitat preferences.	eng
169139	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further data on the distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia nipalica</span> is needed before conservation measures, if necessary, can be properly planned. However, conservation measures will centre on the protection and proper management of areas of suitable habitat.<br/></p>	eng
169139	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemia nipalica</span> is only known from Nepal. The type series is from Phewa Tal near Pokhara (Kimmins 1958), with fresh records from Phewa Tal in Vick (1985) and Kemp and Butler (2001). Two additional localities are known (Vick 1986): Khudi in Manang and the Malemchi Khola valley between Thimbu and Tarang Marang, in Helambu. This species appears to be confined to the wettest regions of Nepal (G.S. Vick pers. comm. 2010).<br/></p>	eng
169139	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Little has been published about the habitat requirements of this species, but Vick (1986) mentions wet seepages and streams and Kemp and Butler (2001) found it at "a tiny fast-flowing, rocky stream that passed through the woodland", and noted that "Individuals were seen perched on low vegetation growing close to or within the stream bed, often in shady situations". G.S. Vick (pers. comm. 2010) reports that it is found only in the wettest regions of Nepal, in seepages and waterfall areas.<br/></p>	eng
169139	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is insufficient information available to infer much about current populations of this species, although it appears it may be locally common.</p>	eng
169139	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species, which appears to have a rather restricted range, may be threatened by deforestation and by hydropower development.<br/></p>	eng
169140	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, and on its tolerance to disturbance.	eng
169140	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known from Dehra Dun valley in Uttaranchal in India and from Nepal (subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">C. d. carminea</span>)	eng
169140	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This is a species of small streams and trickles.	eng
169140	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169140	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
169141	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169141	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Onychogomphus annularis</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is only known from two males collected in north Myanmar prior to 1894 (Selys 1894, Williamson 1907, Fraser 1934).</p>	eng
169141	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169141	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is no&#160;population&#160;information available for this species.</p>	eng
169141	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169142	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169142	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only certain record of <em>Onychogomphus maculivertex</em> is that of the holotype female from Meteleo in the Carin Hills of Myanmar (Selys 1891, Fraser 1934, Lieftinck 1960). A record of another female from Meghalaya in India (Lahiri 1987, Mitra 1989) may well actually refer to a different species.</p>	eng
169142	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169142	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information is available for this species, known with certainty only from a single female collected in 1888 (Selys 1891).</p>	eng
169142	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169145	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned, extensive surveys are needed in the eastern Himalayas and adjacent regions.</p>	eng
169145	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Anisogomphus caudalis</em> is known from India, with records from Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), and Myanmar (Schmidt 1964). It should be looked for in other northern and northeastern Indian states, and in Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
169145	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing of any substance appears to have been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, although it is almost certainly a stream species; Lahiri (1987) records finding a pair near a “rolling stream”.	eng
169145	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species have ever been collected.</p>	eng
169145	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without more data on distribution and habitat it is not possible to assess any threats that might be faced by this species.</p>	eng
169146	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>	eng
169146	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Microgomphus loogali </span>is known only from the type series collected at Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar in 1924 (Fraser 1923, 1925, 1934).</p>	eng
169146	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species.</p>	eng
169146	population	Dow, R., 2010	Only the type series of one male and two females is known (Fraser 1934).	eng
169146	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169147	conservation	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Further information is required on the range, distribution, and ecology of this species, and threats. However it is unlikely that specific conservation measures will be needed.	eng
169147	distribution	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	The species is known to occur in north east India (Manipur and Nagaland), Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Sumatra and Java. It is very likely to occur in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
169147	habitat	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in swamps, marshes, well vegetated ponds and lakes. However it is absent from many apparently suitable habitats, suggesting that there are unknown factors in its habitat preferences.	eng
169147	population	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	This species appears to be rather local in occurrence, but may be fairly common where it does occur.	eng
169147	threats	Subramanian, K. & Dow, R., 2010	Given its local occurrence, individual populations of this species are likely to be threatened from a variety of causes, however the species is sufficiently widespread and occupies a broad enough range of habitats that it is very unlikely to be globally threatened.	eng
169149	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	More data is needed before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. However if it is endemic to the Khasi hills in Meghalaya then it is likely to be threatened, but without extensive expert sampling in the region, its range is an open question.	eng
169149	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known only from north-east India, with old records from the Shillong area in Meghalaya (Fraser 1936) and a more recent record of a female Mizoram (Prasad 1997); as female <span style="font-style: italic;">Idionyx</span> are difficult to identify this record must be regarded as dubious.	eng
169149	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it appears to be a montane or at least upland species and it is likely to breed in small streams.	eng
169149	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	No information available.	eng
169149	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	More data is needed before any threats that might be faced can be assessed.	eng
169150	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Further information is required on the population,&#160;distribution, and&#160;potential&#160;threats to this&#160;species.	eng
169150	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	The species is known to occur in Assam in India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Myanmar (e.g. Schmidt 1964), Thailand (e.g. Kitagawa and Itchii 1999) and Lao PDR (Sasamoto and Honda 2003).	eng
169150	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available, but this is likely to be a species of shallow standing and possibly slow flowing waters.	eng
169150	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No population information is available for this species.	eng
169150	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without definite habitat information. However it appears to be widespread and is unlikely to be threatened across its entire range.	eng
169151	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Fresh searches need to be made for this species across its known range, and its habitat requirements need to be determined, before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.	eng
169151	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There are records of this species from Myanmar (Fraser 1933, Schmidt 1964, Asahina 1970), Thailand (Fraser 1927, 1933; <a name="OLE_LINK1">Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999</a>) and Laos (Yokoi 1999). Aside from the record from Laos, which was made in 1998, all records date from 1952 or before. Records from Myanmar are from "lower Burma" (Fraser 1933), Taunggyi (Schmidt 1964) and Maymyo (Asahina 1970). The only records from Thailand are from Prachuap Khiri Khan province (<span lang="EN-GB">Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999); that from Laos is from Thabok. All records are of one or a few individuals, and only the location in Laos can be considered as currently known.</p>	eng
169151	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species, but it is likely to breed in standing water, as other <span style="font-style: italic;">Ceriagrion</span> species do.	eng
169151	population	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the available data.	eng
169151	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information on its habitat requirements it is not possible to assess the threats, if any, faced by <em>Ceriagrion nigroflavum</em>.</p>	eng
169152	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	More information on this species is urgently needed.	eng
169152	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type location (Bankura: Susunia hill) in West Bengal, India (Mitra 2002).	eng
169152	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169152	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169152	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No specific threats are currently known, but Susunia Hill is a tourist attraction that attracts many visitors.	eng
169153	conservation	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169153	distribution	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series from Kurseong, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India (Navas, 1934)	eng
169153	habitat	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169153	population	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known only from the type series.	eng
169153	threats	Dow, R. & Sharma, G., 2010	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry,as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
169154	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	More research is needed on the population trend and existing threats to this species, but it does not appear to be threatened.	eng
169154	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha bisignata </span>is endemic  to India, distributed from Madhya Pradesh (Srivastava and Babu 1997),  Maharashtra (Fraser 1928, Prasad 1996) and Orissa (Mitra 2002) to most  parts of southern India (Fraser 1928, Subramanian <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Emiliyamma 2008).	eng
169154	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha bisignata </span>is a stream breeding species.<span style="font-style: italic;"> <br/></span>	eng
169154	population	Mitra, A., 2010	No information is available on the exact population but, the species is quite common over its range.	eng
169154	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	No major threat is known to exist but pollution in the hill streams could be a potential threat.	eng
169156	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	Not enough information for conservation assessment of this species.	eng
169156	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	Known to occur only from the Terai (Dampa wildlife sanctuary), Mizoram, India.	eng
169156	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available, but likely to be similar to other <span style="font-style: italic;">Calicnemis </span>sp.	eng
169156	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	No information is available.	eng
169156	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	Growing population pressure in the hills has led to migration to and settlement the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010). The impact of these threats on the species are uncertain.	eng
169158	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169158	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The only record of <em>Macromia aculeata</em> is that of the holotype from Maymo (Pyin U Lwin), Burma (Fraser 1927, 1936).	eng
169158	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams, as is the case for most species of <em>Macromia</em>.</p>	eng
169158	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single male collected in 1925.</p>	eng
169158	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169159	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	There is an urgent need for more data on this species.	eng
169159	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	The only certain record of this species is of the type series of two females from Kumaon, Uttaranchal in India, but there is also a record from Nepal. This later record is considered unreliable here, as the specimens were not compared against type material.	eng
169159	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169159	population	Sharma, G., 2010	There have been very few records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.	eng
169159	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169160	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on distribution of this species, and fresh data from northeast India and Myanmar. Extensive surveying is needed across its range, a task that will be hindered in Thailand at least by ill-advised legal barriers to the collection of insects for scientific purposes in protected areas. When a better picture of its distribution becomes available, the conservation measures that need to take place will become clearer, but they will centre around protection of additional habitats and management of those habitats.</p>	eng
169160	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Indocypha vittata </em><span lang="EN-GB">is known from Myanmar and the Lushai Hills in Mizoram, India (e.g. Fraser 1934), Kanchanaburi (e.g. Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999) and Mae Hong Song (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010<span lang="EN-GB">) in Thailand, and Lao PDR and from southern Yunnan in China (M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010). <br/></span></p>	eng
169160	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	This species is found at rather broad 10-30 m wide streams in forested upland areas, seeming to require tall or medium high bushes reaching the shoreline (<span lang="EN-GB">M. Hämäläinen pers. comm. 2010). The forest at the location in Kanchanaburi, Thailand is somewhat degraded, so this species does not require pristine habitats.	eng
169160	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species appears to be very local in occurrence but it can be quite common where it occurs.	eng
169160	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species appears to be very local in occurrence, and individual populations are likely to be threatened by deforestation or large-scale hydroelectric projects. However it is quite widely distributed and there are doubtlessly many undiscovered populations.</p>	eng
169161	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	More data on distribution and habitat is needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.	eng
169161	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	Known from the holotype from Myanmar (Ris 1919, Fraser 1936) and from Chantaburi and Lungsuan in Chumphon in Thailand (Asahina 1988, Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and a convincing photographic record from Trang in Thailand, dating from 2009, on the Asia Dragonfly website (http://www.asia-dragonfly.net/).	eng
169161	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species but other species of <em>Lyriothemis</em> are confined to forest areas, their breeding habitat is typically small pools and marshy areas in forest, or in phytotelmata (water containing compartments in plants, e.g. tree holes).</p>	eng
169161	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only relatively recent records of this species are of 16 individuals collected in Chantaburi in Thailand in 1981 over two days plus another collected in Chumphon (Asahina 1988), and the &#160;photographic record from Trang in Thailand. These suggests that <em>Lyriothemis mortoni</em> can be common where it occurs. We have no other data on population.</p>	eng
169161	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats to this species, if any, cannot be assessed without definite information on habitat, but deforestation is likely to be the most serious threat.</p>	eng
169162	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>	eng
169162	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-style: italic;">Davidius baroni</span> is known only from the type series collected at Changra, Bhutan at 1900 m in 1972 (Lieftinck 1977).</p>	eng
169162	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded about the habitat of this species beyond the altitude (1900 m) at which it was collected (Lieftinck 1977); it is likely to be a strictly montane species and probably breeds in forest streams.	eng
169162	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known only from one male and one female.</p>	eng
169162	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169163	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before any conservation measures that might be needed for this species can be planned, data on its habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance must be obtained, as well as additional information on its distribution.</p>	eng
169163	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Coeliccia svihleri</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known from locations in Myanmar, and from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India (e.g. Asahina 1970 where one location that is stated to be in Assam is actually in Arunachal Pradesh, Prasad and Varshney 1995). Both locations in Myanmar are near the Chinese border, so that the species can be expected to also occur in Yunnan. It is also likely to occur in the Indian states of Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.</p>	eng
169163	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitats of this species, but it is very likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>	eng
169163	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about populations of this species.</p>	eng
169163	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">We do not have enough information to assess any threats that this species might face. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/></p>	eng
169164	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169164	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	Known only from the type series from Maymyo (Pyin U Lwin) in Myanmar (Fraser 1926, 1934).	eng
169164	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169164	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from two females from one location collected in 1924 (Fraser 1926).</p>	eng
169164	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169165	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	Fresh surveys are urgently needed in Myanmar and northeast India; without fresh data on habitat requirements it is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed.	eng
169165	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhinocypha hilaryae</span> is known from Myanmar, where all records are from the northern half of the country, and one location in Arunachal Pradesh in India (Lahiri and Sinha 1991). There are no records from Myanmar made after 1961, reflecting a lack of sampling of Odonata in Myanmar. Existing records (Fraser 1927, 1934; Asahina 1970) refer to Maymyo, Hampshire Falls (between Maymyo and Wetwun) and two sites near Putao in the extreme north of Myanmar. In addition there is a specimen in Naturalis, Leiden, dating from 1925, from Qui Sakan. The record from Arunachal Pradesh dates from 1983. It is almost certain to occur in Yunnan, China.	eng
169165	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	No information has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and it is likely to prefer clear rocky streams; it is also likely to be confined to forested areas.	eng
169165	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species have ever been collected; there is insufficient information available to infer anything about current populations.</p>	eng
169165	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without definite information about habitat it is not possible to assess the threats to this species.</p>	eng
169166	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	The priority for this species is to determine if it is a distinct species, or a synonym. If it should prove to be distinct, further work is urgently required to understand its distribution and population.	eng
169166	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	The species has only been recorded from the Pithoragarh area in Utaranchal, India.	eng
169166	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169166	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169166	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
169169	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, more information on the habitat and distribution of this species must be obtained.</p>	eng
169169	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The type series comes from Gokteik in north Myanmar (Laidlaw 1932), with additional records from Pyin U Lwin (Maymyo) (Fraser 1933, Asahina 1970). There are also records from Manipur in India (Asahina 1984 as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. didyma</span> race A) and Bangladesh (Asahina 1985), none of these records date from after 1961. It occurs up to at least  1,300 m.	eng
169169	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams in hilly and mountainous terrain (the altitude data available ranges from 45 m to 1,300 m).	eng
169169	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Few individuals of this species (or at least recognised as such) have ever been collected; there is insufficient information available to infer anything about current populations.</p>	eng
169169	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">It is not possible to assess the threats, if any, faced by this species with information on its habitat requirements and fresh distribution data. Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region (though little is know of the current situation in Myanmar), especially in hill areas, but the impact of this on the known localities of the species is not known.<br/><br/></p>	eng
169170	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169170	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Lestes malaisei</em> is only known from the type series from Kambaiti, Kachan State, northeast Myanmar, collected in April 1934 (Schmidt 1964).	eng
169170	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	There is no information available on the habitat of this species.	eng
169170	population	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing can be said about populations of this species with the currrently available information.	eng
169170	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">It is not possible to determine the threats, if any, faced by this species without definite information on its habitat requirements and fresh information on its distribution.</p>	eng
169172	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	Additional data are urgently needed on the taxonomy, population, habitat, ecology and threats to the species.	eng
169172	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha apicalis </span>is only known from a single female reported in 1924 from Lyallpur (currently known as Faisalabad city), Pakistan (Fraser 1936).	eng
169172	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Nothing has been recoreded about the habitats or ecology of this species.	eng
169172	population	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is known from a single specimen only.	eng
169172	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	Nothing can be inferred about any threats this species might face from the available information.	eng
169173	conservation	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Fresh data and a resolution of outstanding taxonomic issues are needed before any conservation actions that might be needed can be planned. Expert searches for the species across its known range are the priority here, both to gather material to help resolve the taxonomic issues, and to understand if this species, apparently common in some locations in Fraser's day, has been recorded so infrequently since then.	eng
169173	distribution	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	This species is only known from India, where it has been recorded in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and the Western Ghats (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995), and from the Nicobar Islands (Mitra 1995), although this record seems suspect, possibly it is a misidentification of some other <span style="font-style: italic;">Gynacantha </span>species.	eng
169173	habitat	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	This species is crepuscular in nature. Nothing appears to have been recorded about its habitat requirements, although presumably it is a forest species.	eng
169173	population	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Although this species covers a quite a wide range in India it has not often been collected in recent times, although Fraser (1936) remarked that it was common.	eng
169173	threats	Mitra, A. & Dow, R., 2009	Without further information on habitat requirements it is not possible to accurately assess any threats that this species might face, although deforestation is the biggest potential threat.	eng
169174	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169174	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster gigantica</span> is only known from Myanmar, from the Kalaw and the Chin Hills (Fraser 1924, 1929, 1936) in India.	eng
169174	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded about the habitat requirements of <em>Anotogaster gigantica</em>, but it is likely to be a species of rocky forest streams, as is the case with other <span style="font-style: italic;">Anotogaster</span> species.</p>	eng
169174	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is only known from a few individuals collected in 1923 (Fraser 1924), nothing can be inferred about current populations from the extremely scanty data available.</p>	eng
169174	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Part of the species range, the Chin hills are one of the most remote areas of Myanmar, difficult to access. The southern parts of these hills are not very densely populated and still pretty much intact (R. Britz pers. comm. 2010), but there is evidence of slashing and burning on the eastern slopes of the area visited resulting in a burnt wood, smoky, smell along the whole valley (maybe 30 miles). If that method is applied in other areas, it would have serious impacts on the species know range, have at present there is no detailed knowledge of this area.</p><p>The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without  fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>  <p></p>	eng
169175	conservation	Mitra, A., 2010	It is not possible to plan any conservation measures that might be needed without further data.	eng
169175	distribution	Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neallogaster schmidti</span> is known from the type series from Achmede Dewane, Nuristan (Schmidt 1961, Asahina 1982) in Afghanistan and a possible record from Kalahor Glacier, Kashmir (Asahina 1982) in India, however Asahina expresses considerable doubts of this record.	eng
169175	habitat	Mitra, A., 2010	Altitudinal records suggest that the species is montane. No more information is available on the habitats and ecology of the species, although it is likely to breed in streams.	eng
169175	population	Mitra, A., 2010	This species is known with certainty only from two specimens.	eng
169175	threats	Mitra, A., 2010	Any threats that might be faced by this species cannot be assessed without further data.	eng
169176	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Fresh data on distribution and habitat requirements are needed before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned.</p>	eng
169176	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The only record of this species is from near Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal, made in 1986 (Vick 1988) at an altitude of ca 200 m.	eng
169176	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing was recorded about the habitat in which the holotype of this species was collected, except that it was in tropical forest <span lang="EN-GB">(Vick 1988)<span lang="EN-GB">, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams, as is the case for most species of <em>Macromia</em>, and it can be safely assumed to be as species of streams and/or rivers.<br/></p>	eng
169176	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known from a single male specimen.<br/></p>	eng
169176	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without more information on its distribution and habitat.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">The only recorded specimen was collected in a National Park in the Nepalese terai. Growing population pressures in the hills has led to migration to and settlement of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010).<br/></p>	eng
169178	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is a need for further data on distribution and habitat requirements of this species.</p>	eng
169178	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Sympetrum haematoneura</em><span lang="EN-GB"> was described from a single male collected in Kashmir (Fraser 1924, 1936). It has subsequently been found in Megahalya (Asahina 1984) and Uttarakhand (Asahina 1988) within India and in Nepal (e.g. Asahina 1984, Vick 1989, Sasamoto and Ushijima 2000) and Tibet (Asahina 1984). It should be looked for in Bhutan.</p>	eng
169178	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing definite has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, it may prefer open standing water habitats, such as ponds or lakes, as with other many <em>Sympetrum</em> species, but it might be confined to upland bogs. It is certainly a montane species. There is no information on its tolerance to disturbance.	eng
169178	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is little information available on populations of this species</p>	eng
169178	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Without better information on the habitat requirements of this species it is difficult to do more than guess at any threats it might face. <br/></p>	eng
169179	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>	eng
169179	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Macrogomphus robustus</em> is only known from the holotype, stated to be from Tibet without any further information (Selys 1854, Fraser 1934). However Laidlaw (1923), on page 25 notes that “de Selys in several cases referred material from the East Himalayas to Tibet where Assam would have been correct.” Later Laidlaw (1930) listed the species from Nepal with a question mark; this appears to have been merely guesswork on Laidlaw’s part. In summary there is serious doubt about where the single specimen of this species was collected.	eng
169179	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
169179	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information on populations of this species is available.</p>	eng
169179	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169180	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Fresh data on this species are urgently needed, in particular on distribution and detailed habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance.	eng
169180	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	This species has only been recorded from the Garo and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, India (Fraser 1922, 1923, 1934; Prasad and Varshney 1995). It might be endemic to Meghalaya but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
169180	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Little information is available on the habitat and ecology of this montane species.	eng
169180	population	Mitra, A., 2009	Unfortunately the species has been recorded only a few times and there  is no record since Fraser (1923). This may be due to the difficulty of surveying montane forests, but this is also typical for Gomphids.	eng
169180	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas of its range are known to have already been deforested. <a name="threats">The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining  blocks of forests; mining for  coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) These  lands have been leased by the tribal landholders to private mining  companies (WWF 2010).<br/></a>	eng
169181	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.	eng
169181	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known from India, Nepal, Thailand and Lao PDR. Records have not been seen from Myanmar, but it should occur there.	eng
169181	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in large ponds, lakes and reservoirs, occurring from sea level to over 1000 m. It is tolerant of disturbance.	eng
169181	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is not uncommon where suitable habitat occurs.	eng
169181	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is unlikely to be globally threatened.	eng
169182	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>	eng
169182	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Leptogomphus inclitus</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is only known with certainty from Moolai in Mynamar (Selys 1878), two other females listed in Selys (1878) are said to “possibly belong to a distinct species” (Fraser 1934). Another record of a female from Chiang Mai in Thailand (Chujo 1941) does not appear to have been examined by any expert on Odonata and its identity must be considered suspect.</p>	eng
169182	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>	eng
169182	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Only four female specimens, of which only one can definitely be considered to belong to this species, are known.</p>	eng
169182	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169183	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169183	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only record of this species is that of the holotype from Tao, said to be in the Carin Hills (Selys 1891, Fraser 1936, Lieftinck 1960) of Myanmar.</p>	eng
169183	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, although it is very likely to be a species of forest streams.</p>	eng
169183	population	Dow, R., 2010	There is no information on populations of this species.	eng
169183	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169184	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	Without more data it is not possible to plan any conservation actions that might be needed, but if needed they will have to centre around preservation of suitable habitat.	eng
169184	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	The species seems to be endemic to Yunnan, China. It is only known by the holotype specimen collected from West of Pungtzula,Yunnan (Fraser 1923) and a single female collected from Yunnan, Dali (Zhou 1988) more than twenty years ago.	eng
169184	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on the habitat ecology of this montane species, although it is likely to be a stream species.	eng
169184	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information on the population, the lack of records merely reflects the need for more sampling in Yunnan and adjacent regions.	eng
169184	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Without more data it is not possible to judge any threats that might be faced by this species.	eng
169185	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Further information on the distribution and habitat of this species is needed before any conservation measures that might be necessary can be planned.</p>	eng
169185	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The only published records of <em>Heliogomphus svihleri</em> of which the assessor is aware of are of three female specimens from Hampshire Falls between Maymyo and Wetwun in Myanmar, Khao Yai in Nakhon Nayok province in central Thailand and Chiang Mai province in northwest Thailand (Asahina 1970, 1986; Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999).</p>	eng
169185	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is likely to be a species of forest streams.	eng
169185	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">This species is known only from three females.</p>	eng
169185	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat. Deforestation caused by shifting and small-scale settled agriculture are common throughout the region.<br/></p>	eng
169186	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Much more information on distribution, population sizes, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance is needed for this species before any conservation measures that might be needed can be planned. The priority is for extensive sampling of Odonata across the Himalayan region, without such sampling the needed data will not be obtained.	eng
169186	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is known with certainty from India (e.g. Prasad and Varshney 1995) and Nepal (e.g. Vick 1989). Recent records in the Japanese literature from northern Thailand (Katatani <em>et al.</em> 2004) and Lao PDR (Yokoi 1999) are considered to be in need of confirmation. Records from India are from West Bengal, Uttaranchal and Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
169186	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	This is a species of streams and rivers, but there is a need for information on precise habitat requirements and on tolerance to disturbance. From the available information it is not clear if the species is dependent upon forest or not.	eng
169186	population	Sharma, G., 2010	There have not been many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphid species which are often very elusive; nothing on the rarity or otherwise of this species can reliably be inferred from this.	eng
169186	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	No information is available on any threats that this species might face.	eng
169187	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	The urgent need for this species is to resolve the taxonomic issue.	eng
169187	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrionoptera dorothea</span> is known to occur only in the Duars of West Bengal, India (Fraser 1927, 1936; Prasad and Varshney 1995). Presence in parts of the river basin within Bhutan and Bangladesh is possible.	eng
169187	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrionoptera dorothea</span> breeds in stagnant pools inside deep forests. No more information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species.	eng
169187	population	Mitra, A., 2009	No information is available on the exact population of this species.	eng
169187	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	Deforestation can affect this forest-dwelling species. <br/><br/>Growing population pressure in the hills has led to migration to and settlement the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecosystem, both spontaneously and through government-sponsored resettlement programs. The southern parts of the Duars are densely populated, and most of the area is under cultivation, although northern regions have a lower population density. Water diversion, especially for irrigation projects, poses another significant threat. Poaching and overgrazing are also problems here. Much of the savanna grasslands may be created by burning by pastoralists and other human intervention (Dinerstein and Loucks 2010).	eng
169188	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for more data on this species; until such data is available conservation measures, if needed, cannot be planned.</p>	eng
169188	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<em>Onychogomphus meghalayanus</em> is only known from the type locality at Rongregiri in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya, India (Lahiri 1987).	eng
169188	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	The only information on the habitat of this species is as follows: “the type was collected near the outskirts of a forest on the bank of a river” (Lahiri 1987).	eng
169188	population	Dow, R., 2010	No information on population sizes is available.	eng
169188	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>More data are needed on the extent and impact of threats within the currently known range of the species, and large areas are known to have already been deforested. The primary threats to this ecoregion's biodiversity include deforestation, especially that resulting from shifting cultivation in and around the remaining blocks of forests; mining for coal and limestone (and potentially uranium) (WWF 2010).<br/><br/>If&#160;<em>Onychogomphus meghalayanus</em> is a valid&#160;species, and if it is confined to the Garo Hills, then it is likely to be threatened by habitat loss.</p>	eng
169189	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Before conservation measures, if needed, can be planned, information on the habitat and distribution of this species must be obtained.</p>	eng
169189	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	The only record of <em>Gynacantha burmana</em> is of the holotype male, collected at Palon in Myanmar in 1889 (Lieftinck 1960).	eng
169189	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	Nothing is known about the habitat requirements of this species, although it is almost certainly a forest species breeding in standing water.	eng
169189	population	Dow, R., 2010	It is not possible to say anything about populations of this species with the available data.	eng
169189	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">No information available.<br/></p>	eng
169190	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
169190	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><em><span lang="EN-GB">Paragomphus risi</em><span lang="EN-GB"> is known only from the holotype collected at Kalaw, Myanmar (Fraser 1924, 1934).</p>	eng
169190	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
169190	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from a single specimen.</p>	eng
169190	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">The threats, if any, faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
169192	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ogbogu, S.S., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
169192	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ogbogu, S.S., 2008	The species is known only from the holotype from Obudu in Nigeria (Parr 1977), an upland area. The species hasn't been found in subsequent surveys at the holotype locality, or at suitable habitat across the Cameroon border. However the species may occur south of Obudu, where further surveys are needed. This and <em>P. stahli</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America.	eng
169192	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ogbogu, S.S., 2008	Probably similar to <em>P. stahli </em>(rainforest streams), only specimen collected at great altitude (1,524 m). The site where the specimen was caught was a pool in a stream created by a small dam (Parr 1977).<br/><br/>The species is probably restricted to the Obudu plateau due to the particular cool climate and high altitude.	eng
169192	population	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ogbogu, S.S., 2008	Has not been rediscovered at the type locality, last survey undertaken in December 2005. Further surveys required.	eng
169192	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Ogbogu, S.S., 2008	The type locality is impacted by the Obudu resort that has recently been upgraded to an International Tourist Centre by the Cross River State Government of Nigeria. As a consequence, resort expansion and possibly water extraction to satisfy its water needs are major threats to the species. Selective illegal logging is also impacting the area around the type locality.	eng
169193	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures. In western Africa, some localities are found in protected areas.	eng
169193	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Identification of potential protected areas for this species is required.	eng
169193	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the Cameroon highlands in south west Cameroon and from unknown localities in south east Nigeria (recorded by Gambles (Medler 1980) but no localities given).<br/><br/>This and <em>P. gamblesi</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.	eng
169193	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This and <em>P. gamblesi</em> are the only members of the family in Africa. Both occur only in the southern Cameroon-Nigeria border region and have their nearest relatives in South America. A recent record from southeast Gabon might pertain to this species but requires further study (Meziere pers. comm.). <br/><br/>In western Africa, it is known only from the Cameroon highlands in south west Cameroon and from unknown localities in south east Nigeria; recorded by Gambles (Medler 1980) but no localities given. Known from southwestern Cameroon in the central Africa region.	eng
169193	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Cool rainforest streams (i.e., submontane or piedmont lowlands (lowlands at foot of highlands)) with beds of mostly coarse gravel and stones; large larvae cling to the underside of rocks in the stream bed, while adults perch and oviposit in vegetation above seepages on the stream banks, suggesting that larvae may move from the seepages to the main part of the stream as they grow (Vick 1996, 1998).	eng
169193	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Cool rainforest streams (i.e., submontane or piedmont lowlands, lowlands at foot of highlands) with beds of mostly coarse gravel and stones; large larvae cling to the underside of rocks in the stream bed, while adults perch and oviposit in vegetation above seepages on the stream banks, suggesting that larvae may move from the seepages to the main part of the stream as they grow (Vick 1996, 1998).	eng
169193	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169193	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169193	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169193	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon and south-east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169194	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169194	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Nigeria, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest. Dumont's (1978) record of '<em>Sapho </em>sp<em>.</em>' from south eastern Senegal must also refer to this species. Replaced by <em>S. orichalcea </em> in the extreme south-east of Nigeria.	eng
169194	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around forest streams and rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
169194	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169194	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169195	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169195	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species was described from Sierra Leone; further status unclear. Identity of records from Guinea-Bissau (Schmidt 1951) is unclear, may pertain to <em>S. infumosa</em>. Collected at 1070m altitude in Loma Mountains (Sierra Leone) by Aguesse (1968).	eng
169195	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
169195	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169195	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169196	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable. Some locations are found within forests reserves but the protection given from these is limited.	eng
169196	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known with certainty from the forest habitats on the Ivorian, Liberian and Guinean sides of Mount Nimba, as well as Gola hills of Liberia (Dijkstra unpubl.) and Senegalese slopes of Fouta Djallon (Legrand 2003). Further presence in Sierra Leone (Loma, Gola), Cote d'Ivoire (Man) and elsewhere in Guinea (Fouta Djallon etc.) is very likely but needs to be investigated.	eng
169196	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found on rocky sections of rainforest streams (fast flowing streams); associated with hills.	eng
169196	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169196	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction, siltation of streams due to mining. Restricted to rocky streams in isolated areas of hilly terrain, is especially susceptible to widespread mining of diamonds, bauxite and iron ore in the region. The drainage of diamond mines leads to increased turbidity (reducing the visibility for larvae) and probably siltation (changing the substrate) of streams. Reduced motion (due to pits in streams) and increased water temperature as a result of sun insolation in open pits will also affect the flow, oxygen and temperature regimes of drainage streams. One such stream in Gola forest reserve in Liberia , which was rocky and therefore suitable for this species, held very low numbers by comparison to pristine stream. However, observations are too limited to speak of a trend (Dijkstra unpublished). Logging is also impacting the forested areas of the species' range.	eng
169197	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
169197	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as  monitoring of population trends.	eng
169197	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The type locality near Mt Cameroon, c. 400 m (uncertain), with additional recent and records near Munyenga and Kribi (which require confirmation. Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but is present in south east Nigeria (where the main cluster of localities is).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Type locality near Mt Cameroon. Both are recent Cameroon localities are from the 1970s, and require confirmation.	eng
169197	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The type locality near Mount Cameroon, c. 400 m (location is uncertain), with additional recent records near Munyenga and Kribi (which require confirmation. Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but is present in south east Nigeria (where the main cluster of localities is). 11 records; one from Nigeria, the others from Cameroon. Further survey (by Vick) in the area did not find further records.<br/><br/>In central Africa, the type locality is near Mt Cameroon. Both recent Cameroon localities are from the 1970s, and require confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species presence in Cameroon (in area on north side of Cross River and near Mt Cameroon). Old record from Liberia must be erroneous (probable misidentification), but may be expected in south east Nigeria.	eng
169197	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169197	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169197	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169197	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
169197	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169197	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction caused by wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169198	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
169198	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as  monitoring of population trends.	eng
169198	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province) and Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province).	eng
169198	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from extreme west Cameroon (where it is known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south western Province) and Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from extreme west Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only, south west Province).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south western Cameroon (known from Mamfe-Takamanda area only) and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria and may be expected there, but source unclear.	eng
169198	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169198	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
169198	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169198	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169198	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).	eng
169198	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).	eng
169200	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169200	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169200	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.	eng
169200	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria but this record requires confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and Bioko. Listed for Nigeria, but this requires confirmation.	eng
169200	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169200	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
169200	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169200	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169200	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).	eng
169200	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat. There is very widespread selective logging currently taking place on Bioko (Amakye pers. comm.).	eng
169202	conservation	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169202	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169202	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was Described from the Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and otherwise known only from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent south west Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent south west Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.	eng
169202	distribution	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from a few locations in Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent SW Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Babenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.). Only two locations within the region, which are both in or near proposed protected areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the Obudu Plateau of SE Nigeria (type locality) and otherwise known only from Mt Kupe and Bakossi Mts (Kodmin/Kumin) in adjacent SW Cameroon, and Baba II Forest near Bamenda (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
169202	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rocky submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.	eng
169202	habitat	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rocky submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.	eng
169202	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169202	population	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169202	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169202	threats	Clausnitzer, V.Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169203	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169203	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	The species is known only from Togolese type locality, "Misahöhe" (forested hill near present-day Kpalime). Surveys have been undertaken in the highlands since it was last recorded, in the 19th century, but it was not found.	eng
169203	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	No information available.	eng
169203	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	No information available.	eng
169203	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	Deforestation for agriculture is a major threat.	eng
169205	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169205	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Guinea endemic, occurring from Guinea and Sierra Leone to western Togo. No records from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire are published, but assessor has seen specimens in Cambridge and Bulawayo museums (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
169205	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and smaller rivers.	eng
169205	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169205	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction occurring in the area is believed to be a threat the species.	eng
169206	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169206	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Sierra Leone. (Replaces <em>C. glauca</em>)	eng
169206	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and smaller rivers.	eng
169206	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169206	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation caused by ongoing agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169207	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169207	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from near Freetown (Sierra Leone) and Monrovia (Liberia), aside from a possible teneral (freshly emerged) female that was collected further inland in Sierra Leone (Lempert 1988, Terzani and Marconi 2003).	eng
169207	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably swampy spots near mangroves (see Lapert 1988). May be tolerant of brackish water, which is rare among dragonflies, especially in Africa.	eng
169207	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169207	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats has occurred around Monrovia and Freetown and is ongoing.	eng
169208	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	In Benin there was a community based conservation project at the main site for the species (Foret de Lokoli) aiming to education and raise awareness of the sustainable use of swamp forest habitat - finished in 2005. The success of the project is unknown. No further conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169208	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	The species is only occurs in south eastern Benin and adjacent south western Nigeria in the Lagos area (Tchibozo and Dijkstra 2003, Dijkstra 2005). Old listings for Sierra Leone and Democratic Republic of Congo appear erroneous (probably misidentification).	eng
169208	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	Rivers in swamp forest.	eng
169208	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	No information available.	eng
169208	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Tchibozo, S., 2006	The species occurs in areas of very high population densities. The habitat has been severely fragmented as the swamp forest is being drained and deforested for shifting agriculture, e.g., cocoyam/ taro. Also the <span style="font-style: italic;">Raphia</span> palms are harvested to produce raffia palm wine and other non timber products (roofs, mats - weaving, etc.).	eng
169209	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169209	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Sierra Leone and Liberia, and apparently also collected in Nigeria (Lempert 1988).	eng
169209	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
169209	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169209	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169210	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169210	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from a few specimens from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria (Lempert 1988, Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
169210	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
169210	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169210	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169211	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169211	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from type pair collected at Regent in Sierra Leone, described in 2004. This is in the hills of the peninsula just south of Freetown.	eng
169211	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169211	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169211	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	It is likely that the area where the species was found (on the outskirts of Freetown) will be impacted by the expanding city of Freetown.	eng
169212	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169212	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species biology, ecology and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169212	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is endemic to highlands of Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda) and adjacent Nigeria (Mambilla and Tiba Plateaux). Potential occurrence further east needs more surveys.	eng
169212	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is considered endemic to highlands of Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda) and adjacent Nigeria (Mambilla and Tiba Plateaux).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon (Dschang, Bamenda), potential occurrence further east needs more surveys.	eng
169212	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams and small rivers in grassland, farmbush and secondary forest, up to high altitudes.	eng
169212	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams and small rivers in grassland, farmbush and secondary forest, up to high altitudes.	eng
169212	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169212	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169212	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
169212	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None known.	eng
169213	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169213	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Cameroon. Presence in Central African Republic in likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from the north of Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria (Gambles 1979). It is inferred to occur also between these locations in the savannah belt as this area has been insufficiently surveyed (Dijkstra pers. comm.)<br/><br/>Its likely to occur in central Africa, in northern Cameroon and northern Central African Republic.	eng
169213	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Most likely savannah and woodland.	eng
169213	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169213	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown.	eng
169214	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169214	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea) (Legrand 1983, 2003) and east Liberia (Lempert 1988).	eng
169214	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
169214	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169214	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169215	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169215	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from the type series from two sites in Cote d'Ivoire (Legrand 1991).	eng
169215	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169215	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169215	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169216	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169216	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (P) (Legrand 1993, 2003), but similar specimens that may pertain to be this species were collected in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Lempert and Terzani pers. comm.).	eng
169216	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
169216	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169216	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169217	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169217	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from two Togolese type males collected near Kpimé (Gauthier 1987). Specimens recently collected in Ghana may be conspecific (Dijkstra pers. comm.).	eng
169217	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
169217	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169217	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169218	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169218	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from near Vom in northern Nigeria (Gambles 1971).	eng
169218	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found on savannah habitat.	eng
169218	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169218	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Vegetable farming with the use of agrochemicals is very spread the area of Vom. However the impacts of this upon the species are unknown.	eng
169219	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169219	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from the Ivorian holotype and a male compared with it by Lempert (1988) from Liberia.	eng
169219	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Possibly found in forested areas.	eng
169219	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169219	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169220	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169220	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is endemic to Upper Guinea. Earlier records from Cameroon and further east probably all pertain to other species. It is known with certainty from Liberia, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and adjacent Togo. It was listed for Sierra Leone and Nigeria, but this must be confirmed.	eng
169220	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
169220	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169220	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169221	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169221	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Guinea endemic. Described from Guinea, and since found in Ghana and Togo. Gambles (1987) described but did not name the species and saw specimens from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.	eng
169221	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
169221	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169221	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The main threat to the species is forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
169223	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
169223	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
169223	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests), as well as Uganda, Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests), as well as Central African Republic, Gabon, and Zambia.	eng
169223	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from West Uganda, north Zambia, north east Angola to Equatorial Guinea. Eastern localities are verified, but the western localities (western Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and southern Cameroon) require confirmation.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu) and Congo (Ketta (Ouesso Sangha) and Kelle Forests).<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (west Uganda).	eng
169223	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest rivers.	eng
169223	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest rivers.	eng
169223	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169223	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
169223	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but obviously forest destruction, particularly as a result of agriculture.	eng
169223	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No specific information is available, but water pollution and forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are known to be affecting to the species.	eng
169224	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169224	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
169224	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
169224	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was firstly described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon, Gabon and Congo.	eng
169224	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was first described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It also occurs in south west Cameroon.	eng
169224	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to Cameroon and recent records in Gabon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is was first described from southern Nigeria, from where it ranges into Cameroon. Recent records from southeastern Gabon.	eng
169224	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169224	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
169224	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
169224	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
169224	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169224	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169224	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation and agriculture, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169224	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to ongoing agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169224	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169225	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169225	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from damaged holotype from Port Lokko (Sierra Leone).	eng
169225	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169225	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169225	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169226	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169226	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species was described from Danané, western Cote d'Ivoire, specimens seen by assessor from Ghana and Togo.	eng
169226	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in rainforest streams.	eng
169226	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169226	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area are believed to be a threats to the species.	eng
169227	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169227	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from western middle belt of Nigeria (Batati, near Bida, Niger Province) and adjacent Benin (Sota River) (Dijkstra 2005).	eng
169227	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Possibly found in and around savannah rivers.	eng
169227	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169227	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169228	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169228	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Guinea (Mt. Nimba) and Mali (Dijkstra, unpubl.). The second record suggests the species is much more widespread as the habitat is very different to Mt Nimba. There have also been some females of the genus recorded across the western Africa region but they cannot be identified to species level. Based on this it is inferred the species has a wider distribution.	eng
169228	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forested streams.	eng
169228	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169228	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169229	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169229	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from holotype from southern Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
169229	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest rivers.	eng
169229	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169229	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169230	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169230	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from the holotype from Mount Nimba (Guinea).	eng
169230	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in rainforest areas, probably in streams.	eng
169230	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169230	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169231	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169231	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea).	eng
169231	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in rainforest, probably in streams.	eng
169231	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169231	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169232	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable	eng
169232	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea).	eng
169232	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in rainforest areas, probably in streams.	eng
169232	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169232	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169233	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169233	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169233	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Its holotype is possibly from Gambia. The species is known with certainty only from Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire; other records must be checked.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Listed by Tsuda (2000) from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation.	eng
169233	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species' holotype is possibly from Gambia. Known with certainty only from Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire in western Africa; other records must be checked. <br/><br/>In central Africa the species is listed Tsuda from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, which needs confirmation.	eng
169233	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest rivers.	eng
169233	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest rivers.	eng
169233	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169233	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169233	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169233	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169234	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169234	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from holotype from Sierra Leone, which is in a poor state and may pertain to <em>P. mound</em>i.	eng
169234	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest rivers.	eng
169234	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169234	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169235	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169235	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from the female holotype from Sierra Leone; may pertain to <em>P. moundi.</em>	eng
169235	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest rivers.	eng
169235	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169235	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169236	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169236	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Nigeria and Guinea. The assessor has seen a probable female from Liberia and probable male from Togo. Types of <em>P. bartolozzii</em> and from Sierra Leone may also pertain to this species.	eng
169236	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest rivers.	eng
169236	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169236	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation as a result of agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169237	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169237	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
169237	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forest or savannah rivers.	eng
169237	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169237	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169238	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169238	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	This species has been described from northern Cote d'Ivoire. The assessor has seen specimens from Gambia and one in the Paris museum which is probably from Niger.	eng
169238	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around savannah rivers.	eng
169238	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169238	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169239	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169239	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169239	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Four records are known from this species: three from Cameroon (including two by Vick), one from Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the south west Province, Cameroon (Kribi), and in Nigeria (as found in Takamanda Forest), but the status of all records needs to be assessed.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon. May be expected in south east Nigeria, as found in Takamanda Forest.	eng
169239	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Province, Cameroon (Kribi), and in Nigeria (as found in Takamanda Forest), but the status of all records needs to be assessed.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon.	eng
169239	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
169239	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
169239	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169239	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169239	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169239	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169240	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable	eng
169240	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Mount Nimba (Guinea); a specimen seen by the assessor from Togo may also belong here.	eng
169240	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
169240	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169240	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169241	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169241	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species is known only from holotype from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon and may be present in south-eastern Nigeria.	eng
169241	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Known from rainforest but the water type is unknown. Probably occurs in streams.	eng
169241	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
169241	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction caused by wood extraction is believed to be a threat.	eng
169242	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	&#160;No information available and, therefore, research is needed.	eng
169242	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species is known with certainty only from Sierra Leone and possibly occurs also in Guinea (Pinhey 1970). Records from other parts of Africa, including Chad and Nigeria, all appear erroneous (misidentification) (Dijkstra unpub.). The species is therefore listed as Data Deficient.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed by Tsuda for Sudan and Egypt. Both records need confirmation, but appear currently erroneous. It is therefore listed as Not Applicable in the region.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known with certainty only from Sierra Leone. Possibly also occurs in Guinea (Pinhey 1970). Records from other parts of Africa, including Chad and Nigeria, all appear erroneous (misidentification) (Dijkstra unpub.).	eng
169242	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The habitat where this species lives is not well known. It is thought to inhabit savannah and inland wetlands.	eng
169242	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
169242	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
169243	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169243	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169243	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cameroon and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon (Barombi) and Gabon.	eng
169243	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon (Barombi).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
169243	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
169243	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
169243	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169243	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169243	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
169243	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
169245	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169245	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	The species is only known from a 100 km stretch of the Bandama River north and east of Korhogo in northern Cote d'Ivoire. Surveys are urgently required.	eng
169245	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	The species is known only from a river (about 30 m wide and 2 m deep in the dry season) with sandbanks, midstream rocks and high steep banks. The river is flanked by gallery forest 20-30 m wide (many tree roots hang in the water) in savannah. Adults were only recorded after several rains at the start of the rainy season from the 5th to 20th of April (1968 and 1969). They appear to fly 4 to 8 metres high around treetops in small groups (3 to 20 individuals), mainly between 4 pm and dusk. Mating appears to take place in these groups (Lindley 1970). Lindley (1974) elaborates that it "is found only [...] during Mar/Apr [...]. Its numerical status varies from year to year".	eng
169245	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
169245	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Suhling, F., 2006	Possibly removal of gallery forest and siltation of rivers threaten the species.	eng
169246	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information is available but research into threats and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169246	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Togo and possibly Nigeria. Assessor has seen material from Cote d'Ivoire in Bulawayo museum.	eng
169246	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around forest streams and rivers, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
169246	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169246	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169247	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable	eng
169247	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been described from Mount Nimba (Guinea) and recently found in Kintampo falls in Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.). The species is difficult to catch and is assumed to be much more widespread and found in between these two locations.	eng
169247	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
169247	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169247	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats are unknown, but ongoing deforestation occurring in the area is believed to be affect to the species.	eng
169248	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
169248	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
169248	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria, similar specimens from adjacent Cameroon may pertain to another species (Vick unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Its locality is Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains. Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon likely.	eng
169248	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from single locality in Nigeria and from similar specimens from Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from the Obudu Plateau in Nigeria. Similar specimens from adjacent Cameroon may pertain to another species (Vick unpubl.). <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from its type locality in Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains of Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
169248	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest, probably in streams.	eng
169248	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest, probably in streams.	eng
169248	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169248	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169248	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	In western Africa, the type locality is impacted by the Obudu resort (this has recently been upgraded to an International Tourist Centre by the Cross River State Government of Nigeria), through resort expansion and possibly water extraction. Selective illegal logging is also impacting area around the type locality.	eng
169248	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169250	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169250	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169250	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from highlands in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. The only member of this otherwise Neotropical family in Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.	eng
169250	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from highlands in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.	eng
169250	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Backwaters of cool, submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.	eng
169250	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Backwaters of cool, submontane (above 700 m) rainforest streams.	eng
169250	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169250	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169250	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands and south east Nigeria are unknown but agriculture and forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169250	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon and southeast Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a potential threat.	eng
169251	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Part of the species range is within the Niakola-Koba National Park in Senegal. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169251	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from the Upper The Gambia River in Senegal and Gambia. Dumont (1978) recorded 'small <em>M. singularis</em>' from a site in Senegal where later part of the type material of <em>M. dupuy</em>i was collected. Presumably these were all <em>M. dupuyi</em>.	eng
169251	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Perched on tufts of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperacea </span>along the river (Dumont 1978) in the Gambia River.	eng
169251	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169251	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	There is a proposal of construction of a dam in The Gambia river in Senegal, near the border with Guinea, which will regulate the flow regime of the river. It is believed that this will not have a severe negative impact upon the species, but its real future impact is unknown. Deforestation is occurring along the river, but this is not thought to be a threat to the species as it prefers open land.	eng
169252	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
169252	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is only known from two sites near Juarzon in south eastern Liberia, the Sinoe River and a tributary (Lempert 1988, 1992).	eng
169252	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest rivers, preferring shaded sections unlike the sympatric <em>M. singularis</em>, which perches in the sun.	eng
169252	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169252	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	There is a potential threat of logging for wood extraction and agriculture within the species range.	eng
169253	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169253	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Côte d' Ivoire, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria (Dijkstra <em>et a</em>l. 2006). Possibly ranges to Guinea and Cameroon, but no specified records have been published (Legrand and Couturier 1985).	eng
169253	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Deeply shaded calm and stagnant sections of streams and small rivers in rainforest.	eng
169253	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
169253	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169255	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169255	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169255	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. Historic record from Sierra Leone is assumed to be erroneous (mislabelling of locality Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon and Congo.	eng
169255	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria. There are recent new records from Gabon and western Congo Brazzaville.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. An historic record from Sierra Leone is assumed to be erroneous due to mislabelling of locality, according to Dijkstra pers. comm..<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from southwestern Cameroon and Congo.	eng
169255	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Species appears to have a very specialised habitat. Larvae probably pertaining to this species were found among roots on dripping rockfaces beside a waterfall in submontane (i.e. above 700m) rainforest (Vick 1998).	eng
169255	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Species appears to have a very specialised habitat. Larvae probably pertaining to this species were found among roots on dripping rockfaces beside a waterfall in submontane rainforest  (i.e., above 700m) (Vick 1998).	eng
169255	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169255	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169255	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169255	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169256	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169256	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.	eng
169256	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon and Gabon, may be expected in Nigeria, as occurs in Takamanda Forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
169256	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present in west Cameroon, and may be expected from Nigeria, as occurs in Takamanda Forest.	eng
169256	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Submontane&#160; rainforest streams (above 700 m).	eng
169256	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Submontane (above 700 m.) rainforest streams.	eng
169256	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169256	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169256	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169256	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in Cameroon and south east Nigeria are unknown but forest destruction is believed to be potential threat.	eng
169257	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169257	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
169257	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
169257	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169257	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
169258	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169258	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Togo, reports from Nigeria and Cameroon must be verified.	eng
169258	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
169258	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169258	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but&#160; deforestation and agriculture occurring in the area are believed to be threats to the species.	eng
169259	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169259	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.	eng
169259	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been collected from Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and Bakossi Mts of adjacent Cameroon only.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon.	eng
169259	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Obudu Plateau of south east Nigeria and Bakossi Mts of adjacent Cameroon.	eng
169259	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small streams in montane rainforest.	eng
169259	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Small streams in montane rainforest.	eng
169259	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169259	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169259	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specific threats to the species in the Cameroon highlands are unknown but forest destruction (selective logging and for agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat. In Nigeria, the Obudu plateau is threatened by by the expansion of the Obudu tourist resort.	eng
169259	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species in the highlands of Cameroon are unknown but forest destruction (for selective logging and agricultural expansion) is believed to be potential threat. In Nigeria, the Obudu plain is threatened due to the expansion of the Obudu tourist resort.	eng
169260	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169260	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Sierra Leone, where it has been recorded from the following locations (villages): Yana, Kamakoni (Kimmins 1938), Newton, Kasewe (Marconi and Terzani unpubl.). These all lie relatively north-west in the country.	eng
169260	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Based on the ecology of other species of the genus, it can be assumed to be a forest stream species.	eng
169260	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169260	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No specific threats are known for the species. However ongoing deforestation for agriculture in this densely populated region is believed to be a potential threat.	eng
169261	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169261	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria.	eng
169261	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested rivers and larger streams.	eng
169261	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169261	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169262	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
169262	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from near Kédougou in southeast Senegal. The site is on the border of Guinea, where the species is expected to occur as well.	eng
169262	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Known only from a small stream.	eng
169262	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169262	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	A proposed dam in the area is likely to have major impacts upon the species by flooding some, if not all, the potential habitats of the species.	eng
169263	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
169263	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is known only from Liberia, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.	eng
169263	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Found in and around smaller rainforest streams.	eng
169263	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169263	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation resulting from agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169265	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
169265	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169265	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169265	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gabon. The record from Nigeria requires confirmation<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo.	eng
169265	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species occurs in Takamanda Forest in Cameroon, possibly in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Gabon.	eng
169265	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of Congo.It is believed to be present also in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species occurs in Takamanda Forest in Cameroon, possibly in Nigeria.	eng
169265	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Cool streams in submontane (above 700 m.) rainforest.	eng
169265	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Cool streams in submontane (above 700 m) rainforest.	eng
169265	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Cool streams in submontane (above 700 m) rainforest.	eng
169265	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
169265	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
169265	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
169265	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169265	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
169265	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be affecting to the species.	eng
169266	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169266	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Gynacantha constricta</em> is a Philippine endemic species. The province of Laguna in Central Luzon, Luzon Island is the type locality. No other record is known outside this range.	eng
169266	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on congeners, <em>G. constricta</em> probably thrives in primary to secondary forest streams and creeks where the adults hide in the vegetations during midday sun. It might also be found near rice fields and irrigation canals.	eng
169266	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species was collected from Central Luzon area, no details are known on its abundance. It is known only from the type material. Extensive collections (by Muller) and the University of the Philippines-Los Banos (UPLB) do not include this species, therefore it is inferred to occur in very low numbers.	eng
169266	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Clearance of vegetation in the area occupied by <em>Gynacantha constricta</em> is causing the loss of hiding places for the species and increases its vulnerability to predation. The species is probably dependent on the presence of forest; loss of forest cover is likely to result in the loss of breeding habitat due to siltation and pollution.<br/><br/>So far the species has been recorded only in the province of Laguna. If further data indicate that it is confined to this area, the species will be more susceptible to the threats occurring here.	eng
169267	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169267	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Heliaeschna simplicia</em> is recorded from Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra), Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak), Brunei and the Philippine islands of Bongao and Sanga-sanga.	eng
169267	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	This species is found in forest habitats. It is crepuscular and is therefore is under-recorded.	eng
169267	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no available information on the population size of the species.	eng
169267	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to the species.	eng
169268	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169268	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Oligoaeschna poeciloptera</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from Luzon, Mindanao and Homonhon islands.	eng
169268	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information about the habitat requirement of this species. Based on reports of its congener, the species might be found in habitats as swamps, marshes and lakes.	eng
169268	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no available information on the population status of the species. The species is very elusive, which could account for the low number of records.	eng
169268	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on the probable habitat of the species, it is subject to introduction of alien fish, conversion of habitat for aquaculture or rice fields, where it is at risk from pesticides.	eng
169269	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169269	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Tetracanthagyna bakeri</em> is recorded from Luzon, Mindoro, Leyte and Mindanao islands.	eng
169269	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species prefers montane forest streams and creeks with plenty of trees with branches above the water which are used by the female for oviposition. The water is typically slow to moderate running with muddy to sandy substrate. The larvae are found clinging to roots and submerged trunks waiting for small fishes to pass.	eng
169269	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species occur in low densities. Females are frequently encountered either perching or ovipositing on trees above the stream.	eng
169269	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is dependent on the presence of trees along the water course for its for oviposition and it is under threat from deforestation. Clearing of waterways will deprive the chance for oviposition site and will further reduce the number of this low density species.<br/><br/>The increase of human settlements is also a  threat to the species due to the clearing of forest and, most importantly, pollution of waterways and damming for aquaculture purposes. Several waterways in the mountain areas of Mindanao have been dammed for <em>Tilapia</em> culture which are likely to prey on the larvae of <em>T. bakeri</em>.	eng
169270	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169270	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Euphaea amphicyana</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Samar, Leyte, Panaon, Homonhon, Mindanao, Dinagat and Basilan islands.	eng
169270	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	This species prefers open spaces in forested clear flowing streams, creeks and rivers. Mostly males are seen perching on nearby vegetations or boulders. On the other hand, females prefer to stay in the tall branches of nearby trees. Larvae are found among debris in the slow moving portion of the waterways and emergence usually in late morning.<br/><br/><em>E. amphicyana</em> seems to tolerate moderate human disturbance as long as vegetations and clear running water is maintained.	eng
169270	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species occurs in fair number in most montane streams, creeks and rivers. There is not enough data available but observation shows a seasonal variation in population density.	eng
169270	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Heavy deforestation and human settlement is occurring within its range and these are a threat to the species.	eng
169271	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169271	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Neurobasis anumariae</em> is a Philippine endemic species, known only from Samar, Leyte and Mindanao islands.	eng
169271	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	This species is typical of montane habitats characterized by open creeks and shallow moderate flowing rivers with plenty of exposed rocks where adults can perch. Once present, adults are seen flying low on the water surface chasing each other. Some perch on exposed rocks and others are found in nearby vegetations especially the perching females.	eng
169271	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species occurs in low numbers with scattered populations.	eng
169271	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	This species prefers open spaces and is found to colonize recently cleared portions of shaded creeks.   However, houses constructed near the river have been observed to drastically affect <span style="font-style: italic;">N. anumariae </span>populations, especially populations occurring downstream of sewage outlets. Decline of population density and even local losses of resident N. anumariae populations are known in several localities in Bukidnon and Davao provinces in just a year or two after a single house was built.<br/><br/>Ongoing human settlement expansion into upland areas in Mindanao and possibly Samar and Leyte threatens the resident population of the species and is likely to lead to its decline or loss.	eng
169273	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169273	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Cyrano unicolor</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from the following islands: Luzon, Marinduque, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Negros, and Panay.	eng
169273	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Based on its congener, this species is probably found in shaded streams, creeks and riverbanks. Often it is found in low densities and is seen perching on twigs above or near the waterways.	eng
169273	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no information concerning the population status of the species.	eng
169273	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Being a forest specialist, <em>Cyrano unicolor</em> is subject to habitat degradation characterized by deforestation through logging, and clearing for farming and settlements.	eng
169274	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169274	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Rhinocypha dorsosanguinea</em> so far has been recorded only from Basilan Island, with an unverified occurrence in Mindanao. A report from a 2005 expedition to Mount Malindang by the University Of the Philippines' Los Banos team mentioned that the species also occurs in Mindanao. If the Malindang specimen is indeed a true <em>dorsosanguinea</em> then this is a confirmation of its proposed range.	eng
169274	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The habitat is probably forest streams, creeks and rivers with plenty of vegetation.	eng
169274	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No details known.	eng
169274	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No direct information is known about threats to this species, but its inferred habitat is subject to deforestations and impacts from human activities. Logging and slash and burn farming is rampant in the rural provinces of the Philippines, especially in the southern islands making this a threat to the species.<br/><br/>Observations on the <em>Rhinocypha</em> species in Mindanao shows a drastic population shift with the declining trend of the resident species and emergence of the colonizer <em>R. colorata</em>. This also could occur within the range of <em>R. dorsosanguinea</em>.	eng
169275	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169275	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Cercion luzonicum</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to central Luzon. Since the collection of the type material no further material has become available for study. Even the extensive R.A. Muller collection, does not include this species which shows that it is genuinely rare and might be highly threatened.	eng
169275	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There are no available data concerning the habitat of the species. Probably, the species can be found in marsh, pond and lake environments.	eng
169275	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information about the population status of the species.	eng
169275	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The probable habitat of this species (pond, marsh and lake systems) is subject to aquaculture practices. This places the species under heavy threat of extinction as most similar habitats in the archipelago have now been converted to fish farms.	eng
169276	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169276	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Pseudagrion azureum</em> is endemic to the Philippines and is recorded from central Luzon, Luzon Island.	eng
169276	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on its congener, <em>P. azureum</em>, this species is expected to be found at riverbanks or at ponds and lakes.	eng
169276	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There are no data available on the population status of the species.	eng
169276	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is known only from the types collected on central Luzon. This is a highly urbanized area, which places the species probably at high risk of extinction.<br/><br/>Based on its congener, the species is particularly threatened by ongoing deforestation and increasing human settlements. The majority of ponds, marshes and lakes, and some rivers in this area are used for aquaculture. Introduced <em>Tilapia</em> is the primary fish species bred there and in most cases is already the dominant species, especially in ponds and lakes. The high density of this predatory fish changes the species richness of these habitats reducing food for the larval stage of <em>P azureum</em>. The fish also is a predator to the larvae further reducing larval density.	eng
169277	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169277	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Teinobasis filamentum</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded from Samar Island, Bohol Island, Panaon Island, Mindanao Island and Basilan Island.	eng
169277	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species can be found  in primary to secondary forested streams or creeks and occasionally in small forest ponds.	eng
169277	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species has a fragmented range but is often found in fair number with males frequently encountered. The species seems to have a seasonal variation in population density with higher numbers found in July to October.	eng
169277	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is subject to deforestation, habitat conversion and human settlement including pollution. Several known sites are now cleared for housing, particularly in Mindanao.	eng
169278	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169278	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Teinobasis samaritis</em> is a widely distributed Philippine endemic recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Mindoro, Cebu, Negros, Masbate, Sibuyan, Siquijor, Ticao, Samar, Homonhon, Mindanao, Basilan, Palawan, Busuanga, Tawi tawi, Sanga sanga, Tandubas, and Sibutu.	eng
169278	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species can be found at banks of primary to secondary forested streams and creeks. It also occurs at ponds with rich vegetations where adults hide under the shrubs especially if disturbed	eng
169278	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species often occur in fair numbers.	eng
169278	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>T. samaritis</em> seem to tolerate slightly contaminated waterways as long as there is no settlement or clearance of habitat.	eng
169279	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Although the species is found in a national protected area, no conservation measures directed to the species in place.	eng
169279	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Hemicordulia apoensis </span>is endemic to the Philippines and is probably confined to the Mount Apo area on Mindanao.   The species has been recorded only in areas actually within the central part of the mountain. It has been recorded in five sites which are all close to each other. Based on current data, the area of occupancy is less than 500 km², but it is hoped that the species will be found in other areas as field surveys continue. Its extent of occurrence is definitely less than 5,000 km².	eng
169279	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No direct information is available for this species. Based on its congener, it is probably found in forest pond and creeks where larvae stay in the muddy bottom.	eng
169279	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no information available.	eng
169279	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Based on observations of its congener, this species' likely habitat is particularly subject to clearance and conversion to pools for the production of commercial fish species (<em>Tilapia</em>). This is commonly seen in the lower portion of the Mount Apo range and in some mountainous communities. Although this species' range area includes Mount Apo National Park, banana and other monoculture farms are encroaching more into the park area. The conversion of habitat and introduction of alien species will significantly affect the water community. This has certainly led to the decline of <em>H. apoensis</em> populations.	eng
169281	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169281	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Heteronaias heterodoxa</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque, Mindoro, Negros, Panay, Masbate, Sibuyan, Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Homonhon, Panaon, Bohol, Camiguin, Dinagat, and Mindanao.	eng
169281	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Adults are frequently encountered in forested streams, creeks and rivers. It patrols a certain portion of the stream then flies back to the forest canopy. Larva are found clinging on the rocks against the rapid current.	eng
169281	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species occurs in low number but has a extensive distributional range. Larvae are frequently encountered in rapid flowing streams, creeks and rivers.	eng
169281	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Deforestation is an important factor affecting the population of <em>H. heterodoxa</em>.	eng
169282	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169282	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Idionyx philippa</em> is a widely distributed Philippine endemic species recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panaon, Homonhon, Mindanao, Dinagat, and Basilan.	eng
169282	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is associated to shaded forest streams, creeks and rivers. It is also encountered in the forest pathways either hovering or perching on twigs. Females drop their eggs directly on the slow flowing portion of the creek where the larvae are found buried in the mud.	eng
169282	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is frequently encountered hovering, sometimes in group, in shaded montane forest near or at some distance of the water.	eng
169282	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Deforestation and human settlement is an important factor affecting the population of this species.	eng
169283	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169283	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Macromidia samal</em> is a Philippine endemic species recorded in Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, Mindanao and Dinagat islands.	eng
169283	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no information about the habitat preference of the species. Based on its congener, it is likely that the species prefers forested streams, creeks and shallow rivers.	eng
169283	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no available information on the population status of the species.	eng
169283	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Deforestation could be the most important factor that affects the population of this species.	eng
169284	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169284	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Heliogomphus bakeri</em> is a Philippine endemic species, which is widely distributed in the archipelago: Luzon Island, Catanduanes Island, Mindoro Island, Panay Island, Negros Island, Sibuyan Island, Samar Island, Leyte Island, Homonhon Island, Mindanao Island, Dinagat Island, and Camiguin Island.	eng
169284	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	This species prefers open spaces in forested streams and creeks including shallow rivers where mature adults perch on foliage of nearby vegetations. It seems to prefer clear running waters running with slow to moderate speed and with sandy-muddy substrate where larvae can be found.<br/><br/>Adult males are active during late morning until middle afternoon guarding their particular territory. Not much is known about the seasonal pattern of species.	eng
169284	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is found in montane streams and shallow rivers. It occurs in low numbers and adults prefer to stay in the nearby vegetations waiting for prey or mate.	eng
169284	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	In Mindanao, but probably also throughout the Philippines, the habitat of <em>H. bakeri</em> is under threat from deforestation and conversion to agricultural land. Near human settlements the species is threatened by pollution caused by people using the water system for laundry purposes, or for disposing or cleaning insecticide spray/tanks, or indirectly via untreated sewage being drained into rivers.	eng
169285	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169285	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Ictinogomphus tenax</em> is widely distributed in the Philippine archipelago. Records are known from the islands of Luzon, Marinduque, Mindoro and Mindanao.	eng
169285	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	This species breeds in ponds, marshes, swamps and lakes where adults are seen patrolling a few feet above the water surface.	eng
169285	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species occurs in low to fairly high numbers.	eng
169285	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The specific habitat is particularly subject to aquaculture but the species seems to tolerate this activity.	eng
169286	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169286	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Onychogomphus treadawayi</em> is a Philippine endemic species that is probably confined to Busuanga Island, which has a total area of 900 km².	eng
169286	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is information on the habitat requirement of this species. But observations on other members of the genus suggest that the species is probably a forest species.	eng
169286	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no available information about the population status of the species.	eng
169286	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There are no direct data available on the extent of deforestation in Busuanga  Island. But like most small islands in the Philippines, it is likely to have been transformed to coconut plantations with scattered forest fragments remaining along steep ravines.<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>This species is confined to the island and if the assumed forest habitat of the species is correct, then it is likely to be subject to deforestation and clearance of watersheds for agriculture, settlement or logging. Small islands also have scarce freshwater sources; this suggests that the local human community is likely to have utilized most of the available water sources on the island, reducing suitable breeding ground for <em>O. treadawayi</em>.	eng
169287	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169287	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Diplacina braueri</em> is a Philippine endemic species, which is widely distributed in Luzon, Mindoro, Cebu, Negros, Masbate, Sibuyan, Samar, Panaon, Mindanao, Basilan, Camiguin, Tawi tawi and Jolo islands.	eng
169287	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is found in low to montane habitat, preferably open spaces with flowing water. The adults are seen perching on exposed rocks and leaves beside the water. It is noted to tolerate relatively contaminated water with larvae hiding in the mud or sand.	eng
169287	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is widely distributed in the Philippine archipelago with exception of the Palawan region. It occurs in low to fairly high numbers. It coexists with its congeners in some sites.	eng
169287	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>D. braueri</em> is tolerant of some pollution, but heavy contamination of waterways could be a major threat to the species.	eng
169288	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures are in place for this species.	eng
169288	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Diplacina lisa</em> is a Philippine endemic species, recorded from Luzon, Mindoro and Mindanao islands.	eng
169288	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Based on its congener, <em>D. lisa</em>, this is most likely a species of creeks and rivers in primary forest. It is most likely to be seen in late morning to middle afternoon. It prefers to perch on leaves and on exposed rocks and boulders in the waterways and adjacent areas.	eng
169288	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no information available about the population status for this species. Based on the available records, it is likely that the species is rare and occurs in low numbers only.	eng
169288	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The close association of <em>Diplacina lisa</em> to forested waterways makes it susceptible to deforestation and human settlement. This is a major concern in central Luzon where urbanization is so rapid and in Mindanao where settlements penetrate deep into the mountainous areas. This is compounded by the species' fragmented range and low population densities.	eng
169289	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169289	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Diplacina nana</em> is a fairly well distributed Philippine endemic species, recorded in the following islands: Luzon, Cebu, Negros, Siquijor, Samar, Bohol, Biliran, Mindanao, and Dinagat.	eng
169289	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is occasionally encountered in shaded forested streams, creeks and rivers. Larvae are found in muddy portions of the creek.	eng
169289	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species occurs in very low densities.	eng
169289	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Due to its low population density and fragmented range the species is vulnerable to degradation of its habitat. Deforestation through logging or clearing for settlement is an important factor in its decline.	eng
169290	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place. Its known habitat is part of a protected area.	eng
169290	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Argiolestes realensis</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Quezon Province on Luzon Island. So far, the species has been recorded only from the area surrounding the National Botanic Garden, Real. Its total area of occupancy is estimated to be no more than 1,000 km², based on evidence of remaining suitable habitat in the area. No records of the species have come from the western or the southern provinces (R.J.T. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).	eng
169290	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species was reported to inhabit forest floor near forested streams.	eng
169290	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no direct information concerning the population status of the species.	eng
169290	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Argiolestes realensis</em> is a forest specialist that thrives in the forest floor near waterways. Being a specialist with a narrow area of occupancy places the species in danger of extinction. Although this species is known from the National Botanic Garden (NBG), which is under University of the Philippines-Los Banos (UPLB) land grants programme, in the 1990s the facility was targeted by rebels in the province resulting in UPLB personnel leaving the area. The NBG is still under the UPLB land grants programme, but settlers have occupied the area and deforestation is occurring there. If this species is a forest specialist requiring heavy canopy cover, then it is highly likely to be severely fragmented as deforestation restricts the species to heavily forested seepages only.	eng
169291	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169291	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Rhinagrion philippina</em> is a Philippine endemic species confined in Luzon, Masbate, Mindoro, Samar, Bohol and Mindanao islands.	eng
169291	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is recorded from forested rivers where adults are seen flying at the riverbank among rich vegetations.	eng
169291	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no information about the population status of the species. Based on its records, the species has a fragmented range and occur in low number in areas where found.	eng
169291	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Deforestation and pollution is an important factor that will affect the population status of this species. It is vulnerable to these threats because of its narrow area of occupancy, a very fragmented population and low population density in areas where found.	eng
169292	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The distributional range of the species is largely covered by a national reserve. No other conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169292	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Coeliccia brachysticta</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Mindoro Island.	eng
169292	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no direct information concerning the habitat and ecology of this species. Based on observations on its congener, it is probably a largely confined to primary forest springs, streams and creeks. Larvae are also expected to be found clinging to exposed roots in the slow current portion of the waterways.	eng
169292	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species.	eng
169292	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	So far, this species is known only from its type locality and is probably restricted to Mount Halcon. Its very narrow distributional range and its association to forested habitat places the species under threat from deforestation and human settlement.<br/><br/>Although Mount Halcon is a protected area, human disturbance is likely to occur as the species is associated with water sources which locals also utilize. It is not unlikely for human settlement to occur near water sources especially in rural areas where there are no proper waterworks available.<br/><br/>Once settlement occurs, clearing for farming, and pollution from domestic and agricultural waste is likely to happen. This will eventually carry risk for extinction for a species with a very narrow range of distribution.	eng
169293	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169293	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Coeliccia exoleta</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Mindanao and Camiguin islands. So far, the species ahs been recorded in 12 sites.	eng
169293	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is typical of clear forest streams with a rich vegetations where males are seen perched on grass. Occasionally it is seen near small ponds adjacent to the stream. Larvae can be found in nearby shallow slow moving portions of the stream hiding in the roots and debris. Seasonal variation in the observed numbers is not known.	eng
169293	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species has a very fragmented range and occurs in low numbers. It was recorded once in Camiguin, and there is reference in Muller's collection to several sites in Mindanao. Surveys of several of the Mindanao sites in recent years have failed to find the species.	eng
169293	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Coeliccia exoleta</em> is restricted to forest streams and is under threat from habitat conversion and clearance. Pollution from agricultural sources, and also effluent from nearby houses, add to this threat. Its low population density makes the species more susceptible to human activities.	eng
169294	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169294	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Risiocnemis antoniae</em> is a Philippine endemic species confined to eastern Mindanao, Mindanao Island.	eng
169294	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on its congener, the species is probably typical of forest rivulets and springs. It is probably seen perched on leaves and twigs in shaded portions above trickles. It is also possible that this species can be found at waterfalls.	eng
169294	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species. Exploration of several sites between the two areas where records are known did not reveal the presence of the species. It is likely that it has a very narrow area of occupancy (AOO) with a fragmented population.	eng
169294	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The locality where <em>Risiocnemis antoniae</em> is recorded is one of the remaining areas with good forest cover in Mindanao. It is also an area where continuous forest destruction has been going on for several years although attempts for conservation of the area are increasing.<br/><br/>The species has a very narrow area of occupancy and a fragmented population, and is therefore at high risk of extinction. Being a forest specialist, probably with strict habitat requirements, places the species in danger extinction in the near future.<br/><br/>The problem of its very narrow area of occupancy is aggravated by rapid increase of settlement of upland areas and conversion of forest habitat to farming land. Recently, mining activity in the known range of the species has expanded significantly. Several small scale and few large company clear forest areas and dug open pit mines in search for precious metals. Mine tailings for some are released directly to creeks and rivers further contaminate downhill habitat.	eng
169295	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169295	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Risiocnemis asahinai</em> is a Philippine endemic species known from southern Luzon, Luzon Island and Mindoro Island.	eng
169295	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Based on its congener, the species is probably restricted to forest springs and streams. The adult is expected to be seen perched on leaves and twigs of vegetations surrounding the small waterways. The species probably can also be found in waterfall environments where adults are perched on the moist cliff walls.	eng
169295	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	There is no available information concerning the population status of the species.	eng
169295	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is likely to be subject to deforestation and human settlement. Clearance of habitat for human settlement or for farming will drastically affect the population dynamics of the species.	eng
169296	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169296	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<em>Risiocnemis atripes</em> is a Philippine endemic species known only from  Mindanao Island.	eng
169296	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is typical of forest rivulets, springs and streams where adults are found perched on leaves and twigs. It prefers partially shaded areas, and is also found near waterfalls where the species is seen perched in the moist walls.	eng
169296	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species occurs in fair numbers where found. Males are usually seen along waterways and females are frequented some distance from the water unless ovipositing along trickles.	eng
169296	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The close association of <em>R. atripes</em> with small waterways in forest places the species under threat of deforestation and human settlement. This is particularly seen in rural areas where households are built near waterways for easy access to water supply. This led to continuous disturbance of the environment. Clearing for farming purposes is another important factor that indirectly threatens the species by destroying its habitat. Slash and burn type of farming is the most commonly employed in most mountainous areas of Mindanao, aside from conversion of entire mountain for banana and pineapple plantation.<br/><br/>Human settlements in the area will eventually led to pollution of the surrounding environment either from domestic sources or from farm wastes. This pollutant will affect the species dynamic of the habitat leading to reduction of <em>R. atripes</em> population.<br/><br/>The continuous and rapid practice of unsustainable farming in most areas of Mindanao along with rampant logging places most forest species at risk of extinction.	eng
169297	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169297	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Risiocnemis atropurpurea</em> is endemic to the Philippines and is recorded from Luzon, Marinduque and Palaui islands.	eng
169297	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	V.P. Gapud stated that the species is frequent in low lying forest areas. Based on its congeners, it is perhaps associated with forested springs and streams where adults are found perching on leaves and twigs. It can probably also be found near waterfalls and hanging at moist cliffs.	eng
169297	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no  information available but records suggests a that it is reasonably common within its range.	eng
169297	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Due to its association with springs, streams and waterfalls in forest areas, <em>Risiocnemis atropurpurea</em> is affected by deforestation, particularly clearing the surrounding waterways. Populations at waterfalls are especially susceptible as most waterfall environments are converted for tourism purposes without attention being paid to the impacts on resident species.	eng
169298	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169298	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Risiocnemis pulchra</em> is a Philippine endemic known only from the type material from Bataan, western northcentral Luzon, Luzon Island. It has not been found in nearby provinces.	eng
169298	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Like its congener, the species is probably a forest specialist preferring trickles, rivulets and springs. It can also be seen at waterfall environments where adults perch on the moist wall.	eng
169298	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information available concerning the population status of the species.	eng
169298	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Like all members of the <em>Risiocnemis</em> genus, <em>R. pulchra</em> is subject to habitat degradation, especially deforestation and clearance for farming and human settlement. This problem is heightened by the species' narrow area of occupancy, making it more susceptible to such threats; the species' range lies along the fast developing areas in western central Luzon.	eng
169299	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169299	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Risiocnemis serrata</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to central and southern Luzon and Polillo islands.	eng
169299	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Like its congeners, the species is typical of rivulets, springs and streams in forest. The adult could be seen resting on leaves and twigs around the waterways.	eng
169299	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information available concerning the population status of the species. However, V. P. Gapud mentioned that the species is a familiar sight in low lying woody streams so probably the species occurs in fair numbers in suitable habitat.	eng
169299	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Deforestation by logging or clearing for farming is the prime threat to this forest specialist. If not for its fair distribution, the species could be placed in vulnerable status.	eng
169300	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169300	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Drepanosticta centrosaurus</em> is a Philippine endemic. The species is recorded in the eastern Mindanao Island in the provinces of Surigao del Sur and Davao Oriental. It has a fragmented, yet fairly large distribution along undisturbed small tributaries feeding the major riverine system in these provinces.	eng
169300	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species prefers undisturbed forest rivulets and springs that drain into large rivers. It is usually found under the shade of thick canopy with probably less than 40% sunlight reaching the forest floor. The forest ground is slightly sloping moist with plenty of trickles, and the adults are found perched on the exposed roots of ferns and twigs.	eng
169300	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species occur in fair numbers. Males are frequently encountered perching near small trickles under heavily shaded habitat.	eng
169300	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species' habitat is subject to deforestation and pollution from human settlements. The known distributional range of <em>Drepanosticta centrosaurus</em> is in one of the few remaining forested areas in the Philippine archipelago although illegal logging and slash and burn farming are still ongoing. The continuing clearance of forest will eventually eliminate potential habitat for this species.<br/><br/>The association of <em>D. centrosaurus</em> to freshwater supply makes contact with human settlement inevitable; the species is susceptible to disturbance, habitat clearance and domestic pollution. <br/><br/>Presently, mining for various metals within the distributional range by small- to large-scale companies has led to rapid degradation of habitat as most of these mining firms employ open pit mining. Most of these mining activities do not follow sustainable mining practices, and this has led to contamination of waterways, which has also placed the larval stage under threat.	eng
169301	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169301	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Drepanosticta ceratophora</em> is a Philippine endemic. The species was recorded in Palawan Province in both the Palawan and Balabac islands. It has a restricted range and occupies a small range on these two islands.	eng
169301	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on congeners in Mindanao, this species is expected to be confined to rivulets and springs in the forest. Based on information of related species, <em>D. ceratophora</em>, it probably flies low and always within the shaded water sources.	eng
169301	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information available on the population numbers and dynamics of the species, even available voucher specimens is limited.	eng
169301	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Drepanosticta ceratophora</em> is threatened by deforestation and human settlement. It probably occupies only a limited portion of the water bodies where it is found. Since the species is probably not able to disperse easily, it is under major threat from human activities. Clearance of vegetation removes cover for the species; this disturbance is aggravated by use of the species' habitat as a freshwater resource by rural communities. Often people will wash their laundry within the water source thus increasing pollution from soaps and detergents. This activity affects not only the adults but also the larval stages.	eng
169302	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169302	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Drepanosticta krios</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to the western parts of Mindanao Island and the Sulu archipelago (Tawi Tawi Island, Batu Batu Island, and Sanga Sanga Island).	eng
169302	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species is encountered in shaded forest trickles and rivulets. It is also encountered in trickles adjacent to waterfalls.	eng
169302	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	The species occurs in fair numbers.	eng
169302	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Being a forest specialist, this species is vulnerable to deforestation, and particularly human settlement near waterways.	eng
169303	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169303	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Drepanosticta luzonica</em> is a Philippine endemic species, confined to Ifugao Province Luzon island. The species is only known from the holotype.	eng
169303	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on its congener, this species is probably a forest specialist. It can be seen in shaded forest trickles and rivulets where adults perch on twigs near the ground.	eng
169303	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no information concerning the population size of the species.	eng
169303	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Forest specialists are particularly vulnerable to deforestation and clearance for human settlement. Removal of forest cover removes cover and exposes the species to predation. Human settlement near the habitat will place the species to continuous disturbance and possibly pollution from domestic waste.	eng
169304	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are in place. It is important that the population is monitored to determine whether seasonal variations, or population declines, or a combination of both are taking place. It is also essential that remaining habitat is protected to ensure the survival of this species.	eng
169304	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Protosticta plicata </span>is a Philippine endemic species, confined to the Kawasan Falls area on Cebu Island. In 2009, surveys recorded the species only in a Kawasan River occupying about 100 m stretch of the river (10 m from the river bank to farthest noted individual), despite lot of suitable habitats in the island (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).	eng
169304	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	The species is reported from the Kawasan Waterfalls, one of the three small remaining patches of forest on Cebu island. Based on observations of other members of the family, the species is probably a forest specialist residing in shaded trickles.	eng
169304	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Previously, the species was only known from one male and one female caught in 2001. In 2008, several sites were visited in Cebu (in March and August), and the species was recorded on both occasions: in March around 20 individuals were noted, and in August only two females were recorded (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009). It is not certain whether the apparent decline noted in August 2009 is a seasonal variation or a secondary effect of forest clearance carried out on 25% of the site (R.J. Villanueva pers. comm. 2009).	eng
169304	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2009	Being a forest specialist, <em>Protosticta plicata</em> is threatened by deforestation through logging and clearance for farms or human settlements.<br/><br/>The known habitat is considered a tourist site, which subjects the area to constant disturbance by people. Removal of waterside vegetation for pathways limits the availability of perching sites for the species. The introduction of alien plant species to beautify the place may change the habitat structure. These activities will eventually result to the decline of the population.<br/><br/>Another important problem to the species is its narrow area of occupancy. So far the species has been recorded in the Kawasan area which is less than 100 km². This places <em>P. plicata</em> at high risk of extinction unless conservation efforts are carried out to protect the species.	eng
169306	conservation	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	No conservation measures for this species are in place.	eng
169306	distribution	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Sulcosticta striata</em> is a Philippine endemic confined in northern Luzon, Luzon Island.	eng
169306	habitat	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	Based on other members of the family, the species is probably typical of shaded forest trickles, rivulets and springs. Adults probably perch on twigs near the ground. Being a forest species occurring in an area where suitable habitat is being increasingly fragmented through deforestation, the population is severely fragmented.	eng
169306	population	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	There is no available information concerning the population size of the species.	eng
169306	threats	Villanueva, R.J.T., 2008	<em>Sulcosticta striata</em> is under threat from deforestation and reduction of canopy cover. Logging is rampant in its known range area. Clearing for farming and settlement is also a problem in most upland areas, particularly near waterways which is a favoured spot and happen to be the choice habitat of the species.	eng
169314	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon to common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
169315	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. 1996). <br/></p>	eng
169316	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species is known only from the island of Vanikoro, situated 118 km from the main Santa Cruz Islands, <strong>Solomon Islands</strong>. Based upon reported densities the population probably numbers in the tens of thousands, and while there have been no repeat counts to assess population trends it is assumed to be stable. <br/></p>	eng
169316	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is apparently commonest in lowland coastal forest including secondary growth and in hill forest above 350 m. It was the commonest species above 700 m where 21 individuals were recorded in an area of 1.5 ha. The species gleans arthropods from tree leaves and branches and feeds on small fruits. <br/></p>	eng
169316	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The species was common above 700 m on Vanikoro where it was recorded at a density of 25 individuals in 1.5 ha, but it was much less common in the lowlands. Vanikoro has a total area of 173 km<sup>2</sup>, much of which remains forested. Crude interpretation of this data suggests the population can be cautiously estimated to fall within the band 20,000-49,999 individuals. <br/></p>	eng
169316	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species appears to be tolerant to some degree of forest degradation and is unlikely to be detrimentally impacted by logging in the near future. The most plausible threat is posed by introduced species, but it apparently coexists with introduced rats <em>Rattus</em> spp. and other invasives are unlikely to colonise the island owing to the current lack of commercial traffic. <br/></p>	eng
169317	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common (Grewal et al. 2002). <br/></p>	eng
169318	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
169319	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure), and has been described as 'uncommon to locally common' (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2007).. <br/></p>	eng
169320	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2006). <br/></p>	eng
169322	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
169323	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
169324	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as rare in eastern Bhutan and Bangladesh, but common in western Myanmar (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
169325	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as relatively common at sea level and increasingly common with elevation (del Hoyo et al. 2007). <br/></p>	eng
169326	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,000,000-10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>. It has a large global population estimated to be 640,000-3,100,000 individuals<strong><sup>8</sup></strong>.  <br/></p>	eng
169326	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Behaviour</strong> All populations of this species undergo post-breeding dispersive movements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Populations breeding in the Palearctic are highly migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> whereas others are only sedentary (such as <em>E. g. dimorpha </em>on Madagascar), nomadic<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> or partially migratory<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> although, in general, European and north Asian populations breed in spring and summer (March to July) and the breeding of tropical populations coincides with periods of high rainfall<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species usually nests in colonies sometimes of thousands of pairs and often with other species<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Some populations also breed solitarily or in small single-species groups of under 100 pairs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. When not breeding the species commonly feeds solitarily or in loose flocks during the day<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> It inhabits fresh, brackish or saline wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and shows a preference for shallow waters (10-15 cm deep) in open, unvegetated sites where water levels and dissolved oxygen levels fluctuate daily, tidally or seasonally, and where fish are concentrated in pools or at the water's surface<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Habitats frequented include the margins of shallow lakes, rivers, streams and pools, open swamps and marshes, flooded meadows, rafts of floating water hyacinth <em>Eichornia</em> spp. on African lakes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, flood-plains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, lagoons, irrigation canals, aquaculture ponds<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, saltpans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and rice fields (which are especially important in areas with few remaining natural wetland habitats)<strong><sup>2, 3</sup></strong>. The species also occupies dry fields, inland savannas and cattle pastures<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and some populations are almost entirely coastal, inhabiting rocky or sandy shores, reefs, estuaries, mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves and tidal creeks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It is a highly opportunistic feeder<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, taking mainly small fish under 20 g in weight and less than 10 cm long<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (averaging 4 cm)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, aquatic and terrestrial insects (e.g. beetles, dragonfly larvae, mole crickets and crickets)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and crustaceans<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. <em>Palaemonetes</em> spp., amphipods, phylopods, crabs and exotic species of crayfish)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> as well as amphibians, molluscs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (snails and bivalves)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, spiders, worms, reptiles and small birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The species may nest on the ground in protected sites<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> or up to 20 m high on rocks, in reedbeds, bushes, trees or mangroves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests in single- or mixed-species colonies where nests may be placed 1-4 m apart (sometimes less than 1 m apart)<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It may feed up to 7-13 km away from breeding colonies during the breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Management information</strong> An artificial island nesting site created in the Camargue, France succeeded in attracting nesting pairs to the area<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A study in north-west Italy suggests that existing nesting sites should be protected and that breeding habitats should be actively managed in order to maintain suitable habitat characteristics<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. The creation of a network of new nesting sites spaced at 4-10 km in relation to available foraging habitats in zones currently without suitable nesting sites is also recommended<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
169326	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Totals for <em>E. g. garzetta </em>and <em>E. g. dimorpha </em>from Wetlands International (2006) added together. <br/> <br/></p>	eng
169326	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is threatened by wetland degradation and loss through drainage for agriculture (e.g. rice-farming and fishing), changes in current management practices (e.g. of rice-farming) and contamination from agricultural and industrial operations<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The species is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus<strong><sup>5, 7</sup></strong>, and it previously suffered from hunting for the plume trade (although this is no longer a threat)<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. Nesting colonies of <em>E. g. dimorpha</em> are depredated by villagers in Madagascar<strong><sup>9</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
169329	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common (del Hoyo et al. 2004). <br/></p>	eng
169330	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/> <br/></p>	eng
169331	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as generally common but patchy in occurrence (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/></p>	eng
169332	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified (del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2008). <br/></p>	eng
169333	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common (Morcombe 2000; del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2008). <br/></p>	eng
169334	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be elusive but locally fairly common (Flegg and Madge 1995; del Hoyo <em>et al. </em>2007). <br/></p>	eng
169335	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion  <br/></p>	eng
169336	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified. <br/></p>	eng
169338	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Partners in Flight (A. Panjabi in litt. 2008) <br/></p>	eng
169339	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>There is an ongoing conservation plan involving local authorities, community leaders, Ministry of Environment, The Hummingbird Conservancy, Ecohabitats foundation and local residents.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out further studies to determine status and population size. Develop a Species Action Plan. Continue and extend local conservation and education initiatives. Work towards the creation of a protected area in the Serran&iacute;adel Pinche.	eng
169339	distribution		<em>Eriocnemis isabellae </em>has been recently described from Cauca Department, south-west <strong>Colombia</strong>, where it occurs in a tiny area of the Serran&iacute;adel Pinche<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Three birds (one male and two females) were mist-netted in 2005 and a total of six further males were caught in 2006<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The global population has not been quantified but is presumably very small given that the area of suitable habitat is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and it is suspected to be decreasing as elfin forest habitat is converted for agriculture and illegal coca plantations.	eng
169339	habitat		It inhabits the cloud and temperate forest zone, within which the species appears to be associated with elfin forest on steep slopes along mountain ridges<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Elfin forest at the type locality averages 6-8 m in height with frequent natural clearings and is found at around 2,600-2,900 m<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
169339	population		Population has not been quantified but is presumably very small given that the area of suitable habitat is thought to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
169340	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169341	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169342	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169343	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169344	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169345	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as fairly common to common (del Hoyo et al. 2003). <br/></p>	eng
169346	conservation	Alexander, K., Guéorguiev, B. & Nieto, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
169346	distribution	Alexander, K., Guéorguiev, B. & Nieto, A., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus peyroni</span> is distributed in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. Baraud (1993) mentions that this species occurs in Greece, Armenia, Caucasus, Transcaucasia (Araxe valley). <span lang="EN-US"><br/></p><p><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">In Greece two dead speciemes where found in<span lang="EN-US"> the roots of old  Platanus and old <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus alba</span> trees in <span lang="EN-US">Thessaly, near Elatia (25 km north-eastern Larissa city, near Ossa (Kissavos) mountain), at  120 m above sea level. <span lang="EN-US">In Thrace, near Mikros Kechros village (35-40 km north of Alexandroupolis city, Sapka mountain) three dead specimens were found in the roots of an old <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus</span> at 900 m above sea level.<span lang="EN-US"> In Thessaly, near Theopetra village (five km south-eastren Kalambaka city) one dead specimen was found in an ants nest at 150 m above sea level. Another specimen from Greece, was reported in Olympus Mountains.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></p><p>It occurs in southern Bulgaria. Král and Malý (1993) cited it from several localities of the Middle Struma River Valley: Simitli, Lebnica, and Sandanski, as well as from the Eastern Rhodopes: Momchilgrad. In Guéorguiev and Bunalski (2004), a new locality is given from the Struma Valley: Kresna. <br/></p><p>It is also mentioned from Syria and Iran. In this last country, it can be another  species recently described.&#160;</p><p><span style="font-style: italic;">Dorcus peyroni</span> is also present in Anatolia where it  is probably very rare. This species has a marginal occurrance in Europe.</p><br/><p><br/></p>	eng
169346	habitat	Alexander, K., Guéorguiev, B. & Nieto, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">D. peyroni </span>lives in dead &#160;roots of old deciduous trees (<span style="font-style: italic;">Platanus,  Quercus, Populus</span>).	eng
169346	population	Alexander, K., Guéorguiev, B. & Nieto, A., 2009	This species is very rare.<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US">	eng
169346	threats	Alexander, K., Guéorguiev, B. & Nieto, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
169347	conservation	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Research is required to determine distribution of this species, population size and trends, habitat status, and threats.	eng
169347	distribution	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	This species is endemic to Vanuatu.	eng
169347	habitat	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No information is available on specific habitat requirements for this species. It possibly occurs around forest streams and creeks.	eng
169347	population	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
169347	threats	Harding, K.M. & Beatty, C.D., 2007	Threats to this species are not known at present.	eng
169353	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169353	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species distributed from the east coast of India, Bangladesh and Burma, southward to Singapore and Borneo around Brunei to Australia.	eng
169353	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>J. coitor</em> is a demersal and amphidromous species.  It inhabits shallow coastal waters, estuaries (brackish waters) and rivers.	eng
169353	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169353	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169354	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present for this species.	eng
169354	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from the Sepik and Ramu rivers of Papua New Guinea.  These river basins cover an area of 100,810 km².	eng
169354	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. aquadulcis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species, found in rivers and floodplain lakes.  Generation time of this species is estimated to be 3.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
169354	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Due to habitat degradation within half of this species known range, it is suspected that populations of <em>E. aquadulcis</em> are currently declining, with the prospect of accelerated decline in the future (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
169354	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. aquadulcis</em> is threatened by habitat degradation in some parts of its range.  A large nickel extraction project, (Ramu Nickel), is in development on the banks of the Ramu River.  The pre-extraction mine development, (such as road and housing development), has already had some adverse effects on the river and will likely get worse when the mine goes into full operation (Jenkins, pers. comm.).     <br/><br/>The Sepik River basin is considered to be the largest uncontaminated freshwater system in the Asia-Pacific region, this is due to the fact that there are no large cities or developments, and therefore few human-induced impacts in the Sepik region.  However, there are future threats from mining, logging, invasive species and unsustainable fishing and agriculture practices (WWF 2006).	eng
169355	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169355	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Australia and southern New Guinea.  In Australia it has a patchy yet extensive distribution across northern Australia. Its range extends from the Carson River (Western Australia) eastwards to the Jardine River on the Cape York Peninsular (Queensland), (Doupe <em>et al</em>. 2003).  In New Guinea, it is known from the Trans-Fly region. <br/><br/>It is currently known from the following Australian river systems: Carson, Ord, Victoria, Daly, Finniss, Mary, East Alligator, Roper, McArthur, Gregory, Gilbert, Norman, Mitchell, Archer and Jardine (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169355	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. macleayi</em> is a demersal species, that occurs along the margins of streams and swamps, often among dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
169355	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is common and widespread.  It is usually abundant in those habitats in which it occurs (Pusey <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
169355	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is considered to be not threatened in Australia (Environment Australia 1993).	eng
169356	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169356	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to eastern Australia.  It is distributed across a narrow coastal belt extending from the Maryborough district (Queensland) southward to Narooma (New South Wales), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002)	eng
169356	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A marianus</em> is a demersal species that inhabits brackish mangrove estuaries, tidal creeks and the lower reaches of freshwater streams.  Aggregations are common among mangrove roots, log snags and aquatic vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169356	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169356	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169357	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169357	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species can be found in the Digul and Lorentz rivers in Irian Jaya, Indonesia and the Laloki, Purari and Fly rivers in Papua New Guinea.	eng
169357	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. latirostris</em> is a benthopelagic, riverine species.	eng
169357	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species is decreasing in parts, but detailed population figures are not known.	eng
169357	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Parts of this species range are threatened by habitat degradation.  The Fly River has been extensively damaged by the Ok Tedi mine, and the Laloki River is severely affected by the growing urbanization of Port Moresby, (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
169358	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169358	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. leiaspis</em> occurs in Madagascar, and in Southeast Asia;  from Japan south to Indonesia and east to New Caledonia and Fiji.	eng
169358	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. leiaspis</em> is a demersal, diadromous species, that can be found in fresh and brackish water.  It inhabits streams, rivers, and estuaries.  It is an ovoviviparous fish, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
169358	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is common throughout its range (Jenkins, Pers. comm.).	eng
169358	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169359	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169359	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in the Philippines, Indonesia, and New Guinea, and ranges from New Caledonia, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and Palau in Micronesia.  Recent surveys by Jenkins (pers. comm.) have expanded the known range of this species to also include Fiji and the Solomon Islands.	eng
169359	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. barbata</em> inhabits muddy inshore waters of mangrove swamps and penetrates freshwater rivers.  It possesses venom glands at the base of some of the spines.	eng
169359	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169359	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169360	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169360	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in northern Australia and New Guinea.  In Australia, its occurs in the Gulf drainage from the Roper River system eastward to the Archer River on Cape York peninsula (Larson and Martin 1990, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169360	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. berneyi</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams, favouring slow-flowing, turbid conditions.  It is also sometimes found in brackish estuaries (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169360	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is not especially abundant (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169360	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is considered to be not threatened in Australia (Environment Australia 1993).	eng
169361	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>H. heptagonus</em> is a listed marine species in the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999; meaning it is an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep, or move <em>H. heptagonus</em> on Commonwealth land or in Commonwealth waters without a permit.	eng
169361	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169361	conservation	Bills, R., 2006	Sustainable planning in coastal developments.	eng
169361	distribution	Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from east African coastal regions from Durban to Kenya. Indian and western Pacific distribution.	eng
169361	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is widespread along the eastern African coastline.	eng
169361	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species' distribution ranges along the east coast of Australia, from Cape York (Queensland) to the Clarence River (New South Wales).  It is also widespread in the Indo-West Pacific region from East Africa to Melanesia, northwards to Japan (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169361	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>H. heptagonus</em> is a demersal species.  It is common in the lower reaches of rivers and streams, and in estuarine habitats, such as mangrove estuaries and tidal creeks.  It is an ovoviviparous fish; the female deposits eggs on the ventral surface of the male's trunk or tail, where they are incubated for several weeks.	eng
169361	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Lower reaches of coastal streams and rivers, estuaries, sometimes in freshwater lakes (Dawson 1986).	eng
169361	habitat	Bills, R., 2006	Lower reaches of river systems and estuaries. Known from some lakes in the Philippines.	eng
169361	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169361	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a stable trend, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169361	population	Bills, R., 2006	Unknown.	eng
169361	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169361	threats	Bills, R., 2006	None known at present. Impacts on estuarine environments e.g., over-extraction of freshwaters and coastal developments are potential threats.	eng
169361	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169362	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present for this species.	eng
169362	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species distribution ranges from Indonesia, east to Fiji, north to the Philippines and south to New Caledonia.  However, this species can be confused with <em>C. plicatilis</em>, and therefore this species' distribution may not be as large as reported (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
169362	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There is very little available data regarding this species.  It is a demersal species, which can be found in brackish waters as well as freshwater.	eng
169362	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species may be rare within its distribution.  Jenkins (pers. comm.) has been collecting extensively throughout Fiji for six years and has never caught a single specimen.  It is also only rarely encountered in New Caledonia.	eng
169362	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	It is likely that critical habitat of <em>C. oxyrhyncus</em> is being damaged in New Caledonia, Philippines and Indonesia due to rapidly rising human populations (Jenkins, pers. comm.).	eng
169363	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In accordance with the Nature Conservation Act 1980, <em>G. bispinosus</em> was declared a vulnerable species in 1996.  In the assessment of this species, the ACT Flora and Fauna Committee found the species to satisfy the following criteria:<br/><br/>- The species is observed, estimated, inferred or suspected to be at risk of premature extinction in the ACT region<br/>in the medium-term future, as demonstrated by a current serious decline in population or distribution from evidence based on direct observation, including comparison of historical and current records.<br/>- Imminent risk of serious decline in population or distribution from evidence based on serious threat from predators, parasites or competitors.<br/>- Seriously fragmented distribution for a species currently occurring over a moderately small range or having a moderately small area of occupancy within its range.<br/><br/>An Action Plan was prepared in response to this declaration.  The legal authority of this action plan is confined to the Australian Capital Territory. This species is not listed under any similar Acts in Victoria or New South Wales (ACT Government 1999).<br/><br/>The conservation objective of this Action Plan is to maintain in the long-term, viable, wild populations of <em>G. bispinosus</em>, which is to be achieved through the following strategies:<br/><br/>- Participating in research, monitoring and experimental management aimed at identifying the cause of the continuing population decline, and preventing it.<br/>- Protecting sites and habitats that are critical to the survival of the species. This includes the upper Cotter River in the ACT, which is nationally recognised as an important site for <em>G. bispinosus</em> (Lintermans and Ingwersen 1996).<br/>- Managing activities in the upper and middle Cotter River catchment to minimise or eliminate threats to fish populations.<br/>- Increasing community awareness of the need to protect native fish and their habitats.	eng
169363	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to south-eastern Australia.  Its distribution covers a narrow band from north-eastern Victoria, extending through south-eastern New South Wales (NSW) to the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), which is at the northern extremity of its range (ACT Government 1999).<br/><br/>An extensive survey of the NSW southern highlands (Lintermans 1998) located <em>G. bispinosus</em> in the following stream systems:<br/>- Upper Murray, including the lower reaches of the Swampy Plains, Tooma and Geehi Rivers;<br/>- Upper Tumut system, including the lower reaches of the Goobarragandra River;<br/>- Goodradigbee River;<br/>- Mountain Creek; and<br/>- Upper Murrumbidgee River between Yaouk and Cooma.<br/><br/>In the ACT, the species is now found only in the Cotter River catchment upstream of the Cotter Dam.	eng
169363	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. bispinosus</em> is a demersal fish that is restricted to cool, clear, upland or montane streams with abundant in stream cover, usually in the form of boulders and cobble.  It is often found in medium to large streams where there is lower stream velocity.   It is generally found in forested catchments, where there is little sediment input to the stream from erosion or land management practices (ACT Government 1999).  <br/><br/>It is a nocturnally active species which usually occurs solitary.  Juveniles are often found in large groups among leaf litter and wood debris.  Movements are restricted to a relatively small stretch of river over the duration of the life span; the home-range of adult fish is estimated at approximately 15 meters.  <br/><br/>Breeding is seasonal, with egg-laying commencing in November, probably induced by a relatively rapid rise in water temperature.  Fecundity is low and is positively correlated with fish length.  Females are though to commence breeding in their second or third year.  Between 80 and 420 eggs are laid in a single egg mass but the natural spawning sites are unknown (ACT Government 1999).	eng
169363	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species has suffered a serious decline in population or distribution in the ACT region; determined from evidence based on direct observation, including a comparison of historical and current records (ACT Government 1999).  <em>G. bispinosus</em> is reported to be relatively abundant throughout other parts of its range (Jenkins, pers. comm).	eng
169363	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is occasionally caught by recreational fishers targeting trout, although it is not a desirable target due to its small size.  Therefore, overfishing is unlikely to be the primary cause of the decline of this species, but the sedimentation of streams which smothers food supplies and spawning sites is sited as a major threat to this species in the ACT region.  Interactions with introduced fish species (such as trout) are also implicated in its decline (ACT Government 1999).  It is probable that the threats to the species in the ACT region are actually widespread threats.	eng
169364	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169364	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species has a disjunct distribution from several localities in the West Alligator, South Alligator, Daly, Reynolds, Finniss, and Adelaide River systems of the Timor drainage.  It is also known from two localities in southern Irian Jaya (Larson and Martin 1990).	eng
169364	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. lorentzi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits small streams and swamps, usually with abundant overhanging vegetation (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169364	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	It is reported to be reasonably common in its localities, but is seldom collected or observed in the wild, (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  It may be seasonally abundant (Larson and Martin 1990).	eng
169364	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169365	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known to be in place.	eng
169365	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in central southern New Guinea and northern Australia.  In Australia it is found in the larger coastal rivers in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Timor drainages, however, their distribution seems to be patchy.  A recent study indicates it occurs in the following Australian rivers: Penticost (Western Australia), East Baines, Daly, Finnis, Adelaide, Wildman, West, South and East Alligator (Northern Territory), Leichhardt, Saxby and Norman (Queensland), (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002).  In southern New Guinea this species is more widespread.	eng
169365	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits slow-moving, turbid waters, and is found most often in the brackish lower reaches of large rivers, and in coastal mangroves (Larson and Martin 1990, Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).  They can apparently breed in both marine and freshwater, and the males carry eggs in clusters or balls attached to a hook on the head (Larson and Martin 1990).	eng
169365	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	These fish are not considered common in Australia (Larson and Martin 1990), but are reported to be more abundant in New Guinea (Allen <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
169365	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no threats known.	eng
169366	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	It has been recommended that small reserves of the alpine wetland habitat that is inhabited by <em>P. hildebrandi</em> is restored and protected (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).	eng
169366	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to the closed basin of San Cristóbal de Las Casas, a fast-growing city in highland Chiapas, Mexico.  It is severely restricted with an extremely small Extent Of Occurrence.	eng
169366	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. hildebrandi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits channels and streams in the alpine wetland habitat of the San Christobal basin.  In streams it occupies both rapids and pools, but is more abundant in sites where pools are deeper and better defined (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).  The type locality (spring-fed Laguna Maria Eugenia, which was 5-6 ha) disappeared around 1950, but it did have abundant vegetation, with a rocky substrate, slight currents and a depth of 0.6 m (Miller 2005).	eng
169366	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	A population size of 1713 individuals was estimated from a survey of the Jovel sub-basin (an area of 2000 km<sup>2</sup>).  This was extrapolated to give a population estimate of approximately 40,000 individuals in the available habitat within the valley of San Cristobal.  However, in 2004, Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto estimated its population at about, or slightly more than, 8000 individuals.	eng
169366	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. hildebrandi</em> is likely to be threatened by introduced species.  Four introduced species are present within the range of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, and sport fishermen observed that the introduction of the largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>) in Lake Chapultepec coincided with the disappearance of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, where it had once been abundant (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Most springs within the basin are water sources used for human consumption and irrigation.  Water destined for households is often chlorinated directly in the springs, and dead pupfish have sometimes been observed associated with this practice (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Several dams have been built within this species habitat, which fragments populations, with unknown genetic and demographic consequences.   Periodic removal of sediment also occurs; a process that takes away most water plants.  The elimination of water plants removes important spawning sites for <em>P. hildebrandi</em>, and a potential food source, as it removes plant-associated prey (Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto 2004).<br/><br/>Velázquez-Velázquez and Schmitter-Soto (2004) estimate that this species' habitat has declined by 70% in the last 50 years, due to the draining of Lake Maria Eugenia, and sewage pollution in 60% of water areas in the sub-basin of Jovel.  They also predict that if the rate of urban growth and the associated impact on the hydrology of the basin continues, a further 50% of <em>P. hildebrandi</em>'s remaining habitat could be destroyed within the next decade.	eng
169367	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	SEDESO (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social) listed the species as rare (Miller 2005).	eng
169367	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This restricted species is found in Mexico; in the basin of upper Rio Grijalva (Rio Grande de Chiapas), Chiapas.  This river is severely fragmented because of damming.	eng
169367	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>V. hartwegi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits flowing streams and rivers as well as lakes, over rocks, sand, silt or mud.  Vegetation is usually sparse, or absent.  Young and juveniles congregate in backwaters (Miller 2005).	eng
169367	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Was previously a common species.	eng
169367	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	A series of dams have been built within the distribution of this species in the last 10 years. Apart from the dramatic habitat alteration caused by this (replacing rivers - the habitat of this species - with lakes, that are unsuitable for this species) and the resultant severe fragmentation of populations, it has drawn humans to the area and also increased pollution into the river system. Tilapia has also been present in the lakes since the 1970s or maybe early 1980s (though it does not do as well in the small rivers, where this species may more frequently be found).	eng
169368	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169368	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is only known from Provinz Bocas del Toro, Panama (Systax 2006).  It is restricted and likely to have a small Extent Of Occurrence, but it also has many locations because of all the numerous tributaries in which it can be found.	eng
169368	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>R. wassmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169368	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169368	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The area in which this species lives is still relatively pristine with large areas of suitable habitat remaining.	eng
169369	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169369	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs on the Atlantic Slope of Mexico, in the basins of Rios Tamesi and Panuco, (including a tributary to Laguna Tamiahua), (Miller 2005).	eng
169369	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This is a benthopelagic species that inhabits clear waters of spring-fed streams, ditches, canals and rivers.  Typically found in currents that may be slight to moderate but occasionally strong (Miller 2005).	eng
169369	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169369	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is resilient and unlikely to be significantly affected by the parasite <em>Bothriocephalus acheilognathi</em>, which was introduced in 1934 with the herbivorous carp <em>Ctenopharyngodon idellus</em>.  No other threats are known.	eng
169370	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measure currently in place.	eng
169370	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in the Pacific and Caribbean river drainage of eastern Panama.  Panama covers a total area of 78,200 km², and therefore it is suspected that <em>A. spinosus</em> has an Extent of Occurrence of less than 39,100 km².  In the eastern part of its range around Darien, it is inaccessible, pristine, and not surveyed. It may therefore also occur in Colombia.	eng
169370	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. spinosus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169370	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169370	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The largest threats to <em>A. spinosus</em> are habitat degradation and water pollution.  Soil erosion and deforestation are among Panama's most significant environmental concerns.  Soil erosion is occurring at a rate of 2,000 tons per year.  The nation's fish resources are threatened by water pollution.  Pesticides, sewage, and pollution from the oil industry cause much of the pollution, and as a result only 79% of rural dwellers have pure drinking water.  Water pollution in the Panama Province, in eastern Panama, in particular is approaching intolerable levels (Encyclopaedia of the Nations 2006).	eng
169371	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169371	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in Cuba in the provinces of La Habana, Pinar del Rio and Isla de la Juventud.  The river basins of these provinces cover an area of 33,865 km².	eng
169371	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>R. cylindraceus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory fish, that inhabits upland streams, rivers and lakes with clear and abundant vegetation.  The eggs of this species is able to resist partial desiccation (Koldenkova and Garcia Avila 1994).	eng
169371	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169371	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169372	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species range lies within a Ramsar Site; Humedales del Lago de Pátzcuaro but no specific management actions for this species are in operation, or have been suggested.	eng
169372	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in Mexico, where it is endemic to the endorheic Lago de Patzcuaro in Zirahuen, Michoacan.	eng
169372	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. diazi</em> is a demersal species, except when feeding.  It lives in and near dense beds of vegetation near shore, in lakes, spring-fed creeks and ponds.  It is generally found in clear to muddy water, over substrates of mud, sand, rocks and plants, with abundant vegetation.  This is a viviparous fish, in which gestation lasts for about 55 days.  Between 10 to 50 young are produced.	eng
169372	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169372	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Main causes of threat to this fish are pollution and urban development in the area.  Large-mouthed bass (<em>Micropterus</em> spp.) and carp and water hyacinth impacting upon habitat. Lake currently used for fishing, and by local communities for subsistence.  Threat in the future of expanding tourism and population surrounding the lake.  Invasive species were introduced in 1970s.	eng
169373	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169373	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant between the Patuca River in Honduras, through Nicaragua, to the San Juan and Tortuguero rivers in northern Costa Rica.  It has also been recorded from Lake Managua (Miller and Carr 1974).	eng
169373	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>H. tortuguerae</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits backwaters and creeks, between elevations of 0-50 m, with a low or moderate current.  Although the type material was taken from an estuary, this species is essentially riverine (Miller and Carr 1974).	eng
169373	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169373	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no known major threats to the rivers of the Atlantic versant of Nicaragua, where the majority of <em>H. tortuguerae</em>'s range lies.	eng
169374	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Ria Lagartos is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.  It is a well-protected and well-funded conservation area.	eng
169374	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known only from its type locality at the west end of Ria Lagartos, along the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.  The reserve in which it is found is well surveyed, but this is a brackish species, so other coastal localities should be surveyed.  Its rarity may be hindering any estimation of its full extent of occurrence.	eng
169374	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>F. persimilis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits estuaries, in brackish to salt water, over substrates varying from hard mud to soft marl and shell sand.  It was collected from a tidal channel that had a mangrove border but almost no vegetation was present.  Little is known about this species' biology (Miller 2005).	eng
169374	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species appears to be rare (Miller, 2005).	eng
169374	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are currently known and further research is needed to identify if any exist.	eng
169375	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
169375	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in the Dominican Republic.	eng
169375	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. gilberti</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169375	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169375	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169376	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. There are a few small marine protected areas present within this species' restricted range (WDPA 2006).	eng
169376	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in Central America from Costa Rica to Panama. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km²	eng
169376	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a benthopelagic species that forms large schools among mangroves in estuaries and brackish river mouths; it is also abundant in salt pans (Allen and Robertson 1994). This species is often found in turbid, shallow surface waters. It is found no deeper than 2 m. It ingests ooze and detritus (Bussing 1998) and the diet includes zooplankton and insects. It tolerates hypersaline, brackish and freshwater environments.	eng
169376	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	It is considered uncommon in its range.	eng
169376	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is threatened by coastal development and loss of mangrove habitat within its restricted range. It is estimated that at least 28% of mangrove area has been lost within this species range over the past 15 to 20 years (FAO 2007). As of the year 2000, there was only approximately 2,200 km² of mangrove habitat in Costa Rica and Panama (including both Atlantica and Pacific coasts) (FAO 2007).	eng
169377	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169377	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in the Pacific versant rivers of Panama, Colombia and northern Ecuador.	eng
169377	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>R. occidentalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.  Species from the genus <em>Roeboides</em> generally prefer to live among water plants rather than in the open water of the rivers (Heckman 1998).	eng
169377	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169377	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169378	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
169378	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found on the Atlantic Slope of Mexico; in the Rio Tonala basin in Veracruz; eastward into the Sibun River basin, Belize, and into Honduras and Guatemala.	eng
169378	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. friedrichsthalii</em> is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits rivers, lowland streams, lakes, lagoons and swamps.  It prefers the slow moving, sluggish waters, with clear to murky or muddy water, and is normally found in depths of 1.0-1.5 m, generally no deeper than 2.0 m.  It is a carnivorous fish, that feeds on fishes and insects, and reproduces from April to August.	eng
169378	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	A fairly common species, although local invasive species could be a problem in some areas and its global population is decreasing.	eng
169378	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is being threatened by the aggressive, introduced species, <em>Parachromis managuensis</em>.  Many hybrids occur near the mouth of the Rio Usumacinta (Miller 2005).  The threat is however, only local and is not greatly impacting the total population.  <br/><br/><em>P. friedrichsthalii</em> is of economic importance as a food fish and is caught daily and sold in local markets, (Miller 2005), however there is no available catch data to be able to determine the extent of this harvesting and the impact it may have on populations.	eng
169379	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Large Global Environmental Facility Mesoamerican Corridor programme.  Connecting network of Protected Areas, including in the range of this species.	eng
169379	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in the Atlantic (or interior) drainage of extreme northwestern Guatemala and the Rio Grande de Comitan basin and headwaters of the Rio Grande de Chiapa in Chiapas, Mexico (Miller 1966).  These river basins cover an area of approximately 21,625 km².	eng
169379	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. candalarius</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits streams, springs and lakes, seeking undercut banks in rather deep (up to 1.7 m) water that is clear to turbid over substrates of marl, mud, gravel, sand, rock and occasionally boulder.  It is generally found in areas where currents moderate to none (Miller 2005).	eng
169379	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169379	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Over the past 20 years, the population of rural Chiapas has grown by 4% a year, and this has put tremendous pressure on the region's natural resources.  In the highlands forests have suffered from timber extraction, charcoal burning and overgrazing. In the lowlands large areas of tropical forest have been cleared to make way for cattle pasture.  The conversion of lands to arable land and over-grazing has resulted in soil erosion, which has increased sediment in rivers and streams.  The threats are probably much higher on the Mexican side.  Large areas of habitat may remain in Guatemala.	eng
169380	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	More than 80% of the Sixaola River basin is either a natural protected area or an indigenous reserve, yet this system faces several threats originating mainly from the lack of bi-national coordination in establishing the management plans for the bi-national area.  A Global Environment Facility project, titled Integrated Ecosystem Management of the Binational Sixaola River Basin, is also in place.  The project's overall objectives are to protect biodiversity of linked upstream and downstream ecosystems of global significance (International Waters Learning Exchange and Resource Network 2004).	eng
169380	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in the Sixaola River basin, on the Atlantic slope of Costa Rica.  The river basin covers an area of 2,872 km².	eng
169380	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. rhytisma</em> is a benthopelagic fish that prefers moderate to fast flowing rivers between 40 and 60 m elevation.	eng
169380	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169380	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats acting on its distribution range which runs on subsistence farming and small-scale cash crop operations.  Many of the rivers, including tributaries, are intact and likely to remain that way.  There are no industrial or urban centres nearby.	eng
169381	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Research into the effect of basin drainage on the population for 90 years revealed high levels of species degradation, but further action is still  required to halt this rate of decline.	eng
169381	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>C. arge</em> is a restricted species, endemic to an area of the Lerma River basin, Mexico.	eng
169381	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>C. arge</em> is a benthopelagic fish, that is generally found in depths of at least 1.5 m, over boulders, rocks, gravel, sand and mud.<br/><br/><em>Chirostoma</em> spp. are sensitive to environmental change. Recent surveys indicate range extirpations and fragmentation due to pollution from urban centres. Restricted to springs, eliminated from lots of rivers and stretches of rivers.	eng
169381	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	From the data obtained in a study by Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. (1999), it can be estimated that habitat quality in the Rio Lerma drainage declined by 50% over the period 1975 - 1993.	eng
169381	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	It is highly likely that <em>C. arge</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  A study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The study analysed fish records from 116 study sites in the basin over the period 1885-1975.  By 1985-93 over half the study sites had disappeared or become so polluted that they could no longer support fishes.  Forty percent of the native fishes in the basin suffered major declines in distribution.	eng
169382	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Basic research actions are needed into the species life histories: biology, habitat status and population range.  Currently, being know from one location only that is under threat from invasive species, the establishment and maintenance of protected areas are required for the survival of this species.	eng
169382	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Apoyo on the Atlantic slope of Nicaragua.  Lake Apoyo covers an area of 21.2 km².	eng
169382	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. zaliosus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169382	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169382	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The significant presence of an introduced species, the Nile tilapia (<em>O. niloticus</em>), in Lake Apoyo from early 1990s, is posing a threat to native species of the lake, by occupying sites that some of the native species have been using for reproduction and food.  In addition, there are increasing incidences of parasites among many of the fish in Lake Apoyo.  Researchers suspect that tilapia is the vector for the parasite (Canonico <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
169383	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169383	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Mexico but has a sizeable distribution.  It is found in the upper part of the Rios Coatzacoalcos and Papaloapan basins (Rio de la Lana).	eng
169383	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. intermedia</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits pools of clear, well-shaded streams and river margins in slight to moderate currents; with substrates of mud, sand, rock, leaves and fallen branches.  It is generally found in loose aggregations in eddying currents or rapids, and sometimes leaps up out of the water to capture flying insects.  Young occur in large numbers in the crevices of rocks along the banks, out of the current.  After about 28 days gestation, only 5 to 20 young are born.  This species is a live bearer, and has a high survival of young.	eng
169383	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	An abundant species found throughout its range.	eng
169383	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Logging and deforestation in basin, but not likely affecting this prolific species.	eng
169384	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
169384	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is only known from its type locality; Punta Pena, in western Panama.	eng
169384	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>R. kuelpmanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory and non-seasonal killifish.	eng
169384	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.	eng
169384	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Intact habitat around Bocas del Torre. Not protected but habitat is needed for large tourism industry.	eng
169385	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169385	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found on the Pacific Slope of Mexico, near Mazatlan, Sinaloa, southward at least into the Rio Choluteca basin in Honduras.	eng
169385	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. multipunctatum</em> is a demersal species that is found in and near rocky, boulder riffles of coastal streams in both uplands and lowlands, in clear, swift water.  It is a diadromous fish in which all but the larval life-stage is spent in freshwater.  Post larvae migrate from salt into fresh water (Miller 2005).	eng
169385	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169385	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169386	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place.	eng
169386	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is distributed from the Atlantic slope of southern Mexico; Rio Coatzacoalcos eastward into the Rio Usumacinta basin, and into northern Guatemala (Miller 2005).	eng
169386	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>E. mexicanus</em> is a demersal species that inhabits arroyos and rivers of moderate to slight currents that are fairly clear to turbid.  Generally no vegetation, or green algae present, with substrates of sand, silt, clay, mud and gravel (Miller 2005).	eng
169386	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169386	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The ecological and hydrological integrity of the Rio Usumacinta basin, which is 106,000 km², faces numerous threats from deforestation, hydroelectric development and mineral exploitation (Hamann and Ankersen 2006).	eng
169387	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The biology and ecology of the species is currently under research, but further actions are required in the recovery and management of its habitat.	eng
169387	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found only in Lago de Chapala and a small stretch of Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake (a waterfall blocks further dispersal) in Mexico.	eng
169387	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>C. promelas</em> is a benthopelagic species that favours open, quiet waters of lakes and sluggish outlets.	eng
169387	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is reported to have very low population densities across its range (Barriga-Sosa <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
169387	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Over many years Lake Chapala has suffered severe water loss; about three-quarters of its volume.  During the past 30 years, the population of Guadalajara, near Lake Chapala, has increased from one to approximately five million. Consequently the demand of water from Lake Chapala has increased enormously.  This will have the affect of reducing the area available for <em>C. promelas</em> to inhabit.  The small amount of water entering the lake is highly polluted by untreated waste water from households, industrial sewage and fertilizers from agriculture (Global Nature Fund 2002).  Lake Chapala is dying because of all the threats acting on it (Miller 2005).	eng
169388	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169388	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known from the harbour of the city of Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico, south to at least Brus Lagoon, Honduras.  In Belize, this species is found in the mangrove channels near St Johns College at Belize City, at Gales Point on Southern Lagoon, in the Manatee River and in the Sibun River 0.8 km upriver from Freetown (Greenfield and Thomerson 1997).	eng
169388	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>G. yucatanum</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers, estuaries and inland lagoons (Greenfield and Thomerson 1997).	eng
169388	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	In a study of the goby fauna of Belize and Honduras, <em>G. yucatanum</em> was found to be the 12th most abundant species, out of 55, and was found in large numbers within its habitat (Greenfield and Johnson, 1999).	eng
169388	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169389	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place.	eng
169389	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in Mexico on the Atlantic Slope.  It is only known from above a 105 m waterfall, in the Rio Gallinas drainage. The basin has been well surveyed and the species appears to only be restricted to one (possibly two) tributaries.	eng
169389	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>D. catostomops</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rocky riffles and ends of long pools in moderate-sized streams.  It is generally found in clear water, in depths to at least 0.7m deep over rock, marl, sand and silt (Miller 2005).	eng
169389	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169389	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The Rio Gallinas is currently impacted by heavy pollution from sugar mills (Danko 1993).  However the tributaries in which this species occurs are intact and not affected by the sugar mills.	eng
169390	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation actions in place, although further research is needed into the species life history and threats.	eng
169390	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known from Panama, only west of Panama canal.  This range description has been based on the fact that its (undetailed) type locality is there.	eng
169390	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>B. roswithae</em> is a pelagic, non-migratory species that inhabits small rivers.  Adults are generally found in schools.	eng
169390	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There is little information available on this species, including its current global population trend, which remains unknown until further studies.	eng
169390	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The largest threats to <em>B. roswithae</em> are habitat degradation and water pollution.  Soil erosion and deforestation are among Panama's most significant environmental concerns.  Soil erosion is occurring at a rate of 2,000 tons per year.  The nation's fish resources are threatened by water pollution.  Pesticides, sewage, and pollution from the oil industry cause much of the pollution, and as a result only 79% of rural dwellers have pure drinking water (Encyclopaedia of the Nations 2006).	eng
169391	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although they are needed as the habitat degradation caused by draining of the basin has resulted in the 40% decline of native fishes.	eng
169391	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to the Lerma River basin, Mexico, but only occurs in two lakes, Lagos de Patzcuaro and Zirahuen.	eng
169391	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>C. attenuatum</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169391	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	From the data obtained in a study by Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. (1999) it can be estimated that habitat quality in the Rio Lerma drainage declined by 50% over the period 1975 - 1993.	eng
169391	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	It is highly likely that <em>C. attenuatum</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  A study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).  The study analysed fish records from 116 study sites in the basin over the period 1885-1975.  By 1985-93 over half the study sites had disappeared or become so polluted that they could no longer support fishes.  Forty percent of the native fishes in the basin suffered major declines in distribution.<br/><br/><em>Chirostoma</em> spp. are particularly susceptible to environmental change. It is also heavily fished for human consumption. Some evidence that average size has decreased and population has declined. In 1985 total annual catch was 523 tons and in 2003 it had decreased to 14 tons, likely with the same fishing effort (Carillo 2006).	eng
169392	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place, however action is needed to help preserve the population under threat from invasive species.	eng
169392	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in Lake Jiloá, on Chiltepe Peninsula, Managua, Nicaragua.  Lake Jiloá covers an area of 3.8 km².	eng
169392	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. jiloaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169392	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169392	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The Nile tilapia is a threatening invasive species.  Although not a closely related species, it may be a vector for the transmission of generalised parasites / pathogens.  It also may be a competitor or affect the water quality.  It is possible that <em>A. jiloaensis</em> is threatened by a decline in habitat quality.  Biological contamination is threatening Lake Jiloá, and the quality of the water in the lake is so poor it is not recommended for human consumption (US Army Corps of Engineers 2001).	eng
169393	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs within at least one protected area, although further recovery plans are needed for the habitat and therefore species.	eng
169393	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in Lake Petén Itza, on the Atlantic slope of Guatemala.  Lake Petén Itza has a surface area of approximately 100 km².	eng
169393	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. margaritifer</em> is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
169393	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169393	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	It is likely that <em>A. margaritifer</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  Recent forest loss (most likely due to dramatic increases in the urban population surrounding Lake Petén Itzá) has increased surface run-off and accelerated soil erosion around the lake. Nitrogen and phosphorus inputs from eroded soils, human and livestock wastes, and fertilizers have probably contributed to eutrophication of the lake.  Eutrophication is presently limited to one part of the lake, but as the population in the Petén Itzá watershed continues to increase, nutrient enrichment will likely be detected in other areas of the lake (Rosenmeier <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
169394	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
169394	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in Mexico, in the Rio Purificacion basin, southwest of Autlan, Jalisco. Surrounding basins have been surveyed and so this species appears genuinely restricted.	eng
169394	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. turneri</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits small, generally well-shaded, usually clear streams, in and near pools with fallen tree trunks and similar protective cover.  The currents are generally slight to moderate, with substrates of sand, silt, mud, rock, leaves, brush.  The maximum known brood size is four and young evidently appear at short intervals of two weeks or less.  Reproduction is thought to occur between February and April (Miller 2005).	eng
169394	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.	eng
169394	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Threats unknown. May be threatened by pollution, though not fishing (very small species). Sugar mills may be in its distribution.  This species may have been impacted although it is unlikely to be severely threatened.	eng
169395	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is being maintained in captivity by aquarists in North America and Europe (Miller 2005).  It has been recommended that breeding programmes are implemented so the species can be re-introduced into the original, larger pools previously inhabited by this species.	eng
169395	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known only from Rio Teuchitlan of the Rio Ameca drainage, in Mexico.  It was re-discovered in 2003 in a very small lake.	eng
169395	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>Z. tequila</em> is a benthopelagic fish that generally inhabits rivers, but now appears to only exist in one small pond.  The type locality was at an elevation of 1311 m, where specimens were usually caught in the quiet part of the river, at a depth of less than 1 m.  The substrate, of mud and silt, was nearly continuously stirred by domestic livestock (Miller 2005).  The only known extant population inhabits a spring pool, 4m in diameter with an average depth of 20 cm (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Little is known of its biology in the wild.  In aquaria, sexual maturity can be reached within six to ten weeks.  Broods are known to number as man as 20-29 offspring, but females in their first year of reproduction have fewer than ten (Miller 2005).	eng
169395	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Collection efforts since 1992 were unsuccessful, and it was thought that this species may be extinct in the wild (Miller, 2005), however, an extremely small population of <em>Z. tequila</em> was found in 2000-2001 in a very small pond.  This population is composed of less than 500 individuals of all ages.  Less than 50 individuals are adults (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
169395	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<p>Several exotic species have been introduced near the type locality resulting in declines in native fishes (Miller 2005). A study revealed that densities of Goodeid species were lower, or were absent, in localities in the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Teuchitlan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>, where introduced species were abundant of where there were more than one introduced species (De La Vega-Salazar <em>et al</em><em>.)</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>During recent years, the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Teuchitlan</st1:placename>  <st1:placetype w:st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> has been degraded after a dam was built. It has been suggested that habitat degradation may be the reason why the extant endemic goodeids are now confined to a small area at the headwaters of the river. Once confined to the springs, the populations of these fish have been fragmented as a consequence of the springs being turned into spas, which prevents the movement of fish between pools (De La Vega-Salazar et al</em><em>. 2003a).</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>A compounding threat is the intensive collection of this species by specialized aquarium hobbyists and academics (De La Vega-Salazar et al</em><em>. 2003b).</em><em><br/> <br/> </em><em>The pool in which this species was re-discovered is threatened by pollution and water extraction.</em></p>	eng
169396	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>L. spadicea</em> is listed as endangered by SEDESOL (Miller 2005).	eng
169396	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This severely restricted species occurs only in Lago de Chapala, Mexico and a small stretch of Rio Grande de Santiago exiting the lake (a waterfall blocks further dispersal).  Historically, <em>L. spadicea</em> was found in the Rio Zula, Rio Duero, Lago de Cuitzeo and Rio Grande de Morelia.	eng
169396	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>L. spadicea</em> is a parasitic, demersal species that inhabits streams, rivers and lakes over substrates of firm mud, silt and rock.  It spawns from December to January.  It is assumed that <em>L. spadicea</em> has a similar generation length to <em>L. minima</em>, which is 3.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2006).	eng
169396	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Habitat modification and degradation of water quality have severely reduced <em>L. spadicea</em>'s distribution and abundance (Miller 2005).	eng
169396	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Lake Chapala and the surrounding rivers are suffering from severe habitat degradation.  This has been caused by defective administration of the water resource combined with the economic activity and population along its river basin.  This region is now one of the most eroded areas of the country (Living Lakes, 2005).  <br/><br/>Eleven major dams upstream of the Lerma River were constructed in order to divert water for industry, drinking water and irrigation.  In the 1970s Lake Chapala had a volume of 8.1 billion m<sup>3</sup>.  The current volume is 1.3 billion m³ (Living Lakes 2005), therefore Lake Chapala's volume has reduced by 84% in approximately 35 years.  81% of the Lake Chapala catchment area is used for agriculture and the portion of irrigated areas quintupled in the last 50 years (Living Lakes 2005).  <br/><br/>The water running into Lake Chapala through the river is highly polluted with heavy metals and other toxic substances as a result of insufficient waste water treatment.  Contamination of the water that supplies the lake has reached alarming levels, to the degree of causing toxicological mutations in some of the fish species that until now have survived in the vast lake.  Among the problems are the high levels of phosphorus (80 times higher than is permitted by the international standards), infestation of algae, presence of heavy metals (cyanide chromium, leads and mercury) and infestation of aquatic weeds (eutrophication). There is also a great concentration of organic residues from industrial waste products of the leather industry and the drainage of the cities in the basin (Living Lakes 2005)	eng
169397	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
169397	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs on the Atlantic slope of northern Mexico.  It is restricted to the montane portions (headwaters of tributaries) of the Rio Gallinas drainage; a tributary to Rio Santa Maria (Rio Panuco basin), above Cascada de Tamul.	eng
169397	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits montane rivers with well-developed riffles and long pools of clear, hard water, with depths to 2.0 m.	eng
169397	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population size and trend is currently unknown.	eng
169397	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The Rio Gallinas is currently impacted by heavy pollution from sugar mills (Danko 1993).  However, the sugar mills are on main river stretch, not on the two tributaries this species occurs in which are still intact.	eng
169398	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measure currently in place.	eng
169398	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is found in the Lake Izabal basin, Guatemala, which covers an area of 6,860 km².	eng
169398	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. spinosissimus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits rivers.	eng
169398	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169398	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
169399	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
169399	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>G. atripinnis</em> is endemic to Lerma-Santiago River basin in Mexico.	eng
169399	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	A demersal species.	eng
169399	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
169399	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Part of this species range is threatened by habitat degradation; a study of the Rio Lerma drainage concluded that the basin has experienced a staggering amount of degradation during the 20th century (Soto Galera <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
169400	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Lac Azuei is a Nature Reserve, however, it appears to exist only on paper. There is no personnel and no infrastructure.  Lago Enriquillo has become the first Dominican Ramsar Site and comprises one of the cores of ENRIQUILLO – BAHORUCO – JARAGUA Biosphere Reserve.  Lago Enriquillo has been a national park since 1996 and a body of 20 park rangers now regularly survey the lake and its shores (Schubert 2006). <br/><br/>The watershed of the two lakes was chosen for the first attempt between Dominican and Haitian governments to work closely together in order to improve the environmental situation. The project, the Transboundary Environmental Program (PMT), has a team composed of Haitian and Dominican professionals. It is financially supported from the European Union and the two governments involved. The program PMT intends to establish wise use practices in both lakes and their corresponding watersheds (Schubert 2006).	eng
169400	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species' native range is Lac Azuei in Haiti (111.6 km²) and Lago Enriquillo (259.5 km²) in the Dominican Republic.  <br/><br/>It has been distributed around the world by the aquarium fish trade, but has so far only been recorded only in the Northern Territory, Australia.  It was apparently introduced to billabongs and streams in the vicinity of Alice Springs in the 1940s and 50s for the purpose of mosquito control (Duguid <em>et al.</em> 2002, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2002), but is not yet established (Bomford and Glover 2004).	eng
169400	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>G. dominicensis</em> is a benthopelagic, viviparous species, that can inhabit lakes, streams and billabongs.	eng
169400	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is decreasing, although detailed numbers are lacking.	eng
169400	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are several threats to the species' native habitat.  Urban growth in Fonds Parisien at the southern shore of Lac Azuei causes increased levels of eutrophication, visible through increased growth of algae. At Lago Enriquillo this problem is not as obvious, since all surrounding communities are more than three kilometers away from the lake shore and domestic and agricultural waste water is filtered by cattails and other vegetation. Solid waste is a great problem for both lakes, as winds blow plastics into the lakes and the surrounding communities dump rubbish into dry river beds, which gets washed into the lakes during rainy periods (Schubert 2006). <br/><br/>Lago Enriquillo's level and water conditions depend heavily on the Río Yaque del Sur. The majority of the Yaque water is diverted towards the Azua coastal plain, where it is used for irrigation.  Many times the canals that drain Yaque water toward Lago Enriquillo are filled with sediment.  In years with low rainfall Lago Enriquillo's water level drops within a short time, exposing large areas of its lake bed.  The diversion of irrigation water from Yaque del Sur is a threat to the existence of the lake.  During the last 20 years the lake has lost about two thirds of its volume (Schubert 2006).	eng
169403	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169403	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru excluded).	eng
169403	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>D. fasciolatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers, rarely in lakes (Eccles 1992) and feeds on plants (Riehl and Baensch 1996).	eng
169403	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169403	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
169404	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169404	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Wouri River in western Cameroon, southward to the Rio Benito drainage system in western Equatorial Guinea.	eng
169404	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. ahli</em> occurs in swamps and quiet parts of brook under forest cover in the coastal lowlands (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986). It also inhabits flood pools in the coastal rain forest and is usually found in shallow water. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
169404	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169404	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169405	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169405	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, presently only known from its type locality, Nguba II in Equatorial Guinea. It probably also occurs in other small westward flowing rivers of western Equatorial Guinea.	eng
169405	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>F. avichang</em>&#160; is rainforest associated, found in swampy parts of brooks, usually in the shallows. It is a pelagic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax avichang</span> lives in small temporary pools (Malumbres and Castelo 2001).	eng
169405	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169405	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169406	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.	eng
169406	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. lufirae</em> is only known from the types from the Luifra River and effluents, Upper Congo River basin.	eng
169406	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169406	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169406	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169407	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
169407	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
169407	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed into this species population numbers and range, and threats it is facing, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation is also required.	eng
169407	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lower Guinea, <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is known from the Lokoundjé and Lobe River basins in Cameroon, Douigni River in Gabon, and Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere it is known from the Bandama River in the Ivory Coast. <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is often found in the same habitat as <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> and, like <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em>, it seems evasive and difficult to catch, and may be more widely distributed than is presently documented.	eng
169407	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> in western Africa, is known from the River Bandama (and Me river) in Côte d’Ivoire. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it occurs in the River Lokunje in Cameroon and in the basin of the Kouilou in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
169407	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire, and Cameroon, Congo and Gabon. <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is often found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span> and, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span>, it seems evasive and difficult to catch, and may be more widely distributed than is presently documented.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is known from the Lokoundjé and Lobe River basins in Cameroon, Douigni River in Gabon, and Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa: </span>It is present in the River Bandama (and Me river) in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
169407	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is found around rocks in fast-flowing freshwaters. <em>Parasicydium bandama</em> is often found in the same habitat as <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em>, which is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. It is benthopelagic species.	eng
169407	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a benthopelagic fish from freshwater.	eng
169407	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found around rocks in fast-flowing freshwaters. <span style="font-style: italic;">Parasicydium bandama</span> is often found in the same habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sicydium crenilabrum</span>, which is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. It is benthopelagic species.	eng
169407	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169407	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
169407	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
169407	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is evidence of continuing decline in quality of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon due to widespread farming activities. However, the sub-population in the Congo Republic is not thought to be subject to the same farming pressures.	eng
169407	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is evidence of continuing decline in quality of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon due to widespread farming activities. However, the sub-population in the Congo Republic is not thought to be subject to the same farming pressures.	eng
169407	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
169408	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
169408	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Regional red listing for West Africa is Least Concern.	eng
169408	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. a. annectens</em> is found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo; this subspecies is found in, but not limited to, the Volta, Chad, Bandama and Comoé basins, and temporary tributaries of Chari River.<br/> <br/><em>P. a. brieni</em> is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe; this sub-species is distributed throughout the upper Congo River (Luapula), middle and lower Zambezi basin and all east coast rivers south to the Limpopo River, the upper Cubango and Okavango system and Lake Rukwa. This subspecies has also been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Ref. 7248).	eng
169408	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Tana River (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished), Malagarazi delta and Rukwa Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo, Zambezi and Okavango River Basins.	eng
169408	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. annectens</em> is a demersal and potamodromous (migrates within fresh water only) species, found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes. It normally lives on flood plains, and when these dry up it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a cocoon.	eng
169408	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes (Dankwa <em>et al. 1999). Carnivorous, feeding on molluscs (Dankwa <em>et al. 1999), frogs, fish and seeds (Reed 1967). It normally lives on flood plains and when these dry up, during the dry season, it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a fragile cocoon. It can exist in this state for over a year, although normally it hibernates only from the end of one wet season to the start of the next (Holden and Reed 1972).</em></em>	eng
169408	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169408	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Not known, but rare in catches compared to P. aethiopicus.	eng
169408	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are minor commercial fisheries, collection for the aquarium trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003) and loss of wetlands due to agricultural expansion.	eng
169408	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169409	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169409	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from Kisangani. It has been recorded from the Bangui fish market in the Central African Republic. The species is probably more widespread than currently known.	eng
169409	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>M. traversi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169409	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169409	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169410	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
169410	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>C. mabusi</em> is known from the Congo-Lualaba system upstream the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is also found in Luongo River, Congo River system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983). It is also known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
169410	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>C. mabusi</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169410	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169410	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
169411	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Areas of this species' range lie within protected areas.  Both Birougou and Waka National Park protect areas of the Du Chaillu Massif.	eng
169411	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the western slopes of the Du Chaillu-Massif, in the Ngounie River system, southern central Gabon.	eng
169411	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and occurs in fast flowing brooks and small streams in mountainous rainforest.	eng
169411	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169411	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is collected for the commercial aquarium trade.	eng
169412	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Part of the Dja river forms the boundary of the Dja Faunal Reserve, (IUCN category IV).	eng
169412	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known from the Dja River, Cameroon.	eng
169412	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>E. dybowkii</em>is a demersal, oviparous species, in which distinct pairing occurs during breeding.	eng
169412	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169412	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.  The Dja River lies within a region that forms a part of one of the world's last remaining tropical forest wildernesses (Mittermeier <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
169413	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
169413	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species occurs in the Luongo River, in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.  It is known only from the headwaters of the Luongo river (Snoeks, pers. comm.).	eng
169413	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>K. paucisquamata</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169413	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169413	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species.	eng
169414	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.	eng
169414	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from the Luapula River system. in the Democratic Republic of Congo.  There are two lots identified as <em>B. luapulae</em> in the South African Institute of Aquatic Biology, from the Zambian part of the Luapula catchment area, but its identification needs to be verified (Snoeks, pers. comm.).	eng
169414	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. luapulae</em> is a benthopelagic species, that has been recorded from rivers and lakes throughout its distribution.	eng
169414	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169414	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets may affect this species.	eng
169415	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Part of this species range falls within the Ivindo National Park (IUCN Category II).	eng
169415	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo River drainage system, between Koumameyong and Bélinga in northern Gabon. The Ivindo river drains an area of 11,770 km².	eng
169415	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. georgiae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that inhabits small, mostly swampy brooks in the rainforest.	eng
169415	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169415	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is collected for the commercial aquarium trade. However it is distributed within an area which is virtually uninhabited and where there is very little disturbance (WWF 2006).	eng
169416	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Salanka National Park.	eng
169416	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>N. symoensi</em> is known from the Luapula system.	eng
169416	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>N. symoensi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in temporary pools and river drainages (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986). This species is a bottom spawner with four months incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
169416	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169416	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Fishing with poison, and commercial insecticides are both causing a deterioration of the species habitat.	eng
169417	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169417	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Laboebarbus surkis</span> has been reported from Lake Tana and Didessa River, Ethiopia.	eng
169417	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>B. surkis</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, generally in water of no more than 3 m depth.  It is a macrophytivore; specimens smaller than 15 cm feed mainly on zooplankton and insect larvae, macrophytes increase in importance with size and finally make up most of the diet.	eng
169417	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	The population of the species is not exactly known. However, it is a rare species in Lake Tana.	eng
169417	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	Overexploitation is the major threat facing the species in Lake Tana. There are also a number of threats facing Lake Tana including silt load, pollution, drainage, water level fluctuation and over-exploitation of specific fish species.  There are also threats to the surrounding area of the lake, in the form of deforestation, population pressure and degradation (FAO 2004).  In addition to these threats that <em>B. surkis</em> is already facing, its vulnerability to any introduced species should be noted; <em>B. surkis</em> is one of 18 species of barbus fish that have evolved in Lake Tana, the only extended cyprinid species flock in Africa and the only intact flock in the world.  The only other known flock, in Lake Lanao, in the Philippines, was decimated by introduced species (Lakenet 2004).	eng
169418	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The Malagarasi-Muyovozi Wetlands is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.	eng
169418	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is only known from two localities in the Malagarasi River basin, Tanzania; from the delta and in the river a few kilometres upstream from Ilgala.  The river basins in which <em>N. devosi</em> occurs, cover an area of 7,037 km².	eng
169418	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>N. devosi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169418	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.	eng
169418	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There is a great number of threatened species within the Malagarasi River system.  Major threats to species include loss of habitat due to agricultural encroachment into wetland areas and the eutrophication and sedimentation of the riverine habitat (Darwall <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
169419	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169419	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>M. macrops</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from east of the Congo mainstream. Ongoing studies indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myomyrus macrodon</span> is restricted to the Lower Congo region (Staissny and Sullivan, in prep.).	eng
169419	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>M. macrops</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169419	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169419	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169420	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
169420	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
169420	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Gambia and Senegal rivers in Gambia and Senegal and in the Niger River drainage system in Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria. Also present in the coastal areas of Senegal, Gambia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, Benin and Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin in Chad, Northeastern Nigeria, northern Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Weedy parts of rivers, swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the Guinean and Sudanese savannah, and coastal lagoons. Has a large distribution between Senegal in western Africa and Sudan in eastern Africa.	eng
169420	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from weedy parts of rivers, swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the Guinean and Sudanese savannah, and coastal lagoons. It has a large distribution between Senegal in western Africa and Sudan in northeastern Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeast Africa:</span> It is present in Bahr el jebel, White Nile Basin.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> It is found in the Gambia and Senegal rivers in Gambia and Senegal and in the Niger River drainage system in Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria. It is also present in the coastal areas of Senegal, Gambia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, and the Lake Chad basin in Chad, northeastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.	eng
169420	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>E. bifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the savannah, weedy parts of rivers and swamps in coastal areas.  It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles.	eng
169420	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Occurs in swamps, small brooks and rivulets in the savannah, weedy parts of rivers and swamps in coastal areas (Romand 1992). Browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. Not a seasonal killifish, non-migratory.	eng
169420	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169420	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
169420	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
169420	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169421	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169421	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax brevis</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and Upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kasai River basin and in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
169421	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>N. brevis</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169421	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169421	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169422	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169422	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocephalus squalostoma</span> is known from the type locality, Lukinda basin, tributary of Lake Mweru and from Kafushia, Wiswila River, Luapula River system.	eng
169422	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. squalostoma</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169422	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169422	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169423	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169423	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, Gabon and Congo.	eng
169423	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. taeniurus</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits rivers.  <em>Alestes</em> species migrate longitudinally according to seasonal hydrological regime (Winemiller 2003).	eng
169423	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169423	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169424	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Regional red listing for West Africa is Endangered.	eng
169424	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to western Africa. It has only been collected from the Niger delta.	eng
169424	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. smykalai</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits creeks and rivers.  The average lifespan for an African Tetra (members of the family <em>Alestidae</em>) is five years.	eng
169424	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.	eng
169424	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. smykalai</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The Niger Delta has suffered extensive environmental pollution and the crisis is still on going.  The Niger Delta is endowed with immense natural resources, particularly crude oil, and in addition, Nigeria has the largest natural gas reserves in Africa.  As a consequence, environmental problems arise from oil and gas-related development activities, oils spills, refinery operations, oil transportation, gas flaring, dredging of canals and land taken for the construction of facilities.  Areas near such outfalls are subjected to chronic pollution, which is of significance for fish resources and fisheries (Laë <em>et al.</em> 2004).  Construction of dams along the Niger River during the last 25 years has significantly disrupted the hydrological balance of the lower Niger River (Bustamante 2002).  Population pressure and agricultural land degradation also exacerbate biodiversity losses in the region as they induce people to expand agricultural production and increase fishing pressure (Bustamante 2002).<br/><br/>In addition to habitat degradation, it is possible that <em>A. smykalai</em> is negatively affected by introduced species.  In Nigeria, nine species were introduced since the 1970s, mainly for aquaculture.  The ecological effects of these introduced species are unknown (Laë <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
169425	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169425	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This Lower Guinea endemic is widespread within the Ogowe basin (although apparently absent from the upper Ivindo). It also occurs in the Niari-Kouilou.	eng
169425	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. walkeri</em>&#160; has been taken both in small streams and in deep water among rocks in the Ogowe River channel. It is a demersal species.	eng
169425	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169425	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169426	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169426	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species occurs on the coast of Lake Malawi.  It is present along the east coast of Lake Malawi in Tanzania and Mozambique and on a few places in the north of Malawi on the west coast (Snoeks, pers. comm.).	eng
169426	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal species, which seems to be restricted to the upper 2-4 m of the intermediate habitat in sheltered bays.	eng
169426	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169426	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Overfishing and pollution threaten the Lake Malawi's fish, especially the cichlids.  Clearing of timber for building, firewood and cultivation has increased around the lake.  Because of the limnological characteristics of the lake, should it be contaminated, the renewal time would be in the order of 1,700 years (UNEP - Protected Areas Programme 1983).	eng
169427	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169427	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Varicorhinus robertsi</span> is only known from the type locality: the Sanga waterfalls at the tailwaters of the hydroelectric dam at Sanga on the Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
169427	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>V. robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169427	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169427	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown at present.	eng
169428	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169428	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus deguidei</span> is only known from the type locality: Yokolo village, swamps of the Boteli River, Ikela region, Congo River system, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Matthes 1964).	eng
169428	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. deguidei </em>is a benthopelagic species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomach contained sand, debris of higher plants (fibres and little graisn), Entomostraca (Cladocera), Hydracarina and aquatic larvae (Ceratopogonids, Chironomids, Trichopterans) (Matthes 1964).	eng
169428	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is only known from two specimens (Snoeks, pers. comm.).	eng
169428	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no known threats to the type locality of <em>B. deguidei</em> as it is in a remote and inaccessible region.	eng
169429	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known. More information is needed on this species' distribution before an assessment can be made.	eng
169429	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>T. intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality: Luluabourg (Kananga), Lulua River, tributary of the Kasai River, Central Congo basin (Skelton and Teugels 1986).	eng
169429	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>T. intermedius</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169429	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169429	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
169430	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169430	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika, which has a surface area of 32,820 km².	eng
169430	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>E. albini</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169430	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169430	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	In recent years, Lake Tanganyika has been threatened by habitat degradation, largely as a result of increased population pressures.  High fishing pressure and the use of destructive methods has had a great impact on fish stocks and the majority of fish species.  Large-scale deforestation and farming practices have caused a dramatic increase in soil erosion rates, increasing the rate of sediment influx in the lake.  The rapid increase in population density has also resulted in an increase in water pollution in the lake.  This includes untreated wastewater discharges and agricultural runoff (Jorgensen <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
169431	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169431	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. nyongensis</em> is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality 12 km south of Eseka, Nyong River, Cameroon. The species has not been recorded in recent surveys above the waterfalls (pers. comm. Brummett, R.) but this record is from below the Mpoumé Falls.	eng
169431	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. nyongensis</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
169431	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169431	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from small scale palm oil agriculture.	eng
169432	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169432	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>N. ogoensis</em> is only known from Franceville, Ogowe basin, Gabon.	eng
169432	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>N. ogoensis</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169432	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169432	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169433	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169433	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Grasseichthys gabonensis</span> is only known from scattered localities in the Ivindo, and larger Ogowe Basin of Gabon. A new species is being described from the central Congo River basin (Stiassny <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Schelly and Britz, in prep.).	eng
169433	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>G. gabonensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169433	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169433	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is threatened by iron mining.	eng
169434	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169434	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality Oshwe, Lake Mai-Ndombe, Central Congo River basin.	eng
169434	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. opisthophthalmus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169434	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169434	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are reports that the region in which <em>A. opisthophthalmus</em> is known from is threatened by large-scale clearing for agriculture, urban development and mining, which results in soil erosion and water pollution which could threaten this species (WWF 2001). In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.	eng
169435	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Regional red listing for West Africa is Least Concern.	eng
169435	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>E. o. olbrechtsi</em> occurs in Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire (Tai area) and Guinea; <em>E. o. dauresi </em> is restricted to forest streams of the Bandama basin in Côte d'Ivoire, and <em>E. o. kassiapleuensis</em> occurs in western Côte d'Ivoire.  This species is endemic to West Africa.	eng
169435	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>E. olbrechtsi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swamps, small streams and rivers.	eng
169435	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169435	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169436	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169436	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the Ogowe and Kouilou River basins.	eng
169436	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. boutchangai</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rivers.	eng
169436	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169436	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2009	In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
169437	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169437	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo luluae</span> is only known from the holotype from the Lulua River, and from one specimen caught on the Aruwimi River, Central Congo River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
169437	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>L. luluae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169437	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
169437	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Threats are unknown for this species.	eng
169438	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169438	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. robustus robustus</em> is found in Lake Malawi and the upper Shire River.  It is also reported from Luongo River in the Congo system, Zambia.  It has been translocated to the upper Ruo River in Malawi and also to Swaziland.<br/><br/><em>S. robustus jallae</em> is found in the Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, upper and middle Zambezi, Luangwa, Luapula-Moero, Lualaba and Kasai rivers.  It has been translocated to localities in Zimbabwe, to the Limpopo River and Natal, South Africa (FAO 1970).	eng
169438	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. robustus</em> is a demersal fish, most frequently found in the shallows.  It has been found over sandy and vegetated areas as well as over rocky substrates.   Larger specimens prefer deep main channels and permanent lagoons, whereas smaller fishes occur mainly in lagoons and secondary channels.  <br/><br/>It is an oviparous fish that breeds in the summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of mainstreams.  The females incubate the eggs in their mouths.	eng
169438	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169438	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169439	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169439	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from a limited area north of Eseka in Cameroon, and from a few small brooks in the upper Kelle River system.	eng
169439	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>E. esekanus</em> occurs at the base of a range of hills that separate the coastal lowlands from the inland plateau (from a limited area north of Eseka in Cameroon) and at a few small brooks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks between the inland plateau and coastal lowland (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986). <span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys esekanus</span> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
169439	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169439	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species although the primary threat to habitat in this region is deforestation, which is likely to result in soil erosion and increased sediment in streams and rivers in the area.	eng
169440	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Part of the northern species distribution is covered by a protected area. The forest of the region is protected.	eng
169440	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from a limited number of localities between Libreville and Cap Esterias in northwestern Gabon.	eng
169440	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. alpha</em> occurs in clear creeks under forest cover, usually over a sandy soil, in the coastal plain. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
169440	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169440	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species' range lies very close to the city of Libreville, which has a population of over 400,000.  This poses a number of threats to <em>A. alpha</em>.  An increase in population, prompted by opportunities for agriculture and employment, results in conversion of natural habitat to urban settlements and agricultural plantations.  Together with poor resource management practices inland, this has caused accelerated rates of coastal erosion in Gabon, which may eventually effect the habitat of <em>A. alpha</em>.  An increase in population density is also likely to result in increased levels of water pollution.	eng
169441	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169441	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Alestopetersius hilgendorfi</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
169441	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. hilgendorfi</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169441	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169441	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169442	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Part of Lake Edward lies within the Virunga National Park.	eng
169442	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Edward, which has a surface area of 2,253 km².	eng
169442	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. paradoxus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169442	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169442	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169443	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169443	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parananochromis caudifasciatus</span> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It also occurs in the forested area of Southern Cameroon in the Nyong, Lokoundje and Ntem systems, north Gabon, and Río Muni.	eng
169443	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. caudifasciatus</em> is a demersal species, restricted to forested areas.  It spawns in caves.	eng
169443	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169443	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169444	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169444	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species&#160; is known from the Lomela, Tshuapa and the Mongala River systems and from the Yangambi region, Central Congo River basin.	eng
169444	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. polli</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169444	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169444	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169445	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169445	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus caudosignatus</span> is only known from the type locality Alto Cuilo, Kasai, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
169445	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. caudosignatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169445	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169445	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
169446	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169446	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known from Somalia.	eng
169446	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>P. gliroides</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169446	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169446	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Threats to this species are unknown at present.	eng
169447	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169447	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus chiumbeensis </span>is known from the Kasai (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Kwango and Kwilu (Angola).	eng
169447	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. chiumbeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169447	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169447	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. However, due to the low population densities in this region, and the movement of many rural people to cities where security is better, large stretches of habitat are presently unaffected by human settlement and activities (WWF 2001).	eng
169448	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known. There should be monitoring of the population impacts of the threats, particularly of the harvest levels.	eng
169448	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northern Gabon. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Benitochromis batesii</span> on Fernando Poo need confirmation.	eng
169448	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>B. batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. The females are mouth brooders, laying a maximum of 100 eggs.	eng
169448	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169448	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Harvesting of this species may pose a threat; this fish is collected seasonally in Cameroon for the aquarium trade. Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region also leads to sedimentation and habitat loss.	eng
169449	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169449	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Kouilou, Louessé, Lefali, Bouenza and upper Nyanga River systems in southern Congo-Brazzaville, and the upper Nyanga River system in southern Gabon.	eng
169449	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>A. louessencse</em> is a benthopelagic fish, that inhabits brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah of the inland plain.  They are usually found in very shallow areas.	eng
169449	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169449	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation, which heavily impacts the river.	eng
169450	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
169450	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169450	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi system.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin.	eng
169450	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from the Kwango and the Kasaï River systems, Central Congo River basin. Records have been made from affluent rivers along both banks of the Lower Congo River and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
169450	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>V. macrolepidotus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169450	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Found in both deep and flowing waters where it feeds on varied benthic food items including, insects, ostracods and worms.	eng
169450	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169450	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Not known	eng
169450	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries and farming extension in river valleys.	eng
169450	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169451	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169451	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax hollyi</span> is only known from the type locality Fort Sibut, the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin.	eng
169451	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>N. hollyi</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169451	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169451	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169452	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known. Monitoring of the population and the habitat would be beneficial.	eng
169452	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known only form its type locality (a channel in front of the refuge Jipo) in Malebo Pool, a large riverine lake shared by the Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo, formed by the widening of the Congo River (Roberts 2003).	eng
169452	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>D. brieni</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.	eng
169452	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	The population trend and numbers are unknown and further research is required for this species.	eng
169452	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Malebo Pool faces some environmental threat. Urbanisation at the pool forms a problem in the region through sewage  cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat  traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the  general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.  Much of the area became deforested following development of the railway along the Lower Congo in the early 1900s but gallery forests still line sections of the river through the Lower Congo (Stiassny 2003).  However, the effect of deforestation on <em>D. brieni</em> is not known.	eng
169453	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169453	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from a small range, probably restricted to the upper reaches of the Ituri River and its tributaries and westerly, up to the Lindi River (Bafwasené) and tributaries in the Ituri forest, at elevations over 500 meters in the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to Van der Zee and Hubert (2006) it cannot be excluded that it has a much larger distribution area in the eastern part of the Congo River basin.	eng
169453	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and occurs mainly in the weedy and shallow parts of brooks, small streams, pools and swamps (Wildekamp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986).	eng
169453	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169453	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the commercial aquarium trade.	eng
169454	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169454	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is only known from the type specimen from Banzyville on the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
169454	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits muddy bottoms down to at least 100 m in lake (Eccles 1992). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
169454	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169454	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. multimaculatus</em> is of minor importance as a commercial fishery; there is no evidence that this has a great effect on the population, however this should be monitored in the future.	eng
169455	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
169455	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, Upper Congo River basin.<em><br/></em>	eng
169455	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>S. unicolor</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
169455	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169455	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
169456	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
169456	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169456	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo dhonti</span> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Tanzania<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> It occurs in the southern course of the Central Congo River basin: from Cafunfo, Kwango River and from Dundo Luachimo River. It is widely distributed in the Upper Congo River basin. Specimens from the Mpozo River in Lower Congo have tentatively been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">L. dhonti</span> by Tshibabwa, but these require further investigation.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> This species is present in the Malagarasi River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
169456	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo dhonti</em> is known from the southern course of the Central Congo River basin: from Cafunfo, Kwango River and from Dundo Luachimo River. It is widely distributed in the Upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin. (Tshibwabwa 1997). Specimens from the Mpozo River in Lower Congo have tentatively been identified as L.dhonti by Tshibabwa, but these require further investigation.	eng
169456	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo dhonti</em> is benthopelagic species.	eng
169456	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>L. dhonti</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169456	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169456	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
169456	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known	eng
169456	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169457	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169457	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
169457	conservation	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	None known. Further taxonomic investigation of this species is needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
169457	distribution	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Citharinus congicus</span> is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Central Africa:</span> It is found throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded), and from the Ruaha River in Tanzania.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Eastern Africa:</span> Ruaha River (Daget 1984) and Rufiji River (Eccles 1992) in Tanzania.	eng
169457	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Citharinus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded), and from the Ruaha River in Tanzania.	eng
169457	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Ruaha River (Daget 1984) and Rufiji River (Eccles 1992).	eng
169457	habitat	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>C. congicus</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169457	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Citharinus congicus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
169457	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169457	population	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169457	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169457	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
169457	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
169457	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
169457	threats	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169458	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169458	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus owenae</span> is known from the type locality, Lake Bangweulu, Chilui Islands, and from the Chambezi River, Zambia.	eng
169458	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. owenae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169458	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169458	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169459	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	There is no implemented conservation measure, although regulations have been formulated and proclaimed.	eng
169459	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is endemic to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
169459	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>B. macrophtalmus</em> is a benthopelagic species.  It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates (with slight preference for rocks), usually in water deeper than 3 m.  It feeds on insects (both larvae and adults); small specimens also eat zooplankton, while large ones sometimes exclusively feed on fish.	eng
169459	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	There is no concrete information on the population size of this species. However, the species is one of the rare species in Lake Tana.	eng
169459	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Getahun, A. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2007	Overexploitation of the fish resource is a major threat to the species. There are also a number of threats facing Lake Tana including silt load, pollution, drainage, water level fluctuation and over-exploitation of specific fish species.  There are also threats to the surrounding area of the lake, in the form of deforestation, population pressure and degradation (FAO 2004).  In addition to these threats that <em>B. macrophtalmus</em> is already facing, its vulnerability to any introduced species should be noted; <em>B. macrophtalmus</em> is one of 18 species of barbus fish that have evolved in Lake Tana, the only extended cyprinid species flock in Africa and the only intact flock in the world.  The only other known flock, in Lake Lanao, in the Philippines, was decimated by introduced species (Lakenet 2004).	eng
169460	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169460	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is endemic to Guinea.	eng
169460	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits quiet brooks, swamps and weedy parts of small streams.	eng
169460	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169460	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are a number of threats to biodiversity in Guinea, including deforestation, mining, and pollution.  However, as the range of <em>S. nigrifluvi</em> is not known it is not possible to assess the extent to which the threats affect this species.	eng
169461	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
169461	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus rouxi</em> is only known from the vicinity of Luluabourg, in the rapids of the Lulua River, Kasaï region.	eng
169461	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus rouxi</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with a maximum recorded TL of 7.5 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).	eng
169461	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
169461	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
169462	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169462	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Phago intermedius</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central River basin. It is also known from Kabelwe, Upper Congo River basin.	eng
169462	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>P. intermedius</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169462	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169462	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169463	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169463	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This species is known only from Lake Victoria, which has a surface area of 67,075 km².	eng
169463	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>B. profundus</em> is a benthopelagic species, that occurs in offshore localities.	eng
169463	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169463	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are numerous threats facing Lake Victoria, including eutrophication, over-exploitation of fisheries, introduced exotic species, and climate change.  These threats are compounded by rapid population growth in the lake's catchment area.  Pollutants enter the lake in the form of domestic and industrial wastewater, solid wastes, sediments from soil erosion in the catchment area, agricultural wastes and atmospheric deposition.  The lake has a long water retention time, meaning that pollutants entering the lake remain in it for a long time.  Parts of the lake are now considered dead zones, unable to sustain life due to oxygen deficiency  in the water.  The threats facing the lake have reduced the biodiversity of the lakes fauna, most notably the phytoplankton and fish (Kayombo and Jorgensen 2006).	eng
169464	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
169464	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
169464	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
169464	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
169464	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
169465	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169465	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. velifera</em> is found in the Sanaga River system, Cameroon.	eng
169465	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>S. velifera</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169465	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The global population is thought to be decreasing based on past data and future predictions, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169465	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	In Cameroon there are several point sources of water pollution from industry, however the major source of pollution is an absence of sewage systems in urbanised areas (Calamari 1985).<br/><br/>Construction of a 1,500 km pipeline, which will link oilfields in southern Chad to the coast of Cameroon, began in 2000.  The pipeline will run along the Sanaga river and will make 17 river crossings in Cameroon, and is a potential source of water pollution in the area.	eng
169466	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
169466	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
169466	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
169466	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
169466	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
169467	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169467	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is known from the Mwamedjwel River, a very small stream 2-3 km west of Yokadouma (Bangue-Boumba-Ngoko-Sangha in Cameroon). It is possibly also known from the Lubazi River, tributary of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin, but this material has to be re-examined.	eng
169467	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
169467	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169467	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169468	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.	eng
169468	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River system of western Cameroon, where is restricted to the vicinity of the village of Mbio.	eng
169468	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>F. mirabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits brooks and small streams in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax mirabilis</span> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
169468	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169468	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
169469	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
169469	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
169469	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
169469	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
169469	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
169470	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169470	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo simpsoni</span> is known from the Lower, Central and Upper reaches of the Congo River, including Cafunfo and the Kwango River (Angola) and the Dja River (Cameroon).	eng
169470	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>L. simpsoni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169470	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169470	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169471	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169471	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. celiae</em> is restricted to the middle Mungo drainage system in western Cameroon.	eng
169471	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. ceilae</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs in wells, brooks, swamps and pools in the rainforest and secondary savanna.	eng
169471	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169471	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>A. celiae</em> is harvested for the aquarium trade, however the extent to which wild specimens are removed for this purpose is not known.	eng
169472	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	The records from the Dungu River are located in the Garamabe National Park.	eng
169472	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus amanpoae</span> is known from the Amanpoa River and from Mauda and the Dungu River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
169472	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. amanpoae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169472	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169472	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169473	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169473	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus mirabilis</span> is only known from the type locality Mawambi, Ituri, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
169473	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. mirabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169473	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169473	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Due to increasing human population, poverty and the ongoing civil wars in Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the habitat in the region which <em>B. mirabilis</em> occurs is facing increased threats.  Overgrazing of cattle as well as slash and burn agriculture have degraded much of this region (WWF 2001). Fishing with grenades and poisioning have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
169474	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169474	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species occurs in the central Congo basin.	eng
169474	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>B. hutsebouti</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169474	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169474	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no threats known to be currently affecting this species.	eng
169475	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn?t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most eastern point of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
169475	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	This species is known from the Lufira River, Lake Mweru and the Luapula River. It has been recorded from Nyonga as well.	eng
169475	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>T. mylodon</em> is a benthopelagic fish that inhabits streams and lakes. It feeds mainly on insects and their larvae, but also (in small quantities) on crustaceans and molluscs (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouthbrooder (Stiassny 1989).&#160; Marked intolerance to oxygen lack (Jackson 1961).	eng
169475	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169475	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. There are mining threats in the Katanga region.	eng
169476	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Part of the range of <em>C. microps</em> is within the Upemba and Kundelungu National Parks, and the Lufira River biosphere reserve.  The National Parks are IUCN category II protected areas and, for the most part, are managed as a strict nature reserve, although tourist use of certain areas is allowed.	eng
169476	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>C. microps</em>&#160; is known from the Lukima River at Kiamakoto and in the Lufira River, Upper Congo River basin (Matthes 1965).	eng
169476	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis microps</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It has an omnivorous diet with a tendency towards carnivory that consists of sand, plant debris, sometimes filamentous algae, freshwater sponges, Ostracods, often in great numbers and aquatic insect larvae (Chironomids, Odonates, Simulids) (Matthes 1965).	eng
169476	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169476	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P., Moelants, T. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	The Lufira was dammed at Mwadingusha in 1947 for the purpose of power generation, and fishing occurs in parts of the river, at least on a subsistence level.  However, the extent to which <em>C. microps</em> is affected by these activities is unknown, and it occurs within protected areas.	eng
169477	conservation	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	There are no conservation measures or actions known.	eng
169477	distribution	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nannocharax gracilis</span> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread in the Central Congo basin than currently known.	eng
169477	habitat	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	<em>N. gracillis</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169477	population	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Currently, there is a lack of detailed population numbers and the global trend is unknown.	eng
169477	threats	Moelants, T., Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & Contreras-MacBeath, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
169495	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169495	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is found in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, in China, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.	eng
169495	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. reticulatus</em> is a benthopelagic species, which is usually found in clear, relatively fast waters with gravel and boulders.  This species occurs in medium to large-sized rivers moves out onto the floodplain during high water.	eng
169495	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169495	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The waters of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>C. reticulatus</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved o².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>Furthermore, <em>C. reticulatus</em> is harvested for food, and is occasionally caught for the aquarium trade.	eng
169496	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169496	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species distribution ranges from India to Tahiti and north to China.	eng
169496	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. elongatus</em> is a demersal and amphidromous species which is found in mudflats of estuaries and the freshwater tidal zone of rivers.  <em>P. elongatus</em> is a amphibious air-breather.	eng
169496	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169496	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169497	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169497	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cingulata</em> is found in the Mekong basin in northern Laos and Thailand.	eng
169497	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cingulata</em> is a demersal species, found in muddy streams with fairly swift to very swift flowing water.	eng
169497	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169497	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169498	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169498	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> is known from the Chao Phraya basin in northern Thailand.	eng
169498	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169498	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169498	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'<br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>R. chiengmaiensis</em> in the Chao Phraya and basin; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169499	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169499	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cebuensis</em> is found in the Philippines.	eng
169499	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cebuensis</em> is a demersal species which seems to prefer smaller drainages in clear hill streams.	eng
169499	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169499	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169500	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The lower part of the Kinabatangan River is protected as the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
169500	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from the Kinabatangan River, Sabah, (Siebert 1991).  The Kiinabatangan River basin has a catchment area of 14,065 km².	eng
169500	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. octoactinotos</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169500	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169500	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The Kinabatangan River basin faces a number of threats, including clearing for agriculture, logging and oil palm plantations.  Water quality has been declining since the 1960s, when commercial logging started in the upper catchment, and worsened in the 1980s when the oil palm plantations and mills began operations. The main pollution sources in the catchment are effluent from palm oil mills, pesticides, and fertilizers; sediment from plantations; sediment from logging activities; and sewage and refuse from villages along the river (Indran 2006).	eng
169501	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169501	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. pervagata</em> is found in Laos and Vietnam.	eng
169501	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. pervagata</em> is a benthopelagic species which is found in riffles and rapids.	eng
169501	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169501	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169502	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Northern New Guinea is still relatively undisturbed, with 19% of the region covered by protected areas.	eng
169502	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in northern Papua New Guinea.	eng
169502	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. multisquamata</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits swampy lagoons, lakes and small side channels of large rivers.  It is the only known floodplain dwelling rainbowfish.  It is usually found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs and branches, or among reeds and other shoreline vegetation.	eng
169502	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169502	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	At present, the region which <em>G. mulitisquamata</em> inhabits is largely undisturbed.  However, future threats to biodiversity in northern Papua New Guinea include regional development plans such as construction of large scale industrial areas, forest concession, coal mines, and the proposed Mamberamo Dam.  The construction of the Trans-Irian Highway, to connect Jayapura and Wamena, will speed up the development of this area by giving improved access (Birdlife International 2003).	eng
169503	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169503	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. beauforti</em> is found in China, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam.  It is distributed throughout the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, and the northern Malay Peninsula.	eng
169503	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. beauforti</em> is a demersal species found in small and medium-sized rivers, usually associated with clear water, swift current and stony to rocky substrate.&#160; In the lower Mekong <em>S. beauforti</em> enters the flooded forest during the high-water periods and returns to the rivers during November and December.	eng
169503	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
169503	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to <em>S. beauforti</em> is removal from the wild for the aquarium trade, and to a lesser extent for human consumption.  <br/><br/>The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <em>S. beauforti</em> is known to be intolerant of nitrates, rapidly disappearing from areas where fertilizers are applied to crops (Froese and Pauly 2006).  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>S. beauforti</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>S. beauforti</em> in the Mekong basin or the freshwater system of the Malay Peninsular, however as these areas are adjacent to the known river basins it is assumed to be similar in land use and environmental threats to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.  This may not be to the extent of the threats in the Chao Phraya and Mekong, although it is known that there is at least one large dam, the Srinakarin Dam, on the Mekong River.	eng
169504	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169504	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. chulabhornae</em> is found in Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia; this species has been reported in the Chao Phraya, Mekong, Maeklong basins and Southeast Thailand river systems.	eng
169504	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. chulabhornae</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs in shallow standing water of paddy fields and ditches.  It seems to prefer vegetated areas with floating aquatic vegetation as well as flooded terrestrial grasses.	eng
169504	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169504	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>A. chulabhornae</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>A. chulabhornae</em> in the Maeklong basin or the freshwater system of southeast Thailand, however as these areas are adjacent to the known river basins it is assumed to be similar in land use and environmental threats to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.	eng
169505	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169505	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. cambodgiensis</em> is found in the Mekong basin in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand.	eng
169505	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. cambodgiensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169505	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169505	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169506	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169506	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known from Malaysia and Indonesia.	eng
169506	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. chrysotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169506	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169506	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169507	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169507	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in Lake Mainit (approximately 142.5 km²), in the northeastern part of Mindanao, in the Philippines.	eng
169507	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. thessa</em> is a benthopelagic species, in which fertilization is internal and eggs are attached to the substrate via adhesive filaments.  Pelvic fins in males are modified to form part of a complex thoracic clasping organ.	eng
169507	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species endues a limited range.	eng
169507	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats to Lake Mainit.  Erosion from the mountainside where timber and mining companies operate has caused silt deposition in the lake.  Mining waste, domestic sewage, fertilizers and pesticides are serious pollutants of the lakewater (Davies <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
169508	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169508	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. exodon</em> is found in the Mekong basin, in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand.	eng
169508	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. exodon</em> is a pelagic and potamodromous species which occurs in pools of large rivers and in flooded forests during the rainy season.  This species feeds mainly on plant matter including fruits, leaves, and flowers, with some insects and crustaceans and is known to reproduce in non-flowing waters near the river shore during lowest water levels. <br/><br/><em>O. exodon</em> undertakes lateral migrations from the Mekong mainstream into floodplain areas during the flood season and returns to the Mekong River or other permanent water bodies during the dry season; these movements are triggered when water levels change.	eng
169508	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169508	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).  Changes in river hydrology may have more of an effect on <em>O. exodon</em> than some other species as it is potamodromous, with migration into flood plain areas triggered by changes in the water level.  <br/><br/>Furthermore, there are reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing additional disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.  This species is also harvested throughout it's range.	eng
169509	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169509	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. serokan</em> is known only from a swamp near the mouth of Sungai Lembang, in Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
169509	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. serokan</em> is a pelagic species.   It was found in a swamp, in very dark water, 0.3 - 1.0 m deep with many fallen leaves and branches, over muddy substrate.	eng
169509	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169509	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169510	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169510	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. gracilis</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.	eng
169510	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169510	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169510	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in northern Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the delta of the Red River in north Viet Nam was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).<br/><br/>However, there are areas in northern Viet Nam that are more remote and therefore have not been affected by the above factors.  Therefore, as the precise range of <em>G. gracilis</em> is not known it is not possible to assess the affect of the threats on this species.	eng
169511	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169511	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia (in the Endau and Sedili drainages) and Indonesia (in Pulau Bintan).	eng
169511	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A nocturnal, demersal species that occurs in clumps of vegetation in streams with flowing waters.	eng
169511	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169511	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169512	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169512	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. personata</em> is found in the Nam Ngum basin (a tributary of the Mekong), Lao PDR.	eng
169512	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. personata</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits riffles.	eng
169512	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169512	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Dams on the Nam Ngum River present a threat to this species, as they alter, for example, the natural flood/drought cycle of the river and sedimentation, and therefore the fish habitat.  It has been found that the Nam Ngum 1 Dam has reduced productivity downstream, due to the fact that released water often originates from the hypolimnion where there is low levels of dissolved oxygen.  The effects of the dam can be seen in the reduction of catch quantity and quality in downstream fisheries (North and Demaine 2000).  More dams are planned for the Nam Ngum River.	eng
169513	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169513	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Cambodia, Lao, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia.	eng
169513	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. tornieri</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in streams, canals and ditches in lowland floodplains.  It can often be found at the water surface.	eng
169513	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. tornieri</em> is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
169513	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present, although it is collected for the pet/aquarium trade and for human consumption it is not thought to be causing a decline at the present rate.	eng
169514	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169514	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. oatesii</em> is endemic to the Inle lake in Myanmar.	eng
169514	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. oatesii</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169514	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species endues a limited range.	eng
169514	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Akaishi<em> et al</em>. (2006) analysed water quality in Inle Lake and found it to be eutrophic.  Concentrations of PO<sub>4</sub>-P, NO²-N, NO³-N and coliform bacteria were relatively high, which could be a result of domestic and agriculture uses; both tourism and agriculture are increasing in the area.	eng
169515	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169515	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in Indonesia; in Sumatra, Java, Belitung and Bangka.	eng
169515	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. picta</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits quiet areas in flowing water.  It can be found in mountain streams up to 1,500m above sea level.	eng
169515	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169515	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169516	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169516	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from the Kapuas River drainage, West Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia.	eng
169516	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. chamaeleon</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169516	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169516	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).	eng
169517	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169517	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in northern Borneo.	eng
169517	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>L. hosii</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169517	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169517	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats facing habitats in Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of land to large plantations, however, the extent to which <em>L. hosii</em> is affected by such threats is not known.	eng
169518	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169518	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>Y. brevis</em> is known only from Inle Lake (approximately 120 km²) and the nearby He-Ho plain in the Southern Shan States, Myanmar.  The outlet of Inle Lake disappears into the ground at some distance from the lake; it is thought that it's waters finally reach a tributary of the Salween River (Kottelat and Chu 1988).	eng
169518	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>Y. brevis</em> is a demersal species found in still and slow running waters; it occurs in a shallow lake, with dense bottom and floating vegetation.	eng
169518	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169518	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Akaishi<em> et al</em> (2006) analysed water quality in Inle Lake and found it to be eutrophic.  Concentrations of PO<sub>4</sub>-P, NO²-N, NO³-N and coliform bacteria were relatively high, which could be a result of domestic and agriculture uses; both tourism and agriculture are increasing in the area.	eng
169519	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169519	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is distributed from the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
169519	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. maculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits forest streams  The water where spawning occurs has a maximum depth of 15 cm and thick vegetation.  This is one of the world's smallest cyprinid species.	eng
169519	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169519	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169520	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169520	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. dubia</em> is found in the Chao Phraya basin, Thailand.	eng
169520	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. dubia</em> is a benthopelagic species which is found over pebbles in small shallow streams.	eng
169520	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169520	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Although the Chao Phraya basin is heavily polluted (UNESCO 2006) and affected by dams and water diversion projects, this has a greater effect on the lower basin; <em> S. dubia</em> prefers small shallow streams, which are less likely to suffer from pollution, or the effects of water management.	eng
169521	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169521	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. pointoni</em> is found in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Thailand.	eng
169521	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. pointoni</em> is a pelagic species which occurs at the surface in medium-sized rivers.	eng
169521	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169521	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The waters of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>O. pointoni</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  <br/><br/>Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169522	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169522	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in the Aiborei River, part of the Siriwo drainage, in northern West Papau.  The Aiborei River could not be located, but the Siriwo River basin covers 4,765 km².	eng
169522	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. alleni</em> is a benthopelagic species that is found in rivers or streams where the substrate consists of gravel and rocks, and the water is cold, clear and fast-flowing.	eng
169522	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169522	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species at present.  Approximately 90% of the natural habitat in this region is still intact (WWF 2001).	eng
169523	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169523	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in tributaries of the Aikwa (Iwaka) and Kopi Rivers in the Timika-Tembagapura region of Irian Jaya, Indonesia.  These river basins cover an area of 14,077 km².	eng
169523	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. pellucidus</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in shallow streams usually slow-flowing through dense rainforest.  It is always found in clear water which may be deeply stained with tannin, and substrates vary from sand to gravel, pebble and rocks.  Species within the family Pseudomugilidae normally congregate in schools.	eng
169523	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169523	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The Grasberg copper and gold mine, situated in the Sudirman Mountains, has polluted the Aikwa River and resulted in the death of fish.  A large, dam−like structure was built to contain the enormous amount of mine tailings, which are then dumped into the headwaters of the Aikwa River.  Tailings have also sheeted sideways across the floodplain, contaminating the Tipoeka, Minajerwi and Kopi rivers and a large area of land in between (Bryce 1995, Nilsson 2005)	eng
169524	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169524	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. munense</em> is distributed throughout Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia; this species is known from the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Maeklong basins.	eng
169524	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. munense</em> is a benthopelagic species found among boulders and rocks.  During the flood season, it moves into inundated forests and returns to the river as water levels recede.	eng
169524	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169524	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>E. munense</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.<br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>E. munense</em> in the Maeklong basin, therefore it is assumed to be similar to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins.	eng
169525	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169525	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known from the Lake Towuti system in central Sulawesi, Indonesia.	eng
169525	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. towoetii</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169525	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Population details are lacking; all that is presently known is that the species endues a limited range.	eng
169525	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Within the Lake Towuti basin also lies Lake Matano.  The human population is expanding rapidly in the lake basin.  Lake Matano, which lies within the Lake Towuti basin, is polluted by nearby nickel mines, and there is also some disturbance from a hydro-electric power station. Many exotic fish species have been introduced in the lakes, and these introductions continue.  The main threats to the endemic fishes are pollution of the lakes with organic effluents from the rapidly expanding human population, and the introduction of exotic fish species.  In addition, there are plans to carry out logging in the forests around Danau Towuti, which may increase sediment in the lake (Silvius and Berczy 2006).	eng
169526	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169526	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in Sumatra, and North Selangor, in east Malaysia.  <br/><br/><em>B. bellica</em> has also been introduced into the Dominican Republic.  During hurricane 'David', <em>B. bellica</em> escaped, presumably from a tropical fish farm or a private aquarist, into the polluted waters of the Rio Ozama where they are now abundant.	eng
169526	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. bellica</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been found in dark-coloured acid ditch waters in disturbed forests, but the species is more common, and the specimens obtained are generally large in size, in the North Selangor blackwaters, (the peat swamp water habitat in Peninsular Malaysia), suggesting that it is the preferred habitat (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
169526	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a large global distribution, although it is not known if the population of <em>B. bellica</em> is increasing or decreasing.	eng
169526	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Peat swamp forests are a threatened habitat; many have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
169527	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169527	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. hypselopterus</em> is found in Kalimantan, Indonesia, and Ponape [also spelled Pohnpei], in the Federated States of Micronesia.	eng
169527	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. hypselopterus</em> is a demersal species, found in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
169527	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169527	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Habitats in Borneo and Pohnpei are threatened by degradation.  Over the last 20 years, Pohnpei's native forests have been reduced by more than two-thirds, primarily for the cultivation of the plant <em>Piper methysticum</em>.  This has resulted in increased soil erosion, which runs into streams, mangroves and lagoons (The Nature Conservancy 2007).  A major threat to habitats in Borneo is the conversion of forests into oil palm plantations, which will result in similar problems to those in Pohnpei.	eng
169528	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169528	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and Peninsular Thailand.	eng
169528	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. hendricksoni</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits fast-flowing, freshwater streams.	eng
169528	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169528	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169529	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169529	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. baileyi</em> is found in the Mekong basin in Lao PDR and Thailand.	eng
169529	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>T. baileyi</em> is a demersal species, found mainly in rocky habitats including rapids of the Mekong mainstream and its larger tributaries.	eng
169529	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169529	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169530	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169530	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>H. hongus</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.	eng
169530	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>H. hongus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169530	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169530	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169531	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169531	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There is conflicting information regarding this species distribution.  Kottelat (1990) states that <em>S. balteata</em> is only known from the type locality, Malwedaung, in Tenasserim, Myanmar, whilst another source reports that <em>S. balteata</em> occurs in the Malay Peninsula (Doi 1997).	eng
169531	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. balteata</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169531	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169531	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169532	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169532	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Borneo and Sumatra.	eng
169532	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. elegans</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits forest streams.	eng
169532	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
169532	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169533	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169533	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is endemic to northern Borneo.	eng
169533	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. lepidogaster</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits riffles.	eng
169533	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169533	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are numerous threats to habitats in northern Borneo; including deforestation and conversion of land for large agricultural projects, which is likely to result in increased soil erosion and sediment in rivers and streams.	eng
169534	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169534	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known from the Mendolong area, Sipitang District, on the west coast of Sabah, (northern Borneo).	eng
169534	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. sabanus</em> is a demersal species, like all loaches, and is capable of burying itself in mud, sand or gravel when disturbed.	eng
169534	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169534	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The development of the paper and pulp mill industry within the Sipitang area pose a threat to the ecosystem.  The plantations of trees grown to supply the pulp mill and associated logging practices will probably increase the suspended sediment in the Mengalong River, which may possibly also flood more frequently in the future. The possibilities of pollution should be investigated and remedies sought (Phillipps 2006).	eng
169535	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169535	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. interspinalum</em> is found in China, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam; this species is known from the Red and Nam Ma river basins.	eng
169535	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. interspinalum</em> is a demersal species which inhabits fast-flowing water, and rapids.	eng
169535	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
169535	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There is a high level of water pollution in the Red River in both China and Viet Nam; mining is a major industry in the headwaters of the Red River, and agriculture, urbanisation and industry contribute to pollution throughout the length of the river.  A decline in fish biodiversity has been seen in the Red River delta (WEPA, no year).&#160; No details are known about threats in the Nam Ma river.	eng
169536	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The cave is situated within the Thung Salaeng Luang National Park (IUCN category II).	eng
169536	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. spiesi</em> is only known from Tham Phra Wang Daeng cave in Thailand, from where the species was first described in 2003.	eng
169536	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. spiesi</em> is a benthopelagic, blind, cave dwelling fish.<br/><br/>It is most commonly found resting on the bottom of shallow pools with flowing water.  Sometimes occurs in mid-water or in deeper areas with little flow. Swims along the surface of pools with its snout raised up, out of the water while moving it head from side to side. Large fish occur in the deeper zone, far from the entrance of the cave.	eng
169536	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169536	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A potential risk to this species is collection for the aquarium trade, due to interest in the unusual habitat needs of this recently described blind, cave-dwelling loach.	eng
169537	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169537	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in northern Borneo.	eng
169537	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. sarawakensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169537	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169537	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Though there are a number of threats to habitats in northern Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of land to large plantations, it is not known the extent to which <em>O. sarawakensis</em> is impacted by such threats.	eng
169538	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169538	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is distributed in Asia, from Myanmar, through Thailand, to Indonesia and Malaysia.	eng
169538	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. binotatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs from sea level to at least 2,000 m above sea level and is commonly found below waterfalls in isolated mountain streams and on small islands inhabited by few other freshwater fishes.  It also inhabits medium to large rivers, stagnant water bodies (including sluggish flowing canals) and brooks of the middle Mekong.  It is found in middle to bottom depths in fairly shallow waters.	eng
169538	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. binotatus</em> is reported to be common in the Pahang River Basin, Malaysia (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996), and in Singapore (Lim and Ng 2006).	eng
169538	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169539	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169539	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cataracta</em> is endemic to the Mekong basin in Laos.	eng
169539	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. cataracta</em> is a benthopelagic species which seems to prefer stretches with swift current and stony or rocky substrate, but is also found over sandy substrate.	eng
169539	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169539	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen in the water (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169540	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169540	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Sumatra, Borneo and Nias.	eng
169540	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This is a demersal species.	eng
169540	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169540	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169541	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169541	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known from Sumatra, including Bangka, and the North Selangor peat swamp forest in Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
169541	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This is a stenotopic acid blackwater species.  The neotype from Sumatra was collected in a clear stream adjacent to a disturbed peat swamp (Tan and Ng 1996).	eng
169541	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species has been previously regarded as rare or very rare, but in a recent survey it was collected in large numbers in the North Selangor peat swamp forest.  It's apparent rarity is likely to be due to imperfect sampling of their preferred habitat, i.e. blackwaters (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
169541	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. leiacanthus</em> inhabits a fairly threatened type of habitat.  Borneo and Sumatra have lost 46% of their original peat swamp forest cover (UNEP 1997).  Large areas of peat swamp in Sumatra have been drained, mainly for transmigration settlements and large-scale development projects.  The drainage of one area dries neighbouring areas, and therefore fires are common (WWF 2001).  The North Selangor peat swamp forest was also previously more extensive than it is now, as development has sharply reduced the total area covered.  Large areas have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use.  (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
169542	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169542	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is only found only in Luzon, Philippines.	eng
169542	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>G. stellatus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169542	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169542	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Population growth in the Philippines is resulting in increasing threats to Luzon, including habitat conversion.  Mining also poses a threats to some areas of the island (WWF 2001).	eng
169543	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169543	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in the Kapuas River basin, in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.	eng
169543	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. myersi</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169543	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169543	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).	eng
169544	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169544	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. lepturus</em> is found in the Mekong basin in China, Lao PDR, and Thailand.	eng
169544	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. lepturus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169544	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169544	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	A major threat to species in the Mekong river is habitat degradation from the construction of dams and other water management projects, more of which are planned for the future; the effects of such projects include disruption to the natural flood/drought cycle of the river, and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen (International Rivers Network 2006).<br/><br/>There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin, and water from the river is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169545	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169545	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species distribution ranges from Thailand to Indonesia.	eng
169545	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>K. micronema</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in rivers, streams, and lakes as well as in impoundments.	eng
169545	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169545	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is an important component of the gill net fishery, and there is some evidence it may be threatened by over-fishing.  In the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, Borneo, a study revealed that larger specimens of this species are fairly rare.  The ratio of the typical size in the catch to the expected maximum size was less than 0.3522, and so the species was considered “possibly over-fished", (Dudley 2000).	eng
169546	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169546	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. longimanus</em> is found in Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam; this species is known from the Mekong and Chao Phraya river basins, the Malay Peninsula, and coastal streams of South-east Thailand and Cambodia.	eng
169546	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. longimanus</em> is a benthopelagic species which is usually found in ditches, canals and ponds often in areas with extensive growth of submerged aquatic plants.  This species is encountered mainly in stagnant water bodies including sluggish flowing canals as well as in medium to large rivers.	eng
169546	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing although detailed numbers are unknown.	eng
169546	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of high levels of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>E. longimanus</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and are planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.  <br/><br/>No detailed information is known about potential threats to <em>E. longimanus</em> in the freshwater system of southeast Thailand and Cambodia, or the Malay Peninsular, however it is assumed the these areas have similar land use and hence environmental threats to that of the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, although possibly not to such an extent.<br/><br/>Furthermore, fishing is a potential threat to <em>E. longimanus</em>, which is of commercial importance in this region.	eng
169547	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169547	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is distributed in Indochina, from Thailand to Borneo and Java.	eng
169547	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. oxygastroides</em> is a pelagic species that inhabits rivers and lowland wetlands including peat canals.  It is found in medium to large-sized rivers and is also common in seasonally flooded forest.  It leaves the flooded forest in November as the water levels begin to decline substantially.  It is more common in habitats disturbed by farming activities.	eng
169547	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. oxygastroides</em> is reported to be uncommon in the Pahang River Basin (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
169547	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169548	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169548	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. bocourti</em> is found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins, in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam.	eng
169548	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. bocourti</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which occurs in medium to large-sized rivers.	eng
169548	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. bocourti</em> is rare throughout its range (Froese and Pauly 2006)	eng
169548	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The waters of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, are heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of reduced water quality in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects which are an additional threat to <em>M. bocourti</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved o².  Dams also act as a physical barrier, which is especially pertinent to <em>M. bocourti</em>, a potamodromous species.  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  <br/><br/>Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169549	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169549	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. tubulinaris</em> is endemic to the Nam Theun of the Mekong basin in Laos.	eng
169549	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. tubulinaris</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in stretches of water with relatively slow current and gravel or sandy substrate.	eng
169549	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169549	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The Nam Theun 2 Hydropower Project is a major threat to any species inhabiting the Nam Theun basin; this dam, construction of which started in 2005 and is planned to be completed in 2009, will divert a large proportion of water into the Xe Bang Fai River.  <br/><br/>Dams cause massive ecosystem disturbance and habitat fragmentation both during and after construction; they alter water flow, temperature, and nutrient content of waterways.	eng
169550	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169550	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. macronema</em> is found in Borneo, Java and Indochina.	eng
169550	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. macronema</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that inhabits rivers, lakes and reservoirs.   It moves into tributary streams and flooded forests along with many species of cyprinids and other species of visually oriented catfishes when water transparency decreases.   It commonly forms large schools.<br/><br/>Migratory catfish like <em>P. macronema</em> rely on deep-water pools for critical protection during migrations up the mainstream Mekong River.  These catfishes move upstream at night, while stopping to concentrate in deep-water pools during the day (Baird 2006).	eng
169550	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169550	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169551	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169551	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is distributed from Thailand to Indonesia and is known from the Mekong basin.  In the Mekong basin, it is found in freshwater well upstream in the Tonlé Sap, Cambodia.	eng
169551	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>M. wolffii</em> is a demersal species that occurs most commonly in the tidal zone and brackish water reaches of large rivers, but also occurs in streams and lakes.	eng
169551	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169551	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169552	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169552	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. hotaya</em> is found in northern Viet Nam.	eng
169552	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. hotaya</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169552	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169552	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The exact distribution of <em>P. hotaya</em> is not known, however there are a number of threats to freshwater ecosystems in the north of Viet Nam including industrial and domestic pollution, dredging, damming, destructive fishing practices, and the clearance of fringing habitats.  For example, the delta of the Red River was once highly productive, but is 'now almost devoid of fish due to extensive flood control and the closure of floodplain fish breeding and nursery areas' (World Bank 2005).	eng
169553	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169553	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known only from the Kapuas River, in Kalimantan, Indonesia.	eng
169553	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>S. vaillanti</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169553	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169553	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).<br/><br/>In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2001).	eng
169554	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169554	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in Thailand, West Borneo, Northeast Malaysia and the Philippines.	eng
169554	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>N. bicornis</em> is a benthopelagic, schooling species found in quiet waters around aquatic plants in mangroves, in brackish waters.  Fertilization is internal and eggs are attached to the substrate via adhesive filaments.	eng
169554	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169554	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169555	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169555	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in in the Mahakam River basin, in East Kalimantan, Borneo.	eng
169555	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This is a demersal species that inhabits black water streams under forest cover with quite a swift current.	eng
169555	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169555	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to the Mahakam River basin includes habitat loss due to land conversion, unpredictable changes in the hydrology because of dredging activities, dam building, river control, mining, logging and plantation activities.  Pollution in the basin is increasing, in the form of pesticides (more than 100,000 ha of oil palm plantations are being set up) and mercury (caused by gold mining activities).  In addition, illegal logging of riparian forest is causing increased sedimentation.  Though <em>C. lubricus</em> is not known to be targeted by fisheries, it is likely to be affected by over-fishing and unsustainable fishing techniques such as electro-fishing and intentional fish poisoning with pesticides (Global Nature Fund 2002).	eng
169556	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169556	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in northern Borneo.	eng
169556	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>P. borneensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169556	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169556	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats to habitats in northern Borneo, including deforestation and conversion of natural habitat to agricultural land, which may result in increased soil erosion and sediment in streams and rivers.	eng
169557	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169557	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is distributed from the Mekong basin (Cambodia, Lao and Thailand) through Malaysia to Indonesia.	eng
169557	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. nefastus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in flowing waters of rivers and streams.  It may also be found in flooded forests and plains during the river's high water levels.  This is an aggressive species that feeds mainly on fish fins rays and scales.	eng
169557	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169557	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169558	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169558	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. burmanica</em> is endemic to Myanmar.	eng
169558	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. burmanica</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169558	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The species has a wide distribution although the trend is unknown.	eng
169558	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169559	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169559	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is currently known from Terengganu, Selangor, Perak and Pahang (Peninsular Malaysia); Pulau Bintan (Riau Archipelago) and Kalimantan Barat and Kalimantan Tengah (Borneo).	eng
169559	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. fumidus</em> is a demersal species that is restricted to peat swamps.  It has been collected from shallow blackwaters in a peat swamp heavily disturbed by logging activities.	eng
169559	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169559	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. fumidus</em> inhabits a fairly threatened type of habitat.  Borneo and Sumatra have lost 46% of their original peat swamp forest cover (UNEP 1997).  Large areas of peat swamp in Sumatra have been drained, mainly for transmigration settlements and large-scale development projects.  The drainage of one area dries neighbouring areas, and therefore fires are common (WWF 2001).  The North Selangor peat swamp forest was also previously more extensive than it is now, as development has sharply reduced the total area covered.  Large areas have been converted to paddy, pineapple or oil palm plantations, or developed for some other use.  (Ng <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
169560	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169560	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. ennealepis</em> is found in western Borneo, in tributaries of the Sungai Pinoh, within the Kapuas River basin (Roberts 1989).  The Sungai Pinoh River basin covers an area of 10,189 km².	eng
169560	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>R. ennealepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169560	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population details are presently unknown.	eng
169560	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  It is likely that other rivers in the Kapuas basin are also affected.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).  In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2006).	eng
169561	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169561	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. minutillus</em> is found in the Yunnan region of China, Rangoon in Myanmar, throughout Thailand (Magtoon<em> et al</em>. 1992), and has also been reported from Lao, Cambodia and Vietnam (Froese 1996).	eng
169561	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. minutillus</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits ponds, ditches and paddy fields (Magtoon <em>et al</em>. 1992) and clear water swamps (Kottelat 2001).	eng
169561	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>O. minutillus</em> is reported as common at least throughout Thailand (Magtoon 1992).	eng
169561	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169562	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169562	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. pulchellus</em> is found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins in China, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Cambodia.	eng
169562	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. pulchellus</em> is a benthopelagic species which occurs over gravel substrate in clear, swift, small streams up to rapidly flowing stretches of large rivers.	eng
169562	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169562	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The water of the Chao Phraya basin, particularly the rivers of the lower basin, is heavily polluted; a UNESCO report (2006) states that 'the Chao Phraya River exhibited serious organic and bacterial pollution that was a threat to many species of aquatic life.'  There are also reports of pollution in the Mekong River basin.  <br/><br/>There are a number of large dams and other water diversion projects within the range of this species, which are an additional threat to <em>B. pulchellus</em> in both the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins; effects of developments such as these to the freshwater ecosystem include alterations to the hydrological cycle, and changes to the levels of sedimentation and dissolved O².  More dams are currently under construction and planned for the future.  Water from both the Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers is used for agricultural irrigation and to supply urbanised areas, causing further disruption to the natural hydrological cycle.	eng
169563	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169563	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is known from a single specimen collected in 1914 in Bulungan, eastern Borneo.	eng
169563	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>K. lumholtzi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169563	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169563	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169564	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169564	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in the Mekong and Chao Phraya basins, and in Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.	eng
169564	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>H. zollingeri</em> is a demersal species that inhabits high gradient streams over rocky substrates.	eng
169564	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Reported to be a rare species (Khan <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
169564	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169565	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169565	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. kyphus</em> is found in Thailand and northern Viet Nam.	eng
169565	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>A. kyphus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169565	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169565	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169566	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169566	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. microps</em> is endemic to Thailand.	eng
169566	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>E. microps</em> is a demersal species which is found in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
169566	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169566	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Threats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present.	eng
169567	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169567	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species occurs in eastern Borneo.	eng
169567	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>C. nigriloba</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169567	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	Information on the population numbers and trend are unknown.	eng
169567	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are a number of threats facing habitats in eastern Borneo, including deforestation and large agricultural projects, however, the extent to which <em>C. nigriloba</em> is affected by these threats is not known.	eng
169568	conservation	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level.	eng
169568	distribution	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	This species is found in the middle Kapuas basin.	eng
169568	habitat	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	<em>B. pinguis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169568	population	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	The population is thought to be decreasing at a rate of more than 30% over the previous ten years, although detailed numbers are not known.	eng
169568	threats	Jenkins, A., Kullander, F.F. & Tan, H.H., 2007	In the last ten years, illegal gold mining in the Kapuas River basin has increased dramatically, and as a result, the Kapuas River is experiencing environmental problems due to poor mining practices.  One of these problems is the increase of mercury pollution in the Kapuas River.  So far, efforts to prevent water pollution and environmental destruction in the basin have failed, and the damage continues (Adijaya and Yamashita 2004).<br/><br/>In addition, freshwater habitats in Kalimantan are threatened by deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, overfishing, the introduction of exotics and the aquaculture industry (WWF 2001).	eng
169569	population	BirdLife International, 2009	Rich <em>et al. </em>(2004). <br/></p>	eng
169570	conservation	BirdLife International, 2009	<strong>Conservation actions underway:</strong><p><p>Two Peruvian sites, Pakitza and Playa Bonita are within the Manu Biosphere Zone<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Several surveys have targeted and identified this species, improving knowledge of its global distribution. <br/></p><strong>Conservation actions proposed:</strong><p><p>Confirm the species's distribution by checking additional <em>Guadua</em> sites that may support it. Study its ecology assessing whether there is a relationship between presence and bamboo patch size/patch maturity. Map the potential impact of development projects within its range to assess future population declines and identify key sites for conservation/mitigation. <br/></p>	eng
169570	distribution	BirdLife International, 2009	<em>Cnipodectes superrufus</em> has been recently described from an area of southwestern Amazonia bordering Madre de Dios, <strong>Peru</strong>, Acre, <strong>Brazil</strong> and Pando, <strong>Bolivia<sup>2</sup></strong>. Its range has been estimated at c. 89,000 km<sup>2</sup> corresponding to the area of <em>Guadua</em> bamboo dominated habitats; though it appears to be absent from some apparently suitable habitats<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Field surveys have found the species is the rarest of the bamboo specialists within the region<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It is a generally scarce species, and based on the extent of potentially suitable habitat it is thought possible that the global population supports <10,000 mature individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Its habitat is threatened by clearance for development projects, but <em>Guadua</em> may actually increase in area because it can proliferate on deforested land. However, the twistwing is usually recorded in large mature stands of bamboo and is rarely found in young <em>Guadua</em> regrowth, thus a decline is suspected<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
169570	habitat	BirdLife International, 2009	The species is a <em>Guadua</em> bamboo specialist, and its apparent absence from some well-studied sites suggests that it may only occur in larger patches<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its density within suitable habitat is not known; it is apparently the scarcest of the bamboo specialists within its range, but comparatively little ornithological work has been conducted in the region allowing the possibility that it may be found to be relatively common<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species has been observed perched 1-3 m above the ground from where it sallies after arthropods. Both <em>Cnipodectes</em> spp. perform regular wing raises; the purpose of this behaviour is unknown<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <br/></p>	eng
169570	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The precise distribution and population density of this newly described species are not known, so no accurate population estimate is available. However, while <em>Guadua</em> bamboo habitat is widespread within its range, it appears to show a prefence for larger patches (Lane <em>et al</em>. 2007), it is usually recorded in mature patches rather than regrowth (Tobias <em>et al</em>. 2008), and it appears to be scarce throughout its range. Therefore, the species is precautionarily suspected to have a global population of <10,000 mature individuals. <br/></p>	eng
169570	threats	BirdLife International, 2009	Preliminary evidence suggests that the species shows a preference for larger patches of mature <em>Guadua</em> bamboo. This habitat is threatened within the species range by development projects such as the Trans Oceanica Highway and the available area of mature bamboo stands is likely to decrease. The highway's construction is likely to open the region to further deforestation for cattle ranching and biofuels in the future. <br/></p>	eng
169571	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Surveys were conducted in 2007 and 2008<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> to search for the species, though these proved unsuccessful.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Explore various hypotheses discussing its potential distribution and target searches based upon these possibilities.	eng
169571	distribution		This species has been recently described based upon three specimens collected at a Universidad de la Salle retreat called La Lana, vereda Llano de Ovejas, near San Pedro de los Milagros, Antioquia, <strong>Colombia</strong>. Two of the specimens are undated, but the third was collected in 1971. Fieldwork in 2007 and 2008<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> failed to detect the species close to the labelled type locality; there are no known extant populations. While there is hope that it persists at the type locality, if it does it must be rare. Rapid assessment surveys in the Northern Andes have typically recorded >90% of resident birds at survey sites, and fieldwork at La Lana did record two other <em>Atlapetes</em> species, both of which were also recognised by local people; no-one recognised photographs of the <em>A. blancae</em> specimens. It is plausible that the species occurs nearby, but not at the type locality; several specimens of <em>A. schistaceus</em> are labelled from La Lana, but the species was only recorded away from the site where it was rare at 2,800 m. Alternatively <em>A. blancae</em> may be locally extinct on the Llano de Ovejas given the extent of recent deforestation and the presence of <em>A. latinuchus</em> in all secondary and forest edge habitats.	eng
169571	habitat		The species was collected on the Llano de Ovejas, a small plateau at 2,400-2,800 m. It probably occurred in forest, which has largely been denuded in this area. Several congeners occur in the region of the type locality; with two species <em>A. schistaceus</em> and <em>A. latinuchus</em> apparently occuring sympatrically. These species may be partly separated by altitudinal range with <em>schistaceus</em> only found at 2,800 m at the site, and a third species <em>A. albinucha</em> occurring at lower elevations.	eng
169571	population		The species is only known from three specimens; the most recent date of collection was in 1971. Recent searches in 2007 and 2008 have failed to identify an extant population.	eng
169573	population	BirdLife International, 2009	The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996). <br/> <br/><p></p>	eng
169587	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169587	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, (the Karnataka Coast of India, Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand at the mouth of the Pakcham River, Penang), and also in the Gulf of Thailand, Singapore and Viet Nam.	eng
169587	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. galatheae</em> is a pelagic, filter feeding, anadromous species. It inhabits marine waters, but enters (and presumably breeds in) freshwater.	eng
169587	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169587	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169588	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169588	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. opisthoptera</em> is known from the type locality, on the Nujiang (Salween River) system in Yunnan, China.	eng
169588	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. opisthoptera</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169588	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169588	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A series of dams have been proposed for the Salween River, however the impacts of these on <em>P. opisthoptera</em> are unknown..	eng
169589	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169589	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in Lakes Yessey, Siltak and Bezymannoye in the basin of the Khatanga River, and in the Khantaiskoye Lake in the Yenisey drainage and is probably present in lakes of the Gydanskiy Bay basin (all on the Taimyr Peninsula) in the Russian Federation.	eng
169589	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. tolmachoffi</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes.	eng
169589	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species is the object of local fisheries and in part of its range it is heavily impacted by pollution from heavy metal mining.	eng
169590	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169590	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. ocellicauda</em> is found along the coasts of the East China Sea, Yellow Sea and Po-Hai (Iwata and Jeon 1995).	eng
169590	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. ocellicauda</em> is a demersal species of coastlines and estuaries, which prefers shallow water with muddy bottoms (Iwata and Jeon 1995).	eng
169590	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169590	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169591	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169591	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. longirostris</em> was described from Japan, and was later reported in China from the Amur south to the Min Jiang river (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No details about occurrence of the species in Japan are known.	eng
169591	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. longirostris</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169591	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169591	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. longirostris</em> may be locally threatened - Chen <em>et al</em>. (no date) state that before the damming of the Yangtze at Gezhouba <em>L. longirostris</em> accounted for about 10% of the catch composition, but now 'it can’t be found at market and the catch of the adult is not plentiful'.	eng
169592	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169592	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. macropterus</em> is found in the Hab (Hub) River basin in southwestern Pakistan.	eng
169592	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. macropterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169592	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169592	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Hub River is dammed near Karachi, but the affect of this on <em>A. macropterus</em> is unknown.	eng
169593	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169593	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. fimbriata</em> is endemic to China, found in the upper and middle drainage areas of the Chang-jiang (Yangtze River).	eng
169593	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. fimbriata</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169593	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169593	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity in the Chang-jiang (Yangtze River), including pollution, however <em>L. fimbriata</em> inhabits tributaries where this is not such a great threat as in the mainstream (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
169594	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169594	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is restricted to two tributaries, the Karimpuzha and the Chaliyar River, in Kerala, India.  The Chaliyar River basin has a total area estimated at 4,793 km², therefore <em>G. davissinghi</em> has an Extent of Occurrence of less than 5,000 km².	eng
169594	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. davissinghi</em> is a demersal species inhabiting clear streams and rivers.	eng
169594	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169594	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Chaliyar River was threatened in the past by a pulp factory that discharged effluents into the river, and caused mass fish mortalities.  The factory closed in 2001, and fish population in the river are now recovering (Gopakumar 2005).  However, there is continuing decline in habitat quality in the region as a result of deforestation.	eng
169595	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169595	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. kuroiwae</em> is found throughout the Japanese Archipelago.	eng
169595	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A demersal and amphidromous fish, <em>T. kuroiwae</em> inhabits the lower to middle reaches of rivers and lakes throughout Japan.	eng
169595	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169595	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No known threats to the population throughout Japan, however on a localised scale threats do exist.  For example the species has been reported at Lake Biwa (Matsuda 2000) where threats include environmental degradation from pollution and land reclamation, and the introduction of non-native predators (e.g. Bluegill and Bass).	eng
169596	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169596	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. nicholsi</em> is endemic to the Yangtze River basin; Fu <em>et al</em>. (2003) found this species recorded only from the lower mainstream sub-basin.	eng
169596	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. nocholsi</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in headwaters and tributaries.	eng
169596	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169596	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Threats in the Yangtze basin include drainage for land reclamation, overfishing, pollution, sedimentation and introduction of non-native species, however the species is found in the tributaries and headwaters of the Yangtze where these impacts are not as severe (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
169597	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169597	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is found in the upper and middle Amur basin, east Asia.	eng
169597	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is a benthic species.	eng
169597	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
169597	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. brashnikowi</em> is locally threatened by overfishing (mainly bycatch), and by pollution from untreated or poorly treated waste water from agriculture, industry, and households, including contamination from oil products, fertilizers, and by-products from gold mining.	eng
169598	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Assessed as Vulnerable at CAMP workshop within India (Molur and Walker 1998) due to restricted distribution, limited locations, severely fragmented, continuing decline observed in extent of occurrence, and area of occupancy and/or quality of habitat.	eng
169598	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. labeosus</em> is known from Myanmar, Thailand, China and northeastern India (in the states of Assam and Manipur in the Brahmaputra and Chindwin drainages).  Molur and Walker (1998) reported that the distribution within India is restricted and severely fragmented.	eng
169598	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. labeosus</em> is a demersal and omnivorous species which inhabits torrential streams.	eng
169598	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169598	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. labeosus</em> is threatened by destructive fishing techniques, such as dynamite and poisoning.	eng
169599	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169599	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. obscurus</em> is found in the northwest Pacific Ocean (East and South China Seas), and also in inland waters in China and the Korean Peninsula.	eng
169599	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. obscurus</em> is an anadromous and demersal species.	eng
169599	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169599	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169600	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169600	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>V. homalocephala</em> is known from the Pearl River, near the town of Lia Jiang, China.	eng
169600	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>V. homalocephala</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169600	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169600	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
169601	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169601	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. turpanensis</em> is endemic to the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.  The species has been recorded from the river in Turpan City and from Shan Shan County as well as Urumqi City in Xinjiang Autonomous Region.	eng
169601	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. turpanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169601	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169601	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No widespread threats known to the area in which the species is found.	eng
169602	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Research and monitoring of population trends and threats in the Western Ghats is recommended.	eng
169602	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the southern Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, and it has been widely transported around the world through the aquarium fish trade industry.	eng
169602	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>D. malabaricus</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in a variety of habitats from boulder-strewn mountain torrents to small pools in dry zone streams where it feeds on terrestrial insects and detritus.  It forms medium sized shoals and prefers flowing water.  <br/><br/>It spawns in shallow water, among marginal weeds and roots, usually after heavy rains.  Eggs are light orange and sticky, and more than 200 eggs are laid and hatch in 1-2 days.  Fry are free-swimming on fifth day.  This species exhibits cannibalism on eggs.	eng
169602	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169602	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The biodiversity of the Western Ghats is threatened as a result of an increase in the human population, and associated habitat loss and degradation as a result of anthropogenic factors such as use of pesticides, siltation, and urbanisation.	eng
169603	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Research into the ecology, population trends, and threats to <em>B. bakeri</em> have been recommended.	eng
169603	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. bakeri</em> found in the Western Ghats of Kerela (Chhapgar and Manakadan 2000).  Kerela has an area of 39,098 km².	eng
169603	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. bakeri</em> is a benthopelagic species, occurring in mountain streams.	eng
169603	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. bakeri</em> was reported to be common in water courses of southern Kerela (Thomas <em>et al</em>. 2002). <br/><br/>Molur and Walker (1998) reported a population decline of 30% in the previous ten years, however the source of this data is not known, and no data from the most recent ten years is known.	eng
169603	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. bakeri</em> is potentially threatened by habitat degradation.  The biodiversity of the Western Ghats is under threat owing to deforestation, agriculture, mining, hydroelectric projects, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on soil and water quality (Dahanuar <em>et al.</em> 2004).  However, as Thomas <em>et al</em> (2002) reported the species was common it is not though that these factors have a great detrimental effect on the species.	eng
169604	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169604	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. kullmanni </em>is known from Afghanistan.	eng
169604	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. kullmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169604	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169604	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
169605	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place at present.  The distribution and numbers of this species in the Namak Lake basin should be examined by field studies to determine the population status (Coad, pers. comm.).	eng
169605	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. buhsei</em> is found in the Lake Namak basin, Iran.	eng
169605	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. buhsei</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169605	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There is no information available on the population numbers of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. buhsei</span> at present, although it is thought to be stable.	eng
169605	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Namak Lake basin lies mostly in Markazi (= Central) Province which contains Tehran and a very large human population with great demands on limited water resources, however, <em>C. buhsei</em> is probably not under any immediate threat (Coad, pers. comm.).	eng
169606	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Lake Orumiyeh lies within a National Park, IUCN Category II, and is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.	eng
169606	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is endemic to the Lake Orumiyeh basin, in north-western Iran, apparently in southern and western tributaries, although records of <em>A. microlepis</em> from the middle Agi Chai or Talkheh River near Tabriz are presumably of <em>A. urmianus</em> (Coad, 2005).  The Lake Orumiyeh basin drains a closed catchment of over 50,000 km².   The species most likely occurs in many rivers of the Orumiyeh basin (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.) however determining the distribution of <em>A. urmianus</em> may have been hindered by the confusion with <em>A. microlepis</em>.	eng
169606	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. urmianus</em> is a benthopelagic species.  Details of habitat requirements are unknown but is has been collected in both river and lakes (Coad 2005).	eng
169606	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known only from the type series and a few other specimens in museum collections. Its status is unknown (Coad 2005).	eng
169606	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The past two decades have seen an intensification of water resource and agricultural development in the basin, and as a result the Orumiyeh Basin has suffered intensive and increasing water stress (Salavitabar 2005), which is a potential threat to <em>A. urmianus</em>.	eng
169607	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169607	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. callichromus</em>  is found in China, in the Babian Jiang (Black River), Jingdong, Yunnan (part of the upper Mekong) and probably Viet Nam.	eng
169607	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. callichromus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169607	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169607	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
169608	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169608	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. altidorsalis</em> is endemic to the Sistan basin of Iran, and presumably adjacent Afghanistan.	eng
169608	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. altidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species that has been reported from pools in dry river beds and still, reedy channels in Sistan.  The fish enter the flooding Lake Hamuns from the upstream parts of rivers, and return to more permanent rivers when water levels fall (Coad, pers. comm.).	eng
169608	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169608	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169609	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In 1987, a project titled: "Rehabilitation and Development of Mahseer Fishery in the Rivers and Reservoirs of Western Ghats" was launched by Department of Fisheries, Karnataka.  Since then, the efforts of the Wildlife Association of South India (WASI), have led to a remarkable improvement of mahseer stocks in a selected stretch of the Cauvery River.   This voluntary association has been regularly stocking the leased 22 km of the Cauvery River with seed from the hatchery of the Tata Hydroelectric Companies (TEC) at Lonavla, Maharashtra, which has carried out artificial propagation, rehabilitation and conservation of <em>Tor khudree</em> since 1970 (Sehgal 1999).  <br/><br/>Similar efforts by other fishing clubs and fishery associations have also been initiated, and as a result there is now a thriving, but firmly controlled recreational and sport fishery for mahseer in some parts of the Cauvery River.  The Department of Fisheries, Government of Karnataka, has procured about 150,000 of advanced fry/fingerlings of Tor khudree from TEC's fish farm and released them in the River Cauvery. The Fish Farmers Development Agency, Yadavagiri, Mysore, has also released 30,000 young mahseer into this river (Shanmukha 1996).<br/><br/>Mahseer stock in this carefully managed stretch of the Cauvery is now protected against overfishing, with large-sized mahseers available to licensed sport fishermen.  The catch data maintained by the Coorg Wild Life Society and by WASI, show that mahseer is now regularly captured, with a range from 3.3 kg to 48.1 kg. The above societies are protecting mahseer fishery by adopting conservation, stocking and management measures so as to stem the decline of mahseer stocks. In 1996, the construction of another 5 ha hatchery was initiated by the Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd (Sehgal 1999).	eng
169609	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India and Sri Lanka.  In India, it occurs in Madhya Pradesh and the rest of peninsular India (including Tapti, Mahanadi, Chhota and Tawa).  It is common in the headwaters of the Godavari River.  <em>T. khudree</em> has been introduced in parts of south India as it is a popular game/sport fish.  In 1921 it was introduced into Nilgiris, and thrives there today.	eng
169609	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. khudree</em> is a mesopelagic species.  It prefers cool, fast-flowing, rocky streams, but also occurs in  rivers, tanks and cold-water lakes.  It moves to the upper reaches of small streams to spawn.  <br/><br/>Two types of spawning behaviour have been observed.  In one, the female slowly swims along the side of the streams, spawning, while the male stays close behind fertilizing the eggs. In the other type, the male digs a small hollow in the gravel of the substrates into which the female deposits the eggs as they are being fertilized by the male. The female continues to lay eggs in different parts of the streams over a period of few weeks.  <br/><br/><em>T. khudree</em> can be cultured in ponds and tanks.	eng
169609	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Populations of <em>T. khudree</em> are steadily declining, due to over-exploitation.  The species has a low resilience to fishing pressures, according to the parameters suggested by the American Fisheries Society.  A minimum population doubling time 4.5 - 14 years is given.<br/><br/>In the past 20 years (approximately three generations) it is suspected that the native wild population has declined by 60 to 70%. There are some stocking programmes for the species but this is mainly for sport and most individuals are caught before they are of breeding age (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).	eng
169609	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. khudree</em> is a popular game/sport fish, particularly in the Cauvery river in the Western Ghats.  It is also an important food fish.  The mahseer (common name for this genus of ciprinid) catches have been declining on account of over-exploitation of all sizes of fish using every possible catching method, and the fact that most individuals are caught before they are of breeding age (R. Devi, pers. comm.). The situation has been further aggravated by ecological degradation of water bodies due to human pressure and changes in land use (Sehgal 1999).	eng
169610	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169610	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. melanogaster</em> is found in Northern Honshu and the Kanto Plain, Japan.	eng
169610	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. melanogaster</em> is a benthopelagic fish found in fresh, and sometimes brackish waters.	eng
169610	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169610	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169611	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169611	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species is found in almost all of the hill streams in Manipur, India, draining to the Chindwin River, and in Myanmar.	eng
169611	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. burtoni</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits hill streams and rivers at foot hills.	eng
169611	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169611	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This part of India and Myanmar is mountainous and sparsely populated with no known direct threats to the species.  The species is utilised as a food fish, however there is no evidence that this is having an adverse effect on population size.	eng
169612	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169612	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs on South Andaman Island, but has also been reported from Corbyn's Cave in North Andaman.  <em>M. insularis</em> is found in more than 5 locations and most likely less than 10.	eng
169612	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. insularis</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species which inhabits rivers and streams.  It is an ovoviviparous fish.  The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
169612	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. insularis</em> is reported to be fairly common in South Andaman Island.	eng
169612	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. insularis</em> may be threatened by habitat degradation.  Increasing human settlement in the Andaman and Nicobar islands from the mainland, as well as refugees from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, have lead to damaging activities such as exploitation and clearing of mangroves for agriculture and housing, illegal logging, and development of aquaculture.  Development of tourism and recreational activities also exerts stress on the natural resources of these islands.	eng
169613	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. vinciguerrae</em> was assessed as Endangered within India in 1998 due to the species' restricted distribution and continuing decline in the quality of habitat (Molur and Walker 1998).&#160; Monitoring of the population is recommended, to assess whether destructive fishing techniques are having a detrimental effect on the species.	eng
169613	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the Irrawaddy and Salween River basins in Myanmar, and the Chindwin drainage in Myanmar and Manipur, India.	eng
169613	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is benthopelagic and occurs in small streams with pebbly bottom.  It is also found in channels with very swift currents and bare bottoms.	eng
169613	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Currently there is no data on the population number of this widespread species.	eng
169613	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. vinciguerrae</em> is threatened by destructive fishing practices, such as dynamite and poisoning, which not only cause direct mortality of individuals, but also result in pollution and habitat degradation.	eng
169614	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169614	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India, and has also been reported from Bangladesh.	eng
169614	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. microlepis</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in ponds, ditches and slow moving streams.	eng
169614	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169614	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169615	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169615	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Distributed throughout Russia, China and the Korean Peninsula, to Japan, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin Island.	eng
169615	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. annularis</em> is a demersal species, also found in brackish water.	eng
169615	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169615	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169616	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Dalai Lake is in a Biosphere Reserve.	eng
169616	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. intermedia</em> is only known from it's type locality, Hu-lun Lake (Dalai-Nor), China, but it is thought that this species ranges beyond the lake as the genus is typical of running water (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No other research has been undertaken since it's description.	eng
169616	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. intermedia</em> is a demersal species found at high altitude.	eng
169616	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169616	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Dalai Lake is in a remote area where the local population do not eat fish and pollution levels are low, therefore no major threats are known.	eng
169617	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No protective measures are currently being taken, but it has been recommended that the vestiges of the riparian forest upstream of the Chalakudi river should be protected and fishing prohibited where the target population of the species still exists.  In addition, an intensive survey should be carried out to locate the existing population (Menon 2004).	eng
169617	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species  is endemic to South Canara, Western Ghats, India. The species has only been recorded from the Netravati and Periyar rivers. The Netravati and Periyar river basins have a combined Extent of Occurrence of 11,675 km².  The species may be found between these rivers as it is very difficult to identify the species from other <em>Hypselobarbus</em> species.	eng
169617	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>H. thomassi</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species.  It inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers below the Ghats, in forested areas.	eng
169617	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A recent extensive search in South Canara, a district of Karanataka, turned up only one specimen (Menon 2004).	eng
169617	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>H. thomassi</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The biodiversity of the Western Ghats is under threat from deforestation, agriculture, mining, plantations, construction of dams, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on soil and water quality (WWF 2005).<br/><br/><em>H. thomassi</em> is also potentially an overfished species due to its size.	eng
169618	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been suggested that surveys should be carried out in the Kumaradhara river to locate the surviving population, and that over exploitation by local fishermen should be stopped (Menon 2004).	eng
169618	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in South Karnataka, India.  Since its discovery in South Canara in 1878, this species was believed to have become extinct, until its rediscovery in 1992.  Since then, this species has only been found in the Kumaradhara River.  <em>E. canarensis</em> has an estimated EOO of 4,625 km².	eng
169618	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>E. canarensis</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits shallow areas of rivers, streams, ponds and ditches.	eng
169618	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
169618	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This fish has been ruthlessly exploited by local people for food, and the species is now a rarity.  Due to its rarity it has never been a common fish in the aquarium trade, but it is still a desirable species.  There are few individuals in captivity and only one reported spawning, suggesting that the majority of <em>E. canarensis</em> in the aquarium trade are collected from the wild.  <br/><br/>In the wild, <em>E. canarensis</em> may be threatened by a decline in habitat quality; in 1996 many fish in the Kumaradhara River died from pesticide poisoning. Deforestation and agricultural pollution are also impacting the species' habitat.	eng
169619	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169619	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. pelzami</em> is found in found in the Tedzhen and Murgab rivers of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan including Iranian drainages of the former known as the Hari River in its Iranian reach.  It is recorded from the Jam River, the Sharak River, the Akhland River near Mashhad, the Kashaf River and various smaller water bodies in Khorasan, the upper Kal Shur, Jajarm and Jovein rivers in the Kavir basin, as well as Cheshmeh Ali at Damghan and Cheshmah Badash near Shahrud, (Coad, pers. comm.).	eng
169619	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. pelzami</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169619	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169619	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169620	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169620	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. k. orientalis</em> is found in Kazakhstan, in the Chu River from the lower reaches to the region of Frunze.<br/><br/><em>C. k. kuschakewitschi</em> is found in the Syr Darya (up to Kara Darya at Balykchi) and Amu Darya (upto Panj), and Zeravshan rivers, in Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.), Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.	eng
169620	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> is a demersal species; Nikolski (1933) found this species more frequently in fast flowing section of the River Chu.  The species prefers the mid- and foothill-zones of rivers (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).	eng
169620	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Nikolski (1933) frequently found <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> in the Chu River, but the species has not been recorded in the Chu in Kazakhstan for 40 years and is considered to be close to extinction in the Chu in Kazakhstan; in the 1990s a survey failed to find the species in the Chu (Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).<br/><br/>Kamilov (2003) states that the species has become rare in Uzbekistan since the damming of the Amu Darya (up to Panj) in the 1950s.  The status of the species in the Syr Daya in Kazakstan is unknown, but there are potentially declines here, also as a result of damming in the 1950s (Bogutskaya, Pers. Comm.).	eng
169620	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Kamilov (2003) states that <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em> has become rare in Uzbekistan because the species has been unable to adapt to changes, including irrigation and the introduction of alien fish species, to the freshwater environment.  It is not known the extent to which these changes have affected other parts of the range of <em>C. kuschakewitschi</em>.<br/><br/>Species populations most likely declined in the 1950s due to damming of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya at this time (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.). The reasons for the species' possible extirpation in the Chu is unknown, although channelization is a possible cause (Bogutskaya, pers. comm.).	eng
169621	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169621	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is endemic to Qiong Lake (10km²), Yunnan, China.	eng
169621	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169621	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. qionghaiensis</em> is very rare, possibly extinct, in the lake since population declines as a result of competition and hybridisation with introduced species, overfishing and pollution; it is suspected that the population has declined by over 80% in the past 21 years.	eng
169621	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species has been heavily impacted by pollution and overfishing in Qiong Lake.  Furthermore, <em>Cyprinus carpio</em> was introduced into the lake in the 1980s to improve fishery catches, and has hybridised with and outcompeted <em>C. qionghaiensis</em>.	eng
169622	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Lake Rara is in the Rara National Park, which is an IUCN grade II protected area.  Tourism levels within the National Park are low.	eng
169622	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. macrophthalmus</em> is endemic to Lake Rara in the Nepalese Himalaya.  The lake has an area of approximately 9 km².	eng
169622	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. macrophthalmus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169622	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169622	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169623	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Further research into population trends, harvest levels, and further monitoring has been recommended.	eng
169623	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. dayi</em> occurs in the coastal areas in southern Kerala, India.  The species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 5,078 km².	eng
169623	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. dayi</em> is a pelagic species which is found along the margins of rivers, ditches and swamps. The species occurs in brackish water and enters freshwater. <br/><br/>The male will build a bubble nest either under a rock cave or at the surface under floating plants. 200 to 300 eggs are laid per spawn. The female will help the male gather the eggs and place them in the bubble nest.	eng
169623	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169623	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Habitat degradation is a major threat to the fish biodiversity of Kerala.  This includes habitat alteration due to deforestation and intensive agriculture activities in the catchment areas, industrial, agricultural and domestic pollution, and habitat destruction by sand mining.  The species is fished primarily for the aquarium trade (Devi, pers. comm.), however may also be affected by fishing targeted other species in the area, including the use of small mesh size nets and destructive fishing practices (Kurup <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
169624	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Parts of the Cardamom hills are protected; the Anamalai the Indra Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulam Wildlife Sanctuary provide some protection to the species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of population trends should be carried out to assess the extent of any population decrease.	eng
169624	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. hughi</em> occurs in mountain streams of two drainages, the Cauvery and the Chalakudy drainages, in the Cardamom, Anamalai and Palani hills in Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, India.  The species has an estimated Extent of Occurrence of 2,409 km².	eng
169624	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. hughi </em>is a benthopelagic fish, found in mountain streams.<br/><br/>The young are free swimmers and are found in more cleaner waters closer to the banks and in pools and puddles along the course of the stream.  The food of young is different from the adult stage.  The young 15 – 35 mm standard length (SL) are omnivorous including earthworms, aquatic insects, mostly larvae of chironomids and ephemeropterans and bits of filamentous algae and detritus in their diet.  The fish later takes to feeding on vegetable matter (mainly algae) with a change in its mode of living, to life close to the substratum of the rapid waters of the streams.	eng
169624	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169624	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is likely that <em>G. hughi</em> is threatened by habitat degradation.  The biodiversity of the Western Ghats is under threat owing to deforestation, agriculture, mining, hydroelectric projects, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on soil and water quality.	eng
169625	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169625	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. tongiorgii</em> is only known from the type locality (recorded once) from the Kul river basin, Iran.	eng
169625	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Little information is known about the habitat and ecology of this species;<em> Seminemacheilus sp.</em> are most often found in fast flowing upper courses (Krupp pers. comm.).	eng
169625	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169625	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Water extraction is common in the region, and is therefore a potential ongoing threat to<em> S. tongiorgii</em>.	eng
169626	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169626	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. xichangensis</em> is found in Aaning He (river), Xichang town, Sichuan, and the Jingshajiang sub-basin of the Yangtze river.	eng
169626	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. xichangensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
169626	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169626	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in a remote area which is sparsely populated, there are no known threats to the species.	eng
169627	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been recommended that deep pools in the course of the Krishna and Tungabhadra, where the fish settles down in summer during the period of low discharge of water, should be identified and some declared as sanctuaries for the protection of the species (Menon 2004).	eng
169627	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India.  Menon (2004) states it is known only from the Krishna river system in Maharashtra, Froese and Pauly (2006) state the species is distributed in the Deccan and Cauvery river system (Kerala).	eng
169627	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. potail</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits rivers and streams in the upper reaches.	eng
169627	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In recent times, the number of this species caught in Maharashtra has declined.  In Kerala, a population reduction of 99% has been observed over the past two decades (Kurup <em>et al.</em>, 2003).	eng
169627	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species forms a good fishery in Maharashtra, but in recent times the size and the number of fish caught have declined.  The introduction of the Gangetic carps in the Peninsular for culture is a threat to this indigenous species (Menon 2004).	eng
169628	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169628	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in Sea of Okhotsk and migrates up the Penzhina River to spawn, Penzhino, Russia.  The Penzhina River drains a large basin, however the area of the spawning grounds is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².	eng
169628	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. subautumnalis</em> is a pelagic predator in the sea and benthopelagic in rivers.	eng
169628	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
169628	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. subautumnalis</em> is being overfished in the Sea of Okhotsk and in the Penzhina river during migrations for spawning.	eng
169629	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	More research on the biology and ecology of the species, and harvesting levels is recommended.	eng
169629	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. manipurensis</em> was described from the Challou river and Wanze stream in the Chindwin drainage, in India and Myanmar (R. Devi, pers. comm.).	eng
169629	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. manipurensis</em> is a benthopelagic species, which inhabits high altitude, flowing hill streams with rocky beds.  Smaller individuals tend to be found in shallow and fast flowing waters while larger ones are found in deeper, slower waters.	eng
169629	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169629	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is favoured as a food fish (R. Devi, pers. comm.) however it is not known whether this is causing significant population declines of the species.	eng
169630	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169630	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. xundianensis</em> is restricted to Quingshui Lake (estimated area of 10km²), on the Jinsha Jiang tributary of the Yangtzee River.	eng
169630	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. xundianensis</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169630	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169630	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Threats in the Quingshui Lake are unknown, however it is believed that the species is fished.	eng
169631	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been recommended that harvest of <em>M. pulchellus</em> be managed.	eng
169631	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the Bhavani River at the base of Nilgiri hills, Western Ghats in India.  The Bhavani River drains an area of 6,633 km².  The species is found in only the foothills of the basin, an estimated 2,989 km².	eng
169631	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. pulchellus</em> is a demersal species that inhabits streams.	eng
169631	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species however it is decreasing.	eng
169631	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Bhavani River is affected by domestic and industrial pollution; effluents, wastewater, pesticides from tea plantations, and discharges from the numerous industries that are located along the path of the river, are dumped into the river.  A study reported that the impact of poor water quality on the fauna and flora is significant, and therefore it is likely that <em>M. pulchellus</em> is threatened by this habitat degradation (Centre for Science and Environment 2006). Damming and over-exploitation (including the use of poison) are also threatening the species (Molur and Walker 1998).	eng
169632	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169632	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, and is also found in the lower reaches of rivers flowing into the ocean; from Mozambique and Madagascar to Sri Lanka, the east coast of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sumatra.	eng
169632	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. dussumieri</em> is a demersal fish, found along the coast and in estuaries and mangroves.  It also enters the lower parts of rivers.	eng
169632	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169632	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species; although the species is known to be harvested for food, it is not thought to be at a rate to cause concern.	eng
169633	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169633	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from Northern India (Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Orissa), Bangladesh, Nepal (in Kosi and Karnali rivers to an altitude of 1,650 m), Myanmar and Pakistan (known from North West Frontier Province and Punjab).	eng
169633	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. angra</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species that inhabits rivers, lakes and ponds.  This is a herbivorous column feeding species.	eng
169633	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is likely that this species' abundance varies over its range.  In Nepal it is reported to be a common species (Sreatha 1999), but in the Hakaluki Haor wetland system, in the north eastern region of Bangladesh, it is considered to be nearly extinct (Warne 2005).	eng
169633	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169634	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It has been recommended that a natural history reserve should be set up near Karamanai, Trivandrum for the protection of this species (Menon 2004).	eng
169634	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. fossorius</em> occurs in Kerala, India.  The species is found in fields adjoining the Karamanai river near Karamanai village, Trivandrum and in paddy fields in Trichur.  The species' range is an estimated 1,148 km².	eng
169634	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. fossorius</em> inhabits marshy areas in paddy fields and banana plantations at about two to three feet deep, and is found in freshwater lowlands and rivers.  This species has abandoned its aquatic habitat and taken to a burrowing mode of life, and possesses pharyngeal pouches for air breathing.	eng
169634	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169634	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Due to its extremely restricted range, any further reclamation for urbanisation of the area may result in the extirpation of this fish (Menon 2004).  Pesticides pose a further threat to the species.	eng
169635	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169635	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. chuanchicus</em> is endemic to China, found in the upper reaches of Huanghe (Yellow River).	eng
169635	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. chuanchicus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169635	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169635	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No known major threats; within much of the species' range the human population do not eat fish for religious and cultural reasons.	eng
169636	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Chilika Lake is Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.  Further research on the species' population and ecology is recommended.	eng
169636	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from Chilika Lake and the Godavary estuary, on the east coast of India.	eng
169636	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. ostreicola</em> is a demersal, amphidromous fish, which inhabits backwaters and estuaries.	eng
169636	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169636	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Adverse changes are occurring in the ecological character of Chilika Lake. The primary drivers for these changes are population growth and catchment degradation.  The resultant problems, which include increased siltation, weed infestation and pollution, have posed a major threat to the sustainability of fisheries, wildlife and water quality of the lake. Overall, the general biodiversity and productivity, including that of economically valuable species in the lake, is under threat. Uncontrolled expansion of prawn aquaculture into the lake is expected to exacerbate this threat (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>Soil erosion is prevalent in the catchment of Chilika due to over-grazing, illicit felling, cultivation along hill slopes, and clearance of vegetation for rehabilitation and agriculture.  Restriction of the hydraulic capacity of the inlet that connects the lake to the sea has reduced flushing of the lake and has led to a decrease in salinity and the loss of some marine and brackish water species from the ecosystem (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).  <br/><br/>Increased siltation and decreased salinity has promoted the spread of major weed species more tolerant of fresh and brackish water. These include <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, <em>Azolla pinnata</em>, and <em>Potamogeton pectinatus</em>.  Increased coverage of weed species has occurred mainly in the northwestern end of the lagoon and has restricted the feeding and breeding grounds of many fish of economic importance (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>Although water pollution from industrial sources is not a major problem around the lake, fertilizer and pesticide residues from nearby agricultural fields pose a serious problem in the northern part of the lake. Similarly, sewage and the waste water from the peripheral small villages and towns, including Balugaon and Rambha, is posing a pollution problem, although at present it is not considered a significant threat.  Although pollution is not yet seen as a major problem for Chilika, it has the potential to increase, and management responses may become increasingly necessary (Finlayson <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
169637	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169637	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. pachycephalus</em> is known only from it's type locality at the Weizhangho stream, Yangliu, Yunnan, China.	eng
169637	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. pachycephalus</em> is a demersal species which inhabits torrential waters under rocks.  The type locality has high cliffs of shale on both banks (Kottelat and Chu 1988).	eng
169637	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169637	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No direct threats to <em>Y. pachycephalus</em> are known.	eng
169638	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species is found in the Tianmushan reserve which offers protection as fishing is banned within the reserve, however it is not known what proportion of the species range falls within the reserve.	eng
169638	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. tchangi</em> is only known from it's type locality, the Tianmu Mountain in Zhejiang province of China.	eng
169638	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>L. tchangi</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169638	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169638	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is found in a heavily populated area, it is thought that the increase in human population has caused a decline in the population as a result of fishing pressure and pollution, although this species is known from mountain streams where pollution is likely to be at a lower level than in the main course of the river (Fang, pers. comm.).  Some of the range is within a Mountain Park however it is not known what proportion.  The threats outside the protected area are likely to have a large impact on the species, if it ranges this wide.	eng
169639	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169639	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. obtusirostra</em> is only known from it's type locality, a lake (unnamed) in Ka Qu (town) near the origin of the Huang He.	eng
169639	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. obtusirostra</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169639	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169639	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The type locality is a sparsely populated and remote, therefore there are no known threats to this species.	eng
169640	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The Dalai Lake, home to <em>T. dalaica</em>, is in a Biosphere Reserve.	eng
169640	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. dalaica</em> is only known from it's type locality, Hu-lun Lake (Dalai-Nor), China, but it is thought that this species ranges beyond the lake as the genus is typical of running water (F. Fang, pers. comm.).  No other research has been undertaken since it's description.	eng
169640	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. dalaica</em> is a benthopelagic fish found in running water.	eng
169640	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169640	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Dalai Lake is in a remote area where the local population do not eat fish and pollution levels are low, therefore no major threats are known.	eng
169641	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169641	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>O. furcocaudalis</em> is known from type locality, the Xi-Jiang (West River of the Pearl River basin).  Outlet of subterranean waters near Rongshui town, 25°N, 109°E, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.	eng
169641	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>O. furcocaudalis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169641	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169641	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
169642	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169642	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. kreyenbergii</em> is known from Zhejiang province of China (Yuan <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
169642	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. kreyenbergii</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
169642	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169642	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
169643	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169643	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. tsinanensis</em> is found in the Shandong province of China.	eng
169643	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. tsinanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169643	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169643	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Direct threats to <em>G. tsinanensis</em> are not known, however there are a number of potential threats to the species including pollution and overfishing.	eng
169644	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169644	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. swinhonis</em> is found in China, Korea and Japan, and has been introduced to Uzbekistan.	eng
169644	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>M. swinhonis</em> is a demersal species which prefers to reside in lakes.	eng
169644	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169644	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169645	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169645	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. orientalis</em> is endemic to China, it is found in the upper reaches of the Huang he (Yellow River), Qaidam, Hexi Corridor.	eng
169645	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. orientalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169645	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169645	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The area in which the species is found is remote and sparsely populated; the population in this area do not eat fish.	eng
169646	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169646	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. bifasciatus</em> is found in China and Japan, and has been introduced to the west coast of the United States of America via ballast water.	eng
169646	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. bifasciatus</em> is a demersal species found in fresh and brackish waters.  This species prefers hard substrates.	eng
169646	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169646	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169647	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169647	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. polytaenia</em> is found in the Chinese part of the Irawaddy river in the Yunnan province.  This species is only known from its type locality, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River, Tengchong County, Yunnan Province.	eng
169647	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. polytaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species, found in tributaries and upper reaches.	eng
169647	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Currently there is no information available on the population trend or size of <span style="font-style: italic;">N. polytaenia</span>.	eng
169647	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In the Yunnan area the Irawaddy is quite polluted, and fishing is also prevalent in the area.  However this species inhabits tributaries of the main river so may not be heavily affected by these threats (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
169648	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169648	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. bicornis</em> is only known from the type specimen recorded from near Liu Ku (settlement) near the middle reaches of the Salween (Nujiang) River, China.	eng
169648	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>A. bicornis</em> is a demersal species which feeds mainly on detritus and filamentous algae.	eng
169648	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169648	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are plans for a series of dams in the Slween River, which may pose a future threat to <em>A. bicornis</em>.	eng
169649	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169649	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. intermedia</em> is found in the Chinese part of the Hong (Red) River, in Yunnan.	eng
169649	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. intermedia</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169649	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169649	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Pollution and fishing pressure are potential threats to <em>P. intermedia</em>.	eng
169650	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Further research into the biology of this species is recommended.	eng
169650	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is found only in streams draining into the Yu River, a tributary of the Chindwin, in Myanmar and probably India.  The Yu River has a drainage basin of 6,335 km².	eng
169650	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169650	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169650	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. berdmorei</em> is found in a mountainous and sparsely populated area where there are no known threats to the species.	eng
169651	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169651	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. reevesii</em> is known from the Pearl River, Guangdong, China.	eng
169651	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. reevesii</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169651	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169651	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Fishing and pollution are potential threats to this species, although the direct effect of these factors on <em>S. reevesii</em> is not known.	eng
169652	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169652	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. heterochilus</em> is only known from the type locality, near the city of Ya'an, Sichuan, China, which is located in the Yangtze River basin.	eng
169652	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. heterochilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169652	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169652	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Ya'an is a remote city with only limited development and the majority of inhabitants do not eat fish for religious reason, therefore there are no major threats to <em>S. heterochilus</em>.	eng
169653	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169653	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. argentea</em> was described from the city of Xiangzhou (now Zhu Hai city) Guangdong province, China.	eng
169653	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. argentea</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169653	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169653	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Species of the same genus (e.g. <em>N. taihuensis</em>) are exploited for food on an international scale (F. Fang, pers. comm.), therefore overfishing is also a potential threat to <em>N. argentea</em>.	eng
169654	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No protective measures have been taken but it has been recommended that the deep pools in the course of the river where the brooders generally rest during summer should be identified and some of them declared as fish sanctuaries for the protection of the species (Menon 2004).	eng
169654	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known only from it's type locality in South Canara, in Karnataka, India.  The species may have a wider distribution, or be possibly extinct, as a survey in its type locality failed to find the species.  Menon (2004) believes that <em>H. pulchellus</em> probably has a very restricted distribution today.	eng
169654	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>H. pulchellus</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits the deeper part of large streams and rivers along the base of Ghats.	eng
169654	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Since this species was described in 1870 from South Canara, Karnataka, no specimen of this species has been found.  Recent searches in the lower reaches of Kumaradhara, a tributary of Netravati in South Canara, failed to find<em> H. pulchellus</em> (Menon, 2004). <br/><br/>Furthermore, it is very difficult to tell this species apart from <em>H. dobsoni</em> and <em>H. jerdoni</em>.	eng
169654	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Deforestation and the spread of agricultural practices during the last century have changed the physical habitat of the rivers of the western face of the Western Ghats and has likely had an adverse affect on <em>H. pulchellus</em>.  Overfishing is also a threat to the species.	eng
169655	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169655	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known only from the Lokchao river and the lower Maklang river, near the borderland areas of Manipur, India and Myanmar.	eng
169655	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is benthopelagic and inhabits fast flowing parts of hill streams and rivers; on water bodies full of shingles, pebbles, stones and rocky.	eng
169655	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Detailed population information is lacking for this species although it is noted to be stable.	eng
169655	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no known major threats to this region; large areas of natural habitat are still intact (WWF 2001).	eng
169656	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Further research into population trends and range, and suitable harvest levels have been recommended.	eng
169656	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species in found in lakes in Katanga river drainage (Boganidskoye Lake) and Pyasina river system (Lama, Keta, Sobach'ye, Glubokoye, Kapchuk lakes) on the Tamyr Peninsula, lakes in the headwaters of Anadyr River (El'gygytgyn, Pennoye, Baran'ye) the fish from Anadyr drainage may represent a distinct species.	eng
169656	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. boganidae</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits lakes.	eng
169656	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. boganidae</em> is reported to be a common species (Armand <em>et al.</em>, 2001).	eng
169656	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The population in the Anadyr drainage is potentially impacted by overfishing and overfishing of its prey species. At El'gygytgyn the species is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation from drilling/boring.	eng
169657	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169657	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>X. hupeinesis</em> is only known from the type locality, in the Changjiang (Yangtzee River) in the Hubei Province of China.	eng
169657	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>X. hupeinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169657	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169657	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The species is found in the main channels of the Changjiang (Yangtzee River) where there are a number of threats to freshwater biodiversity, including damming and other hydrological alterations, pollution, and overfishing.	eng
169658	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169658	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>O. vigorsii </em>occurs in India, where it is distributed widely; the species is known from the states of Orissa, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, the Krishna and Godavari river systems, in the Western Ghats and Mahanadi River at Hirakud dam.	eng
169658	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>O. vigorsii</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits fast flowing clear streams and rivers, but is also found in brackish waters.	eng
169658	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169658	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169659	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169659	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B. altayensis</em> is found Xinjiang Provence in China, and possibly from Mongolia (Kottelat 2006).	eng
169659	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>B altayensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169659	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169659	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no major threats to <em>B. altayensis</em>; this region of China is sparsely populated and there is very little fishing pressure and only minor pollution. (F. Fang, pers. comm.).	eng
169660	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	No protective measures are in place but it has been recommended that the habitat of this fish should be protected from pollution by anthropogenic activities.  Regular monitoring of the water quality of the streams in its range are essential to protect this species (Menon 2004).	eng
169660	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species occurs in India.  It is reported from the Narmada, Krishna and Cauvery Rivery systems on the eastern slopes of the Northern division of the Western Ghats, namely, Deolali, Satara and Poona (estimated area is approximately 14,371 km²).  <br/><br/>Three individuals of this species have also been collected in the Pennar River, eastern India (R. Devi, pers. comm.) which covers an area of approximately 3,974 km².	eng
169660	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. itchkeea</em> is a benthopelagic fish which inhabits rapid flowing hill streams, over rocky and gravelly beds.  The young are found under stones and pebbles.	eng
169660	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population is rare, but not thought to be declining (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.)	eng
169660	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>G. itchkeea</em> is threatened by habitat degradation in the western part of its range; the biodiversity of the Western Ghats is under threat owing to deforestation, agriculture, mining, hydroelectric projects, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on water quality.	eng
169661	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The whole of Iriomote Island is within the Iriomote National Park (IUCN category V) and is designated a Forest Ecology Conservation Area, however this does not provide much protection for <em>A. imperiorientis</em> and possibly adds to the potential for tourism to affect the species.	eng
169661	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. imperiorientis</em> is known only from the Nakama River, Iriomote Island, Japan.  Iriomote Island is 282km², and the Nakama River is 17.5km long.	eng
169661	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	A benthopelagic fish, <em>S. imperiorientis</em> prefers to inhabit areas of boulders with a rock and gravel bottoms in clear streams.	eng
169661	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169661	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Tourism on Iriomote Island is a potential cause of habitat degradation, and is therefore a threat to <em>S. imperiorientis</em>; boat trips are currently operating on the Nakama River.	eng
169662	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169662	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is endemic to four rivers -  the Cheenkannipuzha (a major tributary of the Valapattanam river), Achankovil, Chaliyar, and near Mundakayam town) Kerala, India.  The species has an estimated range of 8,805 km².	eng
169662	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. denisonii</em> is a benthopelagic species which inhabits fast flowing hill streams, and is a fast and active shoaling fish.	eng
169662	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Initial studies using microsatellite markers have shown signs of genetic bottleneck in the Valapattanam River population (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).	eng
169662	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. denisonii</em> is likely to be threatened by habitat degradation.  The biodiversity of the Western Ghats is under threat owing to deforestation, agriculture, mining, hydroelectric projects, and urban expansion, all of which has a severe environmental impact on soil and water quality.  <br/><br/><em>P. denisonii</em> is also a very popular ornamental aquarium fish, in national and international markets.  Currently many of the endemic, high value ornamental fishes are exploited for commercial purposes from the wild, but the quantities of these fishes exploited for trade purposes are not available.	eng
169663	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> was classified as EN by a Japanese IUCN assessment in 1999 (Environment Agency of Japan 1999), however the justification behind the allocation of this category is not clear.<br/><br/>Different conservation programs may be required for the two different groups of <em>C. takatsuensis</em> (Shimizu <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
169663	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> is endemic to Japan, distributed in the western part of the Chugoku district, northern Kyushu, and western Shikoku.  The Extent of Occurrence of <em>C. takatsuensis</em> is estimated at 22,652 km², based on collection data from Kimizuka <em>et al</em>. (1982) and Shimizu <em>et al</em>. (2004).	eng
169663	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> is a benthopelagic fish, almost exclusively inhabiting the upper reaches of rivers, preferring slow flowing areas with stony bottoms (Kimizuka <em>et al</em>. 1982).	eng
169663	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>C. takatsuensis</em> occurs in small populations which are isolated from one another (Kimizuka <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>1982).	eng
169663	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Development on land adjacent to inhabited streams has caused habitat reduction and increased sedimentation, which has resulted in a decrease in the population size (Environment Agency of Japan 1999).	eng
169664	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169664	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. oligolepis</em> was described from Yangzong Hai, a lake the upper most reaches of the Xijiang basin in Yunnan, China.  The lake has an area of approximately 29 km².	eng
169664	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. oligolepis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
169664	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169664	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no known direct threats to this recently described species, however there are potential threats in the area, including pollution and fishing pressure.  More detail regarding the distribution of <em>P. oligolepis</em> is required to assess the threats to the species.	eng
169665	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169665	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. parvus</em> is found in Nan Tong, in Kaihuan County, Yunnan, China.  Research was carried out to find the location of Nan Tong and Kaihuan County, however it was not possible to find any information with the precise location of either place.	eng
169665	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>Y. parvus</em> is a demersal species which was found in a cave outlet.	eng
169665	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169665	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The location of this species cannot be accurately known, therefore it is not possible to state the threats to the species.	eng
169666	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169666	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality, from the town of Jinan near the Huanghe (Yellow River).	eng
169666	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. intermedius</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169666	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169666	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Pollution and overfishing (in the most part as bycatch) are potential threats to <em>S. intermedius</em>.	eng
169667	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169667	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. moquensis</em> is known from Xiaman Lake, Sichuan, although it may range beyond this area.	eng
169667	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>T. moqeunsis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169667	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169667	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The lake is in a remote, sparsely populated area, so it is unlikely that there are threats to the species.	eng
169668	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169668	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. macrolepis</em> is endemic to China; the type locality of this species is the Yangtze River.  The species has been introduced to various parts of China for intensive aquaculture in ponds (Ma <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
169668	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. macrolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
169668	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169668	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no threats currently known for this species.	eng
169669	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169669	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. taakree</em> occurs in Peninsular India, and is thought to be endemic to the Krishna (including the Bheema tributary of the Godavary River system) and Cauvery river systems.	eng
169669	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>P. taakree</em> is a demersal fish, found in upstream hilly areas.  It feeds on the surface and water column; mainly on surface and terrestrial insects washed into the reservoir.  <br/><br/>Attains a length of 13, 21, 27, 32 and 35 cm during 1 to 5 years respectively.	eng
169669	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	In Pune City, <em>P. taakree</em> is reported to be rare and decreasing (Kharat and Dahanukar 2001).<br/><br/>CAMP workshop states an 80% decline in the past 10 years due to overfishing.	eng
169669	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The decline of <em>P. t. taakree</em> reported in Pune City is the result of pollution and over-harvesting (Kharat and Dahanukar 2001).	eng
169670	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	There are no conservation measures currently in place.	eng
169670	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. nangra</em> occurs in Pakistan, India (in the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers), Bangladesh and Nepal.	eng
169670	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. nangra</em> is a demersal species, which inhabits the upper reaches of rivers.	eng
169670	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. nangra</em> is reported to be a rare species in Nepal.<br/><br/>Molur and Walker (1998) reported a 30% decline in <em>N. nagra</em> in ten years, however the data behind this is not known, and no information for the most recent ten year period are available.	eng
169670	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Pollution and loss of habitat from anthropogenic factors are likely threats to this species.	eng
169671	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	It is not known if there are any conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
169671	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from Kumaon Himalaya, in India, in the upper reaches of the Indus system.	eng
169671	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This is a benthopelagic, omnivorous fish which inhabits mountain streams.	eng
169671	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>S. kumaoensis</em> is reported to be a rare species (R. Devi, Pers. Comm.).	eng
169671	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Competition from introduced carp threatens <em>Schizothorax</em> sp. In the area, so are likely to also have a detrimental affect on <em>S. kumaonensis</em>.  This species is also threatened by overexploitation, loss of habitat and siltation.	eng
169672	conservation	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Research into ecology, population trends, and direct threats to this species has been recommended.	eng
169672	distribution	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	This species is known from the Netravati River in Dharmasthala, Karnataka, the Kabani River (a tributary of the Kaveri River), and the Chalakudy River in Kerala.  These rivers fall within basins that cover an area of 20,216 km².	eng
169672	habitat	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	<em>N. petrubanarescui </em>is a benthopelagic species, that is found in pebbly torrential streams.	eng
169672	population	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	Population information is lacking for this species and needs to be studied.	eng
169672	threats	Devi, R. & Boguskaya, N., 2007	The habitat of the Western Ghats, where <em>N. petrubanarescui</em> is found, is being degraded as a result of urban and industrial expansion in the region; deforestation, pollution and damming are all causing declines in the habitat quality of the area.	eng
169676	conservation	Allen, G., 2009	This species is not found within any protected areas.	eng
169676	distribution	Allen, G., 2009	This species has one of the smallest ranges of all Indo-Pacific coral reef fishes, approximately 275 km<sup>2</sup>, extending between Samarai Island (10<sup>o</sup>36.50'S, 150<sup>o</sup>39.64'E) and the southeastern corner of Basilaki Island (10<sup>o</sup>39.68S, 151<sup>o</sup>04.50'E) in Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. The estimated area of occupancy within this habitat is 15 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
169676	habitat	Allen, G., 2009	This species is confined to a very limited area. Despite extensive searching in other parts of Milne Bay Province (which includes approximately 265,000 km<sup>2</sup> of ocean) during five visits, it was only seen in a small area. The species is apparently associated with relatively cool temperatures. Allen (1998) reported the occurrence of exceptionally low water temperatures in this area, between 22-24 <sup>o</sup>C, compared to 26-28 <sup>o</sup>C in other parts of Milne Bay Province. Perhaps strong currents that sweep southward through narrow passes between islands cause displacement of surface waters and consequent upwelling of colder waters from below.	eng
169676	population	Allen, G., 2009	The total population is thought to be less than 1,500 individuals. Over the past 25 years, a definite decline in population numbers has been observed (G. Allen pers. comm. 2010).	eng
169676	threats	Allen, G., 2009	The threats to this species are not well understood. The species is clearly dependent on a pattern of cool-water upwelling from depth. Climate-associated changes in ocean circulation and increasing temperatures may be associated with the observed decrease in population numbers.	eng
169677	conservation	Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B., Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Silva, A. de & Amarasinghe, T., 2008	The holotype of this species was collected in the Dothalugala Man and Biosphere Reserve (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). The species has been recorded from the Knuckles Forest Reserve (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). Further research into the ecological requirements and threats to this species are needed. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for school students and communities about this species. Protection of areas of suitable habitat are needed, as is restoration of degraded areas (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).	eng
169677	distribution	Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B., Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Silva, A. de & Amarasinghe, T., 2008	This recently described species is restricted to the Knuckles Mountains (= Dumbara Hills) of central Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006, Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). Animals have been collected at altitudes of around 1,000 (Gammaduwa) to 1,550 m (Dotalugala) asl.	eng
169677	habitat	Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B., Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Silva, A. de & Amarasinghe, T., 2008	Animals have mostly been observed in areas of abandoned and in-use cardamon plantations containing large trees (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006), however, it has also been recorded from moist sub-montane forest and the pygmy forest formations of the Knuckles Range (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.). It is an arboreal species, most frequently observed resting on tree trunks or branches (Samarawickrama <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006). It is an ovoviviparous species.	eng
169677	population	Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B., Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Silva, A. de & Amarasinghe, T., 2008	It has only rarely been collected or observed. There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169677	threats	Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B., Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S., Samarawickrama, V.A.P., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Silva, A. de & Amarasinghe, T., 2008	Although the species can be found in cardamon plantations the understorey of this habitat is seasonally cleared, increasing the threat of predation. Areas of natural pygmy forest habitat are currently being lost through die-back. The species is additionally threatened by loss of habitat resulting from fires set to clear land for agricultural use (P. Samarawickrama pers. comm.).	eng
169679	conservation	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	<p>There appear to be no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is not known whether this species occurs in any marine protected areas.</p>	eng
169679	distribution	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from Sulawesi (Indonesia), Palau and a single specimen from southern Japan, with unconfirmed reports from American Samoa. It likely occurs in intervening areas, but has escaped attention due to its deep dwelling habits. It occurs at depths of 5-155 m, although it is known from less than 120 m by only one juvenile specimen at Miyazaki, Japan.	eng
169679	habitat	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	It occurs on deep, outer reef slopes and drop-offs, in small caves and among large rubble.	eng
169679	population	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no information on the population of this species, although it appears to be relatively common in its habitat in Palau. It is presumed to be stable.	eng
169679	threats	Pyle, R. & Craig, M.T., 2009	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It appears to have a wide distribution and occurs at depths that are not easily accessible, without substantial habitat loss.	eng
169687	conservation	Cogger, H., 2009	This species can be found within protected areas. Further research is needed into the population trends and threats of this species.	eng
169687	distribution	Cogger, H., 2009	This species is distributed in eastern, southern and western Australian waters. It also ranges across the Bass Strait Islands and Tasmania.	eng
169687	habitat	Cogger, H., 2009	This species inhabits water-associated areas such as riparian woodlands and watercourses, feeding on amphibians and bird hatchlings on certain islands.	eng
169687	population	Cogger, H., 2009	The population densities of this snake may be extremely high (Firmage and Shine 1996). However, the population in the Flinders Range is in decline (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993).	eng
169687	threats	Cogger, H., 2009	The Flinders Range subpopulation is being threatened by overgrazing, clearance of habitat, soil erosion, water pollution, inappropriate fire regimes, and loss of food to trout, an introduced competitor (Cogger <em>et al</em> 1993). However, these factors are not thought to constitute major threats to the species as a whole.	eng
169695	conservation	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Pupin, F. & Riservato, E., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the potential threats of this species and population monitoring are needed due to its restricted range.	eng
169695	distribution	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Pupin, F. & Riservato, E., 2009	This species is endemic to Socotra Island, Yemen, where it is known from 40 localities (Sindaco <em>et al</em>. 2008). This island has an area of 3,625 km²<sup></sup>. It does not occur on the associated islands of Abd al Kuri, Samha and Darsa (Rösler and Wranik 2006).	eng
169695	habitat	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Pupin, F. & Riservato, E., 2009	<p>Recent research (Sindaco <em>et al.</em> 2008, Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et a</span>l. in prep.) showed that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. trachyrhinus</span> is fairly common in different habitats including the widespread Croton bushlands, barren stony plains, vegetated sand dunes, sparse and dense shrublands, wadi areas. During diurnal transects it was found under stones; at night it was observed active on ground and also on trunks of bushes and on <span style="font-style: italic;">Tamarix </span>bark (Sindaco&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008, Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). &#160;<em>H. trachyrhinus</em> has been reported up to at least 1,000 m (Schätti and Desvoignes, 1999).&#160;</p>	eng
169695	population	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Pupin, F. & Riservato, E., 2009	The species is fairly common in different habitats of the island&#160;(Razzetti <em>et al.</em>&#160;in prep.).	eng
169695	threats	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Pupin, F. & Riservato, E., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting the species. However, habitat degradation through grazing and urban development may be causing local declines in the quality of shrubland on Socotra Island.	eng
169698	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
169698	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the upland areas of the Albany region, from the Suurberg to the Great Fish River (Branch 1998). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,113 km².	eng
169698	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits sandstone and shale outcrops in karroid thicket and grassy fynbos (Branch 1998). It lives on small rocky outcrops, under thin flakes and under large rocks.	eng
169698	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information for this species.	eng
169698	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats affecting this species. A recent study by Rouget <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that 30% of the Cape Floristic Region is currently transformed by agriculture, urbanization and invasive plants. The grassy fynbos habitat contains 25% agricultural land cover, with 65% of the remaining area currently invaded by alien plants at low densities and 5.9% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Degradation of the succulent thicket habitat has been attributed to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing of land for agriculture, fuel-wood collection, invasion by introduced plants, mining and urbanization (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2004). After an analysis of the contemporary situation, Palmer <em>et al.</em> (2004) conclude that the natural thicket habitat "remains under serious threat", as 75.5% has been assessed as moderately to severely degraded.<br/><br/>This species occurs in the upland areas of the Albany region, in an area with few urban areas. As such, it is unlikely that the species is affected by threats associated with increased urbanization. Fuel-wood collection and mining are likely to present localized threats only. It is unknown to what extent this gecko is threatened by the introduction of non-native plants. At present, conversion of land to agriculture and overgrazing may present the main threats to this species.	eng
169699	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Insufficiently Known' and possibly 'Rare'. &#160;Most of its range falls within Richtersveld National Park, which although degraded by small stock grazing and mining activities, is a protected area (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010). Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species.	eng
169699	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species occurs in Richtersveld, South Africa, and adjacent southern Namibia (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1997). In Namibia, it is known only from Macmillan's Pass, near Rosh Pinah, Karas District. This species is likely to be found in other areas as it is thought that only 30% of this species' range is in Namibia.	eng
169699	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species occurs on small rocky outcrops in the arid Succulent Karoo shrubland. It shelters under granite flakes on isolated boulders. Branch (1998) remarks "very localized; rarely more than one or two individuals on a boulder".	eng
169699	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is reported to be 'possibly rare' (Griffin 2003).	eng
169699	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	The primary threat to the Karroo habitat of this species is habitat degradation due to overgrazing. Degradation is most severe on communally grazed lands (Seymour and Dean 1999) and overgrazing in this region of South Africa has been shown to have negative impacts on vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999).	eng
169700	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring and research into the population numbers and threats of this species is needed. Effective management may help to reduce pressure on the natural habitat of this species.	eng
169700	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the Western Cape fold mountains, from Bokkeveldberge in the north, through the Cedarberg and adjacent mountain ranges, to Ceres (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>It is also found on the isolated Piketberg (Bauer <em>et al.</em> 1997). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 9,559 km².<sup></sup>	eng
169700	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species usually inhabits summit sandstone outcrops in mountain fynbos, but is also found in coastal renosterveld (Branch 1998).	eng
169700	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
169700	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats to this species. At present 7.5% of the mountain fynbos habitat is under agricultural land uses (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003), with pine plantations driving much of the conversion (Branch 1998). Invasive alien plants also threaten the montane fynbos, as 90% of the mountain fynbos has been invaded at low densities, with 2.3% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unlikely that this low-level invasion of non-native plants is presenting a threat to this species, and agriculture is still a localized threat only in the mountain fynbos.<br/><br/>The coastal renosterveld is perhaps a more altered habitat, with 80.6% under agricultural land use, 17.1% invaded at low densities by alien plants, and 1.1% invaded at medium to high densities (Rouget <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). While agriculture may pose a significant threat to the species in this habitat, it makes up the minority of this species' range.	eng
169714	conservation	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Reserva  Nacional de Paracas and Lomas de Lachay (M. Lundberg pers. comm., A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). Further research into the population numbers, habitat and threats to this species are required, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
169714	distribution	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is found in the coastal desert of Peru, from Huacho (Lima)  southward to Paracas (Ica) and Aguada de Loma (Arequipa). (Icochea 1998, A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 750 m above sea level. Its estimated extent of occurrence is 5,811 km².	eng
169714	habitat	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is found primarily in coastal sand dunes and on beaches, but it is also found in inland hyper-arid habitats (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).	eng
169714	population	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is generally rare; populations occur at low densities in the desert (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).	eng
169714	threats	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of urban and agricultural expansion. This is likely to be causing population declines in the abundance of this species.	eng
169746	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Other than general habitat conservation, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169746	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Luzon, Polilo, Catanduanes and Tablas. Populations have been reported from between 100 and 1,400 m asl.	eng
169746	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is a forest obligate, found in dipterocarp, old growth and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from under rotting leaves and logs and on the open forest floor.	eng
169746	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is fairly abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
169746	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to some populations of this species.	eng
169747	conservation	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Custodio, C., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary and is probably present within additional protected areas. Further studies are need to better determine the distribution of this species.	eng
169747	distribution	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Custodio, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Malabutuan, Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary (950 to 1,200 m asl), Agusan, Hilong-Hilong and Mount Apo. The map of this species distribution remains provisional. It has an elevational range of 950 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
169747	habitat	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Custodio, C., 2007	The natural history of this species is poorly known. The type series were collected among rocks on stream bed in tropical moist forest at 600 to 750 m asl. It appears to need shaded riverine habitat rather than primary forest, although further studies are needed into the adaptability of this species to habitat modification.	eng
169747	population	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Custodio, C., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169747	threats	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Custodio, C., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species. It is presumably threatened by nickel (the area of Hamiguitan) and iron mining activities within its range.	eng
169748	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The few known specimens were collected in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park. There is a need for additional research, including field surveys, to better determine the range of this and other <em>Luperosuarus</em> species. Habitat protection is needed throughout much of the species known and possible range.	eng
169748	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This recently described species is currently known only from the type locality, 'a forested area in the center of the NW Panay Peninsula' on the island of Panay in the Philippines (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is suspected that the species is (or may have been) more widely distributed in forested areas on the Philippines islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Guimara and Masbate (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). The species was found at 450 m asl.	eng
169748	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	Eggs of this species were attached to a dead <em>Pandanus</em> plant, close to a small river in slightly disturbed, primary lowland limestone forest (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007). There have been a few sightings of adults on tree stems within the forest during nighttime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Possible records from the island of Negros are from secondary forest edge to primary limestone forest. Captive specimens were found to prefer crevices in bark when inactive during the day (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
169748	population	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is at present only known from three recently collected specimens. This may be a difficult to survey arboreal species, or it might be naturally rare.	eng
169748	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The general threats to this species are likely to be logging and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169749	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It is not known whether viable populations of this species are within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve remaining areas or patches of suitable lowland forest. Additional research is needed into the current distribution and population size of this species.	eng
169749	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where there are records from the islands of Luzon (including Bataan), Mindoro, Sibuyan, Panay and eastern Mindanao (Diuata Range). Recently, it has rarely been recorded during surveys, with collections only from Marinduque Island, Panay (at 200 m asl), and the mountains of northern Luzon (about 500 m asl).	eng
169749	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This is an arboreal species that feeds upon small lizards and skinks. On Panay it has been recorded within both primary and secondary lowland tropical moist forests, and in sparsely populated cultivated areas close to forest. It seems possible that this species needs some forest cover to persist. An clutch of egs have been recorded from a tree hole.	eng
169749	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	While there is little population information available for this species, it appears to have declined significantly since the 1940s.	eng
169749	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is seriously threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest within the Philippines, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture), extraction of timber, conversion of land to plantations, and mining activities.	eng
169750	conservation	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that this species is present in the Central Cebu Protected Landscape. There is a need to relocate this species and to better determine its taxonomic status.	eng
169750	distribution	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known from a single collection (unspecified locality) from the island of Cebu in the Philippines (Savage 1950).	eng
169750	habitat	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species. Many of the other members of the genus are fossorial forest dependent animals.	eng
169750	population	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
169750	threats	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possibly threatened by deforestation. The island of Cebu is largely limestone, with very few areas containing suitable deep soil, most of these sites have been converted to agricultural use (including the application of inorganic pesticides).	eng
169751	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is present within a protected area, and may be within the Mount Pangasugan protected area. Further studies are needed into the natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169751	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the islands of Leyte (recorded from the localities of Burawen and Mahaplag) and Samar. It is known from 50 to 400 m asl.	eng
169751	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a semi-aquatic species, associated with streams, rivers, rocks and crevices in the forest and at the forest edge (Gaulke 2004; J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169751	population	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is considered to be a fairly common species in suitable habitat.	eng
169751	threats	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The habitat of this species is being lost relatively quickly through commercial logging and conversion of land to other uses, including mining activities and local 'kaingin' agriculture.	eng
169752	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional taxonomic work is needed to better understand the relationship between the four subspecies.	eng
169752	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It is represented by four subspecies; <em>B.b. boulengeri</em> from the islands of Polillo, southwest Luzon and Marinduque; <em>B.b. boholensis</em> from Bohol island; <em>B.b. mindorensis</em> from Mindoro Island; and <em>B.b. taylori</em> from Panay, Negros, Cebu, Ponson, Poro, Pan de Azucar, Inampulugan, Danjugan and Siquijor Islands (Brown and Rabor 1967, Brown and Alcala 1960, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It occurs between sea level and 800 m asl.	eng
169752	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a fossorial species found underneath rotting logs, in leaf litter and amongst similar ground cover in primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It has also been found in coconut plantations close to forest (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000)	eng
169752	population	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	In general, it is not considered to be an especially rare species.	eng
169752	threats	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is threatened through the conversion of forest to agricultural land, and deforestation through logging for timber.	eng
169753	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169753	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros (Negros-Canlaon, Cuernos de Negro), Panay (Pan de Azucar [Alcala, 1969]), Pan de Azucar and Masbate. It ranges between sea level and 1,600 m asl.	eng
169753	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a forest species. It is found primarily on the forest floor under leaves and logs and occasionally on the lower tree trunks. It is often seen along forest streams but not in brightly sunlit areas. This species has not been found in young secondary forest but has been taken in abaca groves adjacent to the forest. It ranges from near sea level to about 1,200 m asl in the submontane forest of Negros.	eng
169753	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	It appears to have declined in density on Negros. It is abundant in the lowland dipterocarp forest (primary and disturbed) on NW-Panay Peninsula (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
169753	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although further studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
169754	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It seems likely that this species is present within protected areas in the northern part of the Sierra Madre mountain range. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169754	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This poorly known snake is endemic to the Philippines, where it is has been recorded from Luzon (the Sierra Madre), and more recently from Camiguin Norte, Babuyan Claro and Dalupiri (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007; Broad and Oliveros 2005). It is generally a lowland species occurring between 50 and 800 m asl.	eng
169754	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This mostly arboreal species is known from both pristine and disturbed old growth tropical moist forest, but has also been collected from secondary forest and forest edge habitats.	eng
169754	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	As with other members of the genus, this species naturally occurs at low densities.	eng
169754	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is generally threatened by ongoing habitat loss and fragmentation, mostly related to slash and burn agricultural practices, and logging operations (including illegal extraction).	eng
169755	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found within protected areas of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range (Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Quirino Protected Landscape, Casecnan Protected Landscape) and the Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape.	eng
169755	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the central and southern Sierra Madre Mountain Range (including Mount Banahao) of Luzon Island. Reports of this species from  Mount Twin Peaks Botanical Garden in Baggao, Cagayan Province need verification (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It ranges between 300 and 1,200 m asl.	eng
169755	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is associated with riparian vegetation alongside cool mountain streams in primary forest, degraded primary forest fragments, and secondary forest.	eng
169755	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is fairly common in preferred habitats.	eng
169755	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation. Diversion of water from mountain streams for agricultural purposes is a potential threat to the species.	eng
169756	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found within Balbalasang National Park, and Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. Further studies are needed to fully determine the range of this species.	eng
169756	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Batan and Itbayat in the Batanes Islands, from Calayan Island, and from the high mountains of northern Luzon Island, with a recent report that the species is also present on the coast of northern Luzon (R. Brown, pers. com. 2007). It has been recorded up to 900 m asl.	eng
169756	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found on cliffs in the mountains of northern Luzon. It is found mainly at the forest edge, and its preferred habitat appeared to be scrubby bamboo.	eng
169756	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This is generally considered to be a common species.	eng
169756	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The clearing of suitable habitat for other uses is probably the main threat to this species.	eng
169757	conservation	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is found within Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park on Sibuyan Island. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169757	distribution	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found on the islands of Romblon, Tablas and Sibuyan at low elevations.	eng
169757	habitat	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Animals have been recorded from both undisturbed and secondary forest, cultivated land (including coconut groves [M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008]) and residential areas. Specimens have been collected from bark crevices on tree stumps, and from rock crevices and limestone caves.	eng
169757	population	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is abundant within its small range.	eng
169757	threats	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	While there is very little forest left within the range of this species, and mining for marble is taking place in the area, the species seems to be very tolerant of a range of habitats and there appear to be no major threats.	eng
169758	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang Natural Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to the species.	eng
169758	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This little known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has only been recorded from the type locality of Dapitan Peak (at 1,700 m asl) on the Zamboanga Peninsula of the island of Mindanao. There has been little surveying work undertaken on adjacent mountains, and it is possible that the species ranges more widely (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169758	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The holotype was collected in transitional submontane-montane forest at about 1,700 m asl. Nothing further is known about the natural history of this species.	eng
169758	population	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	It is presently known only from the holotype described in 1963.	eng
169758	threats	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There are perhaps no threats to this species as the area of collection is high and steep, and unsuitable for local agriculture ('kaingin'). It is possible that this species may be impacted by climate change, however, further details of its distribution and natural history are needed to better determine this.	eng
169759	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The species is known from a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the two recognized subspecies.	eng
169759	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines. There are two subspecies, <em>S. c. coxi</em> is known from the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Samar and Camiguin. <em>S. c. divergens</em> has been recorded from Panay, southwestern Luzon, Marinduque and Mindoro Islands. It ranges from sea level to about 1,600 m asl.	eng
169759	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	Populations are largely restricted to old growth and secondary tropical moist forest. Animals have been collected from under the detritus of rotting logs on the forest floor in dipterocarp and lower submontane forests in the Mount Halcon area on Mindoro Island. Occasionally, they are found in and near stream beds, but appear to be mainly a forest species.<br/><br/>Animals have been recorded in the lowland dipterocarp forest in northern Panay (Municipalities of Pandan and Sebaste) juveniles were observed oftenly along watercourses and in dried up streambeds, while adults were seen more frequently in distance to the water (M. Gaulke pers. obs.).	eng
169759	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is not very abundant.	eng
169759	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	General ongoing habitat loss through deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
169760	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Rico, E.L., 2007	In view of the species wide distribution, it seems likely that it is present within a number of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread species.	eng
169760	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is a widespread endemic of the Philippines. It has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Mindoro, Tablas, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Catanduanes, Mindanao Lubang, and Basilan. It has a wide elevational range, being found from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
169760	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This snake may be found burrowing in humus under rotting logs, under flat rocks, and between tree buttresses (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It has been recorded from disturbed habitats (for instance under logs in coconut plantations) on Luzon and Catanduanes.	eng
169760	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Rico, E.L., 2007	In general this appears to be an abundant species.	eng
169760	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169761	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Jose, R., 2007	The species is widely distributed and is in many protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169761	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Mindanao faunal region. There are two subspecies. <em>B. g. gracilis</em> has been recorded from the northern and southern parts of Mindanao and from Basilan Island; <em>B. g. hilong</em> is known from northeastern parts of Mindanao, Bohol, Camiguin, Samar and Leyte islands. It has been recorded from around 50 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
169761	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Jose, R., 2007	Animals can be encountered under general detritus and logs on the forest floor. They are also found under dry, rotting coconut logs close to sea level. It is present in a wide range of habitats, from forest to disturbed areas.	eng
169761	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is very abundant.	eng
169761	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is locally threatened by deforestation and the burning of groundcover in coconut plantations.	eng
169762	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is found within numerous protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169762	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Marinduque, Mindoro, Calotcot, Tablas, Sibuyan, Lubang, Camiguin Norte and Masbate (Brown and Alcala 1980). It ranges from close to sea level to about 800 m asl.	eng
169762	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species has been recorded from both primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and has also been within coconut groves and similar plantations. Animals seem to be largely terrestrial and are found in leaf litter, under rotting logs, and amongst similar ground cover (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169762	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is fairly common in forest habitats.	eng
169762	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	It seems possible that severe deforestation is a localized threat to this species.	eng
169763	conservation	Sy, E., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species is present in a number of protected areas. It is listed on CITES Appendix II. There is a need for further research into the impact of collection and persecution of populations on this species.	eng
169763	distribution	Sy, E., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This widespread species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Dinagat, Siargo, Camiguin Sur, Bohol, Leyte, Samar and Mindano (including Bukidnon, Agusan Province, Lanao Province, Misamis Occidental and the Zamboanga Peninsula). It has been recorded from sea level to around 800 m asl.	eng
169763	habitat	Sy, E., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species has been recorded from a wide range of habitats from tropical moist forest, to various modified habitats including rice fields, pineapple plantations, coconut groves and rural villages.	eng
169763	population	Sy, E., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species appears to be generally common, although there are suggestions of declines in parts of its range (such as the Zamboanga Peninsula [A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007]).	eng
169763	threats	Sy, E., Custodio, C., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species is locally threatened through direct persecution (including local government bounties in some areas) and collection for traditional medicinal use and food. There is some export of this species to China, possibly for use in traditional medicine (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169764	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas on Mindanao. There is a need for additional field surveys to better determine the range of this species and to more fully understand the species' ecological requirements. Taxonomic studies are needed to clarify the relationship between this lizard and other Mindanao <em>Tropidophorus</em> sp.	eng
169764	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from a number of localities, including Mount Apo, Dapitan, Mataling River Falls, Cotabato and the south side of Mount Hilong-Hilong. It has an elevational range of 450 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
169764	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There is little known about the natural history of this species. Animals have been recorded from damp soil under logs or rocks with tropical moist forest (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is not known if the species can adapt to habitat modification. It is an ovoviviparous species.	eng
169764	population	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169764	threats	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species.	eng
169765	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	It is not known if this snake is present within any protected areas. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable forest habitat. Additional surveys are urgently needed to locate viable populations of this species, and to learn more about the species ecological needs.	eng
169765	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from many islands. Although there are numerous old records of this species, it has been rarely detected during recent surveys, with the only recent collections being from Marinduque Island, Panay Island (at 200 m asl), and the mountains of northern Luzon (at about 500 m asl).	eng
169765	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	This is an arboreal snake that may be restricted to lowland tropical moist forest. Additional studies into the natural history of this species are needed to confirm this.	eng
169765	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	While there is little population information available for this species, it appears to have declined significantly since the 1940s.	eng
169765	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species is seriously threatened by the ongoing loss of lowland forest within the Philippines, principally through conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture), extraction of timber, conversion of land to plantations, and mining activities.	eng
169766	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It has been recorded from protected areas throughout the island of Palawan. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species.	eng
169766	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Palawan, Busuanga and Culion Islands, and seems likely to be present on Dumaran and Balabac Islands. It has been collected from sea level up to 975 m asl.	eng
169766	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It has been recorded from primary and secondary forest, and also from disturbed areas of habitat.	eng
169766	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This snake is both abundant and widespread.	eng
169766	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There are no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
169767	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The species is present in different protected areas (e.g., NW-Panay Peninsula, Central Panay Protected areas). It is protected by National Legislation and listed on CITES Appendix II. There is a need for monitoring and regulation of the trade in this species.	eng
169767	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Cebu, Masbate, Guimaras, Romblon, Ticao, Boracay, Sibuyan, Tablas, Siquijor and Bantayan. It occurs from sea level to around 700 m asl.	eng
169767	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species occurs in a wide range of habitats, including dipterocarp lowland forest and cultivated areas. Preferred habitat are mangroves, with the species being common in fishpond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals are common in distrubed habitats (such as coconut plantations) and can be found along beach fronts.	eng
169767	population	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	It is quite common to abundant over much of its range (although apparently rare on Cebu).	eng
169767	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	It is threatened in parts of its range by overhunting for subsistence food, leather, the pet trade and for curios.	eng
169768	conservation	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	In view of the species wide range, it is presumably present in some protected areas. Awareness programmes are needed to reduce levels of persecution. Better control and enforcement of legislation to regulate the exotic food trade is also needed. International trade in this species is regulated by CITES.	eng
169768	distribution	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This generally lowland species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, and Marinduque. It is found up to elevations of 800 m asl.	eng
169768	habitat	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This terrestrial species is found in a wide range of habitats, from primary tropical moist forest to agricultural and urban areas.	eng
169768	population	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Historically, this species was described as common in coastal areas. It appears to now be more rare.	eng
169768	threats	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L., Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is widely persecuted, especially in and around agricultural areas. Animals are collected for the exotic food trade (within the Philippines), and to a much lesser degree, for the pet trade. This snake is also collected and used for anti-venom production by the Research Institute for Tropical Medicine (RITM).	eng
169769	conservation	Jose, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The species occurs within the Protected Area of the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). There is a proposed protected area in the Central Panay Mountains which would conserve populations of this snake. More surveys are needed on Panay to fully determine the habitat preferences of the species, and especially to better understand whether it can persist in disturbed habitats.	eng
169769	distribution	Jose, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Panay Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Mount Madja-as, Barangay Alojipan, in the Municipality of Culasi, Antique Province (Brown <em>et. al</em>. 2000), and recently from the Pandan Peninsula in northwestern Panay (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). There is a record from the Panay Penisula, at 450 m asl (Gaulke 2001) as <em>Hologerrhum sp</em>., and recently in the northern part of the West Panay Mountain Range, at about 300 m asl. It has been recorded between 200 and 1,600 m asl.	eng
169769	habitat	Jose, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The habitat from which <em>H. dermali </em>was collected on Mt. Madja-as has been classified as the transition zone between mixed dipterocarp (submontane) and mossy (upper montane) forests (Whitmore 1984, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997). The forest consisted of two strata (a canopy of 10 m, and a subcanopy of 3–4 m with emergent trees as high as 18 m); herb and shrub layer vegetation was also abundant. The forest near the collection site was mossy and contained high densities of epiphytic ferns and orchids. Topography was qualitatively characterized as steep, with numerous valleys bordered by sheer rock escarpments and forest-covered ridges (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). Specimens were collected close to fast flowing streams, and can also be found inside forest far from water (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Animals have also been found under rocks and rotting logs inside primary forest on limestone substrate (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169769	population	Jose, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	It appears to be a naturally rare species, with very few specimens known from Mount Madja-as. Only a single specimen has been found during three years of surveys on the Pandan Peninsula (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169769	threats	Jose, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	Brown <em>et al</em>. (2000) report that this species is presumably reliant on the closed-canopy rain forests of the western portions of Panay. Accordingly, most should be considered severely threatened by deforestation (see Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997). Recent survey work in the northwestern portions of Panay indicates that <em>Hologerrhum dermali</em> occurs in forested habitats at lower elevations as well as the montane localities. Unfortunately, the low elevation forests of Panay Island have nearly all been removed by an aggressive timber industry in the central Visayas (Brown <em>et. al</em>. 2000).	eng
169770	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, M., Afuang, L., Rico, E. &  Duya, M.R., 2007	The species is found in a number of protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169770	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, M., Afuang, L., Rico, E. &  Duya, M.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Masbate, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Catanduanes, Leyte and Samar Islands. On Luzon, the species appears to be restricted to the southern part of the island. This species ranges from sea level to around 800 m asl.	eng
169770	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, M., Afuang, L., Rico, E. &  Duya, M.R., 2007	Animals have been found under moist humus and logs on the forest floor, and under rocks and logs in the beds of forest streams. It very abundant in this habitat, but does not appear to be restricted to it, being found in secondary forest and disturbed areas, and in agricultural areas adjacent to forest.	eng
169770	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, M., Afuang, L., Rico, E. &  Duya, M.R., 2007	This species is very common in appropriate habitat.	eng
169770	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, M., Afuang, L., Rico, E. &  Duya, M.R., 2007	Severe habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species. The species is traded at a low level (mainly within the local pet trade), and this seems unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
169771	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
169771	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Polillo, Negros, Bohol, Marinduque, Sicogon and Gigante North (McDiarmid 1999, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). The four synonyms <em>Typhlops dendrophis</em>, <em>Typhlops longicauda</em>, <em>Typhlops mindanensis</em> and <em>Typhlops rugosa</em> were all collected from the locality of Bunawan, Agusan del Sur, in Mindanao.	eng
169771	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	Animals have been found in epiphytic ferns in the trees of moist forests at low to medium elevations (Alcala 1986, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
169771	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species appears to be known from very few specimens, some of which were destroyed during World War II.	eng
169771	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known, but presumably include deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169772	conservation	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	It is possible that the recent Philippines Cave Act legislation may have reduced guano collection within the species range. It seems possible that this gecko is present in most of the protected areas of Palawan.	eng
169772	distribution	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This pecies is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on the island of Palawan at low elevations and is also present on the islands of Dumaran, Busuanga, Calauit, Culion. It is likely to range onto the small islets north of Palawan, since it is found in rocky areas. It is found from around sea level to about 900 m asl.	eng
169772	habitat	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is present in both tropical moist forest and areas of rocky substrate, such as karst formations and caves. Animals have been found beneath loose tree bark, on boulders near streams and in canyons. The species lays eggs in rock crevices and in similar sites, with animals seeming to return to the same places to nest.	eng
169772	population	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	It can be an abundant species, especially within cave habitats.	eng
169772	threats	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	Populations in caves are often thretaned by the mining of bat guano, and other more general disturbances. Within the Victoria Range mining is considered to be a major threat. It is not hunted or collected for trade.	eng
169773	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Brown, R., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang Natural Park and the Agusan Marsh protected area. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
169773	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including Mount Malindang), Dinagat, Siargao, Leyte and Samar. It occurs from around 400 to 1,100 m asl.	eng
169773	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is associated with lowland riverine forest. It can be found in both primary and slightly disturbed secondary forest habitats. Animals are often encountered on large boulders close to the fast-flowing streams. Taylor (1915), noted that specimens collected at the type locality (Bunawan in the upper Agusan River Valley) were mostly collected from a pile of rotting logs, with a single specimen found in a tree hole a couple of metres above the ground.	eng
169773	population	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Brown, R., 2007	In general this is a very common species.	eng
169773	threats	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Brown, R., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation from logging operations and conversion of land to other use is considered to be the major threat to this species.	eng
169774	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	The species is found within Aurora Memorial National Park and Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. It may also occur in the Quirino Protected Landscape. Further surveys are needed to determine the range and ecology of this species.	eng
169774	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only on the island of Luzon.  It has been recorded from Mount Maaling-aling, in Aurora Province, and there is a new record from the old town of Balbalan Proper. Two specimens of <em>Sphenomorphus</em> found in Quirino Province have been preliminarily identified as this species. It ranges from 400 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
169774	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Animals have been found under small stones, leaf litter, and other forest debris. It is known from both primary forest (such as mixed dipterocarp and mossy upper montane forest) and secondary growth.	eng
169774	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	The species is moderately common in Aurora Memorial National Park.	eng
169774	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, A., Diesmos, M., Duya, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species. There is selective logging ongoing even within formally protected areas.	eng
169775	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species is found within the Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169775	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species is known only from the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Lepanto, Bauko and Balbalasang in Mountain Province, of the Cordillera Region, northern Luzon Island. It occurs between 300 and 900 m asl.	eng
169775	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species seems to largely be a rare forest species, however, it was also collected in agricultural areas at two localities, indicating that it may not be forest obligate. An animal has been observed moving in the forest litter, along sun spots within the forest on dry ridges in Balbalasang.	eng
169775	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	It does not appear to be a very common species.	eng
169775	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.	eng
169776	conservation	Brown, R. & Duya, M.R., 2007	The species occurs in at least three protected areas (including Auroria Memorial National Park and Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park). There is a need to maintain areas of suitable forest for this species.	eng
169776	distribution	Brown, R. & Duya, M.R., 2007	The species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the island of Luzon in multiple localities along the Sierra Madre Mountain Range and few locaties in the Cordilleras. It is known from between 250 and 850 m asl.	eng
169776	habitat	Brown, R. & Duya, M.R., 2007	Animals are generally fossorial, and are usually found under logs and similar ground cover in both primary and secondary forest.	eng
169776	population	Brown, R. & Duya, M.R., 2007	The species seems to be fairly common in good forested areas.	eng
169776	threats	Brown, R. & Duya, M.R., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169777	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. There is a need to protect riparian habitat along streams used by this species. Additional studies into the systematic status of the subpopulations of this species is needed.	eng
169777	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Lubang, Luzon, Mindoro, Polillo, Catanduanes, Marinduque, Guimaras, Cebu, Panay and Negros. It has been recorded from between close to sea level to around 1,400 m asl.	eng
169777	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is found close to rocky rivers and streams, and other similar rocky freshwater habitats. It appears to be tolerant of a degree of habitat degradation, and has been reported near to villages. The main prey of the species are fish.	eng
169777	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This snake is reasonably common, especially in areas close to water.	eng
169777	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	It seems likely that general sources of water pollution, especially where they results in a decline of fish populations, represent a serious threat to this species.	eng
169778	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Rico, E., Jose, R. & Ramayla, S., 2007	It is present in the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape, Mount Apo National Park and Mount Kitanglad Natural Park. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.	eng
169778	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Rico, E., Jose, R. & Ramayla, S., 2007	This species has been recorded from the island of Mindanao (including Mount Kitanglad and Mount Apo), Camiguin Sur, Bohol, Samar and Leyte in the Philippines. Records from Mindoro may be in error and need further investigation (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It is also possibly present on the islands of Luzon and Polillo. The species' distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus interruptus</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>. It ranges from sea level to around 1,400 m asl.	eng
169778	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Rico, E., Jose, R. & Ramayla, S., 2007	Aniamls have often been recorded from secondary tropical lowland and edge forest habitats. It is most abundant in regenerating second growth (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169778	population	Gonzalez, J.C., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Rico, E., Jose, R. & Ramayla, S., 2007	This species is common in the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape on Bohol. It is uncommon on Samar.	eng
169778	threats	Gonzalez, J.C., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Rico, E., Jose, R. & Ramayla, S., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. There is some trade in this species for pets, however, at present levels it seems unlikely to represent a major threat to the species.	eng
169779	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Irawan watershed, situated within the Palawan Flora and Fauna Watershed Reserve. There have been no recent surveys for this species, and additional fieldwork is needed to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169779	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This little known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It seems to be known only from the area of Thumb Peak where animals have been collected at 100 to 300 m asl. There have been no recent surveys for this species.	eng
169779	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Specimens have been collected from the axils of fronds of arboreal ferns about 15 m above the forest floor in tall trees (Brown and Alcala 1978). It has not been recorded since the 1960s with few recent surveys taking place on Palawan.	eng
169779	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There is no clear information on the abundance of this species, which is currently known from a very few specimens.	eng
169779	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is presmably threatened by habitat loss resulting from deforestation by logging operations and the general conversion of forested land to other uses.	eng
169780	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	There is an urgent need to protect remaining areas of forest within the Sulu Archipelago. This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional field surveys are needed to locate any remaining populations of this species.	eng
169780	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Sibutu and Bubuan in the Sulu Archipelago. In view of the generally low sampling effort within its range, it is possible that the species occurs on Tawi-Tawi and other nearby islands.	eng
169780	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	While little is known concerning the natural history of this species, several specimens were observed actively climbing at the tops of a small tree in a degraded, low elevation, limestone forest on Sibutu Island (Gaulke 1995).	eng
169780	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169780	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is significantly threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and the conversion of land to other uses. The population on Sibutu observed by Gaulke (1995) might be extirpated, as during a subseqent visit to the site, the forest where they were observed was found to have been completely logged.	eng
169781	conservation	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The species is currently known only from the relatively well managed Mount Malindang Natural Park (C. Custodio pers. comm. 2007). Further field studies are needed to determine whether the species is endemic to Mount Malindang, or whether it occurs more widely on the Zamboanga Peninsula. It is possible that the species is associated with mountain forest streams, and natural history studies are needed to learn more about this snake.	eng
169781	distribution	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from two localities on Mount Malindang, Zamboanga del Norte Province on the island of Mindanao. It is possible that it may be present in similar habitat on other mountains in the Zamboanga Peninsula (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is known from around 1,000 m asl.	eng
169781	habitat	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This is a tropical moist forest species recorded alongside mountain streams, it is present in primary and possibly secondary forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The forest on Mount Malindang begins about as low as 800 m asl, and the species may be present in these lower elevation forests (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). It may be an oviparous species.	eng
169781	population	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There are currently only two rrecords of this snake, both from Mount Malindang.	eng
169781	threats	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The leading threats to the forest on Mount Malindang are illegal timber extraction, and expanding agriculture (seemingly especially on the southeastern side) (C. Custodio and A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169782	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, reproduction and ecology of this species.	eng
169782	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from the Philippines, where the indistinct collection details of the type series, only 'Philippines' is recorded, means that the range remains very poorly known (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169782	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species.	eng
169782	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype and paratype.	eng
169782	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species remain unknown.	eng
169783	conservation	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is found in multiple protected areas, including on Samar and Leyte. Additional research is needed into the possible trade in this species for medicinal use.	eng
169783	distribution	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been collected on the islands of Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao and Samar. It is found at elevations of around 200 to 900 m asl.	eng
169783	habitat	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This appears to be a forest obligate species, restricted to primary and possibly mature second growth forest.	eng
169783	population	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This large-bodied species appears to occur at low densities. It has only been collected a few times in the recent past.	eng
169783	threats	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation (including for agricultural conversion) is the major threat to this species. Forest disturbance, for instance through selective logging, is likely also a threat. It is not known with certainty if this species is collected for traditional medicinal use, and further studies are needed to determine this.	eng
169784	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in a number of protected areas within its range. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
169784	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is widespread on Luzon, Mindoro (Sison 2001), Masbate, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Polilo and Catanduanes (though it is probably a species complex). It ranges from close to sea level to 1,100 m asl.	eng
169784	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This nocturnal species is found in a range of habitats (forests, secondary growth, highly disturbed areas, the edges of agricultural areas). It is a burrowing snake, found in both dry areas and near water, but may be slightly more common in riparian areas.	eng
169784	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The abundance of this species is not known.	eng
169784	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
169785	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species was collected within the Quirino Protected Landscape. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169785	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from Mount Lataan (at 900 m asl), on the western slopes of Sierra Madre mountain range, Barangay Disimungal, Municipality of Nagtipunan, Quirino Province.	eng
169785	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There is little infromation currently available on the habitat and ecology of the species. The single specimen was first observed gliding/parachuting from the canopy (estimated 8-15 m) and was collected where it landed at 1.5 m above the ground on the trunk of a large tree (70-70 cm dbh).	eng
169785	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is currently known only from a single specimen.	eng
169785	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The potential major threat to the species is habitat loss due to deforestation from logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169786	conservation	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species probably occurs in the Mount Maloindang protected area, although this requires confirmation. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, natural history and adaptability of this species.	eng
169786	distribution	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Camiguin and Mindanao. On Mindanao, it has been recorded from the Zamboanga del Norte, the area of Lake Lanao and Mount Busa. It has been recorded from around 350 to 1,500 m asl.	eng
169786	habitat	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	Animals have reportedly been collected in moist soil under rotting logs and rocks, and also among rocks of stream beds, within forested areas (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is not known how adaptable this species is to habitat modification.	eng
169786	population	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169786	threats	Diesmos, A., Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There is active logging in areas from which this species has been recorded (e.g., around Lake Lanao), and it is presumably additionally threatened by conversion of forest to other uses.	eng
169787	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The species occurs in protected areas in eastern Luzon including the Cordilleras, and Mount Isarog Natural Park in the Bicol Region. It has been recorded from Aurora Memorial National Park (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
169787	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This snake is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (in the Sierra Madre, Cordillera Region and Caramoan Peninsula) and Panay. The species has been collected at 850 m asl on Panay.	eng
169787	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	A specimen from Panay was collected on a rocky, sparsely vegetated mountain slope. On Luzon, the species was collected underneath rotten logs in primary and secondary forests (Brown <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is not known if the species can persist in disturbed habitats	eng
169787	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	It appears to be an uncommon species, and is known from fewer than 20 records.	eng
169787	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	Deforestation resulting rom the ongoing conversion of land to agricultural use by various means, and through logging operations at a number of scales are the major threats to this species.	eng
169788	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species has been recorded from protected areas on Luzon Island, from the Sibulan Watershed Reserve on Polillo Island and from proposed protected areas on Mindoro Island. Additional studies are needed to better determine the dependence of the species on forested areas.	eng
169788	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where it has been recorded from Batan, Luzon, Mindoro, Catanduanes and Polillo. Animals have been found between 125 and 850 m asl.	eng
169788	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species occurs in in a range of habitats, from primary forests to very disturbed second growth. It has been collected in forested streams and in agricultural areas away from water. Recent specimens were found crossing a road in Mount Palay-Palay, Cavite (coastal forest area).	eng
169788	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is patchily distributed and occurs at low abundances, but it is known from a wide elevational range on many islands.	eng
169788	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is potentially threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation (conversion of land to agricultural use and logging).	eng
169789	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169789	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This poorly known snake might be endemic to the Philippines, as it is known only from the 1846 holotype labelled "Manlia, Philippines" (Ota 2000). It is possible that the species was not collected from the Philippines, but was brought to the country and mistakenly tagged as collected in Manila.	eng
169789	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There appears to be little, if anything, known about the habitat or ecology of this species.	eng
169789	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
169789	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169790	conservation	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species has been recorded within a number of protected areas on Negros. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species. Specific research is needed into the persistence of populations in deforested areas.	eng
169790	distribution	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Cebu, Masbate, Panay, Pan de Azucar, and Calagna-an, and may be present on Guimaras Island. There are historical records from Luzon, Mindanao, and the Calamianes Islands, but presence on these islands needs to be verified.	eng
169790	habitat	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is mostly found in areas with primary, secondary or old growth tropical moist forest cover; it also appears to persist on islands without forest.	eng
169790	population	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It can be a fairly common species in parts of its range (such as on Negros Island).	eng
169790	threats	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation (and especially clear-cutting) may be the main threat to this species. However, it appears to persist on islands without forest.	eng
169791	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
169791	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This poorly known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon (including Mount Isarog), Tablas and Marinduque.	eng
169791	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	Little is known about the habitat or ecology of this species. It may be associated with forest habitats, however, this requires confirmation. It is not known is the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats.	eng
169791	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species. It appears to be known from very few specimens.	eng
169791	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169792	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species. It likely occurs within some protected areas.	eng
169792	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This poorly known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It has been collected recently from disturbed areas in low elevation, below 200 m asl (Irawan near Puerto Princesa, and near Brooke's Point in Southern Palawan), and appears to have a wide range on the island.	eng
169792	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	While there are few details available on the natural history of this species, it appears to be tolerant of habitat disturbance, with animals being found in highly degraded areas (such as bamboo stands).	eng
169792	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Little is known about this species, but it may possibly be widespread with a generally low abundance (this is typical of genus).	eng
169792	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
169793	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
169793	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it ias known only from the type locality of Anuling Mountain, at the eastern tip of the Caramoan Peninsula on Luzon Island. It was collected at 150m asl (Wynn and Leviton 1993, McDiarmid<em> et al</em>. 1999).	eng
169793	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	Further details are needed on the life history of this species.	eng
169793	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There is little information about the abundance of this species.	eng
169793	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169794	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	The area in which the species was found is protected within Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, abundance, threats, and conservation status of this poorly-known species.	eng
169794	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands, where it is known only from Luzon, with a single specimen collected at Balbalan and another at Kalinga, both collected in 1917. There is a record from Mindoro, although this may be in error. The specimens on Luzon were collected at around 850 m asl.	eng
169794	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this little-known snake.	eng
169794	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from two old 1917 specimens.	eng
169794	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. The area of Luzon where the species was collected is a mix of forest and agricultural areas, and has probably not changed much over the past 100 years.	eng
169795	conservation	Paguntalan, L.M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Twin Lakes Balinsasayaw Natural Park. Further field surveys are needed within remnant areas of forest on Negros to locate additional populations of this species. There is a need to actively protect areas of suitable forest habitat.	eng
169795	distribution	Paguntalan, L.M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Negros Island in the Philippines, where it has been reported from Cuernos de Negros and Ayungon, in the central part of the island (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It may be present in norther Negros, although this requires confirmations. It has an elevational range of 500 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
169795	habitat	Paguntalan, L.M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a fossorial to subfossorial species, found amongst the forest leaf litter, humus and rotting logs. It has been collected in both primary and secondary forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169795	population	Paguntalan, L.M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This snake appears to be naturally rare, and is known from very few specimens.	eng
169795	threats	Paguntalan, L.M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is restricted to forested areas. It is threatened by general deforestation resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use (slash and burn 'kaingin') and logging operations.	eng
169796	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. Additional studies are needed to better determine the current distribution of this species and to more clearly understand its adaptability to habitat modification.	eng
169796	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the south of the island of Negros in the Philippines, where there are records from the localities of the Lake Balinsasayao area; Camp Look-out; Valencia; Mount Talinis and Cuernos de Negros. The species is poorly surveyed, and may range over much of Negros. It is possible that the species is also present on the island of Panay, however this needs confirmation (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It ranges between 300 and 1,100 m asl.	eng
169796	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	This arboreal species has been recorded from dipterocarp and submontane tropical moist forests, and from coconut groves at Cuernos de Negros. It has been found at elevations of about 300 to 1,100 m. It is an ovoviparous species.	eng
169796	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	It appears to be abundant at Cuernos de Negros in coconut groves. It is only encountered through the use of very directed surveying methods.	eng
169796	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is threatened by ongoing deforestation in the lower elevations of Mount Talinis and Cuernos de Negros.	eng
169797	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M., Diesmos, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is found widely within and outside protected areas.	eng
169797	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M., Diesmos, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is enedmic to the Philippines. Based on specimens examined by Alcala and Brown (1980), the subspecies <em>S. j. jagori</em> is present on the islands of Basilan, Camiguin, Bohol, Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, Polillo, Marinduque, Luzon and Mindoro; with <em>S. j. grandis</em> occurring on the islands of Caluya, Cebu, Masbate, Negros, Panay, Sicogon, Guimaras and Gigante. It is found between sea level and 1,000 m asl.	eng
169797	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M., Diesmos, M. & Rico, E., 2007	Animals can be found on the forest floor throughout the dipterocarp and submontane zones. Populations can persist within older secondary forest and abaca (banana and hemp plantations) patches bordered by forest. The species can also be found in villages and agricultural areas.	eng
169797	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M., Diesmos, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This is a common to abundant species.	eng
169797	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M., Diesmos, M. & Rico, E., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
169798	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	The species has been recorded from Mount Malindang Natural Park, and may be present within the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary. There is a need for further field surveys in order to learn more about the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known species.	eng
169798	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the Diuata mountain range, Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Malindang, Agusan Marsh, Mount Apo (Baracatan), and Mount Busa (South Cotabato). It may be present throughout much of the mid-elevation forest of Mindanao (A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It has been reported from sites between 600 and 1,200 m asl, but has also been recorded from the lower elevation Agusan Marsh.	eng
169798	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	This may be a primary tropical moist forest obligate. Other species in the genus have been recorded from secondary forest, and this may also the the case with this snake.	eng
169798	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	It is known only from a few scattered records.	eng
169798	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	The major threat to this species is deforestation, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use (including slash and burn 'kaingin' cultivation), development of pineapple plantations, logging (including illegal extraction) activities, and mining.	eng
169799	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species may be present in the Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
169799	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This recently described species is currently known only from the area of Barangay Balbalasang in the Municipality of Balbalan, Kalinga Province, Luzon Island, the Philippines (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). Specimens have been collected between 900 and 1,050 m asl (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
169799	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been collected in an area now dominated by pine forest and grassland or brushy secondary growth, and from cultivated land surrounded by a lower montane to midmontane transitional tropical moist forest dominated by oaks (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). The species is fossorial or semi-fossorial, and was probably collected by chance in agricultural areas where the ground had been disturbed (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007). Although it might be able to persist in these modified habitats, it is likely to have an original habitat of montane tropical moist forest, and it is possible that both known specimens were washed down from higher mountains during heavy rains (Wallach <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
169799	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It appears to be currently known only from the small type series.	eng
169799	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169800	conservation	Demegillo, A. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is present in the NW-Panay Protected Area. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.	eng
169800	distribution	Demegillo, A. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Panay (collected at Makato and likely to range more widely), Inampulugan (between Guimaras Island and Negros Island), Boracay (northwest of Panay Island) and Sibuyan (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It might also be present on the islands of Negros and Guimaras (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It ranges from close to sea level to around 330 m asl.	eng
169800	habitat	Demegillo, A. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This fossorial species has been recorded amongst ground cover in patches of secondary forest, coconut groves and bamboo groves (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
169800	population	Demegillo, A. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169800	threats	Demegillo, A. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this adaptable species.	eng
169801	conservation	Brown, R. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is found in Mount Canlaon Natural Park on the island of Negros. It is relatively common in the NW-Panay Protected Area. There is a need to conserve remaining areas of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution of the species, and the report of this species from Luzon Island.	eng
169801	distribution	Brown, R. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Masbate, Cebu, and Romblon. The presence of this species on Luzon appears to be based on a single specimen, possibly of <em>P. oxycephalum</em>, collected in 1959. Further field studies are needed to confirm the presence of this species on Luzon. It is found from around 200 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
169801	habitat	Brown, R. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This snake is semi-fossorial, being found under rotting leaves on the forest floor of both primary and secondary forests. It has been collected at 600 m on the edge of an agricultural area, within secondary forest, in central Negros. During and after strong rains animals can be found on the forest floor and on forest-trails (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169801	population	Brown, R. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species appears to be quite common in appropriate habitat.	eng
169801	threats	Brown, R. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is restricted to forested areas. It is threatened by general deforestation resulting from conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.	eng
169802	conservation	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
169802	distribution	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bataan, Luzon, Polillo, Catanduanes, and recently from Calayan Island. A record of this species from Lubang Island is a misidentification (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is found from the lowlands to around 1,200 m asl.	eng
169802	habitat	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Afuang, L., 2007	Animals can be found in forested areas, but are also very common in agricultural areas, coastal scrub, and grasslands.	eng
169802	population	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Afuang, L., 2007	In general, this seems to be a fairly common snake.	eng
169802	threats	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Afuang, L., 2007	There are not believed to be any major threats to this species.	eng
169803	conservation	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. There is a need to conserve suitable areas of forest on Dalupiri Island, and to undertake additional research into the distribution (especially for the islands of Calayan and Camiguin Norte), ecological requirements, and threats to this little-known species.	eng
169803	distribution	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This Philippines endemic species is known from a 1990 survey on Dalupiri Island, in the Babuyan Island Group, Cagayan Province (Ota and Ross 1994). Recent specimens may have been collected from Calayan and Camiguin Norte Islands, although this needs confirmation (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). The known range is 52km2, though if confirmed, the additional records would expand the range to perhaps 300 km².	eng
169803	habitat	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It seems to be only known with certainty from three specimens collected along a forest trail (Ota and Ross 1994).	eng
169803	population	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is currently known only from three specimens.	eng
169803	threats	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The forest on Dalupiri Island is highly fragmented and the remaining habitat is continuing to degrade because of ranching activities in the area. There are forest remnants that may support the species on cliffs. Although the three confirmed specimens were collected in forest, further studies into the threats to the species are needed as closely related species are often not restricted to forest.	eng
169804	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is present in some protected areas, including Mount Apo and Mount Malindang on the island of Mindanao. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169804	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including a recent collection on Mount Apo at 950m asl), Camiguin Sur, Basilan, Samar (although not recorded in a recent survey [J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007]), Leyte, Malindang and may be present on Cebu.  It occurs from close to sea level to around 1200 m asl.	eng
169804	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This arboreal species is often associated with aerial ferns and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus </span>plants. It has been recorded from lowland and lower montane tropical moist forest, and is fairly common (on Camiguin Sur) in coconut groves.	eng
169804	population	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This is considered to be a fairly common species in suitable habitat.	eng
169804	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It seems to be well adapted to conversion of natural habitats to other uses.	eng
169805	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	The species is known to occur in protected areas on the islands of Negros and Panay. Further studies are needed into the natural history and distribution of this species.	eng
169805	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar (an old record), Negros (locations include Cauayan, Negros Oriental, Cuernos de Negros, Maite River-north peak of Cuernos de Negros and Camp Lookout), Bohol (historical record from Sierra Bullones at 300 m asl), Siquijor (historical record with no locality given) and Cebu (historical record with no locality given). There are additional recent records of this species from the islands of Panay (where it occurs in the dipterocarp forests on the NW-Panay Peninsula, and at least in the northern parts [Pandan, Sebaste, Culasi] of the West-Panay-Mountain-Range) (Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2003), and Leyte (collected in 2002 at Baybay), although the identification of these specimens needs to be confirmed (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It occurs at elevations of 300 to 1100 m asl.	eng
169805	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is known from both primary and secondary dipterocarp and submontane forest. Recent collections at Camp Lookout, Negros, took place in very degraded forest. Animals are often found in the leaf axils of aerial ferns. The eggs are found mainly on the leaves of <em>Pandanus</em> sp., but even are laid in crevices of bamboo buildings and fences within disturbed forests (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169805	population	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Population density is relatively high in suitable habitats (lowland dipterocarp forest, secondary forest) on Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169805	threats	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, conversion of land to agricultural use and similar activities.	eng
169806	conservation	Brown, R., Dimalibot, J. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is found within some protected areas in central Palawan. There is a need to maintain remaining areas of suitable lowland forest in Palawan. Additional studies are needed into the distribution of this species on both Palawan and Mindoro, and to better determine the species tolerance of habitat modification.	eng
169806	distribution	Brown, R., Dimalibot, J. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This lowland species is known only from the islands of Palawan and Mindoro in the Philippines. On Palawan, it has been recorded from the centre and the north of the island (at El Nido); on Mindoro, it is known only from a single specimen collected at the southern tip of the island (J.C. Gonzalez pers. com. 2007). Animals have been recorded between 50 and 150 m asl.	eng
169806	habitat	Brown, R., Dimalibot, J. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This rarely seen arboreal lizard has been recorded from primary dipterocarp forest, coastal forests and disturbed, scrubby coastal vegetation (although the species persistence here is uncertain). Within forest, most specimens have been taken in aerial ferns situated 7 to 28 m in the trees, with a few animals found on tree trunks.	eng
169806	population	Brown, R., Dimalibot, J. & Rico, E.L., 2007	It appears to be either a rare, or at least a difficult to collect, species.	eng
169806	threats	Brown, R., Dimalibot, J. & Rico, E.L., 2007	The species is threatened by habitat loss resulting from logging activities and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. Most lowland forest in Palawan has now been cleared. While there is still some lowland forest in the Puerto Princesa area, where this species is found, this is likely to be lost through development of the area over the next five years.	eng
169807	conservation	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>Gekko mindorensis</em> and <em>G. monarchus</em> are needed, as are further studies into the distribution of these two species.	eng
169807	distribution	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippine. It is often confused with <em>Gekko monarchus</em>, but has currently been recorded from the islands of Mindoro, Luzon (Zambales), Calagna-an, Caluya, Carabao, Negros, Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), Cebu, Mactan, Semirara, Sicogon, Lubang, Masbate and Catanduanes. It ranges from near sea level to around 900 m asl.	eng
169807	habitat	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in a wide variety of microhabitats including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. Animals can be found in caves and rock crevices. The species tends to congregate around rivers and streams, but this is not considered to be their primary habitat.	eng
169807	population	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	Although there is little information on the abundance of this species, it does appear to be more common in limestone forest.	eng
169807	threats	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging for timber are the main threats to the species. The disturbance of caves and limestone areas is considered to be an additional threat.	eng
169808	conservation	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Jose, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It seems likely that this species is present within some protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this adaptable species as a whole.	eng
169808	distribution	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Jose, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded on the islands of Bohol, Lapinin Chico, Leyte, Samar (McGuire and Alcala 2000).	eng
169808	habitat	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Jose, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is found in relatively open habitats, and it seems likely that, prior to logging in the Philippines, it occurred along the edges of forest clearings and in relatively open areas of primary and secondary. The species is now largely found in open coconut plantations where it is often the only species of <em>Draco</em> encountered.	eng
169808	population	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Jose, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169808	threats	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Jose, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169809	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E., 2007	It has been recorded from Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Mount Apo and Mount Malindang protected areas. Further research is needed into the threats to this species, in particular from mining and dam construction, and also into the persistence of this species in disturbed habitats.	eng
169809	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bohol, Mindanao (localities include Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Apo, Agusan Marsh and Cotabato) and Samar. It may be present on the islands of Dinagat and Siargao. It is found from close to sea level and 1,200 m asl.	eng
169809	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E., 2007	This water snake is associated with streams and rivers in primary forested areas. It has been recorded in forest remnants and at the forest edge.	eng
169809	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E., 2007	It appears to be a relatively rare snake with only a single, or very few, specimens recorded from each site.	eng
169809	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Delima, E., 2007	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation over its range. More localized threats include mining activities and the construction of dams.	eng
169810	conservation	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	In view of its wide distribution, the species is presumably present within a number of protected areas. It has been recorded from the protected area on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169810	distribution	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in south central Mindanao (Mount Apo), Samar, Bohol, Cebu, Panay, Tablas, Sibuyan, Guimaras, Masbate, Mindoro, Calagna-an, Caluya, Sibay, Boracay and adjacent small islands. There are three recently collected specimens from Luzon Island that may be assigned to this species (R. Brown and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It occurs at elevations of sea level to around 700 m asl.	eng
169810	habitat	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is very common in coastal coconut plantations, with animals often found in aerial ferns. It is present in the dipterocarp forest of NW-Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It probably occurs in a wide range of habitat types, but is especially common in agroforesty areas and coconut groves.	eng
169810	population	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It can be abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
169810	threats	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
169811	conservation	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Although the species has not been recorded with certainty from a protected area, Buhisan dam is part of the Central Cebu Protected Landscape. There is an urgent need to secure the protection of remaining fragments of tropical moist forest on Cebu.	eng
169811	distribution	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to Cebu Island in the Philippines (Brown and Alcala 1980). It was initially collected by Brown and Rabor (1967), who recorded it from 40km southwest of Cebu City (at the localities of Tapal, Mantalungon, Barile and Buhisan). It has also been possibly collected at Buhisan dam, and may be present at Alcoy and Tabunan (L.M. Paguntalan pers. comm. 2007). The map shows the approximate area of these localities.	eng
169811	habitat	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Animals have been reported from among ground cover (leaf litter, logs and coconut husks) in primary and mixed secondary tropical moist forest (including coconut and banana trees) (Brown and Alcala 1980). It is an ovoviviparous species.	eng
169811	population	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The abundance of this species is poorly known. Brown and Rabor (1957) collected 13 specimens including the holotype.	eng
169811	threats	Paguntalan, L.M., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Much of the original forest of Cebu has now been cleared, with remaining suitable habitat threatened through conversion to agro-forestry systems (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Gmelina arborea</span> and teak plantations), mango plantations, and for the production of cut-flowers.	eng
169812	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
169812	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Marinduque, Bohol, Camotes, Luzon, Mindanao and Mindoro (McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
169812	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	While little is known about the species natural history, it is likely to be found in loose soil and leaf litter within wooded habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
169812	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
169812	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169813	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species probably occurs in Mount Apo Natural Park. Mount Hilong-Hilong appears likely to become a protected area in the near future. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169813	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is endemic to the south and east of the island of Mindanao. It has been recorded from Mount Apo and Mount Hilong-Hilong (Agusan del Norte), but has not been collected from Zamboanga (Brown and Alcala 1978. It occurs at elevations of 550 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
169813	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	This arboreal species is present in both dipterocarp and submontane forest. It seems possible that this species will be present in both primary and secondary forest. Most specimens have been collected from the leaf axils of aerial ferns and <span style="font-style: italic;">Pandanus</span>, with a single animal collected from the forest floor.	eng
169813	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169813	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is likely to be generally threatened by deforestation on Mindanao resulting from logging, and conversion of forested areas to other uses.	eng
169814	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The only confirmed collection took place within the proposed Samar Island Natural Park. There is a need to ensure that natural habitat is adequately maintained within the species known range. Additional field studies are needed on Samar to better understand the distribution, natural history and threats to this snake.	eng
169814	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This recently described species is endemic to the island of Samar in the Philippines where it is currently known only with certainty from the type specimen collected at "Lungib Ginbagsangan, 12°00'00"N-124°55'40"E, about 32 km by air NNE of Catbalogan, 40 m asl [Barrio Kag-Toto-Og; Provincia Samar Occidental (= Western Samar Province)]" (Lanza 1999). It is possible that additional specimens may have recently been collected, or are currently mislabeled in collections, however this needs to be confirmed (J.C. Gonzalez and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169814	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Very little is known about the natural history of this species. Lanza (1999) records that "The specimen was collected at 7 a.m., right at the entrance of a cave situated 20 m above the bed of La Blanca Aurora River, on a steep slope covered by a thick forest".	eng
169814	population	Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It appears to be currently known only from a single specimen.	eng
169814	threats	Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There is heavy deforestation underway in the area of collection, often through the use of "kaingin" slash and burn agriculture and mining activities. It is not known to what degree this habitat conversion is impacting populations of this poorly known snake.	eng
169815	conservation	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	It has been recorded from numerous protected areas. Additional general studies are needed into the possible threats to this species.	eng
169815	distribution	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Catanduanes, Inampulugan, Leyte, Samar (Maren Gaulke pers. comm. 2008), Luzon, Mindoro, Lubang, Mindanao, Negros, Cebu (Juan Carlos Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007), the Polillo Islands, Bohol and Panay (Alcala 1986, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000).  Animals have been found between sea level and 2,500 m asl.	eng
169815	habitat	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	This species has been found mostly in lowland and montane tropical moist forest, but has also been recorded from disturbed habitats. Ferner <em>et al</em>. (2000) recorded an animal on Panay in a coconut tree adjacent to forest at 900 m asl.	eng
169815	population	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species (Alcala 1986), and it seems to be difficult to find.	eng
169815	threats	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	No major threats have been identified for this species. It is possible that general deforestation and habitat fragmentation may represent a threat to some populations, however, the species has recently been recorded from disturbed areas. There might be some limited collection of this species for the pet trade, although this requires further investigation.	eng
169816	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Animals have been recorded within the proposed Mount Mantalingahan protected area.	eng
169816	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines, where it is known only from Thumb Peak (Salakot) and the Brooke's Point areas of Palawan Island. It has been collected from 300 to 900 m asl.	eng
169816	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It is usually found close to streams in tropical moist forest, although a single specimen was collected in a drier open forest away from water at 900 m asl	eng
169816	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is common along streams.	eng
169816	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation (including mining activities) is the major threat to this species.	eng
169817	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Paguntalan, L., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There are records of this snake from the Mount Canla-on protected area. Remaining areas of lowland tropical moist forest, most especially within the largely deforested Visayan Islands, urgently need enforced protection. Additional research is needed into the distribution, ecology and threats to this snake.	eng
169817	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Paguntalan, L., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (northeastern Mindanao, Diwata Mountain Range), Negros, Tablas, Panay and Cebu. There is a single old record from Luzon (from "Manila") which is uncertain and needs to be verified. It seems to be a lowland species recorded from around sea level to about 800 m asl.	eng
169817	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Paguntalan, L., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This is a poorly-known species, with few details on its natural history other than is appears to be a snake of lowland forests found under rotting logs and forest floor debris (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). It is semifossorial, and has been observed actively hunting for frogs during the daytime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169817	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Paguntalan, L., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It is fairly common in undisturbed and disturbed lowland forests and forest edges in the northern part of Panay (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169817	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Paguntalan, L., Gaulke, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The continuing loss of lowland tropical moist forest in the Philippines, through logging activities, conversion of land to agricultural use, and other activities (such as mining) are considered to be serious threats to this species.	eng
169818	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that species is present in the Mount Matutum Protected Landscape, although this requires confirmation. Field surveys are needed to relocate this species.	eng
169818	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This poorly known species has only been recorded from the area of south central Mindano Island, the Philippines. The type locality is Glan in Cotabato Province (Taylor 1925). The species may occur more widely at low elevations (probably below 1,200 m asl) (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The range map for this species is highly approximate.	eng
169818	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no certain data on the habitat requirements of this species. It is presumed to be a fossorial species that lives within leaf litter, and other ground cover, possibly in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Congeners have been recorded from areas of agroforestry.	eng
169818	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169818	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that the major threat to this species is deforestation, resulting in some areas from the conversion of land to pineapple and oil palm plantations.	eng
169819	conservation	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	Part of the range of this species falls within the protected Cabadbaran watershed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169819	distribution	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from the south side of Mount Hilong-hilong (at 1,234-1,700 m asl); from the Sipangpang municipal watershed (75-780 m asl); from Surigao del Sur and San Isidro (Mount Hamiguitan 545-785 m asl). It could range more widely within the mountains of Mindanao. The taxonomic identity of many of these records needs confirmation. It ranges between 75 and 1,540 m asl.	eng
169819	habitat	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	Brown and Alcala (1980) report that it can be found under leaves on the forest floor. There are few additional details concerning the natural history of this species.	eng
169819	population	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169819	threats	Diesmos, A., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	The species appears to be principally threatened by ongoing or proposed mining operations. Local slash and burn agriculture 'kaingin' only reaches 700 m asl in the areas where this species has been recorded.	eng
169820	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	It is unclear if this species is truly present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.	eng
169820	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species has been recorded from the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. Its distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus semperi</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>.	eng
169820	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	It is presumably present in secondary forest habitats, similar to those recorded for <em>Gonocephalus semperi</em> and <em>G. sophiae</em>.	eng
169820	population	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The abundance of this species is difficult to determine because of identification problems.	eng
169820	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The threats to this species are unclear, but it may be threatened by deforestation through logging activities and conversions of forest to agricultural land.	eng
169821	conservation	Brown, R., Sy, E., Gaulke, M. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is found in numerous protected areas. Studies on its collection for the medicinal trade and its ability to persist in disturbed areas away from forest are needed.	eng
169821	distribution	Brown, R., Sy, E., Gaulke, M. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bohol, Dinagat, Jolo, Lapac, Leyte, Lugus, Mindanao, Ponson, Samar, Sanga-sanga, Siargao and Tawi-tawi. It is found at elevations of sea level to around 600 m asl.	eng
169821	habitat	Brown, R., Sy, E., Gaulke, M. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This appears to be a species of primary and secondary forest, but may be found on coconut trees immediately adjacent to and contiguous with natural forest. It is not present in open plantations of coconut trees (Gaulke 1993).	eng
169821	population	Brown, R., Sy, E., Gaulke, M. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species appears to be very common in coconut stands, even in heavily disturbed areas (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It is common in the lowland forest of Sanga Sanga Island (Sulu Archipelago, Tawi Tawi Group), with often two to four individuals observed on one tree (Gaulke 1993).	eng
169821	threats	Brown, R., Sy, E., Gaulke, M. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The conversion of forested land to other uses is likely to be a localized threat to this species. In general, this genus is collected due to a belief that they are beneficial for asthma, however, at present, this is likely not a major threat to this species.	eng
169822	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further studies are needed into the potential threats to this species.	eng
169822	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Samar, Luzon, Mindoro, Calotcot, Sibuyan, Lubang, and Sicogon Islands. It ranges from close to sea level to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
169822	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is found under leaves and logs as well as in open spaces on the forest floor. They are found in both dipterocarp tropical moist forest and secondary growth. Animals have also been collected from dry stream beds.	eng
169822	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is fairly abundant.	eng
169822	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.  It is hunted for local consumption by a tribal group on Mindoro although it is not known if this represents a significant threat to the species..	eng
169823	conservation	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species occurs in protected areas on Samar, Bohol, Leyte, and Mindanao. Further studies are needed into the possibility of trade in this species.	eng
169823	distribution	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bohol, Dinagat, Leyte, Mindanao and Samar. It occurs at elevations of around 200 to 800 m asl.	eng
169823	habitat	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is found primary and secondary forests, with animals also recorded from adjacent coconut groves.	eng
169823	population	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The population abundance of this species is not known.	eng
169823	threats	Brown, R., Linkem, C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is threatened by ongoing deforestation by timber operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. It is not known with certainty if this species is collected for traditional medicinal use, and further studies are needed to determine this.	eng
169824	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
169824	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This very poorly known species is known only from the indefinite locality of "Filipinas", and is probably from Luzon Isand in the Philippines (Taylor 1922, McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999). It is not mapped here owing to the uncertainty of its range.	eng
169824	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There are no details of the species ecological needs.	eng
169824	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It appears to be known only from the holotype specimen.	eng
169824	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169825	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Within the Philippines this species has been recorded from the Mount Malindang protected area, the proposed Samar Island Natural Park, Mount Apo Natural Park and Pasonanca Natural Park. There is a need to conserve areas of intact primary forest within the range of this species.	eng
169825	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is represented by two subspecies. The nominate form, <em>Cyclocorus nuchalis nuchalis</em>, is found on the islands of Mindanao (localities include Mount Malindang, Diuata Mountains, Mount Apo, Mount Hilong-Hilong and Pasonanca Natural Park [A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007]), Siargo (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007), Camiguin, Leyte and Samar; <em>C. n. taylori</em> is present on Basilan. It is found up to 1,400 m asl (Mount Malindang).	eng
169825	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a semi-fossorial species of tropical moist forest. Animals can be found hiding under leaf litter, logs, and similar ground cover. It has been recorded from riparian forest, forest remnants, secondary forest, and in coconut plantations at the forest edge (J.C. Gonzalez and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is an oviparous species.	eng
169825	population	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a secretive, and rarely encountered species.	eng
169825	threats	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, through conversion of land to agricultural use, plantations and logging for timber.	eng
169826	conservation	Brown, R., 2007	Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169826	distribution	Brown, R., 2007	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines.	eng
169826	habitat	Brown, R., 2007	This is a burrowing species is found amongst humus and leaf litter in forest. Other members of this genus have been found in disturbed areas.	eng
169826	population	Brown, R., 2007	It appears to be known only from the initial collection.	eng
169826	threats	Brown, R., 2007	It is believed to be threatened by deforestation resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging operations.	eng
169827	conservation	Ledesma, M., Rico, E., Gonzalez, J.C., Brown, R., Murphy, J., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	The lake is a proposed protected area, and fishing within the lake appears to be regulated. There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This is a very poorly known species, and further studies on its ecology, abundance, and range are urgently needed. There have been no detailed studies on this species since the early 1990s.	eng
169827	distribution	Ledesma, M., Rico, E., Gonzalez, J.C., Brown, R., Murphy, J., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has only been recorded from Lake Buhi (19 km²), on the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon (Murphy 2007). A few additional specimens were collected in the early 1990s, but there have been no other sightings since this time (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). A number of freshwater fish species present in Lake Buhi have also been found in two small neighbouring lakes (including the protected Lake Manapao), and it is considered possible that <em>C. microlepis </em>may also be present here, although this needs confirmation. Lake Buhi lies at around 200 m elevation (Karns <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
169827	habitat	Ledesma, M., Rico, E., Gonzalez, J.C., Brown, R., Murphy, J., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	This is a poorly-known freshwater snake, possibly with similar ecological requirements to the congener <em>C. rynchops</em>. Very little information is available on the natural history of this species. Individuals of this species are sometimes removed from shallow water in fish ponds near Lake Buhi during the night (Murphy 2007). This species most likely uses the forest floor habitat surrounding the lake. It is also likely that this species can live in relatively disturbed and modified habitats.	eng
169827	population	Ledesma, M., Rico, E., Gonzalez, J.C., Brown, R., Murphy, J., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	There are currently no data available on the abundance of this species.&#160; It is considered fairly common within its limited range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009), however, its known distribution is a single lake (19 km²<sup></sup>) that continues to experience habitat degradation due to human encroachment.	eng
169827	threats	Ledesma, M., Rico, E., Gonzalez, J.C., Brown, R., Murphy, J., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	The area surrounding the lake is fairly densely populated by humans which has caused habitat degradation of the shores of the lake and decreased water quality. Much of the forest habitat around the lake has been cleared with little remaining forest in patchy, secondary growth. Another threat may include pollution from domestic waste causing habitat degradation. Direct persecution from humans is also a possible threat (J.C. Gonsalez pers. comm. 2009).	eng
169828	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that the species might occur in the nearby Balbalasang-Balbalan protected area, however, this requires confirmation. General field studies are needed into the distribution, ecological requirements and potential threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169828	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from two specimens collected at circa 1,980 m asl in mountains near Banaue, Mountain Province, northern Luzon Island, the Philippines (Taylor 1963).	eng
169828	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Taylor (1963), does not provide any details on the habitat and ecology for either of the two known specimens. It is not known if it can persist in degraded habitats.	eng
169828	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is known only from the type series.	eng
169828	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169829	conservation	Gaulke, M., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There are ongoing projects on Panay to conserve remaining areas of suitable habitat, and on the biology and habitat requirements of this lizard, run by non-governmental organizations (Biologische Patenschaften e.V., Eschborn [BIOPAT] and Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project [PESCP]). The species is present in the Central Panay and North West Panay protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
169829	distribution	Gaulke, M., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines. It is generally distributed  in the still forested parts of the mountain ranges of northwestern and western Panay. Animals have been recorded from around 200 to 1,000 m asl.	eng
169829	habitat	Gaulke, M., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This highly arboreal species is associated with large trees in primary lowland tropical moist forest. It has been recorded between 200 to 1,000 m asl, however, it is particularly rare above 600 m asl. This is a highly specialized frugivorous monitor lizard. It reportedly needs Dipterocarpaceae as sleeping places (Gaulke 2005). It is unlikely to be present in modified habitats, especially where food trees are absent.	eng
169829	population	Gaulke, M., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It appears to be a very rare species. Only twelve animals have been caught since 2002.	eng
169829	threats	Gaulke, M., Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is considered to be very threatened by the loss and degradation of its lowland forest habitat, through conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations. In addition to the threat of habitat loss, this lizard is a favourite food animal, possibly related to its frugivorous diet, and overhunting represents a serious threat to the species.	eng
169830	conservation	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is within the proposed Samar Island Natural Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169830	distribution	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This poorly known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the type locality of "Tarabucan, four miles southeast of spur of Sigarag Mountains, Matuguinao Municipality, extreme northern Western Samar".	eng
169830	habitat	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The natural history of this species is poorly known, but it is likely to be associated with forest or similar wooded habitats.	eng
169830	population	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype.	eng
169830	threats	Gonzalez, J.C. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. If it is associated with forest habitats, then deforestation through logging and conversion of land to alternative uses are probable threats.	eng
169831	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Jose, R., 2007	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. No conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
169831	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (from Mount Apo, Sarangani, and near to sea level), Camiguin, Leyte, Samar (including Mount Huraw at 400 m asl), Bohol (950 to 1,200 m asl), Basilan and the Sulu Archipelago (from Takela and Tiepono). It is found between sea level and 1,200 m asl.	eng
169831	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Jose, R., 2007	This species has been found under leaves and rotting logs, and between tree buttresses in the dipterocarp and submontane forest. At Sarangani it can be found in scrub vegetation amongst most types of gorund cover (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). On Samar it has been found in the overhangs of cliffs (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169831	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Jose, R., 2007	In general, this is a common species.	eng
169831	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M., Tampos, G. & Jose, R., 2007	There is some localized threat to this species by the conversion of land to other uses, including the local 'kaingin' agriculture.	eng
169832	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Central Panay Mountains Natural Park. Further studies are needed to more fully determine the range of this species. There is a need to prevent further loss of suitable forest habitat on Panay.	eng
169832	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is known only from Mount Madja-as on the island of Panay, in the Philippines. It is considered possible that this species may also be present in central Panay, although this requires confirmation (A. Diesmos pers. comm., 2007). It has been collected at elevations between 900 and 1,125 m asl.	eng
169832	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded in the transition zone between lowland and montane forest. Most specimens have been collected in leaf little and loose soil on the forest floor (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
169832	population	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	It is known from very few specimens.	eng
169832	threats	Diesmos, A. & Demegillo, A., 2007	Although there are no major threats to the species at present, there is a plausible threat that local 'kaingin' agriculture could move into the higher elevations where this species is found.	eng
169833	conservation	Brown, R., Rico, E., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is found in several protected areas. Other than general research activities, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169833	distribution	Brown, R., Rico, E., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of Negros, Inampulugan, Panay, Boracay, Calagna-an, Caluya, Sicogon, Sibuyan, Tablas, Masbate, Camiguin Norte, and Luzon (northern cordillera, northern coast and Calayan Islands). A historical record of this species from Jolo is an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It ranges from near sea level to 1,600 m asl in the lower part of the submontane zone.	eng
169833	habitat	Brown, R., Rico, E., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	Animals are found in loose soil and humus under leaves and rotting logs on the floor of primary and secondary tropical moist forest. It can persist in moderately disturbed areas.	eng
169833	population	Brown, R., Rico, E., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is very common in forest.	eng
169833	threats	Brown, R., Rico, E., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	General habitat loss due to severe deforestation is the major threat to this species.	eng
169834	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas.	eng
169834	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Polillo, Sibuyan,  Mindoro, Tablas, Calagna-anon, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Poro, Pacijan, Danjugan, Guimaras, Ponson, Sicogon, Gigante South, Bohol, Siquijor, Samar, Leyte, Camiguin and Mindanao. It ranges between sea level and 1,650 m asl.	eng
169834	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is a forest obligate, found in both old growth and secondary forest. Specimens have been taken from beneath detritus such as rotting leaves and logs and on the open forest floor.	eng
169834	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is fairly abundant in appropriate habitat.	eng
169834	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.	eng
169835	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species has not been recorded from any protected areas. The species has not been recorded from any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, general ecology and threats to this little-known species.	eng
169835	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines. It is known only with certainty from the original 1959 collection from the Victoria Range (three specimens). There was a possible recent sighting of this species at Irawan (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). The elevation of collection is not recorded, but it seems likely that this is a high elevation species.	eng
169835	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Brown and Alcala (1980) record that two of the three known specimens were found beneath logs on the forest floor. The Victoria Range is generally comprised of ultramafic soil, with stunted forests.	eng
169835	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It remains known only from three specimens.	eng
169835	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Mining is a major threat to the Victoria Range, and the government has encouraged investment from mining companies. It is unclear as to what degree these activities impact this species.	eng
169836	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M., Demegillo, A. &  Brown, R., 2007	Although this species is present within the North West Panay Peninsula protected area, most of the known localities are outside of the protected area (which does not include the entire peninsula) (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed to better determine the full extent of the species distribution.	eng
169836	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M., Demegillo, A. &  Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines. It has currently only beed recorded from the northwest Peninsula of the island. It is found from coastal areas up to around 300 m asl.	eng
169836	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M., Demegillo, A. &  Brown, R., 2007	Animals are generally associated with limestone caves and around limestone outcrops, in both primary and secondary forest areas, and also in disturbed areas adjacent to forest.	eng
169836	population	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M., Demegillo, A. &  Brown, R., 2007	It is relatively abundant within its limited range (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169836	threats	Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M., Demegillo, A. &  Brown, R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although applications for the mining of marble have been made in the past, these have been rejected as the proposed location is within the North West Panay Peninsula protected area. However, should any new applications for mining be successful then this would likely be a significant threat to the species. One perhaps minor threat from local visitors to the caves, is the habit of lighting fires inside, and using torches, sometimes destroying gecko egg clutches with these fires (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169837	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas.	eng
169837	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines. There are two subspecies, <em>S. a. abdictus</em> is presently known from the islands of Mindanao, Camiguin, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, Dinagat and Siargao; <em>S. a. aquilonius</em> is known from southern Luzon, Polilo, Catanduanes, and Lubang. It ranges from sea level to around 1,000 m asl.	eng
169837	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is found in forest and disturbed areas (coconut groves, banana plantations). <em>S. abdictus</em> specimens were collected among the leaves and under rotting logs on the forest floor, and among rocks and wood along stream beds.	eng
169837	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species in abundant in a range of habitats.	eng
169837	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Habitat destruction is a localized threat to this species, though it persists in degraded areas.	eng
169838	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>C. annulatus</em> and <em>C. philippinicus</em> are needed.	eng
169838	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and while there is some confusion with <em>C. philippinicus</em>, it appears to be present on the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Jolo, Bohol, Camiguin, Leyte, Cebu, Pacijan, Negros, Tawi Tawi, Palawan and several islands in central and western Philippines. It is found from near sea level to elevations around 1,200 m asl.	eng
169838	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of microhabitats, including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. Animals have been recorded from secondary forest (Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000), and from coconut trees and piles of husks (Brown and Alcala 1978). It seems to congregate in suitable habitat close to rivers and streams.	eng
169838	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	There is little information on the abundance of this species, however they seem to be rarer at higher elevations.	eng
169838	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The major threats to this species are deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169839	conservation	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Malagos Watershed protected area, and may be present in additional protected areas. Further taxonomic studies are needed into this species as a whole.	eng
169839	distribution	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Bongao, Jolo, Mindanao (including atypical specimens from Malagos and Mount Apo), Sanga-Sanga, Siasi and Simunul; and is possibly present on the island of Tawi-Tawi. It ranges from sea level to about 1,500 m asl.	eng
169839	habitat	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	Populations of this species have been found in second growth forest and in coconut groves adjacent to secondary forest. It is an oviparous species.	eng
169839	population	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	McGuire and Alcala (2000), report that this species has previously been found to be common in the Sulu Archipelago, and note that it is likely to remain common in view of its adaptability to modified habitats. It is a very common inhabitant of coconut groves and trees in cultivated areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. obs. 2006/2007), and was very common on several visited islands of the Sulu-Archipeligo at the beginning of 1990s (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The population of this species may be increasing with the conversion of closed forest to more suitable open habitats.	eng
169839	threats	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. It is possible that some local declines have occurred through the use of pesticides, however, this requires verification.	eng
169840	conservation	Brown, R. & Custodio, C., 2007	The species is found within the Catanduanes Watershed Forest Reserve (management board active since 2003). Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169840	distribution	Brown, R. & Custodio, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to Catanduanes Island (about 1,500 km²). It has been recorded from around 200 to 800 m asl.	eng
169840	habitat	Brown, R. & Custodio, C., 2007	Animals have been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, as well as from forest edge areas.	eng
169840	population	Brown, R. & Custodio, C., 2007	This species is moderately common.	eng
169840	threats	Brown, R. & Custodio, C., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.	eng
169841	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Duya, L., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. There is a need to conserve any remaining areas of suitable forest close to the type locality of the species. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
169841	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Duya, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is known only from the type locality of Malalag, Kibwalan, Davao del Sur in South Cotabato, Mindanao Island Island. The location of the type locality appears to be unclear and the species is not mapped here.	eng
169841	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Duya, L., 2007	There appears to be little recorded about the habitat from which this species was collected. Other members of this genus usually require reasonably intact forest, and are somewhat fossorial in nature.	eng
169841	population	Diesmos, A. & Duya, L., 2007	This snake is known only from the type specimen.	eng
169841	threats	Diesmos, A. & Duya, L., 2007	The threats to this species are poorly-known, but as it seems likely to be a forest obligate, ongoing deforestation on Mindanao (e.g., for conversion of land to banana and pineapple plantations) appears to be a threat to the species (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169842	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is presumed to occur in a number of protected areas, including Mount Malindang and Mount Apo. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
169842	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao and Basilan. On Mindanao it is known from the Zamboanga Peninsula (Dapitan Peak); Mount Busa; Diuata; possibly Mount Apo, but no records from Mount Kitanglad. It has been recorded between 300 and 900 m asl.	eng
169842	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	This is largely a forest floor species that has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, and also from more disturbed areas of secondary growth.	eng
169842	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169842	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	There is widespread deforestation taking place in the lowland range of this species, through logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. It does, however, appear to be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification.	eng
169843	conservation	Brown, R., Sy, E. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It seems likely that this species will be found within protected areas throughout Palawan. Further studies are needed to monitor the impact of wild collection of this species for the international pet trade. Increased customs enforcement are needed to prevent illegal exports of this species.	eng
169843	distribution	Brown, R., Sy, E. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This snake is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Palawan, Balabac and Culion, and is considered likely to be present on Dumaran, Coron and adjacent small islands. It has been found from sea level to around 700 m asl.	eng
169843	habitat	Brown, R., Sy, E. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	The species is generally associated with forest, or wooded, habitats ranging from primary tropical most forest to degraded secondary scrub. Little additional information is available on the natural history of this species.	eng
169843	population	Brown, R., Sy, E. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169843	threats	Brown, R., Sy, E. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species may be threatened by severe habitat loss (such as clear-cutting), however, much of its range still presumably contains large areas of suitable habitat. Although the species has been heavily targeted for the international pet trade (with Europe being a key market), there does not appear to have been a noticeable decline in populations - although further field studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
169844	conservation	Gaulke, M., Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R., Diesmos, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species has been recorded from many protected areas. Other than general monitoring of population levels, no direct conservation measures are currently needed as a whole. This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES.	eng
169844	distribution	Gaulke, M., Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R., Diesmos, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Sabtang, Batan, Palawan, Calamianes, Polilo, Balabac, the Semirara Islands (observations by M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008 for Balabac and the Semirara Islands) and the islands of the Sulu Archipelago.	eng
169844	habitat	Gaulke, M., Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R., Diesmos, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The preferred habitats are mangroves, with the species common in fishphond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals are tolerant of habitat degradation, and are regularly recorded from secondary forest, disturbed forest and agricultural areas.	eng
169844	population	Gaulke, M., Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R., Diesmos, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It is an abundant species.	eng
169844	threats	Gaulke, M., Sy, E., Afuang, L., Duya, M.R., Diesmos, M. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it is heavily traded for the food and pet trade (capture of hatchlings and juveniles), this does not appear to be having a significant impact on the species population as a whole.	eng
169845	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that this species persists in Mount Dajo National Park, however, social unrest on the island of Jolo currently precludes any surveys to confirm the species presence here. There is a need to re-examine the only known specimen allocated to this species from Mindanao, to resolve the possibility of <em>Luperosaurus joloensis</em> presence on this island.	eng
169845	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, with Brown and Alcala (1978) recording it from the islands of Jolo and Mindanao. The Mindanao record is currently considered to be tentative (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169845	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	Although the natural history of this species is very poorly known, it seems highly likely that this is an arboreal species associated, perhaps, with largely undisturbed (coastal?) forest. There is very little forest remaining on the heavily deforested island of Jolo. Possible habitat appears to be restricted to areas of secondary forest on the island's two mountain tops.	eng
169845	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are no clear details available on the natrual abundance of this species, and it remains known from a very small number of specimens.	eng
169845	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	There is considerable habitat loss ongoing on the island of Jolo with little seemingly suitable forest remaining. It is likely that the species is seriously threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations, and conversion of land to other uses.	eng
169846	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The species has been recorded from many protected areas. There is a need to initiate awareness programmes for local people to reduce persecution of this species.	eng
169846	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of Negros, Catanduanes, Luzon, Panay, and Polillo. A record from the island of Leyte is probably an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). This species is found in the lowlands between 250 and 1,000 m asl.	eng
169846	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This is generally a species of lowland tropical forests, although it appears to be tolerant of a wide variety of habitats. During the day, the species is usually found on the forest floor, while at night, animals are more often encountered in vegetation near to water. Most sightings of this snake in the forests of northwestern and northern Panay (where it is quite common) took place directly at or even in watercourses (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169846	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Gaulke, M., 2007	While animals are patchily distributed, the species can be quite common within appropriate habitat.	eng
169846	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species is threatened by general deforestation resulting from land conversion (by e.g., agriculture, timber extraction, etc.). It is also heavily persecuted because it is a large-bodied species that is often mistakenly identified as a venomous cobra.	eng
169847	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It seems likely that this species is present in some protected areas. In general, no conservation measures, other than general research, are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
169847	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Siquijor, Bohol, Cebu, Leyte, Poro, Pacijan, Samar and Bohol.	eng
169847	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is most commonly found in the leaf axils of coconut trees, but has also been found in trees of the lowland dipterocarp forest, fresh water swamp forest and scattered tees in savanna-like areas. It can be found in many modified habitats including coconut groves, secondary forests and in some urban areas.	eng
169847	population	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This is often a widespread and common species, although there are few specimens from Bohol and Samar.	eng
169847	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169848	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
169848	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines. The type specimen was collected at about 1,700 m asl on Dapitan Peak, Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao Island, in 1857. A second specimen was collected in 1956 in southern Luzon (Brown and Alcala 1956).	eng
169848	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This is a very poorly known species. The Dapitan Peak specimen was collected in transitional submontane-montane forest at about 1,700 m asl.	eng
169848	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is known only from the two collected specimens.	eng
169848	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Although the threats to this species are not known,  it seems likely that it is threatened to some degree by deforestation	eng
169849	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is in a proposed protected area on Babuyan Claro, which has extremely low human population density.  In addition, there are very few people living on Camiguin Norte. In general, further field research is needed for this little-known species.	eng
169849	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This lowland species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Camiguin Norte Island and Babuyan Claro Island (newly observed in 2006), both in the Babuyan Island Group, Cagayan Province (Ota and Ross 1994; R. Brown and A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). The total range size is under 300 km².	eng
169849	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Animals have been recorded from leaf axils of palm trees during the day, and on palm tree trunks during night (Ota and Ross 1994).  It has been collected in forest and agricultural areas in Camiguin and in disturbed coastal secondary growth in Babuyan Claro.	eng
169849	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species appears to be common within its limited range.	eng
169849	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The threats to this species are poorly known. It may be threatened to some degree by forest loss in Camiguin Norte, but this requires further confirmation.	eng
169850	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species may potentially occur in the Balbalasang-balbalan protected area, as this is close to the area of specimen collection. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and possible threats to this snake.	eng
169850	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is collected only from the northern part of the Cordillera Central (Barrio  Cabatacan, Lasam, Cagayan Province and Butiqui, Mountain Province) on Luzon Island (Ota and Ross 1994). It appears to be a lowland species.	eng
169850	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Although little is known about the natural history of this species, the holotype was collected in a shrub, approximately two metres from the ground in the evening (Ota and Ross 1994). The habitat from which it was collected is unclear from the species description.	eng
169850	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The species is recently-described, and may only be known from the two animals in the type series.	eng
169850	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There is currently no data available on the major threats to the species.	eng
169851	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Custodio, C., 2007	The Pasonanca Natural Park is considered to be very well protected (with armed guards), most especially as this area is the main water catchment for the Zamboanga Peninsula. Additional studies are needed to better determine the geographical range of this species.	eng
169851	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Custodio, C., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, where it is known from the well protected Pasonanca Natural Park, on the Zamboanga Peninsula. In view of the species secretive habits, it may be more widely distributed on the Zamboanga Peninsula.	eng
169851	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Custodio, C., 2007	This small species is associated with forest leaf litter. It is an oviparous species. It is not known if the species can persist in degraded habitat.	eng
169851	population	Diesmos, A. & Custodio, C., 2007	There is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169851	threats	Diesmos, A. & Custodio, C., 2007	Although the species is currently known from a limited area, there appear to be no major threats operating. To the north of the known range there is some limited small-scale mining and gold panning, with timber poaching common in these areas.	eng
169852	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is found within established protected areas on the islands of Negros, Polilo and Bohol, and also within proposed protected areas on the islands of Mindoro and Mindanao. Additional studies are needed into the taxonomic status of the three subspecies, and also on the threats to each island population.	eng
169852	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from three subspecies. The subspecies <em>L. a. auriculata</em> is present on the islands of Negros and Masbate; <em>L. a. kempi</em> is present on the islands of Mindoro (collected at 700 m asl) and Tablas; and <em>L. a. herrei</em> is present on the islands of Polillo, Bohol and northeastern Mindanao. The species has been recorded between 100 and 1,300 m asl.	eng
169852	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is present in both primary and secondary dipterocarp and submontane tropical moist forests, with animals being most regularly recorded from leaf axils and root masses of aerial ferns at various heights. It is possible that this species has a preference for disturbed forest habitats (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169852	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is moderately common in appropriate habitat.	eng
169852	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to deforestation resulting from logging activities, and conversion of land to agricultural and other uses. The collection of epiphytes for ornamental use may be represent an additional, perhaps localized, threat to this species.	eng
169853	conservation	Demegillo, A., Custodio, C. &  Diesmos, A., 2007	It is found within the proposed protected area of Central Panay Mountains. There is a need to ensure the protection of suitable forest habitat for this species. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and possible threats to this recently described species.	eng
169853	distribution	Demegillo, A., Custodio, C. &  Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Panay in the Philippines, where it is known only from the western foothills of Mount Madja-as (11°23' N, 122°09' E), within the islands western coastal mountain range (Brown <em>et al</em>. 1999). It has been collected at 1,410 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
169853	habitat	Demegillo, A., Custodio, C. &  Diesmos, A., 2007	Brown <em>et al</em>. (1999), record that "The forest near the collection site was mossy and contained high densities of epiphytic ferns and orchids. The topography was qualitatively characterized as steep, with numerous sheer rocky valleys and forest-covered ridges (see Ferner <em>et al</em>. 1997 for more details.) Both holotype and paratype were found beneath logs". The species may be present at lower elevations, however, this requires confirmation.	eng
169853	population	Demegillo, A., Custodio, C. &  Diesmos, A., 2007	It is currently known only from the holotype and the paratype.	eng
169853	threats	Demegillo, A., Custodio, C. &  Diesmos, A., 2007	There appear to be no immediate threats to the species, however, slash and burn 'kaingin' currently only at lower elevations (up to 500 m asl) is a potential threat to the species.	eng
169854	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	This species has been recorded from Mount Kitanglad Natural Park, Mount Malindang National Park and the Malagos Watershed protected area. Additional field studies are needed to better determine the range of this species.	eng
169854	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao and Basilan and is known to be present on Samar, Leyte and Dinagat (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). On Mindanao it has been recorded from a number of localities including Malagos, Kitanglad and may be present in parts of eastern Mindanao. It ranges from around sea level to around 800 m asl.	eng
169854	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	This is a lowland tropical forest species, which has been recorded in areas of degraded forest (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169854	population	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	There is little information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
169854	threats	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	The species is threatened by rapid ongoing deforestation on the island of Mindanao, resulting from commercial and illegal logging operations, conversion of land to 'kaingin' slash and burn agriculture, and conversion of forest to plantations. It is a relatively large snake which may be killed directly on sight by local people.	eng
169855	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species was collected within the Balbalasang-Balbalan protected area. Further research is needed on the ecology, abundance, range, and conservation status of this species.	eng
169855	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality of Balbalan, in Mountain Province, Luzon Island, the Philippines. Two specimens were collected at 950 m asl in the 1920s. Earlier reports from Catanduanes Island are likely to be in error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169855	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly-known, with little information other than it is known only from high elevations in the mountains of northern Luzon. The species was collected within the vicinity of Balbalan, which seems to be an agricultural area, but with forest nearby.	eng
169855	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169855	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L., Rico, E. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The major threats to the species are not known. If it persists in agricultural areas, chemical pollution may pose a threat to the species.	eng
169856	conservation	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Duya, M.R., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further research is needed into the ecology, conservation status, and abundance of this species.	eng
169856	distribution	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Duya, M.R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque, and Polillo. It has been found between 200 and 1,500 m asl (most collections have been between 800 and 1,500 m asl).	eng
169856	habitat	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Duya, M.R., 2007	This rare snake was encountered on large, flat rocks above 1,500 m asl on Mount High Peak, Zambales. It has been found in dry bamboo stands in Mount Banahao and in secondary forest in Mount Cagua. It is known from creek beds as well as areas away from water.	eng
169856	population	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Duya, M.R., 2007	This is a rare species, likely occurring at naturally low abundances.	eng
169856	threats	Brown, R., Rico, E. & Duya, M.R., 2007	In general, habitat loss due to deforestation is the major threat to this species.	eng
169857	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	The species is known from a number of protected areas. Further studies are particularly needed into the taxonomic status of the this species, as the three subspecies seem likely to represent distinct species.	eng
169857	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Cebu, Panay, Guimaras, Negros, Polillo, Catanduanes and Masbate (Gaulke and Altenbach 1994). It is possible that the species is present on the island of Mindoro, but this needs to be confirmed. It is a lowland species found up to 900 m asl.	eng
169857	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	While generally associated with tropical moist forest, animals can also be found in disturbed areas close to forest.	eng
169857	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169857	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Paguntalan, L., 2007	The species is threatened by general habitat conversion to agricultural land, and deforestation through timber extraction.	eng
169858	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	It has been recorded from some protected areas including Mount Hamiguitan, Mount Hilong-Hilong and the Taft Forest Reserve. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169858	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is represented by two subspecies. <em>B. s. schadenbergi </em>ranges through Basilan Island and the Zamboanga Peninsula and Davao areas of south central Mindanao; <em>B. s. orientalis</em> is present in south central and northeastern Mindanao, Bohol, Camiguin Sur, Leyte and Samar (Taft Forest Reserve). It has been recorded between 50 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
169858	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species has been recorded from both primary dipterocarp and second growth tropical moist forest, and also from adjacent areas of agroforestry (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). Animals are found under leaves, loose soil, and logs in the forest floor (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169858	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	Although the abundance of this species is not well known, there are many museum specimens.	eng
169858	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species is threatened by the loss of its forest habitat through illegal logging operations and conversion of land to other uses, including local slash and burn 'kaingin' agriculture.	eng
169859	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is unclear whether this species is present in any protected areas. On Luzon it may occur in the Bicol and Sierra Madre protected areas. On Polilo, it might be present in the Sibulan Watershed Reserve. Overall, further studies are needed to better understand the distribution, ecology and threats to this largely enigmatic species. This research is a priority as, in view of the considerable habitat loss that has taken place within the species range, there is certainly potential for this species to be recognized as a candidate for conservation activities.	eng
169859	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines. It has historically been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Negros, Panay, Camiguin Sur, Lubang and Polilo and might occur on Catanduanes. In view of current unresolved identification issues, there are ongoing difficulties in defining the distribution of this species. Gaulke<em> et al</em>. (2007), restrict the known range of <em>L. cumingii</em> to south Luzon and Polillo, with further research needed to resolve identification issues for other islands within the species historical range. Animals from Panay (and possibly Negros) are now possibly allocated to the newly described <em>L. cornfieldi</em> (see Gaulke <em>et al</em>. 2007, for additional details). It has been recorded from near sea level to around 700 m asl.	eng
169859	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	As with most <em>Luperosaurus</em>, very little is known about the natural history of this species. It may be found in either the high canopy of primary and secondary forest, or coastal forest (much of which has now been cleared over the species range).	eng
169859	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Although the species is known from a number of specimens, it appears to occur at a natually low abundance.	eng
169859	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Diesmos, A., 2007	The major threats to this species are presumably general deforestation through logging operations, conversion of land to agricultural use and similar activities.	eng
169860	conservation	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E.M., 2007	It is presumably present in some protected areas. In general, no direct conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. Further research is needed on the Zamboanga Peninsula to confirm the absence of this species.	eng
169860	distribution	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Camiguin Sur, Dinagat and Mindanao. On Mindanao it appears to be absent from the Zamboanga peninsula; visits to different localities on the Zamboanga Peninsula in 2006 and 2007 did not record any specimens (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169860	habitat	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This is a species of relatively open habitats. Before logging in the Philippines commenced, it seems probable that this species was originally found at the forest edge and in forest clearings. Populations now primarily persist in coconut plantations.	eng
169860	population	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E.M., 2007	There are many specimens of this species in museum collections. It is common, and possibly increasing with expanding coconut plantations.	eng
169860	threats	Brown, R., Linkem, C., Diesmos, A., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E.M., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169861	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The area that it is found in is generally well protected. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
169861	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Batan Island (70 km²) (Ota and Ross 1994), the neighboring Sabtang Island (16 km²), with recent reports of the species from Calayan Island (Oliveros <em>et al</em>. 2004). It may be found on other smaller neighboring islands. It is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl.	eng
169861	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Animals have been recorded from the forest floor and from bushes (Ota and Ross 1994), and may be found at forest edges, and in adjacent agricultural areas. It may feed on reptilian eggs (Ota and Ross 1994).	eng
169861	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Although it is poorly known, this appears to be a common species.	eng
169861	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There currently seem to be no major threats to this species. It is found in areas that are well protected, with a low human population density, no logging, hunting, or other potential threats.	eng
169862	conservation	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Additional studies into the taxonomic relationship between <em>C. annulatus</em> and <em>C. philippinicus</em> are needed.	eng
169862	distribution	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, and is found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Polillo, Dinagat, Samar, Panay, Catanduanes, Lubang, Sibuyan, and Romblon. It occurs from sea level to around 1,200 m asl.	eng
169862	habitat	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	This species has been recorded from a wide variety of microhabitats, including among detritus on the forest floor, under rotting logs in forests, beneath bark, on the surface of stumps and living trees, and in arboreal ferns at heights 25 to 50 feet. It seems to congregate in suitable habitat close to rivers and streams. Animals is usually found on tree stems and large leaves, and on big rocks along and within watercourses in forests (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It has been observed inhabiting entrances of some of the limestone caves on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169862	population	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	There is little information on the abundance of this species, however they seem to be rarer at higher elevations. It is very common in the primary and secondary forests on Panay up to about 600 m asl (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169862	threats	Brown, R., Gaulke, M. & Rico, E., 2007	The major threats to this species are deforestation through logging and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
169863	conservation	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	It is present in many protected areas, and no direct conservation actions are currently needed for the species as a whole.	eng
169863	distribution	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it has been recorded from the islands of Palawan and Busuanga, the Calamian Islands, the Culion Islands, and Calauit Island.	eng
169863	habitat	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	In general, this seems to be a snake of primary and secondary lowland tropical forest, but is also found in heavily disturbed areas.	eng
169863	population	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	It appears to be a quite common species.	eng
169863	threats	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169864	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169864	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the central and southern parts of the island of Palawan. It has been recorded from the locality of Mount Mantalingahan (municipality of Brooke's Point, east and west side of the mountain). It has an elevational range of 60 to 950 m asl.	eng
169864	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This little known species has only been recorded from intact primary forest. Animals have been encountered in bamboo stands in forest gaps, on the trunks and buttresses of trees, in the leaf axils of <em>Pandanus</em>, on the forest floor and under loose tree bark. All records are from intact forest, and it is uncertain if the species can persist in secondary forest.	eng
169864	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	It is a rarely seen crepusculor species.	eng
169864	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	The species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operations and conversion of primary forest to other uses.	eng
169865	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is presumably present in a number of protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, natural history and threats to this species.	eng
169865	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This poorly known species was described from the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindoro (type locality), Cebu , Negros (historical records), Panay (Ferner<em> et al</em>. 2000) and Sicogon (although this record may refer to an undescribed species - J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). Taylor (1918) also referred five additional specimens of <em>Hemiphyllodactylus</em> from the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines to this species. It has been recorded up to 500 m asl.	eng
169865	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Although the natural history of this species is poorly known, it has been recorded from second growth forest, mangroves and beach forests.	eng
169865	population	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The abundance is not known, and it is presumed to be an easily overlooked species.	eng
169865	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169866	conservation	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This species probably occurs in the Agusan Marsh protected area although confirmation is needed. The species remains quite poorly known and additional details are needed on its distribution, natural history and threats.	eng
169866	distribution	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	This little known species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been recorded from Agusan Province (in northeastern Mindanao) and from coastal Cotabato (southern Mindanao), with new records Sultan Kudarat Province, Southern Mindanao (200-300 m asl), and from Zamboanga Del Sur Province (450m asl, Zamboanga Peninsula, West Mindanao) (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The specimen from Zamboanga might turn out to be a different subspecies or a closely related species (M. Gaulke and A. Alcala [in press]). It is found from sea level to at least 300 m asl.	eng
169866	habitat	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	Taylor (1915) states that specimens were collected in tall grass along the marshy Agusan River. The specimens from Sultan Kudarat were found on broad leaf blades of low shrubs and on the forest floor of a disturbed, primary lowland forest (200-300 m asl) close to the Sangay River (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). The specimen seen in Zamboanga del Sur was observed sunbathing at noontime on a broad leaf of a shrub in about 1.5 m height along the lakeshore vegetation of Lake Wood (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). It has been believed, on evidence of congener habitat, that this is a coastal species present in mangroves and swamps (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169866	population	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	There are currently no direct details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169866	threats	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A. & Gaulke, M., 2007	The species is presumably threatened by habitat loss, through the conversion of marshlands to other uses, and the loss of mangroves through conversion to fishponds, and logging for charcoal and firewood. There have been declines in <em>Emoia</em> populations in the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao, although these may refer to <em>E. atrocostata</em> rather than <em>E. ruficauda</em> (A. Demegillo pers. comm., 2007).	eng
169867	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species occurs within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169867	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to Batan Island in the Philippines. It has been recorded between sea level and 900 m asl.	eng
169867	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	Animals can be found in secondary forest, degraded forest and developed areas (such as rural gardens). It is usually found on the trunks of these trees at a height of around 1.5 to 6 metres.	eng
169867	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	It is extremely common and highly conspicuous.	eng
169867	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Afuang, L., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species. Although it has a generally restricted range, it is very tolerant of habitat disturbance.	eng
169868	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species occurs within the protected Sibulan Watershed Reserve on Polillo, and has been recorded from the Bicol National Park on Luzon. Further research is needed into the distribution on Luzon. There is a need to monitor levels of trade in this species, with a view to identifying any potential future threats.	eng
169868	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the island of Polillo and from a single specimen collected in 1995 from Bicol National Park, Camarines Norte, on the island of Luzon.	eng
169868	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is commonly found in intact, secondary and residual forests. Animals can be found on the leaf axils of screw pines (<em>Pandanus</em> sp.), giant "gabi" taro leaves (<em>Allocasia</em> sp.), <em>Musa</em> sp., and small palms. The females deposit their eggs on the leaf axils of host plants (J.C. Gonzalez pers. com. 2007).	eng
169868	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Ledesma, M., 2007	It is very common on Polillo, however it remains known only from a single specimen on Luzon.	eng
169868	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Ledesma, M., 2007	There has been low level trade of the species in the recent past. This seems unlikely to currently constitute a major threat to this species.	eng
169869	conservation	Brown, R., 2007	This species is found widely within and outside of protected areas. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169869	distribution	Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines where it is represented by three distinct subspecies, <em>L. p. pulchella</em> is present on the islands of Mindanao, Leyte, Samar, southern and central (Zambales) Luzon, Bohol and Polillo; <em>L. p. taylori</em> has been recorded from the islands of Negros and Panay; <em>L. p. levitoni</em> is restricted to the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon. It ranges between 250 and 1,100 m asl.	eng
169869	habitat	Brown, R., 2007	The species is arboreal and can be found on exposed trunks of trees in the dipterocarp or submontane tropical moist forests. It is common in secondary forest and highly disturbed habitats.	eng
169869	population	Brown, R., 2007	The species is locally abundant with a patchy distribution.	eng
169869	threats	Brown, R., 2007	Severe habitat modification may be a localized threat to this species. It is known to persist in secondary growth and disturbed areas.	eng
169870	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is present in the proposed protected area of Mount Mantalingahan, and in the protected watershed surrounding the town of Puerto Princesa. Further studies are needed into the abundance of this species.	eng
169870	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	The species is endemic to Palawan, where it ranges from Puerto Princesa to the southern tip of the island. It has recently been collected Brooke's Point (200 m) and on Mount Mantalingahan (round 700 m). The species is found between 200 and 1,000 m asl.	eng
169870	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Brown and Alcala (1978) report that it is found beneath logs and rocks on the forest floor. More recent collections have only been in close proximity to rivers and streams, where animals were found on rocks and logs. It can also be found underneath the bark of fallen trees, and has been recorded from gallery forest including tree plantations with undergrowth, secondary forest, and old growth forest. It is possible that the species is largely restricted to riparian areas, however, additional field studies are needed to confirm this.	eng
169870	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species. Other members of the genus can be found at a moderate abundance in preferred habitats.	eng
169870	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Logging and the conversion of forested areas to agricultural use are considered to be the major threats to this species.	eng
169871	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	The species is present in Mount Canlaon and Cuernos de Negros protected areas. On the island of Tablas, it possibly occurs in the Calatrava, San Andres, and San Agustin Watershed Forest Reserves. Additional general studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
169871	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the islands of Negros and Tablas in the Philippines. On Negros it has been recorded from Mount Canalon, Cuernos de Negros, Mount Talinis, Lake Balinsasaya, San Jose and San Agustin; and is believed to be widespread throughout coconut groves on the island. It ranges from around 250 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
169871	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is found in the axils of fronds of coconut trees. It also occupies the arboreal fern microhabitat in the dipterocarp and submontane forests at Mount Canlaon (Brown and Alcala 1978).	eng
169871	population	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	It is a relatively common species.	eng
169871	threats	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species, although there may be some localized threats through conversion of land to traditional slash and burn agriculture ('kaingin').	eng
169872	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Brown, R., 2007	It has been recorded from a number of protected areas (including Mount Hilong-hilong, Mount Malindang, Malagos, and Agusan). Further general research is needed into this relatively poorly-known species.	eng
169872	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar, Leyte (including the locality of Baybay) and Mindanao (including from Pasonanca, Malagos, Mount Malindang, Mount Busa, Mount Hilong-hilong and Agusan Marsh). It ranges between sea level and 1,000 m asl.	eng
169872	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Brown, R., 2007	This species has been recorded from primary and secondary tropical moist forest, possibly from wooded swamp forests and from some disturbed habitats. It is an oviparous species.	eng
169872	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Brown, R., 2007	There are very few specimens in collections, and the abundance of this species is not well documented.	eng
169872	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is threatened by general deforestation within its range. Animals are frequently killed when encountered.	eng
169873	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species possibly occurs in Mount Dajo National Park on the island of Jolo, although this needs to be confirmed. Further surveys and habitat protection ared urgently needed for this little known species.	eng
169873	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Jolo, Butinian, Bubuan, Lapac, Papahag and Tawi-tawi (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169873	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This is a poorly known species. Taylor (1922) notes that specimens from Jolo Island were found under leaves and trash along a small stream (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169873	population	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169873	threats	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There are significant levels of commercial logging within the Sulu Archipelago, and it is probable that these activities represent a major threat to this forest species.	eng
169874	conservation	Brown, R., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	If the species is found in southeastern Luzon, it might be in the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, breeding biology, threats and general ecology of this species	eng
169874	distribution	Brown, R., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from the type specimen collected in 1961 from the locality of "San Roque" (assumed to be in the Sorsogon Province on the southeastern tip of Luzon Islands, but needing verification) (Brown and Alcala 1980). Several surveys in the vicinity of San Roque in Southeastern Luzon failed to detect this species.	eng
169874	habitat	Brown, R., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	No information available. It can be inferred from its taxonomic affinities that it is a forest species.	eng
169874	population	Brown, R., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169874	threats	Brown, R., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The main threat may be habitat loss due to deforestation.	eng
169875	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species possibly occurs in Mount Dajo National Park and the Basilan Natural Biotic Area, however this needs confirmation. There is an urgent need to protect any remaining areas of suitable forest within the range of this species.	eng
169875	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Basilan, Jolo, Lapac, Taw-itawi, Sanga Sanga, Papahag and Bongao.	eng
169875	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This is a forest floor species recorded from secondary forest (and presumably present in primary forest), but not significantly degraded forest. Animals have been found under logs, among leaves and hiding in similar forest ground cover. It is an oviparous species.	eng
169875	population	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169875	threats	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is very threatened by extensive and continuing illegal deforestation throughout the Sulu Islands and Basilan.	eng
169876	conservation	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. Further studies are needed into the origin of animals held in captivity outside of the Philippines.	eng
169876	distribution	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has a restricted range on the islands of Batan and Sabtang. There are recent records of <em>Trimeresurus</em> from Calayan island that may be attributable to this species, but need verification (see Oliveros<em> et al</em>. 2004).	eng
169876	habitat	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Animals are found in a number of habitats, ranging from undisturbed tropical moist forest to agricultural areas (including water-buffalo wallows). They appear to congregate near water for hunting, but are not dependant on this habitat and can be found more widely.	eng
169876	population	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is very common on Batan, but less abundant on Sabtang.	eng
169876	threats	Sy, E., Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is well known in the international pet trade. Although exportation of wild animals is illegal, the species is widely found outside of the Philippines. It breeds well in captivity, and the origin of the many animals outside of the Philippines is unclear. This species has an extremely small range and is potentially threatened by stochastic events.	eng
169877	conservation	Afuang, L., Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is found within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169877	distribution	Afuang, L., Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from Itbayat and Batan Island. It has been recorded between sea level and 750 m asl.	eng
169877	habitat	Afuang, L., Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species occurs in primary and secondary tropical moist forests, agricultural areas and gardens in residential areas. Populations have also been recorded from within coastal pandan vegetation.	eng
169877	population	Afuang, L., Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species is very common and adaptable.	eng
169877	threats	Afuang, L., Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169878	conservation	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and natural history of this species.	eng
169878	distribution	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the island of Luzon (restricted to the Northern Cordilleras). It has been recorded from the island of Sibuyan (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Records from Subic and Catanduanes should be viewed with caution, and a recent listing of this species from Panay (Iloilo district) and records from Negros are almost certainly an error (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from around 400 to 800 m asl.	eng
169878	habitat	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There is very little known about the natural history of this species, although it is presumed to be arboreal. Animals have been recorded in agricultural areas, although additional details on their persistance in modified habitats are needed. All specimens observed on Sibuyan were seen on the upper part of coconut trees during daytime (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169878	population	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	It is only known from the initial collection taken in 1907, and from four additional specimens collected over the past ten years (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169878	threats	Brown, R. & Diesmos, A., 2007	Threats to this species are currently not known. It might tolerate a degree of habitat degradation, as animals have been reported from agricultural areas and some congeners appear to prefer disturbed sites.	eng
169879	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	It seems likely that this species is present within some protected areas (e.g., Mount Matutum), however this needs to be confirmed. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169879	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	This little-known species is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has only been recorded from south central Mindanao; Taylor (1925) collected the type specimen from Cotabato Province, and it has been collected from Digos near to Davao city.	eng
169879	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	All specimens of this species have come either from low vegetation along beaches, open areas and the mouths of streams, or from coconut groves at sea level. Members of this genus are terrestrial and are often found in modified habitats, although more details are needed into the adaptability of this species.	eng
169879	population	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	Although there are currently no details available on the abundance of this species, congeners can be common to abundant.	eng
169879	threats	Diesmos, A. & Delima, E., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. As with other members of the genus, it may be resilient to habitat modification.	eng
169880	conservation	Diesmos, A., Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	In general, no conservation measures are currently needed for the species as a whole. There is a need to occasionally monitor the population of this lizard and the possibility of mining development on the islands.	eng
169880	distribution	Diesmos, A., Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is endemic to South Gigante Island and North Gigante Island, and nearby islets, located off of the northeast of Panay Island in the Philippines. It is found from sea level to around 200 m asl.	eng
169880	habitat	Diesmos, A., Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	Animals are found throughout much of the rocky limestone islands, and may be encountered in caves, in rock crevices, in the islands karst forest and on rocky coastal cliffs.	eng
169880	population	Diesmos, A., Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	In general, this is a very common species within its restricted distribution.	eng
169880	threats	Diesmos, A., Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	There is some phosphate mining within one of the caves that this species has been recorded within, and it seems possible that this disturbance may be a localized threat to the species. The islands are regularly visited by fishermen from the nearby fishing grounds, although the impact of this on the species is not known. Possibly the most significant threat would be extensive of mining for phosphate on the island, however, this is not taking place at present and there are no known plans to further develop mines on the islands.	eng
169881	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Paul, S. & Delima, E.M., 2007	It is present in some protected areas including Mount Apo, Mount Malindang, and the proposed Mount Hilong-Hilong protected area. Further research is needed into the impact of harvest of this species.	eng
169881	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Paul, S. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Bohol, Biliran, Leyte, Samar (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007), Dinagat, Basilan, Camiguin Sur and Mindanao (locations include the Diauta Range, Mount Hilong Hilong, Malindang and Suigao del Sur) and is possibly present on Masbate (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is found at elevations of around 70 to 1,200 m asl.	eng
169881	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Paul, S. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This species is a water snake associated with streams and rivers. Animals have been found in primary and selectively logged forest, often in gallery forest or riparian vegetation. It largely feeds on frogs and similar prey.	eng
169881	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Paul, S. & Delima, E.M., 2007	This is often a common species.	eng
169881	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Paul, S. & Delima, E.M., 2007	The species is generally threatened by deforestation, and more specifically by the disturbance of water courses by mining and damming activities. There is some collection of this species for use in traditional medicines (e.g., on Bohol), and possibly for research into the venom, although it is not known how significantly this collection impacts populations.	eng
169882	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	It is possible that this species is, or was, present in both Timpoong and Hibok-Hibok Natural Monument (Camiguin Sur) and Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (Mindanao). Targeted surveys are urgently needed to rediscover the species and clarify its distribution, ecology, threats and conservation status.	eng
169882	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This little known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Camiguin and possibly Samar.	eng
169882	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	Little is known about the natural history of this species. Taylor (1922) recorded animals from the old tree stumps and hollow trees in tropical moist forest.	eng
169882	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169882	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	Although the threats to this species are poorly known, it is possibly threatened by the loss of forest through conversion of land to agricultural use, and logging operations.	eng
169883	conservation	Gonzales, J.C., Paguntalan, L., Jakosalem, P.G. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Apo National Park and Camotes Island Mangrove Swamp Forest Reserve. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance and ecology of this species.	eng
169883	distribution	Gonzales, J.C., Paguntalan, L., Jakosalem, P.G. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Luzon, Mindoro (including Mount Halcon), Marinduque, Samar, Cebu, Camotes, Poro, Pacijan, Negros, Ponson, Mindanao (Mount Apo up to 1,000 m asl) and possibly Tablas. The range map for this species is very approximate, with islands from which the species has been recorded mapped.	eng
169883	habitat	Gonzales, J.C., Paguntalan, L., Jakosalem, P.G. & Diesmos, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from secondary forest and wooded grasslands. It appears to be able to persist in highly disturbed areas.	eng
169883	population	Gonzales, J.C., Paguntalan, L., Jakosalem, P.G. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169883	threats	Gonzales, J.C., Paguntalan, L., Jakosalem, P.G. & Diesmos, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this widespread and adaptable species.	eng
169884	conservation	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	The species is known to occur in numerous protected areas. There is a need to conserve areas of lowland forest throughout the range of this species. Further research is needed to better determine the impacts on this species of habitat loss through mining operations and dam construction.	eng
169884	distribution	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippine Islands where it is known from the islands of Basilan, Mindanao (localities include Mount Hamiguitan, Surigao del Sur, Mount Hilong-Hilong, Mount Kampalili, Mount Malindang, Agusan Marsh, Mount Apo, the Diauta Range and the Malagos Watershed), Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Dinagat and Siargao. It is found between 75 (Surigao del Sur) and 2,100 m asl (Mount Apo).	eng
169884	habitat	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species seems to be associated with riparian habitat and streams in tropical most forest, including disturbed and selectively logged areas. It has been recorded feeding on frogs. This is an oviparous snake.	eng
169884	population	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	It seems to be a fairly common species.	eng
169884	threats	Diesmos, A., Gonzalez, J.C., Delima, E.M. & Tampos, G., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat loss, resulting from the conversion of land to agricultural use (including fruit plantations), logging operations, mining activities and dam construction.	eng
169885	conservation	Brown, R., Sy, E., Reizl Jose, Juan Carlos Gonzales, Rico, E. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species has been recorded from some protected areas. Further taxonomic work is needed to better understand the systematic status of the recognized subspecies and isolated populations. This especially applies to currently recognized subpopulations, that may be threatened at a global level (such as that of Luzon). Additional fieldwork is needed to determine the impact of collection or persecution on some subpopulations.	eng
169885	distribution	Brown, R., Sy, E., Reizl Jose, Juan Carlos Gonzales, Rico, E. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is recorded from Camiguin Norte, Luzon, Catanduanes, Panay (Gaulke 2001), Bohol, Mindanao, Polillo, Dinagat and Siargao. It is common at low elevations, and has been recorded at 700 m asl in Camiguin Norte, at 600 m asl on Mount Banahaw and between 300 and 400 m asl on Bohol.	eng
169885	habitat	Brown, R., Sy, E., Reizl Jose, Juan Carlos Gonzales, Rico, E. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species may be encountered in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from lowland disturbed sites to mid-elevation primary tropical moist forest. Animals have been recorded within both agroforesty and second growth forest habitats. Individuals can be found close to water hunting frogs and similar prey.	eng
169885	population	Brown, R., Sy, E., Reizl Jose, Juan Carlos Gonzales, Rico, E. & Ledesma, M., 2007	It can be a common species in disturbed habitats.	eng
169885	threats	Brown, R., Sy, E., Reizl Jose, Juan Carlos Gonzales, Rico, E. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species is adaptable, although it can be threatened by severe habitat loss. Animals are collected for the pet trade and suffer from opportunistic persecution, and while it is unlikely that these constitute major threats to the species as a whole, certain subpopulations (such as that of the Bicol Peninsula) might be significantly impacted.	eng
169886	conservation	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is not known from any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169886	distribution	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the island of Palawan in the Philippines, where it was collected in the Thumb Peak and Brooke's Point area in the 1920s and 1940s (three specimens in two localities). It was collected at around 300 m asl.	eng
169886	habitat	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There currently appears to be no information available on the natural history of this species.	eng
169886	population	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169886	threats	Brown, R. & Dimalibot, J., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is likely to be the threat for this species.	eng
169887	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Afuang, L. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species is found within Mount Isarog National Park and Mount Mayon National Park. Further studies are needed into the likelihood of future threats to this species.	eng
169887	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Afuang, L. & Diesmos, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to the islands of Luzon and Marinduque. On Luzon, it is known from Mount Isarog (Brown <em>et al</em>., 1995); Mount Mayon; the Mount Malinao range; and was recently reported from Mount Mingan, Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija (Duya, <em>et al.</em>, unpublished report [A. Diesmos pers. comm., 2007]). It ranges from around 900 to 1,400 m asl.	eng
169887	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Afuang, L. & Diesmos, M., 2007	Animals are found in primary mid-montane forest, and disturbed primary forest. The species has been collected underneath rocks and logs, as well as in leaf litter.	eng
169887	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Afuang, L. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species is fairly common in appropriate habitat.	eng
169887	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Afuang, L. & Diesmos, M., 2007	The species has a relatively restricted distribution, and it might be threatened by deforestation at higher elevations, especially on Marinduque island and on the Bicol Peninsula of Luzon (clearing currently extends to about 900 m). There is also a possible threat of mining operations on Marinduque. There is continuing volcanic activity on Mount Mayon that may threaten the species..	eng
169888	conservation	Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is present in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, ecological requirements and threats to this recently described species.	eng
169888	distribution	Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This recently described species is known only from northwestern Panay Island in the Philippines (Gaulke 2002), but may range more extensively on the island (A.  Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded from sea level to about 600 m asl (A. Demegillo and M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169888	habitat	Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This nocturnal species is both terrestrial and arboreal, and may be found in primary and secondary lowland tropical moist forests, in densely vegetated cultivated areas, and in rural gardens. It does not appear to be a forest dependent species, as animals have been found in residential areas (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169888	population	Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	It was previously known only from the holotype and two additional specimens (A. Demegillo pers. comm. 2007). More specimens have recently become available (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169888	threats	Custodio, C. & Demegillo, A., 2007	The species may be threatened by severe deforestation of its habitat.	eng
169889	conservation	Diesmos, A., Paguntalan, L.M., Gaulke, M. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species occurs in a number of protected areas including Mount Canlaon and Cuernos de Negros.	eng
169889	distribution	Diesmos, A., Paguntalan, L.M., Gaulke, M. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Panay, Carabao, Boracay, and Inampulugan. The species was collected all over Negros in the 1950s (La Castellana, Mount Canlaon area from 300 m to 900 m asl); Boracay in 1970; Inampulugan in 1967, in cultivated areas; with it is widely distributed on Panay (Municipalities of Pandan, Sebaste, and Culasi) with records from Aklan Province (at sea level to 0-500 m asl), and Mount Madja-as (Antique Province at 200 m asl). It has been recorded between sea level and 900 m asl.	eng
169889	habitat	Diesmos, A., Paguntalan, L.M., Gaulke, M. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This largely fossorial species is found in both primary and well-generated second growth forest, and within coconut plantations (Brown and Alcala 1980, Ferner <em>et al</em>. 2000). Animals can be encountered within the forest leaf litter, under logs and sometimes under the husks of coconuts. It is an ovoviviparous species.	eng
169889	population	Diesmos, A., Paguntalan, L.M., Gaulke, M. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There are many specimens in museum collections, including more than 50 animals collected on the island of Negros.	eng
169889	threats	Diesmos, A., Paguntalan, L.M., Gaulke, M. & Demegillo, A., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169890	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is not known if the species is present within any protected areas. Additional studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, general ecology and threats to this species.	eng
169890	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been collected from the islands of Luzon, Negros and Marinduque (McDiarmid <em>et al</em>. 1999). The type locality is Mount Maquiling on Luzon Island.	eng
169890	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	While little is known about the species natural history, it is likely to be found in loose soil and leaf litter within wooded habitats. It is not known if the species can persist in modified habitats.	eng
169890	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There is no information available on the population abundance of this species.	eng
169890	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169891	conservation	Custodio, C. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species has been recorded from Mount Kitanglad Natural Park, which is generally considered to be one of the best managed terrestrial parks in the Philippines. Further studies are needed into the natural history of this species.	eng
169891	distribution	Custodio, C. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to Mount Kitanglad, on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has been collected at 1,500 m asl.	eng
169891	habitat	Custodio, C. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The habitat and ecology of this species is poorly known. Congeners have been recorded from forest leaf litter.	eng
169891	population	Custodio, C. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169891	threats	Custodio, C. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	There appears to be little threat to this species. The area of distribution is very steep and generally unsuitable for agricultural use.	eng
169892	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The species is found in numerous protected areas. Further studies are needed into the threats to this species.	eng
169892	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been reported from the islands of Luzon (recorded at Limay, Bataan and in the south), Bohol, southern Mindanao (including the Zamboanga Peninsula), Masbate, Dinagat, Siargao, Samar, Leyte and Polilo. It ranges from around 100 to 800 m asl.	eng
169892	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The species is a forest obligate that can be found in both primary and secondary forest (including disturbed gallery forest on Leyte), with animals usually encountered on tree stumps and trunks, and among vines.	eng
169892	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	Although the species is often considered to be naturally rare, they appear to be abundant in the Diwata Mountains of Mindanao and in central Leyte.	eng
169892	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation, presumably resulting from logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use. There is a small trade in this species that seems unlikely to be a major threat.	eng
169893	conservation	Diesmos, A., 2007	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, and while it is not known to be present in any protected areas, it may occur in Mount Dajo National Park on the island of Jolo. It is possible that unrest and conflict within the region, between the Philippines military forces and Abu Sayyaf rebels, may be inadvertently conserving the habitat of this snake. Further studies are needed into this poorly-known species, perhaps most urgently, to determine whether viable populations of the species are present on the island of Borneo.	eng
169893	distribution	Diesmos, A., 2007	This species is has been recorded from the Philippines (on the Sulu Archipelago islands of Bongao, Jolo, Papahag, Sibutu, Tawi-Tawi) and possibly from East Malaysia (Sabah on the island of Borneo) (indicated by Malkmus <em>et al</em>. [2002], although not recorded from here by Stuebing and Inger [1999]). In the Philippines it was last recorded by on the mainland of the island of Tawi Tawi in the early 1990s (Gaulke 1995).	eng
169893	habitat	Diesmos, A., 2007	The natural history of this species remains poorly known. On Sibutu Island it was observed to live semifossorial in heavily disturbed lowland forest. It is presumed to be an oviparous species.	eng
169893	population	Diesmos, A., 2007	There is little known about the abundance of this species.	eng
169893	threats	Diesmos, A., 2007	Within the Philippines there is no forest left on the small islands from which the species has been recorded, and commercial logging operations are currently deforesting the larger islands.	eng
169894	conservation	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species was not collected in a protected area, and it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas. Further studies are needed into the distribution, abundance, ecology, and threats to this poorly-known species.	eng
169894	distribution	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known only from two specimens collected in Baguio in the mountains of norther Luzon during the early 1900's (Brown and Alcala 1980).  It was collected at about 900 m asl.	eng
169894	habitat	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The species was collected during an excavation for a church and during the ploughing of a field (Brown and Alcala 1980). No further details about the natural history of this species are available.	eng
169894	population	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	There are currently no details available on the abundance of this species.	eng
169894	threats	Brown, R., Afuang, L. & Ledesma, M., 2007	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
169895	conservation	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Liza Duya, Gonzalez, J.C., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E., 2007	This species is present within the protected area on the NW-Panay Peninsula (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species. There is an urgent need to review the taxonomy of the Philippines <em>Gonocephalus</em> to better determine the distributions of the three species.	eng
169895	distribution	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Liza Duya, Gonzalez, J.C., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Negros, Mindanao and Panay (Northeast and Central Range 200 to 800 m asl). It may be present on Suigao, Luzon, Samar, Palawan and the Calamianes, but the presence here needs to be confirmed. The species' distribution in very unclear owing to misidentifications between this species and <em>Gonocephalus interruptus</em> and <em>G. semperi</em>. It has been recorded between sea level and 1,200 m asl.	eng
169895	habitat	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Liza Duya, Gonzalez, J.C., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E., 2007	This appears to be a mainly arboreal forest obligate, that has been recorded from both primary and secondary lowland forests. The species is oviparous, with egg deposition taking place in small holes dug in the banks of forest rivers.	eng
169895	population	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Liza Duya, Gonzalez, J.C., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E., 2007	The species seems to be common in some areas. It is rather common in some areas on Panay, along watercourses in primary and secondary lowland forests (up to around 600 m asl), being rarer away from water and along forest edges (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008).	eng
169895	threats	Diesmos, A., Demegillo, A., Liza Duya, Gonzalez, J.C., Gaulke, M. & Delima, E., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species. There is an increasing threat from collection for the pet trade.	eng
169896	conservation	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Hilong-hilong protected area, and is likely to be present in some other protected areas. Further studies are needed into the tolerance of this species to habitat modification.	eng
169896	distribution	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is known from the islands of eastern Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, and is possibly present on Samar (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). On Mindanao it has been reported from Mount Hilong-hilong and Diuata. It ranges between 500 and 1,500 m asl.	eng
169896	habitat	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is found in forested areas (including ultrmafic forest) where animals can be encountered in shrubs, under fallen logs, amongst leaf litter and similar forest floor ground cover. It is not known if this species can persist in modified habitats. Eggs have been found in the crevices of fallen trees (Brown and Alcala 1980).	eng
169896	population	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	It can be common in suitable forest habitats.	eng
169896	threats	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Habitat loss due to deforestation is considered to be the major threat to this species.	eng
169897	conservation	Sy, E., Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C., Paguntalan, L.M., Demegillo, A., Custodio, C., Delima, E., Tampos, G., Gaulke, M. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is present in a number of protected areas (including Mount Apo and Mount Malindang). It is protected by national legislation and listed on Appendix II of CITES. There is a need for increased monitoring of the trade in this species.	eng
169897	distribution	Sy, E., Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C., Paguntalan, L.M., Demegillo, A., Custodio, C., Delima, E., Tampos, G., Gaulke, M. & Jose, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Samar, Leyte, Basilan, Bohol and Jolo. It is usually found below 1,000 m asl.	eng
169897	habitat	Sy, E., Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C., Paguntalan, L.M., Demegillo, A., Custodio, C., Delima, E., Tampos, G., Gaulke, M. & Jose, R., 2007	The preferred habitats are mangroves, and it is relatively common in fishpond areas (M. Gaulke pers. comm. 2008). Animals can be found in tropical moist forest, but can also reach high population densities in modified habitats.	eng
169897	population	Sy, E., Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C., Paguntalan, L.M., Demegillo, A., Custodio, C., Delima, E., Tampos, G., Gaulke, M. & Jose, R., 2007	In general while this is still a relatively common species, it is suspected that populations are undergoing some declines because of overharvesting.	eng
169897	threats	Sy, E., Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G., Gonzalez, J.C., Paguntalan, L.M., Demegillo, A., Custodio, C., Delima, E., Tampos, G., Gaulke, M. & Jose, R., 2007	Although this is a widespread species, it is heavily harvested illegally (contravening national legislation), for local and national consumption, and to a lesser degree for the national and international pet and leather trade. Stuffed individuals are still being sold, even in remote areas of Mindanao (observations by M. Gaulke, from 2006 and 2007).	eng
169898	conservation	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	It has been recorded from protected areas on Palawan. Additional field studies are needed to further investigate the distribution, natural history and threats to this little-known snake.	eng
169898	distribution	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This little-known species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been reported from Mount Mantalingahan in the south of the island of Palawan, and from Culion Island and Calauit Island located to the north of Palawan. It islikely to be found at localities between the known sites, however ther are currently no data to support this possible range extension. The species occurs from around sea level to about 900 m asl.	eng
169898	habitat	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This is a nocturnal species, recorded in both primary and secondary tropical moist forest.	eng
169898	population	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	This snake appears to be naturally rare, although animals seem to be generally difficult to find..	eng
169898	threats	Brown, R. & Afuang, L., 2007	The leading threat to this species is habitat loss resulting from deforestation by mining activities, conversion of land to agricultural use and logging operations.	eng
169899	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas. There is a general need to maintain suitable forest habitat for this species.	eng
169899	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindanao (including recently from Mount Busa, the Diuata Range and Mount Hilong-hilong), Leyte, Samar (recently collected at 400 m asl [J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007]), Dinagat and Bohol (including old records from Rajah Sikatuna  and Sierra Bullones). It has been reported at elevations of 400 to 1,150 m asl.	eng
169899	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is partially arboreal, with animals observed up to 20 m on trees (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It has frequently been recorded in secondary or disturbed forest (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007). It is an oviparous species.	eng
169899	population	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This is generally a common species.	eng
169899	threats	Diesmos, A. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation, generally resulting from logging operations and the conversion of land to agricultural and other uses.	eng
169900	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	It is found within the Batanes Protected Land and Seascape. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169900	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found in the Batanes (Itbayat Island and Batan Island), and may also be present on Bubuyan Claro Island. It ranges from around sea level to 600 m asl.	eng
169900	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	The species is found in a wide range of habitats including in agricultural and residential areas, caves and degraded forest. It appears to be more common in disturbed areas.	eng
169900	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is very abundant within its limited range.	eng
169900	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169901	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There are no direct conservation measure in place for this species, and it is not known if it is present in any protected areas. There is an urgent need to conserve remaining areas of forest within the Sulu Archipelago. Field studies are needed to determine the range, habitat requirements and threats to this species.	eng
169901	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This poorly known snake has only been recorded from an indistinct locality in the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines. It may have been collected on the island of Sulu. The maps shows the possible range of this species including the islands of Sibutu, Bongao, Sanga-sanga, and the small island between Tawi-Tawi and Jolo.	eng
169901	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Nothing is known about the natural history of this species. Other members of the genus are small burrowing species, usually associated with forest habitats.	eng
169901	population	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is known only from holotype.	eng
169901	threats	Diesmos, A. & Rico, E.L., 2007	There is extensive, often illgegal, logging underway in the Sulu Archipelago. Much of this timber is transported to Malaysia and Mindanao.	eng
169902	conservation	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species has been recorded from a number of protected areas including Mount Canlaon, Mount Talinis-Twin Lakes Natural Park, North Negros Forest Reserve, and North East Panay Peninsula Park. There is a need to maintain primary forest habitat within the ranges of this species. Further taxonomic studies are needed into the identification of animals from Mindanao, Basilan and Luzon.	eng
169902	distribution	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Cebu; Masbate (not mapped here as the last record of this forest snake was from the 1950s, since which the island has been virtually deforested with forest possibly remaining at Milagros); Negros (most records from this island (most recent from 2004); recorded from Lake Balinsasayao; recently seen at Ayungon [R. Brown pers. comm. 2007]); Panay (localities including Mount Mafja-as, Culasi and Sibalom); Basilan and Mindanao (including Mount Apo; seemingly not present on the Zamboanga Peninsula). It may also be present on Samar (J.C. Gonzales pers. comm. 2007), Luzon (old record requiring confirmation and not mapped here); Lubang (identification requires verification). It ranges from around sea level to about 1,200 m asl.	eng
169902	habitat	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This semi aquatic snake is associated with streams, rivers and lakes, within intact tropical moist gallery forest. There are some records from outside of primary habitat, and it may be able to persist in lightly disturbed forest, however further studies are needed to confirm this (R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). On Cebu and Negros, animals are often restricted to forest fragments on limestone substrate (presumably related to the general lack of suitability of these areas for cultivation).	eng
169902	population	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Demegillo, A., 2007	In general, this species is recorded to be common within suitable habitat (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169902	threats	Diesmos, A., Jakosalem, P.G. & Demegillo, A., 2007	This species is generally threatened by habitat loss, largely through conversion of land to agricultural and other uses, mining activities (e.g., on Cebu) and logging operations. As with many snakes, animals are often killed when encountered.	eng
169903	conservation	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E.L., 2007	It is found in a number of protected areas and forest reserves in Luzon. There is an urgent need to preserve any remaining areas of coastal forest habitat. Further research is needed into the distribution, natural history and conservation status of this species.	eng
169903	distribution	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from many localities on the islands of Mindoro and Luzon (being seemingly absent from the Bicol Peninsula). It appears to be a lowland species found between sea level and 600 m asl.	eng
169903	habitat	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E.L., 2007	This forest floor species is historically associated with coastal forests, but can also be found in mid-montane tropical moist forest. On Mindoro, it has been found in secondary growth forest adjacent to primary forest.	eng
169903	population	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E.L., 2007	It seems to be naturally not an abundant species.	eng
169903	threats	Brown, R., Ledesma, M. & Rico, E.L., 2007	Continuing deforestation is the major threat to this species. Most coastal forests, a major part of the species' habitat, have been destroyed over the past 100 years.	eng
169904	conservation	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species is found in protected areas on the island of Sibuyan. No direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole.	eng
169904	distribution	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Mindoro, Romblon, Semirara and Sibuyan. It is found at elevations of between sea level and 800 m asl.	eng
169904	habitat	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	Although the species is found in tropical moist forest, it is common in both degraded forest, plantations and agricultural areas.	eng
169904	population	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	The species can found at extremely high abundances in modified habitats.	eng
169904	threats	Brown, R. & Rico, E., 2007	There appear to be no major threats to this species.	eng
169905	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Ledesma, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species is known from a number of protected areas.	eng
169905	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Ledesma, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from the islands of Samar, Leyte, Tintiman, Tilmubo, Lapinig Chico and Lapinig Grande, as well as from southeastern Luzon. There are additional recent records from Bohol, and from northeast Mindanao (Diwata Mountains). It ranges from about 100 to 850 m asl.	eng
169905	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Ledesma, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	Animals are associated with humus, leaf litter, rotten logs and similar ground cover in tropical moist forests. It can be found in both primary and secondary forest, but is not present in coastal areas or cultivated land.	eng
169905	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Ledesma, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is considered to be very common in suitable habitat.	eng
169905	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Ledesma, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	General habitat loss due to deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
169906	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Mount Canlaon National Park. Further studies are needed into the taxonomy, distribution, abundance, natural history, and threats to this species.	eng
169906	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	This species is known only from the type locality of Canlaon Volcano, Negros Island, the Philippines (Taylor 1917). It was collected at around 750 m asl.	eng
169906	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	The natural history of this species is poorly known, it may be a fossorial forest species, with animals present under logs and amongst leaf litter (A. Diesmos pers. comm. 2007).	eng
169906	population	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	It appers to be known only from the holotype, that was destroyed in the bombing of Manila in World War II.	eng
169906	threats	Diesmos, A. & Paguntalan, L.M., 2007	The threats to this species are not known. The type locality has been wholly deforested.	eng
169907	conservation	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species has been recorded from the Malagos Watershed protected area. There is a need to protect remaining areas of mature forest within the range of this species. Additional research is needed into the natural history of this little known species. There is a need to clarify the systematic status of populations from Mindoro, and to determine whether the species is present on Samar.	eng
169907	distribution	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it has been recorded from Mindanao (including Zamboanga), Maripipi, Dinagat and Leyte, with observations of it occurring on Mindoro and Basilan. Reports of the species from Catanduanes appear to be in error (A. Diesmos and R. Brown pers. comm. 2007). It might be present on Samar, however this needs confirmation. It is a lowland species found between sea level and 300 m asl.	eng
169907	habitat	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This nocturnal, arboreal species is found in areas of mature primary and secondary forest (including mahogany plantations). It is an oviparous species.	eng
169907	population	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This is a rarely see, secretive, species.	eng
169907	threats	Diesmos, A. & Brown, R., 2007	This species is threatened by deforestation resulting from logging operationas and the conversion of forested land to other uses. There is no recorded trade in this specis, although other species in the genus have been reported in trade.	eng
169908	conservation	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The whole island of Babuyan Claro is managed under a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claim (CADC). There are two settlements on Babuyan Claro but the vast majority of the forest along the coastline is intact. Further studies are needed to determine whether this species is a coastal forest specialist.	eng
169908	distribution	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	This species is endemic to the Babuyanes group of islands, at the northern tip of the island of Luzon, in the Philippines. It has been recorded from the islands of Calayan, Barit, and Babuyan Claro. It is found from sea level to around 50 m asl.	eng
169908	habitat	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	The species seems to be associated with forests on the islands, and can be found in trees and shrubs along the coast. The forest in Babuyan Claro extends to the coast with very minimal human disturbance.	eng
169908	population	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	While the species has only been collected once on Calayan, it is moderately common on Barit and is considered to be abundant on Babuyan Claro.	eng
169908	threats	Brown, R. & Gonzalez, J.C., 2007	Coastal forest habitat on Calayan has declined in the last 100 years; presumably through extraction of timber and firewood, and the conversion of land to agricultural use. The forest on Babuyan Claro seems to be intact and is not currently threatened here.	eng
169909	conservation	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species is found within a number of protected areas. There is a need to protect remaining areas of suitable habitat for this species.	eng
169909	distribution	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is restricted to Luzon Island. It has been recorded from Mount Banahaw (Brown and Alcala 1980) and Mount High Peak, Zambales, (Brown, Ferner and Sison 1995). Recent surveys have recorded populations in Balbalasang and Aurora (Mount Mingan). There is a possible record at 800m on Mount Makiling (J.C. Gonzalez pers. comm. 2007). It has been recorded between 1,000 and 1,600 m asl.	eng
169909	habitat	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species is a mid to upper montane specialist. Animals have been collected under general leaf litter and rotten logs, and in thick moss on the forest floor.	eng
169909	population	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	The species is fairly common in appropriate habitat.	eng
169909	threats	Brown, R., Gonzalez, J.C., Rico, E., Diesmos, M. & Afuang, L., 2007	Although the range of this species is currently intact forest, it may be threatened in the future by habitat loss due to deforestation resulting from logging operations and conversion of land to agricultural use.	eng
170118	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2009	More research about the distribution, biology and the potential threats facing this species is needed.	eng
170118	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2009	<em>Danionella priapus</em> is known only from the type locality (Jalpaiguri District, Brahmaputra drainage, Jorai River, a tributary of  the Sankosh at Laskarpara, outskirts of Barobisha town, Brahmaputra River drainage, West Bengal, India.	eng
170118	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2009	This species was collected from a slow-flowing stream with a sandy bottom and dense aquatic vegetation.	eng
170118	population	Ng, H.H., 2009	The population size and trend of this species is unknown.	eng
170118	threats	Ng, H.H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to the area have also not been adequately identified. Specimens for the aquarium trade are reported to be collected from the type locality.	eng
170119	conservation	Ng, H., 2009	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
170119	distribution	Ng, H., 2009	The species was described from the Koladyne River at Kolchaw in Lawntlai District, Mizoram, India<em></em> (Anganthoibi and Vishwanath 2009).	eng
170119	habitat	Ng, H., 2009	This species has been found in swift-flowing rivers with a rocky bottom (Anganthoibi and Vishwanath 2009).	eng
170119	population	Ng, H., 2009	There is insufficient information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
170119	threats	Ng, H., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
170120	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
170120	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known only from small streams on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, north and south of Thandwe in southwestern Myanmar.	eng
170120	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits forested streams with a substrate of stones, pebbles and rocks. &#160;In the dry season, these streams typically become a series of interconnected pools, to which these fishes are largely restricted.	eng
170120	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information available on the population and its trends for this species. &#160;However, the very restricted distribution suggests that the population is not very large and may be vulnerable to over-exploitation.	eng
170120	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	Collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade, while infrequent, may present a potential major threat to the population, because its restricted distribution indicates that the global population may be small. &#160;Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
170121	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
170121	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known only from small streams on the western slope of the Rakhine Yoma, near Thandwe, Kyeintali and Sittwe in Myanmar. &#160;It may be more widespread than what is known, however, the range will not extend beyond 15,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
170121	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is found in forested streams in low flow areas of pools with dominant substrates of rock, pebbles and gravel. &#160;In the dry season, they are confined to deep pools.	eng
170121	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	In the type locality and also from small streams nearby their population is high but there is no information known on the population trends for this species.	eng
170121	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	While collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade may present a potential threat to the population, its effects are presently unknown because no information on the population and its trends for this species is known, as is the intensity of harvest for the trade (although observations indicate that this species is infrequently collected). &#160; Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
170361	conservation	Gentili, R., Rossi, G., Parolo, G. & Abeli, T., 2007	A subpopulation is included in two natural  parks: Regional Park of Orobie Begamasche and Regional Park of Orobie Valtellinesi. The species have been proposed for their inclusion in the list of protected species of Lombardy (regional law).	eng
170361	distribution	Gentili, R., Rossi, G., Parolo, G. & Abeli, T., 2007	<p>    </p><p>This species is endemic to the alpine region of Italy, where it is only found in the Orobic and Raethian Alps (Lombardy Region, province of Sondrio and province of Bergamo). <span style="font-style: italic;">Sanguisorba dodecandra</span> has a discontinuous distribution, whereby it is restricted to some valleys of the Orobian Alps chain. In the Raethian Alps this species is found in two small growing sites. </p>  <p>The biggest populations are found in the province of Sondrio, in some lateral valleys of Valtellina: Livrio Valley, Scais-Venina Valley, Armisola Valley, Arigna Valley, Togno Valley. Anthropogenic occurrences also exist in Valmalenco. </p>  <p>Many occurrences are also recorded in the province of Bergamo. In particular subpopulations are known from the valleys of Brembana, Mora, Scalve, and Seriana. The southern limit of this plant's range is situated close to Mount Pizzo Arera, and near the villages of Ponte Nossa and Casnigo.<br/></p><p></p><p>It is estimated that the species occurs at around 20 locations. Its extent of occurrence, measured by a GIS database, is 1,100 km<sup>2</sup>, while the area of occupancy is 516 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>  <p></p>	eng
170361	habitat	Gentili, R., Rossi, G., Parolo, G. & Abeli, T., 2007	The species grows in humid environmental conditions, inside tall forb communities, at the border of <span style="font-style: italic;">Alnus viridis</span> shrublands. It can also be found close to riparian habitats. From a phyto-sociologic point of view it can be ascribed to the <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostylion alliariae</span> alliances and to <span style="font-style: italic;">Carici piluliferae-Epilobion angustifolii</span> communities.	eng
170361	population	Gentili, R., Rossi, G., Parolo, G. & Abeli, T., 2007	The population size is unknown. Nevertheless, the species is common where it grows.	eng
170361	threats	Gentili, R., Rossi, G., Parolo, G. & Abeli, T., 2007	<p>    </p><p>The main threat to the species is climate change as the species grows in wet areas close to streams. Global warming could reduce the&#160;extent of wet habitats in the near future. One subpopulation could be threatened by a dam that will probably be built in the next years.</p><p></p>	eng
170363	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
170363	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species extends from Eritrea, through northern and eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia to northeast Kenya. This species is found at altitudes between sea level and approximately 2,100 m above sea level. The species has also been recorded in southern Ethiopia (Largen and Spawls 2006). Its type locality is Sooroo Pass in Southern Eritrea.	eng
170363	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is associated with rocky hills and outcrops in dry savanna and semi-desert country.	eng
170363	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170363	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Habitat loss and land degradation due to fuelwood extraction and agricultural expansion are localized threats within this species' range but do not significantly affect the species.	eng
170364	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
170364	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found from Eritrea, south through East Africa to coastal KwaZulu-Natal, eastern Botswana and northern Namibia (Branch 1998). The western limit of the distribution is the western Democratic Republic of the Congo (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species occurs from sea level to 2,400 m above sea level, although in East Africa it is most common from 1,300 to 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
170364	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits open savanna. A study on <em>A. atricollis atricollis</em> found that this subspecies preferentially inhabits thorn trees, followed by common sugarbush and dead trees. It was also found to select trees with larger diameters, denser canopy cover and a higher parasitic load (Reaney and Whiting 2003). Within Semuliki National Park, this species was often found in the vicinity of human settlements (Necas <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/>This agamid is predominantly arboreal, and comes to the ground only to cross to another tree or to feed. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with clutch sizes of 4-15 (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
170364	population	Spawls, S., 2009	Patterson (1987) reported that this species appears to be common in Kruger National Park. A resident pair was found on almost every tree, even in anthropogenically disturbed areas.	eng
170364	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.	eng
170365	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out as there is still debate on the systematics.	eng
170365	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution but is found in many countries throughout southern and eastern Africa. It is found in Eritrea in the north, south through Ethopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. It is also found northwest through Botswana to Namibia, Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and southward to South Africa (Loveridge 1957). It can be found from sea level to a maximum altitude of 2,200 m above sea level. (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
170365	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in moist savanna, dry savanna, shrubland, rocky outcrops, woodland, and forest clearings (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
170365	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170365	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
170366	conservation	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the ecology, abundance, population trends and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
170366	distribution	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Asia from Myanmar and northern Thailand, through Lao PDR to Viet Nam and south to Cambodia (Teynie 2004, Stuart 1998). It also occurs in the southern Chinese provinces of Yunnan, Guangix, Guangdong, Fujian and Hainan (Adler 1993). This species has been found as low as 100 m above sea level.	eng
170366	habitat	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is arboreal and found in the trees of primary forest, often near streams (Teynie 2004), though it is also reported to inhabit low vegetation (Stuart 1999).	eng
170366	population	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170366	threats	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	Forests in this region are under pressure from logging and agricultural expansion. In Thailand, the forest area declined by 28% between 1976 and 1989 (Cropper <em>et al</em>. 1999) and by 30% in Lao PDR between 1940 and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000). Similar patterns of habitat loss are occurring in other parts of this species range. Because this species is only known from primary forest, habitat degradation and destruction is likely to be a major threat and cause population declines.	eng
170367	conservation	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
170367	distribution	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species was originally reported from Gambia and southern Senegal and in "Mélacorée" which may refer to a locality in Guinea (Rochebrune 1884).	eng
170367	habitat	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
170367	population	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170367	threats	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is found within a range that is experiencing habitat loss  and degradation due to agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and possible  logging activity, however, the impact of these threats on the species is not known.	eng
170368	conservation	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research should be carried out to determine the full range of this species.	eng
170368	distribution	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species inhabits the border of the Sahara Desert in West Africa and it is thought to occur from Mauritania through Mali to Niger (Joger 1981). It may also extend its distribution into into western Chad (I. Ineich pers. comm.). Its has been captured near the border of Algeria and Nigeria and may also be native to these countries.	eng
170368	habitat	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is a "sahelian" endemic and inhabits sandy and hard-soiled areas between the southern edge of the Sahara Desert and the transitional zones between wooded steppe and dry savanna (Joger 1979). The western form found in Mauritania, which may belong to a yet unnamed distinct species, occupies preferentially steppes with <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia</span>, while the eastern form, which includes the populations of the type locality, occurs mostly in dry savanna remnants (I. Ineich pers. comm.). While this species occurs in areas of sand regularly flooded by the sea, it does not appear to inhabit sandy littoral dunes (Crochet <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
170368	population	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	Joger (1996) reports that this species is locally abundant by the coast of southern Mauritania and northwest Senegal.	eng
170368	threats	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
170369	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
170369	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species was described from a single animal collected at Om Hajer in Eritea and the name has never since been applied to any other specimen (M. Largen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
170369	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
170369	population	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimen.	eng
170369	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
170371	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is known to occur in the Masai Mara Game Reserve and Arusha National Park (Razzetti and Msuya 2002, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). No conservation measures are required.	eng
170371	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to East Africa, occurring from the Masai Mara south-west through the Serengeti, around the southern shore of Lake Victoria, across to eastern Rwanda and Burundi and then south into southern Tabora District in Tanzania. It might also occur north of the Masai Mara, but this has not been confirmed. It occurs from 1,000 to 2,200 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
170371	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is diurnal and inhabits medium to high savanna and grassland. It is common on rock outcrops, and will shelter in the spaces between large boulders or under exfoliating flakes of granite. Around human habitation, the species has been found in the spaces of corrugated iron roofs and mud walls (Yarnell and Jones 2001, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species has been observed living in social groups of around ten individuals. Although this behaviour provides benefits such as increased thermoregulation at night and decreased predation risk, Yarnell and Jones (2001) speculate that the species may have been forced into this congregatory lifestyle due to the limited number of crevasses that provide shelter.<br/><br/>Loveridge (1923) describes that females were known to have between six and eight eggs developing in the ovaries.	eng
170371	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is locally abundant	eng
170371	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
170373	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, although parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas.	eng
170373	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This Australian species ranges from the Northern Territory to west and central Queensland (Cogger 2000).	eng
170373	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is aboreal. It is seldom observed more than five metres from a tree or vegetation and appears to be particularly abundant near permanent waterways (Thompson and Thompson 2001). It occurs in a range of habitats including coastal sand dunes, grassland and savanna, shrubland, and even swamp and mangrove areas.	eng
170373	population	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is reported to be abundant in northwestern Australia (Thompson and Thompson 2001).	eng
170373	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species.	eng
170374	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species. However, the distribution of this species may fall within protected areas. Research into the population trends and threats of this species is suggested to ensure any significant declines are noted in the future	eng
170374	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in Australia. In western Victoria and neighbouring regions of South Australia and in the region of the Eyre Peninsula and coastal regions of the Great Australian Bight (Cogger 2000).	eng
170374	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in heath and shrubland (Clemann <em>et al.</em> 2005, Cogger 2000).	eng
170374	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has been reported as common (Robley and Wright 2003).	eng
170374	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species, like many Australian reptiles, may be threatened by introduced species including foxes. This, however, is not considered to constitute a major threat to this species at present because significant population declines have not been reported.	eng
170375	conservation	Auliya, M.,Inger, R.F., & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research on population numbers and habitat should be carried out and its population and habitat trends should be monitored.	eng
170375	distribution	Auliya, M.,Inger, R.F., & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Tioman Island, Singapore (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999), the Seribuat Archipelago (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006), and Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found from Sabah (East Malaysia) (Manthey 2008). It may also be found in Indonesia on Simalur, Nias, Sumatra, Singkep, Kalimantan and Natuna Island (Uetz 2006, M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).	eng
170375	habitat	Auliya, M.,Inger, R.F., & Manthey, U., 2009	Members of the genus <em>Aphaniotis</em> are known to be tree- and bush-dwellers, in primary lowland moist forests and hilly regions in the general vicinity of running water (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Grismer <em>et al.</em> (2006) state that this species is an arboreal, diurnal lizard commonly found in undisturbed closed canopy forests, where it perches on the sides of trees and vines.	eng
170375	population	Auliya, M.,Inger, R.F., & Manthey, U., 2009	In the Seribuat Archipelago, this species occurs in 'unusually high densities' on the islands of Babi Besar, Babi Tengah, Babi Hujong and Aceh (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). It inhabits similar habitats to smaller Draco species, so the absence of <span style="font-style: italic;">D. melanopogon</span> from the interior of these islands may be caused by competitive exclusion (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006). Generally, where <em>A. fusca</em> does occur sympatrically with any of the other smaller <em>Draco </em>spp<em>.</em> (i.e. Tioman, Tinggi, Sibu), it occurs in much lower densities (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). In the forested lowlands of peninsular Malaysia, as well as the suburbs of Kuala Lumpur, the species seems to be relatively common (M. Auliya pers. comm.).	eng
170375	threats	Auliya, M.,Inger, R.F., & Manthey, U., 2009	The extent of impact of threat process on this species are not well understood. As it is a primary forest dweller, this species is likely impacted by habitat degradation due to human-driven deforestation, as a result of deforestation in parts of it range which occurs in a region where lowland forest is retreating very fast, especially due to oil palm plantations. More than 75% of forest in tropical Asia, the Philippine archipelago, Indochina, Malay Peninsula, India, Java, and Lesser Sundas has been deforested. Over half the forest cover remains in Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and New Guinea, however, they are experiencing rapid conversion (Laurance 1999).	eng
170377	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its habitat and threats and population monitoring are needed.	eng
170377	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is widely distributed across the Indo-Gangetic plains, ranging from Bangladesh through the Central and United Provinces of India (Smith 1935), and west to the upper and lower Indus Valleys in Pakistan. Its definite records are from Sindh and Punjab, District Jhang (Mertens 1974, Khan and Mirza 1977). It occurs at elevations between 50 to 200 m above sea level (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). Although this species has a wide distribution, it is severely fragmented across its range (M.S. Kahn pers. comm. 2010).	eng
170377	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species inhabits arid environments such as dry forest and has been collected from hard barren desert and desolate areas (Khan 2006). It is a diurnal and crepuscular species and shelters in burrows close to the roots of thorny bushes, and feeds on insects, leaves and flowers (Khan 2006). The female is larger than the male and more brilliantly coloured during breeding season, which extends from April to June; 4-6 hard shelled white eggs are laid in burrows.	eng
170377	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	The Short Tail Ground Agama is rare (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). In the upper and lower Indus Valleys in Pakistan it is considered rare and has a patchy distribution (Khan 2006).	eng
170377	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat destruction (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). It is likely impacted by conversion of land to agricultural purposes and the pressures associated with a growing human population and settlements. This species is slow moving and has easily been caught (M.S. Kahn pers. comm. 2010). It also has a reputation for being particularly harmful, which contributed much to its depletion (M.S. Kahn pers .comm. 2010).	eng
170378	conservation	Ineich, I. & Hallermann, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research to confirm the full distribution and threats to this species should be carried out, as well as population and habitat monitoring.	eng
170378	distribution	Ineich, I. & Hallermann, J., 2009	There is uncertainty surrounding the distribution of this Asian lizard<em></em>. It is known to occur in Java, Bali, southeastern Borneo, Nias Island, and Sulawesi in Indonesia, Mindanao in the Philiipines, and Prachin Buri in south-central Thailand (Hallermann 2005). <br/><br/>It may also occur more widely in the Philippine Islands, as there are four specimens that are probably from the archipelago but do not have a specific locality given (Hallermann 2005). De Rooij's 1915 records from the islands of Salibabu, Karakelong and Talaud (all in the Talaud Archipelago) have not been verified, but may be correct. Lastly, the Nicobar Islands locality is incorrect, and its occurrence in southern India at Pondicherry is questionable, although may be due to introduced individuals (Hallermann 2005). <br/><br/>This species is known to occur between 100 and 1,400 m above sea level.	eng
170378	habitat	Ineich, I. & Hallermann, J., 2009	This species is arboreal (Sharma 2002) and inhabits moist lower montane forests, secondary forests, and plantations (McKay 2006). <br/><br/>This oviparous agama is known to have spindle-shaped eggs (Smtih 1935).	eng
170378	population	Ineich, I. & Hallermann, J., 2009	McKay (2006) states that this species is frequently encountered.	eng
170378	threats	Ineich, I. & Hallermann, J., 2009	The forest habitat of this species is likely to be undergoing loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion and logging, however, areas of suitable habitat remain.	eng
170379	conservation	Stuart, B.L. & Hallermann, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, for example the Phnom Nam Lyr Wildife Sanctuary in Cambodia. Further research on the population range, biology and ecology, and threats of this species is suggested. Population and habitat monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of new protected areas is suggested to provide further safeguards for this species.	eng
170379	distribution	Stuart, B.L. & Hallermann, J., 2009	This species has only been found in the southern Annam Highlands in southern Viet Nam and eastern Cambodia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,585 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
170379	habitat	Stuart, B.L. & Hallermann, J., 2009	This species is found in the southern Annamites montane rainforest. A recent specimen was taken from deciduous dipterocarp forest with a grassy under-storey.	eng
170379	population	Stuart, B.L. & Hallermann, J., 2009	Prior to the recent record from Phnom Nam Lyr Wildife Sanctuary, only three specimens were known: two from Mohout in Cambodia, and a third obtained by Smith (1935) at Dalat on the Langbian Plateau in southern Viet Nam (Stuart <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
170379	threats	Stuart, B.L. & Hallermann, J., 2009	This species' habitat is threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural industry and expansion of plantations.	eng
170381	conservation	Ganesh, S.R., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. The main threat identified was habitat loss and the future research that was recommended included population monitoring and life-history studies. However, a threat category was not assigned.	eng
170381	distribution	Ganesh, S.R., 2009	This species inhabits the Western Ghats and is found in the Anaimalai, Tinnevelly and Sivagiri hills and the Malabar coast (Smith 1935, Sharma 2002).   Manthey (2008) mentions an isolated single record from Mahabaleshwar, in northern Western Ghats (Maharasthtra state, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>). The area in which this species is distributed is estimated to be 47,424 km²<sup></sup> and it has an upper elevational limit of 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
170381	habitat	Ganesh, S.R., 2009	This species occurs in dry and moist deciduous forest, as well as primary rainforest (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2003)   and associated altered habitats such as tea, coffee, and cardamom plantations (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).	eng
170381	population	Ganesh, S.R., 2009	Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2003) surveyed the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and 14 rainforest fragments in the Anaimalai Hills, both in the Western Ghats mountains. This species "dominated the arboreal reptile community" in the protected area and, moreover, rose to be the most dominant agamid in the fragmented forest. As a result, Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2003) suggest that this species is a habitat generalist and appears to be unaffected by forest fragmentation.	eng
170381	threats	Ganesh, S.R., 2009	The area in which this species is distributed has, and continues to, undergo habitat loss and degradation. However, this species is known to adapt well to fragmented forests (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2003), so this cannot be considered a threat to this species.	eng
170382	conservation	Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
170382	distribution	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality of Yarang, Medog County, Tibet, China (Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
170382	habitat	Manthey, U., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
170382	population	Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170382	threats	Manthey, U., 2009	It is unknown whether this speices is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
170383	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in a number of protected areas within its range, including the Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Area. However, illegal logging, mining and human encroachment remain a threat even in this protected area (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Conservation measures are required to ensure that the protected areas within this species' range are managed and further habitat loss is prevented. Further research into the species' population and habitat should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.<br/>This species was listed as Endangered B1ab(i,iii) in the 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.	eng
170383	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the southwestern wet zone. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,300 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 60 and 990 m above sea level.	eng
170383	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species<em> </em>is a ground-dwelling species that inhabits dense, high canopy, natural forest and is apparently restricted to the undisturbed and fragmented, moist lowland and submontane dipterocarp forests (Pethiyagoda and Manamendra-Arachchi 1998, Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994) and moist lowland rainforest (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). Recent observations by de Silva (pers. comm. 2010) found that this species is semi-arboreal as over 50 animals were observed on the stems of small plants about 6 to 20 cm above ground. This species was also found on leaf litter and occasionally on moss covered roots of large trees or on decaying logs.	eng
170383	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is uncommon in Sri Lanka, according to Bahir and Surasinghe (2005); however, Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) reports it as "the most common horned lizard in the lowlands" (of the two other Cetophoras species) and recent observations show that it is common in lowland rainforests (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
170383	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Senanayake (1980) states that the species is "extremely intolerant of habitat disruption and disappears when primary rain forest cover is lost". Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone forest, where the species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994). This species was considered Endangered by Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) due to its restricted and fragmented range and the ongoing threat of deforestation.	eng
170384	conservation	Doughty, P. & Allison, A., 2009	This species occurs in Kakadu National Park, and is likely to occur in others. Localized populations of this species are monitored to study the impact that major threats such as fire are having on its population abundance. Population monitoring should be extended to other populations, and research into its harvest levels should be carried out.	eng
170384	distribution	Doughty, P. & Allison, A., 2009	This lizard is distributed in a band across northern Australia, from the Kimberley district, Western Australia, through northern Northern Territory, to Cape York Peninsula and eastern Queensland. It also occurs in southern New Guinea.	eng
170384	habitat	Doughty, P. & Allison, A., 2009	This is an arboreal and diurnal lizard, occurring in dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands (Cogger 2000).	eng
170384	population	Doughty, P. & Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information for this species.	eng
170384	threats	Doughty, P. & Allison, A., 2009	Various threats are likely to be causing declines in this species. Late dry season fires in the Northern Territory were responsible for an approximate 30% mortality rate in a small monitored population in Kakadu National Park, though no mortality was recorded in the early dry season fires (Griffiths 1994). Local population declines have also been reported after the arrival of the cane toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (Breeden 1963). Predation by cats has also caused declines in this species (Brook <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, this species is reported to be "highly sought after for the pet trade" (Allison 2006).	eng
170385	conservation	Cogger, H.A., Hutchinson, M., 2009	Part of this species' distribution coincides with Lake Eyre National Park. Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat is suggested and population monitoring is recommended to ensure this species does not become threatened in the future.	eng
170385	distribution	Cogger, H.A., Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is restricted to the Lake Eyre Basin in South Australia and inhabits the margins of Lake Eyre, Lake Callabonna, Lake Frome and Lake Torrens (Mitchell 1973). The area in which this species is distributed is 62,601 km².	eng
170385	habitat	Cogger, H.A., Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is highly specialized and inhabits burrows in the salt-encrusted, vegetation-free margins of lakes in the Lake Eyre basin, though by the wetter Lake Torrens it is found in the low shoreline vegetation (Cogger 2000).	eng
170385	population	Cogger, H.A., Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170385	threats	Cogger, H.A., Hutchinson, M., 2009	It has been suggested that some species of the Lake Eyre basin may be threatened by climate change and the subsequent increased flooding of its dry salt water lake habitat (Read 2003). However, this is not considered a major threat at this time as this species is tolerant of flooding (Swan pers. comm.).	eng
170386	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas. There are no conservation measures needed for this species.	eng
170386	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in arid and semi-arid areas from the central and northern coasts of Western Australia through central and northern Australia to central Queensland and New South Wales.	eng
170386	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This burrowing species inhabits open arid areas, particularly sandy dune-type habitat and is tolerant of grazed habitat. Surveys have found that this species increases in abundance in grazed areas and likewise may increase in cleared or burnt areas (Read 2002).	eng
170386	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
170386	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is tolerant of habitat degradation caused by grazing and is under no major threats at this time.	eng
170387	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population trends, threats, abundance and habitat status of this species are suggested to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future.	eng
170387	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species occurs in southern Western Australia (Cogger 2000, LeBas and Marshall 2000).	eng
170387	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species exclusively inhabits granite outcrops and is found sheltering in crevices and under rocks (LeBas 2001, Cogger 2000).	eng
170387	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170387	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	This species inhabits isolated rocky outcrops and its naturally fragmented habitat is further divided by land clearing and agricultural activities including cattle ranching. However, investigations have showed that the survival of this species does not appear to be impacted by inbreeding depression (Lebas 2002) and the increased habitat fragmentation should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
170388	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range are likely to coincide with protected areas. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitat status of the species is needed to determine the impact of land clearing and agricultural activity on the population of this species in the future.	eng
170388	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is endemic to north-central Southern Australia and occurs in the interior of the state between the Indulkana Range and Oodnadatta in the north, and Cobber Pedy and the Davenport Range in the south (Johnston 1992).	eng
170388	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	Like other species in this genus, this species inhabits barren rocky outcrops.	eng
170388	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170388	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	The habitat of this species is naturally fragmented, however, its populations may be further divided by land clearing and agricultural activity. But, as no declines have been reported, this is unlikely to be a major threat at this time	eng
170389	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Further research into the threats, biology, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed as some future mining activity may take place within its range. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
170389	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This Australian species is known from three disjunct subpopulations, two in the north of the Northern Territory and one on the northwest coast and adjacent plateau of the Kimberley Division, Western Australia.	eng
170389	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species inhabits low vegetation in woodlands and grassy stony hills and escarpments (Cogger 2000).	eng
170389	population	Doughty, P., 2009	Juveniles of this species were reported to be relatively common on rocky slopes and grassy ridges during surveys of Frances Creek area of the Northern Territory (Reilly <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
170389	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is under a major threat.	eng
170390	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the ecology, threats and habitat status of this species is suggested so that it can be determined whether this species is threatened. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
170390	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality at Crystal Creek, Admiralty Gulf, in northwest Kimberley, northwestern Western Australia (Cogger 2000).	eng
170390	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	There is no information on the habitat requirements of this species. Based upon the single known location, it is possible that this species inhabits woodland habitat in the region.	eng
170390	population	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is currently known only from the holotype, collected in 1972 (Storr 1974).	eng
170390	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. It may be experiencing habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to mining and agricultural activity including cattle grazing, which takes place over much of the region.	eng
170391	conservation	Horner, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Research into the population trends, threats and habitat status of this species is needed, as is population monitoring, to ensure a threat category is not triggered.	eng
170391	distribution	Horner, P., 2009	This species is distributed in the northern interior of Western Australia and the interior of most of the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).	eng
170391	habitat	Horner, P., 2009	This species primarily inhabits grassy, rocky plains and hills, though it can be found in a range of habitats including arid shrublands and tropical woodlands (Cogger 2000).	eng
170391	population	Horner, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170391	threats	Horner, P., 2009	While this species may be undergoing localized habitat loss and degradation due to threats including overgrazing, land clearing and mining, this is not thought to constitute a major threat to this species at present.	eng
170392	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at present or needed.	eng
170392	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in southern South Australia and is endemic to the Great Victoria Desert.	eng
170392	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This arid species inhabits grass clumps in mallee habitat (Cogger 2000).	eng
170392	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170392	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted on by any major threat process as the area in which it is distributed remains fairly undisturbed.	eng
170393	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. While there are protected areas on Borneo, many are still degraded by human activities. Further research is needed on its distribution, abundance, habitat status and threats, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
170393	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is endemic to Borneo. However, further information on its exact distribution is lacking. It has been found 700 m above sea level.	eng
170393	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is presumed to be arboreal and inhabit moist forests, based on its morphology and distribution.	eng
170393	population	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170393	threats	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	The lowland forests across Borneo, and particularly Kalimantan, are under intense pressure, principally from agricultural expansion, conversion to plantation, and large-scale logging operations. Most of the productive forests of East Malaysia have either been already logged or placed under logging concessions (Das 2006). Rapid deforestation is also occurring in even secondary forests in Sarawak and Sabah (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
170394	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is on the National Red List for Thailand (ARCBC 2006). It occurs in Crocker Range National Park in Sabah (Das 2006). This national park, also known as Taman Negara Banjaran Crocker (IUCN Category II; 1,406 km²), contains the Crocker Range Virgin Jungle Reserve (IUCN Category 1a; 33 km²). The park is subject to significant threats, principally from encroachment, and the expansion of village settlements already present within the park (UNEP-WCMC 2006). More research is needed into this species abundance and trends. The habitat status of this species should be monitored.	eng
170394	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits Sabah and Sarawak and Kalimantan on Borneo (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), Java, Sumatra, and Thailand. It has been recorded at elevations up to 1,035 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006), but in Borneo has mainly been found at elevations below 300 m above sea level (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
170394	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits primary rainforest (ARCBC 2006) and is likely to be strictly arboreal. In a survey of the Crocker Mountain Range in Sabah on Borneo, it was included amongst montane taxa (Das 2006) but has also been found in the lowland forests of Sabah and central Sarawak (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
170394	population	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170394	threats	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	The island of Borneo is approximately 71.9% forested, but is suffering high levels of deforestation, particularly in the lowlands (Das 2006). Most of the productive forests of East Malaysia have either been already logged or placed under logging concessions (Das 2006). As this species is restricted to primary forest, deforestation, which is mainly due to agricultural and human settlement expansion and logging, is likely to impact its population and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that in Borneo specifically its continued status is dependent on the rate of deforestation.	eng
170395	conservation	David, P. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats, abundance and habitat status of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended. New protected areas are required in order to reduce the rate of habitat loss in the area.	eng
170395	distribution	David, P. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is endemic to Indonesia and is known from islands in the North Maluku and Maluku island groups in eastern Indonesia (McGuire 2007).	eng
170395	habitat	David, P. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is thought to be a forest species that requires canopy cover. However, it has been collected from patches of disturbed forest and in coconut palms and fruit trees near the forest edge, though it is not found in open stands of coconut palms (McGuire 2007).	eng
170395	population	David, P. & Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170395	threats	David, P. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species has likely experienced habitat loss and degradation due to logging, expansion of agriculture, and conversion of forest to plantation. Forests in the Maluku island groups saw up to 13% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002).	eng
170396	conservation	Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is protected in Thailand (ARCBC 2006). There are protected areas within this species range, providing some small safeguard. More research is needed on this species habitat status, and degree of threat. Population monitoring should also undertaken.	eng
170396	distribution	Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India, across southeast Asia and in southern China, including the province of Hainan (Sharma 2003, Taylor 1963). It has been found up to elevations of 2,590 m above sea level.	eng
170396	habitat	Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is arboreal and occurs in evergreen and occasionally deciduous forest, almost entirely in medium to large trees (Inger and Colwell 1977). It also inhabits mangrove forests (Wetlands International 2006). It is often seen outside of forests (Langkawi), near human settlements (Thailand, Laos), in coconut plantations (Thailand), and in coffee plantations (Laos) (U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010). &#160;Like other species in the genus, it is able to glide using wing-like patagial membranes.	eng
170396	population	Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170396	threats	Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	Forests in this region are under pressure from logging, development such as road-building, and agricultural expansion, and as such, this species is likely to experience some population declines because of habitat loss and degradation in some areas of its range.	eng
170397	conservation	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status of this species is needed as well as monitoring of trends in population size.	eng
170397	distribution	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is distributed in the Mons and Tanintharyi regions of Myanmar, including the Mergui archipelago through into Thailand and east to the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia (G. Zug pers. comm. 2010, Smith 1943).	eng
170397	habitat	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	Like other members of this genus, this species is able to glide using wing-like patagial membranes and is likely to be mainly arboreal, occurring in evergreen and possibly deciduous forests. &#160;This species is also sometimes found in coconut plantations (U. Manthey pers. comm. 2010).	eng
170397	population	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is reported as common (Sharma 2002).	eng
170397	threats	Bain, R.H. & Manthey, U., 2009	Forests in this region have experienced deforestation due to logging, both legal and illegal, development such as road-building, and agricultural expansion. Habitat fragmentation due to infrastructure development may also impact upon this species locally, however, despite these threats, large portions of forest habitat remain and habitat degradation is not considered a major threat to this species at this time.	eng
170398	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	It likely that this species occurs in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed on this species' population and habitat status, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
170398	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits the Malay Peninsula, the Borneo areas of Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan, Sumatra, the Mentawai Islands, Nias, Nako, and Pinang and Tioman Islands (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has also been found in Lao PDR and Viet Nam (Manthey 2010).	eng
170398	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This diurnal species is native to primary rainforests up to elevations of 1,400 m (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002), however, they have also been documented in secondary forests (Iskander 2004). They occur mainly along streams of all sizes and perch at night on twigs and branches overhanging water, with juveniles occurring at lower levels than the adults (R. Inger pers. comm.)	eng
170398	population	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is among the most widespread lizards in Borneo (R. Inger pers. comm.)	eng
170398	threats	Inger, R.F. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is likely impacted by the ongoing deforestation occurring in the region, however, significant areas of suitable habitat remain and this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
170399	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status are suggested.	eng
170399	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from the type locality in northern Sumatra at 1,200 m above sea level (Manthey and Denzer 1991).	eng
170399	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The two individuals collected were found in secondary rainforest near a stream, one upon the trunk of a tree and the other on the ground (Manthey and Denzer 1991).	eng
170399	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no population data for this species.	eng
170399	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Forests on the island of Sumatra saw up to a 29% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002). The habitat may also be deleteriously impacted by agricultural activity. However, as this species appears to prefer montane environments it is less likely to be impacted upon by these threats.	eng
170400	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, population trends, range, abundance and habitat status is suggested.	eng
170400	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from the type locality of Si-Rambé Forest in northern Sumatra.	eng
170400	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no information available on the habitat preferences of this species, however, based on its known region of occurrence, it may inhabit tropical lowland forest.	eng
170400	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Das (2006) cites this species as an example of an Indonesian lizard which is very poorly known. It appears to only be known from a single collection.	eng
170400	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The lowland forests of Sumatra have been almost entirely cleared and in 2002 it was predicted they would disappear entirely by 2005 to 2010 (FWI and GFW, 2002). This loss of habitat is due to human activities including expansion of agriculture and grazing land, conversion of forest to plantation and logging. However, as this species is only known from one specimen, the effect of these threat processes on the species are unknown.	eng
170401	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Conservation measures, such as effective management of protected sites, are required to ensure that deforestation does not become more of a widespread threat.	eng
170401	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. This species is known from Papua New Guinea, Papua Province of Indonesia, from the Aru and Kei Islands, and Yapen (Jobi) Island (Manthey and Denzer 2006).	eng
170401	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species apparently occurs in both lowland and montane rainforest habitats. As with all members of this genus, this species is highly arboreal.	eng
170401	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170401	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species, however, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.	eng
170402	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the full distribution of this species and if any threat processes are acting upon it.	eng
170402	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. The type locality is the Arfak Mountains (West Papua Province) and it is apparently only known from this locality despite some museum records listing it from other localities (Manthey and Denzer 2006).	eng
170402	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is found within moist forest. As with all members of this genus, the species is highly arboreal.	eng
170402	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170402	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
170406	conservation	Manthey, U. & Macey, J.R., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/lc, under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that surrounds the genus <em>Japalura</em>. Monitoring of this species is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
170406	distribution	Manthey, U. & Macey, J.R., 2009	This species is found in northern India and eastern Nepal. It occurs in the Annapurna region of Nepal, and eastwards into Sikkim and West Bengal (Schleich and Kästle 2002). Macey <em>et al.</em> (2000) also recorded this species in Xizang, Tibet. Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that specimens collected in southern Tibet have previously been misidentified as <em>Calotes jerdoni</em>. This species is found between 900 and 2,900 m above sea level.	eng
170406	habitat	Manthey, U. & Macey, J.R., 2009	This species is a terrestrial, rock-dwelling agamid (Sharma 2002). In Nepal, it is known from wet monsoon and rhododendron forests, and is most frequently encountered along forest edges (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
170406	population	Manthey, U. & Macey, J.R., 2009	This species is locally abundant in Zhangmu (J. Macey pers. comm.). Schleich and Kästle (2002) report that in Ghorepani relatively high densities of this species were found.	eng
170406	threats	Manthey, U. & Macey, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that the sporadic distribution of this species may be caused by the lack of remaining moist broadleaf forests.	eng
170407	conservation	Manthey, U. & Mathew, R., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was thought to occur over an area larger than 50,000 km², and in many locations. However, it was considered to be threatened by habitat loss and human interference. As a result, a thorough programme of surveys and population monitoring was recommended, as well as research into its life history. <br/><br/>Sharma (2002) states that this species is "not endangered".	eng
170407	distribution	Manthey, U. & Mathew, R., 2009	This species is found in northern India in Sikkim and the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal. It is also found in Nepal in the extreme east around Ilam (Schleich and Kästle 2002). It has been recorded from 100 to 2,700 m above sea level (Sharma 2002, Schleich and Kästle 2002).<br/>This species has also been collected from District Park, Zebawk, Lunglei district, Mizoram, India (Mathew 2006).	eng
170407	habitat	Manthey, U. & Mathew, R., 2009	This montane species inhabits dense and low vegetation along the margin of woods or roads, where it often hides between rocks (Schleich and Kästle 2002). It occurs in one of the most moist regions of Nepal.	eng
170407	population	Manthey, U. & Mathew, R., 2009	This species is not common (R. Mathew pers. comm.).	eng
170407	threats	Manthey, U. & Mathew, R., 2009	In Nepal, Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that this species is limited to a very narrow strip of land and "is threatened there by any agricultural activity". The area where this species was collected in the Lunglei district, India, is being developed into a sports complex, and a bridge and other modern structures are also being constructed. As a result the shrinking forest cover may have an adverse effect on the population density of this species in this area (R. Mathew pers. comm.). However, the majority of the distribution lies in other areas where this threat is not impacting the species.	eng
170408	conservation	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em>.</em> A large proportion of its range is distributed within the Pamir National Park, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
170408	distribution	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	This species is endemic to the Pamir mountains, centred in Tajikistan. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 137,880 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found up to 3,400 m above sea level.	eng
170408	habitat	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	This is a montane species, inhabiting rocks, precipices, ruins, and ravines (Szczerbak 2003). It climbs shrubs and trees and takes refuge in cracks between rocks, voids under stones, and in burrows.	eng
170408	population	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	Szczerbak (2003) notes that this is a common species.	eng
170408	threats	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of land change for agriculture.	eng
170409	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species occurs in protected areas, including the Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Area. This reserve contains 6,500-7,000 ha (65-70 km²) of unlogged forest, however, illegal logging, mining and human encroachment remain a threat even to such protected area (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further population monitoring is needed for this species.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'	eng
170409	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the southwest wetzone of the country (Bartelt <em>et al.</em> 2005), although it has also been recorded from locations in the intermediate zone. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,373 km²<sup></sup>. This species has an elevation range between 30 and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
170409	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Goonawardena and de Silva (2005) state that this species is most commonly found in closed canopy sub-montane rainforest. It is also known to occur in abandoned tea plantations, and occasionally in forest gardens. Bambaradeniya <em>et al.</em> (1997) report that it regularly occurs in heavily planted home gardens, and A de. Silva (pers. comm. 2010) notes it has adjusted to live in home gardens but is facing predation from the common coucal (<em>Centropus sinensisi</em>) and Toque monkey (<em>Macaca sinica</em>) as a result.	eng
170409	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is "uncommon" in Sri Lanka, according to Bahir and Surasinghe (2005). &#160;However, A. De Silva (pers. comm. 2010) comments that during the last three decades nearly 500 specimens have been collected from many localities. &#160;In Kosgama lowland forest the population is almost zero due to intensive logging activities (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
170409	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Sri Lanka has suffered severe deforestation due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone rainforest, where this species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994). The expansion of human settlements is a critical and ongoing threat (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2008). This species was considered Endangered by Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) due to its restricted and fragmented range and the ongoing threat of deforestation. <br/><br/>This species is also of interest to the international pet industry (Shiau <em>et al.</em> 2006) and therefore harvesting from the wild is likely to be a threat.	eng
170411	conservation	Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
170411	distribution	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is endemic to China and occurs in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
170411	habitat	Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits the large Tarim Basin desert of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Guo and Wang 2007).	eng
170411	population	Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170411	threats	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is known from an area of low human population density and it is therefore unlikely that it is affected by any major threats.	eng
170412	conservation	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy and potential threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
170412	distribution	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is known to occur from the southern coast of Balkhash Lake in Kazakhstan eastward to northwestern China (Xinjiang Uyigur Autonomous Region).	eng
170412	habitat	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is found in semi-desert, in inter-dune hollows, in the base of sand dunes, and in takyrs.	eng
170412	population	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	In 1997, up to 80 individuals per hectare were found (N. Ananjeva pers. comm.).	eng
170412	threats	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
170413	conservation	Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
170413	distribution	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is distributed from inner Mongolia to northwestern China.	eng
170413	habitat	Manthey, U., 2009	This species appears to prefer habitat with high vegetation cover and low soil moisture including deserts and plains in the regions (Xu and Yang 1995).	eng
170413	population	Manthey, U., 2009	This species has been described as a dominant species in the desert habitats of northwestern China (Xu and Yang 1993).	eng
170413	threats	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is known from an area of low human population density and while some portions of its range may be degraded due to agricultural expansion and mining, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
170414	conservation	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species was regionally assessed in the Red Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan (2003) as EN B1ab(i-v), using 2001 IUCN Categories and Criteria (ver. 3.1). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status should be carried out.	eng
170414	distribution	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is endemic to the Fergana Valley, which lies mostly in Uzbekistan, but also enters Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The Valley is surrounded by the Alatau and Alai Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,214 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
170414	habitat	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species has been reported from sandy and clay-sandy soils in stony habitats with scarce vegetation.	eng
170414	population	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species was reported as locally abundant in the 1960s and 1970s but is now considered rare in many of the environments that it once inhabited; in locations where it is present, it is only found in low densities (State Committee for Nature Protection of the Republic of Uzbekistan 2003). However, Szczerbak (2003) reported that ten individuals were found along a one kilometre walk suggesting they are still abundant in some areas. Szczerbak (2003), however, also notes that this is a declining species. N. Ananjeva (pers. comm.) states that this species is rapidly declining.	eng
170414	threats	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to expanding agriculture, in particular from the irrigation of desert land.	eng
170415	conservation	Manthey, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
170415	distribution	Manthey, U., 2009	This species is distributed from Xinjiang and Tibet to Nepal, Jammu, and Kashmir in India.	eng
170415	habitat	Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits temperate deserts and montane grassland and shrubland. This species is viviparous.	eng
170415	population	Manthey, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
170415	threats	Manthey, U., 2009	The species is found within an area of low human population density. Although localized habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and mining may be occurring, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
170416	conservation	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
170416	distribution	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is known to occur in China (in the provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, and Nei Mongol) and Mongolia (Zhao and Adler 1993, Ananjeva <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
170416	habitat	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species is found in stony plains with sparse vegetation as well as sand dunes (N. Ananjeva pers. comm.).	eng
170416	population	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	This species has been reported as the most abundant lizard in northern Mongolian deserts (Rogvin <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
170416	threats	Ananjeva N.B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
170419	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species at the present time.	eng
170419	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in eastern and southeastern Australia, excluding Cape York Peninsula and Tasmania (Cogger 2000).	eng
170419	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species inhabits dry woodlands, although it also occurs in agricultural land and urban areas and is encountered basking on roads and fence stumps (Abell-Davis 2000, Cogger 2000).	eng
170419	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is reported to be common (Cogger 2002).	eng
170419	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing the effects of habitat loss and degradation due to factors including land clearing and cattle grazing. Its abundance has been shown to significantly decline as a result of grazing (Kutt and Woinarski 2007). However, due to its apparently flexible habitat requirements, this should not be considered a major threat at this time. This species is also of interest to the international pet industry.	eng
170420	conservation	Radder, R.S., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was assessed as LR/nt, under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3, and is thought to be locally threatened by habitat loss. It was recommended that this species receives more research effort into its taxonomy. Further monitoring of the population and its habitat status should be carried out in order to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
170420	distribution	Radder, R.S., 2009	This species is widely distributed in India. It is known to occur in Bihar in eastern India, and along the rocky hills of the Eastern Ghats southward to Kanyakumari in the extreme south of India (Daniel 2002). An introduced population has been reported to occur in Germany (R. Radder pers. comm.). This species is known to occur up to 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
170420	habitat	Radder, R.S., 2009	This is a strictly terrestrial, rock-dwelling lizard (Sharma 2002). From its wide distribution, it is inferred that this species is found in a variety of habitats, including dry forests, moist forests, and dry shrublands.	eng
170420	population	Radder, R.S., 2009	Sharma (2002) states that this species is found "in abundance" and Daniel (2002) notes that it is "common at low elevations" and in the vicinity of Bangalore. A recent study in three areas around the village of Hampi, Karnataka, found an average density of 90 individuals per hectare (Radder <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
170420	threats	Radder, R.S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
170421	conservation	Hallermann, J., Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed on this species to investigate its exact range, abundance and ecology.	eng
170421	distribution	Hallermann, J., Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is known from the Tonkin region of northern Viet Nam and from Guangxi, China (Hallermann and Böhme 2000, Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
170421	habitat	Hallermann, J., Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species has been collected in montane areas (Smith 1935). There is little information available on the species, however, members of this genus are usually found on trees and bushes in tropical montane forest (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).	eng
170421	population	Hallermann, J., Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species appears to only be known from a few specimens.	eng
170421	threats	Hallermann, J., Manthey, U. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	Significant levels of deforestation have already occurred in this region and this species may be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of agriculture and shifting agriculture, logging and expanding human settlements. However, as this species inhabits high elevations in this area, the population declines it may experience are not likely to be severe.	eng
170422	conservation	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status is suggested. In particular, the extent to which habitat degradation and loss is impacting this species at higher elevations should be investigated.	eng
170422	distribution	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species occurs in the highlands of western Malaysia and is known from three mountains: Gunung Tahan, Gunung Lawit and possibly Gunung Gedong (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).	eng
170422	habitat	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	The specimens of this species have been collected from bushes and low vegetation and like other members of this genus, it may inhabit open tropical mountainsides at 1,500 m above sea level and higher (Hallermann and Böhme 2000).	eng
170422	population	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is known only from a few specimens.	eng
170422	threats	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	The impact of threats on this species are unknown due to the scarcity of specimens and knowledge of its ecology. However, the region in which this species is found is undergoing widespread habitat loss, although mainly at lower elevations. Given the extent to which this region is being degraded, it is likely that this species is being impacted.	eng
170423	conservation	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, range, abundance and habitat status is suggested.	eng
170423	distribution	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is known from the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java (Hallermann and McGuire). There is no further information about its distribution.	eng
170423	habitat	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown	eng
170423	population	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
170423	threats	Das, I. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is likely to have experienced severe habitat loss due to human activities including the conversion of forests to agricultural land and plantations, the increase in slash-and-burn farming and logging, as well as pressures associated with a growing human population. Forests on the island of Sumatra saw up to a 29% decline in forest cover between 1985 and 1997 and continued deforestation is expected due to the ongoing expansion of timber and palm oil plantations (FWI and GFW 2002). Das (2006) notes that almost all of the lowland forests of Sumatra have been lost and in 1991 habitat loss was estimated to be 91% on the island of Java. However, it is unknown how these threats may be affecting the species.	eng
171812	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species is found within the Jaua-Sarisariñama National Park and in some areas of Canaima National Park (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009). More research is needed on its distribution and population status.<br/></p><p></p><p></p>  <p></p>	eng
171812	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is found throughout the lowlands and highlands (400–1,800 m asl) of the Venezuelan Guayana and extreme northern Brazil, east of the Sierra de Maigualida-Parima (Barrio-Amorós and Brewer-Carías 2008). It may possibly also occur in Guyana.	eng
171812	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is found in both lowland and montane forests. Individuals have been found sitting on branches and leaves about 0.5–2 m above water or on rock faces near small waterfalls (see Barrio-Amorós and Brewer-Carías 2008). It is presumed to breed in water.	eng
171812	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>It is considered to be a relatively common species (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009).<br/></p>	eng
171812	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No major threats to this species have been observed (C. Barrio-Amorós pers. comm. December 2009).	eng
171859	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
171859	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is reported from Sagaing, Zayleyman (near Myitkyina), Pegu (now Bago) and Tavoy (Dawoi) in Myanmar. It appears to be widely present within the Irrawaddy and other basins in Myanmar.	eng
171859	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is found in rivers.	eng
171859	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>	eng
171859	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
171868	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
171868	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Physunio micropteroides</span> was described from the type locality, Yawnghwe Plain in Myanmar. There is an unverified record from Kosum Phisaiis district in the northern part of Maha Sarakham Province, northeastern Thailand (GBIF; Academy  of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia), but there seem to be other records from Thailand, and the species should also be looked for more widely within Myanmar. The species is also recorded from Bangladesh ("Fenchuganj").	eng
171868	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This species is found in slow flowing and sluggish streams with muddy bottom in shallow (c. 1 m) water.	eng
171868	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
171868	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known, and further research is required.	eng
171912	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Research and monitoring of the species ecology, distribution, and potential threats is required.<br/></p>	eng
171912	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium prasongi</span> is reported from southeast Asia (Thailand) Brandt 1974) and Nepal. In Nepal, this species is widely distributed (Nesseman <em>et al.</em>, 2007).<span style="font-style: italic;">&#160; P. prasongi</span> appears to be a more widely distributed species, previously overlooked due to its minute size, or mistaken for immature <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei.</span> Presence within other countries within the region (India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Bhutan) seems likely.<span style="background-color: green;"></span>	eng
171912	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	In Nepal, this species is confined to running water and found in unpolluted to slightly polluted waters; <span style="font-style: italic;">P. prasongi </span>replaces <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei </span>below 800 m asl.	eng
171912	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">P. prasongi </span>is locally  abundant in Nepal. However, the population status of the species is not known.&#160; <br/></p>	eng
171912	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information on threats to this species is available.</p>	eng
171925	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Research is needed urgently on the distribution and ecology of the species. Protected areas should be established and management plans executed. The effects of conservation measures should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
171925	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of Greece near Thessaloniki and on some Greek islands. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Jordan and the north of Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
171925	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Apollo can be found in the early spring in sheltered places in olive groves, vineyards, on rocky slopes with bushes and in open woodland. They are also seen in damp places, such as stream margins. They use various birthworts (<em>Aristolochia</em> spp.) as larval foodplants, such as Birthwort (<em>A. clematitis</em>) and on Samos and Lesbos, <em>A. bodamae</em>. Unlike other <em>Papilionidae</em>, the caterpillars cannot be seen on the foodplants, as they live hidden in a spun leaf. The False Apollo has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
171925	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
171925	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by agricultural activities and land claims. The intensification of agriculture caused the disappearance of the foodplants over large areas. Abandonment leads to shrub invasion and finally to the loss of suitable habitat. Furthermore fires can destroy habitat patches.	eng
171926	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
171926	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Azores. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. azorina</span> occurs on Faial, Pico, Sao Jorge, Terceira, Flores and Corvo (although some authors consider the population on the two latter (western) islands to be <span style="font-style: italic;">H. occidentalis</span>). Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
171926	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Azores Grayling is a butterfly of sheltered places on grassy slopes on the Azores. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. The only foodplant is probably <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca jubata. </span>The Azores Grayling has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).	eng
171926	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
171926	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
171928	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Especially egg-counts have proven to be very effective and are possible with a small time-investment.	eng
171928	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Central Europe, this species is found from the south of Sweden down to the north of Spain and from France eastwards. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present east through Siberia to Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
171928	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Alcon Blue occurs in local, scattered populations, on low-lying wet heathland, on moist fen meadows and bogs and on dry calcareous grasslands. In some publications it is referred to as two distinct species: <em>P. alcon</em> on wet heathland, moist fen meadows and bogs at low altitude and <em>P. rebeli</em> on dry and subalpine calcareous grasslands. However, genetic research has shown that both have to be considered as being one species. The bright, white eggs are easy to find. They are laid on the flowers and sepals of Marsh Gentian (<em>Gentiana pneumonanthe</em>) or Willow Gentian (<em>G. asclepiadea</em>) in the case of the wet <em>P. alcon</em> form, and on Cross Gentian (<em>G. cruciata</em>) by the dry <em>P. rebeli</em> form. At first, the small caterpillars feed on the ovaries of the foodplant, but they pass the later instars in the nests of various <em>Myrmica</em> ants, <em>M. ruginodis</em>, <em>M. scabrinodis</em> and sometimes <em>M. rubra</em>. They hibernate and pupate in the ant nests. The Alcon Blue has one generation a year. <br/>Habitats of the form <em>alcon</em>, adapted to wet localities: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%). <br/>Habitats of the form <em>rebeli</em>, adapted to dry localities: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).	eng
171928	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species always occurs in local, isolated populations and is restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Russia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
171928	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Changes in agricultural management (improvements like land drainage as well as abandonment) threaten this species in grasslands. Fragmentation and isolation is the most important threat on heathlands, although the species can survive for a long time in small habitat patches. In Western Europe (the Netherlands, Belgium), it is also threatened in nature reserves by habitat degradation of wet heathlands, caused by large-scale lowering of groundwater table and nutrient input.	eng
171943	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	<p><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>is under various transboundary projects focused on ecosystem management. Population trends monitoring, habitat monitoring, water quality monitoring and critical levels of pesticide monitoring are required. </p>	eng
171943	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	A recently described species that is listed as endemic for <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, known only from <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename>, and may occur in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, &#160;as similar biotopes exist there.<br/><br/>It has been found in 8 sites (River Crnojevića, Malo Blato, Vranjina, Tanki Rt, Karuč, Plavnica, Vitoja, Virpazar).	eng
171943	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>Lives in the littoral part of the lake; different habitats but mostly in vegetation consisting of Ceratophyllum and Myriophyllum. &#160;</p>	eng
171943	population	Pešić, V., 2009	It is known from many of the sites where collecting occurred, and occurred throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">the Montenegro</st1:country-region> side of <st1:place w:st="on">the Lake Skadar. Might also be present in the Albanian side of Lake Skadar.<br/></st1:place>	eng
171943	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>The main threat for this species is the rapid process of eutrophication in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Further, the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc should be captured for coastal (part of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:place></st1:country-region>) water drinking. <br/></p>	eng
171945	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions known for this species which is endemic for Skadar Lake drainage (Montenegro) and for Albanian part of Skadar Lake (Dhora 2009).	eng
171945	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia radomani </span>is endemic to Albania & Montenegro.    It is known from Lake Skadar and many of the tributaries that flow into the lake. It is the most abundant species in the Zeta River, as well as in the Drin River Catchment and Shkodra lake drainage (Feher & Eross, 2009).	eng
171945	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species inhabits freshwater lakes and rivers.	eng
171945	population	Pešić, V., 2009	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
171945	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	The major threats lie in the decline in habitat quality, due to the rapid process of eutrophication in Skadar Lake and infiltration of domestic waste waters causing water pollution in most of the rivers in southern Montenegro.	eng
171957	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place for the species. Lake Skadar has some ecosystem management plans in place, however, this species requires habitat management to maintain the ecosystem in view of the possible lake-level changes and eutropication, as it&#160;                lives in the littoral part of the lake between the emergent and floating vegetation.&#160; Survey-work is required to establish the number of subpopulations in Albania.	eng
171957	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia skadarskii&#160; </span>is an endemic species of Lake Skadar, between Montenegro and Albania. It is known from 3 sites,   Karuč, Vranjina, Island Kom. This species is   listed for the Albanian part of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Dhora 2009) but without locality.	eng
171957	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia skadarskii </span>lives in the littoral part of the lake between the emergent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phragmites communis, Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacuster</span>) and floating (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea alba, Nuphar luteum, Trapa natans</span>) vegetation.	eng
171957	population	Pešić, V., 2009	Population size and trends for the species is unknown.	eng
171957	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	The lake is suffering rapid eutrophication as the result of agricultural activities and pollution from domestic sewage.&#160; There is also offtake of water from parts of the lake for domestic supplies in the towns adjacent to the lake.	eng
171963	conservation	Pešić, V., 2010	This species requires research on threats, population trends and distribution.	eng
171963	distribution	Pešić, V., 2010	This species is listed for Montenegro by Fauna Europea, but there is little recent data on the range.	eng
171963	habitat	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no data on habitat for this species.	eng
171963	population	Pešić, V., 2010	There is no known population data on this species.	eng
171963	threats	Pešić, V., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
171965	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	No conservation actions in place for the species. However,    <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename> </st1:place>is under various transboundary projects focussed on ecosystem management. More research on habitat trends and population size and distribution is needed.	eng
171965	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia zeta</span> is   endemic for <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype> <st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename>. It is found in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region> and is also listed for the Albanian part of the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> (Dhora 2009) but without locality. In tems of detailed records, the species is only known from 5 sites on the Lake Skadar. They are Tanki Rt, Malo Blato, Vranjina, Karuč, spring Girnje Vrelo in Dobre Vode village (near Bar).	eng
171965	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This species lives under the stones on mud substrate in the littoral part of the Lake Skadar.	eng
171965	population	Pešić, V., 2009	Population size and trends are unknown for this species.	eng
171965	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	Rapid process of eutrophication is taking place in the Lake Skadar. Further, the spring water from sublacustrine spring Karuc is captured for drinking water use in coastal Montenegro. The spring Gornje Vrelo is partly captured for local drinking water.	eng
171967	conservation	Reischutz, P. & Seddon, M., 2010	<p>The species is strictly protected by law in Lower Austria. However it is not known whether it exists within a protected area and there are no species specific recovery plans in place.&#160;It is suggested that monitoring of this species habitat is conducted, along with research into the species population trends.</p>	eng
171967	distribution	Reischutz, P. & Seddon, M., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bythinella lunzensis</span> is endemic to Austria, specifically the north eastern Alps.   It was recently described by Boeters in 2008 from lake Untersee at Lunz, Lower Austria.	eng
171967	habitat	Reischutz, P. & Seddon, M., 2010	This freshwater species differs from most other<em>&#160;</em>species in this genus, as it was sampled from a lake, not a spring, although there are various unconfirmed records based on shells from lakes, at present it is known only from this one lake.	eng
171967	population	Reischutz, P. & Seddon, M., 2010	The population trend for this species remains unknown as no live individuals has been found.	eng
171967	threats	Reischutz, P. & Seddon, M., 2010	<p>The main threat to this species is from pollution, mainly from fertilisers as a result of agricultural practices. The lake is also used for recreational activities, which may disturb the  bottom where the species is found.</p>	eng
171968	conservation	Pešić, V., 2009	<p>No specific actions exists for this species, but there are some conservation actions in place for the Lake itself. Distributional data is required.</p>	eng
171968	distribution	Pešić, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Bithynia hambergerae </span>is endemic to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Montenegro</st1:country-region>, where it is only known from the River Plavnica near Gornja Plavnica, area of <st1:placetype w:st="on">Lake </st1:placetype><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Skadar</st1:placename></st1:place>. This species has recently been described but the distribution is uncertain. There are also records from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Albania</st1:place></st1:country-region>, however, these records are unconfirmed and therefore the range maybe more extensive.	eng
171968	habitat	Pešić, V., 2009	This specie inhabits freshwater lake margins and rivers.	eng
171968	population	Pešić, V., 2009	As this species has been recently described, the population size and trends are not known.	eng
171968	threats	Pešić, V., 2009	There is rapid eutrophication taking place in Skadar Lake. In the last years, the area of Plavnica (at Skadar Lake) is devastated by the development of a local tourist centre and a littoral part of the lake at Plavnica is deepened to consent of the local touristic ships.	eng
172032	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no current conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring should be implemented to assess changes in habitat status they may impact the species. Pollution management could be implemented.	eng
172032	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Belgrandiella bachkovoensis </span>is known from only one type locality: a stream in the Western Rhodopes, Bulgaria (Spring near Bedechka River, park “Krairechen”, town of Stara Zagora). The length of this stream is approximately 200 m. It is possible that this species occurs in other similar locations.	eng
172032	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species lives in a small stream that is 40-50 cm in width, 5-10 cm in depth and passes through granite rocks situated beneath a large limestone area. The site is surrounded by grass vegetation and has single <span style="font-style: italic;">Populus</span> sp., <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix</span> sp. and <span style="font-style: italic;">Juglans regia</span> trees. Water temperature of the stream was 6.4° C (measured 15/03/2009), and oxygen -9.2mg/1. This species co-exists with <span style="font-style: italic;">Galba trunculata</span>.	eng
172032	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No information on the population status or trend of this species is currently available.	eng
172032	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Pollution arising from a nearby farm has been shown to be negatively impacting the habitat of this species.	eng
172033	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no current or suggested conservation actions for this species. Habitat monitoring would be recommended to identify future changes in habitat quality.	eng
172033	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species is known to occur only in the Gargina Dupka Cave, Mostrovo Village in the Western Rhodopes, Bulgaria. &#160;In this cave it is found in a 20 m stretch of stream near to the cave entrance.</p>	eng
172033	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species is troglophilic which occurs within a short (~20 m) stretch of stream in the entrance of a cave. Water temperature, measured on 14/03/2009, was 8.2ºC and oxygen levels -9.4 mg/1.</p>	eng
172033	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No information on the population status or trend is available for this species.	eng
172033	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Although no current threats to this species are recognised, pollution and habitat degradation resulting from future visitors to the cave is considered a possible future threat.	eng
172034	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	There are no current conservation actions for this species. More research on the population would be needed.	eng
172034	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria. It is found in one single spring near to the Bedechka river, in the Krairechen Park, near to the town of Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. It is thought to only occur in a stretch of stream measuring a few metres.	eng
172034	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species inhabits a karstic spring, where it is found on stones and moss.	eng
172034	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.	eng
172034	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Although there are no current threats recognised for this species, both habitat destruction and pollution (from industrial and domestic sources) are recognised as potential future threats.	eng
172035	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	The Lepenitsa Cave is a nationally protected site, but habitat monitoring is recommended to determine future changes to conservation status of this species.	eng
172035	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<em>Bythinella gloeeri </em>is endemic to Bulgaria, and at present, it is known only from a river in the Lepenitsa Cave (273 metres in length), south of the town of Velingrad (Batashki Ridge, Western Rhodopes).	eng
172035	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species lives under stones in the underground river of Lepenitsa karstic cave, where water temperatures are around 8.4° C. These waters provide drinking water to the nearby town of Velingrad. The total length of the cave is 1525 m with a displacement of >10 m. The cave comprises 3 levels with a stream flowing for 273 m along the lowest. The population of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gloeeri </span>currently exists only in cave conditions and, although it is unclear if this range extended outside of the cave prior to human influence, no evidence supporting this has been found at nearby locations.	eng
172035	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.	eng
172035	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Despite its protected status, the Lepenitsa cave is highly polluted and disturbed as a result of unregulated public visiting. In addition, there is an ongoing construction project, aimed at increasing tourism to the site. If <span style="font-style: italic;">B. gloeeri</span> is to persist at this site, then the use of chemical agents, excessive walking in the stream and constant strong lighting must be avoided.	eng
172036	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	Although no current conservation actions are in place for this species, it is recommended that surveys to determine the status of the known population, as well as the presence of possible new populations, are conducted.	eng
172036	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p>This species in believed to be a Bulgarian endemic as it has been found at only one type locality. This location is a 5 metre stretch of stream near to the Bistritza river, south of Dolna Banya in the Rila Mountains. However, it is unknown whether this is the full extent of the species' distribution and its occurrence at other locations is possible.</p><p>Even though, the location of this site is only few kms outside the  dividing range (border) of the Mediterranean biogeographical region, we  considered this species as being Mediterranean. This decision has been taken based on climatic and  geological similarities of the region with the <st1:place w:st="on">Mediterranean</st1:place>.<br/></p><p><br/></p><p><br/></p>	eng
172036	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species occurs in a shallow (around 1-3 cm in depth) stream with a granite substrate. This stream is surrounded by <span style="font-style: italic;">Fagus sylvatica </span>woodland and is filled with decaying organic matter from these trees.	eng
172036	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	The population status and trend for this species is unknown.	eng
172036	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Habitat disturbance due to deforestation is thought to be the main threat to this species.	eng
172038	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	The prevention of entrance to the site by cattle, the limitation of water extraction and the careful control of any pesticide use are all recommended conservation actions. Further, the full protection of both the area and the species by law is recommended.	eng
172038	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found at one site only. This site is the area where the water emerges from the spring of Chirpan Bunar Cave, and flows into a small pond. The total area of inhabitance is approximately 2 metres of the spring's length. The cave is situated 3 km east of the village of Bolyarino, in the Upper Thracian Lowland, Bulgaria.	eng
172038	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species occurs in a limestone lowland area, where running surface waters emerge from a cave and fill a small pond. This type locality is the spring of a small river that is surrounded by pastures and agricultural lands.	eng
172038	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	No information on the population status or trend of this species is available.	eng
172038	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Threats to this species include direct damage from cattle, extraction of water from the pond for irrigation of agricultural lands, and the nearby use of pesticides.	eng
172039	conservation	Georgiev, D., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-US">There are no species-specific conservation actions in place, although the habitat monitoring would be recommended, along with protection of the habitat.<br/></p>	eng
172039	distribution	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is endemic to Bulgaria, where it is found in the Gargina Dupka cave in Dobrostan karst system (West Rhodope Mountains). The area of the cave system is very short, only 200 metres.	eng
172039	habitat	Georgiev, D., 2009	This species is troglobite, i.e. is adapted to live permanently in cave environment.<strong> </strong>The cave has two closely situated entrances and a stream that flows out from the lower one. There is a catchment of its waters at the cave antechamber which drives away about 70% of the stream for drinking needs. The total cave length is 524 m. The specimens live under stones in a limestone cave stream, which has shallow (at average around 10-15 cm) and calm waters in winter and summer, and deep (max about 1-1.5 m) and fast running ones at rainy seasons (Markov, pers. comm.). Live specimens were collected 50 meters from the cave’s entrance, where the environmental conditions were characteristic for a cave. There was no light entering, air temperature 6.6° C, and that of the water 9.6° C with oxygen level of 9.0 mg/l. Living snails were found along the whole stretch of the stream up to the surfacing of the stream from a narrow cave whole, close to the cave’s end. At the cave’s middle parts there was a large mound of guano beneath a large bat colony, and close to the stream. At this area the oxygen in the stream dropped a little to 8.8 mg/l, the water temperature was similar, while the air warmed to 10.3° C. The only macro invertebrate animal species found to live with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi </span>were flat worms <span style="font-style: italic;">Planaria</span> sp. which could be the only predator of the snails. Taking 117 at random 2x2 cm<sup>2</sup> square samples (14.03.2009) from under stone surfaces in the stream, we collected a total of 16 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi</span> which showed a relative density of 0.14 individuals per 2 cm<sup>2</sup> (min-max = 0-2 individuals).	eng
172039	population	Georgiev, D., 2009	Live specimens were collected 50 metres from the cave’s entrance, where the environmental conditions were characteristic for a cave. Living snails were found along the whole stretch of the stream up to the surfacing of the stream from a narrow cave whole, close to the cave’s end. Taking 117 at random 2x2 cm2 square samples from under stone surfaces in the stream, we collected a total of 16 individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">B. markovi </span>which showed a relative density of 0.14 individuals per 2 cm2 (min-max = 0-2 individuals),  (Gregoriev, pers. comm., 2009).	eng
172039	threats	Georgiev, D., 2009	Main threats include organic and chemical pollution (domestic,  agriculture) active at the cave entrance. There are occasional losses of individuals by cavers and other visitors of the cave when walking in the stream.	eng
172282	conservation	Sorensen, M., 2009	Found in Bunaken National Park, Indonesia. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
172282	distribution	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. pontohi</span> &#160;has been recorded at a number of areas in Indonesia (Bunaken, Cape Sri, Sorong, Wakatobi, Lembeh Straits; Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>	eng
172282	habitat	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p>Holotype and paratype specimens found at 16 m and 12 m depth respectively, but has been recorded between 11–25 m. Found among algae, bryozoans, hydroid crops (Lourie and Kuiter 2008) and specifically the coralline algae <span style="font-style: italic;">Halimeda</span> and hydroid <span style="font-style: italic;">Aglaephenia cupressina</span> (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 14 mm, standard length 17 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. pontohi </span>is commonly found in pairs and is relatively active. Two of the specimens collected were pregnant and each contained 11 embryos (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>	eng
172282	population	Sorensen, M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
172282	threats	Sorensen, M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
172283	conservation	Sorensen, M., 2009	None known. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
172283	distribution	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. severnsi </span>is known from Indonesia (Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat Islands, Kawe Island), Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Papua New Guinea (Milne Bay, Madang), Solomon Islands (Mborokua) and Fiji (Lourie and Kuiter 2008) and Australia (Cairns) (see the species image and description on the <a href="http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Severns-Seahorse-Hippocampus-severnsi">Australian Museum</a> web site).</p>	eng
172283	habitat	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">H. severnsi </span>is found between depths of 8–20 m and is apparently more active in the morning and late afternoon when it is not in direct sunlight. In Indonesia, it has been found with <span style="font-style: italic;">Catenicella </span>sp. a yellow bryozoan species, as well as different kinds of hydrozoans including&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Lytocarpus phoenicea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Antennellopsis integerrima </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Halicordyle disticha</span>. It has been seen swimming over a fungiid coral and is recorded from fissures on current-swept walls where it will tend to occur on the side of the fissure that faces away from the current, but in all cases where there is some upward current (Lourie and Kuiter 2008). In Papua New Guinea it has been observed on a gorgonian coral of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Muricella </span>at 12 m depth (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 13 mm, standard length 15 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>	eng
172283	population	Sorensen, M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
172283	threats	Sorensen, M., 2009	None known.	eng
172284	conservation	Sorensen, M., 2009	None known. It is listed on CITES Appendix II.	eng
172284	distribution	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocampus satomiae </span>is known from scattered localities in Indonesia, including Derawan (type locality), and Lembeh Strait (northern Sulawesi), as well as northern Borneo, Malaysia (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>	eng
172284	habitat	Sorensen, M., 2009	<p>During the day, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. satomiae </span>are difficult to find, even in areas where they are known to occur. <span style="font-style: italic;">H. satomiae</span> congregate at night, in groups of 3–5 individuals, on small sea fans and occur at depths between 15–20 m on the bottom below reef overhangs (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p><p>At birth, the young are jet-black, about 3mm in height and shaped similarly to the adults. They settle on the bottom close to their place of birth. The holotype, collected in October, was pregnant and carrying approximately eight young (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).<br/>&#160;<br/>Extremely small size, height 11 mm, standard length 14 mm (Lourie and Kuiter 2008).</p>	eng
172284	population	Sorensen, M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
172284	threats	Sorensen, M., 2009	None known.	eng
172321	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
172321	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Enters lower courses of east flowing rivers along the coast (Maugé 1986). Ramisi and Umba Rivers. Coastal species, enters lower parts of rivers.	eng
172321	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Fresh and brackish water (Maugé 1986). Found in shallow waters, common in estuaries, may enter lower reaches of rivers (Froese and Pauly 2003). Tolerant of freshwater only within a narrow temperature range (23-26°C) (Skelton 1993). Feeds mainly on crustraceans, but also takes small fishes.	eng
172321	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
172321	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
172328	conservation	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Population monitoring is a need for this species as it is used at different scales in its range. In addition, the species is likely a species complex and requires taxonomic research.	eng
172328	distribution	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Recorded from Pakistan through India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand to southern China, Laos and Vietnam; introduced elsewhere, including southern Florida.	eng
172328	habitat	Chaudhry, S., 2009	Inhabits large lakes and rivers; prefers deep, clear stretches of water with sandy or rocky bottoms.	eng
172328	population	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.	eng
172328	threats	Chaudhry, S., 2009	There are no known major threats affecting this species.	eng
172884	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
172884	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs throughout Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007, Lehtinen <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
172884	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found on or near the ground (Lethinen 2002), is mainly nocturnal and inhabits a range of habitats including disturbed secondary forest and the areas surrounding villages (Glaw and Vences 2007, Lehtinen <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is most common around ponds in the rainy season (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
172884	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
172884	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
172995	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of this species is required prior to any further research or conservation measures being implemented.	eng
172995	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in the west and northwestern lowlands of Madagascar.	eng
172995	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are not known, however, it is likely that it occurs in dry and succulent wooded and forested areas.	eng
172995	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
172995	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is affected by any major threats. If its habitat preferences are indeed woodland and forested areas, it is likely to be impacted by loss of primary forest habitat.	eng
173020	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
173020	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa, the Malagarasi River. It is found in the delta area, extremely limited distribution only a few specimens collected alive.	eng
173020	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is known from "vegetation in calm bay" of Malagarasi River delta area, 30-40 cm depth (from Leloup 1953 in Brown 1994).	eng
173020	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
173020	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Sedimentation is a possible threat to the species.	eng
173022	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Further information is required on the species range and population. Detailed surveys and research on the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified and the impact of dams investigated.	eng
173022	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is known only from a single location on the left tributary of Trisuli river near Dhunche of Rasuwa district, Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007)	eng
173022	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found on rocks, stones, pebbles, sand covered debris and leaf litter in the cold water streams.	eng
173022	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
173022	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known, though the impact of current and planned hydropower dams within the area needs further investigation.<br/></p>	eng
173023	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Detailed distribution studies in the upland cold streams, life history studies, population trends and threats to the species are all important recommendations for this species.	eng
173023	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium ellisi </span>is known only from medium elevation streams (1500 - 2100 m) of India (Sikkim) and Nepal (Banepa, Kavre District) (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
173023	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in small natural cold streams in dense mixed and oak forests. The microhabitats are mud in very shallow pools where these pea clams are found on the mud sediment surface (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
173023	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium ellisi </span>is usually found in association with large numbers of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. annandalei</span>. But the detail information of the population size of<span style="font-style: italic;"> P. ellisi</span> is not known.	eng
173023	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Since it has been found in unpolluted water, water pollution is the inferred threats to this species. This is also the best indicator of high water quality.	eng
173026	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Detailed taxonomic studies, surveys, life history studies and threats are recommended.	eng
173026	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is reported from Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh to Kahalgaon, Bihar in India. It is endemic to the lower Gangetic plains (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, 2007).	eng
173026	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in fine sandy bottom of the Ganga River (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
173026	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173026	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, though sedimentation may impact the known habitat of the species.	eng
173027	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>More research about the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats from harvest needs to be studied.</p>	eng
173027	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula iravadica</span>&#160;is recorded from upper Myanmar, northern Thailand and Viet Nam (Subba Rao 1989).   Preston (1915: 216-217) reported the location as "Mandalay".	eng
173027	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is reported to be found in rivers and&#160;reservoirs.	eng
173027	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173027	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown. However, collection for human consumption could be a threat.	eng
173028	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	More research about the biology and distribution of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.	eng
173028	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Corbicula noetlingi</span> is a widely distributed species in Northern and Southern Shan States of Myanmar and in Thailand (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173028	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in small pools and lakes.	eng
173028	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173028	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are uncertain, but might be impacted by the loss of small pools through development, and by pollution.	eng
173030	conservation	Budha, P., 2010	It is found in high abundance in ponds and lakes but rare in rivers. Development of pond fishery in the Gangetic plain might contribute to its high abundance. Thus research into its life history, harvesting and threats is recommended.	eng
173030	distribution	Budha, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens narainporensis</span> is endemic to upper and lower Gangetic plains in India and Nepal; it it not recorded from Bangladesh, but it's presence there is likely. In India it is found at Narainpur, Murshidabad in West Bengal, Kumhrar pond at Patna, Ganges river at Bhalgalpur, Bihar; Gomati river from Lucknow and Ganga river at Chunarghat in Uttar Pradesh. It is known only from a single location Kamdai Nadi near Gaur, Rautahat district in Nepal.	eng
173030	habitat	Budha, P., 2010	The species is found in rivers, ponds and lakes. It prefers stagnant water bodies and found only in lentic zones of rivers along clay and mud substrate. The animals like burrowing in hard clay banks between the roots of trees.	eng
173030	population	Budha, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. narainporensis</span> is found in high abundance in ponds but rare in rivers.	eng
173030	threats	Budha, P., 2010	Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
173035	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on conservation action is available.	eng
173035	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It has been recorded from Tenasserim,   Ava (Innwa) and Pegu (Bago),  Barrack River, Sawaddy River and Maydong in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173035	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It has been reported from the rivers of Myanmar.	eng
173035	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population trends of this species.	eng
173035	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is information on threats to this species.	eng
173036	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This is a very poorly studied species with no information since its description. Surveys, threats and life history studies are recommended.	eng
173036	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species is considered to be endemic to Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989), south of Lashio.	eng
173036	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on habitat and ecology is unknown.	eng
173036	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
173036	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to the species are unknown.	eng
173037	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	A poorly known species, life history studies, surveys and threats to populations are recommended.	eng
173037	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia choprae</span> is known only from the type locality: a bank of hill stream about 5 miles from Hopin toward Nama, Myitkyina District in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173037	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It has been reported from hill streams.	eng
173037	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population details are unknown.	eng
173037	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information is available.	eng
173038	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	A poorly studied species, recommended research includes surveys, life history studies, threats and habitat characteristics.	eng
173038	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia crispisulcata</span> has been reported only from Pengong River in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989). However, the synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">Radiatula crispisulcata</span>, has been recorded from locations in Myanmar (Pegu (Bago), southern Irrawaddy Delta, near Yangon, and from near Risod, Maharasthtra, India (ANSP data, sourced from GBIF).	eng
173038	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It has only been recorded from a river.	eng
173038	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Population structure for this species is unknown.	eng
173038	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
173040	conservation	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Conservation actions are not in place.	eng
173040	distribution	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia feae</span> has been recorded from Meetan, Houngdaran River, and from one other unknown location&#160; in Myanmar.	eng
173040	habitat	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in rivers.	eng
173040	population	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information is available on population status of this species.	eng
173040	threats	Budha, P.B., Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threat details are unknown.	eng
173041	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on conservation action for this species.	eng
173041	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia feddeni</span> is reported from Pegu (Bago) and Yaylaymaw ("Upper Burma"), Myanmar.	eng
173041	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It occurs in paddy fields.	eng
173041	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information&#160;on population structure of this species is unknown.	eng
173041	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
173094	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species in Lake Tanganyika. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
173094	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Brazzaea anceyi</em> is endemic to the tributaries of Lake Tanganyika (on the DRC side of the lake). A single specimen in the BMNH records this species from Lake Victoria, but it is considered erroneous (Pain and Woodward 1968). The last live specimens were recorded prior to 1968.	eng
173094	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences for this species. However, it has been recorded only from tributaries leading into Lake Tanganyika, at the point where these meet the lake.	eng
173094	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	The species occurs in localised, very low densities where it is found.	eng
173094	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Brazzaea anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
173098	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography and the relationships among the various morpho-types. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
173098	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography and the relationships among the various morpho-types. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
173098	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
173098	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is described as common. Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project distributional data shows present at 16 sites around the lake.	eng
173098	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Grandidieria burtoni</em> has been shown to be a direct-developer, lacking the parasitic larval stage typical of other freshwater mussels (Kondo 1990). The species is common in the littoral zone around Lake Tanganyika.	eng
173098	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
173098	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is common and abundant.	eng
173098	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Grandidieria burtoni</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
173098	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Grandidieria burtoni</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
173100	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Field sampling and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary to understand the status of this species. The taxonomy needs to re-evaluated in the context of other upper Congo coelatura-type species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.<br/><br/>Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.	eng
173100	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mweruella mweruensis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining. The species also extends approximately 80 km upstream. Extent of occurrence is estimated at 5,000-20,000 km² and the species occurs in fewer than ten locations (Lake Mweru is considered one location).	eng
173100	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
173100	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
173100	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Mweruella mweruensis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
173102	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
173102	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
173102	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
173102	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
173102	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
173102	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Nitia teretiuscula</em> is widespread in the Nile and Chad Basin and part of West Africa. Its type locality is in the White Nile.	eng
173102	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	In West Africa this species is recorded from Lake Chad, the Chari River system and White Volta with tributaries, Mamoun River (Mandel-Barth 1988). It is suspected that the range is larger, probably spreading between these sites in western Africa. Elsewhere it is known also from the White Nile and the main Nile right to the delta.	eng
173102	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser, Nile in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is wide spread in the Nile and Chad Basin and part of western Africa. The type locality is in the White Nile.	eng
173102	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species is distributed in Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Nile Basin.	eng
173102	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread across sub-saharan Africa, from Chad to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is distributed in Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Nile Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in the Nile and Chad Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser, and the Nile in Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Lake Chad, the Chari River system and White Volta with tributaries, Mamoun River (Mandel-Barth 1988). It is suspected that the range is larger, probably spreading between these sites in western Africa.	eng
173102	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in large rivers and lakes.	eng
173102	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in large rivers and lakes.	eng
173102	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
173102	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in rivers and lakes.	eng
173102	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species occurs in rivers and Lake Chad.	eng
173102	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
173102	population	Ghamizi, M., Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
173102	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
173102	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
173102	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
173102	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
173102	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
173102	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None major threats known to the species.	eng
173102	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
173102	threats	Ghamizi, M., Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
173104	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., W. Darwall., 2004	No information available.	eng
173104	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., W. Darwall., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi and the Shire River.	eng
173104	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., W. Darwall., 2004	This is a freshwater species.	eng
173104	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., W. Darwall., 2004	No information available.	eng
173104	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., W. Darwall., 2004	No information available.	eng
173106	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additionally field sampling and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary to understand the status of this species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.	eng
173106	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Prisodontopsis aviculaeformis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula. The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but this is declining.	eng
173106	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
173106	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available. The species may be rare in the lake.	eng
173106	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Prisodontopsis aviculaeformis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
173143	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Although known from a few localities in Myanmar, detailed information on distribution, life history and threats are not available.	eng
173143	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia mandelayensis</span> is reported from Bhamo, Sheinmagah, Myadong and Pegu (Bago) in Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) in the Irrawaddy and Sittaung river basins. Based on the locality records for this species it is inferred to be widely distributed from the northern parts of Myanmar (Bhamo) to the southern end (Bago).	eng
173143	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in rivers.	eng
173143	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on population or trends in this species is known.	eng
173143	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
173144	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Research on distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
173144	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	The <span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia olivacea</span> type locality is Kamaing, Myitkyina in Myanmar.	eng
173144	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on habitat and ecology of this species; however, it is found in river systems.	eng
173144	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173144	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.</p>	eng
173145	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Intensive surveys to understand distribution and research on biology of this species are needed.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
173145	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia perconvexa</span> is only known from the type locality in Nangyong Lake, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173145	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is only known from its type locality which is a lake.	eng
173145	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173145	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species. &#160;The impact of potential threats remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.</p>	eng
173146	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>More research into the biology of this species is needed. Potential threats such as from harvest also need to be identified.</p>	eng
173146	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Parreysia shurtleffiana</span> is recorded from the upper stretches of the Ganges basin in India and Nepal. In India, it is known from Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007) and in Nepal from Ghagara Khola, Rupandehi (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
173146	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in mixed silt and sand substrate in rivers. It inhabits with other bivalves (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
173146	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known as a running water species. &#160;Recently, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2005) reported the species to be common in Rupandehi, Nepal and at Varanasi and Chunar, India<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>.	eng
173146	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Intentional and unintentional collection in small or large scale could be a threat for this species in Nepal (P. Budha pers. comm. 2010). However, threats to the species in India is not known and utilization of the species is also not documented. Deforestation and sedimentation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, and pollution (from agriculture and industrial development) but the impact of these on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
173148	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Detailed surveys and research on the biology, ecology and distribution trends of this species is needed. Research on threats are to be fully understood.	eng
173148	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pisidium kuiperi</span> is known from India (Sikkim) (Dance 1967) and Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.&#160;</span>2007).	eng
173148	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in streams within acidophilic Juncaceae vegetation in most of the unpolluted localities.	eng
173148	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is abundant in mud of slow running stretches of streams.	eng
173148	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Water pollution is the main inferred threat to this species since its preferred habitat is unpolluted streams.	eng
173149	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Distribution surveys, studies on biology, habitat use and threats are recommended areas of research.	eng
173149	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It has been recorded only from Mandalay, Myanmar, c.1900 (Subba Rao 1989), on the Irrawaddy River.	eng
173149	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species was found in a river, but no further information is available on habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
173149	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on population structure of this species is lacking.	eng
173149	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
173150	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Distribution surveys, studies on biology, habitat use and threats are recommended areas of research.	eng
173150	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudodon crebristriata </span>was described from Pegu (Bago), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173150	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in rivers. Details on the ecology and habitat are not known.	eng
173150	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information is available on population or trends of this species.	eng
173150	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
173151	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>Detailed distribution information, biology and threats impacting the species are lacking.</p>	eng
173151	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It was described from Pegu (Bago), Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) and does not appear to have been collected since.	eng
173151	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species was found in rivers, but no more information is available on the habitats and ecology of this species.	eng
173151	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173151	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
173153	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed.	eng
173153	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerium avanum</span> is reported from "near Ava" (Innwa) and Pegu (Bago) from Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173153	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The habitat and ecology of this species are not known, but are presumed to be freshwater river or lake.	eng
173153	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Population details of this species are not known.	eng
173153	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
173156	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed as nothing is known about this species since its description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
173156	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Iravadia princeps</span> is known only from the type locality in a canal near Chingrighatta, on the outskirts of Kolkata (Subba Rao 1989). There are no other reports since its description.	eng
173156	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	No information on the habitat and ecology of this species is available.	eng
173156	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173156	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
173157	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>    </p><p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p></p>	eng
173157	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neritina platyconcha</span> is known only from the type locality: Burdul, Kahaduk river, Khulna district, Bangladesh.	eng
173157	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is a brackish water species.	eng
173157	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
173157	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
173160	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>     <p></p>	eng
173160	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It was described from the type locality in the Shan States, Myanmar.   There is also a record from Budha Nullah, Ludhiana, Punjab, India (Punjab Environment Information Web Portal); given the separation of these two records, this record from the Punjab requires confirmation.	eng
173160	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is reported to be present in stagnant water bodies, lakes and ponds (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173160	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173160	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
173161	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  </p><p>Research into distribution, biology and threats to this species is needed.</p>     <p></p>	eng
173161	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Radix brevicauda</span> is recorded  from India (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana; (Raghavan 2007)), China and Nepal. It is known from Kashmir Valley  of India and uppermost Kali Gandaki Valley in Mustang in Nepal. Its type  locality is Kashmir (Subba Rao 1989, Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
173161	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in lakes and slow running streams.	eng
173161	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on its population size and trends.	eng
173161	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	The threats to the species are unknown, though sedimentation from deforestation, and changes in water flows from hydropower development are likely to impact the species.	eng
173162	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Research on distribution, biology, population trends and threats are needed.</p>	eng
173162	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from Sikkim and Tibet within an attitudinal range of 4,500 to 6,000 m (Subba Rao 1989). Recently reported from tributaries of Kali Gandaki River in Mustang, Nepal from 2,700 to 3,900 m asl (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007). This appears to be an Himalayan endemic, however there is a record from Lake Baikal, Russia (http://www.zoocollection.narod.ru/mollus/) which requires confirmation.It is likely that the species has been overlooked in surveys and may have a wider distribution.	eng
173162	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It Nepal it is found in small to medium sized streams with macrophytes and detritus accumulation and cold spring-fed ponds with dense <span style="font-style: italic;">Chara</span> sp. vegetation (Nesemann <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
173162	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on population trends, however, it is very common in Mustang, Nepal.	eng
173162	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
173168	conservation	Budha, P., 2010	The specific identity of this taxon is under question and there is a need to confirm the taxonomic status of the species.	eng
173168	distribution	Budha, P., 2010	The taxon has been considered to be restricted to Inlé lake in Myanmar, however, there is a recent record from Chilika Lake, Orissa (Patnaik <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), which requires confirmation.	eng
173168	habitat	Budha, P., 2010	It is reported from Inlé (Myanmar) and Chilika (Orissa, India) Lakes.	eng
173168	population	Budha, P., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173168	threats	Budha, P., 2010	Threats to the habitat at Inle Lake are very well understood (Sidle <em>et al. </em>2007), and include a reduction in surface area, and pollution and sedimentation from a number of sources. Chiliki Lake faces similar problems, including siltation due to littoral drift and sediments from the inland river systems, shrinkage of the water surface area, and a proliferation of fresh water invasive species.	eng
173170	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys and research on the biology, population status and threats of this species are needed.&#160; </p>	eng
173170	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is known from India (Andamans) and Myanmar (Inlé lake and Yawnghwe, Southern Shan States) (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173170	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	The species inhabits lakes and ponds.	eng
173170	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>	eng
173170	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
173171	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	This is a newly described species with very little information on distribution, biology, threats and population trends and hence requires extensive studies.	eng
173171	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is reported only from Dobra River at Sonaru, Patna District, Bihar in India (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
173171	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It lives on the surface of soft organic mud bottoms in stagnant waters (Nesemann <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
173171	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Nesemann <em>et al.</em> (2007) report the species to occur in high densities.	eng
173171	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No specific threats have been documented so far.	eng
173174	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Information on biology and threats is needed.	eng
173174	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Gabbia stenothyroides</span> is known from India: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (Pune) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris, South Arcot, Tiruchirapalli, Chennai); Sri Lanka (Subba Rao 1989, Ramakrishna and Dey 2007); and Nepal (far western Nepal in Karnali floodplain near Tikapur, Kailali) (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The identity of the Nepal population requires verification.	eng
173174	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It inhabits rivers.	eng
173174	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information available on population trends.	eng
173174	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There are no known major threats to the species.	eng
173176	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	Distribution, life history and threats need to be studied.	eng
173176	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is known from south and southeast Asia. It was reported from coastal areas of Thailand (Gulf of Thailand), Myanmar, Malaysia, southern Viet Nam, Indonesia (Java and Sumatra) (Brandt 1974) and also reported from India (Ganga River at Patna and Mokhama) (Nesemann&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
173176	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is a secondary freshwater snail occurring on the coastal zones in the brackish water.	eng
173176	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
173176	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	There is no information on threats for this species.	eng
173177	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Distribution and life history studies along with identification of threats are recommended for this newly described species.</p>	eng
173177	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula godawariensis</span>&#160;is known only from Nepal. It is found in forest streams in Godawari, Lalitpur District and Roshi Khola, Kavre District, central Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007)	eng
173177	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	It is found in the hill streams and rivers, preferably in the forest streams.	eng
173177	population	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	No information on population details are available.	eng
173177	threats	Budha, P.B. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to    sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat   caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.	eng
173180	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">More research on life history and impacts of threats to the species is required. Habitat protection is recommended.</p>	eng
173180	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula mahadevensis</span> has only been recorded from the mid-hill streams of central Nepal. Specimens were collected from Mahadev Khola (forest stream) in the upper reaches of Nagarkot, Bhaktapur District (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), within the Kathmandu valley, Nepal.	eng
173180	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is reported from unpolluted forest streams in the mid-hills (between 1,000 and 2,000 m asl) of central Nepal within the Kathmandu valley.	eng
173180	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173180	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in unpolluted forest hill streams at Nagarkot, which is one of the main tourists destinations in Nepal, located close to Kathmandu. Human disturbance due to anthropogenic activities responsible for water pollution are inferred threats to this species.	eng
173181	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	This species is known from the type locality in Myanmar. Further research is required to understand its&#160;ecology, range and&#160;population, as well as its&#160;conservation&#160;status.	eng
173181	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<em>Tricula martini</em>&#160;is known only from its type locality, "Kutkai", in a small channel flowing into the Nam Geng River, Muse District, northerastern Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989) although this has since been disputed (Abbott 1948). It was described in 1928.	eng
173181	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	This species was described from a "small channel flowing into the Nam Teng river … choked with lilies, grass and other weeds" (Abbott 1948).	eng
173181	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	No information available about population and distribution of this species.	eng
173181	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Little is known of&#160; the species current habitat condition, however the type locality, Kutkai, has developed greatly since the species description in 1928, and this development has likely&#160; impacted upon the species habitat (water pollution and sedimentation). The impact of these and other threats needs to be studied.	eng
173182	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species and threats are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. &#160; </p>	eng
173182	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tricula taylori</span> is known only from the type locality, a small stream flowing into the reservoir in Laqshio, Northern Shan states, Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173182	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The species was described from a small stream flowing into a reservoir.<br/></p>	eng
173182	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
173182	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
173183	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>  More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.<br/> <br/> </p>	eng
173183	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Melanoides pyramis</span> is widely distributed and reported from Afghanistan, central (Maharashtra; Patil and Talmale 2005) northern and northeastern India, southern Iran, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan.	eng
173183	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	Information on habitat and ecology are not fully understood. However, according to Nesesmann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2007) this species occurs in running waters and lakes of the Himalayan middle mountains.	eng
173183	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is very common in running waters in the mountains but sporadically found in the Gangetic plains of Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Actual population trend is not fully understood.	eng
173183	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
173184	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Detailed survey on distribution and studies on the biology, population, ecology, habitat, trends and threats are needed, as there is insufficient information available.	eng
173184	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus andersoniana</span> is only known from the type locality in upper Myanmar (Pegu River). According to the database of Florida Museum of Natural History, it was also collected from Agat Bay, Mariana Island in 2001, however this record requires confirmation.	eng
173184	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	Collected from "Pegu River", Myanmar.	eng
173184	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173184	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	Threats are not known to this species.	eng
173185	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Studies on distribution, biology, ecology, habitat, population and trends recommended for this species.	eng
173185	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	Originally described from "Yaylaymaw and Mandalay", Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173185	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	Habitat and ecology of this species are not known.	eng
173185	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173185	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	No known threats are documented for this species.	eng
173186	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	More research on distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available.&#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
173186	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus dhuma</span> has only been reported from the type locality at the edge of a stream near "Thazi railway station", lower Myanmar.	eng
173186	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It occurs in streams.	eng
173186	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173186	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
173187	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population, trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its first description. &#160; Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
173187	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paludomus nana</span> is only known from type locality in Pegu, Lower Myanmar (Subba Rao 1989).	eng
173187	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information available regarding the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
173187	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
173187	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
173188	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys to establish its distribution range and research on its biology, population, ecology, trends and threats are highly recommended.</p>	eng
173188	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is reported only from Myanmar and details on the exact location are not recorded.	eng
173188	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	No information is available on the ecology of this species, but it is inferred to be found in streams.	eng
173188	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173188	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>	eng
173189	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, but the following actions are recommended:<br/>- To study its biology and to estimate the population size<br/>- Monitoring of the population dynamics and of the existing sites&#160;&#160; <br/>- Implementation of the legal protection measures (Law on the enhancement of the environment, Law on the studies of impact)&#160;&#160; &#160;<br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
173189	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Salix atrocinerea</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">jahandiezii</span> is a strict endemic of Morocco where it seems to be quite common. It occurs in the High Atlas (in-el-Ouidane), the Moyen Atlas (Azrou, Aguelmame Sidi Ali, up to El Ksiba), middle Atlantic Morocco (Ida-ou-Bouzia and Aït Zeltene, Arhzou-Bouagal river around Larbaâ, Biteljane to the north of Taroudant) and in the north of the country (Grou river between Moulay Bou-Azza and oued Zem, to the north of Moulay Bou-Azza). The extent of occurrence of this species is about 7,500 km² with an area of occupancy passing 2,500 km².	eng
173189	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	It is a perennial plant (Phanerophyte) that is found at the streams of the low and middle mountains, under the semi-arid, sub-humid or humid Mediterranean bioclimate. It flowers from winter to the beginning of spring.<br/>Cases of hybridization have been observed in this taxon that sometimes presents the characters of <span style="font-style: italic;">Salix canariensis</span>.	eng
173189	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	No data on the size or trends of the populations is available.	eng
173189	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Frequent droughts and increasing urbanization are the main threats to its habitat.	eng
173191	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	<p>  Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed. &#160; </p>	eng
173191	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	This species is widely distributed in south and southeast Asia. It is reported from several locations in India such as Mumbai, Kollam, Cochin and Thiruvananthapuram. It is also reported from Hong Kong, Thailand (Chon Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat), Malaysia, China, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan (Ryukyu islands) and Australia.<br/>    <p>There are no recent&#160;occurrence&#160;records of the species from eastern and northeastern areas of India, Myanmar, or Bangladesh, but due to its wide geographical distribution range from south India to China and limited survey effort, it can be inferred to be present within suitable habitat within these countries.</p>	eng
173191	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	It inhabits freshwater rivers and streams, but is also recorded from mangrove habitats. It is reported from brackish water or estuarine areas under tidal influence.	eng
173191	population	Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.</p>	eng
173191	threats	Budha, P.B. & Richter, K., 2010	<p>Until the 1980s the Mekong River flowed freely for ca. 5000 km from its source in Tibet to the coast of Viet Nam. The Mekong River passes through or by China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand and Cambodia. But since the 1980s the character of the river has been steadily transformed by dam-building programs in Yunnan province in China. Three hydroelectric dams are already in operation and two more are under construction due for completion in 2012 and 2017. Until 2030 there could be plans for at least two more dams. There are also eleven proposed dams on the mainstream of the Mekong below China. Even if no dams are built on the mainstream below China the dams in China will ultimately have serious effects on the functioning of the Mekong. It will alter the hydrology of the river and so the current ‘flood pulse’, the regular rise and fall of the river on an annual basis. The dams will block the flow of sediment down the river which plays a vital part in depositing nutrients on the agricultural regions flooded by the Mekong River. The dams will also lead to the erosion of river banks (Osborne 2009). Although the ecological effects of these dams on freshwater snails are poorly known Temcharoen (1992) mentioned a negative effect on the snails caused by irregular fluctuation of the water level. </p>  <p>Water pollution due to the ongoing industrialisation in those developing countries may also be a threat to the freshwater snails of the Indo-Burma-Region (Temcharoen 1992).</p>	eng
173192	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
173192	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thiara rudis </span>is reported from India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, (Sumatra, Java, Ambonia, Batjan, Halnahera) and the Philippines (Subba Rao 1989).<br/><br/>The exact locality for the species is not found in the available  literature. The  distribution range is very large. It can be inferred that the species is  present within the Eastern Himalayas assessment region.	eng
173192	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>It occurs in streams.</p>	eng
173192	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
173192	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The species is likely to impacted locally by habitat loss, and potentially by pollution, but is unlikely to be threatened across its range.<br/></p>	eng
173201	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As this species has a restricted global range and is very rare, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173201	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The La Palma Grayling occurs only on the Canary Island of La Palma, between 400-1,300 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173201	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, La Palma. It can be found in rocky gullies surrounded by laurel or pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman & Lewington 2008).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173201	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on La Palma, Canary Islands.  It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.	eng
173201	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to few locations on one island. It is threatened by tourist activities and fires.	eng
173202	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the distribution and ecology of this species is urgently needed. Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173202	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Andalusian Anomalous Blue is restricted to two mountain ranges in the region of Andalusia, Spain (Sierra de Tejeda and Sierra de Almijara), between 1,500 - 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173202	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Andalusian Anomalous Blue occurs in warm places in mountain ranges, where flower-rich areas can be found. The foodplant is Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis argentea</span>). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, and feed on the flowers and leaves of the foodplant. Often they are encountered together with ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>. The habitat is a short Mediterranean scrub growing on calcareous substrate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173202	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, it is restricted to locations with good quality habitat in Andalusia (Spain).	eng
173202	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Reafforestation, overgrazing and fires are the major threats for the species. The habitat of the species is however within a Natural Park.	eng
173203	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173203	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Alps from France via the south of Switzerland to the Salzburger Alps in Austria. Found at altitudes of 1,400-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173203	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Mnestra’s Ringlet occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, especially dry grasslands on steep, sunny slopes. The butterflies are seldom seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The female lays its eggs close to the ground on dry stalks of grass. The plain green caterpillars have been found on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and also on Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). They hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173203	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173203	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173204	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As almost nothing is known about the distribution and ecology of this species, basic research on distribution and ecology is needed. Only after that can important habitats be distinguished. These should be protected and well-managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173204	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in  northwest  Greece, between 500-1,500 m elevation. This Grayling used to be considered a subspecies of Brown's Grayling (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. mamurra</span>), which occurs in the Asian part of Turkey. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173204	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	These butterflies are mostly found in open, shrubby vegetation, but also in clearings and along paths in woods. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).	eng
173204	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is an extremely  local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173204	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Almost nothing is known about this species. It is probably threatened by abandonment.	eng
173205	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.	eng
173205	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 700-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173205	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species replaces the Small Tortoiseshell (<span style="font-style: italic;">A. urticae</span>) on the Islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It may be found in nearly all habitats but only in mountainous area at altitudes higher than 700 m. The larval foodplant is  Stinging Nettle (<span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica dioica</span>). It is double-generationed. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173205	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to Corsica and Sardinia.	eng
173205	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173206	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173206	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the south of Italy. Its elevational range is 800-1,100 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173206	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Italian Grayling is is restricted to a small region on the South of Italy. It occurs on dry stony grasslands. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173206	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.	eng
173206	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173207	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173207	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only on Sardinia (Monti del Gennargentu). Found at altitudes from 800-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173207	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sardinian Blue occurs on dry, rocky, mountainous slopes and on flowery patches in open scrub. Various species of thyme (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus </span>spp.) are used as foodplant. The Sardinian Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: phrygana (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
173207	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173207	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173208	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173208	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only on Corsica and Sardinia and is the only Dappled White that can be found on these islands. On Corsica, it is quite rare, but more abundant on Sardinia, especially on the coast and at low altitudes. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173208	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Corsican Dappled White is a species of dry, grassy vegetation and of dry scrub. The Candytuft (<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis pinnata</span>), the Hoary Mustard (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hirschfeldia incana</span>) and mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sinapis </span>spp.) are used as foodplants. It has two generations a year, in early spring and late spring, but as the second generation is only partial, only small numbers of butterflies can be seen in May and June. It hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).	eng
173208	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173208	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173209	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173209	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Woodland Grayling occurs south of a line from the southern border of Belgium, central Germany and southern Poland eastwards. It is absent from north and west of France, as well as the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily and Lefkada. On the Iberian Peninsula it occurs only in Aragon and Catalonia. It occurs from sea level to 1,600 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173209	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Woodland Grayling is a butterfly of open woods that occurs on grassy vegetation, along woodland rides and in woodland glades. The butterflies often settle on tree trunks where, with their wings tightly closed and the eye-spots hidden, they are very well camouflaged. The eggs are laid on the blades of grasses such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). The caterpillars grow very slowly and hibernate half-grown in the litter layer. The caterpillar pupates in a little hollow in the ground, spinning a kind of cocoon. The Woodland Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (7%).	eng
173209	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. It is reported extinct from Luxembourg. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Romania, Slovenia and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173209	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and open woodlands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
173210	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173210	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the southeastern Alps, from southern foothills of Monte Baldo and Dolomites in Italy, southern Austrian Alps, via the Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains  to the west and southwest of Croatia. Found at altitudes between 300-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173210	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Styrian Ringlet is found mostly on rocky limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>) and Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>). The Styrian Ringlet is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (40%), screes (20%).	eng
173210	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173210	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173211	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173211	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces), the Mediterranean islands (except Corsica and Sardinia) and most of the south of Italy. Found at altitudes from 100-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173211	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Chalkhill Blue occurs on calcareous soil in dry and flower-rich places with a short vegetation. They seem to prefer sheltered places. Sometimes, populations can be extremely large which is especially obvious in the late afternoon when the butterflies come together to roost. Hundreds of butterflies can be seen, their heads pointing downwards into the vegetation, wings upright, the light-coloured underwings gleaming in the evening sun. Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>) is its only foodplant, the female laying her eggs on the leaves. The eggs hibernate. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Formica</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tetramorium</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aphaenogaster </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Tapinoma</span>. The Chalkhill Blue pupates in the litter layer. It usually only has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (35%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
173211	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Ukraine, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Lithuania, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173211	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173212	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173212	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, Giglio and Capraia. Its elevational range is 500-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species. Some authors regard <span style="font-style: italic;">H. senthes</span> a subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. aristaeus</span>.	eng
173212	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Grayling occurs on open, grassy slopes, on rocky slopes, in scrubby vegetation and in open woodland. The caterpillars feed on grasses, including Albardine (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lygeum</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">spartum</span>). They continue feeding on warm winter days. In spring they pupate in the ground. The Southern Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), screes (20%).	eng
173212	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173212	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173213	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173213	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Scattered occurrence on Sardinia. Most abundant in the Monti del Gennargentu, where it is found at elevations of 600-1,300 m; elsewhere at 400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173213	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sardinian Meadow Brown is mostly found on bushy vegetation with Cistus, on grassland with bushes, in woodland clearings and in open woodland and near streams. The butterflies often fly close to the ground. Compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. jurtina</span>, that occurs in the same habitats but also on higher altitudes, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. nurag</span> is much smaller and much lighter and more orange-yellow on the upper-side of the wings. Females aestivate during the hottest period of summer waiting for first autumn rains for egg laying. After mating, the female stores the sperm and eggs get fertilized after the aestivation period when females lay their eggs (Grill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2006). The caterpillars live on grasses, including <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca morisiana</span>, an endemic fescue of Sardinia. The caterpillars are mainly active at night and continue feeding throughout the winter as long as it does not freeze. The Sardinian Meadow Brown has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173213	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173213	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face immediate threats. According to Grill <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2006) global warming could disrupt the aestivation, which might threaten the species in future.	eng
173214	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173214	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs on almost all Crete (between an altitude of 0-1,800 m). This is a European endemic species.	eng
173214	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cretan Small Heath occurs on grassy vegetation and in open scrub. The butterflies fly quickly and close to the ground. When resting, they always keep their wings closed. It is uncertain how many generations this species has a year, either one generation with a long flight period, or two or more generations, each with a short flight-period. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
173214	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173214	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173215	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species and the interactions between <span style="font-style: italic;">P. xiphia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">P. aegeria</span>. The trend of both species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173215	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the island of Madeira. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173215	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Madeiran Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses such as the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium sylvaticum</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Holcus lanatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis gigantea</span>. This species produces several generations a year. In summer, the number of butterflies sometimes decreases for a while (Tolman & Lewington 2008). Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).	eng
173215	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173215	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a European endemic with a restricted range. Although habitat is still abundant on Madeira, the Madeiran Speckled Wood is apparently gradually being replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Pararge aegeria</span>, a widespread species in Europe. <span style="font-style: italic;">Pararge aegeria</span> colonized the island in the 1970s and is still expanding its range.	eng
173216	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173216	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in widely scattered areas in the Pyrenees (very rare), the Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian, Kamnikean and Karavanke Mountains), the Balkans, southwest Bosnia, southwest Serbia and northwest Former Republic of Macedonia and in Northern Europe on border between Norway and Sweden and in Lapland. Recently also reported in the Romanian Carpathians. In Switzerland 1,000-2,700 m, in Spain 1,500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173216	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Alpine Grizzled Skipper occurs in damp, moist, grassy places, often near streams or bogs in the Alps and Pyrenees. In Scandinavia, they are seen on dwarf scrub vegetation and also in rocky places on steep slopes. The larval foodplants is White dryas (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dryas octopetala</span>). The caterpillars live in a communal shelter of spun leaves. They hibernate, pupating in a similar shelter the following spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%).	eng
173216	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173216	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173217	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173217	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs over nearly all Portugal and Spain except the north coast and Pyrenees, southeastern France (Pyrenees, Provence, Alps) and adjacent part of Italian Alps, Apennines and Sicily. It has been recorded at altitudes from 0-1,700 m and is a European endemic species.	eng
173217	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Marbled skipper occurs on dry, sparse vegetation, in dunes, in dry, grassy places, scrubland and on rocky slopes. Foodplants are various horehounds, including Horehound (<span style="font-style: italic;">Marrubium vulgare)</span>, Black Horehound (<span style="font-style: italic;">Ballota nigra foetida</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ballota </span>spp. The female lays its eggs one by one on the leaves and shoots of the small foodplant. The small caterpillars live hidden in a spun leaf. The older, larger caterpillars spin two neighbouring leaves together to make a safe shelter. When they are fully-grown, the caterpillars go down to the base of the foodplant and spin a few dried leaves together in which to pupate. The species was not seen in the Alps in the last 40 years where it probably had just one generation a year, while in Spain there are two or three generations a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), screes (33%).	eng
173217	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173217	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173218	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173218	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species, which was recently split from Spanish Brassy Ringlet (<span style="font-style: italic;">E.  hispania</span>), is known only from the Pyrenees, including Andorra, from altitudes of 1,650-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173218	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on rocky grassy slopes and alpine meadows. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).	eng
173218	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173218	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173219	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173219	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only locally on Crete. Its elevational range is 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173219	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Festoon is often seen in dry, open scrub, but also on agricultural land, in olive groves and vineyards and sometimes in damp places. The Birthwort <span style="font-style: italic;">Aristolochia cretica</span>, which only grows on Crete and perhaps also <span style="font-style: italic;">A. sempervirens</span>, are used as host plants. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
173219	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173219	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173220	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173220	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Island Gomera. 200-400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173220	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gomera. There, it can be found on the steep and grassy cliffs and on rocky gullies and slopes, mostly where there is also some bushy vegetation or laurel forest at close range. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008).  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173220	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gomera, Canary Islands.	eng
173220	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173221	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173221	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs on the islands Corsica, Sardinia and Capraia. Found from sea level-1,200 m, occasionally to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173221	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Corsican Heath is found in different sorts of habitats, flower-rich grasslands at lower altitudes, dry scrub of open or dense maquis, deciduous woodlands, especially in valleys and ravines and coniferous forests at high altitudes. It uses the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span> and other grasses as foodplants. This species has several, overlapping generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
173221	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173221	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173222	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored closely by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173222	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Islands. Generally found from 200 to 2,500 m, although it has been recorded near the summit of Mount Teide on Tenerife at 3500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173222	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Blue can be found amongst scrub on rocky places, that are mostly at low altitudes and also on waste ground near human settlements. The larvae feed on many plant species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cytisus canariensis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Spartocytisus rubigenus</span>,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Lotus sessilifolius</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. hillebrandii</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. glaucus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenocarpus viscosus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Teline stenopetala</span>. At low altitudes, this species produces many overlapping generations and can be seen throughout the year. It is not known how many generations are produced and what the diapause stage might be on sites at high altitudes, such as Mount Teide on Tenerife.<br/>Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173222	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to the Canary Islands.	eng
173222	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173223	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173223	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Brimstone occurs in the Canary Islands at elevations between 1,000-1,500 m, sometimes up to 2,000 m. In winter it also occurs at lower elevations. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173223	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly can be seen in laurel forests on the north sides of the mountains, but also in other types of forests; they are very mobile and can be seen far away from their reproduction sites. The caterpillars feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamnus glandulosa </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">R. crenulata</span>. It is not known how many generations a year are on the wing. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173223	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Population declines have been estimated at 10%.	eng
173223	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a European endemic with a restricted range. The survival of the species is bound to its habitat, the laurel forest, which is still threatened although a part is legally protected. The main threats for laurel forests on the Canary Islands are tourist resorts and illegal building destroying part of the habitats, especially alongside roads or near settlements. Fires are another significant threat. Accidentally and intentionally set for livestock grazing, crop planting, timber and real estate speculation are also impacting the laurel forest.	eng
173224	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but more research is required on the distribution and ecology of the species, especially field work to find new populations in suitable areas.	eng
173224	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to Spain and Portugal, where it is found in several mountain ranges in central Spain and in the Portuguese Alentejo. Field work is needed to find new populations in suitable areas. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173224	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The habitat consists of grassland clearings in open <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus ilex </span>and<span style="font-style: italic;"> Q. pyrenaica </span>woodlands, but also in traditionally grazed grasslands and open areas in pine forests. The species has two generations and hibernates as a larva in the second generation. The larva feeds on several <span style="font-style: italic;">Rumex </span>species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173224	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173224	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173225	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173225	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the south of FYR of Macedonia and scattered in Greece. Its elevational range is 1,000-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173225	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grecian Grayling occurs mainly on calcareous slopes with grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. The butterflies fly close to the ground. When at rest on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).	eng
173225	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173225	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173226	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173226	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in some mountainous areas in Europe: central Pyrenees including Andorra, the Alps (from French Alps to Austria), southwest Bulgaria and Romania and the south of the Carpathians.&#160; Found at altitudes of 1,000-2,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173226	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Damp grassland, at the edge of bogs or streams, is the habitat of the Dusky Grizzled Skipper, although they sometimes occur on dry grasslands and are most numerous near the tree-line. They are quite mobile butterflies and are therefore often seen outside their habitat. Males show marked territorial behaviour. Surveying its territory from a perch, a tall tree usually serving as a lookout, he drives away butterfly passing by. Any other male Dusky Grizzled Skipper is pursued for tens of metres before the chase is given up and the male returns home. The female lays its eggs on various species of cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), such as Tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. erecta</span>) and Alpine Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. crantzii</span>) and also on Sibbaldia species. It prefers plants growing on drier places, such as on hummocks in damp habitats, or at a little distance from its habitat. The caterpillars live hidden between spun leaves and it is in this stage that the Dusky Grizzled Skipper hibernates. It has one generation a year. The development takes two years. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).	eng
173226	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173226	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173227	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173227	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in the Alps from the French Alps to the Carnic Alps in the south of Austria. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,900 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173227	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	At altitudes of about 1,500 m, the Alpine Grayling occurs on dry, scrubby vegetation. Above the tree-line, they can be seen in dry, stony alpine grasslands and on dry, open sunny slopes. Most habitats have a stream in the vicinity. Perched on a stone, the males defend their territory, chasing away other butterflies, as well as other insects. The female lays its eggs one at a time on dry grass stalks close to the ground. The caterpillar hibernates in the first larval instar and having fed during the growing season, hibernates again in the last instar. Eventually, some time between April and June, it pupates. Its main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) but other fescues are also used. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (42%), water-fringe vegetation (14%), screes (14%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).	eng
173227	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173227	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173228	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173228	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Confined to the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Elba and Capraia. Its elevational range is 300-2,100 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173228	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Corsican Grayling is found on open slopes covered with grassy vegetation and scrub or dwarf scrub, sometimes with coniferous woodland nearby, although they also occur above the tree-line. Different grasses are used as foodplants, including the fescue <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca morisiana</span>. The caterpillars do not have a real diapause and continue feeding throughout the winter. It has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
173228	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173228	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173229	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173229	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only occurs on West Sicily in the mountains south of Palermo (the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">M. arge</span> occurs in northeast Sicily). Its elevational range is from 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173229	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sicilian Marbled White lives in rocky places with dry, grassy vegetation. Its foodplants are grasses and probably the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span> is one of them. After hatching, the tiny caterpillar first eats the shell of its egg and then becomes inactive in summer months, only beginning to feed in autumn. The next spring, when it is fully-grown, it spins a little tent from sand and plant remains in which to pupate. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173229	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173229	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173230	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173230	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in several mountainous areas: in the Alps from the Ligurian Alps and French Alps to Tirol (Brenner Pass) and the Dolomites, the Apuan Alps, north and mid-Apennines. Found at altitudes of 1,100-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173230	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Marbled Ringlet is mainly found on warm, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation in flower-rich grasslands and occasionally in woods, for the most part on limestone. When the butterflies settle on stones or on the ground with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. However, they can be seen visiting flowers, which they do regularly. The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and in spring begin feeding on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), or on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>). The caterpillars have been found on the larger tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks. They pupate in June or July. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).	eng
173230	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173230	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173231	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Since this species has a very restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173231	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Ponza Islands in Italy. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173231	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Ponza Grayling is the only grayling on the island of Ponza. It occurs on dry grassland and scrub close to trees. This species is single-brooded (Lafranchis 2004). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173231	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Ponza Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Ponza Islands in Italy.	eng
173231	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a very restricted range on a few isolated islands.	eng
173232	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. More research to distribution and ecology is needed.	eng
173232	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Islands Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Gomera and La Palma. Its elevational range is 200-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173232	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. It can be found throughout the year in laurel and chestnut forests. The caterpillars' foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium</span> spp.), cock’s-foot (<span style="font-style: italic;">Dactylus </span>spp.), <span style="font-style: italic;">Luzula forsteri</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Oryzopsis miliacea</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis tenuous</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Carex divulsa</span>. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173232	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on the Canary Islands.	eng
173232	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173233	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173233	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the south of Russia and The Balkans: in Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. Its elevational range is 600-1,500 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173233	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Delattin’s Grayling is a butterfly of warm and dry places. It is found on rocky slopes, on dry grasslands and in open woodland. It has one generation a year. The adults butterflies are on the wing from June to July. Further details on the ecology of this species are unknown. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mixed woodland (16%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).	eng
173233	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
173233	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173234	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173234	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs very locally in the mountains of southeast Europe: in Serbia, west of FYR of Macedonia, southeast and central Bulgaria and north of Greece. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173234	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Nicholl’s Ringlet is mainly found on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, where the butterflies fly close to the vegetation. They are sometimes seen near woods. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).	eng
173234	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173234	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173235	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. In Italy, not all populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.	eng
173235	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in Italy from central Italy to the northeast of Sicily. Its elevational range is 350-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173235	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Italian Marbled White occurs locally in small populations. It occurs in rocky, calcareous places on patches of dry, grassy vegetation among loose thickets of Prickly Juniper (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus oxycedrus), Rosa sempervirens</span>, the bramble<span style="font-style: italic;"> Rubus ulmifolius </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus capitatus</span>, with a few scattered trees. The caterpillars feed on grasses such as Feather Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>) and the false-brome <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum</span>. The Italian Marbled White has one generation a year and only flies for three weeks per year in any one location. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173235	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173235	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173236	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173236	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in separate mountainous areas in Spain (Sierra de Bejar, S. de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees), France (Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura and Vosges), Switzerland, south of Germany, Liechtenstein, west of Austria, central Italy (Alps and Apennines). Absent from the Carpathians, Tatra and mountains of the Balkans. 600-2,300 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173236	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Piedmont Ringlet occurs on a variety of grassy places in and near woods. The female lays its eggs on many different grasses, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Wavy Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia flexuosa</span>), Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and several species of bent (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis </span>spp.). At very high altitudes, when the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate in the litter layer. They may hibernate twice before pupating deep down in the vegetation. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (54%), mesophile grasslands (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), heath and scrub (9%), coniferous woodland (9%).	eng
173236	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173236	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173237	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173237	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern and Dachstein Mts. in Austria and Julian Alps in Slovenia, also in central Italy. Found at altitudes of 1,800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173237	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sooty Ringlet is a butterfly of mountainous areas with everlasting snows and glaciers. It occurs high up, on steep screes and moraines, breeding on patches with a mosaic of sparse vegetation and small stones. The female deposits the pale-coloured eggs on mostly light-coloured stones. Once the caterpillar has emerged from the egg, it sometimes has to travel some distance before finding one of the grasses it uses as a foodplant. Caterpillars have been found on the fescues<span style="font-style: italic;"> Festuca halleri</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. quadriflora,</span> as well as on Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>). The caterpillars take two or possibly three years to develop. Habitats: screes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).	eng
173237	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173237	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173238	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173238	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to Sao Miguel, in the Azores. Its elevational range is 600-1,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173238	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Le Cerf's Grayling can be found in on grassy vegetation in small valleys and sheltered hollows. The butterflies are often observed on flowers where they come for nectar. Probably, the only foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca jubata</span>. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (33%), heath and scrub (33%).	eng
173238	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173238	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173239	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173239	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs locally in southeastern France (from Hérault and Cevennes to the Maritime Alps) and northwestern Italy in the Maritime Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173239	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Furry Blue occurs on dry, flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scrub, on waste ground and in clearings in deciduous or coniferous woods. The female lays its eggs on Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifola</span>) and possibly also on various medicks (<span style="font-style: italic;">Medicago </span>spp.). The butterflies are attended by ants. Hibernation takes place when the caterpillars are still small. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%).	eng
173239	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173239	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173240	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173240	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs on the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Capraia and Montecristo. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173240	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species can be fairly common in maquis habitat. It used to be considered a sub-species of the Wall Brown (<span style="font-style: italic;">L. megera</span>). The life-cycle of these two species is very similar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).	eng
173240	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173240	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173241	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173241	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species was first discovered in 1982, in Spain near Baza (Granada). Later, the species was also found in Huesca and western Catalonia. It occurs between 150-1,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173241	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is found in semiarid grasslands or scrub (vegetation types <span style="font-style: italic;">Santolino-Gypsophiletum struthium</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhamno-Cocciferetum pistacietosum</span>) on calcareous or gypsum substrate. The caterpillars feed on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eruca vesicaria </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Boleum asperum</span>, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The species has one generation a year, with a  partial second generation, and hibernates as a pupa.	eng
173241	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Greenish Black-tip is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Spain. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by  the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). The population size is estimated to be smaller than 10,000 butterflies.	eng
173241	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a very restricted range in Europe and the population size is small. Regarding its limited distribution it might become threatened in the longer term by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele et al., 2008) there is no information on possible changes to its climate envelope.	eng
173242	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173242	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs locally only in the Alps: in Switzerland in the Northern Alps and Engadin, Italy in the Ortler Alps and Dolomites, Germany in the Allgäuer Alps and in Austria as far east as the Rax mountains. Found at altitudes between 1,200-2250 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173242	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eriphyle Ringlet occurs locally in the Alps and is one of the smaller ringlets. It is a characteristic species of the north-facing slopes, occurring on rough, herbaceous vegetation in the alpine and sub-alpine zones, where there are plenty of alder (Alnus spp.) saplings. They are often found in places where the conspicuous plants <span style="font-style: italic;">Adenostyles alliariae</span> and Masterwort (Peucedanum ostruthium) are growing. It uses Sweet-Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) and Tufted Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia cespitosa</span>) as foodplants. Some of the caterpillars leave the egg before the winter, but most of them hibernate in the egg and emerge in spring, when they all start feeding on grasses. In autumn, they hibernate again and moult twice before pupating at the end of May. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173242	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173242	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173243	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173243	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs locally in the Alps: from southwest Switzerland (east Wallis) and Ortler Alps in Italy to the mountainous areas of South Germany, Hohe Tauern in Austria and foothills of the Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 1,800-2750 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173243	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Warren's Skipper occurs mostly on flower-rich alpine grasslands. The males fly where flowers are most abundant, along mountain streams, for example. From a perch on a bush or tall plant, they also defend their territory. The females meanwhile are often found on warm, dry patches near bushes, where they lay their eggs one by one on the rockroses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum</span> spp.), preferring the smaller plants. The small caterpillar lives hidden in a spun leaf, while caterpillars of later stages spin two leaves together and finally, make a larger shelter from several leaves. The Warren's Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173243	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173243	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173244	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173244	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Island of Gran Canaria. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173244	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on dry open grassland with some bushes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphorbia </span>species. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173244	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173244	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173245	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173245	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs from France to Slovenia: in the east of France, in the northern part of the Massif Central; in the Jura; in the Alps from the French Alps to the Karavanke Mountains. in Austria, and Julian Alps in Slovenia. Found at altitudes from 800-2,900 m although mostly between1,400-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173245	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Alpine Heath is mostly found on open, sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on grasslands with scattered bushes and trees. It can occur in high numbers in some places. The female lays its eggs, mostly one by one, on grass stalks. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate at the beginning of the summer, the pupa hanging from a plant, usually close to the ground. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%).	eng
173245	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173245	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173246	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173246	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in several mountainous regions in South and Central Europe: the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, the Alps (French, central Swiss, East Italian, Bavarian, Austrian and Julian Alps) and in the Balkans from western Croatia to the north of Greece. Mostly found at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes 300-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173246	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Bright-eyed Ringlet is often found on damp to wet grasslands, sometimes with lots of sedges in the vegetation. However, it also occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. The grass in some of these habitats may be quite tall. Several different foodplants are known, including sedges (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex </span>spp.), rushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Juncus </span>spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Molinea caerulea</span>), Quaking Grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Briza media</span>), Red Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca rubra</span>) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars take one or two years to develop, depending on the altitude of the breeding ground. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (62%), heath and scrub (18%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
173246	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173246	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173247	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be undertaken to safeguard the species. More research on distribution and ecology is needed.	eng
173247	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to Portugal and Spain (south of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees), between 600–1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173247	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Panoptes Blue resembles the Baton Blue very closely. It is also found in dry, scrubby and flower-rich places. The foodplants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus zygis</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">T. vulgaris </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">T. mastichina</span>. The species has one generation a year and the habitat can be described as low scrub with <span style="font-style: italic;">Salvia</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Rosmarinus </span>and open areas within sclerophyllous woodlands. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173247	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	An abundant species throughout its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6–30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173247	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species might be susceptible to climate change in the long term.	eng
173248	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173248	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Swiss Alps, central Italian Alps, Allgäuer Alps in Germany and Alps of Austrian Tirol. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173248	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Swiss Brassy Ringlet occurs in woodland clearings on grassy, rocky slopes and on screes. The caterpillars feed on different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>). The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small. They develop further the following spring, pupating sometime between June and August. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%).	eng
173248	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173248	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173249	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173249	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173249	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Indian Red Admiral is a butterfly species typical of laurel forests, but it is also found in man-made types of habitat, such as gardens and parks. The female deposits the eggs singly on <span style="font-style: italic;">Urtica morifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Parietaria </span>sp. Plants growing in shaded conditions are preferred to those growing in the sun. The caterpillars stays in a shelter made by a rolled-up leaf of its foodplant, where it also pupates. The Indian Red Admiral can be seen throughout the year because it has no diapause and produces many generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Habitats: agricultural land and artificial landscapes (50%), scrub and grassland (50%).	eng
173249	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to Madeira and the Canary Islands.	eng
173249	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173250	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173250	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in the Cantabrian Mountains (Picos de Europa), Sierra de la Demanda and the Pyrenees. Found between altitudes of 1,700-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173250	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The dark-coloured Lefèbvre’s Ringlet is mostly found on open, rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, often on calcareous soil. Various fescues and meadow-grasses are used as foodplant, such as Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">F. paniculata</span>, Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa alpina</span>) and Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. pratensis</span>). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (66%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).	eng
173250	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173250	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173251	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173251	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the eastern part of the Alps: in Switzerland only in extreme east (Engadin), the eastern and central Italian Alps and in Austria as far as the Gurktaler Alps. Its elevational range is from 2,000-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173251	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This tiny, rather dark Fritillary, with its faded markings, always looks as though it has been worn by much flying. The Little Fritillary occurs above the tree-line on alpine meadows with a short vegetation. They have a rapid, zigzagging flight. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the leaves of Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>). Because the breeding grounds are at such high altitudes and the growing season is so short, the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop and are more numerous in some years than others. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173251	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173251	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173252	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173252	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs commonly on the Greek islands Chios and Inousses. Its elevational range is from sea level to 800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173252	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Meadow Brown can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes and near agricultural land. The butterflies are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).	eng
173252	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Where it occurs, it is rather common.	eng
173252	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173253	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Croatia, Poland and Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173253	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in Europe, in several mountainous regions: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Alps (from France to Austria and Slovenia), the Jura, Tatra, Fatra (Czech Republic), Carpathians and in the Balkans, the Dinarian Alps, Stara Planina (Romania), Rila Mountains (Bulgaria) and the mountains of FYR of Macedonia and Albania. 900-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173253	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Water Ringlet is found especially on flower-rich grasslands, rocky, grassy slopes and near woodland. The female usually deposits her eggs close to the ground, on dry stalks of grass. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">F. quadriflora</span> and various meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar and pupate in June or July of the following year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (18%), heath and scrub (13%), screes (9%).	eng
173253	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173253	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173254	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173254	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in almost all of Europe. However, in Scandinavia, Britain, Ireland and the Baltic States it is largely restricted to coastal areas. Absent from some parts of west France and large parts of Greece, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, south of Bulgaria and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173254	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grayling is found in dry, infertile habitats, occurring on poor, dry grasslands, dry heaths and in dunes along the coast. The males and females meet each other above a solitary tree in a wide open landscape, such as a pine on heathland or on bare patches of ground in dune areas. The female lays its eggs on various fine-leaved grasses, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), bents (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrostis </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). Walking over the bare ground, it approaches a grass tussock and deposits an egg on a withered grass blade a few centimetres above the ground. The caterpillar grows very slowly, feeding mostly at night. It hibernates deep down in a grass tussock. When it is ready to pupate, it spins a kind of cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. The Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), coniferous woodland (10%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (10%), heath and scrub (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).	eng
173254	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Slovenia, the Netherlands, United Kingdom. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173254	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173255	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173255	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the southeast of France (Lozère, Provence, Alps), north and northeast of Spain and Italy (Westwen Italian Alps and Apennines). Found at altitudes 500-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173255	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This grizzled skipper likes flower-rich, grassy vegetation. It occurs on sub-alpine and alpine grasslands as well as on damp, sometimes rough, grassy vegetation. Various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.) are used as foodplant, including Tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. erecta</span>), Silverweed (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. anserina</span>), Spring Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. tabernaemontani</span>) and Creeping Cinquefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. reptans</span>). <span style="font-style: italic;">Helianthemum </span>spp. have been recorded as foodplant in France. This butterfly hibernates in the larval stage and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%).	eng
173255	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173255	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173256	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173256	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Alps and Pyrenees. Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,700 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173256	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Central Europe, Glandon Blues are found up to the snow-line on grassy vegetation, where the foodplants grow on open patches, such as on scree slopes and beside streams. On calcareous soils, <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace chamaejasme </span>is used and on non-calcareous soils, the caterpillars feed on<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. obtusifolia</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vitaliana primuliflora</span>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and sometimes the flowers of the foodplants. The Glandon Blue hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: Alpine and subalpine grasslands (61%), screes (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).	eng
173256	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173256	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173257	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
173257	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a scattered distribution across Spain, particularly in the east: from the south  (vicinity of Granada and Murcia), via central Spain (area of Sierra de Guadarrama, surroundings of Cuenca and Teruel) to the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts. It occurs between 200-2,100 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173257	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mother-of-pearl Blue occurs in flower-rich grasslands and on warm, dry chalk rocks with scattered patches of grassy vegetation and  occasional bushes. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Kidney-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthyllis vulneraria</span>), seeming to prefer smaller plants. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and after feeding and growing further, they pupate at the end of the spring on the ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the species <span style="font-style: italic;">Tapinoma nigerrimum</span>. The Mother-of-pearl Blue has one generation a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), inland cliff sand exposed rocks (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).	eng
173257	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173257	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Direct short-term threats come from large scale wood plantations (Eucalyptus). In the longer term this species might become threatened because of climate change.	eng
173258	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173258	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in the mountains of central Austria (in an area of approximately 4,000 km²) from Mallnitz to the Saualpe in Carinthia. It occurs mostly between 1,600-1,900 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173258	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The White Speck Ringlet owes its name to the row of small white spots on the underside of the hind-wings of both the males and females. This <span style="font-style: italic;">Erebia </span>is mostly found near the tree-line on flower-rich grasslands with scattered trees, or along sunny edges of woods. Foodplants are various grasses, especially Tufted Hair-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Deschampsia cespitosa</span>). It  probably takes two years to develop from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173258	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173258	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Some populations are threatened by the abandonment of Alpine pastures. Furthermore, building activities related to ski tourism may harm the remaining populations.	eng
173259	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173259	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally between 2,200-2,600 m elevation in a limited part of the Alps: in  southeastern Switzerland (Engadin and Ticino Alps) and in  neighbouring parts of the Italian and Austrian Alps.  This is a European endemic species.	eng
173259	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Even before it settles, the Yellow-banded Ringlet can be recognized by the conspicuous yellowish band on the underside of the hind-wing. The butterflies occur above the tree-line on steep, sunny slopes. They can often be seen taking nectar in grasslands with rather tall, flower-rich vegetation. However, females lay their eggs in shorter, grassy area, settling low down in the vegetation and releasing eggs one by one onto the ground. The caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and go into hibernation twice. Habitats include alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173259	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173259	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a restricted global range. Although the species is reported to be declining in Switzerland, no direct threats are known.	eng
173260	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173260	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Eolian Islands of Italy: Volcano and Panarea. It occurs from sea level to 500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173260	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eolian Grayling replaces the Grayling (<span style="font-style: italic;">H. semele</span>) on the Eolian Islands in Italy, where it is a common and widespread species. Its ecology resembles that of the Grayling. It occurs in open places on rocky slopes and gullies, often close to scrub, but it may also be found in gardens and open woods. The eggs are deposited on many grass species. The Eolian Grayling is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173260	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eolian Grayling is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Italy.	eng
173260	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a restricted range on a few small islands.	eng
173261	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173261	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the north of Portugal, in some mountainous areas in north and central Spain (including Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Gredos, Sierra de Guadarrama and Cantabrian Mountains), the Pyrenees, the Alps of France, south of Switzerland and Italy and of the Balkans in Croatia, south of Bosnia and Albania. Its elevational range is 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173261	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Alps, de Prunner’s Ringlet is found on very dry grasslands with scattered rocks, whereas more to the south it occurs in clearings in woods growing on rocky ground, in Spain in clearings in pine forests on limestone. Its foodplants are Sheep’s-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), Smooth Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa pratensis</span>), Alpine Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. alpina</span>) and Feather-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Stipa pinnata</span>). It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (55%), mesophile grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%).	eng
173261	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in mountainous areas of Europe.	eng
173261	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173262	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173262	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in Europe. Found in Spain (eastern coast and southern foothills of the Pyrenees), France from the Eastern Pyrenees via the Provence as far as the Alps and northwards via Ardèche to the Jura and northwestern Italy in coastal areas as far as North Tuscany. Found at altitudes from 0-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173262	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Provence Chalkhill Blue occurs on dry, calcareous soils covered with a flower-rich grassy vegetation, often with scattered bushes. Eggs are laid on Horseshoe-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>). The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <span style="font-style: italic;">Plagiolepis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster</span>. The Provence Chalkhill Blue has two generations a year and the butterflies can be seen as late as October. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%).	eng
173262	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
173262	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173263	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173263	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mountain Clouded Yellow occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees and Alps. It occurs between 900-2,500 m elevation in the Alps and 1,500-2,800 m in Spain. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173263	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mountain Clouded Yellow has its breeding ground in flower-rich alpine meadows. Although they are quick, strong flyers, they do not migrate and do not leave their habitat as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hyale</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">C. croceus</span> do. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplants, including Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>), White Clover (<span style="font-style: italic;">Trifolium repens</span>), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lotus corniculatus</span>) and vetches (<span style="font-style: italic;">Vicia </span>spp.). This butterfly species usually  has one generation a year, but in some years there is a partial second generation. The caterpillars hibernate after their second moult. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%).	eng
173263	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173263	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species shows a decline in part of its European range, but direct threats are unknown. As it is a species from alpine meadows, it could become threatened by changes in agricultural practices or climate change.	eng
173264	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173264	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Scattered occurrence in the Alps: central Switzerland (only near Grindelwald), northeast of Italy (in two widely separated areas, Val di Vizze and Monte Peralba in the Carnic Alps) and Austria (from the Brenner Pass to the Niedere Tauern. Found at altitudes between 2,100-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173264	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	De Lesse’s Brassy Ringlet occurs above the tree-line on sunny, rocky, steep open slopes with patches of grassy vegetation. The caterpillars are found on <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca quadriflora</span> and take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).	eng
173264	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173264	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173265	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173265	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in eastern Spain in the mountains near Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara (such as the Sierra de Albarracin). Its elevational range is 1,000-1,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173265	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Zapater’s Ringlet is found in clearings in pinewood; these sometimes small clearings have grassy vegetation and shrubs. It usually occurs on limestone. The butterflies often visit thyme for nectar. Different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.) are used as foodplants. This butterfly is single-brooded and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).	eng
173265	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173265	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173266	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173266	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Island of Fuerteventura. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173266	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Green-striped White occurs in places that have been abandoned after cultivation. The larval foodplant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium erysomoides</span>, must be available in sufficient quantity. It has two generations a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173266	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173266	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173267	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology.	eng
173267	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only occurs in central Spain in the vicinity of Teruel, Cuenca and Guadalajara, particularly in the Montes Universales. Found at altitudes from 900-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173267	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Chalkhill Blue is always found on calcareous soil and occurs on short vegetation in sheltered hollows in clearings in coniferous forests. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of Horseshoe Vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Hippocrepis comosa</span>). This butterfly species is single-brooded. It hibernates as an egg or as a very young caterpillar of the first larval instar. Feeding starts only in spring after  hibernation. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173267	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Central Spain.	eng
173267	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although a rare endemic, this species is not believed to face major threats.	eng
173268	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173268	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs very locally in many mountainous areas in Spain (including the Sierra Nevada, S. de Guadarrama, S. de Gredos, Cantabrian Mts) and the Pyrenees (Ordesa) and possibly in France (Hautes Pyrénées). Found at altitudes from 800-3,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173268	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Argus is found in alpine and sub-alpine grasslands, on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and on scree slopes with scanty plant growth. In the Sierra Nevada, it occurs above 2,000 m on rocky plains of dark-coloured slate with a low-growing vegetation. The eggs are laid on different species of storksbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">Erodium </span>spp.). The caterpillars eat the leaves and hibernate when still small. They are attended by various ant species. The Spanish Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), screes (25%).	eng
173268	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173268	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173269	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173269	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs very locally in Southern Europe: Spain (Picos de Europa in Cantabrian Mountains.) and France (central Pyrenees, Gavarnie, Tourmalet and Cauterets). Found at altitudes from 1,500-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173269	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Gavarine Blue occurs on open alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on bare, rocky slopes where the foodplants grow on narrow ledges or in crevices. Often, the soil is calcareous and the rocks are limestone. The most important foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Androsace villosa</span>, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (36%), mesophile grasslands (27%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (18%), screes (18%).	eng
173269	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173269	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173270	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173270	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in France in the Alps and foothills, in Switzerland in Wallis and Engadin, in Austria in Tirol and in Italy in the Alps and central Apennines. Its elevational range is 1,200-2,600 m, mostly higher than 1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173270	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grisons Fritillary is a small Fritillary that breeds on flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and on sunny, grassy slopes. The adult butterflies visit mostly low plants for nectar and the males are also seen on damp patches, excrement and dead animals. The female lays its eggs in clusters on the foodplant. The caterpillars have been found on Alpine Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago alpina</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Achillea </span>species, but Spring Gentian (<span style="font-style: italic;">Gentiana verna</span>) and Stemless Trumpet Gentian (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. acaulis</span>) are also named as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year, the pupa usually hanging from a stone. However, at higher altitudes, development is slower, taking nearly two years and they hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (100%).	eng
173270	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is often abundant within its range. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173270	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173271	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed urgently on the distribution and  ecology of the species . This will make clear what management is needed for the last populations. First indications are that it is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis et al., 2007). Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed and strictly protected. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Greece, the species only occurs in protected areas but these do not always seem to be effective at stopping habitat destruction.	eng
173271	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the Rhodopi mountains. Most of its  range is in Bulgaria, but it is known from a single locality in Greece. Its area of occurrence (AOO) is estimated to be 16 km² (12 km² in Bulgaria, 4 km² in Greece). It occurs between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173271	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs on dry, rocky, often steep places in calcareous areas. The hostplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis alba</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fabaceae</span>) (Lafranchis et al. 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173271	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat in the border area of Bulgaria and Greece. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173271	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a rare European endemic with a very restricted range. The remaining populations are threatened by abandonment, causing the open habitats to disappear and shrubs to invade. The Greek population has been almost destroyed by a quarry.	eng
173272	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173272	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is reported from all Canary Islands, except Lanzarote and Fuerteventura (Wiemers 1995). This is a European endemic species.	eng
173272	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymelicus christi&#160; </span>has two or three generations per year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173272	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173272	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173273	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	On Mt. Falakró (northeastern Greece), the number of sheep has dramatically decreased since 2000 and been replaced with cattle. This has led to the expansion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis </span>spp. in the extensive sub-alpine grasslands, which could be favourable for this butterfly species. However, much more research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this butterfly. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be closely monitored, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173273	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is only known from Mt. Falakró and its immediate surroundings in the northwest of Greece (Coutsis & De Prins, 2005). This is a European endemic species.	eng
173273	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in low-intensity grazed or recently abandoned clearings and bushy grasslands with sparse trees. The main host plants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis </span>spp., and probably <span style="font-style: italic;">O. ebenoides </span>(Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2005). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173273	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173273	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is a rare endemic, and not much is known about threats. The species is probably sensitive to overgrazing by sheep (Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2005).	eng
173274	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173274	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in central and east Crete. Found at altitudes from 1,300-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173274	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cretan Argus occurs on rocky ground where there are bushes and a plentiful supply of milk-vetch (<span style="font-style: italic;">Astragalus </span>spp.), the caterpillars’ foodplant. Although it only occurs locally, sometimes large numbers can be seen flying around. The butterflies fly rapidly, often staying close to the foodplants. When they settle on the ground, with their wings closed, they are hardly noticeable. The Cretan Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
173274	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173274	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173275	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173275	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Spain in the Picos de Europa, in the French and Spanish Pyrenees from Pto de Somport to the Col du Tourmalet, Pto de Benasque and Pic Carlit. Further in France, in the Massif Central on the Plomb du Cantal and Mont Dore, locally in the Maritime Alps and from NE Isère to Haute-Savoie and the Vosges. From the Central Alps to the Julian Alps, Tatra and Fatra (Slovakia), Carpathians (Romania) and on the Durmitor (Montenegro). It is also found in Bosnia, on Vlasic Pl., Vranica Pl. and Jahorina Pl. In the sub-alpine zone, preferably found at altitudes between 1,200-1,900 m, occasionally 2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173275	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Yellow-spotted Ringlet is a species of cool and cold conditions. Above the tree-line it occurs on open mountain meadows and below it inhabits damp, flower-rich grasslands and woodland glades. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the blades of various grasses, such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and cat’s-tails (<span style="font-style: italic;">Phleum </span>spp.). It hibernates twice, the first time as an egg or a tiny caterpillar, without having fed at all. During the next summer, the caterpillar develops as far as the penultimate stage and then hibernates again. It pupates in the following summer. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (68%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), coniferous woodland (6%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (6%).	eng
173275	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania, Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173275	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173276	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173276	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in central Portugal, Spain (except the extreme Northeast), southeast of France (from Pyrenees to the Alps), adjacent part of Italian Alps and central Italy. Its elevational range is 0-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173276	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly inhabits warm, dry places with flower-rich, grassy vegetation and scattered bushes. Eggs are laid one by one on the flowerbuds of various crucifers, such as the buckler mustards <span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella laevigata</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">B. auriculata</span>, London Rocket (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium irio</span>) and Hedge Mustard (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. officinale</span>). The caterpillars feed mainly on ovaries, but at times are also cannibalistic. This species hibernates as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), phrygana (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (8%), inland sand-dunes (8%).	eng
173276	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173276	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173277	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173277	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, in France, south and central Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic, western Austria and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173277	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Baton Blue can be found on dry, grassy and flower-rich vegetation, especially on warm patches. They are often seen on flowers, drinking nectar. The females lay their eggs on the flowers and leaf stalks of various species of thyme (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thymus </span>spp.), savory (<span style="font-style: italic;">Satureja </span>spp.), lavender (<span style="font-style: italic;">Lavandula </span>spp.) and mint (<span style="font-style: italic;">Mentha </span>spp.). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and developing seeds of the foodplant. They are attended by <span style="font-style: italic;">Myrmica scabrinodis </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius alienus</span> ants, but workers from other ant species may visit them, too. The Baton Blue passes the winter as a caterpillar or a pupa and has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (22%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), phrygana (5%).	eng
173277	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Poland. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173277	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173278	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level	eng
173278	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Alps from French Alps to Hohe Tauern in Austria and Dolomites in Italy. It is only found in the southern part of the Alps in Switzerland, it is also present in central Italy and is very rarely in Bulgaria (Stara Mountains.) and Serbia. Found at altitudes between 900-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173278	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Almond-eyed Ringlet is found on sub-alpine grasslands and on, sometimes damp, grasslands, in woodland clearings or in the shelter of woods. The butterflies can often be seen on flowers, drinking nectar. On warm days, the males congregate to drink on damp patches. In the Alps, the caterpillars feed on Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>). They hibernate when half-grown and pupate at the end of the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).	eng
173278	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173278	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173279	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173279	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to Cyprus. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173279	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cyprus Grayling is a very common endemic butterfly species in Cyprus, emerging in April but dispersing to higher altitudes by early summer. Large numbers congregate in the mountains during the summer months, returning to coastal regions in autumn (John and Parker 2002). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173279	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Cyprus.	eng
173279	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173280	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The species should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173280	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast France (from Languedoc to Provence and the French Alps) and Spain (in the foothills of the eastern Pyrenees and in mountainous areas in the centre, near Guadalajara, Cuenca and Teruel). In France, it occurs between 450-1,500 m elevation, in Spain 900-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173280	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spring Ringlet appears in the early spring in grassy, rocky clearings in open woodland. The Spanish populations in the Montes Universales occur in clearings or on level ground in light pinewoods on calcareous soil, on short, grassy vegetation with low shrubs and scattered rocks. The main foodplant is Sheep's-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>), but other fescues and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>species) have also been named as foodplants. The Spring Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
173280	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173280	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Abandonment of semi-natural grasslands is a threat to this butterfly. Furthermore in the long term climate change might have a large impact on this species.	eng
173281	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173281	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Heath is restricted to a small area of the Balkans, between 800-2,000 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173281	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is local in grassy woodland clearings. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173281	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173281	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a limited global range and only occurs in a few countries in the Balkan. The ecology and habitat requirements are largely unknown. This butterfly is probably threatened by abandonment.	eng
173282	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173282	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in central Portugal (Serra da Estrela), almost all of Spain (except the northern coast and northwest part), in the southeast of France (from the Eastern Pyrenees to Auvergne and the Alps) and in the bordering part of the Italian Alps. Its elevational range is 100-2,500m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173282	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Black Satyr can be found on grassy vegetation, rocky slopes and in scrub. The caterpillars feed on various grasses, such as fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.), false-bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium </span>spp.) and bromes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus </span>spp.). They hibernate and then pupate on the ground at the end of the spring in May to June. The Black Satyr is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (14%).	eng
173282	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
173282	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173283	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Slovakia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173283	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas in the Alps, the Tatra and the Carpathians. Found at altitudes between 1,000-2,500 m, mostly 1,400-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173283	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Ringlet owes its rather odd name to the absence of eye-spots on both surfaces of the wings. The Blind Ringlet occurs both on dry and damp grasslands, especially where the vegetation is tall and in grassy places at the edge of woodland. Above the tree-line, they occur mainly on dry vegetation. They have various foodplants, depending on the habitat. In dry places, the caterpillars can be found on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>), <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca quadriflora </span>and Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. ovina</span>) and in damper places in the shade on Red Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">F. rubra</span>), Glaucous Sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex flacca</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. ferruginea</span>. The caterpillar hibernates twice, pupating at the end of May between spun grass stalks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (87%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%).	eng
173283	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173283	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173284	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173284	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in several separate areas: in Spain (Cantabrian Mountains., Sierra de la Demanda, Sierra de Gistral (Lugo), Sierra de Cebollera), the Pyrenees, Andorra, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, Auvergne and Vosges), the whole alpine area from France to Slovenia, Czech Republic (Sudeten), Slovakia and Poland (Tatra), Romania (Carpathians, Retezat Mountains), Serbia, FYR of Macedonia (Sar Planina, Jakupica Planina, Pelister Massif), Albania, northwest Greece (Varnous Mountains), northwest England (Cumbrian Mountains), Scotland (Perthshire). In the Alps 1,200-2,400 m, in England and Scotland above 500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173284	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mountain Ringlet inhabits mountainous areas that are snow-covered in winter. It is found on damp grasslands and rough vegetation, often in the shelter of a slope or woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on various grasses and sedges, including fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and Heath-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Danthonia decumbens</span>). The caterpillar hibernates twice. It completes the first larval instar before hibernating the first time. By the end of the summer it reaches the fourth instar before hibernating again. The following year, it pupates in summer and the butterfly emerges. The Mountain Ringlet is a very variable butterfly with many local and regional sub-species and forms. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (64%), heath and scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).	eng
173284	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Republic of Ireland and Ukraine. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Serbia, United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173284	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173285	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes 2 and 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Austria, none of the populations are in Natura 2,000 areas.	eng
173285	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in the Alps in the border region of Italy, Slovenia and Austria (Venetian Alps, Julian Alps and Karavanke Mountains.). Found at altitudes between  1,350-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173285	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lorkovic’s Brassy Ringlet inhabits southern exposed slopes with alpine grassland interspersed with rocks. These butterflies are only active when the sun is shining. They fly close to the ground, visiting flowers from time to time and spend much of their time on rocks, resting. The female deposits her eggs on dry grass stalks, just above the ground. The caterpillars feed on Mat-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Nardus stricta</span>) and on different fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), screes (25%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (25%).	eng
173285	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173285	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173286	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the ecological requirements is needed. As far as is known now, no specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173286	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Island of Tenerife. Its elevational range is above 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173286	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> The species occurs in the Canades des Teide at altitudes of 2,000 m and higher. The larval foodplant is <span style="font-style: italic;">Descurainia bourgeana</span>. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173286	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173286	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although a rare endemic, this species is not believed to face major threats.	eng
173287	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173287	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Confined to Crete and found at elevations of up to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173287	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cretan Grayling is found on dry, scrubby vegetation, often with sparse trees and also in olive groves. It has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
173287	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas, but common in Crete.	eng
173287	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173288	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173288	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs on Iberian Peninsula (but absent from the Spanish northern coast and most of the southwest) and in France (along the Mediterranean from the Pyrenees to Rhône Valley and as an isolated population in the vicinity of Montauban). Its elevational range is from sea level to 2,000 m, sometimes 2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173288	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Iberian Marbled White occurs in flower-rich, dry to damp grasslands, near dry scrub and along woodland edges and hedgerows. Grasses such as Annual Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa annua</span>), Meadow Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca pratensis</span>), Compact Brome (<span style="font-style: italic;">Bromus madritensis</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Brachypodium retusum </span>are used as foodplants. This species is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), scrub and grassland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), screes (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%).	eng
173288	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173288	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173289	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173289	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southeast of Russia and the Crimea (Ukraine), maybe also in the east of Ukraine. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173289	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found on steppes, dry grassy slopes, stony and rocky places, clearings and glades in mountain forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). On the Crimea hostplants are <span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca</span> spp. and other <span style="font-style: italic;">Poaceae </span>(http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173289	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173289	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173290	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
173290	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Blue Argus occurs in the southeast of Europe from the mountains on the coast of Croatia, via Serbia, to the mountains of southwest Bulgaria and scattered in Greece as far as the Peloponnesos. It occurs between 400–2,400 m elevation. It is also found in Turkey and Iran.	eng
173290	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Blue Argus is a species of flower-rich grasslands and rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. Sometimes, they are also seen on scrub or in woodland clearings. This butterfly is often found on calcareous soil. Various species of cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">Geranium </span>spp.) are used as food plants, including <span style="font-style: italic;">G. asphodeloides</span>, Bloody Cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. sanguineum</span>) and Rock Cranesbill (<span style="font-style: italic;">G. macrorrhizum</span>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are attended to by ants. Depending on the altitude, the Blue Argus has one to three generations a year. Habitats include dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mesophile grasslands (16%), screes (16%).	eng
173290	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient  good quality habitat. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173290	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species has a restricted global range. Main threats come from agricultural activities, abandonment and fires causing habitat destruction.	eng
173291	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173291	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in all mountainous areas of Corsica and Sardinia. On Corsica, common in the central mountains and on the mountain l'Incudine, on Sardinia in Monti del Gennargentu. Found at altitudes from 800-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173291	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Corsican Fritillary is a mountain butterfly, found on grassy vegetation in clearings in deciduous woods. The small caterpillars hatch out in spring and begin to feed on violets, preferring plants growing under juniper bushes. Among the foodplants mentioned in the literature are various <span style="font-style: italic;">Viola </span>species, such as Wild Pansy (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. tricolor</span>), Yellow Wood Violet (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. biflora</span>), Pale Wood Violet (<span style="font-style: italic;">V. reichenbachiana</span>) and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. corsica</span>. The Corsican Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%).	eng
173291	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173291	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173292	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Research is needed on its ecology and habitat requirements.	eng
173292	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only on Cyprus. Its elevational range is from sea level to 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173292	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Meadow Brown is often found in shady places, such as in woods, orchards and among scrubby vegetation and it is also occurs on more open sites. These butterflies have a rapid, linear flight. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although exactly which species is not known. There is one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173292	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173292	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173293	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173293	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only in Bulgaria (in Stara Planina., Rila and Pirin Mountains) and Serbia. Found at altitudes of 1,800-2,600 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173293	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Erebia occurs in sub-alpine and alpine grasslands, often near woodland. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (75%), mixed woodland (25%).	eng
173293	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173293	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173294	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Spain, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173294	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in Spain in the Sierra Nevada (between altitudes of 1,800-2,700 m). This is a European endemic species.	eng
173294	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Brassy Ringlet inhabits alpine grasslands, grassy slopes with bushes, grassy rocky slopes and screes on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. This species only occurs locally, but sometimes in large numbers. Its foodplants are various fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.) and meadow-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa </span>spp.). The caterpillars hibernate, pupating the following spring. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), screes (33%).	eng
173294	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173294	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173295	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
173295	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue occurs locally in mountains in northern Greece and rarely in bordering mountainous area of southern Bulgaria. It occurs mostly between 1,500-2,000 m, sometimes at lower altitudes. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173295	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Higgins’s Anomalous Blue is a mountain butterfly, found above the tree-line on flower-rich, calcareous grasslands. The males tend to roam outside their usual habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis montana</span> ssp. <span style="font-style: italic;">scardica</span>, a sainfoin that only grows in the Balkans, is used as foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate when they are still small, the following spring feeding on the young leaves of the sainfoin (an Eurasian perennial herb). They are often found with ants. Higgins’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (33%), screes (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).	eng
173295	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173295	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Probably threatened by intensified grazing, abandonment and wildfires, but much is still unknown.	eng
173296	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs only in protected areas in Croatia. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173296	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in Italy very locally in the Apennines and Mount Baldo in the Alps. In southeast Europe, it is present in several mountainous areas (from the Croatian coastal mountains, Bosnia, south of Serbia and FYR of Macedonia to southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece).&#160; Found at altitudes between 800-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173296	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Large Heath occurs mainly on grasslands above the tree-line. It is sometimes found in clearings in damp woodland. The caterpillars feed on fescues (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca </span>spp.), Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>), cotton-grasses (<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriophorum </span>spp.), White Beak-sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Rhynchospora alba</span>) and Beaked Sedge (<span style="font-style: italic;">Carex rostrata</span>). This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (41%), mesophile grasslands (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).	eng
173296	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173296	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173297	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173297	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the northwest part) and in the southeast of France from the east of the Pyrenees to the French Alps. Found at altitudes from 100-1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173297	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Purple Hairstreak occurs in damp, deciduous woods, on rough vegetation beside streams and rivers and in parkland. The butterflies spend most of their time in the top of ash trees, the larval foodplant and are difficult to see. However, when they leave the tree in search of nectar, drinking from flowers growing at the edge of the woods or on broad verges, they are more noticeable. They are especially fond of the flowers of the umbellifer <span style="font-style: italic;">Thapsia</span>. The female lays its eggs on several species of Ash, like <span style="font-style: italic;">Fraxinus excelsior</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">F. ornus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">F. angustifolia</span>. The eggs remain on the tree for the rest of the summer, autumn and winter. The small caterpillars that emerge in spring, feed on the flowers and fresh leaves of the foodplants. Ants of different species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Lasius </span>sometimes visit the caterpillars. They pupate in the leaf litter. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: alluvial and very wet forests and brush (33%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), water-fringe vegetation (16%).	eng
173297	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species in Southwest Europe.	eng
173297	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level in this part of its distribution.	eng
173298	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research to distribution and ecology is needed. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173298	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is endemic to Sardinia and Corsica, found from sea level to 1,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173298	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This beautiful blue butterfly only occurs on grassy vegetation close to shrubs and woodland edges on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The caterpillars probably feed on greenweed (<span style="font-style: italic;">Genista </span>spp.), but this needs further confirmation. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173298	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173298	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173299	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As this species has a restricted global range and is very rare, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173299	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to two locations on the Canary Island El Hierro, between 300-1,500 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173299	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, El Hierro, where it can be found on the very steep and grassy cliffs and the vineyards at the base of the cliffs. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173299	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a very local and rare European endemic, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on El Hierro, Canary Islands. It is not known how large the population is, but numbers might well be under 10,000 adults.	eng
173299	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to two locations on one island. It is threatened by the conversion of steep areas to vineyards and intensivation of vineyard management, including the use of insecticides.	eng
173300	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173300	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Crimea (Tuzov 2000, Gordunov 2001). This is a European endemic species.	eng
173300	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species is restricted to the Crimea where it can be found on rather large scree slopes. The butterflies are difficult to detect. The population density is low. In addition, they prefer to sit on the rock or stay perched on low growing plants rather than fly. They are very sedentary and always come back to particular micro-sites. These are often windy places. The eggs are deposited on the leaves of <span style="font-style: italic;">Hedysarum spp</span>.  There is one generation a year (Butterflies of Crimea website 2009). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173300	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173300	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A rare endemic, for which almost no information is available on the status and threats.	eng
173301	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173301	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the western Alps (in border region of France, Switzerland and Italy). In Spain restricted to the mountain areas in the North, but the exact distribution is poorly known. Its elevational range is above 450 m, mostly 1,200-2,400 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173301	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mountain Dappled White is locally common in flower-rich alpine and sub-alpine grasslands and on rocky slopes. The males fly quickly, whereas the females are rarely seen in flight. They lay their eggs singly on the flowerheads of various crucifers, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbarea </span>spp., buckler mustards (<span style="font-style: italic;">Biscutella </span>spp.), candytufts (<span style="font-style: italic;">Iberis </span>spp.) and rockets (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sisymbrium </span>spp.). The caterpillars are solitary and usually eat the ovaries of the plants, but they can also be cannibalistic. They pupate on rocks or in low-growing vegetation and pass the winter in this stage, sometimes remaining a pupa for more than one winter. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%).	eng
173301	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173301	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173302	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As little is known from this species, more research on the distribution and ecology is needed. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
173302	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Pirin Mountains, in the southwest of Bulgaria and the Phalakron, Menikion and Orvilos mountains in the north of Greece, between 800-1,800 m elevation. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173302	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Dils’ Grayling occurs on slopes with shrubs and small trees and on steep, rocky slopes. The female lays its eggs on grasses, often those growing in the shade in rocky crevices. It has one generation a year. Habitats: screes (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%).	eng
173302	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Dils’ Grayling is a very local species, restricted to few locations with good quality habitat.	eng
173302	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threat is probably abandonment of habitat, causing more trees and shrubs to invade. However, much is still unknown about this species.	eng
173303	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173303	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the Alps from the Maritime Alps to East Austria, at altitudes 800 - 2,400 m, but most populations occur at 1,600 – 2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173303	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Mountain Ringlet occurs in many different biotopes. It can be found on wet grasslands, pastures and meadows, on dry, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands in open woodland, on dry grasslands with bracken and above the tree-line on alpine grasslands. Because of the wide choice in biotope, this butterfly is common throughout the Alps. In the time up to hibernation, the caterpillars feed during the day. After hibernating, they are only active at night. They can be found on Wood Meadow-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Poa nemoralis</span>), Sweet Vernal-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Anthoxanthum odoratum</span>) and Sheep's Fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>). The development from egg to butterfly takes one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%).	eng
173303	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173303	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173304	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173304	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Restricted to the Canary Island Gran Canaria. Its elevational range is 400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173304	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Grayling is confined to one of the Canary Islands, Gran Canaria. It can be found rocky gullies surrounded by pine forest. It has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008).   Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173304	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands.	eng
173304	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173305	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173305	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only on the Greek island of Karpathos. Its elevational range is 300-750 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173305	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Karpathos Grayling is found on rocky slopes covered with open scrub and in clearings in coniferous woods, where the butterflies often rest on the trunks of trees. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
173305	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173305	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173306	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173306	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only occurs in northern Spain (from the Cantabrian Mountains to Catalonia). Found at altitudes from 600-1,800 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173306	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly used to be considered a sub-species of the Furry Blue (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. dolus</span>), but there is a clear difference in the number of chromosomes of each species. However, the life cycles and choice of biotope are the same. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifolia</span>). The caterpillars are frequently attended by ants. This butterfly hibernates when the caterpillar is still small. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).	eng
173306	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173306	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173307	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173307	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in western part of the Alps: French Alps (from the Drôme), northwest Italy and southwest and central Switzerland to Tessin Alps. Found at altitudes from 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173307	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Carline Skipper prefers dry, south-facing slopes with quite short vegetation. However, they can also be seen on damp grasslands and in very open larch woods. Large numbers can sometimes occur locally. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of various cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.). The caterpillar remains in the egg during the winter, emerging in spring. It then spins a shelter by attaching a leaf of the foodplant to the ground, in which it lives, hidden. It pupates close to the ground and has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%).	eng
173307	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173307	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173308	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173308	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only present on Tenerife, Canary Islands. Its elevational range is 1,400-2,000 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173308	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Canary Grayling is a widespread but local species in the central mountains of Tenerife. It occurs on sparsely vegetatied rocky gullies in pine forests. The species has one generation a year (Tolman and Lewington 2008). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173308	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas on Tenerife, Canary Islands.	eng
173308	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173309	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173309	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the southwest and south of Europe: from central France, south Switzerland and Austria down to Spain, Portugal and Italy. Found at altitudes from 0-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173309	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only the genitalia, both of the males and females, distinguish this butterfly from the Grizzled Skipper (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. malvae</span>). It can be found in a variety of damp and dry habitats, such as acid or calcareous grasslands, heathlands, bogs, rocky slopes and open scrub. Sometimes small areas of just some tens of square metres can be used for breeding. The caterpillars feed on several species of cinquefoils (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla </span>spp.), agrimony (<span style="font-style: italic;">Agrimonia </span>spp.) and strawberry (<span style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria </span>spp.) and especially on tormentil (<span style="font-style: italic;">Potentilla erecta</span>). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the larval foodplant and spin a cocoon at its base in which to pupate. This species has mostly two generations a year, but at higher altitudes it is only single-brooded. It passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), mesophile grasslands (13%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
173309	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173309	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173310	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173310	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in central and southern Spain from the Sierra de Cazorla in the south to the Iberian System in the North, always on calcareous substrate. Found at altitudes from 750 -1,900 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173310	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Oberthür’s Anomalous Blue occurs on dry, grassy slopes and in dry, often rocky places where short vegetation alternates with scrub. The female lays its eggs on the dry flower stalks of Sainfoin (<span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis viciifolia </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">O. argentea</span>). The caterpillars are attended by ants. This butterfly has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
173310	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173310	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173311	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is important to keep open dry clearings at montane-subalpine levels (Lafranchis <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2007). In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. Since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
173311	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the mountains of the north, west and south of Greece. It is also found in the south of Bulgaria (where it is rare). Found at altitudes from 400-2,000 m, mostly below 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173311	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grecian Anomalous Blue occurs on dry grassland, in dry scrub, on rocky slopes and also sometimes on woodland rides or in clearings in the woods. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of the sainfoin <span style="font-style: italic;">Onobrychis arenaria</span>. The caterpillars feed on the flower heads and are attended by various ant species, amongst others <span style="font-style: italic;">Camponotus gestroi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Crematogaster sordidula</span>. The Grecian Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (33%).	eng
173311	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173311	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173312	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173312	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs only on Cyprus.&#160; Found at altitudes from 300-1,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173312	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	At lower altitudes, this Blue is found in scrub, where <span style="font-style: italic;">Genista fasselata</span>, its probable foodplant, is growing. Above 1,000 m, these butterflies occur in clearings in pine woods. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
173312	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173312	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173313	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level.	eng
173313	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Scattered occurrence in the Balkans from Croatia to the southwest of Bulgaria and central Greece. Its elevational range is 0-1,300 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173313	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Green-veined White is very similar to the Green-veined White and the choice of biotope is almost the same. The butterflies are often found on vegetation along hedges and at the edges of woodland and also in woodland clearings. Eggs are laid on various crucifers. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (66%), coniferous woodland (16%), mixed woodland (16%).	eng
173313	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173313	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173314	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173314	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in many southeastern European mountainous regions: in the south of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, southwest and east of Serbia, north of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Romania (including the Carpathians), southwest and central Bulgaria and in Greece. Found at altitudes between 900-2,800 m, usually over 1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173314	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Black Ringlet can be found on rocky slopes with patches of grassy vegetation, in dry and sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and sometimes in clearings in coniferous woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground, often resting with wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on Sheeps-fescue (<span style="font-style: italic;">Festuca ovina</span>) and possibly other grasses. The Black Ringlet has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (30%), coniferous woodland (30%), screes (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%).	eng
173314	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173314	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173315	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173315	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Southwestern Europe. It occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, except south of Portugal; France, except the northeast; the Swiss Jura and Schaffhausen; the Ligurian and Cottian Alps in northwestern Italy and locally in the south of Germany. 400-2,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173315	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Meadow Fritillary occurs in both dry and moderately damp habitats in many kinds of open, grassy, flower-rich places near woodland. Plantains (<span style="font-style: italic;">Plantago </span>spp.) are the main foodplants, especially Ribwort Plantain (<span style="font-style: italic;">P. lanceolata</span>). The eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed and hibernate communally in a silken shelter, only separating in the last larval instar. They then look for a safe place to pupate, low down on the foodplant. The Meadow Fritillary usually has two generations a year, but only one in cooler breeding grounds. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%).	eng
173315	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Declines in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Switzerland  (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173315	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173316	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is in decline important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173316	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Occurs in the eastern Alps: from Ticino (Monte Generoso) in Switzerland and the Dolomites (Italy) to the Julian Alps (Slovenia) and northwards to the Allgäuer Alps (Germany) and Karwendel Mountains (Austria). Found at altitudes between 600-2,200 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173316	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Stygian Ringlet occurs on warm, steep, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and sometimes scattered bushes, often on limestone. Its foodplant is Blue Moor-grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Sesleria albicans</span>). In Switzerland, it takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. The tiny caterpillar goes into hibernation immediately after leaving the egg, only starting to feed the next spring. In autumn, they again hibernate, pupating in June or July of the following year. In other areas at lower altitudes, they can complete their life cycle in one year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), screes (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).	eng
173316	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong declines in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
173316	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173317	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at a European level. But since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
173317	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Only occurs on Corsica and Sardinia. Found at altitudes from 0-1,500 m. This is a European endemic species.	eng
173317	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly is the smallest of the European skippers; the wingspan of the males is only two centimetres across, that of the females slightly more. They can be found on grassy, flower-rich patches among scrub and rocks. It has two generations a year. This skipper used to be considered a sub-species of the Red-underwing Skipper (<span style="font-style: italic;">S. sertorius</span>) and resembles it closely in the way it lives. Habitats include sclerophyllous scrub (33%), phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%).	eng
173317	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
173317	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this is a European endemic with a restricted range, this species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
173319	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	More research is needed to evaluate this species where gaps in population trends occur within its range. More knowledge of its status and biology as an invasive species is required.<br/><br/>This species is found in the Marrawah Marine Biosphere Reserve (2007) in the UAE that is primarily set up to protect the Dugong.<br/><br/>It is protected in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within its range.<br/><br/>In United Arab Emirates, the implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts.&#160; This species is protected under the UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation) and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls. It is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve, and integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173319	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila stipulacea</em> is found from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea, down the coast of east Africa to Mozambique.  It occurs around most of Madagascar and around the islands of the west Indian Ocean. It is also reported from east India.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, <em>H. stipulacea</em> occurs from Egypt to southern Italy, and it may have been introduced through the Suez Canal.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean Sea, <em>H. stipulacea</em> has recently been collected in the West Indies on the islands of Grenada, Dominica, and St. Lucia and may have been introduced (Ruiz and Ballantine 2004, Willette and Ambrose 2009).	eng
173319	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Beds of <em>Halophila stipulacea</em> occur in the shallows (Jacobs 1985), but this species also occurs in much deeper water and has been recorded to depths greater than 50 m (Lipkin 1977). <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> stipulacea</em>, although scarce below 50 m, was collected by dredge off Cyprus from 145 m (Lipkin <em>et al</em>. 2003) and is the deepest seagrass reported worldwide (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). It grows in a wide range of environmental conditions, and in a variety of coastal substrates (Lipkin 1977, Jacobs 1985). This species has a much narrower ecological range in the eastern Mediterranean, being restricted to soft substrates only. These various characteristics contribute to its invasive potential in the Caribbean Sea (Ruiz and Ballantine 2004).<br/><br/>This species is a prolific seeder and is fast-growing, and therefore it can expand rapidly from small populations. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over (Malm 2006) and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Halophila</span><em> stipulacea</em> copes well with hypersalinity (up to 60 psu) and is euryhaline in nature (Lipkin 1975). In the Arabian Gulf, it tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 psu and temperatures of 10-39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> stipulacae</em> is an important food source for dugongs in the Indian Ocean, and also for green turtles throughout its range.	eng
173319	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila stipulacea</em> is common and can form dense stands. The overall population is thought to be stable or increasing.	eng
173319	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Threats to <em>Halophila stipulacea</em> include declines in water quality and it is sensitive to sedimentation and pollution. Seagrass beds in the northern Red Sea are threatened by the pollution caused by fish aquaculture. Locally, land reclamation is a threat, and large areas have been lost in the Arabian Gulf. Other local threats include coastal development, trawling activities, dredging and pollution.	eng
173320	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173320	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Phyllospadix torreyi</em> occurs in the Pacific from northern Vancouver Island on the west coast of Canada to the tip of Baja California and Mexico.	eng
173320	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Phyllospadix torreyi</em> is a colonial marine angiosperm that lives on turbulent rocky shores. Surfgrass exhibits a strongly female-biased sex ratio in flowering shoots throughout its distribution (Williams 1995). In the Pacific coast of North America it grows at greater depths and is generally more abundant on the exposed parts of the coast and even in tidal pools with sandy bottoms. It is also found in the macrophyte detritus layers in submarine canyons in southern and central California (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Surfgrasses (<em>Phyllospadix</em> spp.) are not found where sea surface temperatures exceed 21°C in winter or 27°C in the summer. Surfgrass has a low tolerance to higher temperatures which suggests that populations in Baja California Sur might be impacted by global climate change.&#160;<em>Phyllospadix</em><em> scouleri</em> is distributed higher in the lower intertidal and upper subtidal zones than <em>P. torreyi</em>.	eng
173320	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The population status of this species is thought to be stable.	eng
173320	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals and commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.&#160; <em>Phyllospadix</em><em> torreyi</em> is sensitive to desiccation (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 2002) as it lives in more shallow areas. It may also be more susceptible to climate change.	eng
173321	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
173321	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em> is endemic to Western Australia, from Cape Leeuwin to the western edge of the Great Australian Bight.	eng
173321	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, was not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.	eng
173321	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em> is locally dominant, but generally uncommon. There is no specific population trend information for <em>Posidonia kirkmanii</em>, but it is thought to be stable.	eng
173321	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Additional threats include pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173322	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for <em>Zostera chilensis</em>.<br/><br/>More research into possible other disjunct populations and clarification of the genetics and taxonomy is recommended.	eng
173322	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> is endemic to Chile (Kuo 2005). It has been found only in Herradura Bay (Philippi 1864), Salado Bay (Phillips <em>et al</em>. 1983) and Tongoy Bay (Gonzalez and Edding 1990).<em> Zostera chilensis</em> has a disjunct population and is now found only in one location in Chile. It has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
173322	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> is found in relatively protected shorelines on rocky sandy substrates (Kuo 2005). It grows between 1-7 m depth. There is little other information available on habitat and ecology for this species.	eng
173322	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera chilensis</em> has two (possibly only one) extremely small populations. Recent efforts to find one of the two populations has been unsuccessful (F. Short pers. comm. 2007). The population trend is decreasing, with a decline of an estimated 50% and the population is severely fragmented.	eng
173322	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	Any development in the coastal area of the distribution of <em>Zostera chilensis</em> is a major threat to this species. It lives in a relatively remote area, however any development could result in the very small area being destroyed.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> chilensis</em> has a disjunct distribution due to available habitat along the Chilean coastline.	eng
173323	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts, National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173323	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia polycarpa</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs in southern Western Australia and eastern South Australia.	eng
173323	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species occurs in inland saline wetlands (T. Carruthers pers. comm. 2008). <em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> and <em>R. polycarpa</em> have rapid development of the plant, early maturity, and a large amount of energy allocated to producing large numbers of small propagules (Brock 1983).	eng
173323	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no known population information for this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
173323	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Localized reduction of this species can be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments may also locally threaten this species.	eng
173324	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B., Zieman, J. & Kenworthy, W.J., 2007	This species is listed as a threatened species in the US Federal Register Volume 63 no. 177, 1998: 49035-4904.<br/><br/>Removal and destruction of seagrass in the Florida state parks is forbidden, and some areas limit boats with engines in order to decrease propeller scaring of the grass beds. There are also plans to decrease negative human impacts through educational efforts aimed at sports fishers and boaters.	eng
173324	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B., Zieman, J. & Kenworthy, W.J., 2007	<em>Halophila johnsonii</em> is endemic to Florida, USA. It is found from north of Sebastian Inlet to Biscayne Bay.	eng
173324	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B., Zieman, J. & Kenworthy, W.J., 2007	All members of the known population are female and ovules but no seeds have been found. An estuarine species, it is found in intertidal to shallow subtidal areas, mostly on sandy intertidal flats.  The distribution of this species is often discontinuous and patchy. This species is highly transient and plants are quick growing, reaching mature size in about two weeks with beds only persisting for a few months. (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Research shows high fragment viability suggesting high dependence on fragmentation as a means of dispersal. Data show that fragment viability is dependent on seasons with fragments being viable for up to four days during the spring months and up to eight days during the fall months. As only female plants have been observed, reproduction is most likely through fragmentation (Hall <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173324	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B., Zieman, J. & Kenworthy, W.J., 2007	The population of <em>Halophila johnsonii</em> has been fluctuating in abundance from 1994-2007 in the portion of its range where surveys have been conducted. There has been a recent report of an 18.5 km extension north of its known geographic range (Virnstein and Hall 2009).	eng
173324	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B., Zieman, J. & Kenworthy, W.J., 2007	<em>Halophila johnsonii</em> has a skewed sex ratio since all known individuals of the population are female and there is no known seed production. This species may be locally threatened by coastal development and pollution, and also by mechanical damage from recreational and commercial boats.	eng
173325	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for <em>H. euphlebia</em>.<br/><br/>Research is need on this species on taxonomy, population trends and threats.	eng
173325	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila euphlebia</em> is endemic to Japan. It occurs in the Ryukyu Islands and southeast Japan (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). There is a possibility that this species has been collected in the Philippines, and may be misidentified based on genetics as <em>H. ovalis</em> (Uchimura&#160; <em>et al</em>.  2006).	eng
173325	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila euphlebia</em> is most frequently encountered in the subtidal part of relatively calm coasts where it forms extensive beds on sand or mud (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is found growing in both shallow and deep waters, up to depths of 20 m.<br/><br/>Plants from the different localities are very similar in habitat, but display slight size and colour variations which may be correlated with differences in some environmental factors such as depth, salinity, temperature or light. Fruits are abundant in plants collected in May, June and July from Nakagusuku Bay (Uchimura <em>et al</em>. 2006). Male and female flowers form singly in separate plants at the bases of leaf pairs.	eng
173325	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is little population information for <em>H. euphlebia</em> and the trends are unknown.	eng
173325	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Specific threats are unknown for <em>Halophila euphlebia</em>. However in Japan, localized threats may include coastal development, land reclamation, water pollution and trawling (Green and Short 2003, Short <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
173326	conservation	Short, F.T., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for <em>H. sulawesii</em>. Research is recommended for the general biology, taxonomy and threats to this species, and additional field studies are needed to investigate its precise distribution and reproductive biology (Kuo 2007).	eng
173326	distribution	Short, F.T., 2008	<em>Halophila sulawesii</em> is known only from several reef islands of the Spermonde Archipelago in southwestern Sulawesi, Indonesia (Kuo 2007).	eng
173326	habitat	Short, F.T., 2008	<em>Halophila sulawesii</em> has a similar vegetative appearance as <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, and has been reported as "deep water <em>H. ovalis</em>" in the literature. However, <em>H. ovalis</em> is a dioecious plant while <em>H. sulawesii</em> is a monoecious one, a feature resembling <em>H. capricorni</em> Larkum, that is the presence of a single male or female flower in separate floral axils of the same rhizome (Kuo 2007).&#160; It is also a member of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila decipiens</span> complex.<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> sulawesii</em> is found on coral sand between 10 and 30 m and grows adjacent to corals <em>Seriatopora hystrix</em> and <em>Acropora</em> sp. and other seagrasses such as <em>Halophila decipiens</em> and <em>Halodule uninervis</em>.	eng
173326	population	Short, F.T., 2008	There is no population information for <em>Halophila sulawesii</em>, and the trends are unknown.	eng
173326	threats	Short, F.T., 2008	The major threats to <em>Halophila sulawesii</em> are unknown. Possible threats include the degradation of habitat due to sedimentation and siltation from coastal development.	eng
173327	conservation	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. It is found in some marine protected areas throughout its range. Monitoring of the population status is recommended for this species.	eng
173327	distribution	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halodule pinifolia</em> has a wide distribution in the Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, throughout the Gulf of Thailand and along the coast of Vietnam and southern China. It occurs throughout insular Southeast Asia northeast to the Northern Mariana Islands and southeast to the Fiji Islands, as well as across northern Australia. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from mid-Western Australia to the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, to the Andaman Sea and extending around the Bay of Bengal to the Coromandel Coast of India.	eng
173327	habitat	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> forms homogenous patches in intertidal places or occasionally intermixed with other seagrasses (Skelton and South 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> grows in sandy or muddy sand substrates from upper littoral to subtidal areas. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance. This species is can grow rapidly and is a fast coloniser. Often heavily epiphytised.	eng
173327	population	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> is a common species and relatively widespread. The trends in population are variable and most likely  declining overall. Populations can be affected by heavy grazing by dugong in Australia.	eng
173327	threats	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule pinifolia</span> is affected by a number of threats throughout its range. Coastal development is the most prominent threat. This species is also susceptible to increasing temperatures due to climate change as it is a shallow-living species. Other localized threats are trawling, reduced water quality, siltation and sedimentation and aquaculture.	eng
173328	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<strong style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is included in various conservation and management plans and programs across its range.<br/><br/>In the United Arab Emirates, implementation of the beginning of an effective management program that would start with baseline mapping, followed by periodic monitoring and mapping efforts. UNEP Regional Seas Programme, GCC (Gulf Cooperative Council), GAOCMAO (Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organisation), and other agreements which relate to environmental management and pollution controls (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Kenya, it is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve (Green and Short 2003).In Tanzania, it is within the implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives by IUCN including Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF), and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Australia, it cannot be damaged without permit in New South Whales and Queensland, Australia. The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. Protected in Australia by either Fisheries Act or National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Southeast Asia is protected in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds in Thailand with the highest species diversity&#160; (Green and Short 2003).</strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;"> The Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) prepared a draft Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management in Indonesia, and there are </strong><strong style="font-weight: normal;">SeagrassNet global monitoring locations in Puerto Galera, Philippines that are now protected (Green and Short 2003).</strong><br/><strong><br/></strong>In the western Pacific islands, recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas and the other concept of traditional or community management of these areas. NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<strong><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></strong>	eng
173328	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halodule uninervis</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, throughout the Gulf of Thailand and along the coast of Vietnam and southern China.  It occurs throughout insular Southeast Asia, northeast to the Northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia, and southeast to the Fiji Islands, as well as across northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Geographe Bay in Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and to the Andaman Sea and extending around the Bay of Bengal and around India to the Malabar Coast. It ranges from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea, south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173328	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is a sublittoral seagrass found from the mid-intertidal to a depth of 20 m.<span style="font-style: italic;"> Halodule uninervis</span> can grow in a range of different habitats. It is very common between 0-3 m in sublittoral lagoons and in front of reefs. It is very fast growing, colonizes rapidly and can flower prolifically. Some locations have very large seed banks.&#160; It can form dense meadows at some sites or is patchy and intermixed with other seagrass species (Skelton and South 2006), and is frequently observed on back reefs in association with larger algae (Jacobs and Dicks 1985). There is wide variability in leaf width, from 1.1-7 mm.<br/><br/>This species is&#160; euryhaline and can tolerate moderate disturbance (Birch and Birch 1984), and is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set (Green and Short 2003). It is considered a pioneer species, growing rapidly and surviving well in unstable and depositional environments in Eastern Australia (Green and Short 2003). It is also a pioneer species in Indonesia, usually forming monospecific beds on the inner reef flat or on steep sediment slopes in both the intertidal and subtidal zones and&#160; it has the highest density of all seagrass species in mixed (2,847 shoots/m²) as well in monospecific beds (14,762 shoots/m²) (Green and Short 2003). In Thailand, it grows in sandy or muddy sand substrates from the upper littoral to subtidal areas. This is the principal seagrass species in Kuwait, and extends along the coast of Saudi Arabia. In the Arabian Gulf, it tolerates extreme conditions with salinity varying from 38-70 ppt and temperatures of 10–39°C (inshore) and 19-33°C (offshore) (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>It is one of favoured foods of the Dugong and often heavily grazed.<br/><br/><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
173328	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule uninervis</span> is a very common species and has a wide distribution. Studies report the species is increasing in India, decreasing in Bangledesh and stable in east Africa and the Middle East with major fluctuations in population in Australia (<em></em>T.J.B. Carruthers pers. comm. 2007, Waycott <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Globally the overall population trend is most likely stable.	eng
173328	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is particularly susceptible to coastal development, but it comes back quickly if conditions improve. It can also be affected by siltation and sedimentation, including burial. Other threats include destruction caused from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, and disease (Green and Short 2003). In some areas of its range, it is also threatened by over-exploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material), use of fertilizer, oil spills and oil pollution, mining, upland clearing, destruction of mangrove forests, dredging, marina developments, eutrophication, siltation, and pollution. Also threatened by unsustainable fishing methods, illegal fisheries and fishing practices. Given its shallow water habitat, this species may also be threatened by climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature, and/or sea-level rise.	eng
173329	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Research on the distribution, taxonomy and population status are recommended.	eng
173329	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is found in the Caribbean in Yucatan (Mexico), Belize and Barbados.&#160;<em>Halodule</em><em> beaudettei</em> is also reported in the Indian Ocean from the northeast coast of Madagascar (Eiseman 1980).	eng
173329	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is found on a wide variety of substrata, from silty mud to coarse sand with varying amounts of mud (Phillips 1960). <br/><em><br/></em>	eng
173329	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	The population status of <em>Halodule beaudettei</em> is unknown.	eng
173329	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	Major threats to this species occur from coastal development.	eng
173330	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is present in remote locations, and has not been extensively monitored. Therefore, more research is needed on its biology and population status.<br/><br/>Most of this species' range lies within the Great Barrier Reef National Marine Park and World Heritage Sites and associated State Marine Parks.<br/><strong></strong><br/>The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. It is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts in New South Wales and Queensland (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173330	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Halophila tricostata</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs from the northeastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria eastward to the southern extent of the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
173330	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is present in the subtidal zone, generally deeper than four m. This species is seasonal and is fast growing, forming dense beds. This species may actually be spreading with trawling within some parts of its range.&#160; It has been found in shallow coastal habitats (near mangrove and estuaries) and deep waters of the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. It is found in areas with predominantly fine mud with some carbonate sand and shell grit. It occurs in small patches of monospecific meadows but is more commonly mixed with <em>H. decipens</em> and sometimes other species. This species is an annual that germinates, grows, flowers, and fruits within a few months. Fruits are borne on erect shoots and float, which results in wide dispersal (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila tricostata</span> has high seed production, with rates of 70,000 seeds/m²/year in the Great Barrier Reef region. This is an annual species in eastern Australia, only appearing in late September through to February and being sustained by a sizeable seed bank. It is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<br/><br/>This species was originally described from Lizard Island where it was collected offshore between 15-30 m. It was growing sparsely amongst dense mixed stands of <em>H. spinulosa</em> (dominant), <em>H. ovalis</em>, and <em>H. decipiens</em> on a surface substrate of coarse coral sand, shell fragments and foraminiferans. It is found in Queensland on the tropical coastline and Great Barrier Reef Complex, Lizard Island, and Magnetic Island (Greenway 1979).	eng
173330	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species may be common in deep waters of the Great Barrier Reef, however its density fluctuates more than 100% annually due to seasonal changes. This species is generally absent during the cooler months (April through October). Although this species population trend has not been extensively monitored, it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>In December 1989, a density of 284 shoots/m² was recorded at Fitzroy Island, of which only 5-10% were male (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 1993).	eng
173330	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is threatened by sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments, and minor damage from boating and shipping activities. It also could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173331	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is included in various conservation and management plans and programs.&#160; For example, in Japan this species is listed as Vulnerable on the national Red List.&#160; In India, all seagrasses are included in ecologically sensitive marine areas, CRZ-I, which have the highest level of protection (Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1993).&#160; In Malaysia, under the Marine Fisheries Act of 1985, seagrasses are protected in marine parks.<br/><strong></strong><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span> is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. Implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives have occurred in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. In 1998, the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning in Thailand proposed policies for the management of seagrass resources (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, it is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas and the concept of traditional or community management of these areas. There are NGOs focused on its conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species is included in the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) draft on Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of the seagrass ecosystem in Indonesia.<br/><br/>It is particularly important to protect this species from physical disturbance. More data is needed on its potential to recover following disturbance. Little is known about this species' tolerance thresholds to environmental factors (such as salinity, temperature, light, etc).	eng
173331	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Enhalus acoroides</em> is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan to Taiwan to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending throughout the Gulf of Thailand and the coast of Vietnam to Hainan, China. It occurs across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia to the Northern Mariana Islands.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Roebuck Bay, northern Australia, extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea and northern Myanmar. It occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, and the Lakshadweep Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to northern Mozambique, and in the Seychelles.	eng
173331	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides </span>is found in the subtidal zone and is slow to produce new shoots but produces high biomass, being a very large seagrass. The siltier the water, the longer the leaves grow in order to capture more light.&#160; It is the only species that releases pollen to the surface of the water  in sexual reproduction, which restricts its distribution to intertidal  and shallow subtidal areas. It is a slow-growing, persistent species  with a poor resistance to perturbation (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is common in the major seagrass areas of Southeast Asia. In Thailand, it occurs in brackish water canals down to the lower intertidal and subtidal zones on mud, muddy sand and sandy coral substrates. In the Gulf of Thailand, it grows on coarse substrate ranging from medium and coarse sand to coral rubble at a depth of 0.5-1.0 m. In Indonesia, <span style="font-style: italic;">E. acoroides</span> grows in a variety of different sediment types, from silt to coarse sand, in subtidal areas or localities with heavy bioturbation. In the Philippines,&#160; it colonizes turbid, quiet, protected areas such as bays and estuaries (Green and Short 2003).&#160; In Peninsular Malaysia, it is common all around the coast on muddy shores and areas exposed at low tide.	eng
173331	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides </span>is common and widespread, especially in embayments. Its population trend is declining in a number of locations within its range due to localized threats, and is most likely declining overall.	eng
173331	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	Threats for <span style="font-style: italic;">Enhalus acoroides</span> include coastal development, dredging and marine developments, minor damage from boating and shipping activities, coastal runoff and to some extent trawling activities.&#160; This species is found in embayments, it is especially threatened by the creation of fish pens/farming. The species is also threatened by shallow-net trawling and eutrophication. As this species is primarily found in estuaries, shallow lagoons, muddy bays and inside basins, it is often disturbed by vessels and anchorage.<br/><br/>This species is found in a narrow depth range. Therefore this species is especially sensitive to disturbances, including global climate change, such as sea-level rise.<br/><br/>In Kenyan and Tanzanian shores, overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material, oil spills, and oil pollution) can affect this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction material as well as anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, land-based activities (especially mining), and reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increase in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise are all possible threats.&#160; In Indonesia, it is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, and by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources. Overexploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers is also an issue (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, threats include industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting in loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats caused by trawling, and changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173332	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
173332	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, Taiwan and Hainan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending to the south tip of Vietnam and across insular Southeast Asia to Fiji and Samoa, Micronesia and across northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Geographe Bay in Western Australia extending north across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea to Myanmar and along the Coromandel and Malabar Coasts in India, to Sri Lanka, and the Maldives Islands and Chagos Archipelago. It ranges from the Gulf of Oman to the Red Sea, south to Mozambique, and to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173332	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> inhabits clear waters and prefers sandy substrates and is usually found in shallow waters in the lower inter- and subtidal areas up to 15 m depth. <br/><br/>In Fiji and Samoa, some populations are occasionally exposed during extreme low tide on the reef flats (Skelton and South 2006). <span style="font-style: italic;">Syringodium isoetifolium </span>does not cope well with disturbance (Birch and Birch 1984). In the Andaman Sea, this species occurs densely in subtidal areas on fine sediment. It occurs as a widespread and dominant seagrass species in Fiji. In the Western Pacific islands, it is found in dense meadows associated with reefs and on reef platforms.	eng
173332	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> is a common and widespread species. The population is thought to be overall stable. It is increasing locally in some places (Udy <em>et al</em>. 1999, Rasheed 2004).	eng
173332	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em> can be affected locally by coastal development, sedimentation and pollution.	eng
173333	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	An application has been submitted for <em>Posidonia australis</em> to be added to the threatened species list for New South Wales and is currently (May 2009) out for public comment. It is expected to be accepted. This will afford the species a level of legal protection in the Australian State (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> is included in Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4000 km² of seagrass beds of high density. Seagrass beds cannot be damaged without a permit in the state of New South Wales in Australia. It is also protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding conservation planning and population trends should be monitored.&#160; Conservation measures needed include site protection and management, increased educational awareness, and legislation and enforcement at the national and local levels.	eng
173333	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia australis</em> is endemic to the southern half of Australia, including north and east Tasmania. It is found sporadically from north of Shark Bay in Western Australia southward and along the coast to Walis Lake in New South Wales.	eng
173333	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The temperate seagrass species <em>Posidonia australis</em> can form large monospecific meadows through strong rhizomatous growth, and these meadows are found throughout southern Australia. <em>Posidonia</em><em> austrails</em> ecosystems are known to be highly productive and are apparently slow growing (West 1990). It grows in continuous meadows in 1-15 m water in sheltered bays (Cambridge and Kuo 1979).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> exists in well developed meadows and typically has continuous cover (Cambridge and Kuo 1979). This species is common in the subtidal environments in Western Australia, to depths of about 12 m. It can exist in depths of up to 22 m in clear non-polluted water. It often grows in meadows mixed with <em>Zostera tasmanica</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em> in less-protected areas dominated by sandy sediments in southeast region of Australia, and occupies the gaps between meadows and areas close to water inputs. It is a slow growing species.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia australis</em> is the dominant seagrass species in a number of southeastern Australian estuaries. This species is important for primary productivity in these systems, supports a variety of detritus feeders and macrofauna, and is an important nursery area for fish (Meehan and West 2004).<br/><br/>Few seedlings of this species are seen in the field. Seedlings likely do not play a role in recovery of damaged meadows as they do not form rhizomes quickly and therefore spread slowly (Meehan and West 2004). The recruitment rate (and generation length) is estimated at five years.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> meadows have a low number of loosely packed shoots with upright-standing leaf blades, and thinning-out of upright-standing leaf blades in the top half of the canopy creating an "open" canopy.&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> meadows are typically much smaller than those of <em>P. sinuosa</em>. Flowers of this species occur in the top of the canopy, within a zone of minimal leaf area. This may lead to fewer obstructions in the pollen dispersal path (Smith and Walker 2002).	eng
173333	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia australis</em> has experienced serious declines documented in 18 studies with an annual decline of 1.8% (Orth and Dennison 2007). Some areas are in recovery. It is common in seagrass communities in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The <em>Posidonia</em> community in Jervis Bay, Australia has suffered large declines in the past (Meehan and West 2000). This community has taken over 25 years to recolonize a total area in this bay of 0.4 ha and is likely to take over a century to repair completely, assuming there is no further damage. This recolonization appears to be entirely by vegetative re-growth. This location has excellent water quality and conditions ideal for recovery (Meehan and West 2000).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has led to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region (containing <span style="font-style: italic;">P. australis</span>) was reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha. <em></em>(Cambridge and McComb 1984).<br/><br/>Seagrass loss (<em>Posidonia australis</em> and <em>P. sinuosa</em>) in Oyster Harbour between 1962 and 1988 was the culmination of diffuse nutrient and sediment influx from rural catchments but recovery is possible with time. At the rates of growth measured, transplants placed one m apart will grow together to form a meadow in less than five years (Cambridge <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
173333	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Major threats to <em>Posidonia australis</em> are human-induced activities causing increased epiphytism, blocking light and increased drift algal loads (Green and Short 2003). Coastal activities such as port and industrial development also cause direct physical damage. Mining and dredging, eutrophication and pollution from industry, aquaculture and farming, as well as direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities, and to some extent trawling activities also threaten this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em> is a slow growing species and does not form rhizomes quickly and therefore spreads slowly.	eng
173334	conservation	Short, F.T., 2007	Research on this species taxonomy, distribution, ecology, biology and threats is recommended.	eng
173334	distribution	Short, F.T., 2007	<em>Halodule ciliata</em> is endemic to Panama in the Pacific Ocean and the specific morphological type to which the species name was applied is known only from Taboga Island near Panama City.	eng
173334	habitat	Short, F.T., 2007	There is no information known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
173334	population	Short, F.T., 2007	There is very little information about this species, which is known only from herbarium specimens. In 1970, the Panama population was considered to be a possible relict (den Hartog 1970). Field surveys looking for the population in 2009 found no seagrasses around Taboga Island in Panama (A. Prathep pers. comm. 2009). Additional thorough surveys and searches along the Pacific coast of Panama are needed to determine the current status of <span style="font-style: italic;">Halodule ciliata</span>, as this species may be extinct.	eng
173334	threats	Short, F.T., 2007	The major threats to this species are not known.	eng
173335	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The distribution of <em>Zostera caulescens</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea ( Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas). This species is also protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.<br/><br/><em>Zostera</em><em> caulescens</em> is listed as Vulnerable (vulnerable stage) in the Red Data Book of threatened Japanese plant species (2000).<br/><br/>Further research on population and general biology of this species is recommended.	eng
173335	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> has a very limited distribution. It occurs in the northeast Pacific in northern China, South Korea and in central Japan (it may also be in North Korea). It has an extent of occurrence of near to 20,000 km², and is known from around 10 locations.	eng
173335	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> is found in both sheltered and semi-exposed bays on sandy or muddy bottoms in depths of 6-12 m along temperate sea coasts of northeastern Asia (Miki 1932, den Hartog 1970). It prefers deeper waters due to its tall growth. It is also found in Japan, in deeper habitats than <em>Zostera marina</em>, between 3-16 m (Aioi <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/><em>Zostera caulescens</em> is believed to be the world's longest seagrass and was collected in lengths of up to seven m, with a typical length of 4.8 m in a bay of northeastern Japan. The flowering shoots are produced on a proliferation of vegetative leaves at the top of a stem. Flowering shoots take one year to mature and develop spadices, over-wintering in the bed.	eng
173335	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The population of <em>Zostera caulescens</em> is thought to be declining due to coastal pollution.	eng
173335	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caulescens</em> is sensitive to pollution and reduced water quality is a particular threat. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species, as is dredging.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan there is industrial development in coastal regions, land reclamation, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling. In South Korea there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication and some land reclamation.	eng
173336	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Seagrasses cannot be damaged without a permit in the state of New South Whales in Australia. This species also is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173336	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia angustifolia</em> is endemic to southern Australia from Shark Bay in Western Australia along the coast to northern Tasmania.	eng
173336	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species tends to be present in deeper waters and thrives in low light and disturbed environments.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia angustifolia</em> is found on substrate combining fine sand with cobble-sized fractions. Depths range from 2-50 m in open near-shore waters. At shallower depths and in relatively sheltered situations, this species occurs sympatrically with <em>P. sinuosa</em> and <em>Amphibolis</em> spp. At depths of 35 m it has been observed with sparse <em>Heterozostera tasmanica</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em>. In well developed meadows this species usually has continuous cover (Cambridge and Kuo 1979).<br/><br/>In Tasmania, it is found mainly in estuary entrances, or in sheltered bays adjacent to Bass Strait Islands (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species is found sublittorally at depths of from 2-35 m on substrates of fine sand with larger sized fractions. <em>P. angustifolia</em> occurs most frequently in open inshore waters; while reported as a meadow-forming species (Kirkman and Kuo 1996), it is frequently found together with other seagrass species, particularly in its deeper range (Robertson 1984). Robertson also noted that some plants from the eastern limit of its range are of a broad-leaved form, and may be intermediate between <em>P. angustifolia</em> and <em>P. australis</em>.	eng
173336	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species occurs in extensive monospecific meadows in deep waters. The population globally is stable.	eng
173336	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In Western Australia, human activities such as direct physical damage caused by port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging, excessive loads of nutrients causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, land based activity associated with ports, industry, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities are threats to seagrasses (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173337	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> is found in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).<br/><br/>Research is recommended for its distribution and biology, particularly it resilience capability with regard to seedbanks.	eng
173337	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a somewhat disjunct distribution in the western Atlantic. It is found sporadically throughout the Gulf of Mexico, along the east coast of Florida and in western Cuba, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The area of occupancy (AOO) of this species is thought to be near to 2,000 km².	eng
173337	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> generally occurs as an understory species, commonly associated with <em>Syringodium</em> and <em>Halodule</em>, and only occasionally with <em>Thalassia</em>. It is generally a shallow water species in turbid waters. A very small plant, <em>H. engelmanni</em> rarely exceeds 10 cm in height. Its habitat is generally in sandy and muddy substrates, but it can also be found in areas with gravel or rock bottom.<br/><br/>This species is known to have prolific flowering but nothing is known about seedbank recruitment. (Zieman 1982, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). Dispersal is low.<br/><br/>Its depth range in Florida is 1.4 to 18.3 m (Fourqurean <em>et al</em>. 2002). In Cuba, it is found at a depth of 14.4 m with biomass of 0.25 g/m² (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173337	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a disjunct distribution. It is very habitat-specific, thus it is not very abundant. It is found in disturbed areas but its persistence is unknown. The overall trend of the population is thought to be decreasing.<br/><br/>In the northern coast of Yucatan and in Florida there are wide fluctuations in presence and abundance (van Tussenbroek and Zieman pers. comm.).<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> engelmanni</em> had an estimated mean dry density of 0.25 g/m² at depths of up to 14.4 m and accounted for 0.2% of total angiosperm biomass in the 2,000 km² range along the Cuban northwestern shelf between 1972 and 1973 (Buesa 1975).<br/><br/>Hale <em>et al</em>. (2004) reported a decline in occurrence of <em>H. engelmanni</em> along the Big Bend region of Florida (Anclote Key north to Apalachee Bay) when compared to data from 1974 -1980 reported in Iverson and Bittaker (1986). Data collected between 1974 and 1980 show a 12% occurrence for this species compared to the 8% occurrence recorded in 2000. Combining this research results in 30% total loss for this area. These losses occurred in the northern region of the study along the coastline and in the deepest portions of the southern region. This accounts for the loss of at least three m from the maximum depth of distribution (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>This species also was observed in the Johnson Key Basin, Florida Bay, in 1996. Abundance in the western part of Florida Bay appears to have increased as abundance of <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> decreased due to low light levels caused by high turbidity (Durako and Hall 2000).	eng
173337	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila engelmanni</em> has a limited distribution and is thought to be negatively impacted by sedimentation and turbidity. It is also locally threatened by anthropogenic activities such as coastal development, trawling, eutrophication and pollution and tourism.	eng
173338	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is present in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands World Heritage Site.<br/><br/>More information is needed on recruitment rates and taxonomy of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. hawaiiana</span>.	eng
173338	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, USA. It is not found on the island of Hawaii. Given its very shallow depth range and patchy occurrence, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
173338	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is found in the shallow subtidal zone in sandy protected areas. This species flowers relatively quickly. More information is needed on recruitment rate. This species has a high turnover rate, and is fast growing. The average leaf density of this species is 30,650 leaves/m². Its turnover rate is 14.7 days with a productivity of 7.11 g dw/m²/d (Herbert 1986).	eng
173338	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	The overall population trend for <em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> is declining due to competition with algal species, shoreline development and beach replenishment. There has been an estimated decline of at least 30% over at least the past 10 years (M. Waycott pers. comm. 2008). <em>Halophila</em><em> hawaiiana</em> can be locally common, and can occur in dense meadows.	eng
173338	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> has a restricted distribution and is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, thus making it of a higher extinction risk. It also has a narrow depth range<span style="font-style: italic;">.</span>&#160; The habitat of this species<em> </em>has been taken over by invasive algal species in some parts of its range, resulting in declines. It is also highly threatened by shoreline development and beach replenishment.	eng
173339	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The distribution of <em>Zostera asiatica</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas). <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera asiatica</span> is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.&#160; There are some site-based conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>It is unclear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific.<br/><br/><em>Zostera asiatica</em> is  ranked as Vulnerable (vulnerable stage) in the Red Data Book of threatened Japanese plant species (2000).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding the population size and distribution of this species, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
173339	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera asiatica</em> has a limited distribution; it occurs in the northwest Pacific from China and Korea to the Russian Federation and Japan. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs along the south coast of California, USA, where it may be an introduced species.	eng
173339	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera asiatica</em> is found in broadly sheltered bays on sand in depths of 8-12 m in cool to temperate sea coasts of northeastern Asia (Miki 1932). In South Korea it is distributed in relatively deep water (9-15 m) in bays or along open shores, and forms small patches, usually observed in sandy sediments along the east coast.	eng
173339	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The overall population of <em>Zostera asiatica</em> is thought to be declining due to coastal pollution.	eng
173339	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera asiatica</span> is sensitive to pollution, and reduced water quality is a threat.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan there is industrial development in coastal regions, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling. In South Korea, there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is estimated at five years, and therefore it is relatively slower to recolonize.	eng
173340	conservation	Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is included in the Shark Bay World Heritage Property which contains more than 4,000 km² of seagrass beds of high density (Green and Short 2003). More research on <em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is needed on taxonomy and general biology including recruitment and reproduction.	eng
173340	distribution	Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is endemic to tropical Western Australia. It is found from Collier Bay to Shark Bay.	eng
173340	habitat	Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> grows on coarse sand, sand patches and fine grained sediment. It is often found growing together with other species (<em>Posidonia</em> spp. and <em>Amphibolis</em> spp.) (McMillan <em>et al</em>. 1983). This species was collected at about seven m depth in the Monte Bello Islands (McMillan <em>et al</em>. 1983).	eng
173340	population	Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> has been rarely collected, primarily due to the fact that its distribution is in remote locations. The overall population trend is unknown.	eng
173340	threats	Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Cymodocea angustata</em> is found in a remote part of Australia, and therefore it is removed from coastal anthropogenic threats. There are however current developments underway for mining activities within its distribution (M. Waycott pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173341	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The distribution of <em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas) and is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.	eng
173341	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> occurs in the northwestern Pacific from the northeast coast of China to South Korea and northwestern Honshu, Japan. Its distribution is very limited. However, in northern China this species has been eliminated from the region due to the establishment of extensive kelp (algal) aquaculture. Given its shallow depth range, patchy occurrence, and current distribution, this species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
173341	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Phyllospadix japonicus</em> inhabits the intertidal and subtidal rocky bottoms of temperate regions of Japan and China. In South Korea, it occurs mainly on rocky substrata along the east coast. This species has been observed in both sheltered and open shores, but usually grows in high-energy environments. This species lives at depths from 0-8 m.	eng
173341	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The range size of <em>Phyllospandix japonicus</em> is declining in Korea (K.S. Lee pers. comm. 2008). In northern China this species was previously widespread over vast rocky shallow subtidal areas, but since the establishment of extensive kelp algal aquaculture virtually all the <em>P. japonicus</em> has been eliminated (approximately 90% decline) (F.T. Short pers. comm. 2008). The distribution in Japan is very limited. This species is naturally fragmented due to a lack of suitable substrate. Overall declines are estimated to be in the region of between 30 and 50 % over the three generation lengths (18 years).	eng
173341	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	Major threats to <em>P. japonicus</em> include coastal development, shoreline hardening and kelp aquaculture.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is low as it inhabits a high energy environment, where conditions need to be right for seeds to be successful.	eng
173342	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> has no specific conservation measures. It is often protected when it is present in mangroves in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).<br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures are to control the impacts from coastal development, mangrove destruction, and building aquaculture farming (particularly shrimp ponds).	eng
173342	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> has a disjunct and fragmented distribution in the Indo-Pacific. In the Pacific, it is found from southern China to Singapore, Sarawak (Malaysia), and the northwestern Philippines.&#160; In the Indian Ocean, it occurs from Malaysia, throughout the Bay of Bengal and along the west coast of India.	eng
173342	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> is found in the upper intertidal zone and grows on mud or muddy sand substrates in estuarine and coastal areas. This species is fast-growing with large seed production. It is a colonizing species. This species flowers year round and has annual and perennial populations in Malaysia and Bangladesh. In India, it acts as a pioneer species in the succession process leading to mangrove formation.<br/><br/>This species has a narrow, restricted depth range right at the intertidal zone. It has a wide salinity tolerance (euryhaline) and can recover quickly from disturbance, such as increased sedimentation.<br/><br/>This species is one of two in the oldest lineage of seagrasses, and therefore has a high evolutionary value (i.e., living dinosaur).	eng
173342	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	Global population trends for <em>Halophila beccarii</em> are declining.<br/><br/><em>Halophila beccarii</em> is common in intertidal areas in Bangladesh and India. It is common in seaward mangroves and lagoons in Malaysia and Thailand and in mud flats and seaward mangrove areas in China. The population is thought to be stable in Thailand. It is also stable in India, and in some places is increasing. The population is decreasing in Malaysia due to competition with <em>Halodule pinifolia</em> and habitat loss from mangrove destruction and coastal development.	eng
173342	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Halophila beccarii</em> is susceptible to a number of threats due to its very narrow restricted habitat in the intertidal zone.<br/><br/>Major threats to <em>Halophila beccarii</em> include destruction from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes. Other threats include mangrove destruction, coastal development such as construction of harbours or jetties, ponds for shrimp farming, mining (Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia), sand dredging for landfills and anchoring and moving of boats, discharge of sediments, untreated sewage disposal, and aquaculture.<br/><br/>Areas where this species occurs are often rich in molluscs, thus this species can be threatened during mollusc harvesting, and other types of harvesting that use pull-nets.	eng
173343	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	More research is needed on this species' phenology.&#160; <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila spinulosa</span> is included in various conservation and management plans.<strong></strong> For example, the Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued. It cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland and is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173343	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila spinulosa</em> occurs in the Indo-Pacific, in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and the northern half of Australia.	eng
173343	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	This species is found in subtidal sandy, muddy and rocky areas, and in patches between coral reefs. This species produces a lot of seeds, and can therefore recover quickly from disturbance. This species is grazed by dugongs and turtles. It is very important as habitat where it is found, due to its structure.<br/><br/>This species is very sensitive to reductions in light and therefore may be threatened by decreasing water quality (sedimentation, eutrophication, resuspension of particles and pollutants).	eng
173343	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	This species is common and is found in dense stands. The overall population trend is estimated to be stable but fluctuating. It is declining in Malaysia due to loss of habitat (coastal development).	eng
173343	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	This species is threatened by trawling activities, unsustainable fishing methods, coastal development, dredging and marina developments and increased sediment loads that reduce light availability. <span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila spinulos</span>a also is affected by damage from boating and shipping activities and could be impacted by coastal run-off (Green and Short 2003).&#160; In the Philippines, it is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173344	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	The distribution of <em>Phyllopadix iwatensis</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas), and it is protected by 'The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act' in Korea.	eng
173344	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Phyllospadix iwatensis</em> is found in the northwestern Pacific in China, Korea, Japan and the Russian Federation. However, its distribution is not well known and is believed to be limited. The extent of occurrence of <em>P. iwatensis</em> is less than 20,000 km² and it is known form less than 10 known locations.	eng
173344	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Phyllospadix iwatensis</em> inhabits the intertidal and subtidal rocky bottoms of temperate regions of Japan. In South Korea it occurs mainly on rocky substrata along the east coast. Although observed in both sheltered and open shores, this species usually grows in high-energy environments. The optimum period for growth of <em>P. iwatensis</em> is in March (Yabe <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>This species can grow in dense foliage with high shoot density of both intertidal and subtidal plants, which is likely to be an adaptation to heavy water movement. In choppy and swell sea, <em>P. iwatensis</em> did not seem to be adapted to growing in the subtidal zone, where there can be a shortage of light (Yabe <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Surfgrass recruitment has an obligate requirement for anchoring by turfy seaweeds in the surf zone. If the seaweed community changes to micro-algae, recruitment will most likely fail.<br/> <br/>This species is found to depths of 4.5 m.	eng
173344	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Phyllospandix iwatensis</em> is limited throughout most of its range, except in China where only remnant populations remain since the start of extensive kelp aquaculture. There is evidence that there have been declines in Korea (K-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008). This species is naturally fragmented due to a lack of suitable substrate.	eng
173344	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	This species is threatened by industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation (shoreline hardening). Loss of vegetation also results from water pollution, coastal eutrophication, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, clamming and aquaculture.<br/><br/>The recruitment rate of this species is low as it inhabits a high energy environment, where conditions need to be right for seeds to be successful.	eng
173345	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. <br/><br/>Research on the biology, population status  and measures for conservation of this species are recommended.	eng
173345	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera geojeensis</em> has an extremely limited distribution. It occurs in only two locations on the west coast and south coast of South Korea (Shin <em>et al</em>. 2002).  The area of occupancy (AOO) is less than 500 km².	eng
173345	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	This species has a depth range of between three and five m. It lives on sandy or muddy sand substrates in semi-enclosed bays (Shin <em>et al</em>. 2002). There is little known about the biology of this species.	eng
173345	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera geojeensis</em> has a declining population (K.-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173345	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	In Korea, <em>Zostera geojeensis</em> is threatened by the hardening of shorelines, dredging and land reclamation.	eng
173346	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	The range of <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> falls in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). In the Caribbean, <em>T. testudinum</em> is included in the 24 fully managed marine protected areas. This species is monitored by the CARICOMP network (Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity network), including coral reefs and mangroves (Green and Short 2003). Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007). This species is also listed as Vulnerable (A2a) under the Bermuda Protected Species Act (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This is a major habitat-forming species in the Greater Caribbean and should be monitored (Van Tussenbroek <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173346	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> occurs in the western central Atlantic from Florida, USA to Venezuela, throughout the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found in Bermuda.	eng
173346	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> is the most abundant seagrass in the Caribbean and forms dense rhizome mats below the sediment, creating extensive meadows on shallow sand or mud substrates from the lower intertidal to a maximum 10-12 m depth.&#160; It has also been reported below 20 m. In Cuba, this species was found to a depth of 14 m and accounted for 97.5% of total angiosperm biomass (190 g/m²). Optimum temperatures for this species range between 20-30°C (Phillips 1960).<br/><br/><em>Thalassia</em><em> testudinum</em> typically dominates seagrass vegetation in reef lagoons, where it often coexists with <em>Syringodium filiforme</em>, <em>Halodule wrightii</em> and calcareous rhizophytic green algae belonging to the order Caulerpales, amongst which <em>Halimeda</em> spp. are the most conspicuous members. This species plays an important role in production of sediments (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is typically found in low density in oligotrophic areas and replaced by other species when there are continuous high nutrient inputs (Fourqurean and Rutten 2004).<br/><br/><em>Thalassia testudium</em> is an important food for green sea turtles and manatees, as well as for a number of other fish and invertebrate species.<br/><br/>The dense beds in the Florida Bay are susceptible to primary die-off, which usually occurs during late summer to early winter. Primary die-off is usually followed by reduced water clarity and increase epiphytic growth, which can lead to secondary die-off among neighbouring local seagrass (Nuttle <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Seeds are viviparous and do not form seed banks. After major eradication, recolonization is dependent on import from seeds from other areas or from vegetative fragments (van Tuessenbroek <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seedling success can be variable, and the generation length of this species has been estimated as eight years (for recruitment).	eng
173346	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Thalassia testudinum</em> forms extensive dense seagrass beds throughout its range. This is the most important seagrass habitat-forming species in the Caribbean. There have been some declines in seagrass beds in developing areas, particularly in areas of nutrient enrichment and sedimentation. Generally, however, this species still very abundant throughout its range.<br/><br/>Out of 103 published studies on this species, 29 showed an increase in abundance (mix of biomass, aerial extent, or density), 17 decreased and 57 showed no change (Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, Carruthers pers. comm. 2007). The overall population trend is stable.<br/><br/>Caribbean regional biomass ranges from 3.2 g dw/m² (recorded at the latitude 17.8<sup>o</sup> in the Virgin Islands) to 820 g dw/m² (recorded along the 28.3<sup>o</sup> latitude on the Florida coast). These findings are summarized in Gacia (1999) and include data from publications ranging from 1959 until 1996.<br/><br/>The <em>T. testudinum</em> population in the Florida Bay covered 90% of mud bank and basins until a massive die off in 1987. Four thousand hectares were completely lost and 24,000 ha were affected due to primary die off caused by higher water temperatures, hypersalinity and increased biomass, leading to high respiration demands. This was followed by secondary die-off from increased turbidity due to increased phytoplankton beginning the fall of 1991. Between 1984 and 1994, mean short shoot density dropped by 22% throughout the Florida Bay and standing crop biomass dropped by 28%. While light attenuation may have been a factor, the patchy distribution of die-off suggests that primary die-off was the principle reason for the decrease in abundance (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999). Between the spring of 1995 and spring of 1999, despite individual basins in the Florida Bay exhibiting changes in abundance by between 12-100%, the total abundance throughout the Bay exhibited little change due to declines in abundance in the western part of the Bay being offset by increases in abundance in the central and eastern basins (Durako and Hall 2000). Increases in seagrass coverage along with large occurrences of flowering plants were observed during the spring of 2000; however, primary die-off among high density stands was also observed north of Barneys Key with similar symptoms noted to the 1987 die-off (Nuttle <em>et al</em>.&#160; 2003).	eng
173346	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	The biggest threats to <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> are coastal development, eutrophication, and sedimentation (T. Carruthers, F. Short, B. van Tussenbroek, J. Zieman pers. comm. 2007). Boat traffic, marina development, and sewage pollution from greatly expanded residential and hotel development is a particular problem in Florida. Trawling is also a threat in some parts of the range.	eng
173347	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	Conservation measures for <em>Halodule emarginata</em> are unknown. More research is needed on this species taxonomy, population status, and potential threats.	eng
173347	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule emarginata</em> is endemic to Brazil where it ranges from Rio de Janiero to Baía de Todos os Santos.	eng
173347	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule emarginata</em> is found in sheltered shores, in fine-sediment substrate and salinities around 35 ppt (de Oliveira <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is a perennial species that produces flowers (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173347	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	There is little population information available for <em>Halodule emarginata</em>. One of the known sites for this species has disappeared from Rio de Janiero (F. Short pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173347	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	Specific threats to <em>Halodule emarginata</em> are unknown. Localized coastal development is most likely a threat.	eng
173348	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The distribution of <em>Zostera japonica</em> falls into protected areas in South Korea (Environmental Conservation Areas or Special Coastal Management Areas).<br/><br/>This species is protected in Washington state (USA).	eng
173348	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera japonica</em> occurs in the western Pacific from the Russian Federation to southern Vietnam, including Japan and much of coastal China.<br/><br/>In the eastern Pacific, <em>Z. japonica</em> occurs from Vancouver Island south to San Francisco, California, USA, and is believed to be introduced.	eng
173348	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera japonica</em> is found in broadly sheltered bays on sandy or muddy coasts from 1-3 m depth along cool to subtropical sea coasts of eastern Asia (Miki 1933).<br/><br/>This is a small seagrass. In Japan, it is always found in the uppermost parts of the bed, as its main habitat is intertidal flats. Biomass varies greatly with season: a maximum biomass of 270 g dry weight/m² was recorded in July and a minimum of 30 g dry weight/m² occurred from December to January. Mainly distributed in the intertidal zone around islands in South Korea. In the Pacific coast of North America, it commonly grows higher in the intertidal zone and has an open leaf sheath, characteristic of its subgenus <em>Zosterella</em>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera japonica</span> is restricted in its northerly extent where it is found primarily in the upper intertidal zones in muddy or silty substrates.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, <em>Zostera japonica</em> occurs intertidally. Local macroalgal blooms usually occur during the winter and coincide with sloughing of <em>Zostera</em> leaves. <em>Clithon</em> spp. are the most abundant gastropods in the local beds and are the dominant grazers on epiphytic algal growth on <em>Zostera</em> leaves. This grazing is important to the maintenance of the <em>Z. japonica</em> beds in Hong Kong (Fong <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
173348	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a common and widespread species. Overall, the population for this species is increasing. There has been reported decline in Korea due to land reclamation<span style="font-weight: bold;">.</span><strong></strong><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span><em> japonica</em> is an introduced species on the west coast of North America that came in with shipments of oysters used to support the local shellfish industry (Phillips and Shaw 1976). First reported from Willapa Bay, Washington, it spread throughout coastal Washington and now occurs from the southern coast of British Columbia, Canada to Coos Bay, Oregon&#160; (Harrison and Bigley 1982, Posey 1988) and Humboldt Bay, California (F. Short pers. obs.).	eng
173348	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In some parts of its range, mostly in Korea, <em>Zostera japonica</em> is threatened by aquaculture and hardening of shorelines (land reclamation). It is also affected by resuspended sediments that affect water quality.	eng
173349	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia</em><em> sinussa</em> is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts, National and Marine Park Acts. There are no specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
173349	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> is endemic to western and southern Australia. It is distributed from Kalbarri to Eyre in Western Australia and from the head of the Great Australian Bight to Encounter Bay, South Australia.	eng
173349	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> is widely distributed in marine embayments and near shore areas on the western and southern coasts of Australia from low water to 15 m depth in sandy substrates. It may form meadows with <em>Amphibolis</em> spp. and typically grows in linear rows up to 50 cm wide, parallel to prevailing direction of water movement (Cambridge and Kuo 1979). This species is slow growing and has a long recruitment time of 20 years.<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> sinuosa</em> has inflorescences born on flattened, leafless peduncles, with reduced, hermaphroditic flowers and filiform pollen. Inflorescence of <em>P. sinuosa</em> are well hidden below the "umbrella-like" meadow canopy at ~10 cm above the sediment. Anthesis and fruiting occurs from August to January (Womersley 1984).<br/><br/><em>Posidonia</em><em> sinuosa</em> meadows have a high number of tightly packed shoots with overhanging semi-permanently bent top portions. This species has high leaf density surrounding the flowers which may prevent the pollen from escaping out of the meadow into the overlying water column. This likely leads to greater neighbour to neighbour pollination in this species (Smith and Walker 2002).	eng
173349	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There have been major areas of loss across the range of <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> due to human activities, which have caused significant population declines. Based on 11 studies during the period between 1990 and 2000, there was a 1.2 % annual decline in&#160; the area&#160; of this seagrass (Orth and Dennison 2007). Over the last 60 years (three generation lengths), the recorded declines in areas of this species suggests a population reduction greater than 30%.<br/><br/>In one area of <em>P. sinuosa</em>'s distribution, Cockburn Sound has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads. Between 1954 and 1978 the meadow in this region reduced from 4,200 to 900 ha (Cambridge and McComb 1984).<br/><br/>Seagrass loss (<em>Posidonia australis</em> and <em>P. sinuosa</em>) in Oyster Harbour between 1962 and 1988 was the culmination of diffuse nutrient and sediment influx from rural catchments (Cambridge <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
173349	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Major threats to this species are excessive nutrient inputs, eutrophication, sedimentation and pollution, and dredging and sand mining activities. Coastal developments such as port development are also threatening for this species.	eng
173350	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
173350	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia denhartogii</em> is endemic to southwestern Australia, ranging from Perth to eastern South Australia.	eng
173350	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, was not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.	eng
173350	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no specific population information for <em>Posidonia denhartogii</em>. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
173350	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Additional threats include pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173351	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts and National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173351	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> occurs in south Western Australia, eastern South Australia, and western Victoria, Australia. It also is recorded along the central coast of New South Wales, Australia and in New Zealand.	eng
173351	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> is a rhizomatous perennial species that occurs widely in Australia and New Zealand, found growing in permanent water bodies such as estuaries, coastal salt lakes and inland brackish to hypersaline lakes (Jacobs and Brock 1982, Womersley 1984).<br/><br/><em>Ruppia megacarpa</em> is slow to develop and shows late maturity. The small amount of energy allocated to producing a small number of large propagules appears suitable for interpretation as an example of K-selection (Brock 1983).	eng
173351	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no population information on this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
173351	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Localized reduction of this species can be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments may also locally impact this species.	eng
173352	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place for <em>H. decipiens</em>, party due to its habitat in deeper waters. It is found in some protected areas (e.g., Belize, GBR) but it is often outside Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) because of its depth range. Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>Research on the biology of this species is recommended because of its deep water habitat.	eng
173352	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> occurs mostly in the tropics and is circumglobal.<br/><br/>In the Atlantic, this species occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, throughout the Caribbean Sea, Bermuda and eastern Brazil. It also occurs on the northwest coast of Africa and in the Canary Islands.<br/><br/>In the Pacific, <em>H. decipiens</em> is found from southern Japan and the coast of China throughout Southeast Asia and extending east across the Coral Sea to Fiji. It occurs from the Great Barrier Reef across northern Australia. It is also found in the Hawaiian Islands, Midway, and French Polynesia as well as in Mexico at the southern end of the Baja Peninsula (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. decipiens</em> is found from southwestern Australia through the Timor Sea, along the coast of Indonesia, Thailand and southern Myanmar (Novak <em>et al</em>. 2009). It is also present in India, on the southeast and mid-west coasts. It is present in the Chagos Archipelago, in the northern Red Sea, and in Yemen.&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila decipiens</span> also occurs also in the Seychelles and Kenya (McMahon and Waycott 2009) and Madagascar (F. Short pers. obs.).	eng
173352	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> is typically found on coarse sediments, sand, and muddy bottoms. It is a deep water species but is also found in shallow water under docks and in turbid areas. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> can grow in areas with high sedimentation. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is monoecious, with male and female flowers occurring on the same spathe. Female flowers produce approximately 30 seeds.<br/><br/>In the Caribbean it can be found to a depth of around 30 m, but in the Indo-Pacific may be found to 58 m (Lee Long <em>et al</em>. 1996). This species tends to be in monospecific seagrass beds (but in the Indo-Pacific it is found with <em>Halophila spinulosa</em>, and in the Caribbean occasionally with <em>H. baillonii</em>). It can be seasonal and has a large seed bank (Zieman 1982,  Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is a rapid re-colonizer when beds are disturbed by grazing or trawls.<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> can propagate through budding, but primarily relies on a buried seed bank for population re-establishment in seasonally fluctuating or high disturbance environments (Hammerstrom <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is a highly fecund, annual and opportunistic species (Kenworthy 1993) that may be favoured by disturbance (McMillan 1988), but unable to compete once the other species are established (Preen <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species was previously thought only to occur in waters 9-36 m in depth but has been found in the intertidal areas where it is exposed during low tide down to the depths of five m. In Malaysian Peninsula, depth limit ranged from 6-24 m in clear water of the east coast, while only about 1.5-3.1 m in the turbid water of the west coast. In the Philippines, it grows primarily at depths of 11-23 m. In Cuba, it was found at a depth of 24.3 m with a biomass of 0.14 g/m². In Veracruz, Mexico it was found in the deeper parts down to 10 m. In the Caribbean, it was found in deep water up to 30 m. In South America, this species is associated with deeper reefs, algal and marl beds, and deeper soft-bottomed vegetative areas.<br/><br/>The first specimen of <em>H. decipiens</em> found in  southwestern Australian <em></em>was collected from the Hardy Inlet near the mouth of Blackwood River in late December 1991 (Kuo and Kirkman 1995). <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is frequently mixed with <em>H. ovalis</em> at a depth of 35 m, as well as in rock pools at the mid-tide level. Dense meadows of this species may cover the entire, gently sloping edge of the river channel. The mature plant produces flowers which fruit in the autumn. Seagrass meadows of this species disappear from the sites during winter (Kuo and Kirkman 1995).<br/><br/><em>Halophila</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> decipiens</span> is found 3-15 m deep along the Midway Atoll and forms dense patches with an average of 24,000 blades per m<sup>2</sup>. At the O'ahu Island depth ranges from 1-2 m and along Hawai'i Island, this species is found at depths of 40 m and forms monospecific patches adjacent to, yet not interacting with, <em>Halophila hawaiiana</em> at Midway and O'ahu. <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em> is the only seagrass to form pure stands in deep waters at the island of Hawai'i (McDermid <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Costa Baja population was found mainly in subtidal waters with high leaf-pair density and a low biomass with seasonal biomass levels. Highest biomass and plant development were observed during the summer months (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173352	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> is widespread and locally abundant. It can have dense cover but low biomass. This species is often not collected or recorded, as the leaves can be obscured by sediments, and it is found in deeper water. Its global population trend is thought to be stable as it is increasing in some regions, although some localized declines have been observed in other regions due to localized threats.<br/><br/>The Midway Atoll (Hawaiian Islands) population forms dense patches with an average of 24,000 blades per square meter (McDermid <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>The Costa Baja population displayed a total biomass of 5.2 ± 1.6 g dry weight (dw)/m² with a leaf-pair density of 2964 ± 778 during the winter months, a total biomass of 8.5 ± 2.2 g dw/m² and a leaf-pair density of 4016 ± 599 during the summer months (Santamaria-Gallegos <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In the west Florida shelf, this species covers an estimated 20,000 km² with an average coverage of 20%. During June of 1999, percent coverage was estimated at 45% in 10 m of water, 4% in 15 m, and 18% in 20 m. During the month of October, 1999, percent coverage was estimated at 74% in 10 m of water, 39% in 15 m, and 10% in 20 m. Biomass ranged from 0.02 to 2.64 g dry weight/m² . This species tends to follow typical sub-tropical seasonal cycles with lower biomass during the fall and winter months (Hammerstrom <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>During 1972 to 1973, this species was reported to have a mean dry biomass&#160; of 0.14 g/m² along the northwest Cuban shelf at depths of up to 24.3 m. It was reported to be the least abundant seagrass studied, and accounted for 0.1% of total angiosperm biomass in the 2,000 km² range along the Cuban northwestern shelf (Buesa 1975).<br/><br/>Iverson and Bittaker (1986) reported <em>H. decipiens</em> occurring in small monotypic stands and sometimes occurring among <em>H. wrightii</em> in the northern offshore areas along the Big Bend, Florida in water deeper than five m. Data collected in 2000 showed no occurrence of <em>H. decipiens</em> along the Big Bend, Florida (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/><em>Halophila decipiens</em> is not abundant or common in Bermuda: out of 55 sites sampled 3.6% had this species present; of these, 50% of sites sampled had less than six shoots per m<sup>2</sup> (Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2007)<strong style="font-weight: normal;"></strong>.	eng
173352	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila decipiens</em> has few major threats partly because it is found in deeper waters. Coastal development can locally affect seagrass beds in more shallow areas, as can reduced water quality. Trawls can disturb beds in deeper areas, but these are usually recolonized rapidly.<br/><br/>This species has numerous natural grazers such as turtles, dugongs and fish, and if in high numbers these can reduce biomass considerably.	eng
173353	conservation	Short, F.T., 2007	There are no known conservation actions documented for the species, but more research is needed on population size and distribution, life history, ecology, and potential threats.	eng
173353	distribution	Short, F.T., 2007	<em>Lepilaena australis</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs from Perth, Western Australia along the southern coast including coastal marine lagoons and some inland saline lakes to Mackay, Queensland.	eng
173353	habitat	Short, F.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena australis</span> is often found growing with other seagrasses in estuarine environments, such as <em>Zostera muellerii</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em> and <em>Ruppia</em> spp.<br/><br/>This species occurs in muddy sandy substrates predominantly in estuaries and also in coastal marine lagoons and some inland saline lakes.	eng
173353	population	Short, F.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena australis </span>can be locally common. No population trends are known.	eng
173353	threats	Short, F.T., 2007	Threats to this species include urban development and general coastal infill such as land reclamation.	eng
173354	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. They are protected in some Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within their distribution. There are some taxonomic issues with this species, and investigation is needed into the genetics and distribution. The population should be monitored.	eng
173354	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera tasmanica</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Portland to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria as well as along the east coast of Tasmania (Kuo 2005).	eng
173354	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera tasmanica</span> is found in shallow creek mouths, shallow protected embayments and estuaries. It inhabits sandy and sandy mud substrates. <br/><br/>This species dominates seagrass communities in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>Much of the ecological information for this species will relate to that of the other more wide-ranging species. It is fast growing, colonizes quickly and grows together with other seagrasses within its habitat.	eng
173354	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a common species. Its population trend is most likely overall stable, however there are localized declines due to losses around Sydney and Melbourne.	eng
173354	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is most impacted by coastal development due to large human populations overlapping with its range. Recent localized losses were due to sediment accretion and desiccation caused by exposure to high air temperatures and low humidity in South Australia.<br/><br/>In Eastern Australia, reductions have been caused by light reduction due to increased sediment loads in the water. Coastal development, dredging and marine developments affect all seagrasses in the tourist region of Australia' s east coast. This species also is threatened with minor damage from boating and shipping activities, could be impacted by coastal runoff and to some damage from extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173355	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Research into the taxonomy of this species is recommended.	eng
173355	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Zostera nigricaulis</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Dongara, Western Australia around the coast of southern Australia to central New South Wales and the north and east coasts of Tasmania (Kuo 2005).	eng
173355	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is found in rock pools and sheltered sandy substrates with considerable amounts of drift detritus. It is found at depths between 0 and 15 m (Kuo 2005). <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span><em> nigricaulis</em> flowers regularly and is fast growing.	eng
173355	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is relatively common throughout its range, and there are some localized declines due to coastal development. Overall the population is decreasing.	eng
173355	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	There are no major threats for this species, but it is affected by sedimentation which is causing some localized declines. Research into the taxonomy of this species is recommended.	eng
173356	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is protected in some Marine Protected Areas within Western Australia. It occurs in the Shark Bay World Heritage Area which contains more than 4,000 km² of seagrass beds of high density. It is also protected in the Australian Fisheries Act and Marine Park Act.	eng
173356	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is endemic to Australia and ranges from Shark Bay in mid-Western Australia to Bass Strait, including eastern Tasmania.	eng
173356	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is a seagrass that dominates (with <em>Posidonia australis</em>) the subtidal environment in western and southern Australia, in sandy lower-littoral pools and channels, to depths of about 12 m. In southeastern Australia, it forms patches of varying sizes at the mouth of some bays, and occurs in areas dominated by sandy siliceous sediments and exposed to ocean swells. It can be present to depths of 22 m in clear non-polluted water. It is a slow-growing seagrass.<br/><br/>The leaves of the shallow rock pool plants may float on the surface at low tide, becoming severely damaged or turning black, and then are cast off in the hot summer months (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977). Although usually described as occurring in areas of high water flow, Walker (1989) observed the species growing under "a wide range of current regimes". <em>Amphibolis</em><em> antarctica</em> has been shown to be very tolerant of high salinity levels. Walker (1989) collected seedlings from areas of salinities up to 50 ppt. Although percentage cover was much reduced at the higher salinities, <em>A. antarctica</em> was observed growing at salinities of greater than 60 ppt, with an optimal range of 40-50 ppt (Walker 1989).<br/><br/>In the sub-littoral zone, <em>A. antarctica</em> may form extensive beds on sandy floors, sand covered rocks, gravel bottoms and, less frequently, on banks of firm, compact clay in places where the water is kept continually in motion by currents or wave action. Plants of the genus <em>Amphibolis</em> are dioecious and viviparous (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977).	eng
173356	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> is common in western and southern Australia. The population is thought to be overall stable.	eng
173356	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis antarctica</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging.<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, an area in the range of <em>Amphibolis antarctica</em>, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads in the surrounding waters. Between 1954 and 1978 the seagrass meadow in this region decreased from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production was reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t (dry weight)/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>, <em>P. australis</em>, <em>P. coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Zostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and <em>A. antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).	eng
173357	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is protected by The Marine Ecosystem Conservation and Management Act in Korea.	eng
173357	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> has a very limited distribution. It is known from less than 10 locations in the northwest Pacific on the northern coast of China, the Korean Peninsula and in northern Japan. Given its very shallow depth range, patchy distribution, and recent declines in many parts of its range, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
173357	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is usually found in depths between three and eight m (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2001).<br/><br/>In a survey in Jangmok Bay of Geoje Island, Korea, flowering shoots appeared in early March and developed into fruits in early May. By the end of May, all reproductive shoots bore mature fruits. The study indicated that the growth and flowering phenology of <em>Z. caespitosa</em> was strongly coupled to seasonal light conditions (Lee <em>et al</em>. 2005). In Wei Hai, northern China, mature seeds were found in July (F.T. Short pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173357	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	Populations of <em>Zostera caespitosa</em> are declining in Korea (K.-S. Lee pers. comm. 2008) and China (F.T. Short pers. obs. 2008). In northern China&#160; the establishment of extensive kelp (algal) aquaculture may be rapidly reducing the distribution of this species.	eng
173357	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2008	<em>Zostera caespitosa</em> is sensitive to pollution and reduced water quality is a particular threat. Habitat loss is also a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>Within its range in Japan and China there is industrial development in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting in loss of vegetation, water pollution and disturbance of habitats by fish trawling and other fishing activities. In South Korea, there is a large amount of coastal eutrophication and some land reclamation.	eng
173358	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is protected in various marine parks and protected areas within its range. All seagrass species are protected in India since 1993.	eng
173358	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, Taiwan and Hainan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia extending to the southern tip of Vietnam and the Gulf of Thailand and across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia. <br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Chabjuwardoo Bay in mid-Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea. In India, it is found from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast and in the Lakshadweep Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173358	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> grows on muddy sand, fine sand or sand with coral rubble substrates in the intertidal zone. It is a mid-successional species, and can colonize very quickly once established. This species can quickly recover or return after a disturbance. This is a pioneer species in Mozambique in silted channels. In eastern Australia, it occurs in deeper sediments and has been linked to increased rates of sediment accretion. This species is a food for dugongs when other resources are low. It is also grazed on by fish and urchins.	eng
173358	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is a fairly common and widespread species. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
173358	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Cymodocea serrulata</em> is threatened by localized coastal development, pollution, dredging, siltation and destructive fishing methods. This species is believed to be sensitive to decreases in salinity (such as those caused by increasing freshwater run-off from hard surfaces).&#160; This species completely disappeared after a cyclone on Magnetic Island, but has completely recovered within 20 years (Birch and Birch 1994).<br/><br/>However, this species is more resilient to sedimentation compared to other coastal seagrass species and is very quick to recover from disturbance.	eng
173359	conservation	Short, F.T., 2007	No documented conservation actions are known for this species, and more research is needed on population size and distribution, life history, ecology, and potential threats.	eng
173359	distribution	Short, F.T., 2007	<em>Lepilaena marina</em> is endemic to Australia and occurs along the south coast of Australia and in Tasmania.	eng
173359	habitat	Short, F.T., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lepilaena marina</span> often grows on sandy muddy tidal flats and in estuaries in sheltered locations. It is found with <em>Zostera muelleri</em> and <em>Halophila ovalis</em>.<br/><br/>This species is often overlooked as it is small and ephemeral.	eng
173359	population	Short, F.T., 2007	No specific population information is available for this species, but it is common in southern Australia.	eng
173359	threats	Short, F.T., 2007	Threats to this species include urban development and general coastal infill such as land reclamation.	eng
173360	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within Western Australia. It is protected in the Australian Fisheries Act and Marine Park Act.	eng
173360	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Geraldton in mid-Western Australia to Victor Harbour, South Australia.	eng
173360	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In the sub-littoral zone, <em>Amphibolis </em><em>griffithii</em> may form extensive beds on sandy floors, sand covered rocks, gravel bottoms and, less frequently, on banks of firm, compact clay in places where the water is kept continually in motion by currents or wave action. Plants of the genus <em>Amphibolis</em> are dioecious and viviparous (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977). The considerably smaller range of this species compared to <em>A. antarctica</em> suggests a limited temperature tolerance (Ducker <em>et al</em>. 1977).	eng
173360	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Based on two studies on <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> from the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, there was an average of 0.8% decline per annum between 1990 and 2000. The population is thought to be overall stable.	eng
173360	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Seagrass losses may be attributed to dredging of the Fremantle Port Authority shipping channel, shell-sand dredging, eutrophication, and movement of large sand sheets (Kendrick <em>et al</em>. 2000).<br/><br/>Cockburn Sound, an area in the range of <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, has been subjected to steady degradation since 1954, with the establishment of an oil refinery and the successive establishments of steel works, fertilizer factories, sewage-treatment facilities, and a power station. This has lead to contaminated effluents and increased nutrient loads in the surrounding waters. Between 1954 and 1978 the seagrass meadow in this region decreased from 4,200 to 900 ha and leaf detritus production was reduced from 23,000 to 4,000 t (dry weight)/year. Seagrasses in this region include <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em>,&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> australis</em>,&#160;<em>Posidonia</em><em> coriacea</em>, <em>Halophila ovalis</em>, <em>Halophila</em><em> decipiens</em>, <em>Syringodium isoetifolium</em>, <em>Zostera tasmanica</em>, <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em>, and&#160;<em>Amphibolis</em><em> antarctica</em> (Cambridge and McComb 1984).	eng
173361	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Zostera noltii</em>.<br/><br/>This species is Listed in the Rio Declaration as diverse habitats in need of protection and monitoring.<br/><br/>This species is found in two national nature reserves in Caspian Sea (Green and Short 2003), and may be found in other Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).	eng
173361	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera noltii</em> occurs in the eastern Atlantic as well as the Baltic, Mediterranean, Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. <em>Zostera</em><em> noltii</em> also occurs in western Africa in Mauritania and in the Canary and Cape Verde Islands.	eng
173361	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera noltii</em> is a small seagrass species occurring in intertidal and subtidal areas (den Hartog 1970). This species can occur in areas of low salinity and co-occurs with <em>Ruppia</em> spp. at the inner edges (0.5-1.5 m depth) of <em>Zostera marina</em> beds. It is found in coastal and estuarine areas with soft sedimentation to a maximum depth of 10 m. This species can also live under permanent subtidal conditions in small brackish streams and coastal lagoons with euryhaline conditions. It is never found below the low-tide mark. Highest salinity level tolerated is 25-51 psu (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The critical level of burial or erosion tolerated by this species is extremely low (between 4 and 8 cm) due to the small size of the species and the lack of vertical rhizomes (Cabaco and Santos 2007).<br/><br/>This species forms single species meadows in the Mediterranean Bioregion (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Black Sea, <em>Z. noltii</em> is found in pure and mixed stands from 0.2-10 m depth on sandy substrates. It has 62 species of macroalgae associated with it (Milchakova 1999).	eng
173361	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is known to be declining in the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. There is little available information on the population status in other regions, but the overall status is most likely decreasing.	eng
173361	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no major threats to <em>Zostera noltii</em>. However there have been local declines in some regions due to loss of water clarity from sedimentation, coastal development and wasting disease. <em>Zostera noltii</em> is sensitive to eutrophication (Short and Burdick 1995) and is highly affected by shading (Van Lent <em>et al</em>. 1991). Nutrient loading from runoff has resulted in some local declines. Seagrass beds of <em>Z. noltii</em> can recover from the stress of eutrophication when measures are put in place to manage the system (Marques<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2003). <em>Zostera noltii</em><em></em> is outcompeted by macroalgae in nutrient-enriched waters (Verdelhos <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>The invasive species <em>Caulerpa racemosa</em> may interfere with the interaction between <em>C. nodosa</em> and <em>Z. noltii</em> when they occur in the same habitat (Ceccherelli <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
173362	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Research on the taxonomy, distribution and threats are recommended for this species.	eng
173362	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is known from Chile (Skottsberg 1916), Argentina and Peru (Blanca and Young 1996) and the Falkland Islands (Moore 1973, Broughton and McAdam 2005).	eng
173362	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species inhabits standing open water (brackish) and brackish creeks, and less commonly, freshwater (Moore 1973, Broughton and McAdam 2005). This species has branched filiform stems up to 40 cm in length and dark green leaves up to 20 cm in length (Moore 1973).	eng
173362	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no population information available for <em>R. filifolia</em>. There are only a few records of this species.	eng
173362	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
173363	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> is present in some marine protected areas within its range. It does not have any specific conservation measures currently in place, though site and habitat protection and managements strategies are needed. More research is needed on this species on recruitment and reproduction, and taxonomy.	eng
173363	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan, extending to Hainan, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, the southern tip of Vietnam, and the Gulf of Thailand across insular Southeast Asia to New Caledonia, northern Australia and across Micronesia.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Roebuck Bay in northwest Australia extending across the Timor Sea, the south coast of Indonesia, and throughout the Andaman Sea. In India, it is found from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast and in the Lakshadweep Islands; also in the Maldive Islands. It ranges from the Red Sea south to the east coast of South Africa to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173363	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> often occurs in clear water, and often in the high intertidal zone. This species is resilient to marginal conditions. Like many intertidal species, this species' morphology can vary widely, and for this reason it can sometimes be confused with other species (i.e., with narrow leaf <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> or wide <em>Halodule uninervis</em>). This species does not like full exposure at low tide (dry conditions).<br/><br/>In the Andaman Sea, it occupies the lower littoral zone on muddy sand areas or sandy bottom mixed with dead coral fragments. <em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> can survive a moderate level of disturbance. It is a pioneer species in Indonesia (along with <em>Halophila ovalis</em> and <em>Halodule pinifolia</em>) which occurs in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zones, growing best in well-sheltered sandy (not muddy), stable and low-relief sediments (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173363	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> is common and widespread. The global population appears to be stable.	eng
173363	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Cymodocea rotundata</em> often forms a fringing bed, and therefore is present in areas exposed to impacts from coastal development and high anthropogenic activity. There are no major threats and threats tend to be localized.	eng
173364	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is <strong></strong>included in various conservation and management plans and programs and some MPAs.<br/><strong></strong><br/>It is considered in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. There also has been implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species cannot be damaged without a permit in New South Whales and Queensland. The Queensland Fisheries Act allows destruction only when a permit has been assessed and issued.&#160; In Australia, it is protected in either Fisheries Act or in National Park or Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species also occurs in the seagrass beds in Haad Chao Mai National Park, largest seagrass beds with the highest species diversity for a single area in Thailand. It is also managed in the 1998 proposed policies of the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific islands, it is recognized in the need for sanctuaries and protected areas.&#160; There are NGOs focused on conservation and environmental protection integrated with traditional leadership and government agencies, suggesting that conservation measures and the acceptance of enforcement will continue to improve (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>The Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) prepared a draft Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of this species in Indonesia (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173364	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> has a broad Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found in southern Japan to Taiwan, extending to Hainan, China, the Philippines, and throughout Southeast Asia. It also occurs in northern Australia and in the western Pacific islands to New Caledonia and the Marshall Islands.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>T. hemprichii</em> is found from mid-western Australia to the Timor Sea, along the southern coast of Indonesia through the Andaman Sea; also from the Coromandel Coast to the Malabar Coast in India including Lakshadweep and the Maldives Islands. It is found from Oman to the northern part of South Africa including the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden as well as Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173364	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	In the Indo-Pacific region, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia hemprichii</span> is commonly the climax seagrass species. In  Micronesia, it is tolerant of 40°C temp and low salinity.<br/><br/>In the Red Sea, it occurs in coarser substrate, that is coarse sand mixed with coral and shell debris or even rather large pieces of coral from the surrounding fringing reefs or coral knolls at sites exposed to considerable water movement.<br/><br/>It is the most dominant subtidal seagrass (along with <em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em>) in Mozambique.<br/><br/>In Thailand, it grows on muddy sand or fragmented dead coral substrates in the upper littoral zone or coral sand substrate in subtidal areas.<br/><br/>This is a dominant seagrass in western Pacific, found throughout Micronesia and Melanesia, although absent from Polynesia and Fiji. It is often associated with coral reefs and is common on reef platforms where it may form dense meadows. Also, it is able to grow on hard coral substrates with little sediment cover, and can be found colonizing muddy substrates, particularly where water pools at low tide.<br/><br/>It is the most widespread seagrass species in Indonesia, where it occurs in monospecific beds over a large vertical range, from the intertidal zone down to the lower subtidal zone. Monospecific stands produced a higher net primary production rates, reaching 1.5 mg carbon/m²/day to 1.9 mg carbon/m²/day, equivalent to a maximum of 694 mg carbon/m²/year.<br/><br/>In the Philippines, it occurs as pure stands in the tide pools of the most northerly islands.<br/><br/>Seedling recruitment into disturbed areas is important for recolonization. Seeds are buoyant and disperse over long distances (Olsen <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The species is fast-growing and is grazed by turtles and Dugongs and is important for fish grazing.	eng
173364	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassia hemprichii</em> is a very common and widespread species. New areas of <em>T. hemprichii</em> distribution have been found. There are local increases and decreases but overall the population appears to be stable.<br/><br/>Coastal populations are more likely to be decreasing due to development.	eng
173364	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material), oil spills and oil pollution, mining, upland clearing, destruction of mangrove forests, dredging, marina developments, eutrophication, siltation, and pollution are all major threats to this species. It is also threatened by unsustainable fishing methods, trawling, illegal fisheries, climate change, sea-level rise and high sediment loads in water.&#160; <br/>Destruction of <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia hembrichii</span> beds also is caused from cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, and disease.&#160; <br/>Predation by sea urchins is a potential threat.<br/><strong></strong><br/>In Kenyan and Tanzanian shores, overexploitation and influences from activities on land (trawling activities, high hotel density in close proximity to the beach, raking, burying and removing seagrass beach cast material) are of concern. Other localized threats include oil spills, oil pollution, declining water quality due to increasing populations in coastal towns and cities (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In India, the natural causes of destruction are cyclones, waves, intense grazing and infestation of fungi and epiphytes, as well as "die-back" disease. Other threats include anthropogenic activities such as deforestation in the hinterland or mangrove destruction, construction of harbours or jetties, and loading and unloading of construction materials. Anchoring and moving of boats, ships, dredging and discharge of sediments, land filling and untreated sewage disposal also affect this species (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Eastern Australia, population reduction is caused by increased sediment loads in water, coastal development, dredging and marine developments and damage from boating and shipping activities.&#160; Coastal runoff and trawling activities also are of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Thailand, this species is threatened by a combination of illegal fisheries and fishing practices, and land-based activities, especially mining. Reduced water quality resulting from upland clearing, development along rivers and destruction of mangrove forests are also threats (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Pacific, coastal development, dredging, and marina developments, climate change and associated increases in storm activity, water temperature and/or sea-level rise are of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Indonesia it is threatened mainly by physical degradation such as mangrove cutting and coral reef damage, and by marine pollution from both land- and marine-based resources. Overexploitation of living marine resources such as fish, molluscs and sea cucumbers is also of concern (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In the Philippines, this species is threatened by eutrophication, siltation, pollution, dredging and unsustainable fishing methods (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>In Japan, it is threatened by industrial developments in coastal regions, land reclamation resulting to loss of vegetation, water pollution, disturbance of habitats by fish trawling, and changes in environmental conditions due to human activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173365	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures for <em>Halophila capricorni</em>. It may be present in some parts of the Great Barrier Reef&#160; Marine Park.<strong></strong> More research is needed on taxonomy, distribution, general biology and threats of this species.<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/></em>	eng
173365	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila capricorni</em> is found in the Pacific Ocean on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, north through the Torres Straits, and across the Coral Sea to New Caledonia.	eng
173365	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Halophila capricorni</em> lives in deeper waters from 21-54 m in sandy and muddy substrates. It readily sets seed.<em> </em><em>Halophila capricorni</em><em></em> has leaves that are similar to <em>H. decipiens</em>, except that hairs are only on one side of the leaf. Flowering also differs; in <em>H. capricorni</em> it is truly monoecious (male and female flowers on separate nodes on the same plant).	eng
173365	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	Records for <em>Halophila capricorni</em> are patchy and rare. Overall population trends are unknown.<br/><br/>This species has been collected commonly in the Great Barrier Reef in recent surveys in deeper water (Coles <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
173365	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	Major threats to <em>Halophila capricorni</em> are unknown. Localized threats may be caused by increased sediment loads in water. Trawling activities may also create localized threats.	eng
173366	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173366	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Phyllospadix serrulatus</em> occurs in the Pacific from the Alaska Peninsula to Oregon, USA.	eng
173366	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Along the Pacific coast of North America, this species grows in the upper intertidal zone (+1.5 m to mean lower low water) (Green and Short 2003). <em>Phyllospadix</em> spp. grow on rocky substrates in regions with high wave exposure (Hemminga and Duarte 2000).	eng
173366	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The population status of this species is thought to be stable.	eng
173366	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals, commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.	eng
173367	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. It is not clear if the federal, provincial or state, or local administrative laws and ordinances recognize this species in the Northeast Pacific (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173367	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Phyllospadix scouleri</em> occurs in the Pacific from Southeast Alaska to the tip of Baja California and Mexico.	eng
173367	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Along the Pacific coast of North America, this species inhabits the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal zone (Green and Short 2003). <em>Phyllospadix</em> spp. grow on rocky substrates in regions with high wave exposure (Hemminga and Duarte 2000).<br/><br/>Surfgrass (<em>Phyllospadix</em> spp.) are not found where sea surface temperatures exceed 21°C in winter or 27°C in the summer. Surfgrass has a low tolerance to higher temperatures which suggests that populations in Baja California Sur might be impacted by global climate change. <span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllospadix</span><em style="font-style: italic;"></em><em> scouleri</em> is distributed higher in the lower intertidal and upper subtidal zones than <em>P. torreyi</em> (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Phyllospadix</span><em> scouleri</em> dominates space and persists through all seasons without serious damage by disturbances such as storm waves. This species is long-lived and persistent and may preempt space, preventing other species from invading. This species is slow to recover after removal (Turner 1985).	eng
173367	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a common species in suitable substrate. The population status is thought to be stable.	eng
173367	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats include coastal development and modifications and over-water structures in the form of ferry terminals, commercial docks. Mechanical damage from boats and dredging is also a minor localized threat.	eng
173368	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species taxonomy, and a review of distribution is needed.	eng
173368	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Halophila ovata</em> is found in the Pacific in southern China, Indonesia, and in Papua New Guinea, northern Australia, Fiji and Samoa.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, <em>H. ovata</em> occurs from Shark Bay in Western Australia north through the Timor Sea and across southern Indonesia. This species also occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the east coast of India, and some of the west coast of India, the Lakshadweep Islands and the northern Red Sea.	eng
173368	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is fast-growing and pioneering. It is found in a variety of habitats, including sand and sandy mud bottoms, and is often found in exposed areas. Reproduction is mainly vegetative (Jacobs and Dicks 1985). In the Red Sea, it occurs at 20 m depth.	eng
173368	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is relatively common. Population trend is estimated to be stable.	eng
173368	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal development and changes in shoreline land-use. It is also affected by water quality from sedimentation, trawling and mechanical damage from boats. These are local threats and are not thought to be causing serious declines on a global scale although they may cause localized declines.	eng
173369	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work be carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
173369	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia coriacea</em> is endemic to western and southern Australia, ranging from the tip of North West Cape, Western Australia, to Beachport, South Australia.	eng
173369	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found ( Kuo and Cambridge 1984).<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, are not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.	eng
173369	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are local examples of declines due to human disturbance for <em>P. coriacea</em>, however the population overall is stable.	eng
173369	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	The main area of disturbance is due to sand mining offshore from south of Perth. Other localized threats may include coastal development by industry, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging. Pollution from eutrophication causing seagrass overgrowth and smothering of epiphytes, aquaculture, farming and direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173370	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures currently in place for <em>Zostera capensis</em>. It was considered for inclusion in the most recent management plan of the Mombosa Marine National Park and Reserve. It is protected in coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF) and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme.<br/><br/>Recommended measures include transplanting for areas that have been affected by clam collection and sedimentation due to flooding, increased regulation and better management of clam collection, and better management of coastal areas for seagrass areas.	eng
173370	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Zostera capensis</em> occurs in the Indian Ocean from northern Kenya south around the tip of South Africa, and on the northwest coast of Madagascar. <em>Zostera</em><em> capensis</em> has a limited distribution, which is also patchy due to a lack of suitable habitat. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 2,000 km².	eng
173370	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Zostera capensis</em> occurs mostly in estuarine waters and lagoons in muddy substrates. It also lives in muddy flats. It is a fast growing species typical for the genus <em>Zostera</em>. In the tropics, plants are smaller and flower more rarely. This species has a patchy and fragmented distribution given that it occurs in generally small areas of&#160; available habitat.	eng
173370	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Zostera capensis</em> is common in the southern part of its range and is the only species of seagrass present in the southern region. It is a temperate species and only a small part of the range is found in the tropics, where it is rare. There have been declines documented in a number of sites throughout its range. Reports suggest that the population has been reduced by more than a third in Mozambique (Bandeira and Gell 2003). The population also has fluctuations. There is additional anecdotal information to suggest a decline in the more northerly tropical regions.<br/><br/>There have been a number of documented declines in the area of <em>Z. capensis</em> in Mozambique. In B. Pescadores the area of seagrass was 1,732 ha in 1991, and it had declined to 73 ha in 2003 (a loss of 95.8 %). This decline was due to sedimentation from flooding (Bandeira and Gell 2003). A decline was also documented in I. Inhaca from 871 ha in 1991 to 808 ha in 2003 (a loss of 7.2 %) (Bandeira and Gell 2003). There were also recorded declines in Mecufi from 3.88 ha in 1991 to 2 ha in 2003 (Bandeira and António 1996; Bandeira and Gell 2003).<br/><br/>In South Africa, <em>Z. capensis</em> occurs in 17 estuaries in southeast South Africa Coast. It consists of small individual beds, generally only a few hectares, and the total area covered by seagrass is 7.07 km² (Bandeira and Gell 2003). Some other localized declines have been reported in South Africa (J. Adams pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tanzania, the total area of <em>Z. capensis</em> is unknown, but it has been seen in Zanzibar in 2006 (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003, den Hartog, pers. comm. 2006). In Kenya the total area is also unknown but the species has been seen in Shimoni near the border of Tanzania in 2004 (Ochieng and Erftemeijer 2003). The distribution in Madagascar is also unknown (den Hartog 1970).<br/><br/>The total area of occupancy for this species in temperate regions is very small due to available habitat.	eng
173370	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2007	<em>Zostera capensis</em> exists in small areas in coastal estuaries and lagoons and is therefore particularly susceptible to coastal development in these regions. Although it is fast growing it does not colonise quickly. Flooding of estuarine areas, sedimentation and pollution are major threats to this species. Shellfish harvesting for bivalves (hand-digging) in Mozambique is also a serious threat (S. Bandeira pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173371	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila australis</span> is protected by the Fisheries Act, National Park, and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173371	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila australis</em> is endemic to Australia, occurring along the southern coast from Perth to Victoria and in northern Tasmania.	eng
173371	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila australis</span> is a temperate species growing in the southern seas of Australia, with rapid growth, high turn-over and wide ecological range. It is considered a  pioneering species.	eng
173371	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no specific population information for <em>H. australis</em>, but the population trend is thought to be stable. This species is difficult to distinguish from <em>H. ovalis</em> except when flowering.	eng
173371	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Localized threats in the region are coastal development from industry, pipelines, and communication cables, mining and dredging, eutrophication, aquaculture, farming, direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities, and to some extent trawling activities. Light reduction due to high sediment loads in water is also a threat to this species (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173372	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is protected in numerous marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
173372	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> has a disjunct global and predominantly tropical distribution. The main part of its range is in the Atlantic: the western tropical Atlantic from northern Florida (USA) to Venezuela including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; also in Bermuda and North Carolina (USA). In the southern Atlantic, it is present on the coast of Brazil.  In the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from southern Morocco on the coast of Africa and the Canary Islands, to the northern part of Angola.<br/><br/><em>Halodule wrightii</em> is found in the eastern tropical Pacific from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Panama.  In the Indian Ocean it is found from the northern extent of the Bay of Bengal to along the Coromandel Coast as well as Oman. Also from southern Somalia to the north part of South Africa including the Mozambique Channel,&#160; Mauritius and Madagascar.	eng
173372	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is typically found on sandy to muddy bottoms and can be found in mixed seagrass species beds. It is highly tolerant to a range of environmental conditions including wide ranging salinity (hypersaline), high temperatures, turbidity, and eutrophication (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006). Optimum temperatures for <em>H. wrightii</em> range between 20-30°C (Phillips 1960).<br/><br/>This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set and forming effective seedbanks, well adapted to high levels of disturbance. It is a pioneer species in Mozambique in exposed sandy areas close to the coastline. It is the dominant species in Texas (USA). It is established along both the eastern and western margins of the lagoon in Tamaulipas (Mexico). In Veracruz (Mexico), it is found in the shallower areas where it tolerates changes in temperature and salinity. In the Caribbean, it is found growing on sand and mud from the intertidal zone to five m. It is the most widely distributed seagrass in Brazil. In South America, it is associated with shallow habitats without much freshwater input, such as reefs, algal beds, coastal lagoons, rocky shores, sand beaches, and unvegetated soft-bottom areas and nearby mangroves&#160; (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>After a complete destruction of seabeds, a rapid recovery was observed with early recovery characterized by small patches suggesting recovery through fragments. Studies show that fragments stay viable for up to four weeks in the spring months and up to two weeks during the autumn months. High viability of fragments suggests a high dispersal distance (Hall <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>This is usually an early colonizing species yet studies in Florida Bay shows that with increased nutrient levels, <em>Halodule</em><em> wrightii</em> becomes the dominant species as it is able to out-compete <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span><em> testudinum</em> for light resources, suggesting that areas in&#160; Florida Bay with high nutrient availability will be dominated by <em>Halodule </em><em>wrightii</em> while areas with low nutrients will be dominated by <em>T. testudinum</em> (Fourqurean <em>et al</em>. 1995).<br/><br/><em>Halodule </em><em>wrightii</em> can rapidly and densely recolonize denuded areas in warm months. Most bed maintenance and new shoot production probably occurs through rhizome elongation (Phillips 1960).	eng
173372	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is a widespread species which is locally abundant. It is the dominant species in Brazil and West Africa. In other areas it may be found in mixed beds with other seagrass species.  Its presence on the western side of Central America appears to be a migration through the Panama Canal and therefore its range appears to be expanding and there is potential for future range extension if it is introduced into other areas.<br/><br/>According to the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, (Carruthers pers. comm. 2007) there are 64 published studies that monitored this species over time and of these 40 had no change, 15 decreased in coverage, and nine increased in coverage (all aerial extent, density, biomass, or cover). The overall population trend for this species is increasing (2% increase). Data from 2000 shows a 28% occurrence when sampling 188 stations at Big Bend, Florida. This is a 23% increase from the data reported by Iverson and Bittaker (1986). Despite the increase in occurrence, maximum depth range decreased from 10.6-8.3 m (Hale <em>et al</em>. 2004). Research by Hall <em>et al</em>. (1999) show a significant widespread decrease in the Florida Bay with a bay wide short shoot density off about 267.5 shoots/m² in 1984 to about 22.5 shoots/m² in 1994.  Decrease in abundance was most likely cause by increased light attenuation due to primary die-off off <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>.  Reduction can also be linked to a decrease in phosphorus availability caused by reduction in freshwater input (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999). Global average maximum biomass is estimated to be 253.5 g dw/m² above ground (from 19 observations) and 193.3 g dw/m² below ground (from 12 observations) (Duarte and Chiscano 1999).	eng
173372	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halodule wrightii</em> is a tolerant species to most disturbances. It replaces less tolerant species under conditions of habitat deterioration, eutrophication, and increased turbidity, and therefore general threats are not considerable except in localized situations. Localized threats include trawling activities, coastal development, habitat destruction and mechanical damage from anchoring and recreational and commercial boating.	eng
173373	conservation	Short, F.T. & Gaeckle, J., 2009	The National Marine Fisheries Service, United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the California Department of Fish and Game have recognized eelgrass to be an important and significant habitat in California and have formulated a comprehensive mitigation policy for eelgrass transplantation (Anonymous 1991 in Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008). Eelgrass on the Pacific coast of the USA receives substantial monitoring and protection, but the degree varies between states.<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding population size, distribution, life history, ecology and the potential threats acting on this species.&#160; In the future, population trends should be monitored.	eng
173373	distribution	Short, F.T. & Gaeckle, J., 2009	<em>Zostera pacifica</em> occurs on the Pacific coast of the USA, from Puget Sound south to the Channel Islands in California.<br/><br/><em>Zostera pacifica</em><em></em> was recently re-recognized (Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008) and more research is needed on its distribution vs. <em>Zostera marina</em>.	eng
173373	habitat	Short, F.T. & Gaeckle, J., 2009	This species is found in protected bays and estuaries from the low intertidal to a depth of approximately 20 m.<br/><br/><em>Zostera pacifica</em> has wider leaves than <em>Z. marina</em> and was found to be genetically distinct (Coyer <em>et al</em>. 2008).	eng
173373	population	Short, F.T. & Gaeckle, J., 2009	There is no population information for this species. The populations are thought to be stable, however there have been localized declines in the past. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species was established from collections in the 1890s (Watson 1891) and the area of this wide leafed eelgrass on the west coast is known to be extensive.	eng
173373	threats	Short, F.T. & Gaeckle, J., 2009	Threats are localized, such as industrial coastal development, eutrophication and sedimentation. However, since this species has a limited range, localized threats can become quite serious.	eng
173374	conservation	Coates, K., Manuel, S., Sarkis, S., Kenworthy, J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T. & van Tussenbroek, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures currently in place.&#160; A marine park was created in an area very close to the type location of <em>H. bermudensis</em>, however, probably because of the complex taxonomic history of this species, its presence in Walsingham Bay was not taken into account when the park boundaries were finalized and Walsingham Bay is not actually included in the marine park. A seagrass management plan is currently being  developed (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007, S. Manuel and K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>More research is needed regarding the taxonomy, distribution, life history and ecology of this species.&#160; Populations trends should be monitored.	eng
173374	distribution	Coates, K., Manuel, S., Sarkis, S., Kenworthy, J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T. & van Tussenbroek, B., 2009	<em>Halodule bermudensis</em> is endemic to Bermuda in the Atlantic Ocean. The species was originally collected from Walsingham Bay and Gibbet Island, Flatts, Bermuda. The only confirmed records of collections of this morphological form of the genus are from 1922 in Jespersen, Walsingham Bay and 1913 in Collins, Gibbet Island (den Hartog 1964). However, no plants fitting the original taxonomic description have been found recently in Bermuda (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).	eng
173374	habitat	Coates, K., Manuel, S., Sarkis, S., Kenworthy, J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T. & van Tussenbroek, B., 2009	<em>Halodule bermudensis</em> has only been identified from two very shallow subtidal locations, both where the seagrass is exposed at extreme low tides. It is not certain what the conditions in Walsingham Bay were in 1922, but it is now a shallow, very sheltered bay with mangroves and shoreline outflows from alkaline ponds. Also, as it is low energy, the sediments tend to be fine and soft. The second location, Gibbet Island, in much more exposed and the sediments are sandy - quite different from Walsingham Bay.<br/><br/>No reproductive plants from <em>Halodule</em><em> bermudensis</em> have ever been seen.	eng
173374	population	Coates, K., Manuel, S., Sarkis, S., Kenworthy, J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T. & van Tussenbroek, B., 2009	There is no specific population information available for <em>Halodule bermudensis</em>, and recent investigations suggest that the morphological type on which the description was based no longer is found in Bermuda (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).&#160;<em>Halodule</em><em> bermudensis</em> was only ever recorded from two sites.<br/><br/>It may still exist in the southwest corner of Bermuda (S. Manuel and K. Coates unpublished data). The total population covers an area of less than 50 m², and if the grass at that site turns out not to be <em>H. bermudensis</em> (based on morphology), then the last known records of this species may be from 1922 collections (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009).	eng
173374	threats	Coates, K., Manuel, S., Sarkis, S., Kenworthy, J., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T. & van Tussenbroek, B., 2009	Pollution, boating and shoreline development are the threats present in the area (K. Coates pers. comm. 2009). Coastal development for moorings and docks are also potential threats (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).	eng
173375	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It has been considered in a recent management plan of the Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve. Implementation of integrated coastal zone management initiatives in Tanzania by IUCN, Zanzibar (Menai Bay Conservation Project), Mafia Marine Park (by WWF), and Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (Green and Short 2003). It was also included in the Indonesian Seagrass Committee (ISC) draft on Seagrass Policy, Strategy and Action Plan to guide the management of the seagrass ecosystems in Indonesia (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173375	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific it is found from the western Philippines to Borneo and Singapore, east across Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the western Caroline Islands, and then south to Vanuatu and the northeast coast of Australia.<br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is found from Chabjuwardoo Bay in mid-Western Australia extending across the Timor Sea to southern Java. It occurs in southern India and the Maldives Islands and ranges from the Gulf of Oman to the Red Sea, south to South Africa, and to Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.	eng
173375	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is found in shallow water to 17 m deep, and most commonly occurs from 0-15 m.&#160; However, it has been found at a depth of 33 m in the Seychelles. At the highest latitude parts of the distribution, plants are short and low density. It is the dominant species in deeper waters forming dense mono-specific meadows. A rich epiphytic community is characteristic of this species with an encrusting calcareous algae covering the woody stems. Successful colonization occurs in exposed areas on sandy or sloping carbonate sediments (Jacobs and Dicks 1985), and it is an important species for the stabilization of substrates and for protecting against coastal erosion. This is a fast growing plant, but it does not colonize quickly. <br/><br/>Throughout much of its range, <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassodendron ciliatum</span> has red leaves or red stripes on its leaves (Short and Novak 2010). Rapid vertical growth rates (42 internodes, i.e., 42 leaves/year), while its horizontal growth rates (16 cm/year) are slow. <span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassodendron ciliatum</span> exhibits morphologically different types in exposed rocky environments vs. sandy quiet environments.<br/><br/>In the Red Sea, <em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> occurs in coarser substrate - coarse sand mixed with coral and shell debris or large pieces of coral from the surrounding fringing reefs or coral knolls at sites exposed to considerable water movement. This species is unique among Red Sea seagrass communities by extending right up to coral reefs, without the usual "halo" zone that typically separates reefs from seagrass beds in their proximity.<br/><br/>The most dominant subtidal seagrass (along with <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em>) in Mozambique. These two species have adapted to live in rocky habitat together with seaweeds in South Africa. It is also the most dominant species in Kenya and Tanzania, where it dominates high ground outflow areas as opposed to <em>Thalassia hemprichii</em>.	eng
173375	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is widely distributed and varies in abundance throughout its range. This species is rare in between Africa and the Western Pacific, and in western Indonesia and Malaysia. However it is very common in East Africa and is often dominant in inter-reef areas. It is common in eastern Indonesia and in the Torres Straits, but is uncommon in other parts of Australia. In the Philippines, the Seychelles and Mauritius the distribution is patchy.<br/><br/>The population appears to be stable in East Africa, where it is often the dominant species. It is not well studied outside of this region. The overall population trend is unknown.	eng
173375	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2008	<em>Thalassodendron ciliatum</em> is slow to colonize new areas and therefore finds it difficult to recover areas where it has been removed. It is particularly susceptible to grazing by outbreaks of urchins. In Zanzibar the removal of the seagrass beds for seaweed farming is a threat, as are beach seines in Madagascar. Drag net trawling is a threat in the Philippines. This species is threatened locally by coastal development and pollution. For example, SeagrassNet global monitoring locations in Puerto Galera (Philippines) show the impacts of eutrophication at the site adjacent to a coastal town (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173376	conservation	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2009	There are no species conservation measures for this species. Research  on the taxonomy of this species is recommended.	eng
173376	distribution	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2009	<em>Halophila minor</em> has an Indo-Pacific distribution. In the Pacific, it is found from southern Japan to Taiwan and Hainan Island (China) as well as southern Viet Nam and throughout Southeast Asia and the Philippines, the Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands. It also occurs in the Torres Straits through the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, New Caledonia and Vanuatu. In the Indian Ocean, it occurs on the east coast of Africa from Kenya through northern Mozambique.	eng
173376	habitat	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2009	This species is ephemeral with rapid turn-over and high seed set, and it is well adapted to high levels of disturbance.<br/><br/>This species normally grows on coral sand or muddy sand together with <em>H. ovalis</em> or&#160;<em></em> with other tropical seagrasses in shallow water. It also extends into deeper water down to seven m where it forms sparse patches with other species such as<em></em> <em>Halodule pinifolia</em> (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173376	population	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2009	There is no population information for this species. The population status is unknown.	eng
173376	threats	Short, F.T., Coles, R., Waycott, M., Bujang, J.S., Fortes, M., Prathep, A., Kamal, A.H.M., Jagtap, T.G., Bandeira, S., Freeman, A., Erftemeijer, P., La Nafie, Y.A., Vergara, S., Calumpong, H.P. & Makm, I., 2009	This species is threatened by coastal development and changes in shoreline land-use. It is also affected by water quality from sedimentation, trawling and mechanical damage from boats. These are local threats and are not thought to be causing serious declines on a global scale.	eng
173377	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is protected in various Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), in Fisheries Acts and National and Marine Park Acts (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173377	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> occurs in southern Western Australia and eastern South Australia and New Zealand.	eng
173377	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is common in areas of high freshwater input and  areas of inland saline wetlands (Green and Short 2003). <em>Ruppia tuberosa</em> and <em>R. polycarpa</em> have rapid development of the plant, early maturity, and a large amount of energy allocated to producing large numbers of small propagules (Brock 1983).	eng
173377	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is no population information of this species. The overall population is thought to be stable.	eng
173377	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Localized reduction of this species is caused by increased sediment loads in water, coastal development and dredging and marine developments. Another minor threat is damage from boating and shipping activities and to some extent trawling activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173378	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas throughout its range. In the Caribbean for example,&#160; <em>Syringoium filiforme</em> is included in the 24 fully managed marine protected areas. Currently, a seagrass management plan is being developed in Bermuda (S. Sarkis pers. comm. 2007).	eng
173378	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> occurs in the western tropical Atlantic from Florida (USA) to Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, as well as Bermuda.	eng
173378	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is typically found on sand to mud bottoms down to at least 20 m, but in transparent waters this species can occur at deeper depths (Kenworthy and Fonseca 1996).This is locally a major habitat forming species. It often grows intermixed with <em>Thalassia</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">testudinum</span> and/or <em>Halodule</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">wrightii</span>. For example, in Cuba, it is found at a maximum depth of 16.5 m with biomass of 3.5 g/m². In the Caribbean, it usually grows intermixed with <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>, but also grows in mono-specific areas, beds or patches from the upper sublittoral down to more that 20 m (Green and Short 2003).<br/><br/>This species does not grow in brackish areas (Zieman 1982, UNESCO 1998, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Green and Short 2003, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006)<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>and it <em></em> is absent in areas of poor water quality (Virnstein 1995). A large portion of the biomass grows below ground and below ground biomass is estimated at 50–60% of total biomass (Zieman, van Tussenbroek, Short, pers comm. 2007). This species has a high seed set from seed banks. Little is known about seed and seedling survival (van Tussenbroek pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/><em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is heavily grazed by parrotfish in back reef areas and is an important food source for manatees. Other species grazing on this seagrass species are surgeonfish, sea urchins and perhaps pinfish. Other grazers, e.g., the queen conch, eat the epiphytic algae on the seagrass leaves (Zieman 1982).	eng
173378	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Syringodium filiforme</em> is abundant and the population is thought to be stable throughout most of its range. Locally, this seagrass can be a major habitat forming species.<br/><br/>According to the Global Seagrass Trajectories Database, (T.J.B. Carruthers pers. comm. 2007) there are 13 published studies that monitored this species over time, and of these, 11 had no change and two showed increased coverage (all areal extent, biomass, or cover). Global average maximum biomass is estimated to be 368 g dw/m² above ground (from six observations) and 451 g dw/m² below ground (from four observations) (Duarte and Chiscano 1999). In Bermuda, out of 55 sites sampled 59% showed presence of this species. Of these, 22% had greater than 320 shoots/m² (Murdoch <em>et al</em>. 2004). There were wide scale decreases in abundance throughout Florida Bay from about 83.3 shoots/m² in 1984 to about 5.6 shoots/m² in 1994 with an 88% reduction in average dry weight density. The reduced abundance at that time was most likely due to increased light attenuation due to die-off of&#160; <em>Thalassia testudinum</em> (Hall <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
173378	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	Threats affecting <em>Syringodium filiforme</em> are eutrophication and sedimentation. This species does not grow well in low quality water and needs good light.<br/><br/>In Florida, this species is locally affected by sewage pollution from expanded residential and hotel development, and marina and boat usage. It is also incidentally damaged from boat traffic. In the Yucatan Peninsula, this species can be affected locally by trawling, eutrophication, and port development. Coastal developments and pollution from land-based sources, eutrophication (sewage and agricultural fertilizers) are local threats in the Caribbean region.	eng
173379	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it is protected in various Marine Protected Areas, in Fisheries Acts or in National or Marine Park Acts.<br/><br/>It is recommended that the whole <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex be reanalyzed and that further morphological and genetic work is carried out (Campey <em>et al</em>. 2000). Research on the taxonomy, ecology and distribution of this species is recommended.	eng
173379	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Posidonia ostenfeldii</em> is endemic to Western Australia from Cape Leeuwin to the western edge of the Great Australian Bight.	eng
173379	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a highly distinctive <em>Posidonia</em> species and is the only terete <em>Posidonia</em>, with both vegetative and reproductive differences from the other members of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex. It is currently being studied for genetic separation by Drs. Kathryn McMahon and Michelle Waycott (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This is an open ocean, deep water, high energy species. The <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex typically form patchy meadows with mixed species in open ocean or rough water sublittoral habitats (Cambridge 1975). They are characterised by their long, thick, leathery leaves and long leaf sheaths that are deeply buried. These characters appear to be associated with strong wave movement and mobile sand substratum typical of the environments in which they are found (Kuo and Cambridge 1984). This species can withstand swell and sediment movement offshore from Esperance to west of Albany.<br/><br/>Campey <em>et al</em>. (2000)&#160; implies that vegetative morphological characters, upon which five species of the <em>P. ostenfeldii</em> complex were erected, is not effective for the identification of species from multiple samples from any one location.	eng
173379	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span><em> ostenfeldii</em> is rare locally and regionally. There are few collections, and it has been rarely observed in the field. Although rare, this species has been recently found at King George Sound, Albany, Wyllie Bay, Esperance (G. Kendrick pers. comm. 2009).	eng
173379	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species, although localized threats include coastal development, dredging, pollution from eutrophication, aquaculture, an direct physical damage by recreational and commercial boating activities (Green and Short 2003).	eng
173380	conservation	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	There is ongoing management of sand mining to limit destruction.<br/><br/>More research into the population status of this species  and taxonomy is recommended.	eng
173380	distribution	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	<em>Zostera polychlamys</em> is endemic to Australia and is found from Dongara, Western Australia south to Investigator Strait, South Australia (Kuo 2005).	eng
173380	habitat	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species can be found up to depths of 48 m, but is usually found in 20 m or less. Its habitats are subtidal areas with sandy and sandy muddy substrates (Kuo 2005). There is rapid recruitment and common occurrence of <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera polychlamys</span> in high energy environments (Carruthers <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is fast growing, sometimes relying totally on seed reproduction to recolonize disturbed areas (Kendrick <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
173380	population	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	This species is common and is often the dominant species in high energy environments. It can coexist with <em>Posidonia coriacea</em>. The population is locally variable, and overall the population status is most likely stable.	eng
173380	threats	Short, F.T. & Waycott, M., 2007	Major threats are sand mining in Western Australia. This species is also affected locally by coastal development.	eng
173381	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for <em>H. nipponica</em>. <br/><br/>Research is need on this species on taxonomy, population trends and threats.	eng
173381	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Halophila nipponica</em> is found in a few temperate locations in Japan and southern South Korea (Kuo <em>et al</em>. 2006). Given its very shallow depth range, and patchy occurrence, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be close to 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
173381	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	This is a temperate species that is found to depths of eight m (Uchimura <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006, 2008).	eng
173381	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	There is little population information available for this species. It is declining in the industrial and urban areas of its range and therefore the population is likely to be declining overall.	eng
173381	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	Major threats for <em>Halophila nipponica</em> are unknown. However in Japan, localized threats may include coastal development, land reclamation, water pollution and trawling (Short <em>et al</em>. 2007). The population is declining overall due to coastal development in a number of areas within the distribution	eng
173382	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	This species is found in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Columbia and Belize.	eng
173382	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila baillonii</em> has a severely fragmented distribution in the Caribbean Sea, with the record complicated by instances of species misidentification. It occurs in several sites in the Greater Antilles, Colombia and Venezuela, and extensively in Belize. In the Pacific, there is a confirmed record of <em>H. baillonii</em> in Costa Rica in the Guanacaste province in 1994, at a depth of two m with a herbarium sample in La Universidad de Costa Rica (J. Cortes pers. comm.).&#160;It was eradicated on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in 1996 by a storm (Cortes 2001).&#160;Since 1994 this species has not been found on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (J. Vireal pers. comm. 2008).&#160;<br/><br/>This species is known from approximately seven locations and has a severely fragmented population.	eng
173382	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	In some places <em>H. baillonii</em> forms dense monospecific meadows, but can be sparse and rare in others. In southern Belize, <em>H. baillonii</em> forms dense monospecific meadows at depths of 1.4-2.5 m in fine sand (Green and Short  2003). In Placencia Lagoon, Belize, mono-species meadows are found extending into mangrove prop roots with depths ranging between 0.6 and 2.2 m on mud and fine sand. <em>Halophila baillonii</em> can sometimes be found intermixed with <em>Thalassia testudinum</em>, <em>H. decipiens</em>, <em>Halodule beaudettei</em>, and/or <em>Caulerpa</em> spp. It can be found at depths of between one and 15 m, but is most commonly found between one and three m depth (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Very little is known about the biology of this species. Little is known about flowering frequency and nothing is known about seedbank recruitment (Zieman 1982, Hemminga and Duarte 2000, Larkum <em>et al</em>. 2006, Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>Evidence shows <em>H. baillonii</em> to be a valuable food source for the West Indian Manatee. It also provides shelter for <em>Brachidontes exustus</em> and juvenile <em>Ginglymostoma cirratum</em>. <em>Eucinostomus melanopterus</em> and <em>Trachinotus falcatus</em> were observed to feed on the scorched mussels that live in these meadows, with gut analysis showing a mixture of <em>B. exustus</em> and <em>H. baillonii</em> remains (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>In Belize, this species has a broad distribution in coastal lagoon systems at Placencia, and the exposed coastal region of Barranco, along the northwest coast of the Gulf of Honduras (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
173382	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	Very little is known about the relative abundance of <em>H. baillonii</em>, except that it is a rare species in much of its range. In the Placencia Lagoon in central Belize it is found in dense monospecific meadows and it is declining (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006). It was eradicated on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in 1996 by a storm (Cortes 2001).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Halophila</span><em> baillonii</em> is apparently rare or a waif distribution in the Dry Tortugas and Brazil since repeated surveys in these areas failed to record this species after the original record. Although often misidentified in Puerto Rico, there is at least one record from this area, but it is thought to be rare.<br/><br/>In Colombia, <em>H. baillonii</em> generally appears to be limited in distribution and has disappeared in several sites (F. Short pers. comm. 2008).	eng
173382	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., van Tussenbroek, B. & Zieman, J., 2007	<em>Halophila baillonii</em> apparently does not do well in poor water quality conditions affected by development and watershed runoff (Short <em>et al</em>. 2006). It was eradicated by heavy storms on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.<br/><br/>This species is vulnerable due to the fact that it appears to be naturally rare with a fragmented population.	eng
173383	conservation	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is protected in some marine protected areas within Western Australia. Given this species relatively small distribution and that is it poorly known as it is found in deeper waters, more research is needed on its population status and life history.	eng
173383	distribution	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is endemic to Australia, ranging from Geraldton in Western Australia south to Albany and then from Esperance to the western extent of the Great Australian Bight.	eng
173383	habitat	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is found growing on bare or sand covered limestone reefs that run parallel to the coastline of Western Australia. It has been recorded from 2-35 m depth and is sometimes found as drift mats. It generally grows in patches. It may be found in surf break zones.<br/><br/>This species has an annual leaf fall with relatively high leaf biomass in the spring and early summer months. This species begins to lose its leaves in early summer and many are lost by autumn. Maximum growth occurs in the spring (Kirkman and Cook 1987).	eng
173383	population	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> is found in deeper waters and so it is poorly collected. There is no species specific information for this species. The population status is unknown.	eng
173383	threats	Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A., Kenworthy, W.J. & Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Thalassodendron pachyrhizum</em> has no known major threats. There may be some localized threat from human activities such as port and industrial development, pipelines, communication cables, mining and dredging.	eng
173384	conservation	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A. & Kenworthy, W.J., Dennison, W.C., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. Given that there is some taxonomic uncertainty associated with this species, more comprehensive surveys and phylogenetic analyses maybe required to definitively confirm the existence of a single species (Turner and Swartz 2006).	eng
173384	distribution	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A. & Kenworthy, W.J., Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera muelleri</em> occurs in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea (McKenzie <em>et al</em>. 2006). In southern and eastern Australia, it has a broad but disjunct distribution.	eng
173384	habitat	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A. & Kenworthy, W.J., Dennison, W.C., 2007	<em>Zostera muelleri</em> is a fast growing species and readily colonizes. It rapidly takes over where soft sediments predominate in coastal habitats and is often the dominant species in estuaries and coastal lakes. It shows prolific seed production and there are some annual populations known in New Zealand and south Western Australia.<br/><br/>The leaf width morphology is variable and can sometimes be confused with thin <em>H. uninervus</em> when the leaves are very thin. It is an ecologically important habitat-producing species, providing food and shelter for numerous fish and invertebrate species.<br/><br/>This species may occur in small numbers in permanently open estuaries such as intertidal shoals (Carruthers <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
173384	population	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A. & Kenworthy, W.J., Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is very common. It is primarily a temperate species that extends into the tropics up the east coast of Australia to Papua New Guinea.<br/><br/>There are many locations where there are declines due to coastal development in southern Australia, but there are also locations where it is increasing. Overall, the population is most likely stable or expanding.	eng
173384	threats	Williams, S.L., Carruthers, T.J.B., Short, F.T., Waycott, M., Kendrick, G.A., Fourqurean, J.W., Callabine, A. & Kenworthy, W.J., Dennison, W.C., 2007	This species is affected by localized threats including coastal industrial development, eutrophication and sedimentation.<br/><br/>In the tropical parts of its range it will be increasingly susceptible to increasing temperatures, as it is less tolerant than tropical species. Climate change may be a threat, but the effects are unknown.<br/><br/><em>Zostera muelleri</em> was affected by a wasting disease in New Zealand in the 1960s.	eng
173392	conservation	Diadema, K., 2008	There are currently no conservation measures in place, except for some populations being found in protected areas.<br/>It is recommended to legally protect the species and its sites, to monitor the population dynamics and the existing sites and to search for new ones. Raising public awareness and control the impacts of urbanisations on the species are also necessary.	eng
173392	distribution	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is endemic to Languedoc in France. It has also been mentioned in the Camargue and seen in Camargue Gardoise in the 1990s (Pavon 2005), but this sighting needs to be confirmed. It has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 500 km<sup>2</sup> and is found at approximately five locations.	eng
173392	habitat	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is found in dry salt marshes.	eng
173392	population	Diadema, K., 2008	This species is found in seven localities in Aude (Fleury, Gruissan, Lapalme, Leucate, Port-la-Nouvelle) and Hérault (Valras-Plage, Vendres). There are 13 populations present. The number of locations is probably five or below as all the localities are very close together. Overall, the populations are declining.	eng
173392	threats	Diadema, K., 2008	The species is threatened by coastal urbanization, agriculture (rice fields) and filling-in.	eng
173444	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
173444	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in dry forests between Poya and Pouembout, then it is totally absent from areas between there and its type locality, 125 km north in Pam (Ouégoa). Its total extent of occurrence is 790 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 28 km².	eng
173444	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
173444	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. When present, this species can be isolated, with scattered to rare individuals, or common but it is never abundant. Because it is sometimes difficult to differentiate from other sympatric <em>Diospyros</em> species, <em>D. cherrieri</em> may actually be more common than previously thought.	eng
173444	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
174089	conservation	Ganesh, S.R. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species was considered in the 1997 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, held in Coimbatore by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, where it was listed as Endangered (CAMP 1998).<br/><br/>The range of this species coincides with protected areas but further research should still be carried out to check threats and habitat quality. More effort should also be put towards preserving the natural areas in the Western Ghats region.	eng
174089	distribution	Ganesh, S.R. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits the high altitudes of the Western Ghats (Daniel 2002) including the Nilgiri and Palni Hills.   Ramakrishna (2007) provided Kudremukh hills, lying ca. 500 km further north, as one of the localities. But this must be considered dubious because his record was simply based on information from a website and field surveys in Kudremukh hill range (Vasudevan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2006; Ganesh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 2007) did not yield any sightings of this species. Likewise, an erroneous Sri Lankan locality “Nuwara Eliya” has also been reported for this Indian endemic species (see Somaweera & Somaweera, 2009). <br/><br/>Smith (1935) recorded this species up to 8,000 ft (2,438 m) above sea level, but its full elevational range is not known. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 26,979 km².	eng
174089	habitat	Ganesh, S.R. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species inhabits moist montane forests, and is also known to be found on bushes, hedges and in gardens (Bhupathy and Kannan 1997, Daniel 2002, Sharma 2002). However, although species of this genus may be able to cope with habitat disturbance to a certain degree, they have never been recorded in plantations other than tea plantations, or in other disturbed habitats; this suggests that this species is affected by habitat alteration due to relatively narrow habitat requirements (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).	eng
174089	population	Ganesh, S.R. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species has been reported as very common (Bhupathy and Kannan 1997, Sharma 2002, Daniel 2002).	eng
174089	threats	Ganesh, S.R. & Manthey, U., 2009	This species is threatened by anthropogenic pressures from hill resort tourism, urbanization, and habitat degradation associated with plantations and agriculture (S.R. Ganesh pers. comm.).	eng
174090	conservation	Bohm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur within the Bandai Hills Forest Reserve. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of the forest reserve, may be required if habitat loss and disturbance caused by activities such as gold mining continue to be a threat to this species. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
174090	distribution	Bohm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is only known from the Bandai Hills in the Ashanti Region in southeastern Ghana (Gans 1987, 2005). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 941 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174090	habitat	Bohm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	The habitat of the Bandai Hills is predominantly very dry forest.	eng
174090	population	Bohm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174090	threats	Bohm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	The Bandai Hills are threatened by habitat destruction from agriculture and gold mining. In 2006, the Ghana government proposed a large hydroelectric dam in the area which would severely alter all aspects of the Bandai Hills (Environmental Resources Management and SGS Environment 2006).	eng
174091	conservation	Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers of this species is suggested as there is little data available. C. Nogueira (pers. comm. 2010) notes that areas in the Caatinga and&#160;<st1:placename w:st="on">Atlantic</st1:placename>&#160;<st1:placetype w:st="on">Forests</st1:placetype>&#160;of northeastern&#160;<st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil, which is within this species range, show levels </st1:place></st1:country-region>of high fragmentation. It is suggested that the rate of forest fragmentation should be monitored as in the future this may affect the species.	eng
174091	distribution	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is known from northeastern Brazil, in the states of Rio Grande do Norte, Paraiba, and Pernambuco. Its estimated that the extent of occurrence is approximately 145,000 km².	eng
174091	habitat	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is a semi-fossorial species found in Caatinga, agreste and Atlantic forest habitats. This species feeds on terrestrial arthropods.	eng
174091	population	Nogueira, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174091	threats	Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
174092	conservation	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and threats of this species is needed.	eng
174092	distribution	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is reported from Colombia, from the Department of Tolima (Werner 1916) and from Pensilvania (Uetz 2006). It is not clear where is meant by 'Pensilvania', as there is a number of towns of this name in Colombia, however, it is assumed to be the administrative sub-division of the Department of Caldas, which lies directly north of Tolima. Tolima and Caldas have areas of 23,089 km² and&#160; 7,784 km² respectively.	eng
174092	habitat	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This is a fossorial species. There is very little habitat and ecology information available for this species, but it is likely to be a forest dweller.	eng
174092	population	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no population information available for<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<em></em>.	eng
174092	threats	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	Very little of the natural forest habitat within the known range of this species remains, with deforestation for urbanized areas and cultivation of land a large cause of habitat loss and degradation. It is possible that this has had a detrimental effect on the species in the past, and this may be continuing. However, as this species is not well studied, there is no reported population decrease or any other data to suggest that the species is being impacted on.	eng
174093	conservation	Martins, M & Passos, P., 2009	The distribution of this species coincides with a number of protected areas. There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174093	distribution	Martins, M & Passos, P., 2009	This species is found in Brazil (in Amazonas), eastern Peru, and Colombia (da Silva and Sites 1995, Martins and Oliveira 1993). More specifically, the range extends along the Eastern slopes of the Andes in Departamento Vaupés, Colombia, into Departamento Amazonas, Peru, and east to Manaus, Estado Amazonas, Brazil (Schargel and Castoe 2003, Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Zaher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Prudente and Passos 2008).<br/><br/>The species has an elevational range between 50 and 650 m (P. Passos and M. Martins pers. comms.).	eng
174093	habitat	Martins, M & Passos, P., 2009	This species is fossorial and has been found in rotting logs and litter, and at forest edges (Dixon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1976, Dixon and Soini 1986). Two dead individuals were found in the soil of recently cleared primary forest (Martins and Oliveira 1993).<br/><br/>This species feeds on earthworms (M. Martins pers. comm.).	eng
174093	population	Martins, M & Passos, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174093	threats	Martins, M & Passos, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range,   since it mostly occurs in areas with very low disturbance. Furthermore, there are many protected areas throughout its distribution.	eng
174095	conservation	Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, it does occur in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park and the Zandvlei Estuary Nature Reserve (Combrink and Kyle 2006, Zandvlei Trust 2006).	eng
174095	distribution	Maritz, B., 2009	This species<em></em> is restricted to the St. Lucia area in northern Zululand, extending further northwards through Maputaland into the southeastern coastal areas of Mozambique (Branch 1998, Marais 1992).	eng
174095	habitat	Maritz, B., 2009	This species is a secretive, slow-moving snake, and has been recorded from grassland, open and closed woodland, coastal dune forest, farmlands, domestic gardens (Marais 1992) and savanna (Branch 1998). It may be encountered both day and night, usually burrowing just below the surface in loose sand or decaying plant material.<br/><br/>This species is ovoviviparous, with litter sizes of 7-20 (Branch 1998).	eng
174095	population	Maritz, B., 2009	This species is reported to be "fairly common" in Zandvlei Estuary Nature Reserve (Zandvlei Trust 2006). Combrink and Kyle (2006) classified the abundance of this species as "few individuals in many localities" in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park.	eng
174095	threats	Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, because of its wide habitat preferences; however it should be noted that there has been an increase in habitat loss due to human development (B. Maritz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174096	conservation	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although this species is reportedly traded as a pet, it is not listed on CITES. Research into the population numbers and harvest levels of this species is needed.	eng
174096	distribution	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits the Highveld of Gauteng and the Free State, South Africa, extending into the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape (Branch 1998). It is also found at isolated localities along the South Cape and West Cape escarpment, and in Lesotho and Swaziland.	eng
174096	habitat	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits grassland, but may also be found in coastal bush and fynbos (Branch 1998). It reportedly favours damp locations (Marais 1992).	eng
174096	population	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	Marais (1992) reports that this species is "fairly rare", and Branch (1998) records that "unfortunately, this snake is not common". Patterson (1987) reported that a rapid depletion of their numbers had occurred.	eng
174096	threats	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	Patterson (1987) reported that this species is threatened by the pet trade and increasing urbanization in its range, which is leading to many individuals being killed on roads. Habitat destruction around Johannesburg has reportedly had an effect on local populations.<br/><br/>This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling, which predicted reptiles to experience the largest range shifts (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, an extension of this analysis (van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005) indicated that this species would be amongst the worst affected reptiles, with a predicted range shift of greater than 50%. &#160;The impact of climate change on this species is still speculative however.	eng
174097	conservation	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with a number of national parks. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
174097	distribution	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is found along the coastal belt in South Africa, from the southwest Cape to East London, extending through the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands and Mpumalanga escarpment to Limpopo Province (Branch 1998). Its distribution includes all of Swaziland. <br/><br/>Griffin (2003) records that this species has been reported from Namibia (originally by Boulenger in 1893, though this record has subsequently been repeated by others), but this has not been confirmed. Indeed, the closest record to Namibia is the southern Cape, which makes the occurrence of the species in Namibia unlikely.	eng
174097	habitat	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits moist coastal bushveld, fynbos and grassveld (Branch 1998). It is often found in rubble and debris, and may be encountered near human habitation (Marais 1992).	eng
174097	population	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174097	threats	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are currently no known threats to this species. An analysis on the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa suggests that reptiles are amongst those species groups predicted to experience the largest range shifts (Erasmus <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002), with a separate analysis predicting a range change of greater than 50% for this species (van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, the effects of climate change on species' ranges are still highly speculative.	eng
174098	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is likely, however, that this species is found in protected areas throughout its range.	eng
174098	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species has been reported from Colombia, Venezuela (including Isla de Margarita), Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago. <br/><br/>The only specimen found in Grenada was collected in 1880; since then, no more specimens have been found, so that Germano <em>et al.</em> (2003) question whether a correct identification was made.	eng
174098	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species has been found in secondary growth forest and agricultural areas. It is mainly terrestrial but has aquatic tendencies. Specimens of this species have also been found in leaf litter of a pre-montane rainforest, leaf litter in a cloud forest and from grassland, suggesting that this species is a habitat generalist (Dixon and Michaud 1992).	eng
174098	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species has been reported as abundant throughout its range.	eng
174098	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	No major threats are thought to impact upon this species.	eng
174099	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and threats of this species is needed.	eng
174099	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, San Juan (San Juan del Oro), Puno, Peru. The holotype was collected at a elevation of 1,520 m above sea level (Myers 1986).	eng
174099	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	The type locality of this species is situated in yungas evergreen forest (WWF 2001).	eng
174099	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174099	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss is prevalent in the region, and the Peruvian yungas forests are reported to be in almost critical state due to migratory agriculture, coca, deforestation, selective logging and gradual urban development (WWF 2001). It is unknown, however, what effect this is having on the species, as it is only known from its type locality.	eng
174100	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into whether habitat degradation is having a detrimental effect on the species is recommended.	eng
174100	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found in northern Chile and coastal southern Peru (Uetz 2006). It is found between sea level and an altitude of 3,048 m above sea level.	eng
174100	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is predominantly desert and dry grasslands.	eng
174100	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174100	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, overgrazing by domestic livestock is causing habitat degradation within localized regions of the species' range.	eng
174102	conservation	Embert, D. & Carreira, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and as Near Threatened by Embert (2007)   in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles, because it was considered a rare species with uncertain taxonomic status. Further research is needed on the habitat preferences of this species.	eng
174102	distribution	Embert, D. & Carreira, S., 2009	This species is found in southern Brazil (state of Rio Grande do Sul), southern Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (in Buenos Aires, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Misiones, &#160;and Santa Fe) (Cei 1993, Myers and Cadle 1994, Scrocchi and Giraudo 1997, Giraudo 2001, Carreira <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005).	eng
174102	habitat	Embert, D. & Carreira, S., 2009	This species feeds on anurans, and has been collected from grassland, rocky, and sandy areas (Myers and Cadle 1994, Carreira<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2005, Carreira 2002).	eng
174102	population	Embert, D. & Carreira, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174102	threats	Embert, D. & Carreira, S., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
174103	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the habitat status and threats of this species is needed to assess the impact of current localized threat processes.	eng
174103	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is distributed in Mexico and has been found in the Sierra Madre Oriental of southern Tamaulipas, in eastern San Luis Potosi, northern Hidalgo and in southern central San Luis Potosi (Myer 1974). This species has been found at an elevation range of 200 to 2,683 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as 10,517 km².	eng
174103	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species may inhabit moist forest habitats, including pine-oak, cloud and tropical deciduous forests, often on mountain slopes. It appears to be most often found in pine-oak zones of montane forest, inhabiting diverse terrestrial habitats including roadsides, leaf litter and grassy clearings (Myers 1978).	eng
174103	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species has been referred to as common (Myers 1974), but no recent information is available.	eng
174103	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	The forest habitat of this species may be suffering fragmentation and quality declines as a result of logging and infrastructure development. Mining may also be negatively impacting this species habitat, particularly in the San Luis Potosi region, where mining is an important industry.	eng
174104	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. It was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and by Embert (2007) in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles.	eng
174104	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species occurs in central and southern Brazil (the species has been reported from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul), Paraguay, and northern Argentina (in Misiones and possibly Corrientes) (Argolo 1999, da Silva 2001). Its estimated extent of occurrence is larger than 1,000,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174104	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species<em></em> is a terrestrial, diurnal species which is active throughout the year (Marques <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). The species is associated with forested areas and is usually found on the forest floor close to bodies of water (da Silva 2001). Individuals were found in coffee farms with remnants of deciduous and semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest (Argolo 1999). <br/><br/>This species feeds strictly on anurans and mainly on <em>Bufo</em> species (da Silva 2001).	eng
174104	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174104	threats	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
174105	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
174105	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is distributed across the northern part of South America from eastern Colombia across northern and central Venezuela into southwestern Guyana, and southwards into the Roraima state of Brazil (Campbell and Lamar 1989, Roze 1996). This species has previously been erroneously cited as occurring in Peru. It is found between sea level and 1,400 m above sea level.	eng
174105	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found in a broad range of habitats, including tropical deciduous forest, savanna, gallery forest, and lower wetland forest (Campbell and Lamar 1989, Roze 1996). It is also known to inhabit altered habitats such as pasture and open/semi-open secondary growth forests.	eng
174105	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is common throughout most of its range (Campbell and Lemar 2004).	eng
174105	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
174106	conservation	Lamar, W., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the taxonomy, population and distribution of this species.	eng
174106	distribution	Lamar, W., 2009	This species is endemic to the Pacific side of the Cordillera Occidental in Cauca, Colombia  (Roze 1996, Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species is only known from a few localities including El Tambo and Quebrada Guangui (Campbell and Lamar 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,212 km² and it has an elevation range of 100 to 900 m above sea level (Roze 199, Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
174106	habitat	Lamar, W., 2009	This species is found in lowland and moderate altitude rainforests (Roze 1996). Coral snakes are elusive and largely fossorial species which spend much of their time burrowing in the soil or leaf litter (Roze 1996).	eng
174106	population	Lamar, W., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174106	threats	Lamar, W., 2009	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss as most of the lowland forest in this species' distribution has been destroyed because of timber exploitation (WWF 2001).	eng
174107	conservation	Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174107	distribution	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is found in northeastern and central Brazil, from northern, eastern and southern Pará and western Maranhão to Rondônia. Two specimens have been located in Suriname (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species has an elevation range from sea level to 400 m above sea level. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as more than 1,000,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174107	habitat	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is found in tropical lowland forest (Roze 1996). It is known to occur in secondary forests.	eng
174107	population	Nogueira, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174107	threats	Nogueira, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is affecting this species. Although habitat loss may be occurring in areas of this species' distribution, this is a localized threat only.	eng
174108	conservation	Embert, D. & Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. The species was assessed as Least Concern in the Red Book of Bolivia (Cortez 2009) and by Embert (2007) in a study on the status of Bolivian reptiles. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
174108	distribution	Embert, D. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is distributed in the central part of South America, from western Bolivia to Paraguay in the east (Campbell and Lamar 2004). This species is found at an elevation range of 100 to 500 m above sea level.	eng
174108	habitat	Embert, D. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is found in dry tropical deciduous forest, grassland, savanna and semi-deciduous shrubland (Roze 1996).	eng
174108	population	Embert, D. & Nogueira, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174108	threats	Embert, D. & Nogueira, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
174109	conservation	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are over a dozen formally protected areas in the Maluti-Drakensberg Trans-frontier region which are managed by national and provincial conservation authorities (Zunckel 2003). These protected areas are primarily located at the higher altitudes in the region but cover most of this species' range.	eng
174109	distribution	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits the Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Free State (Bates 1996, Branch 1998, Bourquin 2004). It may also occur in Lesotho. This species has an extent of occurrence of approximately 8,900 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>It has been recorded at elevations up to 2,750 m.	eng
174109	habitat	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits montane grassland, living in rock cracks and under loose boulders lying on bedrock (Branch 1998). It may be found well above the snow line.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with two eggs laid in January-March (Branch 1998).	eng
174109	population	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174109	threats	Bates, M.F. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is unlikely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation. There are a variety of threats that impact the montane grasslands of the Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa; however, this specie's occurrence in inaccessible habitat such as cliffs, outcrops and crevices, seldom&#160;interfered&#160;with, mean it is protected by threats in the region. &#160;Tourism is well-established in this region and is being encouraged to grow by the national governments (Zunckel 2003), which may begin to have detrimental impacts on the natural habitat in the near future.	eng
174110	conservation	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but the species was included in the 1985 Red Book of Kyrgyzstan as a rare,  narrow-ranged endemic species (Ananjeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) report that special protection measures for this species are not necessary.	eng
174110	distribution	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species<em> </em>is found in the Fergana Range (Naryn Region) of the central part of the Tien-Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan (Bobrov 2005, Ananjeva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2006). This species can be found at an elevation range of 1,800 to 2,500 m above sea level.	eng
174110	habitat	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is found on the slopes of foothills and hills which either lack vegetation or are covered with occasional bushes (<span style="font-style: italic;">Salsola</span> sp.) (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It can generally be found under slabs of schist or in washed out depressions on slopes with a steepness of up to 45<sup>o</sup> (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It has also been found on loose cliffs of both seasonal and permanent streams as well as in ruined buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
174110	population	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species has been found in densities of up to two individuals in one hectare (Szczerbak 2003). Although they also refer to it as a "rare species with a narrow range", Szczerbak and Golubev (1996) note that it can often be the most common, or even only gecko found. In 1983-84, this species was reported as having a stable population (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
174110	threats	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species has been reported to inhabit areas where human populations have no impact, since cultivation is not easy in these areas (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). It is therefore unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats at present.	eng
174111	conservation	Nogueira, C., 2009	Further research into the distribution and habitat of this species is recommended, primarily to establish whether the species is restricted to the fragmented coastal restinga habitat. This will provide a better understanding of threat processes affecting the species, in response to which further conservation action may be required.	eng
174111	distribution	Nogueira, C., 2009	Most records for this recently described species are known from a relatively restricted area, close to Parque Estadual das Dunas de Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil.  (~1,700 ha). The species was thought to be endemic to the patchy forests along the dunes in this region (Freire 1999). However, there are further new, and as of yet unpublished, records by herpetologists working in Natal that&#160;expand the known range beyond this single known site.	eng
174111	habitat	Nogueira, C., 2009	Unpublished ecological studies indicate that this species lives mostly on leaf-litter in dense restinga habitats (coastal sand dune vegetation), in micro-habitats with higher humidity, with lower temperatures, deeper leaf litter and lower elevations than randomly chosen points around the type locality (E.M.X. Freire unpublished data).	eng
174111	population	Nogueira, C., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
174111	threats	Nogueira, C., 2009	The species, although relatively abundant in favourable micro-habitats, depends on forested, shaded restinga habitats, which are naturally discontinuous and threatened by urban development. Only a small proportion of the coastal restinga forest remains, as much of this habitat is situated adjacent to large cities, and urban expansion is still resulting in loss of natural forests; remaining areas are highly fragmented (WWF 2001). However, as the distribution and ecology of this species is not well known it is not known whether the species is able to inhabit other habitat types.	eng
174112	conservation	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Nearly all of Great Nicobar has been declared a biosphere reserve, which contains two national parks. The distribution of this species has been reported to coincide with the Galathea National Park (Das 1997). No further action is currently needed.	eng
174112	distribution	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is endemic to the Nicobar Archipelago, where it is known only from Great Nicobar Island (Das 1997), which has an area of 955.7 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174112	habitat	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is known to inhabit undisturbed primary forest, forest edge, and roadsides, where it has been found in loose soil under logs and on saplings (Das 1997).	eng
174112	population	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174112	threats	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	The Nicobar and Andaman Islands have been and continue to be deforested, leading to extensive grasslands in certain areas (Khatri 1993). The main drivers are clearance for cash crops and monoculture forests. However, nearly all of Great Nicobar island has been declared a biosphere reserve (Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve), it is thinly populated and most of the island's rainforest remains.<br/><br/>Natural disasters may also affect the species but the impact of these is currently not known. The Andaman and Nicobar islands were hit by the Asian Tsunami of 2004. The effect of the influx of salt-water and wreckage into the interior of islands is yet to be assessed (BirdLife International 2006).	eng
174114	conservation	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed on the habitat preferences of this species.	eng
174114	distribution	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This speices is endemic to China and is known from the Xinjiang province. Collections have been made from the Tarim Basin and the Turpin Depression (Macey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).	eng
174114	habitat	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is recorded from areas including the Tarim Basin and the Turpan Depression (Macey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and as such probably inhabits dry areas with little vegetation.	eng
174114	population	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174114	threats	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species occurs in an area of low human population and is therefore not thought to be impacted by any major threats.	eng
174116	conservation	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, ecology, habitat status and threats of this species.	eng
174116	distribution	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality in Hejin County, Shanxi Province, China (Zhao and Adler 1993). One specimen of this species was collected at 459 m above sea level.	eng
174116	habitat	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
174116	population	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174116	threats	Böhm, M. & Dewhurst, N., 2009	This species may be negatively affected by regional deforestation due to expansion of agricultural land and a growing demand for timber and wood fuel (Rost 1999). However, as the habitat preferences for this species are unknown, so are the possible effects of the threats.	eng
174118	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Martiz, B., 2009	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure-SP (distribution)'. 'SP' indicates that the secure status may change if revisions to its known distribution occur. Currently, 25% of the range of this species is thought to occur in Namibia. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
174118	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Martiz, B., 2009	This species occurs along a narrow strip along the Okavango Basin, the Chobe River, into the Zambezi Valley, and onto the Zimbabwe Plateau and adjacent Zambia (Branch 1998). Its distribution runs along the northern borders of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, and the southern borders of Angola and Zambia. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species has recently been extended further north and south with the discovery of several more populations. A recent survey of Niassa Game Reserve, in northern Mozambique, extends the known distribution of this species further north (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2005). A new locality of Matobo National Park, Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe, extends its southern limit by nearly 200 km (Broadly and Wilson 2005). However, this new locality is highly likely to be based on accidental introduction of the species from northwestern Zimbabwe by tourists. <br/><br/>In Namibia, this species had previously only been reported from the Caprivi strip. In 1989, individuals were accidentally translocated to the Waterberg Plateau Park and Windhoek (both in central Namibia), via building materials from the West Caprivi (Griffin 2003). However, the status of these potential populations is unknown.	eng
174118	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Martiz, B., 2009	This species inhabits moist savanna. It is abundant on tree trunks and the walls of buildings, hence is  readily transported between National Parks in the luggage of visitors (D. Broadley pers. comm.). The species prefers to forage high in trees, and is common on acacia, baobab and mopane trees.	eng
174118	population	Broadley, D.G. & Martiz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174118	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Martiz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.	eng
174119	conservation	Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
174119	distribution	Maritz, B., 2009	This species is endemic to the the Limpopo, North-West, Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Its estimated range, in four distinct areas, is approximately 54,700 km², and its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately twice this area. <br/><br/>Subspecific distributional information includes:<br/><ul><li><em>L. nigropunctatus nigropunctatus</em> is found throughout the Limpopo, North-West, Gauteng and Mpumalanga provinces, but not from Soutpansberg, Blouberg, and the Waterberg from 700 to 800 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992). </li><li><em>L. nigropunctatus incognitus</em> is found in the Soutpansberg in the northern Limpopo Province from 1,400 to 1,600 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992). </li><li><em>L. nigropunctatus montiscaeruli</em> inhabits the Blouberg and the low-lying plateau, Makgabeng from 950 to 1,300 m above sea level (Jacobsen 1992).</li></ul>	eng
174119	habitat	Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits wet and dry savanna and sub-tropical thicket habitat (Branch 1998) where it can be found on rocky outcrops and cliffs, foraging on boulders and taking refuge in crevices or under rocks (Jacobsen 1992).<br/><br/>It is oviparous, with a clutch size of two eggs (Jacobsen 1992).	eng
174119	population	Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174119	threats	Maritz, B., 2009	This species may be impacted by habitat degradation. According to the National Review of Land Degradation (NRLD) in South Africa, the northeast includes some of the most extensively degraded areas (Wessels 2004). Land uses in the region that may be contributing to habitat degradation include commercial and subsistence agriculture, exotic forestry plantations, commercial cattle ranching and communal grazing (Wessels 2004). In western South Africa, overgrazing was shown to have negative impacts on the vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999). However, these are likely to be localized threats only.	eng
174120	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species was assessed as 'Secure' in a national assessment of the conservation status of the herpetofauna of Namibia (Griffin 2003). Research is needed into the distribution of this species because of unverified reports of occurrence.	eng
174120	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is endemic to Namibia, occuring in the northwest of the country in northern Damaraland and adjacent Kaokoveld (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>Griffin (2003) reports this species from the districts of Khorixas, Omaruru and Karibib. Early records from Otjimbingwe, Walvis Bay and Kuibis have not been verified, but an isolated population may occur in the Karas Region (Griffin 2003). Live specimens collected at Sesfontein may also have been released in Windhoek in the past.	eng
174120	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is a ground-dwelling species that lives in small tunnels often dug beneath calcrete boulders in the sandy soils of arid Mopane and Acacia savanna (Branch 1998). Loveridge (1947) describes the habitat as "rock fissures of mountain slopes".	eng
174120	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for<em> </em>this species. &#160;This species is said to be abundant and common in areas with no people and cattle (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174120	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	While long-term land degradation, due to overgrazing, increased human population densities, and increased pressure on agricultural land may threaten the arid habitat of Namibia (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000); however, much of this species range is unaffected by these threats and they are not severe enough to cause significant declines in this species at this time (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174121	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed to ensure this species is not negatively affected by threats to its habitat.	eng
174121	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is endemic to the Republic of South Africa. It occurs in the Western and Northern Cape from Little Namaqualand to Calvinia (Branch 1998), including Cederberg Wilderness Area.	eng
174121	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species can be found under stones in succulent karroid vegetation (Branch 1998).	eng
174121	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174121	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation are the primary threats affecting this species in certain parts of its range. A recent study by Rouget <em>et al.</em> (2003) estimated that 30% of the Cape Floristic Region is currently transformed by agriculture, urbanization and invasive plants. This is also likely to be the case further north into the Succulent Karoo habitat along the western coast. Furthermore, overgrazing, which is most severe on communally grazed lands (Seymour and Dean 1999), has been shown to negatively impact vertebrate diversity (Joubert and Ryan 1999).	eng
174122	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174122	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species occurs in South Africa, on the inland escarpment from Sutherland down through the Western Cape and coastal regions of Knysna, and across to the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland and extreme southeast Mpumalanga (Branch 1998). One record also exists from adjacent southern Mozambique (Branch 1998). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be larger than 200,000 km².	eng
174122	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species occurs in a variety of habitats, from fynbos and coastal bush, to arid karroid vegetation (Branch 1998). This species is terrestrial and occasionally enters rocky areas, but is normally found under debris, in rotting logs, old termitaria, or under loose bark on dead trees.<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, laying two to three clutches a year with two eggs per clutch (Branch 1998). It is commonly considered poisonous in South Africa (Loveridge 1947).	eng
174122	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174122	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	Given its extremely large range it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
174123	conservation	Maritz, B. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. Establishing protected areas may also help to conserve this species and its natural habitat in the area.	eng
174123	distribution	Maritz, B. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Tsodilo Hills in northwest Botswana (Barts <em>et al.</em> 2001, Bauer <em>et al. </em>2006). This species has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,000 km², occurring in less than ten locations (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174123	habitat	Maritz, B. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species inhabits island hills surrounded by a lush savanna (Bart <em>et al.</em> 2001). It can be found on quartzite and dolomitic limestone outcrops (Branch 1998). <br/><br/>It is oviparous and strictly nocturnal (Bart <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
174123	population	Maritz, B. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174123	threats	Maritz, B. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation in northern Botswana may pose a threat to this species. Removal of woodland vegetation is caused during agricultural clearance, fuel-wood collection and construction of human settlements (Ringrose <em>et al.</em> 1997). Overgrazing was shown to have negative impacts on vertebrate diversity in South Africa (Joubert and Ryan 1999), which may also affect this region. Lastly, tourism in the Okavango Delta area has begun to have negative impacts on the environment through noise pollution, poor waste management, and habitat destruction through driving outside of the prescribed trails (Mbaiwa 2003); however the threats relating to tourism in the Okavango is thought to be having little impact on these hills at present (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174124	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174124	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is distributed in South Africa, from northern KwaZulu-Natal and adjacent Free State, through Mpumalanga and eastern Limpopo Province, to southeast Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique (Branch 1998). &#160;Its southern extent reaches the northern border of Lesotho, including Swaziland (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010). &#160;The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated to be larger than 100,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174124	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits mesic and arid savanna, often sheltering in tunnels beneath rocks or dead logs (Branch 1998). Highveld populations are totally rupicolous, living in rock cracks.	eng
174124	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174124	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. &#160;This species may be vulnerable to collection with firewood as a result of its use of dead vegetation, such as Aloes, for habitat (A. Bauer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174125	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. The species was assessed as Lower Risk in the 1998 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan for Reptiles in India (CAMP 1998).	eng
174125	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found in Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, India (Sharma 2002). Its extent of occurrence is estimated as more than 660,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174125	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests and shrublands. It burrows into soft soil under dense bushes of <em>Acacia</em> and cactus (Sharma 2002).	eng
174125	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174125	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.	eng
174126	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Most of the distribution of this species is in good conservation status (D. Embert pers. comm.). Conservation of wetland areas, such as the   Natural Reserve “Lakes of Rogaguado” in Beni Department, has been proposed (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
174126	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from the northeastern states of Beni and Pando in Bolivia, but its distribution in adjacent Brazil is more than probable (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174126	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is likely to inhabit wetlands and lowland moist forests.	eng
174126	population	Embert, D., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
174126	threats	Embert, D., 2009	This species is collected for its skin and its use as meat tan fat (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is also occasionally killed because it feeds on small livestock such as chickens, as well as on dogs and cats (Cortez <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). This species occurs in an area of South America which is sparsely populated and relatively untouched and underdeveloped, suggesting that no further threats are affecting this species.	eng
174128	conservation	Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of the species.	eng
174128	distribution	Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is only known from its type specimen, which was found in the Sudan, in the southern Nuba mountains (S. Spawls and D. Broadley pers. comms.).	eng
174128	habitat	Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species; however, it is reported to be one of the smallest skink species (Greer 2001, Uetz and Hallerman 2010).	eng
174128	population	Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174128	threats	Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being affected by any major threats.	eng
174129	conservation	Das, I., 2009	Das (1999) states that the local protection given to this species precludes the collection of specimens. Further research on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species is needed.	eng
174129	distribution	Das, I., 2009	This species is endemic to the east coast of peninsular India. It is known only from its type locality at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (Das 1999), but it is likely that it occurs in suitable habitat away from the type locality.	eng
174129	habitat	Das, I., 2009	The type locality of the species is scrub forest. This species is limbless (Greer 2001).	eng
174129	population	Das, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174129	threats	Das, I., 2009	It is unknown whether any threats are affecting the species.	eng
174130	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats to the species is needed.	eng
174130	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species appears to be only known from the type locality at Pulu Miang, an island just off of the coast of East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Hallerman 1998).	eng
174130	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species inhabits lowland Dipterocarp rainforest.	eng
174130	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174130	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unknown if this species is being impacted by any major threat. Its type locality is on an island off the east coast of Kalimantan, and it is unknown if deforestation, a prevalent threat on mainland Kalimantan, also impacts the island.	eng
174132	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and threats of this species is needed.	eng
174132	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found in the Middle Shebelli, Bay, Gedo, Middle Juba and Lower Juba regions of Somalia (Lanza 1988). Its estimated extent of occurrence is more than 150,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174132	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species inhabits the low-lying grasslands, shrublands, and dry forests of southern Somalia (Lanza 1988).	eng
174132	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174132	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats. Habitat degradation due to agriculture and over-grazing is occurring in areas of Somalia, however, this is a localized threat only, and unlikely to be causing significant declines.	eng
174133	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is listed on the 1998 Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) on Reptiles in India, in which it was listed as Vulnerable. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. Measures to protect the natural habitat should also be carried out, such as via the establishment and effective management of protected areas.	eng
174133	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is found in three localities, in the Anaimalai Hills, Palni Hills and Malabar at elevations up to 700 m above sea level (CAMP 1998; Sharma 2002). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,470 km².	eng
174133	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species lives in the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests (CAMP 1998, Sharma 2002). It is strictly arboreal as well as insectivorous and diurnal (Sharma 2002). This species is limbless.	eng
174133	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174133	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat loss and degradation (CAMP 1998). Annual deforestation rates for the Western Ghats had previously been estimated at 0.57% for the period 1920-1990 (Menon and Bawa 1998). However, a recent analysis has found it to vary by district from -0.73% to 1.84% annually, with a perceived acceleration (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000). As the data from the Agastyamalai region demonstrates a five-fold increase in forest loss from the 1920-1960 period to the 1960-1990 period, it is concluded that deforestation is increasing at least in certain districts of the Ghats (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000). The causes of this forest loss are primarily agriculture and plantation development (Jha <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>A further threat is fire, which has increased 200% from the 1910-1920 period to the 1990-2000 period (Kodandapani <em>et al.</em> 2004). This is attributed to increased anthropogenic ignition sources, forest fragmentation, altered fire regimes, and possible synergisms (Kodandapani <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
174135	conservation	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is needed to ensure localized overgrazing does not become a widespread problem.	eng
174135	distribution	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is restricted to Kaokoveld in Namibia (Branch 1998). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 26,000 km².	eng
174135	habitat	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is found in rocky, arid savanna, where it forages among the leaf litter around rocky outcrops (Branch 1998).	eng
174135	population	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174135	threats	Bauer, A.M. & Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats at present. The Namibian side of the Kaokoveld Desert is relatively intact because of its arid conditions and low population density. Habitat degradation due to overgrazing by cattle may threaten localized areas of this habitat (WWF 2001), however, this is not thought to be acting as a major threat at present.	eng
174136	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174136	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	'This species is found on rock outcrops from the southern end of Lake Malawi,  south through the Tete District of Mozambique into northeastern Zimbabwe (Broadley 2004). There  are isolated populations in the Save River Valley in southeastern Zimbabwe and  along the length of Lake Kariba into Hwange District, with another isolated  population in the extreme southwest of Angola (Broadley 2004). Its estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 76,000 km².	eng
174136	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is rupicolous and is found on lowland rock outcrops of gneiss and sandstone (Broadley 2004).	eng
174136	population	Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174136	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats at present.	eng
174137	conservation	Bates, M.F., Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174137	distribution	Bates, M.F., Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species has a large distribution in southern Africa. It occurs from the northern part of the Eastern Cape Province, through Free State, adjacent parts of the Northern Cape, Lesotho, western KwaZulu-Natal and the northern provinces of South Africa, as well as in southern Botswana, with an isolated population&#160;in the eastern highlands of&#160;Zimbabwe and Zambia on the border with&#160;Malawi&#160;(Branch 1998, Broadley 2000).	eng
174137	habitat	Bates, M.F., Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats, wet and dry, from grassland and savanna to shrubland, including rock outcrops (Branch 1998).	eng
174137	population	Bates, M.F., Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	This species is common (Branch 1998).	eng
174137	threats	Bates, M.F., Broadley, D.G. & Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat.	eng
174138	conservation	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed because of its restricted distribution to Little Scrub Island.	eng
174138	distribution	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Little Scrub Island (White <em>et al.</em> 2002) off the northeastern tip of Anguilla. The island has a total area of around 0.049 km², less than half of which is habitable (Hodge <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
174138	habitat	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species inhabits dry scrublands. It is quite common in the cactus-dominated vegetation and in the rocky area near the sand patch on the leeward side, but less common in other areas (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). The habitat is food-limited. The lizards are known to climb cacti to eat the fruits and to scavenge fish from seabirds nesting and roosting on the island and to prey on bird eggs (Censky and Powell 2001).	eng
174138	population	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	White <em>et al.</em> (2002) described the species as 'quite common' in certain areas of the island and as 'less common' in others.	eng
174138	threats	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Little Scrub Island is not likely to be developed. The very small size of the habitable area on the island renders the population of these lizards vulnerable to stochastic events (e.g, hurricanes). Smith <em>et al.</em>&#160;(2005) have noted an increased frequency and intensity to tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Basin, especially since 1995 (2005: 2). Future climate change impacts of increased storm activity and sea level rise may pose further threats, but these are are not imminent threats, are highly uncertain and are unlikely to lead to very rapid population declines.	eng
174139	conservation	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for the species. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed, because of its restricted distribution.	eng
174139	distribution	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Sombrero Island (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Lazell 1964) of the Lesser Antilles.<br/><br/>Sombrero cay, 32 miles northwest of Anguilla, forms the northern limit of land in the Lesser&#160;Antilles&#160;(Lazell 1964). It is 0.75 mile (1.21 km) long and 400 yards (0.37 km) wide at the widest section, oriented north-south. The area of the cay is approximately 0.366 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
174139	habitat	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is xerophilic and diurnal. It is ground-dwelling, however, it will climb pit walls for bird eggs and for basking sites (Lazell 1964). <em></em>This species eats the eggs of ground-nesting birds (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).<br/><br/>Sombrero Island is presumed to be of volcanic origin, however, it is capped with oceanic limestone (Lazell 1964). Vegetation cover is extremely sparse and consists of a few clumps of cactus, ground-trailing herbaceous plants, and small weeds. The habitat is at least seasonally food-limited. No amphibians or mammals occur on the island; however, large colonies of nesting sea birds are present. The species occurs alongside two other known reptile species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Anolis gingivinus</span> and an undescribed <span style="font-style: italic;">Sphaerodactylus</span> (Hodge <em>et al. </em>2003 in press).	eng
174139	population	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species has been described as abundant throughout the island (Layzell 1964), and as "quite common" around the lighthouse and in areas where vegetation occurs (Shew <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
174139	threats	Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that the species is being impacted by any direct major threats at present as there is no permanent human settlement on Sombrero. The British government had maintained a lighthouse there from about the 1860s, due to its position at the mouth of the Anegada Passage; however, it was swept away by a hurricane in 1960. A new lighthouse had been built (Lazell 1964), but this has now been decommissioned and human presence on the island is sporadic.<br/><br/>While this species has been able to withstand the island being briefly flooded by a hurricane, it is unlikely it would survive complete permanent inundation due to sea level rise. However, although sea level rise may pose a threat in the future, this is not an imminent threat.	eng
174140	conservation	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species as very little information is currently known.	eng
174140	distribution	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	The type locality for this species is Valle de Lluta, Poconchile Tarapaca, in the Atacama Desert, Chile. It is not known whether this species is found beyond the region of the type locality.	eng
174140	habitat	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, its type locality is in the Atacama Desert.	eng
174140	population	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174140	threats	Böhm, M. & Richman, N., 2009	Potential threats in the region of the type locality include overgrazing and mining (Padilla 2005). However, as the range of the species is not known, it is not possible to accurately assess if this is acting as a major threat.	eng
174141	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss and decline that is occurring within its range. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is also required.	eng
174141	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from one river drainage in the region of Huancabamba, Piura, Peru (Cadle 1991, Fritts 1972). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 947 km²<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><sup><em></em></sup>.	eng
174141	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from moist montane forest (WWF 2001).	eng
174141	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174141	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation as a result of burning and deforestation for urban and agricultural expansion as well as mining operations (WWF 2001).	eng
174142	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, habitat and ecology is needed as little information is currently available.	eng
174142	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from the type locality, at high elevations on the eastern slopes of the Andes, in the department of Junin, central Peru (Fritts 1972; Cadle 1991). &#160;No specimens have been collected from the Rio Tarma-Rio Palca region which is relatively well known, and just 80 km north of the type locality; this species may therefore have a restricted range in the vicinity of the type locality, or may be distributed to the south of the type locality.	eng
174142	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species has been collected from rocky areas (Fritts 1972) in a region where evergreen montane forest is the dominant habitat type.	eng
174142	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174142	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture expansion is prevalent in the region, however, the effect that these threats are having on this species are unknown.	eng
174143	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, habitat and ecology is needed, as little information is currently available.	eng
174143	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	The distribution of this species is poorly known. The only distribution information available is that this species has been reported from central Peru (Etheridge 1996), including from the departments Cusco and Junin, and Carrillo and Icochea (1994) have recorded the species from the department of Lima.	eng
174143	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
174143	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174143	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	Due to a lack of distribution and habitat information, it is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
174144	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species range. Additionally educational programmes are needed to provide information in order to prevent indiscriminate killing of individuals of this species (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010). Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is also needed.	eng
174144	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2009	This species<em></em> is probably restricted to the Loja Province of southern Ecuador, which has an area of under 1,988 km². The species is mostly found in two fragmented locations, with most of the population occurring in the vicinity of Loja City, but also 40 km north near Saraguro. It may also be found in the neighbouring province of Zamore-Chinchipe. This species is found between 2,100 and 2,500 m above sea level.	eng
174144	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2009	This species inhabits montane dry forest in arid temperate regions.	eng
174144	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174144	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D., 2009	A large population of this species is located near a state capital city and its habitat is therefore threatened by urban expansion and deforestation and uncontrolled expansion of the agricultural frontier. Furthermore, this species is extensively persecuted by the local people; sometimes for use in traditional medicine practices, but usually killings are a result of fear and misunderstanding of the species (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
174147	conservation	Cruz, F. & Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
174147	distribution	Cruz, F. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is found in Argentina, from Misiones in the northeast to Mendoza in the southwest (Lema 1978), and from Bolivia, Paraguay, and Parana State in Brazil (Lema <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
174147	habitat	Cruz, F. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is found in humid and arid Chaco habitat. However, it has also been collected at a study site highly degraded by deforestation and overgrazing (Leynaud and Bucher 2005).	eng
174147	population	Cruz, F. & Nogueira, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174147	threats	Cruz, F. & Nogueira, C., 2009	In parts of its range it is likely that this species is impacted by habitat loss and degradation. Much of the Chaco habitat of South America is in various stages of alteration due to grazing of goats and cattle and this threat is reported to be most extensive in Argentina (WWF 2001a). The humid Chaco habitat of South America is reported to be relatively untouched, however, it is beginning to feel the pressures of human development (WWF 2001b). At present these threats are localized threats only and are not likely to be causing the species to suffer significant population declines.	eng
174148	conservation	Cruz, F., 2009	In Argentina, this species is considered vulnerable; however, this is mainly due to a lack of knowledge on the species' biology and ecology and the fact that it is considered an endemic species (Lavilla <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
174148	distribution	Cruz, F., 2009	This species is known from the state of Cordoba, Argentina (Dixon 1985).	eng
174148	habitat	Cruz, F., 2009	This species inhabits the dry grass and brush covered slopes of the eastern sierras of Cordoba.	eng
174148	population	Cruz, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
174148	threats	Cruz, F., 2009	No major threats are reported to currently affect the Cordoba montane savanna; however, it is thought to be vulnerable to habitat loss due to overgrazing (WWF 2001). The effect of habitat loss and degradation on this species and the extent of habitat degradation in the area is unknown. Other species of this genus are known to be habitat generalists, which suggests that this species may be able to adapt to habitat changes, both now and in the future.	eng
174175	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174175	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Ukraine, western, central and eastern Kazakhstan to the Altai and Sayan Mountains. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174175	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Neolycaena rhymnus</em> occurs on dry grassland on acid and calcareous soils. Often places with this butterfly species can be well described as steppes with occasional bushes or shrubs. The larval foodplant is<em> Caragana frutex</em>. The winter is passed in the egg stage. There is one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (50%), screes (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).	eng
174175	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174175	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174176	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174176	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southern European part of Russia, Crimea, south of Siberia, west of Mongolia. Sea level to 1,800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174176	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species occurs on stony steppes and limestone outcrops. Its larval foodplants are <em>Hedysarum</em> spp. The female lays the eggs on the leaves. Hibernation takles place in the second or third larval instar. Depending on geographical location of the site, one or two generations a year will be produced  (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).	eng
174176	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174176	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174177	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Further research on the distribution of this species is needed.	eng
174177	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in North Africa from the Sahara desert to the coast, and in the southern coast of Portugal and Spain (from Lisbon to Cadiz). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174177	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Mallow Skipper occurs on hot and dry places with flowers and patches of grass. It is also found in rocky gullies and on slopes. The larval hostplant is Common Mallow (<em>Malva sylvestris</em>). The species produces several generations a year and is on the wing from March to September. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available, but probably similar to <em>C. alceae</em>.	eng
174177	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It replaces <em>C. alceae</em> in the Southern edge of the Iberian peninsula. It is probably more widespread than previously thought.	eng
174177	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174178	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174178	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe along the bigger rivers, particularly along the Danube and its tributaries Tisza, Drava and Sava. It is also present in the south of Hungary, the east of Croatia, the north of Bosnia, the northwest of Serbia and of Albania. It is scattered in Bulgaria, southeastern Romania and in the extreme northeast of Greece. 0-650 m. It is furthermore present through West Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174178	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Freyer?s Purple Emperor is a butterfly of very warm, damp places. The butterflies can be found along wooded riverbanks, with its foodplant, White Willow (<em>Salix alba</em>). The males and females meet each other at the tops of tall trees and the females lay their eggs in small batches at the top of the tree, on leaves in the crown. The caterpillars grow quickly and pupate suspended under a leaf or on a twig. The caterpillars from the generation that follows, hibernate. The butterflies have a varied diet. The females visit flowers for nectar, aphids for honeydew and ripe fruit for the sugars. The males are often found on damp ground, on dung and on carrion. The butterflies are also attracted to sap oozing from wounded trees. This species has two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), water-fringe vegetation (17%).	eng
174178	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174178	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174179	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174179	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Russia, northeast Caucasus and Transcaucasia and northeast Turkey (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174179	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Callophrys chalybeitincta </em>occurs in most of its range in the same habitat as the green hairstreak (<em>Callophrys rubi</em>), a widespread and common species at woodland edges and on scrubby fields in the lowland and at lower altitudes. The species is often misidentified as being <em>C. rubi</em>. Therefore details about its habitat, ecology and behaviour are unknown (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Suchumi (Kaschtak-Tchubuni) ovipositions have been observed on the flowerbuds of <em>Rhododendron flavum</em>, but there are no records for Turkey. In Russia, caterpillars have been found feeding on bramble (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). This species probably has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001), but it could also be bivoltine (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). It hibernates in the pupal stage. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174179	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174179	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174180	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174180	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from Eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia and further southwards to Northwest Greece. 250-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174180	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Short-tailed Blue occurs in clearings in deciduous woodland and on flower-rich, grassy vegetation with scattered bushes. The caterpillars feed on the flowerheads of Black Medick (<em>Medicago lupulina</em>) and Lucerne (<em>M. sativa</em>). The Eastern Short-tailed Blue has three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).	eng
174180	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia, Greece, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174180	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174181	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174181	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in south and central Portugal and Spain as far north as Castilia and northeast as far as the Pyrenees. In France, it is only present along the Mediterranean coast from the Rhône estuary to the Maritime Alps. 0-1,300 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174181	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Provence Hairstreak can be found on abandoned agricultural land, especially on calcareous soils, in abandoned vineyards and bushy areas. Various leguminous plants are used as larval foodplant, mainly of the genera <em>Anthyllis</em>, <em>Dorycnium</em>, <em>Trifolium</em>, <em>Astragalus</em>, <em>Medicago</em>, <em>Ornithopus</em> and <em>Lotus</em>. The female deposits its eggs singly on the unopened leaves. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants, e.g. <em>Plagiolepis pygmaea</em>. This butterfly species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa in the soil. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), fallow land, waste places (16%).	eng
174181	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174181	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174182	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In Denmark, the species only occurs in protected areas. In Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece and Luxembourg, it is not known if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174182	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of South and Central Europe. In Scandinavia to 62° N. It is absent from Italy (except the extreme north), south and central Greece, the Mediterranean islands and East Britain. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs throughout the temperate zone through Siberia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174182	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Marsh Fritillary occurs in very different types of habitat, like moist, sheltered grasslands, along the edges of raised bogs and on dry, calcareous grasslands. The foodplants are Devil?s-bit Scabious (<em>Succisa pratense</em>), Small Scabious (<em>Scabiosa columbaria</em>), Field Scabious (<em>Knautia arvensis</em>) and teasels (<em>Dipsacus</em> spp.). The eggs are laid in large clumps under the leaves. The caterpillars spin a substantial nest between the leaves of the foodplants, feeding in it and also hibernating communally there. However, later they are solitary and look for places deep in the vegetation in which to pupate. The Marsh Fritillary has one generation a year. This is a very variable species with many sub-species. In Spain and Portugal, <em>E.a. beckeri</em> is larger and brighter than most sub-species, with bold, black markings. <em>E.a. debilis</em> is found above 1,800 m in the Alps and Pyrenees and is smaller, with a lot of black markings and hardly any orange. <em>E. a. provincialis </em>occurs in the south of France and is pale orange. <em>E. a. hibernica</em> occurs in Ireland and is very distinctive with prominent red and heavy black markings. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), heath and scrub (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).	eng
174182	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174182	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174183	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research to the exact distribution and ecology of this species is neede. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174183	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Its range is still unclear because of its recent splitting from <em>L. sinapis</em>, but is possibly within the range of <em>L. sinapis</em>. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174183	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Real´s Wood White has recently been separated from the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>). However, in the field the species cannot be distinguished from each other. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. However, <em>L. reali</em> is not known to have more than 2 generations, and is not present as far south as <em>L. sinapis</em> in Europe. In the southern part of its range it is limited to humid to wet meadows and clearings, but becomes more ubiquitous in middle Europe where <em>L. sinapis</em> seems to prefer dryer habitats (Verovnik & Glogovcan 2007). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174183	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Republic of Ireland and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174183	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174184	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Belgium, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174184	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from the south of Italy, the south of the Peloponnese, the Mediterranean islands except Majorca, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Germany, Scandinavia, Estonia and Latvia. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174184	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Adonis Blue is found on calcareous soil on moderately to very sparsely vegetated grassland, that is often sheltered by neighbouring woods or shrub. Its foodplants are Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) and the eggs are laid on the leaves. It pupates in the litter layer. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Plagiolepis</em>, <em>Tetramorium</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Adonis Blue usually has two generations a year and the caterpillars of the second generation hibernate. There are also some single-brooded populations in the south of Greece. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).	eng
174184	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg and Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174184	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174185	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174185	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of  Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from the southwest of Spain, the south of Portugal, large parts of Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, northwest of Germany, Denmark, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia and Crete. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, the Middle East, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Urals, Central Asia, and  Southwest Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174185	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Wall Brown occurs in quite different habitats. It is mainly found in warm, dry places near rocks and nutrient-poor grassland, or on rough vegetation near woodland edges. However, it can also occur on damp grassland and rough vegetation near wood margins. The butterflies need a lot of nectar, often visiting purple or pink flowers of thistles and other nectar-rich plants. The female lays its eggs on the blades of grasses that include <em>Holcus</em> spp., bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in a grass tussock and pupate later deep down in the vegetation. The Large Wall Brown has one generation a year in the north of its distribution range and two a year in the south. Habitats: mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), heath and scrub (7%), coniferous woodland (7%).	eng
174185	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Romania, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174185	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174186	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174186	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps and in the Balkans from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southwest of Bulgaria and north and central Greece. 1,500-2,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174186	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Fritillary can be found in the mountains on flower-rich grasslands, or on grassland with scattered bushes and in clearings in woods. These butterflies usually fly close to the ground. Various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) are used as foodplant. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The Balkan Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (44%), coniferous woodland (33%), mixed woodland (22%).	eng
174186	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174186	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174187	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174187	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: the eastern half and the north of Spain, the Pyrenees, the southeast and west of France (Poitou), south of Switzerland, Italy (the Alps, Liguria, Tuscany to Campania), Slovenia and the Balkans from southwest of Croatia, via the south of Herzegovina and the southwest of Serbia to the south of Greece and of Bulgaria. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents. The European colonies are particularly significant for the global survival of the species.	eng
174187	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Escher’s Blue occurs on dry and flower-rich grassland, damp rough vegetation, in flower-rich rocky places, on scrub and at woodland edges and on agricultural land. The females lay their eggs singly on milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.), in particular <em>A. monspessulanus</em>. Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) may also be a foodplant. When still small, the caterpillar goes into hibernation and in spring completes its growth, feeding on the leaves and flowerbuds of the foodplants. When fully grown, it leaves the foodplant and pupates under stones. Both caterpillars and pupae are attended by ants of various genera, including <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Plagiolepis</em>. Escher’s Blue is single-brooded. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), phrygana (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), screes (5%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).	eng
174187	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174187	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174188	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174188	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Norway to the north and east of Spain and from Ireland till far into Asia. 50-2,800 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174188	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly is well named. It is very small and its modest colours make it even seem smaller than it really is. The Small Blue can only be found on calcareous soils. An open, mostly rather short vegetation and a warm microclimate typify its habitat. The butterflies may occur in large numbers. They lay their small, white eggs on the underside of leaves and in flowerheads of Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>). A practised eye can detect them between the flowers and the sepals. The creamy-white caterpillars feed on the flowers and seeds and are seldom seen. However, workers of various ant species attend them regularly. When fully-grown, the caterpillars hibernate either between the withered petals of dead flowers, or in the litter layer and pupate on the ground. The Small Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174188	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s, though vagrants from Belgian populations are reported regularly. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Belgium, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174188	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174189	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
174189	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Portugal and in a number of hilly and mountainous regions in Spain: southeast Spain (from the southern tip to Valencia), middle of Spain (Sierra de Cuenca and in Castile), North Spain (Pyrenees and foothills as far as Catalonia) and just in the French part of the eastern Pyrenees. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174189	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Fritillary occurs on open, grassy places with stony soil and lots of shrubs. It uses various foodplants, such as <em>Cephalaria leucantha</em> and <em>C. syriaca</em>, the teasels <em>Dipsacus fullonum </em>and <em>D. comasus</em>, scabious (<em>Scabiosa</em> and <em>Knautia</em> spp.) and possibly knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of leaves. The caterpillars live in a communal spun nest, also hibernating there. There is one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), heath and scrub (25%).	eng
174189	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species in part of Europe.	eng
174189	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species could be threatened by climate change in the future.	eng
174190	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174190	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and on Greek mainland. 0-1,800 m. Also present from Israel and Syria to the Middle East, Iran and Turkey to Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174190	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Gruner?s Orange-tip lives on dry, open grasslands, on rocky, often calcareous slopes, scrub and clearings in dry woodland. The eggs are laid on <em>Aethionema</em> species, including Burnt Candytuft (<em>A. saxatile</em>) and <em>A. orbiculatum</em>, the caterpillars eating both the leaves and ripening seeds. It has one generation a year and the pupa hibernates. Habitats: screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).	eng
174190	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174190	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174191	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174191	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in central Spain (Caceres region, Sierra de Gredos), France (from south coast to Ardèche and Maritime Alps), Italy (west coast as far as Naples, central Italy) and from Istria (Croatia), the southwest of Croatia, south of Bosnia and south of Serbia down to the north of Greece and Romania. Between 50-1,800 m. Its range extends to through Turkey to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174191	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The yellow and white bands on the underside of its hindwing make the Yellow-banded Skipper unmistakable. These skippers can be found on flower-rich grasslands, flower-rich stony slopes in gullies and in open scrub. The butterflies fly slowly, close to the ground. Sulphur Cinquefoil (<em>Potentilla recta</em>), <em>Potentilla hirta</em> and perhaps also <em>Abutilon theophrasti </em>are used as larval foodplants. It hibernates as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), mesophile grasslands (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).	eng
174191	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Serbia, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174191	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. In Spain, it is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.	eng
174192	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in Croatia. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174192	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Balkans: from Croatia, Bosnia, southeast of Serbia and southeast of Romania to the north of Greece. This species occurs also on some Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174192	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Festoon occurs in warm, usually dry, places such as in dry grassland with scattered bushes, in scrub, near hedges, on agricultural land, vineyards and olive groves. It is also found in river valleys. Choosing plants growing near bushes or trees, the female lays its eggs mostly on Birthwort (<em>Aristolochia clematitis</em>), but also on other birthworts. The Eastern Festoon has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (10%), phrygana (10%), heath and scrub (10%).	eng
174192	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174192	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174193	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174193	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from 58° N to the extreme north in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, although it is absent from Norwegian coastal zone. It is very local in Latvia and Estonia. In the northern part of its range, this species is more common than in the south. 200-1,000 m. It is furthermore found in almost the whole northern Palearctic, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174193	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Frejya?s Fritillary occurs in damp, peatland habitats. The female lays its eggs singly on Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>) and possibly also on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>), Bearberry (<em>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</em>), Alpine Bearberry (<em>A. alpinus</em>) and Crowberry (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>). The butterflies can also be seen on drier, grassy vegetation, searching for nectar, visiting Moss Campion (<em>Silene acaulis</em>) frequently. Frejya?s Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: raised bogs (45%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (18%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%).	eng
174193	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174193	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is extinct in Estonia and strongly declining in Southern and Central Finland due to habitat (bog-) destruction and is starting to decline along its southern range in Sweden. There are no signals of decline in Norway yet.	eng
174194	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, but occurs only in protected areas in Portugal.	eng
174194	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of central Europe, north and central Spain, north and central Italy, Sicily (the only Mediterranean island on which it occurs) and north and central Greece, south of England, southeast of Belgium, central and south Germany and central and south Poland. There is one population in Latvia and it is extinct in Lithuania and European Turkey. 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174194	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary occurs in woodland clearings, along the edges of paths in the woods and at woodland edges, and on tall/scrubby calcareous and damp grassland.  Although the populations are often very local, the numbers of butterflies can be considerable. These butterflies resemble small fritillaries, although taxonomically they are closely related to the blues (<em>Lycaenidae</em>). Eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of <em>Primula</em> species. The caterpillars feed at night, hiding during the day by lying along the main nerve of the <em>Primula</em> leaf. They leave the larval foodplants to hibernate in the litter layer. Mostly, it has only one generation a year, but in warm areas, there may be a second generation late in the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (24%), mesophile grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (9%).	eng
174194	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Luxembourg, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174194	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174195	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174195	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Volga region, southern Urals, Siberia, southern Altai, Kazakhstan, Transbaikalia, northwestern China and Mongolia. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174195	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This blue butterfly can be found in places with semi-desert to steppe habitat with grassy vegetation in the mountains. Larval foodplants are <em>Limonium gmelinii</em>, <em>L. leptolobum</em>,<em> Goniolimon cuspidatum</em> and <em>G. speciosum</em>. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).	eng
174195	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174195	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174196	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174196	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a scattered occurrence in large parts of Southern Europe: north of Portugal, mountains in north and central Spain, in Italy locally from the Alps to the south of the Apennines and from Slovenia and Slovakia to the whole of Southeast Europe. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present through Asia Minor, West Siberia, Northwest China and Mongolia, the mountains of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northwest India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174196	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Spotted Fritillary occurs on flower-rich, grassy vegetation, in both dry and damp places and on waste ground. Various mulleins (<em>Verbascum</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, including Aaron’s Rod (<em>Verbascum thapsus</em>),<em> V. densiflorum</em> and <em>V. longifolium</em>. The eggs are laid in batches on the underside of the leaves. The young caterpillars feed, gregariously in a communal web, where they also hibernate. After hibernation, they form smaller groups and are often seen on the upper surface of the leaves. This species has one or two generations a year, depending on the climatic zone of its flight area. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (13%).	eng
174196	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174196	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.	eng
174197	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174197	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in South Europe: from the southeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula to the western coast of Italy and from the southwest of Croatia, via the southwest of Serbia, to Bulgaria and Greece. This species occurs also on Sicily, Sardinia and Crete. Mostly at lower altitudes on coast, inland to 1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East to Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174197	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Like the Pigmy Skipper (<em>G. pumilio</em>), the Mediterranean Skipper can be found in rocky or stony places, such as dried-up riverbeds, on dry, grassy vegetation or in thickets and low scrub along the coast. The males defend their territory perched on a stone or on the ground, returning to the same spot if disturbed. These butterflies fly fast and close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on reed (<em>Phragmites australis</em>) and the grass <em>Saccharum ravennae</em>. It has one to three generations a year. There are far fewer butterflies in spring than in summer or autumn. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), phrygana (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%).	eng
174197	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174197	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174198	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174198	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Europe south of the Arctic Circle. 0-2,400 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa, temperate and subtropical Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174198	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Copper is a very common, wide-ranging butterfly. It is found on all types of grasslands and heathlands, roadsides and along the banks of canals. The butterflies often visit flowers and the males, perched on a tall blade of grass, defend their territory fiercely, flying out towards conspecific males. Eggs are laid on different species of sorrel, mainly Common Sorrel (<em>Rumex acetosa</em>). In the absence of sorrel, Knotgrass (<em>Polygonum aviculare</em>) serves as a larval foodplant. This butterfly species overwinters as a caterpillar. In the north of its range, the Small Copper has two generations a year, whereas in the southern part, it may have three or four. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).	eng
174198	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174198	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174199	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174199	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Spain and Portugal, in France (in eastern Pyrenees and the French Alps including foothills) and Italy (central Alps, Liguria and Northern Apennines). 0-2,000 m. It is also present in Northwest Africa, Libya and Egypt. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174199	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Western Dappled White flies in dry flower-rich grassland, road verges, waste ground, abandoned agricultural land and at the edges of woodland and scrub with crucifers. The eggs are laid singly on the flowerbuds of crucifers, such as Charlock (<em>Sinapis arvensis</em>), Buckler Mustard (<em>Biscutella laevigata</em>), radishes (<em>Raphanus</em> spp.) and candytufts (<em>Iberis</em> spp.). The larvae feed on flowers and developing seeds. This butterfly has two generations and hibernates in the pupal stage. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for several years. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), fallow land, waste places (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).	eng
174199	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174199	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174200	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174200	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the mountains of the south of Greece, the Peloponnese. 700-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. It is also found in Asia Minor, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174200	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pontic Blue can be found in woodland clearings and sheltered places above the tree-line with flower-rich, grassy vegetation. The butterflies have also been seen in dense scrub. The caterpillars feed on Tufted-Vetch (<em>Vicia cracca</em>) and possibly other Vicia species. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (75%), mesophile grasslands (25%).	eng
174200	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174200	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174201	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174201	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs very locally in the south of Europe: in South Portugal (up to just north of Lisbon), in Southwest Spain (and in isolated populations near Granada and Jaén) and in Northwest Sicily. In Spain and Portugal 0-800 m, on Sicily 800-1,100 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174201	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Spain, the Aetherie Fritillary is found in clearings in disturbed Holm Oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>) woodlands, where its foodplants, thistles (<em>Cirsium</em> spp.) and knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.), such as Star Thistle (<em>Centaurea calcitrapa</em>), Brown Knapweed (<em>C. jacea</em>) and <em>C. carratracensis</em> grow. In Sicily, it is found in open, warm, dry places whith Cardoon (<em>Cynara cardunculus</em>), which is probably the foodplant here. The female lays its eggs in batches on the foodplants. The Aetherie Fritillary has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. The sub-species that occurs on Sicily may have two generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved evergreen woodland (100%).	eng
174201	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174201	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174202	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174202	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Spain and Portugal (except the northwestern coastal area), in the southeast of France from the eastern Pyrenees to the French Alps and adjacent part of the Italian Alps. It is also found on the Balearic Islands and Northwest Africa. 0-1,300 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174202	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Ilex Hairstreak can be found in dry scrub, open, deciduous woodland, or in mixed woodland. The butterflies can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The females lay their eggs on various oak species, including the Holm Oak (<em>Quercus ilex</em>), Common or Pedunculate Oak (<em>Q. robur</em>), Kermes or Holly Oak (<em>Q. coccifera</em>) and Pyrenean Oak (<em>Q. pyrenaica</em>). The small caterpillars only emerge from the egg the following spring, when they start eating the young oak leaves. The ant species <em>Camponotus cruentatus</em> has been found to attend the small caterpillars. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (20%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (20%), fallow land, waste places (10%), urban parks and large gardens (10%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%).	eng
174202	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174202	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174203	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174203	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 66° N. It is absent from Scotland, Ireland and the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily). 0-2,100 m. It is also found in the rest of the Palearctic, except for the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174203	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The High Brown Fritillary occurs on woodland edges and in woodland clearings, where there is lush, rough vegetation with plenty of nectar plants. It is often seen together with the Silver-washed Fritillary (<em>A. paphia</em>) and the Dark Green Fritillary (<em>A. aglaja</em>). The eggs are laid on the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) and also on the bark of trees or dead leaves with violets growing near them. The tiny caterpillar remains within the egg during the winter and from about the beginning of March, hatches and starts feeding on violet leaves. It pupates on a twig or on a leaf close to the ground. The High Brown Fritillary has one generation a year. There is variation in colour, mainly of the underside of the hindwing. The different forms are common to rare in different parts of the range. <em>A. a. cleodoxa</em>, a form common in the Pyrenees, has a yellow hindwing with practically no pattern. To the south of the Pyrenees, <em>A. a. cleodippe</em> has clearly defined markings and hardly any green powdering. <em>A. a. clorodippe</em>, with the green underside of its hindwing and also with well-defined markings, is common in the south-east of its range and in mountainous areas. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), mixed woodland (15%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).	eng
174203	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174203	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174204	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174204	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is an Eastern European species, occurring particularly in the Baltic States and scattered in the south of Finland, Poland, Hungary, the north of Romania and Slovakia. 0-500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174204	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pallas’s Fritillary can be easily recognized by the noticeable jagged, white line, running across the underside of the hindwing. It can be found on damp, flower-rich grassland in open, or deciduous forests or mixed woods. Both males and females are fond of sucking nectar from bramble blossom. The caterpillars live on Marsh Violet (<em>Viola palustris</em>) and Heath Dog Violet (<em>V. canina</em>). It has one generation a year and passes the winter in the egg stage. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%).	eng
174204	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174204	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by changes in woodland management.	eng
174205	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174205	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Alps (from France to Slovenia and Austria) and in the mountains of Norway and the bordering part of Sweden and the Urals. 1,000-2,700 m in the Alps, 800-1,200 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in the mountains of Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174205	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Alps, the Alpine Blue is mostly found on sunny, rocky slopes, scree slopes with patches of flower-rich vegetation and often on the rough vegetation growing beside streams. These butterflies usually fly to lower-lying areas in search of nectar. The foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>), Alpine Sainfoin (<em>Hedysarum hedysaroides</em>) and probably Mountain Beaked Milk-vetch (<em>Oxytropis jacquinii</em>). In Scandinavia, this blue occurs in the mountains on open, damp slate slopes where its foodplant Alpine Milk-vetch grows. The Alpine Blue hibernates in the pupal stage and has one generation a year.  Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), screes (22%).	eng
174205	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174205	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174206	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174206	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from South Europe and Kazakhstan to Asia Minor, west of Tian Shan, Crimea, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan. Up to 1,400 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174206	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Being very conspicuous with its orange spots on the wings, this butterfly will be easily spotted on dry rocky places and on hills with a steppe-like vegetation or in deserts. The female deposits the eggs on <em>Astragalus vulpinus</em> or <em>A. leptostachys</em>. The tiny caterpillars first feed on the flowers, in the later instars they change to feeding on seeds. This beautiful butterfly has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001).  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), screes (20%), mixed woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).	eng
174206	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174206	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174207	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174207	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Urals across north and central Siberia to East Yukatia, the Altai, the Sayan, the Amur and Ussuri regions and North Korea. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174207	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Boloria angarensis</em> is a butterfly species typical for bogs, clearings and edges of moist coniferours forests. The main foodplants are <em>Vaccinium</em> species. It produces one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gorbunov, 2001). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (100%).	eng
174207	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174207	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174208	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174208	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of the Ural, west and south Altai, northeast Turkey, Kazakhstan, southwest and central Asia (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174208	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Northeast Turkey, this species occurs on damp slopes at altitudes between 1,600 and more than 3,000 m. The vegetation at these sites consists of high herbs and shrubs, mainly <em>Prangos</em> species and other <em>Umbelliferae</em>. The soil is kept wet by melting snow (Hesselbarth, Van Oirschot & Wagener 1995). In Russia the habitat has been described as being steppe-clad slopes, also with shrubs and bushes at lower altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). In Russia, the foodplants of the caterpillars are different <em>Ferula</em> spp., but from the Turkish populations it is not known where the females lay their eggs. The species has one generation a year. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).	eng
174208	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174208	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174209	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174209	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the northeasternmost part of the European Russia and in the northern parts of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174209	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly can be found on tundras, grassy scrubs, meadows and open coniferous forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174209	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174209	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174210	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174210	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Scattered, local populations in the Pyrenees, Central Massif, the Alps, mountainous areas in Italy, Sicily, the Balkans and Greece, Germany (also in Harz Mts. and Rhön), Norway, Sweden, Finland and Baltic States. 0-2,300 m. Its range extends across the Caucasus to the Middle East and eastwards across Iran, Afghanistan and Middle Asia to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174210	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Clouded Apollo occurs in mountainous regions on damp to moderately dry grassland, usually with woodland or scrub in the neighbourhood. The butterflies can often be seen visiting red or purple flowers for the nectar they need. The foodplant is <em>Corydalis</em>, that at the time of egg laying is not yet above ground. The eggs are laid on its dried stems, on grass blades, or on other plants not too far from the foodplants. The egg hibernates. In spring, as soon as it has hatched, the small caterpillar starts its search for a suitable foodplant. When fully-grown, it pupates in a closely spun cocoon of fine threads, situated above the ground in the leaves of the foodplant. The Clouded Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (19%), mesophile grasslands (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mixed woodland (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).	eng
174210	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174210	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands and woodland. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174211	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174211	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Spain (Sierra Nevada, Cantabrian Mts., S. de la Demanda and Montes Universales and the Pyrenees), south of France, western Italy and further eastwards. It is also found from central Switzerland via East Germany to the south of Scandinavia. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in Morocco and east to Turkey, West Asia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174211	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The German name for this butterfly, Prächtiger Blauling, Magnificent Blue, is well chosen, if only for the colour of the males. They are a bright sky-blue and they also attract attention by their territorial behaviour. The females’ modest brown has a greenish-blue sheen. Amanda's Blue occurs on flower-rich grassland with damp patches, that has some shelter from bushes or a nearby woodland edge. The female lays its eggs on the leaves of various leguminous plants. The caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer and are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. They also pupate in the litter layer. Amanda's Blue is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (24%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%).	eng
174211	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174211	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174212	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
174212	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Lapland and in central Norway north of 62° N. 250-900 m. It is also found in the polar tundras of Europe and Asia, the montane tundras of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174212	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Norse Grayling occurs in both dry and wet biotopes, on marshes with a vegetation of mosses and grasses, at the edges of swampy habitats and streams, in low birch scrub, on sparse vegetation in clearings in birch woods and on sunny, rocky slopes with low shrubs. The butterflies spend much of the day resting on tree trunks or on the ground with their wings closed and are so hardly noticeable. They are quick flyers and difficult to approach. The female lays its eggs on various sedges and grasses. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: raised bogs (33%), heath and scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).	eng
174212	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174212	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species could be threatened  by climate change on the long run.	eng
174213	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174213	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in all Africa south of Sahara, and from the Canary Islands through Egypt to India and China. 0-500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174213	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The African Migrant was first reported in 1965 from Tenerife where it established populations in the coastal areas and colonized the other islands. It can be seen on all kinds of places with a high abundance of flowers, also parks and gardens. The eggs are laid on the leaves of <em>Cassia didymobotrya</em>, which is an introduced ornamental plant from Africa, but also other introduced <em>Cassia</em> species are used. This butterfly has no diapause stage, therefore is produces eight to nine generations a year and is on the wing throughout the year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174213	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a migratory species from Africa, occurring only on a few Atlantic islands.	eng
174213	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This African migrant is not threatened in Europe.	eng
174214	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174214	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia. Sea level 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174214	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Speckled Wood is a typical woodland butterfly. The woods may be deciduous, coniferous or mixed and the butterfly occurs along woodland rides, in clearings and at wood edges. In the north, it occurs mostly in quite extensive areas of woodland, but in the south a line of trees can be sufficient to support a population. Each male claims its territory on a sunny branch , projecting out of the crown of the tree or on a sunny patch on the ground and waits there for a female to fly along. The foodplants are grasses that grow in woodland and damp grassland, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), cock's-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) and <em>Holcus</em> spp. The female deposits its eggs singly on the blades of grass. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar or pupa, deep down in a tussock of grass. The Speckled Wood has two to three generations a year. In the south of its range, the sub-species <em>P. a. aegeria</em> with orange blotches on the dark-brown wings is found and in the north the sub-species <em>P. a. tircis</em> with paler, creamy blotches. In between there is a range of intermediate forms. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (28%), mixed woodland (17%), coniferous woodland (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).	eng
174214	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Moldova, Romania, Spain and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174214	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174215	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed.	eng
174215	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from east of Austria to the Balkans and further eastwards. It is also found in the south of Finland, the Baltic States and Poland, although probably only temporary populations. Outside Russia, it is difficult to ascertain whether this species has permanent populations, or is only present as a vagrant, reproducing but unable to survive the winter. It is furthermore present east to China, Korea and Japan, also North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174215	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Comma is somewhat similar to the Comma (<em>Polygonia Central album</em>), but although the wings are strongly toothed, the indentations are much less deep than those of the Comma. It also resembles the Large Tortoiseshell, but the white patches near the tips of the forewing and on the front edge of the hindwing distinguish it from both these butterfly species. It occurs in the lowlands of Eastern Europe, in deciduous or mixed woods. It prefers damp woods and is found in clearings or at the wood edge. It is a mobile butterfly and a strong migrant. Because of its migratory behaviour, it is difficult to ascertain whether populations are permanent or temporary. The female lays its eggs in spring, clustered around the twigs of the foodplants which may be birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.), or elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.). The False Comma has one generation a year and because it hibernates as a butterfly, can be seen for much of the year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (43%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174215	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbiadata provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174215	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is unclear what the causes for the declines in the western part of its European range are. They might be part of natural fluctuations, but little is known of the population dynamics of this species.	eng
174216	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174216	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the Sayan Mountains and the Polar Urals across Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula, Kamchatka. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174216	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This <em>Erebia</em> species occurs on lowland meadows and stony slopes with sparse vegetation. It can also be found on mountain tundra between 1,000 and 2,500 m might. The larval foodplants are probably different species of fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). There is one generation a year (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174216	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174216	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174217	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174217	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a continuous area from Galicia (Spain) via the south and the east of France, Italy and the Alps eastwards. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found through Turkey and the Middle East to the west of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174217	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern White Admiral occurs in warm to very warm places in woodland and scrub, often situated near streams, springs or other damp places. The eggs are laid on nearly all species of honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves in the manner characteristic of this genus, nibbling at the soft tissues while leaving the main nerve untouched. For hibernation, a small cradle is made from the remains of the leaf, which is secured to a twig with silk. When they come out of hibernation, they begin feeding on the young honeysuckle leaves. The caterpillar pupates suspended from a twig of the foodplant. This species has one generation a year north of the Alps, but two in the Mediterranean region. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (38%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%).	eng
174217	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, which can colonize areas temporary. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174217	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174218	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174218	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 64° N in Scandinavia. In Spain, it is present only in the northern half and the Sierra Nevada. Sea level-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the whole temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174218	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In temperate Europe, the Peacock is one of the best-known butterflies, because of its striking appearance and common occurrence. There is no other diurnal butterfly with such noticeable eye-spots on the upperside of its wings. In good years, the Peacock can be present in large numbers. It is often seen in gardens and parks on herbaceous borders and flowering shrubs, looking for nectar. Eggs are laid on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) in damp, shady places, sometimes at edges of woodland. Occasionally, Hop (<em>Humulus lupulus</em>) is also used. The caterpillar is black with branched black spines and many tiny white spots. It looks similar to the caterpillar of the Map (<em>Araschnia levana</em>), but has prominent spines or thorns on its head. The caterpillars live gregariously in flimsy webs. Sometimes, plants are completely covered with spun silk, which serves as a home for tens of caterpillars. They leave the web to pupate on the foodplant. The adult butterfly goes into hibernation, hiding in cold lofts and sheds. There can be as many as three generations a year, depending on the geographical position and the weather conditions. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (7%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).	eng
174218	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174218	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174219	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174219	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southern and Eastern Europe: Portugal, Spain (very locally, more abundant in Catalonia), France (southeast and locally in western France and near Paris), south of Switzerland (locally), Italy (including Sicily), Austria, Slovakia and further south-eastwards in the Balkans. The species recently expanded into the south of Germany. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and from Turkey to Syria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174219	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Small White, which looks very like the Small White (<em>P. rapae</em>), occurs on both calcareous and non-calcareous dry, grassy vegetation, in open scrub and open woodland. The most important larval foodplants are the candytufts Evergreen Candytuft (<em>Iberis sempervirens</em>) and <em>I. saxatilis</em>, although other crucifers, such as <em>Alyssoides</em> <em>utriculata</em> and mustards (<em>Sinapis</em> spp.) are also used. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the uppersides of the leaves. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. It has two to three generations a year, pupating on plant stalks and stones. It overwinters as a pupa and the butterflies emerge in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174219	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174219	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174220	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific action is needed at a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174220	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southeast of France and just in the adjacent Alps of Northwestern Italy, extreme south of Italy (Aspromonte) and east of Sicily, the Balkans, Croatia (coastal area) , Albania and large parts of Greece including several Greek islands. Mostly between 300-1,500 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the Middle East, Middle Asia to Iran and Afghanistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174220	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Swallowtail is mostly found on warm, dry calcareous slopes with a flower-rich vegetation and low-growing bushes. They prefer slopes that are steep and rocky. They are especially active during the hottests hours of the day. Different foodplants are known, all of them umbellifers. <em>Ptychotis saxifraga</em> is the most important one in the western part of its range, but eggs are also laid on <em>Opopanax chironium</em>, <em>Seseli montanum</em> and <em>Trinia glauca</em>. In the Eastern part, the caterpillars feed mostly on various fennels (<em>Ferula</em> spp.) and also on <em>Opopanax hispidus</em>, Burnet saxifrage (<em>Pimpinella saxifraga</em>), <em>Scaligeria cretica</em> and Wild Parsnip (<em>Pastinaca sativa</em>). The caterpillars eat the flowers and ripening seeds. They seem to prefer plants growing in very sparse vegetation near bare patches. The Southern Swallowtail has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: phrygana (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), heath and scrub (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).	eng
174220	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Croatia and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174220	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174221	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174221	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Eastern Europe: from the northeast of Italy and the south of Austria eastwards to Romania and locally in the south of the Balkans to the north of Greece. Up to 1,500 m. It is also found in the forest and forest-steppe zone Siberia and in Nepal, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174221	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Common Glider inhabits damp, deciduous woodland, especially in river valleys. The butterflies often settle in the top of the trees to rest or bask in the sun, with their wings wide open, just like the Hungarian Glider (<em>N. rivularis</em>). This butterfly has a characteristic flight, elegantly gliding from perch to perch. The caterpillars feed on Spring Pea (<em>Lathyrus vernus</em>), Black Pea (<em>L. nige</em>r) and also on Black locust (<em>Pseudorobinia accacia</em>). The Common Glider has two generations a year and hibernates as a small caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (16%).	eng
174221	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174221	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174222	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174222	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southern Russia, Crimea (Ukraine), Azerbaijan, Asia Minor and Kazakhstan, further into Southwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174222	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on rocky areas with a low vegetation, steppes, forests, mountain slopes, sometimes semi-deserts and bushy areas up to 1,800 m in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The larvae feed on several species of grasses. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), mixed woodland (33%).	eng
174222	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174222	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174223	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174223	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Balkans: from the south of Croatia, and of Bosnia to the south of Romania and Greece. This species occurs also on several Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1750 m. It is also found on Turkey, Israel, Syria, the north of Iraq and western Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174223	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lattice Brown inhabits open, dry woodland and dry scrub. In the hottest part of the day, the butterflies settle on tree trunks, hiding in the deep shade of bushes and thickets. They are sometimes seen on dry riverbeds. The female deposits its eggs in crevices in the bark of trees and bushes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as meadow-grass (<em>Poa</em> spp.), quaking grass (<em>Briza</em> spp.), brome (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and foxtail (<em>Alopecurus</em> spp.). The Lattice Brown has one generation a year. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (57%), sclerophyllous scrub (28%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (14%).	eng
174223	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174223	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174224	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174224	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the northeastern part of Spain, south of France, Italy, Southeast Europe and the south of Norway, of Sweden and of Finland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found through Turkey and central Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174224	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Chequered Blue, a small but conspicuous butterfly, can be seen on warm and rocky slopes and narrow ledges, where there is little vegetation, apart from its foodplants White Stonecrop (<em>Sedum album</em>) and Orpine (<em>Sedum telephium</em>). The females lay their eggs on the leaves of the foodplant near the stem. The caterpillars are often found with ants. The pupa overwinters and is often hidden under stones or in small hollows in the ground near the foodplant. The Chequered Blue produces one or two generations a year, depending on its geographical position. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), screes (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).	eng
174224	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. This species has a large, but discontinuous distribution over Europe. It is declining in North and Central Europe, more or less stable in South Europe. Decrease in Central Europe might be over-estimated, since the species can survive for a long time on small and isolated patches. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Norway, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174224	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by abandonment of grasslands and shrub invasion on dry, rocky slopes.	eng
174225	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174225	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This migrant species can be seen all over Europe. Numbers vary a lot from year to year, depending on the weather. Sea level to ca. 2,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, Asia Minor, Central Asia, North Africa, North America and New Zealand. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174225	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Red Admiral is a wide-ranging, migratory butterfly that in temperate areas can only survive the winter where it is exceptionally mild, though the area with successfull overwintering seems to be moving north in the last decade. Each year, butterflies from southern Europe fly northwards and in good years Red Admirals can be seen practically everywhere. They are often seen in gardens and parks. The butterflies need a lot of nectar. They also feed on rotting fruit and at harvest time are often seen in orchards. They are also attracted to the resin oozing from trees. The Red Admiral is a distinctive and beautiful butterfly, the unusual, contrasting colours prevent it from being confused with any other species. It lays its eggs on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>) in sunny, but not all too dry places. The caterpillars live alone or in small groups in small tent-like shelters made by spinning leaves together. The caterpillars of the Red Admiral are variable in appearance, ranging from yellow with black spots to plain dark-brown to black. They also pupate in a little tent of spun leaves. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174225	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Each spring and summer these areas have to be recolonized. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174225	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174226	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174226	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Eastern and Southeastern Europe: from East Austria and Czech Republic south-eastwards to the north of Greece. However, because of its mobility, it is not clear where it is permanent or a temporary resident or vagrant. 0-1,900 m. It is found across the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Turkey to West China and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174226	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Pale Clouded Yellow is a very mobile species and can therefore be seen in all kinds of places. This, originally Asian species greatly extended its range during the 1970s and 1980s. Fifty years ago it was known in Europe only from the Black Sea coast. Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) is its most important larval foodplant. The caterpillars can also be found on other leguminous plants. This species has several generations a year, three to five have been reported from Bulgaria and Romania. It passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).	eng
174226	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range, but has large annual fluctuations. In recent decades the species has expanded in western and northern direction. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174226	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174227	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The existing populations should be protected.	eng
174227	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a very local occurrence in south and central Greece. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174227	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In flight, with the rich orange-red of the upperside of their wings, Fiery Copper males do honour to their name. However, with their wings folded, they are difficult to see. It is a mountain butterfly, often seen near the tree-line, in rocky, calcareous areas with low-growing open vegetation. The foodplant Prickly Thrift (<em>Acantholimon androsaceum</em>) is a member of the <em>Plumbaginaceae</em>. The choice of a species of this family is remarkable, as all other copper butterflies have <em>Polygonaceae</em> species as larval foodplants. The foodplant is restricted to Greece in Europe, but more widespread in Turkey. The Fiery Copper is often seen with the Odd-spot Blue (<em>Turanana taygetica</em>), as both use Prickly Thrift as larval foodplant. Habitats: phrygana (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%).	eng
174227	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174227	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species has a limited range and no dispersal potential, as its foodplant has a restricted range. Furthermore, the area gets destroyed by new roads and other building activities.	eng
174228	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174228	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in moderately high and high mountains: Scotland and northwest England, France (Massif Central, Cévennes, east of France), southeast of Belgium (Famenne), via Germany and Poland to Latvia and via the north of Italy and the Balkans to the north of Greece. 400-2,000 m. Across central Russia to West Siberia and across the Caucasus to East Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174228	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Scotch Argus can be found in a wide variety of habitats. It inhabits flower-rich grasslands and grassy woodland clearings and can also be found on heathland, bogs and marshy areas with very open woodland. Many different grasses can be used as a foodplant, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Cock’s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), cat’s-tails (<em>Phleum</em> spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (<em>Anthoxanthum odoratum</em>) and Quaking Grass (<em>Briza media</em>) and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The caterpillar hibernates in the second or third larval instar. It pupates in the litter layer and is single-brooded. Habitats: coniferous woodland (20%), mixed woodland (18%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%).	eng
174228	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Lithuania and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174228	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174229	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174229	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it occurs only on Cyprus at low altitudes. It is also found in Asia Minor, Levant, Transcaucasia, Iran, North India and the deserts of central Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174229	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	One suitable habitat is on the old town walls of Nicosia on which one of its foodplants, <em>Prosopis farcta</em> (<em>Leguminosae</em>), grows. More to the east of the island, <em>Prosopis stephaniana</em> and <em>Acacia leucophloea</em> are used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that probably roams northwards each year. However, it can only occur as a resident in areas where it does not freeze in winter. On Cyprus, it probably has two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174229	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe this butterfly only occurs locally on Cyprus and in a suitable habitat it can be seen in large numbers. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174229	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species has a restricted range in Europe and is threatened by urbanisation of coastal habitats.	eng
174230	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174230	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, this species only occurs on some Greek islands in the eastern Aegean. Here only at sea-level. In other parts of its range (North Africa, Turkey, North Iran and Afghanistan) up to 2,400 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174230	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This skipper can be seen an dry, rocky slopes with patches of a flower-rich vegetation, on low, bushy vegetation and even in villages. The butterfly flies close to the ground and usually rests with its wings wide open. It produces one to several generations a year depending on the locality of the site; on the Aegean Islands most observations were made in May and June. In Turkey the flight period covers the time from early June to late September. In the European part of its range, the caterpillars feed on Horehounds (<em>Marrubium</em> sp.). Habitats: cliffs and rocky shores (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
174230	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174230	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174231	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174231	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As <em>M. telona</em> was recently split from this species, the range of <em>M. phoebe</em> might have to be re-examined, especially in Southeastern Europe. So far<em> M. phoebe</em> is a species of Southern and Central Europe: it occurs south of a line from Brittany via central Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily, Chios and Lesbos (though <em>M. telona</em> might be present there instead). It is also found across Asia Minor to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and West China. Sea level-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174231	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Knapweed Fritillary occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation. These grasslands are often in a sheltered situation at the edge of woodland, or of groups of shrubs. In the north of its range, the grasslands are mostly calcareous. The larval foodplants are knapweeds (Centaurea spp.). The female lays its eggs in large batches on the undersides of the leaves. The small caterpillars live gregariously in a silken nest, also hibernating together. Later, they become solitary and  choose somewhere close to the ground to pupate. The Knapweed Fritillary usually has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174231	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174231	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174232	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174232	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in South and East Europe: in the south, central and north of Spain, southeast of France (from Ardèche to the Alps and Provence), northwest of Italy, south of Poland and the south of the Balkans (from Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greece). 1,000 -1,800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, south of Siberia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174232	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Ripart’s Anomalous Blue is mostly found on dry, grassy places with bushes. Different sainfoins are used as foodplant, such as Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>), <em>O. arenaria</em>, Rock Sainfoin (<em>O. saxatilis</em>) and <em>O. alba</em>. The female lays its eggs on the flowers. The caterpillars hibernate when still small. They are often attended by ants, usually of the genera <em>Crematogaster</em>, <em>Camponotus</em> and <em>Lasius</em>. The Ripart’s Anomalous Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (56%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174232	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174232	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.	eng
174233	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174233	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species. It is absent from Scandinavia, the Netherlands, north and central Belgium, northwest and southwest of France, the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands, Italy (except in the north) and Greece (except in the north). 100-1,500 m. It is also found across the Caucasus and the north of Kazakhstan to West Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174233	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Nickerl’s Fritillary occurs on open, dry grasslands and heaths on calcareous slopes and is very heat-tolerant. The female deposits her eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves of its foodplant Ribwort Plantain (<em>Plantago lanceolata</em>). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate in communal silken nests. They pupate low down in the vegetation. Nickerl’s Fritillary has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), mesophile grasslands (24%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).	eng
174233	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Serbia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174233	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174234	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174234	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: in Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, western Bosnia, Serbia, Albania, western FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southern Romania and Greece. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174234	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Anomalous Blue occurs in woodland clearings, open scrub, on sheltered slopes and in agricultural areas. All the places are warm and have a flower-rich grassy vegetation. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and Cockscomb Sainfoin (<em>O. caput-galli</em>). The caterpillars are attended by different species of ants, for example from the genera <em>Crematogaster</em>, <em>Camponotus</em> or <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Anomalous Blue has one generation a year and hibernation takes place on the ground, the small caterpillars hiding under stones. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (46%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%).	eng
174234	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174234	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174235	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174235	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Europe, except North Scandinavia, Scotland and large parts of Ireland. 0-1,900 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey, central Asia, Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174235	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Holly Blue occurs widely, although the populations are always small. This small butterfly is very often seen in parks and gardens, as well as at woodland edges and in bushy places. The eggs are laid on the calyx or stem of the flowerbuds or on the ripe fruits of various plant species , including Holly (<em>Ilex aquifolium</em>), Ivy (<em>Hedera helix</em>), Spindle-tree (<em>Euonymus europaeus</em>), Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.) and heathers (<em>Calluna vulgaris</em> and <em>Erica</em> spp.). At first, the caterpillars feed on the buds and fruits of the foodplant, only later eating leaves. They are attended by ants. The Holly Blue has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (23%), mixed woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), urban parks and large gardens (9%), heath and scrub (8%), towns, villages, industrial sites (5%).	eng
174235	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174235	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174236	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174236	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present from the Volga River and southern Urals across Siberia, the Altais, the Sayan and Transbaikalia to the Far East, the Amur and Ussuri regions and Mongolia. Up to 2,200 m (Tuzov 2,000). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174236	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species can be found in moist to dry steppes and meadow-steppes. In the Western part of its range, it thrives in wet biotopes as well. The females deposits the eggs on many violet species (<em>Viola</em> spp.). It usually has two generations a year, but in the eastern part of its range, three generations a year are normal (Tuzov, 2,000). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).	eng
174236	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174236	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174237	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174237	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Scotland, North of England, Scandinavia up to 70° N, locally in the Baltic States, central Europe, the Alps, the Balkans and the southwest of Europe. At sea-level in Scandinavia, but at increasing altitudes to the south of up to 2,300 m. It is also found eastward to the Altai mountains. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174237	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is difficult to distinguish the Northern Brown Argus from the Brown Argus (<em>A. agestis</em>). However, the location and type of habitat often helps. The Northern Brown Argus occurs in cooler places, at higher altitudes than the Brown Argus and its range extends much further north. It likes open grasslands or dry vegetation at the edges of woods. It is also more closely bound to calcareous soil than the Brown Argus. The eggs are laid on various rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.), as well as on various crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves, often attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants. When the caterpillars are half-grown, they hibernate. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. There is always only one generation. This butterfly has different sub-species. Over most of its range, <em>A. a. allous</em> occurs, with no white spots on the upperside of the wings and distinct black spots underneath them. The sub-species <em>A. a. artaxerxes</em> that occurs in Scotland and northern England, does have white spots on the wing upperside, while the dark spots on the underside are either absent, or much less obvious. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mixed woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174237	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174237	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174238	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174238	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It  occurs locally and in sparse populations in the Baltic States, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Germany, it is widespread and common in the Balkans, north and central Greece, European Turkey and in the mountainous areas of Italy, Switzerland, south and central France and north and central Spain and in the Sierra Nevada. 50-2,500 m. It is also found in Morocco  and through Turkey to the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174238	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Purple-shot Copper is found both in damp and dry places on many kinds of flower-rich grassland. Only the male has the beautiful purple sheen on the upperside of its wings. Eggs are laid on sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), mainly Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>). This butterfly species hibernates as a fully-developed caterpillar in the egg, or in the first instar. The caterpillars feed at night and stay hidden during the day. They pupate in the litter layer. It has one generation a year.  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).	eng
174238	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174238	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.	eng
174239	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174239	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Greece on Mt. Chelmos and in Taijetos Mts. 1,500-2,300 m. It is also found in Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174239	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Odd-spot Blue occurs in dry, calcareous places covered with low-growing shrubs. The butterflies are frequently seen drinking the nectar from flowers, especially thyme. The male butterflies sometimes leave their usual habitat in their search for damp patches of ground. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of <em>Acantholimon androsaceum</em> (<em>Plumbaginaceae</em>). The Odd-spot Blue often shares its habitat with Fiery Copper (<em>Lycaena thetis</em>), its caterpillars using the same species of foodplant. The Odd-spot Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (100%).	eng
174239	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174239	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a restricted European distribution. It is threatened by changes in the agricultural practices (mainly abandonment), quarrying and tourist activities. It is also a popular butterfly for collectors, but there is no evidence to determine whether this is contributing to its decline. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.	eng
174240	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174240	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Balkans from the south of Croatia down to Central Bulgaria (Stara Planina) and Southeast Romania and southwards to the south of Greece and various Greek islands. 0-1,700 m, sometimes to 2,100 m. Its range extends to Caucasus, Turkey and Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174240	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Oriental Marbled Skipper is mostly found on grasslands, on rocky slopes with grassy vegetation and occasionally on bushy or on low, shrubby vegetation. The butterflies fly quickly, close to the ground. When they are at rest, they usually have their wings wide open. The caterpillars feed on woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.). After the hibernation caterpillars can be found in rolled-up leaves. It has two to three generations a year according to locality and altitude of the site and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), mesophile grasslands (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).	eng
174240	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bulgaria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174240	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174241	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174241	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, North Germany and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mountains, Huesca, Catalonia and western Pyrenees. This species is not present in the south of Italy, and is found in Greece only in the northwestern part of the country. 300-1,500 m. It is also found in Northeast China, Japan and Korea, excluding Transcaucasia, Middle Asia and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174241	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Purple Emperor is found in clearings and along paths in damp, deciduous woodland that is often situated in river valleys or on the banks of rivers. The butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on dung from other animals. Especially the males are attracted to strongly smelling cheese. Its foodplants are poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.). The female, choosing rather small, not so robust trees, deposits its eggs on the upperside of leaves that are half in the shade, or in the sun. The caterpillars usually lie along the nerve in the middle of the leaves, nibbling the rest of the leaf away more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a little pad in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it returns to the fresh buds and leaves to feed. It pupates suspended from the underside of a leaf or branch. To the north of the Alps and at high altitudes, the Lesser Purple Emperor has one generation a year, but in warm valleys and south of the Alps, it can have two generations a year. There is a striking form, clythie, in which the white of the markings on the upperside of the wings is largely replaced by pale orange. It forms a proportion of most populations and is sometimes common. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (31%), mixed woodland (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (23%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).	eng
174241	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Romania and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174241	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174242	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174242	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on Sicily and in Southeast Europe from Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia and further southwards to Greece and many Greek islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found throughout temperate Asia from Turkey across Central Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174242	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Orbed Red-underwing Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grasslands, on roadside verges, at the edges of woods, on abandoned agricultural land, rocky slopes and along dried-up river beds. The butterflies have a rapid flight, close to the ground. The eggs are laid on the flowerheads of Salad Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba minor</em>) and, in Eastern Europe, possibly also on Great Burnet (<em>S. officinalis</em>). The round flowerheads of the foodplant are the caterpillars' first food, but as they grow larger, they hide between spun leaves. Hibernation takes place on the ground, in the litter layer. They also pupate in rolled-up leaves of the foodplant. This skipper has two generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (29%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (23%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), cliffs and rocky shores (5%), phrygana (5%).	eng
174242	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Czech Republic. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174242	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174243	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research to the distribution and ecology is needed after the species has been split. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174243	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the whole of Europe and eastwards across the Caucasus, Turkey, the Middle East, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia to the Baikal region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174243	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	At present, the Wood White is divided into two species, the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>) and Real´s Wood White (<em>L. reali</em>) which are indistinguishable in the field. Their distribution is not yet entirely clear. Their life cycles are similar. These fragile butterflies occur on damp, warm grassland near bushes and scrub. They lay their thin, spindle-shaped eggs on different species of <em>Lathyrus</em>, <em>Vicia</em> and birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus</em> spp.). Cream turning to bright yellow as they mature, they are easy to find. The pupa is pale green and the winter is spent in this stage. In the northern part of its range, it has one generation a year, in the central part it has two generations a year and in the southern part sometimes three. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174243	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174243	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174244	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174244	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in southern Norway, southern Sweden, eastern Latvia, the Balkans, northern Greece, parts of Italy, northwestern Switzerland, south of Germany, south of Belgium, Poland and France (limited to Dordogne, Charente, Vienne, Isère, Haute Savoie up to Paris). 200-1,500 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey and east through the temperate and subtropical parts of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174244	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Reverdin’s Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland in places ranging from dry to moist at the edges of woodland or scrub. Eggs are laid on Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) and Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus glycyphyllos</em>). The female mostly chooses a woody part of the plant, where the egg hibernates. The small caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They are attended by <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Myrmica</em> as well as <em>Formica</em> and <em>Camponotus</em> ants and pupate deep down in the vegetation. Except in Scandinavia where it has one generation a year, the Reverdin's Blue has two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (22%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174244	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Norway and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174244	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174245	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174245	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of  Europe except mid and north of Scandinavia, Scotland, Finland and Estonia. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and eastwards to the Caucasus, Asia Minor, the Middle East, also Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174245	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Wall Brown inhabits many different types of grassland, natural grasslands, as well as not all too intensively farmed land. The butterflies are mostly very active, the males very alert. They fly up when disturbed from rocks or walls on which they often bask in the sun and are therefore conspicuous. The males have a broad scent-brand on their forewings. The female deposits her eggs on the blades of many different grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and Crested Dog?s-tail (<em>Cynosurus aristatus</em>). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in the litter layer, where it later, deep down, pupates. The Wall Brown has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%).	eng
174245	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range, although it shows strong declines in number in many parts. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174245	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands	eng
174246	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174246	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on Cyprus and on the Greek islands of Samos and Rhodes. Its range extends through Turkey to Africa and Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174246	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Millet Skipper can be seen on dry, grassy vegetation along the coast, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and also where grain is grown. The butterflies have a very rapid flight, close to the ground and often colonize new areas. In North Africa, the caterpillars use Common Millet (<em>Paniceum miliaceum</em>) as foodplant, but the European foodplant is unknown. Millet skippers probably have two generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174246	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174246	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174247	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174247	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Balkans from Southwest Serbia to Bulgaria and Greece. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends through Turkey to the north of Israel, the north of Iran and Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174247	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Persian Skipper occurs on dry grasslands, on dry scrub, in rocky places and at woodland edges. On hot days males and females congregate on damp ground where they are easy to spot. Although the larval foodplant is not known for certain, probably various bindweeds (<em>Convolvulus</em> spp.) are used. Also, it is not clear how many generations it has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), phrygana (10%), screes (10%).	eng
174247	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174247	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174248	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174248	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in most mountains of northern Portugal, Spain, central France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, the Balkans, Greece, south and central Germany and Poland, up to 60°N in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic States. 800-2,000 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Caucasus, eastwards across Siberia and Central Asia to the Far East and East China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174248	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Grizzled Skipper is usually found in mountainous areas on dry, poor, flower-rich grassland and rough vegetation. Quick-flying, it also likes basking on the ground and drinking from wet mud. It is a very variable butterfly with many different sub-species and forms, making identification difficult. Choosing the smaller leaves, the female lays it’s eggs singly on various cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and rock-roses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). At first, the caterpillar lives between spun leaves on plants, later on it spins a tent-like shelter on the ground. It passes the winter in this stage and builds a special tube-like structure in which to pupate. There are one or two generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), heath and scrub (8%).	eng
174248	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Norway and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174248	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174249	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. In Sweden, it is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas. More research on the distribution and ecology is needed.	eng
174249	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This nordic species is found in Norway from 66° N to the North Cape, in the north of Sweden, northwest of Finland and north of Russia. 50-900 m. It is also found in arctic Asia and America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174249	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Scandinavia, the Glandon Blue occurs on slate and shale rocks with patches of grassy vegetation and Crowberry (<em>Empetrum nigrum</em>), especially in areas sheltered from the northwestern wind. The females deposit the eggs on Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (<em>Saxifraga aizoides</em>) and Purple Saxifrage (<em>S. oppositifolia</em>). The small caterpillars first feed on the flowerbuds and hibernate. Later, they also feed on the leaves. The Arctic Blue is single-brooded. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174249	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174249	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174250	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174250	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the southern European part of Russia to the Altai, Tian Shan, Northwest China, Mongolia. Up to 2,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174250	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Zephyr Blue can be found on steppes or on slopes with a steppe-like vegetation. The larval foodplants are several <em>Astragalus</em> species, for example in Northwet Kazakhstan, females deposit the eggs on<em> Astragalus rupifragus</em>. The species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174250	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174250	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174251	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174251	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common to 66° N. Vagrants seen far northwards. 0-2,600 m. It is also present in North Africa, Turkey to Middle Asia, West and South Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, Mongolia, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174251	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large White almost can be found in almost all habitat types. It lays its eggs singly or in small clusters on the underside of the leaves of the hostplants, which are mainly broad-leaved crucifers, like <em>Brassica</em> spp., <em>Crambe</em> spp., <em>Lunaria</em> spp. and <em>Cakile</em> spp., including various cultivated brassicas, that offer enough food for the gregarious caterpillars. On such a nutritious diet, the caterpillar grows very quickly, reaching the pupal stage in three to six weeks. The white pupa is suspended in a silken girdle from the foodplant. The Large White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and latitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (12%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mesophile grasslands (7%), improved grasslands (6%).	eng
174251	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174251	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174252	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174252	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered over large parts of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (not in the south-eastern part), locally in the south and centre of France, Italy (except the Po Valley), from the French Alps to Southern Poland, the Baltic States and most Balkan countries down to central Greece. Up to 2,000 m. Its range extends to Morocco, Turkey, Iran and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174252	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Tufted Marbled Skipper can be found on flower-rich grasslands, with very different moisture levels, ranging from dry to wet. It also occurs at the edges of woodland and in bushy vegetation. The males usually perch on a tall plant and very actively defend their territory. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaves of various woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.). Betony (<em>S. officinalis</em>) is often used, but also Hedge Woundwort (<em>S. sylvatica</em>), Alpine Woundwort (<em>S. alpina</em>) and Marsh Woundwort (<em>S. palustris</em>). The young caterpillar lives in a curled-up leaf. When it is bigger, it spins two neighbouring leaves together to make a shelter where it remains during the day, coming out at night to feed on the leaves of the foodplant. It also pupates in such a shelter. This butterfly has one or two generations a year, depending on its location in the range. It overwinters either as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (21%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), mixed woodland (5%).	eng
174252	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174252	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174253	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174253	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Central Europe between the north of Spain and central Germany. This species is only resident in the south of its range and a migrant in the north. It is absent from Portugal, most of Spain and large parts of Italy and Greece. 0-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174253	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although the Short-tailed Blue looks rather like the Holly Blue (<em>Celastrina argiolus</em>), it has very fine, small tails and prominent eye-spots on the hindwings. The Short-tailed Blue occurs in local populations on damp grassland, heathland and flower-rich verges. It lays its eggs on Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) and various clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.), birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.) and melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.). When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to hibernate and later pupate in the litter layer. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).	eng
174253	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174253	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174254	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174254	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs over almost all of South Europe; the northern edge of its range is the southwestern coast of France, the eastern Pyrenees and Drôme, the Italian Alps (although absent from large parts of the north of Italy), Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is furthermore present in North Africa and across Asia Minor and Central Asia to Pakistan and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174254	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cardinal is a woodland butterfly occurring at woodland edges and in glades with bushes and grassy, flower-rich vegetations. Like the Silver-washed Fritillary (<em>A. paphia</em>), these butterflies are often seen in places where plants rich in nectar, such as thistles, are plentiful. The Cardinal is a fast and powerful flyer, vagrants being sometimes observed outside the distribution range, in Switzerland, for example. The eggs are laid singly on the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). It hibernates as a small caterpillar and pupates in spring, suspended low down on the foodplant or on the nearby vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), mesophile grasslands (5%).	eng
174254	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range, and can colonize areas temporarily. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174254	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174255	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174255	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Croatia in the coastal and inland coastal zone (0-700 m) and in the northwest of Greece (550-1250 m). It is present across the south of Russia to the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan and across the Caucasus and Asia Minor. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174255	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dalmatian Ringlet is an early spring species, and occurs on dry grasslands with open or semi closed scattered bushes and on rocky slopes. Butterflies can be observed in the low flight or resting on ground. The female lays its eggs on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and <em>Bromus condensatus</em>, depositing them a few at a time on tussock. The Dalmatian Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: phrygana (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (12%).	eng
174255	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174255	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174256	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174256	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, this species occurs in a number of widely separated mountainous areas: in the Cantabrian Mts., the Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, the Tatra, Carpathians, Rila and Pirin Mts. in southwest Bulgaria and the mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is rare in the eastern part of its range. 1,200-3,000 m, mostly above 1,500 m. It is also found in the mountains of central Asia east to China and Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174256	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Shepherd’s Fritillary is a characteristic species of flower-rich sub-alpine and alpine grasslands and can even be found on quite heavily grazed pastures. They can occur in high numbers. At the end of the day, they often roost communally in damp vegetation with tall plants. Long-spurred Pansy (<em>Viola calcarata</em>) is the major foodplant, but Alpine Plantain (<em>Plantago alpina</em>), Lady's Mantle (<em>Alchemilla</em> spp.) and valerians (<em>Valeriana</em>) are probably also used. Caterpillars are mostly found on plants growing in dry, rocky places. The Shepherd’s Fritillary has one generation a year and passes the winter in the larval stage. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (77%), heath and scrub (16%), blanket bogs (5%).	eng
174256	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a characteristic species of subalpine and alpine meadows, that can be found in many mountain chains. In its habitat, it is often one of the most common fritillaries. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174256	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174257	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174257	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the most northeastern part of European Russia, through the northernmost parts of Asia to North America and in the mountains of central and East Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174257	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly can be found on swamps and grassy places with scrubs and small forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).	eng
174257	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174257	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174258	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174258	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southeast of Europe, Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia and north of Greece and very locally in central Spain (Cuenca - Montes Universales). It is also found throug Ukraine and the south of Russia to the Urals. 400-1,900 m, in Spain between 900-1,600 m. Its range extends to Turkey and the south of Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174258	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sandy Grizzled Skipper is usually found in dry, often rocky, flower-rich places, both on calcareous and non-calcareous soil. They can also be found along woodland rides, in open scrub and in dried-up riverbeds. In Spain, it occurs in clearings in pinewoods. The butterflies can often be seen congregating in groups on moist ground to obtain both water and dissolved minerals. In South-east Europe, the foodplant is Sulphur Cinquefoil (<em>Potentilla erecta</em>), but that of the Spanish populations is not known. This species has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), screes (12%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), cliffs and rocky shores (12%), heath and scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%).	eng
174258	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174258	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level, but the population in Spain is considered vulnerable due to its very limited distribution range.	eng
174259	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174259	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A southern species that occurs locally: north of Spain, south of France, Italy, the Alps, south of Germany, south of Poland and the Balkans. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 100-1,800 m. It is also found from the Middle Europe across Asia Minor to Central Asia and along the south of Siberia to central China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174259	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Marbled Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods or in scrub where brambles are growing. It takes nectar from thistles growing in rough vegetation. Eggs are deposited singly on the leaves and sepals of brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), where they pass the winter, protected by withered leaves. In spring, the small caterpillar feeds on the new, young leaves in the leaf buds, the later larval stages eating older leaves. The pupa is suspended from a leaf or branch of the foodplant. The Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), mixed woodland (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), heath and scrub (7%).	eng
174259	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174259	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174260	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
174260	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the the south of the Balkans: in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria (Pirin Mts.) and Greece. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Lebanon, Syria and in the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174260	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Greenish Black-tip is mostly found on steep, rocky, limestone slopes with patches of grassy vegetation and in open, dry scrub. The butterflies often settle on the ground, or on rocks, with their wings half-open, but when it is very hot, they cool off in the shadow of rock crevices. Their flight is rapid, rather like that of skippers. The stock <em>Matthiola tessela</em> is its foodplant. It is not clear how many generations this species has a year, but it is probably two. Habitats: phrygana (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%), screes (25%).	eng
174260	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174260	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174261	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174261	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a southern species. This species occurs in central and North-East Spain, South of France and Central Massif, Italy, North-East Balkans and North Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia minor and Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174261	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The green sheen on the upperside of the wings and body of the Marbled Skipper distinguish it from other skippers in this genus. It lives in warm, flower-rich places. Populations are usually small and it is exceptional to see a large number of these butterflies gathered together. On very hot days, needing to drink, they look for damp ground. The eggs are laid singly on the sepals of various woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.), especially Perennial Yellow Woundwort (<em>S. recta</em>). The young caterpillars spin a loose shelter from leaves, under which they hide themselves while they feed, first eating the seeds and, later, the leaves of the plant. They hibernate in the third or fourth instar and pupate at the base of the foodplant. The Marbled Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).	eng
174261	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia and Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Moldova, Romania, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174261	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174262	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174262	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from north and central Spain via south and central France to the south of Sweden and Lithuania, in Eastern Europe as far as Greece and north and central Italy. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174262	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Turquoise Blue likes the warmth, occurring on dry, flower-rich slopes and calcareous grassland, often where there is shelter from a wood or from bushes. The butterflies are nearly always seen on calcareous ground. The populations are usually small in mountainous areas, where they often occur with other blues. The female lays its eggs on Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>), depositing them onto the underside of the leaves and also on the sepals. The newly-hatched caterpillars feed by scraping off the undermost layer of cells, so making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, they feed on the whole leaf. They are attended by various ant species, including those belonging to the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Formica</em>. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. The Turquoise Blue mostly has two generations, but at higher altitudes and in the north of its range, It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%).	eng
174262	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium, Luxembourg and Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Romania and Sweden. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Lithuania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174262	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174263	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174263	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is common and widespread in Central and South Europe. It is absent from Spain (except in the north), Ireland, Scotland, western Denmark, Scandinavia, Latvia, Estonia and the Balearic Islands. 0-1,700 m. It is present further east to the Middle East, Iran and Siberia up to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174263	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Brown Argus occurs on warm grasslands, in heaths and in dunes. It can also be found on sandy, pioneer vegetation, as for example in sand-pits, or where houses are being built. It lays its eggs on small crane’s-bill (<em>Geranium</em> spp.) and rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). It may build up numerous, small populations. At first, the small caterpillars only scrape off the undermost layer of the leaves making little “windows” in the leaves. Later, the bigger caterpillars feed on the whole leaf. They are often attended by <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Myrmica</em> ants. The caterpillars can hibernate at any stage. Pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Brown Argus has two to three generations depending on the geographical location. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), dry siliceous grasslands (18%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%).	eng
174263	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174263	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174264	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174264	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of  Portugal and Spain, in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees, via the Cevennes and Provence to the Alps), the adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps and in north and central Apennines. 100-2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174264	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dusky Heath is a butterfly of dry, grassy vegetation, such as found on rocky slopes in low scrub, thickets and in woodland clearings. Different grasses are used as foodplant, including bent (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>). It has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), heath and scrub (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).	eng
174264	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174264	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174265	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174265	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in large parts of South and Central Europe: it is scattered, in north and central Spain, east France (from the Pyrenees to Burgundy and the Jura), southwest Switzerland (Wallis), northwest and central Italy, east Austria and most Balkan countries as far as Greece (and on Lemnos). 500-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174265	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Osiris Blue lives on sunny, flower-rich grassland and road verges rich in sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis</em> spp.), which it uses for its nectar and as foodplant. The caterpillar feeds on various sainfoins (<em>Onobrychis</em> spp.), such as Sainfoin (<em>O. viciifolia</em>), Mountain Sainfoin (<em>O. montana</em>) and <em>O. arenaria</em>. In literature, other leguminous plants are also mentioned, including Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>), Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>) and Bitter Vetch (<em>Lathyrus montanus</em>). The eggs are laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and developing seeds and are attended by workers of different ant species, one of them being <em>Lasius alienus</em>. The Osiris Blue has one or two generations a year, but the second may only be partial. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate between two leaves. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (17%), mesophile grasslands (13%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174265	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174265	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174266	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174266	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe only on the south of the Iberian Peninsula. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174266	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Lorquin’s blue prefers open, flower-rich scrub. The female lays its eggs on the sepals of Kidney-vetch (<em>Anthyllis vulneraria</em>) and when the caterpillar hatches out, it bores a hole in the calyx through which it feeds on the young fruits and ripening seeds. When the caterpillars are feeding or at rest, they position themselves lengthways on the red-flecked sepals of the foodplant, well camouflaged, their colours matching those of their surroundings. They are attended regularly by ants. Lorquin’s Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
174266	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174266	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174267	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174267	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the lower region of the Volga River, Kazakhstan, Turkmenisat, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, locally in West China. 300-1,200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174267	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species occurs in local populations in sandy deserts. The females lay the eggs singly on the shoots of <em>Calligonum</em> species. The caterpillars feed on both flowers and buds. This species produces one generation a year. The pupa hibernates (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). It was first found in Europe in 1998 (Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174267	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174267	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174268	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174268	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present in the southern Urals, Altai Mountains, West and East Siberia, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions, China, Mongolia and Korea. Sea level - 1,700 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174268	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly is a typical species of lowland and mountain meadows, tundra and steppe habitats. In the eastern part of its range it is also found in sparse larch forests and moorlands. In the mountains it often occurs in tundra and alpine meadows. The caterpillars feed and hibernate on the leaves of various <em>Poa</em> species. This butterfly has one generation a year has one generation a year(Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).	eng
174268	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174268	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174269	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174269	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Bosnia, FYR of Macedonia, south and east of Bulgaria and in large parts of Greece (including many Greek islands). Sea level-1,500 m; mostly below 600 m. It is also found across Asia Minor to Transcaucasia and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174269	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Freyer’s Grayling can be found in dense thickets, on rocky slopes, on dry, grassy vegetation, in open woodland and in olive groves and orchards. There are trees in most habitats. In appearance and choice of biotope, Freyer’s Grayling is very similar to the Tree Grayling (<em>H. statilinus</em>). The butterflies are fond of resting on the ground or on tree trunks and hardly ever visit flowers. It uses different grasses as foodplants and has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), coniferous woodland (14%), mixed woodland (14%), screes (14%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%).	eng
174269	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174269	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174270	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174270	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Central and Southern Europe. It does not occur in Scandinavia, north of Germany, north of Poland, the Baltic States, north of Ireland, Scotland, south of Italy and on the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in Morocco and in the western part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174270	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Gatekeeper occurs on many different types of grassland. Mostly, it chooses rather rough, dry to damp vegetation, situated beside woodland or scrub, or not far from them. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on scrub and are often seen visiting flowers. The female lays its eggs singly on the leaf-blades of nearly all soft grasses, such as Cock’s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.) and Rye-Grass (<em>Lolium</em> spp.). The caterpillar avoids bright sunlight and feeds mostly on grasses growing in the shade. When half-grown, it hibernates in a tussock of grass. It completes its growth the following year and pupates low down in the vegetation. The Gatekeeper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), mesophile grasslands (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%).	eng
174270	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174270	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174271	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. If a climate change related decline is observed, ecological research must determine what conservation measures should be untertaken to safeguard the species.	eng
174271	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in Norway and Sweden above the Arctic Circle up to the Northern Arctic Sea and in Finland in the border region with Norway. 300-700 m. It is also found in the polar and mountain tundra of Siberia to Mongolia and Caucasus in the south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174271	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	At lower altitudes in Lapland, this lovely fritillary occurs on flower-rich swampy areas and wet slopes with scattered birches. Above 500 m, it is found in drier rocky places. Compared to the other fritillaries that occur in Lapland, the Lapland Fritillary is remarkably colourful. It is one of the first arctic species to be seen, appearing practically as soon as the snow has melted. It flies quickly, zigzagging low over the vegetation. The female lays its eggs in small groups on plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), Alpine Speedwell (<em>Veronica alpina</em>), Rock Speedwell (<em>V. fruticans</em>) and species of <em>Vaccinium</em>. The caterpillars live communally in small silken webs and hibernate there. They pupate in spring. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), raised bogs (16%), heath and scrub (16%).	eng
174271	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174271	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species appears to be fluctuating extremely between years, which may be related to a variation in the length (2 to 4 years) of its lifecycle. This species could be endangered by climate change in the future.	eng
174272	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174272	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the Urals across the south of Siberia, China and Mongolia to Korea and Japan. Up to 1,700 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174272	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Western part of its range this butterfly occurs in open coniferous forests, but more tot the East it is also found in tundras in the mountains, flying over stony slopes and alpine meadows at the upper forest border. The females lay their eggs on a number of grass species, such as <em>Agrostis</em>, <em>Elytrigia</em> and <em>Calamagostis</em> species. Usually only one generation a year is produced but in favorable conditions a second generation might appear as well (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: mixed woodland (50%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (50%).	eng
174272	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174272	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174273	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on the distribution, ecology and population dynamics is needed. In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174273	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Eastern Europe: from the Baltic States in the north, via eastern Poland, eastern Slovakia, eastern Hungary and Croatia to northwestern Greece in the south and further eastwards. It is not clear where the populations of this species are permanent and where as a migrant it only has temporary populations. It is furthermore present in the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174273	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell occurs in lowland woodland in Eastern Europe, in damp, deciduous woods growing on flood plains, or on the wooded banks of streams and rivers. Different trees are used as foodplants, including willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.), poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.), elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.) and Nettle Tree (<em>Celtis australis</em>). Until nearly fully-grown, the caterpillars inhabit large communal nests, which they spin in branches that hang over the water. The Yellow-legged Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly hidden in hollow trees or wood piles. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (11%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).	eng
174273	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in the eastern part of its range, this species is local and rare in the western part. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174273	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is unclear what the causes for the declines in the western part of its European range are. They might be part of natural fluctuations, but little is known of the population dynamics of this species.	eng
174274	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174274	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Portugal, Spain (except the northwest), the Balearic Islands and Sicily (Italy). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174274	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species can be found in flower-rich, waste places, in scrub or at woodland edges. The most important foodplants are stork?s-bills (<em>Erodium</em> spp.) and crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.), of which the caterpillars eat the leaves. Knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.), rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and Leguminous plants, such as clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.) and brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.) have also been mentioned. This species has two to three generations a year and is often found together with <em>Myrmica</em> or <em>Lasius</em> ants. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (16%), heath and scrub (16%).	eng
174274	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174274	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174275	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174275	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of the south of Europe. This species occurs in Greece and the Balkans as far as northeast Italy, East Austria and Slovakia. It is also found on the Iberian Peninsula (except the south of Portugal and west of Galicia) and in France (Charente-Maritimes to Eure, Somme, Meurthe-et-Moselle and Haut-Rhin). Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in Morocco and the Caucasus, Asia Minor and the Middle East to Southwest Siberia and Tian-Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174275	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Grayling is an inconspicuous butterfly. It occurs on warm, nutrient-poor grasslands, often situated near the edges of woodland or scrub, on both calcareous and acid soils. The female drops her eggs at random into the vegetation, leaving the young caterpillars to choose what to eat. They feed on different grasses, including Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>), Gray Hair-grass (<em>Corynephorus canescens</em>), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Crested Dog’s-tail (<em>Cynosurus cristatus</em>) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a grass tussock and have one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (36%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (10%), mesophile grasslands (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).	eng
174275	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174275	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174276	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed urgently on its distribution and ecology. Important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174276	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in the extreme north of Europe: in the north of Norway, of Finland and very rarely in the north of Sweden. 100-1,400 m. It is furthermore found in the polar tundra of the whole Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174276	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The habitat of the Polar Fritillary is open tundra, with a patchwork of short vegetation. Its foodplant is unknown. Just like other butterflies of the far north, the period in which they can be seen varies a lot from year to year, depending on the weather conditions preceding emergence. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (25%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%).	eng
174276	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174276	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a restricted range, occurs in low densities and has strong population fluctuations.       <span ;="">Climate change, and the related increased timberline and vegetation changes, might be a long term  due to its  limited distribution.	eng
174277	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174277	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in most coastal regions of the south of Europe: from Portugal, via the south and east of Spain (and locally in central Spain) and the southeast of France (to Ardèche) as far as Greece. It is absent from the western Adriatic coast between central Italy and Istria (Croatia), but found on most islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174277	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	With the whimsical patterning on the undersides of its wings and elegant little tails, the Two-tailed Pasha is one of the most beautiful European butterflies. It breeds in warm, dry places with many shrubs and trees where its foodplant, the Strawberry Tree (<em>Arbutus unedo</em>) is abundant. The males defend their territory fanatically, attacking other insects. The butterflies can often be seen feeding on the juices of rotting fruit, such as figs and are also attracted to alcoholic drinks. They are strong flyers, often roaming into areas where their foodplant is absent. The Two-tailed Pasha has mostly two generations a year and in some places possibly three. It hibernates as a caterpillar and pupates suspended from the foodplants. On Gibraltar, Samos and Cyprus, it also uses other foodplants. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (35%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%).	eng
174277	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174277	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174278	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174278	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it occurs only on the Greek island Samos. 1,000-1,400 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iran and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174278	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Orange-banded Hairstreak occurs above 1,000 m on open, dry, calcareous slopes with short vegetation and in dry scrub. The eggs are laid on the woody stems of <em>Atraphaxis billardieri</em>, a member of the <em>Polygonaceae</em>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplants. The Orange-banded Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
174278	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174278	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174279	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
174279	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe in Albania, FYR of Macedonia, southwest of Bulgaria and Greece (including several Greek islands). 0-2,000 m, mostly lower than 1,500 m. Across Turkey and Transcaucasia to the Pamirs- Alai and the Himalaya.  The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174279	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Powdered Brimstone caterpillars feed on the prickly Christ?s Thorne (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) and on various buckthorns, such as <em>Rhamnus alpinus</em>), <em>R. sibthorpianus</em> and <em>R. lycioides</em>. The butterflies are therefore often seen on bushy vegetation, namely in warm, dry places and on rocky slopes. However, in their search for nectar, they also fly in other places. It has one generation a year and, like other brimstones, hibernates as a butterfly. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (50%), screes (25%), sclerophyllous scrub (25%).	eng
174279	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Serbia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174279	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174280	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174280	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in central Portugal, large parts of Spain (except Southwest and orth), southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche and Provence to the French Alps) and in bordering part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174280	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Western Marbled White is mostly found in dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation and scattered rocks, although it is also seen in damper locations. Its foodplants are various grasses, such as Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Bermuda-grass (<em>Cynodon dactylon</em>), Cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>) and several <em>Stipa</em> spp. This species has one generation a year. It spends the summer as young larva without feeding, but feeds during the winter. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (40%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), mesophile grasslands (20%).	eng
174280	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portuga and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174280	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174281	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174281	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in widely scattered locations, often isolated from each other: north of Spain (from Oviedo to San Sebastian), France (extreme western part of the  Pyrenees to Brittany and Somme). Belgium and the Netherlands (near Weert), south of Sweden, central and eastern Lithuania, through Poland, northeast Germany, east Czech Republic, east Austria until the north of the Balkans, north of Italy, southeast Bulgaria and European Turkey. 0-1,000 m. Its range extends to Mongolia, North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174281	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The conspicuous pattern on the underside of the wings of the Large Chequered Skipper is unlike that of any other European butterfly. Furthermore, it has a characteristic, bouncing flight, low over the vegetation. It occurs in damp, rough, grassy places, such as grasslands, road verges, edges of streams, at the edges of raised bogs and in woodland clearings. The populations are often small. The eggs are laid singly or in small batches on the blades of grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) or Purple Smallreed (<em>Calamagrostis canescens</em>). The caterpillar makes a tubular shelter from grass, at first using a folded blade and later using spun grass-blades. It leaves its shelter in search of food. The caterpillars pass the winter in the shelter, making it stronger before they pupate. Pupation takes place in spring. The caterpillars then attach themselves to their shelter by a silken girdle and a small pale-green pupa is formed. The Large Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), water-fringe vegetation (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).	eng
174281	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia, Romania and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174281	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174282	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174282	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Central and Southeast Europe. It does not occur in Ireland and the Mediterranean islands. In Portugal only in Minho, in Spain, it is restricted to the Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de la Themanda and the Pyrenees. In Italy it is present only in the north, and in Greece, only in the northwest. In Great Britain and Sweden, it is restricted to the south. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Siberia, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174282	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Purple Emperor inhabits damp, mature, deciduous woods with clearings in them. These woods often have different tree species, stream valleys and woodland rides. Male butterflies are often seen near puddles on the road and on the dung of other animals. They are also attracted to strongly smelling cheese. The males and females meet each other at the top of master oaks, or other old trees that are taller than the rest, situated at the margin of the woods. Various willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs preferably at the top of the tree, on the upperside of shaded leaves. The caterpillars often lie along the main nerve of the leaves, nibbling off the rest of the leaf more or less symmetrically. The half-grown caterpillar spins a small cushion in the fork of a twig on which it hibernates. In spring, it resumes feeding on the buds and fresh young leaves. It pupates, suspended from the underside of a leaf and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (35%), mixed woodland (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (15%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).	eng
174282	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Luxembourg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174282	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174283	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is urgently needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In Hungary the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
174283	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This Eastern species occurs very locally in sparse populations. Lithuania, Poland, southeast of Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and Romania. In the flood plain of the Danube. 0-500 m. Its range extends to West Siberia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174283	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Danube Clouded Yellow occurs in dry, warm grassland where its foodplant, the broom <em>Chamaecytisus ratisbonensis</em> is always abundant. However, the amount of shelter from bushes can vary considerably. The female lays its eggs on the foodplant, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer. It has two to three generations a year. The species shows serious declines, especially at the western edge of its range. Within the last years it disappeared most probably from Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Serbia. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), coniferous woodland (8%), mixed woodland (8%).	eng
174283	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species has declined strongly over most of its range. It is reported extinct in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Croatia, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174283	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened both by intensification of use and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands, its main habitat. Furthermore, especially for the westernmost parts, climate change is considered as one of the most important reasons for its decline, even though it cannot fully explain the situation. It is certain that in some cases land-use changes even under AgriEnvironmental Schemes have led to drastic declines (see also Konvicka <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In general, loss of habitat and habitat connectivity, unfavarouble grassland management (wrong timing or intensity) and climate change (less continental climate) must be considered (Dolek, M. & Hager, A. 2008).  Abandonment is probably the largest threat to the populations in Eastern Europe.	eng
174284	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria and the Czech Republic.	eng
174284	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is an Eastern European species: occurs in Czech Republic, Slovakia, east of Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hungary and Romania. The occurence in Bulgaria needs verification. In most countries, it is rare or very rare. 250-1,400 m. It occurs across Siberia to the Magadan and Ussuri regions; Mongolia, Korea, the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174284	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Apart from its greater size and slightly falcate forewings the species can be separated from the other Wood Whites (<em>Leptidea</em> spp) by the conspicuous gliding flight displayed by the males. Fenton's Wood White can be seen on damp, grassy vegetation at the sunny edges of woods, in grassy woodland clearings and on regenerating woodland on grassland. They occur almost exclusively in deciduous woods. This butterfly has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (40%), mesophile grasslands (15%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), mixed woodland (10%).	eng
174284	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is very rare and local in the western part of its range, where the situation is unclear in many countries. It seems to be more common in Eastern Europe, but it is never abundant and is mostly declining.  It might be confused with other <em>Leptidea</em> species. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Serbia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Slovakia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174284	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threat is changes of woodland management.	eng
174285	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174285	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is mainly a species of Central and Eastern Europe. In Scandinavia, it is only found in the south. It is also found on Sicily and Corfu, but otherwise absent from the Mediterranean islands. Also absent from the Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces, Sierra de Guadarrama, Montes Universales and the north of Portugal), almost the whole Netherlands, Ireland and Britain, except the Isle of Wight. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in most of the Palearctic, except for the polar tundra, north of Siberia and the Far East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174285	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Glanville Fritillary is found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. This butterfly can survive on meadows and pastures, as well as on road verges and forgotten patches of vegetation, sometimes small habitats supporting large populations. Various plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.) and knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars live gregariously in a spun nest, also hibernating in a bigger nest when half-grown. In spring, a small proportion of the caterpillars develop quickly, going on to produce a partial, second generation. The remaining caterpillars develop more slowly. Thus, the Glanville Fritillary usually has one generation a year and in favourable locations a partial second generation. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
174285	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Sweden, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174285	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174286	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174286	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is common and widespread in Mediterranean Europe. Northwards it occurs only as migrant. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, Middle East, Turkey, central Asia and India. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174286	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a small, inconspicuous butterfly that occurs in flower-rich places and on rough vegetation. It is often seen near scrub and on fields of Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>). The eggs are laid on various leguminous plants, such as melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.), Purple Loosestrife (<em>Lythrum salicaria</em>) and also species of <em>Rosaceae</em> and <em>Plumbaginaeceae</em>. The caterpillar feeds on the flowers and seeds of the foodplant and has been found in association with ants of the genus <em>Lasius</em>. The life cycle of the Lang’s Short-tailed Blue takes four to eight weeks, depending on the temperature. Because it is not certain whether this species can go into diapause, in this case in the egg or caterpillar stage, it is also unclear,  whether Lang’s Short-tailed Blue is a resident or migrant in southern Europe. It is also possible that the populations are dependent on annual recolonization from Africa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), phrygana (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%).	eng
174286	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174286	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174287	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174287	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and locally common in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the south of Portugal, parts of south and central Spain, Ireland, Scotland, the north of Scandinavia, Sardinia and Sicily. 0-2,000 m. It is furthermore present in Turkey and throught temperate Asia to the north of China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174287	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Silver-studded Blue can be found in warm places on short vegetation, ranging from dry to quite damp, such as heath and nutrient-poor grassland. Especially impressive are the roosting places with enormous groups, sometimes of hundreds of butterflies, asleep in a very small area. The eggs are laid on Cross-leaved Heath (<em>Erica tetralix</em>) and on a wide range of leguminous plants. Usually, the eggs are deposited low down on the foodplant or on its woody parts. The egg hibernates. The caterpillars live on the leaves of the foodplants. They are often attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants that lick them and perhaps even defend them. Pupation often takes place in the outer passages of the ant nests. The ants also attend the pupa. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of occurrence, the Silver-studded Blue has one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (5%), coniferous woodland (5%).	eng
174287	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174287	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174288	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. It only occurs in protected areas in: Hungary, Czech Republic. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174288	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe in mountainous areas: Jura, the Alps (as far as Provence), the Pyrenees, Tatra and Carpathian Mts. 800-2,700 m. It is also found in high-montane areas and tundras of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174288	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The eggs, caterpillars and pupae are also almost indistinguishable. In some places, such as in the Alps and the Jura Mountains, these species occur together. The Mountain Green-veined White is found in flower-rich grasslands along river banks and at woodland edges. Buckler Mustard (<em>Biscutella laevigata</em>), pennycresses (<em>Thlaspi</em> spp.) and bittercresses (<em>Cardamine</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. The female, heavily dusted on its upperside with yellow or grey, lays its eggs singly on the flowers or leaves of the larval foodplant. It shows a preference for smaller plants growing on poor ground. It has one or two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. In areas, where this species occurs together with the Green-veined White, like in the Southeast Alps, one may often find hybrids of both species. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), coniferous woodland (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (8%), heath and scrub (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
174288	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174288	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174289	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174289	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is originally a South African species, not native in Europe. It is spreading rapidly in the Mediterranean. It occurs in Europe since 1989. It is now found on the Balearic Islands, Spain (eastern coast and some inland areas), south of France, north and central Italy, southwest of Slovenia and the Croatian coast. The species can be expected everywhere in the Mediterranean in the coming years. This butterfly is also seen further northwards up to the south of England and the Netherlands.	eng
174289	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Originally a species from southern Africa, the Geranium Bronze became a plague in Majorca at the end of the 1980s. It had probably been imported on <em>Pelargonium</em> cultivars, the ordinary or garden geraniums. From there out, because of the large popularity of these plants, it was imported and colonized large parts of Spain and France, using the <em>Pelargonium</em> cultivars as foodplant. The caterpillars mostly eat the flowers and buds of <em>Pelargonium</em>, but also the rest of the plants, including the inside of the main stem, where they are safe from insecticides. Finally, the plants collapse. The expansion can be expected to continue. In South Africa, the Geranium Bronze uses wild <em>Geranium</em> species as foodplant, making it possible that this butterfly will establish itself in the wild in warm parts of Europe. However, in cooler areas, it cannot settle permanently, because it has no diapause and could not survive the winter. Numerous generations a year, depending on the temperature. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (50%), towns, villages, industrial sites (50%).	eng
174289	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread  in the Western Mediterranean after its introduction in 1989 to Mallorca. It is expanding east and north. The species can be expected to colonise the rest of the Mediterranean soon. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174289	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174290	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174290	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in Sweden and Norway north of 60° N, scattered over Finland and very rarely in Estonia and Latvia. 100-400 m. Across Middle and South Siberia to Kamchatka, North Mongolia and North Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174290	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lapland Ringlet inhabits bogs and marshes with sedges and grasses and scattered groups of willows and myrtle. The marshes are often situated in coniferous or birch woods. Its foodplants are probably sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.), Tufted Hair-grass (<em>Deschampsia cespitosa</em>) and Bog Hair-grass (<em>D. setacea</em>). These butterflies are difficult to find because they are shy and always occur in low numbers. Also, their habitat is very inaccessible. The development of the Lapland Ringlet from egg to butterfly takes two years. Habitats: raised bogs (42%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), mixed woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), coniferous woodland (14%).	eng
174290	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174290	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174291	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No direct conservation actions are neededat a European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174291	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it occurs in Arctic Fennoscandia, polar Urals and Novaya Zemlya. It is also found in Taimyr, Yamal Peninsula, North America and Greenland (Tolman & Lewington 2008). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174291	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pale Arctic Clouded Yellow is found in Lapland in the mountains and in lowland areas. They occur in marshy habitats in the birch zone, marshes on mountain slopes and on dry to wet alpine grasslands. The butterflies appear early in the year, as soon as the birches burst into leaf. Its foodplants are Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>), Yellow Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>A. frigidus</em>) and possibly also <em>Vaccinium</em> species. This species has one generation a year and mostly hibernates as a chrysalis, but sometimes as a caterpillar. Sometimes, it remains a pupa for a second winter. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174291	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Russia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174291	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale. Climate change could be a possible long term threat.	eng
174292	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
174292	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in the east of Albania, southwest of FYR of Macedonia and northwest of Greece. 1,400-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174292	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grey Asian Grayling is found in the mountains on dry, often stony or rocky slopes with grassy vegetation. The butterflies fly low over the ground, but often settle on stones or bare ground. They frequently visit flowers. Different grasses are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (66%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%).	eng
174292	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174292	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174293	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174293	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common in nearly all Europe, except Sardinia, the Shetland Islands and the Atlantic islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also present through the entire Palearctic Region except for the extreme north and south. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174293	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Green-veined White occurs in many different habitats and landscapes with varying amounts of shelter. It can be found on all types of grasslands and heathlands in open or more closed landscapes. However, a too dry habitat is not favourable. This butterfly is very variable in appearance, having several forms and sub-species. The eggs are laid singly or in small numbers on many, mostly wild, crucifers. It pupates on a stalk and overwinters in this stage. The Green-veined White has several generations a year, the number depending on the geographical location and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%).	eng
174293	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174293	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174294	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174294	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe except the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, England, Ireland, European lowlands and the north of Scandinavia. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in North Africa and central Asia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174294	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Green-underside Blue is a pretty sight on both dry and damp flower-rich grassy vegetation, such as meadows and woodland clearings. The females lay their eggs between the flowers of all species of leguminous plants, including brooms (<em>Cytisus</em> spp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.), Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>), <em>Genista</em> spp. and melilots (<em>Melilotus</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and are frequently attended by the workers of various ants. The Green-underside Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), mesophile grasslands (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).	eng
174294	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Estonia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Latvia, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174294	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174295	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174295	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe up to 62° N, but IS absent from Northern Scotland and large parts of Ireland, Southern Portugal, South-West of Spain, Mediterranean islands except Corfu and Sicily. It is also found in parts of Western and Central Asia. 50–2,000 m. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174295	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dingy Skipper is a small, inconspicuous butterfly. In the north of its range it occurs on chalk grasslands, but further to the south it is also found on road verges and on grazed grasslands. It lays its eggs on the leaves of leguminous plants such as Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis communis</em>) and Common Birdsfoot trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>), usually choosing plants growing near bare patches. The caterpillar spins a small, tube-like shelter from leaves of the larval foodplant, living and feeding in it until fully grown. It then builds a sturdier shelter in which to pass the winter. In spring, without further feeding, it pupates, either in the shelter, or in the moss layer. The adult butterfly is often found on Bugle (<em>Ajuga</em> spp.) and, while visiting flowers, is easily observed. It rests, mothlike, with its wings closed over its back, but holds them open when alighting on a flower. It is the only skipper occurring in Ireland. The Dingy Skipper usually only has one generation a year, but in warm summers and in the southern part of its range, it sometimes has a second generation that may be only partial. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%), heath and scrub (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).	eng
174295	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Latvia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174295	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands	eng
174296	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174296	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, northeast of Turkey and northwest of Iran. 2,000-3200 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174296	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species is mainly found on open stony places but it also occurs in glades of mountain forests. In Turkey, the hostplant is probably <em>Hippocrepis comosa</em> (Hesselbarth, van Oirschot & Wagener 1995, Baytas 2007), outside Turkey other species of the genus <em>Hippocrepis</em> might be used as well. The species has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174296	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174296	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174297	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174297	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of eastern Central Europe, with some isolated occurrences outside this region. Thus, it is local in southeastern Sweden, southeastern Germany, northern Italy (Aosta, Susa, Turin, Lago Maggiore, Lago di Garda, Venezia) and Bulgaria (Stara Pl.). It is more common in southern Lithuania, northeastern Poland, eastern Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and further eastwards. 300-1,000 m. It is also found across the north of Kazakhstan and the south of Siberia to Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174297	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Assmann’s Fritillary occurs on warm grasslands and heath that are often situated at the edges of woodland, or near groups of shrubs. Its foodplants are Ribwort Plantain (<em>Plantago lanceolata</em>), Yellow Rattle (<em>Rhinanthus minor</em>) and the Speedwell (<em>Veronica austriaca</em>). The female lays its eggs in batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in a silken nest, where they also hibernate. They then separate, later pupating low-down in the vegetation. This fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), mixed woodland (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).	eng
174297	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Sweden, Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174297	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly.	eng
174298	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174298	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs only in Lapland north of 67° N. 100-1,100 m. It is also found across subpolar tundras of Siberia to the Chukot Peninsula and Alaska. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174298	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Arctic Grayling mostly occurs on almost bare mountain slopes and on dry, stony ground with a vegetation of low grasses, mosses and lichens. At high altitudes, the butterflies fly along slopes and narrow ledges that offer shelter from the westerly winds. Especially the females are also found on damper ground, looking for nectar plants. The eggs are laid on Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>), preferably on tussocks growing in the shelter of rocks or shrubs. It takes two years for the egg to develop into a butterfly and the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), screes (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (20%).	eng
174298	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174298	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174299	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It is important to maintain suitable glades by grazing or clearing at regular intervals to prevent overshading of its habitat. To improve overgrown sites small clearings (10-30 m in diameter) should be created, wide enough to allow the sun to reach the ground (Bergman pers. comm.).	eng
174299	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species, local and very rare. In Spain possibly only in Biscay, in France except Atlantic coast and south, Switzerland, north of Italy via Slovenia to the east, continuous from Southeast Germany to the south of Finland. 200-1,500 m. It is also found eastwards across northern Central Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174299	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Woodland Brown is fond of warm, open places in damp, deciduous or mixed woods with well-developed shrub and herbaceous layers. These habitats may be flooded in winter. The butterflies rarely visit flowers, preferring to feed on honeydew, moisture on buds and sap runs from wounded trees. The males often settle on puddles on the ground, while the females tend to stay in the very top of the trees. Females and caterpillars are restricted to a narrow zone under the tree and bush canopy along the edges of clearings where the host plant must be present (Bergmann, 2001). Eggs are laid on all species of grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and also on sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). The half-grown caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, where later in the year it also pupates. The Woodland Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), mixed woodland (29%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (8%), coniferous woodland (5%).	eng
174299	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The Woodland Brown is declining in large parts of Europe. Present strongholds are mainly in East Europe. It is reported extinct in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belgium, Bulgaria and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174299	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Changes in woodland or woodland management are the main threats all over the continent. Nevertheless agricultural abandonment and land drainage are important threats in some countries, mainly because the habitat was maintained in a successional change by grazing.	eng
174300	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174300	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs over most of Europe except the extreme south and north. It is absent from the Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Ireland, north of Britain and Fennoscandia north of 65° N. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends through Asia to Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174300	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grizzled Skipper occurs in many different habitats, mostly on dry, as well as moist, flower-rich grasslands and also on calcareous grasslands and heaths. The butterflies often bask in the sun on patches of bare ground. The eggs are laid one by one on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and strawberries (<em>Fragaria</em> spp.), including Wild Strawberry (<em>F. vesca</em>). The caterpillar builds a small shelter from a leaf, in which it stays hidden, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. The sturdy cocoon in which it pupates is spun from plant remains. This species has one or two generations, depending on the location and altitude of the breeding ground. The taras form, with large, white patches on the upperside of the wings, is found more in the Grizzled Skipper than in other skippers, especially in males. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%).	eng
174300	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174300	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174301	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174301	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Central Europe. It occurs in an area between the north of Germany and the north of Italy and further eastwards. In Western Europe, it is only present in the northern provinces of Spain, central western, southwestern and eastern France and eastern Belgium. It is also found in the south of Scandinavia, locally in Latvia and in the Balkans to Bulgaria. 100-2,000 m. It is furthermore present across the south of Siberia to Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174301	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The False Heath Fritillary is found in sheltered, marshy habitats and damp woodland clearings. At higher altitudes, it is also found on rough, calcareous grasslands. Different species of valerian (<em>Valeriana</em> spp.) are used as foodplants, the female depositing its eggs in large clusters on the underside of the leaves. The small caterpillars only feed for a short time before hibernating communally in a silken shelter. After hibernation, they separate, later pupating low down on the foodplant. The False Heath Fritillary usually has one generation a year, but at low altitudes in the Alps and in Spain, it sometimes has two. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (31%), fens, transition mires and springs (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%).	eng
174301	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, FYR of Macedonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Moldova, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174301	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use (especially drainage) and abandonment of grasslands, as well of the drainage of wet woodlands.	eng
174302	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174302	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present in the northwestern part of Kazakhstan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174302	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species is mostly found in small and scattered populations in steppe and semi-desert habitat in calcareous outcrops. The female deposits the eggs on the flowers and newly formed bean pods of various Astragalus species. The caterpillars feed on the seeds. They are often attended by ants. This species has one generation a year. Hibernation takes place in the pupal stage (Tuzov, 2,000; Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174302	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174302	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174303	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174303	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is found in South and Central Europe up to 50° N. It also occurs on most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. Its range extends to Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174303	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mallow Skipper is a butterfly of warm, grassy places, usually with rough vegetation, as, for example, rough patches on warm slopes. It is a mobile butterfly, that strays outside its usual habitat and that thus can be met in unexpected places. In warm summers, they migrate northwards and can be seen in warm, south-facing river valleys. The resident populations are usually small. The butterflies are often seen visiting flowers for nectar. They also spend a lot of their time basking in the sun, their wings wide open, showing to full advantage their beautiful purple to olive-green metallic sheen. Eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves of mallows (<em>Malva</em> ssp.). The caterpillars thrive on this food, growing very quickly. This skipper has up to three or more generations in a year. As winter approaches, the fully-grown caterpillars make a cocoon in the litter layer. They pupate in spring. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), fallow land, waste places (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%).	eng
174303	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. In Switzerland the species is expanding, largely due to sowing of <em>Malvaceae</em> (in the seeds mix) by farmers in their field margins, as ecological compensation measures. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174303	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174304	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and the ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174304	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs on Mt. Chelmos and its surroundings in the south of Greece. Mostly 1,100-1,700 m but sometimes seen at lower altitudes (but not lower than 500 m). It is also found in Turkey and Transcaucasus. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174304	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Chelmos Blue is found in dry open, calcareous places with a short vegetation, sometimes also in open patches in scrub or in woodland clearings. The females seldom leave their breeding ground, but the males roam outside it, for example, searching for patches of moist ground. The sainfoin <em>Onobrychis alba</em> is used as foodplant. Overgrazing by goats can form a threat for this butterfly; the only foodplants that survive are those growing amongst thorny plants. The caterpillars are attended by ants. The Chelmos Blue has one generation a year and hibernates when still a small caterpillar, under a stone. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174304	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174304	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species has a restricted range, though it is more widespread outside Europe. The species is treatened by overgrazing as well as abandonment.	eng
174305	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As this species is extinct in Europe, no actions can be taken for its persistence. Since it is still present in West Anatolia, a re-introduction can be considered. In such case, detailed research on the ecology of this species is necessary.	eng
174305	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It occurred very locally in the southwest of Romania: South Banate, Poiana Ruscai Mts., Retezat Mts. and southwest of Transylvania (Székely, 2008). 600-1,200 m. It is also found in western Anatolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174305	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Romania this species has been reported from limestone areas, limestone gorges, rock slopes and grasslands and meadows. The caterpillars fed on Bloody Crane?s-bill (<em>Geranium sanguineum</em>) and had a relationship with <em>Lasius</em>-ants. They hibernated in the larval stage (Székely, 2008). In Turkey reported from moist habitats (Hesselbarth <em>et al.</em>, 1995). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174305	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This  is a local species,  restricted in Europe to Southwest Romania. There have been no reports for almost 100 years. This species can be considered regionally extinct in Europe. It is still present in western Turkey (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174305	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threats are unknown. The species has not been reported for almost 100 years.	eng
174306	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174306	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, this species is only reported from scattered records in the southeast of Spain (from Cadiz to Alicante). It is furthermore present from North Africa and the Middle East across Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan to the south of Turkmenia, Uzbekistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174306	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Desert Orange-tip occurs on fallow land, on dry flower-rich vegetation and on stony slopes. There are several overlapping generations each year, so that butterflies can be seen from spring to autumn. In summer and autumn they are more numerous and can sometimes be seen further inland. The caterpillars live on the leaves of Caper (<em>Capparis spinosa</em>). The Desert Orange-tip passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), fallow land, waste places (50%).	eng
174306	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174306	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174307	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174307	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Ardèche as far as the Alps and Provence) and in the Balkans from the southwest of Serbia as far as Bulgaria, the south of Greece and Crimea. 50-1,200 m, sometimes to 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174307	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Wood White occurs on dry grassland, often whit scattered trees or bushes  and in open woods. It is found on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The habitats of the Eastern Wood White are drier and warmer than those of the Wood White (<em>L. sinapis</em>) and Real´s Wood White (<em>L. reali</em>). The eggs are laid on the leaves of Meadow Vetchling (<em>Lathyrus pratensis</em>), Yellow Vetchling (<em>L. aphaca</em>) and birdsfoot-trefoils (<em>Lotus</em> spp.), mostly on plants growing in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of the foodplant. The Eastern Wood White has two generations a year and hibernates in the pupal stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), dry siliceous grasslands (26%), cliffs and rocky shores (6%), heath and scrub (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), phrygana (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174307	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174307	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174308	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. Special attention should be paid to a well balanced intensity and timing of grazing. More research on this is urgently needed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174308	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A southern species with a fragmented distribution area. This species occurs in the northeastern half of the Iberian Peninsula, south and central France, central Italy, Sicily, locally in south and east Germany, south of Poland and Switzerland. It is also found in the Balkans, including all of Greece. However, it is absent from Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Middle Asia to Afghanistan, Northwest.China and Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174308	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Hermit inhabits steppe-like grasslands in dry, warm places. In the northern part of its distribution range, it is restricted to dry chalk hills. Although it is a very large butterfly, when its wings are closed, it blends perfectly into its surroundings. Especially when resting on a rock, they are almost invisible. The female deposits her eggs one at a time on the withered blades of many different grasses, including false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate in the first larval instar. They pupate in a sort of cocoon, in a little hollow in the ground, or sometimes low down on the foodplant. The Hermit has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (32%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).	eng
174308	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In the southern part of its range, it is more widespread. It is reported extinct in Belgium and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, France, Switzerland and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174308	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Although intensification has a negative impact on this species, most populations in Central Europe are actually threatened by abandonment or even a small reduction of the grazing intensity.	eng
174309	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174309	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of the south of Europe: almost all of Portugal and Spain (except the north coast), southeast of France (to the Massif Central), large parts of Italy (in north almost absent) and in Southeastern Europe  from the coastal line of Croatia through Albania to the west and south of Greece. This species occurs also on several islands in the Mediterranean Sea.  Sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in Africa and Northwest Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174309	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Gatekeeper can be found on dry grasslands, rocky slopes with grassy vegetation, in open scrub and now and then in woodland clearings. The foodplants are grasses, probably <em>Deschampsia</em> spp., although this is not exactly certain. This butterfly species has one or two generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), phrygana (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%).	eng
174309	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174309	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174310	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174310	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe in two clearly separated areas: in Lapland, central Norway, western Sweden and Lithuania and in the Alps of Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Slovenia and Bavaria. In the north 300-1,000 m, in the Alps 800-1,800 m. It is furthermore found in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region, east to north China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174310	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Alps, Thor's Fritillary can be found in flower-rich places, in clearings, or in sheltered ?alcoves? at the edges of woods. It prefers damp, north-facing slopes and is often found beside streams or in ravines. In the Scandinavian part of its range, the butterflies can be seen in clearings in birch woods and coniferous forests and near mountain lakes, swampy places, in gullies and river beds. The Yellow Wood Violet (<em>Viola biflora</em>) is its major foodplant, but other violets are used as well. The female lays its eggs either on the foodplant, or on a neighbouring plant and the caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (22%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), fens, transition mires and springs (16%), mixed woodland (11%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%), heath and scrub (5%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).	eng
174310	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Norway and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174310	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174311	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174311	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Northeast Portugal, most parts of Spain except the southwest and the north, south and central France, Switzerland, parts of north and central Italy, the Balkans, north Greece (Phalakron and Menikion Mts.), south and east Germany, Poland, south Lithuania. 600-1,800 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Western Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174311	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Safflower Skipper is the largest grizzled skipper in Central Europe. It prefers sheltered places, occurring on dry, often calcareous grasslands and rough vegetation in sheltered places . They often rest near bushes or at the edges of woods. They lay their eggs singly on the upperside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.), the caterpillar later using leaves as food. However, the caterpillars are difficult to find, because they hide in plant cushions during the day, in order to survive the summer heat. The caterpillars hibernate in spun leaves in the litter layer, probably in the last larval instar. However, in breeding experiments, each stage was found to be capable of hibernating. Before they pupate, the caterpillars make a sturdy cocoon. The Safflower Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), screes (7%).	eng
174311	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174311	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174312	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. The population trend should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. In Sweden, none of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas. In Finland, all populations are in Natura 2000 areas.	eng
174312	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs north of 68.5° N in a small area in the border region of Norway, Sweden and Finland. 600-950 m. It is also found in the polar tundra from through Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174312	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dusky-winged Fritillary, occurs in the extreme north of Europe on open, grassy expanses, often on gentle slopes, sheltered from the prevailing westerly wind. It can occur in large numbers, in some places with hundreds of butterflies at once. Before they mate, these butterflies behave in a characteristic way, with the male following the female, flying in short spurts and seeming to make grasshopper-like jumps. The eggs are laid on various plants, including Alpine Bistort (<em>Polygonium viviparum</em>), but it is not certain whether this is its foodplant. The egg takes two years to develop into a butterfly. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (20%), mesophile grasslands (20%), heath and scrub (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%).	eng
174312	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174312	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs usually in low densities in a restricted range in Northern Europe. Furthermore it appears to fluctuate more than other Arctic butterflies. Climate change, and the related changes in vegetation and timberline, might be a long term threat  owing to its limited distribution.	eng
174313	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174313	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is resident in the south of Europe, in some years also further north. It is migrant in the Baltic States, the south of Scandinavia, north of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Britain and Ireland. When resident 0-1,600 m; migrants up to 3200 m. It is also found in North Africa and across Turkey and the Middle East, the Caucasus and Kazakhstan to W Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174313	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In warm summers, the Clouded Yellow can be seen practically over the whole of Europe, often on fields of clover or lucerne, or other flower-rich vegetations. It lays its eggs one by one, on the leaves of such leguminous plants as Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>), clovers (<em>Trifolium</em> spp.) and vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.). It pupates, suspended in a silken girdle on the foodplant. In the south, where it can survive the winter, the Clouded Yellow passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the north, because it cannot tolerate the cold, it only appears as a summer migrant, recolonizing from the south. This species has four to six generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), mesophile grasslands (8%), improved grasslands (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), phrygana (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
174313	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a migrant species that cannot survive winters in the northern half of Europe or in the mountains. Because of the strong annual fluctuations, no trends can be detected.	eng
174313	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174314	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174314	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Eastern Pyrenees, the Alps (France, northwest Italy, southwest and east Switzerland), south Finland and central Sweden. 0-300 in North Europe, 1,200-2,000 m in the Pyrenees and Alps. It is also  present in South and West Siberia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174314	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Silvery Argus occurs on flower-rich grasslands with some bushes or trees, in grass along the hedges, at the edge of woodland and in sunny, grassy woodland clearings. The grassland on which the Silvery Argus occurs is usually damp and high, but it is also seen on dry grassland. The female lays its eggs on the flowers of Wood Crane?s-bill (<em>Geranium sylvaticum</em>) and Meadow Crane?s-bill (<em>G. pratense</em>). The caterpillars eat the leaves as well as the flowers. They are attended by ants. In Spain and Sweden, this butterfly probably hibernates in the egg stage and in the Alps as a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), coniferous woodland (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), mixed woodland (10%).	eng
174314	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174314	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174315	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174315	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe, it is absent from the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the eastern part of Italy, north of Denmark, east of Ireland, the Netherlands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-2,000 m. It is furthermore found in the temperate zone of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174315	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pearl-bordered Fritillary occurs at the edges of woods and in clearings, in meadows and on pastures near scrub. Its habitats are usually dry and moderately rich in nutrients. The butterflies are quite mobile, leaving the habitat in search of nectar, visiting vegetation that ranges from very dry to wet. Most species of violet (<em>Viola</em> spp.) can be used as a foodplant. The female lays its eggs singly, either on a foodplant or on a neighbouring plant. The caterpillars feed on the violet leaves, hibernating in a rolled-up, withered leaf, when half-grown. It pupates on the foodplant, close to the ground. It has one to two generations a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (16%), coniferous woodland (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%), raised bogs (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).	eng
174315	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands since the 1960s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Luxembourg, Poland, Republic of Ireland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174315	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174316	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. Management plans must be made for the remaining sites in the western part of the range. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174316	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the southeast of Czech Republic and east of Austria eastwards to Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. 300-1,000 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey, north of Iran, West Siberia and the Altai Mountains across the south of Siberia to Transbaikalia, Mongolia and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174316	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Clouded Yellow is found on open, dry, steppe-like grassland and rocky slopes. Its main foodplant is the Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus austriacus</em>), but Milk-vetch (<em>A. glycyphyllos</em>) and vetches (<em>Vicia</em> spp.) are also used. This species has three to four generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (58%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), phrygana (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%).	eng
174316	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova, Romania and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174316	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threats are agricultural changes, afforestation and built development. In the western part of the European range, populations have got scattered and are now isolated. Furthermore, the species shows strong fluctuations.	eng
174317	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174317	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species. In Spain and Portugal only in the north, in France not on the provençal coast, in Italy only in the Alps and an isolated population in Calabria, not in Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In Scandinavia to 66 °N. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the entire temperate part of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174317	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Marbled Fritillary occurs on damp to wet, flower-rich, rough vegetation, growing in the shelter of woodland. This can be situated in a valley, or on the banks of a stream, in abandoned meadows and swampy habitats. Because of changes in agricultural practices, this butterfly has been able to expand into some abandoned wet meadows. After continuing succession, these meadows will get overgrown by scrub and become unsuitable for the Lesser Marbled Fritillary. Eggs are laid singly or in pairs on the leaves and flowerheads of Meadowsweet (<em>Filipendula ulmaria</em>), Goat's-beard (<em>Aruncus dioicus</em>), Great Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba officinalis</em>) and brambles (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). It hibernates either as an egg or a caterpillar. The caterpillars feed at night and in bad weather, also during the day. They pupate on the foodplant. The Lesser Marbled Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (41%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), mixed woodland (7%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).	eng
174317	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct from the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174317	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174318	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174318	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present in the Lower Volga, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and West China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174318	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species is mostly seen in deserts, semi-deserts and dry meadows on plains, in river valleys and at foothills. The larval foodplant is unknown. The species produces one generation a year and overwinters as a pupa (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).	eng
174318	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174318	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174319	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174319	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of  Portugal and Spain (except the northwest and the north coast), in the southeast of France from the Pyrenees to the Ardèche, Drôme and Var. 100-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174319	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The markings on the Spanish Gatekeeper are brighter than those of the other gatekeepers. The butterflies are mostly found on dry, rather rough, grassy vegetation with trees or bushes in the neighbourhood. The caterpillars feed on grasses, especially false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), but also probably bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp) and meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.). The Spanish Gatekeeper is single-brooded and passes the winter in the caterpillar stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), scrub and grassland (16%).	eng
174319	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174319	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174320	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174320	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe: the Iberian Peninsula (except the northwest), France (southern half), Italy (except central Apennines), Dalmatian coast and Greece. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Turkey and the Middle East. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174320	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cleopatra is found in open woodland, woodland edges and open bushy places and maquis. The males are easily recognized in flight by the orange patches on their forewings; the female looks very much like <em>G. rhamni</em>. They are strong flyers that sometimes roam outside their breeding area. The eggs are laid on the young leaves of various buckthorns, such as Buckthorn (<em>Rhamnus catharticus</em>), Mediterranean Buckthorn (<em>R. alaternus</em>) and Alpine Buckthorn (<em>R. alpinus</em>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves and pupate on the twigs of the foodplant. The Cleopatra hibernates as an adult butterfly and therefore can be seen flying for most of the year. It has probably only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (13%), heath and scrub (9%), phrygana (9%).	eng
174320	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Malta (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174320	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174321	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Research is needed on the distribution and ecology of this species. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174321	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs north of 66° N in Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-900 m. It is furthermore present on the tundras of Eurasia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174321	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Northern Clouded Yellow occurs in the mountains of Lapland above the birch zone, on open, grassy meadows and stony slopes. The butterflies fly very quickly and are difficult to approach. Eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the larval foodplants, or on neighbouring plants. Alpine Milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus alpinus</em>) is the most important foodplant, but other milk-vetches (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.) may also be used. The caterpillars feed on the flowers, leaves and stems, sometimes taking two years to complete their life-cycle. Hibernation can take place as a caterpillar or a pupa. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%), coastal sand-dunes and sand beaches (16%), heath and scrub (16%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).	eng
174321	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174321	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threat is overgrazing by reindeers, especially in Finland. <em>Astragalus</em> plants are eaten first by these herbivores. Due to its limited distribution, it might get threatened in the long term by climate change.	eng
174322	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174322	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Central Europe. In France, it is present only in the northeast and Brittany, in Germany and Belgium only in the south, in Southeast Norway, South and Central Sweden, south of Finland to the north of Greece. 100-1,500 m. It also occurs in the whole temperate forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174322	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	An encounter with the Poplar Admiral is one of those things that one never forgets. It is an impressive butterfly and the woods it inhabits are areas of natural beauty. They are found in mixed woodlands with damp clearings, where its foodplants Aspen (<em>Populus tremula</em>) and Black Poplar (<em>Populus nigra</em>) grow. The female deposits its eggs one by one on leaves that are preferably situated in the sun, with more branches above them. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves, damaging them in a characteristic way. Starting at the point, they eat the softer tissue, leaving the middle nerve untouched. This nerve is supplied with a spun thread, which catches the caterpillar’s frass. When about two-thirds of the leaf is left, the caterpillar uses it to build a hibernaculum, which is fastened tightly onto a twig with spun thread. It hibernates in the second larval instar and in spring eats large numbers of leaves before finally pupating, suspended from a leaf. The Poplar Admiral has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (42%), mixed woodland (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%).	eng
174322	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, France, Germany and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Hungary, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174322	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of the woodland management.	eng
174323	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174323	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Portugal and Spain (except the extreme north), in the southeast of France (from the eastern Pyrenees via Ardèche to the French Alps) and adjacent part of the Italian Maritime Alps. Sea level-1,500 m, sometimes -2,200 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174323	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Striped Grayling occurs mostly on dry, rocky slopes with bushes and grassy vegetation and in open woodland. The butterflies often rest on the ground or on tree trunks. Foodplants are various grasses, such as Bermuda-grass (<em>Cynodon dactylon</em>), Cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus glomerata</em>), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.). This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar or pupa, on or just in the ground. Habitats: heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (16%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (16%).	eng
174323	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174323	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174324	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, Slovenia, Serbia and Ukraine, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174324	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of Europe or at higher altitudes further south: the Alps of southeast France, Switzerland, Austria and Italy, south and east Germany, Slovenia, Serbia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, via the Baltic States to Finland, Scandinavia and Denmark. In northern Europe from sea-level up to 1,400 m, in southern Europe 1,500-2,800 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174324	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Cranberry Blue occurs on raised bogs, heath and also in woodland clearings, where dwarf shrubs are growing. Although populations are at times extremely small, they can also have considerable numbers of butterflies. Eggs are laid on Marsh Andromeda (<em>Andromeda palustris</em>), Heath (<em>Erica tetralix</em>) and a small number of Vaccinium species, including Cranberry (<em>V. oxycoccos</em>). The caterpillars eat both the flowers and leaves of the foodplants, moving from one plant to another. When they are half-grown, they move into the litter layer and hibernate. However, they pupate on the plant, spinning a silken girdle in which the pupa hangs. The Cranberry Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (30%), coniferous woodland (20%), heath and scrub (10%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), mixed woodland (5%), blanket bogs (5%), fens, transition mires and springs (5%).	eng
174324	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Latvia, Poland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174324	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Along the southern edge of its range, it is threatened by drainage of the bogs it lives in.	eng
174325	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174325	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeastern Europe: in Croatia, Bosnia, southwest of Bulgaria, Albania, FYR of Macedonia and scattered over Greece (including Crete and islands in the Eastern Aegean). It is also found in Turkey and the north of Iraq. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174325	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	With the white bands on each wing and the dark narrow scent-brand, the males of the White-banded Grayling are unmistakable. The butterflies occur on dry, grassy vegetation in open scrub and on rocky slopes. Sometimes, they are seen in open woods. They often drink nectar from thistle-like plants. The males defend their territory, perching on a rock or other prominent features in the surroundings. This butterfly is single-brooded. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), sclerophyllous scrub (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (20%).	eng
174325	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174325	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174326	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174326	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the east of Serbia and of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, northwest of Greece and of Bulgaria. It is also found in Ukraine. 700-1,600 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174326	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Lattice Brown is a butterfly of grassy woodland glades. It occurs both in deciduous and mixed woodland. The butterflies have a rapid flight. They often rest in trees, but sometimes on shorter vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, such as Annual Meadow-grass (<em>Poa annua</em>), but also on larger, coarse-leaved species. The Lesser Lattice Brown has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (22%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), heath and scrub (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%).	eng
174326	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174326	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174327	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174327	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species. It does not occur on the Mediterranean islands, in Portugal, Spain except the Cantabrian Mountains to the eastern Pyrenees, almost all Italy, south and central Greece, north of Scotland, and in the north of Scandinavia. Sea level-1,600 m. Across temperate Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174327	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Ringlet can be found in grassy places with bushes, woodland clearings and on grasslands bordering woods. The habitats vary from dry to rather wet, such as at the edge of a raised bog. The butterflies are avid visitors of such flowers as thistles, knapweed and other plants rich in nectar. The caterpillars feed on nutrient-rich grasses, such as cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and cat?s-tails (<em>Phleum</em> spp.). The female usually just releases her eggs, letting them fall into the vegetation, either while perched or in flight. The caterpillars hibernate, hidden in a grass tussock and when they resume feeding, only do so at night. They also pupate deep down in the vegetation. The Ringlet has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).	eng
174327	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Moldova and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174327	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174328	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174328	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Portugal and south and central Spain, in isolated populations as far as the northwest (Burgos, Galiza). 0-1,000 m, sometimes to 1350 m. It is also present in North Africa, Chad, Middle East, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174328	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Green-striped White occurs in flower-rich places, between bushes, on waste ground and on abandoned agricultural land. It occurs locally, but can be numerous in its flight area. The butterfly flies quickly and close to the ground. The caterpillars eat the ripening seeds of different crucifers, such as <em>Diplotaxis</em>, <em>Erucastrum</em> and <em>Sisymbrium</em> ssp. The Green-striped White has two generations a year in spring and passes the winter as a pupa. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), fallow land, waste places (25%).	eng
174328	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Portugal, it is well distributed in the southern half of Portugal, with populations in the Douro basin (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174328	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174329	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174329	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Italy (Tuscany and south) and further eastwards: Dalmatia, Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast of Romania, Greece (including Crete and other Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,600 m. Further in North Africa, from Southern and Eastern Europe to West Siberia, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, across Asia Minor and the Middle East to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174329	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Dappled White is a species of warm, dry places. It occurs on flower-rich grasslands and waste ground, along hedges and the edges of woods; it also visits parks and gardens. Various crucifers are used as larval foodplant, such as a Charlock (<em>Sisymbrium arvensis</em>), Woad (<em>Isatis tinctoria</em>), buckler mustards (<em>Biscutella</em> spp.), Evergreen Candytuft (<em>Iberis sempervirens</em>) and Crested Bunias (<em>Bunias erucago</em>). The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. This butterfly species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. It may remain in diapause as a pupa for two or more years. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (15%).	eng
174329	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Moldova and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174329	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174330	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. In Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
174330	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The mountains of Bosnia, S Bulgaria and N Greece, and a few lowland populations in the north of Ukrain. 1,500-2,500 m. It is also found in Caucasus Major and Minor, Armenian Highlands, Asia Minor, and Iran. 1,500-3500 m (Tuzov, 2,000; Gordunov, 2001). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174330	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly occurs on mountain meadows on bare, rocky slopes on calcareous ground where the foodplants grow.  The most important foodplant is <em>Androsace villosa</em>, the caterpillars feeding on both its leaves and flowers. In Asia, it has been found feeding on <em>Androsace kosopoljanskii</em> (Tuzov, 2,000). This butterfly passes the winter as a caterpillar and has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174330	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a very local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in Southeastern Europe. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is only known from two localities, in Bulgaria from three localities, two of them not confirmed in the last years, and in Greece from two sites on Mt. Orvilos. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174330	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species had a restricted and fragmented range in Europe and is sensible for overgrazing. Due to its limited distribution it might get threatened on the longer run by climate change. As the species is not treated in the Climatic Risk Atlas (Settele <em>et al.</em>, 2008) there is no information on the possible change of the climate envelope.	eng
174331	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174331	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe in several separate areas: France (Aude and from the Massif Central to the French Alps and the Jura), in the Alps (from France further to Austria), central Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and in Northeast Europe: in Latvia, Estonia and south of Finland. 300-2,000 m. Locally over the temperate zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174331	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Titania?s Fritillary occurs in grassy, open places at the edges of woodland, or in woodland clearings, or on grassland with scattered trees, mostly on damp to swampy ground, where its foodplant Snake-root or Common Bistort (<em>Polyganum bistorta</em>) is growing among tall flower-rich vegetation. Various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) are also used as a foodplant. The female deposits its rather large eggs singly on either the foodplant, or on a plant nearby. The caterpillars go into hibernation in an early stage and pupate at the end of the spring on a stalk, near to the ground. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (20%), mixed woodland (17%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), coniferous woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%).	eng
174331	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong populations in Alps, but declining in lowland habitats in North and East Europe. It is reported extinct in Poland and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174331	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. Moreover Schweiger<em> <em>et al.</em></em> (2008) show that this butterfly species might be endangered in future by climate change by a mismatch between the future climate envelopes for the butterfly and its main foodplant.	eng
174332	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174332	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common in all of Europe. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is present in almost the whole Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174332	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dark Green Fritillary can be found on many different types of flower-rich grasslands. The grassland is often situated in or at the edge of woodland and may be dry, calcareous or dune grassland, or damp grasslands along the edges of bogs. The eggs are laid on the often already withered leaf-stems of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar prepares for hibernation, hiding itself in the litter layer until the spring. It then begins to feed on the fresh, new growth of the violet plants, continuing into the summer, when it pupates either in the moss layer, or under a tussock of grass. The caterpillars are quite mobile and visit several plants when feeding. The Dark Green Fritillary is single-brooded. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (17%), mixed woodland (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).	eng
174332	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174332	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174333	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174333	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it occurs only in coastal areas of southeast Spain (between Granada and Murcia). 0-2,500 m. It is also found in north and central Africa and southwest Arabia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174333	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The markings on the underside of its wings make the Common Tiger Blue an eye-catching butterfly. It breeds in warm, dry, scrubby vegetation, spending much of its time on the foodplants Christ’s Thorn (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) and Jujube (<em>Ziziphus jujuba</em>), that are usually plentiful where it lives. The caterpillars betray their presence by the translucent “windows” that they make by hollowing out grooves on the underside of the leaves. The Common Tiger Blue has several generations a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
174333	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174333	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174334	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174334	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from South Scandinavia to the extreme north of Spain. It is also found in the south of Britain. It is absent from European Turkey and the Mediterranean islands, except Sicily. 100-1,300 m. Further east to Kazakhstan and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174334	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The White-letter Hairstreak usually occurs where there is a group of elm (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.) trees, either growing in a wood, sometimes even in the centre of a large town. However, there are populations known that occupy a solitary tree. The eggs are laid on the wood at the base of the flower buds, the female favouring terminal buds situated at the top of the tree. The small caterpillar stays inside the egg during the winter months, emerging in spring, boring its way into a flowerbud. It feeds on flowerbuds and flowers, but not on leaves. A non-flowering tree is therefore not a suitable foodplant. The caterpillars are sometimes attended by ants of <em>Lasius</em> or <em>Formica</em> species. They pupate in the litter layer under the tree. The White-Letter Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (39%), mixed woodland (18%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).	eng
174334	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174334	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174335	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174335	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Various sub-species occur: <em>L. hippothoe stiberi</em> in Scandinavia north of 62° N, <em>L. hippothoe eurydame</em> in the Alps of Switzerland, Austria, France and Italy and in the Apennines 1,500-2,500 m and <em>L. hippothoe hippothoe</em> in valleys and further in the north of Spain, Central Europe to the the south of the Balkans and Greece. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Central and South Siberia and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174335	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Purple-edged Copper occurs on wet to damp grasslands, where the male butterflies attract the attention, perched on a tall grass or other plant, watching over their territory. The populations are mostly very local, but in a meadow, the butterflies can often be very numerous. The eggs are laid on various sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.). At first the small caterpillar only scrapes off a few cell layers on the leaf surface, so making translucent “windows”, but later they feed on the whole leaf. The caterpillar hibernates when still small and completes its growth in spring, pupating in the litter layer. It has one generation a year in the northern part of its range. In the southern part of its range it produces two generation and can sometimes be found on dry grasslands as well. The Purple-edged Copper has a few sub-species. The lowland sub-species (<em>L. h. hippothoe</em>) has a largely orange forewing; the mountain sub-species, <em>L. h. eurydame</em>, that occurs between 1,500 and 2,500 m, has completely brown females; and the Scandinavian <em>L. h. striberi</em> has wholly orange forewings, resembling a Small Copper (<em>L. phlaeas</em>). Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (30%), mesophile grasslands (24%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).	eng
174335	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Hungary and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174335	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and drainage of wet grasslands.	eng
174336	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174336	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal mountains of Croatia to the southeast of Romania and south of Greece (including several Greek islands) and on Cyprus. 0-1,300 m, sometimes 1,900 m. It is also found through Turkey to Syria and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174336	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Rock Grayling looks very much like the Woodland Grayling (H. fagi) and they occur together in some places. This butterfly is a species of scrub and open woodland of all kinds, deciduous, coniferous and mixed. At the hottest part of the day, the butterflies hardly fly at all, resting with closed wings on the shadow side of the tree trunk, or on the ground where they blend into their surroundings. They hardly ever visit flowers. Their flight is quick and powerful. The caterpillars feed on grasses. Although single-brooded, they can be seen from May until September. The butterflies may be inactive during the hot, dry summer. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), mixed woodland (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), coniferous woodland (12%).	eng
174336	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174336	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174337	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174337	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Spain, it is present in the Sierra de Gredos, S. de Guadarrama, Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. In France in Central Massif and the Alps. It is also found in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, south of Belgium, the Baltic States, Fennoscandia to Arctic Circle, the Balkans and further eastwards to Siberia. 0-2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174337	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It would be difficult to miss the beautiful and conspicuous Scarce Copper. The white patches on the underside of the hindwing distinguish it from other coppers. It prefers sheltered, flower-rich grassland in or near woods. The female visits a wide range of composites, especially Golden-rod (<em>Solidago virgaureae</em>) from where it gets its species name. The female lays its eggs at the base of the flowering stems of all species of sorrel (<em>Rumex</em> spp.). The eggs do not hatch until the following spring when the small caterpillars make a good meal of the new, fresh vegetation. It has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%), mixed woodland (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).	eng
174337	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174337	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174338	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174338	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>P. edusa</em> occurs east of a line from Northwest Europe through West Switzerland and West Italy. The exact border to <em>P. daplidice</em> is not always clearly defined. Furthermore, both species are highly mobile. In the Netherlands, it looks like old records (before 1960) are mostly from P. daplidice, whereas more recent records seem to belong to P. edusa. Its range extends also further east to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174338	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Bath White complex has recently been split into two species in the 1980´s, the Bath White (<em>P. daplidice</em>), which mainly occurs in the Western Mediterranean and the Eastern Bath White (<em>P. edusa</em>), which is distributed over the rest of Europe. However, these two species cannot be distinguished in the field. Their life cycles are also very similar. The adult butterflies are very variable in appearance, not only in their markings, but also in their size. They are very mobile, fast flying and migrate northwards and westwards in warm years. They occur in warm, stony places; often disturbed ground, such as road verges, abandoned agricultural land or quarries. The females lay their eggs on such crucifers as mustards (<em>Sinapis</em> spp.), <em>Alyssum</em> spp. and also on mignonettes (<em>Reseda</em> ssp.). The caterpillars feed mainly on the flowers and seeds. Pupation takes place on the stalk of the foodplant. The Eastern Bath White has two or more generations a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174338	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174338	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174339	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174339	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Italy, east of Sicily, FYR of Macedonia, on Greek mainland and Corfu. 350-1,300 m. It is also present from Turkey to the Middle East and the south of Transcaucasia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174339	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Orange-tip is a butterfly of open, grassy scrub, such as very open maquis and is often found on steep, rocky, south-facing limestone slopes. In Sicily, the butterflies are mostly seen on ancient lava beds. The females lay their eggs on the flowers of woads (<em>Isatis</em> spp.), mainly on<em> I. tinctoria</em>. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds. Pupation takes place on withered stalks. It has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), heath and scrub (33%), sclerophyllous scrub (33%).	eng
174339	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct from Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174339	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174340	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174340	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in mountainous areas in the Balkans: southwest of Serbia, central and south Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR of Macedonia, southeast of Bulgaria and north of Greece. 1,200-2150 m. It is furthermore found in the northwestern part of Turkey and the Caucasus. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174340	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Clouded Yellow is found above 1,700 m (but also reported from one spot of 1,100 m in Bosnia and Herzegovina) on open, rocky slopes with low vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies can be seen in woodland clearings. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of Hairy Broom (<em>Chamaecytisus hirsutus</em>) and <em>C. eriocarpus</em>. There are often large numbers of larval foodplants in the habitats. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (40%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), heath and scrub (20%).	eng
174340	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174340	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174341	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174341	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except Sardinia, Ireland, North of England and North of Scandinavia. 0-2,200 m. Its range extends from North Africa through the temperate zone to East Asia. It is introduced in North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174341	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Essex Skipper occurs in many types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and on banks of streams. Sometimes, the populations can have thousands of individuals. It is often seen with the Small Skipper (<em>T. sylvestris</em>). Although very similar, these golden skippers can be distinguished by the colour of the underside of their antennal clubs. That of the Essex Skipper is black and that of the Small Skipper varies from brown to yellow. Because these butterflies need quite a lot of nectar, they can often be seen drinking on thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers rich in nectar. The female deposits its eggs in groups in the leaf-sheaths of coarse grasses and lays them when the foodplants are already withered. It is the eggs that hibernate. The development of the caterpillar takes place the following spring. At first, the caterpillar only feeds during the day, but later also at night. They pupate in the vegetation. The pupa may be suspended from a grass blade by a silken girdle, but also just by the tip. The Essex Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (19%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).	eng
174341	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174341	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174342	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Research on the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.	eng
174342	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has recently been split from<em> M. phoebe</em> (Russel <em>et al.</em>, 2007). Much of its range is still to be examined, but it seems to occur from the Middle East to Southeastern Europe and possibly Italy. The situation in North Africa is still unclear. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174342	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It occurs in dry, open places with flower-rich vegetation.  Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174342	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174342	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Information on threats are only reported from Hungary. Here most populations are small, fragmented and isolated. The habitats are threatened by the cessation of animal husbandry. Research to the distribution and ecology of the species is needed before a proper analysis of threats and conservation measures can be made.	eng
174343	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174343	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: from coastal zone of Croatia, via south of Bosnia and of Serbia to the south of Greece and on some Greek islands. 0-1,500 m, sometimes -2,100 m. It is also found through Turkey to Transcaucasia and northwest of Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174343	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Marbled White occurs on dry grasslands, rocky slopes, in open scrub and in grassy clearings in woods. The caterpillars feed on different grasses. This butterfly is single-brooded and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (37%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (37%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).	eng
174343	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174343	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174344	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174344	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and scattered over the Greek mainland and some islands. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174344	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Inky Skippers are very dark little butterflies that fly rapidly, close to the ground. They are found on dry grasslands, in dried-up riverbeds, on rocky slopes and in woodland clearings. They can often be seen basking in the sun, wings wide open, on light-coloured stones. The males gather in groups of sometimes more than 20 individuals on higher places in the landscape, where the females can find them to mate. Especially the females can often be seen drinking nectar on thyme. The larvae feed on bushy rosaceans particularly on <em>Prunus spinosa</em> and <em>P. cocomilla. </em>The Inky Skipper has one or two generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), screes (16%), sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%).	eng
174344	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174344	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174345	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174345	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Northeast Germany (Helmstedt to Schwerin See), in Northern Poland and the Baltic States, in Denmark (only on Lolland), in Norway (from Telemark and Akerhaus up to Troms). In Sweden, it is limited to Skane, Smaland, Gotland, Närke, Söderland, Uppland and Dalarna to the Arctic Circle, Finland. Level 0-200 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174345	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Northern Chequered Skipper can be found flying on the damp, flower-rich grass of woodland rides. They can often be seen drinking nectar from various speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.). The eggs are laid on various coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillar lives in a shelter spun from a blade of grass. In the last larval instar, the caterpillar makes a shelter from withered leaves in which it hibernates. The pale-yellow pupa is suspended in a silken girdle in the vegetation. It pupates in spring. The Northern Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (34%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (13%), coniferous woodland (8%).	eng
174345	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174345	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174346	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174346	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it  only occurs on the Canary Islands. It is furthermore found in North and tropical Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174346	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Females of the Desert Babul Blue lay their eggs on different species of Acacia trees,  therefore the butterflies can only be found where these trees grow. They prefer those growing in hot and dry places. Sometimes an entire population is restricted to only one tree, even if there are others present nearby. The butterflies fly rapidly amongst the branches, the flowers of the Acacia trees are their main nectar source. They also take water from damp ground. The caterpillars are attended by ants from the genus <em>Camponotus</em>  and <em>Prenolepis</em>. It is not known how many generations are produced in a year, but it is probably more than one. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174346	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174346	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174347	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174347	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present from the Crimea in Ukraine through Southern Russia to northern and central Tian-Shan, West Siberia (south) and the Altai Mts. Up to 3,000 m, in Urals and Caucasus only up to 800 m (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003). It occurs in the steppe zone from Eastern Europe to the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174347	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Coenonympha phryne</em> may be found in virgin steppes, semi-desert and dry slopes on limestone.  While the sites where the butterflies are on the wing are usually small, the local density of individuals can be high. The males show a particular fast flight, chasing on females to mate with. The females try to get rid of the males by dropping out of the air and landing in dense grassy fescue vegetation, where they then hide for a while. The foodplants are probably several species of <em>Stipa</em> and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp). Hibernation takes place as caterpillar or as pupa. This species is single-brooded (http://babochki-kryma.narod.ru/main.htm).  Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (16%).	eng
174347	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174347	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly and its habitats are threatened by agricultural improvements, fragmentation and recreational activities.	eng
174348	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174348	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Eastern Europe: from the south of Finland and the Baltic States, via southeast Germany, East Austria and Northeast Italy and further eastwards in the Balkans as far as Greece, on many Greek islands and on Cyprus. 0-1,900 m. It is furthermore present through Turkey and central Asia to China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174348	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This blue is found on dry grassland on sandy or stony soils, south-facing slopes with grassy vegetation, on steep slopes, in rocky gullies, on railway embankments, on road verges and in scrub. Various species of thyme (<em>Thymus</em> spp.) and savory (<em>Satureja</em> spp.) are used as foodplant, the eggs being mostly laid on the flowerheads. The caterpillars feed on the flowers and ripening seeds and are often found with ants, amongst other <em>Myrmica sabuleti</em>. This butterfly species has two generations a year. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (30%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), coniferous woodland (8%), heath and scrub (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), phrygana (5%).	eng
174348	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to areas with good habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Estonia, Romania, Slovenia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174348	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly, but abandonment is the most direct threat at the moment.	eng
174349	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174349	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands, Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands. 0-2,300 m. It is also found in Siberia to the Amur. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174349	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Green Hairstreak can be found on nutrient-poor grassland, heathland and at the edges of bogs and marshes. The butterflies like resting in trees and shrubs, such as Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), where they are well hidden by their green colour. However, a tap on a branch can bring tens of them out into the air. The Green Hairstreak is extremely polyphagous. The eggs are laid on a variety of plants, including Heather (<em>Erica</em> spp.), rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and Alder Buckthorn (<em>Frangula alnus</em>), leguminous plants and species of Rosaceae. The caterpillars feed on the buds, flowers and young leaves. They pupate in the litter layer and the pupa hibernates. The Green Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (16%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%), raised bogs (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).	eng
174349	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, the Netherlands, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174349	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174350	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174350	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Portugal (very rare), Spain (southern half and locally in the north including surroundings of Burgos, Aragon), France (near Cahors, Provence and the Alps) and the northwest of Italy. 0- 1,200 m, sometimes to 2,400 m. It is also found in Morocco and Algeria. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174350	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly owes its specific name to the River Tagus in Portugal, along the banks of which it was first found. The Portuguese Dappled White is found on warm, dry rocky places with patches of flower-rich grassy vegetation, in dry scrub and on abandoned agricultural land. As foodplant several species of candytufts (<em>Iberis</em> spp.) are used. The caterpillars eat the ovaries and flowers. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), fallow land, waste places (12%), inland sand-dunes (12%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), phrygana (12%).	eng
174350	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species.	eng
174350	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174351	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174351	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southeast of France (from Hérault and further eastwards, abundant in Camargue), Italy (including Sicily) and large parts of Southeastern Europe (from Austria to Greece and Romania). 0-1,700m, usually at lower altitudes than 900 m. Its range extends to Southern Urals and Northwest Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174351	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The caterpillars of the Southern Festoon live on various birthworts, such as<em> Aristolochia clematitis</em>, <em>A. rotunda</em>, <em>A. pallida</em> and <em>A. pistolochia</em>. Because their foodplants grow in different habitats and because the caterpillars also have different foodplants in different areas, this spring butterfly can be found in quite different habitats. In the western part of its range, it can be seen in open places along rivers with the foodplant <em>A. rotunda</em>. In the mountains, the butterflies can be seen in dry, sunny, rocky places, where <em>A. pallida</em> and <em>A. pistolochia</em> grow. In Austria, it is in vineyards on sunny slopes, where <em>A. clematitis</em> grows as a weed, that the Southern Festoon is seen. In Greece, the butterfly occurs in damp areas, as well as on dry slopes, according to the species of birthwort used as foodplant. The eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the underside of the leaves, where the caterpillars are usually also found. The caterpillars have a striking appearance. Mostly beige with black spots, it has some orange tubercles on each segment, each ending in a black, spiny tuft. The Southern Festoon has one generation a year and hibernates as pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (14%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (7%).	eng
174351	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Germany and Switzerland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, France, Serbia, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174351	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174352	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
174352	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs very locally in Southeastern Europe: Albania, east and south of Bulgaria, northeast of Greece and on Cyprus. Low altitudes to 1,500 m. It is also present through Turkey, Middle Asia and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174352	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Bath White is a rare butterfly. It is often found on stony places, such as gravelly riverbanks and dry riverbeds and similar sites with rounded stones. It also occurs on damp or dry grassy places and in open scrub. The butterflies are strong flyers, showing some migrant behaviour and can thus be found outside usual habitat. <em>Cleome ornithopodioides</em> is probably the most important larval foodplant, the caterpillars feeding on the leaves, flowers and ripening seeds. The fully-grown caterpillars make their way to the ground to pupate on stones. This species has two generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: inland cliffs and exposed rocks (27%), screes (27%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).	eng
174352	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in FYR of Macedonia (but rediscovered in 2007) and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174352	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174353	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174353	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. 0-3,000 m. It is also present in the entire Palearctic Region with the exception of the extreme North and South. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174353	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small White is found in any type of habitat where its larval foodplants grow, such as gardens, parks, grasslands, heathland and woodland. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of a wide variety of crucifers, including cultivated brassicas and also on <em>Reseda</em> species, such as Wild Mignonette (<em>R. lutea</em>). The caterpillars grow very rapidly, sometimes pupating after two weeks. The pupa hangs in a silken girdle, normally on vertical surfaces and hibernates in this stage. The Small White has several generations a year, depending on the geographical position and altitude of the flight area and the length of the summer.  Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (10%), towns, villages, industrial sites (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), improved grasslands (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).	eng
174353	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Malta and Republic of Ireland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174353	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174354	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174354	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout Portugal and scattered in Spain (including Catalonia, Basque Country, Extremadura and Andalusia) and in France on the Mediterranean coast from the Pyrenees to the Maritime Alps and in the Rhône Valley. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174354	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Chapman's Green Hairstreak is mostly found in woods and scrubs with Strawberry Tree (<em>Arbutus unedo</em>). The female chooses the young leaves of the older, larger trees on which to lay its eggs. <em>Coriaria myrtifolia</em> has also been named as foodplant. It pupates on the ground at the base of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (25%), heath and scrub (25%).	eng
174354	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174354	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174355	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In United Kingdom, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174355	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula (except Sierra Nevada), the Mediterranean islands, south of Greece, Ireland and Britain (except the South). The sub-species <em>M. a. celadussa</em> occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, also in the south of France and of Switzerland, Italy and Sicily. Sea level-2,700 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to the Amur region and Kamchatka Peninsula. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174355	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Heath Fritillary is found in many different biotope types, ranging from dry to damp, grassy, flower-rich places, often situated near bushes or in woodland, or in clearings and along the edges of paths in woods. Its foodplants are plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), cow-wheats (<em>Melampyrum</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.), foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.) and toadflaxes (<em>Linara</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in clusters on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars feed communally in silken nests, also hibernating together when half-grown. They then disperse over the plant, either into small groups, or, mostly, become solitary. They pupate on the foodplant and usually have one generation a year, except in the south, where they have two. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), heath and scrub (6%), coniferous woodland (5%).	eng
174355	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Sweden and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174355	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174356	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174356	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in large parts of Europe. It is absent from Portugal and large parts of Spain except the north and Sierra Nevada and Montes Universales. It is also absent from Britain, south of Greece, south of Italy and the Mediterranean islands except Corsica and Sardinia. 200-2,100 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Middle East, Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174356	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Idas Blue can be found on nutrient-poor grassland and heath rich in herbaceous plants, both in open places and woodland. Eggs are laid on many different species of leguminous plants, such as Broom (<em>Cytisus scoparius</em>), Hairy Greenweed (<em>Genista pilosa</em>), Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), White Melilot (<em>Melilotus alba</em>) and the <em>Ericaceae</em>, Ling or Heather (<em>Calluna vulgaris</em>) and Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>) and the Yellow Rockrose (<em>Helianthemum oelandicum</em>). The female deposits the egg onto a woody part of the foodplant where the egg then hibernates. The caterpillars are attended a lot by ants, especially those of the genera <em>Formica</em> and <em>Lasius</em>. When fully grown, the caterpillar crawls into the passages of the ant nest to pupate. Depending on the geographical location and the altitude of their habitat, the Idas Blue produces one or two generations a year. Habitats: heath and scrub (14%), mesophile grasslands (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).	eng
174356	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium and the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174356	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174357	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. Research is needed to understand the causes of its decline in several countries.	eng
174357	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is common and widespread in almost all Europe. It is only in the south of Scandinavia and is absent from northern Scotland and northern Ireland. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in the Middle East, the south of Urals and Kazakhstan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174357	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Purple Hairstreak is only found in deciduous woodlands whit oaks, its only foodplant. It occurs in oakwoods or oak scrub and also on large, solitary oak trees. The butterflies do not visit flowers. Instead, they remain near the tree, looking for leaves with a layer of honeydew left behind by aphids. This sugary secretion is the butterflies. most important source of energy. The eggs are laid at the base of the buds. The small caterpillar has developed by the time winter comes, but it remains in the egg, emerging in spring to feed on the buds and also on the flowers of the oak. It does not eat the leaves. Sometimes it is attended by <em>Lasius</em> ants. When mature, the caterpillars leave the foodplant and pupate in the moss layer. The Purple Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (54%), mixed woodland (13%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (7%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%).	eng
174357	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, Serbia, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174357	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174358	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174358	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe only on Greek islands Kos, Patmos, Kalimnos, Tilos and Rhodes. 0-800 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174358	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Loew’s Blue occurs in dry, rocky places both with low bushes and grassy vegetation. In Greece, a leguminous plant is probably used as foodplant, although exactly which species is not known. In Saudi Arabia, the caterpillars have been found on various types of milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus</em> spp.). The Loew’s Blue is probably single-brooded in Europe, but it produces more generations further to the East. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
174358	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174358	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174359	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174359	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe, including all the south and east. It is rare in the south of England and the Netherlands. It is absent from Ireland and north and central Scandinavia. It is also found across Asia Minor to West Siberia and West China. Sea level-1,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174359	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Tortoiseshell is found in warm, sunny places in deciduous woods and near groups of trees. Elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and sometimes fruit trees or Hawthorn (<em>Crataegus monogyna</em>) are used as foodplants. The female, usually choosing a twig from the previous year, deposits a large group of eggs in a band around it. The caterpillars live together in silken tents until the last larval instar when they become solitary. They are fond of sitting on the sunny side of the foodplant or on branches in the sun. The caterpillar is dull, dark-grey with rust-coloured stripes along its back and sides and long rust-brown spines. The pupa hangs from a twig in the foodplant, looking very like a withered leaf. The newly-emerged butterflies often roam. The Large Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly in cool, dark places such as in a hollow tree. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), urban parks and large gardens (11%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), coniferous woodland (5%).	eng
174359	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands and United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, Germany, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia, Slovakia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174359	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174360	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174360	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Southwest Europe. It is local in the northeast of Spain (to Madrid), south of France, in Switzerland (Wallis), central Italy, Sicily and lower mountainous areas of Germany. It is more common in Southeast Europe, from the south of Poland to the Balkans and Greece. 200-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Transcaucasus and Southern Urals. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174360	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Meleager's Blue is a local butterfly that occurs on poor, rough vegetation and nutrient-poor grassland often near woods. The populations are usually small. The scalloped edge of the hindwing of the female distinguishes this species from all other blues. The female lays its eggs on Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>), favouring plants that grow in the shade provided by rocks or woodland. The caterpillars are attended by ants, including species of <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. Either the egg or the small caterpillar hibernates and pupation takes place in the litter layer. The Meleager's Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (40%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), mixed woodland (5%).	eng
174360	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe and fairly common in Southeast Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient and good quality of habitat in the rest of the continent. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174360	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174361	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas.	eng
174361	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Bulgaria, north and central Greece, on several Greek islands and Cyprus. 0-1,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Egypt, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan and throughout Africa and Southeast Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174361	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Grass Jewel is Europe's smallest butterfly. It flies rapidly keeping very close to the ground. This rapid flight and its small size make that it is rarely noticed. It occurs in warm, dry places such as open, stony ground with grassy vegetation and some bushes, or on waste places and abandoned agricultural land. The areas it occupies are sometimes very small. The caterpillar feeds on different <em>Heliotropum</em> species and on <em>Adrachne telephioides</em>. They are attended by ants. On Mount Parnassus, the caterpillars are attended by <em>Acantholepis</em> ants, outside of Europe also by <em>Pheidole</em>, <em>Prenolepis</em> and <em>Iridomyrmex</em> ant species. The Grass Jewel has two or three generations a year and passes the winter in the pupa stage. Habitats: phrygana (50%), sclerophyllous scrub (50%).	eng
174361	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to patches with good habitat.	eng
174361	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174362	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174362	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Western Sicily, Malta, some Aegean Islands and Crete, Turkey, Cyprus, West Asia and North Africa.  Up to 800 m (Pamperis 1997, Lafranchis 2004). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174362	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This tiny butterfly occurs on hot meadows and clearings close to the sea. It flies low to the ground and is easily overlooked. The female lays the eggs on <em>Oxalis</em> spp. The species produces several generations a year (Pamperis, 1997). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174362	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partner of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174362	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174363	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Croatia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174363	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the moderately high mountains in the south of Europe (500-2,500 m) and in Scandinavia (100-1,200 m). It is furthermore found in temperate Asia (except for the extreme north) to Mongolia, the Amur region and Northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174363	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Northern Wall Brown is found in woodland clearings and meadows in woodland, usually in relatively warm places with large rockmasses. The butterflies are fond of basking in the sun on warm rocks or on the ground. The eggs are laid on a number of grasses, including fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and cock?s-foot (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.). The Northern Wall Brown hibernates either in the last larval instar, or as a pupa and has one generation a year. Habitats: mixed woodland (28%), coniferous woodland (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).	eng
174363	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174363	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174364	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174364	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Southern Central Europe. This species occurs in France (except the northwest and the extreme south), north of Italy, Switzerland, south of Germany, Poland via Balkans to the north of Greece. In Spain, it is limited to the Cantabrian Mts. and the Pyrenees. 100- 1,700 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey, West and Central temperate Asia, Mongolia and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174364	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dryad inhabits grassy, rather rough vegetation, often located at the edge of woodland or scrub and mostly quite damp. The foodplants are relatively broad-leaved, nutritious grasses, such as Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), small-reeds (<em>Calamagrostis</em> spp.) and bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.). The female drops its eggs in flight into the grass. The tiny caterpillars emerge and, without feeding, enter a period of inactivity during the summer months. In autumn, they begin to feed, hibernating in the first or second larval instar. The caterpillars make a little hollow in the ground in which to pupate, but do not spin a cocoon. The Dryad has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), mesophile grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174364	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Austria, Moldova and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174364	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174365	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174365	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe in the Pyrenees and Alps. 1,500-3400m in the Alps, in the Spanish Pyrenees above 2,000 m. It is also found in tundras and mountains (up to the desert zone) throughout the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174365	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Peak White is found high in the mountains in flower-rich grasslands. The eggs are laid singly on Alpine Bittercress (<em>Cardamine bellidifolia </em>ssp. <em>alpina</em>), <em>Hutchinsia alpina</em>, <em>Erysimum helveticum</em> and <em>Reseda glauca</em>, especially on those growing on open stony patches. The caterpillars mostly eat the lower leaves and hide under stones when the weather is bad. In the Alps, the Peak White usually has only one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. However, in warm summers or at lower altitudes, a partial second generation is sometimes produced that passes the winter as a caterpillar. In the Spanish Pyrenees, two generations a year are usual and it hibernates either as a pupa or a caterpillar. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (72%), screes (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mixed woodland (9%).	eng
174365	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174365	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174366	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Slovakia, Bulgaria and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174366	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: the eastern Pyrenees, the Alps, central Apennines, mountainous areas of the southwestern Balkans, the Carpathians and Tatra and in the north of Europe in Norway, west of Sweden and north of Finland. In central Europe 1,600-3100 m, in South Scandinavia 900-1,200 m and in Lapland from sea level. It is also found in the mountains of the south of Siberia and Mongolia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174366	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Within its range the Dewy Ringlet is one of the more common Erebias. In Scandinavia, it is mostly found in damp places where grass and bushes are growing, often near small streams and in more mountainous areas on grassy slopes. In Central Europe, the butterflies occur on stony, alpine meadows with a vegetation of short grasses and dwarf shrubs. These butterflies have a characteristic, undulating flight. This gives the impression that they are not using their hindwings and are just about to fall to the ground. The female lays its eggs on different grasses, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), or Mat-grass (<em>Nardus stricta</em>). In most parts of its range, the caterpillars hibernate twice. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (66%), heath and scrub (16%).	eng
174366	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174366	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174367	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008).	eng
174367	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in central Italy and in the Southeast and East of Europe (from eastern Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia to Romania and Greece, on Greek islands (Thasos, Kos and Rhodes and Cyprus). 0-1,600 m. It is found further east through Turkey to Israel, Afghanistan, southern Urals and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174367	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lesser Fiery Copper is mostly found on dry, flower-rich grasslands, both on calcareous and acid soils. They are also seen on waste land, very open scrub and rocky slopes. The butterflies are often seen drinking from the flowers of Danewort (<em>Sambucus ebulus</em>). Its most important larval foodplant is Knotgrass (<em>Polygonum aviculare</em>), although other <em>Polygonaceae</em> species are probably also used. The caterpillars feed on both the flowers and the leaves. This butterfly species hibernates as a caterpillar and has several generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).	eng
174367	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174367	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is threatened by intensification and abandonment of semi-natural grasslands.	eng
174368	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174368	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Greece (Taijetos Mts. 1,400-2,200 m) and on Samos (1,000-1450 m). It is furthermore found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran and the south of Russia to Afghanistan. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174368	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Brown Argus occurs in dry, rocky places with low-growing bushes. Usually, it flies above the tree-line, but it can also be seen on open patches near the tree-line. The caterpillars feed on <em>Astracantha rumelica</em>, partly boring themselves in the stem of the foodplant. They are attended by <em>Camponotus</em> ants. The Eastern Brown Argus has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
174368	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174368	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174369	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and Serbia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174369	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally mostly in North and East Europe: Finland, Sweden and Norway (except the coasts), the Baltic States. Further south, scattered populations are present  in Spain (Cantabrian Mts.), France (the Pyrenees, Vosges and Ardennes), Belgium (Ardennes), Luxembourg, Germany (South and East and the Eifel), north of Italy, south of Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Stara Planina in Bulgaria and Serbia, Poland. 0-1,800 m. Recently found in Turkey. It is furthermore found in the temperate forest zone of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174369	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Bog Fritillary occurs on wet grasslands and marshy ground by streams, rivers, or lakes and at the edges of raised bogs. Sometimes, the area they occupy is very small. They can be seen beside streams, flying slowly back and forth between small patches where its foodplant Common Bistort (<em>Polygonum bistorta</em>) is growing. The small caterpillars live together in a loosely spun nest and hibernate when half-grown. However, the larger, later caterpillars are solitary and considerably more mobile, frequently leaving their foodplants in order to bask in the sun on another plant. The Bog Fritillary has one generation a year. There are two sub-species, the smaller, more brightly marked <em>B. e. eunomia </em>and <em>B. e. ossiana</em>, that occurs in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Baltic countries. The species' range in Central Europe is highly fragmented. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), raised bogs (26%), fens, transition mires and springs (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), blanket bogs (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%).	eng
174369	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany, Luxembourg, Poland and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Latvia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174369	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174370	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174370	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over the Iberian Peninsula, except the north of Spain. Sea level-1,600m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174370	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Marbled White is found in warm, dry places with low vegetation on rocky slopes, on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in scrub. Its foodplants are grasses of the genus <em>Stipa</em>. The caterpillars hibernate, pupating on the ground in the early spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174370	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174370	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174371	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174371	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of the Pyrenees, central and Northern France, Southern and Eastern Belgium, Southern and Eastern Netherlands, Germany except the North, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Baltic States southwards to the Balkans and Northern Greece. 200-1,600 m. It is also found across temperate Asia to Japan and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174371	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Chequered Skipper usually occurs on damp grassland at woodland margins, or where there is woodland nearby, including road verges, also on the drier areas of raised bogs and at their edges. Breeding grounds are also known in somewhat drier locations at higher altitudinal levels. Populations are usually small in size, though numbers can be high. The female lays its eggs one by one on the blades of coarse-leaved grasses. The caterpillars spin folded grass leaves together into a little tube, in which they spend most of their life, leaving it only to feed. The traces of the caterpillar, small half-moons nibbled away from the edge of the grass-blade, are relatively easy to find. The caterpillars hibernate in a more substantial tube-like shelter. It pupates, its papery, pale-yellow pupa suspended from withered grass by a silken girdle. The Chequered Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (19%), mixed woodland (16%), mesophile grasslands (14%).	eng
174371	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174371	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174372	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174372	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Balkans from Croatia to Bulgaria and in north and central Greece. 900-2,000 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174372	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Copper can be found in damp grassland, sub-alpine and alpine meadows and in woodland clearings with a well-developed herb layer. Populations are usually very local, but in meadows, abundances can sometimes be very high. Different sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), including Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>) are used as larval foodplants. It has one generation a year. This butterfly looks very like the Purple-edged Copper (<em>Lycaena hippothoe</em>) and used to be classified as a sub-species of it. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).	eng
174372	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174372	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174373	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174373	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in most Central European countries. In Scandinavia, it is only present in the extreme South, in Spain and Portugal, it is local. It is absent from Britain, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. 0-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Urals and Northwest Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174373	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Ilex Hairstreak occurs locally at woodland edges and in coppices with warm, dry oak scrub. The female lays its eggs on small oak trees. The tiny caterpillar hibernates in the egg, or in the first larval instar. It feeds on the young oak leaves, eventually pupating in the litter layer under the foodplant. Both <em>Camponotus</em> and <em>Crematogaster</em> ants occasionally visit the caterpillars. The adult butterflies need nectar, feeding on flowering Common Privet (<em>Ligustrum vulgare</em>) and on bramble blossom (<em>Rubus</em> spp.). It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (45%), heath and scrub (15%), mixed woodland (13%).	eng
174373	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174373	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174374	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174374	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, this species only occurs very locally in Spain, where it is reported from Gibraltar and Ebro estuary. There are probably no stable populations. This vagrant species sometimes turns up in other places along the Mediterranean coast. Sea-level. Its range extends to Africa and Middle East. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174374	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Zeller’s skipper is mostly seen near the coast where it lives in marsh areas with foodplants such as rice (<em>Oryza</em> ssp.), Maïs (<em>Zea</em> ssp.) or <em>Saccharum</em>. These butterflies are strong flyers, sometimes showing migratory behaviour. The caterpillars feed on various grasses. In North Africa, where they also occur, <em>Sorghum halepense</em> and <em>Leersia hexandra</em> are also used as foodplants. It is not clear how many generations a year the species has, but it is probably one. No detailed habitat descriptions available.	eng
174374	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174374	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174375	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. It is unknown if all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Greece. Not all populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Romania. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174375	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs very locally in Southeast Europe: in the northwestern part of Romania, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and northwest and south of Greece. It is also found on the Crimea and in Turkey, Caucasus and Northwest Africa. 600-1,100 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174375	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Bavius Blue occurs on flower-rich, dry grassland, on dry, stony slopes and on open patches in shrub and in vineyards on calcareous soil. Various species of <em>Salvia</em> are used as foodplant, including Sage (<em>S. officinalis</em>), <em>S. nutans</em>, <em>S. verbenaca</em> and Whorled Clary (<em>S. verticillata</em>). The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but sometimes also on the leaves. They are frequently found with ants. The Bavius Blue has one generation a year. The pupa hibernates. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), phrygana (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), screes (10%).	eng
174375	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174375	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174376	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174376	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe as far as central Germany and central Poland, south and east of France, the eastern half of Spain and the south of Portugal. 0-1,700 m. It is also found in Turkey, the Middle East, Iran, Southern Urals and Tian Shan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174376	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Chapman's Blue looks very much like the Common Blue (<em>P. icarus</em>). It occurs in warm, dry places, such as calcareous and nutrient-poor grasslands, fields of sainfoin and abandoned agricultural land. Eggs are laid on Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) and in Greece also on Cockscomb Sainfoin (<em>O. caput-galli</em>). The caterpillars feed on soft parts of the leaflets, leaving the veins. The small caterpillars go into hibernation and in those parts of the range with hot climates, the egg goes into aestivation. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Myrmica</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em> and hide in the litter layer and pupate. Chapman's Blue usually has two generations a year, but in the south of the range also three. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), mesophile grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%).	eng
174376	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174376	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174377	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Belgium, Portugal and Slovenia, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174377	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Spain in mountainous areas, including Sierra Nevada, S. de Segura,, S. de la Demanda, S. de Guadarrama, Serrania de Cuenca, Montes Universales, Cantabrian Mts. and Pyrenees. It is also found in the south and central France, south and central Germany, Poland, south Lithuania, Switzerland, Austria, north and central Italy (Apennines), the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey. 50-2,400 m. Its range extends through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon and across south Siberia to Mongolia and northeast China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174377	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Olive Skipper occurs in areas that do not become too hot in summer, on poor to rough, flower-rich grasslands, which are either open or surrounded by woodland. The Olive Skipper is quite mobile and may be seen in unexpected places. The eggs are deposited on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and master-worts (<em>Astrantia</em> spp.). The caterpillar lives in a small shelter, spun from a rolled-up leaf, feeding on the leaves of the foodplant. It passes the winter in a cocoon and pupates the following spring at the base of the foodplant. This skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%).	eng
174377	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany, Luxembourg and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174377	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands.	eng
174378	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 2 (under the name <em>Erebia medusa polaris</em>).	eng
174378	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs at the edge of the Arctic Ocean in extreme north ofNorway and bordering part of Finland. Sea level -200 m, sometimes to 400 m. It is furthermore present sporadically to the southern Urals. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174378	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Arctic Woodland Ringlet is often found on damp grasslands, but it also occurs on dry grasslands and in waste places, often where there is shelter from birches, or juniper bushes. Unlike the other ringlets in Lapland, the Arctic Ringlet (<em>E. disa</em>) and the Lapland Ringlet (<em>E. embla</em>), this species does not occur on peat bogs. It lays its eggs on Wood Millet (<em>Milium effusum</em>) and Swamp Meadow-grass (<em>Poa palustris</em>). The caterpillars take nearly two years to develop. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (100%).	eng
174378	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174378	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174379	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174379	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This migrant butterfly can be seen all over Europe. Numbers can vary greatly from year to year depending on the weather. Sea level-3,000 m. This butterfly has a global distribution. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174379	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Painted Lady is a visitor from the south, that is difficult to confuse with other butterflies. The black triangle on the tip of the forewing distinguishes it from the proper fritillaries. It is a migrant and cannot survive the winter in temperate climates. Each year, Western Europe is recolonized by butterflies from the south of Spain and Africa. In good years, the Painted Lady can be seen nearly everywhere, but otherwise seems to be absent. It often basks in the sun on the ground or on vegetation with its wings wide open, taking off into a powerful, gliding flight when approached. It visits a variety of flowers for nectar. The Painted Lady lays its eggs on very different foodplants in Europe. It prefers various thistles (<em>Cirsium</em> spp., <em>Carduus</em> spp. and <em>Onopordum</em> spp.), but also uses mallows (<em>Malva</em> spp.) especially in the south and Viper?s Bugloss (<em>Echium vulgare</em>) and Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>). The eggs are laid singly on the upperside of the leaves, the caterpillars feeding in a shelter of loosely spun leaves. They pupate on the foodplant. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (7%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%), scrub and grassland (5%), agricultural land and artificial landscapes (5%).	eng
174379	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a migrant species from Africa colonizing Europe each year. The numbers in Europe largely depend on the magnitude of the migration.	eng
174379	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174380	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174380	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found in the southeast of Russia and North Kazakhstan and in the Caucasus up to 3,000 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174380	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly occurs on steppe and semi-desert habitats in mountains and at foothills, dry steppes in valleys and subalpine meadows (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%), dry siliceous grasslands (50%).	eng
174380	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174380	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174381	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174381	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Finland, Sweden (also on Öland and Gotland), in the mountains of Norway, east and south of Germany and further eastwards, in the Alps, sporadically in Italy and Sicily, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia and Bulgaria, north and central Greece, France (the Pyrenees and Central Massif), Spain (Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mts., Sierra de la Demanda, Cuenca, S. de Maria, S. de Tejeda). 700-2,500 m in central and south of Europe, below 1,000 m in Scandinavia. It is also found in Turkey and east to Mongolia, Tian Shan and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174381	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Geranium Argus occurs locally, in meadows, stream valleys and at woodland edges. The female lays its eggs in the flowers of crane?s-bills (<em>Geranium</em> spp.), at the base of the ovary into which the small caterpillar bores its way on hatching out. It stays there for about a week. It then starts feeding on leaves, first gnawing on the stems, which causes them to wilt. When half-grown, the caterpillars hibernate in the litter layer, but pupate on the foodplant. They are sometimes attended by ants of the genera <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Lasius</em> and <em>Tapinoma</em>. The Geranium Argus has only one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (10%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), water-fringe vegetation (6%).	eng
174381	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, Slovenia and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Serbia, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174381	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174382	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the ecology, population size and trends, distribution and threats of this species. It is not known if conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174382	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Crimea and the southern European part of Russia and the Don river basin to the the south of Urals in the east (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174382	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This blue butterfly occurs on stony steppes, gullies and limestone outcrops. Larval foodplants are <em>Hedysarum</em> spp,. The females deposit the eggs on dry plant parts. The hibernation takes place in the second larval instar. It has one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (33%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (33%).	eng
174382	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174382	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No information is available on threats for this species.	eng
174383	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive, Annexes 2 and 4. In Belarus and Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. None of the populations are in Natura 2000 areas in Austria. In spite of legal protection of important butterfly habitats special management of these habitats for <em>L. helle</em> is only conducted in few countries (e.g. in Belgium). It requires sensitive management of semi-natural grasslands and would benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). Populations should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174383	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in scattered populations from the north of Norway to the Pyrenees and from the east of Belgium to East Asia: France (Ariège to the Jura and western Vosges), western Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium (Ardennes) and Germany (in the upland area including the Eifel). 100-1,800 m. It is futhermore found through the temperate and partly arctic areas of the Palearctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174383	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Violet Copper is a rare butterfly that is often confined to very small sites, where it may be seen in large numbers. It is found in swampy, wet grassland and rough vegetation bordering streams and lakes. In Central Europe, eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves of Bistort (<em>Polygonum bistorta</em>). In the north of its range Viviparous Bistort (<em>Polygonum vivipara</em>) is also used as larval foodplant. The young caterpillars eat the lower epidermis, thus making the characteristic ?windows?. It passes the winter as a pupa. It has one, sometimes two, generations a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (37%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), water-fringe vegetation (8%), fens, transition mires and springs (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), mesophile grasslands (5%).	eng
174383	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. In Central Europe, it is restricted to isolated and scattered locations. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belarus, Germany, Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Lithuania, Norway, Romania, Sweden and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174383	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Land drainage and agricultural improvements are the most important threats for this species. In some cases, because of agricultural abandonment, meadows get covered with rough vegetation and finally trees and shrubs. Central European populations are often small and isolated, making it hard for the species to recolonise former sites.	eng
174384	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174384	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the extreme south of Spain and Portugal, the Mediterranean islands (except Sicily), coastal areas of Italy, Britain, Ireland and north Scandinavia. 0- 2,400 m. It is furthermore present east to West Siberia and from Turkey across Iran and Afghanistan to the Tian-Shan and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174384	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Niobe Fritillary occurs on poor, dry grassland, often with woodland or scrub nearby. The eggs are laid on the woody stock of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). The caterpillar develops quickly within the egg, but does not hatch until after hibernation. Staying hidden during the day, it feeds on the violet plants at night. It pupates low down in the vegetation. The Niobe Fritillary has one generation a year. The form eris, with no silver spots on the underside of its hind wings, occurs at very high altitudes. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), mesophile grasslands (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mixed woodland (10%), heath and scrub (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (6%).	eng
174384	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174384	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. However, in part of the EU27 range, the species is threatened by intensification of use and abandonment of grasslands. In some Western European countries, nitrogen deposition leads to a change in the vegetation structure of heathlands and coastal dunes, leading to local extinctions.	eng
174385	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174385	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Ikaria, and on the Crimea. Sea level-1,800 m. It is also found in Turkey, the north of Iraq, the north of Iran and the Transcaucasus. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174385	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Eastern Grayling occurs in dry, bushy vegetation in open pinewoods and in rocky areas with grassy vegetation. The caterpillars feed on grasses, although on which species is not known. It has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), phrygana (20%), screes (10%), mixed woodland (10%), coniferous woodland (10%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), sclerophyllous scrub (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%).	eng
174385	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174385	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174386	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174386	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Central and Southern Europe. It is absent from islands in the East of the Mediterranean, Ireland and Britain. Resident up to 63° N in Scandinavia, migrant to 66° N. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore present through the temperate part of Russia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174386	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The large, silver-white mirrors on the underside of the hindwings, distinguish the Queen of Spain Fritillary from other fritillaries. They are strong flyers and can be seen outside their breeding grounds.The butterflies of the first generation that emerge at the end of the spring are quite small, but those of summer generations are often bigger. They can be found on a wide range of dry, flower-rich grasslands, wasteland and fields. The female deposits its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.) on which the caterpillars later feed. On this nutritious diet the caterpillars grow very quickly, pupating low down in the vegetation. The Queen of Spain Fritillary has two to four generations a year, depending on the altitude and geographical position of the habitat. Hibernation takes place in the larval stage in temperate areas, but probably it can overwinter in other stages as well. Habitats: dry siliceous grasslands (13%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (10%), fallow land, waste places (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), improved grasslands (5%).	eng
174386	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it can be very local and restricted to a few areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Norway, Spain, Spain - Canary Islands and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174386	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174387	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174387	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs in central and northern Europe: the Jura and Vosges, the Alps, Switzerland, south and east of Germany, Scandinavia except Denmark, the Baltic States and further to the east. 100-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the boreal and temperate zones of Eurasia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174387	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Moorland Clouded Yellow occurs at the edges of raised bogs and also on blanket bogs. At high altitudes, it is found in drier habitats. Eggs are laid singly on Bog Whortleberry (<em>Vaccinium uliginosum</em>). At first, the caterpillars only eat the upper layers of the leaf, producing “windows”, but later, the whole leaf is eaten. The caterpillars hibernate among the dry leaves of the litter layer and the next spring feed and grow further, before finally pupating on a branch of the foodplant. It has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (35%), blanket bogs (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (9%), coniferous woodland (6%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%), mixed woodland (6%).	eng
174387	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Italy, Latvia and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174387	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174388	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174388	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Ireland, North of Britain, Norway, Sweden and Finland. 0-1,900 m. Its range extends to Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174388	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Skipper occurs in all types of flower-rich places with tall grass, such as grasslands, road verges and edges of streams. They are often seen with the Essex Skipper (<em>T. lineola</em>) and can be distinguished from it by the colour of the underside of the antennal club, which ranges from brown to yellow, while that of the Essex Skipper is black. Furthermore, the scent brand on the forewing of the male is broader, longer and more conspicuous than that of the Essex Skipper. The butterflies visit thistles, knapweeds and other purple or pink flowers for their nectar. A female deposits eggs in batches of three to twenty in the leaf-sheaths of coarse-leaved grasses. Unlike the Essex Skipper, it only uses young, green leaves. After about three weeks, the eggs hatch and the small caterpillars begin spinning a shelter straightaway in which to hibernate. The next spring, they begin to feed. At first, they only feed during the day and later also at night. They pupate in a web of loosely spun white threads. The Small Skipper has one generation a year, but the butterflies emerge over a long period. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (20%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (7%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (6%).	eng
174388	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174388	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174389	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174389	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the utmost Eastern Europe to Mongolia and China. Up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174389	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on semideserts, dry steppes and arid stony hills up to 800 m (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174389	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174389	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174390	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174390	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in South and Central Europe to about 54° N. It is absent from northwestern France, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, large parts of Italy and most Mediterranean islands. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174390	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Blue-spot Hairstreak can be found in sunny, warm places, on groups of bushes, or on scrub at the edge of a wood, with some flowering vegetation as nectar source nearby. The female lays its eggs on various buckthorns (<em>Rhamnus</em> spp.), choosing branches located in the sun. The small caterpillar only emerges in spring, having passed the winter in the eggshell. It immediately starts to eat buds and young leaves. When fully-grown, it pupates on the foodplant, the pupa suspended by a silken girdle. The Blue-spot Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), heath and scrub (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (7%).	eng
174390	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Moldova and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174390	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174391	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is listed on the Habitats Directive Annex 4 and Bern Convention Annex 2. This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Western and Central European countries where the species is in decline, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174391	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in small, strongly isolated populations, in France (Allier, Nievre, Saone-et-Loire, Ain, Jura Mountains, Haut Rhin, Bas Rhin, Seine-et-Marne, Meuse and Moselle), northwest, northeast and central Switzerland, south and east Germany, Poland, the Baltic States, south of Finlan and of Sweden, Slovakia and north Austria. Sea level-750 m. This species is present across temperate Asia to China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174391	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Scarce Heath occurs in damp to wet grassy meadows in or at the edges of woods. Sometimes, they occur away from woods in drier places or in flower-rich grassland. The butterflies are fond of settling in grass and do not fly far, nor very often. Among the grasses they use as food are Tufted Hair-grass (<em>Deschampsia cespitosa</em>) and Bearded Couch (<em>Elymus caninus</em>). When half-grown, the caterpillar hibernates in a grass tussock, later also pupating there. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: humid grasslands and tall herb communities (26%), mixed woodland (19%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mesophile grasslands (9%), fens, transition mires and springs (7%).	eng
174391	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in the eastern part of its European range, but in most of Western and Central Europe it is very rare and restricted to a few sites of good quality habitat. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. hero</span> is declining in Western  and Central Europe. Strongholds nowadays in Eastern Europe (Russia, Baltic states). It is reported extinct in Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174391	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The main threats are from drainage, agricultural improvements and changing grassland and woodland management. This has caused strong declines and even local extinctions in many countries in Western and Central Europe.	eng
174392	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174392	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the Urals through the temperate part of central and East Asia to Sakhalin and North Korea (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,500 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174392	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on forest edges and flowery slopes (Tuzov, 1997), open places in coniferous and mixed forests (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174392	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174392	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174393	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174393	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on Iberian Peninsula, on Corsica and Sardinia, in Italy, the Balkans, Greece and European Turkey, South and Central France, South and East Germany, Denmark (only on Seeland and Bornholm), in South Sweden, Poland and further eastwards. 0-1,700 m. Its range extends to Northwest Africa and through Turkey to Iran and Lebanon. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174393	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Oberthür's Grizzled Skipper is generally limited to unimproved grasslands, occurring on nutrient-poor grassland, both in the dunes and on dry, chalk slopes. In the north of its range, the populations are small, but large numbers of butterflies make up the southern populations. The butterflies can often be seen visiting flowers and seem to be especially fond of <em>Globularia</em>. The female lays its eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) and rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). The caterpillars of the first instar only eat the surface layer, leaving translucent “windows” in the leaf. The larger caterpillars eat the whole leaf and live in a tent-like shelter, spun from one or more leaves. It is the caterpillar that hibernates. It pupates in a cocoon on the ground. There is one generation a year in the northern range. In the southern range there are two or even three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (29%), mesophile grasslands (17%), dry siliceous grasslands (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), heath and scrub (5%).	eng
174393	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Poland, Portugal and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174393	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174394	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174394	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in large parts of South and East Europe: in northeast Spain and central Pyrenees, the southern half of France, north and central Italy, Switzerland (Wallis and near Geneva), via Austria to the south of Poland and to the south, some areas in the Balkans and north of Greece. 0-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, South Siberia, the Urals and the Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174394	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Provençal Short-tailed Blue occurs in woodland clearings, at the edges of woods, on grassy vegetation near bushes and along the banks of streams and edges of ditches. Goat’s-rue (<em>Galega officinalis</em>) and Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>) are its most important foodplants, but other leguminous plants, such as Common Birdsfoot-trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>), Common Vetch (<em>Vicia sativa</em>) and Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>) are also used. The caterpillars feed mostly on the flowers, but also on the leaves and are attended by ants. These ants mostly belong to the genus <em>Formica</em>. This butterfly species has two to three generations a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (15%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (9%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%).	eng
174394	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Greece and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174394	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174395	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174395	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found from Northeast Europe through the northernmost parts of Asia to America (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174395	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It is found in lowland and mountain tundras (Tuzov, 1997). Habitats: mixed woodland (33%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (33%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (33%).	eng
174395	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174395	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174396	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174396	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs up to 49° N in France and up to 51° N in Germany and Poland. It is absent from the south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands, Portugal and Spain (except in the north and Montes Universales). 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174396	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sloe Hairstreak is found in dry scrub in woods, at wood margins, or in the open landscape. They are also seen in abandoned vineyards on calcareous soils. When looking for nectar, the butterflies seem to prefer white flowers. Blackthorn or Sloe (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) is practically the only foodplant of the Sloe Hairstreak and eggs are laid on branches that are in the sun. The small caterpillars stay in the egg until after the winter, emerging in spring and feeding on the young Blackthorn leaves. When fully-grown, they leave the foodplant to pupate on the ground in leaf litter. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (30%), heath and scrub (22%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (11%), mixed woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (5%).	eng
174396	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174396	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174397	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174397	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs on the Greek island Lesbos. Sea level-900 m. Its main distribution is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174397	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This meadow brown prefers damp places with grassy vegetation and bushes. The butterflies have a long flight period and are inactive in summer. It has one generation a year. Habitats: water-fringe vegetation (50%), fens, transition mires and springs (50%).	eng
174397	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174397	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174398	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. The species occured only in protected areas in Romania. Protecting the remaing sites from further destruction should be a priority.	eng
174398	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Romania, Moldova, the Ukraine and the Asian part of Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174398	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Nogel’s Hairstreak inhabits very open, dry woodland, dry grasslands in woodland areas and steep slopes. Its main larval foodplant is the milk-vetch <em>Astragalus ponticus</em>. It has one generation a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (60%), phrygana (20%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (20%).	eng
174398	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. The species occurs in small isolated colonies in Southeast Europe. The last records from Romania are dating from the 1980's, although there are rumours that it has been found again. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Ukraine. Situation in Moldova unclear (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174398	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	<em>Tomares nogelii </em>is a habitat specialist, extremely monophagous and has a highly fragmented distribution, of which little is known. Tourist activities and agricultural improvement have diminished many populations. The remaining populations are mainly threatened by changes in agricultural practices.	eng
174399	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Poland, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174399	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southern and Central Europe, as far as the southeast  of Belgium and up to 54° N in Poland. It is a migrant in the south of Britain, north of Germany and the Netherlands. It is absent from Sardinia, the south of Greece, the east of Thrace and European Turkey. 0-2,100 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174399	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Berger?s Clouded Yellow is a butterfly of dry, open grasslands on calcareous soils. In the northern part of its distribution range, it often occurs on the south-facing slopes of hills or mountains. The Berger?s Clouded Yellow is much more sensitive to cold than the Pale Clouded Yellow (<em>C. hyale</em>), the caterpillars growing less quickly and even undergoing periods of inactivity in bad weather. Eggs are mostly laid on Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>), also on Crown Vetch (<em>Coronilla varia</em>). Hibernation takes place on the foodplant, or on the ground in the litter layer. For pupation the caterpillar attaches itself to a foodplant, turning into a light-green pupa, suspended by a silken girdle. This species has two or three generations a year. The Berger?s Clouded Yellow and the Pale Clouded Yellow are so similar that it is not possible to identify them with certainty. Habitat helps a little, Berger?s Clouded Yellow being almost only seen on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch, whereas the Pale Clouded Yellow prefers lucerne fields. However, during migration, <em>C. hyale</em> can turn up almost everywhere. These species are easy to distinguish as caterpillars. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (27%), dry siliceous grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (10%), fallow land, waste places (8%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%).	eng
174399	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174399	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174400	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174400	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Canary Islands, from Morocco and Algeria through North Africa, Iraq, Iran to the north of India. Sea level to 2,000 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174400	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The butterflies of the Greenish Black-tip are found on dry, grassy vegetation on calcareous soil and in rocky areas. On the Canary Island, the caterpillars feed on <em>Reseda  lancerotae</em> and <em>Carrichtera annua</em>, eating the leaves as well as the ripening seeds. The Greenish Black-tip has several generations a year and hibernates as a pupa. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (100%).	eng
174400	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174400	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174401	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level , but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174401	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of Southern and Central Europe. This species occurs south of a line from mid-France via mid-Germany, northeast of Poland and southeast of Latvia. It is absent from some of the Mediterranean islands. Sea level-2,400 m. It is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, Siberia up to Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174401	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spotted Fritillary can be found on nutrient-poor grasslands, steppe-like vegetation and dry, rough vegetation near rocks and on slopes. Further, it is also seen on fallow agricultural land, or at the edges of fields It uses a wide variety of plants as foodplant, plantains (<em>Plantago</em> spp.), toadflaxes (<em>Linara</em> spp.), speedwells (<em>Veronica</em> spp.), foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.), woundworts (<em>Stachys</em> spp.), valerians (<em>Valeriana</em> spp.) and mulleins (<em>Verbascum</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in clumps on the underside of the leaves, near to the ground. At first, the caterpillars feed communally in a loosely spun shelter, but they separate quite soon, either into smaller groups, or become solitary. The caterpillars hibernate alone, or in small groups, in a spun web. They pupate low down on the foodplant or in the vegetation. The Spotted Fritillary has one to three generations a year, depending on the geographical location and altitude of its breeding ground. The adult butterfly is extremely variable in its wing markings and wing colours. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (21%), mesophile grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).	eng
174401	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Czech Republic, Germany, Poland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174401	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level. Howwever, it shows a rapid decline in Poland and seems to occur only in eastern Poland now. In Portugal half of the populations is lost since the 1970s and now highly fragmented.	eng
174402	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174402	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the northern Urals and the polar tundras of European Russia and in the arctic parts of Asia and North America and the mountains of Central and East Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174402	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species can be found on tundras and swamps. Its hostplants are <em>Carex</em> spp. (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), mesophile grasslands (50%).	eng
174402	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174402	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174403	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174403	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in Central and Southern Europe: the Iberian Peninsula,  France, southeast Belgium, west Germany, west Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. 0-1650 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174403	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Red-underwing Skipper is a small butterfly that likes warm habitats. It occurs on calcareous and other dry grasslands and also in dry, rough vegetation, as long as its larval foodplant, Salad Burnet (<em>Sanguisorba minor</em>), is present. The eggs are laid between the buds on the flowerheads of this plant and the caterpillars feed on the young leaves. Hibernation takes place as a caterpillar, in warm areas when still small and further north when fully grown. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer, in a sturdy cocoon made from plant remains. Because of its rapid flight and inconspicuous behaviour, this small butterfly is often not even noticed. However, they are often present in large numbers over quite a small area. The butterflies like visiting flowers. It has one or two generations a year, depending on the position of the breeding ground within the range. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (38%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), heath and scrub (9%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (9%), mesophile grasslands (9%).	eng
174403	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Poland and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Luxembourg, Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174403	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174404	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Hungary, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174404	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in several mountainous regions: in Spain, generally rare but locally common in the north and east; south of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, south and east of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Greece. 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found in Turkey, south and central Urals, Mongolia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174404	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Damon Blue is found on calcareous soil, on grasslands, rough vegetation, such as small patches at the edge of scrub or woodland and also on abandoned Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>) fields. It lays its eggs on different species of <em>Onobrychis</em>, including Sainfoin (<em>Onobrychis viciifolia</em>). The caterpillars seem to like being between the flowers and only start to feed late in the afternoon. They are often attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em> or <em>Formica</em>. They pupate in the litter layer. The Damon Blue has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (34%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%).	eng
174404	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Poland. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary, Latvia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174404	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is threatened by changes in the management of semi-natural grasslands. Both intensification of use and abandonment will have a negative impact on this butterfly. The (sub)-alpine populations are less threatened than the lowland populations.	eng
174405	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174405	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe, except in Ireland, Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Estonia. 0-1,500 m. The subspecies <em>I. p. feisthameli </em>occurs in Spain and the south of France. It is sometimes considered as a separate species. Its range extends to North Africa and to Turkey and the Middle East across Kazakhstan to the Altai, Southwest. Siberia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174405	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This large, conspicuous butterfly with its elegant gliding flight, is very impressive. It occurs in warm, dry places with scrub and rough vegetation. The males of the Scarce Swallowtail congregate on hilltops, dancing in the air and waiting for the females, a type of behaviour known as “hill-topping”. They visit thistles and other flowers rich in nectar. The eggs are laid on the leaves of small bushes or trees of Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) and other <em>Rosaceae</em>. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. When fully-grown, they pupate, suspended in a silken girdle in the foodplant. Depending on its position in the range and on the altitude, the Scarce Swallowtail has one to three generations a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (9%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%).	eng
174405	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxemburg. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Romania, Serbia, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174405	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174406	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174406	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central and Southern European species. This species occurs south of a line from central France, south of Germany and south of Poland eastwards. It is absent from the south of Portugal, northwest of Spain and north of Italy. Sea level-1,700 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174406	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Great Banded Grayling is immediately noticeable by its size and is one of the largest butterflies of Europe. It glides more than it flies and can be seen on dry grasslands at the edges of woodland and on poor and moderately nutrient-rich agricultural land. The butterflies need quite a lot of nectar and are easily observed on the purple flowers of thistles and other plants. The females release their eggs into the vegetation, sometimes while perched, often while in flight. The caterpillars can use most grasses as a foodplant. The tiny caterpillar first hibernates in a grass tussock, only in spring beginning to feed and grow. The caterpillars pupates in a cocoon in a little hollow in the ground. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (20%), mixed woodland (11%), coniferous woodland (8%), mesophile grasslands (8%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%).	eng
174406	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174406	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174407	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174407	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a scattered occurrence in Europe: northeast Portugal, north and central Spain (but not in the northern coastal zone and the western Pyrenees), southeast of France (eastern Pyrenees, south of the Massif Central to the Alps), south and central Italy, north of Sicily and in the Balkans in the western part of FYR of Macedonia, Albania and north of Greece. In Spain 400-1,500 m, in Italy 1,000-1,500 m and in the Balkans 1,000-2,100 m. It is also found from the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan to South Siberia and from Asia Minor and the Middle East across Iran to Middle Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174407	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Esper's Marbled White is a butterfly of grassy vegetation, occurring both on acid and calcareous soils. They are often found on dry, rocky slopes but also in grassy glades in woods. They are fond of visiting thistles and like plants for their nectar. Various meadow grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and false bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.), Feather Grass (<em>Stipa pinnata</em>) and <em>Aegilops geniculata</em> are used as foodplants. The caterpillars hibernate and pupate on the ground in spring. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (30%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), mesophile grasslands (15%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), phrygana (7%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (7%), coniferous woodland (7%), mixed woodland (7%).	eng
174407	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Hungary. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174407	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174408	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174408	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of the South of Europe: from the north of Portugal, east and central Spain, via the southeast of France, extreme southeast of Switzerland to the south of Slovakia and further southwards in Italy and all over the Balkans. It is also found on several islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore found in North Africa and across Asia Minor to Korea, China and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174408	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Nettle-tree Butterfly is one of the snout butterflies, so-called because of its long maxillary palps, which point forward seemingly forming a snout. They are often found in scrub or woods, whit the major foodplant, the Nettle Tree (<em>Celtis australis</em>). Species of <em>Prunus</em>, <em>Ulmus</em>, or other species of <em>Celtis</em> are possibly also used as foodplants. This butterfly is a good flyer that often roams some distance from its habitat and can be seen in all kinds of places. The eggs are laid singly on the leaf buds, early in the year because this butterfly hibernates in the adult stage, appearing again in March. The green caterpillars keep mostly to the underside of the leaves and also pupate there. The Nettle-tree Butterfly has one generation a year; the adult hibernates sometimes as soon as August, the brown underside of its wings providing a good camouflage in the dense undergrowth where it spends the winter looking very much like a dead leaf. Habitats: mixed woodland (17%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (13%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (8%).	eng
174408	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174408	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174409	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174409	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species has a divided distribution range. The northern part consists of Scandinavia, Denmark and the Baltic States; the southern part comprises eastern France (Vosges to Alpes Maritimes, Massif Central), eastern Belgium, central Germany, south of Poland, the Balkans and the north of Greece (Rhodope Mts., Vermion Mts., Varnous Mts.). In Italy it only occurs in the Alps and Apennines. It is absent from the Pyrenees and Iberian Peninsula. In Central Europe above 500 m and in Scandinavia from sea level but in all places well below the tree-line. This species occurs in the forest zone of the entire Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174409	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Arran Brown occurs in sheltered, grassy, flower-rich places in woodland. These places are usually rather damp and shady. The female deposits its eggs on the withered blades of various grasses, including cock's-foots (<em>Dactylus</em> spp.), hair-grasses (<em>Deschampsia</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and Heath-grass (<em>Danthonia decumbens</em>). Sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.) are also used. The egg hibernates and the following year, the caterpillar feeds and grows and in the last larval instar hibernates again. In summer, the caterpillar pupates. The Arran Brown has one generation a year, but the life cycle takes two years to complete. Habitats: coniferous woodland (28%), mixed woodland (26%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (19%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%).	eng
174409	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Latvia, Romania and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174409	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174410	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174410	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the southwest and southeast of Europe: central Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern and northeastern parts), central Pyrenees, Southeast France, locally in central and south Italy and in the north of Sicily, in Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary and in the Balkans from Croatia to the southeast of Romania and Greece (including some islands) and on Cyprus. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Middle Asia, Kazakhstan and South Siberia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174410	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Oriental Meadow Brown is a butterfly of warm, dry places. They can be found on dry grasslands with scattered bushes, or dry scrub vegetation and in open woodland. At rest, their wings are almost always closed. They have a rapid flight, often keeping to the shadow cast by trees or bushes. Grasses, such as meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.) and fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) are used as foodplants. It has one generation a year and hibernates in the larval stage. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (15%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (7%), mixed woodland (7%), phrygana (7%).	eng
174410	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Czech Republic. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174410	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174411	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174411	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the extreme south of Finland and the south of Sweden to the north of Italy and the Balkans, except the Mediterranean coastal regions. In France, it is present in the Southeast to the east of the  Pyrenees. In central England, there are local populations. 200-750 m. It is furthermore present east to Mongolia, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174411	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Black Hairstreak can be found in habitats with Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) bushes. This may be in moderately dry woodland, or in a hedgerow, or on a woodbank, but it also occurs on solitary groups of Blackthorn bushes. Places with brambles are favourable, providing the nectar the butterflies need. The eggs are laid on Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>), but sometimes other <em>Prunus</em> species are used. The female chooses twigs that will flower the next spring. The small caterpillars that develop, pass the winter in the eggshell. When they emerge, they feed on the buds and flowers. When the caterpillars are fully-grown, they pupate. The black and white pupa, suspended in a silken girdle from a twig, looks very like a bird dropping, an attempt to avoid predation. The Black Hairstreak has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (33%), mixed woodland (18%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), heath and scrub (9%), sclerophyllous scrub (5%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (5%).	eng
174411	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Denmark. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Romania and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovakia and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174411	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174412	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the southern half of its range (Mediterranean), the species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In Central Europe, where the species is restricted to local calcareous grasslands, it benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. In Belarus, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174412	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe up to 54° N. In England, it is only present on Dorset coast. It is absent from the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia, large parts of northern Italy, northern Germany and northeastern Poland. 0-1,600 m. Its range extends to North Africa and the Middle East. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174412	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Lulworth Skipper can be found on warm, dry grassland, with bushes or scrub nearby, or at the edge of woodland. In the north of its range, it is mostly found on calcareous grassland. Populations of the Lulworth Skipper are sometimes very large. Eggs are laid on the withered leaves of many grasses. Directly after hatching, the small caterpillar spins a cocoon in which to hibernate. It does not begin to eat and grow until the following spring. It then builds a shelter by spinning blades of grass together, which it only leaves when looking for food. When fully grown, it pupates, changing into a green pupa suspended in the vegetation by a silken girdle. The Lulworth Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (31%), mesophile grasslands (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%).	eng
174412	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas in the northern part of its range. In the south widespread. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1980s. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, Switzerland and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174412	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is especially threatened by changes in agricultural activities. If the management of chalk grasslands (mostly low intensity) is stopped, <em>T. acteon</em> can become very abundant for a few years on the tall grasses. After the invasion of trees and shrubs, the species disappears. Heavy grazing is harmful as larvae live in a spun leaf shelter for a part of the year.	eng
174413	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174413	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe: north of Spain (central Pyrenees), south of France (from the Dordogne southwards and eastwards), the southern Alps of Switzerland, Austria and Italy, also in the Apennines and Calabria and from Croatia to Bulgaria and Greece. 400-1,800m. It is also found in Morocco and from Kazakhstan and Central Asia to Transbaikalia and West China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174413	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the mountains, the Great Sooty Satyr is mostly found in open, dry, rocky places with grassy vegetation. At lower altitudes, the butterflies occur in open clearings in woods, or at wood edges. They can often be seen drinking nectar on thistles and scabious (<em>Knautia</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs low down on dry grass stems. The caterpillars hibernate when still quite small and pupate in May or June. Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca</em> <em>ovina</em>) is the most important foodplant, but other fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), false-bromes (<em>Brachypodium</em> spp.) and bromes (<em>Bromus</em> spp.) are probably also used. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (16%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (12%), screes (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), phrygana (8%).	eng
174413	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174413	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174414	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174414	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe from the southeast of France and further eastwards: France in Ardèche and Provence, almost all of Italy (very rare in the north of Italy), along the Dalmatian coast to Greece and Bulgaria. It is also found on many islands in the Mediterranean. 0-1,700 m. It is furthermore present across Asia Minor to Afghanistan and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174414	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Comma is a species of dry grasslands and dry scrub. The major foodplant is Common Pellitory (<em>Parietaria officinalis</em>), a plant that often grows on old walls, so that these butterflies are often found near buildings. They can often be seen, wings wide open, basking in the sun on walls and rocks, or on the ground. The caterpillars probably also feed on Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and elms (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.). The Southern Comma has two to three generations a year and just as the ordinary Comma (<em>P. Central album</em>), hibernates as an adult butterfly. It can therefore be seen early in spring. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (26%), phrygana (21%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (21%), dry siliceous grasslands (8%).	eng
174414	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Slovenia and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174414	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174415	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174415	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the east of Spain in the vicinity of Huesca, Saragossa, Madrid, Cuenca, Teruel, Alicante, Murcia and Granada. 600-1,400 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174415	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Hermit inhabits open, dry areas such as limestone plateaus, dry steppe-like grasslands, grassy slopes with scrub and sometimes steep, wooded slopes. The butterflies occur very locally in low numbers. They are often seen with The Hermit (<em>C. briseus</em>). Various grasses are used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174415	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174415	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a small decline, it is not believed to face major threats.	eng
174416	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of the species. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174416	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe from the coastal areas of Croatia down to Albania and northeast Bulgaria, FYR of Macedonia, north and central Greece, Corfu and Cyprus. 0-1,200 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174416	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Little Tiger Blue is mostly found where its foodplant Christ's Thorn (<em>Paliurus spina-christi</em>) is growing, in open scrub and in agricultural areas where it is used as hedging plant. On Cyprus, it also occurs on another prickly plant, Jujube (<em>Ziziphus lotus</em>). The caterpillars eat from the underside of the leaves, making parallel grooves that look like translucent “windows” from above. Because of their quick flight and small size, these butterflies are not easy to observe. They have several generations a year and hibernate in the pupal stage. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (55%), phrygana (44%).	eng
174416	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas where <em>Paliuris spina-christi</em> occurs. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174416	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174417	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174417	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe only in the Alps: from the French Alps to Austria and Slovenia. Mostly 1,700-2,200 m, but also seen at 1,000-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in the Urals, south and west Siberia, Mongolia, Northeast China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174417	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Asian Fritillary can be seen searching for nectar or foodplants on open scrub, rich in herbaceous plants, or in clearings in open woodland, in flower-rich grassland and on vegetation of dwarf shrubs above the tree-line. These butterflies only occur locally, although at times in large numbers. The female lays all her eggs at once, on the underside of a leaf of its foodplant, Blue Honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera caerulea</em>). The caterpillars live in communal webs and in autumn make a more substantial shelter of leaves, spun together with silk, in which to hibernate. They take two years to develop and have to hibernate twice. The fully-grown caterpillar leaves the nest after the second hibernation and pupates on the foodplant or adjacent rocks. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), coniferous woodland (11%), mixed woodland (11%), blanket bogs (5%), broad-leaved evergreen woodland (5%), screes (5%), water-fringe vegetation (5%), raised bogs (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
174417	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174417	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174418	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174418	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north of Portugal and the north of Spain (Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees to Montes Universale). This species occurs from the south of Finland via the Baltic States, Poland, Central and East Germany and the south of Belgium to the northeast of France and from Switzerland via the north of Italy and central Apennines, the Balkans to the north of Greece. 200-2,000 m. It is also found from central and south Siberia to Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174418	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Chestnut Heath inhabits dry to damp grasslands in woods, meadows, nutrient-poor grassland, calcareous grasslands and open marshy habitats. These grasslands are sometimes quite intensively grazed, as can happen on calcareous grassland. However, if grazing is absent, for a few years, change in the grassland does not seem to affect the butterflies. The butterflies do not fly very much and only cover limited distances. The eggs are laid one by one in short rows on the blades of grasses, such as fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Tor-grass (<em>Brachypodium pinnatum</em>), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>), Upright Brome (<em>Bromus erectus</em>) and Crested Dog.s-tail (<em>Cynosurus cristatus</em>). Pupation takes place deep down in the vegetation. The Chestnut Heath has one to two generations a year, depending on the altitude and latitude of its breeding ground. In the field the Chestnut Heath is often confused with the Small Heath (<em>C. pamphilus</em>) and therefore not noticed. On the Iberian Peninsula, there is a sub-species <em>C. g. iphioides</em>, with brightly contrasting eyespots on the underside of the hindwing. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mixed woodland (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).	eng
174418	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in Belgium. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, France, Germany, Spain and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174418	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174419	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174419	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the polar Urals and arctic and temperate parts of Asia (Tshikolovets, 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174419	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly can be found on woodland clearings and glades, dry glades near forest swamps, sometimes on dry meadows. Main larval hostplants are <em>Carex</em> spp.  (Tshikolovets, 2003). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174419	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174419	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174420	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174420	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally on Cyprus and in parts of Turkey. 0-1,600 m. This species occurs from central Sahara to Egypt, Middle East, Arabia, Western Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northwestern India. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174420	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly occurs in dry, hot places, on abandoned agricultural ground, scrub or steppe. Populations are small. Little is known about its life cycle, or on which plant the eggs are laid or whether the first instar caterpillars feed from it. However, it is probable that the females, like those of other silver-line butterflies, accept plants from various (<em>Leguminosae</em>, <em>Polygonaceae</em>, <em>Cistaceae</em>) genera on which to lay their eggs. It is known that the two last instars live in the nest of <em>Crematogaster</em> ants, where they feed on ant grubs and pupae, and, to a lesser extent, on food that the ants bring in. It is not improbable that, as soon as they hatch, the very young caterpillars find their way to the ants’ nest. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174420	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, this species is restricted to the island of Cyprus. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Cyprus (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174420	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174421	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174421	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs over almost all Portugal and Spain (except extreme north of Portugal and the northern and western coasts of Spain) and France (Mediterranean coastal areas and from eastern Pyrenees and Cevennes to the Alps). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174421	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Festoon can be found on scrub and dry, grassy vegetation. The butterflies are often found in rocky areas, where they can be seen, wings wide open, basking on stones. The female lays its eggs singly or in small groups on birthworts (<em>Aristolochia</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on these poisonous plants, pupating for the winter. It can sometimes take two to three years before the butterfly emerges from the pupa. With the exception of a few sites in southern Spain, where it produces two generations, this species has one generation a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (18%), sclerophyllous scrub (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), mesophile grasslands (6%), inland sand-dunes (6%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (6%).	eng
174421	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe. It is reported extinct in Andorra. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174421	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174422	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level. However, since it has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174422	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the south of the Balkans, in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, southeast Romania, northwest Greece and on Greek island Simi. 0-1,100 m. Its range extends to Turkey and Iran and across the south of Russia and Kazakhstan to Mongolia and Yakutia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174422	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Tessellated Skipper occurs on various types of open grassy vegetation, on both calcareous and non-calcareous soils. The butterflies feed preferably on thymes (<em>Thymus</em> sp.), vetches (<em>Vicia</em> sp.) and yarrows (<em>Achillea millefolium</em>). The butterflies have a rapid flight, often quite close to the ground. The caterpillars feed on the labiates <em>Phlomis tuberosa</em> and <em>P. samia</em>, hiding in spun leaves. The Tessellated Skipper has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (26%), phrygana (13%), dry siliceous grasslands (13%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), sclerophyllous scrub (6%), heath and scrub (6%), mesophile grasslands (6%), water-fringe vegetation (6%), screes (6%).	eng
174422	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174422	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174423	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174423	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This southwestern European species occurs in Portugal, large parts of Spain (southeast and central Spain, Sierra de Gredos and further eastwards, northeast Spain, the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mts.), in the southeast of France, in the Italian Alps and in Switzerland (very locally in Wallis). 150-1,600 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174423	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Provençal Fritillary occurs in all types of flower-rich, grassy places; on flower-rich grasslands, both in damp and dry places and on calcareous as well as acid soil, on flower-rich, grassy vegetation on the banks of rivers and streams, in scrub and at woodland edges. In Switzerland, at the extreme north of its distribution range, it is only found in dry, warm, bushy places. Its foodplants are toadflax (<em>Linaria</em> spp.), snapdragons (<em>Antirrhinum</em> spp.) and sometimes also foxgloves (<em>Digitalis</em> spp.). The female lays its eggs in small batches on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillars hibernate in a spun shelter. In most locations, this species has two generations a year, however in the Alps, only one. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (14%).	eng
174423	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species from (semi-) natural habitats in Southwest Europe.	eng
174423	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174424	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174424	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs in the Alps and Northern Urals: in France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria (as far as in Steirmark). It is very rare in Liechtenstein and in the south of Germany. 1,200-2,800 m, most populations 1,800-2,200 m. It is also found in the Caucasus, the Altai and Siberia to the Far East and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174424	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Apollo occurs in the mountains, especially in damp places, such as beside streams and where it gets flooded from time to time. Such spots are the habitat of Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (<em>Saxifraga aizoides</em>). However, the Small Apollo living in the Mercantour in the south-west of the Alps, use Roseroot (<em>Rhodiola roseum</em>) as foodplant. The eggs are either laid on or in the vicinity of the foodplant. The very small caterpillar sometimes passes the winter in the egg, sometimes outside it. The fully-grown caterpillars are black with a row of orange-red or yellow spots along each side. At the beginning of the summer, they spin a flimsy cocoon in which to pupate, either low down on the larval plant, or on the ground. The Small Apollo has one generation a year. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (37%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (12%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), mesophile grasslands (12%), water-fringe vegetation (12%), fens, transition mires and springs (12%).	eng
174424	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the mountainous areas of Europe. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Germany. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria and France (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174424	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species is threatened by changes in the management of (sub)-alpine meadows. It might get threatened in future by climate change.	eng
174425	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Since this species has a restricted global range, its distribution and trend should be monitored closely, for example by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174425	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe only on the Greek island Nisiros. Sea level-100 m. It is also found in the southwest of Turkey, but here the range is restricted as well. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174425	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This meadow brown is found on dry, open scrub and near agricultural land on the Greek island Nisiros. In the summer months, the butterflies are inactive. This species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174425	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species with a very restricted distribution, both globally and in Europe.	eng
174425	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, the very small range of this species (the extent of occurrence - EOO - is less than 100 km²) in one location makes it vulnerable to environmental changes. Outside Europe the butterfly can be found only around Budrum in Southwest Turkey.	eng
174426	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Bulgaria, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
174426	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe: in the south of Portugal, Spain (except the northwestern part), France (southeastern coast and Drôme), central Italy (Gargano, Calabria and northern Sicily), Croatia, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia and Greece (including the islands Kithira, Karpathos and Simi). 0-1,800 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa, Palestine and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174426	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sage Skipper occurs on dry, flower-rich grassland, in open scrub, on rocky ground with sparse vegetation. However, in its habitat, the larval foodplants should be abundant. Various species of <em>Phlomis</em> are used, such as Jerusalem Sage (<em>P. fructicosa</em>), <em>P. lychnitis</em>, <em>P. herba-venti</em> and perhaps also Horehound (<em>Marrubium</em> spp.). Although there is probably only one generation a year, the butterflies of the Sage Skipper can be seen from spring until autumn, due to prolonged emergence from the pupa. This skipper passes the winter as a caterpillar inside the egg. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (29%), phrygana (23%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (17%), heath and scrub (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).	eng
174426	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bulgaria. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Portugal (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174426	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174427	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174427	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in temperate zones all over the world. In Europe, it is a long term resident in the south of Europe only. In the north of its distribution range, it is a rare vagrant. 0-2,700 m. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174427	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The underside of the wings of the Long-tailed Blue have an attractive pattern of fine, wavy lines and two striking eye-spots near the tails on the hindwings. The habitats are typified by the presence of many species of leguminous plants that serve as foodplants and plenty of nectar-rich flowers for the butterflies. The habitats are warm, dry places, sometimes in agricultural areas. Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>) is a well-known foodplant, but other leguminous species are also used. The caterpillars feed on the ripening seeds and on farms where peas and beans are grown, they can cause outbreaks. In natural situations, the caterpillars are attended by various ant species. The life cycle of the Long-tailed Blue takes four to six weeks. It does not go into hibernation and can therefore only occur as a resident where it is warm enough for all stages to survive and where there is a continuous supply of food for the caterpillars and adult butterflies. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (17%), phrygana (12%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (10%), heath and scrub (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (7%).	eng
174427	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the southern part of its range, this species is widespread. In the northern part, it is local and the situation depends on the migration from the south. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Albania, Romania, Spain and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174427	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174428	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174428	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from Urals to the Ussuri region, Amur region, Mongolia, Alaska, West Canada. Up to 1,500 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174428	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species occurs on rocky slopes with steppes and rocky habitat near crests. The females lays its eggs on <em>Saxifraga bronchialis</em>. The species produces one generation a year (Tuzov 2,000, Gordunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174428	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174428	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174429	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174429	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common throughout most of Europe. It is absent from Scotland, north of Norway, Finland, Atlantic islands, the Balearic islands and Crete. 0-2,500 m. Also present from North Africa to the Caucasus, West and South Siberia to Transbaikalia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174429	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	For many, the Brimstone is the first sign of spring. The butterflies hibernate in heaps of twigs or grass tussocks and on any warm day, even in January, the males appear. The females, that are paler in colour, are seen a little later. The eggs are laid one by one on the young branches and leaves of buckthorns (<em>Rhamnus</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the young leaves. They pupate, suspended from the underside of a twig or nerve of a leaf. In summer, when the butterflies emerge, they do not mate but instead may become inactive for quite long periods before they hibernate. Courtship and mating do not take place until next spring. The Brimstone has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (13%), heath and scrub (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), urban parks and large gardens (7%), mesophile grasslands (5%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%).	eng
174429	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174429	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174430	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	As much is still unknow for this species, research on distribution and ecology is urgently needed. Important habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174430	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	It only occurs very locally in Europe, in FYR of Macedonia (Skopje region), the border area of Bulgaria and Serbia and western Romania. 500-800 m. It is found further east in western and southern Siberia, the Altai, Sayan, Transbaikalia, the Amur and Ussuri regions. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174430	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spinose Skipper is a butterfly that likes warm, dry places. It is especially fond of dry flower-rich grassland with scattered bushes. It uses various cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.) as larval foodplant. It has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (42%), phrygana (28%), dry siliceous grasslands (28%).	eng
174430	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from FYR of Macedonia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174430	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Outside Russia, the species is occuring in very small habitat patches having also very small populations, up to tens of individuals per generation. These are threatened both by agricultural activities as well as abandonment.	eng
174431	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174431	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout most of Europe up to 68° N in Scandinavia. It is absent from Ireland, Scotland, the Spanish Atlantic coast and south of Portugal. Sea level-2,000 m. This species occurs in the forest zone of the Palearctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174431	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Comma is a butterfly of wood edges and clearings in wood, except in very dry places. It is easily recognized by the deep indentations in the margins of its wings and the small white comma on the otherwise dusky underside of the hindwing. Eggs are laid on many different plant species, like Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>), bramble (<em>Rubus</em> spp.), elm (<em>Ulmus</em> spp.), willow (<em>Salix</em> spp.), Hazel (<em>Corylus avellana</em>) and Hop (<em>Humulus lupulus</em>). The caterpillar is solitary, brownish-black with long spines and a broad white stripe on its back towards the rear, making it look like a bird dropping. The pupa hangs from the foodplant on a small stalk. The butterflies hibernate in hollow trees, hedgerows and shrubs. In large parts of Europe it has two generations a year. However, in Scandinavia it only has one generation and in warm locations in Spain and Greece, it can have three. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (14%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (13%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (13%), towns, villages, industrial sites (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).	eng
174431	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Romania and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174431	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174432	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174432	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a Central European species. This species occurs from the Baltic States to the north of Greece and from the south of England to France (except in the south). It is absent from Scandinavia and only in the east of Denmark. In Spain, it is only in the Cantabrian Mts. And the Pyrenees. Its is also absent from the south and the east of Italy and the Croatian coast. Sea level-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Northwest Kazakhstan, Amur, Northeast China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174432	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The White Admiral is a true woodland butterfly and is found in clearings and woodland rides. The female lays its eggs on young honeysuckle (<em>Lonicera</em> spp.) leaves, preferring those half in the shade. The caterpillars feed on the leaves in a characteristic way. Starting at the tip and working towards the stalk, they leave the main nerve intact and use it to rest upon. The hibernation is in the second larval instar. To make the hibernaculum the remaining part of the leaf is spun into a little tube and the leaf stalk is spun tightly onto a twig. After hibernating, the caterpillar feeds on the newly-emerged leaves. It pupates upside down on a twig and has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (56%), mixed woodland (20%).	eng
174432	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Turkey (European part). Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg and Moldova (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174432	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174433	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174433	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in the Balkans: in mountainous regions in FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and S Romania. 500-1,500 m. Recently also found at the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria. It is also found across Asia Minor to Central Asia and Altai. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174433	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Freyer’s Fritillary is found on flower-rich grassy vegetation and in woodland clearings on both calcareous and acid soil and seems to prefer moist places. The female lays its eggs in large batches on the leaves of knapweeds (<em>Centaurea</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed and also hibernate communally in a nest of spun silk. When almost fully grown, they separate and pupate close to the ground, on the stems of plants. It has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mesophile grasslands (25%), mixed woodland (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (12%).	eng
174433	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174433	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174434	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174434	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a southeastern European species: in Spain in the Sierra Nevada, Montes Universales and Catalonia, France from the eastern Pyrenees to Provence and Savoie, Switzerland (Rhone Valley), north and central Italy, Austria and further eastwards and southwards. 100-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, Turkey and Iran. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174434	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Iolas Blue is Europe?s largest blue. It occurs locally on calcareous soil, with shrubs of Bladder Senna (<em>Colutea arborescens</em>). In Greece, <em>C. cilicica</em> is also used. This plant is practically the most important source of nectar for the butterflies. At times, the males can be seen some distance away from their habitat, but the females stay near the foodplants. They lay their eggs, usually several at a time, on the inside of the calyx and inside the bladder-like fruits. The caterpillars feed on the seeds and are visited frequently by ants, for example workers of <em>Tapinoma erraticum</em> and <em>Camponotus cruentatus</em>. Usually, the caterpillar can easily be seen by holding a pod up to the light. When fully-grown, the caterpillars pupate at the base of the foodplant, passing the winter as a pupa. Although it occasionally has a partial second generation, the Iolas Blue usually has only one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (19%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (19%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), mesophile grasslands (14%), phrygana (9%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%).	eng
174434	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Austria and Slovakia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Romania. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Hungary and Serbia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174434	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is mainly threatened by intensification of agriculture. Where it occurs in vineyards, removal of <em>Colotis</em>-shrubs as well as the use of herbicides and insecticides, forms a serious threat as well.	eng
174435	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174435	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in central Greece and on islands Samos, Chios, Lesbos and Rhodes. On Greek mainland 600-800 m, on the islands from Sea-level up to 250 m. It is also found across Turkey to Iran and Israel. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174435	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Levantine Skipper occurs mostly in warm, dry places with scrub, both inland and on the coast. They have also been seen in dry, stony places and on agricultural land, including olive groves and vineyards. They fly rapidly, close to the ground. This butterfly has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), phrygana (50%).	eng
174435	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174435	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174436	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174436	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on the steppes of Eastern Europe, West and Central Asia. It is also found in the Caucasus (Tshikolovets, 2003). The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174436	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on virgin steppes, sometimes with rocky and calcarous places; on steppes and subalpine meadows up to 2,000 m in the Caucasus. Main larval hostplants <em>Poa avena</em> and <em>Festuca ovina</em> (Tshikolovets, 2003). Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174436	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174436	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174437	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174437	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, from 60° N to Lapland, except Norwegian coast. It is also found in Northern Russia. 0-950 m. Its range extends to the mountains of Siberia and the north of Mongolia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174437	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Northern Grizzled Skipper prefers damp, moist and wet places. It is mostly found in open areas of bogs or swamps, in scrub near swamps and above the tree-line on stretches of wet ground with dwarf shrubs. With its inconspicuous colours and rapid flight, the butterflies of this grizzled skipper are difficult to follow. The female lays its eggs on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>). Little is known about the way the caterpillars live. This species has one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (20%), blanket bogs (20%).	eng
174437	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174437	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is declining on the southern edge of its range in Finland and to a lesser extent in Sweden. It is not threatened in northern Scandinavia (Van Swaay & Warren, 1999).	eng
174438	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174438	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the mountains of the northwest of Greece. 850-1,500 m. It is also found in Turkey, Iran and Armenia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174438	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Dark Grayling occurs on dry, rocky slopes with patches of low vegetation and scattered bushes and also in open coniferous woodland. The butterflies often settle on bare ground and can also be seen drinking nectar from large thistle-like plants. Grasses are used as foodplants, but it is not known which species. The Dark Grayling has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), coniferous woodland (50%).	eng
174438	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174438	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174439	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174439	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a central European species: south of Sweden, south of Finland, the Baltic States, Denmark, southeast of Belgium, France, Pyrenees, Switzerland, Austria as far as the Northern Balkans, further in Spain (Granada and Palencia). It is absent from the south of Italy, the west and southwest of the Balkans, Greece and the Mediterranean islands. In the north of its distribution range, this species is a migrant. 0-1,800 m. It is furthermore present through Siberia to Mongolia and Northwest China. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174439	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pale Clouded Yellow is mostly found on fields of clover or lucerne, but also on meadows that are grazed at low intensity where many leguminous plants are growing. It prefers open landscapes with few trees or bushes. Eggs are laid singly on many species of <em>Leguminosae</em>. The caterpillar feeds on young leaves and overwinters as half-grown caterpillar. It pupates, suspended in a girdle from a stalk on the foodplant. The Pale Clouded Yellow has two or three generations a year, depending on geographical location and altitude of the flight area. In the northern part of of its range, it is a migrant species, but in most of Central Europe it is a resident. The adult Pale Clouded Yellow is very hard to distinguish from Berger's Clouded Yellow (<em>Colias alfacariensis</em>), while the caterpillars are very different. The latter species is only found on calcareous grasslands with Horseshoe Vetch (<em>Hippocrepis comosa</em>). Although the Pale Clouded Yellow has a preference for clover and lucerne fields, when migrating, it can turn up almost anywhere. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (18%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), improved grasslands (10%), dry siliceous grasslands (9%), fallow land, waste places (9%).	eng
174439	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is also a migrant species in parts of its range and can colonize areas temporaryly. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Luxembourg and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Italy (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174439	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174440	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174440	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread and common all over Europe. This species occurs locally on the Canary Islands. It is absent from Madeira and the Azores. 0-3,000 m. It is also found in Turkey, Middle East and temperate Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174440	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Common Blue is a very common butterfly. It looks rather like Chapman's Blue (<em>P. thersites</em>). It can be found on most types of grassy vegetation, ranging from quite dry, nutrient-poor grassland to moderately damp meadows. The female lays its eggs on a variety of leguminous plants, including Common Birdsfoot–trefoil (<em>Lotus corniculatus</em>). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. They are attended by ants of the genera <em>Lasius</em>, <em>Formica</em>, <em>Myrmica</em>, <em>Tapinoma</em> and <em>Plagiolepis</em>. When half-grown, the caterpillars may hibernate in the litter layer. In hot climates, aestivation also takes place, in the egg or larval stage. The caterpillars pupate in the litter layer. Depending on the geographical position and altitude of the breeding ground, the Common Blue has one to three (or occasionally even more) generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), urban parks and large gardens (6%), fallow land, waste places (5%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%).	eng
174440	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Luxembourg, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Spain, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174440	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174441	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174441	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present from the Polar Urals to Kamchatka in the North to montane tundra and Tibet in the south. Up to 3,000 m (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001, Tshikolovets 2003). Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174441	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly species occurs on tundras, swamps and moist meadows in forests and in the mountains. It produces one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar (Tuzov 2,000, Tshikolovets 2003)). Habitats: coniferous woodland (50%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (50%).	eng
174441	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174441	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174442	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174442	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe. It is absent from the southern half of Spain, Scotland and the north of England, large parts of Denmark, north and central Norway, northern Sweden and northern Finland. 0-1,500 m. It is furthermore present across the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the Tian-Shan, Siberia to the Amur; Turkey, Iran, China, Korea and Japan. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174442	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Silver-washed Fritillary is a large, conspicuous butterfly that is often present in large numbers. Needing a lot of nectar, they are often found on thistles at the edge of woodland. They also occur on rough vegetation in woodland clearings. The males have black streaks of scent-scales on their forewings. Unlike other butterflies, the eggs are not laid on the foodplant. Instead, the female deposits them singly on the branches and trunks of trees growing at woodland edges. As soon as they emerge from the egg in the late summer, the tiny caterpillar looks for somewhere to hibernate. In spring it starts looking for violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.), on which it feeds at night, hiding under the leaves of the foodplant during the day. It pupates on a stalk of a violet plant, or in a crevice in the bark of a tree. The Silver-washed Fritillary has one generation a year. The females come in two colour variations, the more usual, orange form and the heavily dusted, dark form valezina. In some populations this form is quite common, but in others very rare. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (11%), mesophile grasslands (9%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (5%).	eng
174442	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Turkey (European part), Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174442	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174443	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Lithuania, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174443	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	A northern species that occurs in large parts of Finland, Norway and central and north of Sweden. It is also rare in the Eastern Baltic States. 100-450 m. It is furthermore found in the montane or lowland tundra and bogs of the Holarctic. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174443	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Frigga’s Fritillary is mostly found on open bogs and in swampy areas with shrubs of Birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.) and willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) scrub, in swampy areas in birch woods and on bogs in coniferous forests. It is a rare fritillary that occurs locally and always in low to very low numbers. Despite its size, it is an inconspicuous butterfly. The eggs are laid singly on Cloudberry (<em>Rubus chamaemorus</em>). This species produces one generation a year. Habitats: raised bogs (60%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (10%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (10%), mesophile grasslands (10%), fens, transition mires and springs (10%).	eng
174443	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Latvia. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Finland and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174443	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174444	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Portugal, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174444	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Central Europe. It is absent from Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Iberian Peninsula (except northern provinces and Cantabrian Mts.), south of Italy, the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and large parts of Greece. 500-1,600 m. It is furthermore present east to West and Central Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174444	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the northern part of its range, the Weaver’s Fritillary can be found on warm slopes with open woodland, scrub and flower-rich grassland. More to the south, it is also found in damp, shady places. The eggs are laid singly on various violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). The caterpillars hibernate when half-grown in the litter layer. They pupate deep down in the vegetation. Weaver’s Fritillary has two to three generations a year. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), mesophile grasslands (14%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (8%), mixed woodland (7%), dry siliceous grasslands (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).	eng
174444	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Denmark and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174444	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174445	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174445	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe up to 64° N. It is absent from the south of Portugal, Ireland and Scotland. 0-1,800 m. Local populations are found in the south of Spain above 1,000 m. Its range extends eastwards across Turkey to Syria and Iran and across central Asia and Siberia to Mongolia, Korea and Sakhalin. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174445	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Skipper is found on sunny, grassy vegetation in or near woods and scrub. It often visits flowers and the development of some rough vegetation close to the breeding ground is thus favourable. They are especially fond of bramble blossom for nectar. The female deposits its eggs onto the blades of coarse-leaved grasses one by one. The caterpillars make a shelter by spinning blades of grass together and pass the winter in the third larval instar. When fully grown, they also spin leaves and silk together, to form a tube-like shelter in which to pupate. The Large Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (17%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (12%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (10%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), mixed woodland (6%), dry siliceous grasslands (6%), dry calcareous grassland.	eng
174445	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania and Spain (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174445	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174446	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed.	eng
174446	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the mountains of Spain. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174446	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Southern Mountain Argus is often consisdered a subspecies of the Northern Brown Argus. It is found in the mountains south of where the Northern Brown Argus occurs. The Southern Mountain Argus thrives on warm and hot rocky places with an open grassy vegetation with flowers. The eggs are deposited on various rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.). The caterpillars feed on the leaves. The Southern Mountain Argus has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174446	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174446	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats.	eng
174447	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174447	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered in Mediterranean coastal areas, Italy (locally on the western coast) and from Croatia down to Greece where it is scattered on the mainland. It also occurs on many islands in the Mediterranean (Majorca, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, Crete and other Greek islands). 0-400 m, inland Greece to 1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa and Asia. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174447	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Pigmy Skipper occurs in the same types of habitat as the Mediterranean Skipper (<em>Gegenes nostrodamus</em>). Dry gullies, rocky slopes, sandy or stony riverbanks with sparse vegetation, dry grassland and low scrub near the coast are all places where these butterflies can be seen, often basking in the sun on stones and bare soil. In spring, there are fewer butterflies than in summer and autumn. The caterpillars feed on the grasses Hyparrhenia hirta and Sorghum halepensis. The Pigmy Skipper has two to three generations a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (28%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (28%), phrygana (28%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (14%).	eng
174447	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in France. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174447	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174448	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174448	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs all over Europe to 58° N. It is absent from Scandinavia, Britain and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily and Samos. 0-2,500 m. It is furthermore found in Turkey and east to Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Altai Mountians. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174448	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Sooty Copper is found in a variety of habitats, damp and dry grassland, heathland, bogs, but also scrub and clearings in woodland, mostly in small numbers. Eggs are laid on sorrels (<em>Rumex</em> spp.), especially on Common Sorrel (<em>R. acetosa</em>). The caterpillar hibernates at the base of the plant in any of the instars. They pupate in the litter layer. It has up to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (14%), dry siliceous grasslands (12%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (8%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (8%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (5%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (5%).	eng
174448	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania, the Netherlands and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174448	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174449	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No conservation actions are needed for this species.	eng
174449	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Europe only on islands in the Eastern Aegean Sea. Sea level-1,300 m. It is also found in Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Iraq and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174449	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This meadow brown is a butterfly of open woodland, found in oak woods, mixed woods and coniferous forests and also in open scrub. Further, it is seen in olive groves, vineyards and occasionally villages. The butterflies mostly fly in the shadow of trees and bushes, keeping close to the ground. In contrast to the Meadow Brown (<em>M. jurtina</em>), this butterfly is hardly ever found on open, flower-rich grasslands. Butterflies are present from the spring until the autumn, but during the hot, dry summer months, they are inactive, hiding in trees or bushes, or on tree trunks. Although the females mate soon after emergance, they do not lay their eggs in summer. The eggs mature during the period of inactivity in summer and are deposited during the following autumn on several species of grasses. This meadow brown has one generation a year. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174449	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species with a restricted European distribution.	eng
174449	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174450	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174450	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Southeast Europe: south of Serbia, FYR of Macedonia, Albania, Romania (south of the Carpatian Mountains), Bulgaria and in the north of Greece. 350-1,900 m, often at higher altitudes than 900 m. It is furthermore present in South Siberia and across Transcaucasia to Asia Minor and Iran. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174450	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Russian Heath is found both on dry, as well as somewhat damp, grassy vegetation, at wood margins and in woodland clearings and on grasslands. The butterflies have a rather low flight. At rest, just like other heaths, the Russian Heath keeps its wings closed. Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>) and Slender False-brome (<em>Brachypodium sylvaticum</em>) are among the grasses used as foodplants. This species has one generation a year and hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (25%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (25%), mixed woodland (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%).	eng
174450	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in a part of Europe, this species is local and restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174450	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174451	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174451	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered on Cyprus and on the Greek islands Samos, Rhodes, Simi and Kastellorizo. Mostly at lower altitudes than 500 m. Main distribution in Turkey, the Middle East, India and Africa. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174451	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The African Ringlet occurs in short scrub, rocky areas with low vegetation and dry riverbeds. It uses grasses as foodplants. The main flight periods are in April and September/October. In Cyprus, it has two generations a year. On the Greek islands, it probably has several generations a year. Habitats: phrygana (100%).	eng
174451	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174451	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174452	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174452	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the north and east of Europe down to and including the north of Spain. It is vagrant in the south of England, the north of Germany, the Netherlands and the north of Belgium. It is absent from the Mediterranean islands, Sicily included. Sea level-2,500 m. It is also found in the whole temperate  zone of the Holarctic Region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174452	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Camberwell Beauty is an imposing butterfly with its large, deep-brown wings, beautifully edged with wide, pale borders. They are strong butterflies and can fly large distances, although this only happens in some years. They occur near patches of woodland in stream valleys, gullies, along woodland edges and on scrub. Because they are fairly mobile, they can be seen in open countryside far away from their foodplants. The female lays its eggs in large clusters around the twigs of birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.), willows (<em>Salix</em> spp.) and poplars (<em>Populus</em> spp.). In some years, they show a tendency to migrate in summer and autumn. At first, the caterpillars live together in a communal web, becoming solitary when nearly fully-grown. The caterpillar is easily recognized, black and spiny with a double row of red spots on its back. They pupate on the bark of the foodplants. The adult butterflies hibernate in a hollow tree, wood pile or just hidden in the vegetation and wait for spring before mating. The Camberwell Beauty has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (26%), mixed woodland (19%), coniferous woodland (10%), urban parks and large gardens (8%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (7%), alluvial and very wet forests and brush (5%).	eng
174452	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in Europe, but in areas with a maritime climate it can be very rare or even missing. It is reported extinct in Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Romania and Turkey (European part). Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from France, Germany, Latvia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe). This species shows migrating behaviour in some years.	eng
174452	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174453	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In the Netherlands, Romania and the Czech Republic, the species only occurs in protected areas. In countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme. Habitat conservation is the most important conservation measure, including prevention of drainage in surrounding agricultural areas. Restoration of bogs should only be undertaken with great care and after thorough research, as a quick rise of the watertable can also have a negative impact on the species.	eng
174453	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a species of North, East and Central Europe: Scandinavia, except the northwestern coast, the Baltic States, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, north of England, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium (Ardennes), east and northeast of France, northwest of Switzerland, north of Austria, northern Balkans, north of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formerly also in the Jaice region in Bosnia. This species occurs from sea level-1,200 m. It is also found in the temperate zone of Asia and North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174453	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Heath inhabits raised bogs, wet heaths, swampy habitat and wet grasslands, often occurring on quite rough vegetation. As a consequence of land drainage remaining habitat patches are often small which makes them difficult to detect. However, in a vast peatland, the Large Heath can be common and the butterfly can be seen flying back and forth between wet patches with the foodplants. There is some uncertainty about the identity of the foodplants. Probably, there are regional differences in their use. Cotton-grass (<em>Eriophorum vaginatum</em>) is certainly important, but other <em>Eriophorum</em> species, beak-sedges (<em>Rhynchospora</em> spp.), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.), Purple Moor-grass (<em>Molinea caerulea</em>) and a few sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.) are also mentioned. The female deposits its eggs singly on, or in the neighbourhood of, the foodplant. The caterpillars hibernate in the third or fourth larval instar, hidden in tussocks of grass. They try to find a position in the vegetation that offers protection from predators above and from high winter water levels below. They also pupate in the tussocks of the foodplant. The Large Heath has one generation a year. There are many regional sub-species, that are distinguished by the degree of development of the eye-spots. Habitats: raised bogs (25%), blanket bogs (21%), fens, transition mires and springs (21%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (15%).	eng
174453	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient good quality habitat. It is reported extinct in Hungary and Slovenia. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Germany, Romania and Switzerland. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, Sweden, Ukraine and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174453	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The most important threat to this species is land drainage, mostly because of agricultural improvements in the surrounding area.	eng
174454	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range, and occurs only in protected areas in the Netherlands. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes. The subspecies <em>H. comma catena </em>is listed on Annex 2 of the Habitats directive. This subspecies is restricted to mountain areas of northern Norway, Sweden and Finland. Suitable habitats should be protected and appropriately managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174454	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Europe except south of Portugal and Spain, Ireland, large parts of central Scandinavia and south of Italy. In Britain, it is present only in the extreme south. 0-2,300 m. Its  range extends from Northwest Africa across Europe and temperate Asia to Southwest China, the Amur and the Chukot Peninsula to North America. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174454	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Silver-spotted Skipper occurs on open, nutrient-nutrient-poor grasslands, heathlands and on sparsely covered blown sand. The habitat varies from dry to moist, but is never rich in nutrients. However, in their search for nectar, the skippers do visit nutrient-rich areas with flowers close to their breeding ground. Eggs are laid on various fine-leaved grasses, passing the winter in this stage. In spring, the caterpillars emerge and spin a shelter from blades of grass in which they spend most of their time, usually coming out to feed at night. When fully-grown, the caterpillar spins a cocoon of silk and grass blades near the ground in which it pupates. The Silver-spotted Skipper has one generation a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (16%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (15%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (8%), heath and scrub (7%).	eng
174454	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174454	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174455	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174455	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in the south of Europe in coastal areas along the Mediterranean. It is probably resident from the southeast of France to the southwest of Italy, Serbia and west and southwest of Greece. It is also found on most of the large islands in the Mediterranean. There are temporary populations on the southern and eastern coasts of Spain; the difference between these and permanent populations is not clear. This is a strong migrant species, which is found on most continents. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174455	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Plain Tiger occurs in coastal areas on warm, rocky places with scrub, on agricultural land and in gardens. The Plain Tiger can fly great distances and in this way can found new populations. The caterpillars feed on the milkweeds <em>Asclepias curassavica</em> and <em>Cynachum procera</em>, on Fuerteventura on <em>Caralluma burchardii</em>, a local native plant. It has several generations a year and does not hibernate. In areas with cold winters, populations can therefore only be temporary. It is difficult to establish whether  the species is present as a resident the whole year, or as a migrant, only breeding in the summer. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (16%), phrygana (16%), improved grasslands (16%).	eng
174455	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174455	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174456	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	More research on distribution and ecology is needed. This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174456	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Europe from central Scandinavia to Italy and Greece. It is also found Spain, in the north and in some mountain ranges (Sierra de Alfacar, S. Nevada, S. de Segura, S. de Espuna, Montes Universales, S. de Guadarrama, S. de la Demanda). It is absent from Ireland, Britain, the Peloponnese and Mediterranean islands except Sicily. 0-2,200 m. It is furthermore present east to Turkey and the Middle East and through central Asia to North China and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174456	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Mazarine Blue usually occurs on quite damp vegetation in flower-rich meadows and pastures and at the edges of woodland. These butterflies are fond of basking together in groups and are then easy to find and to be observed. The female deposits its eggs on the flowerheads of Red Clover (<em>Trifolium pratense</em>), eating the unopened buds. The first instar caterpillar only feeds on buds and flowers, later stages also feed on leaves. The colours of the caterpillars are well adapted to their surroundings, with much pink in the first instar and the green in later stages. The caterpillars can hardly be seen while feeding on the foodplants. Ants of the genera Lasius and Camponotus attend the caterpillars. Depending on the altitude and position in the range, the Mazarine Blue has one to three generations a year. Habitats: mesophile grasslands (30%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (14%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (9%), mixed woodland (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (7%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (5%), dry siliceous grasslands (5%).	eng
174456	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. It is reported extinct in the Netherlands since the 1970s, but recently recolonised one site. Extinct in the United Kingdom. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey (European part) and Ukraine (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174456	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species is widespread throughout a large part of Europe, it is sensitive to both intensified use of and abandonment (and subsequent shrub invasion) of grasslands	eng
174457	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174457	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	In Europe, it only occurs locally in the mountainous areas of southeastern Spain, including the Sierra Nevada, S. de los Filabres and S. de Maria. 1,400-2,700 m. It is also found from Southern Urals across Kazakhstan and North Tian-Shan to Mongolia and the north of Tibet. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174457	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Nevada Grayling occurs in the mountains in open, dry places where grassy vegetation alternates with bare, sandy or pebbly ground and where sometimes scattered bushes are growing. They have also been seen on screes. The caterpillars feed on grasses, but the species are not certain. Possibly, Sheep's-fescue (<em>Festuca ovina</em>), Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>) and the false-brome <em>Brachypodium distachyon</em> are used. This species has one generation a year and passes the winter as a caterpillar. Habitats: heath and scrub (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), screes (25%).	eng
174457	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174457	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174458	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. In Hungary, the species only occurs in protected areas. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174458	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally in Southeast Europe: from Hungary and west and southeast Romania southwards to the Peloponnesos in Greece. Sea level to 1,600 m. It is also found in Asian Turkey. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174458	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Zephyr Blue can be found on open, flower-rich grassland, on rocky slopes and sometimes on scrub or at the edges of woods. The butterflies fly close to the ground and only visit flowers occasionally. The males can be seen in large groups on damp ground. The females lay their eggs on different species of milk-vetch (<em>Astragalus</em>), such as<em> A. excapus</em>, <em>A. dasyanthus</em>, <em>A. parnassi</em>, <em>A. angustifolius</em> and <em>A. rumelica</em>. The caterpillars eat the leaves of the foodplant and are attended by ants, belonging to a broad number of species. Also, they often pupate at the entrance of an ant nest. The Zephyr Blue has one generation a year and passes the winter as a small caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (41%), inland cliffs and exposed rocks (16%), dry siliceous grasslands (16%), mesophile grasslands (8%), phrygana (8%), sclerophyllous scrub (8%).	eng
174458	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Romania, Serbia and Turkey (European part) (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174458	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174459	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects should be monitored by Butterfly Monitoring Schemes.	eng
174459	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs locally throughout Portugal and Spain, southeast of France (and in the Quercy), southwest of Switzerland, the Italian Alps, central and southern Italy. 0-2,000 m. It is also found in Northwest Africa. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174459	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Rosy Grizzled Skipper has a characteristic anvil-shaped spot on the underside of its hindwing. These butterflies can be seen on different types of grassy vegetation and on rocky slopes. Different foodplants are used in different parts of its range. In Switzerland the eggs are laid on rockroses (<em>Helianthemum</em> spp.) and cinquefoils (<em>Potentilla</em> spp.), in Spain, mallows (<em>Malva</em> spp.) are used. In most places, the Rosy Grizzled Skipper has two generations a year and in some places three. It hibernates as a caterpillar. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (33%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (11%), improved grasslands (11%), alpine and subalpine grasslands (11%), sclerophyllous scrub (11%), humid grasslands and tall herb communities (11%).	eng
174459	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas. It is reported extinct in Germany and Slovenia (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174459	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174460	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174460	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs from the western part of Siberia across the mountains of South Siberia to the Ussuri region and East Siberia, Mongolia and North China (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Up to 2,000 m. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174460	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This butterfly usually occurs on dry meadows and slopes but is sometimes also found on wet sites. The caterpillars feed on different species of violets (<em>Viola</em> spp.). This butterfly species is single-brooded (Tuzov 2,000, Gorbunov 2001). Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174460	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174460	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174461	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is one of the butterflies that can be common also outside nature reserves. It benefits from proper management of semi-natural grasslands. The species will benefit from the establishment of areas of High Nature Value Farmland (Paracchini <em>et al.</em>, 2008). In countries where the species is declining, habitats should be managed appropriately and the effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174461	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs throughout Europe, as far north as 69° N. It does not occur in the extreme north of Scandinavia and on some islands. Sea level-2,000 m. It is also found in the rest of the temperate Palearctic region. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174461	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Heath is a common species of nearly all types of grassland. It is mostly found on fairly open, poor meadows and pastures. The female deposits her eggs one by one, or in rows, on the blades of most grasses, including meadow-grasses (<em>Poa</em> spp.), Sweet Vernal-grass (<em>Anthoxanthum odoratum</em>), fescues (<em>Festuca</em> spp.) and bents (<em>Agrostis</em> spp.). The caterpillar grows very quickly on nutritious grasses, but can also use poor grasses, growing then more slowly. In the third or fourth larval instar, the caterpillar hibernates deep down in a tussock of grass, where it also later pupates. The number of generations a year is between one and three and depends on the geographical position of the habitat. Habitats: dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (12%), dry siliceous grasslands (11%), mesophile grasslands (10%), improved grasslands (6%), urban parks and large gardens (5%), fallow land, waste places (5%).	eng
174461	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, Finland, Luxembourg, Malta, Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174461	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species is still common and widespread, it shows a population decline in the European grasslands. The main cause is the intensification of agriculture, although abandonment could also affect populations in Eastern Europe.	eng
174462	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174462	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is present from Albania and the FYR of Macedonia to the south of Bulgaria and Greece, including some of the Aegian islands. There is a recent record from the northern Adriatic island Cres (Croatia). 50-1,600 m. It is also found in Turkey. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174462	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Balkan Grayling replaces the Grayling (<em>H. semele</em>) in the Southern part of the Balkan peninsula. It may be found on dry grassland, scubs and open woodlands from sea level up to an altitude of 1,600 m. It has one generation a year. Detailed habitat descriptions are not available.	eng
174462	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in part of Europe.	eng
174462	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174463	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174463	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common butterfly all over Europe. It is absent from the Atlantic islands and the Mediterranean islands except Sicily. Sea level-3,000 m. It is also found in Asia Minor and Central Asia, Siberia to the Pacific Ocean, China, Mongolia and Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174463	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Small Tortoiseshell is a common and welcome guest in parks and gardens and is sometimes very abundant. It occurs in low numbers in nearly all habitats. Its only foodplant is Stinging Nettle (<em>Urtica dioica</em>). The foodplants are often growing on nutrient-rich, disturbed ground in the sun, such as in rough vegetation at the edges of meadows treated with manure or fertilizer. The eggs are laid in large batches on the underside of the nettle leaves. The caterpillars are gregarious, living in flimsy webs until they go their separate ways in the last larval instar. The caterpillar of the Small Tortoiseshell is black with two shiny yellow lines along the side of its back and bristly with yellowy-green spines. It forms its pupa on the foodplants. The Small Tortoiseshell hibernates as a butterfly and can often be found in the cold months hiding in houses or sheds. It is one of the first butterflies to be seen in spring. Habitats: urban parks and large gardens (11%), towns, villages, industrial sites (11%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (9%), mesophile grasslands (8%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (8%), fallow land, waste places (7%), mixed woodland (7%).	eng
174463	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a common and widespread species in its European range. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Hungary, Ukraine and United Kingdom. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Spain and the Netherlands (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174463	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174464	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174464	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs scattered over the Iberian Peninsula, Spain (particularly on the south coast, locally on the east coast and inland (Castilian Plateau, Cantabrian Mts.)) and North and Central Portugal. 0-1,800 m. It is also found in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Australia. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174464	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The African Grass Blue is a modest little blue, that flies close to the ground. It is a species of dry grassland, road verges, waste ground and gardens, but sometimes butterflies are found in damp, shady places. Various medicks are used as foodplant, such as Lucerne (<em>Medicago sativa</em>), Tree Medick (<em>M. arborea</em>), Small Medick (<em>M. minima</em>), Black Medick (<em>M. lupulina</em>) and possibly various <em>Oxalis</em> species. The caterpillars are attended by ants of the genus <em>Pheidole</em>. The African Grass Blue has two or more generations a year, but passes the winter as a caterpillar. There are only a few butterflies in the first generation. Habitats: fallow land, waste places (25%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (25%), dry siliceous grasslands (25%), urban parks and large gardens (25%).	eng
174464	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is widespread in Southwest Europe.	eng
174464	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174465	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174465	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in large parts of Spain. However, it is absent from the northwestern and western coasts and from areas bordering Portugal. 400-2,000 m. It is also found in North Africa. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174465	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Spanish Chalkhill Blue can be seen in dry, calcareous rocky places with grassy vegetation and in dry, open scrub. The only foodplant recorded in Spain is <em>Hippocrepis commutata</em>. The female lays its eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars are often found accompanied by <em>Tapinoma</em> ants. This butterfly species is single-brooded. Habitats: sclerophyllous scrub (50%), dry calcareous grasslands and steppes (50%).	eng
174465	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174465	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species is not believed to face major threats at the European level.	eng
174466	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level.	eng
174466	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs on the Greek islands of Lesbos and Samos. 150-1,100 m. Its main range is in Turkey. Europe is at the margin of the global distribution area of the species.	eng
174466	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This grayling can be found in very open, dry coniferous woodland with an undergrowth of scattered bushes and grasses. It has one generation a year. Habitats: coniferous woodland (100%).	eng
174466	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a local species, restricted to (semi-) natural areas.	eng
174466	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Not examined.	eng
174467	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme.	eng
174467	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in many mountainous regions in Europe: the Cantabrian Mts., Pyrenees, Massif Central, Jura, Alps (from the French Alps to the Julian and Austrian Alps), central Italy, Bohemian Forest, Sudeten, Tatra, Carpathians, the north of Europe from Finland to the Ural Mts. and in Southeast Europe, the Dinarian Alps and mountains of Albania, FYR of Macedonia, Bulgaria and the north of Greece. 750-2,500 m. It is also found on Asian side of the Ural Mts. The largest part of the global distribution area of the species is situated in Europe, but the species also occurs in other continents.	eng
174467	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Large Ringlet occurs in open woodland, in grassy clearings in woods and above the tree-line on grassland with rather tall vegetation. In the Jura Mountains, these butterflies can be found at the edge of raised bogs and at an altitude of 1,000 m, also in light, damp woods. The Greek populations also seem to prefer damp places. Both the males and females visit flowers for their nectar and the males can often be seen drinking on damp ground or on dung. Various grasses are used as foodplant, including Blue Moor-grass (<em>Sesleria albicans</em>), Wood Meadow-grass (<em>Poa nemoralis</em>), Red Fescue (<em>Festuca rubra</em>), Sheep's-fescue (<em>F. ovina</em>), <em>Calamagrostis</em> <em>varia</em> and also sedges (<em>Carex</em> spp.). It takes two years for the development from egg to butterfly. Habitats: alpine and subalpine grasslands (40%), coniferous woodland (21%), mixed woodland (18%), heath and scrub (9%), broad-leaved deciduous forests (6%).	eng
174467	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although widespread in Europe, this species is local and restricted to areas with sufficient habitat of good quality. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Ukraine. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Germany and Romania (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174467	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174468	conservation	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in a number of protected areas across its range. No specific conservation actions are needed at the European level, but in countries where the species is declining, important habitats should be protected and managed. The effects of conservation actions should be monitored by a Butterfly Monitoring Scheme by counting the eggs in winter.	eng
174468	distribution	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This species occurs in Central Europe, from Scandinavia to the north of Spain. It is absent from large parts of Italy and the Mediterranean islands. 50-1,500 m. It is furthermore present through Asia to Korea. The global distribution area of the species is situated both within and outside Europe.	eng
174468	habitat	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	The Brown Hairstreak occurs in scrub, along hedges near deciduous woodland and in parks, but the butterfly is rarely seen. However, the eggs that are laid at the base of the buds of various <em>Prunus</em> species are easy to find. In winter the pearly-white eggs show up on the bare twigs of the shrubs or trees. The egg, thus, hibernates, hatching in spring. The small caterpillar bores its way into a bud, hollowing it out, later on also eating the leaves of the foodplant. Blackthorn (<em>Prunus spinosa</em>) is often used, but also cultivated species of <em>Prunus</em>, such as plum and cherry trees. The caterpillars pupate in the shrub layer under the tree serving as foodplant. This butterfly species has one generation a year. Habitats: broad-leaved deciduous forests (29%), tree lines, hedges, small woods, bocage, parkland dehesa (18%), mixed woodland (14%), urban parks and large gardens (12%), heath and scrub (6%), orchards, groves and tree plantations (6%).	eng
174468	population	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	This is a widespread species in its European range, but in some regions it is very local and restricted to (semi-) natural habitats. Strong decline in distribution or population size of more than 30% have been reported from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Luxembourg, the Netherlands. Decline in distribution or population size of 6-30% have been reported from Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Hungary, Latvia, Republic of Ireland, Romania, Switzerland, Turkey (European part) and United Kingdom (data provided by the national partners of Butterfly Conservation Europe).	eng
174468	threats	van Swaay, C., Wynhoff, I., Verovnik, R., Wiemers, M., López Munguira, M., Maes, D., Sasic, M., Verstrael, T., Warren, M. & Settele, J., 2009	Although this species shows a decline in a part of its European range, it is not believed to face major threats at the European scale.	eng
174469	conservation	Fennessy, J. & Brenneman, R., 2010	<p><br/></p>	eng
174469	distribution	Fennessy, J. & Brenneman, R., 2010	<p><br/></p>	eng
174469	population	Fennessy, J. & Brenneman, R., 2010	<p><br/></p>	eng
174480	conservation	Pasachnik, S. & McCranie, J.R., 2010	<p>This species is found in several protected areas across its range. Further monitoring of this species is needed, especially to determine if harvest levels are increasing.</p>	eng
174480	distribution	Pasachnik, S. & McCranie, J.R., 2010	This species can be found from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec southwards through Central America. It occurs on both the Caribbean and Pacific versants and on several offshore islands, including: Cozumel, Mujeres, and del Carmen, Mexico (de Queiroz 1995, Köhler and Streit 1996); Utila and Guanaja, Honduras; Maiz Grande and Maiz Pequeno, Nicaragua (S. Pasachnik pers. obs. 2008); El Rey, Panama; and Providencia and San Andres, Columbia (de Queiroz 1995). It has also been introduced to Florida, USA, and has now established a reproducing population (Enge 2006).&#160; A recent report also indicates that this species has been introduced into Venezuela, near Lecharias, along the road from Barcelona to La Cruz (Barrio-Amoros and Rivas-Fuenmayor 2008). This species has been found from sea level to 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
174480	habitat	Pasachnik, S. & McCranie, J.R., 2010	This species is found in sunny, open locations within both dry and moist forest habitats. It also occurs in savanna, coastal lagoons and marshes, sandy beaches, agricultural land, disturbed open areas, pasture land, and can also be found near urban areas.	eng
174480	population	Pasachnik, S. & McCranie, J.R., 2010	<p>This species has been reported as common in its habitat in Belize and Costa Rica (Stafford and Meyer 2000, Savage 2002). In Honduras, some subpopulations of this species are severely depleted (Puerto Lempira, Gracias a Dios), whereas it remains abundant along the entire Pacific versant in Valle and Choluteca (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2009).</p>	eng
174480	threats	Pasachnik, S. & McCranie, J.R., 2010	<p>Harvesting for human consumption does occur, but this does not seem to be having a negative affect on the population size of this species. &#160;The iguana is locally captured and eaten and is sold in markets throughout Mexico and Central America, where it is believed to have medicinal value (Savage 2002).</p>	eng
174482	conservation	Montgomery, C.E. & Mayer, G.C., 2010	<p>This species occurs on Angel de la Guarda Island which is uninhabited and is a biological reserve. The other islands on which this lizard<em> </em>can be found are also protected&#160;as part of the Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Islas del Gulfo de California. The region is part of the global network of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves. Further research into threats and ongoing monitoring is required.<br/></p>           <p></p>	eng
174482	distribution	Montgomery, C.E. & Mayer, G.C., 2010	<p>The Spiny Chuckwalla is found on the islands of the northwestern Gulf of California. It is found on Angel de la Guarda Island, Granito, Mejía, Pond, San Lorenzo Norte, San Lorenzo Sur, and numerous islands in Bahía de los Ángeles, including Cabeza de Caballo, La Ventana, Piojo, Flecha, Mitlàn, and Smith, Gulf of California, Mexico. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,200 km². The species occurs at or just above sea level.<br/></p>	eng
174482	habitat	Montgomery, C.E. & Mayer, G.C., 2010	<p>This species is diurnal, often returning to the same burrow or rock crevice each night. <span class="msoIns">Juveniles have a preference for rocky areas, while adults utilize hillside burrows (Grismer 2002). The islands inhabited by <em>S. hispidus</em> often receive little rain, and as noted above, population size often varies as a result of the fluctuating food supply. &#160;Daily activity is reduced during drier periods<span class="msoIns"> which likely reduces water requirements and water loss rates (Smits 1985a,b). <em>S. hispidus</em> shows one of the lowest water loss rates of any vertebrate (Smits 1985a). This species is the most arboreal species in the genus <em>Sauromalus</em> and is often found on tree branches where it climbs to eat the flowering stems. A variety of food items are eaten including, in order of frequency, shrubs, forbs, tree leaves and fruits, cactus flowers and fruits, and grasses (Sylber 1988).</p>	eng
174482	population	Montgomery, C.E. & Mayer, G.C., 2010	<p>The species undergoes population fluctuations according to rainfall; densities are low during and following drought years. This species is physiologically well adapted to arid environments and normal drought cycles do not appear to effect long-term population health. There is no current information on the total population size or its trends.</p>	eng
174482	threats	Montgomery, C.E. & Mayer, G.C., 2010	<p>Fluctuations in population numbers are caused by rainfall and the Spiny Chuckwalla&#160;suffers in periods of prolonged drought. This lizard is threatened by the international pet trade and from disease transmission, though it is uncertain if these threats have a negative effect on the population size.</p>	eng
174489	conservation	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Taxonomic validity of this species is in question. Therefore, no conservation efforts are in place or could be suggested for this species.	eng
174489	distribution	Dahanukar, N., 2010	<em>Labeo curchius</em> was originally described from freshwaters of <st1:place w:st="on">Bengal</st1:place> (<st1:city w:st="on">Hamilton</st1:city> 1822).   Day (1873b) suggested that this species is present throughout India except south of Madras and Burma. However, later workers synonimized this species with more widespread species <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo gonius</span> (  Day 1877; 1878;   Menon 1999; Jayaram and Dhas 2000). Fishbase (2010) consider this species as endemic to Salween basin based on Doi (1997). This is erroneous for two reasons. First, this species was originally described from Ganga river in Bangladesh and the name of the species is also based on its local name in this region. Second, Doi (1997) has just mentioned that the species is present in Salween and not endemic to Salween.	eng
174489	habitat	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species was recorded from freshwater ponds and rivers (Hamilton 1822; Day 1873b). It was also reported as a domesticated species in small lakes (Hamilton 1822; McClelland 1839).	eng
174489	population	Dahanukar, N., 2010	This species is synonimized to widely distributed species <span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo gonius</span>. As the taxonomic validity of this species is uncertain no population estimates can be given.	eng
174489	threats	Dahanukar, N., 2010	Taxonomic validity of this species is in question. Therefore, threats cannot be predicted.	eng
174490	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174490	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	Found in the west coast streams of Myanmar.	eng
174490	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	Inhabits clear, fast flowing streams with boulders and bedrock.	eng
174490	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population trends of this species.	eng
174490	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown.	eng
174492	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the population size and trends, distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174492	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage (Dibrugarh in Assam, and Dikrong in Arunachal Pradesh; Vishwanath <em>et al.</em> 2007) in India. &#160;The species is likely to be distributed in the upper Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.	eng
174492	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	It is hill stream species favouring sandy and muddy bottom (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
174492	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	Although the current population and its trends are unknown for this species, current indications from field surveys are that this species is still relatively widespread and abundant.	eng
174492	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	There are threats identified for the habitats in which this species is found in: sand mining and deforestation; however, the impacts of these threats are localized and is not across the entire species range (W. Vishwanath <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
174499	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Further information is required on the species population, ecology, distribution and potential threats.	eng
174499	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Only know from the type locality, Dibru River, a tributary of Brahmaputra near Dibrugarh town, Assam, India.	eng
174499	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Clear water streams with sandy bottom of Dibru River, Assam. The type locality is at c.300-400 m.	eng
174499	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	No information available. It is only known from from the holotype and 18 paratypes collected from its type locality by Geetakumari and Vishwanath (2010)	eng
174499	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is some deforestation within the type locality area, but no pollution, and it is not considered a threat at present.	eng
174500	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;The effects on the population of collecting for the ornamental fish trade also need to be fully ascertained. &#160;Other potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174500	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the Jorai River (in the Brahmaputra River drainage) in northern West Bengal.	eng
174500	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits slow-flowing rivers with a muddy substrate.	eng
174500	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
174500	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	While collection of live fishes for the ornamental fish trade may present a potential threat to the population, its effects are presently unknown because no information on the population and its trends for this species is known, as is the intensity of harvest for the trade. &#160;Other&#160;threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
174501	conservation	Ng, H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174501	distribution	Ng, H., 2010	This species is known from the Brahmaputra River drainage at Shipra in Raidak I River, outside Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal, India.	eng
174501	habitat	Ng, H., 2010	This species inhabits streams with a moderate current and a substrate composed of sand and gravel.	eng
174501	population	Ng, H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
174501	threats	Ng, H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. &#160;The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
174502	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. &#160;Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174502	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known only from its type locality in the Bhagirathi River at Kalna (a distributary of the Ganges River) in West Bengal, India.	eng
174502	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers with a substrate of sand/mud.	eng
174502	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
174502	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
174503	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information is required on the species habitats and ecology, population and distribution.	eng
174503	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	It is distributed in the lower parts of Ayeyarwaddy (Irrawady), Sittang and Salween basins in Myanmar (Britz 2010).	eng
174503	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	It is a lowland species occurring in rice fields (Britz 2010).&#160; It does not require high oxygen content (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
174503	population	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information on the species population or its trends.	eng
174503	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Threats are not known for this species in the wild.	eng
174504	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information is required on the habitats, ecology, population, and distribution of this species.	eng
174504	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	It is found in the Rapti River basin in Nepal and Jorai River basin in West Bengal, India (Britz 2010).&#160; The species is probably more widely distributed occurring in drainages between the two known basins (R. Britz <em>pers. comm</em>.).	eng
174504	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	No information on its ecology or habitat is available.	eng
174504	population	Britz, R., 2010	It is only known from the type series. &#160;Information on population and trends is not available.	eng
174504	threats	Britz, R., 2010	No threats are known for this species.	eng
174505	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information on conservation measure for this spoecies. Further research is required on the species habitat, ecology and population.	eng
174505	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	The species only known from the specimens from the Hpa Lap Stream, northern Myanmar, near Myitkina.	eng
174505	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Specimens are from a small stream.	eng
174505	population	Britz, R., 2010	No information is available for this species.	eng
174505	threats	Britz, R., 2010	No information for this species on threats.	eng
174506	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	The species is recently described, and further information is required on the species ecology, habitats, populations, and distribution.	eng
174506	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	The species is only known from Kyeintali Chaung (stream) in the Rakhine Yoma, Myanmar. It only known from the headwaters of the type locality stream, and is likely restricted to that basin.	eng
174506	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Known from fast flowing cool water stream, with no aquatic vegetation, with sandy bottom with boulders.	eng
174506	population	Britz, R., 2010	There is no information available for this recently described species; likely and uncommon species, reported in low numbers by fishers.	eng
174506	threats	Britz, R., 2010	Currently no threats; an undeveloped area with low fishing pressure; some way from nearest habitation.	eng
174508	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174508	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known from the upper Irrawaddy River drainage, as well as the Bago River drainage in south central Myanmar. &#160;However, the species is likely to be under-sampled given the low level of survey effort in this part of Myanmar (Sven Kullander <em>pers. comm</em>. 2010).	eng
174508	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species is known to inhabit large rivers, typically with a sandy substrate. It has also been found in large lakes (Indawgyi Lake).	eng
174508	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
174508	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
174509	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.	eng
174509	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species was&#160;<em>Hypsibarbus oatesi</em>&#160;was described from Nampandet, Myanmar, and&#160;is known from the middle and upper Irrawaddy River drainage.	eng
174509	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	This species inhabits rivers, typically with a sandy substrate.	eng
174509	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	There is no information on the population and its trends for this species.	eng
174509	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	The threats to this species are unknown, since there is little information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified.	eng
174591	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in two forest reserves, these are  still subject to habitat degradation and loss because of human encroachment, so urgent reserve management and enforcement is required. Further survey work is needed to determine this species'  distribution, its population status and natural history traits.	eng
174591	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is so far known only from the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the neighbouring Sui Forest Reserve, both in south-western Ghana (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010). The highest point within the first reserve is 594 m asl (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). While the area requires more surveys, a broad distribution (i.e., into Ivory Coast) is thought to be unlikely (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"><br/></span>	eng
174591	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The larger Krokosua Hills area is part of the northwest subtype of moist semi-deciduous forest, but the slopes where this species is found are moist uphill evergreen forest, with a thick leaf litter on a granitic outcrop (R. Ernst pers. comm. July 2010). Trees in this type of forest are taller than in other Ghanaian forest types. No open bodies of water were recorded in direct vicinity of the type locality (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
174591	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	It is believed that it could be a rare species (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).	eng
174591	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	While the species occurs within the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve and the Sui Forest Reserve, there are a number of farms, old mine pits and villages within the first reserve (Ernst<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008), and the Sui Forest reserve is also affected by illegal farming and small-scale mining (R. Ernst pers. comm April 2010). While alluvial gold mining was a past threat, the current major threat to this species is illegal logging, which causes habitat degradation. <span lang="PL">In addition, a botanical survey in 1991 confirmed extreme patchiness with very damaged, logged areas on flatter land and unlogged areas with less damage on steep slopes. Between Sui and Krokosua there are large unforested areas and the entire region  is extremely patchy, with fragments of forest interspersed with deforested  agricultural&#160;land (R. Ernst pers. comm July 2010). <span lang="PL">This species occurs in a very small area which is now under human encroachment pressure (Ernst <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> <span lang="PL">2008), consisting mostly of habitat loss due to illegal plantations, which is occurring at an alarming rate (R. Ernst pers. comm. April 2010).	eng
174664	conservation	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	Identification of impact of threats and their management is seen as a key area of research for the conservation of this species. An invasive alien plant clearing plan for the site is a priority and is being developed by CapeNature and private land owners. This and other members of the genus require more information on life history, dispersal and population size to be followed by monitoring.	eng
174664	distribution	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species is confined to a very small area (between 500 and 800 m asl) of the Klein Swartberg near Caledon, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Reduction of the very small AOO (0.9 km<sup>2</sup>) and EOO (2.3 km<sup>2</sup>) is ongoing.	eng
174664	habitat	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	This species occupies indigenous fynbos heathland vegetation and can be found in dense restios stands in close proximity to seepages. The area it occupies is under threat from alien vegetation and too frequent fires and has an ongoing decline in quality. It is a direct developing species laying around 10 eggs like other members of the genus.	eng
174664	population	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	<p>Extensive survey work has been conducted and the number of mature individuals is estimated to be around 1000.&#160;Fire and post-fire impacts on number of mature individuals are expected to cause large fluctuations in subpopulation sizes (as in other members of this genus) and species as a whole is threatened due to the single location.</p>	eng
174664	threats	South African Frog Re-assessment Group (SA-FRoG) & IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2009	The main threats to this species are fires which cause extreme population fluctuations and have a synergistic effect on alien&#160;invasive&#160;plants which are degrading and drying seepages. Both threats are extensive and severe on the entire distribution of this species.<u><br/></u>	eng
175081	conservation	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Taxonomic work is required to confirm the taxonomic status of the species and its synonyms, as well as the distribution and threats.	eng
175081	distribution	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens </span>was described from southern India. The synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">P. maura</span> has only been recorded from Assam, India (Preston 1915), the type locality<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>. The distribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens</span> and its synonym clearly needs further research. This is a common species found in southern states such as Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah, Khammam, Krishna, Prakasam, Srikakulaum, Visakhapatnam), Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (Ramakrishna and Dey 2007).	eng
175081	habitat	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	The physiology of this species, particularly with reference to aestivation, is well studied in India and the effect of alkaline phosphatase in the normal aestivating <span style="font-style: italic;">P. virens</span> was studied by Shylaja and Alexander (1975). &#160;This species is found in both lentic and lotic habitat such as streams, ponds, tanks, paddy fields etc. Its one of the very common species and occurs in large numbers when ever they are found. This species undergoes aestivation during summer when the stream dries up.	eng
175081	population	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>This is reported to be common in its range area. &#160;However, there is no population level information available for this species.</p>	eng
175081	threats	Budha, P.B. & Madhyastha, A., 2010	Though apparently widely distributed (if the synonym of the nominate species are confirmed), no information is available on threats to this species.	eng
175119	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175119	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None.	eng
175119	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place. Basic research into biology, ecology and threats is needed.	eng
175119	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
175119	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is widely spread in Egypt, Ethiopia and northern Sudan. It is still common in Egypt (Ibrahim 1999). Its type locality is the Nubian Nile.	eng
175119	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Egypt to Ethiopia and northern Sudan, wide distribution in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to Zambia. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is recorded from Zambia; as the endemic form <em>bangweolicum</em> from Lake Bangweulu. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Kenya, Uganda and northern Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is widely spread in Egypt (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in south Egypt (Lake Nasser), Ethiopia and northern Sudan. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to lower DRC.	eng
175119	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	In central Africa, <em>Sphaerium hartmanni</em> is recorded from Zambia; the endemic form <em>bangweolicum</em> Haas was described from Lake Bangeulu. The species is also present in eastern Africa and southern Africa.	eng
175119	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species has a wide distribution in west Africa from Chad to Gambia and southwards to lower DRC. Also in Kenya, Uganda, northern Tanzania and Lake Bengweulu, and Egypt to Ethiopia and northern Sudan.	eng
175119	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lake species, living within mud.	eng
175119	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175119	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a lake species, living within mud.	eng
175119	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits rivers, lakes, channels. It lives in soft bottom sediment.	eng
175119	population	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175119	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175119	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175119	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175119	threats	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
175119	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175119	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats known to the species.	eng
175119	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance e.g.mining is a  threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175120	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175120	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have information about habitat status and threats.	eng
175120	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175120	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma freethi</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
175120	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Potadoma freethi</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to DRC.	eng
175120	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found from Cote d'Ivoire to Congo.	eng
175120	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Inhabits streams and rivers.	eng
175120	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This genus is generally found in freshwater rivers and streams within forest, often rapids. It has also been found in a reservoir in Nigeria (Ofoeziel, 1999). It expresses a variable morphology; many different shell shapes (overall shape) and sculptures are found. This genus may act as a host for <span style="font-style: italic;">Paragonimus</span> spp. (a parasitic fluke) occurring in crabs with a finite host in humans; it would be interesting to compare the distribution of crabs and Potadoma species.	eng
175120	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found in streams and rivers.	eng
175120	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175120	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175120	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is often recorded and locally abundant.	eng
175120	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Habitat loss/degradation is a likely threat	eng
175120	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
175120	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Sedimentation is a major threat to this species.	eng
175121	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175121	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175121	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175121	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
175121	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175121	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Biomphalaria sudanica</em> is mainly a northeastern Africa species.	eng
175121	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is widespread in northeast and East Africa. The western limit is Lake Chad. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is very widespread in eastern Africa. It is common in Lakes Edward and Victoria (Uganda), Naivasha and Jipe (Kenya). Also occurs in various parts of Tanzania and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Sudanese Nile northwards to Jebel Aulia (Sudan) and in Lakes Zwai, Awasha and Abaya (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Lake Chad is the western-most range of this species.	eng
175121	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Sudanese Nile northwards to Jebel Aulia (Sudan) and in lakes Zwai, Awasha and Abaya (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in eastern Africa.	eng
175121	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found predominantly in northeastern Africa. However its range extends westwards to Lake Chad and its surrounding basins.	eng
175121	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	Very widespread in Eastern Africa. It is common in lakes Edward and Victoria (Uganda) and Naivasha and Jipe (Kenya). Also occurs in various parts of Tanzania and Burundi.	eng
175121	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It can be found in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers.	eng
175121	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers.	eng
175121	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits swamps, including papyrus, and other wetlands associated with lakes and rivers. It prefers vegetated habitat. It is likely to benefit from water hyacinth (Plummer 2005). It acts as a host for Schistosomiasis, therefore represents a major cost to humans.	eng
175121	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Thrives in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers, including areas with low oxygen. Dispersed by aquatic weeds like the water hyacinth and by birds. Considered as a pest (Schistosomiasis).	eng
175121	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Thrives in swamps and other habitats associated with lakes and rivers, including areas with low oxygen. Dispersed by aquatic weeds like the water hyacinth in L. Victoria.	eng
175121	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175121	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175121	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
175121	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175121	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is a common species.	eng
175121	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
175121	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.N. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
175121	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175121	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175121	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control measures.	eng
175122	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175122	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology.	eng
175122	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
175122	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia eburnensis</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to DRC, as well as São Tomé Island.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in Cameroon and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Côte d'Ivoire and Lake Chad.	eng
175122	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ferrissia eburnensis</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to São Tomé Island, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
175122	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species occurs in Cote d'Ivoire and Lake Chad. It might be more widely distributed.	eng
175122	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in rivers and streams.	eng
175122	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
175122	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water.	eng
175122	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175122	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
175122	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175122	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation, as well as being susceptible to drought.	eng
175122	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
175122	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
175123	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Habitat, research and, policy-based conservation measure are needed.	eng
175123	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
175123	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175123	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None.	eng
175123	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
175123	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Bellamya unicolor</em> occurs in scattered localities in a very large range. It has been recorded in lower Egypt, Sudan and southwards into Kenya (and perhaps Tanzania); westwards through a narrow zone into Senegambia; Cameroon and Central African Republic.	eng
175123	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, <em>Bellamya unicolor</em> occurs in scattered localities in a very large range. It has been recorded in lower Egypt, Sudan and southwards into Kenya (and perhaps Tanzania); westwards into Senegambia; <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded in Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread. It is recorded from Lake Kyoga (Uganda), Lake Jipe (Kenya), most parts of Lake Victoria and Bukoba (Tanzania). It is believed to occur in many of the eastern Africa wetlands particularly in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has a large range including throughout the Nile, but localities are widely scattered.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Sudan and Lake Nasser.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in Western Africa throughout the Sahel.	eng
175123	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It has a large range from the Nile Delta to southwards to Kenya and westwards to Senegambia, with localities being widely scattered. It is present in the entire Nile. Its type locality is in Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
175123	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> it is widespread. It has been recorded from Lake Kyoga (Uganda), Lake Jipe (Kenya), most parts of Lake Victoria and Bukoba (Tanzania). It is believed to occur in many of the eastern Africa wetlands particularly in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> it is known from Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania and westwards through narrow zone to Senegal and Gambia.	eng
175123	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in Western Africa throughout the Sahel.	eng
175123	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in lakes, rivers and perennial streams.	eng
175123	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in lakes, rivers and perennial streams.	eng
175123	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175123	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Recorded from lakes, rivers and perennial streams. In Lake Victoria it is known to occur from shore to depths of 64 m.	eng
175123	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits lakes, rivers and perennial streams.	eng
175123	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
175123	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175123	population	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
175123	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175123	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is common.	eng
175123	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Future threats could include habitat human induced habitat degradation.	eng
175123	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175123	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available. The activities that threaten regional wetlands are the main threats to the species.	eng
175123	threats	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Ngereza, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats to this widespread species.	eng
175123	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
175124	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology. Taxonomic uncertainties of western specimens also need to be resolved.	eng
175124	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175124	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175124	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
175124	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Aspatharia chaiziana</em> is widespread from western Africa to the Nile Basin, where it mainly occurs in the White Nile. In northern Africa, It is rare in the Lower Nile in Egypt.	eng
175124	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the White Nile (Sudan), possibly also in Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread, from western Africa to the Nile Basin. Rare in the Lower Nile.	eng
175124	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is recorded from several localities in West Africa, from Senegal to Chad and northern DRC. Mandal-Barth (1984) is unsure about the ID of specimens found in the Western part of this range; the Chad specimens are more certain (Leveque 1974).	eng
175124	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread, it is known from West Africa to the Nile Basin<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs mainly in the White Nile. It is rare in the Lower Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is recorded from several localities in West Africa, it is known from Senegal to Chad and northern Zaire. Mandal-Barth (1984) is unsure about the ID of specimens found in the western part of this range; the Chad specimens are more certain (Leveque 1974).	eng
175124	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in large rivers, floodplains.	eng
175124	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in large rivers and floodplains.	eng
175124	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It occurs in rivers, lakes and reservoirs.	eng
175124	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species occurs in large rivers and floodplains.	eng
175124	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175124	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175124	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175124	population	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is viewed as being widespread.	eng
175124	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175124	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175124	threats	Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The major threats to this species are water impoundment, increased sedimentation and pollution below human settlements. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
175124	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and polluction e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175125	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
175125	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found in the lower reaches of a few large rivers in western Africa including the Volta (Ghana), Cross and Itu (Nigeria) and Sanaga (Cameroon) (Etim and Brey 1994).	eng
175125	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This is an estuarine, possibly salt-water/brackish species. It can also survive in entirely freshwater habitats, even in stagnant water in dams and creeks. Forms the basis of traditional fisheries, and is farmed for this, with young clams being transplanted to growing sites. Spawns once a year.	eng
175125	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
175125	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Dams and over harvesting threaten this species, as well as generalised mollusc threats such as drought and climate change.	eng
175126	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
175126	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various “subspecies.” More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela dubia</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
175126	conservation	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various “subspecies.” More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela dubia</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
175126	distribution	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa north of the equator, from Mali to Egypt and southwards to northern DRC and Lake Albert.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In the Congo Basin there are two isolated populations: <em>M. d. garambae</em> in the upper Ulele Basin and <em>M. d. dubia</em> in the Oubangi. The latter are presumably derived from a past connection with Lake Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Nasser in Egypt, the Sudanese Nile basin, and Lower Omo (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widespread from Mali and Guinea to Chad.	eng
175126	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa north of the equator, occurring throughout West Africa and the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes. In the Congo Basin there are two isolated populations: <em>M. d. garambae</em> in the upper Ulele Basin and <em>M. d. dubia</em> in the Oubangi. The latter are presumably derived from a past connection with Lake Chad.	eng
175126	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within western Africa it is found from Mali and Guinea to Chad.<br/>Elsewhere its range extends to Egypt and southwards to northern DRC and Lake Albert.	eng
175126	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
175126	habitat	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
175126	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits rivers and lakes. It is a prey item for the open-billed stalks in Lake Kariba (so probably in other areas too) (Eriksson and Kautsky 1992). Low water temperature inhibits growth (Adam, 1990); in the White Nile near Khartoum the period from February to July is the growth season, and is characterised by high water temperature and high transparency. In Lake Kariba, this species bred throughout the year (unlike other similar species); but there may be differences in regions (Kenmuir 1980). This species has a commensal mayfly (Gillies and Elouard 1989). Kenmuir (1981) found that in Lake Kariba they were capable of repetitive or successive spawning at intervals of 3 to 5 weeks.	eng
175126	population	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175126	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175126	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
175126	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
175126	threats	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats are documented, but freshwater habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
175126	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175127	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175127	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175127	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about population numbers, distribution, biology, ecology and habitat status. Also need to research if harvesting this species for food represents a threat.	eng
175127	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175127	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pila wernei</em> has scattered localities over a wide area in Africa: Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Chad, northern Cameroon, Niger, Mali, Nigeria, western Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
175127	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Pila wernei</em> is known from scattered localities over a wide area in Africa from Mali to Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is possibly found in the Nile in Egypt (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), but there is uncertainty over ID of specimens as they are more likely to be <em>Pila ovata</em> (Van Damme, pers. comm.).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Sudan and south Somalia, and possibly the adjacent part of Kenya. It is also found in the Omo Delta (Ethiopia) (Van Damme 1976).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Niger River in Mali and southwestern Nigeria, and in Chad.	eng
175127	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan and south Somalia , possibly adjacent part of Kenya. Also in the Omo Delta (Ethiopia) (Van Damme 1976). The mention of this species from 'upper Egypt' hence possibly also Lake Nasser (Egypt) (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) probably is erroneous (<em>Pila ovata</em>).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Mali, Lake Chad, Nigeria and Congo.	eng
175127	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is present in the Niger River in Mali, in south western Nigeria and in Chad. It may be more widespread.<br/>Elsewhere it occurs in eastern Africa (e.g. Kenya), but this region represents the largest part of its distribution.	eng
175127	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in rivers, swamps, ponds, lakes. Prefers clear slow-flowing water with vegetation (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
175127	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits rivers and lakes.	eng
175127	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in various standing waterbodies both permanent and seasonal.	eng
175127	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Various standing waterbodies both permanent and seasonal.	eng
175127	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175127	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175127	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175127	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175127	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Droughts and temperature extremes could threaten this species. Human induced habitat degradation due to pollution could be a likely threat in the future. It is harvested to be eaten in other parts of Africa, e.g. the Okavango River.	eng
175127	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
175127	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175127	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175128	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None in place. It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
175128	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	It is probably limited to southwestern Mali but further studies are needed (Brown and Kristensen 1993). It may also be found in southwestern Nigeria (Ndifou and Ukoli 1989).	eng
175128	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
175128	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
175128	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
175129	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, ecology, population size, distribution, and usage.	eng
175129	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
175129	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
175129	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of Congolese populations. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela rostrata</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
175129	conservation	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of Congolese populations. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Mutela rostrata</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
175129	distribution	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Mutela rostrata</em>, as currently recognized, is widespread from West Africa through the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Congo Basin from Malebo Pool to the headwaters in Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from throughout the Nile basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser, the Nile in Sudan, and the Lower Omo river in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread in western Africa.	eng
175129	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela rostrata</em>, as currently recognized, is widespread from West Africa through the Nile Basin, including the Great Lakes. It occurs in the Congo Basin from Malebo Pool to the headwaters in Zambia.	eng
175129	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Mutela rostrata</em> is widespread from west Africa to the Nile Basin, from the Great Lakes till the Nile Delta.	eng
175129	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Nasser in Egypt, Nile in Sudan, Lower Omo river in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread, from western Africa to the Nile Basin, the Congo and from the Great Lakes till the Nile Delta.	eng
175129	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species occurs throughout western Africa. It is known from Egypt and most of tropical Africa.	eng
175129	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
175129	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits large rivers.	eng
175129	habitat	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
175129	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in large rivers.	eng
175129	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species inhabits rivers, living in bottom sediment.	eng
175129	population	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175129	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175129	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175129	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175129	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
175129	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats are known to the species.	eng
175129	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
175129	threats	Graf, D.L., Ghamizi, M., Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
175129	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Siltation is known to be a threat to the species.	eng
175129	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175130	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175130	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known of, but it would be valuable to have more information about population biology, habitat status and threats.	eng
175130	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175130	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is known from Ghana in the west to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Biomphalaria camerunensis</em> occurs in Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, DRC and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Ghana eastwards to central African Republic.	eng
175130	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	In central Africa, <em>Biomphalaria camerunensis</em> occurs in Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.	eng
175130	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within western Africa it is found from Ghana eastwards to Central African Republic. Its range also extends southwards to lower Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
175130	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	All types of permanent water bodies.	eng
175130	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It can be found in all types of permanent water bodies.	eng
175130	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits rivers, streams, lakes, swamps, and sometimes temporary pools, but is most common in permanent waters.<br/>It acts as a host for Schistosomiasis, therefore represents a major cost to humans.	eng
175130	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175130	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175130	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but he species is widespread and common.	eng
175130	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
175130	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
175130	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to snail control measures.	eng
175131	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175131	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures needed.	eng
175131	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175131	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place. It would be useful to have more information on population sizes, distribution, habitat and threats.	eng
175131	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175131	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Cleopatra bulimoides</em> ranges from Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia; westwards to Senegambia; Uganda, and Kenya. Its southern limit in West Africa is about latitude 8°N (Brown 1994). In central Africa it has been recorded from Cameroon and Central African Republic.	eng
175131	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> occurs in Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. The exact area of occupancy in these areas is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is broadly distributed in Africa according to Brown (1994). It was found in Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya.	eng
175131	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is broadly distributed in Africa according to Brown (1994). <em>Cleopatra bulimoides</em> ranges from Egypt to Kenya, and Somalia to Senegambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is found from the Nile Delta to Lake Nasser. It is not present in the Maghreb.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found throughout Lake Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin. The more elongated form recorded from the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia is here referred to as <em>C. bulimoides paul</em>i.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in West Africa, throughout the Sahel. Its southern limit in West Africa is about latitude 8°N (Brown 1994).	eng
175131	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in West Africa, throughout the Sahel, and its distribution continues further south outside western Africa.	eng
175131	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This widespread Afrotropical species, ranges from the Nile Delta in Egypt to Lake Nasser and the Great Lakes, Ethiopia, the Lake Chad Basin, Senegal and Gambia. It is not present in the Maghreb. Its type locality is Calidje Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
175131	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits muddy or sandy substrata in rivers with vegetation, lakes and irrigation channels.	eng
175131	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in lakes, rivers, irrigation channels. It is found in muddy or sandy substratum usually with vegetation.	eng
175131	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Lakes, rivers, irrigation channels. Muddy or sandy substratum usually with vegetation.	eng
175131	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.	eng
175131	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is present in large to small streams, standing water, large lakes, but not in ponds and ditches. It occurs in slow-flowing localities. Benthic species found in sandy and rocky habitats among vegetation. It is associated with certain plants and a type of bivalve.	eng
175131	population	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Large populations known in the Nile but elsewhere populations tend to be smaller.	eng
175131	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175131	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175131	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175131	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is common.	eng
175131	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat degradation could pose a threat in the future. Climate change and its effects could pose a threat to this species.	eng
175131	threats	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C., Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No known major threats to this widespread species.	eng
175131	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats to the species.	eng
175131	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats to this widespread species.	eng
175131	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	The Tana river in Kenya is receiving high sediment loading due to soil erosion particularly at the river catchment area owing to vast forest destruction in the last few years e.g. In Mt. Kenya. The upper Tana river section comprises 7 hydro electric power generating dams which tremendously alter the stream water flow in the lower section during the dry season which has implication for stream biodiversity.  Lake Albert, where the species is also documented to occur, is experiencing significant anthropogenic influences whose impact on the species is unknown.<br/>The species appears to be very fragmented within its range in East Africa.	eng
175132	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	More research action is needed.	eng
175132	conservation	Van Damme, D, 2008	No information available.	eng
175132	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information about population numbers and distribution, habitat status and threats.	eng
175132	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
175132	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	According to Brown, the species is present in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Niger, but not our region. However, Ibrahim (1999) has recently recorded it from Upper Egypt, where it is rare. This is a new location, but may not have been surveyed in the area for some time before. It is possibly spread by birds.	eng
175132	distribution	Van Damme, D, 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> Region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al. </em>1999). This is a new location and the identification needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> According to Brown (1994), the species is present in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Niger, etc., but not in eastern Africa. However Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999) record it recently from Lake Nasser (Egypt), where it is rare.	eng
175132	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is rare in north Africa but widespread in west Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Ibrahim (1999) has record this specie from Upper Egypt recently, where it is rare. This is a new location, but may not have been surveyed there for some time before. It is possibly spread by birds.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in the region of Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999). This is a new location and the identification needs confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found throughout Ghana, Gambia, Senegal and also Niger.	eng
175132	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widespread throughout West Africa.	eng
175132	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits irrigation channels, streams and pools.	eng
175132	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is possibly spread by birds. Fringing vegetation of slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. May aestivate. This species thrives in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It is associated with certain aquatic plants (e.g. <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea</span> spp.)(Brown 1994). It is common.	eng
175132	habitat	Van Damme, D, 2008	Possibly spread by birds. Fringing vegetation of the Nile. Slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. May aestivate. Present in colonies. Thrive in ditches and pools flooded by rain. Associated with certain aquatic plants. Common.	eng
175132	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is possibly spread by birds. It occurs in colonies, being present on fringing vegetation, slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps. It may aestivate. It thrives in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It is associated with certain aquatic plants.	eng
175132	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175132	population	Van Damme, D, 2008	No information available.	eng
175132	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a common species.	eng
175132	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widespread in Ghana but scattered elsewhere (Brown 1994).	eng
175132	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat degradation, particularly due to pollution, is a likely threat.	eng
175132	threats	Van Damme, D, 2008	No information available.	eng
175132	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
175132	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is threatened by rapid water pollution.	eng
175133	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175133	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175133	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175133	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175133	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to have more information on population sizes and distribution, biology, threats and ecology.	eng
175133	conservation	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None in place, but would be valuable with more information on population sizes and distribution, biology, threats and ecology.	eng
175133	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from Lake Albert and Victoria Nile and Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is know from Uganda, Sudan, Central Africa to Chad.	eng
175133	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Egypt, eastern Africa, and central Africa to Chad.	eng
175133	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species has been recorded from Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Chad and Central African Republic.	eng
175133	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is known from Cameroon, Chad, Northern Nigeria (Yobi River) and the Central African Republic within the region, and also Sudan, Egypt and Uganda outside the region.	eng
175133	distribution	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread and rather common Afrotropical species ranging from the Lower Nile to Lake Victoria and westwards to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad and northern Nigeria (Yobi River).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Albert and the Victoria Nile, Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is very common all over Egypt (Ibrahim 1999), but absent from the Maghreb. .<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> This species is also present in Sudan.	eng
175133	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Widespread and rather common Afrotropical species ranging from the Lower Nile to Lake Victoria and westwards to the Central African Republic. Absent from the Maghreb. It is very common all over Egypt (Ibahim 1999). Its type locality is in Sennar, Sudan.	eng
175133	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.	eng
175133	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It inhabits lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.	eng
175133	habitat	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels (Brown 1994).	eng
175133	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	It lives in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.	eng
175133	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in lakes, rivers, pools and irrigation channels.	eng
175133	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Present in large rivers and lakes and their extensions.	eng
175133	population	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175133	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175133	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175133	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175133	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175133	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175133	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat degradation could be a potential threat in the future.	eng
175133	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
175133	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175133	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
175133	threats	Ghamizi, M., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K., Lange, C.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats known but human induced habitat degradation could be a potential threat in the future.	eng
175133	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
175134	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to conduct more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, habitat status and possible threats.	eng
175134	conservation	Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
175134	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
175134	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad and part of north west Africa.	eng
175134	distribution	Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a predominantly west African species, with its distribution ranging as far east as Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Sudan (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in western Africa, including Chad and part of northwest Africa.	eng
175134	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is widely distributed in western Africa.	eng
175134	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in seasonal pools in the Sahel region.	eng
175134	habitat	Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in seasonal pools in the Sahel region.	eng
175134	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species usually occurs in seasonal marshes and rainpools. Also streams, irrigation channels. It can survive dry periods of 6-8 months. Where it occurs it can be very abundant. It is an intermediate host to <span style="font-style: italic;">Schistosoma haematopium</span>.	eng
175134	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
175134	population	Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
175134	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is common.	eng
175134	threats	Kristensen, T.K.,  Stensgaard, A-S. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
175134	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
175134	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is subject to use of molluscicides as snail control measures. It may also be threatened by human induced habitat degradation.	eng
175135	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known of, but it would be valuable to have more information on taxonomy, population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
175135	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	None traced from literature. Further research on the species to identify species conservation priorities would be valuable.	eng
175135	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	None traced from literature though would call upon research on the species to identify species conservation priorities.	eng
175135	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>C. rubens</em> is found in the Nile basin and Lake Victoria, and throughout western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> The subspecies <em>C. rubens arcuta </em> occurs in the Nile basin in Lake Nasser (Egypt), in the White Nile in Sudan and Lake Tana (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in Senegal River, Niger River and Lake Chad.	eng
175135	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It was found in the Nile basin and Lake Victoria. It is present outside the eastern Africa assessment region.	eng
175135	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is known from throughout west Africa, as well as the River Nile system.	eng
175135	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It inhabits large rivers and floodplains. It lives in the bottom sediment.	eng
175135	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No details on species ecology were traced.	eng
175135	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species lives in bottom sediment of rivers..	eng
175135	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175135	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No population data was traced.	eng
175135	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a common species.	eng
175135	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation is the most likely threat in Tanzania.	eng
175135	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Sedimentation is the most likely threat in Tanzania. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175135	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175136	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175136	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known. It would be valuable to have more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
175136	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175136	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is found from coastal localities from Liberia to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zaire River between Malela and Banana.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known along the coast from Liberia to Cameroon.	eng
175136	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	The species is present in coastal localities from Liberia to Cameroon. The Zaire River between Malela and Banana.	eng
175136	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species occurs from Liberia to Cameroon. Its range extends further south at the mouth of the Congo river.	eng
175136	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	On the roots of mangrove trees.	eng
175136	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is found on the roots of mangrove trees.	eng
175136	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is recorded in coastal localities. It is found on roots of mangrove trees.	eng
175136	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175136	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
175136	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175136	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Standard threats to mangroves will heavily impact this species, including habitat destruction, degradation, harvesting of mangroves, water quality changes, and prawn/shrimp farming (aquaculture).	eng
175136	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known threats for this widespread taxon, although fisheries may be a potential problem in the future.	eng
175136	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No threats for this widespread taxon.	eng
175137	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175137	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place, but it would be valuable to gather more information about ecology, habitat status, population sizes and distribution.	eng
175137	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175137	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Lanistes libycus</em> is a West African coastal species, ranging from Côte d'Ivoire to Gabon.	eng
175137	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes libycus</em> is a West African coastal species, ranging from the Cóte d'Ivoire to Gabon.	eng
175137	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found from Cote d'Ivoire to Gabon.	eng
175137	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It is found in lakes, marshes and streams.	eng
175137	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	It is found in marshes, stream sources, shaded woodland streams, on muddy substrates. It is more abundant in periods of heavy rainfall. Vegetation has been identified as an important factor affecting abundance of species. It also provides habitat for a new species of water mite (Agbolade and Odaibo 2004).	eng
175137	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Marshes and streams.	eng
175137	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175137	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175137	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information regarding population sizes, but the species is widespread and common.	eng
175137	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. The species is harvested for eating - it is smoked to preserve them (Ezeama 2004)	eng
175137	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No known threats to this widespread species.	eng
175137	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No threats to this widespread species.	eng
175138	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
175138	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None in place. It would be valuable to have more information about population sizes, distribution, biology, ecology and threats.	eng
175138	conservation	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
175138	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Assiminea hessei</em> was originally described from Democratic Republic of Congo at Banana, but it has not been relocated since the 1890s. The site may well be lost to urbanization or agricultural development. Brown (1994) has found populations ascribed to the species in Nigeria.	eng
175138	distribution	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Assiminea hessei</em> was originally described it from DRC at Banana, but it has not been relocated since the 1890s. The site may well be lost to urbanization or agricultural development. Brown (1994) has found populations ascribed to the species in Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in Nigeria at Port Hartcourt. Also on the coast of Cameroon but outside of the West Africa region assessed (Bandel and Kowalke, 1999). Otherwise it is only found at the type locality in Zaire. <br/>It is probably a rare species rather than an under-recorded species.	eng
175138	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in Nigeria at Port Hartcourt. It has also been recorded on the coast of Cameroon but outside of the West Africa region assessed (Bandel and Kowalke 1999). Otherwise it is only found at the type locality in DRC.	eng
175138	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Recorded from swamps by the English Trade House; it is possible that the record might be an introduction.	eng
175138	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in mangrove swamp.	eng
175138	habitat	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is recorded from swamps by the English Trade House; it is possible that the record might be an introduction.	eng
175138	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
175138	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is probably a rare species rather than an under-recorded species.	eng
175138	population	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is probably rare but no further information regarding population sizes.	eng
175138	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Development and pollution from the oil industry are the two major threats for this region.	eng
175138	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
175138	threats	Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
175139	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
175139	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is known from Senegal to Congo.	eng
175139	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This is an estuarine species, found in the brackish water of mangrove swamps.	eng
175139	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175139	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information specific to this species available. Human degradation is a major threat to mangroves: cutting them down to make prawn/shrimp farms, and oil pollution.	eng
175140	conservation	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	None known. It would be valuable with more information about taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology, biology and threats.	eng
175140	distribution	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found from Côte d'Ivoire to Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Guinea (see Bandel and Kowalke 1999 and references therein).	eng
175140	habitat	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	This species is found in brackish waters on the west African coast. It is adapted to low salinity.	eng
175140	population	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	No information available.	eng
175140	threats	Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2006	Human induced habitat degradation is a likely threat. Petroleum drilling could also represent a threat (Ekpo and Uzegbu 2004).	eng
175141	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
175141	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species was introduced from the Australasian Region. In Africa it is found only in Nigeria.	eng
175141	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	In Nigeria it is found in man-made lakes in Ibadan. Not thought to be spreading (Pointier <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
175141	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175141	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	None known.	eng
175142	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution and ecology.	eng
175142	conservation	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No conservation measures known, but it would be valuable to have more information on population size, distribution, ecology and threats.	eng
175142	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
175142	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None needed.	eng
175142	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Globally, this species is found from hydrographic basins of the Nile, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Nasser (Egypt), the Nile in Sudan, and Lower Omo River (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widespread species in west Africa. Chari River and affluents (Chad), Lake Chad delta, Guinea, Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire (Mandel-Barth 1988). Also in Sierra Leone (Nagel 1991). It is present in the Niger river system.	eng
175142	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is present at hydrographical basins of the Nile, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa. Its type locality is in Bahr al Yussuf, Lower Egypt.	eng
175142	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Nasser (Egypt), Nile in Sudan and Lower Omo River (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from the Egyptian Nile, Great Lakes, Chad, Niger, Senegal and smaller river basins over most of western Africa (but see taxonomic remark). The type locality is Bahr al Yussuf, Lower Egypt.	eng
175142	distribution	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	Within western Africa this species occurs in the Chari River and affluents (Chad), Lake Chad delta, Guinea, Senegal and Cote d'Ivoire (Mandel-Barth, 1988), as well as in Sierra Leone (Nagel 1991). It is possibly also present in the Niger river system. It is a very widespread species elsewhere in Africa.	eng
175142	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found on different types of substrates in larger surface waters.	eng
175142	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs on different types of substrates in larger surface waters.	eng
175142	habitat	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	This species is found in rivers, lakes and deltas.	eng
175142	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species occurs in rivers, Lake Chad and delta. This species occurs in different types of substrates in larger surface waters.	eng
175142	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	Large populations in e.g. the Nile, Lake Chad, Niger and Senegal.	eng
175142	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Large populations in e.g. the Nile, Lake Chad, Niger and Senegal.	eng
175142	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Large populations in the Nile, Lake Chad, Niger and Senegal.	eng
175142	population	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	No information available.	eng
175142	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species. Habitat disturbance, water use and pollution may also threaten the species e.g. mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175142	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution and water use are major threats to the species.	eng
175142	threats	Thomas K. Kristensen & Anne-Sofie Stensgaard, 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species. Habitat disturbance and pollution e.g. from mining is a threat to bivalves in general, and drought/climate change is a threat to all freshwater ecosystems.	eng
175142	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Threats include pollution and water use.	eng
175194	conservation	Kakkasery, F. & Mitra, A., 2010	Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distributional pattern,  population trends and threats to the species, until this has been done it  will not be possible to properly plan any conservation actions that  might be needed.	eng
175194	distribution	Kakkasery, F. & Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span> was considered endemic to the Western Ghats (Fraser,1934) and it was known to occur only in southern India (Prasad and Varshney  1995) until Mitra (2002) recorded it from Assam. The later record  strongly suggests that the distributional records for the species are  incomplete.	eng
175194	habitat	Kakkasery, F. & Mitra, A., 2010	The species is found in hill streams south of the Palghat gap in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.They also occur in numerous sholas, frequenting montane streams of&#160; Palani, Anaimalai and Mudis Hills in Tamil Nadu and&#160; Travancore (Fraser 1934).They breed in hill streams and usually find perched on boulders and riparian vegetation of second order streams. The flight period is from April to October (Fraser 1934).	eng
175194	population	Kakkasery, F. & Mitra, A., 2010	There is no information on the present population status of&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span>. It is known to occur in large numbers in sholay streams and other hill streams(Fraser 1934).	eng
175194	threats	Kakkasery, F. & Mitra, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Euphaea cardinalis</span> depends on streams , rivers and forests to complete its life cycle. These habitats may be threatened by pollution from various anthropogenic activities.	eng
175359	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Although<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>this species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>occurs in two neighbouring forest reserves, it is still threatened by habitat degradation and loss. What is more, it is a cryptic species; thus, further survey work is needed to determine its distribution, population status and natural history.	eng
175359	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known from two forest reserves in the West Usambara Mountains, northeastern Tanzania, and is known to occur&#160;between 1,300–1,900 m asl (Blackburn 2009). Although it is possible that it may occur more widely, it  appears to be restricted to the West Usambara Mountains. These mountains have an estimated extent of less than 320 km² (Burgess <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 in Blackburn 2009).<br/> <br/> <br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
175359	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species has been found in leaf litter in dense, montane forest (Blackburn 2009). It is presumed to breed by direct development.	eng
175359	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
175359	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The major threat to this frog is continuous loss and degradation of its habitat due primarily to agriculture, grazing, logging and anthropogenic modification of the habitat, which has been taking place over the last 2,000 years. However, it appears that habitat degradation may have escalated in the last 110 years with the arrival of European colonizers (Conte 2004). Agricultural/pastoral and forestry uses of the landscape occur throughout these  mountains and at most elevations (D. Blackburn pers. comm. March 2010).	eng
175544	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	The Itombwe Plateau now has a protected status at the federal level; however, it is not a national park and the status needs practical implementation (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010). More research is needed on this species' population status and natural history.	eng
175544	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known only from high altitude portions of the Itombwe Plateau, Itombwe Massif, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, between 1,800 and 2,200 m asl (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008, B. Evans and E. Greenbaum pers. comm. March 2010). This species does not occur in other parts of the Albertine Rift other  than the Itombwe plateau (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). It is estimated to occur in an area about 37.85 km².	eng
175544	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species was observed in standing water associated with mineral extraction in a region that was surrounded by mature forest and mixed use agricultural areas (Evans<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). It is thought that the species subsists in spite of the extraction, and not because if its disturbance (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). It is presumed to breed in standing water.<br/><br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
175544	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>This species is locally abundant (Evans <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). It was last surveyed and seen in 2008 (E. Greenbaum pers. comm. March 2010).<br/></p>	eng
175544	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	Human activities such as mining, hunting, agriculture, logging and overgrazing by livestock have a major impact on the local biodiversity of the Itombwe Massif (Omari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999 in Evans<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).  Mining is widespread and has a major impact; agriculture (corn, beans, etc.) is also very common and  contributes to extensive habitat fragmentation, and goats are common on the plateau (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010). A recent (2009) survey on the plateau revealed that the impacts of deforestation and mining activities are devastating (E. Greenbaum pers. comm. July 2010), and an increase in water turbidity due to mineral extraction was observed in a separate field trip (B. Evans pers. comm. July 2010). In addition, there are indications (i.e., snares) that there is bush meat hunting in the area (B. Evans pers. comm. March 2010).<br/><span style="background-color: yellow;"></span>	eng
176130	conservation	Ota, H. & Whitaker, A.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species at present.	eng
176130	distribution	Ota, H. & Whitaker, A.H., 2009	This species is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions. It is native to southern and southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago. This species also has a patchy distribution in the Pacific, but includes many regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. It also occurs in Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and also the Philippines. This species has been transported widely by humans and introduced populations exist in Australia, east Africa, islands of the Indian Ocean, Mexico, and the United States (Bauer and Henle 1994). Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) report that this species is found on the Lamu Island in Kenya. This species is found between sea level and 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
176130	habitat	Ota, H. & Whitaker, A.H., 2009	This nocturnal species is found on boulders, beneath rocks or rotting logs, and on trees, however, it most commonly found on buildings. This species is found in both villages and large urban areas, it is usually found close to electric lights at dusk (Malkmus 2002). In addition, this species also occurs in a diverse range of habitats, including rain forests, savannas, and deserts (Henkel and Schmidt 1995). Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species was found on small palm trees in a coconut plantation.	eng
176130	population	Ota, H. & Whitaker, A.H., 2009	This species is common throughout most of its range.	eng
176130	threats	Ota, H. & Whitaker, A.H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176131	conservation	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. This species is known to occur in a number of reserves including Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Mont Panié and Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié, Réserve Naturelle Terrestre du Mont Do reserve. However, further measures should be carried out to ensure the protected  areas are effective. No conservation management is currently being undertaken. Research and monitoring into the population and possible threats should also be carried out because of the relatively small distribution of this species.	eng
176131	distribution	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>T. boreus</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from numerous locations across northern and central Grande Terre (northernmost localities are Mt Mandjélia in the east and the Kaala massif in the west; southernmost localities are the Presqu'ile de Bogota, Mt Do and Haute Pouéo near Bourail). Recorded at elevations up to 1,100 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 7,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <2,000 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176131	habitat	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>T. boreus</em> occurs in a wide range of habitats including coastal vegetation, maquis shrublands at mid- to high elevations, closed forests and montane forests. This species is diurnal, ground-dwelling and attracted to sunlight. It shelters beneath logs and rocks, and rock crevices; forages in the open or in sunlit patches on the forest floor.<br/><br/>    <p>Bauer and Sadlier (2000) identified females found in December as having two to three enlarged yolked ovarian follicles, and examination of samples collected since it was confirmed an egg-laying mode of reproduction (R. Sadlier pers. comm. 2010) was reported for its sister species, <em>T</em>. <em>variabilis</em> (Shea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009).</p>	eng
176131	population	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">T. boreus</span>. It is suspected to have undergone a substantial reduction in area of occupancy as a result of past clearance of forest and shrubland habitats for agriculture, logging and mining, and from wildfires. These impacts have resulted in fragmentation of the population and are on-going. This species remains locally common at many sites.	eng
176131	threats	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p>The primary threat to <em>T. boreus</em> is from loss and fragmentation of forest throughout its range and also of maquis shrubland habitats on ultramafic surfaces. This could result from a variety of factors including clearance for agriculture and afforestation, mining and wildfires. On most ultramafic massifs, mining is a particular concern as it is now undergoing a rapid expansion that threatens montane forests and high-elevation maquis shrublands, to which this species is restricted. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) is an ubiquitous threat. In low and mid-elevation forests the introduced ant, <em>Wasmannia auropunctatus</em>, is a potentially serious issue as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also of concern throughout.<br/> <br/> As <em>T. boreus</em> has a relatively wide distribution across Grande Terre and has been described as common, it is likely that these threats will not have adverse impacts on this species and not cause significant declines at this time, but in some areas they will have severe localized effect.</p>	eng
176132	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and many reserves in Province Sud, including Pic Ningua, Forêt Cachée, Pic du Grand Kaori, Pic du Pin, Forêt Nord and Cap Ndoua (but not present in any reserves in Province Nord). No conservation management is currently being undertaken.	eng
176132	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer A.M., 2009	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widespread in southern Grande Terre and present on massifs in the north-west as far north as Dôme de Tiébaghi. It appears to be restricted to ultramafic areas. Recorded up to 1,100 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at 2,000 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176132	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer A.M., 2009	<em>R. auriculatus</em> is found on the southern ultramafic block of New Caledonia and northward along the west coast and central-east coast ultramafic massifs. It inhabits humid forests, montane forests, and open and closed maquis (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). All <em>Rhacodactylus</em> species are excluded from agricultural and urban environments. This species is essentially nocturnal, but is sometimes active by day; primarily arboreal.&#160; It sometimes stays in the open on branches by day but usually shelters beneath dense vegetation on the ground or in tree cavities. It forages at night on the stems of shrubs and small trees (occasionally to 15 m above ground) or less commonly on the ground.	eng
176132	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer A.M., 2009	<p>Bauer and Sadlier (1993) report that this species is common. There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is presumed to have suffered a past reduction in population size and extent through widespread simplification of maquis as a result of wildfires, and intensive but localized habitat loss associated with mining. The species is still relatively common at many localities, although the current and projected expansion of nickel mining will result in a further reduction of the area of occupied habitat throughout its range.</p>	eng
176132	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer A.M., 2009	The close association of <span style="font-style: italic;">R.s auriculatus</span> to ultramafic substrates means that its habitat is vulnerable to the expanding nickel mining industry. This is a particular issue on the isolated massifs in the north-west of Grande Terre where almost every population is affected, and for large areas of the Grand Sud. The maquis habitat of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. auriculatus</span> is also at risk to wildfires and, in the south of Grande Terre, to afforestation. Other threats include habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) and predation by introduced mammals (rodents, feral cats and pigs). There is also a potential impact from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, at low-elevation sites (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Although the past illegal trade in this species has now largely abated due to the ease with which it can be bred in captivity, readily accessible populations are still at risk.	eng
176133	conservation	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. No active conservation management is being undertaken.<br/><br/>Very little is known about this species and, despite considerable survey efforts in the area, it has not been recorded since the original collection.	eng
176133	distribution	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p><em>L. greeri</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. The species is known from a single collection of a single animal from an unknown location in the Koumac region. Digital images of what could represent the species (based on colour and pattern of the body) from the extreme south at Rivière Bleue and the Goro Plateau on the Plaine des Lacs suggest that the species could be more widespread, but confirmation of this in the way of voucher specimen is required.</p>	eng
176133	habitat	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There is no information on ecology or behaviour for this species.   The only known wild caught specimen definitely assigned to this species (the type specimen) was collected from a freshly fallen tree in low to mid-elevation closed humid forest (Böhme 1979), which suggests that the species may be arboreal (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is assumed to be diurnal and attracted to sunlight from comparison to the sister taxon <span style="font-style: italic;">Lioscincus nigrofasciolatum</span>.<br/><br/>As the gravid holotype was taken into captivity, the species is known to be oviparous with two eggs per clutch, and requiring 44 days of incubation for the eggs to hatch (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).	eng
176133	population	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There is no information on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. greeri</span>. The confirmed population in the north is expected to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past from the loss of forest habitat from clearance for agriculture, and logging, and from the effects of wildfires. The species can be considered restricted and rare (Bauer and Sadlier 2000) as herpetological surveys throughout New Caledonia have not found further individuals.	eng
176133	threats	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Given that there is no specific data for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. greeri</span> in terms of location, habitat, ecology, or population, it is not possible to identify specific threats. Loss or  degradation of closed forest habitat through clearance for agriculture,  logging, afforestation and wildfires may have had an effect on this species.	eng
176134	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p>Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<em><br/></em></p><p><em></em> Further species-based research into its population, habitat, and threat status is also needed to help reduce its extinction risk, as well as monitoring into this cryptic species.</p>	eng
176134	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em></em><em></em><em>G. haraldmeieri</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from two specimens from a single collection given as being collected in closed forest near Coula at 500 m elevation (Böhme 1976). &#160;The place name Coula in the dividing ranges west of Houaïlou in central Grande Terre has been investigated and is "now intensively cultivated and no forest remains" (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 100 km²&#160; and the area of occupancy at < 10 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176134	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p>    </p><p>The two known specimens of <em>G. haraldmeieri</em> were found together in a fallen decaying tree trunk in a closed forest (Böhme 1976, Bauer and Sadlier 2000). This species is thought to be highly prone to desiccation, and the microhabitat used by the type specimen implies that this species might be semi-fossorial or cryptic (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).</p>  <p></p>	eng
176134	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em></em> Nothing is known about population size or trends for this species. It is presumed to have undergone a major reduction in area of occupancy as a result of forest clearance for agriculture and afforestation (the area around the known locality has been highly modified since the species was described in 1976 and very little forest remains).	eng
176134	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The apparent dependence of <em>G. haraldmeieri</em> on closed humid forest and a high-moisture environment indicates that the species would be particularly vulnerable to loss, fragmentation and degradation of closed-forest habitat resulting from clearance for agriculture, logging and afforestation or damage to forest margins from wildfires where it occurs. Other threats would be posed by&#160; introduced mammals—rodents, cats and pigs are potential predators; and high-density populations of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality by opening forest and lowering humidity, and particularly by damaging the litter layer and disrupting cover (such as rocks and logs). The presence of high-density populations of the introduced ant <em>Wasmannia auropunctata</em> in low to mid-elevation forests across Grande Terre would also be expected to have a severe impact on the species (Jourdan <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2001).	eng
176135	conservation	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H., & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in La Réserve Naturelle du Mont Mou and Réserve Naturelle Terrestre du Mont Humboldt. It is important that these protected areas are managed properly and that  others are established in the surrounding area, specifically on Mount  Ouin, to stop the threat of mining activity. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species. Taxonomic work is needed to determine if this is actually more than one species. Further research and monitoring into the population, habitat and threat status should be carried out.	eng
176135	distribution	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H., & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>S. ruficauda</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only from the summits of Mt Mou, Mt Ouin and Mt Humboldt in the southern part of Grande Terre (recorded from 1,100 to 1,350 m asl).&#160; These three locations are about 10 km apart from each other.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 50 km²&#160; and the area of occupancy at <5 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176135	habitat	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H., & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p><em>S. ruficauda</em> is known to inhabit closed montane forests and, at one high elevation site, it has extended out into high-elevation maquis shrubland with a dense understorey of ferns. Individuals were collected from among and beneath rocks. As such, Sadlier and Bauer (1999) conclude that the habitat occupied by this species is limited not by vegetation type, but its distribution at the known sites is determined by other variables associated with habitat structure, such as the presence of sheltering sites and moisture levels. It is diurno-nocturnal, cryptozoic and terrestrial. It shelters beneath stones and in soil crevices.<br/> <br/> This species appears to be oviparous (Sadlier and Bauer 1999).</p>	eng
176135	population	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H., & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The population of <em>S. ruficauda</em> is fragmented and relictual. There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species. It is presumed to have suffered a past reduction in the extent of montane forest habitat as a result of mining and from wildfires encroaching on forests from adjacent maquis shrubland. The quality of the maquis habitat may also have been degraded by wildfires. This species is uncommon at both locations where it has been found (only eight specimens have been collected).	eng
176135	threats	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H., & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">S. ruficauda</span> is habitat destruction leading to a reduction in the area of occupancy. Mineral exploration has occurred on Mt Ouin in the past and mining activity is currently intensifying in the nearby Tontouta Valley system. The montane forest is also at risk to peripheral damage and reduction in extent from wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer.	eng
176136	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken. Given its highly restricted area of occupancy, formal protection of existing habitat for this species is a high priority. <br/><br/>Further research on the population, habitat status, and threats to <em>M. montana</em> is recommended as the restricted range and posed threats suggests that this species could qualify for a higher threat category in the future.	eng
176136	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p><em>M. montana</em> is endemic to Province Sud, New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites (one location) near the summit of Mount Ouin in the south of New Caledonia between 900 and 1,100 m asl (Sadlier and Bauer 2000). Herpetological surveys of suitable habitat and elevations in nearby ranges in southern New Caledonia (Mt Mou, Massif du Humbolt) have not recorded this species (Sadlier pers. comm. 2010), indicating <em>M. montana</em> is likely to have a very restricted range.</p>  <span style="font-style: italic;">M. montana</span> has a very restricted range. The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 2 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <2 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176136	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>M. montana</em> inhabits high-elevation closed forest. This skink is cryptic and shelters beneath rocks and piles of earth on the forest floor or in crevices in and around road cuts (Sadlier and Bauer 2000).<br/><br/>This species is viviparous (R. Sadlier pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176136	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<p>There are no quantitative data on population size and trends. <em>M. montana</em> is uncommon at the only location it has been found and fewer than ten specimens have been seen. It is presumed to have suffered a reduction in population size and extent resulting from past destruction of its montane forest habitat from mining activities (clearing for access roads) and from wildfires encroaching from adjacent maquis shrubland. </p>	eng
176136	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The main threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">M. montana</span> is from habitat destruction leading to a reduction in the area of occupancy. Mineral exploration has occurred on Mt Ouin in the past and mining activity is currently intensifying in the nearby Tontouta Valley system. The montane forest is also at risk to peripheral damage and reduction in extent from wildfires in the adjacent maquis shrubland. Introduced mammals (rodents, cats and pigs) are a potential predation risk and introduced ungulates (deer and pigs) threaten habitat quality, particularly by damaging the litter layer.	eng
176137	conservation	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended. The area in which this species is distributed needs to be protected and managed to help ensure its survival.	eng
176137	distribution	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>N. hanchisteus</em> is endemic to Province Nord, New Caledonia. It is known only from a small remnant of closed sclerophyll forest on the Pindaï Peninsula on the north west coast of Grande Terre (Bauer and Sadlier 2000, Sadlier <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Further surveys in sclerophyll forest to the north and south of the known locality have not recorded this species (Whitaker <em>et al.</em> 2005). The extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 6 km² and the area of occupancy is about 6 km²<sup></sup>.&#160; The elevation range is from sea level up to 60 m asl.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]	eng
176137	habitat	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is found in sclerophyll forests (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial, and chooses the moistest habitats within the rather mesic sclerophyll forests (Bauer and Sadler 2000). It shelters beneath stones and litter, and forages through leaf litter.	eng
176137	population	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> but it appears to be localised and very uncommon. It is assumed to have undergone a dramatic reduction in area of occupancy as a result of the destruction of sclerophyll forest in the immediate area of Pindai and possibly elsewhere on the central west coast as a result of clearance and wildfire - the true extent of the population pre-human will never be known. Recurrent wildfires in the adjacent savanna and the presence of high-density populations of the invasive ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the only known site mean the population is expected to be declining in both extent and density.	eng
176137	threats	Sadlier, R.A., Whitaker, A.H. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The greatest threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is the high vulnerability of the remaining sclerophyll forest habitat to wildfires. The high-density population of <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at the site is also a very serious threat as these exotic ants are known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are other significant concerns. Predation by rodents may be a risk.&#160; There is also a very high-density population of the African snail <span style="font-style: italic;">Achatina fulica</span> at the site and the long-term consequences of this on the vegetation composition and structure, and litter stability are not know. Even if <span style="font-style: italic;">N. hanchisteus</span> is found to occur in other sclerophyll remnants in the area, these are likely to be highly vulnerable to clearance for agriculture or degradation by livestock.	eng
176138	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié but not recorded at any other protected location. No active conservation management is currently being undertaken.	eng
176138	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the southern half of Grande Terre. It is known from five or six widely scattered and isolated populations between Presqu'ile de Pindaï and Mt Aoupinié in the north and the Goro district in the south. This species also inhabits the Isle of Pines and the surrounding islets. Occurs from 5 up to 500 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 9,000 km²<sup></sup>&#160; and the area of occupancy at <150 km²<sup></sup>. <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176138	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is a forest specialist. At most locations, this species inhabits humid forests but it is also known from a sclerophyll forest site. It shelters by day in crevices and holes in trees and forages at night  in the canopy. On a general note, <em>Rhacodactylus</em> are not found in disturbed environments (Bauer and Sadlier 2001).	eng
176138	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is described as "not locally abundant" on Grande Terre by Bauer and Sadlier (2000). There are no quantitative data on population size or trends. It is assumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent in the past through habitat loss associated with clearance of the west coast sclerophyll forests for agriculture, and clearance of low and mid-elevation humid forests for logging and agriculture.	eng
176138	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The main risk to <span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> is further loss of habitat through clearance, logging or wildfires. Additional threats are habitat degradation caused by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats), and the detrimental effects of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Illegal collection and trafficking of <span style="font-style: italic;">R. trachyrhynchus</span> may be a problem at accessible locations. The ovoviviparous reproduction in this species (resulting in a lower annual reproductive output than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Rhacodactylus </span>species) exacerbates the vulnerability of this taxon.	eng
176139	conservation	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A.  & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and at least three reserves (Forêt Cachée, Forêt Nord, and Pic Ningua). It is important that these protected areas do provide safeguards for  this species and so management of the areas needs to be carried out. No species-specific conservation management is currently being undertaken.<br/><br/>Surveys for this species, as well as monitoring of invasive fire ants and habitat decline should be carried out.	eng
176139	distribution	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A.  & Bauer, A.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the south of Grande Terre, New Caledonia (northernmost locality is Pic Ningua). It is known from at least seven widely scattered and isolated locations (Forêt Nord,   Forêt Cachée, Bois de Sud, Riviere Bleue, Mt. Koghis, Vulcain, and Pic Ningua). Occurs at altitudes ranging from 80 to 950 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 3,000 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy at 700 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around the points), except for very widespread species where the  published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat remains.]	eng
176139	habitat	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A.  & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. geitaina</span> inhabits closed humid forests at low to mid-elevation and montane forests; occasionally in adjacent maquis shrublands.&#160; It is nocturnal, arboreal, or terrestrial on rock faces. It prefers sites with a rocky forest floor. It shelters by day beneath stones or in rock crevices and forages at night in sub-canopy vegetation or on rock faces.	eng
176139	population	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A.  & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">B.  geitaina</span>. Bauer and Sadlier (2000) describe this species as common at Mt. Koghis.&#160; However, elsewhere throughout its range it is assumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation through clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation (Plaine des Lacs) and wildfires. The current development of a major nickel mine in the south is resulting in on-going habitat loss on the Plaine des Lacs and in the Baie de Prony area (although the species has not been recorded outside of existing reserves in this region).	eng
176139	threats	Whittaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A.  & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The major threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">B. geitaina</span> is loss of further closed forest remnants as a result of the rapidly expanding nickel mining industry in the Grand Sud. Loss of habitat to mining activities is also a problem in the Tontouta Valley and in the vicinity of Pic Ningua and Mont Çidoa. Other threats to this species include the loss or degradation of habitat from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), and predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats). At low elevation the infestation of closed forest by the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, is expected to have a detrimental impact as it is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). An additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous vegetation being converted to exotic forestry.	eng
176140	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>The distribution of this species occurs in protected areas, including Réserve de Nature Sauvage du Massif de l’Aoupinié and Mont Do, offering small safeguards against habitat loss and degradation. However, these areas need to be managed to provide effective conservation. No specific conservation management is currently being undertaken for this species. Research and monitoring of the population, habitat and threat status should be carried out.	eng
176140	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>N. gracilis</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs in widely scattered locations throughout the island from Mount&#160; Mandjélia in the north to Forêt de la Thy and Nouméa in the south (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). Most localities are in the central part of the island between Poindimié and Mont Do. The upper elevation limit of this species is 1,000 m asl. The extent of occurrence of this species is approximately 10,000 km²<sup></sup> and the area of occupancy is estimated to be < 1,000 km². The populations in the extreme north and south of the species' range are isolated by considerable distances (>60 km) from all other records and may represent distinct sub-populations. However, this may be an artefact of collecting effort.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176140	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	It is known to inhabit closed humid forest and montane forest,   and from sclerophyll <a style="">f</a>orest in the Noumea region. This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs, stones and litter, and in cracks in the soil and forages through leaf litter. It is highly desiccation-prone.<br/><br/>It is oviparous with two to three eggs per clutch, and the females are gravid during the rainy season from December to January (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).	eng
176140	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for <span style="font-style: italic;">N. gracilis</span>. It is assumed to have undergone substantial reduction in area of occupancy from the widespread loss of low to mid-elevation closed forests through clearance for agriculture and logging, and of mid- to high elevation forests for mining. The impact of wildfires from adjacent savanna and maquis will also have reduced the extent of forests through peripheral damage. It is considered locally common at some locations (Bauer and Sadlier 2000).	eng
176140	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation is the primary threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">N.  gracilis</span>. Further clearance for agriculture and afforestation will  jeopardise the already highly fragmented low to mid-elevation forests of  the central region, and the nickel mining industry threatens populations in montane forests on ultramafic substrata. The  periphery of all closed forests is at risk from wildfires in adjacent  savanna and maquis. All forests are also at risk to degradation by  introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and  from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover. There are high  infestations of the introduced ant <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> at many of the  low to mid-elevation sites where <span style="font-style: italic;">N. gracilis</span> occurs and these  are expected to be a serious issue (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001).  Predation by rodents may be a risk.	eng
176141	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. This species is present in Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue and a number of other reserves in the south including Pic Ningua, Pic du Grand Kaori and Forêt Nord. It is important that the protected areas are properly managed. Surveys of this species, as well as monitoring of invasive fire ants and habitat decline should be carried out.	eng
176141	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> is restricted to the southern part of Grande Terre (northernmost confirmed location is Pic Ningua). It appears to be allopatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. occidentalis</span> but apparently sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">E. vieillardi</span>.<em> </em>Recorded from 20 to 1,050 m asl.<em><br/><br/></em>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 3,000 km²<sup></sup>   and the area of occupancy at < 1,000 km². <br/><br/>[Extent of   occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times width   of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the  line around   the points), except for very widespread species where the  published   areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a  contraction of   that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on  where habitat   remains.]	eng
176141	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Occurs in a range of wooded habitats including tall maquis shrublands  (maquis arbustif and maquis paraforestier), and closed humid forest. It is arboreal; at least partly, possibly primarily diurnal. It appears to remain on twigs and foliage all the time rather than seeking cover during periods of inactivity.	eng
176141	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	There are no quantitative data on population size or trends, but nowhere is <span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> as abundant as the other <span style="font-style: italic;">Eurydactylodes </span>species. It is presumed to have suffered a substantial reduction in population size and extent from past habitat loss and degradation, primarily through wildfires but also including localised clearance for agriculture, mining and afforestation (Plaine des Lacs). The current development of a major nickel mine in the south is resulting in the continuing loss of substantial areas of habitat in the vicinity of Baie de Prony and the Plaine des Lacs.	eng
176141	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	In the Grand Sud, the greatest single threat to <span style="font-style: italic;">E. symmetricus</span> is the projected expansion of the nickel mining industry which could ultimately result in the loss of large areas of habitat. An additional threat in the south is the increasing area of indigenous vegetation being converted to exotic forestry. Other threats to this species include habitat loss or degradation from wildfires and the effects of introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), predation by introduced mammals (rodents and feral cats), and the impacts of the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span>, which is known to have a detrimental impact on lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). The distinctive chameleon-like appearance of this species and its diurnal activity make it a potential target for illegal collection and trafficking.	eng
176142	conservation	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. Not present in any reserves and no conservation management is currently being undertaken. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat and threat status should also be carried out.	eng
176142	distribution	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em>N. slevini</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from five locations in a small area of the dividing ranges between Canala and La Foa in central Grande Terre. The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 250 km²<sup></sup> and the  area of occupancy at <100 km²<sup></sup>. Recorded at elevations between 400 and 900 m asl.<br/><br/>Bauer and Sadlier (2000) note a questionable record of the species from the Yahoué Valley near Nouméa, which is far to the south of all the other localities. As subsequent intensive searches there have not yielded results, this record is considered to be an error.<br/><br/>[Extent of occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length times width of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the line around the points), except for very widespread species where the published areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a contraction of that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on where habitat remains.]	eng
176142	habitat	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	It is known to inhabit mid-elevation closed humid forest and montane forest. This species is cryptozoic, semi-fossorial and terrestrial. It shelters beneath logs and rocks on the forest floor (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is susceptible to heat stress and dehydration (Bauer and Sadlier 2000). It is oviparous.	eng
176142	population	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	<em></em> There are no quantitative data on population size and trends for this species, but it is presumed to have suffered a reduction in area of occupancy from the loss of closed forest habitat at mid-elevation through clearance for agriculture and afforestation, and at both mid and high elevation from wildfires.	eng
176142	threats	Whitaker, A.H., Sadlier, R.A. & Bauer, A.M., 2009	The likelihood of further habitat loss and fragmentation from clearance and wildfires in adjacent savannas are the greatest threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">N. slevini</span>. Habitat degradation by introduced ungulates (deer and pigs), leading to lower humidity, and from pigs disturbing the litter layer and cover are additional risks. The infestation of mid-elevation forests by <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctata</span> is a potentially serious threat (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000, 2001). Predation by rodents may be an issue.	eng
176143	conservation	Sadlier, R.A. & Whitaker, A.H. , 2009	Protected in Province Nord under Code de l'environnement de la Province Nord (Délibération No. 306-2008/APN, 24 October 2008) and in Province Sud under Code de l'environnement de la Province Sud (Délibération No. 25-2009/APS, 20 March 2009). Not listed on CITES. <br/><br/>This species is not found in a protected area and does not have any other conservation measures in place for it. Actions are required to ensure the survival of this species, such as founding protected and managed areas on the Ile de Pins, and species-based research and monitoring.	eng
176143	distribution	Sadlier, R.A. & Whitaker, A.H. , 2009	<em>C. euryotis</em> is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known only from two sites on Ile des Pins (Isle of Pines); at the town of Vao and at a remnant of a closed forest near Waa Mé Bay (Bauer and Sadlier 1994, Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). The Isle of Pines has an area of 152 km², however, the area of suitable habitat is considerably less (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). A survey of the islets surrounding the Isle of Pines did not find any individuals (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006). Recorded at elevations up to 200 m asl.<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence is estimated at approximately 150 km²    and the area of occupancy at <10 km². <br/><br/>[Extent  of   occurrence was based on a crude measure of overall length  times  width   of the most distant known locations (a rough measure of the   line around   the points), except for very widespread species where the   published   areas of the islands were taken.&#160; Area of occupancy is a   contraction of   that rough estimate for extent of occurrence based on   where habitat   remains.]	eng
176143	habitat	Sadlier, R.A. & Whitaker, A.H. , 2009	<em></em><em>C. euryotis</em> inhabits coastal closed forest habitat. It is diurnal, terrestrial, and is attracted to sunlight. It shelters beneath litter and stones, and basks and forages in light-gaps.<br/><br/><em>C. euryotis</em> is oviparous, with a clutch size of two to three eggs (Sadlier <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176143	population	Sadlier, R.A. & Whitaker, A.H. , 2009	<p>There are no data on population size and trends for <em>C. euryotis</em>. It is assumed that there has been a reduction in the area of occupation resulting from loss and fragmentation of forest habitats through clearance for occupation, agriculture and afforestation, and by infestation of areas by invasive species. At the single site from which it has been recorded in recent times, <em>C. euryotis</em> was considered to be locally common in good habitat &#160;(Bauer and Sadlier 1993).</p>	eng
176143	threats	Sadlier, R.A. & Whitaker, A.H. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. euryotis </span>is most at risk to further loss and fragmentation of coastal forest habitats through clearance for agriculture and occupation, and from wildfires. In forested habitats there is also a significant threat from the introduced ant, <span style="font-style: italic;">Wasmannia auropunctatus</span>, which is known to decimate lizard populations (Jourdan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001). Predation by introduced mammals (rodents and cats) is also likely to be a constant threat. <em></em>	eng
176186	conservation	Zug, G.R., 2009	Taxonomic research should be carried out to verify the identity of this species outside the species complex.	eng
176186	distribution	Zug, G.R., 2009	This species has a wide Oceanian distribution. It occurs on the islands of Erromango and Tanna in Vanuatu, eastward through Melanesia, and into Polynesia and Micronesia (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
176186	habitat	Zug, G.R., 2009	This nocturnal gecko is usually found hiding under ground debris during the day and, at night, foraging on the forest floor (Cogger 2000). It is found in both wet and dry forests and tropical woodlands.	eng
176186	population	Zug, G.R., 2009	Crombie and Pregill (1999) note that the Palauan member of this species<em></em> complex is often abundant in beach habitats.	eng
176186	threats	Zug, G.R., 2009	This species is unlikely to be under any major threat.	eng
176219	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the species' population status, and potential threats is suggested.	eng
176219	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is distributed from the uplands of southeastern Australia to the coastal areas of New South Wales (Cogger 2000). It is also recorded from Tasmania (Clayton<em> et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176219	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This lizard primarily inhabits dry forests and heathlands where it is often encountered among rocks or low vegetation (Cogger 2000).	eng
176219	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176219	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation due to grazing, other agricultural activities, and land clearing, this species is widely distributed and is unlikely to be impacted in all parts of its range or undergoing significant population declines.	eng
176220	conservation	Vyas, R.V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
176220	distribution	Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Kanyakumari in southern India to the foot of the Himalayas in Nepal, although it has not been reported east of the Ganga in eastern India (Daniel 2002). It also occurs in Sri Lanka. Schleich and Kästle (2002) do not include this species in their list of reptiles from Nepal, noting that it is "only known from India". R. Vyas (pers. comm.), however, suggests that the species occurs in Pakistan, although in Nepal its presence can at best be described as uncertain.	eng
176220	habitat	Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species inhabits moderately moist scrub, rocky and sandy coastal areas, and open areas in dry forests and dry scrublands (Sharma 2002, Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). In Sri Lanka, this species is restricted to warm lowland habitats and is most abundant in drier coastal areas. It is primarily a ground-dwelling species, but is sometimes found on trees. Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) state that this species is "capable of adapting to man-modified environments such as secondary forests, plantations, etc.".	eng
176220	population	Vyas, R.V., 2009	Various sources have stated that this species is very common (Shanbhag <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
176220	threats	Vyas, R.V., 2009	Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage (1994) considered this species not to be under threat. There are no apparent major threats to this species.	eng
176221	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences, and major threats to this species.	eng
176221	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	The type for this species was collected in Maskat, Oman. This species is known to be widely distributed on the Arabian Peninsula.	eng
176221	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is likely to be found in desert habitat.	eng
176221	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176221	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
176222	conservation	Horner, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the taxonomic status, distribution, ecology, habitat and population status of this species, as little is currently known. Research into threats will help to validate if this species is affected by habitat degradation.	eng
176222	distribution	Horner, P., 2009	This species is distributed throughout northern Australia from northeastern Western Australia, eastward into the northwestern parts of the Northern Territory (P. Horner pers. comm.). However, some uncertainty remains about the actual distribution of this species, as the taxonomic status of this taxon is poorly defined (P. Horner pers. comm.).	eng
176222	habitat	Horner, P., 2009	While there is little information on the habitat requirements of this species, lizards of this genus tend to be terrestrial and xerophilic.	eng
176222	population	Horner, P., 2009	This species appears to be known from only a few specimens (Storr 1964).	eng
176222	threats	Horner, P., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. However, it may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to land clearing for agricultural purposes and mining. As one of the few known specimens of this species was collected near the city of Darwin, it may face further threats from expanding human settlement and infrastructure development. However, at present it is not known if and to what extent these threat processes are affecting this species.	eng
176224	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
176224	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species has a very large distribution, perhaps the widest distribution of any amphisbaenian (Colli and Zamboni 1999). It is found in most of South America, east of the Andes, but not the far south of the continent.	eng
176224	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	This species is found in a variety of natural habitats including savanna and rainforest, as well as in altered cultivated or forested areas.	eng
176224	population	Mott, T., 2009	In the Amazon region of Brazil it is a common reptile, but its burrowing habits and the fact that it is rarely encountered above ground gives a misleading impression of rarity (Lainson 2003). This species has been found above the surface.	eng
176224	threats	Mott, T., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range. Amphisbeanians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999).	eng
176225	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	Research is needed into the ecology, range, threats, trends and habitat status in order to make a more accurate assessment.	eng
176225	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is probably only known from the Orinoco (Amacuro) Delta in eastern Venezuela. Specimens were found there in 1971, but before that the species was only known from the type specimen (collected at an unknown location). One of the four known specimens was collected at 210 km southwest of this location (Gorzula 1985).	eng
176225	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	The specific habitat preferences of this species are not described, but it is likely to inhabit forest habitats.	eng
176225	population	Mott, T., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176225	threats	Mott, T., 2009	It is unknown if any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176226	conservation	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a large part of its range falls within Jaragua National Park. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176226	distribution	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is found on the Barahona Peninsula on the southern coast of Hispaniola, and on Isla Beata (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,465 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176226	habitat	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species occurs in xeric woodlands with abundant limestone, friable soil, and leaf litter (Thomas 1965a). Its presence in agriculturally modified habitats has been reported, but assessments of relative abundance in these habitats are impossible. <br/><br/>This species consumes a variety of invertebrate prey, with beetle larvae the most important prey item (Cusumano and Powell 1991, White <em>et al.</em> 1992). This species is also known to take vertebrates in captivity (Thomas 1965b), and may also do so in the wild (White <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1992).	eng
176226	population	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	Thomas and Hedges (2006) state this species is found to be abundant in places, however, this abundance is apparently highly localized.	eng
176226	threats	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species occurs in an area in which damaging land-use practices such as tilling and fuel-wood extraction for charcoal production take place. However, due to the cryptic nature of this species, the full extent to which these threats affect the species are difficult to evaluate. Future declines in its habitat may be prevented because much of its range is too dry and rocky for easy exploitation, although clearing for charcoal production and associated drying of soils remains a threat.	eng
176227	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, ecology, threats, distribution and monitoring of population and habitat trends are suggested.	eng
176227	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species has only recently been collected during the construction of a hydroelectric power plant near the River São Francisco in northeastern Brazil.	eng
176227	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	This species has only been found to occur on the banks of the river São Francisco.	eng
176227	population	Mott, T., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176227	threats	Mott, T., 2009	The area in which this species has been found has been artificially flooded. The extent to which this has affected the species is unknown.	eng
176228	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	The type locality of this species coincides with the National Park of   Chapada dos Guimarães, however, the park is bordered by a large reservoir built for a hydroelectric power plant (T. Mott pers. comm.). Research is needed into the ecology, distribution and threats, as well as population and and habitat trends, in order to make a more accurate assessment.	eng
176228	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimen collected over 50 years ago in the Brazilian Cerrado.	eng
176228	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	There is no ecological information available. Using the type locality as a guide, it is likely to occur in savanna.	eng
176228	population	Mott, T., 2009	An extensive four-year faunal survey in the area of the type locality and the reservoir could not locate the species (T. Mott pers. comm.).	eng
176228	threats	Mott, T., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimen despite attempts to find more individuals. The construction of a reservoir for a hydroelectric power plant may have affected the species. However, as this species is only known from the type specimen, the major threats to it are unknown.	eng
176229	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is suggested that research into the ecology, distribution, habitat status, threats and population trends of this species is needed to carry out a more complete assessment.	eng
176229	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is only known from the type which was collected in Chanchamayo, Peru. This district, named after the river running through it, has an area just under 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176229	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
176229	population	Mott, T., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176229	threats	Mott, T., 2009	The Chanchamayo District has extensive agriculture and is renowned for its citrus and coffee production. However, it is unknown if these threats are significantly impacting this species.	eng
176230	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the species' distribution, its population and habitat trends, and threats affecting it is required.	eng
176230	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is found in northeastern Brazil from Rio Grande do Norte to Bahia.   There is also a doubtful record for the species in state of Mato Grosso do Sul (da Silva <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009), but no voucher specimen exists for this.	eng
176230	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	This species can be found in urban areas, including in gardens with compost organic matter (T. Mott pers. comm.).	eng
176230	population	Mott, T., 2009	This species is very common in Salvador City, Bahia State capital (T. Mott pers. comm.), and also in   Feira de Santana (Barros-Filho and Valverde 1996).	eng
176230	threats	Mott, T., 2009	Amphisbeanians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999). However, this species is not known well enough to understand the impacts of possible threats.	eng
176231	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, 70% of the island network it occurs on is protected which will provide a degree of safety. Monitoring of the species trends and threats are needed.	eng
176231	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is endemic to the volcanic archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, 350 km off the northeastern coast of Brazil. The total area of the islands is 26 km<sup>²</sup>.	eng
176231	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	There is no habitat information available for this species.	eng
176231	population	Mott, T., 2009	This species is very abundant in the Fernando de Noronha archipelago (T. Mott pers. comm.).	eng
176231	threats	Mott, T., 2009	Habitat degradation has been a major threat to the species' range in the past . However, the archipelago now has 70% of its area under protection. There are no known current threats to this species.	eng
176232	conservation	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be taken to reduce the rate of habitat changes occurring. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176232	distribution	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is endemic to northwestern Puerto Rico. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,088 km². This species is found up to 400 m above sea level.	eng
176232	habitat	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is found in <em>Acacia</em> scrub, pastures, open woodlands, edges of coffee plantations, and lake-shores; its habitat ranges from very dry to moderately moist (Thomas 1966, Henderson and Powell 2009).	eng
176232	population	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	The population of this species was considered stable by Moreno in 1991. However, it may have been declining in recent years due to changes in land use.	eng
176232	threats	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	The northwest of Puerto Rico has undergone rapid land-use changes, especially due to urban development (Helmer 2004), which is a major problem in coastal areas. However, this species has been found in disturbed habitats, such as on the edges of coffee plantations, and may to some degree withstand agricultural change in inland parts of its range.	eng
176233	conservation	Mott, T. & Waldez, F., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats, and population and habitat trends of this species is needed.	eng
176233	distribution	Mott, T. & Waldez, F., 2009	Gans (2005) stated that this species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality near Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. This is still reflected in museum specimens (T. Mott pers. comm., F. Waldez pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176233	habitat	Mott, T. & Waldez, F., 2009	A specimen was collected from an area of forest.	eng
176233	population	Mott, T. & Waldez, F., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176233	threats	Mott, T. & Waldez, F., 2009	It is not known if major threats are impacting this species.	eng
176234	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring into distribution range, ecological preferences, habitat status, and threats is needed to increase the accuracy of the assessment.	eng
176234	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is only known from its type specimen (Gans 2005) which was found near Rio Trombetas in the municipality of Oriximina in the Brazilian state of Para.	eng
176234	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
176234	population	Mott, T., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176234	threats	Mott, T., 2009	The largest bauxite mine situated in the municipality of Oriximina could potentially prove a threat to this species. However, the impact of potential threats on the species and its range are not well understood.	eng
176235	conservation	Mott, T., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, ecology, distribution, and threats of this species is suggested to enable a more accurate assessment to be completed.	eng
176235	distribution	Mott, T., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality at Caceres in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.	eng
176235	habitat	Mott, T., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
176235	population	Mott, T., 2009	This species was only described in 2001 and no further information is available.	eng
176235	threats	Mott, T., 2009	It is unknown if any major threats are acting upon this species.	eng
176236	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of this species' distribution might coincide with protected areas. Monitoring of this species' population, and research into its habitat and threats, should be carried out because if deforestation rates increase in the future, the species may experience significant population declines.	eng
176236	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species was previously only known from its type locality until Branch <em>et al</em>. (2003) found five specimens in the Toucan/Rabi region of south western Gabon, extending its range 90 km south-east from type locality. This species is thought to occur in the whole Gamba-Conckouati lands which covers all the lowland coastal rainforest of southern Gabon and probably southwestern Congo-Brazzaville (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
176236	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species occurs in mature lowland forest.	eng
176236	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	The species is poorly represented in collections, but this is not due to its actual rarity but because of its strictly fossorial habits, very small size, and lack of herpetological research in its range (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
176236	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is certainly sensitive to logging industry, but forests of this region are still well preserved, and the two localities where the species was found are situated very close to national parks in which the species is   most probably present. Oil industry impact is negligible in comparison with logging impact. Therefore there are no major threats impacting this species at this time.	eng
176237	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas. Further research into its biology, population and range, habitat status and threats is needed because this small fossorial species can be easily overlooked especially as the region in which it is found has been poorly inventoried. Its distribution may be wider than currently known (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
176237	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the far west coast countries of Africa from Senegal south to Guinea-Bissau (Boulenger 1906, Gans 1985).	eng
176237	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species occurs in the soil just under the leaf litter in secondary forest and seems very tolerant to habitat disturbance (O. Pauwels pers. comm.). It has been found in small secondary forest patches in cultivated areas.	eng
176237	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is common in western Gambia (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
176237	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unlikely that a major threat has or is currently impacting this species as it can survive in small fragmented secondary forest patches (O. Pauwels pers. comm.). However, a possible threat could arise if heavy landscape change clears all forest cover in parts of its range.	eng
176238	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population size and range, habitat preferences and threats should be carried out.	eng
176238	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is only known from type collection from Yapoma in Cameroon (Gans 1987).	eng
176238	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
176238	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176238	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
176239	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, Parc Niokolo-Koba is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Further research on the biology and ecology, population and range, habitat preferences, and potential threats should be carried out.	eng
176239	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is only known from its type location in Parc Niokolo-Koba, Senegal (Gans 2005).	eng
176239	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this fossorial species.	eng
176239	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176239	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
176240	conservation	Duarte, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the effects of land change on this amphisbaenian is recommended as this will help in assessing the severity of this threat.	eng
176240	distribution	Duarte, J., 2009	This species is found in the north and northeastern Brazilian states of Para, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, and Bahia.	eng
176240	habitat	Duarte, J., 2009	This species is found in rainforest.	eng
176240	population	Duarte, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. &#160;In some localities it is common for collecting (J. Duarte pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176240	threats	Duarte, J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened by agricultural expansion (J. Duarte pers. comm.). Amphisbaenians may be less susceptible to the vagaries of climate than other squamates that live above ground, because the subterranean habitats may act as a buffer (Colli and Zamboni 1999).	eng
176241	conservation	Duarte, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176241	distribution	Duarte, J., 2009	This species is found in the Brazilian State of Rio de Janeiro. There is only one known locality for this species - a littoral strip from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rio de  Janeiro</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> to Barra de São João City,  <em><em>ca</em></em> 50 km north, and includes some forested areas (J. Duarte pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176241	habitat	Duarte, J., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
176241	population	Duarte, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176241	threats	Duarte, J., 2009	The natural habitat within the State of Rio de Janeiro is threatened by high rates of urban expansion, however, it is unknown what impact this threat is having on this species.	eng
176242	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176242	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to southeast Tanzania. Its range is considered large for an amphisbaenian (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176242	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits low altitude moist savanna.	eng
176242	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176242	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) state that this fossorial species does not seem to be threatened.	eng
176243	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176243	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	This species is found in southwest Africa. It is distributed from northern Namibia, through the Caprivi Strip, into adjacent Angola and Botswana.	eng
176243	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	This species is found predominantly in moist savanna, but has also been found in drier areas.	eng
176243	population	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176243	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176244	conservation	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176244	distribution	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species occurs at several sites in the Congo River Basin, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
176244	habitat	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is a small fossorial amphisbaenian. Very little is known about its biology or ecology.	eng
176244	population	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176244	threats	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown, but unlikely, that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
176245	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population and distribution, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176245	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in Cameroon, and through mainland Equatorial Guinea into Gabon. This species may have a restricted range, however, the extent of its distribution within each of these countries is not known.	eng
176245	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is found in tropical and subtropical moist lowland forest.	eng
176245	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176245	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
176247	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into its biology and ecology<em></em>, population size and range, and the impact that habitat change is having on this species.	eng
176247	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	This species is known from only a few individuals from a few localities surrounding the Kafue flats in central Zambia. However, due to severe under-sampling, the full extent of the distribution of this species is yet to be determined (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176247	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
176247	population	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176247	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	Habitat loss due to conversion for extensive agriculture is&#160;occurring&#160;in Zambia (WWF and Partners for Wetlands Zambia 2006), which may pose a threat to this species. However, it is not yet known what impact the habitat change is having on this species, as habitat transformed is not necessarily habitat destroyed for amphisbaenians (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176248	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or required, for this species.	eng
176248	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	This species is found in eastern Angola, western Zambia and south into the Namibian Caprivi Strip. The southward distribution of this species is limited by the Sesheke-Chobe floodplains (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008)	eng
176248	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	This species is found in Miombo and Baikiaea woodland on sandy soils.	eng
176248	population	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176248	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Measey, G.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176249	conservation	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Portland Bight Protected Area within the Hellshire Hills. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176249	distribution	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species occurs throughout Jamaica except in a narrow strip along the northeastern coast, and to an elevation of at least 1,200 m in the Blue Mountains.<p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
176249	habitat	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is largely mesophilic but also occurs on scrubby hillsides, often under surface debris (Garman 1888, Grant 1940, Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
176249	population	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is considered one of the more common lizards on Jamaica,&#160;occurring&#160;over a wide area (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176249	threats	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation. Tole (2002) reports that the biodiversity within Jamaica's Hellshire Hills is under increasing threat from deforestation from subsistence-driven encroachment.	eng
176250	conservation	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Effective protected area management is needed to ensure the survival of this and other forest-dwelling species on Hispaniola. Further research should be carried out into the ecology, habitat and threats of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176250	distribution	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species inhabits Presqu'ile de Nord-Ouest and Plaine de Cul de Sac in Haiti, barely extending into the Valle de Neiba in the Dominican Republic (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is also found on the Barahona Peninsula, north to Barahona, and west to the Haiti-Dominican Republic border. It is found in the extreme southeastern Dominican Republic. It is also found on Ile de la Tortue, Ile de la Gonave, Isla Catalina, Isla Saona (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,297 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>This species has been recorded at elevations between sea level and 550 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
176250	habitat	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is xerophilic and ground-dwelling. It has been found under rocks, logs, surface debris, in slat piles, and piles of dry palm fronds (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is ovoviviparous, with between two and five young born per brood (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
176250	population	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176250	threats	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation may pose a threat to the species. Ibisch <em>et al.</em>(2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat because of logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). It is unknown whether or to what degree this species can adapt to anthropogenic habitat change.	eng
176251	conservation	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of deforestation currently occurring. Further research into the population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176251	distribution	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is endemic to Honduras and is found in the northeastern and north-central highlands (Wilson and McCranie 2003b). It has been recorded between 1,550 and 1,590 m above sea level (Wilson and McCranie 2003b) but it is unknown whether this is its elevation range. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 26,208 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176251	habitat	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is arboreal (Wilson and McCranie 2003b) and inhabits montane coniferous and broadleaf forests.	eng
176251	population	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no data on the population trend of this species, but Wilson and McCranie (2003b) state that this species is rare.	eng
176251	threats	McCranie, J.R., 2009	In the north-central highlands region of Honduras, only 44.4% of the amphibian and reptile species have stable populations (Wilson and McCranie 2003c).<br/><br/>Recent declines in herpetofaunal populations in the cloud forests of Honduras have been observed and were found to be most prevalent at altitudes over 900 m above sea level, and in Honduras endemics (Wilson and McCranie 2003b). Habitat loss due to deforestation is the primary threat to reptiles in Honduras, with the current deforestation rate at 2.3% (Wilson and McCranie 2003a).	eng
176252	conservation	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring should be carried out to assess to what extent the populations of this species are being impacted upon by threat processes.	eng
176252	distribution	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is found throughout Hispaniola, but is absent from large areas (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), such as western parts of Grand Anse and parts of Sud-Est and Ouest. It is also found on Ile Grande Cayemite and on Ile de la Gonave. The species has been recorded from sea level to about 800 m, but may occur up 950 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
176252	habitat	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is mesophilic, although it is xerophilic on Grand Cayemite, where anthropogenic influences may have rendered previous mesic habitats xerophytic (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is known to inhabit broadleaf forests where it may be found under rocks, rotten logs, and other surface objects. It has also been observed in garbage piles behind the beach, under termitaria fragments, in piles of soggy cacao husks, and under wood chips in coffee plantations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
176252	population	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176252	threats	Powell, R.& Hedges, S.B., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation may pose a threat to this species. Ibisch <em>et al.</em>(2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat due to logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). <br/><br/>However, it is possible that this species is adaptable and therefore may be able to survive modified environments. Further research is therefore required before it can be established to what extent this species is being impacted by habitat loss.	eng
176253	conservation	Lamar, W.W., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution is likely to coincide with a number of protected areas in the Talamanca montane ecoregion. Monitoring of the population and research into potential threats of this species are needed.	eng
176253	distribution	Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species is endemic to the montane Talamancan region in Costa Rica and extreme western Panama. This species is found at an elevation range of 1,800 to 3,800 m.	eng
176253	habitat	Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species is abundant in wet forests and can also commonly be found in more open areas such as shrubland and grassland. It has been found in altered environments and near human settlements.	eng
176253	population	Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species is reported to be common to abundant.	eng
176253	threats	Lamar, W.W., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The Talamancan montane moist forest of Costa Rica and Panama is one of Central America's most intact habitats and it is reported that almost 75% of its original forest cover still remains. However, illegal logging and clearing of land for cattle pasture is occurring in this region, causing forest areas to become fragmented (WWF 2001). At present this is not likely to be a major threat to this species.	eng
176254	conservation	Veselý, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and habitat status of this species.	eng
176254	distribution	Veselý, M., 2009	This species is found from southern Mexico to Honduras and probably northern Nicaragua. In Honduras, it is widespread in the southeast, southwest, Ocote and northwest highlands (Wilson and McCranie 2003b).<br/><br/>It may be found at an elevation range of 1,450 to 2,530 m above sea level (Wilson and McCranie 2003b).	eng
176254	habitat	Veselý, M., 2009	This species is terrestrial and inhabits pine-oak forest and cloud forest. Well-established populations of this species have also been found on places partly disturbed by clearings; preference of sunny patches for basking and better food availability may explain the higher densities of young found in those places (M. Veselý pers. comm.).	eng
176254	population	Veselý, M., 2009	According to Wilson and McCranie (2003b), this species is common and has stable populations.	eng
176254	threats	Veselý, M., 2009	This species is likely to be impacted by habitat degradation. The pine-oak forests of Central America are being degraded due to human pressures from extensive logging and clearing for agricultural and urban expansion. This is likely to be a localized threat, however, as it has been reported that considerable amounts of this habitat are still intact in Honduras (WWF 2001) and already protected in El Salvador (M. Veselý pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Some populations in smaller and isolated highland forests could be locally endangered by habitat degradation (M. Veselý pers. comm.).	eng
176255	conservation	Lau, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A dead individual was recently found in Yinggeling Nature Reserve. Further research into this species' distribution and ecology, and monitoring of its habitat should be carried out.	eng
176255	distribution	Lau, M., 2009	This species inhabits Hainan Island, China. It is known from two locations and it has been collected from 950 m and 1,000 m above sea level (Brygoo 1987, Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998, M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). The area of Hainan is 34,000 km²<sup></sup>, but the area in which this species is distributed is likely to be much smaller (M. Lau pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176255	habitat	Lau, M., 2009	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests. It is known to inhabit the submontane region, but it is unknown if it is also found in the montane forests on the island. It has only been collected from old growth forests (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). Like other species of this genus, this species is secretive and difficult to find (M. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
176255	population	Lau, M., 2009	This species is only known from a handful of records (M. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
176255	threats	Lau, M., 2009	This species may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The economic growth rate in Hainan averaged 20% annually from 1988 to 1995, the fastest of any province in China (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). The human population has also been growing dramatically, from five million in the mid-1980s to eight million by 2000. In 1995, it was estimated that 34,000 ha of tropical forest was loss annually in Hainan, at an annual mean rate of -2.02% (Guangyi 1995). Deforestation in Hainan has been attributed to logging, shifting cultivation, agricultural land encroachment, and residential and industrial expansion (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>An increase in forest cover over the past few decades is due to the growing importance of woodchip exports, which have led to the establishment of monoculture plantations of forest to supply the trade (Zhang <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is highly unlikely that this limbless lizard is able to adapt to these plantation forests.	eng
176256	conservation	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
176256	distribution	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits northern Viet Nam, southern China, and Taiwan. It has been collected from altitudes between 500 to 2,000 m above sea level (Lin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
176256	habitat	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This limbless species inhabits moist forests. In Taiwan it is known from dense and slightly disturbed natural forests (Lin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
176256	population	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176256	threats	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.	eng
176257	conservation	Ineich, I., Crochet, P-A. & Geniez, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
176257	distribution	Ineich, I., Crochet, P-A. & Geniez, P., 2009	This species is a near endemic of Morocco known from&#160;the Moyen and Haut Atlas ranges of Morocco (Mateo&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;1998) &#160;It is also&#160;known from a single record in the extreme northwest of Algeria (P. Geniez and P-A. Crochet pers. comm. 2010). It is known to occur up to a maximum altitude of 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
176257	habitat	Ineich, I., Crochet, P-A. & Geniez, P., 2009	This species requires vegetation cover and some soil moisture, such as the dry herbaceous growth near a brook. It has also been observed from agricultural regions and the bush zone in valleys.	eng
176257	population	Ineich, I., Crochet, P-A. & Geniez, P., 2009	This species has been found to have a population density of 20/ha in the Moyen Atlas (Schleich <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
176257	threats	Ineich, I., Crochet, P-A. & Geniez, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176258	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, range, threats and habitat status is needed.	eng
176258	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, Gunung Sago (Gunung Malintang) at 1,600 m above sea level in west-central Sumatra (Mertens 1959).	eng
176258	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This limbless species inhabits moist montane forests. It is unknown if it is also found in the lowland forests on the island.	eng
176258	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176258	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 28-29% of the forest in Sumatra was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). This deforestation has been concentrated in the lowlands, which experienced a 61% loss of forest cover for the same period. While this species is known to inhabit montane regions, it is unknown if it also inhabits these heavily-altered lowlands. The main drivers of this habitat loss are logging and development of industrial timber and crop plantations.	eng
176259	conservation	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and range of this species is recommended.	eng
176259	distribution	Dixon, J.R., 2009	This species is found in the province of Cundinamarca, in Colombia. Cundinamarca has a total area of approximately 24,210 km²<sup></sup>.&#160;The location of the type locality, 'La Selva', is under dispute, however, it has been assigned to a La Selva in Cundinamarca because one of the species' paratypes was collected 16 km WSW of Bogota at 166 m above sea level.	eng
176259	habitat	Dixon, J.R., 2009	Members of this genus are small fossorial species which feed on earthworms and insect larvae.	eng
176259	population	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176259	threats	Dixon, J.R., 2009	Although great areas of natural habitat in Cundinamarca have been lost or degraded from conversion to agricultural land, the fossorial nature of this species means that these processes cannot be considered as a major threat.	eng
176260	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
176260	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is found in Brazil (Goiás, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Parana, and São Paulo), eastern Paraguay, and Argentina, in the state of Corrientes and possibly also Misiones. The type locality is in São Paulo, Brazil (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176260	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	Members of this genus are small fossorial species that feed predominantly on earthworms and insect larvae. The habitat within the range of this species includes Cerrado savanna and evergreen and semi-deciduous forest.	eng
176260	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	No population data are available for this species.	eng
176260	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
176261	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
176261	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, Cachoeira de Emas, Pirassununga, and from Sapucai, both in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil.	eng
176261	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	Members of this genus are small fossorial species. The natural habitats in the area around the collection localities of this species are evergreen and semi-deciduous forest.	eng
176261	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176261	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process, however, very little of the native vegetation remains in this heavily populated part of Brazil.	eng
176262	conservation	Dirksen, L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176262	distribution	Dirksen, L., 2009	This species is found in the wetlands of the Brazilian states of Pará   and Amapá and in French Guiana (Dirksen and Henderson 2002). It may also be found in bordering Suriname, but this has not yet been confirmed (Dirksen and Henderson 2002). This species is found between sea level and 300 m above sea level.	eng
176262	habitat	Dirksen, L., 2009	This semi-aquatic species lives in swampy, often seasonally flooded areas of the Amazonian savanna.	eng
176262	population	Dirksen, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176262	threats	Dirksen, L., 2009	The Amazonian savanna is highly threatened due to agricultural expansion, however, the impact that this threat is having on this species is not known (Franca <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176265	conservation	Cardoso, P., 2009	Despite the cave system being located inside a Nature Park the stone quarries are expanding. Numerous conservation initiatives were proposed by a local speleology association, but these have not been implemented or authorized by the national authorities:<br/><ol><li>To force the limestone quarries to obey the existing laws imposing the minimum distance that any quarry should be from protected areas or the ocean (500 m).</li><li>To close Gruta do Zambujal in order to restore the natural air flow and microclimate.</li><li>To protect the cliffs opened by the limestone quarries surrounding Gruta do Zambujal from erosion and to guarantee their geological stability.</li><li>To establish and enforce strict guidelines for the future touristic visits to the Frade cave system.</li></ol>	eng
176265	distribution	Cardoso, P., 2009	This spider is known from only four caves in the Frade cave system, Sesimbra, Portugal. Relatively intensive searches in and around the region have failed to find the spider; surveys have been carried out over the last 3–4 years, and surveys of over 100 caves in the 1940s by Barros Machado, a specialist in minute spiders, did not find this species (Cardoso and Scharff 2009). Its estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) are both extremely small (EOO <3 km², AOO = 1 km²).	eng
176265	habitat	Cardoso, P., 2009	This is one of the smallest spiders described to date (female size of 0.43 to 0.57 mm). It is a troglobiont (cave-dwelling) species, only found in calcareous formations in areas with very restricted microhabitat characteristics. Although it is a very small species, this spider can easily be seen in its web as it appears as a white spot dangling in mid-air; the web itself is invisible (Cardoso and Scharff 2009). Its tridimensional web, with a sheet-like structure, seems atypical for the family and for the genus.<br/><br/>No males have yet been found despite many collecting trips to the caves over more than three years. The species may reproduce asexually (through parthenogenesis), which probably implies a very low genetic variability. This spider is a K-strategist, with each female producing only 2–3 eggs per year, which, compared with other arthropods, is a very low reproductive capability.	eng
176265	population	Cardoso, P., 2009	This spider is rare. Population size is not known, but only four subpopulations are known (occurring in four caves), with only three of those subpopulations considered to be viable; in one of the occupied caves, only one individual has been found despite several collecting trips to the cave (Cardoso and Scharff 2009).	eng
176265	threats	Cardoso, P., 2009	The species occurs inside a Nature Park, but despite that it is not adequately protected. Limestone quarries prevail in the area and these expand mostly without reliable environmental impact assessment studies prior to exploitation inside the protected area. Approximately 20% of the cave system where the species is found has already been destroyed by nearby limestone quarries.<br/><br/>Within this cave system and the limestone quarries lies the Gruta do Zambujal, a cave protected by national laws since 1979 (Decreto-Lei no. 140/79). A single visit to this cave did not reveal any individuals of <span style="font-style: italic;">Anapistula ataecina</span>, even though the geological structure of this cave seems suitable for the species. Unfortunately, the cave is now much degraded. Changes in the internal microclimate caused by the exposure of the cave during mining activities may have caused the species to go locally extinct.<br/><br/>In addition to quarrying activities, tourism may also have an impact on the species. The Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation has recently authorized tourist activities inside Gruta do Fumo, where most specimens of this spider were found. This authorization was granted in the absence of any previous environmental impact assessment studies.	eng
176270	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, part of its range does fall within protected areas. Further research is required to assess the impact that afforestation is having on this species.	eng
176270	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found in South Africa, from Gauteng and Mpumalanga southwards through the KwaZulu-Natal lowlands to Durban. It is also found in Swaziland (Boycott 1992). It is found between an altitude of 400 and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
176270	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found in humic soils in moist forest areas.	eng
176270	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This burrowing snake is known to be rare and is seldom encountered, however, this may be an attribute of its fossorial lifestyle rather than an indication of a small population (Marais 1992, Branch 1998).	eng
176270	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Williamson and Theron (2002) stated that in Mpumalanga the species is threatened by habitat destruction due to afforestation, however, this is unlikely to be a threat across its entire range.	eng
176271	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.	eng
176271	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found in South Africa, in the regions of Mpumalanga and northern KwaZulu-Natal . It is also found in southern Mozambique.	eng
176271	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found in deep alluvial soil or dry thornveld.	eng
176271	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176271	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176272	conservation	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species, as well as habitat preferences and possible threats to it or its habitat. However, due to the continued conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is unlikely that any more specimens of this species will be collected in the foreseeable future (D. Broadley pers. comm.).	eng
176272	distribution	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	The only information known about the distribution of this species is that it is found in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
176272	habitat	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	Snakes of this genus are burrowing snakes that are rarely seen.	eng
176272	population	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species<em></em> is known only from four specimens (D. Broadley, pers. comm.).	eng
176272	threats	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threat process.	eng
176273	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Protected areas are needed to prevent the destruction of the remaining forest on Mount Mbololo (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). Further research is required on the taxonomic status, population, habitat and distribution of this species. Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) comment that the Taita Hills is home to many endemic species and there are probably more undiscovered species distributed there, further suggesting that herpetological surveys of the area are needed.	eng
176273	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is only known from one specimen taken more than 60 years ago at an elevation of 1,150 m. Its type locality is Mount Mbololo in the Taita Hills, Kenya, which has an area of 55 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176273	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species has only been collected in tropical montane forest.	eng
176273	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) comments that this species is rare.	eng
176273	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Pellikka <em>et al.</em> (2005) have detailed the land degradation on Taita Hills. Between 1987 and 2002, built up areas have increased by 50% and eroded areas have increased by 33%. More pertinent to this species is that only 2.2 km²<sup></sup> of original forest remains on Mount Mbololo because of the increasing human density and agricultural practices in the area.	eng
176274	conservation	Broadley, D.G. & Egan, V.T., 2009	This species is found within Namibian protected areas with a provisional assessment of Secure (Griffin 2003).<br/><br/>Systematic conservation planning may be required for South African populations of this species (V. Egan pers. comm.).	eng
176274	distribution	Broadley, D.G. & Egan, V.T., 2009	This species is a southern African species, found in Botswana, adjacent northern Namibia to western Zimbabwe and north to Zambia. Two specimens of this species have also been found near Vaalwater in the Waterberg district of Limpopo, South Africa (Egan 2006).	eng
176274	habitat	Broadley, D.G. & Egan, V.T., 2009	This species is not found in true desert but it inhabits sandy soil in moist regions of the Kalahari. It belongs to a genus of burrowing snakes that are rarely seen. The main prey species of this species are the small amphisbaenian <em>Zygaspis quadrifrons</em> and the limbless skink <em>Typhlacontias gracilis</em>, which are common in the Kalahari sands (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176274	population	Broadley, D.G. & Egan, V.T., 2009	This species is widespread in the Kalahari sand regions of northeastern Namibia, northern Botswana, western Zimbabwe and western Zambia (Broadley 1971).	eng
176274	threats	Broadley, D.G. & Egan, V.T., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threat process. The South African population(s) will be threatened to some degree by resort development in the Waterberg district. However, this is a localized threat only and is not likely to significantly impact the global population of this species (V. Egan pers. comm.).	eng
176275	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into its distribution, habitats, and threats should be carried out.	eng
176275	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species is known to have a patchy distribution in west Africa. It has been found in Ghana, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Nigeria. However, due to the low sampling effort in this region, this species may also be found in other west African countries.	eng
176275	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species is a burrowing species. It has been found in gallery forest in northern Guinea savanna (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
176275	population	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176275	threats	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
176278	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology of this species should be carried out, as insufficient data is available on which to currently base a conservation assessment.	eng
176278	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is thought to occur throughout central Africa, but records are very sparse. Hughes (1983) and Spawls and Branch (1995) report isolated records from Ghana and Nigeria.	eng
176278	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no habitat information available for this fossorial species, but it is considered a forest snake by Hughes (1983).	eng
176278	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176278	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unknown if any threats are affecting this species. Insufficient information exists to assess whether burrowing snakes survive forest destruction, although this may be possible.	eng
176279	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is likely that in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and research into the threats affecting it are needed to determine if agricultural activities will have a significant impact on its population in the future.	eng
176279	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This snake is endemic to East Africa and is only found in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. This species is found between sea level and 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
176279	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in coastal bush, dry and moist savanna, and high grassland.	eng
176279	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176279	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Many of the habitats that this species occupies are under pressure from agricultural expansion. However, due to its tolerance of a broad range of habitats, this is probably not severe enough to constitute a major threat at present.	eng
176283	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, population, habitat preferences and threats should be carried out.	eng
176283	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known to occur from Guinea and Liberia eastwards through Côte d'Ivoire into Ghana (Hughes 2003).	eng
176283	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This fossorial species is known to occur within moist forests.	eng
176283	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176283	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
176284	conservation	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the distribution, population numbers, habitat requirements and threats of this species is needed. However, due to the continued conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is unlikely that any more specimens will be collected in the foreseeable future.	eng
176284	distribution	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is known from the Katanga District in the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
176284	habitat	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is a burrowing species with unknown habitat preferences.	eng
176284	population	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is known only from three specimens (D. Broadley pers. comm.).	eng
176284	threats	Broadley, D.G., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, a high degree of mining is occurring in the Katanga region which may affect this species.	eng
176286	conservation	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	No conservation actions are currently known for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status and natural history.	eng
176286	distribution	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species is known from North Kinangop Plateau, Kenya, at 2,434 m asl. It has so far been found only near Murungaru village; however, it is a cryptic species, thus it may occur more widely e.g., the higher Aberdare Mountains (Channing and Schmitz 2008).	eng
176286	habitat	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	This species occurs in grassland or montane grassland (A. Channing pers. comm. March 2010). It can be found in shallow water in temporary pools and at the base of emergent vegetation (Channing and Schmitz 2008). It is thought to breed in water.	eng
176286	population	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>No population status information is currently available for this species.</p>	eng
176286	threats	IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2010	<p>There appears to be no obvious threat to this species; the type specimen was found in a disused quarry (A. Channing pers. comm. March 2010).<em></em>  </p>	eng
176290	conservation	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is listed on the CITES Appendix II. Further surveys are required to refine the area of occupancy estimate.<br/><br/>In 2008 this species was found in the Silaka Nature Reserve, the only protected area in which it has been found (K. Tolley and J. Measey pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176290	distribution	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is only known to occur in the vicinity of Port St Johns, in South Africa (Tolley and Burger 2007). Tolley and Burger (2007) estimate this species' extent of occurrence as 1,950 km²<sup></sup>, and the area of occupancy as 45 km².	eng
176290	habitat	Tolley, K., 2009	This species usually prefers low coastal forest (Branch 1998, Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
176290	population	Tolley, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176290	threats	Tolley, K., 2009	Habitat degradation in the Eastern Cape has been attributed to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing of land for agriculture, fuel-wood collection, invasion by introduced plants, and urbanization, all of which are likely to be threatening this species' habitat (Driver <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
176291	conservation	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is highly likely to occur in the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (a World Heritage and Ramsar site)&#160;(UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further research into threats and population monitoring are required to assess the impact that habitat degradation and loss is having on this species due to its restricted range.	eng
176291	distribution	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is found in the central Drakensberg of KwaZulu-Natal and eastern Free State (Tolley and Burger 2007). It is primarily found between 1,500 and 2,500 m above sea level (Branch 1998). Its extent of occurrence has been estimated as 11,000 km², with an area of occupancy of 5,500 km² (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176291	habitat	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is mostly found on bushes in the grasslands of the Drakensberg alpine zone. It is also known to occur in remaining patches of forest in the area (Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
176291	population	Tolley, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176291	threats	Tolley, K., 2009	Habitat degradation and loss due to overgrazing is occurring within the range of this species. Montane grasslands are being converted to exotic timber plantations, but currently this only comprises of 5% of the total land area. However, it is an attractive economic alternative for private landowners and may become a greater threat in the future (Zunckel 2003).	eng
176292	conservation	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. A small part of this species' range coincides with a protected area - the Woodbush Forest Reserve. Further research is required into the taxonomy and threats that exist for this species.	eng
176292	distribution	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is found along the Drakensberg escarpment in Mpumalanga (Wolksberg, Woodbush, Haenertsburg, Graskop, Mount Sheba, Barberton, The Downs, Pilgrams Rest, Mariepskop, and Sabie) and Limpopo (Soutpansberg and Blouberg) (Tolley and Burger 2007). &#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 42,000 km², with an area of occupancy of 5,000 km², taking in to account the large areas of unsuitable habitat within its range (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176292	habitat	Tolley, K., 2009	This species inhabits wet forest of escarpment gorges (Branch 1998). Although it is mainly a forest species, it is also found in forest fringes and even well-wooded gardens.	eng
176292	population	Tolley, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176292	threats	Tolley, K., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Deforestation of indigenous forest is occurring within this species range, however, it is not known what impact this is having; however&#160;this species is locally abundant in forest patches, so at present no immediate major threats are suspected. Many forests are relatively intact and protected (K. Tolley pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>	eng
176293	conservation	Tolley, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into extent of threats and the distribution of this species is recommended.	eng
176293	distribution	Tolley, K., 2009	This species has the largest distribution of any southern African dwarf chameleon, it has a wide distribution over large parts of the Eastern Cape and Great Karoo. The western limit of this species range is Beaufort West, the northernmost locality being Zastron and easternmost locality is&#160;Mthatha&#160;(Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
176293	habitat	Tolley, K., 2009	This species is found in a broad range of habitats including mesic thicket, savanna and grassland mosaic, and temperate forest patches, however, it rarely enters fynbos (Branch 1998, Tolley and Burger 2007).	eng
176293	population	Tolley, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176293	threats	Tolley, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, the species may be locally threatened as a result of habitat degradation due to overgrazing by domestic livestock, clearing for agriculture and invasion by introduced plants (Palmer <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
176321	conservation	Mariaux, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas. Site protection is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the area. Further research into the habitat status, population size, and threats to this species are required.	eng
176321	distribution	Mariaux, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Arc and Southern Rift Hotspot (Conservation International 2006). This species occurs on the eastern border of Zimbabwe in the Chirinda Forest (Branch 1998). Chirinda Forest is in the Chipinge Highlands, the most southerly of the four mountain ranges of the Eastern Highlands region that straddles the Mozambique-Zimbabwe border. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,961 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
176321	habitat	Mariaux, J., 2009	This species inhabits the undergrowth and leaf litter of the floor of montane evergreen wet forest (Branch 1998). Most taxa in this genus are restricted to isolated forest patches (Matthee <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
176321	population	Mariaux, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176321	threats	Mariaux, J., 2009	The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its woodland habitat. Deforestation in Mozambique has been estimated at 4.5% per year, which may be driven by the significant role the forests play in rural livelihoods (Mlay <em>et al</em>. 2003). Specific processes that threaten these woodlands include overgrazing, collection of wood for fuel and construction, inadequate fallow systems, and the use of fire for clearing land (Nhantumbo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Similarly in Zimbabwe, degradation of the woodlands have been attributed to fuelwood and construction wood collection, agricultural development and urban expansion (Chipika and Kowero 2000).	eng
176322	conservation	Mariaux, J. & LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research in threats and monitoring of its habitat is required to ensure that the localized population declines caused by habitat destruction are not occurring on a wider scale.	eng
176322	distribution	Mariaux, J. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species occurs in western and central Africa, and is distributed from Nigeria, south to Gabon. It is also found on Bioko Island. The range of this species also possibly includes the Central African Republic and the Congo. It can be found from sea level up to an elevation of 1,900 m.	eng
176322	habitat	Mariaux, J. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen wet forests (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species prefers to perch on small herbaceous plants and woody stems (Wild 1994). This species is known to have a clutch size of up to 18 eggs.	eng
176322	population	Mariaux, J. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species was found to be very common in parts of southern Nigeria and in montane areas of Cameroon, however, it is thought to be rarer in the lowlands (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
176322	threats	Mariaux, J. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is thought to be affected by habitat loss and fragmentation of its environment. Logging has been blamed for its disappearance from one location in Nigeria (Akani <em>et al.</em> 2001). Wild (1994) suggests that the low abundance of this species in degraded areas indicates that it is locally threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
176323	conservation	Mariaux, J., 2009	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species was previously classified under the genus <em>Bradypodion</em> and it would have received protection under Appendix II of CITES, however, there are no species of its current genus on the CITES list. Trade management is therefore required. This species is found within forest reserves, however, it is reported as uncommon in these areas and therefore further research is required to understand the habitat requirements of this species. Monitoring is needed to assess the impact that the high rates of habitat loss are having on its population size<em></em>.	eng
176323	distribution	Mariaux, J., 2009	This species is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in the Usambara Mountains (western and eastern), between an altitude of 800 to 1,400 m above sea level (J. Mariaux pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,243 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176323	habitat	Mariaux, J., 2009	This arboreal species inhabits montane primary forest and woodland. It is sensitive to habitat loss as it is unable to adapt to deforestation or cultivated landscapes (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous with clutch sizes of three to four eggs observed (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176323	population	Mariaux, J., 2009	This species is reported to be uncommon by Mease and Dell (2003). In addition, it is reported to be locally uncommon in the Mtai Forest Reserve (Doggart <em>et al.</em> 1999) and Amani Forest Reserve (Tropical Biology Association 2007).	eng
176323	threats	Mariaux, J., 2009	This species is reported to be extremely vulnerable to habitat loss (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Deforestation is a major threat to this species. By 1998 the Usambara Mountains had lost 71% of its original forest cover (Newmark 1998). Expanding cultivation, fire, livestock grazing, and illegal logging have all been cited as the causes of high rates of deforestation (The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2005). Mease and Dell (2003) note that an increasing number of tea plantations in the region are also responsible for habitat change. The region is becoming highly fragmented, with the remaining natural forest in the region split into 25 different fragments.<br/><br/>Many chameleon species in East Africa are collected for the pet trade and medicinal use (CITES 2005). The export quota for 2010 was eighteen individuals, all of which were recorded as captive-bred (CITES 2010). However, it is not known how severe this threat is to wild populations of this species.	eng
176324	conservation	Vogel, G. & Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
176324	distribution	Vogel, G. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species occurs in northern Viet Nam and the Chinese provinces of Guizhou and Guangxi. This species is found between 600 and 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
176324	habitat	Vogel, G. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is cave-dwelling and is known to occur in a region of evergreen forest (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
176324	population	Vogel, G. & Gower, D.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176324	threats	Vogel, G. & Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species.	eng
176325	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, population numbers, threats and habitat status of this species.	eng
176325	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality on Mount Jinggang in the Jiangxi Province of China (Zhao and Adler 1993). The known specimens of this species were collected at 940 m above sea level (Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
176325	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	There is no information on the habitat preferences of this species, though based on its type locality it may inhabit the subtropical evergreen forests in the region. Species from the <em>Achalinus</em> genus are small to moderate sized, secretive snakes (Ota and Toyama 1989).	eng
176325	population	Ota, H., 2009	This species is only known from the the original description (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
176325	threats	Ota, H., 2009	The region in which this species occurs is suffering from deforestation due to conversion of forest to agricultural land, but as the habitat preference of this species is not fully understood, it is unknown what impact this may have.	eng
176328	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards from habitat degradation. No additional conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176328	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is known from a patchy distribution across western Africa, in Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Cameroon. It can be presumed that the species is present in other west African countries, however, low recorder effort means it has not yet been recorded in these areas.	eng
176328	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This semi-aquatic species occurs in or near streams and ponds in rainforest and swamp habitat (LeBreton 1999), in savanna-bush mosaic habitats, as well as plantations and agricultural ditches (Leplaideur 2005, Akani <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
176328	population	Rödel, M.-O. & LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is reported to be one of the most abundant snake species in southern Nigeria (Akani <em>et al.</em> 1999, Luiselli <em>et al.</em> 1998), however, it is considered rare on Mount Cameroon (Gonwou 2002).	eng
176328	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & LeBreton, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. In certain locations this species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to logging and agricultural expansion, however, due to its ability to utilize several different habitats, including anthropogenic environments, this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
176329	conservation	Inger R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. Parts of this species distribution range coincides with protected areas.	eng
176329	distribution	Inger R.F., 2009	This species is widely distributed in Asia and occurs from India through to Viet Nam, north to China and south to the Philippines and Indonesia (David and Vogel 1996). In Sumatra, this species has been recorded at elevations ranging from sea-level up to over 900 m above sea level in Kerinci Valley, 920 m above sea level at Fort-de-Kock in the Padang Highlands, and around 1,300 m above sea level near Berastagi (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
176329	habitat	Inger R.F., 2009	This species inhabits both primary lowland and montane moist forests, secondary forests, dry and open forests, scrublands, plantations, gardens (David and Vogel 1996), monsoon forest (McKay 2006), cultivated land, roadsides, and city gardens (R. Inger pers. comm.) Sharma (2003) states that species of this genus are arboreal, diurnal snakes, living on shrubs and bushes, but foraging on the ground.	eng
176329	population	Inger R.F., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is "fairly common" in India. David and Vogel (1996) report that in Sumatra this species is widespread and common and is one of the most frequently seen snakes.	eng
176329	threats	Inger R.F., 2009	This species is widespread and inhabits a broad range of environments, therefore it is unlikely to be impacted upon by any major threats in all areas of its range.	eng
176330	conservation	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C. & Powell, R., 2009	This species currently has no conservation measures in place for it. Further research into the threats, trends, habitat status and abundance is suggested. The establishment and management of new protected areas could provide a safeguard for this species from habitat loss.	eng
176330	distribution	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C. & Powell, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Terre-de-Bas and Terre-de-Haut which make up the Îles de Saintes, part of Guadeloupe. Terre-de-Bas and Terre-de-Haut are very small islands with a total area of approximately 16 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176330	habitat	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C. & Powell, R., 2009	This species occurs along mangrove edges, roadsides, gardens, wooded areas, preferentially in semi-deciduous forest with <em>Pimenta racemosa</em>, <em>Pisonia subcordata</em>, <em>Hymenea courbaril</em>, and <em>Bursera simaruba</em>. Although the species has been found in various habitats, it prefers areas less frequented by humans (Breuil 2002).	eng
176330	population	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C. & Powell, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176330	threats	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C. & Powell, R., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to urban development, particularly for the tourist industry. Its extremely small range and lack of migrational options means that the species is also susceptible to future climate change, specifically sea level rise, however the effects of climate change on species persistence are still very uncertain.	eng
176333	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is known to occur in Kinabalu National Park (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002) and Crocker Range National Park, Sabah (Das 2006). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance, range and habitat status is requires and monitoring should be conducted.	eng
176333	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo. Malkmus <em>et al.</em> (2002) list its range as Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak. It has been found up to 1,300 m on Mt. Kinabalu and was thought to prefer habitat above 500 m above sea level (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002). However, the species is widespread in localities well below 500 m altitude (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
176333	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is found along small, clear, flowing waters in primary or tall secondary forests (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002, R. Inger pers. comm.). Indeed, the genus shows a more or less strict preference for moist habitats near rivers, lakes, ponds, waterholes or mountain streams.	eng
176333	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no species-specific population data available for this species. It is thought to be   reasonably abundant in clear streams in primary and tall secondary forests (R. Inger pers. comm.). However, this species is likely experiencing population declines outside of strictly protected areas, because of the threats affecting its habitat.	eng
176333	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation across its range. In Sabah, only 60% of the natural forest remains at present, and is under threat from timber extraction and conversion to agricultural plantations (McMorrow and Talip 2001). From 1983-1997, the area under commercial cultivation more than doubled from 6-16%, with oil palm dominating the landscape (McMorrow and Talip 2001).<br/><br/>While this species has a moderate distribution, its has only been found in clear streams in primary and mature secondary forests. R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes this species may be further threatened by declines in water quality as a result of the ongoing deforestation, which causes siltation of streams. This causes a decline in tadpoles, a major component of this species' diet (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
176334	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Due to the threats of habitat loss, further research into the abundance, threats, habitat status and trends are suggested.	eng
176334	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is known to occur in the Ranong and Chumphon provinces of Thailand (David and Das 2003, Cox 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 8,953 km²<sup></sup>, it has an upper limit of 2,000 m above sea level (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
176334	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	While there is no information on the specific habitat of this species, snakes in this genus are known to inhabit primary and secondary forest in moist areas near water such as streams and ponds.	eng
176334	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176334	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	The area of forest in Thailand declined by 28% between 1976 and 1989 (Cropper <em>et al</em>. 1999) and is experiencing continued deforestation due to illegal logging and agricultural expansion.	eng
176335	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into the abundance, threats, trends and habitat status are suggested as threats may increase in the future.	eng
176335	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is reported from the Malaysian provinces of Perak and Pahang, in Lampung Province on the Indonesian island of Sumatra and through southern and central Thailand (Leong and Lim 2003, Mumpuni 2001).	eng
176335	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	This species has been found in highlands and from its distribution, it is likely to inhabit montane wet forest. Snakes in this genus are known to prefer habitat near bodies of water including streams and ponds (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
176335	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176335	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	The forest habitat in this region is experiencing loss, degradation and fragmentation due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agricultural activities. However, because it is confined to montane forests which are so far less threatened than lowland forests in this region, and due to this species' reasonably wide range, these threats should not be considered major at this time.	eng
176336	conservation	Lau, M., 2009	Much of this species range falls within protected areas (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time but monitoring of its habitat should be carried out.	eng
176336	distribution	Lau, M., 2009	This species occurs in southern China including Hainan Island, west to Yunnan and north to Guizhou (Zhao and Adler 1993). It is also reported from Viet Nam (David <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
176336	habitat	Lau, M., 2009	This species has been found in evergreen forests (M. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
176336	population	Lau, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176336	threats	Lau, M., 2009	In some portions of its range this species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, infrastructure development and logging. However, significant areas of habitat remain and these should not be considered major threats at this time.	eng
176337	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology, abundance, habitat status, trends and threats of this species is needed.	eng
176337	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is known from the Tung-gyi region of northern Myanmar, Nepal, and Ghora Gali, Alpine Punjab, Pakistan (Khan 2002). Schleich and Kästle (2002) make no reference to its presence in Nepal in their review. Nepal may have become associated with it by way of its synonymy with <em>A. platyceps</em>. By implication, this also calls into question the records for Myanmar and perhaps Bangladesh. Recent surveys by G. Zug (pers. comm.) have likewise failed to confirm its present occurrence in Myanmar.	eng
176337	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This is a "highland snake" (Khan 2002).	eng
176337	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176337	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	In some portions of its range, this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as agricultural expansion, however, it is not known if these are severe threats at this time.	eng
176338	conservation	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species. While there is some official protection to forests in this region, the protection is not enforced. Research into the habitat status, threats, trends and abundance is suggested.	eng
176338	distribution	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality near Ujungpadang in the District of Aceh Selatan, Sumatra, Indonesia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176338	habitat	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is probably semi-aquatic occurring in freshwater habitats and in wet forests (David and Vogel 1996, Murphy 2007). The habitat around Ujungpadang consists primarily of lowland forest. The type collection was probably from the Kluet-Bakongan swamp forest (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009)	eng
176338	population	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	All available information on the species is based on a single specimen. No population data are available.	eng
176338	threats	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	The major specific threats to this species are unknown. However, despite official protection, the forests in Aceh Selatan remain at high risk of deforestation and are experiencing ongoing illegal exploitation, including large-scale clear-cutting, conversion of forest to palm oil plantations and increased human settlement, all of which are having "severe" ecological consequences (van Beukering <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).	eng
176340	conservation	Rodríguez Schettino, L., Hedges, S.B., Powell, R., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with 25 protected areas, including the Gran Humedal de Ciego de Avila Ramsar wetland, the Paisaje Natural Protegido Gran Piedra, Reserva Ecológica Pico Mogote and Reserva de la Biosfera Baconao. Also, environmental education programmes are currently being planned which will aid with the conservation of this snake.	eng
176340	distribution	Rodríguez Schettino, L., Hedges, S.B., Powell, R., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found on Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud as well as a number of offshore cays. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 11,344 km² and it has an elevational range of 0 to 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
176340	habitat	Rodríguez Schettino, L., Hedges, S.B., Powell, R., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in dry scrub, coastal scrub, cultivated fields, urban areas and wooded areas.	eng
176340	population	Rodríguez Schettino, L., Hedges, S.B., Powell, R., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176340	threats	Rodríguez Schettino, L., Hedges, S.B., Powell, R., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species appears to be tolerant of human-mediated habitat alterations and is not under any major threats. However, as with many snakes in the West Indies, there is a minor threat of persecution.	eng
176342	conservation	Inger R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance, range, habitat, and threats is needed, as is population and habitat monitoring. Parts of this species' distribution range coincides with protected areas, which is likely to provide a small safeguard from habitat loss.	eng
176342	distribution	Inger R.F., 2009	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Philippines and Thailand (David and Vogel 1996). In Indonesia, it is known from Bangka, Java, Natuna Archipelago, Nias, and Sumatra and across to the island of Borneo. While it has been reported from Myanmar by David and Vogel (1996) recent surveys have not been able to confirm its current presence in the country (G. Zug pers. comm.). It has been recorded up to 1,300 m above sea level (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
176342	habitat	Inger R.F., 2009	Little is known about this species, but it is thought to inhabit lowland and montane moist forests (David and Vogel 1996). The species is nocturnal and arboreal, and mostly found in low vegetation. ARCBC (2006) lists primary forest, cultivated areas and plantations under 'preferred habitats'. However, R. Inger (pers. comm.) does not know of any records in tree plantations.	eng
176342	population	Inger R.F., 2009	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is "widespread but seems uncommon". While also noting that this species is not often seen, R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes it was observed at almost every survey site in Borneo, suggesting it is abundant.	eng
176342	threats	Inger R.F., 2009	This species is likely impacted by deforestation due to human activities including agricultural expansion, logging, and the growth of human settlements and infrastructure. While significant areas of habitat remain, R. Inger (pers. comm.) states the rate of deforestation may trigger a threat category in the near future.	eng
176343	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	Further research into this species' distribution, ecology, and the direct threats to the species is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
176343	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is known from two specimens, but is thought to be distributed in the Cerrado habitat of the Brazilian states of Goias and Minas Gerais; so far, however, it has not been recorded elsewhere (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176343	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is a fossorial species which inhabits the savanna/shrubland Cerrado habitat of central Brazil.	eng
176343	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is known from just two specimens.	eng
176343	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	The area where the specimens of this species were collected is well populated, and between urban areas the land has often been converted to agriculture, causing degradation and loss of the natural Cerrado habitat. Such dramatic losses of natural habitat may have had an adverse effect on the species.	eng
176344	conservation	Harvey, M.B. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been evaluated as vulnerable in the latest issue of the Bolivian Red Book, based on a set of evaluation criteria called MEGA (Cortez 2009). Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
176344	distribution	Harvey, M.B. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is considered to be endemic to Santa Cruz Department and is known from 17 specimens, found in just two localities in the Provincia Florida, Departmento Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The first is from the vicinity of Pampagrande and the second San Juan del Portrero. It is mainly distributed in the inter-Andean dry valleys, considered one of the most threatened habitats in Bolivia (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010). This species is found up to 1,800 m above sea level (Embert and Reichle 2003). Its extent of occurrence has recently been estimated as approximately 37,000 km² using habitat&#160;modelling&#160;(D. Embert pers. comm. 2010), which is considered to be severely fragmented habitat and lacking any coverage by protected areas.	eng
176344	habitat	Harvey, M.B. & Embert, D., 2009	This species occupies mainly inter-Andean dry forest where it is quite common; it is also known from Tucuman forest and Mountain Chaco (D. Embert pers. comm.). This species is semi-fossorial and nocturnal.	eng
176344	population	Harvey, M.B. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from only 17 specimens.	eng
176344	threats	Harvey, M.B. & Embert, D., 2009	Harvey (1999) and Embert (2007) state that much of the natural habitat around Pampagrande has been altered by agricultural practices, causing the severe fragmentation of the habitat. This inoffensive species may also suffer from localized persecution by humans, because it is thought of as dangerous due to its colour and behaviour (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176345	conservation	Harvey, M.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the type locality of this species is within the Parque Nacional 'Noel Kempff Mrecado' (IUCN Category II). Further research into the distribution and population of this species is required.	eng
176345	distribution	Harvey, M.B., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, Estancia El Refugio, Provincia Velasco, Santa Cruz, in Bolivia.	eng
176345	habitat	Harvey, M.B., 2009	The type locality of this fossorial species is tropical dry forest on the bank of the Paragua, where much of the low-lying surrounding area is seasonally inundated.	eng
176345	population	Harvey, M.B., 2009	This species is only known from type locality.	eng
176345	threats	Harvey, M.B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, possibly due to its fossorial nature.	eng
176346	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	Further research into the distribution, population status, and threats of this species is recommended, as is population and habitat monitoring.	eng
176346	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is known from the state of Piaui, Brazil. It is suspected that collection localities do not cover a wide area, as the distribution was described as 'enclave at Piaui' by Lema (2003). A second locality was found in protected areas in the Jalapão region in Tocantins state (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176346	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is a fossorial species found in the Caatinga dry forest habitat. The species is also thought to be a typical Cerrado snake species (G. Costa and C. Nogueira pers. comms.). It is found in open, interfluvial savannas of the northern portion of the Cerrado (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176346	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available.	eng
176346	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	Much of the Caatinga has been affected by overgrazing, and more recently cotton cultivation, which in places has completely changed the native vegetation. The Cerrado is one of the most threatened ecosystems in Brazil, suffering particularly from the effects of expanded agricultural activities and human initiated fires. The impacts of habitat loss and degradation on the species are currently not known.	eng
176347	conservation	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C., Powell, R. & Schettino, L.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution coincides with a number of protected areas, however, enforcement of protected status is not always effective. Environmental education which is needed in Cuba will also help in conserving this species. Research into the threats to this species' habitat should be carried out as an increase in habitat loss could lead to declines in this species.	eng
176347	distribution	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C., Powell, R. & Schettino, L.R., 2009	This species occurs on Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, and has an elevational range of 0 to 800 m above sea level. No specimen have been found from central Cuba. It has been suggested that it also occurs on the off-shore cays of the Gran Humedal del Norte de Ciego de Avilla Ramsar, but no specimens have been recorded from there as yet.	eng
176347	habitat	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C., Powell, R. & Schettino, L.R., 2009	This species is ground-dwelling and fossorial. It occurs in dry open areas, including pastures, grassland, bare areas, under cover on and near beaches.	eng
176347	population	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C., Powell, R. & Schettino, L.R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176347	threats	Hedges, S.B., Mayer, G.C., Powell, R. & Schettino, L.R., 2009	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by habitat loss due to urbanization. However, at this time this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
176348	conservation	Somaweera, R., de Silva, A. & Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. While there may be protected areas within the range of this species, the protection is not strictly enforced and parks are still subject to illegal logging and human settlement (UNEP-WCMC 2006). Further research and monitoring into the effect that a decrease in the abundance of earthworms will have upon this species should be carried out. Surveying of all known localities to confirm the full extent of this species' range is also needed.<br/><br/>This species was listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.	eng
176348	distribution	Somaweera, R., de Silva, A. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka where it occurs in the southwestern portion of the country (de Silva 1990). It is known from a few locations in the Sabaragamuwa province and the central provinces of Dikoya, Pundaluoya, Balangoda and Dimbula (Somaweera 2006, Gans and Fetcho 1982).&#160;However recent island wide surveys have failed to come across this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). &#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,809 km². This species is found between 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level, although it has been found at lower altitudes.	eng
176348	habitat	Somaweera, R., de Silva, A. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is a nocturnal, fossorial species (de Silva 1990). Based upon its known distribution it may inhabit montane tropical forest, however, there is a report of it occuring in the drains of cultivated areas (Wall 1921). R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states that it may inhabit lowland as well as montane tropical forests, and also anthropogenic habitats.	eng
176348	population	Somaweera, R., de Silva, A. & Gower, D.J., 2009	De Silva (1990) reports that this is an uncommon snake. It has been described as a relict species (Somaweera 2007) and as rare (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). Furthermore recent island-wide surveys have failed to find this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176348	threats	Somaweera, R., de Silva, A. & Gower, D.J., 2009	Deforestation leading to forest fragmentation, the wide use of pesticide in tea plantations, and the expansion of urban and agricultural land, impacts upon earthworms which comprise the main diet of this snake (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). However, to what degree this affects the species is not known.	eng
176349	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	It is recommended that research on population trends and threats to the species is carried out to ascertain whether habitat loss is having a detrimental effect on this species.	eng
176349	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Rondonia, Para (in the eastern part of the state), Acre, Goias, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul (Zaher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2005, C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176349	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is found in forested areas, and is also known from Cerrado formation habitats in central Brazil. Species of this genus are fossorial and semifossorial.	eng
176349	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	No population data are available for this species.	eng
176349	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation, as a result on conversion of land to agriculture and as a result of deforestation, is occurring within the range of this species. However, the extent to which this has a detrimental effect on the species, if any, is not known.	eng
176350	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology and habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176350	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, which is the town of Manizales, Departamento de Caldas, Colombia.	eng
176350	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species is fossorial. &#160;It is adapted to open areas (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176350	population	Castro, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176350	threats	Castro, F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
176351	conservation	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of population trends are required to confirm that localized threats within the species' range are not causing large population declines.	eng
176351	distribution	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is found on the western slopes of the Andes, in northern Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. This species is found between 2,000 and 3,130 m above sea level.	eng
176351	habitat	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is found in humid montane forest (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).	eng
176351	population	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176351	threats	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that a major threat is having a significant impact on the population numbers of this species across its entire range. However, this species may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of land use change due to agricultural expansion.	eng
176352	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species should be carried out to ensure that localized threats, such as habitat loss, do not become more widespread across its range.	eng
176352	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species occurs in the Colombian highlands from 2,000 to 3,200 m above sea level in the regions of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Bogotá (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001). It has a distributional area of 34,156 km².	eng
176352	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species inhabits grassy areas with thickets, including pastures. It is found sheltering under stones and logs and seems to occur in somewhat disturbed areas, such as ploughed land (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001).	eng
176352	population	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This snake is reportedly particularly common in the area around the capital district of Bogotá (Corporación Suna Hisca 2001).	eng
176352	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species appears to tolerate human-affected environments and while it may be undergoing habitat loss and degradation, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
176353	conservation	Kornacker, P. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population should be carried out because of its restricted range.	eng
176353	distribution	Kornacker, P. , 2009	This species is found in Venezuela, in the region of Cerro Duida, in Territorio Federal Amazonas.	eng
176353	habitat	Kornacker, P. , 2009	This fossorial species is found in a mountainous area surrounding Cerro Duida. The habitat within this species' range is a patchwork of seasonal humid evergreen and deciduous forest, and high plains.	eng
176353	population	Kornacker, P. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176353	threats	Kornacker, P. , 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species or its environment as Cerro Duida is still well vegetated.	eng
176354	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176354	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is known from the Amazonas region of Colombia.	eng
176354	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species is fossorial or semifossorial and is found in a region of humid tropical lowland forest.	eng
176354	population	Castro, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176354	threats	Castro, F., 2009	The impact of threats on this species are not well understood, however, there are not thought to be any plausible major threats to this snake.	eng
176355	conservation	Aguilar, C. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176355	distribution	Aguilar, C. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found on the Amazonian slopes of Colombia, in the Ecuadorian provinces of Carchi, Chimborazo, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Tungurahua, in Venezuela, and in the Brazilian states of Amazonas, and Pará (Martins and Oliveira 1993). Pérez-Santos and Moreno (1991) also include Peru and Bolivia in the range of this species. This species is found between sea level and 3,000 m above sea level.	eng
176355	habitat	Aguilar, C. & Doan, T.M., 2009	In Ecuador, this species lives primarily in humid and wet tropical lowland and mountain forest. It is also known to occur in semi-open areas including forest edges and stream-sides, and open areas including pastureland and cultivated areas, and spiny steppe.	eng
176355	population	Aguilar, C. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176355	threats	Aguilar, C. & Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176356	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to establish the full range of this species. Further investigations should be carried out into the large number of <em></em>specimens of this genus that remain misidentified or unidentified in herpetological collections (Passos <em>et al.</em> 2007). Monitoring of this species' habitat is needed to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
176356	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species<em></em> inhabits the Pacific versant of the Andes of Ecuador. This species has been recorded in the provinces of Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Azuay (Passos <em>et al.</em> 2007). One specimen has been collected from Plan de Milagro at Morona-Santiago Province, however, Passos <em>et al.</em> (2007) state that "additional specimens are required in order to confirm the occurrence of the species on the Atlantic versant of the Andes of Ecuador." This species has been found at altitudes between 2,400 and 2,560 m above sea level, however, it probably occurs at lower elevations (Cisneros-Heredia and Touzet 2005). &#160;This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 20,000 km²<sup> </sup>(D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010), considered severely fragmented as a result of deforestation.	eng
176356	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is fossorial and has been found to inhabit humid montane forest.	eng
176356	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176356	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	In certain locations this species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat due to logging, mining and agricultural expansion. Furthermore, deforestation has fragmented this species distribution, and may create further fragmentation in the future (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176357	conservation	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. Protected areas should also be established (J.C. Arredondo pers. comm.).	eng
176357	distribution	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is only known from the northern region of the Cordillera Central and Occidental in Colombia, in the&#160;municipalities of San Pedro de los Milagros, Támesis, and Jericó&#160;(the type locality). Recent surveys have found two specimens from Jardin&#160;municipality (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010). This species is found between 2,000 and 2,500 m above sea level and the area it is distributed in is approximately 6,320 km²<sup></sup>. &#160;This species distribution is considered to be severely fragmented by the presence of coffee plantations (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176357	habitat	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This fossorial or semi-fossorial species is found in an area where the habitat is predominantly moist montane forest.	eng
176357	population	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is rare and until recently there were no records of this species having been documented since 1965 (J.C. Arredondo, pers. comm.2010). Recent surveys found two specimens in the Jardin municipality (J.C. Arrendondo pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176357	threats	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species occurs in a region where high rates of habitat loss are occurring. The expansion of coffee plantations and other agricultural activities have caused the remaining undisturbed forest habitat to become severely fragmented (J.C. Arredondo pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176358	conservation	Aguilar, C. and Espinoza, R. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Reserva Nacional de Junín. Further research is required into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
176358	distribution	Aguilar, C. and Espinoza, R. , 2009	This species is only known from the area of Baja Tambopata, in the department of Madre de Dios, Peru.	eng
176358	habitat	Aguilar, C. and Espinoza, R. , 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, apart from it being fossorial. The region of Madre de Dios is comprised predominantly of low-lying Amazonian rainforest.	eng
176358	population	Aguilar, C. and Espinoza, R. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176358	threats	Aguilar, C. and Espinoza, R. , 2009	Potential threats in the region include habitat degradation due to logging and mining. However, it is not known what impact these threats are having on this species.	eng
176359	conservation	Lundberg, M., Passos, P. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the distribution, ecology, habitat preferences, and threats to this species.	eng
176359	distribution	Lundberg, M., Passos, P. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality, Carpapata, in the upper Chanchamayo Valley, within the Department of Junin, Peru.	eng
176359	habitat	Lundberg, M., Passos, P. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, possibly due to it being a fossorial or semi-fossorial species.	eng
176359	population	Lundberg, M., Passos, P. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176359	threats	Lundberg, M., Passos, P. & Aguilar, C., 2009	Large areas of Junin are threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation, mainly due to logging and conversion of land to agriculture. However, the impact that this is having on this species is currently unknown.	eng
176360	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as establishing and managing protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat degradation occurring within this species' range. Monitoring of this species should take place.	eng
176360	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is endemic to Ecuador. This species has a disjunct population and is known from the provinces of Bolivar and Chimborazo and probably in El Oro. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,667 km²<sup></sup> but its extent of occurrence is around 19,000 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 1,200 and 3,000 m above sea level.	eng
176360	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in dry forest and steppe, and wetter forest habitats.	eng
176360	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176360	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	Habitat degradation and loss as a result of deforestation has fragmented the species' habitat. Agricultural expansion and mining also occur in the region in which this species is found.	eng
176361	conservation	Martins, M. & Waldez, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
176361	distribution	Martins, M. & Waldez, F., 2009	This species is found in Brazil, in eastern Amazonas, eastern Para, and in Amapa, Maranhao and Rondonia.	eng
176361	habitat	Martins, M. & Waldez, F., 2009	This species is a fossorial species, which is found in primary and secondary forest habitat. This species has also been found in disturbed agricultural environments (Bernarde 2004).	eng
176361	population	Martins, M. & Waldez, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176361	threats	Martins, M. & Waldez, F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Although localized deforestation is occurring within its range, species of this genus live inside the soil and tend to persist even in disturbed habitats (M. Martins pers. comm.).	eng
176362	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/nt under the IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3. More specifically, it was considered to be relatively widespread and and occurring in many locations, and to have a stable population.<br/><br/>Recently, this species was included in CITES Appendix III. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
176362	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is found in India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In India, this snake is found along the east coast to Uttaranchal (Sharma 2003). It is thought to be absent from most of northern India. De Silva (1990) states that this species is known from all the provinces of Sri Lanka, however, it was recently noted to be absent from the Knuckles Mountain Range (Project Knuckles 2005). In Nepal, a few records exist in the Midlands from east to west (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176362	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This diurnal, aquatic snake is found among vegetation near freshwater and is found in proximity to saline pools and lagoons in the Jaffna Peninsula. This species is often found on land, and it has been observed in streams, ponds, wells, and paddy fields, and in close proximity to water sources. This species feeds on frogs and fish.	eng
176362	population	de Silva, A., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this is "a common snake", particularly around Bangalore, Tamil Nadu, and Kakinada (Cocanada), Andhra Pradesh. De Silva (1990) also reports that it is common in Sri Lanka.	eng
176362	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	Until 1972, upon the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act in India, this species was one of many species that were commonly used in the snake skin trade. According to the CITES database, the skins of this species were traded for handbags, shoes, garments and various leather products from 1985-1996, however, trade seems to have stopped with the exception of 14 traded leather products in 2005 (CITES 2007).	eng
176363	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is known to occur in protected areas within its range including Sinharaja Natural Heritage Wilderness Sanctuary (de Silva 1990). In 2007, the species was listed as Vulnerable under B1ab(i,ii)+2 ab(i,ii) on the Sri Lanka Red List (IUCN Sri Lanka and Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources 2007).<br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status and trends, and distribution of this species should be carried out.	eng
176363	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the southwestern wet zone of Sri Lanka and is found in the lowland wet zone, mid-elevation forest and a few locations in the intermediate zone (R. Somaweera, pers. comm. 2010). Records exist from Kanneliya, Deniyaya, Yatiyanthota, Balangoda, Kuruwita, Kegalle, Labugama, Bandarawela, Lenok watta, Uwa pathana, Knuckles, Peak Wilderness,&#160;Sinharaja (Kudawa), and Udagama; with&#160;an old record from Peradeniya<strong>&#160;</strong>&#160;&#160;(A. de Silva, and R. Somaweera&#160;pers. comms. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,900 km². This species is found below 900 m above sea level.	eng
176363	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits hilly areas (Kashyap 1975) within forest and rainforest in the wet zone of Sri Lanka.	eng
176363	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Due to its secretive nature, this species was considered a rare snake restricted to the rain forests. However, recent surveys indicate that it is widely distributed in relatively large numbers (A. de Silva, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176363	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements, leading to severe habitat fragmentation. In 2005 it was estimated that only 5% of the island's original wet zone forest, where the species occurs, remained (Bahir and Surasinghe 2005). While there have been some reforesting attempts, these have mainly consisted of monoculture, exotic species and do not support high numbers of native vertebrates (Manamendra-Arachchi and Liyanage 1994).	eng
176619	conservation	Captain, A.S., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as Data Deficient, since no data on its range, populations status, or the current threat processes was available. Therefore further research into the distribution, taxonomy and threats affecting this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176619	distribution	Captain, A.S., 2009	The species status and consequently the distribution of this species are currently under dispute, as there is a view that it might be a junior synonym of <em>B. ceylonensis</em> (Samarawickrama <em>et al.</em> 2005). In India, this species appears to be known from the Maharashtra region, while in Sri Lanka, it has been collected from Peradeniya. <br/><br/>In identifying a new species, <em>Boiga ranawanei</em>, from the central highlands of Sri Lanka, Samarawickrama <em>et al.</em> (2005) state that it is possible that specimens previously identified as <em>B. beddomei</em> in the highlands would actually be <em>B. ranawanei</em>. They do note, however, that <em>B. ranawanei</em> was only recorded in the Kandy District and therefore could not account for specimens of <em>B. beddomei</em> from the lowland wet and dry zones.	eng
176619	habitat	Captain, A.S., 2009	This species is presumed to inhabit moist montane forests in both India and Sri Lanka, as well as lowland moist and dry forests in Sri Lanka and India (A. Captain pers. comm.).	eng
176619	population	Captain, A.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176619	threats	Captain, A.S., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, fire practices, and rapidly growing human population and settlements may all be impacting this species but the extent of these threats are not known.	eng
176620	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. There are protected areas within this species' suspected range, including Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Viet Nam (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Further research into the population trends, habitat, threats, distribution, and ecology of this species are needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176620	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known only from a single specimen from Minh Hoa district, Quang Binh province, Vietnam&#160; (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004), but may occur throughout the area of intact karst limestone of central and north-central Viet Nam and in adjacent Lao PDR (R. Bain pers. comm.). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,740 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176620	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	The type specimen of this species was found in the leaf-litter of primary evergreen forest in a rocky valley of the Annamite mountains at 550 m above sea level (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Snakes in this genus are primarily tree-dwellers.	eng
176620	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176620	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species may be in decline due to the loss, fragmentation and degradation of its forest habitat as a result of logging and the expansion of agriculture. In Lao PDR land use change and deforestation has occurred reducing the forest cover of the country by 30% between the 1940s and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000), however, in both Lao PDR and Viet Nam large areas of forest still remain.	eng
176621	conservation	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was regionally assessed as LR/nt under the IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3, due its large range. However, habitat loss was identified as a localized threat, and future monitoring of this species was recommended.<br/><br/>This species is found in a number of protected areas, including the Anawilundawa Wetland Sanctuary (a Ramsar site) and Kalakad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. In Sri Lanka it is known from several Wildlife and Forest Conservation forests.	eng
176621	distribution	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species is found in India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In India, the species is found in the Dangs District of Gujarat, the Ganges valley, Orissa, West Bengal, and Rajasthan provinces, and the entire Western Ghats (Sharma 2003). It is found throughout Sri Lanka, however, was noted to be absent from a recent survey in the Knuckles Mountain Range (Project Knuckles 2005). In Nepal, this species is known from the eastern and western Terai (Schleich and Kästle 2002).<br/><br/>Schleich and Kästle (2002) note that the species is found up to 300 m above sea level.	eng
176621	habitat	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species is found in both dry and wet forests, open jungle, forest boarders, and cultivated areas (Schleich and Kästle 2002) where it lives in small to medium bushes, scrubby vegetation and also on tall trees with profuse branching (Sharma 2002). It is said to be a common predator of poultry and other common birds (e.g., pigeons), as well as bats. This species usually rests inside tree holes, especially in <em>Ficus bengalensis</em> and other large trees (A. de Silva pers. comm.).	eng
176621	population	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species has been described as fairly common by various authors (Sharma 2003, Daniel 2002, De Silva 1990).	eng
176621	threats	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	It has been reported that this species is often killed while forest is being cleared, due to the perception that it poses a threat to humans (De Silva 2006). However, due to the wide range of this species, localized events of persecution by humans should not be considered a major threat. Habitat loss has also been cited as a localized threat to this species (CAMP workshop 1997).	eng
176622	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat trends should be carried out.	eng
176622	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	This species is found in India, Nepal and Bhutan.<br/><br/>In India, this species is known from the Darjeeling District in the Eastern Himalayas and from Subathu, Mussooree, Naini Tal and Muktesar in the Western Himalayas (Sharma 2003). <br/><br/>Tillack <em>et al.</em> (2005) report an incidental find in west Nepal at 3,050 m, the highest record for any member of this genus, thus bridging a distribution gap between east Nepal and Uttaranchal.	eng
176622	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This species inhabits forested hilly areas above 1,525 m above sea level (Schleich and Kästle 2002, Sharma 2002).	eng
176622	population	Captain, A., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare. For example, records from Nepal are few and vague (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176622	threats	Captain, A., 2009	The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan Workshop held in Coimbatore in 1997 identified habitat loss as a threat to this species (BCPP 1997). This is likely due to agricultural development.	eng
176623	conservation	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the threats, range, ecology and habitat status is needed, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended. The establishment and management of protected areas could provide valuable refuge sites for this species.	eng
176623	distribution	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is endemic to Indonesia and is thought to inhabit Pulau Nias and a single site on the west coast of Sumatra (Inger and Marx 1965). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately equal to 4,771 km².	eng
176623	habitat	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is thought to inhabit lowland rainforest habitat.	eng
176623	population	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	The CBSG CAMP workshop for Sumatra (2003) stated that the population of this species is declining.	eng
176623	threats	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to factors including logging, expansion of agriculture and the conversion of forest to plantation estates. The forest cover of Sumatra declined by 61% between 1985 and 1997 and it was predicted in 2002 that in three years the lowland forests of this islands would have almost entirely disappeared (Achmaliadi <em>et al</em>. 2002). The habitat of this species is 'fragmented' (CBSG 2003).	eng
176624	conservation	Inger, R.F., Lardner, B. & Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176624	distribution	Inger, R.F., Lardner, B. & Vogel, G., 2009	<p>This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is only known from the type specimen, collected in 1919 from Pinapuan, near Luwuk and Biak, on the eastern peninsula of the island (province Sulawesi Tengah) (Inger and Marx 1965, de Lang and Vogel 2005). The elevation of the collection site appears unknown but the general area is mostly low elevation. The apparent rarity may be an artefact of little sampling in this part of Sulawesi. Furthermore, the semi-fossorial and leaf litter dwelling life style of snakes in this genus cause them to be easily overseen unless drift fences with pitfall traps are used (Lardner 2007). Large tracts of the east Sulawesi peninsula still has forest cover and since most <span style="font-style: italic;">Calamaria </span>spp. tend to be associated with forest habitats, this species could potentially have a considerably wider distribution than the sole known locality might seem to suggest.<br/></p>	eng
176624	habitat	Inger, R.F., Lardner, B. & Vogel, G., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown; however the only known specimen was found living in soil (G. van Buurt pers. comm. 2010) in a forested area.	eng
176624	population	Inger, R.F., Lardner, B. & Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data for this species. This species has not been recovered despite relatively active, recent  collecting efforts in many parts of Sulawesi, which likely indicates low population  numbers (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176624	threats	Inger, R.F., Lardner, B. & Vogel, G., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted on by any major threat process.	eng
176625	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been recorded in   three well-protected parks in <st1:place w:st="on">Sabah</st1:place> (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010), in which it can be assumed that the species is able to maintain itself. Further research into its abundance and range, habitat requirements and threats is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176625	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Borneo where it is known from five localities (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010) in lowland areas, covering far more than 20,000 km²<sup></sup>. Original collection localities, as described by Inger and Marx (1965), were Tuaran in Sabah and Samarinda on the eastern coast of Kalimantan. Das and Yaakon (2007) have noted that this species is also found on Sarawak.	eng
176625	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is a little-known semi-burrowing, lowland forest-dwelling species (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).&#160;Because of their semi-fossorial lifestyle, snakes of the genus <em>Calamaria</em> may occur at high densities and yet go undetected unless particular inventory methods, such as pitfall trapping, is employed (Lardner 2007). It is therefore likely that this species is widely spread despite being known from relatively few records (B. Lardner pers.comm. 2010).	eng
176625	population	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.   Because of the difficulty of finding individuals of this species, evaluation of its population status may never be possible (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176625	threats	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	Deforestation on Borneo presents a threat to the habitat of this species. In Indonesia, there is extensive deforestation for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 21-25% of the forest across Kalimantan was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). More recent estimates are not available. <br/><br/>In Sabah, Malaysia, only 60% of the natural forest remains at present, which is under threat from timber extraction and conversion to agricultural plantations (McMorrow and Talip 2001). From 1983-1997, the area under commercial cultivation more than doubled from 6 to 16%, with oil palm dominating the landscape (McMorrow and Talip 2001). As a result, the potential habitat of this species is severely restricted. For example,   the locality Samarinda, listed by Inger & Marx (1965), is now surrounded by rapidly expanding oil palm cultivation.<br/><br/>R. Inger (pers. comm. 2010) notes that the rapid and ongoing deforestation may trigger a threatened category in the near future.	eng
176626	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	While there are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at present, most of Pulau Tioman was declared a 'state wildlife reserve' in 1972 (Ng <em>et al</em>. 1999). Further research into the abundance, habitat requirements, threats and ecology of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176626	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is endemic to the Seribuat Archipelago, West Malaysia, and is only known to occur on Pulau Tioman island (Grismer <em>et al</em>. 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 143 km².	eng
176626	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	From its distribution, this species is assumed to inhabit moist lowland rain forest. Snakes in this genus generally lead fossorial lives (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
176626	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176626	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	While areas of Pulau Tioman are officially protected, it is a well known tourist destination and development is ongoing and expanding, which may be degrading this species' habitat.	eng
176627	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species, though it likely occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
176627	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is found on the Malay peninsula, in Borneo from fifteen localities (Inger pers. comm.), Java, Sumatra (Inger and Voris 2001), the Mentawai and Natuna Besar Archipelagos, Nias (David and Vogel 1996), the Philippines, and southern Thailand (Inger and Marx 1962). It has been recorded at elevations as high as 1,430 m above sea level. (Inger and Marx 1965).	eng
176627	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species mainly inhabits lowland and montane moist forests. It probably also occurs in plantations and in the vicinity of rice paddies (David and Vogel, 1996). ARCBC (2006) also state that this species can tolerate "degraded, secondary forest and scrub" and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes it is also found in thin wooded areas at the edge of cities.<br/><br/>It is a ground-dwelling or semi-fossorial snake, mainly active at night and often found among litter or under stones, fallen trees and decaying vegetation.	eng
176627	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	David and Vogel (1996) caution that, although this species is apparently widespread, it is uncommon and seldom seen.	eng
176627	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
176628	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within its range. Further research into its abundance and range is needed as is monitoring of its habitat status.	eng
176628	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species inhabits highland areas of East Malaysia, Java, Sumatra, and Simeulue (David and Vogel 1996, Inger and Marx 1965). It is known from two locations in Borneo: the area of Mt. Kinabalu, at elevations between 1,370 and 1,430 m above sea level, and a location in southwestern Sabah at 750 m above sea level (Inger pers. comm.). The known geographic distributions of semi-burrowing reptile such as <em>Calamaria </em>spp<em>.</em> are unreliable (Inger pers. comm.).	eng
176628	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species inhabits primary forests (ARCBC 2006) where it leads a fossorial lifestyle (Inger and Voris 2001).	eng
176628	population	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that the scarcity of records of species of this genus may or may not be an artefact of sampling.	eng
176628	threats	Inger, R.F. & Lardner, B., 2009	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia for logging and conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 21-25% of Kalimantan's forests and 28-29% of Sumatra's forests were lost (FWI and GFW 2002). During this same period, however, there was a 47% increase in forest cover on Java (FWI and GFW 2002), though this may be due to increased plantation cover. <br/><br/>Malaysian Borneo had lost 20% of its forests by the late 1980s, and this process has continued with the expansion of&#160;commercial&#160;agriculture and the timber industry (McMorrow and Talip 2001).<br/><br/>At this time, significant areas of suitable habitat remains and these threats are not considered major at this time.	eng
176629	conservation	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species in place at the present time. Further research into its biology, ecology and abundance is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176629	distribution	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is reported to be endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia (de Lang and Vogel 2005). Much of this species' distribution appears to be centred around South Sulawesi, near Makassar. A couple of&#160;specimens&#160;were also collected from the more central region of Sulawesi around Wotu and north of Tenteno.	eng
176629	habitat	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	Species in this genus are small, leaf-litter dwelling snakes (Howard and Gillespie, 2007) and this particular species may inhabit the lowland or montane wet forests of Sulawesi. The habitat preferences of this species have been described as non-riparian (Inger and Voris 2001). This species has also been reported from open hilly areas. It has been suggested that they avoid high temperatures by seeking shelter during daytime (G. Vogel pers. comm.).	eng
176629	population	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176629	threats	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	Deforestation is occurring on Sulawesi because of agriculture development and is likely to be causing localized declines in this species; however, several specimens have been found in agricultural areas (de Lang and Vogel 2005) which may indicate tolerance to deforestation (B. Lardner pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176630	conservation	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution, biology and ecology, abundance, and habitat of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176630	distribution	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is reported to be endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia (de Lang and Vogel 2005). It is distributed east of Palu near the northern peninsula, in the southwest peninsula including a collection at the base of the peninsula and the peninsula, and in Pulau Buton off the southeast corner of Sulawesi..	eng
176630	habitat	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	Species in this genus are small, leaf-litter dwelling snakes (Howard and Gillespie 2007). This species may inhabit the lowland or montane wet forests of Sulawesi (de Lang and Vogel 2005). The habitat preferences of this species have been described as non-riparian (Inger and Voris 2001) and it is known from eight specimens (Howard and Gillespie 2007).	eng
176630	population	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	This species is reported to be common on Pulau Buton (B. Lardner pers. comm.).	eng
176630	threats	Vogel, G. & Lardner, B., 2009	Deforestation is occurring on Sulawesi at an estimated rate of 0.6 to 1.7 per cent loss per year (Erasmi <em>et al</em>. 2004), due factors including clear-felling, logging and the conversion of forest to plantation estates. Tropical lowland forest has been almost completely cleared from this island (Achmaliadi <em>et al</em>. 2002). Therefore habitat loss is a major threat to this species and likely to be causing localized declines in this species.	eng
176631	conservation	Vogel, G. & Lau, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species at the present time, however, in many places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
176631	distribution	Vogel, G. & Lau, M., 2009	This species is distributed in southern and central China, including the island province of Hainan and Hong Kong (Karsen <em>et al</em>. 1986, Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998), in the region between Guizhou in the west and as far north as Henan, China. It is also recorded in Viet Nam as far south as Quang Nam Province on the Kon Tum Plateau (Tordoff <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species has an elevation limit of between 100 and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
176631	habitat	Vogel, G. & Lau, M., 2009	This burrowing snake inhabits wooded, hilly areas (Karsen <em>et al</em>. 1986) and montane evergreen forest. While it is most often collected from primary, undisturbed montane habitat, it has been collected from somewhat disturbed forest, though it is not found in agricultural land or heavily disturbed environments (Bain and Truong 2004).	eng
176631	population	Vogel, G. & Lau, M., 2009	At some localities, this species can be quite common relative to other snake species in that area (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176631	threats	Vogel, G. & Lau, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing the loss, degradation and fragmentation of portions of its forest habitat due to threats including logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. However, due to its large distribution and the significant areas of habitat remaining, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
176666	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
176666	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is known from the Nam Ngum River valley of Lao PDR, the Phy Phan Mountain region of Thailand, and in Cambodia in the Tu Beng and Sien Pang areas (Murphy 2007).	eng
176666	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is reported from streams with gravel or bedrock substrata in bamboo and mixed evergreen forest (Murphy 2007).	eng
176666	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. It is suspected to be quite common within its known range.	eng
176666	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
176667	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but considerable research is required into all aspects of this species.	eng
176667	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the Ayeyarwady River delta of southern Myanmar (Murphy 2007). Note that The Reptile Database incorrectly indicates that it has a wider distribution, recording it as occurring in Myanmar, Indonesia and SE China.	eng
176667	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Nothing is known about its habitat or ecology (Murphy 2007).	eng
176667	population	Murphy, J., 2009	Information for this species is from only two specimens, which would seem to indicate that it is a very scarce species.	eng
176667	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176668	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in protected areas.	eng
176668	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species occurs in the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia and Malaysia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176668	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Little is known about this species. Seven out of twelve females collected by Bergman (1960) were gravid and the clutch size ranged from 6-16. The morphology of this species suggests that it is a burrowing snake (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>Very little is known about the habitats used by this species. Based on its morphology, this species is unlikely to be aquatic and more likely to be a burrower in muddy habitats (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009). It most likely lives near freshwater sources and near river banks or floodplains.	eng
176668	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is considered rare (Murphy 2007) and no data are available on population abundance or trends.	eng
176668	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	Major threats to this species are unknown. Threats could include pollution and development within its habitat. Dredging could also be a threat.	eng
176669	conservation	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species occurs in the Tonlé Sap UNESCO Biosphere Reserve which covers an area of 14,813 km². However, in this protected area mass harvesting of this species continues to takes place. Conservation measures are required to prevent the overexploitation of <span style="font-style: italic;">E. longicauda</span> and other watersnakes in the area. Further research and monitoring is needed on its population size and trends, and harvest levels.<br/><br/>There is minimal captive breeding of snake species in Cambodia and none for commercial purposes (S. Brooks pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176669	distribution	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Cambodia's Great Lake, Tonlé Sap and the immediate surroundings (Murphy 2007). During the dry season, Tonlé Sap Lake covers an area of approximately 2,700 km², though it is known for its wide floodplain. Including the lake floodplain, this species is distributed in an area of approximately 17,430 km².	eng
176669	habitat	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species lives in shallow freshwater lake habitat with muddy substrates. It may leave the water on rare occasions, but as Tonlé Sap undergoes seasonal changes in water level it is unclear if this snake moves with the water, or if it aestivates in the mud (Murphy 2007). This species feeds on fish (Murphy 2007).	eng
176669	population	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is considered relatively common where found. This species comprised approximately 10% of snake harvests from Cambodia's Great Lake, Tonle Sap in 2004-2005 (Murphy 2007). Populations are thought to be declining due to over-harvesting (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
176669	threats	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and the population is declining (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). They are collected and primarily used as crocodile food at local farms, but are also eaten by people, as are other homalopsid snakes caught from the lake (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176670	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176670	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is distributed in coastal areas from the vicinity of Mumbai (Bombay) in India eastwards to the Philippines (Murphy 2007). The distribution of this species may be discontinuous (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176670	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is most abundant in mangrove forests, but may stray into adjacent areas. It is restricted to coastal areas and may be found in rivers that empty into the ocean, on mud flats, and along rocky shorelines. It is nocturnal. This species specializes in feeding on recently moulted crabs and is known to tear apart larger crabs in order to ingest them. (Murphy 2007).	eng
176670	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is considered common in the habitats where it is found.	eng
176670	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be detrimental to the species.	eng
176671	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176671	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the lower Indus River of Pakistan (Murphy 2007).	eng
176671	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is not known to move away from water. It is found in large shallow ponds, seepage pools, and ponds with emergent vegetation. It is reported as diurnal and very shy. This species buries itself in mud at the approach of cool weather and hibernates during the winter (Murphy 2007).	eng
176671	population	Murphy, J., 2009	Due to the relatively large number of specimens, this species is expected to be fairly common within its range. However, there is no direct evidence of population abundance.	eng
176671	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
176672	conservation	Murphy, J. Zug, G.R. & Auliya, M., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.  In view of the species' wide range, it seems possible that it is present within some protected areas (e.g. in southern Thailand), although this requires confirmation.<br/><br/>This species is poorly known and difficult to make conservation recommendations, although further research is clearly needed on its range, population size, etc.	eng
176672	distribution	Murphy, J. Zug, G.R. & Auliya, M., 2009	This Southeast Asian species has been recorded from the coastal waters of Myanmar in the west, along the west coasts of Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, and to Singapore in the east (Murphy 2007). Possibly also present on the east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia).	eng
176672	habitat	Murphy, J. Zug, G.R. & Auliya, M., 2009	<em>B. hydroides</em> is found in the intertidal environment including mud flats, estuaries, and possibly mangroves. This species has been observed burrowing into the mud and uses a sidewinding locomotion on mud surfaces. It is probably more active at night. This species is piscivorous. The species of goby fishes that have been found in the stomaches of examined specimens suggesting that this species may forage more deeply than the depths it is typically found at (Jayne <em>et al</em>. 1995, Murphy 2007).	eng
176672	population	Murphy, J. Zug, G.R. & Auliya, M., 2009	Information on this species is from approximately 140 specimens - 117 of which were collected over two to three nights in 1988 (Jayne <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1994). However, occurrences are sporadic and fluctuating.	eng
176672	threats	Murphy, J. Zug, G.R. & Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. A minor threat may be dredging of mangroves or mudflats. Pollution may also affect these species.	eng
176673	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	This species has been found in protected areas, including Temengor Forest Reserve, however, areas of the reserve have been recently opened to, or earmarked for, logging and development (Malaysian Nature Society 2007). More research and monitoring is needed on the habitat status of this species, and further management of the protected areas in which this species is found should be carried out.	eng
176673	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species occurs in West Malaysia, though its distribution is poorly known. According to Murphy (2007), specimens have been reported from a jungle stream in Klang, Selangor, from an area near Taiping, on the Malaysian Peninsula, and a potential, but questionable report from Singapore in the 1930s. More recently it has been found in the Sungai Singgor area of Temengor Forest Reserve, Hulu Perak on the Malay Peninsula (Lim <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1995).	eng
176673	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	The body type of this snake suggests a burrowing existence but habitat and ecology are otherwise unknown. Lim and Kamarudin (1975) collected a specimen in a jungle stream at Klang in Selangor, suggesting this is a freshwater species within forests.	eng
176673	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is only known from five specimens (Murphy 2007).	eng
176673	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, in one of its known localities, the Temengor Forest Reserve, logging is occurring in this protected area, but it is not known whether this is having any impact on this species.	eng
176674	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176674	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is found in southern China from south central China's East Hill and Plain, as well as coastal plain of Fujian-Guangdon and in Viet Nam. It also occurs on the continental islands of Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Hainan (Murphy 2007).  <br/><br/>This is a lowland, highly aquatic snake that typically occurs between sea level and 200 m but reaches 900-1,100 m in Viet Nam.	eng
176674	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species occurs in fish ponds, sluggish streams, canals, and rice paddies. It feeds primarily on fish, but also amphibians (Murphy 2007).	eng
176674	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is considered common, it is thought to be utilizing the rice paddy ecosystem and may therefore have spread and increased in abundance from its original distribution (Murphy 2007).	eng
176674	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is occasionally used as food by people (Murphy 2007). In 1991-2001, 300 live snakes and 85,000 skins were exported to China (Zhou and Jiang 2004).	eng
176675	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	&#160;There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176675	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	<em>E. chanardi</em> is endemic to the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forest of the Indochina Bioregion (Murphy 2007). All specimens of this species come from metropolitan Bangkok or the surrounding area. But the species could be more widespread than is currently thought.	eng
176675	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Little is known about the habitat and biology of this species. It is only known from Bangkok and likely much of its habitat has been altered or destroyed. It is possible that this species may continue to live in canals that run through the city, but its continued existence there is probably challenged (Murphy 2007).	eng
176675	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is considered uncommon. There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Information for this species comes from nine specimens with very little location data (Murphy 2007).	eng
176675	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	A major threat to this species is human development causing habitat loss (Murphy 2007). However, there has also been some habitat creation as this species can live in artificial water bodies such as rice paddies and drainage ditches.	eng
176676	conservation	Murphy, J., Read, M., & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176676	distribution	Murphy, J., Read, M., & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is found on the coastal plains of northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea and the island Groote Eylandt, Northern Australia. This species has been found far inland in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea. It&#160; is considered primarily a freshwater species with rare occurrences in coastal areas.	eng
176676	habitat	Murphy, J., Read, M., & Guinea, M., 2009	This is a freshwater species that uses backwaters, billabongs, lagoons, swamps, marshes, creeks, rivers, stream impoundments, and other wetland habitats (Murphy 2007). It rarely leaves the water. It is found on floating vegetation and mud at night and burrows when disturbed (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>The species feeds on crustaceans, fish, frogs, and their larvae. It visually detects its prey (Murphy 2007).	eng
176676	population	Murphy, J., Read, M., & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is considered common based on the large number of museum specimens available.<br/><br/>Not commonly encountered in the Lynd River, Gulf of Carpentaria (M. Read pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Because of their muddy habitats, it is difficult to encounter this species unless deliberate efforts are made (e.g. trapping).	eng
176676	threats	Murphy, J., Read, M., & Guinea, M., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
176677	conservation	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
176677	distribution	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is found along coastal northern Australia, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to about Broome, Western Australia and this range is most likely disjunct. It also occurs along Papua New Guinea's south coast and in the Aru Islands, Indonesia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176677	habitat	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species occurs in mangroves, on nearby mud flats, tidal rivers, and other associated habitats. It uses an intertidal burrow system and can burrow into liquid mud (Murphy 2007). <br/><br/>This species feeds on gobies and possibly crustaceans and nudibranchs (Murphy 2007).	eng
176677	population	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is uncommon within its range.	eng
176677	threats	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.<br/><br/>The species has been seen in crab pots within the freshwater/estuarine transition zone in the Gulf of Carpentaria (M. Read pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176678	conservation	Murphy, J. & Ghodke, S., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, but it may occur in protected areas (e.g. Pasar Ris Mangrove Park, Singapore). Further research is needed on the distribution and population numbers of this species.	eng
176678	distribution	Murphy, J. & Ghodke, S., 2009	This species has been widely recorded from the Andaman Islands (India) in the west, through Myanmar, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia, to Singapore in the east (Murphy 2007).  It is probably also found in coastal Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia) (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176678	habitat	Murphy, J. & Ghodke, S., 2009	This species occurs in mangrove forests and on mudflats and may also be found in nearby freshwater environments (Rao <em>et al</em>. 1994). It is active at night. It is typically found in an intertidal burrow system such as crab holes and mud lobster mounds. This species appears to feed exclusively upon <em>Alpheus</em> shrimp (Murphy 2007).	eng
176678	population	Murphy, J. & Ghodke, S., 2009	This species is considered uncommon. This was only collected three times out of the 270 (1.1%) snakes collected from Pasar Ris Mangrove Park in Singapore (Karns <em>et al</em>. 2002). It is considered fairly common in the Andaman Islands (Ghodke and Andrews 2002). Murphy (2007) comments that the different reports on abundance are likely due to the species' association with the intertidal burrow system, a microhabitat that is "seldom explored by herpetologists".	eng
176678	threats	Murphy, J. & Ghodke, S., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Minor threats include dredging of habitat and possibly pollution.	eng
176679	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. But it may occur in protected areas such as the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve.	eng
176679	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is known only from the Kapuas River drainage system in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Murphy 2007). Information for this species is from three known specimens.	eng
176679	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Very little is known about this species but it is likely to inhabit freshwater swampy areas and river drainage (Murphy 2007).	eng
176679	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
176679	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176680	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In India, this species is protected under the Indian Wildlife Act (1972), due to its historic trade as skin.	eng
176680	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species as currently defined occurs in coastal South Asia, peninsular India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, the Andaman Islands, eastward to the coastal areas of the Indochinese and Malaysian Peninsulas, southwards into Indonesia and eastwards to Palau and Micronesia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176680	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	The species inhabits a variety of coastal habitats including mangrove forests, mudflats, tidal creeks, estuaries, rivers and sometimes coral reefs. It is most frequently found in salt and brackish waters but may venture into freshwater. It also appears to be tolerant of human activity. This species is nocturnal (Murphy 2007). The species feeds mostly on small fish and possibly crustaceans (Heatwole 1999). The South Asian populations feed on frogs (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176680	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is abundant in many localities across its range (Murphy 2007). It is particularly abundant in areas of human fishing and fish cleaning activities (Murphy 2007). Jayne <em>et al</em>. (1988) had an 80,000 m²<sup></sup> study site at Muar, Peninsular Malaysia, and estimated 374-1,396 individuals. The sub-adult population was estimated to be one to three snakes per linear metre of shoreline.	eng
176680	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species has historically been collected for its skin in the Philippines (Gaulke 1998). But, it is no longer being collected for skins in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). In 1993 it was reported that 775,000 skins were found in the leather trade in Indonesia (Lilley 1993). It is unclear if there is continued use of the species for leather in Indonesia.	eng
176681	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. As this species is uncommon and inhabits a threatened and degraded habitat, more research is needed on its population size, range, habitat status, and trends.	eng
176681	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the Sunda Shelf and Peninsular Malaysia and is found from Sumatra and the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia eastwards to eastern and southern Borneo (Murphy 2007). It is possible further surveys will find it in the extreme south of Thailand (Murphy 2007).	eng
176681	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Available specimens were collected in blackwater streams and a peat swamp forest (Murphy 2007). The species may be an aquatic burrower based on its morphology (short tail) (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176681	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species may be common. However, information on this species is only from ten specimens. There is no information on abundance for this species.	eng
176681	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown. The peat forest in this region has already been heavily degraded by logging, cleared for drainage and plantation forestry and is being further degraded by fire (Brown 1998) but it is unclear how these impact the species. Peat swamps may be mined in the future for their peat, resulting in more severe habitat destruction.	eng
176682	conservation	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Zug, G.R., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species, although it is known to occur in several protected areas including the U Mnh Thuong National Park. Further research is required to resolve the taxonomy of this group. In addition, further research into its abundance, trends and harvest levels is needed to ensure a threat status is not triggered in the future. This species can be bred in captivity (CITES 2001).	eng
176682	distribution	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Zug, G.R., 2009	This species occurs from Bangladesh through Myanmar, Thailand, and the Indochinese-Malaysian Peninsula southwards into the Indonesian islands and eastwards to at least Sulawesi (Murphy 2007).	eng
176682	habitat	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Zug, G.R., 2009	This is a freshwater species that is found in a broad range of aquatic habitats including gravel streams, stream impoundments, drainage ditches, irrigated fields, ponds, swamps, and marshes (Murphy 2007). It appears to be tolerant of human disturbance as it has been reported from the banks of rivers, streams and ditches in suburban areas.<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal and can be found in muddy bank holes or burrows during the day. It feeds primarily on fish but may also eat anurans and possibly crustaceans (Murphy 2007).	eng
176682	population	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Zug, G.R., 2009	This species is described as common (Murphy 2007). The population was estimated to number 96,000 individuals in Indonesia (Lilley 1993).	eng
176682	threats	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Zug, G.R., 2009	This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations appear to be declining in this particular area. This species makes up about 8% of the snake harvest from this area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). It is heavily exploited in Cambodia for international export to  Thailand, Viet Nam and China (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2000, Stuart 2004). This  species is traded internationally, to the Vietnamese and Chinese markets  as food and to Thai markets for their skins. It was estimated that, in 1999, upwards of 8,500 water snakes of various  species were harvested and sold per day during the peak season. Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2000) note that the harvesting of various  snakes in Cambodia likely represents the greatest exploitation of a  single snake assemblage anywhere in the world. <br/><br/>This species is also exploited elsewhere within its range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009) as it is valued for human consumption, as feed for crocodile farms, and for the skin trade. <br/><br/>It is the third most abundant reptile in trade around U Mnh Thuong National Park (Stuart&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>2004). It can commonly be found in trade shops and is often entangled and killed in large nets that block canals in the area. Zhou and Jiang (2004) have reported that, between 1991 and 2001 alone, 1,448,134 skins of this species were imported into China for the leather trade. It was the third most common reptile skin imported into the United States during 1984-1990, with a total import of 1,645,448 skins (Baker 2006).	eng
176683	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in a protected area (e.g. Pak Hok Chau).	eng
176683	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the south coast of China from Hong Kong in the south and west to Hainan (Murphy 2007).	eng
176683	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Information for this species is from a small number of specimens.This species inhabits saltwater marshes and estuaries. It may climb into shrubs on occasion. (Murphy 2007).	eng
176683	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species, but is was reported as common in 1979 along tidal marshes near Pak Hok Chau (Murphy 2007).	eng
176683	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown. However, development of the coastal marsh areas would impact this species given its limited distribution range.	eng
176684	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Research is recommended to determine the full distribution of this species.	eng
176684	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is only known with certainty from the northern central plains (Bung Cho) of Thailand (Murphy 2007), where it exists in the vicinity of a small human modified water system. There are also a few records from markets in Bangkok suggesting that it is, or was present in the Chao Phrya delta. Stuart <em>et al</em>. (2004) report this species from Cambodia, but this needs confirmation.	eng
176684	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is relatively unknown (Murphy 2007). This species occurs in flood plains and shallow wetland areas (marshes). It is also found in artificial wetlands and rice paddies.	eng
176684	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is only one known extant population in Bung Cho (Murphy 2007). This species is relatively abundant at this location, although restricted to a single human modified drainage system. Fishing in this system is regulated. This species has not been found in the surrounding area following relatively extensive surveying. This species sometimes turns up in snake markets in Bangkok. There are less than 15 specimens in museum collections.	eng
176684	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	Current threats to this species are unknown. Drainage or pollution of the water system in which it lives appears to be the main threat. The draining of wetlands is relatively common in many parts of Thailand, especially as human development is increasing.	eng
176685	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176685	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is known only from the island of Borneo in Malaysia. It is unclear whether it is found in the Indonesian part or not (Murphy 2007).	eng
176685	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is found in swampy habitats and muddy rivers below 500 m. It feeds primarily on fish (Murphy 2007).	eng
176685	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. Due to the large number of specimens this species may be common. Observed to be abundant in rice paddies and ponds (Murphy 2007).	eng
176685	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
176686	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures known for this species. Additional research into the effects of the threats on the species are recommended, as well as on the distribution, and ecology of the species.	eng
176686	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is known only from the vicinity of Maubin, Ayeyarwady Division, Myanmar. Information for this species is from nine specimens collected from this location. It is thought that this species is endemic to the Ayeyarwady river delta, which as total extent of occurrence of at least 20,000 km². However, this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 500 km².	eng
176686	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	The specimens were taken from a freshwater swamp forest habitat but little is known about the habitat and biology of this species (Murphy 2007).	eng
176686	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no information available on the abundance of this species, but it is thought to be uncommon.	eng
176686	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species currently inhabits a severely degraded habitat. The sedimentation rate of the Ayeyarwady River is extremely high due to continued deforestation occurring upstream (Murphy 2007). There is also pollution and dredging activities in the river. The Ayeyarwady River delta is very densely populated which has contributed to ongoing urban and coastal development and modification of river drainages.	eng
176687	conservation	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E., de Silva, A. & Khan S.E., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research and monitoring is needed on its harvest levels and population trends, to ensure declines do not increase.	eng
176687	distribution	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E., de Silva, A. & Khan S.E., 2009	This widespread species ranges from Nepal, northeast peninsular India and an apparent isolated subpopulation in Sri Lanka, eastwards throughout Bangladesh and Myanmar, across the Indochinese Peninsula, and southwards into Indonesia from Sumatra to Sulawesi (Murphy 2007).	eng
176687	habitat	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E., de Silva, A. & Khan S.E., 2009	This species uses a variety of stagnant and slow moving aquatic habitats ranging from rice paddies, canals and ditches to lakes and rivers. It uses relatively shallow fresh water environments with muddy substrata and can be found in and around urban areas. It appears to thrive in disturbed habitats. This species is very intolerant of salt water. Neonates are found in the mud-root tangle near water (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species feeds almost exclusively on fish (Murphy 2007), but in lean periods it may also prey on lizards and frogs (Sharma 2003).<br/><br/>There are two breeding seasons per year, though it is not known if females will reproduce during both seasons (S. Brooks pers. comm.).	eng
176687	population	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E., de Silva, A. & Khan S.E., 2009	This species is very abundant in shallow open wetlands with submergent-emergent vegetation (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>Some localities have dense populations of this snake (Lake Songhkla, Thailand; Kabin Buri, Thailand; Tonlé Sap, Cambodia), these are lowland locations that have become freshwater habitats relatively recently. Lake Songhkla was an ocean bay 200 years ago and it undergoes salt water intrusions and is heavily fished. <br/><br/>In Lake Songkhla (1996-1999), pit tags were put in 235 snakes, with 144 recaptures. As a result it is estimated that the population size at this study site is 406-567 snakes. A linear estimate of one snake per two metres of shoreline (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>In the artificial lake behind Koshi Dam (Nepal) this species can be found in "great numbers" (Schleich and Kästle 2002). Daniel (2002) describes the snake as uncommon in India.	eng
176687	threats	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E., de Silva, A. & Khan S.E., 2009	Following a decline in fish stocks in Tonlé Sap Lake, Cambodia, intensive harvesting of various watersnakes began in 1997 (Stuart <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2000). This species is heavily exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining in this particular area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).  They make up approximately 70% of the catch. They are used primarily for crocodile food but are also sold for human consumption. Its eggs are usually sold separately as an expensive delicacy.<br/><br/>Other localities where it occurs are disturbed habitats, heavily impacted by the fishing industry and other human activities. It appears that <em>E. enhydris</em> may be a disturbed habitat/early successional stage specialist. It is entirely possible that as aquatic ecosystems mature, these populations will undergo natural declines and stabilize at a much lower level (JCMnaturalhistory.com).	eng
176688	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176688	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality at Pionierbivak, Mamberano River, northwestern New Guinea (Murphy 2007).	eng
176688	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Little is known about this species as it is only known from the type specimen. This specimen was taken from a river with a heavy sediment load (Murphy 2007).	eng
176688	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no information on the abundance of this species.	eng
176688	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown. A hydro-electric dam is planned for the Mamberamo River which is the only known location for this species (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176689	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	In view of the species wide range, it is possible that it is present within some protected areas, although this requires confirmation. This species may not be a homalopsid and further taxonomic research is required (J. Murphy pers comm. 2009).	eng
176689	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is most probably restricted to the islands of eastern Indonesia and Timor Leste. Bleeker (1856) reported it from Sumatra, however, David and Vogel (1996) suggest that this is not correct and that its range is restricted to eastern Indonesia (Ambon, Timor, Halmahera, Ternate, Irian Jaya, and other satellite islands) (Murphy 2007).	eng
176689	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Very little is known about this species (Murphy 2007). Remains of earthworms in stomach contents indicate that this species is not aquatic (J. Murphy, pers. comm. 2009). No specific information exists on the types of habitats the species occurs in.	eng
176689	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This species is considered uncommon in museum collections and is therefore it is considered to be scarce in the wild.	eng
176689	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176690	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on this species is required.	eng
176690	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the Malaysian Peninsula, and is only known from the type specimen (Murphy 2007).	eng
176690	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	As this species is only known from one specimen, nothing is known about its habitat and biology (Murphy 2007).	eng
176690	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no available information on population size or trends.	eng
176690	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176691	conservation	Murphy, J. & Allison, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution and habitat status is required. Monitoring of this species and its habitat are required to ensure that any threats that occur in the future are noted and can be dealt with.	eng
176691	distribution	Murphy, J. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to New Guinea and is only known from a few localities in the Trans-Fly Region of New Guinea. It has been found on Sudarso Island in Irian Jaya. It is also found on the islands of Daru and Bobo, Prins Hendrik in Papua New Guinea, as well as at the mouth the Oriomo River on the mainland&#160; (Murphy 2007).	eng
176691	habitat	Murphy, J. & Allison, A., 2009	The species is reported to occur in mangroves and in Nipa palm habitats. It appears to be a southern Papua New Guinea mangrove endemic (Murphy 2007).	eng
176691	population	Murphy, J. & Allison, A., 2009	Information on this species is based on seven known specimens. In general, this species is considered rare.	eng
176691	threats	Murphy, J. & Allison, A., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176692	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in protected areas.	eng
176692	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to southeast Asia including Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Viet Nam (Murphy 2007). This species has been reported in China, although it is expected that these are snakes that have escaped from live snakes imported to China from elsewhere in Southeast Asia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176692	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species occurs in swamps, shallow lakes, pools and other stagnant water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, but may also consume young frogs (Murphy 2007)	eng
176692	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species was reported as rare in Bangkok but common in the rural areas surrounding it (Smith 1914).<br/><br/>This species is heavily exploited in Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007). Collected in Viet Nam with local population declines reported. Most likely not being collected elsewhere. <br/><br/>This species made up less than 2% of the total catch of snakes collected by fishermen in Cambodia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176692	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is heavily exploited for the skin trade in Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, and populations are declining in this particular area (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).  It may be exported to China and used for its skins.<br/><br/>It is the second most exploited reptile in the U Minh National Park. They sell for around VND155,000/kg and many people in the area catch them at a small size and raise them in cages until they reach a weight of about two kg before selling them.  The population appears to be in decline because fishermen report that they are more difficult to find than they have been in the past. The species is heavily exploited in Cambodia for export to Thailand, Viet Nam and China (Stuart 2000, 2004).<br/><br/>From 1991-2001 16,000 live snakes were exported to China, representing 4% of the live snakes imported into China over this period (Zhou and Jiang 2004).	eng
176693	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176693	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Mekong River drainage, and inhabits Lao PDR, Thailand's Korat Plateau, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. It has colonized the Bung Boraphet area in central Thailand.	eng
176693	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species uses stream impoundments, paddies, ditches, klongs (canals), ponds and probably other aquatic micro-habitats. This species is probably strictly aquatic and diurnal and migrates through water as the water levels fluctuate (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species eats frogs and fish (Murphy 2007).	eng
176693	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is common throughout its range. In some places it is very common. There is no information on population abundance and trends.<br/><br/>On Thailand's Korat Plateau it can be as common as <em>Enhydris enhydris</em> (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176693	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species may be sold locally at reptile trade shops (for food), and it may be used for food for farmed crocodiles (Murphy 2007).	eng
176694	conservation	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176694	distribution	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is found from India's Nicobar Islands and along the mainland coast from Bangladesh and Myanmar eastwards throughout Southeast Asia to the Philippines, and southwards to Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176694	habitat	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species occurs in mangrove forests and associated mud flats. It may enter surrounding monsoon forest or open ocean but is unlikely to remain in these habitats as it is fairly habitat specific. This relatively sedentary species utilizes intertidal burrow systems and eats small crustaceans (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>This species is usually found in 0-10 m of water (Cogger 2007).	eng
176694	population	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is locally common over its range. It is mostly found late at night (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009), although smaller specimens may be found during the day (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).  Often found in large groups (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176694	threats	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	No known major threats specific to this species are known, but threats to the associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be detrimental to the species.	eng
176695	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in a number of protected areas (e.g. it is known to occur in Pula Simeulue Wildlife Reserve, Simeulue Island).	eng
176695	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is a Sunda Shelf endemic. It is found on Sumatra, Indonesia and its satellite islands (Nias, Pulo, Simeulue, Sibigo, Sinabang) to the west (Murphy 2007).	eng
176695	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Very little is known about this species' habitat or diet. It may have a tolerance for saltwater, but this is unclear. One specimen contained three eggs and has a SVL of 520 mm (Murphy 2007). This species is probably restricted to freshwater (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176695	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. Information for this species is from 18 specimens. Recently more specimens have been found (D. Ishkandar and J. Murphy pers. comms. 2009).	eng
176695	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176696	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, but further research is required.	eng
176696	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia and is known from the type locality, Lake Matana, Sulawesi, and near Raha on Muna Island (Murphy 2007).	eng
176696	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is known from few specimens. A female was collected from a fish pond, about 100 m from the coast and about 200 m from the nearest river (Murphy 2007).	eng
176696	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. This snake is not commonly encountered or reported by people.	eng
176696	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176697	conservation	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Bain, R.H., 2009	In Cambodia, there is non commercial "minimal captive breeding" of this species (S. Brooks pers. comm.), but there are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. In places, its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring of the population around the Tonlé Sap Lake should be carried out to check the levels of by-catch are not causing serious declines in this species.	eng
176697	distribution	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is endemic to Peninsular Southeast Asia occurring in Thailand, and southern Viet Nam (Murphy 2007).	eng
176697	habitat	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits stagnant or slow moving bodies of water with emergent-submergent vegetation. This species feeds exclusively on fish (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>Life history information is from captive bred animals. During the dry season it will, if necessary, bury itself under the mud until the rainy season returns.	eng
176697	population	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is considered quite common within its range (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009). There have not been any specific abundance studies on this species.	eng
176697	threats	Murphy, J., Brooks, S.E. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is exploited in Tonlé Sap Lake in Cambodia, and snake populations are declining in this particular area. However, they make up a small proportion of the overall snake harvest (2-3%) (Brooks <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
176698	conservation	Murphy, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176698	distribution	Murphy, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species occurs in northwest peninsular India, Bangladesh, Nepal and extreme western Myanmar (Murphy 2007).	eng
176698	habitat	Murphy, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	Little is know about this species' habitat and ecology but it is thought to live in rivers and ponds (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Captive specimens feed on amphibians and fish (Murphy 2007).	eng
176698	population	Murphy, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. It is thought to be quite common in the seven locations where it has been found (J. Murphy pers. comm. 2009)	eng
176698	threats	Murphy, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
176699	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176699	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This is a widely distributed species found from the Andaman Islands (India) and Myanmar eastwards across the Southeast Asian Peninsula and southern China southwards into Indonesia. It is present on most of the Indonesian islands and eastwards to Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Murphy 2007).	eng
176699	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is associated with wet sites such as wallows, marshes, ditches, streams and pond banks where it is most frequently found in the tangle of roots and mud 10-20 cm below the surface debris. It is mostly sedentary (Murphy 2007). This species adapts well to human disturbance (e.g. it is commonly found in rice paddies).<br/><br/>This species feeds on fish and amphibians, including amphibian larvae and egg masses (Murphy 2007).	eng
176699	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This is a very common species throughout its range. Twenty snakes were collected from a small area of Buffalo wallows in Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo) (Murphy 2007).	eng
176699	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	No major threats to this species are known.	eng
176700	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species, although it does occur in the U Mnh Thuong National Park.<br/><br/>Further studies on population size, abundance and effects of threats of this species are recommended.	eng
176700	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is endemic to the lower Mekong River drainage basin in southern Viet Nam and it probably extends up the Mekong valley to Cambodia (Murphy 2007).	eng
176700	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species uses artificial canals, flooded grasslands, and <em>Melaleuca</em> swamp forest (Murphy 2007). Can also live in roadside drains and rice paddies.	eng
176700	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is little information available on the abundance of this species. The number of museum specimens (less than 20 specimens) indicates that this species may be relatively common.	eng
176700	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is often captured in gill nets by fishermen in the U Mnh Thuong National Park. Since it is endemic to the area it is likely to end up as bycatch throughout most of its range (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2000, 2004). This species is possibly under threat for deteriorating habitat from human development. This area is under threat through the construction of a dam. Although this species is relatively hardy and can live in disturbed areas, it is unknown what effect these threats have on the population.	eng
176701	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific for this species. Considerable research on all aspects of this species is needed.	eng
176701	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species was reported to occur in Ansus, Yapen, Indonesia. However, the specimen from that region was destroyed during World War II, so no verification can be made. Two other specimens were reported to be from Ceram. However, it was not possible to distinguish these specimens from <em>B. albus</em> (Murphy 2007).	eng
176701	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	Nothing has been documented about the habitat and ecology of this species. It is probably terrestrial due to it being in the same genus as <em>B. albus</em>.	eng
176701	population	Murphy, J., 2009	There is no information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
176701	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	The major threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176702	conservation	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
176702	distribution	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is probably restricted to the drainage systems and rice paddies of the Western Ghats along the southwest coast of India (Murphy 2007).	eng
176702	habitat	Murphy, J., 2009	This species has been recorded from ponds and canals and once from a prawn farm (Murphy 2007).<br/><br/>No males have been reported for this species (Murphy 2007).	eng
176702	population	Murphy, J., 2009	This species is considered common in rice paddies (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). However, there is little information available on the abundance of this species.	eng
176702	threats	Murphy, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
176703	conservation	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	The export of sea snake products out of Australia is currently restricted by the Commonwealth EPBC (1999).	eng
176703	distribution	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species occurs in northern coastal Australia and southern Papua New Guinea (Murphy 2007). A single specimen  identified as <em>C. australis</em> was reportedly found on Sumba Island, Indonesia.	eng
176703	habitat	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species occurs on mud flats and in mangrove forests as well as the streams that pass through these habitats (Murphy 2007). It may also be found in the sea or in estuaries (Kinghorn 1929). This species is nocturnal and may be found in small colonies (Gow 1989). It is known to feed on fish and crustaceans (Murphy 2007).	eng
176703	population	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	Based on the high number of museum specimens, this species is considered quite common. There is no indication of overall population size. Mark-recapture studies in Buffalo Creek (Australia) in 1990-1991 indicate that this species was common in this area on falling tides at night (M. Guinea pers. comm.).	eng
176703	threats	Murphy, J., Read, M. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. The species could potentially be affected by coastal development, but much of its distribution area is remote from human activities. The species would also probably adapt to small scale human development.	eng
176704	conservation	Lukoschek, V.,  Courtney, T., Milton, D. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the  ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water  Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment  Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act (EPCB) of 1999. This requires that  all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly  or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by  their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid  captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.  <br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia is having the largest impact on protected sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act, and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>Since 2003, Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and Australia's Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew member observers in the identification, photographing and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial  trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in the Northern Prawn  Fishery of Australia showed that two devices, Fisheye and Popeye  Fishbox BRDs, can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without  significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the maximum  legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to  these findings by moving their BDRs closer to the  codend (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176704	distribution	Lukoschek, V.,  Courtney, T., Milton, D. & Guinea, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> (including the subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">A. l. pooleorum</span>) occurs throughout tropical northern Australia from Shark Bay, Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef, east Australia (Cogger 2000). Its distribution extends east to the Coral Sea (Heatwole 1975) and Chesterfield Reefs (Minton and Dunson 1985) and New Caledonia (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997). It has also been reported from the southern New Guinea coastline (O'Shea 1996).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <br/><br/><br/>  <em></em>	eng
176704	habitat	Lukoschek, V.,  Courtney, T., Milton, D. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species occurs primarily around coral reefs where it is found in many habitat types including the reef crest, slope, edge, and over sandy bottoms adjacent to outer shallow and deeper reefs, as well as in lagoonal areas. It also occurs in inter-reefal habitats, but is much more common in close proximity to reefs. It has been recorded to depths of up to 68 m (M. Cappo pers. comm. 2009, T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009), although it more typically occurs at depths ranging from 10 to 40 m (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Individuals occupy linear home ranges along the vertical edges of coral reefs which overlap extensively with those of other individuals (Limpus 1975, Burns and Heatwole 1998). The snakes shelter in or under coral, sitting quietly and swaying in the current. They do not seem to return to the same shelter sites (Burns and Heatwole 1998). Mark recapture, sonic tracking and visual mapping studies of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> from the Swain Reefs indicated that these snakes generally confine their movements to particular sections of reef (home ranges of about 0.18 ha for females and 0.15 ha for males) (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>This species feeds on crabs, prawns, fish eggs, and fish (Limpus 1975, Guinea 2007). It hunts in crevices at the junction of a coral or rock wall and in the sand substrate (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978, Burns and Heatwole 1998).<br/><br/>Female Olive Sea Snakes are thought to reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years (Heatwole 1997) and may live to an estimated age of 15 years (Burns 1984). Larger older female sea snakes produce larger broods (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).	eng
176704	population	Lukoschek, V.,  Courtney, T., Milton, D. & Guinea, M., 2009	This is the most commonly found sea snake species on coral reefs of Australia (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007a, Heatwole and Lukoschek 2008). Surveys of reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef indicate that there have been some local population extinctions (at the level of individual reefs) over the last 30 years (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a). There are also indications of larger-scale metapopulation dynamics for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> in this region, thus it is unclear whether local extinctions indicate an overall decline in abundance or represent temporal fluctuations in the population (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a). This species has also declined in abundance at Ashmore Reef in the Timor Sea, as have all other sea snake species at Ashmore Reef (Guinea 2006, 2007). Similarly, anecdotal information suggests that there has been a decline in abundance of sea snakes, including<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. laevis</span>, on some Coral Sea reefs over the past 20 years (H. Marsh pers. comm. 2009) however, dedicated surveys are needed to confirm this. The status of populations at other locations throughout this species’ range appears to be stable or is unknown. <br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling has shown that trawl mortality was not imposing a significant risk for this species at current levels of fishing effort in the Northern Prawn Fishery of Australia (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
176704	threats	Lukoschek, V.,  Courtney, T., Milton, D. & Guinea, M., 2009	The main potential threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> are loss and/or degradation of  coral reef habitats and bycatch in trawling.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>This species also is potentially at risk from their incidental capture in trawls in Australia. It is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010, Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Ward 2000) and has the lowest capacity to sustain fishing mortality of any sea snake species caught in Australian trawl fisheries (Milton 2001). It is has poor survival from trawling (~10% were landed dead and post-trawl deaths were ~20%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). Many individuals are caught before they breed. This is partly due to the life history traits of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>: which does not reach sexual maturity until age 4-5 years (Burns 1985). In addition, this species has low reproductive output (2-6 offspring every second year) (Burns 1985) and catch data suggests that a large proportion of the fished populations are incidentally captured (Milton 2001). Therefore, this species is unlikely to sustain additional mortality from incidental capture in trawls (Milton 2001).	eng
176706	conservation	Lukoschek, V. & Sanders, K., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Information about the status of population outside the Ryukyu Islands is needed (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176706	distribution	Lukoschek, V. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species is found on the coasts of China, Taiwan and Japan (Mao and Chen 1980). <br/><br/>This species has a highly aggregated distribution throughout its range. The status and locations of populations outside the Ryukyu Islands is poorly documented (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176706	habitat	Lukoschek, V. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species occurs in shallow coastal waters associated with coral and rocky reefs. It has a highly specialised diet, feeding exclusively on demersal fish eggs, primarily of reef fishes that lay eggs in nests. This species appears to be highly site-attached and probably does not often disperse between preferred sites (V. Lukoschek pers comm. 2009). It is found in shallow water habitats down to 40 m.<br/><br/>A mark and recapture study was carried out for three years on a population of the Ijima's Sea Snake in the coastal shallow water of Zamamijima Island, central Ryukyus, Japan. The relatively high recapture (47% of 167 marked snakes) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ijimae</span> is a particularly philopatric, sedentary species among the sea snakes (Masunaga and Ota 2003). <br/><br/>The sex ratio (male: female), is approximately 1.6:1, significantly skewed from 1:1. Males and females were estimated to begin reproductive activity in the second or third summer and the third spring after birth, respectively. Frequency of female reproduction is guessed to vary from annual to biennial, or even less frequent (Masunaga and Ota 2003).	eng
176706	population	Lukoschek, V. & Sanders, K., 2009	A mark-recapture study was carried out for three years on a population of the Ijima's Sea Snake in the coastal shallow water of Zamamijima Island, central Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The relatively high recapture (47% of 167 marked snakes) suggests that <span style="font-style: italic;">E. ijimae</span> has high site fidelity and may be a relatively sedentary species (Masunaga and Ota 2003).<br/><br/>This species is relatively common in the Ryukyu Islands (Masunaga and Ota 2003), however, anecdotal information from recreational divers suggests that populations are declining at Orchid Island, Taiwan (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009) and the locations and status of populations in other parts of Taiwan and China are not well documented.	eng
176706	threats	Lukoschek, V. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species only occurs in shallow reef habitats, often adjacent to coastal areas of high population density, with potential negative effects of tourism, fishing and habitat degradation.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. The species may be sensitive to loss of reef associated fish, as it has a  specialized diet, feeding exclusively on fish eggs. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>Animals have been shown to have a highly aggregated distribution, strongly site-fidelity and potentially has low dispersal rates between sites and/or populations (V. Lukoschek per. comm. 2009).	eng
176707	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176707	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species was obtained in September 2000 and August 2001 from Phan Thiet and Ham Tan fish markets (Viet Nam). According to fishermen, the snakes were caught mainly by sea-going trawlers operating in the South China Sea. One specimen has been collected from the "East Indian Archipelago", though it is unknown from which specific locality (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
176707	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	Little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
176707	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	The holotype for this species was destroyed during World War II.  In 2001 and 2002, eight specimens were collected by trawl in the China Sea (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
176707	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is captured in trawls as bycatch and its skin is used.	eng
176708	conservation	Sanders, K., White, M.-D., Courtney, T. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Species" by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <br/><br/>The Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.	eng
176708	distribution	Sanders, K., White, M.-D., Courtney, T. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia east to China and the Australian - New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999). It has also been collected in south Viet Nam (Karin 1984) and the Sibuyan Sea, Philippines (Dunson and Minton 1978).<br/><br/>It has been recorded from the waters of Pakistan (Mertens 1969). No specimens have been collected from Indian waters, though the species likely occurs there&#160; (A. Lobo pers. comm.2009). <br/><br/>It has been reported that this species occurs in three main subpopulations that may be reproductively isolated (west of India, in the Natuna Sea, and in Australia).	eng
176708	habitat	Sanders, K., White, M.-D., Courtney, T. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This is a generalist species and lives in a number of habitat types. This species occurs around reefs and in harbours over mud and sand substrates from 3.8-25 m (McCosker 1975, Minton and Dunson 1985, Limpus 1975, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978). It forages among corals (Heatwole 1975b) and eats fish (Voris 1972). It specializes on Gobiidae and similar fishes (Voris and Voris 1983) and juvenile stonefish (McCosker 1975).<br/><br/>This is the heaviest sea snake species reaching more than 2 kg (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). There is a record of one weighing 5.144 kg from the Gulf of Carpentaria (caught on the 8th November 2005 in the Gulf of Carpentaria) (M. White pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176708	population	Sanders, K., White, M.-D., Courtney, T. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	One characteristic of this species is that individuals do not occur in large aggregations, but at low densities in the locations where they are found (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This is an uncommon species on the east coast of Australia and made up one per cent of the catch in the Queensland prawn fisheries (out of 4,000 individuals caught (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is relatively common in the northern prawn fishery in Australia.<br/><br/>This species represented 23 out of 83 sea snakes collected from fishermen as bycatch in Makassar, South Sulawesi (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176708	threats	Sanders, K., White, M.-D., Courtney, T. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is captured as bycatch in trawl fisheries. They are captured in a range of trawl fisheries in Queensland due to their ability to live in varied habitat types (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). This characteristic is atypical for Hydrophiine sea snakes and could potentially make it more difficult to detect population declines or local extinctions (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176709	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
176709	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Gulf of Thailand (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176709	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	Little is known about the ecology of this species. It is found in a freshwater lake in Thailand. Also over soft substrates. Feeds mainly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983).	eng
176709	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is common in the Songkla Lake, southern Thailand (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). There have been declines in the population in the Gulf of Thailand due to heavy coastal development (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There is no quantitative population data available for this species.	eng
176709	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species occurs in bycatch, though this is not considered a major threat. It is likely impacted by coastal development in the Gulf of Thailand.	eng
176710	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
176710	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	Known only from three specimens found in the Sibau River, more that 1,000 km up-river from the coast in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001).	eng
176710	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species has only been identified in freshwater, swampy river habitats of Sibau River in Kalimantan, Indonesia (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).	eng
176710	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is known only from three specimens from a single isolated location (Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001).	eng
176710	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There threats to this species are not known.	eng
176711	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.	eng
176711	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is known from the Arabian Gulf to Pakistan, around India to Indonesia and southern China (Heatwole 1999). There is record of a single specimen being caught off Phuket Island from the west coast of peninsular Thailand (Rasmussen 1985).  The species appears to be very rare in that area. There are no records from the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176711	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	The maximum size is approximately 97 cm TL (captured in a trawl in Goa, India; A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Feeds on spiny flatheads in India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009) and on eels and gobies (Voris and Voris 1983). Found in muddy soft bottom habitats.<br/><br/>An average of 3-4 large young and high reproductive effort (Lemen and Voris 1981).<br/><br/>It generally occurs in slighter deeper waters (15 - 30m) ( A. Lobo pers. comm.).	eng
176711	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	Generally rare throughout its range.<br/><br/>This is quite a rare species caught in trawls in Goa, India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Also rare in trawls in the Andaman Sea and uncommon on the west coast of Thailand, but more common in Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Six specimens (out of 83) were collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi in March and April 2010. Reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176711	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	It is caught as bycatch in trawl fishing operations (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176712	conservation	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176712	distribution	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	Has a relatively restricted range in the eastern Arafura Sea, east through the Australian-New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176712	habitat	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species can be found in soft sediments in estuaries and tidal rivers, deeper inter-reefal waters and continental shelf waters.  They eat fish (Cogger 2007). It is slow to reproduce and to mature. Generation length is estimated to be approximately eight years, based on a age of first maturity of at least two years and longevity of 12 years.	eng
176712	population	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is relatively rare, and is known primarily from bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia. Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the NPF between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. However,<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. pacificus</span> has a localized catch distribution in the NPF and showed evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds.<br/><br/>There has been a major reduction in the size of the NPF fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.	eng
176712	threats	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	A major threat to this species is bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fisheries (NPF). Given its less productive life history and restricted range, this species has been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) causing declines in abundance. Based on actual mean CPUE, the highest catches of sea snakes (one to two snakes/10 ha) were recorded from prawn trawls during the 1976-79 inshore research survey on the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria. While there were no commercial or research data available between this research survey and the early 1990s, mean catches were approximately 80%&#160; lower during the last 20 years in the NPF, around one snake per 50 ha (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) results confirmed that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. pacificus </span>is the most highly impacted species of sea snake in the region, and it is the species with the largest proportion of its population distributed within the trawl grounds. It is estimated that there has been at least 20% decline in this species population over the past 25 years based on catch rates within this species range, however, more research is needed to determine if declines may be higher for this species.<br/><br/>This species has been previously identified as being potentially vulnerable to trawling due to catch rate declines, restricted distribution ranges and less productive life history (Milton 2001). The reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years may reduce the current threats (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176713	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176713	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	Found along the coasts of Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, to the western Malay Peninsula (Heatwole 1999). There is an unconfirmed record from Iran taken in a trawl (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176713	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	Inhabits shallow coastal waters (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003) over soft bottom substrates.	eng
176713	population	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	There is no known population information for this species. It is considered rare (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176713	threats	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	No major threats to this species are known but it may sometimes be captured as bycatch in trawls.	eng
176714	conservation	Lukoschek, V. & Guinea, M. , 2009	Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>	eng
176714	distribution	Lukoschek, V. & Guinea, M. , 2009	This is an endemic species with a small range. This species is found on Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef (Smith 1926, Minton and Heatwole 1975, Cogger 2000). It has never been seen from Scott Reef or other reefs in the Ashmore Reef region. This species also has very occasionally been recorded from other locations in northwest Australian waters (Shuntov 1972, Cogger 2000); however, these rare records from outside Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs are thought to be of vagrant individuals and not part of the range of breeding populations of this species (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). This species range has approximately 70 km of shoreline, and given its very shallow depth range of 10 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>    <p><br/></p><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176714	habitat	Lukoschek, V. & Guinea, M. , 2009	This species occurs primarily on the reef flat or the in shallow waters  of the outer reef edge, usually no more than 10 m depth (Minton and Heatwole 1975) and is a  predator on small coral reef fishes (McCosker 1975), which it finds by  poking its head into crevices and hollows of coral reefs and then catches by strike  predation.  This species is usually solitary but sometimes found in groups at coral outcrops with other sea snakes (Guinea and Whiting 2005).<br/><br/>This species has  restricted dispersal  due to deep water barriers. Populations are severely fragmented, occurring in only two locations 50 km apart, separated by waters of 200 m depth. There is no dispersal between the two localities (M .Guinea pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 8-10 years, and age of first maturity of two years.	eng
176714	population	Lukoschek, V. & Guinea, M. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>occurs as two subpopulations – Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007b, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis </span>occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>There are no current or previous abundance estimates, however, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>comprised 16.87% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat at Ashmore Reefs in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The mean density of all sea snakes on the reef flat was 228 individuals km² giving a total abundance estimate of sea snake on the reef flat at Ashmore Reef of ~39,675 (95% CI 26,451 – 53,073) (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Given that 16.87% were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, this suggests that the abundance of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> was 6694 individuals (95% CI 4462 – 8953). The total abundance estimate and percent contribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> was derived from boat transects of the reef flat at high tide. Seven transects were conducted and a total of 83 sea snakes were sighted, of which 14 were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The estimate is, therefore, provisional; nonetheless, it suggests that population size on Ashmore Reef in the 1990s was large, potentially in the vicinity of 4000 to 9000 individuals. Moreover, standardized catch rates of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> at the inner mooring of Ashmore Reef (near West Island) in 1994, 1996 and 1998 were five, three and 17 per hour respectively (Guinea 2006, 2007) and comprised between 4.5% and 29% of all snakes sighted at the inner mooring (Guinea and Whiting 2005). In addition, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama </span>comprised ~50% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat at low tide in the 1990s (Guinea and Whiting 2005).<br/><br/>In 1926, Malcolm Smith obtained ~100 sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, which were collected for him by Malay fishers, presumably at random. Of these 100 sea snakes, 17 were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, suggesting that is made up ~17% of the population. These were the first records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, which had not been previously described (Smith 1926).<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. foliosquama</span> comprised 10% of 367 sea snakes (37 individuals) caught at Ashmore Reef and 9% of 11 sea snakes (one individual) caught at Hibernia Reef between Dec 31st 1972 and January 13th 1973 (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It was not seen or captured at Cartier or Scott Reef during these surveys (Minton and Heatwole 1975).<br/><br/>There have been serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> since surveys in 1998 (Guinea 2006, 2007). Indeed, no single individual of this species has been seen over the past nine years despite extensive surveys of Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs (Guinea 2006, 2007; V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). As such, there are no estimates of its current population size, however, there appears to have been a decline of at least 90% since 1998. The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. This species has not been sighted at any other location. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).	eng
176714	threats	Lukoschek, V. & Guinea, M. , 2009	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at both Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs have declined. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. foliosquama</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and modification may also result in possible reduction in prey species abundances (i.e. small coral reef fishes).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
176715	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176715	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species occurs along the coasts of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, east to northern Australia and the Gulf of Thailand (Heatwole 1999). It has been found in southern China, Viet Nam, and western Indonesia (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Four specimens are from Sulawesi (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). In Australia this species has only been recorded from one locality in southeast Gulf of Carpentaria (Wilson and Swan 2008).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><p>&#160; <br/></p>	eng
176715	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	It is typically found in shallow waters up to 10 m (A. Rasmussen pers. comm). Found in seagrass beds and muddy bottoms. Feeds on eels (Voris and Voris 1983). Two specimens were collected in the outer Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia) from muddy bottom habitat reaching ~25 m depth (K. Sander and Mumpuni pers. obs. 2006).	eng
176715	population	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species was moderately abundant in trawl bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990).  It is abundant in the Gulf of Thailand and the northwest coast of Borneo (Tomascik 1997). It appears common in Madura Straits (East Java, Indonesia) with 43 out of 256 bycatch specimens being identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">H.caerulescens</span>.<br/><br/>It is a relatively rare species along both coasts of the Indian subcontinent (A. Lobo pers. comm.).	eng
176715	threats	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species is sometimes caught as bycatch by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1990).	eng
176716	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is very poorly known, and it is unclear whether it occurs in marine protected areas.	eng
176716	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	Known only from a single specimen found in 1966 in Papua New Guinea, off the mouth of Sepik River (Kharin 1985).	eng
176716	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is very little information known about this species. It is likely to inhabit bays or gulfs.	eng
176716	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176716	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There threats to this species are not known.	eng
176717	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176717	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, east to Indonesia and the Philippines (Heatwole 1999). It has also been found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).	eng
176717	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Little is known about the life history of this species.  It has been reported to occur in deeper water habitats (Smith 1926) down to 50 m (A Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Found over muddy sandy bottoms, and feeds on eels.<br/><br/>In Pakistan, it has been collected offshore. It was not  recorded from mangrove swamps (Minton 1966).<br/><br/>Records suggest that this species attain very large sizes of up to 2.75 m (Smith 1943). However, most specimens collected rarely ever even reach 2 m (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176717	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species was rarely caught as bycatch by trawlers in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990).<br/><br/>This species is common along the east coast of India, predominantly a species of the south and the east coasts (Gulf of Mannar, Palk and the Coromandel coast) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Common in the Andaman Sea (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Fishermen report that the population appears to have declined along the east coast of India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176717	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is known to be caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is not known how this might be affecting the population.	eng
176718	conservation	Sanders, K., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>An effective and successful method of captive breeding is not available for this species, although they are often kept successfully by zoos and private collectors. This may reduce capture in the wild.	eng
176718	distribution	Sanders, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> is found in central (Riau and Jambi) and northern Sumatra and around the west coast of Malaysia, including the islands of Penang and Langkawi, and east Malaysia in Sarawak.  It also occurs in southern Thailand to Bangkok, and in Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java) and it may occur in Bali, but not east of the Wallace Line or in Viet Nam (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). It is restricted to inland freshwater and brackish habitats.	eng
176718	habitat	Sanders, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> is found in inland freshwater habitats and the brackish zone of rivers, streams, and estuaries.<br/><br/>Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1995) found that larger female <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> produce larger litters, and about two-thirds of the adult females sampled were reproductive that year. The Javan Wart Snake bears live young, about 20 to 30 offspring at one time. It has amniotic eggs, which are retained in the oviducts of the snake and are fertilized internally. The young snakes are semi-terrestrial, until their baggy skin is fully developed. Reproduction is seasonal in all three acrochordids, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later.<br/><br/>It feeds primarily on fish and other aquatic animals including frogs.	eng
176718	population	Sanders, K., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A.javanicus</span> is often locally abundant in degraded and agricultural as well as natural habitats. There is no indication that catch rates or individual size have declined in the past ten years  (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in press 2010). It is likely that a fairly high level of harvest is sustainable. However, there are large rural human populations in much of the species' range, and harvest is intentional as well as opportunistic.	eng
176718	threats	Sanders, K., 2009	This species is used for the commercial skin industry. The annual trade in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span> (in five cities in East and South Kalimantan, and North Sumatra, Riau (central Sumatra) and South Sumatra, 2005-6) was estimated at around 300,000 individuals from Kalimantan and 30,000 from Sumatra, exceeding the national quota of  200,000 individuals per year (Nijman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in press).<br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/>The biology of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. javanicus</span>, and the ways in which this species is collected for the commercial skin industry, suggest that the current harvest is unlikely to seriously reduce wild populations. The relatively aseasonal precipitation regime in much of it's range, the extensive (and largely inaccessible) habitat, the lack of specific and efficient techniques to capture snakes, the high reproductive output of the snakes are some of the factors contributing to this continued sustainability.	eng
176719	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176719	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is found from the Arabian Gulf of Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka, east to Australia and Papua New Guinea and north to Viet Nam (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176719	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species occurs in shallow open sea, river mouths, estuaries, coastal lagoons, and mangrove forests (Limpus 1975, Lim and Sawai 1975, Murthy 1977, Murthy and Rama Rao 1988, Venkateswarlu <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995). It is found from 3.7-22.2 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978). It occurs over soft substrates such as mud and sand (Limpus 1975). It is also found in freshwater lakes in Cambodia and India, and can travel up rivers. It has been found at least 7 km upriver in Goa, India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Common in near shore shallow waters and estuaries, especially in the soft bottom marine environments, where its preffered prey, catfish, occur in high abundances (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). Animals are active during the night and day and prefers water depth  from less than 5 m to a maximum of 30 m (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003).<br/><br/>This species has displayed tightly synchronized annual reproductive  cycles.  It produces relatively large numbers of offspring with low  effort per embryo (2%) (Lemen and Voris 1981). Clutch size increases with the size of the female and can reach 30 or more. The snakes are born with a snout-vent length of 21-24 cm, and grow at a rate of 0.1 cm per  day for the first year. Females mature at around 18 months and produce a  first clutch at around 24 months (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993, Voris and Jayne  1979). Between 10-20% of the species survive the first year and about 6% of females survive to reproduce.  Snakes four years old or more make up a very small percentage of the population (Voris and Jayne 1979).	eng
176719	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is common throughout its range. It is very common along the coasts of the Malay Peninsula and less common in Australian waters. A mark-recapture study estimated between 600 and 2,000 juveniles of this species in the Muar River estuary in Malaysia in 1983. There were also estimates of 900-2,500 adults in the population of that area (Voris 1985).	eng
176719	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is commonly encountered as bycatch in trawler as well as  other fishing operations, for example along the Goa coast (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It appears to have a low trawl-related mortality rate (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It is captured in trawl fisheries in Australia in more shallow waters where  the trawl time is very short (15-20 minutes) and therefore the mortality  is low (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010). There is evidence to  suggest that post-release mortality may be high (A. Rasmussen and M.  Guinea pers. comms. 2009). <br/><br/>Due to the nature of its habitat, this species is also likely to be  impacted by coastal pollution. <br/><br/>Collection is thought to occur in high numbers in Thailand for the venom industry (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009), but it is not known how this affects the population or if it is a major threat.<br/><br/>It is very abundant in shallow lagoons of Sri Lanka's west coast, where they are frequently caught as bycatch and are a major cause of snake bite mortality among fishermen; for this reason they are usually deliberately killed before being removed from nets (K. Sanders and de Silva pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176720	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Rasmussen, A., Courtney, T., Read, M. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Continued monitoring of the status of Ashmore Reef populations is needed and baseline data of population abundances throughout the rest of its range needs to be obtained (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176720	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Rasmussen, A., Courtney, T., Read, M. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species, as currently described, is found in the waters of tropical Australia from the Timor Sea to the southwestern Pacific Ocean (Heatwole 1999).  It is also found in the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Laboute 2002). It has a highly disjunct distribution throughout its range. For example, in Australia it is found in the Great Barrier Reef (East Coast) and on Timor Sea reefs (West Coast) but not in the Gulf of Carpentaria (North Coast).	eng
176720	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Rasmussen, A., Courtney, T., Read, M. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species occurs in association with coral and rocky areas and over sand (Minton and Heatwole 1975, Minton and Dunson 1985). It is generally found in shallow water less than 15 m deep (Minton and Dunson 1985) although it has been seen at a maximum of 40m in the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000) and elsewhere (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Feeds exclusively on fish eggs and seems to prefer eggs that are laid in nests attached to corals and rocks by species such as damselfish, blennies and gobies (Voris 1966). This is accomplished by scraping the eggs from the substrate with the enlarged scale on each side of the upper lip (Guinea 1996). This species forages over open sand plains at the junction of sand and coral and is typically found close to the benthos and shelters on the bottom edge of corals (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, Heatwole 1999). <br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">This species </span>has been noted to have complex social behaviour (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). Studies in New Caledonia have found that individuals of this species appear to move about in distinct social groups. Moreover, the species appears to have extremely high site fidelity and estimates of genetic distance between east and west Australian populations (Lukoschek and Keogh 2006) suggest it has very low dispersal potential; thus, it is unlikely to be able to re-establish isolated populations following local extinctions.	eng
176720	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Rasmussen, A., Courtney, T., Read, M. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species has a highly aggregated distribution. It can occur&#160; in large numbers, however, it is only found in discrete locations and at a limited number of sites throughout its relatively large geographic range (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). It also appears to be relatively site attached at the discrete locations where it occurs. For example, this species is very abundant on some Australian reefs in the Timor Sea  (Guinea 2006, 2007) and several reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), as well as at certain locations in New Caledonia (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005), the Loyalty Islands (Rasmussen 2001) and the Philippines (Alcala <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000).<br/><br/>There have been large population declines of this species at Ashmore Reef over the past eight to ten years (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). Abundance estimates<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> in the vicinity of the inner mooring at Ashmore Reef in 1994, 1996 and 1998 from mark-recapture surveys were ~100 to 200 individuals (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Sighting rates during the same survey periods were 10 to >25 per hour (Guinea 2006, 2007). Although no subsequent mark-recapture abundance estimates are available, subsequent sighting rates (2001-2005) have dropped to 1-2 per hour for this species at the same location (Guinea 2006, 2007). This reduction in population size is also associated with major declines in abundance of other sea snake species at Ashmore Reef (Guinea 2006, 2007).	eng
176720	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Rasmussen, A., Courtney, T., Read, M. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is very occasionally captured in trawler bycatch but the rarity of this occurrence means that it is not a major threat. For example, no individual of this species has been taken as bycatch in the Queensland trawl fishery, most likely due to the close association of this species with coral reefs where trawlers do not fish (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).<br/><br/>The main threat to this species is likely to be associated with loss or degradation of coral reef habitats, however there is no direct evidence about the nature or extent to which this is the case (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Nonetheless, the highly specialised diet and habitat preference of this species suggests that it will be threatened by all processes resulting in loss of fish species that lay eggs in nests (such as damselfish) as it forages exclusively on fish eggs and tends to prefer fish eggs in demersal nests. <br/><br/>In addition, it has been suggested that increased sea surface temperatures, coral bleaching, and resulting changes in habitat complexity may be linked to localized population declines of sea snakes on Ashmore Reef, northern Australia (Francis 2006) and suggests that climate change may impact sea snake populations (Francis 2006). However, there is little direct evidence about the nature and extent to which the effects of climate change will affect <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span>.<br/><br/>There is limited gene flow between populations of this species on the east and west coasts of Australia (Lukoschek and Keogh 2006), suggesting that populations are unlikely to recover from local extinctions by dispersal.	eng
176721	conservation	Lane, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas. In the Philippines there are two declared sea snake sanctuaries in Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). These  parks are dependent on tourism for their protection.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>It is important that the conservation of Laticaudids takes into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.	eng
176721	distribution	Lane, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Known from the Philippines, Taiwan, China, and Japan (Heatwole 1999). There is also a record from of this species from Palu Api in Indonesia.	eng
176721	habitat	Lane, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994). They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reefs.  They feed on fish (Yeng Su <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>Sub-adult and mature snakes of this species feed mainly on the fish families Emmelichthyidae, Acanthuridae and Pomacentridae (Yeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).<br/><br/>There are accounts of communal egg laying in this species, specifically in a cave on Orchid Island, 64 km southeast of Taiwan (Yeng <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
176721	population	Lane, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species has been considered common in Japan (Guinea 1994).  Very little is known about the population of this species. Numbers in the Philippines are low and it is uncommon due to past harvests for the skin and smoked sea snake trade. The population has not recovered from the collections in the 1970s and it collapsed in the 1980s (Dunson 1974, Bacolod 1983).	eng
176721	threats	Lane, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Major threats to this species may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. <br/><br/>The skin and smoked sea snake trade in the Philippines was historically a very significant threat. The extensive harvest has now stopped since the crash in the population in the 1980s. In 1974 the number of snakes captured was 450,000, and by 1981 it had dropped to 1,454 individuals (Dunson 1975, Bacolod 1983). There is still a smaller harvest for smoked sea snake for the Japanese market (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). It is also harvested heavily in the Ryuku Islands (Dunson 1975).<br/><p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 m from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm 2009). If suitable habitat in&#160;the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to&#160;kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also&#160;directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>  <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>	eng
176722	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.	eng
176722	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Known from the Bay of Bengal and adjacent coasts (Smith 1943).	eng
176722	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Very little is known about this species. There is no information known about the habitat type (Smith 1926).	eng
176722	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is no known population information for this species. There have been no records since 1943 (Smith 1943).	eng
176722	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176723	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
176723	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is found in the Straits of Malacca, Gulf of Thailand and eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula (but not Singapore or the Natuna Sea). A single specimen has been recorded from Borneo (Smith 1926) which may have been a vagrant (Stuebing and Inger 1999). Smith (1926) identified several specimens labelled China and Canton as <span style="font-style: italic;">H. torquatus</span>, but noted that their locality might be incorrect.  It has also reportedly been collected from the Great Lake in Cambodia (Ineich 1996).	eng
176723	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species inhabits shallow coastal waters and estuaries, and is known to venture up rivers.	eng
176723	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.  Large sample sizes (over 100) were collected from west Malaysia and southern Thailand (Field Museum). There is anecdotal information suggesting that populations in the Gulf of Thailand have declined over the last 40 years (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176723	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Habitat degradation may be a concern in the Gulf of Thailand, where it is thought that they have experienced declines.	eng
176724	conservation	Lobo, A. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176724	distribution	Lobo, A. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is found on the coasts of Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176724	habitat	Lobo, A. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	Probably travels large distances in surface and tidal currents. Occurs over soft bottom habitat in mud and sand.	eng
176724	population	Lobo, A. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no known population information for this species.<br/><br/>It can be considered rare (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It is known to occur along both coasts of the Indian subcontinent (Smith 1943). Only one specimen has been collected from Sri Lanka.	eng
176724	threats	Lobo, A. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Bycatch is possibly a threat.	eng
176725	conservation	Lane, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>It is important that conservation actions for members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176725	distribution	Lane, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> is known only from New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Cogger and Heatwole 2006). Its distribution extends from the large main island of New Caledonia (Grande Terre), the smaller island (the Isle of Pines) to the south, plus three small islands to the east of Grande Terre (The Loyalty Islands), called Mare, Ouvea and Lifou.<br/><br/>One specimen each from New Zealand, India and the Caroline Islands has been recorded (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), but are considered to be vagrants.<br/><br/>    <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
176725	habitat	Lane, A., 2009	This species feeds on eels from shallow reef waters.  Individuals have been found up to 100 m inland at elevations reaching 100 m.  Aggregations of 30 or more individuals are common (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006).<br/><br/>Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly.  Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994). No nest sites have actually been located (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species has been recorded to dive to depths greater than 80 m in the Lagoon of New Caledonia (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).  It is usually found at a depth of 0-10 m (Cogger 2007).<br/><br/>Animals are most commonly found under beach rocks or in the roots of trees when on land but they have also been found inhabiting the abandoned nests of Wedge-tailed Shearwaters (<span style="font-style: italic;">Puffinus pacificus</span>) (Lane and Shine in prep.).<br/><br/>There is a lack of genetic sub-division in this species, indicating it disperses freely through-out New Caledonia (Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. in prep.). This is in contrast to mark-recapture studies which show high site fidelity (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It may be that these animals disperse as juveniles and become site specific later in life.	eng
176725	population	Lane, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> is much less common on the Loyalty Islands than on the small islands offshore or the Isle of Pines (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009). The shores of the large main island of New Caledonia (Grande Terre) do not shelter large colonies of this species - the animals are more common on small coral and sand islets within the Noumea lagoon (Saint Girons 1964, A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Population size estimates from one island in the Noumea lagoon (Signal Island, 2,000-3,000 m²<sup></sup>) approximated several thousand resident snakes in 1964 (Saint Girons 1964) and more recent estimates do not suggest any population reduction (Brischoux 2007). The population of the islet of Petit Taenia was 244 individuals in 1964, on an area of less than 50 m².	eng
176725	threats	Lane, A., 2009	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. There are reports of animals being killed to make way for tourist  operations on islands within the Noumea lagoon under the assumption that  tourists will be scared by the snakes (A. Lane pers comm.).<br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. are typically too small to be commercially useful.<br/><br/>    <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach&#160;rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to&#160;kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also&#160;directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>  <p>    </p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
176726	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176726	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf east to Indonesia, the Philippines, and China (Heatwole 1999). The range extends south to northern Australia and Papua New Guinea. This species is also possibly present in Japan (H. Voris pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; </p>    <p><br/></p>   <p><br/></p>	eng
176726	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species can be found in shallow seas over muddy bottom (Stuebing and Voris 1989).  It feeds mostly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983, Das 2007), but also gobies and marine invertebtrates (Das 2007). <br/><br/>Ten specimens were collected from trawl nets in Pelabuhanratu Bay on the south coast of West Java ~5-10 km from shore at depths of 20-30 m in turbid water over sandy bottoms. All of the six adult females collected were gravid, with 1-10 embryos of ~35-43 cm total length (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009). In Pakistan specimens were collected in shallow, muddy, mangrove swamps during the monsoon season (Minton 1966).	eng
176726	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species was relatively common (as trawler bycatch) in Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1989). It also appears to be a common sea snake in Pakistan (Minton 1966). Along with <span style="font-style: italic;">Enhydrina schistosa</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Lapemis curtus</span> it is probably the most common species in the waters of the Indian sub-continent. It is far more common on the east coast than the west coast of the sub-continent (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). On the Coromandel coast (east India), 975 individuals were captured between 2003-2004, and was considered the most common sea snake in the region (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176726	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is commonly caught as bycatch by trawlers in many parts of its range: Malaysian Borneo (Stuebing and Voris 1989, Das 2007); southern coast of Java (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. 2009); east coast of India (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176727	conservation	Milton, D., Lukoschek, V.  & Courtney, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.	eng
176727	distribution	Milton, D., Lukoschek, V.  & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is found in the waters of northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176727	habitat	Milton, D., Lukoschek, V.  & Courtney, T., 2009	Inhabits soft sandy inter-reefal habitats. Feeds on fish. Found at least to 74 m (M.Cappo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176727	population	Milton, D., Lukoschek, V.  & Courtney, T., 2009	This is the most abundant species in trawls in the Arafura Sea, Timor Sea and shoal waters off the northwest coast of Australia (Smith 1926).	eng
176727	threats	Milton, D., Lukoschek, V.  & Courtney, T., 2009	Is part of bycatch from trawls, however, not very common. In the Queensland fishery trawls it accounts for only 2 % of the catch of sea snakes (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).	eng
176728	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.	eng
176728	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species has been found in Phuket Harbour, Thailand and Columbo, Sri Lanka. There are no records of this species from Indian waters (except for type specimen collected from Sri Lanka) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176728	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Very little is known about this species. It most likely lives over sandy gravel bottoms.	eng
176728	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is rare, known only from the holotype from 1872 until rediscovered in 1987 and 1989 (Rasmussen 1992).<br/><br/>There are only approximately 30 specimens in museum collections. All the samples are from trawl fishery bycatch.	eng
176728	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known threats to this species. It is sometimes captured as bycatch in trawls.	eng
176729	conservation	Guinea, M., Courtney, T. & Read, M., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176729	distribution	Guinea, M., Courtney, T. & Read, M., 2009	This species is found along the coasts of southern Papua New Guinea, in the Arafura Sea and coastal waters (Heatwole 1999).  It has also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).	eng
176729	habitat	Guinea, M., Courtney, T. & Read, M., 2009	This species is found in gulfs and offshore continental coasts over soft substrata, generally mud, or mud and sand (Heatwole 1975, Limpus 1975). It has been found to depths of 22.2 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span> 1978). It may also be found in some tidal creeks (Minton 1975). This species feeds on fish (Voris 1972).<br/><br/>Although not common in the Queensland trawl fishery, it was captured across a wide area and variety of trawls and from 1.4 m depth in a river down to 106 m offshore (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).	eng
176729	population	Guinea, M., Courtney, T. & Read, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is common as bycatch in the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in the Gulf of Carpentaria, but uncommon in the Queensland fishery, at approximately&#160; 1 % of the sea snake bycatch (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).	eng
176729	threats	Guinea, M., Courtney, T. & Read, M., 2009	This species is taken as bycatch in trawl fisheries in Australia.	eng
176730	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.	eng
176730	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is known only from the Arafura Sea off northern Australia and in the eastern Indian Ocean off northwestern Australia (Rasmussen and Smith 1997). There is a record of Bam Island on the north coast of Papua New Guinea (Smith 1986).	eng
176730	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species eats fish (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001). It was found in trawls from deeper waters (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). Suspected to be found over soft substrates.	eng
176730	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is rare and known only from six specimens (Kharin 2005).	eng
176730	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It has been caught in trawls.	eng
176731	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.	eng
176731	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found from the Cambodia, Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (either Java or Sumatra), Penenisular Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Viet Nam (Laidlaw 1901). The type locality is from Thailand. The Brunei record is based on one washed up individual and may well be a vagrant (Das 1993).	eng
176731	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is confined to shallow muddy coastal waters (Smith 1926). There is a record from freshwater in the Pattani region in Thailand (Boulenger 1912).	eng
176731	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is no quantitative information for the population of this species. It is not common in the Java Sea, and is only locally common (in Indonesia) in the mouth of the Mengala River (Smith 1926). <br/><br/>It is not common in trawls in VietNam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). In surveys of trawl bycatch in 2000, 2001, and 2004, there were only three individuals caught in a total of approximately 1,000 sea snakes.	eng
176731	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	Heavy trawling, pollution and coastal development within the range of the species is a major threat. The Gulf of Thailand is an area of particular concern.<br/><br/>There is anecdotal information that there used to be more individuals of this species, but now capture is very rare (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). However, there have never been a large number individuals of this species recorded. It may be naturally rare and patchily distributed as indicated by the few records and localities.	eng
176732	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176732	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimen. The locality listed from "Indian Ocean".<br/><br/>It is thought to be found along the coasts of the Philippines, south to the Arafura Sea and the Australian-New Guinean continental shelf (Heatwole 1999). It is thought that the records of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. inornatus</span> from Philippines might in fact be <span style="font-style: italic;">H. ornatus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">H. lamberti</span> see (Rasmussen 1989). According to A. Rasmussen (pers. comm. 2008) the only known record of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. inornatus</span> is the type specimen, hence no countries or other geographic units are coded.	eng
176732	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	No information is available.	eng
176732	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from a single specimen.	eng
176732	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176733	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176733	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Distributed around the east coast of India, Bangladesh (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009), Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Smith 1926).  It is known to occur in waters along the east coast of India in the Bay of Bengal sea (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>David and Ineich (1999) restricted the type locality to India.	eng
176733	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	Smith (1926) made record of this species existing in rivers in the Bago Division. Little is known of the habitat preference of this snake. It spends most of its time in near-shore areas but may venture up to 50 km in the open sea or into rivers. It feeds entirely on fish.<br/><br/>Recorded to occur over soft muddy bottoms in turbid waters (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Very little is known about the reproductive behaviour of this snake. It is known to be viviparous and the brood size is often under ten. The exact length of the neonates upon birth is not known. It is most likely to be around 350 mm. The maximum length is about 10 0cm.	eng
176733	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is very little population information for this species. In Chittagong, Bangladesh they were quite common: approximately 50 specimens were captured in two bag nets in 1991 (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). There are no records from other parts of the range since Smith (1943).	eng
176733	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are unlikely to be any major threats in Bangledesh (A. Rasmussen. pers. comm. 2009). Bycatch is possibly a threat&#160; in some areas (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176734	conservation	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including "Listed Marine Species", directly or indirectly demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPFs commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the start of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australias NPF. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australias trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009, Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, E. Fletcher pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176734	distribution	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is endemic to Australasian waters. Its distribution extends around northern Australia from New South Wales on the east coast of Australia (Cogger 1975, Limpus 1975) throughout the Great Barrier Reef, Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea to at least Broome on the west coast (Cogger 1975). It has also been recorded from around the coast of New Guinea (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1999). This species' range extends further into Australia<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>'s temperate waters than the ranges of most other sea snake species.<br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176734	habitat	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is a generalist species that occurs in a variety of soft sediment habitat types throughout its range, including sand, muddy sand, and mud. It sometimes ascends rivers (Heatwole 1975), thus it also occurs in freshwater habitats. Individuals occasionally also occur on coral reefs and sometimes rest in seagrass beds (M. Guinea, pers. comm. 2009). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is a generalist feeder and its diet includes squid and fish (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Limpus 1975). It is commonly found at depths between 3.7-26 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>1978), but may be found in water less than 2 m to about 80 m (Limpus 1975). There are records for depths of 110 m from the Queensland fishery (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and 90 m in Broome (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> is by far the longest of all sea snake species. Reproductive output in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) is approximately 12-13 offspring per clutch every 2-3 years (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Ward 2001). The number of offspring per clutch is variable and increases with the length of the female, which can range from 110 to >200 cm (standard ventral length) at maturity (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2001).	eng
176734	population	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is abundant throughout its range (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1975, Limpus 1975, Rasmussen 2001), and trawl bycatch data suggest that it often comprises a large component of the sea snake fauna in soft sediment marine habitats throughout its range (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b, 2000; Wassenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, 2010; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Trawl bycatch data also indicate that population abundances are spatially and temporally variable, as is the case with almost all Hydrophiine sea snake species.<br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Prawn Fishery between 1976 and 2007 (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al. </span>2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species, including <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans,</span> and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There was a major reduction in the size of the fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.	eng
176734	threats	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	The preferred habitat of this species overlaps with trawl fisheries. As such, it is a significant component of trawler bycatch in northern and eastern Australia (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b, 2000; Wassenberg <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010) and is commonly caught in all trawl fisheries in depths of 100 m or greater (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>In the Queensland trawl fisheries, it has been caught from every sector of the fishery and makes up 5% of the incidental capture. Mortality rate was estimated at 12.4% (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The post-trawl mortality was low.<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure and population declines for appears low for all species. The risk of localized extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, an anti-conservative methodology was used to calculate the risk, and therefore should be considered preliminary and speculative assessments (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> was found to have the highest risk of over-fishing of all species (C/M=0.59). This is not thought to be due to the high proportion of its distribution that is trawled (29% was exposed to trawling), but rather that it had the lowest value of M (natural mortality). In general, species with low rates of M are more prone to overfishing than species with high rates (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This low value of M is possibly attributed to the large size that <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> attains. Post-trawl mortality analysis indicated that larger snakes experience higher post-trawl mortality, and hence, may be more vulnerable. The higher risk figure for <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> indicates that the level of incidental fishing mortality is above that required for maximum sustainable yield, however Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010) states that this does not imply a high or imminent risk of extinction from the Queensland east coast. In practice, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. elegans</span> was found to have negligible (< 0.001) post-trawl mortality; but this was based on a sample of only eight individuals.<br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling on the populations of sea snakes in the Northern Prawn Fishery has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appears to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). Due to the wide distribution across most of northern Australia, the impact of bycatch for this species is probably low (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176735	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A., Sanders, K. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176735	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A., Sanders, K. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is found from southeastern Asia east of Singapore to northern Australia (Rasmussen pers. comm. 2008).  Records from Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal should be referred to <span style="font-style: italic;">H. fasciatus </span>(Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
176735	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A., Sanders, K. & Guinea, M., 2009	It has been collected to 30 m (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009) and feeds on eels (Van Denburgh and Thompson 1908).  Three specimens were collected from Pelabuhanratu Bay on the south coast of West Java; all were caught alive in trawl nets ~5-10 km from shore at depths of 20-30 m in turbid water on sandy bottoms. The single female contained six embryos of ~40 cm total length (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. obs. April 2009). This species produces small numbers of medium sized young, and it puts out the highest relative effort per embryo of any marine snake, 11% (Lemen and Voris 1981).	eng
176735	population	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A., Sanders, K. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is quite common in Viet Nam and Thailand (A. Rasmussen, pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176735	threats	Rasmussen, A., Lobo, A., Sanders, K. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is rarely caught in bycatch in Australia.	eng
176736	conservation	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. It is important that conservation actions for the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>take into account both  their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176736	distribution	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Vanuatu where it has been documented on the islands of Efate and Espiritu Santo (Cogger and Heatwole  2006), which has an extent of occurrence of less than 15,000 km²<sup></sup>. Two individuals have also been identified in the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia (Cogger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007) though there is no  evidence of a breeding population at this location and the individuals may have been migrants or vagrants (A. Lane pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176736	habitat	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. frontalis</span> feeds exclusively on eels.  It is a smaller, sister species of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span>, and is less common with a smaller range. Sea snakes of the family <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).  No natural nest sites have been located for this species. They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reefs.<br/><br/>This species occurs in sympatry and syntopy with <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> and can be found inside small rock crevices and mangrove trees when on land.&#160; Females reach reproductive maturity at greater than 50 cm, males at greater than 40 cm (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002).	eng
176736	population	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no known population information for this species. It is less common and less terrestrial than <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span>.<br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. frontalis</span> display very limited genetic diversity (Lane<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>2009).	eng
176736	threats	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	Major threats include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species lays it eggs on land.<br/>    <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat to Laticaudine sea kraits. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. are typically too small to be commercially useful.	eng
176737	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Lukoschek, V., & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176737	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Lukoschek, V., & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf, east to Indonesia, China, and Taiwan (Heatwole 1999).  It has also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).	eng
176737	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Lukoschek, V., & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in coral reefs, turbid inshore waters, and estuaries (Heatwole 1999). It eats fish. <br/><br/>The general reproductive strategy for the species includes small clutches (commonly 2-5 individuals) of relatively large offspring (commonly 19-34 cm). There is evidence of synchronized annual reproduction (Rasmussen 1989).	eng
176737	population	Rasmussen, A., Lukoschek, V., & Lobo, A., 2009	This species was sometimes caught as bycatch by trawlers in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1989).  It is fairly common in the Java Sea (Tomascik 1997).	eng
176737	threats	Rasmussen, A., Lukoschek, V., & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is caught as bycatch by trawlers in Sabah (Stuebing and Voris 1989).	eng
176738	conservation	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176738	distribution	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	This species is very widespread in the tropical parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans between the 18-20º C isotherms (Dunson and Ehlert 1971, Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971). It is known from the coasts of eastern Africa, north to the Arabian Gulf, east along the Asian coast of the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, northward to Japan and eastward to the western coasts of the Americas (Heatwole 1999). <br/><br/>Currents occasionally carry the snakes into temperate waters, but these are almost certainly far from their breeding and feeding waters.	eng
176738	habitat	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	The species is the most pelagic of the sea snakes, occurring in the open ocean well away from coasts and reefs.  However, a small individual (total length = 230 mm) found in a mangrove swamp (Minton 1966) suggests that the species may occasionally occur in inter-tidal habitats. This species eats only fish (Klawe 1963) that mistakenly seek shelter beneath the motionless snake that resembles  drifting wood. Consequently they forage to a depth of only about 2 m  (Kropach 1975). This species is usually found in the 0-10 m range of the water column (Cogger 2007). This is the only marine snake not associated with the benthic community (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>In the open ocean, the snakes often occur in large numbers in association with long lines of debris.  These "slicks" form in calm seas and consist variously of debris, foam and scum brought together by converging water currents. In some areas, such as the Gulf of Panama in the eastern Pacific Ocean, the slicks can vary in width from 1 to 300 m and stretch for many kilometres. Several thousand snakes may be associated with a single slick. It is not clear whether the snakes actively swim to the slicks or whether they are carried into them passively (Kropach 1971, 1975). The only obvious activity that is performed by the snakes in the slicks is feeding and knotting. Other activities that might benefit from large aggregations, such as mating, have not been observed.  Females are significantly larger than males (Kropach 1975).<br/><br/>The minimum snout-vent length at birth is about 22 cm and sexual maturity is reached as a length of 50 cm and 62.5 cm for males and females respectively (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"></span>	eng
176738	population	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	Although there is no specific population information about the species, it is thought to be stable.<br/><br/>This is a fairly common species throughout the waters of the Indian sub-continent, occasionally washed ashore during rough weather, which is probably due to its pelagic habits. For the same reason, it is also rarely encountered as bycatch in fishing operations (A. Lobo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Kropach (1975) marked 961 individuals of this species in the Bay of Panama over a one year period.  None were recaptured during the period.  About a year later, one was recaptured in the Bay of Panama and three were collected off the coast of Mexico.<br/><br/>Estimating population size for this species is difficult, as the range is very broad over several oceans. In addition, the distribution pattern of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis</span> is very clumped. Visual surveys from boats are probably the most suitable technique for estimating population size. The unique habits and colouration of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis</span> mean that it is unlikely to be confused with other species (Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).	eng
176738	threats	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Minor threats may include bycatch in squid fisheries (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009), ghost fishing nets, and pollution, including oil spills.	eng
176739	conservation	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176739	distribution	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species has been collected from two areas along the southeastern coast of Papua New Guinea from Port Moresby Bay and Orangerie Bay, and has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².&#160; Although no collections have been made in between these two areas, it is assumed that the species occurs in suitable habitat between the known collection locations.	eng
176739	habitat	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is found at 0-10 m depth, and preys on eels (Cogger 2007). Inhabits shallow tropical seas and coral reefs. Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).	eng
176739	population	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no known population information for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
176739	threats	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	Major threats include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species lays it eggs on land.&#160; In particular, the area surrounding Port Moresby is undergoing much development.<br/>      <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in&#160;the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p>    <p>    </p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>	eng
176740	conservation	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. It is important that conservation actions for members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176740	distribution	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Niue, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 300 km².	eng
176740	habitat	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).  They inhabit shallow tropical seas and coral reef. The average clutch size is three.	eng
176740	population	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no known population information for this species but it is common on Niue.	eng
176740	threats	Lane, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction, especially as this species needs to lay eggs on land.<br/><br/>Amphibious  Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and  LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm 2009). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2007) or coastal development, this is expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances, egg  laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits  only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would  also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.<br/><br/>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).  <br/><br/>This species has a very restricted range and severe weather events such as cyclones can pose a significant threat. The region where this species occurs is still recovering from the last severe cyclone in 2004 (M. Guinea pers. comm.  2009).	eng
176741	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas.	eng
176741	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in the Arabian Gulf east to India and Sri Lanka (Heatwole 1999). It is also found in West Pakistan (Minton 1962). Specimens have been collected from the west coast of peninsular Thailand, Melanesia and Singapore (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176741	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This is a little-known species, but it feeds on fish. One was collected off Pakistan at a depth of two fathoms (Minton 1966). Found at depths of 27-30 m, over a gravel substrate (Rasmussen 1993).	eng
176741	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species was a common bycatch in trawlers in Phuket harbour (Thailand) between 1985 and 1989 (Rasmussen 1993). In India, this species is rare, recorded from along the south and east coasts of India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176741	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is occasionally caught as bycatch by trawlers.	eng
176742	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.	eng
176742	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in the Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (Smith 1926). Records from southwest Java have found the species in coral reef habitats (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2009). It is found in Viet Nam (Kharin 1984). There are two specimens from North Halmahera, Indonesia in Museums in Berlin and Hamburg (verified by A Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176742	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is very little information on habitats and ecology for this species. It has been collected from coral reefs in southwest Java (Banten, Indonesia) (K Sanders pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176742	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>In 1991, no specimens were found in the whole of the Gulf of Thailand (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Since 2000, several individuals from southwest Java have been collected (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176742	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Coastal development is a threat and may cause localized declines.<br/><br/>This species is also strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).	eng
176743	conservation	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Courtney, T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176743	distribution	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is known from South Sulawesi, Arafura Sea, Coral Sea, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia (Ineich and Borsa 2003, Ineich and Rasmussen 1997; K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176743	habitat	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species occurs in coral reefs and seagrass beds (Heatwole 1999). It is found from 0-45 m (McCosker 1975, Ineich and Borsa 2003). This species eats eels (McCosker 1975). A single observation of a gravid female found three embryos (Guinea 1982).	eng
176743	population	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is abundant in Fjij, New Caledonia and Chesterfield Reefs (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). Some localized declines have occurred, for example at Ashmore Reef where it used to be abundant (H. Cogger pers. comm. 1994). From surveys conducted in 1998 and 2002, it is now completely absent from that region  (V. Lukoschek and M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). It is still present at Scott Reef (M. Guinea. pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>There are no records of this species from trawls in the Queensland fisheries (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). It is very rare in the Gulf of Carpentaria (M. White pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species comprised 28 out of 83 specimens collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi. The animals were reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176743	threats	Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).<br/><br/>Apart from coral bleaching there are no known major threats to this species. It is unclear whether declines at Ashmore Reef are associated with bleaching events.	eng
176744	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176744	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found along the east coast of India, the Gulf of Mannar and Myanmar (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009, Leviton 2003).  <span style="font-style: italic;">H. fasciatus</span> is extremely rare west of the Indian subcontinent and no records exist for Sri Lanka (Tomascik 1997).	eng
176744	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found over soft bottom coastal waters. It feeds exclusively on worm/snake eels (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176744	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no population data available for this species. Records from the Indian region are rare and include the Gulf of Mannar and the Coromandel coast (A. Lobo pers comm. 2009).	eng
176744	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	They are caught as bycatch by fishing trawlers. Also potentially impacted by habitat loss due to coastal development.	eng
176745	conservation	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including "Listed Marine Species"), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPFs commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia's NPF (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>This species would especially benefit from bycatch reduction devices in trawl fisheries due to high mortality rates (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176745	distribution	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species occurs along the north coast of Australia and the south-central coast of Papua New Guinea (O'Shea 1996, Greer 1997). It has also been found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160; </p>	eng
176745	habitat	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	It is found over flat open sand that is lightly covered with filamentous algae (Minton and Dunson 1985), in turbid estuaries, and in inshore waters (Heatwole 1999). It is found from 7-26 m (Minton and Dunson 1985, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978). This species eats fish. Also found in inter-reefal habitat from Queensland trawl fisheries (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). In Papua New Guinea, it usually occurs over sandy substrates near coral reefs (O'Shea 1996).	eng
176745	population	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. macdowelli</span>  is uncommon and not as abundant as many other species. It is known from the bycatch in the Queensland Trawl Fisheries and makes up a small proportion of the catch (4%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This species is also captured as bycatch in the Northern Trawl Fishery, and makes up less than 1% of the catch.<br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Trawl Fishery between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There has been a major reduction in the size of the northern fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.<br/><br/>This species has a localized catch distribution and shows evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds. However, these fishing grounds only accounted for an estimated 15% of their available habitat. Nevertheless, the catch rates of these species should be monitored in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria as part of the new project to assess the sustainability of the northern prawn fishery bycatch from annual monitoring data funded by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
176745	threats	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M. & Lukoschek, V., 2009	This species is found in bycatch of trawl fisheries. It is captured in the Queensland Trawl Fishery, but makes up a small proportion of the sea snake bycatch (4%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The within-trawl mortality in the Queensland Trawl Fishery was very high at 33.3%.&#160; The total incidental fishing mortality rate for this species, which is the within-trawl mortality combined with the post-trawl mortality rate is over 50% (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). This species is also captured as bycatch in Australia's Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), and makes up less than 1% of the sea snake bycatch.<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(2010), the risk of overfishing sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure, resulting in populations experiencing significant decline, appears low for all species. The risk of localized extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, because there is relatively scant information available on the population dynamics of this species, and other sea snake species, on the Queensland east coast, this risk assessment should be considered as preliminary (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>Quantitative assessment of the impacts of trawling from the NPF on populations of sea snakes has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appear to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, this species had lower abundances and more restricted distributions that overlap with current high-effort trawling areas. This species may have been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). The continual reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years will most likely reduce the number of sea snakes captured in the fishery (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).The catch rates of these species should be monitored (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>There are no trawls in shallow waters in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, thus the species is likely protected from fishing in those areas.	eng
176746	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it may occur in marine protected areas. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/><br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and Emma Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).<br/><br/>    <p>There are no documented bycatch management strategies for <span style="font-style: italic;">Lapemis curtus</span> in other parts of its range, however, trawl fishing closures in India may prove effective for reducing the impacts of incidental capture for this and other sea snake species (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), even though these closures were not specifically implemented for sea snake management. Similar fisheries closures in other countries where this species occurs may also reduce the impacts of incidental takes, however, considerable research is needed to quantify sea snake bycatch throughout Southeast Asia and evaluate the effects of any current management strategies on sea snake populations. <br/></p><p>Gravid females of this species appear to congregate in sheltered areas such as bays and  estuary mouths at particular times of the year. Some of the areas should  be identified as important zones for conservation especially during  breeding periods (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/></p>	eng
176746	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	This species has one of the most extensive distributions of all sea snake species (Minton 1975). It occurs form the Persian Gulf to eastern Australia and includes the entire Indian coastlines, Myanmar, Thailand (Tu 1974), South China Sea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Minton 1975). One individual of this species has been reported from an unknown location in New Caledonia (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000), however, it is not clear whether there are breeding populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> east of Australia.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>   <br/>  <p><br/></p><br/><p>&#160;</p>	eng
176746	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> occurs in a wide range of tropical shallow-water habitats including gulfs, bays, and estuaries, over continental shelves and also over soft-sediments adjacent to coral reefs. It is associated with many soft-sediment types including sand, muddy sand, and mud (Heatwole 1975, Dunson 1975). It sometimes ascends river, thus also occurs in freshwater habitats (Heatwole 1975, Dunson 1975).<span style="font-style: italic;"> L. curtus</span> is a generalist feeder and its diet includes many species of benthic, demersal and pelagic fish, as well as squid and other crustaceans (Glodek and Voris 1982, Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2001, Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005). This species typically occurs in depth ranges from 4 to 40 m (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1978) but has been seen as deep as 55 m (Dunson 1975). Gravid females appear to congregate in sheltered areas such as bays and estuary mouths at particular times of the year (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species has considerably capacity to disperse because of its great variety of optimal habitat types and prey items. Population genetic data indicates that <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> has undergone recent range expansion throughout shallow water habitats around northern and eastern Australia, probably since the last glacial maximum 15,000 years ago (V. Lukoschek unpublished data). However, genetic data also indicate that deeper water appears to act as a barrier to dispersal for this species (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, 2008). For example, there is a strong genetic break between <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> populations in the west and east coasts of Thailand and between the Thailand populations and Australia (~1% mitochondrial sequence divergence, V. Lukoschek unpublished data).	eng
176746	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	This species is one of the most common inter-reefal species throughout its range. Although there are no abundance estimates from direct surveys of this species, considerable information exists from trawl by-catch data from Australia and some parts of Southeast Asia since the 1960s. These data suggest that, in many areas, this is the by far the most commonly captured sea snake species.<br/><br/>The most detailed spatial and temporal information is available for Australia. <span style="font-style: italic;">L.</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">curtus</span> comprised 19% of bycatch in the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria in the late 1960s (Shuntov 1972) and 12% in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the early 1970s (Heatwole 1975). In the late 1970s <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus </span>comprised ~60% of sea snakes caught in the eastern Gulf of Carpentaria (Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978). Other trawl bycatch studies in northern Australia have documented <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> as comprising between 13 – 80% of bycatch (Fry <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001); <13% of bycatch (Ward 1996a, b; Ward 2000); and ~30% (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). This species comprised ~25% of sea snake bycatch in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery, however, its percent contribution varied between different sectors and fisheries (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>This species appears to be the most abundant sea snake species in the Gulf of Thailand. An extensive study in the Gulf of Thailand in the late 1960s indicated that it comprised over 80% of all sea snakes captured in trawls (4,305&#160; in a total of 5311 individuals) (Tu 1974), and this species was captured on every day of the surveys.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> is probably also the most common species in several parts of coastal India (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). A total of 194 trawl pulls along the coast of Goa, India resulted in the capture of approximately 165 individuals in 2002 and 2003 (Lobo <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
176746	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Cogger, H., Rasmussen, A., Murphy, J., Lane, A., Sanders, K. Lobo, A., Gatus, J., Limpus, C., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Read, M., Fletcher, E., Marsh, D., White, M.-D., Heatwole, H., Alcala, A., Voris, H. & Karns, D., 2009	There are two major threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span>: fisheries bycatch and directed harvests.<br/><br/>This species occurs primarily in shallow-water coastal soft-sediment habitats, which are targeted by prawn trawl fisheries  throughout its range. <span style="font-style: italic;">L.&#160; curtus</span> tends to be one of the most commonly caught species in these trawl fisheries. Indeed, this  species is often caught in huge numbers and can make up a large component of all  sea snake bycatch in many locations (see Population information). <a style="">There  is some anecdotal evidence from Asia of declines in the population. They are now caught much less frequently  in trawls than in the past. In 1989 in Phuket, Thailand 50-300 individuals  were captured in trawls, and in 2004 there were much fewer (A. Rasmussen  pers. comm. 2009)</a>. <br/><br/>In the Queensland trawl fishery (Australia), <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> made up a high proportion (24%) of the  incidental capture of sea snakes and the mortality rate was 5.8% (which  is comparatively low) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.  </span>2010). It is the most commonly caught sea snake in these  fisheries. According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et  al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the  Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure resulting  in populations experiencing significant decline, appears low. <br/> <br/> The generally high spatial and temporal variability in the abundance and  species composition of sea snakes in trawl bycatch in Australia, combined with  the changing fishing practices over the past 20 years, make it very  difficult to detect trends in catch rate that could be reliably inferred as  indicating that populations are stable or declining. As such, trawl bycatch data only  provide an indirect measure of the status of Australian populations. This is  probably also true for trawl bycatch data in other locations.<br/>   <br/> The other potential threat, directed harvest, is known to occur in some  parts of Southeast Asia. This species is one of the most frequently commercially used  sea snakes in Thailand (Rasmussen 2001). Large numbers of sea snake skins (>6,500 individuals), likely of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span>,&#160; have been seized in Malaysia near  the border of Thailand. Leather from this species can also be found marketed online by companies in Asia. Harvests of more than 100 <span style="font-style: italic;">L. curtus</span> individuals were also observed in east Peninsular Malaysia in  2008 (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2009). The species was harvested in Indonesia  prior to the 1980s, however, there are no reports of harvests on a commercial  scale since then (G. Saputra pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176747	conservation	Gatus, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
176747	distribution	Gatus, J., 2009	This species is only known from Lake Taal in the Philippines (Lagda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Muita <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001, Guerrero 2002, Papa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). Lake Taal, formerly known as Lake Bombon, is the third largest lake in the Philippine Archipelago. The average depth of the lake is 180 m and it drains through the Pansipit River into Balayan Bay in the southwest. The surface area of the lake is 24,356 ha (Guerrero 2002, Mutia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). This species therefore has an extent of occurrence of approximately 250 km².	eng
176747	habitat	Gatus, J., 2009	This species is only known from a freshwater lake in the Philippines (Lake Taal). The lake has an opening of approximately 300 m  to  Pansipit River leading to the Batangas Bay.	eng
176747	population	Gatus, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species (Lagda <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003), but it is assumed to be declining due to the impacts of a number of threats.	eng
176747	threats	Gatus, J., 2009	Major threats are fish pens for cultivation of tilapia which cause pollution and kill fish and other species due to excess nutrient loading of the system. This species is also threatened by habitat loss and decline in habitat quality from pollution, including agricultural pesticides and sewage, due to coastal development. This species is also caught as bycatch in gillnets. The fishermen usually kill them when they are captured (Diesmos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). <br/><br/>The lake is part of an active volcano, and an area of high seismic activity. Eruption could destroy the entire habitat of this species.	eng
176748	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Milton, D., Courtney, T. &  Fletcher, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, however, this snake is found in some MPAs. There are currently no sea snake species protected under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>  The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons.<br/><br/>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s trawl fisheries showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and E. Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).	eng
176748	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Milton, D., Courtney, T. &  Fletcher, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii </span>occurs throughout tropical northern Australia from Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia to the southern Great Barrier Reef, east Australia (Cogger 2000). Its distribution extends east to reefs in the Coral Sea (Heatwole 1975, Zimmerman <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1994), Chesterfield Reefs (Minton and Dunson 1985) and New Caledonia (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
176748	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Milton, D., Courtney, T. &  Fletcher, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> primarily occurs in shallow-water habitats adjacent to coral reefs (Heatwole  and Lukoschek 2008),  including sea grass beds, among gorgonians and broken corals, and over sand (Ineich  2007).  It typically occurs at depths ranging from 0.02-50 m, although there is a record of it being caught at 58 m in prawn trawls (Courtney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2010) and depths of 80 m have also been recorded (Ineich  and Laboute, 2002).  Its diet includes various reef fish species. This snake may be encrusted with algae, bryozoans, polychaetes and tubeworms (Zann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1975).<br/><br/>A specimen of 140 cm TL was captured South Groote Eylandt (12/11/07) sample housed in Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory (M. White pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176748	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Milton, D., Courtney, T. &  Fletcher, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii&#160;</span>  has a patchy distribution and typically occurs at  low densities throughout its range (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007).  Thus, it is often among the least abundant species of any recorded at a particular geographic location, as demonstrated by records and sighting rates in Australia’s Timor Sea  Reefs (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007)  and the Great Barrier Reef (Lukoschek pers. ob.s 2009, Heatwole 1975). Since 1998, records of sea  snakes from Ashmore Reef, Australia have shown severe declines, however, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus  duboisii</span> was not previously recorded as very abundant on the Timor Sea Reefs (Guinea  and Whiting 2005; Guinea 2006, 2007)  so it is unclear to what extent populations of this species have been affected.<br/> <br/> This species is rarely captured by trawlers in Australia’s Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF), which encompasses  all of Australia’s northern coastline from the tip of Cape York in the east to  Cape Londonderry, Western Australia&#160;(>700,000 square km): only 36 individuals of this species were recorded as being captured between 1976  to 2005 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> is, however, it was the third most commonly caught species in  the Queensland Red-Spot King Prawn fishery, which fishes closely adjacent to  coral reefs in habitat that overlaps with this species’ preferred habitat type  (Courtney  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  It accounted for ~20% of all sea snakes caught in this fishery, and 12% of sea snakes caught throughout  Queensland east coast waters from all trawl fisheries combined (Courtney  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2010).  In the literature, past records of captures of this species in trawl fisheries may differ from more recent  records, possibly due to changing patterns in the areas fished (Courtney<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2010).  <br/><br/>On a trip to the Marion Reef (Southern Coral Sea) in June 2008, on fifteen dives, sea snakes were encountered on almost every dive, but in small numbers, the most on one dive was a maximum of ten, most dives encountering two to six snakes. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span> was the most common (ca. 70%,&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. laevis</span> was the next most common. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii</span> were seen in smaller numbers in shallow water (N. Marsh pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176748	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M., Milton, D., Courtney, T. &  Fletcher, E., 2009	This species may be impacted by degradation of coral reef habitat from expanding oil and gas development in northwestern Australia. In northeastern Australia, a possible threat is trawling activity in the vicinity of reefs.<br/><br/>    <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <br/>Increased sea surface temperatures, coral bleaching, and resulting changes in sediment structure may be linked to localized population declines of sea snakes on Ashmore Reef, northern Australia (Francis 2006). The reasons for the declines on Ashmore Reef are unknown.	eng
176749	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176749	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is known from Cochin-China in southernViet Nam (Heatwole 1999). It is thought that this species has a very restricted range and it is endemic to this location. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>²</sup>, as it is only known from one location.	eng
176749	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is very little information on the habitat and ecology of this species. It feeds on eels (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009.).	eng
176749	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is known from approximately five specimens from the same location as the type locality (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176749	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species although it is caught as bycatch in fishing trawls.	eng
176750	conservation	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Gatus, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species, but it does occur in marine protected areas. In the Philippines there are two declared sea snake sanctuaries in Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Conservation of <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> snakes should take into account both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.	eng
176750	distribution	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Gatus, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> is one of the most widespread members of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> (Heatwole <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2005). It is found along the coasts of eastern India and Andaman Islands, east through Malaysia, Indonesia, and northward to Viet Nam and southern China, Taiwan, and the Ryuku Islands of Japan. Also found in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Philippines, Palau to the islands of the southwestern Pacific Ocean stretching to Fiji, Vanuatu and Niue. This species has been known to stray to Australia and New Zealand, though there is no evidence of breeding populations in these  locations (Heatwole 1999).<br/><br/>This species is common on several of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but it has rarely been spotted off islands near the Indian mainland (e.g. Grande Island in Goa) (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There have been unconfirmed sightings of this species near the western coast of Central America.	eng
176750	habitat	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Gatus, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> is found in a wide range of habitats, including coral islands, coral reefs, mangroves, and in the open ocean. It feeds on eels (Heatwole 1999), and is usually found in shallow waters from 0-10 m depth (Cogger 2007).<br/><br/>The animals feed on eels in shallow coastal waters and return to land to rest, slough their skin and digest their prey (Shetty and Shine 2002b). On land they shelter in vegetation, under beach rocks, in crevices and caves. This species is more terrestrial in its habits than its congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span>, and this is reflected in its heavier bodied morphology and superior terrestrial locomotor abilities (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003).<br/><br/>Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994) though interestingly, these eggs are very rarely encountered in the wild, with possibly only two nests reported over the entire distribution of the species. Their reproductive habits can therefore be considered highly secretive.<br/><br/>Females are larger and heavier-bodied than males (up to three times as heavy in Fiji; Pernetta 1977) and this sexual dimorphism is reflected in different diets, with females feeding on larger conger eels, while males feed predominantly on smaller moray eels (Shetty and Shine 2002c).<br/><br/>        <p>Populations of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> in Fiji have displayed strong site fidelity, with animals on islands separated by less than six kilometres remaining essentially separate (Shetty and Shine 2002a). Similar site fidelity has been recorded in New Caledonia, though this has not  resulted in genetic differentiation between island sites separated by distances of up to 100 km (Lane 2009).</p>  <p>&#160; &#160;</p>	eng
176750	population	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Gatus, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution and can be highly abundant in the locations where it is found.<br/><br/>  A population estimate from a small (0.5 km²) rocky island in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, found approximately 721 individuals, with males outnumbering females 4 to 1 (Lading <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1991).<br/>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176750	threats	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Gatus, J. & Lobo, A., 2009	The major threats to this species may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. This includes loss of shore habitats required for laying eggs and  digesting prey. This species is attracted to light and may be affected by lighting from hotels  and beach shacks in developing areas (A. Lobo pers. comm.). There is anecdotal evidence that resort developments on some Fijian  islands may have reduced population sizes of <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> (M. Guinea  pers. comm. cited by Marsh <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1993).<br/><br/>Locals in the Andaman Islands suggest that this species was killed for food by Karen migrants from Myanmar, however, there is no confirmed evidence of this. Harvested as smoked sea snake in the Philippines and exported to Japan.  This threat is localised to Cebu and Leyte Province (J. Gatus pers.  comm. 2009). <br/><br/>  Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007), this is&#160; expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda </span>spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded &#160; only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances, egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.  <p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>	eng
176751	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176751	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	There are verified records of this species from Viet Nam, Thailand (McCarthy and Warrell 1991, Kharin 2005), New Guinea and the Java Sea (Kharin 2005). It is also recorded from Philippines (Gigante and Bohol Islands) in 9-15 m channels between reefs (Smith 1926, Dunson and Minton 1978,  Punay 1975).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160;</p><br/><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
176751	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	No information is available about this species' habitat. It is taken by trawlers and therefore likely to occur over soft bottoms.<br/><br/>This species eats fish (McCarthy and Warrell 1991).	eng
176751	population	Rasmussen, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	This species is considered to be very rare (Kharin 2005). It is known from 20 specimens from Viet Nam  (A. Rasmussen pers. comm.) and 10-20 specimens from the Gulf of Thailand. Also known from one specimen collected by fishermen in South Sulawesi, Indonesia (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176751	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Sanders, K., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It may be taken as bycatch in trawls.	eng
176752	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Its range overlaps with some marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176752	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. obscurus</span> is found along the coasts of eastern India and Myanmar. Also collected in Chittagong, Bangledesh in a river mouth (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In 2002, 25 specimens were collected from a river on the Andaman Sea coast of southern Thailand (L. Chanhome and M. Sumontha pers. comms. 2008).<br/><br/>This species has a restricted range, generally known from shallow brackish lagoons. Records post Smith (1943) suggest that this species is known from brackish lagoons such as Chilika lake in Orissa and the Hoogly river (east coast of India) (Murthy 1988). Validity of the distribution records from this area and other localities need reconfirmation.	eng
176752	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species has been reported to occur in brackish waters and around the mouths of rivers (Leviton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, Smith 1926). <br/><br/>This species has a  restricted range, generally known from shallow brackish lagoons. Records post Smith (1943) suggest that this species is known from brackish lagoons such as Chilika lake in Orissa and the Hoogly river (east coast of India) (Murthy and Rama Rao 1988).	eng
176752	population	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There is no known population information for this species. <br/><br/>In Chittagong, Bangledesh, there is a patchy distibution, with potentially large quantities being collected at one time (50 individuals, A. Rasmusssen pers comm. 2009). Murthy and Rama Rao (1988) mentioned that it was the most common sea snake in Chilka Lake in Orissa, India, but he collected no specimens.<br/><br/>In 2002, 25 specimens were collected from a river on the Andaman Sea coast of southern Thailand (L. Chanhome and M. Sumontha, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176752	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.<br/><br/>This species is apparently caught as bycatch in artisanal fisheries operating within Lake Chilika (A. Lobo pers. comm.).	eng
176753	conservation	Sanders, K. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176753	distribution	Sanders, K. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is found in the Gulf of Thailand south to Indonesia (Heatwole 1999). Smith (1926) describes two isolated subpopulations, separated east and west of the Malay Peninsula. The distribution of this species in Viet Nam&#160; is unconfirmed (Kharin 2004; A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2010). There is a record from Sabah, Borneo (Museum collection, Field Museum).	eng
176753	habitat	Sanders, K. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	Currently there is no information on habitats or ecology for this species.	eng
176753	population	Sanders, K. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176753	threats	Sanders, K. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is known from bycatch in trawls. It is also likely impacted by coastal development in areas such as the Gulf of Thailand.	eng
176754	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176754	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is found in Singapore, the Gulf of Thailand, Viet Nam, and the Philippines (Rasmussen 2001). It is possibly more widespread than the current records suggest.	eng
176754	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Sandy bottoms in coastal waters (Rasmussen 2001).	eng
176754	population	Rasmussen, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is commonly captured in trawls from Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009). It is uncommon in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176754	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is caught incidentally in trawling activities. It is also harvested for the smoked sea snake trade in the Philippines and exported to Japan (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). The animals are also harvested for their skin, at least in Viet Nam and Thailand, and potentially elsewhere (McCarthy and Worrell 1991).	eng
176755	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>  <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Specie"' by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.	eng
176755	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	This species occurs along the northwestern coast of western Australia from the Kimberley Region to Shark Bay (Storr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986).	eng
176755	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	It is found on shallow coastal flats (McDowell 1974), in mangroves and estuarine mudflats (Heatwole 1999). It forages on the landward limit of the high tide and out of the water on the salt flats at low tide, entering mudskipper (goby) burrows and feeding on either gobies or their eggs (H. Penrose and M. Guinea pers. comms. 2009). This species may be an important trophic link between the salt flats habitat and higher trophic levels in adjacent coastal waters (H. Penrose pers.comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It eats fish (McDowell 1974), most likely gobies (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). Forages in crab holes for gobies when flooded.	eng
176755	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	This species is not commonly encountered. It is found in a remote area and is not often surveyed for (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009). The population status is unknown.	eng
176755	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	There are no known major threats specific to this species, but threats to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.<br/><br/>Increased industrial activity is likely to occur in this species' habitat the near future due to salt extraction, mining and infrastructure development for shipping (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176756	conservation	Lukoschek,V., Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T. , 2009	<p>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).</p><p>Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.</p>    <p>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF; ‘Design, trial and implementation of an integrated, long-term bycatch monitoring program, road tested in the Northern Prawn Fishery’ FRDC PN 2002/035 (Brewer<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007 as cited by Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. </p>  <p>Commercial trials of different Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) used in Australia’s NPF showed that two devices (Fisheye and Popeye Fishbox BRDs) can reduce sea snake catch by between 40 and 85% (without significant prawn loss) when set closer to the cod end than the minimum legally required distance, but <10% of fishers have responded to these findings by moving their Bycatch Reduction Devices closer to the cod end (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). Recommendation would be to reduce the number of individuals taken as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices and placement within nets (T. Courtney and E. Fletcher pers. comms. 2009).</p>	eng
176756	distribution	Lukoschek,V., Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T. , 2009	This species has a large geographic range extending from northern Australia to Taiwan, however, it has a disjunct distribution between the northern and southern hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere its distribution ranges from Taiwan south to Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (Tu 1974, Minton 1975, Heatwole 1999). In the southern hemisphere it is found along the northern coast of Australia, southern Papua New Guinea, southern Indonesia, in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997). It does not appear to occur in the Philippines or in the northern or central island of Indonesia (Tu 1974, Minton 1975, Heatwole 1999).	eng
176756	habitat	Lukoschek,V., Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> occurs over soft sandy habitats adjacent to the edges of coral reefs (McCosker 1975) and occurs in both shallow  and deeper waters (40 - 50 m) (T .Courtney, M. Guinea, V. Lukoschek pers. comms. 2009). This species primarily feeds on gobies, which it takes from  within the goby burrows and has been observed to examine and enter holes in  sand and broken coral substrata searching for prey (Voris 1972, McCosker 1975).	eng
176756	population	Lukoschek,V., Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T. , 2009	There are no estimates of population size for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> . Tu  (1974) recorded just a few specimens of this species from the Gulf of Thailand (<0.03% of all snakes caught), however, it was more  abundant in the Taiwan Strait, where it comprised ~3% of snakes captured (Tu and Stringer 1973). In Australia, most information on relative abundance  comes from trawler bycatch studies, which indicate that it is has a very  patchy spatial and temporal distribution throughout its Australian range: thus,  it has been relatively uncommonly caught at some times or in some locations but commonly caught at other times or locations (Shuntov 1972). For  example, it comprised just ~1% of all sea snakes caught in the Northern Prawn Trawl  Fishery in 2003-2005 (Minton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and yet was the fourth most common  species caught in the Queensland prawn trawl fishery (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).  In part these differences may reflect the type of trawlers used or areas trawled. For example, across northern Australia and over approximately the same  period <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peroni</span> comprised < 0.1% of all snakes caught by prawn trawlers (Ward 1996b) but ~10% of all snakes  caught by fish trawlers (Ward 1996a).<br/><br/>This species is relatively rare in the Gulf of Thailand, but is quite common in the Strait of Formosa (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>On a trip to the Marion Reef (Southern Coral Sea) in June 2008, on fifteen dives, sea snakes were encountered on almost every dive, but in small numbers. <span style="font-style: italic;">E. annulatus</span> was the most commonly seen (ca. 70%), <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> was the next most common. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. duboisii </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii </span>were seen in smaller numbers in shallow water (N. Marsh pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Three specimens were collected from fishermen in Makassar, South Sulawesi, in March-April 2010. Reportedly caught in nets (using lamps) near coral reefs around Pulau Baranglompo. Represented three out of 83 sea snake specimens collected from fishermen as by-catch (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms.).	eng
176756	threats	Lukoschek,V., Rasmussen, A., Sanders, K., Lobo, A. & Courtney, T. , 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. peronii</span> is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range. It is mostly caught in the inter-reefal fisheries within the species preferred habitat. Its occurrence in trawler bycatch in Australia varies spatially and temporally and with the type of trawl fishery species (Shuntov 1972; Redfield<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 1978; Ward 1996a,b; Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010; Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).  <br/><br/>This species appears to be a specialized feeder on gobies (Voris 1972, Ineich and Laboute 2002, Borsa 2008). It is, therefore, potentially impacted by habitat disturbance from trawlers on soft bottom habitats, which could destroy goby burrows and reduce the abundance of the preferred prey of this species (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009).  <p><br/></p>      <p>&#160;</p>  <p>&#160;</p>    <p>&#160; </p>	eng
176757	conservation	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Fletcher, E. & White, M.-D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the ‘Listed Marine Species’ by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. This requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). The Australian Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>A conservation recommendation is to reduce the number of individuals caught as bycatch in the prawn trawl fishery using appropriate exclusion devices within nets (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).	eng
176757	distribution	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Fletcher, E. & White, M.-D., 2009	This species distribution ranges from the northern coast of Australia to the South China Sea and includes the Gulf of Thailand (Tu 1974), Indonesia, western Malaysia, Viet Nam, and Papua New Guinea (Minton 1975).	eng
176757	habitat	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Fletcher, E. & White, M.-D., 2009	This species is common in estuaries and shallow bays and is most commonly associated with mud substrata but may rarely be found over harder substrata (Limpus 1975). It may swim upstream in rivers (Limpus 1975). It occurs in turbid waters from 0-50 m. This species typically feeds on benthic fish eggs but has also been recorded taking an eel (Voris 1972). This is the smallest sea snake found in the prawn trawl fisheries on the northeastern coast of Australia (T. Courtney pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176757	population	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Fletcher, E. & White, M.-D., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution. There has been a regional population decline in the Shoalwater Bay area (Australia) from foot surveys (C. Limpus pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species was seasonally abundant as trawler bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990). This is also the case in the Gulf of Carpentaria (D. Milton pers. comm. 2009). Also captured in the eastern prawn trawl fisheries in Australia (makes up 2 % of the sea snake catch) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). In Madura Straits (East Java, Indonesia), this species comprised 14 out of 256 bycaught snakes collected over ten days in June 2010 (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comms.).	eng
176757	threats	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D., Courtney, T., Fletcher, E. & White, M.-D., 2009	This species is caught as bycatch by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1990).	eng
176758	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  The location where it occurs is extremely remote.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176758	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species was described from the Chesterfield Reef in New Caledonian waters (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000).	eng
176758	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	The habitat type is unknown  (Rasmussen and Ineich 2000). Captured at 62 m from a trawl.	eng
176758	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from three specimens. Probably naturally rare.	eng
176758	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
176759	conservation	Sanders, K., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176759	distribution	Sanders, K., 2009	This species is found along the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula and Brunei, and in Halmahera, Indonesia.	eng
176759	habitat	Sanders, K., 2009	This species occurs in shallow waters and eats eels (Voris and Voris 1983). It has also been collected in rivers.	eng
176759	population	Sanders, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>There are approximately 200 specimens from southern peninsular Malaysia, one specimen from Halmahera, Indonesia, and two specimens from Brunei.	eng
176759	threats	Sanders, K., 2009	Major threats to this species are not known.	eng
176760	conservation	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species however, all sea snakes are protected in Australia as "Listed Marine Species" under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999. The EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species, directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176760	distribution	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is thought to occur along the northwestern coast of Australia from Dampier to Broome (Storr <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002) and the Arafura Sea (Shuntov 1972). However, most of the information about this species comes from four dead specimens (Kharin and Cheblyukov 2006) and trawler bycatch information from the early 1970s (Shuntov 1972). The true geographic range of this species is poorly known.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
176760	habitat	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	Little is known of this species. It is thought to live over sandy bottoms, and occasionally in seagrass beds.	eng
176760	population	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is only reliably known from three syntypes and one additional specimen (Kharin and Cheblyukov 2006) and is likely to be rare. There are, however, records of this species being caught by trawlers in the Arafura Sea between 1967 and 1970 and comprising 4% of the total number of individuals caught (Shuntov 1972). However, no specimens exist from these trawls to confirm species identification and subsequent extensive trawl bycatch studies conducted in this area have not recorded this species (Ward 1996a,b, 2000). These data suggest that some snakes might have been misidentified as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. tenuis</span> by Shuntov (1972).	eng
176760	threats	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Rasmussen, A., 2009	Major threats to this species are not known.	eng
176761	conservation	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Fletcher, E., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In addition, there currently are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species. Sea snakes are protected in Australia as ‘Listed Marine Species’ under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). The provisions of the EPBC Act requires that all Australian industries interacting with protected species (including ‘Listed Marine Species’), directly or indirectly, demonstrate sustainability for the species impacted by their activities (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). In addition, the Fisheries Management Act 1991 requires fishing efforts to avoid captures of threatened and protected species such as sea snakes.<br/><br/>The Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) in Australia has the largest impact on sea snake populations of any Commonwealth-managed fishery. The EPBC Act and the NPF’s commitments under its Strategic Assessment by the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, led to the commencement of a three year study on developing and implementing a long-term bycatch monitoring program for Australia’s NPF.&#160; In addition, the NPF is required to demonstrate that its activities do not adversely impact sea snake species. Since 2003, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) have jointly run industry workshops to train crew-member observers in the identification, photography and recording of information on sea snakes caught in the NPF tiger and banana prawn seasons. <br/><br/>Management options for minimising sea snake catch through temporal or spatial closures are limited as sea snakes are widely distributed throughout the NPF managed area. The most effective option currently available would be to facilitate or legislate the adoption of effective BRD types (Fisheye BRD or Popeye Fishbox BRD at 70 meshes from drawstring) by the entire NPF fleet (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).	eng
176761	distribution	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Fletcher, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> is found around northern Australia from Broome on the west coast (Cogger 1975), Gulf of Carpentaria and Arafura Sea to New South Wales on the east coast of Australia (Cogger 1975, Limpus 1975), throughout the Great Barrier Reef and down to Rockhampton on the east coast. It has also been recorded from  the southern coast of New Guinea (Cogger 1975, Heatwole 1999).	eng
176761	habitat	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Fletcher, E., 2009	This species is found from 0 - 22 m depth (Trembath 2003, Redfield <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1978) over soft sandy and muddy substrates. It eats fish. It is also sometimes found in reefal habitats and have been caught from inter-reefal habitat in trawls on east coast of Australia (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).	eng
176761	population	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Fletcher, E., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> is thought to be naturally rare. This species is known from bycatch in the Queensland&#160; and Northern Trawl Fisheries and makes up a very small proportion of the catch (1%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). <br/><br/>Trawl catch data of sea snakes were collated from research and commercial sampling from the Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) between 1976 and 2007 (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). The results showed that the abundances of most species and all sea snake species combined have been relatively stable over the last 30 years. There has been a major reduction in the size of the NPF fleet in 2007 and there are currently only 52 vessels operating, compared with 96 vessels in 2006. This change in the level of fishing effort will further reduce the impact of trawling on sea snakes and add confidence to the assessment that current trawl catches are not adversely impacting populations in northern Australia.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">E. kingii</span> has a localized catch distribution in the NPF and shows evidence of recent declines in abundance on the fishing grounds. However, these fishing grounds only accounted for an estimated 15% of their available habitat within the NPF managed area. Nevertheless, the catch rates of these species should be monitored in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria as part of the new project to assess the sustainability of NPF bycatch from annual monitoring data funded by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008).	eng
176761	threats	Milton, D., Courtney, T., Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V. & Fletcher, E., 2009	This species occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries. It is captured in the Queensland Trawl Fishery, but makes up a very small proportion of the sea snake bycatch (1%) (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). The within-trawl mortality in the Queensland Fishery was 26.7%. Post-trawl mortality experiments suggest that an additional 20% of snakes that are alive when the nets are brought to the surface die in the following hours and days after capture (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010).<br/><br/>According to Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010), the risk of overfishing of sea snakes in the Queensland trawl fisheries to the point of recruitment failure appears low for all species. The risk of localised extinction on the east coast of Australia due to trawling also appears unlikely. However, an anti-conservative methodology was used to calculate the risk, and therefore should be considered preliminary and speculative assessments (Courtney <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2010).<br/><br/>Quantitative assessments of the impacts of trawling from the Norther Prawn Fishery on populations of sea snakes has shown that trawl mortality was below reference points and no species appear to be at risk at current levels of fishing effort (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008). However, <span style="font-style: italic;">H. kingii</span> had lower abundances and more restricted distributions that overlap with current high-effort trawling areas. This species may have been adversely impacted by commercial prawn trawling over the years (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al </span>2008).This species has been previously identified as being potentially vulnerable to trawling due to catch rate declines, restricted distribution ranges and less productive life histories (Milton 2001). The continual reduction in the number of fishing licenses and contraction of fishing grounds in the NPF over the last few years will most likely reduce the number of sea snakes captured in the fishery (Milton<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2008). The catch rates of these species should continue to be monitored (Milton <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008).	eng
176762	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176762	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	This species is found along the coasts of China, Taiwan, and the Ruyuku Islands, Japan and also in south Viet Nam (Smith 1926, Rasmussen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The specimen for Viet Nam came from a trawl (A. Rasmussenpers. comm.). This species may be confined to the waters of northeast Asia. The type locality, however, is listed as "Indian Ocean".	eng
176762	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is very little information published on the habitat and ecology of this species.  It feeds mainly on eels (Voris and Voris 1983).	eng
176762	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176762	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	Major threats to this species are not known, although it is known to be captured as bycatch in trawls.	eng
176763	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M.,  & Rasmussen, A., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and there are no specific conservation or management plans for any sea snake species in Australia.<br/><br/>Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>.	eng
176763	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M.,  & Rasmussen, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> is an endemic species with small geographic range. It is found on Ashmore, Cartier,&#160; Hibernia, Scott and Seringapatam Reefs in the Timor Sea between northwestern Australia and Timor (Heatwole 1999, Cogger 2000).  Given its shallow depth range, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km<sup>²</sup>.<br/><br/>The type specimen was collected from Sulawesi (<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>Tschudi 1837). However, this collection location is questionable. There are no subsequent records of this species from Sulawesi or any other locations apart from Australian reefs in the Timor Sea. There is also no direct evidence that the type specimen is conspecific with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> on the Australian reefs (Cogger 1975). The location of the type specimen is, therefore, not being taken into account for this assessment (V. Lukoschek and A. Rasmussen pers. comms. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176763	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M.,  & Rasmussen, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> occurs in a range of reef habitats and primarily in shallow waters, although it is found in water depths up to 25 or 30 m (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It feeds mostly on small reef fishes from the families Labridae (wrasses), and Gobidae (gobies) as well as eels and fish eggs (Voris 1972, McCosker 1975, Rasmussen 2001).<br/><br/>Maximum size is typically 78 cm (Smith 1926, Francis 2006), though a specimen of 89 cm TL (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009) and 96 cm SVL have been recorded (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).&#160; Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 10 years, and age of first maturity of 3-4 years.	eng
176763	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M.,  & Rasmussen, A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> occurs as no more than five subpopulations – Ashmore, Hibernia, Cartier, Scott and Serangipatan Reefs. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener and sister species, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007b, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus,</span> thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>Since 1998, records of sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, Australia have shown rapid decline (Francis 2006).&#160; <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscu</span>s comprised between 3-22 % of the population at Ashmore Reef in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). In 2002, 29 individuals of this species were recorded in over three weeks of intensive surveying at Ashmore Reef and three individuals were recorded on Scott Reef in one day (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). In 1972 it comprised 10% of records of sea snakes at Ashmore Reef and 13% of sea snakes recorded from Scott Reef (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It comprised ~ 20% of a sample of sea snakes collected from Ashmore Reef in the 1920s (Smith 1926).<br/><br/>Sighting rates of this species at Ashmore Reef have been variable over the years, however, there seems to have been an overall decline in sightings since 1998. Standardized sighting rates at the inner mooring at Ashmore Reef are as follows: 1994 - one individual per hour; 1996 - three per hour; 1998 - 14 per hour; 2000- 10 per hour; 2003 - seven per hour; 2004 - one per hour; 2005 - no individuals of this species seen at the inner mooring (Francis 2006; Guinea 2006, 2007).<br/><br/>In 2002, only 29 individuals were recorded over three weeks on Ashmore Reef and three were recorded on Scott Reef in one day (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009). This species was the second most common sea snake recorded at Ashmore Reefs in 1998 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Catch rate of snakes per hour decreased from 14 snakes per hour in 1998 to one snake per hour in 2005. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> was still recorded in low numbers at other survey sites on Ashmore Reef and at Hibernia Reef in 2005 (Guinea 2006). It was not recorded from any reef in 2007 (Guinea 2007). As such, there are no estimates of its current population size, however, there appears to have been a decline of at least 70% since 1998. The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).The declines in abundance of this species on the Timor Sea reefs coincide with overall declines in all sea snakes species on these reefs (Francis 2006; Guinea 2006, 2007).	eng
176763	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M.,  & Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs have declined. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. fuscus</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/>Habitat degradation and modification may also result in possible reduction in prey species abundances (i.e. small coral reef fishes).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
176764	conservation	Sanders, K., Guinea, M. & Cogger, H., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures for in place for this species. The harvest should be monitored as over-collection could result in population declines. There is currently no quota or limits on numbers collected.	eng
176764	distribution	Sanders, K., Guinea, M. & Cogger, H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafura</span> is known from inland, freshwater habitats in southern Papua New Guinea, northern Australia and Indonesia (southernWest Papua Province; Cogger 1994).  Its presence is not confirmed from the east coast of Cape York (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). In Indonesian New Guinea it is found as far west as Merauke (K. Sanders and Mumpuni pers. comm.) and Mimika and Lorentz Rivers&#160; (O'Shea 1996). The geographic distributions expand in the wet season in Australia (Shine and Lambeck 1985).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160; </p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/><a href="http://www.bio.usyd.edu.au/Shinelab/publications/reprintslegal/128popdem.pdf"></a></p>	eng
176764	habitat	Sanders, K., Guinea, M. & Cogger, H., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafura</span> primarily eats fish.  It is known to inhabit billabongs of northern Australia and flooded grasslands in the wet season (Shine and Lambeck 1985).  It is found in inland freshwater habitats (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>A trade-off between energy allocation to growth vs. reproduction has been evident in both sexes of this species. Growth rates decrease after maturation in males, and female filesnakes grow more slowly during years when they reproduce (Houston and Shine, 1994). Females are generally larger than the males. In Australia, reproduction is seasonal, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986a, 1986b).<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> seems poorly suited to commercial harvesting.  Although its habitats are fragmented and generally accessible to harvesting, and it is seasonally vulnerable to hand collecting in large numbers, and females reproduce relatively infrequently (Shine<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1986a, 1986b).	eng
176764	population	Sanders, K., Guinea, M. & Cogger, H., 2009	This appears to be a common species within its range. A study of the population dynamics of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> in northern Australia surveyed over 3,400 snakes over a four-year period (Houston and Shine 1994). Using mark-recapture methods, snake densities were estimated to be greater than 400 individuals per hectare in the main study area, a higher density than usually found for most species of snakes.	eng
176764	threats	Sanders, K., Guinea, M. & Cogger, H., 2009	There are no major threats.<br/><br/>In Australia, this species is a traditional food source for aboriginal people who collect them by hand seasonally, sometimes in large numbers; females are most easily caught and are targeted because of their large size (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1986a, 1986b).<span style="font-style: italic;"></span><br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">A. arafurae</span> seems poorly suited to commercial harvesting. Its habitats are fragmented and generally accessible to harvesting, it is seasonally vulnerable to hand collecting in large numbers and females reproduce relatively infrequently (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1986a, 1986b).<br/><br/>Numerous attempts have been made both by zoos and private reptile collectors to keep this species in captivity, but in most cases, they have been reluctant to feed and are prone to skin infections.	eng
176765	conservation	Guinea, M., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176765	distribution	Guinea, M., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	Found in the Arabian and Oman Gulfs, east to Indonesia, the Gulf of Papua and China (Heatwole 1999). There are records from Saudia Arabia, Iran (Gasperetti 1988), Iraq (Khalaf 1959), Pakistan, India (Smith 1926), Bangladesh (Das 1994), Sri Lanka (de Silva 1996), Myanmar (Golay <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993), west coast of Thailand (Bussarawit 1989), Viet Nam (Kharin 2006) and China (Zhao and Adler 1993). Its range includes Hong Kong and Australia in the east (Kharin 2004).	eng
176765	habitat	Guinea, M., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species occurs in mangrove swamps and around coastal reefs (Heatwole 1975b, Minton 1966). This species forages on sand and specializes on feeding on eels.<br/><br/>Two specimens (out of 256 bycatch sea snakes) were collected in Madura  Straits (East Java, Indonesia) in June 2010. Habitat was either sandy or muddy bottom, maximum 5 km from shore and 30 m deep (K. Sanders and Mumpun pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176765	population	Guinea, M., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species is relatively common in coastal waters of Borneo and northern Java (Tomascik 1997). It appears to be rather uncommon near Karachi, Pakistan (Minton 1966). Common along the south and east coasts of India (Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and the Coromandel coast) (A. Lobo pers. comm.2009). This species is widespread by not common in museum collection, suggesting that it may occur naturally at low densities (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176765	threats	Guinea, M., Sanders, K. & Lobo, A., 2009	Occurs as bycatch in trawl fisheries.	eng
176766	conservation	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K., Milton, D. & Lobo, A., 2009	No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).<br/>   <br/>Sea snakes are protected in Australia since their addition to the "Listed Marine Species" by the Department of Environment and Water Resources in 2000. They are protected in Australia under the Environment Protection Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.<br/><br/>Conservation of mangrove areas is important for protection of this species.	eng
176766	distribution	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K., Milton, D. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species occurs across the northern part of Australia from Broome in the west to the northeast side of the Gulf of Carpentaria in the east, and in southern Papua Guinea.	eng
176766	habitat	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K., Milton, D. & Lobo, A., 2009	This species occurs in mangrove mudflats (Guinea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1993). It has been seen crawling on consolidated mud out of water into a nearby crab burrow to forage (Guinea <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1993). It is preyed on by sharks (Lyle and Timms 1987). Can live in coastal areas disturbed by human development.	eng
176766	population	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K., Milton, D. & Lobo, A., 2009	This is quite a common species in Broome (Sweet 1989). There is no information on population trends (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176766	threats	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Sanders, K., Milton, D. & Lobo, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, but development to associated habitat such as mangrove forests may be a concern.	eng
176767	conservation	Rasmussen, A. and Lobo, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176767	distribution	Rasmussen, A. and Lobo, A., 2009	This species is found in the Bay of Bengal east through the Straits of Malacca to the Gulf of Thailand and Indonesia (Heatwole&#160; 1999). It is recorded from Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Taiwan (Mao and Chen 1980).	eng
176767	habitat	Rasmussen, A. and Lobo, A., 2009	It feeds on synodontidae and anguilliform fishes (Rasmussen 2001). This species lives in gravel and sandy muddy bottoms. Caught between 20 and 30 m in the Andaman Sea (A. Rasmussen pers. comm.  2009).<br/><br/>There is one record of four young in a clutch (Whitaker and Captain 2004).	eng
176767	population	Rasmussen, A. and Lobo, A., 2009	It is uncommon in the Andaman Sea, and more common in Viet Nam (A. Rasmussen, pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>There is little population information available for this species. There have been no recent records from the east coast of India since 1977 (Murthy 1977; A Lobo. pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176767	threats	Rasmussen, A. and Lobo, A., 2009	This species is captured as bycatch in trawls. There has been some habitat destruction in Thailand and Viet Nam from coastal development. Direct harvest for skins does not appear to be a major threat.	eng
176768	conservation	Rasmussen, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place.	eng
176768	distribution	Rasmussen, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	This species is known from two specimens from southern Papua New Guinea (Kharin 1984, O’Shea 1996).	eng
176768	habitat	Rasmussen, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no information on habitat and ecology.	eng
176768	population	Rasmussen, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. Only known from two specimen.	eng
176768	threats	Rasmussen, A. & Guinea, M., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176769	conservation	Sanders, K., Murphy, J., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)<br/><br/>Numerous attempts have been made by both zoos and private reptile collectors to keep this species in captivity, but in all cases, they have been reluctant to feed and are&#160; prone to skin infections.	eng
176769	distribution	Sanders, K., Murphy, J., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is known from peninsular India (northwest coast including Gujarat), Sri Lanka (Anslem de Silva pers. comm. 2009), Myanmar, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Chandi 2006, de Rooj 1917, Smith 1941), Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands (Ehmann 1992), and coastal northern Australia (K. Sanders pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176769	habitat	Sanders, K., Murphy, J., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This non-venomous species is found in coastal rivers, estuaries, mangrove water courses, and in the open sea (especially shallow seas over mud bottom), and coral reef.  It feeds on fish and seldom leaves the water and is typically found at depths from 0-10 meters (Guinea 2007). In the Straits of Malacca, the file snake shares the marine habitat and  fish resources with true sea snakes, where they can be found up to 20 m  deep (Voris and Glodek 1980).<br/><br/>Reproduction is seasonal in all three acrochordids, with ovulation around July and parturition five or six months later (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1995).	eng
176769	population	Sanders, K., Murphy, J., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is common throughout its range, extremely common in some places (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010). It is frequently observed in the nearshore areas of the Indian sub-continent and it's backwaters (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). It was found to be relatively common in trawler bycatch in western Malaysia in 1989 (Stuebing and Voris 1990). The global population status is unknown but most likely to be stable.	eng
176769	threats	Sanders, K., Murphy, J., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is caught incidentally by trawlers (Stuebing and Voris 1989) and a directed harvest also occurs for the pet trade. In India, the main threat is mortality due to fisheries bycatch. Due to the species' preference for shallow areas, (generally below 15 m) it is caught as bycatch in shallow water fishing operations including shore seines and gill nets, in addition to trawling. &#160;A recent study by de Silva&#160;<em>et al. </em>(2010) found as many as 15 snakes dead in one fishing net, with approximately 200 boats operating in the area.&#160; <br/><br/>High levels of pollution in India may also be a threat, however, it still appears to survive in the highly polluted backwaters of Mumbai (A. Lobo pers. comm. 2009). In Indonesia, this species is not known to have been harvested on a commercial scale since the 1980s (G. Saputra pers. comm. 2009).&#160; In the Philippines, it is collected for the pet trade (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009).	eng
176770	conservation	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	Ashmore Reef has been a nature reserve since 1983 and has had various levels of monitoring against illegal fishing since that time.&#160; Management plans that focused on protection of marine life did not come into effect until 1990 (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 1989), with a second management plan coming into effect in 2002 (Commonwealth of Australia 2002), and since 1998 protection has actively been enforced. However, these management plans have not specifically addressed threat abatement or recovery of any sea snake species. Nonetheless, these management plans are designed to protect marine biodiversity and habitat quality; however, there are no data to indicate how, or to what extent, these measures are providing threat abatement to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>.	eng
176770	distribution	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	This is an endemic species with a small range. This species is found on Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reefs in Australia (Smith 1926, Minton and Heatwole 1975, Cogger 2000). It has never been seen from Scott Reef or other reefs in the Ashmore Reef region. This species also has very occasionally been recorded from other locations in northwest Australian waters (Shuntov 1972, Cogger 2000); however, these rare records from outside Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs are thought to be of vagrant individuals and not part of the range of breeding populations of this species (M. Guinea pers. comm. 2009). This species range has approximately 70 km of shoreline, and given its very shallow depth range of 10 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176770	habitat	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	This species is found on the reef flat and the reef edge. It is usually found associated with coral reefs and prefers sandy substrata with sparse coral (Minton and Heatwole 1975). It is found during the daylight hours resting beneath small coral overhangs or coral heads in 1-2 m water (McCosker 1975). This species eats fish, especially eels (Smith 1926). <br/><br/>Dispersal for this species is very restricted by deep water barriers. Based on similar species, this species has a generation length of approximately five years, based on a longevity of approximately 8-10 years, and age of first maturity of 4-5 years.	eng
176770	population	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> occurs as two subpopulations – Ashmore Reef and Hibernia Reef. Current population sizes are unknown. It is likely that there is very little movement between these subpopulations. Genetic studies of a far more widely distributed congener, <span style="font-style: italic;">Aipysurus laevis</span>, indicates restricted gene flow between Ashmore, Hibernia and Cartier Reefs (Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, 2008). <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span> occurs in a much wider range of habitat types (including deeper water) than <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, thus it is likely that dispersal is more restricted for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontali</span>s than for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. laevis</span>.<br/><br/>There have been serious declines in <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> since surveys in 1998.<br/><br/>There are no specific current or previous abundance estimates; however, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> comprised 6.02% of sea snakes seen on the reef flat high tide at Ashmore Reef in 1994 (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The mean density of all sea snakes on the reef flat at high tide was 228 individuals km²<sup></sup> giving a total abundance estimate of sea snakes on the reef flat of ~39,675 (95% CI 26,451 – 53,073) (Guinea and Whiting 2005). Given that 6.02% were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, this suggests that this species abundance was 2,388 individuals (95% CI 1592 – 3195). The total abundance estimate and percent contribution of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> was derived from boat transects of the reef flat at high tide. Seven transects were conducted and a total of 83 sea snakes were sighted, of which five were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> (Guinea and Whiting 2005). The estimate is, therefore, provisional; nonetheless, it suggests that population size on Ashmore Reef in the 1990s was substantial, potentially in the vicinity of 1,600 to 3,200 individuals. In addition, <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> was the third most commonly seen sea snake on the reef flat at low tide in the 1990s and comprised ~14% of individuals (Guinea and Whiting 2005). <br/><br/>In 1926, Malcolm Smith obtained ~100 sea snakes from Ashmore Reef, which were collected for him by Malay fishers, presumably at random. Of these 100 sea snakes, seven were <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, suggesting that this species comprised ~7% of the population. These were the first records of <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span> (Smith 1926).<span style="font-style: italic;"> A. apraefrontalis</span> comprised 2% of 367 sea snakes (seven individuals) caught at Ashmore Reef between Dec 31st 1972 and January 13th 1973 but was not seen or captured at Hibernia, Cartier or Scott Reef during these surveys (Minton and Heatwole 1975).<br/><br/>Despite extensive surveys by Michael Guinea (Guinea 2006, 2007) and Vimoksalehi Lukoschek (pers. comm. 2009) no individual of this species has been recorded on either Ashmore or Hibernia reef since 2000. Therefore, there appears to have been a decline of at least 90% since 1998.&#160; <br/><br/>The reasons for the local extinctions of these populations are unknown. This species has not been sighted at any other location. A possible threat could be unusually high water temperatures leading to severe coral bleaching and coral reef habitat degradation throughout the area (Francis 2006).	eng
176770	threats	Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D., 2009	There are no specific, clearly identified or quantified past, current or future threats to <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span> or any other reef-associated sea snake species, and it is unclear why populations at both Ashmore and Hibernia Reefs have declined so severely. <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span> is not targeted by fisheries; there is no evidence that it is being illegally harvested; and is it not subject to incidental bycatch (some sea snake species are routinely captured as by-catch in trawls, but this is not the case for strongly reef-associated species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apreafrontalis</span>; Lukoschek <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007a).<br/><br/>Nonetheless, something is clearly impacting this species and it is most likely that current and future threats relate to degradation or modification of shallow-water coral reef habitats from bleaching events due to increased sea surface temperatures. However, compared to other areas, the Ashmore Reef was not badly affected by the 1998 bleaching event (V. Lukoschek pers. comm. 2009), although it suffered severe bleaching in 2003 (Kaspartov <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2006). Thus, climate change may be a threat to some sea snake species (Francis 2006). In addition, increased water temperatures on the reef flat may exceed the upper lethal limit for <span style="font-style: italic;">A. apraefrontalis</span>, which has been reported to be 36°C for the sea snake <span style="font-style: italic;">Pelamis platurus</span> (Graham <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1971).<br/><br/> <span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
176771	conservation	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species,  but it may occur in marine protected areas, for example in the sea snake sanctuary at Gato  Island, Cebu and Pulo Laum, Zamboanga in the Philippines (J. Gatus pers. comm. 2009). These  parks are dependent on tourism for their protection.<br/><br/>It is important that conservation actions for snakes in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> take into account  both their marine and terrestrial habitat requirements.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176771	distribution	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Found along the coast of northeastern India, east to Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the islands of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, northwards to China, Taiwan, and Japan (Heatwole 1999). It can also be found in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Ineich and Rasmussen 1997).<br/><br/>In India it is only recorded from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but it is much less common as compared to <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> (A. Lobo pers. comm.).<br/><br/>    <p><br/></p>	eng
176771	habitat	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species is found on coral islands, coral reefs, mangroves and in open ocean. It feeds on eels (Heatwole 1999).  It is usually found at a depth of 0-15 m (Cogger 2007). It has been recorded to dive to depths greater than 80 m (Brischoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Beach rocks are thought to be an important habitat when on land.<br/><br/>Sea snakes of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> are amphibious to some degree, leaving the water regularly. Oviparous females deposit their eggs on land (Guinea 1994).<br/><br/>This species is more aquatic in its habits than its congener <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> and this is reflected in its more slender bodied morphology and reduced capacity for terrestrial locomotion (Shine <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2002). Accordingly, while <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> can travel quite far inland, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span> does not stray more than approximately five meters from the waters edge (Lane and Shine in prep).  <p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
176771	population	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution, but is found in high abundance in suitable habitat. <br/><br/>While mark-recapture work indicates that this species displays high site fidelity (Brichoux <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2009), genetic analyses show that it may actually disperse long distances and there is no genetic signature of natal homing. Dispersal distances are larger than for <span style="font-style: italic;">L. colubrina</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">L. saintgironsi</span> and this may reflect a reduced reliance on terrestrial habitats in <span style="font-style: italic;">L. laticaudata</span> (Lane <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> in prep).	eng
176771	threats	Lane, A., Guinea, M., Lobo, A. & Gatus, J., 2009	Major threats may include anthropogenic disturbances such as coastal development and habitat destruction. Probably faced with similar threats as <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda colubrina</span> (A. Lobo pers. comm.). <br/><br/>        <p>Amphibious Laticaudine sea kraits predominantly utilize the inter-tidal region whilst on land and require suitable cover (such as beach rocks) 1-4 meters from the waters edge (Saint Girons 1964, Ineich and LaBoute 2002, A. Lane pers. comm). If suitable habitat in the inter-tidal region is lost due to rising sea levels associated with global warming (Meehl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005, Bindoff <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007), this is&#160;expected to constitute a direct threat. Furthermore, <span style="font-style: italic;">Laticauda</span> spp. have specific oviposition requirements which have been recorded&#160;only rarely (Bacolod 1983, M. Guinea pers. comm.). In these instances egg laying was observed in rocky inter-tidal caves, accessible to kraits only at certain tides. If sea level changes prevent access to suitable laying sites, or render these sites unusable, this would also directly threaten the persistence of Laticaudine sea kraits.</p><p>This species is strongly associated with coral reefs and the degradation of this habitat is likely to pose a threat to species persistence. Mass coral bleaching occurs in association with episodes of elevated sea surface temperature and results in significant losses of live coral (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). This reduces habitat complexity, with a consequent decrease in prey abundance (Pratchett <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2008) and the loss of refuge sites. Climate change may thus threaten all sea snakes which are coral reef specialists (Francis 2006).</p>  <p></p>	eng
176772	conservation	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D. & Courtney, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>No sea snake species is currently listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).	eng
176772	distribution	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D. & Courtney, T., 2009	This is a coastal mangrove or saltmarsh species found along the north coast of Australia and at Aru Island, and possibly also in coastal habitats of southern Papua New Guinea and Indonesia (West Papua) (Cogger 1975).	eng
176772	habitat	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is found in coastal and estuarine mangroves and mudflats (Heatwole 1999).	eng
176772	population	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D. & Courtney, T., 2009	This species is rarely encountered as it lives in remote areas of Australia and Papua New Guinea. There is no information on population status.	eng
176772	threats	Guinea, M., Lukoschek, V., Milton, D. & Courtney, T., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Habitat degradation from coastal development may pose a localized threat.	eng
176773	conservation	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
176773	distribution	Rasmussen, A., 2009	Known from a single specimen from an uncertain locality in the "north Indian Ocean", Malayan archipelago. The precise range is unknown (David and Ineich 1999). This species may be a synonym of <span style="font-style: italic;">H. nigrocinctus</span> (A. Rasmussen pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>  <p>&#160;</p><p><br/></p>  <p>&#160;</p>  <p><br/></p>	eng
176773	habitat	Rasmussen, A., 2009	No information is available.	eng
176773	population	Rasmussen, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.	eng
176773	threats	Rasmussen, A., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176774	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas. Socha (2006) states that a rigorous ecological study would be required to determine if this species is threatened. Therefore, further research into its distribution, abundance and habitat are needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176774	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is found from the Malay peninsula to the Greater Sundas (Inger and Voris 2001). In Indonesia, it is found in Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan, but not on Sulawesi (Inger and Voris 2001). In Thailand, this snake is only occasionally found in the provinces adjacent to the Malaysian border (Cox 1991). This species may also be found in Myanmar. The species has upper elevation limit of 600 m above sea level.	eng
176774	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits lowland moist forests and plantations (David and Vogel 1996), and activity was recorded recently in the outskirts of Kuala Lumpar (Ismail <em>et al.</em> 2010). This snake is diurnal and predominantly arboreal, however, it can also be found active among bushes, and on the ground in thick vegetation.	eng
176774	population	Auliya, M., 2009	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is rare throughout its range. In Singapore it is considered 'vulnerable', and it is considered likely to move into the 'endangered' threat category if current threats continue (Ng and Lee 1994). Cox (1991) records that it is the rarest member of the genus<em></em>. It should, however, be mentioned that this is a secretive species, living an arboreal lifestyle which could mean it is easily missed by surveys. For example, the first record for this species in Kalimantan was collected in 2006 (Auliya 2006).	eng
176774	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to constitute a major threat to this species at present. &#160;Furthermore, This very colourful species has been observed in the pet trade in Kuala Lumpur (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).<br/>&#160;<p></p>	eng
176775	conservation	Nogueira, C., & Scott Jr., N.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution and habitat status of this species.	eng
176775	distribution	Nogueira, C., & Scott Jr., N.J., 2009	This species is restricted to the Paraguay-Parana river drainages in Brazil (in the states of Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul), Paraguay and Argentina (in Santa Fe, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Jujuy, Salta, and Misiones). The species is known to be absent from the Paraguai river headwaters in Brazil as well as the adjacent plateaus (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). N. Scott (pers. comm.) suggests that the Jujuy population is quite isolated from the main population. <br/><br/>Records from the Tucuman province of Argentina need to be confirmed, and those from Peru most likely refer to a different species (Scott <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176775	habitat	Nogueira, C., & Scott Jr., N.J., 2009	This species is found in Chaco habitat and Pantanal habitats, both dry and subject to flooding, and the species' range is also known to extend into an area of transition between humid Chaco and Pantanal lowlands (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176775	population	Nogueira, C., & Scott Jr., N.J., 2009	In a study in Ibera, Corrientes, the species was found to be rare (Parera 2004) and Pizzatto (2005) states that <em></em>species of this genus are 'apparently rare in nature'.	eng
176775	threats	Nogueira, C., & Scott Jr., N.J., 2009	This species is likely to be locally impacted by habitat degradation caused by forest clearing for charcoal production. Pantanal riverine systems may likely affect this species, caused by habitat loss and soil degradation in highly impacted elevated areas of Cerrado surrounding the Pantanal, which have been converted to cash crop agriculture (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
176776	conservation	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, distribution, threats, and habitat preferences are required. Monitoring of this species' population and habitat should be carried out, as it is thought that extensive homogeneous agricultural or pasture areas may be very harmful to this species (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176776	distribution	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is known from the Araucarian forests from southern Brazil, in the states of Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina (Borges-Martins<em> et al.</em> 2005).	eng
176776	habitat	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is known to occur in a region where the natural vegetation is a mixture of subtropical Araucarian forests and grass savannas (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010). The region also contains small or medium patches of agriculture, alongside fragments of altered forests. Two of the collected specimens of this species were found in agricultural areas. The elevation limits of this species are between 800 and 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
176776	population	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There are twelve known specimens of this species (S.A.A.Morato pers. comm. 2010). Seven are at the Instituto Butantan collection (São Paulo State), four at Museu de História Natural  Capão da Imbuia (Curitiba, Paraná State), and 1 at Museu de Ciências Naturais da  Fundação Zoobotância do Rio Grande do Sul (Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul  State) (S.A.A. Morato pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176776	threats	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species is found within a region that is undergoing change due to agricultural expansion, however, two of the collected specimens of this species were found in agricultural areas. It appears that this species is able to adapt to moderately altered environments and therefore habitat change cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
176777	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce habitat loss within the species' range. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176777	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in the southern Ecuadorian part of the Tumbesian Endemic region. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,000 km². This species is found between sea level and 100 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Specimens also exist that are labelled as having been collected in Peru, however, the provenance of the Peru specimens are in doubt. Cadle (1989) researched the origin of the Peruvian specimens thoroughly, and found that they were part of the James Orton Collection and, if collected by Orton, would likely have been collected in the mid- to late-1800s. Recent collections in the areas where the species would most likely be found in Peru did not result in any specimens, so that it is likely that the species is only found in Ecuador.	eng
176777	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in coastal deciduous forests and mangroves (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).	eng
176777	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176777	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	Guayas is the most populated province in Ecuador, and contains the largest city, Guyaquil. Deforestation due to urban expansion is a problem in the region, and areas outside the city are frequently cultivated for agriculture. Both of these factors are causing habitat loss for the species.	eng
176779	conservation	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. This species is known to inhabit the protected areas of Abuko Nature Reserve in Gambia, Semliki National Park and Forest Reserve in Uganda, and Tai National Park in the Côte d'Ivoire (Bartnett <em>et al.</em> 2001, Rödel <em>et al.</em> 2000). No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176779	distribution	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found throughout western and central Africa, from Gambia to western Uganda (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176779	habitat	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is known to inhabit lowland rainforests. This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes from five to nine (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176779	population	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176779	threats	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species. However, this region is being impacted by forest loss which is likely to be impacting this forest-dependent species on some level.	eng
176780	conservation	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Maryan, B., & Broadley, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, harvest levels, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176780	distribution	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Maryan, B., & Broadley, D., 2009	This species is reputed to extend from Egypt to South Africa, with isolated populations southwestern parts of the Arabian Peninsula. However, more work is needed in order to clarify the complex taxonomy and distribution patterns within the entire genus <em></em>and recent research has concluded that, contrary to previous belief, this species does not reach West Africa (Trape and Mané 2006). &#160;It is likely some of the occurrences attributed to this species are that of the newly described species <em>Dasypeltis sahelensis </em>(P. Geniez and P-A. Crochet pers. comms. 2010).	eng
176780	habitat	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Maryan, B., & Broadley, D., 2009	Although essentially a savanna species, this species is found in a wide variety of habitats from semi-desert to clearings in tropical forest. This species feeds on bird eggs. The female may lay two clutches of between six and 25 eggs per year.	eng
176780	population	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Maryan, B., & Broadley, D., 2009	There is no population information available. &#160;This species is considered extremely rare in Egypt.	eng
176780	threats	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Maryan, B., & Broadley, D., 2009	There appear to be no major widespread threats to this broad ranging species. However, in some areas, including Egypt, this species is threatened by collection for the international pet trade, general persecution, and habitat loss due to agricultural intensification.	eng
176781	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research of the population, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176781	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species occurs throughout Sri Lanka and southern India (Sharma 2003, de Silva 1990) including the Western Ghats (Bawa <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is found up to 910 m above sea level.	eng
176781	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This diurnal and arboreal species can be found in trees, shrubs and bushes in lowland areas (de Silva 1990). It is often encountered on low vegetation, however, may also descend to the ground in search of food. When moving on the ground, it has a peculiar habit of keeping its head and 1/8 of the forebody erect. <em>Dendrelaphis</em> is one of the quickest snakes to escape and hide.	eng
176781	population	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is reported to be rare on the Indian mainland, however, it may be more common in Sri Lanka (Sharma 2003, de Silva 1990).	eng
176781	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	It is likely that this species has experienced high levels of habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural expansion and logging within its range (Chattopadhyay 1985). However, due to the large distribution of this species, it is likely that this threat is not occurring throughout its range.	eng
176782	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.	eng
176782	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is known from Australia and New Guinea. In Australia, it is found on the eastern side of the Cape York Peninsula (Cogger 2000) and on the islands of Torres Strait. It occurs throughout the New Guinea mainland, as well as on the islands to the west and south of Papua (Irian Jaya) and those off of the southwest tip of Papua New Guinea (O'Shea 1996). It is found from sea level up to an altitude of 1,150 m above sea level.	eng
176782	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This snake occurs in rainforest, mangroves, dense secondary re-growth, and tropical woodlands with a dense shrub layer, especially along tracks, stream beds and around clearings (Cogger 2000). Like other members of the genus, it is primarily arboreal, spending most of its time in trees or shrubs. However, it may also be found foraging on the ground.<br/><br/>In the Trans-Fly region of New Guinea, it occurs in both forest and savanna habitats (Allison 2006). In the Lakekamu Basin of Papua New Guinea, it was found in both primary and secondary forest, including re-growth area (Mack 1998).	eng
176782	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176782	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176783	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, though it may occur in protected areas within its range.	eng
176783	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is found in eastern India, the Andaman Islands, southern Myanmar and northern Thailand. Cox (1991) reports that this species occurs in Lao PDR and possibly Viet Nam. In India, it is known from the Darjeeling District of Bengal and from Assam northward to the Thandaung Hills (Sharma 2003). This species has been reported from the Nicobar Islands, but is not listed in Das' (1999) work on the biogeography of this area.	eng
176783	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This snake inhabits primary and mature secondary lowland rainforest, up to an altitude of approximately 1,000 m above sea level. It is predominantly arboreal.	eng
176783	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Sharma (2003) reports that this species has a continuous distribution throughout its range, but does not occur at high densities.	eng
176783	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	While this species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range.	eng
176784	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is thought to occur in Mouling National Park, based on confirmed records nearby (Pawar and Birand 2001). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance and range is needed.	eng
176784	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species<em> </em>is found in the Eastern Himalayas, including the Darjeeling District, Assam north of Abor counry, and the Naga Hills (Sharma 2003). While being centred in India, its distribution also extends into China and Myanmar. Recent surveys have found it to be widespread in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008) and it is additionally reported from Viet Nam (ARCBC 2006).	eng
176784	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species appears to have broad habitat tolerances and it has been reported from undisturbed dry forests as well as heavily degraded scrub forest and agricultural land.	eng
176784	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Sharma (2003) reports this species as rare, while G. Zug (pers. comm. 2008) notes that in Myanmar it is widespread, but at low densities.	eng
176784	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	While deforestation and other threats are occurring in this region, this species appears to be tolerant of degraded habitat and is unlikely to be impacted by any major threat throughout its range.	eng
176786	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research is required to determine the taxonomic status of the population from Huon Peninsula, to determine if it is a separate species.	eng
176786	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea, it is known from the Western Province, at Balimo on the Aramia River, at Tabubil in the upper reaches of the Fly River, at Gusiko on the Huon Peninsula as well as from Morobe Province. In Papua (Irian Jaya), it is known from the Lorentz and Mimika Rivers (O'Shea 1996).<br/><br/>McDowell (1984) notes that the population on the Huon Peninsula is completely isolated, and physiologically differentiated from other populations and that it may represent a distinct species. This species is found between sea level and 610 m above sea level.	eng
176786	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	Species of this genus <em></em>are highly agile, diurnal, arboreal snakes. They are known to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, from rainforest, along trails and in clearings, to banana gardens and coconut plantations (O'Shea 1996). The exact habitat preferences of this species are unknown, although from its collection localities it seems to be riverine.	eng
176786	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176786	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176787	conservation	Allison, A., Shine, R & Horner, P., 2009	There are no known-species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to educate the public within Papua New Guinea to enable them to distinguish between this species and the Papuan Black Snake. Further research into the threat levels and habitat status of this species is required to ensure a threat category is not triggered, and population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
176787	distribution	Allison, A., Shine, R & Horner, P., 2009	This snake is distributed along the coast, and adjacent areas of northern and eastern Australia (Cogger 2000). It is also found throughout much of the Papua New Guinea mainland, as well as on the islands of Bobo, Daru, Kairiru, Ferguson, New Britain and New Island (O'Shea 1996).	eng
176787	habitat	Allison, A., Shine, R & Horner, P., 2009	This species is found in a wide range of habitats, including rainforest, mangroves, wet and dry sclerophyll forests, coastal heaths and riverine vegetation (Cogger 2000). Like other members of the genus, it is primarily tree-dwelling, but may also be found foraging on the ground.	eng
176787	population	Allison, A., Shine, R & Horner, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176787	threats	Allison, A., Shine, R & Horner, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Large specimens of the species are often killed in Papua New Guinea, especially all black Western Province specimens, as these can be confused with the highly venomous Papuan Black Snake (O'Shea 1996). However, this is not likely to be causing significant declines in the species and cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
176788	conservation	Kornacker, P., Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas throughout its range. More research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species, and population monitoring should be carried out.	eng
176788	distribution	Kornacker, P., Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is found in the Amazon basin, in Bolivia, the Peruvian Departments of Amazonas, Huanuco, Junin, La Libertad, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Piura, Puno, San Martin, Ucayali and Pasco, the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchípe, Colombia, southern Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, and French Guiana. This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
176788	habitat	Kornacker, P., Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is nocturnal and is found in humid tropical forest from lowlands to mountainous areas, including forest edges.	eng
176788	population	Kornacker, P., Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species; however it is said to be commonly seen in northeast Peru (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176788	threats	Kornacker, P., Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no widespread threats to the species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.	eng
176789	conservation	Embert, D. & Reynolds, R.P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the range of this species coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring into the habitat status of this species should be carried out as localized threats may become more widespread.	eng
176789	distribution	Embert, D. & Reynolds, R.P., 2009	Until recently this species was known only known from its type locality, Parjacti, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The elevation at this point is 2,044 m. Recent investigation showed that specimens identified originally as <em>Dipsas boettgeri</em> belong to <em>D. chaparensis</em>. An extrapolation of distribution in Bolivia for this species (Embert 2007), based on the additional specimens, shows a distribution along the Andean cordillera including states Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz (Harvey <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008).	eng
176789	habitat	Embert, D. & Reynolds, R.P., 2009	This nocturnal species is found in humid montane rainforest and cloud forest, and dried inter-montane valleys.	eng
176789	population	Embert, D. & Reynolds, R.P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176789	threats	Embert, D. & Reynolds, R.P., 2009	There are no major widespread threats to this species. However, in parts of its range there may be localized deforestation or fragmentation of habitat.	eng
176790	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Harvey, M., 2009	This species occurs in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species, and monitoring of the population trends of this species is necessary.	eng
176790	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Harvey, M., 2009	This species is found in the upper Río Chagres drainage, to the mouth of Río Pequení near the head of Madden Lake, in Panama. It is also known from the Darien highlands of extreme eastern Panama, about 250 km from the clustered localities in central Panama. These highlands spread into Colombia where this species may be present, although there have been no confirmed reports. It has also recently been recorded from Omar Torrijos National Park in western Panama (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007). This species occurs between 60 and 855 above sea level.	eng
176790	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Harvey, M., 2009	This species occurs in lowland monsoon rainforest, cloud forest and in the rocky, forested portion of the Chagres River.	eng
176790	population	Stafford, P.J. & Harvey, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176790	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Harvey, M., 2009	The area in which this species was originally found (Chagres River) has undergone two major damming events which are likely to have altered the habitat significantly. This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, illegal logging and the expansion of plantations. However, these are unlikely to be impacting the species over its likely much larger range, but might be of significant local impact.	eng
176791	conservation	Embert, D. & Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176791	distribution	Embert, D. & Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is found in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, in the regions of Amazonas and Pará in Brazil, in Colombia, in Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz), in the Ecuadorian provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo and Pastaza, and in Peru. It is known to occur between sea level and an altitude of 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
176791	habitat	Embert, D. & Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is nocturnal and is found in humid tropical forests, from lowlands to mountainous regions. This species is also able to survive in disturbed habitats.	eng
176791	population	Embert, D. & Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species; however it is rarely seen in the northeastern Peru region (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176791	threats	Embert, D. & Kornacker, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176793	conservation	Kornacker, P., La Marca, E. & Rivas, G., 2009	Further research into this species is required in order to determine the distribution, ecology, and threats of this species. This species does occurs in the Parque Nacional Sierra de Perija.	eng
176793	distribution	Kornacker, P., La Marca, E. & Rivas, G., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Plesiodipsas</span> is a monotypic genus currently known only from the Cordillera  Oriental in Colombia (Departamento&#160;de Santander) and Serranía de Perijá both in  Colombia (Departamento de César) as in Venezuela (Estado Zulia) (Harvey <em>et al. </em>2008).	eng
176793	habitat	Kornacker, P., La Marca, E. & Rivas, G., 2009	This species is found in cloud forest (Harvey <em>et al.</em>&#160;2008). However, there have been some specimens collected from areas cultivated for coffee in Colombia (Harvey&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008).	eng
176793	population	Kornacker, P., La Marca, E. & Rivas, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176793	threats	Kornacker, P., La Marca, E. & Rivas, G., 2009	This species is potentially threatened by habitat loss and degradation, due to conversion of forested areas to agriculture. However, as the range of this species is not well known, it is not known whether these factors pose a major threat to the species. The Venezuelan side of the species distribution is steeper than the Colombian one, and less disturbed by agricultural activities (E. La Marca pers. comm.).	eng
176794	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
176794	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is known from Cordillera Occidental de Colombia, at altitudes greater than 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
176794	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	Species of this genus are thought to be primarily nocturnal. &#160;This species inhabits forested areas (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176794	population	Castro, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176794	threats	Castro, F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process; however in some areas where deforestation has&#160;occurred&#160;or is ongoing the species is still well observed (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010), and is therefore may not be suffering global declines.	eng
176796	conservation	Harvey, M., 2010	<p>This species likely occurs in any protected areas along the humid slopes of the Andes throughout its range. It requires no special conservation efforts.&#160;</p>	eng
176796	distribution	Harvey, M., 2010	According to the latest revision (Harvey and Embert, 2009), this species occurs in humid forests along the eastern Andean slopes (probablybetween 500 and 3,000 m) and adjacent lowlands from Aricagua in the Mérida Andes of Venezuela to northern Bolivia.	eng
176796	habitat	Harvey, M., 2010	Little is known about the natural history of of this species. It appears to inhabit a relatively broad ecological range being found in rainforests of the piedmont (e.g., the Río Pastaza, 500 m) to relatively high elevations such as the ruins of Machu Pichu, 2400 m. Cadle (2005) suggested that this species may use terrestrial retreats during inactive periods. He encountered specimens under rocks during the day in Puno, Peru, and cited remarks on the field tag of LSUMZ 45499 indicating that the specimen was caught on the ground in late afternoon. USNM 210958 hatched from an egg found among moist wood particles in the hollow part of a fallen log in a meadow, 5,600 ft (=1,707 m) elevation.	eng
176796	population	Harvey, M., 2010	<p>This species is relatively common and does not appear to be decreasing at any locality where the original habitat has not been disturbed.&#160;</p>	eng
176796	threats	Harvey, M., 2010	Deforestation for agriculture is a threat to this species throughout its range.	eng
176797	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are three National Parks in the state of Falcón; Médanos de Coro, Sierra de San Luis, Cueva de la Quebrada del Toro. All are IUCN Category II protected areas. This species probably occurs in at least two of these areas. Monitoring of this species is necessary.	eng
176797	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known from the Falcón state of Venezuela, which has a total area of 28,777 km². Most specimens were found within 45 km² to the east and southeast of the city of Coro and this species is considered to be endemic to this area (P. Kornacker pers. comm.). However, it should be noted that no species of the genus were found in a collection from southeastern Falcón state (Wüster<em> et al</em> 2001).	eng
176797	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	They holotype was found where vegetation consists of semi-deciduous tropical forest, with a canopy height of approximately 5-10 m (Wüster<em> et al</em>. 2001). Closer to the coast the vegetation becomes less dense and more scrub-like. This species has been found in human disturbed areas.	eng
176797	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
176797	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no major threats affecting this species.	eng
176798	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is known to occur in Braulio Carrillo National Park in Costa Rica and in Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve. Effective management is needed for these areas. Further research into the species' habitat requirements and population monitoring should be carried out.	eng
176798	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs in the Atlantic lowlands and pre-montane slopes of eastern Honduras, southwards through Nicaragua, to south-eastern Costa Rica. It is found between 60 and 1,030 m above sea level.	eng
176798	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This diurnal species is found in undisturbed pre-montane and lowland moist forest.	eng
176798	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species has been described as rare by Guyer and Donnelly (2005), however, Savage (2002) reports that although this species is rare in collections, it is commonly found along the Atlantic slopes of the Cordillera Central and Cordillera de Tilarán.	eng
176798	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is locally regarded as harmful and therefore may be killed on sight (Wilson and McCranie 2004). It is threatened by habitat loss due to illegal logging, the agricultural industry and increasing urbanization. The illegal logging prompted the Nature Conservancy to add the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, where this species is found, to its list of Latin American Parks in Peril.	eng
176799	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
176799	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is distributed from Nicaragua, south through Central America and into South America where it is found in Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, and the Guianas, much of the upper Amazon basin in Brazil, southern Peru and northern Bolivia (Savage 2002). It is found between 13 and 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
176799	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species occurs in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forest and pre-montane wet forest and rainforest (Savage 2002).	eng
176799	population	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no population data available for this species; however it is rarely seen throughout its range, and was only recently found again in Costa Rica, the first time since 1974 (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176799	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	While this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to logging, agricultural expansion and infrastructure development in localized areas of this species' range, this should not be considered a major threat at present.	eng
176800	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	<em></em>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though in places its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into its abundance, habitat status and threats is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176800	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is found in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia (David and Vogel 1996). In Indonesia, it is known from Java, the Mentawai and Natuna Archipelagos, and Sumatra. In Thailand, Cox (1991) reports that this species has a restricted range including the province of Phuket and south to the Malaysian border. It has been recorded at up to an elevation of 980 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176800	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	This arboreal, ovoviviparous snake inhabits lowland tropical wet forest where it can be found in thick vegetation (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
176800	population	Vogel, G., 2009	David and Vogel (1996) state that this species is uncommon. In Singapore, it is considered "vulnerable" (Ng and Wee 1994), and Cox (1991) reports that it is "extremely rare" throughout its limited range in Thailand.	eng
176800	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	While in some areas this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range, although localized declines are probable.	eng
176801	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of its population should be carried out.	eng
176801	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is widespread from Ethiopia in the north, and as far south as the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa (Kofron 1990, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is found between 1,000 and 2,600 m above sea level.	eng
176801	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This snail and slug-eating species is predominantly found in high grassland and moist savanna. This species is commonly found on irrigated land, often as a result of high prey abundance; on an irrigated strawberry farm in Ethiopia, the species made up over 90% of the snake population, compared to 5% in the surrounding non-irrigated grassland (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176801	population	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is abundant in some localities.	eng
176801	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176802	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is recommended.	eng
176802	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is known from south and southeast Brazil, in the states of Rio de Janeiro, southern Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina.	eng
176802	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is cryptozoic, living within the leaf litter of the forest floor: It is found in both in inland and coastal rain forests (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176802	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176802	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It is found in one of the most populated regions of Brazil, where large scale deforestation is occurring; however, it occurs in many protected areas, including the Serra do Mar State Park, with 325,000 ha (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>	eng
176803	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, population size, biology and ecology, and threats of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176803	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species has been found in Turkmenistan and Iran (Khan 2006).	eng
176803	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	From its potential occurrence in Pakistan, it is inferred that this species inhabits arid regions of woodland, shrubland or desert.	eng
176803	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176803	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, however, there are not thought to be any plausible threats to this species.	eng
176805	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
176805	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is distributed in the Pacific and Atlantic versants of Costa Rica, southward to Colombia and Venezuela.	eng
176805	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species inhabits low- to mid-elevation moist forests.	eng
176805	population	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is common in Colombia at altitudes below 200 m above sea level (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
176805	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176806	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
176806	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is distributed from Costa Rica to western Panama, though a relic population occurs 340 km removed in eastern Panama (Myers 2003). This species is also known to occur in Cordillera Occidental de Colombia (F. Castro pers. comm.). This species occurs between sea level and 2,115 m above sea level.	eng
176806	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species shelters under surface leaf litter, logs and rocks, in pastures and disturbed sites (Savage 2002). It also occurs in the forest proper, in areas supporting or formerly supporting lowland wet forest and pre-montane and lower montane moist and wet forest and rainforest. It lays clutches of two to four eggs and reproduction is not seasonal (Sasa 1993).	eng
176806	population	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is reported to be a common highland snake (Myers <em>et al</em>. 2007) and "very common" (Savage 2002).	eng
176806	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while the remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. In Costa Rica, 17% of the primary forest cover remained in 1983 (Sader and Joyce 1988), however, other research has found that 29% of the country remained forested in 1991 (Sánchez-Azofeifa <em>et al.</em> 2001). However, because of the adaptable nature of this species, these are not thought to be major threats.	eng
176807	conservation	Stafford, P.J., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, population status, ecology, threats and habitat status of this species.	eng
176807	distribution	Stafford, P.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Nicaragua, and is known only from a locality in the Matagalpa highlands (Townsend 2006).	eng
176807	habitat	Stafford, P.J., 2009	There is no information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
176807	population	Stafford, P.J., 2009	This species is only known from a single specimen found in the stomach of the coral snake <em>Micrurus nigrocinctus</em> (Schmidt 1932).	eng
176807	threats	Stafford, P.J., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
176809	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its biology, abundance, habitat preferences, and threats is needed.	eng
176809	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species occurs in southern Myanmar and Thailand in the regions of Kanchanaburi to Nakhon Si Thammarat (Cox 1991, Boulenger 1890); however, recent surveys have been unable to confirm its current presence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176809	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Based upon its known distribution, this species is likely to occur in tropical forest.	eng
176809	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176809	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is likely to be undergoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including agricultural expansion, logging and conversion of forests to plantation. Forests in Thailand are experiencing continued deforestation and between 1976 and 1989 forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999). Likewise, in Myanmar, the forests are under pressure and declined by 3% annually during the 1990s (Leimgruber 2005). Infrastructure development may also impact and fragment this species' habitat.	eng
176810	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. More research is needed on its population, biology and ecology, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176810	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species is distributed in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon and the Central African Republic.	eng
176810	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species inhabits savanna habitat (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
176810	population	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176810	threats	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, however, due to its large distribution this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
176811	conservation	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into solving the problem of duckweed blooms in the Lake Maracaibo basin is currently occurring. Conservation measures, such as area management and site restoration, should be taken to reduce pollution of this species' habitat. Further research into the threats that this species faces along the Caribbean coast of Colombia should be carried out.	eng
176811	distribution	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is found in the Lake Maracaibo basin, Zulia, in Venezuela. This species is also known from the Caribbean coast in the northern Chocó region of Colombia (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
176811	habitat	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is an aquatic species, which reproduces by ovoviviparity. It is found in fresh and brackish waters.	eng
176811	population	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176811	threats	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	Lake Maracaibo is highly polluted due to oil spills, chemical discharges, and sewage from the surrounding five million inhabitants (Hoag 2000). This is likely to be causing a decline in the abundance of this species. <br/><br/>A duckweed bloom has been affecting the Lake Maracaibo basin since 2004, however, it is not known whether this is a natural increase in an endemic weed, or whether an alien species was introduced to the lake. It is thought that the bloom is a result of changing salinity, caused by the dredging of the canal where the lake meets the Caribbean Sea, and currents carrying pollutants from point sources around the lake. As yet the blooms have not caused areas of hypoxia, however, a large bloom could cause high levels of mortality to species inhabiting the lake, including fish on which this species feeds. <br/><br/>It is not known what threats are impacting this species along the Caribbean coast of Colombia.	eng
176814	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
176814	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Sudan south to Burundi and Kenya, and east to Somalia (S. Spawls pers. comm.). Isolated records exist for the Central African Republic and Togo (Parker 1949, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>This species is most common between 0 and 1,200 m elevation; however, it can be found up to 1,600 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176814	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits semi-desert, dry and moist savanna, and coastal thicket. It is semi-arboreal and can be found on rough bark looking for geckos and their eggs. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with clutch sizes between two and eight eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176814	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176814	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176817	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
176817	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in subtropical to temperate areas of the Parana and Plata River basins. It ranges from the Pantanal in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, through Paraguay and the Parana River in Argentina.	eng
176817	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is an aquatic freshwater species that feeds mainly on fish, hunting during the evening and night.	eng
176817	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, although it is locally common according to the authors of this species.	eng
176817	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176818	conservation	Richman, N. & Böhm. M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
176818	distribution	Richman, N. & Böhm. M, 2009	This species is found in the Amazon River, from Colombia and eastern Peru to Maranhao, Brazil. It is relatively common in tributaries of Rio Amazonas, and has also been recorded from drainage areas of Rio Ucayali and Rio Marañon, Peru. Roze (1957) reported one specimen from Rio Cairary, near Jurupary waterfall, on the boundary between Colombia and Brazil.	eng
176818	habitat	Richman, N. & Böhm. M, 2009	Species of this genus are aquatic snakes, whose diet consists primarily of fish, which they hunt for in the evening and at night.	eng
176818	population	Richman, N. & Böhm. M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176818	threats	Richman, N. & Böhm. M, 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176820	conservation	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread in the future.	eng
176820	distribution	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs in north-central Honduras through Panama to Ecuador (McCranie <em>et al.</em>&#160;2006, Savage 2002). This species occurs between sea level and 1,450 m above sea level.	eng
176820	habitat	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species prefers habitat near water and in swamps, though it also inhabits moist lowland evergreen forests, pre-montane and lower montane slopes (Adasme 2005, Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002).	eng
176820	population	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This snake is reported to be "moderately common" in Costa Rica (Savage 2002) and "widely distributed but uncommon" in Panama (Myers 1982).	eng
176820	threats	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of commercial agriculture, while the remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain, and therefore this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
176823	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176823	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from northern and central Madagascar.	eng
176823	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is mainly arboreal and inhabits humid forests where it is active during the day on branches approximately one to two metres above the ground. One specimen has been recorded preying upon a large <em>Calumma brevicorne</em>.	eng
176823	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176823	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	While this species is likely to be experiencing local habitat loss and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion, logging and urban development, due to its relatively wide distribution this should not be considered a major threat at present.	eng
176824	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species at present.	eng
176824	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Glaw and Vences (2007) report that this species is found throughout Madagascar.	eng
176824	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs in forests and on the borders of forests, mainly in dry areas, but also in more humid zones. It is reported to occur in both natural and anthropogenic habitats and is sometimes active after dusk (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
176824	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to be very common (Wright 1995).	eng
176824	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176826	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is possible that it occurs within protected areas such as Royal Chitwan National Park. Further research is needed to fully determine its distribution, habitat status and threats.	eng
176826	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	This species is found in the Himalayas. In India, it is found in Simla in the West Himalayas and in the Darjeeling District in the East Himalayas (Sharma 2003). In his map, Sharma (2003) illustrates that this species is found throughout all of Nepal. Schleich and Kästle (2002), however, report that in Nepal this species is known only from a single record from Chitwan National Park. These authors also state that the locality of Simla is doubtful and perhaps an error as this species has not been found west of the 88th degree of longitude (approximately equivalent to the Nepalese eastern border) in over 50 years. However, if this is correct, then the record in Chitwan National Park in central Nepal is also questionable. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded at 340 m above sea level (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176826	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This species occurs in hilly regions, in tropical and sub-tropical forests, cultivated fields and plantations (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176826	population	Captain, A., 2009	Like other members of the this genus, this snake is not thought to be common (A. Captain pers. comm.).	eng
176826	threats	Captain, A., 2009	The impact of potential threats to this species are not known.	eng
176827	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the distribution and population size of this species. If it is found to still exist, then protected areas are needed to prevent habitat loss and ensure its survival.	eng
176827	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from a single specimen collected near Befandrina-sud in southwestern Madagascar (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2001, Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
176827	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species was collected from an area of dry, deciduous forest (Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
176827	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been highlighted as an example of a possible recent extinction (Glaw and Vences 2007, Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993). However, the possibility remains that it occurs in a wider area than currently thought (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 2001).	eng
176827	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from a single specimen collected in a forest that has now been completely cleared with the exception of several isolated trees (Burgman <em>et al.</em> 1993). Ongoing deforestation continues to occur in this region as a result of agricultural expansion and logging.	eng
176828	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176828	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported from northern Madagascar, however, very few records for this species exist (M. Vences pers. comm.). It has been reported to occur in the Ankarana Reserve in north-western Madagascar and the Ankarana massif region.	eng
176828	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from only a few confirmed and suspected specimens, collected in dry deciduous forest and in an area described as transition between rainforest and dry deciduous forest (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007). It is also thought to inhabit moderately dry, karstic limestone habitats (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
176828	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176828	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species may be specialized to particular habitats in Madagascar that are under strong pressure from habitat loss (M. Vences pers. comm.). Forests within the region are threatened by logging and widespread slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
176829	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176829	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from the region of Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, Toliara Province in south Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007), but very few records for this species exist (M. Vences pers. comm.). It has also been found in Andranobe and Benonoka (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
176829	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to inhabit sandy, arid habitats in regions of the southwest (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
176829	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176829	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species may be specialized to particular habitats in Madagascar that are under strong pressure from habitat loss (M. Vences pers. comm.). Agricultural expansion, including the conversion of land for grazing, is occurring within this species' range.	eng
176830	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176830	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to have a patchy distribution in Madagascar, from the northwestern province of Mahajanga Province to the southern Androy region (Glaw and Vences 2007). Despite its apparent large distribution, very few records for this species actually exist (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
176830	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in dry deciduous forest in the west of Madagascar, to semi-arid thorn scrub, and very arid and rocky habitats at Isalo Massif (Glaw and Vences 2007, Mercurio <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
176830	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176830	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species may be specialized to particular habitats in Madagascar that are under strong pressure from habitat loss (M. Vences pers. comm.), due to agricultural expansion including the conversion of land for grazing. It is currently unknown what impact these threats are having upon the abundance of<em></em>.	eng
176832	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
176832	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known to occur in northern Argentina, from the states of Tucuman, Catamarca, Salta, and Jujuy. This species is also known from the state of Tarija to Santa Cruz, and Cochambamba in Bolivia.	eng
176832	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	The predominant habitat type within the range of this species is Chaco dry grassland. This species has been observed to stay underwater for quite a long time.	eng
176832	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176832	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176833	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176833	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from Bolivia (in the states of Beni and Santa Cruz), Brazil (in the states of Rio Grande de Norte, through to Mato Grosso), Paraguay, and northern Argentina.	eng
176833	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is a diurnal habitat generalist, which is known to inhabit Caatinga dry forest, grasslands, and tropical forest areas.	eng
176833	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176833	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176834	conservation	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of the population of the species and its habitat status should be carried out because human disturbance may become a threat in the future.	eng
176834	distribution	Dixon, J.R., 2009	This species is known from Sierra de la Ventana in the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina.	eng
176834	habitat	Dixon, J.R., 2009	This species is found in the grassy and brush hills of the Sierra de la Ventana (J. Dixon pers. comm.).	eng
176834	population	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176834	threats	Dixon, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The area in which this species is distributed is used for tourism, specifically outdoor activities, but this is not thought to be having a significant impact upon the species at present.	eng
176835	conservation	Kwet, A. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with several protected areas, including Aguarague. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
176835	distribution	Kwet, A. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from southeastern and southern Brazil (from the state of Rio Grande do Sul to Minas Gerais), Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando and Santa Cruz), and Argentina (in the states of Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Santa Fe, Buenos Aires). Its range possibly extends into the southern Brazil states of Rondonia and Mato Grosso, as well as into southeastern Peru, although no specimens have yet been recorded in these areas (A. Kwet pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
176835	habitat	Kwet, A. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats from grasslands and shrublands to more densely forested areas, however, it is primarily found in open grassland. This species is semi-aquatic and occurs near and in water bodies, such as ponds, small rivers and streamlets (A. Kwet pers. comm.).	eng
176835	population	Kwet, A. & Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176835	threats	Kwet, A. & Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176836	conservation	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
176836	distribution	Dixon, J.R., 2009	This species is known from the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes, between 6<sup>o</sup> and 10<sup>o</sup> south and 75<sup>o</sup> and 78<sup>o</sup> west. This species is found between an altitude of 854 and 2,700 m above sea level.	eng
176836	habitat	Dixon, J.R., 2009	This species is found in tropical forest habitats.	eng
176836	population	Dixon, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176836	threats	Dixon, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range due to its high elevation habitat preferences.	eng
176837	conservation	França, F.G.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, range, population trends, habitat status and direct threats to this species is recommended.	eng
176837	distribution	França, F.G.R., 2009	This species from southwestern Amazonia is poorly known. Specimens have been observed in the states of Mato Grosso (Amaral 1925, Strussman and Carvalho 1998), Amazonas (Dixon 1989), and Rondônia (França <em>et al.</em> 2006) in Brazil.	eng
176837	habitat	França, F.G.R., 2009	This species is found in both forest and savanna habitats (F. França pers. comm. 2008).	eng
176837	population	França, F.G.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176837	threats	França, F.G.R., 2009	The impact of threats on this species is not well understood. Given the size of its range, it is thought unlikely that there are any plausible threats which might impact this species across its range.	eng
176838	conservation	Lehr, E., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
176838	distribution	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is found in the Caatinga habitat of northeast Brazil.	eng
176838	habitat	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is an anuran-eating snake, which is active throughout the year. The species is found in the Caatinga dry forests of Brazil and is reportedly a habitat generalist.	eng
176838	population	Lehr, E., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176838	threats	Lehr, E., 2009	Although there has been a great deal of habitat degradation of the natural Caatinga habitat as a result of expanding urbanization and agriculture, this species is reportedly a habitat generalist, and no reports of habitat loss or degradation as a direct threat to the species are known.	eng
176839	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	Part of this species' range lies within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II national park. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and monitoring of the population trends is required.	eng
176839	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is found in the central part of the Cordillera de la Costa mountain range, Venezuela, from Rancho Grande, Aragua, to Cerro El Avila, Distrto Federal (Dixon 1983). The type specimen was found at 1,900 m above sea level and this species has a distributional area of approximately 2,016 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176839	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species inhabits the leaf litter of cloud forests.	eng
176839	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176839	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	The range of this species extends into the most populated part of Venezuela; this species has been recorded very close to Caracas (Dixon 1983). The lower and middle mountain slopes have been affected by deforestation due to cultivation, particularly in the eastern part of the range.<br/><br/>Given the species is only found in leaf litter of cloud forests, and that its current range is surrounded by much drier lowlands, the population may be fragmented and it is unlikely that the species would be able to respond to a threat to its current habitat by migrating into surrounding areas. <br/><br/>The cloud forest this species inhabits is threatened by climate change.	eng
176840	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176840	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in Madagascar, however, reliable records of this species are extremely rare. The only recent recordings of this species have been made from the area of Ranomafana National Park and its surroundings. Recent efforts to locate this species by Vences were unsuccessful (M. Vences pers. comm.). This species has also been reported to inhabit the Tsinjoarivo region of the country which divides the central high plateau from its eastern lowlands (Irwin 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,932 km².	eng
176840	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been found in both high altitude rainforest and arid shrubland (Irwin 2006). One specimen of this species was found during the day in a mosaic of rocks, grass and scrub forest at an altitude of 1,375 m (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
176840	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	M. Vences (pers. comm.) states that this species is a very rare and localized snake, being even more difficult to find than the rare <em>Liopholidophis dolicocercus</em>.	eng
176840	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Rainforests in Madagascar are undergoing deforestation from logging and land-clearing for agricultural use. As a result, significant portions of the forest in Tsinjoarivo are fragmented, cleared or otherwise degraded (Irwin 2007). In other parts of this species' suspected range, it may be experiencing further habitat loss due to agricultural expansion.	eng
176841	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Monitoring of population trends is needed for this species as well as further research into habitat preferences and possible threats.	eng
176841	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to northwestern Madagascar, and is known only from the island of Nosy Be and adjacent mainland. The area of distribution is estimated to be 2,258 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176841	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Very little is known about the habitat preferences of this species (M. Vences pers. comm.). Inferring from its distribution, this species may inhabit lowland forest.	eng
176841	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species does not seem to be particularly common (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
176841	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The habitat within the range of this species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural expansion, development, and logging. However, it is not known whether these threats are impacting this species<em> </em> at this time, due to uncertainty about its habitat requirements.	eng
176842	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research into the ecology, threats, and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176842	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo (Inger and Voris 2001) and southern Thailand (Lanza 1999). In Borneo, it is known from eastern and western Sabah, Brunei, central Sarawak (R. Inger pers. comm.), and Kalimantan ((Iskandar & Colijn 2001).&#160;This species has also been recorded from the islands Tioman and Pinang of West Malaysia (Manthey and Grossmann 1997). This species has an upper limit of 1,000 m above sea level (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).<p><span lang="EN-GB"> </p>	eng
176842	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits lowland tropical wet forest and dry forests, plantations and cultivated areas, and may also be found close to human settlements (David and Vogel, 1996). It is a reclusive, nocturnal snake which is known to display both arboreal and ground-dwelling habits (R. Inger pers. comm., M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176842	population	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is considered rare throughout its range (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
176842	threats	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, as it inhabits lowland rainforest which is rapidly converted in some areas to plantations, particularly for palm oil.	eng
176843	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
176843	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	The Indian distribution of this species includes the Ganjam District of Orissa, West Begal, Assam and the Eastern Himalayas as far west as 85 degrees longitude (Sharma 2003). This species has been reliably recorded from Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand (previously Uttaranchal) (A. Captain pers. comm. 2010). In Nepal, this species has been recorded in the central and western Terai (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176843	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This snake occurs in open landscapes, with bushes and sporadic trees, including cultivated areas (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
176843	population	Captain, A., 2009	No population information is available.	eng
176843	threats	Captain, A., 2009	There are no major widespread threats impacting this species.	eng
176844	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is known to occur in protected areas within its range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176844	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka. It is widely distributed across the island at all elevations except the highest, though it is more common in the coastal plains (Somaweera 2006). Specimens have been observed in Andigama, Chilaw, Colombo, Galle, Matara, and Tabbowa (A. de Silva pers. comm.). It is likely that the species is more widely distributed throughout Sri Lanka, but its taxonomic status is still uncertain (Somaweera 2006).	eng
176844	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is a nocturnal species that feeds primarily on geckos. It is mainly terrestrial, but does show some arboreal habits, and occurs in both natural and anthropogenic environments (Somaweera 2006). In the Lunama-Kalametiya Wetland Sanctuary, this species is known to frequent grassland areas (Ekanayake <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
176844	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176844	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as conversion of land for cultivation and grazing as well as pressures associated with an expanding human population and settlements. The heavy application of pesticides in Sri Lanka has reduced the population of geckos, the main prey of this species (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>This species is often mistaken for venomous krait snakes, which they closely resemble. As a result, considerable numbers of this species are killed by humans, a threat that R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states is the most severe threat to this species at this time.	eng
176845	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, the species is found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park. Research into the population trends, biology, ecology and habitat status of this species are needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176845	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is reported from two locations in Viet Nam. It has been found in Thua Luu, in the Thua Thien-Hue Province, and in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, in Quang Binh Province (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2006). This species has an extent of occurrence of 9,219 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
176845	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, an area of tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (Ziegler <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
176845	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176845	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing loss, degradation and fragmentation of its forest habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities.	eng
176846	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research into its biology and ecology is needed.	eng
176846	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species occurs in northeast India and Myanmar and is known from three locations. More specifically, it is known from the Rakhine Yoma, Rakhine State, Myanmar, from the Ponnyadaung Range, Sagaing Division, Myanmar, and from the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India (Slowinski <em>et al.</em> 2001). The Indo-Burman range (i.e., the eastern Myanmar highlands) are relatively untouched, and recent collecting expeditions have yielded a number of new species (Vindum <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
176846	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	While the habitat preferences of this species are not known, the vegetation types within the Indo-Burman Range include lowland tropical rainforest along the Bay of Bengal, sub-tropical lowland forest, sub-tropical montane forest and, at higher elevations, temperate montane forest. This species most likely occurs primarily in sub-tropical montane forest.	eng
176846	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species has been recorded as common where it occurs.	eng
176846	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species because the area where this species is distributed is relatively untouched (Vindum <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
176848	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the quantity of pollution run-off flowing into Lake Tanganyika. The population of this species should be monitored and areas should be effectively managed to ensure the current localized problems of pollution and sedimentation do not become more widespread. Research into what effect the threats to its habitat are having on the species should also be carried out.	eng
176848	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Behangana <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been suggested that it may also occur in Gombe Stream and Mahale Mountains National Parks, however, there are no confirmed records of this (Behangana <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed has been estimated as 32,821 km².	eng
176848	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This snake is largely aquatic and nocturnal, resting under submerged rocks during the day and feeding on fish and amphibians during the night (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176848	population	Spawls, S., 2009	The population density of this species in suitable habitat has been estimated as 9,000 to 38,000 snakes per km<sup>² </sup>(Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176848	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	There are several threats to the biodiversity of Lake Tanganyika, however, the impacts of these on this species are unknown. These threats include sedimentation due to deforestation and poor farming practices, agricultural and industrial pollution, and overfishing (Allison <em>et al.</em> 2000). Pollution is currently a localized problem, focused at Kigoma Bay and Bujumbura Bay, however, it is anticipated that this may become more widespread as population growth continues. Increased sedimentation and pollution may affect this species through habitat degradation, while overfishing may pose a threat to the species by depleting food resources. As this species is abundant where distributed, it is unlikely that these threat processes are causing significant declines at present.	eng
176849	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
176849	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species occurs in the Congo Basin and northern Angola.	eng
176849	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	From its apparent distribution, this species is presumed to inhabit lowland rainforest habitat.	eng
176849	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176849	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species may be experiencing the loss and degradation of its habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities; however, large areas of habitat remain and this cannot be considered a major threat at present. Occasionally specimens of this species are found in the international reptile trade, but this is not regarded as a major threat.	eng
176850	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research is required on the population and distribution of the species to understand if threats such as habitat fragmentation are having a significant effect on population size. Monitoring should also be carried out on this species and its habitat.	eng
176850	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits southern Tanzania and northern Malawi. The localities include Fort Hill in Malawi and Mt. Rungwe, Songea, the Udzungwa Mountains, Kaboga and Ifakara in Tanzania (Rasmussen 2004). It has also been confirmed as present in the Mahenge Mountains of Tanzania (Owen <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Previous accounts included a southern African distribution, however, Rasmussen (2004) has confirmed this to be a separate species (<em>L. obscuriventris</em>) and not a subspecies.	eng
176850	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits moist savanna, usually on floodplains in the vicinity of swamps, rivers and lakes (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002) and can be found foraging in vegetation along small streams, pans and vleis (Marais 1992).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, but clutch sizes are unknown (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176850	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Branch (1998) states that snakes of this genus may be very common in a suitable habitat.	eng
176850	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	The area in which this species is distributed is threatened by an increasingly fragmented landscape. Newmark (1998) reports that the Udzungwa Mountains have lost 76% of their original forest cover principally to agricultural and plantation land, with only 1,960 km² of natural forest remaining. However, this is not considered a major threat to this species as it does not inhabit forests.	eng
176851	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The ability of this species to adapt to agricultural habitat means that it is less vulnerable to deforestation and habitat loss than may have previously been assumed. No conservation measures are therefore required for this species.	eng
176851	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is known from northern Mozambique, southern Malawi, and Liwale in Tanzania (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176851	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits plantations and woodland at low altitudes, and is probably also able to adapt to agricultural land. Its diet is not known but it can be assumed that it is similar to other wolf snakes who predominantly consume smooth-bodied lizards (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176851	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176851	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176852	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine this species' distribution, population status, and to determine the level of impact of potential threats across its range.	eng
176852	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species occurs in western and southwestern Angola, and it is also known from a single record in northern Namibia (Branch 1998, Marais 1992). Its distribution may also possibly include the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Broadley 1996). &#160;It is known from only five specimens (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
176852	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits rocky, arid savanna (Branch 1998).	eng
176852	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles, Griffin (2003) reported this species as insufficiently known and possibly rare. In Namibia, this species is known from only two specimens, since the majority of specimens previously assigned to this species are now referable to a new species, <em>L. namibianum</em>. There is no population information for this species in the rest of its range.	eng
176852	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	Threats to the arid regions of Nambia include long-term land degradation due to overgrazing, increased population densities, and increased need for land to cultivate (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000). It is likely that arid southern Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo experience these same pressures. However, the impact of these threats to this species is not known.	eng
176853	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In Zimbabwe this species is found within the Chimanimani National Park, however, it is currently unprotected throughout the Mozambique portion of its range (BirdLife International 2006). However, a transfrontier conservation area has been proposed for this region as part of a Global Environment Facility initiative, supported by the World Bank (BirdLife International 2006). Efforts to reduce the extent of habitat degradation are required; this may be partly solved by the planned establishment of more protected areas, however, monitoring of the species is required to observe if these measures are having any effect.	eng
176853	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This small species inhabits the Pungwe floodplain in central Mozambique and extends westwards through Miombo woodland to the border of Zimbabwe&#160;(Marais 1992), where it occurs at an altitude of 300 metres at the southern end of the Chimanimani National Park.&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,365 km².	eng
176853	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This is a cryptic snake; in Mozambique several specimens have been found in Miombo woodland, but the type series was collected from an oil pipe-line trench on the western edge of the Pungwe flood-plain&#160;(Broadley 1996). At the southern end of the Chimanimani National Park, one specimen was collected in the Haroni Forest and another in adjacent&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">Uapaca&#160;</span>dry woodland&#160;(Marais 1992).	eng
176853	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176853	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	The primary threat to this species is the loss and degradation of its woodland habitat. Deforestation in Mozambique has been estimated at 4.5% per year due to overgrazing, collection of wood for fuel and construction, inadequate fallow systems, and the use of fire for clearing land (Nhantumbo <em>et al.</em> 2003). Similarly in Zimbabwe, degradation of the woodlands have been attributed to fuel-wood collection, agricultural development and urban expansion (Chipika and Kowero 2000).	eng
176854	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, it is known to occur in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Kibale National Park (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Vonesh 2001).	eng
176854	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species occurs from Kenya and Uganda, southwest through the Democratic Republic of the Congo to northern Angola, and is also found in the Imatong Mountains in southern Sudan. It is found from 700 to 2,700 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176854	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits both forest and deforested areas, hiding in leaf litter, holes or rotting logs during the day (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is known to have a relatively specialized diet, feeding on small, smooth-bodied forest lizards. This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of two to six eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176854	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176854	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
176855	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.	eng
176855	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species occurs in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon. Its range also includes Mali and the Central African Republic.	eng
176855	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species inhabits savanna habitat (Chirio and Ineich 2006).	eng
176855	population	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176855	threats	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	The habitat of this species may be impacted by agricultural activities in some areas, however, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
176856	conservation	Carreira, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution of this species. An in-depth study of the taxonomy of this species is also needed (S. Carreira pers. comm.).	eng
176856	distribution	Carreira, S., 2009	This species is found between 15 and 34°S in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the states of Misiones, Corrientes, and Chaco in Argentina, and in Paraguay, and northeastern Uruguay (south to Maldonado and Lavalleja Departamento) (S. Carreira pers. comm.). However, according to Giraudo and Scrocchi (2002) the valid reports from Argentina are from the states of Formosa and Misiones.<br/><br/>There has been unconfirmed reports of this species from the Amazon basin, which would extend the distribution of this species considerably.	eng
176856	habitat	Carreira, S., 2009	This species lives near water and within this species' distribution the habitat ranges from grassland to shrubland to forest. It is unknown what this species feeds on; Schouten (1931) mention amphibians, Amaral (1977) suggest it has a similar diet to <em>L. dorbignyi</em> and Carreira and Lombardo (2007) found that it ate reptiles eggs.	eng
176856	population	Carreira, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176856	threats	Carreira, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176857	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Aguarague, Amboró, and Carrasco, in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
176857	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from the states of Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Chubut, Cordoba, Entre Rios, La Pampa, Mendoza, Neuquen, Rio Negro, San Luis, and Tucuman in Argentina, and from the western part of Bolivia (Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz and Tarija).	eng
176857	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	The predominant habitat type within the range of this species is grassland and shrubland. This species is known to be tolerant of degraded habitats. In Bolivian inter-Andean dry valleys this species is known to occur within degraded habitats, including plantations.	eng
176857	population	Embert, D., 2009	This species is relatively common (D. Embert pers. comm.).	eng
176857	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176858	conservation	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology, ecology, and habitat status of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176858	distribution	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is known to occur in west Malaysia in the states of Pahang, in the Cameron Highlands and Bukit Fraser, and Perak on Bukit Larut (David and Pauwels 2004). This species is found between 1,100 to 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
176858	habitat	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species inhabits tropical montane forest and is found under logs and in leaf litter. Other species in this genus are known to occur in deforested and agricultural areas (Vogel and David 1999), however, this has not been confirmed for this species.	eng
176858	population	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species has been recently redescribed and was formerly classified as <em>Macrocalamus lateralis</em>. Under that name it was observed to be common in the western Malaysian highlands during the 1930s and was thought to remain common (Vogel and David 1999). However, over the last ten years, declines in the population have been observed (G. Vogel pers. comm.).	eng
176858	threats	Vogel, G. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species may be experiencing the loss, degradation and fragmentation of its forest habitat due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities in parts of its range.	eng
176859	conservation	Vogel,G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research to determine its full range should be carried out.	eng
176859	distribution	Vogel,G., 2009	This species has recently been reclassified. Its confirmed range includes southern Thailand and it may occur in west Malaysia.	eng
176859	habitat	Vogel,G., 2009	This species is known from two specimens, one of which was collected in hill forest at 400 m above sea level near a human dwelling (David and Pauwels 2004). Species in this genus are found in montane forest, cleared forest and agricultural land (Vogel and David 1999), however, this has not been confirmed for this species.	eng
176859	population	Vogel,G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176859	threats	Vogel,G., 2009	This species may be experiencing loss, degradation and fragmentation of some portions of its habitat due to logging, expansion of agricultural activities and infrastructure development. However, species of this genus appear to have flexible habitat requirements, so that these should not be considered major threats at this time.	eng
176860	conservation	Lehr, E., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into harvest practices and monitoring are required as this species is harvested for medicinal purposes.	eng
176860	distribution	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is found in western Peru, from the Department of Piura in the north to the Department of Lima in the south, and the El Oro region of Ecuador. It is found between sea level and 2,620 m above sea level.	eng
176860	habitat	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is found in pre-montane dry forest and the desert region.	eng
176860	population	Lehr, E., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
176860	threats	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is killed and stored in alcohol by locals, and this liquid is then used externally as medicine (Lehr 2000). However, this is not regarded as a major threat to this species.	eng
176861	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Griffin (2003) conducted a study on the conservation status of Namibian reptiles, concluding that the nominate race was 'Secure' and is known or expected to be in a number of protected species. Further research is required to monitor population numbers and to understand if its uncommon appearance is a product of either its secretive nature or low population size.	eng
176861	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species occurs from southern Ethiopia and Somalia, west to Cameroon, south through East and Central Africa to eastern South Africa, and west to northern Namibia (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). In east Africa, this species is known to occur from sea-level up to a maximum altitude of 2,000 m. (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176861	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species mainly inhabits savanna, but also enters coastal forest and arid regions (Branch 1998). It spends most of the day hiding in holes in the ground, in cavities in walls, in hollow logs or in deserted termite mounds, and emerges at night to hunt. In Uganda, it is known to frequently enter human habitation (Pitman 1974). This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of 5-13 (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176861	population	Spawls, S., 2009	Patterson (1987) reported that this species is rare, while Spawls <em>et al</em>. (2002) state that its secretive lifestyle may contribute to it appearing as uncommon.	eng
176861	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	This snake is often found as a road casualty due to its slow movement (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002), however, this is not considered to be a major threat to the species.	eng
176862	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places it is likely that its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
176862	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found on the east African coastal plain from southern Somalia, south through Tanzania, Mozambique and Zimbabwe to northern South Africa (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). The range may also extend through Botswana to central Namibia (Branch 1998). It can be found from sea level to a maximum altitude of 1,200 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176862	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits savanna (Branch 1998), open woodland, grassland, coastal dune forest and gardens (Marais 1992). It feeds primarily on lygosomatine skinks, including many fossorial taxa (Shine <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with clutch sizes of up to six eggs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176862	population	Spawls, S., 2009	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as insufficiently known and possibly rare. Griffin reports that there are so few records of its occurrence in Namibia and Botswana that it is not possible to ascertain whether the Namibian population is isolated. Little else is known of the population across the rest of its range.	eng
176862	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176863	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population and distribution in Kenya is recommended to determine its complete range within the country.	eng
176863	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in eastern Ethiopia (Ogaden), southern Somalia and north-east Kenya. In Kenya, it is definitely known only from Malka Murii, on the border with Ethiopia, but probably also occurs more widely, perhaps along the Kenya coastal plain north of Lamu Island (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176863	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in coastal thicket, riverine woodland, dry savanna and semi-desert (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002). The habits of this species are little known, but are probably similar to other members of its genus which are terrestrial, diurnal and secretive, often hiding in holes or dense vegetation. Specimens of this species from the Juba River were found in termitaria (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
176863	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176863	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
176865	conservation	Luiselli, L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
176865	distribution	Luiselli, L., 2009	This species is widely distributed in West Africa and occurs from Guinea through Côte d'Ivoire to Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon and through the Congo basin.	eng
176865	habitat	Luiselli, L., 2009	This species is a semi-aquatic forest species. It often inhabits swamp forest, where it is most often found in leaf litter, in low shrubs and in river courses (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000, Jackson 2007, Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2004).   The species feeds on tadpoles, froglets, and invertebrates (Luiselli 2003). Above-ground activity occurs all throughout the year, with no obvious differences between wet and dry seasons (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000).	eng
176865	population	Luiselli, L., 2009	The sex-ratio is nearly equal in this species, although males are a little bit more abundant (but not at a statistically significant level) than females; females attain at least the same body size as males (Akani and Luiselli 1999-2000).	eng
176865	threats	Luiselli, L., 2009	This species may be locally experiencing the loss and degradation of its forest habitat; however, due to its very wide distribution this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
176866	conservation	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which probably providing small safeguards. It is reported to occur within Arusha National Park (Razzetti and Msuya 2002), Amani Nature Reserve (Tropical Biology Association 2006), and Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
176866	distribution	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout western and southern Africa, from Sudan in the north, south to Mozambique and westward to Guinea and Senegal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Branch 1998, Razzetti and Msuya 2002)<br/><br/>This species occurs from sea level to an altitude of over 2,200 m (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176866	habitat	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	This snake inhabits wetlands, pans and other marshy, damp areas; it is also found in grasslands, savanna and forest. It seeks refuge under stones, logs and crevices in clay banks of streams, but never ventures too far from water. Frogs and small fish form the bulk of its diet (LeBreton 1999, Razzetti and Msuya 2002). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of between four and eleven (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176866	population	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is common in both Arusha National Park and Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains (Razzetti and Msuya 2002, Tropical Biology Association 2006). Rödel <em>et al</em>. (1995) report that it is rare in west African savannas.	eng
176866	threats	Rödel M.-O. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. In Namibia, Griffin (2003) states that this species is threatened by the alteration of wetland habitats, however, this is presently not considered a threat across its entire range.	eng
176867	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Cusuco National Park, Honduras. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas and the more effective management of existing ones, are required to ensure that the rate of habitat loss within this species' range are reduced. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
176867	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is known from southwestern Honduras and has recently been found in Cusuco National Park in extreme northwestern Honduras. It is also found in Cerro El Pital in the extreme north of El Salvador. This species has also recently been reported to occur in Cerro Santa Barbara (Santa Barbara) and Cerro Zarciadero (Comayagua), and seems to occur in every cloud forest locality in western Honduras (J. McCranie pers. comm.). As such, it can be assumed that the species occurs in more than ten locations. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,600 km². This species occurs between 1,590 and 2,270 m above sea level.	eng
176867	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is found in cloud forest. Most specimens were taken from beneath logs or within rotting tree stumps.	eng
176867	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
176867	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, plantations, illegal logging and urbanization (Richards <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, cloud forests are also threatened by climate change (Bubb <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
176869	conservation	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.	eng
176869	distribution	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs from eastern Honduras south to Panama and into western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador (Savage 2002, Dunn and Dowling 1957, McCranie <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
176869	habitat	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs in evergreen rainforest at lowland and pre-montane elevations (Goldberg 2004). It may be a nocturnal species and is primarily found on the forest floor.	eng
176869	population	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species has been described as rare and uncommon (Savage 2002, Dunn and Dowling 1957).	eng
176869	threats	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. The remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain in this species' range, so that this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
176876	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further knowledge on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
176876	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is widespread in tropical Africa and Asia to Australia. In Africa it occurs in Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia and Eritrea.	eng
176876	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	In or near seasonal swamps, pools or streams.	eng
176876	population	Juffe, D., 2008	Rare in Africa.	eng
176876	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	No major threats are known where the species were recorded.	eng
176892	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place. Further research in habitat status, biology and ecology, population numbers, and range should be encouraged. Improved knowledge in habitat maintenance and/or conservation is also required.	eng
176892	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species is native to tropical and subtropical Africa. In north Africa, it only occurs in Egypt. It is found in the drier regions of Africa, from western to East, from Nigeria to Sudan and Kenya through Central African Republic and north Cameroon. In Tanzania it has been recorded in the Masai district; Ngorongoro crater, Lake Magadi, Handeni districta and Segera.	eng
176892	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This is a minute floating herb with colorless portion of the thallus suspended from the surface of the water, generally present in pools and slowly running water such as ditches. In North African region the plant grows in canals, ditches, and pools along the Nile river.	eng
176892	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	In Central Africa it is present across a wide range, but there are relatively few known sites. It is considered rare in Egypt and in North Eastern Africa where it is only known from two locations in Sudan Bara in Kordofan and Jebel Murra, and one location S. Somalia.	eng
176892	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	As free-floating plant, the major threat faced by this species is the  extreme homogeneity of the whole population. Any serious fluctuation in  the water condition is likely to eradicate all the individuals in a  short period of time. This fluctuation can be the invasion of the water  surface by alien species,&#160; water pollution by human activities or natural disasters such as drought followed by extreme temperature. In Northern  Africa, the threats to this species are unknown, but eutrophication  might be a threat. Currently, no major threats at a Pan Africa level.	eng
177048	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology areknown, further research in population numbers and range is recommended.	eng
177048	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species has a Pantropical distribution. In Africa it is found in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leona, Togo, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Malawi, and Tanzania. In Malawi it occurs in Nkhotakota along Mbombe Dambo, and Mtunthama in Kasungu. Also present in Southern Africa in Botswana, South Afica, Namibia, Swaziland and Angola.	eng
177048	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	Wet depressions in woodland.	eng
177048	population	Juffe, D., 2008	this species is common in North-eastern Africa.	eng
177048	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	No Major threats have been identified.	eng
177093	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is recommended.	eng
177093	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	It is a species wich is widely spread in tropical Africa from Sénégal to Ethiopia throughouth central Africa. It is also known in South Africa, Mascarene Islands and in nearly all warm regions. Present in Sudan, Ethiopia (Ex Tigre v. Begemder, Abyssinia, Sanka Berr) and Somalia. In Eastern Africa it is found in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. In Malawi it is known from Zomba mountain, Chisasila Forest Reserve in Nkhata Bay, Nchalo Estate, Mzuzu along Mary Mount Dambo, Nyika Plateau, Lake Malombe, Machemba Hill, Karonga Boma, Mulanje mountain, Blantyre 2 km north of Limbe, Ndirande mountain, Lingadzi River, and Lake Chilwa. It is widespread and locally common in Kenya from sea level to 2,450 m above sea level. In Burundi, the species is also widely spread. It has been found in low and high altitude such as in the Rusizi plain at Bujumbura, Rusizi plain km 14, km 15, Gitanga peatland, Mahwa marshes and at Ngoma it the high mountain with tea plantations.	eng
177093	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	In cultivated and waste ground and, generally damp, grassland.	eng
177093	population	Juffe, D., 2008	The plant is a common weed of many crops, but rarely it becomes a serious problem.	eng
177093	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Shifting Agriculture and livestock of small-holder may threaten the species, but these are not major widespread threats.	eng
177110	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
177110	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a very wide distribution. It is found in the Caribbean, in south and southeastern Asia, in Australasia, and in both East and West Africa.	eng
177110	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. It is not restricted to mangrove systems and can grow in other areas in fresh water environments and in salt marshes. This is a species that is opportunistic and colonizes disturbed areas. It is fast growing, and very robust. It is a large herbaceous fern.	eng
177110	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species can be common in many parts of its range. This species may in fact be increasing as it is easily colonizes cleared areas. It is very difficult to eradicate in situations where it overtakes previous mangrove systems. It can colonize open areas.	eng
177110	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no threats to this species, and in fact, it is a threat to other mangrove species. In mangrove systems that are disturbed, this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.	eng
177157	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
177157	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species  is found from Africa to north Australia. In north east Africa it occurs in Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea (Gheleb). Also present in Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Namibia, and Swaziland.	eng
177157	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	It grows in moist and damp places.	eng
177157	population	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is common.	eng
177157	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.	eng
177163	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., Luke W.R.Q., 2010	None known.	eng
177163	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., Luke W.R.Q., 2010	This species is very common in Africa presenting a Guineo-congolian and sudano-zambezian distribution. It is widespread in Southern and Eastern Africa (including Zanzibar and Pemba). Distribution in central Africa is not well known. It is also found in Asia (India).	eng
177163	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Common on marsy places near towns and villages, fields rice, humid ditches, pools and also seasonal wetlands, often brackish, littoral, estuarine.	eng
177163	population	Ghogue, J.-P., Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Great planting on pools and shallow water.	eng
177163	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.	eng
177173	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	Taxonomy, biology and ecology are known. Further research on population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation and identification of new protected areas is also recommendable.	eng
177173	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Tropical and Subtropical global distribution. Widespread in western Africa and present in Kenya, southern Sudan (Grosse Seriba Ghattas, Lande der Djur), southern Ethiopia, southern Somalia, Namibia, and South Africa (Limpopo, possibly Gauteng).	eng
177173	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Thus is a stoloniferous sedge to about 120 cm, high with elongated rhizomes, winged triangular stems, long acuminate bracts, and a smal umbel of flattenedspikelets with membranous-edged, brown glumes. Present in muddy depressions near rivers, pools and fallows, marshy grassland, seasonally flooded area (rice farms) and near open water.	eng
177173	population	Juffe, D., 2006	This species is rare in Northern Africa but it has a high dense population in other areas throughout its range.	eng
177173	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	The species is of high altitudes, where accidental natural drought is a likely threat to the species, in addition to the main threats by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. However, no major widespread threat have been identified for this species in Africa.	eng
177290	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
177290	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a widespread Pantropical species. It occurs thoughout Subsaharan and north Eastern Africa, including Madagascar. It is widespreadfrom North America to Tropical and Subtropical regions.	eng
177290	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Seasonally wet soil, often on silt near pools, rivers, streams, and road ditches. Also in Ggrasslands, roadside, and shallow sandy washes.	eng
177290	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is fairly common.	eng
177290	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats.	eng
177301	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation has been also suggested.	eng
177301	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is widely distributed within Western Africa. Also present in Chad, Sudan, Ethopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi. It is possibly present in South Africa but this needs to be confimed.<br/><br/>Globally, it is found in south east Asia and Australia.	eng
177301	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It grows in humid depressions and damp places. In Eastern Africa it has been found in bushland/grassland on wet soil and edge of ponds.	eng
177301	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is common and widespread in Western Africa. It is rare in North Eastern Africa.	eng
177301	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species althoughthese are not considered as widespread threats.	eng
177312	conservation	Juffe, D., 2005	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research is recommenden on population numbers and range.	eng
177312	distribution	Juffe, D., 2005	This species has a Paleotropical, Soudano-zambezian distribution. It is widespread in western Africa and present in Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, Chad, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.	eng
177312	habitat	Juffe, D., 2005	Marshy, sandy soils, temporary humid. Seasonally damp sandy ground. Also in clayey soils at edge of temporary water.	eng
177312	population	Juffe, D., 2005	Population in Western Africa is moderate to low. Common in North-eastern Africa.	eng
177312	threats	Juffe, D., 2005	Main threats are agriculture and drought.	eng
177321	conservation	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	No specific conservation measure are needed or in place.	eng
177321	distribution	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	This species has a pantropic and subtropic distribution. It is widespread in Africa and present in most countries including Madagascar.<br/><br/>In in Western Africa it is widespread. Also present in Sudan, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa.	eng
177321	habitat	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	In open savanna, cultivated on waste ground, often on sandy soils. It grows in seasonally wet habitats, often on sandy soil near roads, lakes and swamps, sandy hollows on rocky soil	eng
177321	population	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	It is very common along its range.	eng
177321	threats	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	Small-holder livestock and shifting agriculture are threating the species, but they are not major widespread threats.	eng
177384	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
177384	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is widespread throughout Tropical and warm regions of easternAsia and Africa, and naturalized in North America. In South Africa it is present in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape.	eng
177384	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial herb is often forming large populations on the water surface in pools and the sheltered parts of lakes, between 1-1500 m asl.	eng
177384	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
177384	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
177408	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
177408	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	This species is endemic to India, and occurs in the Western Ghats south of the Goa Gap (Wynaad to Travancore), Arippa (near Thiruvananthapuram) and Valparai (Tamil Nadu).	eng
177408	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This species inhabits lowland and montane moist forests.	eng
177408	population	Captain, A., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.	eng
177408	threats	Captain, A., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and mining is a problem in the Western Ghats and this is likely to be causing localized declines in this species.	eng
177409	conservation	Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Parts of its range are likely to coincide with protected areas, which probably provide small safeguards. Further research into its taxonomy, population trends and threats is needed to check that localized threats do not become more widespread, causing significant declines.	eng
177409	distribution	Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is a wide ranging species that is found in mainland Southeast Asia from India across to Indo-China. Its northern and southern limits are Guizhou in China and western mainland Malaysia respectively. It can also be found on Hong Kong Island. It has been found up to an elevation of 1,330 m above sea level.	eng
177409	habitat	Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is mainly found to occur in forest, although it has also been encountered in areas of human settlement.	eng
177409	population	Stuart, B.L., 2009	The abundance of this species varies throughout its range. It is generally reported to be common throughout India (Sharma 2003), but has been noted to be rare in Arunachal Pradesh (Athreya 2006). It is moderately widespread in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.), and uncommon in Hong Kong (Karsen <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
177409	threats	Stuart, B.L., 2009	Localized habitat destruction is likely to be occurring in parts of this species' range; however, due to its broad distribution, this does not constitute a major threat.	eng
177410	conservation	Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research into this species' taxonomy is needed as it may represent a widespread species group.	eng
177410	distribution	Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is widespread in northern Southeast Asia and can be found from the Assam area of India, eastward through to Viet Nam and Cambodia, and north to the Chinese province of Yunnan.	eng
177410	habitat	Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species inhabits forest as well as agricultural areas.	eng
177410	population	Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is reported to be common in India (Sharma 2003) and elsewhere (Cox 1991).	eng
177410	threats	Stuart, B.L., 2009	Deforestation has occurred in areas of this species' range; however, this is not considered a major threat since this species can tolerate human-altered habitats.	eng
177411	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its population status, habitat status, and threats is needed for an accurate conservation assessment.	eng
177411	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is only known from the type specimen collected from the Batak Mountains in northern Sumatra, Indonesia.	eng
177411	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	The type specimen was collected at an elevation between 800 and 1,000 m above sea level. From the location of the type, this species inhabits montane tropical wet forest.	eng
177411	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177411	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Despite official protection for some forests on Sumatra, logging, both illegal and legal, continues to occur, as does the conversion of forest land to plantation and the expansion of human settlements. These activities may be negatively impacting the habitat of this species.	eng
177412	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. It was assessed as Data Deficient under IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 2.3. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177412	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	This species is currently known from only two localities in India. It has been found at Namsang, Jaipur District, Assam (now eastern part of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh; A. Captain, pers. comm.) and also Chessa, Papum Pare District, Arunachal Pradesh (Sharma 2003, Captain 1997, Bhatt <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
177412	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This species inhabits lowland moist forests.	eng
177412	population	Captain, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177412	threats	Captain, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
177413	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its distribution is recommended, since its range may be larger than is currently known.	eng
177413	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species occurs on the Tanimbar Islands of Selaru and Yamdena (How and Kitchener 1997). It is possible that further surveys of nearby islands will expand its known range. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,590 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
177413	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	On Tanimbar, most of the available habitat is made up of deciduous monsoon forest.	eng
177413	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177413	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Large areas on the Tanimbar Islands remain forested and the local communities have thus far denied access to logging companies (Pfund <em>et al</em>. 2006). At this time there are no major threats to this species.	eng
177414	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into its threats, habitat status, and range is suggested.	eng
177414	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is reported from the north-western province of Lampang, Thailand and north-central Viet Nam in the Mu Cang Chai District, Yen Bai Province (Cox 1991, Dat <em>et al</em>. 2001). It is likely to be distributed throughout these areas.	eng
177414	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	The exact habitat preference of this species is not known, however, from its distribution it may inhabit montane or lowland forest.	eng
177414	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177414	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is experiencing the loss, degradation and fragmentation of its forest habitat due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agricultural activities. However, due to this species reasonably wide range, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
177415	conservation	Captain, A., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
177415	distribution	Captain, A., 2009	This species is known from the Darjeeling District near Gopaldhara in West Bengal (Sharma 2003). Its range, as mapped by Sharma (2003), appears to extend into the mountains of Sikkim and western Bhutan, occurring in less than ten locations. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of 14,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
177415	habitat	Captain, A., 2009	This species inhabits montane grassland and lowland and montane moist forests.	eng
177415	population	Captain, A., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species rare.	eng
177415	threats	Captain, A., 2009	Habitat degradation and loss may pose a major threat to this species. Total forest cover in the Eastern Himalayas of India has been projected to decrease from 90.5% in 2000 to 70.4% in 2100 with the highest regional losses in Sikkim (Pandit <em>et al.</em> 2007). Causes of deforestation in the Indian Eastern Himalayas include agricultural expansion, primarily for monocrop plantations as well as timber, fuel-wood and other forest product extraction (Bhuyan <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
177416	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into its population, distribution, habitat status, and threats is needed.	eng
177416	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	The only available distribution information for this species is that it is found in Yunnan Province, China and northern Viet Nam.	eng
177416	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are not known. It may inhabit lowland or montane forest.	eng
177416	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177416	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range, as some deforestation is occurring in this region, due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agriculture. However, as its habitat preferences are unknown, it is difficult to assess what impact this may be having on this species.	eng
177417	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its population status, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats is needed.	eng
177417	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is known only from Viet Nam. No specific locality data are available.	eng
177417	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	The habitat of this species is not known.	eng
177417	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177417	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
177418	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its biology, abundance and range, habitat status, and threats is needed. This species may be found in protected areas including Shwe-Settaw Wildlife Sanctuary.	eng
177418	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Specimens of this species have been captured from "Minhla" in Myanmar (Boulenger 1890), though it is uncertain which of the localities presently known by this name this refers to. A further two specimens have been collected in the vicinity of Shwe-Settaw wildlife sanctuary in central Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).	eng
177418	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been found in dry, tropical deciduous forest (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).	eng
177418	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177418	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Forests in this region are under increased pressure from commercial logging, agricultural expansion, and threats associated with a growing human population.	eng
177419	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. There are protected areas within its range.	eng
177419	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is found in the West, Central and Southern Province (IUCN 2002). This species is found up to 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
177419	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This terrestrial and diurnal species is known to occur in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, a mainly wet tropical forest region. It is known to shelter among debris, under stones and in cracks in the earth and loose soil (de Silva 2008). It has also been recently reported from Bundala National Park, an area of dry, thorny scrubland and dry forest, and from home gardens (IUCN 2002). It is frequently found in environments modified by humans, including plantations and houses (R. Somaweera pers. comm.).	eng
177419	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is reported to be common within its wider range (A. de Silva, pers. comm.), however, in Bundala National Park, it has been described as "uncommon" (IUCN 2002).	eng
177419	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing the loss and fragmentation of its natural habitat. However, as this species is tolerant of environments affected by humans, these should not be considered major threats at this time. This species resembles venomous snakes of the region and is often killed when encountered by humans, so that persecution constitutes a major threat.	eng
177421	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177421	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is known from India and Sri Lanka. Only old and vague records are available and no specific localities are known, either in the past or more recently.	eng
177421	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	As the distribution of this species is not known beyond country level, it is not possible to infer its habitat preferences.	eng
177421	population	de Silva, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177421	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
177422	conservation	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into its abundance, distribution, habitat status, and threats is needed.	eng
177422	distribution	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species is known from specimens collected in central Myanmar between   a latitude of 20° to 21° N (G. Zug pers. comm.) and near Bhamo, Myanmar (Boulenger 1890), giving it a modestly broad distribution.	eng
177422	habitat	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species inhabits dry forest (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
177422	population	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177422	threats	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	Forests in this region are under increased pressure from logging as well as agricultural expansion, and while areas of habitat remain, this species is likely to be experiencing local population declines.	eng
177423	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution range of this species is suggested as it is thought that it may occur on other islands surrounding its current range.	eng
177423	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species occurs on the Tanimbar Islands of Selaru and Yamdena (How and Kitchener 1997). It is possible that further surveys of nearby islands will expand its known range.	eng
177423	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	On Tanimbar, most of the available habitat is made up of deciduous monsoon forest.	eng
177423	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population information data available for this species.	eng
177423	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Large areas on the Tanimbar Islands remain forested and the local communities have thus far denied access to logging companies (Pfund <em>et al.</em> 2006). At this time there are no major threats to this species.	eng
177425	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it occurs in Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177425	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This recently described species is only known from the holotype which was found within the limits of Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge, in the western portion of the Cordillera Nombre de Dios in northern Honduras. The Wildlife Refuge has a distributional area of 81 km². The holotype of this species was found at 1,690 m above sea level. It is likely that the species occurs at other cloud forest locations in the region, but it has not been found again despite a number of search trips to the vicinity of the type locality (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177425	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species has been found in leaf litter in disturbed cloud forest. It was found in Cerro Texíguat Wildlife Refuge where the predominant habitat type is deciduous forest (Cox 1998).	eng
177425	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This snake is known only from one specimen, collected in 2003. Despite three days of searching and four collecting trips made to the area, no more specimens were found. It is therefore likely that this is a rare species (McCranie and Castañeda 2004).	eng
177425	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion (Cruz <em>et al.</em> 2004), and the habitat at the type locality is becoming increasingly degraded (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010). Cloud forests are also threatened by climate change (Bubb <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
177427	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring is recommended to make sure localized threats do not cause serious population declines in the future.	eng
177427	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is widely distributed and occurs in northern China, Korea and the Russian region of the Primorski Territory (Szczerbak 2003, Ji <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
177427	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is an ovoviviparous semi-aquatic snake that inhabits human-affected environments including rice paddy fields (Xiang 1995, Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is also found in grasslands, swamps, along the banks of rivers and stagnant pieces of water. It mainly feeds on frogs, fish, lizards, and, more rarely, on rodents (Szczerbak 2003).	eng
177427	population	Ineich, I., 2009	This species has been described as common in rice paddy fields in Zhejiang, China (Xiang 1995).	eng
177427	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is locally threatened by extensive agriculture, the disappearance of grassland and swamp areas, and the use of various pesticides. However, due to the wide distribution of this species, these cannot be considered major threats at present. The decline of amphibian populations may also be affecting this species (P. David pers. comm.).	eng
177428	conservation	Lau, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Little is known about this species and more research is required on its biology and ecology, habitat status and potential threats.	eng
177428	distribution	Lau, M., 2009	This species occurs in eastern and southern China and has been recorded from Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong and Guangxi (Stuart and Chuaynkern 2007, Zhao and Adler 1993, Zhang 2002). The exact distribution of this species is currently uncertain.	eng
177428	habitat	Lau, M., 2009	<p>This species occurs in high-altitude streams and often found under stones (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998).</p>	eng
177428	population	Lau, M., 2009	There are no population data for this species. Despite of many surveys in Guangdong and Guangxi by Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden in the last ten years, this species was not found, but other <em>Opisthotropis </em>spp. have been recorded.	eng
177428	threats	Lau, M., 2009	The freshwater habitats across this species' range may be negatively impacted by pollution discharges and run-off. However, these are not considered to be major threats, because they are mainly affecting lower altitudes than those inhabited by this species (M. Lau pers. comm. 2010). The construction of small hydro-electric dams may also impact the habitats of this species&#160;(M. Lau pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177430	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known direct conservation measures in place for this species, though it may occur in protected areas. Further research into the habitat status, abundance, and range of this species is needed before a more accurate assessment can be carried out. Conservation measures, such as protected area establishment and management, are needed to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within the species' range.	eng
177430	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known from three specimens captured in Lao PDR and the northern province of Chaing Mai, Thailand (Cox 1991). It may also occur in the neighbouring regions of north Viet Nam and Myanmar. However, recent surveys have failed to confirm its occurrence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). The species is also present in Yunnan, China.	eng
177430	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species appears to inhabit montane forests, and occurs in or near streams (Cox 1991).	eng
177430	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is reported to be very rare (Cox 1991).	eng
177430	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is likely to be suffering from habitat loss and degradation. Forests in Thailand are experiencing continued deforestation and fragmentation due to logging, road building and agricultural expansion. Between 1976 and 1989, forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999). Likewise, in Lao PDR, land use changes and deforestation has occurred and the forest cover of the country decreased by 30% between the 1940s and 1999 (Foppes and Ketphanh 2000). However, large areas of forest appear to remain.	eng
177431	conservation	Lundberg, M. , 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177431	distribution	Lundberg, M. , 2009	This species is found in the Napo and Tungurahua provinces of Ecuador, in the Departments of Amazonas, Ayacucho, Huanuco, Loreto, Pasco Puno and Ucayali in Peru, and on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the headwaters of the Cauca and Magdalena river valleys, Colombia. It has also been recently found in Venezuala (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010). It is found between 1,200 and 2,750 m above sea level.	eng
177431	habitat	Lundberg, M. , 2009	This species is found in humid montane forest habitat.	eng
177431	population	Lundberg, M. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177431	threats	Lundberg, M. , 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. In certain parts of its range, it may be threatened by habitat loss and degradation, however, due to its sizeable distribution this should not be considered a major threat to the species.	eng
177432	conservation	Doan, T.M., Lundberg, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. &#160;Further research is needed to confirm the distribution of this species, with regard to the taxonomic revision, and description of <em>O. vandicus</em>.	eng
177432	distribution	Doan, T.M., Lundberg, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species is found in Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador. <br/><br/>In Brazil, this species is found in the north west, in Amazonas and Acre.&#160;<br/>In Peru, this species was previously thought to be found in the Departments of Amazonas and Loreto in the north to Madre de Dios and Puno in the South (Carrillo and Icochea 1995); however, since the description of <em>O. vandicus</em>, and the fact that <em>O. vandicus</em> was misidentified as <em>O. melanogenys</em> (Lynch 2009)&#160;in the northern parts of Peru, <em>O. melanogenys</em> is now thought to in a small area near the mouth of the Rio Ucayali (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010), central Andes (Pasco), central and southern lowland (Ucayali and Madre de Dios) (M. Lundberg pers. comm. 2010).&#160; <br/><br/>It may also prove true that specimens of <em>O. melanogenys</em> recorded in Columbia, Ecuador and other areas of Brazil are that of <em>O. vandicus</em>, which may reduce this species extent of occurrence.&#160;This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
177432	habitat	Doan, T.M., Lundberg, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	This is a nocturnal species which is found in wet and dry tropical forest. It has also been found in pastureland. This species has been known to prey on lizards, birds and small mammals.	eng
177432	population	Doan, T.M., Lundberg, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species was found to be one of the most common species collected in a study in Rondonia, Brazil.	eng
177432	threats	Doan, T.M., Lundberg, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177433	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it occurs in many protected areas throughout its distribution.	eng
177433	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is known from the Amazon basin in Suriname, French Guiana, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,&#160;and Brazil. It may also occur in Bolivia	eng
177433	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in tropical lowland forest. It is a nocturnal, semi-arboreal species which feeds on lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>	eng
177433	population	Martins, M., 2009	This species is thought to be common throughout its range (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177433	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177435	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
177435	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in Brazil (in the state of Rio Grande do Sul), Argentina (in the states of Corrientes and Misiones), and in Uruguay.	eng
177435	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in moist grassland and forest habitat.	eng
177435	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177435	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177436	conservation	Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Less than 1% of this species' range falls within protected areas (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species is needed and more protected areas need to be designated.	eng
177436	distribution	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is known from the states of Mato Grosso do Sul, Sao Paulo, and Goias, Brazil. It is endemic to central Brazilian Cerrado savannas, around the upper Paraná basin (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). The species is restricted to areas dominated by open grassland formations (campo limpo and campo sujo), generally developing over gently rolling, elevated tabletops (locally Chapadas) (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). In some areas of Sao Paulo state, the species has not been recorded in the last twenty years (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
177436	habitat	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is typical of open grassland habitat, such as Campo Limpo and Campo Sujo, that tend to occur in isolated tabletops with flat or gently rolling terrain. In the southernmost part of its range in São Paulo state, the dominant habitat is mixed deciduous forest, however, most of the known collection localities are in or near 'islands' of Cerrado habitat in the state (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
177436	population	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is thought to be a rare species, confined to grassland habitats. The single recent records refer to a grassland area in Emas National Park, in Goiás. In this location, more than 500 snake specimens were sampled, with only three specimens of this species. Intensive sampling in a Cerrado reserve in São Paulo state, where historical records are available (pre-1980), failed to record this species (Sawaya <em>et al.</em> 2008). A population decline is inferred based on extensive habitat loss throughout the range of this species (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
177436	threats	Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is endemic to the most heavily impacted and fragmented region of the Cerrado, the plateaus of the upper Paraná basin (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). It is likely to be impacted by habitat destruction in areas of its range. Throughout its range, typical grassland habitats are extremely fragmented due to ongoing habitat loss, caused by the irreversible conversion of Cerrado grasslands for agriculture, grazing and human development (WWF 2007, C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Based on satellite data from the Ministerio do Meio Ambiente, it has been estimated that in 1998, only 18% of the original Cerrado habitat was available; this has dwindled to only 16% in 2008 (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Projected losses suggest that only 8% of will remain in 2018, implying an average habitat loss rate of 44% per ten-year period (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Since this species is a grassland specialist, these losses are even more acute. Grasslands are generally the first habitats to be converted, due to the lack of formal protection and the suitability for agricultural development.	eng
177437	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Madidi, Kaa-Iya and Noel Kempff Mercado (Embert 2007).	eng
177437	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in west-central Brazil, eastern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Tarija), Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina (in the states of Rio Negro, Neuquen, Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, Jujuy, Chaco, Formosa, Santiago del Estero, Cordoba, Santa Fe, San Luis, La Pampa, Corrientes).	eng
177437	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	The dominant habitat in the range of this species is grassland.	eng
177437	population	Embert, D., 2009	This species is very common in the inter-Andean dry valleys of Bolivia.	eng
177437	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177438	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Kaa-Iya and Tunari, in Bolivia.	eng
177438	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Tarija, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra), and Argentina (Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy).	eng
177438	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	The dominant habitat type within the range of this species is grassland.	eng
177438	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177438	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species.	eng
177439	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found in various protected areas, including the Korup National Park in Cameroon (Vonesh 1998) and Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1995)	eng
177439	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is distributed widely in western and central Africa and specimens have been captured from the Gambia to Gabon and east to Tanzania.	eng
177439	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species inhabits bushes and trees a few feet above the ground and is often associated with damp or wet areas (Menzies 1966) such as savanna ponds (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.). It is also found in grassy thickets (Raxworthy and Attuquayefio 2000). It feeds on frogs (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
177439	population	Rödel, M.-O., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is reported to be a "very common" garden species is Sierra Leone (Menzies 1966) and in West African humid savanna (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
177439	threats	Rödel, M.-O., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is often associated with human dwellings and gardens and is unlikely to be severely impacted by habitat loss or degradation. It has no known major threats at this time.	eng
177440	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out as it could be part of a species complex (G. Vogel pers. comm.).	eng
177440	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species occurs from Yunnan Province, southern China, into northern Viet Nam (Smith 1930, Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
177440	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	This snake has been collected from bamboo forests along the banks of mountain streams (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) and in the Fan-Si-Pan mountains (Smith 1930).	eng
177440	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177440	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Some deforestation is occurring in this region, due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agriculture. It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range, however, significant areas of habitat remain and these should not be considered major threats at this time.	eng
177441	conservation	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though there are protected areas within its range. Further research into its abundance, distribution, and habitat status is needed.	eng
177441	distribution	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species is reported from northern Thailand, Myanmar and the Yunnan province of China (Zhoa and Adler 1993, Cox 1991). Recent surveys have been unable to confirm its occurrence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
177441	habitat	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	Based on its distribution, this species probably occurs in wet montane forest.	eng
177441	population	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177441	threats	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	Forests in Thailand have experienced deforestation due to logging, both legal and illegal, and agricultural expansion. Between 1976 and 1989, forest cover declined by 28% (Cropper <em>et al.</em> 1999) in Thailand. Likewise, in Myanmar, the forests are under pressure and declined by 3% annually during the 1990s (Leimgruber 2005). The building of roads in this region may also contribute to the fragmentation of this species' habitat.	eng
177442	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
177442	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is found in China from southeastern Gansu throughout southern China, including Hunan province. It is also found in Taiwan and northern Viet Nam (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000, Huang <em>et al</em>. 1999, Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
177442	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is known to occur in areas of montane and bamboo forest where it inhabits caves (Orlov <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
177442	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177442	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation, however, as this species has a wide range this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
177444	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of this species, and its habitat, should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.	eng
177444	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is distributed from Nicaragua south through Panama and into Colombia and Ecuador, though it appears to be absent from southwestern Costa Rica and southwestern Panama (Savage 2002). It occurs between sea level and 1,460 m above sea level.	eng
177444	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is found on the forest floor of primary and secondary lowland and montane moist and wet forest. This species is often found within swampy habitat (Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002).	eng
177444	population	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	Savage (2002) reports that this snake is uncommon; however, F. Castro (pers. comm.) states that this species is common in some localities.	eng
177444	threats	Stafford, P.J. & Castro, F., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities. The remaining habitat is often fragmented due to road building. However, significant areas of suitable habitat remain and therefore these cannot be considered as major threats at present.	eng
177445	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in parts its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is needed to clarify the taxonomic uncertainty regarding this species.	eng
177445	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	There is some disagreement regarding the taxonomy and corresponding ranges of this species. Branch (1998) treats the southern race of this species as a separate species, <em>P. stuhlmanni</em>. He asserts that this species is restricted to Central Africa and Angola, while <em>P. stuhlmanni</em> occurs from northern Zululand to Mpumalanga, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, and elsewhere throughout East Africa and into southern Somalia. Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) consider <em>P. stuhlmanni</em> as a valid seperate species but state that <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ambigua </span>is also found in the southern African countries of South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. <br/><br/>Despite this uncertainty over the taxonomy and corresponding species range, it is clear that the distribution is larger than the 20,000 km²<sup></sup> threshold that is required for a species to be entered into a threatened category under criterion B.	eng
177445	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in moist woodland and savanna-forest mosaic and is occasionally found in coastal dunes. It is found under stones and logs, in deserted termite mounds and decaying vegetable matter (Marais 1992). The habits of this species are poorly known, but they are probably similar to those of other members of the genus, who are generally nocturnal, fossorial and secretive. This species shows certain morphological traits (such as tail reduction) that suggest a burrowing lifestyle (Pitman 1974).	eng
177445	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177445	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across all of its range.	eng
177446	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
177446	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is widespread in southern Angola, extending south into northern Namibia and Botswana, and east into western Zambia and northwestern Zimbabwe (D. Broadley pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177446	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits savanna. In northern Botswana, it has been found in deciduous dry tree savanna (Marais 1992).	eng
177446	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177446	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177447	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177447	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found from coastal northern KwaZulu-Natal northwards into Mozambique (Marais 1992). Broadley (1992) recorded this species from Bazaruto Archipelago off the Mozambique coast.	eng
177447	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is a nocturnal burrower, inhabiting coastal dune forest, coastal forest, woodland or grassland areas (Marais 1992). It is known to feed on hard-shelled gecko (<em>Lygodactylus</em> and <em>Hemidactylus</em>) eggs (Broadley 1992).	eng
177447	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is rarely found, except in spring when the males come to the surface to search for females (Branch 1998). Its secretive life history is therefore likely to make range and population surveys extremely difficult.	eng
177447	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	Marais (1992) states that this snake may be threatened by the extensive use of off-road vehicles and by large-scale sand mining in areas such as St. Lucia. However, this species does not have a restricted distribution and therefore this localized disturbance cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
177448	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) declare this species to be "critically endangered". Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) single this species out as being one of two species in the Ulugurus under the greatest threat. Therefore research and monitoring of population numbers and threats should be carried out, as well as measures to protect and manage its habitat.	eng
177448	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Tanzania and, more specifically, to a small area of moist tropical forest in the Uluguru Mountains (Spawls<em>et al.</em> 2002). It is known only from the type locality (Nyange) and its vicinity (another village, called Vituri). Both villages are located in the Kitundu Hills. In 2007, this species was rediscovered in the vicinity of one of the original type localities (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). This species has been found between 700 and 1,000 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 372 km².	eng
177448	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) consider this species to be dependent on primary forest from low to mid altitudes. However, the two known collection specimen <em></em>are from cultivation areas near two villages at the edge of rainforest (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Almost nothing is known of the habits of this species, though it is presumed to be similar to other members of its genus, i.e. nocturnal and burrowing, and spending most of its time in holes or buried in soft soil or sand (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
177448	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177448	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	The Eastern Arc forests, and the Ulugurus within that, are areas under intense threat from habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation (e.g., see Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2000). Furthermore, forest loss in the Ulugurus has been, and still is, at its most severe in the Kitundu Hills, which is exactly where this particular species was last recorded (Burgess and Doggart 2004). This forest loss has been partly caused by a recent loss of authority by the traditional chief, but also because of a more recent expansion of plantations. The Kitundu Hills are also under threat from agricultural expansion and logging operations. <br/><br/>More specific information is also available concerning the forest patches where this species was recorded. Apparently no forest now exists at one of the original sites and it is not known to have been collected at either site since (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, Doggart <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, it is only known from unreserved land, making future threats to its survival highly likely. In fact, Doggart <em>et al.</em> (2004) report a current threat, stating that its known range is "rapidly being turned into banana plantation". That it is a lower altitude species is not in its favour, since these areas are the most likely to be converted to agricultural and plantation land and the least likely to be protected (Burgess <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Burgess and Doggart's (2004) suggestion that it may yet be found in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve may not be cause for much optimism, since this forest reserve is also under threat from fuel and pole gathering, pit-sawing and farmland encroachment.	eng
177449	conservation	Maritz, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
177449	distribution	Maritz, B., 2009	This species is known to occur in southern Angola and northern Namibia, and ranges east through Botswana to southern Zambia, Zimbabwe, western Mozambique, the northeastern provinces of South Africa and eastern Swaziland (Broadley 2002). This species is found between 100 and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
177449	habitat	Maritz, B., 2009	This species inhabits open dry savanna, thornveld and bushveld (Branch 1998), venturing into shrubs and low bushes in search of prey or a basking spot. It is frequently found near water. Broadley (2002) reports that this species is common on rock outcrops.	eng
177449	population	Maritz, B., 2009	B. Maritz (pers. comm.) reports that this species is widespread and generally common throughout its range.	eng
177449	threats	Maritz, B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177454	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	Research required into the species life history, threats and distribution.	eng
177454	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaia banepaensis </span>is currently reported from three localities of Central Nepal in Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Kavre districts from 1,400 to 2,085 m asl. The known localities are Cha Khola spring, Nagarkot; Malpi forest stream, Panauti and Sugure Khola, Godawari (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). All the known localities are within the Kathmandu valley.	eng
177454	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in hill streams and springs of the mid-hills of Central Nepal in undisturbed forest streams of xeno to oligosaprobic conditions (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
177454	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	Population status and trends not known.	eng
177454	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to sedimentation, and the loss of habitat caused by urbanisation within the Kathmandu valley.	eng
177455	conservation	Budha, P., 2010	Research is urgently required into the species distribution, ecology, and threats.	eng
177455	distribution	Budha, P., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaia chandeshwariensis</span> is known only from type locality Chandeswari Khola at Banepa, Kavre district, Central Nepal (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). The known location is close to Kathmandu.	eng
177455	habitat	Budha, P., 2010	It is found in midhill streams of undisturbed condition (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2007).	eng
177455	population	Budha, P., 2010	<p>Population details of this species are not known.</p>	eng
177455	threats	Budha, P., 2010	<p>The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to  sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.</p>	eng
177456	conservation	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>Detailed surveys on distribution and research on the biology, population trends of this species are needed, as nothing is known about this species since its description. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
177456	distribution	Budha, P.B., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">, within the Kathamndu valley.Erhaia sugurensis</span> is known only from the type locality in upper reaches of Sugure Khola forest stream, Godawari, Lalitpur district Central Nepal (Nesemann<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2007).	eng
177456	habitat	Budha, P.B., 2010	It is found in forest streams together with <span style="font-style: italic;">Erhaira banepaensis, Tricula montana, Pisidium atkinsonianum, Perionyx excavatus, Perionyx fluviatilis, Myxobdella annandalei, M. nepalica </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Dugesia</span> sp. (Nesemann <span style="font-style: italic;">et. al.</span> 2007).	eng
177456	population	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>There is no population level information about this species.</p>	eng
177456	threats	Budha, P.B., 2010	<p>The species known habitats are impacted by deforestation leading to   sedimentation within the hill stream habitat, and the loss of habitat  caused by urbanisation close to the  Kathmandu valley.</p>	eng
177460	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">Further information on the species habitat, ecology, distribution, and threats is required.<br/></p>	eng
177460	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lamellidens unioides</span> is reported from Mamu Bhanja Pokhra at Hajipur, Bihar and Hugli River, West Bengal, India. Its presence in intermediate areas is not known and further survey is required.<span style="font-style: italic;"><br/></span>	eng
177460	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is found in rivers.	eng
177460	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p><span class="apple-style-span">No information is available on the population of this species.</p>	eng
177460	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<p>    </p><p>The threats to this species are not known.&#160; </p>  <p></p>	eng
177461	conservation	Madhyastha, A., 2010	Further information on species population, habitat, ecology, and threats and threats are to be understood.	eng
177461	distribution	Madhyastha, A., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Musculium goshaitanensis</span> is a recently discovered species from Punyamata, Nepal (Nesemann and Sharma 2005).	eng
177461	habitat	Madhyastha, A., 2010	This species is found in temporary water bodies.	eng
177461	population	Madhyastha, A., 2010	No information on the population of this species is available.	eng
177461	threats	Madhyastha, A., 2010	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
177463	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
177463	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Madagascar. While previously only known from the offshore island of Nosy Be, specimens have now been collected elsewhere in northern Madagascar (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is found between 60 and 140 m above sea level.	eng
177463	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This semi-arboreal species is reported from rainforest, dry forest and anthropogenically disturbed habitats (D'Cruze 2007, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is active at night in trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177463	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177463	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring within the range of this species, however, due to its tolerance of anthropogenically disturbed habitats this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
177478	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the habitat preferences and possible threats to this species.	eng
177478	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species occurs on the islands of Halmahera, Ceram, Ambon, Salawati, and in western New Guinea, east to Argoeni Bay, and including Noemfor and Biak Islands. This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 500 m above sea level.	eng
177478	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, it is known that species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns (O'Shea 1996). They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em>.	eng
177478	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177478	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
177481	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, including the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the level of habitat degradation and destruction occurring within the species range. Monitoring of the population should also take place.	eng
177481	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Cape of South Africa, found in Algoa Basin, including St Croix Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,388 km<em>²</em>.	eng
177481	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found within mesic thicket.	eng
177481	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177481	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and destruction because of over-grazing and tourism development. The Algoa Basin is also an important area for the oil and gas industry; exploration and mining of the area has occurred in the past and is likely to continue, causing further disturbance to the species (Singh <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
177482	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas.	eng
177482	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is distributed from northeastern Zimbabwe into western central Mozambique and southern Malawi.	eng
177482	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is gregarious and found on flat outcrops, particularly along river courses in mesic savanna.	eng
177482	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177482	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177483	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the range and taxonomy of the population in northern Australia is required.	eng
177483	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is found on mainland Papua New Guinea and Papua (Irian Jaya) in Indonesia (Hoser 2002). This species also occurs in northern Australia, however, its range and taxonomic status has not yet been determined in this region (Allison 2006).	eng
177483	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species is found in lowland grassland and savanna. This ground dwelling snake is commonly found in areas with an abundance of leaf litter, grass trash or similar ground cover.	eng
177483	population	Allison, A., 2009	This species is common in areas with suitable habitat (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
177483	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that there are any major threat is impacting this species. Feral cats and foxes are known to prey on reptiles, including <em>Acanthophis</em>, however, along with road kills and urbanization, these can not be regarded as major threats (Hoser 2002).	eng
177484	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Protected areas coincide with this species' distribution. Further research into the ecology, habitat status and distribution of this species is needed with regard to recent taxonomic revisions.	eng
177484	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is found throughout Queensland and just into its surrounding states. It is also distributed on the islands off the mid-east coast of Queensland. &#160;However since the initial survey, this species has been involved in taxonomic revision having previously been conflated with several other species now known to be distinct; therefore revision of this species distribution is likely.	eng
177484	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is found in rainforests. It may also inhabit other environments on offshore islands.	eng
177484	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is abundant on islands off the mid-east coast of Queensland.	eng
177484	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
177485	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Effective area and site management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring both in and outside of the protected areas.&#160;In the South Nguru area the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group are working with stakeholders to improve conservation planning in the region, including forest management (Menegon&#160;<em>et al.&#160;</em>2008).&#160;Further research and monitoring of its population is needed due to its restricted range.	eng
177485	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to northeast Tanzania. It is found in the Usambara, Uluguru, and North Pare Mountains. Recent surveys also found it in the South Nguru mountains (Menegon et al. 2008), extending its known distribution.&#160;Populations are isolated and the distribution is said to be severely fragmented, with suitable montane and submontane forest habitat separated by large areas of savannah (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,500 km². This species is found between an altitude of 300 and 1,900 m above sea level.	eng
177485	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits moist evergreen forest.	eng
177485	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177485	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in a habitat that is severely threatened by agricultural expansion and logging.&#160;In the south Nguru mountains people are reliant on agriculture and there are numerous plantations at lower altitudes (Menegon&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2008), which may encroach further on the forest habitat.	eng
177486	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out to establish the population of this species to determine if it is extinct. Urgent conservation measures, including the option of captive breeding, are required if it is found that this species is still present on Roatan Island.	eng
177486	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is endemic to Roatan Island in the Islas de Bahia of Honduras. The size of Roatan Island is 91.3 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177486	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species inhabits tropical moist forests.	eng
177486	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177486	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	The natural habitat of Roatan Island has been severely degraded in the past due to urban and agricultural expansion. The recent increase in tourist activity on the island has contributed to further habitat loss. Roze (1996) has stated that this species is in danger of extinction, and may even already be extinct. However, this is not the case as a fatal bite  occurred in 2008 (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177487	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
177487	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is widespread across central and southern Asia. It is distributed from India in the west through to China, Viet Nam and Cambodia. It also occurs in the Malaysian peninsular. It is found up to elevations of 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
177487	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species can adapt to a range of habitats, from natural to anthropogenically impacted environments. It prefers habitats associated with water, such as paddy fields, swamps, and mangroves, but can also be found in grasslands, shrublands, and forests. It also occurs in agricultural land and human settlements, including cities.	eng
177487	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is common in most of its range. G. Zug (pers. comm.) states that it is widespread and common in Myanmar.	eng
177487	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is harvested for the skin trade, however, collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant population declines.	eng
177488	conservation	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards from high levels of harvesting. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is needed, as is population monitoring.	eng
177488	distribution	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has a very wide distribution throughout mainland Southeast Asia. This species is known from the Cardamom Mountains (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008) and the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam.	eng
177488	habitat	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits lowland forest and cultivated hill country.	eng
177488	population	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no detailed population information available for this species, but snake hunters in the region of U Minh Thuong National Park, Viet Nam, report that the species has become much rarer (Stuart 2004).	eng
177488	threats	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	Like other species of the genus, this species is heavily harvested in Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Lao PDR for export to China where it is used for Traditional Chinese Medicine (B. Stuart pers. comm.). This species is sometimes harvested for the skin trade, but this is only a minor threat as the skin quality is not high.	eng
177489	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177489	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is distributed in central and north central parts of Australia.	eng
177489	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species can be found in a variety of habitats from desert to shrubland.	eng
177489	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177489	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177490	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is suggested to investigate the effects that tourism development may have on the species.	eng
177490	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This lowland species is distributed on the west coast of Australia from North West Cape southwards to Cervantes. It can also be found on many offshore islands.	eng
177490	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species inhabits closed or open heaths near the coast.	eng
177490	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177490	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	The area in which this species occurs is under increased threat from development for tourism.	eng
177491	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. The identification and establishment of protected areas would benefit this and other species restricted to the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
177491	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is endemic to Japan, and is found on the Amami and Okinawa groups of the central Ryukyu Islands. The total land area of the Ryukyu Islands is 3,090 km², but the area in which this species<em></em> is distributed is estimated to be 2,631 km².	eng
177491	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species is found in moist forests and on limestone outcrops.	eng
177491	population	Ota, H., 2009	This species is found in small isolated populations.	eng
177491	threats	Ota, H., 2009	Deforestation is occurring on Ryukyu Islands, leading to the fragmentation of forests. It is likely that this is causing declines in the habitat quality and therefore declines in the population numbers of this species.	eng
177492	conservation	Keogh, S.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. As little information is currently available, further research is recommended on the ecology of this species.	eng
177492	distribution	Keogh, S.J., 2009	This species is distributed across the southern half of Australia. It can be found in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.	eng
177492	habitat	Keogh, S.J., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats (S. Keogh pers. comm.)	eng
177492	population	Keogh, S.J., 2009	This is one of the most common snakes in eastern Australia (S. Keogh pers. comm.).	eng
177492	threats	Keogh, S.J., 2009	This species may suffer from habitat loss and degradation caused by urbanization; however, this is a localized threat only.	eng
177495	conservation	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>More research into distribution and biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>	eng
177495	distribution	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrobioides turrita</span> is reported from Kyoukpong (= Kyaukpon,     Sagaing Division?), Irrawaddy River in Myanmar (Preston 1915).</p>	eng
177495	habitat	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>This is species occurs in stagnant rivers.</p>	eng
177495	population	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	The population status of this species is not known.	eng
177495	threats	Madhyastha, A. & Daniel, B.A., 2010	<p>No information is available on the threats to this species.</p>	eng
177498	conservation	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the habitat status of this species should be carried out to determine if localized threats become more widespread in the future.	eng
177498	distribution	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs from eastern Honduras through to Panama and into Colombia, Ecuador and northwestern Venezuela (Savage 2002). In Honduras it is known from only one specimen (McCranie<em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;2006, Wilson and Myers 1985). It occurs from sea level to 550 m above sea level.	eng
177498	habitat	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This snake occurs in undisturbed lowland moist and wet forests of the Atlantic versant, apparently in the tree canopy (Savage 2002). Solorzano (2005) reports finding several individuals of this species crawling on the forest floor at night.	eng
177498	population	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is reported as rare (Savage 2002, Taylor 1951), although this may be a result of sampling time and its arboreal habitat.	eng
177498	threats	Stafford, P.J., Castro, F. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while remaining habitat is often fragmented by road building. However, as this species has a large distribution and significant areas of habitat remain, these should not be considered major threats at present.	eng
177500	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species, though it likely occurs in protected areas within its range.	eng
177500	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is distributed in South East Asia, from Thailand and Viet Nam, through Malaysia and into Indonesia.	eng
177500	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is found in primary and secondary forest, town gardens, and agricultural fields (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
177500	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is fairly common, but rarely seen (Lim and Lim 1992). Its secretive habits may account for the lack of sightings (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
177500	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	The forest portion of this species' habitat is impacted in some areas by human-driven deforestation, however, due to its broad distribution, this is not considered a major threat at this time.	eng
177501	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	This species has legislative protection for which additional protective measures have been imposed in Australian Capital Territory (Grigg <em>et al</em>. 1985). Research into the threats and habitat status of this species and population monitoring are recommended.	eng
177501	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species has a large distribution from northeastern Queensland, through the Torres Strait Islands, into Papua New Guinea and its surrounding islands, and to the eastern parts of the Indonesian archipelago. It may even be found in southern Philippine islands. This species has been collected up to an elevation of 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
177501	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species can be found in a variety of habitats both wet and dry, from scrub to closed forest. It also inhabits disturbed environments.	eng
177501	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177501	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is utilized in the pet trade, but this is not considered as a major threat at this time (M. Auyila pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177502	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, one specimen was found within Ankarana Reserve and the specimens found in Montagne des Francais are within a region that is scheduled to become a protected zone soon (M. Vences pers. comm.). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177502	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known only from a few specimens collected in northern Madagascar, including the holotype found in Antsiranana province, specimens collected at the Montagne des Francais massifs (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007) and a specimen collected at Ankarana Reserve (M. Vences pers. comm.). This species occurs between 120 and 330 m above sea level. The area in which this species is known to be distributed is approximately 345 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177502	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is arboreal, nocturnal and is found in karstic dry forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177502	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Surveys of the massif Montagne des Francais found that this species was rare at that location (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
177502	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that has been cleared or degraded by human activities such as the expansion of agriculture, including rice and maze production, and the clearing of land for grazing and logging (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, all specimens were found in areas which are already protected or scheduled to become protected, so that the threats are unlikely to affect the species in these areas in the future.	eng
177503	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into harvest levels is needed to ensure this species is not undergoing significant declines at a local scale. There are protected areas within its range.	eng
177503	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines (David and Vogel 1996). In Indonesia, it is known from Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra. While it was previously thought to inhabit Myanmar, recent surveys have failed to confirm its presence in the country (G. Zug pers. comm.). It has been recorded up to 1,500 m above sea level (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
177503	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits lowland and hilly moist forests, open dry forests, montane forests, scrublands, plantations, cultivated areas, and rice paddies (David and Vogel 1996). It can also be found around human habitation and close to water. This snake is mainly ground-dwelling, although it may also climb or swim (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
177503	population	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is common (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
177503	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	While this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range. This species is used locally as a food source which could be causing declines in population number.	eng
177504	conservation	Guo, P., 2009	This species occurs in the Gaoligong Mountain National Nature Reserve which is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve of 4,055 km²<sup></sup> (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 2003). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and population status is needed.<br/><p><br/></p>	eng
177504	distribution	Guo, P., 2009	This species is mainly found in the southern states of China (Gansu, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Hongkong, Xizang, Henan, and Yunnan), but also on Hong Kong Island, and in northern Viet Nam and northeastern Myanmar. However, recent surveys have not confirmed its current presence in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). This species has not been found above 2,360 m above sea level.	eng
177504	habitat	Guo, P., 2009	This species is an inhabitant of montane forests. It is normally found on small roads, in grass clusters, and in rocks. &#160;It is found at altitudes of 620 – 2850 m (P. Guo pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>&#160;It feeds mainly on earthworms and slugs (P. Guo pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177504	population	Guo, P., 2009	This species was thought to be rare in the Gaoligong Mountain National Nature Reserve (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 2003); however in western Sichuan, this species is very common and easy to be encountered (P. Guo pers. comm 2010).&#160;<p></p>	eng
177504	threats	Guo, P., 2009	The Gaoligong Mountain National Nature Reserve is subject to a number of threats, including the continued expansion of crop- and pastureland, and degradation and deforestation caused by fuel wood collection. However, the highest elevation areas have been designated as an inviolate core, with no visitors allowed, except along the Southern Silk Road where this species was encountered (Stotz <em>et al</em>. 2003). These threats are likely to be occuring locally throughout this species' range.	eng
177505	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research into population trends, and threats to this species is recommended, as it may exhibit traits which make it more vulnerable to extinction.	eng
177505	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is known from the states of Sao Paulo, Parana, Distrito Federal, Goias and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and from Misiones, Argentina.	eng
177505	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This is a terrestrial species whose diet is predominantly composed of bird's eggs. The dominant habitat within the range of this species is Cerrado savanna shrubland, however, the species may also be found in forested areas. This species is thought to have a low level of adaptability to altered habitats (Franca and Araujo 2006).	eng
177505	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	No population data are available for this species.	eng
177505	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	There has been a high level of habitat degradation within the range of this species as a result of deforestation and conversion of land to agriculture. The majority of this habitat loss/degradation occurred during the 1960s. In Distrito Federal, Brazil,  Franca and Araujo (2006) investigated ten factors of vulnerability to extinction in snake species. They found that this species had traits of a species that was more likely to be vulnerable to extinction, including highly specialized prey and a low level of adaptability to altered habitats.	eng
177506	conservation	Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
177506	distribution	Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., 2009	This species is known from the state of Choco, Colombia.	eng
177506	habitat	Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., 2009	There is no habitat and ecology information available for this species. The predominant habitat type in the Choco region of Colombia is lowland moist forest. Species of this genus are known to mainly inhabit sites with decomposing vegetation, in terrestrial habitats, including underground habitats (J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm.).	eng
177506	population	Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., 2009	This species is only known from two specimens (J. Mueses-Cisneros pers. comm.).	eng
177506	threats	Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., 2009	Deforestation is a potential threat to this species, however, as no detailed distribution or habitat information is known for this species it is not possible to assess to what extent this threat is having an impact on this species.	eng
177508	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	Approximately 10% of the forests on the Andaman Islands are protected. An assessment of Vulnerable was carried out by BCPP CAMP (1998). Further research into the threats, habitats and population numbers of this species is needed, as is population monitoring, in order to measure the rate of decline. The expansion and management of new protected areas is also suggested to provide a refuge for this species.	eng
177508	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Andaman Islands, which have a total land area of approximately 6,400 km². In 1998, the species' range was assessed as <100 km² (CAMP 1997). It is found on South Andaman Island, and is very likely to occur on the Middle and North Andaman Islands. &#160;The type specimen was from Port Blair, and it has been observed in Mt. Harriet National Park (I. Das and M. Auliya pers. comms. 2010).	eng
177508	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	Key habitats of the species may either be semi-evergreen or evergreen tropical forests (M. Auliya pers. comm.).	eng
177508	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177508	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	The forests of the Andaman Islands have been logged, a practice which is ongoing. Currently the islands are being developed for tourism. &#160;Additionally, the Andamans are mainly threatened by population growth mainly by immigrants and thus the impact on natural habitats and exploitation of wildlife has increased (Das 1999). It cannot be ruled out that the species is also purposely clubbed to death (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177509	conservation	Crother, B.I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats of this species are required.	eng
177509	distribution	Crother, B.I., 2009	The only certain record for this species is from the Rio San Juan in Departmento del Choco, northern Colombia. A record exists from Medellin, Antioquia, on the western flanks of the Cordillera Central, bu this requires verification. The type locality for this species was originally given as 'Cuba', but probably came from Colombia.	eng
177509	habitat	Crother, B.I., 2009	This is a terrestrial species found in humid forest habitats. This species principally feeds on small frogs, salamanders, and lizards.	eng
177509	population	Crother, B.I., 2009	This species is only known from four specimens.	eng
177509	threats	Crother, B.I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. There are potential threats within the range of this species due to large-scale logging activities and agricultural expansion, however, it is not known what impact these threats are having on the species.	eng
177510	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
177510	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is mainly known the from central Madagascar High Plateau, but it has also been found in one location in the far southeast of Madagascar. The areas in which this species is distributed are: Ananokely, Andohahela, Andrangoloaka, Ibity and Vohisokina (Glaw and Vences 2007). Individuals of this species have been found up to 2,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is actually distributed is approximately 14,323 km². However, due to the disjunct distribution, the extent of occurrence is more than 20,000 km²	eng
177510	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to inhabit primary montane forest (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2007). One specimen was found next to a small stream, in open grassland (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177510	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177510	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has experienced significant habitat loss and degradation due to the expansion of slash-and-burn farming and logging. The remaining native habitat is fragmented and only a few areas remain with substantial amounts of forest cover (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
177511	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the impact of the threats on this species and its habitat is suggested.	eng
177511	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species occurs on the Indonesian islands of Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan.	eng
177511	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	This species inhabits subtropical wet montane or bamboo forests (David and Vogel 1996). Other species in this genus show a preference for habitat near water.	eng
177511	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177511	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Significant deforestation is occurring in this region, with logging, conversion of forests to plantation and the expansion of human settlements and agriculture an ongoing threat. However, the montane forest habitat of this species is not being impacted to the same extent as lowland areas.	eng
177512	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, this species is known to occur in several protected areas including Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, as well as two proposed protected areas (Rus Rus Biological Reserve and Río Warunta National Park).	eng
177512	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs on the Atlantic versant from northeasten Honduras to northwestern Panama. On the Pacific versant it occurs from southwestern Costa Rica to southwestern Panama, with a disjunct population in west-central Panama. It may also occur marginally on the pre-montane Pacific slopes of the Cordilleras of northwestern Costa Rica. This species has been found at elevations between 70 and 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
177512	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs in relatively undisturbed lowland and pre-montane moist and wet forests.	eng
177512	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	Savage (2002) reports that this small snake is "relatively uncommon".	eng
177512	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species may be threatened by habitat loss in some parts of its range due to agricultural expansion, illegal logging, and urbanization.	eng
177513	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177513	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in the northwest Amazon basin, in southern Venezuela, southern Colombia, north-west Brazil, eastern Ecuador, and north-east Peru. This species is found between 80 and 450 m above sea level.	eng
177513	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest, semi-open secondary forest and forest openings.	eng
177513	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177513	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177514	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177514	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the southern slopes of the Central Highlands region of Papua New Guinea. This species is found between 1,070 and 2,140 m above sea level.	eng
177514	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species inhabits forest in highland river valleys. Species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns. They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (O'Shea 1996).	eng
177514	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177514	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177515	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Manuripi Heath National Park in Bolivia. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
177515	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Ecuador (in the provinces of Napo, Pastaza and Zamora-Chinchípe), Brazil (in the province of Pará), Peru (in the region of Madre de Dios), and northern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, La Paz, Pando). This species is found between sea level and 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
177515	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	This is a diurnal and arboreal species found in humid tropical forests. It is known to feed primarily on small terrestrial and arboreal lizards and frogs (Martins 1998).	eng
177515	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177515	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177516	conservation	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including La Amistad National Park which is a large trans-boundary World Heritage Site. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177516	distribution	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species occurs in the Costa Rican cordilleras and their extension into south-western Panama. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 27,321 km². This species is found between 1,200 and 1,825 m above sea level (Savage 2002).	eng
177516	habitat	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This snake inhabits pre-montane wet and rainforest and lower montane rainforest (Savage 2002).	eng
177516	population	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177516	threats	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss in certain parts of its range due to agricultural expansion, illegal logging, and urbanization.	eng
177517	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177517	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is distributed in the eastern rainforest belt of Madagascar between the south latitudes of 16 and 23°   (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994).	eng
177517	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is thought to be a nocturnal, ground-dwelling species that inhabits primary lowland rainforest (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994), though a specimen has been reported from secondary shrub habitat (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177517	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177517	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Large areas of forests in this region have been lost or degraded due to logging and land clearing for crops or livestock grazing. The 'tavy' system of cut-and-burn farming is widespread and despite some legal protection, farmers are increasingly encroaching into forested areas (Styger <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is estimated that at least two-thirds of the eastern forest have been lost due to these activities (Kull 2004).	eng
177518	conservation	Auliya, M. & Shine, R.A., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the harvest levels of the species should be carried out.	eng
177518	distribution	Auliya, M. & Shine, R.A., 2009	This species is widely distributed across tropical Australia. It has also been reported from Papua New Guinea, including the Bismarck Archipelago (O'Shea 1996).&#160;The species is known to occur in southern Papua (<st1:country-region w:st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region>) as revealed by well established reptile pet traders on the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">island</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename w:st="on">Java</st1:placename></st1:place> (M. Auliya, pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177518	habitat	Auliya, M. & Shine, R.A., 2009	This species is strongly associated with wetland habitats, including man-made reservoirs and dams (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010);&#160;however, according to Allison (2006), the species is known to occur in forest, savanna and freshwater habitats.	eng
177518	population	Auliya, M. & Shine, R.A., 2009	Torr (2000) described this species as abundant in the Northern Territory floodplains.	eng
177518	threats	Auliya, M. & Shine, R.A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. This species is utilized in the pet trade, however, harvesting levels are not thought to be substantial enough to be considered a major threat.	eng
177519	conservation	Lau, M. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
177519	distribution	Lau, M. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is distributed from southern China, including Hong Kong and Hainan and west to the province of Guizhou (Zhao and Adler 1993), through Viet Nam (Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000) to the Annamite Mountains in central Lao PDR (Stuart 1999). The elevation range of this species is 100 to 2,000 m above sea level (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1998, M. Lau pers. comm. 2008).	eng
177519	habitat	Lau, M. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is found in streams and waterways in or near forests, including ditches bordering agricultural land (Bain and Truong 2004, Orlov <em>et al.</em> 2000, Stuart 1999).	eng
177519	population	Lau, M. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177519	threats	Lau, M. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	Some deforestation is occurring in this region, due to logging, infrastructure development and the expansion of agriculture. It is likely that this species is experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range. However, due to its apparent tolerance, to a certain extent, of human-impacted environments and its large range, these should not be considered major threats at this time.	eng
177520	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India (1997) assessed this species as Critically Endangered under criteria B1+2c, as habitat loss has apparently reduced its distribution in India to one location with an area of between 5,000-9,999 km². Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that surrounds this species. Population monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
177520	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species has been found in the Darjeeling and Sikkim region in India, and in Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan.	eng
177520	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This semi-fossorial species is primarily found in deciduous forest with rocky slopes. It has also been found in disturbed environments such as crop fields and dung heaps.	eng
177520	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	In Darjeeling, this snake has been described as common (Sharma 2003).	eng
177520	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.	eng
177521	conservation	Allison, A., Shine, R. & Horner, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177521	distribution	Allison, A., Shine, R. & Horner, P., 2009	This species is distributed widely in Australia and is also found in New Guinea. It is distributed around the coast of northern Australia to the Clarence River in New South Wales. In New Guinea, it is found in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea and into southeastern Papua (Irian Jaya). This species is found at low elevations, between sea level and 20 m above sea level.	eng
177521	habitat	Allison, A., Shine, R. & Horner, P., 2009	This is a semi-aquatic species, and is almost always found in close proximity to streams, swamps and lagoons.	eng
177521	population	Allison, A., Shine, R. & Horner, P., 2009	This is a common species.	eng
177521	threats	Allison, A., Shine, R. & Horner, P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177522	conservation	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. There are many protected areas within its distribution range, including the Serra do Mar State Park, with 325,000 ha.	eng
177522	distribution	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul.	eng
177522	habitat	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species is nocturnal, semi-arboreal and is found in lowland tropical rainforests, including cocoa plantations in southern Bahia. It feeds on lizards and snakes.	eng
177522	population	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177522	threats	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It is found in a region that has experienced high rates of habitat loss due to urban and agricultural expansion. However, the climax of this habitat loss was during the 1960s and the remaining forest is relatively undisturbed and intact.	eng
177523	conservation	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, although there are several protected areas within its distribution.	eng
177523	distribution	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V., 2009	This species is found in eastern Brazil, from the south-eastern states of Minas Gerais through Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, and Santa Catarina. In the northeast this species is found in Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, and Alagoas.	eng
177523	habitat	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V., 2009	This species is found in moist lowland and montane forested habitats.&#160;It is a diurnal, terrestrial and cryptozoic species which feeds on frogs, lizards and amphisbaenians (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>	eng
177523	population	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177523	threats	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.	eng
177524	conservation	Auliya, M., Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. Further research should be carried out on the levels of off-take from the wild. Population monitoring of this species should be carried out to ensure that a higher threat category is triggered if required.	eng
177524	distribution	Auliya, M., Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is distributed throughout mainland New Guinea, its offshore islands, and in eastern Indonesia (Aru Islands, Salawati, Missol, Cenderrawasih Bay Islands and Papua) (Iskandar and Colijn 2001).&#160;This species is also found in the northeast Cape York Peninsula of Australia. It is found between sea level and an altitude of 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
177524	habitat	Auliya, M., Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is restricted to moist forests from lowland to mid-montane altitudes. This species has also been found in gardens in Papua New Guinea.	eng
177524	population	Auliya, M., Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is common within its range (Kmitta 2001).	eng
177524	threats	Auliya, M., Shine R.A. & Allison, A., 2009	This species is becoming increasingly popular in the pet trade. The natural colour morphs and need for fresh blood lines have resulted in the constant capture of wild specimens for the pet trade. This is one of the most common python species in the international pet trade, and has been utilized for decades (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010). Indigenous people in New Guinea also hunt this species for food.	eng
177525	conservation	Luiselli, L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution of this species should be carried out in order to define its range extent. Genetic studies should be planned to (i) analyse whether <em>P. nigra</em> is really distinct from <em>P. goldii</em>, and (ii) establish how these snakes can survive with such low population densities..	eng
177525	distribution	Luiselli, L., 2009	This West African species was previously thought to range from Sierra Leone eastward to Nigeria and possibly the Central African Republic. However, the occurrence of this species east of Benin has been questioned by Akani <em>et al.</em> (2005). Thus, the real distribution is much narrower than previously supposed.	eng
177525	habitat	Luiselli, L., 2009	This species is found in moist lowland forests.   No quantitative data are available on its ecology, but it is likely feeding on frogs, fish, birds and small mammals like its relative <em>P. goldii </em>(L. Luiselli pers. comm.).<em><br/></em>	eng
177525	population	Luiselli, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.   However, the species is extremely closely related to <em>Pseudohaje goldii</em>, which may even be the same species. This latter species, and likely also <em>P. nigra</em>, is characterized by extremely low population densities at all sites (e.g., Luiselli <em>et al</em>. 2005), but this is a typical biology aspect of tree cobras and does not imply that they are somewhat threatened.	eng
177525	threats	Luiselli, L., 2009	This species may be experiencing habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion within its range, however, due to the large distribution of this species, this cannot be considered a major threat. In parts of its range, this species is occasionally eaten by local people.	eng
177526	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
177526	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is comprised of many subspecies with quite discrete distributions. It has a large range within southern Africa, from Malawi in the north to South Africa in the south, and from Mozambique in the east, through Zimbabwe to Botswana in the west.	eng
177526	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to utilize various rock types, including granite, sandstone, and quartzite, within mesic and arid savanna.	eng
177526	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to be common and widely distributed (Branch 1998).	eng
177526	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177527	conservation	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Given that the south and west coast of the Eyre Peninsula are areas of expansion in real estate development there may be the need to reassess this species in the future.Further research is needed into the threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177527	distribution	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has a wide but disjunct distribution across southern Australia from near Esperance, Western Australia to Big Desert area, Victoria.	eng
177527	habitat	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits semi-arid areas from coastal dunes to heath covered sand plains and mallee-spinifex associations. It is most abundant in semi-arid coastal and near-coastal scrub (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177527	population	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177527	threats	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
177528	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
177528	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	This species has three subspecies. <em>P. plicatilis plicatilis</em> is found in low areas of the Amazon and Paraguay river basins and their vicinity, in Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando, and Santa Cruz), Brazil, Paraguay and northern Argentina (in the states of Corrientes, Chaco, Formosa and Misiones). <em>P. plicatilis mimeticus</em> is known from Amazonian Bolivia. <em>P. plicatilis ecuadorensis</em> is found in the Napo region of Ecuador only, at elevations of below 300 m above sea level (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).	eng
177528	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is an aquatic/semi-aquatic species which feeds on fish and amphibians and is found in humid tropical forest.	eng
177528	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177528	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177529	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into its biology and ecology, abundance, threats and habitat status are suggested.	eng
177529	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species appears to be known from only two individuals collected from the Indonesian areas of Konorra, Halmahera and Leiden, Halmahera (Makbate and Underwood 1988).	eng
177529	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	While there is no information on the specific habitat preferences of this species, other species in this genus are often found near freshwater in rainforests, open or cultivated country and towns (O'Shea 1996). It is not known if this species shares these broad habitat requirements.	eng
177529	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177529	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	It is unknown whether any threats impact upon this species.	eng
177530	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, monitoring of this species should take place because of its restricted distribution.	eng
177530	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is restricted to Bougainville Island in the North Solomon Islands group, Papua New Guinea. This island has an area less than 10,000 km²<sup></sup>, but the species is distributed over the lowlands and into the mountains of east and south Bourgainville (F. Parker pers. comm). This species has an upper elevational limit of at least 650 m (Williams and Parker 1964).	eng
177530	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is a small and very secretive semi-burrowing snake that inhabits wet forests.	eng
177530	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177530	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is affecting this species or its habitat. There is still extensive primary and secondary forest throughout the area and mines that were causing river pollution have been out of production for over 20 years (F. Parker pers. comm.).	eng
177531	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Expansion of the existing protected areas is required to prevent habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
177531	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species only occurs in the extreme southeast of Madagascar and at this time all specimens have been found in the Anosy and Vohimena Mountains (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1994). The area in which this species is distributed is 9,893 km². This species is found between 75 and 800 m above sea level.	eng
177531	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This is a ground-dwelling, nocturnal species, that occurs in primary rainforest. During the day it has been found hidden under wood chips or inside rotten logs (Glaw and Vences 2007)	eng
177531	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This snake has been described as rare (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1995).	eng
177531	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The area of coastal-montane rainforests in this area, including the Vohimena mountains, has declined significantly due to human activities including logging, expansion of slash-and-burn 'tavy' agriculture, the development of titanium mines and other pressures associated with rapid human population growth in the area (Emberton <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
177532	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. In places this species' distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into the population status, distribution, habitat preferences and threats is needed as information regarding this species is sparse.	eng
177532	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species is known only from the holotype, found near Ujungpadang in the District of Aceh Selatan, Sumatra, Indonesia (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
177532	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	The sub-district of Bakongan, where this species was collected, consists predominantly of lowland forest.	eng
177532	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177532	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Despite official protection, the forests in Aceh Selatan remain at high risk of deforestation and are experiencing ongoing illegal exploitation, including large-scale clear-cutting, conversion of forest to palm oil plantations and increased human settlement, all of which are having "severe" ecological consequences (van Beukering <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
177533	conservation	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species, however, further research into its taxonomy, distribution and possible threats is needed.	eng
177533	distribution	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	This species was described from Alban Municipality in the Cundinamarca Department near Bogata, Colombia at an elevation of around 2,220 m. There are specimens from the provinces of Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza in Ecuador, but these are questionable and may not be individuals from this taxon (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).	eng
177533	habitat	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	This species is found in humid forest habitats, where its major food is small lizards and frogs.	eng
177533	population	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177533	threats	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	It is not known what threats are impacting this species as its distribution remains largely unknown. However, the type locality for this species is near a large urban area and may therefore be suffering from habitat degradation.	eng
177534	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Although local logging is technically prohibited, this is not well enforced and selective logging continues to occur (Bollen and Donati 2006). Effective management strategies are required to prevent illegal logging. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
177534	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs in southeastern Madagascar in the Tolagnaro and Manakara regions (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 22,570 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177534	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits lowland forests. One specimen was found to be active at night, in rainforest on the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177534	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177534	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Forests in southeastern Madagascar are being lost or degraded due to human activities, including logging, and the expansion of agricultural activities, such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming. Forests in the area of Tôlanaro are being cleared at an 'alarming rate', while out-of-control wildfires caused by tavy practices further threaten this species' forest habitat (Bollen and Donati 2006).	eng
177535	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It has been found in the protected area of Popa Mountain Park in Myanmar. Further research into the biology, abundance and range, habitat status, and threats of this species<em></em> is needed.	eng
177535	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known from the Nicobar Island of Camorta (Sharma 2003). However, there is also a historic report of this species, as <em>Ablabes bistrigatus</em>, from Pegu and Prome, Myanmar (Boulenger 1890) and a more recent, single report from central Myanmar in Popa Mountain Park (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
177535	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Though the preferred habitat of this species is unknown, the habitat on Camorta consists of grassy, hilly meadows, forest and mangroves (Ramachandran <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
177535	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177535	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	On Camorta, it is possible that this species may have experienced habitat degradation due to the 2004 tsunami (Malik and Murty 2005). There are also plantations on Camorta which may degrade this species' habitat. On mainland Myanmar, it may also be impacted by habitat loss and degradation due to threats such as agricultural expansion and logging.	eng
177536	conservation	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177536	distribution	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species is found in the states of Bahia, Goias, and Minas Gerais, Brazil.	eng
177536	habitat	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	<p>This species is found in the rainforests of southern Bahia. The locality in Goiás (Cana Brava) lies within an area of Cerrado in which the only forests available are gallery forests and dense Cerrado on mountain ranges.</p>	eng
177536	population	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177536	threats	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177537	conservation	Shine, R.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, as some parts of its range may have been converted to agricultural land.	eng
177537	distribution	Shine, R.A., 2009	This species is distributed across the arid and semi arid parts of the eastern side of Australia.	eng
177537	habitat	Shine, R.A., 2009	This species inhabits arid shrubland.	eng
177537	population	Shine, R.A., 2009	This species is common in parts of its range (Hoser and Scanlon 1994).	eng
177537	threats	Shine, R.A., 2009	The natural habitat within this species' range has been cleared for crops and grazing.	eng
177538	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177538	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is endemic to southeastern Somalia in the area around Afgoi. The area in which this species is distributed is estimated to be less than 500 km².	eng
177538	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in sandy soil in dry open woodland.	eng
177538	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177538	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found within an area that has become extremely degraded because of overgrazing by livestock.	eng
177539	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested.	eng
177539	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is restricted to southern Angola and Namibia. It is distributed along 1,250 km of the Great Escarpment with most of its range falling within central Namibia. It is recorded from Etosha National Park, Namib-Naukluft Park, Von Bach Recreation Resort and the Daan Viljoen Game Park (Griffin 2003). Its distribution appears to be limited between 750-1,600 m above sea level (M. Auliya pers. comm.).	eng
177539	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species inhabits rocky outcrops on mountain terrain or brushy plains.	eng
177539	population	Auliya, M., 2009	This species has been described as one of the rarest snake species in Africa (Patterson 1987).	eng
177539	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	The remote habitat of this species is not affected by any threats, and the species itself is not used for meat or leather. However, this python is used in the international pet trade. It has a high value on the market because of its rareness, although the illegal trade of this species is thought to be in check (Cimatti 2001).	eng
177540	conservation	Inger R.F., Stuart, B.L. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species has been regionally assessed in India and China. The Regional India preliminary assessment of Near Threatened was made by the BCPP CAMP, while in China it was assessed as Critically Endangered. The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. There are protected areas within the range of this species which probably provide small safeguards from harvesting pressure. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat destruction occurring within its range and manage the trade levels of this species. Further research into, and monitoring of the population status of this species is required, as well as research into sustainable harvesting levels. Educational programmes may also help to limit the persecution of the species.	eng
177540	distribution	Inger R.F., Stuart, B.L. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout south central Asia and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, eastward to Indonesia and north into southern China below the 25° latitude. This species also occurs in the Philippines. It is found up to a maximum altitude of 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
177540	habitat	Inger R.F., Stuart, B.L. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats, primarily in forests, but it can also be found in degraded forest, mangrove swamps and even agricultural areas with remnants of woodland. It has also been found swimming in rivers in non-forested land and probably occurs in palm oil plantations (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
177540	population	Inger R.F., Stuart, B.L. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is not commonly found.&#160;A population reduction of 30% over 75 years has been inferred because of the numerous threats against this species, including habitat destruction and harvesting of mature individuals from the wild. A relatively recent study in northwestern India showed that even though the species was recorded in diverse ecosystems, analysis of observational records revealed that abundance of King Cobras and that of undisturbed forests are strongly linked to each other (Das <em>et al.</em> 2008), indicating that the destruction of natural forests is likely causing significant declines in this species' population.	eng
177540	threats	Inger R.F., Stuart, B.L. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is threatened by destruction of habitat due to logging and agricultural expansion and the harvesting of individuals for skin, food and medicine (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010). S<st1:place w:st="on">outheast Asia is experiencing one of the highest rates of deforestation in the tropics (Sodhi <em>et al.</em> 2009)</st1:place>.&#160;It is also used in the domestic and international pet trade (M. Auliya, pers. comm. 2010), and suffers persecution by humans in parts of its range. The wild population in China was considered as “very low” in the 1990s (Zhou & Jiang 2004), which very likely reflects the trade impact in China for medicinal purposes.	eng
177541	conservation	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
177541	distribution	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is distributed from central Panama across northern Colombia, and into northern and eastern Venezuela. It has been found between sea level and 1,000 m above sea level, however, it is generally found at elevations of 500 m or less.	eng
177541	habitat	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species inhabits a broad range of habitats, ranging from dry tropical forest, coastal scrub, lower montane dry and humid forests, to savanna. This species is also frequently found in human settlements and is able to inhabit deforested areas.	eng
177541	population	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is reported as common throughout its range.	eng
177541	threats	Stafford, P.J. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177542	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits the protected areas Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park and in the part at Tsingy de Namoraka. There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at this time. Further research is needed into the habitat status and harvest levels of this species, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.	eng
177542	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Madagascar and occurs in the western area of the country. It has been found in Beroboka, Kirindy and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Glaw and Vences 2007). The area of distribution is approximately 6,899 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177542	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This is a viviparous species that prefers to inhabit shrubland in humid, sheltered valleys (DCSP 2004, Vences <em>et al</em>. 1998). Snakes in this genus are arboreal (Vences <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species also occurs in dry karstic forests. It is active at night and is often found on bushes 0.5-2 m above the ground (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177542	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to be 'rather common' in the karstic dry forest of Tsingy de Bemaraha (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177542	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has probably experienced significant habitat loss and degradation due to human activities, including the conversion of forest to agricultural and grazing land, brushfires associated with slash-and-burn cultivation and logging. <br/><br/>It is now restricted to two protected areas, however, habitat degradation may still be occurring. Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve provides some protection, however, damage from cattle grazing and agricultural encroachment was still occurring at the time it was declared as a World Heritage Site (WCMC 1992).<br/><br/>This species is of interest to the international pet trade and although collections are not permitted, it is thought their highly specialized habitat makes them vulnerable to illegal collections (DCSP 2004).	eng
177543	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is listed under Appendix II of CITES. No further species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Despite its CITES status, trade management is required to reduce the level of harvesting from the wild. This species is assessed as Endangered in the Western Cape State Biodiversity Report (Baard and de Villiers 2000). Further research into the population and harvest levels of this species is necessary.	eng
177543	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species has a restricted range in the southern Karoo in the Western Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa. It is known from two farms in the Prince Albert District. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,177 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177543	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to inhabit rocky karroid vegetation.	eng
177543	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177543	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to be collected from the wild to supply the national and international pet trade.	eng
177544	conservation	Bain, R.H. & Hallerman, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research is needed into the natural history, distribution, population trends and threats of this species. Monitoring of this species and habitat trends is needed to accurately determine the impact of land conversion on the species. Research is needed on potential conservation measures, to try and prevent further negative impacts on its population<em></em>. Establishment of protected areas within this species range is also suggested, to reduce further declines in this species and its habitat.	eng
177544	distribution	Bain, R.H. & Hallerman, J., 2009	This species is endemic to Viet Nam and is only known from Daban (Lang Bian Plateau) and Nha Trang (Kanh Hoa Province) (Greer 1985, Darevsky 1992). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,081 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177544	habitat	Bain, R.H. & Hallerman, J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits primary montane forests.	eng
177544	population	Bain, R.H. & Hallerman, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This may be due to its cryptic habit<em></em>.	eng
177544	threats	Bain, R.H. & Hallerman, J., 2009	The area this species inhabits is subject to habitat loss and fragmentation, due to land conversion for agriculture. This may be causing a decline in the population of this species, but to what extent this habitat conversion is affecting the species is unknown.	eng
177545	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population trends of this species should be carried out.	eng
177545	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs continuously at mid-level elevations from northeastern and eastern central Madagascar, including the east-coast offshore island of Nosy Mangabe (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004), to the far southeast of Madagascar (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177545	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is mainly arboreal and is found in rainforest habitats (Vences <em>et al.</em> 2004, Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2000) where it is active at night (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
177545	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177545	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Forests in some parts of this species' range are being lost or degraded due to logging and agricultural expansion, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming.	eng
177546	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.	eng
177546	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is found in Pakistan in the area of the Indus Delta and lower Punjab, and ranges throughout northern India, Nepal and southeast Asia to Viet Nam and Indonesia (McKay 2006) although it does not appear to inhabit southern Thailand (Cox 1991). It is generally found below 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
177546	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species occurs in diverse habitats including moist grasslands, shrublands and woodlands, mangroves and agricultural land (Sharma 2003, McKay 2006, Schleich and Kästle 2002). It is reported to "adapt" to rural-agricultural modifications (G. Zug pers. comm.). It appears to be partially arboreal and can be found climbing trees and bushes. It is a diurnal species which shelters in the burrows of sand lizards (Khan 2006).	eng
177546	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is reported to be common (Sharma 2003, Daniel 2002). G. Zug (pers. comm.) notes that in Myanmar specifically it is widespread and moderately abundant from the central region of the country to the Ayeyarwady delta.	eng
177546	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Though habitat degradation is occurring in portions of its range, this species is tolerant of human-affected environments and it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats throughout its range.	eng
177547	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the ecological preferences of this species.	eng
177547	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species has a wide distribution in New Guinea. In Papua (Irian Jaya) it is known to occur on the Ok Sibil, eastward through the Central Massif, to the Huon Peninsula and southeastward through the tail of New Guinea (Malnate and Underwood 1988). It is also known from Wewak on the north coast and on Goodenough Island (O'Shea 1996). This species is found between 900 and 2,135 m above sea level.	eng
177547	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	Specific habitat information for this species is not available but species of this genus are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns. They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em> (O'Shea 1996).	eng
177547	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177547	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177548	conservation	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is known from the protected area of Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire  (Rödel<em> et al</em> 1995).	eng
177548	distribution	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species is distributed in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroon and the Central African Republic.	eng
177548	habitat	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	This species has been found in open savanna habitat (LeBreton 1999, Menzies 1966).	eng
177548	population	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177548	threats	Rödel, M.-O., 2009	The habitat of this species may be degraded by agricultural activity, however, considering its large range, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
177550	conservation	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the impact that habitat loss is having on its population.	eng
177550	distribution	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in the Amazon basin in Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Suriname and French Guiana. This species is found between sea level and an altitude of 900 m above sea level.	eng
177550	habitat	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is a terrestrial anuran-eating species, and is found in leaf litter in humid tropical forest.	eng
177550	population	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177550	threats	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. It may be locally threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion, however, due to the wide distribution of this species this cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
177551	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177551	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species occurs in India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. In India, this species is known from the Anaimalai and Cuddapah Hills and Berhampur (Berhampore), Orissa (Sharma 2003). De Silva (1990) only states Jaffna as the known distribution of this species in Sri Lanka. Lastly, this species is known from False Island, off the Arakan coast of Myanmar (Sharma 2003). However, only two specimens have been reported in the last 120 years, the distribution may therefore have changed significantly since the original distribution was recorded.	eng
177551	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits moist and dry forests. In Sri Lanka, its known habitat has been described as "monsoon scrub jungle" (de Silva 1990).	eng
177551	population	de Silva, A., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare. De Silva (1982; in De Silva 1990) also reports it to be rare, since only two specimens have been reported since 1888.	eng
177551	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation pose a threat to this species, as much of its habitat is threatened by agricultural and urban expansion. However, it is not known what impact these threats are having on the species, due to the lack of current records available for this species.	eng
177552	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected area, including Isiboro Secure and Madidi in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
177552	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in lowland areas in the Amazon and upper Orinoco watersheds. The species is known from central Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Cochabamba and La Paz), through Brazil and Peru (including the Rio Ucayali) to eastern Colombia and southern Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana (as far east as Cayenne), and to eastern Para, Brazil. This species is found between sea level and 450 m above sea level.	eng
177552	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This is a nocturnal species which lives in damp lowland forest areas feeding on anurans and insect larvae. The species has also been reported from the Caatinga dry scrub habitat.	eng
177552	population	Embert, D., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177552	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177553	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	While there are protected areas in Indonesia, their protected status is not enforced. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, threats, and population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
177553	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	De Lang and Vogel (2006) believe this species is endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, but further details are not known. De Hass (1950) also lists this species from Halmahera.	eng
177553	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no information on the habitat preference of this species, however, based on its distribution it is likely to inhabit lowland and submontane forest.	eng
177553	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177553	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	The forests of Sulawesi have been almost entirely cleared due to a combination of pressures including unsustainable logging and the conversion of forests to plantation estates (Achmaliadi 2002). As this species' habitat preferences and exact distribution are uncertain<em></em>, it is unknown what impact this threat is having on the species.	eng
177554	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is only known from its type locality. It is recommended that further surveys are carried out to investigate the distribution and population status of the species. Further research into any threats that may be impacting the species should be carried out.	eng
177554	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality Pimampiro, San Nicolas, in the Imbabura province of Ecuador (Kofron 1990). Imbabura has an area of 4,752 km². This species was collected from altitudes between 1,500 and 2,000 m above sea level, but it is not known whether this is the complete elevation range.	eng
177554	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This is a terrestrial species found in dry forest habitats, where annual precipitation levels are below 500 mm (Pérez-Santos and Moreno 1991).	eng
177554	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, where five specimens were collected in 1934 (Kofron 1990).	eng
177554	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Urban and agricultural expansion is occurring within the Imbabura province, however, it is not known what impact this is having on the species.	eng
177555	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats and habitat status to this species is required.	eng
177555	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known from the state of Amazonas in Venezuela. It is thought that the species is known only from its type locality, Tepuy Marahuaca Norte, at 2,500 m, in Estado Amazonas, Venezuela.	eng
177555	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known from montane forest habitat.	eng
177555	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177555	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no threats to this species in this very sparsely populated region of Venezuela.	eng
177556	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into harvesting levels, population, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177556	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is endemic to southern Africa. It is found through most of eastern South Africa, including the separate countries in that area. It is also distributed along the southwest Cape. An isolated population is located in Inyanga, in Zimbabwe next to the Mozambique border. D. Broadley (pers. comm. to Ineich 1996) doubts that this species occurs in Mozambique. This species is found between sea level and 2,500 m above sea level.	eng
177556	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is primarily found in grassland and moist savanna, however, it is also known to occur close to human settlements including large urban centres.	eng
177556	population	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is very common throughout most of its range.	eng
177556	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is collected for the international pet trade, however, this is not considered a major threat.	eng
177557	conservation	Kornacker, P. & Gower, D.J., 2009	The type locality of the species lies within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II National Park. Further research into the threats, ecology, range, and population trends of the species is recommended.	eng
177557	distribution	Kornacker, P. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, Aragua, Venezuela.	eng
177557	habitat	Kornacker, P. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is cryptic and possibly nocturnal, and is found in litter and loose soil (D. Gower pers. comm.). The dominant habitat type in the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier is cloud forest.	eng
177557	population	Kornacker, P. & Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality.	eng
177557	threats	Kornacker, P. & Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Forest fires, both accidental and intentionally lit, encroachment of human population due to illegal settlements in the park, pollution from tourists, and poaching are all considered to be threats to the Henri Pittier National Park. However, it is not known how these factors affect the species. The cloud forest where this species occurs is threatened by future climate change.	eng
177558	conservation	Gower, D.J. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177558	distribution	Gower, D.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, Loma Linda, Departmento de Meta, Colombia.	eng
177558	habitat	Gower, D.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is cryptic and possibly nocturnal. It is found in litter and loose soil.	eng
177558	population	Gower, D.J. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is only known from type locality.	eng
177558	threats	Gower, D.J. & Castro, F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
177559	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring in the area such as the establishment of protected areas. Further research into the species' population, habitat requirements and threats is required to monitor the impact that the conversion of land to coffee plantations is having on the population and the species' range.	eng
177559	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is known to be endemic to the Sidamo Province, in the extreme south of Ethiopia (Broadley and Branch 2002).	eng
177559	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found beneath roadside boulders in open <em>Acacia-Bouleya</em> woodland.	eng
177559	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177559	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is endemic to an area that is threatened by high rates of habitat change due to the expansion of coffee plantations across much of the region. However, it is unlikely that this is causing significant population declines in this species at this time.	eng
177560	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss due to urban expansion, such as the establishment of protected areas. Further research is required into the population and habitat status of this species, as little is known about this species at present.	eng
177560	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Misima Island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the southeast coast of Papua New Guinea. The island has an area of 260 km².	eng
177560	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, it is probably found within forest.	eng
177560	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177560	threats	Allison, A., 2009	Misima Island is the most populated island in the Louisiade Archipelago and areas of remaining forest are threatened by urban expansion. The region has previously been mined, however, this is no longer a threat. The restricted range of this species may present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events	eng
177561	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within the Niassa Game Reserve. Despite this, the species<em></em> is still affected by high rates of human disturbance. Site management is therefore required to limit the resource extraction and incidences of human-induced fire occurring in the area. Due to its restricted range, the population of this species requires regular monitoring.	eng
177561	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is currently known only from the summit and upper slopes of Serra Mecula in the Niassa Game Reserve, northern Mozambique (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is found between an altitude of 600 to 1,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 232 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177561	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species inhabits crevices in granitic rock in bracken-dominated summit grasslands, and in similar rock cracks in dry Miombo woodland on the upper slopes of the mountain.	eng
177561	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177561	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species has a restricted range and is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of human disturbance. Human settlements are not excluded from the Niassa Game Reserve and a district centre occurs on the eastern foothills of Serra Mecula. As a consequence the evergreen forest patches on the summit and surrounding river valleys suffer from high levels of resource extraction from the burgeoning human population. The incidence of human-induced fire in the reserve is also very high, much higher than natural fire regimes. In 2002, only 48% of the reserve was unaffected by fire (Branch <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
177562	conservation	Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested. Improved captive breeding strategies may help in reducing the pressure from the pet trade.	eng
177562	distribution	Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species has a wide distribution from Sudan and Uganda across central Africa and throughout west Africa to Senegal.	eng
177562	habitat	Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species inhabits dry areas, from grassland to open forests. It can also be found in agricultural land. This species is an important species for rodent pest control.	eng
177562	population	Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177562	threats	Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., 2009	Locally, this species is poached for meat and leather. However, their biggest threat is the international pet trade. In West Africa, many thousands are captured annually and exported. In 1998, Walls states in some areas of western Africa it is likely that repeated loss of clutches to the pet trade may be leading to local extirpation of the species (Walls 1998). Captive breeding activities were thought to provide a degree of protection for this species, however, it was found that captive breeding does not confer any significant conservation benefit on the species (Jenkins 1998).	eng
177563	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, habitat preferences and potential threats to this species are required.	eng
177563	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species has a restricted distribution in the Helmeringhausen area of the northeastern Bethanie District in Namibia. It is only known from Lovedale, Barby, and Kunjas Farms. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,746 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177563	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found in rocky, arid savanna.	eng
177563	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177563	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process (Branch 1998).	eng
177565	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177565	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of New Britain off the coast of Papua New Guinea. New Britain has an area of 35,145 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 760 and 1,070 m above sea level.	eng
177565	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	Species of this genus.are usually found in association with freshwater, within rainforest, open or cultivated country, or even towns (O'Shea 1996). They may inhabit pool edges, slow rivers, swamps, creeks and drainage ditches. They are unusual in their apparent resistance to the toxin of the introduced, and now widespread, South American Cane Toad, <em>Bufo marinus</em>.	eng
177565	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177565	threats	Allison, A., 2009	Deforestation for agricultural purposes is occurring at a rapid rate in New Britain, which potentially impacts all forest-dependent species in this region. For this species, large tracts of forest remain intact because of the steep karst topography. Deforestation can therefore not be considered a major threat to this species at present.	eng
177566	conservation	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, there are many protected areas within its distribution range	eng
177566	distribution	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species is known from the states of Amazonas, Rondonia, Mato Grosso and Para in Brazil , in Departamento Pando in Bolivia and in Departamento Cuzco in Peru.	eng
177566	habitat	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species was captured both in rainforests and in pastures at Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia state, Brazil. It is nocturnal, semi-arboreal and feeds on lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177566	population	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	<p>The species was relatively common at Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia state, Brazil (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>	eng
177566	threats	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation and the impacts of mining.	eng
177567	conservation	Doan, T.M. & Nunez, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177567	distribution	Doan, T.M. & Nunez, H., 2009	This species is found in Chile, from Copiapo (Región de Atacama) south to Puerto Montt (on the mainland) and Chiloe Island (X region).	eng
177567	habitat	Doan, T.M. & Nunez, H., 2009	This species is a diurnal hunter which feeds on anurans and lizards. This species has been found in bunch-grass meadows, in open short-grass pastures, and on agricultural land.	eng
177567	population	Doan, T.M. & Nunez, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177567	threats	Doan, T.M. & Nunez, H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177568	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	The Department of Environment and Conservation, NSW, has identified eleven priority actions to help recover the species in New South Wales. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species are needed.	eng
177568	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Australia. It is found in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. In New South Wales this species is found within an area bounded by Crookwell in the north, Bombala in the south, Tumbarumba to the west and Braidwood to the east.<br/><br/>The New South Wales and South Australian parts of this species' distribution are geographically disjunct from the much more extensive distribution in Victoria. In South Australia, apart from a small area near the Victorian border (continuous with the Victorian population), it is confined to Kangaroo Island and the Mt Lofty Ranges, near Adelaide (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
177568	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in various habitats from sclerophyll forest to grassland to coastal heath. Most specimens of this species have been found under rocks or logs lying on, or partially embedded in the soil (NSW Government 2005).	eng
177568	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is reported to be common and easily located (Turner 1998), however, this only applies to the geographically widespread Victorian population. In New South Wales, this species is very difficult to find and has only been commonly found at a single locality (Bungendore) near the Australian Capital Territory, from where it has now apparently disappeared or declined (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
177568	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	In areas of its range, this species is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation caused by the clearing of land for residential, agricultural and industrial developments. The removal of rocks and fallen timber is also having an impact on this species as well as changed fire regimes, feral animals and domestic dogs and cats which prey upon this species (NSW Government 2005). These threats are localized threats only and are not thought to be causing significant declines to the global population of this species.	eng
177569	conservation	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measure in place for this species<em></em>. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
177569	distribution	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is endemic to New South Wales and can be found on the coast and in the ranges from Newnes Plateaux south to Merimbula.	eng
177569	habitat	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species prefers dry sclerophyll forests, woodlands and heaths with tussock ground cover. However, it is also found within highly developed urban areas.	eng
177569	population	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has been reported as very abundant (Hoser 1991).	eng
177569	threats	Shine R.A. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species.	eng
177570	conservation	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, there are many protected areas within its distribution range (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177570	distribution	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This species is known from Brazil (from the states of Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul) and from Misiones in Argentina.	eng
177570	habitat	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	This is a diurnal, terrestrial species which feeds on mammals, snakes and lizards (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). It has a clutch size of 4-7 eggs, and is found in subtropical rainforests, especially in mixed <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria </span>forests. In general, species of this genus are capable of maintaining viable populations in disturbed areas (M. Martins pers. comm.).	eng
177570	population	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177570	threats	Martins, M., Alencar, L.R.V. & Gaiarsa, M.P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> forests have been highly exploited for resources and through logging. Although much of the deforestation ended in the 1970s, only 3.1% of the original forest area remains. However, habitat degradation cannot be considered a major threat to this species because it is capable of maintaining viable populations in disturbed areas.	eng
177571	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within this species' range, including the Phong Nha Nature Reserve in Viet Nam (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (G. Zug pers. comm.). Research on the habitat degradation in the area in which this species is distributed should be carried out in case the threat becomes more widespread, possibly causing significant population declines.	eng
177571	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is distributed from India, Nepal and across Southeast Asia to Viet Nam, and is also reported from Taiwan and the Chinese province of Yunnan (Bain<em> et al.</em> 2007, Pope 1934). Although it had also been reported from Jeju Island, South Korea, tests showed that the specimens actually belonged to <em>S. chinensis</em> (Kim and Oh 2006).	eng
177571	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species occurs in mountain areas in evergreen forest and occasionally deciduous forest (Inger and Cowell 1977) and in rocky, uncultivated land (Schleich and Kästle 2002).	eng
177571	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is reportedly fairly common (Sharma 2003).	eng
177571	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	In some areas, this species is likely experiencing habitat loss or degradation, however, this should not be considered a major threat at this time because it is not widespread throughout its range.	eng
177572	conservation	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in many places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
177572	distribution	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V. , 2009	This species is found in eastern Brazil, from Rio Grande do Sul north to Bahia.	eng
177572	habitat	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V. , 2009	This species is a semi-arboreal, diurnal species which has been collected on the border of primary forest habitat. Species of the same genus have been collected in the Atlantic Forest.	eng
177572	population	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177572	threats	Martins, M. & Vettorazzo, V. , 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177573	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177573	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species has a small distribution and is comprised of two subspecies with discrete ranges. <em>P. pungweensis pungweensis</em> occurs in the eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. <em>P. p. blakeii</em> is found on South Manica Platform in central Mozambique.	eng
177573	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found on low rock outcrops and large hills in mesic savanna.	eng
177573	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species has been described as common by Branch (1998).	eng
177573	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177574	conservation	Shine R.A., 2009	This species is listed as Rare in Queensland and Vulnerable in New South Wales. Part of its range coincides within protected areas but large, undisturbed areas of forest need to be established and managed if this large predator is to be conserved. Further research into the threats, and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177574	distribution	Shine R.A., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution from the central coast of New South Wales to southeastern Queensland in eastern Australia and has an (uncertain) estimated extent of occurrence of just over 30,000 km².	eng
177574	habitat	Shine R.A., 2009	This species is only found in dense forests and requires large contiguous areas of habitat. Individuals depend on hollow trees (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2005) and find it hard to migrate between isolated patches of forest (Keogh <em>et al</em>. 2003). This species feeds very rarely and has a low reproductive rate. It is therefore unlikely to recover well from disturbance (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
177574	population	Shine R.A., 2009	Keogh <em>et al</em>. (2003) stated that this species has undergone considerable declines over recent decades. Many local subpopulations have been extirpated and now only one northern population and three southern populations remain.	eng
177574	threats	Shine R.A., 2009	Timber harvesting, clearance for agriculture and urban development are the reasons for severe declines in the coastal forests which this species inhabits. The remaining forests are highly fragmented because of this (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em>. 2002), and they are also threatened by fire.	eng
177576	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and threats to this species is required.	eng
177576	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality of Tepuy Corocoro, collected at 2,150 m, in Estado Bolivar, Venezuela.	eng
177576	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	The type locality is in a montane forest habitat.	eng
177576	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177576	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	The type was collected in a remote and very sparsely populated area of Venezuela, therefore there are no threats acting on the habitat and no known threats directly impacting the species.	eng
177577	conservation	Barrio-Amorós, C. & La Marca, E., 2009	The species is known from the Península de Paria National Park, IUCN category II. Further research on the distribution of this species is required.	eng
177577	distribution	Barrio-Amorós, C. & La Marca, E., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, from the trail between Las Melenas and Cerro Humo, at 800 m elevation, Peninsula de Paria, Estado Sucre, Venezuela. The area of cloud forest in which the species was found has an area of approximately 600 km². The surrounding area is dry scrubland habitat, and it is assumed that the species is restricted to the forest habitat.	eng
177577	habitat	Barrio-Amorós, C. & La Marca, E., 2009	This species is known from cloud forest habitat. The cloud forest in which the species is found is surrounded by humid scrubland, and it is assumed that the species is restricted to the forest habitat.	eng
177577	population	Barrio-Amorós, C. & La Marca, E., 2009	This species is known only from its holotype.	eng
177577	threats	Barrio-Amorós, C. & La Marca, E., 2009	Encroaching human population has resulted in degradation of the natural habitat, especially at lower elevations; conversion of land to agriculture, which is done in the traditional way, involving clearing and burning of the vegetation before cultivation, is one of the major factors causing degradation of the habitat in this region. The type locality itself, however, is in a protected area&#160;(Parque Nacional Panínsula de Paria). Cloud forests have also been highlighted as a habitat particularly vulnerable to climate change, though some studies are starting to question whether the impact of climate change might be positive in some cloud forest areas due to increased humidity (E. La Marca pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177578	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in protected areas within its range. Research into the population and habitat status of this species should take place as threat levels may increase in the future and cause significant population declines.	eng
177578	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G. , 2009	This species is reported from the former Pegu region of southern Myanmar (Boulenger 1890) which now encompasses the Bago, Yangon and Ayeyarwady districts. It also occurs in Thailand where it is only known from mangroves in Ranong Province, near the border to the extreme south of Myanmar (O. Pauwels pers. comm.).	eng
177578	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G. , 2009	This species is a brackish water dweller that inhabits tidal forests (G. Zug and O. Pauwels pers. comm.2010).	eng
177578	population	Pauwels, O.S.G. , 2009	This species can be common in suitable habitat (G. Zug and O. Pauwels pers. comms. 2010).	eng
177578	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G. , 2009	The habitat of this species is threatened by deforestation due to the encroachment of agriculture, illegal logging, and general overexploitation of mangrove forest resources by a growing human population.	eng
177579	conservation	Bain, R.H. & and Hallerman, J., 2009	This species was considered a Least Concern species for the 1998 China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals using the 1994 Categories and Criteria for a regional assessment (Zhao 1998). There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population trends, biology, ecology and range of this species are recommended.	eng
177579	distribution	Bain, R.H. & and Hallerman, J., 2009	This species is known to occur in the northen mountains, lowlands and offshore islands of Viet Nam. Zhao (1998) reports that it is known from Guangxi and Hunan in China.	eng
177579	habitat	Bain, R.H. & and Hallerman, J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits pristine, moist montane and lowland forests.	eng
177579	population	Bain, R.H. & and Hallerman, J., 2009	Zhao (1998) states this species is very rare.	eng
177579	threats	Bain, R.H. & and Hallerman, J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
177580	conservation	Auliya, M. & Vogel, G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Due to taxonomic uncertainties research into the taxonomy of this species is suggested. Further research into the population numbers, range and habitat preferences of this species is suggested.	eng
177580	distribution	Auliya, M. & Vogel, G., 2009	This species is endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia (How and Kitchener 1997). It may only inhabit the island of Flores, but it has been suggested that it might also occur on Sumba and Semau (Natas 2005).	eng
177580	habitat	Auliya, M. & Vogel, G., 2009	Based upon its distribution, it is likely to inhabit the monsoon forest of the Lesser Sunda Islands.	eng
177580	population	Auliya, M. & Vogel, G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177580	threats	Auliya, M. & Vogel, G., 2009	This species is likely to be undergoing habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. Forests in this region are experiencing ongoing deforestation as a result of clear-cutting and selective logging as well as expanding agricultural activity, and on islands such as Sumba most forests are disturbed. However, as the exact distribution of this species is not known major threats remain unknown.	eng
177581	conservation	Stafford, P.J., 2009	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population status and threats are needed for this species.	eng
177581	distribution	Stafford, P.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Guatemala and is known only from its type locality on the Chamelco trail which is 10 km from southern Cobán, Alta Verapaz. It is found up to 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
177581	habitat	Stafford, P.J., 2009	This species occurs in pine forests along streams, or gallery forest.	eng
177581	population	Stafford, P.J., 2009	Only one specimen, collected in 1940, is known for this species.	eng
177581	threats	Stafford, P.J., 2009	The threats to this species are currently not known.	eng
177582	conservation	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177582	distribution	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is known from only a few collection localities in the Serra do Espinhaço region, in the state of Minas Gerais, in Brazil. This species has been reported from two disjunct locations, separated by approximately 200 km. No new specimens have been collected since this species was first described. The two disjunct areas of distribution from which this species is known total 5,187 km², but the estimated extent of occurrence is approximately 15,300 km²<sup></sup>. It is possible that this species has a wider distribution in the higher altitudes of Minas Gerais than is currently known (S. Morato pers. comm.).	eng
177582	habitat	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species has been found in montane fields ('Campos Rupestres') and in Atlantic Forest habitats. The area around the type locality consists of Cerrado savanna on the lower slopes and montane fields at higher elevations.	eng
177582	population	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177582	threats	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	Habitat degradation as a result of forest clearance for expansion of cattle ranching, logging for timber and charcoal are resulting in a fragmented landscape which threatens the Atlantic Forests of this area. The Campos Rupestres habitat is relatively undisturbed, although agricultural and urban expansion are potential future threats to the region.	eng
177583	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into its biology, ecology, abundance and range, habitat status, and threats is needed to identify the impact of deforestation on this species.	eng
177583	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species inhabits Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002) in Borneo. There are no records from identifiable localities available.	eng
177583	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	Based upon its known distribution, the habitat of this species is presumed to be tropical moist forest. As distributional information past the state level is not known, it is unknown if this species inhabits lowland forests, montane forests, or both. This snake is fossorial (Inger and Voris 2001).	eng
177583	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177583	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	Deforestation due to shifting cultivation, commercial agriculture, and logging pose a threat to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. However, as this species is fossorial, it is unknown if it is severely threatened by such habitat loss and degradation.	eng
177584	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
177584	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is regarded as common in sub-Saharan&#160;Africa, it has been found as far north as Senegal and as far south as northeast South Africa (Spawls<em> et al.</em> 2002). Trape (2005) reports this species as far west as Senegal and Guinea.	eng
177584	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is most commonly found in well-wooded savanna or riverine forest, especially in areas with an abundance of rocky hills and big trees. It can also be found in coastal bush, moist and dry savanna and woodland. This species is predominantly found on the ground, however, it is also arboreal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
177584	population	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is reported to be widespread in locations with suitable habitats. In areas with few records this can be attributed to undercollecting rather then low abundance (Spawls <em>et al.</em>2002)	eng
177584	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Black Mambas are shy animals and prefer to stay away from human contact. Human population expansion into its habitat could therefore constitute a potential threat to this species. However, the extent of its range throughout much of Africa means that this should not be considered a serious threat.	eng
177585	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177585	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in southern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina (in the states of Misiones, Formosa and Corrientes), Brazil (in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul), and Uruguay.	eng
177585	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	<p>The predominant habitat type in the species' range is savanna. This species occurs in grasslands, shrublands, savannas and forests (including <span style="font-style: italic;">Araucaria</span> mixed forests) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). It’s a terrestrial species which may be active both by day and at night. It feeds on slugs (mostly) and snails and its clutch size is three to seven eggs (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
177585	population	Martins, M., 2009	Parera (2004) reports this species as rare in Corrientes, Argentina. On the other hand, it was one of the commonest snake species at two sites in Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (Outeiral 2005, Wink <em>et al. </em>2007).	eng
177585	threats	Martins, M., 2009	<p>Although there are local threats resulting in habitat destruction, throughout its distribution, this species is able to persist in disturbed habitats. It is commonly found in perianthropic areas.</p>	eng
177586	conservation	Nogueira, C. , 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177586	distribution	Nogueira, C. , 2009	This species is known from Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, Entre Rios and Santa Fé) and south and southeast of Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo) (F. Franco pers. comm).	eng
177586	habitat	Nogueira, C. , 2009	This species is found in lowland areas near water in grasslands and on emergent and marginal vegetation. This species eats mainly frogs, but has also been recorded to consume rodents, fish and lizards.	eng
177586	population	Nogueira, C. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177586	threats	Nogueira, C. , 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
177587	conservation	Hallermann, J., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. The species needs further research into its distribution and population.	eng
177587	distribution	Hallermann, J., 2009	This species is known from the southern Philippines, Maluku, Sulawesi, and New Guinea. Specimens of this species have been collected at 909 m above sea level.	eng
177587	habitat	Hallermann, J., 2009	This fossorial species is found in forests that are minimally, as well as moderately, disturbed, as well as in wooded grassland and coconut groves.	eng
177587	population	Hallermann, J., 2009	Dibamids are not found very often because of their fossorial habit. However, Greer (1985) found an unusually large collection of this species at Mount Canlao on Negros Island in the Philippines.	eng
177587	threats	Hallermann, J., 2009	There are no direct threats to this species.	eng
177588	conservation	Adolphs, K., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is harvested from the wild for the pet trade, but is not listed on CITES. Trade management is required to ensure that high harvesting levels do not continue to cause a decline in its population. Due to its restricted range, regular monitoring of the population is also required.	eng
177588	distribution	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found in northeast Zimbabwe and adjacent Mozambique. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 11,547 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177588	habitat	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is found in mesic savanna.	eng
177588	population	Adolphs, K., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177588	threats	Adolphs, K., 2009	This species is threatened by over-collecting for the pet trade (Branch 1998). It is very difficult to breed this species in captivity, with the first successful hatchings having taken place at San Diego Zoo in 1999 (Gray-Lovich 2005).	eng
177814	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are currently no direct conservation measures in place for this species, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the species' population status and ecology is recommended, as is population monitoring.	eng
177814	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is mainly distributed in Cameroon, but its range also includes small areas of Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
177814	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species occurs in forests and is dependent on large, old trees (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
177814	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	While the abundance of this species is not known, it is thought its specific habitat preferences may contribute to a patchy distribution (LeBreton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
177814	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is likely experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to logging and agricultural expansion in Cameroon (Gartshore 1986). This habitat loss may be compounded by its habitat requirement for large, mature trees, few of which remain in exploited areas.	eng
177816	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment of protected areas may benefit this and other species, particularly since high human pressures are acting on Madagascar's natural environment.	eng
177816	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs across southern and western Madagascar, in Mahajanga and Toliara (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
177816	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits spiny thicket and deciduous forests (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). It is active by night and shelters under bark or rocks during the day (Köhler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
177816	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177816	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Habitat degradation is affecting the range of this species, specifically through deforestation for agriculture and plantations and especially in coastal areas which are cleared and developed. In 2000, it was estimated that Madagascar retained less than 10% of its primary vegetation (Myers <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2000). However, this species is not restricted to primary and undisturbed habitat that is becoming rare in  west and south-west Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177817	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population should be undertaken.	eng
177817	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is known from southeastern China, the main island of Taiwan, Lanyu Island, and southern Japan, including the Ryukyu Archipelago and all other island groups between Taiwan and the southernmost tip of Kyushu (Ota 1989). Chou (1999) also reports that this species is present on Lutao Island, in Taiwan. This species is found up to 1,300 m above sea level (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
177817	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species is a small, nocturnal, arboreal, insectivorous gecko. It is found in the marginal portions of subtropical and temperate forests, shrubs and other secondary vegetation, rocky outcrops, and uninhabited buildings (Ota 1989, Okada <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2002, H. Ota pers. comm. 2010). Chou (1999) reports that a specimen was found on a rock in a dry stream in subtropical forest.	eng
177817	population	Ota, H., 2009	This species is common in most of its range (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
177817	threats	Ota, H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177818	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.	eng
177818	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species must once have been common all along the west coast of New Caledonia. Historically, individuals have been collected from 10 locations between Noumea and Paita. Another collection has been made 63 km further north on "Ile Isié", a small island of La Foa region. The only other collection was made 108 km north from Nepoui in the Poya region. <em>Ancistrachne numaeensis</em> has also been mentioned from Ile des Pins. However, it is suspected that the species has now disappeared from most of these locations, especially those between Noumea and Paita, because of human activities. There may be no more than five living subpopulations remaining today.	eng
177818	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.<br/><br/>Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of <em>A. numaeensis</em> are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have probably eradicated all potential habitats for this species.	eng
177818	population	Hequet, V., 2007	When present, this species forms dense small bushes that can be common or scarce but are usually confined to small surfaces. This pattern can be due to poor long distance dispersal or to vegetative reproduction by suckers. Considering the distances between locations (respectively 63 and 108 km), there might not be much genetic exchange. Most collections date from the 1970s and 1980s; the last herbarium collection was made in 1993 from the subpopulation in Pindai. It is probable that some, if not most, of the subpopulations recorded in the 1980's have disappeared, especially those located around Noumea.	eng
177818	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	This species probably used to be common around Noumea where intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its potential available habitats. It is suspected that most of the historically recorded locations have now disappeared. Away from the city, the major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177819	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The presence of this wild rice has motivated the creation of a 32 ha reserve to protect the Tiéa subpopulation (Pouembout).	eng
177819	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species only occurs in the northern half of New Caledonia. It is known from one location in Pouembout in the fenced reserve of Tiea (with some individuals outside), and two in Poum in the banks of Nehoue river and in Ougne forest. The distance between the site of Pouembout and those of Poum is 110 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 785 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 6 km².	eng
177819	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species inhabits tropical dry forests which are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Inside its habitat, <em>Oryza neocaledonica</em> is usually found along river banks or valley. It regenerates well but it is always intensively grazed (J-M Veillon pers. comm.).	eng
177819	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. There are only four known subpopulations, even though surveys have been carried out for this species. When present, individuals form small bushes that can be common or scarce but are usually confined over small surfaces. This pattern can be due to poor long distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers. The Pouembout subpopulation is small with a few scattered individuals; the Nehoue subpopulation consists of many individuals distributed all along the stream. The last location is known only from the herbarium collection. Because of the distance between sites, there may not be much genetic exchange between subpopulations, especially if <em>Oryza neocaledonica</em> is autogamous, as is the cultivated rice.	eng
177819	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177820	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
177820	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in the Noumea and Paita region and is also recorded from Boulouparis, Koné and Koumac. Distances between the known sites are respectively, from south to north: 60, 147 and 80 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,092 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 36 km².	eng
177820	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177820	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. The species is known to occur in seven distinct locations where it always occurs as rare and scattered individuals. Each of the locations is known from a single herbarium collection. Distances between sites probably compromise genetic exchanges between some, if not most, subpopulations but no studies have been made to evaluate gene flow.	eng
177820	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177822	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
177822	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species must once have been present all along west coast of New Caledonia. Today it is recorded only from remnant dry forests of la Foa, Bourail, Poya, Pouembout and Koumac. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,131 km², and the estimated area occupied by the species within this range is 40 km².	eng
177822	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177822	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. Depending on the site, this species has been found as single individuals or it can form small subpopulations made of scattered individuals. It is never abundant.	eng
177822	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177823	conservation	Daniels, R.J.R., 2009	This species (under the synonym <em>Hemiphyllodactylus typus aurantiacus</em>) was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
177823	distribution	Daniels, R.J.R., 2009	This species inhabits the Nilgiri and Anaimalai Hills of the Western Ghats and the Shevaroy (Shevarayan) and Kolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats where it occurs primarily at higher elevations (Bauer and Das 1999). It has also been reported from Bangalore, which Bauer and Das (1999) consider to be an introduced population, especially as this gecko is found around human habitation and could have been transported easily. However, R. Daniels (pers. comm.) does not believe that its occurrence in Bangalore is due to introduction; Bangalore is just a northward extension of some of the south Indian hills (e.g., Kolli Hills, Sheverayan Hills), so that it is likely that the species occurs naturally in Bangalore.<br/><br/>Bauer and Das (1999) consider this species likely to have a wider distribution than is currently recognized.<br/><br/>R. Daniels (pers. comm.) reports that he has only ever observed this species over 900 m above sea level.	eng
177823	habitat	Daniels, R.J.R., 2009	This species inhabits both moist and dry montane forests, where it can be found among rocks or under stones by daytime. This species may also be found around human habitation, including on buildings (Bauer and Das 1999).	eng
177823	population	Daniels, R.J.R., 2009	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "undeterminate, rare". R. Daniels (pers. comm.) also suggests that this species is 'very rare'.	eng
177823	threats	Daniels, R.J.R., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation due to fire, agricultural practices, infrastructure development and human disturbance may be locally affecting this species. However, as this species has a wide range in the Western and Eastern Ghats, and is known to inhabit anthropogenic structures, these threats are not thought to be causing significant declines to its global population numbers at present.<br/><br/>Hills above 900 m are very localized in southern India and therefore the population of this species may be highly fragmented and isolated (R. Daniels pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species may also be under competitive threats from the more widespread house geckos that may even prey on this species (R. Daniels pers. comm.).	eng
177824	conservation	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. A taxonomic revision of this species is required. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
177824	distribution	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is known from 'temperate climate elevations' on the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental, state of Cundinamarca, Colombia. The type was recorded at 1,600 m. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,651 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177824	habitat	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is found in montane dry forest habitat.	eng
177824	population	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177824	threats	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	Much of the original forest cover has gone from this heavily populated region, and what patches remain are highly fragmented. Feral goats, which were introduced in the 1500s, are further degrading the remaining patches of natural habitat in this area.	eng
177826	conservation	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	The threat status of this species, as listed by the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005), is 'Gradual Decline', with a 'Human Induced' qualifier.<br/><br/>It is listed by the Government of New Zealand on CITES Appendix III. At the 12th Conference of Parties (CITES 2002), it was proposed that all endemic New Zealand geckos be listed on Appendix II.<br/><br/>Better management of protected reserves is needed to stop poaching of this species. Further research into the habitat status, threats and harvest levels of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177826	distribution	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	This species is endemic to the southeast of the South Island of New Zealand. Two main populations of this species exist, on the Otago Peninsula and Banks Peninsula, but specimens may also be found in the region linking these two areas (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). The extent of occurrence is over 50,000 km²<sup></sup> but its distribution within this area is severely fragmented (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010, Jewell and McQueen 2007) giving a much smaller inferred area of occupancy.	eng
177826	habitat	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	Active during the day and on warm evenings in summer, this dryland gecko is found in a large variety of vegetation types, but usually prefers scrub-type bushes such as manuka, matagouri and mingi-mingi (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). The species has persisted in habitats which have rocky sites of refuge against fire (Jewell and McQueen 2007).	eng
177826	population	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	Declines in this species were noted from the subpopulation in a reserve on Otago Peninsula (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).&#160;The only strong holds are on the Otago and Canterbury peninsula's; the areas in between (on the mainland) have few existing populations at very low numbers (K. Hare pers. comm. 2010). The populations in beech forest near the Southern Alps, are considered safe from habitat destruction and poaching but not from the impacts of introduced mammalian predators, which have population&#160;irruptions in beechmast years&#160;(R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).	eng
177826	threats	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	Habitat degradation of dry shrubland due to grazing, browsing, burning and herbicides is a major threat to this species.<br/><br/>Although all geckos in New Zealand are protected by law under New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953, they continue to be threatened by introduced predators including rats, weasels, stoats, ferrets, cats and possums, as well as by habitat destruction (New Zealand Department of Conservation 2006). More than two thirds of the native forest has been cleared since colonisation of the islands, though over the last century most habitat loss and degradation has been limited to localized land development, or the clearance of secondary habitat. The effects of introduced predators are likely to have become the dominant threat in many areas. Certainly, the threat is more pervasive. <br/><br/>New Zealand's endemic geckos are reported to be "appearing on the international market at numbers far exceeding the breeding capacity of the captive population" (CITES 2002). It is thought that these specimens, of unknown provenance, are evidence of an expanding illegal trade of wild specimens. Some individuals are obtaining very high market values, of up to US$15,000 per individual. It is known that this has been responsible for at least one population decline in this species. This has occurred in an Otago Peninsula reserve, where a predator fence excludes cats, mustelids and rodents (except for mice), but poaching is frequent.<br/><br/>Mouse irruptions have been known to have had severe impacts on lizard populations in parts of New Zealand and specimens of this species have been seen injured. Pindone baits laid for rabbit control are also thought to cause mortality in species of this genus; however, these threats are localized to a reserve on Otago Peninsula (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010)	eng
177827	conservation	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	This species occurs in the Stephens Island Wildlife Sanctuary. Stephens Island has an area of 1.5 km²<sup></sup>. More generally, approximately 30% of New Zealand's landmass is protected (CITES 2002). A 20 metre wide coastal reserve runs around the entire Marlborough Sounds coastline, providing a corridor for migration and the maintenance of metapopulation structure (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>The threat status of this species is currently listed as 'Sparse' by the New Zealand Department of Conservation (Hitchmough <em>et al</em>. 2005), though with 'Data Poor' and 'Human Induced' qualifiers. It is listed by the Government of New Zealand on CITES Appendix III. At the 12th Conference of Parties (CITES 2002), it was proposed that all endemic New Zealand geckos be listed on Appendix II.<br/><br/>The species is part of a relocation programme. Research into its distribution, population and harvest levels is recommended in order to establish whether this species qualifies for a category of Near Threatened or higher.	eng
177827	distribution	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	This species is found in the Marlborough area as well as on some of the Cook Strait and Marlborough Sounds Islands (New Zealand Herpetological Society, 2006). Very little is known of its distribution on the mainland; it may be present in many areas (K. Hare pers. comm. 2010). From current information, the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,329 km²<sup></sup> and there are far more than ten known localities within this range (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In 1998, fourteen individuals were translocated from Arapawa Island onto the predator-free island of Motuara as part of the island's restoration programme (Armstrong 2006). In 2003, 44 individuals (juveniles and adults) were translocated from Stephens Island to Wakaterepapanui Island (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
177827	habitat	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	This species is found in low compact shrubs such as manuka and kanuka, and also in the dense small-leaved shrubs such as <em>Coprosma</em> and <em>Muehlenbekia</em> (New Zealand Herpetological Society 2006). It is also found in forest (Gill <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/>A detailed survey of the reptiles of Stephens Island revealed that this species resides only in the vineland and scrub habitat on the island, and not in the grass and climax shrub habitat (East <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>A further survey of the species from 1978-2005 reveals that it uses most (if not all) vegetation, and makes use of new vegetation as it becomes available. Although it does not specifically reside in grass, it does use it to cross areas to new vegetation (Hare <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is diurnal and active throughout the day, with limited movements (average 0.6 m/day) (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
177827	population	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	On Stephens Island, this species was estimated to represent just 3% of the reptilian fauna, based on the encounter frequency and the extent of its preferred habitat (East <em>et al.</em> 1995).  Population density on Stephens Island is estimated at 0.05 geckos per m²<sup></sup> (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>More widely, this species is thought to have a very fragmented range (CITES 2002).	eng
177827	threats	Hare, K. & Hitchmough, R., 2009	Although all geckos in New Zealand are protected by law under New Zealand's Wildlife Act of 1953, they continue to be threatened by introduced predators including rats, weasels, stoats, ferrets, cats and possums and by habitat destruction (New Zealand Department of Conservation 2006). The latter was likely the dominant process responsible for the currently fragmented distribution of this species, with more than two thirds of the native forest cleared since colonisation of the islands by Polynesians and, subsequently, Europeans; however, over the last century most habitat loss and degradation has been limited to localized land development, or the clearance of secondary habitat. The effects of introduced predators are likely to have become the dominant threat in many areas over the years, but as this species is distributed on various islands unaffected by invasive species it is unknown what impact this is having on the global population of the species.<br/><br/>It is also reported that suitable habitat is still extremely widespread and largely continuous in the Marlborough Sounds and further suitable habitat has become available through the abandonment of financially non-viable sheep farms which are now regenerating to shrubland. It is also questionable whether populations of this species are truly fragmented or the apparent fragmentation is due to very limited search effort (R. Hitchmough pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>New Zealand's endemic geckos are reported to be "appearing on the international market at numbers far exceeding the breeding capacity of the captive population" (CITES 2002). It is thought that these specimens, of unknown provenance, are evidence of an expanding illegal trade of wild specimens. Some individuals are fetching very high market values, of up to US$15,000 per individual. It is known that this has been responsible for at least one population decline (of <em>N. gemmeus</em>), but it is not known what impact this is having on this species.	eng
177829	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are a number of protected areas in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, but this network is still considered inadequate for the effective conservation of the endemics to the region (BirdLife International 2006). As a result, population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177829	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits the Andaman and Nicobar islands which have a total land area of 8,120 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
177829	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is able to inhabit highly modified environments. It has been recorded in gardens containing smooth palms and plantain trees, as well as in and around human habitation (Whitaker and Whitaker 1978, Sharma 2002, Daniel 2002). It has also been found in peepal, papaya, and occasionally exotic street trees (Whitaker and Whitaker 1978).	eng
177829	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Sharma (2002) states that the overall population status of this species is undetermined, but it is common in many localities.	eng
177829	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The Nicobar and Andaman Islands have been and continue to be deforested, leading to extensive grasslands in certain areas (Khatri 1993). The main drivers are clearance for cash crops and monoculture plantations. The Andaman and Nicobar islands were also hit by the Asian Tsunami of 2004. The effect of the influx of salt-water and wreckage into the interior of islands is yet to be assessed (BirdLife International 2006).	eng
177830	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177830	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Grand Comoro in the Republic of Comoros.	eng
177830	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species can be found in disturbed habitats, including around human dwellings in towns. It has also frequently been found in banana plantations.	eng
177830	population	Ineich, I., 2009	It has been hypothesized that this species could reach densities of up to several thousand individuals per hectare (CITES 2007).	eng
177830	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is taken from the wild for use in the international pet trade. It is known to be harvested around the town of Maweni in the north of the island. However, since the annual export level for this species is relatively low (between 2000 and 2003, 7,802 individuals were exported out of Comoro Island), the pet trade cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
177831	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it likely occurs in protected areas within its range. More research is needed to establish the full range of this species.	eng
177831	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	Historically this species was considered restricted to Myanmar and Thailand, however, recently specimens have been captured in the Mizoram, northern India and it is considered likely that surveys would also find it in regions in between (Pawar and Biswas 2001). This species has also been recorded in Viet Nam and Cambodia.	eng
177831	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	The two most recent reports of this species occurred in an area of unfragmented, mature evergreen forest, near a dirt track, and on a human dwelling in an area of mosaic bamboo patches, remnant forest and plantations (Parwar and Biswas 2001). It is inactive during the day, increasing in activity in the evening.	eng
177831	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	While there are reports that this species is rare (Sharma 2003), it is suggested that its tree-top habitat and nocturnal activity may make it simply rarely seen (Pawar and Biswas 2001).	eng
177831	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is likely undergoing habitat degradation and loss in parts of its range due to deforestation and agricultural expansion. However, due to its apparent flexible habitat requirements and wide distribution, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
177832	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Los Haitises National Park and the Del Este National Park. Research into the effect of threats on the population is recommended.	eng
177832	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Cuba, where it occurs from Villa Clara to Las Tunas, including the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Hedges and Garrido 1993).	eng
177832	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is xerophilic and is known to occur in woods, scrub, dry pastures, and on limestone ridges and buildings.	eng
177832	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177832	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	The eastern Dominican Republic is one of the most rapidly developing areas on Hispaniola; however, it is not known what impact these developments are having on the species<em></em>. This species has been known to inhabit buildings, and therefore may be able to tolerate a certain degree of urban expansion within its range. However, larger development programmes, such as the development of resort hotels, are likely to cause localized threats to this species.	eng
177833	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be implemented to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.	eng
177833	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in three localities, on the Isla de la Juventud and the Canarreos archipelago, Cuba. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 2,400 km².	eng
177833	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is a mesophilic species which is found in broadleaf forest under surface debris.	eng
177833	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177833	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss due to the rapidly increasing tourism development in the Archipíelago de los Canarreos, especially on Cayo Largo, where a number of large-capacity hotels have been constructed in recent years. Further development is likely. Also, sea level rise and increased storm intensity due to climate change could affect the low-elevation range of this species in the future.<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
177837	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present. Surveys targeting this species are needed.	eng
177837	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from a single collection made in Nakutakoin (Dumbea district) in a patch of 3 km² of degraded dry forest (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 3 km²). This collection dates back to 1992 and the species hasn't been observed since.	eng
177837	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests were probably characteristic of Noumea and its suburbs a century ago; they are now represented by a few relict and highly disturbed patches. The site where <em>C. neocaledonica</em> was recorded only once is impacted by grazing and trampling of cattle, deer and pigs. The understorey is extremely clear because most regeneration is consumed. The patch of forest is relatively isolated and there are few possibilities that the species is found elsewhere.	eng
177837	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In its only known locations, <em>C. neocaledonica</em> is known from a single individual collected in 1992. The species was searched for without success in 2007. It may already be extinct.	eng
177837	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The only known specimen was collected in a patch of dry forest used by cattle, deer and pigs in a suburban area. It is extremely vulnerable to human activities, especially fire and agriculture. <em>Callerya</em> was collected for the first and last time in 1992; it has never been recorded since in spite of several attempts to find it. It is not known whether the species still exists in the wild.	eng
177838	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species has been grown from seeds taken from herbarium specimens and from seeds found in the earth around one of the extinct adult plant. It is know to be grown from cuttings and is also being tested in a tree nursery growing plants for public sale.	eng
177838	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from a single patch of degraded dry forest in Nakutakoin (Dumbea district). Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 2.5 km².	eng
177838	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests used to be common in Noumea and Dumbea. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat around urbanized zones.	eng
177838	population	Hequet, V., 2007	When this species was discovered in 1992, two individuals had been seen. A few years later, one of the plants had died and the other could not be found. The species was considered extinct until three specimens were found in the same forest in July 2007. The current known population is actually only three individuals.	eng
177838	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	All known specimens come from a patch of dry forest used by cattle, deer and pigs. The whole understorey from 0–1.80 m has been cleared by grazing, the ground is bare and no regeneration has been observed except for some toxic plants that are not consumed by animals. Because it is close to Noumea, the site, which is currently used for agriculture, may one day be divided into plots and become a housing estate.	eng
177839	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The cliffs at Gohapin are not easily accessible; it is culturally taboo for local tribes to go there and access is strictly limited for most of them. There is no other protection for this habitat.	eng
177839	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from a single valley in Gohapin (Poya) where it grows exclusively on calcareous cliffs. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 8 km².	eng
177839	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to calcareous dry forest of Gohapin valley. The dry forest of Gohapin valley represents a very uncommon habitat; it is an inland dry forest (while most dry forests are coastal) scattered with steep calcareous cliffs. Dry forests in general are extremely impacted by human activities, especially agriculture and fires. The cliffs of Gohapin are a little more preserved first because they are inaccessible but also because they are culturally taboo for local tribes thus access is strictly limited for most of them. However they are not free from fires.	eng
177839	population	Hequet, V., 2007	This is an extremely localized species that grows exclusively on inaccessible cliffs. Two locations are known but there may be more on unsurveyed cliffs. When present, the species can form dense subpopulations but always over very small areas.	eng
177839	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is uncontrolled fire that sweeps across lowland New Caledonia each year during the dry season.	eng
177840	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area.	eng
177840	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Some subpopulations occur between north of Poya and south of Pouembout and two more in Voh and Koumac, respectively 40 and 60 km further north. It mostly grows on calcareous substrates. Its total extent of occurrence is 626 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
177840	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>Eugenia calcarea</em> prefers calcareous substrate.	eng
177840	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. When present, this species mostly occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177840	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177841	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas.	eng
177841	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from two patches of dry forest 38 km apart: one site (in the Pouembout region) is 34 ha; the other (in Poya region) is 36 ha. Its total extent of occurrence is 52.3 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.7 km².	eng
177841	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177841	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is unknown. When present, this species occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177841	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177842	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Management plans are being studied in order to protect and restore Lepredour island.	eng
177842	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one on Lepredour Island (Paita) and the other on the Montagnes peninsula (Boulouparis). These sites are 14 km apart and are separated by the sea. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.8 km².	eng
177842	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. The two sites occupied by <em>E. lepredourii</em> are highly degraded forests with nearly no understorey because of high rates of predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), and, on Lepredour island, by rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>).	eng
177842	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. However, at the two sites where the species is known from it occurs as very rare and scattered individuals; there are likely to be fewer than 250 mature plants.	eng
177842	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is probably the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. Their impact is very high on the two sites where <em>E. lepredourii</em> occurs. Moreover, Lepredour island is also infested by rabbits (<em>Oryctolagus cuniculus</em>). Another threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177843	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species occurs in one protected area.	eng
177843	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs in two patches of dry forest a4 km apart in the Poya region. The areas of each of these sites are 11.5 ha and 31 ha. Its total extent of occurrence is 1.39 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.42 km².	eng
177843	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177843	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. In the fenced forest of M. Metzdorf (in homage to whom the plant has been named), Poya, a vigorous subpopulation of this species grows, made up of several individuals. <em>E. metzdorfii</em> is more discreet at its other site of occurrence, probably because of predation from which it is protected within the Metzdorf reserve.	eng
177843	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177844	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place for this species at present.	eng
177844	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from old herbarium collections around Noumea where it probably used to be common. A few other scattered collections were made from Boulouparis, Bourail and Pouembout, and two more are from the east coast: one from Thio and a doubtful specimen from Yaté. Distances between these sites (respectively and from south to north) 54, 39, 29, 76 and 78 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,384 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 31.2 km².	eng
177844	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species seems to be tolerant in terms of habitat. It has been collected mostly in dry forests but also in maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Maquis are also extremely vulnerable habitats because of the richness of their soil and their mining value.	eng
177844	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177844	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	<em>H. leratiorum</em> apparently used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its habitat. The species may already have disappeared from Noumea and its suburbs.<br/><br/>Outside of Noumea, it is threatened by lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. For all subpopulations in maquis, mining activity is the major threat.	eng
177845	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is not present in any protected area.	eng
177845	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is present in Dumbea, la Foa, Bourail, Poya on the main island (Grande Terre), and also in Lifou (Loyalty Islands). On Grande Terre, distances between known sites (respectively and from south to north) are 81, 37 and 54 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 6,015 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
177845	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in dry forests (including calcareous forests) and also mentioned from serpentine forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Although estimates of areas lost have not been made, lowland mesic forests have also suffered a lot from urbanization, deforestation and fires.	eng
177845	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177845	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177846	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in two protected areas.	eng
177846	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is mostly found in Noumea, but there are also some isolated collections in Prony, Bourail, Poya and Pouembout. Distances between known sites are (respectively and from south to north) 50, 127, 32 and 38 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,789 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 44 km².	eng
177846	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of dry forest plant species are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat.	eng
177846	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. In suitable habitat the species can be common. It is recorded from several locations around Noumea. However, the most recent of those collections was in 1968 for Noumea and 1984 for Baie de Tina, a little away from the Noumea urban zone. Therefore it is suspected that the species has disappeared from most of the urban locations.	eng
177846	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. <em>J. noumeense</em> used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced its potentially available habitats and it is suspected that many old locations, known from herbarium collections, have now disappeared.	eng
177847	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	None in place for the moment.	eng
177847	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been collected in four locations along the main island (Grande Terre): Noumea, la Foa, Sarramea (col d'Amieu) and Nepoui. It is also mentioned from Pine Island (the type locality) where it is abundant (J-M Veillon, pers. comm.). It is suspected that the species is now extirpated from one of the localities on Grande Terre because of urbanization (Nouville, Tereka). In Pindaï, the subpopulation was observed in 2007. Its total extent of occurrence is 5,972 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².	eng
177847	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species inhabits dry forests (including calcareous forests) but it is also mentioned from mesic forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Lowland mesic forests have also suffered from urbanization, deforestation and fires.	eng
177847	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. When present, this species can be locally abundant over small areas then absent in surrounding areas. This pattern may be due to poor long distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers.	eng
177847	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177848	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on this site. The whole area is now fenced but herds of deer are still inside the reserve. Restoration of a fenced two-hectare plot is being worked on and many scientific studies are carried out on this site, especially on the impact of deer on the habitat. <em>O. inventorum</em> studied in this site have shown very high impact of Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) on the species.	eng
177848	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs in a single patch of 58 ha of dry forest (total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.58 km²) located in a private land in Paita region.	eng
177848	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to a single dry forest. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177848	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In its only known location, this species is common and the population of adult trees may be of more than a couple of hundred individuals. However, there is very little regeneration due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and most of the population consists of adult trees. There is concern over the long term viability of the population.	eng
177848	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is restricted to a 58 ha degraded forest area located on a peninsula, in the middle of grassland. Dry forest must have once covered the whole peninsula but the introduction of deer and goats, and successive fires have devastated the area. Goats have been nearly eradicated from the area but predation by deer is still so strong that there is nearly no understorey remaining. The whole forest only consists of adult trees and few juveniles of species that are toxic to the deer. Studies have shown that <em>Ochrosia inventorum</em> suffers high predation by deer and regeneration of that species in the area is close to zero.	eng
177850	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in two protected areas. More than 200 juveniles have been planted <em>ex situ</em> in three different sites.	eng
177850	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. Today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forests. Its southestern localities are in Noumea and Paita. It is also recorded as present in Pouembout, Koumac and Poum with distances between known sites (respectively and from south to north) 190, 93 and 63 km. The species is also mentioned from some islands off Grande Terre.	eng
177850	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests where it can tolerates different types of substrates. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177850	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is not known. When present, the species is never abundant and typically appears as scattered individuals.	eng
177850	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177851	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Pindai forest is being provided with firewalls and freshwater tanks to prevent and fight fires.	eng
177851	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to Pindai dry forest in the Nepoui region. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are is 0.55 km².	eng
177851	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177851	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In its unique locality of occurrence, this species can be very locally common. The population size is unknown but probably does not exceed a couple of hundred individuals.	eng
177851	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	A single dramatic event could eradicate the whole population of this species, especially fires, which are common in such dry habitats and can spread rapidly. Management of fires become extremely hard to control when there is no immediate source of freshwater. Moreover, dry forest remnants are highly impacted by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which grazes all vegetation that is reachable for them, resulting in understoreys being cleared of vegetation between 0–1,80 m high.	eng
177852	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is not present in any protected area but the site of Pindai forest (Nepoui region) where it has couple of healthy subpopulations, and it is provided with fresh water tanks and firewalls to prevent fires.	eng
177852	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from three locations: Bourail, Nepoui (Poya) and Koumac with each locality separated respectively by distances of 65 and 113 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,008 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 16 km².	eng
177852	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests where it can tolerate various substrates. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177852	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. When present, the species can be locally abundant and forms dense subpopulations of hundreds of individuals over very small areas, then it can be totally absent from surrounding areas. This pattern may be due to poor long-distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers.	eng
177852	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177853	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in a partly protected area (the area is fenced but there are deer inside). Studies are ongoing on regeneration on this site. This species is cultivated <em>ex situ</em>.	eng
177853	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. There are two small sites occupied by the species in the Paita region, and two older collections (1870 and 1977) with imprecise and doubtful localities: one in Dumbea and the other in Koh (south of Kouaoua). Distances between sites are 10 and 92 km (in straight line). Its total extent of occurrence is 480 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 16 km².	eng
177853	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	A population of <em>P. eugenioides</em> is known from the dry forest of Pointe Maa, another one is from the dry/mesic forest of Nakutakoin. The other locations are imprecise. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177853	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In the dry forest of Pointe Maa (Paita), the <em>P. eugenioides</em> subpopulation is significant, with several dozens of mature trees. In Nakutakoin, it also forms dense and healthy population of several hundreds individuals. The other sites are old collections and no observations have been made on those subpopulations. In Pointe Maa, the recruitment is very weak due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) and the subpopulation mostly consists of adult trees. In Nakutakoin it does regenerate well despite the presence of deer and pigs.	eng
177853	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177855	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in two protected areas.	eng
177855	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast. It has been recorded from Noumea, Paita, Boulouparis, Bourail, Poya, Pouembout and Koumac but the last herbarium collection dates back from 1992. It is suspected that the species has now been extirpated from many of its recorded localities because of habitat loss.	eng
177855	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. <em>P. incisum</em> is found in dry forest <em>sensu stricto</em> but it also grows on calcareous substrates.	eng
177855	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown but when present, the species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177855	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177857	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The largest subpopulation is located on a private land. The Programme de Conservation des Forêts Sèches de Nouvelle Calédonie (PCFS) is actively working on this site. It has already financed a fence, restoration of a two-hectare plot is being achieved and many scientific studies are done on this site. Still the impact of Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) is very high on the site and the restoration process is still in its initial stages.	eng
177857	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to two small patches of residual dry forest, 5 km apart, located on private lands in Paita region. One site is in Pointe Maa peninsula; the other is in Gadji Bay. Its total extent of occurrence is 7.4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.86 km².	eng
177857	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177857	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is unknown. In Pointe Maa, the species is locally common and the subpopulation of adult trees may form several tenths of adults in the global population. However, there is very little regeneration due to intense predation by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>). The Gadji subpopulation is not known; the species has been referred to only once from that site.	eng
177857	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177858	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area.	eng
177858	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is known from six locations all in Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 322 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
177858	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species inhabits tropical dry forests and is exceptionally met on ultramafic soils. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Because of the richness of their soil and their mining value, vegetation on ultramafic soils often are very impacted habitats.	eng
177858	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. When present, the species usually occurs as rare and scattered individuals but it can sometimes forms small groups of less than ten individuals. Little regeneration has been observed around adult trees.	eng
177858	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. For all subpopulations in maquis, mining is the major threat.	eng
177859	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Two populations of <em>T. inopinata</em> are now located in protected areas. Eighty one individuals have been grown from seeds and planted in two different protected areas. Because of its high agricultural potential due to its remarkable pink flowers, <em>Turbina</em> has been promoted for production by private nursery gardeners. Its commercialisation is beginning and <em>Turbina</em> are slowly colonizing private gardens.	eng
177859	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two localities in Pouembout and one in Poya, and there is also one recent collection (2007) from Paita. Its total extent of occurrence is 1,110 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 28 km².	eng
177859	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177859	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Until the beginning of 2007, this species was known only from a couple of individuals. In 2006, 21 new individuals where discovered in a dry forest patch in Pouembout, and in 2007 another one was discovered in Paita. The oldest collection of <em>T. inopinata</em> was a sample without date and without precise locality from Paita and the species has never been seen there until the 2007 record which reconfirms the species' presence there.	eng
177859	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177860	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The four known populations are located in fenced areas.	eng
177860	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations between Noumea and Paita, and from one location 155 km north in Poya region. Its total extent of occurrence is 799 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 28 km².	eng
177860	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177860	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown but when present, it is always a discreet species that occurs as rare and isolated individuals.	eng
177860	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177861	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in four protected areas.	eng
177861	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along the west coast. Today it is scattered between remnant patches of dry forest in Noumea, Paita, Moindou, Poya and Pouembout with distances between sites ranging between 12 and 70 km.	eng
177861	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177861	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Total population size is unknown but where it is present, the species is never common is mostly appears as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177861	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177863	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in four protected areas	eng
177863	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is only known from Poya and Pouembout where it has been recorded from five locations. Its total extent of occurrence is 95 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
177863	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177863	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown but when present, this species always occurs as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177863	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177864	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The only known individuals are all within in a 38 ha fenced reserve.	eng
177864	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is only known from two locations in Tina Bay (Nouméa). One site is a 38 ha, fenced and protected forest; the other is a small very degraded patch close to Tjibaou Cultural Center. These two sites are probably remnants of a past extended forest where <em>Tinadendron noumeanum</em> used to be common. However, intense urbanization around Noumea have considerably reduced natural habitat, leading many species like <em>Tinadendron noumeanum</em> to a critical conservation status.	eng
177864	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to the dry forests of Tina Bay (Noumea). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.<br/><br/>Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of dry forest’s plant species are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat.	eng
177864	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Recent investigations have led to the census of 20 individuals scattered in a fenced reserve close to Noumea and one individual in another degraded patch of forest some kilometres away. Most of the population disappeared in 1999 due to the construction of a highway (Achille 2006). A 38 ha fenced reserve was created to protect the remaining population. A residual subpopulation recorded from a bicycle trail close to the "Centre Culturel Tjibaou" seems to have entirely disappeared due to illegal clear cutting for agricultural purpose (Suprin pers. comm.).	eng
177864	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	<em>T. noumeanum</em> apparently used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced the potential available habitats for this species.	eng
177868	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in three protected areas.	eng
177868	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is found from Moindou to Pouembout. Its total extent of occurrence is 447 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 32 km².	eng
177868	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177868	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The total population size is unknown but in Nekoro, it forms vigorous populations that can be locally dominant in certain areas then totally absent from the surrounding areas.	eng
177868	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177869	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is very rare on the main island (Grande Terre) but it is common in the calcareous forests of the Loyalty islands. On Grande Terre, it has been collected in Bourail in the "Guaro Deva" area and in Koumac, 160 km further north. The species is common on two of the Loyalty Islands: Maré and Lifou.	eng
177869	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species inhabits calcareous dry forests. It is threatened on Grande Terre where dry forests in general are endangered and dry forests on calcareous forests are an uncommon habitat. However, populations in the Loyalty Islands are well preserved.	eng
177869	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The subpopulation on Grande Terre must be very small, but the subpopulation occurring in the Loyalty islands is significant (J-M Veillon pers. comm.).	eng
177869	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	For the subpopulation(s) on Grande Terre, The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas. Another threat is the loss genetic diversity if the subpopulation on Grande Terre is lost. Currently the species is well preserved in the Loyalty Islands.	eng
177870	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Present in one protected area.	eng
177870	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from two locations: one in Pouembout and one in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 57.4 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 8 km².	eng
177870	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177870	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177870	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177871	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is present in one protected area.	eng
177871	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It must once have been present all along west coast but today it is restricted to remnant patches of dry forests. It is recorded from Prony, Noumea, Paita, Bourail, Poya, Koné, Voh and Poum with some gaps in the distribution as large as 104 and 95 km. Records from all but one locality date from before 1990. Considering the rate of extinction of dry forest patches, it is suspected that this species has been extirpated from many of these sites. Its total extent of occurrence is 8,836 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 53 km².	eng
177871	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is mostly present in dry forests but it is exceptionally met in maquis. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177871	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown but when present, the species appears as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177871	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177872	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	None.	eng
177872	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It has been collected all along the main island (Grande Terre) as well as in Belep. However some varieties are extremely localized.	eng
177872	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is found in maquis, shrubland, forests and on ultrabasic soils.	eng
177872	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Where present, this species usually forms dense subpopulations.	eng
177872	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	General threats to this species are urbanisation, fires, mining and introduced species.	eng
177873	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is present in lowland dry habitats like dry shrubland and dry forests. The three varieties are highly localized, one in the Tontouta basin, the two others on coastal forests north west of Nouméa. Its total area of occupancy is 12 km².	eng
177873	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is mostly found in dry habitats, shrubland or forests.	eng
177873	population	Hequet, V., 2007	When present, this species usually forms dense subpopulations.	eng
177873	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	Major threats are agriculture, urbanization, fires and mining.	eng
177874	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed at present.	eng
177874	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. Mostly it is found in lowland areas, and more rarely it occurs at medium elevations, on the main island (Grande Terre) and on Lifou (Loyalty Islands).	eng
177874	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species grows in forests and shrublands, on calcareous or schistose-sandy substrates.	eng
177874	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177874	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	There are no major threats that are causing serious concerns for this species at present.	eng
177875	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.	eng
177875	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species has been found in Ceylon gardens, in Tanzania and maybe in Kenya. In New Caledonia one of the two subspecies is common on the north east and in the centre of the main island (Grande Terre). The other subspecies is restricted to Noumea and suburbs.	eng
177875	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species grows in wet forest, on riverbanks at 160–600 m altitude on schists, and in dry coastal forests at 5–50 m altitude on schists and calcareous soils.	eng
177875	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown.	eng
177875	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	There are no major threats known to be causing serious concerns for this species at present.	eng
177876	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.	eng
177876	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it occurs throughout the main island (Grande Terre), on Pine Island and in the Loyalty Islands.	eng
177876	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is recorded from forests (including coastal forest, rain forest and sclerophyllous forest), thickets, maquis and open places; mainly on calcareous or ultramafic terrains, rarely on phtanites.	eng
177876	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177876	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	There are no major threats causing serious concern for this species at present.	eng
177877	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.	eng
177877	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is widely distributed in the southern half of the country.	eng
177877	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species grows on wet forest (<em>I. oligantha</em> var. <em>oligantha</em>) and dry forest (<em>I. oligantha</em> var. <em>opuloides</em>).	eng
177877	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177877	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The subpopulations of dry forests are threatened by agriculture, urbanisation, fires and introduced species.	eng
177879	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Site based actions are impending, but nothing has been done for the conservation of this species yet. Survey targeting this species are needed.	eng
177879	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia where it is known from a single collection from a dry forest in Bourail region. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 4 km².	eng
177879	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177879	population	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is known from a single herbarium specimen.	eng
177879	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177880	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Not present in any protected area in the wild but is cultivated <em>ex situ</em> and studied for its commercial potential as an ornamental.	eng
177880	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia. It is recorded from Noumea and Paita, then occurs 50 km north in Boulouparis. Its presence is also mentioned in Lifou and Pine island (Loyalty Islands). This fragmented distribution might be the illustration of a declining species that once was common on the west coast and surrounding islands. The species may have become extirpated at one location because of collection for its ornamental qualities. Its total extent of occurrence is 4,164 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².	eng
177880	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to dry forests (including calcareous forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177880	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown but this species has mostly been collected as single individuals. In Noumea it is sympatric with <em>Oxera pulchella</em> ssp. <em>grandiflora</em> from which it is difficult to distinguish by appearance.	eng
177880	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177881	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The forest that holds this species is fenced. A deer eradication programme is ongoing.	eng
177881	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is restricted to two patches of forest in the Poya region. One is located in a protected area (Nekoro), the other in Avangui, close to Nekoro. Its total extent of occurrence is 10.7 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 2.51 km².	eng
177881	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This species is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177881	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown; the species is known only from three herbarium specimens.	eng
177881	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177894	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	Unknown.	eng
177894	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This New Caledonian subspecies is common in the northeast and in the centre of the main island. It is also present in Vanuatu after a past introduction of the plant there.	eng
177894	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	In secondary rainforest, on riverbanks between 160-600 m altitude, on schists.	eng
177894	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177894	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	There are no major threats causing serious concerns for this species at present.	eng
177895	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	The species is present in two protected areas and is cultivated <em>ex situ</em> and studied for its commercial potential as an ornamental.	eng
177895	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to New Caledonia. It is recorded only from Noumea and its suburbs where it must have been once very common. Today, it is found in a few highly disturbed remnants of dry forest. Most of the collections from Noumea are old and it is suspected that the plant is now extirpated from many of those localities (e.g., Anse Vata, Pointe de l'Artillerie). Its total extent of occurrence is 31 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².	eng
177895	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to dry forests (including coastal forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. Dry forests used to be common around Noumea. In fact, numerous old herbarium collections of dry forest’s plant species are from Noumea and its suburbs. However, intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have nearly eradicated this habitat from this region.	eng
177895	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In suitable habitat, this subspecies can be common. Unfortunately, remaining suitable around Noumea is becoming more and more scarce. The species still occurs in some patches of remnant vegetation in urban and suburban areas but subpopulations are extremely reduced and isolated.	eng
177895	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	This species apparently used to be common around Noumea but intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city keep on  reducing its potential available habitats.	eng
177896	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
177896	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is restricted to the northern tip of Madagascar. Its range is a small montane locality at Joffreville which is in close proximity to the port Antsiranana.	eng
177896	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that includes dry forests and savannas. It is often seen in gardens and at the edges of fields (Henkel and Schmidt 2000).	eng
177896	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177896	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in an area that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to urban expansion.	eng
177897	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is present in two protected areas.	eng
177897	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is known from four locations: one in Bourail; three in Poya. Its total extent of occurrence is 56 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 20 km².	eng
177897	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests (including coastal forests). Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177897	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. The Nekoro site (Poya) probably holds the largest population. This variety has an aggregate distribution: it can be common over small areas than totally absent from surrounding areas.	eng
177897	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177899	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	None currently in place.	eng
177899	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety of Sandalwood is restricted to the extreme north of New Caledonia (Poum, Tiébaghi). Its total area of occupancy is 8 km².	eng
177899	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	The variety is localized on arid eruptive terrain.	eng
177899	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Only known from very few localized subpopulations. The Poum subpopulation is still present, but the one in Tiébaghi couldn't be found in spite of recent surveys of the site.	eng
177899	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	Mining is the major threat to this Sandalwood variety, which has been found exclusively in sites that are or have been exploited for nickel extraction.	eng
177900	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place or are recommended for this species at present.	eng
177900	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It occurs throughout the main island (Grande Terre), on Pine Island and in the Loyalty Islands.	eng
177900	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Recorded from forest (including coastal forest, rain forest and sclerophyllous forest), thickets, maquis and open places. Mainly on calcareous or ultramafic terrains, rarely on phtanites.	eng
177900	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown.	eng
177900	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	There are no major threats causing serious concerns for this species at present.	eng
177901	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and habitat status should be carried out to ensure that habitat loss is not negatively affecting this species in the future.	eng
177901	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes in the Napo and Pastaza provinces of Ecuador, as far south as Zamora-Chinchipe. This species is found up to an altitude of 2,100 m above sea level.	eng
177901	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in moist montane tropical forest habitat.	eng
177901	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177901	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is threatened by burning and logging of the forest for timber and agricultural expansion, in particular for coffee plantations. This is causing ongoing habitat loss and degradation within the species' range. However, the peak of deforestation occurred in the first part of the 20th century, and is likely not to be causing severe declines in this species at present.	eng
177902	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the threats, habitat status and population numbers of this species is suggested in order to assess how and to what extent localized mining may affect this species.	eng
177902	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is restricted to northwestern Australia. It is distributed in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, from the northwest coast east to Marble Bar and south to Hamersley Range, Mundiwindi and Paraburdoo.	eng
177902	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	Shrubland is the common habitat in which this species may be found, although it is not commonly found because of its subterranean habit. <em>V. annulata</em>, to which this used to be a subspecies, occurs in all habitats.	eng
177902	population	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is poorly collected (Teale 2002).	eng
177902	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	Mining activity occurs within parts of this species' range. This may be causing a population decline due to habitat degradation, though only on a local scale.	eng
177908	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
177908	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species inhabits south and central Yemen. Specifically, it is known from Wadis below Mt. Manif, Aden, Hadramaur, Lahej, the Jimil Valley, Abian Hill Country, Bir Fukom, Shugra, Bal-Haf-Azzan, and Wadi Irma (Salvador 1982).	eng
177908	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species inhabits deserts, dry shrublands and savanna.	eng
177908	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177908	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177911	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat preferences, population, and possible threats to the species should be carried out.	eng
177911	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	The full distribution of this African species is not known, however, it has been found in Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. It is also possibly found in Djibouti.	eng
177911	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
177911	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177911	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any threats.	eng
177912	conservation	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this region, such as greater management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended.	eng
177912	distribution	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is known from Brazil, from the states of Bahia, Ceará, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Paraiba, Pernambuco and Piauí.	eng
177912	habitat	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is an arboreal to sub-arboreal species found in the Atlantic Forest and Caatinga dry forest habitat.	eng
177912	population	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is rare (A. Lima pers. comm.).	eng
177912	threats	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to illegal extraction of timber, and urban and agricultural expansion. Only 6% of the original extent of Atlantic Forest remains and the habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented (A. Lima pers. comm.). However, much of the forest loss in the area happened several decades ago.	eng
177919	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is present in the Parc Provincial du Ouen Toro where it is preserved from cattle and deer grazing. However, this is an important site for tourism and recreation and the area is very disturbed by human activities. The plant has been grown from seeds and 24 young have been planted in urban restoration programmes.	eng
177919	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety of Sandalwood is endemic to New Caledonia. It is mostly known from Noumea and its suburbs and is also recorded from Boulouparis and Pouembout. Distances between subpopulations (respectively and from south to north) are 72 and 130 km. Its total extent of occurrence is 2,301 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 28 km².	eng
177919	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area. This habitat, which was probably characteristic of Noumea and the surrounding area a century ago, is now basically confined to very small and highly degraded patches.	eng
177919	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. All varieties of Sandalwood have been decimated by exploitation in the last century. It used to be very common on Grande Terre but because of over-exploitation and habitat reduction it is now restricted to some patches of dry forests. Remnant subpopulations are now very fragmented as shown by Bottin <em>et al</em>. (2005). This study revealed a low genetic diversity in the Loyalty Islands subpopulations (especially on Maré), as well as gene flow on Grande Terre being lower than expected considering its large dispersal distance. Gene flow through pollen is expected to be low as it is insect-pollinated, but seed dispersal through bird ingestion can occur over long distances and may allow gene flow between islands. Although the subpopulations on Grande Terre exhibit high values in diversity parameters, they are more threatened than their Loyalty Island counterpart because their population size are very small there.	eng
177919	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	All varieties of Sandalwood are threatened throughout the species' natural range as a result of two waves of over-exploitation: the first occurred after the discovery of New Caledonia in the 1840; the second occurred at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. The Hienghène site may be a remnant of a larger population that was decimated by over-exploitation by humans.<br/><br/>Sandalwood habitat is threatened by lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177920	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is not present in any protected area.	eng
177920	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the main island (Grande Terre) where it is known from Paita, Boulouparis, Poya, Pouembout, and also one collection from the east coast in Thio. Distance between sites can be as far as 145 km. The unique collection from the east coast date back to 1871. This variety hasn't been collected since 1988. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,839 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 24 km².	eng
177920	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety has always been found in dry forest (including calcareous forest) except for one specimen collected on ultramafic soil. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177920	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. This variety is mostly known from individual collections.	eng
177920	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177921	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is restricted to the main island (Grande Terre) where it is known only from the general vicinity of Poya. The last collection date back to 1982; it hasn't been recorded since. Its total extent of occurrence is 8.5 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 8 km².	eng
177921	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is recorded from coastal and ravine forest, on ultramafic terrain.	eng
177921	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown.	eng
177921	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is mining. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880’s and has adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. These deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing their antlers against tree stems. Uncontrolled fires, which sweep across the lowland of New Caledonia each year during the dry season, have slowly transformed lowlands forests into niaouli savannnas and grasslands.	eng
177928	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
177928	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the eastern deserts of the regions of Antofagasta, Atacama and Coquimbo, Chile.	eng
177928	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from hot desert with very little shrub cover (up to 10%).	eng
177928	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177928	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
177929	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	Further research into the distribution, habitat status and threats to this little known species is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
177929	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, Los Quenes, Cordillera de Curico, Maule, Chile. However, it may also occur in the surrounding suitable habitat.	eng
177929	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species was collected from an area where the habitat is Chilean shrubland.	eng
177929	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177929	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from a heavily populated area of Chile, where ongoing urban expansion and infrastructure developments are potential threats to the species.	eng
177930	conservation	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R.E., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species. &#160;Part of this species' distribution is located in a National Park: Parque Nacional Perito Moreno, which will afford it protection from the majority of threats.	eng
177930	distribution	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R.E., 2009	This species is endemic to Argentina where it is found in Santa Cruz Province, around Lago Belgrano. This species is reported between 1,000 and 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
177930	habitat	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R.E., 2009	This species inhabits basaltic plateaus with shrubs and grass clumps. It is viviparous and insectivorous (F. Cruz pers. comm.)	eng
177930	population	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R.E., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177930	threats	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R.E., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
177931	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
177931	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in the provinces of Chubut and Rio Negro, Argentina, in the Somuncura Plateau and the surrounding area, and south as far as Colhue Huapi Lake. The species is found between approximately 40 and 46 degrees latitude south and between 350 and 1,400 m above sea level.	eng
177931	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is omnivorous and inhabits the Patagonian steppe.	eng
177931	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177931	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
177932	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into habitat status, threats and range of this species is required.	eng
177932	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is known from just two collection localities in the southern part of the Rio Negro Province of Argentina. The first is on the Somuncura Plateau, and the second approximately 30 km south of the town of Ingeniero Jacobacci. It is found between 1,200 and 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
177932	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in Patagonian steppe habitat.	eng
177932	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177932	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are potential threats to this species as overgrazing has degraded the natural habitat in many parts of the Patagonian steppe. However, as its range is not well known, it is not known whether this is a direct threat to the species.	eng
177933	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the habitat and threats of this species.	eng
177933	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the province of Chubut, Argentina, in central coastal areas. It has a distributional area of 7,885 km².	eng
177933	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in Patagonian steppe and shrubland.	eng
177933	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
177933	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species may be locally threatened in some places where overgrazing from domestic livestock has caused degradation of the natural vegetation. However, the extent to which this species may be impacted is unknown.	eng
177937	conservation	Heuqet, V., 2007	Surveys targeting this species are needed.	eng
177937	distribution	Heuqet, V., 2007	This plant is known from only a single collection dating from 1983 on the Koniambo mountain in Koné.	eng
177937	habitat	Heuqet, V., 2007	The only known specimen of this variety comes from low dense forest on ultrabasic soil.	eng
177937	population	Heuqet, V., 2007	Known from a single herbarium collection.	eng
177937	threats	Heuqet, V., 2007	The unique location is on the Koniambo mountain over which there is one of the biggest mining project of the country.	eng
177938	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place at present.	eng
177938	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is known only from one location in the highly urbanized industrial zone of Noumea, New Caledonia. Its total extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 0.07 km².	eng
177938	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is endemic to one small patch of dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.<br/><br/>This habitat, which was probably characteristic of Noumea and its surrounding area a century ago, is now basically confined to few relict and highly disturbed patches.	eng
177938	population	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is known from one population of no more than a hundred individuals confined to a peninsula covered by highly disturbed dry forest.	eng
177938	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety may have been common around Noumea in the past. Intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city have considerably reduced the potential available habitats for this dry forest plant species. It is now confined to a small peninsula, couple of hundred meters away from a newly urbanized zone built with housing project. The area is popular, there are many trails crossing the vegetation and a huge quantity of garbage all around. In its actual habitat, the species is doomed to extinction.	eng
177939	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No conservation measures are in place at present.	eng
177939	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is known from only one population in a single location in Paita region, New Caledonia. Its total estimated extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are 2.2 km².	eng
177939	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177939	population	Hequet, V., 2007	In its unique location, this variety is locally common, with a very patchy distribution. It can be the dominant plant over small areas (a couple of dozen m²) in the lower strata, then it can be totally absent form the surrounding vegetation.	eng
177939	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is known from a single location. The peninsula that hosts the population is located 20 km from Noumea, in an area that will probably become increasingly urbanized in the years to come. The site is covered by secondary vegetation with some small enclaves of dry forest. If the population is more or less preserved in its natural habitat today, it may become seriously threatened in the decades to come. In Noumea and suburbs, urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires have considerably reduced the available habitats for dry forest plant species. Moreover, remnants are highly impacted by Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>) that feed on many plant species, letting understoreys cleared from vegetation between 0 and 1.80 m high.	eng
177940	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This taxon is present in one protected area.	eng
177940	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia, where it is mostly found around Noumea. There is also one collection from Pouembout and one from Ouegoa. The three sites are (respectively and from south to north) 188 and 108 km apart. Its total extent of occurrence is 3,601 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 19.9 km².	eng
177940	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177940	population	Hequet, V., 2007	When present, this variety can be locally abundant and form dense subpopulations over some square meters, then it can be totally absent from the surrounding areas. This pattern may be due to poor long distance dispersal or vegetative reproduction by suckers.	eng
177940	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The species probably used to be common around Noumea. Intense urbanization, developing human activities and repeated fires around the city may have considerably reduced the potential available habitats for this variety. Apart from urbanization, the major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000-110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177941	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	None for the moment.	eng
177941	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is only known from two peninsulas located 20 km apart in Poya region of New Caledonia. Its total extent of occurrence is 3.38 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 0.61 km².	eng
177941	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This variety is endemic to New Caledonian dry forests. Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177941	population	Hequet, V., 2007	Population size is unknown. When present, this variety can be locally abundant with a patchy distribution. In Pindai it forms dense subpopulations over small surfaces then it is absent from adjacent areas.	eng
177941	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177942	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	No specific conservation measures are in place or are needed at present.	eng
177942	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia where it is widely distributed on the main island (Grande Terre). It occurs from south to the extreme north, mainly on the east coast but some collections have been made from the west coast in the north half of the island.	eng
177942	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	This is a tolerant variety that can grow on many different substrates.	eng
177942	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The exact population size is unknown but this variety is common.	eng
177943	conservation	Hequet, V., 2007	This taxon is present in three protected areas.	eng
177943	distribution	Hequet, V., 2007	This plant is endemic to New Caledonia. It is mostly found in Poya region but one isolated collection is recorded 110 km south in a peninsula of Paita (Montagnes peninsula) and another one 240 km north from Isle Pott in Belep Islands. Its total extent of occurrence is 5,740 km², and its estimated area of occupancy within this range is 25 km².	eng
177943	habitat	Hequet, V., 2007	Tropical dry forests are probably among the world’s most endangered of all lowland tropical forests. Because of their propensity to become pastures and their susceptibility to fire, dry forests have reduced dramatically, in size as well as in quality. In New Caledonia, they’ve been intensively cut for agricultural purposes for a century; what remains today are highly fragmented patches that have been estimated at 2% of the original area.	eng
177943	population	Hequet, V., 2007	The population size is unknown. When present, <em>Elaeodendron pininsulare</em> ssp. <em>poyaensis</em> is never abundant and usually appears as rare and scattered individuals.	eng
177943	threats	Hequet, V., 2007	The major threat is lowland clearing for cattle grazing and agriculture, which began in the 1850s and is ongoing. Another threat comes from the Rusa Deer (<em>Cervus timorensis russa</em>), which was introduced in the 1880s and adapted extremely well to the Caledonian habitats. Its population may have reached 105,000–110,000 individuals in the wild. This deer consumes a wide variety of plant species and also causes severe damage to trees by rubbing antlers against tree stems. The third major threat is uncontrolled fires that sweep across lowlands of New Caledonia each year during the dry season and have slowly transformed remnant patches of dry forest into shrubland dominated by <em>Acacia spirorbis</em> and <em>Leucaena leucocephala</em>, or Niaouli (<em>Melaleuca quinquenervia</em>) savannas.	eng
177944	conservation	Embert, D. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
177944	distribution	Embert, D. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the Andes in Peru and northern Chile, and probably also Bolivia.	eng
177944	habitat	Embert, D. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from xeric habitats. It is a viviparous species.	eng
177944	population	Embert, D. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
177944	threats	Embert, D. & Espinoza, R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178027	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178027	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species was originally only known from New Britain in the Bismarck archipelago (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994, Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Study of museum specimens shows it to also occur in the northeast quadrant of Papua New Guinea, New Ireland (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999) and possibly the northern tip of Queensland   (the latter is based on a single, very old museum specimen without detailed locality data; S. Sweet pers. comm., Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2001). A similar species often referred to as <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus finschi</span> occurs on the Kei Islands, southwest of New Guinea, but its assignment to this species is provisional (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178027	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is often confused with <em>V. indicus</em>, leading to limited habitat information available for<em> </em>this species  (Philipp<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al.</span> 2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.). It appears to occur in forests and forages principally on the ground, in mangroves, lowland forest and second-growth forest (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178027	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178027	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats. It is rarely used in the pet trade, mainly due to effective prohibition of exports from Papua New Guinea (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178028	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	All Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.), and this species occurs within areas which are either conservation reserves or Aboriginal land. Research into the population status of this species should be carried out and habitat monitoring may be required to ensure that the threat of increased fire frequency does not become more widespread in <em>Allosyncarpia</em>-dominated monsoon forests. As with many monitor species, gene sequencing studies are needed to resolve the potential species complex (E. Pianka pers. comm.).	eng
178028	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is distributed from western Kimberley in Western Australia, to the northwestern tip of the Northern Territory (Sweet 2004). An isolated population is located in the Arnhem Land Escarpment (Sweet 2004). The species has also been collected from the Bonaparte and Buccaneer archipelagos (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178028	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is mostly found in rocky gorges or on escarpments, particularly in Kimberley (Sweet 2004). It can also be arboreal and occurs in monsoon forest or <em>Allosyncarpia</em> woodlands in northwestern Arnhem Land (Sweet 2004).	eng
178028	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no accurate population data available for this species.	eng
178028	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	Intensification of fire regimes in Arnhem Land threatens <em>Allosyncarpia</em>-dominated monsoon forests inhabited by this species. However, at present, this threat is not severe or widespread enough to be considered a major threat to the species. While all Australian Varanids are banned from export, the species is present in the international pet trade via smuggled captive-bred animals (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178029	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178029	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This lowland species is found throughout New Guinea and its offshore islands Yapen, Biak, Salawati, and Waigeo, as well as Batanta in Indonesia (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004, S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is unlikely to occur in the seasonal monsoon savannas of the southern Trans Fly (S. Sweet pers. comm.). This species is not reported from elevations above 900 m above sea level.	eng
178029	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species inhabits mixed forest areas of dense vegetation (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004), but avoids mangroves.	eng
178029	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this speices.	eng
178029	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is reportedly trapped in snares for food and areas of its habitat are under threat from logging. There is also limited capture of this species for the pet trade. However, these are not considered major widespread threats at this time and are not causing significant population declines.	eng
178030	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	All Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). There are no further conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178030	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species has a patchy distribution within its restricted range in the northwestern Northern Territory, Australia. It can be found from Darwin southwards to Katherine, and from Kakadu westwards to the Daly River Region (Husband 2001), although its distribution is limited within the Daly River district due to inappropriate habitat. The range extends eastwards across the South Alligator River (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178030	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species can be found in tropical savanna woodland, with stony areas where it can hide in crevices and under rocks. It is chiefly a burrowing animal (Husband and Christian 2004). It is patchily distributed, and also inhabits highly-leached sandplains in open eucalypt forest. However, the overall ecological scope of this species is poorly understood (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178030	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is locally common in some parts of its range (Husband 2001).	eng
178030	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. Unlike many other Varanids, this species is not used in the international pet trade since all Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It has been bred in captivity, but is in fact rarely kept (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178031	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species has a level of protection in Australia through legislation, since all Australian varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.). Further research into the localized threats and habitat status is suggested to ensure localized population declines do not increase. As with many Varanid species, gene sequencing studies are needed to resolve whether this species is in fact a complex of two or more species (E. Pianka pers. comm.). This is particularly important since habitat loss may particularly affect the distinct eastern populations.	eng
178031	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is restricted to southern parts of Australia, below 30 degrees south latitude. It is found in coastal areas of Western Australia, South Australia and the southwest of Victoria (King and King 2004). There is also a disjunct distribution around the Sydney area, and in the vicinity of Canberra (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007).	eng
178031	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species can live in a variety of habitats, but occurs mainly in open woodlands, sclerophyll forest, and heathlands (King and King 2004).	eng
178031	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is common in the central part of its range and on Kangaroo Island. It is considered stable in Western Australia, but is possibly declining in eastern isolates because of land-clearing activities (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178031	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	Habitat degradation is likely to be locally affecting some of this species' range, particularly in eastern parts. While this is at present not considered a major threat, if eastern populations were found to be a separate species in the future, this may have a significant effect on their conservation status. It is unlikely that any other threat process is acting on this species, particularly since all Australian Varanids are banned from export (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178032	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is urgently needed to resolve the taxonomy of this species complex and hence the outcome of future conservation assessments if subspecies and morphs are raised to species level.	eng
178032	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the north of Australia from northeastern Western Australia to the north of New South Wales, and is also found in the islands of the Torres Strait and in the Trans-Fly region of southwestern Papua New Guinea and adjoining Papua, Indonesia (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). Where <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. similis</span> are discussed as two separate species, <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> is described from Northwestern Australia and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. similis</span> from Northern Australia and New Guinea (Böhme 2003).	eng
178032	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This tree-dwelling species inhabits savanna woodlands. Its distribution in Northern Australia closely follows eucalypt forests and woodlands (Sweet 2007). The species is thought to be absent from monsoon forest, <span style="font-style: italic;">Allosyncarpia</span> forest and woodlands dominated by paperbark and <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia</span> (Smith <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).	eng
178032	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is considered common where it occurs, but may be patchily distributed. Sweet (2007) observed 68 individuals in a 50 ha site in Northern Australia. <span style="font-style: italic;">V. scalaris</span> densities were higher than those of the sympatric <span style="font-style: italic;">V. tristis</span>, and were found to have significantly smaller home ranges (Sweet 2007).	eng
178032	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. However, the increasingly frequent and intense fire regime across northern Australian  woodlands may be compromising essential habitat features and increasing dry  season physiological stresses on populations of this species (Sweet 2007).	eng
178034	conservation	Martins, M. & Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places, its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the possible threats to the species.	eng
178034	distribution	Martins, M. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is distributed in south-eastern Peru, in the Cordillera de Carabaya and the departments of Apurimac,&#160;Cuzco,&#160;Huanuco, Junín, Pasco,&#160;and Puno. This species is also recorded from northern Bolivia.	eng
178034	habitat	Martins, M. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is found in wet montane forest.	eng
178034	population	Martins, M. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is rare in collections (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
178034	threats	Martins, M. & Lundberg, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. However, the habitat within its range is relatively undisturbed, which suggests that there are no major threats currently affecting this species.	eng
178038	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the ecology of this species is suggested.	eng
178038	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is distributed mostly throughout the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. The islands on which it is known are Adonora, Alor, Bali, Flores, Komodo, Lombok, Padar, Rinca, Romang, Roti, Sumba, Sumbawa, Timor, and Wetar. It has also been collected from Timor Leste and eastern Java.&#160;<br/>On Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores island the species was recorded between 900 and 1,200 m altitude above sea level (Mertens 1930).	eng
178038	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	There is are no ecological or habitat data available for this species, but it is likely to be found in dry monsoon forests (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178038	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178038	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is occasionally found in the pet trade and according to villagers in western <st1:place w:st="on">Flores</st1:place> the species is clubbed to death (M. Auliya pers. comm. 2010). However, there are no other known major threats to this species.	eng
178043	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Monroe, T., Iwamoto, T., Harrison, I.,  Eschmeyer, W.,  Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Robertson,  R., Collette, B., Tyler, J., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,Bussing, W., Lopez, M., Molina, H., Salas, E., Sierra, L., Viquez, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. <br/><br/>Research is required to determine the extend of the range of this species as it is has recently been shown to be a separate species from a Caribbean species. Also, more research is needed on its population status, and the impact of recreational fishing activities.	eng
178043	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Monroe, T., Iwamoto, T., Harrison, I.,  Eschmeyer, W.,  Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Robertson,  R., Collette, B., Tyler, J., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,Bussing, W., Lopez, M., Molina, H., Salas, E., Sierra, L., Viquez, R., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
178043	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Monroe, T., Iwamoto, T., Harrison, I.,  Eschmeyer, W.,  Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Robertson,  R., Collette, B., Tyler, J., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,Bussing, W., Lopez, M., Molina, H., Salas, E., Sierra, L., Viquez, R., 2008	This demersal species inhabits estuaries, beaches, sand and gravel to depths of 10m. It is a carnivorous fish and its diet includes mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods and bivalves, and bony fishes.This species could be very widely spread oceanically due to the dispersal larval stage (leptocephalus). There is no appropriate life history information available for this species as it has recently been found to be genetically different from A. vulpes in the Atlantic.	eng
178043	population	Nielsen, J.G., Monroe, T., Iwamoto, T., Harrison, I.,  Eschmeyer, W.,  Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Robertson,  R., Collette, B., Tyler, J., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,Bussing, W., Lopez, M., Molina, H., Salas, E., Sierra, L., Viquez, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in many parts of its range.	eng
178043	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Monroe, T., Iwamoto, T., Harrison, I.,  Eschmeyer, W.,  Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Robertson,  R., Collette, B., Tyler, J., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,Bussing, W., Lopez, M., Molina, H., Salas, E., Sierra, L., Viquez, R., 2008	There are no known threats to this species. However, this species is caught in recreational fisheries (mostly catch and release).	eng
178048	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178048	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to Panama (Smith, 1994; van der Heiden and Plascencia-González, 2006).	eng
178048	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species lives in estuarine muddy substrate, feeds on mobile invertebrates such as mobile benthic gastropods, bivalves, and benthic worms. This species can tolerate conditions of low salinity (van der Heiden and Plascencia-González, 2006).	eng
178048	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178048	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
178051	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, research is needed to determine population trends and the effects of commercial fishing, shrimp fisheries, and bycatch on this species.	eng
178051	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Magdalena Bay, throughout the Gulf of California to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).	eng
178051	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate, as well as mangrove habitats. This species can grow to more than  two m long and weigh over 11 kg making it one of the largest species of the genus and family (Smith 1995).	eng
178051	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178051	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is a commercially harvested fish, and is a bycatch of shrimp trawling and a variety of other fishing gear types. The effect of commercial harvests and shrimp fisheries on this species is unknown, especially as little is known about current population status or trends. Additionally, fishermen typically remove the head making it difficult to identify this species for futher study (Franke and Acero 1996).	eng
178054	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, the species' distribution falls into the Marine Protected Areas of Galapagos Islands and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
178054	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found along the coast of Ecuador, the Galapagos Islands (Allen and Robertson 2006), and Cocos Island. Recent observations in a submersible have demonstrated that this is not a rare species. Further deep water research using submersibles and ROVs will likely uncover additional locations.	eng
178054	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species lives in crevices of deep, submerged, steep rocky cliffs.	eng
178054	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178054	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, as it is found primarily in deep water and inaccessible habitats.	eng
178057	conservation	McCosker, J., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that it is a deep-water species, it is unlikely to occur in any Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
178057	distribution	McCosker, J., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from four specimens captured in the eastern central and southwestern Gulf of California and lower Baja California, Mexico.	eng
178057	habitat	McCosker, J., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This reef-associated species is found in areas with rocky substrate as well as in the edge water column and over soft substrate in reef areas.	eng
178057	population	McCosker, J., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There no population information for this species.	eng
178057	threats	McCosker, J., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
178060	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178060	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Cape San Lucas, Baja California and central Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands (Collette and Robertson 2001).	eng
178060	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate, occasionally near shallow rocky reefs. As it is usually found in open sand, very little collecting effort is needed (Collette and Robertson 2001). There have been some collections from the stomach contents of tunas and jacks (Collette and Robertson 2001).	eng
178060	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There is little known about the relative abundance of this species. When found, it typically occurs in large schools and therefore some large populations are observed (Collette and Robertson 2001).	eng
178060	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
178062	conservation	Cooke, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). If a fishing ban is to be created for the species, the months of October and November must be considered as these are the periods with the most reproductive activity for this species (Vega 2004).	eng
178062	distribution	Cooke, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
178062	habitat	Cooke, R., 2007	This species is found in mangrove and estuarine areas, in both marine and brackish waters (Vega 2004). Its reproduction is continuous throughout the year, with high peaks during the months of July and November (Vega 2004). The average size of capture in El Golfo de Montijo, Panamá was approximately 31 cm and the weight was approximately 352 g (Vega 2004).	eng
178062	population	Cooke, R., 2007	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. The species is the most common snook in markets of Panama. This species is common in mangroves in the Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994) and it is one of the most abundant species of the centropomid family in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). However, it is not considered common in Ecuador, and it has not been observed in southern part of Gulf of California despite extensive collections.	eng
178062	threats	Cooke, R., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega 2004).  Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178063	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). If fishing ban is to be created for the species, the months of October and November must be considered as these are the periods with the most reproductive activity for this species (Vega 2004).	eng
178063	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern coast of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Colombia.	eng
178063	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., 2007	This demersal species is found in bays, estuaries, mangroves and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams (De La Cruz Agüero 1997, Vega and Castillo 2002). It enters freshwaters in large rivers to feed on fish and crustaceans, and has been found to occur in streams at an altitude of at least 250 m elevation, and a distance of 20 km from the coast (Bussing 1998). This species occurs in coastal waters, but is more abundant in estuaries, which are thought to be important sites for nesting and not reproduction (Chicas 1995).	eng
178063	population	van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., 2007	This species is considered abundant in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). However, it is considered uncommon in the Gulf of California. Approximately 50 individuals were collected in Golf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, where it was considered to be a transient species (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
178063	threats	van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega 2004). Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178064	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178064	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
178064	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This euryhaline species is found in bays, estuaries, mangroves and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991; Cooke, 1992). Its diet consists of mobile crustaceans, such as shrimps and crabs, and bony fishes.	eng
178064	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is relatively common in suitable habitat throughout its range (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994; Cooke, 1992).	eng
178064	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004).  Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178065	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178065	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
178065	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is found in bays, estuaries, lagoons and the lower parts of freshwater streams (Cooke, 1992; Vega, 2004). It is also found offshore  (Vega, 2004).  It mainly eats fish, crustaceans and mollusks (Bussing, 1998).	eng
178065	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is considered to be common throughout its range (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
178065	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004). It was included in the five most important commercial species in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). However, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178066	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178066	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Peru.	eng
178066	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is found in bays, estuaries, mangrove areas and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams. Its diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes (Vega, 2004).	eng
178066	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is considered common in at least part of its range. It is common in artisinal fisheries in Nicaragua. However, in some areas such as the Caté estuary in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004) only a few juvenlies were captured. Similarly, only a few individuals were captured in one of three estuaries at the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, and all of them were considered occasional visitors (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
178066	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in artisanal fisheries. Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178067	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178067	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
178067	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is found in bays, estuaries, mangrove areas and in the lower reaches of freshwater streams. Its diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes (Vega, 2004).	eng
178067	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range. It is considered very common in the southeastern Gulf of California, and common in the bays, lagoons, and mangroves of the Galapagos. However, it has only limited occurrence in the Gulf of Fonseca, Nicaragua and Colombia.	eng
178067	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P.,  van der Heiden, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is important in commercial fisheries (Vega, 2004). Additionally, this species spends at least part of its life cycle in mangroves and estuarine areas, and populations should be carefully monitored due to ongoing coastal development, pollution and mangrove extraction within its range.	eng
178070	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178070	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all the offshore Islands.	eng
178070	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is a solitary, bottom-dwelling fish that lives in shallow waters (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). It lies very still on rock ledges and is well camouflaged against the rocks. It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes (De La Cruz Agüero 1997). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species is generally found over deep rocky walls and exposed shallow reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
178070	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is considered common throughout much of its range.<br/><br/>According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species is frequent enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll. This fish was studied in the Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean density of 1.77 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/>In a survey conducted at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.001 (±0.002) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.016% (Figueroa 2001). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>C. rivulatus</em> is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species had a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178070	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
178072	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178072	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and Malpelo.	eng
178072	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is typically encountered in mid-water adjacent to reefs to 45m. It is reef-associated and is found in small schools, in inshore areas with sandy substrata or coral reefs. It may be found in big schools in oceanic rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This species feeds on benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Aguero 1997). It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Robertson and Allen 2006). In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), this species was frequently found in rocky areas and occasionally found in both sandy and coraline substrata. According to Cooke (1992), this fish is occasionally found in middle estuaries, mangroves, and bar-formed lagoons.	eng
178072	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is locally common in small aggregations.This fish was reported with an abundance of 0.01 (SD 0.08) in surveys in Gulf of Papagayo Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Gulf of Nicoya, this fish was found 45 times in one mangrove area, and is considered transient (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). Although this species was not encountered in surveys in the Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001; Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000), it has been captured 3 times within 12 field surveys (one each month), in Bahia de Navidad, Jalisco, Mexico (Rojo-Vazquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
178072	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
178074	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178074	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru (Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
178074	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is demersal over coral reefs and rocky substrata of shallow waters, but is most frequently found over soft substrata. It is found to 20m. It feeds on invertebrates. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), this species was frequently seen over sandy substrata but only occasionally seen over rocky or coral substrata. According to Cooke (1992), this fish is occasionally seen in middle estuaries and mangroves.	eng
178074	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is regularly caught in shrimp trawls as bycatch. There is no other information available for population.	eng
178074	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is regularly caught in shrimp trawls and gillnets as bycatch. It is used as subsistence consumption.	eng
178077	conservation	Lea, R., Bearez, P., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Cotta, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178077	distribution	Lea, R., Bearez, P., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Cotta, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to southern Peru.	eng
178077	habitat	Lea, R., Bearez, P., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Cotta, A., 2007	This coastal pelagic species occurs in bays and brackish estuaries to depths of 50m, and can sometimes be found out farther off-shore around floating objects. Juveniles are sometimes found in floating Sargassum weed, and often use mangroves as nursery areas.	eng
178077	population	Lea, R., Bearez, P., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Cotta, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, this species is considered to be common in the central part of its range (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).	eng
178077	threats	Lea, R., Bearez, P., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Cotta, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.	eng
178081	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178081	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
178081	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been found over soft substrate in shallow estuaries and mangrove swamps.	eng
178081	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178081	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.	eng
178082	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178082	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found only in the Bay of Panama.	eng
178082	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been found over soft muddy substrate in estuaries and mangroves.	eng
178082	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178082	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178084	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178084	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and Nayarit, Mexico, to Ecuador. It is also found in the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
178084	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected in shallow rock and coral reef areas, and may also inhabit rocky, exposed tide pools.	eng
178084	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178084	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.	eng
178086	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178086	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
178086	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from sandy and gravel habitats in estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178086	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178086	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178087	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178087	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Panama, and in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
178087	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from intertidal rockpools (Dawson 1968, Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178087	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178087	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178088	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178088	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California to Panama.	eng
178088	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from only muddy substrate in estuaries and mangroves, and has also been found in brackish waters (Dawson 1968, Galván-Magaña ,i.et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178088	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178088	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.	eng
178089	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178089	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from the Pacific coast of Panama.	eng
178089	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is probably found in rocky shores and soft substrate near estuaries and mangroves.	eng
178089	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from one specimen collected from Chame Point (Reid 1936).	eng
178089	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.	eng
178090	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178090	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama.	eng
178090	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from rocky shores.	eng
178090	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178090	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178091	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178091	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only along the coast of Colombia.	eng
178091	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from mangroves.	eng
178091	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from three specimens.	eng
178091	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178092	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178092	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Bay of Panama.	eng
178092	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is probably found in rocky shores and soft substrate near estuaries and mangroves.	eng
178092	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178092	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of its distribution.	eng
178093	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178093	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has been found in the central western Gulf of California, and from Puerto Vallarta to Panama.	eng
178093	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from intertidal rock pools and beachrock, and it may reach brackish waters.	eng
178093	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178093	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178094	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
178094	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in a small part of the central western Gulf of California, and from  Puerto Vallarta to Panama.	eng
178094	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected from muddy mangrove streams (Gilbert 1966).	eng
178094	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
178094	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
178097	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
178097	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Chile, and the Galapagos islands.	eng
178097	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This is a oceanic benthopelagic species found to 500m.	eng
178097	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178097	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
178100	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is present in the Revillagigedos Marine Protected Area.	eng
178100	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the Hawaiian islands and much of the eastern Pacific.  In the tropical eastern Pacific region it is found in the Revillagigedos islands and Alijos rocks west of southern Baja.	eng
178100	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This demersal species occurs mostly at depths of 100 m or more and has been captured at night at relatively shallow depths (9-46 m). It is more common around islands; records from the continental coasts are rare (Starnes 1988, 1995). It inhabits rocky substrata, but many specimens have been trawled from relatively open waters in Hawaii.  Gonads of specimens collected in Hawaii in November appear to be near development for spawning.	eng
178100	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is known from very few localities in the tropical eastern Pacific and is rare.	eng
178100	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
178102	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>This species is poorly known, and more research is needed on its population, habitat and ecology, and potential threats.	eng
178102	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Oregon to Chile, including the central and southern Gulf of California, the Galapagos, Cocos and the Revillagigedos Islands.	eng
178102	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is a shy, nocturnal fish that prefers deeper waters around islands, and can be found to depths of 200m.  It may be found with squirrelfishes and cardinalfishes, but it tends to range to depths greater than these species (Starnes, 1988).	eng
178102	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is considered to be generally uncommon throughout its range. It is occationally captured as by-catch in trawling activities in the Eastern Pacific, and in general, only small individuals have been observed by SCUBA divers.	eng
178102	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.  It is occationally captured as by-catch in trawling activities in the Eastern Pacific.	eng
178105	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	In California there are some fisheries restriction on size limits which protect the species while in these waters and seem to have produced a population rebound (landings data). However, 1) ENSO driven population depression and movements to outside of California, 2) annual migrations south from California mean that there may be threats in the rest of its range in the region.	eng
178105	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Alaska down to California to the tip of Baja California, the southwestern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands.	eng
178105	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This pelagic species is usually near shore or near the surface; often in small schools; young enter bays; feeds mainly on other fishes (Eschmeyer 1983). It is found to 38m. It migrates south from the California coast during autumn, but may remain in front of the Mexican coast throughout the year (Sommer 1995).	eng
178105	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	In California, from 1920 -2001, annual landings data has decreased dramatically (California Department of Fish and Game 2001). In the 1920's the commercial take was 8,000,000 lbs and in 1970's the landings data were down to almost zero. Since the 1970's commercial fisheries take has not increased beyond half a million lbs. Restrictions have been established for fishing gears, bag limits, seasonal and fish size limits on both commercial and sports fishing.  Sport fishing take in 1970 was approximately 25,000 fish (approximately 100,000lb). In the 1990's there was an increase of landings mostly from sports fishing to 446,000 fish (approximately 2,500,000 lbs). This increase was likely due to an introduction of restrictions in 1971 for both commercial and sports fisheries.	eng
178105	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are possible threats from commercial and sports fishing although it is unknown how this impacts the population. There is an annual migration from California south to Baja California in the winter which takes them to areas in the tropical eastern Pacific without fishing restrictions.  ENSO events have been shown to expand the range and to depress the population (California Department of Fish and Game 2001).<br/><br/><br/>There are intensive directed commercial and sports fisheries for barracudas in the tropical eastern Pacific. They are caught with hook and line and with purse seines.	eng
178106	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
178106	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Chile, and is seen rarely at Malpelo.	eng
178106	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This pelagic species is fairly common (Sommer 1995); it is found in the continental shelf (CENAIM 1992). According to Cooke (1992), this species may occasionally be found in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific region.  It is usually found in schools. It is found to 25m.	eng
178106	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a common species in artisanal fisheries in Panama (Sommer 1995). There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
178106	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known threats for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is an important food fish in Mexico, the USA (Sommer 1995), and Colombia. Most of the Mexican production is frozen for export (Sommer 1995).	eng
178107	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
178107	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This eastern Pacific is found from Colombia to northern Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands. Scattered records in the Gulf of California clearly indicate that its range may be much larger.	eng
178107	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This reef-associated pelagic species is found in tropical and temperate waters (Sommer 1995). It is seen in groups of three to 20 from the surface to about 24 m (Merlen 1988).	eng
178107	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This is a common species in the southern part of its range. It may be more common than currently known in the Gulf of California. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
178107	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.	eng
178108	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research into the population size, genetics and fishing threat is recommended.	eng
178108	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This eastern central Pacific species is found from central Baja California to western and northeastern Gulf of California.	eng
178108	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This is a pelagic neritic species. It is found at depths to 25 m.	eng
178108	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is largely unknown.	eng
178108	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known threats to the species. However, it has a restricted range, and is in an area that is heavily fished. This species is most likely taken in barracuda fisheries and eaten.	eng
178111	conservation	Bearez, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
178111	distribution	Bearez, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Coco, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
178111	habitat	Bearez, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species is found over soft bottoms and hard bottoms, including estuaries to depths of 50 m. Adults occur at depths greater than 30 m, along continental and insular margins, over rocky substrates (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).	eng
178111	population	Bearez, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is considered abundant in southern Ecuador and Nicaragua.	eng
178111	threats	Bearez, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is locally fished with purse seines in subsistence fisheries in Ecuador and is also caught incidentally in shrimp trawls. It is marketed fresh, salted or dried and smoked but more frequently processed into fishmeal (Fritzsche and Schneider 1995).	eng
178170	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, Louette <em>et al.</em> (2004) report that reptiles are partially protected in Comoros. Further research is needed on the population numbers and habitat status of this species, along with a better understanding of the impact that habitat change has on the species' population.	eng
178170	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits the Grand Comore Island, in the Comoros (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,053 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178170	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	The vegetation of the Comoro Islands is dominated by moist evergreen forest and giant heaths. Species of this genus are known to be partially arboreal or rock-dwelling (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
178170	population	Ineich, I., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178170	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	Deforestation in the Comoros between 1990-1995 has been estimated at 5.8%, the fourth highest rate globally (Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as the increasing need for subsistence farmland and fuel-wood, which is exacerbated by an annual projected human population growth of 2.5% until 2015 (World Bank Group 2000 in Sewall <em>et al.</em> 2003). However, the impact that habitat change is having on this species is not yet known.	eng
178171	conservation	Shea, G., 2009	No conservation measures are in place for this species. However, monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out to check levels of habitat degradation.	eng
178171	distribution	Shea, G., 2009	This species is restricted to New Guinea, along the northern lowlands, but including Port Moresby on the south side of the island, and the Aru Islands (Horner 2007).	eng
178171	habitat	Shea, G., 2009	This species inhabits lowland broadleaf rain forest.	eng
178171	population	Shea, G., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178171	threats	Shea, G., 2009	Deforestation in New Guinea may be impacting this species locally, but this is unlikely to be causing significant species level declines.	eng
178172	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The entire island of Komodo has been listed as a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve since 1977. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178172	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits Bali, Sumba, Padar, Komodo, Kangean Islands, Pulau Longo, and possibly western Flores (McKay 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 22,549 km².	eng
178172	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is diurnal, arboreal and inhabits savanna and moist lowland forest (McKay 2006). It is also known to be abundant on walls of buildings and in gardens.<br/><br/>This lizard is oviparous, with a clutch size of one to two eggs (Greer 1974).	eng
178172	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178172	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	High rates of deforestation are occurring in Indonesia due to the expansion of agricultural areas and plantations. However, this cannot be interpreted as a major threat to this species as it is able to utilize anthropogenic habitats.	eng
178173	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the impact that habitat disturbance, due to tourism and population growth, is having on the species. Research into its distribution within the archipelago of Palau is also necessary, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178173	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in Palau (Bauer and Watkins-Colwell 2001). Palau is an archipelago with a total area of 508 km². The exact distribution of this species within this chain of islands is unclear.	eng
178173	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests.	eng
178173	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178173	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is currently not impacted upon by any major threats. Future threats may arise if growth in the islands' human population as well as a growth in tourism begin to have negative impacts on the natural habitat.	eng
178174	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178174	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to northwest Kimberley in Western Australia.	eng
178174	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits areas of sand and sandstone, but with spinifex (<em>Triodia</em>) cover (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178174	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178174	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any threat process is impacting this species.	eng
178178	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	Further research on the population, distribution, habitats, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178178	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known to inhabit the south slopes of the Idenburg Valley in Irian Jaya (or Papua) (Brown 1953). It may only be known from the type locality.	eng
178178	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953). From the type locality, this species appears to inhabit the montane coniferous forests and grasslands of the high elevations of Irian Jaya.	eng
178178	population	Ineich, I., 2009	No population information exists for this species.	eng
178178	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	While deforestation does occur in Irian Jaya, it appears to be less problematic than in other regions of Indonesia. From the period 1985-1997, estimates of forest loss for the province are 5%, compared to the national average of 17-18% (FWI and GFW 2002).  It is unknown if the montane regions that this species inhabits are affected by deforestation.	eng
178180	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is probably found within protected areas. It has been given Rare status in South Australia. Monitoring of population trends is necessary.	eng
178180	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has a fragmented distribution. It is found in the Tanami Desert of the Northern Territory, the Bungle Bungle Range of northwestern Western Australia, and in the south central areas of South Australia.	eng
178180	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This is a desert species found in areas of low shrubs and hummock grasses.	eng
178180	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is reported as uncommon (Horner 1992).	eng
178180	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no major threats affecting this species.	eng
178183	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the entire island of Annobon is designated as a protected area for Equatorial Guinea (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994). However, it is not known how effective this protection is, as threats are still thought to occur and the political situation in the area is unstable.Effective management of the protected area is needed to ensure the species' survival.<br/><br/>Due to its restricted range, the population of <em>P. annobonensis</em> requires monitoring to ensure that any population declines in the future are observed. The impact that deforestation and introduced species are having on <em>P. annobonensis</em> also require investigation.	eng
178183	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is endemic to Annobon Island, Equatorial Guinea (Fuhn 1972). Annobon Island is 17 km² and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,595 m above sea level.	eng
178183	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	Annobon Island contains both lowland and montane moist forests, however, it is unclear if the species is found in both of these habitats or only one. The land cover is described as "unique mountain and mossy forests, dry forest, [and] intertidal ecosystems" (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
178183	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178183	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found within an area that is threatened by habitat loss due to shifting cultivation (Castroviejo <em>et al.</em> 1994). Introduced species are presenting a threat through predation.	eng
178184	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178184	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This southern African species is distributed from Inhambane in Mozambique, through Swaziland, into South Africa where it occurs in southern Mpumalanga and ranges from Zululand southwards to Durban and the KwaZulu-Natal midlands.&#160;T<span lang="EN-ZW">here is a single old record from Angoche in northern Mozambique (Broadley 1994).	eng
178184	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is usually found under logs or rocks, in sand or grassland loamy soils. It is thought to be unaffected by habitat change or land degradation.	eng
178184	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178184	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is able to adapt to altered environments,so that it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178188	conservation	Morato, S.A.A. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research into the distribution and population numbers of the species and its habitat requirements is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178188	distribution	Morato, S.A.A. , 2009	This species is known from the States of Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná, in Brazil. It is probable that this species also occurs in Santa Catarina. This species is known to occur around the cities of Vacaria, Bom Jesus and São Francisco de Paula in Rio Grande do Sul, and Candói in Paraná, although there are also unconfirmed reports around the city of Guarapuava (L. Stahnke pers. comm.).	eng
178188	habitat	Morato, S.A.A. , 2009	This species was found to inhabit savanna areas in the central Parana State (S. Morato pers. comm.). In Rio Grande do Sul, it was<em></em> found in two types of habitats: forest with <em>Araucaria angustifolia</em> and savanna. The majority of observations were made during the day in fields with stones (L. Stahnke pers. comm.).	eng
178188	population	Morato, S.A.A. , 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178188	threats	Morato, S.A.A. , 2009	Agricultural expansion, the use of fire in the preparation of pastures, the planting of exotic species, and the overstocking of land with cattle can all be considered as potential threats to this species (L. Stahnke pers. comm.). However, as the distribution of this species it is not well known, it is not possible to assess the direct threats to this species.	eng
178189	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In many places its distribution coincides with protected areas, which in the state of Roraima encompasses about 1.2 million hectares (excluding reserves in which there is sustainable use of natural resources) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178189	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in the state of Roraima, Brazil, and in the extreme southern state of Amazonas in Venezuela. Collection localities include Ilha de Maraca and an area in the Rio Catrimani and extreme south of Amazonas state in Venezuela.	eng
178189	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is known from an area with a variety of habitats, such as seasonally flooded forest, 'terra firme' forest, and areas of savannah. It is extremely common in the areas surrounding the buildings at the Maracá Ecological Station (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178189	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178189	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of logging practices.	eng
178190	conservation	Powell. R., 2009	It is likely that this species occurs in at least one of the protected areas around Cuba.	eng
178190	distribution	Powell. R., 2009	This species is found throughout Cuba, including Isla de la Juventud and the Archipiélago de Sabana-Camagüey, and on the Great Bahama Bank (Díaz and Hedges 2008; Henderson and Powell 2009).&#160;In the Bahamas, the species' range includes the islands of Andros, Northern Eleuthera Island, Great Exuma Island, Long Island, Racoon Bay and many smaller islands in between.	eng
178190	habitat	Powell. R., 2009	This species is found on cliffs, in caves, around coconut trees, and in house walls and rafters.	eng
178190	population	Powell. R., 2009	This species has been reported to be rare throughout its range (Schwartz 1968), but it is very abundant in suitable habitat (Buide 1966, Henderson and Powell 2009). Nevertheless, additional surveys are appropriate.	eng
178190	threats	Powell. R., 2009	This species is associated with caves which are often severely impacted by even minimal human disturbance (Buide 1966, Dodd 2003).	eng
178191	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
178191	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits the Darjeeling district of West Bengal Province, India. Further distributional information within Darjeeling is unknown. The type specimen was found at 2,285 m above sea level.	eng
178191	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits the temperate broadleaf forests of Darjeeling. The type locality is amongst the rugged foothills of the Himalayas and was originally forested with montane wet temperate forests, but it is now largely converted to fruit and rice plantations (Wallach 1999).	eng
178191	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178191	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	Although this species inhabits montane regions, threats are still present. In West Bengal, the land above 2,000 m above sea level is used for livestock grazing in the summer, as well as fuel-wood and fodder collection. The region in which the type specimen was found has already been extensively converted to agriculture and plantations (Wallach 1999), which implies that the species, discovered in 1999, may be able to adapt to a certain level of habitat modification.	eng
178192	conservation	Couper, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
178192	distribution	Couper, P., 2009	This species occurs in mid-eastern Queensland, Australia and there are disjunct populations of this species distributed between the areas of Mount Ossa and Mount Charlton, north of Mackay in the Conway range, and Mount Dryander. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,606 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178192	habitat	Couper, P., 2009	This nocturnal species is rainforest dependent. Couper and Hoskin (2008) have noted that the <em>Phyllurus</em> spp<em>.</em> in Queensland display a strong rainforest/ rock connection. This species is most often encountered on rocks or tree trunks near rocks (Couper <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
178192	population	Couper, P., 2009	Couper <em>et al.</em> (1993) reported that this species is common within its range.	eng
178192	threats	Couper, P., 2009	The remaining rainforest is habitat is potentially at risk from invasive species.	eng
178193	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is possible that it occurs in protected areas within Pakistan. Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat is needed and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178193	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Pakistan. It is recorded from the northern areas of the Province of Sindh, south-eastern Pakistan (Khan 2003) and in western Pakistan, near Quetta, in the north of Balochistan Province (Khan 2006). It has an elevation range of 1,200 and 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
178193	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Khan (2003) reports that this species inhabits rocky areas, but not anthropogenic environments. It inhabits crevices among rocks on hillsides with sparse vegetation (Khan 2006).	eng
178193	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178193	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range. In desert habitat destruction due to logging and felling pose threat (M. Shariff Khan pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178194	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within the Lokobe Reserve. Conservation measures, including the expansion of existing protected areas, are required to prevent the deforestation of the remaining forest on Nosy Be. Further research on the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178194	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Nosy Be, an island of 300 km² off the north coast of Madagascar.	eng
178194	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in lowland rainforest.	eng
178194	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species appears to be rare as only three specimens were found during intensive surveys (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998).	eng
178194	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	If this species is restricted to utilising primary rain forest, then it will have already disappeared from most of Nosy Be which has become completely deforested. Similarly, it is not likely to exist on the nearest largest island, Nosy Komba, nor on the nearest land mass of the main island, Ankify Peninsula, as these areas are nearly completely stripped of forest (Nussbaum and Raxworthy 1998).	eng
178195	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution of this species.	eng
178195	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in a small region of the Cuesta de Minas Capillitas, Catamarca, and probably into Tucumán&#160;province, Argentina, although this has not been confirmed. It has a distributional area of 948 km²<sup></sup>, and is found between 2,500 and 3,900 m above sea level.	eng
178195	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is omnivorous and is found on steep rocky hillsides covered with bunchgrass, scattered low shrubs and small cacti. Within this habitat the species is restricted to rocky cliff faces and exposed road cuts. &#160;A large part of its diet consists of ants (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178195	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data currently available for this species.	eng
178195	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	Due to this species inhabiting hillside cliffs, there are no major threats to this species. Although there are livestock in the area, the locals tend to graze them along the roads or in the flatter areas near the top of the mountain where this species does not occur (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). &#160;There has been a mine in the area of the mountain top for over 100 years; however, this probably does not constitute an immediate threat to this species (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178196	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178196	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species ranges from Uganda and Kenya in the north, to South Africa in the south. It is found throughout Zimbabwe and into eastern Botswana.	eng
178196	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species lives on rock outcrops in mesic and arid savanna.	eng
178196	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178196	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its entire range.	eng
178197	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Kennedy Range National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178197	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is distributed across the Kennedy Range in Western Australia.	eng
178197	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits sparsely vegetated red sand ridges with typical vegetation consisting of Acacia, Banksia and spinifex.	eng
178197	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178197	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178198	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it does occur inside the Amani Nature Reserve and Mkomazi Game Reserve (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). Further research and monitoring is required to assess its population and habitat status<em></em>. This will enable any rapid population declines as a result of increasing levels of habitat fragmentation and degradation to be monitored.	eng
178198	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Tanzania and is found within the Usambara and South Pare Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,241 km².	eng
178198	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits the tropical moist forests of the Usambara and Pare Mountains. Unlike most dwarf geckos, this species appears to be ground-dwelling, having been found at the base of wild banana plants, and under logs and rocks (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>This species has been observed to lay eggs communally in forest soil (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178198	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178198	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) report that this species is dependant on the few remaining areas of forest in which it is found. Habitat loss due to deforestation is a major threat to this species. The Usambara Mountains are suffering from habitat loss caused by expanding cultivation, livestock grazing and illegal logging (The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2005). The habitat of this species is becoming increasingly fragmented as a result of these threats.	eng
178199	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178199	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	Powell presumes this species to be endemic to Navassa Island (1997). However, McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) also list this species as occurring in southwestern Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. Specifically, this includes the Tiburon Peninsula, west to the Morne Dubois Peninsula east of Aquin, the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain, north to 10.1 km SE of Montouis, and the Barahona Peninsula. McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) also detail the species as inhabiting Isla Alto Velo, Ile de la Gonave, Ile Grande Cayemite, and Navassa Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,404 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178199	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species is xerophilic and is found in shaded, moist <em>Acacia</em> woods, <em>Acacia</em> scrub, dry areas adjacent to <em>Cocos</em>, in organic waste at garbage dumps, in grassy areas under rocks and pieces of cement house foundations, along the roadside under rocks, in termite-ridden logs, under logs on sand, under a piece of concrete on "greensward" adjacent to the river, in dry palm logs, and on dry mud (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178199	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is presumed extinct on Navassa Island (Powell 1997). Efforts to collect Navassan specimens of the genus have been intense, but have yielded no results (Powell 1997).	eng
178199	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	The presumed extinction of this species on Navassa Island is attributed to habitat alteration, human exploitation, and depredation by introduced predators. Habitat degradation accelerated from 1850-1900 when large areas were deforested due to intensive phosphate mining (Powell 1997).<br/><br/>Threats to the population on mainland Hispaniola include habitat degradation from overgrazing, logging, fuel-wood collection, tourism development, and clearing for agriculture. However, as this species is able to survive in highly altered environments, it is unlikely that any of these threat will severely impact the population.	eng
178200	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range; for example, protected areas may provide safeguards for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and research into its eastern population is required to establish its taxonomic status.	eng
178200	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from the upper Magdalena Valley in Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,968 km²<sup></sup>. Its range is fragmented, as it is restricted to certain elevations, occurring between 1,500 and 2,100 m above sea level only.	eng
178200	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in montane humid tropical forest. Specimens have been found beneath stones and wood.	eng
178200	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178200	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species occurs in a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion. This species occurs in the most heavily populated region of Colombia.	eng
178201	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Los Haitises National Park; however deforestation and degradation of habitats are ongoing within the park. A taxonomic review of the subspecies of this species should be carried out.	eng
178201	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Hispaniola, occurring in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. This species is found up to 600 m above sea level.	eng
178201	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in mesophilic to xerophilic environments. It is found along coastal vegetation, along sand flats, garbage dumps, in <em>Cocos</em> debris in dry cactus desert, in active and abandoned cacao plantations, on undisturbed hilltops and mounds and in and around human habitation. Although this species is found in a wide variety of habitats, several of the subspecies may be less ecologically versatile.	eng
178201	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	These lizards can be locally abundant in both natural and severely altered habitats.	eng
178201	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No major threat appear to be affecting this species at this time, but some genetically unique populations might be impacted, reinforcing the recommendation that a taxonomic review of currently recognized subspecies should be implemented.	eng
178202	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178202	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is distributed in the southwest of Madagascar, north of the Onilahy River up to Ihosy and Antsirabe. This species is found from sea level up to 1,650 m above sea level.	eng
178202	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits open rocky areas. It has also been found in road cuts, and on overgrazed or regularly burned areas.	eng
178202	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Nussbaum and Raxworthy (1994) report that this species is relatively common at suitable sites.	eng
178202	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178203	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the impact that mining may have on this species.	eng
178203	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is only found in South Africa. It is known to occur in the northern Mpumalanga Province and southeastern Limpopo Province between an altitude of 1,300 and 1,700 m (Broadley and Broadley 1999).	eng
178203	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This fossorial species can be found under stones and in deserted termite mounds (Marais 2004).	eng
178203	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178203	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range. Mpumalanga Province is important to the mining industry, however, it is not known what, if any, effect this has on the species.	eng
178204	conservation	Greenbaum, E. & Whiting, M.J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into population numbers, habitat and potential threats of this species is needed to assess range contractions.	eng
178204	distribution	Greenbaum, E. & Whiting, M.J., 2009	This species occurs in Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique around Delagoa Bay, and ranges into adjacent Zululand, Northern Province of South Africa and Eastern Botswana (Branch 1998).	eng
178204	habitat	Greenbaum, E. & Whiting, M.J., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats, including coastal bush and mesic and arid savanna, and it can be found sheltering in a range of habitats such as under tree bark, in tree holes, rock overhangs and empty bird nests (Branch 1998). This species is nocturnal, but is occasionally seen during the day, and its diet consists mainly of insects (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
178204	population	Greenbaum, E. & Whiting, M.J., 2009	This species is locally common (Whiting <em>et al</em>. 2007).	eng
178204	threats	Greenbaum, E. & Whiting, M.J., 2009	This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reptiles were predicted to experience the largest range shifts, and this species was singled out particularly, because of especially dire predictions of a 98% range contraction.	eng
178205	conservation	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178205	distribution	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from a few localities in the Montagne d'Ambre and northern Sambirano Region of northern Madagascar.	eng
178205	habitat	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species probably occurs in moist tropical and subtropical forests but it is unknown whether it is forest dependent (C. Raxworthy pers. comm).	eng
178205	population	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178205	threats	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species may be suffering from the impacts of degradation and decline of forest systems in Madagascar but the impact this is having on the species is unknown at this time.	eng
178206	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, its range does coincide with protected areas.	eng
178206	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This species is found in the Republic of South Africa. It is distributed from the west and northern Cape, into Little and Great Namaqualand. This species is also found in southern Namibia.	eng
178206	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This species inhabits areas with sandy, arid soils.	eng
178206	population	Heideman, N., 2009	This species is common (Branch 1998).	eng
178206	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no major threats impacting this species across its range.	eng
178207	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, an estimate of 10% of its range is found within protected areas (Armstrong 2001). Conservation efforts are required to prevent further restriction of its range due to urban development. Monitoring of the population and range of this species is necessary due to its declining range.	eng
178207	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species has a very restricted distribution in South Africa. It is only found from the mouth of the Umgeni River south to Amanzimtoti, a small area near Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 431 km².	eng
178207	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is known to burrow in humus and sandy soils of coastal thicket, grassland, and dune forest.	eng
178207	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178207	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to a coastal area around one of the major cities of South Africa. This region is experiencing high levels of urban development and a resultant decline in the range of this species is expected.	eng
178208	conservation	Feng, Z., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the harvest levels and monitoring of the population numbers, habitat trends, harvest levels and trade of this species are needed, as well as measures to reduce exploitation levels (e.g., harvest and trade management).	eng
178208	distribution	Feng, Z., 2009	This species occurs in northern China south to Zhejiang (Zhao and Adler 1993), in the region of the Loess Plateau, Huabei and Huanghuai Plains and areas north of the Yangtze River (Li and Zhao 2007).	eng
178208	habitat	Feng, Z., 2009	This species inhabits arid and moist grasslands and plains (Li and Zhao 2007). Each female lays two eggs per year on average (Z. Feng pers. comm.).	eng
178208	population	Feng, Z., 2009	There are no population data available for this species, but this species is experiencing declines.	eng
178208	threats	Feng, Z., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such conversion of plains to agricultural land. It is also utilized in traditional medicine (Wu <em>et al.</em> 2006) and the quantity of this species harvested was more than any other lizard except for <em>Gekko gecko</em>. As a traditional medicine, the store quantity of dry <em>G. swinhonis</em> was about 500 kg in each market over the last few years and the price was about 250.00 to 300.00 Yuan (RMB) per kilogram (Z. Feng pers. comm.). If the quantity of this species harvested for traditional medicine increases in the future, and also if habitat loss and degradation become more serious it is likely that this species would become more threatened (Z. Feng pers. comm.).	eng
178209	conservation	Lehr, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species is needed.	eng
178209	distribution	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is known only from the species' type locality, Chiclin, Libertad, in Peru.	eng
178209	habitat	Lehr, E., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, however, species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. The type locality of this species is in the Sechura coastal desert habitat.	eng
178209	population	Lehr, E., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178209	threats	Lehr, E., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178210	conservation	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., El Mouden, E.H., Mateo Miras, J.A. & Tahar, S., 2009	The range of this species includes a few protected areas. Research is needed to determine the exact limits of the species' range and to investigate harvest levels.	eng
178210	distribution	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., El Mouden, E.H., Mateo Miras, J.A. & Tahar, S., 2009	This species is distributed from Mauritania, Western Sahara and southern Morocco, east through northern Africa to southwestern Israel. It probably also occurs in Sudan but there are no records from this country yet. It is a lowland species ranging from sea level up to around 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
178210	habitat	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., El Mouden, E.H., Mateo Miras, J.A. & Tahar, S., 2009	This desert species is found in sand dunes with sparse vegetation, including sandy regions, with Mediterranean scrub, in coastal areas. It is ovoviviparous with three to five young.	eng
178210	population	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., El Mouden, E.H., Mateo Miras, J.A. & Tahar, S., 2009	This species is common and can be locally abundant.	eng
178210	threats	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., El Mouden, E.H., Mateo Miras, J.A. & Tahar, S., 2009	There appear to be no major or widespread threats to this species. Some populations are locally threatened by persecution and the pet trade. Large numbers are collected in Egypt for venom extraction, and these animals are generally not released.	eng
178211	conservation	Grismer, L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status is suggested. The establishment of protected areas could provide a safeguard for this species.	eng
178211	distribution	Grismer, L., 2009	This species is known from three localities on peninsular Malaysia (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been found in the Cameroon Highlands, which range in elevation from 1,100 to 1,550 m above sea level (Smedley 1931), but is also known from submontane regions at elevations as low as 650 m above sea level (Grismer<em> et al.</em> 2003). The area in which this species is distributed is approximatly 7,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178211	habitat	Grismer, L., 2009	Like other species of this genus, this semi-fossorial species is only known from tropical montane forest (Grismer <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003, L. Grismer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178211	population	Grismer, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, since it is rarely seen (L. Grismer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178211	threats	Grismer, L., 2009	There are currently no known major threats affecting the forests at the elevations in which this species occurs. If deforestation was to occur, this would likely affect the species, since removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as this species.	eng
178212	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178212	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality on the Kenya-Ethiopia border, at Malka Murri, in the extreme northeast on the border with Ethiopia, having an altitude of about 800 m elevation (Largen and Spawls 2006).	eng
178212	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species occurs in dry savanna woodland (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, M. Largen pers. comm.).	eng
178212	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178212	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178213	conservation	Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178213	distribution	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is found in the Namib Desert of northwestern Namibia, from Erongo to Kaokoland.	eng
178213	habitat	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species inhabits desert gravel plains.	eng
178213	population	Turner, A.A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178213	threats	Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no major threats impacting this species.	eng
178214	conservation	Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. & Sweet, S.S. , 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas; however, the species is reported as absent from Yala National Park in Sri Lanka, possibly caused by the high density of crocodiles in the park (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). Because of the recent changes of <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus salvator</span> taxonomy based on morphological analyses, DNA sequencing work is urgently needed to validate the genetic differences between subspecies, which is likely to alter the taxonomy of this species and hence the outcome of future conservation assessments.	eng
178214	distribution	Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. & Sweet, S.S. , 2009	This species is extremely widespread throughout southern and Southeast Asia (Gaulke and Horn 2004). <span style="font-style: italic;">Varanus salvator salvator</span> is endemic to Sri Lanka, while <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. macromaculatus</span> occurs throughout southern Asia and Southeast Asia, and as far north as southern China (Koch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007, Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). It also occurs on Borneo and Sumatra. <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. andamensis</span> is endemic to the Andaman Islands and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. s. bivittatus</span> occurs on Java and some of the Lesser Sunda islands (Gaulke and Horn 2004, Horn and Gaulke 2004, Koch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Recent work has shown that the species is absent from northeastern Myanmar, northern and northeastern Thailand, all but coastal Cambodia, and all of Laos except for the ranges on the Vietnam border (Cota <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009); it is also absent from northwestern Vietnam, Yunnan,  and all but the immediate coastal strip of south China adjacent to Hainan, as well as Timor and Seram and from part of the Lesser Sunda chain  (M. Cota and S. Sweet pers. comm.). Although the species has an upper elevational limit of 1,800 m above sea level, it is typically a lowland species which is common only in areas up to 600 m and rare at higher altitudes, particularly above 1,000 m (M. Gaulke pers. comm.).	eng
178214	habitat	Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. & Sweet, S.S. , 2009	This species is semi-aquatic and opportunistic and inhabits a variety of natural habitats, such as primary forests and mangrove swamps (Gaulke and Horn 2004, Weijola 2010). The presence of man does not deter these monitors from areas with human disturbance (Gaulke <em>et al.</em> 1999), as they have been reported to thrive in agricultural areas (e.g., rice, oil palm) and even cities with canal systems (e.g. in Sri Lanka, where they are not or hardly disturbed, hunted and prosecuted by man; M. Gaulke pers. comm.) and second-growth forest (S. Sweet pers. comm.). Furthermore, their aquatic habits provide them with a measure of safety (E. Pianka pers. comm.), and their generalist diet may provide added ecological plasticity to this species (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009). In Borneo and Sulawesi, the species in this complex seem to be less tolerant of human activities and do not generally thrive in agricultural regions where there is extensive loss of natural vegetation (S. Sweet pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the species may inhabit all the habitats listed above in at least parts of its range, they cannot all be considered equally as important. The habitats considered most important to this species are mangrove vegetation, swamp and wetlands at altitudes of below 1,000 m (Gaulke and Horn 2004).	eng
178214	population	Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. & Sweet, S.S. , 2009	This species<em></em> group is thought to be abundant in many places (Gaulke and Horn 2004), including some cities like Bangkok (E. Pianka pers. comm.), but no specific population data exists.	eng
178214	threats	Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. & Sweet, S.S. , 2009	The main threat to this species comes from hunting, as the skin of this species is used in the leather trade, its meat is eaten, and its fat is used in traditional medicine. Although in 1998 the annual allowable catch was set at 454,000 (Auliya <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the skin trade has decreased slightly since the 1990s, extensive hunting still occurs in many areas, with national and international protective legislation being ignored. As a result, some populations are likely to go locally extinct. However, in other areas, this species is still abundant (Herrmann 1999, E. Pianka pers. comm.). This resilience may be because of this species' ecological flexibility, high reproductive rates, or the fact that harvesting is mainly concentrated on males (Shine <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>Apart from direct utilization of this species, destruction of habitats for oil palm plantations, farming, timber, and firewood have caused declines in population numbers in some areas, particularly in Borneo and Sulawesi, where the species in this complex seem to be less tolerant of human activities and do not generally thrive in agricultural regions (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is likely that habitat loss was the main reason for population declines in those areas where this species has disappeared (D. Bennett pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In Sri Lanka, the species is not  hunted for meat due to the belief that its meat is toxic, but the oil extracted  from it is used for traditional medicine and witchcraft. However,  this is a very trivial threat compared to the numbers lost from road traffic (R.  Somaweera pers. comm.). Since the species can tolerate very polluted habitats,  and thrive in areas with high anthropogenic activity, habitat degradation and  loss may not be major threats to this species in Sri Lanka (R. Somaweera pers.  comm.).	eng
178215	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	This species has been declared rare and given a protected status in Queensland. In places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. The Queensland government has made attempts to stop the clearing of habitat where this species occurs (the cause of habitat and population decline) but it is unknown how effective this is (P. Doughty pers. comm. 2010). Further research into the population and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178215	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species occurs from the Darling Downs to the coastal regions of central and south-eastern Queensland, Australia (Cogger 2000), within the Brigalow Belt Bioregion.	eng
178215	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This is an arboreal gecko, occurring in dry sclerophyll forests, and eucalyptus and cypress woodlands (Cogger 2000).	eng
178215	population	Doughty, P., 2009	In 1973, Dale noted that this species was common within its range. However, more recently this species has been declared rare in Queensland (Nature Conservation Wildlife Regulation 2006). &#160;It has been reported that there has been an 87.5% reduction in area of suitable habitat and a 50% reduction in medium suitability habitat since European settlement due to clearing (P. Doughty pers. comm. 2010), from which we can infer a population decline, where the threats causing the decline have not been removed.	eng
178215	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is under major threat from habitat degradation and loss. It is almost entirely found inside the Brigalow Belt, which has lost 60% of the natural vegetation over the past 200 years due to agricultural expansion (Wilson 2003). &#160;This species may also be threatened by feral cats, and foxes as they are known to prey on geckos (Read and Bowen 2001), and by the introduced Cane Toad through competition for food and direct predation (Commonwealth Department of the Environment and Heritage 2005). &#160;Furthermore fire regimes as part of State Forest management could be impacting this species as it is known to occur in a number of state forests.	eng
178216	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.	eng
178216	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occurs in wet rainforest between Cooktown and Townsville in Queensland, Australia (Williams 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,718 km²<sup></sup>. This species is known to occur between 100 and 1,300 m above sea level (Meynecke 2003).	eng
178216	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occurs in rainforest habitat in the wet tropics of Australia (Schneider and Moritz 1999).	eng
178216	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is reported to be common within its range (Williams 2006). H. Cogger (pers. comm.) states that this species is abundant and thriving even in small isolated (but protected) patches of its extensive habitat.	eng
178216	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	The habitat of this species has been fragmented by logging and land clearing for agriculture, with some protected areas now isolated by pastures (Tucker 2000). In addition, the wet rainforests in this region are thought to be severely threatened by climate change, with the native species facing increased range restrictions as a result (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). The habitat may also be negatively affected by invasive species.	eng
178217	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss due to deforestation and to reduce the impact that introduced species are having on native species in the Pacific Islands. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers of this species should also be carried out.	eng
178217	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is known from both of the islands of Western Samoa, as well as from four small islands northeast and northwest of the Samoa group. These four islands are Swains and Nukunono Islands of the Tokelau group (American Samoa), Pukapuka Island of the Danger group (Cook Islands), and Funafuti Island of Tuavalu (Gill 1993). This species is also known to occur in Wallis and Futuna (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,071 km². This has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands it inhabits. &#160;Its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (C. Austin pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178217	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species inhabits moist broadleaf forests. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).	eng
178217	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is considered uncommon (Gill 1993).	eng
178217	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural expansion, which is considered the principle threat to this species: In Samoa, 2,500 ha of forest was lost annually (out of 104,790 ha total forested area) between 1980 and 1995 (Rosillo-Calle and Woods 2003). High rates of deforestation are still occurring on many of the Pacific Islands in which the species is found. Introduced species, such as cats, rats, and pigs, also pose a threat to the native species of the Pacific islands, including this species.	eng
178218	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178218	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from the humid southeast of Madagascar as well as the High Plateau central region (Krüger 1999, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species was found up to 950 m above sea level in the High Plateau region (Krüger 1999).	eng
178218	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to populate trees, walls and gardens in the towns of Antsirabe and Ambositra. It has also been found on introduced agave plants and tree trunks of large eucalyptus trees in degraded or secondary forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178218	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to be common in some areas in the central highlands (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178218	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Habitat loss, due to the expansion of agricultural activities such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, is occurring within this species' range. However, this species is able to tolerate urban and altered environments, and therefore habitat loss cannot be considered a major threat at present.	eng
178219	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178219	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species inhabits the Yule River and de Gray River catchments in the Pilbara region, Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178219	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species inhabits areas of shrublands with spinifex (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178219	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178219	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known threats impacting this species.	eng
178220	conservation	Zhou, K.Y., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the taxonomy, distribution, ecology and threats of this species.	eng
178220	distribution	Zhou, K.Y., 2009	This species is known from the Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces of China (Zhao <em>et al</em>. 1999).&#160;Specimens have been collected from areas at 830 to&#160;<defanghtml_st1:chmetcnv w:st="on" unitname="m" sourcevalue="1980" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0">1,980 m</defanghtml_st1:chmetcnv>&#160;above sea level (K. Zhou pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178220	habitat	Zhou, K.Y., 2009	This species is a nocturnal, arboreal, insectivorous gecko, can be found on the  outside of buildings such as walls and pig pens built with sun-dried bricks (K. Zhou  pers. comm. 2010). It occurs in very high densities, and is observed equally in  lighted and dark areas of walls (Zhou<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 1982).	eng
178220	population	Zhou, K.Y., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178220	threats	Zhou, K.Y., 2009	Possible threats to this species are ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to expansion of agricultural land, grazing, and logging and other pressures associated with the region's increasing human population. However, as the habitat preferences are not known, the severity of these threats cannot be determined.	eng
178222	conservation	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	There are protected areas within this species range. No further research is needed into this species at this time.	eng
178222	distribution	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	This species is known from Colombia (north and east of the Andes, as far east as the Magdalena river) and from Panama. In Colombia, the species is very common north of the Magdalena and Cauca river valleys, in the Uraba and Caribe; it was found as far north and east as Becerril in the Cesar Departament, and Colosó in Sucre Departament, and on the Pacific coast in the Nuqui municipality in the Choco Departament, but with no more specimens having been found anywhere north of this locality (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). This species is found between sea level and 510 m above sea level.	eng
178222	habitat	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	This species is found in leaf litter in lowland tropical forest habitat, including secondary forest. The species has also been collected from a garden in the heart of Panama City.	eng
178222	population	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	This species has been reported to be locally common in some areas, such as north of the Magdalena and Cauca river valleys (J. Arredondo pers. comm.)	eng
178222	threats	Arredondo, J.C., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species, which appears to be able to adapt to living in urbanized areas.	eng
178223	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population and habitat status and threats of this species is required.	eng
178223	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species has a restricted range in the Bahamas, including the Bimini Islands, Andros Island, New Providence, Elbow Cay (Cay Sal Bank), and the Ragged Islands. The estimated range of this species is approximately 5,870 km² and it is found in no more than eight localities (G. Mayer pers. comm. August 2010).	eng
178223	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species inhabits xeric and semi-xeric woods with sandy soil along the coast (Thomas 1968, Thomas and Thomas 1978). It has been found around the roots of <em>Tournefourtia</em> shrubs, at the base of gumbo-limbo in a log pile, in dry leaves and sandy humus at the border of coppice, under rocks, beneath stacked railway ties in transitional mangrove scrub, in abandoned mesic nursery under potted plants, in termite-inhabited stumps, in termitaria, and under cardboard in an ant nest (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This snake is nocturnal and is known to feed on termites (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178223	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178223	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	The native vegetation of the Bahama islands has been extensively converted due to logging, tourism development, and recreation. However, as this species is tolerant of artificial environments, such habitat degradation is not interpreted as a major threat. Introduced predators, such as rats, pigs, and cats are present on the Bahama Islands, and may be affecting the species, although to what extent is unknown due to its fossorial nature.	eng
178224	conservation	Arredondo, J.C., Mayer, G.C. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. The species occurs in the Cordillera Volcanica Central<br/>Biosphere Reserve (G.C. Mayer pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178224	distribution	Arredondo, J.C., Mayer, G.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is distributed from southeastern Nicaragua through to Panama and into northern Colombia (Savage 2002, Villa 1971). It extends into the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in the Caldas Departament, and eastern records extend to the municpalities of Betulia, San Vicente de Chucuri and Cimitarra (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). This species is found from sea level to 1,360 m above sea level.	eng
178224	habitat	Arredondo, J.C., Mayer, G.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species inhabits a diverse range of habitats including lowland moist and dry forest, premontane wet forest, and modified habitats such as cacao plantations (Savage 2002). It is reported to be most abundant in habitats with large, buttressed trees (Whitfield and Pearce 2005). This species is most often found in leaf litter, but is also encountered sheltering under stones and on the moist bark of tree trunks (Vitt <em>et al.</em> 2005, Villa 1971).	eng
178224	population	Arredondo, J.C., Mayer, G.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is reported to be very common in Costa Rica (Guyer and Donnelly 2005, Savage 2002) and is one of the most common lizards north of the Magdalena Valley in Colombia (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).	eng
178224	threats	Arredondo, J.C., Mayer, G.C. & Castro, F., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, however, due to its large distribution and generalist habitat preferences this should not be considered a major threat at present.	eng
178225	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178225	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in the northeast of South America, in Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana, and the West Indies; including the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada (including Hog Island), Guadeloupe, St Vincent Island, the Grenadines (including Mustique Island), Saint Maarten Island of the Netherlands Antillies, Antigua and Barbuda, and St Thomas of the US Virgin Islands.	eng
178225	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in open sunny places (sometimes within or adjacent to forested areas, although the species has never been found in forest) where it lives between leaf litter or grass. This species has been found in gardens and parks, and other areas modified by humans.	eng
178225	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178225	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178226	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178226	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in southern Patagonia, Argentina, and adjacent eastern Chile to the Straits of Magellan, Chile.	eng
178226	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in Patagonian Steppe habitat.	eng
178226	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178226	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
178227	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178227	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Although the exact distribution of this species is not known, it is widespread over central, eastern, and north-eastern rainforests in Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178227	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This secretive species is primarily found in rainforest.	eng
178227	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178227	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Due to the wide range of this species, it is unlikely that it is being significantly impacted by any major threat.	eng
178228	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to inhabit the protected area of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range. Further research into its biology and ecology, distribution and abundance, and threats is needed.	eng
178228	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is endemic to Myanmar and is currently known only from the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, southern Rakhine State (Bauer 2003).	eng
178228	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been collected from an area of lowland forest.	eng
178228	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is currently known only from the type and paratype specimens collected in 2001 (Bauer 2003).	eng
178228	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but the impact of this potential threat is uncertain.	eng
178229	conservation	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to estimate its population<em></em>&#160;size and to ensure that no threats are acting upon it or its habitat.	eng
178229	distribution	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	This species is found in the northern Namib Desert of Namibia, including the Caprivi Strip, and adjacent southwestern Angola.	eng
178229	habitat	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	This species is found in deserts on scrub-covered sand dunes.	eng
178229	population	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178229	threats	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threat processes.	eng
178230	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, distribution, habitat preferences and threats is required.	eng
178230	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The island of Guadalcanal has an area of 5,336 km².	eng
178230	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species is arboreal. One specimen has been collected from secondary rainforest at 200 m above sea level (Brown and McCoy 1980).	eng
178230	population	Allison, A., 2009	This gecko is known only from a few specimens.	eng
178230	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unknown what threats may be impacting this species. The restricted range of this species suggests that it may be vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
178232	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, research and monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, as localized threats may become more widespread.	eng
178232	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is found throughout northern and eastern Australia, from east Kimberley in Western Australia to central New South Wales.	eng
178232	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This is primarily an arboreal species inhabiting woodlands, as well as coastal and riverine forests. It is also reported near human dwellings and gardens (Cogger 2002).	eng
178232	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178232	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species may be threatened locally by habitat loss and degradation but this is not likely to be causing significant declines across its range.	eng
178233	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001, Chandra and Gahbe 2003). No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178233	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Western Ghats south of Goa Gap and the Nilgiri and Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu (Smith 1943). Chandra and Gahbe (2003) also found this species in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, in Madhya Pradesh. This species is found between 600 and 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
178233	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits moist soft soils of dense moist forests (Daniel 2002, Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001). This snake burrows in loose earth and is found in the soil or under stones and logs in the forest. It eats almost exclusively earthworms (Daniel 2002). This species is ovoviviparous ( Rajendran 1985).	eng
178233	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) and Daniel (2002) state that this species is fairly common.	eng
178233	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178234	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the population and distribution of this species, as it is only known from one specimen. Additional research into any threats that are affecting this species is also required.	eng
178234	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This Indian endemic is only known from one specimen, its type locality is in the Cardamom Hills near Trivandrum in Kerala (Sharma 2003, McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178234	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, and is primarily found in moist montane forests.	eng
178234	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) described this species as rare.	eng
178234	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. The species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it may be able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178235	conservation	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers, threats and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178235	distribution	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	This species is endemic to Afghanistan, and is known only from the area surrounding Kabul. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 16,100 km². This species is found between 1,800 to 2,300 m above sea level.	eng
178235	habitat	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	As this species is distributed in northeast Afghanistan, it is probably a montane species, inhabiting alpine vegetated areas. This species is known as a house gecko from villages around Kabul, where it is reported to be common on walls at night   (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
178235	population	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178235	threats	Anderson, S.C. & Papenfuss, T.J, 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178236	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>L. picturatus</em>, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It is known to be located within Tana Primate National Reserve in Kenya and Gendeagenda Forest Reserve in Tanzania (Malonza <em>et al.</em> 2006, Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178236	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in Kenya and Tanzania. It has been confirmed as far south as Gendeagenda forest reserve in northeast Tanzania, however, the distribution of this species is unclear and requires confirmation. Previous records are unreliable due to confusion surrounding the taxonomy of <em>Lygodactylus</em> (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178236	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits coastal woodland and low-altitude savanna, from sea-level to a maximum altitude of around 500 m. It also tolerates, and even thrives, in suburban environments where it can be found on ornamental trees, and on walls and buildings (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/><em>L. picturatus</em> is oviparous, with known clutch sizes of two. It is diurnal and arboreal (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178236	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species across its full range, however, it is reportedly common around Mombasa (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178236	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178237	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
178237	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species<em></em> is known from the Rio Paute drainage in the northern Cordillera Oriental, in the provinces of Azuay and Morona-Santiago, Ecuador. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,793 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178237	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known from moist montane tropical forest.	eng
178237	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178237	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation, as a result of urban and agricultural expansion, and logging pose a major threat to this species.	eng
178238	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178238	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, from the Cordillera de la Costa Central, Venezuela.	eng
178238	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is found in evergreen cloud forest habitat.	eng
178238	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178238	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	The area in which this species is distributed is threatened by the conversion of forests due to agriculture, urban expansion, and illegal logging, and it is likely that these are causing population declines to some degree<em></em>. Cloud forests, where this species occurs, are also susceptible to climate change which will threatened this species in the future.	eng
178239	conservation	Horner, P., Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its known distribution falls entirely within the Kakadu National Park. The species is listed as 'Rare' or 'Insufficiently Known' in the Taxonomic List of Australia's Threatened Reptiles. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178239	distribution	Horner, P., Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is known from the East Alligator River drainage near Jabiluka, in the western Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. However, its distribution within this range is poorly known (H. Cogger pers. comm.). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,791 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178239	habitat	Horner, P., Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in ground litter within woodlands.	eng
178239	population	Horner, P., Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	Horner (1992) recorded this species as uncommon.	eng
178239	threats	Horner, P., Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are large amounts of uranium deposits in the area that have been mined since about the 1940s. Although the surrounding land is protected, there is ongoing controversy with regard to the expansion of the mining zone. The habitat within this species' range is also influenced by the nearly annual burning of grasslands (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178240	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species currently has no conservation measures in place for it. It may be found in protected areas in parts of its range. More research is needed into its taxonomy, habitat status and threats.	eng
178240	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been recorded from Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Myanmar.	eng
178240	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits forest and forested areas.	eng
178240	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is common in parts of its range (R. Stuebing pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178240	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unlikely that a major threat is causing significant declines in this species across its range.	eng
178241	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including El Yunque National Forest. Further research into the habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178241	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Puerto Rico and is found in upland areas across the island. Puerto Rico has an area of 9,100 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between 50 and 1,220 m above sea level.	eng
178241	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in upland areas under objects and debris in broadleaf forest.	eng
178241	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species occurs locally in densities as high as 10,000 ha (Thomas and Gaa Kessler 1996).	eng
178241	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, since many upland habitats are protected in Puerto Rico and are not particularly vulnerable to alteration by humans. However, localized habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural and urbanization may be occurring.	eng
178242	conservation	Lau, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but a considerable area of its habitat falls within protected areas. This is a rather widespread and common species and is not under serious threat, therefore no further conservation action is deemed necessary at this stage.	eng
178242	distribution	Lau, M., 2009	<em>T. kuehnei kuehnei</em> is distributed in southeastern China and Taiwan. The subspecies <em>T. k. vietnamensis</em> is only found in northern Viet Nam.	eng
178242	habitat	Lau, M., 2009	This is a ground-dwelling species, but it also climbs on vegetation. It occurs in forests, at forest edges and near creeks.	eng
178242	population	Lau, M., 2009	This is a common species (M. Lau pers. comm.).	eng
178242	threats	Lau, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is currently significantly impacting this species across its range. However, this species is associated with low to mid-altitude forests and may have been impacted by past widespread deforestation in the region.	eng
178243	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for this species. However, it is likely to be found within protected areas.	eng
178243	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This species is found in South Africa from the northeastern Limpopo province, extending through Mpumalanga to coastal northern KwaZulu-Natal. It is also found in Swaziland, southern Mozambique and there is an isolated relict population that occurs on the eastern escarpment of Zimbabwe.	eng
178243	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This burrowing skink can be found in various habitat types from desert sand and coastal dunes, dry shrubland and savanna, to woodland humus and forest floors.	eng
178243	population	Heideman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178243	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178244	conservation	Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178244	distribution	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from the upper valleys of the Rio Mantaro, eastern slopes of the Andes, in the departments of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, central Peru. It is found between 2,350 and 3,966 m above sea level.	eng
178244	habitat	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species was collected from xeric areas where <em>Agave</em> and species of cactus are the dominant vegetation.	eng
178244	population	Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178244	threats	Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. The altitude at which this species is found has not been influenced significantly by human activity.	eng
178245	conservation	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and population size, threats, habitat status, biology and ecology is needed, as not much is known about this species at present.	eng
178245	distribution	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unclear at this time what the actual distribution of this species is. It is mostly distributed in India and is likely to be restricted to the southern part of the country. In the past, however, similar species have been misidentified as belonging to this species (Pope and Pope 1933), and while it has been reported from diverse areas such as southern China and Pakistan, these reports are likely to be erroneous. M.S. Khan (pers. comm.) specifically states that this species does not occur in Pakistan.	eng
178245	habitat	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species inhabits hilly forested areas.	eng
178245	population	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178245	threats	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178246	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, harvest levels, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178246	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs in isolated fragments in the eastern rainforest bordering the central highlands of Madagascar, in the Andramasina region (M. Vences pers. comm.). Its estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km²<sup></sup>. &#160;Recently further collections of this species have been made in northern localities,&#160;including the Anjozorobe reserve and the Ambatovy area.	eng
178246	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This arboreal species is known from a few individuals collected from humid rainforest (Seipp 1994). This species appears to live mainly on dead trees within rainforest (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178246	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	According to M. Vences (pers. comm.), commercial collectors report that this species has become very rare and that the population is in severe decline, as is the case with other herp species that are collected and endemic to the same area such as <em>Mantella aurantiaca</em>.	eng
178246	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that has become extremely fragmented due to human activities including logging and the expansion of agricultural activities such as slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming and associated brushfires. This species is also harvested for the international pet trade.	eng
178247	conservation	Bates, M.F., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology, population size and distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178247	distribution	Bates, M.F., 2009	This thread snake is endemic to Angola and known from only four localities in the west of the country, from the type locality of Humbe in the south, northwards to Luanda (Broadley and Broadley 1999). Specimens from Kibwezi in Kenya were referred to this species by McDiarmid <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999), but in a subsequent detailed taxonomic revision by Broadley and Wallach (2007) the same specimens were identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Leptotyphlops scutifrons merkeri</span>. The species may possibly also occur in Namibia, but this has not yet been confirmed.	eng
178247	habitat	Bates, M.F., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
178247	population	Bates, M.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178247	threats	Bates, M.F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178248	conservation	de Silva, A., Gower, D.J. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out because threats may cause significant declines in this species in the future.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'	eng
178248	distribution	de Silva, A., Gower, D.J. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is found in the lowland dry zone of the North, North Central, Uva and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka. Known locations include Ampara, Vavuniya, Mullativu, Trincomalee, Pollonnaruwa, Anuradhapura, Galoya, Moneragala, Buththala, Wilpattu, Rajanganaya (Somaweera 2006).	eng
178248	habitat	de Silva, A., Gower, D.J. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist dark brown soils. It is found in dry lowland forests, grasslands and anthropogenic habitats.	eng
178248	population	de Silva, A., Gower, D.J. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178248	threats	de Silva, A., Gower, D.J. & Somaweera, R., 2009	The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm. 2010). However, R. Somaweera (pers. comm. 2010) states that slash-and-burn cultivation and resulting fires, road kills, and predation by poultry, cats, and crows are common threats to members of this family.	eng
178249	conservation	Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that habitat loss and degradation is not having a greater impact on its population than previously thought.	eng
178249	distribution	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from the western slopes of the Andes in northern Peru. It is found between 1,200 and 2,600 m above sea level.	eng
178249	habitat	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species occurs in moist montane forest and scrub habitat, where it is found in more open areas where breaks in the canopy allow light to reach the ground. This species has been found in secondary forest and disturbed habitats including agricultural plantations, banana and coffee groves and along roads.	eng
178249	population	Aguilar, C., 2009	Cadle (1991) states that this species is abundant in the vicinity of the type locality, and is common in secondary forest and agricultural plantations.	eng
178249	threats	Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Loss and degradation of natural habitat is occurring within its range<em></em>, however, this species is able to adapt to secondary forest and plantations and therefore habitat loss cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178250	conservation	Vyas, R.V., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. There are four National Parks in Gujarat, but the presence of this species has not been confirmed from any of them. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178250	distribution	Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species is believed to be endemic to the Indian state of Gujarat, in a small area of New Port, Porbandar City (R. Vyas pers. comm.).	eng
178250	habitat	Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species has been found in dense xerophytic vegetation in marshy coastal areas.	eng
178250	population	Vyas, R.V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178250	threats	Vyas, R.V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
178251	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution and population size is recommended.	eng
178251	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Pakistan. It is known from the type locality of Fort Munro, a small town in the district of Dera Ghazi Khan, Punjab Province (Khan 1993), as well as nearby Khar village (Khan 2002). The type specimen was collected from an elevation of 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
178251	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Khan (2003) lists 'sandstone' habitat for this species. Fort Munro is a mountainous town, situated on a hill, over-looking the Khar Plain (Khan 1993). Large blocks of tumbled rock cover the steep sides of the hill, with scattered growth of grasses and low thorny bushes. The species lives among these rocks, though the type specimen and paratypes were taken in a variety of anthropogenic environments, such as gardens and inside mosques, police stations, hospitals and hotels.	eng
178251	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, however it is said to be quite common around the type locality (M.S. Khan pers. comm.2010).	eng
178251	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178252	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is likely to occur in protected areas within its range. Monitoring of both population and habitat trends of the species is needed.	eng
178252	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	According to Grossmann (1986), this species <em></em> inhabits the region south of 15º N in Southeast Asia. This includes southern Myanmar, peninsular Thailand, Cambodia, southern Viet Nam, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Borneo), the Andaman Islands, and the Nicobar Islands. However, Stuart and Emmett (2006) note that in Cambodia it is known from a single locality and is not distributed across the entire country (B. Stuart pers. comm.)	eng
178252	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is a canopy-dwelling arboreal species (R. Inger pers. comm.), living almost exclusively in trees and only coming down to the ground to nest or move between trees (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006). It has been found in flatland trees as well as coastal areas (Rogner 1997). A study in 1986 found the species in primary rainforests, cultivated patches, in gardens and on individual isolated palm trees (Grossmann 1986). <br/><br/>The species is oviparous. The eggs undergo an incubation period of 69 days (Grossmann 1986). Clutch sizes may range up to 14 eggs and more than one clutch may be produced each year (Das 2002).	eng
178252	population	Inger, R.F. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that this species has been found from scattered points around Borneo and that its known distribution suggests it to be abundant.	eng
178252	threats	Inger, R.F. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	Conversion of forest in southeast Asia into agriculture or mosaic, and degradation to savanna or woodlands results in habitat destruction for the native arboreal species. The annual deforestation rate in southeast Asia has been calculated at 0.91% from 1990-1997, with much higher rates in specific regions (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). Central Myanmar, Central Sumatra, and Southern Viet Nam, all regions where this species is present, have experienced annual deforestation rates of ~3.0%, 3.2-5.9% and 1.2-3.2%, respectively (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Inger (pers. comm.) states that though widespread in Borneo, the species is dependent on the continued existence of large areas of forest and that, as a forest-restricted species, the rate of deforestation puts it at risk.<br/><br/>The tourism industry in this region may also cause habitat destruction or degradation. The Seribuat Archipelago of Malaysia, for example, supports a growing tourism industry, but the effects of this on the species is not yet known (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>Though this species is impacted by these threats in parts of its range, it remains widespread and these are not considered major threats at this time.	eng
178253	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and distribution of this species should be carried out.	eng
178253	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from south and east of the Orinoco River to Caatinga of northeastern Brazil (Presch 1980). It has also been collected in Curacao (Thomas 1965).	eng
178253	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	From its range, this species is presumed to inhabit both moist lowland and montane forests.	eng
178253	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178253	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178254	conservation	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas (e.g., Corcovado National Park). Further monitoring of the population and habitat status should be undertaken to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178254	distribution	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is known from the lowlands and lower pre-montane areas of southwest Costa Rica. It may also occur in adjacent Panama (Savage 2002). This species is found between 30 and 884 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,472 km².	eng
178254	habitat	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species inhabits undisturbed moist forest, and is generally found along watercourses.	eng
178254	population	McCranie, J.R., 2009	Savage (2002) states that this species is rare in certain localities.	eng
178254	threats	McCranie, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any widespread threat is impacting this species. This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to urban and agricultural expansion, however, the system of protected areas is wide and effective in Costa Rica and so habitat loss and degradation cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178255	conservation	Wallach, V. and Powell, R, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Much of this species' range lies within Parque Nacional Jaragua provides some measure of protection (Powell and Incháustegui 2009).&#160;Management of protected areas should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population and habitat status, distribution, and effects of threats on this species should be carried out.	eng
178255	distribution	Wallach, V. and Powell, R, 2009	This species is endemic to the Barahona Peninsula of Hispaniola (Schwartz 1976; White <em>et al. </em>1992b) and is found in lowland areas (Thomas 1965; Henderson and Powell 2009). It was recently collected at Punta Lanza on Isla Beata (Hedges and Thomas 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,570 km²<sup></sup>. A large proportion of this species range falls within the&#160;Parque Nacional Jaragua.	eng
178255	habitat	Wallach, V. and Powell, R, 2009	This species is known to inhabit xeric woodlands on limestone substratum (Hedges and Thomas 2001). These habitats are characterized by deciduous trees, thorny shrubs, and an undergrowth of cacti and succulents (White <em>et al.</em> 1992). The species is also thought to extend into more mesic habitats on the southern slopes of Sierra de Baoruco (White <em>et al.</em> 1992). The soils where the species has been found vary from dense clay to loose sands, all including scattered rocks. <br/><br/>This species is semi-fossorial to fossorial (White <em>et al.</em>1992).	eng
178255	population	Wallach, V. and Powell, R, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178255	threats	Wallach, V. and Powell, R, 2009	Habitat loss and degradation are likely to pose a threat to this species. Meanwhile, the Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat due to logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuel-wood collection (Schubert 1993). It has been suggested that logging reduces both humus and leaf litter due to the removal of large trees by logging (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), which makes the environment less suitable for ground-dwelling species such as the members of this genus.	eng
178256	conservation	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178256	distribution	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is found on Cuba, the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas and has been introduced to southern Florida (Wilson and McCranie 2002). This species has also been introduced to the Isla del Cisne Grande in the Caribbean Sea (J. McCranie pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178256	habitat	McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is found in rocky environments and in coastal locations. This species is also known to occur in anthropogenic environments.	eng
178256	population	McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178256	threats	McCranie, J.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178258	conservation	Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, population, distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178258	distribution	Joger, U., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality in Somalia at northern Migiurtinia near Meledin. Migiurtinia is the region now known as Bari at the tip of the Horn of Africa.	eng
178258	habitat	Joger, U., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178258	population	Joger, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178258	threats	Joger, U., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178259	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has been given Rare status in South Australia, but was assessed as Least Concern in the Northern Territory. It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas.	eng
178259	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has a wide but scattered distribution from the Northern Territory to Western Australia and into northwestern South Australia.	eng
178259	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This small skink is found in areas of low rainfall, on sandy soils in wooded or shrubby areas.	eng
178259	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	It has been stated that this species is uncommon (Horner 1992) and infrequently encountered (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178259	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no major threats affecting this species.	eng
178260	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178260	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is known from the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and from the lower reaches of the basin of the Madera river in Brazil.	eng
178260	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species is found in Amazonian savanna habitat, including the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia. This species feeds mainly on invertebrates.	eng
178260	population	Castro, F., 2009	This species is abundant in some localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
178260	threats	Castro, F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178261	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the population trends and threats is needed to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future.	eng
178261	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is found in Western Australia in the Murchison and Fortescue River districts (Cogger 2000).	eng
178261	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is thought to prefer scrub-acacia habitats (Pianka 1972), though it is also reported from spinifex-covered rocky outcrops (Cogger 2000).	eng
178261	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178261	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	This species' habitat has undergone some localized habitat degradation and loss due to mining activity and clearing for grazing and other agricultural purposes.	eng
178262	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, but its distribution coincides in places with the Reserva de la Biosfera Baconao. Monitoring is recommended because of the small extent and disjunct nature of the species’ range.	eng
178262	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to southeastern Cuba where it occurs in disjunct coastal locations in Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo districts (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The range of the species is around 720 km²<sup></sup>, taking account of its disjunct range, while the overall extent of occurrence is approaching 2,000 km².	eng
178262	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in arid coastal forest under natural debris, and it has also been found in rubbish piles, stone walls and buildings in the city of Santiago.	eng
178262	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178262	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	The natural habitat of this species is declining due to deforestation caused by agricultural and urban expansion. However, this species is able to adapt to anthropogenic environments, so habitat alterations do not appear to be major threats at this time.	eng
178263	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Research into the abundance, habitat and threats this species is needed.	eng
178263	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species appears to only be known from the type locality in Gunong Lawit, northern Terengganu, Malaysia.	eng
178263	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Specimens of this species were found sheltering under stones near streams (Dring 1979).	eng
178263	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no population data for this species.	eng
178263	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including expansion of agricultural land and logging, which are prevalent in the area.	eng
178264	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed as Range Restricted with a Recovering population due to Human Impacts (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). The entire range of this species is contained within the Fiordland National Park. Population monitoring is recommended to ensure this species is in fact recovering, and measures to keep the island habitat free of invasive alien species need to be continued.	eng
178264	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to New Zealand, known from the Fiordland coastline, mostly on islands (Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010). &#160;It was reported on around 40 small islands off the   south-west Fiordland coast and one adjacent mainland site (Gill & Whitaker 2001), between Nancy Sound and Dusky Sound. It has been recorded in the western-most island of each of the Seal Islands and Gilbert Islands groups at the entrance to Breaksea Sound, Fiordland (Hardy 1977), and was reintroduced   to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Hawea</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">Island</st1:placetype></st1:place>, Breaksea Sound, Fiordland in 1988 (Thomas & Whitaker 1995). It is also known from Breaksea Island (Thomas and Whitaker 1995), which it naturally recolonized from a stack 100 m offshore following eradication of Norway rats in 1988 (Thomas pers. comm., Taylor and Thomas 1993, Towns 1994). Due to its occurrence mainly on islands, its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (D. Chapple pers. comm. 2010).<br/><br/>In 1977, Hardy stated that little intensive collecting had occurred on the west coast of the South Island and therefore the distribution would have been less restricted than known at the time. The current distribution, however, is considered to be relictual, since previously the species would have almost certainly occurred in high numbers throughout coastal Fiordland (Thomas and Whitaker 1995).	eng
178264	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This coastal species inhabits exposed rocky shoreline platforms and boulder beaches, cracked and creviced foreshore rocks and boulder beaches on open coast (Thomas and Whitaker 1995). This species seeks cover in rocky cracks and crevices and may enter splash pools to escape danger (Gill and Whitaker 2001). Occasionally it ventures into the adjacent zone of supra-littoral vegetation. Individuals have been seen under coastal shrub only twice and both in places where this vegetation joined the shoreline rocks (D. Chapple, pers. comm). This species is diurnal, and an extremely avid sun-basker (Gill and Whitaker 2001). It is an adept swimmer and apparently has a high tolerance to salt water (Thomas 1985, Towns 1994).<br/><br/>This species feeds on a variety of invertebrates. It has been observed taking prey ranging in size from blackflies (<3 mm) to blowflies (12 mm). Chitinous invertebrate fragments from 20 droppings included small snails, amphipods, isopods, millipedes, spiders, harvestmen, weevils, flies, wasps and caterpillars (Thomas 1985).	eng
178264	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed to have a Recovering population (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). &#160;It is considered abundant to extremely abundant in areas free from mammalian predators; conversely it is sparse, often to the point of extirpation in areas with mammalian predators (Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).	eng
178264	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species had not been observed on islands colonized by Norway rats, however, it is known to have naturally recolonized Breaksea Island from nearby rocky outcrops once the rats had been exterminated (Thomas and Whittaker 1995).<br/><br/>The native skinks of New Zealand are threatened primarily by the impacts of introduced species. Goats, deer and possum are known to alter the vegetation structure (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002, Atkinson and Towns 2001), while a variety of birds and mammals are known to prey on skinks. Such predators include magpies, Australasian harriers, New Zealand falcons, feral cats, ferrets, stoats, weasels, ship rats, Norway rats, mice and European hedgehogs (Tocher 2006).	eng
178265	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve. Efficient management is required to ensure that habitat loss does not occur within designated protected areas. Further research into the threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178265	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from the Bemaraha region of western Madagascar (Puente <em>et al.</em> 2005). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 945<sup> </sup>km².	eng
178265	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Specimens of this species have been collected from tree trunks in dry semi-deciduous forest and were found to be active during the day (Puente <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is also known to inhabit disturbed dry forest.	eng
178265	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species appears to be quite common in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Reserve (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178265	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The dry forests within this species' range are now extremely fragmented (Ganzhorn 1999) and the remaining habitat continues to be threatened by the expansion of slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, conversion of forest to grazing land, logging and the establishment of invasive plant species (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994). Although the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve provides some protection, damage from cattle grazing and agricultural encroachment was still occurring within its boundaries when it was declared a World Heritage Site (WCMC 1992).	eng
178266	conservation	Martins, M. & Nogueira, C., 2009	<p>Although the species is specialized in a habitat type which is not very common within its distribution area and there are threats impacting it, it has a wide distribution area and occurs in some reserves. Thus, at present there is no urgent need of species-specific conservation measures. However, in case the rate of destruction of its habitats does not decrease in the next decade, its conservation in the future will require species-specific measures (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).</p>	eng
178266	distribution	Martins, M. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is distributed in southern Brazil from Minas Gerais in the north, to the border with Paraguay. It is found up to 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
178266	habitat	Martins, M. & Nogueira, C., 2009	This species inhabits grassy and bushy areas, as well as open savanas occurring at relatively high elevation (1,500 m).<p></p>	eng
178266	population	Martins, M. & Nogueira, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178266	threats	Martins, M. & Nogueira, C., 2009	In many areas within its distribution, this species is suffering from habitat destruction, mainly the change of natural Cerrado grasslands into extensive areas of soya bean plantations and pasture.	eng
178267	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is likely that parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Given the species desirability in the pet trade, further research on the distribution and populations status of the species are urgently needed, as is research into potential harvest levels.	eng
178267	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Waigeo in West Irian Jaya, Indonesia, where it is thought to be mainly found on the eastern part of the island near the coast (Jacobs 2003). Although there is no knowledge of a verified specimen or photograph, it may also inhabit West Waigeo (S. Sweet pers. comm.). However, a recent survey of the herpetofauna of Waigeo did not report this species (Hamidy and Mulyadi 2007). The total area of Waigeo Island is approximately 3,140 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178267	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	The island of Waigeo is dominated by moist lowland forest. Therefore this species is likely to be a forest specialist. Being an island isolate derived from <span style="font-style: italic;">V. prasinus</span>, it is likely to have a similar ecology, which would imply a largely arboreal lifestyle.	eng
178267	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178267	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is threatened by collection for the pet trade, with around 90% of the animals in the trade being taken from the wild (S. Sweet pers. comm.). However, there appears to have been little trade in the species in recent years, but this is unlikely to be caused by a reduction in demand.	eng
178268	conservation	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protected area establishment and management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring of this species should also occur.	eng
178268	distribution	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is restricted to the central highlands (Greer 1991). However, it is absent from the Knuckles range (de Silva <em>et al</em>. 2005). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 674 km². This species has an elevational range of 600 to 1,700 m above sea level.	eng
178268	habitat	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is found in montane rainforests (Greer 1991) amongst moist leaf litter and under stones and logs. This species feeds on insects and lays two eggs at a time.	eng
178268	population	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178268	threats	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	Habitat loss due to agricultural practices,&#160;especially&#160;land preparations, is a major threat to this species. The high levels of deforestation in Sri Lanka are also likely to be impacting this species&#160;(R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178269	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Further research on the taxonomy, distribution and habitat of this species is recommended to determine its taxonomic status and assess whether it is threatened.	eng
178269	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The exact location of the type of this species is unknown, but is presumed to be India (Khan 1999).	eng
178269	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no information available on this species' habitat or ecology, as distributional information is unknown.	eng
178269	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178269	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is not known if any threats are affecting this species.	eng
178270	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas, for example the Sierra de Bahoruco National Park. Further research into the population status of this species is recommended as a decline in population numbers could trigger a threat category in the future.	eng
178270	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species is found in southern Hispaniola, from Petit Goave to Bainet and east to Ravine Normande, Haiti, with the distribution possibly extending into the uplands of Savane Mouton near the Dominican Republic. A population is also found in the western part of La Selle-Baoruco massif. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,850 km².	eng
178270	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species is found in mesic shaded areas. It has been found in leaf litter, under rocks and rubbish piles, in coffee and banana plantations, and in&#160;<em>Artocarpus </em>and <em>Mangifera </em>litter.	eng
178270	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178270	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species' natural habitat is threatened by agricultural and urban expansion. However, this species is able to utilize some agricultural habitats, such as plantations, so that the severity of these threats on the species are unknown.	eng
178271	conservation	Horner, P., 2009	No specific conservation measures are in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178271	distribution	Horner, P., 2009	This species inhabits the north coast of Western Australia from Northwest Kimberley to Litchfield National Park, Northern Territory.	eng
178271	habitat	Horner, P., 2009	This species inhabits the sub-humid habitats of the Kimberley region (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999), including grasslands, shrublands and savannas. This species is fossorial, nocturnal and oviparous (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
178271	population	Horner, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178271	threats	Horner, P., 2009	There are no major widespread threats affecting this species.	eng
178273	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the range and population of this species is required.	eng
178273	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is known to inhabit the montane regions of the central highlands of Papua New Guinea, but is absent from Indonesia. The type specimen was collected between 2,280 and 2,440 m above sea level on Mount Wilhelm, Bismarck Range, Madang Division (Loveridge 1945).	eng
178273	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species inhabits primary and secondary forest (Allison and Kraus 2006). This species is ovoviviparous (Allison and Greer 1986).	eng
178273	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178273	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Habitat loss due to deforestation occurs in the region, however, it not thought to pose a major threat to this species.	eng
178274	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. There are protected areas within its range.	eng
178274	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species has a wide distribution across Southeast Asia. It is distributed from southern Thailand southward throughout the Malayan peninsulaand is found on Borneo and many islands of Indonesia (Simeulue, Nias, Mentawi, Sumatra, Bangka, and Billiton)	eng
178274	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species inhabits moist lowland forests and mangroves. It can also occur in cultivated areas.	eng
178274	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is reported to be "quite common" (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
178274	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	Deforestation for the oil palm industry is causing rapid habitat loss across Southeast Asia. However, due to the wide range of this species and because it can inhabit agricultural areas, this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178275	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in numerous protected areas within its range, for example the   Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178275	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in Queensland, from Cooktown south to Townsville. It occurs from Big Tableland to the Bluewater Range. This species is found between sea level to 1,200 m above sea level (Covacevich and McDonald 1993).	eng
178275	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the wet tropics, where it inhabits rainforest near water margins.	eng
178275	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is reported as common (Schneider <em>et al</em> 1999).	eng
178275	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any threat process.	eng
178276	conservation	Gamble, T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its island habitat is protected by the Galápagos National Park and Marine Reserve. Research into the habitat preferences and threats of this species is needed. Population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178276	distribution	Gamble, T., 2009	This species is only known from San Cristóbal Island in the Galápagos (Cope 1889). The island has an area of 546.6 km².<sup></sup>	eng
178276	habitat	Gamble, T., 2009	San Cristóbal Island has a range of habitats from evergreen forest to grassy highlands. This species has been found in rocky areas and under bark on trees across the island  (Van Denburgh 1912).<br/><br/>This species lays eggs in October and November in rocky areas (Fitter <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178276	population	Gamble, T., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178276	threats	Gamble, T., 2009	It is possible that this species is being impacted by habitat degradation. The natural vegetation of San Cristóbal Island is threatened by the grazing of livestock such as cattle and feral goats, and invasive plants including the guava <em>Psidium guajuva</em> are replacing evergreen forest and spreading into grassy zones (Schofield 1989). However, this threat is unlikely to be causing significant continuous declines at present. It is also possible that this species is predated upon by feral cats (T. Gamble pers. comm.).	eng
178277	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is required into the biology and ecology, population, and potential threats that exist to this species.	eng
178277	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in southern Africa. Its presence has been confirmed in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi.	eng
178277	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178277	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178277	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Threat impacts on this species are not well understood, however, given its broad distribution, and life history, there are not thought to be any major threats impacting this species.	eng
178279	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Parque Nacional da Serra das Confusoes, an IUCN category II National Park. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range, including community-based initiatives to ensure that deforestation by the local population is managed. Further research into the distribution, population, threats and conservation actions should be carried out. Population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178279	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality, Toca da Cabocla, Piaui, Brazil. Surveys have been conducted at Lagoa do Jacu and Olho a'Agua da Santa, to the north and south of the type locality, but no further specimens have been found despite significant catch effort. It can therefore be assumed that the species is endemic to the local region of the type locality and the area in which this species is distributed is estimated as less than 5,000 km².	eng
178279	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is fossorial and nocturnal and was found in a patch of sandy soils in an area dominated by Caatinga vegetation. Other species of the genus are restricted to sand dunes and areas with sandy soils.	eng
178279	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens at its type locality. Since it was collected less frequently than its congeners, it is assumed to be relatively rare.	eng
178279	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	A large proportion of the Caatinga habitat has been lost or degraded as a result of agricultural expansion. Timber extraction for firewood is also degrading the habitat. Although this species is found within a National Park, the local population continues these practices on a subsistence scale.	eng
178280	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out into the population numbers of this species as it seems to be rare.	eng
178280	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is distributed in the arid interior of South Australia.	eng
178280	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	General habitats for this species are desert environments, generally in local sandy areas within regions dominated by heavier soils or stony deserts. The vegetation cover is typically very sparse (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178280	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is rarely encountered (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178280	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats.	eng
178281	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178281	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known from the type locality at Buoenloy, Gilai-Contum province, Viet Nam, at 700 m above sea level (Darevsky and Orlov 1994).	eng
178281	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	The type specimens for this species were found on fallen tree trunks under the canopy of a primary tropical forest. From this habitat information, it is assumed that this skink is semi-arboreal to arboreal (Darevsky and Orlov 1994).	eng
178281	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178281	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and more widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>The extent of deforestation in the Gilai-Contum province is unknown, however, as this species is known to be arboreal and inhabit primary forests, it may be especially susceptible to the impacts of forest loss.	eng
178284	conservation	Hedges, S.B. and Powell, R. , 2009	The entire range of this species is within a protected area, since Navassa Island became part of the National Wildlife Refuge system in 1999. However, no personnel are on site and Navassa is “monitored” from the regional centre in Boqueron, Puerto Rico. Further research into potential threats, and monitoring of population and habitat trends is suggested as this species has a restricted range and is vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
178284	distribution	Hedges, S.B. and Powell, R. , 2009	This species is endemic to Navassa Island which has an area of approximately five km².	eng
178284	habitat	Hedges, S.B. and Powell, R. , 2009	This species is found in cactus scrub, <em>Ficus</em> trees, woodland and savanna areas. While this species was only absent in areas which were completely devoid of vegetation,&#160; habitats with only a sparse tree or shrub layer are thought to be sub-optimal (Powell 1999). Although the species will forage in open areas, it requires trees to maintain reasonable population densities.	eng
178284	population	Hedges, S.B. and Powell, R. , 2009	This species is abundant in all but the most exposed habitats (Powell 1999).	eng
178284	threats	Hedges, S.B. and Powell, R. , 2009	Navassa Island has not been inhabited since World War II. Although Navassa Island is fairly high (around 77 m above sea level) and steep-sided, so sea level rise due to future climate change is unlikely to have an immediate impact on the habitat of this species, these lizards must cope with habitat that was degraded historically by mining operations and more recently by frequent visits by Haitian fishermen and occasional groups of Haitian squatters in addition to uncontrolled populations of goats that destroy the vegetation on which these lizards depend and predation by introduced dogs and cats.	eng
178285	conservation	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Ambatovaky Special Reserve and Ranomafana National Park. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178285	distribution	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has a wide distribution within Madagascar. It has been found in Ambatovaky in the northeast, Ranomafana Park in the east, and the Tolanaro region in the southeast. This species is found between 50 and 1,050 m above sea level.	eng
178285	habitat	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in valley bottom, slope, and ridge, forest.	eng
178285	population	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been described as common (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).	eng
178285	threats	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178286	conservation	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers and threats to this species are needed due to its restricted range.	eng
178286	distribution	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits the hills of the Central and Uva provinces of Sri Lanka (Haldumulla, Nanunukula, and Uva Patnas). It has been found at 1,220 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is distributed over approximately 7,590 km².	eng
178286	habitat	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils. It is primarily found in montane forests, however, it has also been recorded in agricultural habitats.	eng
178286	population	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178286	threats	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. However, this species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, but the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178287	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species at present.	eng
178287	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits the Western plateau, South Gulfs, Lake Eyre basin, Bulloo River basin, and Murray-Darling basin of New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983)	eng
178287	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits arid sandy areas with spinifex (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is associated with large sandy desert tracts, such as the Simpson Desert, Strzelecki Desert and Great Victoria Desert. Within the Mutawintji National Park, the species was only recorded on red soil grasslands and shrublands (Swan and Foster 2005). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
178287	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	M. Hutchinson (pers. comm.) states that this species is very common in many localities.	eng
178287	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, because a large proportion of the habitat within this species' range is arid, and therefore sparsely inhabited by humans and unsuitable for agriculture.	eng
178288	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should also be carried out.	eng
178288	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known from a few localities within the states of Amazonas, Cajamarca and Piura in Peru, and Zamora-Chinchipe state in Ecuador. It is known from only a few specimens, many of which are over a century old (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178288	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This is an arboreal species found in lowland moist forest habitat.	eng
178288	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178288	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	High rates of deforestation occurring within this species' range are causing its habitat to become increasingly fragmented (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). Therefore habitat loss and degradation from logging and agriculture are a likely threat to this species.	eng
178289	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known from the protected area Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (Bauer 2003). Further research into its biology, abundance and range, habitat status, threats is needed.	eng
178289	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has only recently been described from its type locality at Gon Nyin Bin Camp, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, Monywa District, Sagaing Division, Myanmar. There is some disagreement over the potential distribution of this species. Bauer (2003) expects a range extension eastward through the dry zone to Shan Plateau, while G. Zug (pers. comm.) believes that as its known occurrence at Alaungdaw Kathapa is on the western edge of the central dry zone, and further collections will instead be likely along the eastern face of the Chin Hills.	eng
178289	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The type locality of this species is in the central dry zone of Myanmar, between the Rakhine Yoma (Arakan Yoma) of the Indo-Burman Range in the west and the extensive montane areas beyond the Sittaung (=Sittang) River in the east (Bauer 2003).	eng
178289	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from three specimens, all of which were collected from the same locality in 2000 (Bauer 2003).	eng
178289	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but as its range is unknown, the extent and severity of this potential threat is uncertain.	eng
178290	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, most, if not all, of its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Lamington National Park and Border Ranges National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178290	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the MacPherson Ranges bordering New South Wales and Queensland. This species is found between 800 and 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
178290	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in highland closed rainforest.	eng
178290	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178290	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178292	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas, including the Gran Humedal del Norte de Ciego de Ávila. Further research is needed into the ecology of this species and its tolerance of degraded habitats.	eng
178292	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Cuba, where it occurs from Villa Clara to Las Tunas including the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Hedges and Garrido, 1993).	eng
178292	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is mesophilic to semi-xeric in nature and has been found in dry forest under surface debris.	eng
178292	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178292	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Habitat loss as a result of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring in parts of this species' range. However, no evidence has been found to indicate that this is causing population declines in the species at this time.	eng
178293	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution does coincide with protected areas. It is known to inhabit the Gunung Kinabalu National Park in Sabah, Malaysia, which has an area of 753 km²<sup></sup>. It is also known from Niah National Park, in Sarawak, Malaysia, which has an area of 35 km²<sup></sup>. Both of these protected areas are IUCN Category II. Further research is needed on the biology and ecology, threats, habitat status, and abundance of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178293	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Borneo (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has been recorded at 915 m above sea level on Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo (Greer 1970). In 1996, <em>L. vyneri</em>&#160;(recorded as <em>L. nieuwenhuisi</em>)&#160;was recorded in West Kalimantan (Auliya 2006).&#160;<em>L. nieuwenhuisi</em>&#160;has been described from Long Bloe (Blu or Bloeoe) on the upper reaches of Sungei Mahakam in Kalimantan, while&#160;<em>L. vyneri</em>&#160;was further described from isolated localities in northern Borneo, such as at Nanga Tekalit Camp on Sungei Mengiong, Kapit Division, at Pangkalan Lobang, Niah National Park, Miri Division, and at Kiau and Mahunbayon, Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Ranau District (Das 2004). In 2006 <em>L. vyneri</em> was recorded in the Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan (R. Bonke and M. Auliya pers. comms. 2010).<p><span lang="EN-GB"> </p>	eng
178293	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	It is thought that this species inhabits the canopy and rarely descends to the forest floor (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforest.	eng
178293	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178293	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 21-25% of the forest across Kalimantan was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). More recent estimates are unavailable. This species may be especially vulnerable to the impacts of deforestation, as this species is arboreal.	eng
178295	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	Further research into the threats and habitat status of this species is required, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.	eng
178295	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is thought to be known only from type locality, 50 km south of El Manzano, Paso El Choique, Mendoza, Argentina. The species was found at 2,260 m. This species might occur more widely.<br/><br/>In the species' description the location of the type is incorrectly given as 36<sup>o</sup> 27'S, 60<sup>o</sup> 50'W, which corresponds to a site in Buenos Aires province.	eng
178295	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in xeric montane habitat, characterized by basaltic outcrops, rocky slopes and sandy soil. Vegetation in this area is clumpy, and consists of bunch-grass and cacti.	eng
178295	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There is no population information availiable for this species.	eng
178295	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	Habitat degradation as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock is a potential threat to the species.	eng
178296	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the specific habitat preferences of this species should be carried out, as little is known about this at present.	eng
178296	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been collected from the Antsiranana Province in northern Madagascar which has an area of less than 45,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178296	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in dry forest (M. Vences pers. comm.), requiring relatively open habitats.	eng
178296	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from quite a number of localities (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178296	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Although parts of this species' habitat may be affected by habitat loss, this does not seem to be a major threat at this time (Ramanamanjato <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
178297	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of this species is required prior to any further conservation measures being implemented.	eng
178297	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to occur predominantly in northwestern Madagascar, but it is also known to occur in southwest Madagascar and Nosy Be Island (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178297	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Species in this genus are nocturnal and are known to inhabit primary or secondary forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). Although the specific habitat preferences of this species are unknown, based on its distribution, it may inhabit western Madagascan dry forest.	eng
178297	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data availale for this species.	eng
178297	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The dry forests in this region are now extremely fragmented and the remaining habitat continues to be threatened by the expansion of slash and burn' tavy' farming, conversion of forest to grazing land, logging and the establishment of invasive plant species (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994).	eng
178298	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.	eng
178298	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu, between 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,360 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178298	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane evergreen forests.	eng
178298	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.	eng
178298	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178299	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178299	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been reported from northern Madagascar (D'Cruze <em>et al,</em> 2007), the south-east (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002), the east and south-west as well as offshore islands including Nosy Boraha, Nosy Mangabe and Nosy Be (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is also known to occur on Comoros, Mauritius, and has been introduced to Tanzania.	eng
178299	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This nocturnal and arboreal species inhabits rainforests and has been reported from cleared areas (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is also reported from habitats in a transitional zone between humid, spiny and littoral forests (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is frequently found under bark, in cavities in dead trees or in the axils of <em>Pandanus</em> and <em>Ravenala</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178299	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> (2007) recorded that this species was rare in the massif Montagne des Francais.	eng
178299	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, localized threats may exist in part of this species' range due to habitat loss.	eng
178300	conservation	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178300	distribution	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is widespread in Hispaniola (Sproston <em>et al.</em> 1999), including Isla Beata, Isla Saona, Isla Catalina, Cayos Siete Hermanos, Isla Cabras, Ile de la Gonave, Ile de la Tortue, Ile a Cabrit, and Grosse Caye. This species is found from 20 m below sea level to 520 m above sea level (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178300	habitat	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is found in the xeric lowlands between major mountain ranges and along the southern and eastern coasts (Gifford <em>et al.</em> 2004). It inhabits <em>Acacia</em> scrub and woods, xeric woodlands, mangrove borders, scrublands, and open beaches with some cover (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It may also occur in mesic areas around human habitation, where population density is approximately 140 lizards/ha (Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Schell <em>et al.</em> 1993).&#160;<br/><br/>On the Barahona Peninsula, the species is almost always associated with soil substrate, whereas other concurrent species of this genus are associated with rocky outcrops or substrates (Gifford <em>et al.</em>&#160;2002).<br/><br/>This species creates two distinct types of burrows, one for shelter and one for egg laying. This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of five eggs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The eggs are deposited in an accessory chamber of the main deposition burrow and covered with packed earth. These lizards may eat <em>Anolis</em> eggs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178300	population	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species has been described as ubiquitous in dry lowlands on the island (Gifford <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
178300	threats	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	Although much habitat destruction and degradation has taken place on Hispaniola, this species is highly adaptable and able to tolerate modified environments (Henderson and Powell 2009). Therefore such habitat loss is not interpreted as an imminent threat.	eng
178301	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, portions of its distribution coincide with protected areas, including the Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge and the Guánica forest UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Populations of this species should be carefully monitored in the likely chance that the effects of coastal development will become more severe in the very near future.	eng
178301	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species is found along the southern, western and north-central coasts of Puerto Rico due to its xerophilic nature (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The dry climate of the southwest of the island allows the range to extend further inland. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,700 km².	eng
178301	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species has been found in a range of habitats including both xeric and coastal forests, open areas and beaches, plantations, semi-evergreen ravines, and grass and brush scrubland. Individuals of this species are known to occur in anthropogenic environments, such as gardens.	eng
178301	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	Rivero (1998) and Genet <em>et al.</em> (2001) describe this species as abundant in some localities.	eng
178301	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban expansion is occurring within this species' range, and tourism-related coastal development has the potential to affect populations more dramatically than it has until now. To date, however, threats have had only localized effects on populations. Due to many populations in coastal habitats, rising sea level as a consequence of ongoing climate changes are likely to have a substantive and negative impact on these lizards.	eng
178303	conservation	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats should be carried out.	eng
178303	distribution	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species inhabits Sri Lanka (Taylor 1950). No specific type locality was given although most of Taylor's collections were made around Trincomalee. It is also possible that a specimen has been collected from the northeast coast of the island (R. Somaweera pers. comm.).	eng
178303	habitat	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. However, members of the genus tend to be cryptic and burrow in the leaf litter and soil (Greer 1977).	eng
178303	population	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178303	threats	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178304	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	Further research into this species is required, particularly into the species' range, habitat and threats.	eng
178304	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	The range of this species is not well known; it has been recorded from the state of Coquimbo, Chile, but no further details of the distribution are known.	eng
178304	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in high altitude areas, probably in Andean steppe habitat.	eng
178304	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	No population data are available for this species.	eng
178304	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are potential threats to this species in the region of Coquimbo, which has a relatively high human population density. However, as the species' distribution is not well known it is not possible to assess the direct threats to this species in detail<em>.</em>	eng
178305	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species, and it does not occur within a protected area. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be implemented.	eng
178305	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is known from only a small area in the foothills of the Sierra Maestra of eastern Cuba at elevations of 260–465 m above sea level. Its estimated distribution is less than 5,000 km²<sup></sup> with its area of occupancy considerably less due to a lack of suitable habitat. &#160;Furthermore, its distribution is severely fragmented due to the expansion of agriculture in the region.	eng
178305	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species often is associated with dead agaves in karst regions, sometimes on very steep slopes.	eng
178305	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species was among the rarest lizards within its range, with only eight specimens collected in the type series during three visits to the area (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178305	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Caribbean islands in the past have suffered a very high level of deforestation, with only 10% of original habitat left on average on these islands (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). While most of Cuba had been originally forested, less than 20% of forest cover remained in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993), and habitat loss has remained prevalent. Because the species appears to prefer vegetated karst areas, the expansion of agriculture in its range often results in deforestation of even rocky areas and can be a major threat.	eng
178306	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment and management of protected areas are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and provide safeguards for this species. Monitoring of this species is recommended.	eng
178306	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known from the low inter-montane basins on both sides of the Andes in the provinces of Azuay, Canar, and Loja, southern Ecuador; this species is found in the upper valleys of the Rio Paute (Atlantic drainage) and Rio Jubones (Pacific drainage). This species is found between 2,300 and 3,200 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,847 km².	eng
178306	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.	eng
178306	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178306	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in a region that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging. Mining is also prevalent in the region and may pose an additional threat to this species.	eng
178307	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as protected area establishment and management, are required to reduce the rate of deforestation and habitat loss occurring in the area. Further research and monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
178307	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species<em></em> inhabits Bougainville, an island off Papua New Guinea, and Choiseul, Guadalcanal and Nggela of the Solomon Islands (McCoy 1980). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 19,329 km², which has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands.	eng
178307	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species lives in very moist conditions in river valleys and can be found under stones and in piles of dead leaves and other debris in wet stream beds (McCoy 1980). The lizard forages in and around debris at the side of streams in heavily shaded areas. On Bougainville, it is described as a montane lizard (McCoy 1980). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous with one egg per clutch (McCoy 1980).	eng
178307	population	Allison, A., 2009	In 1980, McCoy considered this species to be common on Nggela Island.	eng
178307	threats	Allison, A., 2009	The lowland forests of the Solomon Island have been exploited for centuries, primarily due to conversion of forest to agriculture (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Certain coastal regions have been depopulated since colonial rule began in 1893, and now have secondary forest. However, starting in the 1990s there has been an increase in commercial logging on the islands (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pelling and Uitto (2001) comment that in the Solomon Islands, "a weak forestry department and civil society have little power to restrict the activity of foreign (mainly Japanese-based) forestry companies". Therefore habitat degradation and destruction is a threat to this species.	eng
178308	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within national parks throughout its entire range. Despite these protected areas, anthropogenically influenced habitat change is still occurring, therefore management of these areas is required to prevent the continued restriction of this species' range.	eng
178308	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to east Africa and is known from four mountains all with altitudes of at least 2,700 m above sea level and up to 4,500 m. These locations are Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon, Cherangani Hills, and the Aberare Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,226 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178308	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This montane species inhabits moorland above the tree line.	eng
178308	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178308	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	This species has a very restricted habitat, however, all of its range is found within national parks. Despite the protected status, moorlands are still being burnt and the high local human population means that these habitats are still vulnerable to habitat disturbance and change.	eng
178309	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The establishment and management of protected area is suggested to provide small safeguards for the species from habitat loss. Further research into the population status, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178309	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This Cuban endemic is restricted to the extreme southeastern coast. The area in which it is distributed is approximately 1,708 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178309	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is xerophilic and is found in dry forest, and often associated with Agave (Schwartz and Garrido 1985,&#160;Schwartz and Henderson 1991, S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178309	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178309	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Habitat loss due to agricultural and urban development is occurring within this species' range.	eng
178310	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178310	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in southern Mendoza and northern Neuquen, Argentina, between 34 and 37 degrees latitude. This species has an elevation range of 900 to 2,310 m above sea level.	eng
178310	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in arid rocky areas.	eng
178310	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no population data available for this species.	eng
178310	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species, although it may be locally threatened as a result of overgrazing by domestic livestock which causes habitat degradation.	eng
178311	conservation	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found in the National Reserve of Paracas (Reserva Nacional de Paracas) (M. Lundberg pers. comm.). No further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
178311	distribution	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is distributed from south-western coastal Ecuador south to southern  Peru. This species' elevation range normally stretches from sea-level to 200 m above sea level (Dixon and Wright 1975). The species is present and presumed to have be introduced on both Lobos de  Tierra and Lobos de Afuera, as well as other guano islands along the coast; it is also present, probably naturally, on Sangayan (Reserva Nacional de Paracas) and Isla Foca in  northern Peru (A. Catenazzi pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178311	habitat	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is found throughout the coastal region of its distribution. It inhabits rocky areas, mud cliffs, salt crust beaches, and sand dunes and flats, with or without vegetation. It has been described as normally being found within 100 m of the water (Dixon and Wright 1975), but it is also found in other habitats inland, in the desert and river valleys (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).	eng
178311	population	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178311	threats	Lundberg, M. & Catenazzi, A., 2009	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.	eng
178312	conservation	Grismer, L.L. & Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status, and threats is required.	eng
178312	distribution	Grismer, L.L. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known from Kuala Lumpur and Cameron Highlands in Pahang state, Malaysia. The original listing of Selangor by Boulenger is incorrect and the collection refers to Kuala Lumpur (L. Grismer pers. comm).	eng
178312	habitat	Grismer, L.L. & Ineich, I., 2009	The habitat preferences for this species are not known, but it is likely to inhabit moist forest.	eng
178312	population	Grismer, L.L. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species is very hard to find and is only reported from a few collections (L. Grismer pers. comm.).	eng
178312	threats	Grismer, L.L. & Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes, but habitat degradation is a possibility.	eng
178314	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178314	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is known from Madras and Ramnad in India, and from Mariccukatti in northern Sri Lanka (Sharma 2002). Only old and vague records are available and no specific localities are known, either in the past, or more recently.	eng
178314	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits dry forests.	eng
178314	population	de Silva, A., 2009	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "rare, undeterminate".	eng
178314	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178315	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into its ecology.	eng
178315	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from the states of Atacama, Antofagasta and Tarapaca, in northern Chile.	eng
178315	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	The dominant habitat within the range of this species is hot desert.	eng
178315	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178315	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178316	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178316	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species occurs from the Pilbara Plateau in Western Australia eastward to the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).	eng
178316	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species has been found sheltering in termite mounds (Cogger 2000) and is also known from rocky and sandy habitat in wooded and partially wooded areas (How and Dell 2004).	eng
178316	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178316	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	This species has no major threats at this time.	eng
178318	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of the species<em> </em> is required prior to any further conservation measures being implemented. Also research on distribution, habitat status, and threats should be carried out.	eng
178318	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in northeastern Madagascar and the far north of the island, in an area approximately equal to 35,000 km². However, the range of this species may change once taxonomic uncertainties have been clarified.	eng
178318	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in humid forests. Specimens have been found under wood and debris in dry sewage ditches (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178318	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178318	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The habitat within this species' range is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation and slash-and-burn 'tavy' agricultural practices, a technique widely used across Madagascar. However, it is unknown what impact this is having on the species.	eng
178319	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research to determine the taxonomy of the species is required prior to any further conservation measures being implemented.	eng
178319	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported to be widely distributed in Madagascar and is thought to occur from northern to southeastern Madagascar including the offshore island of Nosy Be (D'Cruze <em>et al</em>. 2007, Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007). This species has been found between 40 and 320 m above sea level.	eng
178319	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is reported from humid and littoral forest as well as disturbed habitats (D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> 2007, Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species has been found to occur on the plant <em>Ravenala</em> and surrounding trees, in syntopy with <em>Geckolepis typica</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178319	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	D'Cruze <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that this species was common in the massif Montagne des Francai.	eng
178319	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Forests in this region are being lost or degraded due to human activities such as the expansion of agricultural activities, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming. Although in some areas local logging is technically prohibited, this is not well enforced and selective logging continues. Habitat degradation is also caused by out-of-control wildfires due to tavy practices (Bollen and Donati 2006).	eng
178320	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178320	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in northwest Argentina, in the provinces of San Juan, La Rioja, Mendoza, and Catamarca.	eng
178320	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in scrubland and forest habitat (R.E. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). &#160;This species is oviparous.	eng
178320	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178320	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is acting on this species, however, it is possible that it is locally threatened as a result of the expanding human population and associated agricultural practices.	eng
178322	conservation	Mayer, G.C., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and habitat preferences of this species is needed.	eng
178322	distribution	Mayer, G.C., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	This species is only known from a single specimen which was found in the Département de l'Artibonite, Haiti.	eng
178322	habitat	Mayer, G.C., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	The only specimen known was taken from a coastal oasis surrounded by xeric desert.	eng
178322	population	Mayer, G.C., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	S.B. Hedges (pers. comm. 2009) reports that two surveys were conducted at the type locality, the most recent being 1997, and that the species was not found. It is likely that less than 50 mature individuals remain.	eng
178322	threats	Mayer, G.C., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	Many Haitian habitats have disappeared or are heavily degraded, so that only the most ecologically tolerant species are surviving in many locations (R. Powell pers. comm. 2010). S.B. Hedges (pers. comm. 2010) states that all the natural forest within this species' potential range is long gone, due to agricultural and urban expansion. &#160;Because no species of the genus is adapted to a completely denuded landscape (bare dirt), it doesn't really matter that we have a poor knowledge of the ecological habits of the species to determine that it is threatened (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).&#160;<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
178323	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are currently no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is required.	eng
178323	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found on the Tiburon Peninsula, but is mainly restricted to the west and east of the peninsula, occurring in more than ten locations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is found on Île-à-Vache, and on Montagne Noir and Morne de Cayette in Haiti. This species is reported to occur up to 1,650 m above sea level.	eng
178323	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is a mesophilic to semi-xerophilic species, found in open areas, including beaches, field margins, mangrove edges and the margins of broadleaf woods, and upland pine forest. It has also been found in cultivated shady areas (Franz and Cordier 1986, Schwartz and Henderson 1991, Henderson and Powell 2009).	eng
178323	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178323	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Haiti is heavily deforested, and less than 1% of its original forests remain (Hedges and Woods 1993). Tree-cutting continues in the national parks, and no evidence suggests that deforestation will end until all forests are removed. These extreme habitat alterations will continue to decrease population levels of this species.	eng
178324	conservation	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. However, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The frequency of fires should be monitored.	eng
178324	distribution	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	This species is comprised of two subspecies with discrete distributions.&#160;<em><em>T. a. africanus</em>&#160;</em>occurs in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal, from Pondoland to Maputaland, as well as in adjacent Swaziland.&#160;<em>T. africanus fitzsimonsi</em> is restricted to Algoa Bay in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. <br/><br/>A further isolated population of <em>T. a. africanus</em> may have existed at Witzieshoek in the Free State province of South Africa. A single specimen from this locality was first reported in 1915; the specimen has been examined and was confirmed as <em>T. a. africanus</em> by De Waal (1978) and Bates (1992). The species has never again been collected in the area so this record may represent an extinct subpopulation, or alternatively the specimen may have been mislabelled specimen (M. Bates pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178324	habitat	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	<em>T. a. africanus</em> occurs in coastal grassland and <em>T. a. fitzsimonsi</em> is found in coastal fynbos.	eng
178324	population	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	Branch (1998) reports this species to be very common.	eng
178324	threats	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species; however this species may be threatened by frequent and unregulated anthropogenic fires (M. Bates pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178326	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	Monitoring of this species' population trends should be carried in order to detect population declines when they are happening. Further research into the effect of threats on this species is also recommended. The establishment of protected areas would help in safeguarding this species' habitat.	eng
178326	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	This species is endemic to southwestern Madagascar. It is found in the region around Toliara, from Lavenonbato to Firherenana. It has a distributional area of 2,800 km² and is found in no more than ten locations.	eng
178326	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	This species has been found in various dry habitats from sand dunes to forests.	eng
178326	population	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178326	threats	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	This species avoids humans and urban areas (Rogner 1997). Destruction and degradation of habitat due to land conversion for urban areas and agriculture in southern Madagascar are the major threats to this species, and are likely to cause habitat fragmentation and loss.	eng
178327	conservation	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H.,, 2009	This species occurs in the Naila Reserve in Morocco and in other protected areas including the Massa National Park. No further conservation measures are needed for this species at this time.	eng
178327	distribution	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H.,, 2009	This is an Atlantic coastal species that ranges from southwestern Morocco through Western Sahara and Mauritania into northern Senegal. It is a lowland species ranging up to 350 m above sea level. It is also present in the Massa National Park (J.M.&#160;Pleguezuelos pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178327	habitat	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H.,, 2009	This species is generally restricted to coastal dunes and sand banks. It is a viviparous species.	eng
178327	population	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H.,, 2009	This species is abundant in southwestern Morocco and Western Sahara.	eng
178327	threats	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H.,, 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
178328	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	This species is a CITES Appendix II species. In many places its distribution coincides with protected areas (e.g. it certainly occurs in almost all large reserves in Brazilian Amazonia, which represent more that 200,000 km² of protected forests), probably providing safeguards to threats such as deforestation (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178328	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in Colombia, Venezuela, French Guiana, Brazil (in the states of Amazonas, Para, Amapa, Mato Grosso, Roraima and&#160;Rondonia), Peru (Rio Orosa), and possibly in Guyana and Suriname. This species is confined to local and small populations in the western portion of its range (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178328	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is a semi-aquatic lizard known from the margins of rivers, lakes and from inundated forest. Martins (2006) states that the species is always associated with flooded forests, and has never been seen in streams through non-flooded forests. <br/><br/>This species feeds on terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates including amphibians, reptiles, fish, crabs and spiders. Vertebrates form about one third of its diet<em></em>.	eng
178328	population	Martins, M., 2009	This species is locally common in areas of seasonally flooded forests along all large rivers of Amazonia (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178328	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species; however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation and urban expansion.	eng
178330	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution should be carried out in order to identify whether any threats are affecting this species in parts of its range.	eng
178330	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	The distribution of this species is poorly known. It has only been found in the coastal areas of southwest Ecuador on the peninsula de Santa Elena, in Guayas province (Cisneros-Heredia 2008). &#160;It has also been recorded in&#160;Chiclin, La Libertad, in Peru. The extent of its distribution between these two regions is not known (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178330	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in coastal desert areas, feeding predominantly on insect larvae.	eng
178330	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178330	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178331	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178331	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species appears to be only known from its type locality in the hills near Scout Camp, Sara Buri, Sara Buri, Thailand (Talyor 1963).	eng
178331	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is found in dry deciduous forests.	eng
178331	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178331	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area having declined from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).	eng
178332	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species; it occurs in reserves (e. g., it is a very common species at Maracá Ecological Station, a 104,000 ha reserve in Roraima, Brazil) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178332	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is known from the state of Roraima in Brazil, from the Pacaraima foot hills in Guyana, in the state of Nickerie (between Avanavero and Amotopo) in Suriname, and from the states of Anzoategui, Delta Amacuro, and Monagas in Venezuela.	eng
178332	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is a diurnal ground-dwelling gecko which feeds on invertebrates. This species is found in dry leaf litter on the floor of primary and old secondary forest, and also at swamp edges in forests. The only specimen from Suriname was found in a small patch of dry shrub savanna, surrounded by dry dakama forest and rainforest.	eng
178332	population	Martins, M., 2009	This species was considered common in one study site in Roraima, Brazil.	eng
178332	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178333	conservation	Doan, T.M. and Nogueira, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, this species is found within the reserves of Cerrado. Further research into the distribution of this species should be carried out to determine if it is found within Bolivia. Detailed assessments on genetic variation among isolated populations would aid in understanding the effects of habitat loss.	eng
178333	distribution	Doan, T.M. and Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is known from Brazil (in the states of Sao Paulo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Bahia, and Distrito Federal) and Paraguay (in the state of Amambay). This species is endemic to the central Brazilian Cerrado (Colli<em>&#160;et al</em>. 2002).&#160;It was thought that the species was probably also found in parts of Bolivia, but taxonomic studies suggest that Bolivian populations may well represent undescribed species, as allopatric speciation may be prevalent in this group of rare and habitat-restricted lizards (Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007, Rodrigues <em>et al.</em>&#160;2008) .	eng
178333	habitat	Doan, T.M. and Nogueira, C., 2009	This species is a fossorial species found in the Cerrado habitat. It is only found in interfluvial savannas (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). This species has been found in sandy soils, but it is not necessarily restricted to this kind of soil.	eng
178333	population	Doan, T.M. and Nogueira, C., 2009	This has been considered a rare species, although Colli <em>et al.</em> (1998) note that this fossorial species is likely to be more abundant than collections might indicate, due to additional specimen collected in pitfall traps. However, pitfall trapping in ten Cerrado localities captured only 12 specimens compared to more than 2,900 lizard captures overall (Nogueira <em>et al.</em>2009). Habitat loss throughout the range of the species is probably causing important reductions in population size, and isolating remaining populations.	eng
178333	threats	Doan, T.M. and Nogueira, C., 2009	The interfluvial savanna habitat of this species is being converted for agriculture at very high rates across its entire range: it has been estimated that this species' extent of occurrence has been reduced between 1998 and 2008 by 50.4% (C. Nogueira pers. comm.). Habitat loss is particularly pronounced in the Southern Cerrado where this species occurs.	eng
178334	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and threats is suggested, as this species has a relatively restricted distribution.	eng
178334	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This coastal species is distributed in northeastern Australia and is endemic to Queensland from the Cardwell Range north to Shipton's Flat.	eng
178334	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species has a narrow habitat niche. It is found in highland forests, often near creeks and streams, in the ground litter.	eng
178334	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178334	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known threat processes acting upon this species.	eng
178335	conservation	Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Part of this species' range falls within the Santuario Historico Machu Picchu, where it is protected (M. Lundberg pers. comm.). Conservation measures are needed to reduce the rate of habitat loss and change, such as the extension of protected areas. Further research is required to monitor the population of this species.	eng
178335	distribution	Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is found in the state of Cusco, southeast Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 12,975 km², and is found between 1,060 and 2,404 m above sea level	eng
178335	habitat	Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.	eng
178335	population	Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178335	threats	Lundberg, M., 2009	Intensive agriculture, including coffee plantations and cattle ranches, and associated deforestation are taking place within the range of this species. Therefore it is likely that habitat destruction and degradation is a major threat.	eng
178337	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research on the population, distribution, and habitat status of this little-known species is needed.	eng
178337	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	According to Sharma (2002), this species is found in Myanmar in Bia-po, Karin Hills and is only known from two type specimens. It has also been listed as distributed in southeast Myanmar and western Thailand (Outboter 1986), and R. Inger (pers. comm.) notes that though there are no recent records, this distribution is likely to be correct.	eng
178337	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is insectivorous and diurnal. It lives in the submontane semi-evergreen rainforests of Myanmar.	eng
178337	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	No detailed population information is known. Sharma (2002) describes the species as rare.	eng
178337	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The average deforestation rate for Myanmar from 1990-2000 has been estimated at 0.3% per year based on a loss of 12,000 km²<sup></sup> of forest during this 10-year period (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, as 3,000 km² of forests regenerated during this period, the net average annual deforestation is 0.2% (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). The main causes of deforestation, as identifiable by satellite imagery, include broad-scale conversion and degradation of the forests, shifting cultivation, and conversion to oil-palm plantations (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area declining from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).	eng
178338	conservation	Lehr, E., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into its habitat preferences and threats is needed, and monitoring of the population numbers, along with conservation measures to protect this species' habitat, such as the establishment of protected areas, are also needed.	eng
178338	distribution	Lehr, E., 2009	This species is known only from Trinidad (Rivas <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type was collected from the Aripo Mountain Range.	eng
178338	habitat	Lehr, E., 2009	The majority of Trinidad is covered with moist forests, however, there are also dry forests, swamps and mangroves present. While it is unknown which of these habitats this species is found in, its presumed habitat is moist forests.	eng
178338	population	Lehr, E., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178338	threats	Lehr, E., 2009	It is unknown what threats are impacting this species at this time. However, habitat loss and degradation are a problem in Trinidad. A deforestation rate of 1.5% between 1990 and 1995 has been estimated. Great increases in the limestone and timber output reflect the magnitude of recent land cover change on the island. Quarrying has been deemed as a "major and increasing threat", which has grown by 124% from 1988 to 1997 (Day and Chenoweth 2004). Meanwhile, there has been a 92% increase in national timber production from 1993 to 2000 (Day and Chenoweth 2004). Lastly, residential, commercial, and tourism development has contributed to habitat loss, with hotels, guest houses, retail and recreational developments being built.	eng
178339	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but parts of its range coincide with protected areas. Further research into its population size is recommended because the extinction risk of this species may increase in the future.	eng
178339	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is found on Borneo in Sabah, Brunei, and Sarawak (Malkmus<em> et al.</em> 2002). This species is found up to 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
178339	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is diurnal and semi-aquatic, as it lives along the banks of streams, but can also be found on large rocks or logs in the water. It tends to spend the night on rocky cliffs overgrown with moss. Juveniles are found exclusively in small streams, while adults prefer larger streams (Malkmus <em>et al</em>. 2002).   There are many records of <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidophorus beccari</span>, of which this species is thought to be a junior synonym, scattered across large areas of <st1:place w:st="on">Borneo</st1:place>, though all in primary or tall secondary forests at low elevations.<br/><br/>On Mount Kinabalu, it is the most common scincid species in mountain streams up to 1,000 m elevation (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>A female has been observed containing four fully developed embryos (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178339	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is noted to be common in at least one part of its range.	eng
178339	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	Habitat loss due to conversion of forest to agricultural plantations is occurring in Borneo at high rates and is likely to affect this species.	eng
178340	conservation	Embert, D., Fitzgerald, L. & Waldez, F., 2009	Argentina and Paraguay monitor the harvest levels of this species and have implemented management plans (Mieres and Fitzgerald 2006). The management plans have been designed to achieve sustainable use of the species while benefiting local people (Fitzgerald 1994). Existing monitoring and management programs for lizards of this genus in Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia need to be supported and enhanced to ensure the programs become institutionalized (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm). This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research is needed into the population numbers of this species. Embert (2007) reports that this species occurs in several protected areas within Bolivia, including Kaa-Iya, Otuquis, and San Matias.	eng
178340	distribution	Embert, D., Fitzgerald, L. & Waldez, F., 2009	This species is found in the states of Amazonas, Para and Rio Grande do Sul, Maranhao, Pernambuco, Mato Grosso, and Goias in Brazil, and in northern and central Argentina, Paraguay, and eastern Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and Tarija). It does not occur in dry chaco of western Paraguay, Argentina and southeastern Bolivia (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm.). This species has also been introduced to Fernando de Noronha Island.	eng
178340	habitat	Embert, D., Fitzgerald, L. & Waldez, F., 2009	It is a habitat and dietary generalist. Throughout its range it is found in primary forest clearings, secondary forest, disturbed habitats including edges of roads and agricultural areas. The species feeds on a wide range of animals and fruit and may play an important role in seed dispersal (de Castro and Galetti 2004).	eng
178340	population	Embert, D., Fitzgerald, L. & Waldez, F., 2009	This species is reported as common.	eng
178340	threats	Embert, D., Fitzgerald, L. & Waldez, F., 2009	This species is hunted for its skins and to a lesser degree to supply the commercial pet trade. During the 1980s on average 1.9 million <em>Tupinambis</em> lizard skins were traded annually (Mieres and Fitzgerald 2006). The trade in <em>Tupinambis</em> has decreased since that period, and in 1999 the export quotas from Argentina and Paraguay was 1,350,000 skins per year (Fitzgerald <em>et al</em> 1999). This and other species of this genus are also hunted for human consumption on a local level (L. Fitzgerald pers. comm).	eng
178341	conservation	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. In places this species' distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178341	distribution	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	This species is found along the western edge of southern Africa, from southern Angola, through Namibia, south to the Northern and Western Cape provinces of South Africa.	eng
178341	habitat	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	This species is found in rocky and stony areas with succulents and in karroid vegetation.	eng
178341	population	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178341	threats	Adolphs, K. & Bates, M.F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178343	conservation	Doan, T.M. & La Marca, E., 2009	The species exists in areas which are&#160;relict&#160;of humid forests; these areas are now being heavily deforested (La Marca 2009).There are three National Parks in the area in which this species is likely to be distributed (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.). Further research into the population and impact of habitat degradation and loss on this little known species is required.	eng
178343	distribution	Doan, T.M. & La Marca, E., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, the Sierra de Portuguesa in the northeastern part of the Merida Andes, Venezuela. Most of the area in this region is below 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
178343	habitat	Doan, T.M. & La Marca, E., 2009	This species is a terrestrial lizard found in montane tropical dry forest habitat in humid leaf litter. Most specimens were collected in primary forest in leaf litter, although one specimen was found in a bromeliad near the forest floor (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.).	eng
178343	population	Doan, T.M. & La Marca, E., 2009	One author (Schargel) has visited the type locality several times in a three year period and did not find any further specimens (Doan and Schargel 2003). Schargel surveyed the area again after the 2003 paper was published and still did not find any specimens (T. Doan pers. comm.).	eng
178343	threats	Doan, T.M. & La Marca, E., 2009	The region inhabited by this species is covered mostly with coffee plantations at altitudes between 800 and 1,300 m above sea level. The remaining areas of primary forest are restricted to elevations greater than 1,300 m, although here small-scale cattle farming and selective logging are rapidly degrading the remaining forest. Expanding agriculture is a potential threat to this species, which has so far only been found in primary forest habitat.	eng
178344	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out to ensure that the current threat levels do not become more widespread.	eng
178344	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Madagascar and is known from the central areas west of Anakara and the south of the country (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is found up to 2,050 m above sea level.	eng
178344	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits a range of habitats and has been reported from humid areas near rainforest and dry spiny forest and shrubland (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 2002, Glaw and Vences 2007). It is common on large rocks and can also be found on loamy slopes (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178344	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species often lives in large populations (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178344	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation. Forests in this region have been degraded, lost and fragmented due to human activities including the expansion of the slash-and-burn 'tavy' cultivation practices, associated brushfires, and logging.	eng
178345	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178345	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Great Sandy Desert of Western Australia. It is found from the McLarty Hills in the north, south to Well 26 of the Canning Stock Route, and from Telfer in the west to Well 39 of the Canning Stock Route in the east (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178345	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found on sand dune crests in deserts with hummock grasses.	eng
178345	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178345	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178346	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is likely that areas of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas. Further research into the harvest levels of this species is suggested. The expansion and management of protected areas within this species range could provide a valuable refuge for this species from hunting. Community-based initiatives could help slow localized population declines of this species.	eng
178346	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is a widespread Varanid, found in Sub-Saharan Africa north of the equator (Bennett 2004). It is known to occur from West Africa through to southwestern Ethiopia and northwestern Kenya, but there is no evidence of its occurrence further east (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is unlikely to be common at elevations above 800 m above sea level (D. Bennett pers.comm.)..	eng
178346	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species   is restricted to grasslands and agricultural areas within the savannah belt (D. Bennett pers. comm.). Within and around low-intensity agricultural areas, population densities can be quite high   (Bennett and Thakoordyal 2003).	eng
178346	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is common in some habitats, particularly in sparsely inhabited areas and those that are protected.	eng
178346	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is threatened by various processes. It is hunted for food in some west African countries and is used in traditional medicine. This species is heavily exploited in both the skin and pet trade. It is the most common Varanid in the pet trade and more than 100,000 wild individuals are exported every year (Bennett 2001).   Based on extensive field study, Bennett and Thakoordyal (2003) conclude that even the present high level of collection for export is sustainable. It should be noted, however, that in certain locations, populations may be under threat and declining, but this is not a range-wide occurrence.	eng
178347	conservation	de Queiroz, K., 2009	This species distribution coincides with several protected areas, including Cerro Hoya National Park, La Tronosa Forest Reserve, and Sarigua National Park (IUCN and UNEP-WCMC&#160;&#160;2010).&#160;More research is needed into the habitat preferences and threats to this species. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178347	distribution	de Queiroz, K., 2009	This species occurs south of the Cordillera de Talamanca in Panama as far east as the Canal Zone (Kohler 2003). Its elevation range is between 0 and 3,000 m above sea level.	eng
178347	habitat	de Queiroz, K., 2009	This is a semi-aquatic species which has been reported from moist forest and stream-sides.	eng
178347	population	de Queiroz, K., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178347	threats	de Queiroz, K., 2009	This species' habitat is threatened by loss due to deforestation for agriculture and urbanization.	eng
178348	conservation	Ineich, I. & Meirte, D., 2009	This species is listed as partially protected in the “Arrêté N° 01/31/MPE/CAB” of 14 May 2001, meaning that authorization is required to capture, keep in captivity, kill, transport, export, sell, and buy this species. Monitoring of the populations should be carried out.	eng
178348	distribution	Ineich, I. & Meirte, D., 2009	This species is endemic to the Comoro Islands and is found on all four of the islands, namely Grande Comore, Moheli, Anjouan, and Mayotte (Brygoo 1983). The area of these four islands is 2,021 km² in total. This species has been observed at altitudes between sea level and 700 m above sea level (D. Meirte pers. comm.).	eng
178348	habitat	Ineich, I. & Meirte, D., 2009	This burrowing species is quite cryptic and is known to inhabit not too dry soil, both in forest and in agricultural areas.	eng
178348	population	Ineich, I. & Meirte, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178348	threats	Ineich, I. & Meirte, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate in the Comoro Islands, however, due to the cryptic nature of this species and its tolerance of cultivated land this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178349	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is likely that its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178349	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is comprised of three subspecies with discrete distributions. <em>A. percivali tasmani</em> is found in Eastern Cape of South Africa. <em>A. p. occidentalis</em> occurs in the Limpopo and North-West provinces of South Africa, in Zimbabwe, across Botswana, west to Namibia and in southern Angola. <em>A. p. percivali</em> is found in Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
178349	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits mesic coastal thicket and savanna by burrowing just below the surface of the soil.	eng
178349	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178349	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178350	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population trends, threats and habitat status are suggested to ensure any significant population declines in the future are noted.	eng
178350	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species can be found in South and Western Australia (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006). It ranges from southeastern Western Australia in the Yilgarn region, to the Eyre Peninsula (Dunlop<em> et al.</em> 2004, Cogger 2000).	eng
178350	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species inhabits arid scrub and heathland (Dunlop 2004, Cogger 2000).	eng
178350	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178350	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing habitat loss and fragmentation at a local scale due to livestock grazing and clearing for crop production. However, these cannot be considered major threats at this time.	eng
178351	conservation	Embert, D. & Dirksen, L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (IUCN Category II) and the Paragua Forest Reserve.	eng
178351	distribution	Embert, D. & Dirksen, L., 2009	This species<em></em> is found in the state of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, in the Serrania de Huanchaca, the Beni Department, and in the Bajo Paragua Forest Reserve. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,284 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178351	habitat	Embert, D. & Dirksen, L., 2009	This species is found in Cerrado dry forest habitat. The species was never observed away from rocky outcrops.	eng
178351	population	Embert, D. & Dirksen, L., 2009	This species was reported to be common on rocks in sunny areas in the locations where this species was collected.	eng
178351	threats	Embert, D. & Dirksen, L., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, probably due to its remoteness from large human populations.	eng
178353	conservation	Lundberg, M. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in the Pampas Galeras National Reserve (IUCN Category VI). Further research is required into the threats and abundance of this species.	eng
178353	distribution	Lundberg, M. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality which is at the Pampas Galeras National Reserve, near Lucanas, Depertmento Ayacucho, Peru. It has an elevation limit of 3,800 m above sea level.	eng
178353	habitat	Lundberg, M. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known to occur in Andean grassland and shrubland habitat.	eng
178353	population	Lundberg, M. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178353	threats	Lundberg, M. & Espinoza, R., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Habitat loss and degradation are known to be occurring in the region, but it is not known what effect this is having on the species.	eng
178354	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size, habitat status, and threats is required.	eng
178354	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is known to inhabit Papua New Guinea. The type specimen was collected at 600 m above sea level, at Hombron's Bluff, Central Province. The distribution of this species is not well known.	eng
178354	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This is a fossorial snake which inhabits moist broadleaf forests. The habitat at the type locality is lowland evergreen forest, but the species may also be found in montane evergreen forests.	eng
178354	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178354	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss due to deforestation is occurring in New Guinea, where primary forests are increasingly converted into agriculture and plantations (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). However, the impact that this land change is having on the species is unknown. It has been suggested that the removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus.	eng
178355	conservation	Doan, T.M. & Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Ecological Reserve of Rio Jamari in Brazil and the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178355	distribution	Doan, T.M. & Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Peru, Guyana, and in the Brazilian states of Amazonas, Pará, , and Rondônia. It may also occur in Suriname and the Brazilian state of&#160;Amapá (T.C.&#160;Avila Pires&#160;pers. comm. 2010).This species is found at altitudes between 10 and 1,600 m above sea level (Uzzell 1973).	eng
178355	habitat	Doan, T.M. & Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is found in lowland tropical forest, including relatively disturbed forests. Individuals generally live in the vegetation (Vitt <em>et al.</em>&#160;2003).	eng
178355	population	Doan, T.M. & Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is rarely found, however, this may be a product of its cryptic nature rather than true rarity (T.C. Avila-Pires pers. comm.).	eng
178355	threats	Doan, T.M. & Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.	eng
178356	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Goldberg, S.R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Machalilla National Park. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178356	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Goldberg, S.R., 2009	This species is found between sea level and 2,000 m above sea level, in the Andes of Ecuador and Peru. It is known to occur as far north as the province of Manabi, south to Chanchamayo province in Peru. This species is also found in Isla de La Plata, part of the Machalilla National Park, and has been introduced to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
178356	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Goldberg, S.R., 2009	The primary habitat of this species west of the Andes is arid tropical scrub, while it inhabits areas dominated by cacti in the northern inter-Andean basins of Peru (Dixon and Huey 1970, Goldberg 2007). This is a scansorial species which forages on rocks, trees and shrubs. This species is also common in human surroundings and buildings (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010). This species feeds primarily on beetles, moths and butterflies.This species is oviparous and the female produces multiple egg clutches in the same year (Goldberg 2007).	eng
178356	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Goldberg, S.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178356	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Goldberg, S.R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178357	conservation	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out.	eng
178357	distribution	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is known from Brazil, in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina, and from the state of Misiones, Argentina.<br/><br/>Two specimens are said to have come from Montevide, Uruguay, however, Etheridge and Williams (1991) doubted this locality.	eng
178357	habitat	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is known from Atlantic Forest habitats, Araucarian forest domains, and from 'cultural steppe' in the state of São Paulo. This species has also been reported from areas where forest has been recently cleared.	eng
178357	population	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is very common in Atlantic rain forest and the <em>Araucaria</em> forests. In Parana, it is one of the most common lizards in the state (S. Morato pers. comm.).	eng
178357	threats	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178358	conservation	Measey, G.J. & Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. As this species is restricted to two relatively small islands, monitoring of the population is required to ensure that no significant population declines occur in the future.	eng
178358	distribution	Measey, G.J. & Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to São Tomé and Principé in the Gulf of Guinea (Franzen and Wallach 2002). The combined area of these two islands is 964 km². The type locality is at Vista Alegre, São Tomé, between an altitude of 200 to 300 m above sea level (McDiarmid et al. 1999).	eng
178358	habitat	Measey, G.J. & Broadley, D.G., 2009	This burrowing snake inhabits primary and secondary moist rainforests, although it is also able to adapt to xeric environments (Wallach and Ineich 1996). It may also be found within or beneath rotting logs (Measey <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has also been found in agricultural areas of São Tomé, and there is data that suggests that this species thrives outside of forests in cultivated areas where agricultural practices stimulate an increase in soil fauna (G. Measey pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178358	population	Measey, G.J. & Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178358	threats	Measey, G.J. & Broadley, D.G., 2009	The forests of São Tomé and Principé have previously experienced deforestation due to agricultural expansion, recent land privatisation and the development of small-scale market gardening (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001). However, the current situation on São Tomé does not pose a major threat to forested areas. Furthermore, the impacts of deforestation on subterranean herpetofauna are mostly unknown, and there have been several instances where abundances are greater in agriculture than in forest (Measey 2006). As this species has been found in agricultural landscapes   (G. Measey and R. Drewes unpublished data) and appears relatively abundant in areas of secondary forest, this is unlikely to present a significant threat to this species.	eng
178359	conservation	Ananjeva, N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but it is known to occur within the Gobi Biosphere Reservation. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
178359	distribution	Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is known from the south of Mongolia (Anajeva <em>et al</em>. 1997) and in the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang and Gansu. It occurs in the low elevation regions of the Gobi Desert and in the Taklimakan, Hami Depression (Macey <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species is found up to 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
178359	habitat	Ananjeva, N., 2009	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial species and inhabits areas of sparse vegetation including grassland and sandy desert. They are known to shelter in burrows during the day.	eng
178359	population	Ananjeva, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178359	threats	Ananjeva, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178360	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178360	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known from Suriname and French Guiana (Hoogmoed 1977). In Suriname, it is known from the Nassau Moutains, Marowijne District and Brown's Mountain, Brokopondo District. In French Guiana, it has been collected from Montagne du Mahury, the area between Cayenne and Degrad des Cannes (Hoogmoed 1977), and from the Saut Parare right bank of the Arataye river (Gasc and Rodrigues 1980).<br/><br/>Hoogmoed (1977) writes that this species probably occurs in the regions between these known localities, but is likely to be restricted to the area south of the coastal savannas. <br/><br/>This species is found between sea level and 450 m above sea level (Hoogmoed 1977).	eng
178360	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits primary rainforest and its surrounding areas (Hoogmoed 1977). Specifically, specimens have been caught on the ground along river banks, digging in the earth in a roadside quarry, and crossing a road.	eng
178360	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178360	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178361	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Victoria (Brown 2001). The Department of Sustainability and Development, Victoria, has developed a Forest Management Plan to protect threatened forest biodiversity, however, this species is one of five species that is not included in the Plan. This exclusion is due to insufficient knowledge of the biology or ecology of the species, uncertainty as to the persistence of the species within a Forest Management Area, consideration of the species as insensitive to forest management operations, or simply because no management plan could be developed (Department of Sustainability and Development, Victoria 2006). Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, habitat status, and abundance of this species are therefore needed.	eng
178361	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species ranges from mid-eastern Queensland to the eastern interior of New South Wales, and into northern Victoria. An isolated population may also be found in the Atherton Tablelands in northeast Queensland (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178361	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species has been found in a variety of habitats including box-ironbark habitat, granitic hills herb-rich woodland, granitic hills woodlands, and low rises grassy woodland (MacNally and Brown 2001). It inhabits moist rain forests and subtropical savannas. This snake is fossorial, nocturnal (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983), and oviparous. It feeds solely on the eggs, larvae and pupae of Bulldog Ants, <em>Myrmecia</em> spp. (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178361	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178361	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	This species is listed as Vulnerable in Victoria, where there is a high human density and threats are more dominant. However, this only comprises a small portion of the species range. It is not considered to be under threat throughout the rest of its wide range in eastern and southeastern Australia.	eng
178362	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into threats that this species may be facing.	eng
178362	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Western Ghats, Travancore, Anaimalai, Nilgiri and Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu in India. The type locality was collected at 1,220 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,636 km².	eng
178362	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils and litter.	eng
178362	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species is described as fairly common (Sharma 2003).	eng
178362	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. It is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is not known. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178364	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Portland Bight Protected Area. However, enforcement of protected status is not very effective. Better management of the existing protected areas is needed to ensure that these areas act as safeguards against habitat loss and degradation. Further research into the population status, distribution, habitat status and threats to this species should be carried out, particularly in order to investigate whether the apparent severe fragmentation is real or an artefact of too little information.	eng
178364	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Jamaica, where it is widespread throughout the eastern and western parts of the island; however, the distribution appears to be highly fragmented. This species is found up to 1,220 m above sea level.	eng
178364	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is mesophilic, favouring shade and leaf litter of both wet and dry forest areas (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). The species has also been found in xeric coppice shrub, coastal shrub, <em>Cocos</em> plantations, coral rubble, rocks and <em>Cocos</em> debris.	eng
178364	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178364	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Only 6% of original forests remained in Jamaica in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993) and this trend has continued into the present. This species is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation due to logging for charcoal production. It is also threatened by increasing urbanization and limestone mining (Wilson and Vogel 2000). This loss of habitat is likely to result in a fragmented distribution of this species.	eng
178365	conservation	Cogger, H.G. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and habitat status should be carried out. Conservation measures should be employed, such as the establishment of protected areas, in order to mitigate negative effects from coastal development in parts of this species' range.	eng
178365	distribution	Cogger, H.G. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This Australian species has a disjunct distribution across the coast and islands of Great Australia Bight, from Eyre Peninsula westward to Point Culver. It is only found from a few localities and despite extensive fauna surveys along the coast in the last 15 years very few specimens have been found (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010). Therefore it is unlikely that this species is uniformly distributed along the coast of the Great Australian Blight (M. Hutchinson pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178365	habitat	Cogger, H.G. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits coastal dunes and shrublands. M. Hutchinson (pers. comm. 2008) states that this species is almost always confined to within one kilometre of the high tide mark along the coast, where it lives in leaf litter, tussock grass, and dense coastal shrubs as well as under dead seaweed above the tide line.	eng
178365	population	Cogger, H.G. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	M. Hutchinson (pers. comm.) states that this species is not rare, but not common either.	eng
178365	threats	Cogger, H.G. & Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Coastal developments along the west coast of the Eyre Peninsula are likely to result in clearing of coastal vegetation and a corresponding negative impact on this species (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.). However,   much of the range of this species is in remote, semi-arid coastal dune-fields with limited access points and few people (H. Cogger pers. comm.).	eng
178366	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species may be found in the Parque Nacional Lauca which is found within the region of the type locality. Further research is required into the distribution, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
178366	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, Pampa Chucuyo, 10 km from Parinacota southeast of the Pallachata, Parinacota Province, Tarapaca Region, Chile. This species might occur more widely.	eng
178366	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	The habitat at the type locality is montane grassland.	eng
178366	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178366	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	It is not known whether any threats are affecting this species.	eng
178367	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known from the protected area of Popa Mountain Park. Further research into its range and abundance, threats, and habitat status is needed.	eng
178367	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is currently only known from Popa Mountain Park, Kyauk Pan Tawn Township, Mandalay Division, Myanmar. Bauer (2002) suggests it is highly endemic to the region.	eng
178367	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits lowland forest.	eng
178367	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is currently known only from the holotype and two paratype specimens collected in 2000 (Bauer 2002).	eng
178367	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits Popa Mountain Park, a protected area. However, despite this protection some habitat degradation may be occurring due to local exploitation of resources, but it is not known if this constitutes a major threat.	eng
178368	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178368	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in southern Bolivia; Argentine states of Mendoza, Salta, Jujuy, Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, Cordoba, La Rioja, San Juan, Catamarca, La Pampa, Neuquen and as far south as Patagonia. &#160;<br/>It was previously thought to occur in the states of Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and Tarija in Bolivia, the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil, and Paraguay; however these occurrences are now thought to be those of the newly described species&#160;<em>Homonota horrida </em>(R. Espinoza and F. Cruz pers. comms. 2010).	eng
178368	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in tropical deciduous forest and desert scrub habitats. The species feeds on invertebrates.	eng
178368	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178368	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178369	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are protected areas within its range. Further research is needed into the abundance, threats and habitat status of this species, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178369	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species is confined to southern Western Australia (Bush <em>et al</em>. 2007)	eng
178369	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species mainly inhabits areas with large spinifex tussocks, and is considered a climax species (Pianka 1989). It is also reported from a broad range of habitats from wet, coastal forest to arid, stony inland areas (Cogger 2000).	eng
178369	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178369	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation as a result of land clearing, however, at present this is not thought to be a major threat to this species.	eng
178370	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N. & Shea, G.M., 2009	In places this species' range distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the abundance, threats and habitat are suggested, as is population monitoring.	eng
178370	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in the northern gulf and north eastern coastal areas of Queensland, from White Mountains northwards to Mount Mulligan.	eng
178370	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This burrowing species inhabits sclerophyll woodland and evergreen vine thickets.	eng
178370	population	Hutchinson, M.N. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178370	threats	Hutchinson, M.N. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species at present.	eng
178371	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	Patterson Gorge is located just south of the Wet Tropics UNESCO World Heritage site boundary, and only a small fraction of the suitable habitat for this species is protected by Mt. Cataract State Forest (Hoskin <em>et al</em>. 2003). The establishment of more protected areas within the species' range is needed. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178371	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is restricted to Patterson Gorge in the southern Paluma Range of northeast Queensland (Hoskin <em>et al</em>. 2003). Two disjunct and isolated populations exist, one around Palm Tree Creek and the other by an unnamed tributary of the Black River. Hoskin <em>et al.</em> (2003) calculated the estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) for this species as 23 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) as 14 km².	eng
178371	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occupies steep rocky habitats inside the Patterson Gorge rainforest area. It has been collected from gullies near running water (Hoskin <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species appears to be completely forest dependent (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178371	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178371	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This rainforest-dependent species is threatened by unmanaged burning and grazing that is severely fragmenting and destroying the remaining forest (Hoskin <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178372	conservation	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out to assess the severity of overgrazing as a threat to this species.	eng
178372	distribution	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from Peru, from high altitudes on both the eastern and western slopes of the Andes. Its range extends from the department of Cajamarca to Ancash. It has also been recently recorded in the department of Lima (Aguilar <em>et al.</em> 2003). It occurs between 2,700 and 3,300 m above sea level. <br/><br/>This species is known from only a few specimens and may be wider ranging than current collection localities suggest.	eng
178372	habitat	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	Species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. This species is found in montane grassland habitat.	eng
178372	population	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178372	threats	Lehr, E. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of human disturbance. Humans have inhabited the area in which this species is found for nearly 10,000 years and hence the natural vegetation of this habitat has been extensively altered, in particular by overgrazing, burning, invasions of exotic species and mining. It is not known what impact these factors have on this species due to its fossorial habit, however, compaction of soil and erosion that result from overgrazing are likely to have a detrimental effect on this species in localized areas.	eng
178373	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178373	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known only from the type specimens, which were collected in Dore, New Guinea (Manukwari, northwest Irian Jaya (Papua), Indonesia) (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178373	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This species has been recorded in the lowland rainforests of northwest Irian Jaya.	eng
178373	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this speices.	eng
178373	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	Habitat loss due to deforestation is a much younger phenomenon on New Guinea than on its neighbouring islands, and yet with increasing population pressure and logging activity, this poses a major threat to the biodiversity of the island (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). Primary forests are increasingly converted into agriculture and plantations.	eng
178374	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Area protection and management are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and provide safeguards for the species. Further research is needed into the taxonomy, ecology and distribution of the species, as its taxonomic status is currently uncertain and it may be found in additional locations. Population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178374	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This skink is endemic to Tanzania and has a very restricted range. It is only known from two coastal locations, Dar es Salaam and Kilwa. It is likely, however,  that this species occurs in a number of locations along the coast. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 7,309 km².	eng
178374	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in coastal mosaic vegetation. Very little else is known of this species (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178374	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178374	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	The two areas in which this species is found are under threat from habitat loss and degradation due to human population growth, urban expansion, and tourism.	eng
178375	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for for this species. Further research into the taxonomic status of this species is needed due to uncertainty about its separate species status from <span style="font-style: italic;">Uropeltis smithi</span>. Additional research into population numbers and threats of this species is recommended in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.	eng
178375	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Anaimalai, Palni, and Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu, and the Tinnevelly Hills of Kerala (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 18,636 km². Rajendran (1985) states that this species occurs in the Palni Hills at altitudes greater than 1,860 m above sea level.	eng
178375	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane evergreen forests. Rajendran (1985) reports that it is also found in gardens.	eng
178375	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is common.	eng
178375	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178376	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	It is likely that this species occurs in protected areas. Further research is needed into the threats, population status, ecology, and population trends of this species.	eng
178376	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	This species is endemic to northern Madagascar. It is found in the Ambilobe Region which has an area of less than 10,000 km² The species is estimated to occur over an area of around 7,900 km². Museum specimens have also been collected on the volcanic island of Nosy Be (area of 300 km²). However, a survey carried out between 1991 and 2001 failed to find this species on the island.	eng
178376	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	The habitat preference for this species is not known.	eng
178376	population	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178376	threats	Raxworthy, C.J., 2009	The threats to this species are not known.	eng
178378	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178378	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has a wide distribution over most of Australia, except the far west.	eng
178378	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is primarily found in Mediterranean-type climates and open woodland habitat, but it is also known to occur in habitats ranging from desert to dense woodland.	eng
178378	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Horner (1992) described this species as moderately common. In 1994, Hoser and Scanlon regarded it as very common.	eng
178378	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178379	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amoró, Carrasco, Sama and Tariquia.	eng
178379	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from Chimore, Cochabamba Department, Bolivia, in the north through the Santa Cruz and Tarija Departments to Cuesta Los Coloraditos, Salta Province, Argentina, in the south. This species is found between 1,000 m to 3,350 m above sea level.	eng
178379	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found on rock outcrops and other sunny areas in dry scrub and low forest habitat, or at the forest edge.	eng
178379	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178379	threats	Embert, D., 2009	This species may be locally threatened in some parts of its range by habitat degradation associated with agriculture, however, due to its large distribution this is not considered a major threat.	eng
178380	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring on the Banda Islands. The establishment and management of new protected areas is needed to provide this species with a refuge from habitat loss. Further research is required to monitor the population and habitat of this species to ensure that any rapid population declines are noted.	eng
178380	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known from the Banda Islands, Indonesia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 150 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178380	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest.	eng
178380	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178380	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species has a very restricted distribution and is threatened by habitat loss due to logging and habitat destruction (I. Ineich pers. comm.).	eng
178381	conservation	Catenazzi, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat, and threats of this species is needed.	eng
178381	distribution	Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is known only from Cerro Illescas, Department of Piura, Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 736 km². The species has only been collected from the northern side of the Cerro and it is unknown whether it occurs in other areas of this mountain (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.).	eng
178381	habitat	Catenazzi, A., 2009	Specimens of this species were found near Puerto Bayovar, which was once a small mining camp on the western edge of the Sechura Desert. In this area there is also a small fisherman town, fish-meal processing facilities and the PetroPeru oilduct terminal with oil tanks, seaport and oil shipping facilities (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). The other specimens of this species were found in the foothills of the Cerro Illescas.	eng
178381	population	Catenazzi, A., 2009	This species is known from only four specimens and it is thought to be a rare species (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). Catenazzi and Donnelly (2007) sampled geckos around its type locality, and could not find any specimens. However, they did not sample as intensively as Huey did in 1968 (Huey 1979).	eng
178381	threats	Catenazzi, A., 2009	Much of the area where this species has been collected has been developed and/or modified by human activities (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). In 2004, a mining company was granted a two-year permit by the Peruvian government to conduct a feasibility study to build a Bayovar phosphate depot, involving a phosphate mine and fertilizer plant. This phosphate mining project includes the construction of a new port a few kilometres north-east of the species' type locality (A. Catenazzi pers. comm.). It is not known whether this project was taken forward, or the impact it would have on the species.	eng
178382	conservation	Couper, P., 2009	The known distribution of this species already falls within a protected area to which access is extremely limited (Kulla National Park). To access this park permission is required from the traditional owners of the land (Kulla Land Trust) and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Further research into its population, distribution, threats and habitat status is suggested and field surveys are required to determine if this species is more broadly distributed in the McIlwraith Range. The gecko site should be periodically monitored to determine that the population is still extant and that there are no signs of unauthorised human activity in the area. It is important to assess the effect potential future threats, such as climate change, may have on this small and restricted population.	eng
178382	distribution	Couper, P., 2009	This species is only known from north-eastern Queensland, Australia, from the Peach Creek area of the McIlwraith Range and the summit of McIlwraith (Couper 1993), and is thought to be endemic to the region. Its extent of occurrence is estimated as approximately 204 km²<sup></sup>, but its area of occupancy within this is thought to be less than 20 km².	eng
178382	habitat	Couper, P., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens found at night in granite boulders within the rainforest (Couper <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>Juveniles of the species are likely to be predated upon by the Ring-tailed Gecko <em><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><defanghtml_span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Cyrtodactylus  tuberculatus</span></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></defanghtml_span></em>  which is abundant in the same habitat (P. Couper pers. comm.).	eng
178382	population	Couper, P., 2009	This species appears to be scarce within its habitat. Despite survey efforts specifically aimed at locating this species, it is still only known from a few specimens (Anthony 1998).	eng
178382	threats	Couper, P., 2009	<p>There is some degradation of the rainforest by feral pigs in areas adjacent to the gecko site. However, this may have little impact on the geckos which are well-buffered within their boulder habitat. &#160;The gecko site is within a national park and there is no development or land clearing. While Australian geckos are popular and widely sought after in the reptile trade, there is no evidence of illegal collecting of this species.  </p><p>It is possible that this species' rainforest habitat may be threatened by climate change in the future (Williams <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been predicted that a 1°C warming would decrease the abundance of highland rainforest by 50% (Hughes 2003). However, it is currently unknown what effect this may be having on the species.<br/></p>	eng
178383	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	Further research on the population, distribution, threats, and habitat requirements of this species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178383	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species occurs in Thailand and Cambodia. The type was collected from an unknown location in Thailand (Taylor 1965), and is only known from two localities (V. Wallach pers. comm. 2010). More detailed distributional information is not available.	eng
178383	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	The habitat preferences of this fossorial species are unknown.	eng
178383	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is described as quite rare (Wallach 2001).	eng
178383	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown which threats may be affecting this species, as its specific distribution within Thailand and Cambodia is unknown. However, habitat degradation due to logging and clearing for agriculture are known to be present in this region.	eng
178384	conservation	de Quieroz, K., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species may occur in Jamaican nature reserves. Currently, no conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
178384	distribution	de Quieroz, K., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species was historically endemic to Jamaica, but has now been introduced to Bermuda. On Jamaica, it is relatively widespread across the island. The distributional area of this species is 11,044 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178384	habitat	de Quieroz, K., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is a mesophilic species, often found in grazed pastures, well-watered shady gardens, xeric coastal growth, xeric forest, and on the walls of, and even inside buildings (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178384	population	de Quieroz, K., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is one of the most common and widespread anoles on Jamaica (Crombie 1999).	eng
178384	threats	de Quieroz, K., and Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is currently not affected by any major threats.	eng
178385	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats is required.	eng
178385	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species can only be found in northwest Yemen. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,770 km².	eng
178385	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This is a ground-dwelling species, but no information about its habitat preferences is known.	eng
178385	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178385	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178387	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. However, its distribution does coincide with protected areas. Within Namibia, Griffin (2003) rated this species as Secure.	eng
178387	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This species is mostly distributed in the Kalahari from the northern Cape of South Africa through most of Botswana and bordering Namibia. Disjunct populations are also found in the west of Zambia and its Northern Province, and the Limpopo Province of South Africa.	eng
178387	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This species is sand-dwelling.	eng
178387	population	Heideman, N., 2009	This is a common species (Branch 1998).	eng
178387	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no major known threats impacting on this species.	eng
178388	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species is needed before a more accurate assessment can be carried out.	eng
178388	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is endemic to Rossel Island, southeast of Papua New Guinea.&#160; The island has an area of 262 km².	eng
178388	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is thought to be an arboreal monitor inhabiting moist forests, but because of the uncertainty surrounding this species, its habitat requirements can best be considered as unknown.	eng
178388	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no population data for this species.	eng
178388	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178389	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat preferences, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
178389	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to northwestern Madagascar. It is found around the Montagne d'Ambre and has an area of distribution approximately equal to 7,588 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178389	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in dry forests. Very little is known about its ecological requirements (M. Vences pers. comm.), but it is a forest dependent species (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).	eng
178389	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178389	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to agricultural and urban expansion. As this species is dependent on forest habitat, this is a major threat to its survival.	eng
178390	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to determine the full extent of this species' range and to estimate its total population. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas.	eng
178390	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits northern, southwestern, and southeastern Sulawesi (Iskandar and Nio 1994).	eng
178390	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known to inhabit lowland moist forest. However, from its described distribution in Sulawesi, it is inferred to also inhabit montane forests.	eng
178390	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178390	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	Southwest Sulawesi has lost vast areas of primary rainforest to horticultural plantations (Iskandar and Nio 1994). Estimates on forest clearence show an 89% loss of lowland forest (below 400 m above sea level) between 1990-1997 (FWI and GFW 2002). However, this species is also likely to inhabit higher altitudes which are not suffering from such threat processes.	eng
178392	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178392	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in Somalia and eastern Ethiopia between 630 and 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
178392	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no recent information available for this species. Loveridge (1947) reports that it is "arboreal, at altitudes from 1,900-3,300 feet".	eng
178392	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178392	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178393	conservation	Ineich, I. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.Its distribution coincides with at least one national park.	eng
178393	distribution	Ineich, I. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is known to occur in the provinces of Phetchaburi, Chonburi, Surat Thani, Prachuap Khiri Khan and Chumphon in Thailand (Taylor 1963, Pauwels <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178393	habitat	Ineich, I. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is fossorial and limbless (Greer 1973), and is usually found under piles of debris or rotting grass within moist lowland forest (Taylor 1963). It has also been found in open beach forest and on a golf course near the coast (Taylor 1963). It is not yet known, however, if this species is capable of adapting to altered environments. This species is ovoviviparous (Taylor 1963).	eng
178393	population	Ineich, I. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is reported as common in Pala-U in the province of Prachuap Khiri Khan, and Ban Krang in the province of Phetchaburi, Thailand.Both localities being situated in Kaeng Krachan National Park.	eng
178393	threats	Ineich, I. & Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	The range of this species includes areas where high rates of deforestation are occurring. The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). However, this species is very tolerant to forest alteration.	eng
178394	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species to determine if this species is part of a species complex.	eng
178394	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This widely distributed Australian species is abundant in the Tanami, MacDonnell, Simpson and southern areas of the Barkly regions of the Northern Territory. It is also found in arid parts of Western Australia, northern South Australia and southwestern Queensland.	eng
178394	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species can be found in various habitats including woodland, grassland and desert areas. This species is found in semi-arid or arid climates.	eng
178394	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is described as common (Horner 1992).	eng
178394	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178395	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Research into threats and population monitoring should be carried out as localized threats may become more widespread in the future.	eng
178395	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from the Altiplano Plateau in South America; the species is found in Antofagasta in Chile, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro and Potosi in Bolivia, Jujuy in Argentina, and in Peru.	eng
178395	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in Andean grassland habitat. It is a viviparous species.	eng
178395	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no population data available for this species.	eng
178395	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation resulting from overgrazing by domestic livestock, but this does not constitute a major threat due to the wide range of this species.	eng
178396	conservation	Ineich, I., Breuil, M., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the Islet Chancel in Martinique is protected by an 'arrêté de protection de biotope'. Further research of the impact that the spread of <em>Gymnophthalmus underwoodi</em> is having upon the population should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended. Conservation measures, such as the expansion of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range.	eng
178396	distribution	Ineich, I., Breuil, M., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	This species inhabits Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and both of the Maria Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The Maria Islands are a short distance east of the southern end of St. Lucia (Thomas 1965).<br/><br/>Three subspecies exist, with distributional information as follows (Thomas 1965):<br/><ul><li><em>G. pleii pleii</em>: Martinique</li><li><em>G. p. luetkeni</em>: St. Lucia</li><li><em>G. p. nesydrion</em>: southern most of the Maria Islands</li></ul>The Dominica populations have not been assigned to subspecies.<br/><br/>The area of the five islands combined is 1,837 km²<sup></sup>. This species is found between sea level and 400 m above sea level.	eng
178396	habitat	Ineich, I., Breuil, M., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	This species is mesophilic, living in xeric woodlands on the hot slopes adjacent to ruins in Martinique, in sand dunes covered with <em>Terminalia</em> leaves and <em>Coccoloba</em> in St. Lucia, in <em>Musa</em> and <em>Theobroma</em> groves, ravines and cultivated areas, and in the northern grasslands and central wooded area of Maria Major (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It has been found in leaf litter and under rocks (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species is most abundant in leaf litter in coastal areas but it is also found in sunny places in mesophilic situations. This species is also common in banana groves and on roadsides that cross dry forests (Breuil 2002).	eng
178396	population	Ineich, I., Breuil, M., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178396	threats	Ineich, I., Breuil, M., Hedges, S.B. & Powell, R., 2009	The main threat to this species is the arrival of <em>Gymnophthalmus underwoodi</em> in Martinique which tends to eliminate this species. In Dominica, <em>G. underwoodi</em> is also present in the community which leads to competition and hybridization events occurring (Breuil 2009). <br/><br/>This species may also be threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The average annual change in forest cover for the period 1981-1990 has been estimated at -0.6% for Dominica, -0.3% for Guadeloupe, -0.4% for Martinique and -3.8% for St. Lucia (Tole 1998). The main causes of this are logging, tourism growth and recreation development.	eng
178397	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population size, range, threats and habitat requirements of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178397	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is endemic to Pakistan (Khan 1993). It is found in the northern Punjab (Khan 2003), in the central Potwar Plateau of the Salt Range (Khan 2002).	eng
178397	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Khan (2003) lists a preference for both rocky and anthropogenic habitat for this species. The type and paratype specimens were collected among bricks under a road bridge (Khan 1993). Other specific collecting localities have included the crevices in plastered walls, under tree bark, under stones and rocks, and in stone walls. This species naturally inhabits dry woodlands and shrublands.	eng
178397	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178397	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.	eng
178398	conservation	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178398	distribution	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species inhabits Hispaniola, including the Barahona Peninsula, Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest, the shore of Golfe de la Gonave, the Plaine de Cul de Sac and Mirebalais in Haiti, eastward across the Valle de Neiba and Llanos de Azua, the Valle de San Juan, and western Valle de Cibao in the Dominican Republic. The lizard also inhabits Isla Beata, Isla Cabras, Isla Catalina, Isla Cabritos, and Ile a Cabrit (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species is found from below sea level in the area of Etang Saumatre and Lago Enriquillo to an altitude of 535 m above sea level near Padre las Casas (Schwartz 1965). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,437 km².	eng
178398	habitat	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is xerophilic, occurring in <em>Acacia</em>-cactus woods, in mesic areas under cultivation, and in xeric savanna. This species has been collected under rocks in savannas, under boulders, and under thatch at the edge of pasturelands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178398	population	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178398	threats	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species has a close association with xeric inland environments and as these areas are mostly unsuitable for agriculture or human habitation, habitat destruction is not thought to be a major threat to this species. In these environments, the principal threat to the species is loss of vegetation due to fuel-wood and charcoal extraction (Powell and Inchaustegui 2009).<br/><br/>Where the species occurs along coastlines, isolated insular populations may be vulnerable to anthropogenic modification of habitats; for example, the recently discovered population in the extreme eastern Dominican Republic may face threats from the development of coastal areas for tourism (M.E. Gifford pers. comm.).	eng
178399	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is probably found within Ranomafana protected area. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178399	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from southeastern Madagascar. Its type locality is Ranomafana.	eng
178399	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this burrowing species, probably due to its secretive lifestyle.	eng
178399	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178399	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178400	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, the species is found in a large number of Aboriginal Reserves and National Parks (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the population numbers, habitat, and threats of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178400	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in Western Australian, restricted to northern Kimberley from Mitchell Plateau east. It is also found in the Northern Territory, with most records from the western side of Arnhem Land.	eng
178400	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits open woodlands and forests. It lives in the leaf litter, usually along river margins.	eng
178400	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has been reported as common.	eng
178400	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unknown whether any threat process is impacting this species.	eng
178401	conservation	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A. & Baha El Din, S., 2009	This species' range includes several protected areas. Taxonomic research is needed to resolve this species complex. The range limits and harvest levels of this species also need to be determined.	eng
178401	distribution	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A. & Baha El Din, S., 2009	This species occurs in north and eastern Africa and is distributed from Libya and Egypt south to Uganda and Kenya. It also possibly occurs on the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Oman but this requires confirmation. It can occur from sea level up to 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
178401	habitat	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A. & Baha El Din, S., 2009	This species is found in rocky places and semi-arid areas with sparse vegetation. It can sometimes be found in dry grassland, cultivated land and rural gardens. It is often restricted to areas within oases. Animals in the north of the species' range tend to hibernate in groups which are susceptible to over-harvesting. This species is viviparous.	eng
178401	population	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A. & Baha El Din, S., 2009	This is a common species south of the Sahara, though it is only known from isolated populations in the north of its range. It is uncommon and declining in Egypt.	eng
178401	threats	Joger, U., Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A. & Baha El Din, S., 2009	This species is highly venomous and is therefore persecuted throughout its range where it often occurs near human habitation. It is also collected for the pet trade, particularly in Egypt and Kenya. Large numbers are collected in Egypt for venom extraction, and these animals are generally not released back into the wild.	eng
178402	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, ecology, threats, and habitat of this species is required.	eng
178402	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species has only been found   in the Cameron Highlands, on Fraser’s Hill and on Gunung Benom in Pahang State, Malaysia.	eng
178402	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There is no direct habitat information available for this species. It is inferred from its distribution to inhabit forests.	eng
178402	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178402	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	The area of Malaysia in which this species occurs is under threat from deforestation. It is not known, however, what effect this, or any other threat, is having on the species.	eng
178403	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178403	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in eastern Chile, from Antofagasta to Valparaiso.	eng
178403	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is an omnivorous species found in hot desert.	eng
178403	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species has been reported as one of the most abundant species at some sites (e.g., Morrillos).	eng
178403	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats affecting this species.	eng
178404	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, B.& Mayer, G.C. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178404	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, B.& Mayer, G.C. , 2009	This species inhabits Cuba and neighbouring islands, including the Archipelago de Sabana-Camaguey (Cayo Coco, Cayo Paredon Grande) and Isla de la Juventud (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). Its primary distribution on the main island is in western Cuba, including Pinar del Rio and La Habana provinces. The species is known from relatively few localities elsewhere in Cuba, and is clearly not continuously distributed throughout the island.	eng
178404	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, B.& Mayer, G.C. , 2009	Not much is known about this species' ecology, but it appears to be mesophilic and has been found in wooded areas, parks, river banks, and rain forest (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is nocturnal and ground-dwelling, being found during the day under rocks in cave hollows, in rock piles in recently cut woods and on rocky hills. It has also been found in grass stalking <em>Anolis</em> and amidst palm fronds on the ground (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). All species of the <em>Tropidophis</em> genus are viviparous (Hedges 2002).	eng
178404	population	Powell, R., Hedges, B.& Mayer, G.C. , 2009	In the past, this species has been found in moderate abundance in some localities, such as around the city of Havana. It is also one of the more frequently encountered Cuban species in the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Tropidophis</span>. However, its range is disjunct, even in western Cuba, and it is not among the most common snakes in Cuba (Henderson and Powell 2009).	eng
178404	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, B.& Mayer, G.C. , 2009	While most of Cuba had been originally forested, currently only a small proportion of the original vegetation remains. This has been attributed to the agricultural and industrial growth, along with the population explosion of the first half of the 20th Century (Portela and Aguirre 2000). Sugar cane, coffee and rice plantations now cover much of the lowlands. In Holguin province, a long history of logging, extraction of non-timber forest products, and agriculture have contributed to the land cover change (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, as this species has wide habitat tolerances, these are not perceived as major threats at present.<br/><br/>As is the case in many other regions worldwide, snakes are routinely persecuted in Cuba. The extent to which this may be affecting the population is unknown, but effects of persecution are likely to be highly localized.	eng
178405	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Some of its forest habitat is protected, however enforcement of protection laws is usually weak and infrequent (Menegon <em>et al. </em>2008). Human disturbance is continuing to cause the loss of this habitat, putting increasing pressure on protected areas; it is therefore necessary that the area is managed to prevent habitat loss and the continuing contraction of this species' range. In the South Nguru area the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group are working with stakeholders to improve conservation planning in the region, including forest management (Menegon <em>et al. </em>2008). &#160;Population monitoring of this species is recommended.	eng
178405	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This snake is endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania. This species was previously reported as present in both the Ukaguru and Uluguru mountains, however, these recordings have been found to be to a different species (Broadley and Van Wallach 2000). It is known to be found in the east and west Usambara mountain range, and recent surveys have found this species in the South Nguru mountains extending this species known range (Menegon <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2008). &#160;Populations are isolated and the distribution is said to be severely fragmented, with suitable montane and submontane forest habitat separated by large areas of savannah (M. Menegon pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,200 km². This species is found up to a maximum altitude of 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
178405	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is only found in Afromontane forest.	eng
178405	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178405	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	Although some of the Eastern Arc Mountains are within protected areas, these are under increasing pressure from high human population densities in the surrounding regions. &#160;In the south Nguru mountains people are reliant on agriculture and there are numerous plantations at lower altitudes (Menegon <em>et al.</em> 2008), which may encroach further on the forest habitat. Only a small percentage of the original forest on these mountains remain due to high rates of deforestation (Mbilinyi <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
178406	conservation	Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is found within Tai National Park. Further research of the population, distribution, habitat, and threats to this species should be carried out, and monitoring of population and habitat is recommended.	eng
178406	distribution	Joger, U., 2009	This species is only known from Tai National Park in the south west of the Côte d'Ivoire which covers an area of 3,300 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178406	habitat	Joger, U., 2009	This species is known to occur in rainforest.	eng
178406	population	Joger, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178406	threats	Joger, U., 2009	Even though this species is found within a national park, it is not clear how effective the protection is to the environment. The habitat outside of the national park is fragmented and continually being degraded due to agricultural and human population expansion and this is likely to extend into the national park.	eng
178407	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has rare status protection in South Australia, and parts of its distribution coincide with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178407	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	In Western Australia, this species occurs from Gin Gin to Israelite Bay, and on Rottnest and Garden Island. In South Australia, this species can be found on Eyre Peninsula.	eng
178407	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits damp areas and wetland margins, often with thick vegetation.	eng
178407	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	In Western Australia, this species has been described as relatively common where distributed.	eng
178407	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any threats are affecting this species.	eng
178408	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species has been assessed as vulnerable in the latest edition of the Bolivian Red Book, using the MEGA evaluation criteria (Cortez 2009). There is an urgent need for the restoration of this species' habitat. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should also be used to prevent further habitat loss occurring within the species' range. Further research and monitoring of the population, distribution, biology and ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178408	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, at Parotani, Cochabamba, Bolivia, at an altitude of 2,500 m above sea level. Two searches have been carried out in and directly around the type locality in order to locate the species, but both searches were unsuccessful (D. Embert pers. comm. 2010). The area in which this species is distributed may be less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178408	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	The species' type locality is within an area of dry montane forest.	eng
178408	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178408	threats	Embert, D., 2009	The natural habitat of this species can be considered as mainly destroyed due to deforestation for firewood collection and building materials, and from agricultural expansion (D. Embert pers. comm.).	eng
178409	conservation	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.	eng
178409	distribution	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is widely distributed across southern Asia, from India through Viet Nam, &#160;and is also found on Taiwan. This species is found at altitudes of up to 2,000 m above sea level.	eng
178409	habitat	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species has varied habitat preferences and occurs in grassland, shrublands, and forests. It is also found around human settlements and in agricultural land.	eng
178409	population	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	G. Zug (pers. comm.) notes that in Myanmar specifically, the few records suggest it is an uncommon species in that country.	eng
178409	threats	Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.	eng
178410	conservation	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation meaures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species is required to ensure that deforestation is not having a greater impact than previously thought.	eng
178410	distribution	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is found in Peru, both to the east and west of the continental divide in the Cordillera forming the boundary between the Departments of Piura and Cajamarca, and the upper Rio Zana valley. <br/><br/>A specimen collected from Chaclacayo, Lima Department, had been assigned to this species, but it is thought that this species was introduced to this area via garden plants (M. Lundberg pers. comm.).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,782 km²<sup></sup>. This species can be found between 1,400 and 2,250 m above sea level.	eng
178410	habitat	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is found in leaf litter in relatively pristine moist montane forest habitat. It has been seen in both secondary and disturbed forests, as well as open, brushy hill sides.	eng
178410	population	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	Cadle and Chuna (1994) state that this species is common at Bosque Monte Seco, in the Rio Zana valley.	eng
178410	threats	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Deforestation is prevalent in the area, due to agricultural expansion, however, this is not considered a major threat due to the adaptable nature of this species.	eng
178411	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.	eng
178411	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits hilly regions of the Anaimalais, Topslip, and Coimbatore district in India (Sharma 2003). It is found between 1,200 and 1,400 m above sea level. This species is distributed over approximately 3,359 km².	eng
178411	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, and is primarily found in montane evergreen forests.	eng
178411	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178411	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178412	conservation	Brown, R. & Ineich, I., 2009	There are currently no known conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the population numbers and distribution of this species to determine if its distribution is in fact more widespread than previously thought.	eng
178412	distribution	Brown, R. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species has only been found near Luwuk, at the base of Mt. Tompotika, Sulawesi, Indonesia. However, it is possible that its distribution extends further than this one locality (R. Brown pers. comm).	eng
178412	habitat	Brown, R. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in primary lowland rainforest. Like all other species of this genus, it is a tree canopy specialist that is seldom seen by biologists because it spends all its live high in trees (R. Brown pers. comm.).	eng
178412	population	Brown, R. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known only from the holotype specimen, collected in 1998 (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2000). Members of this genus are rare and secretive.	eng
178412	threats	Brown, R. & Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether any threats are impacting this species. Mt. Tompotika is still well forested (R. Brown pers. comm.), however, overall Sulawesi is experiencing high levels of habitat loss and degradation.	eng
178413	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in the Bemaraha and Namoroka Reserves. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178413	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from two regions in western Madagascar. The northern population is found in Baly Baly and the southern population is located near Morondava.	eng
178413	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in tsingy, limestone habitats. It is found on the ground and bases of tree trunks in dry deciduous forests, and also in savanna dominated by satrana palms. This species is less abundant in open grasslands.	eng
178413	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> (1999) report this species to be relatively abundant where it occurs.	eng
178413	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Nussbaum <em>et al.</em> (1999) state that this species does not appear to be in any immediate danger of extinction. The tsingy habitat is to some extent naturally protected from human-induced degradation by its extremely rugged aspect and inaccessibility.	eng
178414	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place. This species may represent two or more species, reflected by its disjunct distribution, so that further research into morphological differences between specimens is required.	eng
178414	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found east of the Andes in Ecuador (in the upper valleys of the Rio Pastaza and Rio Curaray), and in the Amazon basin of eastern Peru. This species appears to occur in two distinct regions, and has not been collected between these areas despite numerous surveys (see taxonomic notes). This species is found up to 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
178414	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in moist lowland and pre-montane forest.	eng
178414	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178414	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no major threats impacting this species (T. Doan pers. comm).	eng
178415	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178415	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is distributed in southern New Guinea and also the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia.	eng
178415	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species is found in xeric habitats, and it is adapted to eucalytpus savannas.	eng
178415	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178415	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178416	conservation	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the harvest levels and population status of this species is suggested to establish if current harvest levels are sustainable.	eng
178416	distribution	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is found on the northern coast of Australia and all around Papua New Guinea and is generally confined to areas of intertidal influence (S. Sweet pers. comm.). It is also found on islands in eastern Indonesia and western Oceania (Dryden and Ziegler 2004), and has been reported from the Bonin Islands (Philipp <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999). It has been introduced to the Marshall Islands and various of the Mariana islands (Ziegler <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2007).	eng
178416	habitat	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is eurytopic, inhabiting open or closed vegetation areas. Its preferred habitats are those influenced by salt water, and it may also be associated with human settlements (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1994, Dryden and Ziegler 2004). It is most commonly found along shorelines and in mangrove forests, but it has also adapted well to coconut and oil palm plantations. In closed forest environments and beyond tidal influence on larger islands, it is usually replaced by related species, such as <span style="font-style: italic;">V. doreanus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. jobiensis</span>.&#160;<p><br/></p>	eng
178416	population	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is thought to be common.	eng
178416	threats	Bennett, D. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is hunted for food, exploited for the skin trade, and threatened by habitat destruction. However, it is still common and even considered a pest in some areas (King and Green 1999).	eng
178418	conservation	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Apolobamba, Cotapata, Biological Station Beni, Isiboró Sécure, Itenez, Madidi, Manuripi Heath, Pilon Lajas in Bolivia. No further conservation measures are needed.	eng
178418	distribution	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from the Amazon basin, in Colombia (in the state of Amazonas), Brazil (in the states of Amapa, Para, Amazonas, Rondonia, Acre), French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru (in the states of Cusco, Huanuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco and Ucayali), and north Bolivia ( in the states of Pando, Beni and La Paz).	eng
178418	habitat	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in leaf litter in lowland tropical rainforest. Individuals have been collected from areas near creeks.	eng
178418	population	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178418	threats	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species, but it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.	eng
178419	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178419	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has a wide distribution in mountainous areas of southern mainland Asia. It occurs from northeastern India eastwards through Nepal and northern Myanmar to the Hoang Lien Mountains of Viet Nam, and north to Henan province, China.	eng
178419	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits montane wooded areas or shrubland.	eng
178419	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species may be uncommon in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
178419	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any widespread major threats.	eng
178420	conservation	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution and taxonomic status of the Sri Lankan form of this species is required.	eng
178420	distribution	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits the Western Ghats, Palnai and Travancore Hills of southern India at altitudes between 1,200 and 1,800 m above sea level (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999); however much of its distribution is based on knowledge of a single specimen found in a collection of snakes sent by  Rev. P. Abraham of Galle reported to have been collected from both...India  and Galle...received by this department (Colombo museum) mixed in a single  container (de Silva 1980: 197).&#160;This species is also thought to occur in Sri Lanka, however, only one specimen has so far been reported and this was in a lowland region as opposed to the high altitude Indian localities (D. Gower pers. comm. 2009).	eng
178420	habitat	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is fossorial and inhabits forests and gardens (Das 2002). It is ovoviviparous, producing four to five young in June and July (Das 2002).	eng
178420	population	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is described as fairly common (Sharma 2003).	eng
178420	threats	Gower, D.J. & de Silva, A., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. Deforestation and habitat loss are occurring in the region, however, due to the fossorial nature of this species and its tolerance of garden environments, this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178421	conservation	Shea, G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178421	distribution	Shea, G., 2009	This species was recently discovered in 2005 and is only known to inhabit the Farak District of Irian Jaya (Papua), Indonesia. The type specimen was collected from Lake Wanagong, ca. 9 km north of Tembagapura town centre, Farak District, Irian Jaya, at an elevation of 3,920 m above sea level (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005). This species is known to occur at relatively high elevations of between 3,510 to 4,050 m above sea level (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
178421	habitat	Shea, G., 2009	This species is known to inhabit <em>Deschampsia klossii</em> grassland in a forest-grassland mosaic. The type specimens were collected from a grassland on an east-facing scree slope along the side of a shallow canyon drained by a stream (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This lizard inhabits the spaces under rocks and earth cracks, and is also found in short burrows in peaty substrates between grass tussocks (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It is suggested that mating may be seasonal and take place during the wet season (December- April) (Greer <em>et al.</em> 2005). Females collected in February were found to contain 2-3 oviducal embryos.	eng
178421	population	Shea, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178421	threats	Shea, G., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178422	conservation	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178422	distribution	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	This species is found on the Caribbean coast of South America in Colombia and Venezuela, and in Pacific Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. <br/><br/>A naturalized population exists in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno and El Progreso on San Cristobal Island, in the Galápagos Islands. The presence of this species on the Galápagos Islands is thought to be a result of individuals transported with agricultural goods from Guyaquil, Ecuador, when the islands were first colonized around 1859.	eng
178422	habitat	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are not well known, but it appears to be found in both montane and lowland forest habitat.<br/><br/>The naturalized population on San Cristobal is restricted to areas where the habitat is modified by humans, including plantations of citrus, avocados, bananas, coffee and guava. In San Cristobal, the species is found in relatively wet localities.	eng
178422	population	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	In the 1930s, this species was reported to be a very common gecko in Colombia. F.Castro (pers. comm.) reports that in some localities this species is rare.	eng
178422	threats	Kornacker, P. & Castro, F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178423	conservation	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, are required to guard against the future threats of habitat loss due to mining and tourist activity. Further research on the population and distribution of this species should be carried out.	eng
178423	distribution	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species was recently rediscovered in the coastal dune areas of northern Madagascar (M. Vences pers. comm.). Both extent of occurrence and area of occupancy of the species are likely to be very small (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178423	habitat	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species appears to be a sand dweller in coastal dunes in northern Madagascar. It is found on sandy ground in degraded coastal dry forest in sympatry with <em>P. hilderbrandti</em> (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178423	population	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178423	threats	Raxworthy, C. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is not currently threatened; however, it may soon experience high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to mining and tourist activity, as this type of habitat does not receive any conservation attention (M. Vences pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178424	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research on the taxonomy of this species should be carried out as there is some indication of subspecies differentiation (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178424	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This widely distributed species occurs throughout Southeast Asia. The subspecies <em>T. sexlineatus sexlineatus</em> is found from India to Indonesia. <em>T. s. ocellatus</em> is found in central Asia, ranging from southern China to Viet Nam.	eng
178424	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is a grassland specialist. Its typical habitat is high grasslands, however, it is also reported to inhabit areas of sparse vegetation in clearings, at the edge of forests, and in open plantation (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178424	population	Auliya, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178424	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is harvested for the pet trade, however, collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant population declines.	eng
178425	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, a small part of its range falls within protected areas, including the Parque Nacional Isla Gorgona and the Parque Nacional Sanquianga. Conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range, such as the establishment or expansion of protected areas. Monitoring of its population should take place.	eng
178425	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is known from the lowland Pacific area of northwest Esmereldas province in Ecuador, and Isla Gorgona in Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,500 km².	eng
178425	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in a region where the dominant habitat type is lowland moist forest.	eng
178425	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178425	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species inhabits one of the most endangered ecoregions (D. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm.). There has been a relatively high level of deforestation in the area in which this species is found. An increasing human population, and associated infrastructure construction, is further contributing to the degradation of this species' natural habitat.	eng
178426	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no species-specific measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Monitoring the levels of deforestation and habitat change that is occurring is needed as these may prove to be a major threat to the species in the future.	eng
178426	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is distributed in the mountainous region around the borders of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
178426	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is only found in clearings within forests. It is not found in deforested areas or at the edges of forest.	eng
178426	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178426	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is not tolerant to either habitat change or forest edges and therefore deforestation and fragmentation of the landscape can be considered a threat. Although these threats are occurring within its range, the moderately large distributional area of this species means that deforestation and fragmentation of the habitat cannot be considered as major threats at this time.	eng
178427	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is needed.	eng
178427	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known to inhabit the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Welch 1982). More specific details of its distribution are unavailable.	eng
178427	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	Habitat types of the Democratic Republic of the Congo vary from moist lowland forest throughout much of the country, to dry savanna and grassland in the south. It is unknown which habitats <em>P. quattuordigitata</em> can be found in, as distributional information past the country level is not known.	eng
178427	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178427	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	Deforestation is a threat in certain regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, namely the Lower Congo, where forest is cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture (Iloweka 2004). It is unknown whether these threats are significantly impacting upon population numbers of this species, as its habitat preferences are unknown.	eng
178428	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178428	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is found in the central and western Andes of Colombia, in the provinces of Antioquia and Caldas.	eng
178428	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	Species of this genus are relatively small fossorial species which feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. From its distribution, it is assumed that this species occurs in forest habitats.	eng
178428	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178428	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Agricultural expansion is occurring within this species' range, however, it is thought that this fossorial species can tolerate such habitat change.	eng
178429	conservation	Powell, R., Mayer, G.C. & Hedges. S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population, habitat status, and threats should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178429	distribution	Powell, R., Mayer, G.C. & Hedges. S.B., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality on the northern coast of eastern Cuba. The type locality is at Guarda la Vaca, Holguin Province (Hedges and Garrido 2002). The extent of occurrence of this species is estimated as less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178429	habitat	Powell, R., Mayer, G.C. & Hedges. S.B., 2009	The region where this species was collected has a low-elevation karst topography (Hedges and Garrido 2002), presumably with dry broadleaf forests. Guarda la Vaca is located on the coast.	eng
178429	population	Powell, R., Mayer, G.C. & Hedges. S.B., 2009	The type locality of this species is not obviously unique, ecologically or physiographically, and thus it is unclear whether the species is restricted to that location or occurs more widely.&#160; However, the fact that only one specimen is known, collected in 1945, suggests that it is rare and probably restricted in distribution, and recent searches by herpetologists have failed to locate the species (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178429	threats	Powell, R., Mayer, G.C. & Hedges. S.B., 2009	Caribbean islands in the past have suffered a very high level of deforestation, with only 10% of original habitat left on average on these islands (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). While most of Cuba had been originally forested, less than 20% of forest cover remained in 1993 (Hedges and Woods 1993), and habitat loss has remained prevalent. This has been attributed to the agricultural and industrial growth, along with the population explosion of the first half of the 20th century (Portela and Aguirre 2000). Sugar cane, coffee and rice plantations now cover much of the lowlands. In Holguin province, a long history of logging, extraction of non-timber forest products, and agriculture have contributed to the land cover change (Fa <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is likely that these threats are affecting the species' habitat, particularly since it is not contained within any protected areas.	eng
178430	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. A taxonomic revision of Malagasy species of this genus has been recommended (M. Vences pers. comm.). Further research is needed into the population status, distribution, ecology, and threats of this species.	eng
178430	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is distributed in the west of Madagascar. Collections have been made from Majunga and Toliara.	eng
178430	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178430	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Among Madagascan <em></em>species this genus, this species has been collected more regularly than others (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178430	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178431	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be undertaken.	eng
178431	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is distributed across subhumid and semiarid northern Australia, from Broome in Western Australia, to north-western Queensland. There is a single record from eastern Cape York, however, this may be erroneous. If the species does exist in this locality, then it is extremely isolated (Ingram and Raven 1991). This species is particularly abundant in Arnhem, Kimberley, Carpentaria and northern areas of Barkly regions of the Northern Territory.	eng
178431	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits various habitat types from grassland to forest. This species is also found on rocky outcrops and along river margins.	eng
178431	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	Horner (1992) states that this species is common.	eng
178431	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178432	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178432	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species occurs in the Pamir-Karakorum Highlands region of northern Pakistan and adjacent Kashmir, at elevations from 2,300 to 3,700 m above sea level (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). Specifically, in Pakistan this includes various localities in the upper Indus River valley ranging from Leh, Kashmir to Skardu (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). A record from western Kashgaria, China, also exists, but is likely to be erroneous (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996, Zhao and Adler 1993).	eng
178432	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species occurs in an area of sparse vegetation and cold, dry desert environments, characterized by stark and steep mountain sides, rock and boulder fields, and large areas of clay, caliche and sand (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species has been collected from desert habitat, dry environments in non-irrigated areas and has been found sheltering under stones in rocky areas (Auffenberg <em>et al.</em> 2004, Gruber 1981). It apparently avoids neighbourhoods of human settlements.	eng
178432	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Sharma (2002) states that this species is very common.	eng
178432	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
178433	conservation	Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178433	distribution	Auliya, M., 2009	This species has a wide distribution in southern central and southeast Asia. It occurs from Nepal and India east across the mainland to Indonesia, and also north to China. This species is found from sea level up to 1,200 m above sea level.	eng
178433	habitat	Auliya, M., 2009	This species can be found in a variety of habitats from montane forests to open lowland plains, shrubland, and cultivated areas near human settlements. It is known to remain abundant in highly degraded and altered habitats.	eng
178433	population	Auliya, M., 2009	This species is common or very common throughout most of its range, but rare on Sumatra (David and Vogel 1996). It is seemingly the most abundant pitviper in Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
178433	threats	Auliya, M., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.	eng
178434	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring and further research into the population and threats to this species should take place.	eng
178434	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species inhabits the western foothills of the Andes (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010), from the state of Cotopaxi in Ecuador to the department of Narino in Colombia.	eng
178434	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is known from cloud forest and the foothill areas of the Andes. &#160;There is evidence that this species is tolerant of disturbed habitat having been found along degraded roadsides, former agricultural land with regenerating forest, and in thickets adjacent to current agricultural areas D.F. (Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178434	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is considered to be common at the mid-elevations at which its occurs, and its cryptic nature may be why it is not found more frequently (D.F. Cisneros-Heredia pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178434	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Forest habitat within the range of this species has been severely fragmented due to urbanization and clearing for agriculture. The human population in this region is still growing, resulting in increased pressure on the remaining undisturbed forest patches.	eng
178435	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed as Sparse (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). It has been shown to respond positively to pest control, as it was discovered on Mana Island after the removal of mice, and was captured with increased frequency following the removal of weka from Te Kakaho Island (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is not listed on conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is recommended, because of its susceptibility to rodent and weka predation.	eng
178435	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is endemic to New Zealand. It inhabits the southern third of the North Island, from Taranaki to Wellington, and the north of the South Island in Marlborough, Nelson and northern Westland (Towns and Elliot 1996, Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).	eng
178435	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is found in habitats that are moist and shaded, preferably with tall vegetation cover (Towns and Elliot 1996). As a result, it inhabits a range of habitats including coastal scrub vegetation, rough farmland, overgrown gardens, derelict farm buildings and forests (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). The species has also been recorded in sub-alpine grasslands on Mount Taranaki (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). <em></em><br/><br/>This species is diurnal and insectivorous (Towns and Elliot 1996). It is a heliotherm which basks in open areas and on top of tangled vegetation (Towns and Elliot 1996). Three offspring are produced in January (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178435	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is listed as Sparse (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is known to live in densities of 1,477 skinks per ha (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). &#160;It is often abundant but is of localized occurrence, particularly in its distribution on the South Island (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).	eng
178435	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	These skinks appear to be highly sensitive to rodent and weka predation; however, they are able to use highly modified habitats, and consequently are considered to not be under threat (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178436	conservation	Shea, G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178436	distribution	Shea, G., 2009	This species is known to inhabit Loniu and central Manus of the Admiralty Islands (Mys 1988).	eng
178436	habitat	Shea, G., 2009	This species inhabits lowland rainforest, however, it has also been recorded in piles of decaying coconut husks in a coconut plantation (Mys 1988).	eng
178436	population	Shea, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178436	threats	Shea, G., 2009	Threats to the forests of the Admiralty Islands include habitat loss due to logging and clearing for agriculture. As this species is not a forest obligate, it is unlikely that continuing declines are taking place in this species, but likely that habitat degradation is impacting it to some extent.	eng
178437	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
178437	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is found in central Oman and northern and eastern Saudi Arabia, around Dhahran and Sakaka (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
178437	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species inhabits deserts and dry shrublands. It is known to climb in low vegetation, which is considered unusual for the genus (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
178437	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178437	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178439	conservation	La Marca, E., 2009	The distribution of this species coincides with at least one national park. Further research into this relatively unknown species is required, particularly on the habitat status, population and distribution.	eng
178439	distribution	La Marca, E., 2009	This species is found in Venezuela, in the calcarean rocks-caves system of the Turimiquire massif. The type locality is Puertas del Guarapiche, in the Guarapiche river headwaters. This species occurs between 500 and 1,200 m above sea level and has an area of distribution of around 500 km²<sup></sup> (J.E. García-Pérez pers. comm.). However, there is still some uncertainty about its geographic distribution (E. la Marca pers. comm.).	eng
178439	habitat	La Marca, E., 2009	This species is a rock-dwelling lizard. It is thought to be distributed at least 50 km inland, in the pre-montane and sub-montane cloud forest. The type locality of this species is a calcareous rock bed canyon, in the Guarapiche River near its headwaters. However, much remains unknown about the habitat requirements of this species.	eng
178439	population	La Marca, E., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178439	threats	La Marca, E., 2009	Alteration of the natural habitat in the region due to conversion of land to agriculture, in particular for coffee plantations, is a major threat to this species.	eng
178442	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment or expansion of existing protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population status, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178442	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is distributed on the coast and eastern interior of Queensland, from Townsville southwards to Injune.	eng
178442	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits moist areas and can be found in forests and vine thicket habitats.	eng
178442	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178442	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	The habitat within this species' range is threatened by habitat destruction due to urban and agricultural expansion.	eng
178443	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures for this species, although it is possible that it inhabits protected areas within its range. Little information is available on this species and further research on its biology, population, distribution, and threats is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178443	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	In the 19th century, this species was found in Pegu district, Myanmar (Theobald 1868), an area which now encompasses the current divisions of Ayeyarwady, Yangon, and Bago; however, there are no recent records of this species from these divisions (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
178443	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits the lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforests of Myanmar.	eng
178443	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178443	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The main threats in this region include habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and logging. The average annual deforestation rate for Bago District, Myanmar from 1990-2000 is estimated at 0.1% annually (Leimgruber <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
178444	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is protected under Malaysian law due to its extreme rarity. It is one of very few reptiles listed under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance of Sarawak as 'Totally Protected'. Therefore, killing, keeping, selling or eating this species carries a penalty of RM25,000 and three years imprisonment (Sarawak Forestry Corporation 1998). It occurs in the Niah National Park (31 km²) and Gunung Mulu National Park (529 km²<sup></sup>; UNEP-WCMC 2006). Research and monitoring of this species' population is recommended.	eng
178444	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is endemic to Borneo and is only found in two locations in a small region of Sarawak. It has been recorded from the Niah cave system and a single record from a gorge in the Mulu cave system (Forestry Department Sarawak 2006). These systems are approximately 130 km apart. Other cave systems with swiftlet populations exist in Sarawak, but Niah and Mulu hold the largest aggregations of swiftlets, perhaps explaining why this species has only been found in these locations. Inger (pers. comm.) however, expects that it may be found in additional cave systems in Sarawak and Sabah. The total lengths and widths of these cave systems are not known, and therefore an accurate distributional area cannot be calculated although it is likely to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
178444	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species has been recorded from caves, its only known habitat type. Harrison (1961) recorded that it was only ever found in full darkness and never near the cave entrances. Apparently, it also only frequents larger caves (>1,500 m²).<br/><br/>This species reportedly spends its entire life-cycle in the dark zone of caves, living on cave swiftlets (<em>Collocalia</em> spp. and <em>Aerodramus</em> spp.) guano, cave cockroaches, small flying insects and, occasionally, swiftlet hatchlings (Forest Department Sarawak 2006). <br/><br/>Niah National Park, the principal strong-hold of this species, is dominated by a large, almost vertical limestone massif (Gunung Subis), and most of the area was originally formed as a coral reef in the Lower Miocene which has since been uplifted and modified by faulting and erosion. There are, as a result, several hundred caves within the park, though the Niah Great Cave is the largest. Mulu National Park contains some of the world's largest caves, of which, to date, over 295 km have been mapped.	eng
178444	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	Harrison (1961), the collector of the type specimens, reported the total population in the Niah complex to be in the region of 2,000-7,000 individuals, all confined to 20 km² around Niah. However, more recently, O'Shea (1985) reports it to be an uncommon species in the caves. Indeed, the population of this species is "likely to have declined greatly" since its original description (Forest Department Sarawak 2006).	eng
178444	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is threatened by the major decline in swiftlet populations due to nest collecting for Chinese markets, which reduces food sources both indirectly (by reducing guano deposition) and directly (by reducing the number of available hatchlings).	eng
178445	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178445	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is located in the eastern Himalayas, including Sikkim, Nagri Valley, and Darjeeling, up to 1,500 m above sea level (Sharma 2003).	eng
178445	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits the montane evergreen forests and temperate broadleaf forests of the Eastern Himalayas.	eng
178445	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known from three specimens (Sharma 2003).	eng
178445	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178446	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	<em></em>There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further monitoring of the population and research into the habitat status of this species should be carried out to establish habitat preferences of <span style="font-style: italic;">Placosoma cordylinum </span><em style="font-style: italic;">champsonotus </em>and ensure that <span style="font-style: italic;">Placosoma c. </span><em>cordylinum</em> is not threatened by localized threats to its restricted range.	eng
178446	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Brazil. <em>Placosoma cordylinum cordylinum</em> is found in the state of Rio de Janeiro and <em>P. c. champsonotus</em> is found in the states of Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso, and Santa Catarina.	eng
178446	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	<em>P. cordylinum cordylinum</em> is found in a region where the dominant habitat is lowland coastal moist evergreen forest. The preferred habitat of <em>P. c. champsonotus</em> is not known, and cannot be inferred as there is a mosaic of Cerrado and forest habitat throughout the range of this subspecies.	eng
178446	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178446	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, habitat loss due to urban and agricultural expansion is occurring in localized areas of this species' range. Due to its restricted range in one of the most densely populated regions of Brazil, <em>P. cordylinum cordylinum</em> is likely to be threatened by the current high rates of habitat loss.	eng
178447	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no other species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. The number of individuals harvested for the pet trade on an annual basis requires investigating.	eng
178447	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species occurs in western and southeastern Madagascar, in the areas of Ankarafantsika, Antsalova, Berenty, E Betioky, Ejeda, Fierin, Menabe, Morondava, Toliara, Tranomaro, Tranoroa, Vohibasia forest and Zombitse forest (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178447	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species inhabits dry forest, thornbush and savanna habitats, and also hot and dry anthropogenic habitats. This species can occur on trees, bushes, fences, and buildings and is sometimes found in high densities in villages. It is mainly found in coastal areas, however, it has been recorded at elevation of up to 1,000 m (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178447	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178447	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is collected for the pet trade, however, figures on the number of individuals traded annually are not available.	eng
178448	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Uluru - Kata Tjuta National Park. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178448	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This widely distributed species is found through much of Australia's interior and along the coast in central Western Australia.	eng
178448	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species can be found in a variety of habitats including grassland and spinifex, desert, and woodlands, with substrate varying from stones or sand to heavy loam soils.	eng
178448	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has been described as common (Horner 1992).	eng
178448	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178449	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Further research is recommended into the type of additional threats this species may face, as it has a very restricted range and is therefore highly susceptible to new emerging threats.	eng
178449	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This species has a narrow distribution in the Republic of South Africa, in the north and west Cape coastal areas, from Alexander Bay and Port Nolloth to near Cape Town.	eng
178449	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This species inhabits sparsely vegetated coastal dunes.	eng
178449	population	Heideman, N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178449	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats, but urbanization and human disturbance may affect the species in some locations.	eng
178450	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178450	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from the eastern deserts from Atacama to Maule, Chile.	eng
178450	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is omnivorous and inhabits bare desert areas, utilising open ground and, to a lesser extent, rocks. Any vegetation in the region is coastal succulent scrub.	eng
178450	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species has been reported as abundant by a number of authors.	eng
178450	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178451	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No known species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, its distribution in places coincides with protected areas that include the Zapata Biosphere Reserve and the Zapata Swamp National Park. Further research into the effects of threats on this species should be implemented.	eng
178451	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in western Cuba, on the Zapata Peninsula (Kirkconnell <em>et al.</em> 2005) and along the length of the coastal forests between the bays of Cochinos and Cienfuegos (Estrada and Ruibal 1999). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,521 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178451	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is known to inhabit rocky coastlines, semi-deciduous forests, and semi-xeric scrub habitat, where it can be found among rocks, under thatch palm fronds, seagrape leaves, and limestone shelves (Hedges and Garrido 1993, Díaz and Abreu Guerra 2005).	eng
178451	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is locally abundant (Díaz and Abreu Guerra 2005).	eng
178451	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in habitat threatened by dry-season burning and agricultural expansion (BirdLife International 2006). Díaz and Abreu Guerra (2005) reported hurricane and wild-fire damage, and a number of anthropogenic threats, including clear-cutting for charcoal and firewood. What effect these threats are having on this species are unknown at this time.	eng
178452	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population should be carried out.	eng
178452	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is known from Espiritu Santu, Efate and Anatom islands, which are part of Vanuatu in Melanesia. It is likely to occur on all main islands of the archipelago.	eng
178452	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species has been found in beach scrub as well as on buildings and in gardens.	eng
178452	population	Ota, H., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178452	threats	Ota, H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178453	conservation	Powell, R. & Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out in order to fill the knowledge gap concerning species of this genus.	eng
178453	distribution	Powell, R. & Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits Haiti and is found from the Plaine de Cul de Sac west along the Tiburon Peninsula to Miragoane. &#160;It is also found on the south coast, east and southwest of Jacmel (Schwartz and Henderson 199; Thomas and Powell 1995). The type specimen was collected from Manneville at the northwest end of Lake Saumatre (Richmond 1964). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,773 km²<sup></sup>. This species has a severely fragmented range due to the ongoing destruction of habitat.	eng
178453	habitat	Powell, R. & Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species is xerophilic to mesophilic. It inhabits partial clearings to wooded areas, shaded ravines, and rocky hillsides. It is ground-dwelling, and has been recorded under limestone rocks, large rotten logs, and moist fallen thatch (Schwartz and Henderson 1991; Henderson and Powell 2009).	eng
178453	population	Powell, R. & Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178453	threats	Powell, R. & Wallach, V., 2009	The natural habitat in this species' range is highly degraded due to settlement development, fuel-wood collection, logging and conversion to agriculture. Ibisch <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report.	eng
178454	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. Further research is needed into the taxonomy of this species.	eng
178454	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is distributed in the interior of Australia from northwest New South Wales and western Queensland through South Australia and the Northern Territory and into Western Australia.	eng
178454	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is arboreal and occurs in arid and semi-arid habitats in shrubland (Swan and Foster 2005, Cogger 2000).	eng
178454	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178454	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	The habitat of this species has been lost or degraded in some areas by land clearing and feral invasive species including goats (Swan and Foster 2005). However, due its wide distribution and large extent of habitat remaining, these should not be considered major threats at this time.	eng
178455	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the Western Ghats (Ishwar <em>et al.</em> 2001, Johnsingh 2001). Further research is required into the taxonomic uncertainty that exists for this species.	eng
178455	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Western Ghats south of Palagbat, from sea level at Alleppey to about 1,500 m above sea level at Tinnevelly Hills in the Travancore Hills (Smith 1943).	eng
178455	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This is a burrowing species that inhabits moist soils. Ishwar <em>et al.</em> (2001) report that this species is found in tropical moist forests.	eng
178455	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) described this species as common.	eng
178455	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. Its habitat may be threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is not known. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178456	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts, such as area protection and management, are required to prevent further habitat loss and fragmentation of the landscape and may also provide safeguards for this species. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of the species is required to gain comprehensive population and range data. Monitoring should take place to ensure population declines do not occur unnoticed.	eng
178456	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is known from two locations in western Cameroon, Mount Bamboutos and Nyassoso (Mount Kupe) (Perret 1973). This species is found between 1,100 and 2,300 m above sea level and has an extent of occurrence close to 5,000 km²; however its area of occupancy is considerably less at approximately 1,317 km²<sup></sup> over the two mountains.	eng
178456	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is found in dense humid grasslands and montane forest patches.	eng
178456	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178456	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that contains very little remaining natural vegetation due to the clearing of land for agriculture and overgrazing by livestock.	eng
178457	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in several places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178457	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in coastal locations, offshore islands, and the hinterland of northwestern Kimberley, Western Australia, from Mitchell Plateau to the Sale River (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178457	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species can be found around rock outcrops and stony hills in seasonally dry woodlands.	eng
178457	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178457	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178458	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178458	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is found from Queensland and northern New South Wales, Australia.	eng
178458	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats including acacia and eucalyptus woodlands, on the walls of houses and in urban areas.	eng
178458	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178458	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178460	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place or needed for this species.	eng
178460	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This South African legless skink is found in two separate subpopulations. <em>A. gracilicauda gracilicauda</em> is distributed in the Eastern Cape and the highlands in Free State and adjoining the North West Province. <em>A. g. namaquensis</em> has a small distribution in Little Namaqualand. <em>Acontias g. namaquensis</em> has not been found again since its initial recording, despite extensive searching efforts by various researchers (N. Heideman pers. comm.)	eng
178460	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This species can be found in various habitats from mesic thicket, through to grassland, and entering sandy regions.	eng
178460	population	Heideman, N., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178460	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat process is impacting this species across its entire range.	eng
178461	conservation	Khan, M.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards.	eng
178461	distribution	Khan, M.S., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the plains and semi-hilly regions of Pakistan and India. It is also recorded from eastern Afghanistan.	eng
178461	habitat	Khan, M.S., 2009	This is a fossorial and diurnal species that inhabits rocky terrain (Das 2002) and dry open forests, where it is common in leaf litter, as well as other moist environments including shady places in gardens, forests, grasslands, and areas with dense ground cover (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of two to seven eggs laid between March and August, which hatch between July and November (Das 2002).	eng
178461	population	Khan, M.S., 2009	This species is widely distributed and is considered common in India (Daniel 2002).	eng
178461	threats	Khan, M.S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major widespread threat is impacting this species.	eng
178462	conservation	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	Part of the range of this species is within the Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, an IUCN grade II park, plus a further five national parks (J. García-Pérez pers. comm.). Further research into the habitat preferences and population trends of this species are required.	eng
178462	distribution	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in the central range of the Cordillera de la Costa, in coastal northern Venezuela. Uetz (2006) lists the species as being found in north Colombia and south Panama, however, no reference to these populations can be found in the literature, so for this assessment the distribution has been taken as the Venezuelan locality only. The extent of occurrence of this species is 1,988 km².	eng
178462	habitat	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is an arboreal species found in montane cloud forest habitat.	eng
178462	population	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178462	threats	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	The growing human population is encroaching on the remaining islands of forest in this region, with deforestation for timber and conversion of land for agriculture a major threat to this species. Although the original habitat has suffered severe contractions, the national parks in which this species is found are thought to warrant a large area of optimal habitat.	eng
178463	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The site where the seven specimens were found is within an area that contains human tombs, and is therefore protected to some degree from human disturbance. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178463	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from a single locality, Lavenambato, near the mouth of the Onilahy River in southwest Madagascar. However, it may be found more widely such as on the Mahafaly Plateau (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.).	eng
178463	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The seven known specimens of this species were found near the mouth of the Onilahy River, on rocks which had abundant crevices.	eng
178463	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from seven specimens (Ramanamanjato <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178463	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	The Onilahy River serves as a major goods shipping route and this has probably degraded the surrounding areas. However, it is not known what major threats, if any, are impacting this species.	eng
178464	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Bundala National Park. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178464	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	According to Wickramasinghe and Somaweera (2002), this species is widely distributed in Sri Lanka and has been recorded from several islands in the Trincomalee area. There is also a 1930s record from Makulum in the north. A possible extension in the distribution range has taken place recently mainly due to anthropogenic habitat expansion (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010).<p></p>	eng
178464	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	From point locality data, this species appears to inhabit all three of the climatic zones of Sri Lanka (Wickramasinge and Somaweera 2002) and is found in a variety of habitats from damp caves to arid shrublands (R. Somaweera pers. comm.). <br/><br/>It has been reported from arid evergreen forest in Bundala National Park, in southern Sri Lanka (IUCN 2002) and mangrove-dominated Maduganga estuary and islet wetland system in the south-west of Sri Lanka (Bambaradeniya 2002). Somaweera (2004) also notes that all<em></em> Sri Lanka species of this genus occur inside human dwellings. It can be considered a 'house gecko' and is normally found in pairs (R. Somaweera pers. comm.)	eng
178464	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species was considered to be rare in Bundala National Park (IUCN 2002), and also in the Maduganga estuary wetland system (Bambaradeniya 2002). A. de Silva (pers. comm.) describes this species as common at Mihintale sanctuary, in Knuckles Mountain Range, and in lowland forest.	eng
178464	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation in portions of its range, however, due to its broad habitat preferences and wide distribution, this cannot be considered a major threat.	eng
178465	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178465	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is endemic to northeastern coastal Queensland. It is found from Cape Flattery to the mouth of McIvor River, and also on Lizard Island. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 215 km².	eng
178465	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is found in heaths and low woodlands on white sands.	eng
178465	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178465	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species has a restricted range and is therefore vulnerable to stochastic events. Lizard Island has some resort development, but access to the island is restricted (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Similarly, the mainland population is found in an aboriginal reserve with very restricted access and no planned development (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). If future development would occur, this may put the population of this species at risk; however, no such development is being planned. The species is also found in an area where future climate change could have a serious impact on the environment and the species within it, however, the severity of this threat is unknown.	eng
178466	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats are required.	eng
178466	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	The type specimen of this species was collected at Garaina, in the Morobe District of Papua New Guinea, at 700 m above sea level (Greer 1973). This species appears to be only known from the type locality.	eng
178466	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	The type specimen was collected from an undisturbed rain forest habitat (Greer 1973).	eng
178466	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178466	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Habitat loss due to deforestation is occurring on New Guinea, where primary forests are increasingly being converted into agriculture and plantations (Estreguil and Lambin 1996). However, the impact that this land change is having on the species is unknown.	eng
178467	conservation	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to limit the rate of habitat loss occurring in the species' range. Population monitoring, along with research into species' threats, is required to obtain population numbers and to assess the impact that increased habitat fragmentation is having on this species.	eng
178467	distribution	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is known from five specimens collected on Mafia and four specimens collected on the Kisuju Islands (Broadley 1994). These islands are located off the coast of Tanzania. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 430 km².	eng
178467	habitat	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits tropical dry forests.	eng
178467	population	Broadley, D.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178467	threats	Broadley, D.G., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and the extraction of timber and non-timber forest products, however, the impact of these activities on the species is unknown. This species may also be threatened by intrinsic factors related to its restricted range.	eng
178468	conservation	Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Befotaka-Midongy National Park (Bora <em>et al.</em> 2007) . Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat preferences and status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178468	distribution	Vences, M., 2009	This species is known throughout the eastern rainforest of Madagascar, as far south as Analalava (Raxworthy and Nussbaum 1993).	eng
178468	habitat	Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in rainforest. Raxworthy and Nussbaum (1993) report that this species is found in forest not dominated by bamboo. Seven specimens from Vondrozo were collected within rainforest, under a fallen tree trunk and under stones near a brook; it has also been found inside a rotten tree trunk, at 1m above ground level (Glaw and Vences 1992).	eng
178468	population	Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178468	threats	Vences, M., 2009	Due to its wide distribution, it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178469	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the ability of this species to tolerate an altered environment. Monitoring of its population numbers is needed due to the major threats that this species currently faces.	eng
178469	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the Caroline and the Marshall Islands in eastern Micronesia (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995). In the Carolines, it has been recorded on Pohnpei (Ponape) (Brown and Marshall 1953), on the Sapwuahfik Atoll (Buden 2000) and the Mortlock Islands (Buden 2007). In the Marshall Islands, this species has been recorded on Ine, Dodo and Autore Islands (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 522 km².<sup> </sup>This has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands this species is found on.	eng
178469	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is a ground-dweller which lives among rocks. It is is primarily found in the open interor of the forest. It is also found around the bases of breadfruit trees, in houses, and in piles of coconut and thatch (Brown and Marshall 1953). <br/><br/>On the Mortlock Islands, this species was most abundant in shady forests with sparse ground cover, and was usually found on the ground or low on tree trunks (Buden 2007). It is also common along the forest edge adjacent to rocky beaches (Buden 2007). On the Caroline Islands, this species was most abundant on the forest floor in shady, sun-dappled areas (Buden 1999).<br/><br/>A study on Pohnpei found this species to mainly inhabit disturbed forest/secondary vegetation and agro-forest. Other habitat types the species was found in included atoll forest, rainforest, mangrove, and grassy areas near settlement (Buden 2000).	eng
178469	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	The only population information available on this species is limited to Oroluk Atoll and Ine Island. In 1953, Brown and Marshall (1953) estimated that the population of this species on Ine Island was between 53 and 7,600 individuals. A study by Buden (1999) on the Oroluk Atoll, eastern Caroline Islands, described this species as common.	eng
178469	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	The species' three subpopulations in the Marshall Islands inhabit the islands with the highest human populations: Arno, Dodo and Ine (Brown and Marshall 1953). Habitat loss due to conversion of forest to agricultural land presents a threat on the Caroline Islands, where there is increasing commercial cultivation of sakau. Invasive species also present a threat to these oceanic islands, with avian extinctions already attributed to introduced rats. <br/><br/>Climate change impacts may threaten the habitat of these low-lying islands in the future, through sea level rise, increased storm frequency and intensity and saltwater intrusion.	eng
178470	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or required, for this species.	eng
178470	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species ranges from the semi-arid mid-western coast to the arid western interior of Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178470	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species inhabits the arid and semi-arid regions of the western parts of Western Australia (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999), which are characterized by various habitats including mallee-spinifex associations, samphire flats and mulga woodlands and shrublands (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger<em> et al.</em> 1983).	eng
178470	population	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178470	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no major threats affecting this species, as its preference of arid environments prevents large scale agriculture or human settlement.	eng
178471	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the population numbers and distribution of this species is needed.	eng
178471	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been collected in Nyalam County, Tibet, and various localities all within 50 km from Kathmandu, Nepal.	eng
178471	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been collected from a variety of habitats, from rocky areas to grass-covered slopes to montane forests. It is also known from areas which have been deforested and then reforested.	eng
178471	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is probably very rare (Zhao 1998).	eng
178471	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted by any major threats.	eng
178472	conservation	Heideman, N., 2009	No conservation measures are in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out as it may become more threatened in the future.	eng
178472	distribution	Heideman, N., 2009	This South African legless skink is found in two isolated populations in the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga escarpment. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 30,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178472	habitat	Heideman, N., 2009	This species<em></em> inhabits montane grasslands.	eng
178472	population	Heideman, N., 2009	This species has been described as rare (Branch 1998).	eng
178472	threats	Heideman, N., 2009	Branch (1998) has specifically stated that this species may be threatened by afforestation of pine plantations.	eng
178473	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population, distribution, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species.	eng
178473	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is known from a single specimen with imprecise locality data. It is likely that this species has a limited distribution. This species is known to be found within Papua Province (formerly known as West Irian Jaya), Indonesia.	eng
178473	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	The presumed habitat of this species is tropical lowland rainforest. As with all members of this genus, it is likely to be highly arboreal.	eng
178473	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178473	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178474	conservation	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the threats to this species and monitoring of population trends is necessary.	eng
178474	distribution	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from central Jujuy Province, Argentina. In 2008 further localities were found in Bolivia extending its range into Bolivia (Ocampo<em>&#160;</em>and Aguilar&#160;2008). &#160;It is found between 3,400 and 3,750 m above sea level.	eng
178474	habitat	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from Andean Puna habitat, which is a high-elevation montane grassland. This species is oviparous.	eng
178474	population	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178474	threats	Cruz, F.B. & Espinoza, R., 2009	Overgrazing by domestic animals and collection of woody material for firewood are both having a detrimental effect on the habitat of this species.	eng
178475	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Kanangra-Boyd National Park. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178475	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is distributed along the inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range, from the New England Plateau in New South Wales to Goulburn River in Victoria. There is an isolated population in South Australia on the Fleurieu Peninsula.	eng
178475	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits moist areas such as river and swamp margins within temperate forest and grasslands. At subtropical latitudes in eastern Australia, this species occurs at higher altitudes, in more temperate climatic condition (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178475	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There was an increase in the abundance of this species following logging in montane forests of southern New South Wales (Goldingay <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
178475	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Penn <em>et al.</em> (2003) state that this species is unaffected by the burning which occurs within its' range.	eng
178476	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at this time. More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, threats, biology and ecology and habitat status.	eng
178476	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found only in the Ambatomenaloha and Itremo areas of central Madagascar, and is known only from eight female specimens (Pasteur and Blac 1991).	eng
178476	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Specimens of this species have been found inhabiting a range of habitats including sandy grass, shrubland, and rocky areas, where they were found sheltering under stones (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species has also been found in dry evergreen and sclerophyll forest, and rainforest	eng
178476	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178476	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is not known whether this species is being impacted by any major threats but habitat degradation is occurring within its range. The dry forests in western Madagascar are extremely fragmented (Ganzhorn <em>et al</em>. 1999) and the remaining habitat continues to be threatened by the expansion of slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming and associated wildfires, conversion of forest to grazing land, logging and the establishment of invasive plant species (Sussman and Rakotozafy 1994).	eng
178477	conservation	Martins, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178477	distribution	Martins, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species ranges discontinuously from Colombia to Argentina in South America. It occurs in all mainland countries in South America except Ecuador and Chile. This species is found between sea level and an elevation of 2,000 m above sea level. The rearrangement of Campbell and Lamar (2004) based on morphology was corroborated by the molecular data of Wuster <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (2005). Thus, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. durissus</span> should be considered a species restricted to South America (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178477	habitat	Martins, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	This species inhabits a broad range of habitats, ranging from dry sparsely vegetated stony areas or desert, to savanna and grasslands (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010). &#160;It may&#160;occasionally&#160;be found in forest, although this is not a preferred habitat. It feeds almost exclusively on mammals, eating lizards only rarely (less than 5% of the diet) (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178477	population	Martins, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178477	threats	Martins, M. & Lamar, W.W., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.	eng
178479	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178479	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found on both sides of the Andes in Chile (in Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago, O'Higgins and possibly Maule) and Argentina (in San Juan and Mendoza). This species occurs between 3,000 and 3,500 m above sea level.	eng
178479	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species occurs on the border of the snowline in Andean steppe habitat.	eng
178479	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data currently available for this species.	eng
178479	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178480	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the population numbers of this species and monitoring of population trends should occur.	eng
178480	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from Coquimbo, Chile, and San Juan, Argentina.	eng
178480	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in high altitude steppe habitat. &#160;It is a viviparous species.	eng
178480	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178480	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no threats affecting this species in this relatively undeveloped region.	eng
178481	conservation	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is found in protected areas such as U Minh Thuong National Park. Research and monitoring is needed to regulate the level at which this species is harvested.	eng
178481	distribution	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species is distributed widely throughout Southeast Asia, from the Nicobar Islands and Myanmar through southern China to the Philippines (Palawan Archipelago). Southwards it is also found in Malaysia and Indonesia, on Sulawesi and the other islands of the Greater Sundas, but not on the Lesser Sundas. It occurs from sea level to 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
178481	habitat	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This lowland species can be found in disturbed and undisturbed areas, including urban environments. It spends most of its time underground and only emerges at night or during heavy rain in the wet season. This snake inhabits forests, marshes, scrublands, rice paddy fields, and other agricultural areas.	eng
178481	population	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	This species has been described as common.	eng
178481	threats	Inger, R.F. & Auliya, M., 2009	Stuart (2004) reported that this snake is traded in relatively large numbers. Around U Minh Thong National Park in Viet Nam, approximately 875 individuals were seen on sale between 20th October and 20th November 2000 at local reptile trade shops. This species is harvested from the wild for both the pet and skin trade. However, this is not considered a major threat, due to the large distribution of this species.	eng
178482	conservation	Mayer, G.C. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178482	distribution	Mayer, G.C. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is distributed in lowlands from the extreme southeast of Nicaragua through Costa Rica and into western Panama. This species is found between sea level and 1,050 m above sea level.	eng
178482	habitat	Mayer, G.C. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	This species is commonly found in disturbed and altered areas. It is known to occur in agricultural land, as well along the margins and clearings of open forests.	eng
178482	population	Mayer, G.C. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178482	threats	Mayer, G.C. & McCranie, J.R., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178483	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population numbers and threats of this species are needed in order to establish whether the threats present in its restricted range are significantly affecting this species.	eng
178483	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Anaimalai and Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu, India, between an altitude of 1,200 to 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 5,503 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178483	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils. It is primarily found in moist montane evergreen forests, however, it is also known to occur in plantations, cow dung pits, gutters, drains, and on roads (Rajendran 1985).	eng
178483	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) states that this species is rare.	eng
178483	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178485	conservation	Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178485	distribution	Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is restricted to the eastern interior of Queensland, from the south of Cape York Peninsula southwards to St George and Bollon.	eng
178485	habitat	Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This large skink is restricted to dry forests, open woodlands, and rock outcrops.	eng
178485	population	Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178485	threats	Cogger, H.G. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural expansion. In the past 200 years, over 60% of original vegetation has been cleared from the Southern Brigalow Belt (Wilson 2003). Inappropriate fire regimes and overgrazing have also been listed as threats to reptiles in the region, as they destroy vital vegetation and leaf litter (Wilson 2003).	eng
178486	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178486	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is restricted to the extreme north of Cape York Peninsula, the islands of Torres Strait (Ingram and Raven 1991), and the Fly River delta area of Papua New Guinea.	eng
178486	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This fossorial species is found in woodland and shrubland.	eng
178486	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178486	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178487	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, distribution, habitat status and threats is required.	eng
178487	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the western part of Yemen. It is found along the coast from Hais to Wadi Hajr. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 33,466 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178487	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178487	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178487	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178488	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out. Monitoring of this species population in response to the threats outlined.	eng
178488	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species inhabits the Miyako Island Group of the southern Ryukyu Archipelago of Japan (Takeda and Ota 1996). It is known to occur on Miyakojima and Irabujima, and is assumed to also be present on the other islands in the group, namely Shimojijima, Ikemajima, Ohgamijima, and Kurimajima (Takeda and Ota 1996). <br/><br/>This species represents the Miyako Group population of <em>T. smaragdinus</em>, a grass lizard that is distributed throughout the Okinawa and Amami island groups, and on two southern islands of the Tokara island groups of the central Ryuku Archipelago. Due to differences in scutellation and coloration, Takeda and Ota (1996) determined the Miyako population to be a separate species. A subsequent molecular study revealed that <em>T. toyamai</em>&#160;is phylogenetically rather distant from <em>T.smaragdinus</em>&#160;in reality (Lin <em>et al. </em>2002, Ota <em>&#160;et al.</em>&#160;2002).&#160;It is known that <em>T. smaragdinus</em> inhabits Shimojijima, Ikemajima, Ohgamijima, and Kurimajima, however, as Takeda and Ota (1996) were unable to get specimens from either the field or museums from these four islands for re-examination, they were not able to confirm these to be <em>T. toyamai</em>. However, due to the isolation of the Miyako Group from the other three island groups, it is likely that the individuals on these four islands are also <em>T. toyamai</em>.<br/><br/>The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 190 km²<sup> </sup>and is described as severely fragmented (H. Ota pers.comm. 2010).	eng
178488	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species prefers grassland with patches of shrubs, however, it is also found in broadleaf forest.<br/><br/>It is oviparous, with a clutch size of two eggs (Takeda and Ota 1996).	eng
178488	population	Ota, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178488	threats	Ota, H., 2009	This species is supposedly being impacted upon by predation from introduced weasels across the full extent of its range. Also, recently established populations of exotic peacocks in the central forested area of Miyakojima seems to be putting a substantial predation pressure upon the lizard population in this region, most likely causing its decline (Ota and Takahashi 2009). Detailed intensive studies are strongly desired to clarify the current population status of&#160;<em></em>the species on both Miyakojima and Irabujima.	eng
178489	conservation	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178489	distribution	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from the vicinity of its type locality in Lima, from Chiclia in La Libertad, and from the Sechura Desert in Peru.	eng
178489	habitat	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	Species of this genus are small fossorial species, found in the desert, that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae.	eng
178489	population	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178489	threats	Lundberg, M. & Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178490	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It may occur in protected areas within its range. Further research is needed on the range, population size and trends, and habitat status of this species.	eng
178490	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is known from the lower Indus Delta, including southern Punjab and Sind provinces in Pakistan and Jaulna, Hyderabad province, in southern India (Khan 2002, Khan 2003).	eng
178490	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This ground-dwelling species inhabits desert and dry shrublands. It may also be found in anthropogenic environments (Khan 2003).	eng
178490	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178490	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat destruction (M. Khan pers. comm.). It is likely impacted by conversion of land for agricultural purposes and the pressures associated with a growing human population and settlements.	eng
178491	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species occurs in Talampaya National Park  and Ischiualasto Provincial Park . More research is needed into the threats and habitat status of this species, and monitoring of population trends is necessary.	eng
178491	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in the province of San Juan, Argentina, in the extreme west of the neighbouring province La Rioja and in the northwest of Mendoza near the border with San Juan. It occurs between 900 and 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
178491	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in montane habitat, which is dominated by thorn scrub.	eng
178491	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178491	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species. However, it may be locally threatened from overgrazing by domestic livestock which causes habitat loss and degradation.	eng
178493	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
178493	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is found in Brazil, in the states of Piaui, Bahia, western Pernambuco, eastern Goiás, northern Minas Gerais and Maranhão, including areas in Tocantins states (Campbell and Lamar, 2004). This species is found between sea level and 800 m above sea level.	eng
178493	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is found in savanna and thornscrub.	eng
178493	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178493	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178494	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in the Lokobe Reserve. Further research into the distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat preferences, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178494	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been found on Nosy Be, a small volcanic island off the northern coast of Madagascar. The area of this island is approximately 300 km². However, C. Raxworthy (pers. comm.) states that this species probably also occurs in the Sambirano region of mainland Madagascar.	eng
178494	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, probably due to the cryptic nature of the members of this genus; however, this species probably occurs in humid forests.	eng
178494	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178494	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. Tourism has grown rapidly on Nosy Be, however, it is not known what impact this is having on the abundance of this species.	eng
178495	conservation	Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into population, habitat and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178495	distribution	Joger, U., 2009	This species is distributed across southern West Africa. Isolated populations occur in Cameroon and Nigeria. This species is known to occur up to 560 m above sea level.	eng
178495	habitat	Joger, U., 2009	This species is found in primary rainforest.	eng
178495	population	Joger, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178495	threats	Joger, U., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, localized habitat loss is likely to occur within its range due to agricultural expansion.	eng
178496	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known to inhabit Cuc Phuong National Park (IUCN Category II), which has been protected since 1962 and a designated national park since 1966. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it falls within a threatened category in the future.	eng
178496	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is found in Viet Nam around the Red River delta (Bobrov 1993). It is known from Tam Dao and Cuc Phuong National Park. Cuc Phuong National Park has an area of 222 km²<sup></sup>, and Tam Dao (the type locality) is a hill station, however, it is interpreted that the species' distribution may be greater than this, with undiscovered populations. <br/><br/>The Red River delta region, as mapped by Bobrov (1993), encompasses 61,973 km²<sup></sup>, however, it is unclear how much of this area the species inhabits.	eng
178496	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits both upland and lowland rainforest.	eng
178496	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178496	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and more widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). R. Bain (pers. comm 2010) highlights that this area has been converted into mostly urban an agricultural land.<br/><br/>There is almost no lowland rainforest left in northern Viet Nam, and almost the entire Red River delta where this species occurs is altered for agriculture.	eng
178497	conservation	Khan, M.S., 2009	This species was considered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop for the Amphibians and Reptiles of India, which was convened by the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project, India, and held in Coimbatore in 1997. Research into the distribution of this species and taxonomic validity is needed.	eng
178497	distribution	Khan, M.S., 2009	This species is known from the state of Punjab, India. Specific collecting localities have included Beas River basin and Kulu Valley (Constable 1949).	eng
178497	habitat	Khan, M.S., 2009	This species inhabits dry forest and shrubland.	eng
178497	population	Khan, M.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178497	threats	Khan, M.S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is currently impacted by any major threats. However, habitat loss and human interference have been suggested as possible threats (CAMP 2007)	eng
178498	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on this species to confirm its range on Peninsular Malaysia, as well as its abundance and resilience to threats.	eng
178498	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This recently described species is at present only known from two localities. It has been collected from a primary forest north of Kuala Lumpur, in Selangor province on the Malaysian peninsular, and from Mendolong, Sipitang District, Sabah, northern Borneo (Gunther and Manthey 1995, Wallach and Gunther 1998).<br/><br/>The specimen from Sabah was found at 600 m above sea level (Gunther and Manthey 1995).	eng
178498	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This snake is fossorial (Inger and Voris 2001), remaining in the leaf litter and under moss within moist forests (Günther and Manthey 1995). While the peninsular Malaysia locality was a primary rainforest, on Borneo the species was collected from a selectively logged forest (Günther and Manthey 1995).	eng
178498	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	Inger "made thorough searches of thousands of square meters of forest floor litter- with the help of very sharp-sighted local men" and found only one specimen, which implies that this species occurs in low densities (Günther and Manthey 1995). Further very extensive surveys have been conducted in Borneo and no further specimens have been recovered, leading R. Inger (pers. comm.) to believe that the likelihood that this species is widespread in Borneo is "very remote".	eng
178498	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	Deforestation has been an ongoing process in Malaysia. By the late 1980s, 20% of Borneo's forests had been cleared and 50% of those on peninsular Malaysia had been lost (McMorrow and Talip 2001). This deforestation has continued, and has been attributed to shifting agriculture, commercial agriculture, and logging. <br/><br/>In Sabah, only 60% of the natural forest remains at present, and is under threat from timber extraction and conversion to agricultural plantations (McMorrow and Talip 2001). From 1983-1997, the area under commercial cultivation more than doubled from 6-16%, with oil palm dominating the landscape (McMorrow and Talip).<br/><br/>It is unknown what impact these threats are having on the species, as it is only known from two localities and not much is known about its ecology.	eng
178499	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178499	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known only from the species' type locality, Mogotes, Santander, Colombia, where it was collected at an altitude of 1,746 m above sea level.	eng
178499	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	Species of this genus are small fossorial species that feed mainly on termites and insect larvae. The region of the type locality of this species is predominantly montane forest habitat.	eng
178499	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178499	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	There has been a relatively high level of habitat loss in the region of this species' type locality; however, it is not known what impact this may be having on the species.	eng
178500	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178500	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is endemic to Eritrea, and is known from only two&#160;localities: Saganeiti and Gheleb, in the arid central highlands.	eng
178500	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species occurs in arid highland habitat, but its precise habitat preferences are unknown.	eng
178500	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178500	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178501	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	The Government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) recently designated this species as a protected species by its Wildlife Law, which regulates the handling of this species (Shang <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009). Research is needed on the potential threats that this species may be impacted by.	eng
178501	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is endemic to Lanyu Island, also known as "Orchid Island"&#160;or “Botel Tobago”, which is located off the southeastern coast of Taiwan. It is restricted to the southeastern part of the island. Its area of occupancy is only 3 km²<sup></sup> and its extent of occurrence is only 7 km² and it has an elevation range between 5 and 50 m above sea level (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
178501	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species chiefly occurs on a larval cliff with many crevices close to the sea coast and flanked with shrubs and secondary forests in the southeastern part of the island. It can also be found beneath the bark or within crevices in trees of secondary forests in the same region (Ota 1987), but the population density around this type of habitat is much lower (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
178501	population	Ota, H., 2009	This species has high population densities (> 0.3 individuals per m²<sup></sup>) on those parts of the larval cliff which have many crevices close to the sea coast, but is much lower in other types of habitats, such as the secondary forest (H. Ota pers. comm.).	eng
178501	threats	Ota, H., 2009	There are threats to Lanyu Island such as habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and a developing tourist industry. However, it is unknown what impact this may have on the species at this time, because the larval cliffs it inhabits are not directly affected.	eng
178502	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species is required due to its restricted range and vulnerability to stochastic events. Also research into population numbers should be carried out to find out how many individuals inhabit these small islands.	eng
178502	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits the Glorioso Islands, off the coast of Madagascar (Mertens 1931). The Glorioso Islands consist of two small islands and three rock islets, with a total area of five km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178502	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	The habitat on these uninhabited islands consists of lush vegetation and coconut palms. Species of this genus <em></em>are known to be partially arboreal or rock-dwelling (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
178502	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178502	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species at present. The restricted range of the species, however, can be considered a threat, as it makes the species more vulnerable to stochastic events. Furthermore, the island may be vulnerable to the consequences of sea level rise as the island reaches a maximum altitude of only 12 m above sea level. Sea level rise may cause inundation, groundwater salinization, and increased intensity and frequency of storm surges, resulting in habitat degradation or loss.	eng
178503	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is known to occur in several reserves along the south coast, including the Cape Arid National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178503	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species occurs in two isolated populations in Western Australia; one along the lower west coastal plain from Cataby south to Perth, the second along the south coast and adjacent interior, from Rocky Gully east to the beginning of the Great Australian Bight, and inland to Lake Magenta (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178503	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits sand plains with heaths. It is also found in Banksia or Mallee woodlands.	eng
178503	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178503	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	Mallee habitat is being degraded in the area in which this species is found due to agricultural expansion. However, as this species can inhabit a variety of habitats and is found within several protected areas, this is not considered a major threat at present.	eng
178504	conservation	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, this species was assessed as 'Secure' in a national assessment of the conservation status of the herpetofauna of Namibia (Griffin 2003). Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
178504	distribution	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Namibia and is found in the central Namib Desert, from Walvis Bay south to at least Koichab Pan (Griffin 2003).	eng
178504	habitat	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species inhabits desert habitat, living in extensive, elaborate, but solitary, burrows, that the geckos dig in the fine sand of inter-dune spaces and the silt of dry riverbeds (Branch 1998). This species lives in finer sand than other species of this genus and it does frequent habitat along river margins (A. Russell pers. comm.).	eng
178504	population	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178504	threats	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species may be locally affected by habitat degradation due to overgrazing, increased human population densities and increased pressure on agricultural land threaten the arid regions of Namibia (Ward <em>et al.</em> 2000). However, this species is likely to be reasonably safe from most human-mediated disturbances as it occupies a hyper-arid area which is unlikely, in its current climatic state, to be subject to any major human development (A. Russell pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Although the rivers where this species sometimes occurs are usually dry, floods, such as those reported at Gobabeb (Koch 1963) result in species mortality by drowning. Therefore, if climate change leads to a greater frequency of floods and/or permanent water in these normally dry water courses, this species may be significantly impacted (at least in those particular parts of its habitat) (A. Russell pers. comm.).	eng
178505	conservation	Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178505	distribution	Joger, U., 2009	This species is known only from four specimens from its type locality, originally specified as 'an island in the southern Red Sea'. There is evidence to suggest (though not definitively prove) that this refers to Nokra Island in the Dahlak Archipelago of Eritrea (M. Largen pers. comm.) and maybe Dissei Island (Largen 1997).	eng
178505	habitat	Joger, U., 2009	There is no habitat or ecological information available for this species.	eng
178505	population	Joger, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178505	threats	Joger, U., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
178506	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178506	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is found only on the southwest coast of Western Australia, from Bussleton eastward to the Thomas River and north to Ongerup. The area in which this species is distributed is over 50,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178506	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species inhabits dense shrubland or forest areas that are seasonally saturated. They are often found in disused stick-ant nests.	eng
178506	population	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is reported to be rarely seen, but this does not necessarily suggest that this species is rare.	eng
178506	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	The area that this species is found in has undergone land use change and continues to be developed for agricultural and human settlement. This does not seem to have caused significant declines in this species.	eng
178507	conservation	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., El Mouden, E.H., Slimani, T., Geniez, P., & Crochet, P-A., 2009	This species is found within protected areas throughout its range. Further studies are needed into the distribution of this species in Chad, its taxonomic status and harvest levels.	eng
178507	distribution	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., El Mouden, E.H., Slimani, T., Geniez, P., & Crochet, P-A., 2009	This is a north African species distributed from the southeastern Western Sahara through central and northern Mauritania, central and northern Mali, southern and eastern Algeria, and central and southern Tunisia eastwards to most of Libya and northwestern Egypt. It is not thought to occur in the Sudan, but is presumed to occur in northern Chad. However, there are no records yet from this area, probably because of the lack of surveying.	eng
178507	habitat	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., El Mouden, E.H., Slimani, T., Geniez, P., & Crochet, P-A., 2009	This species is found in crevices and fissures in rocky plateaus and gravel desert. It also occurs in semi-desert sandy areas and dunes with sparse grass cover. Animals are found under stones and rocks. It has been recorded from millet fields in Niger. The female lays up to six clutches of a single egg each year.	eng
178507	population	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., El Mouden, E.H., Slimani, T., Geniez, P., & Crochet, P-A., 2009	This species can occur in dense populations in suitable habitat, although the species is often uncommon (e.g., in Egypt).	eng
178507	threats	Böhme, W., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., El Mouden, E.H., Slimani, T., Geniez, P., & Crochet, P-A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threats affect this widespread species. It is locally threatened through the impacts of overgrazing, quarrying and off-road vehicle use causing habitat degradation. It is subject to some collection for the international pet trade but this is not a substantial threat.	eng
178508	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, but in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including the Gal Oya National Park. Further research into its distribution and habitat requirements should be undertaken, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178508	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species has been found throughout Sri Lanka and one location in southwestern India (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984). However, there are claims that this species is endemic only to Sri Lanka (Goonewardene <em>et al.</em> 2003).&#160;In the last assessment of Sri Lankan&#160;<em>Cnemaspis </em>genus,&#160;22 species were recognized, which led to a revision of <em>C. tropidogaster</em> making it only applicable to the lectotype specimen, and no further populations of this species have been found in the wild&#160;(Manamendra-Aarachchi <em>et al.</em>&#160;2007).<p><strong></strong></p><defanghtml_span style="font-size: 12pt;"></defanghtml_span>	eng
178508	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This species mainly occurs in forested lowland areas (Inger <em>et al.</em> 1984, Taylor 1953). It has been found sheltering in rocky areas and caves (Goonewardene <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178508	population	de Silva, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178508	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	The habitat of this species is threatened by human activities including logging and expanding agriculture. In Sri Lanka, the growing human population may increase pressure on this species' habitat.	eng
178510	conservation	Horner, P. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178510	distribution	Horner, P. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Arnhem region of the Northern Territory. It is also known to occur on the offshore island of Groote Eylandt. In the past, it was erroneously thought to occur in Queensland, however, it has now been confirmed that this is not the case (Greer <em>et al.</em> 1983, Ingram and Raven 1991, Horner 1992).	eng
178510	habitat	Horner, P. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits coastal dunes, and shrublands and woodlands in sandy areas, often with rock outcrops.	eng
178510	population	Horner, P. & Shea, G.M., 2009	Horner (1992) states that this species is uncommon, however, this may be due to its fossorial lifestyle rather then actual rarity.	eng
178510	threats	Horner, P. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178511	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178511	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in the Pacific lowlands of Colombia, where it is known from the departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca. This species is found between 75 and 200 m above sea level.	eng
178511	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in rainforests that receive an abundance of rainfall (more than 5,000 mm per year) and extremely high humidity.	eng
178511	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species	eng
178511	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Cultivation has recently become a threat in the region, however, this is primarily restricted to floodplains and hillsides adjacent to larger streams. However, away from these areas, the rainforest is relatively undisturbed. The region is comprised of precipitous slopes and so further habitat loss due to cultivation is unlikely to occur (Campbell and Lamar 2004).	eng
178512	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species probably occurs in protected areas throughout its range. No conservation measures are needed.	eng
178512	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in Chile between 35 and 42°  <sup></sup> south latitude.	eng
178512	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in <em>Nothofagus</em> forests.	eng
178512	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178512	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	Large tracts of the natural forest habitat in this region have been logged and replaced by eucalyptus plantations, however, no adverse effects of this on <em>P. torquatus</em> have been recorded. Increased urbanization, agriculture, and road-building may locally threaten the species, however, this has not been considered a major threat.	eng
178513	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the taxonomy, distribution, population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178513	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	First described from Eritrea, this species is believed to extend southwards into Ethiopia, where it apparently meets the more widely-distributed species <em>A. lineolatus</em> (Jan, 1864). However, the two taxa seem very similar, with the presence of morphological intermediates making it very difficult to define either their distinguishing features or exact geographical ranges (M. Largen pers. comm. 2008). This species has been found between 980 and 2,450 m above sea level.	eng
178513	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178513	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178513	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178514	conservation	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out because if the predicted future threats occur, significant population declines may result.	eng
178514	distribution	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is an endemic species known from the Serra do Espinhaço, an elevated area in the Minas Gerais State of Brazil. This species is found at altitudes above 1,000 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 8,691 km².	eng
178514	habitat	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	This species is found in campos rupestres rocky open shrubland habitat. This species is found on rocks, and feeds mainly on termites and ants.	eng
178514	population	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	S. Morato (pers. comm.) states that this species is easily found at altitudes from 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
178514	threats	Morato, S.A.A., 2009	The campos rupestres habitat is currently relatively undisturbed, although agricultural, and urban expansion are potential future threats to the region. Campos rupestres occurs in fragmented patches, which would be an additional pressure to this species if the expanding human population will cause degradation of this habitat.	eng
178515	conservation	Köhler, G., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
178515	distribution	Köhler, G., 2009	This species is known only from northern Peru, and only from a few specimens, which were collected from the Cenepa River, and one of its tributaries, the Najem River. The area in which this species is known to occur is approximately 9,873 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178515	habitat	Köhler, G., 2009	Very little is known about the habitat and ecology of this species; however, all specimens were collected from an area of lowland moist forest near running water.<br/><br/>It is thought that all species of this genus are ground dwellers in the rain forest where they dig burrows in the forest floor. The burrows can reach a length of about three metres and a depth of 60 cm below the surface. They are typical sit-and-wait predators that feed on arthropods and they reproduce by laying eggs (G. Köhler pers. comm.).	eng
178515	population	Köhler, G., 2009	This species is known from only a few specimens.	eng
178515	threats	Köhler, G., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. The region in which this species was collected is threatened by logging and deforestation, but the impact that these threats are having on this species is not known.	eng
178516	conservation	La Marca, E. García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species is found within several National Parks, Natural Monuments, and a Biosphere Reserve. Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178516	distribution	La Marca, E. García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is widespread in the Guianan Shield. It is known from the highlands of Estado Bolivar and Territorio Federal Amazonas, Venezuela, as well as neighbouring Brazil. This species is known to occur between 400 and 1,400 m above sea level.	eng
178516	habitat	La Marca, E. García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is semi-aquatic and is found in montane tropical forest habitat.	eng
178516	population	La Marca, E. García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178516	threats	La Marca, E. García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species, which is found in a relatively sparsely populated area of Venezuela.	eng
178517	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Research into the population status of this species is recommended.	eng
178517	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is widely distributed across the southern half of Western Australia (from Mt Jackson in the northwest to Ravensthorpe in the southwest), throughout Southern Australia, and eastward to the western slope of the Great Dividing Range in Victoria and New South Wales (Rabosky <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
178517	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits the semi-deserts and shrublands of southern Australia.	eng
178517	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178517	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178518	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or are needed for this species.	eng
178518	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found east of the Andes in Patagonia, Argentina. This species is found between sea level and 1,100 m above sea level. &#160;The distribution of the species goes from northeast Chubut and runs along the coast of, and within central Chubut and south to&#160;<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Santa Cruz</st1:place></st1:city> provinces (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010). For an accurate distribution map see Avila <em>et al. </em>(2006) and Abdala (2007).<p></p>	eng
178518	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in Patagonian steppe.	eng
178518	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178518	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178520	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in Kosciuszko National Park (Donnellan <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178520	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This temperate species has a wide distribution in southeastern Australia, from the Granite Belt in southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales and Victoria, inland to the upper western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, and to the Eyre Peninsula and Spencer Gulf in southeastern South Australia. It is also found in north and east Tasmania, and on the Bass Strait Islands. This species is found between sea level and 1,600 m above sea level.	eng
178520	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species can be found in a variety of habitats, from rocky areas and tussock grasslands to eucalyptus and dry sclerophyll forests. It can also be found in sandy coastal regions.	eng
178520	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178520	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	A study by Jellinek (2004) found that in urban bushland near Hobart, Tasmania, this species was the only lizard species significantly influenced by fragment size, and was only present in large fragments and continuous bush. However, as this was only a local study and large areas of intact habitat remain throughout the rest of this species' range, it is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178521	conservation	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178521	distribution	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species occurs in Panama and in the region of 'Colombian Guayana' which includes the Colombian departments of Guaviare, Meta, Vaupes, and Vichada, and much of Guainia (Heatwole and Sexton 1966, Hollowell and Reynolds 2005). This species has also been collected from across the Caribbean coast of Colombia, from the Uraba region to the northwest of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (J. Arredondo pers. comm.) and into Venezuela (Rivas <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
178521	habitat	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species has been found on forest floors (Heatwole and Sexton 1966). It can also be found near human settlements including large urban areas and commercial ports (J. Arredondo pers. comm.). Congeners can inhabit agricultural areas and so this species may also be able to tolerate modified habitats.	eng
178521	population	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	This species can be found in high densities (J. Arredondo pers. comm.).	eng
178521	threats	Arredondo, J.C. & Castro, F., 2009	Deforestation is occurring in this region due to logging and the expansion of agricultural activities, while the remaining habitat is occasionally fragmented by road building. However, as significant areas of undisturbed habitat remain and this species appears to have flexible habitat requirements, these should not be considered as major threats at present.	eng
178522	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population and distribution, habitat preferences, and threats to this species.	eng
178522	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is known to occur in Yemen.	eng
178522	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species. Members of this genus<em></em> tend to be fossorial in sandy soils.	eng
178522	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178522	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178523	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population and habitat status and threats to the species is required.	eng
178523	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species has been found at 500 m elevation at Nzo on Mount Nimba, at the border of Guinea (Guibe 1952), Cote d'Ivoire and Liberia (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178523	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no habitat information available for this species due to its cryptic fossorial nature.	eng
178523	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178523	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	The political instability in this region has resulted in high levels of deforestation as refugees put greater pressure on the forest resources.The past and planned mining of Mount Nimba for iron ore is likely to severely impact this montane endemic in the future.	eng
178524	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the habitat status and threats to this species and monitoring of population abundance is necessary.	eng
178524	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in central Chile, in the provinces of Santiago, O'Higgins, and Maule. This species has a distributional area of 33,184 km².	eng
178524	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in Chilean shrub habitat.	eng
178524	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no population data available for this species.	eng
178524	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the most heavily populated area of Chile, where ongoing urban and agricultural expansion, and associated infrastructure development, are major threats to the species.	eng
178525	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has been listed as Near Threatened in Victoria. Its distribution probably falls within protected areas.	eng
178525	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This widely distributed species occurs throughout arid and semi-arid areas of Australia, from the central western coast to southern Northern Territory, and into southwestern Queensland, northwestern Victoria and western New South Wales.	eng
178525	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This is a sandy desert species.	eng
178525	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has been described as common (Horner 1992).	eng
178525	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is impacted by any major threats throughout its range.	eng
178526	conservation	Sindaco, R. , 2009	This species is present in the Gebel Elba protected area, Egypt. Further research is needed into the range of this species.	eng
178526	distribution	Sindaco, R. , 2009	This species was discovered in some localities of the Gebel Elba area (southeastern Egypt) but it is mostly distributed along the southwestern Arabian Peninsula (southwestern Saudi Arabia and Western Yemen) (Sindaco and Jeremcenko, 2008). &#160;The extreme Arabian localities have about 750 km between them; the extent of&#160;occurrence&#160;in the Arabian range is estimated to be 26,700 km²<sup></sup>.<br/><br/>This species is known from a dozen places, but it may possibly occur in northeastern Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti . The species seems to have a restricted and fragmented habitat in a series of isolated populations<em>.&#160;</em>	eng
178526	habitat	Sindaco, R. , 2009	This is a diurnal species found on well-vegetated, rocky mountain, on hardy soils near small streams of water or semi-perennial wadis (Schatti and Gasperetti 2004). It can be found climbing through vegetation and over rocks, though it is not thought to occur in modified habitats. It is found in areas with rainfall of over 200 mm and is an egg-laying species.	eng
178526	population	Sindaco, R. , 2009	This is a secretive species, which is believed to be uncommon.	eng
178526	threats	Sindaco, R. , 2009	This species is threatened in Egypt by habitat degradation due to overgrazing and collection of firewood, and these threats are likely to impact it in the Arabian range too.	eng
178527	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178527	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This is a Madagascan skink that is distributed in central parts of the island. It can be found in Ambatolampy, Andohariana plateau, Andringitra, Ankaratra, Beanjombona, Farihimazava, Ibity, Soamazaka, Torotorofotsy, Tsiafajavona, and Vohisokina (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178527	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species can inhabit various habitat types. In montane areas, it can be found in savanna, grassland, and heathland, often above the tree line. It can also inhabit open areas at lower elevations and has been found next to swamps (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178527	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178527	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Habitat degradation may be affecting part of the range of this species. However, no population declines have been reported (M. Vences pers. comm.) and it is unlikely that any other major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
178528	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat status of this species is required, and monitoring of population and habitat trends is recommended. Protected areas should also be set up to protect the natural habitat and species within it.	eng
178528	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is found on the Islands of Niue, Samoa, Tonga (Adler <em>et al.</em> 1995) and American Samoa (Steadman and Pregill 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 3,992.7 km² which has been calculated by taking the sum of the areas of each of the islands.	eng
178528	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953). The habitat on the islands on which this species occurs ranges from lowland to montane rainforest. As other species of this genus are known to inhabit lowland forest, it is inferred that this species can also be found in this habitat type.	eng
178528	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178528	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	Deforestation is the major threat to forests in the Pacific Islands and this is likely impacting this species. Approximately 90% of American Samoa is deforested; however, between 1990 and 2000 there was no significant reported change in forest cover. Between 1990 and 2000 the natural forest area of Samoa has been reduced by approximately 23% and in Tonga it has been reduced by 8% (Earthtrends 2007). Predatory introduced species, such as rats and cats, are also a threat to this species.	eng
178529	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitats, and threats of the species should be carried out.	eng
178529	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	There are conflicts between the documented distributions of this species. Sharma (2003) lists the species as inhabiting Assam and Hardwar in India, while McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) list the species as being found in Western Java, Indonesia, with the only exact locality known to be Bogor. <br/><br/>A much older description lists the species as inhabiting northern India and the Malay Peninsula (Boulenger 1893).	eng
178529	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178529	population	Wallach, V., 2009	Sharma (2003) describes this species as rare in India.	eng
178529	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178530	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into its population, distribution, ecology, threats, and habitat are suggested.	eng
178530	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from the type locality of Labuan Badjan, Pulau Simeulue, Indonesia (Das 2005). It has an area of distribution of approximately 1,770 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178530	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no habitat information available for this species, but it is inferred to live in forests.	eng
178530	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species appears to be known only from a few specimens and there is no population data for this species.	eng
178530	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The potential threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178531	conservation	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178531	distribution	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is known to occur within Angola and western Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
178531	habitat	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species.	eng
178531	population	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178531	threats	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178532	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution and threats is recommended to determine if the species is threatened.	eng
178532	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species<em></em> inhabits southeast India (Sharma 2003). The type was collected in Madras (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999). The area in which this species occurs has been estimated as approximately 28,330 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178532	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits the dry scrubland and evergreen forests of southeast India.	eng
178532	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known from many specimens (V. Wallach pers. comm.).	eng
178532	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	The habitat in this region is threatened by overgrazing, fuel-wood collection, &#160;and the conversion of land to agriculture and pasture. The extent to which these threats are impacting the species is unclear at present.   For forest obligates, it has been suggested that the removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus. However, as this species is also found in dry scrubland, it may be tolerant of such changes, as more generalist species of this genus are thought to be capable of persisting in a variety of altered and artificial environments.	eng
178534	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. However, the threat of deforestation and habitat loss due to increased agricultural activity has resulted in a need for the establishment of protected areas in this species' distribution range. Further research into the population trend and threats to this species is recommended.	eng
178534	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This recently described species is known from four localities in Viet Nam. Two localities are in the Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, at 10 km and 12 km south of Rao-An Town at 900 m and 200 m above sea level, respectively (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). The third locality is in Quang Nam Province, Tra My District on Ngoe Linh Mountain, 1,450 m above sea level (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). The fourth locality is from the Minh Hoa District, Quang Binh Province, 250 m above sea level, adjacent to Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park.<br/><br/>From these four points, it is inferred that the species inhabits the highlands along the border of Viet Nam and Lao PDR. This species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 38,823 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178534	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species inhabits both lowland and montane subtropical forest (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). Specimens have been found on bush branches 1-1.5 m above ground (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2001). Also, Kizirian (2004) reports that this species is primarily a tree canopy inhabitant with preference for riparian forest.	eng
178534	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178534	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	Habitat loss due to deforestation may pose a threat to this species. Deforestation rates for southern Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent and widespread estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Lao PDR, it is estimated that 98% of the primary forests have been exploited, with timber being the country's most important export commodity (Yamane and Chanthirath 2000). According to experts, 80% of the total degradation of Lao PDR forests is due to slash-and-burn agriculture and forest fires (Yamane and Chanthirath 2000).	eng
178535	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in some places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this relative common species.	eng
178535	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in west and central Africa, from Mali in the west to Chad in the east.	eng
178535	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This fossorial species is reported to occur in savanna and forest.	eng
178535	population	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is relatively common over its entire distribution (I. Ineich pers. comm.).	eng
178535	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178537	conservation	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the threats and habitat requirements of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178537	distribution	Maryan, B., 2009	This species is distributed along the coast and adjacent areas of southwest Western Australia, from Gnaraloo southwards to Swan River. It also inhabits many of the offshore islands.	eng
178537	habitat	Maryan, B., 2009	This species can be found in various types of grassland and shrubland, with differing soil types. It is particularly common in sand dunes and can be found in populated areas.	eng
178537	population	Maryan, B., 2009	This species has been reported as common.	eng
178537	threats	Maryan, B., 2009	There are no known threat processes acting upon this species.	eng
178538	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, however, enforcement of protected status is not always effective. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178538	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species is endemic to Hispaniola and some of its surrounding islands. Although the species is possibly quite widespread around the island of Hispanola, it almost certainly occurs in disjunct populations. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,723 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178538	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species is found in wooded and limestone areas. This species readily invades human habitations in at least part of its range.	eng
178538	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178538	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C.  , 2009	This species may be threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation for agriculture and urbanization. The distribution of this species is extremely localized, which may be indicative of fragmentation attributable to unknown causes.	eng
178539	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Research into its population status is recommended, as there is currently no information available.	eng
178539	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species is known from Tsushima Island, Japan, and numerous localities throughout the Republic of Korea (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
178539	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species inhabits temperate forest in both coastal regions and the inland hills. It is cryptic and can be found under debris, logs, and rocks on the forest floor (Goris and Maeda 2004). <br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with one to nine eggs laid in early summer (Goris and Maeda 2004).	eng
178539	population	Ota, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178539	threats	Ota, H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178540	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178540	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species occurs in coastal regions of Western Australia, from Hutt River in the north to Cape Le Grande National Park in the south-east. It can also be found on the offshore islands of Western Australia.	eng
178540	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits rocky outcrops, coastal shrublands and river margins, and is found on granite, sand, or limestone substrates.	eng
178540	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has been described as very common in various parts of its range.	eng
178540	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178541	conservation	Vogel, G., 2009	This species was assessed as Endangered by the Conservation Breeding Strategy Group in 2003 (CBSG 2003). Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas, for example Siberut National Park (IUCN Category II). Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed. The establishment and management of new protected areas are suggested to provide a refuge site for this species.	eng
178541	distribution	Vogel, G., 2009	This species are found on Siberut (4,400 km²<sup></sup>) and Simeulue (1,800 km²), &#160;part of the Mentawei islands.	eng
178541	habitat	Vogel, G., 2009	There is no specific habitat or ecology information available for this species, but congeners inhabit forests.	eng
178541	population	Vogel, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178541	threats	Vogel, G., 2009	On Sumatra and adjoining islands, there is an extreme threat of habitat loss and degradation, particularly caused by forest fires, agriculture development, and both legal and illegal logging activities (CBSG 2003).	eng
178543	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size, distribution, habitat status and threats should be carried out.	eng
178543	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality Igarape Camaip, an affluent of the upper Maraca river, Amapa, Brazil.	eng
178543	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from lowland tropical rainforest, where it lives among the leaf litter.	eng
178543	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178543	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species occurs in a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and mining activity, however, it not known what impact these activities are having on its population.	eng
178544	conservation	Goldberg, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to ascertain the extent of its distribution in Peru and Ecuador.	eng
178544	distribution	Goldberg, S., 2009	This species is known from northern Chile, north of Antofagasta, from the coast to the foothills of the Andes. This species has also been reported in widely scattered localities in northwestern Peru and appears to be restricted to the desert foothills bordering the Sechura Desert (Dixon and Huey 1970). It is probably also found in southwest Ecuador.	eng
178544	habitat	Goldberg, S., 2009	This species is found in several different habitats, from coastal desert to the grasslands and shrublands of the Andean foothills.<br/><br/>Goldberg (2008) reported an extended reproductive cycle in this species (late autumn and late spring) with multiple egg clutches of one to two eggs.	eng
178544	population	Goldberg, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178544	threats	Goldberg, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178545	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, but there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population trends and threats of this species is suggested to check that localized threats are not becoming more widespread.	eng
178545	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species occurs in a band of arid and semi-arid environments from northern Western Australia, through to the west of the Northern Territory (Cogger 2000).	eng
178545	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This species is reported from arid grassy habitat and shrubland (Cogger 2000, How and Dell 2004).	eng
178545	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178545	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	The habitat of this species may have been negatively impacted by grazing, land clearing and mining activity in the region; however, these should not be considered major threats at this time as these are only localized threats.	eng
178546	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
178546	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species inhabits Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, east Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan (Bobrov 2005). It has been observed on eastern and western slopes, between an altitude of 1,200 and 1,500 m above sea level (Kolbintzev 1999), but can extend up to 2,000 m.	eng
178546	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species inhabits deserts (Bobrov 2005). At 2,000 m above sea level, it is known to live on dry-south exposed slopes with xerophytic steppe characterized by <em>Ferula</em>, <em>Rosa</em>, Honeysuckle, <em>Cotoneaster</em>, and <em>Spirea</em>. This species is diurnal and oviparous, with observed clutch sizes between 1-11 eggs (Kolbintzev 1999).	eng
178546	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178546	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178547	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
178547	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species inhabits the eastern periphery of Puerto Rico. It is known from a location seven kilometres west of Palmas Altas and the Bosque de Cambalache, eastward around the coast to midway along the south coast. The species is primarily found in coastal localities, with the interiormost locations being Hato Tejas, Bayamon, Tio Piedras, and Trujillo Alto. It is possible that the range extends further westward along both coasts, but probably does not extend west of Arecibo on the north coast or Ponce on the south coast (Hedges and Thomas 1991). This species also occurs on the islands of Palominos, Pineros, and Vieques (Hedges and Thomas 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,459 km².	eng
178547	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits the lowland moist evergreen forests of the eastern coasts of Puerto Rico.	eng
178547	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178547	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	Puerto Rico experiences frequent severe hurricanes, which are known to affect the coastal forests (Foster <em>et al.</em> 1999). As the frequency and intensity of storms are expected to increase due to climate change, it is possible that this may have adverse impacts on the forest structure. As this species is fossorial, however, such damage to the canopy is unlikely to have negative impacts to the species. <br/><br/>There has been extensive habitat loss for conversion to agriculture in the past, with over 90% of Puerto Rico under cultivation at the beginning of the 20th Century. However, since the 1940s much of this agricultural land has been abandoned as the economy shifted to be more industry-based, and consequently there has been regeneration of the forest (Pascarella <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>Therefore, at present there are no major threats to this species, however, habitat degradation due to climate change impacts may impose a threat in the future.	eng
178548	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species, though it likely occurs within protected areas within its range.	eng
178548	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is found in India, Thailand, Myanmar, and the Sunda region, including Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. Within Thailand, the species was first recorded at Coffee Camp, Na Bon, Nakhon Si Thammarat; Bukit Bayu, Yala; Bukit Besar, at a waterfall near Na Pradoo, Pattani; and at Khao Chong, Trang (Taylor 1963).	eng
178548	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known to inhabit lowland deciduous Dipterocarp forests (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
178548	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	A survey of the herpetofauna of Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary in north-central Myanmar found the species to be rare in that region (Zug <em>et al.</em> 1998). No further population data are available.	eng
178548	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	While in some areas this species may be experiencing habitat loss and degradation from threats such as conversion of forest to agricultural land and logging, these are unlikely to be major threats throughout its range.	eng
178549	conservation	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further conservation measures are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this region, such as greater management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population and habitat monitoring is recommended.	eng
178549	distribution	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is found on the east coast of Brazil, in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais (A.F. Barreto-Lima pers. comm. 2010), between the Rio Jequitinhonha and the Rio Doce.	eng
178549	habitat	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is an semi-arboreal to arboreal species found in Atlantic Forest habitat.	eng
178549	population	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is rare (A. Lima pers. comm.).	eng
178549	threats	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation due to illegal extraction of timber, and urban and agricultural expansion. Only 6% of the original extent of Atlantic Forest remains and the habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented (A. Lima pers. comm.). However, much of the forest loss in the area happened several decades ago.	eng
178550	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species<em></em>.	eng
178550	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is found along the coast of Orissa north of Puri, in southern Tamil Nadu and southern Kerala, and in northern Sri Lanka (Smith 1935).	eng
178550	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is found primarily along the coast, although it is also found further inland. The species is fossorial and has been observed burrowing in low vegetation on sand dunes (Smith 1935). The distribution of this species suggests that it inhabits a range of habitats from semi-evergreen rainforest to dry scrub and dry evergreen forests, and coastal dunes.	eng
178550	population	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is extremely rare in Sri Lanka, and there have been no recent collections since it was reported several decades ago (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178550	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178551	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, distribution, population size, habitat status and potential threats are needed.	eng
178551	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species was originally known from two types with the exact locality in Thailand unknown (Taylor 1963). It has been recorded at Bang Saen, south of Ang Hin on the Gulf of Thailand (Taylor 1963). It is also known to occur in Chon Buri (I. Ineich pers. comm.).	eng
178551	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is fossorial and limbless (Greer 1973). Individuals have been found in sandy soil in a coconut grove (Taylor 1963). From the described locality, it is inferred that this species inhabits lowland deciduous forests.	eng
178551	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no recent population information available for this species. However, in 1963, Taylor described this species as "not uncommon".	eng
178551	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation. The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with the forest area having declined from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006).	eng
178552	conservation	Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. More research is needed into the habitat status and threats to this species. Due to the restricted range of this species, protected areas should be established and managed.	eng
178552	distribution	Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This species is known from the Chanchamayo Valley and adjacent areas, in the departments of Junin and Pasco, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, central Peru. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 6,247 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178552	habitat	Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	This is an arboreal species found in moist montane forest habitat.	eng
178552	population	Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178552	threats	Lehr, E. & Lundberg, M., 2009	Uncontrolled deforestation, intensive agriculture, coffee plantations, cattle ranching and the associated increase in infrastructure development are major causes of habitat degradation and loss in the area.	eng
178553	conservation	Doughty, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the ecology, threats and habitat status of this species is suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178553	distribution	Doughty, P., 2009	This species can be found in Western Australia (Clayton<em> et al.</em> 2006) from the mid-western coast and hinterland, to the Exmouth Gulf (Cogger 2000).	eng
178553	habitat	Doughty, P., 2009	This is a terrestrial species, which is usually found under debris, logs and rocks in open woodlands and heathlands (Cogger 2000).	eng
178553	population	Doughty, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178553	threats	Doughty, P., 2009	Significant areas of suitable habitat in this region have been lost and fragmented due to land clearing for agricultural purposes, including crop production and livestock grazing (Abensperg-Traun <em>et al</em>. 2007). This is likely to have affected this species.	eng
178554	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed into the distribution, population, habitat preferences and status, and threats of this species.	eng
178554	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has been found in the Tây Ninh Province of southern Viet Nam. Recent work by Nguyen <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2010) has led to an increase in the distribution range, due to the inclusion of <span style="font-style: italic;">Gekko ulikovskii</span> as a synonym of this species, the type locality of which is in Kon Tum Province.	eng
178554	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no direct habitat information available for this species, but from its distribution it is likely to inhabit lowland forests.	eng
178554	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178554	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no information available regarding the threats to this species.	eng
178555	conservation	Austin, C.C. & Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In 2005, Palau joined the Micronesia challenge that aims to conserve 20% of forest land by 2020. Further research into the ecology, population size, habitat status and threats of this species is required.	eng
178555	distribution	Austin, C.C. & Ineich, I., 2009	This species is endemic to the Republic of Palau. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 508 km².	eng
178555	habitat	Austin, C.C. & Ineich, I., 2009	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species. It can be inferred from its distribution, however, that it occurs in tropical lowland rainforest.	eng
178555	population	Austin, C.C. & Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178555	threats	Austin, C.C. & Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178556	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178556	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found throughout the island of Jamaica at elevations below 1,000 m above sea level. The total area of Jamaica is 10,911 km². G.C. Mayer and A. Haynes Sutton (pers. comms.) report that a specimen of <span style="font-style: italic;">Typhlops</span>, very similar to this species, was found on one of the Morant Cays, on the Morant Bank, south of Jamaica. If this specimen is confirmed as <span style="font-style: italic;">T. jamaicensis</span>, then it would significantly extend the range of this species.	eng
178556	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species can be found in various habitats in xerophilic to mesophilic environments. It occurs in wooded areas, clearings, pastures, cocoa plantations and along roads cut through forest.	eng
178556	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is common throughout the whole of Jamaica. Low capture levels are thought to be associated with low levels of surface activity rather than low population density.	eng
178556	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting on this species.	eng
178557	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. No specific conservation measures are needed in the foreseeable future.	eng
178557	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in the eastern portion of South Australia, throughout central and southern New South Wales and in small areas over the border of the Northern Territory and Queensland (Cogger 2000).	eng
178557	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in a range of grassland and shrubland habitat types as long as it has areas of bare stony or sandy desert (Swan and Foster 2005, Cogger 2000, Pianka 1972).	eng
178557	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178557	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species has no major threats at this time.	eng
178558	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	Further research into the distribution, habitat status, and threats to this recently described species is required. There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
178558	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is known from just three collection localities east of the town of Zapala, Department of Zapala, Province of Neuquen, Argentina. This species is found between 500 and 650 m above sea level.	eng
178558	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is known from thorn scrub and grassland habitat.	eng
178558	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There is limited population information available for this species; however several surveys since its description have concluded that there has been no population decline in this species (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178558	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are potential threats to this species; in parts of this region domestic livestock grazing has caused degradation of the natural habitat, but the effect that this has had on this species is not known and livestock are now quite rare in the area (F. Cruz pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178559	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it probably occurs in Jardine River National Park and Rokeby National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research and monitoring of the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178559	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Cape York Peninsula, south to Princess Charlotte Bay, Queensland, Australia.	eng
178559	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits wet forests and woodlands, often with gullies and creeks.	eng
178559	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178559	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178560	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread across this species range.	eng
178560	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is found in Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea (Brown 1953). This species is known to inhabit the Huon Peninsula and the Finisterre Ranges, the area around Wau on the Papuan peninsula and in Toem on the north coast of Irian Jaya (Mys 1988). Mys suggests that the species has a patchy distribution in New Guinea, as collection efforts in the Adelbert block and the Torricelli/Prince Alexander/Bewani block have been unsuccessful (1988). <br/><br/>This species has been known to occur at 1,800 m above sea level (Allison 1982).	eng
178560	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species inhabits lowland and montane rainforests. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of two (Greer 1968).	eng
178560	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178560	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. The montane forests in the Huon Peninsula are largely intact, although the lowlands are more susceptible to deforestation due to logging and conversion to agriculture. Deforestation in Irian Jaya is considered less of a problem than in many other regions of Indonesia and is unlikely to be having a significant effect on the species. Between 1985-1997, estimates of forest loss in Irian Jaya were 5%, compared to the national average of 17-18% (FWI and GFW 2002).	eng
178561	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, habitat requirements and population number of this newly discovered species is needed.	eng
178561	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is currently known only from its type locality, in Rayong Province, Thailand.	eng
178561	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species inhabits caves and limestone outcrops.	eng
178561	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are currently no population data available for this species.	eng
178561	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There is currently no information available regarding the threats to this species.	eng
178562	conservation	Bohm, M & Richman, N., 2009	In Egypt, this species has been recorded in the Wadi el Alaqi protected area. Further research is needed into the range, ecology and biology of this species.	eng
178562	distribution	Bohm, M & Richman, N., 2009	This species is known from records in the southern Egyptian Nile Valley and from a record in Assalaya in Sudan. The species has been recently discovered and is believed to range along the Nile between the Egyptian and Sudanese localities. Collections of this species have been from around 150 to 200 m above sea level.	eng
178562	habitat	Bohm, M & Richman, N., 2009	This species appears to be associated with fluvial habitats and is found in the area between the Nile River and the adjacent desert. It has been recorded in low, rocky hills, shallow sandy wadis and close to human habitation.	eng
178562	population	Bohm, M & Richman, N., 2009	This species is abundant around Lake Nasser in Egypt.	eng
178562	threats	Bohm, M & Richman, N., 2009	This species may be locally threatened by land reclamation and cultivation.	eng
178563	conservation	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Udzungwa Forest National Park and Mazumbai Forest Reserve. Efforts to reduce further habitat loss are required (i.e. protected areas). Population and habitat research and population monitoring are necessary to establish the effects that a fragmented, disturbed environment is having on the population size of the species.	eng
178563	distribution	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species is an Eastern Arc endemic found in the Usambara and Udzungwa Mountains. There are also reports that it is found in the Uluguru Mountains. This species is found between 700 and 2,000 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 15,161 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178563	habitat	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species is restricted to montane rainforests. Emmrich (1997) reports that it is very difficult to breed this species in captivity.	eng
178563	population	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species is known to be rare.	eng
178563	threats	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species is found within a fragmented habitat that is threatened by high rates of degradation and deforestation, due to agriculture, logging and increasing human population.	eng
178564	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species and any protection provided by a portion of its range being in a protected area (Parque Nacional Los Haitises) is ineffective. Further research into the threat processes affecting this species is strongly recommended.	eng
178564	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found on Hispaniola, in the eastern Dominican Republic, including the Peninsula de Samana. Its distribution is estimated to be around 2,000 km²<sup></sup>, and area of occupancy is considerably less due to lack of suitable habitat and severe fragmentation. The species occurs in around five to eight locations (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178564	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is often found in rubbish along beaches, in limestone cave crevices, under piles of rocks, shells, bones, cocoa husks, and under logs in broadleaf forest (Schwartz 1976).	eng
178564	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178564	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation. The Dominican Republic is estimated to maintain only 10% of its forests, which remain under threat because of logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, and fuelwood collection (Schubert 1993). To what degree this species is adaptable to anthropogenic habitat change is unknown, and its habitat on the Península de Samaná is threatened with urbanization and beach and coastal development for tourism. Also, deforestation continues within Haitises National Park, which encompasses a portion of the species’ range.	eng
178565	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. There are protected areas within its range. Further research into the population numbers, threats and habitat status are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178565	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is reported from lowland areas in the Northern Territory Gulf of Carpentaria region to the northwestern coast of Queensland (Wilson and Swan 2003, Cogger 2000).	eng
178565	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species inhabits stony hills, ranges and rocky escarpments (Cogger 2000) and has also been reported from woodland and grassland areas (McArthur River Mining 2005).	eng
178565	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178565	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing localized habitat loss and degradation due to land clearing and mining activities. However, due to its wide distribution, this should not be considered a major threat at this time.	eng
178566	conservation	Mathews, N., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Further research is needed to confirm the current distribution, and population trend of this species. Conservation measures, such as establishing a protected area where this species is found, and legal protection should be considered.	eng
178566	distribution	Mathews, N., 2009	This species is currently only known from the type locality in the Anaikatti Hills in the Western Ghats, India (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2005). Surveys within the surrounding 10 km² area of dry deciduous forest only located seven specimens, with a subsequent survey failing to locate any individuals at the type locality (N. Matthews pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178566	habitat	Mathews, N., 2009	This species inhabits dry deciduous forests where it can be found in rocky stream beds (Mukherjee <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is diurnal, and is most active at dawn and dusk.	eng
178566	population	Mathews, N., 2009	Surveys of the area in which this species is found, carried out between 2002 and 2005, suggests that there are no more than 250 mature individuals of this species (N. Mathews pers. comm. 2010). In fact, only seven individuals were found in a recent survey, and none in a follow up survey six months later (N. Mathews pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178566	threats	Mathews, N., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation is a major threat to the Western Ghats. &#160;This species' dry deciduous forest habitat is being lost due to logging and habitat conversion. Riparian areas, which provide important&#160;micro-habitats for this species, are being degraded, for example through local fire regimes (N. Matthews pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178567	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its range and abundance, habitat requirements and threats is needed. Its range is uncertain, but may intersect with protected areas.	eng
178567	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The range of this species is unknown. The type was collected from Puepoli, Karin Bia-po at around 1,100 m above sea level; its range may possibly include the Karin Hills in Myanmar and adjacent Thailand (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008). Sharma (2002) reports this species from India, although no other sources corroborate this and the report may be in error.	eng
178567	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is a rock-dwelling insectivorous species (Sharma 2002). Based upon its distribution, it may inhabit evergreen forest in the region, but this is not certain.	eng
178567	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Sharma (2002) states that this species is "very rare".	eng
178567	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178568	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178568	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species inhabits the Owen Stanley Range in southeast Papua New Guinea. Its type locality is Mount Victoria at the eastern extreme of its range. It has also been recorded in the Cloudy Mountains (Kraus and Allison 2004).	eng
178568	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species primarily inhabits montane rain forests. It has also been found around rural villages (Allison and Kraus 2006). This species is oviparous, with an average clutch size of 3.8 eggs (Greer and Shea 2004).	eng
178568	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178568	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, this species may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.	eng
178569	conservation	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species, however, it occurs in Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco and in several other protected areas. More research is needed to investigate this species' taxonomy.	eng
178569	distribution	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H., 2009	This species has a fragmented distribution and is known from coastal Western Sahara, southwestern Morocco, where it is present in the Souss Valley and the Atlantic coastal area from Tamri to Boujdour, as well as the extreme western Algeria (only around Tindouf) (P. Geniez and P.-A. and Crochet pers. comms. 2010). It is occurs from sea level to 580 m above sea level.	eng
178569	habitat	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H., 2009	This species is found in arid and semi-arid stony plains and is sometimes abundant in Macaronesian-type vegetation dominated by <em>Euphorbia</em> species or other shrubs. It is an egg-laying species.	eng
178569	population	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H., 2009	This species can be common in good habitat.	eng
178569	threats	Geniez, P., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T. & El Mouden, E.H., 2009	The threats to this species are not currently well-known; however coastal developments in Western Sahara puts the southernmost populations of this species at risk (P. Geniez and P.-A Crochet pers. comms. 2010).	eng
178570	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
178570	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits the eastern Himalayas. It is known to occur in the Naga Hills (Samagutin), and Assam (Sharma 2003).	eng
178570	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits semi-evergreen submontane rainforests.	eng
178570	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known from three specimens (Sharma 2003).	eng
178570	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	Threats present in the submontane region include habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and logging, as well as habitat degradation due to fuel-wood collection and overgrazing. However, it is not known what impact these threats may be having on this species, since little is known about its ecology.	eng
178571	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. This species has a restricted range and therefore should be monitored as any threat impacting this species in the future will cause a threat category to be triggered.	eng
178571	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is found only on the top of the Guaiquinima Tepui, in southern Venezuela, at approximately 780 m above sea level. It has a distributional area of 108 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178571	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is found in rocky planes adjacent or close to rivers. This species was found to avoid nearby forests.	eng
178571	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178571	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	The Guaiquinima Tepui is in a remote and uninhabited part of Venezuela and therefore there are no direct threats affecting this species.	eng
178572	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in protected areas such as the Rakhine Yoma Wildlife reserve. Further research into its biology, abundance and range, habitat requirements and threats is needed.	eng
178572	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is endemic to Myanmar and is known from Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range, Gwa Township in Rakhine State and from Myaung Mya Township in the Ayeyarwady Division (Bauer 2003). Its distributional area has been calculated as 24,510 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178572	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species occurs in lowland forest (Bauer 2003).	eng
178572	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178572	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The threats to this species are unknown. It is possible that it is experiencing habitat loss and degradation, but the impact of this potential threat is uncertain.	eng
178573	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess if the impact of overgrazing on this species.	eng
178573	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is only known from the Ruwenzori Mountains in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (Welch 1982). Its type locality is Bugongo Ridge, Mount Ruwenzori, Uganda (Loveridge 1932). The type was collected at 2,895 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,446 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178573	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits the montane grasslands and shrublands of the Ruwenzori Mountains.	eng
178573	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178573	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	Although Uganda's natural habitat is threatened by agricultural expansion, burning to create pastureland, commercial logging, charcoal burning and fuel-wood collection (Kayanja and Byarugaba 2001), these threats are mainly affecting forest habitats and are unlikely to affect this savanna species at the high altitudes at which it occurs. Overgrazing by cattle is the most likely threat to the habitat of this species in the future, but this is not thought to be severe enough at present to cause a population decline.	eng
178574	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its distribution, threats and habitat status is required. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178574	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, near Pehuenche Pass, Malargüe Department, Mendoza province, Argentina, at 2,500 m. This species might occur more widely.	eng
178574	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	The type of this species was collected from a rocky streamlet in an area where the dominant habitat is Patagonian steppe.	eng
178574	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no population data available for this species.	eng
178574	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species' habitat is threatened by degradation and loss due to the conversion of land for agriculture and human settlements.	eng
178576	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place for this species; however, its distribution in parts of the range coincides with protected areas.	eng
178576	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found on the islands of St Lucia, Dominica, Martinique and St Vincent. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,875 km².	eng
178576	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found under leaf litter, rocks, rotten logs and in bromeliads in degraded and natural environments (Steinberg <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
178576	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	The population status of this species varies from island to island. For example, this species is very common on St. Vincent, but very rare and highly localized on Dominica.	eng
178576	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species' natural habitat is threatened from increasing agriculture and urbanisation. However, some populations are able to utilize a variety of shaded habitats including plantations and gardens, so that habitat loss cannot be regarded as a major uniform threat across the entire distribution of this species.	eng
178577	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178577	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality of Mount Ibity, Antananarivo Province, Madagascar. This species appears to be limited to the summit regions of Mount Ibity, and does not occur on the slopes below the summit. The area in which this species is distributed is less than 100 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178577	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species was found in a very rocky area, and the summit region of Mount Ibity is largely treeless with some bushes.	eng
178577	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species was rediscovered in February 2008 at its type locality. Three unsuccessful searches had already taken place, indicting that this species is rare (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178577	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	At present there is no imminent threat to the summit region of Mount Ibity, however, quarrying and deforestation of the last dry forests on the mountain slopes is ongoing, and may pose a threat to the summit region in the future. Shifting climatic conditions due to climate change may also impact upon this species, especially considering its extremely restricted distribution.	eng
178578	conservation	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution are likely to coincide with protected areas. Monitoring of population trends is necessary to ensure that the localized habitat loss does not cause significant declines in this species abundance.	eng
178578	distribution	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in Australia and is found west of the Great Dividing Range in arid sections of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales (Clayton <em>et al</em>. 2006). It is not found in Victoria or the Australian Capital Territory.	eng
178578	habitat	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M., 2009	This nocturnal species occurs mainly in sandplain habitat and grasslands (Morton and James 1988, Pianka and Pianka 1976) and is known to shelter in burrows during the day (Cogger 2000).	eng
178578	population	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178578	threats	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species may be experiencing localized habitat declines due to threats including grazing and land clearing, but these should not be considered major threats due to this species' large distribution.	eng
178579	conservation	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring due to urban development. Further research and monitoring of the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178579	distribution	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species inhabits Great Inagua Island and Little Inagua Island of the Bahama Islands (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,693 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178579	habitat	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species is xerophilic, preferring sandy and loamy soils (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). It is common in the upper beach zone with sand, rock rubble, and sparse vegetation. Its burrows are shallow, usually within 1-1.5 ft of the surface. Occasionally, individuals will climb as high as six feet into trees to secure insect prey (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178579	population	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178579	threats	Powell, R., and Hedges, S.B., 2009	This species may be threatened by human disturbance and natural disasters. Development of coastal locations, especially for the tourist trade, is likely to impact &#160;the species in the future. Further, this species may be threatened by hurricanes, increased storm intensity and sea level rise induced by climate change.	eng
178580	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178580	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This Western Australian species has a small distribution near the coastal plain around Exmouth Gulf, from Onslow to Giralia and Barradale. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 14,873 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178580	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits red sands and white coastal dunes, sometimes with low shrubs.	eng
178580	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178580	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is a large salt mine proposed in the area by Straits Resources which could threaten the habitat of this species.	eng
178581	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178581	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species inhabits the northwest coast, southwest coast, and western plateau of Western Australia (Cogger <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
178581	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is primarily associated with desert habitat. It is known to occur in mallee habitats, characteristic of lignotubers which can withstand low rainfall and poor soil, and arid shrublands characterized by spinifex grasses. It is also known to occur on coastal plains (Bush <em>et al.</em> 1995), on pale sand plains and heavy loam soils. <br/><br/>This species has been recorded in association with meat ants (<em>Irodomyrmex</em> spp.) on pale sand-plains and heavy loams (Wilson and Swan 2003). This species is fossorial, nocturnal, and oviparous (Cogger<em> et al.</em> 1983).	eng
178581	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178581	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178582	conservation	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178582	distribution	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is found in the Amazon basin, in southeast Colombia, in Venezuela (in the state of Tachira), eastern Ecuador and northeastern Peru. This species is possibly present in Brazil, however, this has yet to be confirmed.	eng
178582	habitat	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is found in the forest leaf litter in lowland tropical forest habitat. This species is known from primary and secondary forest, forest edges and clearings.	eng
178582	population	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species; however it is now difficult to find in the upper Amazon basin (W. Lamar pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178582	threats	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178583	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the distribution, population, habitat status and trends, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178583	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from Manaus and the surrounding area, and from a locality given as 'Teffe', Amazonas, Brazil.	eng
178583	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This fossorial species has been found in a stream valley in forest and in areas where the habitat is a mixture of trees and herbaceous vegetation.	eng
178583	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178583	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Although deforestation is a problem in the region, its impacts are likely to be localized. Much pristine habitat remains.	eng
178585	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178585	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in the southwest, west, and central southern areas of Madagascar. Although the range of this species appears to be large, its actual distribution within this area may be restricted.	eng
178585	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found in dry forests, thorny scrub and grasslands.	eng
178585	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Henkel and Schmidt (2000) state that this species is not common in any part of its range.	eng
178585	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178586	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measure in place for this species. Further taxonomic research should be carried out to clarify the status of its currently recognized subspecies.	eng
178586	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the Bahamas. It is found on Crooked Island, Fortune Island, Rum Cay, North Cay, Fish Cay, Acklin Island, Castle Island, San Salvador, Man Head Cay, Green Cay, Low Cay, East Plana Cay, West Plana Cay, Samana Cay (Schwartz and Thomas 1975), and possibly Conception Island. The total area of these islands is approximately 700 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178586	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is a mesophilic to xerophilic species, which is found around coastal habitats including human settlements. It has also been found in <em>Cocos</em> and citrus-banana plantations, on beaches, under rocks on the roadside, and in caves.	eng
178586	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178586	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species has a restricted distribution, but potential threats from development and agriculture have not yet had any major negative effects on populations of these lizards. Increased human activities on the islands where this species occurs and sea level rise due to climate change could dramatically affect this species in the future, and monitoring the status of populations is recommended.	eng
178587	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has a rare status in Queensland. Parts of this species' distribution coincide with protected areas. Further research into the threats, population trends and habitats of this species is needed, as is population and habitat monitoring.	eng
178587	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This Australian species is found scattered in the northern half of the Mackenzie-Dawson drainage basin of Queensland, from Finch Hatton in the north to Theodore in the south, and Clermont in the west.	eng
178587	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This burrowing species can be found in various habitats from dry sclerophyll forest to permanently moist rainforest.	eng
178587	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178587	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	The area in which this species is found has been extensively cleared (Wilson 2003).	eng
178588	conservation	Van Sluys, M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species and its habitat should be carried out because this species could become more threatened in the future.	eng
178588	distribution	Van Sluys, M., 2009	The species is known to occur in three locations on the east side of Rio Sao Francisco:Santo Inacio, Gameleira do Assuruá and Lagoa de Itaparica (Bahia state,northeastern Brazil). Locations are about 550-560 m elevation.These sites are about 200 km apart.&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 730 km².	eng
178588	habitat	Van Sluys, M., 2009	This species is found in quaternary sand dunes with scattered clumps of vegetation, distinct from the dominant surrounding Caatinga habitat.	eng
178588	population	Van Sluys, M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178588	threats	Van Sluys, M., 2009	The expanding human population in the region poses a risk to this species, as this is likely to lead to erosion of the sand dune habitat and therefore extensive habitat degradation and loss. However, the area in which the species is thought to be distributed is not heavily populated.	eng
178589	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is threatened.	eng
178589	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known from two localities on the plateau Tau Nguen in south Viet Nam (Darevsky and Orlova 1996).	eng
178589	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits moist montane evergreen and conifer forests.	eng
178589	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178589	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Annual deforestation rates for south Viet Nam have been estimated at 1.2- 3.2% for the period 1990-1997 (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002), with more recent estimates unavailable. The main drivers of this process were identified to be conversion to agriculture, mosaic and degradation to savanna and woodland (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178590	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed to investigate its range.	eng
178590	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is endemic to southwestern Pakistan. Khan (2002) reports only two mountain and submountain localities: Sakhisarwar and Rakhni Gorge, along Dera Ghazi Khan-Fort Munro road, in District Dera Ghazi Khan. It occurs between 1,000 and 1,800 m above sea level (M.S. Khan pers. comm.).	eng
178590	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This oviparous species is found in sandy tracts with grasses and low bushes (Khan 1991). It is able to tolerate anthropogenic environments (Khan 2003). It is a strictly nocturnal species that naturally inhabits the crevices and holes in sandstone slabs around Fort Munro, though it readily invades buildings and feeds on photophilic insects (M.S. Khan pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Breeding occurs between April and June and eggs are laid in communal sites. In several such sites, which are often discovered under loose plastering on walls, several broken, fresh, and old eggshells have been discovered (Khan 2006).	eng
178590	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178590	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178591	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Parts of this species' range coincide with protected areas, including the Monte Cristi National Park. Further research into the threat processes that may be impacting this species is needed.	eng
178591	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found from the base of the Tiburon Peninsula in Haiti, east through the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain to Azua province in the Dominican Republic. In Haiti, it is also found from Port-au-Prince to Gonaives, following the coastline of the Golfe de la Gonave. Specimens have also been found from Artibonite valley and Hinche. It is also found in the Presqu'ile de Nord Ouest which is likely to be continuous with the more southern Haiti population.<br/><br/>In the Dominican Republic it is found in the Valle de Cibao, Monte Cristi Province and the surrounding islands of Islas Ratus, Tororu, Muertos, and Tercero. It has also been introduced to Florida (Townsend <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178591	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This is a xerophilic species, which can be found in areas where the vegetation is characterized by cacti and thorn scrub. It has also been found in urban areas on lawns and rock piles, abandoned walls and concrete blocks and slabs.	eng
178591	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Population density in a heavily disturbed area was 142.9 lizards/ha (Schreiber <em>et al.</em> 1993). In presumably optimal natural habitat, ~46 lizards/ha (Nelson <em>et al.</em> 2001). At least two populations in the Dominican Republic were essentially eliminated by sand mining and urban development.	eng
178591	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species' natural habitat is threatened by the expanding agricultural, charcoal burning, and urbanization. However, this species' preferred habitat is less likely to be developed than more mesic areas. This species is also able to utilize urban areas and therefore habitat loss is unlikely to be causing major population declines.	eng
178592	conservation	Hedges, S.B., Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Although a portion of this species' range falls within the boundaries of a national park, enforcement of protective measures is marginal. Effective management of the current protected areas needs to be implemented. Further research into the population, habitat and threats, and monitoring of the population and habitat trends are recommended.	eng
178592	distribution	Hedges, S.B., Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to the southern slopes of the Massif de la Hotte on the Tiburon Peninsula, Haiti. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 441 km². The elevation limits for this species are between 240 and 750 m above sea level.	eng
178592	habitat	Hedges, S.B., Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found on grasses and in leaf litter in relatively moist environments; this is generally in openings or on the edges of forests and plantations (Rand 1961, Moermond 1979a, 1979b).	eng
178592	population	Hedges, S.B., Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178592	threats	Hedges, S.B., Powell, R. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss from coffee and crop plantations, livestock farming and charcoal production.	eng
178593	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178593	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This Western Australia endemic is confined to northwest Kimberley, from Kalumburu southwest to the Prince Regent River.	eng
178593	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits woodland, savanna, and shrubland.	eng
178593	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178593	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178594	conservation	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its distribution may coincide with protected areas, including the Parque Estadual do Morro do Chapéu, which is found in the municipality of Morro do Chapéu, area of Chapada Diamantina, in Bahia State. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178594	distribution	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is endemic to the northern portion of the Serra do Espinhaco, Bahia, Brazil. It has been found to occur in Santo Inácio and Morro do Chapéu (Rodrigues 1987). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 25,543 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178594	habitat	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	This species is found in rocky areas where the habitat is Cerrado shrub and dry forest. This is an omnivorous lizard, which feeds primarily on insects and flowers (Fontes <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
178594	population	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178594	threats	Lima, A.F.B., 2009	Urban expansion, conversion of land to agriculture, and cutting for firewood has caused the degradation and loss of a large proportion of the Caatinga and dry forest habitat in this region.	eng
178595	conservation	Cogger, H.G. & Austin, C.C., 2009	Ecology and captive breeding options are currently being investigated for this and other threatened species on Christmas Island and initial research is being implemented by the management of Christmas Island National Park, which covers approximately 60% of the island. Conservation measures, including recovery management, are required to limit the impact that <em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em> is having on the abundance of this species. Further research into the population and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is strongly recommended.	eng
178595	distribution	Cogger, H.G. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is only from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean), which has a land area  of 135 km<sup><sub>2</sub></sup>; however, less than 100 km²<sup></sup> of forest remains on Christmas Island (C. Austin pers. comm. 2010). This distribution constitutes one location.	eng
178595	habitat	Cogger, H.G. & Austin, C.C., 2009	Cogger <em>et al.</em> (1983) state that this species is found in forest clearings, usually in leaf litter but occasionally on low vegetation or tree buttresses. It is reported to be locally abundant wherever sunlight penetrates the canopy, especially along tracks or roads with available sunlight (C. Austin pers. comm.).	eng
178595	population	Cogger, H.G. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There has been a severe decline in numbers of this species over the past decade, which has been estimated at <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 98% (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010). It is unknown if the    remaining population is distributed sparsely across its island habitat or whether it occurs only in remnant populations over a small area (H. Cogger pers. comm. 2010).<span lang="EN-US">	eng
178595	threats	Cogger, H.G. & Austin, C.C., 2009	H. Cogger (pers. comm. 2010) reports that the rapid decline in population numbers is due to direct and indirect impacts (on the island's forest ecology) of supercolony development in the invasive Yellow Crazy Ant (<em>Anoplolepis gracilipes</em>). However, the rapidity of the decline in both this species and other endemic lizards suggests that the threatening processes causing these declines are multiple and complex.	eng
178597	conservation	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178597	distribution	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This montane species has a disjunct population across south eastern Africa from the border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the north to the southern coast of Africa. This species is known to occur between sea level and 3,000 m above sea level.	eng
178597	habitat	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is found in mountainous areas and in a variety of habitats from fynbos to grassland on the summits of the Drakensberg and Chimanimani mountains.	eng
178597	population	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is regarded as common.	eng
178597	threats	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178598	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required to assess the impact that invasive species are having on the population abundance of this species. Also taxonomic research should be undertaken to fully understand the species complex.	eng
178598	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species has a broad distribution across New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The asexual <em>N. pelagicus</em> occurs in southern Vanuatu and eastward to Fiji.	eng
178598	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial gecko found under logs, rocks, and coconut husk piles. It is found in primary, secondary, and highly disturbed forests and garden areas (C. Austin pers. comm., Austin 2006).	eng
178598	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is often found in high densities (Austin 2006).	eng
178598	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Invasive predator species may be having a negative impact on the species, but it is not known if this is causing a significant population decline.	eng
178599	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178599	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Bougainville, an island in the Solomon Islands. It is distributed widely over the lowlands of Bougainville which has an area of 10,619 km².	eng
178599	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species inhabits lowland forests.	eng
178599	population	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that this species has been collected since its original discovery (F. Parker pers. comm.) but this is due to the lack of surveying for it and not indicative of rarity.	eng
178599	threats	Allison, A., 2009	There is probably no significant threat affecting this species or its habitat (F. Parker pers. comm.).	eng
178600	conservation	Guo, P., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178600	distribution	Guo, P., 2009	This species is distributed across central Asia, from east of the Selemdzha River in eastern Siberia, to Korea. Zhao (2006) reported that this species was found from 200 to 1,200 m in elevation.	eng
178600	habitat	Guo, P., 2009	This species is found on rocky mountain slopes and in forests.	eng
178600	population	Guo, P., 2009	Szczerbak (2003) reports that this species is common.	eng
178600	threats	Guo, P., 2009	For a long time in China, snakes were thought to have certain therapeutic significance. They are captured and killed in great numbers every year. Although this species is sometimes captured, killed and use as a drug, this is not popular. Therefore this is not likely to be acting as a major threat and will not lead to a significant population reduction (P. Guo pers. comm.).	eng
178601	conservation	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures should be taken to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the region, such as the creation and management of protected areas. Further research into the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178601	distribution	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is known from Bellona Island, in the Rennell Island group of the Solomon Islands. Bellona Island covers an area of 17 km².	eng
178601	habitat	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	This species inhabits moist lowland rainforest. Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).	eng
178601	population	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178601	threats	Allison, A. & Austin, C.C., 2009	The lowland forests of the Solomon Islands have been exploited for centuries, primarily due to conversion of forest to agriculture (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in commercial logging on the islands and both primary and secondary forests are now under threat (Bayliss-Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). Pelling and Uitto (2001) comment that in the Solomon Islands, "a weak forestry department and civil society have little power to restrict the activity of foreign (mainly Japanese based) forestry companies". The effect of deforestation on the species is uncertain; however it is known to be common in second growth forest. The restricted range of this species may also present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events.	eng
178602	conservation	Hutchinson, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. However, there are protected areas within its range. Further research into the threats, population, harvest levels and habitat status is needed to ensure that a threat category is not triggered. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178602	distribution	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species occurs in the southwestern interior of Western Australia (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178602	habitat	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This is a ground-dwelling species (Cogger 2000) and it is reported from a diverse range of habitats from low woodland to grassland, heath and shrubland (Duncan <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may also occur in pasture and cropland.	eng
178602	population	Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is reported to be common and widespread (Duncan <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
178602	threats	Hutchinson, M., 2009	While localized habitat degradation is occurring and this species is of interest to the pet trade industry, these are not considered as major threats to this common species at this time.	eng
178603	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Population monitoring should be carried out as this species is highly restricted.	eng
178603	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is known only from the immediate vicinity of the type locality, Portezuelo Blanco, 26.5 km west of Famatina on road to Cueva de Perez, Sierra de Famatina, Departamento Famatina, La Rioja, Argentina and a site 8.4 km southeast of the type locality. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 596 km². It occurs between 2,600 and 2,800 m above sea level.	eng
178603	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found in rocky areas of steep cliffs and hillsides in 'pre-puna' habitat, which is characterized by grasses and small shrubs.	eng
178603	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178603	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	The type of this species was collected many kilometres away from human settlements. The road is largely inaccessible by vehicles and there is very little livestock grazing in the area. Even if there was, the micro-habitat preference of this species (large boulders) would preclude it from the threat of livestock (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). Therefore, it is unlikely that this species is affected by any major threats.	eng
178605	conservation	Embert, D., La Marca, E. & García-Pérez, J.E., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Following an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), the species may be present in several National Parks including Amboró, Carrasco, Estacion Biologica del Beni, Kaa-Iya, Madidi, Manuripi Heath and Noel Kempff Mercado. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178605	distribution	Embert, D., La Marca, E. & García-Pérez, J.E., 2009	This widespread snake is known from tropical South America east of the Andes, between 12º N and 14º S. This species is found in Colombia (with records from the Orinoquia&#160;and the Amazonia, and the mountain range of the Macarena), Venezuela (in the states of Falcon, Carabobo, Monagas, TF Amazonas, and Yaracuy), Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Brazil, western Peru, and northern Bolivia (Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Pando, Santa Cruz, Tarija (Embert, 2007). The species has been collected in Ecuador (Esmeraldas; Dixon and Hendricks, 1979).	eng
178605	habitat	Embert, D., La Marca, E. & García-Pérez, J.E., 2009	This genus consists of small fossorial species whose diet is mainly composed of earthworms and insect larvae. This species appears to be a habitat generalist, and is known to occur in habitats ranging from grassland, through shrublands, to forest.	eng
178605	population	Embert, D., La Marca, E. & García-Pérez, J.E., 2009	This is a common species.	eng
178605	threats	Embert, D., La Marca, E. & García-Pérez, J.E., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting on this species.	eng
178607	conservation	van Buurt, G. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Parts of this species distribution may coincide with protected areas, for example the Christoffel National Park in Curaçao. Buurt (2006) did not include it  among species of special conservation interest. Further research into the population numbers, threats and habitat preferences of this species is needed.	eng
178607	distribution	van Buurt, G. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Curacao, and Aruba of the Netherland Antilles which have a combined area of 639 km²<sup></sup>. It has been introduced to Klein Curacao (Buurt 2006). It is found at all elevations; the highest peak in <st1:place w:st="on">Curacao</st1:place> is the Christoffelberg in Curaçao at 375 m above sea level (G. van Buurt pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178607	habitat	van Buurt, G. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is a microhabitat generalist (Rand and Rand 1967), and it is likely to occur on dry tropical shrubland.	eng
178607	population	van Buurt, G. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no population data available for this species, however, G. Mayer (pers. comm.) suggests anoles tend to be very common when there is only one species on an island.	eng
178607	threats	van Buurt, G. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is locally threatened by habitat loss due to development for the tourism industry and overgrazing. However, these are unlikely to be causing significant and continuing declines at the moment; this species&#160;lives in trees such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia tortuosa</span> which remain standing even in overgrazed areas and is thus commonly found in grazed or even overgrazed areas. &#160;This species may be threatened by future establishments of invasive snake species as competitors, or from other predators.	eng
178609	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of the population and its habitat status should be carried out.	eng
178609	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species<em></em> is known from the middle section of the Cordillera Occidental, Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,778 km² and it is found at altitudes between 1,750 and 1,900 m above sea level.	eng
178609	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species is found in very humid pre-montane forests. &#160;It is well adapted to altered habitats, found in cryptozoic microhabitats (F. Castro pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178609	population	Castro, F., 2009	Sheil and Grant (2001) stated that this species is common in their study area. F. Castro (pers. comm. 2010) reports that this species is common in certain localities.	eng
178609	threats	Castro, F., 2009	Agricultural expansion resulting in deforestation is occurring in localized regions of this species' range. This is likely to negatively impact this species, causing a decline in extent and quality of habitat.	eng
178610	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat requirements and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
178610	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon and though its exact distribution is unknown, it is supposed to occur around Mount Kupe (Gonwouo 2002).	eng
178610	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	Based on its distribution, this species is likely to inhabit montane or pre-montane tropical forest.	eng
178610	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	No population data are available for this species.	eng
178610	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is likely experiencing habitat degradation and loss due to forest clearing for agriculture and logging. Logging on Mount Kupe had reached 1,200 m above sea level as of 2003 (Hofer <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
178611	conservation	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the habitat requirements and distribution of this species is recommended.&#160;<br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
178611	distribution	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to south-central Hispaniola and surrounding islands. It occurs in the province of Pedernales, including Isla Beata, in the Dominican Republic, as well as adjacent Sud-Est Département in Haiti. The area in which this species is distributed is aproximately 2,611 km². R. Powell (pers. comm. 2010) notes that this species may be far more widespread than is currently known.	eng
178611	habitat	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	Schwartz and Henderson (1991) report this to be a xerophilic species, which has been found under rocks and on rocky ledges, in and around shallow caves and in dry vegetation.	eng
178611	population	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178611	threats	Powell, R., Hedges, S.B. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is under potential threat from habitat loss, even within protected areas. Agricultural expansion and charcoaling continues even in the driest parts of the Barahona Peninsula, and within Jaragua National Park (including Isla Beata) (S.B. Hedges pers. comm. 2010). Because this is a xerophilic species (Schwartz and Henderson 1991), deforestation is unlikely to be a threat to the species (G. Mayer pers. comm. 2010). <br/><p>&#160;<br/></p>	eng
178613	conservation	Bain, R.H., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Research on the species' distribution, population status, habitat, ecology and threats is recommended.	eng
178613	distribution	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has been found in the Khanh Hoa Province in southern Viet Nam.	eng
178613	habitat	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no habitat information available for this species.	eng
178613	population	Bain, R.H., 2009	There is currently no population information available for this species.	eng
178613	threats	Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is kept as a pet. No reports on captive breeding exist and this species is exported in "partly large" numbers from Viet Nam (Kreuzer and Grossmann 2003). As information on this species in the wild is poor, it is not known if the threat of the pet trade is significantly impacting this species.	eng
178614	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Further research into the threats, habitat status and population numbers of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178614	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This lowland species can be found in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales, specifically west of the Great Dividing Range.	eng
178614	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is largely restricted to Cypress Pine (<em>Callitris</em>) woodland (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178614	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178614	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
178615	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species. Based on an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), the species may be present in two National Parks in the country (Isiboro Sécure and Madidi). Monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threat of deforestation does not become more widespread or is having a greater impact on the species than previously thought.	eng
178615	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from the eastern foothills of the Andes, from San Martin Department, eastern Peru, to northern La Paz and El Beni departments, with its southernmost distribution in northern Cochabamba department in Bolivia (although some Bolivian localities are uncomfirmed). <br/><br/>This species has been recorded up to 1,520 m above sea level, however, this is more than twice the altitude of the next highest record and therefore may possibly be an error.	eng
178615	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from lowland to montane moist tropical forest habitat; the species has been collected from seasonally flooded forest. Some specimens were collected in clearings in forest, including areas where there had been human disturbance.	eng
178615	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available.	eng
178615	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened in some areas as a result of deforestation.	eng
178616	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178616	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is distributed along the lower west coast and offshore islands of Australia, from Leeman and Lancelin, and from Yanchep southwards to Busselton.	eng
178616	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species inhabits sand dunes that support low heath, banksias, or eucalypts. This species is also found in a variety of sandy soils on the coastal plain.	eng
178616	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is abundant, especially around the Perth Region.	eng
178616	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178617	conservation	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the rate of deforestation and fragmentation occurring in the area, such as via the expansion and effective management of protected areas. Research into the habitat requirements and population status of this species is required to assess if the species is able to adapt to an agricultural environment.	eng
178617	distribution	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species has a highly restricted range and is only found in southern Tanzania in the Udzungwa and Ukinga Mountains. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 18,744 km². This species is found between 1,700 and 1,900 m above sea level.	eng
178617	habitat	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	This species is found in moist forests in the bush and bamboo undergrowth. An individual has recently been found living in an agricultural area (S. Spawls pers. comm.).	eng
178617	population	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178617	threats	Spawls, S. & Joger, U., 2009	The forests of the Eastern Arc mountains are highly threatened due to high rates of deforestation and agricultural expansion. Newmark (1998) estimated the maximum amount of natural forest left in the Eastern Arc Mountains as 5,000 km²<sup></sup>. It is encouraging that an individual of this species has been found in an agricultural habitat, as it is an indication that the species may be able to adapt to human-impacted environments. However, additional evidence of viable populations in agricultural environments is required before deforestation can be downgraded as a major threat.	eng
178618	conservation	Grismer, L.L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178618	distribution	Grismer, L.L., 2009	This species is found on the islands of Pulau Tioman and Pulau Tulai, Malaysia.	eng
178618	habitat	Grismer, L.L., 2009	This species is found on coastal vegetation and in lowland and hill forest. Its distribution is limited by the occurrence of large boulders.	eng
178618	population	Grismer, L.L., 2009	This species is common and widespread (L. Grismer pers. comm.).	eng
178618	threats	Grismer, L.L., 2009	There are no threats to this species (L. Grismer pers. comm.)	eng
178619	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, including Amboró, Carrasco, Madidi, Kaa-Iya and Noel Kempff Mercado. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178619	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Colombia, Bolivia (in the states of Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Tarija) and northern Argentina.	eng
178619	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found predominantly in Cerrado habitat, where it feeds on invertebrates and vegetation.	eng
178619	population	Embert, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178619	threats	Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its wide range.	eng
178620	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research to establish the distribution and population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178620	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in Brazil along the Amazon valley and some of its tributaries (at least the lower Rio Xingu, middle Rio Madeira and Rio Purus, and upper Rio Negro and Rio Uaupes), in the states of Amazonas, Para and Amapa. The species has been collected close to the borders of Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru, so probably also occurs in these countries at least close to the border. Avila-Pires (1995) reports possible specimens from the Guianas.	eng
178620	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is a diurnal forest dweller that is often found near large rivers. This species feeds on a variety of invertebrates as well as small vertebrates.	eng
178620	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178620	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178621	conservation	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the specific habitat preferences of this species should be carried out. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178621	distribution	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species inhabits all of India, including the northwest (R.Vyas pers. comm. 2010). It is also found in Nepal (R. Vyas pers. comm.), Bangladesh, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka (Shrestha 2001).	eng
178621	habitat	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	This species is ground-dwelling (Horton 1973), and is thought to inhabit shrubland and forests of the region. It is oviparous (Smith 1935).	eng
178621	population	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178621	threats	de Silva, A. & Vyas, R.V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178623	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The State Government legislation has listed this species as Rare in South Australia and Endangered in Tasmania. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be undertaken to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within this species' range. Further monitoring of the population should be carried out, as population declines have been reported.	eng
178623	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is distributed in southeast Australia and Tasmania. It has a disjunct distribution in five areas (Hutchinson and Donnellan 1992) from the highlands of New South Wales to the New England tableland, the lowland basalt plains of southern Victoria, eastern South Australia and central Tasmania.	eng
178623	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species is specific to tussock grassland where there are very few trees. Sullivan (1999) states that this species prefers good quality exotic grass rather than senescing Kangaroo grass.	eng
178623	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Sullivan (1999) reports that this species is common in the Albion area. However, the population as a whole is in decline.	eng
178623	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Large areas of grassland throughout this species' range have been converted into agricultural land since European settlement, particularly in Tasmania (Hutchinson <em>et al.&#160;</em> 2001). Predation from introduced mammals can also be considered a major threat to this species.	eng
178624	conservation	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is not listed on any conservation priority lists of the Department of Conservation (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is assumed to be expanding in range on at least ten islands following the eradication of the Pacific rat, and the skinks' reintroduction to Korapuki Island (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Additional predator removals are planned, such that there is potential for a substantial increase in distribution and abundance for the species (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002). Population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178624	distribution	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is known to inhabit the coasts of Northland, near the Cavalli Islands (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This species has been recorded on 49 islands around northern New Zealand (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is known to inhabit all ten of the Three Kings Islands, namely Great Island, North East Island, West Island, Stella Rock, Hinemoa Rock, Archway Rock, Tutanekai Rock, Arbutus Rock, Rosemary Rock and South West Island (Parrish and Gill 2003).<br/><br/>This species is listed as 'Range Restricted' due to human impacts (Hitchmough <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
178624	habitat	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species inhabits the coastal broadleaf forest and associated shoreline (Towns and Daugherty 1994). It can be found on boulder beaches, rock talus above boulder beaches, under rocks on rock platforms, and in boulder areas covered by vines along or near the coast (Parrish and Gill 2003). Populations are often isolated by expanses of unoccupied coastline (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>On islands lacking predators, this species is found in the variety of coastal habitats described above, however, when predators are present, the skinks inhabit only boulder beaches, as the rock crevices provide refuges. These boulders may not permanently protect the skinks, though, as beach habitats are mobile and may temporarily fail as refugia (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is nocturnal (Towns and Daugherty 1994) and oviparous, with clutch sizes between two and five eggs (Hare <em>et al.</em> 2002) which are laid in December and hatch in March or April (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178624	population	Chapple, D.G., 2009	The population of this species had been reduced to low densities due to introduced predators; however, after predator eradication campaigns in the early 1990s, the population was seen to be increasing (Towns and Daugherty 1994). This species is known to exist in densities of 1,483 - 130,000 individuals per ha (Towns <em>et al.</em> 2002), known to be locally abundant but becoming sparse in the presence of mammalian predators (Atlas of the Amphibians and Reptiles of New Zealand 2010).	eng
178624	threats	Chapple, D.G., 2009	This species is known to respond positively to extermination of kiore, the Pacific rat. Capture rates of the skink increased 3.5 times within three years of rat removal on Coppermine Island, Chicken Islands (Atkinson and Towns 2001).<br/><br/>Predation and habitat change due to invasive species may threaten this species, however, as it is distributed across many islands, these threats are unlikely to have a major impact on the population.   With eradication of invasive species already having led to an increase in range on at least ten islands (Towns et al. 2001),   additional eradications for predators on other islands, both planned and confirmed, may potentially lead to substantial increases in the range and abundance of the species within many of the island groups occupied (Towns et al. 2002).<strong></strong>	eng
178625	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. There are no further species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178625	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in the Republic of Comoros and on the island of Mayotte. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,057 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178625	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in forest, scrubland, plantations and degraded forest and is also known to occur around human dwellings and in dense urban areas.	eng
178625	population	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is reported to be widespread and locally abundant on the island of Grand Comoro (CITES 2007).	eng
178625	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is used in the international pet trade, and between 2000 and 2002 a total of 9,875 individuals were exported, primarily to the US. However, this level of exportation is not expected to have a significant impact on the wild population (CITES 2007).	eng
178626	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.   The species is present in numerous National Parks and Nature Reserves within its distribution (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Research into the population numbers, threats, and habitat of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178626	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has a fairly wide distribution in Southeast Australia. It is found from Benella in Victoria, along the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range to Darling Downs in southeast Queensland. It also extends to the coast along the Hunter River (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178626	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species can be found in dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands, often where there is tussock ground cover. It is believed to be tolerant to moderate levels of disturbance (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
178626	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has been reported as common (Fischer <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
178626	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is not known if any threat process is impacting this species.	eng
178627	conservation	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, further research into harvest levels should be carried out.	eng
178627	distribution	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This coastal species occurs in two populations from Rotkop in southern Namibia northward to southern Angola.	eng
178627	habitat	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is found in deserts and requires loose sand.	eng
178627	population	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is common in parts of its range.	eng
178627	threats	Joger, U. & Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is collected for the pet trade, however, this can only be considered a minor localized threat (Marais 1992).	eng
178628	conservation	Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur within Shark Bay World Heritage Site. Further research and monitoring of the distribution and population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178628	distribution	Shea, G.M., 2009	Cogger (2000) states that this species is only known from a single specimen at Carrarang Station, Edel land, Shark Bay, Western Australia. However, Storr <em>et al.</em> (1999) mapped a second locality from the Zuytdorp Cliffs, south of the type locality. Aplin and Adams (1998) consider the two specimens from the Zuytdorp Cliffs of only dubious identity with this species, but instead consider the species to be represented by numerous coastal localities in the southern Carnarvon Basin.	eng
178628	habitat	Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is known to inhabit low shrubland on coastal sands.	eng
178628	population	Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178628	threats	Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting upon this species.	eng
178629	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found within the Niassa Game Reserve, northern Mozambique (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). Monitoring of this species should be carried out because of its relatively small and fragmented distribution.	eng
178629	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species has a disjunct distribution and is known from two localities in southern Tanzania, the Liwale and Lumesule Rivers (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). It also occurs in eastern Mozambique, south of the Zambezi Valley (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
178629	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits Mopane woodland habitat. It can be found in wide, shaded rock cracks on isolated boulders, or around large exfoliating flakes on exposed bedrock or inselbergs (Branch <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may occasionally inhabit hollow baobab trunks. It is reportedly gregarious, and several specimens may be found side-by-side in a crack (Branch 1998).	eng
178629	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178629	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178630	conservation	Kizirian, D. & Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Site protection is required to reduce the rate of habitat degradation occurring within this species' range and provide a safeguard for this species. Population monitoring of this species is recommended.	eng
178630	distribution	Kizirian, D. & Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species' type locality is within the Rio Puela Valley (Rio Pastaza Drainage) on the southern versant of Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador, at 2,750 m above sea level. Since the type locality was described this species has been found nearby, on the eastern slope of the Tungurahua volcano, San Antonio Mountains (Reyes-Puig<em> et al.</em> 2008). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 286 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178630	habitat	Kizirian, D. & Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in moist montane forest habitat.	eng
178630	population	Kizirian, D. & Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178630	threats	Kizirian, D. & Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found within a region that is threatened by high rates of habitat degradation as a result of agricultural expansion and mining operations. The restricted range of this species may present a threat, as it is more vulnerable to stochastic events. The volcanic activity of Tungurahua volcano can be considered a major future threat.	eng
178631	conservation	Lima, A.F.B. & da Rocha, P.L.B., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with the Área de Proteção das Dunas e Veredas do Baixo-Médio Rio São Francisco. Due to its restricted range, monitoring of this species' population and habitat status should be carried out.	eng
178631	distribution	Lima, A.F.B. & da Rocha, P.L.B., 2009	This species is endemic to the sand dunes at Barra, middle São Francisco River, Bahia, in Brazil (Lima and Rocha 2006). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 5,322 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178631	habitat	Lima, A.F.B. & da Rocha, P.L.B., 2009	This species is found in a sandy area very different from the surrounding Caatinga habitat. This species is found predominantly in shaded habitat and consumes mainly flowers and invertebrates. Flowers are an important part of its diet during the dry season, especially for larger individuals.	eng
178631	population	Lima, A.F.B. & da Rocha, P.L.B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178631	threats	Lima, A.F.B. & da Rocha, P.L.B., 2009	Human activity in the village of Ibiraba poses a risk to this species, due to the removal of vegetation from the dunes for firewood (Rocha and Rodrigues 2005). &#160;It is not known if there are any other threat processes impacting this species.	eng
178632	conservation	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species was listed as Secure in Namibia Conservation Status Report (Griffin 1999) but further research is needed into the population numbers and possible threats of this species.	eng
178632	distribution	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is found in the Caprivi Strip and adjacent Botswana and northeast Namibia.	eng
178632	habitat	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species inhabits open woodland and mesic savanna.	eng
178632	population	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is rare. Searches have been carried out for this species, but it has not been collected in recent years (Branch 1998).	eng
178632	threats	Turner, A.A., 2009	It is not known if threats are impacting this species.	eng
178633	conservation	Horner, P., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time, however, there are protected areas within its range. Research into the threats and population trends of this species is suggested to ensure a threat category is not triggered in the future if habitat degradation becomes more severe.	eng
178633	distribution	Horner, P., 2009	This species occurs between the Watheroo National Park and Shark Bay in Western Australia (Wilson and Swan 2003).	eng
178633	habitat	Horner, P., 2009	This species has been found in tall open shrubland, Banksia woodland and spinifex and sedge heaths (Wilson and Swan 2003, Ninox Wildlife Consulting 2005).	eng
178633	population	Horner, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178633	threats	Horner, P., 2009	The habitat of this species may be negatively impacted by land clearing, agricultural activities and mining, but these threats are not at a level high enough to cause significant declines in this species.	eng
178634	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178634	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found on mountain ranges throughout eastern Africa. It is distributed from Kenya in the north to Zambia in the south and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west.	eng
178634	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	There is little habitat or ecology information available for this species. It is presumed to be diurnal and is found living within leaf litter (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178634	population	Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species	eng
178634	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Spawls <em>et al.</em> (2002) notes that this species is not threatened by human activities.	eng
178635	conservation	Hamilton, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178635	distribution	Hamilton, A., 2009	This species is found on Anatom Island, in southern Vanuatu. This island has an area of 159 km². Surveying of neighbouring islands&#160;Tanna, Aniwa, Erromango, and Futuna have confirmed it is not present.	eng
178635	habitat	Hamilton, A., 2009	This species is aboreal and not found around human habitations, and has not been collected in gardens or heavily modified forest. &#160;The type series of this species was collected in seral and climax forest (Medway and Marshall 1975). &#160;It has also been found in upland rainforest and dry coastal forests.<br/>This species lays eggs, and clutch size is four-five eggs (Hamilton <em>et al.</em> 2008; Medway & Marshall 1975) reported clutch sizes of four and five eggs in two gravid females.	eng
178635	population	Hamilton, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178635	threats	Hamilton, A., 2009	The main threat to this species is habitat loss due to logging, agricultural expansion and sea level rise. The interior forests remain fairly intact since the terrain is too steep or rugged to make agriculture or logging viable; however, the lowland forests have been extensively cleared for agriculture, and logging is also taking place (Rosillo-Calle and Woods 2003). &#160;Furthermore increases in soil erosion due to logging may threatened this species habitat. Sea level rise may result in habitat degradation and loss due to inundation of low-lying areas, forest structural damage due to increasingly frequent and intense storm surges, and plant toxicity from groundwater salinization. &#160;The pet trade could become a problem, and smuggling of lizards out of the country has been reported by the Environment Unit.	eng
178636	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. Further research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance, and habitat status of this species is suggested.	eng
178636	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from the island of Lombok, Indonesia which has an area of 4,725 km².	eng
178636	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Specimens of this species have been collected from abandoned human dwellings adjacent to an area of disturbed evergreen forest (Das 1993).	eng
178636	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This gecko is currently known only from two specimens, collected in 1992 (Das 1993).	eng
178636	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unknown which threat processes may be acting upon this species.	eng
178637	conservation	Rödel, M.-O. & Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. It has been found in the Comoé National Park, Côte <st1:country-region w:st="on">d’Ivoire</st1:country-region> and the surroundings of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kyabobo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Population monitoring and further research is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178637	distribution	Rödel, M.-O. & Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is found throughout west Africa, from Guinea in the west to Uganda in the east, and possibly across central Africa (M.-O. Rödel pers. comm.).	eng
178637	habitat	Rödel, M.-O. & Schmitz, A., 2009	This species has been recorded from rainforest-like gallery forest in a zone of humid savanna in Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivore (Rödel <em>et al.</em> 1997).&#160;This species was also recorded from both savannah and farmbush habitats in the surroundings of the <st1:placename w:st="on">Kyabobo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype w:st="on">National Park</st1:placetype> in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Ghana</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Leaché <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2006).	eng
178637	population	Rödel, M.-O. & Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178637	threats	Rödel, M.-O. & Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is having a significant impact on this species. However, it may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of habitat degradation or land use change.	eng
178638	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place or needed for this species.	eng
178638	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in the region of Lake Buenos Aries in Aisen and Magallanes Province in Chile. It has also been found in Santa Cruz, Argentina.	eng
178638	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is an omnivorous species which inhabits rocky formations, living in rock crevices.	eng
178638	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178638	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats affecting this species in this relatively sparsely populated region.	eng
178639	conservation	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is known to live in Kinabalu, which is a National Park in Malaysia under IUCN Category II. This park has an area of 753 km²<sup></sup> (UNEP-WCMC 2007). There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of its habitat status and research into its abundance is needed.	eng
178639	distribution	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species inhabits Sumatra and Borneo, including Sabah, Brunei, and Sarawak (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Sabah, it is known from Maliau, Malutut, Mendolong, Poring, Purulon, and Tawau Hills (Inger <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Sumatra, the species is known from Bukit Lawang and Ketambe (Aceh). It has been recorded from 50 to 850 m above sea level, however, is most abundant between 250 and 650 m above sea level (Inger <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
178639	habitat	Inger, R.F., 2009	This species is oviparous, with a clutch size of around two eggs oviposited at ground level under dead leaves or between buttresses (R. Inger pers. comm.). It inhabits lowland primary and secondary rainforest, and is mainly terrestrial, though it will climb three to five metres up trees to escape predators (R. Inger pers. comm.).	eng
178639	population	Inger, R.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178639	threats	Inger, R.F., 2009	The lowland rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo are highly threatened due to conversion to agricultural plantations. Fires are set to clear the land for plantation establishment, as well as small-scale slash and burn practices. It is estimated that between 1985 and 1997, 28-29% of the forest was lost in Sumatra, with lowland deforestation measured at 61% (FWI/GFW 2002). Deforestation poses a localized threat to the species, as the species is arboreal and is known to live on the buttresses of trees.	eng
178640	conservation	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures currently in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, threats and habitat of this species. Monitoring of population trends is also necessary.	eng
178640	distribution	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species is restricted to the temperate zone of the Cordillera de Merida range of the Venezuelan Andes. It has a distributional area of 3,065 km² and is found between 2,000 and 3,300 m above sea level.	eng
178640	habitat	Kornacker, P., 2009	This species occupies moist micro-habitats in the temperate zone at high elevations. Grassland is the major habitat type. Specimens were collected from under rocks within and near a fast-moving stream, and one individual has been collected from inside a bromeliad in open forest.	eng
178640	population	Kornacker, P., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178640	threats	Kornacker, P., 2009	Conversion of the natural habitat to agriculture is causing habitat degradation in this region. Plantations of non-native conifers are also affecting the region; however it is not known to what extent these threats are impacting this species.	eng
178641	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the taxonomy of this species should be carried out to clarify its position with the species complex.	eng
178641	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This fossorial species is found in eastern and southern Africa, from Somalia in the north, through Kenya and Uganda southwest to Angola, and south to northern South Africa. This species is found throughout Namibia with the exception of the Namib Desert and the Bethanie and Karasburg districts. This species is found from sea level up to 2,000 m above sea level (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002, Griffin 2003).	eng
178641	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in a wide range of habitats. It is known to occur in coastal, dry, and moist savanna, semi-desert, and within coastal and medium to high altitude woodland. It is commonly found under rocks in loose soil and sand and under logs (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002, California Academy of Sciences 2007).	eng
178641	population	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is widespread throughout Kenya and Tanzania (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
178641	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	No threats are known to impact this species across its wide range.	eng
178642	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat requirements of this species is suggested.	eng
178642	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is endemic to the island of Morotai, Indonesia, in the Moluccas island group. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,283 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178642	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	While the habitat preferences of this species are uncertain, based upon its distribution it may be inferred to inhabit lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest.	eng
178642	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species appears to be known from only a few specimens, therefore there are no population data for this species.	eng
178642	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is not known if any threat processes are acting upon this species.	eng
178643	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed for this species.	eng
178643	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This species is distributed throughout the north-east of Brazil, in the states of Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, extreme eastern Maranhao, Minas Gerais, Paraiba, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe.	eng
178643	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in xeric and semi-arid thorn forest, dry tropical deciduous forest and open rocky areas. This species is often found in elevated, sandy and rocky zones and also along river margins.	eng
178643	population	Martins, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178643	threats	Martins, M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178645	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species and more research into its habitat status is necessary. As this species has a restricted range in a populated area, new protected areas should be established to ensure the survival of the species.	eng
178645	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from the Loja Valley, Ecuador. This species is known to occur up to 2,200 m above sea level and the area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,214 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178645	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from dry forest.	eng
178645	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178645	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	Ongoing deforestation, burning and cutting to convert land to agriculture are the major threats to this species in this relatively heavily populated region of Ecuador.	eng
178646	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178646	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known from two sites in northeastern Madagascar. Its type locality is Marojejy and it has also been found at Ambolokopatrika, an area in between the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud massifs. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 954 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178646	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This subterranean and secretive species is found in primary rainforests.	eng
178646	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Nussbaum and Raxworthy (1995) state that this species may be rare with a restricted distribution. &#160;It has been looked for at other sites but not found.	eng
178646	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.	eng
178647	conservation	Bennett, D., Böhme, W. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Population surveys and research into threats should be carried out as declines may become more widespread in the future. Conservation actions should include communication and increasing awareness about monitor lizards in order to curb persecution.	eng
178647	distribution	Bennett, D., Böhme, W. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	This species is restricted to the southwest coast of the Arabian peninsula from Ta'izz and Al Khobar in Arabia in the south, and northward to the Asir Mountains in Saudi Arabia (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Böhme 2004). It has an elevational range from 300 to 1,800 m above sea level (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989, Böhme 1999), and its extent of occurrence is estimated to be around 71,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178647	habitat	Bennett, D., Böhme, W. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	In the lowlands, this species inhabits thornbush savanna and degraded dry forest (Böhme 2004). At higher elevations, it lives on basaltic rocks, partially covered by dense vegetation (Böhme 2004). It has also been found in cultivated fields with surrounding dense vegetation and a preference for water margins has been reported, particularly for foraging (Schätti and Fortina 1987, Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).<br/><br/>The species has been described as a relatively unspecialized monitor, based on its ecology and feeding habits (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989). <br/><p><br/></p>	eng
178647	population	Bennett, D., Böhme, W. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	There are no population data available for this species. However, it was described as "relatively common in the foothills of the southwestern Arabian mountain range" (Böhme <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1989).    <p><br/></p>	eng
178647	threats	Bennett, D., Böhme, W. & Sweet, S.S., 2009	In parts of its range, the habitat of this species is under threat from conversion to agriculture, overgrazing, and deforestation. Pressure on thorn forest is likely to come from goat foraging and firewood collection. Due to a cultural aversion to monitor lizards, it is likely to be killed on sight.   It may also sometimes be eaten by local people or killed for its skin. Rates of exploitation of this monitor are likely to increase with the expansion of the human population of the Asir coast and Yemen. Alienation of scarce water sources for human use may also render large areas uninhabitable, if animals are denied access to water (S. Sweet pers. comm.).	eng
178648	conservation	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178648	distribution	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is distributed in Lao PDR and Thailand (Honda <em>et al.</em> 2005). The type locality for this species is Muang Liep, north of Pak Lai, on the upper Mekong in Lao PDR (Smith 1923). Specimens have also been collected from Nong Kai, Pak Maat, Pak Men and Hoi King, all of which are on the Mekong within a 80 km range of Pak Lai (Smith 1923). This species has been reported in Thailand from Nong Khai and Phu Kading Mount, where it was collected at an elevation of 1,150 m above sea level (Taylor 1963). It has also been found at Phu Luang, Loei, Thailand, at 850 m above sea level (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178648	habitat	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has been found near a cistern in a secondary rainforest (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999). This species has also been found on rocks along small streams in primary and secondary forests (Harbig 2000). When disturbed, it will escape into the water (Harbig 2000).<br/><br/>It is uncertain if this species is diurnal or nocturnal, as it has been recorded both during the afternoon (Chan-ard <em>et al.</em> 1999) and at night (Taylor 1963). <br/><br/>This species has been observed mating in January/February, and is known to give birth after 95-130 days (Harbig 2000).	eng
178648	population	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178648	threats	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is having a significant impact on the population numbers of this species across its large distribution. However, this species may be locally threatened in parts of its range as a result of habitat degradation or land use change.	eng
178649	conservation	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M. & Shea, G.M., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas, for example the Kakadu National Park. Research into the population numbers, threats and habitat status of this species is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178649	distribution	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Arnhem Land escarpment in the Northern Territory. It is found in the upper reaches of Magela and Nourlangie Creeks.Its entire range is within the confines of Kakadu National Park.	eng
178649	habitat	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This lowland species inhabits woodlands.	eng
178649	population	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has been reported as moderately common (Horner 1992).	eng
178649	threats	Horner, P., Hutchinson, M. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat processes are impacting this species.	eng
178650	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the threats that this species may be facing now or in the future.	eng
178650	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from the coastal deserts of southern Peru and the provinces of Antofagasta and Tarapaca, Chile.	eng
178650	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in hot desert habitat. It is a viviparous species.	eng
178650	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178650	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178651	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is needed.	eng
178651	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Welch 1982).	eng
178651	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits moist lowland forests.	eng
178651	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178651	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	The political instability in both Sierra Leone and Liberia throughout the 1990s may have led to increased deforestation for several reasons. Vanasselt (2003) describes that 'forest liquidation' in these two countries was driven by the governments' need for arms and supplies, and consequent use of high-value forest materials. Further, during periods of conflict, regional forestry officials were unpaid, which led to illegal mining, logging, and overall massive deforestation in the Sierra Leone forest reserves (Vanasselt 2003). It is unknown if this species has been adversely affected by these threats.	eng
178652	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. Its distribution probably coincides with protected areas.	eng
178652	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is endemic to Honduras and occurs at elevations up to 700 m (Köhler 2003).    <p><br/></p>  .	eng
178652	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species occurs in lowland moist forest and is found on the margins of lowland dry forest.	eng
178652	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is reported to have a stable population trend in Honduras (Wilson and McCranie 2003).	eng
178652	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species may be threatened locally by habitat loss and degradation due to expanding human populations and agriculture, but this does not seem to be a significant impact.	eng
178653	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of CITES. There are protected areas within the range of this species, such as the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, which is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. However, improved management is required to reduce the rate of illegal harvesting within protected areas. Further research into the population, harvest levels, and threats to this species should be carried out, and further taxonomic study is required to assess whether this species is, in fact, a species complex.  Depending on the outcome of such study, the distribution area of this species may turn out to be much smaller than is currently assumed (M. Vences pers. comm.).	eng
178653	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is endemic to Madagascar and has a disjunct distribution. It is known from the northwestern Sambriano region and the offshore island of Nosy Be (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004), and Ankarafantsika. It is also found in western Madagascar in Tsingy de Bemaraha.	eng
178653	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is dependent on primary forest, including western deciduous  forest (C. Raxworthy pers. comm.). In the Sambirano region, this arboreal species inhabits primary low-altitude rainforest, and in the west it occurs in deciduous dry forest (Glaw and Vences 2007). This species is also occasionally seen in bamboo forest (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004, Glaw and Vences 2007). It usually spends most of its day head downward on small trees (Glaw and Vences 2007).	eng
178653	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178653	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	Forests in the Sambirano region are being lost or degraded due to human activities including logging, the expansion of agricultural activities, including slash-and-burn 'tavy' farming, and associated brush fires. This is likely to have a significant effect on this species due to its dependence on primary forest habitat. The species is also collected for the pet trade. Despite occurring within protected areas, illegal collecting continues, however, there is no information on the number of individuals harvested or traded (Andreone <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
178654	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat status is suggested.	eng
178654	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is only known from its type locality on Wetar Island, Indonesia, an island in the Barat Daya, south Moluccas island group. It has an area of distribution of 2,642 km².	eng
178654	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Specimens were collected from trees, so that it is inferred that the species is arboreal (Dunn 1927). While no other habitat information was recorded for this species, it is likely to inhabit the semi-evergreen and evergreen forest of the island.	eng
178654	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population data for this species and it appears to be known only from a few specimens.	eng
178654	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	It is unknown whether any threats are affecting this species.	eng
178655	conservation	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species occurs within protected areas and further research into the taxonomy of this species is required.	eng
178655	distribution	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is found in Colombia, Venezuela (in the states of Bolivar and Amazonas), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Tobago, and Brazil (in the states of Para, Amapa, Roraima, and Amazonas).	eng
178655	habitat	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	This species is a diurnal species which inhabits leaf litter on the forest floor. Individuals have been found in secondary vegetation, deforested areas and in gardens within cities.	eng
178655	population	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178655	threats	Avila-Pires, T.C.S., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178656	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known conservation measures currently in place for this species. More research is needed into the distribution, ecology, habitat status and threats to this species.	eng
178656	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species has been found in northwest Somalia.	eng
178656	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no direct habitat information available for this dryland species, but from its distribution, it is likely to inhabit shrubland.	eng
178656	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178656	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178658	conservation	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species should be carried out.	eng
178658	distribution	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species<em></em> is known from the states of Morona-Santiago and Pastaza in Ecuador, and from Peru; although its presences in Peru is uncertain (T. Doan pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178658	habitat	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from lowland tropical rainforest habitat.	eng
178658	population	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178658	threats	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, although it may be locally threatened by activities such as deforestation and agricultural expansion.	eng
178659	conservation	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, parts of this species distribution range coincide with protected areas, such as Thailand's largest national park, Kaeng Krachang, which also represents the northernmost record for this species (O. Pauwels pers. comm.). Further research into the range and population status of this species is needed in order to provide a baseline against which to asses potential range contractions and population declines..	eng
178659	distribution	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species is described from southern Thailand, southern Myanmar and much of Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
178659	habitat	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	This species inhabits lowland and hilly rainforests.	eng
178659	population	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178659	threats	Pauwels, O.S.G., 2009	The extent of impact of threat process on this species are not well understood. However, as a forest specialist, it is likely that this species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of deforestation in parts of its range. This species occurs in a region where lowland forest is retreating very fast, especially due to oil palm plantations. More than 75% of forest in tropical Asia, the Philippine archipelago, Indochina, Malay Peninsula, India, Java, and the Lesser Sundas has been deforested (Laurance 1999). The international pet trade is also likely to be threatening this species.	eng
178660	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, the majority of this species' range is within the Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Natural Nature Park, IUCN category II, which also contains a UNESCO site. Further research on the species' habitat requirements and population status, and population monitoring should be carried out.	eng
178660	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is known from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in north coastal Colombia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 10,110 km²<sup></sup> and is found between 2,100 and 2,750 m above sea level.	eng
178660	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species inhabits forested areas, and is found especially at forest edges. It does not, however, like open areas where solar radiation is strong (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
178660	population	Castro, F., 2009	This species is rare in some localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
178660	threats	Castro, F., 2009	Habitat loss and degradation are occurring in the area in which this species is distributed. Deforestation and the use of very strong herbicides is likely impacting this species.	eng
178661	conservation	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178661	distribution	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is known from the central hills of Sri Lanka, where it has an altitudinal range of around 1,250 to 1,850 m above sea level (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). It occurs in Sabaragamuva, Uva and Central provinces and has an estimated extent of occurrence of around 4,200 km².	eng
178661	habitat	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is known from montane and sub-montane rain forests, both primary and secondary, and grasslands, but can also be found in tea plantations (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009) and occasionally in home gardens or  Kandyan home gardens. The species is more active at night and hides under logs and rocks in the leaf litter during the day. It is also occasionally arboreal - in tea estates it is sometimes known as  coffee polonga (=viper) as semi-arboreal tendencies are not  uncommon.	eng
178661	population	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is frequently seen throughout its range (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2009).	eng
178661	threats	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	Although habitat destruction is occurring within this species' range, particularly for conversion to tea plantations, it appears not to be adversely affected by this habitat loss (Maduwage <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2009). Individuals have been observed within tea plantations and the species is also able to inhabit secondary forest and forest edges. However, in tea  plantations they are killed on sight due to their bites.	eng
178662	conservation	de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population status and threats should be carried out because localized threats may become more widespread in the future. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178662	distribution	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is widspread across the island. It has recently been discovered in many localities across Sri Lanka (Wickramasinghe 2000, Wickramasinge and Somaweera 2002, de Silva <em>et al.</em> 2005), including&#160;Buddhangala, Geelone, Malayadikanda, and&#160;Nilgala (Karunarathna <em>et al.</em> 2010). &#160;They are distributed up to 1,300 m above sea level (Karunarathna <em>et al.</em> 2010).	eng
178662	habitat	de Silva, A., 2009	This species is considered&#160;arboreal.&#160; A. de Silva (pers. comm.) observed this species on tall trees at about 3 to 5 m above ground level. Members of this genus are usually found on rock faces, large trees, and occasionally under stones and logs (Somaweera 2006).&#160;Usually this species lives on trees such as: <em>Chloroxylon&#160;swietenia, Schleichera oleosa, Dimocarpus longan,&#160;Tamarindus indika, Careya arborea,</em> and <em>Ficus</em> sp. (Karunarathna&#160;<em>et al.</em>&#160;2010).	eng
178662	population	de Silva, A., 2009	A recent "hotspot" was discovered, where 61 specimens were found (Hettiarachchi <em>et al. </em>in press).	eng
178662	threats	de Silva, A., 2009	Deforestation and other anthropogenic activities may be locally threatening this species but is unlikely to be causing significant declines across its distribution range.	eng
178664	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation efforts are required to reduce the rate of deforestation occurring in the area by establishing protected areas. Further research is required to assess the impact that introduced species and habitat loss are having on the population numbers of this species.	eng
178664	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits the islands of Sâo Tomé, Principé, and Rolas in the Gulf of Guinea. Principé has an area of 140 km²<sup></sup> and&#160; Sâo Tome has an area of 860 km²<sup></sup>. The area of Rolas is unavailable, however, it is probably comparable to the two larger islands.	eng
178664	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits lowland and middle elevational dense rain forests (Fuhn 1972, Perret 1973).	eng
178664	population	Ineich, I., 2009	No population information is available for this species.	eng
178664	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	The forests of Sâo Tomé and Principé have been previously cleared for agriculture, namely cocoa and coffee plantations (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001). While production of these two crops decreased over the past 50 years, land that had previously been cultivated had reverted to secondary forest. However, this secondary forest habitat is now threatened by deforestation due to recent land privatisation and the development of small-scale market gardening (Figueiredo and Gascoigne 2001).<br/><br/>A further threat to this species may be the impact of introduced species. Introduced mammals on the islands include the Ship Rat, Norway Rat, House Mouse, Mona Monkey, African Civet, and Weasel (Dutton 1994).	eng
178665	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it is known to occur in Eungella National Park, which is managed by the Department of Environment and Resource Management under the&#160;Nature Conservation Act 1992.<em style="border-width: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; outline-width: 0px; font-weight: inherit; font-style: italic; font-size: 14px; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;"> </em>Further research into the distribution, population, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178665	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is only known from Eungella National Park, Queensland. The National Park covers an area of 517 km². This species has been found at an altitude of 900 m above sea level.	eng
178665	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species occurs in tropical rainforest.	eng
178665	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178665	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat processes. Climate change and wildfires may affect the species within its range, but the extent of this is unknown. The species mainly occurs on protected land, so that land clearing is unlikely to threaten the species (H. Cogger pers. comm.). Similarly, the species is currently not threatened by invasive species.	eng
178666	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	Further research into the distribution, threats, and habitat status of this species is required. Monitoring of population trends is also recommended for this species.	eng
178666	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, at Diego de Almagro, Atacama, northern Chile. This species might occur more widely.	eng
178666	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in an area where the habitat type is like Mediterranean shrubland, with desert and rocky patches. The species was found to live on low vegetation, and was not seen on areas of bare ground between shrubs.	eng
178666	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178666	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are potential threats to this species in this relatively heavily populated region of Chile, for example urban and agricultural expansion which cause habitat loss and degradation. However, it is not known whether these factors pose a direct threat to the species.	eng
178667	conservation	Allison, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178667	distribution	Allison, A., 2009	This species inhabits high elevations in the central ranges of New Guinea. It is also found on the Huon Peninsula (Mys 1988). It has been recorded at 1,400 m above sea level on the Huon Peninsula and at 2,000 m above sea level in the Finisterre Range (Mys 1988).	eng
178667	habitat	Allison, A., 2009	This species is known to inhabit lower montane rainforest, as well as secondary forest within the lower montane zone (Hyndman and Menzies 1990). Collection efforts in Teptep found the lizard relatively common near and in the village, primarily in shrubs and on trees (Mys 1988). This species is ovoviviparous (Allison and Greer 1986).	eng
178667	population	Allison, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178667	threats	Allison, A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. Increasing population pressure and logging activity is a threat to the biodiversity of New Guinea (Estreguil and Lambin 1996), however, this species has a fairly large distribution and is able to tolerate anthropogenic environments.	eng
178668	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178668	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is distributed in the southern Arabian Peninsula as far east as Dhofar, and is also found in northeastern coast of Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. This species is found between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level.	eng
178668	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species has been found in various habitats from rocky desert areas to well vegetated habitats, including lowland deciduous forest and shrubland. It is also known to occur on buildings in settlements.	eng
178668	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178668	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178669	conservation	Malhotra, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. It is likely to occur in protected areas within its range.	eng
178669	distribution	Malhotra, A., 2009	This species is very wide ranging and occurs across southern Asia, from Nepal (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002) and northeastern India eastward into Myanmar and Thailand, south into Malaysia and north into China and Taiwan. A museum specimen also exists from Sumatra (Padang area), but the species' occurrence has not yet been confirmed (A. Malhotra pers. comm. August 2010). This is a montane species found between 600 and 2,600 m above sea level, which makes its presence in Cambodia and Singapore unlikely. In Bangladesh, the species is likely to be present along the border with Myanmar in the Chittagong Hills (A. Malhota pers. comm. August 2010).	eng
178669	habitat	Malhotra, A., 2009	This terrestrial and nocturnal species inhabits a variety of environments including forests, shrublands and grasslands, but it prefers mountainous rocky areas, in which can take refuge. It can also be found in agricultural land and even within human settlements. In Nepal, the species prefers moist conditions at moderate altitudes (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).<br/><br/>This is a large and broad-bodied species which exhibits sexual dimorphism. Rodents make up the bulk of its prey (Tillack <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2002).	eng
178669	population	Malhotra, A., 2009	This species is common in parts of its range, however, in Myanmar specifically it may be an uncommon species (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
178669	threats	Malhotra, A., 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.	eng
178670	conservation	Lundberg, M. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring is required to ensure that the current localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178670	distribution	Lundberg, M. , 2009	This species is found in the foothills of the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru, and also occurs in Departamentos Junín, Pasco and Puno (Torres-Caravajal 2007). This species has an elevation range of 1,000 to 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
178670	habitat	Lundberg, M. , 2009	This species is found in moist montane tropical forest habitat.	eng
178670	population	Lundberg, M. , 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178670	threats	Lundberg, M. , 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species, however, it may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation.	eng
178671	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas which probably provide small safeguards. No further research is currently needed.	eng
178671	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species has been found at various localities in the sandy regions of the Sindh and Las Bela regions of Pakistan and from Kathiwar, India (M.S. Khan pers. comm., Anderson and Leviton 1966).	eng
178671	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species is a burrowing species that inhabits sandy deserts (Das 2002), particularly sand-dune habitat with sparse vegetation of grasses (M.S. Khan pers. comm.). It is mainly diurnal and its diet consists of termites and other soft-bodied invertebrates (Minton 1966).	eng
178671	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178671	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its range.	eng
178672	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected sites, are required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. This may help to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring is also recommended.	eng
178672	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known from Ecuador in the Rio Intag valley, the Montanas de Nanegal, and the Rio Toachi Valley on the pacific slope of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,722 km².	eng
178672	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is found in wet montane forest habitat.	eng
178672	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178672	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	The expansion of human settlements in the Cordillera Occidental has resulted in increased levels of logging and conversion of forest to agriculture.	eng
178673	conservation	Ota, H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment of protected areas, should be taken to prevent habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research and monitoring is required into the taxonomy, population, and threats to this species.	eng
178673	distribution	Ota, H., 2009	This species occurs in western Japan and is distributed in the coastal regions of southwestern Honshu, Shikoku, northeastern Kyushu and the offshore islands adjacent to these areas (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is found between sea level and 500 m above sea level.	eng
178673	habitat	Ota, H., 2009	This species inhabits primary and secondary vegetation on natural cliffs in coastal areas and low mountain ranges with natural woodland (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003, Okada and Okawa 1994). Though it prefers mainly undisturbed habitat, it is occasionally found in suburban areas (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178673	population	Ota, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178673	threats	Ota, H., 2009	This species is found within a region that has high rates of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and mining activities. It has been found that populations of the species are genetically fragmented into many small populations, a condition which is thought to have been caused by recent environmental alteration (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also, introgression from an artificially introduced congeneric and sympatric or parapatric species, <em>G. japonicus</em>, might be a threat to persistence of the pure strain of&#160;<em></em>the species (Toda <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
178674	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status of this species is suggested.	eng
178674	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has a wide distribution along the mountains of western Sumatra, however, it is only known from three localities (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is unclear whether this species is distributed throughout this range.	eng
178674	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species inhabits the montane rainforests of Sumatra. Species of this genus generally are semi-fossorial, nearly limbless, and live in sub-montane to montane habitats from 250 to 1,800 m above sea level (Grismer <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178674	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178674	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Deforestation for conversion to agriculture poses a major threat to Sumatran biodiversity. It is estimated that between 1985 and 1997, there was a 28-29% decrease in forest cover on the island (FWI/GFW 2002). As lowland deforestation estimates for this time period in Sumatra are at 61% (FWI/GWF 2002), it is evident that the montane rainforests that this species inhabits are less threatened than the lowland forests, however, they are still at risk of habitat loss. The removal of large trees reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species.	eng
178675	conservation	Wallach, V., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population status, biology and ecology, habitat requirements, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178675	distribution	Wallach, V., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is known from the west and central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also found in the Congo.	eng
178675	habitat	Wallach, V., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no species-specific habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is likely that this fossorial species inhabits wet forests.	eng
178675	population	Wallach, V., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178675	threats	Wallach, V., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178676	conservation	Lau, M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures for this species in place or needed at the present time. It occurs in many protected areas including Shenzhen Wutongshan National Forest Park (Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
178676	distribution	Lau, M., 2009	This species occurs in southern China (Zhao <em>et al.</em> 1999). While previously it was also thought to inhabit northern Viet Nam and Hainan, the individuals in these areas have been redescribed as <em>Gekko palmatus</em> and <em>G. similignum</em> respectively (Ota <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
178676	habitat	Lau, M., 2009	This species is at least semi-arboreal, and inhabits forests and forest edges. It is also reported to occur on the outside of buildings and in abandoned buildings (M. Lau pers. comm., Fellowes <em>et al</em>. 2002, Romer 1950). It feeds mainly on insects and hunts by sight.	eng
178676	population	Lau, M., 2009	This species is reported to be very common in Hong Kong (Karsen <em>et al</em>. 1986, Romer 1950).	eng
178676	threats	Lau, M., 2009	This species is likely to be experiencing ongoing habitat loss and degradation due to threats including expansion of agricultural land, grazing, and logging. However, these may not be major threats as this species is relatively wide-ranging and significant areas of habitat remain.	eng
178677	conservation	Maryan, B. and Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Most of the range of this species coincides with the Cape Range National Park (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008). Research into its abundance and threats are suggested, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178677	distribution	Maryan, B. and Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is known from the Northwest Cape of Western Australia. Its type locality is Yardie Creek Gorge.	eng
178677	habitat	Maryan, B. and Shea, G.M., 2009	This species has been reported from dissected limestone gorges and plateaus, preferring sparsely vegetated areas.	eng
178677	population	Maryan, B. and Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178677	threats	Maryan, B. and Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known threat processes impacting this species.	eng
178678	conservation	Castro, F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population of this species should be carried out.	eng
178678	distribution	Castro, F., 2009	This species is found in Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela, southeast Colombia, and Brazil (in the states of Amapa, Para, Amazonas, Roraima, Rondonia and Mato Grosso). This species is found up to 250 m above sea level.	eng
178678	habitat	Castro, F., 2009	This species is a unisexual species found in leaf litter in swampy areas or close to other water, in lowland tropical forest habitat.	eng
178678	population	Castro, F., 2009	Caldwell and Vitt (1999) reported the species as common in Roraima, Brazil. This species is reported to be rare in certain localities (F. Castro pers. comm.).	eng
178678	threats	Castro, F., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178680	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, threats, and habitat status of this species is required.	eng
178680	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is thought to be known only from its type locality, 17 km north of Esquel, between Esquel and Leleque, Chubut, Argentina, at 1,400 m; however repeated visits to the locality and vicinity given have proven to lack suitable habitat (rocks) so it is unclear where the species was actually collected (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010). This species might occur more widely.	eng
178680	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species was found in rocky areas at relatively high altitude.	eng
178680	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data avilable for this species.	eng
178680	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are potential threats to this species in the region of the type locality, as conversion of land to agriculture has affected much of Patagonia. However, the extent of which this species has been affected is not known.	eng
178682	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178682	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) reports that this species inhabits the Manantoddy district in southern India. McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> (1999) report that this species also inhabits Travancore, Anaimalai Hills, Telawadi, and the Goa Frontier. This species is found between 1,000 and 1,500 m above sea level (Smith 1943).	eng
178682	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist soils, primarily in moist montane forests. It is also known to occur in human-disturbed agricultural environments, including plantations and paddy fields (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178682	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178682	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by a major threat process. The species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. The fossorial nature of this species means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178683	conservation	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat preferences and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178683	distribution	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known to occur in the Amazon basin in eastern Ecuador, Peru, southern Colombia, and western Brazil.	eng
178683	habitat	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is a fossorial species that is found in lowland tropical forest.	eng
178683	population	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	T. Doan (pers. comm.) reports that less than five individuals were caught during two years of sampling. However, pitfall sampling was not used which may have captured more specimens of this fossorial species.	eng
178683	threats	Lehr, E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threat process.	eng
178684	conservation	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although its known locality is within a protected area. Further research on the population, distribution, and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it is in decline.	eng
178684	distribution	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species has been recently described and is currently known only from its type locality at Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary in Nong Kai Province, Thailand (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). The type specimen was collected at 200 m above sea level.	eng
178684	habitat	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	This species is known to inhabit crevices around large rocks and outcrops on the slope of flattened sandstone hills (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). The rocks from which the type was collected were surrounded by dry open forest, however, the vegetation beneath the rocks was marshy and the rock crevices were partially wet (Hikida <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>Hikida <em>et al.</em> (2002) stated that specimens were collected during the day from crevices, but that individuals were found to be active after sunset and this suggests that this species is nocturnal.	eng
178684	population	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178684	threats	Stuart, B.L. & Bain, R.H., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats. The annual deforestation rate in Thailand has been estimated at around 2.6% for the period 1990-1997 (FAO 1997), with forest area declining from 53.3% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999 (FAO 1999 in Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). The main causes of this deforestation have been identified as legal and illegal logging, land encroachment, and shifting agriculture (Sharp and Nakagoshi 2006). However, the impact that deforestation and habitat loss has on this species is not yet known.	eng
178685	conservation	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its abundance, range, habitat status and threats is needed.	eng
178685	distribution	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species is only known from Pangnamdim, northern Myanmar, and the Medog County of southern Tibet.	eng
178685	habitat	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	The type specimen from Myanmar was found at an elevation of 1,015 m above sea level. Leviton <em>et al</em>. (2003) state that the area in which the type specimen was collected was in the transition zone between temperate forest and alpine shrub and meadow. The Tibet specimen was found in open grassland at an elevation of 1,066 m above sea level (Ding-Qi and Er-Mi 2005).	eng
178685	population	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	This species is known only from a single record in Myanmar and a specimen from Tibet. It is either a rare species or surveys have not located its proper habitat in northern Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.). It has been described as rare (Leviton <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
178685	threats	Richman, N. & Böhm, M., 2009	The impact of threats to this species are not well understood, given the limited number of specimens from which this species is known.	eng
178686	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution may coincide with protected areas. Further research into the population, distribution, taxonomy, and habitat status of this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178686	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is only known from the Majunga Province in the northeast of Madagascar. Surveys in central eastern rainforest areas have yielded populations of tiny skinks which seem to differ from this species. The distribution of this species has not yet been fully determined but it may be an endemic of northern Madagascar, comparable to, for instance, <em>Paracontias angelorum</em>. From its current known distribution, the area in which this species can be found is approximately 15,683 km².	eng
178686	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species has been found in intact rainforest at mid-altitudes.	eng
178686	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178686	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within habitats that are threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to logging and slash and burn agriculture. As this species has only been found in intact forests, these threats are likely to be impacting its population.	eng
178687	conservation	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are currently no conservation measures in place for this species and no further measures are needed at this time.	eng
178687	distribution	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is found on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile (in the states of Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Santiago, O'Higgins, Maule, and Biobio) and Argentina (in the states of Mendoza, Neuquen, and probably San Juan). It is found between 2,800 and 3,200 m above sea level. <br/>&#160;<br/>The known distribution of this species is likely to change due to the description of two new species, which are part of the species complex, and currently under review: It is probable that populations in Neuquen state correspond to a new species under description, and the southern <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mendoza</st1:place></st1:city> populations correspond to <em>Phymaturus roigorum </em>(F. Cruz and R.E. Espinoza pers. comms. 2010).<p></p>	eng
178687	habitat	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	This species is an inhabitant of crevices and geological fissures of basalts.	eng
178687	population	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178687	threats	Espinoza, R. & Cruz, F.B., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178688	conservation	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178688	distribution	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species is found along the mid western coast and adjacent islands of Western Australia, from Gnaraloo and Mia Mia in the north, to the lower Murchison River in the south (G. Shea pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178688	habitat	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	This species occurs in arid shrublands on sands and red loams.	eng
178688	population	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178688	threats	Maryan, B. & Shea, G.M., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178689	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is listed on CITES Appendix II. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178689	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species in only known from its type locality around Perinet (Andasibe) in the eastern region of Madagascar.	eng
178689	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is thought to inhabit mid-altitude primary rainforest habitat where it seems to mainly inhabit <em>Ravenala</em> plants and high palm trees (Glaw and Vences 2007). It is known to fasten its eggs to substrate, including under bark (Lerner 2004).	eng
178689	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178689	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	It is unknown what major threats are impacting this species. The region in which the type locality of this species was found is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural expansion. This species may also be of interest to the international pet trade, however, this is currently not considered a major threat.	eng
178690	conservation	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Extensive surveys of the region surrounding the type locality are required to ascertain whether this species<em> </em> survives. Research is needed into the distribution and population numbers of this species.	eng
178690	distribution	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, Balzapamba, Provincia Bolivar, Ecuador, at 750 m above sea level. The type locality is in the upper valley of the Rio Babahoyo, which drains into the Pacific.	eng
178690	habitat	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	The type locality of this species is in humid pre-montane forest.	eng
178690	population	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, where it was last collected in 1901; Torres-Cavajal (2000) visited the type locality in 1997 but found no specimens. &#160;More intensive surveys are needed to confirm this species as Extinct, in its type locality and areas of suitable habitat.	eng
178690	threats	Cisneros-Heredia, D.F., 2009	Torres-Carvajal (2000) visited the type locality in 1997 and found that most of the natural vegetation had been replaced by orange, banana and coffee plantations, which may have severely affected the population of this species.	eng
178691	conservation	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, E.H. & Baha El Din, S.M., 2009	There are no direct conservation measures in place for this species at the present time. It is not known from any protected areas in Tunisia or Algeria. More research is needed on this species' population, distribution and harvest levels in order to establish if conservation measures may be required in the future.	eng
178691	distribution	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, E.H. & Baha El Din, S.M., 2009	This species has a highly fragmented distribution, but this might in part be due to its nocturnal nature which makes it hard to find in the field. At present, it is known to range from Mauritania through Mali, Algeria, Niger, Tunisia (where it is known from a single location only), Libya, and Chad to Sudan. It might be present in Morocco. This species is not present in Egypt (S. Baha El Din pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178691	habitat	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, E.H. & Baha El Din, S.M., 2009	This is a nocturnal desert species which is found in areas of drifting sand with shrublands and possibly also in savanna habitat. It is a viviparous species and possibly feeds on vegetation.	eng
178691	population	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, E.H. & Baha El Din, S.M., 2009	This species is rarely recorded.	eng
178691	threats	Geniez, P., Crochet, P-A., Mateo Miras, J.A., Joger, U., Pleguezuelos, J., Slimani, T., El Mouden, E.H. & Baha El Din, S.M., 2009	The species is collected by snake charmers. It is also sometimes collected by local people as curios for tourists, and is likely to be threatened by commercial collection. Habitat degradation may also be impacting this species.	eng
178692	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, distribution, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178692	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known only from its type locality, Ibiraba, Bahia, Brazil.	eng
178692	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	Species of this genus are fossorial. All of the specimens were collected in a sandy and flat area bordering a large sand dune, close to a river. The type locality lies within the Caatinga dry forest habitat. <br/><br/>Egg laying most likely occurs during the dry season which extends from November to March.	eng
178692	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is only known from six specimens.	eng
178692	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178693	conservation	Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No conservation measures are required for this species.	eng
178693	distribution	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is distributed across central Africa from southeastern Nigeria in the west, through Cameroon and the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to Uganda and southern Sudan in the east.	eng
178693	habitat	Spawls, S., 2009	This burrowing skink has been found in riverine woodland, swampland, moist savanna, and pine plantations. It has also been found in recently deforested areas (Spawls <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
178693	population	Spawls, S., 2009	This species is thought to be rare but this may be due to its secreative, burrowing, nature rather than its low population density.	eng
178693	threats	Spawls, S., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178694	conservation	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. Further research into the distribution, population, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
178694	distribution	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is restricted to lowland rainforest in east and northeast Madagascar.	eng
178694	habitat	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in humid forest.	eng
178694	population	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178694	threats	Raxworthy, C.J. & Vences, M., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of habitat loss and degradation due to deforestation and slash-and-burn agricultural practice.	eng
178695	conservation	Shea, G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, habitat status, and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
178695	distribution	Shea, G., 2009	This species was first described in 1990 from the type locality at Nikinki, Timor, Indonesia (Greer 1990). In 1993, it was recorded from a second locality on Timor (Aplin <em>et al</em>. 1993). G. Shea (pers. comm. 2008) reports that specimens from East Timor (held at the South Australian Museum) have been examined, and are morphologically and genetically very similar to <em></em>this species.	eng
178695	habitat	Shea, G., 2009	From the type locality, it is inferred that this species inhabits dry deciduous forests.	eng
178695	population	Shea, G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178695	threats	Shea, G., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by deforestation due to the conversion of land to agriculture and plantations, however, it is not known what impact this may be having upon the species itself.	eng
178696	conservation	Papenfuss, T.J. , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas.	eng
178696	distribution	Papenfuss, T.J. , 2009	This wide-ranging species is found around the foothills of the Himalayas, across northeastern India, throughout the mainland of South East Asia, down the Malay Peninsula and into Indonesia. This species has been recorded between 140 to 200 m above sea level, but these are unlikely to be its elevational limits.	eng
178696	habitat	Papenfuss, T.J. , 2009	This is a nocturnal and fossorial species found in a variety of lowland habitats from dense forests, both wet and dry, to rich grassy areas. It has also been found in agriculturally disturbed land.	eng
178696	population	Papenfuss, T.J. , 2009	This species is common in West Bengal and further east (Danie 2002). In Myanmar it is presumably widespread and abundant, although recent surveys have only uncovered three specimens in seven years (G. Zug pers. comm.)	eng
178696	threats	Papenfuss, T.J. , 2009	It is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range.	eng
178697	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There is still some confusion regarding the taxonomy of this species and more research is needed to clarify this. There are currently no species-specific conservation measures in place, but its distribution is likely to coincide with protected areas.	eng
178697	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in northern Argentina in Tucuman, Jujuy and Salta provinces; in Uruguay; in Paraguay; and in the states of Goias, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, and Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil.	eng
178697	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is found in areas where the dominant habitat type is grassland and shrubland. The species was found to utilize dried grass hoarded in the opening of armadillo burrows.	eng
178697	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178697	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no widespread threats to this species.	eng
178698	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the severity of threats affecting the species is required. Due to its restricted range, monitoring is recommended to ensure that population declines are noted, and a threat category triggered if required.	eng
178698	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and mainly occurs in the southwest of the country (Wickramasinghe and Somaweera 2002). Specimens have also been located in central Sri Lanka, in the Knuckles mountain range. It is found in&#160;lowlands and midhills in the wet zone below ~700 m a.s.l., but also exists in relatively wet and shaded areas in the intermediate and dry zones,&#160;including Kokagala (in Monaragala), Nilgala, Anuradhapura, Wirawila, Padawiya, Ampara, Ritigala and Matara (de Silva <em>et al</em>. 2004, Somaweera & Somaweera, 2009). Based on the point data from Wickramashinghe and Somaweera (2002), the distributional area of this species has been calculated as approximately 14,876 km².	eng
178698	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is a nocturnal terrestrial species that primarily inhabits moist rainforest. It is often found under rocks and decaying logs, inside decaying logs, and under rock and forest floor debris (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010). They are also found in plantations and gardens (R. Somaweera pers. comm. 2010), and are occasionally recorded in man-made structures, such as thatched huts, cowsheds and houses (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178698	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	A. de Silva (pers. comm.) found this species to be common in the Knuckles mountain range.	eng
178698	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Severe deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. While this species appears to have some ability to adapt to anthropogenic environments, it is still largely forest-dependent.	eng
178699	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Further research on the population, distribution, habitat status and threats to the species is recommended to determine if it should be assigned a threatened category in the future.	eng
178699	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is endemic to Sulawesi (in den Bosch and Ineich 1994). It is only known from its type, collected in the Minahassa region, Northern Sulawesi (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178699	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This is a fossorial species (Inger and Voris 2001). Its habitat requirements are unknown; the habitat in the Minhassa region of Northern Sulawesi is made up of moist broadleaf forest, but elevational variation and lack of knowledge about the exact location of the single known specimen mean that it is unknown if this species inhabits montane or lowland forests.	eng
178699	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178699	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	Extensive deforestation for conversion to agriculture and plantations has occurred across the island. The lowland forests (below 400 m above sea level) of Sulawesi have been almost entirely deforested or degraded, with deforestation estimates for 1990-1997 of around 89% (FWI and GFW 2002). As the sub-montane and montane forests have been less altered, the deforestation estimate for the entire island of Sulawesi is 20- 29% for the period 1985- 1997 (FWI and GFW 2002). Deforestation may pose a threat to this species through habitat loss and degradation. The removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus.	eng
178700	conservation	LeBreton, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences and threats of this species should be carried out.	eng
178700	distribution	LeBreton, M., 2009	This species is known to occur in western and central Africa, ranging from Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the southeast to Nigeria in the northwest.	eng
178700	habitat	LeBreton, M., 2009	There is no information on habitat or ecology available for this species.	eng
178700	population	LeBreton, M., 2009	Rasmussen (1997) states that this species is rare.	eng
178700	threats	LeBreton, M., 2009	Given that little is known about the ecology of this snake, the potential impacts of threat processes on this species are not well understood. However, given its broad distribution, it is unlikely that threats are affecting this species across its full range.	eng
178701	conservation	Embert, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place or needed for this species. However, following an extrapolation of distribution for Bolivia (Embert 2007), this species may be present in several national parks in Bolivia including important ones such as Amboró, Carrasco, EBB, Kaa-Iya, Noel Kempff Mercado and San Matías.	eng
178701	distribution	Embert, D., 2009	This species is known from Paraguay, Argentinia (in the states of Chaco, Tucuman and Corrientes), Brazil (in the state of Mato Grosso), and Bolivia (Beni, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba) (Embert 2007).	eng
178701	habitat	Embert, D., 2009	This species is found in open habitats, often in moist conditions, occupying river beaches and flood plains. The species has been found on floating vegetation.	eng
178701	population	Embert, D., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178701	threats	Embert, D., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species.	eng
178702	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and population monitoring should be carried out to establish the full range and abundance of this species.	eng
178702	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in northeastern South America, in Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil (in the states of Amapa, and eastern Para). Hoogmoed and Avila-Pirea (1992) report that one specimen of this species has been recorded in Rio Ampiyacu, Peru. This species is found up to 500 m above sea level.	eng
178702	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found in lowland tropical rainforest. Gardner <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that the species is restricted to primary forest and was not found in secondary forest or plantations. Specimens have been collected in rather open, dry places, where sunlight could penetrate to the forest floor including near streams and on trails.	eng
178702	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178702	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species, but the species may be locally threatened as a result of habitat degradation from deforestation.	eng
178703	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the biology and ecology, abundance, threats, and habitat status of this species should be carried out.	eng
178703	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is endemic to Sumatra and is known only from two syntypes (David and Vogel 1996).	eng
178703	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is fossorial (Inger and Voris 2001). Without knowledge of the locations of the syntypes, it is unclear whether this species inhabits the lowland or the montane rainforests of Sumatra.	eng
178703	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178703	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There is extensive deforestation in Sumatra due to logging and the clearing of land for oil palm plantations. The annual deforestation rate for Central Sumatra for the period 1990-1997 was estimated as 3.2 -5.9% (Archard <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is likely that this species is threatened by deforestation, but the severity of this threat remain unknown. The removal of large trees by logging reduces the humus and leaf litter (Alcala <em>et al.</em> 2004), thereby making the environment less suitable to ground-dwelling species such as species of this genus.	eng
178704	conservation	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring is required into the population and threats that might be impacting upon this species.	eng
178704	distribution	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is distributed in northern Oman. Rastegar-Pouyani (2005) states this species is from Tanuf. Uetz (2006) also lists this species as occurring in Wadi Bani Kharus, Wadi Sahtan, Al-Hijir and Wadi Halfayn.	eng
178704	habitat	Anderson, S.C., 2009	This species is distributed in an arid area. It is thought that this species inhabits dry river beds.	eng
178704	population	Anderson, S.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178704	threats	Anderson, S.C., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process. Vegetation within the range of this species is under severe pressure from over-grazing, however, it is not known if this is affecting the species.	eng
178705	conservation	Wallach, V. and Powell, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Conservation measures, such as the establishment and management of protected areas, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range. Further research into the population, habitat status, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178705	distribution	Wallach, V. and Powell, R., 2009	This species is found in southwestern Haiti: from the Tiburon Peninsula and Île Grand Cayemite, and an isolated record from Île de la Gonâve.This species has been found from sea level to about 800 m above sea level (Thomas and Hedges 2007, Henderson and Powell 2009).&#160;The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 4,522 km²<sup></sup>. This species has a severely fragmented&#160;range.	eng
178705	habitat	Wallach, V. and Powell, R., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits pine forests as well as semi-deciduous and broadleaved evergreen rainforests. This species is xerophilic to mesophilic and has been found at the edge of cane fields, in wooded areas, shaded woods and ravines, semi-xeric scrub woods and open fields and yards (Schwartz and Henderson 1991). This species has also been found under rotten stumps, rocks, limestone and rotten logs (Schwartz and Henderson 1991).	eng
178705	population	Wallach, V. and Powell, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178705	threats	Wallach, V. and Powell, R., 2009	The landscape of Haiti has been extensively altered, with little primary habitat remaining. Threats in this region include habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and illegal logging, as well as degradation from overgrazing and fuel-wood collection. Ibisch <em>et al.</em> (2003) describe Haiti as 'virtually deforested', citing the FAO 1997 report.	eng
178707	conservation	Costa, G.C., 2009	No species-specific conservation measures are in place at present. No recommendations for additional conservation measures are currently needed.	eng
178707	distribution	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species&#160; is found in many localities in the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil and some marginal localities in the Cerrado, in the states of Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraiba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Piaui, and Bahia (C. Nogueira pers. comm.).	eng
178707	habitat	Costa, G.C., 2009	This species is a crevice specialist found in rocky areas within the Caatinga habitat; this species rarely leaves the rock surface.	eng
178707	population	Costa, G.C., 2009	There are no known population data for this species.	eng
178707	threats	Costa, G.C., 2009	There are no known widespread threats to this species. However, it may be locally threatened by agricultural expansion which is causing degradation of the Caatinga habitat.	eng
178708	conservation	Bain, R.H. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178708	distribution	Bain, R.H. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is only known from the Annamite Mountains of Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It has been found in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park and the Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area, which are part of the biggest continuous karst formation in Indochina. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 46,325 km².	eng
178708	habitat	Bain, R.H. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is endemic to tropical karst forests at low and possibly mid elevations.	eng
178708	population	Bain, R.H. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178708	threats	Bain, R.H. & Stuart, B.L., 2009	This species is harvested by local people for food, but collection from the wild is minimal and not likely to be causing significant declines. This species may also be impacted by habitat degradation and loss as deforestation is occurring within the Annamites. However, as this species has a preference for karst formations, continuous declines in habitat quality are unlikely.	eng
178709	conservation	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research should be carried out to establish the distribution of this species within Sri Lanka.	eng
178709	distribution	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is found in India in the Western Ghats from Kanara to Trivandrum (Sharma 2002). A single specimen has also been recorded in Sri Lanka, although most current herpetologists also doubt this record as there are no subsequent records of it in the country and the lack of surviving voucher material further precludes verification of this record, and Austin <em>et al. </em>(2004) considered this single record to be in error.	eng
178709	habitat	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This is a ground-dwelling species that inhabits both closed and open evergreen moist deciduous and plantation forests (Das 2002). This species is insectivorous, diurnal and oviparous (Sharma 2002).	eng
178709	population	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	The species is stated as being very common (Sharma 2002).	eng
178709	threats	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range.	eng
178710	conservation	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are protected areas within this species' range, including the Gannoruwa Forest Reserve in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Conservation measures, such as protected area establishment and management, should be carried out to reduce the rate of habitat loss currently occurring within the region. Further research and monitoring of the population and distribution of this species should be undertaken.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Data Deficient in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka.'	eng
178710	distribution	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is considered endemic to Sri Lanka and occurs in the central province at altitudes of 400 to 700 m above sea level. Specimens have mainly been found in the Kandy district. Based upon its known occurrence in the central province, the current known area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178710	habitat	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species inhabits rock caves, large trees with loose bark and also occurs in human dwellings.	eng
178710	population	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	This species is common in houses in the Kandy region with large gardens (A. de Silva pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178710	threats	Somaweera, R. & de Silva, A., 2009	Deforestation has occurred in Sri Lanka due to human activities including the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, conversion to plantation land, mining, logging and pressures associated with expanding human settlements. This species is also predated by domestic cats and poultry; however, this is not thought to be a significant threat.	eng
178711	conservation	Austin, C.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Monitoring is required to ensure that the localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178711	distribution	Austin, C.C., 2009	This species inhabits Irian Jaya and Papua New Guinea (Brown 1953).	eng
178711	habitat	Austin, C.C., 2009	This species is known to inhabit lower montane rainforests (Hyndman and Menzies 1990). Species of this genus tend to inhabit the surface, herbaceous, and low-shrub strata (Brown and Marshall 1953).<br/><br/>This species is oviparous, with an average clutch size of two eggs (Greer 1968).	eng
178711	population	Austin, C.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178711	threats	Austin, C.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species. However, this species may be locally threatened as a result of deforestation. As this species appears to be affiliated with riverine areas, the construction of dams in the habitat may have a deleterious impact on local populations.	eng
178712	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its ecology, population size, habitat status and threats is required.	eng
178712	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is found on the islands of Banda, Tanimbar and Damar, in Indonesia. The total area of these islands are less than 5,000 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178712	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown, but it is known to be arboreal and insectivorous.	eng
178712	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178712	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by a major threat process.	eng
178713	conservation	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	Further research into this relatively unknown species is recommended. Monitoring of the habitat status of this species is required to ensure that localized threats do not become more widespread.	eng
178713	distribution	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from the highlands on Cerro de la Neblina and Pico Tamacuari in the borderland between Venezuela and Brazil. This species is found between 1,200 and 1,450 m above sea level. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 1,678 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178713	habitat	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is found on tepuis, isolated granite mountains emerging from tropical forest.	eng
178713	population	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178713	threats	La Marca, E., García-Pérez, J.E. & Doan, T.M., 2009	The tepui are relatively isolated from human disturbance so there are no major threats affecting this species. The impact of illegal mining operations and human-started fires could be important at low elevations in the future, but are not thought to constitute major threats to the species at present.	eng
178714	conservation	Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, parts of its distribution range coincide with protected areas, such as Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Further research into the potential threats to this species is required.	eng
178714	distribution	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This lowland species is found as far north as Michoacán, Mexico, and southward to Nicaragua on the Atlantic slope, and to central Costa Rica on the Pacific slope. It is found between 0 to 530 m above sea level.	eng
178714	habitat	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species favours open locations in a variety of habitats from sandy flats to dry forests.	eng
178714	population	Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species has been reported as common (Lee 2000). In Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, it is common in sandy areas (G.C. Mayer pers. comm.).	eng
178714	threats	Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is not known if any threat is impacting this species.	eng
178715	conservation	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into its population size and habitat preferences is required.	eng
178715	distribution	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	This species occurs in the Chitral District, a region of rugged mountains between 1,500 and 1,850 m above sea level. Khan (2003) includes the west of the North-West Frontier Province (Chitral District), Pakistan, in the distribution of this species. This species, as Das (1994) notes, also occurs in a politically disputed region, presumably the Jammu and Kashmir area.	eng
178715	habitat	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	Khan (2003) reports that this species inhabits rocky and anthropogenic habitats in Pakistan. Specimens have been collected from the walls of a roadside thatched house (Khan 1992).	eng
178715	population	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	There are apparently only five specimens known of this species, all from Chitral District: the holotype from Drosh Fort, two specimens from Karakal, Bumhoet Valley, and two specimens from the village of Ghariet (Khan 1992).	eng
178715	threats	Khan, M.S. & Papenfuss, T.J., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178716	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research and monitoring of the population, and research into the biology, ecology and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178716	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is distributed in Xinjiang, China and into the Hami area of the Gobi Desert (Zhoa and Adler 1993, Szczerbak and Golubev 1996). This species is found between 700 and 1,400 m above sea level.	eng
178716	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	The habitat preferences of this species are unknown, however, it has been observed in abandoned buildings (Szczerbak and Golubev 1996).	eng
178716	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178716	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178717	conservation	Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. In Bolivia, this species is known to occur in the National Parks of Iñao, Manuripi Heath, Noel Kempff Mercado and Pilon Lajas (Embert 2007). No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178717	distribution	Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is found primarily east of the Rio Tapajos and south of the Rio Amazonas; this species is known to occur in the states of Beni, La Paz, and Pando in northern Bolivia, in eastern Peru, and in Amazonian Brazil, in the states of Amazonas, Acre, Rondonia, and Mato Grosso, with an apparently isolated population on the Rio Xingu, east of Altamira, in the state of Para.	eng
178717	habitat	Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	This species is diurnal and is found on low perches (such as fallen logs) in mixed primary forest and river forest, from dense forest to open areas. Specimens have also been recorded from heavily disturbed forest and in yards of houses.	eng
178717	population	Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	This species has been reported as relatively common.	eng
178717	threats	Doan, T.M. & Embert, D., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178718	conservation	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species is needed.	eng
178718	distribution	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	This species is known from the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
178718	habitat	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information available for this species, but it is presumed to be a forest dweller.	eng
178718	population	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178718	threats	Ineich, I., Schmitz, A., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178719	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research into the biology and ecology, threats, abundance and habitat requirements is suggested.	eng
178719	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is restricted to Peninsular Malaysia.	eng
178719	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has been found in lowland rainforest adjacent to freshwater swamp forest, and specimens were often collected near small streams (Grismer and Leong 2007).	eng
178719	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species has only recently been collected (R. Stuebing pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178719	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	The lowland rainforest in this region is rapidly being converted to palm oil plantation (Grismer and Leong 2007), which is likely to be negatively affecting this species.	eng
178720	conservation	Martins, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas, probably providing small safeguards. No further conservation measures are required.	eng
178720	distribution	Martins, M., 2009	This central South American species is found in Brazil, Paraguay, southern Bolivia and north-east Argentina.	eng
178720	habitat	Martins, M., 2009	This species is found in moist forests (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178720	population	Martins, M., 2009	It is a common species throughout its distribution area (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178720	threats	Martins, M., 2009	Localized habitat change or destruction occur throughout its distribution (M. Martins pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178721	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Monitoring of this species' habitat is required to ensure that the localized threats of deforestation and fire do not become more widespread across its entire range.	eng
178721	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species inhabits Wetar, Flores (Dunn 1927) and Damma Island (Boulenger 1894) in Indonesia. According to Uetz (2006), the species may also be found on Besar, Ende, Lomblen, Alor, Timor, Great Bastard Island, and possibly Samona, however, the primary reference for these locations cannot be found.	eng
178721	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	This species may be arboreal, as it has been found climbing in trees as well as on the ground (Dunn 1927). The habitat on the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands is dry deciduous and semi-evergreen forest.	eng
178721	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178721	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	There is extensive deforestation in Indonesia for conversion to agriculture and plantations. From 1985-1997, it is estimated that 17% of the forest across the islands was lost (FWI and GFW 2002). Specific deforestation information for the Lesser Sunda Islands is not available. A further means of habitat degradation is fire. During the dry season, fires are set to clear the undergrowth and stimulate new growth of fodder for livestock. <br/><br/>Deforestation and fires pose a threat to this species through habitat loss and degradation, especially as this species may be arboreal. However, as this species has a sizeable distribution, such habitat loss is not interpreted as a major threat.	eng
178722	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas.	eng
178722	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species inhabits Taiwan (Wallach and Pauwels 2004) and is known from Kuraru (Kueitzuchiano), Hengchun (Koshun), Twannaryo, and Pingtung (McDiarmid <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
178722	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits moist semi-evergreen broadleaf forests.	eng
178722	population	Wallach, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178722	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting on this species.	eng
178723	conservation	Inger, R.F., Brown, R.M. & Grismer, L.L., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, in places its distribution coincides with protected areas. Further research into the distribution and population of this species should be carried out to validate its range extents, and monitoring of habitat trends may help in establishing inferences of population decline in the future. Increasing the coverage of protected areas would buffer this and other species from extensive habitat loss.	eng
178723	distribution	Inger, R.F., Brown, R.M. & Grismer, L.L., 2009	This species has been reported to occur in Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, and on Borneo (western Sabah and central Sarawak, Brunei Darussalam, and Kalimantan), Sumatra and Java (Brown 1999). However, Brown (pers. comm.) notes that specimens found outside of Borneo have not all been verified. Furthermore, in Borneo it is known from only a few localities (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010). This species is found up to 300 m above sea level.	eng
178723	habitat	Inger, R.F., Brown, R.M. & Grismer, L.L., 2009	This is a forest-dwelling species that occurs in primary or secondary wet forest at elevations lower than 300 m above sea level. It is adapted for an arboreal existence, possessing lateral skin fringes and distally dilated fingers and toes with large webbing, for short parachuting (Malkmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is often found around human habitations beneath the overhang of roofs and on other wooden structures that offer both cover and insects.<br/>Oviposition occurs on the ground and eggs and hatchlings have been found under logs.	eng
178723	population	Inger, R.F., Brown, R.M. & Grismer, L.L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178723	threats	Inger, R.F., Brown, R.M. & Grismer, L.L., 2009	The tall, lowland, primary and secondary forest this species inhabits is under serious threat (R. Inger pers. comm. 2010). This species is likely to be experiencing habitat loss and degradation across much of its range from threats such as agricultural expansion and logging. In Southeast Asia and particularly in Indonesia, the oil palm industry has destroyed a high proportion of lowland forests.	eng
178724	conservation	Doan, T.M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the population, habitat preferences, ecology, and threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178724	distribution	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is known from just two collection localities, Brejo da Lapa on the northwest flank of the Itatiaia massif on the Rio de Janeiro / Minas Gerais border and from the Parque Estadual Campos do Jordao, Sao Paulo, Brazil.	eng
178724	habitat	Doan, T.M., 2009	The type series of this species was collected from a bog just below the tree line at the Itatiaia massif, a large rock pinnacle rising from thin forest. The habitat at the only other collection locality is montane forest.	eng
178724	population	Doan, T.M., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens.	eng
178724	threats	Doan, T.M., 2009	The area in which this species occurs is one of the most heavily populated in Brazil, and as a result very little of the natural Atlantic Forest cover remains. The driver of deforestation in the area has been a combination of urban expansion, logging and conversion of land for agricultural practices. However, it is not known what, if any, impact the habitat loss has had on the species because it is unknown how dependent on forest habitat this species is.	eng
178726	conservation	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178726	distribution	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, in central Tanzania, and the extreme north of Zambia (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). <br/><br/>In Tanzania, it is known from Tanga across to Mwanza, and around Lake Rukwa, extending to the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Zambia, the species is known from Nchelenge town in Luapula Province and from Mbala, Nyamkolo, and Chiengi, all in Northern Province (Haagner <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>It is found from sea level up to 1,700 m above sea level.	eng
178726	habitat	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	This species inhabits open and wooded savanna, and can be found on trees, buildings, and possibly on rocks (Spawls <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is oviparous, with observed clutch sizes of two (Haagner <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
178726	population	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178726	threats	Menegon, M. & Spawls, S., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178728	conservation	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Protected area establishment and management is required to reduce the rate of habitat loss occurring within this species' range and to provide safeguards for this species. Population monitoring of this species should also occur.<br/><br/>This species is listed as Near Threatened in 'The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka'.	eng
178728	distribution	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Sri Lanka and is restricted to the central highlands (Greer 1991). A widely distributed species in the wet zone, having being recorded from locations in the first peneplain to the third. Known areas of distribution include Nuwara Eliya, Peradeniya, Gammaduwa, Bambaraella, Horton Plains, Agarapatana, Hakgala, Badulla, Loolcondera Estate, Agra-Bopaththalawa, Dikoya, Pattipola and Namunukula, among others&#160;(Somaweera and Somaweera 2009).&#160;This species is found from 600 to 2,300 m above sea level: It is the only skink to be found above 2,300 m (Somaweera and Somaweera 2009).	eng
178728	habitat	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	This species has been observed in open rocky habitats, under decaying logs, and at the base of grass (de Silva 1997). This species is found in montane and riverine tropical mixed evergreen forests. Its diet consists of insects and it lays two eggs at a time.	eng
178728	population	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178728	threats	de Silva, A. & Somaweera, R., 2009	Habitat loss due to agricultural practices, especially hill country vegetable plantations, is a major threat to this species. The high level of deforestation in Sri Lanka is also likely to be impacting this species.	eng
178729	conservation	Gower, D.J., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the threats that this species faces and whether these have a negative effect on the species.	eng
178729	distribution	Gower, D.J., 2009	This species inhabits the Palni Hills in Tamil Nadu, and hilly regions near Trivandrum in Kerala, India, between 1,500 and 2,100 m above sea level (Smith 1943). This species is distributed over approximately 14,185 km²<sup></sup>.	eng
178729	habitat	Gower, D.J., 2009	This is a fossorial species that inhabits moist soils and is primarily found in moist montane evergreen forests. It is often encountered on the road sides, in gardens, and under rocks during wet weather (Sharma 2003).	eng
178729	population	Gower, D.J., 2009	Sharma (2003) reports that this species is common throughout its range, especially at higher altitudes.	eng
178729	threats	Gower, D.J., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted by any major threats. This species is found within a habitat that is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat change, however, the impact of these threats on this species is unknown. Its fossorial nature means it is often able to tolerate the alteration of primary to agricultural habitat, especially when agricultural practices maintain shade and soil moisture levels (D. Gower pers. comm.).	eng
178731	conservation	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	The large distribution of this species probably coincides within protected areas. No further conservation measures are needed for this species.	eng
178731	distribution	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the western half of the Australian mainland interior, and becomes more common in the northern half of the Australian desert regions (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178731	habitat	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	The preferred habitat for this species is arid sand plains and inter-dunes with spinifex.	eng
178731	population	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	This species is described as moderately common (Horner 1992).	eng
178731	threats	Horner, P. & Hutchinson, M., 2009	Due to this species' large distribution, it is unlikely that it is affected by any major threats.	eng
178732	conservation	Auyila, M., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are protected areas within its distribution.&#160;The      species has been recorded in Barail      Wildlife Sanctuary, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Assam</st1:country-region>,      north-eastern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region>&#160;(Das      <em>et al.</em> 2009). <br/><br/>Further research into the habitat status and threats of this species is needed to ensure that no threatened status is triggered in the future.	eng
178732	distribution	Auyila, M., 2009	This species is found in Bangladesh, and extends throughout northeastern India up to the eastern Himalayas and southwestwards to Myanmar, having been&#160;recorded in Mizarom-Manipur-Kachin (coastal Myanmar) and at elevations below 200 m (Leviton <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
178732	habitat	Auyila, M., 2009	This species inhabits flat and sloped moist forests.	eng
178732	population	Auyila, M., 2009	This species is very common in part of its range. It is reported to be "modestly abundant" in south-central Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm.).	eng
178732	threats	Auyila, M., 2009	This species is restricted to forests in a part of the world that is experiencing major deforestation, mainly due to agricultural expansion and logging, particularly in Bangladesh (Sirajul Islam <em>et al.</em> 2006). The impact the pet trade has on the species and its allies&#160;(Vogel et al. 2004)&#160;remains uncertain. However, significant areas of habitat remain, so that these are not considered major threats at this time.	eng
178734	conservation	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. In places its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present.	eng
178734	distribution	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This species has a wide distribution in southeast Australia, and is known to occur in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, central and north Great Dividing Range, and on Kangaroo Island.	eng
178734	habitat	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	This fossorial species inhabits woodlands, wet and dry sclerophyll forest. It seems to prefer more open woodlands with grassy under-storey (Armstrong 1998). In the Adelaide region, this species is also known to frequently occur in anthropogenic habitats, including suburban gardens and vacant lots (M. Hutchinson pers. comm.).	eng
178734	population	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	Armstrong (1998) reports that this species is abundant in at least part of its range.	eng
178734	threats	Hutchinson, M.N., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178735	conservation	Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178735	distribution	Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found across northern South America from Colombia across to Brazil, and on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
178735	habitat	Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	This species is found in a variety of habitats, including urban settlements, rocky cliffs, savannas, dry evergreen forest, and forest edges.	eng
178735	population	Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178735	threats	Castro, F. & Mayer, G.C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178736	conservation	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is known from the protected area of Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary (Bauer 2003). Further research into its biology, abundance and range and habitat requirements is needed, and population monitoring is recommended.	eng
178736	distribution	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known only from its type locality described by Bauer (2003) at Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary, Ywa Ngan Township, Shan State from an elevation 319 m above sea level. This locality lies along the western edge of the Shan Plateau, hence this species is potentially more widely distributed in this hill region of east-central Myanmar (G. Zug pers. comm. 2008).	eng
178736	habitat	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known from lowland forest.	eng
178736	population	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is currently known only from the holotype, collected in 2002 (Bauer 2003).	eng
178736	threats	Richman, N. & Bohm, M, 2009	This species is known only from the protected areas of Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary. Despite its protected status, human activities continue to impact the park and its wildlife. Timber extraction and bamboo collection occur, and there are temporary human settlements and roads within the park; local cattle may also degrade the park's habitat (Lynam 2003).	eng
178737	conservation	Wallach, V., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is needed on the distribution, habitat and ecology, and threats of this species.	eng
178737	distribution	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is only known from Mauritania, but further distribution information is not available.	eng
178737	habitat	Wallach, V., 2009	This species<em></em> inhabits the Sahelian <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>savanna of northwest Africa. This species is a burrower and needs at least damp or moist sand or soil to live in (V. Wallach pers. comm.).	eng
178737	population	Wallach, V., 2009	This species is known only from a single specimen (V. Wallach pers. comm.).	eng
178737	threats	Wallach, V., 2009	It is unknown whether this species is being impacted upon by any major threats.	eng
178738	conservation	Aguilar, C., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. It was not listed as threatened on the national Red List for Peru.	eng
178738	distribution	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from the Cajamarca, Chinchipe, Maranon, and Utcubamba river valleys in northern Peru.	eng
178738	habitat	Aguilar, C., 2009	This species is known from river valleys where the major habitat type is dry deciduous forest.	eng
178738	population	Aguilar, C., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178738	threats	Aguilar, C., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178739	conservation	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Ineich, I., Pupin, F. & Riservato,E . , 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required into the population status and threats of this species in order to assess the impact that overgrazing and habitat loss is having on its population<em></em>.	eng
178739	distribution	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Ineich, I., Pupin, F. & Riservato,E . , 2009	This species inhabits the Socotran archipelago, which includes the islands: Socotra, Samha, Darsa, and Abd al Kuri, Yemen. Socotra is the largest of the three islands, with an area of 3,579 km². Abd al Kuri, Sahma, and Darsa have areas of 133 km² , 40 km² and 16 km², respectively. The area in which this species is distributed can therefore be estimated to be approximately 3,768 km².	eng
178739	habitat	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Ineich, I., Pupin, F. & Riservato,E . , 2009	This species can be found in most of the habitats of the islands (including many gardens inside the capital city), mostly in well vegetated areas; it seems to avoid only the open area that do not offer enough shelters (E. Razzetti <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. (in prep.).	eng
178739	population	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Ineich, I., Pupin, F. & Riservato,E . , 2009	This species is described as common throughout the islands, however its&#160;population&#160;size and trend are unknown. It is the second most widespread diurnal species on Socotra (Sindaco<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2008).	eng
178739	threats	Anderson, S.C., Sindaco, R., Grieco, C., Ineich, I., Pupin, F. & Riservato,E . , 2009	Threats to Socotra include overgrazing and habitat loss due to the development of roads and towns (Kral and Pavlis 2006). Darsa Island is uninhabited by humans, but infested by rats, and comprises only a small portion of the species' distribution. While the extent to which these threats are impacting this species is not well understood, they are not likely to result in a global decline in habitat quality and extent in its range.	eng
178740	conservation	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, its distribution coincides with Black Mountain National Park which has an area of less than 10 km². Further monitoring of the population should be carried out due to its restricted range.	eng
178740	distribution	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is restricted to Black Mountain, south of Cooktown in Queensland. The area in which this species is distributed does not exceed 10 km² (Goodman 2004).	eng
178740	habitat	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is restricted to the piled black granite boulders on Black Mountain.	eng
178740	population	Cogger, H.G., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178740	threats	Cogger, H.G., 2009	This species is found within a habitat that is virtually inaccessible to humans and their impacts, and therefore it is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species at this point in time. However, due to the extremely small range of this species, a stochastic event has the potential to cause severe declines in this species within a short time frame. Some projections suggest that climate change will impact the surrounding areas in Queensland, by reducing species richness. However, it is unlikely that climate change is going to have a severe impact on a rock-dwelling species.	eng
178741	conservation	Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
178741	distribution	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species is predominantly found in the Central Karoo of the Republic of South Africa. It is also distributed within the central and northwestern Cape Province, and ranges a little into southern Namibia as well.	eng
178741	habitat	Turner, A.A., 2009	This species inhabits Nama and Succulent Karoo shrublands.	eng
178741	population	Turner, A.A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178741	threats	Turner, A.A., 2009	There are no major widespread threats to this species.	eng
178742	conservation	Ineich, I., 2009	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research into the distribution, population, and potential threats to this species should be carried out.	eng
178742	distribution	Ineich, I., 2009	This species is known from central Somalia, between Obbia and Berbera, from the central Indian Ocean coast to the Gulf of Aden. Specimens have been collected between Obbia and Sissib and between Obbia and Magangib (Arillo <em>et al.</em> 1967).	eng
178742	habitat	Ineich, I., 2009	The Obbia region is arid and sandy with little vegetation cover, including an escarpment of 50-100 m. The escarpment extends to a low lying region of dense, rich, vegetation (Arillo <em>et al.</em> 1967).	eng
178742	population	Ineich, I., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178742	threats	Ineich, I., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178743	conservation	Goldberg, S.R., 2009	In an assessment of the conservation status of Namibian reptiles (Griffin 2003), this species was reported as 'Secure-SP (taxonomy)'. This assessment indicates that revisions to the taxonomy of this species could alter its conservation status. Approximately 40% of the nominate taxon's range was reported to be in Namibia, and all of <em>C. a. namibensis</em>. Further research on the taxonomy of this species is needed.	eng
178743	distribution	Goldberg, S.R., 2009	This species is found in the Namib desert and karroid regions of the Cape (Branch 1998). This includes the western coast of Namibia, through southern Namibia and much of western South Africa. <br/><br/><em>C. a. angulifer</em> occurs in the karroid areas of the Cape and southern Namibia, whilst <em>C. a. namibensis</em> ranges north and west of this in the Namib desert, from Lüderitz Bay to western Kaokoveld (Branch 1998).	eng
178743	habitat	Goldberg, S.R., 2009	This species inhabits gravel plains, inter-dune spaces and sandy flats (Branch 1998). In the Cape, it inhabits karroid vegetation, which typically has a very sparse covering of grasses and shrubs. This species may particularly be found in dry ravines, and even in old human habitation. It is reported that this species occupies a burrow by night, and forages by day (Loveridge 1947).	eng
178743	population	Goldberg, S.R., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
178743	threats	Goldberg, S.R., 2009	This species was included in an analysis of the effect of climate change on the fauna of South Africa, using climate envelope modelling (Erasmus <em>et al.</em> 2002). Reptiles were predicted to experience the largest range shifts, and the dry, western portion of the country, where this species occurs, was predicted to become wetter and suffer the most local extinctions across the country. An extension of this analysis (Van Jaarsveld <em>et al.</em> 2005) indicated that this species would be amongst the worst affected reptiles, with a predicted range change of greater than 50%.<br/><br/>This species is also becoming a popular pet, however, it is bred in captivity (S. Goldberg pers. comm.).	eng
178744	conservation	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species. Since this species has a restricted area, protected areas need to be established and managed. Monitoring of the status of this species is needed.	eng
178744	distribution	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is known from the Patos Lagoon, from the town of Itapua to Sao Lourenco do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This species has a distributional area of 993 km². &#160;It is known from five or less locations within this range, and its distribution is considered to be severely fragmented (R. Espinoza pers. comm. 2010).	eng
178744	habitat	Espinoza, R., 2009	This species is an omnivorous species known from the restinga habitat, sandy coastal dunes to forest, on the margin of the Patos Lagoon. <br/><br/>In the margins of the lake, where the species occurs, there is almost no vegetation in the first five metres. Between five and ten metres from the shore there is about 35% herbaceous cover, and further from the lake the number of shrubs, and eventually trees, increases until a low forest community is reached.	eng
178744	population	Espinoza, R., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178744	threats	Espinoza, R., 2009	A large percentage of restinga habitat has been cleared by logging and firewood collection, and for both industrial and urban development in this heavily populated region of Brazil. The remaining areas of this habitat are severely fragmented, and habitat degradation and loss continues.	eng
178747	conservation	Shine R.A., 2009	Parts of this species' distribution range coincide with protected areas. No further conservation measures or research is required.	eng
178747	distribution	Shine R.A., 2009	This species is distributed along the northern coast of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.	eng
178747	habitat	Shine R.A., 2009	This species inhabits sedgeland, forest and woodland.	eng
178747	population	Shine R.A., 2009	There are no population data available for this species.	eng
178747	threats	Shine R.A., 2009	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
178796	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In the northern Viet Nam, this species planted in plantations for wind breaks and coastal protection.	eng
178796	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is widespread and can be found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and the Maldives.	eng
178796	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum salinity of 35 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found in lower saline areas on deep muddy soil along tidal creeks with slow moving freshwater. This is a pioneering species that colonizes newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and can expand rapidly in number, especially in optimum conditions of low salinity. It is fast growing with low seed viabililty (sets fruit only three months of the year). It grows to 30-40 m and is associated with the firefly insect (<em>Ptyeroyx</em> spp.).	eng
178796	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is considered common in much of its range.	eng
178796	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178797	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178797	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	In South Asia, this species is present in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India (sparse distribution along western coastline), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in northwest Australia, mnortheast Australia, southeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178797	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is a small bushy shrub from 1-2 m tall. It is found in a range of substrates from sandy to compact mud, often near river banks. It may also occur inland on the same soil type in China (Peng and Xin-men 1983). This is a robust species and able to tolorate cooler temperatures. This species is gregarious.	eng
178797	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178797	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178798	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. More research is needed on the effects of ongoing sea level rise on <em>Laguncularia</em>, given its low salinity tolerance. Likewise, the impacts of invasive species (and consequences of their removal) on <em>Laguncularia</em> need to be quantified.<br/><br/>The effectiveness of habitat restoration and success of replantings with Laguncularia needs to be assessed. New Landsat and IKONOS technology should be used to do species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005). More research needed is on <em>Laguncularia</em> influences on water quality, erosion control, and pollution buffering.<br/><br/>Restoration of <em>Laguncularia</em> is being pursued in Florida (Milano 1999, McKee and Faulkner 2000), Costa Rica (Lewis and Marshall 1998) and Colombia (Elster and Perdomo 1999, Elster 2000). See valuable general review by Lewis (2005). More information and forestry trials are needed to optimize silvicultural techniques and management.	eng
178798	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	The distribution of this species is restricted to the neotropics and West Africa (Tomlinson, 1986). It has been reported from the eastern tropical coasts of North and South America (ranging from Florida, U.S., 28°50', to Laguna, Brazil, 28°30') and all Caribbean Islands except Bermuda, Dominca and Netherlands Antilles; status on Anguilla is unknown (Wilkie and Fortuna 2003). It has been noted on the Pacific coast of South America from Estera Sargento, Mexico (29°17') south to Piura River, Peru (5°32') (de Lacerda, 2002). It is also noted from West Africa (Angola, Benin and Togo, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guniea, Guinea-Bisau, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). It is absent in the Galapagos Islands, Cocos, and Malpelo, and Canary Islands.<br/><br/>The south mid-Atlantic Island distributions should be confirmed.	eng
178798	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species tends to be found at the upper margins of the mangrove-upland interface, or high intertidal region, and not at the seaward margin (Tomlinson 1994, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Seedlings are less tolerant of salinity and changing hydroperiod than <em>R. mangle</em> (Cardona-Alarte <em>et al</em>. 2006). Although it is a pioneer and can establish in relatively open sites with low salinity and abundant nutrients, mortality of seedlings is nearly 100% (Tomlinson 1995).<br/><br/>However, more important is the role of mangroves as nurseries for juvenile phases of economically-important fish and crustaceans. <em>Laguncularia</em>, being a landward mangrove, contributes to this indirectly by buffering upland pollutants.	eng
178798	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.<br/><br/>Individual population sizes are highly variable through time, as mortality of seedlings can be quite high due to competition with other mangroves (Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001, Ross <em>et al</em>. 2006). Seedlings recruit in thousands following a disturbance (Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Saplings and trees can number in thousands in a few areas, but <em>Laguncularia</em> tends to be less populous in a given mangal than the other Afrotropical species, with low importance values and basal area (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003).<br/><br/>Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of <em>Laguncularia</em> show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 1998). There have been no other genetic studies to date.	eng
178798	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	<em>Laguncularia</em> is likely to be susceptible to increasing tidal height or salt intrusion, especially under conditions of sea-level rise (Ross <em>et al</em>. 2000). The invasive alien species, <em>Schinus terebrinthifolius</em>, is directly impacting populations in Florida (Schmalzer 1995, Herwitz <em>et al</em>. 1996, Gordon 1998, Ewe and Sternberg 2005). The species tends to be outcompeted by <em>Rhizophora mangle</em>; the native fern, <em>Acrostichum aureum</em>, may also affect seedling establishment. In addition, altough marine aquaculture is not documented specifically from the Caribbean, on the Pacific coast it is negatively impacting <em>Laguncularia</em> (Kovacs 1999). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/><em>Laguncularia</em> has a higher requirement for freshwater inputs than other mangrove species, so may be vulnerable to drought. Storms/floods/hurricanes have extensively damaged <em>Laguncularia</em> stands (Roth 1992, McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001, Piou <em>et al</em>. 2006, Ross <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Laguncularia</em> experiences high mortality and leaf loss during freeze events at the northern edge of its range in Florida (Ellis <em>et al</em>. 2006). <br/><br/>Selective logging is also a possible threat as this species is regarded as suitable for polewood construction on Pacific coast of Mexico (Kovacs 1999). Clear-cutting is occurring in certain areas (Suman 1994); loss rates are estimated at 1.4%/year for <em>Laguncularia/Avicennia</em>-dominated mangal in western Mexico (Ramirez-Garcia <em>et al</em>. 1998). Clearing of mangal for settlement and agriculture cited as major cause of decline in Latin America (Lacerda 1993) without a compensating economic return from agriculture or fast mangrove recovery (Tovilla-Hernandez <em>et al</em>. 2001). Subsistence use of Laguncularia for fuelwood occurs (Kovacs 1999).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178799	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Recovery management is needed for this species.	eng
178799	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is present, but very patchily distributed, in India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, the Andaman Islands, northwest Sumatra, and southeast Bangladesh (Chittagong) (Giesen 2007 FAO).	eng
178799	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It can be a fast-growing and colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in southeastern Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
178799	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is locally extinct in a number of areas throughout its range. Less than 500 mature individuals of this species are left in India (K. Kathiresan pers comm), and it is considered very rare in West Malaysia. Over 20 year period (1980 - 2000), there has been a 26 % loss (950 km² per year) of mangrove area within this species range (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007, Wilke and Fortuna 2003). However, case studies within the region have recorded higher declines since the 1950s (Ong 2003).	eng
178799	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive coastal development and extraction within its restricted range. In the 1950s much of the mangrove area in this region was converted to rice plantations or shrimp farms (Ong 2003). Data suggests that mangrove area has experienced more than 1.3 % annual decline over a 20 year period (1980-2000) in this region (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007). At this rate, the total decline since 1980 would be approximately 40%. Reports suggest that these declines go as far back as the 1950s at rates similar to those reported between 1980-2000 (Ong 2003). Given that this species is very rare, and locally extinct in some places, it is estimated that overall population decline of this species has been at least 80% since the 1950s. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178800	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178800	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species ranges from Sri Lanka and the Ganges Delta through to the west Pacific. In South and South-East Asia it is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Japan (the most northern distribution is Iriomote Island), Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka (where it also has a range extention due to planting), Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in northwest and northeast Australia, the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands.<br/><br/>The species has been introduced to Cameroon and Nigeria in West Africa and to Panama in Central America and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean. In much of its native range it has been planted and exists in large or small-scale plantations. It is unknown if inclusion of plantations would be representative of the natural range.	eng
178800	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in low, mid, and high intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It forms extensive belts along brackish to tidal freshwater creeks and rivers. It is very fast growing, especially in fresh water, and is a competitive species.<br/><br/>In Papua New Guinea, <em>Nypa fruticans</em> dominates vast areas of the upper Fly River and other south coast estuaries with high tide river water salinities of 1-10 o/oo (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 1991). The species occurs at similar positions in the Sunderbans Delta of India, which has a relatively high rate of sea-level rise, but this species is blocked from inland migration owing to coastal development, and its area and occurrence has been declining (K. Kathiresan pers. comm.)	eng
178800	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a very dynamic population. It has experienced general declines due to localized threats throughout its range. This species has almost disappeared in the Indian Sundarbans due to reduced fresh water flow (Kathiresan pers. comm.). However, in some areas it is also increasing due to planting. In the Phillippines for example, other mangrove species have been cleared to plant this species, which may pose a threat to mangrove biodiversity (J. Primavera pers. comm.). In some parts of Africa where it has been introduced, it has become invasive and is considered a pest.	eng
178800	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	As this species prefers more freshwater environments, hyper-saline conditions and strong wave action (including that caused by passing ships) can threaten this species. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. In the Sunderbans Delta of India, for example, which has a relatively high rate of sea-level rise, provides insight to what may be common elsewhere as global sea levels rise (Mukherjee 1984). There, <em>Nypa fruticans</em> is blocked from inland migration owing to coastal development, and its area and occurrence has been declining (K. Kathiresan pers. comm.)<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178801	conservation	Duke, N., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. More species-level monitoring and increased protection for mangrove areas are needed, including the creation of new or expanded marine protected areas and national legislation.	eng
178801	distribution	Duke, N., 2008	This species is only found on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia.	eng
178801	habitat	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found upstream in esturies and low-mid intertidal areas in general riverine sediments. This species has a narrow range within mangrove areas. It is a cryptic species which makes it difficult to spot. This species grows to about one metre tall as a shrub in the under canopy.	eng
178801	population	Duke, N., 2008	This is a rare species with a limited distribution. The population is decreasing as mangrove area in this region is rapidly declining.	eng
178801	threats	Duke, N., 2008	This species has suffered a great deal of localized exploitation, habitat loss, and removal for construction within its very narrow habitat and distributional range. From 1980 to 2005, there has been a 33% reduction in mangrove habitat within the distribution of this species, mostly due to coastal development (FAO 2007), and this percentage is likely to be greater prior to 1980, although not reliable data exists. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178802	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178802	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia, northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178802	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal region. It is a small shrub that lives in clumps. It is shade intolerant.	eng
178802	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is abundant throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178802	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178803	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is grown in plantations in India, and perhaps in other parts of its range.	eng
178803	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Bangladesh. In Australasia it is found in American Samoa, Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, and Western Samoa. In East Africa and the Middle East, it is found in Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Reunion, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania. This species is extinct in Yemen.	eng
178803	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid to high intertidal region. It is shade tolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 50 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-34ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species has minor coppicing, and is relatively slow-growing with low regeneration rates. It cannot tolerate high salinity, and requires the shade and protection of surrounding trees to survive.<br/><br/>It is a small to large buttressed tree that can grow to 25 m but more commonly is found up to 10 m. The trunk is characterised by lenticels. It is found on deep muddy shore, in association wth <em>Kandelia candel</em> in a the parts of its range where <em>K. candel</em> is found. It is often scattered along the shore inland of the river mouth (Peng and Xin-men 1983).	eng
178803	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is the one of the most widely distributed mangrove species, and is considered common throughout its range. For example, in India, this species was found in 50% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). Its numbers are increasing in Japan where it competes with <em>R. stylosa</em>. However, this species has been considered locally extinct in Taiwan for at least the past 10 years.There are two color forms: red calyces (which is the predominant form), and white and green calyces.	eng
178803	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178804	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is planted in mangrove restoration projects in India and Philippines.	eng
178804	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is widespread and is found in East Africa, Seychelles and Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and throughout South East Asia to tropical Australia, New Caledonia, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Kirabati, and China (Hainan Island).	eng
178804	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the low-intertidal zone. It is intolerant of long periods of freshwater, and prefers high salinity. It is a pioneering species, that is fast growing, but has low seed-viability. In the low intertidal zone, it can be the dominant species along with <em>A. marina</em>, forming a tree line along the seaward margin of its range. It prefers soils of consolidated mud and sand. This species can grow to 30 m in height.	eng
178804	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common throughout its range, although like many mangrove species is less common at the extremities of its range. In India, this species was found in 40% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). It can be susceptible to storm damage, for example, this species was almost completely destroyed in Iriomote Island, Japan after a strong typhoon in 2006-2007.	eng
178804	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178805	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178805	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178805	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species lives slightly more inland than <em>X. granatum</em> which occurs closer to riverbanks. This is a completely deciduous species. This species has peg or cone-shaped pneumatophores, and differs from <em>X. granatum</em> which has snake-like butress roots. This is a large tree and it usually grows individually rather than in stands.	eng
178805	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a common species, but not as common as <em>X. granatum</em>. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178805	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178806	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Relative to the other mangrove species within the wider Caribbean, the conservation status of this species appears to be stable. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures for this species include more research on population sizes. Conocarpus erectus's range is well established but updates to population sizes, fluctuations or losses need to be continued. It is recommended to expand GIS mapping and remote sensing projects (e.g. Cohen and Lara 2003) and regional scale habitat mapping (e.g. Layman <em>et al</em>. 2006). Demographic modeling could be useful: research is needed to establish a minimum viable population size for the taxon, as past and present exploitative uses threaten to exert continued impacts throughout its range. Continued studies of post-hurricane recovery, restoration performance, in particular restoration of multispecies complexes and mangrove associates, are needed. The value of this mangrove upper boundary species to the protection/buffering of intertidal mangroves from land-based impacts should be better articulated in the literature.	eng
178806	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species is widely distributed in coastal communities in tropical America and West Africa (Tomlinson 1986). It can be found throughout Florida and to the Bahamas and West Indies south to Brazil. In the Eastern Pacific, it is present in Mexico through Central America to Ecuador and the Galapagos. It is also found in West Africa (Howard 1989). It was introduced in Hawaii, where it may possibly be invasive (Allen 1998, Chimner <em>et al</em>. 2006).<br/><br/>The distribution of this species throughout the south mid-Atlantic Islands should be confirmed.	eng
178806	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002) restricted in areas where the salinity does not exceed 10 g/kg (Chen and Twilley 1999). This species is considered a shrub or tree, growing to 1.5 - 10 m. Growth habit is prostrate in rocky or sandy habitats and erect elsewhere (Howard 1989). This species may demonstrate plasticity in leaf size/shape in response to wind sheer, having most 'streamlined' leaf when compared to the common western mangroves (red, black, and white) making it resilient to high winds (Barrera and Walter 2006).<br/><br/>This species includes ever-growing shrubs to small trees with no protected terminal buds, thus requiring dormancy in winter (e.g. south Florida populations) (Tomlinson 1986). Flowering and fruiting are continuous throughout the year (Hernandez and Espino 1999). <em>C. erectus</em> has non-viviparous seeds which float and can be dispersed by water. Seed production is high but many are aborted or do not germinate (Tomlinson 1986). Seed viability is shown to be <12% (Hernandez and Espino 1999). The stems can sprout vegetatively (post hurricane) but experimental rooting success of cuttings was shown to be limited (Benitez-Pardo <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>This species provides habitat for a number of species including crabs and also bald eagles (Curnutt and Robertson 1994). As an integral component of most western mangrove assemblages, <em>C. erectus</em> helps buffer the upper edge of highly valuable intertidal mangrove habitats, thus helping to maintain critical habitat.	eng
178806	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development. However, this species is considered somewhat weedy in southern Florida (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178806	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO, 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178807	conservation	Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178807	distribution	Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Borneo (West Kalimantan, Indonesia). It has a very limited and patchy distribution within its restricted range as it is only found in freshwater-dominated riverine areas.	eng
178807	habitat	Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It prefers freshwater and is only found in riverine areas. This species can grow to more than 25 m, but is a slow growing species that is found in single stands up to 70 km from the sea.	eng
178807	population	Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is very rare.	eng
178807	threats	Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive habitat loss from logging activities to create timber and palm oil plantations. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178808	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species. Protected areas that include this species should be established, and re-introduction programmes initiated.	eng
178808	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is patchily distributed in Indonesia (Borneo and Sulawesi), and the Philippines, including Murcielagos Bay in Zamboanga.	eng
178808	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the low intertidal region along tidal inlet channels. It stands along tidal creeks in muddy and sandy subtrates. It is sympatric with <em>Camptostemon schultzii</em> on Halmahera, Indonesia.	eng
178808	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a rare species with very restricted distribution. There are very few individuals, even in areas where it is found. In the Philippines, it is estimated that there are less than 1,000 mature individuals. In the Indonesian part of the range it has been estimated that there are less than 200 mature individuals.	eng
178808	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is highly threatened by removal of mangrove areas to create fish and shrimp ponds in the Philippines, and thorughout its restricted range. It is also subject to localized cutting. It is estimated that at 30% of mangrove area has been lost in countries within this species range over a 25 year period (1980-2005) (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178809	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178809	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species has a disjunct range, and is found in Natuna Island, the Halmahera Islands and Irian Jaya, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178809	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a fast-growing species, that can grow up to 20 m but often only to 5 or 10 m. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and has a high tolerance of hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178809	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is widespread but uncommon in the Philippines. In Natuna Island and Halmahera Islands, Indonesia this is a rare species that is patchily distributed.	eng
178809	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the high intertidal region which is often the first part of mangrove habitat to be removed or affected by human activity, including clearing of land for aquaculture, agriculture and coastal development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 30% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178810	conservation	Duke, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. More research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats, as it is not-well known and is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em>.	eng
178810	distribution	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found in tropical America along both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts and in western Africa. However, the limits of its distribution are not well known. In the Caribbean, it is found from southern Florida to Rio de Janiero. In the eastern Pacific, it is found from southern Mexico to northern Ecuador. Along the western African coast, it is found from Guinea to Angola.	eng
178810	habitat	Duke, N., 2008	This species is a fern and grows in the under canopy. It is found in intermediate upstream and high intertidal areas (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178810	population	Duke, N., 2008	The population status of this species is not well known as it is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em>.	eng
178810	threats	Duke, N., 2008	There are no known threats to this species. It is often confused with <em>A. aureum</em> which is a threat to other mangrove systems, and in disturbed mangrove systems this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.	eng
178811	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E., Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br/><br/>For Avicenna germinans, mangrove tree planting and silviculture can be used to restore previously stripped areas or to help timber production and to create and protect reserves (Saenger 2002). Restoration of <em>Avicennia</em> is being pursued in Louisiana (Willis <em>et al</em>. 2005), Florida (Milano 1999, McKee and Faulkner 2000, Milbrandt and Tinsley 2006), Mexico (Toledo <em>et al</em>. 2001), Costa Rica (Lewis and Marshall 1998) and Colombia (Elster 2000). See the general review by Lewis (2005) for further information. Effectiveness of habitat restoration and success of replantings with <em>A. germinans</em> needs to be assessed; it may be the most promising species for afforesting hypersaline areas.Most seedlings die during natural recruitment events and restoration is challenging.<br/><br/>Demographic modeling could also be useful to establish a minimum viable population size for <em>A. germinans</em>. Evidence from Florida suggests that invasive species negatively impacts <em>A. germinans</em>, more research is recomended. The studies of the uses and cost/benefit analysis are needed for more areas along Atlantic and Caribbean shores and impacts of harvesting on populations. Expand GIS mapping and remote sensing projects and utilize new Landsat and IKONOS technology to do species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
178811	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E., Moore, G., 2007	This species is probably the most widespread neotropical mangrove. It is reported from the eastern tropical coasts of North and South America ranging from southern Florida and Bermuda, 32°20' to Atafona, Brazil, 21°37' and all Caribbean Islands (status on Anguilla is unknown). <br/><br/>It has been noted in a discontinuous distribution on the Pacific coast of South America from Puerto Lobos, Mexico (30°15') south to Piura River, Peru (5°32') (de Lacerda 2002) including the Galapagos Islands, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. <br/><br/>It is also noted from West Africa (Angola, Benin and Togo, Cameroon, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bisau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Sao Tomé and Principe, Senegal, and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>The distribution of this species in Brazil is somewhat in question as the species may be mis-identified as <em>A. germinans</em> when in fact it is <em>A. schaueriana</em> (Tomlinson 1995).	eng
178811	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E., Moore, G., 2007	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002) and dominates the zone proximal to open water (McKee 1995). It tends to be found in the mid to high intertidal region, and is infrequently found at the seaward margin (Ellison and Farnsworth 1993, Tomlinson 1994, Sherman <em>et al</em>. 2001). Seedlings are quite tolerant of salinity (up to 900 mol/m3; Suarez and Medina 2005), expecially compared to other neotropical mangroves, and can occupy hypersaline areas (Cardona-Alarte <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, mortality increases and relative growth rate decreases at high salinity values (Suarez and Medina 2005).<br/><br/>Where it occurs, <em>Avicennia</em> often achieves the highest importance values and basal area (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003), becoming the dominant species in the stand. <em>Avicennia</em> has the broadest temperature tolerance of all neotropical mangroves; however, freezing events have damaged extensive stands (Everitt <em>et al</em>. 1996); some recovery is possible. <em>Avicennia</em> responds negatively to drought (Sobrado 1999). Growth and survival of <em>Avicennia germinans</em> is also reduced when it competes with <em>Spartina alterniflora</em> (the dominant grass at the mangrove-salt marsh interface at the northern edge of the mangrove's range; Patterson <em>et al</em>. 1993).<br/><br/><em>Avicennia germinans</em> provides critical habitat for several organisms, including crabs (<em>Uca rapax, Sesarma curacoaoense, Aratus pisonii</em>; Warner 1969). 104 species of birds are associated with <em>Avicennia</em> stands in Panama, with significant divergence among stands (Lefebvre and Poulin 1997); nesting habitat for Florida Prairie Warblers and Cuban Yellow Warblers (Prather and Cruz 1995).<br/><br/><em>Avicennia</em> is important for pollinators; regarded as a source of honey for local <em>Apis mellifera</em> populations (Little and Wadsworth 1964).	eng
178811	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E., Moore, G., 2007	Genetic studies of <em>Avicennia</em> are numerous as microsatellite loci, RAPDs, and AFLPs have been developed for this species (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2006). Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of <em>Avicennia</em> show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd and Bousquet-Melou 2000). Studies to date show well-defined genetic structure differentiating western Atlantic from Pacific populations across the isthmus of Panama (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 2002) and among populations sharing a coastline (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2005).<br/><br/>Population information for this species in a number of areas:<br/><br/>Mouth of Lostman?s River in Everglades National Park, Florida, U.S. 209 individuals counted over 6 transects totaling 0.26 ha (McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996). Cockroach Bay (part of Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.) contains 537 hectares of mangroves and 120 trees per ha (Dawes <em>et al</em>. 1999) of this species were recorded. In Laguna de Celestun, Yucatan, Mexico, combined data for <em>A. germinans</em>, <em>R. mangle</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> basal area ranges from 21 square meters/ha to 36 square meters/ha (Herrera-Silveira and Ramirez-Ramirez 1998). In Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles: 0.50 tree/square meter (De Meyer, 1998). Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela: 68% <em>R. mangle</em>, 29% <em>L. racemosa</em>, 8% <em>A. germinans</em>, 1% unidentified total tree density 348 trees/0.1 ha (Bone <em>et al</em>. 1998).<br/><br/>In Cartagena and Barbacoas Bays (Calderón-Sáenz 1984) and Port Royal mangal, this species grows in a mixed zone of <em>R. mangle</em>, <em>A. germinans</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> that is bordered by a dense monospecific stand of <em>R. mangle</em> and a monospecific stand of <em>C. erectus</em>. (Alleng 1998). In Bahía Las Minas on the Caribbean coast of Panama, there are 1,200 ha of mangroves, which is about 0.3% of the total mangroves in Panama (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species can dominate sites further inland in Belize where the soil salinity increased through evaporation (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
178811	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E., Moore, G., 2007	Black mangroves are threatened by habitat conversion, pollution, hurricanes and other threats, which have resulted in declines throughout the wider Caribbean region. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178812	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178812	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, southern Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Sheue <em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
178812	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	The northern population of <em>C. zippeliana</em> is found in the mid to high intertidal zone in intermediate regions of estuaries. This species generally grows to 3 m or more, and is considered to be a slow-growing species. Individuals of this population grow as single stemmed small tree that can grow under larger trees (Primavera <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/><br/>The southern population of <em>C. zippeliana</em> is found in the mid to high intertidal zone in intermediate regions of estuaries. This species generally grows to 3 m or more, and is considered to be a slow-growing species. Individuals of this population grow as an undercanopy species and is a multistemmed shruby tree (Duke 2006).	eng
178812	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	<em>C. zippeliana</em> is considered common throughout its range.	eng
178812	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178813	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178813	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species occurs in Brunei Darussalam, Hainan Is, China (Duke 2006), Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, south Viet Nam, and India (including Andaman and Nicobar Is). This species is also found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178813	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. This species is more tolerant of saline inundation than <em>A. aureum</em>. It is opportunistic and colonizes disturbed areas. It is fast growing, and very robust. It is a medium sized herbaceous fern.	eng
178813	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common in much of its range. This species may in fact be increasing as it is easily colonizes cleared areas. It is very difficult to eradicate in situations where it overtakes previous mangrove systems. It can take over open areas.	eng
178813	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no threats to this species, and in fact is a threat to other mangrove systems. In disturbed mangrove systems this species can take over and is difficult to eradicate.	eng
178814	conservation	Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. It is planted in some villages in Malaysia and Indonesia as a food source.	eng
178814	distribution	Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China (Hainan Island), Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, Visayan Islands and northern Mindinao Philippines, Palau, and southern Papua New Guinea.	eng
178814	habitat	Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	It is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a fast-growing and pioneering species that colonizes newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). It can grow up to 20 m, and is found on primarily on firm mud on <em>terra firma</em>, which is the farthest distance from shore.	eng
178814	population	Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is species can be locally common, but is some regions it can also be rare. As with most mangrove species, this species becomes increasingly more rare at the extremities of its ranges.	eng
178814	threats	Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found primarily on the landward margin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. It is especially threatened by fish and shrimp pond development in the Philippines, and throughout its range. There has been an estimated 28% decline of mangrove area within its range over the past 25 years (1980-2005) (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178815	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. For examples, this species is found in several protected areas within its range including the Sundarbans. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178815	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found the Sundarbans (Beautiful Forest) in India, Bangladesh, (Irrawaddy) Myanmar, Thailand, and northern Malaysia which is its southernmost limit.	eng
178815	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. It prefers freshwater, and is fast-growing in low-saline environments. It occurs in stands and grows up to 25 m. It is the only <em>Heritiera</em> species that produces pneumatophores.	eng
178815	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species can be locally common and abundant in some parts of its range such as the Sundarbans and in Bangladesh, but has a limited overall distribution. In Bangladesh and India, this species is rapidly declining. For example, in India, this species was found in only 6% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).	eng
178815	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is quickly disappearing in many parts of its range due to coastal development (creation of ponds), disease, typhoons, and in areas where there has been a reduction in freshwater flow (creation of dams). Wide areas of Thailand?s mangroves have been selectively cut for charcoal and export. Shrimp farming has also increased since the 1970s and has led to the clearance of large areas that include this species. Coastal development (urban, industrial, agriculture) is another leading cause of mangrove removal in Thailand, and salt ponds and mining have led to mangrove loss (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).There has been an estimated population decline of 50% to 80% based on decline of mangrove area in the western coast of penninsular Malaysia due to coastal development and extraction since the 1950s, primarily due to the clearing of mangroves for rice farming, shrimp aquaculture and coastal development in uptream areas where this species can be found (Ong 1995, 2003).<br/><br/>Another major threat to this species is "top-dying disease," and the cause is unknown. It is also being replaced by palm oil plantations in Malaysia, especially as it is found at the landward margin where mangrove species are most vulnerable to coastal development and human activities.<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178816	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178816	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species occurs in India, including the Andaman and Nicobar islands, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra), Thailand, and Viet Nam. It possibly occurs in Myanmar. However, it is very patchily distributed and uncommon throughout its range, with an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
178816	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a back mangroves species. Individuals often occur in scattered stands of other mangrove species. This species can also form stands of its own in some areas.	eng
178816	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is an uncommon species in much of its range and has a very patchy distribution. It is considered common in Viet Nam. This species is experiencing population declines throughout its range due to extensive coastal development.	eng
178816	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is patchily distributed within its relatively restricted range. Intensive coastal development and extraction of mangroves resources is occuring throughout its range. It is a back mangrove species, and is therefore particularly vulnerable to coastal development and sea-level rise. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178817	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178817	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, India (including the Sunderbands, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. In Australasia it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178817	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found on banks of tidal waterways, creeks and rivers, and in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. This species is a small tree up to 10 metres.	eng
178817	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species appears in small numbers in most areas of its range. It is considered rare in India and Sri Lanka.	eng
178817	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178818	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Indonesia, a number of protected areas and mangrove greenbelts have been designated. Detailed guidelines for sustainable forestry have been made, and there have been small reafforestation schemes in some areas (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
178818	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia, including Halmahera, Molluccas, Irian Jaya and Aru Island. It is also found in Australasia, including Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178818	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species grows at the mid to low intertidal areas and along seashores. It is found in the intermediate to downstream estuarine zone in the low to mid-intertidal region. It is shade tolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 75 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It grows into large trees in the Gulf of Papua. In Australia it thrives along dry shorelines (Duke 2006.)	eng
178818	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is locally common in northern Australia and southern Papua New Guinea. For example, the species is common from Cape Bossut to Grove in the Northern Territory, Australia and is uncommon in the Joseph Onaparte Gulf region and the north coast of Melville Island (Wells 1983).	eng
178818	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178819	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Research on neotropical populations of R. racemosa are nearly nonexistent, and the majority of studies from Africa are floristic, not ecological. Too often, the species is conflated with accounts of its congener, <em>Rhizophora mangle</em> (Duke and Allen 2006). Species-specific, targeted studies are sorely needed.<br/><br/>Restoration and replanting to date have been a focus only in west Africa (FAO Forestry Paper 117). Much more research needs to be done on this species.	eng
178819	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species range is restricted and patchy along the Pacific coast of Central America, the northern coast of South America, and western Africa. <br/><br/>In the Americas, it is reported from Brazil (Couto <em>et al</em>. 2003), Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos Island. In West Africa, this species is much more widespread than in the Americas and is found from southern Mauritania to Angola.	eng
178819	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	<em>R. racemosa</em> typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It is reported from intermediate tidal and riverine locations (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). Drought and high soil salinities inhibit landward establishment (Jimenez and Sauter 1991). It is prodigous where competition with <em>Avicennia</em> species is minimized (Jimenez and Sauter 1991).<br/><br/><em>R. racemosa</em> may provide critical habitat for the Prothonotary Warbler (<em>Protonotaria citrea</em>, listed as LC) (Woodcock 2006).	eng
178819	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species can reach population sizes in the thousands on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Jimenez 1988, Jimenez and Sauter 1991) and in French Guiana (Fromard <em>et al</em>. 1998). There are also extensive stands in west Africa, but these stands are harvested for timber and are threatened by the newly-introduced species, <em>Nypa fruticans</em>. <br/><br/>There is limited information on the genetics of this species. One study of foliar alkanes suggested that high intra-populational variability exists (Afzal-Rafii <em>et al</em>. 1999).	eng
178819	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 15% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Specific threats have been documented to certain populations in the Caribbean region, including sedimentation and limited cutting. In western Africa, the species is threatened by invasive species and overharvesting. In addition, erosion and water pollution from agricultural runoff are cited by Paez (1994) as a threat to <em>R. racemosa</em> in Colombia. The species is likely to be vulnerable to drought and increasing salinity (Jimenez and Sauter 1991), and invasive <em>Nypa fruticans</em> in West Africa threatens <em>R. racemosa</em> directly.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178820	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Conservation measures include planting, legal protection, protected areas, and sustainable use management. In Bangladesh and India this species is grown in plantations. This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178820	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and southern Papua New Guinea.	eng
178820	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 63 ppt (Robertson and Alongi, 1992). This species grows on soft, recently consolidated mudbanks. This species is a tree or shrub that grows to 25 m, but is more often seen at 5-10 m. This species is a fast-growing species. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia. (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997) and has a high tolerance of hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178820	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common within its range. In India, this species was found in 45% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).<br/><br/>This species can have different leaf morphologies that may be influenced by environmental factors. The different varieties have been indicated by preliminary genetic studies (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
178820	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is locally threatened by consumption by domestic livestock (goats, buffalo, cattle). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178821	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178821	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia south to King Sound, Northeast Australia south to Pioneer River (Duke 2006), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.	eng
178821	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid-intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 66 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-34 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species that grows to 25 m height.	eng
178821	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range. However in India, this species was found in only 10% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). At the extremities of its range such as in India it is considered rare.	eng
178821	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178822	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. It is grown in plantations in India, Viet Nam, and in the Philippines.	eng
178822	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is widespread and found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India (including Nicobar and Andaman Islands), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines (in Luzon it is absent in La Union province), Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, southern Viet Nam, and Cambodia. In Australasia it can be found in southwest Australia, northwest Australia, northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. In East Africa and the Middle East the species is found in Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia, Madagascar, Seychelles, Kenya, Maldives, South Africa.	eng
178822	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the mid to high intertidal regions. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 45 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 0-15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is slow-growing but is a hardy species and is very prolific.	eng
178822	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range. In India, this species was found in 30% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). However, populations in Taiwan and throughout China (except for Hainan province) have been extirpated over at least the past 10 years.	eng
178822	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 18% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178823	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br/><br/>Research is needed to establish a minimum viable population size for the taxon. Demographic modeling could also be useful. Research on exploitation and impacts of harvesting on populations is needed. More cost/benefit analyses of mangrove conversion, particularly in Brazil, are critical because the mangrove crab (<em>Ucides cordatus</em>) is extensively harvested from intact mangroves for subsistence and regional markets. <br/><br/>New Landsat and IKONOS technology can and should be used to conduct species-based, landscape-level monitoring of deforestation (Kovacs <em>et al</em>. 2005). More research is needed to document <em>Avicennia</em>'s influences on water quality, erosion control and pollution buffering. All conservation of <em>Avicennia</em> (indeed, any mangrove species) needs to be undertaken at the habitat level.	eng
178823	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species has a discontinuous distribution as it is found from the lower Lesser Antilles and the Atlantic coast of northern South America from Guyana south to Suriname. It is absent from French Guiana (Dodd and Rafii 2002). However, Brazil contains over 90% of the estimated areal extent of this species (Wilkie and Fortuna 2003).	eng
178823	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It is a small tree, 15-20 m in size. There are no data on age and size of maturity. This species is very tolerant of high salinity and of cold (Tomlinson 1995).<br/><br/>In Northern Brazil, mangrove swamps dominated by <em>A. schaueriana</em> provide critical habitat for the mangrove crab <em>Ucides cordatus</em>. This crab is collected both for subsistence use and for regional/national markets. In some areas of northern Brazil, community-based initiatives are effectively managing the crab harvest and the mangrove forests. However, in other areas, the crabs are overharvested and the mangroves are being cut relatively rapidly, further reducing habitat for the crabs (Diele <em>et al</em>. 2005, Glaser and Diele 2004).	eng
178823	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although there is no species specific population information, there are areas of significant population decline throughout its range.<br/><br/>Genetic studies of <em>Avicennia</em> are numerous as microsatellite loci, RAPDs, and AFLPs have been developed for this species (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2006). Eastern and western Atlantic provenances of Avicennia show significant genetic differentiation, as indicated by leaf chemistry (Dodd and Bousquet-Melou 2000). Studies to date show well-defined genetic structure differentiating western Atlantic from Pacific populations across the isthmus of Panama (Dodd <em>et al</em>. 2002) and among populations sharing a coastline (Ceron-Souza <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
178823	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	In Brazil this species is threatened by aquaculture development, human settlement and water pollution (Barth <em>et al</em>. 2006; Pagliosa 2004. But Brazil has only lost an estimated 5% of its mangrove area since 1980 (FAO 2007). <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178824	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178824	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is restricted to the tropical areas of northwest Australia, northeast Australia, southern Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia (southern Papua only).	eng
178824	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in mid to high intertidal region. It can tolerate a maximum salinity of 80 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 15-30 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is a slow-growing species, but is hardy in extreme conditions at the edge of salt pans (arid, high salinity). This species is a tree or shrub that grows to 10 m.	eng
178824	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common within its range, however many identifications may have been confused with <em>C. tagal</em>.	eng
178824	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178825	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. This species is the most preferred species for mangrove restoration.	eng
178825	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is very widespread. The South Asian range includes Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Taiwan, Japan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and southern Viet Nam. The Australasian range includes Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. In East Africa and the Middle East it is present in Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Yemen, Oman, and United Arab Emirates. There are historical records from the Arabian Sea, although it has long been extirpated.	eng
178825	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate to upstream estuarine zone in the lower to mid-intertidal region, and more to the seaward side. This species tolerates a maximum salinity of 40 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth of 8-33 ppt. (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a hardy species that is easily propagated and is fast-growing. It can grow up to 35 m, and can grow to 6 m high within seven years on plantations (Sukardjo and Yamada 1992). <br/><br/>In the eastern portion of its range, this species tends to grow closer to freshwater influences while in the western portion of its range it tends to grow closer to the seaward side. More genetic work is needed to determine if this may represent different species.	eng
178825	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, in India, this species was found in 45% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). This species is similar in morphology and genetics to <em>R. stylosa</em>, and only differs by the length of the style.	eng
178825	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	In South Andaman, 30-80% of Rhizophora spp. died due to continuous inundation after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004 (Roy and Krishnan 2005). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178826	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Indonesia, a number of protected areas and mangrove greenbelts have been designated, detailed guidelines for sustainable forestry have been made, and there have been small reafforestation schemes in some areas (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
178826	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia (including Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Irian Jaya, Sulewesi, and Kalimantan), northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178826	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in intermediate to upstream estuarine zones in the high intertidal region. It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 72 ppt, and a salinity of optimal growth of 8 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species grows from 3 to 10 m tall.	eng
178826	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. For example, this species is reasonably well represented amongst the fringing vegetation along tidal waterways throughout northern Australia except along the west Australian coastline where it is infrequently observed (Wells 1983).	eng
178826	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species occurs in the high intertidal region, which is usually the first to impacted by human activities and coastal development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178827	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., O. Jin Eong, Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178827	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., O. Jin Eong, Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Indonesia (Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Halmahira, Irian Jaya, Tanimbar Aru, Molluccas) and in northwest Australia, northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178827	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., O. Jin Eong, Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is a fast-growing and pioneering species (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). This species can grow up to 30 m in the center of its range. On the extremities of its range, it grows only to less than 10 m.	eng
178827	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., O. Jin Eong, Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common in the center of its range (Molluccas, Halmahira, and Irian Jaya - which is thought to be the center of the population), and rare on the extremeties such as in Bali. It is also rare in North Queensland where it is only known from two locations, but is more common in northwestern Australia.	eng
178827	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., O. Jin Eong, Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is threatened by coastal development throughout its range. In Austrailia, this species is especially threatened by urban development around Cairns and Darwin, as it is located on the landward margin of mangrove habitat. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178828	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Conservation measures for this species include planting, management for sustainable use, and legal protection in some areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178828	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia it is found in Southwest Australia, Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu. The species also occurs in Guam and Micronesia.<br/><br/>It can be found in East Africa and the Middle East including Bahrain, Djbouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.	eng
178828	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Avicennia marina is a shrub to medium sized tree, 2-5 m tall (Peng and Xin-men 1983). This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in all intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found at the mouth of rivers or in lower tidal areas (Peng and Xin-men 1983). It is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 85 ppt. Optimal growth occurs at a salinity of 0-30 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). <br/><br/>This is a pioneer species on newly formed habitats of mud with a high proportion of sand, but does not seem to grow on pure mud (Peng and Xin-men 1983). It is a hardy species in natural conditions and regenerates quickly from coppices, both as individuals and as a species. It is a colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997), and has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions.	eng
178828	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a very common, widespread species. <br/><br/>A species specific dieback was observed in Queensland affecting 30 km² of mangrove in five separate estuaries. The dieback began in 1998 and was observed by Duke <em>et al</em>. (2005) during surveys taken between 2000 and 2002. Apparent causes include high concentrations of the herbicide diuron and excessive nutrients, which may have facilitated the uptake of toxic compounds (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2005). Between 1980 and 2000 there was a 16% loss in the region (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007). Overall, there is an average of 0.8% habitat decline per year within the distribution of this species (Duke e<em>t al</em>. 2007).	eng
178828	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is highly sensitive to herbicides (N. Duke pers. comm.). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178829	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br/><br/>This species needs clarification of its distribution, taxonomy, and morphological characteristics.	eng
178829	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species has a discontinuous distribution. It is found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar,Thailand, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, eastern Indonesia (West Irian, Halmahera, Moluccas, Seram, Ambon, Aru, Tanimbar Islands) and the Philippines from Panay Island to Mindanao. However, the distribution of this species may be wider than recorded at present.<br/><br/>The recorded species in Thailand may represent another species (J. Yong pers. comm.)	eng
178829	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species is a small tree or a shrub up to 15 m and is found in the high intertidal region and intermediate upstream esturine position. This is a slow growing species.	eng
178829	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	This species can be locally common, but is considered an uncommon species in the eastern part of its range. In India, it is common in Orissa and Sundarbands, and is rare in Maharashtra and the Andamans.<br/><br/>Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178829	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K. & Sukardjo, S., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178830	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This species may be planted in some areas within its range. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178830	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species occurs in South Asia, including Darussalam, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and the southcentral coast of Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in the Yap Islands (Federated States of Micronesia), Palau, northern Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178830	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found along tidal riverbanks in the downstream estuarine zone, and in the lower and middle intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It occurs as a tree or shrub that grows to 25 m, often around 10 m. It is fast-growing and sprouts easily from coppicing. Both <em>Avicennia</em> and <em>Sonneratia</em> species are the colonizing species on newly formed mudflats in SE Asia (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997).	eng
178830	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species can be locally common throughout its range. In India, this species was present in 65 of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).<br/><br/>There are several varieties of this species that may be reflected in leaf morphology and is reflected in preliminary genetic studies (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). It is known that leaf morphlogy is influenced by environmental factors, including salinity, insect damage (Kathiresan 2008), nutrients, and sun exposure. Avicennia is a pantropical genus of about 8 species occupying diverse mangrove habitats. They can occur within the normal tide range or in back mangrove areas. They have a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178830	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	The major threat to this species is conversion of tidal wetlands to fish ponds and other land uses within its range.This species is locally threatened due to destruction of mangrove habitat within its range, particularly at the extremities of its range. Mangrove habitat within this species range has declined at least 24% (FAO 2007) over a twenty-five year period (1980-2005).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178831	conservation	Ellison, J. & Duke, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br/><br/>In the Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga, legislation exists to control the use of mangroves but is not always exercised. Fiji has a long history of mangroves being considered as part of the national forest reserve, but in 1975 they were placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of Lands and Survey and now significant areas have been degraded.	eng
178831	distribution	Ellison, J. & Duke, N., 2008	In the eastern Pacific, this species is found from central Mexico to northern Peru. In Australasia, is it found in Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Samoa, and American Samoa.	eng
178831	habitat	Ellison, J. & Duke, N., 2008	This species is found from downstream to intermediate estuarine zones in the lower to mid-intertidal region. This species easily propagates, and is very adaptable to different environments. This species occurs on the seaward side of lagoons, which is a very narrow margin in Samoa and Tonga. In Samoa this species has poor regeneration (Gilliman and Ellison 2007). <br/><br/>In the Darien (Panama) and in Ecuador, this species can grow to 60 m. In Polynesia, this species generally grows to only 10 m, but larger species can be found in New Caledonia.	eng
178831	population	Ellison, J. & Duke, N., 2008	Along the western coast of the Americas this species is considered common. In the Southern Pacific, this species is common in New Caledonia, less common in Fiji, and can be rare in Samoa.	eng
178831	threats	Ellison, J. & Duke, N., 2008	This species is heavily utilized throughout its range. Along the western coast of the Americas, this species is harvested for fuelwood and is commercially exploited for construction purposes. In the South Pacific this species is heavily utilized for fuelwood, construction of fish traps and fishing gear. Infilling for agriculture and commercial land development has lead to significant loss of mangrove area in New Zealand (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178832	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178832	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species occurs in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, China, South Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Indonesia. In Australasia it is found in northeast Australia, northwest Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178832	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal regions (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is often sympatric with <em>Acanthus ilicifolius</em>. This species naturally reproduces vegetatively and also by seeds, therefore generation length is difficult to determine.	eng
178832	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a very common and widespread species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178832	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 22% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178833	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	<em>Pelliciera</em> was listed as Vulnerable in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, but it was not evaluated for inclusion in the 1998 IUCN Red List of Threatened Trees. The majority of <em>Pelliciera</em> populations are not found in protected areas, one exception is the presence of this species on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica inside Tamarindo and Puntarenas National Parks.<br/><br/>Recommended research for this species would be to search for additional populations on both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Central America. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178833	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species has a limited and patchy distribution. It is found in only five small populations on the Caribbean coast of Central and South America, including Nicaragua (Bluefields), Panama (Bocas del Toro, Bahia las Minas) and Colombia (Bahias det Cartagena y Barbacoa). There are also some small patches of this species on the Pacific coasts of Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (reviews in Jimenez 1984, Fuchs 1970), and southwestern Nicaragua.<br/><br/>The area of occupancy for this species is estimated to be between 500 km and 2,000 km².	eng
178833	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	The population biology of this species has not been studied in great detail. Populations are generally small and restricted to a narrow band of salinity. It is small tree (5-10 m) that grows in muddy substrates with variable amounts of sand and mangrove peat, occasionally with coral fragments. It typically grows in dense groups mainly in protected areas where <em>R. mangle</em> dominates, or in pure stands. Its presence is linked with a supply of fresh water. It is a minor constituent of undisturbed areas but becomes a dense stand in areas where trees were removed if fresh water is available. (Calderón-Sáenz 1984). <em>Pelliciera</em> may be more sensitive to high soil salinities than other Neotropical mangroves. It grows best on wet soils, shallowly inundated at high tides, and on firm, sandy, slightly elevated soils that are located in the interchannel areas. This species is not found in soil salinities higher than 37 ppt (Winograd 1983, Jimenez 1984).<br/><br/><em>Pelliciera</em> provides the primary habitat for the mangrove hummingbird (<em>Amazonina boucardi</em>), which is listed as Endangered (EN) on the Red List of Threatened Species.	eng
178833	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species has a restricted, probably shrinking distribution. On the Caribbean coast of Central and South America, there are only five small relict populations. In a study in the early 1990s in Nicaragua, only a few individuals of <em>P. rhizophorae</em> were recorded in Bluefields (Roth 1991). Reports included ten seedlings, and one sapling in 0.15 ha, but no adults in Bluefields. In Colombia, <em>P. rhizophorae</em> is found in Cartagena Bay on the south side near the river and Barbacoas Bay (10°20'N, 75°30'W and 10°10'N, 75°35'W respectively) (Calderón-Sáenz 1984). In Panama, <em>P. rhizophora</em> is found only in Bahía Las Minas (9º25'N, 79º50'W), where it occurs as isolated individuals within an approximately 1,200 ha stand of mangroves (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>There are also less than ten patchy, relict populations remaining on the Pacific coasts of Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador (reviews in Jimenez 1984, Fuchs 1970). On the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, this species is only found at Tamarindo and Puntarenas, within an estimated distribution of two hectares (Ellison and Farnsworth pers. comm.).<br/><br/>Recent genetic work suggests that populations of Pelliciera are highly differentiated (high variation among populations): Castillo-Cardenas <em>et al</em>. (2005). N. Duke (unpublished, cited in Duke and Watkinson 2002) has reported albino propagules of <em>P. rhizophorae</em>, a phenomenon often associated with pollution and leading to low viability.	eng
178833	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 27% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007). Due to the fragmented nature of the distribution and small population size, <em>Pelliciera</em> is at particular risk from stochastic events. For example, the Nicaraguan population was impacted by a severe hurricane in the late 1980s (Roth 1992).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178834	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is currently being studied for propagation techniques. It is recommended that protected areas be made for its habitat and active planning for its conservation take place. More research is needed to determine this species population status in other countries within its presumed range.	eng
178834	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a very limited patchy distribution. It has been known to be previously present in South Asia in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Singapore. However, current estimates of known individuals are only from Singapore, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea. In Australasia it is found in Papua New Guinea (Frodin <em>et al</em>. 1982, Percival and Womersley 1975), and there are reports that it is also found in Timika and Bintuni Bay, Irian Jaya (S.Sukardjo pers. comm.).	eng
178834	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the high intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It has very low rates of propagation and low rates of germination. It takes 18 months to go through maturation cycle. It can grow up to 30 m tall.	eng
178834	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a very small population and is naturally rare. It has a total known population of approximately 200 trees including: <br/><br/>80 trees in Malaysia (S. Tan, pers. comm.)<br/>3 trees in Singapore<br/>120 trees west Papua, Papua New Guinea.	eng
178834	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has very low rates of propagation and low rates of germination. It is threatened by extensive coastal development within its range, especially as it occurs primarily in back mangrove areas. There has been at least a 27% loss of mangrove area in countries within this species range between 1980 and 2005 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178835	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178835	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a disjunct range. It is found along the eastern coast of India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia (Molluccas, Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, Natuna Island), Singapore, Philippines, and Brunei.	eng
178835	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found along tidal creeks, canals, and shallow channels. This is a brackish water species that grows to two metres, and rarely to five metres. It is fast growing and found in pure stands.	eng
178835	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range, but is considered very rare in the far western portion of its range. In India for example, there are only approximately 2,500 mature individuals which are restricted to the eastern coast of India and the Andaman Islands.	eng
178835	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found primarily on the landward marigin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. It is especially threatened by coastal development, including fish and shrimp pond development throughout its range. In India, it is primarily threatened by loss of habitat from erosion and anthropogenic development. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 26% decline in mangrove areas in countries within the primary part (Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia) of this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178836	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, habitat and ecology, and major threats.	eng
178836	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	The distribution of this species is not well known. It is found in India, the Sundamans, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar. In Australasia the species is found in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
178836	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is poorly known. It occurs in back stands, but there is little information available on the habitat and ecology of this species.	eng
178836	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178836	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ ast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178837	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178837	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Papua New Guinea.	eng
178837	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	It is often sympatric with other <em>Acanthus</em> species, and is found more landward among the <em>Acanthus</em> species. It tends to have very few thorns and is a climbing species.	eng
178837	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is an uncommon <em>Acanthus</em> species compaired to <em>A. ilicifolius</em> and <em>A. ebracteatus</em>. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178837	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178838	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. Recommended conservation measures include establishing a system to control the ornamental plant industry and regulating the removal of wild individuals.	eng
178838	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	In South Asia, this species is found in Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, and Thailand. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, Sololmon Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, and Palau. It is also found in the Pacific Islands, from the Marshall Islands to at least as far as Tonga in the east Pacific. In East Africa, this species is found in British Indian Ocean Territory, Maldives, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zanzibar, and Seychelles.	eng
178838	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species lives in calcarious rocky and sandy beaches high in the intertidal zone, and often above the high tide line. This species is beneficial for shoreline protection against high wind. It is a very sturdy and resilient plant, however, it will not grow anywhere other than the appropriate habitat type.	eng
178838	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a common species in certain areas, and it is widespread. In the Pacific Islands, the population is considered stable. However, this species has experienced population declines in some regions due to habitat loss and the collection for use in the bonsai trade.	eng
178838	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Collection for trade as bonsai ornaments is a local threat to this species. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178839	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178839	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a very restricted and patchy range in Bangladesh, India (mainly found in the Sundarbans where they are common, and Andra Pradesh, Andamans and Nicolbar where they are rare), Myanmar, Thailand, and a in a single location in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It is estimated that its total area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km².	eng
178839	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal region. This is a small shrub less of than two metres.	eng
178839	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species ranges from common to rare, and has a very patchy distribution. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178839	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178840	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178840	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Maldives.	eng
178840	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in downstream and intermediate estuarine zones in the mid-intertidal region. It is shade tolerant (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species has a high regeneration potential, although it has a slow-growth rate. When mangroves are cut, this is one of the first species to return after <em>Acrostichium</em> species. Occationally this species can be found in pure stands.	eng
178840	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is abundant throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178840	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is often targeted for timber, as it grows straight and is considered good for construction and charcoal production. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 24% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178841	conservation	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas.Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.This species is planted for mangrove restoration in India and Bangladesh.	eng
178841	distribution	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in Bangladesh, Myanmar, and India, including the Andaman and Nicobar islands. It has been introduced into Fujian and Guangdong provinces China.	eng
178841	habitat	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the low to mid-intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is fast-growing species and hardy, but the seed viability is low (less than three months). It can form monotypic stands, and is a pioneering species that colonizes on newly formed mudflats (Terrados <em>et al</em>. 1997). It grows up to 20 m, but more commonly grows to between 12 and 15 m.	eng
178841	population	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is common throughout most of its restricted range. In India, this species was found in 40% in 100 sampling sites (Katherisan 2008), but is considered rare in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In some parts of south India, this species has become locally extinct.	eng
178841	threats	Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 7% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178842	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178842	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	In South Asia this species is found in Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam. The species also occurs in the Maldives.<br/><br/>In Australasia it can be found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu.	eng
178842	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a back mangrove species and often exploits open areas and is tolerant of distrurbed areas. It is a small to medium sized tree with extensive cable roots. It has multiple stems. It can be decidiuous in cooler/drier areas. It produces a latex (milky sap) that causes temporary blindness. <em>Hibiscus tiliaceus</em> is its main associate in China (Peng and Xin-men 1983).	eng
178842	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is reasonably abundant throughout its range and is a very widespread species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178842	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Howevever, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178843	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. In Fujan province, China this species has been introduced and is grown in plantations to protect coastal regions.	eng
178843	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is widespread and found in India, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. In China, this species is restricted to Hainan Island, where it is uncommon. It was introduced into Hawaii in 1922.	eng
178843	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in intermediate to upstream estuarine zones in middle intertidal regions. It is restricted to larger riverine estuaries and tidal swamps, and prefers a maximum porewater salinity of 33 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species that can grow to 30 m. It is often associated with <em>Sonneratia caseolaris</em>.	eng
178843	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is uncommon in many parts of its range. In India, this species was found in 30% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008). It is common in Sundabands and Orissa, and rare in Andaman Islands and in Kerala. This species occurs in densities of approximately 6 trees/ha in Pagbilao, Philiippines.	eng
178843	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178844	conservation	Duke, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178844	distribution	Duke, N., 2008	This species has a restricted range, and is endemic to northern Australia. It is found in only 15 locations (riverine-estuaries), and has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
178844	habitat	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the low intertidal region. It is only found in low intertidal zone and in the mid-upstream position of larger catchments or riverine-affected estuaries. It grows on soft-intertidal mud banks of convex meandering riverbanks (accreting zone). This species is a tree or shrub, 2-7 m tall. This species has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions (Tomlinson 1986).	eng
178844	population	Duke, N., 2008	It is estimated that there are only a few hundred individuals in each of the 15 locations where it is found. The global population is therefore estimated to be between 3,000 and 5,000 mature individuals.	eng
178844	threats	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found in a remote area of northern Australia where the climate appears to be getting increasingly wet as the local climate changes. This may be potentially favorable for the persistance of the species. However, this species is threatened by continued loss of habitat and area of occupancy due to urban development in the western part of its range (near Darwin).<br/><br/>Direct use of mangroves in is not common in Australia, and vast areas of mangrove remain in a pristine state. In the past, European colonists cleared areas of mangroves for community development. Currently, mangroves are being cleared for urban development, ports, airports, and tourist resorts, but the overall impact on Australian mangroves is low (Spalding <em>et al</em>. 1997).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178845	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178845	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, China (Hainan Island), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. The Australasian range includes Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. It is also found in East Africa, including Somalia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Seychelles, and Tanzania.	eng
178845	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in the mid to high intertidal regions along banks of tidal creeks. <br/>This species grows to as a large tree, and is slow growing. The species is mostly scattered, but sometimes grows in stands.	eng
178845	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This is a very common species and is widespread, although it is considered less common in East Africa. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178845	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 21% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178846	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This species is used for a number of services and is sometimes planted along dykes of ponds.	eng
178846	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in South Asia in Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, and Papua New Guinea. In East Africa and the Middle East, this species is found in British Indian Ocean Territory, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania.	eng
178846	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This back mangrove species is found most often in the upstream zones in the mid to high intertidal region. It can also be found along sandy beaches. It is a colonising species and grows relatively quickly, and is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 78 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992).	eng
178846	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is widespread and common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178846	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is particularly sensitive to siltation from upstream, land use changes, and erosion. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 19% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Species that occur at the landward edge, or upstream in tidal estuaries include <em>Nypa fruticans, Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum, Lumnitzera racemosa, Lumnitzera littorea, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia lanceolata</em>, and<em> Bruguiera sexangula</em>. <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178847	conservation	Duke, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178847	distribution	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Tropical Pacific from Mexico to Colombia.	eng
178847	habitat	Duke, N., 2008	This species is a canopy tree at 15 m height, and occurs in relatively dry, flat areas compared to other mangroves. It is found in the down-stream high intertidal region where river mouths meet the sea. This species has a high tolerance to hypersaline conditions.	eng
178847	population	Duke, N., 2008	This species has experienced population declines of aproximately 31% over the past 30 years based on total loss of mangrove habitat throughout its range (FAO 2007).	eng
178847	threats	Duke, N., 2008	This species has a limited range in the Eastern Pacific. Throughout its distribution, it occurs in areas that are commonly cleared for cattle grazing and other types of farming. Cattle that feed under mangroves reduce regeneration capacity and damage the root structure and leaves of the mature trees. In addition, its habitat (dry mud flats) is commonly developed by people, resulting in extensive removal of mangroves in these areas. Similarly, it is a species that lives in a high risk area for urban and aquaculture deveopment. Over the last 30 years (1980 to 2005) there has been an estimated reduction of at least 31% (FAO 2007), but as high as 42% based on a yearly reduction of 1.4% between 1980 and 2000 (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007) in mangrove area within its range.<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178848	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. More research is need on this species distribution, population, basic botany, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
178848	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	The distribution of this species is not well known. It is likely present in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and most of Indonesia (except Java, Sumatra and the lesser Sunda Islands) (Giesen, 2007). There are records from Medan, Sumatra from the 1990s where this species was considered locally common. This species is thought to have been previously present in Singapore.	eng
178848	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is poorly known. It grows on the landward margin of mangrove habitat, in riverine areas. It grows to approximately 10 m.	eng
178848	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species used to be common, but the population has not been well studied. The population trend of this species is unknown. It is likely extinct in Singapore.	eng
178848	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S., Miyagi, T., Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found primarily on <em>terra firma</em>, on the landward margin, and therefore it is more threatened by human activities and coastal development than other more seaward mangrove species. Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 26% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178849	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178849	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a disjunct distribution and is found in eastern Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Palau It is also in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea.	eng
178849	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	It is also found in sandy soils at river mouths and mid-high intertidal. It lives in high shore areas and on rocky shores, and is not tolerant of fresh water. This species has multiple stems and is a hardy species, but is slow growing. This species exists in stands of shrubs and small trees up to five metres.	eng
178849	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species has a patchy distribution and is uncommon. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178849	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/ fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178850	conservation	Ellison, J., Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas. <br/><br/>In the Solomon Islands, Western Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga, legislation exists to control the use of mangroves but is not always exercised. Fiji has a long history of mangroves being considered as part of the national forest reserve, but in 1975 they were placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of Lands and Survey and now significant areas have been degraded. In the Philippines, this species is replanted for mangrove restoration.	eng
178850	distribution	Ellison, J., Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found South Asia, including India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Orissa State), China (from Hainan Island to Taiwan), Indonesia (not found in Kalimantan), Japan, Philippines, Singapore, northern Viet Nam, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, and Thailand. In Australasia, it is found in Northwest Australia, Northeast Australia, Southeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Northern Marianas, the Marshall Islands, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Kirabati, Nauru, and Vanuatu. This species may have been introduced into French Polynesia, as it was cited there in the 1960s (Taylor 1981).	eng
178850	habitat	Ellison, J., Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is always found at the mouth of estuaries. It is commonly found in open seawater on fairly exposed shores, including on live reef and sandy shores. This species can grow to 30 m, but is more common at 5-10 m. This species is hardy, but if the mature plants are disturbed it can be difficult for them to re-establish, especially in active surf zones.	eng
178850	population	Ellison, J., Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common in most of its range in the Southwest Pacific and Australia, but is considered uncommon in India.	eng
178850	threats	Ellison, J., Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	As this species is found in open seawater or at the seaward edge of estuaries, it is one of the most vulnerable mangrove species to climate change and rising sea-level. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178851	conservation	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178851	distribution	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species is native along the Atlantic coast from Florida to Southern Brazil, and from western Africa from Senegal to Angola (Howard 1989). Freezing sets the northern limit of mangrove forests (Stuart <em>et al</em>. 2007), which was recently defined for <em>R. mangle</em> at 29°42'94"N, 81°14'35"W in the continental United States (Zomlefer <em>et al</em>. 2006). However, Bermuda is the most northerly extent of its range (Thomas 1993, Smith 1998).<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/>Presences in the middle Atlantic Islands has been recorded for this species (Trinidade e Martim Vaz, St. Helenia, Ascension-), but this is not confirmed.	eng
178851	habitat	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species typically grows in the intertidal regions of sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts (Saenger 2002). It typically dominates the zone proximal to open water (McKee 1995). It grows as a shrub to small tree from 1-8 m in the Caribbean (Howard 1989) and can be reproductively mature at <1 m (Tomlinson 1986). This species is typically found from 20-35 psu. However, it can occur in brackish estuarine systems as well as in hypersaline conditions (50+ psu) where the growth form is commonly dwarf (1-2 m). <br/><br/>In Port Royal (17°56'N, 76°79'W), <em>R. mangle</em> grows in a dense monospecific stands, bordering all wetland water bodies. It is also present in a mixed zone between the <em>R. mangle</em> monospecific stands and monospecific stands of <em>C. erectus</em>, which is the border between the wetland and terrestrial zones (Alleng 1998). <br/><br/>Flowering occurs annually in mid-winter and spring within the wider Caribbean. Propagule size can be variable, shown to be larger in areas of higher rainfall (Tyagi 2003). Production of viviparous propagules is abundant and maintained on the parent tree for 3-6 months. Once dropped, propagules can subsist for extended periods afloat prior to rooting. Successful growth requires a canopy break or transport to open area to grow to maturity. <br/><br/>Fringing <em>R. mangle</em> (in association with seagrass beds) provide critical for Caribbean parotfish (<em>Scarus guacamaia</em>), a species listed as vulnerable on the Red Data List. This species is also associated with stabilization of sandy beaches critical for sea turtle nesting habitat, among countless other critical habitat functions.	eng
178851	population	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	This species can be common in at least some parts of its range. In Belize for example, it is the most common species, particularly in basin environments along river banks and the coast (Murray <em>et al</em>. 2003). It is expanding its range in northern Florida and is characterized as invasive on two Pacific islands.<br/><br/>Specific population information exists for this species in the following areas:<br/><br/>At the mouthouth of Lostman's River in Everglades National Park, FL, U.S., 611 individuals were counted over six transects totaling 0.26 ha (McCoy <em>et al</em>. 1996).<br/><br/>In Laguna de Celestun, Yucatan, Mexico, combined data for <em>A. germinans, R. mangle</em> and <em>L. racemosa</em> show basal area ranges from 21 square meters/ha to 36 square meters/ha (Herrera-Silveira and Ramirez-Ramirez 1998).<br/><br/>In Parque Nacional Morrocoy, Venezuela, data show 68% <em>R. mangle</em>, 29% <em>L. racemosa</em>, 8% <em>A. germinans</em>, 1% unidentified total tree density, and 348 trees/0.1 ha (Bone <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
178851	threats	Ellison, A., Farnsworth, E. & Moore, G., 2007	Disease and herbivory can impact <em>R. mangle</em> (Farnsworth and Ellison 1991, Brooks and Bell 2002, Sousa <em>et al</em>. 2003) but are not likely to pose a serious conservation threat at this time. Also decreases in <em>R. mangle</em> have been documented due to land reclamation and clear cutting for marina development (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996, Farnsworth and Ellison 1997, Moore 2006). Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 17% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178852	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178852	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	In south and southeast Asia, this species is found in Brunei Darussalam, southern China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, and Cambodia. However, it is extinct in Bangladesh. In Australasia, it is found in Northeast Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. It occurs in East Africa, including Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Tanzania.	eng
178852	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This is a large tree that is found in mid and landward mangroves. It can tolerate brackish conditions but avoids hypersaline environments. This species can form very impressive butress roots, and exist in groves but can also occur individually.	eng
178852	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This is a very widespread and common species. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178852	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 20% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178853	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178853	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Recent research has shown that the range of <em>C. decandra</em> is restricted to the east coast of India and Bangladesh, southwestern Thailand and western part of the Malay Peninsula. The middle and southern part of its range is now considered to be <em>C. zippeliana</em> (Sheue <em>et al</em>. 2009).	eng
178853	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the intermediate estuarine zone in mid to high intertidal regions. It has a maximum tolerance of salinity at 67 ppt and a salinity of optimal growth at 15 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This is a slow-growing species, and can be tolerant of extreme environmental conditions.	eng
178853	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is considered to be rare in much of its range. In India, this species has been found in 20% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).	eng
178853	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is highly threatened by removal of mangrove areas for coastal development throughout its range. It is estimated that at between 12% (FAO 2007) and 26% of mangrove area has been lost within this species range over a 20 year period (1980-2000) (Duke <em>et al</em>. 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178854	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.This species is used for a number of services and is sometimes planted along dykes of ponds.	eng
178854	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species occurs in South Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam (three locations; Dao Pho Quoc Island, Can Dao Island and Can Gio Biosphere Reserve). It is also widely distributed throughout the Pacific islands, including Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and Micronesia. The mid-Pacific limit is Tuvaru and Kiribati and the south limit is Tonga.	eng
178854	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species grows at the back and sides of mangrove stands, and is gregarious.This species is shade intolerant with a maximum porewater salinity of 35 ppt (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species only occurs as a shrub to small tree (<6 m) in marginal areas and in favorable sites can attain heights up to 25 m. This species has very beautiful bright red flowers and is planted for ornamental purposes in Thailand and Singapore.	eng
178854	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is widespread and common throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178854	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked. Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 22% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178855	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. This is a protected species in Taiwan. In Japan, this species has been planted for at least the past 100 years. In Viet Nam, this species is planted as protection from coastal erosion and storms.<br/><br/>Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178855	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in southern Viet Nam, China, Taiwan, Japan, and only on Natuna Islands in Indonesia. Its range may also extend to the extreme north of Philippines, although this needs to be confirmed. This species distribution is increasing to the north in Japan (at least present now to 35 degrees N).	eng
178855	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). This species is easily propagated, and coppices. It is considered a hardy species, although is relatively slow-growing (5 years to grow 1.5 m). This species generally grows up to about 3 meters.	eng
178855	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common within its range.	eng
178855	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas across China, Japan countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178856	conservation	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178856	distribution	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	The distribution of this species is limited to high salinity areas in the Philippines, Indonesia, Sabah (east Malaysia), and south Viet Nam.	eng
178856	habitat	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is found in rocky and sandy substrates, and along beaches. It lives in high salinity areas and has a very narrow habitat range. It is a small tree and can be gregarious.	eng
178856	population	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	This species is uncommon throughout its range. Although there is no species specific population information, it can be assumed that there are areas of population decline throughout its range due to coastal development.	eng
178856	threats	Ellison, J., Koedam, N.E., Wang, Y., Primavera, J., Jin Eong, O., Wan-Hong Yong, J. & Ngoc Nam, V., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 29% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178857	conservation	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. In India, this species is planted. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178857	distribution	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is very widespread and is found in India (western coast, Andaman Islands, Orissa and Sundarband), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, south Viet Nam, and in Indonesia (northern Sumatra, Sarawak, Halamahira, Molluccas).	eng
178857	habitat	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is found in the downstream estuarine zone in the lower intertidal region (Robertson and Alongi 1992). It is found on soft mud along in inland river banks associated with <em>Aegiceras corniculatum</em>, and as gregarious undergrowth on the same habitat (Peng and Xin-men 1983).This species has a lower capacity for regeneration, but coppices and is considered a hardy species. <em>Kandelia candel</em> is a small stilt-rooted or buttressed tree to 4-8 m tall with its base fluted or swollen.	eng
178857	population	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	This species is common within its range, but becomes more rare at the extremities of its range. In Sumatra for example, it is considered rare. In India, this species was found in 36% of 100 sampling sites, and is considered to be rare in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands (Kathiresan 2008). This species is common along the western coast and in Orissa and Sundaband off the eastern coast.	eng
178857	threats	Duke, N., Kathiresan, K., Salmo III, S.G., Fernando, E.S., Peras, J.R., Sukardjo, S. & Miyagi, T., 2008	Although local estimates are uncertain due to differing legislative definitions of what is a 'mangrove' and to the imprecision in determining mangrove area, current consensus estimates of mangrove loss in the last quarter-century report an approximately 23% decline in mangrove areas in countries within this species range since 1980 (FAO 2007). <br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.<br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178858	conservation	Duke, N., 2008	There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.	eng
178858	distribution	Duke, N., 2008	This species is present in the Eastern Pacific along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia and northern Ecuador.	eng
178858	habitat	Duke, N., 2008	This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. These are large trees with large butresses and generally grow in monotypic stands.	eng
178858	population	Duke, N., 2008	This is a very uncommon species as it is only found in large estuaries in the upstream area (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). This species is only present in four estuaries in Panama (approximately 100 trees in each). It is estimated that there are less than 10,000 mature individuals within its global range.	eng
178858	threats	Duke, N., 2008	This species lives in areas that are subject to extensive land use change, especially due to catchment clearing for intensive agriculture. There has been at least a 26% decline in mangrove area in countries within this species range over the past 25 years (FAO 2007).<br/><br/>All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke <em>et al</em>. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. Howevever, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce. <br/><br/>In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.	eng
178859	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178859	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Cuba, where it is found in the Santiago de Cuba province near the town of  Santa María de Loreto.	eng
178859	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species grows in dry forests.	eng
178859	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	Unknown.	eng
178859	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178860	conservation	Nelson, C., 2009	Listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178860	distribution	Nelson, C., 2009	This species occurs in the Atlantida province of Honduras. Plants are found  southeast of La Ceiba. Approximately 15 km SE of Las Mangas along the Rio Cangrejal in the Gauruma area.	eng
178860	habitat	Nelson, C., 2009	This species occurs in humid tropical forest.	eng
178860	population	Nelson, C., 2009	This species is estimated to have 70,000 individuals in the wild at a density of approximately 91 plants per km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
178860	threats	Nelson, C., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178861	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178861	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is known from the north western section of Chiapas state, Mexico.	eng
178861	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Plants occur in the understorey of evergreen tropical rainforest and on cliffs or limestone outcrops on steep slopes.	eng
178861	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The one population visited in 2001 had 300 plants. This was until recently one large contiguous population but is now fragmented.	eng
178861	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The population is affected by habitat destruction due to agricultural expansion (cattle pastures and coffee plantations). There may also be some decline due to collecting.	eng
178862	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178862	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known only from a few high sandstone massifs or mesas in Chaiyaphum, Nong Bua Raheo region of Thailand.	eng
178862	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	<em>C. elephantipes</em> occurs in seasonally dry and deciduous open to closed woodland with predominantly grassy understorey around the summit of a broad, high sandstone massif (mesa), mainly near the tops of steep slopes or breakaway cliffs.	eng
178862	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant within its distribution range.	eng
178862	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population of this species has been substantially reduced by removal of plants from the wild and then sold. Should this practise continue, it would be a significant threat to the continued survival of the species.	eng
178863	conservation	Pérez-Farrera, M.A. & Vovides, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The Le Sepultura Biosphere Reserve overlaps the distribution range of this species.	eng
178863	distribution	Pérez-Farrera, M.A. & Vovides, A., 2009	This species is found in the Chiapas state of Mexico, where populations are found on the slopes of the Sierra de Chiapas and Sierra de Niltepec, near La Tigria (La Tigrilla).  Populations have also been reported from neighbouring Oaxaca state.	eng
178863	habitat	Pérez-Farrera, M.A. & Vovides, A., 2009	Plants are found on steep slopes in pine-oak woodland.	eng
178863	population	Pérez-Farrera, M.A. & Vovides, A., 2009	In a demographic study, Perez-Farrera <em>et al</em>. (2006) estimated that there were four subpopulations comprising a total of 1000-1,500 plants. The population near La Tigrllia visited in 2001 had 500 plants.	eng
178864	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the range of <em>C. saxatilis</em> is included in the Saint Pauls Bay National Park.	eng
178864	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is known only from limestone outcrops of the St Pauls Mountain massif on Palawan.	eng
178864	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in crevices on vertical limestone cliffs with no soil.	eng
178864	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Although it is known from a single locality, this mountain area is quite extensive, and plants are abundant in large, undisturbed populations occur in the most inaccessible sites.	eng
178864	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	There are no immediate threats. However, the <em>Aulacaspis</em> cycad scale has been introduced to various islands in the Pacific and <em>Cycas</em> species are particularly vulnerable. Occurrence at a single locality means that <em>C. saxatilis</em> would be vulnerable to extinction if the scale ever reached Palawan.	eng
178865	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178865	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs in Ya Xian province, Hainan Island, China. Plants are found in the vicinity of Baolong shan (Baolongdong?) near Shanya City. Recorded from 700 to 800 m asl.	eng
178865	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in subtropical evergreen forest or mountain mixed forest.	eng
178865	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	The population size and trend is unknown.	eng
178865	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178866	conservation	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are protected in the Ocote Biosphere Reserve.	eng
178866	distribution	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is endemic to Chiapas and Tabasco states of Mexico.	eng
178866	habitat	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species grows in rainforests and broad-leaved evergreen forests. This plant is deciduous and difficult to assess.	eng
178866	population	Vovides, A. Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The population at Malpaso in Chiapas state is know extinct.	eng
178867	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Most of the subpopulations occur in State Forests.	eng
178867	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs in Queensland, Australia, where it is found near Inglewood in the Darling Downs area. Occurs from 320 to 460 m asl.	eng
178867	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species is found growing on flat areas in deep sandy soils covered with mixed forest. One of the subpopulations grows on a ridge in red lateritic loam.	eng
178867	population	Forster, P., 2009	Specimens are found in eight subpopulations which range from small to relatively large in size.	eng
178867	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species may be subject to poaching.	eng
178868	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178868	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in the northern parts of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range in Tamaulipas and Nuevo León states of Mexico. Plants are centered in two areas: The Sierra Madre Oriental and in the Sierra de san Carlos, Sierra Tamaulipas and low hills in the vicinity of Soto la marina, Tamaulipas.	eng
178868	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The plants occur among rocks and on slopes in drier types of deciduous forest. They are also found in matorral (shrubland).	eng
178868	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Most of the plants are concentrated in two subpopulations with in excess of 10,000 plants in each.	eng
178868	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178869	conservation	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178869	distribution	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is found as two subpopulations in Zambales Province, Luzon Island, Philippines. One subpopulation is found near San Juan in the Botolan district and the other is near  Pundaquit  in the San Antonio district and Cawag in the the Subic district.	eng
178869	habitat	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	This species is confined to open seasonally dry grassland areas on ultrabasic soils, at very low altitudes.	eng
178869	population	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	The species is found as two fragmented subpopulations where the plants are scattered wide apart.	eng
178869	threats	Agoo, E.M.G., Madulid, D.A., Linis, V.C. & Sambale, E., 2009	The habitat of <em>C. zambalenisi</em> is subjected to almost annual fires to promote new growth of grass for grazing. These areas are not protected and are exposed to human disturbance, i.e. expansion of settlement areas.  The leaves of the species are collected and used in an annual religious ritual.  Seedlings are massively collected by the indigenous people for sale in the local market. In one of its localities, the grasslands are converted to an exclusive resort-residential area.	eng
178870	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Much of the population is conserved in the Mount Spec, Paluma Range National Park.	eng
178870	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from three locations in the Rollingstone district north of Townsville and a few kilometers north and south of there in Queensland, Australia.	eng
178870	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	This species is locally abundant in grassy woodland or grassland with scattered trees on skeletal gritty sandy soils on steep boulder slopes over granite.	eng
178870	population	Forster, P., 2009	The population is estimated to be about 5,000 plants and in decline.	eng
178870	threats	Forster, P., 2009	This species occurs within a limited range and its habitat may be impacted by an increased frequency of wildfires.	eng
178871	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are well conserved in the Brisbane Forest Park where it is present in both National parks and State Forests. The northern subpopulations are well represented in State Forests.	eng
178871	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is disjunctly distributed from Mount Colosseum near Miriam Vale in the Port Curtis District, south to the Brisbane region in the Moreton District of Queensland, Australia. Recorded to occur at elevations between 100 and 500 m asl.	eng
178871	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants grow in the under-storey of Araucarian microphyll vineforest or in open forest that is often dominated by eucalypts.	eng
178871	population	Forster, P., 2009	This species is abundant in numerous localities.	eng
178871	threats	Forster, P., 2009	Threats to this species are not known.	eng
178872	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178872	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the Port Curtis district of eastern Queensland, Australia. Plants are found between Marlborough and Glen Geddes.	eng
178872	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in sparse woodland and open forest with a mixed grassy and shrubby understorey in red clay loams over serpentines.	eng
178872	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Unknown	eng
178872	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	No threats are known.	eng
178873	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178873	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in the province of Loei, Thailand. It is known only from a single line of limestone mountains flanking the Phu Kra Dung massif to the east.	eng
178873	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species grows in open scrub with <em>Dracaena</em>, <em>Euphorbia</em>, bamboos and numerous climbers on steep to precipitous limestone outcrops with no soil cover.	eng
178873	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is locally abundant.	eng
178873	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Although localized, this is an abundant species, mostly occurring in relatively inaccessible sites. The present range and population size is substantially untouched, and there is little threat to the survival of the species.	eng
178874	conservation	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178874	distribution	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs only on East Timor and on the Sumba and Timor Islands of the Nusa Tenggara Timur province of Indonesia.	eng
178874	habitat	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	This species occurs in near-coastal forests. They inhabit both higher altitude as well as lowland forest.	eng
178874	population	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	Nothing is known about the population size or trend.	eng
178874	threats	Bösenberg, J.D., 2009	The Asian Cycad Scale has been found on Timor Island, but it is not sure whether this has spread to wild populations.	eng
178875	conservation	Vovides, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178875	distribution	Vovides, A., 2009	This species occurs in the Huasteca area in northern Veracruz state, Mexico.	eng
178875	habitat	Vovides, A., 2009	This species occurs on an isolated meseta or tepui-like mountain. Plants are found under partial shade in inaccessible sites along the mountain crest, on basalt rocky substrates in cloud forest. They occur on a stony, medium texture lithosol and luvisol substrate rich in humus.	eng
178875	threats	Vovides, A., 2009	The threats are presumed to be the same as for other Mexican cycad species i.e. loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and loss of plants due to collection by people for ornamental purposes.	eng
178876	conservation	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178876	distribution	Taylor, A., 2009	This species occurs in northern Panama, where it is found in north eastern Colon province.	eng
178876	habitat	Taylor, A., 2009	<em>Z. elegantissima</em> grows in primary lowland rainforest and in disturbed secondary forests.	eng
178876	population	Taylor, A., 2009	It has been reported to occur in scattered colonies of low density (<25/km2) over the entire distribution range. Overall population size is unknown. One of the populations in the Lago Chagres Reserve  has been transferred to a new species, known for now as elegantissima 'blanco'	eng
178876	threats	Taylor, A., 2009	This species is affected by habitat destruction due to clearing for agriculture.	eng
178877	conservation	Pérez-Farrera, M.A., González-Astorga, J., Avendaño, S. & Iglesias, C.G., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices. The plants occur in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve.	eng
178877	distribution	Pérez-Farrera, M.A., González-Astorga, J., Avendaño, S. & Iglesias, C.G., 2009	This species is found in a small geographical area in the Sierra Madre of Chiapas. The plants occur in the Triunfo Biosphere Reserve. Recorded from 1,000 to 1,700 m asl.	eng
178877	habitat	Pérez-Farrera, M.A., González-Astorga, J., Avendaño, S. & Iglesias, C.G., 2009	Plants occur in <span style="font-style: italic;">Quercus </span>forest. Soils are acid grey-brown-reddish humic cambisols. This species can also be found in cloud forest (Bosque Mesofilo de Montana) and in tropical rain forest (Bosque Tropical Perennifolio).	eng
178877	population	Pérez-Farrera, M.A., González-Astorga, J., Avendaño, S. & Iglesias, C.G., 2009	Specimens have been found in only four populations. The approximate numbers of plants in the wild are not known.	eng
178877	threats	Pérez-Farrera, M.A., González-Astorga, J., Avendaño, S. & Iglesias, C.G., 2009	The populations have been subjected to uncontrolled annual forest fires and transformation of habitat for corn and coffee plantations.	eng
178878	conservation	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix I of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178878	distribution	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs on the Didinga Hills of southern Sudan. Occurs at 1,800 to 2,000 m asl.	eng
178878	habitat	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	This species occurs in seasonally dry open woodland on stony country.	eng
178878	population	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	The populations are poorly known. Heibloem (1999) states that the population in the Didinga hills is quite large but gives no numbers.	eng
178878	threats	Donaldson, J.S., 2009	There are reports of large numbers of plants being removed from the wild by collectors (allegedly "truck-loads").	eng
178880	conservation	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. It is also protected by local communities.	eng
178880	distribution	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	This species occurs in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, Mexico. Recorded from 1,100 to 1,600 m asl.	eng
178880	habitat	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Occurs on steep limestone slopes in the transition zone between oak/pine forest and tropical deciduous forest. Occasionally found on alluvial deposits along streams and rivers in tropical deciduous forest.	eng
178880	population	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	It is estimated that there is a total of at least 3,000 plants. These are found in primarily three subpopulations (1,500, 500 and 200 plants). Another big subpopulation has been reported, but no details are available.	eng
178880	threats	Chemnick, J. & Gregory, T., 2009	Has a restricted range and is threatened by habitat destruction.	eng
178881	conservation	Forster, P., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178881	distribution	Forster, P., 2009	This species is known from a single, quite extensive population in the Terrace Range south of Charters Towers, South Kennedy District, Queensland, Australia.	eng
178881	habitat	Forster, P., 2009	Plants are found widely scattered in open woodland on low sandstone hills. The cycads are widely distributed in this habitat, being most abundant on the low hills.	eng
178881	population	Forster, P., 2009	Plants are abundant at the type locality and are widely distributed throughout the Terrace range.	eng
178881	threats	Forster, P., 2009	There are no immediate threats from land clearing or agriculture. Although <em>C. cupida</em> is scattered over a considerable area, all the known plants comprise a single population which is on unsecured land. This is a blue-leaved cycad and this could lead to intense interest from cycad collectors.	eng
178882	conservation	Calderón, E., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178882	distribution	Calderón, E., 2009	This species is found in Colombia where it occurs in the Risaralda province. For this species, extent of occurrence (EOO) is less than 5,000 km².  EOO could be much less that this figure, but field research is required to evaluate it. Values for area of occupancy are not available.	eng
178882	habitat	Calderón, E., 2009	Grows in sub-Andean (lower tropical) montane forests.	eng
178882	population	Calderón, E., 2009	Unknown	eng
178882	threats	Calderón, E., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178883	conservation	Singh, R., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178883	distribution	Singh, R., 2009	This species is known from a single population growing on the Annaikal Hills (at 940 m) near Palaghat, Kerala State, southwestern India.	eng
178883	habitat	Singh, R., 2009	Plants grow as an understorey element on steep slopes with coarse black humus soils. They are present under the thick canopy of tropical flowering trees.	eng
178883	population	Singh, R., 2009	The <em>C. annaikalensis</em> population consists of less than 100 plants. There may be more plants in adjacent Reserve Forest areas.	eng
178883	threats	Singh, R., 2009	The threats are not known, but it is likely that this species is being impacted by collectors and given the small size of the population is likley to be experiencing recruitment problems.	eng
178884	conservation	Nelson, C., 2009	This species is included on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Populations of <em>Z. oreillyi</em> occur in the buffer zone of the Pico Bonito National Park.	eng
178884	distribution	Nelson, C., 2009	This species occurs in the Atlantida Province of Honduras (Caribbean coast), near Hacienda Agua Caliente, about 2 km SW of Jutiapa, 32 km E of La Ceiba.	eng
178884	habitat	Nelson, C., 2009	This species occurs in humid tropical forest.	eng
178884	population	Nelson, C., 2009	An estimated population of 2,300 individuals occurs in the wild (29 individuals per km²).	eng
178884	threats	Nelson, C., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
178885	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species has recently been nominated as the keynote species for the Perlis State Park in Malaysia.	eng
178885	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs on limestone outcrops throughout southern Thailand. This species is best seen on some of the small island outcrops, e. g. near Phang Nga  or Pak Meng , but also occurs on inland limestone mountains. It is also common on Langkawi and in Perlis state in Malaysia.	eng
178885	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species occurs on limestone outcrops. Plants are most often rooted in clefts and crevices in near-vertical cliffs, in full sun and often with no soil at the roots.	eng
178885	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Abundant and widespread in generally inaccessible sites.	eng
178886	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices.	eng
178886	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This subspecies occurs in Rayong province, northeast of Klaeng and in Prachin Buri province  near Aranyaprathet, Thailand.  In Cambodia plants are found  between Batdambang and Sisophon. The Viet Namese populations are in An Giang province and near Hat Tien in Kien Giang province.	eng
178886	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	A common subspecies on limestone outcrops in this region, where plants are most often rooted in clefts and crevices in near vertical cliffs, in full sun and often with no soil at the roots.	eng
178886	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is a relatively frequent taxon. At the time of the 2003 assessment, K.D. Hill estimated that there were more than 10,000 mature individuals. It can thus be regarded as an abundant and widespread subspecies that is found in generally inaccessible sites.	eng
178886	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	Although under severe pressure from plant collectors in some areas, this subspecies is still numerous in some extremely inaccessible sites.	eng
178887	conservation	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. This species is protected in the Ruiyunshan Nature Reserve, Meilie Region, Sanming City, Fujian Province.	eng
178887	distribution	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species is known only from eastern Fujian province, China.	eng
178887	habitat	Hill, K.D., 2009	This species grows in moist closed forests or woodlands.	eng
178887	population	Hill, K.D., 2009	Only a few wild individuals survive in remote mountain forests.	eng
178887	threats	Hill, K.D., 2009	The known populations of this species are severely degraded, and the overall reduction in recent years has been significant.	eng
178888	conservation	Hill, K.D, 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Although this species has been rediscovered in the wild, known populations are severely degraded, and the overall reduction in recent years indicates that this species should be regarded as threatened.	eng
178888	distribution	Hill, K.D, 2009	This subspecies is known only from eastern Guangdong province, China. Recorded from 50 to 308 m asl.	eng
178888	habitat	Hill, K.D, 2009	This subspecies grows in moist closed forests.	eng
178888	population	Hill, K.D, 2009	Known only from scattered plants in two subpopulations.	eng
178888	threats	Hill, K.D, 2009	The habitat of the known subpopulations of this subspecies is severely degraded. Plants are also removed from the wild for the ornamental trade.	eng
179310	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
179310	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species is found in Kenya,Tanzania, Ethiopia (Borana, Neghelli), and Somalia (Bacino del Nogal: Prato di Bei Dagòi, Fra Baidoa e Bur Acaba).	eng
179310	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species grows in seasonally wet habitats, wooded grassland and grasslands, often on red loamy soil.	eng
179310	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Its is quite common throughout its range.	eng
179310	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.	eng
179392	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures. Some species are found in a protected area (Shimba Hills) and forest conservation areas along the Kenyan Coast.	eng
179392	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species has been recorded along the East African region from sea level to 400 m. It is endemic to Kenya and Tanzania. Also recorded from Madagascar.	eng
179392	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Swamps, in stagnant or moving water.	eng
179392	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data.	eng
179392	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threat has been identified but human activities such agricultural, road constructions and settlements could encroaching on their habitats.	eng
179466	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species is known from fairly well protected Natural Reserves, for example, Shimba Hill National Reserve. Urgent surveys are required to confirm whether the species still exists.	eng
179466	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species is endemic to Kenya. It has only been recorded in Longo Mwagandi, Shimba Hills, Kenya at an alltitude of 380 m above sea level.  Its area of occupancy is below 10 km<sup>2</sup> .	eng
179466	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species is found in a swampy area.	eng
179466	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species' population is small or non existent as if has not been re-collected by Luke during Shimba survey (W.R.Q. Luke pers. comm. 2010).	eng
179466	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Wildlife grazing and planned burning have been identified as main threats.	eng
179861	distribution	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Restricted to eastern Tanzania, this species is found at Mangalisa, Mpwapwa and Sao Hill.	eng
179861	habitat	Lovett, J. & Clarke, G.P., 1998	Montane dry forest.	eng
180100	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for further data on the distribution of this species, but no conservation actions are likely to be needed.	eng
180100	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	Lestes nodalis is known from India (e.g. Fraser 1933), Myanmar (e.g. Selys 1891), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), and Hong Kong and southern China (e.g. Wilson 2004).	eng
180100	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Lestes nodalis</span> breeds in shallow marshes and possibly well vegetated ponds. In Hong Kong it over winters in the adult stage, not a common habit in Odonata, but known for other members of the Lestidae.	eng
180100	population	Dow, R., 2010	This species can be localy common.	eng
180100	threats	Dow, R., 2010	Some populations of this species will be theatened from various sources, but there is no evidence of threats accross its entire range.	eng
180101	conservation	Britz, R., 2010	Further information on the species range and distribution is required, especially in higher altitude streams within the currently known range, and there is no potential threats to the species.	eng
180101	distribution	Britz, R., 2010	Described  from Dayame Chaung on the eastern side of the Bago Yoma  mountain range in Myanmar (Roberts 1986). Subsequently also found in  additional  streams on the southeastern and southern end of Bago Yoma (R. Britz  <em>pers.  comm</em>.). Known from around six localities.	eng
180101	habitat	Britz, R., 2010	Wide lowland streams at the foot of the  mountain range with  a constant flow, a sandy to muddy bottom and usually turbid water. They  stay in  the cooler areas of the stream, that is, closer to the banks or in  deeper cooler  water layers. This is the smallest freshwater fish in the  region, maturing at 10-11 mm SL.	eng
180101	population	Britz, R., 2010	Where  they occur they are abundant, with several hundreds easily  caught with a dip net within an hour (R. britz&#160;<span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).	eng
180101	threats	Britz, R., 2010	No threats are known at present, but the potential impact of dams within the region need to be studied.	eng
180103	conservation	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measure. May occur in marine protected areas.	eng
180103	distribution	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2010	This species is found off the northwest coast of Australia. The species ranges from just south of the Rowley Shoals, northwest of Port Hedland, Western Australia to the Aragura Sea, Northern Territory. Specimens were collected between 97 and 173 m depth (Kuiter 2004).	eng
180103	habitat	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2010	This species inhabits coral reefs.	eng
180103	population	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2010	There are no population data available.	eng
180103	threats	Pyle, R. & Myers, R., 2010	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
180563	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
180563	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	It has been recorded at Mount Ntchisi (central Malawi).	eng
180563	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest streams.	eng
180563	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
180563	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The main threats to the species are forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
180565	conservation	Conway, K.W., 2010	Further information on the species population and distribution is required, as well as information on possible threats.	eng
180565	distribution	Conway, K.W., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;">Balitora eddsi </span>was described in  2010 (Conway and Mayden 2010). Known only from the type locality, a 25  km stretch of the Gerwa River, Karnali River Basin, between the towns of  Chisapani and Kothiaghat, south-western Nepal. (28<sup>o</sup> 34"  0·012", N; 81<sup>o</sup> 13" 59·88" E, to 28<sup>o</sup> 23" 60·00", N;  81<sup>o</sup> 11" 59·99" E, collected by D. Edds, 2 March 1996.	eng
180565	habitat	Conway, K.W., 2010	Like other hillstream loaches, this species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Balitora </span>is inferred&#160;to inhabit the rocky cold water, fast-flowing streams.	eng
180565	population	Conway, K.W., 2010	Only collected from the type locality and there is no information on the species population.	eng
180565	threats	Conway, K.W., 2010	The Gerwa River area is well protected (the river flows along the border of the Bardya National Park) and the area is not heavily  populated (K. Conway, <span style="font-style: italic;">pers. comm.</span>).<br/>No information is available on dams on the Gerwa River, however, a dam is planned on the Karnali River, which the Gerwa is a tributary of. It is not known if this would impact this species.	eng
181000	conservation	Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
181000	distribution	Bills, R., 2006	This species occurs throughout the Indian Ocean regions, east to the Philippine  Islands.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Within Africa it is known from Durban  Bay to the Zambezi delta.	eng
181000	habitat	Bills, R., 2006	This species ranges from mangroves through to freshwater pools on lower floodplains to freshwater lakes. It typically occurs in muddy substrate environments.	eng
181000	population	Bills, R., 2006	Where encountered often abundant.	eng
181000	threats	Bills, R., 2006	Reduced inflows into lower rivers and estuaries, and coastal developments may threaten this species.	eng
181359	conservation	Secchi, E., 2009	<p><em><span lang="EN-US">Sotalia</em><span lang="EN-US"> sp. are listed in Appendix I of CITES and <em>S. guinanensis</em> is listed in Appendix II of CMS. The species is legally protected in most of the range countries.</p>	eng
181359	distribution	Secchi, E., 2009	<p><span lang="EN-US">The Guiana Dolphin (<em>sensu</em> Flores and da Silva 2009) is found mostly in shallow waters near shore and in estuaries along the Atlantic coast of northwestern South America, from Florianópolis, Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil (27º35'S), northwards into the Caribbean Sea and along the coast of Central America to the mouth of the Layasiksa River, the west side of Waunta Lagoon (13°40'N), northeastern Nicaragua (Carr and Bonde 2000) and possibly Honduras (15°58'N, 79°54'W) (Flores and da Silva 2009). In the Orinoco River, there are frequent records of <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins at Ciudad Bolívar, some 300 km upstream, which are suspected to correspond to <em>S. guianensis</em> (da Silva and Best 1996, Meade and Koehnken 1991, Flores and da Silva 2009). Boher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>(1995) reported a sighting in the middle Orinoco, 800 km inland. Although there are disputed reports of <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins in the upper Orinoco, and even in the Apure River (Hershkovitz 1963, Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, but see Boher <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1995), there are no confirmed records from the upper Orinoco and Apure Rivers, or in the lower reaches of most of the major Orinoco tributaries, in a compilation of sightings over the period from 1983 to 1990 (Meade and Koehnken 1991). It is assumed that <em>Sotalia </em>dolphins cannot traverse the rapids at the Casiquiare Channel, which connects the Orinoco and Amazon River basins (da Silva and Best 1996).</p>	eng
181359	habitat	Secchi, E., 2009	<span lang="EN-US">Preferred habitats appear to be estuaries, bays, and other shallow, sheltered coastal waters. The southernmost limit of this species, at Santa Catarina State, southern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Simões-Lopes 1986), is thought to be defined by the low sea-surface temperature under influence of the Malvinas/Falkland Current (Flores and da Silva 2009), though no supporting data exist for this. <span lang="EN-US">In Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, the dolphins prefer the deeper channels (25 m depth) and avoid areas shallower than about 6 m (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 2007). In open coastal areas, they seem to avoid deep waters (e.g. <em></em>Edwards and Schnell 2001), although they can be sighted several kilometers from shore in areas where the continental shelf is shallow or in waters over offshore banks such as Abrolhos Bank, up to 70 km off the coast of Bahia State, northeastern Brazil (Rossi-Santos <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Orinoco River, dolphins seen as far up as Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, probably belong to this species (Flores and da Silva 2009).&#160; <em>S. guianensis </em>is also often seen at the mouth of the Amazon River. Fresh water from the Amazon River reaches hundreds of kilometers into the sea (Muller-Karger <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>, 1988, quoted in Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010), so the animals sampled in Pará were actually living in fresh water. It would be interesting to analyze samples from intermediate locations along the Amazon River to determine how far upstream <em>S. guianensis </em>occurs and whether there is sympatry in any region with <em>S. fluviatilis.</em><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><span style="font-style: italic;"></span><em><span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>S. guianensis</em><span lang="EN-US"> is patchily distributed (Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, Flores and da Silva 2009) as evident from the relatively small home ranges of individuals. In its southernmost limit at Baia Norte, estimated individual home ranges were only about 10-15 km² (Flores and Bazzalo 2004). In the Cananéia estuary, São Paulo state, where Guiana dolphins were found in water depths ranging from 1 to 23 m, observed home ranges varied from 1.6 to 22.9 km<sup>2</sup> (Santos and Rosso 2007). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Guiana dolphins consume both marine and estuarine species such as demersal and pelagic fish of the families Sciaenidae, Clupeidae, Mugilidae, Trichiuridae and Batrachoididae as well as neritic cephalopods, family Loliginidae (Borobia and Barros 1991, da Silva and Best 1994, 1996, Santos <em>et al.</em> 2002, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). They also prey on penaeid shrimps (Santos <em>et al.</em> 2002) and crabs (Flores and da Silva 2009). Young age classes of teleost fishes, including over 60 species, are usually the most important items in the diet (Flores and da Silva 2009). In northern Rio de Janeiro, for example, lengths of fish preyed upon by <em>S. guianensis</em> ranged from 1.2 to 106.9 cm and mantle lengths of cephalopods varied from 3.4 to 22.2 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). Sciaenid fishes that produce relatively loud sounds by swim bladder contraction were observed as common prey items. Feeding occurs both individually and in large groups.<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Predators of Guiana dolphins may include killer whales (<em>Orcinus orca</em>) (Bittencourt 1983) and sharks, although there are no confirmed records other than an observed predation attempt by a bull shark, <em>Carcharhinus leucas</em> (Santos and Gadig in press). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Males reach sexual maturity at 7 years and at body lengths of 170-175 cm. Females mature at 5-8 years of age and at body lengths of 164-169 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). Calving is year-round and gestation lasts around 11-12 months, with newborn calves ranging in size from 90 to 100 cm (Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004, Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002). <span lang="EN-US">The reproductive cycle is estimated at 2 years, with no marked seasonality in ovulation or timing of birth (Santos<span style="font-style: italic;"> et al</span>. 2001, Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004)<span lang="EN-US">. The breeding system is promiscuous (Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002) within a fusion-fission society (Santos and Rosso 2008). <span lang="EN-US">Females older than 25 years have senescent ovaries (Rosas and Monteiro-Filho 2002). Maximum observed age (uncalibrated Growth Layer Groups) was 29 for males and 30 for females (Rosas <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Santos <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2003, Di Beneditto and Ramos 2004). <span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Group size ranged between 1 and 40 individuals, and groups of 2 -10 were most common in Guanabara Bay, southeastern Brazil (Azevedo <em>et al</em>. 2007). In the Cananeia estuary, group size varied from lone individuals to aggregations of up to 60 (mean ± SD: 12.4 ± 11.4 individuals) (Santos and Rosso 2007).&#160; <span lang="EN-US">No seasonal variation in group size was observed in either of those studies. Nursery groups were twice as large as non-calf groups in Guanabara Bay and much more frequent in the Cananeia estuary. <span lang="EN-US">In the Cayos Miskito Reserve, Nicaragua, the mean group size was 3 (Edwards and Schnell 2001). Although Flores and da Silva (2009) reported that Guiana dolphins do not associate with bottlenose dolphins (<em>Tursiops truncatus</em>) in Brazilian waters, there are records of aggression of bottlenose dolphins towards Guiana dolphins in Santa Catarina State (Wedekin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004).</span></span></span>	eng
181359	population	Secchi, E., 2009	The population structure and phylogeography of <em>S. guianensis </em>along the Brazilian coast was investigated by Cunha (2007), using mtDNA control region sequences. Different analyses showed evidence for at least six MUs: Pará, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Bahia, Espírito Santo and the South-Southeastern area (from Rio de Janeiro to Santa Catarina states). Those MUs were highly differentiated, indicating severe restrictions to gene flow among them (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2010). An interesting finding was a lack of variation in the control region of dolphins from South-Southeastern Brazil (between parallels 22º and 25ºS, extending 900 km). Caballero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2006) analyzed populations of <em>S. guianensis </em>from the northern part of South America, Central America and the Caribbean and proposed two MUs for that area: one for Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, and another for Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. Those authors noted that dolphins from Maracaibo Lake, despite being included in the first MU, had some unique haplotypes and advised that their genetic distinctiveness be further investigated. However, only three individuals from southern Maracaibo were analyzed; the others were from the northern portion of the lake where it opens to the Gulf of Venezuela. Clearly, further analyses of samples from Maracaibo Lake must be analyzed<span lang="EN-US">.<br/><br/>This structuring pattern is probably due to the patchy and discontinuous distribution of <em>Sotalia</em> <em>guianensis</em> (Borobia <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1991, Flores and da Silva 2009). Abundance estimates are not available for the total population or for any of the proposed MUs. Although the species appears relatively abundant in many parts of its range, estimates of absolute or relative abundance, such as minimum number sighted, encounter rate, or estimated minimum density, are available only for small areas.&#160; Not all estimates are consistent and some lack methodological rigor. Some of the differences observed in the same areas over time might be due to different methodologies rather than decrease or increase. For instance, Geise (1991) estimated that there were just over 400 dolphins in Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro State), southeastern Brazil. More recent estimates using photo-identification mark-recapture analysis indicate that there may be only 69-75 individuals in that area (Pizzorno 1999). It is not clear whether the difference is a result of population decline or of using different estimation methods. Geise <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1999) estimated that approximately 704.8 ± 367.7 individuals inhabited the area around Cananéia (São Paulo State), also in southeastern Brazil, where recent mark-recapture estimates suggest there are only 290-360 dolphins (Santos and Zerbini 2006). In Sepetiba Bay (Rio de Janeiro State), density was estimated as 2.79 dolphins/km², implying a total of 1,269 individuals (CI=739-2,196) (Flach <em>et al.</em> 2008). Density and abundance were similar for the entrance and interior of the Bay. In southern Brazil, abundance has been estimated only for Babitonga Bay (Santa Catarina State) where estimates varied from 231 (CI = 147-365; density of 1.44/km²) in 2001 to 154 (CI = 71-332; density = 0.96/km²) in 2003. Density of dolphins in Guaratuba Bay and Paranaguá and Antonina estuaries varied from 0.15/km² in the Bay (Filla 2004) to 11.56-23.16/km² in the estuaries, respectively (Filla 2004, Japp 2004). Bolaños-Jiménez (in IWC 2007) reported observations of groups as large as 70 in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. In Colombia, Bossenecker (1978) estimated 100-400 dolphins near the mouth of the Magdalena River and noted that the species was abundant in the Gulf of Cispata, near San Antero (Colombia).&#160; In Golfo de Morrosquillo, Colombia, an abundance of 70-90 individuals was estimated based on mark-recapture of photo-identified animals (Dussán-Duque <em>et al</em>. 2006). <em>Sotalia</em> have been described as common in the Marowijne River (border between Suriname and French Guiana) and also in the mouths of the larger rivers of Suriname (Husson, 1978, in da Silva and Best 1994, Duplaix, 1980). In Guyana, they have been reported from the Demerra, Cuyuni, Mazaruni and Essequibo river mouths (Williams 1928, Herald 1967 in da Silva and Best 1994). Edwards and Schnell (2001) estimated that there were about 50 <em>Sotalia</em> in Nicaragua's Cayos Miskito Reserve.	eng
181359	threats	Secchi, E., 2009	<p><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place> dolphins are vulnerable to incidental mortality in fishing gear, especially monofilament gillnets, seine nets, and shrimp and fish traps (da Silva and Best 1994, IWC 2007). Significant catches have been reported in many parts of their range (<em>e.g</em>. Siciliano 1994, da Silva and Best 1994, 1996, Beltrán 1998, Di Beneditto 2003, IWC 2007). In addition there has been some direct killing for human consumption and for shark and shrimp bait (da Silva and Best 1994, IWC 2007). Beltran (1998) recorded 938 animals taken in drift nets from the <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">port</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> of <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Arapiranga</st1:placename></st1:placename> (<st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pará</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>) during the summer of 1996 and a further 125 taken during the winter. These data were collected by interviewing fishermen in the port after trips and collecting carcasses. More recently, Monteiro-Neto <em>et al. </em>(2004) estimated that approximately 90 <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins were killed every year in the passive gill net fisheries along the Brazilian coast. In the metropolitan area of <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Fortaleza</st1:city></st1:city>, the capital of <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Ceará</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>, 32 bycaught animals were recorded (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al.</em> 2004).</p>  <p>Although there is no evidence of past or recent commercial hunting, molecular data indicated that dolphin-derived products illegally sold in the Brazilian Amazon as amulets or love charms came from <em>S. guianensis</em> instead of from Botos (<em>Inia geoffrensis</em>) as advertised by sellers (Cunha and Solé-Cava 2007, Gravena<em> et al.</em> 2008, Sholl <em>et al. </em>2008). They were probably accidentally captured in the Amazon estuary and along the adjacent Pará and Amapá coasts. <em>S. guianensis</em> amulets were found not only in Belém (<st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Pará</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype>, at the Amazon Estuary) but also in <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Manaus</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Amazonas</st1:placename></st1:placename> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State,</st1:placetype></st1:placetype> and <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Porto Velho</st1:city></st1:city>, <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:placename u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Rondônia</st1:placename></st1:place> <st1:placetype u1:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:placetype></st1:placename></st1:place>, despite the availability of botos and tucuxis in those areas. In one market in <st1:city u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Porto Velho</st1:place></st1:city></st1:place></st1:city>, however, 90% of the eyeballs sold as dolphin products were in fact from pigs or sheep (Gravena <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is unclear what proportion of the dolphins that supplied or supply such markets are taken incidentally in fishing gear as opposed to killed deliberately.&#160; Dolphin charms may originate both from bycatch in legal fisheries and as a secondary product of the illegal catch of dolphins for bait (Cunha<em> et al</em>. 2010). The catch or bycatch of <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins for such purposes can be high. A single boat had 83 carcasses on board (footage done obtained by IBAMA and broadcast by a Brazilian television network on 07/16/2007), probably intended as bait for the shark fishery. Some Guiana dolphins taken off the coast of Panamá and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Colombia</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> in the late 1970s were kept in captivity in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Europe</st1:place></st1:place> for more than 20 years (Terry 1986). A few dolphins are still kept in Colombian facilities, although since 2005 live-capture for captivity has been illegal (Culik 2004).</p>  <p>Pollution from industrial and agricultural activities may be a threat both directly, through the destruction of habitat, and indirectly, through contamination of prey. Large harbours such as Baia de Guanabara (Rio de Janeiro), Santos (São Paulo) and Paranaguá (Paraná), are very polluted with effluent, including heavy metals, posing a serious potential threat (da Silva <em>et al.</em> 2003, Medeiros and Bícego 2004, Bícego <em>et al.</em> 2006). The continued use of insecticides containing substances banned elsewhere is common in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place></st1:place> (da Silva and Best 1994, Yogui <em>et al</em>. 2003). Studies that included determination of micropollutant concentrations in Guiana dolphins from <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guanabara Bay</st1:place></st1:place> demonstrated the estuary to be a world hotspot for environmental contamination by persistent bioaccumulative toxicants (PBTs). In general, the PBT concentrations found in <st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Guiana</st1:place></st1:place> dolphins from this area are in the same range as the levels verified in coastal cetaceans from highly industrialized countries of the Northern Hemisphere. This latter statement holds for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (Lailson-Brito <em>et al.</em> in press), polychlorinated dibenzo-<em>p</em>-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzo-<em>p</em>-furans (PCDFs), dioxin-like PCBs (Dorneles <em>et al.</em> 2008a), organotin compounds (Dorneles <em>et al.</em> 2008b), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (Dorneles <em>et al</em>. 2008c), as well as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (Dorneles <em>et al</em>. 2010). &#160;Although the Cananéia estuary is known to be polluted by both chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine concentrations were lower in the blubber of Guiana dolphins than in that of small cetaceans from developed areas (Yogui <em>et al.</em> 2003). Mercury is used in the refining of fluvial gold and then, like the pesticides, probably enters the aquatic food chain of the rivers and coasts. Mercury and selenium were found in the livers of two <em>Sotalia</em> from <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Suriname</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region> (da Silva and Best, 1994 and ref. therein). The detection of Cd, Hg and Pb in tissue samples of <em>S. guianensis</em> off the coast of Ceará, <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region>, indicated that heavy metals are locally present in the water and bioaccumulation probably occurs through the food web. Contamination levels were not considered critical, but they could be related to Ceará's growing industrial development (Monteiro-Neto <em>et al.</em> 2002). Exploration for oil in the offshore regions of <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Brazil</st1:country-region></st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Venezuela</st1:country-region></st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region u1:st="on"><st1:place u1:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Colombia</st1:place></st1:country-region></st1:place></st1:country-region> may not pose a direct threat to <em>Sotalia,</em> but spills in estuaries could affect local subpopulations (da Silva and Best 1994, Culik 2004). In recent years, skin diseases have been observed in estuaries (Van Bressem <em>et al.</em> 2009).</p>	eng
181363	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be locally common to fairly common and rare (del Hoyo et al. 1994).	eng
181371	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).	eng
181372	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).	eng
181373	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma castro</em> breeds in the eastern Atlantic from the Berlengas Islands and the Azores (<strong>Portugal</strong>), down to Ascension Island and Saint Helena (<strong>St Helena to UK</strong>), and in the Pacific off eastern <strong>Japan</strong>, on Kauai, Hawaii (<strong>USA</strong>) and on the Galapagos Islands (<strong>Ecuador</strong>)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181373	habitat		This marine species is highly pelagic, occuring in warm waters and rarely approaching land except near colonies. It feeds mostly on planktonic crustaceans, fish and squid but will also feed on human refuse. It mainly feeds in the day on the wing by pattering, dipping and also by surface-seizing. Its breeding season varies locally in colonies on undisturbed islets, in flat areas near the sea or inland on cliffs<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>	eng
181373	population		Brooke (2004) estimated the global population to number around 150,000 individuals.	eng
181374	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Both breeding islets are designated under European legislation as Special Protection Areas and are assigned a full-time warden based on Graciosa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Recent work to reduce interspecific competition for nest cavities with other larger procellariiform species through the installation of nest boxes has met with considerable success, leading to a large increase in annual productivity<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Data from a MRR ringing study is being analysed, with preliminary results suggesting annual survival is high<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Obtain an up-to-date population census. Continue constructing artifical nest-sites. Consider (re-)introducing the species to other islets in the Azores, reducing the potential impact of rodents being introduced to one of the current breeding islets. Monitor the breeding islets for rodent introductions.</strong>	eng
181374	distribution		<em>Oceanodroma monteiroi</em> breeds on two islets off the island of Graciosa in the Azores, <strong>Portugal</strong>. Breeding is suspected on further islets in the Azores, but proof is still lacking<strong><sup>1,4</sup></strong>. It is thought to remain in the vicinity of the Azores during the non-breeding season, a suggestion which is supported by the analysis of carbon isotopes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The total population size was estimated at 250-300 pairs in 1999<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Accounts from the 16th and 17th centuries of a small black and white seabird, which appear to match the breeding cycle of this species, indicate that it may have once been far more abundant<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, however there are no recent trend data.	eng
181374	habitat		This species breeds during the 'hot season'; females lay eggs between early May (perhaps late April) and early July, incubating a single egg until as late as early August, with the first chicks hatching in early June and the latest chicks fledging in early October<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Its diet is poorly known, but thought to consist of small fish and squid, and it generally feeds on prey of a higher tropic level than <em>O. castro</em><strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181374	population		The population was estimated at 300 pairs in 1999 (Bolton <em>et al.</em> 2008). Although this estimate is now a decade old, the population is not thought to have declined since, and may have actually increased (Bried <em>et al.</em> 2009), hence the population is best placed in the band 250-999 mature individuals.	eng
181375	distribution		This species ranges widely in tropical waters, being found in every ocean on or off nearly every coast except the eastern Atlantic, northern Indian Ocean and the central-eastern Pacific<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181375	habitat		This strictly marine species can normally be found over pelagic waters, preferring deeper waters than other boobies. It feeds on large species of shoaling fish, especially flying fish, but will also take large squid.<strong> </strong>Its breeding season depends on locality, forming small to medium-sized colonies of variable densities on rocky islands offshore. Nests are preferably built on cliff ledges, but a variety of other sites are used<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181375	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181381	population		In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 64000-100000 breeding pairs, equating to 192000-300000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 5-24% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 1000000-6000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
181382	population		The population is estimated at 100,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001).	eng
181383	population		The population is estimated at 4,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001).	eng
181384	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>On Tristan, a programme to eradicate cats was successful in the 1970s. Gough is a nature reserve and World Heritage Site and is uninhabited apart from the staff who run a meteorological station<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. A repeatable monitoring protocol for the species was devised during 2000/1<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Minimise the risk of the introduction of exotic flora and fauna, particularly mammalian predators, to Gough<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Repeat population monitoring at intervals of 5-10 years.	eng
181384	distribution		<em>Gallinula nesiotis </em>is found on Gough Island and Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong> in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is endemic to Gough Island but, in 1956, seven birds were introduced to Tristan, where it had become extirpated at the end of the 19th century. In 1983, the Gough population was estimated at 2,000-3,000 pairs in 10-12 km<sup>2</sup> of suitable habitat<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. This estimate has been recalculated as 4,250 pairs, based on the same pair density data but using new data on relative densities in different habitats and total habitat areas<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. In 1984, the Tristan population was estimated at c.250 pairs and increasing. It is now distributed throughout the island, being scarce or absent only in the west<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
181384	habitat		On Gough, it is found near the coast, in boggy areas and close to streams, being most common in fern-bush, and somewhat less common in level areas of tussock grassland; it is very scarce or absent in wet heath<strong><sup>2,3,5,6</sup></strong>. On Tristan, where no tussock remains, it is found in fern-bush<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It feeds on vegetable matter, seeds, invertebrates and carrion, and scavenges petrel carcasses. It also forages for invertebrates in abandoned and active albatross nests, petrel burrows, and will feed on garbage<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It breeds from September to March, on Gough peaking between October and December, and laying between two and five eggs<strong><sup>2,5</sup></strong>.	eng
181384	population		The total population is estimated at 9,000 mature individuals based on past survey data (4,250 pairs on Gough based on 1983 data, Cuthbert and Sommer 2004; 250 pairs on Tristan in 1984, P. G. Ryan <em>in litt</em>. 2000).	eng
181385	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is partially migratory or nomadic, making short migratory movements in China, India and Japan, and irregular seasonal short-distance movements in Africa corresponding to feeding- and breeding-habitat requirements<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The timing of breeding varies geographically although the species is known to breed during or immediately after the rains in Africa<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It usually nests and forages in solitary pairs, although nests may be grouped together in wetlands (due to its polyandrous mating system) and it is occasionally observed in small parties or larger groups of up to 100 individuals during the non-breeding season<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species is crepuscular<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and roosts in cover by day and night singly or in groups of up to 3 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> The species shows a preference for recently flooded areas in shallow lowland freshwater temporary or permanent wetlands<strong><sup>4</sup></strong> in the tropics and subtropics, its patterns of habitat use being governed by the rains<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Suitable habitats include extensive swamps and marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, reedbeds, overgrown rice-fields<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, inundated or waterlogged grassland and saltmarsh<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, the muddy margins of pools, freshwater lakes with grassy islets, sewage pools, reservoirs, mudflats overgrown with marsh grass and mangroves<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and thickly vegetated banks of slow-flowing rivers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It requires emergent vegetation in shallow water for nesting<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> and occasionally forages on open grassland adjacent to wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. crickets and grasshoppers)<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, snails, earthworms, crustaceans and seeds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site</strong> The nest is a shallow cup<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> in a mound of vegetation<strong><sup>2</sup></strong> on the ground<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, concealed amongst thick emergent vegetation in shallow water<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. Alternatively nests may be placed in more open environments such as on dense mat of floating water-weed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181385	population		Previous estimate of 36,000 - 1,000,000 (Wetlands International, 2006) revised, decreasing the population minimum by 5,000 individuals representing the newly-split species <em>R. australis</em>.	eng
181386	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>In 2001 a project was initiated by the Threatened Bird Network and Australasian Wader Studies Group to improve knowledge of the species<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. Recovery actions implemented as part of this study include the development of a database of records and an assessment of habitat preferences<strong><sup>2,6</sup></strong>. Birds Australia has been conducting annual surveys of the species since 2001<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Protect and manage principal breeding and wintering sites and, as a precautionary measure, identify and protect any additional habitat used by the species in the last 10 years. Develop guidelines, in consultation with landholders, for the management of suitable wetlands. Initiate control programs for feral animals, and erect fencing to prevent grazing and trampling of wetlands by cattle, at suitable wetlands. Rehabilitate selected wetlands that were formerly used for breeding. Undertake further research to determine movements and improve knowledge of habitat preferences. Monitor the population at the landscape scale using, to begin with, the Atlas of Australian Birds, and determine the breeding range. Encourage participation of community groups and other relevant bodies in the recovery effort.</strong>	eng
181386	distribution		<em>Rostratula australis</em> has been recorded in wetlands in all states of <strong>Australia</strong>. It is most common in eastern Australia, where it has been recorded at scattered locations throughout much of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and south-eastern South Australia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. It has been recorded less frequently at a smaller number of more scattered locations farther west in South Australia, the Northern Territory and Western Australia<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. However, the relevant importance of northern and southern habitats are still subject to debate<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The population was previously thought to number 5,000 individuals, though it is now believed highly unlikely that the population exceeds 2,500 and it may number between 1,000 and 1,500 individuals<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Analysis of data from Birds Australia confirms that the species has been in decline, though the precise rate is difficult to establish due to different survey methods, the cryptic nature of the species, and the lack of extensive surveys in the arid zone of northern Australia<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
181386	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Occasional records from remote places indicate that the species can move long distances and may be dispersive or migratory, and a north-south migration has been postulated<strong><sup>3,4</sup></strong>. It is generally thought to be crepuscular, but may be nocturnal. Individuals are usually seen singly, but it may be seen in pairs and also occaisionally in flocks. It breeds between August and February in southern Australia, and breeding occurs earlier in northern Australia. The female may be polyandrous, with the male incubating the clutch of 3-4 eggs and rearing chicks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat</strong> This species occupies ephemeral and permanant terrestrial shallow freshwater wetlands, and occasionally brackish wetlands, including lakes, swamps, saltmarsh and claypans. It will also occupy modified habitats including sewage farms, dams, bores and irrigation schemes. It constructs nests among tall vegetation, frequently on small muddy islands, but also sometimes on the shore of wetlands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> It feeds on vegetation, seeds, insects, worms, molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrates<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181386	population		Based on results of surveys between 2001 and 2009 conducted by Birds Australia, it is thought that the population is highly unlikely to exceed 2,500 individuals and is more likely to be between 1,000 and 1,500 individuals (S. Garnett <em>in litt</em>. 2009), hence the population is placed in the band 1,000-2,499 individuals.	eng
181387	population		The global population size is unknown given recent taxonomic splits.	eng
181388	distribution		<em>Larus cachinnans</em> can be found in eastern Europe, the Middle East, north-west Africa and central Asia. It is resident in much of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. It also seasonally breeds from the Black Sea, across the north of the Caspian Sea to eastern <strong>Kazakhstan</strong>, and on the central Asian steppes. Wintering grounds include the coast of south-west Asia (breeders from the steppes), the north-west coast of Africa, and around the Arabian Peninsula up to north-west <strong>India<sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181388	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> This species is fully migratory, though some colonies aroundthe Black and Caspian Sea may be resident<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Post-breeding movements to wintering areas occur from July to November, with the return migration occurring from mid-February to mid-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds from mid-March to April<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although the exact timing varies geographically<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, and may nest in monospecific clusters within mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, congregating around ports, harbours and refuse dumps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> in steppe and semi-desert (Central Asia)<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, reservoirs, rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and on grassy or shrubby river islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, also forming colonies on sea cliffs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sandy beaches, spits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sand-dunes, and salt-pans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and foraging in intertidal zones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in brackish coastal marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is more common along the coast (e.g. at harbours and ports) and in other marine habitats (though seldom far from land). During this season it also forages in cultivated fields<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and along rivers, and is especially common at refuse dumps<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of fish, invertebrates (including insects, molluscs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and crabs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), reptiles, small mammals (e.g. voles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and ground squirrels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), refuse, offal, and bird eggs and chicks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. of petrels and shearwaters)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is constructed of nearby vegetation, feathers, debris and old carcasses, and is preferably positioned close to or under bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, spits, sea cliffs, grassy or shrubby river islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally on high ground hundreds of metres from water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially in monospecific or mixed-species groups, with pairs usually nesting a few metres apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181388	population		Global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits.	eng
181389	distribution		<em>Larus michahellis</em> can be found in Europe, the Middle East and north Africa. It is resident in much of southern Europe, on the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea, on the Azores and Madeira, <strong>Portugal</strong>, and on the Canary Islands. <strong>Spain</strong>. Wintering grounds include the coast of south-west Asia (breeders from the steppes), most of the European coast up to <strong>Denmark </strong>and the coast of Africa from <strong>Western Sahara</strong> through tho the eastern Mediterranean<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181389	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Populations may be dispersive or sedentary<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Post-breeding movements to wintering areas occur from July to November, with the return migration occurring from mid-February to mid-June<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. The species breeds from mid-March to April<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, although the exact timing varies geographically<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. It breeds colonially in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, and may nest in monospecific clusters within mixed-species colonies<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, congregating around ports, harbours and refuse dumps<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Habitat </strong><em>Breeding</em> During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>, pastures (Madeira)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>, reservoirs, rivers<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, and on grassy or shrubby river islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, also forming colonies on sea cliffs<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>, rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>, sandy beaches, spits<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, sand-dunes, and salt-pans<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>, and foraging in intertidal zones<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and in brackish coastal marshes<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. <em>Non-breeding</em> Outside of the breeding season the species is more common along the coast (e.g. at harbours and ports) and in other marine habitats (though seldom far from land). During this season it also forages in cultivated fields<strong><sup>1, 2, 3</sup></strong> and along rivers, and is especially common at refuse dumps<strong><sup>1, 2</sup></strong>. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet consists of fish, invertebrates (including insects, molluscs<strong><sup>3</sup></strong> and crabs<strong><sup>10</sup></strong>), reptiles, small mammals (e.g. voles<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> and ground squirrels<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>), refuse, offal, and bird eggs and chicks<strong><sup>1</sup></strong> (e.g. of petrels and shearwaters)<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. <strong>Breeding site </strong>The nest is constructed of nearby vegetation, feathers, debris and old carcasses, and is preferably positioned close to or under bushes<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, or on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, spits, sea cliffs, grassy or shrubby river islands<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, and occasionally on high ground hundreds of metres from water<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The species breeds colonially in monospecific or mixed-species groups, with pairs usually nesting a few metres apart<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181389	population		The global population size is unknown owing to recent taxonomic splits.	eng
181390	distribution		<em>Otus rutilus</em> is endemic to Madagascar<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181390	habitat		<strong>Habitat </strong>The species inhabits a variety of habitats, ranging from primary and secondary moist forest and drier forest to thickets, humid bush country and urban parks, from sea-level to 2000 m<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
181390	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally rather common (Konig et al. 1999).	eng
181391	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be rare (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
181392	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant throughout much of its range (del Hoyo et al. 1999).	eng
181393	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181394	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181395	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).	eng
181396	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).	eng
181397	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181399	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be widespread and often common (del Hoyo et al. 2001).	eng
181400	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct repeated surveys across the range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Conduct ecological studies to improve understanding of its precise habitat requirements, tolerance of secondary habitats and response to fragmentation. Campaign for the protection of remaining tracts of lowland forest throughout the range.	eng
181400	distribution		<em>Pitta granatina</em> is confined to the Sundaic lowlands, where it is known from south Tenasserim, Myanmar (no records this century), peninsular <strong>Thailand</strong>, Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular <strong>Malaysia</strong>,<strong> Singapore</strong> (formerly), Kalimantan and north Sumatra, <strong>Indonesia</strong> and <strong>Brunei</strong>. It is locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
181400	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds between March and August, laying a clutch of two eggs. <strong>Habitat </strong>It is mainly found in dense lowland evergreen forest up to 600 m. It is also recorded from secondary and heavily logged forest, particularly in swampy areas, provided that dense understory growth and some canopy cover remains. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet is comprised mainly of insects, including ants, beetles, wood grubs and cockroaches. It also feeds on small snails and seeds from fruit<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
181400	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon to locally common' in Peninsular Malaysia, 'rare' in Thailand, extinct in Singapore, 'scarce' in Sumatra and 'widely distributed to locally common' in Borneo (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
181401	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known for the species, though it does occur in four protected areas in Bolivia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish ecological requirements. Identify and assess threats. Preserve an area of suitable habitat. Conduct further surveys for this species within its altitudinal range.</strong>	eng
181401	distribution		<em>Phyllomyias weedeni</em> has only been recently described, and is known from the lower Yungas of <strong>Bolivia</strong> and <strong>Peru</strong>. In Bolivia, it is known from three localities in La Paz department, one locality in Beni department, and a further locality in Cochabamba department. In Peru, it is known from Puno department, 1-1.5 km from the Bolivian border.<em> </em>A full population survey has yet to be carried out, however its population is thought to number far fewer than 10,000 mature individuals based on its low density and patchy distribution<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181401	habitat		This species inhabits the upper canopy of evergreen Andean foothill and lower montane forest. It has been observed in mosaics of shade-coffee plantations and remnant forest patches, although it is not known whether this habitat can sustain a viable population. Little is known about its behaviour. It has almost always been observed in pairs, except in early March in southeast Peru. Foraging appears to comprise of short aerial sallies to catch flying insects<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181401	population		The population has been estimated at well below 10,000 mature individuals based on low density and patchy distribution (Herzog <em>et al.</em> 2008), hence the band 2,500-9,999 mature individuals seems appropriate. More accurate surveys are required to precisely quantify the population size.	eng
181402	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181403	population		The global population size has not been quantified.	eng
181404	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
181405	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
181406	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
181407	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al. 2003).	eng
181408	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181409	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181410	population		The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure).	eng
181411	population		This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation).	eng
181412	population		This species has a very large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation).	eng
181413	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
181414	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'widespread but local, and uncommon to frequent' (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
181415	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common and locally abundant, although closely associated with human habitation (Madge and Burn 1993).	eng
181416	population		In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 3000000-6000000 breeding pairs, equating to 9000000-18000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 18400000-72000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
181417	population		In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 12000000-29000000 breeding pairs, equating to 36000000-87000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 73500000-348000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
181418	population		In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 46000000-91000000 breeding pairs, equating to 138000000-273000000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 282000000-1090000000 individuals, although further validation of this estimate is needed.	eng
181420	population		In Europe, the breeding population is estimated to number 210000-420000 breeding pairs, equating to 630000-1260000 individuals (BirdLife International 2004). Europe forms 25-49% of the global range, so a very preliminary estimate of the global population	eng
181421	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' in most of its range, 'uncommon' to 'locally common' in western Africa, and 'rather local' in eastern Africa (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
181422	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
181423	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common in most of its range (del Hoyo et al. 2004).	eng
181424	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is thought to be present in the Phou Hinpoun and Hin Namno National Protected Areas<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Conduct surveys to establish the range and population size</strong>	eng
181424	distribution		<em>Pycnonotus hualon</em> is known from Savannakhet province, <strong>Laos</strong>, although there is strong evidence that the species is also present in Bolikhamxai and Khammouan province<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
181424	habitat		This species occupies the middle and upper levels of karst outcrops, where soil is almost absent and vegetation is dominated by small deciduous trees and shrubs. It is thought to feed on fruits and berries<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181424	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but based on observations the species appears to be locally common.	eng
181425	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is reported to be fairly common (Baker 1997).	eng
181426	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The species is present in the Nonggang Natural Reserve<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Study the ecology of the species, particularly its ability to persist in other habitats. Identify, assess and mitigate threats. Ensure that the Nonggang Natural Reserve is effectively protected.</strong>	eng
181426	distribution		This species was described in 2008 from the Nonggang Natural Reserve, <strong>China</strong>, where it appears to occupy a limited distribution in karst seasonal rainforest of limestone in the Sino-Vietnamese border region in southwest Guangxi, China and adjacent Vietnam<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, although its presence in Vietnam is yet to be confirmed. Suitable habitat may extend into Yunnan Province<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181426	habitat		This species occupies karst seasonal rainforest of limestone. Extensive observational and netting surveys in forest in the non-limestone mountains of the Sino-Vietnamese border areas of south Guangxi since 2004 failed to record the species, indicating that it has very specific habitat requirements. Individuals have been seen foraging in gaps between two rocks by turning over fallen leaves, apparently preying on insects and other arthropods. Single-species flocks have been observed in winter<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181426	population		The population size of this species has not been quantified.	eng
181427	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>The Togian Islands have been declared a National Park<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish ecological requirements. Identify and assess threats.</strong>	eng
181427	distribution		<em>Zosterops somadikartai </em>is native to the Togian Islands, <strong>Indonesia</strong>. Its population size has not been quantified owing to its recent discovery, but is has been described as uncommon and localized, and the population is suspected to be declining owing to habitat destruction<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
181427	habitat		This species has been recorded in low bushes near mangroves, gardens, coconut groves, secondary shrub, and in logged-over forest from sea level to 100 m<strong><sup>1,2,3</sup></strong>. It typically roosts in shrubs which are 5-15 m tall. Its diet is comprised of insects, including caterpillars, which are gleaned from branches and beneath leaves. It forages in pairs or small flocks of up to five individuals, often visiting dense, low shrubs<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
181427	population		Its population size has not been quantified but is has been described as uncommon and localized (Indrawan <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
181428	distribution		This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 1,500,000 km?. The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'frequent' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.	eng
181428	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but it is believed to be large as the species is described as 'fairly common' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996).	eng
181429	distribution		This species has a large range, with an estimated global Extent of Occurrence of 88,000 km?. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population size criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. less than 10,000 mature individuals in conjunction with appropriate decline rates and subpopulation qualifiers), even though the species is described as 'uncommon' in at least parts of its range (Stotz et al. 1996). Global population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.	eng
181429	population		The population size has not been quantified, but the species has been described as 'uncommon to fairly common' (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
181431	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
181432	population		The population size is unknown, but the species is described common or locally common in throughout much of South-East Asia, very common in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia and common in Borneo and Sumatra  (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
181433	population		The population size is unknown, but the species is described as rare in Nepal and north-east India (del Hoyo et al. 2006).	eng
181434	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'common' throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2008).	eng
181435	distribution		<em>Passer motitensis</em> is resident in Angola, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181435	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Its breeding season extends from September to February laying two broods of 3-6 eggs. Nests are built by both sexes, and chick care is also biparental. It is less gregarious than most sparrows, usually being found in pairs and occasionally small flocks. <strong>Habitat </strong>Frequents dry <em>Acacia</em> savanna, and is not associated with man. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet includes seeds of grass and cultivated cereals. Nestling diet is animal food, including caterpillards.	eng
181435	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as 'locally common' to 'uncommon' (del Hoyo et al., 2009).	eng
181436	distribution		<em>Passer rufocinctus</em> is a resident breeder of the Rift Valley highlands from central Kenya to northern Tanzania<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181436	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>Breeding occurs in all months, but mainly between April and June, and November and December (coninciding with the rains). The nest is bulit by both sexes, and the female lays a clutch of 3-5 eggs. <strong>Habitat</strong> Occupies dry <em>Acacia</em> savanna, open wooded country, cultivated land, villages and towns, at 1000-3000 m. It usually forages in pairs, but sometimes in small groups of up to about ten individuals outside the breeding season. <strong>Diet</strong> Its diet includes grain, small seeds and domestic scraps. Insects are fed to unfledged young<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181436	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common throughout its range (del Hoyo et al. 2009).	eng
181437	distribution		<em>Passer shelleyi</em> is a resident breeder of south-eastern Sudan, north-eastern Uganda, western Kenya, southern and eastern Ethiopia, and north-west Somalia<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181437	habitat		<strong>Behaviour </strong>This species breeds in small colonies between September and November, and March and June. Nests are built by both sexes, and the female lays a clutch of 3-6 eggs (mean of 4). <strong>Habitat</strong> It is found mainly in open grassy savanna with trees at 1000 - 1700 m, but is also found in semi-desert and ligh woodland. Also found in a limited extent in cultivated land and in the vicinity of habitations, though it does penetrate into villages and does no associate with humans. <strong>Diet </strong>Little information, but presumably feeds on seeds and isnects.	eng
181437	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as moderately common in Ethiopia, fairly common in Uganda, rare in Kenya and uncommon to rare elsewhere (del Hoyo et al. 2009).	eng
181438	distribution		<em>Passer cordofanicus </em>is endemic to eastern Chad and western Sudan<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181438	habitat		<strong>Behaviour</strong> Breeding occurs between June and September in Chad, and September and November in Sudan. Lays a clutch of 3-5 eggs. <strong>Habitat </strong>Found in arid country, usually near villages and surrounding cultivated land.<strong> Diet </strong>Little information, but presumed to feed mainly on grains and seed<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.	eng
181438	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (del Hoyo et al. 2009).	eng
181439	population		It is abundant on Socotra, where its population has been estimated at c.250,000 individuals (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
181440	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No conservation action is known.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Study the ecology of the species. Identify and assess threats.</strong>	eng
181440	distribution		<em>Passer hemileucus</em> is found on the island of Abd al Kuri, Socotra Archipelago, <strong>Yemen<sup>1</sup></strong>. Birds were found to be fairly common in the main settlement, however most of the island lacks suitable habitat and the population has been estimated at fewer than 1,000 individuals<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>.	eng
181440	habitat		A flock of roughly 100 birds were sighted scavenging amongst refuse. Individuals are thought to roost in vegetation in the foothills of limestone mountains<strong><sup>2</sup></strong>. The diet is thought to include the seeds of grasses and small plants, and water is obtained almost totally from its diet<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>.	eng
181440	population		The population has been estimated at <1,000 mature individuals based on most of the island lacking suitable habitat (Ryan <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
181442	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
181443	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as uncommon (Borrow and Demey 2001).	eng
181444	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common or locally common (Clement 1999).	eng
181445	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>Inaccessible is a nature reserve and, although Tristan Islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano, other access is restricted<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. A management plan for the island was due for comment in 2000<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Carry out surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Conduct regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa to any of the islands by strict controls on visits and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Eradicate New Zealand flax from Inaccessible<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Evaluate the possible reintroduction of birds to Tristan da Cunha in the long term<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Nominate Inaccessible for World Heritage Site status<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>.	eng
181445	distribution		<em>Nesospiza acunhae</em> occurs on Inaccessible Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK) </strong>in the south Atlantic Ocean<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>. It became extinct on the main island of Tristan da Cunha before the end of the 19th century<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. It is abundant, especially on coastal tussock, with an estimated total population of 23,400 mature individuals comprising three distinctive colour morphs and a large number of 'hybrids' between these morphs<strong><sup>6</sup></strong>.	eng
181445	habitat		On Inaccessible, the upland form occurs primarily in fern-bush and wet heath between 300-500 m and has a brighter yellow/green coloration than the lowland form, which is found mainly in tussock-grassland on the coastal slopes<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>. It is probable that the variation in plumage between the forms is due to dietary differences<strong><sup>5</sup></strong>, with "bright" birds feeding more extensively in <em>Phylica arborea </em>woodland than "dull" ones, which feed predominantly on flowers and seedheads of <em>Spartina</em> species.	eng
181445	population		The species is abundant on Inaccessible Island, especially in coastal tussock, with the total population estimated at 23,400 mature individuals (Ryan 2008).	eng
181446	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>No specific conservation actions are currently known for the species.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r>Conduct surveys to obtain an up-to-date population estimate. Carry out regular surveys to monitor population trends. Minimise the risk of introduction of exotic animal or plant taxa, including soil pathogens that could affect important plant species, by strict controls on visits, and promoting awareness of the dangers of inter-island transfers<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>. Eradicate New Zealand flax from Nightingale and Inaccessible<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
181446	distribution		<em>Nesospiza wilkinsi</em> is restricted to Nightingale Island, Tristan da Cunha<strong> (St Helena to UK)</strong>, in the South Atlantic Ocean<strong><sup>4</sup></strong>. It rare on the island and may number between 50 and 100 pairs<strong><sup>2,3</sup></strong>, with other estimates suggesting fewer than 120 birds<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The total population has probably always been small<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>, but may have increased slightly since the 1950s.	eng
181446	habitat		It is largely restricted to areas which support some <em>Phylica arborea</em> trees, but also regularly occurs in tussock-grassland. The breeding season is from December to February, with nests located in clumps of vegetation near ground-level. The average clutch-size is 1.86; chicks are initially fed invertebrates, then <em>Phylica</em> seeds after a few days<strong><sup>3</sup></strong>.	eng
181446	population		The population is currently thought to be around 100 pairs (P. G. Ryan <em>in litt.</em> 2009), hence a population band of 50-249 mature individuals seems appropriate.	eng
181447	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181448	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
181543	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181543	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from a limited number of very dispersed populations. This species is found in temporary rivers, pools and swamps in western Sudan and Sahel Savannah areas. From the Gambia River system via the Niger basin to the Lake Chad drainage. An extension to the south to the Accra Plains in Southern Ghana. The complete range of distribution of this species is not known. Known distribution in Ghana: known from the upper reaches of the Volta, but also reported from Accra plains in southern Ghana . (Dankwa <em>et al.</em>, 1999)	eng
181543	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in temporary rivers, pools and swamps. This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory. 6.5 cm max TL. Bottom spawner, 1.5 month incubation.	eng
181543	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181543	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and drought.	eng
181544	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research is needed into this species taxonomy and distribution.	eng
181544	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gephyroglanis habereri</em> is only known from the type locality in the Dja River, Central Congo  River basin, Cameroon.	eng
181544	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181544	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181544	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181545	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181545	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in north western Cameroon in the following rivers: Noun, Djerem, Sanaga, Kéllé, Mape, Assamba, Mbam, Mekay, Meng, Nchi, Nkoup, Mvi, Mevobo, affluent de Kim and Mifi-Nord.	eng
181545	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181545	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181545	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181546	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181546	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura bovei</em> is limited to the Lower Congo. The type locality is Vivi, near Matadi.	eng
181546	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura bovei</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181546	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181546	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181548	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None	eng
181548	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181548	conservation	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution lies within the Malagarasi Ramsar Site. Population trends must be monitored.	eng
181548	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2003	Within the Malagarasi Ramsar Site.	eng
181548	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo parvus</em> is widely distributed throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other West African coastal basins (Lévêque 1990). It is also known from Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarazi River basin.	eng
181548	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other coastal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo parvus</span> is widely distributed in the Middle and Upper Congo River.	eng
181548	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2003	The species is known fromMalagarasi River and also found in Congo river system.	eng
181548	distribution	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Guninea to the Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo parvus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other West African coastal basins (Lévêque 1990). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in Chad, Senegal, Gambia, Volta and Niger basins as well as in the Ouémé and Mono Rivers and other coastal basins.	eng
181548	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic fish.	eng
181548	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo parvus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981).	eng
181548	habitat	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo parvus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981) where it grazes algae on firm surfaces.	eng
181548	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2003	Found in deep waters and  rapids where it grazes algae on firm surfaces	eng
181548	population	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Limited information available. Population sizes are not known, but it is rare in fisheries catches in Malagarasi River.	eng
181548	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181548	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181548	population	Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known, but rare in fisheries catches in Malagarasi R.	eng
181548	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181548	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181548	threats	Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on river basins.	eng
181548	threats	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins could threaten east African populations.	eng
181549	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181549	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys mediolateralis</em> is known from the upper Kwango River drainage and from the upper Kasai, Central Congo River basin, northeastern Angola.	eng
181549	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers and brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181549	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181549	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats of artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining activities in this region.	eng
181550	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	Information not available.	eng
181550	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known	eng
181550	conservation	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181550	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Dalophis boulengeri</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level it is present from Mauritania to Angola.	eng
181550	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Reported from estuaries along the African coast from Mauritania to Angola (Leiby 1990) Recently a specimen was identified more than 100km inland from a small tributary of the Kouilou River basin near Kakamoeka (Congo).	eng
181550	distribution	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found along the west African coast, from Mauritania to Congo. It is a very common species on sandy/muddy bottoms near estuaries, that ascends the lower courses of rivers and often enters lagoons<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Reported from estuaries along the central African coast. Recently a specimen was identified more than 100km inland from a small tributary of the Kouilou River basin near Kakamoeka (Congo).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common along the entire west Africa coast.	eng
181550	habitat	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	A common benthic species, burrowing in sand or mud in shallow waters, near estuaries and lagoons (Bauchot 1990, Leiby 1990). The species can swim upstream the lower course of rivers and enters estuaries (Bauchot 1990). A specimen has been collected in fully freshwater in the Kouilou River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalophis boulengeri </span>remains burrowed during the day, with only the head out of the sand, and swims freely during the night (Blache and Bauchot 1972). It is a demersal, mainly nocturnal species. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.	eng
181550	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	A common benthic species, burrowing in sand or mud in shallow waters, near estuaries and lagoons (Bauchot 1990; Leiby 1990). The species can swim upstream the lower course of rivers and enters estuaries (Bauchot 1990). A specimen has been collected in fully freshwater in the Kouilou River. <span style="font-style: italic;">Dalophis boulengeri</span> remains burrowed during the day, with only the head out of the sand, and swims freely during the night (Blache and Bauchot 1972). It is a demersal, mainly nocturnal species. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.	eng
181550	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Brackinsh and marine. Mainly nocturnal. During the day, this fish lies buried in the sediment with the head out.	eng
181550	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	Information not available.	eng
181550	population	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181550	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181550	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Information not available.	eng
181550	threats	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181550	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181551	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181551	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Nyong, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon), Ntem (Cameroon and Gabon) and Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).	eng
181551	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias longior</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181551	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181551	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181552	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181552	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Ogowe River drainage system and Estuaria de Gabon with the inflowing lower Komo River system in northeastern Gabon and the adjacent southern Equatorial Guinea. Also Cameroon, and Ghana to Benin.	eng
181552	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> is found in swamps, pools, brooks, streams and small rivers. It is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. <em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> occurs in calm and weedy parts of rivers, lakes, swamps and brooks. The Maximum TL is 10 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and fish (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) sexfasciatus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).	eng
181552	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181552	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181553	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181553	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181553	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. The taxonomy needs revision.	eng
181553	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Niger, in the Ogun, in the Cross River Basin and in the upper Chari. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross, Mungo, Wouri, Lokoundjé, and Lower Sanaga Rivers.	eng
181553	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Gnathonemus petersii</span> is apparently restricted to the Lower Niger, Ogun, Cross River basin and Upper Chari River basin<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Niger to Congo River basins.	eng
181553	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Central African Republic, and south to Angola and Zambia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross Mungo, Wouri, Lokoundjé, and Lower Sanaga Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Niger, Ogun, Cross basin and This species is known from upper Chari basin.	eng
181553	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs close to the bottom where it probes for food with the long snout. Territorial and usually aggressive towards members of its own species. This behaviour has been shown to involve electric organ discharge (EOD) activity (Møller 1995). Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989), probably aided by electro-sensory inputs (Møller 1995). The electroreceptors are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). Sex-related EOD characteristics in this species has been demonstrated in the laboratory with freshly imported samples during the breeding season; such EOD dimorphism changed with time in captivity (Landsman 1993, 1995). Lead nitrate in water significantly increased EOD rate and selectively altered the EOD waveform of this species (Prabhakar and Landsman 1994). Dubbed a `hearing specialist' having auditory abilities in the range of 100-2500 Hz, with `best frequencies' between 300 and 600 Hz (McCormick and Popper 1984).	eng
181553	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gnathonemus petersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs close to the bottom where it probes for food with the long snout.  Territorial and usually aggressive towards members of its own species.  This behaviour has been shown to involve electric organ discharge (EOD) activity (Møller 1995).  Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989), probably aided by electro-sensory inputs (Møller 1995). The electroreceptors are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). Sex-related EOD characteristics in this species has been demonstrated in the laboratory with freshly imported samples during the breeding season; such EOD dimorphism changed with time in captivity (Landsman 1993, 1995). Lead nitrate in water significantly increased EOD rate and selectively altered the EOD waveform of this species (Prabhakar and Landsman 1994). Dubbed a `hearing specialist' having auditory abilities in the range of 100-2500 Hz, with `best frequencies'  between 300 and 600 Hz (McCormick and Popper 1984).  Aquarium keeping:  in groups of 5 or more individuals; minimum aquarium size 150 cm; not recommended for home aquariums (BMELF 1999). It prefers streams and lakes to live.	eng
181553	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish. Territorial. Feeds mostly at night on worms and insects, probably aided by electro-sensory inputs as it posses electroreceptors which are distributed over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located.	eng
181553	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181553	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181553	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181553	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181553	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181553	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181554	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181554	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma acutirostre</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181554	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181554	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181554	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181555	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181555	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis labrodon</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin from Kinganga to Kisangani, and from the Ubangui and Lomami Rivers. Specimens from the Lower Congo are probably misidentifications of <span style="font-style: italic;">T. lateralis.</span>	eng
181555	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis labrodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989) and feeds on insects and their larvae, as well as on molluscs, plants and detritus (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
181555	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181555	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181556	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181556	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion lujae</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo basin.	eng
181556	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion lujae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks and small streams in the rainforest and gallery forest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181556	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181556	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181557	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181557	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus aviceps</em> is endemic to the Lower Congo River rapids.	eng
181557	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus aviceps</em> is a demersal species. It is found over rock, sand, or mud (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
181557	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181557	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181559	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181559	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Nye River (a tributary of the Ntem River) in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
181559	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis hirsuta</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a fast-flowing creek over a rock/pebble substrate (Ng 2004).	eng
181559	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181559	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181560	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181560	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma monogramma</em> is known from Luebo on the Lulua River, from rapids on the Lulua River, from Luluabourg, Kasaï region and from Tshikapa, Kasaï River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The species is thought to be more widespread in the region.	eng
181560	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma monogramma</em> is a demersal species with a maximum recorded TL was recorded of 9.7 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).	eng
181560	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181560	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181561	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181561	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181561	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pterochromis congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the right and left effluents of the Central Congo River basin. There is a doubtful record from the upper Shari.	eng
181561	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Upper Shari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Congo River basin.	eng
181561	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species.	eng
181561	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pterochromis congicus</em> is a demersal species with a minimum recorded TL of 17.5 cm (Daget 1991).	eng
181561	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181561	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181561	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to pollution.	eng
181561	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181562	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181562	conservation	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status.	eng
181562	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181562	distribution	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is known from the Congo to Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in swamps in the upper Zambezi system and in small forest streams in the extreme north west of Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is also found in the upper reaches of the Okavango, Kafue, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system (Skelton 2001).	eng
181562	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Upper reaches of the Okavango, Zambezi, Kafue and Quanza systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
181562	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from swamps in the upper Zambezi system and in small forest streams in the extreme north west of Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also occurs in the upper reaches of the Okavango, Kafue, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system (Skelton 2001).	eng
181562	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181562	habitat	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus brevidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found primarily in shallow, vegetated swamps, where it is often the only cyprinid species present, particularly in the most extreme swampy habitats of the upper Zambezi, where little or no open water can be seen (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
181562	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	Primarily shallow, vegetated swamps, where it is often the only cyprinid species present, particularly in the most extreme swampy habitats of the upper Zambezi, where little or no open water can be seen (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
181562	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	Abundant.	eng
181562	population	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	It is abundant within its range.	eng
181562	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181562	threats	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species at present, although drainage of swamps for agriculture might be a future threat.	eng
181562	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species at present, although drainage of swamps for agriculture might be a future threat.	eng
181562	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181563	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181563	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis salinicola</em> is only known from Mwashia (also spelt Moa Chia and Mwashya), a region of saline springs near the Lufira River below the barrage lake at Mwadingusha in Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181563	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis salinicola</em> is a benthopelagic species that only lives in a region of saline springs.	eng
181563	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181563	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. There are no threats known specifically for the saline springs.	eng
181564	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
181564	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the upper Cross system in Cameroon.	eng
181564	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus teugelsi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is most abundant in densely shaded rainforest streams.	eng
181564	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181564	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
181565	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181565	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys brichardi</em> is known from the Central Congo River drainage, including the shore region of Lake Tumba. The species is probably more widespread in the region.	eng
181565	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in weedy parts of small rivers, brooks and swamps in river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181565	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181565	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish anymore. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves. Since this is a small species (max. TL is 3 cm), it is assumed not be influenced by overfishing. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181566	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181566	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cognatum</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower (Inkisi River) and the Central Congo basin.	eng
181566	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cognatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps and pools in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. Is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181566	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181566	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181567	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181567	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181567	conservation	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
181567	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181567	distribution	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys spilauchen</em> is known from the mouth of the Senegal River to the mouth of the Congo River.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal waters from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Chiloango River and Lower Kwanza River - the latter being a new distribution record (Skelton P. and da Costa L., pers. obs.)<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is found from the mouth of the Senegal River in Senegambia to Nigeria.	eng
181567	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys spilauchen</em> is known from the mouth of the Senegal River to the mouth of the Congo River.	eng
181567	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Banded lampeye is found in coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, estuaries and mangrove swamps from the mouth of the Senegal River in Senegambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal River to the mouth of the Bengo River in northwestern Angola.	eng
181567	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	The species is present from the Senegal River to the Congo River. In Angola, the species occurs in the Chiloango River and Lower Kwanza River - the latter being a new distribution record (Skelton and da Costa pers. obs.)	eng
181567	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	The species occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches of the coastal area.<br/>Biology is not known.	eng
181567	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181567	habitat	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It occurs in brackish coastal swamps, river mouths, lagoons, and mangrove swamps near beaches (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986), only rarely entering fresh or marine water. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181567	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species usually inhabits brackish water, only rarely entering fresh or marine water	eng
181567	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181567	population	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181567	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181567	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
181567	threats	da Costa, L., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	It has commercial value as an aquarium fish.	eng
181567	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181567	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No threats are not known.	eng
181567	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181568	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181568	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northern Gabon and the adjacent part of Equatorial Guinea in the drainage systems of the Benito and Ogowe Rivers.	eng
181568	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Episemion) callipteron</em> occurs in small rivers and brooks in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Episemion) callipteron</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181568	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181568	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181569	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181569	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis parilus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River rapids. It is also known from Bolobo, Mongende and Boende in the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181569	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis parilus</em> is a demersal, rheophylic species. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
181569	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181569	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. This is a commercially important aquarium fish.	eng
181570	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Although fishery regulations are in place, implementation is lacking.	eng
181570	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	The species is known only from Lake Tana.	eng
181570	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates throughout the lake, primarily in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore mainly feeding on insect larvae, small molluscs, and detritus.	eng
181570	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The population is not known; however, it appears to be rare when seen from the catch composition at the southern Bahirdar Gulf.	eng
181570	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation appears to be the major threat for this species.	eng
181571	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181571	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys thonneri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181571	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181571	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181571	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181572	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181572	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura macrura</em> is only known from types from the Uamba and Cuilo Rivers, southern tributaries of Kasai, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
181572	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura macrura</em> is a demersal species with a maximum TL that was recorded at 11.3 cm.	eng
181572	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181572	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181573	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181573	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congochromis sabinae</em> is known from the central regions west of the Congo River in Congo (Central Congo River basin), and from the southeastern parts of Gabon.	eng
181573	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181573	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181573	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181574	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
181574	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species has been described from two syntypes caught in a coastal river at Mansoa Point, Guinea Bissau. Although it is reported from Guinée Bissau to Nigeria clarification on the species distribution is needed.	eng
181574	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 32.0 cm TL maximum size	eng
181574	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181574	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181575	conservation	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181575	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181575	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181575	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kribia nana</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from affluent streams in the Lower Congo, the Central and Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the Cross, Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem drainages and is probably widespread in Lower Guinea. It is also present in many West African water basins, from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also present in the Chad basin and the Nile.	eng
181575	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is known from the Niger River basin and along the western African coast from Guinea to the Cross River in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is a very widespread species ranging from Nile River, Lake Chad, and Congo River systems.	eng
181575	distribution	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is present in many west African water basins, from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also present in the Chad basin and the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kribia nana</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from affluent streams in the Lower Congo, the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the Cross Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem drainages and is probably widespread in Lower Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile and Nile rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Niger basin and along the Western African coast from Guinea to the Cross River in Nigeria.	eng
181575	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181575	habitat	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a small primarily freshwater eleotrid.	eng
181575	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small primarily freshwater eleotrid.	eng
181575	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181575	population	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181575	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181575	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181575	threats	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181575	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181576	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181576	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis macropterus</em> is only known from the Luongo River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Zambia.	eng
181576	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis macropterus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181576	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181576	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include dams for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream, and water withdrawal for agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams.	eng
181577	conservation	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In Mali there are fishing regulations in place that protect <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em>. However there is no other known protection. Policy based action and more research is required for this species.	eng
181577	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In Mali there are fishing regulations in place that protect <span style="font-style: italic;">Eleotris senegalensis</span>. However in Senegal there is no protection for the species from fishing.	eng
181577	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181577	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181577	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River at Cabinda province) system. No records south Congo mouth, but likely present.	eng
181577	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Kouilou in the south, though not apparently collected from between the Ogooué and the Kouilou. Elsewhere, widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to Angola.	eng
181577	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is present in fresh and brackish waters along the coasts of Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.	eng
181577	distribution	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Kouilou in the south, though not apparently collected from between the Ogooué and the Kouilou. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River, at Cabinda province) system. No records south Congo mouth, but it is likely to be present.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is present along the coasts of Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
181577	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Amphidromous, demersal and in fresh and brackish water. According to Albaret and Diouf (1994), the species has a sexual activity in lagoons where the stage of advanced maturation is very often observed.	eng
181577	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
181577	habitat	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris senegalensis</em> is a demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997). Ii inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. According to Albaret and Diouf (1994), the species has a sexual activity in lagoons where the stage of advanced maturation is very often observed.	eng
181577	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
181577	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181577	population	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181577	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181577	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
181577	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181577	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing is a threat to the species. Also, studies carried out by the OMVS on the evaluation of the effects on the environment of installations laid down in the basin of the Senegal River, show that when the course of the river has been suddenly modified (reduced flow etc), this species becomes locally extirpated or may take refuge in the reduced habitats in the affluent rivers if suitable.	eng
181577	threats	Bousso, T., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing is a threat to the species in western Africa. Also, studies carried out by the OMVS on the evaluation of the effects on the environment of installations laid down in the basin of the Senegal River, show that when the course of the river has been suddenly modified (reduced flow etc), this species becomes locally extirpated or may take refuge in the reduced habitats in the affluent rivers if suitable.	eng
181577	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
181578	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The most eastern part of the species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.	eng
181578	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Meme, Mungo, and Wouri Rivers in Cameroon.	eng
181578	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
181578	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181578	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).	eng
181579	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181579	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. lauzannei</span> is known only from the upper course of the River Lofa in Guinea.	eng
181579	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181579	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181579	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and sewage pollution.	eng
181580	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181580	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Shiloango River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
181580	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus shiloangoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in streams (Vreven 2004).	eng
181580	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181580	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181581	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181581	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus lufupensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Lufapa River, Shaba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181581	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus lufupensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181581	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181581	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181582	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181582	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe marmoratus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and from the Luila River, effluent of the Lukuga River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Including the Sangha River in Congo and the Central African Republic and the Ubangui system in the Central African Republic.	eng
181582	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181582	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181582	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe marmoratus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium fish.	eng
181583	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181583	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong basin in Cameroon.	eng
181583	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
181583	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181583	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181584	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
181584	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus punctatus</span> is distributed in eastern This species is known from upper Guinean basins from the St. Paul (or Diani) River system (Sierra Leone) to the Cavally River system (Liberia/Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
181584	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. Largest specimen observed, 215 mm SL.	eng
181584	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
181584	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The sub-population of Liberia and Sierra Leone are threatened by agriculture and mining activities, urbanisation and deforestation.	eng
181585	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181585	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181585	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Cross and Sanaga River basins and from upper Sahelian as well as coastal basins.	eng
181585	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species' distribution spreads from western Africa to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Cross and Sanaga River basins in Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is known from Guinea to Nigeria. This species has a wide distribution area, since it is known from the Sahelian as well as from coastal basins.	eng
181585	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It occurs mostly in forest rivers (Lévêque and Daget 1984). <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a polymorphic species.	eng
181585	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species (Reide 2004), that lives in streams and grazes on aquatic plants. The maximum TL was recorded at 11 cm. It occurs mostly in forest rivers (Lévêque and Daget 1984). <em>Barbus ablabes</em> is a polymorphic species.	eng
181585	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No available data.	eng
181585	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181585	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	In western Africa this species is locally threatened by deforestation. In central Africa it has commercial value as an aquarium fish.	eng
181585	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181586	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181586	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius moorii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is also widely distributed in Lower Guinea region, from the Sanaga basin to the Kouilou.	eng
181586	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. In addition to its widespread distribution, this species is also found in the greatest number of habitats: from rivers to streams, from rapids to still water, both deep and shallow.	eng
181586	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181586	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181587	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In Nigeria the species is protected within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures and habitat restoration.	eng
181587	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181587	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181587	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra ornata</em> is known from the Senegal River, and from Nigeria to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from the Niger to the Lower Congo River basin and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga River, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme basins but probably more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Senegal River in Senegal and Mali, and the upper course of the Niger.	eng
181587	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Garra ornata</em> is known from the Niger to the Lower Congo River basin and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga River, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme basins but probably more widespread.	eng
181587	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species has been has been reported from Niger River to Congo River systems. More information is needed on the exact distribution of the species within the region.	eng
181587	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra ornata</em> is a benthopelagic species of fast flowing streams. It is non-migratory.	eng
181587	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Garra ornata</em> is a benthopelagic species of freshwater.	eng
181587	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra ornatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181587	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181587	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181587	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181587	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In western Africa, deforestation leading to siltation, irrigation and dam construction all pose threats to this species.	eng
181587	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181587	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
181589	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181589	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Omo and Baro Rivers as well as Lake Tana.	eng
181589	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in running and standing waters.	eng
181589	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This is a very rare species.	eng
181589	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181590	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181590	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181590	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em> Parachanna africana</em> occurs from Southern Benin (Ouémé River) to the lower course of the River Cross including the Lower Niger Delta. It is also found in Togo (Hezou River).	eng
181590	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Parachanna africana</em> is only known from one locality on the lower Cross River, with a dubious record from Gabon. Elsewhere it is known from southern Benin (Oueme River) to the Niger Delta, Nigeria.  <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from south Benin (lower Ouémé River) to Nigeria (lower Cross River).  Also known from Cameroon.	eng
181590	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parachanna africana</em> is a benthopelagic species. The eggs of this species float to the with floating plants covered surface where they are guarded by the male.	eng
181590	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>Parachanna africana</em> is a benthopelagic species. The eggs of this species float to the with floating plants covered surface where they are guarded by the male. <em> Parachanna africana</em> is one of the two snakeheads found in Western Africa. This species possesses an air-breathing organ and so can survive hypoxic conditions. It is a carnivorous species.	eng
181590	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
181590	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181590	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Oil exploration is impacting the species in the Niger Delta.	eng
181590	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181591	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181591	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Okano River, a tributary of the Ogowe River, in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
181591	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis nasutus</em> is only known from the Okan River, in rapids. It is a demersal species, found in a whitewater river (Ng 2004).	eng
181591	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181591	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181592	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181592	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias nigromarmoratus</em> is known from the Kasai and Kwango River systems, Central Congo River basin in Angola.	eng
181592	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181592	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available	eng
181592	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181593	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181593	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mesoborus crocodilus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo River basin, it is known from Djoué, right affluent of the Congo just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
181593	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mesoborus crocodilus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 26.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
181593	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181593	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181594	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181594	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pelmatochromis ocellifer</em> is limited to the type from Monsembé, Central Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).	eng
181594	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181594	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181594	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181595	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181595	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>M. occidentalis</em> occurs in all basins of Côte d’Ivoire as well as in some basins of Ghana, Liberia and Sierra Leone. A savannah-dwelling form of this species inhabits the upper courses of the Rivers Niger and Volta	eng
181595	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum size 8.0 cm TL	eng
181595	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181595	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181596	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181596	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion castaneum</em> has a large range in the northeastern part of the Congo River drainage; according to Van der Zee and Huber (2006), some isolated populations are found in the Central Congo cuvette in tributaries of the Rivers Tshuapa, Lomela and of the Salonga River.	eng
181596	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion castaneum</em> prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm).	eng
181596	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181596	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181597	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181597	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis ocellifer</span> is from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Volta, Senegal, and Gambia. This species has also been reported from Lake Turkana, but we have not been able to confirm these reports.	eng
181597	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 49.0 cm TL. Maturity 11.1 cm TL for the male and 12.0 cm TL for the female in the Kainji Lake in Nigeria.	eng
181597	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181597	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181599	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181599	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus binotatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai, Lukénie and Ubangui systems.	eng
181599	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181599	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181599	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181600	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181600	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. levequei</span> is known only from the River Samou of the Konkouré basin in Guinea.	eng
181600	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum size 16.2 cm SL. This is a demersal fish	eng
181600	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181600	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181601	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181601	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus robertsi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Ubangui River basin.	eng
181601	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is collected mostly from the rapids. For specimens of the Lower Congo River basin (mainstream), water temperature was recorded at a range of 24.7-29.0°C, air temperature at 23.3-30.0°C, D.O. 8.0 mg/l, and pH 7.0-7.5 (Vreven and Teugels 1996).	eng
181601	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181601	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181602	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181602	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the headwater tributaries of Senegal River, near Ditinn and Mamou, Guinea. It is also known from the upper course of the Bafing River (Senegal basin) and the basins of the Konkouré, Corubal, Little Scarcies and the Fouta Djalon region in Guinea. (Occurrence records; In Guinea, Labe, Ditinn, Pita, Kasseri and Conakry (affluent of the Koumba), and in Sierra Leone, Mandu).	eng
181602	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
181602	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available	eng
181602	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Hydro-electric dams and installations is leading to a decline in habitat quality and quantity. The species is also threatened by drought, deforestation and overfishing.	eng
181603	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181603	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis variabilis</em> is known from the eastern Kasai and Sangha Rivers, from the Central Congo River tributaries and the mainstream Congo River from the region of Yangambi to the upper Lualaba River system. There have been found populations in the Luapula and Chambeshi River in Zambia.	eng
181603	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis variabilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an opportunistic benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that feeds on plants, insects and (to a lesser degree) molluscs (Lamboj 2004). This species is a female mouth-brooder (Gosse 1963, Stiassny 1989).	eng
181603	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181603	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181604	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat restoration is required.	eng
181604	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is inhabits the drainage systems of the Mono, Zio and Hedjo Rivers, originating in the Togo Hills in southwestern Togo and southeastern Ghana, and areas eastward across southern Benin, southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta, to the Cross River in southeastern Nigeria.	eng
181604	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It can be found in small rivers, quiet parts of larger rivers and brooks in the coastal rainforest.	eng
181604	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available on population trends.	eng
181604	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil spills and invasive aquatic weeds threaten this species, especially in Niger Delta.	eng
181605	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181605	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of the range of this species falls within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat restoration is needed.	eng
181605	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is found in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, from the Cross to the Ntem. Elsewhere it is found in the coastal basins of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. There are no records from the region in between Cameroon and upper Guinea.	eng
181605	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, and Cameroon. There are no records from the region in between Cameroon and upper Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is found in the coastal rivers of Cameroon, from the Cross to the Ntem.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal basins of the Guinean (Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone) region.	eng
181605	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181605	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Mormyrus tapirus</em> is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.	eng
181605	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181605	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181605	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Deforestation is a local threat to west African populations.	eng
181605	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181606	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181606	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181606	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181606	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is known from the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, and Lokoundje basins. <br/><br/>Elsewhere it is found particularly in the lower courses of rivers throughout West Africa (Geba, Tomine, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, Oueme, and the coastal lagoons of Nigeria).	eng
181606	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in lower course of several rivers, from Senegal to Cameroon. Lower Geba, Tominé, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, and coastal lagoons of Nigeria. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also from the Wouri, Sanaga and Lokoundjé in Cameroon.	eng
181606	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in lower course of several rivers, from Senegal to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is known from the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, and Lokoundje basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lower Geba, Tominé, Fatala, Great Scarcies, Jong, Lake Kwarko, Loffa, Volta, and coastal lagoons of Nigeria.	eng
181606	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species.	eng
181606	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded.	eng
181606	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe micropogon</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded.	eng
181606	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181606	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181606	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181606	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is threatened by overfishing.	eng
181606	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181606	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing threatens populations in western Africa.	eng
181607	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No conservation measure in place.	eng
181607	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Tekezze and Abbay River drainages of Northern Ethiopia .	eng
181607	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It prefers running waters with vegetation at shores.	eng
181607	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not known; however relatively abundant.	eng
181607	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No major threats exist.	eng
181608	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181608	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon miurus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.), Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Central Congo River basin and from one record from Kaswabilenga, right affluent of the Lufira River, This species is known from upper Lualaba.	eng
181608	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is found in large rivers and sometimes in rapids (Roberts 1986). Aquarium keeping: solitary, aggressive towards others (René König, pers. comm., 2004).	eng
181608	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181608	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181609	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181609	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys helicophagous</em> is only known from Tadi (near Inga) and from the Luozi region of the Lower Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).	eng
181609	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys helicophagous</em> is a demersal species, restricted to the mainstream. It mainly feeds on snails, which it swallows whole (Burgess 1989).	eng
181609	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181609	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None currently known, but given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
181610	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181610	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo chariensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from N'Kutu, Loango River, Chiloango.	eng
181610	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo chariensis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It is found in stony river beds and in mountain pools formed by small brooks (Bianco 1981).	eng
181610	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181610	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181611	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181611	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the type locality, the Mougalaba River (Nyanga system), in southern Gabon.	eng
181611	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181611	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181611	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181612	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
181612	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River basin.	eng
181612	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181612	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181612	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181613	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181613	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rasbora gerlach</em>i is only known from the type locality in Cameroon. This locality has not been specified any further.	eng
181613	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181613	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181613	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181614	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181614	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis carnosus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and Pool Malebo.	eng
181614	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis carnosus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181614	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181614	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in fove years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181615	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The locations on the Lufira River are located in the Upemba National Park.	eng
181615	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis elisabethianus</em> occurs in the Lubumbashi River at Elisabethville, at Kiubo in the rapids below the falls of the Lufira and Luwilombo Rivers and at the Ngoma River, below the Ntumbatushi Falls, all in the outer range of the upper Congo River basin.	eng
181615	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis elisabethianus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181615	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181615	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181616	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181616	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes manyangae </em> is only known from the type locality Manyanga, Kinkenda, Lower Congo River basin. One record has been made from Oshwe.	eng
181616	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181616	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181616	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is a major logging industry in the region. There has been found oil in the region, so there is a potential oil exploitation. WWF opposes this region has a rich biodiversity though.	eng
181617	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181617	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	According to Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> (1986) this species is found in Mé, Comoé, Sassandra River drainages in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also reported from Burkina Faso.	eng
181617	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in small bodies of water, pools and brooks in forested areas. It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 3.5 cm TL.	eng
181617	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181617	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threatened by agricultural and urban development, and deforestation.	eng
181618	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181618	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mawambi</em> is only known from the type locality Mawambi, Ituri River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181618	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mawambi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181618	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181618	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
181619	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181619	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias platycephalus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, except from the Lower Congo and the upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga and Kribi Rivers (Cameroon), the Ntem River (Cameroon/Gabon) and the Ogowe River (Gabon).	eng
181619	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias platycephalus</em> is a demersal species that is restricted to equatorial forest and galley forest rivers. It feeds on fish (Teugels 1986).	eng
181619	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181619	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181620	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181620	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is known from the Lower Niger, the Lower Ouémé, from coastal freshwater lagoons lying between these rivers, and from the Cross River.	eng
181620	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is only known from the Cross basin.<br/><br/>Elsewhere it is known from the Niger, Oueme, and intervening coastal lagoons.	eng
181620	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius buffei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
181620	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181620	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181621	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181621	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptoglanis bouilloni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been found in the Congo river at Yangambi, but this occurrence has to be re-examined. The distribution of this species could be larger.	eng
181621	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptoglanis bouilloni</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand and is hard to find.	eng
181621	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181621	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.	eng
181622	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
181622	conservation	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and ideal habitat maintained.	eng
181622	distribution	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops macrops</em> is known from the complete Congo basin, but records from the Lower Congo River need confirmation. It is found in the Lower Guinea in the Ntem, Como and Ogowe River basins.	eng
181622	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Malagarasi River.	eng
181622	habitat	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops macrops</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
181622	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
181622	population	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
181622	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
181622	threats	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
181622	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The main threats to the species is its restricted distribution that makes it more vulnerable to local habitat degradation.	eng
181623	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181623	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities between Moudouma and Komi, on the road from Mimongo to Koulamoutou, and a locality northwest of these near Iboundji, southeastern Gabon. All these localities are small creeks flowing to the Onoy River, a tributary of the Offoué River (Ogowe system).	eng
181623	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion passaroi</em> is only known from small creeks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory; species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) passaroi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181623	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181623	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
181624	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
181624	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181624	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181624	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Currently no specimens of this species are known from the scientific collections from Lake Turkana, but local fishermen have confirmed the presence of Hyperopisus bebe in the northern part of the lake (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Nile basin (up to Albert and Murchison Niles). <br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also known from the great Sahelo-Sudanian river basins of Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Benoue, Volta, Oeme, Ogun, Logone and Chari (Bigorne 1990) (Coupley 1958).	eng
181624	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hyperopisus bebe</span> is known from all Sahelo-Sudanese basins. Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Ouémé, Ogun, Logone and Chari.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Nile River basin (up to Albert and Murchison Niles).	eng
181624	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found only within the Nile, from Egypt to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species was previously caught from the entire Nile System in Egypt from Delta to Aswan, but is now only known from Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, the White Nile, Blue Nile,  and Nile to Lake Nasser in Sudan. It also occurs in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia.	eng
181624	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Inhabits both still and flowing waters, breeds in the flood season. Demersal species. It feeds on molluscs. Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive. Fecundity value of 18,924 eggs has been reported for this species.	eng
181624	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Inhabits both still and flowing waters. Feeds on mollusks (Bailey 1994) and phytoplankton (Copley 1958). Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but they are absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Moller 1995). It breeds in the flood season withup to 18,924 eggs reported (Narwar 1960) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181624	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is demersal and potamodromous. It inhabits both still and flowing waters, and breeds in the flood season. Food consists mainly of phytoplankton. It also feeds on molluscs and aquatic insects. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive.	eng
181624	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	In north Africa it is very rare, however at Khartoum it is said to be the commonest of all the mormyrids, occurring throughout the year and in large numbers during spring.	eng
181624	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181624	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
181624	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
181624	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181624	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	The main threat to the species are commercial fisheries (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181625	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181625	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Belonophago tinanti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181625	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181625	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181625	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181626	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181626	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris weeksii </em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Mweru-Luapua-Bangweulu system.	eng
181626	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
181626	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181626	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181627	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
181627	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Othochromis torrenticola</em> is known from the Lufira basin (This species is known from upper Congo River basin).	eng
181627	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Othochromis torrenticola</em> is a benthopelagic species, with mouth-brooding by the females.	eng
181627	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181627	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181628	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181628	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo greenii</em> is found throughout the drainage basin of the Congo River (Tshibwabwa 1997). Hitherto, thought to be restricted to the upper Congo but now recorded from rapid water habitats of the Lower Congo (Holly 1927). Specimens from the Sanaga River have been identified as <em>Labeo greenii</em> by Holly, 1927 and by Thys van den Audenaerde, 1970.These results have not been published though and are probably misidentifications (Reid, G. Mc., pers. comm.).	eng
181628	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo greenii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181628	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181628	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181629	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance may be needed.	eng
181629	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Ethiopia and Somalia south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is distributed in Ruaha-Rufiji system and rivers Ruaha, Pangani, Wami, and Rufiji.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Wabishebelle (Juba), Somalia, and Ethiopia	eng
181629	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	The species occupies open waters or the pelagic environment. It migrates up the rivers for spawning during the rainy season. It is carnivorous, feeding on invertebrates, especially zooplankton, snails and insect larvae.	eng
181629	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	Population numbers have been observed declining in Mtera dam (Chale and Mwaya 1984, Tamatamah 1996). Similarly a decline in population was reported for Mindu dam ( Bwathondi and Kulekana 1986). The species composed less than 0.14% of fishery catches in the systems where present (Fish.Div. 1994, 1996).	eng
181629	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing across rivers during the migration using illegal small mesh nets and other methods, siltation and land based pollution.	eng
181630	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181630	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Genyomyrus donnyi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin. It is also known from the Lukushi River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181630	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181630	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181630	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181631	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
181631	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181631	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181631	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, Bangweulu and Luapula-Mweru included. It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and the Malagarasi River basin (Eccles 1992).	eng
181631	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	The species is known from the Lower Malagarasi River.	eng
181631	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon to Zambia, and east into Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, Bangweulu and Luapula-Mweru included. It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika (Eccles 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower Malagarasi river.	eng
181631	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits large, slow flowing vegetated rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
181631	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus maculatus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits large, slow flowing vegetated rivers (Eccles 1992) with bands of aquatic plants. Omnivorous, but feeds mainly on plants.	eng
181631	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Riverine habitat with bands of aquatic plants. Omnivorous, but feeds mainly on plants.	eng
181631	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181631	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
181631	population	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
181631	threats	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	Fisheries pressure, and siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes threatens east African distributions.	eng
181631	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181631	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure, siltation and regresion of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.	eng
181632	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2003	None	eng
181632	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181632	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181632	conservation	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.	eng
181632	distribution	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> has a very broad distribution in the southern half of Africa, from the Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the upper Kasai system, Central Congo River basin, from the upper Congo system, and from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Malawi catchment as well as the Lower Shire River and Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta. It also occurs in the Rufiji system in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the upper and Lower Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, and the coastal systems of Kwazulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).	eng
181632	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias theodorae</em> has a very broad distribution. It is known from the Upper Kasai system, Central Congo River basin, from the Upper Congo system, and from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lakes Tanganyika, Kobo, Niumbe, and Malawi. It is also known from the Zambezi, Kafue and Shire Rivers, from the Chobe, Okavango and Cunene Rivers, from the Pungwe, Sabi, Lundi Rivers and from Zimbabwean tributaries of the Limpopo River and from Incomati, Pongolo and Umgeni Rivers and Lake Sibaya and the Umhloti River in Natal, South Africa.	eng
181632	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi catchment as well as the Lower Shire River and Lake Chiuta. Also occurs in the Rufiji system in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Cunene, Okavango, Upper  and Lower Zambezi as well as Kafue system.  Also found in the Limpopo and coastal systems of northern Natal.  Also occurs in the Zaire (Congo) system.	eng
181632	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Congo River system, Lake Malawi catchment, Rufigi River (Tanzania), Upper and Lower Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Kafue, and the coastal systems of Kwazulu-Natal (Skelton 2001).	eng
181632	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> is a demersal species that lives in vegetated areas in shallow and swampy places around the lake. Occasionally it is found in cataracts, hiding under rocks (Teugels 1986). It feeds mostly on insects (Coleoptera, ants, Chironomid larvae) (Teugels 1986; Konings 1990).	eng
181632	habitat	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias theodorae</em> is a demersal species that lives in vegetated areas in small swamps and streams. It also occurs in delta areas and lagoons of rivers. Occasionally it is found in cataracts, hiding under rocks (Teugels 1986). It is one of the species that is associated with floating islands that break adrift from peripheral marshes. Such floating islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi. It feeds mostly on insects (Coleoptera, ants, Chironomid larvae) (Teugels 1986, Konings 1990) and occasionally small fish.	eng
181632	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Prefers dense marginal vegetation or rootstocks along the banks of slow-flowing rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be common in swamps, closed lagoons and drying pools as well as small tributaries of the Upper Zambezi. Apparently absent in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries but found in the upper reaches of the Kafue. Feeds on invertebrates and small fish.	eng
181632	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Prefers small well vegetated swamps and streams. Occurs in delta areas and lagoons of rivers. Feeds on insects as well as small fish. It is one of the species that is associated with floating islands that break adrift from peripheral marshes.  Such floating islands may assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.<br/>A small species reported to reach a maximum  of about 35-40 cm in length.	eng
181632	population	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	A common species in suitable habitats.	eng
181632	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	A common species in suitable habitats.	eng
181632	population	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information.	eng
181632	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181632	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181632	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181632	threats	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Potential overfishing is a threat in eastern Africa.	eng
181632	threats	Kazembe, J. & Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is potential overfishing.	eng
181633	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181633	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo annectens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widely distributed in most basins.	eng
181633	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo annectens</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in flowing rivers.	eng
181633	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181633	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181634	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181634	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring only in the Mungo and Wouri systems, Cameroon.	eng
181634	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181634	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181634	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).	eng
181635	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181635	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion congicum</em> is only known from the type locality between the Kwango River and the Gamba River, southeast of Kinshasa.	eng
181635	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion congicum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is only known from brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181635	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181635	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181636	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Maintaining water level of rivers and streams is needed.	eng
181636	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to the Dirma River and one reservoir in Tigrai, northern Ethiopia.	eng
181636	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It prefers pools in rivers and reservoirs.	eng
181636	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not common (this species is rare).	eng
181636	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is threatened by the use of water for various purposes including construction of dams.	eng
181637	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181637	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from upper Volta basins in Burkina Faso (Mouhoun, Bougouriba - Black Volta and the Nakambe - White Volta).	eng
181637	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species, potamodromous.	eng
181637	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181637	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by drought leading to the reduction of the flows and currents, and water pollution.	eng
181638	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181638	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from the Baro and Wabishebelle basins, but has also been recorded from the Uaso Nyiro in Kenya close to Lake Baringo.	eng
181638	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181638	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181638	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181639	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181639	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus tshokwe</em> is known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin. It is probably more widespread than currently known. The recent study of Feulner <em>et al.</em> 2007 confirms the presence of this species in the main channel of the Lower Congo below Pool Malebo.	eng
181639	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181639	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181639	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181641	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181641	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus petchovskyi</em> is only known by the type; type locality: Alto Cuilo, Cuilo River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
181641	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus petchovskyi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.8 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181641	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181641	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181642	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181642	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Nannocharax niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct in Northern Africa, used to be found from Beni Suef, Luxor and Aswan.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River basin.	eng
181642	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is now only found within the Nile basin in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It used to be found from Beni Suef, Luxor and Aswan, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known in the Bahr el Jebel system, White and Blue Niles, and Nile, Sudan.	eng
181642	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is found in marginal vegetation, in flowing water. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces. It reaches an average length of 6 cm.	eng
181642	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is found in marginal vegetation, in flowing water. Picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces.	eng
181642	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181642	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	This is a rare species.	eng
181642	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181642	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181643	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
181643	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. Population trends need to be monitored.	eng
181643	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Lakes Albert, the Murchison and Albert Niles.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>confined to the Nile system and those lakes that were once connected to the Nile.	eng
181643	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	The range of <em>Barbus bynni</em> spreads from Egypt to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Lake Albert, and the Murchison and Albert Niles.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  It is common along the Egyptian Nile, Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome, as well as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Tekeze, Setit, Eritrea, as well as the Nile, Sudan, and several water bodies in Ethiopia.	eng
181643	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, ostracods, small algae, chironomid larvae and organic debris. In the Jebel Aulia Reservoir, annual spawning coincides with the onset of the floods. Fecundity estimates ranged from 72 x 1,000 at 33 cm (4 yrs.) to over 14 x 10,000 at 74 cm (8 yrs) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181643	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species feeds on crustaceans, insects, molluscs, ostracods, small algae, chironomid larvae and organic debris. The spawning season extends from March to April. In the Jebel Aulia Reservoir, annual spawning coincides with the onset of the floods.	eng
181643	population	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	Limited information available. In Egypt, its catch was first recorded during 1998 with 887 tones. Then the catch sharply decreased to 58 tones in 1999 and to 15 tones in 2000. Afterwards the catch increased gradually to be 860 tones in 2004.	eng
181643	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
181643	threats	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	For the majority of its range, there are no known threats, and it is not a commercial fishery species. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
181643	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	No known threats	eng
181644	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181644	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe River in Gabon.	eng
181644	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis polyodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181644	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181644	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181645	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181645	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found between Mouila and Bdede-Lebamba in the Ngounie and Nyanga Rivers in southwestern Gabon.	eng
181645	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion primigenium</em> occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) primigenium</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181645	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181645	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information on specific threats, but the general area suffers from habitat degradation.	eng
181646	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181646	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is only certainly known from the River Cross and the Lower Niger in Nigeria. It is possibly in the River Offin (Ghana) - the records need verification. It has also been recorded in Central African Republic but the records are old and need checking.	eng
181646	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This fish lives in streams and lakes and feeds on plankton, detritus and plants. It is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing.	eng
181646	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
181646	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There is localised habitat degradation but this is a hardy species.	eng
181647	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181647	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
181647	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
181647	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181647	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181647	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is known from the Nile, Niger and Volta River systems and from rivers of Guinea-Buissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers (Lévêque 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  Specimens of the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Tshambi and Gangala na Bodio (Dungu River), Aro River and Ndrige River have been identified as <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> by Poll and Lambert respectively. These data have not been published though.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile river is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Widely distributed from Ghazal el jebel systems to the White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). Also found in Omo River and Rift lakes, and Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  Widely distributed in the Chad, Niger, Volta, Bandama and Comoé. Full distribution cannot be mapped, more information is needed	eng
181647	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile River is unknown.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, White Nile, Lake No in Sudan, Niger, Volta Rivers systems and rivers of Guinea-Bissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers.	eng
181647	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> is known from the Nile, Niger and Volta River systems and from rivers of Guinea-Buissau. It is also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers (Lévêque 1990). Specimens of the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Tshambi and Gangala na Bodio (Dungu River), Aro River and Ndrige River have been identified as <em>Barbus stigmatopygus</em> by Poll and Lambert respectively. These data have not been published though.	eng
181647	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Fairly large extent of occurrence ocurring throughout the Lake Victoria drainage (Turkwell, Kerio and Kalakol Rivers) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished) and Lake Albert and Edward systems (Bannister 1987). Also recorded from the Lake Turkana drainage as Barbus werneri Boulenger 1905, a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). .<br/><br/><strong>Elsewhere in Africa:</strong> Nile, Niger, Volta Rivers systems and rivers of Guinea-Bissau. Also known from the Chad and Bandama Rivers and the Upper Nile system (Banister 1987).	eng
181647	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widely distributed in the Chad, Niger, Volta, Bandama and Comoé. Full distribution cannot be mapped, more information is needed<strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Nile.	eng
181647	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2003	Max size: 2.8 cm Sl (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181647	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181647	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is benthopelagic and potamodromous.	eng
181647	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
181647	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
181647	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181647	population	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2003	No estimates.	eng
181647	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181647	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181647	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181647	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181647	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181647	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181647	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2003	No known threats.	eng
181647	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181648	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2002	No information available.	eng
181648	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181648	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181648	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has no protection. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
181648	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from tributaries of Lake Tanganyika, upper Zambezi, Okovango, Cunene and Limpopo (Skelton 1993).	eng
181648	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Upper Zambezi , Okavango, Kasai River  (in Congo).	eng
181648	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai,  Zambian Congo and Lake Tanganyika (Skelton 2001).	eng
181648	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo south to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai, Zambian Congo and Limpopo (Skelton 2001).	eng
181648	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing riverine channels to lagoons or backwaters. <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> feeds on a variety of food including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish, and scavenges readily. It breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181648	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing riverine channels to lagoons or backwaters. It is, for example, common in the Okavango River in the Panhandle but is very scarce in the Delta (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003). <em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> feeds on a variety of food including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish, and scavenges readily. It breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181648	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Prefers rocks or marginal vegetation of flowing river channels (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). It is, for example, common in the Okavango River in the Panhandle but is very scarce in the Delta (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003). Scavenges and feeds on a variety of foods including detritus, algae and plant material, insects, snails and small fish. Breeds in summer rainy season (Skelton 2001).	eng
181648	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2002	Prefers rocky habitats and marginal vegetation in rivers. Feeds on a wide variety, including detritus, algae, plant material, insects, snails, and small fish.	eng
181648	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	A common and widespread species.	eng
181648	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181648	population	Natakimazi, G., 2002	No population estimates	eng
181648	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No population estimates, but a common and widespread species.	eng
181648	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
181648	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigromaculatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. In eastern Africa this species is also threatened by siltation.	eng
181648	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181648	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2002	The main threats to the species are fisheries and siltation.	eng
181649	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181649	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the type whose meristic features are very close to those of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. mento</span>, recorded from Niger River, (Debo and Kainji Lakes).	eng
181649	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish. Maximum size 25.0 TL.	eng
181649	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181649	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181650	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181650	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus lubosicus</em> is only known from the type locality, the Lubuzi River (Luala River tributary), Lower Congo system.	eng
181650	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus lubosicus</em> is a demersal species that is found in gallery forests.	eng
181650	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181650	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181651	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181651	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brachygramma</em> is only known from the type locality which is an affluent of the Lukinda River, upper Congo River basin.	eng
181651	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brachygramma</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181651	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181651	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181652	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181652	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found from southern Cameroon to northern Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, in the Ntem, Middle Okano, Middle Mvoung, and This species is known from upper Ivindo, and This species is known from upper Benito Rivers.	eng
181652	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion herzogi</em> is found in clear and sometimes fast flowing, brooks in mountain rainforest inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) herzogi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
181652	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181652	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181653	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181653	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species has been found in coastal basins, from Guinea (Konkouré) to Southeastern Nigeria (River Cross). It is present in the upper Senegal, but apparently absent from the Gambia and the Niger.	eng
181653	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthic fish.	eng
181653	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181653	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181654	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181654	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus humilior</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems though.	eng
181654	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181654	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181654	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181655	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181655	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma nanum</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga to the Chiloango River. This is the only species of <em>Microctenopoma</em> that is widespread and common in the Lower Guinea region.	eng
181655	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181655	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181655	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181656	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181656	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus atroventralis</em> is known from throughout the Congo basin, with exception of the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapuala-Bangweulu system.	eng
181656	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181656	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181656	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181657	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G.,Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181657	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181657	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G.,Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus kerstenii</span> is a widely distributed species in Africa from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya, south to Namibia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from Katanga, the Mweru-Luapula system and the Chambeshi system. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in Zimbabwe, mainly in strongly flowing waters. The type locality is situated in the Sabi River system, Zimbabwe. It has been reported from the Kafue River system (Kapasa and Cowx 1991). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Widespread species reported from the Pagani drainage, Lake Kanyaboli,  Athi and Tana River systems, northern and southern Ewaso Nyiro systems (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished). Also reported from the upper and Middle Akagera system, Lake Kivu drainage, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Edwards basins. Possible in the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile). Widespread throughout Malawi but not yet recorded in Lake Malawi itself. Also occurs in Lake Chiuta and Chilwa in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Save-Runde and tributaries of the Lower Zambezi (Skelton 2001).	eng
181657	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widespread in Central and East Africa, north to Lake Victoria (Greenwood 1962, Skelton 2001). In southern Africa, occurs in the Upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango, Save-Runde and tributaries of the Lower Zambezi (Skelton 2001).	eng
181657	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	Mountain and strongly flowing streams and vegetated fringes of large rivers (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also in some lakes, e.g.,  Lake Tanganyika in vegetated bays near river mouths (R. Bills, unpublished), and also in the brackish Lake Chilwa in Malawi (Tweddle unpublished).	eng
181657	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G.,Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is occurs in mountain streams and along vegetated fringes of large rivers (Skelton 1993). Permanent and even temporary fast flowing streams and inshore shallow waters in lakes. Feed predominantly on insect larvae (Greenwood 1966). In Lake Chiuta it prefers weedy, sheltered areas bordering fast flowing clear well oxygenated streams (Tweddle 1983). In Lake Chilwa it occurs in the lake which is saline and turbid (Tweddle, unpublished). It is recorded that it makes upstream migrations during rains to breed.	eng
181657	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G.,Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	In southern Africa, the species is generally common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy, although Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be scarce and patchily distributed in the Upper Zambezi system. Absent from the Kafue system. In eastern Africa, it is thought that the population is probably declining. According to old fishermen in Rwanda and Burundi, this small species used to very abundant in streams (in upper and middle Akagera system) before the extension of agriculture in river valleys, but it has since become very rare. These small fishes used to be very abundant in streams before the extension of agriculture in the associated river valleys (according to fishermen in Rwanda and Burundi).	eng
181657	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is generally common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy, although Tweddle <em>et al. (</em>2004) found it to be scarce and patchily distributed in the Upper Zambezi system. Absent from the Kafue system.	eng
181657	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Ntakimazi, G.,Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	In central Africa, overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. In eastern Africa water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension is thought to be having a negative effect on this species. In southern Africa, there are no known major threats known.	eng
181657	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
181658	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181658	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from the River Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire	eng
181658	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 4.6 cm SL maximum size.	eng
181658	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181658	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181659	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181659	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia baloni</em> is known from the Luongo and Kalungwishi River, Zambian Congo system.	eng
181659	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia baloni</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181659	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181659	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. The abundant water falls on the Kalungwishi River could be an attraction for tourists in the future.	eng
181660	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181660	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities in the savannah area in the vicinity of Mindouli, southern Congo (type locality).	eng
181660	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion zygaima</em> is only known from a savannah area. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) zygaima</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181660	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181660	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181661	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
181661	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius mandevillei</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin (Ubangui River at Bangui, Tshuapa and Lindi rivers and at Boende) and in the upper Congo River basin (Lufira and Nyonga Rivers and the Luapula River (Zambia)).	eng
181661	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181661	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181661	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181662	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181662	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Salmo akairos</em> is endemic to Lake Ifni (31°2'N, 7°53'W, altitude: 2,300m) in Morocco.	eng
181662	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It feeds on cyclops, terrestrial arthropods and filamentous algae and diatoms. It spawns in the lake. It reaches a length no larger than 20 cm.	eng
181662	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181662	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The species does not have any current threats. However it is potentially threatened by water abstraction as the lake currently supplies water for irrigation purposes to a nearby village and introduced alien species (rainbow trout).	eng
181663	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181663	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the inland Niger basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.	eng
181663	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum SL 36cm. Riverine bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.	eng
181663	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181663	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181664	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181664	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis polystigma</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
181664	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis polystigma</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181664	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181664	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181665	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181665	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic of the basin of Volta.	eng
181665	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum SL was recorded at 10.1 cm. It is oviparous.	eng
181665	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
181665	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation threatens this species.	eng
181666	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181666	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
181666	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The range of this species is partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. More information is needed on this species population range and numbers, as well as biology and ecology. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.	eng
181666	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in west and east Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River. It is also found on Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere it is known to occur in southern Nigeria.	eng
181666	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found on the coastal plains in rain and secondary forests in Southern Nigeria, also on coastal plains of Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also on Bioko Island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.	eng
181666	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon. It is also found on Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in west and east Cameroon, southward to the Lokundje River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found on the coastal plains in rain and secondary forests in Southern Nigeria.	eng
181666	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal rivers and brooks.  It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. The species occurs in small rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal plain rainforests and secondary forests. It is not a seasonal killifish. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181666	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts on sedimentary soil. It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is found in coastal plain rainforests and secondary forests. It is not a seasonal killifish. <em>Procatopus similis</em> is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181666	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a killifish with rayed opercula. It is occurs in small rivers and brooks, mainly in the streaming parts on sedimentary soils. Difficult to maintain in the aquarium. Non-migratory.	eng
181666	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available	eng
181666	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181666	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181666	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A major threat is oil exploration in the Niger Delta, as well as pollution and habitat degradation.	eng
181666	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available	eng
181666	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta locally threatens this species.	eng
181667	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no major threat for this species because it is known from the Upemba National Park.	eng
181667	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus upembensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Kalumengonga River, Upemba National Park, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181667	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus upembensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181667	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181667	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181668	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181668	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus langi</em> is only known from the type locality, Faradje, Uele River basin.	eng
181668	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181668	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181668	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181669	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181669	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus moeruensis</em> is known from Lake Mweru and from the southern end of the upper Congo River basin. The generic identity of this species is tentative, pending the availability of specimens for anatomical analyses.	eng
181669	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found amongst aquatic vegetation (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
181669	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181669	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181671	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, the last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181671	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria stappersii</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula River system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181671	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181671	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181671	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181672	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181672	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis balayi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu region. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in coastal basins from the Sanaga to the Chiloango.	eng
181672	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181672	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181672	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181673	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181673	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the upper reaches of the River Mungo (draining to the south) and the upper reaches of the Bake river, tributary of Munaya River draining to the north into the Cross River in western Cameroon.	eng
181673	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) cinnamomeus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover on soils of the basement complex and volcanic soils. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) cinnamomeus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1966).	eng
181673	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181673	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross location is possibly being impacted by deforestation. The upper Mungo River location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).	eng
181674	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181674	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys longibarbis</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) around Ubundu.	eng
181674	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181674	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181674	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181675	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181675	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe mandibularis</span> is found in the river basins of St. Paul, St. John, Farmington, Nipoué (Cess), Cavally, Néro, San Pedro, Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano and Pra.	eng
181675	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal species of 50.0 cm TL. It feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera) washed into the water and on mayfly larvae.	eng
181675	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
181675	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181676	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181676	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis lamberti</em> is only known from the type locality, Yangole, Lilanda River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181676	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis lamberti</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181676	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181676	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181677	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181677	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181677	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181677	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is found throughout the Niger and Congo basins (in the Lower and Upper Congo River basins, and in the Dja and the Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin), headwaters of the Chad basin in Central African Republic, and almost every river basin in Cameroon except the Ndian and Nyong Rivers. This species is probably heterospecific and represents a species complex. Records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C.batesii </span>in the Lower Congo need confirmation.	eng
181677	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is found in the basins of the Niger, Chad (Central African Republic), and Cross (Nigeria). Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is also widely distributed in the Congo basin and in coastal rivers of Southern Cameroon, but is absent to the west of the Niger.	eng
181677	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is found throughout the Congo basins (in the Lower and This species is known from upper Congo River basins, and in the Dja and the Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin), and almost every river basin in Cameroon except the Ndian and Nyong Rivers. This species is probably heterospecific and represents a species complex. Records of <em>C.batesii </em>in the Lower Congo need confirmation.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is found in the basins of the Niger, Chad (Central African Republic), and Cross (Nigeria). It has also been recorded in Guinea and Mali.	eng
181677	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
181677	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181677	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181677	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181677	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181677	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181677	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181677	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181677	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181678	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181678	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma ansorgii</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, verified from the Chiloango River (type locality). It has also been reported from the Nyong River drainage by aquarium fish importer P. Blowers (multiple sites in the general vicinity of Eseka, Cameroon; D.M. Armitage, pers. comm.), although no specimens have been verified. There is one record from the Niair-Kouilou system and one from the Lower Congo; these records need to be checked though. It has also been introduced to Madagascar and has established itself here (Lever 1996; Stiassny and Raminosoa 1994).	eng
181678	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181678	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181678	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181679	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181679	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic occurring only in the Sanaga River basin, Cameroon.	eng
181679	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus kolleri</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 21.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
181679	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181679	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181680	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181680	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus microstoma</em> is restricted to the Congo River system; absent from the lowland, central portion of the basin, distributed rather around its periphery (Norris 2002). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181680	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus microstoma</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002). Gut content from several specimens (150-220 mm SL) consisted of large amounts of plant detritus mixed with animal remains, mostly soft-bodied invertebrates. One specimen had ingested what appear to be large number of fish eggs along with sand. This suggests that this species is a generalist bottom forager, rather than a strict piscivore. (Norris 2002).	eng
181680	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181680	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181681	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181681	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus curvirostris</em> is known from the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo River basin.	eng
181681	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181681	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181681	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181682	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	More research on this species is needed.	eng
181682	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span>The species is endemic to western Africa and known from the rivers Kogon and Fatala (Guinea).	eng
181682	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available	eng
181682	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181682	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181683	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181683	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This killifish is restricted to the brooks and small streams in the rain forest between the Cavally and Cess (Nipoué) rivers in Eastern Liberia.	eng
181683	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species inhabits brooks and small streams in the rain forest.	eng
181683	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181683	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural activities.	eng
181684	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research into range is needed.	eng
181684	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly contained within the Korup National Park.	eng
181684	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is parlty contained within the Korup National Park. Research into range is needed.	eng
181684	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong> Central Africa assessmen</strong><em>t: Pollimyrus adspers</em>us is only known from Boma and Matadi, Lower Congo River basin and  from the Lilanda River in Yangole and from KisanganIn Lower Guinea, <em>Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is known from both the Cross River and the Wouri. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins. In seems  to have replaced Pollimyrus isidori in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers of West Africa. It is also known  from the Mono River in Togo and the Ouémé River in Benin (Lévêque <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
181684	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus adspersus</span> is widely distributed from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins, Mono River in Togo and Ouémé in Bénin to Southern Nigeria. It seems to have replaced <span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus isidori </span>(continental) in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers in western Africa but have reported from Niamey in Niger and Sokoto River (Nigeria). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also known from the Congo basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181684	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Ghana to the Democratic Republic of Congo. In seems to have replaced <em>Pollimyrus isidori</em> in the coastal basins or in the lower reaches of rivers of West Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em> Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is present at Boma and Matadi, Lower Congo River basin and in the Lilanda River in Yangole and from Kisangan. In Lower Guinea, <em>Pollimyrus adspersus</em> is known from both the Cross River and the Wouri. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from the coastal fringes of the Volta basins, Mono River in Togo and Ouémé in Bénin to Southern Nigeria	eng
181684	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.	eng
181684	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181684	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.	eng
181684	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181684	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181684	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Deforestation, agriculture and urban development are local threats.	eng
181684	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation, agriculture and urban development are local threats.	eng
181684	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181685	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181685	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181685	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181685	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Siluranodon auritus</em> is rare, and used to be found in the Nile from Delta, Cairo, Luxor and Aswan.<br/><br/>Globally, apart from the Nile, it is also present in Chad, Niger, Volta and Comoe.	eng
181685	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Siluranodon auritus</span> is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, and Comoé. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, it occurs in the Nile.	eng
181685	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north along the Nile to the delta.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  Rare. Used to be found in the Nile from Delta, Cairo, Luxor and Aswan. Now it is only found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile and Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Siluranodon auritus</em> is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, and Comoé.	eng
181685	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish that occurs beneath fringing Eichornia. It feeds on zooplankton, chironomids and debris.	eng
181685	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In the Sudd, they occur beneath fringing Eichornia. Stomach of fish examined contained zooplankton, chironomids and debris. Oviparous, eggs are unguarded. Spawning takes place in summer.	eng
181685	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	In the Sudd, they occur beneath fringing <em>Eichornia</em>. Stomach of fish examined contained zooplankton, chironomids and debris. Oviparous, eggs are unguarded. Spawning takes place in summer. The largest specimens are about 18 cm long.	eng
181685	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181685	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181685	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181685	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
181685	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181685	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181686	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181686	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax jobaerti</em> is known from the Kasai River basin and from the Lukenie River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181686	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax jobaerti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in weedy parts near the banks of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1988). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1966).	eng
181686	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181686	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Logging poses a threat to the species in the Lukenie River.	eng
181687	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181687	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species has a limited range of distribution in the border area of western Sierra Leone and southern Guinea.	eng
181687	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish occurs in shallow brooks and temporary swamps. Maximum size 8 cm TL. It is a bottom spawner, 3 months incubation. The species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
181687	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181687	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181688	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181688	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
181688	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181688	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181688	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> naturally occurs from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966) the species has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon. Its presence is not confirmed by museum records. It is unknown whether the species is established or not.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the northern part of the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. It also occurs in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> occurs in the basins of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad.	eng
181688	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> has been recorded in the Nile. It is rare in Lake Nasser (out of the region).<br/><br/>It s global range comprises the White Nile, Niger, Volta, Chad, Senegal and Gambia basins and Lake Rudolf in Kenya.	eng
181688	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnarchus niloticus</span> occurs in the basins of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside the region also in the Nile and Lake Turkana.	eng
181688	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	The species is known from the Lake Turkana basin (northern part) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).	eng
181688	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia river) this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m. Here the eggs are laid and later guarded by one of the parents. Distinct pairing. It lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs and the larvae hatch after 5 days (Budgett 1901). It feeds on crustaceans, insects, snails, frogs and fish (Bailey 1994). During the day it hides in holes or close to the roots of water plants. This species possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail (Bennet 1971), and is also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception (Szabo 1974). It showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C (Lissmann 1958). <em>Gymnarchus niloticus</em> breeds in well-vegetated, marginal areas of swamps and rivers, where a large, floating nest, about 1 m in diameter is constructed.	eng
181688	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia river) this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m. It lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs and the larvae hatch after 5 days (Budgett 1901). Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish (Bailey 1994). Possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail (Bennet 1971). Also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception (Szabo 1974). Showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C (Lissmann 1958).	eng
181688	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	The fish is active during night, feeding on small fish, frogs, snails and aquatic insects. During the day it hides in holes or close to the roots of water plants. It is a demersal and potamodromous species. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia River), this species builds large elliptical floating nests, about 1 m in diameter, in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m; lays about 1000 'amber-like' eggs. Here the eggs are laid and later guarded by one of the parents. It possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail.	eng
181688	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is found in streams, marshes/swamps. Migrates for reproduction. Following flooding of the river banks (Gambia River), this species builds large elliptical floating nests in densely vegetated swamps at depths of about 1-1.5 m; lays about 1000 amber-like eggs; larvae hatching after 5 days. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish. Possesses an electric organ that extends along almost the entire trunk to the tip of the tail. Also equipped with ampullary receptors and two types of tuberous receptors for electroreception. Showed increased electric organ discharge (EOD) rate by 50-60 Hz between 21 and 31°C.	eng
181688	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181688	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181688	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
181688	population	Vreven, E., 2003	Unknown	eng
181688	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation and drought are local threats	eng
181688	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	Overfishing.	eng
181688	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181688	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a commercially important species in central Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Deforestation and drought are local threats in western Africa.	eng
181689	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181689	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo sorex</em> has an apparently disjunct distribution and is known from the Lower Congo, and the central reaches (Kisangani) of the Congo River. Possibly, it also occurs in the rapids of the Central Congo area (Reid, Mc. G., pers. comm.).	eng
181689	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo sorex</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is only known from the rapids of the Congo River where it appears most adapted. Among its adaptations are the reduce diameter of the eyes; the dorso-laterally flattened shape of the head, the very large lips which are apparently adapted for suction; the latero-ventral arrangement and form of the paired fins which is largely extended and compressed; and the blue or bluish colouration (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
181689	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181689	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
181690	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181690	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from the type locality, river Via, Saint Paul’s River drainage, Liberia.	eng
181690	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a pelagic species; Maximum size 8.1 cm SL	eng
181690	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
181690	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and mining threaten this species.	eng
181691	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181691	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from basins of Chad and Niger (including the Benue). The species cannot be fully mapped, more information is needed.	eng
181691	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 45.0 cm SL.	eng
181691	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181691	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is locally impacted by deforestation and agricultural expansion.	eng
181692	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181692	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
181692	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a more or less benthic insectivorous species (Froese and Garilao 2002).	eng
181692	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181692	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis decorus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
181693	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181693	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the rivers Cavally and Nipoué (Cess) (Côte d’Ivoire/Liberia). It has also been collected in the upper courses of the St. John River in Liberia	eng
181693	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic fish with 27.0 cm TL	eng
181693	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181693	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181694	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181694	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys okae</em> is known from upstream in tributaries of the Central Congo River basin: the Oka River, the Kululu River at Ikela and the Bowa River.	eng
181694	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181694	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181694	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181695	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181695	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also known from the Ogowe, Nyanga, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers in the Lower Guinea region.	eng
181695	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is a demersal species. It is a schooling fish (Burgess 1989).	eng
181695	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181695	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pareutropius debauwi</em> is commercially used as an aquarium fish.	eng
181696	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the distribution of the species is situated in the Korup National Park.	eng
181696	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of the distribution of the species is situated in the Korup National Park. Habitat maintenance and conservation is needed.	eng
181696	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em> is limited to the coastal rainforest of southwestern Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is occurring in southern Nigeria.	eng
181696	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is restricted to Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax sjoestedti</em> is limited to the coastal rainforest of southwestern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the coastal rivers and swamps of southern Nigeria.	eng
181696	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em> is limited to habitats on the sedimentary soils of the coastal rainforest. It is found in temporary swamps and pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the swampy coastal rainforest (Wildekamp<em> et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em>is  not a seasonal killifish.  It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is easy to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181696	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax sjoestedti</em> is limited to habitats on the sedimentary soils of the coastal rainforest. It is found in temporary swamps and pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the swampy coastal rainforest (Wildekamp<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) sjoestedti</em>is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is easy to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181696	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181696	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181696	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in Cameroon. In Nigeria, it is threatened by habitat degradation from agriculture, urban development and oil exploration.	eng
181696	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.	eng
181697	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181697	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. Taxonomic revision may be needed, and the population and range details for this species should be established.	eng
181697	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Known from the River system, Volta basin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali and Nigeria.	eng
181697	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only certainly known by the type specimen. Other specimens of this species have been misidentified. It was previously thought to be known from the Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Ouémé basins, but it may just be endemic to the Niger basin.	eng
181697	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal species that eats fish (Vivien 1991).	eng
181697	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is demersal, where it occurs in streams less than 12 m depth. It preys on small fish, particularly <em>Alestes</em> spp; also feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs and vegetable matter.	eng
181697	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181697	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181697	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181697	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat. Other threats include increasing levels of agrochemicals from farming activities in the areas around the water bodies and effluents from mining activities in some areas.	eng
181698	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181698	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower, This species is known from upper and Central Congo River basin (except in central forest). It has been introduced into the Philippines in 1994 (ASAP 1996). It is not certain that has established itself though.	eng
181698	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is often sold as 'angel cats' (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991). This species is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181698	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181698	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis angelicus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
181699	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181699	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is presently known only from some small streams and rivers in the drainage systems of the Mamou River and the upper Little Scarcies River, in South Central Guinea.	eng
181699	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish, occurs in small river and brooks. Maximum size 3.5 cm TL	eng
181699	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181699	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. There is a potential threats of deforestation	eng
181700	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181700	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Guinea (Forecariah River basin) and Sierra Leone.	eng
181700	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181700	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181700	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In Sierra Leone are threatened by agriculture and mining activities, urbanisation and deforestation.	eng
181701	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181701	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Ivindo, Ogowe, Nyanga and Kouilou River basins in Gabon and Congo.	eng
181701	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181701	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181701	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181702	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found within Park of Pendjari.	eng
181702	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality in the Volta basin in the Pendjari river in a protected area in Benin.	eng
181702	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species found in streams.	eng
181702	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181702	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181703	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181703	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic common in the Ivindo River of Gabon, the type locality.  It is also reported from the lower Ntem River of Cameroon, although it is considered rare.	eng
181703	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181703	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181703	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. The population on the Lower Ivindo is threatened by iron mining.	eng
181704	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181704	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia nyongana</em> is known from the Dja River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nyong, Ntem, Komo and Ogowe Rivers.	eng
181704	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181704	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181704	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181705	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181705	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181705	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181705	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is only found in the Cross River basin. <br/>Elsewhere, it is common throughout most of the great sahélo-soudanian basins (Senegal, Gambie, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad).  Also known from the White Nile (Gosse 1984).	eng
181705	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the majority of the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins (Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé, Chad). Its distribution area is mainly continental and it is rarely found in the lower courses of these basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, also in the White Nile.	eng
181705	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is only found in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and jebel systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is common in the majority of the large Sahelo-Sudanese basins (Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé, Chad). Its distribution area is mainly continental and it is rarely found in the lower courses of these basins.	eng
181705	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brevimyrus niger</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits fringing vegetation in the Sudd and migrates onto the floodplain to spawn. This species is a bottom feeding insectivore (Bailey 1994). <em>Brevimyrus niger</em> possesses electro receptors over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is also sensitive to sound frequencies (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1981).	eng
181705	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brevimyrus niger</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits fringing vegetation in the Sudd and migrates onto the floodplain to spawn. This species is a bottom feeding insectivore (Bailey 1994). <em>Brevimyrus niger</em> possesses electro receptors over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is also sensitive to sound frequencies (Kramer <em>et al.</em> 1981).	eng
181705	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits fringing vegetation in the Sudd and migrates onto the floodplain to spawn. Feeds on detritus, plants, benthic and planktonic organisms. Possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the dorsal and ventral regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Also sensitive to sound frequencies.	eng
181705	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181705	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181705	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181705	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation and drought.	eng
181705	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Deforestation and drought could threaten this species in western Africa.	eng
181705	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181706	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181706	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, presently only known from two localities at the road from Lastoursville to Moanda in the rainforest of the Lekoudi River basin in southwestern Gabon.	eng
181706	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion tirbaki</em> is found in brooks and small streams in rainforest. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181706	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181706	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is threatened by commercial manganese mining and urban and agricultural pollution. Iron mining is a potential threat to this species.	eng
181707	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181707	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus microps</em> is known throughout the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from the Boumba River, Dja River basin, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon and from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). Records from outside the Lower Congo need confirmation.	eng
181707	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181707	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181707	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181708	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181708	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus ubangensis</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Two records have been made of the Ulindi and Lufira Rivers, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181708	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus ubangensis</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on mud and small fishes (Ankei 1989). Mostly caught at night over muddy bottoms (Gosse 1963).	eng
181708	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181708	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181709	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181709	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas batesii</em> is known from the Dja River. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region from the Sanaga and Nyong Rivers.	eng
181709	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas batesii</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
181709	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181709	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181710	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
181710	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the rivers Volta and Pra, and probably also occurs in some small coastal basins.	eng
181710	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181710	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181710	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats of this species are invasive weeds, sedimentation, deforestation and drought in its area of distribution.	eng
181711	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181711	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span> is widely distributed in West Africa: Niger, Senegal and Volta, as well as in some coastal basins: Konkouré, Kolenté and Little Scarcies (Guinea and Sierra Leone), Pra (Ghana) and Sassandra (Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
181711	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 6.2 cm TL maximum size.	eng
181711	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181711	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
181712	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181712	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congothrissa gossei</em> is known from the Bangui fish market and from Mobaye, Ubangui River basin and from Yaekela, near Yangambi and Central Congo River basin.	eng
181712	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congothrissa gossei</em> is a pelagic species that is apparently found in the main stream. It feeds on small shrimps and on larvae of mosquito and chironomids.	eng
181712	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181712	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181713	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181713	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181713	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids near Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from Kinshasa and from the Nutile River. It is also known from the Kwango River and from the Ndjili River. Elsewhere, it is known from the type locality N'Zerekore in the Gbin River, Saint John River basin on the border of Guinea and Liberia.	eng
181713	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Guinea and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is present in the Kinsuka rapids near Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from Kinshasa and from the Nutile River. It is also found in the Kwango River and the Ndjili River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the type locality N'Zerekore in the Gbin River, Saint John River basin on the border of Guinea and Liberia.	eng
181713	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is an oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and demersal species.	eng
181713	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis polli</em> is an oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and demersal species.	eng
181713	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181713	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181713	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181713	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181714	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181714	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus affinis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from Kitutu, Lubushwa River, Mwenga territory, Kivu.	eng
181714	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181714	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181714	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181715	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181715	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the mouth of the Gambia river southward to the area around Port Loko, southeastern Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Senegal.	eng
181715	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory. This species occurs in pools, swamps, brooks and small streams in the forested coastal savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
181715	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181715	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pollution and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
181716	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181716	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	No information available.	eng
181716	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, uses and harvest levels, and cultural relevance, as well as monitoring of populations trends and potential conservation measures. Habitat maintenance and conservation may also be needed.	eng
181716	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181716	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Citharinus latus</em> is rare in the Egyptian upper Nile, from Beni Suef southwards.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser in Egypt, Casamance in Senegal, Niger, Volta in Uganda, the Chad basin and certain coastal rivers in Guinea-Bissau, Togo and Benin. Also present in Lower Nile to Bahr El-Jebell and Lake Mobutu Sese Seko (Lake Albert).	eng
181716	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Known only from Lake Albert<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout west, central and north Africa.	eng
181716	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the rivers Senegal, Casamance, Niger, Volta, Chad, and from some coastal rivers of Guinea Bissau, Togo and Benin ( Laleye  <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span>  2004).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also in the Nile and Lake Albert (Daget 1984).	eng
181716	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is wide ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia, and found throughout the Nile excluding the Nile delta.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in Egyptian upper Nile; from Beni Suef southwards, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems; White Nile, Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. Also found in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the rivers Senegal, Casamance, Niger, Volta, Chad, and from some coastal rivers of Guinea Bissau, Togo and Benin. (Laleye <em>et al.</em> 2004)	eng
181716	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. It feeds on small prey, insects, cladocerans, microscopic algae and vegetation. It is common in winter. It reaches a length up to 42 cm.	eng
181716	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	Probably occupies similar habitats as Citharinus citharus citharus, namely, the shallow inshore waters of Lake Albert. It is absent or rare in the deeper waters. No information was available on food habitats and reproductive biology.	eng
181716	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. Ingests mud containing benthic and sedimented algae (Holden and Reed 1972). Feeds on phytoplankton, aufwuchs, detritus and benthic animals.	eng
181716	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is occurs in open water and vegetation beds of lakes and flowing water. Ingests mud containing benthic and sedimented algae (Holden and Reed 1972). Also feeds on phytoplankton, aufwuchs, detritus and benthic animals. In the Sudd, <em>C. latus</em> spawns in the perennial wetland at high water.	eng
181716	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181716	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181716	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	No population estimates	eng
181716	population	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No population estimates available.	eng
181716	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
181716	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181716	threats	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Other threats include invasive aquatic weeds, deforestation, sedimentation and drought.	eng
181716	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Other threats include invasive aquatic weeds, deforestation, sedimentation and drought.	eng
181717	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
181717	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181717	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has some protection in game reserves.	eng
181717	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in game reserves in southern Africa.	eng
181717	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is known from the southern Congo River system, (Lualaba and Kasai Rivers and from the Luapula system). Elsewhere, it is known from eastern Angola (Cunene, Cubanga Rivers), northeastern Botswana (Chobe and Okavango Rivers), Zambia (Kafue and Luapula Rivers), northern Zimbabwe (Zambezi River), Malawi (Shire), Mozambique and Namibia (Huber 2006). It is also known from northeastern South Africa to Natal.	eng
181717	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Within the region it only occurs in Malawi, in the Lower Shire River.<br/><br/>Elsewhere it is common being recorded from the Cunene and Okavango systems, Zambezi system as well as the Mozambique coastal plain and the Richards Bay area in Natal. Also known from the Lufira, Luapula and Zambian Zaire (Congo) systems	eng
181717	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, to the Mozambique coastal plain, extending southwards to KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). It appears to be absent from the Middle Zambezi, but is common in the Lower Zambezi system, such as the Lower Shire marshes (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Also in the Zambian Congo system.	eng
181717	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is found in the southern Congo River system (Lualaba and Kasai Rivers and from the Luapula system). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within the east Africa region it only occurs in Malawi, in the Lower Shire River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from eastern Angola (Cunene, Cubanga Rivers), northeastern Botswana (Chobe and Okavango Rivers), Zambia (Kafue and Luapula Rivers), northern Zimbabwe (Zambezi River), Malawi (Shire), Mozambica and Namibia (Huber 2006). It is also known from northeastern South Africa to Natal.	eng
181717	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in shallow and weedy parts of small rivers, brooks and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986), but is uncommon in floodplains. It feeds on insect larvae, daphnia and other small invertebrates. It is a serial spawner and lays eggs on vegetation. This species is useful as a mosquito control agent (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181717	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys katangae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in shallow and weedy parts of small rivers, brooks and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986), but is uncommon in floodplains. It feeds on insect larvae, daphnia and other small invertebrates. It is a serial spawner and lays eggs on vegetation. This species is useful as a mosquito control agent (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181717	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Prefers quiet, vegetated habitats and primarily found in tributaries of the Zambezi. Also occurs in backwaters and shallow, vegetated fringes of the main Zambezi channel and on the floodplain over flooded vegetation.Also in small forested streams near the Zambezi source. Not found in rocky or fast-flowing stretches of river (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Feeds on small invertebrates. Serial spawner, laying eggs on vegetation (Skelton 2001).	eng
181717	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	This species is very common throughout marshes and lagoons as well as in vegetation fringing the main river.  Feeds on insect larvae and daphnia as well as other small invertebrates.  This species is a serial spawner and lays its eggs on vegetation.	eng
181717	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
181717	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181717	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181717	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Widespread and abundant.	eng
181717	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	None known.	eng
181717	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threats to the species is sedimentation in rivers and streams leading to habitat degradation.	eng
181717	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This is a commercially important aquarium fish. It is also threatened by sedimentation in rivers and streams leading to habitat degradation.	eng
181717	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181718	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181718	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurs in the lower Sanaga and Wouri River systems in western Cameroon. This probably represents a relict distribution.	eng
181718	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion franzwerneri</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory; species. It occurs in very small pools, shallows in swamps and shallow swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) franzwerneri</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) franzwerneri</em> has a greatly reduced swim bladder, and the fish lives on the bottom habitats in shallow water.	eng
181718	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181718	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.	eng
181719	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181719	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Archiaphyosemion guineense</span> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the Guinean savannah, upper Niger River drainage in Guinea, and the upper drainage systems of rivers flowing towards the coast in northeastern Sierra Leone and northern Liberia.	eng
181719	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits pools, brooks and small streams. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish of maximum size 7.0 cm SL.	eng
181719	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181719	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by mining and deforestation in Liberia.	eng
181720	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181720	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus carmesinus</em> is currently only known by the type from Zambi (Paugy 1984), however specimens recently collected in the Lefini River have tentatively been assigned to this species (AMNH) and the species may have a distribution extending into the middle Congo	eng
181720	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181720	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181720	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181721	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181721	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species described from the upper Niger, is also known from the upper basins of the Volta, Bandama and Agnébi in Ivory Coast, as well as from the Niger delta in Nigeria.	eng
181721	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species, potadromous.	eng
181721	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181721	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181722	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
181722	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known only from the River Farmington (Gibi mountains) in Liberia. Several citations from other localities are due to misidentifications.	eng
181722	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181722	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181722	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and mining threaten this species.	eng
181723	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181723	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known form Uganda and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys matthesi</em> is known from the Lufubu River at Chipili and from the Kalungwishi River. It is probably more widespread than currently known. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from two localities, western Uganda, within Lake Victoria basin.	eng
181723	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lacustricola matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
181723	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181723	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181724	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181724	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eugnathichthys eetveldii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181724	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181724	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181724	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181725	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181725	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus citrinus</em> is only known from a few individuals from Yakoma (Ubangui basin) and from Poko (Bomokando, River, Uele River basin), Central Congo River basin.	eng
181725	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus citrinus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181725	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181725	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
181726	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181726	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is at present known only from the Konkouré basin (Guinea).	eng
181726	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 17.6 cm SL maximum size.	eng
181726	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181726	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181727	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181727	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Nigeria where it is found in the eastern part of the Niger River delta and in the area between the delta and the Lower Cross River, southeastern Nigeria.	eng
181727	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Epiplatys biafranus</em> is a killifish that grows to a maximum size of 5.0 cm TL. The species inhabits small rivers, creeks and swamps, usually among bordering vegetation. It is non-migratory.	eng
181727	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181727	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration and urban development are leading to pollution and loss of habitat. It is also targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
181728	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181728	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus macrocephalus</em> is only known from Fort Don Carlos I, Kwango (or Cuango) River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
181728	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181728	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181728	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
181729	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181729	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, R., Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
181729	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181729	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A.,  Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181729	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No targeted conservation in place	eng
181729	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A.,  Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and associated smaller lakes and rivers including This species is known from upper and middle Akagera, as well as Lake Albert, Victoria Nile and the Nile, Semliki and Aswa rivers, and the Malagarasi and Rufiji Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Rift lakes, Ethiopia, and Juba, Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed, only absent south of the Pongolo River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is very widespread in western Africa. The species is known from the basins of Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Corubal and Geba. Within the coastal region between the Geba and the Sassandra, <em>S. intermedius</em> has been collected only in Little Scarcies. Further eastwards, <em>S. intermedius</em> is known from the basins of Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, Chad and Cross.	eng
181729	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is widespread in Africa, only absent in north Africa and in southern Africa, south of the Pongolo River.	eng
181729	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and associated smaller lakes and rivers including upper and middle Akagera; L. Albert, Victoria Nile and the Nile, Semliki and Aswa rivers; Rivers Malagarasi, Rufiji and Luiche,  Lake Rukwa; Zambezi and Okavango systems; In Malawi: Lower Shire. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Southern Africa: Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems soutwards to Phongoo in nothern Zululand. western Africa: Senegal, Volta, Niger, Chad	eng
181729	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe intermedius</span> is very widespread in western Africa. The species is known from the basins of Senegal, Gambia, Casamance, Corubal and Geba. Within the coastal region between the Geba and the Sassandra, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. intermedius</span> has been collected only in Little Scarcies. Further eastwards, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. intermedius</span> is known from the basins of Sassandra, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Niger, Chad and Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also widespread outside western Africa.	eng
181729	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, R., Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	This species is widely distributed in Africa from South Africa to the Nile in Egypt and across into certain west African rivers.	eng
181729	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A pelagic species feeding on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and other small fishes. Lives in lakes and rivers. Migrates upstream from the lakes for spawning in the rivers.	eng
181729	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is a potamodromous species. It is reported to be a pelagic species (van Oijen 1995). <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> occurs mainly on shallow waters and migrates to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and whole or pieces of fish (Bailey 1994). It spawns throughout the year peaking once and migrates into rivers in fairly compact schools during the rainy season to spawn in floodwater pools (Witte and de Winter 1995).	eng
181729	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A.,  Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is a potamodromous species. It is reported to be a pelagic species (van Oijen 1995). <em>Schilbe intermedius</em> occurs mainly on shallow waters and open waters of lakes (van Oijen 1995), and migrates to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). Generally does not penetrate high up into river systems. It feeds on a wide range of invertebrates including terrestrial insects and whole or pieces of fish (Bailey 1994). It is primarily piscivorous at 13-34 cm TL (Witte and de Winter 1995). This species rarely grows to lengths greater than 30 cm SL (van Oijen 1995). It spawns throughout the year peaking once and migrates into rivers in fairly compact schools during the rainy season to spawn in floodwater pools (Witte and de Winter 1995). After establishment of Nile Perch in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga it is rarely encountered and when it is it is now usually close to river mouths.	eng
181729	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Shallow inshore and open waters of lakes (van Oijen 1995). After establisment of Nile Perch in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga it is rarely encountered and when it is it is now usually close to river mouths. Feeds principally on small fishes and insect larvae. Migrates to breed in the tributaries of rivers and streams during the rainy season (Witte and de Winter 1995).  It has a diurnal vertical migration to the surface at night (Witte and de Winter 1995). More than 50% of population in spawing condition at any one time during the year.	eng
181729	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, R., Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Wide habitat range from the main channels of rivers through to marginal lagoons and isolated pans. Forages in open water at night. Generally does not penetrate high up into river systems.	eng
181729	population	Bills, R., Marshall, R., Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Common in suitable habitats and widespread.	eng
181729	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A.,  Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Common in suitable habitats and widespread. Population not known, but fisheries catches are reported to have locally declined in many lakes.	eng
181729	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181729	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181729	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Population not known, but fisheries catches are reported to have locally declined in many lakes.	eng
181729	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is commercially used in aquaculture.	eng
181729	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A.,  Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Schilbe intermedius</em> is commercially used in aquaculture. There is heavy fishing pressure but the species is highly abundant and fecund. In eastern Africa the species is also threatened by biotope changes. No serious threats have been identified outside Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo.	eng
181729	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, R., Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
181729	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. There is heavy fishing pressure but the species is highly abundant and fecund.	eng
181729	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure and biotope changes. No serious threats have been identified outside Lakes Victoria,  Kyoga and Nabugabo.	eng
181730	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181730	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, Niari-Kouilou River system in Gabon.	eng
181730	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181730	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181730	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181731	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181731	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the Sanaga River (Cameroon).	eng
181731	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe djemeri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181731	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181731	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181732	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181732	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known predominantly from the Lower Guinea with a widespread distribution throughout the Ogowe River basin including the Ivindo, in the Woleu, in the Nyanga, and in coastal drainages of Southern Gabon.  It is found in Congo River and coastal drainages from Mayumbe to Bay of Guinea.  Also  known from Old Calabar, Nigeria and the coastal basins of Cameroon  (Bigorne 1990) .Teugels and Hopkins (1998) have analysed the morphology of the holotype of <em>Mormyrus kingsleyae</em> Günther, 1896 with the stated type locality of ‘Old Calabar’ near the mouth of the Cross River (present day Nigeria) and concluded that the type locality may have been reported in error because no <em>Paramormyrops kingsleyae</em> –like specimens have since been recovered from this area. These authors concluded that it is more likely that the holotype originates from Gabon, where Mary Kingsley travelled in 1895 after her visit to Old Calabar in May 1895 (Kingsley 1897). There is also a subspecies (<span style="font-style: italic;">Paramormyrops kingsleyae eburneensis</span>) <em></em>reportedly endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is at present known only  from the Agnébi, San Pedro and Banco basins in Côte d’Ivoire. However the taxonomic status of this subspecies is uncertain.	eng
181732	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
181732	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181732	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181733	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat restoration needed.	eng
181733	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the rivers Como, Bandama and Sassandra in Cote d’Ivoire, and confirmed presence in Bia and Tano rivers in Ghana (Abban, pers. comm.)	eng
181733	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Females can produce as many as 9,200 eggs (Albaret 1982). Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
181733	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181733	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano River.	eng
181734	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181734	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Kyé River (a tributary of the Ntem River) in eastern Equatorial Guinea (Ng 2004).	eng
181734	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis nannoculus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181734	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181734	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181735	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181735	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestopetersius leopoldianus</em> is known from Kutu, Lake Mai 'N-Dombe (type locality), from Lake Tumba, from the Lomami and from the Ngula River, around Kisangani. The record from Lake Tumba needs confirmation.	eng
181735	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181735	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181735	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. The region north of the Congo River in the Kisangani area is threatened by gold mining.	eng
181736	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181736	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from Libreville (type locality), Lamberene and the Nyama Pende creek in the Ivindo River basin.	eng
181736	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias kerguennae</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.3 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
181736	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181736	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The population of the Ivindo basin is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture. The population at Libreville is being heavily impacted by the northern expansion of Libreville.	eng
181737	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181737	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus polylepis</em> is known from the Lower and the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai, Lukénie and Sangha systems. Within Lower Guinea, there are two specimens from the Niari River, but these may belong to a new species (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
181737	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181737	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181737	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181738	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2006	None known. More information is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution and threats.	eng
181738	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181738	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2006	A <em>Chiloglanis</em> species complex is known from Lake Malawi and its catchment area, Shire River and its tributaries, Lake Chiuta. However the only correct known locality is the type locality, This species is known from upper Ububu River, Tanzania.	eng
181738	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is known from the Luapula-Chambezi River systems, Upper Congo River basin in Zambia. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Zambezi (above and below Victoria Falls) Rivers, Pungwe and Buzi systems. It is also known from the Lake Malawi catchment and east coast rivers in Tanzania (Skelton 2001).	eng
181738	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2006	<em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on the biocover of rocks and grazes on algae (Konings 1990). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181738	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis neumanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is common in the cool waters of mountain streams and feeds on the biocover of rocks and grazes on algae (Konings 1990). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181738	population	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
181738	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181738	threats	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
181738	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181739	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Part of the range is included within the Cross river National Park (Nigeria).	eng
181739	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known only from the Oshun River, Niger delta and Cross River in Nigeria.	eng
181739	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is small pelagic riverine distichodontid that grows to 4.9 cm in standard length. It is non-migratory.	eng
181739	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
181739	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta threatens this species.	eng
181740	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181740	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias philippei</em> is only known from Ibembo on the Itimbiri River and from Boende on the Tshuapa River, effluents of the Central Congo River.	eng
181740	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias philippei</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
181740	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181740	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181741	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181741	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181741	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181741	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis sorex</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>At global level, it can be found in Chad, Niger, Nile, Volta basins and Bénoué River.	eng
181741	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Chad, Niger, Volta basins and Bénoué River.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Nile.	eng
181741	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It can be found in the White Nile, Sudan, and Blue Nile, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Chad, Niger, Volta basins and Bénoué River.	eng
181741	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species. Oviparous.	eng
181741	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Benthopelagic. It is oviparous.	eng
181741	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Benthopelagic. Oviparous.	eng
181741	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181741	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181741	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181741	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181741	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overexploitation from fishing	eng
181741	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Overexploitation from fishing threatens this species in western Africa.	eng
181742	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None in place.	eng
181742	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181742	conservation	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species threats and potential conservation measures, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat conservation is also required.	eng
181742	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River basin and from Bangui, Ubangui basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in all major drainages. It is also known from the Cross and Niger Rivers in Nigeria and from the Chad basin.	eng
181742	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Niger and Cross Rivers in Nigeria, and reported from Ghana and Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, lower part of Congo River basin.	eng
181742	distribution	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River basin and from Bangui, Ubangui basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is widespread in all major drainages. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Niger and Cross Rivers in Nigeria, and is reported from the Chad basin.	eng
181742	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is a pelagic species. It is distinguished from <em>Neolebias</em> by its always complete lateral line. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).   It prefers streams	eng
181742	habitat	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Nannaethiops unitaeniatus</em> is a pelagic species. It is distinguished from <em>Neolebias</em> by its always complete lateral line. It lives in small streams where and is omnivorous feeding mainly crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
181742	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oneline tetra is a small ornamental charachid that grows to 6.2 cm in total length. It lives in small streams where and is omnivorous feeding mainly on small invertebrates. Non-migratory.	eng
181742	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181742	population	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181742	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181742	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the lower Niger delta and the potential water basin transfer from the Oubangui to the Chari system.	eng
181742	threats	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a commercially valuable aquarium fish. It is threatened by oil exploration in the lower Niger delta and the potential water basin transfer from the Oubangui to the Chari system.	eng
181742	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181743	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181743	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from the area of Fouta Djalon in Guinea, upper Gambia, Bafing, upper Konkouré, and upper basin of Little Scarcies in Sierra Leone.	eng
181743	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is benthopelagic, maximum TL 5.8 cm	eng
181743	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181743	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Threats to this species include deforestation, urbanisation, water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
181744	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181744	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
181744	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
181744	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181744	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills & J. Cambray, 2006	Protected in some reserves. Successfully artificially bred in captivity (Skelton 2001). Management of local gillnet fisheries is needed in many riverine fisheries. Construction of fishways around weirs and dams is needed.	eng
181744	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is protected in some reserves in southern Africa. It has been successfully artificially bred in captivity (Skelton 2001). Management of local gillnet fisheries is needed in many riverine fisheries, as is construction of fishways around weirs and dams.	eng
181744	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is known from most of sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia, and south to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is found throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross and Sanaga basins. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Malagarasi river, as well as Lake Albert and Murchison Nile, Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake  Rukwa. It is also present in the Lower Shire river, Rufigi and Ruaha Rivers. According to Hopson and Hopson (1982) in the Turkana Basin this species is principally riverine and ecological changes in the lake level have tended to inhibit incursions of<em> H. vittatus</em> into the lake. However, an erroneous identification by Worthington and Ricardo (1936) for <em>H. forskahlii</em> is also possible. In the latter case <em>H. vittatus</em> most likely does not occur in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Zambezi and Okavango (but not the Kafue or Lake Malawi), south to the Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa, this species occurs in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé, and Senegal.	eng
181744	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is not found in the northern African region. It is considered very rare in Lake Nasser (just outside the region).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White and Blue Niles, Niger, Congo, Uganda (Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles), Lakes Tanganyika and Rudolf.	eng
181744	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross and Sanaga basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé (unverified), Senegal, Nile, Omo, Zambezi, Limpopo, Rovuma, Shire, Rufiji and Ruaha basins, and Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from the Okavango and the lower reaches of coastal systems south to Pongolo (Skelton 1993). It has also been found in Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).	eng
181744	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Malagarasi river; Lake Albert and Murchison Nile; Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished); Lake  Rukwa; Lower Shire river; Rufigi, Ruaha. Also reported from Lake Turkana by Worthington and Ricardo (1936). According to Hopson and Hopson (1982) in the Turkana Basin this species is principally riverine and ecological changes in the lake level have tended to inhibit incursions of H. vittatus into the lake. However, an erroneous identification by Worthington and Ricardo (1936) for H. forskahlii is also possible. In the latter case H. vittatus most likely does not occur in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al. 2004).	eng
181744	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species occurs in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ouémé, and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This demersal species is widespread. Outside western Africa it is found in the Nile, Omo, Congo, Lufira, Lualaba, Lake Bagweulu, Luapula, Lake Mweru, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Upemba, Zambezi, Limpopo, Rovuma, Lake Rukwa, Shire, Rufiji, and Ruaha.	eng
181744	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills & J. Cambray, 2006	The species has been recorded from most of sub-Saharan Africa from the Senegal, Niger, Shari-Lake Chad and Nile systems in the north, to the Congo and Lake Tanganyika, the Zambezi and Okavango (but not the Kafue or Lake Malawi), south to the Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
181744	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious. <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus</em>, <em>Micralestes</em>, <em>Barbus</em>, and <em>Limnothrissa</em> are favoured (Skelton 1993). It is a useful food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992). Breeding takes pace on a very few days each year, when the first good rains have swollen rivers and streams, usually in December and January at which time it undertakes a spawning migration up rivers and into small streams (Jackson 1961). The females spawn a great number of eggs in very shallow water, among the stems of grasses and other submerged and partly submerged vegetation and here the young live until the falling of the flood water forces them out of this refuge (Jackson 1961).	eng
181744	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious. <em>Hydrocynus vittatus</em> feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus</em>, <em>Micralestes</em>, <em>Barbus</em>, and <em>Limnothrissa</em> are favoured (Skleton 1993). It is a useful food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992). It prefers streams and lakes.	eng
181744	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It keeps to deep water, mainly larger rivers and lakes, and is active in the evening and early morning. It can jump out of water to catch its food. It feeds on fish including <em>Alestes</em> spp. and <em>Tilapia</em> spp. Breeds during summer, and spawning may occur at night. Fecundity extremely high, as many as 780 000 ova in large females. It reaches a length to 48 cm.	eng
181744	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, in the larger rivers and lakes. All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish. It is a voracious piscivore feeding on whatever prey is most abundant but Brycinus, Micralestes, Barbus and Limnotrissa are favoured (Skelton 1993) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Breeding takes pace on a very few days each year, when the first good rains have swollen rivers and streams, usually in December and January at which time it undertakes a spawning migration up rivers and into small streams (Jackson 1961). The females spawn a great number of eggs in very shallow water, among the stems of grasses and other submerged and partly submerged vegetation and here the young live until the falling of the flood water forces them out of this refuge (Jackson 1961).  It is an important food fish in some areas (Eccles 1992) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<br/>Max size: 105 cm FL (male/unsexed); 70.0 cm FL (female) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181744	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills & J. Cambray, 2006	Rivers, streams and impoundments where it is the top predator. Breeds during summer, adults migrating up- or downstream to suitable spawning sites along flooded riverbanks or lakeshores. Fecundity extremely high, up to 780,000 ova in large females. More detail on life history summarised in Skelton (2001).	eng
181744	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This prefers warm, well-oxygenated water, mainly larger rivers and lakes.  All but the largest form roving schools of like-sized fish; aptly described as fierce and voracious.  Feeds on whatever prey is most abundant but <em>Brycinus, <em>Micralestes, <em>Barbus, </em></em></em>and <em><em><em><em>Limnothrissa </em></em></em></em>are favored. Useful food fish in some areas.	eng
181744	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills & J. Cambray, 2006	Common and widespread.  In Lake Kariba on the Middle Zambezi River, its population  fluctuated considerably, mostly in relation to the abundance of the introduced clupeid <em>Limnothrissa miodon</em> which now forms a major part of its diet (Kenmuir 1973; Marshall 1985).	eng
181744	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	It is commercially exploited in Lake Rukwa, forming about 3.9% of the yield. In Mtera dam, species composition in the catches show a decline from 26.1% in  1987 to 14.3% in 1991, and 7% in 1996.	eng
181744	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
181744	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181744	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181744	population	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is generally common and widespread.  In Lake Kariba on the Middle Zambezi River, its population fluctuated considerably, mostly in relation to the abundance of the introduced clupeid<span style="font-style: italic;"> Limnothrissa miodon</span> which now forms a major part of its diet (Kenmuir 1973, Marshall 1985). It is commercially exploited in Lake Rukwa, forming about 3.9% of the yield. In Mtera dam, species composition in the catches show a decline from 26.1% in  1987 to 14.3% in 1991, and 7% in 1996.	eng
181744	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known	eng
181744	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181744	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181744	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are the heavy fishing pressure, silt loading  due to agricultural activities/ deforestation and pollution due to pesticides for agricultural use.	eng
181744	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills & J. Cambray, 2006	Tigerfish have declined in some rivers in southern Africa due to pollution, water abstraction and obstructions such as dams and weirs that prevent passage. Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally threaten the species.	eng
181744	threats	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Tigerfish have declined in some rivers in southern Africa due to pollution, water abstraction and obstructions such as dams and weirs that prevent passage. Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally threaten the species. East African populations are threatened by heavy fishing pressure, silt loading due to agricultural activities/ deforestation, and pollution due to pesticides for agricultural use. Threats from other regions are not known.	eng
181745	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181745	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This monospecific species occurs in coastal basins of Guinea (starting from the Konkouré), Sierra Leone and Liberia (up to the River St. John)	eng
181745	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum recorded TL 6.5 cm.	eng
181745	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181745	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181746	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181746	conservation	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181746	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181746	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is only known from the Wouri River (Cameroon). Elsewhere it is known from West Africa; <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> was originally described from Sierra Leone, but now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and the Niger basin.  <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Senegal to Cameroon, apparently in both lower and upper reaches of rivers, but the latter only confirmed in the case of the Niger; also the man-made lakes Kainji (Nigeria) and Volta (Ghana).	eng
181746	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Sierrathrissa leonensi</span>s, originally described from Sierra Leone, is now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, the Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Lake Volta (Ghana) and the Niger River basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it has been found in the River Wouri (Cameroon).	eng
181746	distribution	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species has a widespread but patchy distribution from Senegal to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is only known from the Wouri River (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Sierrathrissa leonensi</em>s, originally described from Sierra Leone, is now known to occur in Senegal, Gambia, the Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Lake Volta (Ghana) and the Niger basin.	eng
181746	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers but also in man-made lakes. It schools in open shallow waters, rising to about 30 cm at night in Lake Volta. <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em>feeds on plankton, especially cladocerans.	eng
181746	habitat	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers but also in man-made lakes. It schools in open shallow waters, rising to about 30 cm at night in Lake Volta. <em>Sierrathrissa leonensis</em>feeds on plankton, especially cladocerans.	eng
181746	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is riverine, but also occur in man-made lakes where it schools in open waters and at about 2 to 8 m in Kainji Lake. It performs daily migration rising to about 30 cm from the surface at night in Volta Lake. Feeds on plankton, especially cladocerans.	eng
181746	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No data on population trend	eng
181746	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181746	population	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181746	threats	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	In Nigeria, this species has commercial importance.	eng
181746	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known	eng
181746	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance in Nigeria.	eng
181747	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181747	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the type locality (a tributary of the Bafing River, Senegal River system) and from the Niandan of the upper Niger in Guinea.	eng
181747	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181747	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181747	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Quality of habitat is declining due to agricultural development and dams.	eng
181748	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181748	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Raddaella) batesii</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin of southeastern Cameroon, northwestern Congo and the Sangha and lower Ubangui Rivers from the Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the drainage systems of the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Doumé, Boumba and Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, and the Ivindo River and Woleu in northern Gabon.	eng
181748	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Raddaella) batesii</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is restricted to forested inland plateau. It inhabits raffia swamps and swampy parts of shallow brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). This species is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
181748	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181748	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181749	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181749	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax zebra</em> is known from the Foulakari River, a tributary to the Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Lower Guinea from the upper Niari, This species is known from upper Louesse and This species is known from upper Kouilou River systems and from the upper Ogowe River drainage in central and western Congo.	eng
181749	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax zebra</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It usually occurs in small forest brooks and rivers, usually in moderate to fast flowing bodies of water under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181749	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181749	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species could be threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation in the Kouilou-Niari system. It is also harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181750	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181750	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181750	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181750	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is known from Cameroon to the Congo River. Elsewhere from the Okavango and the Zambezi system.	eng
181750	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from western Africa to the Congo basin, as well as the Okavango  and Upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001).  Also reported from the Batoka Gorge below Victoria Falls.	eng
181750	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is distributed widely between Cameroon and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is known from Cameroon to the Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Okavango and This species is known from upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001).  It is also reported from the Batoka Gorge below Victoria Falls.	eng
181750	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Closely associated with aquatic and emergent vegetation in the main rivers and large lagoons, also occurring in pools left by floodwaters (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Preys on shrimps, insects and small fishes. A nesting substrate spawner, breeding in early summer. The parents guard the nest and fry (Skelton 2001).	eng
181750	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It  is highly predaceous and thus used in some areas for tilapia control. Feeds on fish, shrimp and aquatic insects and is very aggressive and territorial (Yamamoto and Tagawa 2000). The parents guard the nest and larvae (Skelton 2001).  This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181750	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hemichromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is highly predaceous and thus used in some areas for tilapia control. It feeds on fish, shrimp and aquatic insects and is very aggressive and territorial (Yamamoto and Tagawa 2000). The parents guard the nest and larvae (Skelton 2001). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is closely associated with aquatic and emergent vegetation in the main rivers and large lagoons, also occurring in pools left by floodwaters (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). A nesting substrate spawner, breeding in early summer.	eng
181750	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181750	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread but fairly uncommon, e.g. only a single specimen was caught in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
181750	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread but fairly uncommon, e.g., only a single specimen caught in a survey of the Okavango Delta (Tweddle <em>et al. 2003).</em>	eng
181750	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181750	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has a widespread distribution in large rivers and thus there are no major threats.	eng
181750	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has a widespread distribution in large rivers and thus there are no major threats.	eng
181751	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181751	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon duboisi</em> is only known from the type locality (Leopoldville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo). Although it is a very distinctive species, it has not been found at other locations.	eng
181751	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon duboisi</em> is a demersal species. This species is very difficult to catch in gill nets.	eng
181751	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181751	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
181752	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181752	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus niger</em> is known from the Lower Congo upstream to Wanie Rukula, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Mbonge River basin (Cameroon) in the north-east up to the Shiloango River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo) in the south.	eng
181752	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181752	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181752	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181753	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181753	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys dendrophorous</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids downstream to at least Inga. This species is recorded from the entire Lower Congo but appears to be relatively rare.	eng
181753	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys dendrophorous</em> is a demersal species. It is adapted to a life under stones of rocky bottoms of rapids (Poll 1966) and is probably only known from the main channel.	eng
181753	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181753	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. This species could be threatened to because it is a targeted food fish.	eng
181754	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181754	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species seems to be endemic to the Cavally River, Côte d'Ivoire, although it may also exist in the Nipoue.	eng
181754	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181754	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181754	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181755	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information.	eng
181755	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181755	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181755	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181755	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181755	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers across much of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Cross River in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, including Rusizi and Malagarasi, as well as Lakes Albert and Edward. It is found in the Blue and White Niles, Aswa river, Omo River, Lake Turkana and Giuba River.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is now rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Setit in Eritrea and the Ghazal and jebel systems in Sudan. It is also known from Baro, Omo and Wabishebelle Rivers in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin, the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia, where it is sympatric with <em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em>. Also occurs in the Volta basin, in Ivorian basins of the Comoe, Bandama and Sassandra, Casamance (Senegal), Géba and Corubal (Guinea), Jong and Moa (Sierra Leone) and in the River Cross. It has also been mentioned from the Ogun in Nigeria and from southern Ghana. It should be noted that this species has never been observed in large quantities in forested areas.	eng
181755	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile River, Nigeria, Congo, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Chad, Senegal and Uganda. It is all over Eastern and southern Africa.	eng
181755	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Lake Chad, western Africa, eastern African lakes, Omo River and Giuba River. It is also known from the Cross River in Cameroon.	eng
181755	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and major affluent rivers, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarasi;  Lakes Albert and Edward, Blue and White Niles, Aswa river; Omo River, Lake Turkana and Giuba River.	eng
181755	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin, the Niger, Senegal, and Gambia, where it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">A. biscutatus</span>. Also occurs in the Volta basin, in Ivorian basins of the Comoe, Bandama and Sassandra, Casamance (Senegal), Géba and Corubal (Guinea), Jong and Moa (Sierra Leone) and in the River Cross. It has also been mentioned from the Ogun in Nigeria and from southern Ghana. It should be noted that this species has never been observed in large quantities in forested areas.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Nile, Lake Chad, western Africa, Congo-Lualaba River system, East African lakes, Omo River and Giuba River.	eng
181755	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> inhabits lakes and large rivers, occurring in shallow water with muddy bottom. It is omnivore, feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus.  It is oviparous, and nested eggs are guarded by the male parent. Breeding season extends from May to October. The largest specimen caught from Lake Nasser measured 30 cm long and in Sudan more than 1 m. Colour: uniform olive or brown, but some are spotted with dark brown or blackish spots; these spots when present are larger than in <em>A. biscutatus</em>, often very large on the dorsal and caudal fins, where they are separated by a narrow network of the pale ground-colour.	eng
181755	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species occurs in shallow waters with muddy bottoms. It is an omnivore and feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus (Willoughby 1974). <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The nested eggs are guarded and brooded by the male parent (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore,  the male plays host to eggs and young of <em>Dinotopterus cunningtoni</em> which takes advantage of the already prepared nest and feeds on the host brood (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). This is an example of interspecific brood care.	eng
181755	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species is found in inshore areas of lakes and major rivers, sometimes in swamps of flood plains (Eccles 1992). This species occurs in shallow waters with muddy bottoms. It is an omnivore and feeds on insect larvae, worms, crustacea, molluscs other invertebrates, but also on plankton, seeds, plants and detritus (Willoughby 1974, Bailey 1994). <em>Auchenoglanis occidentalis</em> is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The breeding season extends from May to October, and nested eggs are guarded and brooded by the male parent (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). Furthermore, the male plays host to eggs and young of <em>Dinotopterus cunningtoni</em> which takes advantage of the already prepared nest and feeds on the host brood (Ochi <em>et al.</em> 2001). This is an example of interspecific brood care.	eng
181755	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Found in inshore areas of lakes and major rivers, sometimes in swamps of flood plains (Eccles 1992). Feeds on insect larvae, worms, crustacea,  molluscs other invertebrates, but also on plankton, seeds, plants and detritus (Bailey 1994).	eng
181755	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits streams lakes and large rivers. Occurs in shallow water with muddy bottom. Omnivore, feeds on plankton, molluscs, seeds and detritus.	eng
181755	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181755	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181755	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181755	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No population estimate available but in eastern Africa the species is common in fisheries catches and on the markets around Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers deltas. Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
181755	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No population estimate available but the species is common in fisheries catches and on the markets around Rusizi and Malagarasi rivers deltas. Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
181755	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	For the majority of its range, no major threats to this species are known. In eastern Africa, it is threatened by loss of flood plains and vegetated marshes around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension, as well as overfishing. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species.	eng
181755	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181755	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181755	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are loss of flood plains and vegetated marshes around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension and overfishing.	eng
181755	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181756	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181756	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus tumifrons</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It is not known from the Sangha and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.	eng
181756	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181756	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181756	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181757	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	The range in the Cross River is partly included within the Cross River National Park. Further protected areas should be put in place, and habitat maintenance and conservation is required.	eng
181757	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is restricted to small brooks and streams on calcium-bearing soils in the coastal rain forest of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon, from the Lower Cross River as far east as Mundemba.	eng
181757	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is restricted to small brooks and streams on calciferous soils in coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion bivittatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181757	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
181757	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Oil palm plantations pose a threat to the species in the central Africa region. This species is also targeted by the aquarium trade. The main threat to the species is deforestation, pollution and wetland drainage.	eng
181758	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181758	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only found in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. Records from other areas are highly doubtful.	eng
181758	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in clear and vegetated rocky areas in the shallow shore (less than 3 m. depth. The shore vegetation is mainly composed of <em>Ceratophyllum</em> species growing both on rocky and sandy substrate. The species was observed to swim in schools of few to several hundreds of fish.	eng
181758	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The population of the species has not been estimated; however, it is known to be found in schools abundantly in the lake, especially at the southern gulf.	eng
181758	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No major threats known.	eng
181759	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181759	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria abbreviata</em> is known only from the Kouilou Basin in Congo, the Ogowe Basin in Gabon, and the Mvila Basin in Cameroon.	eng
181759	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181759	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181759	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181760	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181760	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas kheeli</em> is currently only known from the type series from two widely separated localities in the Lower Congo, near Inga and near Kilemfu (Inkisi River), although continued collecting in the region will probably extend this range (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
181760	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas kheeli</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. The only two collections were made in complex habitats composed of alternating riffles and pools (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006). In both cases, <em>Raiamas kheeli</em> was captured in deeper stretches of open water in relatively fast-flowing waters (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
181760	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181760	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
181762	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2003	No information available.	eng
181762	conservation	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T.K., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance may be required.	eng
181762	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2003	The species is known from lakes Edward and George systems and the Albert Nile. Also present in the Blue and White Nile systems.	eng
181762	distribution	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T.K., 2009	This species is known from the lower Nile, from Ethiopia to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Edward and George systems and the Albert Nile. Also present in the Blue and White Nile systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Baro and Blue Nile basins, Ethiopia.	eng
181762	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2003	Deep water close to lake shores.	eng
181762	habitat	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T.K., 2009	Deep water close to lake shores and running waters.	eng
181762	population	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T.K., 2009	No information available.	eng
181762	population	Twongo, T.K., 2003	No information available.	eng
181762	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2003	The main threats to the species are the heavy fishing pressure and potential eutrophication in deep water habitats of Lake Albert.	eng
181762	threats	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T.K., 2009	This species is threatened by localised heavy fishing pressure. Potential eutrophication in deep water habitats of Lake Albert could also have a negative impact.	eng
181763	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181763	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from tributaries of the Mamou (Little Scarcies basin) and of the Kogon in Guinea.	eng
181763	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 5.1 cm SL maximum size	eng
181763	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181763	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. There is a potential threat from deforestation.	eng
181764	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181764	conservation	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181764	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181764	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kribia kribensis</em> is known from the Dja and Bumba River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross to the Ogowe, but not south of the Ogowe; however it is perhaps widespread in the Lower Guinea region. Elsewhere, it is found in many West African basins, from Guinea to Togo (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
181764	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is present in many western African water basins, from Guinea to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> From Guinea to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181764	distribution	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a fairly widespread species from Guinea to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kribia kribensis</em> is known from the Dja and Bumba River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is known from the Cross to the Ogowe, but not south of the Ogowe; however it is perhaps more widespread in the Lower Guinea region. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is present in many West African water basins, from Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
181764	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available information.	eng
181764	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181764	habitat	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181764	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181764	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181764	population	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181764	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known	eng
181764	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181764	threats	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181765	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181765	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Othochromis stormsi</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin from the Kisangani area to Lake Mweru. It has also been reported from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Regina Falls, but the identity of the Lower Congo population requires further investigation (under study, Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).	eng
181765	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181765	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181765	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181766	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181766	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181766	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Upper Senegal, Niger, Volta rivers and Lake Chad basin.  Also reported from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
181766	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger and Volta, as well as from coastal basins, particularly in Cote d’Ivoire. Its known distribution in Ghana includes the Volta, the Bia and the Tano basins. (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
181766	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus punctitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181766	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus punctitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 4.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181766	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181766	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181766	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation affects the habitat of some populations.	eng
181766	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181767	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181767	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe banguelensis</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181767	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe banguelensis</em> is a demersal species. Its diet has a strong fish component which grows in size as the fish gets larger (Jackson 1961).	eng
181767	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181767	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181768	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181768	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found in southern Gabon and western Congo. Specifically, from the area around Moanda, in the Lékedi River drainage system, and southward to the area around Mossendjo, in the upper Louesse River drainage system.	eng
181768	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion coeleste</em> occurs in swampy parts of rainforest brooks on the inland plains and hills (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) coeleste</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181768	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181768	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the northern part of the species distribution, mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
181769	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181769	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tomiensis</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181769	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tomiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181769	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181769	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181770	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181770	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis elongatus</em> is known from two localities: the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from Kindu in the Lualaba River, upper Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Stiassny 1990).	eng
181770	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species that is probably a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989). It seems to feed mainly on insects and insect larvae (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
181770	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181770	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181771	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181771	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius bentleyi</em> is only known from the type locality, Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), Congo River.	eng
181771	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181771	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181771	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181772	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181772	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax platysternus</em> is known from the Central (mainly around the Kisangani and Yangambi region) and upper Congo River basin (Middle Lualaba system).	eng
181772	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax platysternus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in clear forest rivers and brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181772	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181772	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181773	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181773	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo degeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool, Kinshasa) and the Central Congo River basin: the Kasai River in the Mushie region, Yakoma (Ubangui River), the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and the Fwa River and from the Mabwe River (East of Lac Upemba), This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181773	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo degeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
181773	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181773	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181774	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181774	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus caeruleus</em> is only known from the type locality (near Inga hydroelectric dam and near Gombe or Ngombe about 20 km downstream from Kinshasa). It has recently been found in between these sites.	eng
181774	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus caeruleus</em> is a demersal species that prefers streams.	eng
181774	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181774	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181775	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181775	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from southern tributaries of the Ogowe River southwards, in western Gabon, Congo and Cabinda.	eng
181775	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys ansorgii</em> is found in brooks and small rivers in the rainforest of the coastal lowlands. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181775	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181775	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181776	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181776	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius dundoensis</em> is known from a restricted area in the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin in Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in this region though.	eng
181776	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181776	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181776	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181777	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181777	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181777	conservation	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181777	distribution	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> is known from the Central and southern part of Africa: Shaba, This species is known from upper Kasaï, This species is known from upper Kwango, This species is known from upper Cuanza, Cunene, Okavango, Lake Ngami, Zambezi, Limpopo, Sabi, Lundi, northern tributaries of the Orange River, Lake Malawi, the upper Congo River basin, and from the Bangweulu-Luapula-Mweru system. It has been introduced in several countries. The introductions to Tanzania and USA are known, but <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> has not established in this countries. It has probably also been introduced to Libya, Egypt, Chad and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found in Kasai River in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In this region it is only known from the Lake Malawi catchment where it is common in the lower reaches of northern and central Lake Malawi catchment streams. It has not been recorded south of Chia lagoon (Nkhotakota) or anywhere in the Shire River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zambezi system and Lake Malawi streams south to the Orange River and KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Extensively translocated south of the Orange system.	eng
181777	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> is known from the Central and southern part of Africa: Shaba, upper Kasaï, upper Kwango, upper Cuanza, Cunene, Okavango, Lake Ngami, Zambezi, Limpopo, Sabi, Lundi, northern tributaries of the Orange River, Lake Malawi, the Upper Congo River basin, and from the Bangweulu-Luapula-Mweru system. It has been introduced in several countries. The introductions to Tanzania and USA are known, but <em>Tilapia sparrmanii</em> has not established in this countries. It has probably also been introduced to Libya, Egypt, Chad and Sudan.	eng
181777	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system, Congo basin and Lake Malawi streams south to the Orange River and KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). Extensively translocated south of the Orange system.	eng
181777	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs in a widely diverse habitat; it favours areas where plant cover exists along the edges of rivers, lakes or swamps and prefers shallow sheltered waters and does not colonize the open water of large lakes. Adults feed preferentially on filamentous algae, aquatic macrophytes and vegetable matter of terrestrial origin (leaves, plants, etc.) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). Juveniles feed small crustaceans and midge larvae (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is used as a forage fish for bass (Skelton 1993). This species undertakes seasonal upstream migration and breeds before and during these migrations (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The male spreads his milt over the cluster of eggs which are deposited on the bottom or even attached to the branches of aquatic weeds. The parents guard the eggs. Eggs and fry may be moved into the mouth to alternative sites during hatching operations but there is no evidence of actual mouth brooding.	eng
181777	habitat	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species that occurs in a widely diverse habitat; it favours areas where plant cover exists along the edges of rivers, lakes or swamps and prefers shallow sheltered waters and does not colonize the open water of large lakes. Adults feed preferentially on filamentous algae, aquatic macrophytes and vegetable matter of terrestrial origin (leaves, plants, etc.) (Philippart and Ruwet 1982). Juveniles feed small crustaceans and midge larvae (de Moor and Bruton 1988). It is used as a forage fish for bass (Skelton 1993). This species undertakes seasonal upstream migration and breeds before and during these migrations (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The male spreads his milt over the cluster of eggs which are deposited on the bottom or even attached to the branches of aquatic weeds. The parents guard the eggs. Eggs and fry may be moved into the mouth to alternative sites during hatching operations but there is no evidence of actual mouth brooding. Newly hatched fry attach to the substrate by head glands and wriggle constantly for aeration. Fry are free-swimming after 7-8 days but remain in a shoal guarded by parents for several weeks (Skelton 2001).	eng
181777	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Tolerant of a wide range of habitats but prefers quiet or standing water with submerged or emergent vegetation (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it throughout the Upper Zambezi system, the only habitat from which it was absent being rocky rapids. An omnivore, feeding on algae, soft plants, small invertebrates, and small fish. The male constructs a simple sacer-shaped nest in which eggs are guarded and tended by both parents. Eggs or fry may be moved by parents to alternative nests. Newly hatched fry attach to the substrate by head glands and wriggle constantly for aeration. Fry are free-swimming after 7-8 days but remain in a shoal guarded by parents for several weeks (Skelton 2001).	eng
181777	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181777	population	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread and abundant. It has been increasing in Lake Kariba in the last 10-15 years.	eng
181777	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and abundant. Increasing in Lake Kariba in the last 10 to 15 years.	eng
181777	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a species that is commercially used for aquaculture.	eng
181777	threats	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Tilapia sparrmanii </em>is a species that is commercially used for aquaculture, and there is potential for overfishing.	eng
181777	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181778	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181778	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias trilineatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the upper Lualaba-Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. Elsewhere, it has been recorded from Luhanga, 17 km of Uvira, Lake Tanganika, but this record is very doubtful.	eng
181778	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181778	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181778	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181779	conservation	Akinyi, E., Hansens M.& Twongo, T., 2002	No information available.	eng
181779	conservation	Akinyi, E., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181779	distribution	Akinyi, E., Hansens M.& Twongo, T., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> White and Blue Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Chad basin.	eng
181779	distribution	Akinyi, E., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	The native range of this species includes Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> According to FAO (2005), the species is introduced, probably by diffusion, at unknown date from Sudan to Congo. Its presence in Lower Guinea is not confirmed by museum records. The species is self reproducing and established in the wild according to FAO (2005) but no further details are provided.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the White Nile, and Lakes Albert and Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is found in the Gahzal and Jebel systems, White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. It also occurs in the Blue Nile, Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia.	eng
181779	habitat	Akinyi, E., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus niloticus</em> is a macro-herbivorous species and feeds on submerged water plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton. It is found in shallow inshore zones, especially in river deltas, but also sometimes in pelagic zones.This species is oviparous.	eng
181779	habitat	Akinyi, E., Hansens M.& Twongo, T., 2002	Found in shallow inshore zones, especially in river deltas, but also sometimes in pelagic zones. It feeds on on sumberged water plants and periphyton and macro-invertebrates (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181779	population	Akinyi, E., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181779	population	Akinyi, E., Hansens M.& Twongo, T., 2002	Population size not known	eng
181779	threats	Akinyi, E., Hansens M.& Twongo, T., 2002	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
181779	threats	Akinyi, E., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species experiences heavy fishing pressure in eastern Africa. Its habitat is also being degraded by agriculture.	eng
181780	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181780	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis cerasogaster</em> is only known from the type locality in Lake Mai-N'dombe (Leopold II), and its satellite lakes.	eng
181780	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181780	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181780	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.	eng
181781	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181781	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181781	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181781	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is known from Gambia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may also be present in the upper reaches of Senegal (Niokolo-Koba National Park) (Bigome 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is mostly known from the lower basins of the Congo, however it has been recorded in central DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the majority of the West African coastal basins; and its presence has also been reported from brackish waters. Its distribution seems to be mainly restricted to the coastal band, even though its presence in the upper regions of Gambia and in the Kogon River (Guinea) has also been confirmed	eng
181781	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is known from Gambia to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It may also be present in the upper reaches of Senegal (Niokolo-Koba National Park) (Bigome 1990).	eng
181781	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. brachyistius</span> occurs in the majority of the western African coastal basins; and its presence has also been reported from brackish waters. Its distribution seems to be mainly restricted to the coastal band, even though its presence in the upper regions of Gambia and in the Kogon River (Guinea) has also been confirmed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also occurs in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
181781	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	An epibenthic fish which prefers quiet, gently flowing stretches and muddy substratum or fine sand overlain with a layer of organic debris. It occurs mostly in shallow marginal water among aquatic macrophytes and in swamp pools. Feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates and detritus. Is considered a micropredator and an "aufwuchs browser.	eng
181781	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181781	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brienomyrus brachyistius</em> is an epibenthic fish which prefers quiet, gently flowing stretches and muddy substratum or fine sand overlain with a layer of organic debris. It occurs mostly in shallow marginal water among aquatic macrophytes and in swamp pools. Feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates and detritus. Is considered a micropredator and an "aufwuchs" browser.	eng
181781	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181781	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181781	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181781	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181781	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181781	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181782	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no implementation of conservation measure although regulations are in place.	eng
181782	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	The species is only known from Lake Tana.	eng
181782	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates, especially in the shore areas of the lake, almost exclusively in water shallower than 6 m. It is a specialized macro-molluscivore.	eng
181782	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The size of the population is not known.	eng
181782	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of the resources is a major threat to the species.	eng
181783	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181783	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection.	eng
181783	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius lentiginosus</em> is genuinely only known from the type locality the Cuvo River, Mount Moko, Angola. Other records from the Kwango River system (Congo River basin), Luachimo River and Tchmenji River, Angola are probably not <em>A. lentiginosous</em> (Skelton P., pers. comm.).	eng
181783	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Cuvo River (at Mount Moco) and Congo River (Luachimo River, Cuango River) systems.	eng
181783	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius lentiginosus</em> is a demersal species. Its preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the headwaters. Biology is not known.	eng
181783	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known, but it occurs in the headwaters. Biology is not known.	eng
181783	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181783	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
181783	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensive diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181783	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
181784	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181784	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Trachyglanis sanghensis</em> is only known from Ouesso, Sangha River, Central Congo basin (Pellegrin 1925).	eng
181784	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181784	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181784	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181785	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181785	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestes liebrechtsii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
181785	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181785	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181785	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181786	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181786	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma ashbysmithi</em> is only known from the type locality, an unnamed marsh, 10 km southwest of Kindu.	eng
181786	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181786	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181786	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181787	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181787	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus elephas</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira en Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.	eng
181787	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181787	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181787	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181788	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181788	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus plagiostoma</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu on the Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181788	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181788	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181788	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181789	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181789	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys uniformis</em> is only known by the type specimen from Poko, Uele River,&#160;Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181789	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys uniformis</em> is found only in lakes and large rivers, on rocky bottoms or between tree stumps or branches (Matthes 1964).	eng
181789	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181789	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181790	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181790	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus guirali</em> is known from the Dja basin and from the Alima River, Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from throughout the Lower Guinea area.	eng
181790	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181790	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181790	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181791	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181791	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Casamance River, Senegal to the Saint John River, Liberia.	eng
181791	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Detritivore and oviparous.	eng
181791	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
181791	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Drought, deforestation, overfishing and dams threaten this species.	eng
181792	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available, but more measures are required to ensure the protection and preservation of this species and its habitat.	eng
181792	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Lake Afdera in the Danakil of Ethiopia, where it is found predominantly in the vicinity of hot springs that flow into the lake and its surrounding swamps.	eng
181792	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found predominantly in the vicinity of hot springs that flow into  the lake and its surrounding swamps.	eng
181792	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181792	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	According to Getahun (2001), a new gravel road connecting Lake Adfera to the main road to Assab is under construction. One objective is to mine the lake as a source of salt, and production is underway. Salt extraction involves canalization, and water level drops are anticipated.	eng
181793	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No conservation measure recorded. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
181793	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181793	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Niger and Volta systems. Full distribution can't be mapped, needs more information.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile River system.	eng
181793	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is found in patchy distribution from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Bahr el Jebel system, This species is known from upper White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Niger and Volta systems.	eng
181793	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Found on sandy bottoms of running water, burrowing into the substrate when disturbed.	eng
181793	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found on sandy bottoms, burrowing into the substrate when disturbed.	eng
181793	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Limited information is available. It is rarely recorded in northeast Africa.	eng
181793	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181793	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Potential impact from continuing deforestation within the species range.	eng
181793	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential impact from continuing deforestation within the species range.	eng
181794	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181794	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The range of <em>Amphilius longirostris</em> is known from the Dja River, a tributary of the Sangha (Congo), Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea from the Sanaga to the Ogowe River, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.	eng
181794	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius longirostris</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181794	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181794	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.	eng
181795	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181795	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin.	eng
181795	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It forms large schools in pools, rivers and smaller streams with muddy bottoms or among vegetation near the shore. <em>Synodontis contractus</em> prefers to swim upside-down and will feed in this position as it skims along just under the surface sucking in floating food. The mouth is ventrally located and the teeth are 'fused' together into a rasping patch or plate that is used to scrape algae and slime as well as other types of organisms off the surfaces of the plants, stones, driftwood, etc. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181795	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181795	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis contractus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
181796	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181796	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181796	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181796	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em> is a common species across western and northeast Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is rare, but present, in the Lower Nile (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa: </strong>It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan; as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Senegal and Gambia.	eng
181796	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Auchenoglanis biscutatus</em> is in Lower Nile, Egypt (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/>At global scale it is present in Nigeria, White Nile, and very rare in Lake Nasser (Bishai and Khalil 1997).	eng
181796	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin and the rivers Niger, Senegal and Gambia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>River Nile.	eng
181796	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	A bottom feeder, this species feeds mainly on insects, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, nematodes and plant materials. Gravid fish are recorded throughout the year with a peak in the dry season.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It lives in shallow regions near the shore. The largest specimen recorded in Lake Nasser was 48 cm long.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Common in running water, lakes and submerged vegetation in the Sudd, rare in fringing vegetation.	eng
181796	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives in shallow regions near the shore. It is a bottom feeder that feeds mainly on insects, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, nematodes and plant materials. Gravid fish were recorded throughout the year with a peak in dry season. The largest specimen recorded in Lake Nasser was 48 cm long. Colour: uniform olive green, with small round scattered blackish or brownish spots, lower side white (Bishai and Khalil 1997).	eng
181796	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is found in streams, demersal. Commonly occurs in running water, lakes and submerged vegetation in the Sudd, rare in fringing vegetation. Feeds on the bottom on mud, debris, insects, notably chironomid larvae and molluscs. Gravid fish are recorded throughout the year with a peak in the dry season.	eng
181796	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181796	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181796	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181796	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181796	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181796	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Throughout the majority of its range, no major threats are known. In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought all pose possible threats to this species.	eng
181797	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181797	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181797	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181797	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango River in the south, but not apparently collected from vicinities of the Ogowe and Nyanga basins. Elsewhere in rivers from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.	eng
181797	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Inhabits brackish-water estuaries, creeks, lagoons and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria. Known distribution in Ghana: known from the lower reaches of the Volta and from coastal areas (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Senegal to Angola.	eng
181797	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a widespread coastal species known from Senegal to Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango River in the south, but not apparently collected from vicinities of the Ogowe and Nyanga basins.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded on the Angola/Namibia border.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It inhabits brackish-water estuaries, creeks, lagoons and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
181797	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Adults of <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> occur in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. It occasionally enter freshwater (Harrison and Miller 1992). The species is known to be tolerant of wide range of salinity. This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997). It is used as bio-control agents, e.g. use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).	eng
181797	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Adults of <em>Dormitator lebretonis</em> occur in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. It occasionally enter freshwater (Harrison and Miller 1992). The species is known to be tolerant of wide range of salinity. This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997). It is used as bio-control agents, e.g., use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).	eng
181797	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Anadromous fish that occurs in estuaries, brackish streams, lagoons and mangroves. Occasionally enters freshwater.	eng
181797	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181797	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181797	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181797	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is used as bio-control agents, e.g., use in control of mosquito larva (Mojisola 2002).	eng
181797	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181797	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181798	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181798	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius polli</em> is known from the Lufira system and from the region of Lumbumbashi, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181798	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius polli</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in temporary pools, swamps, ditches in floodplains etc. (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a bottom spawner with 4-6 months incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
181798	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181798	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
181799	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181799	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nanningsi</em> is known from the Lindu Dpt. and from the Luachimo River, Angola. There has been made one record that has not been published from Lula, Bushimaie River, Kasai, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181799	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nanningsi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181799	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181799	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
181800	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181800	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the drainage systems of the upper and Middle Senegal and Gambia rivers in Senegal and Gambia, the Niger system in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Also present in the so-called ‘Dohomey-gap’, the savannah extension southward through Benin, Togo and Eastern Ghana to the Accra Plains in southeastern Ghana and southwestern Togo.	eng
181800	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in temporary pools and swamps in the savannah. Bottom spawner, 3-4 months incubation.	eng
181800	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181800	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation threatens some populations.	eng
181801	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
181801	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and threats.	eng
181801	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
181801	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Malawi and its catchment, Shire River, and Lakes Chiuta and  Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi and Lower Save systems.	eng
181801	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from East Coast rivers on the Mozambique coastal plain from the Rovuma River south to the Save River. Present in affluent rivers of Lake Malawi.	eng
181801	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This is a wide ranging species from main stream rivers through to swamps of larger streams and rivers in eastern and southern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Malawi and its catchment, Shire River, and Lakes Chiuta and  Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in east coast rivers on the Mozambique coastal plain from the Rovuma River south to the Save River.	eng
181801	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Occurs throughout Malawi waters. It is abundant in lagoons and lower reaches of rivers. Most abundant in quieter weedy areas. In L. Malawi it is common at 2-4m depth, but has been observed at 9 m.  In the Lower shire it is common in all types of habitats especially  in the marshes.  Observed to feed from plants as well as within the sand and on rock surfaces. This feeding behaviour suggests that it is an omnivore.	eng
181801	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is abundant in lagoons and lower reaches of rivers, and is most abundant in quieter weedy areas. In Lake Malawi it is common at 2-4 m depth, but has been observed at 9 m. In the Lower shire it is common in all types of habitats especially in the marshes. It has been observed to feed from plants as well as within the sand and on rock surfaces. This feeding behaviour suggests that it is an omnivore.	eng
181801	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Wide habitat range from main stream rivers through to swamps of larger streams and rivers.	eng
181801	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
181801	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available.	eng
181801	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
181801	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	In eastern Africa it is thought that overfishing, using small meshed gears (gill nets and seines) could pose a threat to this species. No major threats are known from southern Africa.	eng
181801	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
181801	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is overfishing using small meshed gears (gill nets and seines).	eng
181802	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181802	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ntem River of Southern Cameroon/Northern Gabon, and the Ivindo River of Gabon, two adjacent rivers that share several endemic species.	eng
181802	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181802	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181802	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. The populations on the Lower Ivindo drainage are threatened by iron mining.	eng
181803	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181803	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius macrophthalmus</em> is only known from Tshikapa on the Kasaï River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181803	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181803	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181803	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181804	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. This species is in need of taxonomic revision.	eng
181804	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys multifasciatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the drainage systems of the upper Lékoni-Djouya and This species is known from upper Mpassa Rivers, southeastern Gabon and the Boumba river system in southeastern Cameroon.	eng
181804	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys multifasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, small rivers and brooks under forest cover. Its max TL is 7 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). It inhabits creeks and other small bodies of water under rainforest cover or under gallery forest in savannah areas.	eng
181804	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181804	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181805	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation measure in place. Policy-based actions, communication and education, research actions and habitat maintenance are all needed for this species.	eng
181805	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout Ethiopia and into Northern Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is known from northern Ewaso Nyiro, Lake Baringo drainage, Lake Bogoria system (and affluent rivers), and the Lake Turkana basin (Turkwell River system, Keiro River sytem) and Suguta drainage.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is widely distributed in freshwaters of Ethiopia and Ouasso Nyiro, Wabishebelle (Juba), Benadir, Somalia	eng
181805	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in running and standing waters.	eng
181805	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
181805	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is treatened by overexploitation and habitat degradation.	eng
181806	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181806	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known. More information is needed on potential threats to this species, and populations should be monitored.	eng
181806	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within western Africa it occurs around Lake Chad, in Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Beyond the region it is widely distributed occurring in the Sobat, Wadi Halfa and White Nile drainages in central Sudan.	eng
181806	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from the Lake Chad area, and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is occurring in the Sobat, Wadi Halfa and White Nile drainages in central Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within Western Africa it occurs around Lake Chad, in Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria.	eng
181806	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a small perennial killifish that occurs in pools, swamps, shallow waters and drainage ditches. Non-migratory.	eng
181806	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	It is a small perrenial killifish that occurs in pools, swamps, shallow waters and drainage ditches.	eng
181806	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	.No available data.	eng
181806	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181806	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Water abstraction and potentially basin transfer from the Oubangui river threaten this species.	eng
181806	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Water abstraction and potentially basin transfer from the Oubangui River. Water shortage.	eng
181807	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available.	eng
181807	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181807	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181807	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181807	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Tetraodon lineatus</em> is threatened in Lower an Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Lake Nasser, Nile, Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers.	eng
181807	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Upper Nile system, Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Sénégal Rivers.	eng
181807	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also found in the Nile.	eng
181807	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Nile system, and Lake Turkana <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Bahr el Jebel, White Nile, Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Geba and Senegal Rivers.	eng
181807	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Found in large rivers, open water, weed beds and vegetated fringes. It feeds on molluscs. It rises to surface to inflate its body resembling a balloon. This inflation is useful to the fish as it is less easily eaten by predators. It reaches a length to 45 cm.	eng
181807	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2002	Occupies large rivers, open waters, macrophyte beds and vegatated fringes where it feeds on molluscs (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181807	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in large rivers, open water, weed beds and vegetated fringes. They are carnivores, crushing the shells and of  molluscs and shellfish.	eng
181807	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species occupies large rivers, open waters, macrophyte beds and vegetated fringes where it feeds on molluscs (Froese and Pauly 2003). It rises to surface to inflate its body resembling a balloon. This inflation is useful to the fish as it is less easily eaten by predators.	eng
181807	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181807	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181807	population	Akinyi, E., 2002	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing.	eng
181807	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing.	eng
181807	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Fishing activities leading to a possible reduction in population in the future, also climate change and the reduction of water flow.	eng
181807	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In western Africa, fishing activities could lead to a possible reduction in population in the future, also climate change and the reduction of water flow threaten this species.	eng
181807	threats	Akinyi, E., 2002	None known and it is not targeted by the fisheries.	eng
181807	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181808	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181808	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo macrostoma</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
181808	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo macrostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species that lives in fast flowing waters.	eng
181808	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181808	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181809	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
181809	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality, Warri, Nigeria (Niger delta).	eng
181809	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is only known from swamp habitat but more samples are required.	eng
181809	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181809	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by oil exploration and general habitat degradation.	eng
181810	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181810	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gephyroglanis longipinnis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin to just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems.	eng
181810	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gephyroglanis longipinnis</em> is a demersal species. Only the young are popular in the aquarium trade (Clarke 1988). It mainly feeds on worms (Burgess 1989).	eng
181810	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181810	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181811	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181811	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Mitemele River (Equatorial Guinea), and in the Mbei (or Mbe), Komo, Abanga and lower Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).	eng
181811	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion striatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps, brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) striatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181811	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181811	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181812	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181812	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the middle and lower courses of coastal rivers, from Guinea Bissau (Géba and Corubal) to the River Cess in Liberia.	eng
181812	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 24.8 cm SL maximum size.	eng
181812	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181812	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181814	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181814	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits small rivers, brooks and swamps in the mountainous forested area of southeastern Guinea and northern Liberia. Probably also in the adjacent part of Western Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
181814	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers, swamps, and brooks in mountainous areas. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size 4.5 cm TL	eng
181814	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181814	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is no information on any major threats to the species in Guinea; but in Liberia, the threats are from mining and deforestation	eng
181815	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
181815	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181815	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. A taxonomic revision of this species is needed, as well as population monitoring and possible conservation measures, including habitat conservation.	eng
181815	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo across to Tanzania. The Genus is in need of revision and it is likely that <em>congicus</em> represents a species complex.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including the  Mutsindozi River, Malagarasi River basin.	eng
181815	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and Upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika and from the Mutsindozi River, Malagarasi River basin. The genus is in need of revision and it is likely that <span style="font-style: italic;">congicus</span> represents a species complex.	eng
181815	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers affluent to LakeTanganyika, including the Malagarasi River.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin.	eng
181815	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181815	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Chelaethiops congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers stream and riverine biotopes. Ecology not known.	eng
181815	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Prefers stream and riverine biotopes. Ecology not known.	eng
181815	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181815	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available.	eng
181815	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Not known, but rare.	eng
181815	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	For the majority of its range no major threats to this species are known. In eastern Africa water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation is threatening some populations.	eng
181815	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181815	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation.	eng
181816	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181816	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish is found in Guinea Bissau to southern Liberia, around Monrovia. It inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains, in southeastern Sierra Leone between the Moa and Moha rivers of the Pujehun district. Also found in the adjacent part of southwestern Liberia, as far east as the Bomi Hills.	eng
181816	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in coastal rivers, brooks and swampy areas in forested savannah and under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. It is a benthopelagic fish	eng
181816	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
181816	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Threats include deforestation, water pollution and mining.	eng
181817	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
181817	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis lufirae</em> is only known from the Lufira River system, including Lake Koni, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181817	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis lufirae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181817	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181817	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
181818	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181818	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from Nzi River, tributary of the Bandama, Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
181818	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The type locality is situated in a savannah area, in a swamp which completely dries up every year. Maximum size 16.6 cm TL	eng
181818	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181818	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181819	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181819	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from rivers Cavally and Gbin (St. John basin, Liberia) and Corubal (Guinea Bissau).	eng
181819	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 11.4 cm SL maximum size	eng
181819	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181819	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is threatened by deforestation, and agricultural development.	eng
181820	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181820	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga River basin (Cameroon).	eng
181820	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus sanagali</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in slow streams with a sandy bottom (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
181820	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181820	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181821	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
181821	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Sierra Leone, at Victoria near Freetown Peninsula, Pujehun and the Kasewe Forest.	eng
181821	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
181821	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181821	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is impacted by deforestation, agricultural and urban developments.	eng
181822	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181822	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chysichthys polli</em> is only known from the Yelelola Falls, Boma and Maleba in the Lower Congo River basin. The records from Boma and Malela are old records and probably refer to the area and not to the broad stretch of the main channel since the species appears to be living in rapids.	eng
181822	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181822	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181822	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five year,s will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
181823	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is found within Kassawe Forest Reserve.	eng
181823	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from the type locality, Kassawe Forest Reserve, Sierra Leone.	eng
181823	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. It is oviparous.	eng
181823	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
181823	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181824	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181824	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Platyclarias machadoi</em> is only known from Cafunfo, upper Kwango River basin, Angola.	eng
181824	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181824	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181824	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
181825	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
181825	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is reliably known only from water drainages of the mountainous Bamenda region (part of the Niger basin in Cameroon).	eng
181825	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum reported size: 62.5 mm SL.	eng
181825	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
181825	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.	eng
181826	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181826	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis schwetzi</em> is only known from a limited number of locations on the Kwango River, Kasai drainage, Central Congo River system, Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango basin though.	eng
181826	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis schwetzi</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females. This species practices buccal incubation (Poll 1967).	eng
181826	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181826	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
181827	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181827	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Trachyglanis minutus</em> is only known from the type locality, the Ubangui River at Banzyville, Democratic Republic of the Congo and possibly from the Lossi Creek, Sangha basin, Central African Republic.	eng
181827	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181827	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181827	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
181828	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181828	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Kouilou-Niari basin, Congo.	eng
181828	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus rouxi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 7.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181828	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181828	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
181829	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181829	conservation	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	None known.	eng
181829	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181829	conservation	Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring population trends.	eng
181829	distribution	Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is known from Cameroon to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from East Africa to Cameroon (Lévêque and Daget 1984), including the Kwango River (Cafunfo) in Angola and Kisala and Kidada in the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Victoria drainage, northern Ewaso Nyiro, Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana basins (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It is also known from the Mukungwa River (This species is known from upper Akagera), and Lake Tana and affluents to Blue Nile. Lake Victoria system, Victoria Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in upper Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed in North East Africa and beyond. Found in the Nile in Egypt and Sudan and in all drainage basins of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is only known from Chad basin (Omo and This species is known from upper Logone River).	eng
181829	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Garra dembeensis</em> is known from Lake Tana and tributaries of the Blue Nile, Omo River and the upper reaches of Logone River and Chad basin. It is also known from eastern Africa to Cameroon (Lévêque and Daget 1984), including the Kwango River (Cafunfo) in Angola and Kisala and Kidada in the Congo basin.	eng
181829	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is only known from Chad Basin (Upper Logone River). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lake Tana and tributaries of the Blue Nile, Omo River and the upper reaches of Logone River and Chad basin. Known from eastern Africa to Cameroon.	eng
181829	distribution	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	The species is known from the  Lake Victoria drainage, northern Ewaso Nyiro, Pangani drainage, Athi and Tana basins (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Mukungwa River (Upper Akagera). Lake Tana and affluents to Blue Nile. Lake Victoria system, Victoria Nile.	eng
181829	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species that is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks. Feeds on algae. Adheres to stones in swift water.	eng
181829	habitat	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	Commonly found in river rapids and on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). Feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). Adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181829	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). <em>Garra dembeensis</em> feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). It adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994).	eng
181829	habitat	Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Garra dembeensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is commonly found in rapid parts of rivers and also on wave-washed rocks (Eccles 1992). It prefers habitats that are vegetated, as it is abundantly found in such habitats. However, it could also adapt to habitats that are highly affected by human activities. <em>Garra dembeensis</em> feeds on algae (Fermon 1997). It adheres to stones in swift water (Bailey 1994).	eng
181829	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181829	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181829	population	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known.	eng
181829	population	Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	The species is known to occur in great abundance in different basins of the northeast region. No further information is available.	eng
181829	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Minor commercial trade and use.	eng
181829	threats	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries for minor commercial trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003), and water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation.	eng
181829	threats	Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance for the aquarium trade (after Froese and Pauly 2003). Water turbidity due to erosion on river basins, a consequence of agriculture extension and deforestation, is likely to be threatening east African populations. In northeast Africa, degradation of the environment appears to have impact on the abundance of the species, although not crucially impacting the existence of the species.	eng
181829	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
181830	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The northern part of the distribution is in Upemba National Park.	eng
181830	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis dorsomaculatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system.	eng
181830	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis dorsomaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181830	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181830	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
181831	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181831	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is inhabits the drainage systems of: the Lover Volta, Dayi and Ofu Rivers in southern and Central Ghana, the Sassandra, Comoé, Bandama, and Cavally Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and the St. John's and Douobe rivers in southeastern Liberia. There is also an unconfirmed record of the occurrence of this species in the Volta River system in Southwestern Burkina Faso.	eng
181831	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is found in small rivers, books and swamps of the forested savannah in foothills of the plateau. These streams are recorded as being clear water with some flow rate over a sand base. Depth of water has been recorded at 30 cm, water temperature 20-30°C. Sympatric species include <span style="font-style: italic;">E.chaperi sheljuzhkoi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E.chaperi schreiberi</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">E.olbrechtsi olbrechtsi </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Poropanchax rancureli</span>.<br/>This species is found in mid-water levels in shoals. They lay eggs on aquatic plants and roots of terrestrial plants at waters edge. Sexual maturity in 20 weeks. Full maturity at 7 months with a life expectancy of 3 years.	eng
181831	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181831	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known, but there are potential threats to the species from agricultural development.	eng
181832	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181832	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species occurs in the drainage systems of the upper Via/Saint Paul and upper Saint John rivers in eastern Guinea and northwestern Liberia.	eng
181832	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This killifish is found mainly among vegetation, or between fallen leaves, in brooks and small streams of the forested savannah.	eng
181832	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181832	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and pool draining.	eng
181833	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181833	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria katangae</em> is only known from the Lufira River, upper Congo River basin.	eng
181833	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria katangae</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 5.5 cm (Poll 1984).	eng
181833	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181833	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181834	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181834	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo nigricans</em> is only known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Kondue (Kasai) and Kisangani on the Central Congo River basin (Tshibwabwa 1997), three very dispersed locations. The species is assumed to be more widespread than currently known.	eng
181834	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo nigricans</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181834	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181834	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181835	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181835	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181835	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Barbus aboinensis</em> has been described from the Aboina River (Cross basin), but possibly also occurs in other coastal basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from Benoué River (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
181835	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus aboinensis</em> has been described from the Aboina River (Cross Basin), but possibly also occurs in other coastal basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. It has been reported from Benoué River (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
181835	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181835	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This small bentho-pelagic <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> grows to 7 cm in standard length. It requires clean highly oxygenated water, and is non-migratory.	eng
181835	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181835	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181835	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
181835	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
181836	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181836	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Mpoulou River, tributary of Kouilou within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve, Mayombe, Congo. Surrounding habitats have been surveyed and the species has not been found, it is most likely restricted to Mpoulou River. It is separated from a similar species, <em>Amphilius pulcher</em> (a widespread species) by a series of rapids.	eng
181836	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181836	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181836	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. There are currently no threats to <em>Amphilius dimonikensis</em> (deforestation is an historical threat, but the human population has moved). A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
181837	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181837	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo and Benito River drainage systems, between Ovan and Bélinga, in northern Gabon.  Also found in the adjacent part of Equatorial Guinea, and Congo.	eng
181837	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphysemion (Diapteron) cyanostictum</em> is found in small, mostly swampy brooks in rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a demersal, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) cyanostictum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181837	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181837	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture in the upper Ivindo drainage. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181838	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181838	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops boulengeri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
181838	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181838	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181838	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181839	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181839	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2004	None known	eng
181839	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181839	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181839	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Policy-based actions at multiple levels are required, along with harvest management, to reduce the impact of overfishing.	eng
181839	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Lates niloticus</em> is widely distributed in the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  In Lower Guinea it is known from the Sanaga and Cross and coastal rivers of Cameroon. It has been introduced, at unknown date, from Sudan to Congo. According to FAO (2005), it is naturally reproducing and established. However, the species is native in the Congo River basin. Except for records from its natural distribution within the Lower Guinea province, no museum records are available.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles and Turkana. It is now fully established in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo, and the Victoria Nile, through introductions. According to Hartley (1984) an unpublicised introduction of <em>L. niloticus</em> took place in Lake Naivasha in the early 1970s and since the early 1980s several perch have been caught. No information is available on its present status but probably the species did not establish in the lake.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in the Delta, Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, as well as Lakes Wadi El-Rayan and Burollos, and Nozha Hydrodrome. It is present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Nile drainage, Lakes Chamo and Abaya as well as Baro and Tekeze basins in Ethiopia. Also Setit in Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found almost everywhere in West Africa. Widely distributed in the Volta basin. (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999) Present in Black Volta, White Volta and the Oti (Dankwa 1984).	eng
181839	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Lates niloticus</em> is common in Delta, Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile, Lakes Wadi El-Rayan and Burollos, and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Lake Nasser, Lake Nubia, Blue Nile, Senegal, White Nile, Congo, Chad, Niger, introduced into Lake Victoria.	eng
181839	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Lates niloticus</em> is widespread throughout the Ethiopian Region of Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the Sanaga and Cross and coastal rivers of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa (Nile, Niger, Senegal and Volta). It has been introduced, at unknown date, from Sudan to Congo-Brazzaville. According to FAO (2005), it is naturally reproducing and established. However, the species is native in the Congo River basin. Except for records from its natural distribution within the Lower Guinea province, no museum records are available. It is present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria. It exists in Lakes Albert, Rudolph and Tana. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.	eng
181839	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles and Turkana. Fully established in Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo, and the Victoria Nile, through introductions. According to Hartley (1984) an unpublicised introduction of L. niloticus took place in Lake Naivasha in the early 1970s and since the eraly 1980s several perch have been caught. No information is availabe on its present status but probably the species did not establish in the lake.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>The Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo systems. Present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria.	eng
181839	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Species found almost everywhere in western Africa. Widely distributed in the Volta basin. (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999) Present in Black Volta, White Volta and the Oti. (Dankwa 1984).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Widespread throughout the Ethiopian Region of Africa, occurring commonly in all major river basins including the Nile, Chad, Senegal, Volta and Congo. Present in the brackish waters of Lake Mariout, near Alexandria. Exists in Lakes Albert, Rudolph and Tana. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction. (Gosse 1984).	eng
181839	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal; potamodromous; Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals.  Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water.  Feeds on fish especially clupeids and <em>Alestes</em> (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967); smaller fish also feed on larger crustaceans and insects.  Juveniles are planktivorous (Bailey 1994). Preferred Climate - tropical. It prefers to inhabit in streams and lakes.	eng
181839	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2004	Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults inhabit deep water while juveniles are found in shallow water (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is not present in the littoral rocky habitat (Witte and de Winter 1995). A voracious predator which predominantly feeds on fish although the juveniles feed on larger crustaceans and insects and are planktivorous (Froese and Pauly 2003). Reproduces around the year, with peaks in the rainy season. It probably spawns in shallow sheltered areas. Juveniles occur over wide depth range but the highest concentration of small juveniles are found in littoral and sub-littoral zones (Witte and de Winter 1995).	eng
181839	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This demersal and potamodromous species inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults live in deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water. It is piscivorous and feeds mainly on <em>Tilapia</em> spp, <em>Alestes</em> spp. and shrimps. During its long spawning season February-August, spawns in nests scooped in gravel. It reaches a length to 2 m. Introductions in Lake Victoria were mainly from Lake Albert. Nile perch is responsible through predation and competition for food of the decimation and possible disappearance of two hundred or more species of the unique flock of endemic haplochromine cichlids in Lake Victoria.	eng
181839	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This specie prefers sandy bottoms but also found in rocky to muddy bottoms. Zones with vegetation in calm waters provide shelter to larvae and young. Inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water. Feeds on fish especially clupeids and “<span style="font-style: italic;">Alestes</span>”; smaller fish also feed on larger crustaceans and insects. Juveniles are planktivorous. Sexual dimorphism: females larger than males.	eng
181839	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is demersal and potamodromous, and inhabits channels, lakes and irrigation canals. It prefers sandy bottoms but also found in rocky to muddy bottoms. Zones with vegetation in calm waters provide shelter to larvae and young. Adults inhabit deep water, while juveniles are found in shallow water (Froese and Pauly 2003). It is not present in the littoral rocky habitat (Witte and de Winter 1995). A voracious predator which predominantly feeds on <em>Tilapia</em> spp and <em>Alestes</em> spp. etc. (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967) and shrimps, although the juveniles feed on larger crustaceans and insects and are planktivorous (Bailey 1994). Long spawning season February-August. It reproduces around the year, with peaks in the rainy season. It probably spawns in shallow sheltered areas. Juveniles occur over wide depth range but the highest concentration of small juveniles are found in littoral and sub-littoral zones (Witte and de Winter 1995). Sexual dimorphism: females larger than males.<br/><br/>Introductions in Lake Victoria were mainly from Lake Albert. Nile perch is responsible through predation and competition for food of the decimation and possible disappearance of two hundred or more species of the unique flock of endemic haplochromine cichlids in Lake Victoria.	eng
181839	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	For the majority of its range, there is no data on population trends. In Egypt, its catch was increased from 840 tones in 1995 to be 8,453 tones in 2004. This is may be due to the increasing of fishing effort and/ or fishing gears technologies.	eng
181839	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Egypt, its catch was increased from 840 tones in 1995 to be 8453 tones in 2004. This is may be due to the increasing of fishing effort and/ or fishing gears technologies.	eng
181839	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181839	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181839	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2004	No overall population estimates	eng
181839	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181839	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Nowadays, the species is declining due to overfishing and pollution (Kraïem, M. pers. comm. 2007). In addition, the species is though to be threatened by dams, groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181839	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2004	The main threat to the species is the increasingly eutrophic conditions in native Lake Albert.	eng
181839	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a highly commercial species, and is suffering from overexploitation in much of its native range, and to a lesser extent, pollution. Increasingly eutrophic conditions are threatening native populations in Lake Albert.	eng
181839	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has high commercial importance. It is used for commercial aquaculture.	eng
181840	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181840	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus mpozoensis</em> is only known from the mouth of the Mpozo River and the opposite bank in the main river, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
181840	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus mpozoensis</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species.	eng
181840	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181840	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Habitat loss and infrastructure development pose future threats.	eng
181841	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181841	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is endemic, at present known only from the River Yei draining into the Ghazal catchment, Sudan.	eng
181841	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water	eng
181841	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181841	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181842	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181842	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the lower and middle Wouri, Dibamba and Sanaga River systems in western Cameroon.	eng
181842	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) riggenbachi</em> occurs in small streams and brooks in the coastal rain forest overlying soils developed from the ancient basement rocks. (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) riggenbachi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181842	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181842	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no major threats. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
181843	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
181843	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known to occur in upper Konkouré River system in the Fouta Djalon range of Guinea.	eng
181843	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181843	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181843	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
181844	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181844	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This very poorly known species has only been collected in Benin (locality unknown) and Nigeria, near Lagos (holotype and paratype) and in the River Azumini at Azumini (six specimens).	eng
181844	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small riverine pelagic distichodontid characiform that grows to 1.8 cm SL. It is non-migratory.	eng
181844	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181844	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development.	eng
181845	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181845	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys macropterus</em> is known from the type localities Kisangani, the Tsuopo and Aruwimi Rivers.	eng
181845	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181845	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181845	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181846	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
181846	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181846	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea occurring in the Upper Cross River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, from Benin to upper Cross River in Cameroon. Elsewhere in Africa, it is known from the  basins of the Lower Niger, Bénoué, Ouémé, Ogun and Wouri.	eng
181846	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is encountered in the following basins: delta of Niger, Benue, Ouémé, Ogun and Cross.	eng
181846	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Phago loricatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on large insects and fish.	eng
181846	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phago loricatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on large insects and fish.	eng
181846	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181846	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181846	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181846	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species may be threatened by oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta, and deforestation, agriculture and urban development throughout the rest of its range.	eng
181847	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181847	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the southern Benin (Ouémé River) and Southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta and the area around Port Harcourt. Possibly also in southern Ghana and Cameroon.	eng
181847	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A semi-annual bottom spawning species with a 2 month incubation period for the eggs. It occurs in temporary swamps, raffia swamps, pools and swampy parts of brooks and small streams, and floodplains in the humid coastal rainforest of Southern Benin and Southern Nigeria, including the Niger River delta and the area around Port Harcourt. It is non-migratory.	eng
181847	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181847	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation, habitat loss and degradation due to pollution, industrial, agricultural and urban development.	eng
181849	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Its distribution is partly included within the Korup National Park.	eng
181849	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly included with the Korup National Park.	eng
181849	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias pachynema</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Some records from affluent streams to Pool Malebo and the Lower Congo. In the Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga (Cameroon) to the Ogowe (Gabon). Elsewhere, it has been reported from the Oueme River in Benin (but this record is doubtful).	eng
181849	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. pachynema</span> occurs only in the River Cross (Nigeria), Niger Delta and in Ouémé River in Benin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it is also known from coastal basins in Cameroon and Gabon and from the Middle Congo, South Africa and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
181849	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. There is lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
181849	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
181849	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181849	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181849	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.	eng
181849	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181850	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181850	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> is known from the Ubangui River system and the Central Congo River basin above the bifurcation with the Ubangui River. There is a single established record of <em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> from the upper Congo River basin at Elila on the Kama River. It has also been recorded from Mabondo Island, Sangha River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181850	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an opportunistic benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that mainly feeds on plants and insects (as well as their larvae) (Lamboj 2004). This species is a female mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
181850	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181850	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181851	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181851	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Volta River system.	eng
181851	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
181851	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
181851	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It threatened by deforestation, overfishing and invasive aquatic weeds (Water Hyacinth)	eng
181852	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181852	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Niger River delta, southeastern Nigeria.	eng
181852	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a small semi-annual bottom spawning killifish that grows to 5 cm in SL. The eggs incubate in the substrate for 2 months and can withstand some degree of water restriction. It inhabits temporary swamps and swampy parts of small rivers and brooks in the coastal rainforest. It is non-migratory.	eng
181852	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181852	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. It is polluted by oil exploration and vandalization of oil pipelines as a result of civil conflict; it is an area of massive urban and industrial development in petrochemical and steel.	eng
181853	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
181853	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality in the drainage system of the upper Saint John River in northern central Liberia.	eng
181853	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a non seasonal killifish that occurs in small brooks.	eng
181853	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
181853	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Habitat degradation as a result of mining and agriculture. It is also collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
181854	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.	eng
181854	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The distribution of <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) spoorenbergi</em>  is not known with precision. The species was imported together with <em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> from the border area between Nigeria (towards Osombo and Mamfé) and Cameroon (Romand 1992).	eng
181854	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) spoorenbergi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 5 months incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181854	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181854	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Major threats are unknown as the location is not confirmed, although it has been harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181856	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181856	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Niger basin in Guinea, Mali (inland delta), Niger and Nigeria (Lake Kainji).	eng
181856	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>S. gobroni</em> is a very rare bentho-pelagic riverine mochokid catfish that grows to 47 cm SL. Omnivorous. Able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions. It is non-migratory.	eng
181856	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181856	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181857	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181857	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species is protected in some reserves such as Kafue National Park.	eng
181857	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is protected in some reserves such as Kafue National Park.	eng
181857	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found yet in the Upper Lualaba-Lufirae and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo, it is known from the Kinsuka falls, just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue system.	eng
181857	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, also the Kasai in the Congo system.	eng
181857	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Nambia, Botswana and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found yet in the upper Lualaba-Lufirae and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems. In the Lower Congo, it is known from the Kinsuka falls, just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, also the Kasai in the Congo system.	eng
181857	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is a pelagic species. It is found in marginal vegetation of large rivers, in flowing water, but absent from floodplain pools and lagoons, and tributaries away from the floodplain (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004). Large specimens from the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi (see taxonomic note) inhabit fast-flowing, rocky forest streams. The different habitat also supports the suggestion that this may be a separate taxon. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces. Not sufficiently common for aquarium trade (Skelton 1993).	eng
181857	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax macropterus</em> is a pelagic species. It is found in marginal vegetation of large rivers, in flowing water. It picks small insects and other invertebrates from plant surfaces.  Not sufficiently common for aquarium trade (Skelton 1993). It prefers streams.	eng
181857	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Found mainly along the margins of large river channels, usually in vegetation, but absent from floodplain pools and lagoons, and tributaries away from the floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Large specimens from the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi (see taxonomic note) inhabit fast-flowing, rocky forest streams. The different habitat also supports the suggestion that this may be a separate taxon.	eng
181857	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181857	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread and fairly common but not abundant (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
181857	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and fairly common but not abundant (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).	eng
181857	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181857	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
181857	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181858	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	One of three known locations falls within the Gashaaka-Gumti National Park.	eng
181858	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. benuensis</span> is known only from the Benue basin (Cameroon and Nigeria).	eng
181858	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a very small catfish that is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with it clings to rock. It grows to 3.8 cm TL. It is non-migratory.	eng
181858	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181858	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is potentially threatened by dam construction as the required rapids habitat is often lost.	eng
181859	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181859	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is only known from type locality, Ismailia Channel, Ismailia, Egypt, 120 km northeast of Cairo.	eng
181859	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181859	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181859	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is threatened by water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and drought.	eng
181860	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181860	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em> is known from the upper Dja, Central Congo River basin, southeastern Gabon. In Lower Guinea, it occurs in drainage systems of the upper Sanaga, This species is known from upper Nyong and Ntem.	eng
181860	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, brooks and small streams under forest cover. It has a max TL of 7 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181860	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181860	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181861	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181861	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from Lake Abaya, Ethiopia.	eng
181861	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in standing water.	eng
181861	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181861	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181862	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
181862	conservation	Getahun, A. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the range of this species, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
181862	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malagarasi River and the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower White Nile and Blue Nile.	eng
181862	distribution	Getahun, A. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is known from Sudan, Ethiopia and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile, Blue Nile, and Nile at Khartoum, Sudan. It is also found in Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
181862	habitat	Getahun, A. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Most commonly found in quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains, but may be found also in fast flowing waters. Thought to feed on small invertebrates, mainly insect larvae.	eng
181862	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Most commonly found in quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains, but may be found also in fast flowing waters. Thought to feed on small invertebrates, mainly insect larvae.	eng
181862	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Not known.	eng
181862	population	Getahun, A. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Not known, but rare.	eng
181862	threats	Getahun, A. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension threatens this species.	eng
181862	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is regression of vegetated wetlands around rivers due to agriculture extension.	eng
181863	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181863	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic reported only from the Ivindo River (Ogowe River drainage), and the Nyanga River and Kouilou-Niari System. It has not been verified from the upper (southern) Ogowe River. A single specimen has been recorded in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), but this record is considered questionable. (Norris 2002).	eng
181863	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	It is an upland species, generally not found in lowland habitats, where it appears to be replaced by <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em>. This species is benthopelagic.	eng
181863	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181863	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181864	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181864	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181864	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from the Cross River basin. Elsewhere, known from the Volta River to Cameroon.  Africa:  Occurs east of the Volta basin to Cameroon.  Recorded from Chad basin and Benue River; Ghana and Nigeria (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181864	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the eastern side of the Volta to the Cross in Cameroon, including the Chad basin and Benue River.	eng
181864	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181864	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181864	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181864	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181864	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181864	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181865	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181865	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin, including the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
181865	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181865	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181865	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181866	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181866	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis stappersi</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the lower reaches of the Luapula River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
181866	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181866	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181866	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181867	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181867	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181867	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored and harvest management introduced. Habitat conservation is also required.	eng
181867	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe brevianalis</em> is found in the lower courses of the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga and Nyong Rivers, Cameroon. The record of <em>S. brevianalis</em> from the Ivindo-Ogowe River by De Vos (1995) is in fact a young specimen of <em>S. laticeps</em>, a species previously only known from the Congo basin. Elsewhere <em>S. brevianalis</em> is found in coastal rivers close to Lagos, and in the Ibo Kwa river (Nigeria).	eng
181867	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe brevianalis</span> occurs in coastal rivers near Lagos, as well as in the rivers Kwa Ibo and Cross (Nigeria). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside western Africa, it is known from the Nyong, lower Sanaga and Wouri systems (Cameroon). Also in Gabon.	eng
181867	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe brevianalis</em> is found in the lower courses of the Cross Wouri, Sanaga and Nyong Rivers, Cameroon. The record of <em>S. brevianalis</em> from the Ivindo-Ogowe River by De Vos (1995) is in fact a young specimen of <em>S. laticeps</em>, a species previously only known from the Congo basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in coastal rivers near Lagos, as well as in the rivers Kwa Ibo and Cross (Nigeria).	eng
181867	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Schilbe brevinalis</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on insect larvae and zooplankton and adults feed on small fish. Migrates upstream from lakes for spawning in the rivers and streams. The species is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181867	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe brevinalis</em> is a demersal species. The species is oviparous and the eggs are unguarded (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181867	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic species that feeds on insect larvae and zooplankton and adults feed on small fish. Migrates upstream from lakes for spawning in the rivers and streams.	eng
181867	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181867	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181867	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181867	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally impacted by dam construction which is blocking some of the migration routes and habitat degradation following deforestation, agriculture and urban development. Overfishing.	eng
181867	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	On the lower Nyong River, the species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (Mamonekene pers. comm.).	eng
181867	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	On the lower Nyong River, the species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.). In western Africa it is locally impacted by dam construction which is blocking some of the migration routes, and habitat degradation following deforestation, agriculture and urban development. It is also overfished.	eng
181868	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181868	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	According to Teugels and Al, (1988), Daget and Iltis (1965) record <span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis velifer</span> in Bandama, Sassandra and Comoé. All these individuals are of small size. The individuals of Comoé are not in collection. The presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. velifer</span> in Côte d'Ivoire needs to be confirmed.	eng
181868	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. Oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181868	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181868	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181869	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181869	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Chiloango and Kouilou basins.	eng
181869	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
181869	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181869	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species in the lower Kouilou basin is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
181870	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181870	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus paucispinis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181870	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in rapids where the bottom is predominantly coarse sand (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
181870	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181870	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181871	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181871	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis moeruensis</em> is only known from Lake Mweru.	eng
181871	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
181871	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181871	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.	eng
181872	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181872	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in lower river courses from Guinea Bissau (Géba and Corubal) to the St. John in Liberia.	eng
181872	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of 30.8 cm SL maximum size	eng
181872	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181872	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation and mining are local threats.	eng
181873	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181873	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from the Ivindo system in the regions of Makokou and Belinga, in Central Gabon.	eng
181873	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parananochromis axelrodi</em> is collected in small forest creeks and streams (Lamboj and Stiassny 2003). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181873	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181873	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The southern location is situated in an iron mining region.	eng
181874	conservation	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	No information available.	eng
181874	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181874	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. Habitat maintenance and conservation may be needed.	eng
181874	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is found throughout central Africa, from Cameroon to Angola, and eastwards to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin and from the Malagarasi River basin (Tanzania). It is known in the Lower Guinea found in the Nyong, Lobé (Lobi, Lobo), Ntem, Ogowe and Kouilou River basins and in the Nkomi lagoon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Tanganyika catchment including the Malagarasi and Lukuga rivers.	eng
181874	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bryconaethiops microstoma</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin and from the Malagarasi River basin (Tanzania). Elsewhere, it is known in the Lower Guinea found in the Nyong, Lobé (Lobi, Lobo), Ntem, Ogowe and Kouilou River basins and in the Nkomi lagoon.	eng
181874	distribution	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Tanganyika catchment including the Malagarasi and Lukuga rivers<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo basin.	eng
181874	habitat	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	Restricted to streams and rivers. Omnivorous feeding mainly on insects.	eng
181874	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181874	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a pelagic species restricted to streams and rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding mainly on insects.	eng
181874	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	It is rare in fishery catches.	eng
181874	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181874	population	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	Rare in fishery catches	eng
181874	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181874	threats	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension.	eng
181874	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension is a threat in east Africa.	eng
181875	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181875	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from its type locality, the vicinity of Bouala, Western Central African Republic and from the upper reaches only of the Benue River basin in Nigeria and Cameroon	eng
181875	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a killfish that grows to a maximum length of 5 cm. This species occurs in streams and swamps in the open and humid grassland savanna and highlands. Perrenial species. It is non-migratory.	eng
181875	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181875	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In Nigeria the main threat to this species is habitat loss and degradation following conversion of wetlands for farming - in particular for rice farming.	eng
181876	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The locations on the Lufira River basin are located in or just beside the Upemba National Park.	eng
181876	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramormyrops tavernei</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin.	eng
181876	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181876	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181876	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181877	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181877	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Acanthcleithron chapini</em> is known from the Congo River basin (Ituri River and the Congo River from Kisangani to Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)).	eng
181877	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Acanthcleithron chapini</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181877	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181877	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181878	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181878	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congocharax olbrechtsi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181878	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181878	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181878	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181879	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181879	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong basin in southern Cameroon.	eng
181879	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181879	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181879	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by logging in the area of the Upper Nyong River.	eng
181880	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181880	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo rectipinnis</em> is only known from the Kalamu River, near Boma and from Manianga, in the rapids of the Congo River (Lower Congo River basin). There have been surveys in the region, but is has not been found though (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).	eng
181880	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo rectipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers rapids.	eng
181880	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181880	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181881	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181881	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe River, Rembo Nkomi, and Nyanga basins in Gabon.	eng
181881	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181881	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181881	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181882	conservation	J. KasembeKazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
181882	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181882	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information on possible threats to this species is needed, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
181882	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species occurs in some game reserves.	eng
181882	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River in Malawi.  <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Okavango, This species is known from upper and lower Zambezi, Kafue, and rivers of coastal Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal. It is also found in the Quanza and southern Congo tributaries (Skelton 2001).	eng
181882	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Zambezi in Zambia and Cubango-Okovango-Ngami in Angola and Botswana. It is also known from the Kafue, rivers of coastal Mozambique and the Cuanza River (Skelton 1993).	eng
181882	distribution	J. KasembeKazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Lower Shire River in Malawi.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>the Okavango, Zambezi and Kafue systems, coastal rivers  of Mozambique and nothern Natal, Quanza and southern tributaries of the Congo system.	eng
181882	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi, Kafue, and rivers of coastal Mozambique and northern KwaZulu-Natal. Also in the Quanza and southern Congo tributaries (Skelton 2001).	eng
181882	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans (Skelton 2001). This species feeds on any suitably small creature, including insects, shrimps, and small fish. Well camouflaged, <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> hunts by slowly stalking prey. They may congregate in groups to breed. The eggs are scattered around and not guarded. It can endure warm stagnant waters and is known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather or at night (Skelton 1993). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) observed it moving out from the Zambezi River onto newly flooded grasslands, e.g. they recorded 62 specimens from a single mat of grounded vegetation on the overflowing riverbank.	eng
181882	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans. This species feeds on any suitably small creature, including insects, shrimps, and small fish. Well camouflaged, <em>Ctenopoma multispine</em> hunts by slowly stalking prey. They may congregate in groups to breed. The eggs are scattered around and not guarded.  It can endure warm stagnant waters and is known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather or at night (Skelton 1993).It prefers living in streams, estuaries and mangroves,	eng
181882	habitat	J. KasembeKazembe, J., 2003	Occurs in marshes and the main chanel of the Shire river. Feeds on small oragnisms such as insects and small fish.	eng
181882	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Occurs in vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) observed it moving out from the Zambezi River onto newly flooded grasslands, e.g.,  they recorded 62 specimens from a single mat of grounded vegetation on the overflowing riverbank. Known to leave the water and move overland to alternative sites in wet weather. A predator on insects, shrimps and small fish, hunting by slowly stalking prey. May congregate to breed; eggs are scattered around and not guarded.	eng
181882	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181882	population	J. KasembeKazembe, J., 2003	Not known	eng
181882	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widespread and common in southern Africa.	eng
181882	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Widespread and common.	eng
181882	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	No major threats known, however it has commercial importance as an aquarium fish.	eng
181882	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	None known.	eng
181882	threats	J. KasembeKazembe, J., 2003	Overfishing.	eng
181882	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181883	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181883	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from a few specimens from Bonge, Cameroon.	eng
181883	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis marmorata</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181883	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181883	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The population on the Meme River is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
181884	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	A large part of the species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.	eng
181884	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus kamaia</em> is known from the type locality Jodatville, Kamaya River, from the Lufira River system and from the Luanza River, upper Congo River basin.	eng
181884	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181884	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181884	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181885	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181885	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micropanchax camerunensis</em> is known from the upper Dja River system, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea, the species is known from the southern inland plateau of southern Cameroon and adjacent Equatorial Guinea, in the upper and middle Nyong, and probably also from northern Gabon (Ntem).	eng
181885	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys camerunensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in rainforest brooks and swamps on the inland plains (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181885	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181885	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181886	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181886	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Sierra Leone and Liberia (Bomi Hills area).	eng
181886	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
181886	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181886	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The threats to the species are from deforestation, mining, human settlements, agriculture leading to sedimentation and pollution.	eng
181887	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181887	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ngounie River system in the Du Chaillu Massif in central Gabon.	eng
181887	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion joergenscheeli</em> occurs in fast flowing brooks and small streams. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks and small streams in the highlands with fast or moderate flow (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) joergenscheeli</em> is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181887	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181887	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181888	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181888	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Mekay River, the Sanaga River basin Cameroon.	eng
181888	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181888	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181888	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181889	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181889	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181889	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181889	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is found in the Cross, Meme, Wouri and Sanaga River basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. Elsewhere it is found in coastal drainages throughout West Africa, from the Niger, Benue, and Niger delta, and in most of the West African coastal rivers in Senegal/Gambia. It is absent from the Volta River basin, and in Togo and Benin. It is absent from Lake Chad basin. The distribution of <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is discontinuous with its congener, <em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> which occurs in the Congo River basin.	eng
181889	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Papyrocranus afer</span> occurs in the upper Niger, Senegal, Gambia, the majority of coastal basins from Guinea to Côte d’Ivoire, the rivers of western Nigeria, the Lower Niger, the Benue and the Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sanaga River in Cameroon.	eng
181889	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Ghana, and Nigeria and Cameroon. The distribution of <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is discontinuous with its congener, <em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> which occurs in the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Papyrocranus afer</em> is found in the Cross Meme, Wouri and Sanaga River basins in Nigeria and Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is found in coastal drainages throughout West Africa, from the Niger, Benue, and Niger delta, and in most of the West African coastal rivers in Senegal/Gambia. It is absent from the Volta River basin, and in Togo and from Lake Chad basin. A recent record from Benin in Oueme River needs confirmation (Lalèyè pers. comm.).	eng
181889	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Papyrocranus afer</em> prefers calm waters with dense vegetation. It is a demersal species.	eng
181889	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Papyrocranus afer</em> prefers calm waters with dense vegetation. It is a demersal species.	eng
181889	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species prefers calm waters with dense vegetation. It is a demersal fish.	eng
181889	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181889	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No available data.	eng
181889	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181889	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181889	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threat to the species are subsistence fisheries. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
181889	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance as an aquarium fish.	eng
181890	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation measure is needed and is in place.	eng
181890	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is recorded from Eritrea, Sudan and Ethiopia (where it is abundant in the Abbay River basin).	eng
181890	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species inhabits small streams and rivers and prefers vegetated shore areas.	eng
181890	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is rarely sampled; not common.	eng
181890	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No major threats known.	eng
181891	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181891	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the type locality on the Nyong River, Cameroon.	eng
181891	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181891	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181891	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181892	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181892	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys sharpii</em> is known from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181892	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181892	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181892	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181893	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
181893	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma ocellifer</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Luapula system as well. These records need conformation though.	eng
181893	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181893	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181893	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181894	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181894	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyoplatys duboisi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the systems of the lower Kasai and Central Congo Rivers. It is also known from the drainage systems of the Nkéni, Alima, Vouma, Kouyou and Likouala Rivers in eastern Congo.	eng
181894	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyoplatys duboisi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs mainly in the shallow and weedy parts of brooks, small streams and swamps in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181894	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181894	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181895	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181895	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181895	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is restricted to the Cross River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, it is known from Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins, including the Nile.  Also known from Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
181895	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The distribution area of <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bovei</span> covers most of the regions considered here.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere also in the Nile.	eng
181895	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species which prefers living in lakes. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. The EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei</em>. A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this species relies more on visual than olfactory information. <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a fractional spawner. It builds a nest for the eggs. No guarding or tending has been observed, though.	eng
181895	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in lakes. Demersal and feeds on insects. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei. </em>A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this species relies more on visual than olfactory information.  A fractional spawner. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
181895	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181895	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181895	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181895	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181896	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2010	No specific measures known, although some parts of its range fall within national parks and other reserves.	eng
181896	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2010	This species is known from the upper Zambezi River system and Okavango River. Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the upper Zambezi system, in small tributaries, in isolated lagoons on the floodplain, and in the main river in the floodplain areas and the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. It is rare in the northern tributaries of the Zambezi in Zambia, but it was found only a few kilometres from the river’s source.	eng
181896	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2010	This species prefers well-vegetated muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It migrates within rivers and moves up tributaries in shoals during the flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on invertebrates, especially insect larvae. Electroreception is described in detail by Kramer <em>et al. </em>(2007).	eng
181896	population	Tweddle, D., 2010	It is widespread and common in suitable habitats.	eng
181896	threats	Tweddle, D., 2010	There are no major threats for this species. The rivers are large and healthy.	eng
181897	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
181897	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus occidentalis</span> has been confirmed from the Middle Gambia River (Gambia) and the Géba River (Guinea-Bissau).	eng
181897	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The largest specimen examined is 320 mm SL.	eng
181897	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
181897	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known.	eng
181898	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
181898	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is known from the forested areas of Benin and Southeastern Nigeria.	eng
181898	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a demersal fish of maximum reported size: 138 mm SL.	eng
181898	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
181898	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this species include agriculture, deforestation and oil exploration (Nigeria).	eng
181899	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	None	eng
181899	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181899	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181899	conservation	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.	eng
181899	distribution	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is known from Angola and Namibia, to Malawi and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Kasai system in Angola and from the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is found in Limphaso dambo (though absent from Lake Malawi). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the upper Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango Rivers, as well as the Cunene, This species is known from upper Kasai, and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
181899	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias stappersii</em> is known from the upper Kasai system in Angola and from the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Kafue River, upper Zambezi and Cunene River and the Okavango (Teugels 1986).	eng
181899	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Limphaso dambo (absent from Lake Malawi). <br/><br/>b>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, Kafue systems, upper Congo system in Zambia  and Kasai.	eng
181899	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Kafue and Okavango Rivers, as well as the Cunene, upper Kasai,  Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001), and also northern Lake Malawi lakeshore streams (Tweddle and Skelton 1993).	eng
181899	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons. It feeds on invertebrates and fish and breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993).	eng
181899	habitat	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias stappersii</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons. It is more common in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries, suggesting a preference for forested streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on invertebrates and fish and breeds during the summer rainy season (Skelton 1993).	eng
181899	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	More common in northern Upper Zambezi tributaries, suggesting a preference for forested streams (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Otherwise found in well-vegetated sluggish river channels and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 2001).	eng
181899	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Recorded for the first time in Lake Malawi catchment in 1993 from the Limphasa dambo. Feeds on invertebrates and fish. Breeds in the rainy season.	eng
181899	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Fairly uncommon on the Upper Zambezi flooplains, but more common in northern tributaries(Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Scarce in the Okavango and not found there by Tweddle<em> <em>et al. </em></em>(2003).	eng
181899	population	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Limited information available. Fairly uncommon on the Upper Zambezi flooplains, but more common in northern tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Scarce in the Okavango and not found there by Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2003).	eng
181899	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	Little information	eng
181899	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181899	threats	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No major threats are known, however this species is within a regionally restricted range in eastern Africa.	eng
181899	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181899	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181899	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	Overfishing.	eng
181900	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181900	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in the basins of the Konkouré and Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Jong and Mano (Sierra Leone), St. John and Nipoué (Cess) (Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire) and Ofin (Ghana).	eng
181900	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
181900	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trend	eng
181900	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181901	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181901	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis microdon</em> is known from Lake Tumba and Lake Mai-N'Dombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The presence of <em>Tylochromis microdon</em> in Lake Mai-N'Dombe could be due to an error in locality designation (Stiassny 1989). The record of Lake Mai-N'Dombe should be re-examined.	eng
181901	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis microdon</em> is a benthopelagic species which is restricted in its distribution to the lake proper and absent from the surrounding swamps and inundated forest (Stiassny 1989). It is predominantly a lacustrine form (unusual among Tylochromines) (Stiassny 1989) and a benthic microphage (Stiassny 1989). It feeds mainly upon small organic particles, plants and invertebrates (Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
181901	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181901	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. Many larger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappearing. Lake Tumba is experiencing declining fish yields and many fishermen have turned to agriculture.	eng
181902	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181902	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ivindo River of Gabon, the Ntem River of Gabon and Southern Cameroon, and in the Woleu River of Gabon. It is absent from the Ogowe River basin and from Congo.	eng
181902	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramormyrops gabonensis</em> inhabits deep channels in slow moving water. It is a demersal species. The electric organ discharge (EOD) lasts 8 ms (Hopkins 1980).	eng
181902	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181902	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The southern locations on the Ivindo drainage are being threatened by iron mining.	eng
181903	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181903	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Woleu-Ntem drainages in northeastern Gabon, the Okano River (Ogowe drainage) in northwestern Gabon, and Rio Muni.	eng
181903	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
181903	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181903	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181904	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181904	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the Ivindo and Ogowe Rivers of Gabon.	eng
181904	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	The preferred environment of <em>Paramormyrops longicaudatus</em> are large rivers, where it inhabits shallow regions with rapids. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181904	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181904	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Ogowe basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. On the Ivindo River drainage, the species is threatened by iron mining.	eng
181905	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181905	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is reliably known from the upper basin of the Oti (Volta basin) in Atakora region in Benin. It has been reported from some coastal rivers in Ghana (Nungu Reserve), the White, Red and Black Volta in Ghana. Also known from the Ogun, Sokoto, Birnawa and Kaduna Rivers in Nigeria and also in the Mono River, Togo.	eng
181905	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small species of Barbus that grows to 30 mm SL and lives in small streams. It is non-migratory.	eng
181905	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181905	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major threats but localised impacts from sedimentation.	eng
181906	conservation	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information.	eng
181906	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181906	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species is protected in some reserves over its wide range.	eng
181906	conservation	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is protected in some reserves over its wide range. Habitat maintenance is required, and population trends should be monitored. Taxonomic studies are needed on this species.	eng
181906	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> This species is known from the upper Kasai system, from the upper Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula-Zambezi systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the lakes and river drainages in Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, eastern Angola, Namibia, northwestern Botswana, Zimbabwe and in northeastern South Africa.	eng
181906	distribution	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi and its catchment, Upper and Middle Shire as well as Lake Chiuta (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
181906	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species was described from the Shire River at the ouflow from Lake Malawi. Found in the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, as well as the lower reaches of the Pungwe, Buzi and Limpopo rivers, but apparently absent from the main stream of the Lower Zambezi. It is also known from the east coast rivers in Mozambique and Tanzania (Skelton 2001).	eng
181906	distribution	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widely distributed across much of the southern half of Africa, from the Congo and Tanzania, to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Micropanchax johnstoni</em> is known from the upper Kasai system, from the upper Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula-Zambezi systems. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi and its catchment, the upper and Middle Shire, as well as Lake Chiuta (Wildekamp, 1995).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>This species is found in the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, as well as the lower reaches of the Pungwe, Buzi and Limpopo rivers, but apparently absent from the main stream of the Lower Zambezi.	eng
181906	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Inhabits a wide range of habitats, including swamps, lagoons, flowing streams, and the fringes of the main river including the section of the Upper Zambezi just above Victoria Falls. During the flood season juveniles were abundant in floodplain habitats such as road culverts (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Usually found in small shoals near the surface feeding on small invertebrates such as mosquito larvae and daphnia. A serial spawner laying eggs that attach to vegetation (Skelton 2001).	eng
181906	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	It is benthopelagic; non-migratory; Found near the surface and among weeds in which it seeks refuge and food (Konings 1990).  Prefers standing or gently flowing water as in river backwaters, floodplains and swamps.  Usually found in small shoals.  Feeds on small invertebrates like mosquito larvae and daphnia.  A serial spawner, lays eggs which attach to vegetation.  When food is abundant, breeding occurs daily over an extended period (year-round where conditions are suitable) (Skelton 1993).  Not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). Preferred Climate - tropical ; It prefers living in streams and mangroves.	eng
181906	habitat	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Occurs  in vegetated sheltered riverine habitats as well as in shallow weedy areas in the lake with standing or gently flowing water. In lake Chiuta it occurs in small shoals in quiet weedy areas of the lake as well as its affluent streams. Feeds on small invertebrates. This species is a serial spawner, its eggs attach to vegetation.  Its eggs hatch after 15-20 days and individuals of this species mature within 6 months. It has been observed under the shelter of floating islands in lake Malawi,  these islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.	eng
181906	habitat	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species inhabits a wide range of habitats, including swamps, lagoons, flowing streams, and the fringes of the main river including the section of the Upper Zambezi just above Victoria Falls. During the flood season juveniles are abundant in floodplain habitats such as road culverts (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Usually found in small shoals near the surface feeding on small invertebrates such as mosquito larvae and daphnia. A serial spawner laying eggs that attach to vegetation (Skelton 2001). Its eggs hatch after 15-20 days and individuals of this species mature within 6 months.	eng
181906	population	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	A widespread and common species.	eng
181906	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	A widespread and common species.	eng
181906	population	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information.	eng
181906	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181906	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	None known.	eng
181906	threats	Kazembe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are overfishing and sedimentation in rivers and streams.	eng
181906	threats	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This is a commercially important aquarium fish, and may be threatened by overfishing. Its habitat is threatened by sedimentation in rivers and streams.	eng
181906	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance.	eng
181907	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181907	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias gracilis</em> is only known from the type locality the Yokolo village in marshes of the Boteli River, affluent of the Tshuapa River, north-west of Ikela, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181907	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias gracilis</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in small rivers (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
181907	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181907	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181908	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181908	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius malaissei</em> is only known from its type locality, a temporary swamp in the Luanza basin, Luapula drainage, eastern Shaba province, the southwestern Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181908	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius malaissei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that spawns at the bottom, with unknown months incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
181908	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181908	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181909	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181909	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids in the Lower Congo River basin, upstream to the upper Congo River basin, excluding the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
181909	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181909	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181909	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis congicus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. It has been known to aquarium hobbyists for some time under the incorrect name <em>Synodontis mummifer</em>.	eng
181911	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The southern part of the species distribution in situated in the Salanka National Park in Zambia.	eng
181911	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius rosenstocki</em> is only known from the Luapula system.	eng
181911	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius rosenstocki</em> is a pelagic species. Populations of this species have been found scattered over a large area in the Luapula River basin. Specimens have been found mainly in shallow and vegetated parts of small, slow-flowing rivers which empty into swamps. The species was also collected from so-called "dembos" or water-filled depressions. All habitats were temporary and only filled with water during the wet season and for a short period afterwards, the bottom substrate of which were usually silt or clay with a high humus content (Valdesalici and Wildekamp 2005). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181911	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181911	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, and use of commercial insecticides, which cause a deterioration of the species habitat.	eng
181912	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181912	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is recorded from the Blue Nile, Awash, Rift lakes, and Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
181912	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running and standing waters.	eng
181912	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No data available, but common.	eng
181912	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181913	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181913	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis katangae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Luashi River and the Lubumbashi region (high Katanga). A wider distribution can be expected.	eng
181913	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis katangae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181913	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181913	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining in the Katanga region and overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets could pose threats to the species.	eng
181914	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181914	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga River basin of Cameroon.	eng
181914	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181914	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181914	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181915	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181915	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oxymormyrus zanclirostris</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.  It is not known from the southern tributaties of the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Ntem River, throughout the Ogowe basin, including the Ivindo River, the Nyanga River, and in the Kouilou River.	eng
181915	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181915	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181915	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181916	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181916	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from a few localities in in the tropical rainforest of southeastern Sierra Leone; Mano Geleben, Serabu and Baham.	eng
181916	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It can be found in small rivers and creeks. The species is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish of maximum size of 6.0 cm TL. The fish is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
181916	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data	eng
181916	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Mining and deforestation are the major threats to this species.	eng
181917	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181917	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181917	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181917	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Heterobranchus bidorsalis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White Nile, Chad basin, Senegal and Nigeria.	eng
181917	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Benue rivers in Lake Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in the Nile River basin.	eng
181917	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a widely distributed species from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throught the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile and Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger and Benue rivers in Lake Chad.	eng
181917	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Found in turbulent or fast running streams. It feeds on fish, molluscs and crustaceans. This species attains a considerable size, over 120 cm.	eng
181917	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Freshwater demersal species.	eng
181917	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is found in turbulent or fast running streams. It feeds on fish, molluscs and crustaceans. This species attains a considerable size, over 120 cm.	eng
181917	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181917	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181917	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181917	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181917	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No specific threats are known. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
181917	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181918	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181918	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura lindica</em> occurs in the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Ouaka River (tributary of the Ubangui) and in the region of Yangambi. It is also known from the upper Congo River basin. It is probably also present in the Dja River (Sangha basin).	eng
181918	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura lindica</em> is a demersal species.	eng
181918	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181918	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181919	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181919	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius greshoffii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.	eng
181919	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181919	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181919	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181920	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181920	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus iriodes</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.	eng
181920	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181920	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181920	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181921	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	It needs attention, although not critical, but no conservation measure is in place.	eng
181921	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is endemic to Ethiopia and recorded from Awash and Tekeze basins.	eng
181921	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species prefers vegetated habitat at shores of streams and rivers.	eng
181921	population	Getahun, A., 2009	It is a rare species.	eng
181921	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is impacted by pollution in some rivers in Addis.	eng
181922	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181922	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus schreyeni</em> is only known from Bokuma and from a river 15 km from Boende, Central Congo River basin. The species has recently been collected in Salonga National Park, and in the Lengoué River (Sangha Drainage).	eng
181922	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181922	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181922	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181923	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
181923	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181923	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus sexfasciatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
181923	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and its southern inflowing rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo basin	eng
181923	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus sexfasciatus</em> is a pelagic species. It swims in shoals at the lower water layers of rivers and inshore areas of lake. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
181923	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Found in mainstream of large rivers and shallow waters in lakes. Omnivorous taking a wide variety of food items including insects, snails, small fishes and aquatic plants.	eng
181923	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181923	population	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Population size not known	eng
181923	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure, siltation and regression of vegetated wetland around river and lakes.	eng
181923	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade and human consumption.	eng
181924	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181924	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus melanochir</em> is widely distributed in the Central Congo River basin, with some records outside the area in the upper Lualaba River System. It is also known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
181924	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus melanochir</em> is a demersal species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002).	eng
181924	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181924	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181925	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research is needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species.	eng
181925	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality (southern Cameroon).  It is probably conspecific to <em>Epiplatys sangmelinensis</em>.	eng
181925	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys zenkeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an ill-defined species (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
181925	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181925	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181926	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181926	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes attemsi</em> is only known from the holotype from Cameroon (unspecified locality).	eng
181926	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181926	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181926	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181927	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181927	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the rainforest on the northern side of Bioko island (former Fernando Poo), Equatorial Guinea.	eng
181927	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax oeseri</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small coastal streams in rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax oeseri</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
181927	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181927	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
181928	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181928	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. It is supposed to be present in between the currently known locations as well.	eng
181928	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181928	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181928	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species habitat in the Noun River is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. On the Mbam River, it is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging.	eng
181929	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181929	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus gruveli</span> is known only from the type, collected in the River Dubreka near Conakry (Guinea).	eng
181929	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish. Maximum size 28.0 cm TL.	eng
181929	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181929	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.	eng
181930	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181930	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in coastal lagoons and lower reaches of River basins from the Dodo in Côte d'Ivoire to southeastern Nigeria.	eng
181930	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. This species occurs in lagoons and coastal rivers.	eng
181930	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181930	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181931	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	None known. Measures need to be implemented to protect the species, and manage  fishing levels within this species' habitat.	eng
181931	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
181931	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found at the bottom of the lake in shallower depths.	eng
181931	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The population size is not exactly known; however, it is relatively abundant.	eng
181931	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is impacted by over exploitation of the fishes of the lake; as bycatch.	eng
181932	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181932	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius schilthuisiae</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Sangha, Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
181932	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181932	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181932	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181933	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181933	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181933	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181933	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> is only known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River at Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181933	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
181933	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known in from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> is known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River, as well as the Tonde River at Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal zones from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
181933	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> occurs in ponds, lagoons, creeks and river mouths (Maugé 1986), as well as in coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Harrison and Miller 1992). It is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are rare reports of the species ascending rivers to freshwater, which it may tolerate for short periods (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
181933	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Yongeichthys thomasi</em> occurs in ponds, lagoons, creeks and river mouths (Maugé 1986), as well as in coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Harrison and Miller 1992). It is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). There are rare reports of the species ascending rivers to freshwater, which it may tolerate for short periods (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). The maximum TL reported is 6 cm. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
181933	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is usually found in brackish waters of creeks close to river mouths, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps. May tolerate freshwater for short periods.	eng
181933	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181933	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181933	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181933	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181933	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181933	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181934	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181934	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga basin, Cameroon.	eng
181934	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Prolabeops melanhypopterus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181934	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181934	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181935	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181935	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterochromis multidens</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181935	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterochromis multidens</em> is a benthopelagic species. Fully grown specimens are deep-bodied (Lamboj 2004). Old males can exhibit a remarkable head profile with a well-developed hump (Lamboj 2004).	eng
181935	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181935	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181936	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181936	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181936	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
181936	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Phractolaemus ansorgii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango, Kasai and Lukénie systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger Delta to Lake Nokoué.	eng
181936	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">P. ansorgii</span> is known only from a restricted area extending from the Niger delta (Nigeria) to Oueme River (Benin). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere, the species also occurs in the central basin of the Congo and the Central Africa Republic.	eng
181936	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Phractolaemus ansorgii</em> is present in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and in the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango, Kasai and Lukénie systems. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, it is known only from a restricted area extending from the Niger delta (Nigeria) to Oueme River (Benin).	eng
181936	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Benthopelagic; Swim bladder functions as lungs, which permit this species to survive in unoxygenated waters.  Mouth can be projected as a small trunk.	eng
181936	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Hingemouth is a cigar shaped fish. The species swim bladder entirely alveolar, functioning like a lung. This adaptation to aerial breathing allows the fish to survive under poor oxygenation conditions.	eng
181936	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is a benthopelagic, cigar shaped fish, whose mouth can be projected as a small trunk. The species swim bladder entirely alveolar, functioning like a lung. This adaptation to aerial breathing allows the fish to survive under poor oxygenation conditions.	eng
181936	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data..	eng
181936	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
181936	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181936	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181936	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and elsewhere the impacts of urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation	eng
181936	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and elsewhere the impacts of urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation all threaten this species.	eng
181937	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
181937	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181937	conservation	Vreven, E. & Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available.	eng
181937	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, use and harvest levels, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181937	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Chelaethiops bibie</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan) and Wadi El Rayan Lakes. Previously it was caught from Lower Egyptian Nile, Nile Delta, Barrage and Cairo.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises also Lake Nubia, White Nile, South-Eastern Asia, China and tropical Africa.	eng
181937	distribution	Vreven, E. & Akinyi, E., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>L. Turkana, Nile River, Webi shebeli, Niger, Benoue, Volta and Chad basin.	eng
181937	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger, Benue and Volta but not found in the Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere found in the Nile basin (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
181937	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a wide ranging species, found from Guinea to Somalia, Egypt to Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan) and Wadi El Rayan Lakes. Previously it was caught from lower Egyptian Nile; Nile Delta, Barrage and Cairo, but it may no longer be found this far north. It is still present in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from Baro and wabishebelle Rivers, Ethiopia, and is likely to have a wider distribution in Somalia and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species is known from the Niger, Benue and Volta  but not found in the Chad basin. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.	eng
181937	habitat	Vreven, E. & Akinyi, E., 2002	Associated with vegetation fringing flowing water. Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hickley and Bailey 1987) and seeds at the surface (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
181937	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives in the shore regions of sheltered areas.	eng
181937	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	This demersal species is associated with vegetation fringing flowing water and the shore regions of sheltered areas. It feeds mainly on terrestrial insects (Hickley and Bailey 1987) and seeds at the surface (Bailey 1994).	eng
181937	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish associated with vegetation fringing flowing water (streams). Feeds mainly on terrestrial insects and plants	eng
181937	population	Vreven, E. & Akinyi, E., 2002	Has been found at many places along the Nile and White Nile, sometimes in considerable numbers, but its occurrence seems to be very erratic (Sandon 1950).	eng
181937	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	Limited information available. This species has been found at many places along the Nile and White Nile, sometimes in considerable numbers, but its occurrence seems to be very erratic (Sandon 1950).	eng
181937	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181937	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181937	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Vreven, E., 2009	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought could all pose possible threats to this species in northern Africa. In western Africa, deforestation leading to sedimentation and aquatic weeds are threats to some populations. Elsewhere there are no major threats known to this species.	eng
181937	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, drought.	eng
181937	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation leading to sedimentation and aquatic weeds are threats to some populations.	eng
181937	threats	Vreven, E. & Akinyi, E., 2002	None known threats.	eng
181938	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181938	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus dybowskii</em> occurs in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin, Central African Republic and in the Dja River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon. It has also been recorded from the Congo River at Yaekela, the Ituri River and the Aruwimi River in the Yangambi region.	eng
181938	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys dybowski</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181938	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181938	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181940	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
181940	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus janssensi</em> is known from the Tungwe River (Kanonga) and Kalule River (Bowa), both effluents of the Lualaba River, from the Kafwe River (Kanakakazi), affluent of the Lufira River and from the Lubidi River (Kafupu), all in the upper Congo River system.	eng
181940	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus janssensi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181940	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181940	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181941	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181941	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus inaequalis</span> is known from the basins of the Cavally, Nipoué and St. John, in the eastern part of the Guinean ridge. It is also reported from Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
181941	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of 5.1 cm SL	eng
181941	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181941	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181942	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181942	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in western Cameroon, from Malende in the north to the lower Lobe River area south of Kribi.	eng
181942	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) fallax</em> is found in swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the humid coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Fundulopanchax) fallax</em> is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). This species is omnivorous and an egg-layer (Seegers 1997).	eng
181942	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181942	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the northern part of its distribution. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
181943	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Population trends should be monitored.	eng
181943	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gambia to Côte d'Ivoire. Also known from Tano River in Ghana .	eng
181943	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. It prefers brackish water but is also found further upstream in rivers. Opportunistic benthic macrophage. It prefers insects and their larvae.	eng
181943	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181943	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Drought and overfishing are local threats.	eng
181944	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181944	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cyclopharynx schwetzi</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the southeastern Congo River drainage, Kasai Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181944	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cyclopharynx schwetzi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Gut either entirely filled with sand or with little finely divided vegetable matter and little or no sand. Microscopic examination of three specimens revealed numerous diatoms. (Roberts and Kullander 1994).	eng
181944	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181944	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181945	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181945	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181945	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181945	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Campylomormyrus tamandua</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger and Benue, the Volta, Ogun and Chad basin.	eng
181945	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger, the Volta, the Ogun, and the Chad basins. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also present in the Congo basin (Pool Malebo) (Snoeks pers. comm.).	eng
181945	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has a scattered distribution from Guinea to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Campylomormyrus tamandua</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger, the Volta, the Ogun, and the Chad basins.	eng
181945	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish that possesses weak electric organ discharge (EOD).	eng
181945	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass 1986, Landsman 1995).	eng
181945	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass 1986, Landsman 1995).	eng
181945	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
181945	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181945	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181945	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing in some areas.	eng
181945	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has minor commercial importance.	eng
181945	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance as an aquarium fish, and is overfished in some areas.	eng
181946	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
181946	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is only recorded from the reservoir of the St. Paul river in Liberia, probably endemic to this river.	eng
181946	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
181946	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181946	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation, mining, and human settlement threaten the habitat of this species.	eng
181947	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181947	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis depauwi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and has been recorded at Dundo (Kasai River basin) and at Cafunfo (Kwango River basin). Recently a specimen has been identified from collections made in the main channel of the Lower Congo near the confluence of the Foulakari.	eng
181947	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis depauwi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181947	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181947	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in the Kwango region.	eng
181948	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181948	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a single collection in the Nyanga River at Tchibanga, Gabon.	eng
181948	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181948	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181948	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation, leading to pollution, forms a threat to <em>Phractura stiassny</em>.	eng
181949	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181949	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to western Africa in the basins of the Volta, Niger (Bénoué), Sénégal, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Casamance. It is reported from the Mono River in Togo. (Lévêque <em>et al.</em>, 1991)	eng
181949	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species	eng
181949	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
181949	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a potential threats are localised, mainly deforestation (sedimentation) due to bad agricultural practices.	eng
181950	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181950	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
181950	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias angolensis</em> is known from the Congo River basin, except the upper Congo basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the lower Ogowe in Gabon and the Kouilou and Chiloango in Congo.	eng
181950	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species distribution is limited to the Lower and Central Congo system and small systems around. In Angola, it occurs in the Chiloango River (Luali River ) and Bengo River systems.	eng
181950	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias angolensis</em> is a demersal species that inhabits rivers, lakes and swamps. It feeds on a variety of food like algae, plants, <em>Hydracarina</em>, larvae of Ephemeroptera, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, remains of insects (Coleoptera) and fish remains (Cichlidae, Anabantidae) (Matthes 1964).	eng
181950	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	It inhabits rivers, lakes and swamps. It feeds on a variety of food like algae, plants, insects larvae.	eng
181950	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181950	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
181950	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181950	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
181951	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181951	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is currently known in certain Western African coastal basins: Casamance Corrubal, Kolenté (Geat Scarcies), Waanje and Taja (Pampana of Jong).	eng
181951	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic, freshwater species.	eng
181951	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available.	eng
181951	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Drought, deforestation, overfishing and dams threaten this species.	eng
181952	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181952	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a limited area in the upper Ogowe basin of southeastern Gabon and the adjacent part of Congo.	eng
181952	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion buytaerti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181952	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181952	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181953	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181953	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis punctatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Some records have been made of the upper Congo River basin as well. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region where it is found in the Benito and Ogowe Rivers.	eng
181953	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181953	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181953	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181954	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainty must be resolved for this species, and more information is needed on its full distribution.	eng
181954	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the Ngongolon River basin (This species is known from upper Cross River basin) near Manyemen, Ebanga and between Nkomeku and Besing Kisen, western Cameroon.	eng
181954	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181954	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181954	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181955	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181955	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus fuliginosus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems though. Specimens recently collected in the Lower Congo have tentatively been assigned to this species, but these need further examination to confirm whether the range of this species extends into the basin or if the Lower Congo specimens represent an undescribed species.	eng
181955	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181955	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181955	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181956	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181956	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestopetersius compressus</em> is known from Yangambi and from Buta, and Lac Maindombe in the Central Congo River basin.	eng
181956	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181956	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181956	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181957	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181957	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ivindo River drainage system of northeastern Gabon.	eng
181957	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) fulgens</em> occurs in small, mostly swampy brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) fulgens</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181957	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181957	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181958	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181958	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
181958	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181958	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis clarias</em> is rare in Lower Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué River), Senegal, Gambia and Volta basins, also in the Nile.	eng
181958	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Senegal, Gambia and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside our area, this species occurs on the Nile.	eng
181958	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus the Benue), Senegal, Gambia and Volta.	eng
181958	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
181958	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	A bottom feeder, feeds on chironomid larvae, plant remains and mud. It reaches an average length to 40 cm.	eng
181958	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	A bottom feeder, it feeds on chironomid larvae, plant remains and mud.	eng
181958	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181958	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
181958	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
181958	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
181958	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
181958	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
181959	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181959	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pelmatochromis nigrofasciatus</em> has been found throughout the Central Congo River basin from Yangambi to Kinshasa, including the Ruki River, Tshuapa River, Dja River and the Kasaï. It is also known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids in the Lower Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Kouilou-Niari, Loeme and Djoungou Rivers (Congo) and the Ogowe River (Gabon).	eng
181959	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pelmatochromis nigrofasciatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on aquatic invertebrates, algae and detritus (Norris 2002). It is a substratum spawner with biparental care of the eggs and young (Gosse 1963).	eng
181959	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181959	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181960	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181960	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lower Guinea, <em>Varicorhinus mariae</em> is found in the Sanaga and Wouri River basins, Cameroon.	eng
181960	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181960	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181960	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181961	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181961	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys phoeniceps</em> is known from the Sangha River drainage in Congo (from Makoua, Ignoli, Debrouille and Liouesso), central Congo River basin.	eng
181961	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys phoeniceps</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small brooks. It has a max TL of 6.5 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
181961	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181961	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181962	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181962	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
181962	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181962	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River system (Angola and Namibia), Okavango River, upper Zambezi, and Kafue Rivers (Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe). It is possibly also present in coastal rivers north of the Cunene Rivers in Angola (Skelton 2001).	eng
181962	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, as well as the Zambian Congo and possibly some coastal rivers north of the Cunene in Angola (Skelton 2001).	eng
181962	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Congo to Namibia and Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, as well as the Zambian Congo and possibly some coastal rivers north of the Cunene in Angola (Skelton 2001).	eng
181962	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated swamps and along the edges of rivers. It also occurs in fast-flowing reaches over sand and rocks. This species feeds on small fish, shrimps and insects.  It is a mouthbrooding species which breeds in spring (de Moor and Bruton 1988). The female incubates the eggs in her mouth. Parental care is exercised for a short while after hatching when the juveniles move off to shallow grassy areas and there they remain, in the Upper Zambezi, until floodwaters recede and force them back to the main river. They seek refuge in lagoons and backwaters until they reach a size large enough to avoid predation by tigerfish in the open waters of the river.	eng
181962	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is a demersal species that occurs in well-vegetated swamps and along the edges of rivers. It also occurs in fast-flowing reaches over sand and rocks. Winemiller (1991) considered it to be a lagoon-dwelling, diurnal, ambush piscivore. This species feeds on small fish, shrimps and insects. It is a mouth-brooding species which breeds in spring (de Moor and Bruton 1988). The female incubates the eggs in her mouth. Parental care is exercised for a short while after hatching when the juveniles move off to shallow grassy areas and there they remain, in the Upper Zambezi, until floodwaters recede and force them back to the main river. They seek refuge in lagoons and backwaters until they reach a size large enough to avoid predation by tigerfish in the open waters of the river.	eng
181962	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Restricted to the edges of main river channels and deep connected lagoons in fringing vegetation (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Winemiller (1991) considered it to be a lagoon-dwelling, diurnal, ambush piscivore. Skelton (2001) stated that its thin profile facilitates stalking and ambushing of small fishes. Breeds throughout the summer, males clearing small sand nests among vegetation at 1-3 m deep.	eng
181962	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181962	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread and fairly common.	eng
181962	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and fairly common.	eng
181962	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is commercially used for aquaculture. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
181962	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis angusticeps</em> is commercially used for aquaculture. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
181962	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
181963	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181963	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Myomyrus macrodon</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from east of the Congo mainstream. Ongoing studies indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">Myomyrus macrodon</span> is restricted to the Lower Congo region (Staissny and Sullivan, in prep.).	eng
181963	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181963	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181963	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181964	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181964	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the southwestern slope of the Du Chaillu Massif, upper Ngounie River, southwestern Gabon.	eng
181964	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys huberi</em> is only known from some creeks and small rivers in the rainforest on the southwestern slope of the Du Chaillu Massif. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. The maximum TL is 6.5 cm (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Epiplatys huberi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181964	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181964	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181965	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Habitat restoration is needed.	eng
181965	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181965	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea found in coastal southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/>Elsewhere occurring in southern Benin and southern Nigeria.	eng
181965	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from Benin to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea found in coastal southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from southern Benin through to southern Nigeria.	eng
181965	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion calliurum</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks, small streams and pools in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is also found in secondary forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181965	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks, small streams and pools in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is also found in secondary forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) calliurum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181965	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181965	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181965	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Especially in the southern half of the species distribution, it is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
181965	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation, particularly in the southern half of the species distribution. In western Africa, it has a restricted distribution pattern within a highly impacted region. It is also threatened by human activities (mining, oil spills and urbanisation) impacting on the habitat.	eng
181966	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181966	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius kutuensis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Shangha systems.	eng
181966	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181966	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181966	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181967	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181967	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis woleuensis</em> has a relatively restricted distribution, and is known only from the Woleu River of Gabon (in Equatorial Guinea called the Mbini or Uoro River on modern maps, or the Benito River on older maps) and the Kyé (Kie) River, a tributary of the Ntem River, that runs along the border between Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.	eng
181967	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181967	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181967	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181970	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181970	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon.	eng
181970	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
181970	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181970	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181971	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181971	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys wagenaari</em> is known from the Ubangui River and Central Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to the junction of the Ubangui and Congo River. It is also known from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
181971	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181971	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181971	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
181972	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181972	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus fwaensis</em> is only known from Lake Fwa, Kasai Occidental, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181972	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181972	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181972	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181973	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181973	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from the Blue Nile basin, including Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
181973	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in both running and standing waters. In the Lake Tana region it occurs only in affluent rivers of the lake between the shore vegetation and floodplains at depths shallower than 1 m.	eng
181973	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181973	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181974	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181974	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops mariae</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has been recorded from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) by Boulenger, 1920 and from Gozobangui as well. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181974	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181974	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181974	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3, which will be built in five years. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3 will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
181975	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181975	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brachypetersius cadwaladeri</em> is known from the upper Kasai, the upper Lomami and the Lualaba basin.	eng
181975	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181975	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181975	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181976	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181976	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring on the coastal plains of Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon, from the Sanaga estuary, southward to Port Gentil in northwestern Gabon.	eng
181976	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poropanchax stigmatopygus</em> occurs in small rivers and creeks. It is benthopelagic species.	eng
181976	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181976	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181977	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
181977	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181977	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue National Park.	eng
181977	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves, such as the Kafue National Park. Research is needed into the biology and ecology of this species, as well as monitoring of the populations.	eng
181977	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus haasianus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo and Lufirae systems. It has also been recorded from Sandoa, Upper Kasai system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango, upper Zambezi, Kafue, lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
181977	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango, upper and lower Zambezi, Kafue, Pungwe, Zambian Congo (Luapula, Lualaba) systems (Skelton 1993).	eng
181977	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the southern half of Africa, from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Botswana and Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus haasianus</em> is known from the Zambian Congo and Lufirae systems. It has also been recorded from Sandoa, This species is known from upper Kasai system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> this species occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also in the Kafue, Okavango, Zambian Congo, Lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
181977	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	This species is widely distributed in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004) and also in the Kafue, Okavango, Zambian Congo, Lower Zambezi and Pungwe systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
181977	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	A very small species that is common throughout the marshes in shallow water (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993).	eng
181977	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993).	eng
181977	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is a very small benthopelagic species that is common throughout the marshes in shallow water (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). It inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats (Skelton 1993). It makes lateral movements onto floodplains to spawn as the floodwaters rise (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), when the males assume a rose-red colour.	eng
181977	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	Shallow floodplain lagoons and small streams (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>2004). Makes lateral movements onto floodplains to spawn as the floodwaters rise (Tweddle<em> <em>et al. </em></em>2004), when the males assume a rose-red colour.	eng
181977	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181977	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
181977	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species is abundant and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
181977	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is abundant and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
181977	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species. There are local threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining).	eng
181977	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus haasianus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species. There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),	eng
181977	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Overfishing. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).	eng
181977	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
181978	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181978	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the Volta basin and from the Benue. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.	eng
181978	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181978	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
181978	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181979	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available..	eng
181979	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181979	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is known from central Africa, from Gabon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throught the Congo River system, including the Luapula system and some tributaries of Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from the Ogowe and Nyanga basins in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.	eng
181979	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is known from the Congo River system, including the Luapula system and some tributaries of Lake Tanganyika. It has also been reported from the Ruzizi basin (Rwanda) (De Vos and Thys van den Audenaerde 1990). <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is also known from the Ogowe and Nyanga basins in Gabon.	eng
181979	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika including the Rusizi and Malagarasi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Present in the Congo River system.	eng
181979	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992) and is also found in deltas. <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a omnivorous fish species that feeds with insects, larvae and plant debris (Gosse 1963).	eng
181979	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). <em>Labeobarbus caudovittatus</em> is a omnivorous fish species that feeds with insects, larvae and plant debris (Gosse 1963).	eng
181979	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Riverine species also found in deltas. Varied diet including  insects, molluscs and fishes.	eng
181979	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181979	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Not known; sporadic in fisheries catches in Malagarasi and Rusizi deltas.	eng
181979	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Not known; sporadic in fisheries catches in Malagarasi and Rusizi deltas.	eng
181979	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In eastern Africa, populations are threatened by fisheries pressure, and water turbidity due to erosion on the watershed.	eng
181979	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181979	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries pressure and water turbidity due to erosion on watershed.	eng
181980	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181980	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The type locality is in South Cameroon where two specimens were collected by George Latimer Bates, 1863-1940, an American naturalist and ornithologist who lived in Southern Cameroon during the first decade of the 20th Century and supplied many fish and reptile and amphibian specimens from this region to G.A. Boulenger at the British Museum.  The type locality for <em>Marcusenius batesii</em> and several other species first collected by Bates is “Efulen.”  Although several localities in Southern Cameroon today bear the name "Efoulan."  The Efulen (now Efoulan) of Bates is located in the upper Kienké River basin (then called the Kribi River), near present-day Akom II  at 2°46'59"N, 10°31'59"E (Fig. 12.89). Tentative identifications of museum specimens shows a wide distribution in Cameroon, including the Sanaga River basin, the Kienké River, parts of the Ogowe River basin of Gabon, and the Kouilou River basin of Congo. Some of the specimens mapped here may represent new taxa.	eng
181980	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramormyops batesii</em> is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass and Hopkins 1985; Landsman 1995). A mature male was reported to have an EOD waveform twice as long as that of two mature females (Landsman 1995).	eng
181980	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181980	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
181981	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181981	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the mouth of the Ogowe River in northwestern Gabon, southward to the Cabinda enclave of Angola and western Congo.	eng
181981	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion australe</em> is found in coastal swamps, swampy parts of brooks, small rivers, and flooded areas in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) australe</em> feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989). Two colour morphs, chocolate and gold, are in the aquarium trade (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
181981	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181981	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
181983	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181983	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis ornatissimus</em> is known from the northern Congo River basin (Ubangui River and effluents).	eng
181983	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis ornatissimus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181983	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181983	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
181984	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181984	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is widely distributed in the Western Atlantic waters, including the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  Within Africa it is only known from western Africa, and has been recorded from Guinea Bissau freshwaters to Benin.	eng
181984	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Highfin goby grows to a maximum size of 30 cm TL but common size is 4.7 cm. The species is found on shallow mud or mud-sand bottoms in turbid and generally brackish water near estuaries. It also occurs in weedy backwaters and hyper-saline waters.	eng
181984	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181984	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181985	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no major threat for <em>Chiloglanis gestetneri</em> because it is known from the Upemba National Park.	eng
181985	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus gestetneri</em> is only known from the type locality: above the falls on the Kalumengonga River, Upemba National Park, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181985	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus gestetneri</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181985	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181985	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181986	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern and eastern location is situated in the Kasanka National Park.	eng
181986	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stappersii</em> is only known from Luapula-Mweru system and probably from the Lubumbashi River.	eng
181986	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stappersii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
181986	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181986	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
181987	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181987	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis bakongo</em> is known only from the types from the Kwilu River drainage in the Lower Congo River basin. The type series is mixed and specimens from the Lukunga (Kasai) appear to be <span style="font-style: italic;">Haplochromis stigmatogenys</span> (Stiassny, in lit.). Subsequent efforts to relocate the species have been unsuccessful and much of Kwilu is heavily impacted by agricultural development.	eng
181987	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis bakongo</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females. It is occurring in the smaller streams, rather than in the mainstream.	eng
181987	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181987	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Erosion caused by agriculture, and human disturbance pose a minor threat.	eng
181988	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	None known.	eng
181988	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana and affluent rivers, Ethiopia.	eng
181988	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in shallow standing water, primarily over rocky substrates but it also occurs over mud and sand. It is an omnivore, with a diet consisting of fish, insects and macrophytes.	eng
181988	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This is a very rare species.	eng
181988	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is threatened by overfishing and degradation of the environment.	eng
181989	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181989	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181989	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	According to Daget (1991)., this species is known only from the rapids of Inga, Congo basin. It said to be endemic to Niger Republic.	eng
181989	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis consortus</em> is only known from the rapids of Inga, mainstream Lower Congo River.	eng
181989	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish.	eng
181989	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	It is a demersal fish of 5.2 cm SL maximum size	eng
181989	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181989	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181989	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, (if built) will divert a significant amount of flow, and block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
181989	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
181990	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181990	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the Sanaga River basin in Cameroon.	eng
181990	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
181990	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181990	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
181991	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181991	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ntem, Woleu, Ivindo and Ngounie River basins, Gabon.	eng
181991	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
181991	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181991	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181992	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
181992	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is widely distributed in the Niger and Ouémé Rivers and present in the Volta River system.&#160;It is also known from White Nile tributaries in Ethiopia (Barro and Alvero rivers) and the Omo River (Lake Turkana System) (Golubtsov and Berendzen, 1999), however these records are uncertain. It probably exists in Chad basin but has not been collected there.	eng
181992	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a bentho-pelagic species with a strong electric discharge to stun its prey of small fishes. Max SL 102 cm. Commonly found offshore in open waters. Commonly breeds in September to November. It is non-migratory.	eng
181992	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
181992	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In Nigeria, the quality of the habitat declines due to oil exploration and urbanisation.	eng
181993	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181993	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from Juba, Somalia, and Wabishebelle, Omo, Ethiopia.	eng
181993	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181993	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181993	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
181994	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181994	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the Du Chaillu-Massif in the upper Lolo and Yaou River systems, Ogowe system, southern Gabon.	eng
181994	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion aureum</em> occurs in small, fast flowing mountain brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) aureum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
181994	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181994	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
181995	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181995	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus gossei</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River system, including the lower Congo and most major tributaries. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system though.	eng
181995	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus gossei</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It occupies horizontal holes or burrows (up to 3 m in length) in the banks of rivers (1-3 m in depth). The holes may be occupied by a pair of sexually mature animals, suggesting that they are the site of reproduction. Mouth brooding has never been observed. Individuals of different species never cohabit the same burrow. (Poll and Gosse 1969, Norris 2002). It is an opportunistic carnivore, enjoying a diet of fish and aquatic invertebrates. One specimen examined had ingested crabs. (Norris 2002).	eng
181995	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181995	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181996	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181996	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
181996	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology.	eng
181996	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is widespread from Democratic Republic of Congo, south to Namibia and Botswana<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> this species is known from the Lufira River basin and from the Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi, Kafue and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu area) (Skelton 2001).	eng
181996	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is known from the Lufira River basin and from the Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi and Kafue Rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
181996	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi, Kafue and Zambian Congo (Lake Bangweulu area) (Skelton 2001).	eng
181996	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in shallow, well-vegetated water in backwaters, floodplains and river margins (Skelton 1993).	eng
181996	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus multilineatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in shallow, well-vegetated water in backwaters, floodplains and river margins (Skelton 1993). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be abundant in upper Zambezi tributaries, including many of the northern streams, and also in shallow lagoons, generally associated with well-vegetated areas.	eng
181996	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) found it to be abundant in upper Zambezi tributaries, including many of the northern streams, and also in shallow lagoons, generally associated with well-vegetated areas.	eng
181996	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181996	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is generally abundant and widespread.	eng
181996	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species is generally abundant and widespread.	eng
181996	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	There are localised threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining) only.	eng
181996	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
181996	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining)	eng
181997	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181997	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus maculipinnis</em> is only known from the type locality Kananga (Luluabourg), Kasaï River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
181997	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181997	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181997	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181998	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181998	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Thoracochromis callichromis</em> is only known from the Fwa River and Lake, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
181998	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Thoracochromis callichromus</em> is demersal species with mouth-brooding by the females. It mainly feeds on macrophytes, snails and insect larvae (Roberts and Kullander 1994).	eng
181998	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181998	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181999	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
181999	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura tenuicauda</em> is known from the Central (the Lokendu and the Ubangui Rivers and Yangambi) and the upper Congo River system. One collection has been made at Kombetiko, Nguesse river, Sangha basin, Cameroon.	eng
181999	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
181999	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
181999	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182000	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182000	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known only from the holotype which was collected in the River Mano in Liberia.  Museum records from other areas (Rokel and Kolente in Sierra Leone and Guinea) need to be checked as the small west African <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> are difficult to identify.	eng
182000	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182000	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182000	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
182002	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182002	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus tumbanus</em> is only known from Lake Tumba. It is not widely distributed in the lake and is probably in very specific, but unknown habitats (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).	eng
182002	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182002	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182002	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. Many larger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappearing and many fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture. However, this species is of small adult size and not targeted in the fishery.	eng
182003	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182003	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Eritrean freshwaters.	eng
182003	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running waters.	eng
182003	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is rare.	eng
182003	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182004	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182004	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus ansorgii</em> is only known from a small range in the Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin, Angola. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango basin though.	eng
182004	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus ansorgii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182004	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182004	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining.	eng
182005	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182005	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Awaous bustamantei</em> is found on the Gulf of Guinea islands of Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu, only on islands. Specimens collected from the lower Ndian River, Cameroon that were tentatively identified as <em>A. bustamantei</em> are more likely <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> according to recent comparative studies.	eng
182005	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Awaous bustamantei</em> lives in cascade rivers: rivers with high velocity, cold, clear water.	eng
182005	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182005	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	High population density, therefore domestic pollution and small scale agriculture (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). Oil exploitation is a potential threat (pers. comm. Victor Pouomogne).	eng
182006	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available.	eng
182006	conservation	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182006	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is known from the Nile Basin.	eng
182006	distribution	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is known from Sudan and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is recorded around Khartoum and in the jebel Aulia reservoir.	eng
182006	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182006	habitat	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is found in running and standing waters. It breeds in the flood season.	eng
182006	population	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182006	population	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182006	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182006	threats	Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182007	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182007	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops nigricans</em> is known from the Foulakari River in Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu, Lualaba River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region, where it is restricted to the main channel of the Ogowe River and the Ngounie River. It is absent from the Ivindo River.	eng
182007	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182007	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182007	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182008	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182008	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo barbatus</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, including Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been found just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
182008	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo barbatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in the Congo basin with rapid water flow (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
182008	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182008	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182009	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182009	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182009	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182009	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis filamentosus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in the Nile basin, Chad, Volta and Niger basins.	eng
182009	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus Benue) and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside our area, this species occurs on the Nile.	eng
182009	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a wideranging species from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger (plus Benue) and Volta.	eng
182009	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182009	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives in the White Nile. It is an oviparous up-side down catfish.	eng
182009	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species, oviparous species.	eng
182009	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182009	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182009	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182009	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182009	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182009	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182010	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182010	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182010	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Chad, Gabon, Congo and Central African Republic.	eng
182010	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, which is listed as French Congo. This may refer to Chad, Gabon, Congo or Central African Republic.	eng
182010	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182010	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in rivers and lakes. Demersal.	eng
182010	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182010	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182010	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Declining habitat quality due to agriculture and dams	eng
182010	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182011	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182011	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182011	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
182011	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lulua River and from the upper Kasai system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene River system (Angola and Namibia), the Okovango River and swamps, the upper Zambezi River, the Kafue River, Lake Kariba and the Luangwa system (Skelton 2001). It is possibly also present in the Cuanza River.	eng
182011	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Upper and middle Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, also southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the upper and middle Zambezi and is now abundant and widespread in all parts of Lake Kariba, having grown from a small population restricted to the western part of the lake during the 1960s. It is now established in the Zambezi River below Kariba and is probably invading the rest of the system (Marshall 1998).	eng
182011	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lulua River and from the upper Kasai system. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper and middle Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue systems, also southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In Zimbabwe, it occurs in the upper and middle Zambezi and is now abundant and widespread in all parts of Lake Kariba, having grown from a small population restricted to the western part of the lake during the 1960s. It is now established in the Zambezi River below Kariba and is probably invading the rest of the system (Marshall 1998).	eng
182011	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	A common serranochromine in the upper Zambezi, this species occurs primarily on the floodplain, in lagoons, a wide range of tributaries tributaries and quiet backwaters (Winemiller 1991, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also found in rocky areas on the edge of fast-flowing water (Bell-Cross 1974), and Tweddle et al. (2004) found it at the junction of the fast-flowing West Lunga and Madamyana tributaries of the Upper Zambezi at Mwinilunga. In Lake Kariba it occurs in most inshore habitats but is particularly abundant in vegetated areas. In the Zambezi below Kariba, it has been taken in sandy areas with little vegetation. Winemiller (1991) classifies it as a lagoon-dwelling, epibenthic, crepuscular piscivore.	eng
182011	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species that is common in a broad range of habitats from mainstream margins to floodplain channels and lagoons. Also found in rocky areas on the edge of fast-flowing water (Bell-Cross, 1974), and Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it at the junction of the fast-flowing West Lunga and Madamyana tributaries of the Upper Zambezi at Mwinilunga. In Lake Kariba it occurs in most inshore habitats but is particularly abundant in vegetated areas. In the Zambezi below Kariba, it has been taken in sandy areas with little vegetation. Winemiller (1991) classifies it as a lagoon-dwelling, epibenthic, crepuscular piscivore. It preys on insects and small fish, including mormyrids and barbs, which are taken near the bottom. It breeds in spring and early summer at low water before the annual floods arrive. Relatively few eggs are laid and mouth-brooded. This species matures after 1-2 years (Skelton 1993).	eng
182011	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis macrocephalus</em> is a demersal species that is common in a broad range of habitats from mainstream margins to floodplain channels and lagoons. It preys on insects and small fish, including mormyrids and barbs, which are taken near the bottom. It breeds in spring and early summer at low water before the annual floods arrive. Relatively few eggs are laid and mouthbrooded. This species matures after 1-2 years (Skelton 1993).	eng
182011	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182011	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread and locally common, especially in Lake Kariba where it can be numerous in suitable habitat.	eng
182011	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and locally common, especially in Lake Kariba where it can be numerous in suitable habitat.	eng
182011	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182011	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182011	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182012	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182012	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Sierra Leone in Sewa, Rokel, Pampana, Little Scarcies and Jong rivers.	eng
182012	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182012	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182012	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182013	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182013	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax uniocellatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. Recent collections of this species from the main channel and in some affluent streams (Yambi, Lunyonzo) of the Lower Congo extend the range and confirm the presence of the species in Lower Congo. It has been recorded from the Lualaba River as well.	eng
182013	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax uniocellatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.4 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182013	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182013	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182014	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182014	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower guinea endemic, only known from the type locality the Ezanga River, about midway between Lake Ezanga and the lower Ogowe mainstream in Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
182014	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis notata</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182014	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182014	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182015	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182015	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax filamentosus</span> is endemic to western Africa. It is found from southern Togo, through southern Benin and southwestern Nigeria, to the area around Benin City in southern Nigeria. It is not found in the Niger Delta.	eng
182015	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Blue killi is small semi-annual killifish that grows to 4 cm in SL. It is restricted to swamps and swampy parts of shallow brooks in the coastal rainforest. It feeds on worms crustaceans and insects. Bottom spawner with 1.5 months incubation for the eggs. Very diffficult to maintain in captivity. It is non-migratory.	eng
182015	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182015	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Some impact from oil exploration current and future. Also future impacts predicted from bitumen mining. Habitat loss/degradation from urban development and deforestation.	eng
182016	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182016	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.	eng
182016	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
182016	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182016	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182017	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182017	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182017	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found between the eastern bank of the Cross River in southeast Nigeria, through the coastal plains of Cameroon, to the Rio Benito in northern Equatorial Guinea. It is also found on Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Poo Island), Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182017	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Only found in the eastern bank of the Cross River in Southeast Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere present in the coastal plains of Cameroon, to the Rio Benito in northern Equatorial Guinea. Also found on Bioko Island (formerly Fernando Poo Island), Equatorial Guinea. (Van der Zee, Woeltjes and Wildekamp, in press).	eng
182017	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Brooks, swamps small streams and rivers in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp and Van der Zee 2003).	eng
182017	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys (Epiplatys) infrafasciatus</em> is found in brooks, swamps, small streams and rivers in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp and Van der Zee 2003).	eng
182017	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182017	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182017	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major serious threats reported yet, but invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation.	eng
182017	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There are no major serious threats reported yet, but invasive weeds are causing habitat degradation.	eng
182018	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182018	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities in the middle Ngounie River, western Gabon.	eng
182018	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion exigoideum</em> occurs in brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) exigoideum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182018	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182018	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182019	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182019	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Mpoulou River, tributary of Kouilou within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve, Congo. This is found upstream of the falls on the Mpoulou River, <em>Amphilius mamonekenensis</em> is found downstream of the falls.	eng
182019	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182019	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182019	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to <em>Amphilius mamonekekensis</em> (deforestation is an historical threat, but the human population has moved). A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not thought that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182020	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182020	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only occurring in rivers and creeks around Mount Cameroon and the middle Mungo system.	eng
182020	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182020	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182020	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Intensive agriculture and rubber harvesting cause threats to this species (pers. comm. Brummett, R. 2008). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Mamonekene, V., Dening, C.). Mount Cameroon is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil.	eng
182021	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182021	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the basins of the Konkouré, Kolenté and Little Scarcies.	eng
182021	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of 9.0 cm SL	eng
182021	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182021	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182022	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182022	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Sassandra basin (Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
182022	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.8 cm TL.	eng
182022	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182022	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182023	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
182023	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182023	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Monitoring of population trends in needed, as is habitat restoration and management of protected areas.	eng
182023	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias hilli</em> is found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Central Congo River system and in Lake Albert. One record has been made from the upper Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has also been found in the Musasa River in Burundi, and Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
182023	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias hilli</em> occurs in the Central Congo River system and in Lake Albert. One record has been made from the Upper Congo River system. It has also been found in the Musasa River in Burundi.	eng
182023	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malagarasi River (De Vos <em>et al. 2001)	eng
182023	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2003	Marginal grass and papyrus swamps. Mainly insectivorous.	eng
182023	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182023	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is found in marginal grass and papyrus swamps. Mainly insectivorous.	eng
182023	population	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182023	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182023	population	Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known	eng
182023	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182023	threats	Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension.	eng
182023	threats	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension threatens east African populations.	eng
182024	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182024	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found the Henda, Nkwoh and Wouri Rivers in western Cameroon.	eng
182024	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) puerzli</em> occurs in swamps, shallow and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) puerzli</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
182024	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182024	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182025	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Implementation of sustainable fisheries management plans.	eng
182025	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182025	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182025	conservation	Bills, R., Getahun, A., Kazembe, J.,cMarshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. There has also been the implementation of sustainable fisheries management plans within the southern Africa region.	eng
182025	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers. Isolated populations are known from the Ruo River (Lower Zambezi system). It is also known from the Cuanza River in Angola and from Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182025	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Malawi and affluent streams, throughout the Shire river and Lake Chiuta. Rufiji and Ruvuma rivers and Lake Rukwa in Tanzania. Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi, Buzi, Pungwe and Lower Save-Runde systems. Also throughout the Zambian Congo system.	eng
182025	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Lower Save River north to the Rufiji River in Tanzania. Extending westwards into the middle Zambezi and north into Lake Malawi and the Zambian Congo systems.	eng
182025	distribution	Bills, R., Getahun, A., Kazembe, J.,cMarshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania to Zimbabwe and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Malawi and affluent streams, throughout the Shire river and Lake Chiuta, as well as the Rufiji and Ruvuma rivers and Lake Rukwa in Tanzania, and Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi, Buzi and Pungwe Rivers. Isolated populations are also known from the Ruo River (Lower Zambezi system).	eng
182025	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in caves and muddy areas, it also hides among weeds. It forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on insects and weeds but may also feed on small fishes (Konings 1990), blood worms, small crustaceans and molluscs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is active mainly at night. It breeds during the rainy season, moving upstream in rivers after flood spates have receded. The migrations appear to occur at irregular interval as this fish is not a powerful swimmer and would not be able to cope with very high water current (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Females carry 10,000-70,000 eggs. It can give a mild shock when caught (Skelton 1993).	eng
182025	habitat	Bills, R., Getahun, A., Kazembe, J.,cMarshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus longirostris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in caves and muddy areas, it also hides among weeds. It prefers quiet deep water with soft muddy bottoms and is rarely caught in marshy areas. In Lake Malawi this mormyrid is sufficiently common, and large, to be important as human food. It has been reported in Nkhata bay (L. Malawi) to be commonly caught in deep gill nets down to the limits of dissolved oxygen, and appears to prefer the deeper water where possible. It forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on insects and weeds but may also feed on small fishes (Konings 1990), blood worms, small crustaceans and molluscs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is active mainly at night. It breeds during the rainy season, moving upstream in rivers after flood spates have receded. The migrations appear to occur at irregular interval as this fish is not a powerful swimmer and would not be able to cope with very high water current (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Females carry 10,000-70,000 eggs. It can give a mild shock when caught (Skelton 1993).	eng
182025	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	It prefers quiet deep water with soft muddy bottoms and is rarely caught in marshy areas.  In Lake Malawi this mormyrid is sufficiently common, and large, to be important as human food. It has been reported in Nkhata bay (L. Malawi) to be commonly caught in deep gill nets down to the limits of dissolved oxygen, and appears to prefer the deeper water where possible. Breeds during the rains where it appears to have a prolonged breeding season.  Active at night when it feeds on chironomid midge larvae, small fishes, aquatic plants, bloodworms, crustaceans, and molluscs  which it locates on sandy or muddy substrates.	eng
182025	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Present in both main channels and marginal lagoons.	eng
182025	population	Bills, R., Getahun, A., Kazembe, J.,cMarshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Little information available but a rare species in fisheries catches.	eng
182025	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	Little information but a rare species in fisheries catches.	eng
182025	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182025	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182025	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
182025	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Overfishing threatens this species.	eng
182025	threats	Bills, R., Getahun, A., Kazembe, J.,cMarshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing with drawnets pose threats to the species in all areas.	eng
182025	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is fishing.	eng
182026	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182026	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182026	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182026	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182026	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Brycinus nurse</em> is present in the Upper Egyptian Nile, although this presence is unsure within the region and this may just be recorded from Lake Nasser (which is outside the region).<br/><br/>At global scale it is present in Lake Rudolf in Kenya, Lake Chad basin, Lake Victoria and Nabugabo, Victoria Nile and Lake Albert in Uganda, Niger, Volta in Ghana, Gambia, Senegal, Liberia and Cameroon (Bishai and Khalil 1997).	eng
182026	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Cross and Meme basins. Elsewhere it is widely distributed in the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Benue river), Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal basins.	eng
182026	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread across the region. Known from the Chad, Niger (including the Benue), Cross, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal.<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It also occurs in the basins of the Nile.	eng
182026	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is wide spread across much of Africa, from Senegal to Ethiopia, from Egypt to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Cross and Meme basins.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and the Aswa River system (This species is known from upper Nile system). It is also present in Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper Egyptian Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, and Nile to Lake Nasser.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is widely distributed in the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Benue river), Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Tominé (Corubal) and Senegal basins.	eng
182026	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>B. nurse </em>inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation.  It feeds on zooplankton, Caridina, insects, snails and vegetation.	eng
182026	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus nurse</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It feeds on zooplankton, <em>Caridina</em>, insects, snails and vegetation (Bailey 1994), and less frequently small fishes mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Haplochromis</span> spp. Dwarf populations are described in lake basins. It spawns at the beginning of the rainy season.	eng
182026	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus nurse</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It feeds on zooplankton, <em>Caridina</em>, insects, snails and vegetation (Bailey 1994).  Dwarf populations are described in lake basins:  Lake Turkana, <em>B. n. nana</em> Pellegrin, 1935 and Lake Chad, <em>B. n. dageti</em> Blache and Miton, 1960 (see Paugy 1990).	eng
182026	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This pelagic and potadromous species inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. It is common in certain seasons and usually forms shoals in the clear shore regions of Lake Nasser. It feeds on algae, insects and planktonic crustaceans, and less frequently small fishes mainly <em>Haplochromis spp</em>. It spawns at the beginning of the rainy season. It ranges from 10 to 12 cm in standard length, being the largest specimens caught from the Nile 19.5 cm.	eng
182026	population	Azeroual, A. & Moelants, T., 2009	Little information available.	eng
182026	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182026	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182026	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182026	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Importance: minor commercial. This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182026	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182026	threats	Azeroual, A. & Moelants, T., 2009	Populations of this species are threatened by heavy commercial fishing pressure for the aquarium trade. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats.	eng
182026	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to <em>Brycinus nurse</em> are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182027	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182027	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Gabon and western Congo.	eng
182027	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182027	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182027	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182028	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182028	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops sirenoides</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin, without the Sangha, Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182028	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182028	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182028	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182029	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182029	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the upper Ogowe River in southeastern Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
182029	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis emarginata</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a very slow-flowing creek (Ng 2004).	eng
182029	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182029	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182030	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182030	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known only from the Cross River and the lower part of the Beno.	eng
182030	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This fish is benthopelagic and non-migratory. It occurs in brooks, swamps, polls and streams in the humid forested and highland savannah and rainforest. It is a bottom spawner, with a one month incubation.	eng
182030	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182030	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182031	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182031	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo polli</em> is only known from the Kafubu River at Lubumbashi and the Kanshéle River at Kivu, upper Congo River basin.	eng
182031	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo polli</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182031	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182031	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182032	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182032	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis brichardi</em> is known from throughout the Lower Congo River rapids.	eng
182032	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds on filamentous green algae (Burgess 1989). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182032	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182032	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182033	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182033	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only occurring in two localities in the Kouilou River basin, Congo.	eng
182033	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182033	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182033	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
182034	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182034	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182034	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma ocellatum</em> is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the adjacent rapids on the Lower Congo, and from the Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa: </strong>It was recently discovered in the Niger delta.	eng
182034	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Recently discovered in the Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Congo basin.	eng
182034	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182034	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size of 14 cm.	eng
182034	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182034	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182034	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	In Nigeria (Niger Delta) the location is affected by oil exploration and urban development.	eng
182034	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In Nigeria (Niger Delta) the location is affected by oil exploration and urban development. It is also commercially collected as an aquarium fish.	eng
182035	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182035	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus notospilus</em> is known from the Luki River (Lower Congo River basin) and from the Central Congo River basin. It also is found throughout the Lower Guinea region, occurring in most rivers.	eng
182035	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182035	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182035	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182036	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182036	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra congoensis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids but is most often found in rapids and riffles in affluent streams.	eng
182036	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Garra congoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182036	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182036	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182037	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182037	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the upper Cross River, where it has been collected from the main channel below Mamfe to the junction with the southern Munaya River.	eng
182037	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gobiocichla ethylwynnae</em> occurs near river banks, primarily in small caves and cracks in stones, in flowing water with high turbulence and water speed. It is found only in rocky habitats with little or no sand or gravel. <em>Gobiocichla ethylwynnae</em> presumably feeds upon plants and other organisms which grow attached to the rocky substrate. It forages on algae using specialised, abrupt movements of the head. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182037	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182037	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
182039	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182039	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus mokelembembe</em> is known from the Alima drainage in Congo and the Maringa and Tshuapa drainage in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is probably also present in the Pool Malebo area (Schliewen and Schäfer 2006).	eng
182039	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus mokelembembe</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.	eng
182039	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182039	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182040	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182040	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Species known from the Cavally (Liberia/ Cote D’Ivoire border) as western distribution border up to the Densu River basin (Ghana) as the eastern distribution border of the species. Nevertheless, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. praensis</span> has a discontinuous distribution as it was only found in the Cavally and Sassandra River basins and further eastwards from the Bia to the Densu River basins. Moreover, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. praensis</span> was also found in the Central Niger River basin (Wandiaka, Mali)	eng
182040	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182040	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182040	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182041	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182041	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from Little Scarcies basin in Sierra Leone, west of Côte d'Ivoire, and east of Liberia.	eng
182041	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182041	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182041	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by pollution in Cote d' Ivoire, and deforestation in Liberia.	eng
182042	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182042	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the basins of the Gambia, Géba, Culufi, Jong, Kolenté and Tominé (Corubal).	eng
182042	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 32.3 cm TL maximum size.	eng
182042	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182042	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182043	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Taxonomic research is needed to clear up the status and distribution of this species.	eng
182043	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The type locality is vague: Lagos (probably southwestern Nigeria). Contrary to previous reports, it is not reported from Ghana by Lévêque (2003). Museum records at CAS from Ghana and BMNH from Cameroon need to be checked.	eng
182043	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182043	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182043	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182044	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182044	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">C. teugelsi</span> is known from the middle and from upper courses of the rivers Cess, Sanguin and Cavally (Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia).	eng
182044	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 15.0 cm SL maximum size.	eng
182044	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182044	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Mining, deforestation, urban and forestry development threaten this species.	eng
182045	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182045	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hylopanchax stictopleuron</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. A single specimen from Nziya on the Lower Congo (AMNH) has tentatively been identified, perhaps suggesting a distribution extending into the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the upper Ivindo system of northeastern Gabon.	eng
182045	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hylopanchax stictopleuron</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs mainly in dark and acid forest creeks, partly under forest cover, partly weedy. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182045	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182045	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182046	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182046	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in coastal regions of western Cameroon around Moliwe and Douala, and Fernando Po.	eng
182046	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Benitochromis nigrodorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species with a pH range from 6.0 to 7.0 and a dH range from 3 to 10. It is found in coastal rivers and creeks (Sonnenberg 2002). The maximum TL is recorded at 14.0 cm.	eng
182046	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182046	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial agriculture poses a threat in this area - nearly the whole Moliwe River runs through a palm oil plantation (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008).	eng
182048	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	A transboundary protected area is planned in the region.	eng
182048	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Bateke highland, in the upper Lékoni-Djouya and upper M'passa drainage systems of the Ogowe basin, southeastern Gabon.	eng
182048	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) rectogoense</em> occurs in brooks in the savannah of the highland (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) rectogoense</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182048	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182048	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species habitat is being impacted by the pollution from Franceville and deforestation leading to sedimentation.	eng
182049	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.	eng
182049	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182049	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182049	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is known from Angola and Namibia<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Cunene River system and a tributary of the Luangwe-Congo system, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species occurs in Kunene River (Kunene and Kului Rivers), Okavango River (Cubango River) and Congo River (Luangue River) systems.	eng
182049	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species endemic from Angola and Namibia. In Angola, the species occurs in Kunene River (Kunene River, Kului River ), Okavango River (Cubango River ) and Congo River (Luangue River ) systems.	eng
182049	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is known from the Cunene River system and a tributary of the Luangwe-Congo system, Angola.	eng
182049	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known from only a few specimens.  More specimens are required for study (Skelton 1993).	eng
182049	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chetia welwitschi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known from only a few specimens. More specimens are required for study (Skelton 1993).	eng
182049	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. The biology is not known.	eng
182049	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182049	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182049	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182049	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182049	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182049	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182050	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182050	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius maesii</em> is only known from two localities: Oshwe (Mai-N'Dombe) and the region of Djuma, Luie River (Kwango), southwest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Recent collections from small tributaries of the Lulua River (Kasai) confirm the presence of this species there also.	eng
182050	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius maesii</em> is a demersal species. Stomachs contained crustaceans and insect larvae and nymphs (Matthes 1964).	eng
182050	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182050	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.	eng
182051	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182051	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bathyaethiops greeni</em> is known from the Tshuapa basin and from Oka, Lembesse River basin (Congo), Central Congo basin.	eng
182051	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182051	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182051	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182052	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182052	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This mochokid is found in Little Scarcies and Jong in Sierra Leone and Kolenté and Konkouré Rivers in Guinea.  It has also been reported from Rokel River, Sierra Leone.	eng
182052	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182052	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trend.	eng
182052	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Locally threatened by development of new agriculture and human settlements.	eng
182053	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182053	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis cuangoanus</em> is only known from a restricted area in the Kwango River, Central Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango River basin though.	eng
182053	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis cuangoanus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182053	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182053	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
182054	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182054	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius hassoni</em> is currently only known from the Lufwa River system, Lower Lufira basin (Valdesalici and Wildekamp 2004).	eng
182054	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius hassoni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is only known from ephemeral pools from the floodplain.	eng
182054	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182054	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182055	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182055	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus mandevillei</em> is only known from the type locality, Regina Falls, near Kinsuka, just downstream of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo. John Fril has found this species in the Lower Congo, downstream from the type locality (Stiassny, M, pers. comm.).	eng
182055	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus mandevillei</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182055	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182055	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182056	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182056	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mungo and Meme Rivers and surrounding region in western Cameroon. Reports from Bioko have not been confirmed.	eng
182056	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species with a pH range from 4.8 to 7.0 and a dH range from 1 to 7.	eng
182056	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182056	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This area has heavily been surveyed, but <em>Benitochromis finleyi</em> has not been found. The species has a very localised distribution. Intensive commercial agriculture is impacting the rivers in this area. (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).	eng
182057	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182057	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is present in the regions of the Tassili and Ahaggar mountains in southern Algeria. The species was also recorded in Libya (Tibesti mountains) by Pellegrin (1921).	eng
182057	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	The species is found in spring fed oasis (permanent) and small wadis from the oasis (rivers) which are often temporary.	eng
182057	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182057	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Drought, desertification and water abstraction threaten this species.	eng
182058	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182058	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus antonii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
182058	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus antonii</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum weight recorded at nearly 10 kg (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182058	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182058	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182059	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182059	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus stappersii</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the upper Congo River basin.	eng
182059	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182059	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182059	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
182060	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182060	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis vaillanti</em> is known from upper Ubangui River, Central African Republic, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182060	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis vaillanti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182060	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182060	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182061	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182061	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus hulstaerti</em> is known from the Kasaï, Momboyo, Tshuapa and Lomami Rivers, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182061	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus hulstaerti</em> is a benthopelagic species. Stomach contents contained fine sand, plant debris, Hydracarina, Cladocera, and mainly insect larvae (Chironomids, Simulids and Ephemera) (Matthes 1964).	eng
182061	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182061	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182062	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
182062	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182062	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is needed.	eng
182062	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Rukwa drainage (Seegers 1996), Lake Tanganyika (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991, Poll 1953) and from the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
182062	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi and its delta with Lake Tanganyika (De Vos <em>et al. 2001; Seegers 1996), Lake Rukwa basin (Seegers 1996).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout the Congo Basin.	eng
182062	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Malagarasi and its delta with Lake Tanganyika (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001, Seegers 1996), and Lake Rukwa basin (Seegers 1996).	eng
182062	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. In contrast to <em>Polypterus endlicheri congicus</em> which is found in the main river channels, this species prefers small ditches and swamps (Poll 1967, Seegers 1996). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young, but takes larger food, mainly fish, when adult (Seegers 1996). <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> mainly hunts at night (Seegers 1996). In general they are more or less solitary fish and do not form schools (Seegers 1996). The male starts with the balts and is the active partner (Riehl and Baensch 1991). The male makes a sort of cup from the anal fin and the female lays the eggs in this cup (Riehl and Baensch 1991). Probably spawns in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).	eng
182062	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It inhabits calm waters of swamps and rivers (Poll 1967). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young, but takes larger food, mainly fish, when adult (Seegers 1996). <em>Polypterus ornatipinnis</em> mainly hunts at night (Seegers 1996). In general they are more or less solitary fish and do not form schools (Seegers 1996). The male starts with the balts and is the active partner (Riehl and Baensch 1991). The male makes a sort of cup from the anal fin and the female lays the eggs in this cup (Riehl and Baensch 1991).	eng
182062	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	In contrast to Polypterus endlicheri congicus which is found in the main river channels this species prefers small ditches and swamps (Seegers 1996). It feeds on worms and insect larvae when young and takes larger food items, mainly fish, when adult. It is a nocturnal hunter (Seegers 1996).<br/>Probably spawns in the rainy season (Seegers 1996).	eng
182062	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	No estimates, but rather rare in fisheries catches	eng
182062	population	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No estimates, but rather rare in fisheries catches	eng
182062	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182062	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182062	threats	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	In parts of its range, this species is threatened by fisheries, and changes in swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.	eng
182062	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are  fisheries and changes in swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.	eng
182063	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182063	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria vilhenae</em> is only known from Dundo, Kasaï system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182063	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182063	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182063	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182064	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182064	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax schoutedeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182064	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182064	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182064	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182065	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182065	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius lamani</em> is known from the type locality (Kingoyi, at the Luala River which connects with the Lower Congo River). It has also been found in the Luozi region in the Lower Congo, before the Inga dam.	eng
182065	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius lamani</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182065	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182065	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential for mining in the area. The high population density and erosion by slash and burn agriculture pose threats in the Kingoyi area.	eng
182066	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182066	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gambia to Côte d'Ivoire. Also known from Tano River in Ghana. In all its surface of distribution, it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">T. jentinki.</span>	eng
182066	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is an opportunistic benthic macrophage. It prefers insects and their larvae.	eng
182066	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182066	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Drought and overfishing are local threats.	eng
182067	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182067	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops lineolatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182067	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182067	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182067	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182068	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known. More research is needed on the taxonomy, population trends and ecology of this species.	eng
182068	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Amphilius kagrimensis</span> is known only from the Kakrima River, a tributary of the Konkouré in Guinea.	eng
182068	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data	eng
182068	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182068	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is potentially impacted by deforestation and mining.	eng
182069	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182069	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes schelly</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin, near Inga.	eng
182069	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes schelly</em> was collected over a sand and gravel substrate in the main channel of the Congo River amongst large rock slabs of up to 4 m high thrusting upward at angles of 60-70 degrees, in pools up to 2 m deep (Stiassny and Mamonekene 2007). It is a pelagic species.	eng
182069	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182069	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182070	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182070	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182070	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Only known from the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>occurs in the Middle and Lower Zambezi systems.	eng
182070	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is known only from the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers.	eng
182070	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Occurs along the vegetated areas of river banks where it feeds on detritus, algae and benthic invertebrates.  Can live up to 4-5 years.	eng
182070	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is found in riverine floodplains of larger rivers.	eng
182070	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182070	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182070	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182070	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is its restricted range within eastern Africa.	eng
182071	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Part of its range is within the Korup National Park.	eng
182071	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is endemic to western Africa. It is known from Cross River in Nigeria and from Cameroon.	eng
182071	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a demersal species that lives in the rapids clinging to the rock using a sucker. It requires clear waters and high levels of oxygen.	eng
182071	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182071	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	The species is threatened by oil exploration in Nigeria.	eng
182072	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182072	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A rather rare Lower Guinea endemic found in the upper Ogowe, Nyanga (south Gabon) and Kouilou (Congo) basins.	eng
182072	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182072	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182072	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats. The locality on the Lower Kouilou River is possibly threatened. The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and canalisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional There is a potential threat is the construction of a dam (Sunda) on the Lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182073	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182073	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182073	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	Although literature citations report a wide distribution throughout Africa, <em>Petrocephalus simus</em> may well be endemic to the Lower Guinea region (see discussion in Lavoué <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Lower Guinea it is present in the Ntem River, the entire Ogowe River basin including the Ivindo, the Rembo Nkomi and the Nyanga in the southern part of Gabon. It is also recorded from Luongo River, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983) and from Angola (Poll 1967).	eng
182073	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species is distributed from Liberia to Angola. In Angola the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River ), in several coastal rivers, Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River ), Congo River (Chiumbe River ,Chicapa River ), and Upper-Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.	eng
182073	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182073	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus simus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but they are absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It is found schooling with other species having identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980). <em>Petrocephalus simus</em> is a fractional spawner (Kirschbaum 1995, Albaret 1982).	eng
182073	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182073	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182073	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially important fisheries species.	eng
182073	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are unknown.	eng
182074	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	There are no major conservation measures in place.	eng
182074	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
182074	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs mainly in deeper, offshore waters in the lake. The species is a pelagic zooplanctivore, and is an importnat prey of the large piscivorous <span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus</span> of Lake Tana.	eng
182074	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The status of the population is not known.	eng
182074	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no major threat identified.	eng
182075	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182075	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium maculicauda</em> is only known by the types from Tshikapa (This species is known from upper Kasai system), juvenile specimens very likely the young of <em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em>.	eng
182075	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium maculicauda</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182075	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182075	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182076	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182076	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known only from the River Kakrima, affluent of the River Konkouré in Guinea.	eng
182076	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a freshwater, pelagic, riverine fish.	eng
182076	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182076	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	It is potentially threatened by deforestation and habitat degradation.	eng
182077	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182077	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis iturii</em> is only known from the type locality Mawambi on the Ituri River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182077	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis iturii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182077	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182077	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182078	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182078	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The only documented specimens of <em>Platyglanis depierrei</em> originate from the Djim River, a small tributary of the Mbam River near the confluence with the Mbam River.	eng
182078	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182078	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182078	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182079	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182079	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nigrifilis</em> is only known by the type from the type locality Ankoro, at the junction of the Lualaba and Luvua Rivers, upper Congo River basin.	eng
182079	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nigrifilis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182079	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182079	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182080	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182080	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys longiventralis</span> has a rather limited, possibly relict, distribution. It is found in the swampy parts of small streams and sides of rivers on the eastern side of the Lower Niger River system and in the northern part of the Niger River delta (Nigeria).	eng
182080	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small perennial killifish that grows to 5 cm in TL. It lives in swamps and swampy part of small streams. It is non-migratory.	eng
182080	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182080	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by oil exploration, and threatened with pollution and loss of habitat by sand filling for urban development and agriculture. It is targeted for the aquarium trade but is difficult to maintain in captivity.	eng
182081	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182081	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, poorly collected and currently known only from the type locality, This species is known from upper Louesse River, Kouilou system, Congo.	eng
182081	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal. The maximum TL was recorded at 14.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Skelton and Teugels 1986).	eng
182081	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182081	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182082	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182082	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax lineostriatus</em> is only known from the Cavuemba River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
182082	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax lineostriatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.5 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182082	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182082	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182083	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182083	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus martorelli</em> is known from the Dja and Nguesse Rivers, Central Congo River basin and from throughout the Lower Guinea region.	eng
182083	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus martorelli</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 12.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182083	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182083	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182084	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on potential threats to this species.	eng
182084	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Chiloango and Kouilou-Niari basins.	eng
182084	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182084	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182084	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182085	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182085	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis fasciatus</em> is known only from the Lower Congo River, between Matadi and Boma.	eng
182085	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis fasciatus</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182085	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182085	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The growing cities Matadi and Boma and maritime transportation can pose plausible threats in the future. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3 that will be built in five years.	eng
182086	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182086	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the following rivers: Mungo, Wowe, Ohumbe, Mekom, Kelle, Louetsie, Kouilou, Kissafou and Loubomo.	eng
182086	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo camerunensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182086	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182086	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182087	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182087	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus numenius</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from Maniema, Ulindi River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Specimens of this species have been reported from the rapids below Pool Malebo in the main channel of the Lower Congo River.	eng
182087	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus numenius</em> is a demersal species. IT occurs only in big rivers (Gosse 1984).	eng
182087	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182087	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182088	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Management of riverine fisheries.	eng
182088	conservation	Bills, R., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Management of riverine fisheries is needed.	eng
182088	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182088	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182088	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	None known.	eng
182088	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mormyrops anguilloides</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, distributed in the Sanaga River basin, in the Nyong, the Lokoundjé and the Cross.  It is has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most part of West African basins. In southern Africa it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi and the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001). It is also known from Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika and Mobutu Skelton 2001).	eng
182088	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In Kenya it is known from the Northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). An uncertain record of M. anguilloides from the Athi River basin discussed by Okeyo (1998) is unsubstantiated (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). In Uganda it is known from the Lake Albert basin, and Albert Nile. In Tanzania it is known from the Malagarasi River and Lake Tanganyika. In Malawi it is known from Lake Malawi.<br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Outside the region it is recorded from the Upper and lower Nile, Middle and lower Zambezi,  and all major river basins from Senegal to Cameroon. It is also present in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
182088	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. anguilloides</span> has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most parts of western African basins.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> White Nile, Lake Albert basin, rivers in Cameroon, small coastal basins in the Guinean zone. Widespread in the Congo basin, Lake Malawi, Tanganyika and Albert;  Whebi Shebeli and Juba (as <span style="font-style: italic;">M. deliciosus</span>). In southern Africa, it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi, Buzi, and Pungwe River (Skelton 1993).	eng
182088	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species is widespread in north, west, central and southern Africa. Nile, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi.	eng
182088	distribution	Bills, R., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species has a very wide distribution area and is present in most parts of sub-saharan Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mormyrops anguilloides</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region, distributed in the Sanaga River basin, in the Nyong, the Lokoundjé and the Cross.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Lake Albert basin, and Albert Nile, as well as from the Malagarasi River and Lake Tanganyika. It is also known from Lake Malawi. In Kenya it has been recorded from the Northern Ewaso Nyiro system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004) but this is probably not correct. An uncertain record of <em>M. anguilloides</em> from the Athi River basin discussed by Okeyo (1998) is unsubstantiated (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, and the Blue Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It also occurs in the Wabi Shebelle basin, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In southern Africa it is restricted to the middle and lower Zambezi and the Buzi and Pungwe Rivers (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>M. anguilloides</em> has a very wide distribution area and is present in the most parts of West African basins.	eng
182088	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal; potamodromous; Adults prefer deep quiet water between boulders and below overhangs, away from strong currents.  Also occurs beneath <em>Salvinia</em> mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba.  Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae.  Larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos.  May live for 8 years or more.  Breeds during the rainy season (Skelton 1993).  A fractional spawner (Alberet 1982; Kirschbaum 1995).  Affinities:  <em>M. breviceps</em>.  It prefers streams, lakes and mangroves in tropical climate.	eng
182088	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Main channels to open waters of large rivers and lakes.	eng
182088	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in streams and and lakes. Demersal. Adults prefer deep quiet water between boulders and below overhangs, away from strong currents. Also occurs beneath “Salvinia” mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba. Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae. Larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos. May live for 8 years or more. Breeds during the rainy season. A fractional spawner. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182088	habitat	Bills, R., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species inhabits rivers and river mouths. Juveniles are found in marginal habitats whereas adults prefer deep quiet water and estuaries away from strong currents (Tweddle and Willoughby, 1982). It also occurs beneath <em>Salvinia</em> mats and in river estuaries in Lake Kariba. Juveniles prey on invertebrates, mainly shrimps and insect larvae, whilst larger individuals feed on small cichlids, minnows and labeos. It breeds during the rainy season (Skelton 1993) and is a fractional spawner (Alberet 1982, Kirschbaum 1995).	eng
182088	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	This species inhabits rivers and river mouths. Juveniles are found in marginal habitats whereas adults prefer deep quiet water and estuaries away from strong currents (Tweddle and Willoughby 1982).	eng
182088	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182088	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182088	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182088	population	Bills, R., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available, but it is rarely encountered.	eng
182088	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available, but it is rarely encountered.	eng
182088	threats	Bills, R., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	In eastern Africa this species is threatened by fisheries and environmental disturbance. Intense fishing pressure with gill nets in certain areas of the lower Zambezi probably affects this species.	eng
182088	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Intense fishing pressure with gill nets in certain areas of the Lower Zambezi probably affects this species.	eng
182088	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182088	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182088	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threats to the species are fisheries and environmental disturbance.	eng
182089	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182089	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Thoracochromis brauschi</em> is endemic to the Fwa River and Lake, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182089	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Thoracochromis brauschi</em> is a demersal species with mouth-brooding by the females. It mainly feeds on macrophytes and vegetable debris (Roberts and Kullander 1994).	eng
182089	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182089	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182090	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182090	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The type locality of <em>Gymnallabes nops</em> is from near Tadi, about 50 km downstream of Luozi, Lower Congo River. Two additional specimens (one from Banda Nyenge about 60km upstream of Luozi, and one from near Mbelo about 70 km downstream of Pool Malebo) have been collected (AMNH). The species seems to be present in very low abundance and has been searched for intensively (Stiassny, M., pers. obs).	eng
182090	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182090	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182090	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threat to <em>Gymnallabes nops</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182091	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182091	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammopetersius pulcher</em> is known from the Dja River basin, Central Congo River basin, south Cameroon. It is probably also known from the Sankum River, Kondue in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182091	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182091	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182091	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.	eng
182092	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182092	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type area, near Madié in the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is biogeographically replaced by <em>Aphyosemion christy</em> in the south, by <em>A. castaneum</em> in the southwest and by <em>A. decorsei</em> in the north.	eng
182092	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion schoutedeni</em> prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm).	eng
182092	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182092	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182093	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182093	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>C. maurus</em> has been found in almost all coastal rivers, from the Senegal to the Pra (Ghana). It also occurs in estuaries and lagoons.	eng
182093	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 51.0 cm SL	eng
182093	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182093	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182094	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182094	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. oudoti</span> is known only from the type collected in the Niger at Bamako. Reports of this species from other basins are based on misidentifications (Bigorne 1987)	eng
182094	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 11.4 cm SL	eng
182094	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182094	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182095	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182095	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182095	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182095	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from Gabon to Angola. In Angola, it occurs in the Bengo River (Lake Panguila), Kwanza River (Kwanza River ) and Chiloango River systems.	eng
182095	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is mainly known from coastal rivers from Gabon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo; upper and lower Ogowe and its tributary the Ivindo; Chiloango system; Niari-kouilou; River Dja; Majumbe and Lukula. It has also been reported from Gambia and Senegal (Samb 1990) and Guinea (Hureau 1991).	eng
182095	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known predominantly from coastal rivers from Gabon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is mainly known from coastal rivers from Gabon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including This species is known from upper and lower Ogowe and its tributary the Ivindo, as well as the Chiloango system, Niari-kouilou, River Dja, Majumbe and Lukula. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Bengo River (and Lake Panguila), Kwanza River and Chiloango River systems.	eng
182095	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is occasionally territorial. Stomachs contained algae, mainly unicellular or in short filaments (Trewavas 1983). Nests are made on sandy or loamy bottoms in water 40-80 cm deep, or more sparsely in depths of one meter or more. They are circular basins with a diameter of 115-185 cm, about 20 cm deep in the middle with a rim raised 7-8 cm above the surrounding level. Spawning occurs at night, the fishes are seeking deeper waters during the day to avoid high temperatures and intense illumination.	eng
182095	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> is a benthopelagic species that is occasionally territorial. Stomachs contained algae, mainly unicellular or in short filaments (Trewavas 1983). Nests are made on sandy or loamy bottoms in water 40-80 cm deep, or more sparsely in depths of one meter or more. They are circular basins with a diameter of 115-185 cm, about 20 cm deep in the middle with a rim raised 7-8 cm above the surrounding level. Spawning occurs at night, the fishes are seeking deeper waters during the day to avoid high temperatures and intense illumination.	eng
182095	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in rivers and lakes. It feeds on algae.	eng
182095	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182095	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182095	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182095	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is likely that <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> will be used for aquaculture in the future.	eng
182095	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182095	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Threats are not known. It is likely that <em>Oreochromis schwebischi</em> will be used for aquaculture in the future.	eng
182096	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182096	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.	eng
182096	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
182096	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182096	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182097	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182097	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Sanaga River, Cameroon.	eng
182097	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182097	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182097	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.<br/>There are the dams in the Sanaga system which have regulated the flood regime of the river (however the Mbam is not dammed and not likely to be).	eng
182098	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182098	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Guinea. The species is known only from the River Konkouré (type locality).	eng
182098	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of 17.6 cm SL maximum size.	eng
182098	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182098	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is under threat from habitat degradation due to mining and deforestation.	eng
182099	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182099	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Brycinus carolinae</span> is known from the River Niandan (a tributary of the upper Niger) and from two other small rivers also headwaters of Niger.	eng
182099	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a pelagic fish of 10.4 cm SL	eng
182099	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182099	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. There is a potential threats are deforestation and drought.	eng
182100	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
182100	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from specimens collected along the White Nile between the Sobat confluence and Khartoum.	eng
182100	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species inhabuts running water.	eng
182100	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not common.	eng
182100	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182101	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182101	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mossendjo - Komono area, in the Louesse - Niari River system, southwestern Congo.	eng
182101	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion thysi</em> is found in brooks and small streams in the hilly rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) thysi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182101	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182101	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
182102	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182102	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus chabanaudi</em> is only known from Brazzaville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Congo River.	eng
182102	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus chabanaudi</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182102	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182102	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182103	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182103	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) exiguum</em> is known from the Dja, Central Congo basin. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon and eastern Equatorial Guinea, and the upper Ivindo River basin in northern Gabon and northern Congo.	eng
182103	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion exiguum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of brooks and small streams under forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182103	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182103	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182104	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182104	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bathyaethiops breuseghemi</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182104	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182104	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182104	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182105	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182105	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys brevibarbis</em> is found in the Congo River basin below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), to the Lower Congo, mostly in the vicinity or downstream of Kinshasa and in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). The holotype is from Boma near the river's mouth. It possibly also occurs in the Sangha River in the Central African Republic. It is probably more widespread.	eng
182105	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182105	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182105	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182106	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Its distribution also lies partially within Kafue National Park.	eng
182106	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182106	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection other than in Kafue National Park.	eng
182106	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambezi River systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the upper Zambezi, Cunene, Okavango and Kafue Rivers. Recently, it has been taken from the middle Zambezi above Kariba. (Skelton 2001).	eng
182106	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango, Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
182106	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambezi River systems. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>It is found in the upper Zambezi and Kafue systems, as well as the Okavango, Cunene and Zambian Congo systems (Skelton 2001). Recently, it has been taken from the middle Zambezi above Kariba. (Skelton 2001).	eng
182106	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> is a pelagic species. It prefers vegetated margins of rivers and oxbow lagoons or shallow lakes. It feeds by picking small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems of plants and roots. It breeds in summer (Skelton 1993) and is known to make seasonal movements onto floodplains during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
182106	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax multifasciatus</em> s a pelagic species. It prefers vegetated margins of rivers and oxbow lagoons or shallow lakes. It feeds by picking small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems of plants and roots. It breeds in summer (Skelton 1993) and is known to make seasonal movements onto floodplains during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It prefers streams and mangroves to live.	eng
182106	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Well vegetated rivers and streams, including rocky habitats (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Picks small invertebrates and epiphyton from stems and roots of plants. Breeds in summer (Skelton 2001).	eng
182106	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Abundant and widespread in the upper Zambezi system, including northern Zambian tributaries such as the Mwombezhi system. To the west of the Mwombezhi, specimens from the northern tributaries have barred tails and need taxonomic investigation	eng
182106	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Abundant and widespread in the upper Zambezi system, including northern Zambian tributaries such as the Mwombezhi system. To the west of the Mwombezhi, specimens from the northern tributaries have barred tails and need taxonomic investigation.	eng
182106	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182106	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182106	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.&#160; This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182106	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. It is also commercially harvested as an aquarium species.	eng
182107	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182107	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops attenuatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182107	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182107	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182107	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182108	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182108	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is known from the Upemba region and the Lualaba River to Yangambi and Isangi on the Upper Congo. It has also been reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi.	eng
182108	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is known from the Upemba region and the Lualaba River to Yangambi and Isangi on the upper Congo. It has also been reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Tanzania (Eccles 1992) and Burundi in Malagarasi basin, and Burundi's affluents of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182108	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis upembae</em> is a benthopelagic species. The female broods the young and eggs in the mouth in the shelter of sandbanks in the Congo at Yangambi.	eng
182108	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182108	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182108	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182109	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182109	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus delhezi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182109	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus delhezi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator that lives in streams, lakes and zones of flood (Matthes 1964). The reproduction and spawning occurs during the rainy season (Matthes 1964), probably in flooded area (Boulenger 1899).	eng
182109	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182109	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182110	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182110	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium leleupi</em> is known from the upper Lualaba (from the Lualaba River at N'Zilo, from Kakundji and from the Kando River and Nyundeulu River).	eng
182110	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium leleupi</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. The maximum TL was recorded at 14.5 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984). Stomach contents contained mainly terrestrial insects like Coleopterans, Ant, Termites, etc. and sometimes larvae of aquatic insects and eggs (of fish?) (Froese and Garilao 2002).	eng
182110	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182110	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182111	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat restoration is required.	eng
182111	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Presently known only from the Bandama and the Tano rivers.	eng
182111	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182111	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Declining.	eng
182111	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The removal of vegetation due to mining and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads during heavy rains. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano River.	eng
182112	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182112	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish occurs in shallow parts of pools, and small streams in the rain forest of East and Eastern Central Sierra Leone. This species is found in the drainage systems of the Pampana River, the Waanje River and the Moa River.	eng
182112	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in floodplains and small brooks along the coastal zones of West Africa. Freshwater, benthopelagic. Maximum size: male 55 mm TL, female 45 mm TL.	eng
182112	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182112	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and mining leading to sedimentation and pollution from human settlement.	eng
182113	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182113	conservation	Bayona, J. D.R., 2003	No information available..	eng
182113	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182113	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus kannume</em> is common all along the River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser, Blue Nile and Lake Victoria, Lake Kyoga, Lake Albert, and Lakes Edward and George.	eng
182113	distribution	Bayona, J. D.R., 2003	The species has a widespread distribution in eastern Africa including: theLake Victoria drainage, Lake Turkana basin, Lake Kamnarok (Kerio system), River Turkwell, Omo delta, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished), Middle and Lower Akagera, Lakes Edward, George,  Albert anbd Kyoga systems, and the entire Nile system as far as the delta (Victoria, Murchison and Albert Niles). It is also found in Rivers Pangani, Rufiji, and Kagera apart from Lake Burigi and Kirumi pools. <br/><br/>In Lake Victoria, its EOO has become restricted to the 10m depth contour whereas it previously extend to the 70 m (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). The species was originally distributed throughout Lake Kyoga but is now restricted to the open Lake. In Lakes Edward and George it is now largely restricted to Kasinga Channel and to the northern Papyrus fringed shore of Lake George.	eng
182113	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species distribution extends from Egypt along the entire length of the Nile, and into Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has a widespread distribution in eastern Africa including: the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Turkana basin, Lake Kamnarok (Kerio system), River Turkwell, Omo delta, Northern Ewaso Nyiro (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Middle and Lower Akagera, Lakes Edward, George, Albert and Kyoga systems, and the entire Nile system as far as the delta (Victoria, Murchison and Albert Niles). It is also found in Rivers Pangani, Rufiji, and Kagera apart from Lake Burigi and Kirumi pools. In Lake Victoria the EOO has become restricted to the 10m depth contour whereas it previously extend to the 70m (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). The species was originally distributed throughout Lake Kyoga but is now restricted to the open Lake. In Lakes Edward and George it is now largely restricted to Kasinga Channel and to the northern Papyrus fringed shore of Lake George.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common all along the River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, the White Nile and Blue Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is also present in the Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
182113	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It has a curious habit of swimming backwards. It spends the day on the bottom, but after nightfall it becomes very active, searching for food. Associated with rocks and is commonly caught in rapidly-flowing water. It feeds on insects, particularly chironomid larvae, annelid worms and bottom animals. Males outnumber females in the catch. Gonads are mature in spring and summer and only the left ovary or testis is present. Well grown fish can give quite an electrical shock. It reaches a maximum length of 1 m.	eng
182113	habitat	Bayona, J. D.R., 2003	Solitary, nocturnal species (Bailey 1974). Widespread in both coastal and offshore waters. It feeds on benthic animals, with chironomid larvae as major food item (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Bailey 2003).	eng
182113	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J. & Getahun, A., 2009	This is a solitary, nocturnal species (Bailey 1974). It is widespread in both coastal and offshore waters. It feeds on benthic animals, with chironomid larvae as major food item (Bailey 1994). It has a curious habit of swimming backwards. It spends the day on the bottom, but after nightfall it becomes very active, searching for food. Associated with rocks and is commonly caught in rapidly-flowing water. Males outnumber females in the catch. Gonads are mature in spring and summer and only the left ovary or testis is present. Well grown fish can give quite an electrical shock.	eng
182113	population	Bayona, J. D.R., 2003	Common in commercial fisheries. Surveys of 1977-1999 in Uganda and Tanzania indicated a decline in abundance in research survey catches from 0.3 kg/hr during 1969-71 (Kudhongania and Cordone,1974) to 0.01kg/hr in 1999 (Okaranon <em>et al.1999). The species has a large extent of occurrence nationally but is now rarely encountered in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.</em>	eng
182113	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182113	population	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species is common in commercial fisheries. Surveys of 1977-1999 in Uganda and Tanzania indicated a decline in abundance in research survey catches from 0.3 kg/hr during 1969-71 (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974) to 0.01kg/hr in 1999 (Okaranon <em>et al.</em> 1999). The species has a large extent of occurrence nationally but is now rarely encountered in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.	eng
182113	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182113	threats	Bayona, J. D.R., 2003	The main threats to the species are predation pressure by Nile Perch, fishing pressure, aquarium trade, pollution, and competition with introduced species in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.	eng
182113	threats	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species faces a number of threats. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In eastern Africa, threats include predation pressure by the Nile Perch, heavy fishing pressure and collection for the aquarium trade, pollution of its waterways, and competition with introduced species in Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.	eng
182114	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182114	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus glaber</em> is only known from the type locality: near Inga Dam site, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182114	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus glaber</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species. The intestines largely consist of diatoms and sand grains (Roberts and Stewart 1976).	eng
182114	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182114	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182115	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182115	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal rivers in southern Cameroon to the Chiloango River in Cabinda.	eng
182115	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182115	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182115	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182116	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182116	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus congicus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182116	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus congicus</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator that lives in streams, lakes and zones of flood (Gosse 1963, Matthes 1964). In Lake Tanganyika it is mostly found at the mouth or delta of rivers and lagoons to the west (Poll 1953).	eng
182116	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182116	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible local threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species as a whole.	eng
182117	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182117	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus tinanti</em> is known from the rapids of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River.	eng
182117	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus tinanti</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with females that lay up to 100 eggs in the male's cave.	eng
182117	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182117	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182118	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182118	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congochromis pugnatus</em> is currently only known from a single collection from the vicinity of Kisangani (Stanleyville), This species is known from Upper Congo River, the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182118	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182118	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182118	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182119	conservation	Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection. More information is needed on the species' biology and ecology, and population.	eng
182119	distribution	Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2006	This species is patchily distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also occurs in the Cunene, Okavango, and Kafue river systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
182119	habitat	Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2006	This species is occurs primarily in well-vegetated streams, but generally absent from marshes apart from pools closely adjacent to the main river (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae. It breeds in summer, laying eggs amongst vegetation (Skelton 2001).	eng
182119	population	Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2006	A common species wherever it occurs. Rare in the main Zambezi channel but more common in tributaries off the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182119	threats	Marshall, B. & Tweddle, D., 2006	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the Zambezi floodplains, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
182120	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182120	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	Drainage systems of the Louilou and Loémé rivers in western Congo. The Chiloango system in the Cabinda enclave of Angola. The Chiloango system in western Democratic Republic of the Congo.  The Lombo, tributary of the Loémé in southwestern Gabon.	eng
182120	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus cabindae</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in small rivers , brooks and swamps in drainage systems (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Plataplochilus cabindae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182120	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182120	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182121	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182121	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax micros</em> is only known from the type locality, 30 km east of Kribi in Cameroon. It is possibly the same species as <em>Nannocharax parvus</em>.	eng
182121	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182121	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182121	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182122	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the status, distribution and threats of this species.	eng
182122	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from its type locality, Tonga, within the White Nile basin in South Sudan.	eng
182122	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182122	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182122	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182123	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	The range of this species is largely included within the Korup National Park.	eng
182123	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known from the River Cross in Nigeria and Cameroon, and has occasionally been reported from some localities of the West African coast. It has also been reported from Ghana, but this is doubtful.	eng
182123	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	A mainly freshwater species which can tolerate brackish waters. It prefers the mainstream of the river.	eng
182123	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182123	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Oil exploration in the lower Cross River may threaten this species.	eng
182124	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182124	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.	eng
182124	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in western and southwestern Cameroon. Elsewhere it is found in southern Benin, southern Togo and southern Nigeria.	eng
182124	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Togo to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in western and southwestern Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species ranges from Togble-kope in Togo through southern Benin, southern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon.	eng
182124	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in, or close to, small forested rivers and brooks in swampy primary and secondary rainforest on coastal plains. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). This species is benthopelagic and non-migratory.	eng
182124	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poropanchax luxophthalmus</em> occurs in, or close to, small forested rivers and brooks in swampy primary and secondary rainforest on coastal plains. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). This species is benthopelagic and non-migratory.	eng
182124	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182124	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182124	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the central Africa region. In western Africa, oil exploration and habitat degradation due to urban, agriculture and deforestation developments, all threaten this species.	eng
182124	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.	eng
182125	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182125	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species seems to be restricted to the small coastal basins lying to the southwest of Côte d’Ivoire (Néro, Dodo and Tabou).	eng
182125	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species	eng
182125	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182125	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is locally threatened by water pollution from domestic sources. There is a potential threats from deforestation and agricultural expansion.	eng
182126	conservation	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation may also be required.	eng
182126	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2003	None	eng
182126	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182126	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has little or no protection.	eng
182126	distribution	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is wide spread across much of Africa, from Sudan to Namibia. It has been introduced in the Philippines, but it is unknown where and when this species is introduced from, and whether or not it has established itself.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, including the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. The records of the Central Congo basin and of the northern part of the upper Congo basin have not been identified by Teugels, G. and are outside the distribution range in Teugels, G. (1986).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in affluent rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi drainages, the upper and middle Akagera and associated lakes, the Lake Victoria system, Lake Kyoga, Lake Bunyonyi, and Lakes Edward and George. Also found in the Tana River and This species is known from upper reaches of the South Rukuru river in Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> A rare and small species recorded from Sudan by Bianchi (as cited in Bailey 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. Also Zambian Congo and through African Great Lakes (Skelton 2001).	eng
182126	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is known from the Central and Upper Congo River basin, including the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system. The records of the Central Congo basin and of the northern part of the Upper Congo basin have not been identified by Teugels, G. and are outside the distribution range in Teugels, G. (1986). It is also known from Lake Victoria, Edward, George, small lakes of Uganda, Lake Kivu, smaller lakes of Rwanda, Lake Tanganyika, in Malawi, Kagera, Malagarazi, Ruzizi and Tana Rivers. It is also known from Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 1993). <em>Clarias liocephalus</em> has been introduced in the Philippines, but it is unknown where this species is introduced from and when is has been introduced, and whether it has established itself.	eng
182126	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Affluent rivers to Lake Tanganyika, including the Rusizi and Malagarasi drainages, the Upper and middle Akagera and associated lakes, the Lake Victoria system, Lake Kyoga, Lake Bunyonyi, and Lakes Edward and George. Also found in the Tana River and upper reaches of the South Rukuru river.	eng
182126	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi and Kafue systems. Also Zambian Congo and through African Great Lakes (Skelton 2001).	eng
182126	habitat	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes (Greenwood 1957). This species is abundant in high mountain streams and torrents and on the bottom among stones (Jackson 1959) and absent from floodplains and non-rocky tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is omnivorous, feeding on insects and their larvae as well as small fish and vegetable matter (Seegers 1996). Specimens from Lake Victoria are principally insectivorous, but larger individuals are piscivorous (Greenwood 1957).	eng
182126	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias liocephalus</em> is a demersal species that occurs in marginal water-lily and papyrus swamps as well as in marginal weed beds. This species is abundant in high mountain streams and torrents and on the bottom among stones. It is not found in any situation lower than about 915 m above sea level nor in water of a higher temperature than 18 °C (Teugels 1986).	eng
182126	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2003	Found in marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes (Greenwood 1957). Also found in high mountain streams and torrents (Jackson 1959). Omnivorous, feeding on insects and their larvae as well as small fish and vegetable matter (Seegers 1996). Specimens from Lake Victoria are principally insectivorous, but larger individuals are piscivorous (Greenwood 1957).	eng
182126	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	Restricted to rocky areas of river,  absent from floodplains and non-rocky tributaries (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182126	population	Hanssens, M., 2003	Formerly very common, this species has strongly declined in the upper Akagera system, most likely because of predation by or competition with the introduced Clarias gariepinus and Schilbe intermedius	eng
182126	population	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Limited information is available, though it is likely that it is widely distributed and fairly common. In eastern Africa however, where formerly it was very common, this species has strongly declined in the upper Akagera system, most likely because of predation by or competition with the introduced <em>Clarias gariepinus</em> and <em>Schilbe intermedius</em>.	eng
182126	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182126	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	Widely distributed and fairly common.	eng
182126	threats	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	For the majority of its distribution, no major threats to this species are known. Regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension, and competition with introduced species are both threatening populations in eastern Africa.	eng
182126	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182126	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182126	threats	Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension and competion with introduced species.	eng
182127	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182127	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182127	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182127	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182127	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis flavitaeniatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182128	conservation	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information.	eng
182128	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored.	eng
182128	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182128	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	There is no information available at present, but research actions are needed.	eng
182128	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Alestes dentex</em>is rare in northern Africa, found in Upper Egyptian Nile (Assiut, Sohag and Aswan).<br/><br/>Regarding to its global range, the species is present in Lower Nile, including Lake Nasser, White Nile, Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Chad River basin, and Uganda (Lake Albert and Murchison Falls).	eng
182128	distribution	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, L. Omo and L. Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal.	eng
182128	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal (Paugy 2003).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region also found in Nile, Lake ALbert, Lake Omo, Lake Turkana. Also known from the White Nile, Murchinson Nile, and Blue Nile (Paugy 1984).	eng
182128	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is mainly found in inshore zones of lakes, across a large range within Africa<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, River Omo and Lake Turkana <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>  This species is rare in northern Africa, found in the upper Egyptian Nile (Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Appears to be the commonest <em>Alestes</em> sp. in the upper Nile system, Sudan. It is also present in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal. (Paugy 2003)	eng
182128	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	Found mainly in the inshore zones of the lakes and lower reaches of rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding on seeds, zooplankton, insects (chironomid larvae, coleopterans), fish fry, detritus and plants. Spawning season extends from April to August with a peak in June. The longest specimens measures 31 cm; Colour: Silvery, body dark grey or dark green, blueblack spots of the upper half of the sides.	eng
182128	habitat	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	Found mainly in the inshore zones of the lakes and lower reaches of rivers. It is omnivorous, feeding on seeds, zooplankton, insects, fish fry, detritus and plants	eng
182128	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It prefers rapidly-flowing waters. It feeds on insects (chironomid larvae, coleopterans) zooplankton and fish fry. Spawning season extends from April to August with a peak in June. The longest specimens measures 31 cm; Colour: Silvery, body dark grey or dark green, blue-black spots of the upper half of the sides.	eng
182128	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in streams and lakes. Omnivorous - stomachs examined contained seeds, zooplankton, insects or fish fry.	eng
182128	population	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	Fairly widespread throughout Kenya and Uganda	eng
182128	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182128	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	The population decreased after the Aswan High Dam construction, and it is now rare.	eng
182128	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is thought to be fairly widespread and common throughout much of its range. Within northern Africa however, the population decreased after the High Dam construction, and it is now rare.	eng
182128	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182128	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	<strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is currently overfished<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The production [fisheries] decreased after the High Dam construction. Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought could all threaten the now rare north African populations.<br/><br/>In other regions there are no known major threats.	eng
182128	threats	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
182128	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The production [fisheries] decreased after the Aswan High Dam construction. In addition, water pollution, groundwater extraction, and drought, are also main threats to the species.	eng
182129	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182129	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus guttatus</em> is only known from the paratypes from Batangafo, Chari system, Central African Republic. The holotype is known from 30 km east of Kribi, Cameroon.	eng
182129	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182129	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182129	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182130	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available..	eng
182130	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Parts of the Lower Zambezi delta are formally protected. Seasonal releases of dam waters will re-establish flow regimes in the Lower Zambezi.	eng
182130	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Parts of the lower Zambezi delta are formally protected. Seasonal releases of dam waters will re-establish flow regimes in the lower Zambezi. More research is needed into this species taxonomy and population numbers and range, as well as threats. Population monitoring and potential conservation measures are needed, with habitat conservation and protected area management.	eng
182130	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Northern Ewaso Nyiro and the lower parts of coastal drainages (Lower Tana River and Lower Galana-Sabaki). Also reported from Lake Jilore (Sabaki system) which is now dry (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).	eng
182130	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from coastal Mozambique from the Lower Zambezi north into east Africa. Rarely collected and very few specimens in museums.	eng
182130	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found in eastern Africa, from Somalia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Northern Ewaso Nyiro and the lower parts of coastal drainages (Lower Tana River and Lower Galana-Sabaki). Also reported from Lake Jilore (Sabaki system) which is now dry (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba, Somalia<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known from coastal Mozambique from the Lower Zambezi north into east Africa. Rarely collected and very few specimens in museums.	eng
182130	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Found in swamps and floodplains. Lungfishes survive under the dried mud of floodplains (Eccles 1992).	eng
182130	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Main river channels and floodplain swamps.	eng
182130	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found in swamps and floodplains. Lungfishes survive under the dried mud of floodplains (Eccles 1992).	eng
182130	population	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
182130	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Not much information but reported as abundant in most floodwater pools and swamps near the Athi and Tana rivers (Whitehead 1959).	eng
182130	population	Vreven, E., 2003	Not much information but reported as abundant in most floodwater pools and swamps near the Athi and Tana rivers (Whitehead 1959).	eng
182130	threats	Engelbrecht, J. &  Bills, R., 2006	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation.	eng
182130	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. In eastern Africa this species is threatened by encroachment of wetlands for agriculture, as well as land based pollution.	eng
182130	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	The main threats to the species are encroachment of wetlands for agriculture and land based pollution.	eng
182131	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182131	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo reidi</em> is only known from Kisangani, in the Tshopo River downstream of the hydroelectric dam and from the Congo River in Yangambi (Central Congo River basin). A specimen from the region of Bandundu (Kasai) has been identified as this species suggesting a wider distribution than previously thought for this species.	eng
182131	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo reidi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182131	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182131	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182132	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182132	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species range is fully contained within the Cross River National Park.	eng
182132	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic from the Cross Wouri and Sanaga River basins.	eng
182132	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in Cameroon and Nigeria where it is found in Manfe area of the Cross River, downstream of Lake Lagdo and from Wouri River at Yabassi.	eng
182132	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Non-migratory cyprinid.	eng
182132	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182132	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182132	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182132	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
182132	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182133	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182133	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys astotodon</em> occurs in the Kasai and Kwango River systems, in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and in the rapids of Kinsuka, Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Specimens from Pool Malebo and Kinsuka need confirmation. It has been recorded from the Uele River, Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, but this has to be verified.	eng
182133	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys astotodon</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182133	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182133	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182134	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182134	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Belonoglanis brieni</em> is only known from the types from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Congo River system.	eng
182134	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Belanoglanis brieni</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182134	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182134	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.	eng
182135	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation implementation measure is in place.	eng
182135	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in Lake Tana and tributary rivers, Ethiopia.	eng
182135	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, preferably in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore; specimens smaller than 10 cm FL already mainly eat insect larvae, although zooplankton and ostracods also are important food items. With size increase, insect larvae remain the most abundant food items, but adult insects, molluscs and detritus also become important.	eng
182135	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The size of the population is not well known. However, it is one of the more abundant <em>Labeobarbus</em> spp. in the lake and tributary rivers.	eng
182135	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation and damming are the major threats for the species.	eng
182136	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182136	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182136	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2003	None	eng
182136	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182136	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182136	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys auratus</em> is wide ranging from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Nile basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is widespread throughout Lower Guinea in estuaries as well as upstream. Populations from the upper Sanaga appear to have closer affinities with Sudanese populations than with those of estuaries.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana, and in the River Nile. May be more widespread (information is lacking).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is common in the whole of the River Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, to Lake Nasser, Sudan. Also found in Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits most of West African hydrographic basins, except in the coastal areas of Gambia and Liberia, where it is replaced by <em>C. maurus</em>, a very similar species. In those parts of the area where both species overlap (from Liberia to Ghana to the east of the Volta), <em>C. auratus</em> does not enter rivers but remains in estuaries and lagoons, where both species are sympatric. In the coastal region, <em>C. auratus</em> has up to now been reported as <em>C. filamentosus</em>.	eng
182136	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Chrysichthys auratus auratus</em> is common in the whole Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is also present in Nile River system, Senegal, Chad and Volta Lakes. It is rare in Lake Nasser.	eng
182136	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> In most of western African hydrographic basins, except in the coastal areas of Gambia and Liberia, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. maurus</span>, a very similar species. In those parts of the area where both species overlap (from Liberia to Ghana to the east of the Volta), <span style="font-style: italic;">C. auratus</span> does not enter rivers but remains in estuaries and lagoons, where both species are sympatric. In the coastal region, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. auratus</span> has up to now been reported as <span style="font-style: italic;">C. filamentosus</span>. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Possible also present in the Nile and Lake Turkana.	eng
182136	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Chrysichthys) auratus</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea in estuaries as well as upstream. Populations from the upper Sanaga appear to have closer affinities with Sudanese populations than with those of estuaries. The species is also found in West Africa and in the Chad and Nile Basins.	eng
182136	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>River Nile and Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also reported from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon on the western coast of Africa.	eng
182136	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Chrysichthys auratus auratus</em> is a bottom feeder. Insects and crustaceans are the most dominant food items, molluscs, nematodes, fish, plants and bottom deposits are of minor importance. Spawning season extends from September to April. The longest fish caught was 25 cm long.	eng
182136	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys auratus</em> is found in lakes and coastal rivers (Risch 1986). It occurs usually over soft, slightly muddy substrates or substrates with heavy layers of leafy detritus in deep, relatively quiet waters (Burgess 1989). It feeds on molluscs and small crustaceans (Branchiopods, Copepods, Ostracoda), which it digs from the substrate (Laleye 1995). It also feeds on fish and insects (Bailey 1994). It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). Spawning season extends from September to April.	eng
182136	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys (Chrysichthys) auratus</em> is found in lakes and coastal rivers (Risch 1986). It occurs usually over soft, slightly muddy substrates or substrates with heavy layers of leafy detritus in deep, relatively quiet waters (Burgess 1989). It feeds on molluscs an small crustaceans (Branchiopods, Copepods, Ostracoda), which it digs from the substrate (Laleye 1995). It also feeds on fish and insects (Bailey 1994). It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 900 g.	eng
182136	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2003	Occurs in lakes. Feeds on mollusks and small crustaceans (Branchiopoda, Copepoda, Ostracoda)  which it digs from the substrate. It also feeds on fish and insects .	eng
182136	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in lakes. Feeds on molluscs and small crustaceans (Branchiopoda, Copepoda, Ostracoda)  which it digs from the substrate. It also feeds on fish and insects.	eng
182136	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182136	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182136	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182136	population	Akinyi, E., 2003	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing	eng
182136	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No population estimate for the majority of the distribution of this species, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing.	eng
182136	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Snoeks, J., 2009	It is not thought that this species faces any widespread threats, and it is not fished commercially.	eng
182136	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182136	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182136	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182136	threats	Akinyi, E., 2003	The species is not fished commercially.	eng
182137	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182137	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182137	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182137	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is found in the Upper Cross River in the vicinity of Mamfe, the Lower Cross River, the Wouri River in the vicinity of Yabassi, the Moko River (Nyangorobe), and the Meme River. Elsewhere the species occurs in the middle Niger and Benue systems in the Nilosudanic province.	eng
182137	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylochromis sudanensis</span> is present in the Upper and Middle Niger, as well as in the Benue and the Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere it is known only from the Wouri in Cameroon.	eng
182137	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria, Chad and Cameroon, as well as Mali and Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is found in the upper Cross River in the vicinity of Mamfe, the Lower Cross River, the Wouri River in the vicinity of Yabassi, the Moko River (Nyangorobe), and the Meme River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylochromis sudanensis</span> is present in the upper and Middle Niger, as well as in the Benue and the Cross. It has also been recorded in Mali and Guinea.	eng
182137	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic freshwater species.	eng
182137	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> is a benthopelagic species which prefers algae and plant matter, as well as invertebrates (Lamboj 2004).	eng
182137	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em> prefers algae and plant matter, as well as invertebrates (Lamboj 2004).	eng
182137	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182137	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182137	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182137	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is an ongoing decline of habitat in the Benue and Cross rivers due to oil exploration and from deforestation.	eng
182137	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is an ongoing decline of habitat in the Benue and Cross rivers due to oil exploration and from deforestation.	eng
182137	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182138	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182138	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis altipinnis</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it has been reported from the Nyong, Ogowe, and Chiloango basins.	eng
182138	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182138	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182138	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface could cause a decline of the habitat. Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182139	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182139	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the rivers of Gabon and Congo.	eng
182139	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182139	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182139	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182140	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182140	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis minor</em> is known from two localities in the Lower Congo rapids (a few kilometres downstream from Kinganga and near Tadi), above the Inga dams.	eng
182140	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal, rheophylic species.	eng
182140	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182140	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182141	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182141	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kribia uellensis</em> is restricted to Uele River basin, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182141	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182141	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182141	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182142	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182142	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the Bénoué basin in Cameroon. Collections have also been made from Nigeria, New Calabar River and Orashi River in the Niger Delta.	eng
182142	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a demersal flatfish.	eng
182142	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182142	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although the Niger delta is highly threatened predominantly through oil exploration, the Bénoué basin locality is upstream of these impacts.	eng
182143	conservation	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
182143	distribution	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This species is only known from Lake Turkana.	eng
182143	habitat	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2006	This species is adapted to a wide range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It also occurs near vegetation beds and fringes. It feeds on insects and is a substrate spawner.	eng
182143	population	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
182143	threats	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2006	No known threats.	eng
182144	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182144	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182144	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182144	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus baudoni </em>is found from Guinea to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus baudoni</em> is known from the Ubangui River system. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the basins of the Chad, Volta, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama basins in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also known from the Niger and Chari River systems (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182144	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus baudoni</em> is known from the Ubangui River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Chad, Volta, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama basins in Côte d'Ivoire. It is also known from the Niger and Chari River systems (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182144	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the basins of the Chad, Volta, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Sassandra and Bandama. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Ubangi River systems in the Congo River basin (Leveque and Daget 1984).	eng
182144	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182144	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus baudoni</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182144	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus baudoni</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182144	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182144	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182144	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182144	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation leading to siltation is a localised threat.	eng
182144	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Deforestation leading to siltation is a localised threat.	eng
182144	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182145	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182145	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182145	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182145	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is  found in the Cross and the upper Sanaga Rivers.  Elsewhere it is widely distributed over the greater part of western Africa from Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, the Niger River of Mali and the Niger River Delta. <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is also found in the Benoue. No specimens have ever been recovered in Gabon, the published type locality (Boulenger 1890), which must have been indicated in error in the original description.	eng
182145	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. mento</span> occurs in the Cameroon area as well as in the Guinea-Sierra Leone-West Liberia region. It is also present in Gambia, Upper Senegal and the Upper Niger. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> The species is also present in Gabon.	eng
182145	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widely distributed over the greater part of western Africa from Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, the Niger River of Mali and the Niger River Delta to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Marcusenius mento</em> is  found in the Cross and the upper Sanaga Rivers. No specimens have ever been recovered in Gabon, the published type locality (Boulenger, 1890), which must have been indicated in error in the original description. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Guinea-Sierra Leone-West Liberia region. It is also present in Gambia, This species is known from upper Senegal and the upper Niger.	eng
182145	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish. Weakly electrical discharging	eng
182145	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal fish with weak electrical discharge.	eng
182145	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182145	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No available data	eng
182145	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182145	population	Moelants, T., 2009	There are significant differences in the fin ray counts and other meristic descriptors between the forms from Liberia and Sierra-Leone and in Cameroon (Jégu and Lévêque 1984), suggesting either clinal variation, or the possibility of two distinct species.	eng
182145	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182145	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182145	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182146	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182146	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis marlieri</em> is only known from the type locality Ndakirwa River at Meshe, affluent of the Luhoho River, Lualaba basin, upper Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182146	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis marlieri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182146	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182146	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182147	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182147	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182147	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182147	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found in lower courses of rivers from the Sanaga to the Ntem in Cameroon, and collected from the Benito River in Rio Muni and the Kouilou River in Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it has been collected from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire); Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon); Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo)  (Harrison 1993) and the lower Ntem river basin (Cameroon) (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998) and the Ivory Coast. <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> seems evasive and difficult to catch. Therefore, it is not well represented in collections and is probably more extensively distributed in the region than presently documented.	eng
182147	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo) and the lower Ntem River basin (Cameroon).	eng
182147	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Côte d'Ivoire, Cameroon, Congo and Equatorial Guinea. <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> seems evasive and difficult to catch. Therefore, it is not well represented in collections and is probably more extensively distributed in the region than presently documented.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found in lower courses of rivers from the Sanaga to the Ntem in Cameroon, and collected from the Benito River in Rio Muni and the Kouilou River in Congo. Elsewhere, it has been collected from Lokunje River, Kribi (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Equatorial Guinea), Mombi River (Congo)  (Harrison 1993) and the lower Ntem river basin (Cameroon) (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Tabou River at Yaka, River Dodo (Côte d'Ivoire).	eng
182147	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal; Inhabits fast flowing parts of rivers that have rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones (Harrison 1993). It prefers tropical climate.	eng
182147	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sicydium crenilabrum</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal; This species inhabits fast flowing parts of rivers that have rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones (Harrison 1993).	eng
182147	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream. This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. Demersal fish.	eng
182147	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182147	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182147	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182147	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182147	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The major threats to the species are deforestation due to agriculture and urbanisation.	eng
182147	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	The major threats to the species are deforestation due to agriculture and urbanisation.	eng
182148	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. This species would benefit from protective legislation, as well as habitat restoration and maintenance.	eng
182148	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Afdera, Ethiopia.	eng
182148	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	The species is restricted to a shore habitat in which the freshwater of the hot springs join the salty waters of the lake.	eng
182148	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The population is not well estimated.	eng
182148	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	It is expected that there will be high human interference in the  habitats of this species due to the production of salt in the area. The only source of  freshwater is the hot springs, and it is expected that humans and the  fishes will compete for this scant freshwater resource.	eng
182149	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182149	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182149	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182149	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is known from the Upper Lualaba system, the Chambeshi River and Lake Bangweulu, the Luapula-Mweru system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. It is also known from a pond in Burundi.	eng
182149	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	The species is present in Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River (Kunene River ) and Upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.	eng
182149	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is present in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system, the Chambeshi River and Lake Bangweulu, the Luapula-Mweru system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. It is also known from a pond in Burundi, but this is unconfirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in the Kunene River and This species is known from upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.	eng
182149	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is a demersal species that feeds primarily on snails, and is used for snail and bilharzia control (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
182149	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sargochromis mellandi</em> is a demersal species that is used for snail and bilharzia control (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
182149	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. It feeds primarily on snails.	eng
182149	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182149	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182149	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
182149	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182150	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182150	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the southeastern tributaries of the Ogowe River, Gabon.	eng
182150	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182150	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182150	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (and iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation.	eng
182151	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. It should be ensured that any harvesting activities are managed and sustainable, and it would benefit from habitat maintenance, preferably within the protection of a protected area.	eng
182151	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species inhabits the lower Cross river basin but is found exclusively at the eastern side of the river in southeastern Nigeria.	eng
182151	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a semi-annual killish that grows to 6.0 cm TL. It inhabits brooks and small streams in the coastal rain forest and forested savannah flowing over soil developed from basement rock, lower Cross river basin but found exclusively at the eastern side of the river in southeastern Nigeria. It is easy to maintain in the aquarium. It is non-migratory.	eng
182151	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182151	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade (however because it is easy to breed and maintain in the aquarium, it is not likely to suffer much wild collection by aquarist). It habitat may be threatened by oil exploration and deforestation.	eng
182152	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182152	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the lower Ogowe and Komo River systems, northwest Gabon.	eng
182152	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus miltotaenia</em> is found in small streams, brooks, small rivers and swamps, usually in flowing water under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Plataplochilus miltotaenia</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182152	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182152	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The expansion of Libreville could pose a possible threat to the species.	eng
182153	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182153	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannopetersius lamberti</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin from Cameroon to Congo. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ntem, Ogowe, Nyanga, and Kouilou Rivers.	eng
182153	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182153	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182153	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182154	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182154	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. sacratus</span> is known from the coastal basins of the Guinean ridge, from the River Tominé to Eastern Liberia.	eng
182154	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182154	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182154	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and sedimentation could locally threaten the species.	eng
182156	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182156	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182156	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is common in western Africa, from the Chad basin to Lake Débo in the Central Niger Delta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, it has been collected in the rivers Nile and Omo.	eng
182156	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This demersal species is common across western Africa and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro and Omo basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is common in West Africa, from the Chad basin to Lake Débo in the Central Niger delta.	eng
182156	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish.	eng
182156	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is a demersal fish found in running waters.	eng
182156	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182156	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown, but a rare species.	eng
182156	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182156	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182157	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182157	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga basin. The species is recorded from the Mbam River (tributary to the Sanaga) and the Sanaga near Nachigal Falls, it is expected to be more widespread in the Sanaga system than is currently recorded.	eng
182157	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). The species migrates from the main river channels to the tributaries and into flooded forest to spawn. It is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 19.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182157	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182157	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging. The species needs flooded forest areas to spawn in and will be impacted by the dams in the Sanaga system which have regulated the flood regime of the river (however the Mbam is not dammed and not likely to be). The species is also harvested during the migratory runs.	eng
182158	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182158	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus lusosso</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182158	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182158	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182158	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182159	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182159	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182159	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from South Cameroon to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system (Lucala River  and Cunje River ).	eng
182159	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Angola to Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from Cameroon to Cabinda.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River system (Lucala and Cunje Rivers).	eng
182159	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182159	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182159	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182159	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182159	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
182159	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182160	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182160	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is known from Taia River, Little Scarcies River and Waanje River in Sierra Leone.	eng
182160	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182160	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182160	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182161	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182161	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias gabonensis</em> is found in the Lower and Central Congo system, including Lake Tumba, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Ubangui River. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe, Noya, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers.	eng
182161	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias gabonensis</em> is demersal species that is found in lakes, rivers and floodplains (during breeding season). Stomach contents consisted of sand, plants, larvae of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Chironomidae, remains of insects and fish scales. Juvenile specimens were found in isolated pools in the forest which might indicate that reproduction takes place during the rainy season (Matthes 1964).	eng
182161	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182161	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182162	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182162	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gnathonemus echidnorhynchus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is probably present in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
182162	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182162	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182162	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182163	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182163	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the type locality the Rapids of Massoukou (Masuku) on the Ogowe River and a second population in the rapids on the Louétsi River near Bongolo, in Gabon.	eng
182163	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182163	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182163	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No major threats to the western location. The eastern location is threatened by deforestation and manganese mining (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene).	eng
182164	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182164	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius cryptobullatus</em> is known from the Chambezi-Luapula system.	eng
182164	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius cryptobullatus</em> is a demersal species. It differs from all other <em>Amphilius</em> species in the development and extreme large size of the bilateral bony swimbladder capsules (Skelton 1986).	eng
182164	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182164	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Overfishing poses a threat at the Zambian side, but <em>Amphilius</em> species are not really targeted.	eng
182165	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182165	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is required into this species biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
182165	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182165	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> is a marine species, found also in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons) from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from Nkao in Cameroon, and from Loango and Pointe Noire in Congo. It is also known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found along the coast from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
182165	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> is distributed from Senegal to Congo-Brazzaville, and perhaps Angola. In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from Nkao in Cameroon, and from Loango and Pointe Noire in Congo-Brazzaville. It is also known from Banana and Bulabemba, Lower Congo River.	eng
182165	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Gobionellus occidentalis</span> is a marine species, found also in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons) from Guinea Bissau to Cameroon.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> From Guinea Bissau to Gabon.	eng
182165	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Demersal fish which occurs inshore, over sand; in estuaries and lower course of streams.	eng
182165	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> occurs inshore, over sand, in estuaries and lower course of streams (Maugé 1986, Miller 1990). It  is a marine species, but is also found in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons); the adults may occupy sub-tidal burrows (Stiassn<em>y et</em> al. 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
182165	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gobionellus occidentalis</em> occurs inshore, over sand, in estuaries and lower course of streams (Maugé 1986, Miller 1990). It  is a marine species, but is also found in brackish waters (estuaries and lagoons); the adults may occupy sub-tidal burrows (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
182165	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182165	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182165	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182165	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known	eng
182165	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182165	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182166	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182166	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes teugelsi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the rapids downstream of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and throughout the Lower Congo.	eng
182166	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes teugelsi</em> is demersal species.	eng
182166	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182166	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the further elaboration of Kinshasa can pose future threats through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182167	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
182167	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182167	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182167	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182167	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo system. Elsewhere, it is known from the East coast from Ruvuma, Tanzania, to Umvoti, Natal, also Orange and Cunene (Skelton 2001).	eng
182167	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs over a wide area of sub-Saharan Africa, from the upper Congo to the east coast in Tanzania and south to Natal, South Africa. In Malawi it occurs in all streams as well as in Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta. In Tanzania it is found in the Ruvuma.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>recorded from Umvoti in Natal, also Orange, Cunene and Zambian Zaire systems (Skelton 1993).	eng
182167	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is widely distributed from southern Tanzania to the Umvoti River, KwaZulu-Natal and the Lower Orange River, Northern Cape, South Africa. Absent from the upper Zambezi tributaries where it is replaced by the related species <em>B. poechii </em>Steindachner 1911.	eng
182167	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from the upper Congo to the east coast in Tanzania and south to Natal, South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> In Malawi it occurs in all streams as well as in Lakes Malawi, Chilwa and Chiuta. In Tanzania it is found in the Ruvuma.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed from southern Tanzania to the Umvoti River, KwaZulu-Natal and the lower Orange River, Northern Cape, South Africa. Absent from the upper Zambezi tributaries where it is replaced by the related species <em>B. poechii</em> Steindachner, 1911.	eng
182167	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	A wide ecological range. Occurs in main channels of large rivers, it penetrates high into some tributary systems and may also be present in isolated floodplain pools.	eng
182167	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow water near river outlets or close to swampy areas (Konings 1990). <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> commonly occurs in a wide variety of habitats, especially where there is vegetation. It occurs in main channels of large rivers, it penetrates high into some tributary systems and may also be present in isolated floodplain pools.It feeds on insects and other small organisms, and seeds of plants. <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> breeds in the summer, with shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993).	eng
182167	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow water near river outlets or close to swampy areas (Konings 1990). It commonly occurs in a wide variety of habitats, especially where there is vegetation. It feeds on insects and other small organisms. <em>Barbus trimaculatus</em> breeds in the summer, shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993).	eng
182167	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Information for the Malawi part of the range finds it widespread and abundant at all altitudes except in the montane areas.  It occurs in sheltered near-shore shallow areas of Lake Malawi itself as well as in marshes and swamps adjacent to the lakeshore especially where there is vegetation (Konings 1990). It prefers clear fast flowing waters. It has also been reported in offshore areas of the lake. This species breeds in summer when shoals of ripe adults moving upstream in spate after rain. Females produce as many as 8,000 eggs (Skelton 1993). Feeds on insect larvae as well as insects and seeds of plants.  <br/>Max Size: It reaches a length of 15 cm in some parts of its distribution, for Lake Malawi it has been noted that it grows to about 10 cm, but usually less.	eng
182167	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Although in southern Africa it has been reported as usually common where encountered, in eastern Africa it was found not to be abundant at any of the sites sampled during survey (Orange river) (Skelton and Cambray 1981).	eng
182167	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182167	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Not abundant at any of the sites sampled during the survey (Orange river) (Skelton and Cambray 1981).	eng
182167	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	Usally common where encountered.	eng
182167	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No major threats known. However in eastern Africa it is used as bait for tigerfish, and is sold as suitable for ponds and larger aquariums (Skelton 1993). There are also localised threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),	eng
182167	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182167	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182167	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	The main threat to the species is that it is used as bait for tigerfish.  It is suitable for ponds and larger aquariums (Skelton 1993).	eng
182168	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182168	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis camelopardalis</em> is only known from the type locality Eala, Ruki River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182168	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis camelopardalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182168	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182168	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182169	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182169	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182169	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182169	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Marcusenius cyprinoides</em> is rare in whole Egyptian River Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the basin of Chad, Niger, Upper Congo and Nile rivers from delta to Bahr-el-Jebel.	eng
182169	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Found only in the Chad basin, the Benue and lower Niger.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile, from the Delta to Bahr-el-Jebel.	eng
182169	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Chad, and the entire length of the Nile. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in whole Egyptian River Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and jebel systems, and the White Nile, Blue Nile, and Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. In Ethiopia it is found in the Baro River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad basin, the Benue and lower Niger.	eng
182169	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Inhabits lakes and streams. It is a bottom feeding insectivore, mainly on insects and crustaceans. Breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182169	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This potamodromous specie inhabits lakes and demersal waters. Its food consists mainly of aquatic insects, crustaceans, annelid worms and vegetable matter. It has a nocturnal, mostly bottom living. Breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain for this purpose. Has electric organ in the caudal muscle with a weak discharge. Length does not exceed 30 cm.	eng
182169	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species inhabits lakes, streams and lagoons, and is demersal and potamodromous. Food consists mainly of aquatic insects, crustaceans, annelid worms and vegetable matter. This species is nocturnal, and mostly bottom dwelling. It breeds during flood season and enters the floodplain for this purpose. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscle with a weak discharge.	eng
182169	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182169	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182169	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182169	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation and drought.	eng
182169	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Deforestation and drought threaten this species in western Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182169	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182170	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182170	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga and Wouri basins. It is supposed to be present in between the currently known locations as well.	eng
182170	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nounensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in small and shallow rivulets (0.1- 0.5 m deep) with a muddy or sandy bottom, a gallery of small trees, shrubs and high grasses and a moderate water current.	eng
182170	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182170	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses as in Lake Nyos.&#160;The species habitat on the Noun River is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation.	eng
182172	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182172	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a creek of the Ngounie River, 50 km south of Mbigou, in the central Du Chaillu mountains, southern Gabon.	eng
182172	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion wuendschi</em> is only known from a swampy creek in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species with a pH range from 6.5 to 7.2. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) wuendschi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182172	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182172	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182173	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182173	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax luapulae</em> is known from the Lualaba, Luvua and the Luapula Rivers and from Lake Bangweulu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182173	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182173	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182173	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182174	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182174	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This fish occurs in the coastal rivers of Atlantic slope of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.	eng
182174	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182174	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182174	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182175	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
182175	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182175	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. Monitoring of population trends is required, and habitat conservation may be needed.	eng
182175	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Clarias dhonti</em> is known from rivers surrounding Lake Tanganyika, in Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species distribution includes rivers west of Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of the Congo). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in the Malagarasi River basin in Burundi and possibly in Tanzania.	eng
182175	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias dhonti</em> is known from rivers west of Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of the Congo). It has also been recorded in the Malagarasi River basin in Burundi and possibly in Tanzania.	eng
182175	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Only recorded from the Malagarasi River	eng
182175	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Inhabits marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes. Mainly insectivorous	eng
182175	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182175	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a demersal species. It inhabits marginal grass and papyrus swamps around rivers and lakes. Mainly insectivorous.	eng
182175	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182175	population	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches	eng
182175	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
182175	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182175	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension threatens populations in eastern Africa.	eng
182175	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps and other wetlands due to agriculture extension.	eng
182176	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182176	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion lefiniense</em> is only known from La Léfini on the Léfini River and from a little affluent of the Louna River, in 'La Réserve Naturelle des Gorilles de Lesio-Louna'.	eng
182176	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion lefiniense</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182176	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182176	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182177	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182177	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182177	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River, Kwanza River ), Kunene River (Kwe River ), Catumbela River, Bengo River (Lake Kilunda) and Congo River (Kwango River, Luemba River ) systems.	eng
182177	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from the Congo basin south to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus kessleri</em> is known from southern tributaries of the Central (Kwango and Kasai Rivers) and This species is known from upper Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala and Kwanza River), Kunene River (Kwe River), Catumbela River, Bengo River (Lake Kilunda) and Congo River (Kwango River and Luemba River) systems.	eng
182177	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus kessleri</em> is a benthopelagic species. Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.	eng
182177	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.	eng
182177	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182177	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182177	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182177	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182178	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182178	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe River basin, Gabon.	eng
182178	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemistichodus vaillanti</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 11 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182178	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182178	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182179	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182179	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus nicholsi</em> is known from Yangambi upstream to the upper Congo River basin.	eng
182179	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182179	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182179	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182180	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182180	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paraphago rostratus</em> is only known the type locality Kutu, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182180	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182180	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182180	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182181	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182181	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Liberia. The range of distribution extends from the drainage system of the Lower Mano River to that of the Lower Saint Paul River in southern and southwestern Liberia.	eng
182181	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits temporary swamps and pools, and swampy parts of forest creeks in the humid coastal rainforest. It is a bottom spawner fish, with 3 months incubation. The fish is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
182181	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182181	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation, mining and urban development.	eng
182182	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182182	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis soloni</em> is known from the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) rapids and from Libenge. It is also widely distributed in the Lower Congo (Roberts and Stewart 1976) and from the Ubangui River at Zongo (Gosse 1968).	eng
182182	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis soloni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182182	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182182	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. The negative effects coming with the city of Bangui pose threats to this species.	eng
182183	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182183	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the type locality in the Lokoundje basin of southeastern Cameroon.	eng
182183	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis harbinger</em> lives in fast moving water (pers. comm., Dening, C.). This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182183	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182183	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is potentially impacted by road building. Deforestation and agriculture are occurring downstream of the species habitat.	eng
182184	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182184	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found along the coastal plain from the foot of the southern Cameroon Plateau in the east to Pouma in the west, and between the Sanaga and Nyong Rivers. <em>Aphyosemion amoenum</em> is thought related to <em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em>, a species found on the southern Cameroon Plateau.<br/>There is one additional point from Brummett, R. :  04 05 37.8 N, 10 40 06.5 E.	eng
182184	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion amoenum</em> is found in rainforest brooks along coastal plains. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
182184	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182184	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from palm oil plantations particularly in the south of the species distribution.	eng
182185	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182185	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Western Africa. It is only known from the type locality Kissidougou in a tributary of upper Niger River system in the Guinean highlands, Guinea. Possibly present in the middle Niger River in Nigeria.	eng
182185	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>B. kissiensis</em> is very small bentho-pelagic barbus of 1.7 cm standard length. It is non-migratory.	eng
182185	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182185	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. There is a potential threat of deforestation	eng
182186	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No avalaible data.	eng
182186	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Nigeria where it is restricted to the lower Ogun to lower Niger rivers.	eng
182186	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A pelagic riverine fish that feeds on worms, insects and crustaceans. In aquaria female lays up to 1,000 eggs, after vigorous driving by the male, which hatch in 30 to 34 hours. Grows to 9.6 cm in standard length.	eng
182186	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182186	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Since there is an extensive aquaria trade in this fish, mainly by wild capture, it can be inferred that the stock may be on a downward trend. This is coupled with deforestation and pollution in it ranges resulting in habitat loss and decline in quality.	eng
182187	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182187	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182187	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182187	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis fasciatus</em> is recorded from Mauritania. It is rare in Egypt (Manzalah Lake).<br/><br/>Its global range includes Senegal to the Nile basins and from Lake Chad to Ituri River in Congo basin and upper Zambezi. It is also known from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed in West Africa.	eng
182187	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The species is known majority of the basins in western Africa,<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis fasciatus </span>has a vast distribution in Africa. Senegal to the Nile basins and from Lake Chad to Ituri River in Congo River basin and upper Zambezi.	eng
182187	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is recorded from Mauritania to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northern Africa:</span> The species is recorded from Mauritania. It is rare in Egypt (Manzalah Lake).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Northeastern Africa:</span> It is recorded in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, including Lake No, Sudan, and Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa:</span> The species is known across the majority of the basins in Western Africa.	eng
182187	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Present in littoral riverine habitats and permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water. It feeds on shrimps, insects and small fishes. It is a nesting substrate spawner which breeds in the early summer.	eng
182187	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species inhabits permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water, occasionally on rocky streams, occasionally in standing deep water, common in shallow swamps. According to Pouilly (1993), <em>Hemichromis fasciatus</em> is found in rivers that have low speed of current, a strong height of water, a formed substrate of blocks and a few plant. According to Albaret (1982), the species is monogamist keeping and protecting eggs and alevins but not practising oral incubation. According to Daget (1965), the eggs are fixed on an immersed support, in a clean place, with the shelter of the current, a depth from 10 to 20 cm. The reproduction of the species seems spread out throughout the year (from April at November in Bandama), with the proportion of mature individuals constantly remaining relatively low and the RGS small. Up to 20 mm length, the alevins nourish phytoplankton. From 20 with 45mm, they preferably seek shellfish and insects. From 50 mm, the young attacks only large preys; they devour all the young fish which pass to their carried. So <em>H. fasciatus</em> is used in pisciculture to limit the proliferation of the species to laying many and invading such as <em>H. niloticus</em>. Used for tilapia control.	eng
182187	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits permanent floodplain lagoons with clear water, occasionally on rocky streams, occasionally in standing deep water, common in shallow swamps.  According to Pouilly (1993), <span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis fasciatus</span> is found in rivers that have low speed of current, a strong height of water, a formed substrate of blocks and a few plant. According to Albaret (1982), the species is monogamist keeping and protecting eggs and alevins but not practising oral incubation. According to Daget (1965), the eggs are fixed on an immersed support, in a clean place, with the shelter of the current, a depth from 10 to 20 cm. The reproduction of the species seems spread out throughout the year (from April at November in Bandama), with the proportion of mature individuals constantly remaining relatively low and the RGS small. Up to 20 mm length, the alevins nourish phytoplankton. From 20 with 45mm, they preferably seek shellfish and insects. From 50 mm, the young person becomes voracious extrêment and attacks only large preys; they devour all the young fish which pass to their carried. So<span style="font-style: italic;"> H. fasciatus</span> is used in pisciculture to limit the proliferation of the species to laying many and invading such as H. niloticus. Used for tilapia control.	eng
182187	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally declining.	eng
182187	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182187	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a locally declining species.	eng
182187	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182187	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing, loss of dry season refuges and rapids habitat due to development and dams.	eng
182187	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Overfishing, loss of dry season refuges and rapids habitat due to development and dams all threaten populations of this species.	eng
182188	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182188	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182188	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Monitoring of population trends is required, as is habitat maintenance and restoration, and the identification of protected areas within this species range.	eng
182188	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Clarias jaensis</em> is known from Nigeria to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Dja and Sangha basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe River in Gabon, the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Collected from southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross and Niger Delta. One record has been made in Ngo-Nsi in the Northeast of Nigeria.	eng
182188	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias jaensis</em> is known from the Dja and Sangha basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe River in Gabon, the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is known from southeastern Nigeria, including the Cross River and the Niger delta. One record has been made in Ngo-Nsi in the Northeast of Nigeria.	eng
182188	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Collected from southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross and Niger Delta. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ntem, Ja (Dja) and Sangha rivers in Cameroon and Ogowé River in Gabon. Elsewhere in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182188	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182188	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182188	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is a medium sized demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182188	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182188	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182188	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182188	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.	eng
182188	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182188	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degredation due to oil exploration in the Niger Delta.	eng
182189	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Limited information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182189	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182189	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Trade restricted in FRG.	eng
182189	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Clarias anguillaris</em> is rare in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lower and Middle Nile; Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers; Niger and Benue river systems; coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire; Gambia and lower Senegal rivers; Volta system; relict populations occur in Mauritania and southern Algeria.	eng
182189	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers. Niger and Benoue River systems, coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. Gambia and lower Senegal rivers and Volta River system. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Lower and middle Nile. Relict populations occur in Mauritania and southern Algeria.	eng
182189	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Mauritania to Ethiopia, and the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It has also been recorded in Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Bahr el Ghazal, White Nile, and the Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan. It is also present in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in Chad system including the Logone and the Shari rivers, and Gambia and lower Senegal rivers and Volta system. Also present in the Niger and Benoue river systems, coastal rivers of Benin Republic, Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
182189	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal and potamodromous fish very common in inundated areas. Buries itself in the mud when the pools are drying up. Feeds mainly on fish and molluscs; also crustaceans, diatoms, detritus and bottom organisms. The reproduction of some claridae according to Albaret (1982) is generally limited to the period of rising.	eng
182189	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias anguillaris</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is very common in inundated areas. It lives mainly in deep waters, in the muddy or semi-muddy bottom, and bury themselves in the mud when the pools are drying up. <em>Clarias anguillaris</em> feeds mainly on fish and molluscs, but also crustaceans, diatoms, detritus and bottom organisms (Teugels 1986). The reproduction of some claridae according to Albaret (1982) is generally limited to the period of rising.	eng
182189	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives mainly in deep waters, in the muddy or semi-muddy bottom. Bury itself in the mud when the pools are drying up. It feeds on molluscs, crustaceans, fish scales, diatoms and mud. It reaches a considerable length at 75 cm long.	eng
182189	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182189	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182189	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182189	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Overfishing	eng
182189	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182189	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by commercial overfishing. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182190	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182190	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from central Kouilou to the Ogowe River basin.	eng
182190	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182190	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182190	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182191	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research is needed into the population numbers and range.	eng
182191	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus felixi</em> is only known from the type locality Madjiole, Cameroon.	eng
182191	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182191	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182191	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182192	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
182192	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182192	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182192	conservation	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, and population range and numbers	eng
182192	distribution	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is known from Nigeria to Sudan, and south to Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> has been found on the Lualaba River. (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1990, Gosse 1986, Norris 1992, Norris <em>et al.</em> 1988). One record has been made of the Bangweulu swamps and one from the Luombwa River, Luapula system. The records of the upper Lualaba and Luapula system are strange and could be a different species.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is known from the nothern end of Lake Tanganyika, the Rusizi River and its delta, the Malagarasi river system (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001) and, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and Albert and their associated smaller lakes and streams.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> occurs in the Lake Chad basin and eastern tributaries of the Niger River system (Benue River drainage).	eng
182192	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is known from eastern tributaries of the Niger River system and from the Lake Chad basin, Nile River, tributaries of Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward and George. It is also known from Lake Tanganyika. <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> has also been found on the Lualaba River. (Pauly <em>et al.</em> 1990, Gosse 1986, Norris 1992, Norris <em>et al.</em> 1988). One record has been made of the Bangweulu swamps and one from the Luombwa River, Luapula system. The records of the Upper Lualaba and Luapula system are strange and could be a different species.	eng
182192	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Ctenopoma muriei</span> occurs in the lake Chad Basinand eastern tributaries of the Niger River system (Benue River drainage). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">C muriei</span> is present in the White Nile, and the area of the lakes Albert, Edward, George, Victoria, Tangayica, and in the Lualaba River.	eng
182192	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	The species is known from the nothern end of Lake Tanganyika, the Rusizi River and its delta, the Malagarasi River system (De Vos <em>et al. 2001) and, Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward and Albert and their associated smaller lakes and streams.	eng
182192	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamp, lily ponds (Eccles 1992) and floodplains. Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus. <em>"ctenopoma" muriei</em> browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris (Bailey 1994).	eng
182192	habitat	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits swamp, lily ponds (Eccles 1992) and floodplains, marginal vegetation along lake shores close to river deltas. Also inhabits streams and swamps both temporary and permanent (Greenwood 1966). Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus. <em>Ctenopoma muriei</em> browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris (Bailey 1994). It probably breeds in streams during the rainy season. It feeds on insect larvae and crustacea (Greenwood 1966). Larvae have been found in temporary streams together with sexually active adults suggesting that spawning takes place when such streams are flooded during the rainy season (Greenwood 1966).	eng
182192	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Inhabits marginal vegetation along lake shores close to river deltas. Also inhabits streams and swamps both temporary and permanent  (Greenwood 1966). Feeds on insect larvae and crustacea. Probably breeds in streams during the rainy season. Feeds on insect larvae and crustacea (Greenwood 1966). Larvae have been found in temporary streams togerther with sexually active adults suggesting that spawning takes place when such streams are flooded during the rainy season (Greenwood 1966).	eng
182192	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a benthopelagic fish, inhabits swamps, lily ponds and floodplains. Juveniles are found in interstitial pools in papyrus.  Browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris. Feeds mainly on insects, algae, higher plants and organic debris.	eng
182192	population	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In East Africa it is very rare in catches. No further information available.	eng
182192	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182192	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182192	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Very rare in catches.	eng
182192	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182192	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pollution due to oil exploration in Nigeria.	eng
182192	threats	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Regression of swamps biotopes due to farming extension threatens populations in eastern Africa. A major threat to west Africa is pollution due to oil exploration in Nigeria. Further threats are unknown.	eng
182192	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is the regression of swamps biotopes due to farming extension.	eng
182193	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182193	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus ubanguiensis</em> is only known from the type locality: Mbomou river, a tributary of the Ubangui river, near Gozobangui, Central African Republic.	eng
182193	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus ubanguiensis</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species.	eng
182193	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182193	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182194	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182194	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Sananga River, Cameroon.	eng
182194	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax rubrolabiatus</em> is a demersal species. It is found under rocks, in riffles of moderately large rivers (30-50m) in the savannah zone, in areas where there is a strong current (>1m/sec). In all sites where collection took place, there was a rather restricted gallery of shrubs and small trees on the river banks. The water was greenish with a transparency of about 50 cm, neutral pH (6.5-7.5), with a high content of dissolved oxygen (6.5-7.5 mg/l) and a rather low conductivity (35-45 µS/cm). Water temperatures were between 23 and 25 °C at noon (Van den Bergh 1995).	eng
182194	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182194	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The habitat of the most eastern population of <em>Nannocharax rubrolabiatus</em> is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation.	eng
182195	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. Taxonomic revision is needed.	eng
182195	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality, i.e., the upper course of the Yewa River between Meko and Ilara in Nigeria and Benin. It has been reported from the the river Kuetou at Foumbot, Cameroon, but this record is doubtful.	eng
182195	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus clauseni</em> is a very small bentho-pelagic barbus of 3.0 cm standard length. It prefers the small rivers and streams.	eng
182195	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182195	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There are no known major widespread threats, although there are localised impacts from deforestation.	eng
182196	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182196	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus marmoratus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system and the eastern Kasai system. The species is thought to be present in between the known locations as well.	eng
182196	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus marmoratus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182196	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182196	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182197	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182197	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, 30 km east of Kribi, Cameroon.	eng
182197	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182197	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182197	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182198	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182198	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Niger, Chad, Gambia, Géba, Taja, Waange, Volta and Ouémé basins. Almost in all the basins of Western Africa except coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.	eng
182198	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in shallow sheltered areas. Omnivore, feeds on detritus, plants, algae, nymphs, arthropods and molluscs. It is oviparous. Reproduction with high waters. It swims on its back 'upside down' (Pasquelin 1982).	eng
182198	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182198	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is locally threatened by dams (reduction of flow and volume), agricultural pollution and overexploitation by fishing.	eng
182199	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., Lalèyè, P. & Akinsola, O., 2006	There are plans by the Lake Chad Basin Commission (GEF Project) to develop a catchment management plan for the Chari Basin.	eng
182199	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., Lalèyè, P. & Akinsola, O., 2006	This species is only known from the Chad and Mayo Kebbi basins in Central African Republic.	eng
182199	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., Lalèyè, P. & Akinsola, O., 2006	This is a small riverine characid that grows to 3.3 cm TL.<br/>It is non-migratory.	eng
182199	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., Lalèyè, P. & Akinsola, O., 2006	No available data.	eng
182199	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., Lalèyè, P. & Akinsola, O., 2006	Remote area with no known major threats.	eng
182200	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182200	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramormyrops sphekodes</em> is a Lower Guinea endemic. The holotype and one additional specimen of this species  were collected by A. Marche in the Ogowe River in or near rapids near the village of Doumé (present-day Lastoursville). Since then many specimens have been identified as <em>P. sphekodes</em> based on similarity with the original specimens.	eng
182200	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramormyrops sphekodes</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182200	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182200	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182201	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182201	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus machadoi</em> is known from upper Kasai (Dundo, in a pool in communication with the Luachimo River and Mwaoka), Central Congo River basin.	eng
182201	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus machadoi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 9.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182201	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182201	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182202	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182202	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lukulae</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, and from just upstream of Kisangani. In Lower Guinea it is widespread throughout following basins: Lukula, Mbavu, Chiloango, Lebuzi, Luali, Tshela, Nyong, Loukenene, Loubomo, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme.	eng
182202	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lukulae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182202	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182202	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182203	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182203	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species occurs in Lower Guinea, found in the highlands in the Mbam, This species is known from upper Sanaga and This species is known from upper Mambere Rivers in central and western Cameroon. Elsewhere, found in the upper Mambere River of western Central African Republic, and the upper Mbam River, This species is known from upper Benue and This species is known from upper Logone systems in eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.	eng
182203	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) elberti</em> occurs in small streams, brooks and swamps in the open and humid grassland savannah. It is a benthopelagic, omnivorous species and an egg-layer.	eng
182203	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182203	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182204	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182204	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis caudalis</em> is known from rapids in the Lower Congo River system and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has also been recorded from the Fimi River and from the region of Mushie, Kasai system.	eng
182204	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis caudalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182204	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182204	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182205	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182205	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias trewavasae</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin (from Kitutu, Elila River, Kivu). It is also known from most river systems in the Lower Guinea region. It has been recorded from the Nile River basin (Bailey 1994), however there are no collections and it is likely that this is another species.	eng
182205	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias trewavasae</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in fringing vegetation and is an omnivorous browser, consumes plant fragments, algae, protozoans, rotifers, small crustaceans and insects (Bailey 1994).	eng
182205	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182205	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182206	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182206	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus puncticulatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, including the Boumba River, Dja River basin in Cameroon. It is not known more upstream than the bifurcation from the Ubangui and the Congo River. <em>Stomatorhinus puncticulatus</em> is not known from the Lukénie, Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182206	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182206	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182206	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182207	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182207	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus pulverulentus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, upstream from Lake Tumba.	eng
182207	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182207	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182207	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182208	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower location lies in the Kasanka National Park.	eng
182208	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chetia mola</em> is known from the type locality at the Luongo River (above the mouth of its right tributary, the Chamwishitu River), Congo River basin, Zambia. One record has been made of the Luwombwa River, Zambia.	eng
182208	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182208	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182208	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Water withdrawal for local agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams. Overfishing with drawnets poses a threat in this region. A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream. Fishing with poison; commercial insecticides in rivers around and even in the Kasanka National Park, causes a deterioration of the species habitat.	eng
182209	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182209	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Mangombe and Ngombe River systems, which are tributaries of the larger Sanaga and Dibamba River drainage basins, respectively. All known populations, except one, are from the area to the north of the Sanaga River in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
182209	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) amieti</em> occurs in the swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is usually found in shallows It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) amieti</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).	eng
182209	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182209	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by oil palm plantations. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
182210	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182210	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Kogon River in Guinea to the Bia River in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
182210	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 21.9 cm SL maximum size.	eng
182210	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182210	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182211	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182211	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the population, ecology, trends and threats to this species.	eng
182211	conservation	Bousso, T., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182211	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Barbus yeiensis</em> is known from Chad and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile river is unknown, and it may be regionally extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>This species is known from Yei River, draining into the Ghazal system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the Chad system	eng
182211	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Barbus yeiensis</em> is recorded from the Nile, but its status and distribution in the Egyptian part of Nile River is unknown. <br/><br/>At global scale, it is present in the Nile River system and Chad basin.	eng
182211	distribution	Bousso, T., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system (More information is needed on exact distribution, could not be mapped).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Nile River system and Chad River basin.	eng
182211	habitat	Bousso, T., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182211	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182211	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182211	population	Bousso, T., 2006	No available data.	eng
182211	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182211	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182211	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182211	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182211	threats	Bousso, T., 2006	Unknown	eng
182212	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182212	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
182212	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops engystoma</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It was reported from the Middle Chari by Pellegrin (1914), it has never again been found there. Furthermore, the specimens mentioned by Pellegrin have apparently not been preserved, and hence there is no possibility of further verification on this matter. (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
182212	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chari basin at Fort Archambault (Chad). Even though this species was reported from the Middle Chari by Pellegrin (1914), it has never again been found there. Also reported from Nigeria and Niger but not confirmed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>A rather rare mormyrid found in only three localities. In Lower Congo basin at Matadi and Tadi and in Chari basin at Fort Archambault (Chad).	eng
182212	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182212	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small mormyrid. Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.	eng
182212	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data..	eng
182212	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182212	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential impact for the proposed basin water transfer from the Oubangui through the River Chari to Lake Chad.	eng
182212	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182213	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182213	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo nasus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Lower and Central reaches of the Congo River basin. It is also known from just upstream Kisangani on the Lualaba River as well.	eng
182213	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo nasus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in rapid water habitats (Reid 1985).	eng
182213	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182213	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182214	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182214	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sargochromis thysi</em> is only known from the Luembe River at Cachimo and Lumboma, tributary of the Kasaï, Congo River system, Angola.	eng
182214	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182214	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182214	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging from out of the river causes sedimentation.	eng
182215	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182215	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Sanaga River basin in Cameroon where it has been reported from the main river channel near Nanga-Eboko, Nachtigal, and from the Mbam and its tributaries.	eng
182215	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius sanagaensis</em> is a demersal species. It is found in raceways with sandy bottoms of larger rivers (50-200 m), in the tree savannah and the more or less degraded semi-tropical forest.	eng
182215	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182215	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The most western part of the species distribution is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. It also is threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.	eng
182216	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182216	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>C. agboyiensis</em> is known from the Ofin (Pra basin), Volta, coastal basins of Togo, Ouémé, Ogun, Oshun, delta and lower course of the Niger in Nigeria and coastal basins of southeastern Nigeria, including the River Cross. It is not known from other African basins.	eng
182216	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is a small clariid that grows to 23 cm TL. It is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. There is lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182216	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182216	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is threatened by oil exploration (Niger Delta) and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.	eng
182217	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182217	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from several localities in the Nogal Valley of north central Somalia.	eng
182217	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running streams. It is found in springs and wells throughout a wide phreatic layer in the Nogal Valley, in an area with a wide range of salinities. It exhibits varying degrees of microphthalmia and troglomorphism which has resulted in a complex taxonomic history for this highly variable species (Romero and Paulson 2001).	eng
182217	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not known.	eng
182217	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182218	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on this species' distribution and threats in order to carry out a full assessment.	eng
182218	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, <em>Barbus kuiluensis</em> is only known from a Baudon collection from the Niari-Kouilou basin, Congo.	eng
182218	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus kuiluensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 9 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182218	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182218	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182219	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182219	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ivindo, Ogowe, Nyanga and Louzibi Rivers in Gabon, the Río Muni in Equatorial Guinea, and the Ntem River in southern Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
182219	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182219	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182219	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182220	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182220	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">N. occidentalis</span> occurs in the upper and Middle Niger, in the Niger delta (Nigeria), in the Cross River and in the Chari-Logone.	eng
182220	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182220	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182220	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is an ongoing decline in habitat in the Niger Delta and the River Cross due to oil exploration.	eng
182221	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182221	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paratilapia toddi</em> is only known from the type locality Lusambo, Kasai River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182221	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182221	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182221	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging from out of the river causes sedimentation. In the southern region, there is industrial copper mining.	eng
182222	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182222	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura scaphyhynchura</em> is known from the Luachimo River (Angola), the Léfini River (Congo), the Makaw River (Kasai system), from the Kululu and Egengo Rivers in the Ikela region, from the Tshuapa River and from the Neap River.	eng
182222	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura scaphyhynchura</em> is a demersal species. It is entomophagous and feeds on plant debris and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).	eng
182222	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182222	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182223	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182223	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182223	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182223	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., da Costa, L. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182223	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182223	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., da Costa, L. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is known from the coastal waters from the mouth of the Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola). This species was introduced from the Ivory Coast to the former USSR in 1978 (Welcomme 1988). It is probably not established in the wild.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found from Cameroon to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza, Kunene and Chiloango River systems<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.	eng
182223	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in coastal waters, from mouth of Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola).	eng
182223	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is known from the coastal waters from the mouth of the Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola). This species was introduced from the Ivory Coast to the former USSR in 1978 (Welcomme 1988). It is probably not established in the wild.	eng
182223	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia guineensis</span> is known from coastal waters, from mouth of Senegal River to mouth of the Cuanza River (Angola)<strong><strong><em>.</em></strong></strong>	eng
182223	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	The species is present in the coastal waters from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza (Kwanza River ), Kunene and Chiloango River systems.	eng
182223	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus. In Casamance, the reproductive activity of <em>T guineensis </em>appears to be at a maximum in March and April (Albaret 1987).	eng
182223	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia guinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Substrate guarding of eggs as a form of parental care is done by both male and female (Goodwin <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
182223	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., da Costa, L. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Tilapia guinensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). This species is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). Substrate guarding of eggs as a form of parental care is done by both male and female (Goodwin <em>et al.</em> 1998). In Casamance, the reproductive activity of <em>T. guineensis</em> appears to be at a maximum in March and April (Albaret 1987).	eng
182223	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits coastal waters. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus.	eng
182223	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known, but the species occurs in streams and lakes. Feeds on shrimps, bivalves, plankton and detritus.	eng
182223	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182223	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182223	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., da Costa, L. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182223	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182223	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182223	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is commercially used for aquaculture.	eng
182223	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., da Costa, L. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Tilapia guineensis</em> is commercially used for aquaculture in central Africa. In western Africa, populations are locally impacted by dams	eng
182223	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally impacted by dams.	eng
182223	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182223	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182224	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on this species.	eng
182224	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
182224	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It has a preference for rocky substrates, but also lives over sand and mud, especially in inshore shallow water. It is primarily a piscivore but insects are also taken.	eng
182224	population	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no information as to the size of the population in Lake Tana.	eng
182224	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of resources from the lake is a major threat.	eng
182225	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182225	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus kamolondoensis</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, including Lake Kasibasiba.	eng
182225	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus kamolondoensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182225	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182225	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182226	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Measures need to be implemented to protect the species, and manage fishing levels within this species' habitat.	eng
182226	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
182226	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It prefers the bottom of the lake at shallower depths.	eng
182226	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The population is rare although the size is not estimated.	eng
182226	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is impacted by over exploitation of the fishes of the lake; it is taken as bycatch.	eng
182227	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The northern part of the species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182227	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus wittei</em> is only known from the Muyé, Kilwezi and Lupweshi Rivers, tributaries of the Lufira River in the Katanga province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182227	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182227	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182227	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182229	conservation	Moelants, T. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Little information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored. Within western Africa, part of the range is included within the Ramsar sites at Malagarasi and the Lake Chad Basin.	eng
182229	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
182229	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182229	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Part of the range is included within the Ramsar sites at Malagarasi and the Lake Chad Basin.	eng
182229	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment: </strong><em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is known essentially from whole the Congo River basin, but not in the Lower Congo. It is also found in the Cross River in Nigeria, some coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogowe River in Gabon, and Lake Tanganyika and effluents (Paugy 1984).	eng
182229	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers and streams, including Malagarasi. It is also widespread throughout other regions of Africa.	eng
182229	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>From Cross Rivers (Nigeria) Chad and Volta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also found in coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogouwe in Gabon, Congo and Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182229	distribution	Moelants, T. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is widespread in lakes and rivers throughout eastern, central and western Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is known essentially from whole the Congo River basin, including some coastal basins of Cameroon, Ogowe River in Gabon, and Lake Tanganyika and effluents (Paugy 1984), but not in the Lower Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Within eastern Africa this species is found in Lake Tanganyika and its affluent rivers and streams, including Malagarasi.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It also inhabits the Cross Rivers (Nigeria).	eng
182229	habitat	Moelants, T. & Hanssens, M., 2009	<em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurring in rivers and lake's inshore waters generally in the reach of a river delta. It feeds on insects, mostly of chironomid larvae. This species has been reported to be potentially dominant in local fish fauna, particularly in the Lake Chad region. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.	eng
182229	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestes macrophthalmus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in lakes and rivers in Tanzania (Eccles 1992).	eng
182229	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Rivers and lake's inshore waters generally in the reach of a river delta.<br/>Feeds on insects, mostly of chironomid larvae.	eng
182229	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic characid that grows to 60 cm standard length, inhabits rivers and lakes. This species has been reported to be potentially dominant in local fish fauna, particularly in the Lake Chad region. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.	eng
182229	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data	eng
182229	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182229	population	Moelants, T. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information is available on the population of this species, although in eastern Africa it is never abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
182229	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown, though never abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
182229	threats	Moelants, T. & Hanssens, M., 2009	Little information is reported on threats to this species. In central Africa, it has commercial importance. In eastern Africa it is reportedly threatened by water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.	eng
182229	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182229	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension on the watersheds.	eng
182229	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182230	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182230	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182230	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Haplochromis bloyeti</em> is present in the River Nile Delta and Coastal Lakes, especially Lake Mariut, where it is rare.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile and rivers, streams and certain lakes in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Lake Debo (Niger River system in Mali) and Lake Chad.	eng
182230	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Lake Debo (Upper Niger in Mali) and from the Chad River basin.	eng
182230	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from streams and certain lakes in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.	eng
182230	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. It prefers sandy and stony bottom and water weeds. Adults carry eggs or young in their mouth and pharynx.	eng
182230	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic species, inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. Females are mouth-brooding. It prefers sandy and stony bottom and water weeds.	eng
182230	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic species, inhabits rivers, streams and freshwater lakes. It is mouthbrooding by females.	eng
182230	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182230	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182230	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182230	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182230	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182231	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182231	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma maculatum</em> has been collected in tributaries of the upper Sangha, in the Dja and Doumé Rivers, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is in the Lower Guinea region known from southern Cameroon, Rio Muni and northern Gabon in the Sanaga, Nyong, Ntem, Ivindo and Ogowe Rivers.	eng
182231	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182231	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182231	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182232	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182232	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Adamas formosus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  with Mbamu island and from the central and upper Congo basin. The record from the upper Congo basin is a literature record from Wildekamp (1993). It is also known from the drainage systems of the Alima, Vouma and Likouala in eastern Congo.	eng
182232	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fenerbahce formosus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs mainly in the shallow and weedy parts of brooks, small streams and swamps in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation (Huber 1996).	eng
182232	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182232	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182233	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182233	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus jae</em> is known from the Dja and Sangha River basins. It is also known from the Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin. It is present in the Lower Guinea in the basins of the Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi, Ogowe, and Niari-Kouilou.	eng
182233	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus jae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182233	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182233	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182234	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182234	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis oligacanthus</em> is only known from the Ubangui River system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182234	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis oligocanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182234	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182234	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. Large marshy areas provide refuge and natural protection though.	eng
182235	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182235	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species seems to be restricted to the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.	eng
182235	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182235	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182235	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182236	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182236	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	The species has been described not only from Lake Tana and its tributaries, but also from other water bodies of Ethiopia.	eng
182236	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	In Lake Tana, where the species has been studied closely, it occurs especially over rocky substrates in water of no more than 6 m. deep. It is a macro-benthivore. Specimens smaller than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae, but switch to a more diverse diet when their size increases: adult insects, molluscs and detritus become more important, and large specimens of this species are the only barbs in Lake Tana that eat freshwater crabs of the genus Potamoonautes.	eng
182236	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Since the species is distributed in several water systems of Ethiopian freshwaters, its population is quite high, although a population estimation has not been undertaken.	eng
182236	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of the fish resource and construction of dams could be threats to this species, although it is distributed in several water systems in large numbers.	eng
182237	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No conservation measures for this species are known. A clearer understanding of the threats facing this species is required, and monitoring of the population. Habitat maintenance/conservation is needed, as is suitable harvest management, to minimise threats from commercial fishing of this species.	eng
182237	conservation	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	No information	eng
182237	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182237	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182237	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182237	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widely distributed throughout the Nile, Tchad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Mono and Oueme Rivers, as well as the rift valley lakes Edward, George, Albert, Victoria and Tanganyika. Rivers Nile, Niger, Senegal, Volta and Lake Chad basins.  East African rift lakes, except Lake Kivu, where it was introduced in 1959 and 1960, apparently without success.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is recorded from the Cross and Sanaga River basins (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>This species is present in Lake Tanganyika and estuaries of major affluent rivers, the Rusizi and Malagarasi. It is also found in Lakes Victoria, Nabugabo, Kyoga, Albert, Edward and George, as well as Semliki River, Albert Nile and  Victoria Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Common from Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia) and in Wadi El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and jebel systems, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan; it is also present in Blue Nile, Baro, Tekeze and Omo basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Senegal basins.	eng
182237	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Bagrus dockmak</em> is common from the Nile Delta to Lake Nasser (this last one outside the region) and in Wadi El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/>Global range: River Nile system to Lake Victoria, Blue Nile, Ethiopia (Lake Stephanie), Lake Albert, Lake Rudolf, Somalia (River Ganana), Mozambique (River Bavuma), Kenya, Cameroon, Uganda (Lakes Victoria, Albert, Edward and George, River Semliki and Murchison and Nile Albert system), Gold Coast, Northern Nigeria, Ghana (Lake and River Volta), Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182237	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea recorded from the Cross and Sanaga River basins (Cameroon). Elsewhere, widely distributed throughout the Nile, Tchad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Mono and Oueme Rivers, as well as the rift valley lakes Edward, George, Albert, Victoria and Tanganyika. Rivers Nile, Niger, Senegal, Volta and Lake Chad basins.  Eastern African rift lakes, except Lake Kivu, where it was introduced in 1959 and 1960, apparently without success.	eng
182237	distribution	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Tanganyika and estuaries of major affluent rivers, Rusizi, Malagarasi. Lakes Victoria, Nabugabo, Kyoga, Albert, Edward, George; Semliki River, Albert Nile,  Victoria Nile.	eng
182237	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Senegal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Nile and the East African rift lakes, but not Lake Kivu.	eng
182237	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Bagrus dockmak</em> inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers. It is widespread in both shallow and deep waters. It is probably associated with rocky bottoms and coarse substrates. It is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours. The fish feeds mainly on fish, insects, crustaceans and molluscs and to a minor extent on plants. Mature ovaries are seen in summer and there is a simple long breeding season, extending from March to September. In Lake Nasser, spawning nests were seen in shallow waters in sandy bottom or rocks. The largest specimen caught measured 109 cm. Catches have declined in Lake Victoria as a result of predation by Nile perch and also competition with Nile perch especially for haplochromines.	eng
182237	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widespread in both shallow and deep water, with a depth range 0-80 m but most common between 0 and 70 m (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is probably associated with rocky bottoms/coarse substrates (Lock 1982). This species is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours (Baensch and Riehl 1985). Juveniles may frequent exposed rocky shores (Corbet 1961). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> feeds mainly on fish, but also on insects, crustaceans and molluscs. In young fish invertebrates are the pricipal food source, adult fish are primarily piscivorous, piscivorous feeding occurs mainly at day, invertebrate feeding by night (Chilvers and Gee, 1974). Some debris and vegetable matter may also be ingested (Bailey 1994). Mature ovaries are seen in summer and there is a simple long breeding season, extending from March to September. In Lake Nasser, spawning nests were seen in shallow waters in sandy bottom or rocks.<br/><em>Bagrus docmak</em> is moderately important as a food species in Lake Victoria, but becoming rare with the appearance of Nile perch (Eccles 1992). Catches decreased strongly in Lake Victoria after the <em>Lates</em> upsurge (Witte and de Winter 1995). Predation by <em>Lates</em> and competition with <em>Lates</em> (for haplochromines) may have played a role in the decline (Witte and de Winter 1995). A notably recovery in waters between 3m and 6m depth in Lake Victoria has been reported (Ogari and Asila 1990). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is the second most important food species in Lake Edward, Congo (Vakily 1989). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).<br/>Competition with the Nile Perch largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo. In Lake Victoria it is now largely restricted to mouths of large rivers e.g. the Nile and to the Victoria. The reproduction period in Lake Victoria is from September to February, although some reproduction occurs at lower levels throughout the year (Dadzie and Ochieng-Okach, 1989).	eng
182237	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bagrus docmak</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits lakes, swamps and rivers (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is widespread in both shallow and deep water (Witte and de Winter 1995). It is probably associated with rocky bottoms/coarse substrates (Lock 1982). This species is mostly active during the night and the twilight hours (Baensch and Riehl 1985). Juveniles may frequent exposed rocky shores (Corbet 1961). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> feeds mainly on fish, but also on insects, crustaceans and molluscs. Some debris and vegetable matter may also be ingested (Bailey 1994). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is moderately important as a food species in Lake Victoria, but becoming rare with the appearance of Nile perch (Eccles 1992). Catches decreased strongly in Lake Victoria after the <em>Lates</em> upsurge (Witte and de Winter 1995). Predation by <em>Lates</em> and competition with <em>Lates</em> (for haplochromines) may have played a role in the decline (Witte and de Winter 1995). A notably recovery in waters between 3m and 6m depth in Lake Victoria has been reported (Ogari and Asila 1990). <em>Bagrus docmak</em> is the second most important food species in Lake Edward, Congo (Vakily 1989). It has distinct pairing (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182237	habitat	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Found both in deep and shallow waters of lakes and deltas, depth range 0-80 m but most common between 0 and 70 m. Juveniles may occur on exposed rocky shores (Witte and de Winter 1995). Competition with the Nile Perch largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga and Nabugabo. In Lake Victoria. Now largely restricted to mouths of large rivers e.g. the Nile and to the Victoria. In youg fish invertebrates are the pricipal food source, adult fish are primarily piscivorous, piscivorous feeding occurs mainly at day, invertebrate feeding by night (Chilvers and Gee 1974). The reproduction period in Lake Victoria is from September to February, although some reproduction occurs at lower levels throughout the year (Dadzie and Ochieng-Okach 1989).	eng
182237	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in streams and lakes. A benthopelagic species. Widespread in both shallow and deep water. Lives in muddy bottoms and feeds on benthic organisms including fish, insect larvae and invertebrates. Little is known about the biology of this fish.	eng
182237	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182237	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182237	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182237	population	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Population status not known, but has become rather rare in estuary of rivers around Lake Tanganyika; Has also declined in Kenya and Tanzania portion of the lake Victoria.	eng
182237	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is widely distributed, although the population status is not exactly known. In eastern Africa it has become rather rare in estuary of rivers around Lake Tanganyika, and has also declined in the Kenya and Tanzania portions of the Lake Victoria.	eng
182237	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	For the majority of its range, no major threats to this species are known. Within eastern Africa however, there is heavy fishing pressure upon this species, as well as changes in inshore biotopes. Competition for food and predation from introduced Nile Perch is a major threat, and has largely displaced the species from the inshore and open waters of many lakes in the region. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this species.	eng
182237	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182237	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182237	threats	Natakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are  the heavy fishing pressure,  changes in inshore biotopes and competition for food and predation from introduced Nile Perch.	eng
182237	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to this species in the region are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182238	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182238	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.	eng
182238	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops breviceps</em> is known from a single specimen from the Mvi River, Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from the Volta River, and from several coastal rivers in Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, and Guinée Bissau.	eng
182238	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from scattered locations from Guinea Bissau to Ghana, with one additional recording in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops breviceps</em> is known from a single specimen from the Mvi River, Sanaga River basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The distributional area of this species seems to be restricted to the Volta, the rivers of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, and some coastal rivers of Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea Bissau (Culufi). However it might be assumed that <em>M. breviceps</em> in fact occurs within a coastal band extending from the Volta rivers to Guinea Bissau.	eng
182238	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182238	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
182238	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182238	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182238	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182238	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Pollution from mining is threatening some populations in western Africa.	eng
182239	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182239	conservation	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182239	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182239	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182239	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> This species inhabits brackish environments and freshwaters of coastal rivers, from Senegal to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo and perhaps to the Cunene River in Northern Namibia.	eng
182239	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River at Cabinda province) and Kunene River systems.	eng
182239	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris daganensis</em> is only known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it is found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango in the south, though not apparently collected from southern Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere it is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.	eng
182239	distribution	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widespread in fresh and brackish waters from Senegal to the Cunene River, Namibia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris daganensis</em> is known from Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea where it is found in lower courses of most rivers from the Cross River in the north to the Chiloango in the south, though not apparently collected from southern Gabon and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Loango River, at Cabinda province) and Kunene River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits coastal rivers from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
182239	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris daganensis</em> occurs in coastal rivers (Maugé 1986). It is a demersal species.	eng
182239	habitat	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris daganensis</em> occurs in lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers (Maugé 1986). It is a demersal species.	eng
182239	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
182239	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This demersal fish occurs in coastal rivers.	eng
182239	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182239	population	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182239	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182239	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182239	threats	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182239	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182239	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182239	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182240	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182240	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently known from scattered localities in the Ivindo and Ntem systems in eastern Gabon and southeastern Cameroon, and from the Ogowe system in the region of Ndjole in Western Gabon.	eng
182240	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parananochromis brevirostris</em> inhabits small forest creeks and streams (Lamboj and Stiassny 2003). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182240	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182240	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Ivindo system, the species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.	eng
182241	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182241	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This killifish is presently only known from two localities (This species is known from upper Santa River, a tributary to the Kolenté River) in the vicinity of Kindia, southeastern Guinea.	eng
182241	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is found in small creeks.	eng
182241	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182241	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	The threats to the species come from the expanding city of Kindia. The two locations are within the vicinity of Kindia, which is a small town with an expanding human population.	eng
182242	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182242	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus erythozonus</em> is only known from the type locality: Foulakari River, Lower Congo River system, Congo.	eng
182242	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus erythozonus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 3.4 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182242	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182242	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182243	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182243	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rhabdalestes aeratis</em> is only known from the type locality Lake Tumba at Irebu, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182243	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182243	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182243	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182244	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182244	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from type locality, Kosti, White Nile basin, Sudan.	eng
182244	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in running water.	eng
182244	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182244	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182245	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182245	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cyclopharynx fwae</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the southeastern Congo River drainage, Kasaï Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182245	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cyclopharynx fwae</em> is a benthopelagic species. Larger specimens had guts entirely or almost entirely filled with sand. The smallest specimen had a gut filled with fine sand and fine vegetable matter, including large numbers of single barrel-shaped diatom species. (Roberts and Kullander 1994).	eng
182245	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182245	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182246	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182246	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Doumea alula</em> has been found in the Lower Congo rapids, the Central Congo and the Lualaba and Luapula system. It has also been reported from Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983) and possibly from the Kwango River and the rapids of the Luachima River (Angola) and from the Bambari River, affluent of the Ubangui River (Central African Republic).	eng
182246	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Doumea alula</em> is a demersal species that mainly lives in big rapids.	eng
182246	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182246	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182247	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182247	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from scattered localities throughout the region, rivers of South Cameroon and Rio Muni. <em>Varicorhinus werneri</em> has a strange distribution pattern that has to be looked at in more detail.	eng
182247	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182247	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182247	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182248	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182248	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	All known specimens have been collected from the Ofin (Pra basin) and Tano rivers.	eng
182248	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Largest specimen observed is 204 mm SL.	eng
182248	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182248	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.	eng
182249	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182249	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Western Africa, known from Lower Niger (type locality), and basins of the Ouémé (Benin) and Ogun (Nigeria)	eng
182249	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.4 cm SL.	eng
182249	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182249	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include declining habitat quality, and it is impacted by oil exploration in Nigeria	eng
182250	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182250	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is originally known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. <em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> has been introduced to the Philippines. It is unknown whether the species has established itself.	eng
182250	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is a benthopelagic species. It feeds mainly at night on insects, crustaceans and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The parents tend their clutch more than they guard it.	eng
182250	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182250	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nigriventris</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182251	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182251	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe multitaeniatus</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon. It occurs in the Lower Guinea region from the Nyong and Ntem Rivers (Cameroon), from the Nyanga, Ogowe and N’dogo Rivers (Gabon), and from the Kouilou River (Congo).	eng
182251	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182251	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182251	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182252	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182252	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182252	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182252	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, known from the Cross, Mungo, Wouri, Sanaga, Kribi and Ivindo.      <br/><br/>Elsewhere: Chad basin and Benue River system, Fernando Poo, Nigeria.  Also known from coastal basins in Benin to Cameroon (Lévêque 1990), from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
182252	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in coastal basins of Ghana to Cameroon, as well as in the Chad, Benue, Bagoé (Niger basin), and in some coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Bioko (Fernando Poo) and coastal basins in Cameroon (Leveque and Daget 1984).	eng
182252	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	The distribution of <em>Barbus callipterus</em> ranges from Senegal to Chad:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, this species is known from the Cross Mungo, Wouri, Sanaga, Kribi and Ivindo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in coastal basins of Ghana to Cameroon, as well as in the Chad, Benue, Bagoé (Niger basin), and in some coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
182252	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182252	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus callipterus</em> is a benthopelagic.	eng
182252	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus callipterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182252	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182252	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182252	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182252	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No major threats are known, though this species does have a commercial value as an aquarium fish in central Africa.	eng
182252	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182252	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182253	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182253	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris lujae</em> is known from the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has  not been found in the upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182253	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris lujae</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182253	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182253	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182254	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182254	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa whiteheadi</em> is only known from the type locality, the Hombo River, tributary of the Luhoho River, from the upper Congo River basin.	eng
182254	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa whiteheadi</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.	eng
182254	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182254	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182255	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182255	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chromidotilapia schoutedeni</em> is known from the Congo River at Yangambi and in tributaries of the Lualaba and the Lualabe itself.	eng
182255	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chromidotilapia schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.8 cm. It is found in clear running water (Daget 1991). The species is a female mouth-brooder.	eng
182255	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182255	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182256	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution is located in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182256	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus iphthimostoma</em> is only known from the Muye and Kateke Rivers, tributaries of the Lufira River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182256	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus iphthimostoma</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182256	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182256	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182257	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the distribution of this species is situated in the Luilaka River in the Salonga Park (Stiassny, M., pers. comm).	eng
182257	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis aristoma</em> is known from the Tshuapa and Lukuga Rivers, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from the Luilaka River in the Salonga National Park (Stiassny, M., pers. comm). The distribution extends throughout the whole Salonga area (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).	eng
182257	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis aristoma</em> is a benthopelagic, microphagous species (Stiassny 1989). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182257	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182257	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182258	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182258	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax parvus</em> is known from the Ogowe to Chiloango Rivers.	eng
182258	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax parvus</em> is a pelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 4.2 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182258	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182258	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182259	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182259	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus aspilus</em> is known from the Dja basin, Central Congo River basin, Cameroon and from the Nyong and Sanaga Rivers.	eng
182259	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus aspilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182259	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182259	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
182260	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182260	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is presently only known from the type locality, a slow flowing creek near Samalofila, southwest of Bamako, and a locality east of Bougouni in southwestern Mali.	eng
182260	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is found in schools, most commonly in the upper water layers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish. It is easy to maintain in the aquarium. Maximum size 4.0 cm.	eng
182260	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182260	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182261	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182261	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper reaches of the Sanaga River in Cameroon.	eng
182261	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182261	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182261	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182262	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182262	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182262	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182262	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is known from Senegal to Sudan and the Central African Republic. There is an isolated population known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Recently, a second isolated population was discovered in an affluent of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182262	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The Senegal and Gambia River systems in Senegal and Gambia; the coastal rivers in Guinea Bissau; the Niger River in Guinea, Mali, Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria; the Benue River system in Nigeria and Cameroon; the Upper Volta River system in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the Upper Comoé River system of Burkina Faso; the Lake Chad system and the Logone and Chari Rivers in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Swampy areas, brooks, small rivers and other bodies of quiet water in the savannah from Senegal to southern Sudan.	eng
182262	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a widespread species, from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There is an isolated population known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Recently, a second isolated population was discovered in an affluent of the Luala River, Lower Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Senegal and Gambia river systems in Senegal and Gambia; the coastal rivers in Guinea Bissau; the Niger River in Guinea, Mali, Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin and Nigeria; the Benue River system in Nigeria and Cameroon; the upper Volta River system in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana; the upper Comoé River system of Burkina Faso; the Lake Chad system and the Logone and Chari Rivers in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon.	eng
182262	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. The males are smaller than females (Bailet 1994). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species s very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182262	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys spilargyreius</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. It browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. The males are smaller than females (Bailey 1994). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182262	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Occurs in swampy areas, small brooks and small streams. Browses on algae and higher plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, notably culicid larvae and pupae and small beetles. Males are smaller than females (Huber 1996).	eng
182262	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182262	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182262	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182262	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182262	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182262	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is commercially collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
182263	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182263	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.	eng
182263	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> A Lower Guinea endemic, known from only two collection localities in Lower Guinea, one from the Cross River and one from the Sanaga River of Cameroon. Its identification and distribution should be considered provisional pending additional collections.	eng
182263	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from two collection localities in Lower Guinea, one from the Cross River and one from the Sanaga River of Cameroon. Its identification and distribution should be considered provisional pending additional collections.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Niger and Volta River basins.	eng
182263	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species.	eng
182263	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus macrophthalmus</em> is a demersal and potamodromous species. It has a weak electrical discharge.	eng
182263	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182263	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182263	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182263	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance in central Africa. Deforestation, droughts and invasive weeds are possible threats to some west African populations.	eng
182265	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182265	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182265	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> has been collected in the Niger and Benue basins, but also in the Moa, Cavally, Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Pra and Cross. This species may thus be sympatric with <em>R. senegalensis</em> or <em>R. steindachner</em>i, even if the latter two have separate distribution areas.	eng
182265	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is found in the Cross River.     <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Niger and Bénoué Rivers, also in Moa, Cavally, Sassandra, Bandama, and Comoé Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire, Pra River in Ghana and Cross River in Nigeria.	eng
182265	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is a demersal potamodromous species.	eng
182265	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas nigeriensis</em> is a demersal potamodromous species. The maximum TL was recorded at 12.5 cm.	eng
182265	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182265	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182265	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is an ongoing decline in habitat in the River Cross due to oil exploration. In the Pra the main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish.	eng
182265	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182266	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182266	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from the vicinity of the type locality, southern Sudan.	eng
182266	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182266	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182266	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182267	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182267	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes melas</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids in Lower Congo, and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182267	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes melas</em> is a demersal species that feeds on plant debris and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).	eng
182267	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182267	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182268	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182268	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is known from scattered locations in the Congo River basin. It has also been reported from Bujumbura (Ruzizi River, Burundi) and the Malagarasi River (Tanzania).	eng
182268	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is known from scattered locations in the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It has been reported from Bujumbura (Ruzizi River, Burundi) and the Malagarasi River (Tanzania).	eng
182268	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomachs contained fine sand, Diatomea, filamentous algae, Ostracods, little Oligochaeta and insect larvae (Chironomids, Ceratopogonids, Trichoptera and Ephemera) (Matthes 1964).	eng
182268	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182268	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182269	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182269	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182269	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182269	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is found in the Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere it is known from Senegal to the Niger River.	eng
182269	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> This species is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger and Benue, Mono, Volta, Pra, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Konkouré, Kolente, Kaba, Sewa, Moa, Mano, Senegal, Gambia, Tominé and Géba. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution:  </strong></strong>Outside the area here considered it has been reported from the Wouri (Cameroon).	eng
182269	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a widespread species known from Senegal to Chad and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is found in the Cross and Wouri River basins.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger and Benue, Mono, Volta, Pra, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Konkouré, Kolente, Kaba, Sewa, Moa, Mano, Senegal, Gambia, Tominé and Géba.	eng
182269	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182269	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rhabdalestes septentrionalis</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182269	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic species, potamodromous.	eng
182269	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182269	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182269	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182269	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil extraction in Nigeria	eng
182269	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Oil extraction in Nigeria threatens local populations.	eng
182269	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182270	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182270	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops microstoma</em> is known from Mbandaka, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182270	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182270	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182270	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182271	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.	eng
182271	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the upper Cross River basin, in the Mo, Me and Man Rivers, around the village of Numba, western Cameroon.	eng
182271	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax moensis</em> occurs in in brooks and small rainforest streams. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182271	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182271	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182272	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182272	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is so far known only from the upper Senegal basin (Bafing, Téné) in Guinea.	eng
182272	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 6.1 cm SL.	eng
182272	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182272	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and pollution.	eng
182273	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known. More information on this species is needed, as well as local awareness raising to educate how current practises are damaging the freshwater ecosystem.	eng
182273	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from upper Mano river drainage, northern Liberia and eastern Guinea.	eng
182273	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	It is benthopelagic; non-migratory; pH range: 6.5 - 7.2. This species occurs in brooks in the forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium	eng
182273	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182273	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.	eng
182274	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182274	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus teugelsi</em> is known from the mainstream rapids in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo River rapids near Inga (Schelley and Stiassny 2004). Recent records have been made between these two sites (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.). It is only known from a stretch of river of about 200-300 km.	eng
182274	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182274	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182274	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182275	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182275	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the inland plateau of northern Gabon, in the Okano River, between Koumameyong and Lalara. It is also found in southeastern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182275	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion maculatum</em> is found in rainforest brooks and small streams on the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) maculatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182275	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182275	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182276	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182276	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the area between the River Corubal (Guinea Bissau) and the River St. Paul (Liberia).	eng
182276	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 15.6 cm SL	eng
182276	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182276	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182277	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182277	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species extends from west of the Volta and from the Côte d’Ivoire basins up to the Nipoué.	eng
182277	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182277	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182277	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182278	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182278	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182278	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias dumerilii</em> is distributed from Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from the Luapala system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene River (Que River), Cuvo River and Congo River (Kasai, Tchimenji and Luachimo Rivers) systems. Records from the Okavango River are questionable.	eng
182278	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present in the Central and Upper Congo system. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene River (Que River ), Cuvo River, Okavango River (Cubango River ), and Congo River (Kasai River, Tchimenji River, Luachimo River ) systems.	eng
182278	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182278	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias dumerilii</em> is demersal species. It is a polyphagous species; the stomach contents consisted of sand, dead plant material, aquatic larvae (Chironomidae, Cératopogonidae, Ephemera and Trichoptera) and pieces of terrestrial insects (Coleoptera, ants) (Matthes 1964).	eng
182278	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182278	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182278	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182278	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182279	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182279	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paradoxoglanis parvus</em> is distributed in the Central Congo River system, from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) upstream into the middle Ubangui and as upstream in the Congo as Kisangani. It has not been verified from the Lower Congo, but is present in the Kumbinanimi system, a small coastal basin just north of the Congo mouth (Norris 2002).	eng
182279	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182279	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182279	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182280	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182280	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the coastal rainforest region of the southern Côte d'Ivoire and southwestern Ghana.	eng
182280	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in shallow brooks, shallow pools and shallow parts of swamps on sedimentary soil in the coastal rainforest. Usually found in the shallowest parts of the habitats such as small puddles and even animal foot prints in swampy ground. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182280	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182280	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Effluents from mining activities in the coastal basins may cause problems for this fish. Also, residential developments in coastal areas and the water pollution associated with them may also pose a threat.	eng
182281	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182281	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius brieni</em> is known from the type locality Bukama, Middle Lualaba River and from Lake Upemba, Shaba province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182281	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nothobranchius brieni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is found in temporary pools and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a bottom spawner (Huber 1996).	eng
182281	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182281	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182282	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182282	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus urotaenia</em> is only known from Dungre and from the Dungu River, upper Uele River, Central Congo River system.	eng
182282	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus urotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182282	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182282	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182283	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182283	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis batesii</em> is found in the Dja and the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Nyong, Ntem of Cameroon, the Ivindo, Ogowe and Ouzibi of Gabon, in the Rio Muni in Equatorial Guinea and in the Central Congo basin.	eng
182283	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182283	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182283	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182284	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
182284	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sicydium bustamantei</em> is found on the islands of Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu in the Gulf of Guinea, up to altitudes of 1200 m. This species might also occur in the Lobe and Kribi rivers of Cameroon but this requires confirmation.	eng
182284	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sicydium bustamantei</em> is known from fast flowing rivers. It is a demersal species.	eng
182284	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182284	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182285	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182285	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. Policy-based actions are needed to protect this species.	eng
182285	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182285	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Bulabemba and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Vista and Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is distributed along the West African coast, from Senegal to Angola, and on the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
182285	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species living brackish water long coasts of Senegal to Cameroon, occasionally out of fresh waters, but always close to the coasts.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola, including most offshore islands - Macias Nguema, São Tomé, and Principe island.	eng
182285	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in brackish water along the West African coast, from Senegal to Angola, and on the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Bulabemba and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Vista and Moanda on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is distributed from Senegal to Cameroon, occasionally out of fresh waters, but always close to the coasts.	eng
182285	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Amphidromous, reef-associated fish that lives in freshwater or brackish water. Amphibious air-breather that skips or walks on sand or mud in search of food; that is, on exposed intertidal mud flats of estuarine mangrove swamps. Feeds chiefly on arthropods (crabs, insects, etc.) of the mud surface. Also included in the diet is the white mangrove, <em>Avicennia nitida.</em> Spawns in burrows.	eng
182285	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is found on muddy substrates and in brackish waters of estuaries, lagoons, and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found occasionally in freshwater, but always close to the coast (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a reef-associated and amphidromous species (Reide 2004). <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is an amphibious air-breather (Martin and Bridges 1999) that skips or walks on sand or mud in search of food; that is, on exposed intertidal mud flats of estuarine mangrove swamps. The adult feed chiefly on arthropods (crabs, insects, etc.) of the mud surface. Also included in the diet is the white mangrove, <em>Avicennia nitida</em> (Irvine 1947). They spawn in burrows (Miller 1981).	eng
182285	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is found on muddy substrates and in brackish waters of estuaries, lagoons, and mangrove swamps (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is found occasionally in freshwater, but always close to the coast (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is a reef-associated and amphidromous species (Reide 2004). <em>Periophthalmus barbarus</em> is an amphibious air-breather (Martin and Bridges 1999) that skips or walks on sand or mud in search of food; that is, on exposed intertidal mud flats of estuarine mangrove swamps. The adult feed chiefly on arthropods (crabs, insects, etc.) of the mud surface. Also included in the diet is the white mangrove, <em>Avicennia nitida</em> (Irvine 1947). They spawn in burrows (Miller 1981).	eng
182285	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182285	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182285	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182285	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is used in subsistence fisheries; and commercially harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182285	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182285	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested in subsistence fisheries, and has commercial value as an aquarium fish.	eng
182287	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182287	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes uelensis</em> is known from the type locality, Ibembo region, from a swamp in connection with Lac Tumba, Tshuapa River, Yaekema swamp, Eala, Kunungu and Bonguma, all in the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182287	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes uelensis</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182287	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182287	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182288	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182288	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis macrophthalmus</span> is known only from the type locality, at Ampem, Volta basin in Ghana.	eng
182288	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum reported size: 202 mm TL (146 mm SL).	eng
182288	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182288	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Dams, agricultural, urban and deforestation developments.	eng
182289	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182289	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa acutirostris</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, including Brazzaville, the Ubangui, Lualaba, Kasai and other tributaries (Whitehead 1985). It is absent in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182289	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa acutirostris</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both still and running water. The distribution of this species suggests that it tolerates a wide variety of water conditions.	eng
182289	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182289	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182290	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182290	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Côte d’Ivoire, in the basins of the Bandama, Comoé, Sassandra, Agnébi, and Mé.	eng
182290	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum TL was recorded at 28.1 cm	eng
182290	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182290	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182291	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182291	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Leptoglanis camerunensis</span> is known from the type locality, Lagdo, situated in the upper Benue (Northern Cameroon), as well as from the upper course of the Niger in Guinea.	eng
182291	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a demersal fish of maximum reported size: 25 mm TL.	eng
182291	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182291	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known.	eng
182292	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182292	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182292	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182292	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus hasselquistii</em> is Regionally Extinct, recorded by Boulenger (1907) from Egyptian Lower Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile and Chad basins. It is also known from the great Sahelo-Soudanian basins in Senegal, Gambia and Volta; also in the Mono, the Gêba, the Bandama, the Comoe River, and the Ebrie and Aguien lagoons.	eng
182292	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Sahelo-Sudanese basins, the Sénégal, Gambia and Volta, Géba, Bandama, Comoé, Mono and the lagoons Ebrié and Aguien. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also in the Nile (Gosse 1984).	eng
182292	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It was recorded by Boulenger (1907) from Egyptian Lower Nile, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Sahelo-Sudanese basins, the Sénégal, Gambia and Volta, Géba, Bandama, Comoé, Mono and the lagoons Ebrié and Aguien.	eng
182292	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A demersal species that possess electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. A fractional spawner.	eng
182292	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Mormyrus hasselquistii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. It is a fractional spawner. It reaches a maximum length 50 cm.	eng
182292	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is demersal and potamodromous. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. A fractional spawner.	eng
182292	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182292	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182292	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182292	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182292	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182292	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182293	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182293	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus</span>  is common in the large Sudanese basins: Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad ( <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus citharus</span> ).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution</span>: Lake Turkana ( <span style="font-style: italic;">C. citharus intermedius</span> ).	eng
182293	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is common in large rivers of the Sudanese region. Feeds on phytoplankton, algae, macrophytes and organic debris. Anadromous.	eng
182293	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182293	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat. In the Oti (Ghana), one major threat is aquatic weeds. Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices, as in the Black Volta. (Entsua -Mensah 1996)	eng
182294	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182294	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182294	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis caudovittatus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1986).<br/><br/>Globally it is present in the Nile River basin in Egypt and Sudan.	eng
182294	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to the White Nile from Khartoum into the Jebel and Ghazal systems, Sudan, and the Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
182294	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is oviparous. No more information available.	eng
182294	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species is oviparous. No more information available.	eng
182294	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182294	population	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182294	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182294	threats	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182295	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182295	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis transvestitus</em> is only known from the Mai-N'dombe Lake near Ipeke (Lake Leopold II) and satellite lakes in the region, Central Congo River system.	eng
182295	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis transvestitus</em> is a demersal species. It mainly feeds on benthic Cladocera, midge larvae, mites and detritus (Stewart and Roberts 1984).	eng
182295	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182295	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.	eng
182296	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182296	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. cadenati</span> has only been collected in the Konkouré basin (Guinea) situated on the Labé plateau in the Fouta-Djalon.	eng
182296	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm.	eng
182296	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182296	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a potential threat of deforestation.	eng
182297	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182297	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182297	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More information is needed on this species population range and numbers, and biology and ecology. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is needed in some areas.	eng
182297	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is found in the coastal rainforest of Cameroon and northwestern Equatorial Guinea. <br/>Elsewhere it is known from southeastern Benin, through southern Nigeria and the Niger delta to the Cross River.	eng
182297	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species inhabits swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest, from Southeastern Benin to Southeastern Nigeria, including the Niger delta. Also recorded in Liberia (Voinjama) and Ghana (locality not known) - these two records need confirmation. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere from coastal Cameroon to northwestern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182297	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is found in the coastal rainforest of Cameroon and northwestern Equatorial Guinea. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species inhabits swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest, from southeastern Benin to southeastern Nigeria, including the Niger delta. Also recorded in Liberia (Voinjama) and Ghana (locality not known) - these two records need confirmation.	eng
182297	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal forest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).	eng
182297	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal forest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Epiplatys (Parepiplatys) grahami</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1966).	eng
182297	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a medium size killifish. Swamps and swampy parts of small streams in the coastal rainforest. Non-migratory.	eng
182297	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182297	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182297	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182297	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Collection for the aquarium trade, oil exploration, loss of habitat through urban development and agriculture are localised threats.	eng
182297	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Localised threats to this species include collection for the aquarium trade, oil exploration, and loss of habitat through urban development and agriculture.	eng
182297	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182298	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182298	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ferranti</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo basin.	eng
182298	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ferranti</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182298	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182298	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182299	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182299	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus christyi</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including Pool Malebo and adjacent rapids, but it is not found in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is present in the Lower Guinea region where it is present from the Sanaga River to the Nyong River. It has also been recorded from the Ogowe River.	eng
182299	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182299	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182299	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182300	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182300	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo quadribarbis</em> is only known from the Central Congo River basin: from the Congo River at Yangambi, Kisangani and Isangi and from Gangala-na-Bodio on the Dungu River and from Dilolo (Katanga) (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
182300	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo quadribarbis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182300	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182300	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182301	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182301	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lamani</em> is only known from the type locality Mukimbungu, in an left affluent of the Lower Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182301	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lamani</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182301	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182301	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182302	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182302	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus polli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and the Central Congo River basin (Gosse 1984, Hanssens <em>et al.</em> 1995, Gosse 1988).	eng
182302	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus polli</em> is demersal, air breathing species. It is an entomophagous fish that lives in swamps and zones of flood (Matthes 1964).	eng
182302	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182302	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182303	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182303	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis spei</em> is known from the Kasai and Lualaba drainages, Congo River basin. It is thought to be more widespread than currently known.	eng
182303	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182303	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182303	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182304	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182304	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Occurs in the Ouémé, Ogun, Oshun, the Niger delta, Middle Niger to Lake Kainji and the rivers Benue and Cross.	eng
182304	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182304	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182304	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil spills may threaten the Niger delta populations	eng
182305	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182305	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus kununguensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is mainly known from around the main Congo River channel.	eng
182305	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182305	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182305	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182306	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182306	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	The species is known only from the type locality, south of Wadalna near Belefuanai, at the road from Gbaruka to Zorzor, Central Liberia (approximately 09 (27’W; 07(13’N). This is a narrow (about 2 meters wide) forest creek with brown water. The fishes were shy and mainly found hiding among the overhanging vegetation.	eng
182306	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in small brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium	eng
182306	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182306	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and mining threaten this species. From the collector's record, it is found in a narrow 2 m wide forest creek. There is a lot of deforestation in Liberia and mining in central Liberia.	eng
182307	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182307	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is restricted to type locality, River Via, Saint Paul’s river drainage, Liberia.	eng
182307	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182307	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182307	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is impacted by habitat loss due to agricultural activities, deforestation and mining.	eng
182308	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182308	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182308	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species endemic to Angola where it occurs in the Curoca River system, a coastal river. Also present in the Congo River system (Cuango River).	eng
182308	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis angolensis</em> has only been found in the stream crossing Chibia-Jau road, at Jau-Onguéria bifurcation, a few km south of Chibia, near Sá da Bandeira, Angola (type locality) (Eschmeyer 1997) and in the Kwango River (Cuango River) at Cafunfo, Central Congo River basin, Angola (Poll 1967).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Curoca River system, a coastal river.	eng
182308	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis angolensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).Preferred habitat is not known, but species of this genus are adapted to rocky rapids.	eng
182308	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known, but species of this genus are adapted to rocky rapids. The biology is not known.	eng
182308	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182308	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182308	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
182308	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182309	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182309	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe system, Gabon.	eng
182309	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182309	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182309	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182310	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182310	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus mirus</em> is known from the Central Congo River itself, including the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from the Uele system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182310	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182310	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182310	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing on the Central Congo River and mining for gold north of the Congo stream pose threats to this species.	eng
182311	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available..	eng
182311	conservation	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and harvest management is required.	eng
182311	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and its major rivers the Malagarasi and Rusizi.	eng
182311	distribution	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Raiamas salmolucius</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from Lake Tanganyika. It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Tanganyika and its major rivers, the Malagarasi and Rusizi.	eng
182311	habitat	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Raiamas salmolucius</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It prefers flowing waters in riverine habitats where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects (Eccles 1992).	eng
182311	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Prefers flowing waters in riverine habitats where it feeds on smaller fishes and insects (Eccles 1992).	eng
182311	population	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Not known, but very rare in fisheries catches.	eng
182311	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	Not known, but very rare in fisheries catches.	eng
182311	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.	eng
182311	threats	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Water turbidity due to erosion of river basins threatens populations in eastern Africa.	eng
182312	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182312	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from the White Nile basin in Sudan and Ethiopia.	eng
182312	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182312	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182312	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182313	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182313	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River Basin. One record has been made from Lake Tanganyika (Reid 1985).	eng
182313	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Central Africa Republic to Angola, and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River Basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> One record has been made from Lake Tanganyika (Reid 1985).	eng
182313	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo longipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
182313	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182313	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182314	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2002	No information available.	eng
182314	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182314	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182314	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Malagarasi River.	eng
182314	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Malagarasi River, Tanzania. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Widespread in the Congo River basin.	eng
182314	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is known from the Congo basin and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Malagarasi River, Tanzania.	eng
182314	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits large rivers and lakes (Roberts 1986) and also occurs in estuaries (Eccles 1992).	eng
182314	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Tetraodon mbu</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits large rivers and lakes (Roberts 1986) and also occurs in estuaries (Eccles 1992) where it feeds mainly on molluscs and insects.	eng
182314	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2002	found in the lower riverine/delta habitat where it feeds mainly on molluscs and insects.	eng
182314	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182314	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available.	eng
182314	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2002	Not known.	eng
182314	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Changes in riverine habitats due to farming extension on wetlands threatens populations in eastern Africa.	eng
182314	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182314	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2002	The main threat to the species are changes in riverine habitats due to farming extension on wetlands	eng
182315	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182315	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only present in the basins of the Lokundje, Sanaga and Lake Monoun.	eng
182315	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182315	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182315	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182316	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182316	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes congicus</em> is only known from the Tshuapa River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182316	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182316	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182316	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182317	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No conservation measures are known,but more research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of the population trends. Identification of suitable protected areas is also needed	eng
182317	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None in place.	eng
182317	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182317	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere, present in small coastal and forested rivers in Benin and south Nigeria.	eng
182317	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover from Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Benin to Rio Muni in Equatorial Guinea (Cloffa).	eng
182317	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species has been recorded in scattered localities from Benin to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover from Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon.	eng
182317	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barboides gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a monotypic genus. It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182317	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Barboides gracilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs throughout the lower forested coastal lowlands in small slow flowing rivers under forest cover (Lévêque and Daget 1984). This small stream monotypic barbus-like cyprinid is 1.8 cm in standard length. Mainly feeds on detritus and aquatic plants. It co-habits with<em> B. denticeps</em>, and is non-migratory.	eng
182317	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This small stream monotypic barbus-like cyprinid mainly feeds on detritus and aquatic plants. Co-habits with <em>B. denticeps. </em>Non-migratory.	eng
182317	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data..	eng
182317	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182317	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182317	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Fifinda region, the species is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the northern coastal regions.	eng
182317	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	In the Fifinda region the species is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.	eng
182317	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.	eng
182318	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182318	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Ziway, Ethiopia. The lake is 25 km long and 20 km wide, and has a surface area of 434 km² (Earth Snapshot: <a href="http://www.eosnap.com/?tag=lake-koka">Volcano and Lakes around Addis Abbaba, Ethiopia</a>. 21 Dec. 2008).	eng
182318	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This fish occurs in the deeper areas of Lake Ziway.	eng
182318	population	Getahun, A., 2009	It is a rare species inhabiting usually the deeper parts of the lake.	eng
182318	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Specific threats to this species are not known but are likely to include the effects of deforestation, agriculture and urbanisation.	eng
182319	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182319	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax elongatus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Gribingui River, Chad basin as well.	eng
182319	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182319	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182319	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182320	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182320	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congochromis squamiceps</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182320	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182320	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182320	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182321	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182321	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus candens</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182321	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus candens</em> is a benthopelagic species. Stomach contents were composed of fine sand, plant debris, Hydracarians but especially Entomostracans (Cladocerans and Copepods) and small insect larvae (Chironomids, Simulids, Ephemerans) (Matthes 1964).	eng
182321	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182321	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182322	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182322	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from upper Guinea Rivers; Gambia, Geba, Taja, Moa, Mano, Loffa, St. Pauls, St. Johns, Nipoué and Tano rivers. However, its presence in Bia and several basins of Guinea must still be proven and its presence in Tano confirmed by other specimens.	eng
182322	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal in rivers	eng
182322	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182322	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182323	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182323	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is restricted to Benue River Cameroon (and possibly Nigeria) and the Mayo-Kebbi River Basin in Chad and the Chari system in Chad and the Central African Republic.	eng
182323	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 3.5 cm SL	eng
182323	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182323	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this species include mining and deforestation.	eng
182324	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182324	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Malapterurus stiassnyae is broadly distributed in This species is known from upper Guinean basins east of the Fouta Djalon uplands, from the Bofon River (Guinea) to the St. Paul River (Liberia). A single small specimen is verified from the Cavally basin, somewhat disjunct from the main distribution block as it is presently known.	eng
182324	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest specimen observed was 300 mm SL.	eng
182324	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182324	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this species include agricultural, mining, urban developments, deforestation and civil unrest (war).	eng
182325	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182325	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes longicauda </em> is known from the Dja and Sangha River basins. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Sanaga, Nyong, and Woleu-Ntem Rivers in Cameroon, as well as the Ivindo and Nyanga Rivers from Gabon.	eng
182325	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes longicauda</em> is a demersal species that feeds on invertebrates, fish eggs, Anura and even fish (Wyckmans <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
182325	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182325	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182326	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182326	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria thysi</em> is only known from the types from rapids above the Kiubo falls, Luifra River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182326	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182326	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182326	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182327	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182327	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic to Lower Guinea restricted to the Ogowe River basin (including the Ivindo River where it is found in sympatry with <em>Ivindomyrus opdenboschi</em>), the Rembo Nkomi River (small coastal River below the mouth of Ogowe River) and the Nyanga River.	eng
182327	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182327	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182327	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182328	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182328	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is reliably known only from the types locality, River Via, Saint Paul drainage in Liberia. It may also occur in the River Corubal, but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
182328	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182328	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182328	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.	eng
182329	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182329	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182329	conservation	da Costa, L., 2066	The species has no protection.	eng
182329	distribution	da Costa, L., 2066	Species present in the Congo River system. In Angola, the species occurs in the Longa River system.	eng
182329	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This clariid is widely distributed ranging from Cross River (Nigeria), Kribi and Lobi Rivers (South Cameroon), Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia, Botswana and Namibia.	eng
182329	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Kribi and Lobi (Cameroon), Komo and Ntem (Cameroon and Gabon) and the Ogowe Rivers (Gabon).	eng
182329	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias submarginatus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182329	habitat	da Costa, L., 2066	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.	eng
182329	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a small sized clariid. Lives in streams and in coastal mangrove marshes and swamps. Occasionally found in deep waters. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182329	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182329	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182329	population	da Costa, L., 2066	Population size is not known.	eng
182329	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Not known as the actual localities are not known.	eng
182329	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
182329	threats	da Costa, L., 2066	Threats are not known.	eng
182330	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182330	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182330	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182330	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coast, from Gambia to Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from the lower courses of large rivers and entire course of small coastal basins.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in coastal rivers from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
182330	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coast, from Gambia to Congo-Brazzaville. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the lower courses of large rivers and entire course of small coastal basins.	eng
182330	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Gambia to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. longipinnis</span> is distributed along the entire Atlantic coastal fringe, from Gambia to Congo.	eng
182330	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is generally found in the upper and lower reaches of big rivers and also in estuarine zones of mixohaline waters. It is the only <em>Brycinus</em> species known to penetrate small rivers and streams (Paugy 1990). Such specimens are always smaller than those found in large rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
182330	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus longipinnis</em> is generally found in the upper and lower reaches of big rivers and also in estuarine zones of mixohaline waters. It is the only <em>Brycinus</em> species known to penetrate small rivers and streams (Paugy 1990). Such specimens are always smaller than those found in large rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
182330	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is generally found in the upper as well as the lower river courses and may even occur in brackish waters of estuarine areas. This is the only <em>Brycinus </em>species that also inhabits the smaller water courses.	eng
182330	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No available data	eng
182330	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182330	population	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.	eng
182330	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182330	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182330	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182331	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182331	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182331	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Dja basin (Central Congo River basin, Cameroon) and Tibesti (Chad).	eng
182331	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad system and Tibesti.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Southern Cameroon and North Gabon forested area.	eng
182331	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from southern Cameroon and north Gabon forested areas, and possibly as far north as Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is widespread throughout Lower Guinea. Elsewhere, it is known from the Dja basin (Central Congo River basin, Cameroon).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Tibesti in the Chad system, though this record needs confirmation.	eng
182331	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182331	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182331	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182331	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182331	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat Loss and degradation due to water pollution.	eng
182331	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182331	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known in central Africa. Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution threatens the population in Chad.	eng
182332	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182332	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the lower Ogowe River in northwestern Gabon and in southern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182332	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus chalcopyrus</em> is found in forest brooks, usually in schools in faster flowing sections over sandy substrates. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182332	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182332	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
182333	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182333	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Lower Volta.	eng
182333	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182333	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182333	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.	eng
182334	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182334	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic from the Nyong River, Cameroon.	eng
182334	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis steindachneri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182334	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182334	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182335	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182335	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the type locality, Rivière Louvisi, affluent du Niari-Kouilou, Gabon.	eng
182335	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus semireticulatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 15.8 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182335	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182335	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182336	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182336	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Ghana in the rivers Ofin (Pra basin) and Ankobra, also collected in the Tano.	eng
182336	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. It prefers clear waters (Abban, pers. comm.).	eng
182336	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182336	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats posed to this fish species includes effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling in some of these areas may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments, as in the Densu river areas.	eng
182337	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182337	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Limited to mountain slope of the Guinean mountain ranges: Konkouré, Moa, Waenje Rivers and from the Kogon.	eng
182337	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum TL was recorded at 7.6 cm. It would replace <em>L. niloticus</em> in the Guinean zone.	eng
182337	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182337	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182338	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182338	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish occurs in southeast Sierra Leone in the middle and lower drainage systems of the Sewa and Moa rivers and in the drainage systems of the Mano, Lofa and Saint Paul rivers in southern Liberia	eng
182338	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in brooks, swamps, pools and small streams in the coastal rainforest. It is not a seasonal killifish. Maximum size: male 50 mm TL, female 45 mm TL.	eng
182338	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182338	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining.	eng
182339	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182339	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes laticeps</em> is known from the Central and from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182339	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182339	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182339	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182340	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182340	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182340	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrops caballus</em> is found in the Sanaga and the Nyong rivers of Cameroon. Elsewhere it occurs in west Africa, in the Benoué, the upper Niger and from several localities in Sierra Leone.	eng
182340	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Benue, Upper Niger, Konkouré, as well as from Rokel, Sewa and Jong (Sierra Leone).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">M. caballus</span> has been reported from the Sanaga and Nyong rivers (Cameroon)	eng
182340	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>M. caballus</em> is a demersal fish.	eng
182340	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182340	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182340	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182340	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Agricultural development and oil exploration (Nigeria)	eng
182340	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.	eng
182341	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation measures are implemented, although different regulations are in place.	eng
182341	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from Lake Tana.	eng
182341	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs especially over muddy and sandy substrates all over the lake, preferably in water deeper than 6 m. It is a benthivore that at larger size turns into a piscivore. Specimens smaller than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae. Molluscs and plant material become more important with increased size. When the fishes reach sizes of 25 cm FL or more, fish is their main food item, while also some plants and insect larvae are consumed.	eng
182341	population	Getahun, A., 2009	It is a rare species, although the size of the population is not known.	eng
182341	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of the fish resources is the major threat to the species.	eng
182342	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182342	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Xenocharax crassus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from coastal rivers from the Nyong to the Nyanga River in the Lower Guinea region.	eng
182342	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182342	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182342	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182343	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182343	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<em>Chiloglanis polypogon</em> is known only from the River Cross in Cameroon.	eng
182343	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182343	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No information available.	eng
182343	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known.	eng
182344	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182344	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182344	conservation	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
182344	distribution	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is found from Cameroon and Central African Republic to Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>   This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the Okavango, upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
182344	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is found from Cameroon and Central African Republic to Angola and Zambia. In southern Africa, the species is known from the Okavango, Upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
182344	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus miolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Okavango, Upper Zambezi, and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001).	eng
182344	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182344	habitat	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182344	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	<em>Barbus miolepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182344	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182344	population	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182344	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182344	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182344	threats	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
182344	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	Threats are unknown.	eng
182345	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182345	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in two distinct areas of distribution, one associated with the Mbam and Ndjim Rivers and the other in the Sanaga River system, but south of the Sanaga River itself. The zone separating these two areas of distribution is occupied by <em>Aphyosemion elberti</em> (north of the Sanaga River) and <em>Aphyosemion exiguum</em> (immediately south of the Sanaga River).	eng
182345	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Kathetys) dargei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182345	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182345	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion dargei</em> is currently threatened by sedimentation from slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging in the Mbam River.	eng
182346	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182346	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis splendens</em> is known from the Lower Congo, down to below the Inga hydroelectric dam.	eng
182346	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182346	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182346	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area.&#160;Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Congo River with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182347	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182347	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage systems of the Nyong, Lokundje and Kienke Rivers in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
182347	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) loennbergii</em> occurs in brooks, pools and small streams in the rain forest over soil derived from basement rock (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) loennbergii</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182347	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182347	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species population is declining due to agricultural plantations causing pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182348	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182348	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species falls within two Ramsar sites on the Cross river and the Hadejia-Jaamare River. The Hadejia-Jaamare River is also subject to a larger catchment management conservation initiative. The species range on the Cross river also falls within the Cross River National Park.	eng
182348	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The species falls within two Ramsar sites on the Cross river and the Hadejia-Jaamare River. The Hadejia-Jaamare River is also subject to a larger catchment management conservation initiative. The species range on the Cross river also falls within the Cross River National Park. Habitat maintenance and restoration is required, as is monitoring of population trends.	eng
182348	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Micralestes humilis</em> is known from Nigeria, and throughout the Congo to Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed within the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is found in the Cross Ntem, and Ogowe River basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this species is found in the Chad basin, Cross River and in the Benue River.	eng
182348	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes humilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, found in the Cross, Ntem, and Ogowe River basins. Elsewhere, known from the Niger, and Zambezi Rivers, and lakes Chad, Mweru, and Tanganyika.	eng
182348	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this species is found in the Chad basin, Cross River and in the Benue (Cameroon).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it occurs in the basins of the Zambezi and in Congo.	eng
182348	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182348	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182348	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This tetra is medium size characid. Non-migratory.	eng
182348	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available	eng
182348	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182348	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182348	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat degradation, especially due to oil exploration and habitat alteration following changes in water flow and long-term climatic change. Proliferation of the invasive <em>Typha</em> sp. has had a major impact through loss of habitat.	eng
182348	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Habitat degradation, especially due to oil exploration and habitat alteration following changes in water flow and long-term climatic change. Proliferation of the invasive <em>Typha</em> sp. has had a major impact through loss of habitat. It also has commercial value as an aquarium fish.	eng
182348	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182349	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182349	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin, (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia. Its range possibly extends into Somalia.<strong></strong>	eng
182349	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
182349	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Population size unknown but this is a rare and endemic species.	eng
182349	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182350	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182350	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Widely distributed from the River St. John (Liberia) to the Mono (Togo). Also reported by Daget and Iltis (1965) from the upper tributaries of the Baoulé (Niger basin). Specimens from the River Cross resemble <span style="font-style: italic;">A. atesuensis</span>, but differ from this species by their slightly longer head and the emarginate caudal fin. More material is needed to confirm the identity of these specimens.	eng
182350	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Guinea (Gbin River) and Sierra Leone to Ghana (Pra River). Also known from the St. John River in Liberia and the Mono River in Togo	eng
182350	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182350	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182351	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182351	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from Oriental Slope of Fouta Djalon in the upper reaches of the Gambia River, Baffing River, Little Scarcies River and the Niger. Possibly existing in the Occidental Slope.	eng
182351	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182351	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182351	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation.	eng
182352	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182352	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182352	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182352	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182352	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	None known.	eng
182352	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Labeo coubie</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is very widespread, occurring within the drainage basin of the river Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coast rivers. It is also known from East Africa and the middle reaches of the Congo. Not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage. It is rare in Lake Nasser.	eng
182352	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo coubie</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to Kisangani. Elsewhere, it is very widespread: it occurs within the drainage basin of the River Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coastal rivers. It is also known from eastern Africa. It is not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage.	eng
182352	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Murchison Nile, and Kingani.	eng
182352	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Known from Senegal to Volta and also from coastal basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Very widespread, occurs within the drainage basin of the river Nile (Blue, White, Lake Albert) and Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Sénégal and Gambia basins, Cross River. Also known from eastern Africa and the middle reaches of the Congo. Not reliably known from the Zambezi drainage (Tchibabawa 1997).	eng
182352	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a widespread species, known from Senegal to Ethiopia, with populations present also in the Nile, south to Lake Albert.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo coubie</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) to Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, Murchison Nile, and Kingani.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Niger-Benue, Volta, Senegal and Gambia basins, Cross River and Cameroon coastal rivers.	eng
182352	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo coubie</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers and lakes (Skelton 1993).	eng
182352	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Labeo coubie</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It inhabits rivers and lakes (Skelton 1993), particularly sheltered bays. It is a bottom feeder, on mud, plant debris and diatoms. Mature ovaries are voluminous and well developed in spring and summer.	eng
182352	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Inhabits rivers and lakes. A benthopelagic species.	eng
182352	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Inshore waters of Lake Albert particularly in sheltered bays	eng
182352	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This benthopelagic and potamodromous species inhabits inshore waters particularly sheltered bays, and rivers. It is a bottom feeder, on mud, plant debris and diatoms. Mature ovaries are voluminous and well developed in spring and summer. It reaches a length to 75 cm.	eng
182352	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
182352	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182352	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182352	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182352	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
182352	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	Limited information available, but this species is probably threatened by heavy fishing pressure. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182352	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182352	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182352	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182352	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is probably the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
182353	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182353	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris modestus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in upper Lualaba and Mweru-Luapua-Bangweulu system.	eng
182353	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris modestus</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182353	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182353	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182354	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182354	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish occurs in southeastern Guinea and northern Liberia, in the upper Niger River basin and in the upper parts of the Lofa, Saint Paul and Saint John river systems in Northern Liberia and southeastern Guinea.	eng
182354	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is found in brooks and small streams, not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium	eng
182354	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182354	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation and mining occur in Liberia	eng
182355	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182355	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius cuangoanus</em> is only known from a restricted area in the Kwango River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.  It is expected to be more widespread in the Kwango River basin though.	eng
182355	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182355	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182355	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182356	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182356	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182356	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is found in the Lake Chad drainage, the entire Niger River drainage (except the lower Niger, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kingsleyae</span>), the Senegal and Gambia Rivers and coastal drainages in Ghana, Togo and Côte d'Ivoire (Norris 2003).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Has a typical Nilo-Sudanian distribution. Also found in Cameroon, Gabon and the Nile.	eng
182356	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a widely distributed species, found from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and White Nile to Khartoum.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Lake Chad drainage, the entire Niger River drainage (except the lower Niger, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">C. kingsleyae</span>), the Senegal and Gambia Rivers and coastal drainages in Ghana, Togo and Côte d'Ivoire (Norris 2003).	eng
182356	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Inhabits marginal vegetation in streams, swamps, and floodplains. Browses on plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles, molluscs and debris.	eng
182356	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species inhabits marginal vegetation, swamps and floodplains. It spawns in the permanent and seasonal floodplain. They are browsers ingesting debris and plant tissues with ostracods, dipteran larvae, beetles and molluscs.	eng
182356	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182356	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182356	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182356	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182357	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182357	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus carens</span> is known from the Kouilou, Chiloango, Luali, Luculla, and Lebuzi basins (Eschmeyer 1998), and Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182357	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182357	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182357	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used).&#160; An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182358	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182358	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poecilothrissa centralis</em> is known from the region of Lake Tumba and the Ruki River. It is also known from the Congo River at Mbandaka and its nearby tributary, the Busira as far up as Bokungu on the Tshuapa branch.	eng
182358	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poecilothrissa centralis</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both still and running water. It seems to occur in rather acid waters.	eng
182358	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182358	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture.	eng
182359	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182359	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Notoglanidium pallidum</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182359	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182359	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182359	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known, but given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future. The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region.	eng
182360	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182360	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus alces</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, until Kasongo, Lualaba River.	eng
182360	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182360	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182360	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182361	conservation	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on this species' population range and numbers, and threats. Monitoring of population trends is also required.	eng
182361	distribution	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is known from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in northern Ewaso Nyiro. Information for its distribution in other parts of Eastern Africa are yet to be obtained.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is found in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia.	eng
182361	habitat	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
182361	population	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
182361	threats	Getahun, A., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	In northeastern Africa this species is threatened by dam building on Genale, and water extraction for irrigation.	eng
182362	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182362	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dundocharax bidentatus</em> is only known from the type locality Lucoge River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
182362	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dundocharax bidentatus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 2.4 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182362	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182362	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182363	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182363	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182363	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182363	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is known from Banana, Matadi and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, the species is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in the lower courses of the Cross River in Nigeria, the Kienké and Lobé rivers in Cameroon, coastal sites in the vicinity of Libreville, and from lower courses of river basins from the Kouilou to the Chiloango in the south. However, it is likely to be more widespread throughout the region. Elsewhere the species is reported from Senegal to Angola.	eng
182363	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in estuaries and other brackish-water environments, from Senegal to Nigeria. Occasionally entering freshwater. Migrates from the Niger Delta as far as the confluent of Niger and Benue at Lokoja.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.	eng
182363	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is reported from Senegal to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is known from Banana, Matadi and Malela, Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, the species is known from the Lower Guinea where it has been found in the lower courses of the Cross River in Nigeria, the Kienké and Lobé rivers in Cameroon, coastal sites in the vicinity of Libreville, and from lower courses of river basins from the Kouilou to the Chiloango in the south. However, it is likely to be more widespread throughout the region.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in estuaries and other brackish-water environments, from Senegal to Nigeria. It migrates from the Niger Delta as far as the confluent of Niger and Benue at Lokoja.	eng
182363	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is a brackish water fish that ascends into freshwater. It inhabits littoral waters (Maugé 1986). Its food items include small crabs (Miller and Wongrat 1990). This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997).	eng
182363	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bostrychus africanus</em> is found in littoral waters (Maugé 1986). Its food items include small crabs (Miller and Wongrat 1990). This species is demersal and amphidromous (McDowall 1997).	eng
182363	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a brackish water fish that ascends into freshwater. It inhabits littoral waters where it feeds on small crabs.	eng
182363	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182363	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182363	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182363	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182363	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182363	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182364	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182364	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amarginops platus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182364	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182364	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182364	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182365	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182365	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is widespread in the Sudanese region including the basins of the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta, Comoé, Bandama and Sassandra.	eng
182365	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus macinensis</em> is benthopelagic and potamodromous. Maximum size 5.0 cm SL	eng
182365	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182365	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182366	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182366	conservation	Akinyi, E. & T. Twongo, 2002	No information available.	eng
182366	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182366	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182366	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182366	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is present along the River Nile. Fish population used to increase during flood season before the construction of Aswan Dam. It is considered moderately common in the region.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present along the shores of Lake Nasser, Blue and White Nile, Senegal, Niger, Uganda, Gambia, Lakes Rudolf and Chad.	eng
182366	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Lake Albert [also known as Lake Mobutu Sese Seko], Lakes Turkana and Gandjule (Margherita) and West Africa. The records from Lake Mweru are possibly <em>Hydrocinus vittatus</em>.	eng
182366	distribution	Akinyi, E. & T. Twongo, 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, Nile, Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Senegal, Niger, Volta, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Cameroon, D. R.Congo, Ghana, Liberia, Chad, Sierra Leone, Benin	eng
182366	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species has a wider distribution area than other <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus</span> species since it occurs in both, the savannah as well as the forested areas. In western Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Nipoué (Cess), St. Paul, Mano, Little Scarcies, Gambia, and Senegal. Known distribution in Ghana: occurs in the Volta basin. Present in Black Volta, White Volta, Oti, Pru and Wawa. (Dankwa 1985). Has also been reported from the Pra River basin (Dankwa <span style="font-style: italic;">et al. </span>1999).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Otherwise also in the Nile, Lake Mobutu Sese Seko, Lakes Turkana and Gandjule (Margherita).	eng
182366	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species has a wider distribution area than other <em>Hydrocynus</em> species since it occurs in both, the savannah as well as the forested areas. It ranges from Senegal to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). The records from Lake Mweru are possibly <em>Hydrocinus vittatus</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is found along the River Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). The population used to increase during flood season before the construction of Aswan Dam.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ghazal and Jebel systems in Sudan, Tekeze and Setit in Eritrea, and the Rift lakes, and Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In West Africa it is found in the basins of the Chad, Niger/Benue, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Nipoué (Cess), St. Paul, Mano, Little Scarcies, Gambia, and Senegal.	eng
182366	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	An open water predator often found near the water surface, feeds mainly on fish and to a minor extent on insects, snail and shrimps. Spawning takes place most of the year. Its average length is 45 cm or more. Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during rains.	eng
182366	habitat	Akinyi, E. & T. Twongo, 2002	An open water shoaling predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow but also takes insects, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Cannibalistic. Preyed upon by fish eagle Haliaeetus vocifer (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during rains [Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988; see also Loubens 1973 (Tchad)] (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
182366	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species that forms shoals. It is an open water predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is cannibalistic. It is preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer</em> (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Affinities:  <em>H. vittatus</em>. It prefers streams.	eng
182366	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus forskahlii</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species that forms shoals. It is an open water predator often found near the water surface (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, shrimps, grass and snails (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is cannibalistic. It is preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer</em> (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning takes place most of the year.	eng
182366	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This freshwater fish is an open water predator often found near the water surface. It forms shoals and feeds on fishes, preferring long bodied fish as they are easier to swallow and also takes insects, grass and snails. Cannibalistic. Preyed upon by fish eagle <em>Haliaeetus vocifer. </em>Breeding migrations have been reported up several tributaries of Lake Kariba during the rains.	eng
182366	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	Limited information available. Commonly found in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan	eng
182366	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182366	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182366	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182366	population	Akinyi, E. & T. Twongo, 2002	No population estimates	eng
182366	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.	eng
182366	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	Bad agricultural practices in areas around the Volta may pose potential threats to this fish species. Increased sediments and levels of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can harmfully impact the ecosystems, and negatively affect the fish. Other potential problems include aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste. It is a commercially important fish species with heavy fishing pressure. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182366	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182366	threats	Akinyi, E. & T. Twongo, 2002	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
182366	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182367	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	It is found within Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
182367	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Within two National Parks of Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria and Korup in Cameroon.	eng
182367	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong></strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Chiloglanis disneyi</em> is known from the Ndian, Mungo and Cross River basins, western Cameroon. Paugy <em>et al.</em> (1994) mentioned the presence of <em>C. disneyi</em> in the Chad basin. However, it seems that this is a mistake (Paugy, pers. comm.).	eng
182367	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known only from the rivers Cross. It is also reported from Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is also known from the Mungo River in Cameroon.	eng
182367	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a very small mochokid catfish that is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. Non-migratory.	eng
182367	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a very small mochokid catfish that grows to 3.5 cm TL. This species is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. It is non-migratory.	eng
182367	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182367	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182367	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Dam construction, a potential threat, would lead to the elimination of its required habitat.	eng
182367	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Mungo river basin location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). Dam construction, a potential threat, would lead to the elimination of its required habitat	eng
182368	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no conservation measure in place; however water level management needs to be implemented.	eng
182368	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Geba River and other water bodies in Northern Ethiopia	eng
182368	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running waters in streams and rivers.	eng
182368	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not well known, however relatively abundant.	eng
182368	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Use of water for various purposes including irrigation impacts this species.	eng
182369	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182369	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Platyallabes tihoni</em> is known from the Kinsuka rapids downstream to Inga.	eng
182369	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Platyallabes tihoni</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182369	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182369	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential for mining in the area.	eng
182370	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182370	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon schoutedeni</em> is known from the type locality (Leopoldville, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is also known from Bayonga, middle Sangha River, Central Congo River basin. However it is a very distinctive species, it has not been found at other locations.	eng
182370	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetraodon schoutedeni</em> is a demersal species. It is found in large rivers (Roberts 1986), i.e. not a brackish water species. It feeds on benthic animals such as snails and worms. This species is solitary and is aggressive against conspecifics. Eggs are deposited on leaves and defended by the male. The male sometimes guards the clutch. Preferred Habitat : Streams,	eng
182370	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182370	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182371	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182371	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type localities in the region of Nguti in the River Mamfue, a tributary of the upper Cross River (Cameroon).	eng
182371	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Juveniles of <em>Etia nguti</em> were collected with beach seine in the shallow inshore zone in a water depth of few centimetres, adults in deeper water; juveniles prefer shallow water riffles with medium current, while adults congregate around submerged tree branches and rocky outcrops. It mainly feeds on detritus, occasionally on insects and plants. <em>Etia nguti</em> is a larvophilous mouth-breeder spawning in couples over open substrate. The female (rarely the male) incubates the fry. It is a benthopelagic species with a depth range from 0 - 2 m.	eng
182371	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182371	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182372	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182372	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys delhezi</em> is known from the Lower and Central (Coquilhatville (=Mbandaka), Bokuma and Bantoi) Congo River.	eng
182372	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182372	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182372	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182373	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182373	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma gracile</em> is known in the main channel of the Lower Congo from the Luozi region to the border of the Republic of Congo. It is probable that the type locality Matadi is in error and is the location from where the first specimens were shipped to Europe. No specimens of this species have been collected between Matadi and Luozi.	eng
182373	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182373	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182373	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182374	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182374	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus ghesquierei</em> is known from the Ruki, Busira and Tshuapa Rivers, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182374	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182374	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182374	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182375	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182375	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax procatopus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182375	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax procatopus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds on small invertebrates (Baencsh and Riehl 1997).	eng
182375	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182375	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182376	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182376	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga, Nyong, Kribi and Ivindo (Ogowe basin) Rivers. The species has a strange distribution pattern.	eng
182376	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182376	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182376	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182377	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182377	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus brichardi</em> is endemic to the Lower Congo River rapids.	eng
182377	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus brichardi</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rock crevices in a rapids area (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). This species is blind (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991).	eng
182377	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182377	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182378	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182378	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known by the type (type locality: Bahr Sara, Lake Chad system).	eng
182378	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic freshwater fish.	eng
182378	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182378	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182379	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182379	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lualabaensis</em> is known from the Lualaba River basin and the Lufira River, upper Congo River basin.	eng
182379	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo lualabaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182379	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182379	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182380	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182380	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus cardozoi</em> is known from the Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Luali, Lebuzi and Chiloango Rivers.	eng
182380	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus cardozoi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182380	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182380	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182381	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	None known.	eng
182381	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species occurs in several fresh water bodies of Ethiopia, including Lake Tana.	eng
182381	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running streams and rivers as well as some lakes (e.g. Lake Tana)	eng
182381	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is abundant where it is found.	eng
182381	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No major threats are known.	eng
182382	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Conservation of streams where <span style="font-style: italic;">A. natalensis </span>occur, e.g., control of water abstraction and stocking of <em>O. mykiss, is needed.</em>	eng
182382	conservation	Cambray, J., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	More research is required for this species. Conservation of streams where <em>A. natalensis</em> occurs, including control of water abstraction and stocking of <em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>, is needed.	eng
182382	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available	eng
182382	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Malawi; Ruo River.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>From lower Zambezi (Zimbabwe) to Natal Drakensburg (Umkomass system)	eng
182382	distribution	Cambray, J., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	The range of <em>Amphilius natalensis</em> falls mainly within South Africa, however it has been recorded as far north as Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  This species is found in Ruo River, Malawi, and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in escarpment streams from Umkomaas River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Ruo River, eastern Malawi. Two populations are known from Zimbabwe.	eng
182382	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from escarpment streams from Umkomaas River, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa north to the Ruo River, eastern Malawi. Two populations are known from Zimbabwe. It is described from the eastern Drakensberg mountains in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Numerous isolated populations in streams of the east coast mountain chain. It shows considerable geographical variation across its range.	eng
182382	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Inhabits fast flowing streams among rocks and stones. Noctunal feeder; feeds on benthic invertebrates. Breeds in summer	eng
182382	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Small mountain streams, rocky substrates and fast flows.	eng
182382	habitat	Cambray, J., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species inhabits fast flowing mountain streams among rocky substrates and stones. It is a nocturnal feeder; feeding on benthic invertebrates. It breeds in summer.	eng
182382	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182382	population	Cambray, J., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information is available.	eng
182382	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	Not known	eng
182382	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The main threats to the species are sedimentation, water abstraction, alien vegetation (pine plantations) and alien fish (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss).</em>	eng
182382	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is predation of other fishes.	eng
182382	threats	Cambray, J., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	Within eastern Africa this species is threatened by predation of other fishes. In southern Africa, potential threats include sedimentation, water abstraction, alien vegetation (pine plantations) and alien fish (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorhynchus mykiss</span>).	eng
182383	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182383	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax ocellicauda</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is known from the Lower Guinea region in the rivers of southeastern Cameroon.	eng
182383	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182383	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182383	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182384	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182384	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic occurring in the Ntem, Ogowe, Nyanga and Kouliou Rivers.	eng
182384	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus hypostomatus</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
182384	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182384	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182385	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182385	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the coastal basins of Cameroon (Sanaga, Lokunje, Kienke, and Ntem Rivers), the Río Muni of Equatorial Guinea, and the Ntem and Ivindo Rivers of Gabon.	eng
182385	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182385	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182385	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182387	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182387	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in the Gambia River, coastal basins of Guinea Bissau, Guinea, and from Sierra Leone and Liberia to the River St. John. It has also been found in the Sassandra, Bandama, Agnébi, Mé and Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), but is not known from other African basins	eng
182387	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 19.2 cm TL maximum size	eng
182387	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182387	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182388	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182388	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from the upper Casamance in Senegal to the River St. John in Liberia.	eng
182388	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a freshwater, demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 164 mm SL.	eng
182388	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182388	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is impacted by deforestation, human settlement and mining in one (Liberia) of its many locations	eng
182389	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution of this species.	eng
182389	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
182389	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Possibly present in Nigeria (locality not specified) and in the Kribi River in Cameroon - these records need confirmation.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Its distribution extends from the coastal area of Gabon from Libreville (Gabon) to Moanda (Lower Congo). It is also occurs in Angola. Possibly present in Nigeria (locality not specified) and in the Kribi River in Cameroon - these records need confirmation.	eng
182389	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in coastal areas from Libreville (Gabon) to Lower Congo (Moanda). It has also been reported from the Kribi River in Cameroon, but these records need to be verified.	eng
182389	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species. Able to survive anoxic conditions.	eng
182389	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species, able to survive anoxic conditions.	eng
182389	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182389	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182389	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182390	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182390	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
182390	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182390	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182390	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Research in to impacts is needed. Sustainable management of riverine fisheries will probably help this species. A catch and release policy for tourist anglers would also help.	eng
182390	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Research in to impacts is needed. Sustainable management of riverine fisheries will probably help this species. A catch and release policy for tourist anglers would also help.	eng
182390	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is rare in Lower Egyptian Nile (Cairo) and sometimes from Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Niger and Congo systems, Malagarazi River, Murchison Nile; Lake Edward, Gambia, Zambezi, Lakes Chad and Tanganyika.	eng
182390	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Niger, Senegal, Congo system, upper and middle Zambezi. It is also present in Lakes Tanganyika and Edward (Skelton 1993), Gambia and Benue River, Chad and Volta basins, and the coastal basins of Guinea to Nigeria (Teugels 1992). In Lower Guinea, known form the Cross and Sanaga in Cameroon, and the Ogowe in Gabon.	eng
182390	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika, Malagarasi River, Lake Rukwa drainage, Rufiji and Wami, Lower Shire River, Lake Rukwa system, Lake Edward, Murchision Nile, and Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Tchad, Congo basin, upper Senegal, Niger, Chad and Volta basins, and the coastal basins of Guinea to Nigeria.	eng
182390	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Gambia, Upper Senegal, Niger, Benue, Lake Chad, Volta and coastal basins from Guinea to Nigeria, including the delta of Niger and the Cross River. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in the Nile, Congo system, upper and middle Zambezi. Also from Lakes Tanganyika and Edward. (Skelton 1993).	eng
182390	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Middle and Lower Zambezi and north into central Africa. New records of a <span style="font-style: italic;">Heterobranchus</span> from the Rovuma River.	eng
182390	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a very wide-ranging species with an almost Pan Africa distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.  In Lower Guinea, it occurs in the Cross and Sanaga in Cameroon, and the Ogowe in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Lake Tanganyika, Malagarasi River, Lake Rukwa drainage, Rufiji and Wami, Lower Shire River, Lake Rukwa system, Lake Edward, Murchision Nile, and Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower Egyptian Nile (Cairo) and sometimes from This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan), as well as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan. It is also known from Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from middle and lower Zambezi and north into central Africa. There are also new records of a <em>Heterobranchus</em> from the Rovuma River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Gambia, This species is known from upper Senegal, Niger, Benue, Lake Chad, Volta and coastal basins from Guinea to Nigeria, including the delta of Niger and the Cross River.	eng
182390	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	A main channel species, little is known about this species' ecology or population numbers.	eng
182390	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	An uncommon species which inhabits large rivers. Occurs in large deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. In southern Africa, most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. Scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. Live for 12 or more years (Skelton 1993).	eng
182390	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is uncommon and inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species is the largest freshwater species in southern Africa. It occurs in large, deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. It scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. (Skelton 1993).	eng
182390	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is uncommon and inhabits large rivers (Eccles 1992). This species is the largest freshwater species in southern Africa. This species is found in quiet waters with deep pools and stretches, not necessarily associated with vegetation, in larger waterways and main river channels (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1990). <em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> is an onmivorous scavenger most active at night, feeding on any available food, including invertebrates and insects when small, fish and other small vertebrates when large. It scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages. (Skelton 1993). It under goes a spawning migration from the normal dry season habitat into the tributary rivers and floodplains during the rainy season (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1990), eggs and juveniles found among plants roots in shallow water. It lives for 12 or more years. It is caught from deep water by trammel or sinking gill-nets.	eng
182390	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Hanssens, M., 2004	Found in quiet waters with deep pools and stretches, not necessarily associated with vegetation, in larger waterways and main river channels (Teugels <em>et al. 1990). An omnivorous scavenger and will eat anything small enough to fit into its massive jaws, including aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates, plants mud etc. (Teugels <em>et al. 1990). Under goes a spawning migration from the normal dry season habitat into the tributary rivers and floodplains during the rainy season (Teugels <em>et al. 1990).<br/>Max Size: 1170 mm (Teugels <em>et al. 1990).</em></em></em></em>	eng
182390	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in large deep rivers within the mainstream or in deep pools and lakes. It feeds on invertebrates, insects or any available food when small, fish and other vertebrates when large. The species is most active at night. It breeds in summer, eggs and juveniles found among plants roots in shallow water. It lives for 12 or more years. It is caught from deep water by trammel or sinking gill-nets. It reaches a maximum length of 1.5 m.	eng
182390	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182390	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182390	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182390	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182390	population	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is uncommon, although exact population size is unknown.	eng
182390	population	Kazembe, J. &  Hanssens, M., 2004	Unknown.	eng
182390	threats	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> has recently been introduced in the aquaculture. The species has declined through much of its range. Perhaps the major threat is unregulated and expanding gill-net fisheries and angling. In eastern Africa populations are threatened by potential overfishing, and loss of wetland habitat. In northern Africa, general threats include dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182390	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterobranchus longifilis</em> has recently been introduced into aquaculture.	eng
182390	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182390	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182390	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are potential overfishing and loss of wetland habitat.	eng
182390	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has declined through much of its range. Perhaps the major threat is unregulated and expanding gill-net fisheries and angling.	eng
182391	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182391	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Wagenia falls (Stanley Falls). Additional recent records from the Lower Congo have been confirmed.	eng
182391	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis congicus</em> is a benthopelagic species, adapted to rapids. It is oviparous has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182391	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182391	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182392	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182392	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo falcipinnis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Kasai River and Kisangani (Central Congo River basin), and from the Lualaba system.	eng
182392	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo falcipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182392	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182392	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182393	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182393	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the rivers of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182393	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182393	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182393	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182394	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182394	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus teugelsi</span> has been found only from the Kogon River system in Guinea.	eng
182394	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest specimen examined is 212 mm SL.	eng
182394	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182394	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known.	eng
182395	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182395	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis aterrimus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Lukenie systems.	eng
182395	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis aterrimus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182395	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182395	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182396	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182396	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the type locality near Song Mahi, in tributries to the Nyong River on the eastern edge of the coastal plain at the foot of the Ngovayang Hills, which form the western edge of the southern Cameroon Plateau in western Cameroon.	eng
182396	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion heinemanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in clear forest brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) heinemanni</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182396	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182396	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182397	conservation	Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182397	distribution	Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found in Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the lower reaches of the Athi and Tana River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in Juba (Wabishebelle-Benadir), Somalia	eng
182397	habitat	Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182397	population	Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information.	eng
182397	threats	Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182398	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182398	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis smiti</em> is known from the Central and from the upper Congo River basin, from the Ubangui and the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) and from the Lualaba Rivers respectively.	eng
182398	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis smiti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182398	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182398	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182399	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182399	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis nudiceps</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182399	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis nudiceps</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on Entomostracans and insect larvae (Matthes 1964).	eng
182399	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182399	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182400	conservation	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182400	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182400	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182400	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Xenomystus nigri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from just upstream Kisangani. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the Wouri River, Cameroon and in the Ogowe River and coastal drainages in Gabon. Within the West Africa region, <em>Xenomystus nigri</em> has been reported from Sierra Leone, Liberia, and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile. It is apparently absent from the Volta, and from Ivory Coast (Roberts 1992).	eng
182400	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Within western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystus nigri</span> has been reported from Sierra Leone (Lake Kwarko Krim and River Gbap), Liberia (Farmington Lake), Togo (Togble-Kope River, Kelegougan flood plain), and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it is known from the Nile, Congo and Ogowe basins.	eng
182400	distribution	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species has a scattered distribution from Sierra Leone to Angola and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Xenomystus nigri</em>i is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from just upstream Kisangani. It is known from the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the Wouri River, Cameroon and in the Ogowe River and coastal drainages in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Bahr el Jebel system, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>Within Western Africa, Xenomystus nigri has been reported from Sierra Leone (Lake Kwarko Krim and River Gbap), Liberia (Farmington Lake), Togo (Togble-Kope River, Kelegougan flood plain), and from Benin to Nigeria and the Chad basin.	eng
182400	habitat	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	A demersal species, it prefers quiet waters rich in vegetation in streams and lakes. It is a predator feeding on invertebrates. Has a modified airbreathing organ so can survive in polluted or deoxygenated conditions. Can produce barking sounds. Comes to the surface from time to time to swallow air. Feeds at dusk and during the night on worms, crustaceans, insects and snails (Mills and Vevers 1989). Although this fish, with its reduced pelvic fins, long anal fin and loss of dorsal fin superficially resembles gymnotiform electric fishes of South America, it does not have any specializations for generation of electric currents in water. Nevertheless, <em>Xenomystus</em> does possess electroreceptors of the ampullary type which it apparently uses for sensing prey (Braford 1982).	eng
182400	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Although this fish, with its reduced pelvic fins, long anal fin and loss of dorsal fin superficially resembles gymnotiform electric fishes of South America, it does not have any specializations for generation of electric currents in water. Nevertheless, <span style="font-style: italic;">Xenomystus </span>does possess electroreceptors of the ampullary type which it apparently uses for sensing prey (Braford, 1982). Demersal. Prefers quiet waters with vegetation. Females lay 150-200 eggs of 2 mm diameter (Riehl and Baensch 1991). Can produce barking sounds. Comes to the surface from time to time to swallow air. Feeds at dusk and during the night on worms, crustaceans, insects and snails (Mills and Vevers 1989). Preferred Climate: tropical. Preferred Habitat:  Streams and lakes.	eng
182400	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species prefers quiet waters rich in vegetation in streams and lakes. Predator feeding on invertebrates. Has a modified airbreathing organ so can survive in polluted or de-oxygenated conditions. Non-migratory.	eng
182400	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data..	eng
182400	population	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182400	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182400	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182400	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major threats to this hardy species.	eng
182400	threats	Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a hardy species, but it does have commercial importance as an aquarium fish.	eng
182401	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
182401	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2006	This species has a fairly large extent of occurrence, occurring throughout the Lake Turkana drainage (Turkwell, Kerio and Kalakol Rivers) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003) and Lake Albert and Edward systems (Bannister 1987). It has also been recorded from the Lake Turkana drainage as <em>Barbus werneri</em> Boulenger, 1905, a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
182401	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
182401	population	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
182401	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2006	No known threats.	eng
182402	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182402	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Chiloango basin (Cabinda), Kouilou-Niari and Lower Loeme (Congo), and the Nyanga basin and This species is known from upper Ngounie River in Gabon.	eng
182402	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chilochromis duponti</em> feeds primarily on aquatic vegetation (mostly algae) but also minor quantities of small insects. It is a typical substratum spawner. The species is aggressive in captivity (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182402	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182402	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182403	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy), however this species would benefit from improved management plans, and habitat restoration.	eng
182403	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality, the River Subin (Pra basin) in Ghana.	eng
182403	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182403	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182403	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.	eng
182404	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182404	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from upper Gambia River, Niger and from upper Senegal (Téné) system.	eng
182404	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182404	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182404	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include dams and habitat loss, and degradation due agriculture and its pollution.	eng
182405	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182405	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys ornatus</em> is widespread in the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
182405	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys ornatus</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on larvae of aquatic insects and fish. The juveniles feed mainly on small larvae and Entomostacans (Matthes 1964).	eng
182405	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182405	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182406	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182406	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius leopoldianus</em> is known from the central Congo River basin.	eng
182406	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182406	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182406	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182407	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182407	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found on the slopes of the southern Cameroon Plateau between the Nyong and the Sanaga Rivers. The present distribution is probably relict.	eng
182407	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion raddai</em> occurs in the quiet parts of rainforest brooks on the slopes of the southern Cameroon Plateau. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks in the rainforest of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986).<em></em>	eng
182407	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182407	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182408	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182408	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga River basin (Cameroon). It is supposed to have a wider distribution than currently known.	eng
182408	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus seiteri</em> is a demersal species. It inhabits slow streams with sandy bottoms (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
182408	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182408	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal region.	eng
182409	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.	eng
182409	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the Mamfue River in the upper Cross basin. It is found in two clusters of populations. One near Tinto Mbu on the roads to Bajok, Dongwi and Tali. The other at about 18 km distance near Etuku and Bayenti.	eng
182409	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopleagic species.	eng
182409	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182409	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182410	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	WWF and WCS have introduced sustainable fishing practices to the region.	eng
182410	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dolichallabes microphtalmus</em> is known from the Central Congo River system (Kunungu, Bolobo, Boende and from the Tshuapa River at Bokuma) (Devaere <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has also been found a few kilometres above Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M, pers. obs.). In Lower Guinea, it is known from Mayumba, Tshela region, the Chiloango River system.	eng
182410	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dolichallabes microphtalmus</em> is a demersal species. It is polyphagous and the stomach contents contained sand, debris of plants, different little invertebrates and numerous aquatic larvae (Matthes 1964).	eng
182410	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182410	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the rivers on the border of the Salonga National Park, fishing is now allowed throughout the whole length, but at a sustainable level.	eng
182411	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182411	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species was first described from Corbal River in Guinea Bissau. It has been reported later from the Niger basin, near Kouroussa (Guinea), in Lake Kainji and Ogun River (Nigeria ).	eng
182411	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species living in rivers and lakes feeding on insects. It is non-migratory.	eng
182411	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182411	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to urbanisation, agriculture and deforestation.	eng
182412	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182412	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Psammphiletria nasuta</em> is currently only known from the Ubangui River upstream of Bangui (near Banda and at Isle Basiki), Central African Republic (Roberts 2003). It is expected to be more widespread.	eng
182412	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Psammphiletria nasuta</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.	eng
182412	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182412	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182413	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182413	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis lifalili</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin, except from the Shaba (Katanga) and Kasaï regions.	eng
182413	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis lifalili</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is absent from rapids and swampy habitats (Daget and Teugels 1991).	eng
182413	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182413	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is diamond mining activity in Kasai occidental which blocks rivers by a repeating process of damming. The diamond is dug out of the river bed.	eng
182414	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182414	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemistichodus mesmaekersi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182414	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182414	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182414	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182415	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182415	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus pygmaeus</em> is only known from the type locality at Yaekama, Central Congo River stream, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182415	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus pygmaeus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182415	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182415	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182416	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). The restoration of habitat is needed.	eng
182416	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the Niger, the Benue and the Volta.	eng
182416	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182416	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182416	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil spills in the Lower Niger basin. In the northern basins deforestation and bad agricultural practices are the main threats. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weed invasion, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species.	eng
182417	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182417	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys cranchii</em> is known from throughout the Congo and Lualaba River system.	eng
182417	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys cranchii</em> is found only in lakes and large rivers, on rocky bottoms or between tree stumps or branches (Matthes 1964).	eng
182417	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182417	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182418	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182418	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Citharinus macrolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded).	eng
182418	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182418	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182418	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182419	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Lake Bangweulu is situated in the Kasanka National Park.	eng
182419	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis bangwelensis</em> is known from the Luapula River, Lake Bangweulu, and the Lukulu and Chambeshi Rivers in Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia.	eng
182419	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis bangwelensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its predominant food is the lake-fly in its larval aquatic stages (Jackson 1961). It is a female mouthbrooder, breeding occurs during the rainy seasons and the young, a favourite prey for the tiger-fish, keep closer inshore among <em>Eleocharis</em> reed and other vegetation (Jackson 1961). Young fish still attached to the yolk sac can be found in the mouth of a parent which is at the verge of spawning again (Soulsby 1960).	eng
182419	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182419	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
182420	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182420	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. ussheri</span> occurs in different basins of Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and in the Ouémé.	eng
182420	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 30.5 cm SL.	eng
182420	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182420	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
182421	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182421	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes simeonsi</em> is only known from the type localities on the Uele, Mosongolia, Mehokpa and Matanga Rivers.	eng
182421	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182421	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182421	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing on the Central Congo River mainstream and mining for gold in the Ibembo region pose threats to this species.	eng
182422	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182422	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is endemic to sulphur lakes, springs and connecting canals of Northern Libya. It has been recorded from Ain el-Braghi near Agheila (Sirtica), Libya (30°N, 19°E) (Lazar 2001).	eng
182422	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is found in sulphur lakes, springs and connecting canals.	eng
182422	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182422	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182423	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182423	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mediosquamatus</em> is known from the type localities at the Luachimo River and from the Lukoge River in Angola, upper Kasai, Central Congo River basin. Recent collections in the Lulua River (Kasai) confirm the presence of the species there also.	eng
182423	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mediosquamatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 6.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182423	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182423	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182424	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.	eng
182424	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus cassaicus</em> is only known from two type specimens from the Luachimo River at Dundo and from one specimen from Lusambo, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182424	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182424	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182424	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182425	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182425	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Duboisialestes bifasciatus</em> is known from the Ruki and Tsuapa Rivers and from the Sangha basin, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from Lake Tumba.	eng
182425	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182425	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182425	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182426	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182426	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe (Louetsi, Ngounie) River basin and Nyanga River in southwestern Gabon, Kouliou River (Getahun <em>et al.</em> 2004) and Tchibanga Region in Gabon (Getahun <em>et al.</em> 2004), and the Kouilou system in Congo.	eng
182426	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182426	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182426	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182427	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182427	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the Niger basin, including the Benue. The specimens reported from the Ouémé by Poll (1971) belong to <em>S. melanopterus</em>.	eng
182427	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 39.7 cm TL. Recorded size at maturity is 20.1 cm TL for female and 22.4 cm TL for male in Kainji Lake in Nigeria.	eng
182427	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182427	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182428	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182428	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal lowlands of northwestern Gabon and southern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182428	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus ngaensis</em> is found in flowing waters in creeks under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Plataplochilus ngaensis</em> occurs in small streams, brooks and swamps in drainage systems. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182428	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182428	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182429	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182429	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brachypetersius huloti</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been found in Boma, Lower Congo River. Additional specimens from the Foulakari River  and in the Lower Congo main channel near the mouth of the Foulakari River (AMNH) further indicate its presence in the Lower Congo.	eng
182429	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182429	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182429	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182431	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182431	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ivindo system in eastern Gabon and the Ogowe system in the vicinity of Okondja.	eng
182431	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
182431	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182431	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Ivindo drainage, the species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.	eng
182432	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182432	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Kribia leonensis</span> is known from Sierra Leone (records from Moa, Wanje and Sewa).	eng
182432	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a demersal fish of maximum size reported: 37 mm TL	eng
182432	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182432	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Urban developments and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
182433	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
182433	conservation	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	None known.	eng
182433	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182433	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J.,  Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B.,  Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. This species needs (and is undergoing) taxonomic revision. Population trends should be monitored, and policy-based action may be needed to control exploitation. Habitat maintenance may also be required.	eng
182433	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J.,  Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B.,  Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is widely distributed across the southern half of Africa, from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia, to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The distribution of this species in the Congo River Basin is limited to the Central and This species is known from upper regions (Tshibwabwa 1997). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is widespread in east Africa, and is present in the Pangani drainage, Athi River system (including Tsavo drainage), Galana system, This species is known from upper Tana, Northern Ewaso Nyiro basin, Lake Baringo system, Lake Bogoria (affluents), Turkwell and Kerio system (Turkana drainage), Suguta drainage.  It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi. It occurs as a rarity in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also distributed in Lakes Malawi, Chuita and Chilwa Shire River, and the middle and lower Zambezi system. Boulenger (1903) reported this species from the Lumi River (Pangani drainage) as <em>Labeo montanus</em> (Günther, 1889), a junior synonym (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Baro River and Rift lakes of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from the Phongolo River in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001), South Africa, north into the Congo.	eng
182433	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> The distribution of <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> in the Congo River Basin is limited to the Central and Upper regions (Tshibwabwa 1997). Elsewhere, it is widespread in the eastern African rivers south through the Zambezi system and east coastal drainages to the Phongolo system in northern KwaZulu-Natal (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi.	eng
182433	distribution	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Pangani drainage, Athi River system (including Tsavo drainage), Galana system, Upper Tana, Northern Ewaso Nyiro basin, Lake Baringo system, Lake Bogoria (affluents), Turkwell and Kerio system (Turkana drainage), Suguta drainage. Occurs as a rarity in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). also distributed in Lakes Malawi, Chuita and Chilwa Shire River, and the middle and lower Zambezi system. Boulenger (1903) reported this species from the Lumi River (Pangani drainage) as Labeo montanus (Günther 1889), a junior synonym (Seegers et al, unpublished).	eng
182433	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species is widespread in southern and eastern Africa from the Phongolo River in South Africa north into the Congo.	eng
182433	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J.,  Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B.,  Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> favours clear, running waters in rocky habitats of small and large rivers, also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. Also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. It feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> also feeds on `aufwuchs' from the surface of rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> swims upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993). It is mainly caught when migrating up streams from the lake to spawn. Populations in Lake Malawi have a well marked breeding season in December. The breeding season is very short and the eggs are laid among the rocks. In Malawi it is reported that there are both permanent riverine populations and lacustrine populations.	eng
182433	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> favours clear, running waters in rocky habitats of small and large rivers, also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. It feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> also feeds on `aufwuchs' from the surface of rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. <em>Labeo cylindricus</em> swims upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993).	eng
182433	habitat	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	Occurs in both sediment-free and sediment-rich rocky biotopes but favours clear, running water in rocky habitats of small and large rivers. Also found in lakes and dams over rocky areas. Feeds on diatoms and other small algae from the rocks (Konings 1990). Also feeds on 'aufwuchs' from the surface rocks, tree trunks and other firm surfaces. Migrates upstream in masses to breed, using the mouth and broad pectorals to climb damp surfaces of barrier rocks and weirs (Skelton 1993) (after Froese and Pauly 2003). It is mainly caught when migrating up streams from the lake to spawn. Populations in Lake Malawi have a well marked breeding season in December. The  breeding season is very short and the eggs are laid among the rocks. In Malawi it is reported that there are both permanent riverine populations and lacustrine populations. It reaches a length of 40 cm  and 1kg  in Lake Malawi (this is larger than the 23 cm and 0.9 kg reported in the southern African part of its range).  It grows to a smaller size in rivers reaching a maximum of about 30 cm in length.	eng
182433	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Typically found in fast flowing, rocky sections of rivers and streams. Abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
182433	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Abundant in suitable rocky fast flowing habitats.	eng
182433	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J.,  Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B.,  Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	Little information was available on population status. Abundant in suitable rocky fast flowing habitats in southern Africa. It is, however, assumed to be in decline in eastern Africa due to the many threats identified. It is rare in the fisheries around Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182433	population	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	Little information was available on population status. It is, however, assumed to be in decline due to the many threats identified. It is rare in the fisheries around Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182433	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182433	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is used as an algae grazer in public aquariums.	eng
182433	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J.,  Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B.,  Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Labeo cylindricus</em> is used as an algae grazer in public aquariums, as well as collected as a food source. Its habitat is being degraded by sedimentation from agricultural practices.	eng
182433	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
182433	threats	G. Ntakimazi & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are the high fishing effort using illegal gears across rivers (over-exploitation), siltation (sedimention) and pollution, affecting spawning substrates (water turbidity due to erosion on river basins).	eng
182434	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182434	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is known from the Dja system of the upper Sangha drainage (central Congo River basin) in southeastern Cameroon. In Lower Guinea found in the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and This species is known from upper Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, in eastern Equatorial Guinea and in the Ivindo basin of northern Gabon and northwestern Congo.	eng
182434	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of shallow brooks and small streams under dark forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182434	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182434	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182435	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182435	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Nigeria in the Lower Delta area. It is known from Southwestern Nigeria (Umuyara Mba at Etche to the Imo basin and the River New Calabar).	eng
182435	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species with a max SL 9.3cm. It prefers rivers and coastal lagoons. It is non-migratory.	eng
182435	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182435	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Throughout its range the habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria.	eng
182436	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182436	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microstomatichthyoborus bashforddeani</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin until Kindu on the Lualaba River.	eng
182436	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182436	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182436	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182437	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182437	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis pulcher</em> is known from Lakes Tumba and Mai-N'Dombe, from the mainstream Central Congo River and from the Kasaï and Tshuapa River systems.	eng
182437	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is mainly found in lakes and surrounding swamps and seasonally inundated forests (Stiassny 1989). This species is primarily a benthic macrophage (Stiassny 1989) and feeds upon larger particles, plants as well as insects (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182437	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182437	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182438	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182438	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus decemmaculatus</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. Recently, it has been found in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (pers. obs. Victorine Mbadu).	eng
182438	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182438	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182438	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182439	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182439	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria kissi</em> is only known from the Luhoho River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182439	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 11.5 cm (Poll 1984).	eng
182439	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182439	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182440	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182440	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus christyi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin (Matadi), from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Kasai and Fimi Rivers, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182440	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182440	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182440	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182441	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182441	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from a restricted area around N’Zérékore in southeastern Guinea in the upper drainage systems of the Saint John/Mani and Saint Paul/Oulé rivers.	eng
182441	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	A non-migratory and benthopelagic fish. The species inhabits the quiet parts of brooks and streams. Maximum size 7.0 cm TL	eng
182441	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182441	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from water pollution due to mining and untreated sewage	eng
182442	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182442	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax angolensis</em> is known from the Kwango and Kasai River systems, Central Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
182442	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax angolensis</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182442	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182442	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182443	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182443	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius friteli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.	eng
182443	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182443	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182443	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182444	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182444	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nanochromis teugelsi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, Kasai drainage and Congo River main channel, region from the Kasai River to Lake Tumba (Lamboj and Schelley 2006).	eng
182444	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182444	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182444	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182445	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182445	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys nigrolateralis</em> is only known from its type locality, Tchimenji River, Kasai River system, Central Congo River basin, northeastern Angola.	eng
182445	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182445	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182445	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182446	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182446	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is now Regionally Extinct, but used to be found in Cairo during flood-time.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in Bahr el Jebel, White Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the basins, of Chad, Niger (plus Benue), Senegal and Gambia.	eng
182446	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species that swims upside down with its belly facing upwards. Its specific name "batensoda" means in Arabic, black belly. A surface feeder, feeds floating organisms i.e. mosquitoes, chironomid larvae and pupae, sometimes feeds on bottom organisms. It is provided with a well developed sieving apparatus enabling it to feed on planktonic and floating organisms.	eng
182446	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182446	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182447	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182447	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182447	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax ansorgii</em> is known from the Ubangui River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it occurs mainly in the upper basins of the rivers Senegal and Gambia, in the Géba and Culufi (Guinea Bissau), Waanje (Sierra Leone), Niger (and Benue) and Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire), Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire/Burkina Faso), Volta (Burkina Faso/Ghana), Pra (Ghana) and Chari-Logone (Chad-Cameroon-Central African Republic).	eng
182447	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax ansorgii</em> is found in the Ubangui River basin in the Democratic Republic of Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs mainly in the upper basins of the rivers Senegal and Gambia, in the Géba and Culufi (Guinea Bissau), Waanje (Sierra Leone), Niger (and Benue) and Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire), Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire/Burkina Faso), Volta (Burkina Faso/Ghana), Pra (Ghana) and Chari-Logone (Chad-Cameroon-Central African Republic).	eng
182447	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic and potamodromous species.	eng
182447	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species that prefers tropical climate.	eng
182447	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182447	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182447	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In central Africa, this species has commercial value as an aquarium fish. Oil exploration in Nigeria, agricultural, urban developments and deforestation all threaten this species in western Africa.	eng
182447	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182448	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182448	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and upper Kasai systems.	eng
182448	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus weeksii</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.	eng
182448	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182448	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182449	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182449	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Niari-Kouilou, Nyanga and Ogowe in Gabon.	eng
182449	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brichardi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.0 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182449	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182449	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182450	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182450	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the hilly area  south of the Sanaga River, from several kilometres east of Edea to about 50 km south of Edea between the Sanaga and the Nyong Rivers in western Cameroon.	eng
182450	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion edeanum</em> inhabits small bodies of water under rain forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) edeanum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182450	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182450	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the southern part of its distribution, the species is threatened oil palm plantations.	eng
182451	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182451	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Species present in most of the coastal river basins from the Cess/Nipoué as western distribution border and certainly up to the Volta and questionably up to the Niger river basin as the eastern distribution border.	eng
182451	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182451	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182451	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182452	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182452	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus orycteropus</em> is only known from the type locality, Pweto, Lake Mweru and from the rapids in he Lualaba River, km 47 on the route Kisangani-Wanie Rukula.	eng
182452	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182452	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182452	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182453	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182453	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182453	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	None known.	eng
182453	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182453	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, J. Cambray, 2006	The species has some protection in reserves such as Kafue National Park.	eng
182453	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves such as Kafue National Park. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182453	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is assessed as Regionally Extinct. It used in to be found and caught from Luxor and Aswan in Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is widely distributed in tropical Africa including Sudan, Niger and Congo.	eng
182453	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross and Sanaga Rivers.  Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger, Zambezi, Okavango Rivers, and Lakes Kariba, Turkana, Tanganyika. It is also known from east coast rivers in southern Africa.	eng
182453	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire river (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Rovuma River.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, and east coast rivers south of Phongolo.  Throuout the Zaire (Congo) system.	eng
182453	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Found in the Niger and Cross Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere, occurring in the Sanaga, Congo, Zambezi, Okavango Rivers, and Lakes Kariba, Turkana, Tanganyika (Schaefer in press).	eng
182453	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, J. Cambray, 2006	The species has been recorded from Congo and Zambezi River systems, including the Cunene and Okavango, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). This species is the only characin found in the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi system in Zambia (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>	eng
182453	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a widespread species, found from Sudan to South Africa, and westerly as far as east Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including Lakes Kariba and Tanganyika. In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross and Sanaga Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979) and Rovuma Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It used in to be found and caught from Luxor and Aswan in Egyptian Nile, but is now extirpated from the region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Ghazal el Jebel systems, White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from Congo and Zambezi systems, including the Cunene and Okavango, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo (Skelton 2001). This species is the only characin found in the northern tributaries of the upper Zambezi system in Zambia (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).	eng
182453	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Common in water with fringing vegetation. Omnivorous, feeding on zooplancton and insects. After first summer rains, this species moves in shoals and migrates upstream to breed throughout the summer months.  It matures after a year and lives for 3 years.This species is not represented in the commercial catches of the Shire river.	eng
182453	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It forms shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. Common in water with fringing vegetation. It appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskalii</em> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects. Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). They mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months. Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike (Skelton 1993).	eng
182453	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes acutidens</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It forms shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. It appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <em>Hydrocynus forskalii</em> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects.  Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). They mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female.  Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months.  Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike (Skelton 1993) Its prefered habitats are streams, neritic, lakes and mangroves.	eng
182453	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It shoals in clear, flowing or standing open water. Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects and zooplankton. Matures after year and lives for about 3 years. It is a partial spawner and its fecundity is moderate, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. The fish does not exceed a length of 9.5 cm.	eng
182453	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic in streams in lakes. Shoals in clear, flowing or standing, open water. Potamodromous. Omnivorous, often feeding from surface waters on winged insects. Also takes insect larvae, crustaceans and eggs and fry of other fish. Mature after a year. A partial spawner of moderate fecundity, with usually fewer than 700 eggs per female. Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains; breeds throughout the summer months. Used as forage fish and as bait for tigerfish and pike.<br/><br/>Appears to co-exist with the tigerfish <span style="font-style: italic;">Hydrocynus forskalii</span> in open water although it is heavily preyed upon by that predator, particularly those shoals of tigerfish ranging up to 45 cm in length.	eng
182453	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, J. Cambray, 2006	Rivers, streams and impoundments. Shoals in clear, flowing or standing open water. Omnivorous, often feeding at the surface on winged insects, also takes zooplankton (Skelton 2001). Shoals migrate upstream after first summer rains, a partial spawner, breeding throughout the summer months.	eng
182453	population	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Limited information. Numerous in suitable habitats.	eng
182453	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information.	eng
182453	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182453	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182453	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Not known	eng
182453	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, J. Cambray, 2006	Numerous in suitable habitats.	eng
182453	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, J. Cambray, 2006	None known.	eng
182453	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182453	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is ovefishing with small meshed gears.	eng
182453	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182453	threats	Azeroual, A., Bills, R., Cambray, J., Entsua-Mensah, M., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by overfishing with small meshed gears.	eng
182453	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown	eng
182454	conservation	Akinyi, E., Bayona, J. & Twongo, T., 2002	No information available.	eng
182454	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182454	conservation	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182454	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182454	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis frontosus</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>Globally, it can be found in the Nile basin, Rudolf, Albert, Edward and Kyoga Lakes; Chad basin; and Ubi Gibe.	eng
182454	distribution	Akinyi, E., Bayona, J. & Twongo, T., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert, Edward and Kioga, Lakes Turkana and Uebi Giuba (Uebi Shebeli); Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile basin, Lake Chad basin.	eng
182454	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Blache et al. (1964) report it from the Chad, but none of the specimens they have examined was preserved. Even though part of the Chadian fauna is nilotic, it seems strange that this species has never been found again, despite the intensive work carried out in that region. Therefore, the presence of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. frontosus</span> in the Chad region needs to be confirmed. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it occurs in the basins of the Nile and the Webi Shebeli, and Lakes Turkana, Albert, Edward and Kyoga.	eng
182454	distribution	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is known along the length of the Nile to the rift lakes in Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert, Edward and Kioga, Lakes Turkana and Uebi Giuba (Uebi Shebeli), and the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The species is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the White Nile and Bahr el Jebel, Sudan, as well as the Baro, Omo and Wabishebelle Rivers, Ethiopia.	eng
182454	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species that occurs in lakes.  Feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs.  Breeding takes place during flooding in June to early dry down in January.	eng
182454	habitat	Akinyi, E., Bayona, J. & Twongo, T., 2002	Breeding takes place in channels and lakes during flooding in June to until the waters subside in January (Bailey 1994). Feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs (Bailey 1994).	eng
182454	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in lakes and feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs. This oviparous fish breeds during flooding in June to early dry down in January. It is a squeaker or upside-down catfish.	eng
182454	habitat	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species. Breeding takes place in channels and lakes during flooding in June to until the waters subside in January (Bailey 1994). It feeds on algae, macrophytes, detritus, crustaceans, insects and molluscs (Bailey 1994).	eng
182454	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182454	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182454	population	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182454	population	Akinyi, E., Bayona, J. & Twongo, T., 2002	No quantitative population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182454	threats	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	In eastern Africa this species is possibly threatened by heavy fishing pressure. The mounting eutrophication in Lake Albert is likely to generate anoxia in the deep waters which could degrade habitat of this species.	eng
182454	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182454	threats	Akinyi, E., Bayona, J. & Twongo, T., 2002	The main threat to the species is the possible heavy fishing pressure. The mounting eutrophication in Lake Albert is likely to generate anoxia in the deep waters which could degrade habitat of this species.	eng
182454	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182455	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182455	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chelaethiops elongatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River.	eng
182455	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chelaethiops elongatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182455	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182455	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182456	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and threats to this species.	eng
182456	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality, Maki River, Lake Zwai, Ethiopia.	eng
182456	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in standing water.	eng
182456	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No data available, but this is a rare species.	eng
182456	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182457	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182457	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More policy-based action should be put in place, as well as population trend monitoring, and the maintenance of this species habitats.	eng
182457	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger (down-river from Bamako), Volta, as well as in the Chad. Unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">D. rostratus</span>, its distribution area does not include the lower course of the Volta and other coastal basins located between Gambia and the Niger.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa, also found in the White Nile. (Gosse and Coenen 1990).	eng
182457	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a wide ranging species from Senegal to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from the White Nile and Lake Roseires, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in the basins of the Senegal, Gambia, Niger (down-river from Bamako), Volta, as well as in the Chad. Unlike <em>D. rostratus</em>, its distribution area does not include the lower course of the Volta and other coastal basins located between Gambia and the Niger.	eng
182457	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species prefers flowing water, and feeds on vegetation and periphyton (Holden and Reed 1972)	eng
182457	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This specise prefers flowing water. Feeds on vegetation and periphyton. (Holden and Reed 1972).	eng
182457	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182457	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182457	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins, and the resultant increases in sediment loads. Heavy fishing practices and oil drilling may also affect some populations.	eng
182457	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. Heavy fishing practices and oil drilling may also affect some populations.	eng
182458	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182458	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	Until recently <em>Brycinus bartoni</em> was only known from the holotype from the Ogowe basin (Ngounié at Mouila). However, many specimens have since been collected, mainly from this left bank tributary of the Ogowe. The species appears to be endemic to this basin and is not found in upper courses of the Ogowe River or in the Ivindo River.	eng
182458	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182458	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182458	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus bartoni</em> is threatened by slash and burn agriculture and commercial logging (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene).	eng
182459	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None in place.	eng
182459	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182459	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as potential conservation measures, and maintenance of habitat.	eng
182459	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Within the Lower Guinea province, <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> is known from a single locality “30 km. N. van Douala, Mboumboula River” situated in the Mungo River Basin (Cameroon). Elsewhere <em>D. clupeoides</em> has a restricted distribution in West Africa from the Oueme River to the Niger delta. The species has not been found in the Cross River Basin (Teugels 1990).	eng
182459	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Denticeps clupeoides</span> is restricted to western Africa where it is known from the Ouémé Basin(Benin) to the Niger delta. It has not been found in the River Cross. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area it occurs in the River Mungo (Cameroon).	eng
182459	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>Within the Lower Guinea province, <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> is known from a single locality “30 km. N. van Douala, Mboumboula River” situated in the Mungo River Basin (Cameroon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Ouémé basin (Benin) to the Niger delta. It has not been found in the River Cross.	eng
182459	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> occurs in shoals that tend to keep to the middle of the stream, where the current is at its strongest. It is a very good swimmer, extremely fast and hence not easily caught (Clausen 1959). It is a pelagic species.	eng
182459	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Denticeps clupeoides</em> occurs in shoals that tend to keep to the middle of the stream, where the current is at its strongest. It is a very good swimmer, extremely fast and hence not easily caught (Clausen 1959). It is a pelagic species.	eng
182459	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This pelagic riverine clupeid-like fish grows to 15 cm in total length. Non-migratory.	eng
182459	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182459	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182459	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182459	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182459	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.	eng
182459	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Though not directly targeted it is often captured within the commercial clupeid fisheries. Agricultural and urban developments threaten the habitat quality in Benin. Oil exploration threatens the Niger Delta sub-population.	eng
182460	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182460	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus chrysti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Luebo, the Yangambi region, Kisangani and the Tshopo River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182460	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus chrysti</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182460	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182460	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182461	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182461	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis christyi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.It has not been reported from Pool Malebo, and it is not known from the Kasai system.	eng
182461	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis christyi</em> is an oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966) and demersal species.	eng
182461	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182461	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182462	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown	eng
182462	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the rivers Nipoué or Cess	eng
182462	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182462	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182462	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182463	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182463	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from swift waters in the upper and Middle Niger.	eng
182463	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 6.2 cm SL.	eng
182463	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182463	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation particularly from agricultural, and deforestation developments.	eng
182464	conservation	Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of populations.	eng
182464	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182464	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been reported from Lake Chad but its presence there needs confirmation.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. pumilus</span> was described from the White Nile.	eng
182464	distribution	Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Sudan and Ethiopia, and possibly Lake Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>  It is found in Baro basin, Ethiopia and parts of the White Nile, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The species has been reported from Lake Chad but its presence there needs confirmation.	eng
182464	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	A small benthopelagic species.	eng
182464	habitat	Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	A small benthopelagic species found in running water.	eng
182464	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182464	population	Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182464	threats	Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182464	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Not known.	eng
182465	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182465	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus atromaculatus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. One record has been made from Mboma, Tadi River, Lower Congo River basin. This single MRAC specimen has been checked and looks extremely similar but has only three scales between lateral line and dorsal compared with four in all other specimens (Hanssens, M. pers. comm.). This needs further investigation.	eng
182465	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus atromaculatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is an omnivore; pieces of insects, plants and little crustaceans have been found in their stomach contents (Gosse 1963).	eng
182465	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182465	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182466	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Population trend monitoring is needed.	eng
182466	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>B. anniae</em> is known only from the River Koumba, a tributary of the Tominé/Corubal River in Guinea and in Guinea-Bissau.	eng
182466	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	A bentho-pelagic fish of maximum of 8.3 cm SL.	eng
182466	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182466	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known, but it is potentially impacted by deforestation.	eng
182467	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182467	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is known from small rivers and brooks in the forested central and coastal area of Togo.	eng
182467	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish. It is not a seasonal killifish. Maximum size 2.5 cm SL	eng
182467	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182467	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from deforestation.	eng
182469	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182469	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Labeo rouaneti</span> is known only from the River Kakrima (Konkouré basin in Guinea).	eng
182469	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182469	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182469	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182470	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182470	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182470	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182470	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In western Africa, this species occurs in coastal lagoons and lower river courses from Côte d’Ivoire (starting at the Tabou) to the River Cross in Nigeria. So far, it has not been collected in the area between the Pra in Ghana and Benin. Elsewhere, its is found in the coastal region to Southern Cameroon. Also known from Guinea Bissau (Culufi River).	eng
182470	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal basins of the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lokoundje, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon) . Elsewhere it is known from coastal lagoons and lower courses of rivers from Ivory Coast to the Niger-delta, Nigeria. It has been introduced to Australia in 1960 - 1969 and from West Africa to the USA in 1974. These populations have established themselves. It has also been introduced from West Africa to the USSR, but it is unknown whether their populations have established themselves.	eng
182470	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from coastal lagoons and lower courses of rivers from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon. It has been introduced to Australia in 1960 - 1969 and from West Africa to the USA in 1974. These populations have established themselves. It has also been introduced from West Africa to the USSR, but it is unknown whether their populations have established themselves.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal basins of the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lokoundje, Kribi and Lobe (Cameroon) . <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species occurs in coastal lagoons and lower river courses from Côte d’Ivoire (starting at the Tabou) to the River Cross in Nigeria. So far, it has not been collected in the area between the Pra in Ghana and Benin. Also known from Guinea Bissau (Culufi River).	eng
182470	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal areas and the lower courses of rivers. It lives in still or flowing waters in rocky or mud-bottom areas. <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in warm springs and mud-bottomed to sand-bottomed canals. It consumes plant matter. The species reaches sexual maturity at 10-15 centimetres length. Parents prepare nest site on logs, leaves and other debris. The eggs (600-3,300 per female) are guarded by the parents and hatch in 1-3 days. Parental care of the brood continues until the fish are about 2.5-3.0 centimetres. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It lives in freshwater and in brackish water.	eng
182470	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in coastal areas and the lower courses of rivers. It lives in still or flowing waters in rocky or mud-bottom areas. <em>Tilapia mariae</em> occurs in warm springs and mud-bottomed to sand-bottomed canals. It consumes plant matter. The species reaches sexual maturity at 10-15 centimetres length. Parents prepare nest site on logs, leaves and other debris. The eggs (600-3300 per female) are guarded by the parents and hatch in 1-3 days. Parental care of the brood continues until the fish are about 2.5-3.0 centimetres. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It lives in freshwater and in brackish water.	eng
182470	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in coastal lagoons, lower river courses and warm springs. A demersal species.	eng
182470	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182470	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182470	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182470	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development are localised threats.	eng
182470	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is commercially used for aquariums.	eng
182470	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Threats to this species include oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development are localised threats. It is also a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182471	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182471	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus tigripictilis</em> is known from the Lower Congo River, from above Luozi to Matadi (Schelley and Stiassny 2004).	eng
182471	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182471	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182471	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The key component of concrete is found in the Luozi region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Congo River with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182472	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no major conservation measures in place, however water levels should be managed.	eng
182472	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to the Central rift valley lakes of Ziway, Langano, Koka and associated rivers; as well as in Awash basin.	eng
182472	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in running waters as well as in lakes and reservoirs.	eng
182472	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Not exactly known; however it is abundant.	eng
182472	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Pollution and extraction of water are major threats.	eng
182473	conservation	Awaïss, A., 2006	None known.	eng
182473	distribution	Awaïss, A., 2006	This species occurs in the upper courses of the Niger (and Benue) and the Chari-Logone (Chad).	eng
182473	habitat	Awaïss, A., 2006	This is a pelagic species	eng
182473	population	Awaïss, A., 2006	No available data.	eng
182473	threats	Awaïss, A., 2006	Threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation from agricultural, urban developments and deforestation.	eng
182474	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182474	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic with all known collections of <em>Stomatorhinus ivindoensis</em> coming from the Ivindo River margins or from small forest streams flowing into the Ivindo River in root tangles.	eng
182474	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus ivindoensis</em> is known from the Ivindo River margins or from small forest streams flowing into the Ivindo River in root tangles. It is a demersal species.	eng
182474	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182474	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by iron mining on the Lower Ivindo drainage.	eng
182475	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182475	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus rhynchophorus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
182475	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus rhynchophorus</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electro receptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995).	eng
182475	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182475	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182476	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
182476	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves over its wide range.	eng
182476	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves over its wide range. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range. Habitat maintenance may be required in certain areas.	eng
182476	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus radiatus</em> is widespread, from Uganda southwards, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system in South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The presence of this species in the Lulua (Kasai) has recently been confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Lake Victoria basin, Tana River system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003), Malagarasi River and Rukwa system. Its distribution includes Lake Victoria and some of affluent rivers, Lake Nabugabo and Aswa river, Tanzania (near Dar es Salaam). It is also found in Lake Malawi and it catchment, the Lower Shire, and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Widespread across its range including Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001). It is known from parts of the Zambezi River system, from the Okavango River and swamps, westward and south-eastward flowing rivers of Angola.	eng
182476	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Victoria basin, Tana River system (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Malagarasi river and Rukwa system. Lake Victoria and some of affluent rivers, Lake Nabugabo,  Aswa river, Tanzania (near Dar es Salaam). Lake Malawi and it catchment, Lower Shire, Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa.</em>	eng
182476	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species is widespread southwards from Uganda, including Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system (Skelton 2001).	eng
182476	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus radiatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). It feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990). This species is subject to seasonal migratory movements (Bell-Cross 1976). The preferred habitat is vegetation fringing main river channels (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), also marshes and lakes. In Swaziland, found in rock pools in the Komati River (Bills <em>et al.</em> 2004) and observed in Lake Malawi on rocky shore (D. Tweddle, unpublished). Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 2001).	eng
182476	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Prefers marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). Feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990). Feeds mainly on insects. Subject to seasonal migratory movements (Bell-Cross 1976). It is a wide-ranging species throughout Malawi although rarely abundant.  It occurs along  Lake Malawi's shoreline prefering shallow areas of marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. It is active in subdued light and at night.  It feeds on invertebrates.  In Lake Chiuta it is reported to be fairly common in the lake and in quiet stretches of affluent streams.	eng
182476	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	The preferred habitat is vegetation fringing main river channels (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004), also marshes and lakes. In Swaziland, found in rock pools in the Komati River (Bills <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004) and observed in Lake Malawi on rocky shore (Tweddle, unpublished). Active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 2001).	eng
182476	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Generally one of the less common barbs where it occurs, but its wide distribution means that populations are healthy.	eng
182476	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	Generally one of the less common barbs where it occurs, but its wide distribution means that populations are healthy.	eng
182476	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known, but rarely seen in fisheries catches in Malagarasi river.	eng
182476	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension and poisoning in some rivers e.g., Bua River, Malawi.	eng
182476	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B., Bills, R. & Cambray, J., 2006	There are no known immediate threats to this species.	eng
182476	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Tweddle, D., 2009	There are no known immediate threats to this species. Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and agriculture extension and poisoning in some rivers e.g. Bua River, Malawi, do however pose possible localised threats to some populations.	eng
182477	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182477	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Myomyrus pharao</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) (paratype) and from Kisangani.	eng
182477	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182477	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182477	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to <em>Mormyrus pharao</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182478	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182478	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	The fish is from the Gambia River basin in the west, to the Cess or Nipoue River basin in the east  It includes the Atlantic drainage basins of Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire (Kolenté and Little Scarcies, Nipoué and Cavally Rivers), also the Konkouré Rivers in Gambia and Guinea and Gambia and Mako rivers in Senegal.	eng
182478	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Freshwater, benthopelagic pelagic fish of maximum size 368 mm SL (383 mm TL).	eng
182478	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182478	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	There is a potential threats from mining and deforestation from bad agricultural practices and sedimentation.	eng
182479	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182479	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182479	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species range, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
182479	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Erpetoichthys calabaricus</em> is known from coastal rivers of Cameroon to the Sanaga. Boulenger's (1909) record of <em>E. calabaricus</em> from the Chiloango in Congo-Brazzaville needs further corroboration (see Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). Elsewhere it occurs in coastal rivers from the Ogun in Nigeria to Cameroon.	eng
182479	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Ouémé (Benin), Ogun and Cross River (Nigeria).<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is recorded from coastal rivers and lakes from Ouémé (Benin) to Chiloango (Congo).	eng
182479	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Erpetoichthys calabaricus</em> is known from coastal rivers of Cameroon to the Sanaga. Boulenger's (1909) record of <em>E. calabaricus</em> from the Chiloango in Congo needs further corroboration (see Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ouémé (Benin), Ogun and Cross Rivers (Nigeria)	eng
182479	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182479	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is a freshwater species also found in brackish coastal waters. It prefers slow flowing rivers and standing waters. Apparently restricted to reedy habitats, and feeds at night on worms crustaceans and other insects. It is able to breath air and can tolerate low oxygen concentrations.	eng
182479	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a freshwater species also found in brackish coastal waters. Prefers slow flowing rivers and standing waters. Apparently restricted to reedy habitats. Feeds at night on worms crustaceans and other insects. Able to breath air and can tolerate low oxygen concentrations. Non-migratory.	eng
182479	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182479	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182479	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182479	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat degradation/loss due to wetland drainage for agriculture and urban developments and deforestation.	eng
182479	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal region.	eng
182479	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal regions of central Africa. In western Africa, it is threatened by habitat degradation/loss due to wetland drainage for agriculture and urban developments and deforestation.	eng
182480	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182480	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is probably endemic to the middle course of the Konkouré in Guinea	eng
182480	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 10.0 cm SL maximum size	eng
182480	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182480	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182481	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182481	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus symoensi</em> is known from Kilwezi and another location, both effluents of the Lufira River, from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182481	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182481	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182481	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182482	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182482	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria wittei</em> is known from the Lualaba and from the Luapula system. It is also known from the west of Lake Tanganyika, the Lukuga region and effluents of Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182482	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Kneria wittei</em> is a benthopelagic species that inhabits upland streams and pools. It is hardy and can survive some time out of water (Eccles 1992).	eng
182482	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182482	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182484	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182484	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemistichodus lootensi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from Lake Tumba, satellite lakes around Lac Mai-Ndombe, Mbandaka and Boende (Central Congo River basin).	eng
182484	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemistichodus lootensi</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 5.7 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182484	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182484	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182485	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182485	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus perungueyi</em> is endemic in the Luapula-Mweru system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182485	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182485	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182485	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets threaten the species.	eng
182486	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182486	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from upper and lower Niger, This species is known from upper course of the Benue, coastal basins of Nigeria, Volta and Chad basins.	eng
182486	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182486	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available on population trends	eng
182486	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation and drought may be a threat to some populations.	eng
182487	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182487	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage system of the Kake River in the area around Mount Cameroon, western Cameroon.	eng
182487	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) volcanum</em> inhabits the swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the rain forest, mainly on volcanic soils (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) volcanum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). One male spawns with several females (Riehl and Baensch 1991).	eng
182487	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182487	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by intensive land use and pollution from rubber, banana, and palm oil plantations leading to pollution and sedimentation.	eng
182488	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182488	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus loemensis</em> is known from the Foulakari River, Lower Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from southwestern Gabon, and in western Congo from the Lombo (Ntombo), Loeme, Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers. Elsewhere, it occurs in Cabinda and western Congo. The Congo River basin is most probably the southern limit of its distribution.	eng
182488	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus loemensis</em> is found in small rivers, brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is difficult to maintain in aquaria (Seegers 1997).	eng
182488	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182488	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182489	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182489	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ogowe basin in Gabon.	eng
182489	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis haugi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182489	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182489	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182490	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182490	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong></strong><em>Alestopetersius brichardi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182490	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182490	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182490	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182491	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182491	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is only known from its type locality: Ismailia Channel, Ismailia, Egypt, 120 km northeast of Cairo.	eng
182491	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182491	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182491	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are all potential threats to this species.	eng
182492	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182492	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion wildekampi</em> is known from the Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the upper Ivindo River.	eng
182492	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion wildekampi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps and small streams, mainly in the shallow parts in the rainforest and forested savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182492	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182492	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining and logging in the Sangha River basin are posing threats to the species.	eng
182493	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182493	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Kouilou-Niari and Loeme-Loukene basins (Congo), Nyanga and This species is known from upper Ngounie basins, and Ogowe River (Gabon).	eng
182493	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182493	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182493	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182494	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182494	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes fodori</em> is only known from Lake Fwa (Democratic Republic of the Congo).	eng
182494	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182494	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182494	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182495	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182495	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax minutus</em> is known from the Luapula River basin and from the Bangweulu region in Zambia.	eng
182495	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax minutus</em> is a pelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 3.3 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182495	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182495	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. This is a very small species though; fishing will not have a significant influence on the species.	eng
182496	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182496	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Nyong River, Cameroon.	eng
182496	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182496	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182496	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction were to recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
182497	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182497	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from the type locality Kasewe (Sierra Leone), which is said to have been captured in one of the small water courses belonging to the Gbangbaia basin, a small brook located to the west of the Jong. It is also reported from Liberia.	eng
182497	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This monospecific species is a pelagic fish. Maximum size 3.1 cm SL.	eng
182497	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182497	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban developments and deforestation.	eng
182498	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182498	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis praecox</em> is only known from two localities (Zambi (Bula) and Boma) in the tidal stretches of the Lower Congo River (Stiassny 1990).	eng
182498	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis praecox</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is omnivorous and prefers small organic particles, regardless whether they are plants or small insects (Lamboj 2004). This species is an opportunistic benthic microphage (Keith <em>et al.</em> 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989). It is probably tolerant of relatively high salinity levels (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182498	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182498	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182499	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182499	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa obtusirostris</em> is known from the Lower, Central and Upper Congo River basin.	eng
182499	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Potamothrissa obtusirostris</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and streams, but perhaps not in lakes. It feeds on aquatic insects (e.g. chironomid larvae) and hydracarians.	eng
182499	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182499	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182500	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182500	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Tilapia discolor is known from Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana, as well as from the basins of the Pra (Ghana), Tano (Ghana/Côte d’Ivoire) and Bia (Côte d’Ivoire)	eng
182500	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish species of 22.5 cm TL	eng
182500	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182500	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include agricultural, urban developments, mining and deforestation.	eng
182501	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182501	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia tholloni</em> is known from the Lower Congo and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Elsewhere, it is known from the upper and lower Ogowe River in Gabon, Kouilou-Niari and the Chiloango system.	eng
182501	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182501	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182501	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182502	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182502	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas buchholzi</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from a few specimens from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the coastal basins of Cameroon to Congo.	eng
182502	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas buchholzi</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182502	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182502	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182503	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182503	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the type locality, a small mountainous brook in the Mbomi drainage system in the central Du Chaillu-Massif in southern Gabon.	eng
182503	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion hofmanni</em> is found in the shallowest, swampy parts of brooks in the inland mountain rainforest. It typically inhabits water of only a few centimetres depth. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) hofmanni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182503	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182503	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182504	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182504	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis robertsi</em> is only known from the holotype at the type locality Elombe on the Lukenie River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182504	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis robertsi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182504	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182504	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known, except for the minor influence of agriculture.	eng
182505	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182505	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus trachypterus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system and from the Lufira River system.	eng
182505	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus trachypterus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182505	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182505	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining)	eng
182506	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution in the Congo basin is located in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182506	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo Kibimbi</em> is known from Lake Upemba and the Lufira River (upper Congo River basin).	eng
182506	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo Kibimbi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182506	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182506	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no major threat for this species because it is known from the Upemba National Park.	eng
182507	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182507	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from the type locality of Kisimayo, about 2 km from Goba, and 107.8 km from Kisimayo, Somalia.	eng
182507	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in temporary water filled by floods in which the pool changed into a temporary swamp, covered with grasses and reed.	eng
182507	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182507	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182508	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat restoration is needed.	eng
182508	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in Bandama, Comoé and Bia River drainage systems in central, southern and eastern Côte d'Ivoire and in the Bia, Tano, Ankobra river drainage systems in southwestern Ghana.	eng
182508	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in swamps, pools, brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest and forested savannah.	eng
182508	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182508	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Mining and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
182509	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182509	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus hutereaui</em> is only known from the type locality Dungu, Uele River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182509	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182509	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182509	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182510	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182510	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found in the central area of the Du Chaillu Massif in southern Gabon and possibly also in the adjacent Congo.	eng
182510	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion hanneloreae</em> is found in small rivulets in swamps in the rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) hanneloreae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182510	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182510	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182511	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182511	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is found from small coastal basins in the southern areas of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
182511	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182511	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available information available.	eng
182511	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a potential threats to this species include invasive aquatic weeds and increasing levels of agrochemicals from farming activities in areas around the water bodies, and effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra and Tano. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation pertaining to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its attendant problems to the life of the fish. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges.	eng
182512	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182512	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182512	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182512	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is wide spread in coastal regions from Senegal to Gabon and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Loeme River (Congo), and a few specimens collected at Agilé (Fernan Vaz) in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Laeviscutella dekimpei</span> is known from the lower reaches of rivers, from Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo (Gourène and Teugels 1994) and in lagoons (Lake Ébrié, Côte d'Ivoire, and Lake Nokué, Benin).	eng
182512	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea <em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is only known from a few specimens collected at Agilé (Fernan Vaz) in Gabon. According to Poll <em>et al.</em> (1965), it is also known from the Loeme River (Congo-Brazzaville). Elsewhere known from West Africa in lower reaches of rivers (Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gourène and Teugels 1994) in lagoons (Lake Ébrié, Côte d'Ivoire; Lake Nokué, Benin).  Also recorded from  the Niger (Gourène and Teugels 1990).	eng
182512	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa,<span style="font-style: italic;"> Laeviscutella dekimpei</span> is found from the Casamance to the Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Casamance River in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182512	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers, chiefly near the coast and entering lagoons, where salinities vary with the tides. The species is presumably euryhaline, although it may escape high salinities.	eng
182512	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Laeviscutella dekimpei</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in rivers, chiefly near the coast and entering lagoons, where salinities vary with the tides. The species is presumably euryhaline, although it may escape high salinities.	eng
182512	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in rivers, chiefly near the coast and entering lagoons, where salinities vary with the tides. The species is presumably euryhaline, although it may escape high salinities.	eng
182512	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available information	eng
182512	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182512	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182512	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Importance: subsistence fisheries	eng
182512	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182512	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species has importance in subsistence fisheries in central Africa.	eng
182513	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182513	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182513	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus neglectus</em> used to occur in the region from the Nile, Lake Manzala, Damietta Branch (close to Barrage), Luxor and Aswan. It does not longer exist below the Aswan High Dam.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the River Nile basin until Blue Nile, Albert Nile.	eng
182513	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2009	This species is present in the Nile river basin, from Egypt to Ethiopia and Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is present the length of the Nile, including Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found as far as the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia.	eng
182513	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2009	A small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. No information available on this species ecology.	eng
182513	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. Colour: Yellowish with broard silvery lateral bands, fins white and transparent, a dark dot at the base of caudal fin.	eng
182513	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	It has a high resilience (high capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
182513	population	Azeroual, A., 2009	This is a high resilience species (high capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
182513	threats	Azeroual, A., 2009	Dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are all possible threats to this species, however it is thought to be fairly resilient.	eng
182513	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182514	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182514	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong> </strong><em>Gephyroglanis congic</em>us is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of  the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The type specimen comes from Upoto, near Lissala.	eng
182514	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182514	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182514	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not  affecting the species.	eng
182515	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182515	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion labarrei</em> is only known from the lower and central Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182515	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion labarrei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182515	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182515	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182516	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182516	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182516	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Haplochromis wingatii</em> has been reported from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range includes the Nile River and Lake Albert.	eng
182516	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present throughout the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is known from Bahr el Jebel, This species is known from upper White Nile, Sudan.	eng
182516	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182516	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182516	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182516	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182516	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182516	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182517	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182517	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Clarias salae</span> is found from the River Géba in Guinea Bissau to the Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire	eng
182517	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This demersal fish occurs in river systems which arise in mountainous areas and are entirely within the rain forest.	eng
182517	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182517	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, deforestation, mining, urban developments are local threats.	eng
182518	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182518	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species has a wide central and southern African distribution. In southern Africa from the Cunene River in the west east and south to the Save River in Mozambique. Outside of the southern Africa region it occurs in the Zambian Congo, eastern Africa and in Lake Victoria.	eng
182518	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Petrocephalus catostoma</span> shoals in quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the system, in tributaries, on floodplains and in the main river on the floodplain and in the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. Feeds on insect larvae and other small invertebrates. Breeds during the summer rainy season and may make lateral movements from main river channels for breeding during the rains. Both sexes are territorial but shoal at night for feeding.	eng
182518	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Usually abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
182518	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182519	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182519	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis stellifer</em> is known from the Congo River and associated drainages around Kinshasa. Elsewhere, it is known from Rio Muni to Cabinda, also from the central region of Gabon, and from western Congo.	eng
182519	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182519	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182519	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182520	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species may be found in the Minkebe National Park to the northwest of its known range, but this area is very difficult to sample.	eng
182520	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northeastern Gabon between the Djoua and Djadie (or Zadie) River systems, Ivindo basin. The species may be found in the Minkebe National Park to the northwest of its known range, but this area is very difficult to sample.	eng
182520	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) abacinum</em> is found in swampy or standing parts of slow-flowing rainforest brooks. This species is usually found close to the banks between overhanging grass or between fallen leaves. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swampy parts of quiet brooks under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. The species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
182520	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182520	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by iron mining, commercial logging, and slash and burn agriculture.	eng
182521	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182521	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182521	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182521	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species native from Central Africa countries where it occurrs in lowland coastal systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (Bengo River, Lake Rumango), Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Loango River ) and Congo River systems.	eng
182521	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia cabrae</em> is known the mouth of the Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal zones around the Ogowe, Niari-Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also known from the Cuanza delta, Angola.	eng
182521	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species occurrs in lowland coastal systems of Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia cabrae</em> is known the mouth of the Congo River, and from the coastal zones around the Ogowe, Niari-Kouilou and Chiloango Rivers (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (including Lake Rumango), Kwanza River, Chiloango River (Loango River) and Congo River systems.	eng
182521	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182521	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182521	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182521	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182521	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182521	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182521	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are unknown.	eng
182521	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182521	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182522	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182522	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys laticeps</em> is especially known from the Lower Congo and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), but has also been found in the central and upper Congo River system.	eng
182522	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys laticeps</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
182522	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182522	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182523	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The part of the species distribution on the Lufira River and from Lake Upemba lays in the Upemba National Park. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182523	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis regani</em> is known from the Lualaba River, Lake Upemba and from the Lufira, Luvua and Luapula River above the Johnson Falls.	eng
182523	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis reganis</em> is a benthopelagic species. This benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) feeds mainly on plants and insect larvae (Lamboj 2004). It is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182523	population	Moelants, T., 2009	Specimens from certain of the smaller Upemba Lakes (e.g. Kinsale, Zimbamba and Kabamba) tend to have slightly more robust lower pharyngeal jaws and enlarged central molariform teeth (Stiassny 1989). Despite this differences, no correlated dietary differentiation was detected among the various populations (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182523	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets poses threats to the species.	eng
182524	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182524	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the lower coastal plains of Sierra Leone and western Liberia.	eng
182524	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182524	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182524	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by agricultural, urban and deforestation developments.	eng
182526	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182526	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182526	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182526	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182526	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Parailia pellucida</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Upper Nile to West Africa.	eng
182526	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea known only from the Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Nile, Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnebi, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and the coastal lagoons of Nigeria.	eng
182526	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the basins of Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and coastal lagoons of Nigeria and Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in the Upper Nile.	eng
182526	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a wide-ranging species known from the Senegal/Mauretania border to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is known only from the Cross and Wouri River basins.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of Chad, Niger, lower Senegal, Boubo, Bandama, Agnébi, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and coastal lagoons of Nigeria and Cross.	eng
182526	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182526	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species feeds on plankton and crustaceans.	eng
182526	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This benthic species occurs in deep water and feed on plankton and crustaceans. It is oviparous, eggs are unguarded.  It is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
182526	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthic, potomadromous species which occurs in deep water. It feeds on plankton and crustaceans. It is oviparous, and eggs are unguarded.	eng
182526	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182526	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182526	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182526	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182526	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182526	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182526	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182526	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182527	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182527	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	Widespread in Gabon. It has been collected from the Ogooué basin (excepting its most This species is known from upper and lower reaches), the Ntem and Ivindo basins, and the Nyanga basin. On numerous occasions, the authors collected this species together with <em>P. simus</em> (Lavoué<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).	eng
182527	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182527	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182527	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182528	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182528	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from the River Kolenté (Great Scarcies) in Guinea to Liberia, middle course of rivers St. Paul and St. John.	eng
182528	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a freshwater, demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 95 mm SL.	eng
182528	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182528	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation, human settlement and mining mainly in Liberia threaten this species.	eng
182529	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182529	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Orthochromis kalungwishiensis</em> is only known from the Kalungwishi River, a major affluent of Lake Mweru and ultimately part of the Congo drainage system.	eng
182529	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Orthochromis kalungwishiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species, collected from clear, fast-flowing waters. The type series was taken from down to 2 m depth close to the shore, over rocky bottoms. (Greenwood and Kullander 1994).	eng
182529	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182529	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The abundant water falls on the Kalungwishi River could be an attraction for tourists in the future. This will however have only a small impact on this species.	eng
182530	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182530	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182530	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182530	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus perince</em> is rare in Nile delta and lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range includes the Blue and White Niles, Uganda (Kazinga Channel, Lake Edward, Lake Albert and Semliki River), Lakes Chad, Benué River and Volta basins. It is also found in the Niger River basin.	eng
182530	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Chad basin and the Niger (full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Outside western Africa, also in the Nile River, Lakes  Albert, Edward (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182530	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Uganda, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is found in Lakes Albert and Edward.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Nile delta and lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>  This species occurs along the Nile, and in Baro and Blue Nile basins, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Chad basin and the Niger	eng
182530	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182530	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It feeds on insects and other small invertebrates. It is favoured by slow-flowing streams with vegetation. It breeds in summer. It is a small-sized fish, around 10 cm in total length, with a silvery, greenish colour on the dorsal side, white or pale yellow fins, and often three distinct round blackish spots on each side.	eng
182530	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This benthopelagic specis feeds on insects and other small invertebrates. It favours slow-flowing streams with vegetation. It breeds in summer. Small-sized fish, around 10 cm in total length.	eng
182530	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182530	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182530	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182530	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation may be a threat to some populations.	eng
182530	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought could all pose possible threats. In western Africa, deforestation may be a threat to some populations.	eng
182530	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to this species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182531	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182531	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182531	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus lucius</em> is found in the Kouilou River, Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lucalla River, Angola.	eng
182531	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from Angola and Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Labeobarbus lucius</em> is found in the Kouilou River, Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is known from the Lucalla River in the lower Kwanza system, Angola.	eng
182531	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (Brummett pers. comm.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182531	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182531	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182531	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
182532	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182532	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemigrammocharax wittei</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is found in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and from the Luapula-Chambezi River system.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in Lac Calundo (Angola).	eng
182532	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Hemigrammocharax wittei</em> is known from Lac Calundo (Angola), Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and from the Luapula-Chambezi River system.	eng
182532	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182532	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182532	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining),	eng
182532	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are threats known in the Luapula-Mweru region (overfishing) and in the Katanga region (mining).	eng
182533	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182533	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe congensis</em> is known from Kinshasa (Léopoldville) downstream to Boma, Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from Kisangani.	eng
182533	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182533	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182533	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to <em>Schilbe congensis</em> known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, build in 5 years will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182534	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available.	eng
182534	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182534	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182534	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182534	conservation	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182534	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Niger, Cross, Chad, Nile, Turkana system.	eng
182534	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is only known from the Cross basin, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from the Nile River, Lake Turkana and effluents, Chad basin, and the Niger (including Lake Kainji).	eng
182534	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Nile and Turkana systems.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Niger, Cross, Chad.	eng
182534	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Schilbe uranoscopus</span> is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger (including Lake Kainji) and Cross. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside the area, this species occurs in the Nile, Lake Turkana and its tributaries.	eng
182534	distribution	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the length of the Nile to Kenya, and Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is only known from the Cross basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Nile and Turkana systems.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, Nile and Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger (including Lake Kainji) and Cross.	eng
182534	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish.	eng
182534	habitat	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (De Vos 1986). The species is oviparous and the eggs are ungraded. It is found in lake, delta and riverine habitats (Bailey 1994). It is a surface dwelling fish where it feeds mostly on insects, also on crustaceans, small fishes and to a lesser extent on molluscs. Maturity is attained during July and August and spawning takes place during August and September. It probably spawns in the flood season when it migrates to the rivers and deltas (Bailey 1994).	eng
182534	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe uranoscopus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. The species is oviparous and the eggs are ungraded.	eng
182534	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2002	Found in lake, delta and riverine habitats (Bailey 1994). Predatory, feeding on a wide range of invertebrates, including terrestrial insects and fish (Bailey 1994). Probably spawns in the flood season when it mirgates to the rivers and deltas (Bailey 1994).	eng
182534	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a surface dwelling fish where it feeds mostly on insects, also on crustaceans, small fishes and to a lesser extent on molluscs. Females and males attain maturity at a length of 16.8 cm and 25.2 cm respectively. Maturity is attained during July and August and spawning takes place during August and September. Spent females are frequent in turbid waters of the flood during August. It grows to 45 cm in length.	eng
182534	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182534	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182534	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182534	population	Akinyi, E., 2002	No quantitative population estimates but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182534	population	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No quantitative population estimates but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182534	threats	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182534	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182534	threats	Akinyi, E., 2002	Not known	eng
182534	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182534	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182535	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182535	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis lulae</em> is only known from the Lulua River, Central Congo River system.	eng
182535	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis lulae</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182535	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182535	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182536	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182536	conservation	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182536	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad, Niger (incl. Benue) and Volta basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region it is found in the Nile.	eng
182536	distribution	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Guinea and Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad, and Sudan and Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It has been recorded in Sudan, and the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad, Niger (incl. Benue) and Volta basins.	eng
182536	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species that occurs over a muddy bottom but may also be found over rocks.  Feeds mainly on insect larvae but will also take algae. This is also an 'upside-down' species.	eng
182536	habitat	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species of 14.6 cm SL maximum size. This species is occurs over a muddy bottom but may also be found over rocks. Feeds mainly on insect larvae but will also take algae. This is also an 'upside-down' species.	eng
182536	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182536	population	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182536	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182536	threats	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182537	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182537	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Lebuzi River (Chiloango basin).	eng
182537	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182537	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182537	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182538	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182538	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis centralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ouaka River in the Central African Republic.	eng
182538	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis centralis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182538	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available	eng
182538	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182539	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. The first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Katanga region, the last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of 5 years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project. A possible problem is that the fishermen who sell other species than the cheap aquaculture species will not sell anything. It is difficult to convince fishermen to do the aquaculture. If it is well sustained, pisciculture could however form a possible solution.	eng
182539	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Rhabdalestes rhodesiensis</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is also known from Kando, from upper Lualaba system.	eng
182539	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182539	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182539	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182540	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182540	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Sanaga, Wouri and Nyong basins, Cameroon (Holly 1929).	eng
182540	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is pelagic.	eng
182540	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182540	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182541	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182541	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesaphysemion) etsamense</em> is only known from some populations found in rivulets along the road N5 between Medouneu and Kougouleu (Sonnenburg and Blum 2005).	eng
182541	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion etsamense</em> is a benthopelagic species. It can be found in small rainforest creeks and rivers with slow flowing water (Sonnenberg and Blum 2005).	eng
182541	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182541	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182542	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182542	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias buthupogon</em> is known from throughout the Congo River system. In the Lower Guinea, it is known from the Ogowe basin, the Sanaga, Wouri and Cross Rivers. Elsewhere, it is known from the coastal rivers of Nigeria and the Benin Republic. It has possibly been found in the Nile in Sudan and in the Chad basin in the Central African Republic. These records need to be confirmed though.	eng
182542	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias buthupogon</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that is found in lakes, rivers, floodplains and swamps. It is a bottom feeder and the stomach contained plants, algae, insect larvae (Ephemeroptera, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae, Odonata), Entomostraca (Cladocera, Ostracoda), Thecamiba and remains of insects (Matthes 1964).	eng
182542	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182542	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182543	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.	eng
182543	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has no protection	eng
182543	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from the headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, including the Kabompo River, and also the Kasai River in the Congo system (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).	eng
182543	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Hypsopanchax jubbi</em> is known from tributaries of the upper Kasai river in northwestern Zambia, the southern Kasai province in Democratic Republic of the Congo and probably eastern Angola. It is probably more widespread in this region though. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the headwaters of the upper Zambezi, including the Kabompo River, and also the Kasai River in the Congo system (Skelton 2001, Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004).	eng
182543	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax jubbi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It has been taken from small, forested streams with rocky substrate (Skelton 1993). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1966). It is found in small rivers and brooks in the gallery forest. Specimens from the Kabompo River were caught in reed root thicket (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182543	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Small forested streams. Specimens from the Kabompo River were caught in reed root thicket (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182543	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Known only from two localities in Zambia but also in the Congo system, thus the size of the population is unknown.	eng
182543	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182543	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level. In the southern region, there is industrial copper mining.	eng
182543	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	None at present.	eng
182544	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182544	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from River Meme, Cameroon. It is very likely this record is <em>Tylochromis sudanensis</em>, this needs to be verified.	eng
182544	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis trewavasae</em> mainly feeds on insects and their larvae (Lamboj 2004). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182544	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182544	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is a large palm oil plantation upstream from the location the species is recorded from on the Meme River. (pers. comm., Brummett, R.)	eng
182545	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182545	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong></strong><em>Lamprologus congoensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182545	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182545	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182545	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182546	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182546	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes heterocephalus</em> is known from the Luita River, Angola, from the Bagata River, affluent of the Inzia River and from the Boende, Tshuapa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182546	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182546	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182546	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182547	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182547	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	This species is known only from the Wami, Ruaha and Rufiji Rivers (Brewster 1986).	eng
182547	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	This is a riverine species.	eng
182547	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182547	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182548	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182548	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus opisthotaenia</em> was described from the Kribi basin and Mvile river (Lokoundjé basin), south Cameroon. It is also found in the Sanaga and Ntem River basins in Cameroon, Mbini (Woleu, Benito) and Ogowe River basins in Gabon and the Kouilou River basin in Congo. It also occurs in the Dja River system (Central Congo River basin).	eng
182548	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182548	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182548	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182549	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182549	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Elops lacerta</em> is found in coastal waters from Mauritania to Angola or even Namibia, but likely sometimes confused with <em>E. senegalensis</em> (Whitehead 1990).	eng
182549	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Elops lacerta</em> has been caught in brackish water at the Kouilou River mouth and as far upstream as Kakamoeka (> 100 km from the coast). Leptocephalous larvae of about 30-35 mm TL have been collected from the Cross River somewhere between James Island (mouth of Cross River basin) and Ikom (upstream, in freshwater). The hypothesis of Whitehead (1981) that larvae of <em>Elops lacerta</em> migrate to the coast into areas of development, seems to be correct. Ugwumba (1989) reports that <em>E. lacerta</em> spends one (± 153 mm SL) or two years (± 244 mm SL) in the Lekki and Lagos lagoons (Nigeria) and then moves back to coastal waters where they attain maturity. The specimens from freshwater at Kakamoeka measure up to 271 mm SL. This seems to indicate that second year or even older specimens of <em>E. lacerta</em> migrate further upstream and can survive in fresh water habitats quite far inland. <em>Elops lacerta</em> feeds primarily on small fishes, mainly clupeids, crustaceans and molluscs. Ikomi (1994) reported a predominance of fish but found also insects in specimens of 7.0-25.0 cm TL collected in the Lekki Lagoon (Nigeria). It is a pelagic species that lives in shallow coastal waters with sandy-muddy substrates. It spawns at sea.	eng
182549	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182549	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182550	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182550	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes sardina</em> is known from Yangambi and Kisangani and from the Luapula-Mweru system, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182550	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182550	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182550	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182551	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182551	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available..	eng
182551	conservation	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182551	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182551	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Mochokus niloticus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Beni Suef, Luxor, and Aswan).<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile and Niger basins, and was reported from Chad basin. It is considered as very rare in Lake Nasser.	eng
182551	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana system.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Niger, Nile and Chad basins.	eng
182551	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger (plus Benue) and Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also occurring in the Nile and Lake Turkana	eng
182551	distribution	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is patchily distributed within Nigeria and Chad, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lake Turkana system in Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Beni Suef, Luxor, Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as in the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger (plus Benue) and Chad.	eng
182551	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish.	eng
182551	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Mochokus niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. Its length does not exceed 10 cm.	eng
182551	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2002	Found in lakes and majors rivers in shallow waters and marginal vegetation. Probably feeds on mollusc and insect larvae.	eng
182551	habitat	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a demersal, potamodromous fish found in lakes and majors rivers in shallow waters and marginal vegetation. It probably feeds on mollusc and insect larvae.	eng
182551	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182551	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182551	population	Akinyi, E., 2002	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182551	population	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No population estimate but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182551	threats	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Elsewhere, threats are unknown.	eng
182551	threats	Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available.	eng
182551	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182551	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182552	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182552	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe tumbanus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin (the Mushie region, Lake Tumba and from Eala in the Ruki River).	eng
182552	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182552	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182552	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves.	eng
182553	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182553	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys punctatus</em> is known from the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) to Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
182553	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182553	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182553	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182554	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182554	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ogowe, Rembo Nkomi and Nyanga rivers, Gabon.	eng
182554	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182554	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182554	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182555	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
182555	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182555	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182555	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> occurs in the Upper Congo River basin, in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and in an affluent of the Kwango River, Angola. The type localities are not situated near Kalémie (Albertville) but actually on small tributaries of the Luvua River on the road between Kalémie and Kiambi.	eng
182555	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers flowing into lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers.	eng
182555	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and northern Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> occurs in the upper Congo River basin, in the Kasai system, in tributaries of Lake Tanganyika and in an affluent of the Kwango River, Angola. The type localities are not situated near Kalémie (Albertville) but actually on small tributaries of the Luvua River on the road between Kalémie and Kiambi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>It is found in streams and rivers flowing into lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi rivers.	eng
182555	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits rocky shores of lakes and rapid stony stretches of streams (Eccles 1992).  It is an oviparous species and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182555	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis lukugae</em> is a benthopelagic species that feeds on benthic invertebrates. It inhabits rocky shores of lakes and rapid stony stretches of streams (Eccles 1992). It is an oviparous species and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182555	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Inhabits the rocky rapids in streams and rivers. Feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
182555	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Information not available.	eng
182555	population	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182555	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182555	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182555	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threat to the species is water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension.	eng
182555	threats	Hanssens, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	Water turbidity due to erosion on watershed and farming extension threatens this species in eastern Africa.	eng
182556	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182556	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus mocquardi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182556	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182556	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182556	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182557	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182557	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Othochromis polyacanthus</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin from the Kisangani area to the Lake Mweru basin.	eng
182557	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Othochromis polyacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species, with mouth-brooding by the females.	eng
182557	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182557	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing, overfishing form threats in the Upper Lualaba. Overfishing in Lake Mweru poses a threat as well.	eng
182558	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182558	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to the Wabishebelle system (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia.	eng
182558	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
182558	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is rare but the exact status unknown.	eng
182558	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182559	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182559	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus abeli</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo basin.	eng
182559	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182559	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182559	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182560	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182560	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182560	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus progenys</em> is known from the Dja River (Central Congo River basin) and is widespread throughout Lower Guinea region.	eng
182560	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Cross River. Its range covers less than 5% within west Africa.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus progenys</span> is known from Kribi and Dja rivers in Cameroon, Kwilu and Niari rivers in the Congo, Cross River in Cameroon.	eng
182560	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	A benthopelagic fish.	eng
182560	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus progenys</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182560	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182560	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182560	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182560	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Not known.	eng
182561	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The locations around the Ndian River are protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182561	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from rivers and creeks in northwest Cameroon in the region of the Korup National Park. <em>Benitochromis ufermanni</em> has been recorded at nine different streams in the southern Korup National Park (Ndian and Akpa-yafe systems). There is a point locality in the middle Cross River on the border between Cam and Nig - it is unknown whether this is correct though (pers. comm., Brummett, R., 2008).	eng
182561	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182561	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182561	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation, but the Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182562	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182562	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cyclopinnis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River and Kisangani. It is also known from above Kisangani.	eng
182562	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cyclopinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182562	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182562	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182563	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182563	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma depressum</em> is only known from the rapids of the Lower Congo River, around the Inga region.	eng
182563	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182563	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182563	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact.	eng
182564	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182564	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura brevicauda</em> is reported as a Lower Guinea endemic by Skelton (2007), known from  the Lobi and Kribi Rivers (Cameroon), the Ogowe and Kouilou basins (Gabon). It is however also known from Zambi from the  Lower Congo, and from the Sangha River system. It has also been found in the Salonga area as well (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).  Specimens of the Tshikapa River, Kasai system have been identified as <span style="font-style: italic;">Phractura brevicauda</span> by Pellegrin, J., 1927. This  record has to be re-examined though. It is possibly more widespread in the Congo than reported.	eng
182564	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal with a pH range from 6.5 to 7.5 and a dH range from 5 to 15, and is highly adapted to fast flowing waters.	eng
182564	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182564	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182565	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182565	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tetraspilus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kavalli River, Bukoba, and upper Ituri River (Central Congo River basin) in Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182565	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tetraspilus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182565	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182565	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182566	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182566	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Fundulopanchax powelli</span> is endemic to the Niger River delta, Nigeria. This species is known only from the type locality, a temporary pool on an unnamed island, West-Northwest of Warri, in the western part of the Niger River delta, Delta State, Southern Nigeria. The island is formed by the Encravos River, Nana Creek and Jones Creek. The pool involved is situated at the edge of an isolated freshwater seasonal swamp forest, on an old beach ridge in the mangrove zone at Bakakodia.	eng
182566	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a recently described killfish that grows to a maximum 80 cm SL. Nothing else is known.	eng
182566	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182566	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by oil exploration - there is an oil terminal on the type locality.	eng
182567	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182567	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182567	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182567	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Policy-based actions are required for this species, along with population trend monitoring and habitat maintenance.	eng
182567	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is Regionally Extinct, used to be caught from the Nile at Cairo.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Khartoum, Blue Nile, Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross, Chad basin, Wouri also known from Senegal.	eng
182567	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> occurs in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere it is known from Senegal to Cameroon, Lake Chad basin, Nile River, Niger (downstream of Bamako), Volta, Ogun, Cross and Wouri.	eng
182567	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from the Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross, and Chad basins, also known from Sénégal. (Daget and Gosse 1984).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Wouri and Nile.	eng
182567	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> occurs in the Cross River basin, Cameroon. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be caught from the Nile at Cairo, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Jebel system, White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Niger, Volta, Ogun, Cross and Chad basins, also known from Sénégal (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182567	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is a demersal species. It prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> feeds on vegetation and periphyton.	eng
182567	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus engycephalus</em> is a demersal species which prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. <em>Distichodus engycephalus</em>feeds on diatoms, filamentous algae, insects and plant material.	eng
182567	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It feeds on diatoms, filamentous algae, insects and plant material. Regular length 27 cm. Prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms.	eng
182567	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Prefers flowing water over rocky bottoms. Feeds on vegetation and peripython. (Holden and Reed 1972).	eng
182567	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182567	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182567	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182567	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182567	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In certain regions, overfishing, drought, dam construction and aquatic weeds have a large impact on the species.<br/><br/>In Ghana this is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Deforestation and bad agricultural practices may pose potential threats to the habitats of this species. Increasing farming activities in these northern basins may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. These two threats are especially relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste, for in many of these areas, water bodies are ultimately the receptacles for domestic waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and may affect all sorts of things such as oxygen levels. In extreme cases, excessive proliferation of aquatic weeds may lead to massive fish kills. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species. Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments (Entsua-Mensah 1996).	eng
182567	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	In certain regions, overfishing, drought, dam construction and aquatic weeds have a large impact on the species. In Ghana this is a commercially harvested food fish, and thus overfishing is a potential threat. Deforestation and bad agricultural practices may pose potential threats to the habitats of this species. Increasing farming activities in these northern basins may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. These two threats are especially relevant in the Black Volta. Another threat is pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste, for in many of these areas, water bodies are ultimately the receptacles for domestic waste. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and may affect all sorts of things such as oxygen levels. In extreme cases, excessive proliferation of aquatic weeds may lead to massive fish kills. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species. Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments (Entsua-Mensah 1996).	eng
182567	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182567	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182568	conservation	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information.	eng
182568	conservation	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information on conservation measures is available for this species, though the population trend should be monitored.	eng
182568	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	There is no information available on conservation threats needed at present.	eng
182568	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182568	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Alestes baremoze</em> occurs in Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005) and Upper Nile River in Egypt. This fish used to be found along the Lower Nile and Delta lakes, Rashid Branch, now restricted to the Upper Nile after the High Dam construction.<br/><br/>Related to its global range, it is present in the southern region of Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles, Lake Nubia, and Lake Chad; Senegal, Gambia, Niger, and Uganda (Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles).	eng
182568	distribution	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, Lake Turkana, Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Chad basin, Gambia, Sénégal, Niger, the coastal basins of the Côte d'Ivoire (Comoé, Bandama and Sassandra), Volta.	eng
182568	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widespread in western Africa; Chad, Niger/Benue, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Tominé, Gambia and Senegal.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Alestes baremoze</span> occurs in the Nile, Omo.	eng
182568	distribution	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This species is mainly found in inshore zones of lakes, across a large range within Africa<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found within Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa: </strong>This fish used to be found along the whole of the River Nile in Egypt; in Delta lakes, Rashid Branch and Lower Nile, but is now restricted to the upper Nile after the High Dam construction, so is no longer found within this region.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems; White and Blue Niles in Sudan, and the River Nile as far north as Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is also present in the Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Widespread in western Africa; Chad, Niger/Benue, Volta, Comoé, Bandama, Sassandra, Tominé, Gambia and Senegal.	eng
182568	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Alestes baremoze</em> is a benthopelagic potamodromous fish that is probably limited to inshore regions of lakes. There is considerable flexibility in its diet, feeding mainly of zoo- and phytoplankton, crustaceans, insects and, less frequently, fishes predominating and aquatic vegetation; Breeding fishes of both sexes are found in sheltered bays around the lakes shores. Adult fishes range between 30-45 cm long. It is mainly a diurnal species.	eng
182568	habitat	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	Mainly found in inshore zones of the lakes, but also potamodromous and benthopelagic. Occurs at temperature range of 14.6° C to  35.0° C. Has a considerable flexibility in diet as it shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos, detritus and macrophytes as plankton densities decline.	eng
182568	habitat	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	This diurnal species is mainly found in inshore zones of the lakes, but is also potamodromous and benthopelagic. It occurs at temperature range of 14.6<sup>o</sup>C to 35.0<sup>o</sup>C. It has a considerable flexibility in diet as it shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos, detritus and macrophytes as plankton densities decline. Breeding fishes of both sexes are found in sheltered bays around the lakes shores; Adult fishes range between 30-45 cm long. Reservoir ecology with upriver migration from the reservoir of prereproductive adults between May and September, to meet and mature in the rising floods to the south.	eng
182568	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is benthopelagic, potamodromous and lives in freshwater at pH between 6.5 and 7.8; temperature between 15 to 35 °C. The species is a passive feeder and consumes what is available. Lateral migration for floodplain spawning.	eng
182568	population	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	Little information is available on the population of this species, although it is known to be common in Jebel Aulia and Roseires reservoirs, and in Lake Nasser (Bailey 1994).	eng
182568	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182568	population	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information.	eng
182568	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	There is no information available.	eng
182568	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally threatened by pollution and agricultural development leading to habitat loss and degradation. In the Malamfatori area (Tchad), seine-net fishery on the River Yobe depends on seasonal upstream (from Lake Chad) and downstream migration during the flood (August-December) and dry (January-March) seasons, respectively.  Also, there is an intensive gillnet fishery from July-October at the river mouth.  <em>A. baremoze</em> moves offshore (in Lake Chad) beginning March.	eng
182568	threats	Akinyi, E., Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Twongo, T., 2009	Regionally, this species faces different threats:<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is currently overfished<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Within the region the construction of the Aswan High Dam seems to caused the regional extirpation of the species. Overfishing and water abstraction are also thought to have threatened the species.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> Unknown<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is locally threatened by pollution and agricultural development leading to habitat loss and degradation. In the Malamfatori area (Tchad), seine-net fishery on the River Yobe depends on seasonal upstream (from Lake Chad) and downstream migration during the flood (August-December) and dry (January-March) seasons, respectively. Also, there is an intensive gillnet fishery from July-October at the river mouth. <em>A. baremoze</em> moves offshore (in Lake Chad) beginning March.	eng
182568	threats	Akinyi, E. & Twongo, T.K., 2002	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
182568	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Within the region the construction of the Aswan High Dam seems to have caused the regional extirpation of the species. Overfishing and water abstraction are also thought to have threatened the species.	eng
182569	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182569	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">B. traorei</span> is known only from the type locality, the River Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire, where it is sympatric with <span style="font-style: italic;">B. trispilos.</span>	eng
182569	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 5.5 cm SL	eng
182569	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182569	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Agricultural and urban development is causing deforestation.	eng
182570	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182570	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182570	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182570	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Synodontis membranaceus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, used to be found in Cairo (Egypt) during flood time.<br/><br/>Globally, it can be found in the White and Blue Niles, Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué), Senegal, Gambia and Volta basins.	eng
182570	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger, (plus Benue), Senegal, Gambia, and Volta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it occurs in the Nile.	eng
182570	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Regionally Extinct, this species used to be found in Cairo (Egypt) during flood time.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in Bahr el Arab, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from basins of the Chad, Niger, (plus Benue), Senegal, Gambia, and Volta.	eng
182570	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species. Occurs in deep water close to the shore. Omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus.  May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs.	eng
182570	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Benthopelagic, potamodromous and found in streams. This species is occurs in deep water close to the shore. Omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus. May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs. This species swims upside down with its belly facing upward; correlated with this is a reversal of the normal colouration, for the true ventral surface (which in this case turned upwards towards the light) is dark and the true dorsal surface is pale. In captivity, however, it sometimes turns over after a few days, swimming like other fish and then become, like ordinary fish, dark on the dorsal side and light on the ventral, thus reversing their colouration. It is oviparous. Distinct pairing during breeding.	eng
182570	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a penthopelagic, potamodromous species that can be found in streams. It occurs in deep water close to the shore. It is omnivore, feeds on plankton and detritus, and may also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans, and molluscs. This species swims upside down with its belly facing upward. It is oviparous, with distinct pairing during breeding.	eng
182570	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	It has a medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
182570	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182570	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Uncommon although exact size of the population is not known. Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
182570	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known	eng
182570	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182570	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182571	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182571	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stanleyi</em> is known from the Central Congo River system in the area of Yangambi-Yaekala (Yangole, Lilanda River; Lotolo, Tofamba and Bumba Rivers; Romée River, on the route Kisangani-Opala).	eng
182571	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stanleyi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182571	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182571	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing on the Central Congo River may be a threat to the species.	eng
182572	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation measures are undertaken, although fishery regulations are in place.	eng
182572	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana and its affluent rivers, Ethiopia	eng
182572	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in the Lake and affluent rivers. It occurs over muddy, sandy and rocky substrates all over the lake, primarily in water deeper than 6 m. It is a real piscivore in feeding habit.	eng
182572	population	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is not well known. It is rarely seen in the catch from Lake Tana and tributary rivers.	eng
182572	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is threatened by overexploitation of the lake's fishes and reduction of spawning habitats because damming in the feeding rivers.	eng
182573	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182573	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bathyaethiops caudomaculatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin. The species has recently been recorded Nziya near Inga on the Lower Congo River (AMNH)	eng
182573	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182573	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182573	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182575	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182575	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is restricted to northern Kenya and Southern Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong>It is present in Omo River, Ethiopia	eng
182575	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species inhabits small streams, swamps and shallows in the delta of the Omo river and shore regions of Lake Turkana (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
182575	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
182575	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This species is threatened by Gibe 3 Dam under construction on Omo River in Ethiopia, which will affect lake depth and salinity.	eng
182576	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182576	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops parvus</em> is known from Boma, Lower Congo River basin. Recent collections (AMNH) have recorded this species in a stretch of the river from Boma to Bulu. The species is probably distributed more widely in the Lower Congo.	eng
182576	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182576	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182576	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182577	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on this species' distribution and threats.	eng
182577	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from the Rift lakes, Ethiopia.	eng
182577	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in standing waters.	eng
182577	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182577	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182578	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Management of rural fisheries is needed in certain areas.	eng
182578	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Management of rural fisheries is needed in certain areas. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern part of the species distribution in the Congo River basin is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182578	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182578	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Suince the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The most southern part of the species distribution in the Congo River basin is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182578	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo altivelis</em> is known from the Upper Congo River and the Luapula-Mweru region and Lake Bangweulu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Reid 1985). Elsewhere, it is known from the lower and the middle reaches of the Zambezi River system, including the Shire and Lake Malawi. It is also known from the Pungwe, Buzi and Save systems in Mozambique. Its range is now thought to extend to some East Coast rivers (Rufiji system).	eng
182578	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Middle and Lower Zambezi systems, Pungwe, Busi and Lower Save systems.  Also occurs in the Zambian Zaire (Congo) system.	eng
182578	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Lower and Middle Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers and the Zambian Congo.	eng
182578	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Zimbabwe and Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo altivelis</em> is known from the upper Congo River and the Luapula-Mweru region and Lake Bangweulu of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Reid 1985). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the lower and middle Zambezi, Pungwe, Save and Buzi Rivers in Mozambique, and the Zambian Congo.	eng
182578	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	A main channel species collected over a variety of sand and rock habitats. Abundant in the Lower Zambezi being one of the dominant main channel species and forming a significant component of the fishery.	eng
182578	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo altivelis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It prefers large rivers but is also found in large lakes and dams. It grazes on algae and `aufwuchs' from rocks (Skelton 1993). From October to December in Lake Moëro, the adults gather and migrate to the spawning grounds. They go up the Luapula River up to the foot of Johnston Falls where they undergo one massive spawning between January and March. This massive spawning of short duration is known as kapata in the Luapula-Mweru system and in the tributaries of the Luapula. <br/><br/>This species is intensely fished and caviar is produced from eggs collected during migration from Lake Mweru to Luapula River (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
182578	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Labeo altivelis</em> is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species. It prefers large rivers but is also found in large lakes and dams. It grazes on algae and `aufwuchs' from rocks (Skelton 1993). It migrates upstream into tributaries to breed during the rainy season. From October to December in Lake Moëro, the adults gather and migrate to the spawning grounds. They go up the Luapula River up to the foot of Johnston Falls where they undergo one massive spawning between January and March. This massive spawning of short duration is known as kapata in the Luapula-Mweru system and in the tributaries of the Luapula. This species is intensely fished and caviar is produced from eggs collected during migration from Lake Mweru to Luapula River (Tshibwabwa 1997). This species is of some economic importance especially during the low water conditions of the dry season.	eng
182578	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Inhabits large rivers but can also occur in large lakes and dams.  Feeds on algae and afwuchs from rocks. Migrates upstream into tributaries to breed during the rainy season. Can live up to 9 years.<br/>This species was, where it was recorded in the Lower Shire River, of some economic importance especially during the low water conditions of the dry season.  The largest recorded individual from the Shire River weighed less than 1 kg but it is known to grow to a bigger size in other areas (recorded to attain about 3.6 kg) (Skelton 1993).	eng
182578	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182578	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182578	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182578	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182578	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Heavily fished in much of its range. It was abundant in Lake Kariba after the lake initially filled but has since declined - probably naturally.	eng
182578	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species.	eng
182578	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	The main threat to the species is over-exploitation (see Skelton 1993).	eng
182578	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is heavily fished in certain areas. It was abundant in Lake Kariba after the lake initially filled but has since declined - probably naturally.	eng
182579	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182579	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of the range is included with the Cross River National Park (Nigeria) and the Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
182579	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Part of the range is included with the Cross River National Park (Nigeria) and the Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
182579	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> occurs in Cross and Wouri River basins. Elsewhere it occurs in coastal Nigeria.	eng
182579	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species has been reported from the Niger delta (Nigeria), the Cross River (Nigeria and Cameroon) and in the Wouri River (Cameroon) outside western African region. It is also reported from Benin but the site locality is not known.	eng
182579	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria and Cameroon<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> occurs in Cross and Wouri River basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been reported from the Niger delta (Nigeria) and the Cross River (Nigeria and Cameroon). It is also reported from Benin but the site locality is not known.	eng
182579	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
182579	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Ichthyborus monodi</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation feeding on invertebrates and fish fry.	eng
182579	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation feeding on invertebrates and fish fry. Non-migratory.	eng
182579	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182579	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182579	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182579	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration within the Lower Niger Delta.	eng
182579	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation.	eng
182579	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The upper Cross location is being impacted by deforestation. It is also threatened by oil exploration within the Lower Niger Delta.	eng
182580	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182580	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182580	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182580	conservation	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Population trends need monitoring.	eng
182580	distribution	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is natural distributed in savannah rivers of the Nilo-Sudanese region from Ethiopia to Senegal. It is also naturally distributed in the Chad basin and Lake Turkana. The species current distribution is now far more wide-spread as a result of man-made introductions.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> The species has been widely introduced in the Lower Guinea area, for aquaculture purposes. The species was introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad, or Northern Cameroon to Southern Cameroon (swamps of the Nyong River basin, Cameroon). It was used for the development of aquaculture in the fish culture station of Melen near Yaoundé (1955), in Bertoua (1957) and in Abong-Mbang (1958). From 1968 onwards it was also found in the Lower Sanaga River basin. According to Depierre and Vivien (1977), this was probably due to colonization originating from the Lower Nyong River basin and this through the mangroves during the high waters. In the 1950’s it was also introduced from Cameroon to the Lower Ogowe River basin, in the neighbourhood of Lambaréné, Gabon, and from Cameroon to Congo. According to FAO (2005) it was reintroduced to Congo in 1960, with Sudan mentioned as country of origin. Olaosebikan and Raji (1998) report the introduction of the species in the Cross River basin, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong>This species used to be caught from This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In the case of this species, a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. Original (natural) distribution: all basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: rivers Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Chad. Areas of successful introduction of the species: in the area considered, artificial reservoirs of Côte d'Ivoire and Cross river.	eng
182580	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, and used to be caught from Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>At global level, it is native in all the basins of the Sahelo-Sudanese region.	eng
182580	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>All the river basins of the Sahelo-Sandanian region, the Corubal, Sénégal, Gambia, Volta, Niger , Chad, Nile, and Omo. Successful introductions to: reservoir lakes Bandana and Bia, the River Cross, Sanaga, Nyong, Ogoué, and many other locations.	eng
182580	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In the case of this species, a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. Original (natural) distribution: all basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: rivers Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Chad. Areas of successful introduction of the species: in the area considered, artificial reservoirs of Côte d'Ivoire and Cross River.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Africa: all the river basins of the Sahelo-Sandanian region, the Corubal, Sénégal, Gambia, Volta, Niger (and Bénoué), Chad, Nile, Omo and Lake Turkana. Successful introductions: Reservoir Lakes Bandana and Bia, River Cross, Sanaga, Nyong, Ogôoué, Lower and Middle Congo River, the Oubangui and Kasai. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction.	eng
182580	habitat	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Heterotis niloticus</em> is a pelagic species. It occurs in shallow water where it feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids (Reed 1967). Young are found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation (Moreau 1982, Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999); adults live in the open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone (Moreau 1982). Its auxiliary branchial air breathing organs enable it to survive in de-oxygenated waters; the hardiness of this fish, together with its great growth rate make it a candidate for aquaculture in Africa and it has been transported to a number of countries for this purpose (Welcomme 1988, Daget and d'Aubenton 1956). Escapees from ponds into the wild resulted in established populations, which form the basis for fisheries (Welcomme 1988). This species is considered as a mud-feeder (Hickley and Bailey 1987), but in West Africa also as a phytoplankton feeder (Holden and Reed 1972, Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). It feeds mostly on plankton, being the only plankton-feeder of the Osteoglossidae (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). It has a suprabranchial organ which has a sensory function, but also a mechanic function in concentrating the little food particles (Daget and Durand 1981, d’Aubenton 1955). During breeding, it creates a circular nest in swamps (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967, Balon 1975, Budgett 1901). The young leave the nest after a few days and are guarded by the male (Balon 1975). <em>Heterotis niloticus</em> breeds in the wet season in swamps and floodplains (Bailey 1994). It builds a circular nest about 1 m in diameter and 20 to 60 cm deep (Balon 1975), similar to a lagoon. The rim of the nest is a high wall formed out of plant chunks, about 15-20 cm thick and projecting above the water surface; the bottom is a clean platform of clay or mud (Balon 1975). After the spawning act the fish leave by way of a hole in the wall, through which, 5 days later, the young leave the nest and are guarded by the male (Balon 1975). Young possess external gills.	eng
182580	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2003	Occurs in shollow water where it feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids (Reed 1967). The only member of Osteoglossidae with an epibranchial spiral organ apparently used to taste water before microfiltration (filter feeding) is activated.  During breeding it creates an elaborate nest of grass similar to a small lagoon (Ugwumba 1992) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
182580	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in streams, marshes and swamps. Pelagic. Young found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation. It occurs in shallow waters. Feeds on invertebrates, copepodes and chironomids. It is the only member of Osteoglossidae with an epibranchial spiral organ apparently used to taste water before microfiltration (filter feeding) is activated. During breeding, it creates an elaborate nest of grass, similar to small lagoon. Adults somersault in water creating a slapping noise as they re-enter. Young possess external gills.	eng
182580	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Young individuals can be found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation. Adults live in the open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone. Its auxiliary branchial air breathing organs enable it to survive in deoxygenated waters. It is a bottom feeder specifically on arthropods, molluscs, chironomid larvae, vegetable debris and sometimes nematodes. Females deposit eggs in an enormous nest, measuring 4 feet in diameter.	eng
182580	population	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
182580	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182580	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182580	population	Akinyi, E., 2003	No population estimates, but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182580	threats	Akinyi, E., Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	More information is needed. It is reported as a commercially important fish in central Africa, but not eastern Africa. Threats in other regions are unknown.	eng
182580	threats	Akinyi, E., 2003	None.	eng
182580	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182580	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182581	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182581	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas christyi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182581	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182581	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182581	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182582	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182582	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus greshoffi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin upstream until Mbandaka.	eng
182582	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus greshoffi</em> is a demersal species. It is occurs over rocky bottoms in rivers and lakes, and is also found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
182582	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182582	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182583	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182583	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182583	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
182583	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa.	eng
182583	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango, upper and lower Zambezi, and Kafue rivers, St. Lucia basin.	eng
182583	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango,  Zambezi,  Kafue system, St Lucia basin in Natal, and the southern tributaries of the Congo system.	eng
182583	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango, Upper and Lower Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and St Lucia basin, KwaZulu-Natal. Also in southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi system it is found in all the northern tributary systems (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>	eng
182583	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is recorded from the Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, Malawi. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Okavango, This species is known from upper and Lower Zambezi and Kafue Rivers, and St Lucia basin, KwaZulu-Natal. Also in southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001). In the upper Zambezi system it is found in all the northern tributary systems (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182583	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is a benthopelagic species It occurs in dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and channels of swamps and floodplains. This species feeds on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest, to be guarded by the male. Its shallow water habitat make it susceptible to aerial spraying of insecticides (Skelton 1993).  Its preferred habitats are streams, lakes, estuaries and mangroves.	eng
182583	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma intermedium</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs in dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and channels of swamps and floodplains, where it is tolerant of extreme conditions (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species feeds on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest, to be guarded by the male. Its shallow water habitat make it susceptible to aerial spraying of insecticides (Skelton 1993).	eng
182583	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	Fiound in peripheral vegetation in main river channels as well as in flowing tributaries, drying lagoons and swamps, where it is tolerant of extreme conditions (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). Preys on insects and other small organisms. Males build a bubble nest on the water surface under which spawning takes place; the eggs float and are stowed in the nest and guarded by the male (Skelton 2001).	eng
182583	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Inhabits dense marginal vegetation of rivers, lakes, lagoons and floodplains in shallow areas. Feeds on insects and other small organisms. Spawning ocurs under a bubble nest constructed at the waters surface by the male.	eng
182583	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182583	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No population estimates	eng
182583	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species is widespread and common.	eng
182583	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Where known, the species is widespread and common.	eng
182583	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	Not known	eng
182583	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., R Bills, 2006	The species has no major threats.	eng
182583	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has no major threats, but is commercially targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
182583	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182584	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182584	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma nigricans</em> is known from the Lulua and Sankuru River drainages, tributaries of the Kasai River (Congo River basin) in the south-central Democratic Republic of Congo. The species is probably more widespread in the region though.	eng
182584	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182584	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182584	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182585	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182585	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, a swampy area without an outlet in a depression on volcanic soil, near Bolifamba in western Cameroon.	eng
182585	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) robertsoni</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is a bottom spawner with 2 months incubation. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182585	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182585	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182586	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182586	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia bilineata</em> is known from swampy forested areas of the Central Congo basin, the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182586	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182586	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182586	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182587	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182587	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Nyong and Ntem Rivers (Cameroon), Rio Benito (Río Muni), and Ogowe River (Gabon).	eng
182587	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182587	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182587	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182588	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182588	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius fuscus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.	eng
182588	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182588	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182588	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182589	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182589	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brachypetersius pseudonummifer</em> is known from the Aruwimi and Lindi Rivers (Central Congo River basin) and from the Lualaba River, as well as from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182589	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182589	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182589	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182590	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182590	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the upper Ogowe River system in southeastern Gabon.	eng
182590	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Plataplochilus terveri</em> is usually found in small rivers and brooks (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in schools in flowing waters. <em>Plataplochilus terveri</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182590	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182590	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species habitat is being impacted by the pollution from Franceville and deforestation leading to sedimentation. Mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation.	eng
182591	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182591	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality, a brook in the rainforest at 61 km from Franceville on the road to Boumango, between Madziba and Mboki, southeastern Gabon.	eng
182591	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hypsopanchax catenatus</em> is found in the flowing waters, living in schools. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It lives in the streaming parts of brooks. <em>Hypsopanchax catenatus</em>is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182591	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182591	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182592	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182592	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius clandestinus</em> is only known from the Ubangui mainstream above Bangui (near Banda and at Bawili) (Roberts 2003).	eng
182592	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius clandestinus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182592	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182592	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182593	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182593	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Nyong to the Ntem Rivers, southern Cameroon.	eng
182593	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182593	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182593	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	On the Lokudje River, the species is potentially impacted by road building. Deforestation and agriculture are occurring downstream of the species habitat.	eng
182594	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182594	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Sanaga and its effluents in Cameroon.	eng
182594	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
182594	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182594	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182595	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Habitat restoration is the major conservation measure.	eng
182595	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the coastal lowlands of south-eastern Côte d'Ivoire and Southern Ghana.	eng
182595	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is found in shallow parts of swamps, brooks and rivers in the rainforest and the derived savannah. Six centimetres SL. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182595	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182595	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats posed to this fish include effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide.&#160;Also, the removal of vegetation for mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads which may affect the feeding behaviour and feeding frequency of the fish, as well as cause other problems such as clogging of gills. Timber felling is an especially important threat in the Tano.&#160;Increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies. In Togo, the presence of phosphates released from the industries may affect the habitat of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments, as in the Densu river areas. In some areas, like the Densu, there are sand mining and quarry works that also may contribute to increasing sediment loads in the water bodies.	eng
182596	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182596	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius intermedius</em> is known from the type locality Kabambaie on the Kasaï River, from Komi, Lodja and from Koteli, all in the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182596	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182596	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182596	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182597	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The Cameroon part of the population is included within the Dano Reserve in Nigeria.	eng
182597	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Chad River basin (Nigeria, Chad and Central African Republic) and the river Benue (Nigeria and Cameroon).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Beyond the region it is known from the Nile Basin.	eng
182597	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Ichthyborus besse</em> is a riverine characin that grows to 24.5 cm in total length. It is a predatory carnivore. Non-migratory.	eng
182597	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182597	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No known major widespread threats to the species. However, there is a current (2006) proposal for a river basin water transfer between the Oubangui and Chari rivers which could have a major impact on many species.	eng
182598	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182598	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion polli</em> is known from the eastern side of the Congo River from Bangui to Kinshasa, never far away from the Congo River.	eng
182598	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion polli</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It prefers stagnant water on darker and dirty substratum (dead leaves, mulm) (Huber 2006).	eng
182598	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182598	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182599	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182599	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Anaspidoglanis macrostoma</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo basin to Kisangani. It has been recorded from a small river (Lufili River) in Congo, flowing into the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is widespread throughout the region, except in coastal basins north of the Sanaga River.	eng
182599	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Anaspidoglanis macrostoma</em> is a demersal species, which is nocturnal and crepuscular. It preys on insect larvae, crustaceans, and small fish (Burgess 1989). The juveniles are almost polyphagous and tend to prefer small streams and pools of inundated zones (Matthes 1964).	eng
182599	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182599	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182600	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. Lake Upemba is located in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182600	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys moeruensis</em> is known from the Luapula system, Lake Mweru, Lake Young, the Luombo and Zambezi River drainages in northeastern Zambia. The species is probably also present in Lake Upemba. It has been reported from the Luongo River, Congo system, Zambia (Balon and Stewart 1983).	eng
182600	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swampy parts of lakes and river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182600	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182600	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. On the Luongo River, dams diverts the water from the mainstream for hydroelectricity. Water withdrawal for agriculture also has an influence on water level of the streams.	eng
182601	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182601	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus papilio</em> is only known from the type locality: a nameless tributary of the Kasuku River at New Sciere village near Kindu, upper Congo River basin, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
182601	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus papilio</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182601	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182601	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182602	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182602	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">M. thomasi</span> is only known from the Guinean region: Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone.	eng
182602	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal of 20.0 cm SL.	eng
182602	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182602	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Mining and deforestation in Liberia threaten this species.	eng
182603	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182603	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestopetersius caudalis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.	eng
182603	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182603	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182603	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182604	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182604	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182604	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population range and numbers and biology and ecology. Conservation measures should be addressed, including habitat conservation and restoration, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
182604	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> is recorded from coastal areas of the Meme, Wouri Sanaga and Lokoundje basin in Cameroon, and the Komo and Ogowe basin in Gabon. Elsewhere the species was originally described from the mouth of the Ethiop River in Nigeria and is also distributed in coastal areas of Nigeria and Benin east of the Oueme (Lévêque and Teugels 1991).	eng
182604	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species has been found in Southern Benin, from the eastern side of the Ouémé to the Cross, including the lower course and the delta of the Niger River. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it is known from the coastal basins of Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
182604	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> is recorded from coastal areas of the Meme, Wouri Sanaga and Lokoundje basin in Cameroon, and the Komo and Ogowe basin in Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species has been found in Southern Benin, from the eastern side of the Ouémé to the Cross including the lower course and the delta of the Niger River.	eng
182604	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A bentho-pelagic species occurring in rain forest areas. Has an accessory breathing organ so can tolerate low oxygen levels. Has a very large mouth and is a sit-and-wait predator. Builds bubble nests. Non-migratory.	eng
182604	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	A bentho-pelagic species occurring in rain forest areas. Has an accessory breathing organ so can tolerate low oxygen levels. It has a very large mouth and is a sit-and-wait predator. <em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> exhibits male parental care (Britz 1997). In captivity, 100-200 eggs (diameter 1.3-1.4 mm) are preferentially attached to the underside of floating leaves. After spawning the male builds a foam-nest below the leaf covering the eggs in air bubbles. Bubbles are produced by taking air into the mouth and releasing bubbles through the gill cover. Eggs hatch after 120 h (at 27°C). Larvae adhere to the nesting site with a multicellular attachment organ on top of their head. They are guarded by the male until they leave the nest around 24 h after hatching. Yolk sac is reabsorbed and larvae start to swim free on the second day after hatching.	eng
182604	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polycentropsis abbreviata</em> exhibits male parental care (Britz 1997). In captivity, 100-200 eggs (diameter 1.3-1.4 mm) are preferentially attached to the underside of floating leaves. After spawning the male builds a foam-nest below the leaf covering the eggs in air bubbles. Bubbles are produced by taking air into the mouth and releasing bubbles through the gill cover. Eggs hatch after 120 h (at 27°C). Larvae adhere to the nesting site with a multicellular attachment organ on top of their head. They are guarded by the male until they leave the nest around 24 h after hatching. Yolk sac is resorbed and larvae start to swim free on the second day after hatching.          benthopelagic; Occurs in rainforest areas (Thys van den Audenaerde and Breine 1986). It prefers tropical climate.	eng
182604	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182604	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182604	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182604	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration and land degradation due to impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural developments. Also potentially threatened by exploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
182604	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration and land degradation due to impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural developments. Also potentially threatened by exploitation for the aquarium trade.	eng
182604	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is potentially an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182605	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182605	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found from the Mbei (or Mbe) and Como River drainage systems in northwestern Gabon southward across western Gabon and Cabinda to the Chiloanga River. Also extends to Angola, Congo and Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182605	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion escherichi</em> occurs in coastal swamps and swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) escherichi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182605	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182605	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182606	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182606	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the middle and upper Ogowe River of central and eastern Gabon.	eng
182606	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) lamberti</em> occurs in brooks and small streams in the forested and humid savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) lamberti</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182606	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182606	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the upper Ogowe, it is threatened by commercial manganese mining and urban and agricultural pollution. Iron mining is a potential threat to this species. The species has a very broad distribution though.	eng
182607	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182607	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Lake Tana and its tributary rivers.	eng
182607	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs mainly over rocky substrates all over the lake, both in shallow and deep water. The species is mainly piscivorous. Smaller specimens also eat considerable numbers of insects, but the larger ones almost completely switch to fish.	eng
182607	population	Getahun, A., 2009	It is abundantly found in the catch although the size of the population is not known.	eng
182607	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of resources and damming are major threats to the species.	eng
182608	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182608	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Noun River and Lake Monoun in Cameroon.	eng
182608	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus bourdariei</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182608	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182608	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species northern habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. The species is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses as in Lake Nyos.	eng
182609	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182609	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, and Volta, as well as from some coastal basins	eng
182609	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a freshwater species. This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182609	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182609	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182610	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182610	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182610	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Petrocephalus pallidomaculatus</em> This species is known from upper Niger, basins of the Volta, Mono and Ouémé. <em>P. pallidomaculatus</em> has also been reported from the Niger delta in Nigeria.	eng
182610	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus pallidomaculatus</em> is only known from the Ituri River, Avakubi, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the Upper Niger, basins of the Volta, Mono and Ouémé. <em>P. pallidomaculatus</em> has also been reported from the Niger delta in Nigeria.	eng
182610	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182610	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182610	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182610	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information on population trends.	eng
182610	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182610	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in some areas of the Volta basin. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of pesticides and other agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. In other areas, invasive aquatic weeds and pollution of the water bodies from inadequately treated human waste may be a problem.	eng
182611	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182611	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182611	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182611	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is known from coastal and estuarine regions, and sometimes also from lower courses of coastal rivers, from Mauritania to Angola.	eng
182611	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Coastal areas and lower reaches of rivers from the Senegal to Cross rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species occurs in coastal areas, estuaries and sometimes even lower reaches of rivers, from Dakhla, Western Sahara to at least Lobito, Angola, corresponding to the extreme northerly and southerly limits of the 25°C isotherms throughout the year; dwarf population exist in Lake Nokoué, Benin. Cape Verde records based on erroneous type locality for<span style="font-style: italic;"> E. fimbriata</span> by Bowdich - followed by later authors (Whitehead 1985).	eng
182611	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species occurs in coastal areas, estuaries and sometimes even lower reaches of rivers, from Dakhla, Western Sahara, to at least Lobito, Angola, corresponding to the extreme northerly and southerly limits of the 25°C isotherms throughout the year. A dwarf population exist in Lake Nokoué, Benin. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is known from coastal and estuarine regions, and sometimes also from lower courses of coastal rivers, from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas and lower reaches of rivers from the Senegal to Cross rivers.	eng
182611	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is a pelagic, catadromous species. It occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g. Gambia River). The species feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> breeds throughout the year in waters of salinities 3.5-38 ppt, but with peaks in at least some areas, becoming progressively later to south. It spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers. It prefers streams, neritic, marine, estuaries as habitats.	eng
182611	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> is a pelagic, catadromous species. It occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g. Gambia River) (Whitehead 1985). The species feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. <em>Ethmalosa fimbriata</em> breeds throughout the year in waters of salinities 3.5-38 ppt, but with peaks in at least some areas, becoming progressively later to south. It spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers.	eng
182611	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Occurs in inshore waters, lagoons and more than 300 km up rivers (e.g., Gambia River) (Whitehead 1985). Catadromous pelagic migratory fish. Feeds by filtering phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms. Spawns in the sea, in estuaries and rivers. Feeds on phytoplankton, chiefly diatoms (Irvine 1947).	eng
182611	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182611	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
182611	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182611	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Importance: highly commercial; Landing: Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Cameroon - from 50,000 to 100,000; Main Catching Method: gillnets; Used for Aquaculture: experimental	eng
182611	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182611	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a highly important commercial fish in central Africa, mainly caught by gillnets.	eng
182612	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182612	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus trinotatus</em> is known from the type locality Saidi's Village and from the Ndrige, Mbela and Bogu Rivers, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182612	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus trinotatus</em> is benthopelagic species.	eng
182612	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182612	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182613	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182613	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus crassus</em> is found in the vicinity of the Bulu on the Lower Congo River rapids. Recently a few specimens were collected from the region of Pioka suggesting the species is probably found throughout the Lower Congo rapids. The precise habitat of the species is unknown.	eng
182613	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus crassus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rapids with rocky bottom (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
182613	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182613	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182614	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182614	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys mesogramma</em> is known from the Ubangui River drainage, central Congo River basin.	eng
182614	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys mesogramma</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs between border vegetation in small streams and brooks under gallery forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182614	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182614	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182615	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182615	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus senegalus</em> is known from the Congo River basin, from Yaekama to the Lualaba River and effluents in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gosse 1984). It is also known from the Ubangui River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal, Gambia, Niger and Volta Rivers in West Africa and moreover from the Chad basin, Nile and Omo Rivers, Lakes Mobutu and Turkana.	eng
182615	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus meridionalis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species.	eng
182615	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182615	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182616	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182616	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is found around Salayea, northern Liberia and in brooks, swamps and small streams of the upper Saint Paul and upper Lofa River systems and southeastern Guinea. Exact distribution not known	eng
182616	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species occurs in brooks, swamps and small streams. 7 cm max SL. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
182616	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182616	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation, agricultural developments and mining in Liberia.	eng
182617	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182617	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species seems to be endemic to the upper tributaries of the Pra basin in Ghana.	eng
182617	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Maximum TL was recorded at 10.0 cm.	eng
182617	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182617	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in Pra basin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation due to mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads, and its consequent adverse effects on the habitat and the fish. In some areas, other threats may include invasive aquatic weeds and pollution from inadequately treated human waste.	eng
182618	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	There is a project to organise the fishery in Pool Malebo.	eng
182618	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Duboisialestes tumbensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Congo, from Leverville-Soa in the Kwenge River and from Lake Tumba.	eng
182618	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182618	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182618	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, possibly causing threats. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen turned to agriculture themselves.	eng
182619	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182619	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis polli</em> is known from the Lower Congo from above Pioka to Pool Malebo, where it occurs in the main channel and in affluent streams. It is also reported from the Central Congo main channel from above the pool to the vicinity of Kwamouth.	eng
182619	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis polli</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182619	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182619	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182620	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182620	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species occurs in the coastal rainforest and mangrove swamps in southwestern Ghana, southern Côte d’Ivoire and southern Liberia	eng
182620	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This killifish inhabit small rivers, creeks, pools and swamps in the coastal rainforest and mangrove swamps.	eng
182620	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182620	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182621	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182621	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus luapulaensis</em> is only known from Kabunda and Chipita, Luapula basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182621	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182621	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182621	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182622	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182622	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia louka</span> is known from the River Corubal (Guinea Bissau) to the Lofa (Liberia).	eng
182622	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 25.0 cm SL maximum size	eng
182622	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182622	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182623	conservation	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	No information available.	eng
182623	conservation	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known.	eng
182623	distribution	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops boulengeri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin but confirmed records from the main channel of the Lower Congo River are lacking. The type locality is from the Ogowe River, however it is probable that this type locality is not correct.	eng
182623	distribution	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Rivers and streams flowing into Lake Tanganyika<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo Basin	eng
182623	habitat	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops boulengeri</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits riverine biotopes, and feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae.	eng
182623	habitat	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	Inhabits riverine biotopes. Feeds on insects, mostly chironomid larvae	eng
182623	population	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available.	eng
182623	population	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	Not known	eng
182623	threats	Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known.	eng
182623	threats	G, Ntakimazi, 2002	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension.	eng
182624	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182624	conservation	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182624	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182624	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Isichthys henryi</em> is distributed throughout Lower Guinea, including the Cross River of Nigeria/Cameroon (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998), the Sanaga, the Kribi, the Ntem, the Ogowe, the Ivindo, the coastal streams around Mayumba, and in the coastal drainages in Congo-Brazzaville, including the Kouilou. Elsewhere it is known from the coastal rivers of Guinea, Sierra-Leone, Liberia, and from the Niger.	eng
182624	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Isichthys henryi</span> is known in western Africa from the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, from Ogun as well as from coastal reaches of rivers in western Nigeria and the Lower Niger. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also recorded from the Lower Ntem River basin, Cameroon.	eng
182624	distribution	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, and then from Nigeria to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Isichthys henryi</em> is distributed throughout Lower Guinea, including the Cross River of Nigeria/Cameroon (Kadem Toham and Teugels 1998), the Sanaga, the Kribi, the Ntem, the Ogowe, the Ivindo, the coastal streams around Mayumba, and in the coastal drainages in Congo, including the Kouilou. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in West Africa from the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, and from Ogun as well as from coastal reaches of rivers in Western Nigeria and the Lower Niger.	eng
182624	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Isichthys henryi</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptor's over the entire head, the dorsal region and some parts of the ventral region; absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. The Electric organ discharge (EOD) rates are of low frequency and sexually dimorphic as to waveform (Møller 1995).	eng
182624	habitat	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Isichthys henryi</em> is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptor's over the entire head, the dorsal region and some parts of the ventral region; absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. The Electric organ discharge (EOD) rates are of low frequency and sexually dimorphic as to waveform (Møller 1995).	eng
182624	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Thi species possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the dorsal region and some parts of the ventral region; absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located. Electric organ discharge (EOD) rates are of low frequency and sexually dimorphic as to waveform	eng
182624	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182624	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182624	population	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182624	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known	eng
182624	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182624	threats	Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182625	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182625	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, widespread from the Sanaga River in Cameroon to Loémé, Congo.	eng
182625	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal and has a pH range from 6.5 – 7.5 and a dH range from 8 - 18.	eng
182625	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182625	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182626	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182626	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops masuianus</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182626	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182626	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182626	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182627	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182627	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Western Africa. The species is found in the Southern Ghana and in the Southern Nigeria (Ogun, Niger Delta and Benue Rivers).	eng
182627	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This characid grows to 22.5 cm in total length. It migrates upriver for spawning.	eng
182627	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182627	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is an ongoing decline in habitat quality due to oil exploration (Niger Delta) and deforestation (Ogun river basin).	eng
182628	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182628	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182628	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182628	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus </em> is very rare, and used to be caught from the coastal lagoons, especially Lake Mariut (Egypt) and Algeria. It is found in Tunisia in the wadis of Kebili in the south of Tunisia and in wadis near Chott Melrhir in eastern Algeria (Kraïem, M. pers. comm.). It is rare in Egypt (Wadi El Rayan Lakes).<br/><br/>At global scale, it is widely distributed in West Africa (Coastal basins from Southern Guinea to Central Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Gambia, Senegal and Cameroon) and Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nile basins.	eng
182628	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong> In western Africa, it is known from most hydrographic basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Hemichromis bimaculatus</span> is widely distributed in Africa. It has been found in the Nile, coastal basins of Cameroon and in the Congo.	eng
182628	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout western Africa, but has also been recorded from Algeria to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Within this region this species is very rare. It used to be caught from the coastal lagoons, especially Lake Mariut (Egypt) and Algeria. Its found in Tunisia in the wadis of Kebili in the south of Tunisia and in wadis near Chott Melrhir in eastern Algeria (Kraiem, pers. comm.), and Egypt (Wadi El Rayan Lakes).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from most hydrographic basins in western Africa.	eng
182628	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Hemichromis bimaculatus </em> is carnivorous and very aggressive towards cichlids. Prefers sheltered water and occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover	eng
182628	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is carnivorous, and very aggressive towards cichlids. It prefers sheltered water and occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover.	eng
182628	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in mud-bottomed and sand-bottomed canals; some distance inland from the coast, associated with areas of intact or recently disturbed forest cover. Feeds on fish scales and insects.	eng
182628	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182628	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182628	population	Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182628	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182628	threats	Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction, and drought are all potential threats to the northern population of this species. This species is also harvested.	eng
182628	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought are main threats affecting to the species.	eng
182629	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182629	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clupeocharax schoutedeni</em> is known from Lake Tumba and Lake Yandja (Yangambi), Central Congo River basin. Recent collections in and around Lake Mai-Ndombe have shown the species to occur there. It is probable that the species is more widespread in Central Congo.	eng
182629	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182629	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182629	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture.	eng
182630	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182630	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus macroceps</em> is only known from the type locality: Epulu River, tributary of the Ituri River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182630	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus macroceps</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182630	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182630	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo causes deforestation. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182631	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182631	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys boulengeri</em> is only known from the type locality Luluabourg (Kananga), Kasaï River, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182631	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys boulengeri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has s distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is adapted to live in the rapids.	eng
182631	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182631	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182632	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182632	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis tourei </span>is found in upper Bafing (Senegal basin) in the Fouta Djalon, Guinea.	eng
182632	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal freshwater fish.	eng
182632	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trend.	eng
182632	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No known threats.	eng
182633	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182633	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is known from the south of Guinea and Sierra Leone and the south-west of Liberia. The species is found at many locations.	eng
182633	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species populates the marshy sectors and the small rivers of the coastal plains generally under the forest cover.	eng
182633	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182633	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182634	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182634	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia dageti</span> is known from the upper Comoé (Côte d’Ivoire), Volta, Mono, Middle and upper Niger, Benue, and from upper Senegal and Lake Chad.	eng
182634	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish of maximum size 40.0 cm TL	eng
182634	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182634	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Urban and agricultural development and oil exploration in Nigeria threaten this species.	eng
182635	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182635	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gnathonemus barbatus</em> is only known from the type locality on the Kasai River in Angola, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182635	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182635	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182635	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182636	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182636	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys geuntheri</em> has been found in the Lower and Central Congo River basin up to the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) in Kisangani, including Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Dja River (Cameroon) and the Pone River (Kwango basin, Angola). It has also been recorded from the Chambezi system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin, Angola.	eng
182636	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys geuntheri</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Brder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182636	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182636	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182637	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly included within the Korup National Park.	eng
182637	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The distribution of this species is partly included within the Korup National Park. Populations should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and restoration may be needed.	eng
182637	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Gymnallabes typus </span>occurs in the Niger Delta and Cross River in Nigeria, in Ouémé River in Benin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Also known from the Ntem and Kom Rivers in Cameroon and Ogowe and Nyanga in Gabon. It has also been reported in the Congo Democratic Republic.	eng
182637	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The natural range of <em>Gymnallabes typus</em> is restricted to Nigeria (the Niger Delta and Old Calabar (type location)) and western Cameroon (Cross River) and Benin (Lower Oueme).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  The holotype of <em>Gymallabes typus heterocercalis</em> is reported from Cameroon (not specified). It has also been reported from the Ntem River.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa: </strong><em>Gymnallabes typus</em> occurs in the Niger Delta and Cross River in Nigeria, and in Ouémé River in Benin.	eng
182637	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in low oxygen conditions. Lives in the swamps and small lakes. Non-migratory.	eng
182637	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in low oxygen conditions. It lives in the swamps and small lakes. It is non-migratory.	eng
182637	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182637	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182637	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture and urban development.	eng
182637	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta threatens populations. Elsewhere, habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture and urban development are all threats to this species.	eng
182638	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182638	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tetrastigma</em> is known from the Dungu River, Uele River basin. It is also known from Yaekela and Yaekama, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182638	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus tetrastigma</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182638	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182638	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182639	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182639	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality on the Ivindo River, Makokou in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
182639	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis laevigata</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a small, shallow blackwater creek, with extremely low water; the substrate being sand and leaf litter, with the area having undergone severe human disturbance (Ng 2004).	eng
182639	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182639	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182640	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182640	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops intermedius</em> is only known from the type locality, the Rubi River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182640	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182640	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182640	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182641	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182641	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Part of the range is within the Korup National Park.	eng
182641	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of the range of this species is within the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.	eng
182641	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Boek: In Lower Guinea, <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is found from the Cross River to the Chiloango system. <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is distributed along the coastal plain of west and central Africa from the lower Volta River (Ghana) to the Shiloango River system (Angola and Congo-Brazzaville), and on the Island of Fernando Po. A single specimen is recorded from Sierra Leona (Upper Guinean region). As no other specimens among the numerous available specimens from the Upper Guinean region, this record is considered questionable (Norris 2002).	eng
182641	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Lower Volta to Cameroon. Possibly present in Sierra Leone.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus beninensis</span> is distributed along the coastal plain of Central and western Africa from the Lower Volta River in Ghana to the Chiloango River system in Angola (Cabinda) and Congo, and on the island of Fernando Poo. It shows notable variation in pigmentation across its range.	eng
182641	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Ghana to Angola. It is also present on the island of Fernando Po. A single specimen is recorded from Sierra Leona (This species is known from upper Guinean region). As no other specimens among the numerous available specimens from the upper Guinean region, this record is considered questionable (Norris 2002).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is found from the Cross River to the Chiloango system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs from the lower Volta in Ghana to Cameroon. It is also possibly present in Sierra Leone.	eng
182641	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Bentho-pelagic species that lives in marshes, swamps, rivers and lakes. Emits a strong electrical discharge to stun its prey - other small fishes. Non-migratory	eng
182641	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It is mostly found in lowland habitats.	eng
182641	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Malapterurus beninensis</em> is a benthopelagic species that can produce an electric current that is used both for prey capture and defence. It is mostly found in lowland habitats, and lives in marshes, swamps, rivers and lakes.	eng
182641	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182641	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182641	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182641	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182641	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts from agriculture, deforestation and urban development.	eng
182641	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Some populations are threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, there are negative impacts from agriculture, deforestation and urban development.	eng
182642	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182642	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Mungo, Meme and Moko Rivers, western Cameroon.	eng
182642	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) rubrolabialis</em> is found in temporary pools, raffia swamps and swampy parts of slow-flowing brooks in the humid coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is apparently restricted to habitats on sedimentary soils. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Paludopanchax) rubrolabialis</em> is a bottom spawner. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182642	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182642	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo river basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The region of the lower Mungo, Meme and Moko Rivers are threatened by oil palm plantations.	eng
182643	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182643	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poropanchax myersi</em> is only known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) in the Congo River, including its islands.	eng
182643	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Poropanchax myersi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is found in shallow and weedy parts near the banks of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182643	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182643	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182644	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182644	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus corneti</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower Congo River basin. It is also known from Ouesso, Sangha River basin and from Koteli, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182644	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus corneti</em> is a demersal species. Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive (Bass and Hopkins 1985 Landsman 1995). It exhibits sexual dimorphism in its EOD waveform (Møller 1995).	eng
182644	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182644	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182645	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182645	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from upper and middle Gambia, also in the Bafing River (upper Senegal River).	eng
182645	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182645	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182645	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened by deforestation.	eng
182646	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182646	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes centralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182646	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes centralis</em> is a demersal species that feeds on plant debris and insects (Matthes 1964).	eng
182646	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182646	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182647	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182647	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known from the coastal rivers of southeastern Guinea, Sierra Leone and western Liberia.	eng
182647	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182647	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182647	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Habitat degradation due to deforestation and agricultural activities are threats to the species particularly in Liberia.	eng
182648	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182648	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The most northern location in Cameroon is situated in the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance and restoration is required.	eng
182648	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The most northern location is situated in the Korup National Park.	eng
182648	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs mainly in coastal areas from the Wouri, around Moliwe, Muyuka,in the Kienke and Lobe systems, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from eastern Benin and southwestern Nigeria. Reports from Bioko (Castelo 1994) have not been confirmed.	eng
182648	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa this species is known from southwestern Nigeria and the Niger Delta. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it is found in coastal areas of Southern Cameroon.	eng
182648	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs mainly in coastal areas from the Wouri, around Moliwe, Muyuka,in the Kienke and Lobe systems, Cameroon. Reports from Bioko (Castelo 1994) have not been confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria and the Niger delta.	eng
182648	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs in coastal areas. It is a demersal, non-migratory species.	eng
182648	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pelvicachromis taeniatus</em> occurs in coastal areas. It is a demersal species with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 12.	eng
182648	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small cichlid. Demersal species. Non-migratory.	eng
182648	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182648	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182648	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182648	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The central African localities are threatened by oil palm plantations in that region. Oil exploration and habitat loss and degradation following deforestation and agricultural and urban development threaten the Nigerian populations.	eng
182648	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The central localities are threatened by oil palm plantations in that region.	eng
182648	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration and habitat loss and degradation following deforestation and agricultural and urban development.	eng
182649	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182649	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from Gabon and Congo in the Biguilé River to the Louémé River, widespread in the Ogowe basin. Coastal and other eastern rivers from Cameroon to Congo	eng
182649	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
182649	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182649	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182650	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182650	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma brichardi</em> is only known from the rapids near Kinsuka. Other locations reported for this species are probably based on misidentifications and are currently under investigation (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.). Further collections are necessary to establish the precise distribution and limits of this species. It is abundant in and around the Kinsuka rapids.	eng
182650	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Teleogramma brichardi</em> is a demersal species with a maximum recorded TL of 11.0 cm (Snoecks and De Boeck 1991).	eng
182650	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182650	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182651	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182651	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus syntrechalepis</em> is only known by the type from the Oka River, Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182651	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus syntrechalepis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182651	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182651	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182652	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182652	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa royauxi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Central Congo River basin. It has also been found in the Lualaba River at Kindu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kasai River system.	eng
182652	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa royauxi</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.	eng
182652	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182652	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182653	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182653	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes variabilis</em> is known from the Kasai River system and from the Lofu River, Lukénie basin, all in the Central Congo River basin. One specimen assigned to this species from Pool Malebo (AMNH).	eng
182653	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clariallabes variabilis</em> is a demersal species. Stomach contents contain sand, (dead) plant material, crustaceans (Cladocerans and shrimp), aquatic larvae and nymphs and numerous pieces of terrestrial insects (Matthes 1964).	eng
182653	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182653	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182654	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182654	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo alticentralis</em> is known from one type from Kisangani (Stanleyville) and from one type from the Lualaba River at Avokoko, on the route from Kisangani to Wanie Rukula. One specimen has also been identified as <em>Labeo alticentralis</em> from the Kinsuka rapids, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182654	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo alticentralis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182654	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182654	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182655	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
182655	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available. The population trends should be researched, and habitat maintenance is required.	eng
182655	conservation	Bills, R., 2006	None known.	eng
182655	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Malawi and its catchment as well as the Shire river (Skelton <em>et al. 1980).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>occurs in the Pungwe River and Lower Zambezi (Skelton 1993) .	eng
182655	distribution	Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from part of the Lower Zambezi fauna - occurring in suitable habitats in Malawi, the Lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers. Unpublished data from Bills (1999) shows the southern limit as the Buzi system.	eng
182655	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	This species is found in southeast Africa, from Lake Malawi and southern Tanzania to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Lake Malawi and its catchment as well as the Shire river (Skelton <em>et al. </em>1980).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Part of the lower Zambezi fauna - occurring in suitable habitats in Malawi, the lower Zambezi, Pungwe and Buzi Rivers. Unpublished data from Bills (1999) shows the southern limit as the Buzi system.	eng
182655	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	A common species, it occurs in the streams as well as sheltered inshore areas of the lake. It is reported as one of the species found under the shelter of floating islands of reeds in Lake Malawi. These islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi. It migrates up streams during the rains to breed. This species is very common in marshy habitats (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979, Skelton 1993) in the Lower Shire river.	eng
182655	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	A common species, it occurs in the streams as well as sheltered inshore areas of the lake.  It is reported as one of the species found under the shelter of floating islands of reeds in L. Malawi. These islands can assist in the dispersal of this species in Lake Malawi.  It migrates up streams during the rains to breed.  This species is very common in marshy habitats (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979; Skelton 1993) in the Lower Shire river.	eng
182655	habitat	Bills, R., 2006	Found at the edges of main river channels in vegetation and marshy habitats.	eng
182655	population	Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
182655	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available.	eng
182655	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available.	eng
182655	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J. & Marshall, B., 2009	It is not thought that this species faces any major threats, however it is a suitable aquarium species (Skelton 1993).	eng
182655	threats	Bills, R., 2006	None known.	eng
182655	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Unknown. This is a suitable aquarium species (Skelton 1993).	eng
182656	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182656	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon mvogoi</em> is known from the upper Dja River in Cameroon, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nyong, Ntem and Ivindo (Ogowe basin) Rivers.	eng
182656	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182656	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182656	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182657	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No major conservation measure is in place although there is a legislation proclaimed to protect the resource at the national and regional levels.	eng
182657	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from Lake Tana.	eng
182657	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It occurs mostly over rocky substrates in relatively shallow water (less than 6 m deep). It is a piscivore with almost 100% of its diet consisting of fish.	eng
182657	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The size of the population is not exactly known. However, this species is one of the rare species of <em>Labeobarbus</em> in the lake.	eng
182657	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of the fish resource is the major threat for this species.	eng
182658	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182658	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182658	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). More research is needed into population range and numbers for this species, as well as monitoring population trends. Habitat maintenance and restoration may also be required.	eng
182658	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hydrocynus brevis</em> is rare, used to be caught from Lower Egyptian Nile to Luxor, now restricted to Lake Nasser (just outside of the region).<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Chad, Niger/ Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.	eng
182658	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Chad, Niger/Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is found only in the Sahelo-Sudanese River basins.	eng
182658	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a wide-ranging species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in this region. It used to be caught from Lower Egyptian Nile to Luxor, now restricted to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad, Niger/Bénoué, Volta, Senegal and Gambia.	eng
182658	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersa species that occurs in open water habitats. Piscivorous but may also eat “Caridina” and insects.	eng
182658	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in open water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, aquatic insects and shrimps. Its average length is up to 50 cm.	eng
182658	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a demersal species, occurring in open water habitats. It feeds mainly on fish, aquatic insects and shrimps.	eng
182658	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182658	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182658	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182658	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	One potential threat to this commercial harvested food fish is fish is overfishing, defeorestation and pollution (mining and oil industry).	eng
182658	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	One potential threat to this commercial harvested food fish is overfishing, as well as deforestation and pollution (mining and oil industry). In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182658	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182659	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182659	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus longidorsalis</em> is only known from the Loama and Kanshete Rivers, tributaries of the Luhoho River in the Kivu region, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182659	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus longidorsalis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182659	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182659	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182660	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182660	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe, Ngounie, and Nyanga rivers, and coastal regions of central and southern of Gabon.	eng
182660	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182660	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182660	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182661	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182661	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus nigripinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and adjacent rapids, and from the Central Congo River basin, but is not known from the Kwango, Kasai and Sangha systems.	eng
182661	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It possesses electroreceptors over the entire head, the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995).	eng
182661	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182661	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182662	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182662	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria malaissei</em> is only known from the Luanza River, Luapula River basin, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182662	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria malaissei</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 9.2 cm (Poll 1984).	eng
182662	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182662	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182663	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182663	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa minuta</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin and from the Uele River basin. Records have been made from the Sangha River basin, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182663	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa minuta</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers.	eng
182663	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182663	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182664	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182664	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from the type locality at Edea on the lower course of the Sanaga River, Cameroon.	eng
182664	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Thrattidion noctivagus</em> is a pelagic species. It is a riverine species, collected only at dusk and dawn in swiftly flowing water of about 1 m just above the hydro-electric dam at Edea, Cameroon. <em>Thrattidion noctivagus</em> feeds on plankton and some terrestrial insects.	eng
182664	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182664	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182665	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182665	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus taeniurus</em> is known from the Dja, Kribi and Ntem Rivers in Cameroon (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
182665	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus taeniurus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182665	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182665	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat. The lower Ntem population will possibly be threatened in the future by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
182666	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182666	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182666	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Lower Guinea this species occurs in coastal rivers, from western and southwestern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, to northwestern Gabon.	eng
182666	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It ranges from southeastern Nigeria through western and southwestern Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is known from Cameroon to Equatorial Guinea and northwestern Gabon.	eng
182666	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) splendopleure</em> generally occurs in still waters of brooks and small streams in the coastal rain forest on soils derived from Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary deposits (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) splendopleure</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182666	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small killifish. It occurs in quiet parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest on tertiary and quaternary sedimentary soil. Non-migratory.	eng
182666	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182666	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182666	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is targeted by fisheries and the aquarium trade.	eng
182666	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is targeted by the aquarium trade and is difficult to maintain in captivity. Agricultural developments such as conversion for rice farming is leading to habitat loss and degradation.	eng
182667	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182667	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus balayi</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Kindu, Lualaba system. It is not known from the Lukénie, Kasai and Kwango systems. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region where it occurs in the lower course of the Ogowe River (Gabon) in numerous associated lakes, and in the small coastal rivers from south of the Ogowe to the border between Gabon and Congo.	eng
182667	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182667	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182667	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182668	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The location of the Ndian is protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182668	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, associated with the Ndian River in southeastern Nigeria and probably also in western Cameroon. The distribution appears to be relict.	eng
182668	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest. <em>Fundulopanchax ndianus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation.	eng
182668	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182668	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The habitat is threatened by oil exploration in the Lower Cross River and the potential threat from development activities.	eng
182669	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182669	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., the Kafue National Park.	eng
182669	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa, such as the Kafue National Park. More research is needed into its biology and ecology.	eng
182669	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species found from Democratic Republic of Congo to Botswana and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula-Mweru systems. It is also known from the upper Kasai and the Lomami Rivers. It has been recorded from Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in the upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004) and also in the Middle Zambezi, Kafue, Cunene, Okavango and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182669	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Luapula-Mweru systems. It is also known from the upper Kasai and the Lomami Rivers. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper and middle Zambezi and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). It has been recorded from Lake Kariba (Losse 1998).	eng
182669	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is widely distributed in the Upper Zambezi system (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004) and also in the Middle Zambezi, Kafue, Cunene, Okavango and Zambian Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182669	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers well-oxygenated but vegetated waters such as floodplain river channels and permanent lagoons. <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is shy, emerging in subdued light, most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 1993). It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> migrates during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning occurs in thick plantation.	eng
182669	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It prefers well-oxygenated but vegetated waters such as floodplain river channels and permanent lagoons. Fringes and shallow, vegetated areas of main river channels and connected lagoons, also in larger tributaries, but rare in smaller streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is shy, emerging in subdued light, most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 1993, 2001) and cann be observed over open sand in the shallows of the Upper Zambezi River by torchlight at night. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Mills and Vevers 1989). <em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> migrates during rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Spawning occurs in thick plantation.	eng
182669	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Fringes and shallow, vegetated areas of main river channels and connected lagoons, also in larger tributaries, but rare in smaller streams (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also occurs around the shoreline of Lake Kariba. Most active in early morning and late afternoon (Skelton 2001) and observed over open sand in the shallows of the Upper Zambezi River by torchlight at night. Feeds on small organisms, often off plant surfaces (Skelton 2001).	eng
182669	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182669	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182669	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species is common and widespread and thus the populations are healthy (Tweddle <em>et al.  </em>2004).	eng
182669	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.	eng
182669	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus fasciolatus</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.	eng
182669	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
182670	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182670	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182670	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182670	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus macrops</em> is widespread through western Africa, from Senegal to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Barbus macrops</em> is known from the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species  is widely distributed in West Africa including the rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins.	eng
182670	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong>  <em>Barbus macrops</em> is known from the Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. this species is widely distributed in West Africa: rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. It has also been reported from the Nile.	eng
182670	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus macrops</span> is widely distributed in western Africa including the rivers Chad, Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Gambia, and Senegal, as well as in numerous coastal basins. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> It has also reported from Central African Republic and from Mauritania.	eng
182670	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic fish.	eng
182670	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus macrops</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182670	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus macrops</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182670	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182670	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182670	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182670	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182670	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182670	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182671	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182671	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parailia congica</em> is known from lakes and rivers from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.	eng
182671	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parailia congica</em> is a demersal species. It feeds mainly on aquatic and small terrestrial insects (Burgess 1989).	eng
182671	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182671	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182672	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10 000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182672	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis stigmatogenys</em> is known from the Kasaï and Luvua River systems and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from Mukishi, This species is known from upper Lomami River.	eng
182672	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis stigmatogenys</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182672	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182672	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets also pose a threat.	eng
182673	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182673	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is apparently restricted to the drainage system of the Middle Konkouré River in the southern part of the Fouta Djalon plateau, western Guinea	eng
182673	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found most commonly in shallow parts of creeks and small rivers. It is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish of maximum size of 7.0 cm TL.	eng
182673	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182673	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. It is potentially threatened from water pollution due to mining and untreated sewage	eng
182674	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182674	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, and coastal regions north of Libreville, Gabon.	eng
182674	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182674	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182674	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182675	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182675	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops furcidens</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182675	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182675	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182675	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182676	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182676	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the Niger in the Mopti regions and from Lake Kainji (Nigeria). Also known from Guinea (this location can't be mapped, more information is needed).	eng
182676	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum SL 34.5 cm. Lives in streams and lakes. This is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.	eng
182676	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182676	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known - a hardy species.	eng
182677	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information on the distribution and status of this species is needed.	eng
182677	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only known from the type locality, Chutes Lancrenon, from upper Logone River system.	eng
182677	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182677	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182677	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182678	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182678	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	The species is endemic to western Africa and known from the Ogun (Nigeria), Ouémé (Bénin) and Mono (Togo) basins.	eng
182678	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available	eng
182678	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182678	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182679	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182679	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the rivers Ogun and Oshun in Nigeria and from the Mono in Togo. Probably also in the Mono River in Benin and Ghana.	eng
182679	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a medium size mormyrid growing to 17 cm SL. This is a demersal species in shallow waters. It can emit a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.	eng
182679	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182679	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation from agriculture, urban development and deforestation.	eng
182680	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182680	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tricuspidalestes caeruleus</em> is known from Bokuma and the Tsuapa River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182680	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182680	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182680	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182681	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182681	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus bimaculatus</em> is known from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo, Lualaba, Rubi and Lake Upemba of the Congo basin. The presence in the upper Congo system needs to be confirmed though.	eng
182681	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182681	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182681	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182682	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182682	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus ater</em> is only known from Kidada, in an affluent of the Lower Congo River basin, but has yet to be reported from the main channel of the Lower Congo.	eng
182682	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182682	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182682	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182683	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182683	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parananochromis longirostris</em> is restricted to southwestern Cameroon, northern Gabon in the Ntem system and associated drainages, and the Ivindo River and its tributaries, and Río Muni. There is uncertainty of the presence of this species in the Central Congo River system, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The specimens were identified by Pellegrin in 1927 and it is possible that the type locality is in error.	eng
182683	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parananochromis longirostris</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182683	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182683	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182684	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182684	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found in centre of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in the southern tributaries of the Congo River. Records from the Lower Congo require confirmation.	eng
182684	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). Stomach contents contained sand, mud, plant debris, herbs and insect larvae (mainly Chironomids) (Matthes 1964).	eng
182684	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182684	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis nummifer</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182685	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182685	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from lower reaches of Little Scarcies River and Waanje River in Sierra Leone.	eng
182685	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182685	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182685	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182686	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182686	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182686	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis serratus</em> is rare in Upper Nile (Beni Suef to Aswan).<br/><br/>At global level, it can be found in Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles.	eng
182686	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is rare in This species is known from upper Nile (Beni Suef to Aswan), but present throughout, including Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs around Khartoum in the Nile and White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
182686	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	It prefers deep water and rocky habitats.	eng
182686	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It prefers deep water and rocky habitats. This species reaches to 50 cm in length.	eng
182686	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182686	population	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182686	threats	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182686	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182687	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182687	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182687	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Inhabits the drainage system of the Senegal and Gambia, Upper Niger and Great and Little Scarcies and Rokel rivers in Sierra Leone, the Lower Saint Paul River in Liberia, the Bafing and Niger rivers in Mali, the Black and White Volta rivers in Ghana, the Niger River in Niger, the Niger and Benue Rivers in Nigeria, Lake Chad in Nigeria and Cameroon, the Logone and Chari Rivers in Chad.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the White Nile in Sudan.	eng
182687	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a wideranging species from Senegal to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile in Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It inhabits the drainage system of the Senegal and Gambia, This species is known from upper Niger and Great and Little Scarcies and Rokel rivers in Sierra Leone, the Lower Saint Paul River in Liberia, the Bafing and Niger rivers in Mali, the Black and White Volta rivers in Ghana, the Niger river in Niger, the Niger and Benue Rivers in Nigeria, Lake Chad in Nigeria and Cameroon, the Logone and Chari Rivers in Chad.	eng
182687	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	A savannah dwelling species found in, or close to, vegetated parts of small rivers, brooks, and swamps. Benthopelagic. It is non-migratory. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182687	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A savannah dwelling species found in, or close to, vegetated parts of small rivers, brooks, and swamps. Freshwater. A benthopelagic species.. Non-migratory.<br/>Not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182687	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182687	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
182687	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182687	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182689	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182689	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) schioetzi</em> is known from the Lower Congo River basin, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Lower Sangha system. In Lower Guinea it is found in the upper Niari River in southern Congo.	eng
182689	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Aphyosemion) schioetzi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in the weedy parts of slow flowing brooks and small streams in the forested savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182689	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182689	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This fish is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182690	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M. & Marshall, B., 2009	No current conservation measures are known. Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through environmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.	eng
182690	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2004	No information available	eng
182690	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182690	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Sustainable use of aquatic resources needs to be effected either through environmental education of rural communities or law enforcement.	eng
182690	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M. & Marshall, B., 2009	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is widespread in central, southern and east Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is found in the upper Lualaba, Luapula and Chambezi systems of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in fast flowing stretches of many tributaries, particularly in mountain streams of high altitude in the upper reaches of rivers. It is found in Lake Kivu and Rusizi basin; This species is known from upper Akagera; Malagarasi River basin; Lakes Rukwa and Jipe; Rivers Ruaha, Rufiji and Pangani; Limphasa /Luweya system and Rupashe river. Its distribution includes the entirety of Lake Malawi, Lake Chiuta and Lake Chilwa catchments, as well as the Ruo system. It is also found in the Lake Victoria system, and all major systems in Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Zambezi systems except for the Kafue, south to the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
182690	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is widespread in central and east Africa. It is also known from the Tana River, Kenya to Pongolo River, Natal. The species is also known from the Okavango, Zambezi systems, and east coast rivers south to the Mkuze system in northern Natal (Skelton 1993). <em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is also found in Burundi and in the upper Lualaba, Luapula and Chambezi systems of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182690	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Kivu and Rusizi basin; Upper Akagera; Malagarasi River basin; Lakes Rukwa and Jipe; Rivers Ruaha, Rufiji and Pangani; Limphasa /Luweya system and Rupashe river (Lake Malawi catchment).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Wide spread in Central and Southern Africa.  Also found in the Okavango and Zambezi systems, east coast rivers south to Mkuze system in northern Natal	eng
182690	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Zambezi system except for the Kafue, south to the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
182690	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2004	Colonizes lakes but prefers fast flowing streams, with pebbles and boulders, where the water is rich in oxygen (Seegers 1996). Feeds likely on insects and other invertebrates (Skelton 1993). Breeds in summer.  It survives in fast flowing rapids by paired fins adapted to form suckers to allow the fish to flatten themselves against the rocks.	eng
182690	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M. & Marshall, B., 2009	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is a demersal species that colonizes lakes but prefers fast flowing streams, with pebbles and boulders, where the water is rich in oxygen (Seegers 1996). It survives in fast flowing rapids by paired fins adapted to form suckers to allow the fish to flatten themselves against the rocks. It feeds on stream insects and other small organisms off rock surfaces (Skelton 1993). This species breeds in summer, laying eggs underneath stones. The juveniles are easily mistaken for tadpoles. It is preyed on by trout and probably eels (Skelton 1993).	eng
182690	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius uranoscopus</em> is a demersal species that prefers clear, flowing water in rocky habitats. It feeds on stream insects and other small organisms off rock surfaces. This species breeds in summer. The juveniles are easily mistaken for tadpoles. It is preyed on by trout and probably eels (Skelton 1993).	eng
182690	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Rocky riffle habitats of streams and larger rivers.	eng
182690	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M. & Marshall, B., 2009	No information available.	eng
182690	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182690	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182690	population	Hanssens, M., 2004	Population not known, but quite common.	eng
182690	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182690	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M. & Marshall, B., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species. Specific threats include changes in stream biotopes due to agriculture extension, predation by other fishes, and river bank sedimentation in eastern Africa. Local impacts in Mozambique include sedimentation from gold mining activities and fish poisoning by rural fishermen. Impacts of dams affecting flow regimes and upland agricultural activities affect sediment levels. Alien fishes, mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Oncorhynchus mykiss</span>, predate upon all <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphilius</span> species.	eng
182690	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Local impacts in Mozambique include sedimentation from gold mining activities and fish poisoning by rural fishermen. Impacts of dams affecting flow regimes and upland agricultural activities affect sediment levels. Alien fishes, mainly <em>O. mykiss, </em>predate upon all<em> Amphilius </em>species.	eng
182690	threats	Hanssens, M., 2004	The main threats to the species are changes in stream biotopes due to agriculture extension and predation by other fishes.	eng
182691	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182691	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax taenia</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Pene-Ngongo, Maniawe River, upper Congo River basin.	eng
182691	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182691	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182691	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182692	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182692	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182692	conservation	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182692	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Labeo niloticus</em> is common along the river Nile in Egypt. It was common in Lakes Manzala, Burullus and Idku during flooding time, also in Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Globally it is present in th Blue and White Nile, and Lake Nubia.	eng
182692	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>found within the drainage basin of the Nile (Blue and White) and in the Omo River. Several dubious records from West Africa require validation.	eng
182692	distribution	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is common along the Nile, from Egypt to Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is known from the river Nile in Egypt. It is present in Lakes Manzala, Burullus and Idku during flooding time, also in Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro and Omo Rivers and Rift valley lakes, Ethiopia, and Sudan Nile.	eng
182692	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	Feeds on benthic animals and detritus.	eng
182692	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This herbivorous species feeds mainly on diatoms, blue green algae, and to a lesser extent on crustaceans, rotifers, nemarodes and organic debris. It spawns in running water in May-June when about two years old. It reaches a total length of about 78 cm.	eng
182692	habitat	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a predominantly herbivorous species, feeding mainly on diatoms, blue green algae, and to a lesser extent on crustaceans, rotifers, nemarodes and organic debris. It spawns in running water when about two years old. Spawning season runs May-June.	eng
182692	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information	eng
182692	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182692	population	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182692	threats	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Vreven, E., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182692	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	No information	eng
182692	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182693	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182693	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus bredoi</em> is only known from Lake Mweru.	eng
182693	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Campylomormyrus bredoi</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182693	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182693	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.	eng
182694	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182694	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis lateralis</em> is known from the mainstream of Lower and Central Congo River and the Pool itself to the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), and from the Kasaï and Tshuapa River systems. It has been recorded from the Sangha River as well (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182694	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tylochromis lateralis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a benthic, macrophagous species (Stiassny 1989) that feeds mainly upon insect larvae, plants and fruits, as well as detritus and molluscs (Stiassny 1989, Lamboj 2004). This species is a maternal mouth-brooder (Stiassny 1989).	eng
182694	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182694	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182695	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182695	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia congica</em> is known from the swampy Central Congo area and Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
182695	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182695	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182695	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182696	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182696	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
182696	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
182696	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is known from the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon border) in the North-West up to the Ntem River basin (Cameroon) in the South-East. Outside the region, this species is known from the Ouémé River basin (Benin) in the West up to the Kwa Ibo River basin (Nigeria) and from Bioko Island [formerly Fernando-Po, Equatorial Guinea]. It is also known from a record from the Ubangui system and from small streams in Dja and Boemba Rivers. These records have to be checked though.	eng
182696	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>According to Paugy et al. (2003), the species is known basin of Ouémé in the West to the basin of the Cross-country race in the east. There are also records from the Chad basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ntem in Cameroon and Middle Congo River basins.	eng
182696	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Cameroon, and possibly Chad. It is also found on Bioko Island.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is known from the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon border) in the North-West up to the Ntem River basin (Cameroon) in the South-East. It is also known from a record from the Ubangui system and from small streams in Dja and Boemba Rivers. These records have to be checked though.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> According to Paugy <em>et al.</em> (2003), the species is known basin of Ouémé in the West up to the Kwa Ibo River basin, Nigeria. There are also records from the Chad basin.	eng
182696	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal	eng
182696	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182696	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus cryptacanthus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182696	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182696	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182696	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182696	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger delta. Elsewhere deforestation and agricultural development.	eng
182696	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182696	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by oil exploration in the Niger delta. Elsewhere in west Africa, it is threatened by deforestation and agricultural development. There is no information available on threats to this species in central Africa.	eng
182697	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182697	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182697	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182697	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is known from the Chad and Congo River basins<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> Its distribution probably includes Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of Congo. It is not found in the Mweru-Luapula -Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa it is only present in Chad	eng
182697	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is known from the Chad and Congo River basins. It is not found in the Mweru-Luapula -Bangweulu system.	eng
182697	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is known from the Chad and Congo basins.	eng
182697	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus pleuropholis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182697	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is benthopelagic.	eng
182697	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182697	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182697	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182697	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182698	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182698	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The range of this species extends from Southeastern Ghana, through Southern Togo and Southern Benin, to Southern Nigeria, including the Niger Delta.	eng
182698	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A perrenial killifish. The species forms schools near the water surface. Usually found in clear water, in small rivers, brooks and swamps in the primary and secondary rainforest of the coastal plains. It is non-migratory.	eng
182698	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182698	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Targeted by the aquarium trade and subject to impacts of oil exploration in the Niger Delta. It is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to farming, urban development and deforestation.	eng
182699	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182699	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182699	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182699	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	In Angola, this species is occurring in the Kwanza River (Kwanza River, Luce River ), Kunene River (Kukulakazé River ), and Okavango River (Cubango River ) systems.	eng
182699	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus lujae</em> is only known from the type locality Kondue, Sankuru River (Kasai). It has also been reported from the Luce River and from Kukulakaze in Angola in 1930 and 1936.	eng
182699	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus lujae</em> is only known from the type locality Kondue, Sankuru River (Kasai). It has also been reported from the Luce River and from Kukulakaze in Angola in 1930 and 1936.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola it is occurring in the Kwanza River (Kwanza and Luce River), Kunene River (Kukulakazé River), and Okavango River (Cubango River) systems.	eng
182699	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182699	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lujae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182699	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lujae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182699	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182699	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182699	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182699	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182699	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Further threats are unknown.	eng
182699	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Because no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, threats are unknown.	eng
182700	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu.	eng
182700	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus myersi</em> is only known from the type locality Kabunda, Muniengashsi River, upper Luapula. It is possibly present in Zambia: Chiansi Lagoon Kafue and Kashilu, 5 km upstream from the mouth, Luapula River.	eng
182700	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus miersi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182700	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182700	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182701	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182701	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Polypterus palmas</span> is known from the coastal rivers of the Guinea Gulf, from Guinea Bissau to Liberia and the upper Cavally River in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
182701	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Lives in swamps and rivers feeding on aquatic invertebrates. Juveniles have external gills. Adults are able to breath air and live in anoxic conditions. It is non-migratory.	eng
182701	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182701	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182702	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182702	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the coastal rivers in South West Cameroon and Fernando Poo.	eng
182702	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182702	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182702	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The coastal locations are threatened by oil palm plantations.	eng
182703	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182703	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is known from the Guinean Atlantic area and Sierra Leone. Possibly also in coastal basins of Liberia, but its presence there has not yet been confirmed.	eng
182703	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal species. 13 cm SL maximum size	eng
182703	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182703	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation, mining and human settlement.	eng
182704	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182704	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182704	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat maintenance and restoration is also needed.	eng
182704	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is found from the Congo basin to the Niger delta.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the Cameroon-Gabon area extending to the south along the coastal lowlands of Gabon to Congo. It is also known from the Dja basin, Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Cameroon extending westwards to the Niger delta. It seems to be abundant in small forested rivers and apparently does not occur to the west of the Niger, since all quotations for that area have been shown to correspond to other species.	eng
182704	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is limited to the Cameroon-Gabon area extending a little to the Niger delta and to the south along the coastal lowlands of Gabon to Congo-Brazzaville. In Lower Guinea, from Cameroon and Gabon. Elsewhere to the West as far as the Niger River delta.	eng
182704	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from Cameroon extending westwards to the Niger delta. It seems to be abundant in small forested rivers and apparently does not occur to the west of the Niger, since all quotations for that area have been shown to correspond to other species.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It also occurs in Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island) (Abban pers comm.). Also reported from Gabon, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
182704	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic ornamental fish that grows to 15.5 cm in total length. It is abundant in small forested rivers. It is non-migratory.	eng
182704	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus camptacanthus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is abundant in small rivers in forest zones.	eng
182704	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small bentho-pelagic ornamental fish that grows to 15.5 cm in total length. It is abundant in small forested rivers. Non-migratory.	eng
182704	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182704	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182704	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182704	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The collection of this species in the wild for ornamental purposes is a potential threat if the trade recovers to the levels of the 1980s. Habitat destruction due to deforestation may be a future threat.	eng
182704	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The collection of this species in the wild for ornamental purposes is a potential threat if the trade recovers to the levels of the 1980s. Habitat destruction due to deforestation may be a future threat.	eng
182704	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
182705	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182705	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus comptus</em> is found throughout Lower and Middle Congo, possibly also known from upper Congo.	eng
182705	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182705	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182705	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182706	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182706	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a single specimen, collected from Ebome stream at Kribi, Cameroon.	eng
182706	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182706	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182706	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182707	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182707	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phago boulengeri</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It has also been recorded from Nyonga, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182707	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182707	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182707	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182708	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available. More research is needed into the population, ecology and threats to this species.	eng
182708	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the middle Niger near Niamey in Niger.	eng
182708	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182708	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182708	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to drought and pollution.	eng
182709	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182709	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Liberia. It is known from rivers Du and St. Paul near the coastline in Liberia	eng
182709	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of 6.1 cm SL maximum size	eng
182709	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182709	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats include deforestation and mining leading to siltation and pollution.	eng
182710	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182710	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and population trends.	eng
182710	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Barbus pobeguini</em> is known in Western Africa from Senegal and Mauritania to Burkino Faso and Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species has been captured in Adrar, Mauritania<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs across Sudanian basins of Senegal, Gambia and Volta.  Also in certain coastal basins, Comoé, Bandama, and Sassandra Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Tominé River in Guinea, as well as the Bandingara Plateau in Mali.	eng
182710	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Barbus pobeguini</em> possibly occurs within the northern African region in Mauritania.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Sudanian basins of Niger, Senegal, Gambia and Volta. It is also present in certain coastal basins, Comoé, Bandama, and Sassandra Rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Tominé River in Guinea. It has been captured in Adrar, Mauritania and in the Bandingara Plateau in Mali.	eng
182710	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Benthopelagic and potamodromous.	eng
182710	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species.	eng
182710	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182710	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182710	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182710	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182711	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182711	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe zairensis</em> is only known from the type locality Lemfu, Inkisi River, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182711	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182711	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182711	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182712	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on threats to this species.	eng
182712	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is only found on Bioko (Fernando Po), Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu (Annobon) islands.	eng
182712	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182712	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182712	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182713	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182713	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus kingsleyae</em> is known from Banana (Lower Congo system), from the Lindi River and the Congo River just downstream of Kisangani (Central Congo system) and from the upper Congo system. This species has recently been collected in the Lulua River (Kasai). It has been reported by Borodin (1936) from Lake Tanganyika, but its presence in this area is certainly dubious (Poll, 1946). <em>Brycinus kingsleyae</em> was described from the Ogowe basin in Gabon. It is also found in the Sanaga, Nyong and Ntem basins in Cameroon, the Nyanga basin in Gabon, the Loémé and Kouilou basins in Congo and the Chiloango basin in Cabinda (Angola).	eng
182713	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182713	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182713	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182714	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182714	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptoglanis xenognathus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Ubangui River mainstream near Bawili (upstream from Banguii) and from Banzyville (Central African Republic), the Aruwimi River and from the Wagenia Falls, near Kisangani (Roberts 2003). The distribution of this species is thought to be larger.	eng
182714	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptoglanis xenognathus</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand and is hard to find.	eng
182714	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182714	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boot traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller. Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182715	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182715	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is found in Saint Paul river basin in Guinea and Lofa river basin in Liberia.	eng
182715	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182715	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182715	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There are indications of continuing decline in quality of habitat due to siltation in its habitat in Liberia, but there is no indication of this in Guinea.	eng
182716	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182716	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis schoutedeni</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182716	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182716	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182716	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182717	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. More information on this species is needed.	eng
182717	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is known from the type locality (Tributaries Bagbwe River, Sierra Leone). Reported Reported from Jong and Sewa rivers in Sierra Leone.	eng
182717	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182717	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182717	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degradation due to water pollution from agriculture.	eng
182718	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182718	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brazzai</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls). It is also known from the Ogowe, Ntem and Nyong Rivers.	eng
182718	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus brazzai</em> is a benthopelagic species. It occurs over sandy-muddy substrates near aquatic vegetation composed mainly of the water hyacinth <em>Eichornia crassipes</em> and reed. It also occurs over rocks without vegetation (De Vos 1991).	eng
182718	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182718	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182719	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and more information on the species distribution is required.	eng
182719	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a restricted area in the Bagwor and Mack systems around the villages of Takwai I and II, Atebong Wire and Edjuingan in the upper Cross River basin of western Cameroon.	eng
182719	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gresensi</em> occurs in swampy parts of small forest streams, which may be subject to periodic drying. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182719	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182719	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
182720	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182720	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parachanna insignis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is also known from just upstream of Kisangani. In the Lower Guinea, the species is not very abundant but is known from the Ogowe at Franceville, Gabon (type locality) and the Kouilou (Congo Brazzaville).	eng
182720	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182720	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182720	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182721	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182721	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paradoxoglanis cryptus</em> is only known from the type locality: near Aketi on the Kagola River, tributary of the Itimbiri River (Central Congo River basin) (Norris 2002).	eng
182721	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182721	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182721	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Logging and a low level of diamond mining (lower value) are possible threats. Transport of the logs on the river is of minor importance.	eng
182722	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182722	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality Ngomo in the Ogowe River, Gabon.	eng
182722	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182722	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182722	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182723	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182723	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type locality: Gangala na Bodio, Dungu River, affluent of the Uele, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182723	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus schoutedeni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182723	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182723	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182724	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182724	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis demeusii</em> is known from the main channel of the Lower Congo River between Luozi and Matadi. It is also commonly found in many affluent rivers and streams throughout the region.	eng
182724	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Haplochromis demeusii</em> is a benthopelagic species with mouth-brooding by females.	eng
182724	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182724	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. In the Luozi region, it can also be threatened in the future by mining. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182725	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). A monitoring programme should be put in place.	eng
182725	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Bia, Mé and Agnebi rivers in Côte d'Ivoire. Also recorded from the Tano River in Ghana (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1988). It disappeared from the Bia after the construction of a dam at Lake Ayamé in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
182725	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Anadromous.	eng
182725	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182725	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Dam construction affects the habitat of the species. Overfishing is a threat as this is a commercially important food fish with declining populations.	eng
182726	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182726	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys habereri</em> is known from the Congo River system below the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), including the Ubangui River and Lower Congo. It has been found just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) in the Maiko River as well. It has not been found in the Kwango and Kasai systems. The type specimen is coming from the Dja River, Cameroon.	eng
182726	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182726	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182726	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182727	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182727	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ntem basin in southern Cameroon.	eng
182727	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182727	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182727	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
182728	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182728	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Kwango and This species is known from upper Kasai systems, the Lufira system and the Luapula-Mweru-Bangweulu system.	eng
182728	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182728	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182728	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis notatus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182729	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182729	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys neumanni</em> is known from the upper Dja, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea it is known from the Ivindo River basin, the middle Ntem River, and some northern tributaries of the middle Ogowe River in northern and northeastern Gabon, the extreme northwestern part of Congo, southern Cameroon and eastern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182729	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatus neumanni</em> inhabits creeks and other small bodies of water under rainforest cover.	eng
182729	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182729	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182730	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
182730	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182730	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182730	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is widespread through the Congo basin, from Cameroon to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is also widespread throughout the Lower Guinea region.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River), Bengo River, Chiloango River (Luali River - Cabinda area) systems. Record from the Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River and Cuchi River) are misidentified (Skelton <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
182730	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River), Bengo River, Chiloango River (Luali River - Cabinda area) systems. Record from the Okavango River (Cubango River, Cuebe River, Cuchi River ) are misidentified (Skelton <em>et al. </em>1985).	eng
182730	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is widespread throughout the Lower Guinea region.	eng
182730	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is strictly insectivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic benthic insects associated with terrestrial insects during the rainy season. <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> breeds during the rainy season, with fecundity ranging between 5 and 18 eggs per gram of body weight (Mutambue 1993).	eng
182730	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is strictly insectivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic benthic insects associated with terrestrial insects during the rainy season. <em>Barbus holotaenia</em> breeds during the rainy season, with fecundity ranging between 5 and 18 eggs per gram of body weight (Mutambue 1993).	eng
182730	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Strictly insectivorous, feeding mainly on aquatic benthic insects associated with terrestrial insects during the rainy season. Breeds during the rainy season.	eng
182730	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182730	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	Population size is not known.	eng
182730	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182730	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182730	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus holotaenia</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species. Further possible threats to this species are unknown.	eng
182730	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
182731	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182731	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion punctatum</em> is known from the Sangha River, Central Congo River basin. It is possibly also present in the adjacent basin of the upper Likouala River in northern Congo. In Lower Guinea it is found in the upper Ivindo River system.	eng
182731	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion punctatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182731	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182731	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This fish is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182732	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182732	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes ambiguus</em> is only known from the Bari River, Ubangui basin, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182732	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182732	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182732	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182733	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182733	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus fasolt</em> is known from the Uele River at Niangara and from Bosabangi, Lindi River, Central Congo River basin. It is possibly also known from Kisangani and the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
182733	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus fasolt</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182733	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182733	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182734	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182734	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius notatus</em> is known from the mainstream of the Ubangui River, from several of its larger tributaries, and from one specimen from the Kilwezi River, affluent of the Lufira River in the Congo River basin (Roberts 2003).	eng
182734	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182734	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182734	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182735	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182735	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182735	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182735	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> occurs in the Kouilou, Lube, Ngoumbi, Malele, and Ogowe Rivers. Elsewhere this species is poorly known in West Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Niger basin).	eng
182735	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is poorly known in western Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Ogun and Niger basin).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is more common in Cameroon, Gabon, and the lower regions of Congo.	eng
182735	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Benin to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> occurs in the Kouilou, Lube, Ngoumbi, Malele, and Ogowe Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is poorly known in Western Africa, where it has been collected in Benin and Southern Nigeria (Ogun and Niger basin)	eng
182735	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Neolabias ansorgii </em>is a very small riverine demersal distichodontid characiform. Non-migratory.	eng
182735	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> is a pelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
182735	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Neolebias ansorgii</em> is a very small riverine demersal distichodontid characiform, and a pelagic and potamodromous species (Reide 2004). It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
182735	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182735	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182735	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182735	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development.	eng
182735	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration in the Lower Niger Delta threatens this species. In the Ogun river the main threats are from deforestation, agriculture and urban development. No information is available on threats to this species within central Africa.	eng
182735	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182736	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182736	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182736	conservation	Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species distribution falls within some reserves in southern Africa. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation may be required.	eng
182736	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species is protected in some reserves.	eng
182736	distribution	Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a wide-ranging species in the southern half of Africa, from Democratic Republic of Congo to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the upper Lualaba, Luapula, Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the upper Kasai system and the Zambian Congo system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in  Lake Malawi and its catchment area, as well as the upper Shire River.  <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in This species is known from upper Zambezi, Chobe, Lake Ngami, Okavango, Cunene, and Kafue Rivers, as well as the Cuanza River (Angola), the Zambian Congo, the Lower Shire (Lower Zambezi), and the lower Save, Limpopo and Phongolo rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
182736	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba, Luapula, Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu, Upper Congo River basin. It is also known from the upper Kasai system and the Zambian Congo system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cuanza and Cunene Rivers, from Okavango, Chobe, Lake Ngami, upper Zambezi (above Victoria Falls), Lake Malawi, Pungwe, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, Incomati, lower Pongolo and lower Sabi, Lundi system. It is also known from the Kafue and the lower Shire (Skelton 1993).	eng
182736	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>L. Malawi and its catchment area as well as the upper Shire River.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango,Upper Zambezi, Kafue, Lower Shire (lower Zambezi), Save, Limpopo and Phongolo systems; Zambian Congo system and the Cuanza (Angola).	eng
182736	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Cunene, and Kafue Rivers, as well as the Cuanza River (Angola), the Zambian Congo, the Lower Shire (Lower Zambezi), and the Lower Save, Limpopo and Phongolo rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
182736	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It lives over muddy bottoms in swampy areas and feeds on snails (Konings 1990). This species prefers vegetated habitats. Feeding habits overlap considerably with the sharptooth catfish. Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Hard-shelled foods such as mussels are crushed before they are swallowed. <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> breeds during the summer rainy season.  Breeding is reportedly flood dependent and similar to that of <em>C. gariepinus.</em>	eng
182736	habitat	Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. This species prefers vegetated habitats in swamps and estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers. It lives over muddy bottoms in swampy areas and feeds on snails (Konings 1990). This species prefers vegetated habitats. Feeding habits overlap considerably with the sharptooth catfish (<em>Clarias gariepinus</em>). Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Hard-shelled foods such as mussels are crushed before they are swallowed. It reportedly packhunts together with the sharptooth catfish in the Okavango Delta. <em>Clarias ngamensis</em> breeds during the summer rainy season when it moves into shallow flooded drainage channels to spawn.	eng
182736	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Favours vegetated habitats in swamps and riverine floodplains. Often found together with the sharptooth catfish; feeding habitats overlap considerably. Packhunts together with the sharptooth catfish in the Okavango Delta. Important foods are molluscs, terrestrial and aquatic insects, shrimps, crabs and fish. Breeds during the summer rainy season, large numbers moving into shallows to spawn.	eng
182736	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2003	Prefers vegetated habitats in swamps and estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers. Feeds on molluscs, insects and fish. Breeds during the rainy season when it moves into shallow flooded drainage channels to spawn.	eng
182736	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182736	population	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2003	Not known	eng
182736	population	Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread and common.	eng
182736	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread and common.	eng
182736	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is used in aquaculture.	eng
182736	threats	Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Clarias ngamensis</em> is used in aquaculture, and in eastern Africa it is threatened with habitat degradation.	eng
182736	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182736	threats	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is habitat degradation.	eng
182737	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182737	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known only from the Kakrima River and in the middle reaches of the Konkouré River in Guinea.	eng
182737	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182737	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182737	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182738	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182738	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182738	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182738	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182738	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182738	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Northern Africa, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is rare in the Upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal, Volta and coastal basins of Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun and Sanaga.	eng
182738	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is found in coastal basins from the Cross to the Sanaga, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from most major nilosudanic basins (Nile, Tchad, Niger, Gambie, Senegal and Volta), and in many coastal west African basins also (Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Tano, Pra, Oueme and Ogun).	eng
182738	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Turkwell drainage (Lake Turkana system) (Seegers <em>et al. </em>2004). Also reported from Lake Turkana as Raiamas loati (Boulenger 1911), a junior synonym (see Lévêque and Bigorne 1983) (Seegers<em> <em>et al. </em></em>2004).<em><em><br/></em></em><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> widely distributed throughout the Nile basin including L. Turkana, Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal, Volta.	eng
182738	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Raiamas senegalensis </span>is known from the large Sudanese basins, i.e., Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal and Volta. It has also been collected in several coastal basins, i.e., the Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun, up to the Sanaga which seems to represent its southern distributional limit.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also recorded from the Nile River.	eng
182738	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a widespread species, known from Guinea to Tanzania, and along the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is found in coastal basins from the Cross to the Sanaga, Cameroon. Elsewhere it is known from most major nilosudanic basins (Nile, Tchad, Niger, Gambie, Senegal and Volta), and in many coastal west African basins also (Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe, Tano, Pra, Oueme and Ogun).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Turkwell drainage of the Lake Turkana system (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also reported from Lake Turkana as <em>Raiamas loati</em> (Boulenger, 1911), a junior synonym (see Lévêque and Bigorne, 1983) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in the upper Egyptian Nile (Luxor and Aswan).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the White and Blue Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), as well as the Omo and Baro Rivers. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is known from the large Sudanese basins, including Chad, Niger, Gambia, Senegal and Volta. It has also been collected in several coastal basins, including the Sassandra, Bandama, Comoé, Tano, Pra, Ouémé, Ogun, up to the Sanaga which seems to represent its southern distributional limit.	eng
182738	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	A freshwater, demersal species.	eng
182738	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Demersal, potamodromous species. It reaches an average length of 18 cm.	eng
182738	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004).	eng
182738	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas senegalensis</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 60.0 g (Ita 1984).	eng
182738	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a demersal fish.	eng
182738	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182738	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182738	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182738	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182738	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182738	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182738	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182738	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182738	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	There is limited information available on threats to this species. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182738	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182739	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182739	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from coastal rivers from Gabon, Cameroon, Congo and  Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182739	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus rubrostigma</em> is a benthopelagic. The maximum TL was recorded at 8.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182739	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182739	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182740	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182740	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish is known from the upper tributaries of the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Corubal, Konkouré, Little Scarcies and Niger. Furthermore, this species has been reported (even though only once) from the River Loffa in Guinea. The species distribution in Niger and Nigeria can't be mapped.	eng
182740	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal, freshwater fish. Maximum reported size: 122 mm SL.	eng
182740	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182740	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	There is a potential threat due to deforestation	eng
182741	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182741	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182741	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is known from the basins of the Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Comoé, Bandama, Mono and Ouémé and also in the Cross river.	eng
182741	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is in Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, Comoe, Bandama, Mono and Oueme Rivers.	eng
182741	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species.	eng
182741	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus sublineatus</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It feeds on plants, insects and invertebrates.	eng
182741	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182741	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182741	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182741	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Urbanization and deforestation may be localized threats to the species.	eng
182742	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182742	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus gibbiceps</em> is known from the rapids on the Lower Congo River.	eng
182742	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus gibbiceps</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species. It has a relatively short, uncoiled intestine and feeds largely on gastropods (Roberts and Stewart 1976).	eng
182742	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182742	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats to the species known. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182743	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182743	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182743	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mormyrus rume rume</em> is found in the Cross River.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from  Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Volta and Chad basins. Sahelo-Soudanian basins and the coastal basins of the rivers Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Comoé, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun and Culufi.	eng
182743	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this species is known only from the great Sahelo-sudanese basins and from certain coastal basins, eg., Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Culufi basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Also present in the Congo River basin.	eng
182743	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus rume</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It feeds on insects and larvae. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the  species.	eng
182743	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in streams. Demersal. Feeds on insects and larvae. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the  species. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182743	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182743	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182743	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally threatened by deforestation.	eng
182743	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182744	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182744	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus barbatus </span>is broadly distributed in western This species is known from upper Guinean waters from the Kolenté River (Sierra Leone/Guinea), just east of the Fouta Djalon uplands to the Borlor River (Liberia, between the St. Paul and St. John rivers). This distribution closely approximates that of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. stiassnyae</span>, and overlaps that of <span style="font-style: italic;">M. punctatus </span>along its eastern margin	eng
182744	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic fish occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of discharging 300–400 V, is derived from pectoral muscle and surrounds almost the entire body. It is used both for prey capture and defence. Electric organ discharge (EOD) is intermittent and the amplitude increases with size of the fish. Responds immediately to cyclic light changes, exhibiting maximum EOD activity shortly after sunset and lowest activity just after sunrise. Its EOD duration decreased from 1.5 to 0.3 ms in response to increased temperature from 15 to 30°C. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes	eng
182744	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182744	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Agriculture, mining and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
182745	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy).	eng
182745	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Pra basin in southwestern Ghana.	eng
182745	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs in brackish waters to the upper parts of rivers where there is pure freshwater. It feeds mainly on nymphs of the mayfly, <span style="font-style: italic;">Povilla adusta</span>.	eng
182745	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182745	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats posed to this fish species include effluents from mining activities in the Pra basin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Commercial timber felling and increasing farming activities may also result in increasing levels of pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies and pose threats to the health of the fish. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.	eng
182746	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182746	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A lower Guinea endemic, known from the type locality La Passa in the upper Ogowe and from the Kouilou River basin.	eng
182746	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182746	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182746	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by intensive commercial logging leading to sedimentation (pers. comm. Mamonekene, V.).	eng
182747	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182747	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182747	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus altus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182747	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this species is known from Gribingui River (Chad basin).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Congo basin.	eng
182747	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Reproduction takes place in high waters, fast growth (approximately 50 to 1 year for a weight higher than 2,200 kg) maximum size observed 70 cm for 5 kg. Diet: very phytophagous, Distichodus are herbivores which nourish feuillles higher plants and tackle the rice plantations. They can cause important damage when the depth of water is sufficient (Pasquelin 1982).	eng
182747	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182747	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182747	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182747	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182747	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Widespread threats, particularly from drought, deforestation, overfishing and dam construction.	eng
182748	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182748	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon where it is restricted to a small section between the altitude interval of 250 and 600 m.	eng
182748	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) poliaki</em> is found in small mountain brooks, usually among overhanging vegetation. It is restricted to a small section between the altitude interval of 250 and 600 m. Other members of the subgenus <em>Chromaphyosemion</em> inhabiting the same general area are restricted to habitats on the coastal plain, not exceeding an altitude of 350 m. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) poliaki</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182748	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182748	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Mount Cameroon is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Corporation, including bananas, palm oil.	eng
182749	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182749	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.	eng
182749	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182749	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182749	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis longirostris</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182750	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182750	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops curtus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin (to Bokuma). It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182750	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182750	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182750	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3, which will be built in 5 years. Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3 will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in het area.	eng
182751	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182751	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Belonoglanis tenuis</em> occurs throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182751	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182751	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182751	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182752	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available	eng
182752	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species is restrcited to the Lake Tanganyika drainage including Rusizi river basin (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
182752	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	This species occurs in river mouths, coastal swamps, estuaries and other shallow parts of the lake, in rivers flowing into the lake (Wildekamp 1995).	eng
182752	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	No data available  but never abundant in fisheries catches.	eng
182752	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Bigirimana, C., 2006	No information available.	eng
182753	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this species.	eng
182753	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is only known from Tonga, on the White Nile River, Sudan.	eng
182753	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182753	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182753	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182754	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182754	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is known from the rapids on the Lower Congo River.	eng
182754	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is a demersal, cave-spawning species with an extremely long, highly coiled intestine and feeds predominantly on algae (Roberts and Stewart 1976). <em>Steatocranus casuarius</em> is commercially used as an aquarium fish.	eng
182754	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182754	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats known to the species. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grant Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. It can also be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi area. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182755	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182755	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus matthesi</em> is known from the Lilanda River (Yangole), the Congo River at Yaekela, the Tshuapa River, Ths Isalowe River at Yangambi and Mokumbe, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182755	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 7.9 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is a polyphagous species; stomach contents contained grains of sand, Diatomea, sometimes debris of bottom plants, benthic Protozoa (Thecamoeba), non-parasitic Nematoda, Hydracarina, insect larvae (Chironomida, Certaopogonida, Ephemera) and debris of adult insects (Matthes 1964).	eng
182755	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182755	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182756	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182756	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa whiteheadi</em> is known from the Ubangui, Uele and from upper Congo River basins.	eng
182756	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa whiteheadi</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
182756	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182756	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182757	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182757	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Paugy and Roberts (2003) state that the species is restricted to one location the Lower Niger (Nigeria). But in Fishbase (Froese and Pauly 2006), it is said that the species is found also in Niger, Mali and Guinea.	eng
182757	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 80.0 cm TL maximum size.	eng
182757	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182757	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger delta threatens this species.	eng
182758	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182758	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182758	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma nigropannosum</em> is common throughout the much of the Congo River basin, except the upper Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region, it is only found in the Chiloango and Kouilou Rivers, where it is apparently common in preferred habitat.	eng
182758	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Niger Delta. Gosse (1986) mentioned that the species was also found in other parts of the western African countries.<strong> <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>According to Gosse (1986) this species is known from Niger Delta and Congo Rivers, including Ogowe River in Gabon. It is widely transported by the aquarium fish trade.	eng
182758	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182758	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	It is a benthopelagic species of maximum size 17.0 cm TL. It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182758	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182758	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182758	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and pollution from oil extraction.	eng
182758	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It is widely transported by the aquarium fish trade.	eng
182759	conservation	Vreven, E., Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available..	eng
182759	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182759	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves.	eng
182759	conservation	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species requires taxonomic revision. The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa. It needs habitat and water quality conservation, and maintenance of flows in streams.	eng
182759	distribution	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a species complex, which is yet to be fully taxonomically researched and described. As this species currently stands, it has a widespread distribution across much of the southern half of Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. It is also known from the Cuanza and Lake Tangayika (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  Malawi where it occurs in the upland streams of the Ruo river. Also recorded in Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Small streams and tributaries throughout the upper Zambezi system, rarely in the main Zambezi river channel (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Also reported from the Cunene, Okavango, Quanza and the Congo system (Skelton 2001). Other reported areas of occurrence, e.g. in eastern Zimbabwe, need further study. Populations of <em>B. eutaenia</em>- like fishes occur in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Kawazulu-Natal) and Swaziland.	eng
182759	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is known from the southern tributaries of the Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi, east coast systems south to the Phongolo system. It is also known from the Cuanza and Lake Tangayika (Skelton 2001). It has also been reported from the Malagarasi Basin.	eng
182759	distribution	Vreven, E., Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Malawi where it occurs in the upland streams of the Ruo river.  It has not been recorded elsewhere within the Lake Malawi catchment. Also recorded in Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems, east coast systems south of the Incomati system, South Africa.  Also in the Cuanza (Angola) and the Zaire system (Skelton 1993).	eng
182759	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	The species has been recorded from small streams and tributaries throughout the upper Zambezi system, rarely in the main Zambezi river channel (Tweddle <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). It has been also reported from the Cunene, Okavango, Quanza and the Congo system (Skelton 2001). Although reported by Skelton (2001) from east coast systems south to the Phongolo, this is recognised in this database as a separate species. Other reported areas of occurrence, e.g., in eastern Zimbabwe, need further study.	eng
182759	habitat	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species complex. It favours clear-flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats. <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). It is known to ascend tributaries and move only onto floodplains in rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is also found rarely on the fringes of the main Zambezi River channel south of the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). It appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance and pollution.	eng
182759	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It favours clear-flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats. <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). It is known to ascend tributaries and move only onto floodplains in rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
182759	habitat	Vreven, E., Kazembe, J, 2003	Occurs in clear flowing waters, usually headwater streams with rocky habitats (Skelton 1993).  Feeds on insects (Skelton 1993). Migratory - known to ascend tributaries and move into the floodplains during the rainy season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
182759	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Prefers clear, flowing streams and also found rarely on the fringes of the main Zambezi River channel south of the Barotse floodplain (Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004), and often found in rocky habitats of headwater tributaries (Skelton 2001).  Feeds on insects.	eng
182759	population	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Common throughout its range in suitable habitat.	eng
182759	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182759	population	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is common throughout its range in suitable habitat.	eng
182759	population	Vreven, E., Kazembe, J, 2003	Unknown.	eng
182759	threats	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	At a local level, <em>Barbus eutaenia</em> suffers many threats. It is commercially important as an aquarium species, and appears to be sensitive to flow reduction, sedimentation and pollution. However, given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
182759	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus eutaenia</em> is commercially important as an aquarium species.	eng
182759	threats	Tweddle, D. & Marshall, B., 2006	Given the wide distribution and extensive suitable habitat in the many rivers and streams in which it occurs, there are no major threats to this species.	eng
182759	threats	Vreven, E., Kazembe, J, 2003	Unknown. This is an attractive aquarium species (Skelton 1993).	eng
182760	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182760	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the Comoé basin (Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
182760	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 22.0 cm TL.	eng
182760	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182760	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182761	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182761	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis pojeri</em> occurs in the Luvua and Lualaba River systems, upper Congo River system and in the Koki River (tributary of Lake Tanganyika).	eng
182761	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chiloglanis pojeri</em> is a benthopelagic species. It inhabits rivers and streams (Eccles 1992). It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182761	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182761	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182762	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182762	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Niari-Kouilou basin.	eng
182762	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus nigroluteus</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.3 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182762	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182762	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182763	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182763	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish is found in coastal basins from Sierra Leone to the River Sassandra (Côte d’Ivoire). <span style="font-style: italic;">P. pellegrini</span> also seems to occur in the Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea) and a form reported to this species is found in the Niandan, an upper tributary of the Niger (Guinea).	eng
182763	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal fish. Maximum reported size: 91 mm SL.	eng
182763	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182763	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia is a local threat to the species.	eng
182764	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182764	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is known from the upper Comoe in Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso	eng
182764	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic species; potamodromous.	eng
182764	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182764	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Drought, pollution and deforestation threaten this species.	eng
182765	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182765	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is known from southern Lake Chad and lower Chari river drainages in southwestern Chad and northern Cameroon.	eng
182765	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic; non-migratory. This annual and endemic species is frequent in the backwaters, the marshes, the ditches and the temporary ponds of the basin of the southernmost part of the Lake Chad, that of Chari lower and the south-west of Chad and north Cameroon (Bhr Marako).	eng
182765	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182765	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182766	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182766	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Synodontis ansorgii</em> is known from basins of the Jong (Sierra Leone), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Kolenté (Great Scarcies) and Koumba (Guinea).	eng
182766	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of 27.6 cm TL maximum size.	eng
182766	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182766	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current major threats known.	eng
182767	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182767	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182767	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chiloglanis niger</em> is only known from the upper Cross River and the Menchum River, Niger basin.	eng
182767	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is known only from the type locality, the River Menchum (Benue basin) on the Bamenda heights in Cameroon.	eng
182767	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is a very small mochokid catfish that grows to 3.5 cm TL. This species is restricted to swift flowing streams and rapids where it is adapted by the presence of oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks.	eng
182767	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is benthopelagic and oviparous Breder and Rosen (1966).	eng
182767	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182767	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182767	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182767	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There is a potential future threat from dam construction or deforestation.	eng
182768	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182768	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182768	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat restoration may be required.	eng
182768	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Niger Delta, and may be occurring in the coastal Nigerian fringe (Bigorne 1990).	eng
182768	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species has been found in Niger Delta.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo River basin to Angola.	eng
182768	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is present throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>This species has been found in Niger Delta and may be occurring in the coastal Nigerian fringe (Bigorne 1990).	eng
182768	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. Non-migratory.	eng
182768	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is a demersal species. It has the same colour as <em>P. soudanensis</em>, but is distinguished by mouth position, number of teeth, eye size. It has the same morphology as <em>P. bane</em> and <em>P. ansorgii</em>.	eng
182768	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus sauvagii</em> is a demersal species. It has the same colour as <em>P. soudanensis</em>, but is distinguished by mouth position, number of teeth, eye size. It has the same morphology as <em>P. bane</em> and <em>P. ansorgii</em>.	eng
182768	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182768	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182768	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182768	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182768	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration in Niger Delta locally threatens this species.	eng
182768	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration (Niger Delta)	eng
182769	conservation	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available..	eng
182769	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182769	conservation	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River.	eng
182769	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species is protected in reserves such as Kafue National Park on the Kafue River. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182769	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pollimyrus castelnaui</em> is only known from the one location in the Zambian Congo River system (Luanshya junction Kitwe/Ndola road). Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango, upper Zambezi and Kafue Rivers (Skelton 2001). It has also been found in northern areas of Lake Malawi (Skelton 2001).	eng
182769	distribution	Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Affluent streams in the northern part of Lake Malawi.	eng
182769	distribution	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widespread throughout the Cunene, Okavango, Upper Zambezi and Kafue. Also along the northern part of the Lake Malawi lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1998; Skelton 2001). Specimens from the Zambian Congo are provisionally referred to this species (Bills unpublished)	eng
182769	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This species is found from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Tanzania, to Namibia to Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pollimyrus castelnaui</em> is only known from the one location in the Zambian Congo River system (Luanshya junction Kitwe/Ndola road). <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in affluent streams in the northern part of Lake Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widespread throughout the Cunene, Okavango, This species is known from upper Zambezi and Kafue.	eng
182769	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal; Inhabits dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 1993).  Often found in lagoons and backwaters in shallow water just underneath the surface vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds on aquatic insect larvae including a large component of Chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Its preferred habitat are streams and estuaries in tropical climate.	eng
182769	habitat	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Pollimyrus castelnaui</span> inhabits vegetation bordering rivers and in floodplain lagoons.  (Skelton 2001). In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be common throughout the system, in tributaries and in swampy areas and drying lagoons on floodplains. Feeds on insect larvae and other small invertebrates.	eng
182769	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a demersal species, which inhabits dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons (Skelton 1993). Often found in lagoons and backwaters in shallow water just underneath the surface vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on aquatic insect larvae including a large component of Chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This is the smallest mormyrid known from Lake Malawi, not exceeding 10 cm in length. Reported to occur in northern areas of Lake Malawi where it is common in streams and swamps.	eng
182769	habitat	Vreven, E., 2003	This is the smallest mormyrid known from Lake Malawi, not exceeding 10 cm in length. Reported to occur in northern areas of Lake Malawi where it is common in streams and swamps. Occurs in dense vegetation along margins of rivers and floodplain lagoons. Feeds on aquatic insect larvae, including a large component of chironomidae (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
182769	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	In southern Africa, the populations are widespread, although in some areas the species is uncommon where it occurs, e.g. in the Ruvuma Bills (2004) found it to be rare, while in the Lake Malawi system it is restricted to low-lying, well-watered areas on the northern lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1978). Also extremely rare in the Buzi River system. No information is available for other regions.	eng
182769	population	Vreven, E., 2003	No information.	eng
182769	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182769	population	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	Populations are widespread, although in some areas the species is uncommon where it occurs, e.g. in the Ruvuma Bills (2004) found it to be rare, while in the Lake Malawi system it is restricted to low-lying, well-watered areas on the northern lakeshore (Tweddle and Willoughby 1978). Also extremely rare in the Buzi River system.	eng
182769	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It has potential to be harvested as an aquarium fish.	eng
182769	threats	Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182769	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species is widely distributed and has no immediate threats.	eng
182769	threats	Tweddle, D., Marshall, B. & Bills, R., 2006	The species is widely distributed and has no immediate threats.	eng
182770	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182770	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schwetzochromis neodon</em> is only known from the Fwa River, tributary to the Lubu River, tributary to the Sankuru River, in the south east Congo River drainage, Kasai Oriental Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182770	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schwetzochromis neodon</em> is a benthopelagic species. It appears to be strictly herbivorous and seems to feed on filamentous algae, diatoms and a great variety of small pieces of higher and lower plants (Roberts and Kullander 1994).	eng
182770	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182770	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182771	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182771	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium boweni</em> is known from the Lulua River, near Kananga (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.) and from a tributary of the Lulua, Kasai, Central Congo River basin. It is probably more widespread in the Kasai system.	eng
182771	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium boweni</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182771	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182771	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182772	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182772	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is widespread from Senegal to Sudan<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species has been recorded in White Nile, Sudan (Bailey 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus leonensis</em> is known from the large Sudanese basins: Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal, Gambia, as well as from the Comoé, Bandama (Côte d’Ivoire). The entire species distribution cannot be mapped (more information needed).	eng
182772	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182772	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No available data.	eng
182772	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known	eng
182773	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182773	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the upper course of the River Hedjo (Volta basin), near the border between Togo and Ghana.	eng
182773	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182773	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182773	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182774	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.	eng
182774	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, currently only known from a limited number of localities in the Akpa-Yafe and the upper Ndian Rivers, in the southern part of the Korup National Park, western Cameroon.	eng
182774	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	According to Kamdem Toham (1992) the species generally lives in the shallow swampy pools at the edge of small creeks under forest cover. These pools, up to 35 cm in depth, are partly covered with a layer of fallen leaves under which the fishes in the pools take cover. It is a pelagic species with a pH range from 5.0 to 7.5, a dH range from 0.6 to 1 and a depth range from 0 to 1 m.	eng
182774	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182774	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182775	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182775	conservation	da Costa, L., 2009	The species has no protection.	eng
182775	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present in Angola where it occurs in Kwanza River (Kwanza River ), Okavango River (Cubango River ), Upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) and Congo River (Luembe River, Cuilo River, Luachimo River, Cutele River, Lucoge River ) systems.	eng
182775	distribution	da Costa, L., 2009	This species occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lufira River, Lualaba-Upemba, and Luapula-Moero in Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is present in Angola where it occurs in Kwanza River, Okavango River (Cubango River), and the upper Zambezi River (Lake Calundo) systems.	eng
182775	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182775	habitat	da Costa, L., 2009	Biology is not known.	eng
182775	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182775	population	da Costa, L., 2009	Population size is not known.	eng
182775	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	As no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in the region, threats to the species are unknown.	eng
182775	threats	da Costa, L., 2009	Because no conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, threats are unknown.	eng
182776	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182776	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus petitjeani</span> was historically only known from the Bafing River (high basin of Senegal) in Guinea. However, recent collections in Milo and Niandan (High basin of Niger) in Guinea have extended the species range (Guegan 1990).	eng
182776	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182776	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182776	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include the destruction and deterioration of habitat due to agricultural pollution and sedimentation.	eng
182777	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182777	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is found from Guinean region of Mount Nimba in the basins of Cavally, Nipoué, Niger and St. Paul.	eng
182777	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 7.4 cm SL	eng
182777	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182777	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and conflicts.	eng
182778	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2003	None	eng
182778	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182778	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182778	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is known from throughout the Congo from Cameroon to Tanzania and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded) and from Lake Tanganyika.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Lower Malagarasi River where it is occasionally reported in Lake Tanganyika close to the river mouth.	eng
182778	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin (Luapula-Mweru and southern Kasaï excluded) and from Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182778	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Malagarasi river where it is occassionally reported in lake Tanganyika close to the river mouth.	eng
182778	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits bays and river mouths (Eccles 1992).	eng
182778	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	<em>Citharinus gibbosus</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits bays and river mouths (Eccles 1992). This species is found in slow flowing rivers and deltas with vegetation and soft bottom substrates. It feeds on detritus, diatoms and arthropods.	eng
182778	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2003	Found in slow flowing rivers and deltas with vegetation and soft bottom substrates. Feeds on detritus, diatoms and arthropods.	eng
182778	population	Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches	eng
182778	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	Not known, but rather rare in fisheries catches	eng
182778	population	Moelants, T., 2009	There are anecdotal reports of massive declines in this (and other  Citharinus) have been made throughout the lower and middle Congo. The species is now  extremely rare in lower Congo.	eng
182778	threats	Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are overfishing  and biotope changes due to agricultural impacts.	eng
182778	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	This is a commercially important species, and overfishing is a threat. Anecdotal reports of massive declines in this (and other <span style="font-style: italic;">Citharinus</span>) have been made throughout  the region. The species is now extremely rare in lower Congo. Biotope changes due to agricultural impacts could also have a negative effect on populations.	eng
182778	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182779	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research is needed to confirm the survival or disappearance of this species in certain areas.	eng
182779	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the greater part of the Niger river basin, including the Benue River downstream Gauthoit Falls, and from Ouémé and Volta rivers.	eng
182779	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It occurs in brackish and freshwater. This is a benthopelagic species, found in large rivers and their estuaries. Probably exceeds 165 cm.	eng
182779	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182779	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This fish has disappeared from areas due to overfishing. In Ghana, the fish has not been observed for many years (Abban, pers. comm.). Because it grows to a large size, it is caught by fishermen before reaching the mature stage. <br/><br/>Problems that may threaten this fish include increasing agricultural activities around the Volta rivers and the consequent problems of leaching of agrochemicals into the water and increases in sediment loads. In some parts of the Volta, aquatic weeds may also pose a threat to the fish. The fish is harvested commercially for food, and thus there is some potential danger of over fishing.	eng
182780	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182780	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182780	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis ornatipinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Central Congo system (including Lake Tumba), the Luapula system and the Luongo River (Luapula system, Zambia). There is a record from Kwanza River (exact locality unknown), but it is not known if this is genuine.	eng
182780	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	In southern Africa, the species is present in Angola, where it occurs in Kwanza River (exact locality unknown) and Congo River systems.	eng
182780	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Biology is not known.	eng
182780	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis ornatipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182780	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182780	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182780	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats to the species are unknown.	eng
182780	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182781	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution lays within the Dimonika Biosphere Reserve. This reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest though.	eng
182781	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Niari-Kouilou basin.	eng
182781	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182781	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182781	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Kouilou basin, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. Deforestation is an historical threat but the human population has moved. The Dimonika Biosphere Reserve has not been managed since 1997 due to civil unrest. A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182782	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182782	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus poptae</em> is known from the Central Congo basin, including the Sangha system in Cameroon.	eng
182782	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182782	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182782	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182783	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182783	conservation	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and threats of this species.	eng
182783	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hemichromis letourneuxi</em> has been recorded from Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level it is present from the Nile to Senegal and from North Africa to Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
182783	distribution	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from the length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is recorded from Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
182783	habitat	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	This is a savannah associated species which prospers in a range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It occurs near vegetation beds and fringes, and feeds on Caridina and insects. It is a substrate spawner, ripe and spent fish are common early in the flood season.	eng
182783	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This savannah associated species prospers in a range of lentic habitats that include brackish water lagoons, large lakes and riverine flood plains. It occurs near vegetation beds and fringes and feeds on <em>Caridina</em> and insects. Substrate spawner, ripe and spent fish are common early in the flood season.	eng
182783	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182783	population	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182783	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182783	threats	Azeroual, A. & Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182784	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182784	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is probably endemic to the River Cess (Nipoué) (in Liberia/Côte d’Ivoire).	eng
182784	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182784	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182784	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There is evidence of catchment degradation due to deforestation resulting in siltation.	eng
182785	conservation	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology, and habitat status and threats.	eng
182785	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182785	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is found in the Chad and the Nile.	eng
182785	distribution	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is known from Chad, Niger and Nigeria, as well as Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Chad basin, predominantly close to Lake Chad.	eng
182785	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish.	eng
182785	habitat	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	It is a demersal fish, favours running water.	eng
182785	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182785	population	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182785	threats	Awaïss, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182785	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182786	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182786	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182786	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, the species may have been present in the region prior to the construction of the Aswan High Dam.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present in Rivers Nile and Niger. The species is recorded as rare in Lake Nasser and is found in River Nile in Sudan.	eng
182786	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is only known to certainly occur in the Nile, Sudan, and Baro River, Ethiopia.	eng
182786	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Chiloglanis niloticus</em> is a small sized fish, found in shallow waters, occuring on rocky habitats; it feeds mainly on insects such as mayfly nymphs.	eng
182786	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This is a small sized fish, found in shallow waters, occuring on rocky habitats; it feeds mainly on insects such as mayfly nymphs.	eng
182786	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182786	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species is rarely recorded, although the excat population size is unknown.	eng
182786	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182786	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182787	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved, and consequently more information on the distribution of this species is required.	eng
182787	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus pedunculatus</em> is known from the type locality Boma, Lower Congo River basin and from one locality on the Kouilou-Niari River system in Gabon. Additional specimens from Lower Congo suggest the species is probably widespread in the system.	eng
182787	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182787	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182787	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182788	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182788	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus bleheri</em> is only known from the type locality Lubumbashi, the upper Kafubu River basin, Luapula River System, Shaba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. This needs to be confirmed though. What seems to be the same species has been identified in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).	eng
182788	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Steatocranus bleheri</em> is a demersal, species that inhabits clear flowing water with rocks and river pools (Meyer 1993). It is found in small groups, up to 20 individuals (Meyer 1993). It is likely a pair-bonding, cave-spawning species, like its congeners (Lamboj 2004).	eng
182788	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182788	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	If it does occur in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182789	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182789	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pardalis</em> is known from the Dja River and its tributary the Libi River (Central Congo River basin).	eng
182789	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pardalis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182789	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182789	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Cobalt mining on the Dja River by scraping of the surface causes a decline of the habitat.	eng
182790	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182790	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus habereri</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Mbam, Kelle and Sanaga Rivers in Cameroon.	eng
182790	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus habereri</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182790	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182790	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182791	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182791	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa congica</em> is found in most of the Congo River basin, but is apparently absent from the Lake Tumba area and in the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
182791	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa congica</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers but perhaps not in lakes.	eng
182791	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182791	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182792	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182792	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lukindae</em> is only known from a tributary of the Lukinda River, South Katanga, upper Congo River basin (Eschemeyer 1998).	eng
182792	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lukindae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182792	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182792	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182793	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182793	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a shady creek in the primary rainforest of the Ogowe basin near Benguie, between Lambarene and Bifoun, western Gabon (Huber 1998).	eng
182793	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion hera</em> is only known from a shady creek. It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182793	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182793	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182794	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182794	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parardoxoglanis caudivittatus</em> is known from the Tshuapa and Lukenie River systems (Central Congo River basin) (Norris 2002).	eng
182794	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parardoxoglanis caudivittatus</em> is a demersal species. Besides plant matter (both intact and detrital), gut content examination revealed unidentified worms, a shrimp, insect larvae (colepteran and dipteran) and various unidentified insect parts (Norris 2002).	eng
182794	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182794	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182795	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182795	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widely distributed in western Africa from Guinea to Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This subspecies is in Lower Guinea known from throughout coastal Cameroon and Benito River in Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from Guinea and the coastal basins from the River St. John in Liberia to the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon) and is also present in the Niger (Benue included) basin.	eng
182795	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a benthopelagic fish, hunting macrofauna (predator).	eng
182795	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No available data.	eng
182795	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182796	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182796	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This killifish inhabits the coastal lowlands of southern Guinea and across Sierra Leone to the area around Monrovia in Liberia.	eng
182796	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This small killish inhabits quiet bodies of water, creeks and smaller rivers in the open savannah as well as in the rainforest. Usually found among bordering vegetation or lily pads in fresh water, but may also be found in slightly brackish water.	eng
182796	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182796	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182797	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182797	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182797	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	The species has no protection. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182797	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present in Upper Zambezi River and Congo River systems. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.	eng
182797	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Kneria angolensis</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Cunene and Upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 1994).	eng
182797	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Kneria angolensis</em> is known from the Kasai system, Central Congo River basin. It has been recorded from the Cunene and This species is known from upper Zambezi systems (Skelton 1994), though these records are doubtful.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kwanza River (Lucala River) system.	eng
182797	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known, but other species of the genus occur in upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
182797	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182797	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species. The preferred habitat is not known, but other species of the genus occur in upper reaches. Biology is not known.	eng
182797	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182797	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182797	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182797	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level.	eng
182797	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. In Kasai occidental, this mining activity takes place at an industrial level. No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats to this region are not known.	eng
182797	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation and biological works/projects have been done in Angola, therefore threats are not known.	eng
182798	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182798	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe laticeps</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ntem and Ogowe Rivers in Cameroon and Gabon in the Lower Guinea region.	eng
182798	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182798	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182798	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182799	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182799	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from one locality in the Ivindo basin, Gabon.	eng
182799	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182799	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182799	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182800	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy).	eng
182800	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the Volta and the Sokoto, a tributary of the Niger.	eng
182800	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182800	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182800	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The main threats to this fish are effluents from mining activities in the White Volta. These may introduce dangerous elements such as mercury and arsenic, and poisonous compounds like cyanide into the water, and these may lead to massive fish kills. In addition, invasive aquatic weeds are impacting the species habitat. Deforestation in the Sokoto.	eng
182801	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182801	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mawambiensis</em> is known from the Tua, Epulu and Dungu Rivers, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182801	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus mawambiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182801	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182801	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182803	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182803	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species is protected in some game reserves.	eng
182803	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Recorded from the Limphasa/ Luweya system and the Nkhotakota wildlife reserve in the Lake Malawi catchment  Also abundant in the marshes of the Lower Shire River and lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widely distributed in other parts of Africa.	eng
182803	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Orange and southern KwaZulu-Natal northwards throughout the region, extends to southern Congo tributaries and the Lake Malawi lakeshore rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
182803	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	It has never been recorded in Lake Malawi itself but is thought to live in the swampy environments around the lakeshore. It prefers vegetated zones, found mainly in quiet pools. It has a tendency to migrate upstream during the rains. Known to feed on insects and small fish.  Breeds from early spring to late summer.<br/>Max Size: In Malawi this species reaches 8 cm in length.<br/><br/>(Caught in fish traps at Chiuta, it has a slight commercial importance)	eng
182803	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Wide variety of habitats from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, usually favouring vegetated areas where the current is not too strong (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be the most widespread species throughout the Upper Zambezi and Kafue systems Preys on insects, shrimps and small fish. Breeds from early spring to late summer (Skelton 2001).	eng
182803	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Generally abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
182803	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182803	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
182803	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182804	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182804	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182804	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Upper Shari.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ubanghi Basinin Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic.	eng
182804	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from Chad to DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Congochromis dimidiatus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lower Congo River basin and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is also found in the upper Shari.	eng
182804	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182804	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182804	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182804	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182804	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Declining habitat quality due to agricultural development	eng
182804	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is declining habitat quality due to agricultural development. Severe droughts may also affect this species.	eng
182805	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182805	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Western and central Sierra Leone. One finds it in the basins of Great Scarcies (Kolenté), of Little Scarcies, Taia (Pampana) and Sewa	eng
182805	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. It is found in ponds and the small rivers in rain forest.	eng
182805	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182805	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182806	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182806	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma fasciolatum</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo River basin.	eng
182806	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species that builds bubble-nests.	eng
182806	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182806	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182807	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182807	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182807	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation and restoration is required.	eng
182807	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> occurs in Lower Lomé and Kienke drainages in southwestern Cameroon, Rio Utonde and Rio Beni river drainages in Equatorial Guinea and possibly also northwestern Gabon. Elsewhere it is known from the Kuramo (lagoon) east of Lagos in southwestern Nigeria eastward across the Niger River delta to the Cameroon border.	eng
182807	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In Nigeria it is found in the Lower Niger Delta and the Ogun river. It has also been recorded in the upper reaches of the Birm River Ghana (Abban pers comm.). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This species is known from Lower Lomé and Kiende drainages in southwestern Cameroon and from the Utonde and Beni catchments in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182807	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea, and possibly Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> occurs in Lower Lomé and Kienke drainages in southwestern Cameroon, Rio Utonde and Rio Beni river drainages in Equatorial Guinea and possibly also northwestern Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Kuramo (lagoon) east of Lagos in southwestern Nigeria eastward across the Niger River delta to the Cameroon border.	eng
182807	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> inhabits brackish water, in river mouths, lagoons and estuaries along the coast. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in rivers and brooks, mostly in weedy areas and under forest cover in river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182807	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> inhabits brackish water, in river mouths, lagoons and estuaries along the coast. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in rivers and brooks, mostly in weedy areas and under forest cover in river drainages (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). <em>Micropanchax scheeli</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182807	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Scheel's lampeye is a small perrenial killifish. This species inhabits brackish water, in river mouths, lagoons and estuaries. Non-migratory.	eng
182807	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182807	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182807	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182807	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182807	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, deforestation and urban development are local threats.	eng
182807	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, deforestation and urban development are local threats.	eng
182808	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182808	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus brevis</em> is known from the Uele River. It is probably also present in the Ubangui River.	eng
182808	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182808	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182808	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182809	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182809	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182809	conservation	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182809	distribution	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Ctenopoma kingsleyae</em> is widely distributed from Mauritania to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is common in forested regions of the Congo River basin (except for the upper Congo basin) and in the upper Guinea. It is widely distributed in the Lower Guinea region from the Cross to the Kouilou.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been reported from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found from Senegal to Democratic Republic of Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River). In Western Africa this distribution is largely parapatric to <em>C. petherici</em>.	eng
182809	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Ctenopoma kingsleyae</em> is reported from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Senegal to Democratic Republic of the Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River basins).	eng
182809	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is found from Senegal to Democratic Republic of Congo (Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Ogowe and Congo River). In western Africa this distribution is largely parapatric to <span style="font-style: italic;">C. petherici. </span><br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> This species is distributed widely in the forested regions of the Congo River basin and Upper and Lower Guinean drainages.	eng
182809	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182809	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species prefers forest regions and vegetated habitats. Has an accessory breathing organ so can survive in de-oxygenated conditions. Non-migratory.	eng
182809	habitat	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a demersal species. It prefers forest regions (Norris 1992) and vegetated habitats. It has an accessory breathing organ so can survive in de-oxygenated conditions. It is non-migratory.	eng
182809	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182809	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182809	population	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182809	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182809	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None - a hardy species.	eng
182809	threats	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a hardy species which has no major threats. It does however have commercial importance as an aquarium fish.	eng
182810	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The range is partially enclosed within the Korup National Park.	eng
182810	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Cross River basin (Cameroon).	eng
182810	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	All type specimens were caught in the region of the rapids characterised by a swift current of crystal clear water flowing over a predominantly rock, stone or gravel substrate with small areas of coarse yellow sand (Roberts and Travers, 1986). However, <em>Mastacembelus sexdecimspinus</em> is also found in a wide variety of habitats such as turbid, sandy lagoons with a sluggish flow of water; heavily shaded, rocky or pebbly, clear swift streams; and exposed, pot-holed bedrock pools (Reid 1989, Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182810	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182810	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation, but the area around Ndian is protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182811	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182811	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus pellegrini</em> is only known from Shabunda, Matale, the Talya River and from Bukavu, both in the Kivu region, upper Congo River basin.	eng
182811	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus pellegrini</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182811	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182811	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182812	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182812	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus schoutedeni</em> is only known from the type locality Boma on the Lower Congo River.	eng
182812	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182812	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182812	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182813	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182813	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus schoutedeni</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.	eng
182813	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182813	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182813	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182814	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available..	eng
182814	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182814	conservation	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required for east African populations.	eng
182814	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Labeo weeksii</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin. <em>Labeo weeksii</em> most closely resembles <em>Labeo lineatus</em> and is only dubiously distinct from that species (Reid 1985).	eng
182814	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Endemic to the Malagarasi River.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Rivers flowing into the western shore of Lake Tanganyika and the upper Congo basin.	eng
182814	distribution	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This species is found throughout the Congo, from Central African Republic to Angola, as well as Burundi and Tanzania. <em></em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Labeo weeksii</em> is widely distributed in the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
182814	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found over sandy bottoms of deep waters of the Congo River. The species was collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
182814	habitat	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	<em>Labeo weeksii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is found over sandy bottoms of deep waters, where it feeds on algae. The species was collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
182814	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Inhabits deep and fast-flowing rivers where it feeds on algae.	eng
182814	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information.	eng
182814	population	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available.	eng
182814	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182814	threats	Hanssens, M., Moelants, T. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No major threats are known for the majority of this species range. Increasing water turbidity due to erosion of river basins is threatening east African populations.	eng
182814	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182814	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is the increasing water turbidity due to erosion of river basins.	eng
182815	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182815	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from the two localities: the type locality situated at 8 km southeast of Lamakara, and a second at 6 km northeast of Kanté, both in Northern Togo.	eng
182815	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species. This species occurs in brooks in the savannah. 4 cm max TL. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182815	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182815	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation is going on in the area and is likely to threaten the habitat of the species.	eng
182816	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182816	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available.	eng
182816	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182816	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182816	conservation	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182816	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, and used to be caught from Upper Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>At global scale, it is an inter-tropical but absent in the Gambia basin. Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon; Sudan border, upper Nile, Albert Nile and Murchison Nile, Lake Albert, Victoria, Omo and Lake Turkana, and Congo basin.	eng
182816	distribution	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> occurs throughout most of inter-tropical Africa, but is absent from the Gambia basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, and the Aswa River (This species is known from upper Nile system)<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species is now extinct in northern Africa, although it used to be caught from This species is known from upper Nile, Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White and Blue Niles, Nile to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). Also found in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea, and Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Known from Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
182816	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it occurs throughout most of inter-tropical Africa, but is absent from the Gambia basin.	eng
182816	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lake Albert, Albert and Murchison Niles, Aswa River (Upper Nile system).	eng
182816	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Known from Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta and basins from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">B. macrolepidotus</span> occurs almost throughout intertropical Africa.	eng
182816	habitat	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> is potamodromous species, found more commonly in rivers than in lakes. It feeds on insects , crustaceans, small fish, vegetation and debris (Bailey 1994). It is a pelagic, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 2000 g (Ita 1984). Spawning sites and season unknown.	eng
182816	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> more common in rivers than in lakes. It feeds on insects , crustaceans, fish, vegetation and debris (Bailey 1994). It is a pelagic, potamodromous species (Riede 2004). The maximum published weight is 2,000 g (Ita 1984)	eng
182816	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2002	Inhabits the inshore region of Lake Albert but also inhabits associated river systems. Feeds on insects, bottom debris and small fishes. Spawing sites and season unknown.	eng
182816	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a pelagic fish. More common in rivers than lakes. Feeds on insects, crustaceans, fish, vegetation and debris.	eng
182816	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This potamodromous species feeds on leaves of willow plant, vegetable matter, small insects, bottom debris and small fishes.	eng
182816	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	Information not available.	eng
182816	population	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	More common in rivers than lakes (Bailey 1994)	eng
182816	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182816	population	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available.	eng
182816	population	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has a minimum population doubling time between 1.4 to 4.4 years.	eng
182816	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Fisheries: commercial	eng
182816	threats	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	Heavy fishing pressure, including from commercial fisheries, may threaten populations of this species.	eng
182816	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182816	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2002	The main threat to the species is heavy fishing pressure.	eng
182816	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to <em>Brycinus macrolepidotus</em> are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182817	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182817	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system. It has also been reported from Mang in the Boumba River and from Mieri in the Doumé River, Central Congo River basin, southern Cameroon.	eng
182817	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is a polyphagous, benthic species (Matthes 1964).	eng
182817	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182817	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis greshoffi</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182818	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182818	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is found in swamps and small streams in the Port Loko district of Western Sierra Leone. The known range is restricted to Bonkoron and Rokupr; also reported from Guinea and Liberia.	eng
182818	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species occurs in swampy areas and small rivers on the coastal plains. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size: male 50 mm TL, female 40 mm TL.	eng
182818	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182818	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this species include agriculture, deforestation and mining developments.	eng
182819	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182819	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion decorsei</em> is only known from the type location on the central Ubangui basin, Central African Republic.	eng
182819	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion decorsei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks found in the savannah Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182819	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182819	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182820	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182820	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Blackwater, Menge, Mungo and Sanaga basins.	eng
182820	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus</em> species have spawning migrations. (pers comm. Brummett, R.). This species is benthopelagic.	eng
182820	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182820	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening).	eng
182821	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known, but should be developed.	eng
182821	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from brooks and marshes of the savannah timbered in the west of Loko Port, towards the mouth of Little Scarcies in the south-west of Sierra Leone.	eng
182821	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species inhabits brooks and swamps.	eng
182821	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182821	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is threatened by pollution due to mining activities and deforestation due agriculture activities.	eng
182822	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
182822	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
182822	conservation	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
182822	distribution	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from East coast rivers. In the southern Africa region, it is known from central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and north into Kenya.	eng
182822	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is known from the lower reaches of eastern Africa's coastal rivers.	eng
182822	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in the lower reaches of Eastern Africa's coastal rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Kenya and Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in coastal rivers from Mozambique to central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.	eng
182822	habitat	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2006	Collected in the main Zambezi channel above the estuary, with flow and over sand substrates. Reasonably common where collected.	eng
182822	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Reported from fresh water to marine conditions in lowland rivers and bays (Watson 1991).	eng
182822	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Reported from fresh water to marine conditions in lowland rivers and bays (Watson 1991). Collected in the main Zambezi channel above the estuary, with flow and over sand substrates. Reasonably common where collected.	eng
182822	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
182822	population	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182822	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
182822	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
182822	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
182822	threats	Bills, R., Engelbrecht, J. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
182823	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182823	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in Sudan and Uganda<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Bahr el Jebel.	eng
182823	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found occupying the hyacinth fringe in Sudd lakes moving into submerged vegetation during the flood. It is a mouth-brooder; and omniverous, consuming algae, vegetable fragment, zooplankton, Cardina and insects.	eng
182823	population	Getahun, A., 2009	Unknown.	eng
182823	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182824	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182824	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182824	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat conservation is also needed, including the provision of protected area within at least part of this species range.	eng
182824	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is found in the Ntem Riverin Cameroon (Risch 1992), and is known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon. Elsewhere, it i known from the type locality at Aluu, New Calabar River, Rivers State, Nigeria.	eng
182824	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species was described from the Niger Delta in the river New Calabar at Aluu in Southwestern and in the rivers Imo at Chokoche (southeastern Nigeria).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Ntem (southern Cameroon).	eng
182824	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is found in the Ntem River in Cameroon (Risch 1992), and is known from the Ogowe and Nyanga Rivers, Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species was described from the Niger Delta in the river New Calabar at Aluu and in the rivers Imo at Chokoche (Southeastern Nigeria).	eng
182824	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish that lives in both rivers and lakes. Migrates upstream and laterally to spawn in shoreline vegetation.	eng
182824	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182824	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a demersal species that lives in both rivers and lakes. It migrates upstream and laterally to spawn in shoreline vegetation.	eng
182824	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A very rare species.	eng
182824	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182824	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available. A very rare species.	eng
182824	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is threatened by sedimentation from commercial logging (Mamonekene pers. comm..). It is potentially threatened by a dam being built upriver (Brummett pers. comm.).	eng
182824	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The recently described catfish is not only rare but its habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria.	eng
182824	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The recently described catfish is not only rare but its habitat is being seriously degraded by oil exploration and pollution in Nigeria. <em>Chrysichthys (Rheoglanis) aluuensis</em> is threatened by sedimentation from commercial logging (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.) in central Africa. It is potentially threatened by a dam being built upriver (pers. comm., Brummett, R.).	eng
182825	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182825	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannothrissa stewarti</em> is only known from Lake Mai-N'Dombe, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182825	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannothrissa stewarti</em> is a pelagic, lacustrine species that is found in acid waters (pH 4).	eng
182825	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182825	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. This nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182826	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182826	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus sylvaticus</span> is known only from Southern Benin (at Iguidi River) and the Lower Niger delta (Nigeria).	eng
182826	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a very small barbus of 1.9 cm SL. It co-habits with <em>Denticeps clupeoides</em>. It is non-migratory.	eng
182826	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182826	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the Niger Delta and deforestation and urban development in Benin.	eng
182827	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182827	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This species is only known presently from one locality in Southeastern Guinea, not far from the border with Sierra Leone.	eng
182827	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Maximum size: male 65 mm TL, female 60 mm TL	eng
182827	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182827	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No information available.	eng
182828	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182828	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius monteiri</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
182828	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182828	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182828	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially important fish.	eng
182829	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182829	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus cyaneus</em> is only known from the Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182829	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182829	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182829	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in five years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
182830	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research into this species taxonomy is needed.	eng
182830	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion trilineatus</em> is only known from the type locality, Cameroon (no type material).	eng
182830	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species. It is ill-defined species (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
182830	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182830	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182831	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182831	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Distribution ranges from southern Togo and southern Benin and across Nigeria to the Cross River in southeastern Nigeria. Possibly present in Cameroon.	eng
182831	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Aphyosemion bitaeniatum</em> is a small killifish that grows to a maximum size of 5 cm TL. It occurs on small brooks and streams, swamps and lightly brackish coastal lagoons in the coastal rain forest. This species is restricted to areas underlain by soils derived from Quaternary sedimentary deposits. It is non-migratory.	eng
182831	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182831	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is potential for over-collection for the aquarium trade as it is a highly sought after species. High levels of transport mortality are an issue. There is also a threat from habitat destruction due to oil exploration, agriculture (wetland drainage) and urban development.	eng
182832	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182832	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Ntem and Ivindo Rivers, Gabon.	eng
182832	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis acanthoperca</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182832	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182832	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182833	conservation	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
182833	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182833	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus goliath</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182833	distribution	Natakimazi, G., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika where it has been reported only in the South of the lake, very rare.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Common in the Congo river basin.	eng
182833	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hydrocynus goliath</em> is a pelagic species. It inhabits lakes and large rivers (Eccles 1992).	eng
182833	habitat	Natakimazi, G., 2003	Found in the lake's littoral zone and riverine habitat. Piscivorous.	eng
182833	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182833	population	Natakimazi, G., 2003	No information available.	eng
182833	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182833	threats	Natakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
182834	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182834	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Ivindo River of Gabon and the Ntem River of North east Gabon and South Cameroon. It is absent from the Ogowe River.	eng
182834	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ivindomyrus opdenboschi</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182834	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182834	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. On the lower Ivindo, the species is threatened by iron mining.	eng
182835	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182835	conservation	Ntakimazi Gaspard, Bayona, J. D.R. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	None known.	eng
182835	conservation	Bayona, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology, and population trends should be monitored. Habitat conservation is also required in eastern Africa.	eng
182835	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species occurs in some reserves, e.g., Kafue National Park.	eng
182835	distribution	Bayona, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Mastacemebelus frenatus</em> is known from Uganda and Kenya, south to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It has been found in the Kasai, the upper Congo and the Luapula-Mweru system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is present in the Lake Victoria drainage. Also known from the Nabugabo systems, the Victoria Nile and Aswa River, as well as Tanganyika and major affluents, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarazi, Akagera, Lake Kyoga and associated smaller lakes and rivers. Records by Copley (1952, 1958) from the Athi River system might refer to this species. Most likely there are no mastacembelids in the Tana system despite records by Copley (1952, 1958) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001), and is widespread throughout the upper Zambezi system including many northern tributaries such as the Kabompo and West Lunga (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004)	eng
182835	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacemebelus frenatus</em> is known from Lake Victoria through Lake Tanganyika and their associated catchment basins to the Upper Zambezi and Okavango Rivers, and the Nile system. It has also been found in the Kasai, the Upper Congo and the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
182835	distribution	Ntakimazi Gaspard, Bayona, J. D.R. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake Victoria drainage. Nabugabo systems; Victoria Nile, Aswa River. Tanganyika and major affluents, i.e. Rusizi and Malagarazi, Akagera, Lake Kyoga and associated smaller lakes and rivers. Records by Copley (1952; 1958) from the Athi River system might refer to this species. Most likely there are no mastacembelids in the Tana system despite records by Copley (1952; 1958) (Seegers et al 2004). <br/><br/>It is also found in the Upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue River Systems.	eng
182835	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from central Africa from the basins of Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika, south to the Lufira (Congo) and the upper Zambezi, Okavango and Kafue systems (Skelton 2001). It is widespread throughout the upper Zambezi system including many northern tributaries such as the Kabompo and West Lunga (Tweddle <em>et al. 2004).</em>	eng
182835	habitat	Ntakimazi Gaspard, Bayona, J. D.R. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	Found in lake's and river's, marginal swamps and marginal wetlands. Also found in temporary streams. Recorded to depths of up to 20m. Feeds on invertebrates, mainly on insect larvae. Little is known about its ecology. Information on reproduction and growth is not known.	eng
182835	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Rivers and floodplains, generally living amongst vegetation, tree roots or rocks. Occurs the edge of gentle rapids but does not occur in severe rapids, such as Sioma and Katombora on the upper Zambezi, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacemebelus vanderwaali.</span>	eng
182835	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is occurs in swamps and shallow coastal waters (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). It feeds on fish and insects (Fermon 1997).  Preferred Its preferred habitats are streams, neritic, lakes and mangroves.	eng
182835	habitat	Bayona, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is occurs in swamps, marginal wetlands and shallow coastal waters (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986). Also found in temporary streams, rivers and floodplains, generally living amongst vegetation, tree roots or rocks. This species is occurs the edge of gentle rapids but does not occur in severe rapids, such as Sioma and Katombora on the upper Zambezi, where it is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mastacemebelus vanderwaali</span>. It feeds on fish and insects, mainly on insect larvae (Fermon 1997). Little is known about its ecology. Information on reproduction and growth is not known.	eng
182835	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Common throughout its range.	eng
182835	population	Ntakimazi Gaspard, Bayona, J. D.R. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	No detailed information. Common but not abundant in fisheries catches. The relative index of abundance was less than 0.01 kg/hr in waters up to 30m of Lake Victoria during the 1969-1971 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). Current surveys 1977-1999 show catch rates of 0.2 kg/h in Kenyan waters (Okaranon <em>et al. 1999). The population may be increasing in Lake Victoria despite a slight contraction in EOO.</em>	eng
182835	population	Bayona, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	No detailed information. Common but not abundant in fisheries catches. The relative index of abundance was less than 0.01 kg/hr in waters up to 30m of Lake Victoria during the 1969-1971 survey (Kudhongania and Cordone 1974). Current surveys 1977-1999 show catch rates of 0.2 kg/h in Kenyan waters (Okaranon <em>et al.</em> 1999). The population may be increasing in Lake Victoria despite a slight contraction in EOO.	eng
182835	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182835	threats	Bayona, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G., Tweddle, D. & Twongo, T., 2009	In eastern Africa, this species is threatened by:<br/>- Predation by Nile Perch.<br/>- Illegal fishing practice.<br/>- Pollution of the inshore environment.<br/>- Wetland loss due to agriculture expansion.	eng
182835	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182835	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182835	threats	Ntakimazi Gaspard, Bayona, J. D.R. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	The main threats to the species are predation by Nile Perch, illegal fishing practice, pollution of the inshore environment and wetland loss due to agriculture expansion.	eng
182836	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182836	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis acanthomias</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin (except in central forest) and in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is not known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182836	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis acanthomias</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182836	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182836	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182838	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182838	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes holargyreus</em> is only known from Boma to Matadi, Lower Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. One dubious record has been made from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182838	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182838	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182838	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182839	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182839	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This killifish is found in the drainage system of the Middle Sassandra River in the Western Côte d’Ivoire, in the drainage systems of the upper Saint Paul, upper Saint John and upper Cess (Nipoué) rivers of Northern Liberia, and in the drainage systems of the upper Saint John and upper Milo rivers in Eastern Guinea.	eng
182839	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species inhabit brooks, pools and small streams in the forested savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182839	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182839	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182840	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182840	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Ogowe and Como River basins.	eng
182840	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182840	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182840	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182841	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182841	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the upper Sanaga and Kouilou Rivers. <em>Barbus parajae</em> has a strange distribution pattern.	eng
182841	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus parajae</em> is a benthopelagic species; It is found in small rivers (5-10 m wide) with a sandy bottom and a well developed gallery of trees and high grasses. The species hides in the aquatic vegetation in relatively calm pools.	eng
182841	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182841	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182842	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182842	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannothrissa parva</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin (region of Lake Tumba; Ruki and Ubangui rivers and the Tshuapa River at Ikela).	eng
182842	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannothrissa parva</em> is a pelagic species that occurs in rivers and lakes, apparently in both running and still water. It often forms huge schools, feeds on plankton (unicellular algae, diatoms and especially copepods, but also hydracarians and aquatic insects) and breeds in Lake Tumba (August-September).	eng
182842	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182842	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Tumba, the mean mesh size of the nets used in this lake are around 1 cm, causing threats by overfishing. All bigger fish in Lake Tumba seem to be disappeared. Lake Tumba does not produce fish any more. All the fishermen seem to have turned to agriculture. This species is important in subsistence fisheries.	eng
182843	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182843	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182843	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation may be required.	eng
182843	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is known from the Chad and Congo basins, from Niger and Chad to Democratic Republic of Congo. One record has been recorded from Sudan, identified by Teugels, G. in 1986. It is not clear whether this record is from the Congo basin or the Nile system.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from around Bambesa, Uele River system.  It has also been recorded from the Chad basin in Cameroon and the Central African Republic. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Lake Chad and in the upper Benue system. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.	eng
182843	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is known from around Bambesa, Uele River system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Chad and the upper Benue system. It has also been recorded from the Chad basin in Cameroon and the Central African Republic. One record has been recorded from Sudan, identified by Teugels, G. in 1986. It is not clear whether this record is from the Congo basin or the Nile system.	eng
182843	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in Lake Chad and in the Upper Benue.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region, it is found in the tributaries of the Upper and Middle Congo.	eng
182843	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
182843	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Clarias albopunctatus</em> is ademersal, potamodromous species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182843	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a small clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
182843	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182843	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182843	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182843	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Impacts of agriculture and deforestation. Potential impact of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui to Chari River. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.	eng
182843	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Impacts of agriculture and deforestation threaten the habitat of this species. Potential impact of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui to Chari River could have a negative impact, and large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams. It is also harvested for consumption.	eng
182843	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182844	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182844	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius angustifrons</em> is known from the Ubangui River upstream of Bangui, Central Congo River basin (Roberts 2003) and from one specimen of Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). There is one record from the Wagenia Falls, near Kisangani (Roberts 2003), but this has to be re-examined.	eng
182844	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius angustifrons</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182844	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182844	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182845	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182845	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182845	conservation	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats.	eng
182845	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Chad, Niger, Volta and Ogun River basins.    Africa:  The Nile, Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.	eng
182845	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Barbus nigeriensis </span>is also known from the Nile.	eng
182845	distribution	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from Togo across to Cameroon and Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea this species is found in the Cross River. <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the upper tributaries of Bahr el Ghazal, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  This species occurs in the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Ogun and Cross Rivers.	eng
182845	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is benthopelagic.	eng
182845	habitat	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182845	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182845	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182845	population	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182845	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182845	threats	Awaïss, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182845	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182845	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182846	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182846	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo maleboensis</em> is only known from one specimen from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It has not been found since it has been described though.	eng
182846	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo maleboensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182846	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182846	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182847	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182847	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga River, Cameroon.	eng
182847	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis rebeli</em>is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182847	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182847	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182848	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182848	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus grandoculis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool)  and adjacent rapids, and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango, Lukénie and Kasai systems.	eng
182848	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182848	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182848	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182849	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182849	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Stomatorhinus patrizii</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Lukénie, Kwango and Kasai systems. A single specimen tentatively identified as this species from the Lower Congo may indicate a wider distribution for this species.	eng
182849	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182849	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182849	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182850	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182850	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2003	None known	eng
182850	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182850	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Kazembe, J., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures. Habitat conservation is required, as well as the establishment of protected areas within this species home range.	eng
182850	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Kazembe, J., 2009	<em>Malapterurus electricus</em> is widely distributed, from Senegal (and possible Mauritania) to Ethiopia, and along the entire length of the Nile from Egypt to Rwanda and the Great Lakes south to Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lake Tanganyika and lower parts of major affluents, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi, as well as the entire Nile system, and lakes Albert and Turkana. In Malawi it is also present in Lower Shire River. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in Lower and This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. It is present in the Blue Nile and Baro Rivers, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It has a typical Sudanian distribution, occurring in the Lake Chad and Senegal basin, throughout the Niger system as well as smaller southward flowing basins in West Africa (Bandama through the Volta rivers).	eng
182850	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Malapterurus electricus</em> is rare in Lower and Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Niger, Senegal, Blue Nile, Gabon, West Africa, Congo, Lake Tanganyika and middle and lower Zambia.	eng
182850	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Tanganyika and lower parts of major affluents, including the Malagarasi and Rusizi; the entire Nile system, lakes Albert and Turkana. In Malawi: Lower Shire river. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong> Widespread throughout the Congo, Senegal, Niger, Volta and Chad systems. Also distributed throughout the middle and lower Zambezi, Pungwe and lower Save  basins.	eng
182850	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Has a typical Sudanian distribution, occurring in the lake Chad and Senegal basin, throughout the Niger system as well as smaller southward flowing basins in western Africa (Bandama through the Volta rivers).<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere in most of the Nile basin, including Lake Turkana but not Lake Victoria (Norris 2002).	eng
182850	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Diet consisting mainly of fishes and rarely molluscs; nocturnal feeding in Kainji Reservoir (Norris 2002).	eng
182850	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Kazembe, J., 2009	It lives in shallow water, with muddy or sandy bottom neighbouring rocky areas, and favours sluggish or standing water (Skelton 1993). This species is active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of generating 300-400 volts, forms a sheath under the skin around the body, and is used for both prey capture and defence (Skelton 1993). Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes (Skelton 1993).	eng
182850	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives in shallow water, with muddy or sandy bottom neighbouring rocky areas, in fast flowing waters. Capable of generating 300-400 volts from large individuals and can produce a powerful electric shock. It feeds mainly on bottom worms, plants and animal debris. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. Lives for 10 years or more; Largest specimen caught from Lake Nasser 70 cm long.	eng
182850	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2003	Lives among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water (Skelton 1993). Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. The electric organ, capable of generating 300-400 volts, forms a sheat under the skin around the body, and is used for both prey capture and defence (Skelton 1993). Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes (Skelton 1993).	eng
182850	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182850	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182850	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Kazembe, J., 2009	No population estimates available.	eng
182850	population	Kazembe, J., 2003	No population estimates available.	eng
182850	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182850	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182850	threats	Kazembe, J., 2003	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
182850	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Kazembe, J., 2009	This species is threatened by overfishing in eastern Africa. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182851	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182851	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Ogowe system of Gabon.	eng
182851	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chromidotilapia regani</em> is This species is found in middle sized or large rivers; small specimens prefer shallow regions and are found as single specimens or in small groups of 2-4 individuals between sunken wood or stones near the bank, while adults swim in deeper regions in the middle of the rivers (Lamboj 2002). It is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182851	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182851	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the upper Ogowe region, mining manganese is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. The species is also threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation on the central Ogowe system.	eng
182852	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182852	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eugnathichthys macroterolepis</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182852	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eugnathichthys macroterolepis</em> is a pelagic species. It feeds on small fishes (Baensch and Riehl 1997).	eng
182852	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182852	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182853	conservation	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information available..	eng
182853	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182853	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Habitat maintenance and conservation is needed in eastern Africa.	eng
182853	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius stanleyanus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. Elsewhere, it is known from Lake Tanganyika.	eng
182853	distribution	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The species is widespread throughout the lower reaches and deltas of the major affluents to lake Tanganyika including the Malagarasi.	eng
182853	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola, and east to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Marcusenius stanleyanus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches and deltas of the major affluents to Lake Tanganyika, including the Malagarasi.	eng
182853	habitat	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	Found in well vegetated, muddy marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. Diet: feeds on varied invertebrates, especially insect larvae.	eng
182853	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182853	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species, found in well vegetated, muddy marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It feeds on varied invertebrates, especially insect larvae.	eng
182853	population	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	No information.	eng
182853	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182853	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182853	threats	Ntakimazi, G., 2003	The main threat to the species is the loss of wetland habitats due to farming extension.	eng
182853	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by the loss of wetland habitats due to farming extension threatens east African populations.	eng
182854	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182854	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species seems to be endemic to the Middle and This species is known from upper Cavally in Côte d’Ivoire	eng
182854	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish of maximum TL recorded 8.65 cm. It is an ovophilic male mouth-brooder; both parents take care of the young after hatching.	eng
182854	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182854	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is potentially threatened by deforestation.	eng
182855	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182855	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus ovis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin until Kasongo. It has also been recorded from the Kinsuka rapids (Tsabuka), just below Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). It is not known from the central and southern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182855	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182855	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182855	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182856	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182856	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small brook under forest cover in the upper Ivindo River drainage system, 35 km south-west of Sembe, northwestern Congo. In addition to the type locality there is a point locality in northeastern Gabon.	eng
182856	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) seegersi</em> is only known from a small brook under forest cover. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Diapteron) seegersi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182856	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182856	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182857	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182857	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182857	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182857	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em> is known from the Dja River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Upper Cross River. In West Africa it is known from the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), Upper Cavally, Upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin.	eng
182857	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">N. fasciatus</span> occurs in the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies) (Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), Upper Cavally, Upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Outside this region this species has also reported from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon.	eng
182857	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a widespread species from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em> is known from the Dja and This species is known from upper Cross Rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, it occurs in the Senegal and the Rivers Kogon, Konkouré, Kolenté (Great Scarcies, Guinea), Little Scarcies and Waanje (Sierra Leone), St. Paul, St. John and Cess (Liberia), This species is known from upper Cavally, This species is known from upper Sassandra, Bandama, Mé, Comoé, Bia (Côte d’Ivoire), Pra, Volta (Ghana), Ouémé (Bénin), Niger (plus Benue) and Cross (Nigeria), and in the Chad basin.	eng
182857	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelgagic fish.	eng
182857	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic and potamodromous species.	eng
182857	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic, potamodromous species that prefers tropical climate.	eng
182857	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182857	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182857	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182857	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182857	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182857	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182858	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182858	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182858	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Research actions needed	eng
182858	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It is also known from the Chad basin.	eng
182858	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> From western Africa this species is presently known from the Chad River basin, based on a single specimen from Logone, Lake Chad (Cameroon). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Outside of this region <span style="font-style: italic;">M. congicus</span> is reported from mainly all over the Congo River basin including the Lower Congo River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo), the Middle Congo River basin (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic) and the Upper Congo River basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia). Finally, <span style="font-style: italic;">M. congicus</span> is also reported from Lake Albert (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
182858	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Cameroon to Angola and Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Mastacembelus congicus</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> From Western Africa this species is presently known from the Chad River basin, based on a single specimen from Logone, Lake Chad (Cameroon).	eng
182858	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No information available.	eng
182858	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182858	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182858	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182858	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182858	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182858	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Habitat degradation due to agriculture.	eng
182858	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182858	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to agriculture.	eng
182859	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182859	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma uelense</em> is known from the upper Uele River drainage in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and from the upper and middle Ariwimi River drainage, a tributary of the Central Congo River. There is one single record known from across the Congo/Nile divide in the Yei River (a White Nile River tributary).	eng
182859	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182859	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182859	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182860	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182860	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182860	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2002	None	eng
182860	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182860	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Population trends should be monitored.	eng
182860	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa and used to be caught in Lower Nile from Beni Suef and Luxor.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the River Nile system, Lake Victoria, Senegal, Niger, Lake Chad, and Gambia.	eng
182860	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong>  In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is  found only in Aboina River in the Cross River system (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992). <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from Senegal to the Chad basin.  Absent in coastal basins between Gambia and Sassandra (Côte d'Ivoire) but Daget and Gosse (1984) and Teugels, Lévêque, Paugy and Traoré (1988) report otherwise.  Also found in the Nile.	eng
182860	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Is distributed throughout western Africa, from Senegal to the Chad basin. However, like the other species of the genus, it is absent from the coastal basins comprised between Southern Gambia and the Sassandra. (Paugy <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 2003). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also found in the Nile (Gosse and Coenen 1990).	eng
182860	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2002	The species is known from Murchison Nile.	eng
182860	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a widespread species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along much of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is found only in Aboina River in the Cross River system (Teugels <em>et al.</em> 1992).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Murchison Nile, Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species used to be caught in Lower Nile from Beni Suef and Luxor, but is now Regionally Extinct.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and jebel systems, White Nile and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan. Also in the Blue Nile and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout West Africa, from Senegal to the Chad basin. However, like the other species of the genus, it is absent from the coastal basins comprised between Southern Gambia and the Sassandra. (Paugy <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
182860	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is a macro-herbivore, feeding on submerged plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton.	eng
182860	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus rostratus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is a macro-herbivore, feeding on submerged plants, <em>Eichornia</em> roots and periphyton. It prefers lakes.	eng
182860	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It feeds on water weeds, vegetable debris, grass rootlets, filamentous algae and diatoms.	eng
182860	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Marco-herbivores that feed on submerged plants, <em>Eichhornia </em>roots and periphyton (Holden and Reed 1972).	eng
182860	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182860	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182860	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182860	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182860	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182860	population	Twongo, T.K., 2002	Population size not known	eng
182860	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	In western Africa, deforestation and overfishing may affect the species and its habitat. Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect parameters such as oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species (Entsua-Mensah 2001).	eng
182860	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	On the regional level, deforestation and overfishing may affect the species and its habitat.<br/>Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices in the areas of these northern basins. Resultant increases in sediment loads. This is particularly relevant in the Black Volta. In the Oti, one major threat is aquatic weeds, which alter the habitat of the fish and affect parameters such as oxygen levels. In the White Volta, effluents from mining activities may also pose a threat to this fish species (Entsua-Mensah 2001).	eng
182860	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2002	Overfishing.	eng
182860	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182860	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182861	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Control of the water hyacinth.	eng
182861	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Niger basin in Nigeria and the upper Niger delta in Mali.	eng
182861	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a medium riverine size fish, growing to a maximum total length of 69.7 cm. It migrates upstream for spawning.	eng
182861	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182861	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential impacts from oil exploration in the Lower Delta and potential impact of the invasive water hyacinth in the inland delta.	eng
182862	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182862	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus bomokandi</em> is currently only known from two disjunct localities in the Congo River basin; the type locality, at Poko (Democratic Republic of Congo), and the Lekoli River, in the vicinity of Odzala (Congo). To date no specimens have been reported from the basin spanning these two regions.	eng
182862	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus bomokandi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182862	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182862	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182863	conservation	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2006	Measures are needed to reduce impacts of forestry activities, and prevent the spread of alien predators. The taxonomic status and the geographical range needs to be determined for this species.	eng
182863	distribution	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2006	This species is known only from a few specimens in the Komati system within the Malalotja Nature Reserve, Swaziland.	eng
182863	habitat	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2006	This species is found in clear water mountain streams, rocky habitats.	eng
182863	population	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2006	No information available.	eng
182863	threats	Engelbrecht, J. & Bills, R., 2006	Alien fishes and sedimentation from forestry activities are main threats.	eng
182864	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182864	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known by the holotype of the high course of Bagbwe River (Sierra Leone).	eng
182864	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species, found in running waters (Pouilly 1993) appear specialized in particular for strong speeds of current.	eng
182864	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182864	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Hydrological installations have reduced the flow and current in the river and destruction of the diversity of the substrate in the habitats - the species is a rheophile (prefers fast flowing water).	eng
182865	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182865	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	The species is known in Sierra Leone and Liberia, but exact limits are yet to be confirmed.	eng
182865	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species, potamodromous. It grazes on aquatic plants in streams and lakes.	eng
182865	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182865	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Threats to this species include mining and deforestation.	eng
182866	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182866	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in the Kouilou, Chiloango and Loeme Rivers.	eng
182866	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Congocharax spilotaenia</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
182866	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182866	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	A potential threat to the species is gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182867	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182867	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas longirostris</em> is only known from the type locality Banzyville on the Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182867	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Raiamas longirostris</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182867	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182867	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182868	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182868	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found mainly in the Ogowe and Ntem basins. Some specimens have also been collected in the Kribi (Kienké) basin.	eng
182868	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182868	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182868	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182869	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182869	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in northwestern Gabon in the upper Mbei (or Mbe), upper Komo, upper Abanga, and upper Nkam Rivers. It is also found in southeastern Equatorial Guinea.	eng
182869	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion mimbon</em> occurs in brooks and small streams in the hilly rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) mimbon</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182869	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182869	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182870	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182870	conservation	Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182870	distribution	Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Synodontis violacea </em> is known from the Chad, Niger (Benue), Volta and Senegal basins.	eng
182870	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis violacea </em> is found in the Cross River.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from  Chad, Niger and Volta basins.  Reported from Senegal basin.	eng
182870	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis violacea</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding.	eng
182870	habitat	Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Synodontis violacea</em> is a benthopelagic species which is capable of airbreathing. It lives in streams and lakes, and feeds on plankton detritus and plants. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding.	eng
182870	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182870	population	Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182870	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182870	threats	Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known, this is a hardy species.	eng
182871	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182871	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys duttoni</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
182871	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182871	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182871	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182872	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182872	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Paradistichodus dimidiatus</span> is known from the Gambia, Casamance, Corubal, Niger, Volta and Chad basins.	eng
182872	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species. Small fish of max 7.6 cm TL	eng
182872	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182872	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182873	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182873	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Bauchi plateau in Nigeria.	eng
182873	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This small cyprinid is 8.5 cm in TL and restricted to the swift flowing streams on Jos Plateau toward Bauchi in Nigeria. It has an oral disc sucker with which it clings to rocks. It is non-migratory.	eng
182873	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182873	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by habitat loss (siltation) following deforestation and impacts of tin mining.	eng
182874	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182874	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is known within the drainage basins of the Cavally and Nipoué rivers in Côte d'Ivoire in Liberia.	eng
182874	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182874	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182874	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is impacted by agriculture development and pollution, and overfishing.	eng
182875	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182875	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis lepidurus</em> is known from Boma to the mouth of the Congo River.	eng
182875	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Oreochromis lepidurus</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is microphagous, using plankton (Trewavas 1983, Thys van den Audenaerde 1964) and a maternal, ovophilic mouth-brooder (Lamboj 2004).	eng
182875	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182875	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats and Matadi pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Aluminium mining on the land close to the coast in the future could pose problems if water enters the river. This project is however depended for its electricity demand on the success of Inga 3 that will be built in five years.	eng
182876	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182876	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus pachychilus</em> is only known from the type locality, Kanda kanda, tributary of the Kasaï River, affluent of the Central Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182876	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopochilus pachychilus</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182876	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182876	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in this region.	eng
182877	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182877	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182877	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in Okavango Delta reserves.	eng
182877	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is known from the Okavango delta, the upper Zambezi and from southern tributaries of the Congo River system (Skelton 2001).	eng
182877	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango Delta, the upper Zambezi and some southern tributaries of the Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182877	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is found in southern tributaries of the Congo River system (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Okavango Delta and the upper Zambezi.	eng
182877	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in swamps and floodplain habitats, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated shallow littoral margins of drainage rivers. It feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. Males establish a territory and attract a ripe female to form a pair bond. The females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilized, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory (Skelton 1993).	eng
182877	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Tilapia ruweti</em> is a benthopelagic species that occurs in swamps and floodplain habitats, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated shallow littoral margins of drainage rivers. It is found in very shallow water in the margins of swamps and floodplains, and also in flooded grasses on the floodplain at high water (Tweddle<em> <em>et al.</em></em> 2004). It feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. Males establish a territory and attract a ripe female to form a pair bond. The females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilized, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory (Skelton 1993). Eggs and fry are periodically moved to alternative brood pits excavated by the female.	eng
182877	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Found in swamps and floodplains, especially enriched pans and well-vegetated littoral margins of drainage streams (Skelton 2001). Found in very shallow water in the margins of swamps and floodplains, and also in flooded grasses on the floodplain at high water (Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). Feeds on detritus, soft plants and insect larvae. The males establishes a territory and forms a pair bond with a ripe female. Females construct a saucer-shaped nest in which eggs are laid and fertilised, then tended mainly by the female while the male guards the territory. Eggs and fry are periodically moved to alternative brood pits excavated by the female.	eng
182877	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Locally common in suitable habitats.	eng
182877	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182877	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This is a locally common species in suitable habitats.	eng
182877	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182877	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in the central Africa region.	eng
182877	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182878	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182878	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182878	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from Cameroon to Congo. It has also been found in the Luongo River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin (Balon and Stewart 1983).	eng
182878	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa it is found in the upper tributories of the Oubanangui in Chad and Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Opsaridium ubangiense</span> is a cyprinid with wide distribution, from coastal rivers of South Cameroon to Central Africa Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo River Basin, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania to Malawi.	eng
182878	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium ubangiense</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It migrates upstream for spawning.	eng
182878	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a cyprinid. Migrates upstream for spawning.	eng
182878	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182878	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182878	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182878	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182879	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182879	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus okae</em> is only known by the type from the Oka River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182879	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus okae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182879	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182879	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182880	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182880	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Twongo, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182880	conservation	Vreven, E. & Twongo, T., 2002	None known	eng
182880	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182880	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182880	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile (Aswan). Before the high Dam construction, used to occur in abundance following the flood, from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Omo River (Ethiopia), Niger, Bénoué (Nigeria), Volta (Ghana), Senegal Rivers, and Lake Chad basin. It is rare in southern part of Lake Nasser.	eng
182880	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is present in the Cross River. Elsewhere, it is known from the Nile, Omo, Chad, Niger, Bénoué, Senegal and Volta River basins.    <br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from the  Nile, Omo, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Senegal Rivers, and Lake Chad basin.  Not found in any coastal basins farther from the Cross River.	eng
182880	distribution	Vreven, E. & Twongo, T., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile, Omo, Niger, Bénoué, Volta, Sénégal Rivers and Lake Chad basin.	eng
182880	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Benue, Senegal and Volta. It was also reported from the River Cross, but, so far, never found in other coastal basins. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile and Omo basins (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182880	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Twongo, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This is a wide ranging demersal species, found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north as far as the Nile delta.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is present in the Cross River. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana, Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Present but rare in This species is known from upper Egyptian Nile (Aswan). Before the high Dam construction, it used to occur in abundance following the flood, from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro and Omo Rivers, Ethiopia, as well as the White Nile, Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Benue, Senegal and Volta. It was also reported from the River Cross but, so far, never found in other coastal basins.	eng
182880	habitat	Vreven, E. & Twongo, T., 2002	A demersal species.	eng
182880	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal potamodromous fish.	eng
182880	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
182880	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Twongo, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Leptocypris niloticus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species found in running waters especially on sandy shores and in irrigation canals. An active fish, moving in schools under the surface of shallow water. Food consists mainly of tiny fry of other fishes and zooplankton.	eng
182880	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is an active fish, moving in schools under the surface of shallow water. Food consists mainly of tiny fry of other fishes and zooplankton. It reaches a length to 2 - 9.5 cm.	eng
182880	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182880	population	Vreven, E. & Twongo, T., 2002	No information	eng
182880	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182880	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Twongo, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No information available.	eng
182880	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182880	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Twongo, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	No major widespread threats known. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182880	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182880	threats	Vreven, E. & Twongo, T., 2002	No particular threats identified.	eng
182880	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182880	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182881	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182881	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Alestopetersius nigropterus</em> is only confirmed from Lake Mai 'N-Dombe. However recent records from the Lengoué River (AMNH) suggest this species has a wider distribution in middle Congo.	eng
182881	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182881	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182881	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lake Mai-N'Dombe, the use of small mesh size nets, mosquito nets are used as fishing nets. These nets are called caterpillar nets because they hold every species that is in the lake. Methane reservoirs discovered under the lake are expected to be exploited.	eng
182882	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182882	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria damasi</em> is only known from the Malembia River, Kasongo territory and from N'Zilo, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182882	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182882	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182882	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182883	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
182883	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D.& Bills, R., 2006	The species has little protection. River health programmes and the control of alien fish stocking are needed.	eng
182883	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	The species has little protection. River health programmes and the control of alien fish stocking are needed. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182883	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, south to Namibia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in southern tributaries of the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Okavango and Zambezi River system, south to the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers (Skelton 2001). Also from Zambian Congo. Although reported to be absent from the Kafue system, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) caught it in the Mwekera tributary.	eng
182883	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Okavango and Zambezi systems as well as east coast rivers south to the Phongolo.  Also found in the southern tributaries of the Congo System.	eng
182883	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D.& Bills, R., 2006	The species has been recorded from Okavango and Zambezi River systems, south to the Pungwe and Buzi Rivers (Skelton 2001). Also from Zambian Congo. Although reported to be absent from the Kafue system, Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) caught it in the Mwekera tributary.	eng
182883	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species. It prefers clear, flowing waters of larger perennial rivers, frequenting pools below rocky rapids (Lévêque and Daget 1984). It is also found in quiet water with aquatic cover. <em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> lives in shoals, usually in shallow water over sandy bottoms. It feeds on aquatic larvae and insects, shrimps and small crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Opsaridium zambezense</em> breeds in the summer (Skelton 1993).	eng
182883	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2003	Inhabits clear flowing waters, occuring in shoals. Feeds on insects and other small organisms. Breeds in the summer.	eng
182883	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D.& Bills, R., 2006	Shoals in clear water flowing over sand or gravel; favours inflowing head of pools below rapids or runs. Feeds on insects and small organisms from the surface or in the water column, Breeds in spring and summer (Skelton 2001).	eng
182883	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	Generally common in suitable habitats. In Zimbabwe, however, this species has declined in some areas because of dam building (notably in Lake Kariba but other reservoirs as well) and also pollution and alien predators such as <em>Micropterus</em> spp. (Marshall and Gratwicke 2001). Its distribution on the central plateau of Zimbabwe is therefore rather fragmented but it is still abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
182883	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D.& Bills, R., 2006	Generally common in suitable habitats. In Zimbabwe, however, this species has declined in some areas because of dam building (notably in lake Kariba but other reservoirs as well) and also pollution and alien predators such as <em>Micropterus spp.</em>  (Marshall and Gratwicke 2001). Its distribution on the central plateau of Zimbabwe is therefore rather fragmented but it is still abundant in suitable habitat.	eng
182883	population	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2003	No information	eng
182883	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Tweddle, D. & Vreven, E., 2009	In east Africa this species is threatened by subsistence fishing, and sedimentation of spawning beds. In southern Africa there are localised problems due to dam building, pollution, alien predators, but overall the species populations are not heavily threatened.	eng
182883	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D.& Bills, R., 2006	Localised problems due to dam building, pollution, alien predators, but overall the species populations are unthreatened.	eng
182883	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Vreven, E., 2003	The main threat to the species are subsistence fishing and sedimentation of spawning beds.	eng
182884	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	There is no implemented conservation measures.	eng
182884	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	The species is known from Lake Tana and its affluent rivers.	eng
182884	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It has a preference for rocky substrates and waters less than 6 m deep. It is a partial piscivore. Specimens less than 15 cm FL mainly eat insect larvae and zooplankton, but also some fish. With size the amount of fish in the diet increases, as does the amount of plant material, while the amount of insects decreases and zooplankton disappears altogether.	eng
182884	population	Getahun, A., 2009	The size of the population is not precisely known. However, it is one of the abundant <em>Labeobarbus</em> spp. in the catch from the lake as well as the tributary rivers.	eng
182884	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	Overexploitation of resources from the lake and the intended dams on some of the tributary rivers are threats for the species as it is spawning in these feeder rivers.	eng
182885	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182885	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Nigeria, known only from the type locality in the Lower Niger.	eng
182885	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species of 58.5 cm SL maximum size.	eng
182885	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182885	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration, urban and agricultural developments threaten this species.	eng
182886	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures	eng
182886	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only reliably known only from the types, for which no precise locality is available, although they probably come from western Nigeria. Collections from Ghana need to be verified.	eng
182886	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182886	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182886	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182887	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182887	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neobola moeruensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba system and from Lake Mweru.	eng
182887	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neobola moeruensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182887	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182887	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets. The species is very small though and fishing will not have a significant influence on the population. In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
182888	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182888	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in southwestern Cameroon, between Bafoussam and Mbouda, in the upper Sanaga River system. The distribution of this species is limited (and may represent a relict of a once wider distribution).	eng
182888	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion bamilekorum</em> This species is occurs in the border region of fast flowing brooks on the savannah highlands (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is usually found close to banks, under overhanging grasses. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion bamilekorum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182888	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182888	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species habitat is declining in quality due to urbanisation and to the very intensive agricultural farming, leading to pollution from pesticides and sedimentation. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182889	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182889	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from the Nyong, Ntem (Cameroon) and Ivindo (Gabon) Rivers.	eng
182889	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis tessmanni</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182889	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182889	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182891	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182891	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dolichamphilius longiceps</em> is only known from the type locality: Wagenia Falls, Congo River near Kisangani.	eng
182891	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Dolichamphilius longiceps</em> is a demersal species that lives in rapids.	eng
182891	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182891	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182892	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182892	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality (Rio Bolo) on the Ntem River (Equatorial Guinea).	eng
182892	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus aloyi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 5.2 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182892	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182892	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182893	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182893	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Barbus leptopogon</em> is only cited from one record in 1834, in Algeria and has never been recorded since.	eng
182893	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Barbus leptopogon</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
182893	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182893	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182894	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182894	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is known from the Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and the Congo River basin, with exception of the Luapula-Mweru system.	eng
182894	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182894	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182894	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pleurops</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
182895	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182895	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in reserves, e.g., in the Okavango Delta.	eng
182895	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species has some protection in reserves in southern Africa, e.g. in the Okavango Delta.	eng
182895	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It is present in the Kasai and Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai River, a tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182895	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is known from the Kasai and Kwango River basin, Central Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okavango and upper Zambezi systems.	eng
182895	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from the Upper Zambezi and Okavango systems, as well as the Kasai River, a tributary of the Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182895	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is a demersal species. It favours rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often taking shelter under trees. It is an omnivore; its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates like snails, shrimps and insects. The eggs are large and relatively few, suggesting parental care, but no details are know. This species 'grunts' when taken out of the water (Skelton 1993).	eng
182895	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Parauchenoglanis ngamensis</em> is a demersal species. It favours rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often taking shelter under trees. Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) sampled specimens from grounded vegetation on sandbanks, and reported catches from traps set in a rocky patch of the main Zambezi River channel. It is an omnivore; its diet consists of small fishes and invertebrates like snails, shrimps and insects. The eggs are large and relatively few, suggesting parental care, but no details are know. This species 'grunts' when taken out of the water (Skelton 1993).	eng
182895	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Prefers rocky habitats or marginal vegetation in slow-flowing rivers and lagoons, often sheltering under trees (Skelton 2001). Tweddle <em>et al. </em>(2004) sampled specimens from grounded vegetation on sandbanks, and reported catches from traps set in a rocky patch of the main Zambezi River channel. Feeds on small fish and invertebrates. Produces relatively few large eggs, suggesting parental care (Skelton 2001).	eng
182895	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182895	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread but apparently fairly uncommon, although its habitat is difficult to sample effectively.	eng
182895	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Widespread but apparently fairly uncommon, although its habitat is difficult to sample effectively.	eng
182895	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182895	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182895	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
182896	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182896	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lukusiensis</em> is known from the Lualaba River system, This species is known from upper Congo River basin and from the Congo River at Yangambi and Yaekela, from Dingila pool (Uele system) and from Buta, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182896	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus lukusiensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182896	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182896	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182897	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182897	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic from the Sanaga basin in northwestern Cameroon.	eng
182897	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182897	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182897	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182898	conservation	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, and biology and ecology.	eng
182898	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182898	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no known protection.	eng
182898	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus neefi</em> shows a divided distribution: Transvaal tributaries of the Steelpoort-Limpopo and headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, Kafue, and southern Congo River basins in Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182898	distribution	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The distribution of <em>Barbus neefi</em>includes Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  This species is found in the southern Congo River basins in Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the headwaters of the upper Zambezi, Kafue and southern Congo systems in Zambia.	eng
182898	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from headwaters of the Upper Zambezi, Kafue and southern Congo systems in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Skelton 2001).	eng
182898	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus neefi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182898	habitat	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Barbus neefi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182898	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	Tweddle <em>et al</em><em>. </em>(2004) found it to be common in all the sampled northern Upper Zambezi tributaries in Zambia, which are all strongly flowing, well-vegetated permanent streams, but not found further south.	eng
182898	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182898	population	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is generally abundant and widespread.	eng
182898	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species is generally abundant and widespread.	eng
182898	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182898	threats	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
182898	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
182899	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The most eastern part of the species distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba. Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
182899	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus pseudognathodon</em> is known from Lake Mweru and the Lobo River. It is also known from the upper Lualaba system.	eng
182899	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clypeobarbus pseudognathodon</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182899	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182899	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species.	eng
182900	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182900	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic found in the deeper sections of the Ivindo River and is also known from the Nyong River basin of Cameroon.	eng
182900	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	The Ivindo River bottom is rocky; the habitat is dense forest around the river. There are no records of this fish entering streams and creeks, as it appears to be confined to main river channels. The species is benthopelagic.	eng
182900	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182900	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is impacted by mining.	eng
182901	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182901	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known from Wabishebelle basin (Webi Shebeli, Juba Shebelle), Ethiopia and the Juba and Awata Rivers, Somalia.	eng
182901	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
182901	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182901	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182902	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182902	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> is known from the lower Cross River and swampy locations in the Calabar and Great Kwa drainages, and the Ogowe basin. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded the presence of two specimens from Lac Kobambi in the Kouilou-Niari system of Congo-Brazzaville (Teugels <em>et al. </em>1992). Examination of these specimens confirms their identification as <em>Thysochromis</em>, and preliminary analysis reveals no obvious differences with <em>T. ansorgii</em>. The presence of <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> in Congo-Brazzaville is a significant southerly range extension. Elsewhere it occurs in forested coastal lowlands from Ivory Coast to the Niger delta and Ethiop River of southern Nigeria.	eng
182902	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found from Côte d’Ivoire to the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> is known from the lower Cross River and swampy locations in the Calabar and Great Kwa drainages, and the Ogowe basin. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) recorded the presence of two specimens from Lac Kobambi in the Kouilou-Niari system of Congo (Teugels <em><em>et al.</em> </em>1992). Examination of these specimens confirms their identification as <em>Thysochromis</em>, and preliminary analysis reveals no obvious differences with <em>T. ansorgii</em>. The presence of <em>Thysochromis ansorgii</em> in Congo is a significant southerly range extension. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from coastal basins in Côte d’Ivoire (Agnébi, Mé, Comoe, Bia, Tano), the Ouémé (Benin), Ogun, Oshun, the Niger delta, and the Lower Cross (Nigeria).	eng
182902	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal, non-migratory species.	eng
182902	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species that lives in freshwater with a pH range from 6.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19.	eng
182902	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182902	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Certain populations are threatened by oil exploration in the Niger Delta. Elsewhere, impacts of deforestation, urban and agricultural development threaten this species.	eng
182902	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182903	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182903	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria cameronensis</em> is known from the Dja River, and possibly in northeastern DRC, with collections from Buta and the Epulu River. It is also known from the Lower Guinea from the Ntem Basin in Cameroon, and the Louetsi and Nyanga Rivers, and Mouvanga Creek in Gabon.	eng
182903	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182903	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182903	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182904	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182904	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramphilius baudoni</em> is known from the Sangha River, Central Congo River system (Skelton 2007). In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Kouilou, Ogowe and Lokoundjé Rivers in Congo, Gabon and Cameroon respectively (Skelton 2007).	eng
182904	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Paramphilius baudoni</em> is a demersal species. Mainly found in soft bottoms in smaller rivers.	eng
182904	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182904	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182905	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182905	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
182905	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of the distribution of this species falls within the Korup National Park in Cameroon. Population trends of this species should be monitored, and habitat maintenance is required in Nigeria.	eng
182905	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is known from the Cross River basin, and from western Cameroon (Ndonga). Elsewhere, it is known from eastern Benin and southern Nigeria, Niger River and tributaries.	eng
182905	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria to the River Cross. Also reported from Sierra Leone but this needs to be confirmed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere it occurs in the coastal area of Southern Cameroon.	eng
182905	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is found in Nigeria and Cameroon, with a possible recording in Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is known from the Cross River basin, and from western Cameroon (Ndonga). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this species is known from Southwestern Nigeria to the River Cross. Also reported from Sierra Leone but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
182905	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal substrate spawner. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. Non-migratory.	eng
182905	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is a demersal species with a pH range from 5.0 to 8.0 and a dH range from 5 to 19. It occurs in freshwater and in brackish water. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
182905	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> is a demersal substrate spawner. It occurs in freshwater and in brackish water, and is able to survive in anoxic conditions.<em> Pelvicachromis pulcher</em> feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
182905	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182905	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182905	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182905	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	In Nigeria, oil exploration in the delta threatens this species, as does deforestation in southwest Nigeria.	eng
182905	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil exploration in the delta. Deforestation in south west Nigeria.	eng
182905	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182906	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182906	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe grenfelli</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system. It is present from Cameroon and Gabon (Nyong, Lokoundje, Ntem, Mitemboni, Nyanga and Ogowe River systems) in the Lower Guinea region. It is possibly also found in the Buture River in Burundi.	eng
182906	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe grenfelli</em> is a demersal species. Stomach contents contained plant debris, insect larvae (Trichopterans), nymfs of Odonates, pieces of terrestrial insects (ants, Hymenpterans, termites, Coleopterans, caterpillars) and fish pieces (Matthes 1964).	eng
182906	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182906	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182907	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182907	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic known from many rivers of this ichthyogeographical region, Cameroon to Cabinda: Kribi, Mungo, Tshela, Shiloango, Bongola, Ntem, Bitande, Ohumbe, Okano, Mouanda, Kelle, Ogowe, Messok-Messok, Mekay, Lolo and Mvi. Not known from the Congo River basin or from the Chad and Niger-Benue basins (Reid 1985)	eng
182907	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo batesii</em> is a benthopelagic species. Young specimens (up to 2.5 cm SL) are recorded from the Benito River in Cameroon (Reid 1985). Most of the individuals examined were collected from areas with rapidly flowing water (Tshibwabwa 1987).	eng
182907	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182907	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182908	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182908	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal rivers from southern Cameroon to the Chiloango River.	eng
182908	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182908	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182908	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182909	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182909	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>C. nebulosum</em> is known only from southeastern Nigeria. It has been taken in the Sombreiro and Imo rivers (Niger Delta) and from the lower Cross River.	eng
182909	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<em>C. nebulosum</em> is a small anabantid. It has an air-breathing organ so can survive well in de-oxygenated conditions.	eng
182909	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No information available.	eng
182909	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Habitat loss following deforestation, and oil exploration in the Niger Delta are potential threats.	eng
182910	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182910	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Chiloglanis lamottei</span> is known only from the holotype collected in the upper Cavally basin (Mount Nimba in Guinea).	eng
182910	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish of maximum size 5.0 cm SL.	eng
182910	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182910	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182911	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182911	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic restricted to the Ivindo River basin of Gabon, and the lower Ntem river basin of Gabon/Cameroon.	eng
182911	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182911	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182911	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Ntem population is possibly threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
182912	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2010	None known. More research is needed into this species taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182912	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2010	This species is known from the Tana River system in Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). Other populations in East Africa remain to be confirmed as populations of this species.	eng
182912	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2010	It probably is found in similar habitats to <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus</em>, i.e. marginal riverine vegetation.	eng
182912	population	Tweddle, D., 2010	Not known within Tana river. It may be widespread and common in other East African rivers (if they are confirmed as <em>M. devosi</em>).	eng
182912	threats	Tweddle, D., 2010	The Tana River is affected by hydroelectric generation and irrigation schemes. The potential impact of these on the species is unknown.	eng
182913	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182913	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus dartevellei</em> is only known from a single specimen from the type locality (Matadi, Lower Congo River basin). It has only been reported once. It has never subsequently been found, despite attempts to locate it (Stiassny, M., pers. obs.).	eng
182913	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus dartevellei</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182913	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182913	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Marine transport and urban pollution form a threat in this region.	eng
182914	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182914	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus werneri</em> is known from the rapids at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), downstream to above the Pioka region.	eng
182914	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus werneri</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182914	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182914	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage effluent and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182915	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known. It is recommended that oil companies develop a containment programme for this species in its localised environment.	eng
182915	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to West Africa, Nigeria. This fish has only been collected from the Niger Delta	eng
182915	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This characid grows to 6.0 cm in total length. It is non-migratory	eng
182915	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182915	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by oil exploration and consequential degradation of habitat in the Lower Niger Delta.	eng
182916	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182916	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is known only from the great Sahelo-sudanese basins and from certain coastal basins, eg. Cavally, Bandama, Sassandra, Mono, Oueme, Ogun and Culufi basins, extending as far east as the Cross River.	eng
182916	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Mormyrus rume</em> is a demersal, potamodromous subspecies. It feeds on insects and larvae. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of long duration that seems to correlate with territorial behaviour of the subspecies.	eng
182916	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends available.	eng
182916	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is locally threatened by deforestation.	eng
182917	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The species distribution is situated in the Upemba National Park.	eng
182917	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus altipinnis</em> is known from the Lufira River system and from Lake Upemba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
182917	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus altipinnis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182917	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182917	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182918	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182918	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus retropinnis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Ogowe River (Gosse 1984), and possibly from the Cross River in Cameroon.	eng
182918	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus retropinnis</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is a predator (Matthes 1964) that is mostly found in little rivers, swamps and flooded zones (Gosse 1963, Matthes 1964, Roux 1967).	eng
182918	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182918	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
182919	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182919	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Malapterurus thysi</span> has been described from only two sites in a narrow region drained by the Cess (Nipoué) and Cavally rivers, western Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
182919	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic species occurs among rocks or roots; favours sluggish or standing water. Active at night, feeding mainly on fish stunned by electric shocks. Forms pairs and breeds in excavated cavities or holes. The largest known specimen is 240 mm SL.	eng
182919	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182919	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No current threats known.	eng
182920	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182920	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paucisquamatus</em> is known from the Kivu region, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has also been record from Lake Kivu as well.	eng
182920	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus paucisquamatus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182920	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182920	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182921	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182921	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">P. isidori </span>has a wide distribution area: Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta, Cross and from some coastal rivers in Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Comoé, Agnébi, Mé). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Also known from the Nile (Gosse 1984).	eng
182921	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in lakes. Demersal. Occupies floodplain pools in Sudd. Feeds on mud, vegetable debris and small invertebrates. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration (0.08 ms) that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species.  During the breeding season, males build nests and while patrolling their territory sporadically emit EODs at a mean rate of 18 Hz. Participating females, on the other hand, discharge at a fairly regular rate (8-11 Hz) and this has been shown to play a role in sex recognition during courtship and spawning. Male and female EOD waveforms also differ in the amplitude ratio of the first and third phase. Also produce natural sounds ('grunts', 'moans', 'growl', etc.) at different phases of courtship, nesting and territorial defence. A fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. Larval electric organ situated in the deep lateral musculature; that of adults in the caudal peduncle.	eng
182921	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182921	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation may be a local threat.	eng
182922	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182922	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus microphthalmus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It also occurs in the Lower Guinea region, where it is the most common <em>Petrocephalus</em> species: it is present from the Sanaga River (Cameroon) to the Niari Kouilou River (Congo).	eng
182922	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182922	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182922	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182923	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182923	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species inhabits the quiet parts of brooks, small rivers and streams under gallery forest cover in the savannah of the Fouta Dialon in Guinea. This species is found in the drainage systems of the upper Gambia, This species is known from upper Bafing and This species is known from upper Konkouré rivers.	eng
182923	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This killifish occurs in brooks, small rivers and streams under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
182923	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
182923	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No current threats known, but there are potential threats to the species.	eng
182924	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182924	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182924	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182924	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Barbus anema</em> is found across the Chad and Niger river basins, and is also known in southern Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) between Aswan and White Nile, however it is now thought to be regionally extinct. Also found in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), on the north/northeastern Africa regional border.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is found in the white Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is common in the Chad and Niger basins.	eng
182924	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus anema</em> was previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) between Aswan and the White Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nubia and White Nile, being rare in Lake Nasser.	eng
182924	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad and Niger basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:<em> </em></strong></strong><span style="font-style: italic;">B. anema</span> was described from the Nile and reported later on from the Chad and Niger basins.	eng
182924	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Barbus anema </em>is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182924	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Barbus anema</em> is a benthopelagic species, which lives in shallow, well vegetated streams. It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae, and breeds in the summer, laying eggs among vegetation. It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length.	eng
182924	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Barbus anema</em> lives in shallow, well vegetated streams. It feeds on small aquatic insects and algae. It breeds in summer, laying eggs among vegetation. It is a small-sized fish, about 5 cm in standard length. Colour: Silvery yellowish, sometimes with blackish lateral streak passing through the eye. It has an economic importance as aquarium fish.	eng
182924	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182924	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182924	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182924	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182924	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182924	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The major threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182925	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182925	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Sierra Leone and Liberia, the species is known from the Little Scarcies River drainage system in western Sierra Leone southward to the drainage system of the Lower Lofa River in western Liberia.	eng
182925	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found mainly in the shallow and stagnant parts of pools, brooks, swamps and small streams in the coastal rain forest.	eng
182925	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182925	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is threatened by mining and deforestation in Liberia.	eng
182926	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182926	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura fasciata</em> is only known from the type locality Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls) (Skelton and Teugels 1986).	eng
182926	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Phractura fasciata</em> is a demersal species that lives in rapids.	eng
182926	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182926	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182927	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182927	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the drainage systems of the Lower Tano River system in Southwestern Ghana, and the Lower Comoé, Banco, Boubo, Bia, Mé, Lower Bandama, Lower Sassandra and Lower Cavally River systems in Southern Côte d’Ivoire. May also be present in the extreme southeastern part of Liberia	eng
182927	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a benthopelagic non-migratory fish. It occurs in small forest rivers and brooks in the swampy rain forest on the coastal plain. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size 5.0 cm TL	eng
182927	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182927	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182928	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182928	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2002	No information available.	eng
182928	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182928	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182928	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182928	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis schall</em> is common in whole Egyptian Nile and Wdai El Rayan Lakes.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Lake Nasser, Blue and White Niles, Lake Chad, Senegal and Lake Albert.	eng
182928	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis schall</em> has been recorded in the Cross River basin.<br/><br/>Elsewhere in Africa, the species is known from the Nile Basin, Abaia, Stephanie, Rudolf Lake, Tana, Uebi Guiba (Uebi Shebeli), Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta.  Also known from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia (Paugy and Roberts 1992).	eng
182928	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, Semliki River, Albert and Murchison Niles, Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also known from Guinea, Chad, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Niger and Sénégal. Records of this species from the Athi and Tana Rivers (Copley 1952; 1958; Mann 1968) are misidentifications probably referring to <em>Synodontis zanzibaricus</em>.	eng
182928	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found practically in all western African basins, except for the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Nile basin, Abaia, Stephanie, Rudolf Lake, Tana, Uebi Guiba (Uebi Shebeli).	eng
182928	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a widespread species from Mauritania to Ethiopia, and Egypt to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Synodontis schall</em> has been recorded in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, Semliki River, the Albert and Murchison Niles, and Lake Turkana. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common in whole Egyptian Nile and Wdai El Rayan Lakes, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Tekeze, Setit in Eritrea and the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Lake Nasser in the Sudan, as well as several water bodies of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found practically in all west African basins, except for the coastal basins of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.	eng
182928	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182928	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>Synodontis schall</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It is found both in deep, open water and in quite shallow water, but it is never close to the shore (Worthington, 1929). This species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph, larvae, eggs and detritus (Willoughby 1974). It also feeds on fish, bivalves in the Sudd and snails in Gezira irrigation canals. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). Breeding occurs during the flood season (Bailey 1994) in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). <em>Synodontis schall</em> is utilized for human consumption.	eng
182928	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis schall</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. This species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph, larvae, eggs and detritus. It also feeds on fish, bivalves in the Sudd and snails in Gezira irrigation canals. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding. Breeding occurs during the flood season. <em>Synodontis schall</em> is utilized for human consumption. Its preferred habitats are streams and lakes.	eng
182928	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2002	Found both in deep, open water and in quite shallow water, but it is never close to the shore (Worthington 1929). It is omnivorous feeding on ostracods, copepods, zooplankton, fish-remains, prawns, and gastropods (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). Breeding takes place in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).	eng
182928	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives on the bottom feeding on molluscs, crustaceans, annelid worms and algae, fish scales, mud and sand. It is active at night. It breeds in during flood season. I reaches a length to 40 cm.	eng
182928	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Egypt, the average annual catch for the period from 1995 to 2004 was 3672 tones.	eng
182928	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182928	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182928	population	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2002	No quantitative population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
182928	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No quantitative population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana. In Egypt, the average annual catch for the period from 1995 to 2004 was 3672 tones.	eng
182928	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182928	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Akinyi, E., 2002	Not known	eng
182928	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182928	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a commercially important fish. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
182928	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
182929	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182929	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">P. petricolus</span> is endemic to Western Africa and known only from the upper and Middle Niger basins. The downstream limit of its distribution seems to be Lake Kainji.	eng
182929	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species with a weak electrical discharge. It is non-migratory.	eng
182929	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182929	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include Water Hyacinth in the inner delta has led to problems of sedimentation, loss of habitat (water loss) and deoxygenation.	eng
182930	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182930	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus lethops</em> is currently only known form the type locality: near Bulu, Lower Congo River mainstream (Schelley and Stiassny 2004, Maréchal and Poll 1991).	eng
182930	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lamprologus lethops</em> appears to be a benthopelagic, blind species.	eng
182930	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182930	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182931	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Taxonomic uncertainties need to be resolved.	eng
182931	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax intermedius</em> is known from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the Kribi, Nyong and Ntem Rivers in Cameroon. It is possibly the same species as <em>Nannocharax fasciatus</em>.	eng
182931	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182931	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182931	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182932	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182932	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is numerous in the coastal basins from Konkouré to West of Volta.	eng
182932	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
182932	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182932	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182933	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182933	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182933	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in brackish waters, i.e. estuaries and occasionally lagoons, from Senegal to Nigeria. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
182933	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species occurs in brackish waters, i.e. estuaries and occasionally lagoons, from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is found in Pointe Noire in Republic of Congo, and is probably more widespread.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
182933	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is occurs inshore, in brackish waters, lagoons, estuaries and rivers under tidal influence. It sometimes ascends rivers, but rarely moves beyond the intertidal zone.	eng
182933	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species occurs inshore, in brackish waters, lagoons, estuaries and rivers under tidal influence. It sometimes ascends rivers, but rarely moves beyond the intertidal zone.	eng
182933	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
182933	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
182933	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182933	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182934	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182934	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Ogowe and Louesse-Niari Rivers, between Mossendjo and Komono in southwestern Congo.	eng
182934	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion schluppi</em> occurs in brooks in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) schluppi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182934	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182934	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
182935	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
182935	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is reported from rivers situated on the western part of Côte d'Ivoire and eastern part of Liberia: Cavally, Nipoué/Cess, Dodo, Tabou, Saint Paul, and Loffa.	eng
182935	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182935	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
182935	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This species is threatened by deforestation and mining in Liberia.	eng
182936	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182936	conservation	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status, as well as monitoring of population trends, and habitat conservation.	eng
182936	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182936	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is widespread in the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai River systems. It is also known from two localities on the upper Zambezi River, Zambia.	eng
182936	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been described from the southern Congo system but found in Zambia in the East Lumwana tributary of the Mwombezhi/Upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004).	eng
182936	distribution	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from Angola, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is widespread in the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui, Kwango and Kasai River systems. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Described from the southern Congo system but found in Zambia in the East Lumwana tributary of the Mwombezhi/This species is known from upper Zambezi (Skelton 2001, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
182936	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	A species of forested streams.	eng
182936	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is a demersal species. It prefers smaller forest streams with rocky bottoms and feeds mainly on terrestrial and aquatic insects (Skelton 1993).	eng
182936	habitat	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Schilbe yangambianus</em> is a demersal species. It prefers smaller forest streams with rocky bottoms and feeds mainly on terrestrial and aquatic insects (Skelton 1993).	eng
182936	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182936	population	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182936	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	Not known. Only three specimens have been recorded from the East Lumwana, one in 1984 and two in 2003. It is possibly widespread in southern Congo and in Mwombezhi system.	eng
182936	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182936	threats	Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
182936	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	None known at present.	eng
182937	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182937	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys singa</em> is known from the coastal Lower Congo basin, and one population from near Inkisi has been confirmed as <em>E.singa</em> (van de Zee, in lit.) suggesting a disjunct distribution in the Lower Congo. In Lower Guinea it is known from the lower Ogowe River, the KangoKomo, Nyanga and other coastal river systems, of western Gabon, and the lower Kouilou and Loeme River drainages in western Congo and the Chiloango River system, Cabinda.	eng
182937	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys singa</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in small river, brooks and swamps in the coastal rainforest and wooded savannah. It is not a seasonal killifish. This species easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182937	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182937	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is harvested for the aquarium trade.	eng
182938	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182938	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Micralestes lualabae</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from the Lualaba, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. Specimens tentatively identified as this species have been reported from the Lower Congo River.	eng
182938	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182938	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182938	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182939	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182939	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Loeme and Niari-Kouilou River basins.	eng
182939	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus stauchi</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182939	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182939	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation. The species is also threatened by gold mining, where this would lead to high levels of sedimentation and channelisation (it is not though that mercury will be used). An additional potential threat is the construction of a dam on the lower Kouilou, which was started before the war and stopped in 1997. It is likely to start again. It is not known if the reservoir that would be formed would impact the species.	eng
182940	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182940	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the Zanaga area, This species is known from upper Ogowe River, south central Congo.	eng
182940	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion caudofasciatum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) caudofasciatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182940	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182940	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182941	conservation	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssen, M, 2002	No information available.	eng
182941	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182941	distribution	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssen, M, 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> In Tanzania it is distributed in the Lake Rukwa basin, including swampy areas and in the River Ruvuma. In Malawi it is known from the Lower Shire River.  <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Middle and lower Zambezi south to the Phongolo system.	eng
182941	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is known from the middle and lower Zambezi River south to the Phongolo River in South Africa. It is absent from the upper Save, and recent surveys in Swaziland did not collect it and so it may be locally extinct there. It may be naturally on the edge of its range in Swaziland.	eng
182941	habitat	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssen, M, 2002	Prefers slow flowing reaches of rivers where it finds shelter in crevices or holes or under logs. It is a nocturnal feeder, taking detritus, plant material, invertebrates, snails, and insects. It breeds in the rainy season.	eng
182941	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is found in riverine habitats in larger streams and rivers. It does not seem to penetrate far up into river systems with high gradients. It is capable of entering estuaries and tolerating saline conditions. It has been collected in the Phongolo estuary near Maputo.	eng
182941	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
182941	population	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssen, M, 2002	The population  in Lake Rukwa is on the increase.	eng
182941	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
182941	threats	Ntakimazi, G. & Hanssen, M, 2002	The main threats to the species are illegal fishing practice and land based pollution.	eng
182942	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182942	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Atopodontus adriaensi</em> is endemic to the Lower Guinea ichthyofaunal region of West-Central Africa, and is documented from rapids in the Ivindo, Okano, Ngounié, and Nyanga Rivers of Gabon. Like <em>Atopochilus savorgnani</em>, with which it co-occurs at several localities, this new species may have a broader distribution throughout all the major tributaries of the Ogooué River system, as well as in neighbouring basins like the Woleu/Mbini/Uoro and Ntem River systems.	eng
182942	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in rapids.	eng
182942	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182942	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182943	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
182943	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is found in the basin of the Cross River in Southwestern Cameroon, in southern central and southern Nigeria in the drainage systems of smaller coastal flowing rivers, and in the Niger and the Benue rivers.	eng
182943	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Bluegreen lampeye is a small perrenial killifish with rayed opercula and grows to 5.5 cm TL. It inhabits small rivers and brooks under forest cover and in the forested savannah on soils of basal origin. It usually swims in schools in the streaming parts of the creeks.	eng
182943	population	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No available data.	eng
182943	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Heavy deforestation and urbanisation in southwestern Nigeria may threaten this species.	eng
182944	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182944	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Papyrocranus congoensis</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basin.	eng
182944	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182944	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182944	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182945	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182945	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo fulakariensis</em> is known from the lower and central Congo basin. It has recently been found in the Lulua, tributary of the Kasai River (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).	eng
182945	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo fulakariensis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182945	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182945	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are no current threats to the species known. It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area. Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo River with a minimal impact. The possible future elaboration of the dam complex with Inga 3 and later possibly Grand Inga will pose a great threat to the species that has a limited distribution to this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182946	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182946	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site.	eng
182946	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa, this species is known from the upper course of the River Cross and some locations in the Niger Delta (Nigeria). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area, it has been reliably reported from the River Kribi (Cameroon). Also known in Gabon.	eng
182946	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic found in the Cross Kribi (Kienké) (type locality), Ogowe and Nyanga basins. <em>Brycinus intermedius</em> is most probably more widespread.	eng
182946	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small riverine <em>Brycinus</em> that migrates up river for spawning.	eng
182946	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182946	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data..	eng
182946	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182946	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential threats might arise if there is a proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation. Also currently threatened by oil exploration.	eng
182946	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182947	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182947	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion elegans</em> is known from the central Congo River basin. It is not known from the Kwango and Kasai systems.	eng
182947	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion elegans</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in brooks, swamps parts of small streams, swamps, pools and border regions of lakes 5 cm TL (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182947	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182947	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182948	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182948	conservation	Twongo, T.K., 2002	None known.	eng
182948	conservation	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	None known. More information is required on the extent of this species distribution.	eng
182948	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Mormyrus niloticus</em> is Regionally Extinct. It used to be distributed along the whole River Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>Globally, it occurs in the River Nile system and Uganda, Lake Albert basin.	eng
182948	distribution	Twongo, T.K., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Regionally found in Lake Albert and the Albert Nile.	eng
182948	distribution	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	There are outdated records of this species along the entire Nile from the Delta in Egypt to Lake Albert in Uganda.	eng
182948	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Mormyrus niloticus</em> is a demersal species.	eng
182948	habitat	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182948	habitat	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a demersal species found in running water.	eng
182948	population	Twongo, T.K., 2002	Little information but no evidence of population decline.	eng
182948	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	Medium resilience (medium capacity to withstand exploitation).	eng
182948	population	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182948	threats	Twongo, T.K., 2002	No information available	eng
182948	threats	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182948	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
182949	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182949	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal streams of south-western Cameroon including tributaries of the Akpa-Korup and Ndian Rivers.	eng
182949	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius korupi</em> occurs in small streams, shallow water among leaf litter.	eng
182949	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182949	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius korupi</em> occurs in low concentrations, and may possibly rely upon the flooding of forest. The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation, but the Ndian location is protected by the Korup National Park.	eng
182950	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy)	eng
182950	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Ghana (Ibi River near d'Appolonia) and Côte d'Ivoire (Agnébi River)  (Risch, 2004)	eng
182950	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182950	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182950	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Its habitat is being impacted by invasive aquatic weeds.	eng
182951	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182951	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire with a probable extension into Guinea. It is known only from the Sassandra and Bandama basins.	eng
182951	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Maximum SL of 19.2 cm. Riverine bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing. It is non-migratory.	eng
182951	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182951	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known - this is a very hardy species.	eng
182952	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182952	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is restricted to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
182952	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is found in the standing water of Lake Tana.	eng
182952	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
182952	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is threatened by overfishing.	eng
182953	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None currently known, however the river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
182953	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182953	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The river Cross has been submitted as a candidate Ramsar site.	eng
182953	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross, Kienké (Kribi) and Lobé (Lobi, Lobo) basins. Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger delta.	eng
182953	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is known from the Niger delta and Cross River in Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from the Kribi and Lobe rivers in Cameroon.	eng
182953	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from from Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea it is found in the Cross Kienké (Kribi) and Lobé (Lobi, Lobo) basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Niger delta and Cross river in Nigeria	eng
182953	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Bryconaethiops quinquesquamae</em> is a small characid; non-migratory.	eng
182953	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Bryconaethiops quinquesquamae</em> is a small characid that grows to 11 cm in standard length. It is pelagic and non-migratory.	eng
182953	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
182953	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182953	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182953	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182953	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182953	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential threats might arise if the proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation is successful. Also threatened by oil exploration.	eng
182953	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Potential threats might arise if the proposal for dredging the river Cross to improve navigation is successful. It is also threatened by oil exploration.	eng
182954	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182954	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> is known from the type locality, Kisantu, affluent of the Lower Congo River. Specimens of Matadi and the Inkisi River (also Lower Congo) have been identified as <em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> by Poll and Fowler respectively. This has never been published though.	eng
182954	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeobarbus vanderysti</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182954	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182954	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182955	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	In Nigeria the species is protected within the Gashaka-Gumti National Park.	eng
182955	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">G. waterloti</span> is known from the Senegal River in Senegal and Mali, and the upper course of the Niger.	eng
182955	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a small cyprinid of 7 cm maximum size. It is adapted to fast flowing streams. It is non-migratory.	eng
182955	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182955	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is impacted by deforestation leading to siltation, as well as irrigation and dam construction.	eng
182956	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182956	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo basin (Wildekamp 1996). Populations on the west of the Congo River are here regarded as <em>Epiplatys chevalieri chevalieri</em>, while those found to the east and north of the Congo River represent <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> (Wildekamp 1996).	eng
182956	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in rivers, brooks and swamps (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in small rivers, creeks and swamps in the rainforest and forested savannah (Wildekamp 1996). It is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182956	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182956	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182957	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182957	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the Ogowe River basin, Gabon.	eng
182957	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias gossei</em> is a pelagic; species. The maximum TL was recorded at 3.6 cm (Daget and Gosse 1984).	eng
182957	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182957	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182958	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182958	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus castrasibutum</em> is only known from the type locality (Fort Sibut, Ubangui River, Central Congo River basin), Central African Republic.	eng
182958	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus castrasibutum</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182958	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182958	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182959	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182959	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Lower and middle Gambia River, Guinea-Bissau (lower Geba River), Sierra Leone (Jong Basin).	eng
182959	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species.	eng
182959	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182959	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182960	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182960	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only found on the Du Chaillu Massif, in the upper Ngounié River, southern Gabon and western Congo.	eng
182960	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ocellatum</em> is found in fast flowing brooks and small streams on the inland plains and hilly areas (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) ocellatum</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182960	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182960	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182961	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182961	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus chicapaensis</em> is only known from certain locations (Zovo, Coca River, Cuilo River and Lucogne River), all effluents of the Central Congo River basin in Angola. The species is assumed to be more widespread in the Kasai systems.	eng
182961	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus chicapaensis</em> is a benthopelagic species. The maximum TL was recorded at 10.6 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
182961	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182961	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182962	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the range, status and threats of this species.	eng
182962	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known only from This species is known from uppermost reaches of rivers and creeks in vicinity of the village of Dimonika, in the Biosphere-Reserve of Dimonika, Congo.	eng
182962	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182962	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182962	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
182963	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182963	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Northern Sherbo district, Benguema (Jong river) and Njala (Jong river or Taja) in Sierra Leone.	eng
182963	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal species.	eng
182963	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182963	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats include deforestation, agricultural and urban developments. This species is potentially impacted by over-harvesting.	eng
182964	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	A small captive breeding program is underway. More research is needed for this species, and it would benefit from habitat restoration, and the development of a Protected Area within its range.	eng
182964	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	The species is endemic to the Oued Saoura basin, and was once thought to occur throughout it. It is now only known from one remnant population (near Mazzer) in the Sahara desert, having known to have disappeared from numerous other localities (Oued Zousfana basin at Igli, El Ouata and Kerzaz - all in the greater Saoura basin). Numerous attempts have been made to record from these localities and no specimens were found.<br/><br/>Recorded from Mazzer (30° 19'N, 2°16'W) inside the Oued Saoura basin, Villwock and Scholl (1982) analyzed specimens from Igli Oasis, Oued Zousfana basin, a tributary basin to the Saoura. Specimens from El Ouata (MRAC 83-002-P-0082-0111) and Kerzaz (MRAC A3-045-P-0906) are deposited in Royal African Museum in Tervuren, both of which are within the greater Oued Saoura basin and in geographic proximity to Mazzer; Kerzaz is the most distant locality, approximately 120 km away.	eng
182964	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a benthopelagic species with preferred subtropical climate.	eng
182964	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182964	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Introduced <em>Gambusia holbrooki</em>poses a serious threat, with current densities of <em>Gambusia</em> to <em>Aphanius</em> being more than 100 to one. In addition, excessive groundwater withdrawal for agricultural purposes, the drying of wetlands, and water pollution are also main threats to the species.	eng
182965	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182965	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus brauni</em> is only known from the Loama and Kanshete Rivers, tributaries of the Luhoho River in the Kivu region, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182965	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Varicorhinus brauni</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182965	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182965	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and poison have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182966	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the Korup National Park.	eng
182966	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the area northeast of Mbonge, western Cameroon. The present distribution is probably relict.	eng
182966	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Pauciradius) marmoratus</em> is found in swamps and the swampy parts of brooks and small streams in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Fundulopanchax (Pauciradius) marmoratus</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is a bottom spawner with 1 month incubation. This species is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996). It can be done semimanuell, the eggs do not need a dry period for hatching. This updates previous information from Riehl and Baensch 1991.	eng
182966	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182966	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Mungo river basin location is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). The species is also threatened by the oil palm plantations in the region.	eng
182967	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182967	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pulcher</em> is known from the holotype from the type locality, Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo. One other specimen has been caught in Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) (Stiassny, M., pers. comm.).	eng
182967	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis pulcher</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182967	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182967	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic.	eng
182968	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182968	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Bitandé system of the Ntem River drainage and the Massif des Mamelles, belonging to the Lobe River drainage, in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
182968	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) lugens</em> inhabits small forest streams. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) lugens</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This species is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182968	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182968	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) lugens</em> is threatened by commercial logging and women's' traditional fisheries leading to sedimentation. The Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure. This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182969	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182969	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ichthyborus ornatus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), through the Lower Congo, and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182969	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182969	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182969	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182970	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Part of the species distribution is situated in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
182970	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus luluae</em> is known from the Lulua River (type locality) and from Dilolo (Katanga) (Central Congo River basin). It has also been reported from the Luvua River and Malembia River (upper Congo River basin).	eng
182970	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus luluae</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182970	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182970	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182971	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182971	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from the Ntem River drainage in southern Cameroon and northern Gabon, as well as the Campo, Ivindo, Lobe, Nyong and Sanaga River drainages in southern and central Cameroon. Although <em>Microsynodontis batesii</em> appears to have a much wider distribution compared to all other <em>Microsynodontis</em> from the Lower Guinea, it is possible that more than one species is involved in what is recognised as <em>M. bastesii</em> here. In particular, the populations from the northernmost extent of its distribution (i.e. the Nyong and the Sanaga River drainages) should be further studied to verify their conspecificity with the material from southern Cameroon and northern Gabon, but the paucity of relevant material available for study does not allow for a more conclusive test of this hypothesis (Ng 2004).	eng
182971	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis batesii</em> is a demersal. It is viparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182971	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182971	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182972	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
182972	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species has only been reported from two locations, the Saint John river basin in Liberia and Saint Paul river basin in Guinea.	eng
182972	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a pelagic species fish.	eng
182972	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
182972	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There are indications of deterioration in habitat quality due to deforestation resulting in siltation.	eng
182973	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182973	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis longispinis</em> is only known from the type locality at the Sangha River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182973	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis longispinis</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
182973	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182973	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182974	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182974	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong></strong>The <em>Amphilius cf. jacksonii</em> is the name used for the populations of the Chambezi, Luongo, Luapula and near Lubumbashi. The "real" <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> occurs along the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania. <em>Amphilius jacksoni</em> has also been found in an affluent river of the Lake Victoria drainage, Kenya (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
182974	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius jacksonii</em> is a demersal that occurs in flowing, well-oxygenated waters (Skelton 1993). It feeds predominantly on benthic aquatic insects (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000). This species is iteroparous, with asynchronous ovarian development (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
182974	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182974	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The war and coltan mining in the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cause deforestation and toxicity. Fishing with grenades and sabotage have been reported. Panning for gold causes diversions of the water and compaction of the sand.	eng
182975	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182975	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, from the Kelle, Lokoundje, Kienke, Lobe and Ntem River systems in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
182975	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Procatopus nototaenia</em> occurs in small rivers and brooks under forest cover, mainly in streaming parts of the river system (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is found in coastal rainforest on sedimentary soils. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. <em>Procatopus nototaenia</em> is not a seasonal killifish. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182975	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182975	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
182976	conservation	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182976	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182976	distribution	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is found only in Angola<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is known from the Luache River at Bange Ngola (type locality) and the Cuango River, Central Congo River basin, Angola.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is present in Angola and only known from Kunene River (Caculovar River) and Congo River (Cuango and Luache Rivers) systems.	eng
182976	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species is present in Angola and only known from Kunene River (Kunene River, Caculovar River ) and Congo River (Cuango River, Luache River ) systems.	eng
182976	habitat	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus ansorgii</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its preferred habitat is not known.	eng
182976	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Preferred habitat is not known. Biology is not known.	eng
182976	population	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182976	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182976	threats	da Costa, L. & Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the central Africa region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182976	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182977	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Research is needed to establish the remaining range of this species, and to establish what conservation measures may be necessary.	eng
182977	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	This species was originally recorded from the south-eastern parts of Lake Victoria but had not been recorded since  1987 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) and was thought to be extinct. However it was recently rediscovered at Makobe Islands (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> in press).	eng
182977	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	This is a predominantly pelagic or semi-pelagic species, feeding on zooplankton (Cyclopoid copepods, calanoid copepods and cladocerans during the day) and <span style="font-style: italic;">Chaoborus </span>larvae at night, preferring rocky habitat.	eng
182977	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	Current population details unknown, but the population suffered a dramatic decline and until recently it was thought to be extinct.	eng
182977	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2006	This species is threatened by predation by Nile Perch, turbidity and pollution degrading the habitat, and illegal fishing.	eng
182978	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182978	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus grandisquamis</em> is known from the Lower, Central and from upper Congo basin and from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool).	eng
182978	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182978	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182978	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182979	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182979	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known only from Niger and Benue River basins.	eng
182979	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species lives in streams and lakes and feeds on plankton, detritus and plants. It is a bentho-pelagic species capable of airbreathing.	eng
182979	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182979	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known - this is a hardy species.	eng
182980	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182980	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from the Bagbé and Rokel Rivers in Sierra Leone.	eng
182980	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
182980	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
182980	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation, agricultural development and drought threaten this species.	eng
182981	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182981	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus jubbi</em> is known from upper Kasai system (Luembe River, Luachimo and Canhicuna Rivers), Central Congo River basin.	eng
182981	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus jubbi</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182981	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182981	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in this region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
182982	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
182982	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182982	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182982	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is uncommon in collections, and is represented by only two lots of fishes from the Kribi region of coastal Cameroon. The species has been recorded from Fifinda (Dening pers. comm.). Brummett has not found the species at Kribi. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from the delta and lower reaches of the Niger and to some coastal basins in Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
182982	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is found in the Niger and in some other coastal basins of Guinea and Sierra-Leone. Full distribution can't mapped, more information is needed.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in the Kribi River in Cameroon, Lake Malawi, Rukwa, Tanganyika, and other eastward flowing rivers.	eng
182982	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is limited information on this species, but it has been recorded from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is uncommon in collections, and is represented by only two lots of fishes from the Kribi region of coastal Cameroon. The species has been recorded from Fifinda (pers. comm. Dening, C.). Brummett, R. has not found the species at Kribi. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is found in the Niger and in some other coastal basins of Guinea and Sierra-Leone.	eng
182982	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182982	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It may be limited to the delta and the lower reaches of rivers (Gosse 1984). <em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> lives in swampy areas (pers. comm. Nicanor Mbe Tawe, A.).	eng
182982	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brienomyrus longianalis</em> is a benthopelagic, potamodromous species. It may be limited to the delta and the lower reaches of rivers (Gosse 1984). It lives in swampy areas (Nicanor Mbe Tawe pers. comm).	eng
182982	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
182982	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182982	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182982	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Oil exploration, deforestation.	eng
182982	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Kribi location will have been heavily impacted by urbanisation pollution, etc. (Brummett pers. comm.). The only location within the region that the species has been recorded from recently is Fifinda in marsh habitat where it is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing).	eng
182982	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	The Kribi location will have been heavily impacted by urbanisation pollution, etc. (pers. comm. Brummett, R.). The only location within the central Africa region that the species has been recorded from recently is Fifinda in marsh habitat where it is threatened from barrage fishing leading to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). In western Africa it is threatened by oil exploration and deforestation.	eng
182983	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182983	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The most southern location is situated in a National Park. The Central African Republic has together with the FAO conducted a fishing code, regimentation of mesh size and a prohibition on poison. More research into this species population range and numbers, habitat status and threats is needed.	eng
182983	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma lineatum</em> is restricted to Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from Banzyville and the Itimbiri River in the Central Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in the Gribingui River of the Lake Chad basin.	eng
182983	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Gribingui River of the Lake Chad River basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">M. lineatum</span> is reported from only three localities: Gribingui River of the Lake Chad basin, and two sites in the Northern Congo River basin (Ubangui River at Brazzaville and Itimbiri River).	eng
182983	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Airbreathing species with a high tolerance to de-oxygenated waters.	eng
182983	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species with a high tolerance to de-oxygenated waters.	eng
182983	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182983	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
182983	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Fishing with poison, and diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system pose threats to the location at Banzyville.	eng
182983	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
182984	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182984	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the upper Senegal and Niger basins.	eng
182984	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The fish is a benthopelagic species. Maximum size 20.3 cm	eng
182984	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182984	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182985	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182985	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Distichodus noboli</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower (Kinsuka rapids) and the Central Congo River basin.	eng
182985	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182985	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182985	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182986	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182986	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion chauchei</em> is only known from Makoua, Likona River system, Central Congo River basin, Congo.	eng
182986	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion chauchei</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks under forest cover (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
182986	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182986	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium species.	eng
182987	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182987	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma milleri</em> is only known from the type locality at or near Lukala, and from the Lunyonzo River, Lower Congo River basin.	eng
182987	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182987	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182987	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182988	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182988	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Callopanchax occidentalis</span> is found in coastal river systems in Sierra Leone from the Little Scarcies River system, to the Lofa River system in western Liberia. Also present in the adjacent part of southern Guinea.	eng
182988	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>C. occidentalis</em> is found in pools, temporary swamps and swampy parts of brooks in the rainforest and the humid forested savannah. It is a benthopelagic and non-migratory fish of 8.0 cm TL. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and insects. It is a bottom spawner, 3 months incubation. It is very difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
182988	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182988	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is no information on any major threats to the species in Sierra Leone; but in Liberia the species has some threats, including mining and deforestation.	eng
182989	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182989	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from Gambia, Senegal, upper Niger, Sassandra and Volta basins.  This species is known from all great Sudanian basins and in the basins of the north-Guinean zones.	eng
182989	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish of 32.1 cm SL. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
182989	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182989	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182990	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182990	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cyclorhynchus</em> is known from throughout the Lower Congo River basin, from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin, including the Ubangui River. It is also known from just above the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls).	eng
182990	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo cyclorhynchus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182990	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182990	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182991	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	More research on this species is needed.	eng
182991	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species had been described from material collected in the Niger basin in west Africa by Daget (1954) as a sub-species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Cromeria nilotica</span> and named <span style="font-style: italic;">Cromeria nilotica occidentalis</span>. Recently, Timo <em>et al.</em> (2006) distinguished two separate species <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nilotica</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. occidentalis</span> is endemic to western Africa. The species was reported to be found in This species is known from upper and middle Niger, This species is known from upper Benue and This species is known from upper Volta (needs confirming). The specimens described by Timo <em>et al.</em> (2006) were from Pendjari river (Benin), a river depending to the Volta basin.	eng
182991	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species burrows into the sand.	eng
182991	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182991	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182992	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182992	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax pteron</em> is only known from Fort Sibut, Ubangui system, Central Congo River basin.	eng
182992	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
182992	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182992	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182993	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of its population.	eng
182993	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	This species is only known from coastal rivers in Tanzania.	eng
182993	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	It inhabits coastal rivers (Gosse 1986).	eng
182993	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182993	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
182994	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	A considerable part of the species distribution is located in the National park of Upemba.	eng
182994	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys lualabaensis</em> is known from the upper Lualaba and Mabwe River drainages, including the Upemba lakes. It is also known from the Luapula system.	eng
182994	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aplocheilichthys lualabaensis</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species. It occurs in brooks and quiet parts of rivers (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish (Huber 1996).	eng
182994	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182994	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182995	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182995	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium engrauloides</em> is only known by the type, a juvenile specimen very likely the young of another species (type locality: Ubangui River at Bangui).	eng
182995	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Opsaridium engrauloides</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
182995	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182995	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui.	eng
182996	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
182996	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182996	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	<em>P. ansorgii</em> is known from upper and Lower Niger, Benue and coastal rivers of Nigeria, extending to the Cross River.	eng
182996	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus ansorgii</em> is restricted to the Cross River basin. Elsewhere it is distributed in the upper and lower Niger River, the Benué, and the coastal rivers of Nigeria.	eng
182996	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182996	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
182996	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
182996	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182996	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to oil exploration, and urban, commercial and deforestation.	eng
182996	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
182997	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182997	conservation	Azeroual, A., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
182997	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
182997	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182997	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
182997	distribution	Azeroual, A., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is known from Mauritania to Angola (Risch 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  It occurs in the estuary of the Congo River, but not far inland.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (at Cabiri) and Kwanza River systems, and in Cabinda province rivers (Povo Grande).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed and known from most basins within western Africa. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.	eng
182997	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present from Senegal to Cabinda, Angola, and reported from Mauritania.	eng
182997	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is known from Senegal to Cabinda, Angola (Risch 1986). It occurs in the estuary of the Congo River, but not far inland. The species has been reported from Mauritania (Mohamed Fall 2005).	eng
182997	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">C. nigrodigitatus</span> is known from most basins within western Africa. Full distribution can't be mapped, more information is needed.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Extending from Senegal to Angola.	eng
182997	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This species is widely distributed from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the species occurs in the Bengo River (at Cabiri) and Kwanza River systems, and in Cabinda province rivers (Povo Grande).	eng
182997	habitat	Azeroual, A., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom, in rivers and in swamps. It is an omnivorous fish that feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish (Laleye 1995).	eng
182997	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom, in rivers and in swamps. It is an omnivorous fish that feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish (Laleye 1995).	eng
182997	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom. It is omnivorous, and feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus. Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, and larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.	eng
182997	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Occurs in shallow waters of lakes (less than 4 m), over mud and fine sand bottom. Omnivorous, feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus. Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.	eng
182997	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	This demersal fish that occurs in shallow waters of lakes, over mud and fine sand bottom.  Omnivorous, feeds on seeds, insects, bivalves and detritus.  Feeding becomes specialized with age and size, larger fish may feed on decapods and fish.	eng
182997	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
182997	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182997	population	Azeroual, A., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182997	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182997	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
182997	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
182997	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
182997	threats	Azeroual, A., da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182997	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182997	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
182998	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182998	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Orthochromis luongoensis</em> is known from two localities in the Luongo River (Zambia), a tributary of the Luapula River and ultimately an affluent of Lake Mweru.	eng
182998	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
182998	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182998	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	A dam just before the junction of the Luapula and Luongo River for hydroelectricity diverts the water from the mainstream.	eng
182999	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
182999	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
182999	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma congicum</em> is known from the Congo River basin, with exception of the upper Congo basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea, occurring in the Chiloango River, with a single specimen from the Ogowe. As with <em>C. gabonense</em>, there are no recent collections of the species from the region. It has been reported from Lake Chad basin (Blache 1964) but this has not been confirmed by verifiable specimens.	eng
182999	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Recorded from the upper Chari and Gribingui rivers, however these records cannot be verified as no specimens were retained.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>The species is known from Congo River basin and Chad River basin.	eng
182999	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
182999	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microctenopoma congicum</em> is a benthopelagic species that builds bubble nests.	eng
182999	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available	eng
182999	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
182999	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
182999	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
183000	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183000	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys etzeli</span> is known only from a limited area in and around the Ono lagoon and Hébé River, east of Abidjan in south Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
183000	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<em>Epiplatys etzeli</em> is an benthopelagic species. Maximum size 5.0 cm. This species occurs in small brooks. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
183000	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183000	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, industrial and urban development.	eng
183001	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183001	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This species is known only from the vicinity of the Omo River, Ethiopia.	eng
183001	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in running water.	eng
183001	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183001	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183002	conservation	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
183002	conservation	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
183002	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183002	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
183002	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into the threats for this species, as well as corridors to allow spawning migratory runs.	eng
183002	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is widespread throughout the Congo basin. Elsewhere, it is widespread in western and southern Africa.	eng
183002	distribution	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers; Lake Rukwa, rivers Rufiji, Ruvuma; L. Malawi and its catchment area; Shire River and its tributaries; Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa (Paugy 1984).	eng
183002	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">Brycinus imberi</span> is widespread in nearly almost all of Sahelian Africa. In western Africa, from the Mono in the east to the Nipoué (Cess) in the west.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>Elsewhere, the species is found in the Mid and Lower Zambezi, and in eastern Africa from the Wami in the north to the the Pongola in the south, throughout the Congo River basin, on the west coast in Quanza to Nyanga provinces.	eng
183002	distribution	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	This species is widely distributed in east coast rivers from the Phongolo River north into Tanzania. Not present in the upper Zambezi systems. Present in the Congo system and across into western Africa.	eng
183002	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is widespread in western and southern Africa:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is widespread throughout the Congo basin.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in streams and rivers affluent to Lake Tanganyika, including Malagarasi and Rusizi rivers, as well as Lake Rukwa, Rufiji and RuvumaRivers, and Lake Malawi and its catchment area. It is also found in the Shire River and its tributaries, and Lakes Chiuta and Chilwa (Paugy 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is widely distributed in east coast rivers from the Phongolo River north into Tanzania. Not present in the upper Zambezi systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widespread in nearly almost all of Sahelian Africa. In Western Africa, it is found from the Mono in the east to the Nipoué (Cess) in the west.	eng
183002	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus imberi</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is common in shallow vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). The species is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters (Konings 1990) and crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Its main predator is the tigerfish (Skelton 1993). The species breeds in the summer, migrating to spawning sites after rains. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains when the rivers come down in spate Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is known to mass at river mouths while waiting for suitable conditions to trigger off the breeding migrations upstream (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Used as live bait for tigerfish and large catfish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).	eng
183002	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Brycinus imberi</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> is generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).  It is common in shallow vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). The species is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters (Konings 1990) and crustaceans (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Its main predator is the tigerfish (Skelton 1993). The species breeds in the summer, migrating to spawning sites after rains. <em>Brycinus imberi</em> migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains when the rivers come down in spate Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). It is known to mass at river mouths while waiting for suitable conditions to trigger off the breeding migrations upstream (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987).  Used as live bait for tigerfish and large catfish (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1987). Assumed to be the same as <em>Arnoldichthys spilopterus.</em> It prefers streams, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.	eng
183002	habitat	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Found in a wide variety of habitats including large rivers, floodplains and lagoons. Feeds on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates and plant material.	eng
183002	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This species is found in shallow and sheltered waters of swampy bays. Generally restricted to shallow waters where they may be found in various habitats such as over sand, rock or, less frequently, in aquatic weed beds. It is also found in large rivers and floodplain pans and lagoons. It feeds on insects, tiny fishes, vegetable matters and crustaceans. Migrates to tributary rivers and floodplains during flood to breed.	eng
183002	habitat	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Wide ecological range - found in open waters of large rivers through to marginal lagoons.	eng
183002	population	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	In suitable open water habitats it is usually common.	eng
183002	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
183002	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183002	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	Not known, but not frequent in fisheries catches, and thought that in suitable open water habitats it is usually common. The population has been declining despite the fact that it supports a subsistence fishery in Lake Rukwa.	eng
183002	population	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Not known, but not frequent in fisheries catches.The population has been declining despite the fact that it supports a subsistence fishery in Lake Rukwa.	eng
183002	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	Likely threat is dam construction which may prevent spawning migratory runs.	eng
183002	threats	Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
183002	threats	Kazambe, J. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threats to the species are water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension in the watersheds.	eng
183002	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
183002	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J.,Marshall, B. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species faces different threats in different regions:<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is commercially collected as an aquarium fish<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Water turbidity and siltation as a consequence of erosion and farming extension in the watersheds pose a threat to this species<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> No major threats are known in this region.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> A likely threat is dam construction which may prevent spawning migratory runs.	eng
183003	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183003	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius brevis</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin.	eng
183003	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius brevis</em> is a demersal species. The stomach contents contain shrimps, large sized larvae and pieces of fish (Gosse 1963).	eng
183003	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183003	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183004	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183004	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tetracamphilius pectinatus</em> is known from the mainstream of the Ubangui upstream from Bangui, from the type locality at the Luozi River in the Lower Congo basin, and from the Lulua River near Luluabourg (=Kananga) in the Kasai region, Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003).	eng
183004	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
183004	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183004	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this species include fishing with poison, diamond and gold mining in the Central African Republic part of the Ubangui system, deforestation, agriculture and the negative effects coming with the city of Bangui. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. It can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
183005	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183005	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Partly included within the Korup National Park in Cameroon.	eng
183005	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The range of this species is partly included within the Korpu National Park in Cameroon. Monitoring of population trends is needed, and more research into the threats for this species.	eng
183005	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Clarias camerunsensis</em> is known from coastal rivers in Togo to the Congo River basin. It has been recorded from Yambio in Sudan (identified by Teugels, G. in 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> This species is known from throughout the Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In western Africa, <em>C. camerunensis</em> occurs in the Volta, and in the coastal basins of Togo, Benin and Nigeria, including the Niger delta and the Cross River. It has been reported from Ghana (Trewavas and Irvine 1947), and in the Bagbwe River (Sierra Leone).	eng
183005	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. camerunensis</span> occurs in the Volta, and in the coastal basins of Togo, Benin and Nigeria, including the Niger delta and the Cross River. Also in the Bagbwe River (Sierra-Leonne).<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere, it is found in the coastal basins of Cameroon, in the Ogowe (Gabon) and the Middle and Lower Congo. Also found in Angola, South Africa, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
183005	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Clarias camerunsensis</em> is known from coastal rivers in Togo to the Congo River basin; it is known from throughout the Congo River basin. It has been reported from Ghana (Trewavas and Irvine 1947). It has been recorded from Yambio in Sudan (identified by Teugels, G. in 1986).	eng
183005	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Clarias camerunensis</em> is a demersal species. Data on the diet of <em>C. walkeri</em> (same as <em>C. camerunensis</em>) showed larvae of mayflies, chironomids, and caddis insects to be the main food of small and middle-sized specimens (Matthes 1964).	eng
183005	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Clarias camerunensis</em> is a demersal species. Data on the diet showed larvae of mayflies, chironomids, and caddis insects to be the main food of small and middle-sized specimens (Matthes 1964). This species is a medium sized clariid with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
183005	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a medium sized clariid. Demersal species with an airbreathing organ which allows it to survive in anoxic conditions. Lateral migration into swamps for feeding and spawning.	eng
183005	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183005	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183005	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183005	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183005	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil  exploration  in the Niger Delta, and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration. It can generally pass the smaller dams.	eng
183005	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Oil exploration (Niger Delta) and impacts of agriculture, deforestation and urban developments poses major threats to this species. Large dams may disrupt the water flow cycle and the species ability for lateral migration, however it can generally pass the smaller dams.	eng
183006	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on this species distribution.	eng
183006	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in upper portions of Cross River basin in Cameroon (Vari and Ferraris 2004).	eng
183006	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Nannocharax reidi</em> is a pelagic species.	eng
183006	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183006	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183007	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	There is a conservation policy in place in Ghana (Inland fisheries policy; Wetlands Management Strategy). Habitat restoration and trends and monitoring are needed.	eng
183007	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from southwestern Ghana and Southeastern Cote d’Ivoire (basins of the Pra, Tano and Bia) and Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana.	eng
183007	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Adapted to living in fast-flowing rivers with rapids. This is a demersal species.	eng
183007	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
183007	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this fish species may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices around Lake Bosumtwi. Resultant increases in sediment loads and leaching of pesticides and other agrochemicals may pose threats to the health of the fish. Other threats include invasive aquatic weeds and effluents from mining activities in the upper reaches of these coastal rivers especially the Ankobra, Pra and Ofin. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Timber felling is an important threat in the Tano. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.	eng
183008	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183008	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus latens</em> is currently known only from two specimens from the region of Bulu. Despite concerted efforts to collect this species in and around Bulu (Staissny), no additional specimens have been located. It is probable the species lives in deeper water habitats.	eng
183008	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus latens</em> is a demersal species. It is found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
183008	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183008	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Inga 1 and 2 are existing dams on the Lower Congo with a minimal impact. Inga 3, to be built in 5 years, will divert a significant amount of flow. Grand Inga will block a great part of the mainstream with major impact. Given the restricted mainstream habitat and mainstream impacts such as pollution, it can be threatened in the future by mining in the Luozi region. The key component of concrete is found in this region, and there is potential to mining in the area.	eng
183009	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183009	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria ladigesi</em> is only known from the Cafunfo, Kwango River, Central Congo River basin, Angola. The species has recently been collected in the Lulua River (Kasai).	eng
183009	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parakneria ladigesi</em> is a benthopelagic species with a maximum TL recorded at 7.8 cm (Poll 1984).	eng
183009	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183009	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183010	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research is needed into this species taxonomy and distribution.	eng
183010	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Gephyroglanis gymnorhynchu</em>s is known from the Aruwimi River and Port Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
183010	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
183010	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183010	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183011	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183011	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality at Ivindo River in northern Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
183011	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis armatus</em> is a demersal species. It is found in a blackwater forest stream with sand and leaf litter bottom (Ng 2004).	eng
183011	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183011	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183012	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183012	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius zairensis</em> is known from the Lower Congo. It has also been found in Kisangani in the Wagenia Falls (Stanley Falls), in the upper Congo River, on the route from Kisangani to Wanie Rukula and in the Aruwimi River. These records may need to be verified though.	eng
183012	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphilius zairensis</em> is a demersal species. It occurs in the mainstream and high gradient tributaries (Skelton 1986). It is specially found in rapids.	eng
183012	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183012	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183013	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183013	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus iturii</em> is only known from the type locality, the Ituri River, Central Congo River basin.	eng
183013	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus iturii</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
183013	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183013	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183014	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183014	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is endemic to the Niger delta (Nigeria).	eng
183014	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Neolebias powelli</span> is a small riverine pelagic distichodontid characiform that grows to 1.6 cm in standard length. It is non-migratory.	eng
183014	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183014	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The major threat to this species is oil exploration within the delta.	eng
183015	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183015	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus brachyrhinus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River rapids and from the Kisangani region. It has also been found in the Ubangui River, upriver from Bangui. The species is difficult to catch, thus the distribution is probably larger than currently known.	eng
183015	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. It is found in rapids (Travers <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
183015	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183015	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183016	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183016	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Psammphiletria delicata</em> is currently only known from the type locality Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), Democratic Republic of the Congo (Roberts 2003).	eng
183016	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Psammphiletria delicata</em> is a demersal species that lives in the sand.	eng
183016	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183016	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Urbanisation at Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) forms a problem in the region through sewage cast and lead toxicity, mainly coming from car oil and a lot of boat traffic. There is still a lot of fish, but it has been reported that the general size of different species is getting smaller and smaller.	eng
183017	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183017	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys royauxi</em> is known from the Congo basin, up to Lake Mweru system, including the Dja basin (Cameroon), Kafunfo, Kwango basin (Angola) and Ubangui River.	eng
183017	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Euchilichthys royauxi</em> is a demersal species. It is oviparous and has a distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
183017	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183017	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183018	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183018	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo kirkii</em> is known from the Lower, Central and This species is known from upper Congo River basin. It is also known the Rovuma River, which is the type locality (Lévêque and Daget 1984), situated on the border between Tanzania and Mozambique.	eng
183018	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo kirkii</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is known to occur in rapid waters and swampy areas (Tshibwabwa 1997).	eng
183018	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183018	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183019	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183019	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microstomatichthyoborus katangae</em> is known from the Lualaba River system.	eng
183019	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic species.	eng
183019	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183019	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183020	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Management of riverine fisheries may reduce impacts on this species.	eng
183020	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is known from the middle and lower Zambezi south to the lower Save River. It is present in major tributaries but does not penetrate into tributary streams.	eng
183020	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	It is found in main channels of large rivers where it prefers hiding during the day in root stocks and under rocks.	eng
183020	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
183020	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	This species is taken in subsistence fisheries but many people do not consume it. It is difficult to assess impacts on this species as it appears to be naturally rare and main river channels are difficult to sample.	eng
183021	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183021	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Cypomyrus weeksii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is not known from the central and southern areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo though.	eng
183021	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
183021	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183021	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183022	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183022	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus humeralis</em> is known from the Central Congo River basin and from the Lukuga and Lubalaye Rivers, This species is known from upper Congo River basin. One specimen has been caught in Lake Upemba (Poll 1933).	eng
183022	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus humeralis</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
183022	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183022	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183023	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183023	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a few localities, along the road from Kougouleu to Medouneu, all in the vicinity of the village of Engong Mouame, in the basin of the Komo River of northwestern Gabon. It is possibly also known from one point on Cape Esturias.	eng
183023	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion (Chromaphyosemion) kouamense</em> occurs in still water of brooks and small streams in the rain forest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
183023	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183023	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183024	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183024	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris weynsii</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the lower, central and upper Congo River basin. It has not been found in the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
183024	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Leptocypris weynsii</em> is a benthopelagic and predatory species.	eng
183024	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183024	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183025	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Located within the Korup National Park.	eng
183025	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183025	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	Part of its range falls within the Korup National Park. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
183025	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Synodontis obesus</em> has been reported from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Cross, Wouri, Sanaga, and possibly the Nyong basins. <br/><br/>In West Africa, it occurs in coastal basins from Ghana to Gabon, including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opoba, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria).	eng
183025	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species is widely distributed. It occurs in various coastal basins from Ghana to Gabon, including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opobo, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria). <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the region, this species occurs in several Cameroonian basins: Kribi, Lobé, Sanaga, and Wouri (Cameroon). There are also two paralectotypes from Gabon without any precise information on collection localities. Also recorded from the Central African Republic.	eng
183025	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Ghana to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Synodontis obesus</em> has been reported from the Dja River, Central Congo River basin. In the Lower Guinea region it is known from the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, and possibly the Nyong basins. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It occurs in various coastal basins including the Ofin and Infoan (Ghana), Mono (Togo), Opobo, Enyong and Cross (Nigeria).	eng
183025	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Syonodontis obesus</em> is a benthopelagic riverine species. Its electric organ is located dorsally emitting a weak electric current for location and protection, and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995). It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966). It is able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions.	eng
183025	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Syonodontis obesus</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle (Møller 1995).  It is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
183025	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a bentho-pelagic riverine species. Planktivore. Able to breath air so able to live in anoxic conditions. Has a dorsal electric organ emitting a weak electric current for location and protection.	eng
183025	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183025	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183025	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183025	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Synodontis obesus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
183025	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis obesus</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
183025	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183026	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183026	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus longifilis</em> is only known from the Luhoho River, This species is known from upper Congo River basin.	eng
183026	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus longifilis</em> is a benthopelagic species. Its maximum TL was recorded at 32 cm (Lévêque and Daget 1984).	eng
183026	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183026	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	War in the Kivu region could have negative consequences for the populations. Agriculture activities in the region could pose minor problems.	eng
183027	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
183027	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa moeruensis</em> is endemic to Lake Mweru, upper Congo River basin.	eng
183027	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microthrissa moeruensis</em> is a pelagic, lacustrine species but perhaps it is also found in small streams or rivers feeding Lake Mweru.	eng
183027	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183027	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Lake Mweru with drawnets poses a threat to the species, causing a decline in population size.	eng
183028	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183028	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is known from the Benue and lower Niger to the Comoé. It has also been reported from other coastal rivers such as the Ibu, Ogun and Mono, as well as from the Volta basin.	eng
183028	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183028	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
183028	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Oil spills in the Niger delta may affect the populations living there.	eng
183029	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183029	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in the upper Comoé River drainage in Southern Burkina Faso, in the upper Konkouré and This species is known from upper Bafing River systems in Guinea, the upper Gambia River system in southeastern Senegal, and the system of the Bani River, a tributary to the Niger in southern Mali.	eng
183029	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species lives in quiet brooks, swamps, and the swampy and weeded parts of small streams. It is a benthopelagic non-migratory species. Maximum size 6.0 cm	eng
183029	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183029	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183030	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183030	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Trachyglanis ineac</em> is known from Yangambi, Yangole and Yaekama (Central Congo River basin).	eng
183030	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Trachyglanis ineac</em> is a demersal species. It is a microphagous, especially an entomophagous species (Matthes 1964). Micro-organisms, fish eggs and small insect larvae were found in the stomach contents (Matthes 1964). It is mainly found in the vegetated borders of small streams where it holds itself between the vegetation in the current (Matthes 1964).	eng
183030	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183030	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183031	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183031	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system.	eng
183031	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is a benthopelagic species. It is a nocturnal species (Burgess 1989) and is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding (Breder and Rosen 1966).	eng
183031	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183031	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Synodontis alberti</em> is commercially used as an aquarium species.	eng
183032	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183032	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Labeo sp.</em> is only known from its origin locality: Magba, Mbam River, Cameroon.	eng
183032	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183032	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183032	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183033	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183033	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus dolloi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Lower and Central Congo River basins. It also occurs in the Ogowe, Kouilou-Niari and Loeme Rivers in the Lower Guinea region.	eng
183033	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus dolloi</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. This species is not aestivating in cocoons during the dry-season, although it never lost the capability to aestivate (Poll 1961). However, in the dry season, the male guards the eggs and larvae in the nest, which is built in the mud of the swamps, while the females can be found in the open water of the rivers (Brien 1959). The diet of <em>Protopterus dolloi </em> consists of fishes and insects, but during the time of reproduction his food is more vegetarian (Poll 1961, Roux 1967). Nests are found from June until October; the male guards the eggs and young (Poll 1961).	eng
183033	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183033	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this species in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the species.	eng
183034	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. Research is needed into the population range and numbers of this species.	eng
183034	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrops batesianus</em> is only known from one location, the Bumba River, Dja River basin,  Central Congo River basin in South Cameroon.	eng
183034	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
183034	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183034	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183035	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183035	conservation	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183035	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183035	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Neolebias unifasciatus</span> is distributed throughout western Africa, from Gambia to the Chad basin (except in the River Senegal). <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> It also occurs in Cameroon, Gabon and in the Central African Republic (Chad and Ubangui basins).	eng
183035	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em> occurs in most river systems including Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Chad and Oubangui basins, and the Dja, Sangha and Ubangui river systems). Elsewhere it is widespread in rivers of west and west central Africa from Gambia to Chad, including the Lake Chad basin (but is absent from the Senegal River).	eng
183035	distribution	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This is a wide-ranging species from Senegal to Central African Republic and Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em> occurs in most river systems including Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic (Chad and Oubangui basins), as well as the Dja, Sangha and Ubangui River systems, Central Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is distributed throughout West Africa, from Gambia to the Chad basin (except in the River Senegal).	eng
183035	habitat	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em>is a pelagic species.	eng
183035	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Neolebias unifasciatus</em>is a pelagic species that inhabits freshwaters with a pH range from 6.0 to 7.0.	eng
183035	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic fish.	eng
183035	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183035	population	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183035	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183035	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183035	threats	Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183035	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183036	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183036	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in southwestern Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea.	eng
183036	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is demersal.	eng
183036	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183036	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Barrage fishing in the Fifinda region leads to sedimentation and habitat loss (threat not overfishing). The lower Ntem population is threatened by a planned deep river port and iron mine with the associated infrastructure.	eng
183037	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183037	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality in the lower Ogowe River drainage in Gabon (Ng 2004).	eng
183037	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microsynodontis vigilis</em> is a demersal species. It is only known from a forest stream with a sandy bottom (Ng 2004).	eng
183037	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183037	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183038	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183038	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is found in marshes, creeks and small rivers in the upper coastal lowlands and plateau around Bouaké in Southern and central Côte d’Ivoire. It is also found in the drainage systems of the upper and Middle White Bandama and Maraoué rivers and the Middle Comoé River in central Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
183038	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This fish inhabits marshes, creeks and small rivers in the upper coastal lowlands. Maximum size: male 70 mm TL, female 60 mm TL	eng
183038	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183038	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to deforestion, urban and forestry developments.	eng
183039	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183039	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is known only from the Niger and Volta basins, western Africa.	eng
183039	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is demersal.	eng
183039	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183039	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Habitat loss and degredation from agricultural and urban development, deforestation and invasive weeds are likely to affect the habitat of the subspecies.	eng
183040	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183040	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies seems to be  known from the Comoé basin and the Volta basin.	eng
183040	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183040	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183040	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Agricultural expansion and deforestation threaten this subspecies.	eng
183042	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183042	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Ogowe River of central Congo.	eng
183042	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion wachtersi wachtersi</em> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al</em>. 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) wachtersi wachtersi</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
183042	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183042	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183043	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183043	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183043	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183043	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183043	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>At global level, it is present from Senegal to southern Cameroon.	eng
183043	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> One record from the Ja River in south Cameroon, which is a part of the Congo River system. Brackish water from Senegal (Robins <em>et al.</em> 1991) to southern Cameroon.  Introduced to several countries in Asia, USA and Europe (Wohlfarth and Hulata 1983).  At least one country reports adverse ecological impact after introduction. After introduction, probably established in Suriname and established in the USA and Hawaii. Probably not established in Russia and not established in Japan.	eng
183043	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies occurs in lagoons and estuaries from Cote d'Ivoire to southern Cameroon.	eng
183043	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This subspecies occurs in lagoons and estuaries from Cote d'Ivoire to southern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> There is one record from the Dja River in south Cameroon, which is a part of the Congo River system. The subspecies may be more widespread within Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It has been recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal regions from Nigeria to Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
183043	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal species that is primarily estuarine, found in mangroves and lower reaches of streams also fresh and salt water. Mainly nocturnal, feeds on aufwuchs (animals encrusted on hard surfaces) and detritus, as well as on bivalves and zooplankton.	eng
183043	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is a demersal, primarily estuarine species. It occurs in lower reaches of streams and can tolerate high salinity (Page and Burr 1981). It is abundant in mangrove areas and ventures in to both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges (GSMFC 2003). It forms schools and is mainly nocturnal with intermittent daytime feeding. This species feeds on aufwuchs and detritus (Trewavas 1983), as well as on bivalves and zooplankton (Diouf 1996). This species spawns in shallow water close inshore. The initiative in courtship, pit digging and mating activities are taken by the female. Eventually a male is stimulated to react in a mainly passive manner and a pair-bond is established. The sexual dimorphism is minimala and there is no T-stand by the partners during fertilization. This species exhibits a mouth-brooding habit (Eyeson 1983). The males mainly incubate the eggs (Eyeson 1979).	eng
183043	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is a demersal, primarily estuarine species. It occurs in lower reaches of streams and can tolerate high salinity (Page and Burr 1981). It is abundant in mangrove areas and ventures into both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges (GSMFC 2003). It forms schools and is mainly nocturnal with intermittent daytime feeding. This subspecies feeds on aufwuchs and detritus (Trewavas 1983), as well as on bivalves and zooplankton (Diouf 1996). This subspecies spawns in shallow water close inshore. The initiative in courtship, pit digging and mating activities are taken by the female. Eventually a male is stimulated to react in a mainly passive manner and a pair-bond is established. The sexual dimorphism is minimal and there is no T-stand by the partners during fertilization. This subspecies exhibits a mouth-brooding habit (Eyeson 1983). The males mainly incubate the eggs (Eyeson 1979).	eng
183043	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	The taxon is primarily estuarine. It is abundant in mangrove areas and venture into both fresh and salt waters in native and non-native ranges.	eng
183043	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183043	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183043	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183043	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183043	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is used for aquaculture and as an aquarium fish. In western Africa, it is locally threatened by dams, agriculture and urban development.	eng
183043	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron</em> is used for aquaculture and as an aquarium species.	eng
183043	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally threatened by dams, agriculture and urban development.	eng
183043	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183044	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	None known.	eng
183044	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This subspecies is known only from the River Cess (Nipoué) in Liberia.	eng
183044	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183044	population	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	No available data.	eng
183044	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D., 2006	There is evidence of catchment degradation due to deforestation resulting in siltation.	eng
183046	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183046	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183046	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Pollimyrus isidori isidori</em> is rare in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Gambia, middle Niger, Volta and Chad basins, coastal rivers of Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Bandama, Mé); also including the Nile. It is also known from the Bénoué and Senegal Rivers. It is rare in Lake Nesser.	eng
183046	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a wideranging subspecies found from Senegal to Ethiopia, and along the length of the Nile to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but rare in the upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs throughout the Nile from the delta to Gondokoro but is also recorded from the Blue Nile, and Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies has a wide distribution area: Gambia, Senegal, Niger, Chad, Volta, Cross and from some coastal rivers in Côte d'Ivoire (Sassandra, Comoé, Agnébi, Mé).	eng
183046	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It lives in quiet water of rivers, moving on to flood plains to breed. The fish spends most of its time suspended in mid-water but occasionally lie on the muddy bottom. Its food consists mainly of annelid worms, anthropods and vegetation. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD). It is a fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. It reaches a maximum length to 10 cm.	eng
183046	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies lives in quiet water of rivers, moving on to flood plains to breed. The fish spends most of its time suspended in mid-water but occasionally lie on the muddy bottom. Its food consists mainly of annelid worms, anthropods and vegetation. Generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration (0.08 ms) that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the species. During the breeding season, males build nests and while patrolling their territory sporadically emit EODs at a mean rate of 18 Hz. Participating females, on the other hand, discharge at a fairly regular rate (8-11 Hz) and this has been shown to play a role in sex recognition during courtship and spawning. Male and female EOD waveforms also differ in the amplitude ratio of the first and third phase. Also produce natural sounds ('grunts', 'moans', 'growl', etc.) at different phases of courtship, nesting and territorial defence. A fractional spawner; females able to spawn up to 26 times in the course of one reproductive cycle, laying about 125 eggs per spawning episode. Larval electric organ situated in the deep lateral musculature; that of adults in the caudal peduncle.	eng
183046	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183046	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
183046	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Deforestation may be a local threat. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
183046	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183048	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183048	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the hills of the Lekoumou Province in central Congo, Kouilou-Niari system and in the adjacent area of the upper Ogowe River system in southeastern Gabon.	eng
183048	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense pyrophore</em> is found in rainforest brooks and small streams in the hills. It is a benthopelagic subspecies.	eng
183048	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183048	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The northern part of the subspecies distribution is threatened by mining manganese which is currently polluting the river systems (iron and uranium mining are a potential threat). Slash and burn activities for agriculture is also causing sedimentation. In the southern part, the species is threatened by deforestation caused by timber exploitation.	eng
183049	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183049	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183049	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	<em>Petrocephalus bovei bovei</em> is Regionally Extinct in northern Africa, previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) in Rosetta Branch and Lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is found in Chad, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins, including the Nile. It is also known from Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
183049	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This subspecies has a widespread Nilo-Sudanian distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> <span style="font-style: italic;">bovei</span> is restricted to the Cross River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Now Regionally Extinct, it was previously recorded by Boulenger (1907) in Rosetta branch and Lower Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the White Nile and Ghazal system, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> The distribution area of <em>P. bovei bovei </em>covers most of the region between Senegal and Nigeria, as well as in the Lake Chad area.	eng
183049	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Demersal, potamodrous taxon. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD).	eng
183049	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus bove bovei</em> is a demersal, potamodromous fish associated with lakes. It generates electric organ discharge (EOD) of short duration that seems to correlate with aggregative behaviour of the subspecies (Hansen <em>et al.</em> 1983, Møller <em>et al.</em> 1979). The EOD temporal pattern cues have been shown to play a role in species recognition for <em>P. bovei</em> (Kramer and Lücker 1990). A ratio measure between olfactory and visual receptor areas suggests that this fish relies more on visual than olfactory information (Grossman 1983). <em>Petrocephalus bovei</em> is a fractional spawner (Kirschbaum 1995, Albaret 1982). It builds a nest for the eggs. No guarding or tending has been observed, though.	eng
183049	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183049	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183049	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial) and groundwater extraction.	eng
183049	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Threats to this subspecies are unknown.	eng
183050	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183050	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is distributed from Lake Bosumtwi to the rivers Tano in Ghana, Sassandra, Bandama and Comoé in Côte d’Ivoire	eng
183050	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This is a demersal fish of maximum size of 13.7 cm SL. The young are carnivorous, the greater proportion of their stomach contents consists of insects from the water surface. Adults feed exclusively on phytoplankton, blue-green algae and desmids (an algae). This subspecies is mainly nocturnal. In open waters, it undergoes a diel migration, sinking to depths of up to 30 m by day and rising to the surface at night. It reportedly undergoes a diel vertical migration in open waters and with a horizontal component in the littoral zone. It feeds at night near the surface. The lacustrine habitat is characterized by a high concentration of sodium salts and a high pH and alkalinity.	eng
183050	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183050	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	There are widespread threats to this subspecies, particularly from agricultural, urban developments and deforestation.	eng
183051	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183051	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus caballus </em><em>caballus </em><em> </em>is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from the Lower Congo River basin and from the southern tributaries of the Central Congo River basin.	eng
183051	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal subspecies.	eng
183051	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183051	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183052	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
183052	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the hot springs in the upper Northern Ewaso Nyiro above Chandler's Falls.	eng
183052	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	This fish feeds on filamentous green algae and unicellular and four-celled algae (probably blue-green algae). It also feeds on insects as parts of insect cuticle were found in stomach contents, and fish were seen to consume dead insects thrown on the water (Trewavas 1983).	eng
183052	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available.	eng
183052	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183053	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183053	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, use and harvest levels, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183053	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	None	eng
183053	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Citharinus citharus citharus</em> is very rare in the Egyptian Upper Nile at Luxor. It used to be caught from the Nile near Cairo and Giza but disappeared from these regions after the High-Dam Construction.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Upper Nile, Blue and White Niles, Chad basin, Senegal, Niger, Uganda and Gambia.	eng
183053	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower Nile and Lake Chad.	eng
183053	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies is widely distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and from Egypt to Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, and the Albert and Murchison Niles. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is very rare in Egyptian This species is known from upper Nile at Luxor. It used to be caught from the Nile near Cairo and Giza but disappeared from these regions after the High-Dam Construction.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Lake Nubia, Sudan, as well as Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies is common in the large Sudanese basins: Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Ouémé and Chad.	eng
183053	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	Inhabits the shallow inshore waters of Lake Albert where it is absent or rare in deeper waters. Feeds on macroplankton particularly detrital particles. Also reported to feed on the surface algal film. No information available on breeding habits in Lake Albert.	eng
183053	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	It is an anadromous subspecies which usually inhabits inshore waters of lakes, and is absent or rare in deeper open water. Food consists mainly of diatoms, macroplankton especially crustaceans, and sometimes bottom worms and small prey. Also reported to feed on the surface algal film. Spawning takes place is swampy areas during the season of heavy rainfall.	eng
183053	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This anadromous taxon usually inhabits inshore waters of lakes, being absent or rare in deeper open water. It feeds mainly diatoms, macroplankton especially crustaceans, sometimes bottom worms and small prey. Spawning takes place is swampy areas during the season of heavy rainfall. Its length is 45-60 cm.	eng
183053	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
183053	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183053	population	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	No information available.	eng
183053	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183053	threats	Bayona, J.D.R., 2003	The main threat to the species is the heavy fishing pressure.	eng
183053	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is an important food fish, and overfishing is a potential threat throughout its range. In the Oti (Ghana), one major threat is aquatic weeds. Threats to this fish may stem from deforestation and bad agricultural practices, as in the Black Volta. (Entsua-Mensah 1996). In north Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought all pose possible threats to this subspecies.	eng
183054	conservation	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183054	distribution	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	This subspecies is native to Kenya and Ethiopia. It has been introduced, in 1950, for aquacultural purposes, from Kenya to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is known from coastal rivers of Kenya from the Mwena River near the Tanzania border to the Sabaki-Galana below Lugard's Falls. It is also found in pools and lakes in the Athi flood-plain and coastal lagoons near its mouth, including the warm and saline Lake Chem, as well as Lower and Middle Tana and the Northern Ewaso Nyiro. It has also been introduced to many dams and river systems including Lake Kamnarok, the Kerio drainage, and the Lake Turkana system.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This subspecies occurs in Wabishebelle, Ethiopia.	eng
183054	habitat	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	<em>Oreochromis spilurus</em> is a benthopelagic species.	eng
183054	population	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183054	threats	Getahun, A. & Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183055	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
183055	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183055	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183055	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183055	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183055	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is known Senegal to Ethiopia and Tanzania; from the White Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana, Omo River, Lake Chad and Chari River, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>  According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), it has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad to Yaoundé, Cameroon. Its presence has been confirmed by a single museum specimen and record from a pond at Melen, Cameroon (Nyong River basin) collected by Thys van den Audenaerde in 1964. It is unknown whether the subspecies is established or not.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Albert, the Victoria Nile below Murchison Falls, the Albert Nile, and the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is recorded from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond in Sudan, and Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Chad basins, Oti, and Pra (Dankwa 1985).	eng
183055	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is recorded from the Nile in Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level, it occurs in the Nile basin and West Africa, including Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Lake Chad basins.	eng
183055	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is known from the White Nile, Lake Albert, Lake Turkana, Omo River, Lake Chad and Chari River, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal basins. According to Thys van den Audenaerde (1966), it has been introduced from Fort-Lamy, Chad (12°07’N-15°03’E) to Yaoundé, Cameroon (3°52’N-11°31’E). Its presence has been confirmed by a single museum specimen and record from a pond at Melen, Cameroon (03°51'N-11°30'E) (Nyong River basin) collected by Thys van den Audenaerde in 1964. It is unknown whether the species is established or not.	eng
183055	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Albert, the Victoria Nile below Murchison Falls, the Albert Nile, and the Lake Turkana basin (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Congo and Lualaba river basins, Nile basin, Senegal, Gambia, Niger and Volta basins, and Lake Chad.	eng
183055	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong><span style="font-style: italic;">Polypterus senegalus senegalus</span> has been reported from Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta and Chad basins, Oti, Pra (Dankwa 1985) <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere in Africa in the Nile basin (Gosse 1990).	eng
183055	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> inhabits marginal swamps and freshwater lagoons and it appears to favour sheltered inshore habitats; it inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters, where it lies quiet or glides about with snake movements. During the hottest hours of the day, it comes to the surface just on the outer edge of the vegetation, and it goes back to the bottom when disturbed. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fish. <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is mainly insectivorous Longevity of <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> in captivity can be 34 years and more. It is a demersal, potamodromous species.	eng
183055	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> inhabits marginal swamps and freshwater lagoons (Roberts 1967) and it appears to favour sheltered inshore habitats (Lewis 1974); it inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters, where it lies quiet or glides about with snake movements (Worthington 1929). During the hottest hours of the day, it comes to the surface just on the outer edge of the vegetation, and it goes back to the bottom when disturbed (Pekkola 1919). It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fish (Greenwood 1966, Bailey 1994). <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> is mainly insectivorous (Blache 1964) Longevity of <em>Polypterus senegalus senegalus</em> in captivity can be 34 years and more (Brown 1957). Larval fish were found in papyrus root mat and juveniles of up to 10 cm TSL retaining external gills were found in fringing water hyacinth. It is a demersal, potamodromous species (Reide 2004). In the Sudd, breeding commences in swamps at the start of the floods and continues amongst floodplain migrants.	eng
183055	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2003	Inhabits swamps, rivers and lakes. Larval fish have been found in papyrus root mat and juveniles retaining external gills were found in fringing water hyacinth. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fishes (Bailey 1994, Blache 1964, Reed <em>et al. 1999).</em>	eng
183055	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits the muddy regions at the sides of rivers and swampy waters. It feeds on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs and fishes.	eng
183055	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species inhabits swamps, rivers and lakes. Demersal. Feeds mainly on fishes, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs as well as on plant fragments and seeds. In the Sudd, breeding commences in swamps at the start of the floods and continues amongst floodplain migrants.	eng
183055	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
183055	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183055	population	Akinyi, E., 2003	No estimates for population	eng
183055	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183055	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183055	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Local loss of wetland habitats threatens east African populations. There is no information available on threats to this subspecies in other regions.	eng
183055	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183055	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183055	threats	Akinyi, E., 2003	The main threat to the species is the local loss of wetland habitats.	eng
183055	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183056	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183056	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2009	This subspecies is endemic to the Athi River and Tributaries above Lugard's Falls and the upper tributaries of the Tana River. It has also been introduced to many dams and river systems (see Trewavas (1983) for details).	eng
183056	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2009	To feed, it grazes on the surface water algal film. The main food items are diatoms, but at a larger size it will also eat insect larvae and, at least in a confined space, even small fishes (Trewavas 1983).	eng
183056	population	Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183056	threats	Hanssens, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
183057	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183057	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known. More research is needed into this subspecies' biology and ecology, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183057	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri nigerianus</em> is found in upper Cross River in southeastern Nigeria.<br/>Elsewhere, it occurs in the Niger and Benue Rivers and upper systems of most coastal rivers in Nigeria.	eng
183057	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is found in the shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the humid savannah areas of Central, Northern and Eastern Nigeria. It is found also in the drainage systems of the Niger and Benue rivers and most minor coastal rivers of southeastern Nigeria. It also occurs in the system of the Benue River in western Cameroon.	eng
183057	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri nigerianus</em> is found in shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the forested savannah areas of central, northern and eastern Nigeria. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
183057	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This fish is found in the shallow and swampy parts of pools, brooks and small streams, usually in the secondary forest of southern and southwestern Nigeria and in the humid savannah areas of central, northern and eastern Nigeria.	eng
183057	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No information available.	eng
183057	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183057	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Agriculture, deforestation, oil exploration all threaten the habitat of this fish.	eng
183057	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183058	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183058	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the upper Louesse River system of southwestern Congo.	eng
183058	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion wachtersi mikeae</em> is found in pools, brooks and small streams in the rainforest.	eng
183058	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183058	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183059	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183059	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality near Bifoun, on the northern side of the Ogowe River, northwestern Gabon.	eng
183059	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense marginatum</em> is only known from a rainforest brook. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.	eng
183059	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183059	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183060	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183060	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Ngounie River in western Gabon.	eng
183060	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense boehmi</em> is found in swamps and small swampy brooks in the coastal rainforest. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.	eng
183060	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183060	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The locality is situated in a timber exploitation region.	eng
183061	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183061	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Ichthyborus besse congolensis</em> is known from the Tshopo River at Kisangani and from the Lualaba River basin.	eng
183061	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a pelagic fish.	eng
183061	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183061	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183062	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this subspecies.	eng
183062	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This subspecies is present in the lakes of the Ethiopian Rift Valley and part of the Omo River.	eng
183062	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This subspecies is found in standing and running waters.	eng
183062	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183062	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183063	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183063	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is restricted to the drainage systems of the upper Bandama and Kan rivers in Central Côte d’Ivoire. It represents the easternmost known subspecies of <span style="font-style: italic;">Epiplatys olbrechtsi</span>.	eng
183063	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is restricted to forest streams. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. It is a benthopelagic subspecies, and non-migratory. Maximum size 6.0 cm.	eng
183063	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183063	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats to this subspecies include deterioration of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire by agriculture, industrial and urban development.	eng
183064	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	The last preparations for a Belgian fish project for pisciculture and aquaculture of five years are being made. The project is going to start this year. Awareness and education projects have been and are being done before the start of this project.	eng
183064	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus stappersii kapangae</em> is known from the type locality, Kapanga, Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo. It has also been recorded from Sandoa and Kasaji, upper Kasai River system and from Kasangami, Lufira River system. The subspecies is probably more widespread than currently known.	eng
183064	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183064	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183064	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	In the Katanga region, mining for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region.	eng
183065	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
183065	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This subspecies is known only from the River Cavally, between Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia.	eng
183065	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183065	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trend	eng
183065	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This subspecies is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to farming and deforestation.	eng
183066	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183066	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small mountain stream, 27 km north-west of Zomoko, Ogowe system in northern Gabon.	eng
183066	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense haasi</em> is found mainly in the shallowest parts of the stream, living in leaf litter.	eng
183066	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183066	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183067	conservation	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
183067	conservation	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	The subspecies has no protection. This fish needs a harvest management plan to prevent overfishing.	eng
183067	distribution	Tweddle, D., 2006	The subspecies has been recorded from lakes Chilwa and Chiuta on the Malawi/Mozambique border (Tweddle 1979).	eng
183067	distribution	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Chilwa and its tributaries.	eng
183067	habitat	Tweddle, D., 2006	A generalist <span style="font-style: italic;">Oreochromis</span> species feeding on plant detritus, blue-green algae, diatoms and planktonic crustacea (Kirk 1970, Furse 1979).	eng
183067	habitat	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	This subspecies feeds on a wide variety of foods. During the three life stages they have different food preferences. Larvae target zooplankton, juveniles target detritus while adults prefer phytoplankton. <br/>Spawning takes place in shallow sandy bottoms of the littoral areas of the lake and the breeding season extends from late August through to early May. The male constructs and guards a nest and entices spawning females. The fertilized eggs are gathered and hatched in the females’ mouth where they remain for 2-3 weeks. The main harvesting gears for this species are gill nets, matemba seines and the fish traps. Gill nets harvested about 50% of the total catch whereas the matemba seines and the fish traps harvest about 31% and 17% respectively (from 1979-1999). Lake Chilwa has been known to undergo moderate recession periods (in 1900, 1923, 1931/33, 1943, 1949, 1953/55 and 1960/61) as well as severe recession periods (in 1914/15, 1966/67 and 1995 ) which resulted complete drying out of the lake. After a severe recession period, research has shown that tilapia species such as <em>Oreochromis shiranus chilwae</em> and <em>Tilapia rendalli</em> are the last fish species to recolonize when the lake recovers. During such dry periods the fish take refuge in small remaining pools. In 1995 efforts were made by the Fisheries Department and communities to protect such pools from being fished out thus ensuring the availability of fish for restocking of the lake after it recovers. After the last severe drought in 1996 the lake recovered and the catches of this species started to recover to a total catch of about 3,600 tonnes in 1999.	eng
183067	population	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	A common fish but heavily impacted by fishing pressure.	eng
183067	population	Tweddle, D., 2006	A common species but heavily impacted by fishing pressure.	eng
183067	threats	Tweddle, D., 2006	The species is subject to an intensive fishery in the two lakes, resulting in considerable catch depletion. The range of distribution downstream of the lakes in Mozambique  is not known, hence the overall impact on stocks is unknown.	eng
183067	threats	Kazembe, J. &  Makocho, P., 2006	The subspecies is subject to an intensive fishery in the two lakes, resulting in considerable catch depletion. It is also threatened by drought, with seasonal drying of the lake every few years.	eng
183068	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183068	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus catostoma haullevillei</em> is known only from the Chiloango and Niari-Kouilou systems.	eng
183068	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183068	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183068	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183070	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
183070	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183070	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Bandama, Comoé and Ouémé Rivers.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> <span style="font-style: italic;">P. endlicheri endlicheri</span> is present in the Nile River.	eng
183070	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies is patchily distributed from Guinea to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond, Sudan, and Baro River in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is known from the Chad basin, Niger, Volta, Bandama, Comoé and Ouémé Rivers.	eng
183070	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	It inhabits swamps and rivers. It is demersal, and feeds upon fishes, snails and crustaceans.<br/>Electrobiology – electrosensing only.	eng
183070	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in swamps and rivers. Demersal, feeds upon fishes, snails and crustaceans. Electrobiology – electrosensing only.	eng
183070	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
183070	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183070	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183070	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
183071	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183071	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is present in the rivers resulting from Fouta Djalon (Konkouré, Kolenté), High Senegal in Guinea and the coastal basins of Sierra Leone. It is endemic to this area.	eng
183071	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183071	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183071	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is impacted by overfishing and pollution due to agriculture and damming of rivers.	eng
183072	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183072	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is restricted to the drainage system of the upper and middle Sassandra River, also recorded from the Cavally.	eng
183072	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies inhabits brooks, streams, small rivers and swampy areas in the rainforest and guinean-type of savannah under gallery forest cover on the higher plateau of western Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
183072	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183072	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is impacted by the deterioration of habitat in Côte d'Ivoire by agriculture, industrial and urban development.	eng
183073	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183073	conservation	Bayona, J.D.R. G., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	No information available..	eng
183073	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183073	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Protopterus aethiopicus aethiopicus</em> is very rare in Lake Nasser, just outside the region.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile, Lakes Albert, Edward, Victoria, Nabugabo, Tanganyika, Kyoga and No.	eng
183073	distribution	Bayona, J.D.R. G., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	The species is widely distributed throughout eastern African Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kanyaboli and Lake Turkana. Introduced into Lake Baringo in 1974. Records of this species from elsewhere in Kenya are based on misidentifications. There are only 3 occurrence records for Lake Turkana where the species seems to be very rare (KMFRI station, Kalokol, Turkana) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Also present in lakes Albert, Edward, Kyoga, George and Nabugabo and associated rivers and swamp systems. Around lake Tanganyika it is found in swamps associated with major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarazi (Eccles 1992). Introduced in the Upper Akagera system around 1988-1989 from lake Edward (De Vos <em>et al. 2001).	eng
183073	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This subspecies is known from along the length of the Nile, south to the Lake Victoria drainage in Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed throughout Eastern Africa, including the Lake Victoria drainage, Lake Kanyaboli and Lake Turkana. It was introduced into Lake Baringo in 1974. Records of this species from elsewhere in Kenya are based on misidentifications. There are only three occurrence records for Lake Turkana where the species seems to be very rare (KMFRI station, Kalokol, Turkana) (Seegers <em>et al</em>. unpublished). It is also present in Lakes Albert, Edward, Kyoga, George and Nabugabo and associated rivers and swamp systems. Around Lake Tanganyika it is found in swamps associated with major rivers including the Rusizi and Malagarazi (Eccles 1992). It was introduced in the upper Akagera system around 1988-1989 from Lake Edward (De Vos <em>et al.</em> 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is present but very rare in Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia)<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as Baro River in Ethiopia.	eng
183073	habitat	Bayona, J.D.R. G., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	Inhabits river and lake fringes, swamps and flood plains (Bailey 1994). In Lake Victoria it is found in the open lake and marginal swamps and in the Lake Tanganyika basin near rivers and deltas (Eccles 1992). This species can also live in streams and swamps which are completely dry for long periods of the year (Lockley 1949). It withstands desiccation by aestivating in cocoons until the next rains, breathing air by a small passage leading to the outside (Lockley 1949). The principal diet of adults and sub-adults consists of molluscs but small fishes and insects are also eaten in small quantities. Young individuals feed almost wholly on insects (Witte and de Winter 1995). Breeds during the flood season (Bailey 1994). One or several females spawn in burrows which are dug and cleaned by the male who later guards the eggs and the young.	eng
183073	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits open lakes and marginal swamps. It burrows in the mud during the dry season to from a cocoon with an air channel extending to the surface of the soil. Breathing by both gills and lungs. Omnivorous, feeds mainly on fish, molluscs, worms and aquatic plants. It reaches a maximum length to 2 m.	eng
183073	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This fish inhabits river and lake fringes, swamps and flood plains (Bailey 1994). In Lake Victoria it is found in the open lake and marginal swamps and in the Lake Tanganyika basin near rivers and deltas (Eccles 1992). This subspecies can also live in streams and swamps which are completely dry for long periods of the year (Lockley 1949). It withstands desiccation by aestivating in cocoons until the next rains, breathing air by a small passage leading to the outside (Lockley 1949). The principal diet of adults and sub-adults consists of molluscs but small fishes and insects are also eaten in small quantities. Young individuals of less than 35 cm TL feed almost wholly on insects (Witte and de Winter 1995). This subspecies breeds during the flood season (Bailey 1994). One or several females spawn in burrows which are dug and cleaned by the male who later guards the eggs and the young.	eng
183073	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183073	population	Bayona, J.D.R. G., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	Not known, but it is becoming rare in catches around Lake Tanganyika. Kudhongania and Cordone (1974) established a CPUE of 11,9 kg/haul/hour in 1967-1971 surveys compared to the recent surveys which indicate CPUE of 3 kg/haul/hour (Getabu and Nyaundi 1999). This indicates that the population is declining in Lake Victoria.	eng
183073	population	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	Not known, but it is becoming rare in catches around Lake Tanganyika. Kudhongania and Cordone (1974) established a CPUE of 11.9 kg/haul/hour in 1967-1971 surveys compared to the recent surveys which indicate CPUE of 3 kg/haul/hour (Getabu and Nyaundi 1999). This indicates that the population is declining in Lake Victoria.	eng
183073	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183073	threats	Bayona, J.D.R. G., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T.K., 2003	The main threats to the species are minor commercial fisheries, collection for aquariums and loss of wetland habitat due to agricultural encroachment.	eng
183073	threats	Azeroual, A., Bayona, J., Getahun, A., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This subspecies has minor commercial importance in fisheries, and is also collected for the aquarium trade. Loss of wetland habitat due to agricultural encroachment also threatens this species in eastern Africa. No information is available on threats to this subspecies in other regions.	eng
183074	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183074	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to the Wami River, Tanzania (Trewavas and Teugels, 1991). It is also present in Zanzibar but it was probably introduced (Trewavas 1966).	eng
183074	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183074	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183074	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183075	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183075	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in southeastern Gabon and northern central Congo, in the upper Ogowe and Mpassa Rivers.	eng
183075	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense ogoense</em> is found in brooks and small streams in the humid and forested savannah of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic subspecies.	eng
183075	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183075	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183076	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183076	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion ogoense</em> is known from the upper Lefini River, Central Congo River basin. In Lower Guinea, it is known from the Bembe plateau, from the upper Djoue and from the upper Bouenza River systems, Kouilou-Niari in southern Congo.	eng
183076	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic subspecies. It occurs in brooks and small streams in the rainforest and forested savannah of the inland plain (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986).	eng
183076	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183076	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Imboulou dam on the lower Léfini could pose a threat to the subspecies.	eng
183077	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183077	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon galilaeus boulengeri</em> is known from the Lower and Central Congo River to the Lower Kasai.	eng
183077	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal subspecies.	eng
183077	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183077	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183078	conservation	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and harvest levels, as well as monitoring of population trends. Habitat maintenance and conservation is also required.	eng
183078	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
183078	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus catostoma catostoma</em> is known from the Zambian Congo River system. Elsewhere, it is known from the Cunene, Okavango and Zambezi systems south to the Save River (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Great Lakes and eastern Africa including the Tana River and Lake Victoria (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Malagarasi River basin.	eng
183078	distribution	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This subspecies has a wide central and southern African distribution.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Petrocephalus catostoma catostoma</em> is known from the Zambian Congo River system. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lake Victoria drainage (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004), Lake Nabugabo and Victoria Nile, middle and lower Akagera, as well as Lakes Tanganyika, Rukwa and Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>  In southern Africa it is known from the Cunene River in the west east and south to the Save River in Mozambique.	eng
183078	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Demersal; potamodromous; Occurs in shallow and muddy waters, sheltered bays, in lagoons, and swampy areas.  Forms shoal (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Prefers quiet parts of rivers where there is abundant vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Feeds mostly on insect larvae and other invertebrates at night (Konings 1990).  Shoals within quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains.  Oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966).  Known to undergo upriver migration which may well be correlated with breeding (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).  Breeds during the rainy season, possibly moving upstream to suitable sites.  An unconfirmed report claims the males are territorial and build a nest (Skelton 1993).  Found schooling with other species with identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980).  Caught in nets for food (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982). It preferred habitats are streams, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.	eng
183078	habitat	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	This is a demersal, potamodromous fish. It occurs in shallow and muddy waters, sheltered bays, in lagoons, and swampy areas. In the Upper Zambezi, Tweddle <em>et al.</em> (2004) found it to be widely distributed throughout the system, in tributaries, on floodplains and in the main river on the floodplain and in the rocky stretches above Victoria Falls. It forms shoals (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988) within quiet reaches of rivers and floodplains. This subspecies prefers quiet parts of rivers where there is abundant vegetation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds mostly on insect larvae and other invertebrates at night (Konings 1990). It is oviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966), and known to undergo upriver migration which may well be correlated with breeding (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It breeds during the rainy season, possibly moving upstream to suitable sites, and may make lateral movements from main river channels for breeding during the rains. An unconfirmed report claims the males are territorial and build a nest (Skelton 1993). It can be found schooling with other species with identical electric organ discharge (EOD) waveforms (Hopkins 1980). Caught in nets for food (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982).	eng
183078	population	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183078	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183078	threats	Bills, R., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B., Moelants, T., Ntakimazi, G. & Twongo, T., 2009	In central Africa, overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies. It is an important subsistence fishery species, and has commercial value as an aquarium fish. In eastern Africa, threats include overfishing (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982), the aquarium trade, and the loss of floodplain biotopes due to agriculture extension.	eng
183078	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the species. Subsistence fisheries are a main threat to the species.  This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
183079	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183079	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the Akono and Mefou River systems associated with the Yaoundé Massif. This subspecies exhibits a relict distribution of limited extent, south and west of Yaoundé, in central Cameroon.	eng
183079	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense obscurum</em> is found in shallow and swampy parts of streams in the rainforest.	eng
183079	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183079	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There are currently no threats. It is potentially threatened by the Sunda Gorge dam on the lower Nyong River, the construction of which was started before the war and it is unknown if the construction will recommence (pers. comm., Mamonekene, V.).	eng
183080	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183080	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bichir lapradei</span>, the type of which comes from Senegal, is also present in the Gambia River, Géba River in Guinea Bissau, Volta River, Niger River, Benue River and Ouémé River.	eng
183080	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish. This subspecies inhabits rivers and swamps. It migrates to the flooded lands and swamps to spawn. It appears to be entirely piscivorous when adult. Maximum size 74.0 cm TL	eng
183080	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183080	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183081	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183081	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is only known from Saharian oases Borku, Ennedi and Tibesti in northern Chad.	eng
183081	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The diet can be planktivorous and phytophagous. <span style="font-style: italic;">S. galilaeus</span> is an oral incubator, with the female and more rarely the male practising incubation (Daget and Iltis 1965). Benech (1990) states that ovary maturation in <span style="font-style: italic;">S. galilaeus</span> starts in May with the laying of eggs in June reaching a maximum in August-September (central delta of Niger). The subspecies shows the potential to lengthen the period of reproduction when the conditions are favourable. Albaret (1982), states that in Cote d'Ivoire the species lays all the year.	eng
183081	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183081	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It requires high quality water so is vulnerable to any future decline in water quality. Drought is also a potential threat to the subspecies.	eng
183082	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183082	conservation	Azeroual, A., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T., 2007	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183082	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor multicolor</em> is recorded from Egypt (CLOFFA 1991).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile River system, Lake Albert, Semliki River, Lakes Victoria and Kyoga, Malawa and Aswa Rivers Lake George, Lake Nabugabo, swampy lakes Kachira, Kijanebalola and Nakavali, which lie between Lakes Edward and Victoria.	eng
183082	distribution	Azeroual, A., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T., 2007	The subspecies is only positively known from the Lower Nile (CLOFFA 1991), however there have been no recent records and it is likely that this subspecies is now Regionally Extinct. There are records from the upper White Nile, but whether these records belong to this subspecies or <em>P. multicolor victoriae</em> is not clear.	eng
183082	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits streams and ponds. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects, algae, vegetable fragments and small fish.	eng
183082	habitat	Azeroual, A., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T., 2007	This fish probably occurs among submerged plants and in open water zones enclosed by papyrus swamps. It inhabits streams and ponds. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects, algae, vegetable fragments and small fish.	eng
183082	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183082	population	Azeroual, A., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T., 2007	No information available.	eng
183082	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183082	threats	Azeroual, A., Hanssens, M. & Twongo, T., 2007	No information available.	eng
183083	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183083	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is restricted to some creeks and small rivers, usually with swampy margins, under rainforest or gallery forest cover, in eastern central Liberia. Restricted to the upper Gwen River system, a tributary of the Nipoué (Cess) River.	eng
183083	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This benthopelagic subspecies inhabits creeks and small rivers, usually with swampy margins, under rainforest or gallery forest cover. Its maximum size is: male 85 mm TL, female 75 mm TL	eng
183083	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183083	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban, agricultural and forestry developments.	eng
183084	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183084	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a few water courses on Elephant Hill, about 10 km southeast of Kribi, in the direction of Nyete (in the Lobe River drainage). This locality is about 10 km from the nearest <em>Aphyosemion pascheni pascheni</em> locality, the area in between being unsuitable for <em>Aphyosemion</em> species.	eng
183084	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion pascheni festivum</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. It is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
183084	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183084	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a commercially harvested aquarium subspecies.	eng
183087	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More information is needed on the full distribution of this subspecies, and numbers should be monitored.	eng
183087	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from a tributary creek flowing into Lake Ejagham, western Cameroon. It has also been found along the banks of the lake itself.	eng
183087	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri lacustris</em> is found in pools and quiet parts of small streams and brooks associated with a tributary creek flowing into Lake Ejagham. It is also found in pools and shallows along the banks of the lake itself. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.	eng
183087	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183087	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Lake Ejagham has a surface of only 0.5 km². The subspecies is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos and Lake Baromni-Mbo. Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live.	eng
183088	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183088	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is endemic to Côte d'Ivoire. It is at present known only from the Agnébi, San Pedro and Banco basins in Côte d’Ivoire.	eng
183088	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish. Maximum size 7.7 cm SL	eng
183088	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183088	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known. There is a potential threat from deforestation	eng
183089	conservation	Hanssens, M., 2006	No information available. More information is needed on the extent of its distribution.	eng
183089	distribution	Hanssens, M., 2006	This subspecies is known from Lake Tanganyika and the Lower Malagarasi and its delta.	eng
183089	habitat	Hanssens, M., 2006	It inhabits swamps around lake, and its rivers and deltas. It is thought to feed on fish, crustacea and other animal items.	eng
183089	population	Hanssens, M., 2006	No estimates, but rather rare in fisheries catches.	eng
183089	threats	Hanssens, M., 2006	This subspecies is threatened by fisheries, and changes in the swamp biotopes due to agriculture extension.	eng
183090	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183090	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, restricted to the Mungo River drainage system in western Cameroon.	eng
183090	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion celiae celiae</em> is usually found in the shallow parts of streams, swamps and pools in the coastal rainforest and secondary savannah (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1989). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) celiae celiae</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
183090	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183090	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Mungo River basin is threatened by sedimentation and pollution from banana plantations (pers. comm. Victor Mamonekene, Cyrille Dening). This could pose a possible threat to all the species downstream. This is a commercially harvested aquarium fish.	eng
183091	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183091	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander dispersus</em> is known from the upper Kasai and upper Kwango systems, Central Congo River basin.	eng
183091	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic fish that produces up to 100 eggs. The female incubates the eggs in the mouth.	eng
183091	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183091	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183093	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183093	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus caballus lualabae</em> is known from the upper Congo River basin, from Kisangani (Stanleyville) up to Nyonga (except the Lufira River above the rapids and the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system).	eng
183093	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal subspecies.	eng
183093	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183093	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183094	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	A considerable part of the subspecies' distribution is located in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
183094	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus congicus</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), the Yangambi region and from the Lualaba. The rather strange distribution pattern will be caused by differences in sample intensity.	eng
183094	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus congicus</em> is a demersal, air breathing species through lunges. It can live through a period of drought by covering itself with a cocoon of mucus in a hole in the ground. It is a predator. This lungfish is fluviatile, it is confined in the calm places with a muddy bottom (Gosse 1963).	eng
183094	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183094	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats to this subspecies in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the subspecies as a whole.	eng
183095	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183095	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to Sierra Leone and known only from a few localities in the rainforest of southeastern Sierra Leone. One is the type locality, north of Kenema. Another locality is situated 4 km from Joru in the direction of Kenema.	eng
183095	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	It is a benthopelagic fish and occurs in coastal rivers, brooks and swampy areas in forested savanna and under forest cover. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. Maximum size: male 85 mm TL, female 75 mm TL.	eng
183095	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183095	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Deforestation and mining threaten this subspecies.	eng
183096	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183096	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus</em> is known from the Congo River basin, from Yaekama to the Lualaba River and effluents in Katanga (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Gosse 1984).	eng
183096	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Polypterus senegalus meridionalis</em> is a demersal, air breathing subspecies.	eng
183096	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183096	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Although there are some possible threats in different regions, due to its wide distribution the threats are not affecting the subspecies as a whole.	eng
183097	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	No conservation.	eng
183097	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183097	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183097	conservation	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is required into this subspecies habitat status and threats, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
183097	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from marine waters, rivers and estuaries along the West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola (Dawson 1986).	eng
183097	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Cameroon.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola.	eng
183097	distribution	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This subspecies is known from marine waters, rivers and estuaries along the West coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola (Dawson 1986).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is known from the Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the subspecies occurs in the Kwanza River system.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal waters from Senegal to Cameroon.	eng
183097	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	This subspecies is present from Senegal to Angola. In Angola, the subspecies occurs in the Kwanza River system.	eng
183097	habitat	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is a demersal fish. It occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries (Dawson 1986). The subspecies is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). The eggs are attached to a kind of brood pouch, formed by two skin folds on the belly of the male, for one to three weeks, until young of about 1.5 cm TL leave the pouch. In the Kouilou River the subspecies is found from its mouth up to Kakamoeka (> 100 km inland). It has not been caught in the smaller tributaries. The subspecies breeds in freshwater (Dawson, 1981). At Bas-Kouilou in brackish water, hundreds of loosely dispersed specimens have been observed above a sandy substrate in shallow water near shore.	eng
183097	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Microphis brachyurus aculeatus</em> is a demersal subspecies. It occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries (Dawson 1986). The subspecies is ovoviviparous (Breder and Rosen 1966). The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail (Breder and Rosen 1966). The eggs are attached to a kind of brood pouch, formed by two skin folds on the belly of the male, for one to three weeks, until young leave the pouch. In the Kouilou River the species is found from its mouth up to Kakamoeka (less than 100 km inland). It has not been caught in the smaller tributaries. The subspecies breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981). At Bas-Kouilou in brackish water, hundreds of loosely dispersed specimens have been observed above a sandy substrate in shallow water near shore.	eng
183097	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Ovoviviparous species. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
183097	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs in coastal rivers, streams and estuaries. Demersal. The species breeds in freshwater (Dawson 1981).	eng
183097	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183097	population	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183097	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183097	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
183097	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183097	threats	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183097	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183097	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
183098	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183098	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is found in Côte d’Ivoire and from Ghana to the west of the Volta (Rivers Sassandra, Bandama, Niouniourou, Comoe, and Tano)	eng
183098	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish, potamodromous.	eng
183098	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
183098	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183099	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183099	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi</em> is known from the brackish parts of the Congo River. Elsewhere, it is known from the lower courses of the Loeme and Kouilou Rivers. Its distribution remains unclear. (Falk <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
183099	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis dolloi</em> is a demersal subspecies, restricted to coastal, brackish waters. It is a microphageous subspecies, mainly feeding on bottom detritus and epiphytes from stones and plants (Thys van den Audenaerde 1964). This subspecies is a paternal mouth-brooder.	eng
183099	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183099	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The utilisation of pesticides in eucalyptus plantations in the coastal area causes a decline in habitat quality.	eng
183100	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183100	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic only known from the M'polongwe River system around Longji, southwestern Cameroon.	eng
183100	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion pascheni pascheni</em> occurs in swamps and swampy parts of brooks under forest cover in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic subspecies.	eng
183100	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183100	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183101	conservation	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	No information available..	eng
183101	conservation	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	None known.	eng
183101	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines did not work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Lufira River basin, the species is protected by the National Park of Upemba. It is also protected within National Parks of Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	conservation	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. In the Lufira River basin, the subspecies is protected by the National Park of Upemba. It is also protected within National Parks of Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). More research is needed into this subspecies' population numbers and range, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183101	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Lufira River basins in the Upper Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the middle and lower Zambezi basin and all east coast rivers south to the Limpopo River (Gosse 1984, Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It is also known from the Upper Cubango and Okavango system (Gosse 1984) and from Lake Rukwa (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> has been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Skelton 1993).	eng
183101	distribution	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lower Shire River, and Monkey Bay in Lake Malawi (Lake Malawi catchment). Introduced to the Mpasanjoka dambo (Salima).<br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>South Africa, DCR, Zambia.	eng
183101	distribution	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	The subspecies has been recorded from coastal rivers of Mozambique from the Incomati River north to the Zambezi. Extends upstream into the middle Zambezi and present in the Zambian Congo. Also occurs in arid regions of the Changane system (northern Limpopo River) in Mozambique and extending up into the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe.	eng
183101	distribution	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	This subspecies is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to northern South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Lufira River basins in the upper Congo River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Lower Shire River, and Monkey Bay in Lake Malawi (Lake Malawi catchment) after introduction to the Mpatsanjoka dambo (Salima).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal rivers of Mozambique from the Incomati River north to the Zambezi. It extends upstream into the middle Zambezi and present in the Zambian Congo. Also occurs in arid regions of the Changane system (northern Limpopo River) in Mozambique and extending up into the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe. <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> has been translocated to additional sites in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Skelton 1993).	eng
183101	habitat	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	<em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is a demersal, air breathing fish. It is usually found in large river systems associated with floodplains or non-perennial tributary streams which flow through flat country (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It has the ability to use gills and lungs to breath in and out of water; when the floods recede it excavates a burrow in shallow water, deep enough to take its body, and by the time the water has disappeared the lungfish is encased in a thin membranous cocoon made from secreted mucus and mud (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The aestivation lasts until the habitat is again filled with water (Skelton 1993). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> preys mainly on slow-moving bottom-dwelling creatures such as snails, insects and worms, but also takes fish and amphibians (Skelton 1993). An U-shaped burrow is excavated to a depth of nearly 60 cm for spawning purposes. The nest is usually placed amongst the roots of aquatic vegetation where the male will attend to several females during the breeding season. He will aerate the eggs with body and fin movements and afford protection to the young for a while after incubation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> is a demersal, air breathing species. It is usually found in large river systems associated with floodplains or non-perennial tributary streams which flow through flat country (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It has the ability to use gills and lungs to breath in and out water; when the floods recede it excavates a burrow in shallow water, deep enough to take its body, and by the time the water has disappeared the lungfish is encased in a thin membranous cocoon made from secreted mucus and mud (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). The aestivation lasts until the habitat is again filled with water (Skelton 1993). <em>Protopterus annectens brieni</em> preys mainly on slow-moving bottom-dwelling creatures such as snails, insects and worms, but also takes fish and amphibians (Skelton 1993). An U-shaped burrow is excavated to a depth of nearly 60 cm for spawning purposes. The nest is usually placed amongst the roots of aquatic vegetation where the male will attend to several females during the breeding season. He will aerate the eggs with body and fin movements and afford protection to the young for a while after incubation (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	habitat	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Most common in marshy areas where it feeds on snails, insects, worms, fish and amphibians.  It constructs a nest for breeding - this can be a u-shaped tunnel or a simple excavation.  Males guard the nest with eggs and young (Skelton 1993). It uses a lung for breathing air so can live in poorly oxygenated waters.  When water levels start to drop, it forms a burrow in the soft bottom sediments and secretes a mucous cocoon.  The fish becomes dormant, breathing through a small opening (Skelton 1993). This species is seldom eaten by people and is of no commercial importance in the Lower Shire (Tweddle and Willoughby 1979).	eng
183101	habitat	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Typically found in marginal floodplain habitats, pans and lagoons that dry up. Lungfish have a lung which enables airbreathing and thus they can survive in poorly oxygenated waters. They can also aestivate in burrows through a dry season (Skelton 2001).	eng
183101	population	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Limited information available but it is reported to be uncommon throughout its range (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	population	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Limited information but reported to be uncommon throughout its range (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	population	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	No information available.	eng
183101	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183101	threats	Bills, R. & Marshall, B., 2006	Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. Its geographical range remains large despite localised threats.	eng
183101	threats	Vreven, E. & Kazembe, J, 2003	Overfishing.	eng
183101	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets could pose a threat to the species. Subsistence fisheries make the species particularly vulnerable in Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183101	threats	Bills, R., Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Vreven, E., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula with drawnets could pose a threat to the subspecies. Subsistence fisheries make the subspecies particularly vulnerable in Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Dams in the main Zambezi River have reduced the size of the Zambezi delta and the influx of nutrients into the lower river. Further damming of the river will exacerbate this threat reducing floodplain habitats. Lower floodplain habitats have been extensively farmed for sugar cane in the Marromeu region which have introduced a suite of threats from loss of habitats to increased human populations and thus increased direct exploitation. Its geographical range remains large despite localised threats.	eng
183103	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183103	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> is known from the Central Congo basin. It is thought that the falls in the Congo River, the "Portes d'Enfer" mark the upstream limit of distribution in the upper Congo River basin. The full distribution of this subspecies is not known, but most probably it is restricted to forested areas and in not expected to inhabit the adjacent savannah. Populations on the west and north of the Congo River are here regarded as <em>Epiplatys chevalieri chevalieri</em>, while those found to the east of the Congo River represent <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em>. (Wildekamp 1996).	eng
183103	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> occurs in forest creeks, small rivers and swampy areas (Wildekamp 1996). It is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is very difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996). The diet of <em>Epiplatys chevalieri nigricans</em> mainly consists of terrestrial insects that fall on the water and the larvae of aquatic insects. Some filamentous algae was occasionally found in their stomachs (Matthes 1964).	eng
183103	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183103	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183105	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183105	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is known only from a very limited area in southern Liberia, St John River.	eng
183105	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This fish occurs in swamps, small streams and rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium.	eng
183105	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183105	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this subspecies include agriculture, mining and deforestation.	eng
183106	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183106	conservation	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183106	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183106	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Petrocephalus bane bane</em> Northern is only found in Egyptian Upper Nile (regions Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) where it is now rare, and Lake Nasser (outside of the region), it is no longer found in the lower Nile.<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in the Nile basin, the Bénoué, Chad and Volta River.	eng
183106	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This subspecies occurs in Niger, Chad, Volta and Cross River basins.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in the Nile basin. (Gosse 1984).	eng
183106	distribution	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies is patchily distributed from Senegal to Ethiopia, and north along the Nile to Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is only found in Egyptian upper Nile (regions Assiut, Sohag and Aswan) where it is now rare, and Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia). It is no longer found in the Lower Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Blue Nile and Nile to Lake Nasser, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa: </strong>This subspecies occurs in Niger, Chad, Volta and Cross Rivers.	eng
183106	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Females grow larger and are more frequently caught than males. Chiefly insectivorous, feeding on the bottom and in vegetation. Electrobiology - weakly discharging.	eng
183106	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Food consists mainly of algae, plankton, small fishes and chironomid larvae. Breeding takes place at beginning of September. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscles with weak discharge. It reaches an average length to 20 cm.	eng
183106	habitat	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies inhabits open water and vegetated areas of lakes, lagoons and irrigation canals. Chiefly insectivorous, feeding on the bottom and in vegetation. Its diet consists mainly of algae, plankton, small fishes and chironomid larvae. Females grow larger and are more frequently caught than males. Breeding takes place at beginning of September. It has an electric organ in the caudal muscles with weak disharge.	eng
183106	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183106	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183106	population	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
183106	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation is a local threat	eng
183106	threats	Azeroual, A., Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. Deforestation is a local threat in western Africa.	eng
183106	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183108	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183108	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, only known from the type locality which is a small stream under rainforest cover in the upper Meme River, Cameroon.	eng
183108	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion celiae winifredae</em> is only known from a small stream under rainforest cover.	eng
183108	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183108	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183109	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183109	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus mesmaekersi</em> is only known from the Boma region (Gosse 1984). However, there are a lot of records from 1950-1970.	eng
183109	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Protopterus aethiopicus mesmaekersi</em> is a demersal, lungfish. It can live through a period of drought by covering itself with a cocoon of mucus in a hole in the ground. It is a predator.	eng
183109	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183109	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Marine transport and oil disposal by boats pose threats in the region. When the water falls, oil remains on the bottom. Intensive fishing poses a threat to this subspecies.	eng
183110	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183110	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains, in southeastern Sierra Leone between the Moa and Moha rivers of the Pujehun district. Also found in the adjacent part of southwestern Liberia, as far east as the Bomi Hills	eng
183110	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This fish inhabits creeks and small rivers under rainforest cover, in the zone of hills separating the coastal plain from the higher inland plains	eng
183110	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183110	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Threats to this subspecies include agriculture, deforestation and mining.	eng
183111	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183111	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is known form brackish areas and freshwaters near the coasts of Sierra Leone and Western Liberia. Occasionally it is found in the sea.	eng
183111	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is a demersal is a demersal fish found brackish and freshwaters and also occasionally in the sea. Its maximum size is 17.1 cm SL.	eng
183111	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183111	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Urban development and deforestation threaten this fish.	eng
183112	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No information available. Population trends should be monitored, and habitat conservation is required.	eng
183112	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This is a widespread subspecies found from Senegal to Somalia, and south to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the Lower Tana River (Seegers <em>et al.</em> unpublished) and Malagarazi delta.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in Giuhar (Benadir), Webishebelle, Somali. It is also reported from temporary tributaries of the Chari River in the Kordofan area of western Sudan.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from Senegal, Niger, Gambia, Volta and Chad basins, Bandama and Comoé basins in Côte d'Ivoire and certain basins of Sierra Leone and Guinea.	eng
183112	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This subspecies is found in marginal swamps and backwaters of rivers and lakes (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999). It is carnivorous, feeding on molluscs (Dankwa <em>et al.</em> 1999), frogs, fish, crabs and insecta (Reed 1967). It normally lives on flood plains and when these dry up, during the dry season, it secretes a thin slime around itself which dries into a fragile cocoon. It can exist in this state for over a year, although normally it hibernates only from the end of one wet season to the start of the next (Holden and Reed 1972). Young ones have four pairs of external gills.	eng
183112	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	No data on population trends.	eng
183112	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Ntakimazi, G., 2009	This subspecies holds minor commercial importance in fisheries, and is also targeted for the aquarium trade. Loss of wetlands due to agricultural expansion threatens this subspecies in eastern Africa. In western Africa, populations are threatened by deforestation and drought.	eng
183113	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183113	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the lower Ogowe and lower Ngounie River systems in northwestern Gabon.	eng
183113	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion gabunense gabunense</em> occurs in swamps and brooks in the coastal rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies. <em>Aphyosemion (Mesoaphyosemion) gabunense gabunense</em> is not a seasonal killifish. This subspecies is easy to maintain in the aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
183113	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183113	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The southern part of the distribution is situated in a timber exploitation region.	eng
183114	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183114	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from southern Cameroon and northern Gabon.	eng
183114	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Amphyosemion cameronense halleri</em> is only known to inhabit a limited number of quiet streams in the rainforest.	eng
183114	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183114	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this subspecies.	eng
183115	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183115	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus isidori fasciaticeps</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin.	eng
183115	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183115	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183115	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183116	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183116	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is known from the basins of the Chad, Niger, Senegal, Volta, Ouémé, and Ogun.	eng
183116	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a benthopelagic fish.	eng
183116	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data available on population trends.	eng
183116	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Deforestation is a potential threat.	eng
183117	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Maintenance of pure stocks in refuge areas may be needed to protect this species, as well as the control of the spread of <em>O. niloticus</em>. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
183117	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
183117	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>the coastal plain from the Lower Zambezi southwards to Mkuze in Zululand. East coast rivers north to the Lukuledi in Tanzania.	eng
183117	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This subspecies is found on the coastal plain rivers of the east African coast from Mozambique to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Lower Shire River, Malawi.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from the Mkuze River in KwaZulu-Natal to the central plains of Mozambique. In Zimbabwe it occurs in the lower Save-Runde system and lower sections of some Zambezian tributaries, such as the Mazowe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183117	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2003	Occurs in vegetated sheltered habitats along the margins of main streams as well as floodplain lagoons.  Large specimens prefer the main river channel. In the Lower Shire it is caught in insufficient quantities to be considered economically important.	eng
183117	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This subspecies occurs in vegetated sheltered habitats along the margins of main streams as well as floodplain lagoons. Large specimens prefer the main river channel. In the Lower Shire it is caught in insufficient quantities to be considered economically important. In the lower Zambezi it was collected in slow flowing sections of main channel habitats and not marginal lagoons. It has been reported only from freshwaters and low altitudes and so its salinity tolerances are probably narrower than <em>O. mossambicus</em>.	eng
183117	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
183117	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This subspecies is widespread and abundant in areas surveyed within the Niassa Reserve.	eng
183117	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2003	No information available.	eng
183117	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This subspecies is fished for consumption, as well as sport. The spread of <em>O. niloticus</em> is a potential threat although interbreeding between the two species has not yet been reported.	eng
183118	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183118	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	This subspecies is known from Awash basin, Ethiopia.	eng
183118	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	It is found in standing water.	eng
183118	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183118	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183120	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
183120	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183120	conservation	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on threats to this subspecies, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
183120	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183120	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, Polypterus bichir bichir used to occur along the whole River Nile in Egypt from Damietta Branch to Aswan. It is now restricted to Lake Nasser which is outside the region.<br/><br/>Globally, the Nile River, Lake Turkana and Omo River, Lake Chad, Chari River and Logone River.	eng
183120	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> the Nile Basin and Lake Turkana and the Omo River (Ethiopia). In L. Turkana  the fish is more common in the Southern part.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lakes Chad and Chari, and the Logone Rivers in Cameroon. Also present in Lake Volta, Ghana.	eng
183120	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> In western Africa this subspecies is known from Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone rivers. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Beyond the region <span style="font-style: italic;">P. bichir bichir</span> is also present in the Nile River, Lake Turkana and Omo River.	eng
183120	distribution	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This subspecies is known from the length of the Nile to Kenya and Uganda. It is also known from Nigeria, Chad and northern Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Nile Basin and Lake Turkana and the Omo River (Ethiopia). In Lake Turkana the fish is more common in the southern part.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies used to occur along the whole River Nile in Egypt from Damietta Branch to Aswan, but is now restricted to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum and beyond in Sudan, as well as in Baro and Omo Rivers in Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa this subspecies is known from Lake Chad and the Chari and Logone rivers.	eng
183120	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2003	Inhabits the shallow warm bays inlakes where it mainly feeds on fish (Copley 1952, 1958; Blanche, 1964). The spawning period is July - August and the eggs are deposited in vegeation, and the parent guards the young.	eng
183120	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a bottom feeder and predates on siluroids, eels and tilapias. It spawns in July, August and September. It moves with snake-like movement. Young have external gills. It reaches a length up to 75 cm.	eng
183120	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in shallow waters and likes to bask near the surface. Eggs are deposited n the vegetation. It is a piscivore. Non-migratory.	eng
183120	habitat	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This subspecies inhabits the shallow warm bays inlakes where it mainly feeds on fish (Copley, 1952, 1958, Blanche, 1964). It is a bottom feeder and predates on siluroids, eels and tilapias, as well as insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, plant fragments and seeds. The spawning period is July - August and the eggs are deposited in vegetation, and the parent guards the young.	eng
183120	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183120	population	Akinyi, E., 2003	No estimates	eng
183120	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183120	population	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183120	threats	Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats. In western Africa this subspecies is threatened by the potential impacts of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui River.	eng
183120	threats	Akinyi, E., 2003	Not known. It is not commercially fished.	eng
183120	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Potential impacts of the proposed basin water transfer from Oubangui River.	eng
183120	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183121	conservation	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The subspecies also has some protection in the Okavango Delta reserves.	eng
183121	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since the first of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
183121	conservation	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has some protection in the Okavango Delta reserves.	eng
183121	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lualaba and from the Kasai. Elsewhere, it is known from the Okovango River, the upper Zambezi River and the Kafue River (Skelton 2001). It is also known from the Cunene River and the middle Zambezi River including the Luangwa River. It has been translocated to localities in Zimbabwe and to the Limpopo River and Natal, South Africa (Skelton and Teugels 1991).	eng
183121	distribution	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	The subspecies has been recorded from Upper Zambezi, Okavango, Kafue and Zambian Congo systems. Its native range in Zimbabwe is the Zambezi River above Victoria Falls although two specimens were taken in Lake Kariba in 1968 (Balon 1974a) and some were stocked in 1975 (Kenmuir 1983). It has been widely translocated by anglers in Zimbabwe and could be expected in almost any river or impoundment on the central plateau.	eng
183121	distribution	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This subspecies is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru system, from the Lualaba and from the Kasai.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is found in the upper Zambezi, Okavango, Kafue and Zambian Congo systems. Its native range in Zimbabwe is the Zambezi River above Victoria Falls although two specimens were taken in Lake Kariba in 1968 (Balon 1974) and some were stocked in 1975 (Kenmuir 1983). It has been widely translocated by anglers in Zimbabwe and could be expected in almost any river or impoundments on the central plateau.	eng
183121	habitat	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is a demersal subspecies that mainly feeds on small fish, including squeakers (<em>Synodontis</em> spp.), insects and other small animals (Jackson 1961).  Larger specimens prefer deeper water close to the bank, both in quiet water in eddies and also in strong current where the bank is being undercut. Smaller specimens are widespread including vegetation fringing the main channels,open and closed lagoons, and small tributaries (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al.</em> 2004). In its introduced range it occurs in streams and impoundments with varying characteristics. This subspecies incubates the eggs in the mouth. It breeds in summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of the mainstream. Winemiller (1991) classified the subspecies as a river-dwelling, epibenthic, diurnal piscivore.	eng
183121	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Serranochromis robustus jallae</em> is a demersal subspecies that mainly feeds on small fish, insects and other small animals (Jackson 1961). This subspecies incubates the eggs in the mouth. It constructs a shallow concave nest on a sandy or muddy substrate in fairly shallow water.	eng
183121	habitat	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Larger specimens prefer deeper water close to the bank, both in quiet water in eddies and also in strong current where the bank is being undercut. Smaller specimens are widespread including vegetation fringing the main channels,open and closed lagoons, and small tributaries (Skelton 2001; Tweddle <em>et al. </em>2004). In its introduced range it occurs in streams and impoundments with varying characteristics. Preys on fish, including squeakers (<span style="font-style: italic;">Synodontis</span> spp.). Breeds in summer, nesting along vegetated fringes of the mainstream. Winemiller (1991) classified the species as a river-dwelling, epibenthic, diurnal piscivore.	eng
183121	population	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	Common and widespread.	eng
183121	population	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	It is common and widespread.	eng
183121	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183121	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation.	eng
183121	threats	Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Mining in the Katanga region for cobalt, copper, tin, uranium, dams and the use of toxic plants for fishing and overfishing form threats in this region. Artisanal, but very intensively diamond mining is a very important threat in small rivers in the Kasai region. The sand from digging in the river and the river beds causes sedimentation. Localised fishing effort depletes adult populations.	eng
183121	threats	Marshall, B.E & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known, although localised fishing effort depletes adult populations.	eng
183123	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183123	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is known from the middle Niger.	eng
183123	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	It is a demersal fish of 19.5 cm TL	eng
183123	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183123	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Threats include agricultural, urban and deforestation developments, and oil exploration in Nigeria.	eng
183124	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
183124	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, occurring in Lake Barombi-ba-Kotto and immediate vicinity, Cameroon.	eng
183124	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183124	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183124	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The subspecies is potentially threatened by crater lake 'burping' - CO<sub>2</sub> gasses (pers. comm., Brummet, R.) as in Lake Nyos. There is evidence that the lake released some CO<sub>2</sub> in 2007, as many deep water species were found dead on the surface in the middle of the lake, the water was also very turbid (pers. comm., Dening, C.). Deforestation, palm oil plantation and slash and burn agriculture are leading to pollution and sedimentation of the lake. Deforestation of the area surrounding the lake would lead to increased wind and therefore risk of turnover (it is a stratified lake, where the lower part is very low in oxygen and high in organic matter). This would destroy the top stratified layer where the fish live. Water abstraction is also present in the lake to supply the town of Kumba, which is likely to increase. This will also increase the likelihood of the two stratified layers mixing. There are also plans to commercial development the area for tourism. However, there are no introduced species in the lake, and commercial fishing is forbidden in the lake.	eng
183125	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183125	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus isidori osborni</em> is known from the central and upper Congo River basin, without the Mweru-Luapula-Banhweulu system.	eng
183125	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183125	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183125	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183126	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183126	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is apparently restricted to the drainage systems of the upper Pra and Ankabra rivers and their tributaries, the Ofin, Anum and Birim rivers, in the Southwestern part of Central Ghana	eng
183126	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies usually inhabits the quiet parts of small rivers and creeks. Maximum size: male 65 mm TL, female 55 mm TL	eng
183126	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183126	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Main threats are from mining activities in the Pra. These effluents may contain heavy metals like arsenic, mercury and compounds like cyanide. Also, the removal of vegetation for mining activities, and commercial timber felling, may cause increasing sediment loads. Another major threat is pollution of the water bodies by inadequately treated human waste and by domestic discharges arising from increasing residential developments.	eng
183127	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183127	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, known from coastal zone of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Distribution remains unclear. (Falk <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
183127	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon nigripinnis nigripinnis</em> prefers brackish water but is found in freshwater during low tide (Roman 1971). It is a male mouth-brooder (Loubens 1964). This subspecies is demersal.	eng
183127	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183127	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183128	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183128	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus rume proboscirostris</em> is known from throughout the Congo River basin, with exception of the Lufira and Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu systems.	eng
183128	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal subspecies. Females lay about 300 eggs averaged (Seidel 2003). The eggs hatch at day 4 and need food from day 10 onwards.	eng
183128	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183128	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183129	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st of May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes.	eng
183129	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pollimyrus stappersii stappersii</em> is known from the Mweru-Luapula-Bangweulu system, upper Congo River basin.	eng
183129	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183129	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183129	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies.	eng
183130	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183130	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Petrocephalus catostoma congicus</em> is known from the upper Lomami, Central Congo River basin and from the Lualaba and Malembia River, upper Congo River basin. It is expected to be more widespread though.	eng
183130	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183130	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183130	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Industrial diamond mining is a very important threat for the Upper Lomami location.	eng
183132	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183132	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies is found from the Lower Sassandra River system in Southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, eastward to the Tano River system in Southwestern Ghana.	eng
183132	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies inhabits swamps, creeks and small rivers, usually under rainforest cover, in the coastal lowlands.	eng
183132	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183132	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	Agricultural, urban, mining and deforestation threaten this fish.	eng
183133	conservation	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183133	distribution	Kazembe, J., 2006	This subspecies occurs in Lake Malawi and the upper Shire River. It has also been translocated to the Ruo river (Malawi).	eng
183133	habitat	Kazembe, J., 2006	This fish is common in vegetated areas in the shallows bordering main rivers. It feeds on fish. It breeds in the summer along vegetated fringes of streams. It is a large cichlid and can attain about 50 cm in length and over 2 kg in weight. It is widespread but not abundant in Lake Malawi.	eng
183133	population	Kazembe, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183133	threats	Kazembe, J., 2006	Fishing of this subspecies is unlikely to be having a major impact at the moment, although could increase in the future. Other threats are unknown.	eng
183134	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	Since 2007 it has been prohibited to fish in Lake Mweru and the Luapula River on the Congolese site of the border. In Zambia, there is the Kasanka National Park around Lake Bangweulu. The fines didn’t work in this region. Even scientific collections were stopped. The government has burned 10,000 nets after measuring the nets. The governor (Morris Katunge) has paid the fishermen. Since 1st May 2008, fishing was allowed again, but with controlled mesh sizes. The part of the subspecies distribution in the Lufira basin is located in the National Park of Upemba.	eng
183134	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus caballus asinus</em> is known from the Luapula-Mweru and Chambezi basins. The subspecies is probably more widespread in these basins than currently known.	eng
183134	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183134	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183134	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Overfishing in Luapula and Lake Mweru with drawnets pose threats to the subspecies.	eng
183135	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
183135	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This fish occurs in Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire (Tai area), and also in Guinea.	eng
183135	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	This subspecies occurs in swamps, small streams and rivers. It is not a seasonal killifish. It is difficult to maintain in aquarium. This is a benthopelagic subspecies.	eng
183135	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No available data.	eng
183135	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	Deforestation, sedimentation, and mining in Liberia are threats.	eng
183136	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183136	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is restricted to coastal rivers (Komoe, Bandama and Sassandra) in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
183136	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183136	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183136	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No current threats known.	eng
183137	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183137	conservation	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	Population trends should be monitored.	eng
183137	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron heudeloti</em>i is recorded from Mauritania.<br/><br/>Globally, the taxon is found from Mauritania to Guinea.	eng
183137	distribution	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies is known from brackish water from Mauritania to Guinea. The subspecies had been introduced in many other countries and basins.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> In north Africa it is known from Mauritania.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is present from Senegal to Guinea.	eng
183137	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It inhabits in brackish water.	eng
183137	habitat	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This is a demersal subspecies found in brackish and fresh water. The subspecies is a microphage feeding on plankton and detritous (Pasquelin 1982, Diouf 1996). It reproduces in estuaries and lagoons.	eng
183137	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183137	population	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No information available.	eng
183137	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183137	threats	Azeroual, A., Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This subspecies is threatened by overfishing, dams and drought. The Diama dam on the Senegal river (built in 1986), has led to the reduction of the brackish water zone where this subspecies lives. The production of freshwater fish below the dam has almost dropped to zero. The dam has impacted many fish species (including <em>Sarotherodon melanotheron heudelotii</em>) some of which are migratory and can no longer reach above the dam.	eng
183138	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183138	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mormyrus caballus bumbanus</em> is known from the northern tributaries of the Congo River, including the Dja and Bumba Rivers in Cameroon and the Ubangui River. It is also known from the Central Congo River itself to Kisangani (Stanleyville).	eng
183138	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal fish.	eng
183138	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183138	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183139	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2007	None known.	eng
183139	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2007	This subspecies inhabits brooks and rivers under rainforest cover in the coastal lowlands of Southern Liberia, from the Lower Saint Paul River to the Lower Cestos (Cess, Nipoué) River.	eng
183139	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The fish inhabits brooks and rivers under rainforest cover in the coastal lowlands	eng
183139	population	Lalèyè, P., 2007	No available data.	eng
183139	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2007	The extent and quality of habitat is undergoing a continuous decline due to mining, urban and forestry developments.	eng
183140	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this subspecies' taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183140	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	A Lower Guinea endemic, found in the drainage system of the upper Cross River, in the rainforest of the Mamfe lowlands in southwestern Cameroon.	eng
183140	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Fundulopanchax (Paraphyosemion) gardneri mamfensis</em> inhabits mainly the shallow parts of pools and brooks. It is a benthopelagic, non-migratory subspecies.	eng
183140	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183140	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The upper Cross locations are being impacted by deforestation.	eng
183152	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	None known.	eng
183152	conservation	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2006	Protected in some coastal reserves.	eng
183152	conservation	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is protected in some coastal reserves in southern Africa. More information on threats to this species is needed, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
183152	distribution	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2006	The species has been recorded from Sabaki River, Kenya to Coffee Bay, South Africa; also Madagascar (Skelton 2001). It is reported from Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183152	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is widespread throughout the coastal rivers of eastern Africa.	eng
183152	distribution	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the coastal rivers of Eastern Africa, as well as Madagascar (Skelton 2001).<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found the entire coast length from Sabaki River, Kenya, southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong>  It is present from Mozambique to Coffee Bay, South Africa. It is also reported from Zimbabwe (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988).	eng
183152	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams. Found in quiet waters amongst vegetation (Dawson). Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms. The male broods the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch (Skelton 1993).	eng
183152	habitat	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2006	Occurs in coastal rivers and streams where it can be found in quiet water among vegetation (Skelton 2001) or in the vicinity of logs at river edges. Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms such as crustaceans and insects. Ovoviviparous, during mating the female passes eggs to the male and the eggs become fertilised as they pass into the pouch of the male. The male brood the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch. After about three weeks the pouch opens and the male gives birth to fully formed young. The young begin to feed soon and may take refuge in the male pouch if necessary.	eng
183152	habitat	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species occurs in coastal rivers and streams where it can be found in quiet water among vegetation (Skelton 2001) or in the vicinity of logs at river edges. Probably feeds on minute invertebrate organisms such as crustaceans and insects. Ovoviviparous, during mating the female passes eggs to the male and the eggs become fertilised as they pass into the pouch of the male. The male brood the eggs and larvae in an abdominal pouch. After about three weeks the pouch opens and the male gives birth to fully formed young. The young begin to feed soon and may take refuge in the male pouch if necessary.	eng
183152	population	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2006	A widespread species.	eng
183152	population	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183152	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183152	threats	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183152	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183152	threats	Cambray, J. & Tweddle, D., 2006	None known.	eng
183153	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183153	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Myrophis plumbeus</em> is known from Malela and Banana, Lower Congo River. Eastern tropical Atlantic from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo (Leiby 1990). According to McCosker <em>et al.</em> (1989) also present in the western Atlantic: Suriname, French Guiana, south to Brazil (Smith 1997).	eng
183153	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in the eastern tropical Atlantic from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo (Leiby 1990). According to McCosker <em>et al.</em> (1989) also present in the western Atlantic: Suriname and French Guiana, south to Brazil (Smith 1997).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Myrophis plumbeus</em> is known from Malela and Banana, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in coastal areas from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
183153	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	A common littoral species, mainly frequenting muddy or sandy bottoms of estuaries, bays, mangroves and the outlets of lagoons (Blache 1968; Leiby 1990). Species known from inshore brackish and freshwater (Leiby 1990). Living burrowed with only the head and the throat region out of the sediment. Adults mainly feeding on crabs, rarely on fish (Blache, 1968). Demersal; burrows in mud or sand in shallow waters of bays and estuaries (Leiby 1990). It prefers tropical climate.	eng
183153	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	A common littoral species, mainly frequenting muddy or sandy bottoms of estuaries, bays, mangroves and the outlets of lagoons (Blache 1968, Leiby 1990). This species known from inshore brackish and freshwater (Leiby 1990). It can be found living burrowed with only the head and the throat region out of the sediment. Adults mainly feed on crabs, rarely on fish (Blach 1968). Burrows in mud or sand in shallow waters of bays and estuaries (Leiby 1990).	eng
183153	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183153	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available on threats to this species.	eng
183154	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183154	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183154	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>The distribution area of this species is rather limited. Described from the surroundings of Abidjan and Agboville in Côte d’Ivoire, it has been found in the Banco, Agnébi and Mé, all small coastal basins in Southern Côte d’Ivoire. It has also been reported from Southwestern Ghana, but we have not examined any specimens from that region. <br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It has also reported from Madagascar at Soumou River.	eng
183154	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	The distribution area of this species is rather limited. It is described from the surroundings of Abidjan and Agboville in Côte d'Ivoire, it has been found in the Banco, Agnébi and Mé, all small coastal basins in Southern Côte d'Ivoire. It has also been reported from southwestern Ghana, but this needs to be verified.<br/><br/>Global distribution: It has also reported from Madagascar at Soumou River.	eng
183154	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is a benthopelagic fish that occurs in running freshwater.	eng
183154	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is benthopelagic fish; it occurs in running freshwater.	eng
183154	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183154	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	No available data.	eng
183154	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Agriculture and urban development.	eng
183154	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is threatened by agriculture and urban development.	eng
183155	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Little is known about genetic structuring on eel populations and this needs investigation before eels are moved around for farming operations. The impacts of exploitation are unknown and basic biology of eels in southern African rivers is needed e.g. age and growth, population numbers etc. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions. Collection of glass eels and elvers for aquaculture purposes should be prohibited.	eng
183155	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J.., 2006	Little is known about genetic structuring on eel populations and this needs investigation before eels are moved around for farming operations. The impacts of exploitation are unknown and basic biology of eels in southern African rivers is needed e.g., age and growth, population numbers etc. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.  Do not allow collection of glass eels and elvers for aquaculture purposes.	eng
183155	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available	eng
183155	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Found in East Coast Rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Athi and Tana River systems (Copley 1941 1958)(see Seegers <em>et al. 2004).	eng
183155	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J.., 2006	The species has been recorded from the East coast rivers from near Cape Town north into Kenya. It is present in other western Indian Ocean islands e.g., Madagascar. Within Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces this species reaches higher up in catchments than any other eel.	eng
183155	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in east African coastal rivers, from South Africa to Kenya. It is also present in other western Indian Ocean islands, such as Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>Found in East Coast Rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988), including the Athi and Tana River systems (Copley 1941, 1958)(see Seegers<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><em>et al</em> 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> East coast rivers from near Cape Town north into Kenya.  Within Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces this species reaches higher up in catchments than any other eel.	eng
183155	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J.., 2006	Breeds at sea and migrates well inland as elvers. Matures in freshwaters. Eats freshwater invertebrates and fishes.	eng
183155	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Migratory species (catadromous) (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished). Inhabits both quiet and fast flowing water. Elvers ascend rivers mainly at night and overcome waterfalls and walls of dams with great determination (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Carnivorous, eats dead or living prey but especially fish and crabs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). After feeding in freshwater for ten years or more, adults assume a silver breeding dress, the eyes become enlarged and they return to sea to breed. Considered to breed east of Madagascar but thought to move soouth of that island in its way to the Mozambique coast and South African rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Flesh fatty but highly esteemed as smoked or jellied eel (Bruton <em>et al. 1982) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).</em></em>	eng
183155	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This is a migratory species (catadromous) (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003). It inhabits both quiet and fast flowing water. Elvers ascend rivers mainly at night and overcome waterfalls and walls of dams with great determination (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). This species is carnivorous, eating dead or living prey but especially fish and crabs (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). After feeding in freshwater for ten years or more, adults assume a silver breeding dress, the eyes become enlarged and they return to sea to breed. Considered to breed east of Madagascar but thought to move south of that island on its way to the Mozambique coast and South African rivers (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Flesh fatty but highly esteemed as smoked or jellied eel (Bruton <em>et al.</em> 1982) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).<br/>Max size: 150 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
183155	population	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J.., 2006	Common.	eng
183155	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183155	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183155	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Marshall, B. & Snoeks, J., 2009	Development of industries to exploit eels could threaten eels in several ways. Movement of eels could cause homogenisation of stocks and capture of juveniles as they enter estuaries as glass eels could decimate river stocks. The impacts of such activities is unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed. Overfishing is thought to be a threat in eastern Africa, and within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.	eng
183155	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J.., 2006	Development of industries to exploit eels could threaten eels in several ways. Movement of eels could cause homogenisation of stocks and capture of juveniles as they enter estuaries as glass eels could decimate river stocks. The impacts of such activities is unknown, however, in all other areas of the world where they are exploited eel stocks have collapsed. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.	eng
183155	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The main threat to the species is overfishing.	eng
183156	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	None known.	eng
183156	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known.	eng
183156	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183156	conservation	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, and potential threats, as well as monitoring of the population trends.	eng
183156	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from Senegal to the Cunene River, and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene mouth and Bengo.	eng
183156	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> is known from Malela, Zambi and Boma, Lower Congo River. <br/><br/>Elsewhere, it is known from St. Louis, Senegal to the Cunene River, Angola and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea.	eng
183156	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>St. Louis, Senegal to the to Cross River, Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>This fish occurs in St. Louis, Senegal to the Cunene River, Angola and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea. Reported from the East Coast drainage of Africa.	eng
183156	distribution	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Angola, and from the islands of Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Awaous lateristriga</em> is known from Malela, Zambi and Boma, Lower Congo River.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, the species occurs in the Kunene mouth and Bengo.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from St. Louis, Senegal to the to Cross River, Nigeria.	eng
183156	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Awaous lateristriga</em> occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. It is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
183156	habitat	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Awaous lateristriga</em> occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. It is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. It is a demersal and amphidromous species (McDowall 1997). It is an ovoviviparous species, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
183156	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	Occurs usually in fresh waters, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. Also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. Ovoviviparous species. The male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
183156	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	The species occurs usually in freshwater, but occasionally encountered in brackish waters of intermittent streams during dry seasons. This is also found in flooded fields and marginal swamps along courses of streams and rivers. Amphidromous.	eng
183156	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	No data on population trends	eng
183156	population	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183156	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183156	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
183156	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	No major threats known.	eng
183156	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., 2006	None known	eng
183156	threats	da Costa, L., Entsua-Mensah, M. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183156	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183157	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183157	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183157	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Specimens examined from Lower Cross, Niger Delta (Imo and Osse) and lower Ogun but the distribution seems to be much wider that this. Also reported from Lokoja near the confluence of the Benue and Niger, the lower Benue, Chari in the Chad basin, lower Oueme in Benin and Jong in Sierra Leone (a relict population).<br/><strong><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Central Africa and Upper Zambezi.	eng
183157	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is patchily distributed from Benin to Chad, and south to Gabon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) upstream to Tanganga River, Lualaba River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Cross River (Nigeria), mouths of small coastal basins between the Cross and the Sanaga Rivers (Cameroon), and the southern part of the Ogowe (Gabon). <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Specimens have been collected from Lower Cross Niger Delta (Imo and Osse) and Lower Ogun but the distribution seems to be much wider that this. Also reported from Lokoja near the confluence of the Benue and Niger, the Lower Benue, Chari in the Chad basin, and Lower Oueme in Benin.	eng
183157	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is a pelagic, potamodromous species. It is a species from calm waters (White 1994). It lives in swamps, creeks and backwaters (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998), and inhabits the calmer parts of rivers (Matthes 1964), where it can be seen on the surface waters (Gosse 1963). They are capable of jumping out of the water, to search for insects or to escape from predators (Teugels 1990). It is not a glider, but a ballistic jumper (Saidel <em>et al.</em> 2004), with a tremendous jumping power (Olaosebikan and Raji 1998). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is an exophageous insectivore, feeding on terrestrial insects and aquatic larvae and nymphs of insects (Matthes 1964). It also feeds on crustaceans and fish (Mills and Vevers 1989). It was introduced in 1905 to European aquarists (White 1994, Arnold 1935). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> is a favourite fish for aquarists; in the aquarium it can rest with the top of the head and the large pectoral fins touching the surface, while the long rays of the pelvic fin hang down perpendicularly, forming a tempting morsel for other aggressive fish in the same tank, and therefore it should be stocked together with only bottom dwellers (Reed <em>et al.</em> 1967). <em>Pantodon buchholzi</em> lays 80 to 220 eggs (Riehl and Baensch 1996).	eng
183157	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Pelagic fish that inhabits surface waters. Can leap out of the water and glide for short distances. Feeds on crustaceans, insects and fish. Lays between 80 and 220 eggs.	eng
183157	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183157	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183157	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	It has commercial value as an aquarium fish.	eng
183157	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183158	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183158	conservation	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183158	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	The species is distributed in the estuaries and lower/middle reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.	eng
183158	distribution	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species occurs from East Africa to Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Queensland, Australia and New Caledonia.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong>  It is distributed in the estuaries and lower/middle reaches of rivers along the eastern Africa coastline.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> Its range in Africa extends southwards to South Africa.	eng
183158	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Mainly freshwater, occuring occasionally in sea (Maugé 1986). Occurs in estuaries and the middle reaches of rivers, usually in fast-flowing clear streams (Randall and Randall 2001).	eng
183158	habitat	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is mainly freshwater, occurring occasionally in sea (Maugé 1986). It occurs in estuaries and the middle reaches of rivers, usually in fast-flowing clear streams (Randall and Randall 2001).	eng
183158	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183158	population	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183158	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183158	threats	Hanssens, M & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183160	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183160	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species is protected in some estuarine reserves.	eng
183160	conservation	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The species is protected in some estuarine reserves in southern Africa.	eng
183160	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower reaches of the East African coastal rivers such as the lower Tana River and Sabaki-Galana river system. Also found in Mzima Springs (Tsavo system).	eng
183160	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	The species has been recorded from the east coastal rivers and estuaries south to Algoa Bay (Skelton 2001), also Madagascar.	eng
183160	distribution	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is known from east coast rivers and estuaries from Somalia to South Africa, as well as Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in the lower reaches of the east African coastal rivers such as the lower Tana River and Sabaki-Galana river system. Also found in Mzima Springs (Tsavo system).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is found in the northern coastal rivers of Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present from Mozambique, south to Algoa Bay (Skelton 2001).	eng
183160	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Found in pools and running water, usually over sandy bottoms into which it may bury itself with only the head and eyes exposed. Preys on invertebrates (Skelton 2001). Occasionally penetrates well inland, e.g.,  found in the upper reaches of the Mhlatuzane River, Usuthu system, Swaziland at an altitude of 600 m (Bills <em>et al. </em>2004).	eng
183160	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Fresh and brackish waters, most rivers and estuaries (Maugé 1986). Found in pools and running water, usually over sandy substrate into which it may bury itself (Skelton 1993). Diet is mainly invertebrates (Skelton 1993).	eng
183160	habitat	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is present in fresh and brackish waters, most rivers and estuaries (Maugé 1986). It is found in pools and running water, usually over sandy substrate into which it may bury itself with only the head and eyes exposed (Skelton 1993). It preys mainly on invertebrates (Skelton 1993). Occasionally penetrates well inland, e.g. found in the upper reaches of the Mhlatuzane River, Usuthu system, Swaziland at an altitude of 600 m (Bills <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183160	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183160	population	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	Not known, but widespread and probably common.	eng
183160	population	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Not known, but widespread and probably common.	eng
183160	threats	Cambray, J., Hanssens, M., Snoeks, J. & Tweddle, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183160	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183160	threats	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
183161	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
183161	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183161	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183161	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found in rivers in vicinity of Limbe, Cameroon, and from the islands of Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu (Annobón) in the Gulf of Guinea. It is possibly more widespread than currently known.	eng
183161	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is brackish/ freshwater fish that is found in most coastal drainage basins of Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria.  <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Mainly know in western Africa from Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe. Widespread in the coastal drainages of the Gulf of Guinee.	eng
183161	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This is a brackishwater/freshwater fish that is found in most coastal drainage basins of Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria, and from the islands of Sao Tome, Principe, and Pagalu (Annobón) in the Gulf of Guinea.  It is possibly more widespread than currently known.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found in rivers in vicinity of Limbe, Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found in lower courses of rivers in Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria to Cameroon.	eng
183161	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison, 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters. demersal; Larvae ascend rivers, adults occur in freshwater (Maugé 1986).	eng
183161	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Sicydium brevifile</em> is found principally in fast-flowing parts of rivers with rocky substrates and usually associated with rainforest zones. Mainly brackish but both larvae and adults ascends freshwater mainly Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe to feed. Adults apparently spawn in freshwater but the larvae are carried downstream to the sea, metamorphose, and migrate back upstream (Harrison 1993). This cycle explains the presence of small specimens in coastal waters.	eng
183161	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is mainly brackish but both larvae and adults ascends freshwater mainly Kribi, Lokunje, Lobe in Cameroon and Rivers of Sao Tome and Principe to feed.	eng
183161	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183161	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183161	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183161	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183161	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal regions of Cameroon.	eng
183161	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is threatened by the oil palm plantations in the coastal regions of Cameroon.	eng
183162	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183162	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183162	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Aplocheilichthys pfaffi</em>is present in Egypt.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Sudan, Niger, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso (Upper Volta), Chad and Cameroon.	eng
183162	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Living in the drainage system of the Bafing and Upper Niger rivers in Guinea, the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in northern Cote d’Ivoire, the Black Volta, White Volta and Comoé rivers in the Burkina Faso, the Upper Volta River in Ghana; the Niger River in Niger; the Niger River and Lake Chad, in Northern Nigeria; Lake Chad, in Northern Cameroon; Lake Chad and the Chari River basin in Chad and probably also in Northern Central African Republic. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also known from Egypt.	eng
183162	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species can be found living in the drainage system of the Bafing and This species is known from upper Niger rivers in Guinea, the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in northern Cote d'Ivoire, the Black Volta, White Volta and Comoé rivers in the Burkina Faso, and the upper Volta River in Ghana. It is also present in the Niger River and Lake Chad, and the Chari River basin in Chad and probably also in northern Central African Republic.	eng
183162	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Occurs in small rivers, brooks and swamps. Not a seasonal killifish.	eng
183162	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in small rivers, brooks swamps and shallow parts of larger water bodies. A benthopelagic species.. Non-migratory. Not a seasonal killifish.	eng
183162	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is found in small rivers, brooks swamps and shallow parts of larger water bodies. It is benthopelagic and non-migratory. It is not a seasonal killifish.	eng
183162	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183162	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends is available.	eng
183162	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183162	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Locally impacted by deforestation	eng
183162	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	Potential threats in the region are dams, water pollution (Agriculture, Domestic and Commercial/Industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183162	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is locally impacted by deforestation.	eng
183163	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183163	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183163	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
183163	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183163	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183163	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is widely distributed across the northern half of Africa. It is naturally known from South Morocco, Sahara and different river basins in West Africa, like Senegal River, Ogun River, Sassandra River, Volta basin, Niger basin, and Benoue River. It also occurs in the Chad basin, the Ubangui-Uélé-Ituri River, Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River and the Jordan system. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Tilapia zillii</em> has been introduced in 1949 as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, from the Fisheries station of Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. The name <em>T. melanopleura</em> was then used for <em>T. rendalli</em>. Apparently, a mix was created at Yangambi between this population of <em>T. rendalli</em>, originating from Katanga, and <em>T. zillii</em>. The latter, even if rather uncommon in the Kibali-Ituri forest biotope (Thys van den Audenaerde, pers. comm. in Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007), had gradually replaced <em>T. rendalli</em> in the ponds at Yangambi. This mix was transported to Cameroon, and as a result the specimens were at least in part <em>T. zillii</em>. The presence of <em>T. zillii</em> in Cameroon is confirmed by several museum records.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Native to Lakes Turkana and Albert. Introduced into the Lake Victoria system, Lake Naivasha and Tana River. According to Welcomme (1967; 1988) introduced in 1953-1955 from Lake Albert into Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria to fill a vacant niche. Introduced in Lake Navaisha in 1955. Mann (1968) reported established 'wild' populations of <em>Tilapia zillii</em> in the Tana River (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2003).  In general it is widely distributed throughout Uganda through introductions in dams and ponds for aquaculture.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Common in coastal lagoons, Lakes (Qarun, Wadi El Rayan, Manzalah, Burllos, Maruit, and Abu Zabal) and along the River Nile in Egypt. Native in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Kraiem pers comm 2007).<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This species is known from the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile to Khartoum, and Lakes Kundi and Keilak. It has also been introduced into several water bodies of Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is occurs in the Senegal, the Niger (and Benue), Chad basin, Volta, Ogun, Oshun, Bia, Comoé, Mé, Bandama, Boubo, Sassandra and Ouémé.	eng
183163	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is common in coastal lagoons, Lakes (Qarun, Wadi El Rayan, Manzalah, Burllos, Maruit, and Abu Zabal and along the River Nile in Egypt. It is native to Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Kraïem pers. comm. 2007).<br/><br/>At global scale, it can be found in Africa, North of the Equator (River Nile system and Western Africa to Morocco) and Middle East (Jordan Valley, Syria). It has been recently introduced to East Africa, United States (California, Florida, and Hawaii), southern Russia, Japan, Malaysia and Philippines. It has started to contribute to the harvest of Lake Nasser.	eng
183163	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Tilapia zillii</em> is naturally known from South Morocco, Sahara and different river basins in West Africa, like Senegal River, Ogun River, Sassandra River, Volta basin, Niger basin, and Benoue River. It also occurs in the Chad basin, the Ubangui-Uélé-Ituri River, Lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile River and the Jordan system. <em>Tilapia zillii</em> has been introduced, in 1949, as <em>Tilapia melanopleura</em>, from the Fisheries station of Yangambi (0°47’N-24°28’E), Democratic Republic of Congo, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. The name <em>T. melanopleura</em> was then used for <em>T. rendalli</em>. Apparently, a mix was created at Yangambi between this population of <em>T. rendalli</em>, originating from Katanga, and <em>T. zillii</em>. The latter, even if rather uncommon in the Kibali-Ituri forest biotope (Thys van den Audenaerde, pers. comm. in Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007), had gradually replaced <em>T. rendalli</em> in the ponds at Yangambi. This mix was transported to Cameroon, and as a result the specimens were at least in part <em>T. zillii</em>. The presence of <em>T. zillii</em> in Cameroon is confirmed by several museum records.	eng
183163	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Native to Lakes Turkana and Albert. Introduced into the Lake Victoria system, Lake Naivasha and Tana River. According to Welcomme (1967; 1988) introduced in 1953-1955 from Lake Albert into Kenyan waters of Lake Victoria to fill a vacant niche. Introduced in Lake Navaisha in 1955. Mann (1968) reported established 'wild' populations of Tilapia zillii in the Tana River (Seegers <em>et al. unpublished).  In general it is widely distributed throughout Uganda through introductions in dams and ponds for aquaculture.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widely distributed in other parts of Africa.	eng
183163	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, <span style="font-style: italic;">Tilapia zillii</span> is occurs in the Senegal, the Niger (and Benue), Chad basin, Volta, Ogun, Oshun, Bia, Comoé, Mé, Bandama, Boubo, Sassandra and Ouémé. <br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution:</span> Elsewhere it is known from the Ubangui, Uélé, and Ituri (Congo), Lake Albert, Nile, Lake Turkana and the Jordan basin. It has been introduced into several catchments.	eng
183163	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	A diurnal fish preferring shallows areas with vegetations, feeding on aquatic weeds and epiphytic diatoms. It is the most salt tolerant of all <em>Tilapia</em> species, tolerating salinities as high as 40 NaCl (sodium chloride). Spawning season extends from May to August. It builds nests for egg incubation, i.e., it is not a mouth breeder. It can be found in areas with water temperatures below 13°C. It reaches a maximum length to 29 cm.	eng
183163	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Depth range 0-30 m but it is most common between 0 and 10 m. It is caught in shallow marginal waters in the waterlily zones, inlets, drowned forest areas, and also on sandy shores (Witte and de Winter 1995). Feeds on higher plants in many of its native lakes. In Lake Victoria it feeds mainly on bottom deposits due to a lack of submerged vegetation (Witte and de Winter 1995). Reproduces throughout the year with a slight increase during the rainy season. Spawns on firm clear substrates inshore. Nurseries are on sheltered sandy and shelving rocky shores (Witte and de Winter 1995).	eng
183163	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. It is caught in shallow marginal waters in the waterlily zones, inlets, drowned forest areas, and also on sandy shores (Witte and de Winter 1992). Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain. It is a herbivorous species that feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates. This species reproduces throughout the year with a slight increase during the rainy season. It is a substrate spawner (Bailey 1994). Larvae develop in close association with substrate. It spawns in lake bottoms with pebbles or sand and abundant vegetation (Philippart and Ruwet 1991). Adhesive eggs are laid on the substratum which are guarded by both parents (Eyeson 1983). It has been reported to deposit and guard eggs in shallow nest (Sigler and Sigler 1987). Depth range 0-30 m but it is most common between 0 and 10 m. It is the most salt tolerant of all tilapia species, tolerating salinities as high as 40 NaCl.	eng
183163	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that occasionally forms schools and is mainly diurnal. It prefers shallow,  vegetated areas (Eccles 1992). Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain. It is a  herbivorous species that feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates. It is a substrate spawner (Bailey 1994).  Larvae develop in close association with substrate. It spawns in lake bottoms with pebbles or sand and abundant vegetation  (Philippart and Ruwet 1991). Adhesive eggs are laid on the substratum which are guarded by both parents (Eyeson 1983). It has  been reported to deposit and guard eggs in shallow nest (Sigler and Sigler 1987).	eng
183163	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species is benthopelagic species. Exist naturally in hyper-saline waters at Bardowil lagoons of Israel. In still or running water of upper Niger, the species lives over rock, sand or mud, but generally found in vegetative areas. Occasionally forms schools; is mainly diurnal.  Prefers shallow, vegetated areas.  Fry are common in marginal vegetation and juveniles are found in the seasonal floodplain.  Herbivorous, feeds on water plants and epiphyton, and some invertebrates.  Substrate spawner. Larvae develop in close association with substrate.	eng
183163	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183163	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183163	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183163	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
183163	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	Unknown but common	eng
183163	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a commercially very important species since it is widely used in aquaculture.	eng
183163	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Twongo, T., 2009	<em>Tilapia zillii</em> is a commercially very important species since it is widely used in aquaculture. It is also threatened by habitat destruction - macrophyte beds are destroyed by the use of drag or seine nets. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
183163	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183163	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183163	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hanssens, M., 2003	The main threat to the species is habitat destruction - macrophyte beds are destroyed by the use of drag or seine nets.	eng
183164	conservation	Getahun, A., Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2009	Management plans are needed to reduce the impact of heavy fishing pressure.	eng
183164	conservation	Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2002	No information available.	eng
183164	distribution	Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al. 2004), Lakes Albert and Kioga. Also in the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Northeast Africa within the drainage basin of the Nile River (Blue, White). Not known from east coast rivers. Congo basin.	eng
183164	distribution	Getahun, A., Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2009	This species is found in Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lake Turkana (Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004), Lakes Albert and Kioga. Also in the Murchison Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Baro River and Rift lakes, Ethiopia, and the Sudan Nile.	eng
183164	habitat	Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2002	Restricted to inshore waters and sheltered bays of Lake Albert. A bottom dweller, feeding on ostracods, microscopic plants, macrophytes and sand.	eng
183164	habitat	Getahun, A., Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2009	This species is found in running and standing waters. This species is restricted to inshore waters and sheltered bays of Lake Albert. A bottom dweller, feeding on ostracods, microscopic plants, macrophytes and sand.	eng
183164	population	Getahun, A., Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2009	Thought to be declining (Twongo, pers. obs.)	eng
183164	population	Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2002	Thought to be declinning (Twongo, pers. op.)	eng
183164	threats	Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2002	The main threat to the species is the heavy subsistence fishing pressure.	eng
183164	threats	Getahun, A., Twongo, T.K. & Hansens, M., 2009	This species is threatened by heavy subsistence fishing pressure in eastern Africa.	eng
183165	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183165	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183165	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>Lower courses of Sabaki, Pangani, and Tana rivers.	eng
183165	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is found in the lower courses of Sabaki, Pangani, and Tana rivers in Tanzania. It is also recorded in Madagascar.	eng
183165	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	Mostly found in freshwater but also inhabits estuaries (Fischer <em>et al. 1990). Feeds mainly on invertebrates and small fishes (Fischer <em>et al. 1990).</em></em>	eng
183165	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is mostly found in freshwater but also inhabits estuaries (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). Feeds mainly on invertebrates and small fishes (Fischer <em>et al</em>., 1990).	eng
183165	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183165	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183165	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2004	No information available.	eng
183165	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183166	conservation	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2002	No information available.	eng
183166	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183166	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species biology and ecology, and threats, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
183166	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	In Lower Guinea, <em>Micralestes elongatus</em> is found in the Cross River basin. Elsewhere it is known from the Senegal, Volta, Chad, and Niger Rivers.	eng
183166	distribution	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2002	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lake Turkana<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>most of the Sudani-Sahalian river basins, Lake Chad, and the Niger, Volta, Sénégal and Cross rivers..	eng
183166	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This widespread species is found from Guinea to Central African Republic, and possibly as far as Kenya<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong>In Lower Guinea, <em>Micralestes elongatus</em> is found in the Cross River basin. <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is possible that this species is present in Lake Turkana, but confirmation is needed.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> it inhabits most of the Sahelo-Sudanese basins of West Africa, Chad, Niger, Volta, Senegal and Cross.	eng
183166	habitat	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2002	Inhabits fringing vegetation of rivers and lakes, feeding on zooplankton, beetles and other insects (Bailey 1994) (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
183166	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic.	eng
183166	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is pelagic. It inhabits fringing vegetation of rivers and lakes, feeding on zooplankton, beetles and other insects (Bailey 1994).	eng
183166	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183166	population	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2002	Not known	eng
183166	threats	Akinyi, E. & Hanssens, M., 2002	No major threats known	eng
183166	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The main threat posed to this fish species is increasing farming activities in Sahelo-Sudanese basins which may increase pesticides and other agrochemicals that leach into the water bodies as well as destroy the vegetation in which this species inhabits.	eng
183166	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183167	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183167	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	This species is widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific, as well being present in the Red Sea and along the east coast of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> Its only presence in Africa is widespread along the eastern African coastline.	eng
183167	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	This species inhabits estuaries and lower reaches of coastal rivers and streams (Dawson 1986).	eng
183167	population	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183167	threats	Hanssens, M. & Snoeks, J., 2006	No information available.	eng
183168	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183168	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183168	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>It is in the Cross River (Nigeria) and N'Dian River in Cameroon. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> Elsewhere reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Angola.	eng
183168	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	The distribution of this species is known from coastal rivers in Benin to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Parauchenoglanis monkei</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region from the northwestern part of Cameroon, where it is found in the N?Dian, Mungo, Wouri and downstream part of the Sanag<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong>  It is present in most coastal basins of Benin, and the Cross River (Nigeria).	eng
183168	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species lives in streams feeding on macrofauna, including small fishes (predatory species). Non-migratory.	eng
183168	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species. <em>Parauchenoglanis monkei</em> is a nocturnal and crepuscular species. It preys on larvae, crustaceans and small fish (Burgess 1989)	eng
183168	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183168	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183168	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known but there is a potential threat from oil exploration.	eng
183168	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known but there is a potential threat from oil exploration.	eng
183169	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183169	conservation	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population range, biology and ecology, and threats.	eng
183169	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183169	conservation	da Costa, L., 2006	The species has no protection.	eng
183169	distribution	da Costa, L., 2006	Species present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Lulongo River, at Cabinda province), Bengo River and Kwanza River (at Cunga, Lower Kwanza) systems.	eng
183169	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Eleotris vittata</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Malela, Lower Congo River and from Moanda and Vista coastal Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region where it is on Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu islands, and in the lower courses of rivers from the Cross, south to the Loémé, but does not appear to have been collected from rivers in Gabon. Elsewhere, widespread from Sierra Leone to Angola.	eng
183169	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in small coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks, estuaries and mangrove areas from as far north as possibly Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Senegal to Angola.	eng
183169	distribution	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is present from Senegal to Angola and in the islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Eleotris vittata</em> is known from Boma, Banana, Malela, Lower Congo River and from Moanda and Vista coastal Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from the Lower Guinea region where it is on Bioko, Sao Tome, Principe and Pagalu islands, and in the lower courses of rivers from the Cross south to the Loémé, but does not appear to have been collected from rivers in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> In Angola, it occurs in Chiloango River (Lulongo River, at Cabinda province), Bengo River and Kwanza River (at Cunga, lower Kwanza) systems.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in small coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks, estuaries and mangrove areas from Senegal to Nigeria	eng
183169	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2006	A demersal fish which inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers.	eng
183169	habitat	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris vittata</em> is found in coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks and estuaries. It is demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
183169	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Eleotris vittata</em> is found in coastal rivers, lagoons, creeks and estuaries. It is demersal, amphidromous species (McDowall 1997).	eng
183169	habitat	da Costa, L., 2006	It inhabits lagoons, creeks, estuaries and coastal rivers. Biology is not known.	eng
183169	population	Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183169	population	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183169	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183169	population	da Costa, L., 2006	Population size is not known.	eng
183169	threats	da Costa, L., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183169	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183169	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183169	threats	da Costa, L., 2006	Threats are not known.	eng
183170	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183170	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183170	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, collected from lower course of rivers in Cameroon and Republic of Congo. Ranges from Senegal to Angola (Harrison and Miller 1992), including islands of the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
183170	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Occurs from Senegal to Angola.	eng
183170	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	This species ranges from Senegal to Angola (Harrison and Miller 1992), including islands of the Gulf of Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it has been collected from lower course of rivers in Cameroon and Republic of Congo, but is expected to be found along the entire coastline to Angola. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
183170	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	The species is common in brackish waters of estuaries, also frequently entering freshwaters, often moving up rivers to considerable distance from the sea. It is demersal, occurring in the inshore in the intertidal zone.  It prefers tropical climate.	eng
183170	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species occurs inshore in the intertidal zone. Common in brackish waters of estuaries, but may migrate up rivers into freshwaters, often at considerable distance from the sea (Harrison <em>et al. </em>2003).	eng
183170	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This species is common in brackish waters of estuaries, also frequently entering freshwaters, often moving up rivers to considerable distance from the sea (Harrison<em> et al</em>. 2003). It is demersal, and occurs inshore in the intertidal zone.	eng
183170	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183170	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183170	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183170	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183171	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183171	conservation	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183171	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183171	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Liza dumerili</em> is usually found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980; Harrison, personal observation). Elsewhere, it occurs along Atlantic coast of Africa from Mauritania to Namibia, and along Cape and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa from Mossel Bay (South Africa) to Delagoa Bay (Mozambique).	eng
183171	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Widely distributed along the western Africa coast.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Mauritania to South Africa. Western Indian Ocean: Delagoa Bay, Mozambique to Mossel Bay, South Africa.	eng
183171	distribution	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species occurs along Atlantic coast of Africa from Mauritania to Namibia, and along Cape and Indian Ocean coasts of Africa from South Africa to Delagoa Bay Mozambique.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Liza dumerili</em> is usually found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980, Harrison pers. obs.). <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> On the west coast the species range extends into Namibia, whilst on the east coast it can be found from Mossel Bay (South Africa) to Delagoa Bay (Mozambique).<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is widely distributed along the western Africa coast.	eng
183171	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal and catadromous fish that occurs in freshwater, brackish and marine waters. Inhabits shallow coastal waters, including estuaries and tidal rivers. It shows a remarkable adaptation to the hyperhalinity (up to 97 % in Sine Saloum, in Senegal). The species is a detritivore feeding upon algae and small benthic organizations. It also swallows the mud which it filters thanks to well developed branchiospines.	eng
183171	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	Found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais, 1980; Harrison, personal observation). This species is demersal; catadromous; Inhabits shallow coastal waters (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993), including estuaries (Schneider 1990) and tidal rivers (Thomson 1986).  Feeds on plankton and detritus (Diouf 1996).	eng
183171	habitat	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is found in estuarine, brackish or marine waters throughout the region, but may also be found in freshwater and supersaline environments (Marais 1980). This species is demersal; catadromous; This species inhabits shallow coastal waters (Bianchi <em>et al.</em> 1993), including estuaries (Schneider 1990) and tidal rivers (Thomson 1986). It shows a remarkable adaptation to the hyperhalinity (up to 97 % in Sine Saloum, in Senegal). The species is a detritivore feeding upon algae and small benthic organizations. It also swallows the mud which it filters thanks to well developed branchiospines.	eng
183171	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183171	population	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183171	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183171	threats	Bousso, T., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	Mugilidae are highly exploited in the estuaries of Senegal and Mauritania. In addition, dams on the river Senegal have formed a physical barrier which stops the migration of Mugilidae. They have also caused the brackish water zone to reduce considerably in the Senegal river (approximately 200 km length before the construction of Diama dam, now does not extend any more than 50 km).	eng
183171	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Mugilidae are highly exploited in the estuaries of Senegal and Mauritania. In addition, dams on the river Senegal have formed a physical barrier which stops the migration of Mugilidae. They have also caused the brackish water zone to reduce considerably in the Senegal river (approximately 200 km length before the construction of Diama Dam, now does not extend any more than 50 km).	eng
183171	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has commercial importance.	eng
183172	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183172	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183172	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parachanna obscura</em> is known from Senegal to Ethiopia, and throughout the Congo River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, it is known from most coastal basins (the Cross Wouri, Sanaga, Nyong, Lobe, Ntem in Cameroon, Ogowe et Nyanga Rivers in Gabon, and the Kouilou River in Congo- Brazzaville). <br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Jebel and Ghazal systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as Baro River in Ethiopia<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> Within western Africa, <em>Parachanna obscura</em> is found in the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Tominé and the Kogon in Guinea, Geba (Sierra Leone), the coastal basins of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, the basins of the Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Niger, Chad and Cross.	eng
183172	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Within the area considered here, <span style="font-style: italic;">Parachanna obscura</span> is found in the rivers Casamance, Gambia, Tominé and the Kogon in Guinea, Geba (Sierra Leone), the coastal basins of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, the basins of the Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Niger, Chad and Cross.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Also in Nile River basin.	eng
183172	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Parachanna obscura</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains, patchily distributed in flood plain pools of the Sudd. It feeds on insects and small fish (Bailey 1994).	eng
183172	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains in streams. Feeds on insects and small fish. Demersal.	eng
183172	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183172	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183172	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	Some populations haven declined in western Africa, possibly linked to overfishing.	eng
183172	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Some populations haven declined, possibly linked to overfishing.	eng
183173	conservation	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available. More information is needed on the distribution and status of this species.	eng
183173	conservation	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
183173	distribution	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Western Africa distribution: </span>Upper Logone, Chad River basin.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Ethiopian streams, may also be present in the Logone River of the Chad River basin.	eng
183173	distribution	Getahun, A., 2009	Within northeastern Africa this species is distributed in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is also occurs in the coastal areas of the Red Sea, including Saudia Arabia and Yemen.	eng
183173	habitat	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species.	eng
183173	habitat	Getahun, A., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
183173	population	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
183173	population	Getahun, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183173	threats	Getahun, A., 2009	This species may be threatened by extraction of water for various purposes.	eng
183173	threats	Bousso, T. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
183174	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183174	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is found in coastal basins of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is found from Sierra Leone to Nigeria, except for the Lower Volta basins.	eng
183174	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is found in coastal basins of Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is found from Sierra Leone to Nigeria.	eng
183174	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is a eurytopic species that is most frequently found in association with stands of emergent or submerged aquatic plants. It is particularly abundant in shallower and quieter stretches of large rivers, in small lateral tributaries of such streams, in oxbow lakes and in swampy habitats. It even maintains breeding populations in coastal lagoons. The species is absent from rapids zone of streams or in headwaters flowing through montane forest; forest-associated species (Loiselle 1979). <em>Hemichromis guttatus</em> is an omnivore. It spawns up to 300 eggs which hatch after 2 days, the young are free-swimming after 5 days (Bijnens 1991).	eng
183174	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183174	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Mount Cameroon location is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil. This species is often mislabelled as <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus</em> and it is widely used in the aquarium trade ( Brummett pers. comm.).	eng
183174	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The Mount Cameroon location is threatened by agriculture from Cameroon Development Cooperation, including bananas, palm oil. This species is often mislabelled as <em>Hemichromis bimaculatus</em> and it is widely used in the aquarium trade (pers. comm. Brummett, R. and Cichlid Fishes of Western Africa).	eng
183175	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183175	conservation	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183175	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183175	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is only known from Banana, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it has been collected from the lower courses of several rivers in Lower Guinea, and from Lac Onangue in Gabon. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from Cape Verde and islands in the Gulf of Guinea (Miller 1990).	eng
183175	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>Senegal to Nigeria.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>It is known from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
183175	distribution	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	This species is known from the lower courses of rivers from Senegal to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is also known from Cape Verde and islands in the Gulf of Guinea (Miller 1990).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is present in Banana, Lower Congo River. It is also known from the Tonde River on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and from Lac Onangue in Gabon. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> It is found from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
183175	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is a demersal species. It occurs inshore, in the intertidal zone, mangrove areas, estuaries, lagoons and lower river basins, mainly in brackish and fresh waters (Maugé 1986). The species feeds on fish, lamellibranchs, phytoplankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). It may establish burrows in sub-tidal mud (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also tolerant of freshwaters and may ascend rivers, although less common in these habitats (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
183175	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Porogobius schlegelii</em> is a demersal species. It occurs inshore, in the intertidal zone, mangrove areas, estuaries, lagoons and lower river basins, mainly in brackish and fresh waters (Maugé 1986). The species feeds on fish, lamellibranchs, phytoplankton and detritus (Diouf 1996). It may establish burrows in sub-tidal mud (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007). It is also tolerant of freshwaters and may ascend rivers, although less common in these habitats (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
183175	habitat	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	The species inhabits brackish and freshwaters, particularly estuaries, coastal lagoons, creeks and mangrove swamps. Feeds on fish, lamellibranchs, phyplankton and detritus.	eng
183175	population	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No data on population trends.	eng
183175	population	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183175	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183175	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183175	threats	Entsua-Mensah, M., Lalèyè, P. & Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183175	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183176	conservation	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183176	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183176	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> is native to estuaries of the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean where it ranges from China and Australasia to Madagascar and Mozambique. <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> has been introduced in the Ndian River basin, Cameroon, but only from brackish water habitats. According to Miller <em>et al.</em> (1989) its presence at Port Harcourt (Nigeria) is the result of accidental transportation in ballast waters of oil tankers. Meanwhile it has been found in West Africa in Guinea, Nigeria and Cameroon. Other introduced populations are known from Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records.	eng
183176	distribution	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	This species is widespread throughout the lower courses of east flowing rivers in Tanzania. <em>Butis koilomatodon</em> is native to estuaries of the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean where it ranges from China and Australasia to Madagascar.<br/><br/><em>Butis koilomatodon</em> has been introduced in the Ndian River basin, Cameroon, but only from brackish water habitats. According to Miller <em>et al.</em> (1989) its presence at Port Harcourt (Nigeria) is the result of accidental transportation in ballast waters of oil tankers. Meanwhile it has been found in West Africa in Guinea, Nigeria and Cameroon. Other introduced populations are known from Panama, Venezuela and Brazil. Its presence in Lower Guinea is confirmed by museum records.	eng
183176	habitat	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	<em>Butis koilomatodon</em> inhabits rivers, estuaries (Eccles 1992) and mangrove creeks (Miller and Wongrat 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. This species is demersal and amphidromous.	eng
183176	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Butis koilomatodon</em> inhabits rivers, estuaries (Eccles 1992) and mangrove creeks (Miller and Wongrat 1990). It feeds on crustaceans and small fishes. This species is demersal and amphidromous.	eng
183176	population	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	No information available.	eng
183176	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183176	threats	Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T., Olaosebikan, B.D. & Snoeks, J., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183176	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
183177	conservation	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	None known.	eng
183177	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183177	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183177	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Moanda and Vista on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Elsewhere, it is known from Senegal to Angola, including the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. It is also known from the western Atlantic:  Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and Bahamas to Santos, Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986, Cervigón 1994) and from unconfirmed records from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is suspected to be conspecific with <em>Bathygobius fuscus</em>. The record from Algeria needs confirmation and the occurrence in Viet Nam is doubtful (Kuronuma 1961).	eng
183177	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in marine and brackish waters (lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and swamps), from Senegal to Angola. Occasionally found in freshwater.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and the Bahamas to Santa Catarina, Brazil and the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
183177	distribution	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from Senegal to Angola, including the islands of the Gulf of Guinea. It is also known from the western Atlantic:  Florida Keys in the USA, Bermuda and Bahamas to Santos, Brazil (Robins and Ray 1986, Cervigón 1994) and from unconfirmed records from the Mediterranean (Quignard and Tomasini 2000). It is suspected to be conspecific with <em>Bathygobius fuscus</em>. The record from Algeria needs confirmation and the occurrence in Viet Nam is doubtful (Kuronuma 1961).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is known from Boma, Banana and Malela, Lower Congo River. It is also known from Moanda and Vista on the coast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. <br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species occurs in marine and brackish waters (lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and swamps), from Senegal to Nigeria.	eng
183177	habitat	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	<em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999). The species is mainly found in pools (Maugé 1986). It is abundant in rocky tide pools and along water's edge (Robins and Ray 1986) in lagoons, creeks, and estuaries (Miller 1990). This species is a benthic spawner. <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is tolerant of a wide range of salinities, and lives benthically over sandy and muddy substrates in brackish waters of a variety of intertidal ecosystems (e.g., lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and mangrove swamps); it is occasionally found in freshwaters (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
183177	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is a demersal, non-migratory species. It is a resident intertidal species with homing behaviour (Gibson 1999). The species is mainly found in pools (Maugé 1986). It is abundant in rocky tide pools and along water's edge (Robins and Ray 1986) in lagoons, creeks, and estuaries (Miller 1990). This species is a benthic spawner. <em>Bathygobius soporator</em> is tolerant of a wide range of salinities, and lives benthically over sandy and muddy substrates in brackish waters of a variety of intertidal ecosystems (e.g., lagoons, estuaries, creeks, and mangrove swamps); it is occasionally found in freshwaters (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
183177	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This species is particularly abundant in rocky tidal pools and along water's edge in lagoons, creeks, and estuaries. Occasionally enters freshwaters. Non-migratory.	eng
183177	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183177	population	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
183177	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183177	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183177	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
183177	threats	Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is commercially valuable as an aquarium fish.	eng
183178	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183178	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is known from the West African coast from Cap Vert, Senegal, to Angola (Allen 1981). It is also known from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990).	eng
183178	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is known from the West African coast from Cap Vert Senegal, to Angola (Allen 1981). It is also known from the Canary Islands (Desoutter 1990).	eng
183178	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is very common in estuaries, lagoons, swamps, and inferior courses of rivers. Species also found in freshwater and able to enter quite far into freshwater. It feeds on fish, shrimps, zooplankton and various small invertebrates (Allen, 1981; Diouf, 1996). Sometimes the species is found in shoals composed of several hundred of individuals (Allen, 1981). Pelagic; Inhabits mainly estuaries and mangroves (Schneider 1990). After a stormy courtship a female lays 15,000 or more eggs which hatch in 24 hours (Mills and Vevers 1989). It prefers marine, estuaries and mangroves in tropical climate.	eng
183178	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Monodactylus sebae</em> is very common in estuaries, lagoons, swamps, and inferior courses of rivers. Species also found in freshwater and able to enter quite far into freshwater. It feeds on fish, shrimps, zooplankton and various small invertebrates (Allen 1981; Diouf 1996). Sometimes the species is found in shoals composed of several hundred of individuals (Allen 1981). Pelagic; This species inhabits mainly estuaries and mangroves (Schneider 1990). After a stormy courtship a female lays 15,000 or more eggs which hatch in 24 hours (Mills and Vevers 1989).	eng
183178	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183178	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance.	eng
183178	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This species has minor commercial importance as an aquarium fish.	eng
183179	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183179	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mastacembelus marchei</em> is known from Lower Congo, Pool Malebo (formerly Stanley-Pool) and from the Dja River basin (a major tributary of the Central Congo river basin). It is also known from Kribi River basin (Cameroon) up to the Kouilou/Niari (Congo).	eng
183179	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
183179	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183179	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183180	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183180	conservation	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
183180	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
183180	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183180	conservation	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Odhiambo, E.A., 2009	None known. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183180	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is common along the River Nile, Wadi El Rayan, Abu Zabal and Coastal Lakes in Egypt and Drâa in Morocco (Bishai and Khalil 1997).<br/><br/>Globally, it is present in Africa and Eurasia. In the Jordan system, especially in lakes, coastal rivers of Israel. In the Nile River system, including the delta lakes and Lake Albert and Turkana. It is also present in Central Congo and widespread in western Africa.	eng
183180	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is naturally distributed in the Cross River, Lake Barombi-Kotto and Meme River, Cameroon. Elsewhere, it is known from throughout western Africa, the Nilosudanic province, including the Jordan River basin. <br/><br/><em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> has been introduced into Lower Guinea, mainly after 1955, from the Nilo-Sudan region, Fort-Lamy (12°07’N-15°03’E), Chad, to Yaoundé (3°52’N-11°31’E), Cameroon. It has also been introduced, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo-Brazzaville. According to FAO (2005) it is self reproducing and established in Congo-Brazzaville. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) reported the presence of <em>S. Galilaeus</em> from the Kouilou River basin in Congo-Brazzaville and mentioned the possibility of an introduction. After introduction from Sudan, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is established in Congo-Brazzaville, but not in South Africa (from Israel), Japan (from the USA) and China (from Sudan).	eng
183180	distribution	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> Lakes Albert and Turkana and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>widespread throughout Africa and Eurasia: Jordan system, esp. in lakes; coastal rivers of Israel; Nile system, incl. the delta lakes; Jebel Mara, Chad basin w/ the Shari River; central Congo basin, Ubanghi and Uele Rivers, L. Kotto, Niger, Ogun, Volta, Corubal, Gambia, Casamance and Senegal rivers, Draa (Morocco), Adrar (Mauritania). Populations in Lake Ejagham, Cameroon are declining.	eng
183180	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this subspecies is known from the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Casamance (Senegal), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Konkouré (Guinea), Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Cross, Benue, Logone, Shari and Lake Chad. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong></strong>Elsewhere it is found in the River Ubangui, the lakes Albert and Turkana, the Nile basin, lakes Huleh and Kinereth in Israel, as well as in the Jordan River.	eng
183180	distribution	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Odhiambo, E.A., 2009	This is a very widespread species from Senegal to the Congo and Kenya, and along the entire length of the Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> is naturally distributed in the Cross River, Lake Barombi-Kotto and Meme River, Cameroon. <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</em> has been introduced into Lower Guinea, mainly after 1955, from the Nilo-Sudan region, Fort-Lamy, Chad, to Yaoundé, Cameroon. It has also been introduced, in 1953, from Sudan to Congo. According to FAO (2005) it is self reproducing and established in Congo. Teugels <em>et al.</em> (1991) reported the presence of <em>S. galilaeus</em> from the Kouilou River basin in Congo and mentioned the possibility of an introduction. Populations in Lake Ejagham, Cameroon are vulnerable.  <br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is present in Lakes Albert and Turkana, and the upper Nile.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is common along the River Nile, at Wadi El Rayan, Abu Zabal and Coastal Lakes in Egypt, and Drâa in Morocco.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It occurs in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, and the Blu and White Niles to Lake Nasser (also known as Lake Nubia), Sudan, as well as  Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> In Western Africa, this subspecies is known from the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Casamance (Senegal), Géba (Guinea Bissau), Konkouré (Guinea), Niger, Volta, Mono, Ouémé, Ogun, Cross Benue, Logone, Shari and Lake Chad.	eng
183180	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Demersal fish that has been reported to occur at 9°C. Occasionally forms schools; territorial.  Prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore.  Often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes.  Feeds on algae and fine organic debris.  Bi-parental mouthbrooder. Is an obligate particulate feeder during the larval and juvenile stage, and is mainly an obligate filter feeder when adult. A transition period exists during which both feeding modes can be used according to environmental conditions.	eng
183180	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus </em>is a demersal, potamodromous species. It has been known to occur at 9°C and occasionally forms schools. It is a territorial species.<em> <em>Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus </em></em>prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore. It is often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes. It feeds on algae and fine organic debris. This subspecies is a bi-parental mouthbrooder. The initiative throughout courting and mating is taken predominantly by the female; the female is mainly responsible for the excavation of the nest and for defending the mating territory. Pair-formation exists and is dissolved as soon as the eggs are in the parental mouth.	eng
183180	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in shallow inshore waters of Lakes. Food predominantly phytoplankton, planktonic crustaceans are also eaten. It is a mouth-breeder fish, males keeping their brood in the mouth. Spawning takes place in shallow, quiet waters through most months of the year. It can survive at 10°C. It reaches a length to 40 cm.	eng
183180	habitat	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2003	Present in large shools throughout Lake Turkana (Trewavas 1983). Pairs move inshore to breed, spawning on sandy or gravel bottoms where plants are abundant (Trewavas 1983). The female is mainly responsible for building and defending the nest. Both sexes participate in parental care. The pair bond is dissolved as soon as the eggs are safely in the parental mouth(s) (Trewavas 1983).	eng
183180	habitat	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Odhiambo, E.A., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</span> is a demersal, potamodromous species. It occasionally forms schools, and is a territorial species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Sarotherodon galilaeus galilaeus</span> prefers open waters but juveniles and breeding adults are found inshore. It is often associated with beds of submerged vegetation in Sudd lakes. It feeds on algae and fine organic debris - it is an obligate particulate feeder during the larval and juvenile stage, and is mainly an obligate filter feeder when adult. A transition period exists during which both feeding modes can be used according to environmental conditions. This subspecies is a bi-parental mouthbrooder. Spawning takes place in shallow, quiet waters through most months of the year. Pairs move inshore to breed, spawning on sandy or gravel bottoms where plants are abundant (Trewavas 1983). The female is mainly responsible for building and defending the nest. Both sexes participate in parental care. The pair bond is dissolved as soon as the eggs are safely in the parental mouth(s) (Trewavas 1983).	eng
183180	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
183180	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183180	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183180	population	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No population estimates were found but Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
183180	population	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Odhiambo, E.A., 2009	The population size is not exactly known; however, Kenya's fisheries department believe the population is increasing in Lake Turkana.	eng
183180	threats	Odhiambo, E.A. & Hanssens, M., 2003	No information available.	eng
183180	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
183180	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
183180	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	The species has an important commercial species for both food and as an aquarium fish.	eng
183180	threats	Awaïss, A., Azeroual, A., Getahun, A., Hanssens, M., Lalèyè, P., Moelants, T. & Odhiambo, E.A., 2009	This species has commercial importance in central Africa for subsistence, aquaculture and the aquarium trade, with seine netting being the most common method for catching. In northern Africa, dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought pose possible threats.	eng
183181	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	None needed. Occurs in many coastal reserves.	eng
183181	conservation	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2009	This subspecies occurs in many coastal reserves.	eng
183181	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	The subspecies has been recorded from East coast from Kenya south to Natal area, also Madagascar and Mauritius (Skelton 2001). Other subspecies are widespread worldwide.	eng
183181	distribution	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2009	This subspecies is widespread along the east African coastline, as well as the islands of Madagascar, Mauritius and Reunion.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in the lower reaches of rivers from Kenya southwards.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It occurs along the east coast from Mozambique south to Natal area, South Africa.	eng
183181	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	Occurs in relatively shallow (25-150 cm), still to slow-flowing water. Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas. Feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton. Ovoviviparous, the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
183181	habitat	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2009	This subspecies occurs in relatively shallow (25-150 cm), still to slow-flowing water. It inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton (Pethiyagoda 1991). This subspecies is ovoviviparous, and the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail.	eng
183181	population	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	A widespread and common subspecies.	eng
183181	population	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2009	A widespread and common subspecies.	eng
183181	threats	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2006	None known.	eng
183181	threats	Tweddle, D. & Cambray, J., 2009	None known.	eng
183182	conservation	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Management of fishing levels and methods is needed in selected areas. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.	eng
183182	conservation	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., & Marshall, B., 2009	More research is needed into the threats and harvest levels of this species. Management of fishing levels and methods is needed in selected areas. Fish passes should be designed into dam and weir constructions.	eng
183182	conservation	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	No information available	eng
183182	distribution	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong>Lake malawi and its catchment area as well as Shire River and its tributaries. Eastward flowing Africa rivers, Athi and Tana drainages (Seegers <em>et al. 2004). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Also present in the Zambezi system.	eng
183182	distribution	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., & Marshall, B., 2009	This subspecies occurs in the African east-coast rivers from around the Phongolo in South Africa and north into Kenya. Elsewhere it is also present in western Indian Ocean islands across to India.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lake malawi and its catchment area as well as Shire River and its tributaries. Eastward flowing Africa rivers, Athi and Tana drainages (Seegers <em>et al,</em> 2004).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is present in the Zambezi system. Not common south of the Save River.	eng
183182	distribution	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	This subspecies occurs in the African east-coast rivers from around the Phongolo in South Africa and north into Kenya. Not common south of the Save River. The dominant species in the Zambezi.	eng
183182	habitat	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Breeds at sea and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams.	eng
183182	habitat	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	Juveniles feed on insects and other aquatic invertabrates; adults feed on fish and crab. Adults prey on fish, including trout in the streams of the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. Migratory species, breeds in the ocean (see Seegers <em>et al. 2004). Inhabits various niches in a river system (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). Penetrates far inland, surmounting formidable barriers in its upstream migration, including the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams.</em>	eng
183182	habitat	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., & Marshall, B., 2009	This is a migratory subspecies, breeds in the ocean (see Seegers <em>et al.</em> 2004) and migrates into freshwaters as juveniles (glass eels elvers). Elvers migrate high up rivers into often headwater streams. Juveniles feed on insects and other aquatic invertebrates; adults feed on fish and crab. Adults prey on fish, including trout in the streams of the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. This subspecies inhabits various niches in a river system (Bell-Cross and Minshull, 1988). Penetrates far inland, surmounting formidable barriers in its upstream migration, including the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams.	eng
183182	population	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	Common and widespread..	eng
183182	population	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., & Marshall, B., 2009	This subspecies is thought to be uncommon in eastern Africa, but common and widespread in southern Africa.	eng
183182	population	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	Uncommon species	eng
183182	threats	Bills, R., Cambray, J., Engelbrecht, J., Hanssens, M., Kazembe, J., & Marshall, B., 2009	In eastern Africa, threats to this species include habitat degradation, overfishing, and game fishing. In southern Africa there is fishing pressure from hook and line catching, and poisoning. Within South Africa major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.	eng
183182	threats	Hanssens, M. & Kazembe, J., 2004	The main threats to the species are habitat degradation, overfishing and game fishing.	eng
183182	threats	Engelbrecht, J., Bills, R., Marshall, B. & Cambray, J., 2006	The main threat to the species is fishing pressure from hook and line and poisoning. Within southern Africa, major impoundments and weirs are barriers to eel movement so areas of occurrence and occupancy are likely to decrease in the future.	eng
183183	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183183	conservation	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	The fish is protected in some game reserves.	eng
183183	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander</em> is known from the Kasai, Lufira, Lualaba-Upemba and Luapula-Mweru River systems. Elsewhere, it is known from the Orange River system, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi system, Quanza, Lake Malawi, south-east Africa from lower Zambezi south to Vungu River in Natal.	eng
183183	distribution	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	This species is found throughout much of the southern half of Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> <em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander</em> is known from the Kasai, Lufira, Lualaba-Upemba and Luapula-Mweru River systems.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Limphasa/ Luweya system and the Nkhotakota wildlife reserve in the Lake Malawi catchment  Also abundant in the marshes of the Lower Shire River and lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from the Orange and southern KwaZulu-Natal northwards throughout the region, extending to southern Congo tributaries and the Lake Malawi lakeshore rivers (Skelton 2001).	eng
183183	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander </em>is benthopelagic species that is found in various habitats, from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, e.g., Lake Otjikoto, Namibia (Agenbag 1998). It usually prefers vegetated zones and feeds on insects, shrimps and even small fish. It breeds from early spring to late summer. The males defend a territory, construct a simple cleared nest and attract ripe females.  The eggs are laid in the nest, fertilized and collected by the female. The females withdraw to a nursery to brood the eggs until juvenile stage (Skelton 1993). The female lays batches of eggs on a substratum which the male begins to inseminate. The female collects the eggs almost immediately after laying a batch and incubates eggs in her mouth for 12-14 days at 26°C, releasing the young afterwards. The female parent guards the young for 5-7 days, keeping them into her mouth when approached by predators or divers. It inhabits streams, lakes and mangroves.	eng
183183	habitat	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	<em>Pseudocrenilabrus philander philander is benthopelagic species that is found in various habitats, from flowing waters to lakes and isolated sinkholes, e.g., Lake Otjikoto, Namibia (Agenbag 1998). It has never been recorded in Lake Malawi itself but is thought to live in the swampy environments around the lakeshore. It prefers vegetated zones, where the current is not too strong (Skelton 2001), and is found mainly in quiet pools. It has a tendency to migrate upstream during the rains. Known to feed on insects and small fish. It breeds from early spring to late summer. The males defend a territory, construct a simple cleared nest and attract ripe females. The eggs are laid in the nest, fertilized and collected by the female. The females withdraw to a nursery to brood the eggs until juvenile stage (Skelton 1993). The female lays batches of eggs on a substratum which the male begins to inseminate. The female collects the eggs almost immediately after laying a batch and incubates eggs in her mouth for 12-14 days at 26°C, releasing the young afterwards. The female parent guards the young for 5-7 days, keeping them into her mouth when approached by predators or divers.</em>	eng
183183	population	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	It is generally abundant in suitable habitats.	eng
183183	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
183183	threats	Kazembe, J., Marshall, B., Moelants, T. & Tweddle, D., 2009	None known.	eng
183183	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
183184	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183184	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available. More research is needed into this species population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring and potential conservation measures.	eng
183184	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Aphanius dispar dispar</em> is found in the coastal and fresh to saline inland waters of the Red Sea basin of Egypt and also a landlocked population in the Siwa Oasis, western Egypt.<br/><br/>At global level, it is also present in the Indian Ocean and Somalia southward to Eil. It migrates through the Suez Canal into the southeastern Mediterranean basin, Egypt and Israel; Dead Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, western India; landlocked populations in Saudi Arabia, Iran.	eng
183184	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2009	This coastal subspecies is found in predominantly saline habitats in north and northeastern Africa. Elsewhere it is an immigrant through the Suez Canal into the southeastern Mediterranean basin and Israel. It is present in the Dead Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf and western India. There are also landlocked populations in Saudi Arabia and Iran.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> The subspecies is found in the coastal and fresh to saline inland waters of the Red Sea basin of Egypt and also a landlocked population in the Siwa Oasis, western Egypt.<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> This subspecies is known from northern saline lakes of Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia.	eng
183184	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It occurs in coastal zones, also found in oasis with hypersaline to fresh water. It forms schools. Highly tolerant to wide range of salinity up to full marine water and has wide temperature range. It is chiefly an herbivorous taxon. Not a seasonal killifish. Spawn in areas where roots of hyacinth or other floating plants abound. It breeds throughout the year with a probable peak in the months of April to June.	eng
183184	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2009	This subspecies occurs in coastal zones. Forms schools. Highly tolerant to wide range of salinity up to full marine water and has wide temperature range. Mainly a herbivorous species. It is not a seasonal killifish. It spawns in areas where roots of hyacinth or other floating plants abound. It breeds throughout the year with a probable peak in the months of April to June.	eng
183184	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183184	population	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183184	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
183184	threats	Azeroual, A., 2009	No information available.	eng
183206	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183206	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California and southern Baja California, Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183206	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species inhabits mud-sand substrata, sometimes near weed-covered rocky reefs, and most frequently between 15-30m although it can be found as deep as 90m.  It feeds on bony fishes and crustaceans.	eng
183206	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However it is one of the most common shorefish species in the Eastern Pacific, and is moderately common in bycatch from trawling.	eng
183206	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183207	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183207	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to northern Peru (Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
183207	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores. It can also be found in barnacle and worm tubes in rocky and coral reef.	eng
183207	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183207	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183208	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183208	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183208	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species can be found over hard substrate of shallow coastal waters (McKay and Schneider, 1995) to depths of 35m.	eng
183208	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is sometimes collected in trawls but is uncommon.	eng
183208	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered to be an important commercial fish in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).	eng
183209	conservation	Collette, B., 2008	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a few Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183209	distribution	Collette, B., 2008	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from the lower half of the Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands. It is also found along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183209	habitat	Collette, B., 2008	This epipelagic species is found in coastal waters to 5m depth. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.	eng
183209	population	Collette, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183209	threats	Collette, B., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
183210	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183210	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183210	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata at depths from 15-55m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183210	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is common within its rangee. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183210	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183211	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183211	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Anaheim Bay in southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru (Jimenez Prado and Bearez, 2004), including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183211	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	This demersal species occurs in shallow coastal waters, including estuaries, usually over sand or mud substrate. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs, and algae (De la Cruz Arguero, 1997).	eng
183211	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is common in the Gulf of California, Ecuador, and in Gorgona, Colombia. It is considered rare in California.	eng
183211	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183212	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Alto Golfo and Loreto Bay Marine National Park.	eng
183212	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183212	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow reefs, and lives among seaweed to depths of 5m.	eng
183212	population	Hastings, P., 2007	This is one of the most common shallow reef blennioids in the northern Gulf of California.	eng
183212	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183213	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183213	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Chile, including the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183213	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in coastal waters up to at least 50 m depth. It generally forms schools near the bottom. The juveniles are encountered near the surface. It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183213	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183213	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is also caught with shrimp trawls.	eng
183215	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, most of this species' distribution is included in continental and island Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183215	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific region and is found from Costa Rica to western Panama, and in Cocos, Malpelo, and the Galapagos islands.	eng
183215	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species lives on rubble and shell substrata on the inner to outer continental shelf, probably primarily an insular species. It is found from 20-280m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183215	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is not a common species in this range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183215	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183216	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However this species can be found in at least a few Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific. For example, Panama and Colombia have a number of Marine Protected Areas managed through Conservation International's Eastern Pacific Seascape Program, which is considered to be a valuable component of reef habitat protection (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
183216	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Panama to Colombia.	eng
183216	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is pelagic and form aggregations in shallow coastal waters to depths of 10m.	eng
183216	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183216	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted range and relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.	eng
183217	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183217	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183217	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters and off river mouths (e.g. Rio Mayo, Gulf of California), thus it can tolerate lower salinities.   It feeds on planktonic crustaceans.  It spawns over an extended period off Costa Rica and forms large schools in bays, estuaries, and in brackish river mouths. It is found to 10m.	eng
183217	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183217	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	Theer are no major threats to this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead, 1985). This species can be use as bait. Other commercial uses should be investigated.	eng
183218	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range.	eng
183218	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to Panama (Birdsong 1981).	eng
183218	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits muddy shell substrates and tide pools, estuaries and mangrove streams (Birdsong 1981).	eng
183218	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.	eng
183218	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.	eng
183219	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo National Park.	eng
183219	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower half of the Gulf of California, and from the Tres Marias Islands to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico.	eng
183219	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm or mollusk tubes on rocky reefs.	eng
183219	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered common throughout its range.	eng
183219	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183220	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183220	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Puget Sound, Washington State to Cabo San Lucas, and from the Gulf of California to Guayamas, Mexico.	eng
183220	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is commonly found on sandy substrate, sand patches around rocky reefs, and boulder and gravel strewn slopes. This fish is active during the day and may bury itself in sand, with only its eyes and mouth protruding, to hunt its prey (Humann and Deloach 1993).	eng
183220	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183220	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183221	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Galápagos Islands are a National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). The species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183221	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Although the holotype was dredged from waters 18-46 m deep, most specimens examined by Dawson (1976) were collected from waters 0-6 m deep.	eng
183221	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species occurs on coastal sandy areas, generally in shallow waters to 10 m deep.	eng
183221	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. The original description was based on a collection of more than 100 specimens (Dawson 1976).	eng
183221	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and primarily shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183222	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the region, including Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
183222	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found near Jalisco, Mexico, the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and from Costa Rica to southern Panama, including Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).	eng
183222	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to a depth of 65m.	eng
183222	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183222	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183223	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183223	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, ranging from El Salvador to Ecuador. However, it is only known from a few collections.	eng
183223	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species lives by sandy beaches near estuaries and deeper soft substrate in nearshore waters. It can also be found in fresh water, for example in a canal zone.	eng
183223	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183223	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183224	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo and Galagapos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183224	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from central Baja and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands .	eng
183224	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This benthic reef-associated species can be found between rocks, and over sand and mud substrates.	eng
183224	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183224	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183225	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183225	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California, Mexico to Peru, including all of the offshsore islands. It has also been recorded in the artificially warmed waters off the Encina Power Plant in San Diego, California, USA, far outside normal range (Sommer 1995).	eng
183225	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This benthopelagic species swims in slightly polarized schools though it is occasionally solitary or in small groups (Humann and  Deloach 1993) to depths of 20 m. Juveniles are commonly encountered under floating objects in front of the Central American coast (Sommer 1995).	eng
183225	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is common throughout its range. <br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.29 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), a mean density of  0.024 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> and a frequency of observation of 2.4% was registered. In Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density of <0,01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> was registered. Nevertheless, it could not be found at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006, or at Golf Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, <em>Kyphosus</em> sp. could be observed once in just one reef (Espinoza and Salas 2005). This fish was one of the most abundant — 4.36% — in a gill-net-fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, coastal zone of the central Mexican pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids. However, in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this animal was considered scarce — relative abundance between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183225	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183226	conservation	Acero, A., Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183226	distribution	Acero, A., Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Bahia Magdelena, Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California to Colombia, including Gorgona and Malpelo Island (Brando <em>et al</em>. 1992; Rubio et al 1992).	eng
183226	habitat	Acero, A., Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms to depths of 20m.	eng
183226	population	Acero, A., Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183226	threats	Acero, A., Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is somestimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling.	eng
183227	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183227	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	The geographic range of this species is from Oregon to southern Baja California, and the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California (Galvan-Magana <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183227	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This fish is found over soft substrata in deep coastal areas, as well as in shallower areas in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Galvan-Magana <em>et al</em>. 2000). This species is found from 3-305m.	eng
183227	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183227	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183228	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region, including Cocos Island National Park, Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183228	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nicaragua to Ecuador, including the Cocos and Malpelo islands.	eng
183228	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This cryptic reef-associated species can be found among macroalgae on rocky reefs. However, it is usually not seen unless flushed out with chemical ichthyocides.	eng
183228	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183228	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183229	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183229	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and Baja California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands.	eng
183229	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species is found over sand, mud, and areas of coral rubble. It may be encountered by divers in sandy patches among stands of coral or rocky reefs (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997). This species is usually found deeper than 40m.	eng
183229	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183229	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183230	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183230	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183230	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy-sand substrata, between 14 and 160m depth.	eng
183230	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered to be locally common. It uncommon in trawls in the Gulf of California, El Salvador and Panama.	eng
183230	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It does not have major commercial interest, likely due to its small size (Heemstra, 1995).	eng
183231	conservation	Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183231	distribution	Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183231	habitat	Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow coastal areas and lagoons, including estuaries. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, algae and occasionally small fish (Bussing 1995).	eng
183231	population	Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is common in coastal lagoons along the Pacific coast of Mexico.	eng
183231	threats	Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183232	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may fall into some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183232	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropiocal Pacific species is found from Nicaragua to northern Peru and in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183232	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species lives on deep sandy, muddy, and shell substrata; it feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It has been recorded from a depth range of 95-385 m.	eng
183232	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183232	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is sold fresh in local markets and is processed as fish meal.	eng
183233	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas, including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183233	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California, including the Tres Marias Islands, to southern Mexico. There are also several questionable museum records from outlying localities, including the Revillagigedo Islands and Panama.	eng
183233	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs in rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183233	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183233	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats known for this species.	eng
183234	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to determine population numbers and range, to better understand its distribution, and to assess the effect of major threats.	eng
183234	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species has only been recorded once in the Eastern Pacific at the mouth of the Golfo de San Miguel in Panama. It is known from a single specimen collected by a shrimp trawl conducted by a research vessel. However, comparison of the behaviour of the Atlantic and Pacific taxa may indicate that <em>Aplatophis zorro</em> is more widely distributed (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
183234	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is assumed to live in permanent or semi-permanent burrows, with only snout and eyes exposed. The cryptic behaviour of this species makes it difficult to collect.	eng
183234	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, as it is known from only a single specimen.	eng
183234	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	Extensive trawling within its restricted known range likely poses a major threat to the survival of this shallow water species.	eng
183235	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183235	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Los Angeles, California, USA to Sechura Bay, Peru.  This species is often included in some accounts of Opisthonema bulleri and Opisthonema libertate, which used to be the only Pacific species recognized (Whitehead and  Rodriguez-Sánchez, 1995)	eng
183235	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This pelagic fish is usually found near shore, forming schools.  It feeds on crustaceans and pteropods (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sánchez, 1995).	eng
183235	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183235	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	The demand for this resource is increasing, and abundance is heavily decreasing due to fishing pressure. For example, between 2003 and 2004, there was a 15,126 metric t reduction of fishing discharge, representing a 68% decline compared to the previous five years (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183236	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Pearl Islands are currently not protected. Given the extent of coastal development in the area, there is a need for protection of habitat in these islands. In addition, further survey work is required to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.	eng
183236	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from one specimen collected in 1990 at the Pearl Islands (Isla del Rey) in Panama Bay. Extensive examination of museum specimens throughout Panama of the similar species, <em>Protemblemaria bicirrus</em>, did not reveal other collections of this species and suggested that it is likely confined to the Pearl Islands (Hastings 2001).	eng
183236	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and the only known specimen was taken taken from a sandy bottom.	eng
183236	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from a single specimen collected in 1990 (Hastings 1992).	eng
183236	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is potentially threatened by increasing coastal development for the tourism industry within its restricted, shallow-range habitat. In addition, localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183237	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183237	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to central Peru.	eng
183237	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This bathydemersal species inhabits deep water over benthic and soft substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates and other fishes.	eng
183237	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183237	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183238	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183238	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183238	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This coastal demersal species is found on soft substrata (Bussing 1995). This species is common in estuaries. It is found to 10m.	eng
183238	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183238	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183239	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183239	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183239	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand and mud substrata to depths of 130m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.	eng
183239	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is occasionally caught as bycatch in trawls in El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183239	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183240	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Chile, Peru, Ecuador (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species.	eng
183240	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile.	eng
183240	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is poorly known. It inhabits rocky reefs possibly to depths of 35m.	eng
183240	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species appears to be abundant, based on museum records, but there is no recent population available.	eng
183240	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183241	conservation	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183241	distribution	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the south-western Gulf of California, and from Mazatlan to Oaxaca, Mexico including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183241	habitat	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	This benthic species inhabits rocky and adjacent sandy rubble areas to depths of 30m.	eng
183241	population	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183241	threats	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183242	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183242	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This poorly known species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to the Gulf of California.	eng
183242	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It appears to favour shallow sandy substrate nearshore, and possibly in estuaries.	eng
183242	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered rare as it is only known from a few records.	eng
183242	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183243	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its range falls entire into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183243	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Cocos Islands (Bussing 1990, Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183243	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It may inhabit deep rocky substrata to depths of 90 m.	eng
183243	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information for this species, although it is considered to be very uncommon.	eng
183243	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is restricted to a small island where regional endemics may be threatened by localized stochastic threats including oceanographic environmental changes caused by ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although this deep-water species is unlikely to be threatened by ENSO and climate change events, more research is needed to determine if there are any threats to this poorly known and very restricted range species.	eng
183244	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183244	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is restricted to eastern central Pacific, specifically from southern El Salvador to Ecuador, and possibly Peru (Chirichigno F. and Velez D. 1998).	eng
183244	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a coastal pelagic fish that enters bays and tolerates lower salinities.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183244	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183244	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species at any coastal habitats. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183245	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183245	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is distributed from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru. It is also found in Cocos and the Galapagos islands.	eng
183245	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a pelagic schooling fish. It occurs in coastal waters over sand or gravel in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, as well as over mud.  It is found to 10m. It may spawn throughout the year in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica.  It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183245	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183245	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species has no major threats. However, it (as some other anchovies) may be affected by overfishing due to bycatch methods. <br/><br/><br/>There are no known commercial uses for this species. This species is taken in subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). This species (as some other anchovies) may be affected by overfishing due to bycatch methods.	eng
183246	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183246	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183246	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal species can be found in the intertidal zone up to 20m in depth. It inhabits rocky, crevice-rich and reef habitats.	eng
183246	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183246	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183247	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. There are only a few very small marine protected areas within this species' range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183247	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in southern Mexico, from Acapulco to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 1,000 km².	eng
183247	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is commonly found in freshwater streams and brackish lagoons and is also found in estuaries and soft bottom areas (mud, sand, estuary and mangrove). It prefers brackish water and freshwater, not marine. It is found at depths to two m. It feeds on detritus, zooplankton and insects.	eng
183247	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183247	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from human development, mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.	eng
183248	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183248	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Costa Rica.	eng
183248	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species occurs offshore in deeper waters to depths of 845m.	eng
183248	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species, however it is assumed that it is moderately common based on research trawling activities in deep water.	eng
183248	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183249	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183249	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.	eng
183249	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is demersal, inhabits sand-rubble substrata at depths down to 91m.	eng
183249	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183249	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.	eng
183250	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183250	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has the greatest range of any Pacific Gobiesox (Briggs, 1955). It is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Tres Marias Islands, and Cocos Island.	eng
183250	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs and coral reef.	eng
183250	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183250	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183251	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico.	eng
183251	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southwest and central east of the Gulf of California.	eng
183251	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 10m.	eng
183251	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183251	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183252	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183252	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico (Gulf of Tehuantepec) to northern Peru.	eng
183252	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found in the surf zone of coastal waters, in estuaries and in coastal lagoons. It can occur to 100m depth.	eng
183252	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, this species seems to be abundant in Mar Muerto, Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
183252	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), in Panama. This species can be seasonally common in local markets.	eng
183253	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183253	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Mexico.	eng
183253	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocks and boulders with abundant algae in shallow waters.	eng
183253	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan, 1983).	eng
183253	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183254	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (Revillagigedo islands, Mexico, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador, among others).	eng
183254	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the temperate eastern Pacific; at the Revillagigedos, as well as in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
183254	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found in oceanic, pelagic habitats and only in marine waters. It feeds on zooplankton, bony fishes, pelagic crustaceans, and pelagic fish larvae. This species is found from 80-200 m.	eng
183254	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183254	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183255	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183255	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, stretching from southern Baja California and Mazatlan (Mexico) to Colombia (Hoese 1971). It has passed through the Panama Canal to the Atlantic (Rubinoff and Rubinoff 1969), but has not been seen in the Atlantic for 30 years.	eng
183255	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits rocky tide pools and shallow rocky intertidal areas to depths of 10 m.	eng
183255	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a relatively wide distribution, but is considered uncommon within its range. Populations within its range appear to be declining. Along the Pacific coast of Panama, this species used to be found regularly (Rubinoff 1969), but recent sampling has found abundance to be reduced, most likely due to coastal development. Also, Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> (2000) did not find this species in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, although it was previously recorded there. Similarly, Atlantic populations were not found by McCosker and Dawson (1975), and are thought no longer to exist.	eng
183255	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This populations of this species are thought to be declining due to coastal development and aquaculture, especially shrimp farms.	eng
183256	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183256	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183256	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species forms schools in open water above rocky, boulder strewn reefs and slopes and hard substrate with strong currents or tides (Humann and Deloach, 1993) to depths of 35m.	eng
183256	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in western and southern regions of Galapagos. However, this species was not found in surveys at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997).	eng
183256	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is captured in small quantities in Galapagos artisanal fisheries.<br/>Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations have recoved over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183257	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183257	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183257	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This amphidromous fish inhabits estuaries, stagnant ditches or creeks of low current velocity. It is a benthic species and is most abundant on sandy and muddy substrate (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).  It ingests mud, detritus and small fishes. This species is found typically in freshwater, but moves freely into the sea and can be regularly found in middle estuaries, mangroves, bar-formed lagoons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).	eng
183257	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is very common within its range.	eng
183257	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183258	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its likely distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site.	eng
183258	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Isla Española in the Galapagos Islands (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
183258	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	The habitat of this species is unknown, but the original specimens were collected from a tidepool.	eng
183258	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is known only from two specimens collected in 1964. In January 2002, a collecting trip surveyed tidepools contiguous with the type locality. Although the original pool sampled in 1962 could not be accessed, surveyors were able to sample two pools within a kilometer of that site, and both pools were devoid of large fish (McCosker <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
183258	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	It is unknown whether there are any major threats to this species. Recent El Niño events (1982-1983 and 1997-1998) had strong effects on tidepool and shallow subtidal species at the Galápagos. For example, the abundant shallow-water chaenopsid, <em>Acanthemblemaria castroi</em>, had largely disappeared following the most recent El Niño. McCosker <em>et al.</em> (2003) considered the possibility that <em>Cottoclinus canops</em> might be a naturally-occurring casualty of a recent El Niño event.	eng
183259	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is found in Marine Protected areas in the tropical eastern Pacific.	eng
183259	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the southeast Pacific, and it is known only from the Cocos, Malpelo, Gorgona Island (vagrant) and Galapagos islands.	eng
183259	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This is a reef-associated species; it stays under ledge overhangs and other shaded areas on rocky reefs and slopes during the day. It is found between 3-45 m. It feeds in the open at night (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183259	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is common in Cocos islands.	eng
183259	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183260	conservation	Williams, J., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
183260	distribution	Williams, J., 2009	This species is known from Independencia Bay, Peru to Valparaiso, Chile.	eng
183260	habitat	Williams, J., 2009	This species is found in tide pools and rocky shore areas to depths of 10m.	eng
183260	population	Williams, J., 2009	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm).	eng
183260	threats	Williams, J., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183261	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183261	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183261	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits rocky reef areas from 25 to 305m. It probably forms schools, and lives near the bottom in deep waters (Heemstra 1995).	eng
183261	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183261	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (Heemstra, 1995).	eng
183262	conservation	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., Robertson, R., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Although this species may be present in a few small Marine Protected Areas within its range, these measures are unlikely to offer sufficient protection for this species. For example, it is present in the Machalilla Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003, WDPA 2006); however, better enforcement of zone regulation is required to adequately safeguard species in this region. More information on effort is needed to confirm if this trend  can be used to infer a corresponding decline in population size.	eng
183262	distribution	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., Robertson, R., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the southeast Pacific, and is found from Colombia to central Peru.	eng
183262	habitat	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., Robertson, R., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This is a demersal species that inhabits rocky substrata to depths of 50 m.	eng
183262	population	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., Robertson, R., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is commonly encountered in fishmarkets in Ecuador and northern Peru, but is considered rare in Colombia. The majority of this species' population is confined to Ecuador and northern Peru.<br/><br/>In the 1980s, large specimens were common in fishmarkets, however fewer and smaller fish are now present in fishmarkets (Bearez pers. comm.). Based on reported catch landings, this species' population may have possibly declined by at least 30% over the past 15 years, with coincident major decline in mean size of individuals caught (Bearez pers. comm.), however little effort information is available.	eng
183262	threats	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., Robertson, R., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is targeted in long line fisheries. Large specimens were common in fishmarkets in the 1980s, however fewer and smaller fish were present in fishmarkets in 2007. Reported catch landings have declined by at least 30% over the past 15 years, with coincident major decline in mean size of individuals caught (Bearez pers. comm.).	eng
183263	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is found in a number of Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183263	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the US-Mexican border on outer coast of Baja California, throughout the Gulf of California to Chile (Pequeño, 1989), including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).	eng
183263	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species commonly occurs on sandy substrate or sand patches around rocky reefs and boulder and gravel strewn slopes. In some areas this species is associated with massive coral reefs (Pavona spp.), shallow exposed rocky reef zones (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006), or areas of dead corals (Baxter, 2004). This solitary species is generally found perching motionless on its pectoral fins. It is active at night, and may bury in sand with only its eyes and mouth protruding during the day (Humann and Deloach, 1993).	eng
183263	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183263	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183264	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species occurs in the Cabo Pulmo National Park. Research is needed to properly assess the taxonomic validity of this species.	eng
183264	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is only known from the southwest Gulf of California, and has an area of occupancy of less than 1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
183264	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal fish forms large colonies on sandy areas near reefs. It primarily occurs on sandy slopes and reef edges, feeds on zooplankton suspended in the water column (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).	eng
183264	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183264	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183265	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Cocos Island is designated as a national park, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183265	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, where it is known only from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183265	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate in rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m.	eng
183265	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183265	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183266	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, Ecuador has a number of Marine Protected Areas and is considered to be a valuable component of reef habitat protection (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003). In Peru there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas. However, not all Marine Protected Areas are considered to mediate major threats on the ecosystems and many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas. <br/><br/>Further research on the population trends, habitat, ecology and threats for this species is needed.	eng
183266	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found along the coast of Ecuador, Peru, and northern Chile. However, it was recorded for the first time in Chile during El Niño event of 1982 and 1983 (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002), and therefore the distribution in Chile should be reviewed (Dyer 2000).	eng
183266	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found in pelagic and coastal habitat, but is only present in marine habitats to depths of 10 m. The diet consists of pelagic fish larvae, zooplankton and fish eggs.	eng
183266	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183266	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. However, this is one of the species triggered by ENSO events. It was found to be associated to all of the last three ENSO events (82/83; 91/92; 97/98) in Chile, where its abundance in most cases was very low (Sielfeld <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
183267	conservation	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). More information is needed to better quantify the impact of beach degradation, shrimp aquaculture and other threats to this restricted range species.	eng
183267	distribution	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is restricted to the western and upper Gulf of California. It has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km²	eng
183267	habitat	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This inshore species is found over sandy substrates off shallow beaches, as well as in coastal lagoons and estuaries.	eng
183267	population	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is thought to be moderately common, although no reliable population data is available. The majority of its population is thought to be restricted to the northern Gulf of California.	eng
183267	threats	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is highly dependent on selected beach sites for nesting. It is threatened by beach collecting during spawning runs, destruction of nesting habitat by coastal traffic (e.g. ATVs), and coastal development including shrimp aquaculture.	eng
183268	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183268	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos, the Galapagos and the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183268	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits flat sand and sandy mud bottoms to depths of 77m. It may also enter estuaries and brackish waters (Hensley, 1995).	eng
183268	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered common throughout its range.	eng
183268	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is sometimes caught as bycatch for shrimp fisheries and also may be affected by localized coastal development and mangrove destruction.	eng
183269	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama.	eng
183269	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to western Panama.	eng
183269	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found at depths from six to 27m.	eng
183269	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species throughout its range. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183269	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183270	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.	eng
183270	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	The geographical range of this species confined to the western and northeastern Gulf of California.	eng
183270	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 30m.	eng
183270	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183270	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183271	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	The species range includes protected areas along the coast of northern Chile. More research on the species biology, ecology, and distribution will be important for developing conservation measures.	eng
183271	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Paita, Perú to Valparaíso, Chile. In Chile, probably it is more abundant in the northen part of the country, near Arica.	eng
183271	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	Little is known about the ecology of this species.  Mann (1954) reports the species has a preference for calm waters over muddy bottoms.  Nichols and Murphy (1922) refer to S. minor as a "sand haunting fish" and reported fishermen catching them from a pier at Pacasmayo, Peru using the anomuran decapod, Emerita analoga, as bait.  Juveniles have been taken by beach seine at Paracas, Peru (Morrow, 1957).	eng
183271	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183271	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is a target species for fisheries, but specific information on fisheries catches is not available. The species distribution also falls within the geographic range of El Niño events.	eng
183272	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183272	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183272	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is generally found in clear waters between 10 and 30m depth. It is occasionally found in estuaries but not in freshwater.	eng
183272	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is fairly common throughout its range.	eng
183272	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in small commercial fisheries.	eng
183273	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183273	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183273	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This benthic, reef associated species is found in shallow waters in the rocky intertidal and subtidal zone.	eng
183273	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This is the most common primary reef fish in Gulf of California reefs (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).	eng
183273	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183275	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183275	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Panama (Hastings, 1995) to southern Chile (Williams, 1990). However, the northern limit of distribution is unclear.	eng
183275	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, shallow-water species that inhabits rocky coasts (Hastings, 1995).	eng
183275	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183275	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, this species is sometimes used to prepare a soup called 'borracho' which evokes slight intoxication and tiredness of short duration (Hastings, 1995).	eng
183276	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183276	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California, in all of the Gulf of California (except the northernmost region), and along the coast to central Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos, Revillagigedos, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.	eng
183276	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This demersal fish is commonly caught in bays, estuaries, and shallow coastal areas (Bussing 1995). According to Cooke (1992), it may regularly be found in the middle regions of estuaries and in mangroves and may occasionally be found in bar-formed lagoons. At Gorgona Island, Colombia, it is frequently sighted on sandy substrata and is occasionally found on rocky substrata (Rubio 1986). This species is found to 107m.	eng
183276	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183276	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183277	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata.  More research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183277	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern central Pacific extends from Jalisco (Mexico) to Honduras.	eng
183277	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species inhabits coastal lagoons and estuaries, with sandy and muddy substrata and low visibility.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183277	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183277	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004; Soto 2001).	eng
183278	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183278	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183278	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, lagoons and estuaries and is also found offshore to depths of 30m. It feeds mainly on small fishes and shrimps.	eng
183278	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  However, this species is not as common as C. reticulatus, but is not rare.	eng
183278	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), both in Panama.	eng
183279	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Alto Golfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183279	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183279	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky intertidal zones. It is reported to be capable of surviving for two days out of water if kept moist, and it is resistant to extreme temperatures (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183279	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This a very abundant species in the upper Gulf of California.	eng
183279	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183280	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Isla del Caño National Park and Coiba National Park (WDPA 2006). This species should be carefully monitored given its restricted range and potential susceptibility to ENSO events.	eng
183280	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Panama.	eng
183280	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species that inhabits rocky shores and coral reefs to depths of 40m.	eng
183280	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species can be locally common. In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the average density was 0.001 inds/ m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas, 2001).	eng
183280	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Although it may be locally affected by El Niño events given its restricted range and the high incidence of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Pacific (Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004; Soto, 2001).	eng
183281	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183281	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California and the western and lower eastern Gulf of California to Peru; and is also found in Cocos and Malpelo (possibly in Galapagos islands, Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183281	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a bathydemersal species; it is found in soft and sand bottom. It is found from 50-390 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes. It is often found in large aggregations.	eng
183281	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	It is apparently a common species.	eng
183281	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183282	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183282	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183282	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits coastal rocky and coral reefs up to at least 40m depth. During the day they form schools of 30 or more individuals, which sometimes remain stationary.  Juveniles are effective mimics of the damselfish Chromis atrilobata and are often seen swimming with them (Allen, 1995; Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
183282	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range, such as on coral reefs in Gorgona. However, it is considered to be uncommon on reefs of Panama, Malpelo, and Nicaragua. <br/><br/>In la Azufrada coral reef in Gorgona Island, Colombia, the reported density for the species was 0.215 individuals /10 m<sup>2</sup>, and the frequency of observation of the species was 29.7% (Zapata and Morales, 1997).	eng
183282	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance in artisinal fisheries.	eng
183283	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183283	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.	eng
183283	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species is found over hard substrata from 40-300m depth. It feeds on small planktonic crustaceans (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983), plankton and pelagic fish larvae.	eng
183283	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183283	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183284	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183284	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific region, and is only known from three very small island locations: Negritos Island in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica; South Viradore Island in Port Culebra, Costa Rica; and Secas Island, Panama (Collette 1968), with an total area of occupancy estimated to be less than 200 km².	eng
183284	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrate, and is mostly found near offshore islands (Collette 1973).	eng
183284	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is considered uncommon in collections.	eng
183284	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat loss from coastal development and pollution within its restricted range. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and around offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183285	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.	eng
183285	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru (Birdsong, 1981).	eng
183285	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand or mud broken-shell substrate near shore to depths of 6m (Birdsong, 1981).	eng
183285	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.	eng
183285	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.	eng
183286	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183286	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern tropical Pacific from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183286	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species forms aggregations in shallow bays and coastal reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994) to depths of 10 m.	eng
183286	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183286	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183287	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183287	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California to Peru, including Revillagigedos, Cocos, the Galapagos and Malpelo islands.	eng
183287	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species is epipelagic in oceanic waters to 5m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances over the surface.	eng
183287	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183287	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183288	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183288	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Ecuador to northern Peru, including the Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183288	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal fish inhabits rocky reefs.	eng
183288	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183288	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183289	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183289	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to Peru.	eng
183289	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabitats the coast, over soft substrate to depths of 40m. This species is poorly known.	eng
183289	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183289	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183290	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183290	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from the tip of Baja California and Mazatlan (Mexico) to Panama.	eng
183290	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal. It inhabits rocky coastal shores to 15m. It is a reef associated species, found in rocky/coral reef.	eng
183290	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California , it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000). This is a common species in Costa Rica.	eng
183290	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.	eng
183291	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183291	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Colombia.	eng
183291	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 15m.	eng
183291	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species in Colombia and Panama. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183291	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183292	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.  More studies about the population status for this species are needed.	eng
183292	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183292	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m in depth and enters coastal lagoons and freshwater; it may be found as deep as 40m.  It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp 1995).	eng
183292	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183292	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183293	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183293	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, and Malpelo Island.	eng
183293	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This pelagic oceanodromous species inhabits coastal and oceanic waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 50m depth. It feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and other benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Acero 1997).	eng
183293	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not rare.	eng
183293	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/><br/>This species is incidentally fished, and can be caught in artisanal nets and shrimp trawls. It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is typically caught with gillnets.	eng
183294	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183294	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacifc region, and is found from California, USA to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183294	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This pelagic species is found in coastal and lagoon areas with mangroves (Collette, 1995), in bays and harbors (Watson, 1996), and can also enter fresh water (Collette, 1995). Adults occur in small schools and feed mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995).	eng
183294	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is common in collections.	eng
183294	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183295	conservation	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183295	distribution	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.	eng
183295	habitat	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species is encountered generally over rocky substrate in the vicinity of coral reefs, to at least 40 or 50m. Juveniles may penetrate rocky littoral pools (Allen, 1995).	eng
183295	population	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is consistently present but not very common throughout its range. The mean abundance in Galapagos Island was of 0.01 individuals / 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the majority of individuals were found far-northern region of the islands (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183295	threats	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183296	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research is needed on the current level of harvest, if any, and on potential threats to this species.	eng
183296	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the temperate eastern Pacific, in Peru and Ecuador, the Galapagos and Malpelo.	eng
183296	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a coastal and near coastal pelagic species that is sometimes commensal with jellyfishes. It feeds on zooplankton, bony fishes, pelagic crustaceans, and pelagic fish larvae. It is found to 500m.	eng
183296	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183296	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183297	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183297	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Peru. It has also been reported in the Revillagigedo Islands, the Galapagos, and Cocos Island (Bearez, 1996; Charter, 1996).	eng
183297	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates.	eng
183297	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Recent observations made from a submersable indicate that it may be more abundant than previously thought.	eng
183297	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183298	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183298	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Chile, the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands.	eng
183298	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	This reef-associated species is found in shallow waters around rocky reefs, coralline substrata, and over sandy and rubble substrata, and in the middle regions of estuaries and in mangrove habitats (Bussing 1995; Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006; Rubio 1986; Cooke 1992). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found from 3-35m.	eng
183298	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183298	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183299	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether this species occurs in any protected areas. There is a need for survey work to determine the precise distribution range and population status of this species.	eng
183299	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is only known from two collections. The first is the holotype collected in 1939 of unknown provenance, and given as "somewhere between Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica and 30 miles south of Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco, Mexico" (Briggs 1951). The second is from Isla Negrito, Costa Rica (USNM 369258), from 1968. The species is most probably known only from Costa Rica.	eng
183299	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is a benthic species that presumably inhabits rocky shores.	eng
183299	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is only known from two specimens.	eng
183299	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183300	conservation	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely into the Galapagos Marine Protected Area in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183300	distribution	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galapagos Islands (Richards and McCosker, 1998).	eng
183300	habitat	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is found over flat sandy bottoms between depths of 400 and 500m (Richards and McCosker, 1998).	eng
183300	population	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is abundant in appropriate deep water habitats.	eng
183300	threats	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, especially as it is found primarily in deeper waters.	eng
183301	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183301	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Arguello, in southern California, USA to Bahia Almejas, Baja California, Mexico.	eng
183301	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate close to shore (Allen and Robertson, 1994).	eng
183301	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183301	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183302	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species. Further fieldwork is necessary to locate specimens and define the distribution of this species, its population status, habitat, and ecology and any potential threats.	eng
183302	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is only known from a single specimen from the type locality at Iquique, Chile.	eng
183302	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no information on habitat and ecology for this species.	eng
183302	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no population information available, as it is known only from a single specimen.	eng
183302	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183303	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay National Maprine Park and Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183303	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Huatulco, southern Mexico.	eng
183303	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs.	eng
183303	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species can be quite common in dense barnacle zones (Hastings, 2000).	eng
183303	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally  impacted by El Niño and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183304	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183304	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos.	eng
183304	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species that inhabits soft sand or muddy-sand substrata to depths of 150 m. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.	eng
183304	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered abundant.	eng
183304	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species does not have major commercial interest (Heemstra 1995), and is only caught by minor local artesanal fishing in Ecuador.	eng
183305	conservation	Victor, B., Gerry, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely into the Galápagos Island and Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183305	distribution	Victor, B., Gerry, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183305	habitat	Victor, B., Gerry, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits open sand slopes to depths of 25 m, but usually below 10 m depth. In the Galápagos, adults often share habitat with the Garden Eel <em>Heteroconger klausewitzi</em>.	eng
183305	population	Victor, B., Gerry, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered to be very patchily distibuted, but locally common.	eng
183305	threats	Victor, B., Gerry, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183306	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	The only known specimens were collected in El Parque Nacional Natural Enseneda de Utria in Colombia.	eng
183306	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	Although this species is thought to be distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to northern Colombia, it is only known from a few specimens collected at the type locality in Bahia Utria, Colombia. This species may be abundant in deeper waters but no surveys have been conducted.	eng
183306	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is poorly known. Specimens have been collected in shallow water over a gray sand beach (McCosker and Lavenberg 2001).	eng
183306	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183306	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183307	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution lies within the Isla del Coco and Galápagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183307	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from three locations:  Isla del Coco, the Galápagos and Gorgona Island, Colombia (Hoese and Reader 2001).	eng
183307	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in crevices and deep recesses in the rocks to depths of 30 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates but also, like some other <em>Elacatinus</em>, this species is a cleaner; it picks parasites from other fishes.	eng
183307	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183307	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183308	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183308	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the northern Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, and including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183308	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits shallow rocky reefs exposed to surge. It wedges itself into crevices close to shore in shallow water, darting out to defend its territory (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). It is a diurnal feeder that grazes on algae and sessile invertebrates, using its comb-like incisor teeth to scrape food (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183308	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered abundant in many parts of its range. In the 1970s, it was recorded to be one of the 10 most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2000). The overall mean abundance for this species in Galapagos Island was 24.4 per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em> et al.</em> 2004). However, recorded densities for this species in several studies in Costa Rica is very low (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005, Espinoza and Salas 2005).	eng
183308	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183309	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183309	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183309	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This pelagic coastal species is found in shallow near-shore waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183309	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is relatively abundant. In surveys conducted in shallow waters off of Guatemala and Nicaragua,  71,376 individuals were collected representing 34% of all species collected, and 2% of the biomass from the entire harvest (Bianchi, 1991).	eng
183309	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to this species population, this species is caught in subsistence fisheries in some areas within its range (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). However, it is not fished for subsistence in Panama or Nicaragua.	eng
183310	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183310	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is primarily found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands. This species can also be found at the mouth of the Gulf of California, and around the Revillagigedo Islands. However, futher genetic studies are required to identify potential taxonomic differences or similarities between spotted and unspotted individuals, as the current distribution is based on those with a lack of spots.	eng
183310	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow waters, forms big schools (Krupp 1995), and generally inhabits rocky areas (Jiménez Prado and Béarez 2004). It is herbivorous and feeds in schools on algae attached to rocks or corals (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183310	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is extremely abudant in southern part of its range, but is considered uncommon in the northern part. In the Galapagos archipelago, studies of this species reported a mean density of 118.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).<br/>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, this species had a mean density of 0.03 (±0.22) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em> et al.</em> 2005). In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.000 (±0.0020 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.011% (Figueroa 2001).	eng
183310	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183311	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183311	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183311	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Findley, L., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 60m. However it is more commonly found  between 4 and 35m. Adults can penetrate as much as 20 Km up rivers (Robertson and Allen, 2006), and juveniles may be encountered in estuaries with mangroves and at the mouths of rivers (Allen, 1995). In Panama, this species is found only over massive coral zones (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183311	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Findley, L., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In the reef of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica median density reported for this species was 0.008 (individuals/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the relative abundance percentage was 0.216% (Rojas, 2001). In the coral reef of Gorgona Island, Colombia, the species density was 0.010 (individuals/10 m<sup>2</sup>) and the frequency of observation was 4.9% (Zapata and Morales, 1997). The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos Island was 0.14/per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183311	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. As this species is also associated with mangroves, estuaries and freshwater, it is likely also threatened by localized coastal development, pollution, and mangrove/estuarine habitat throughout its range.	eng
183312	conservation	McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information and research is needed on the possible  environmental and human impacts that may affect the survival of this  species.	eng
183312	distribution	McCosker, J., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Colombia (Tighe and McCosker, 2003).	eng
183312	habitat	McCosker, J., 2007	This species can be found in muddy areas, soft substrate, beaches, and estuaries.	eng
183312	population	McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183312	threats	McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183313	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183313	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183313	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found near the littoral zone of coastal waters to a depth of 20m, and may enter estuaries. In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this species was considered to be an occasional or transient species in two different estuaries areas associated with mangroves (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183313	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is considered to be reasonably common in Panama.	eng
183313	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This shallow-water species is threatened by removal of mangroves and coastal development.	eng
183314	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
183314	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Gulf of California, from Sonora to Nayarit, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
183314	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is found in freshwater streams and brackish lagoons and is also found in estuaries and soft substrata areas (mud, sand, gravel, beach, estuary and mangroves). It is found at depths to two m. The diet consists of detritus, zooplankton and insects.	eng
183314	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183314	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from human development, mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.	eng
183315	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
183315	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183315	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species inhabits sand and rubble substrate and is associated with reef edges to depths of 150m.	eng
183315	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No other population information is available for this species.	eng
183315	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is has a very restricted range and is limited to Cocos Island. However, given its deep water habitat it is unlikely to be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and climate change events.	eng
183316	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the northern Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183316	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is only known from the eastern Gulf of California (van der Heiden and Plascencia González, 2005).	eng
183316	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrates in coastal areas to depths of 40m, and does not enter brackish waters (van der Heiden and Plascencia González, 2005).	eng
183316	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be common in many parts of its range.	eng
183316	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch of industrial shrimp fisheries.	eng
183317	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183317	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	In the Eastern Pacific, this species occurs from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183317	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This reef-associated species can be found over sandy and rubble substrate and occasionally on coral reefs and rocky areas (Courtenay and Sahlman 1978) to depths of 75 m. It can be found over sand and rubble, deep rocky reefs as well as in massive corals, exposed shallow rocky reefs and zones on madreporic branching coral in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). Juveniles are often found near the shore, over sandy substrate near seagrass beds (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1993).	eng
183317	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is moderately common within its range. <br/><br/>This species was found in a survey at Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, with a mean density of 0.102 (± 0.234) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 2.761% (Figueroa 2001). The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was 0.12 (± 0.58) ndividuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured seven times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183317	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183318	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species probably occurs in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183318	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found on the Pacific coast of central to southern Baja.	eng
183318	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It lives on shallow, weed-covered rocky reefs and tidepools to depths of nine m, and it may occur in mangrove areas.	eng
183318	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183318	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is unknown whether there are any major threats for this species. However, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183319	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The species is recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Coiba N.P. and the Cocos Island National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183319	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.	eng
183319	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm and mollusk tubes on rocky reefs. It is also found in coral reef, typically in waters from 1 to 5m deep.	eng
183319	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is quite common in suitable habitat, but as it is also small and cryptic, and it is often overlooked.	eng
183319	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183320	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA, 2006). However, this is a poorly known species and is in need of further survey work. In particular, the status of Panamanian population that is based on a single confirmed record, requires further study. It has a disjunct and restricted range, more research is  needed to determine this species' distribution and potential threats.	eng
183320	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known from the central and southern western Gulf of California. There has also been a single specimen collected in 1971 from Gulf of Chiriqui in Panama (SIO collection).	eng
183320	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 40 m.	eng
183320	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183320	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183321	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species range falls entirely within the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).	eng
183321	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183321	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 20m.	eng
183321	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species was considered common in the Revillagigedos during surveys in the 1990s.	eng
183321	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and climate change events are considered to less likely affect this species than other endemic Revillagigedos species, given the lack of apparent impact of El Niño on <em>K. elegans</em> and <em>K. analogus</em> in the Galapagos. Similarly, ENSO events are not considered to be severe in the Revillagigedos Islands.	eng
183322	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183322	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the southwestern Gulf of California and central Mexico to northern Colombia, (excluding the Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala), including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, Clipperton, and Cocos Islands .	eng
183322	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species is found in rocky reef habitats.	eng
183322	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183322	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183323	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183323	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja and the Gulf of California to Panama (Hoese and Reader, 2001). However, the distribution of this species is patchy as it exists only suitable habitat.	eng
183323	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This benthic species is found burried in sand substrate within small crevices at the base of rock walls or under loose rock nearby, to depths of 20m. This species is cryptic and difficult to see.	eng
183323	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon in suitable habitat.	eng
183323	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.	eng
183324	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183324	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo islands.	eng
183324	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	This pelagic oceanodromous species occurs in oceanic and coastal waters, commonly found in shallow water, with larger individuals up to 100 m depth (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Also found in brackish water and occasionally ascends rivers (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Forms medium to large-sized schools, but large adults may be solitary. Juveniles are often found in river estuaries. It feeds mainly on fishes, but also takes shrimps and other invertebrates. This species has been observed in rocky reef in Cano Island, Costa Rica (Molina pers. comm.).	eng
183324	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species may be common.	eng
183324	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.<br/>This species is fished in sport fisheries by hook and line, and is a targeted artisanal fish. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh, frozen, smoked and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183325	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Malpelo Island, Colombia (WDPA 2006).	eng
183325	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to Malpelo Island, Colombia (Findley 1975).	eng
183325	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges above the coral zone, and over cobble bottom with some calcarious sand and boulders (Findley 1975). It can be found from 10–30 m depth.	eng
183325	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183325	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183326	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no conservation measures for any species on Clipperton Island.	eng
183326	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to Clipperton Island reefs, and has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
183326	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a reef-associated cryptic species that is found in coral reefs from 10-100 m depth. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.	eng
183326	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This species is common, but cryptic.	eng
183326	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/>However, this species is found in deeper waters, and was observed to be common after at least one El Niño event in 1997-1998 (Robertson pers. comm.), so declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.	eng
183327	conservation	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to  determine the impact of commercial fishing on this species throughout  its range.	eng
183327	distribution	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to northern Chile, including the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183327	habitat	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This is a large, and likely slow-growing species, whose biology and ecology is not well-known. It is most often found below 15 m depth, but with occasional individuals in shallow water. It is associated with deeper algal turf habitats (Pérez-Matus 2007). It is associated with deep water kelp forests in the Galápagos (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2007). Its strong dentition makes it an opportunistic predator, even of hard-shelled benthos as shown by its stomach contents of coarse calcareous remains and detritus (Reck 1983).	eng
183327	population	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This species is more common in the southern portion of its range. It was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.49 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004),where it primarily occurs in the west and south of the islands below the thermocline. In Peru, this species occurs rarely north of Lima, but is common south and in northern Chile.	eng
183327	threats	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This species is a large and probably slow growing wrasse making it vulnerable to  overfishing. There is special concern for the Galápagos population,  which is heavily exploited. <br/><br/>Given its deep-water habitat and southerly distribution, ENSO is unlikely to greatly affect the population. Population numbers declined more than 80% at sites studied in Galápagos during 1997/98 El Niño, with recovery one year later in 1999. This species presumably migrated to deep water during the El Niño event.	eng
183328	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183328	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183328	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthopelagic species can be found in soft substrate, generally sand and mud in estuaries near mangroves. Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183328	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is abundant in many parts of its range. For example, in a gill net fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, along the central Mexican Pacific, this species was the most abundant (29.02%) together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183328	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183329	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. In Mexico there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas than there are in other parts of its range.	eng
183329	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific, found in Clipperton, the Revillagigedos islands and from southern California to the tip of Baja California.	eng
183329	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is reef-associated and is found in rocky reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994). It is found from 3-50m. It seeks shelter during the day (De La Cruz Agâero 1997).  This species is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183329	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183329	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183330	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183330	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183330	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species occurs over sandy substrate, among rocks and high up in kelp beds, usually in schools (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983), to depths of 33m.	eng
183330	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common in at least parts of its range. It is known to form large schools in Baja California.	eng
183330	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183331	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183331	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to northernmost Peru.	eng
183331	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is an estuarine species that is also found in coastal freshwater. It can be found in mangrove swamps over soft substrata. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found to 10m of depth.	eng
183331	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183331	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific threats.	eng
183332	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183332	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nayarit in central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183332	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy coasts, estuaries and bays to depths of 30m. It feeds mainly on worms and other marine invertebrates.	eng
183332	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183332	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183333	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183333	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is only known from a few records in the southwest Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183333	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This reef-associated species has been rarely collected. It has been collected on reef flats (Myers 1991) only in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos.	eng
183333	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183333	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats currently known for this species. However, given that this species is only known from a few locations and exists in relatively shallow habitat, it may be susceptible to oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO events.	eng
183334	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183334	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo Islands. This species has previously been reported from Malpelo Island, Colombia, however, report appears to be based on a record from Gorgona, and after 17 years of observations, this species has never been seen in Malpelo Island.	eng
183334	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species generally occurs on rocky and sandy substrate offshore to depths of 80m, and over hard substrate in inshore reef areas.	eng
183334	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is locally abundant in some parts of its range.	eng
183334	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species, and no current  indication of widespread population decline from commercial fishing  throughout its range.	eng
183335	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183335	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to western Panama, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183335	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits rocky reefs and is found on the roof of small crevices and caves in rocky walls and shelves to depths of 70m.	eng
183335	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information for this species. This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.	eng
183335	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183336	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata.	eng
183336	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific is in Mexico (Baja California and southern Gulf of California) and from Costa Rica to northern Peru, including the Galapagos islands.	eng
183336	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This is a coastal-pelagic species that forms dense schools alongshore, lagoons, and estuaries.  It tolerates brackish and fresh water.  It is found down to 10m. This species feeds on plankton, especially on small crustaceans and fish larvae (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  It may be found in streams, estuaries, and sandy and muddy shores.	eng
183336	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	Abundance and biomass in mangrove swamps in Baja California, Mexico showed marked seasonal variation of organism/ha (grams/ha); autumm: 0.09 (0.12), winter: 0.36 (1.57), spring: 11.4 (79.0), summer: 12.36 (85.7) (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
183336	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species has no major threats. <br/><br/><br/>There are no targeted fisheries for this species: it is often caught by cast net (FAO 1995). This species is important as a minor commercial fishery resource (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183337	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183337	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from British Columbia (Canada) to southern Baja California (Mexico), and the west and northeast of the Gulf of California.	eng
183337	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a bentho-pelagic fish that occurs near the surface of coastal water down to soft bottom of continental shelf.  It is found from 9-91m.  It feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183337	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common in California (USA).	eng
183337	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is popular in fresh-fish markets for its good quality (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It is also found in commercial fisheries and sport fisheries (Fishbase 2008).	eng
183338	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Tres Marias Islands are designated as the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve. This is a very poorly known species that has not been collected since the original collection, and there is an urgent need for further survey work to assess its current population status, habitat requirements, distribution, and potential threats.	eng
183338	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from the original collection in 1959 in theTres Marias Islands, Mexico.	eng
183338	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is a benthic species thought to inhabit rocky substrate.	eng
183338	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is known only from 11 specimens collected in 1959 (Briggs 1960).	eng
183338	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats known for this species. However, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on  marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183339	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183339	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from western and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru and the Galapagos (possibly northern Chile - needs confirmation).	eng
183339	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This fish occurs near the surface of coastal water to over soft substrata of continental shelf. It feeds on benthic mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 10-40 m.	eng
183339	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common in the south Pacific off Costa Rica.	eng
183339	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is possibly regionally threatened by fisheries.<br/><br/><br/>This species is important for commercial fisheries in some countries (ASOEXPEBLA 2007). This species is bycatch in local communities, and may be used as bait or for human consumption. In some local communities it is discarded.	eng
183340	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183340	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (Pezold and Cage, 2002)	eng
183340	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits rivers of low to high current velocity, generally occuring in freshwater but sometimes in slightly brackish river mouths. It is normally more abundant near the coast and only large individuals are found upstream. It feeds on small shrimps and fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Bussing and Lopez, 2005). According to Cooke (1992) this species is regularly found in middle estuaries, mangroves, bar-formed lagoons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It has also been found in a high saline lake in Salton Sea in California (Pezold and Cage, 2002), but it is not clear if this is the result of an introduction.	eng
183340	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is relatively common within its suitable habitat.	eng
183340	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183341	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183341	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador and all the offshore islands.	eng
183341	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This rocky and coral reef-associated species hides in shaded, protected recesses in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes and along walls (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is frequently found on coralline and sandy substrata and occasionally on rocky substrata. According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this fish is occasionally found in intertidal pools. It is found from 2-20m.	eng
183341	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183341	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. However, if the guidelines for the aquarium trade are not closely monitored, there could be a threat from over-exploitation. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this species is in the aquarium trade in Costa Rica.	eng
183342	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183342	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California (Bahia Tortugas), and the entire eastern Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183342	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lower estuarine regions to depths of 50m. According to Cooke (1992), I. remifer (cited as Isophistus altipinnis) regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves, and is occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons in Peru and Costa Rica. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and cephalopods.	eng
183342	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183342	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183343	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region. More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.	eng
183343	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183343	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	This demersal species inhabits rocky reefs and adjacent sand patches to depths of 70 m. It feeds on mobile <br/>benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish and bony fishes.	eng
183343	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is relatively common throughout its range. However, throughout its range, mean body size observed in fish markets over the past 15 years has been declining. Similarly, number of individuals in fish markets appear to be declining in Ecuador.	eng
183343	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	This is a minor commercial species throughout its range. It is not known if fishing activities can be attributed to the observed decrease in body size in fish markets throughout its range.	eng
183344	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183344	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few specimens collected from Nayarit to Guerrero, central Mexico.	eng
183344	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and inhabits muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 15 m. It feeds on zooplankton.	eng
183344	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183344	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183345	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183345	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is only found along rocky shores in the western Gulf of California (Villarreal <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183345	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This fish inhabits rocky crevices in tide pools and under cobble in shallow water.	eng
183345	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183345	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known major threats for this restricted-range species. However, in some areas there may be localized threats from coastal development for tourism and urban development.	eng
183346	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183346	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to Bahia Magdalena, Baja California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183346	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This benthic species is found in coastal areas over soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of approximately 100m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183346	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183346	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is often caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling.	eng
183348	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the specific area of occupancy of this species, including number of locations and population status.	eng
183348	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to central Peru.	eng
183348	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species can be found over shallow sandy substrate to depths of approximately 10 m.	eng
183348	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183348	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	Major threats to this species are unknown. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.,/i> 2004). As a planktivorous species with temperate distribution, this species is likely to be greatly affected by El Niño events.</em>	eng
183349	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183349	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja and the lower Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183349	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This is a  benthopelagic and demersal species found in shallow coastal waters. It forms small schools, generally near the bottom and feeds on squid, small crabs, small fishes and polychaetes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to depths of 50 m.	eng
183349	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183349	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183350	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183350	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183350	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, sometimes entering mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183350	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183350	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
183351	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183351	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific region, and is found from the mouth of the Dulce River, Mexico to the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Collette, 1995).	eng
183351	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal fish is found on soft substrate in bays, at the mouths of rivers, and in estuaries (Collette, 1995). It feeds mainly on crabs, other invertebrates, and fishes (Collette and Russo, 1981).	eng
183351	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in bays, the mouths of rivers and in estuaries (Collette, 1995). It is considered abundant in Jiquilisco Bay, Costa Rica.	eng
183351	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183352	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.	eng
183352	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mexico to El Salvador.	eng
183352	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found in estuaries, mangroves and brackish waters to depths of 20 m.	eng
183352	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183352	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.	eng
183353	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the possible environmental and human impacts that my affect its survival is needed.	eng
183353	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California and through the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and the Juan Fernandez islands.	eng
183353	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	It inhabits rocky or coral reefs, where it is often found among red algae, and in shallow bays and sloughs, among eelgrass and other seaweeds. This species is found to 20m.	eng
183353	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183353	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no known major threats.	eng
183354	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its population, biology and potential threats.	eng
183354	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few specimens found near southern Baja California and in the southern Gulf of California.	eng
183354	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is benthopelagic and found in shallow water, as it has only been caught at a depth of two m, but likely occurs deeper to at least 15 m. It is a carnivore and feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, worms and gastropods.	eng
183354	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183354	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183355	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183355	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception, California, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California, Mexico. Records from the Gulf of California are likely erroneous and are based on misidentification of other cusk-eels.	eng
183355	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal deep-water species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183355	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183355	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183356	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed on its distribution, population status, biology and ecology and threats.	eng
183356	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from one specimen taken from the Gulf of San Miguel, in eastern Panama.	eng
183356	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species likely inhabitats soft bottoms in estuaries in shallow waters.	eng
183356	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183356	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species likely has a very restricted distribution, and is only found in shallow estuarine waters, a habitat under threat from coastal development, resource extraction, and pollution throughout its range.	eng
183357	conservation	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183357	distribution	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is only known from the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. Given is shallow depth range and restricted distribution, it has an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
183357	habitat	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is found in shallow coastal areas, lagoons and mangroves to depths of four m.	eng
183357	population	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183357	threats	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to coastal development, mangrove removal, pollution, cessation of flow from the Colorado River and by shrimp aquaculture development throughout its range. In the northern portion of its range, estuaries, riparian, wetland, and tidal areas of the Colorado River delta have been reduced by over 90% since dam construction begin in the early 20th century.	eng
183358	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183358	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183358	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries, and can occur to depths of 100m. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.	eng
183358	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is limited population information for this species, but is known to be common throughout its range.	eng
183358	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté, 2006), Panama. It is also likely common in the subsistence fisheries and caught as by-catch through shrimp trawling activity. For example, this species is very commonly taken in the shrimp trawl fishery in the northern Gulf of California (eg. several trawls producing more than 500 individuals) (Nava-Romo, J.M., 1994).	eng
183359	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a biosphere reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183359	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it is known only from the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183359	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in rocky intertidal and subtidal areas to depths of 10 m.	eng
183359	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183359	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183360	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls with the Galápagos Islands National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183360	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183360	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is infrequently encountered in rocky shallows to depths of five m.	eng
183360	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183360	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183361	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However,this species' distribution includes Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.	eng
183361	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only from southern Baja California and in the Gulf of California.	eng
183361	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species inhabits substrata with fine sand at depth of 25 to 100m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, zooplankton, bony fishes, and pelagic fish larvae.	eng
183361	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common throughout its restricted range.	eng
183361	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183362	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183362	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183362	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits soft bottoms to depths of approximately 140 m, but can also enter fresh water from shallow estuaries and mangroves (Hensley 1995).	eng
183362	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be common in many parts of its range.	eng
183362	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized fresh (Hensley 1995).	eng
183363	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Lea, R., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183363	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Lea, R., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Monterey Bay to the tip of Baja, and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Malpelo, Galapagos, and Guadalupe Islands.	eng
183363	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Lea, R., Bearez, P., 2007	This demersal species is found in open rocky areas and reefs to 75 m depth, but often retreats to crevices or holes or hides among spines of sea urchins when threatened. It is territorial.	eng
183363	population	Van Tassell, J., Lea, R., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is common within its range. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this fish is common in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In North Colorado Island of Baja California, this species has a density of 1.28 (± 0.56) individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup>; in San Clemente, 3.8 (±0.83) ndividuals per m<sup>2</sup>; in Santa Catalina, 5.36 (±1.34) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Pondella <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183363	threats	Van Tassell, J., Lea, R., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183365	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183365	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183365	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species that is found  in rubble and soft substrata. It is found from 48-351m. It is marine only and feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.	eng
183365	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183365	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183366	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183366	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja and central Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands, to Ecuador.	eng
183366	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits rocky and rubble substrate to depths of 10 m. It can also be found in rocky and coral reef areas.	eng
183366	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183366	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183367	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is fully protected in California, and it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and United States (WDPA 2006).	eng
183367	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to the tip of Baja and southwestern Gulf of California, including Guadaloupe and Rocas Alijos. There are records from the Tres Marias Islands, but these are likely vagrants.	eng
183367	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species occurs over rocky bottom in clear water, often near crevices and small caves, occasionally in kelp to depths of 30m.	eng
183367	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is considered common in California. Its population at Channel Islands National Park, California in kelp forests had a mean density of 238/ha (Davis and Anderson, 1989).	eng
183367	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this fish was historically exploited by the aquarium trade (Moe, 1992).	eng
183368	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183368	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	This species is only known from Panama Bay in the Eastern Pacific, however more research is needed to determine if its range may extend further in the region.	eng
183368	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	This species is poorly known, but has been found over mud and sand substrate at depths from 35 to 44 m.	eng
183368	population	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183368	threats	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183369	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a very small Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183369	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is patchily distributed in the central western Gulf of California (Findley 1983).	eng
183369	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been found over rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges at depths from 10 to 45 m.	eng
183369	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183369	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183370	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183370	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is found in the eastern Pacific, and ranges from southern California to the Gulf of California and to northern Peru.	eng
183370	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is demersal in estuaries and mangrove areas. It resides in waters over soft substrata. This species is found from 15-385m.	eng
183370	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183370	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183371	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More survey work and research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.	eng
183371	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Puerto Vallarta to Puerto Escondido, Mexico, and Panama.	eng
183371	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reef bases with sand and rubble to depths of five m.	eng
183371	population	Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available on this species. This species is only known from a handful of collections.	eng
183371	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183372	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species occurs within the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183372	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is restricted to the Galápagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183372	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in sand flats and rocky areas mixed with boulders, gravel rubble and sand to depths of 30 m.	eng
183372	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183372	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183373	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). Given the extremely limited distribution of this species, the species requires close population monitoring.	eng
183373	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Socorro Island in the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183373	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species is found on rocky and coral reefs to depths of 5 m.	eng
183373	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183373	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183374	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183374	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez 2005).	eng
183374	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Lea, B., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sand and sandy mud or rubble bottoms to depths of 190 m.	eng
183374	population	van der Heiden, A., Lea, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is an uncommon species over much of its range.	eng
183374	threats	van der Heiden, A., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp and other trawling activities.	eng
183375	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo, Galagapos, and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183375	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California, along central Mexico, and from El Salvador to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183375	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal species lives between rocks in littoral pools. It is not frequently seen.	eng
183375	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183375	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183376	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183376	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from north and eastern Gulf of California to the Ecuador-Peru border.	eng
183376	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata, including estuaries. It is found to 100m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183376	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183376	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species has no major threats.	eng
183377	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183377	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It has a disjunct distribution, as it is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to Nayarit, Mexico and from Costa Rica to northern Peru.	eng
183377	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits soft substrate.	eng
183377	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be common throughout its range (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183377	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183378	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183378	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183378	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Rocha, L., 2007	Thie reef-associated species is commonly encountered in rocky reefs and sandy areas adjacent to reefs to depths of 70m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183378	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is common throughout most of its range on the continental coast. However, it is considered uncommon in the Galapagos Islands.<br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), H. chierchiae is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys conducted at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997; Rubio, 1986), also could not find this species.	eng
183378	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however, such localized collecting is unlikely to significantly affect the population.	eng
183379	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183379	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Panama Bay, but is possibly found to northern Peru.	eng
183379	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs inshore, but enters brackish, if not fresh, water (thus probably similar to L. grossidens).  It is found to 10m. It feeds on fishes (including other anchovies), and also possibly crustaceans.   It has pelagic eggs and larvae, and nearly ripe females occur in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica in June, August and September.  Juveniles of 3.3-4.5 cm occur in January and October.	eng
183379	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183379	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988).	eng
183380	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183380	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from thesouthern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Archipelago.	eng
183380	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters (Chao, 1995) to depths of 100m. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans (Chao, 1995).	eng
183380	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183380	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It can be common in local markets.	eng
183381	conservation	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183381	distribution	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from soutwestern Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to Costa Rica, including the Revillagigedo and Cocos Islands (Bussing and Lavenberg, 2003; Bussing and Lopez, 2005).	eng
183381	habitat	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This demersal species is primarily found over sand-rubble bottoms, but can also be found in a variety of habitat types. It can be reef-associated, and can also be found over soft bottoms in estuaries and mangroves.	eng
183381	population	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species is considered to be abundant at Isla Angel de la Guarda in the Gulf of California.	eng
183381	threats	McCosker, J., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is a sport fish in localized parts of Gulf of California and juveniles are sometimes collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
183382	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.	eng
183382	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is distributed throughout the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez).	eng
183382	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a pelagic and coastal fish, living over sand and gravel substrata to 10m.  It feeds on zooplankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183382	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population data is available for this species.	eng
183382	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species in many coastal habitats. This species may also be threatened by water being diverted away from the rivers.	eng
183383	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' taxonomy, distribution, population, biology, ecology and potential threats.	eng
183383	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is known only from two specimens from the type locality in Arica, Chile (Eschmeyer and Fricke 2009).	eng
183383	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no habitat or ecology information for this poorly known species.	eng
183383	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	No population information is available, as it is known only from two specimens.	eng
183383	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183384	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution does not overlap with any known Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183384	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found from the tip of Baja California and the southern mouth of the Gulf of California to Panama, including the Galapagos Islands (Smith and Karmovskaya, 2003; Smith, 1995).	eng
183384	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate and feeds on mobile invertebrates.	eng
183384	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183384	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183385	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Although this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183385	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found near Banderas Bay, Mexico, El Salvador, and from Costa Rica to Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).	eng
183385	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species occurs over sandy substrate, beaches, and in estuaries to depths of 70 m.	eng
183385	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183385	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183386	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183386	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183386	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This bentho-pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 78 m. According to Cooke (1992), <em>Larimus effulgens</em> is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
183386	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183386	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It can be common in local markets.	eng
183387	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).	eng
183387	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to Colombia.	eng
183387	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This pelagic species is generally found near shore and can enter estuaries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)	eng
183387	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183387	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183388	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183388	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183388	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found in sandy coasts and bays to depths of 20m. It also occurs in littoral pools. It feeds on crustaceans and worms. In general, the genus Umbrina (except for U. Bussingi, a deep water species) can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183388	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. <br/><br/>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183388	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish and can be found in local markets. Its is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and is a target species for artisinal fisheries.	eng
183389	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183389	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from central Mexico to northernmost Peru.	eng
183389	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species may be found over shallow sandy and muddy substrata and may enter fresh waters in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and small fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 10-40m.	eng
183389	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183389	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183390	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183390	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183390	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow water to depths of 20m over sandy and muddy substrate. It can also occur in estuarine and mangrove areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183390	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. <br/><br/>In one survey in Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 4 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183390	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and in artisinal fisheries. It is often found in local markets.	eng
183391	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183391	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is known from only two specimens; one from central Gulf of California and the other from El Salvador.	eng
183391	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	Little is known about the ecology or biology of this species.	eng
183391	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183391	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183392	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, the species distribution falls within Marine Protected Areas, including those in the gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183392	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California, and in Costa Rica, Colombia, and the Galapagos and Clipperton Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183392	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits muddy and sandy substrate to depths of 35m, and may be found at reef edges feeding on invertebrates. It is a cryptic species and lives its adult life buried in the sand.	eng
183392	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183392	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species as it lives most of its adult life buried in the sand, and is therefore relatively protected from fishing activity and potential ENSO events.	eng
183393	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Cocos Island has been designated as a national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183393	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183393	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate at the reef edge to depths of 15 m.	eng
183393	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183393	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183394	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183394	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Costa Rica.	eng
183394	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal fish is found in coastal, brackish and fresh water to depths of 20m.	eng
183394	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is very common in central Mexico and El Salvador.	eng
183394	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is important in small commercial fisheries in some areas. It is also likely locally affected by the extensive disturbance of estuarine areas within its range.	eng
183395	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003),  better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galápagos endemic species.	eng
183395	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183395	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species forms large daytime aggregations along walls and over rocky slopes, often in somewhat protected areas (Humann and  Deloach 1993), to depths of 20 m. It is most commonly encountered in rocky areas with steep bottom profile.	eng
183395	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is locally abundant. However, fish monitoring studies indicated that this species disappeared from all sites studied for the two years following 1987/88 El Niño, but populations are thought to have somewhat recovered. This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 12.1 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183395	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species has been observed to be greatly affected by severe El Niño events. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183396	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Coiba National Park.	eng
183396	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183396	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate and tidepools.	eng
183396	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183396	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183397	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183397	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to central Peru, including all the offshore islands.	eng
183397	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky and coral reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m, and is usually found in large aggregations. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found over massive corals, deep rocky walls, exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). The diet of this diurnal feeder consists of plankton at the surface or mid-water, it also grazes on benthic invertebrates and algae on the reef.	eng
183397	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is considered to be common throughout its range.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, being the second most abundant species, with an overall mean abundance of 12.4 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.14 (±0.52) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.257 (±0.210) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 6.939% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed just in two sites, with an overall observations of 45 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. passer</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common — one to five % of the overall abundance — with a relative frequency between 50-75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured just twice within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline and sandy bottoms while frequent in rocky bottoms and tide pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 3.628 (±9.773) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 80%. This fish was not observed in a survey conducted at Clipperton Atoll (Robertson and Allen 1996).	eng
183397	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica. However, aquarium collecting is so localized that it is very unlikely to affect population numbers.	eng
183398	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183398	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183398	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species inhabits soft sandy or muddy substrata at depths of 15 to 100m. Its diet consists of small crustaceans and bony fishes. This species is a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Franke and Acero, 1995).<br/><br/>In Parque Gorgona, Colombia, 66.0% of the studied individuals were captured between March and June. Although mature specimens were found during the entire year except in October and December, it is suggested that, in Gorgona, the highest reproductive peak occured between the month of June and July (Franke and Acero, 1995).	eng
183398	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It has been captured with low frequency (Borton 1977), although in Parque Corgona, Colombia, it is very abundant and is frequently captured (Franke and Acero 1995).	eng
183398	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.This species does not have major commercial interest, likely due to its small size (Franke and Acero, 1995).	eng
183399	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183399	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Isla Maria Magdalena (Tres Marias Islands) to south central Mexico.	eng
183399	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species nhabits coastal sandy areas.	eng
183399	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183399	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183400	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183400	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central eastern Gulf of California to southern Mexico, and from southern Panama to Ecuador. This disjunct distribution may be due to undersampling.	eng
183400	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is found exclusively in empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs. It is oviparous, with eggs attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al.</em> 1984).	eng
183400	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is not considered to be very abundant, although it can be locally common.	eng
183400	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183401	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of this species, and to better understand its habitat preferences.	eng
183401	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is thought to be found in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica. However, it is only known from the original description in 1955.	eng
183401	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is a benthic species. A specimen from Golfito was collected on a bottom type of mangrove leaves, mud and shells (Briggs 1955).	eng
183401	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It has not been collected since the original description in 1955.	eng
183401	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Major threats for this species are unknown, although it may be at risk of habitat loss due to the extraction of mangroves within its range.	eng
183402	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is not known to occur in any Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
183402	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.	eng
183402	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found on sandy and sand-mud substrate. It has an extended pre-juvenile life stage (Lea 1997; Nielsen et al, 1999).	eng
183402	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183402	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183403	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183403	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern California to the central Gulf of California. to Central Peru, as well as the Galapagos and Malpelo.	eng
183403	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a reef-associated species, it stays under ledge overhangs and other shaded, reclusive areas, on rocky reefs and slopes during the day.  It feeds in the open at night (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found to 60m. It often occurs with other cardinal fish (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183403	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is common in Costa Rica. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183403	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183404	conservation	Bearez, P., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183404	distribution	Bearez, P., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from nothern Peru to northern Chile.	eng
183404	habitat	Bearez, P., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is normally found in coastal waters to primarily to depths of 30m. It inhabits coastal cold waters and soft bottoms particularly inside the first band of 50 nautical miles off shore. Data of acoustic backscattering shows that this fish is distributed throughout the entire water column according to diel cycles, though during the night it is despersed close to the surface.  Depending on the depth of the oxycline, this fish can go to depths of 140m (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The diet of this species varies seasonally. During summer and autumn anchovy is usually its main food in proportions of 62.7% and 53.9%, respectively. The crustacean munida is only part of its diet during spring and autumn (13% and 0.4% respectively). However, it has a preference for invertebrates, especially polychaete worms, when the fish is a juvenile, and prefers other fishes when it is an adult. The comparison and analysis of distribution areas of bagre, anchovy and munida lead to the conclusion that bagre inhabit zones that are part of the main nursery areas of anchovy. Bagre are usually associated with the harvestiing of adult anchovies, which demonstrates its strong seasonal dependence on this food source (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>The proportion between females and males is 2.3.  The fecundity was 27 eggs per individual during the main spawning season in summer. Its size of first maturity is around 17.3 cm of total length. It is a bucal-pharingeal brooder, and males guard the few, large eggs and recently hatched young in their mouths.	eng
183404	population	Bearez, P., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is very common and abundant in Peru. <br/><br/>The acoustically detected main areas of distribution are Punta La Negra (06°S) and Chimbote (09°S), where the continental shelf reachs out to its maximum longitudinal width. Acoustic assessments performed between 1998 and 2006 show a maximum abundance level of 2,133,357 t during the winter of 1998 (corresponding to the El Niño event of 1997-98). Forthcoming abundance estimates were sometimes significant, though of lower levels, which might indicate that it exists at a certain level of resident population that could have a dynamic role regarding ecological interactions with other coastal species that overlap their spatial distributions. Warm events, like summers and moderated or weak El Niño or Kelvin waves disperse the fish along the coast, though its presence was null during summer of 1998 and very low during summer of 2004. Its presence during winter 2000 was null as well but was likely due to an aggregation close to the northern end of NHCE. Furthermore, the minimum assessed abundance was of about 28,000 t during winter 2005.  Depending on occasional high densities,  this species can also behave as a pelagic fish. The distributions show seasonal patterns of aggregation that are rather well defined: during winters the main densities occur, especially in the coastal zone along 7° and 9° S, and during spring its main aggregations are moved down to the area between 8 and 10°S (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
183404	threats	Bearez, P., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	Although not considered a threat to populations at this time, this species is a commercial species in Peru. The fluctuations in abundance are rather well reflected in harvests of artisanal fisheries though this species is not the objective of a sustained catching. Its presence in harvests is also often the product of by-catch (Carvajal <em>et al.</em> 2007). It also is found in areas heavily effected by ENSO events, but appears to adapt by going deeper or surviving in the southern part of its range.	eng
183405	conservation	Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183405	distribution	Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the central western Gulf of California (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183405	habitat	Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that burrows in sand and rubble.	eng
183405	population	Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from three type specimens from two localities.	eng
183405	threats	Collette, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183406	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population, habitat requirements, ecology and threats in order to determine its conservation status.	eng
183406	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype taken once from Panama Bay in 1953.	eng
183406	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species presumably inhabits soft substrate, although there is no habitat information listed with the type description (Collette and Russo 1981).	eng
183406	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is presumably very rare since it is only known from a single specimen despite numerous collections in the type locality. Extensive collections in Panama Bay and elsewhere in the Eastern Pacific have failed to record this species. This species may be extinct.	eng
183406	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This restricted range and shallow-water species is likely threatened by habitat loss from the removal of mangrove forests around Panama Bay, coastal development and pollution.	eng
183407	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183407	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183407	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow sand-rubble substrate adjacent to rocky reefs to depths of five m.	eng
183407	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183407	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183408	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183408	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the western and central eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183408	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is a benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores in shallow waters.	eng
183408	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan, 1983).	eng
183408	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183409	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and the United States (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the impact of fisheries on its population, especially in the Gulf of California.	eng
183409	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from California to southern Baja and the northern Gulf of California.	eng
183409	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species is often found in caves and crevices of exposed coasts and open bays in California to depths of 100 m. The disjunct subpopulation in the northern Gulf of California occurs on sandy/muddy bottoms.	eng
183409	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is moderately common through most of its range, except for in the northern Gulf of California where it is uncommon perhaps due to the shrimp fishery.	eng
183409	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., Robertson, R., 2007	The disjunct subpopulation in the northern Gulf of California is likely in decline due to capture as by-catch in shrimp trawl fisheries and probably gillnet fisheries.	eng
183410	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183410	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southwestern and northeastern Gulf of California to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183410	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud bottoms to depths of 191m.	eng
183410	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range, such as in the Gulf of California.	eng
183410	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It occurs occasionally in bycatch of artesanal gill net fisheries.	eng
183411	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	In California the species has management plans. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Pacific region.	eng
183411	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from Oregon to the Gulf of California. It is found also in Revillagigedo islands, and possibly into southern Mexico.	eng
183411	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a pelagic fish that inhabits oceanic and coastal areas, but is mainly found on the continental shelf and although often classified as demersal, the distribution and behavior suggest a largely pelagic existence. Adults live in large schools in waters overlying the continental shelf and slope, except during the spawning season when they are found several hundred miles seaward. It is found at depths from 12-1400 m. This species is a nocturnal feeder that preys on a variety of fishes and invertebrates (Cohen <em>et al</em>. 1990).  <br/><br/>Growth is relatively fast, especially during the first four years and can live up to 15 years. It begins to mature at three years of age and most individuals are mature by four years and at about 35 to 42 cm total length. <br/><br/>This fish is a pelagic spawner, females laying, depending on their size, 80,000 to 500,000 eggs. Spawning occurs mainly in deep waters off southern California and Baja California in the winter and spring (from January to April or June). This hake migrates northward to southern Oregon in the summer and autumn (from July to September), and begins to return by December. The northward migration is accompanied by movement towards the shore and into shallower water, while the southward migration is accompanied by movement into deeper water and seaward (FAO-FIGIS, 2001).	eng
183411	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183411	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The species is a valuable commercial fish, and has been highly exploited. <br/>This is a highly commercial species used for fishmeal. The harvesting of this species is mainly in the USA, from 100,000 to 500,000 t. Since the inception of the USSR, (hake fisheries totaled 133,667 t in 1966) this species has been an important constituent of distant-water fisheries. Most of the US harvest was used for fish meal and pet food, while the Soviet harvest was frozen for human consumption as soon as they were caught (this hake tends to become soft and less palatable from two to four hours after being caught). The harvest reported to the FAO in 1995 totaled 177,117 t (all taken by the USA and almost exclusively from area 67, northeast Pacific). Since 1966, the harvests have had substantial decreases, in 1980 (57,086 t) and in 1991-92 (31,413 and 56,231 t). The total catch reported for this species to the FAO for 1999 was 217,000 t. The countries with the largest harvests were the USA (216,889 t) and Mexico (111 t).	eng
183412	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183412	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183412	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This reef-associated species can be found in schools around coastal reefs during the day, dispersing over sandy substrate at night (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of 33 m. It can also be found at deep rocky walls as well as in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183412	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is considered common throughout most of its range.<br/><br/>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0,308 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa 2001).This species was found in a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, and is considered to be frequent and abundant, with a 30-70% abundance (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), a mean density of  3.169 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> was registered. The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was 0.07±0.27 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured eight times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183412	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance.	eng
183413	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183413	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southeastern Gulf of California (Mazatlan) to Colombia. Given its specific habitat requirements, this species likely has a patchy distribution throughout its range.	eng
183413	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This benthic species inhabits intertidal zones on mud substrate, and can enter freshwater.	eng
183413	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	The species is relatively common throughout its range in suitable habitat.	eng
183413	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	Coastal development for tourism and aquaculture, and the removal of mangrove habitat are the most serious threats to this species.	eng
183414	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183414	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to southern Panama.	eng
183414	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This pelagic fish is found in shallow coastal waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183414	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183414	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183415	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the amount and effect of mangrove habitat loss on its population.	eng
183415	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from El Salvador to Panama.	eng
183415	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found over soft mud and sand substrate in shallow-water estuaries and mangroves to depths of five m.	eng
183415	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is not considered to be common throughout its range.	eng
183415	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water mangrove habitats. Extensive mangrove destruction for development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout is range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.	eng
183416	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183416	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The range of this species in the tropical eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183416	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters, possibly entering brackish estuaries (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found at depths to 10 m.It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183416	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	In surveys of global demersal fauna from Mexico to Costa Rica, this species represents 541 kg, 0.25% of total weight, from a total of 208,163 kg. 270,077 individuals of this species where obtained from a total of 16,077,777 individuals from all the species in this survey. This species represents 1.67% of the total number of individuals with a frequency of 41 (Bianchi 1991).	eng
183416	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183417	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183417	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to western Panama including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (Bussing and Lopez 2005).	eng
183417	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits rocky reefs, and is found on the roof of small crevices and caves in rocky walls and shelves to depths of 20 m.	eng
183417	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is moderately common within its restricted habitat.	eng
183417	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This shallow-water species may be threatened by  localized coastal development within its restricted range. In addition, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water and restricted range species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183418	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Cocos Islands National Park and the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006).	eng
183418	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to southern Ecuador, including Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183418	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits shallow rocky areas in rocky and coral reef.	eng
183418	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no widespread population information available for this species, although it is considered common in Malpelo.	eng
183418	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183419	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183419	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to western Panama, and Malpelo and Gorgona islands, Colombia.	eng
183419	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a reef-associated species that is found in rocky reefs to 60m.  It seeks refuge during the day (De La Cruz Agâero 1997). It is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183419	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is extremely rare in Costa Rica . There is no other population information for this species.	eng
183419	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known threats.<br/>This species has no commercial interest, although it is of potential interest as aquarium fish (De La Cruz Aguero 1997)	eng
183420	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183420	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the lower half of Baja California, and from Mazatlan to Colombia, including the Tres Marias Islands and Malpelo Island.	eng
183420	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits rocky and rubble substrate and coral reefs to depths of 25m.	eng
183420	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered a common species.	eng
183420	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183421	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183421	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to Colombia, including the Revillagigedo, Malpelo, Galapagos, and Cocos Islands.	eng
183421	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in sand-rubble fringe of rocky reefs or coral patches at depths of 2 to 40m (Allen and Robertson, 1994). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this species is present in edge habitats on sandy deep rocky zones in the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama and is one of the most dominant species of gobiids. It forages on tiny crustaceans among rocks on the bottom.	eng
183421	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is relatively common throughout its range in the Gulf of California. However, according to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this fish is rare in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency below 10%, and this species is considered scarce Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>This fish was studied in various sites at Galapagos archipelago with an overall mean density of 0.09 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183421	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183422	conservation	Collette, B., Rojas, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed to quantify the effect of shrimp trawling activities on this species' very restricted population and habitat.	eng
183422	distribution	Collette, B., Rojas, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Costa Rica to central Panamá, where it has an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
183422	habitat	Collette, B., Rojas, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found over sand and mud bottoms between depths of 20 and 60 m.	eng
183422	population	Collette, B., Rojas, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is mostly known from its capture in shrimp trawls.	eng
183422	threats	Collette, B., Rojas, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is heavily caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls throughout its restricted range.	eng
183423	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183423	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183423	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species inhabits small patch reefs or rocky outcrops in sand-rubble areas in rocks to 60m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, and bony fishes	eng
183423	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is common around shallow reefs throughout its range. In an study conducted in the Galapagos, the mean abundance for this species was 2.58 (per 500  m<sup>2</sup>.) (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the standard deviation for the species was 0.003 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>), the standard deviation was 0.007 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the percentage of abundance was 0.074% (Rojas 2001). The density for this species in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica was (0.01 individual  m<sup>2</sup>) and the standard deviation was 0.02 ind / m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em> et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183423	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183424	conservation	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More information is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.	eng
183424	distribution	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality of Buenaventura, Colombia.	eng
183424	habitat	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	This species is poorly known. Based on market specimens, it is expected to be found in brackish habitats (Betancur and Acero 2006).	eng
183424	population	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from the type series of six specimens.	eng
183424	threats	Acero, A. & Betancur, R., 2007	This species has no information about a definitive distribution making it difficult to define its environmental threats.	eng
183425	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183425	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. It has also been collected in the locks at the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal (Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
183425	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is found in rocky areas, and in rocky and coral reefs, especially near branching corals (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). It can inhabit empty barnacle shells often with only the head protruding, usually at depths of 1-3 m, and feeds by nabbing bits of floating food (Humann and Deloach, 1993).	eng
183425	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	Although this species is widespread, it is generally found in low abundance. However, in the right habitat it can be common. The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos Island was 0.05 per 500  m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183425	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183426	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, the species distribution falls partially in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183426	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183426	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	This demersal species is found on sandy substrate.	eng
183426	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183426	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183427	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is found entirely in the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183427	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.	eng
183427	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits shallow subtidal rocky reefs and vertical surfaces to depths of 20 m.	eng
183427	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species can be locally common.	eng
183427	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183428	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183428	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183428	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy, rubble and muddy bottoms near the coast to a depths of 125m (Hensley, 1995).	eng
183428	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is moderately common throughout its range. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
183428	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch in industrial shrimp fisheries.	eng
183429	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183429	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183429	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This pelagic species is found in littoral waters; it tolerates low salinities and may temporarily penetrate estuarine waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 30m.	eng
183429	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183429	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183430	conservation	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183430	distribution	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Ecuador.	eng
183430	habitat	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183430	population	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183430	threats	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183431	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183431	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Lobos de Afuera, Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183431	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is inhabits rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 16m with juveniles occurring commonly in tidepools. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species was found in deeper waters over middle sized rocks, massive corals, and exposed shallow rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). In the Galapagos, this species is most common in the shallow subtidal zone in rock boulder habitat in sheltered bays. It often occurs in the same habitat as Stegastes arcifrons in the Galapagos Islands, and possibly forms hybrids with that species.	eng
183431	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range. The population in the Galapagos Islands is thought to be increasing since the 1980s.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.01 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004); however, the species occurs frequently in water shallower than that surveyed (GE). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.07±0.09 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>.. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.301±0.435 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, - relative abundance of 8.128% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed in 3 sites, with 47 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). S. acapulcoensis was not recorded in a survey made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).  A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in sandy bottoms and tide-pools while occasional in rocky and coralline bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.366±0.465 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 70.3%.	eng
183431	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.  According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), it is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but collection is unlikely to affect the total population.	eng
183432	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183432	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183432	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata, from the inner to middle continental shelf. This species is found from 20-120m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183432	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183432	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183433	conservation	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the population is fully protected in Cocos Island Marine Procted Area (WDPA 2006).	eng
183433	distribution	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island, Costa Rica. However, possible juveniles of this species have been photographed at Malpelo Island, Colombia.	eng
183433	habitat	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	This demersal species is found over rubble and sand substrata, occuring frequently amongst pebbles and sand to depths of 35 m.	eng
183433	population	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be locally common at Cocos in restricted rubble and sand habitat.	eng
183433	threats	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Choat, J.H., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183434	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183434	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
183434	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This benthic, demersal species can be found over hard rock and rubble substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995), and in rocky habitat in estuaries to depths of 25m.  It was found over a massive coral reef in the Gulf of Chiriquí (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183434	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is uncommon throughout most if its range. Near Buenaventura, Colombia, it is moderately common in rocky areas in estuaries. In Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica,  this species was recorded to have a mean density of 0.004 ind/ m<sup>2</sup>.	eng
183434	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183435	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific (WDPA 2006). Additionally, populations are known to exist within RAMSAR sites in southeastern Gulf of California.	eng
183435	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the eastern Gulf of California to Panama.	eng
183435	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This demersal species inhabits shallow estuaries (0-8 m), and is restricted to substrate of a firm mixture of mud and sand. It feeds on mobile benthic worms and crustacea.	eng
183435	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is thought to be uncommon.	eng
183435	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is threatened by loss of habitat due to shrimp farming, coastal aquaculture, and mangrove destruction from coastal development. As this species is restricted to near-shore shallow water habitat with specific substrate, more information is needed to determine the effect of widespread habitat loss and degradation on its population.	eng
183436	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas, and collections have been made in the Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183436	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands (Lea and Rosenblatt, 2000).	eng
183436	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits soft-bottom and often burrows into loose sand.	eng
183436	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183436	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183437	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as areas with soft substrata such as mud. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183437	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from lower Baja California and the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183437	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species inhabits sandy or muddy shores, and enters brackish and high salinity estuaries. It occurs at depths down to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183437	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species was described in 2002 and no population data is currently available.	eng
183437	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183438	conservation	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More information is needed on this species population, habitat and ecology.	eng
183438	distribution	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California and Jalisco (Mexico) to Panama, including Revillagigedos islands.	eng
183438	habitat	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This species is found in near-shore coastal zones, and may occur either over hard and soft substrata. It is found to 10m. This species' habitat and ecology has not been well documented.	eng
183438	population	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not considered to be uncommon, but is less common than other mullet species.	eng
183438	threats	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	The are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species may be caught incidentally with other mullet species (Harrison, 1995).	eng
183439	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006). In Mexico, legislation was enacted in March 2004 to prohibit increased fishing of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). However, enforcement of Marine Protected Areas and legislation is necessary for the conservation of this species.<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.	eng
183439	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA, to Baja California and in the Gulf of California, Mexico. However, this species is also often misidentified in southern California.	eng
183439	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits shallow inshore sandy and muddy areas, although it can be found to 100 m depth. It feeds mainly on small fishes.	eng
183439	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered uncommon in southern California and likely uncommon in northwestern Baja California.	eng
183439	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is not commercially targeted, but given its distribution and general habitat, it is very commonly caught in gillnet and handline fisheries along with similar fishes, especially in the Gulf of California where the majority of its population occurs. The effect of fisheries on this species' population is unknown.	eng
183440	conservation	Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183440	distribution	Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the lower southeastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama.	eng
183440	habitat	Espinosa, H., 2007	This species inhabits sand, mud, and rubble substrate of coastal waters and lagoons. It is also found in estuaries in freshwater, brackish, and marine areas (Bussing, 1995).	eng
183440	population	Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is considered not to be very common in Mexico.	eng
183440	threats	Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183441	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183441	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a single specimen collected at the Galapagos Islands (Findley 1983), although the type locality for this species is uncertain.	eng
183441	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species may live in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges at depths from 20 to 40 m.	eng
183441	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no information known about this species. Only one specimen has ever been recorded.	eng
183441	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	If this species can be shown to have a viable population in the Galapagos Islands, localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events as well as coastal development may have detrimental effects on this species' habitat and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183442	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from Cocos Island Marine Protected Area (Bussing and Lopez 2005).	eng
183442	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Gulf of California and Costa Rica (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003). It has also been recorded from Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez 2005), where it may be vagrant.	eng
183442	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It has been collected from burrows in sand and rubble at depths from 55 to 82 m.	eng
183442	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known only from four specimens from Costa Rica and three from Gulf of California at different localities (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183442	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183443	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measure for this species. However, this species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183443	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico, and from El Salvador to southern Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183443	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is associated with reefs. It forms small groups on rocky and occasionally soft substrates, or near the surface at night. The adults hide under conspicuous rocks and in small caves during the day (Watson, 1996). In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species can be found over deep rocky walls and reefs, exposed shallow rocky reefs, zones of massive corals, and zones of madreporic branching corals (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183443	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is abundant in most of its range. In the Galapagos archipelago, this species had a mean density during day surveys of 0.22 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, much higher densities can be found in night surveys. In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.001±0.006 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, with and relative abundance of 0.04% (Rojas-Figueroa, 2001). In Los Islotes, Gulf of California this species is frequent and abundant, and has an occurrence frequency between 30-70% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).	eng
183443	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	No major threats known are known for this species.	eng
183444	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183444	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Peru, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183444	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is associated with rocky and coral reefs to depths of 35m. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was only seen at a deep rocky wall (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Adults are secretive, nocturnal fish that hide under ledges by day and come out only at night to feed on the epifauna of the substrate. Schools of juveniles appear only in the summer.	eng
183444	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183444	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183445	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>This species should be carefully monitored given its restricted range, and shallow-reef associated habitat.	eng
183445	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183445	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This reef-associated species often occurs in large schools or loose aggregations above rocks and small boulder strewn slopes covered with leafy blade algae to depths of 30 m.	eng
183445	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos Archipelago, being the second most abundant species, with an overall mean abundance of 0.05 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183445	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183446	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y Delta del Rio Colorado (Hastings and Findley 2006).	eng
183446	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California and near Mazatlan, Mexico.	eng
183446	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits the intertidal zone, and is found around large boulders and vertical outcrops in rocky, wave-swept areas.	eng
183446	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is species is one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).	eng
183446	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183447	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183447	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, near southern Baja California, and from Costa Rica to Panama.	eng
183447	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud substrate to a depth of at least 10m.	eng
183447	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183447	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183448	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183448	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to southern Colombia.	eng
183448	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal zones with some freshwater.	eng
183448	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183448	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183449	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183449	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California and Magdalena Bay, Baja California  to Chile (Pequeño, 1989; Bussing, 1995).	eng
183449	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species is found over sand and mud bottoms to depths of 107m. This species is also occasionally found in estuaries and mangrove areas.	eng
183449	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is considered fairly common in the Gulf of California and in Jalisco and Guerrero. It is occasional in Ecuador.	eng
183449	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls.	eng
183450	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Cocos, Malpelo, Galagapos Islands and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183450	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the southwest Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183450	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This reef-associated species lives between rocks, boulder strewn areas, and walls.	eng
183450	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183450	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183451	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183451	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few collections in the southern Gulf of California and central Mexico, and along the coast from Costa Rica to Ecuador (Bedenbaugh 1988).	eng
183451	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This deep-water species lives on benthic muddy and sandy soft substrate at depths of 15 to 80 m.	eng
183451	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183451	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183452	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006).	eng
183452	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, and the Revillagigedos Islands (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183452	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species inhabits rocky reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 75 m.	eng
183452	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>Chromis limbaughi</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%.	eng
183452	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183453	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183453	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present from Mexico (Jalisco) to Colombia.	eng
183453	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species lives in estuaries along the coast in coastal lagoons and rivers and tolerates fresh, brackish and saltwater habitats. It is found to depths of five m. It swims at the surface or near bottom in shallow waters, over sandy or muddy substrate. This species is most abundant near mouths of rivers and feeds on filamentous algae, diatoms, detritus and ooze (Bussing 1998).	eng
183453	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a very common species.	eng
183453	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183454	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183454	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183454	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits shallow water in mainly rocky shores to a depth of 10m. It can usually be found in tide pools, and often over sand and gravel substrate in estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183454	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is probably the most common tidepool fish in the Gulf of California.	eng
183454	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may this species habitat in some parts of its restricted range.	eng
183455	conservation	Rivera, F., Collette, B., 2007	This species occurs within the Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA, 2006).	eng
183455	distribution	Rivera, F., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183455	habitat	Rivera, F., Collette, B., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to occur in coastal waters and schools, and feed on plankton and small nekton (Grove et al., 1997).	eng
183455	population	Rivera, F., Collette, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a very few specimens.	eng
183455	threats	Rivera, F., Collette, B., 2007	This planktivorous species has a restricted distribution and is found in shallow water habitat. Future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen et al., 2004; Soto, 2001). However, more information on this species population status, distribution and habitat requirements is required to adequately assess the potential effect of ENSO events on this species and its ecosystem.	eng
183456	conservation	McCosker, J., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species is found in the Galapagos Island Marine Protected Area.	eng
183456	distribution	McCosker, J., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galapagos Islands and along the coast of Costa Rica. It has also been observed at Cocos Island (Bussing and Lopez, 2005), where it may be vagrant.	eng
183456	habitat	McCosker, J., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms, occasionally in shallow water (5-15m). At one location in the Galapagos where it is abundant, this species is associated with fungiid corals, although it is not known if this association is obligate.	eng
183456	population	McCosker, J., Collette, B., 2007	This species is considered to be common at some sites in the Galapagos.	eng
183456	threats	McCosker, J., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Although Fungiid corals are affected by ENSO events in the region, it is not known if this species association with these corals is obligate, and this species has been observed after several severe El Niño events.	eng
183457	conservation	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures for this species. However, it is found in the Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183457	distribution	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the uppermost part of the Gulf of California in the Colorado River Delta.	eng
183457	habitat	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is found in shallow water over mud, and over muddy sandy substrates to depths of four m.	eng
183457	population	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183457	threats	Findley, L., Collette, B., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat degradation due to the cessation of flow from the Colorado River and by shrimp aquaculture development. Estuaries, riparian, wetland, and tidal areas of the the Colorado River delta have been reduced by over 90% since dam construction begin in the early 20th century. Currently, this species has an extremely restricted geographic range in the upper Gulf of California and Colorado River delta region, and likely represents a relict population. It has an extent of occurrence of 5,000 km², but its area of occupancy is not known given the current degraded state of its delta habitat.	eng
183458	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183458	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the central Gulf of California to central Mexico (Hoese and Reader, 2001).	eng
183458	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This ireef-associated species that inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 30m.	eng
183458	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is reletively common throughout its range in suitable habitat.	eng
183458	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.. However, due to its bright coloration it is sometimes collected for ornamental use, which may present a localized threat in some areas.	eng
183459	conservation	Harrison, I., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183459	distribution	Harrison, I., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is found from southern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to Panama (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183459	habitat	Harrison, I., Bussing, W., 2008	This demersal species inhabits flat sand substrata (Birdsong 1981, Robertson and Allen 2006). It is found to depths of 36 m.	eng
183459	population	Harrison, I., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is thought to be uncommon in the southern extent of its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183459	threats	Harrison, I., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known major threats specific to this species.	eng
183460	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183460	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Costa Rica, including Revillagigedo Island.	eng
183460	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2008	This reef-associated species is found in shallow rocky reefs exposed to surge to depths of five m. It is also common in intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky habitats.	eng
183460	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is locally common in suitable microhabitat throughout its range.	eng
183460	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183461	conservation	Findley, L., Acero, A., 2007	This species occurs in at least one Marine Protected Area with questionable enforcement (Findley pers. comm.).	eng
183461	distribution	Findley, L., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the upper Gulf of California.	eng
183461	habitat	Findley, L., Acero, A., 2007	This is species is found on sand substrata, estuaries, beaches, and soft substrata (Findley pers. comm.). This species is found at depths to 36 m.	eng
183461	population	Findley, L., Acero, A., 2007	This species is not abundant. The number of Locations (areas near estuaries) is around 10.	eng
183461	threats	Findley, L., Acero, A., 2007	Coastal development such as marina construction and also from aquaculture development has caused much of the estuarine habitat of this species to be degraded (Findley pers. comm.).	eng
183462	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, this species is present in Marine Protected Areas in Galápagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the population status and distribution of this species.	eng
183462	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galápagos, Malpelo and Cocos Islands. It has also been recorded as a vagrant on the coast of Costa Rica and in the Pearl Islands, Panama. Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
183462	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m.	eng
183462	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is considered abundant in the Galápagos, and moderately common in Mapelo and Cocos Islands. However, only juveniles were observed at Malpelo and Cocos, suggesting that the Galápagos may have the only viable self sustaining population. More research on the population status and distribution is required.	eng
183462	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. <br/><br/>Populations in Galápagos declined by more than 50% with the 1997/98 El Niño, but were able to rebound within one year.	eng
183463	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183463	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to Ecuador (Acero 1981).	eng
183463	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	The species is poorly known. It is found inshore over sand and mud substrate to depths of 58 m.	eng
183463	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183463	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats for this species. However, localized coastal destruction, especially of mangroves, may  pose a potential threat in some parts of this species' range.	eng
183464	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183464	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The distribution of this species extends throughout the tropical eastern Pacific, from the Pacific coast of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183464	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters, but is most often it is recorded from bays, lagoons and estuaries, thus it is able to tolerate lowered salinities (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183464	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	It is considered as a common species. A study in La Paz, Baja California, observed abundance (Ind/ha) and biomass (grams/ ha) to be 0.6 (0.24) in autumm, 0.09 (0.16) in winter, and 3.45 (71.3) summer. (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al</em>. 2005)	eng
183464	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183465	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183465	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey, California to Baja California, and in the Gulf of California.	eng
183465	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits shallow inshore areas to 15 m depth. It is encountered frequently in schools.	eng
183465	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is considered to be moderately common in the Gulf of California, with no indication of major population fluctuations, and is common on Pacific coast of Baja. In California, the population has increased over the past decade.	eng
183465	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183466	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183466	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183466	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits rivers, creeks and lakes from the brackish swamps to sea level to 115 m elevation. Uvenilles are very abundant near the coast, suggesting reproduction in marine or brackish waters (Bussing 1998). According to Cooke (1992) this species is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves, while regularly found at bar-formed laggons and upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast.	eng
183466	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is relatively common within its range.	eng
183466	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and aquaculture may affect habitat quality.	eng
183467	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183467	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern California to the southwestern coast of the Gulf of California; it is absent from the northwestern and northern regions of the Gulf of California; and has a continuous distribution from the northeastern coast of the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru.  It is aslo present in Malpelo Island.	eng
183467	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is found on mud, sand, or rubble substrata in deep water (45-235m). It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995).	eng
183467	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183467	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183468	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183468	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands. It may be vagrant in Cocos Island.	eng
183468	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is found in rocky, boulder strewn reefs and slopes to depths of 25m, and commonly in reefs with stony corals. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was found over massive corals, deep rocky reef and zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It feeds by scraping algae from rocks and corals.	eng
183468	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is the least common Scarid in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. It is generally uncommon, but where present can often occur in moderate numbers.<br/><br/>S. compressus was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.96 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.000±0.002 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.010% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was not  observed (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), S. compressus is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (0.1-0.01% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce (0.1-1% of the overall abundance) with a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys made at Gorgona Island did not observe this species (Rubio, 1986; Zapata and Morales, 1997).	eng
183468	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, spearfishing comprises a possible local threat in some parts of its range. Similarly, all Scarids are commercially-exploited at a small scale by spearfishers in Panama, and in the Gulf of California have been recently subjected to heavy fishing pressure.	eng
183469	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park.	eng
183469	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the south-western Gulf of California.	eng
183469	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits rocky reef areas and tidepools to depths of 60m.	eng
183469	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183469	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183470	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183470	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is distributed from lower Baja California to the lower half of the Gulf of California, extending southward to Ecuador.	eng
183470	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This pelagic species occurs in coastal waters, but probably does not enter estuaries.  It is found to 10m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183470	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183470	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. <br/><br/><br/>  - This species is taken as bycatch in shrimp trawling fisheries (Medina and Bernal pers comm).	eng
183471	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183471	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183471	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 50m. According to Cooke (1992), L. argenteus is occasionally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical Eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
183471	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183471	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species is often found in the local fish market.	eng
183472	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183472	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183472	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs exposed to wave action and currents to depths of 15m, and is most frequently observed near large boulders in the shallow subtidal zone. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish can be found in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183472	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.94 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density < 0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it had a density <0.001±0.002 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, - relative abundance of 0.023% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could not be observed (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), M. bairdii is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (accounted less than 0.01% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency below 10%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it has already been recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be occasional in coralline, rocky and sandy bottoms.	eng
183472	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.  According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however this is unlikely to significantly affect the population.	eng
183473	conservation	Allen, G., Victor, B., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in the Revillagigedo Island Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).	eng
183473	distribution	Allen, G., Victor, B., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near the Revillagigedo Islands and Clipperton Atoll. It has also been observed as a vagrant at the tip of Baja California.	eng
183473	habitat	Allen, G., Victor, B., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs, mainly in surgy shallow waters to depths of 10 m.	eng
183473	population	Allen, G., Victor, B., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered moderately common at Clipperton Atoll and in the Revillagigedos, where it is estimated that 90% of its population is found. It was not recorded at Baja California prior to the 1997/98 El Niño event, but afterwards, it was considered to be moderately common in 1999 and present in low numbers in 2005.	eng
183473	threats	Allen, G., Victor, B., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This species has a very restricted range and specific habitat type, with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>.  In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183474	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183474	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico (including the Tres Marias Islands) to Panama.	eng
183474	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits tide pools and coastal sandy areas.	eng
183474	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183474	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183475	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183475	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183475	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits shallow sand or mud substrate of shallow mangrove bays and estuaries to depths of 5m.	eng
183475	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This is most probably the most common Goby species in the Eastern Tropical Pacific in mangrove habitats. This species was studied in a mangrove swamp in El Conchalito La Paz Bay, Baja California Sur, Mexico and is considered common, with an occurrence frequency of 7% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183475	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, mangrove destruction and coastal development, including shrimp aquaculture activities, threaten their habitat type throughout their range.	eng
183476	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. The majority of this species' range lies within the Galapagos Island Marine Protected Area. However, this species is not well-known, and more information is needed  on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, life  history and major threats.	eng
183476	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is appears to be endemic to the Galapagos, although there are some records from coastal Ecuador. This species distribution is not well known, given that it is only known from a few deep water specimens.	eng
183476	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	It reef-associated species is found on rocky substrata from 80-200m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.	eng
183476	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183476	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is restricted to a small part of the Eastern Pacific that is most strongly affected by ENSO, but because it is a deepwater species, it is not likely to be affected by these events.	eng
183477	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183477	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183477	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls. This species may occasionally wander into open sandy areas about 10-20m from cover.	eng
183477	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183477	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183478	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine this species' population status, especially fisheries data with catch effort and information on generation length given that it is a heavily targeted commercial species throughout much of its range.	eng
183478	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Peru to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183478	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal fish inhabits soft bottoms to depths of 50 m. The minimum population doubling time is estimated to be between two and five years.	eng
183478	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is common in Chile and Peru fish markets.	eng
183478	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is regarded as a prime table fish in South America (Frimodt 1985). Off the central Chilean coast in the Valparaíso Region, there is intense fishing activity primarily with long-lines and, to a lesser extent, gill nets targeting ‘corvina’ <em>Cilus gilberti</em> (Simeone ,i>et al. 1999). <br/><br/>Based on FAO statistics, there has been a fluctuating but steady decline in fishery landings for this species from a peak of 19,600 t in 1960 to approximately 10,000 t in the late 1980s, to 6,000 t in the early 2000s, but these data do not include fishing effort.<br/><br/>In addition, this temperate species is likely affected by ENSO events in northern part of its range.	eng
183479	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183479	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru.	eng
183479	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and mollusc shells on rocky and coral reefs.	eng
183479	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered to be locally common.	eng
183479	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183480	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183480	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found near southern Baja California and in the central western Gulf of California, Mexico and from central Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183480	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas, estuaries, mangroves and brackish water. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats.	eng
183480	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183480	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.	eng
183481	conservation	McCosker, J., Betancur-R., R., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the locality is within a Marine Protected Area.	eng
183481	distribution	McCosker, J., Betancur-R., R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from Isla del Caño, Costa Rica to western Panamá (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183481	habitat	McCosker, J., Betancur-R., R., Collette, B., 2007	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It likely inhabits burrows in sand and rubble, and was found in different substrata including rock, coral, and fine sand (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183481	population	McCosker, J., Betancur-R., R., Collette, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from the type series of two specimens.	eng
183481	threats	McCosker, J., Betancur-R., R., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183482	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species occurs in both the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).	eng
183482	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island and the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183482	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species occurs in tide pools and shallow coastal areas to depths of 10 m. It inhabits black volcanic sand and coarse, white coral sand, where it often occurs together with <em>Platygillellus rubellulus</em> (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183482	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183482	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183483	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183483	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183483	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is associated with shallow reef habitat to depths of 5m. It primarily iinhabits rocky inshore reefs exposed to wave action (Schneider and Krupp, 1995), and is common in intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky bottom habitats in the Galapagos, Gorgona, and elsewhere along the continental coast.	eng
183483	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is locally common insuitable habitat throughout its range. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a density of 0.005±0.009 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.126% were recorded for this species (Figueroa, 2001)	eng
183483	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183484	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.	eng
183484	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Costa Rica to northern Peru.	eng
183484	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is primarily found in brackish waters, estuaries and river mouths to depths of 20 m.	eng
183484	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is common in estuaries in central Panama and Costa Rica.	eng
183484	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.	eng
183485	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183485	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found from central Baja California through the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands (Charter, 1996; Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).	eng
183485	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is a reef-associated fish that inhabits sand flats, often in protected bays and coves.	eng
183485	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183485	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183486	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183486	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Colombia, including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183486	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits rocky reef and rubble substrata, and can be found in coral reefs to depths of 21m.	eng
183486	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is not considered to be uncommon.	eng
183486	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183487	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183487	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183487	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This reef-associated species forms schools above rocky, boulder strewn reefs, slopes, and hard substrate with strong currents or tides (Humann and Deloach 1993) to depths of 30m. It can also be found over sand and rubble, exposed shallow rocky reefs as well as madreporic branching corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183487	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is locally common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.027±0.096 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species  0.730% of relative abundance (Figueroa, 2001). This species was not found in surveys made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001) and Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997; Rubio, 1986). The mean density found at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was <0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 7 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 6 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183487	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is considered important for commercial fisheries in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004). Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183488	conservation	McCosker, J., Bessudo, S., Collette, B., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183488	distribution	McCosker, J., Bessudo, S., Collette, B., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island and Malpelo Island.	eng
183488	habitat	McCosker, J., Bessudo, S., Collette, B., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits burrows in sand-rubble areas. This species has been observed at depths of 5 to 40m (in Malpelo) and up to 110m in Cocos Island.	eng
183488	population	McCosker, J., Bessudo, S., Collette, B., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is common in both Malpelo, Gorgona and Cocos islands, as well as along the Gulf of Chiriqui and Costa Rica.	eng
183488	threats	McCosker, J., Bessudo, S., Collette, B., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	Collection for the aquarium trade may represent a future threat.	eng
183489	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183489	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja and the Gulf of California to Peru, including all  of the oceanic islands except Clipperton Atoll.	eng
183489	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is often solitary, and can be found hiding in reefs and caves during the day (McKay and Schneider 1995) to depths of 30m. This species was also found with a frequency of 9% in estuaries associated with mangroves in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1994). It is feeds on reef invertebrates at night (McKay and Schneider 1995), and forms resting schools on reefs during the day.	eng
183489	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is considered common throughout much of its range. <br/><br/>A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.004 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa, 2001). This species was considered to be rare in Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10 and 15% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001), and was not found in surveys at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), nor at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 10 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183489	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, such as in the Galapagos, this species is caught in artesanal fisheries. Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined more than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations have recoved over a subsequent two year period.	eng
183490	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183490	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Hoese, 1971).	eng
183490	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found on rock and rubble substrate with mud/sand substrate to depths of 5m. In Gorgona Island, Colombia  this species seems to be occasional in coralline substrate, and frequent in sandy areas (Rubio, 1986).	eng
183490	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is common throughout its range within suitable habitat.	eng
183490	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183491	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.	eng
183491	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern California (Grove and Lavenberg 1997), through the Gulf of California, to Chile; plus the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo islands.	eng
183491	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species found in shallow water and seaweed-covered reefs as well as on open, sandy areas (Thomson 1987). This species is found to 85 m. An opportunistic predator, this cryptic fish lies unseen on the reef top waiting for small fishes to pass by (Thomson 1987).	eng
183491	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183491	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats. This species is important for subsistence fisheries, commonly caught with hook and line. Although the flesh is of excellent quality, it is not utilized commercially due to its venomous spines (Poss 1995).	eng
183492	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a very small Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183492	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the central and southwestern Gulf of California.	eng
183492	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species lives in rubble-sandy substrates on rocky reefs at depths of 2 to 30m.	eng
183492	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species is relatively common within its suitable habitat throughout its range.	eng
183492	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183493	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species presumably occurs in several Marine Protected Areas within its restricted distribution (WDPA 2006). However, this species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and near-shore shallow water habitat.	eng
183493	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is only known from the Gulf of Panama and the southern tip of the Peninsula de Azuero, Panama. It has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².	eng
183493	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef associated species inhabits rocky shores in rocky and coral reef to depths of 10 m.	eng
183493	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183493	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	These species is threatened by habitat degradation from extensive coastal development with its restricted range. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183494	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	No conservation measures are known for this species. As this species is found in relatively deep water, it is not likely to occur in Marine Protected Areas, except in Mexico where it may occur in some protected areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183494	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico (Collette, 1995).	eng
183494	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is found in relatively deep water over sandy and muddy substrate.	eng
183494	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183494	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
183495	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183495	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Panama.	eng
183495	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species is found in brackish waters in river mouths and mangrove areas to depths of 60m.	eng
183495	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in gill net and intertidal trap catches in Parita Bay, Panama (Cooke and Tapia, 1994 as <em>A. osculus</em>). Also, in a fish fauna survey in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species was the one with the highest biomass of the entire study with 22,472 g in a survey from April and June, 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183495	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught in coastal gill nets and intertidal traps, and is  presumably affected by coastal development and pollution.	eng
183496	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183496	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183496	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and fresh water to depths of 20m.	eng
183496	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is abundant in some parts of its range such in the estuaries of the Central Panama (Cooke and Tapia, 1994).	eng
183496	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is an important commercial fish, and it is marketed fresh. Localized coastal development may also affect the habitat of this species, however it likely can adapt to some disturbed habitats.	eng
183497	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183497	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has an apparently disjunct distribution: occurring in southern Baja California; central Mexico and the Tres Marias Islands; and then from Nicaragua to Panama.	eng
183497	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits estuaries, mangroves and shallow sandy areas. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats.	eng
183497	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183497	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.	eng
183498	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within southern Baja California, the Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183498	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacfic in the southern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedo Islands, and from Costa Rica to Ecuador, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183498	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate in shallow waters up to a depth of 30m.	eng
183498	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183498	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183499	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183499	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from  Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo 2001).	eng
183499	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	Of all the Neotropical ariids, this species inhabits the deepest water, often to depths of 60 m, and is found furthest from estuaries.	eng
183499	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered locally abundant in many parts of its range.	eng
183499	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is frequently caught as by-catch in commercial fisheries such as shrimp trawls. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke 1992).	eng
183500	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Cocos Island National Park, which is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' distribution, population, habitat requirements and threats is needed to determine its conservation status.	eng
183500	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be distributed from Costa Rica to Colombia, including Cocos Island. However, it is only known from a few museum specimens.	eng
183500	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that likely inhabits worm tubes on sand-rubble substrate.	eng
183500	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183500	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183501	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183501	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183501	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183501	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183501	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183502	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183502	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the central Gulf of California, from Costa Rica to southern Panama, and in southern Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).	eng
183502	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits muddy and sandy substrate to a depth of 760 m (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).	eng
183502	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183502	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183503	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183503	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from El Salvador to Panama.	eng
183503	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal and found to 5m. This species is found on rocky reefs covered in a thin layer of algae.	eng
183503	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This is a rare species. There is no population information available on this species.	eng
183503	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There is no specific use for this species.	eng
183504	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Cabo Pulmo National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183504	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Easternl Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183504	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits the surge zone along rocky shores.	eng
183504	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183504	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183505	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Cabo Pulmo National Marine Park and Loreto Bay National Marine Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183505	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the central and southwestern parts of the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183505	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is usually found in rocky areas, where it inhabits empty worm and mollusk tubes. It feeds on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183505	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is locally abundant.	eng
183505	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this restricted range species.	eng
183506	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of  Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183506	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to the Bay of Tenacatita, Mexico.	eng
183506	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species can be found over soft substrate in a wide range of depths from the intertidal zone to 224m (Collette, 1995).	eng
183506	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183506	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
183507	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183507	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183507	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species can be found on soft substrate, generally sand and mud estuaries near mangroves, to depths of 60m. Its occurence in shallow water of coastal inlets seems to be regular (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183507	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common in trawl catches in Panama.	eng
183507	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183508	conservation	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures specifically for this species.  However, it occurs in Marine Protected Areas of the Gulf of California and Malpelo (WDPA 2006).	eng
183508	distribution	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183508	habitat	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is found on soft substrate (Bussing and Lavenberg 1995).	eng
183508	population	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	In research cruises conducted by the R/V El Puma between 1990-92 in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area (five cruises) and in the Gulf of Tehuantepec (three cruises),  Synodus species were frequently caught in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area and tended to be more abundant further from the coast. In the Gulf of Tehuantepec, the largest catches were obtained off Salina Cruz. The length  of this species ranged from six to 29 cm, and they were collected below 30 m. In Sinaloa-Nayarit, this species was more abundant at depths greater than 90 m, and its length range increased with depth. At depths greater than 90 m, only fish over 30 cm were found (Morales-Nin 1996). Differences in abundance between Sinaloa-Nayarit and the Gulf of Tehuantepec may be due to different ecobiological causes.	eng
183508	threats	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species occurs in shrimp trawl by-catch. The larger body lengths for this species found at increased depths in Sinaloa-Nayarit compared to the Gulf of Tehuantepec may be indicative of more exploitative fisheries in the Sinaloa-Nayarit area (Morales-Nin 1996).	eng
183509	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been collected in Marine Protected Areas in the Malpelo, Cocos, and Galapagos islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183509	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, from Cabo San Lucas, Baja California and Mazatlan, Mexico to central Colombia, including the Galapagos, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.	eng
183509	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is a demersal fish. Adults are secretive and bottom-dwelling, and prefer soft substrata where they can burrow with their tails (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).	eng
183509	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183509	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Betancur, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183510	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183510	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the lower  Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Galápagos Archipelago.	eng
183510	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is benthopelagic and inhabits mainly rocky coastal areas to depths of 13 m. The genus <em>Corvula</em> can be occasionally found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke 1992).	eng
183510	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, and is considered to be very uncommon.	eng
183510	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183511	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183511	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja California, and from Costa Rica to southern Ecuador (McCosker, 1974).	eng
183511	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 17m.	eng
183511	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is very abundant in collections.	eng
183511	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183512	conservation	Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183512	distribution	Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to the tip of Chile.	eng
183512	habitat	Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought occur over sand and soft substrate in marine, estuarine and brackish habitats.	eng
183512	population	Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183512	threats	Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is unknown if coastal development is negatively impacting the estuarine and brackish habitat of this shallow-water species. More research is needed to determine this species' distribution, population status and habitat requirements, as well as the potential impact of coastal development on this species.	eng
183513	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183513	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Ecuador and northern Peru. It has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its very shallow near-shore and intertidal habitat (<6 m depth), it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 50 km² (based on a distribution of approximately 500 km of coastline).	eng
183513	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow tide pools and rocky coastal areas to depths of 6 m.	eng
183513	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183513	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is affected by habitat decline from coastal development and degradation throughout its restricted range. Additionally, in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183514	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183514	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to Madgalena Bay, Baja California and in the upper Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183514	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is found in nearshore areas over shallow soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 50 m. It also enters estuaries (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183514	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered common in the northern part of its range, but rare in the Gulf of California.	eng
183514	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, shrimp trawling is a localized threat to this species in the Gulf of California.	eng
183515	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rivera, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183515	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rivera, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California (Lea and Rosenblatt 2000), Baja California, and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183515	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rivera, F., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate near the coast and in deep waters (Schneider 1995). This species is also occassionally observed in middle estuaries and mangroves (Cooke 1992).	eng
183515	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rivera, F., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in rocky and sandy substrata while occasional in coralline bottoms. However, it may be rare in the Galapagos Islands as there are no recent records from there.	eng
183515	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rivera, F., 2007	There are no major threats to this species. However, this species is considered important for artesanal fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004) and Ecuador, and small numbers are regularly collected by shrimp trawlers along the continental part of its range.	eng
183516	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183516	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from Jalisco (Mexico) to central Ecuador.	eng
183516	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a coastal pelagic fish that feeds on zooplankton and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10m.	eng
183516	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species. It is rare in Costa Rica.	eng
183516	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species at any coastal habitats.	eng
183517	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183517	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the northern Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183517	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 21m. It is usually found near Eucidaris thouarsi (Robertson and Allen, 2006). According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this fish is present in deep rocky walls and reefs, zones of massive coral and exposed shallow rocky reef in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), this species is occasionally found in intertidal pools and coraline substrate.	eng
183517	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is relatively common within isuitable habitat within its range.	eng
183517	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, due to its bright coloration, it is collected for ornamental use, which may be a localized threat in some areas.	eng
183518	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of this species, and to better understand its habitat preferences.	eng
183518	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only known from the original collection in Port Parker, Costa Rica.	eng
183518	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is poorly known. The precise habitat type is unknown, but is probably subtidal or intertidal rocky.	eng
183518	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species. It is known only from the original description in 1955.	eng
183518	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183519	conservation	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L., Min, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present within the Marine Protected Area of Malpelo Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
183519	distribution	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L., Min, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.	eng
183519	habitat	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L., Min, L., 2007	This reef-associated species can be found over coarse sand and gravel substrate between depths of seven and 20 m (Allen and Roberston 1992).	eng
183519	population	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L., Min, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be relatively common at Malpelo Island.	eng
183519	threats	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rocha, L., Min, L., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183520	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More studies about the population status for this species are needed.	eng
183520	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from Ecuador to central Chile.	eng
183520	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is a benthopelagic fish typical in most coastal areas within its range. It is found to 100m. It feeds on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183520	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183520	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183521	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cocos Island National Park.	eng
183521	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo and Cocos Island.	eng
183521	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate near reefs, and also in tidepools (De La Cruz Agüero 1997).	eng
183521	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183521	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183522	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183522	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the central eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including all the offshore islands.	eng
183522	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This demersal species is found in small recesses on rocky reefs and especially along walls. They blend almost perfectly with the background, often taking the markings of tube-worm snails or appear to be encrusting sponges (Humann and Deloach 1993). They are found between the surface to 15 m in depth; rarely until 40 m.	eng
183522	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	A survey conducted at Gorogona Island, Colombia, showed that <em>Antennarius coccineus</em>, <em>A. sanguineus</em>, and <em>Antennatus strigatus</em> had a mean number of individuals of 0.40 (±0.7), with a mean standard length (mm) of 7.5 (±1.2) (Mora and Zapata 2000).	eng
183522	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183523	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183523	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183523	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds mainly on shrimps and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183523	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183523	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183524	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183524	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Guatemala to northern Peru (Kailola and Bussing 1995).	eng
183524	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal waters and estuaries  to depths of 20 m.	eng
183524	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is fairly common in shrimp trawls and gillnet captures in Nicaragua and Panama, and in Colombia.	eng
183524	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. In some areas, it is an important commercial fish. For example, it is sold frozen in Colombian markets.	eng
183525	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a Biosphere Reserve, the Archipielago de Revillagigedos (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183525	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo Islands, including Clarion and Socorro Islands.	eng
183525	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits barnacles and worm tubes on shallow rocky shores to depths of 10 m.	eng
183525	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183525	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183526	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos, the Galagapos Islands, and the Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183526	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the southwest Gulf of California and central Mexico, and from El Salvador to central Colombia, including the Galapagos, Cocos, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183526	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sand and gravel, tidepools and reef edges.	eng
183526	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183526	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183527	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183527	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The geographical range of this species in the south east Pacific extends from central Peru down to the Chiloe Islands in Chile. It is also found in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183527	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This fish occurs from continental shelf waters (around 50 m depth) to the upper continental slope down to around 500 m. It is sometimes found off the bottom or in midwater. Females grow faster than males and attain a much greater size. The main spawning period extends from August to March, with a peak in the spring (Peruvian subspecies), and from August to November (Chilean subspecies). The boundaries of the spawning ground of the Peruvian subspecies are estimated between 4S and 8S, while those of the Chilean subspecies are found in deep waters off Chile. The Chilean subspecies feeds on fishes, crustaceans and squids. The estimated maximum length for the Peruvian subspecies is 68 cm for males and 115 cm for females. The estimated maximum length for the Chilean subspecies is 87 cm. The common length for both subspecies is up to 50 cm. (FAO-FIGIS 2001).	eng
183527	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species. It is not an uncommon fish.	eng
183527	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The combined catch for both populations (subspecies) reported to FAO in 1987 totaled 64,286 t. Of this harvest, 32,026 t were collected by Peru and 30,905 t by Chile. The yield of the fishery has decreased considerably. This species is caught with artisanal purse-seines and trawls. The most common fishing techniques are demersal bottom trawling and purse seining. The total catch reported for this species to FAO in 1999 was 141,053 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Chile (103,789 t) and Peru (37,121 t). (FAO-FIGIS 2001). It is marketed fresh and frozen, and is also utilized as fishmeal (Cohen <em>et al.</em> 1990). The Peruvian population has become an important target fish for distant-water fisheries since the 1960s.	eng
183528	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt Current region.	eng
183528	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This southeastern Pacific species is found from Ecuador to Chile.	eng
183528	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Adults of this species inhabit soft substrata on the continental shelf, whereas juveniles occur in shallower waters including estuaries and mangrove habitats. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes (Medina <em>et al</em>. 2004). This species is found at depths to 35 m.	eng
183528	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183528	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This is an important in commercial fisheries in Chile (Pequeno 1989).	eng
183529	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' life history traits including longevity and age of maturity is needed to better assesss the possible impact of habitat loss on its population.	eng
183529	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is found from the central eastern Gulf of California to Colombia, but the depicted range distribution is not very representative as it is restricted to mangrove and estuarine habitat (Aburto <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
183529	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This demersal species is frequently found in shallow-waters over rock, sand and mud substrate of mangroves and estuaries to depths of five m.	eng
183529	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is reasonably common in mangrove habitats in Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, and fairly common in rocky habitats in estuaries in Barra de Santiago, El Salvador, and is frequently reported in studies of mangrove habitats in Colombia. However, it is considered to be uncommon in the Gulf of California.	eng
183529	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	Coastal development and loss of mangrove and estuarine habitat are the main threats to this species.  The exact percentage of habitat loss throughout its range needs to be estimated. Currently there is no known fishery for this species.	eng
183530	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in Marine Protected Areas in Galapagos, Malpelo, Cocos, Machalilla and Gorgona (WDPA 2006).	eng
183530	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Galapagos, Malpelo, Cocos Islands, Isla Plata (Ecuador), and coastal Ecuador from Manabi to Salinas. This species is also a recorded vagrant off the coast of Costa Rica.	eng
183530	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 20m. This fish is omnivorous, feeding primarily on algae and invertebrates including tubeworms, small crustaceans, and the tentacles of anemones (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).	eng
183530	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is extremely abundant in shallow reef habitats in Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.<br/><br/>In the Galapagos archipelago it had an overall mean abundance of 8.30 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183530	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.  In Galapagos, a minor decline in population numbers accompanied the 1997/98 El Niño event, but was followed by a full population recovery within one year.	eng
183531	conservation	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183531	distribution	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.	eng
183531	habitat	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species occurs on offshore rocky reefs to at least 50m, with young often found inshore, sometimes in shallow coastal waters and estuaries (Allen, 1995).	eng
183531	population	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common throughout most of its range, especially in deeper waters. <br/><br/>In the Golfo of Agua Dulce, Costa Rica the maximun density registered for the species was 0,004 (inds/ m<sup>2</sup>) and the percentage of relative abundance was 0.007% (Rojas, 2001).	eng
183531	threats	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183532	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183532	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	In the eastern Pacific, this species ranges from northern California to the Gulf of California to central Chile and all the offshore islands. It also occurs in Hawaii (may be a vagrant), where it may be establishing a population, and seen in the Marquesas islands in 1999.	eng
183532	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This reef-associated species occurs in rocky reefs, boulder strewn slopes, and adjacent areas of sand. Adults are demersal; and young are pelagic (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is known to occur to 50m but may occasionally be found deeper.	eng
183532	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183532	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183533	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, there are some limited protected areas within Panama Bay in which the species may occur.	eng
183533	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Central Pacific, and is thought to be distributed from El Salvador to Panama. However, all known records are from the Bay of Panama and the Gulf of Montijo in Panama (Collette and Russo 1981), where given its shallow water habitat, it has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km². Its distribution outside of these areas needs to be confirmed.	eng
183533	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species inhabits intertidal zones (Collette 1995) and it can also be found on soft substrate in estuaries to depths of 20 m.	eng
183533	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in Panama Bay.	eng
183533	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This shallow-water and near-shore species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive coastal development and pollution within its restricted range.	eng
183534	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations are required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.	eng
183534	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183534	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species may form schools above rocky, boulder strewn reefs, slopes and hard substrate with strong currents or tides. It may mingle with yellowtail grunts and golden-eyed grunts (Humann and  Deloach 1993).	eng
183534	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species was studied in different sites at Galápagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.80 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), however, underwater visual census records of this species have been partly confused with other <em>Orthopristis</em> species.	eng
183534	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	No major threats are known to this species. However, given this species'  restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp., <em>Anisotremus interruptus</em> and <em>A. scapularis</em>, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183535	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Coiba National Park and Isla del Caño National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183535	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to western Panama.	eng
183535	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is only found in reef areas, which are patchily distributed within its restricted range, and is therefore estimated to have an area of occupancy less than 2,000 km². This species can primarily be found in mollusc and worm tubes on near-vertical rock faces in shallow rocky reef areas and in zones of massive corals.	eng
183535	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded as locally common in some areas, such as the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama and Isla del Caño, Costa Rica (Rosenblatt and Stephen 1978, Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006).	eng
183535	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is threatened by reef habitat loss due to extensive coastal development and coral extraction throughout its restricted range, and by activities such as dynamite fishing (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006).	eng
183536	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population.	eng
183536	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183536	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters, bays, and estuaries to depths of 30 m. It feeds on crustaceans, fishes and cephalopods.	eng
183536	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183536	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species has a relatively restricted near-shore range and is a highly valued food fish that is targeted by commercial, artisanal, and sport fisheries throughout its range. However, the impact of fishing activities on this species' population is unknown.	eng
183537	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183537	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Panama to Peru.	eng
183537	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrata and can also be common in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes; and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It is found to 50m.	eng
183537	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183537	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183538	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183538	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to central Mexico.	eng
183538	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal lagoons, estuaries and river mouths, and deep water far from the coast to 100m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustacea, gastropods, mussels and bony fish.	eng
183538	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  However, this species is very common in bottom trawls in the upper Gulf of California.	eng
183538	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
183539	conservation	Allen, G., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Russell, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183539	distribution	Allen, G., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Russell, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to central Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183539	habitat	Allen, G., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Russell, B., 2007	This reef-associated species is poorly known throughout much of its range. In the Galapagos it is usually seen on rocky reefs in the cooler waters of the western islands (Isabela and Fernandina), and is usually present below the thermocline.	eng
183539	population	Allen, G., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Russell, B., 2007	Although widely distibuted, little is known on population status of this species along the continental coast. It is considered common in the west and south of the Galapagos Islands, and uncommon elsewhere.	eng
183539	threats	Allen, G., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., Russell, B., 2007	The impact of potential threats to this species is poorly-known. There may be possible population declines due <br/> to fishing pressure in Galapagos. This fish is collected for the aquarium trade (Beltrán-León and Herrera, 2000), and minor captures are made by Galapagos artisanal fishers. Also, given this species preference for temperate waters, future oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and global warming events may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and this species, especially in the northern portion of its range (Gynn and Ault 2000, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004, Soto 2001).	eng
183540	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183540	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Sinaloa, Mexico to Colombia (Tomson <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183540	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This estuarine, demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate and tide pools to depths of 13m. In El Salvador, specimens collected in 20- 40 feet were found in broken shell and sand bottom under rocks and ledges.	eng
183540	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183540	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is dependent on shallow water mangrove habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction for development for urbanisation, aquaculture and tourism may pose a threat to this species in some parts of its range (Jiménez, 1994).	eng
183541	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183541	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183541	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas and tide pools.	eng
183541	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183541	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183542	conservation	Cotto, A., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, more research is needed to determine this species distribution and population status before a conservation assessment can be made.	eng
183542	distribution	Cotto, A., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Peru, although it has also been reported in Nicaragua (Sánchez 1997).	eng
183542	habitat	Cotto, A., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas, soft substrate, and estuaries in marine and brackish waters.	eng
183542	population	Cotto, A., Collette, B., 2007	The distribution of this species needs to be clarified, as this species has never been observed in Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia and is considered very common in Nicaragua.	eng
183542	threats	Cotto, A., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183543	conservation	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183543	distribution	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183543	habitat	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This demersal species is found over soft substrate in coastal waters, brackish waters (Bussing, 1995), mangrove areas, and fresh water.  It feeds on crabs and shrimps (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), benthic worms, crustaceans, and gastropods.	eng
183543	population	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is common in the Gulf of California, in mangrove areas of La Paz Bay (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005), and in coastal lagoons in Mexico. It is considered uncommon in Ecuador (Bearez, pers.comm.).	eng
183543	threats	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this is a species of minor commercial importance, and localized declines may occur from coastal development and loss of mangrove habitat throughout its range.	eng
183544	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183544	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Sinaloa, Mexico to Panama, including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183544	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy areas around estuaries. It is also found in mangrove areas, and in marine and brackish waters.	eng
183544	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183544	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.	eng
183545	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183545	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Guatemala to northern Peru, including one locality from Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986).	eng
183545	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow brackish water to 2m in tide pools and rocky shores of bays, and in creeks and estuaries (Rubio, 1986). In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986) this species is occasionally found over rocky substrate, although is more frequent in intertidal pools and sandy substrate.	eng
183545	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
183545	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183546	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. It is not known to occur in any Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183546	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species has a disjunct range in the Eastern Pacific, as it is found in the western Gulf of California, the central Mexican coast off Mazatlan, and the Gulf of Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972, McCosker 1998).	eng
183546	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been recorded from sandy substrate to depths of 30 m (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).	eng
183546	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is known from only a very few specimens.	eng
183546	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183547	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183547	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
183547	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species is found in nearshore to offshore areas on sand or sandy mud bottoms to depths of approximately 120 m.	eng
183547	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is uncommon thoughout its range.	eng
183547	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but is too small as species to be kept.	eng
183548	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183548	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower two-thirds of the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.	eng
183548	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty mollusk tubes on rocky and coral reefs.	eng
183548	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183548	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183549	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183549	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru (Chirichigno and Velez 1998).	eng
183549	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a bentho-pelagic fish that occurs near the surface of coastal water to over soft substrata of continental shelf. It is found to 108m. It feeds on benthic mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183549	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	During surveys of demersal assemblagles, this species had a total biomass of 209 kg (2%) and 1130 individuals in shallow waters stations near San Marcos (Mexico to Northern Guatemala); 730 kg (7%) and 3842 individuals in shallow waters of Nicaragua and Guatemala; 543kg (6%) and 6388 individuals (4%) in the Gulf of Fonseca and adjacent water from El Salvador and Nicaragua; 281 kg (7%) and 2651 (2%) on statios distributed all over the upper and intermediate shelft over the region; and 219 kg (1%) and 27357 individuals in lower intermediate shelf in Nicaragua.  All percents and the biomasses given are in relation to the total biomass and total number of fishes found on this study (Bianchi 1991).	eng
183549	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known. Overfishing could affect local populations.<br/><br/><br/>     - This species is considered to be of high potential for fisheries (Rojo Vazques <em>et al</em>. 2001).	eng
183550	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls within the Cocos Island and Gulf of California Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183550	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of California and around Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). Given its shallow water and sandy habitat type, this species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 1500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
183550	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to 20m depth.	eng
183550	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183550	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183551	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species, although this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  Research is required on the effects of the threats on this limited habitat type for this species.	eng
183551	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183551	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal, inhabiting mud and sand substrata in brackish and freshwater coastal streams and estuaries; it is also found in mangrove areas. The type specimen was collected from Râo Durango in north-western Ecuador. This species is found at depths to two m.	eng
183551	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is very rare in Costa Rica and was only collected once. There is no other information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183551	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is associated with estuarine areas and mangrove areas, which are currently subject to extensive habitat destruction, coastal development and pollution. The species may be susceptible to El Niño associated climatic changes, especially given its narrow depth range (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183552	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183552	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the south-western Gulf of California to central and southern Mexico.	eng
183552	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic species that inhabits rocky substrate to depths of 10m.	eng
183552	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered to be uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183552	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183553	conservation	Acero, A., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183553	distribution	Acero, A., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183553	habitat	Acero, A., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species is found over flat, sandy bottoms (Allen and Robertson, 1994).	eng
183553	population	Acero, A., Collette, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183553	threats	Acero, A., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is occasionally caught in shrimp trawls.	eng
183554	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183554	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed from the Gulf of California to central Mexico. Given its specific habitat-type that is associated with shallow sandy intra-reef areas, it has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 2,500 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
183554	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal fish primarily occurs on clean flat, sloping sandy substrate and reef edges, forming large colonies on sandy areas near shallow reefs.	eng
183554	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species was reported to be rare in surveys of the Gulf of California, where relative abundance was lower than 0.01% of the fish community (Arburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). However, this species is commonly observed by scuba divers and may exist in abundant colonies.	eng
183554	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183555	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183555	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183555	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in rocky and rubble substrata to depths of 25m. It can also be found in rocky and coral reefs.	eng
183555	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is considered to be common. The overall mean abundance for this species in Galapagos island was 0.10 per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183555	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183556	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183556	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from Mexico to Panama, including the Cocos and Galapagos islands.	eng
183556	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species forms aggregations near reefs (Allen and Robertson 1994) and is also found in estuaries,  in marine and brackish water to depths of 10m. The diet is mainly based on zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae, and pelagic fish eggs.	eng
183556	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183556	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.	eng
183557	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183557	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is widely distributed over the Eastern Central Pacific, from the Gulf of California to southern Peru (Charter, 1996; Bearez, 1996; Bearez <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
183557	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is inhabits soft-muddy substrate.	eng
183557	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  However, it is common in shrimp trawl captures.	eng
183557	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183558	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California and the Delta del Rio Colorado (Hastings and Findley, 2006).	eng
183558	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found iin the Gulf of California, Mexico from Punta Penasco, Sonora to the tip of Baja California (Briggs, 1955).	eng
183558	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal and subtidal zones in rocky reef.	eng
183558	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The species is very common throughout its range (Briggs, 1955).	eng
183558	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183559	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distributional limit, population status, biology and ecology, and threats.	eng
183559	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Peru, however there is uncertainty about its southern distributional limit.	eng
183559	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found over hard and muddy bottoms to depths of 325 m. It feeds on zooplankton, euphausiids and other small crustaceans. It is often caught with <em>Merluccius gayi</em>.	eng
183559	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183559	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183560	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183560	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the holotype collected in the Gulf of Panama, from the lower lock of Miroflores.	eng
183560	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species most likely lives on mud substrate and brackish waters in mangroves and estuaries to depths of 10 m.	eng
183560	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from the collected material, and it is unsure whether this is in fact a valid species.	eng
183560	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183561	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Mexico (WDPA 2006).	eng
183561	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico. It was introduced with success into the Salton Sea in southern California, USA (Welcomme, 1988), but very likely has since been extirpated from there.	eng
183561	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries to depths of 20m. It is uncommonly in lower rivers. According to Cooke (1992), it occurs occasionally in middle estuaries, mangroves and bar-formed lagoons in Mexico. It has also been introduced into the Salton Sea, a warm, relatively shallow, and highly saline lake (Page and Burr, 1991), but very likely has since been extirpated from there.	eng
183561	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183561	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183562	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183562	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to Ecuador.	eng
183562	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is not well-known. This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183562	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  It is not considered to be common.	eng
183562	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183563	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183563	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183563	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses on rocky reefs, slopes and walls, clinging to rocky substrates in the surge zones (Humann and Deloach 1993, Allen and Robertson 1994).	eng
183563	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is a cryptic species that is common in the western part of the Galápagos Archipelago.	eng
183563	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species ‘restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183564	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183564	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183564	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This is a benthic species found in shallow, weed-covered, rocky reef areas and in coral reefs. It feeds on small invertebrates (Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
183564	population	Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available on this species.	eng
183564	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183565	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the amount yearly catch of this species throughout its range.	eng
183565	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Valparaiso, Chile.	eng
183565	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species inhabits soft bottoms to depths of 50m. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, gastropods, bivalves and crustacea.	eng
183565	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	In Peru, this species is historically one of the most fished species,   with over 7,000 metric t caught in 1963 (Doucet and Einarsson, 1966).   However, there is no recent data on catch statistics or population   trends for this species.	eng
183565	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183566	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the ecology, population trends, and possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183566	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	The geographical range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the lower 2/3 of the Gulf of California, to Peru and it may be found in the Revillagigedos islands.	eng
183566	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is neritic and occurs from near-shore waters to continental slopes to depths of about 1,200 m. It is probably a vertical migratory species. This species is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae. It lives over soft substrata on the continental shelf and slope, feeds on plankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183566	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183566	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183567	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WPDA, 2006).	eng
183567	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found primarily in the Revillagigedo Islands, with occasional observations near the tip of Baja California.	eng
183567	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 20 m.	eng
183567	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is considered to be abundant in Revillagigedo Islands and is rare along the continental coast. More than 95% of the population is estimated to occur in Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183567	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, and the estimation that 95% of its population is found in one location (Revillagigedo Islands), this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183568	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183568	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183568	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	This species that is found in sandy substrate adjacent to rocky reefs (Lavenberg <em>et al</em>. 1995) to depths of 10m. It is also found in esturaine water systems.	eng
183568	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183568	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted range and relatively shallow water habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species population are needed.	eng
183569	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183569	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183569	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species is found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 40 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183569	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183569	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183570	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183570	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from northern California (Tomalas Bay) to southwestern Baja California, and in the northern half of the Gulf of California.	eng
183570	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found on intertidal sand substrate in bays and estuaries to depths of 7m.	eng
183570	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183570	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species habitat within its restricted range.	eng
183571	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183571	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.There is a disjunct population segment in Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California (Lea 1995; Nielsen 1999).	eng
183571	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits substrate with fine sand, sand-mud, or rubble (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183571	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species	eng
183571	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183572	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island National Parks and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).	eng
183572	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183572	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic intertidal species, actively shuttles back and forth between rock pools and air. It can trek on land as far as 30m from the sea due to its physical adaptive modifications, such as laterally flattened corneas to avoid myopia and thickening and filament enlargement of the gills for respiration out of water (Martin and Bridges 1999).	eng
183572	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, but the species is widely distributed within the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Islands.	eng
183572	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183573	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183573	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution as it is found in southern Mexico and from El Salvador to Panama (Bussing, 1981).	eng
183573	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species occurs in rocky reefs and rock outcrops surrounded by sand and gravel at depths of 5 to 20m.	eng
183573	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, it has been observed to be common over sand and gravel bottoms asscociated with rock reefs (Bussing, 1981).	eng
183573	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183574	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183574	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the tip of Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California down to northern Peru.	eng
183574	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m deep and enters coastal lagoons and up into freshwater. It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp, 1995). This species is found from 5-45m of depth.	eng
183574	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183574	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species has no major threats.	eng
183575	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps at least one Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183575	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Galapagos, Ecuador, and Peru.	eng
183575	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This is an oceanic epipelagic species that can be found down to 5m. It is a planktivorous fish that feeds on zooplankton and pelagic fish eggs.	eng
183575	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183575	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
183576	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	In the US, commercial fishing of this species is banned, and size limits apply for sport fishing. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection. However, it is heavily fished in the Gulf of California, and Marine Protected Areas in this portion of its range may not be providing effective protection for this species.	eng
183576	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to the tip of Baja, and the Gulf of California. Historically this species has ranged from Monterrey, California to Mazatlan, Mexico (California Fish and Game, 2004).	eng
183576	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species inhabits low-profile, often weed-covered, reefs adjacent to sandy substrata areas to depths of 61m. It feeds on small fishes and benthic crustaceans during the day (Heemstra 1995).  It is capable of tolerating ample fluctuations of temperature (from 7.5 to 32C) and survive extreme cold intervals (Heemstra 1995). Compared to other species in the area, this species has a limited habitat range and its recruitment is more temperature dependent and variable (California Fish and Game, 2004).	eng
183576	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered common in many parts of its range.	eng
183576	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. The impact of fishing on this species population is unknown. Population trends are difficult to interpret as this species responds positively to ENSO events, which enhance its recruitment (California Fish and Game, 2007).	eng
183577	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183577	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southeastern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California (La Paz and Topolobampo) to south Acapulco, Mexico.	eng
183577	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species is found along sandy coasts and bays, estuaries, river mouths, and coastal lagoons to depths of 33m.  It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans, mollusks and worms.	eng
183577	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183577	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
183578	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183578	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to central Chile.	eng
183578	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and bays to depths of 40m. According to Cooke (1992), M. panamensis regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and mollusks.	eng
183578	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It may be locally common. For example, this fish was studied at Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio 1986), and was considered frequent over sandy bottoms. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured three times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183578	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species is also considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).	eng
183579	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183579	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from central California to southern Peru, and all the offshore islands; intermittently recorded in abundance at Hawaii.	eng
183579	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This pelagic species is found on the continental shelf, generally near the coast but also in deeper waters to 100m; it is also known to penetrate estuaries especially the juveniles (Smith-Vaniz 1995).  It primarily feeds on fishes, but also eats squids, shrimps and other invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183579	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This is an abundant species.	eng
183579	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, or current indication of population reduction from artisanal fisheries.<br/>This species is fished in artsanal fisheries with gill nets and beach seines, and with hook and line. It is marketed fresh, salted or dried, and smoked (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004).	eng
183580	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183580	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183580	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species is found along sandy bays, lagoons, and estuaries (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 1999) to depths of 30m. According to Cooke (1992), E. archidium is occationally found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on zooplankton and pelagic fish larvae.	eng
183580	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered to be uncommon.	eng
183580	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183581	conservation	Chao, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183581	distribution	Chao, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile.	eng
183581	habitat	Chao, L., 2007	This demersal species is found along sandy coasts and in bays, possibly to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183581	population	Chao, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183581	threats	Chao, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets, and can be locally important commercially.	eng
183582	conservation	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Min, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely into the Marine Protected Areas in Cocos and Malpelo Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183582	distribution	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Min, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island and Malpelo Island.	eng
183582	habitat	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Min, L., 2007	This reef-associated species occurs in areas with live coral, and in rock and rubble areas to depths of 30 m.	eng
183582	population	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Min, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be common at Cocos Island, and uncommon at Malpelo Island, where it may possibly represent vagrants from Cocos.	eng
183582	threats	Allen, G., Edgar, G., Min, L., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183583	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	Cocos Island is protected as a National Park, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, this species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183583	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183583	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species is found in barnacles and worm tubes on rocky shores and in rocky and coral reef to depths of 30 m. It is oviparous, and its eggs are attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and are brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al</em>. 1984).	eng
183583	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is common, although easily overlooked by divers.	eng
183583	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183584	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183584	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru (Lea 1995).	eng
183584	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183584	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183584	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183585	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is found in the Galapagos Islands national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It presemably occurs in other Marine Protected Areas elsewhere within its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183585	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Peru to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183585	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs along shallow coastal shores and is found in rocky areas.	eng
183585	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is though to be fairly common as it is well represented in collections.	eng
183585	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, the population in the Galapagos may be susceptible to ENSO events, especially given its shallow depth range and because it is primarily a temperate species.	eng
183586	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico (WDPA 2006).	eng
183586	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Baja California and the entire Gulf of California south to Acapulco on the Mexican mainland, including Revillagigedos Island. This species is sometimes confused with <em>Stegastes flavialatis</em> and <em>S. acapulcoensis</em>, especially in records south of central Mexico and the Gulf of California.	eng
183586	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 12 m.	eng
183586	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range.  For example, it is considered abundant around the Baja Peninsula and Gulf of California, but rare in Revillagigedo Islands. <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. rectifraenum</em> is one of the most dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California and accounted more than 1% of total abundance with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common with between 1-5% of the overall abundance registered and a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183586	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183587	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183587	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to northernmost Peru.	eng
183587	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species inhabits inshore waters to 20 m depth, and is also found in brackish-water estuaries, amongst mangroves, and at river mouths.	eng
183587	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183587	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183588	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183588	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the eastern Gulf of California. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183588	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 20 m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183588	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183588	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183589	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183589	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is patchily distributed. It is only known from the south eastern Gulf of California and central Mexico near the Tres Maria Islands. It has only recently been described (Hoese and Reader 2001).	eng
183589	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabits rocky reefs to depths of 30 m. It feeds on sessile invertebrates and frequently cleans parasites from other fishes (frequently moray eels).	eng
183589	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183589	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, due to its bright coloration it is collected for ornamental use, which may be a localized threat in some areas within its restricted range.	eng
183590	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183590	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from lower Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183590	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species inhabits open mud or sand substrata to depths of 134 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes. It is a synchronous hermaphrodite (Franke and Acero 1995).	eng
183590	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This species is moderately common, and is abundant in the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Panama (FAO 1995). It is not uncommonly caught as bycatch in trawls in Panama, Costa Rica and El Salvador.	eng
183590	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183591	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  The taxonomy and distribution of this species complex need to be clarified.	eng
183591	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This taxa is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, but represents a species complex of three species that extend from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183591	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This taxa is found over muddy bottoms to depths of 20 m, and can also be found in brackish waters.	eng
183591	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This taxa (species complex) is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is very common in shrimp trawls in Panama.	eng
183591	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this taxa.  The species are important in commercial fisheries, and have been used in subsistence fishery since pre-colombian times (Cooke 1992).	eng
183592	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183592	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Ecuador.	eng
183592	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183592	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183592	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183593	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183593	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and Gulf of California, Mexico to Bahía de Sechura, Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183593	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species inhabits offshore, soft bottomed habitats and migrates into shallow areas to spawn in late spring and early summer. It is primarily nocturnal and stays buried in the sand or other soft substrate during the day, and rises up the water column at night to feed (Collette, 1995).	eng
183593	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183593	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183594	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given its very shallow estuarine and near-shore brackish water habitat requirements, more research is needed to determine if coastal development or removal of mangroves within its restricted range are a threat to this species.	eng
183594	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from eastern Panama to Colombia (Pezold 1984).	eng
183594	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits shallow brackish water in estuaries.	eng
183594	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not commonly seen given its specific habitat.	eng
183594	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183595	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183595	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183595	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This coastal, pelagic species forms schools near the surface, and can also be found in marine and brackish water estuaries	eng
183595	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is particularly common in the Gulf of California and the Bay of Panama (Collette, 1995).	eng
183595	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183596	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183596	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Mapelo, Galapagos, Cocos, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183596	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Betancur, R., 2007	This reef-associated species occurs in coastal waters, frequently around rocky and coral reefs to depths of 60 m. This species sometimes forms large diurnal aggregations on rocky or coral reefs (Allen 1995). It is only found over zones of madreporite branching corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183596	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>In the Coral reef of Gorgona island, Colombia, the species reported a density of 6.482 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup> and the observation frequency was 93.3% (Zapata and Morales 1997).	eng
183596	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It appears to be more associated with coral reef than most other snappers, and therefore may be more susceptible to reef destruction.	eng
183597	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183597	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to central Peru.	eng
183597	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal fish is found over soft substrate.	eng
183597	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183597	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183598	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species northern distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183598	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It is a temperate species, and is found from Washington state, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. There are also two records from Ecuador (Lea and Bearez, 1999).	eng
183598	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found on sandy substrate from the shore to a depth of 280m (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).  Adults burrow tail-first in the sand and live in mucus-lined holes.	eng
183598	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered uncommon.	eng
183598	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183599	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183599	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1975).	eng
183599	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores.	eng
183599	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183599	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats known for this species.	eng
183600	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Loreto Bay Marine National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183600	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the northern Gulf of California to southern Mexico.	eng
183600	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shallows close to shore.	eng
183600	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183600	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183601	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183601	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183601	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common over muddy substrata in estuaries, mangroves, and on the inner continental shelf.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995). This species is found from 1-60m.	eng
183601	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183601	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species has no major threats.	eng
183602	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species' biology, ecology and population status to determine if the population is declining due to fishing activities. There has been a decline in catch over the past decade, but it is not known if this reflects a widespread decline in population, especially as recruitment and mortality for this species is not well known.	eng
183602	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to Baja California and in the entire Gulf of California. However, this species' distribution in the Gulf of California is not well-known as there have been possible misidentifications of this species with cogeneric specimens.	eng
183602	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species occurs along sandy shores and in bays to depths of 20 m, usually in sandy surfs of the exposed outer coast. It is usually found in small groups, but larger fish are more solitary. It feeds on sand crabs, other small crustaceans, and worms. Spawning begins in July.	eng
183602	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	Population size, recruitment, and mortality of this species are unknown. Hauls from beach seines along the open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded slightly lower but similar numbers of Corbina (<em>Menticirrhus undulatus</em>) to those obtained during a similar study from 1953 through 1956. In addition, similar angler catch-per-unit efforts during the 1980s and 1990s indicate that the population is likely sustaining itself under present recreational harvest levels (Valle and Oliphant 2001).	eng
183602	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is highly targeted in commercial and sport fisheries. Corbina can be taken throughout the year, but shing is highest in summer and early fall. Most Corbina are caught along sandy surf-swept beaches, but they are also taken from piers and jetties. Anglers on private and rental boats or commercial passenger shing vessels seldom take them. <br/><br/>A 1965-1966 survey estimated that 30,000 Corbina were taken by southern California shore anglers along the open coast, making it the third most abundant species accounting for 13% of the surf-angler’s creel. Since then, the annual number of Corbina caught by anglers has been quite variable. Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey annual catch-estimates for 1980 through 1998 ranged between 17,000 and 75,000 sh with an average of 44,600. However, annual catch estimates were much lower in the 1990s than during the 1980s even though catches-per-unit effort were similar (Valle and Oliphant 2001).<br/><br/>In addition, this species is often caught as by-catch by intensive shrimp trawling throughout its range.	eng
183603	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y  Delta del Rio Colorado, and Loreto Bay Marine National Park (WDPA 2006)	eng
183603	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183603	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on cobble beaches in shallow subtidal zones. It can remain out of water under rocks or seaweed (Martin and Bridges, 1999), and tolerates extreme changes in temperature and salinity (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183603	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is common.	eng
183603	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183604	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas in Mexico, for example coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183604	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The distribution of this species is only from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, to southern Mexico (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995) and probably to Costa Rica (Gulf of Nicoya).	eng
183604	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a coastal pelagic fish that feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to depths of 10 m.	eng
183604	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183604	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this species (Grove 1985, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183605	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183605	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a widespread but disjunct distribution. It is found off the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California; near central and southern Mexico; and from El Salvador to Ecuador, including Cocos Island.	eng
183605	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species frequently inhabits mollusc tubes at the reef-sand interface.	eng
183605	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered relatively common in at least some parts of its range.	eng
183605	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183606	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183606	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183606	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata at depths of 10-165 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183606	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183606	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183607	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183607	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is known only from central to southern Baja California and along the entire west coast to the middle eastern coast in the Gulf of California.	eng
183607	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Adults are found in bays and over sandy substrata, while small juveniles are often in more open areas over cobble or rocky substrata (Walker and Bussing 1996). It is found to 20m.	eng
183607	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183607	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183608	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. This species range falls entirely within the Cocos Island and Malpelo Island Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183608	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183608	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species inhabits sand-rubble fringe of reefs primarily from 9 to 43m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, squid, octupus, cuttlefishes, and bony fish.	eng
183608	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common at Cocos Island.	eng
183608	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009, Guzmán and Cortés 1992). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Soto 2001, Glynn and Ault 2000). Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. <br/><br/>However, this species is known to have survived previously strong ENSO events. Given that this species is present at two widely separated locations, with each location with an AOO estimated to be less than 20 km2, it should be carefully monitored as it may be susceptible to other localized stochastic threats.	eng
183609	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.	eng
183609	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from central Panama to northern Colombia.	eng
183609	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is likely demersal in marine and brackish waters.	eng
183609	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, and is likely rare.	eng
183609	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183610	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183610	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and central Gulf of California to Manzanillo, central Mexico.	eng
183610	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This reef-associated species is usually found in sandy areas near the edge of reefs. During the day, this species occurs in large schools that slowly move to the boarders of reefs, while at night it moves offshore and divides into smaller schools to feed (McKay and Schneider, 1995).	eng
183610	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is moderately common, at least in the southern Gulf of California.  However, in a survey conducted at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, it was considered rare, with an occurrence frequency below 10% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).	eng
183610	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183611	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183611	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey, California, USA to the northern and central Gulf of California.	eng
183611	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species is found in intertidal shallows (Robertson and Allen, 2006). It is territorial and feeds on small benthic invertebrates and algae (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). The female deposits the eggs in sheltered areas, where they are guarded by the male until hatching (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183611	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered reasonable common throughout its range.	eng
183611	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183612	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is found entirely in the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, it requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range and potential threats.	eng
183612	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only near Malpelo Island, Colombia.	eng
183612	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow subtidal rocky areas and vertical surfaces in reefs to depths of 15 m.	eng
183612	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species can be locally common.	eng
183612	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183613	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California.	eng
183613	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	The geographical range of this species is only in the western and northeastern Gulf of California.	eng
183613	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 33m.	eng
183613	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183613	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183614	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183614	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Peru. It is also present in Cocos Island.	eng
183614	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species found in rocky and rubble substrata, at depths of 35-80m.	eng
183614	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.  It is considered to be a rare species (Poss 1995).	eng
183614	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183615	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Islas Revillagigedos Biosphere Reserve. There is a need for further survey to clarify the distribution of the species especially in central Mexico.	eng
183615	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct range. It is found from the western and central eastern Gulf of California, the Tres Marias Islands, the Revillagigedo (Socorro and Clarion), Mexico and then from Golfo de Nicoya and southern Costa Rica.	eng
183615	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Thiis benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas.	eng
183615	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although Dawson (1976) mentions it was abundant in collections.	eng
183615	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183616	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183616	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to southern Peru.	eng
183616	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species is found over hard substrata to depths of 80 to 200m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, bony fishes, and cuttlefish.	eng
183616	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is occasionally found in fish markets from its capture as bycatch in shrimp trawling in Ecuador.	eng
183616	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183617	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183617	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183617	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species forms schools in coastal reefs to depths of 30 m. It can be found on massive corals at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke 1992).	eng
183617	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>In a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, it was considered to be commonly frequent, with an abundance between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001). The mean density of this species at Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, was <0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf 2006). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 11 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al</em>. 2001).However, this species was not found in surveys made at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997), and Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa 2001). This species is considered rare in the Galapagos.	eng
183617	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183618	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183618	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Canada to the Gulf of California.	eng
183618	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species often occurs in rocky areas and in kelp beds. It is found from inshore areas and feeds on seaweed and small invertebrates.	eng
183618	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is considered common in California, with no evidence of recent population change.	eng
183618	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183619	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183619	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is distributed from Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183619	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a schooling species, occurring in coastal waters to 10m.  It is most often in muddy estuaries in either full salt, brackish or apparently freshwater, and penetrates up to a few kilometers up rivers  (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. Maturing females were caught in January, August, and October in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, suggesting a protracted spawning season.  The eggs are oval shapped, TL = 1.219 SL (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183619	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183619	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183620	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183620	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern mouth of the Gulf of California, to the northern tip of Peru. It is also found at the Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183620	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This demersal species can be found near deep rocky walls and reefs to depths of 25m, and in massive corals in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Some individuals can be found accidentally in estuaries and coastal lagoons (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183620	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is locally common in at least parts of its range. It is very common on rocky reefs of islands in Gulf of Fonseca and Los Cobanos, El Salvador. A survey made in Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, showed a mean density of 0.001 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> for this species (Figueroa 2001). Although it was found in surveys at Gulf of Chiriqui, its density was low (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183620	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183621	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. This species? entire range lies within the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area. Given its very small area of occupancy, this species should be carefully monitored.	eng
183621	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo islands, and given its relatively shallow depth range (5-20 m) has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 25km².	eng
183621	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species is found in rocky reef areas from 5-20 m depth. It feeds on bony fishes.	eng
183621	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183621	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183622	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species distribution falls within several Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183622	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Magdalena Bay in western Baja California and the central Gulf of California south to Sechura, Peru.	eng
183622	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	In the Gulf of Chiriqui, this demersal species was found ocassionally on the edges of sandy habitats, in massive corals, and in rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It has not been reported in other quantitative surveys in other reef locations in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (Zapata and Morales ,1997; Arburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001; Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183622	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is thought to be uncommon (Bussing and Lavenberg, 1995).	eng
183622	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183623	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183623	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Tres Marias islands, Mexico (eastern mouth of the Gulf of California) to central Chile and in the Galapagos islands.	eng
183623	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is found on soft substrata (Bussing 1995). It is found to 10m.	eng
183623	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a common fish in Costa Rica and is likely to be common elsewhere in its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183623	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183624	conservation	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183624	distribution	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Chile, including all the offshore islands of Clarion, the Revillagigedos, Clipperton, Isla de Cocos and the Galapagos. It is also recorded from  the northern tip of Chile between Arica and Iquique.	eng
183624	habitat	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky or coral areas to depths of 75m. It is sometimes also found on sandy substrate and where marine plants abound (Gomon, 1995). At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except sand and rubble (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). This species can also occasionally be found in estuaries and coastal lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast (Cooke, 1992). <br/><br/>This species is solitary or may form aggregations of only a few individuals. It feeds on crabs, brittle stars, mollusks, and sea urchins (Gomon, 1995). At night, this species agglomerates in cracks and crevices of rocks and caves to sleep (Gomon, 1995). It starts life as a female, later becoming a functional male. Males defend temporary reproductive territories called leks. Sex change may be due to local social conditions, but it may also have a genetic component, since the reversal occurs over a limited size range (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).	eng
183624	population	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is considered to be abundant throughout much of its range. <br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with an density of 0.03±0.03 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a mean density of 0.005±0.015 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> was recorded, with a relative abundance of 0.131% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed 51 times in all sites (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). In Isla Gorgona, Rubio (1986) showed that this species is frequent in rocky and coralline substrates and occassionally found on sandy substrates. In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997), a mean density of  0.158 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup> and a frequency of observation of 41.2% was registered. This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 18.4 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), B. diplotaenia is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common, with a relative abundance between 1-5%, and a relative frequency higher than 75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured 4 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001)	eng
183624	threats	Allen, G., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but such localized collecting of juveniles is unlkely to affect population.	eng
183625	conservation	Allen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present within the Marine Protected Area of the Revillagigedo Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183625	distribution	Allen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the found the Revillagigedo Islands. However, it may also be present at Alijos Rocks and Guadalupe Island, off the coast of central Baja.	eng
183625	habitat	Allen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	This reef-associated species can be fairly abundant over rock and coarse sand substrates to depths of 20 m. It forms schools of various sizes that move approximately one m above the bottom (Allen and Robertson 1992).	eng
183625	population	Allen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species was considered common at Revillagigedos in 1992 (Allen and Robertson 1992).	eng
183625	threats	Allen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183626	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Isla Marias and Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserves (WDPA 2006).	eng
183626	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Sinaloa to Oaxaca, Mexico, including the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183626	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits rocky coasts with abundant macro-algae.	eng
183626	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183626	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known major threats for the species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183627	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183627	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to Peru. However, a more patchy distribution is suspected.	eng
183627	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits mud and sand substrates in intertidal zones of coastal lagoons and estuaries to a depth of 5m.	eng
183627	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. The species is considered to be relatively uncommon.	eng
183627	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for development for urbanisation, aquaculture and tourism throughout is range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez, 1994). However, the percent of coastal development and habitat loss within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).	eng
183628	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183628	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Mazatlan, Mexico to southern Panama.	eng
183628	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.	eng
183628	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183628	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183629	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183629	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Ecuador.	eng
183629	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty worm and mollusk tubes on rocky reefs. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá this species can be found in areas of middle size rocks and sand covered by fleshy algae, in rock walls covered by red algae, in zones of massive coral, on exposed shallow rocky reef, and in deep rocky reef exposed to oceanic currents (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).	eng
183629	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama this species is considered quite common, although not abundant (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).	eng
183629	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183630	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183630	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific from central to southern Mexico.	eng
183630	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal. It inhabits rocky coastal areas to 15m.	eng
183630	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There is no population information available on this species.	eng
183630	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>There is no specific use for this species.	eng
183631	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on the impact of fishing activities on this species' population, as it is suspected to be in decline.	eng
183631	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183631	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	This benthic nearshore species is found in sand or sandy mud bottoms to depths of 100 m.	eng
183631	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	There is no population information available for this fairly common and widespread species. There are reported declines of mean size of the largest individuals due to fishing activities.	eng
183631	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	There has been reported decline in the mean size of individuals due to intensive fishing. However, the rate of population decline from fishing is unknown.	eng
183632	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183632	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central eastern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183632	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal fish is found on soft bottoms of trawling grounds and bays to depths of approximately 50m, it is also commonly found in estuaries and sometimes enters freshwater.	eng
183632	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is uncommon offshore, but is considered more common within estuaries and lagoons and has been reported to penetrate freshwater (Castro-Aguirre <em>et al.</em> 1978).	eng
183632	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as by-catch by industrial shrimp-fisheries and artisanal fisheries, although not abundantly. However, coastal development, in particular affecting estuaries, mangroves and coastal lagoons may also be a serious future threat to this species as it degrades important habitat.	eng
183633	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183633	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southwestern and eastern Gulf of California to Ecuador (Pezold, 1984).	eng
183633	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits estuaries and brackish mangrove creeks. It has also been recorded from rivers (Uribe-Alcocer and Díaz-Jaimes, 1996).	eng
183633	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is widespread and moderately common within suitable habitat.	eng
183633	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may affect this species habitat.	eng
183634	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183634	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Magdalena Bay and the tip of Baja California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Cocos and Galapagos islands (Lea, 1995).	eng
183634	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This deep-water demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183634	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183634	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183635	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.  However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region, but not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. The efforts for Marine Protected Areas in Central America are weak, but they are needed as a conservation tool, especially for endemic species. More research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183635	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs throughout the tropical eastern Pacific from central Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183635	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters off oceanic sandy beaches to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183635	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183635	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species in many coastal habitats. This species is of potential interest for fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183636	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183636	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the lower half of the Gulf of California to Chile, and Malpelo Island.	eng
183636	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in shallow coastal waters. It is found in small schools near the bottom. It feeds on small squids, shrimps, polychaetes and small fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found at depths to 50 m.	eng
183636	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183636	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries using gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183637	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183637	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183637	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This pelagic species is generally found offshore and is associated with reefs, but may also encountered in coastal areas (Collette 1995).	eng
183637	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is considered common throughout its range.	eng
183637	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183638	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183638	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183638	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits beaches and sandy areas. It is also found in other soft bottom habitats, and in mangroves and estuary zones.	eng
183638	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183638	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves.	eng
183639	conservation	Chao, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183639	distribution	Chao, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183639	habitat	Chao, L., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy coasts, bays and estuaries, possibly to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other marine invertebrates.	eng
183639	population	Chao, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183639	threats	Chao, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183640	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183640	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from  Mazatlân, Mexico to central Peru, as well as in the Galapagos and Cocos.	eng
183640	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a reef-associated species. It mainly inhabits rocks, but is also occurs on coral reefs. It is present from 3-45m. It is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183640	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is very common in Costa Rica. There is no other population information for this species.	eng
183640	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183641	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether this species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the distribution, habitat requirements, and current population status of the species.	eng
183641	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it is known only from three collections in central Mexico, the last one in 1972.	eng
183641	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is likely a benthic, reef-associated species that inhabits rocky substrate and tidepools.	eng
183641	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species. It has not been recorded since 1972.	eng
183641	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species. However, given its potentially restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.,/i> 2004).</em>	eng
183642	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183642	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183642	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand, rubble or sandy-mud bottoms to depths of 225m (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983).	eng
183642	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in the Gulf of California, Colombia, and Ecuador. It is present but not common in Nicaragua.	eng
183642	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is of commercial importance, and various types of gears are used as catching methods (Bussing, 1995). It is primarily used for fish meal in northern Peru.	eng
183643	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183643	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja, the east central and southeast Gulf of California, central Mexico, and from El Salvador to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Galapagos, and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183643	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls.	eng
183643	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183643	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183644	conservation	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species, and it is not known from any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of this species.	eng
183644	distribution	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific where it is known only from the northern end of Angel de la Guarda Island in the Gulf of California (Hubbs 1954). The holotype was collected between 28 and 40 m depth, but three other specimens taken in a subsequent dredge haul were taken at an undefined greater depth (Hubbs 1954).	eng
183644	habitat	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	This is a benthic species associated with deep rocky reefs.	eng
183644	population	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	This species is known only from four specimens collected in 1952.	eng
183644	threats	Hastings, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183645	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183645	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the northern and eastern Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183645	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits soft offshore bottoms to depths of 114m, but can also enter fresh waters from shallow estuaries and mangroves (Hensley, 1995; Balart <em>et al.</em> 1997; Robertson and Allen, 2006).	eng
183645	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is no available population information for this species. It is uncommon in many parts of its range.	eng
183645	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized fresh (Hensley, 1995). It is also captured as bycatch by shrimp trawlers.	eng
183646	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183646	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Mexico, including the Revillagigedo Islands, and from El Salvador to northwest Costa Rica.	eng
183646	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is found on shallow reefs in schools, and feeds on algae in rocky areas (Krupp 1995).	eng
183646	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is abundant in many parts of its range.According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>Prionurus punctatus</em> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, and has an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species is considered common, with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183646	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183647	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area at Cocos Island. More collections should be made to further establish its depth range as this may affect its level of vulnerability to climatic events.	eng
183647	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Cocos islands, Costa Rica.	eng
183647	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs to depths of three m, and feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous.	eng
183647	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183647	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species appears to live in a very narrow depth zone just below the surface. It is potentially vulnerable to relatively small scale adverse climatic events. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183648	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183648	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183648	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, especially along sandy shores and lagoons, to depths of 70m.  According to Cooke (1992), M. elongatus it is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves, and is occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and mollusks.	eng
183648	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183648	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for commercial fishing in some parts of its range such as in the Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004). It can be common in local markets.	eng
183649	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183649	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island, and the Revillagigedo and Tres Marias Islands of Mexico.	eng
183649	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This shallow-water species is found in sandy-bottom tide pools to depths of 2m along rocky coasts. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), this species is frequently found in coraline substrate. It is a carnivore, feeding on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans and gastropods.	eng
183649	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is very common and abundant throughout its range within suitable rocky intertidal habitat.	eng
183649	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183650	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183650	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Colombia (Bussing, 2001).	eng
183650	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits sandy-rubble substrates on reef edges to depths of 25m (Bussing, 2001).	eng
183650	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is relatively common throughout its range. No other population information is available.	eng
183650	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183651	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183651	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183651	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthic, demersal species can be found in coastal waters to 30m depth. It forms schools over rocky and sandy substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995). This species can also be found at deep rocky walls and reefs, as well as in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). Juveniles can be found near estuaries in Mexico (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183651	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common. It was among the most abundant fishes (1.32%) in a gill net fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, the coastal zone of the central Mexican Pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids.<br/><br/>However, in the Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density <0.01 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> was recorded. In surveys made at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001), and near Gorgona Island (Rubio, 1986; Zapata and Morales, 1997), and in the Gulfo Dulce, Costa Rica (Figueroa, 2001) this species could not be found.	eng
183651	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (McKay and Schneider, 1995).	eng
183652	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183652	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to Pisco, Peru, and the Galapagos islands.	eng
183652	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common on rocky reefs (including tide pools) and adjacent sand patches and is often seen in mid-water high off the bottom or at the surface. It is found to 105m. Juveniles inhabit the high and middle salinity portions of estuaries (Bussing 1995; Cooke 1992) including mangrove habitats (Cooke 1992; Aguirre <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
183652	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183652	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183653	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183653	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183653	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits coral or rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) to depths of 80m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found in all sites studied over different types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). It aggregates in large numbers in open water above reefs and feeds on zooplankton.	eng
183653	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is considered common or abundant in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 5.19 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.68±1.21 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.119±0.316 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 3.208% (Figueroa, 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in all sites, being the most abundant species; it had 1169 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas, 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), C. atrilobata is a the most dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California and accounted more than 1% of total abundance, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered abundant, more than 5% of the overall abundance registered - with a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio, 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in coralline, sandy bottoms and tide-pools while occasional in rocky bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 51.724±100.536 ind./10 m<sup>2</sup>,  the most abundant species, with an observational frequency of 84.9%.	eng
183653	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Populations studied in the Galapagos declined by more than one order of magnitude during the one year period commencing at the start of the 1997/98 El Niño events, but populations had recovered by 2000. No equivalent population changes were observed at Gorgona during the same period (Fernando Zapata, pers obs).<br/><br/>According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, however this probably has an insignificant effect on the population.	eng
183654	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183654	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific stretching from the tip of Baja California and Mazatlan to southern Mexico.	eng
183654	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal and found to 15m. It is found over rocky substrata covered in a thin layer of algae.	eng
183654	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There is no population information for this species. Although, this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183654	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known threats. There is no specific use for this species.	eng
183655	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006),  including Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183655	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in central Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California, and in southern Mexico.	eng
183655	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef associated species is found in rocky and coral reefs to depths of 8m.	eng
183655	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is the second most abundant primary fish species in the Gulf of California (Thomson and Gilligan 1983).	eng
183655	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183656	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in some Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183656	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and throughout the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru, and Malpelo Island.	eng
183656	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species lives on muddy-sandy substrata over a depth range of 7-100m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995, Galven-Magaa <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183656	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a common species and is very commonly caught in the Gulf of California. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183656	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183657	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183657	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183657	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a schooling species. It occurs in coastal waters, near shores, entering bays and tolerating some lower salinities. It is found to 10m. It spawns throughout the year, but more intensively in the warmer months. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. (Joseph 1963; Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)	eng
183657	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	It is a fairly common species in Costa Rica. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183657	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/>This is the most important tuna baitfish in Manta, Ecuador.<br/><br/>This species is important for minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It also consumed for food (FAO 1995).	eng
183658	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.<br/><br/>More studies about the population status for this species are needed.	eng
183658	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru. Also, there are vagrants in the Galapagos islands.	eng
183658	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is a marine species that is also found in estuaries and mangroves over soft substrata and may enter freshwater systems. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Balart <em>et al</em>. 1997, Krupp 1995). This species is found from 0-107m.	eng
183658	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183658	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183659	conservation	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., 2007	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas such as the Galapagos Marine Reserve (WDPA 2006) and Machalilla Marine Protected Area. However, better enforcement of regulations are required to adequately safeguard species in these and other Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183659	distribution	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, as is found from southern Ecuador to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands. This species has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on shallow water and mangrove habitat in northern Peru, where the majority of its population occurs.	eng
183659	habitat	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow inlets and bays and mangrove areas to depths of 25 m. It is occasionally seen on rocky reefs. It is most common in areas of patchy rock and sand. Its diet consists mainly of bony fishes.	eng
183659	population	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common in continental Ecuador and northern Peru, moderately common in the Galapagos, and only occasional in south to central Peru.	eng
183659	threats	Bearez, P., Merlen, G., Rivera, F., 2007	The juveniles of this restricted range species are often found in association with mangroves, a habitat threatened by extraction and coastal development in many parts of the Eastern Pacific (Jimenez 1994).  Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves brought some fish species to extinction (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 2005). It is estimated that less than 5,000 km² of mangrove habitat is left in northern Peru (FAO 2007), which is the majority of its range. This species is also important in commercial fisheries, and is vulnerable to overfishing given its relatively shallow water, near shore habitat. In Galapagos, this species is heavily fished, and it is occasional in fish markets in Peru and Ecuador. Its relatively low abundance may possibly be caused historical overfishing as this is a highly desired food fish.	eng
183660	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research should be conducted to determine the population trends, habitat, and ecology of this species.	eng
183660	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Gulf of California to Chile, including Revillagigedos, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos islands.	eng
183660	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This reef-associated species is found on small recesses in rocky reefs and especially along walls. They blend almost perfectly with the background and appear like encrusting sponges (Humann and Deloach 1993).  This species is found at depths to 40 m.  According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species is frequently found over sandy and coralline substrata and occasionally found in intertidal pools.	eng
183660	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	A survey conducted at Gorogona Island, Colombia, showed that <em>Antennarius coccineus</em>, <em>A. sanguineus</em> and <em>Antennatus strigatus</em> had a mean number of individuals of 0.40 (±0.7) with a mean standard length (mm) of 7.5 (±1.2) (Mora and Zapata).	eng
183660	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183661	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183661	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found Sinaloa, Mexico to northern Peru (Chirichigno and Cornejo, 2001).	eng
183661	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species iis found in coastal seas and brackish estuaries to depths of 25m, but does not enter fresh water. It is particularly common in mangroves and tidal rivers.	eng
183661	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is very common in Panamanian and Colombian estuaries.	eng
183661	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species habitats mangroves and tidal rivers where it is impacted by extraction, development, and pollution throughout its range.	eng
183662	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). In Panama, the fishing season is only 6 or 7 months, with no fishing during the reproductive season (October through December).	eng
183662	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA, Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.  Depth information varies for this species, as it is known to occur in Panama to 15m, and in Nicaragua to 100m.	eng
183662	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This coastal pelagic fish is found over soft substrate near the surface in both coastal and offshore waters. It forms dense schools and feeds on phytoplankton (Carmona and Alexandres, 1994; Watson and Sandknop, 1996) This species is present in 50 to 80 t groups, with the adults found at deeper depths than the juveniles.	eng
183662	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is abundant throughout most of its range, with the exception of the outer coast of Baja California where it is considered rare (Watson and Sandknop, 1996). In surveys of global demersal fauna from Mexico to Costa Rica, this species represented 0.15% of the total number of species collected in the survey. However, this species had a high frequency of appearance, even though it showed a low relative abundance and biomass in the entire community (Bianchi, 1991). Based on fishing records, this species population fluctuates greatly and seems to be correlated with upwelling event. For example, during the last 5 years the catch in Panama has been between 33k and 60k t per year, with an average of 47.8 kt. This species is considered the most abundant of the Eastern Pacific Opisthonema species.	eng
183662	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	The demand for this resource is increasing, and abundance is heavily decreasing due to fishing pressure. For example, between 2003 and 2004, there was a 15,126 metric t reduction of fishing discharge, representing a 68% decline compared to the previous five years (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). Similarly, in Nicaragua much of the population was fished out in the 1980s, and the availability of the fish has diminished such that the fishers have stopped taking it.	eng
183663	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Further research needs to be conducted to determine the current population trends of this species.	eng
183663	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from Colombia to Ecuador (Walker and Bollinger 2001).	eng
183663	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species can be found over soft substrata in coastal areas and in estuaries and mangroves. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found at depths from 10-40 m.	eng
183663	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183663	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183664	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183664	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific at the tip of Baja California, central Mexico, and from southern Colombia to northern Peru. It is also known from several isolated islands and coastal islands in the Eastern Pacific: Santa Catalina Island, California, Isla Guadalupe, Cabo San Lucas, Islas Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galapagos, Malpelo, and Gorgona (McCosker and Smith, 2004).	eng
183664	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits deep, rocky, boulder strewn areas, and walls.	eng
183664	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183664	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183665	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183665	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in southern Baja California (Magdalena Bay area) and the upper Gulf of California (northern Sinaloa) (Cooper and Chapleau, 1998).<br/><br/>This is the southern most species of the genus and the only one preferring subtropical waters.	eng
183665	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is found offshore over sand and sandy mud soft substrates to depths of 140m.	eng
183665	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is a common species throughout its range.	eng
183665	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is commonly caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activites.	eng
183666	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in Marine Protected Areas, unless its presence in the Malpelo Marine Protected Area is verified.	eng
183666	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Nicaragua to south central Chile.	eng
183666	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species lives on sandy and muddy substrate to depths of 280m, and feeds on invertebrates and fishes.	eng
183666	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183666	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	Although no major threats are currently known for this species, commercial fishing is now aimed at this fish in the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
183667	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183667	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Monterey Bay, California, USA, to Callao, Peru including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands. Although <em>Polydactylus approximans</em> and <em>Polydactylus opercularis</em> are both recorded from Chile, such records remain unsubstantiated (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
183667	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This demersal fish is found in shallow water near the coast, on sand and mud bottoms (Schneider 1995) to depths of 20 m. This fish also regularly occurrs in middle estuaries and mangroves and is occasional in bar-formed lagoons (Cooke 1992). <br/>Larvae and small juveniles (>4 cm) are pelagic and sometimes occur several hundred kilometers offshore, whereas the larger juveniles and adults prefer shallow near-shore waters like bays, sloughs or estuaries, where the bottom is sandy or muddy (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species is omnivorous and feeds on worms, sand crabs, shrimp, and clams.	eng
183667	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is locally common in some parts of its range. It is reasonably common in estuaries (Cooke 1992), and relatively common in the Central American region in latitudes between 5° and 20° N (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002). However, Grove and Lavenberg (1997) reported a single small example (LACM W53–178) collected from the Galápagos Islands, the species is considered to rarely occur around the islands (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
183667	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish in the eastern tropical Pacific (Motomura 2004). In addition, local populations may potentially be affected by mangrove clearing, pollution and estuary development.	eng
183668	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183668	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183668	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species inhabits reef rubble and cobble that is well covered by algae (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).	eng
183668	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183668	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.	eng
183669	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183669	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183669	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters, bays and lower parts of estuaries to depths of 30 m.  According to Cooke (1992), <em>Menticirrhus nasus</em> it is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves, and occasionally found in bar-formed lagoons along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs.	eng
183669	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183669	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
183670	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183670	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The distribution range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Colombia to northern Ecuador.	eng
183670	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species lives either in rivers or enters rivers from the sea (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez 1995). It is found to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183670	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183670	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183671	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183671	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183671	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species is found over mud and sandy bottoms to depths of 105m.	eng
183671	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183671	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is occasionally caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls.	eng
183672	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183672	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia (Bedenbaugh 1988).	eng
183672	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits muddy sand substrate from 15 to 120 m depth. It is carnivorous and planktivorous, and feeds on mobile benthic worms and crustaceans.	eng
183672	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183672	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183673	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183673	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from Nicaragua to Colombia (Hoese and Reader, 2001).	eng
183673	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits rocky reefs at depths from 3 to 30m. According to Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff (2006), this fish is present in deep rocky reefs and zones of massive coral in Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama.	eng
183673	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is not commonly seen.	eng
183673	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183674	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, further research is required on the species distribution and impact of potential major threats on this species' population.	eng
183674	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	Chirichingno and Velez (1998) report this species as occuring from Ecudaor to Isla Gunape, Peru. However, the only registered specimens are the type specimens from Callao Bay (Peru) and from an undefined location in Chile. Therefore, the geographic range of this species needs further analysis and confirmation.	eng
183674	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no information on the biology or ecology of this poorly known species.	eng
183674	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, and there are only two registered specimens.	eng
183674	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	The region of Callao Bay, where the species is definitely known to occur, is highly polluted from Lima and Callao. It is not known if there are any major threats in other parts of the possible range of this species.	eng
183675	conservation	Bearez, B., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183675	distribution	Bearez, B., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA  and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183675	habitat	Bearez, B., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand and mud substrate of bays and estuaries. It may also venture as much as 20km up rivers.  Juveniles are commonly found in estuarine regions, mangroves, tidal streams and rivers far from the coast.  Adults occur in deeper waters (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).  This species forms schools (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).  It is an omnivore (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), feeding on vegetable matter, micro-invertebrates and detritus (Bussing, 1998).	eng
183675	population	Bearez, B., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is considered very common in the Gulf of California  and occasional in Ecuador. No other population information is available.	eng
183675	threats	Bearez, B., van der Heiden, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may threaten this species and its freshwater/coastal habitat in some areas within its range.	eng
183676	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region, including Cocos Island National Park (WDPA 2006). Additional research is necessary to determine its current distribution and population status across its range.	eng
183676	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be found from Panama to Colombia, including Cocos Island.	eng
183676	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is a demersal species that inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.	eng
183676	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded as abundant at 10 m depth in Cocos Island. However, it was not recorded in survey work conducted in Gulf of Chiriqui in Panama, or in the Gulf of Papagayo in Costa Rica. More survey work is needed to determine its distribution and population status.	eng
183676	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183677	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183677	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos, Clipperton, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183677	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is reef-associated species that lives in rocky and coral reefs. It is found to 70m. It actively hunts at night, preying on small fish (Humann and Deloach 1993).	eng
183677	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This species is cryptic, but is considered common.	eng
183677	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183678	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as those in the Gulf of California and El Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona in Colombia.	eng
183678	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Humboldt Bay in northern California to Peru. This species was first reported from California (Hubbs, 1916) from a specimen collected off of Long Beach. Since then, there have been a number of reports from California. The snake eels that have been observed have all been adults and most have been exceptionally large individuals (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).	eng
183678	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This fish inhabits rocky and sandy areas to depths of 110m, and is a burrowing species that feeds on clams and fish (Fitch and Lavenberg, 1968).<br/><br/>As Ophichthus species have been collected in warm-water as well as cold-water years, and some studies suggest that captures in California may be correlated with El Niño events. Warm oceanographic conditions have persisted since the early 80s, and may explain the mechanism of transport for tropical ophichthids to higher-latitude waters. It may be that Ophichthid leptocephali arrive off the coast during conditions of northerly flow of ocean currents correlated with warm-water events, settle out, and then live an expatriated existence life.	eng
183678	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183678	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183679	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183679	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Panama.	eng
183679	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species inhabits reefs and rocky areas in shallow waters.	eng
183679	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183679	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183680	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183680	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern margins of Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183680	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., 2007	This demersal species is found over hard surfaces of the continental shelf (McKay and Schneider 1995) to a depth of 40 m, and in estuaries associated with mangroves in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183680	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is common in at least part of its range. It was found with a frequency of 18% in estuaries associated with mangrove in Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183680	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered to be an important commercial fish in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004), and it is sometimes caught as bycatch in cast net fishery in El Salvador.	eng
183681	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183681	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183681	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits crevices and ledges of weed-covered rocky reefs to depths of 20 m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183681	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This cryptic species is uncommon within its range.	eng
183681	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this shallow-water species is associated with reefs, a habitat under threat from coastal development within its restricted range. Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183682	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species' distribution falls into the Colorado River Biosphere Reserve in the upper Gulf of California (WDPA 2006). Legislation for this species has been formally in place in Mexico since 2005 (NOM-009-PESC-1993), mandating seasonal closure of fisheries from 1 May to 31 August. However, it is suspected that this timeframe falls outside of the main spawning aggregation period for this species. Future enforcement of seasonal closure is a recommended high priority conservation measure, especially for spawning aggregations.	eng
183682	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few locations in the northern and central Gulf of California. Given its current known distribution and maximum depth of 30 m, it has an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
183682	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 30 m. <em>Cynoscion</em> juveniles are often found near river mouths but within this species' distribution, the one large river mouth available for juveniles is the Colorado River which has ceased to flow consistently since the 1960s.	eng
183682	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species became commercially extinct in the 1960s (Román <em>et al.</em> 1998), when river flow to the Gulf effectively ceased. In 1993, a controlled release of Colorado River water dramatically increased flows to the Gulf of California, and in the three years after the release, <em>Cynoscion othonopterus</em> catches increased from 32 to 1,278 metric tons (t) in the fishing village of El Golfo de Santa Clara, Sonora, Mexico (M. Román, unpublished data). However, unpublished fisheries data (Román <em>et al</em>.) between 1998 and 2002 shows a continued decrease in average size of individuals by 10 cm that likely indicates overfishing.	eng
183682	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is threatened by overfishing within its very restricted range. Even though it is present in a Marine Protected Area (Biosphere Reserve), it is still fished seasonally during its spawning aggregation. Shrimp trawling activities also capture juveniles as by-catch. Declines in commercial landings have also been at least partially attributed to reduced river flow.<br/><br/>Over the past 40 years, reduction in Colorado River flow due to the construction of upstream dams has all but eliminated nursery habitat for juveniles.The Colorado River Estuary once extended up to 70 km south into the upper Gulf of California, creating a 4000 km<sup>2</sup> of fresh and brackish-water habitat in the upper Gulf of California (Carbajal <em>et al</em>. 1997, Lavín and Sánchez 1999). Since the 1960s, the Colorado River has rarely reached the Gulf (Lavín and Sánchez 1999) is now a negative estuary where salinity averages 38‰ in the upper Gulf (Lavín and Sánchez 1999, Calderon-Aguilera <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
183683	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183683	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
183683	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a demersal fish that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata on the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope. This species is found from 80-300m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183683	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183683	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183684	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183684	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos and Malpelo islands.	eng
183684	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal waters, usually forming schools (Smith-Vaniz 1995), and usually in shallow inshore sandy habitats. It feeds on mollusks, crustaceans, other invertebrates, as well as small fishes (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 25m.	eng
183684	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183684	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is caught incidentally and in artisanal fisheries. It is an excellent food for human consumption (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183685	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183685	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the southwest Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos archipelago and Malpelo Island.	eng
183685	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This is a benthopelagic and demersal species found in coastal areas (Smith-Vaniz 1995), including rocky reef areas. This species is found to 30m.	eng
183685	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183685	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is caught in artisanal fisheries.	eng
183686	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species. Research on the biology, ecology,and distribution of this species will assist in developing appropriate conservation measures.	eng
183686	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from the coasts of Ecuador (Type locality: Fish Market, Puerto López, Manabí) to Paita, Peru.	eng
183686	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species inhabits moderately deep water between 100-200 m depth, probably living near the bottom. The maximum size recorded was 30.3 cm (TL).	eng
183686	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This is a small sized-species that is uncommon (Bearez 2001). It is known from only six specimens.	eng
183686	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is caught by longline and the type specimens were obtained  from a  fish market. It is not known if this collection for food is causing population declines.	eng
183687	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183687	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183687	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic species is found over soft sand and sandy mud bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 40m.	eng
183687	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rarely seen in commercial trawls. It is often misidentified as S. ovale as it is very difficult to tell them apart, and only the males can be seperated by morphological traits.	eng
183687	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known to this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but is too small a species to be kept for commercial purposes.	eng
183688	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183688	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja and the lower Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183688	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This benthopelagic species found in coastal waters and penetrates brackish waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m.	eng
183688	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally abundant.	eng
183688	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is incidentally caught in shrimp trawling and gill nets. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and, salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183689	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may fall into some Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183689	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California, to Panama.	eng
183689	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species lives on deep sandy and muddy substrata, feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). It has been recorded from a depth range of 90-258m.	eng
183689	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183689	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183690	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures known. This species' range lies entirely within the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al</em>. 2003). Better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard Galápagos endemic species.	eng
183690	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183690	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species forms large, dense, polarized schools along walls and over rocky slopes, often in somewhat protected areas to depths of 20 m.	eng
183690	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, this species occurs locally in large schools in central, southern and western Galápagos.	eng
183690	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183691	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183691	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and from Central Mexico (Mazatlan) to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183691	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This demersal species forms schools over sandy shallow substrate to depths of 33m. Its occurence in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast seems to be occasional (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183691	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is considered to be abundant in many part of its range, such as in Baja California and Panama.	eng
183691	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183692	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183692	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Humboldt Bay, California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183692	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 20m (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). This species may also be found in tide pools and in deeper waters to depths of 155m (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).	eng
183692	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183692	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is regularly captured by shrimp trawlers and discarded as by-catch. However, there is no evidence that the trawling is a major threat to this species.	eng
183693	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183693	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California, except for the northernmost regions to Ecuador; and all the oceanic islands.	eng
183693	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	This reef-associated species is common around rocky reefs on a variety of substrata at insular and continental locations (Bussing 1995; Dominici-Arosemena 2005). It feeds on sea urchins, small crustaceans, and mollusks (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is found from 3-35m.	eng
183693	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183693	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Echemeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183694	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Isla del Caño National Park and Coiba National Park.	eng
183694	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to fewer than five locations off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183694	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate at reef edges and the intertidal zone to depths of 15 m.	eng
183694	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183694	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183695	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183695	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Fonseca, El Salvador  to central Costa Rica.	eng
183695	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal areas, mangroves and in high-salinity estuaries to depths of 20m.	eng
183695	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is common in shrimp trawls in the Gulf of Fonseca.	eng
183695	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is often caught as bycatch in shrimp trawls in El Salvador, and occurs in highly polluted estuaries.	eng
183696	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183696	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to Magdalena Bay, Mexico and in the northern and central eastern part of the Gulf of California (Cooper and Chapleau, 1998).	eng
183696	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	This species lives in offshore areas over soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 237m (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183696	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is relatively common in California, USA and rare in the Gulf of California.	eng
183696	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp and other trawling activities.	eng
183697	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures known to this species. However, this species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183697	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos islands.	eng
183697	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This demersal species can be found hiding in small caves or in crevices and cracks of rocks during the day.  At night, they feed on small crustaceans. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this species could be found over exposed shallow rocky reefs, zones of massive corals, and zones of madreporic branching corals (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006).	eng
183697	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is common throughout much of its range, including both continent and offshore islands.<br/><br/>According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish is frequent enough to have a resident population in Clipperton Atoll. In the Galapagos archipelago, this species had an overall mean density of 0.24 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).  In a survey conducted in the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, it had a mean density of 0.01±0.04 ind/ m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005).  In Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, this species had a density of 0.010±0.019 ind./m<sup>2</sup>, with and relative abundance of 0.262% (Rojas-Figueroa, 2001). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), this species is common at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, having an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this species had a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183697	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Rivera, F., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Merlen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
183698	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.	eng
183698	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only off Panama.	eng
183698	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is poorly known. It probably occurs in estuarine areas, but its habitat preferences are largely unknown.	eng
183698	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Although this species has been reported as common in Panama (Kailola and Bussing 1995), it has not been seen in shrimp trawls over the last 20 years and has only been collected twice in Panama City Market during this period.	eng
183698	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183699	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo National Park, and Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183699	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183699	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species primarily inhabits empty mollusk shells on sand-rubble substrate.	eng
183699	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species can be locally common.	eng
183699	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known to this species. However, given this species' shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its restricted range.	eng
183700	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183700	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, Cocos and Malpelo.	eng
183700	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species is demersal found in coastal waters (Poss 1995). It inhabits sand and rubble substrata to 160m.	eng
183700	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183700	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.	eng
183701	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes Mexico where there are some Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183701	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern central Pacific in central Baja California and the western and northeastern Gulf of California.	eng
183701	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is demersal and is found to 15m. It inhabits rubble substrata and rocky reefs covered in algae.	eng
183701	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	No population information is known.  Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California , it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183701	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known threats. There is no specifric use for this species.	eng
183702	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.	eng
183702	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183702	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This demersal species is found on soft substrate, possibly to depths of 30 m.	eng
183702	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, in large part because of confusion with other <em>Orthopristis</em> species.	eng
183702	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	No major threats are known to this species. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp.,<em> Anisotremus interruptus</em> and ,i>A. scapularis, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183703	conservation	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183703	distribution	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll with an area of occupancy less than 9 km².	eng
183703	habitat	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is found on the outer reef slope, frequently in areas where surge is strong, to depths of 60 m. It likely has a short generation time and therefore may be stable to perturbations.	eng
183703	population	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is abundant within its resticted range.	eng
183703	threats	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species has a very restricted range, with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and relatively shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183704	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species occurs in several Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183704	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from San Juanico Bay in central western Baja California, and the Gulf of California to Chile, including the Galapagos Islands (Pequeño, 1989).	eng
183704	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is a commonly found on soft substrate (Bussing and Lavenberg, 1995). It is abundant in cooler waters with high salinity and low dissolved oxygen, and in deeper water near the open ocean. (Cordova- Murueta <em>et al.</em> 2006)	eng
183704	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183704	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183705	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Coiba National Park and Isla del Caño National Park.	eng
183705	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to fewer than five locations off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183705	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy substrate.	eng
183705	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183705	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183706	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within some Marine Protected Areas in the region, including Cabo Pulmo and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
183706	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the western Gulf of California, and from central Costa Rica to Panama, including Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972, McCosker 1998). It is included, incorrectly, as an Indo-Pacific species in a study from the Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183706	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and rocky substrate to depths of 25 m.	eng
183706	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, this species has been reported from Cabo Pulmo in the Gulf of California in historical surveys, but it is not mentioned in surveys in the region from 1986 to 1998 (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000), or in recent surveys (Arburto-Oropeza and Ballart 2001).	eng
183706	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183707	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species can be found in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Cocos Island, the Galapagos Islands, and protected areas within the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183707	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos Islands.	eng
183707	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found on the outer shelf (usually deeper than 64m) over muddy sand substrate (Markle and Olney, 1990; Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183707	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon.	eng
183707	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183708	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183708	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama.	eng
183708	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found in shallow tidepools and intertidal mud flats over upper sandy beaches, and over soft substrate in estuaries and mangroves to depths of five m.	eng
183708	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. The species is considered uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183708	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout its range is a major threat to this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction and coastal development within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183709	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes at least a few Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt current area in the tropical eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183709	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is distributed only in the southeastern Pacific in Peru (Puerto Pizarro in the Gulf of Guayaquil to Callao and Pisco Bay; presumably to the border with Chile, but no records exist) and Chile (entire coast south to Talcahuano) (Espino <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
183709	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This is a pelagic species that occurs in coastal waters and is known to form large schools. It is found as deep as 10 m. It feeds by filtering phytoplankton (diatoms) and zooplankton (especially copepods), but will also eat small fishes and crustaceans. This species breeds in spring, in Chile, depositing its eggs in coastal waters on sand, to which the sticky eggs cling. Upon hatching, the larvae then rise and join the surface plankton (Herrera <em>et al.</em> 1987).	eng
183709	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183709	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	Fisheries in the South American region, where this species is native, are overexploited or slowly recovering. The industrial fleet is mainly responsible for overfishing and the destruction of marine biodiversity in the Humbolt Current region. This situation has led to multinational control and a monopoly on these fisheries (Cardenas and Mellillanca 1999). Along with the fisheries pressure, oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this restricted, south eastern Pacific species (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183710	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Costa Rica (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003). As this species has a very restricted range and is primarily found in estuaries, more information is needed on number of locations, general abundance and severity of threats for this species.	eng
183710	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in Costa Rica.	eng
183710	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., 2007	This benthopelagic species is rare, and has primarily been collected in estuaries and may enter fresh water.	eng
183710	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183710	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is likely affected by coastal development in estuaries and clearing of mangroves.	eng
183711	conservation	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), such as those in the Gulf of California.	eng
183711	distribution	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Gulf of California, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183711	habitat	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and rocky substrate to depths of 35m.	eng
183711	population	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183711	threats	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183712	conservation	Findley, L., Lea, B., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California	eng
183712	distribution	Findley, L., Lea, B., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Mexico.	eng
183712	habitat	Findley, L., Lea, B., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2008	This demersal species is found on rocky and rubble substrata between two and 183 m depth.	eng
183712	population	Findley, L., Lea, B., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, individuals in fish catch landings appear to have declined substantially in mean size from the 1980s to present in the Gulf of California (Findley pers. comm.). The landings indicate that this species is moderately common in the Gulf of California, where most of the total population is likely located.	eng
183712	threats	Findley, L., Lea, B., Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2008	Individuals in fish catch landings appear to have declined substantially in mean size since the 1980s, however more information is needed to determine if fishing activities are having an impact on this species' population.	eng
183713	conservation	Harrison, I., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More research is needed on distribution, population, habitat and ecology for this species.	eng
183713	distribution	Harrison, I., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the southeastern Guatamala to Peru, including the Galapagos islands.	eng
183713	habitat	Harrison, I., 2008	This species occurs in shallow waters to depths of 10m, most commonly in areas of mangrove development and shallow embayments. It is often seen scraping algae from lava rocks or browsing on filamentous algae (Grove and Lavenberg 1997). This species habitat and ecology has not been well documented.	eng
183713	population	Harrison, I., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be fairly common.	eng
183713	threats	Harrison, I., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/> - This species is sometimes incidentally caught with other mullet species (Harrison 1995).	eng
183714	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183714	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183714	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand and gravel substrate of coastal waters.	eng
183714	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range.<br/><br/>A survey conducted at Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica showed that this species 0.013±0.046 ind./ m<sup>2</sup>, with a relative abundance of 0.339% (Figueroa, 2001). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this species was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 1.37 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183714	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This fish has a minor commercial importance, and can be common in local markets (McKay and Schneider, 1995).  Populations of haemulid species (Orthopristis spp., Anisotremus interruptus and A. scapularis, Haemulon scudderi) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Nino, but populations recoved over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183715	conservation	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	In Mexico, there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas that coincide with this species' range. Given its very restricted  range, and preference for shallow water areas, more research is needed  to determine this species' population status.	eng
183715	distribution	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present from California to lower Baja California and the Gulf of California.	eng
183715	habitat	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species found in rocky, sandy and rubble substrata. It is found at depths to 183 m, but is more commonly observed above 30 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes. This species usually occurs in rocky areas of bays and along shores, especially in caves and crevices (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). It has venomous spines in the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins (Parsons 1986).	eng
183715	population	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	Data from trawl studies conducted by the  Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Southern California Coastal  Water Research Project and the Orange County Sanitation District from  1974-1993, show that there are substantial short-term fluctuations in  California Scorpionfish abundance within the Southern California Bight  (California Department of Fish and Game 2001). It can be considered rare in California.	eng
183715	threats	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183716	conservation	Harrison, I., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.  More information on population status, general ecology, and life history would be useful for further evaluation of this species.	eng
183716	distribution	Harrison, I., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern Baja California to the central Gulf of California to Peru, and all the offshore islands.	eng
183716	habitat	Harrison, I., 2008	This pelagic species inhabits rocky littoral zones and tidepools. It also may be found over sandy or muddy substrata.  It feeds on algae that grows on rocks by scraping it off with its specialized teeth. The ecology of this species is not well-documented.	eng
183716	population	Harrison, I., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is probably common, but less so than other eastern Pacific Mugilidae species. Population trends are unknown.	eng
183716	threats	Harrison, I., 2008	This species has no major threats. This species is likely fished as part of the general Mugilidae fishery.	eng
183717	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cabo Pulmo National Park and Loreto Bay Marine National Park .	eng
183717	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183717	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate both inshore and offshore.	eng
183717	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183717	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183718	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183718	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The geographic range of this species in the central eastern Pacific extends from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru and the Galapagos islands.	eng
183718	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a demersal fish living over soft substrata, feeding on plankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 18-1270 m.	eng
183718	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183718	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183719	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183719	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to central Peru.	eng
183719	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This demersal species occurs in coastal, inshore waters. The adults are common in shallow water and feed mainly on molluscs, but also consume crustaceans and small fishes. The juveniles are frequently encountered in estuaries and feed on a variety of benthic invertebrates (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to depths of 72 m.	eng
183719	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183719	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/>This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). This is an important game fish in Panama (D'Croz <em>et al</em>. 1994). Marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183720	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls within the Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183720	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is restricted to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183720	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species forms schools in coastal areas, feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found to 10 m.	eng
183720	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183720	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183721	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183721	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Fonseca (southern El Salvador) to northern Peru.	eng
183721	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species is found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of about 30 m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183721	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183721	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species..	eng
183722	conservation	Findley, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183722	distribution	Findley, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the northern Gulf of California. Given its specific habitat requirements, it has patchy distribution within its restricted range.	eng
183722	habitat	Findley, J., 2007	This species lives in very shallow rocky or sandy tide pools in the uppermost intertidal zone to depths of only two m, where it is likely living at its thermal maximum.	eng
183722	population	Findley, J., 2007	This species is considered to be uncommon within its range.	eng
183722	threats	Findley, J., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal development on beaches for tourism and aquaculture.	eng
183723	conservation	Findley, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
183723	distribution	Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the central western and eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183723	habitat	Findley, L., 2007	This species lives on sand and mud substrate in shallow hypersaline coastal lagoons, and mangrove estuaries to depths of five m.	eng
183723	population	Findley, L., 2007	This species can be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
183723	threats	Findley, L., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal development and mangrove destruction throughout its range, particularly due to shrimp aquaculture activities.	eng
183724	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No conservation measures are known for this species.	eng
183724	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Smith Sound, British Colombia, Canada to Magdelana Bay, Baja California, Mexico.	eng
183724	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is found over mud and sand bottoms to depths of over 300 m.	eng
183724	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183724	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
183725	conservation	Williams, J., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps at least one marine protected area within its range.	eng
183725	distribution	Williams, J., 2009	This species is known only from the islands of San Felix, San Ambrosio and the Juan Fernandez Islands off the coast of Chile.	eng
183725	habitat	Williams, J., 2009	This species is found on rocky bottoms to depths of 9m.	eng
183725	population	Williams, J., 2009	This species is common and locally abundant (J. Williams pers comm 2008).	eng
183725	threats	Williams, J., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183726	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183726	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183726	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found along sandy shores and bays, also in estuaries and lagoons. It can occur to depths of 100m.  According to Cooke (1992), M. altipinnis can regularly be found in middle estuaries and occasionally in coastal lagoons.	eng
183726	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be a common species.	eng
183726	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught with trawls and seines, and can be common in local markets.	eng
183727	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo.	eng
183727	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183727	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is found on rocky reefs and in tide pools to depths of 33m.	eng
183727	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, species is considered an abundant primary reef fish in the Gulf of California (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
183727	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183728	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183728	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few historical records in Costa Rica and El Salvador. The precise limits of the distribution range of this species are unclear.	eng
183728	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits coastal rocky areas to 10 m.	eng
183728	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available on this species. The last collection was in 1972.	eng
183728	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is unknown whether there are any major threats for this species. It may at least be undergoing localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and from oceanographic environmental changes associated with ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183729	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures.	eng
183729	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This northeastern Pacific species is found from from Alaska to the tip of Baja.	eng
183729	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This pelagic oceanodromous species is often found offshore, up to 500 miles from the coast (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to depths of 400m. It forms large schools; the young frequently occur in schools near kelp and under piers (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). It feeds mainly on small crustaceans and fish larvae (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Large individuals often move inshore and north in the summer (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
183729	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species can be locally abundant.	eng
183729	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	Although this species is caught in commercial fisheries, it is not thought to be experiencing any widespread population decline from the fishery.<br/><br/>This species is caught in commercial fisheries, sometimes as bycatch.This is an important sport fish, and is a bait fish. In the commercial fisheries it is caught with purse seines in mixed schools (Scomber japonicus). Also caught with round-hull nets.This species is utilized canned and fresh, and for fish meal.<br/><br/>Landing: mainly USA in area 77 - from 1,000 to 10,000. It is typically caught with seines.	eng
183730	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo, and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183730	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to southern Mexico.	eng
183730	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species occurs in shallow sand-weed areas and rocky reefs to depths of 20m.	eng
183730	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, this species is considered to be common.	eng
183730	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183731	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183731	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the western and southeastern Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183731	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rocha, L., 2007	This  reef-associated species can be found to depths of 40 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata, except for zones of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183731	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is locally common in at least Panama, Baja California, and Costa Rica.<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) this species was recoreded to have a density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, still in Costa Rica, it was the most abundant species, with a density of 1.010 (±3.909) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 27.234% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in four sites, as a total of 10 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. melanotis</em> could not be found at Los Islotes, Gulf of California. However, in Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout the year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Colombia, surveys conducted at Gorgona Island coral reefs (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997), could not find this species.	eng
183731	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183732	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Pearl Islands are currently not protected. Given the extent of coastal development in the area, there is a need for protection of habitat in these islands. In addition, further survey work is required to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.	eng
183732	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is thought to be restricted to the Pearl Islands (Isla del Rey) in Panama Bay. However, this species is only known from three museum specimens collected in 1990. Extensive examination of museum specimens throughout Panama of the similar species, <em>Protemblemaria bicirrus,/i>, did not reveal other collections of this species and  suggested that it is likely confined to the Pearl Islands (Hastings 2001).</em>	eng
183732	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to be associated with reefs and rocky coasts.	eng
183732	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from three museum specimens.	eng
183732	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is potentially threatened by increasing coastal development for the tourism industry within its restricted, shallow-range habitat. In addition, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183733	conservation	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette,B., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183733	distribution	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette,B., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is found from central Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183733	habitat	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette,B., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This pelagic species is found in the surf zone and in the near shore upper water column along the open coast and in bays and estuaries (Watson, 1996).	eng
183733	population	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette,B., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is abundant in parts of Mexico.	eng
183733	threats	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette,B., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	Although not considered a major threat at this time, coastal development in some areas may negatively affect this species and its near shore, shallow-water habitat.	eng
183734	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in Peru (WDPA 2006).	eng
183734	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found in the Humboldt current region off the coast of Ecuador, Peru, and central Chile (Sielfeld and Vargas, 1996).	eng
183734	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow water on soft substrate to depths of 50 meters (Sielfeld and Vargas, 1996), and can also be found in tidepools.	eng
183734	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is thought to be common throughout its range.	eng
183734	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183735	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species' distribution, population status, habitat requirements and status, and threats.	eng
183735	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Costa Rica to southern Peru. However, the distribution is not well known, and the presence of this species in Colombia and Ecuador is doubtful.	eng
183735	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and freshwater  to depths of 20 m. It moves up into freshwater as adults (Cooke and Tapia 1994).	eng
183735	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  It is considered common in Panama.	eng
183735	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is caught incidentally in small commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh. This species is most common in shallow coastal and estuarine waters, and moves upstream as adults. Both of these habitats are under serious threat from coastal and riparian development and pollution. Adults are also under serious threat from illegal gill netting in rivers.	eng
183736	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183736	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to central Baja, and the northwestern and eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183736	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species occurs in coastal waters, frequently in rocky reefs and occasionally over sandy substrate (McKay and Schneider, 1995), often near kelp beds. Juveniles form schools in littoral pools (McKay and Schneider, 1995).	eng
183736	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is moderately common in southern California.	eng
183736	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an important sport fish (Riedel <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
183737	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183737	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern (rarely from central) California to the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Galapagos and Cocos islands.	eng
183737	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This is a demersal species. The adults inhabit rocky areas, including the intertidal zone, and can also be found on sandy and muddy substrata (Schneider and Lavenberg 1995). Young individuals feed heavily on crustaceans, but as they grow larger, they consume more and more fish, sometimes catching and eating fishes their own size (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975). <br/><br/>According to Rubio (1986), at Gorgona Island, Colombia, this species is abundant over coralline substrata and is occasionally found in intertidal pools and over rocky and sandy substrata.	eng
183737	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183737	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183738	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
183738	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Gulf of California, from Sonora to Nayarit, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km², and given its shallow depth and specific habitat requirements, an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
183738	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is found in freshwater streams, brackish lagoons, and estuaries and soft bottom habitat (mud, sand, gravel, beach, estuary and mangrove). It is found at depths to two m. It is found only in brackish and freshwater environment; it is a non-marine species. The diet consists of detritus, zooplankton and insects.	eng
183738	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183738	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation from mangrove loss (Jimenez 1994) and extensive coastal development within its shallow freshwater and estuarine habitat.	eng
183739	conservation	Allen, G., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species.	eng
183739	distribution	Allen, G., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll.	eng
183739	habitat	Allen, G., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This demersal species inhabits fine deep sand to depths of 70 m. Specimens were collected from a reef-surrounded sand patch (Allen and Robertson 1995).	eng
183739	population	Allen, G., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This fish was common in the one sand hole shallower than 50 m present at Clipperton Atoll, and in deeper water with extensive sand habitat.	eng
183739	threats	Allen, G., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution with an area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>, and specific habitat type. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183740	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183740	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183740	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183740	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183740	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183741	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183741	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and central Mexico to the Panama/Colombia border.	eng
183741	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic intertidal species actively shuttles back and forth between shallow rock pools and air (Martin and Bridges, 1999).	eng
183741	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available on this species.	eng
183741	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats known for this species, although there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development. Given this species shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).	eng
183742	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Mexico. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas; for example Mexican coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected. Further research in needed to determine the complete habitat and ecology, population trends, threats, and potential uses of this species.	eng
183742	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific is restricted to the southeastern Gulf of California (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183742	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs in shallow coastal waters (lagoons or estuaries), but not in the sea.  It inhabits somewhat murky-brackish to salt water, over mud or firm sand with a veneer of mud. It is found at depths to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183742	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is one of the top three dominant fishes in the Huizache-Caimanero lagoon system in Mexico (Whitehead 1985). No population data is available for this species.	eng
183742	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is of potential interest for fisheries. Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Grove 1985, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183743	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183743	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from Southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183743	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This demersal species is usually found among vegetation in bays and estuaries, and occasionally among floating <em>Sargassum</em> species.	eng
183743	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183743	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, since it is found in estuaries, coastal development may be a local threat to this species in some areas of its range.	eng
183744	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring of this species population and fishing pressure is recommended.	eng
183744	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception, in southern California, to the tip of Baja California and in the northeastern Gulf of California. Historical records however have been reported from as far north as San Francisco, California (Chao, 1995).	eng
183744	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow sandy areas, often in surf zones, bays and tidal sloughs, although it can be found to depths of 45m. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans, marine worms and bivalves. It is often caught by surf fishers.	eng
183744	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. <br/><br/>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it was previously recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured twice within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183744	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is heavily  fished and threatened by coastal development, however its population appears to  be increasing in some parts of its range.	eng
183745	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, its range is entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galapagos islands.	eng
183745	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Galapagos islands.	eng
183745	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This cryptic, reef-associated fish inhabits rocky crevices, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous (Maller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found from 0.5 to 10m.	eng
183745	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183745	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species is associated with coral reef environments. However, this species is not coral reef dependent.  Despite protection measures, the marine environment of the Galapagos islands still faces significant human threats. These threats include human population increase, invasion and spread of non-native species, increasing pressure from ecotourism, and illegal commercial fishing. None of this is likely to affect this species.	eng
183746	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. The few small Marine Protected Areas present within its range are unlikely to offer sufficient protection for this species.	eng
183746	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Colombia to northern Chile.	eng
183746	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	This benthopelagic species occurs in schools (Chirichigno 1974), and is found on rocky substrata to 180 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.	eng
183746	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is rarely seen in fish markets in Ecuador, but is abundant in fish markets in Peru and northern Chile. However, there has been a more than 60% decline in reported landings of this species in Peru over the past 10 years (1996-2006) (FAO 2009).	eng
183746	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Bearez, P., 2008	Catch landings in Peru without catch effort show a steady decline in catch over the past 20 years from a peak of 7,500 mt in 1985 to 700 mt in 2006 (FAO 2009). However, more detailed information is needed on catch effort and mean catch body size to more accurately determine the impact of harvest levels on this species' population. Also, it is not known how oceanographic environmental changes associated with El Niño/ENSO events within its range may affect this species population (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
183747	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183747	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183747	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits rocky inshore reefs (Allen 1991) to depths of 38 m. It can also be found on rocky substrate in mouths of estuaries along the continental coast.	eng
183747	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is common in at least some parts of its range. For example, in the Revillagigedo, Galapagos and Cocos Islands this species is considered rare, but it occurs abundantly along the continental coast.<br/><br/>This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.05 (±0.05) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.003 (±0.007) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.071% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in all sites, with 132 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. flavilatus</em> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California — 0.1-0.01% of total abundance, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce with 0.1-1% of the overall abundance registered (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in sandy bottoms, frequent in coralline while occasional in rocky bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.107 (±0.190) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 40.6%.	eng
183747	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica; however, localized collecting is highly unhlikely to have significant impact on the population.	eng
183748	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183748	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species was orginally known from the Pedro Miguel locks in the Panama Canal. It has since been found in the Pacific entrance to Panama Canal, and north to the Miraflores locks.	eng
183748	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found only in brackish and fresh waters to depths of five m. It can be associated with estuaries and mangroves but is never found in high salinity water environments.	eng
183748	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is considered rare. It appears to have undergone an extreme decline in population. Recent sampling studies could not find any individuals in any of the original areas of distribution, apart from the lake north of Miraflores locks (Van Tassell pers. comm.).	eng
183748	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is threatened by coastal and freshwater pollution. In addition, predation by introduced cichlid fishes also poses a serious threat to this species, and is thought to be a major reason for population decline in the canal. Coastal development for tourism and removal of mangrove habitat are also serious threats, and the planned future expansion of the Panama canal will continue to add to the destruction of habitat.	eng
183749	conservation	Robertson, R., Allen, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183749	distribution	Robertson, R., Allen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll.	eng
183749	habitat	Robertson, R., Allen, G., 2007	This species is associated with reefs and can be found from five to 50 m depth.	eng
183749	population	Robertson, R., Allen, G., 2007	This species is rare. At the time of intial collection in the 1950s it was considered rare, then despite intensive searches, it was not seen in 1994, and only 10 individuals were seen in 1998. However, there may have been a resident population at Clipperton Atoll at one time (Robertson and Allen 1996).	eng
183749	threats	Robertson, R., Allen, G., 2007	This species has a very restricted range, an area of occupany of less than 5 km<sup>2</sup>, and a presumably very small and fluctuating population. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183750	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183750	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Oregon, USA to the tip of Baja California, Mexico. It has also been recorded from British Columbia, Canada (McAllister, 1990).	eng
183750	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species occurs inshore, often over sandy bottoms. It is common in bays and tidal sloughs, around pilings and moves to deeper water at night, and can be found to depths of over 100m. This species forms schools and feeds on small shrimps, marine worms and fishes. The mean interval between spawnings is about 7.4 days (DeMartini and Fountain, 1981; Hunter and Macewicz, 1985).	eng
183750	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183750	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183751	conservation	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183751	distribution	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central western and southeastern Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183751	habitat	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms near reefs to depths of 200 m.	eng
183751	population	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. It is abundant in trawling in the Pacific off of Baja California and in the entire Gulf of California.	eng
183751	threats	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in artesanal fisheries and is commonly caught as by-catch in shrimp trawling in the Gulf of California.	eng
183752	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183752	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This eastern Pacific is found from California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Clipperton Atoll and the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183752	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This pelagic species is epipelagic and neritic, in warm coastal waters to 5 m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.	eng
183752	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183752	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known threats for this species.	eng
183753	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183753	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is only known from the holotype collected near Jalisco, Mexico.	eng
183753	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is poorly known. The only known specimen of this demersal species was collected from a depth of 55 m off the Jalisco coast.	eng
183753	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183753	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183754	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183754	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to central Mexico. Larvae have been collected near Galapagos, although no adults recorded from that region.	eng
183754	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This demersal species is found on fine sand to depths of 27m.	eng
183754	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered to be locally common in at least parts of its range such as Baja California.	eng
183754	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Victor, B., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183755	conservation	Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183755	distribution	Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from El Salvador to Peru.	eng
183755	habitat	Collette, B., 2007	This pelagic species is found in coastal waters and lagoons with mangroves (Collette, 1995), and can enter estuaries and river mouths. It feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995).	eng
183755	population	Collette, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species, although it is thought to be less common than Strongylura exilis.	eng
183755	threats	Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183756	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. In Mexico there are a smaller number of Marine Protected Areas than in other areas within its range.	eng
183756	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, ranging from southern California to tip of Baja California, also found in Islas Revillagigedos.	eng
183756	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is reef associated, inhabiting rocky reefs from 10-30m.  It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans and small fishes (Fitch and Lavenberg 1975). It is a mouthbrooder.	eng
183756	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183756	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Bussing, W., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183757	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183757	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The geographical range of this eastern central Pacific species extends from central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183757	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters, entering estuaries perhaps to spawn, and feeds on planktonic crustaceans.  Larger individuals feed on shrimp, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10 m.	eng
183757	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183757	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for the survival of this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is important in minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183758	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It is not known to exist in any Marine Protected Areas, except in the Galapagos Islands where an extremely small portion of the population exists.	eng
183758	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Mazatlan, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183758	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found over mud and sandy substrate. It grows to at least 10 cm in size (Nielsen et al.,1999), which is smaller compared to other close relatives (Franke and Acero, 1995).	eng
183758	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered a relatively rare species.	eng
183758	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is sometimes caught as by-catch from larger Brotula clarkae fisheries.	eng
183759	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region, such as those in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183759	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to Colombia (Smith, 1994).	eng
183759	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species burrows in sandy and muddy substrate, and feeds on benthic crustaceans (shrimps/crabs), benthic gastropods, bivalves, and benthic worms.	eng
183759	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183759	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183760	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183760	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to eastern Panama.	eng
183760	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is found in shallow waters over soft substrate (Collette 1995).	eng
183760	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183760	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
183761	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183761	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from  southern Colombia to Chile.	eng
183761	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species inhabits soft substrata from 10-35m. It feeds on mobile invertebrate and fishes.	eng
183761	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is probably a common species. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183761	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species has minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and utilized fresh or as fishmeal (Hensley 1995)	eng
183762	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183762	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of California.	eng
183762	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabit sandy muddy substrate. Depth limits are unknown.	eng
183762	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183762	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183763	conservation	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183763	distribution	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183763	habitat	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species can be found over hard substrate to at least 50 m depth. Adults may form schools consisting of several hundreds of individuals (Allen 1995). For example, in Malpelo, this species aggregates in large groups over sandy and rubble substrate to 60 m. Juveniles are encountered in shallow waters, including littoral pools and estuaries, and may utilize mangroves and river mouths as nursery grounds.	eng
183763	population	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>The mean abundance in Galapagos Island was of 1.08 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the majority of individuals were found far-northern of the island (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, the median density was 0.001 individuals per  m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.006 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, the percentage of abundance was 0.039% and the maximum density registered for the species was 0.021 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas 2001).	eng
183763	threats	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may also negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.	eng
183764	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Alto Golfo Marine Protected Area.	eng
183764	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central to southern Baja California and in the western and central eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183764	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is common in sargassum algae. It reef-associated, and found in shallow rocky reef areas to depths of 10m.	eng
183764	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is considered common within its range.	eng
183764	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001).	eng
183765	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183765	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru. It is considered vagrant in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183765	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal fish t is found inshore, usually on muddy bottoms to depths of 177m. It also enters estuaries and mangrove areas (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183765	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In a demersal-coastal survey conducted on the continental shelft-upper slope from the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico to the Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, this species showed a total biomass (weight) of 1,137 kg. This represents 0.54 % of the total biomass (all organisms) that was 208,155 kg. In the same surveys, the maximun number of individuals of this species that was found was 8,974. This represents 0.05% of the total number, 16,077,777, of individuals (all organisms) collected in the survey (Bianchi, 1991). Common in landings and an abundant fish in Panama and Colombia and in artisinal fisheries in Nicaragua.	eng
183765	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in commercial fisheries, and has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183766	conservation	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
183766	distribution	Hastings, P., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from Isla San Lorenzo, Peru to Concepcion, Chile.	eng
183766	habitat	Hastings, P., 2009	This species occurs in rocky subtidal areas.	eng
183766	population	Hastings, P., 2009	This species is common (Hastings, P. pers comm).	eng
183766	threats	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183767	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas throughout its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
183767	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is found from southern Baja California to the Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos,  Revillagigedo, and Malpelo islands.	eng
183767	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is epipelagic and oceanic. Adults generally form large schools (Collette, 1995).	eng
183767	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is considered common throughout its range.	eng
183767	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is commercially important fishery species. It is found in seafood markets in Panama (Collette, 1995), and is an important baitfish species for bilfish fishing.	eng
183768	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. It is found in the Galapagos marine reserve and in the Cocos National Park.	eng
183768	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the Galapagos and Cocos islands.	eng
183768	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a bathydemersal species that is found in sandy and rocky substrata. It is found from 50-120m.	eng
183768	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183768	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183769	conservation	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	Although this species' entire range is in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area, it is still subject to active commercial fishing.	eng
183769	distribution	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183769	habitat	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs and nearby sand patches. Depth of occurrence varies within the archipelago according to temperature, with preference for cooler water (Reck 1983) but ranges between 10-75 m. The diet consists of mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, and cuttle fishes.<br/><br/>Although exact generation length is not known, age of first maturity is estimated to be between 1-2 years and longevity is estimated to be about 10-12 years based on <em>Paralabrax maculatofasciatus </em>(Andrews <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and therefore generation length is conservatively estimated to be 5 years.<em><br/></em>	eng
183769	population	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, a substantial decline (approximately 70%) in population numbers occurred between 1998 and 2001, as inferred from landings of fishes in the Galápagos with no evidence of a decrease in fishing effort (Danulat and Edgar 2002).	eng
183769	threats	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). This deep water species is unlikely to be affected by oceanographic changes caused by ENSO/climate change events. However, juveniles of this cool water species have primarily been observed in relatively shallow water including near mangroves, where they may be affected by increased temperatures during severe El Niño events.	eng
183770	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183770	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador.	eng
183770	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It has been collected along shallow rocky coasts, including in tide pools, and may be found in brackish waters, mangroves and estuaries.	eng
183770	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species.This cryptic species is only known from a few specimens, and it is rarely found within its distribution.	eng
183770	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, coastal development and removal of mangrove habitat may cause localized declines within some parts of this species' distribution.	eng
183771	conservation	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in Marine Protected Areas in the Cocos, Galápagos, and Revillagigedos Islands (WDPA 2006).	eng
183771	distribution	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galápagos and the Tres Marias Islands.This species was recorded as a vagrant at Cabo San Lucas (Baja California), in Nicoya (Costa Rica), and in Ensenada de Utria (Colombia). Depth information is from the original description.	eng
183771	habitat	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is generally encountered around islands, over shallow rocky substrate to depths of five m. Very little is known on this species biology.	eng
183771	population	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered rare in many parts of its range including the Galápagos archipelago. It is considered common in Cocos Island, where is the majority of the breeding population is present.	eng
183771	threats	Allen, G., Edgar, G., 2007	The majority of this species range is largely confined to Cocos Island, where El Nino is regarded as severe threat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183772	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183772	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183772	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This pelagic species is found in coastal lagoons and estuaries (marine and brackish water) to depths of 10 m. It forms small schools (Lavenberg and Chernoff 1995). The diet consists of zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae and pelagic fish eggs.	eng
183772	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183772	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given its relatively shallow water estuarine habitat, more information and research on the possible environmental and human impacts on this species' population are needed.	eng
183773	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183773	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is only found in the central eastern Pacific from central Mexico to El Salvador.	eng
183773	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found at depths from 1 to 8m.	eng
183773	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183773	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183774	conservation	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Lea, B., 2008	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico and the United States (WDPA 2006). This species should be carefully monitored, given its restricted range and shallow, reef-associated habitat.	eng
183774	distribution	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Lea, B., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from a few locations in southern California, USA, Alijos Rocks (about 240 km off Baja California), Guadalupe Island, and the Revillagigedo Islands. Given its shallow-water, reef associated habitat, it is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km².	eng
183774	habitat	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Lea, B., 2008	This species is found in rocky inshore reefs to depths of 20 m, often near drop-offs.	eng
183774	population	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Lea, B., 2008	This species is considered to be occasional in small aggregations. There has been no indication of change in population numbers since the late 1990s in northern part of its range (B. Lea pers. comm.).	eng
183774	threats	Robertson, R., Allen, G., Lea, B., 2008	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. For example, <em>Azurina eupalama</em>, a endemic sister species from Galapagos, was not seen anymore after the strong ENSO from the 1980s (Grove 1985). However, the impact of ENSO events in this northern portion of the Eastern Tropical Pacific, is estimated to be less severe (Glynn and Ault 2000).	eng
183775	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183775	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	In the southeastern Pacific, this species is found from Ecuador to Chile, and can be found in the Galapagos islands as a vagrant.	eng
183775	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a pelagic, oceanodromous fish that occurs mainly within 80 km of the coast, forming huge schools, chiefly in surface waters. It is found todepths of 50 m. It is a filter-feeder that is entirely dependent on the rich plankton of the Peruvian Current and its northern distribution is limited in Peruvian waters in years when a tongue of warmer and less saline surface water extends southward over the northbound coastal Peruvian Current (the so-called El Niño phenomenon) (FAO-FIGIS 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).  In some studies, diatoms constituted as much as 98% of the diet of this species. The preferred climate of this species is subtropical (Castro and Hernandez 2000).<br/><br/>Eggs are ellipsoidal and this species breeds throughout the year along the entire coast of Peru. The major spawning is in the winter/spring (July to September) and a lesser one is in the summer (February and March). It also spawns throughout year off of Chile, with peaks in winter (May to July) and the end of spring (especially December). This species matures at about one year (about 10 cm standard length). It attains about eight cm as its standard length in six months, 10.5 cm in 12 months and 12 cm in 18 months, with a longevity of about three years (FAO-FIGIS 2001).	eng
183775	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is the most heavily exploited fish in world history, yielding 13,059,900 t in 1971, but with great fluctuations and a decline since that year. After the drastic reduction in the harvests of the 80s, influenced by the strongest El Niño of the century (1982-83), in the 90s the harvests began to recover and peaked in 1994 with 12,520,611 t. The fishes are recruited to the fishery at about eight cm standard length at the age of five or six months. They are caught by purse seine (vessels known as bolicheras in Peru). Common fishing techniques are midwater otter trawling and small pelagic midwater trawling. A good summary of the dynamics of this fishery is given by Schaeffer (1967) and the state of the fishery is monitored in publications by the Institute del Mar del Peru in cooperation with FAO (in Bulletins and Reports of the Institute). The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 8,723,265 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Peru (6,740,225 t) and Chile (1,983,040 t) (FAO-FIGI 2001).	eng
183775	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is the most heavily exploited fish in world history (FAO-FIGIS 2001). Among other threats, global warming is probably affecting the fisheries of this species (Soto 2002).<br/>This is a highly commercial species, mainly utilized as fish meal. The harvest in 1990 in Peru was 4,017,106 t and in Chile was more than 500,000 t. Seines were used as the main method of harvesting (Watson and Sandknop 1996).	eng
183776	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., Meliane, I., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183776	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., Meliane, I., 2008	This species is circumsubtropical. In the eastern Pacific this species occurs from California to southern Baja California and in the southeastern Gulf of California. It also occurs off Panama, Cocos and the Galapagos and from Ecuador to southern Chile.	eng
183776	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., Meliane, I., 2008	It is an oceanic pelagic species found to 5m. The species has a maximum size of 31cm in southern Chile (Vera and Pequeno, 2002).	eng
183776	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., Meliane, I., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183776	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., Meliane, I., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183777	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). Since immature individuals make up the bulk of the catch in  some areas, this species should be carefully monitored and size capture  limits are recommended.	eng
183777	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos and Malpelo Islands. This species has also been reported from the Galapagos Islands (Molina <em>et al.</em> 2004), where it may be vagrant. However after 17 years of observations, there have been no recent sightings of this species in Malpelo.	eng
183777	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., 2007	This reef-associated species is found in inshore reef areas, sandy bays, and estuaries, and is also found in deeper trawling grounds to depths of over 100 m. Juveniles inhabit estuaries and mouths of rivers (Allen 1995), while the adults are often found in deeper areas (Vega 2004). This species is generally found solitary or in small groups, but may occasionally form big schools (Allen 1995).	eng
183777	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., 2007	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>This species is the most abundant snapper in Gorgona, and other Colombian localities and markets, and in Nicaragua (Cotto 1998). In Gorgonia Island, Colombia the mean annual density for the species was recorded as 0.026 individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.096 and the frequency of observation was 10.9% (Zapata and Morales 1997). In the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica medium density for the specie was 0.040 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>, the standard deviation was 0.065, the percentage of abundance was 1,077%, and the maximum density registered was 0.214 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> (Rojas 2001).	eng
183777	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is an important commercial species however there is no current indication of widespread population decline.	eng
183778	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	In Mexico, legislation was enacted in March 2004 to prohibit increased fishing production of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). Management should be considered to further regulate fisheries throughout its range by establishing a minimum capture size requirement.  Additionally, more research is required to determine the effects of the fisheries on this species, as overfishing throughout its range is suspected.<br/><br/>This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183778	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183778	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 50 m. <em>Cynoscion</em> juveniles enter estuaries, river mouths, and shallow bays. According to Cooke (1992), it regularly occurs in middle estuaries and mangroves and occasionally in upper estuaries along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. This species feeds on shrimps, fishes and cephalopods.	eng
183778	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183778	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is heavily fished  in many parts of its range.	eng
183779	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183779	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is restricted to the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183779	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species lives on muddy and sandy substrate in deep water.	eng
183779	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183779	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., 2007	No major threats are known for this species.	eng
183780	conservation	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183780	distribution	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to Peru, including the Mapelo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183780	habitat	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits inshore areas, including shallow mangrove-lined embayments and also occurs on deeper offshore trawling grounds to depths of 200m. This species forms schools in surface waters around Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Allen, 1995) and Malpelo Island.	eng
183780	population	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range, such as in Malpelo, Colombia where it is often present in extremely large groups. However, it is considered to be uncommon in continental Colombia and Nicaragua, and rare in Ecuador and in Panama reefs.	eng
183780	threats	Rojas, P., Cotto, A., Acero, A., Bessudo, S., 2007	This species may be threatened by localized habitat loss throughout its range, given its association with estuaries, mangroves and coastal areas not close to freshwater (Vega, 2004).	eng
183781	conservation	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
183781	distribution	Hastings, P., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from Point Conception in California, USA to Bahia Magdalena, Baja California Sur, Mexico.	eng
183781	habitat	Hastings, P., 2009	This species occurs on rocky substrates from the intertidal to subtidal depths.	eng
183781	population	Hastings, P., 2009	This species is common and locally abundant (Hastings, P. pers comm.).	eng
183781	threats	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183782	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands complex (WDPA 2006).	eng
183782	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183782	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses of rocky reefs, slopes and walls to depths of 75 m.	eng
183782	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This fish was studied in various sites in the Galápagos archipelago, being the most abundant endemic species, with an overall mean density of 15.2 individuals per 500 m² (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183782	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183783	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas, including those in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183783	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the southern Gulf of California, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183783	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sand with rubble and rocky substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 20m.	eng
183783	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183783	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183784	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially entirely into the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More survey work is needed to determine this species' population status and impact of any potential threats.	eng
183784	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183784	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is not well-known. It is associated with rocky and coral reefs to depths of 35 m. It generally hides during the day, and feeds on the epifauna of the substrate.	eng
183784	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. A recent survey conducted at Galápagos archipelago did not observe this species (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This species is cryptic and difficult to observe.	eng
183784	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183785	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area in Cocos Island, Costa Rica (WDPA 2006).	eng
183785	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This fish is endemic to Cocos Island, Costa Rica (Bussing 1990, Bussing and Lopez 2005).	eng
183785	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species lives in rubble-sandy substrates on reef edges, and is found from two to 30 m depth.	eng
183785	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183785	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183786	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183786	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183786	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This benthopelagic species is found on rocky reefs from 20-120m. It forms schools and feeds on plankton (Heemstra 1995).	eng
183786	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183786	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is of minor commercial importance (Heemstra, 1995).	eng
183788	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183788	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific in the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, and Cocos and Malpelo.	eng
183788	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This species is reef-associated. It inhabits shallow, weed-covered, rocky reefs and is also found in rocky and coral reef areas to 10m.	eng
183788	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	This is a common species in Costa Rica. Although this species was not found in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, it was previously recorded there (Villarreal- Cavazos <em>et al</em>. 2000).	eng
183788	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Collette, B., Bussing, W., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Salas, E., 2008	There are no known threats.<br/><br/><br/>This species is of commercial importance as an aquarium fish (Hastings 1995).	eng
183789	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). <br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species, especially in the southern portion of its range.	eng
183789	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands. However, the records from Malpelo, Cocos, Panama and Colombia possibly represent vagrants.	eng
183789	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species inhabits rocky coasts (Allen 1991) to depths of 10 m.	eng
183789	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	This species is generally uncommon in the Galapagos Islands, but can occur in moderate numbers in localised areas with suitable habitat. There is no population information available for the continental part of its range.	eng
183789	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, in the northern part of its range, oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemics. For example, the extent of occurrence for this species in the Galapagos Islands greatly contracted (>50%) following the 1997/98 El Niño, likely due to the loss of macroalgal habitat.	eng
183790	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183790	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the eastern Gulf of California , Mexico (Lea 1995).	eng
183790	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183790	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered rare throughout its range.	eng
183790	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183791	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, in Mexico, this species is found in a small number of Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183791	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific off the Baja California Sur; the southwestern part of the Gulf of California; as well as the Revillagigedos and Clipperton islands.	eng
183791	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species; it is found in rubble substrata. It is a deep reefs associate. It is found from 30-120m.	eng
183791	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183791	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species has no major threats.	eng
183792	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, muddy substrate producing mangroves are protected by some RAMSAR sites in located within parts of this species restricted range. However, it is unknown whether protection is effective for this species or its habitat.	eng
183792	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only known from El Salvador to Panama (Van Tassel and Baldwin 2004).	eng
183792	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species has very specific habitat requirements, as it is found in anoxic black muddy substrate of estuaries and mangroves. These specific habitat requirements are produced by mangroves.	eng
183792	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is commonly trawled in shrimp fisheries in El Salvador (Van Tassel and Baldwin 2004). But it is uncommon in other areas throughout its range.	eng
183792	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	As this species is highly dependent on black mud substrates produced by mangroves, reduction of mangroves throughout its restricted range is likely a serious threat.	eng
183793	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Chile, Peru, Ecuador (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the population status of this poorly known species.	eng
183793	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183793	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is poorly known. It inhabits rocky reefs possibly to a depth of 35 m.	eng
183793	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183793	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183794	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Galápagos Islands are designated as a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183794	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183794	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sandy and rubble substrate on reef edges and tidepools (Dawson 1974). It is a carnivore that preys on a variety of benthic invertebrates (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183794	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183794	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183795	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183795	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183795	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species can be found on sandy substrate near the coast, and also enters estuaries and mangroves.	eng
183795	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common in several parts of its range. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). In Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be an occasional or transient species in two different estuaries areas associated with mangroves (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is considered to be reasonably common in estuaries in Panama.	eng
183795	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183796	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183796	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183796	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This is a demersal fish that lives on sandy and muddy substrata, typically on the mid to outer continental shelf. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from 20-320m.	eng
183796	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183796	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183797	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on its population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
183797	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the tip of Baja California and the lower-eastern Gulf of California (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). The distribution of this species is not well-known.	eng
183797	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This deep water species is poorly known. It inhabits sandy offshore bottoms, generally in deep waters to depths of approximately 150 m.	eng
183797	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183797	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known to this species, especially as it is found in deeper waters where no shrimp trawlers operate.	eng
183798	conservation	Smith-Vaniz,B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Merlen, G., Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., 2007	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.However, not all Marine Protected Areas are considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems and many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183798	distribution	Smith-Vaniz,B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Merlen, G., Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Chile, including the Galápagos islands.	eng
183798	habitat	Smith-Vaniz,B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Merlen, G., Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., 2007	This pelagic reef-associated species is found in rocky substrata from 10-55 m, and in rocky and coral reefs. It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183798	population	Smith-Vaniz,B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Merlen, G., Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is occasionally seen in fish markets in Peru and Ecudaor. However, the numbers sighted in markets appears to be declining substantially, and the population has also likely been affected by a decline in prey (anchoveta) in Peru. Between 1998 and 2001, the catches in Galápagos have declined by approximately 75%, while in Ecuador, they have declined by more than 50% between 1992 and 2007 (Merlen pers. comm.).	eng
183798	threats	Smith-Vaniz,B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., Merlen, G., Allen, G., Edgar, G., Rivera, F., 2007	This species does not have major commercial importance, but it supports subsistence fisheries. It is targeted by artisan fisheries in Galápagos, southern Ecuador and Peru. However, harvest levels and effects on population trends is unknown. It is not known if declines observed in Ecuador and in markets in Peru are due to decreased achoveta prey availability (Jarre-Teichmann 1998), associated El Niño events (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009), or overharvesting.	eng
183799	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. But, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems. Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas; for example sand, mud, and other areas with soft substrata.	eng
183799	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern California and the Gulf of California to Colombia (its presence in northern Ecuador needs to be verified; as well as its presence in the Pacific coast of Baja California and north). The presence between Gulf of California to southern Mexico needs verification as well.	eng
183799	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal, bathypelagic fish, with pelagic eggs and larvae. It feeds on fish and mobile invertebrates. It occurs from the shallow, continental shelf to the upper continental slope, and in the mid-waters of the open sea and on sea-mounts (Uncle Sam Bank) (Cohen <em>et al</em>. 1990). It is found from 80-500 m.	eng
183799	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183799	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. The species is caught in small quantities in local trawl fisheries; there are no FAO reports (Lloris <em>et al</em>. 2003).	eng
183800	conservation	Van Tassell. J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183800	distribution	Van Tassell. J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is only known from one specimen from El Salvador (Van Tassell and Baldwin 2004).	eng
183800	habitat	Van Tassell. J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is poorly known, but is thought to inhabit mud and sand substrate in estuaries offshore from mangroves.	eng
183800	population	Van Tassell. J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is only known from the holotype specimen. Extensive trawling from El Salvador to Panama resulted in no other individuals being found.	eng
183800	threats	Van Tassell. J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is likely threatened by habitat destruction of mangroves throughout its range.	eng
183801	conservation	Lea, B., van der Heiden, A., 2007	The fishing of this species is stricty regulated in the USA, and it is recommended that similar measures should be implemented in Mexico.	eng
183801	distribution	Lea, B., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Washington state, USA to Magdalena Bay, Baja California.	eng
183801	habitat	Lea, B., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species lives on soft sand and sandy mud bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 180 m. It can also be found in larger bays and estuaries.	eng
183801	population	Lea, B., van der Heiden, A., 2007	The population for this species appears to be stable in the majority of its range off the coast of California (Haugen 1990). Thjs species has shown a historical decline in commercial landings from a maximum of 5,000,000 lbs in 1919, mainly due to overfishing. In the late 1950s and 1960s, there was a slight increase in landings following warmer waters during El Niño events. Annual landings in 1970 were a historical low of 257,000 lb. Since 1980 however, landings have been relatively stable and average a little more than 1 million lb annually (California Fish and Game 2004).	eng
183801	threats	Lea, B., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species population is likely limited by the amount of available nursery habitat, as juvenile halibut appear to be dependent on shallow water embayments as nursery areas. The overall decline in halibut landings is considered to correspond to a decline in shallow water habitats in southern California associated with dredging and filling of bays and wetlands (California Dept of Fish and Game 2004).	eng
183802	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006).	eng
183802	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Panama to Colombia, including Malpelo Island.	eng
183802	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shore areas.	eng
183802	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no widepsread population information available for this species, although it is considered common in Malpelo.	eng
183802	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
183803	conservation	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183803	distribution	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183803	habitat	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata at depths from 1-150m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183803	population	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183803	threats	Munroe, T., Nielsen, J.G.,  Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183804	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Isla Gorgona National Park and Isla del Caño National Park.	eng
183804	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia.	eng
183804	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reefs and sandy or weedy areas to depths of 5m.	eng
183804	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183804	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines in population due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183805	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no specific conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galapagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations required to adequately safeguard Galapagos endemic species.	eng
183805	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183805	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species is usually seen in aggregations while grazing over shallow reefs (Allen and Robertson, 2004) to depths of 15m. It may also mix with schools of other species (Humann and  Deloach, 1993).	eng
183805	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is considered to be locally abundant. This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.09 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). The limited available data indicate that the population declined during 1997/98 El Niño event, but has subsequently rebounded and perhaps range has expanded within the archipelago.	eng
183805	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	No major threats are known to this species. Given this species restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004; Soto, 2001). However, this species range has expanded since the last El Niño event.	eng
183806	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern topical Pacific region.	eng
183806	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183806	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits sandy and muddy substrata on the inner and middle continental shelf.  It is found from 15-110m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183806	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183806	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183807	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species, and it is not known to inhabit any Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183807	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183807	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits muddy substrate in deeper waters from 80 to 200m.	eng
183807	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183807	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183808	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,, Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183808	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,, Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedos, Galapagos, and Malpelo islands.	eng
183808	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,, Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	This benthopelagic oceanodromous species is found in oceanic waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995). Adults are demersal, while the juveniles and larvae are pelagic. This species is found to 100m.	eng
183808	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,, Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species maybe be common.	eng
183808	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A.,, Bussing, W., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is fished in sport fishery and in artisanal fisheries. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). Marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183809	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183809	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183809	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This benthopelagic species inhabits sand substrata, and is also other soft substrata (mud, gravel, beach, and estuaries) from depths of 10 to 80 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.	eng
183809	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively uncommon as bycatch in trawls in the region.	eng
183809	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It is likely of no commercial interest due to a small size (Heemstra 1995).	eng
183810	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183810	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos islands (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183810	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is found over a variety of soft-bottom substrates, occasionally near reefs. Small specimens may be taken from tide pools and other shallow habitats. It feeds mainly on small benthic invertebrates, has pelagic eggs and larvae, and has been found from 1-120m of depth.	eng
183810	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183810	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183811	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival are needed.	eng
183811	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is distributed over the tropical eastern Pacific, from the southern Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183811	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The habitat and biology of this species is probably similar to <em>Anchoa panamensis</em>. It is found to 10 m. This is a coastal pelagic fish that enters bays and tolerates lower salinities. In the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, <em>A. mundeola</em> was noted to occur only in the northern region, where salinities are generally lower (Palacios and Phillips 1984). This species feeds on zooplankton, and has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183811	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is not a common species in Costa Rica. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183811	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There are no known commercial uses for this species. Individuals taken in artisanal fisheries are consumed by local communities  (salted/dryed).	eng
183812	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this specie's distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183812	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the mouth of the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183812	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found in shallow water to depths of 30 m, and entering estuaries and river mouths. It forms schools and feeds mainly on crustaceans and pelagic fishes.	eng
183812	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This species is uncommon in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish could not be observed (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density < 0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) and Catalinas Islands (Espinoza and Salas 2005), also in Costa Rica, this species was not observed. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). Surveys conducted at Gorgona Island (Rubio 1986, Zapata and Morales 1997) could not observe this species.	eng
183812	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183813	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>More research is needed to determine the population status of this species throughout its distribution.	eng
183813	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183813	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is abundant in shallow coastal areas, especially in rocky coasts with macroalgae to depths of 20 m. It may be solitary or swim in loose schools (Humann and  Deloach 1993), and feeds by scraping or breaking off chunks of the reef and digest the algae that grows within, or directly on algae (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
183813	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is locally common in cooler waters and in upwelling areas in appropriate habitat (macroalgal beds) such as in the Gulf of California, the Gulf of Papagayo Costa Rica, the Galapagos, and Peru. It is rare elsewhere in its range.<br/><br/><em>Nicholsina denticulata</em> was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.36 individuals/500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey conducted at Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish was not observed (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>. There are a number of surveys made where this species was not observed (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000, Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001, Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001, Espinoza and Salas 2005).	eng
183813	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' shallow habitat and wide distribution, its presence should have been observed in many surveys, but it has only been recorded in three surveys. These surveys also show that the abundance of this fish is very reduced. Populations in the Galapagos declined after the 1982/83 El Niño event (Grove 1985); but no data is available on the population status after the 1997/98 El Niño event. Therefore, some concern exists for populations in Galapagos and northern Peru because this species appears relatively susceptible to impacts of strong El Niño events.	eng
183814	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183814	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from Southern Baja and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183814	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This benthopelagic species is found in coastal waters and penetrates brackish waters (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m. It usually forms schools (De La Cruz Aguero 1997).	eng
183814	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183814	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species is incidentally caught by shrimp trawling and in artisanal gill nets.This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183815	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas off Mexico, in the Gulf of California.	eng
183815	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	The geographical range of this species is only in the western and northeastern Gulf of California.	eng
183815	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs and tide pools, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous. This species is found from 0 to 30m.	eng
183815	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a relatively common species in the Gulf of California. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183815	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183816	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183816	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific and has a disjuct range. It is found in the eastern Gulf of California to central Mexico, and from Costa Rica to Colombia, including the Galapagos Islands (Bedenbaugh 1988).	eng
183816	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	This benthic species is found in soft muddy sandy substrate at depths of 60 to 100 m.	eng
183816	population	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183816	threats	Van Tassell, J., Tornabene, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183817	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., Victor, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183817	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., Victor, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Point Conception in California, USA to Guadalupe Island off or north-central Baja California, and the Gulf of California in Mexico.	eng
183817	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., Victor, B., 2007	This reef-associated species can be found close to rocks near patches of sand and in tide pools to depths of 40m. It darts into sand when disturbed and sleeps at night buried in sand with its head protruding. Each individual functions first as female but changes to a male at length of about 30 cm. This species is a pelagic spawner.	eng
183817	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., Victor, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is consdiered to be common in northern Gulf of California and in southern California.	eng
183817	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., Findley, L., Victor, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183818	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183818	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183818	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in coastal waters to depths of 20m, and also enters estuaries. It occurs in a wide variety of habitats.	eng
183818	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is locally abundant in many parts of its range, and occurs in a variety of habitats.<br/><br/>In a fish fauna survey conducted in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species had the highest biomass of the entire study.  91,406 g (28.5%) and 201 individuals (12%) were collected in a survey from april and june 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183818	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is important in small commercial fisheries. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183819	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas across its range, including the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183819	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Isla Gorgona, Colombia.	eng
183819	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits intertidal rock pools and subtidal boulders.	eng
183819	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no information available on the population status of this species.	eng
183819	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known major threats known for this species.	eng
183820	conservation	McCosker, J., Bearez, P., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely into the Galápagos Islands Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183820	distribution	McCosker, J., Bearez, P., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183820	habitat	McCosker, J., Bearez, P., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits sand-rubble bottoms in the vicinity of rocky reefs to depths of 30 m.	eng
183820	population	McCosker, J., Bearez, P., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It may be locally common.	eng
183820	threats	McCosker, J., Bearez, P., Espinosa, H., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183821	conservation	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls entirely within the Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).	eng
183821	distribution	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Galapagos Islands, although there is one record from Ecuador (Hubbs, 1958) and other questionable records from Ecuador and Peru (Bradbury et al, 1999).	eng
183821	habitat	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species inhabits sand and rubble substrate and is associated with reef edges to depths of 120m.	eng
183821	population	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is not uncommon in the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183821	threats	Lea, B., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though this species is restricted to the Galapagos Islands, given its deep water habitat it is unlikely to be negatively impacted by oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and climate change events.	eng
183822	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183822	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183822	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	This species primarily inhabits shallow waters over rocky or coral reefs separated by sandy areas (Gomon 1995), although it can be found to depths of 75 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, this fish could be found in all types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183822	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is the most abundant <em>Halichoeres</em> species in the region, and although the population declined by more than 50% during the 1997/1998 El Niño, the population recovered by 2000.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 43.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. 2005) this species had a density of 0.08 (±0.15) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it could not be found (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish was observed in four sites, as a total of 53 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. dispilus</em> is a dominant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency higher than 80%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was not captured within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in corals while occasional in rocky and sandy bottoms. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.027 (±0.134) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observationed frequency of 9.7%.	eng
183822	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Barraza, E., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this species is an important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica, but is considered to be so abundant that localized collection is extremely unlikely to affect population.	eng
183823	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).  More research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
183823	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183823	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is poorly known. It lives in nearshore areas over deep soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 120 m (van der Heiden and Mitchell 1998).	eng
183823	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species was only known from two specimens from Cocos islands until 1998, when another sample of approximately 50 specimens were discovered (van der Heiden and Mitchell 1998). There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
183823	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	Given this species' restricted distribution and potentially small population size, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, given its deep water and generalized habitat, it is not known if this species would be affected by ENSO events.	eng
183824	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into at least two Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183824	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the Gulf of California (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183824	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Findley, L., 2007	This species burrows in sand and rubble.	eng
183824	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Findley, L., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from approximately 50 specimens from three localities, however it is abundant based on rotenone collections in at least one of these localities.	eng
183824	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183825	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183825	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183825	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species  inhabits rocky reefs, below the surf zone (Allen 1991) to depths of 25 m, and is most common in the shallow subtidal zone amongst fields of large boulders. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish is found in massive corals and exposed shallow rocky reefs (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006) and tends to occur in slightly shallower water than <em>M. bairdii</em>.	eng
183825	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is considered common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 6.43 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.02 (±0.7) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.012 (±0.040) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.336% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed just in two sites, with 16 overall observations (Espinoza and Salas 2005). According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>M. dorsalis</em> is a frequent and abundant species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California (between 0.1-1% of total abundance) with an occurrence frequency between 30-70%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered common (between 1-5% of the overall abundance registered) with a relative frequency between 50-75% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured four times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in coralline and sandy bottoms while occasional in rocky ones.	eng
183825	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. According to Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al</em>. (2005), this is a important aquarium fish in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica; however, this is unilkely to have a significant effect on the population.	eng
183826	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species occurs in the Galápagos and Cocos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183826	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo, Cocos and Galápagos Islands.	eng
183826	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species lives on shallow sandy substrate to depths of 10 m.	eng
183826	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183826	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183827	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).  More research is needed to understand abundance of harvest and to track population trends.	eng
183827	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, from Oregon to southern Baja California, and the western Gulf of California.	eng
183827	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is pelagic, and is found to depths of 29m. Adults inhabit inshore areas, including bays and form schools (Eschmeyer <em>et al</em>. 1983). They are demersal spawners in nearshore habitats (Shanks <em>et al.</em> 2005) and are oviparous, with planktonic, primarily neustonic larvae (Watson 1996).  Eggs are attached to one another by spawning substrate via adhesive filaments (Watson 1996).	eng
183827	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This species is considered to be common.	eng
183827	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, it is targeted in commercial and sport fisheries.	eng
183828	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183828	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found near Nayarit, Mexico, El Salvador, and from Costa Rica to central Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).	eng
183828	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species lives on soft substrate and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes from depths of 25 to 80m.	eng
183828	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183828	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183829	conservation	Chao, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183829	distribution	Chao, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Guatemala to northern Peru.	eng
183829	habitat	Chao, L., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters to depths of 30m.  It feeds mainly on worms and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183829	population	Chao, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183829	threats	Chao, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183830	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).<br/><br/>As this species is an important sport fish, and its habitat has been modified by coastal development throughout its range, its population and habitat status should be carefully monitored.	eng
183830	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA to the tip of Baja California, and in the eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183830	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species occurs in sandy shores and bays, mostly in shallow surf zones, usually to 15m depth. It is often found near rocks and entrances to bays. This species usually forms small groups, but aggregates for spawning. It feeds on invertebrates, such as marine worms, clams, crabs and small crustaceans.	eng
183830	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Their population size, recruitment, and mortality are unknown.	eng
183830	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	In California, hauls from beach seines along the open coast from 1994 through 1997 yielded fewer spotn croaker than during a similar study from 1953 through 1956. However, catch-per-unit effort estimates from Marine Recreational Fishing Statistics Survey data and gillnet sets inside bays and along the open coast indicate that spotn croaker populations were increasing in the late 1990s (Valle and Oliphant, 2001).<br/><br/>In addition, modications of bay and nearshore environments, including coastal development, land lls, and dredging, have had an adverse effect on the habitats of this species throughout its range.	eng
183831	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.	eng
183831	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to Panama.	eng
183831	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species lives on mud substrate and brackish waters in mangrove channels, shallow bays and estuaries to depths of 10 m.	eng
183831	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.	eng
183831	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.	eng
183832	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The halting of further development in mangrove streams flowing into the the Panama canal zone is recommended to reduce habitat loss of this very restricted range, and mangrove-dependent species.	eng
183832	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is known only from two mangrove streams that flow into the Panama Canal on the Pacific side (Hoese and Reader 2002).	eng
183832	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has only been found in shallow fresh waters of mangrove streams.	eng
183832	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no known population information for this species. It is only known from a few specimens and is considered rare. Extensive sampling of the area has turned up no other specimens between 2000 and 2005.	eng
183832	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	The major threat to this species is the extensive development of the Panama canal zone, and the severe loss of mangrove habitat this area.	eng
183833	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183833	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183833	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, generally in estuaries near mangroves. It was also found at Gorgona Island reef to be frequent in rocky substrate (Rubio, 1986).	eng
183833	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is considered to be common in many parts of its range. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183833	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183834	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Galápagos Islands (WDPA 2006). More research is needed on its population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
183834	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is known only from the Galápagos Islands (Hoshino and Amaoka 1999).	eng
183834	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is poorly known, and may inhabit sandy bottoms in coastal areas to depths of 95 m.	eng
183834	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this specie;, it is only known from a few recent specimens.	eng
183834	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is only known from one location in the oceanic islands of Galápagos.	eng
183835	conservation	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183835	distribution	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from southern Baja and the Gulf of California to southern Peru.	eng
183835	habitat	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is demersal. Adults are found in schools on soft substrate in shallow bays, and juveniles are found in coastal lagoons and estuaries.	eng
183835	population	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	This species is common throughout much of its range. For example, it is common in the Gulf of California, and abundant along entire Mexican coast (Gonzalez-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183835	threats	Espinosa, H., Bearez, P., Rojas, P., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183836	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, the species is found within the Cocos and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183836	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific off the coast of southern Baja California and Panama, including Cocos and the Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183836	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate to a depth of 85m.	eng
183836	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183836	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183837	conservation	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183837	distribution	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from central Mexico to northern Panama (Bussing 1978).	eng
183837	habitat	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This pelagic species is common in fresh and brackish waters, such as in rivers, estuaries, and coastal lagoons (Lavenberg <em>et al.</em> 1995).	eng
183837	population	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is abundant in some parts of its range.	eng
183837	threats	Findley, L., Espinosa, H., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	Although not considered a major threat at this time, in some areas coastal development including marinas, tourism, and shrimp aquaculture may threaten this species and the quality of its habitat.	eng
183838	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve and Isla del Caño National Park.	eng
183838	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Islas Tres Marias and Nayarit, Mexico to Panama.	eng
183838	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate.	eng
183838	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183838	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183839	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Lea, B., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183839	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Lea, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183839	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Lea, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is found in shallow, coastal waters (Bellwood 1995) near rocky and coral reefs to depths of 20 m. It occurs in small aggregations and feeds by scraping the substrate for coralline red algae, and probably on coral polyps. In Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, this fish can be found over massive corals, rocky reef and zone of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183839	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Lea, B., Rocha, L., 2007	This species is common throughout much of its range. <br/><br/><em>Scarus perrico</em> was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.68 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density <0.01 individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) and Catalinas Islands (Espinoza and Salas 2005), also in Costa Rica, this species was not observed. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>S. perrico</em> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California — 0.1-0.01% of total abundance — with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce - 0.1-1% of the overall abundance (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in coralline and rocky bottoms while occasional in sandy ones. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, could not observe this species.	eng
183839	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., Lea, B., Rocha, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, spearfishing comprises a possible local threat in some parts of its range. Similarly, all Scarids are commercially-exploited at a small scale by spearfishers in Panama, and in the Gulf of California have been recently subjected to heavy fishing pressure. The Galapagos population declined by approximately 50% after the 1997/98 El Niño event, but appeared to recover by 2000.	eng
183840	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), the including Cabo Pulmo and the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183840	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Acapulco, central Mexico, including the Revillagigedo islands and the Tres Marias Islands.	eng
183840	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species found in weed-covered, rocky shores and also in coral reefs to depths of 10m.	eng
183840	population	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is the most common member of the genus at most localities in the Gulf of California, and one of the most abundant primary reef fishes in the Gulf (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 2002).	eng
183840	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183841	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183841	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to southern Ecuador.	eng
183841	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty worm and tube mollusk tubes on shallow rocky reefs. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá, this species is found in rock walls covered by red algae, in zones of massive coral, in exposed shallow rocky reef, and in deep rocky reef exposed to oceanic currents (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).	eng
183841	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered common, and sometimes even locally abundant. In the Gulf of Chiriquí, density of this species was recorded at 70 individuals per 150  m<sup>2</sup> (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolf, 2006).	eng
183841	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183842	conservation	McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. Although this species' distribution falls into a Marine Protected Area (Galápagos) in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006), it is not known whether this species or its ecosystem are adequately protected.	eng
183842	distribution	McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands  (Grove and Lavenberg 1997), where it is known from less than 10 locations and has an area of occupancy of less than 1,200 km².	eng
183842	habitat	McCosker, J., 2007	This species lives on soft muddy or sandy substrate and feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates.	eng
183842	population	McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is considered to be rare.	eng
183842	threats	McCosker, J., 2007	There are no bottom commercial fishing activities that might affect this species in the Galápagos. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, given this species' relatively deep water and muddy/sandy substrate habitat, it is not clear if this species would experience rapid declines during future severe ENSO events.	eng
183843	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183843	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California to Ecuador.	eng
183843	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This is a deep water species that occurs from 30 to 200m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods and bivalves.	eng
183843	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183843	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183844	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183844	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Costa Rica to southern Peru.	eng
183844	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species lives over soft substrate, and sometimes enters fresh water (Collette 1995).	eng
183844	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in collections, although no other population information is available.	eng
183844	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	Although not considered to cause population decline at this time, this species is exploited in minor fisheries. It has been used since pre-colombian times as food source by indigenous peoples in Central America (Cooke 1992).	eng
183845	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Cabo Pulmo National Park.	eng
183845	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California to Jalisco in central Mexico. The species is frequently mentioned as occurring to western Panama (e.g., Robertson and Allen, 2006), but the validity of this distribution requires confirmation.	eng
183845	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found on sandy substrate.	eng
183845	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183845	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183846	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, it is present in several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183846	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama. There is also one record from north of Baja California at San Pedro in southern California, USA.	eng
183846	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is found in intertidal areas and rocky reefs.	eng
183846	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183846	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183847	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183847	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183847	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal, brackish and probably fresh water to depths of 15m.	eng
183847	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is considered abundant in many parts of its range, especially in mangroves and tidal rivers. In a fish fauna survey conducted in mangroves in Costa Rica, this species was the one with the highest biomass of the whole study with 17,288 g and one of the largest sizes with 980 mm in a survey from April and June, 1993 (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183847	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. Although not considered a threat to populations at this time, it is very important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh. It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-colombian times (Cooke, 1992). It is also likely affected by coastal development and pollution throughout its range.	eng
183848	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is a captive breeding program in California for this species, and numerous fishery regulations now in place to help restore this species population, including restrictions on recreational fisheries and further commercial catch of this species (gill nets are prohibited). In March 2004, legislation was enacted to prohibit increased fishing production of the species (Legislation number: NOM-009-PESC-1993). Commercial fishing of this species is now prohibited in California.<br/><br/>This species may be present in some Marine Protected Areas in Mexico, the Unites States and Canada. However, more enforcement in is needed, especially in Marine Protected Areas outside of the United States.<br/><br/>Research is needed to determine the status of the subpopulation of this species in the Gulf of California.	eng
183848	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Alaska to the Gulf of California. However, no recent records are available for the northern part of its range.	eng
183848	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal fish often occurs in schools over rocky bottoms and in kelp beds to depths of 125 m. It can also be found in the surf zone, with young fish found in bays and along sandy beaches (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983). This species feeds on fishes, squids, and crayfish (Hart 1973).	eng
183848	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species was previously an important fishery species in California, but the population declined to commercial extinction. Populations are recovering due to fishery regulations along the coast of California that have placed restrictions on recreational fisheries and banned further commercial catch of this species (gill nets are prohibited). No population information exists for the subpopulation in the Gulf of California, but it is suspected to be in decline due to continued intensive fishing with gill nets.	eng
183848	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species has been historically over-fished throughout its distribution. Its population has declined since the early part of this century, corresponding to a decline in landings since the late 1920s. Its range is now likely reduced as few are found regularly north of Point Conception, in northern California. In addition to over-fishing, pollution and habitat destruction have probably contributed to this long-term population decline and range reduction. <br/><br/>However, the large numbers of small White Seabass caught in recent years suggests that the warm water period beginning with the 1982-1983 El Niño event helped to increase young sh survival. Young sh surveys conducted in southern California as part of Ocean Resources Enhancement and Hatchery Program (OREHP), showed a dramatic increase in the number of fish taken in research gillnet sets. During research work in 1997 over 600 juvenile sh were captured, in 1998 approximately 700 sh were taken, and in 1999 slightly over 1,300 juveniles were captured. Anecdotal evidence from commercial and sport shers conrms this dramatic increase in juvenile White Seabass. However, it is unknown whether this increase in juveniles will subsequently enhance the adult spawning population (Vojkovich and Crooke 2001)<br/><br/>The subpopulation within the Gulf of California, from approximately Guaymas northward, appears to be completely disjunct and is still heavily fished by gillnet. No population data exists but the species in this region is suspected to be in serious decline.	eng
183849	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183849	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to Peru, including all the offshore islands.	eng
183849	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This reef-associated species sometimes can be seen in schools with <em>K. analogus</em> and is also known to school and graze with <em>Prionurus laticlavius</em> (Sommer 1995).  At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, it has been found in deep zones of middle-sized rocks and sand, massive corals, deep rocky reef and exposed shallow rocky reef (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183849	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is common throughout most of its range. There was no apparent decline associated with 1997/98 El Niño for populations in the Galapagos.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.36 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In a survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia, this species was considered frequent in rocky and sandy substrata while occasional in corals (Rubio 1986). In Gulf of Papagayo, Panama (Dominici <em>et al.</em> 2005), a mean density <0.01 individuals per  m<sup>2</sup> was recorded for this species. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, a mean density of 0.041 (±0.0810) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 1.113% was recorded by (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, <em>Kyphosus</em> sp. could be observed once in just one reef (Espinoza and Salas 2005). This fish was one of the most abundant — 2.02% — in a gill-net-fishing survey conducted in Bahía de Navidad, coastal zone of the central Mexican pacific (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001), together with carangids, kyphosids, scombridis and lutjanids. However, in Cabo Pulmo, Gulf of California, this animal was considered scarce — relative abundance between 0.1-1% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). This fish was found in a survey at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, considered commonly frequent, with an abundance between 10-30% (Aburto-Oropeza and Balart 2001).	eng
183849	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183850	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the EasternTropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183850	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183850	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal species is found over soft substrate.	eng
183850	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183850	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183851	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183851	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found near southern Baja California and in the central and southern Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183851	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty mollusk tubes on shallow rocky reefs.	eng
183851	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species occurs at relatively low densities in boulder fields.	eng
183851	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this restricted range species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183852	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. This species' range lies entirely within the Revillagigedo Marine Protected Area.	eng
183852	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183852	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is demersal and inhabits sand-rubble areas around the fringes of rocky reefs, however, its depth range is relatively unknown. It has been found from 5-20 m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.	eng
183852	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens, but is likely to be locally common.	eng
183852	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species has a restricted range (only 4 small islands) in a very dynamic environment. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and known shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183853	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' range lies within the Galápagos Islands  National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006).	eng
183853	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183853	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs, rubble and sandy substrates to depths of 25m.	eng
183853	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is not considered to be uncommon.	eng
183853	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183854	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including the Galapagos Islands National Park, Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve, and the Revillagigedos Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183854	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including the Tres Marias, Revillagigedo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183854	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits weed-covered, rocky reefs and coral reef areas to depths of 20m.	eng
183854	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Although this species is not uncommon.	eng
183854	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
183855	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Cocos Island is a designated National Park, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). However, this species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range and potential threats.	eng
183855	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found near Cocos Island.	eng
183855	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow rocky reefs to depths of 35 m.	eng
183855	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183855	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183856	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. Monitoring of harvest levels and the population trend are recommended for this species.	eng
183856	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is distributed in temperate waters from British Colombia to the tip of Baja California, and can be found throughout most of the western and the central eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183856	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a pelagic species that is usually found in coastal waters within about 30 km from shore, but as far out as 480 km.  It is found as deep as 310 m. It forms large, tightly packed schools, entering bays and inlets. This species feeds on euphausiids, copepods, and decapod larvae, both by random filter-feeding and by pecking at prey (Chiappa-Carrara and Gallardo-Cabello 1993).  <br/><br/>This is an oviparous, epipelagic batch spawner. It spawns throughout the year, peaking once at night between 2000 and 0400 hours. The spawning region corresponds from British Colombia south to Magdalena Bay, Baja California, but most abundantly between Point Conception and Point San Juanico. There are two major spawning areas: 1) southern California and northern Baja California and 2) central and southern Baja California.  This species is oviparous, spawning either in inlets or offshore throughout the year, but mainly in the winter and early spring. It depends on hydrological conditions, preferably at in upper water layers and around 22.00 hours (Hunter and Goldberg 1980, Watson and Sandknop 1996).	eng
183856	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	It is a very common species within its range. This species has been overfished, and harvest was restricted by law solely as a baitfish in California from 1949 to 1955, but it has since been used in British Colombia in the 1940s, when it was very abundant, for canning or processing into fishmeal or oil. There have been wide fluctuations in populations, partly in relation to hydrology, but complicated by the relation with the also fluctuating populations of the California pilchard (<em>Sardinops caeruleus</em>). The recorded catch in 1982 was 294,859 t (247,997 t by Mexico). It was fished with lampara nets, but after about 1946 mainly by purse seines. The total catch reported for this species to the FAO for 1999 was 11,137 t. The countries with the largest harvests were Mexico (5,814 t) and USA (5,323 t) (FAO-FIGIS 2001).	eng
183856	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species has been overfished.  The countries with the largest harvests were Mexico (5,814 t) and USA (5,323 t) (FAO-FIGIS 2001).<br/><br/><br/>This species is important in commercial fisheries, and the harvesting sites for fisheries are mainly in Mexico in FAO fishing area 77 - from 10,000 to 50,000 t. Seines are the main method used to harvest this species. It is then processed into fishmeal, used as bait for tuna and other fishes, and occasionally canned (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183857	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into Coiba National Park in Panama (WDPA 2006).	eng
183857	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	The species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region. The original distribution for this species was listed from Costa Rica to Panama (Collette 1966). However, the record from Costa Rica has since been described as a distinct species, <em>Daector schmitti</em> (Collette 1968). This species’ range is now considered to be restricted to two locations: Panama Bay and Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Collette 1995), with an extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000 km².	eng
183857	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species inhabits shallow waters over soft, muddy substrate in bays and estuaries to depths of 30 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has a benthic stage with no pelagic eggs or larvae (Collette 1995).	eng
183857	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is common in collections from Panama.	eng
183857	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This shallow-water and near-shore species is threatened by habitat loss from extensive coastal development and pollution within its restricted range.	eng
183858	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., 2008	Commercial fishing of this species has been prohibited in California since the 1950s. In addition, size limits of 12 inches minimum size apply for sport fishing with a bag limit of 10 <em>Paralabrax</em> spp. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection.	eng
183858	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California to the tip of Baja California. This species has historically ranged as far north as the Columbia River, Oregon. However, it is now considered rare north of Point Conception, California (California Fish and Game 2001).	eng
183858	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., 2008	This benthopelagic species is found in or near kelp beds to depths of 61 m  (Young 1963). Juveniles feed on benthic invertebrates (especially crustaceans), and adults feed on fishes and cephalopods (Heemstra 1995). Both juveniles and adults may feed on plankton when abundant (Heemstra 1995)<br/><br/>This species can range throughout the water column, but can be found in the greatest numbers in shallower waters at less than 25 m depth. Mature individuals usually gather to breed in deeper water near kelp beds and rocky headlands. Several hundred adults may aggregate in a small area during spawning. Kelp Bass produce free-drifting eggs which enter the plankton in coastal waters. Larvae remain in the plankton for 28 to 30 days, after which they settle into shallow water habitats that have attached algae and drift algae, including kelp. They mature at three to five years, and the oldest known kelp bass was 34 years old and 63 cm long (California Fish and Game 2004). However, current average body sizes are smaller than historical records.	eng
183858	population	Iwamoto, T., Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., 2008	There is no population information for this species.This species is considered common in southern California and northwestern Baja California.	eng
183858	threats	Iwamoto, T., Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., 2008	This species has been negatively impacted by past commercial and current sport fishing. In the 1970s and 1980s, this species was among the top three species taken in sport (angler) fisheries. The Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS) catch estimates show trends in declining catches through most of the 1990s with a low in 1999, and with landings rebounding in 2000 and 2001 (California Fish and Game 2004). In general, peak landings of Kelp Bass have followed El Niño events. Surveys in the 1970s and 1980s indicated that a stable spawning population was being maintained, because a large number of age-classes were being caught by anglers (California Fish and Game 2004).	eng
183859	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183859	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in both the southwestern and southeastern Pacific. In the southwestern Pacific it is found at Lord Howe Island.&#160; In the Eastern Pacific it occurs from southern Ecuador to Chile. It is also found in Easter Island (Randall and McCosker, 1975).	eng
183859	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits rocky and coral reefs.	eng
183859	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183859	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183860	conservation	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Humboldt current coastal region.	eng
183860	distribution	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution in the southeastern Pacific and is only found in Ecuador and Peru.	eng
183860	habitat	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	This fish can be found over soft substrata in deep coastal areas, and also in shallower estuarine habitats. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 20-100 m.	eng
183860	population	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	There is no population data available for this species.	eng
183860	threats	van der Heiden, Lea, B., Findley,  L., 2007	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of this regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <i.et al.=""> 2004).</i.et>	eng
183861	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	Commercial fishing of this species has been prohibited in California since the 1950's. In addition, size limits of 12-inches minimum size apply for sport fishing with a bag limit of 10 Paralabrax spp. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in southern California currently being developed that will offer greatly enhanced protection.	eng
183861	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California, and the southwest Gulf of California.	eng
183861	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species is found on sand substrata among or near rocks from shallow areas to about 185m depth, however it is most common in above 30m.  Juveniles feed on benthic invertebrates (crabs, bivalves, and mysids) and rarely fish; while adults prey on fishes (especially Porichthys notatus) and also on crustaceans (Heemstra 1995).<br/><br/>A juvenile barred reaches sexual maturity at 3 to 5 years at a length of 7 to 10.5 in. The oldest known barred sand bass was determined to be 24 years old (California Fish and Game, 2004).<br/><br/>Barred sand bass gather to breed over sandy bottoms at depths of 60 to 120 ft in the late spring and summer months. Spawning occurs from April through November, usually peaking in July. Barred sand bass produce numerous small, free-drifting eggs that enter the plankton in coastal waters. In the early 1970s, evidence was presented that tumors,<br/>deformities, and other anomalies found in barred sand bass may have been linked to industrial and domestic wastes discharged into the nearshore environment. Reports of such abnormalities have decreased over the past two decades (California Fish and Game, 2004).	eng
183861	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This is a common species.	eng
183861	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183862	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183862	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California (excluding the northernmost region) to northern Peru, and all the oceanic islands except Clipperton.	eng
183862	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is found on hard substrata (rocks, shell rubble, boulder, and gravel strewn slopes) to 120m.  It is often seen at reef edges in rubble substrata (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183862	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is uncommon in its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183862	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183863	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183863	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Tres Marias Islands to Tangola, Oaxaca, Mexico.	eng
183863	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species is found in rocky coastal areas and reefs in deeper water, to depths of 100m.	eng
183863	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183863	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183864	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183864	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Mexico to Peru.	eng
183864	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits sandy/muddy substrate in shallow coastal waters to 20m. It also enters estuaries and sometimes river mouths.	eng
183864	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, market observations indicate that the species is common at least in Peru.	eng
183864	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is considered important for artisanal fishing in Gulf of Montijo, Panama (Vega, 2004).	eng
183865	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that the last records of the species date back to the 1960s, this species should be a priority for further survey work.	eng
183865	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found off the coast of Ecuador. This species is only known from three specimens collected in the early 1960s north of Esmeraldas, Ecuador near the Colombian border.	eng
183865	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is demersal, and the original specimens were taken from tidal and shallow subtidal waters.	eng
183865	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from three specimens, and there has been no or limited survey work in the region for this species.	eng
183865	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	Major threats for this species are unknown. However, given this species' potentially restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, localized stochastic events, including future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO and global warming, may have detrimental effects on marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183866	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (WDPA 2006).	eng
183866	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to southern Colombia, including the Clipperton and Galapagos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183866	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate, from shallow waters up to a depth of 145 m.	eng
183866	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183866	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183867	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183867	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southern Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183867	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found in tide pools and coastal sandy areas. It feeds on small fishes and invertebrates (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183867	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183867	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
183868	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species. However this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183868	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This is a tropical Indo-Pacific species. In the eastern Pacific, it is found in oceanic offshore waters from Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183868	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	It is an oceanic epipelagic species found to 5m.	eng
183868	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183868	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183869	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183869	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from Ecuador to Peru.	eng
183869	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal waters and bays to depths of 20m. It feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans, and mollusks.	eng
183869	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183869	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries, and can be common in local markets.	eng
183870	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., Bessudo, S., Zapata, F., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183870	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., Bessudo, S., Zapata, F., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the western and southeastern Gulf of California to southern Mexico, all the offshore islands, and in the Lobos de Afuera islands off Peru.	eng
183870	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., Bessudo, S., Zapata, F., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2008	This species inhabits deep rocky reefs (Allen, 1991) and coral reefs to depths of 200m.	eng
183870	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., Bessudo, S., Zapata, F., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2008	This species is considered common in some parts of its range, especially in deep reefs in Malpelo, Clipperton and Revillagigedo Islands.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 1.49 ind./500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce  with 0.1-1% of the overall abundance registered and a relative frequency below 10% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183870	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Edgar, G., Bessudo, S., Zapata, F., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183871	conservation	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183871	distribution	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from central Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183871	habitat	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This demersal species inhabits shallow mangrove estuaries, generally to depths of 5m. It is an herbivore that feeds on benthic microalgae.	eng
183871	population	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species relatively common in the majority of its range. However, in a mangrove swamp in El Conchalito, La Paz Bay, Baja California Sur, it was considered rare with an occurrence frequency of 1% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183871	threats	Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, mangrove destruction and coastal development including shrimp aquaculture activities threaten their habitat type throughout its range.	eng
183872	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183872	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California to the Gulf of California to central Peru, and Malpelo Island.	eng
183872	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This benthopelagic species forms schools in coastal marine and brackish waters, including lagoons with mangroves (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species is found to 53m.	eng
183872	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.	eng
183872	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is commonly caught as bycatch by shrimp trawlers. This species is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh, salted and fried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183873	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range, and past history of El Niño associated declines.	eng
183873	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
183873	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacle shells on rocky reefs to depths of 25 m. It often perches in the opening with only the head protruding, and darts out to nab bits of floating food (Humann and Deloach 1993). It is oviparous, with eggs attached to the walls of the parent's shelter and brooded by the male parent (Matarese <em>et al</em>. 1984).	eng
183873	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species was known to be very abundant until the 1997/1998 El Niño event, afterwhich the species could not be found. The species reappeared a few years later, and there is other anecdotal evidence of previous population fluctuations. A recent survey found an overall mean abundance for the species of 1.41 individuals per 500 m² on Galápagos Island (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183873	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, and is subject to extreme fluctuations in population numbers following El Niño events (Groves, 1985). In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183874	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183874	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru, including the Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183874	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is found in sandy bays and estuaries, including the brackish lower parts of streams and mangroves (Flores <em>et al.</em> 1990; De La Cruz Agüero, 1997).	eng
183874	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	This species is considered abundant and the most common of the gerreids along Pacific coasts.	eng
183874	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Betancur, R., Collette, B., 2007	Although not currently considered a major threat to widespread population decline, this species an important species for artisanal fisheries (Flores <em>et al.</em> 1990). It is caught with seine nets, gill nets, cast nets, hook-and-line,  and purse nets (De la Cruz Aguero, 1997). In addition, localized threats include the removal of mangroves and coastal development throughout its distribution.	eng
183875	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species has been recorded in a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183875	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California, USA to central Baja California and the northern half of the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183875	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species is found in holes and crevices in rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997), in burrows of boring clams or tubes of marine worms, and in mussel beds (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).  It is mostly sedentary and territorial (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
183875	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered common in California waters.	eng
183875	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183876	conservation	Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183876	distribution	Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern Nicaragua to northern Peru.	eng
183876	habitat	Cotto, A., 2007	This species is found in near-shore shallow coastal waters, perhaps entering water with low salinities (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183876	population	Cotto, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183876	threats	Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183877	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution may fall within some Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183877	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in lower Baja California and the central Gulf of California, and from northern Costa Rica to southern Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).	eng
183877	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy substrate to 30 m depth, and is also present in estuaries and mangroves.	eng
183877	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183877	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this shallow water species may be threatened by the localized destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development within its restricted and disjunct range.	eng
183878	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, decreases in harvests of this species in Panama has led to the limitation of fishing licenses for the production of fishmeal and oil, and increased restrictions on the storage capacity of ships (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). In an agreement between fishing companies, the fishing season in Panama is limited to the non-reproductive season, April to October, and since the groups are very homogeneous in size, only those with lengths of 13 cm or more are fished.	eng
183878	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru, including the Revillagigedo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183878	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species occurs inshore, principally over mud flats and forming quite large schools. Apparently, it does not make long migrations along sandy or rocky areas. Juveniles feed principally on diatoms, and also silico-flagellates, dinoflagellates and small crustaceans, while adults feed mainly on benthic diatoms and are oviparous with peliagic larvae (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995, Watson and Sandknop 1996). In Panama, this species is more associated with the upwelling in Gulf of Panama, and migrating to shallower waters between between February and April.	eng
183878	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is considered abundant in Nicaragua and Panama. In Panama, this species is present in groups of 20 to 120 t.	eng
183878	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is highly commercial. It is used as tuna baitfish, and is processed into fishmeal and oil (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995, Watson and Sandknop 1996). It is caught with cast nets for local consumption, but with lampara nets for the bait fishery, and purse seines for the reduction fishery, mainly within eight km of the shore (FAO-FIGIS 2001).  <br/><br/>Since 1974, total harvests have had repeated fluctuations with peaks every two to four years. In 1995, 106,743 t of the Pacific Anchoveta was harvested in the Eastern Central Pacific, and 41,484 t in the Southeastern Pacific. However, in Panama, harvests were reduced by 34,742 metric t in 2004 in relation with year 2003, and over the last five years the catch has been between 47,000 and 134,000 t, with an average of 85,400 t (Martínez <em>et al.</em> 2005). By contrast, this species is no longer taken commercially in Nicaragua, and this species is only taken by artisanal fishing for bait fish.	eng
183879	conservation	Acero, A., Rojas, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the few specimens known were collected from two Marine Protected Areas, Isla Gorgona and Cocos Island.	eng
183879	distribution	Acero, A., Rojas, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Costa Rica to Colombia. This species was previously known only from Isla Gorgona, Colombia, but has also been collected in Costa Rica at Isla del Cano (Bussing and Lavenberg 2003).	eng
183879	habitat	Acero, A., Rojas, P., Collette, B., 2007	The biology and ecology of this species is poorly known. It has been found in burrows in sand and rubble.	eng
183879	population	Acero, A., Rojas, P., Collette, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183879	threats	Acero, A., Rojas, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183880	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Cocos Island is designated as a national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
183880	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found only near Cocos Island, Costa Rica.	eng
183880	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores in rocky and coral reef areas to depths of 10 m.	eng
183880	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183880	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183881	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' broad distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183881	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to central Peru.	eng
183881	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species can be found in tide pools, estuaries, and inlets with sandy substrates ranging out onto the inner continental shelf. This species is found to 55m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183881	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a common species throughout its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183881	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183882	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within several Marine Protected Areas in the region, including the Cocos Island and Galapagos Islands Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183882	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species has a disjunct distribution and is only known from 4 locations: along the southeastern coast of the Gulf of California, northern Peru (Lobos de Afuera Island), the Galapagos Islands, and Cocos Island (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
183882	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 40m.	eng
183882	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183882	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183883	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., Finley, L., 2007	This species' distribution falls within a CONABIO marine priority zone, El Complejo Insular de Baja California.	eng
183883	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., Finley, L., 2007	This species is only occurs in the Gulf of California.  It is known only from the holotype collected at Puertocitos, in the northeastern Gulf of California (McCosker and Robertson 2001).	eng
183883	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., Finley, L., 2007	The only specimen of this benthic species was collected during low tide in a sand bank.	eng
183883	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., Finley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from the holotype.	eng
183883	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., Finley, L., 2007	Given this species' shallow-water habitat, it is likely threatened by extensive coastal development, tourism and aquaculture development in the Gulf of California.	eng
183884	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species is restricted to the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (WDPA 2006).	eng
183884	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Galápagos Islands, although it may be more widely distributed.	eng
183884	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species lives over sand, rock and coral substrate.	eng
183884	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species is only known from the original four specimens (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1972). It has not been reported in recent surveys of shallow and deeper sandy reef areas in the Galápagos region (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183884	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., 2007	It is unknown if there are any major threats to this species. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). However, this species is not well-known and may be more deeply distributed, which may provide it some protection from a severe ENSO event.	eng
183885	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183885	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is only found in the Gulf of Panama.	eng
183885	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This pelagic species occurs in near-shore, shallow coastal waters (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995) to depths of 10 m.	eng
183885	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183885	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This shallow-water, near-shore species has a restricted range. It may be caught as by-catch in fisheries operating in the Gulf of Panama. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183886	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183886	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to Colombia, and including the Tres Marias, Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Malpelo, and Cocos Islands.	eng
183886	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow intertidal rocky reefs, including tide pools. It is also often found in empty barnacles in surge zones.	eng
183886	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183886	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183887	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species occurs in the Tres Marias and Bahia de Utria Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183887	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	The species is only known from two collections, one near Tres Marias Islands, Mexico and the second in Bahia Utria, Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).	eng
183887	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is poorly known. The only collections of this species have been made over shallow sandy substrate (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1998).	eng
183887	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species, as it is only known from two collections.	eng
183887	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183888	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006), and it is known specific to occur in the Northern Gulf of California Biosphere Reserve.	eng
183888	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species distribution in the Eastern Pacific is disjunct; it is found in the eastern portion of the Gulf of California, and from Guatemala to the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). However, it is also known from Acapulco, Jalisco and South Mazatlan, Mexico (Castro-Aguirre and Suárez de los Cobos, 1983).	eng
183888	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	This species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 10m.	eng
183888	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183888	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Lea, B., Espinosa-Perez, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is often captured and discarded by trawlers as by-catch.	eng
183889	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183889	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific. It has a disjunct distribution: central Baja California and the Gulf of California, northern Costa Rica to central Colombia, and northern Peru, considered to comprise three subspecies (Lea, 1995).	eng
183889	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species is found on soft substrate.	eng
183889	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183889	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183890	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183890	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is known only from the holotype found off the coast of Costa Rica.	eng
183890	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	The only known specimen of this species was collected from dredging muddy substrate in Costa Rica at a depth of 20 m.	eng
183890	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183890	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183891	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183891	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Revillagigedos, Malpelo, and Galapagos islands.	eng
183891	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species is epipelagic and neritic in coastal waters to 5m. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances from the surface.	eng
183891	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183891	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183892	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183892	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183892	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata on the inner and middle continental shelf. This species is found from 10-115m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183892	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a common species. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183892	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183893	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However,its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183893	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the southwestern Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183893	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy coasts and bays to depths of 50 m. It can also be found  in the surf zone. It feeds on crabs, other crustaceans and marine worms.	eng
183893	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183893	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish and can be found in local markets. It is caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and is a target species for artisinal fisheries.	eng
183894	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is present in several Marine Protected Areas, including Reserva de la Biosfera Alto Golfo de California y Delta del Rio Colorado (WDPA 2006).	eng
183894	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, and is found in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183894	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate in rocky reefs.	eng
183894	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183894	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183895	conservation	Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many endemic species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183895	distribution	Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Ecuador to central Chile.	eng
183895	habitat	Bearez, P., 2007	This reef-associated species is found on shallow rocky reefs and also in coral reefs to depths of 50 m. Its diet consists mainly of mobile crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefish and bonyfishes.	eng
183895	population	Bearez, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183895	threats	Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, as this species is found on rocky and coral reefs, more information and research is needed about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival or habitat. For example, Eastern Pacific coral reefs have developed under restricted conditions, and possibly represent the most extreme situation in the history of coral reefs (Cortes 1997). Also, commercial fishing by spear and handline may pose a local threat to populations in some regions.	eng
183896	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is only found in Bahia de San Quintin, which is a 4,000 ha (40 km²) lagoon classified as protected habitat, and characterized as a high productivity zone due to the presence of <em>Zostera</em> and <em>Spartina</em> seagrass beds.	eng
183896	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the 40 km² Bahia San Quintin, Baja California Sur, Mexico (Hubbs 1952).	eng
183896	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is found in shallow tidepools and upper reef flat to depths of six m.	eng
183896	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is currently considered to be very rare, although it has formerly been considered to be common.	eng
183896	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural runoff and coastal development throughout its restricted range.	eng
183897	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183897	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and around Malpelo (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183897	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This inhabits sand-mud trawling grounds (Robertson and Allen 2006).   It feeds on mobile benthic worms, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalves, octupuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183897	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a fairly common species.  There is no population information for this species.	eng
183897	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183898	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183898	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to Conception, Chile.	eng
183898	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species is found over soft substrata (mud, sand, gravel, mangrove and estuaries) from 5 to 80m depth. It feeds on mobile benthic cruataceans and bony fishes.	eng
183898	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is commonly caught in bycatch by shrimp trawlers, and by children using handlines from shore in Peru.	eng
183898	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is commonly caught as bycatch by shrimp trawlers.	eng
183899	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	Juan Fernandez archipelago is recognized nationally and internationally as protected area. Further research on this species is needed on its biology, ecology, and distribution.	eng
183899	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only found in Juan Fernandez archipelago and Isla San Felix in the Desventuradas islands, Chile.	eng
183899	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is found over rocky shores to depths of 30m.	eng
183899	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	According to Arana (2000) Umbrina reedi represents 7.8% of the principal catch (599 kg) from gillnet catches in Juan Fernandez in January and February 1997. There is no other information on populaton for this species.	eng
183899	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. It is fished with gill nets, and local fishermen may use this species as bait for lobster cages, but there is no data to indicate that this is causing any population decline.	eng
183900	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183900	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from three collections: the southwestern Gulf of California, Costa Rica, and the Galapagos Islands (Bedenbaugh 1988).	eng
183900	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This benthic species is found over muddy/sandy soft substrate at depths from 90 to 255 m.	eng
183900	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183900	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183901	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183901	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and from central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183901	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters along shores and in estuaries to depths of 30 m. According to Cooke (1992), <em>C. squamipinnis</em> is occasionally found in middle estuaries, mangroves and coastal lagoons. For example, in Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered an occasional visitor in one mangrove area (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994). It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.	eng
183901	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it is likely a common species throughout its range.	eng
183901	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is common in commercial and subsistance fisheries throughout its range. For example, it is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Vega 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté 2006), Panama.	eng
183902	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its range falls entire into the Cocos Island Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183902	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is known only from Cocos Island (Bussing 1990).	eng
183902	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known, and may inhabit deep rocky substrata from 90 to 150 m (Bussing 1990).	eng
183902	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is considered to be uncommon.	eng
183902	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is restricted to a small island where regional endemics may be threatened by localized stochastic threats including oceanographic environmental changes caused by ENSO and climate change events (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Although this deep-water species is unlikely to be threatened by ENSO and climate change events, more research is needed to determine if there are any threats to this poorly known and very restricted range species.	eng
183903	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution may be included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183903	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from central Baja California, throughout the Gulf of California (except in the northernmost region), to northernmost Peru.	eng
183903	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species lives on sandy, muddy, and shell substrata, feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995). This species is found from 45-160m.	eng
183903	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species is not common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183903	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183904	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183904	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Chiapas, Mexico to Peru, including the Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183904	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This costal, pelagic species (Collette, 2005) can be found in shallow waters and estuaries.	eng
183904	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is particularly common in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica and Panama Bay (Collette, 1995).	eng
183904	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183905	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183905	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific only near the Revillagigedo and Clipperton Islands (Robertson and Allen, 1996).	eng
183905	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This benthic species is found in shallow waters to 20m depth among rocks and sand (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).	eng
183905	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183905	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No major threats are known for this species. Although this species distribution is restricted to 5 islands within the two island groups, and lives in a relatively shallow water habitat, current or future ENSO/climate change events are not expected to affect this species or its habitat type in these areas (Glynn and Ault, 2000).	eng
183906	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183906	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the lower Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183906	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is found on sandy and muddy substrata, frequently in estuaries and inlets. It is found from 1-35m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Munroe <em>et al</em>. 1995).	eng
183906	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183906	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183907	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183907	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183907	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species inhabits rocky shores. It can also be found in barnacle and worm tubes in rocky and coral reef.	eng
183907	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183907	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183908	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls fully within the Cocos and Galapagos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183908	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is restricted to the Galapagos and Cocos Islands (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998), and possibly Malpelo Island.	eng
183908	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This benthic species inhabits sand and rubble substrate to depths of 200m.	eng
183908	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183908	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183909	conservation	Williams, J., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species may occur in one or two marine protected areas within its range.	eng
183909	distribution	Williams, J., 2009	This species is only known from a few localities around the northern town of Barquito, in Valparaiso, Chile.	eng
183909	habitat	Williams, J., 2009	This species is found on rocky bottoms to depths of 15m.	eng
183909	population	Williams, J., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species has been commonly collected, but in small numbers at each collection (J. Williams pers comm.).	eng
183909	threats	Williams, J., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183910	conservation	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183910	distribution	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific region, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California, Mexico to Peru.	eng
183910	habitat	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This coastal pelagic species forms schools is found near-shore in coastal areas  (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995; Whitehead, 1985).	eng
183910	population	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	This is the least abundant species of Opisthonema in the Eastern Pacific (Whitehead and Rodriguez-Sanchez, 1995; Whitehead, 1985).	eng
183910	threats	Cotto, A., Medina, E., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183911	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183911	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru.	eng
183911	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
183911	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183911	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183912	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. As this species has a very restricted range and is primarily found in near-shore areas and estuaries, more information is needed on number of locations, general abundance and severity of threats for this species.	eng
183912	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from southern Ecuador and northern Peru. The current range is based on historical records, and no recent specimens are known.	eng
183912	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is thought to inhabitat coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, entering brackish estuaries and river mouths.	eng
183912	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183912	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Merlen, G., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given its very restricted range, fishing and historic mangrove clearance are likely threats to this species and its habitat, as well as oil exploration and production in the area.	eng
183913	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
183913	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is distributed on the Eastern Pacific coast from northern Peru to Chile.	eng
183913	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species probably inhabits similar habitats to Sciaena deliciosa, and found over soft substrata.	eng
183913	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183913	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183914	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183914	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Pacific coast of Costa Rica (Bussing 1983).	eng
183914	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is found over soft sandy substrate on shallow beaches, estuaries and mangroves to a depth of four m.	eng
183914	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon within its range.	eng
183914	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted range and is dependent on shallow water, near-shore habitat. Extensive mangrove destruction and coastal development for urbanization, aquaculture and tourism throughout its range is a major threat for this species (Jiménez 1994). However, the percent of mangrove destruction and coastal development within its range and its corresponding effect on this species' population is unknown.<br/><br/>In addition, given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
183915	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no specific conservation measures for this species, although this species may be present in areas that contain mangrove habitat (WDPA 2006).	eng
183915	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183915	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species lives in intertidal sand substrate in bays, beaches and estuaries to depths of 6m, and generally in association with mangrove roots.	eng
183915	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species moderately common within its range in suitable habitat.	eng
183915	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	Major threats to this species are mangrove destruction for coastal development.	eng
183916	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183916	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Colombia, including Isla Gorgona and Cocos Island (Hoese and Reader 2001). However, this species' distribution is patchy as it exists only suitable habitat.	eng
183916	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species inhabits sandy-rubble substrate close to reefs to depths of 20 m. In Gorgona Island, Colombia (Rubio, 1986) this species was recorded frequent in coralline substrate.	eng
183916	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon in suitable habitat.	eng
183916	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect this species habitat.	eng
183917	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183917	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Ecuador and possibly northern Peru.	eng
183917	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species occurs inshore along sandy beaches and in tide streams, and also forms large schools in brackish river mouths. It is found as deep as 10m. Juveniles up to 7 cm occur on beaches and in bays, thereafter moving further from the shore.  It feeds by filtering phytoplankton and zooplankton, and it has a pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183917	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183917	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important in minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). There is a no targeted fishery for this species; it is used as bait.	eng
183918	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.  It is not known from any Marine Protected Areas.	eng
183918	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Central Pacific from Costa Rica to Panama (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995). Given its restricted range and shallow water sandy habitat, it is estimated that this species area of occupancy is less than 2000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
183918	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate to 30m depth, and feeds on mobile invertebrates.	eng
183918	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183918	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183919	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183919	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador.	eng
183919	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	This demersal species is found over sandy mud bottoms to depths of 60 m.	eng
183919	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is rare in the Gulf of California.	eng
183919	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183920	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183920	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Colombia (Walker and Bollinger 2001).	eng
183920	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species can be found over soft substrataa in coastal areas and in estuaries and mangrove swamps. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. This species is found from two to 40 m, typically in depths less than 18 m.	eng
183920	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183920	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183921	conservation	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183921	distribution	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California to Peru (excluding the Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala), including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183921	habitat	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	This reef-associated species is often seen in shallow water to depths of 25m. It feeds mainly at night on crustaceans and fishes (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).	eng
183921	population	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183921	threats	McCosker, J. and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183922	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183922	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from southern Baja and southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183922	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a pelagic fish that occurs in coastal waters, perhaps entering brackish water. It is found to 10m. It feeds mainly on small fishes (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).  This species inhabits inshore waters over soft substrata, sometimes entering estuaries, and it may feed on a variety of zooplankton.  It has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
183922	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183922	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for minor commercial fisheries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183923	conservation	Allen, G., Russell, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183923	distribution	Allen, G., Russell, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja and the Gulf of California, to northern Peru, including Cocos Island and the Galapagos archipelago.	eng
183923	habitat	Allen, G., Russell, B., 2007	This reef-associated species lives over sandy substrate with gravel and isolated reefs. Each individual functions first as a female but later changes to a male (Gomon 1995).	eng
183923	population	Allen, G., Russell, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommonly collected in small mesh trawls between El Salvador and Panama.	eng
183923	threats	Allen, G., Russell, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it has been caught in the open sea as by-catch of trawlers fishing for prawns and shrimps (Gomon 1995).	eng
183924	conservation	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
183924	distribution	Hastings, P., 2009	This species is known only from Peru north to Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador.	eng
183924	habitat	Hastings, P., 2009	This species inhabits subtidal rocky shores.	eng
183924	population	Hastings, P., 2009	There is no population informaiton available for this species.	eng
183924	threats	Hastings, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183925	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species is found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
183925	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This insular species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific with resident populations in the Galapagos and Cocos islands; and with other recorded sighting from the continental mainland at Panama, Ecuador, and northern Peru.	eng
183925	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species hovers just above the substrate in mixed areas of sand, gravel, and boulders. It buries in the sand at night (Humann and Deloach 1993). This species is found from 5-20m.	eng
183925	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183925	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
183926	conservation	Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183926	distribution	Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Morro Bay in central California, USA to the tip of Baja California, and in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183926	habitat	Findley, L., 2007	This species lives on shallow sand and mud substrate in coastal lagoons and estuaries, including mangroves to depths of 4m.	eng
183926	population	Findley, L., 2007	This species is moderately common in the majority of its range. It is less abundant where this species and its congener, Q. guaymasiae co-occur. In a mangrove swamp in La Paz Bay, Baja California, it was considered rare, with an occurrence frequency of 2% (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183926	threats	Findley, L., 2007	This shallow-water, near-shore species is threatened by coastal development and mangrove destruction, particularly by shrimp aquaculture in the Gulf of california.	eng
183927	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More information on this species' population, range, habitat requirements, and threats are needed.	eng
183927	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found along the coast of Costa Rica and Panama.	eng
183927	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is found along edges of slow moving rivers and streams near the fresh/salt water interface and farther upstream.	eng
183927	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon within its range, although this may be due to its cryptic nature.	eng
183927	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development may affect habitat quality.	eng
183928	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183928	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California to the tip of Baja California and in the Gulf of California, although it is absent from the southeastern Gulf (Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183928	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is found in deep nearshore areas over sand and sandy mud soft substrates to depths of 136m (Oda, 1991; Galván-Magaña <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
183928	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommon, at least in the Gulf of California, and most often caught in deeper waters.	eng
183928	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp trawling activities, but it usually lives in deeper water where the boats don't operate.	eng
183929	conservation	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
183929	distribution	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This species is present in the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Americas, mainly in tropical seas. In the western Atlantic it is found from from Belize to Brazil (Harrison 2002). In the eastern Pacific it is found from southern Baja California (probably excluding the Gulf of California) to Ecuador.	eng
183929	habitat	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This demersal species inhabits coastal marine and estuarine areas, and tends to occur over sandy and muddy substrata. It may be found over rocky substrate. It is found to 10 m.	eng
183929	population	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. In general, this species is not considered to be uncommon, but is less common than other Mugilidae species.	eng
183929	threats	Harrison, I., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
183930	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes many of the Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183930	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from southern California and the central Gulf of California to Ecuador, and includes the Revillagigedos and the Galapagos  islands.	eng
183930	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a reef-associated and uncommon species (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999) though it has a wide distribution.  It inhabits rocky areas of shallow waters, feeding on small fishes and benthic invertebrates.  This species is viviparous and has pelagic larvae. This species is known from 5 to 20m but may be found in shallower waters.	eng
183930	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is an uncommon species. It lives in crevices in rocky reef and is difficult to collect. No population data is available for this species.	eng
183930	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183931	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183931	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific  extends from central California to Peru (at least to Callao), including the Gulf of California (Watson and Sandknop 1996).	eng
183931	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	This is a schooling species found in coastal waters to 10 m. It forms dense schools along shores and estuarine areas with salinities slightly lower than that of fully marine waters. This species feeds on planktonic crustaceans (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is oviparous, with planktonic eggs and larvae (Watson and Sandknop 1996).	eng
183931	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183931	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. This species is important for subsistence fisheries and is utilized as bait (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183932	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183932	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from northern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northernmost Peru.	eng
183932	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common in coastal waters less than 20m depth and enters coastal lagoons and fresh water. It feeds on crustaceans, small fishes, polychaetes, and occasionally detritus. It has pelagic eggs and larvae (Krupp, 1995). This species is found from 1-55m.	eng
183932	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183932	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183933	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution is included in some Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region. More information about the population structure for this species is needed.	eng
183933	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This wastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California, and the Gulf of California (excluding the northernmost region), to northern Peru.	eng
183933	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species inhabits soft substrata over a depth range of 23-233m.  It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes.	eng
183933	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a common species within its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183933	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species has minor commercial importance. It is caught with trawls and utilized fresh or as fishmeal (Hensley 1995).	eng
183934	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. The species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Central America.  However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas such as coastal areas with soft substrata. Marine Protected Areas are an important conservation tool, especially for endemic species, and more research (spatial analysis) is needed to design MPA boundaries so that the highest biodiversity and endemism is protected.	eng
183934	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from the Fonseca Gulf to Panama (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183934	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species occurs along sandy shores forming large schools.  It is found at depths to 10 m. It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Whitehead 1985, Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988, Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
183934	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species. It can be very rare in Costa Rica.	eng
183934	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/Global warming may have fatal effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of any regional endemic species in any coastal habitats. This species is bycatch in Panamanian shrimp trawling activities (Medina pers. comm.).	eng
183935	conservation	Chao, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183935	distribution	Chao, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru with one record from northern Chile during an El Niño year.	eng
183935	habitat	Chao, L., 2007	This demersal species is found along sandy shores and bays to depths of 30m. It can also be found in estuaries. It feeds mainly on marine worms and other benthic invertebrates.	eng
183935	population	Chao, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183935	threats	Chao, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183936	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in Costa Rica.	eng
183936	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is found from El Salvador to Costa Rica.	eng
183936	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	This is a reef-associated fish that inhabits rocky crevices, feeds on small fishes and benthic invertebrates, and is viviparous (Møller <em>et al</em>. 2005). This species is found from 0-18m.	eng
183936	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183936	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., Robertson, R., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.	eng
183937	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. While present in the Galápagos Marine Protected Area (Roca <em>et al.</em> 2003), better enforcement of zone regulations is required to adequately safeguard these Galápagos endemic species.	eng
183937	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and only known from the Galápagos archipelago, with an unconfirmed record from Clipperton Atoll. However, current taxonomy shows this species to have a disjunct distribution involving Galápagos, Clipperton and Gulf of California populations, and more research is required to validate this species' taxonomy and distribution.	eng
183937	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This demersal species can be found on sand and gravel substrate in coastal waters (Eschmeyer 1998). <em>Orthopristis</em> species are commonly found on sand near reefs.	eng
183937	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183937	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	No major threats are known to this species. However, given its restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, future oceanographic environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming, destruction of mangroves or estuaries, and coastal development may have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems and the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004). Populations of haemulid species (<em>Orthopristis</em> spp., <em>Anisotremus interruptus</em> and <em>A. scapularis</em>, <em>Haemulon scudderi</em>) declined less than 50% during 1997/98 El Niño, but populations recovered over the subsequent two year period.	eng
183938	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species region-wide distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183938	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183938	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This is a reef-associated species found on reefs and soft substrata near beaches and estuaries to 70m. It actively hunts at night, preying on small fish.	eng
183938	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This species relatively common.	eng
183938	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183939	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on threats to this species population and habitat status.	eng
183939	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in less than five locations in Panama (including the Tuyra estuary, Parita Bay, and the Gulf of Montijo), with its range only possibly extending northward to Costa Rica. Given that it is only known from less than five mangrove and estuarine areas in Panama, its area of occupancy is estimated to be well below 2,000 km².	eng
183939	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	This demersal species is found in fresh and brackish waters to depths of 20 m, mangroves, river mouths and in the middle parts of rivers. It can be found in rivers up to 30 km from the sea (Cooke and Tapia 1994).	eng
183939	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Where found, this species is common in rivers in central Panama (Cooke and Tapia 1994).	eng
183939	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., 2007	Coastal development, river and coastal pollution, and mangrove extraction are major threats throughout its restricted range.	eng
183940	conservation	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183940	distribution	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific from Baja California and the lower 2/3 Gulf of California to Chile; and all the oceanic islands except Clipperton. (Chirichigno 1974).	eng
183940	habitat	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species that inhabits crevices and ledges of weed-covered rocky and coral reefs. It is found to 160m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupuses, cuttlefish, squid, and bony fishes (Robertson <em>et al</em>. 2006).	eng
183940	population	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is considered to be common, but not abundant, in Coco island and Guanacaste province (Costa Rica).	eng
183940	threats	Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183941	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Loreto Bay Marine National Park, Cabo Pulmo Marine National Park, and Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
183941	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution. It is found in southern California, USA and northern Baja California, Mexico and in the western and north-eastern Gulf of California.	eng
183941	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal species inhabits worm tubes on sand-rubble substrate adjacent to reefs.	eng
183941	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered common in the Gulf of California.	eng
183941	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, other than it has an intrinsically restricted and disjunct range.	eng
183942	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.  Further research is needed to determine whether or not there are any threats affecting this species.	eng
183942	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern tropical Pacific.  It is distributed over eastern Pacific insular locations specifically the Revillagigedos, Cocos, and Galapagos islands. Along the mainland, this species has a very restricted geographic range and is only known from around the tip of Baja California.	eng
183942	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species inhabits sand or gravel substrata in shallow waters. This species is found from one to 75 m.	eng
183942	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a rare species. There is no population information for this species.	eng
183942	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
183943	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls within the Galápagos Islands and Malpelo Island National Parks and UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WDPA 2006).	eng
183943	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Galápagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183943	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This reef-associated species occurs in a wide range of habitats to depths of 25 m, from boulder strewn slopes and rocky reefs to ledges and undercuts along wall faces (Humann and Deloach 1993).	eng
183943	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is considered common, and is the most abundant member of its genus in the Galápagos. The overall mean abundance for the species in Galapagos island was 2.55 (per 500 m²) (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
183943	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183944	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183944	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja California to Panama.	eng
183944	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy substrate.	eng
183944	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183944	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183945	conservation	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is found in at least one protected area (Lake Budi in Chile has a protected area status). However, within this area native people are permitted to catch this species (Melendez-Cortes pers. comm.). More research is needed on its taxonomy, as well as the impact of current fishing efforts and coastal development on this species' population.	eng
183945	distribution	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is known from Budi Lake and Laguna Torca in south and central Chile (Kong and Valdez 1990). However, the range may be larger than this because <em>Micropogonias</em> typically migrates along coasts and into estuaries.	eng
183945	habitat	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is found in shallow coastal lagoons to depths of 20 m. No other information is available on habitat and ecology. <em>Micropogonias</em> typically migrates along coasts and into estuaries, although this species has only been collected from two lagoons in central Chile.	eng
183945	population	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. However, catches of this species were 19 t in 2005, 25 t in 2006, and then dropped to two t in 2007, and three t in 2008. However, no effort data is available to better understand this drop in catch (Servicio National de Pesca Chile, 2009).	eng
183945	threats	Melendez, R., Chao, L., 2009	This species is threatened by overfishing from artisinal fisheries (there has been a continuous local fishery for this species in Budi for over 50 years), and contamination of coastal lagoons caused by human activities such as tourism.	eng
183946	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183946	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the eastern Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183946	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow areas to depths of 20m, but is not common in brackish waters with low salinity. It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates.	eng
183946	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183946	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries.	eng
183947	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183947	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, ranging from Costa Rica to Peru.	eng
183947	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species inhabits mud and sand substrate to depths of 120 m.	eng
183947	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is abundant within suitable habitat. However, it is known mostly from trawls, and numbers in some areas may have declined due to heavy shrimp trawling activities.	eng
183947	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known to this deep-water species. However, shrimp trawling in some regions of its range may threaten this species, especially in areas of high activity. For example, this fish is commonly caught by trawlers in Panama Bay as bycatch (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183948	conservation	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183948	distribution	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos, Malpelo, Galapagos and Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183948	habitat	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species is found in inshore reef areas over hard substrate to depths of at least 60m. It is tolerant of freshwater (Bussing, 1998), and juveniles are common in estuaries. For example, only small individuals were captured in mangrove areas in the Gulf of Montijo, which suggests that this area is mostly used for breeding and reproduction (Vega, 2004).	eng
183948	population	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>The mean abundance of the species in Galapagos Island was 0.44 individuals / 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004). In Gorgona Island, Colombia, the annual density was 0.693 (no./ 10 m<sup>2</sup>), and the frequency of observation was 36.4% (Zapata and Morales, 1997).	eng
183948	threats	Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	The loss of mangroves throughout its range from coastal development may also negatively impact the availability and quality of nursery areas for juveniles of this species.	eng
183949	conservation	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the Tres Marias are designated as the Islas Marias Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). There is a need for further survey work to determine the current distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and potential threats for this species.	eng
183949	distribution	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality at Isla San Juanito, in the Tres Marias Islands, Mexico (Rosenblatt and Parr 1969).	eng
183949	habitat	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species is poorly known, but was collected in a rocky coastal area at depths of 10 m.	eng
183949	population	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from the type locality.	eng
183949	threats	Hastings, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183950	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Revillagigedo Islands complex (WDPA 2006).	eng
183950	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Revillagigedo Islands in the eastern central Pacific (Bussing 1990).	eng
183950	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This reef-associated species lives in small recesses of rocky reefs, slopes and walls to depths of 20 m.	eng
183950	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183950	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183951	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183951	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from San Diego, California, USA to Peru, including the Gulf of California and the Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
183951	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is found in surface inshore areas and estuaries waters.	eng
183951	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species may be the most common inshore halfbeak in the Eastern Pacific. However, abundance of fish species collected in el Conchalito mangrove swamp, Baja California reported 1.09 individuals/ha during summer season, and it has also been described as a rare species (González-Acosta <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
183951	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183952	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has been recorded from several Marine Protected Areas, including Alto Gulfo Biosphere Reserve, Loreto Bay Marine National Park and Cabo Pulmo National Park (WDPA 2006).	eng
183952	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found off of southern Baja California and in the Gulf of California, Mexico.	eng
183952	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits shallow waters and in calm rocky areas (De La Cruz Agüero, 1997). It is primarily found in mollusk tubes and barnacles on rocky reefs.	eng
183952	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species may be locally common in suitable habitat.	eng
183952	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
183953	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183953	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the western Gulf of California, Mexico to eastern Panama, including the Clipperton, Cocos and Galapagos Islands. It is absent from Gulf of Tehuantepec and Guatemala.	eng
183953	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This reef-associated species is cryptic and inhabits rocky crevices in shallow water habitats. It feeds on benthic invertebrates and small fishes (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Allen and Robertson, 1994).	eng
183953	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183953	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183954	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183954	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to northern Peru.	eng
183954	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found in coastal waters to depths of 50 m. Juveniles enter estuaries and shallow bays. It feeds mainly on shrimps and fishes.	eng
183954	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is considered a common species.	eng
183954	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183955	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183955	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from a few historical records in the southwestern Gulf of California and around Guerrero, central Mexico.	eng
183955	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species in rocky and rubble areas to depths of 35 m.	eng
183955	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. The few specimens that are know were from collections before 1975.	eng
183955	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183956	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183956	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
183956	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal areas on sandy or muddy substrate, generally in estuaries near mangroves.	eng
183956	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered to be reasonably common, as it is often found in shallow trawl catches in Panama.	eng
183956	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183957	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183957	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found from Canada to Baja California, and the upper Gulf of California.	eng
183957	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is found in marine and brackish waters (Robertson and Allen 2002) down to depths of 26m. This species is commonly found in bays, muddy and rocky areas and kelp beds, and is also common in estuaries (Watson 1996). Adults feed on zooplankton (Lavenberg 1995), while juveniles feed on algae, kelp, and fly larvae (Fitch, J.E. and R.J. Lavenberg 1975).  Juvenile and adults will move into shallow waters and feed on the bottom (Emmett 1991). This fish is a demersal spawner in nearshore habitats (Shanks 2005) that is oviparous, with planktonic, primarily neustonic larvae (Watson 1996).  Eggs are benthic, larvae are planktonic, and juveniles and adults are schooling pelagic fish. Eggs are attached to spawning substrate and to one another by adhesive filaments (Watson 1996). Eggs are laid primarily on eelgrass (Zostera spp.) and adhere to macroalgae on tidal flats.  Larvae are often found over soft, unconsolidated sediments and other substrates.  Juveniles and adults occur along sandy beaches, in kelp beds, over rocky reefs, and around piers (Emmett 1991).	eng
183957	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	It is considered to be a common species.	eng
183957	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Smith-Vaniz, B.,  Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. However, this species is found in commercial fisheries and is also taken by sport fishermen.	eng
183958	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183958	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and has a disjunct distribution. It is found in the southwestern Gulf of California, in southern Mexico, and from El Salvador to southern Panama (Bussing 1990).	eng
183958	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species is poorly known, is associated with subtidal rocky reefs, and has been found at depths from 5 to 32 m.	eng
183958	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rare and only known from a few specimens.	eng
183958	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183959	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether the species occurs in any protected areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status of the species.	eng
183959	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the type locality in Esmeraldas, Ecuador and three collecting localities in Colombia (USMS-Smithsonian collections: 00299956, 00299952, 00299955).	eng
183959	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species has been found in tide pools and shallow rocky habitat to depths of 10 m.	eng
183959	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. Although described from only two specimens collected from a tide pool (Springer and Rosenblatt 1965), additional specimens from the type locallity have since been located. There are also three specimens in USNM collections collected in 1969 and 1970.	eng
183959	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183960	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183960	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from the Gulf of California to Panama. However, this species is only known from a few records, and this distribution needs to be verified.	eng
183960	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This benthic species it thought to inhabit nearshore soft substrate to depths of 10 m.	eng
183960	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information for this species, it is only known from a few records.	eng
183960	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
183961	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species.	eng
183961	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Clipperton Atoll in assocation with its four km² area of reefs, and therefore has an estimated area of occupancy of less than 10 km².	eng
183961	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species inhabits coral reefs and associated calcareous rock habitat (Allen 1991) to depths of 100 m. It is omnivorous, feeds on benthic microalgae, sessile crustacea and worms and mobile benthic crustacea.	eng
183961	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this species was relatively commonly at the Clipperton Atoll.	eng
183961	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.<br/><br/>However, this species is found in deeper waters and declines for this species may not be as severe as for other more shallow-water species.	eng
183962	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. This species does not fall within existing Marine Protected Areas. However, it is recommended that current and future Marine Protected Areas should be designed to include mangrove habitat and to protect marine, freshwater and estuarine species dependent upon them for breeding and feeding, etc.	eng
183962	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from Costa Rica to Ecuador (McCosker and Rosenblatt 1995).	eng
183962	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species inhabits sandy, muddy substrate of shallow waters to depths of 10 m. Although the biology of this species is poorly known, the adults are known to inhabit mangroves, and are also often associated with non-marine wetlands.The diversity and abundance of this species in its mangrove habitat is dependent on food availablity and environmental fluctuations caused by climatic and hydrologic variations (Rojas <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Generation length is not known for this species, but is estimated to be at least 5-7 years, as many eels are considered to have a life span of at least 20 years.	eng
183962	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183962	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	In many parts of the Eastern Tropical Pacific, mangrove habitats are threatened by extraction, destruction from coastal development, and oceanographic and environmental changes such as ENSO/global warming. It is estimated that between 1960 and 1988 at least 43% of mangroves on the Pacific coast of Panama have been lost (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996). Between 1976 and 1989, at least 65% of mangroves were removed in Colombia, and between 1966 and 1989, at least 80% of mangroves were removed from the coast of Ecuador (Mastaller 1996). Based on these same rates of loss, it is estimated that at least 25% of mangroves have been removed within this species' range over the past 10-15 years.	eng
183963	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no conservation measures known for this species. However, it is present in the Revillagigedo Islands Marine Protected Area (WPDA, 2006).	eng
183963	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found primarily in the Revillagigedos Islands, but has also been recorded from central Baja California, the Gulf of California, and off of central Mexico.	eng
183963	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species inhabits rocky reefs and coral areas (Allen 1991) to depths of 18 m.	eng
183963	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species can be locally abundant. For example, it is very abundant in the Revillagigedo Islands. In general, it is primarily an insular species, where it occurs abundantly, and is generally uncommon along the continental coast. An estimated 90% of its population (R. Robertson, pers comm) is confined to a single location in the Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
183963	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	Given its shallow-water, reef-associated habitat, and the estimation that 90% of its population is found in one location (Revillagigedo Islands), this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2,000 km2. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
183964	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More studies about the taxonomy and the population status for this species are needed.	eng
183964	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and along the southern coast of Mexico to Panama.	eng
183964	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This is a demersal species that lives over deep sandy and muddy substrata from 100-110 m. It feeds on mobile invertebrates and fishes, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Hensley 1995).	eng
183964	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
183964	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183965	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known species specific or general conservation measures.	eng
183965	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern Ecuador to Peru, and is found in the Galapagos and Malpelo islands. Also, it occurs in New Zealand (Paulin <em>et al.</em> 1989).	eng
183965	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This pelagic oceanodromous species is found along shore and in the open oceanic waters from 10-300 m. It forms schools. It feeds mainly on fish larvae and small crustaceans (Smith-Vaniz 1995). This species occurs in upwelling areas, and is migratory.	eng
183965	population	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.  Abundance is cyclical according to oceanographic conditions.	eng
183965	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B., Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	It is unknown if current levels of exploitation are causing widespread population decline.&#160; This is a targeted commercial species with 0.7-1.2 million metric tons harvested annually. Reported landings were 3,852,928 t in 1990,&#160; mainly from Chile and the USSR (each with more than 500,000 t). <br/><br/>It is marketed fresh (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It is utilized canned for human consumption and also made into fishmeal (Frimodt 1995).This species is typically caught in seines.	eng
183966	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
183966	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific, and is restricted to southern Ecuador and northern Peru.	eng
183966	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. Based on knowledge of closely related species, this demersal species likely inhabits rocky and coral reefs.	eng
183966	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
183966	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183967	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species distribution falls within a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). Increased monitoring is needed to determine the effect of shrimp and other trawling activities on this species population.	eng
183967	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central California, USA and the Gulf of California, Mexico to southern Peru.	eng
183967	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	This demersal species lives on sandy and muddy substrate in deep waters, feeding on fishes and invertebrates.	eng
183967	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183967	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., Bernal, O., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183968	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	Malpelo is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (WDPA 2006). It is a Special Sensitive Zone under the International Marine Organization. Given the extremely limited distribution of this species, the species requires close population monitoring.	eng
183968	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Malpelo Island, and has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².	eng
183968	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits empty barnacles and worm or mollusc tubes on shallow rocky reefs.	eng
183968	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered to be locally common.	eng
183968	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species. In addition, this species' unique shallow water habitat may be threatened by increases in tourism and coastal development on Malpelo Island.	eng
183969	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures in place for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the northeastern Pacific region. More information/research about the life history, ecology, population size and trend, and possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.	eng
183969	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a northeast Pacific temperate species. The geographic range extends from Oregon to the Gulf of California.	eng
183969	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is demersal, inhabitating offshore waters. It is oviparous with pelagic eggs and larvae, and it feeds on zooplankton. It is found from 10-300 m.	eng
183969	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The species is considered common where it occurs.	eng
183969	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There are no known commercial uses for this species but it can be found in fisheries as bycatch.	eng
183970	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
183970	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru. There are also records of specimens off the central west coast of Baja California and southern California, USA.	eng
183970	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This benthic shelf species is found to depths of up to 650 m. However, juveniles are common on reefs (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183970	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is not considered to be rare. No other population information is available for this species.	eng
183970	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is important in commercial fisheries. In Ecuador, Colombia and northern Peru, there is a dedicated fishery for this species. In other areas, it is occasionally caught in other artesian fisheries or as by-catch (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999). In Colombia, this species is the largest in size and the most important to fisheries from the genus, as it can reach more than one m in length and eight kg in weight (Franke and Acero 1995). Based on fisheries institute reports and observation, populations in South America have been rapidly declining due to increased fishing pressure over the past 15 years.	eng
183971	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183971	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to northern Peru.  One specimen was reportedly captured near Channel Islands off Santa Barbara in southern California, USA (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
183971	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy mud bottoms of trawling grounds to depths of 200m.	eng
183971	population	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	This species is common in many parts of its range, such as in the Gulf of California.	eng
183971	threats	van der Heiden, A., Cotto, A., Rojas, P., Bearez, P., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It occasionally occurs in bycatch of shrimp trawling in the Gulf of California.	eng
183972	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183972	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This species is endemic to the eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and Gulf of California to southern Peru.	eng
183972	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This benthopelagic species inhabits coastal waters and penetrates estuaries (Smith-Vaniz 1995) to 30m. This species is most commonly found in shallow, near-shore beaches.	eng
183972	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183972	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/>This species is incidentally caught. It is an important commercial fish in Golfo de Montijo, Panama (Vega 2004). It is marketed fresh and salted or dried (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
183973	conservation	van der Heiden, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183973	distribution	van der Heiden, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
183973	habitat	van der Heiden, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found on sand-mud substrate of shallow coastal seas. It can sometimes be found in estuaries, but prefers marine habitat.	eng
183973	population	van der Heiden, A., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is fairly common in the Gulf of California and Nicaragua. However, it has not been observed in Colombia or Ecuador. It is present but not common in the Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica (Rojas 2001).	eng
183974	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183974	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Ecuador to northern Peru.	eng
183974	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on zooplankton.	eng
183974	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183974	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183975	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.	eng
183975	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, ranging from El Salvador to northern Peru (Birdsong, 1981).	eng
183975	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits mangroves streams and channels with mud substrata to depths of 6m.(Birdsong, 1981).	eng
183975	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is moderately common in suitable habitat.	eng
183975	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.	eng
183976	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183976	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183976	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky and coral reefs from 25 to 250m.  It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans and bony fishes.	eng
183976	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is not considered common, but is cryptic and may be overlooked. For example, it is considered rare in Malpelo Island. It may be more abundant at greater depths. For example, it is considered common between 50 and 100 m at Clipperton Island (Robertson, pers comm 2007).	eng
183976	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Because it is a deep-water species, it is unlikely that collection for the aquarium trade is a threat to this species.	eng
183977	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183977	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern Los Angeles Harbor, California, USA, to Paita, Peru (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002), although being relatively rare north of Baja California, Mexico. The record from off Paita, Peru, was based on a single juvenile specimen (Motomura <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
183977	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries, on sand and mud bottom (Schneider 1995) to depths of 20 m. It is also found along sandy beaches (Motomura 2004) and sand-mud bottoms of bays and river mouths. This fish seems to be regularly observed in middle estuaries and mangroves (Cooke 1992). It feeds on mobile benthic invertebrates (Robertson and Allen 2006).	eng
183977	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	This species can be locally common.<br/><br/>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be abundant in sandy bottoms while occasional in coralline and rocky bottoms.	eng
183977	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is an esteemed food fish in the eastern tropical Pacific (Motomura 2004). In addition, local populations may potentially be affected by mangrove clearing, pollution and estuary development.	eng
183978	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region.	eng
183978	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the western Gulf of California to western Panama, including the Galapagos and Cocos Island.	eng
183978	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This demersal species lives on soft substrata at depths of 75 to 265m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octupus, squid, cuttlefishes, and bony fishes.	eng
183978	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183978	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183979	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into at least one Marine Protected Area in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006). This species is best protected in the small coral reef area at Cabo Pulmo Baja California Sur.	eng
183979	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is known only from the tip of Baja California, the Tres Marias Islands, and central Mexico (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). Its distribution is disjunct and poorly known.	eng
183979	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species can be found in tidepools and in subtidal areas of rocky and coral reef shores.	eng
183979	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species. This species is uncommon within its range.	eng
183979	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species' habitat may be threatened by localised construction in coastal areas for urbanisation and tourism.	eng
183980	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183980	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California, USA and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to central Peru, including the Revillagigedo, Cocos, Malpelo and Galapagos Islands.	eng
183980	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef-associated species lives in empty tube-worm snail shells, often extending the head from the opening. It feeds by joining loose groups of look-alike rainbow wrasse and darting out to nip at nearby fish, taking mucus and perhaps small bits of flesh (Humann and Deloach, 1993). The skin of larger fishes is the mainstay of the diet, although they are also known to eat eggs (Grove and Lavenberg, 1997).	eng
183980	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered common in most parts of its range. In the Galapagos, the mean abundance for the species  was 11 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). In Costa Rica and near Gorgona Island, Colombia, however, this species has been found to have a lower occurence and density (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005; Espinoza and Salas, 2005; Mora and Zapata, 2004).	eng
183980	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183981	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. Given that this species is found in brackish waters in muddy burrows, it is not well known and more information is needed on this species ecology and potential threats.	eng
183981	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern El Salvador to Peru.	eng
183981	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits brackish tidal rivers, estuaries and fresh water, and is often found in muddy burrows.	eng
183981	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon throughout its range.	eng
183981	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183982	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region. More research is needed to determine the complete distribution, habitat, ecology, population size and population trends of this species.	eng
183982	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	The geographic range of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from the Gulf of Fonseca to northern Peru, and also reachs Malpelo island.	eng
183982	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This fish lives over soft substrata, feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae. It is found from 90-310 m.	eng
183982	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
183982	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species has no major threats. This species is found in commercial fisheries and is used as fish meal.	eng
183983	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.	eng
183983	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from El Salvador to northern Peru (Birdsong 1981).	eng
183983	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is restricted to mud substrate and brackish waters in mangroves channels to depths of six m.	eng
183983	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is moderately common within its specific habitat.	eng
183983	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species' habitat.	eng
183984	conservation	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183984	distribution	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to Colombia.	eng
183984	habitat	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits shallow coastal waters (Chao, 1995) to depths of 20m. According to Cooke (1992) , it  occurs regularly in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. For example, in Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica, this fish was considered to be transient or an occasional visitor in two mangroves areas (Rojas <em>et al.</em> 1994).	eng
183984	population	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is moderately common throughout its range.	eng
183984	threats	Chao, L., Robertson, R., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered important for artisenal fishing in many parts of its range, and is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp fisheries in the Gulf of California.	eng
183985	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183985	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southwestern and central eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including all the offshore Islands.	eng
183985	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This reef-associated species is found in reefs subjected to surges, generally to depths of 65 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish was found in the zone of madreporic branching coral (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
183985	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	This species is moderately common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 0.59 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was not found in surveys at Gulf of Papagayo (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), Gulf Dulce (Figueroa 2001) or Catalinas Island (Espinoza and Salas 2005), in Costa Rica. According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>T. grammaticum</em> is a rare species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency below 10%. <br/><br/>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered abundant — more than 5% of the overall abundance registered — with a relative frequency between 75-100% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). At Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Zapata and Morales 1997), this species is less abundant, with a density of 0.0007 (±0.007) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 1.2%. According to Robertson and Allen (1996), this fish was commonly collected and apparently abundant enough to have a resident population at Clipperton Atoll.	eng
183985	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., Pollard, D., Cabanban, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
183986	conservation	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183986	distribution	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
183986	habitat	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This demersal species is found inshore, usually on muddy bottoms, to depths of 20m. It also enters estuaries and mangrove areas (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183986	population	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	This species in abundant in many parts of its range.	eng
183986	threats	Cooke, R., Acero, A., Betancur, R., Rojas, P., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. It is important in commercial fisheries, and is marketed fresh, but many times is sold under the name of other more socially acceptable, higher-priced species such as sciaenids "corvinata" (Cooke, 1993). It has been used as a subsistence fishery since pre-columbian times (Cooke, 1992).	eng
183987	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
183987	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is only known from the type locality thought to be in northwestern of Gulf of California.	eng
183987	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is poorly known.	eng
183987	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is only known from one collection locality, which may be erroneous.	eng
183987	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183988	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183988	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
183988	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This is a benthic fish that inhabits sandy bottoms to depths of 145m.	eng
183988	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is no available population information for this species. However, it is a common species throughout its range.	eng
183988	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known to this species, especially as it prefers deeper waters.	eng
183989	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183989	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Jalisco, Mexico, to northern Peru.	eng
183989	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and bays to depths of 20m. It feeds on worms, crustaceans and mollusks.	eng
183989	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183989	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183990	conservation	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
183990	distribution	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	Among the species of <em>Exocoetus</em> this species has the most limited distribution. It occurs in only a small zone in the southeastern part of the tropical eastern Pacific from Ecuador to southern Peru (Parin and Shakhovskoy 2000).	eng
183990	habitat	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	It is an oceanic pelagic species. It is found at depths to five m.	eng
183990	population	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	This species was recently described and is known from about 50 specimens. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
183990	threats	Collette, B., Carpenter, K., 2008	There are no known threats.	eng
183991	conservation	Findley, L., Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Cotto, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183991	distribution	Findley, L., Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from British Columbia to the lower Gulf of California to central Peru, including all the oceanic islands except the Clipperton Islands.	eng
183991	habitat	Findley, L., Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Cotto, A., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate (Schneider and Krupp, 1995), but can also be found over soft sand and mud substrate.	eng
183991	population	Findley, L., Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Cotto, A., 2007	This species is common in some parts of its range. For example, it is considered common in Malpelo at deeper depths, but is uncommon in Nicaragua and in the Gulf of California.	eng
183991	threats	Findley, L., Bessudo, S., Acero, A., Cotto, A., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this species is heavily fished in the Gulf of California in sport and commercial fisheries and is also regularly taken in shrimp bycatch.	eng
183992	conservation	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183992	distribution	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to central Peru, including the Galapagos Islands.	eng
183992	habitat	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species inhabits sand substrate adjacent to reefs, and also enters brackish estuaries.  It may occur in small aggregations (Randall and Vergara, 1978).	eng
183992	population	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is common in Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Mexico.	eng
183992	threats	Cotto, A., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183993	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183993	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, but the northern and southern limits of its distribution have not been resolved. In some reports, it is found from Santa Ana in southern California, USA, to Panama (Watson 1996), including the Cocos Islands. Past records have reported this species from Peru and the Galapagos Islands (Chirichigno 1974), while more recent reports place this species southern limit near Mazatlan, Mexico (Collette 1995).	eng
183993	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This is a coastal pelagic species. Adults are found near shore, frequently in coastal bays at or near the surface. This species often forms small schools and occasionally enters fresh waters (Collette 1995).	eng
183993	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There is nothing known about this species' population status or trends.	eng
183993	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, since it is a nearshore species that penetrates fresh waters, it may be threatened by coastal development and pollution.	eng
183994	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
183994	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific, from southern California through the Gulf of California to Peru, and all the oceanic islands.	eng
183994	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is reef-associated, inhabiting reef crevices at depths to 50m. It is found in cracks, crevices, under ledge overhangs, and other recesses on rocky reefs, steep slopes, and especially on walls.  Small individuals often stay near the protective spines of long spined urchin, (Humann and Deloach 1993).	eng
183994	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is considered to be common.  There is no population information for this species.	eng
183994	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.	eng
183995	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183995	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southwestern Baja California and the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
183995	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This demersal is found in shallow water to depths of 20 m, and can enter mangrove and estuarine areas. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
183995	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species. <br/><br/>In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured once within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
183995	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
183996	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183996	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Nayarit, Mexico to central Peru.	eng
183996	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This demersal species inhabits coastal waters and estuaries with high salinities to depths of 30 m. It feeds on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans.	eng
183996	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183996	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is considered important for commercial fishing in Gulf of Montijo (Veg, 2004) as well as in Pacifico de Veraguas (Maté 2006), Panama. Is also important for sport fishing (D'Croz <em>et al.</em> 1994). It is also likely common in the subsistence fisheries and caught as by-catch through shrimp trawling activity.	eng
183997	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
183997	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Ecuador.	eng
183997	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	This demersal species is found in shallow water to depths of 20m, but is not common in estuaries with low salinities. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.	eng
183997	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
183997	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch and can be found in local markets.	eng
183998	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
183998	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found from the Gulf of California to Tres Marias Islands, Mexico (Lea 1995).	eng
183998	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and sand-mud substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
183998	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
183998	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
183999	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	It is not known whether the species occurs in any Marine Protected Areas. There is a need for further survey work to determine the current population status and distribution of the species, as well as to better understand its habitat preferences.	eng
183999	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, where it is only known from two collections: the Gulf of Guayaquil, Ecuador (Briggs 1969), and around Buenaventura, Colombia (USNM collections). It has not been collected since 1970.	eng
183999	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is poorly known. The limited information available from collecting localities suggests it is associated with mangroves.	eng
183999	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is known only from the original description, a series of eight specimens collected four decades ago (Briggs 1969), and two subsequent collections in 1969 and 1970.	eng
183999	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	Major threats for this species are unknown. However, given this species' apparent association with mangroves, it is likely threatened by habitat loss from coastal development and extraction of mangroves throughout its restricted range.	eng
184000	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species.  However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184000	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The distribution of this species in eastern Pacific extends from El Salvador to Ecuador and probably farther south to northern Peru (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
184000	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This species occurs in coastal waters to 10m.  Studies in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, mention that it is confined to the inner parts, thus apparently tolerating lowered salinities with a preferred tropical climate. (Whitehead <em>et al</em>. 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995)  It feeds on zooplankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
184000	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species. It is common in Costa Rica.	eng
184000	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.<br/>There are no major commercial uses for this species at present. This species is of potential interest for fisheries (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1988; Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
184001	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls within the Revillagigedos Islands Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006).	eng
184001	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Revillagigedo Islands.	eng
184001	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits shallow and rocky areas to depths of 10 m.	eng
184001	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184001	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
184002	conservation	Acero, P., Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no conservation measures for this species.	eng
184002	distribution	Acero, P., Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to Gorgona Island, Colombia in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (Acero 1981).	eng
184002	habitat	Acero, P., Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This species is poorly known, but probably lives in deep rocky reefs (Acero 1981).	eng
184002	population	Acero, P., Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	This cryptic species is only known from the holotype specimen.	eng
184002	threats	Acero, P., Van Tassell, J., Findley, L., 2007	There are no major threats known for this deep-water species.	eng
184003	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the majority of this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184003	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This tropical eastern Pacific species is primarily found around the oceanic islands and from scattered records along the coasts of Costa Rica and western Panama.	eng
184003	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	This pelagic species is found near oceanic islands, and generally forms large schools (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It is found to 25m.	eng
184003	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally common.	eng
184003	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2008	There are no region-wide major threats for this species.	eng
184004	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	The Galápagos Islands are protected as a National Park, and designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range. One possible mitigation measure to limit the effects of anchor damage to reef habitat is the use of buoys to provide mooring for boats.	eng
184004	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands.	eng
184004	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits worm tubes on sand and rubble substrate to depths of 30 m. Males are territorial and vigorously defend their worm tube homes.	eng
184004	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species can be common in the right habitat, but is not considered abundant.	eng
184004	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species has a restricted distribution and shallow water habitat. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species’ restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
184005	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
184005	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California, Mexico to northern Peru (Lea 1995).	eng
184005	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate (Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
184005	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184005	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184006	conservation	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184006	distribution	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is found in the tropical eastern Pacific ranging from southern California to the mouth of the Gulf of California to northern Peru, and the Galapagos.	eng
184006	habitat	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is bathydemersal. It is found on soft substrata and also in estuarine areas. It is found from 15-600 m. It feeds on cephalapods as well as bony fishes.	eng
184006	population	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
184006	threats	Robertson, R., Collette, B., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184007	conservation	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184007	distribution	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This species is found in the eastern central Pacific from the southern and central Gulf of California to Puerto Utria, Colombia, including the Revillagigedo Islands and Cocos Island (Watson, 1996).	eng
184007	habitat	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This reef-associated species forms small schools in shallow bays and near coastal reefs (Lavenberg and Chernoff, 1995).  It is oviparous, with planktonic larvae (Watson, 1996).  Eggs are presumably attached to spawning substrate via adhesive filaments (Watson, 1996).	eng
184007	population	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This species is relatively common throughout most of its range.	eng
184007	threats	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184008	conservation	Collette, B., 2008	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
184008	distribution	Collette, B., 2008	This species is present in the tropical eastern Pacific from the tip of Baja and the mouth of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all offshore oceanic islands.	eng
184008	habitat	Collette, B., 2008	This species is epipelagic in oceanic waters to 5m depth. It may leap out of the water and glide for considerable distances above the surface.	eng
184008	population	Collette, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184008	threats	Collette, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184009	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184009	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to Colombia.	eng
184009	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found in shallow rocky and coral areas to depths of 20 m.	eng
184009	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
184009	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184010	conservation	Collette, B., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184010	distribution	Collette, B., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from southern Baja California and the western Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Galapagos and Malpelo islands.	eng
184010	habitat	Collette, B., 2008	This pelagic species is epipelagic in neritic coastal waters to 5m. It is capable of leaping and gliding considerable distances above the surface.	eng
184010	population	Collette, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184010	threats	Collette, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184011	conservation	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
184011	distribution	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and northeastern Gulf of California (Hoese and Larson 1985).	eng
184011	habitat	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	This cryptic species inhabits rocky shores from the intertidal zone to deeper areas up to 32 m. The species is commonly found in rocky areas with extensive to considerable algal cover. It can also sometimes be found under sponges (Hoese and Larson 1985).	eng
184011	population	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184011	threats	Findley, L., Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this restricted-range species. However, localized threats from coastal development and construction for tourism and urbanization may occur in some parts of its range.	eng
184012	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006), including Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary and Galapagos Island National Park.	eng
184012	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Baja California to the western Gulf of California and from central Mexico to Colombia, including the Galapagos, Revillagigedo and Malpelo Islands.	eng
184012	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This is a benthic species that inhabits sandy substrate.	eng
184012	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, although it is commonly collected.	eng
184012	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
184013	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184013	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to Panama.	eng
184013	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits flat sand substrate to 40m, and is cryptic.	eng
184013	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon within its range.	eng
184013	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184014	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184014	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and from El Salvador to Costa Rica.	eng
184014	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This demersal, reef associated species inhabits empty invertebrate shelters along shallow coastal rocky areas, especially those characterized by boulders.	eng
184014	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184014	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, given this species' very shallow depth range, it may be locally impacted by El Niño events and associated climatic changes in some parts of its range.	eng
184015	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region.	eng
184015	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern tropical Pacific from Colombia to northern Peru, Cocos, Malpelo and the Galapagos. Studies in El Parque Gorgona, Colombia, show a presence of this species in the area. (Franke and Acero 1996)	eng
184015	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This is a demersal species found in sandy substrata. It is found from 50m to 110m. It feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans, octopuses, squid, cuttlefish, and bony fishes.	eng
184015	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
184015	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.  More information/research about the possible environmental and human impacts that may affect its survival is needed.<br/><br/><br/>This species does not have commercial interest, it is captured using hooks and lines (Heemstra 1995).	eng
184016	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184016	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from California to southern Baja, and an isolated population in the central and northern Gulf of California.	eng
184016	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthopelagic, non-migratory species inhabits the intertidal region.  It can leave tide pools if aquatic conditions become inhospitable (Martin and Bridges, 1999). It is also found near or over rocks and in kelp beds up to about 30 m depth. It  can form dense schools in spring in kelp beds, and breathes air when it is out of water (Martin and Bridges, 1999).	eng
184016	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	The population is apparently stable in California, but in the Gulf of California, this species is considered rare.	eng
184016	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184017	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	There were no conservation measures known for this species. However, it was historically present in the Galápagos Islands Marine Protected Area. More survey work in other potential areas, such as the Los Lobos Islands in Peru, is needed to determine if this species has survived outside its historically known range.	eng
184017	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only found in the Galápagos Islands. However, there have been no recent sightings of this species. It has evidently disappeared from the Galápagos during the intense El Niño event of 1982-1983 (Grove 1985), when greatly increased sea temperatures had strong adverse effects on the islands marine fauna and flora. Its sister species, <em>A. hirundo</em> occurs in a similar environment, the Revillagigedos Islands, near the northern limit of the Eastern Tropical Pacific. It may be possible that populations of <em>A. eupalama</em> may still exist on islands off Peru that have warm temperate conditions, such as the Lobos Islands.	eng
184017	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This  species inhabits rocky inshore reefs to depths of 30 m, often in open water near drop-offs.	eng
184017	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	This species may already be extinct (Robertson and Allen 2006). It was considered 'occasional' in 1977, and prior to 1982-1983 El Niño event, was recorded from Floreana, Española, Isabela, Marchena, Santiago, San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Santa Fe Islands in the Galapagos Archepelego. Numbers of this species were greatly reduced during 1982-1983 El Niño (Grove 1985), and there have been no sightings since that time.	eng
184017	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, R.,Edgar, G., Merlen, G., Zapata, F., Barraza, E., 2008	Oceanographic environmental changes associated with the 1982/1983 El Niño event is presumably responsible for the apparent disappearance of this species from the Galápagos. The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g., the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and associated offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004).	eng
184018	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
184018	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern Pacific species is found from Costa Rica to northernmost Peru.	eng
184018	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This demersal species is found on soft substrata of shallow coastal areas (Bussing 1995). According to Cooke (1992), it may occasionally be found at middle regions of estuaries and in mangroves in Peru and Panama. It is found to 20m.	eng
184018	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is common within its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184018	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184019	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184019	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico to northern Peru.	eng
184019	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal, coastal species found over muddy and sandy bottoms to depths of 30m. It feeds on marine worms and other epibenthic invertebrates.	eng
184019	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. However, it can be locally abundant.	eng
184019	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. This species may be found in local markets.	eng
184020	conservation	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. It has been recorded from one Marine Protected Area in the Gulf of California: the Complejo Insular de Baja California Regiones Marines Prioritarias (WDPA 2006). There is a need for further research to determine the current population status, habitat requirements, and potential major threats for this species.	eng
184020	distribution	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found in the western and central eastern Gulf of California. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
184020	habitat	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is poorly known. It is demersal and inhabits empty mollusc shells on sand-rubble substrate.	eng
184020	population	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is considered to be very rare. It has been collected only sporadically, and is only known from a few specimens. However, it has been recorded as abundant in the San Jose Islands, in the Gulf of California.	eng
184020	threats	Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184021	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184021	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
184021	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This demersal species can be found over sandy or muddy substrate of coastal waters and in estuaries near mangroves.	eng
184021	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is common. In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, México, this fish was captured 8 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
184021	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184022	conservation	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). However, more information is needed to assess the extent of coastal development within its range, as well as its population and habitat status.	eng
184022	distribution	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from from southern Nicaragua to northern Peru.	eng
184022	habitat	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits rocky reefs covered with algae in shallow waters, including tide pools. It can also be found in barnacles and worm tubes.	eng
184022	population	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184022	threats	Bessudo, S., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Espinosa, H., Hastings, P., 2007	This shallow-water species has a restricted distribution and very narrow depth range. Localized stochastic events including future oceanographic environmental changes from ENSO and global warming events as well as coastal development may have detrimental effects on the survival of these shallow water regional endemic species (Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
184023	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184023	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern California and the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
184023	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	This benthic, demersal species can be found over soft substrate in coastal waters to depths of 72m.	eng
184023	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184023	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184024	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, the species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region. However, not all of the Marine Protected Areas have been considered to take action against major threats on the ecosystems.  Many tropical eastern Pacific species are found in habitats that are not currently protected within Marine Protected Areas as for example sand, mud and other areas with soft substrata.	eng
184024	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	The distribution of this species in the eastern Pacific extends from central Baja California to Peru, but is not present in the Gulf of California.	eng
184024	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	This is a demersal fish living over soft substrata, feeding on plankton, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae (Cohen 1990). It is found as deep as 330 m.	eng
184024	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	No population data is available for this species.	eng
184024	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., Bussing, W., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184025	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls entirely within the Marine Protected Area of the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island (WDPA 2006).	eng
184025	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found only in the Cocos and the Galápagos Islands.	eng
184025	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This benthopelagic species inhabits rocky shore and reefs to a depth of at least 18 m. It is a carnivore, feeding on mobile benthic crustaceans, worms and gastropods.	eng
184025	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.  A recent survey made in different sites at Galápagos archipelago (Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2004) did not report this species.	eng
184025	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Guzmán and Cortés 1992, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
184026	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. If the range is extended through synonymy with H. klausewitzi, then its distribution will overlap with the Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
184026	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific form the southwestern Gulf of California and central Mexico to Panama. If this species is synonymous with H. klausewitzi, then its range would extend south through Colombia including Galapagos, Malpelo and Cocos islands.	eng
184026	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal fish inhabits clean sand and feeds on zooplankton.	eng
184026	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
184026	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., Bernal, O., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184027	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
184027	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica and Colombia (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1998).	eng
184027	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species lives on benthic-soft substrate in deeper waters from 100 to 240m.	eng
184027	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
184027	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184028	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The Revillagigedo Islands are designated as a biosphere reserve (WDPA 2006). This species requires close population monitoring given its very restricted range.	eng
184028	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from the Revillagigedo Islands (Briggs 1955).	eng
184028	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic, reef-associated species inhabits rocky substrate to depths of 10 m.	eng
184028	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184028	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In the Eastern Tropical Pacific, severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong ENSO events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time (Grove 1985, Edgar <em>et al</em>. 2009). The frequency and duration of ENSO events in this region of the Eastern Tropical Pacific (e.g. the up-welling zone off the coast of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and the offshore islands) appears to be increasing (Glynn and Ault 2000, Soto 2001, Chen <em>et al</em>. 2004). Given this species' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat, oceanographic environmental changes, such as those associated with future ENSO events, may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species.	eng
184029	conservation	Van Tassell,  J., Hastings, P., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184029	distribution	Van Tassell,  J., Hastings, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Carmel Bay, California to the tip of Baja California including Guadalupe Island.	eng
184029	habitat	Van Tassell,  J., Hastings, P., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal species is found in subtidal rocky reef areas, often in caves and crevices from intertidal to 100m depth.	eng
184029	population	Van Tassell,  J., Hastings, P., Lea, B., 2007	This species is moderately common within suitable habitat.  In Santa Catalina Island off of Baja California, this species was recorded to have a mean density of 0.01 ± 0.01 ind./ m<sup>2</sup> (Pondella II <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184029	threats	Van Tassell,  J., Hastings, P., Lea, B., 2007	There are no specific major threats known for this species.	eng
184030	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The range of the species overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas, including Humedal de Importancia Internacional Punta Patiño, a 30,000 ha RAMSAR site (WDPA 2006). Improved protection of remaining mangrove habitat in the range of the species is urgently needed.	eng
184030	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Central Pacific, where it known from the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica to Darien, in the Gulf of Panamá.	eng
184030	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species is found only in areas with <em>Rhizophora</em> mangrove prop roots. It is usually attached to root surfaces or moving about and feeding from them at high tide (Szelistowski 1990). Juveniles have been recorded from floating mangrove leaves, which they may use as a dispersal mechanism into mangrove root systems. Stomach contents contained barnacle cirri and barnacle cyprid larvae, <em>Sphaeroma peruvianum</em>, small oysters and other bivalves, amphipods, and harpacticoid copepods (Szelistowski 1990).	eng
184030	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	In suitable mangrove habitat, this is a common species. Szelistowski (1990) reported mean densities of 0.8-1.4 fish per mangrove root in his study area in the Gulf of Nicoya.	eng
184030	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	The major threat to this species is extensive habitat loss from extraction of <em>Rhizophora</em> mangroves in Central American countries (Jiménez 1994). Surveys in other regions show that the reduction of mangroves brought some fish species to extinction (Ferreira <em>et al</em>. 2005). As of 2000, the area of mangroves remaining in Costa Rica (including the Atlantic coast) and Panama combined was estimated at around 2,000 km² (FAO 2007).	eng
184031	conservation	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184031	distribution	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from central Mexico (around Mazatlan) to Lobos de Tierra, Peru (Dawson 1976).	eng
184031	habitat	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	This benthic species inhabits coastal sandy areas.	eng
184031	population	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184031	threats	Hastings, P., Dominici-Arosemena, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development.	eng
184032	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184032	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the eastern Gulf of California to northern Peru.	eng
184032	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	This pelagic species inhabits coastal waters and lagoons to depths of 60m.  According to Cooke (1992), L. acclivis seems to is regularly found in middle estuaries and mangroves along the tropical eastern Pacific coast. It feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans.	eng
184032	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
184032	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., Findley, L., van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, this species is sometimes caught as by-catch in shrimp trawls and artisinal fisheries. It is common in the local markets.	eng
184033	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184033	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Colombia to northern Peru.	eng
184033	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species inhabits rocky areas to depths of 60m. It feeds on the epifauna of the substrate.	eng
184033	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
184033	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184034	conservation	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species may be found in Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
184034	distribution	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This eastern tropical Pacific species is found from the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru.	eng
184034	habitat	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	This species is found on soft substrata in shallow waters (Bussing 1995). It is found from 5-118m.	eng
184034	population	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184034	threats	Nielsen, J.G., Munroe, T., Tyler, J., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184035	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184035	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the Gulf of California to northern Peru, including Revillagigedo, Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
184035	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This reef-associated species is found over sand and gravel substrate near coral reefs to depths of 85 m. At Gulf of Chiriqui, Panamá, this fish could be found in all types of substrata (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff 2006).	eng
184035	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	This species is considered common thorughout its range.<br/><br/>This species was studied in different sites at Galapagos archipelago, with an overall mean abundance of 2.56 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004). This fish was studied in Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005) with a density of 0.03 (±0.05) individuals per m<sup>2</sup>. At Gulf Dulce, Costa Rica, it had a density of 0.010 (±0.030) individuals per m<sup>2</sup> and a relative abundance of 0.268% (Figueroa 2001). Within a five-site-study survey, at Catalinas Islands, this fish could be observed in four sites, as a total of 34 times (Espinoza and Salas 2005). <br/><br/>According to Aburto-Oropeza and Balart (2001), <em>H. nicholsi,/i> is a common species at Los Islotes, Gulf of California, with an occurrence frequency between 10-30%. In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was considered scarce, with a relative abundance between 0.1-1%, and a relative frequency between 25-50% (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, México, this fish was not captured within 12 month-long field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001). A survey at Gorgona Island coral reefs, Colombia (Rubio 1986), showed that this fish seems to be frequent in rocky and coral substrata while occasional in sandy bottoms and tide-pools. Zapata and Morales (1997), also in the same place, recorded a density of 0.017 (±0.105) individuals per 10 m<sup>2</sup>, with an observational frequency of 3.6%.</em>	eng
184035	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Rivera, F., Edgar, G., Zapata, F., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184036	conservation	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. This species may be present in Marine Protected Areas that include estuarine and mangrove habitat within its range. However, not all Marine Protected Areas have been considered to mediate major threats to the ecosystems, and many Eastern Pacific endemics are found in habitats, such as mangroves, that are not adequately represented within current Marine Protected Areas in this region.	eng
184036	distribution	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the southeastern Gulf of California to northern Peru There is also a  record from Bahia Magdalena on the southwestern coast of Baja California.	eng
184036	habitat	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This demersal species is found on sand, silt, or mud substrate of bays, estuaries and tidal creeks to depths of 6m (Birdsong, 1981).	eng
184036	population	Van Tassell, J., 2007	This species is uncommon in at least the southern portion of its range.	eng
184036	threats	Van Tassell, J., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species. However, localized coastal development and mangrove destruction may negatively affect this species habitat.	eng
184037	conservation	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006). More research is needed to determine the status of the Gulf of California population, which is highly localised and about which little is known.	eng
184037	distribution	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California, USA  to central Baja California, Mexico with an isolated population in the upper and central Gulf of California.	eng
184037	habitat	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This demersal fish occurs offshore, and is usually found in deeper water than other surfperches (Eschmeyer <em>et al.</em> 1983).	eng
184037	population	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	This species is rare, with only a few records in the Gulf of California. Although the Californian population appears stable and is  moderately common in deep water.	eng
184037	threats	Allen, G., Robertson, R., Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184038	conservation	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184038	distribution	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the Gulf of California to Peru, including Cocos Island.	eng
184038	habitat	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	This demersal species is found over sandy bottoms to depths of 35m. Juveniles are also found in littoral pools. It feeds on fishes, crustaceans and bivalves.	eng
184038	population	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	No population information is available for this species. <br/><br/>In Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, this fish was not found, although it has already been recorded there (Villarreal-Cavazos <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Bahía de Navidad, Jalisco, still in México, this fish was captured 5 times within 12 (one each month) field trips throughout a year (Rojo-Vázquez <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
184038	threats	Chao, L., Espinosa, H., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184039	conservation	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184039	distribution	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	The species is widespread in the Central and Eastern Pacific. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from Baja California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos and Cocos islands. It has also been reported in Hawaii (Markle and Olney 1990, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
184039	habitat	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	This demersal species inhabits the body cavity of pearl shells (<em>Pinctada</em>), pen shells (<em>Pinna</em>), and cockles (<em>Laevicardium</em>). In the Gulf of California, it can be found in the shells of <em>Megapitaria squalida</em>, <em>M. aurantiaca</em>, <em>Laevicardium elatum</em> and <em>Spondylus princeps</em> (Allen and Robertson 1994, Nielsen <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
184039	population	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	No population information is available for this species, although it is generally considered uncommon.	eng
184039	threats	Lea, B., Béarez, P., McCosker, J., 2007	Oyster fisheries directly affect the survival of this species as it lives inside these invertebrates, and may be considered as by-catch. In addition, the expansion of commercial mollusc fisheries directly threaten this species habitat in at least several parts of its range, including the Gulf of California, Mexico, and the Galapagos Islands (Danulat and Edgar 2002).	eng
184040	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures.	eng
184040	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is restricted to the southeastern Gulf of California to Sinaloa (Mexico), where it has an extent of occurrence of less than 20,000 km².	eng
184040	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is usually in freshwater but can also be found in estuaries to depths of 10 m. They feed on zooplankton, pelagic fish larvae and pelagic fish eggs.	eng
184040	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184040	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	Given this species' restricted range and dependence on limited freshwater resources, this species is threatened by environmental and human impacts such as coastal development and pollution.	eng
184041	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species can be found in the Cabo Plomo, the Northern Gulf Biosphere Reserve, the Galapagos, and the Cocos Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
184041	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is distributed in the Eastern Pacific from Magdalena Bay, Baja California and the Gulf of California to southern Peru, including the Galapagos, Cocos, and Malpelo Islands. There is a doubtful record from San Francisco Bay, California (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1993).	eng
184041	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This reef-associated species inhabits sandy and muddy substrate in shallow waters to a depth of 25m. In the Gulf of Chiriqui, this species is found in deep rocky wall reefs and in shallow pocilloporid reefs. This species can be observed in daylight searching for prey under rocks and in crevices over rocky substrate, or buried completely in the sand (Thomson <em>et al.</em> 1979).	eng
184041	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There is no population information available for this species, other than it is generally found in low densities (Dominici-Arosemena and Wolff, 2006). However, this species has not been present in quantitative surveys of Costa Rica (Dominici-Arosemena <em>et al.</em> 2005), the Galapagos (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 2004), Colombia (Zapata and Morales, 1997) or the Gulf of California (Arburto-Oropeza and Balart, 2001).	eng
184041	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184042	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Gulf of California (WDPA 2006).	eng
184042	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from northern California to the tip of Baja California and the Gulf of California.	eng
184042	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic fish lives on soft bottoms offshore to depths of 350 m.	eng
184042	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is uncommon in deeper waters.	eng
184042	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species, especially as it prefers deeper waters where no shrimp trawlers operate.	eng
184043	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184043	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from the central Gulf of California to northern Peru, including the Cocos, Malpelo, and Galapagos Islands.	eng
184043	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	This reef-associated species is a secretive dweller of rocky crevices to depths of 40m. It feeds mainly on small fishes and mobile benthic crustaceans.	eng
184043	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This species is cryptic, but is considered common in at least some parts of its range.	eng
184043	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., Salas, E., Guzman-Mora, A.G., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184044	conservation	Findley, L., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
184044	distribution	Findley, L., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific and is found from north central California to southwestern Baja California, and the from the central to northern Gulf of California (Balart <em>et al.</em> 1997). However, the the tiny northern most population in the Gulf of California may represents a separate species, G. detrusus (Gilbert and Scofield, 1898).	eng
184044	habitat	Findley, L., 2007	This species inhabits bays and coastal sloughs, burrowing in shallow mud substrate in tidal flats and bays including coastal lagoons.	eng
184044	population	Findley, L., 2007	This species is common to abundant in suitable habitat within its range.	eng
184044	threats	Findley, L., 2007	Coastal development in lagoons and esturaries, such as marinas and aquaculture, is the most serious threat to this restricted range species.	eng
184045	conservation	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the eastern tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184045	distribution	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This species is found in the eastern Pacific from southern Chiapas, Mexico to western Panama.	eng
184045	habitat	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This pelagic species is commonly found around rocky outcrops and around sand beaches.  In Costa Rica, its diet consists mainly of terrestrial insects and fruit (Bussing, 1998).	eng
184045	population	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	This species is abundant in the Mexican part of its range.	eng
184045	threats	Espinosa, H., Findley, L., Collette, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184046	conservation	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no known specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution falls partially into a number of Marine Protected Areas (WDPA 2006).	eng
184046	distribution	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in the Eastern Pacific from San Pedro, southern California, USA to Peru.	eng
184046	habitat	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	This species is found in tide pools and on shallow muddy and sandy substrate. It is a benthic but not a burrowing species (Charter and Moser, 1996). The young of this species are attracted to lights at the sea surface, and adults may often be observed near the surface as well (McCosker and Rosenblatt, 1995).	eng
184046	population	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	No population information is available for this species.	eng
184046	threats	McCosker, J., Béarez, P., and Lea, B., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184047	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184047	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Pacific stretching from southern California to Peru, including Isla del Coco.	eng
184047	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	This pelagic oceanodromous species occurs in schools in shallow inshore areas. It penetrates lagoons and estuaries (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995). It is found to 10m. Spawning probably occurs in the open ocean and leptocephalus larvae migrate towards coastal areas (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
184047	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
184047	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., Alvarado, J., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.<br/><br/><br/>This species struggles vigorously when caught on hook and line. It has low commercial value due its numerous bones (Whitehead and Rodríguez-Sánchez 1995).	eng
184048	conservation	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this species. However, this species' distribution within the The Tres Marias Islands Biosphere Reserve (WDPA 2006). More survey work and research is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements and threats.	eng
184048	distribution	Hastings, P., 2007	This species is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is only known from Cleopha Island in the Tres Marias Islands, Mexico.	eng
184048	habitat	Hastings, P., 2007	This is a benthic species that inhabits rocky areas to depths of 15 m.	eng
184048	population	Hastings, P., 2007	No population information is available for this species. This species is known only from the holotype and 10 paratypes collected from the same site in 1961.	eng
184048	threats	Hastings, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184049	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184049	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This species has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">P. argalus pterura</span> is restricted to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from southern Baja California and the lower third of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including the Revillagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos, Galapagos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
184049	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This epipelagic subspecies is typically found inshore, and is often abundant around islands (Collette, 1995). It feeds mainly on small fishes (Collette, 1995), and its eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils on the egg's surface (Breder and Rosen, 1966).	eng
184049	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	This subspecies is considered abundant throughout its range.	eng
184049	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.	eng
184050	conservation	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures. However, this subspecies' distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184050	distribution	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This eastern Pacific subspecies is found from southern Baja California and most of the Gulf of California to Ecuador, including Galapagos and Malpelo islands.	eng
184050	habitat	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	This subspecies is found inshore, usually along sandy beaches, in bays and inlets; enters estuaries and fresh water and prefers turbid water (Smith-Vaniz 1995). It occurs in schools. It feeds on fishes and crustaceans. This subspecies is found to 50m.	eng
184050	population	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this subspecies.	eng
184050	threats	Smith-Vaniz, B, Robertson, R., Dominici-Arosemena, A., Molina, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this subspecies. This species is caught in artisanal fisheries. It is marketed fresh and salted or dried, but the flesh is not highly esteemed (Smith-Vaniz 1995).	eng
184051	conservation	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184051	distribution	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is circumtropical. The subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">Tylosurus crocodilus fodiator</span> is endemic to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and is found from Baja California and the Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including the Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo Islands.	eng
184051	habitat	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This pelagic subspecies is generally found in coastal waters and is reef-associated, but can also be found offshore (Collette 1995).	eng
184051	population	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	This subspecies is abundant throughout its range.	eng
184051	threats	Collette, B., Acero, A., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.	eng
184052	conservation	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. More information is needed on this its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, and threats.	eng
184052	distribution	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to the Eastern Pacific, and is found from Panama to northern Chile. However, the distribution is not well known as it is only known from two specimens.	eng
184052	habitat	van der Heiden, A., 2007	This benthic fish is found over soft bottoms to depths of 50 m (Hensley 1995)	eng
184052	population	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There is no population information available for this subspecies, as it is only known from two specimens.	eng
184052	threats	van der Heiden, A., 2007	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
184053	conservation	Collette, B., 2008	There are no known species-specific conservation measures. However, this subspecies' distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range (WDPA 2006).	eng
184053	distribution	Collette, B., 2008	This subspecies is present in the eastern Pacific from Oregon to the tip of Baja California, including the southwestern Gulf of California and the Revillagigedos islands.	eng
184053	habitat	Collette, B., 2008	This is a epipelagic, neritic fish found to 5 m. This species is capable of leaping and gliding out of the water for considerable distances above the surface.	eng
184053	population	Collette, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this subspecies.	eng
184053	threats	Collette, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this subspecies.	eng
184055	conservation	Bessudo, S., McCosker, J., Acero, A., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution falls into a number of Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (WDPA 2006).	eng
184055	distribution	Bessudo, S., McCosker, J., Acero, A., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This species is widespread in the tropical Indo-Pacific from East Africa and the Red Sea to the Americas. In the Eastern Pacific region, the subspecies <em>D. excisus excisus</em> is found from southern Baja California and the central Gulf of California, Mexico to Ecuador, including all the offshore islands. In the Revillagigedo Islands, a different subspecies may exist as <em>D. excisus paulus</em>.	eng
184055	habitat	Bessudo, S., McCosker, J., Acero, A., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This reef-associated subspecies inhabits rock and coral reefs in lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of 45 m or more (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is cryptic (Humann and Deloach 1993 ), prefering crevices in rocks and coral walls. It is often associated with green morays in Gorgona, and black urchins in Malpelo. It is often seen in pairs, and uses its tubelike snout to ingest small crustaceans and plankton (Grove and Lavenberg 1997).	eng
184055	population	Bessudo, S., McCosker, J., Acero, A., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	This subspecies is considered to be abundant in suitable habitat. However, it also considered rare in Gorgona, more common in Malpelo, common in the southern Gulf of California, and uncommon in the Galapagos (Humann and Deloach 1993).	eng
184055	threats	Bessudo, S., McCosker, J., Acero, A., Collette, B., Rojas, P., 2007	Although not considered a major threat to populations at this time, this subspecies appears in the aquarium fish trade.	eng
184056	conservation	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	There are no known conservation measures for this subspecies. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas in the central tropical eastern Pacific region.	eng
184056	distribution	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This subspecies is found from primarily in temperate waters throughout the entire eastern Pacific (Parrish <em>et al</em>. 1989).	eng
184056	habitat	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	This is a coastal fish that forms large schools (Whitehead 1985). It is found at depths to 200 m. In the California region, Pilchards make northward migrations early in the summer and travel back south again in autumn. With each year of life, the migration becomes longer (Hart 1973). In the Gulf of California, some individuals spawn in their first year, but most spawn in their second year (Whitehead 1985). In Australia (as <em>Sardinops neopilchardus</em>), it breeds in spring and summer in the southern part of its range, and in summer and autumn in the northern part. This is apparently related to seasonal movement of the limiting isotherms, occurring in autumn to early spring. It was believed that individual Australian Pilchards only spawn once or twice in a season (Blackburn 1960), but research on related species suggests that they may spawn a number of times (Hunter and Goldberg 1980). Batch fecundities range from about 10,000 eggs in 13 cm long females to about 45,000 eggs in females of about 18 cm (Fletcher and Tregonning 1992). It feeds on zooplankton and other small invertebrates, and it has pelagic eggs and larvae.	eng
184056	population	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	No population data is available for this subspecies.	eng
184056	threats	Iwamoto, T., Eschmeyer, W., 2008	Currently, there are no major threats to this subspecies. However, ENSO and fishing pressure may cause future declines. <br/><br/>Widespread hypoxia and massive eruptions of noxious, radiatively active gases currently characterize the world's strongest eastern ocean upwelling zone. A theory supported by modelling results and observations, suggests that the world's coastal upwelling zones will undergo progressive intensification in response to greenhouse gas buildup. This presents the prospect of progressive development of similarly degraded marine ecosystems in additional regions, and the prospect of a contributing feedback loop involving associated additions to the global buildup rate of greenhouse gases. This would result in further increases in upwelling intensity and the creation of additional sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Abundant sardine stocks of this subspecies that are exposed to fishing pressure might be a mitigating factor opposing the process, but at the same time the populations are collapsing. (Bakun and Weeks 2004) <br/><br/>The fishing of this pelagic fish started in 1950, and reached a peak of captures of >12 million t. A combined effect of a strong ENSO in 1972/1973, overfishing and possibly other large-scale oceanographic changes in the Humbolt current region, led to a collapse of the population of this sardine that was one of the more dominant fish. During early 1980, pelagic harvests remained low, but following the 1984 ENSO event, harvests rose again. In 1994, harvests reached the level of year 1972. Until 1991, the harvests were around 3.0 million t, but the harvest of this sardine had already recently decreased in this region in 1999 to very low values of 300,000 t. It seems that ENSO may have positive and negative effects on the population. Changes in world atmospheric circulation patterns, possibly a consequence of global warming, have been proposed to have effects on its population as well (Wolff <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This subspecies is important for commercial fisheries. It is used for fishmeal and oil. The main area of harvesting is the northeastern Pacific in Mexico. The harvest was around 4,189,889 t in 1990 and seines were the primary catching method (Bianchi <em>et al</em>. 1993). It is marketed fresh, frozen or canned, and is typically utilized for fishmeal, but is also eaten fried and broiled (FAO 1992).	eng
184075	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Noturus miurus</em>.	eng
184075	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of this species&#160;encompasses Lake Erie and Lake Ontario drainages in Ontario and New York state, extending southwest through most of the Ohio River basin and lower Mississippi River basin (west to eastern Kansas and Oklahoma). It has also been noted from Mohawk River in New York as well as the Pearl River and Lake Pontchartrain drainages on central Gulf Slope in Mississippi and Louisiana (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 731,281 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184075	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Habitat types for this species&#160;include pools and other areas of slow current, with a seasonal occurrence in riffles of creeks and rivers. Substrate types include mud, sand, or gravel in weedy areas or areas with sticks and leaf debris. There have been noted occurences within lakes (Rohde in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Smith 1985; Burr and Warren 1986; Robison and Buchanan 1988; Pflieger 1997; Ross 2001). Individuals usually take shelter during the daylight hours. Eggs are laid under rocks, logs, or in or under other objects, including discarded cans (Goodyear <em>et al</em>. 1982; Etnier and Starnes 1993).	eng
184075	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g., see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000 individuals. This species is seldom seen in large numbers, but it is not uncommon in the core of its range (Rohde in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Burr and Warren 1986).<br/><br/>This species has been extirpated from significant portions of its range in Illinois (Smith 1979), but in most areas it appears to remain widely distributed and relatively common.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) described the current population trend of this species as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.	eng
184075	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats for this species, however in localised areas there have been noted extirpations which has been attributed to declines in water quality from coal mine waste, sewage, and excessive siltation (Smith 1979).	eng
184076	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2010	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notropis anogenus</em>. Future conservation and management efforts would best be directed towards determining a minimum viable population, protecting spawning habitats, and water turbidity management schemes. Further research should also be directed into the impact of aquatic vegetation management, and the interaction between competitors and predators.	eng
184076	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2010	<p><span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis anogenus</span> has a disjunct distribution almost entirely confined to the Great Lakes region, primarily Wisconsin, Michigan (Becker 1983), Minnesota, and northeastern Illinois. There are still reports of a few other extant populations within other states; 1 in Iowa, 5 in New York, and a few in Ontario. It is thought that this species has been extirpated from North Dakota.<br/> <br/> The original range of this species extended from &#160;north central New York and eastern Ontario, west to southeastern North Dakota, south to northern Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Indiana, and northern Ohio. Despite this large range, its localities within certain states was largely peripheral as seen in Illinois, Iowa, North Dakota, Indiana, Ohio, New York, and Ontario (Smith 1979, Lee <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>. 1980, Trautman 1981, Smith 1985). The range indicates that this species had a glacial refuge in the upper Mississippi basin (Bailey 1959), as well as the Red River drainage of Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan basins, and the lower Great Lakes, including Ontario, to the head of the St. Lawrence River. Bailey (1959) reported a single verified location in each of the Missouri and the Ohio basins. The northernmost populations are in Ontario. The only records in Ohio were from western Lake Erie, and none have been found in the state since 1931 (Trautman 1981). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 138,472 km<sup>2</sup>.</p>	eng
184076	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2010	<em>Notropis anogenus</em> can exclusively be found in clear, heavily vegetated glacial lakes and vegetated pools and runs of low gradient creeks and rivers. Typical substrate types include sand, mud, marl, and gravel. During the summer months, this species can be found in shallow waters, and during the winter months they move to deeper waters (Smith 1979, Lee <em>et al. </em>1980, Trautman 1981, Becker 1983, Smith 1985, Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>This species is associated with two, smaller cyprinid species, the Blackchin Shiner (<span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis heterodon</span>), and the Blacknose shiner (<span style="font-style: italic;">Notropis heterolepis</span>). The Blackchin Shiner is said to have nearly the same distribution as that of <em>N. anogenus</em>, while the Blacknose Shiner has a far greater range than the other two species.	eng
184076	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2010	<em>Notropis anogenus</em> is represented by records from 50+ locations over a wide range, in the last 25 years. About 40 such occurrences were documented in states and provinces other than Minnesota. Minnesota is thought to have more occurrences than any other state (Phillips <em>et al. </em>1982). Becker (1983) mapped about 35 collection sites in Wisconsin.<br/><br/>Total population size is unknown. This fish is generally rare (Lee<em> et al</em>. 1980; Smith 1979). Phillips <em>et al.</em> (1982) noted that even with intense sampling effort, only a few specimens will be collected. However, Wisconsin records indicate several sites with collections of 30-80 individuals in some years, and Becker (1983) stated that the species may be locally abundant in Wisconsin. This species is rare in Minnesota (Moyle 1975), a core part of the range. The habitat is difficult to sample effectively, so available information may underestimate abundance.<br/><br/>Bailey (1959:121) indicated that the species was "becoming rare in areas where it was formerly common" and that it remained most common in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Page and Burr (1991:158) reiterated Bailey's evaluation: "rare and becoming even less common over most of its range," but it was not clear whether or not this statement was based on new data.<br/><br/>  In <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:place>, a population trend has not been documented, though Scott and Crossman (1973) noted a decrease in the (historically small) range. According to Parker <em>et al.</em> (1987), this species has never been found in large numbers in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Canada</st1:country-region></st1:place>, and therefore the current low population is not enough reason to consider this species endangered or threatened. Genetic distinctiveness has been investigated in <st1:state w:st="on">Ontario</st1:state> and <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New&#160; York</st1:place></st1:state> (McCusker unpublished).<br/> <br/>The range in Michigan appears to have become more restricted. In recent decades, the species has been found in only seven of the 18 watersheds from which it was historically recorded (Derosier 2004). Latta (2005) in 1995-98 collected the species at only one of 31 sites where it had occurred in the past. However, in 1994 and 1997, he found the species at two new sites. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (2005) recommended the species be classified as endangered.<br/><br/>  Howell (pers. comm. 1993) reported declines in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Iowa</st1:state></st1:place>. The species may be extirpated from <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">North Dakota</st1:state></st1:place>; none have been collected there since the 1960's, despite intensive inventory of historic sites and s<st1:personname w:st="on">im</st1:personname>ilar habitat in 1982 and 1991. Remaining <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:state w:st="on">Illinois</st1:state></st1:place> populations occur in three lakes; historically this species was known from a few other glacial lakes in the state (Smith 1979; Karnes pers. comm. 1993).&#160; Three are two areas of <st1:state w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state> where the species is still present while it appears to be longer present from a third (Carlson 2001).<br/> </span><br/>This species has not been monitored sufficiently to clarify recent range-wide population trends, but ongoing declines seem likely.<br/><br/><em>N. anogenus</em> is a naturally rare for reasons which have never been fully understood (C.R. Gilbert 2007 pers. comm.).	eng
184076	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2010	Declines in the population of <em>Notropis anogenus</em> have been attributed to increased turbidity and loss of aquatic vegetation (Herkert 1992). This loss of habitat quality is in part due to siltation, pollution, boating associated with tourism, and land use change. In North Dakota, agricultural activities have resulted in moderate to high stream turbidity (Peterka 1992).  Increased turbidity has been suggested as the primary cause of the decline (Smith 1979, Trautman 1981, Parker <em>et al.</em> 1987). Introduction of whole-lake treatment with herbicides has also been suggested as another cause of population decline.	eng
184077	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Percina austroperca</em>. There are some designations in Florida which which protect shoreline areas of some inhabited creeks. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range is needed due to the relatively small range over which this species is found.	eng
184077	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is known from the Escambia and Choctawhatchee river drainages, in western Florida and southern Alabama (Gilbert 1992, Boschung and Mayden 2004). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 17,536 km².	eng
184077	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The habitat types for this species&#160;include rivers and large creeks with substrate types of clean sand, gravel, and rubble shoals (Gilbert 1992, Thompson 1995, Boschung and Mayden 2004). It is likely that the eggs are buried in sand/gravel substrates, in a swift current. Based on the biology of several closely related species (logperches), this species very likely feeds beneath substrate objects and engages in stone-flipping behaviour wherein its pig-like snout is used to roll objects and expose aquatic insects, small molluscs, and other organisms.  Logperch generally spawn in gravel areas (W.C. Starnes 2008 pers. comm.).	eng
184077	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by several distinct occurrences within its small range (e.g. see map in Boschung and Mayden 2004, in which 17 collection sites are mapped in Alabama). <br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown. Although not a numerically abundant species, this species is commonly and frequently collected in routine electrofishing samples (Bass <em>et al</em>. 2004), and its distribution and abundance are thought to be stable (Gilbert 1992).<br/><br/>Boschung and Mayden (2004) stated that this species is showing "no signs of stress" in Alabama, which encompasses a significant portion of its range.	eng
184077	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikley that this species&#160;is being impacted by any major threat processes in either Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004) or Florida (Bass<em> et al.</em> 2004). More general threats to this species include habitat degradation due to dam and impoundment construction, pollution and siltation. This species is probably tolerant of moderate motorised boat traffic.	eng
184078	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
184078	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Fundulus seminolis</em> encompasses peninsular Florida from St. Johns and New River drainages, south through all but the southern most part of the peninsula (Page and Burr 1991).	eng
184078	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is a demersal to mid-water species, forming small aggregations in open areas of streams and lakes, over sandy substrates (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980). Juveniles are closely associated with floating or submergent vegetation, from which they get shelter.<br/><br/>Spawning typically occurs between April and May, although some spawning activity is seen during the summer months.	eng
184078	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus seminolis</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals. This fish has been described as common (Page and Burr 1991) and the population numbers are thought to be stable (Warren <em>et al. </em>2000).	eng
184078	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.	eng
184079	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Further research is required on the threats faced by this species to determine how they are impacting the global population. Monitoring of the population numbers and distribution range of this species is needed to identify any threatened subpopulations.	eng
184079	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species range includes the Tallapoosa River system (Mettee <em>et al</em>. 1996, Boschung and Mayden 2004). The species is widespread in the Tallapoosa River system but may be quite rare locally (Cashner<em> et al</em>. 1988). Most of the known range is in Alabama and much of the population is restricted to the upper Tallapoosa River system. This species may have an extent of occurrence less than 5,000 km².	eng
184079	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This fish occurs over sand and gravel in margins, pools, and backwaters of creeks and small to medium rivers. It seems to be most abundant in shallow sandy backwaters of clean, free-flowing, medium-sized creeks (Cashner <em>et al.</em> 1988, Page and Burr 1991, Mettee<em> et al</em>. 1996, Boschung and Mayden 2004).	eng
184079	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Mettee <em>et al.</em> (1996) and Boschung and Mayden (2004) mapped 20–21 collection sites representing perhaps 12–15 distinct subpopulations.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. Page and Burr (1991) described this species as locally common, whereas Boschung and Mayden (2004) stated that the species is "uncommon in many areas" and "its numbers are usually few at any given site."<br/><br/>Trends are unknown.	eng
184079	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is likely to be impacted by threats upon its habitat and the flow regime of rivers and streams such as reservoirs, sediments (and other non-point sources), conversion of agricultural lands to urban corridors, severe droughts, and water abstraction (S.J. Walsh 2008 pers. comm.). The upper Tallapoosa River system is undergoing habitat degradation due to upland development, stream impoundment and altertion of the hydrological regime (Storey 2003). Due to the restricted range of this species, these could pose a significant future potential threat to the population of this species.	eng
184080	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
184080	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is native to the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, Hudson Bay (Red River), and Mississippi River basins from Quebec to Manitoba and south to Louisiana; Gulf Slope drainages from Mississippi River, Louisiana, to Rio Grande, Texas and New Mexico (Page and Burr 1991). It has been introduced widely within and outside its natural range.	eng
184080	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is known from a range of habitat types including the open waters of large lakes and reservoirs, to the pools of slow-moving small and large rivers. This species is typically seen in schools at the water surface. During the day this species is seen offshore in the open waters of the lake, and at night it moves inshore. It displays an avoidance for areas of continuous turbidity. Spawning grounds are usually in the running water of tributary streams with rock or gravel substrate, or along lake shores with high wave action. Individuals tend to return to specific spawning grounds.	eng
184080	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations):&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 1,000,000.<br/><br/>Abundance has increased in the lower Missouri River as a result of human-caused changes in the river (e.g. reservoir construction and consequent reductions in turbidity) (Pflieger and Grace 1987).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorized the trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.	eng
184080	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats thought to be causing a significant decline in the population numbers of this species. In some areas of its range, it is under pressure for resources due to competition with the invasive species <em>Morone americana</em>. This species is also fished recreationally, however this does not appear to pose a significant threat to this species as it is described as growing in abundance in areas and expanding its range.	eng
184081	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
184081	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> extends from the southern Great Lakes region to the Gulf Coast, between the Appalachians and the Great Plains. It is also known from the Great Lakes and Mississippi River basins, western New York, southern Ontario, and southeastern Wisconsin, south to Alabama, Louisiana, and eastern Texas. In the Gulf Coast drainages it ranges from Mobile Bay, Georgia and Alabama, to Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana (Gilbert in Lee <em>et a</em>l. 1980, Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 144,504 km².	eng
184081	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species typically inhabits creeks and small to medium rivers with clear water, a moderate to swift current, and alternating pools and riffles over a gravel or rubble substrate, often with some silt (Gilbert in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). It spawns over gravel in riffles, in crater-like nests made by the male, or in depressions made by other species in both still and running water (Smith 1979).	eng
184081	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Luxilus chrysocephalus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown, but is thought to exceed 1,000,000 individuals. This fish is abundant in the north and common in the south of its range (Page and Burr 1991). <br/><br/>A decline in the range of this species has occurred in areas (e.g. Wisconsin, Illinois, and parts of Missouri) (Becker 1983, Pflieger 1975, Smith 1979). In Canada, numbers are low and populations appear to be limited by water condition and interspecific competition, but a decline is not evident (Goodchild 1993).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.<br/><br/>In many of the streams in the Kentucky and Cumberland River systems, the striped shiner is typically in the top three most commonly collected species (S. Harrel 2008 pers. comm.).	eng
184081	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. Localised declines in population numbers, are likely to be a result of stream habitat degradation.	eng
184082	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
184082	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species' distribution range is restricted to the Edisto, Combahee, Broad, and Savannah river drainages below the fall line in South Carolina ad Georgia (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Page and Burr 1991).	eng
184082	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is typically found inhabiting clear, or tannin-stained creeks and small rivers. It shows a preference for fairly strong currents over a gravel or sand substrate in or near aquatic vegetation, fallen logs and debris. In a third-order blackwater stream in South Carolina, it was most common in medium to moderately fast current over sandy substrates in association with leafy debris, undercut banks, and vegetation (Layman 1993). Captive adults were observed burying eggs in sand and fine gravel (Layman 1993). Spawning occurs during April to July and lasts for approximately 4 months (Layman 1993).	eng
184082	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Lee <em>et al.</em> (1980) mapped approximately 25 collection sites, most in South Carolina, a few in Georgia: These probably represent at least a dozen distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown. This fish is common within its small range (Page and Burr 1991; Layman 1993).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable."	eng
184082	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no major threats known to be causing a significant decline in the population of this species.	eng
184083	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Clinostomus funduloides</em>. At present no further research action or conservation measures are required for this species.<br/><br/>This species is considered to be of special concern within the state of North Carolina, and is listed as "In need of management" in Tennessee	eng
184083	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> includes upland Atlantic Slope drainages from the lower Delaware River drainage in southern Pennsylvania, to the Savannah River drainage in Georgia, the Ohio River basin in West Virginia, southern Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi. This species is common to abundant in upland areas, absent from most of Kentucky, and rare in the Cumberland River drainage (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Subspecies <em>Clinostomus estor</em> has been found in the lower and middle Cumberland River and Tennessee River drainages, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Undescribed subspecies ar known from the Little Tennessee River system, Tennessee and North Carolina. Subspecies funduloides and the undescribed subspecies intergrade in headwaters of the Little Tennessee River system, North Carolina and Georgia, and headwaters of the Savannah River drainage in Georgia. Hiwassee River may contain intergrades between subspecies estor and the undescribed subspecies (Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 159,388km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184083	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> occupies mid-water habitats in small to medium sized streams (Grossman <em>et al</em>. 1998) with clear to turbid water and a moderate current (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980) It is often seen in deeper riffles, runs and pools. In Coweeta Creek, it generally occupies focal point velocities that maximise their net energy gain (i.e. 14 - 17 cm/s depending on season, Grossman <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is most commonly found in small clear streams (Page and Burr 1991). It spawns in gravel riffles and sometimes uses the nests of chubs.<br/><br/>The rosyside dace can grow to 91mm SL (Coweeta Creek specimen) and probably attains a maximum age of 4 - 5years (Grossman unpublished data). This species reporoduces during the late spring to early summer months (DeHaven<em> et al</em>. 1992) and age at maturity is approximately 1+. Number of reproductions each year is unknown but based on gonadal weights, reproduction occurs over a several month period in late spring/ early summer. Fecundity is uncertain but probably ranges from 500 - 1,000 eggs for a 2 - 3year old fish. For successful spawning to occur, rosyside dace require gravel beds and may on occasion use the nests of river chub (<em>Nocomis micropogon</em>), or stonerollers (<em>Campostoma anomolum</em>) (pers. comm. Grossman).	eng
184083	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Clinostomus funduloides</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 individuals. This fish is uncommon to common, often abundant, in much of its range (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). This species is locally abundant in North Carolina and Georgia, however abundance has been greatly impacted in recent years by a number of environmental and anthropogenic factors; these threats have greatly reduced abundance in degraded habitats and created local extinctions in some areas (pers. comm. Grossman).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184083	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The distribution of this species within the southeastern US is currently affected by siltation and turbidity from development, increased temperature due to disturbance of the riparian canopy, and pollutants from agriculture (pers. comm. Grossman).	eng
184084	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notropis blennius</em>:&#160;At present no further research actions or conservation measures for this species are required.	eng
184084	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of this species&#160;includes the Hudson Bay basin from Alberta to Manitoba; south through the Red River in Minnesota and North Dakota; the Mississippi River basin from Wisconsin and Minnesota to Texas, Lousiana, and Mississippi, west to eastern Colorado, and east to West Virginia. This species is common in the central part of its range, especially in the upper Mississippi and lower Ohio rivers. It is absent from the upper Missouri drainage. It occurs in the Great Lakes drainage only in Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin (Gilbert in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). The are in which this species is distributed is approximately 174,809 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184084	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species may be found in pools and the main channels of large rivers and the lower parts of main tributaries (and associated lakes), in water of varying clarity (usually turbid), over substrates of silt, sand, and gravel. This mid-water fish is most abundant in clear water in Illinois. It spawns over sand and gravel bars (Trautman 1981).	eng
184084	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is common to abundant in much of its range. &#160;Abundance has increased in the lower Missouri River as a result of human-induced changes in the river (e.g. reservoir construction and consequent reductions in turbidity) (Pflieger and Grace 1987).<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised this species population trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.	eng
184084	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
184085	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Cottus pitensis</em>.	eng
184085	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Cottus pitensis</em> is distributed through the Pit River system (Modoc, Lassen and Shasta counties in California). This includes the north and south forks of the mainstem and many accessible tributaries down to Squaw Creek in the Shasta County. It also includes tributaries to Goose lake in Oregon and California; as well as the Lassen and Willow Creeks in Modoc County; Drews, Cottonwood and Thomas Creeks in Lake County, Oregon (Moyle and Daniels 2002).	eng
184085	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species occupies rocky riffles of cool, well-shaded, small streams; spring-fed creeks; and small boulder-strewn rivers (Moyle 2002). Spawning occurs annually in early spring months (Daniels 1987).	eng
184085	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is known from at least a few dozen collection sites that are well distributed throughout its historical range (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown, but this fish is still common throughout the Pit River drainage in California (Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184085	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no major known threats for <em>Cottus pitensis</em>. In the Pit River watershed, this species has adapted to degraded habitats (Moyle 2002).	eng
184086	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Culaea inconstans</em>.	eng
184086	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Culaea inconstans</em> includes most of the southern half of Canada (Atlantic and Arctic drainages from Nova Scotia to Northwest Territories); and the northern part of the eastern United States, extending south in the Great Lakes-Mississippi River basins to Colorado (Woodling 1985), Nebraska, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania. A population in northeastern New Mexico was regarded as probably introduced (through bait bucket or incidental to stocking of exotic salmonids) by Sublette <em>et al</em>. (1990) and Gach (1996), though the apparent native status in eastern Colorado (Woodling 1985) suggests that the New Mexico population could be native. This species has been introduced in various places south of the native range, such as in Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, northwestern Colorado, northeastern Utah (Modde and Haines 1996), and California. Present distribution was influenced by postglacial dispersal from separate refugia in the Mississippi and Ohio river basins (Gach 1996).	eng
184086	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Culaea inconstans</em> generally occupies cool, clear, heavily weeded, spring-fed creeks, small rivers, lakes, and ponds, usually in shallow, quiet to flowing pools and backwaters over sand or mud. This species is occassionally seen burrowing into soft sediments. Occasionally this fish can be found in brackish water. In a lake in Manitoba, adults were most abundant at the outer margin of emergent vegetation (Moodie 1986). Eggs are deposited in a nest made of plant material by the male just above the bottom in shallow water.	eng
184086	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980).<br/><br/>Adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 individuals.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184086	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
184087	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Notropis rafinesquei </em>.	eng
184087	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Notropis rafinesquei</em>is endemic to the Yazoo River basin, Bluff Hills and north central plateau physiographic provinces, Mississippi (Suttkus 1991), and the Coldwater, Tallahatchie, and Yalobusha River systems (Ross 2001). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 23,930 km².	eng
184087	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is a benthic, schooling species found in the riffles and runs of small to medium-sized streams over sand or gravel substrate. If disturbed, individuals may move into deeper pools (Suttkus 1991, Ross 2001). This species is found in shallow, sandy streams with characteristic incised channels throughout northern Mississippi (Shields <em>et al.</em> 1995). This is an early-maturing, short-lived species (Adams<em> et al.</em> 2004). There is a great deal of variation in the reproductive traits of sub-populations of this species, indicating an ability to readily adapt to variation in the stream environment (Winemiller and Rose 1992). In a study by Adams<em> et al</em>. (2004), they found this species did not vary significantly in abundance over time or between streams, further illustrating the adaptive nature of this species to changing environmental conditions.	eng
184087	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Ross (2001) mapped 40+ collecion sites between 1983-1993 and 30+ sites for the pre-1983 period; these are likely to represent at least a couple dozen distinct occurrences.<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown, however <em>Notropis rafinesquei</em> was found to be one of the most abundant and widespread fish species in some streams of northern Mississippi (Haag <em>et al.</em> 2007). Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised the population trend as "currently stable."<br/><br/>In Haag <em>et al.</em> 2007 study of this species, they concluded that abundance did not vary significantly among over time or between streams (Adams <em>et al.</em> 2004). This was attributed to a tolerance for variability in a range of variables. This species is very abundant throughout much of its range, even in highly degraded streams (W.R. Haag 2008 pers. comm.).	eng
184087	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats for this species: This species has been described as secure (Ross 2001).	eng
184088	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species. This species is listed as an invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group.	eng
184088	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Morone americana</em> encompasses the Atlantic slope drainages from the Lake Ontarion-St Lawrence drainage basins in Quebec, south to Peedee River in South Carolina. The Lake Ontario populations may have colonised through the Erie Canal, however there are few records of this species from the Lake Erie drainage basin. The highest abundance of this species is found in the Hudson River and Chesapeake Bay (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). Inland populations of this species are more common in northern areas. This species has undergone an increase in distribution through introductions and stockings as a game fish	eng
184088	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species occurs predominately in brackish water and generally close to shore in saltwater. This species is common in quiet water, usually over mud, far upstream in medium to large rivers, and in lakes and ponds with no sea connection. This species has been observed to move offshore during day, and inshore at night. Spawning occurs in this spring months in shallow, fresh or slightly brackish water, over a sandy substrate. Eggs sink to the bottom substrate where they stick (Thomson <em>et al</em>. 1978).<br/><br/>This species has now been listed as an invasive species and poses a threat to other native species. They out-compete native species for food and feed on the eggs of walleye (<em>Stizostedion vitreum</em>) and white bass (<em>Morone chrysops</em>). Their feeding on the eggs of <em>S. vitreum</em> has been attributed to observed declines in the species (Fuller<em> et al</em>. 2006). This species has hybridised with native <em>Morone chrysops</em> in Lake Erie. Hybrids are believed to potentially dilute the gene pool (Fuller <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
184088	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980):&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000.<br/><br/>Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorised the population trend for <em>Morone americana</em> as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.<br/><br/>This species has now become very common in shallow portions of inland lakes and rivers (Minnesota Sea Grant 2001; Wisconsin Sea Grant 2002).	eng
184088	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species.	eng
184089	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species:&#160;At present no further research or conservation actions are required for this species.	eng
184089	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of this species&#160;encompasses the Atlantic, Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, Upper Mississippi, Missouri and Peace-Mackenzie river drainages; from New Brunswick to Yukon and British Columbia, south to New York, Wisconsin, Nebraska and Wyoming, with hybrids found in Colorado (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991).	eng
184089	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Phoxinus neogaeus</em> can be found in the pools of boggy headwaters, creeks and small rivers, as well as lakes and ponds. This species is often found in beaver ponds over silty substrates or near vegetation (Page and Burr 1991; Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980). Spawning occurs under logs and amongst debris.	eng
184089	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Phoxinus neogaeus</em> is represented by a large number of occurrences (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).&#160;Total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is common in the central portion of its range, with sporadic occurences in the Missouri River drainage system (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations is probably relatively stable or declining at a rate less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184089	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
184090	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus notatus</em> was listed as a species of special concern in May 2001 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Species monitoring and recovery activities are currently being undertaken&#160;in the Sydenham River, Ontario (Species at Risk Public Resgistry 2008).	eng
184090	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Fundulus notatus</em> encompasses the Gulf Slope from the Mobile Bay drainage, western Alabama, to the San Antonio Bay drainage in Texas. The northern part of this species range can be seen in the Mississippi Valley, north to Iowa and southern Wisconsin. This includes the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie drainages from Wisconsin to Ohio and Ontario (Lee <em>et al. </em>1980; Page and Burr 1991). This species range extends into Canada in the Sydenham River in southwestern Ontario, although it is thought to be limited to an area of approximately 60 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184090	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species inhabits small to large, lowland, low gradient streams and sloughs. They are typically found in water with moderate to high water clarity (Shute 1980), although they are able to tolerate high turbidity.  Habitat types include creeks, rivers, lakes, swamps, drainage ditches, highwater pools of rivers, and ponds. This species is most commonly seen in the lowlands, and is rare to absent in the uplands (Page and Burr 1991). Eggs are typically found attached to aquatic vegetation, leaf litter or detritus (Becker 1983), with spawning occuring during late spring to summer months. Females will lay 20 - 30 eggs typically over a short time period (Carranza and Winn 1954). During the warmer months they can be found near the water surface, and in colder months they are found in deeper waters (Government of Canada 2008).	eng
184090	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Fundulus notatus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is usually common, but never collected in large numbers (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Population dynamics for this species are not precisely known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in southern drainages are currently stable (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
184090	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats for this species. There are a number of localised threats that are threatening the integrity of this species' habitat, such as loss of riparian vegetation, water abstraction or diversion thereby draining wetlands or disturbing the hydrological regime of waterways. However due to the widespread range of this species, these are not considered a major threat to the global popultion.	eng
184091	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Fundulus nottii</em>.	eng
184091	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species range extends from the Yazoo and Big Black River systems, the Pearl River drainage, and Lake Pontchartrain drainage (Louisiana and Mississippi) east to the Mobile Basin, Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004).	eng
184091	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species lives among aquatic vegetation in backwaters, swamps, sloughs, bayous, ponds, borrow ditches, and streams with moderate to slow flow (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Ross 2001; Boschung and Mayden 2004).	eng
184091	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (e.g. see maps in Ross 2001 and Boschung and Mayden 2004).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals: This species is common within its small range.<br/><br/>Trends are not known, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations. Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000) categorized this species as "currently stable."	eng
184091	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
184092	conservation	Berry, C., 2007	<em>Notropis topeka</em> has been found in the Flint Hills Prairie (The Nature Conservancy), Pipestone National Monument in Minnesota, Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota and the Three Creeks State Forest in Missouri. It is currently estimated that more than 95% of the remaining population of this species, occur on privately owned land.<br/><br/>The USFWS (2004) designated a total of 83 stream segements (1,356km) in Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska, as critical habitat. Areas of Missouri, Kansas, and South Dakota were excluded from the critical designation as these states had already implemented management plans that provided comprehensive conservation measures and programs for the recovery of population of this species. In South Dakota, the conservation decision support tool, Aquatic Gap, is being used to help prioritise stream reaches for further study and management (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>Future conservation efforts need to be directed towards improving farming practices to reduce siltation, prevent channelisation and the construction of impoundments, and prevent grazing or removal of riparian buffer strips. Further monitoring of the population numbers of this species is needed.	eng
184092	distribution	Berry, C., 2007	<em>Notropis topeka</em> was formerly widespread through the lower and middle Missouri Basin (Phillips<em> et al.</em> 1982). It has been extirpated in many localities, but still occurs in all six states of its historical range. The current range is restricted to small areas in Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Minnesota. Most of the remaining populations are in South Dakota and Minnesota (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In South Dakota, this species still persists in many places (60 streams) of the Big Sioux, Vermillion, and James River drainage basins, making up to 5% of the cyprinid assemblage (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.). In the Big Sioux and Rock River drainages, this species was recorded from 89 sites on 17 streams (Hatch 2001). Within Iowa (North Racoon River Basin) (USFWS 1997) and other states, this species exists in low numbers. <br/><br/>This species was formerly widespread through Missouri, but is now confined to a few drainage basins in the northwest and central portions of the state (Pflieger 1975, Gelwicks in Figg and Bessken 1995) and recently extirpated from one site (V. Tabor 2001 pers. comm.). It once inhabited all major drainages in Kansas but is now restricted to the Flint Hills headwater streams in the Cottonwood and Kansas River drainages (Kerns 1982, Tabor 1993, Minckley and Cross 1959, Cross 1967, Schwilling 1981). It has been described as locally common in some of these streams (F.B. Cross pers. comm., H. Kern pers. comm.). Populations are said to be stable at many sites in the Cottonwood and Mill Creek drainage basins (V. Tabor 2007 pers. comm.) <br/><br/>In Nebraska, this species is extant in the upper Loup River drainage and in the Elkhorn River basin (USFWS 1997), although very few individuals have been recorded in recent years.	eng
184092	habitat	Berry, C., 2007	<em>Notropis topeka</em> is typically found in quiet, open and permanent pools of small, clear, high-quality headwaters and creeks that drain upland prairie areas. It may also be found in tiny spring-fed pools in headwaters and larger streams (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In South Dakota, the presence of this species is said to be related to a number of factors including the presence of groundwater, stream size (creeks and small rivers) with a substrate of alluvium parent material, and an irregular stream flow (Wall<em> et al.</em> 2004). The results from further habitat modelling have found stream flow, channel slope and network position, related to presence of this species. In areas in which the streams were buffered by a 30m riparian buffer strip of pasture, trees, and grasses, there was a greater occurrence of<em> N. topeka</em> than streams fringed by wetland. Most commonly occupied streams do not have a strong continuous flow; the flow is usually less than 5 cubic feet per second (Minckley and Cross 1959).<br/> <br/>Streams that have been channelised or impounded or that drain cultivated fields, generally are not suitable habitat for this species (Schrank <em>et al</em>. 2001, G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm., Prophet pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Many of the streams occupied by this species, are intermittent and maintained by springs during the summer months. Within Minnesota and Iowa, habitat types include oxbow lakes and cut-off channels which may be seasonally flooded (Hatch pers. comm.; Menzel pers. comm.). In South Dakota, this species was found to occur in excavated floodplain ponds used for livestock watering. Within the ponds several year classes were found, indicating over winter survival and reproduction (Thomson 2008). Individuals have also been found in drying up pools, supporting the idea that this species is tolerant of oxygen stress (Kerns and Bonneau 2002). In this same study by Kerns and Bonneau, fish were found in permanent pools over silt covered gravel and rubble susbstrates. There was an age range of 2–36 months and at 36 months they had attained a length of 53 mm. There was a sex ratio of 1:1 apart from age class 2 where the males outnumbered the females. Topeka were observed to be diurnal feeders near the substrate and fed predominantly upon chironomids and ephemeropterans. <br/><br/>Riffles are only occupied if this species is exceptionally abundant in a local area (Minckley and Cross 1959). The pools in which it may be found, do not usually have rooted aquatic vegetation but many have plankton blooms during the summer months (Minkley and Cross 1959, Kerns and Bonneau 2002). In Kansas streams,<em> N. topeka</em> is pelagic, occupying the lower half of the water column (Kerns and Bonneau 2002), though Tabor (1993) stated that this species is found in surface to mid-waters. <br/><br/>The temperature range of these various habitats, ranges from near freezing in winter, to 90°F (32°C) in summer (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.). Water clarity may range from clear to murky, dependent on plankton blooms and substrate type (G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm.). <br/><br/>Males occupy a small territory around the Green sunfish (<em>Lepomis cyanellus</em>) or the orange-spotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis). Spawning occurs over the sunfish nests. The juveniles will then shelter in the shallow margins of pools in mixed-species groups during their first summer. In South Dakota, this species is said to be associated with five species including the orange-spotted sunfish. These five species are found in small streams with low to moderate flow, four of which spawn on clean gravel beds (Wall and Berry 2006).	eng
184092	population	Berry, C., 2007	<em>Notropis topeka</em> is known from about 80 sites as of the late 1990's (USFWS 1998), representing 20-40 extant occurrences (subpopulations) in six midwestern states. Recent surveys have added new occurrences and expanded the known range in South Dakota and Minnesota. Although found in low numbers and poor habitat condition, this species continues to persist within the state of Iowa. In the state of Nebraska, very few individuals have been recorded in recent years (V. Tabor 2007 pers. comm.).<br/><br/>This species still persists in many places (about 60 streams), sometimes making up as much as 5% of the cyprinid assemblage, and having a mean catch per unit effort of 6–9 fish/100 m² for the three drainages (James, Vermillion, Big Sioux) (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is likely to be over a few thousand individuals considering the new discoveries in South Dakota and Minnesota. This fish is generally uncommon even in suitable habitat (Page and Burr 1991, Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980).<br/><br/>While this species range is still observed within all the states that it is historically known from, its population numbers and occurrence within watersheds has declined. The number of historically known collection sites (documented in the literature or by museum specimens) has been reduced by approximately 70 percent, with approximately 50 percent of this decline occurring within the last 40–50 years (USFWS 2002).<br/><br/>The current population trend for this species varies across its range. In Kansas and Missouri it is said to be declining; in Iowa and Nebraska it is stable to declining while in Minnesota and South Dakota it is thought to be stable (C. Berry 2007 pers. comm.).	eng
184092	threats	Berry, C., 2007	The major threats faced by <em>Notropis topeka</em> relate to changing land use and water practices that alter the physical and biological characteristics of streams. This species is reasonably tolerant to acute stress but sensitive to permanent changes in habitat such as reduced water quality and increased water temperture. <br/><br/>Chronic, persistent changes in land-use practices, such as cultivation, clearcut logging, infrastructure development, and intensive, continuous grazing, result in increased sediment loading within streams (Platts 1979, G.T. Gorman 2007 pers. comm., Pflieger pers. comm.). Sedimentation in streams reduces instream water clarity, covers fish eggs, and covers possible spawning beds with excess silt (Platts 1979). Grazing livestock impact a watercourse through introducing excess nutrients, erosion of stream banks, and grazing of riparian buffer strips (Tabor pers. comm.). In South Dakota, this species may still be found in waterways fringed by pasture livestock where the grazing pressure is light to moderate and there is still riparian vegetation (Wall and Berry 2006).<br/><br/>Channelisation is a major threat to this species through its alteration of water temperature, flow regime and stream morphology. During the channelisation process it may also increase the sediment load of the stream, covering potential spawning grounds and gravel beds. Wall and Berry (2006) related the abundance of this species in South Dakota, to the fact that only 3% of streams in this state had been channelised and most of the wetlands (60%) had been conserved. <br/><br/>Water abstraction in some areas has proved problematic in maintaining cut-off pools as the water table is lowered and so spring-fed pools quickly dry up (Gorman pers. comm.). The building of impoundments stocked with predatory game fishes is a major threat in some areas (Schrank<em> et al.</em> 2001) due to the introduction of new predators and the alteration of stream morphology, hydrology and species dispersal patterns (Cross pers. comm., Kerns pers. comm.). However it should be noted that introduced predators such as the largemouth bass (<em>Micropterus salmoides</em>), do not selectively prey on this species (Knight and Gido 2005). Construction of impoundments recently threatened the largest remaining populations in Kansas (Tabor 1993). While the threat of watershed dams still persists, it is has diminished as planning permission is no longer given to the construction of dams that are in areas with known<em> N. topeka</em> populations.	eng
184093	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> was listed as a species of special concern in November 2001 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). <br/><br/>Further research and monitoring of this species; it's habitat status, population numbers, and rates of decline is needed. Once these factors have been better described, conservation measures can be prescribed for what is thought to be significant population declines in ares of this species range.	eng
184093	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> includes the Lake Ontario basin and the St. Lawrence River drainage system, southern Quebec, eastern Ontario, and New York. In the Atlantic Slope drainages, the range extends from southern Maine, south to the James River drainage of Virginia, although is apparently extirpated from the Potomac and Rappahonnock river drainages. This species is also known from the Neuse River drainage, eastern North Carolina (probably extirpated from there and also in the Chowan River drainage), and the Santee River drainage in South Carolina (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991). This species range has been significantly reduced in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Carolinas. The area in which this species is distributed, is approximately 249,980km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184093	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> can be found in warm-water small creeks and ponds, to large lakes and rivers with clear to moderate water clarity (except when temporarily turbid after heavy rains). This species is usually found over mud, silt, or detritus, in sluggish pools or slow to moderate velocity streams, or backwaters with abundant vegetation. In the southern area of its range, <em>N. bifrenatus</em>  may also occur in tidal and slightly brackish water (e.g. tidal freshwater marshes and beaches in Virginia) (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991). Spawning areas are in still, shallow water, near-shore with vegetation (Scott and Crossman 1973).	eng
184093	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> is represented by a large number of historical subpopulations, but it is rare or no longer extant in many of these locations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown.<br/><br/>This species has undergone a range-wide decline in abundance, number of subpopulations, and area of occupancy. For example, it has been found recently in only 1 of 31 historical locations in Pennsylvania (Argent <em>et al</em>. 1997; Finger 2001) and in a small percentage of several dozen historical locations in Massachusetts (Hartel <em>et al</em>. 2002).<br/><br/>Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and abundance appear to be widely declining, but up-to-date information is lacking for many areas. This species has been described as "vulnerable" in the southeastern United States by Warren <em>et al</em>. (2000).	eng
184093	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The main threats impacting upon <em>Notropis bifrenatus</em> are related to the loss of aquatic vegetation. Agricultural pollution may also be degrading this species habitat (Burkhead and Jenkins 1991) due to excess nutrients, sedimentation, and loss of water clarity. In many areas, the causes of population decline are not fully understood.	eng
184094	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for this species.	eng
184094	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species' range encompasses the Ozark Uplands of the middle Arkansas River drainage of central Arkansas, the White, Black and St. Francis river systems of northern Arkansas. Within Missouri it is known from the southwest and southeast parts of the state and Meramec, Gasconade, and lower Osage river systems of the eastern part (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Robison and Buchanan 1988, Pflieger 1997, Miller and Robison 2004). It is also known from northeastern Oklahoma.	eng
184094	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is found in midwater schools in clear, permanently flowing streams, medium-sized creeks and moderately large rivers. It usually occurs near riffles or in the adjacent areas of pools, over sand, gravel or rubble substrates. It spawns over gravel riffles in a swift current (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980).	eng
184094	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Robison and Buchanan 1988; Pflieger 1997). The total adult population size is unknown, but this species is relatively common throughout its range. The species has not been taken in over 30 years in the Elk and James rivers in southwestern Missouri and is thought to be extirpated from those rivers (Pflieger 1997). Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) described the trend for this species as 'currently stable'.	eng
184094	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is not known to be impacted by any major threat processes at present.	eng
184095	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species was listed as a species of special concern in April 1989 by COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and this species is managed under the Species at Risk Act. <br/><br/>No further conservation measures are required at the present time due to the reported stability of the population.	eng
184095	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The native range of <em>Lepomis auritus</em> encompasses the Atlantic slope from New Brunswick, south to central Florida, west on the Gulf slope to Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee drainages in Florida and Georgia. This species has been introduced in Gulf drainages as far west as the Rio Grande and in the Mississippi River basin as far north as Kentucky and Arkansas (Page and Burr 1991). There are some known occurrences in Canada (Houston 1990).	eng
184095	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lepomis auritus</em> can be found in rocky and sandy pools at the margins of creeks, small to medium-sized rivers, and lakes. In streams with rapids, this species occurs at depth in slow flowing areas over rock and gravel, often near cover or obstructions. This species forms aggregations in deeper holes where the water temperature falls to just below 5<sup>o</sup>C. Eggs are laid in nests made by the males on the lake or river bottom. Nests may be close together in ponds and lakes, and are usually found on the downstream side of a rock within streams. Spawning occurs from April to October.	eng
184095	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lepomis auritus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations.<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This fish is known to be locally common.<br/><br/>As a result of introductions, the range extent, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulations may be larger than the historical distribution.&#160;Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in the southern United States are currently stable (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
184095	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present. Dams and water pollution are likely to have caused a few localised declines in the population numbers of this species. The introduced flathead catfish (<em>Pylodictis olivaris</em>) may negatively impact this species in larger creeks and rivers (Albanese pers. comm. 2008).	eng
184096	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Etheostoma lynceum</em>.  Monitoring of the extent of occurrence, and population numbers of this species is needed to forewarn of increased rates of habitat loss.	eng
184096	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Etheostoma lynceum</em> encompasses the tributaries of the Mississippi River on the former Mississippi embayment in western Kentucky, western Tennessee, Mississippi and Louisiana. It has also been noted in the Gulf Coast drainages (excluding the Mobile basin) from Escatawpa River to the extreme southwestern Alabama, with only a few noted occurrences in this state (Page and Burr 1991).	eng
184096	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species generally occurs in streams, often with considerable spring flow, over gravel riffles, around logs, or in detrital aggregations, in second to fourth order streams (Etnier and Starnes 1993; Ross 2001). Rooted aquatic vegetation is often present, although is not a necessary habitat feature (Etnier and Starnes 1993).	eng
184096	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Etheostoma lynceum</em> is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (see map in Ross 2001).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown, but this species is common in much of its range (Page and Burr 1991).<br/><br/>Populations are secure in Mississippi (Ross 2001), and this is likely to be the case throughout most of its range. Warren <em>et al.</em> (2000) categorised this species as "currently stable."	eng
184096	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Stream rechanneling projects "undoubtedly have eliminated many populations" but this species&#160;"continues to be a common species in better quality streams within its range" (Etnier and Starnes 1993). There are no threats known to be causing a significant decline in the population numbers of this species.	eng
184097	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Cyprinella venusta</em>. Further study is needed on the taxonomy of this species to ascertain if further revision of the genus is warranted.	eng
184097	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> extends from the Rio Grande basin in Texas to the Suwannee River drainage in Florida and Georgia, north to the Mississippi River basin, to southern Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and western and southern Tennessee (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 141,865 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184097	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is most commonly found in pools and runs of clear, sandy-bottomed, small to medium rivers, in areas of sparse vegetation and a strong current. Upland populations occur in creeks over more gravel/ rubble substrate (Lee <em>et al. </em>1980; Page and Burr 1991). Populations in the western part of the this species range are often found in turbid water. This species eggs are spawned into crevices.<br/><br/>Recent studies indicate that this species is able to outcompete <em>C. lutrensis</em>, especially in areas below reservoirs (Matthews and Marsh-Matthews 2007). Suttkus and Mette (2009) noted the complete extirpation of <em>C. lutrensis</em> from the Sabine River below a reservoir, where <em>C. venusta</em> numbers are stable or increasing.	eng
184097	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is represented by a very large number of subpopulations (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980). It is one of the most ubiquitous minnows in drainages along the northern gulf coast (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Boschung and Mayden 2004; Ross 2001).<br/><br/>The adult population size is unknown, but likely exceeds 1,000,000 individuals. <br/><br/>Extent of occurence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are thought to be relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184097	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that <em>Cyprinella venusta</em> is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.	eng
184098	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Notemigonus crysoleucas</em>. At present no further research is required on this species.	eng
184098	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The distribution for this species&#160;ranges from the Atlantic and Gulf slope drainages in Nova Scotia to southern Texas. This includes the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay (Red River), the Mississippi River basins west to Alberta, Montana, Wymoming, and western Oklahoma. This species has also been introduced and established in many other areas around western North America (Lee<em> et al.</em> 1980; Page and Burr 1991). The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 2,056,673 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184098	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species typically occupies clean, quiet, vegetated ponds and lakes but may also be found in sections of streams and rivers with low water velocity. This species spawns over beds of submerged vegetation and occassionally in the nests of the largemouth bass (Becker 1983).	eng
184098	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by a very large number of occurrences (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et a</em>l. 1980):&#160;The total adult population size is unknown but undoubtedly exceeds 1,000,000 individuals. This species is described as common to abundant in much of its range.<br/><br/>Warren<em> et al.</em> (2000) categorised the population trend as "currently stable" in the southeastern United States.	eng
184098	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes.	eng
184099	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Spirinchus thaleichthys</em> is listed as endangered in California (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995):&#160;Recovery strategies are needed for the Californian subpopulation.<br/><br/>Further research is needed on the threats to this species across its entire range.	eng
184099	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The range of this species&#160;extends along the Pacific coast of North America from the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary and Monterey Bay (single record), California, north to the southwestern Gulf of Alaska (westward beyond Prince William Sound to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), Alaska. The range of this species also includes Willapa Bay, Skagit Bay, Columbia River, Grays Harbor, and Puget Sound in Washington; Coos Bay and Yaquina Bay in Oregon; Fraser River estuary and near Prince Rupert and Vancouver in British Columbia; Dixon Entrance, Yakutat Bay, Prince William Sound, and Cook Inlet in Alaska; Van Duzen River in Eel River drainage, Russian River estuary, San Francisco Bay-Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, and the Gulf of the Farallones in California (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994; Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Mecklenburg <em>et al</em>. 2002; Moyle 2002; Wydoski and Whitney 2003). There has also been a few confirmed records of this species in the Klamath River mouth and this species is also thought to possibly be extirpated in Humboldt Bay.<br/><br/>Landlocked populations of this species&#160;occur in Harrison Lake, British Columbia, and lakes Washington and Union, Washington. (Page and Burr 1991; Moyle 2002; Wydoski and Whitney 2003).	eng
184099	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The habitat of this species&#160;includes a wide range of temperature and salinity conditions in coastal waters near shore, bays, estuaries, and rivers (Moyle 2002). Some populations of this species are landlocked in lakes. This species has been taken at depths up to at least 150 metres in the sea. Unverified records indicate presence up to several miles offshore in California and Alaska (Federal Register, 6 January 1994). In estuaries this fish  is usually found in the middle or bottom of the water column (Moyle 2002). Adults in lakes occupy deep water by day, move upward in water at night (Wydoski and Whitney 2003). Spawning occurs in fresh water, over sandy-gravel substrates, rocks, and aquatic plants (Moyle 2002). Anadromous populations spawn in fresh water close to the coast. After hatching, larvae move up into surface waters and are transported downstream into brackish-water nursery areas. Lake populations spawn in tributaries (Wydoski and Whitney 2003).	eng
184099	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is represented by at least a couple of dozen subpopulations (counting each estuary as a single occurrence or subpopulation).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100,000 individuals. This species may be common in Willapa Bay, Skagit Bay, and Puget Sound in Washington and in Coos Bay and Yaquina Bay in Oregon. <em>S. thaleichthys</em> is evidently common to highly abundant in the Columbia River and Grays Harbor, Washington. In Alaska, large numbers are found in the Gulf of Alaska (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994).<br/><br/>Declines are well documented in California, but there is a lack of trend information for most of the remainder of the range, where populations are generally considered common or abundant (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994). In the San Francisco Estuary this species historically exhibited wide fluctuations in abundance that paralleled variations in rainfall (lowest abundance during drought years) (Moyle 2002). In California, the species has declined dramatically since the early 1980s in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (Moyle 2002) and has apparently disappeared from Humboldt Bay. In the 1970s this fish was considered abundant in Humboldt Bay, California, but since 1983 numbers have plummeted. Despite extensive sampling it has not been collected from Humboldt Bay since 1994. The remaining California populations are small and of uncertain status (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Moyle 2002).<br/><br/>Current trends are not well documented in most of the range, but extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, and number of subpopulatioins probably are relatively stable or declining at a rate of less than 10 percent over 10years.	eng
184099	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Threats have been defined only in areas of known declines in the California portion of the range. Declines in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary in California are due mainly to the effects of water diversions from the Delta (Moyle 2002): Low flows result in upstream movement of the productive freshwater-saltwater mixing zone, constricting the size of favorable habitat and making the fishes vulnerable to diversion into water project pumps and structures (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994). It is unlikely that many individuals survive entrainment, but the degree of effect on larvae is not well known (Moyle <em>et al.</em> 1995). Low flows also fail to disperse larvae downstream into productive nursery areas in Suisun Bay (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994; Moyle <em>et al.</em> 1995). The causes for decline in the northern California estuaries are unknown but probably similar to the causes for declines in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary (Moyle <em>et al</em>. 1995; Moyle 2002). <br/><br/>Other potential threats include pesticide runoff from agricultural areas and invasions by exotic species such as clams and copepods (Moyle<em> et al.</em> 1995; Moyle 2002). Sedimentation due to human activities may also have an effect on northern California estuaries. The loss of tidal marsh habitat and resulting reduced productivity, together with reduced flows in the Mad River due to water diversions and land reclamation, may have caused disappearance from Humboldt Bay, California. Due to a two-year life cycle, relatively brief periods of reproductive failure could lead to extirpations (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994).	eng
184100	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Esox americanus</em>.	eng
184100	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The native range of this species&#160;emcompasses the Atlantic Slope from the St.Lawrence River drainage basin in Quebec, to Lake Okeechobee in Florida. The distribution of this species also extends from the Gulf drainage basins, west to the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes basins and Brazos River, Texas; north to Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan and southern Ontario. This species&#160;is absent in the Appalachian uplands (Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Page and Burr 1991).This species has also been introduced to various locations in the western United States (e.g. Washington, California, Colorado) and eastern United States.	eng
184100	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species can be found in a range of habitat types including small, quiet, heavily vegetated waters in streams, drainage canals, ponds and bays of small lakes (Crossman 1980). It is more commonly seen in streams than in lakes, over rocky or sandy substrata. The eggs of <em>E. americanus</em> sink and stick to the bottom and vegetation. Adults of this species may move upstream to spawn in flooded stream margins or marshes where vegetation is abundant (Scott and Crossman 1973) during the spring and occassionally winter months (Crossman 1980).	eng
184100	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Esox americanus</em> is represented by a very large number of occurrences (subpopulations) (e.g. see map in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980).<br/><br/>Total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100,000 and presumably exceeds 1,000,000. This species&#160;is common in many parts of its large range.<br/><br/>Extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are relatively stable or decreasing at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.<br/><br/>Populations in the southern United States are currently secure (Warren <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
184100	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
184101	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Lythrurus bellus</em>. At present no further research action actions or conservation measures are required.	eng
184101	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species' range encompasses middle and upper coastal plain streams of the Mobile Basin, Bear and Yellow creeks (Tennessee River drainage), Alabama (Boschung and Mayden 2004); northeastern Mississippi (Ross 2001); and western Georgia. The area in which this species is distributed is approximately 104,338 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184101	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	This species is commonly found in the pools of headwaters, creeks, and small rivers of low to moderate gradient. This species usually occurs over sand, silt, or clay bottoms, but is rarely found over gravel or bedrock (Snelson in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Ross 2001; Boschung and Mayden 2004). This species exhibits a tolerance for polluted waters (Ross 2001).	eng
184101	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Lythrurus bellus</em> is represented by hundreds of subpopulations (see map in Boschung and Mayden 2004).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is abundant in much of its range (Ross 2001; Bosching and Mayden 2004).&#160;Warren<em> et al.</em> (2000) described the population trend as "currently stable."	eng
184101	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at present.	eng
184102	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for <em>Percina aurora</em>. There are areas of this species distribution range that fall within state owned nature reserves and wildlife amangement areas such as the Desoto National Forest. <br/><br/>Conservation measures to protect the remaining habitat of <em>Percina aurora</em> is crucial as this species is close to qualifying for a higher threat category. Further research is needed to fully understand the impact that threats are having on the population numbers of this species. Monitoring of the population numbers and habitat status of this species is needed to determine the rate of population decline. Future conservation efforts should be based on further understanding of the key threats this species is under.	eng
184102	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The historical distribution for <em>Percina aurora</em> includes the Pearl and Pascagoula river drainages in Mississippi and Louisiana (Suttkus <em>et al.</em> 1994). This species is now apparently extirpated in the Pearl River drainage in both Mississippi and Louisiana (Ross 2001, Bart and Thompson, pers. comm., cited by Douglas and Jordan 2002).<br/><br/>Fish collections from the Pearl River drainage (Suttkus <em>et a</em>l. 1994) suggest that this species once inhabited the large tributaries and main channel habitats from St. Tammany Parish in Louisiana, to Simpson County in Mississippi, including sections of the Pearl River, Strong River, and Bogue Chitto River. Bruce Thompson made 27 samples at eight localities on the Bogue Chitto and Pearl rivers (historical locations and others) on 10 different dates from November 1998 to September 1999 and found no <em>P. aurora</em>. <br/><br/>Museum collections suggest that the Pearl darter had a historical noninclusive range of about 30 river miles of the Pascagoula River, 24 river miles of Black Creek, 48 river miles of the Leaf River, 24 river miles of Okatoma Creek, 102 river miles of the Chickasawhay River, 24 river miles of the Bouie River, and eight river miles of Chunky Creek.  Since 1983, Pearl darters have only been found in scattered sites including the Pascagoula, Chickasawhay, Chunky, Leaf, and Bouie rivers, and Okatoma and Black creeks (Bart and Piller 1997, Ross in press, USFWS 2001). Bart and Piller (1997) made 27 ancillary collections in 1996 and 1997 from the Pascagoula drainage and collected only 10 Pearl darters at four sites (the Leaf River at Estabutchie, lower Leaf River at Merril, Bouie River downstream of I-59 crossing, and Okatoma Creek at Collins). Three specimens were collected in the Leaf River at Estabutchie in the spring of 1998, whereas in December 1998 no Pearl darters were found in the upper reaches of the Leaf River between Estabutchie and north Hattiesburg (Bart and Ross pers. comm.). No Pearl darters were found in selected sites of the Chunky River in 1995 and 1997 (Bart pers. comm.). Suttkus <em>et al</em>. (1994) speculated that portions of the Leaf River and possibly the lower Black Creek may continue to support reproducing populations even though no recent collections have been made.<br/><br/>Fish collections from the Pearl River drainage (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994) suggest that the darter once inhabited approximately 96 miles of the Pearl River, 10 miles of the Strong River, and 32 miles of the Bogue Chitto River. This species is now believed to be absent from all these sites. <br/><br/>This species is thought to have an extent of occurrence of approximately 200 km².	eng
184102	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Percina aurora</em> have been recorded from a number of habitat types including slow to moderate currents, in deep runs over gravel or bedrock substrates, in sand pools with shallow riffles, in swift (90 cm/second) shallow water over firm, gravel and cobbles in mid-river channels, and in swift water near brush piles (Bart and Piller 1997, Ross 2001). A single post-spawning individual was collected in a deep sluggish run over silty sand (Bart and Piller 1997). Suttkus<em> et al.</em> (1994) mentioned that specimens were collected in rivers in slow to swift current over gravel substrate at depths of 0.5 m or more.	eng
184102	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Even before its description in 1994,<em> Percina aurora</em> was considered of conservation concern (Deacon <em>et al</em>. 1979) due to its rarity, infrequent collection, and occurrence at low numbers (Bart and Piller 1997). The Pearl darter was collected from only 14% of 716 fish collections from site specific locations within the Pearl River drainage, despite annual collection efforts by Suttkus from 1958 to 1973 (Bart and Suttkus 1996, Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994). No Pearl darters have been collected in the Pearl River drainage since 1973, even though Suttkus has made 64 fish collections over the last 25 years from the Pearl River (Bart and Piller 1997). Collection data from Bart and Piller (1997), Bart and Suttkus (1996), Suttkus <em>et al</em>. (1994), and Ross (in press) suggest that the Pearl darter is very rare in the Pascagoula River system. Bart and Piller (1997) examined Suttkus' work before 1974 and found that only 19 Pearl darters were collected out of 19,300 total fish in 10 Tulane University Museum of Natural History collections. Additionally, from the "Mississippi Freshwater Fishes Database," Dr. Stephen Ross (Bart and Piller 1997) estimated the rarity of the Pearl darter within the Pascagoula drainage from 379 collections (81.514 fish specimens) since 1973, and found only one Pearl darter collected for every 4,795 specimens.<br/><br/>This fish disappeared from several areas in the Pearl River in the 1970s (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994). Collections since the early 1980s indicate that the range has decreased by approximately 66% in the Pascagoula drainage (Bart and Piller 1997, USFWS 2001).	eng
184102	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	Removal of riparian vegetation and extensive cultivation adjacent to rivers have caused excessive rapid runoff, bank erosion, channel scouring, and silt deposition in the Pearl River drainage, evidently resulting in large population declines and possible extirpation of<em> Percina aurora</em> (Suttkus <em>et al</em>. 1994).<br/><br/>Because of this species restricted range within the Pascagoula drainage and localisation to specific habitats, the Pearl darter is vulnerable to non-point source pollution, changes in river and stream geomorphology, and other human-induced threats to its environment, such as dam construction. Non-point source pollution from land surface run-off can originate from virtually all land use activities, and may include sediments, fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, septic tank and grey water leakage, oils, and greases. Construction activities that involve significant earthworks typically increase sediment loads into nearby streams. Siltation sources include timber clear cutting, clearing of riparian vegetation, and mining and agricultural practices that allow exposed earth to enter streams. Practices that affect sediment and water discharges into a stream system change the erosion or sedimentation pattern, which can lead to the destruction of riparian vegetation, bank collapse, and increased water turbidity and temperature. Excessive sediments are believed to impact the habitat of darters and associated fish species by making it unsuitable for feeding and reproduction. Sediment has been shown to abrade and or suffocate periphyton, disrupt aquatic insect natural processes, and, ultimately, negatively impact fish growth, survival, and reproduction (Waters 1995).<br/><br/>In the Pascagoula drainage, water quality problems exist on the Leaf River from municipal run-off at Hattiesburg and dioxin contamination at New Augusta and on the Chickasawhay River from brine water releases from oil fields (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). Permitted effluents to the Pascagoula River Basin include ammonia, chloride, sodium sulphate, toluene, cyclohexane, and acetone (EPA 1989). Bart and Piller (1997) noted extensive algal growth during warmer months in the Leaf and Bouie rivers, suggesting nutrient and organic enrichment. Municipal and industrial discharges into the watershed, particularly during low water, concentrate pollutants. Releases from the Leaf River Paper Mill at New Augusta affect temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH in the lower reaches of the Leaf River. Existing housing and urbanisation along the banks of the Leaf River between I-59 and Estabutchie may contribute nutrient loading through sewage and septic water effluent. <br/><br/>The flora and fauna of many coastal plain streams have been adversely affected by accelerated geomorphic processes, specifically headcutting caused by in-stream sand and gravel mining (Patrick <em>et al</em>. 1993). The bed of the Bouie River is considered a significant natural resource by American Sand and Gravel (ASGC 1995). Historically, ASGC has mined sand and gravel using a hydraulic suction dredge, which is operated within the banks of the Bouie River. Sand and gravel mining has also occurred within, and adjacent to the Leaf River. Large sections of the river and its floodplain have been removed over the past 50 years resulting in the creation of very large open water areas that function as deep lake systems (ASGC 1995). Currently, only two permitted mines are operating within the Pascagoula drainage (Stan Phielling, Mississippi Geological Survey, Mining Office, pers. comm.). However, due to the permit exemption category for mining of less than four acres and less than ¼ mile from other mine sites, there are numerous non-permitted operators mining gravel throughout the Pascagoula and Pearl river drainages (Stan Phielling, Mississippi Geological Survey, Mining Office, pers. comm.). Hartfield (1993) and Patrick and Hartfield (1996) investigated the negative impacts of stream erosion due to headcutting on aquatic life in several Mississippi river drainages and believed that the drainages were also experiencing geomorphic instability caused by in-stream sand and gravel mining. Mining in active river channels typically results in incision upstream of the mine (by nickpoint migration) and sediment deposition downstream. The upstream migration of nickpoints or headcutting may cause undermining of structures, lowering of alluvial water tables, channel de-stabilisation and widening, and loss of aquatic and riparian habitat. Geomorphic change, particularly headcutting, may cause the extirpation of riparian and lotic species (Patrick <em>et a</em>l. 1993). Lyttle (1993) and Brown and Lyttle (1992) found that in-stream gravel mining reduces overall fish species diversity in Ozark streams and favours a large number of a few small fish species. Patrick <em>et al</em>.(1993) documented geomorphic changes that were adversely affecting the Bayou darter, an endangered species endemic to the Bayou Pierre basin.  Bart and Piller (1997) attributed the decline of the Pearl Darter in the Leaf and Bouie rivers and Black Creek of the Pascagoula drainage, to threats from siltation caused by unstable banks and loose and unconsolidated stream beds. Bart (pers. comm.) believes that bank erosion and bar migration on the Leaf River at Eastabutchie is affecting the riffles where the only known spawning of the Pearl Darter, is occurring. <br/><br/>The confluence of the Bouie and Leaf rivers, within the Pascagoula drainage, possibly provides significant habitat for the Pearl darter. Fish collections from this area indicate that it may be a site critical for maintaining the current population of Pearl darters. The Bouie River at the confluence with the Leaf River is being considered by the city of Hattiesburg to be dammed and used as a major water supply (The Clarion-Ledger, October 28, 1998, Jackson, Mississippi). Such a project would substantially alter and fragment significant occupied habitat of the Pearl darter in the Bouie River. Locality records (1997) of the Pearl Darter within the gravel mine area of the Bouie River in Hattiesburg place the species within the exact vicinity of the proposed dam (Ross pers. comm.). Pearl Darters have not been collected in impounded waters and are intolerable of lentic habitats.  <br/><br/>The current range of the Pearl Darter is restricted to localised sites within the Pascagoula River drainages. Genetic diversity has likely declined due to fragmentation and separation of populations. The long-term viability of a species is founded on conservation of numerous local populations throughout its geographic range (Harris 1984). These features are essential for the species to recover and adapt to environmental change (Noss <em>et al</em>. 1994, Harris 1984). Populations of Pearl Darters are becoming increasingly disjunct. This disjunct distribution makes these populations vulnerable to extirpation from catastrophic events, such as toxic spills, large in-stream gravel mining projects, or changes in flow regime. <br/><br/>In general, small species of fish such as the Pearl Darter, which are not utilised for either sport or bait purposes, are unknown to the general public. Therefore, harvesting of this species by the general public is not considered a problem. Scientific collecting and take by private and institutional collectors, is also presently not thought to be a threat. Scientific collecting is controlled by the State through permits. <br/><br/>Predation upon the Pearl Darter undoubtedly occurs. However, there is no evidence to suggest that disease or natural predators threaten this species. To the extent that disease or predation occur, it becomes a more important factor as the total population decreases in number.	eng
184103	conservation	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, or needed, for <em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em>.	eng
184103	distribution	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	The native range of <em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> includes coastal lowlands (Coastal Plain, and lower and middle Piedmont) from extreme southern New York (lower Hudson River drainage), south to southern and extreme western Florida, lower Tombigbee River in Alabama, and the Biloxi Bay system of Mississippi (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994; Ross 2001). This species has been introduced and established in small parts of the Finger Lakes drainage in New York (Werner 1972; Smith 1985), and the lower Mississippi River basin (Ross 2001).	eng
184103	habitat	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> is commonly found over sand or mud substrate, in pools and backwaters of heavily vegetated, sluggish creeks and medium-sized rivers. It has also been found in ponds, lakes, and small impoundments (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). In some areas, it inhabits moderate-gradient headwaters with pools and runs with submergent vegetation or tree roots (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). The lower extent of this species range sees it in brackish water along the coast, however it is more commonly found in freshwater habitats. Eggs are laid on the bottom or among plants, in a solitary nest made by the male in a small territory (Cooper 1983).	eng
184103	population	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	<em>Enneacanthus gloriosus</em> is represented by a large number of subpopulations (e.g. see maps in Lee <em>et al</em>. 1980; Menhinick 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The total adult population size is unknown but is thought to exceed 100,000 individuals. This species is described as common to uncommon within its range (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).<br/><br/>The extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size are probably relatively stable, or declining at a rate of less than 10% over 10 years or three generations.	eng
184103	threats	NatureServe (G. Hammerson), 2007	It is unlikely that this species&#160;is being impacted upon by any major threat processes at the present time. Coastal development poses a threat to this species (Albanese pers. comm.), however considering this species preference for inland freshwaters, this is unlikely to pose a significant risk to the global population of this species.	eng
184138	population		The global population size has not been quantified, but this species is described as 'fairly common' (Stotz et al. (1996).	eng
184161	conservation		<strong>Conservation actions underway</strong><br/>It is present in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>.<br/><br/><strong>Conservation actions proposed</strong><b/r><strong>Assess the population size and establish a monitoring programme to establish trends. Establish its ability to persist in degraded habitats. Identify and assess threats. Ensure that the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is effectively protected.</strong>	eng
184161	distribution		<em>Robsonius rabori</em> is found in north-east Luzon in the <strong>Philippines</strong>. It is considered uncommon, although tape playback indicates it may be more common than suspected<strong><sup>1</sup></strong>. The population is thought to be declining owing to habitat destruction<strong><sup>1,2</sup></strong>.	eng
184161	habitat		This species is found in lowland forest and second growth from sea-level to 1000 m. It presumably feeds on invertebrates, and has been observed walking across the forest floor searching for prey in the leaf litter, sometimes in pairs<strong><sup>1,3</sup></strong>.	eng
184161	population		The global population size has not been quantified though it has been described as uncommon. However, it may be more common than suggested by field observations owing to its secretive habits (del Hoyo <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
184165	conservation	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	There are no conservation measures in place, although further research is needed looking at the life history and threats of the species.	eng
184165	distribution	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	This is a widely distributed species in Mexico.	eng
184165	habitat	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	<em>I. lennoni</em> is a demersal, viviparous species.	eng
184165	population	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	The population appears to be currently stable, although detailed information is unknown.	eng
184165	threats	Snoeks, J., Laleye, P. & MacBeath, T., 2007	No threats are known.	eng
184181	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184181	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is known from two localities in Congo (Makaba, Dimonika) and from three or more in Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa, Eala, Kungu).	eng
184181	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No precise information, but most likely to be found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
184181	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184181	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184182	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184182	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
184182	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Tanzania (Mpanda, Kigoma), Uganda (Bwamba Forest, “20 miles west of Kampala”, Budonogo Forest), Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).	eng
184182	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Tanzania (Mpanda, Kigoma), Uganda (Bwamba Forest, “20 miles west of Kampala”, Budonogo Forest), and Democratic Republic of Congo (Ituri Forest).	eng
184182	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184182	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184182	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184182	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184182	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
184182	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Habitat loss due to forest destruction and agriculture are major causes of threat.	eng
184183	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable	eng
184183	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184183	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Population trends should be monitored.	eng
184183	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ivorian type material and Central African Republic (Legrand 1980), Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and also present in the Central African Republic.	eng
184183	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ivorian type material (Legrand 1980) and Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from Central African Republic (Legrand 1980).	eng
184183	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia. It is also known from Central African Republic (Legrand 1980).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Ivorian type material (Legrand 1980) and Cameroon, Benin, Ghana and Liberia (seen by Dijkstra).	eng
184183	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested streams.	eng
184183	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested streams.	eng
184183	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams.	eng
184183	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184183	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184183	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184183	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184183	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184183	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184184	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184184	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Gabon (Ipassa, Mokokou) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala and Busu Bombenga).	eng
184184	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around temporary rainforest pools.	eng
184184	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184184	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information is available, but it is most likely to be threatened by rainforest destruction.	eng
184185	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184185	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184185	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Threats to this species should be monitored.	eng
184185	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Gabon.	eng
184185	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.	eng
184185	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been recorded from Congo Basin to Sierra Leone. Replaces the much commoner <em>P. iridipennis</em> on rainforest rivers.<br/><br/>In central Africa present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, and Gabon. Present from Cameroon to Sierra Leone in western Africa.	eng
184185	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest rivers.	eng
184185	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest rivers.	eng
184185	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest rivers.	eng
184185	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184185	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184185	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184185	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184185	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184185	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184186	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184186	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184186	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184186	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from north east  Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo (record needs confirmation); presence in Cameroon is assumed.	eng
184186	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone eastwards.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone.	eng
184186	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species replaces <em>P. cognatus</em> from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone. Present in central Africa in Democratic Republic of Congo, and assumed in Cameroon. Recorded in western Africa from Sierra Leone eastwards.	eng
184186	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open streams and rivers.	eng
184186	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open streams and rivers.	eng
184186	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open streams and rivers.	eng
184186	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184186	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184186	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184186	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184186	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184186	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184187	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184187	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality "Dundo, Angola" in northern Angola (locality is uncertain), and the border to Democratic Republic of Congo. It is most likely to occur in southern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184187	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is most likely found in and around forest streams	eng
184187	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184187	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184188	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184188	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality in Rwanda (1,500 m asl, West Rwanda, Nyungwe Forest). It is likely to occur in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo as well, but this is not confirmed.	eng
184188	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but most likely to occur in rainforest streams.	eng
184188	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184188	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184189	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184189	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kabongo).	eng
184189	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184189	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184189	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184190	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.	eng
184190	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from an area around Makokou in Gabon, and in Congo (this record needs confirmation).	eng
184190	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The taxon is known from flooded 'anthropogenic savannah' - forest clearings, within forest matrix.	eng
184190	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184190	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184191	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184191	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184191	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184191	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species ranges from north-east Republic of Congo to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in south-east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded in Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo; expected to be present in Cameroon.	eng
184191	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from north-east Congo-Kinshasa to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in the south east.	eng
184191	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species ranges from north-east Congo to Cameroon, just entering Nigeria in south-east.	eng
184191	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184191	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184191	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184191	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184191	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184191	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184191	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184191	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184191	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184192	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184192	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Gabon.	eng
184192	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest rivers.	eng
184192	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184192	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184194	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
184194	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species is endemic to the central Africa region. Known from Cameroon (6 records) and Central African Republic (one record). The Sierra Leone record is erroneous (Dijkstra 2003).	eng
184194	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Probably rainforest streams. Appears to be a lowland species, but no information on the altitude of the Mt. Cameroon records.	eng
184194	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
184194	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
184195	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Research required into the species' taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.	eng
184195	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Larvae of the genus <em>Onychogomphus</em> have been found in Ethiopia, which might be this species. An old record lists <em>O. nigrotibialis</em> for Ethiopia, which is uncertain. The genus <em>Onychogomphus</em> is present in the region, the exact species requires more research.	eng
184195	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	No information available.	eng
184195	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	Population size is unknown.	eng
184195	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2005	No information available.	eng
184196	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research required into the population numbers and range for this species, as well as trends/monitoring.	eng
184196	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Angola, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo (Bobey, Busu Lite, Eala, Bomboma, Busu-Gbandi, Busu-Bombenga, Ebuku,  Kambaye and Bambesa).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is listed for Somalia by Tsuda, which is a mistake as this tropical species is unlikely to occur in Somalia.	eng
184196	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest streams and/or rivers.	eng
184196	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184196	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184198	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184198	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality Lokutu in Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2007).	eng
184198	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been found along a steep bank of the main channel of the Congo River (less than one kilometre broad), where bushes and trees overhang the water. The damselflies were perched on <span style="font-style: italic;">Eichhornia </span>and emergent twigs low above the water.	eng
184198	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184198	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184199	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184199	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184199	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184199	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from four disjunct areas that coincide with pleistocene rainforest refugia, and coloration different in each: east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire; south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon; north east Gabon; north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from northeastern Gabon, northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, and southwestern Cameroon.	eng
184199	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from four disjunct areas (only 2 in the region) that coincide with pleistocene rainforest refugia, and coloration different in each: east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire; south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The other two locations are in north east Gabon and north east Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
184199	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from four disjunct areas in east Liberia and south west Cote d'Ivoire, south east Nigeria, south west Cameroon, north east Gabon and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in north-eastern Gabon, north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and south western Cameroon.	eng
184199	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Only known from Pleistocene rainforest refugia, probably breeds in inundated areas along streams.	eng
184199	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Only known from Pleistocene rainforest refugia, probably breeds in inundated areas along streams.	eng
184199	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Only known from Pleistocene rainforest refugia, probably breeds in inundated areas along streams.	eng
184199	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184199	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184199	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184199	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184199	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184199	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184200	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184200	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184200	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184200	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from south east Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.	eng
184200	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to central Congo Basin.	eng
184200	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from southeastern Nigeria to Central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Cong and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
184200	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184200	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184200	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184200	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184200	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184200	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184200	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184200	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184200	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184201	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably benefits from the creation of artificial lakes in the savannah zone (Parr 1974).	eng
184201	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably benefits from the creation of artificial lakes in the savannah zone (Parr 1974).	eng
184201	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably benefits from the creation of artificial lakes in the savannah zone (Parr 1974). Research into population numbers and range would be valuable.	eng
184201	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from the Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo; northern Cameroon and the Central African Republic likely	eng
184201	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.	eng
184201	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is known from scattered records from Central African Republic, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, northern Cameroon likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria and Sierra Leone.	eng
184201	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially Echinochloa pyramidalis, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).	eng
184201	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially <em>Echinochloa pyramidalis</em>, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).	eng
184201	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Lakes with emergent grasses, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Echinochloa pyramidalis</span>, in savannah and woodland (Parr 1972, 1974a, 1974b, 1977).	eng
184201	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184201	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184201	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184201	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184201	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184201	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184202	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184202	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo (Busu-Bombenga, Dongo and Eala).	eng
184202	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, most likely rainforest streams.	eng
184202	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184202	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184203	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184203	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None. Research required into the taxonomy for this species.	eng
184203	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research required into the taxonomy for this species.	eng
184203	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is described from various countries of the northern savannah belt (Ethiopia to Ivory Coast). <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from several records from Ethiopia and Eritrea, for Sudan assumed.	eng
184203	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Mali east to Central African Republic.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from Liberia and Mali east to Ethiopia and Yemen.	eng
184203	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Mali east to Ethiopia and Yemen. Described from various countries of the northern savannah belt (Ethiopia to Cote d'Ivoire).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is known from several records from Ethiopia and Eritrea, and it is assumed to be present in Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Mali, east to Centra African Republic.	eng
184203	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Fast, rocky sections of open rivers.	eng
184203	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Large rivers	eng
184203	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Large rivers.	eng
184203	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184203	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184203	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184203	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184203	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184203	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
184204	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable. Habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
184204	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184204	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. Habitat restoration is needed, along with the creation of corridors.	eng
184204	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within the Central African Republic	eng
184204	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only indication of its presence in western Africa is a specimen from Yeale (Cote d'Ivoire) in Paris museum (Dijkstra 2005).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184204	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo; possibly present within Central African Republic.<br/><br/>The only indication of its presence in western Africa is a specimen from Yeale (Cote d'Ivoire) in Paris museum (Dijkstra 2005).	eng
184204	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest.	eng
184204	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest.	eng
184204	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This is a forest species.	eng
184204	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184204	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184204	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184204	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation.	eng
184204	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Deforestation for logging and agricultural expansion is a threat around Yeale.	eng
184204	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction, for logging and agricultural expansion, is a threat around Yeale.	eng
184205	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184205	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184205	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
184205	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon (eastern limit unknown).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo; reported from Equatorial Guinea, and occurrence in Gabon likely.	eng
184205	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea to Cameroon outside the western Africa region, however the species eastern limit is unknown.	eng
184205	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea to Cameroon outside the western Africa region, however the species eastern limit is unknown. Everything east of western Cameroon are unlikely; eastern Cameroon should be ignored.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, occurrence in Gabon likely.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea to Cameroon.	eng
184205	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
184205	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams.	eng
184205	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest streams.	eng
184205	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184205	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184205	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184205	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184205	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184205	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184206	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184206	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More information is needed on threats to this species.	eng
184206	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into threats, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
184206	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin, wherever there is decent rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone and in Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the central Congo basin (Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo), and likely to be present in Cameroon.	eng
184206	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon, wherever there is decent rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin.	eng
184206	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Liberia and Guinea to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Liberia and Guinea to Cameroon, wherever there is rainforest. Must also occur in Sierra Leone.	eng
184206	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184206	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184206	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184206	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184206	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184206	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184206	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
184206	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184206	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184207	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184207	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.	eng
184207	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
184207	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon.	eng
184207	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea	eng
184207	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Cameroon to Sierra Leone and Guinea, wherever there are reasonable areas of rainforest.	eng
184207	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184207	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184207	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184207	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184207	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184207	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184207	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
184207	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184207	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184208	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184208	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184208	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184208	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is only recorded from Cameroon.	eng
184208	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is found in Takamanda Forest, south west Cameroon and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (but currently no records).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).	eng
184208	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and also likely to be present in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south west Cameroon (Takamanda forest and other areas) and probably adjacent south east Nigeria (found in Takamanda Forest, Nigeria).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest, south west Cameroon and it is probably on the region adjacent south east Nigeria, although it has not been currently recorded from here.	eng
184208	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184208	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184208	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184208	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184208	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184208	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184208	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184208	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184208	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184209	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species population and range, biology and ecology, and potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.	eng
184209	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Somalia and Ethiopia.	eng
184209	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Pools and slow waters in arid areas.	eng
184209	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184209	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184210	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184210	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Cameroon but no further details are available apart from McLachlan's collection of Natural History Museum (London), Congo (Tervuren) and Gabon. Not much information is available but it is possibly also present in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184210	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams and rivers.	eng
184210	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184210	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation is thought to threaten the species.	eng
184211	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184211	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184211	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
184211	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in central Democratic Republic of Congo from a single disjunct record.	eng
184211	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
184211	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra unpubl.)<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from central Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.	eng
184211	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested rivers.	eng
184211	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested rivers.	eng
184211	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested rivers.	eng
184211	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184211	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184211	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184211	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184211	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184211	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction is a threat to the species.	eng
184212	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into threats, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184212	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been described by Compte Sart (1964) from "Kama (Kogo)", which should be Cogo in the extreme southwest of Rio Muni (continental part of Equatorial Guinea). Two males were recorded by Legrand from Mvouti in the southwestern corner of Congo, Brazzaville. Type locality was re-examined by Legrand and found close but distinct from Cameroonian <em>E. pruinosa</em>. Also new records from a number of localities in Gabon have become available.	eng
184212	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely rainforest streams.	eng
184212	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184212	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.	eng
184213	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184213	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184213	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species taxonomy, habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184213	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo basin and a record from Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from records in the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184213	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from one record, subspecies lamtoensis described from Cote d'Ivoire; nominate from Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo basin.	eng
184213	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is known from the Congo basin. Ivory Coast record described as separate sub-species.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Congo basin and a record from Cote d'Ivoire<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from one record, subspecies <span style="font-style: italic;">lamtoensis </span>described from Cote d'Ivoire; nominate from Congo Basin.	eng
184213	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably forest rivers.	eng
184213	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably forest rivers.	eng
184213	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forest rivers.	eng
184213	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184213	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184213	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184213	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184213	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184213	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184214	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184214	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184214	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184214	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184214	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from west to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea	eng
184214	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from north-east Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone and Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is present west to Sierra Leone and Guinea; probably present wherever there is some forest.	eng
184214	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Streams, swamps and pools in forest.	eng
184214	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Streams, swamps and pools in forest.	eng
184214	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Streams, swamps and pools in forest.	eng
184214	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184214	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184214	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184214	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
184214	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184214	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are forest destruction through agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
184215	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184215	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184215	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184215	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon. It is expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present. Extending to Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon. All records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as<em> C. radix</em> (Dijkstra 2003). <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, a record from Congo needs confirmation.	eng
184215	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon. Expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon extending to Democratic Republic of Congo, All records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as C. radix (Dijkstra 2003).	eng
184215	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species replaces <em>C. radix</em> in Cameroon extending to Democratic Republic of Congo, all records of <em>C. glauca</em> further west are considered as <em>C. radix</em> (Dijkstra 2003). Congo specimens were seen by Dijkstra and its validity confirmed, also Gabon. Suitable habitat present between the two collection areas and likely present between the two.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, a record from Congo needs confirmation.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest in Cameroon. Expected to be found in south east Nigeria, but no records are currently present.	eng
184215	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184215	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184215	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184215	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184215	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184215	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184215	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to agriculture and wood extraction, is believed to be affecting to the species.	eng
184215	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184215	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184216	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184216	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from Mount Kupe, Jide River to the south-west province of Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.), near Bamenda. Probably endemic to the Cameroon Highlands.	eng
184216	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around montane streams.	eng
184216	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184216	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184217	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184217	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from Democratic Republic of Congo, and a record from Congo that needs confirmation.	eng
184217	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information is available, it is most likely found in and around rainforest streams/rivers.	eng
184217	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184217	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184218	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184218	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from two localities, one in Congo (near Brazzaville) and one in Democratic Republic of Congo (Mongati à l’Est de Kinshasa).	eng
184218	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but probably rainforest streams.	eng
184218	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184218	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation caused by wood extraction.	eng
184220	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184220	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from various localities in the Congo Basin, all records within Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184220	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, probably swampy forest areas.	eng
184220	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184220	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184221	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184221	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Its occurrence in Gabon is likely.	eng
184221	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It is found in and around forest rivers.	eng
184221	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184221	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely threatened by forest destruction.	eng
184222	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184222	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. The taxonomy of the species requires confirmation, and more research into threats to this species is needed.	eng
184222	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into threats, trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
184222	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, Cameroon, and likely to be present in Equatorial Guinea.	eng
184222	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused.	eng
184222	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Gabon and possibly further east, but taxonomy confused.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Gabon, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone and Guinea to Nigeria. Remarkably listed by Legrand (2003) for Guinea-Bissau, but not Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
184222	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184222	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184222	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184222	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184222	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184222	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184222	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184222	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184222	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184223	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but population monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184223	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184223	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Population trends should be monitored. More research into threats to this species is required.	eng
184223	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria (incl. Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra, unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Bioko).	eng
184223	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria (including the. Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria and south west Ghana.	eng
184223	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Bioko, Nigeria and south west Ghana.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Bioko.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria (including Ondo and Plateau provinces) and south west Ghana (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
184223	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184223	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184223	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184223	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184223	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184223	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184223	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184223	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture is a threat to the species.	eng
184223	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184224	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184224	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species is known only from Lake Tanganyika (Cammaerts 2004). Known from dubious records in Somalia and erroneously listed for Nigeria, but it is considered that records other than those given in Cammaerts (2004) are considered erroneous.	eng
184224	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Lake Tanganyika.	eng
184224	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
184224	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
184225	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184225	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184225	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184225	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Congo.	eng
184225	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.	eng
184225	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is present from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon, and in Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea. Records from Democratic Republic of Congo are erroneous.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
184225	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested streams and small rivers.	eng
184225	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested streams and small rivers.	eng
184225	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and small rivers.	eng
184225	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184225	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184225	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184225	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184225	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184225	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction due to agriculture and logging.	eng
184226	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184226	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has only been recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184226	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
184226	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184226	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184227	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184227	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The species is present in Bwindi National Park (Uganda).	eng
184227	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
184227	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184227	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184228	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184228	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Mobeka and Lokutu in Democratic Republic of Congo and from eastern Congo.	eng
184228	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
184228	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184228	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to this species.	eng
184229	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184229	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into habitat status would be valuable.	eng
184229	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the habitat status of this species is needed.	eng
184229	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is described from north east  Democratic Republic of Congo and assessor confirms records from Sierra Leone; records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and the Central African Republic therefore appear probable.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Gabon.	eng
184229	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been described from north east Democratic Republic of Congo and records from Sierra Leone; there are records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Central African Republic therefore appear probable.	eng
184229	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been described from north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and records from Sierra Leone; records from Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, therefore Nigeria and Central African Republic appear probable. The Gabonese record is dubious (within rainforest, and this is a savannah species).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.	eng
184229	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably woodland or savannah.	eng
184229	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably woodland or savannah.	eng
184229	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably woodland or savannah.	eng
184229	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	A very scarce species.	eng
184229	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184229	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184229	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184229	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184229	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184230	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures.	eng
184230	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Species endemic to Gabon, only known from the type locality Nyamé Pendé River, Makokou, and from the Balé and Belé River in the vicinity (Legrand 1984).	eng
184230	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
184230	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184230	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is known to threat to the species.	eng
184231	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184231	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184231	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.  Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184231	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type material of bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo. Its presence in Congo and Cameroon is assumed.	eng
184231	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Guinea (as synonym diplacoides) and Sierra Leone (as synonym <em>leonensis</em>)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type material of bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea Sierra Leone.	eng
184231	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is only known from the type material of Bella (north east Congo-Kinshasa) and from two synonyms from Guinea and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, in Congo and Cameroon assumed<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea (as synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">diplacoides</span>) and Sierra Leone (as synonym <span style="font-style: italic;">leonensis</span>)	eng
184231	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184231	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown.	eng
184231	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
184231	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184231	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184231	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184231	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184231	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184231	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184232	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184232	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184232	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184232	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congoongo, Guinea (Nimba) and Cote d'Ivoire (Tai Forest). The distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon. Likely to be present in Republic of Congo.	eng
184232	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only on Mt Nimba (Guinea) and in Tai Forest (Cote d'Ivoire) and listed for Nigeria by Medler (1980). This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184232	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea (Nimba), Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea (Nimba) and Cote d'Ivoire (Tai Forest). The distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only on Mount Nimba, (Papua New Guinea) and in Tai Forest (Cote d'Ivoire) and listed for Nigeria by Medler (1980). This distribution pattern probably reflects that the species is hard to find, although it may also be rare.	eng
184232	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small streams and seepage in rainforest.	eng
184232	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small streams in rainforest.	eng
184232	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Small streams in rainforest; not found in drier areas and savanna.	eng
184232	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184232	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184232	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None.	eng
184232	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184232	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184232	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
184233	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats to this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184233	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been found from an area around Lokutu, central Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2008). It is the only <em>Platycypha</em> species found in central Democratic Republic of Congo. The species may be localised. Despite being conspicuous, it is absent from the substantial collections in Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale. Well-sampled sites nearest to Lokutu are larger than 350 km away in Democratic Republic of Congo (Dijkstra 2007b).	eng
184233	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found on three clear sandy streams (2 to 5 m broad) within 5 km from the Congo River. Two streams were in dense forest and largely shaded. The other ran along an oil palm plantation and was largely sunny.	eng
184233	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184233	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to the species.	eng
184234	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184234	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from one location within Zambia on the Democratic Republic of Congo border.	eng
184234	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely forest habitats, swampy dambo on a river.	eng
184234	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184234	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No enough information available, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184235	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required.	eng
184235	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is only known from the type locality in northern Zambia: Kamankundju River, Sakeji, Ikelenge, Mwinilunga. Occurrence in southern Democratic Republic of Congo might be anticipated.	eng
184235	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184235	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184235	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184236	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184236	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184236	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring this species.	eng
184236	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo	eng
184236	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.	eng
184236	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from south east Nigeria to Gabon, possibly further east.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and possibly also present in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
184236	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184236	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184236	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184236	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184236	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184236	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184236	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184236	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area as a result of logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184236	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184237	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184237	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184237	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184237	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in western Cameroon.	eng
184237	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It also occurs in Cameroon outside the western Africa region.	eng
184237	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea and Liberia to Cameroon, must also occur in forest areas of Sierra Leone and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon	eng
184237	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184237	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184237	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184237	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184237	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184237	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184237	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184237	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184237	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184238	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184238	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184238	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into possible threats to this species, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184238	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> At the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and the Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo.	eng
184238	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also present in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville.	eng
184238	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is found in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville, Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Nigeria, Ghana and Cameroon; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, Central African Republic, Cameroon and Congo; occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo assumed. Single record from western Democratic Republic of Congo confirmed (a further record from south east Democratic Republic of Congo is correctly identified but locations is likely to be incorrect).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from the foot of highlands: Loma in Sierra Leone, Nimba in Guinea, Adamawa massif in Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic, and Atewa range in Ghana.	eng
184238	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams at foot of highlands, appears associated with sections of rapid flow, e.g. near waterfalls (Dijkstra unpub.).	eng
184238	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams at foot of highlands, appears associated with sections of rapid flow, e.g. near waterfalls (Dijkstra unpub.).	eng
184238	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams at foot of highlands, appears to be associated with sections of rapid flow, e.g. near waterfalls (Dijkstra unpub.).	eng
184238	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184238	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184238	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184238	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in parts of the species range, could be a threat to the species. In Nimba and Atewa there is the potential threat of mining.	eng
184238	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in parts of the species range, could be a threat to the species. In Nimba and Atewa there is the potential threat of mining.	eng
184238	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in parts of the species range, could be a threat to the species. In Nimba and Atewa there is the potential threat of mining.	eng
184239	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184239	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable.	eng
184239	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from north Sierra Leone (Kamabai) and Mali, as well as north Benin (Tanougou).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also recorded from Sudan (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
184239	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from north Sierra Leone (Kamabai) and Mali, as well as north Benin (Tanougou). Also recorded from Sudan (Dijkstra unpubl.).	eng
184239	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Savannah streams.	eng
184239	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Savannah streams.	eng
184239	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184239	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184239	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184239	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184240	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184240	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based activities are also required.	eng
184240	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in west Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184240	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	This species is found in forest in west Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo. There are also records in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi.	eng
184240	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in and around rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
184240	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest streams (also montane).	eng
184240	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184240	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184240	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
184240	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species is threatened by forest destruction as a result of agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
184241	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184241	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The species has been recorded from Mount Elgon, East Mau Escarpment (both Kenya).	eng
184241	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Found in and around rivers.	eng
184241	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184241	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to water extraction, drainage and destruction of habitats caused by agriculture (mainly livestock) and wood extraction.	eng
184242	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184242	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184242	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184242	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon. Also reported from the Central African Republic.	eng
184242	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.	eng
184242	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from southern Nigeria to Equatorial Guinea and possibly further east: similar <em>P. superbum</em> in Democratic Republic of Congo may be a synonym.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from southern Nigeria and south-west Cameroon.	eng
184242	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184242	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184242	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184242	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184242	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184242	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184242	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184242	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184242	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184243	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184243	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184243	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None in place. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184243	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria and a still to be confirmed record from Congo. It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon; possibly present in Congo.	eng
184243	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon and Nigeria (assumed south east Nigeria). It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria.	eng
184243	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species was first described from Gabon and also listed for Cameroon and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, and also likely in Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south west Cameroon and Nigeria (assumed south east Nigeria). It is believed the species is more widespread in this region even though it is known from a few records, but this is most likely due to the fact that the species is very difficult to catch.	eng
184243	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184243	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184243	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184243	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No informaiton.	eng
184243	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184243	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184243	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184243	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184243	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184244	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184244	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known only from Congo, Brazzaville (e.g., Etoumbi forest) (Aguesse 1966; Legrand and Lachaise 1980). Also seen material from near Brazzaville (Dijkstra).	eng
184244	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
184244	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184244	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation is a threat to the species.	eng
184245	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184245	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is endemic to the Congo Basin, where it is widespread (Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea).	eng
184245	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around streams in rainforest areas.	eng
184245	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184245	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184246	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184246	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184246	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species.	eng
184246	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia; Bambesa; Eala; Bobey; Busira), Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon; also reported from Angola.	eng
184246	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184246	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Gambia to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Bunia, Bambesa, Eala, Bobey, Busira), Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Gambia to Nigeria.	eng
184246	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams and rivers.	eng
184246	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest streams and rivers.	eng
184246	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest streams and rivers.	eng
184246	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184246	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184246	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184246	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
184246	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184246	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184247	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184247	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184247	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None known.	eng
184247	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Gabon, Bioko, Cameroon, Congo-Brazaville, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinee-C, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), and Gabon.	eng
184247	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also recorded from Gabon, Bioko, Cameroon and Congo-Brazaville.	eng
184247	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Gabon, Bioko (Equatorial Guinea), Cameroon and Congo. Scattered records from Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone require renewed study.	eng
184247	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184247	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184247	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably rainforest streams.	eng
184247	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184247	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184247	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184247	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction.	eng
184247	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184247	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by wood extraction is a major threat to the species.	eng
184248	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, and habitat status would be valuable.	eng
184248	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184248	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required.	eng
184248	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Garamba) and the Central African Republic. Expected from Congo, and reported from Cameroon (requires confirmation).	eng
184248	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea Bissau to Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184248	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Guinea Bissau to north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from northeast Democratic Republic of Congo (Garamba), record from Cameroon needs confirmation, expected from northern Central African Republic and Congo.	eng
184248	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably savannah.	eng
184248	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably savannah.	eng
184248	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably savannah.	eng
184248	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184248	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184248	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184248	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184248	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184248	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184249	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184249	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been found in Democratic Republic of Congo and Central African Republic. According to Lindley (1980), it is "undoubtedly widespread around Bouar".	eng
184249	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in gallery forest along streams.	eng
184249	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184249	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184250	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184250	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from two localities in the Mayombe Hills, western Congo Brazzaville.	eng
184250	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information is available, but the species is probably found in and around forest streams or rivers.	eng
184250	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184250	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184251	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184251	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184251	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: forests in central and western Uganda, locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. flavipes</em>) is probably wrong.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184251	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is found in Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Uganda. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon<br/><br/>In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi. It is known from forests in central and western Uganda. The locality "Kibwezi" in Kenya (given for <em>P. flavipes</em>) is probably wrong.<br/><br/>The species is reported from other parts of Africa (including western Africa) but these reports originate from prior confusion (due to poor description of the species) around this species (Dijkstra<em> et al</em>. 2006).	eng
184251	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest.	eng
184251	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Streams in dense rainforest.	eng
184251	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184251	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184251	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
184251	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184252	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The specimen from the Limpopo River needs to be further investigated to determine whether its identification is correct. Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184252	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species is known from four records from the Democratic Republic of Congo, and widespread all along the Congo.	eng
184252	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It is known from large rivers.	eng
184252	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184252	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184253	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184253	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Its global distribution comprises several localities around Makokou in Gabon.	eng
184253	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It lives in small temporary forest ponds.	eng
184253	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184253	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184254	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184254	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The taxon has been found in rainforests along the Albertine Rift, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, and possibly is present in Tanzania. In eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Burundi, near Kampala, Budongo and Bwamba Forests.	eng
184254	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Found in and around forest streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
184254	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184254	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	The major threats to the species are habitat loss through drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture, as well as water pollution.	eng
184255	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184255	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184255	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring this species.	eng
184255	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa assessment region:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.	eng
184255	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from south east Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184255	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is known from southeast Nigeria and Cameroon to Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is present in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo and Equatorial Guinea, and likely to be present also in Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from south east Nigeria and south west Cameroon.	eng
184255	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184255	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184255	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184255	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184255	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184255	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184255	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184255	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184255	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184256	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, habitat status, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184256	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is endemic to the Congo Basin, recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo. Only known from type locality, Eala (Democratic Republic of Congo) and suspect record from Kribi, Cameroon, Paris Museum.	eng
184256	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams/rivers.	eng
184256	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184256	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.	eng
184257	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184257	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184257	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from several records in south west Uganda (Bwindi National Park) and one locality (Mt. Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (only record within central Africa region).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from one locality (Mt. Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (only record within central Africa region).	eng
184257	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from several sites in south west Uganda (Bwindi National Park) and one locality (Mount Hoyo) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184257	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Montane rainforest streams.	eng
184257	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Montane rainforest streams.	eng
184257	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184257	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184257	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184257	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184258	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184258	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo: Eala, Coquilhatville (holotype), Bobey; Boende, Bambesa, Busu-Moto and Lokutu (RMNH).	eng
184258	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in rainforest.	eng
184258	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184258	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184259	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184259	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184259	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Central African Republic.	eng
184259	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone, Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Togo. Presence in Nigeria must be confirmed.	eng
184259	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably savannah and woodland rivers.	eng
184259	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably savannah and woodland rivers.	eng
184259	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184259	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184259	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184259	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184260	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184260	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from Democratic Republic of Congo: Stanleyville, Bambesa (holotype), Eala, Kapanga and Thepaza.	eng
184260	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around rainforest streams.	eng
184260	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184260	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184261	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184261	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184261	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184261	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184261	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
184261	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	No specific conservation measures are known to be in place or are recommended at present.	eng
184261	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species is common and widespread in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and assumed from Burundi.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.	eng
184261	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rainforest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Congo and Cameroon.	eng
184261	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa except rain forest areas.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution: </strong>The species has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Somalia. Occurrence in Sudan, Djibouti and Eritrea assumed.	eng
184261	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Gambia to Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is widespread in tropical Africa except deep in rainforest and desert.	eng
184261	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa to northern South Africa except rainforest areas. <br/><br/>In central Africa, it is found in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Zambia.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Occurrence in Uganda, Sudan, Djibouti and Eritrea is assumed.<br/><br/>This species is widespread in the southern Africa region, although it does not occur at the Cape.	eng
184261	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	This species is widespread in the southern Africa region. It does not occur at the Cape. Globally, it is widespread in tropical sub-Saharan Africa, except in rain forest areas.	eng
184261	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savanna and bush.	eng
184261	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savanna and bush.	eng
184261	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
184261	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
184261	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
184261	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swampy and often seasonal habitats in savannah and bush.	eng
184261	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184261	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184261	population	Suhling, F., 2006	No information is available on population size or trends.	eng
184261	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184261	population	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Population size is unknown.	eng
184261	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Drainage and destruction of swampy habitats.	eng
184261	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184261	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Suhling, F. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184261	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184261	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
184261	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	No serious threats are known to be affecting the species at present.	eng
184262	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research required into the species taxonomy, population and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, potential conservation measures and trends/monitoring.	eng
184262	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from Ethiopia (Wush Wush, Wondo Genet). The localities are well apart and a wider distribution of the species can be assumed.	eng
184262	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Clear and fast mountainous streams in forest.	eng
184262	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184262	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.	eng
184263	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184263	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184263	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems.	eng
184263	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Preservation of stream water quality and conservation of the natural structure of stream systems using policy-based actions and increasing education and awareness. Information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends, and habitat/site based conservation is also required.	eng
184263	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	<em>Mesocnemis robusta</em> is endemic to the River Nile system, ranging from Ethiopia to the Nile delta.	eng
184263	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The is known from Egypt and Sudan across to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Sudan; presence in Egypt assumed.	eng
184263	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles et al. 1998).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Egypt and Sudan accross to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana.	eng
184263	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Egypt and Sudan across to Nigeria, Benin, Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1998). Although records show two disjunct populations, the species is likely to be present in between.<br/><br/>It has not been recorded from central Africa region yet, but likely to occur in the northern zones of Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Cameroon and Central African Republic.<br/><br/>In northern Africa, the species is endemic to the River Nile system, ranging from Ethiopia to the Nile Delta.<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria to Ghana and possibly Sierra Leone (see Gambles <em>et al</em>. 1998).	eng
184263	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Open rivers.	eng
184263	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Open rivers.	eng
184263	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Open rivers.	eng
184263	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Streams, rivers and brooks.	eng
184263	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184263	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184263	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.<br/><br/>In northern Africa,  two records are known from Egypt (one from the lower Nile (1988), and one from Assouan in Upper Egypt (1912), which is possibly now extinct due to the Assouan Dam), and five from Sudan. Some records are dated 1980-1988	eng
184263	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Two records are known from Egypt (one from the lower Nile (1988), and one from Assouan in Upper Egypt (1912), which is possibly now extinct due to the Assouan Dam), and five from Sudan. Some records are dated 1980-1988.	eng
184263	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184263	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184263	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2007	Over-irrigation and water pollution; stream management.	eng
184263	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main threats to the species are over-irrigation, water pollution, stream management and infrastructure development. It is inferred that it would be affected by drought in the future.	eng
184264	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184264	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Bambesa). An additional record from Congo (Tsuda) requires confirmation.	eng
184264	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184264	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184264	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184265	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None.	eng
184265	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184265	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
184265	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from western Cameroon.	eng
184265	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Outside of the region, the species also occurs in Cameroon outside the assessment area.	eng
184265	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Sierra Leone to Cameroon; might be expected in Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from western Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Sierra Leone to Cameroon.	eng
184265	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably forested rivers.	eng
184265	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably forested rivers.	eng
184265	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forested rivers.	eng
184265	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184265	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184265	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184265	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Deforestation.	eng
184265	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation and agriculture.	eng
184265	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The main cause of threat to the species is forest destruction due to agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
184266	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184266	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the population and range of this species is required.	eng
184266	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range would be valuable.	eng
184266	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, the Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184266	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Ghana, Togo and Nigeria<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is also found in Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184266	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is present in Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Togo and Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known only from Central African Republic and north east Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only from Ghana, Togo and Nigeria.	eng
184266	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Woodland streams.	eng
184266	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Woodland streams.	eng
184266	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Woodland streams.	eng
184266	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184266	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184266	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184266	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184266	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184266	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184267	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184267	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184267	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184267	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (Dula (types); Banzyville (types); Yakoma; Eala; Bambesa); it is assumed for Cameroon and Congo.	eng
184267	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known only from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184267	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone. It is assumed to be present in Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo in Dula (types), Banzyville (types), Yakoma, Eala, Bambesa, and assumed for Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.	eng
184267	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably open rivers.	eng
184267	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably open rivers.	eng
184267	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably open rivers.	eng
184267	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184267	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184267	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184267	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184267	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184267	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184268	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Taxonomic revision is required, along with a better understanding of this species' range.	eng
184268	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184268	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	None but research into taxonomy would be valuable.	eng
184268	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was first described from Cameroon, Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire, listings for Guinee-C and Nigeria are more uncertain: status of species and all records must be revised.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon (unknown localities), and an unconfirmed record from Angola.	eng
184268	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> First described from Cameroon, Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire, listings for Guinea and Nigeria are more uncertain: status of species and all records must be revised.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species localities in Cameroon are unknown and may occur outside the western Africa region.	eng
184268	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon, Cote d'Ivoire, and uncertain listings for Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon (unknown localities), Gabon and an unconfirmed record from Angola.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from Cameroon and Legrand (1980) found it in Cote d'Ivoire. Listings for Guinea and Nigeria are more uncertain and the status of the species and all records must be revised.	eng
184268	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably forest streams.	eng
184268	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably forest streams.	eng
184268	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably forest streams.	eng
184268	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184268	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184268	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184268	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184268	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown.	eng
184268	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
184269	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184269	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is known from two records from the same location (including the single holotype male) in Makokou, Gabon.	eng
184269	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found on upper sections of streams, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
184269	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available.	eng
184269	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184270	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184270	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184270	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184270	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo. Possibly present within Republic of Congo.	eng
184270	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from a single record from Liberia (Lempert 1988).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Kinshasa.	eng
184270	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and Congo-Kinshasa.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from a single record from Liberia (Lempert 1988).	eng
184270	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swamps, probably in forest.	eng
184270	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Swamps, probably in forest.	eng
184270	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swamps, probably in forest.	eng
184270	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184270	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	No information available.	eng
184270	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184270	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184270	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184270	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown.	eng
184271	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184271	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184271	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of this species.	eng
184271	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is present in Central Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon. Erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon	eng
184271	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species may be found in the very south east of the western African region in south west Cameroon. It was erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon.	eng
184271	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Cameroon.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species may be found in the very south east of the western African region in south west Cameroon. It was erroneously listed for Cote d'Ivoire by Tsuda (2000).	eng
184271	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184271	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184271	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184271	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184271	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184271	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184271	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184271	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184271	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation due to agriculture and wood extraction, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184272	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184272	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from Semliki National Park in western Uganda, occurrence in adjacent east Democratic Republic of Congo assumed.	eng
184272	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information available, but it is most likely found in rainforest streams and/or rivers.	eng
184272	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184272	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184273	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184273	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from western and southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Upemba and Inongo).	eng
184273	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, probably found in and around forest streams.	eng
184273	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184273	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184274	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184274	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from two males from the type locality in Cameroon (Dikume-Balue, in the Rumpi Hills), within the central Africa region. There is also an unpublished record from Kodmin, in the Bakossi Mountains (Vick pers. comm.).	eng
184274	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184274	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184274	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184275	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184275	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184275	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184275	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from the Congo Basin to Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from various localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Banza-Ouest; Bobey; Bambesa; Bokoro; Bokote; Bomboma; Bumbuli; Bunia; Businga; Busira River; Eala; Gulukulu; Lake Leopold II; Lifoko?; Lubumbashi; Lungolu?; Mahagi-Port; Momenge; Ruki), Congo, Gabon and Cameroon.	eng
184275	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It is recorded from Nigeria but the location is unknown.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Congo Basin to Nigeria. Assessor has seen a male pertaining to this species from Guinea-Bissau.	eng
184275	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from the Congo Basin to Nigeria. Assessor has seen a male pertaining to this species from Guinea-Bissau.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from various localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Banza-Ouest; Bobey; Bambesa; Bokoro; Bokote; Bomboma; Bumbuli; Bunia; Businga; Busira River; Eala; Gulukulu; Lake Leopold II; Lubumbashi; Mahagi-Port; Momenge; Ruki) and from Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria but the location is unknown.	eng
184275	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.	eng
184275	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.	eng
184275	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown, possibly swamp forest.	eng
184275	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184275	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184275	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184275	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184275	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184275	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184276	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184276	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184276	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184276	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species was described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908 and also known from 'Congo' (very old record). The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea. There are also three records from Cameroon (Marienberg).	eng
184276	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species was described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is also known from 'Congo' (very old record).<br/><br/>The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea.	eng
184276	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known from two generalised localities, but recently collected from Sanaga Delta, Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.)<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is described from 'Guinea portugaise' (Guinea-Bissau) in 1908 and also known from 'Congo' (very old record). The labels of both records are arbitrary and may both pertain to localities in the Lower Guinea.<br/><br/>The record from Congo in central Africa is uncertain.	eng
184276	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably large rivers (Dijkstra).	eng
184276	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown	eng
184276	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184276	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184276	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184276	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184276	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184276	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184276	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184277	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats would be valuable.	eng
184277	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from western Central Democratic Republic of Congo (Bumbuli), no recent information is available.	eng
184277	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available, but probably occurs in rainforest streams.	eng
184277	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184277	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184278	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184278	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the type locality "Lualaba: Kabongo" in Democratic Republic of Congo (Cammaerts 1968).	eng
184278	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, it is likely to occur in rainforest streams.	eng
184278	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184278	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184279	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184279	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species population and range is required.	eng
184279	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No precise information available but research into population numbers and range of the species would be valuable.	eng
184279	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegambia; precise range in western Africa poorly known, as most references do not separate <em>R. fenestrina </em>from <em>R. notata.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Congo, and Gabon.	eng
184279	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> Precise range in western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate <em>R. fenestrina</em> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria, Benin and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegambia.	eng
184279	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Central Congo Basin to Liberia and possibly Senegal and Gambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic.<br/><br/>The precise range from western Africa is poorly known, as most references do not separate <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fenestrina</span> from <em>R. notata</em>. However it is known to occur from Liberia, Nigeria, Benin and Ghana and possibly to Senegal and Gambia.	eng
184279	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy habitats, generally near forest.	eng
184279	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Swampy habitats, generally near forest.	eng
184279	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy habitats, generally near forest.	eng
184279	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184279	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184279	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184279	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184279	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184279	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184280	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184280	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184280	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184280	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> Only a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and the single record from Nigeria are available.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu (RMNH); Kinshasa (lectotype ISNB, leg. Waelbroeck); Kasai, Lukenge (S, leg. Fontainas, paralectotype); Stanleyville (leg. Christy); Leopoldville (leg. Bequaert); Ubangi, Duma (ZMUH, leg. Schubotz)). Assumed in Angola, Cameroon and Congo as well.	eng
184280	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from a single old record from Nigeria (locality not specified, identification of specimen confirmed by assessor).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and the single record from Nigeria.	eng
184280	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is know only from a handful of records along Congo and Ubangi rivers in Congo Basin, and a single record from Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu, in RMNH), Kinshasa (lectotype ISNB, leg. Waelbroeck), Kasai, Lukenge (leg. Fontainas, paralectotype), Stanleyville (leg. Christy), Leopoldville (leg. Bequaert), Ubangi, Duma (ZMUH, leg. Schubotz) and Angola. It is assumed to be present in Nigeria, Cameroon and Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from a single old record from Nigeria and even though the locality is not specified, its identification has been confirmed by the assessor.	eng
184280	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably large forested rivers.	eng
184280	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably large forested rivers.	eng
184280	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Probably large forested rivers.	eng
184280	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184280	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184280	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184280	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184280	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184280	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184281	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184281	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from northern Angola (Dundo).	eng
184281	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184281	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184281	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184282	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184282	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184282	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda to Cameroon.	eng
184282	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The species has been recorded from Uganda to Cameroon. In eastern Africa, it has been recorded in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Burundi: Semliki National Park (Uganda).	eng
184282	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Found in rainforest areas.	eng
184282	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Rainforest.	eng
184282	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	No information available.	eng
184282	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184282	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2003	Forest destruction.	eng
184282	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184283	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184283	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184283	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184283	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west  Zambia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo; it is assumed in appropriate habitats in between (Equatorial Guinea) and Zambia.	eng
184283	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from one record from Liberia<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west Zambia.	eng
184283	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This species is known from scattered records from Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon and north west Zambia.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon, northwestern Zambia, assumed in appropriate habitats in between (Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known only known from one record from Liberia.	eng
184283	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184283	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184283	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184283	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184283	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184283	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184283	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Agriculture and forest destruction.	eng
184283	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184283	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184284	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184284	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from several localities in Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala; Bambesa; Lokutu; Kapanga; Stanleyville).	eng
184284	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184284	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184284	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to be affected by deforestation.	eng
184285	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184285	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (near Boende) and from Likete.	eng
184285	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The holotype was collected in a "periodically flooded equatorial evergreen dense forest" (Cammaerts 2004).	eng
184285	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184285	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, most likely to be affected by forest destruction.	eng
184286	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184286	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from various localities in the region of Lubumbashi (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
184286	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	It is found in dry forests.	eng
184286	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184286	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184287	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184287	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184287	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	None.	eng
184287	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare. <br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Gabon; in Cameroon expected.	eng
184287	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from recent west African records are from Ghana (Pinhey 1962), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994), Liberia (Lempert 1988) and larvae only from Mt Nimba, Guinea (Legrand 2003).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congoongo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare.	eng
184287	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is known only from a handful of specimens from the Guineo-Congolian realm (Democratic Republic of Congo to Sierra Leone), but probably difficult to find rather than rare. Present also in Ghana and Cameroon (Dijkstra pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, in Cameroon expected. Probably quite widespread within the Congo Basin.<br/><br/>Recent western African records are from Ghana (Pinhey 1962), Sierra Leone (Carfi and d'Andrea 1994), Liberia (Lempert 1988) and larvae only from Mt. Nimba, Guinea (Legrand 2003)	eng
184287	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
184287	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
184287	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
184287	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184287	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184287	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184287	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184287	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184287	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184289	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184289	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species has been recorded from two localities in the vicinity of Kungu (Ubangi: Ebuku; Bomboma), Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184289	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely rainforest streams and/or rivers, as for all <em>Chlorocypha</em> spp.	eng
184289	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184289	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but ongoing deforestation is assumed in the area.	eng
184290	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	More research is needed to gather data on range, population status and threats.	eng
184290	conservation	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184290	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as habitat conservation measures and monitoring of population trends.	eng
184290	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	In southern Africa, this species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia. Only one record is known from outside the region (Democratic Republic of Congo). Globally, it is recorded from north and northwest Zambia, and can be expected to occur in the Congo (Shaba). It is a very mobile species.	eng
184290	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> This species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the upper Zambesi catchment, northwest Zambia, adjacent Democratic Republic of Congo, and from one other record in Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184290	distribution	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	This species is known from 11 collections from six sites in the Upper Zambezi catchment, northwest Zambia, adjacent Democratic Republic of Congo, and from one other record in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184290	habitat	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).	eng
184290	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).	eng
184290	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Reedy margins of streams or in gallery forest, usually at fast waters (Pihney 1984a).	eng
184290	population	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
184290	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184290	population	Suhling, F., 2006	Population size and trends are not known.	eng
184290	threats	Boudot, J.-P., 2009	Major threats to this species are unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.	eng
184290	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.	eng
184290	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Unknown, but deforestation can be inferred.	eng
184291	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No precise information is available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, uses and harvest levels, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184291	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded only from Congo (Foret de la Tsiama) and Democratic Republic of Congo (Eala, Mabali).	eng
184291	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Probably found in and around swampy forest habitats, though not much information is available and more studies are needed.	eng
184291	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184291	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184292	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184292	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from the holotype from Dundo, Angola.	eng
184292	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184292	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184292	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184294	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184294	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa (Congo Basin) Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.	eng
184294	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams	eng
184294	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184294	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The main threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.	eng
184295	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184295	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	This unnamed species appears to range from northern Uganda through the savannah belt to Nigeria, Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire.	eng
184295	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Probably open streams and rivers.	eng
184295	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184295	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184296	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184296	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available but research into threats and trends/monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
184296	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Taxonomic resolution required, and more research into threats to this species is needed.	eng
184296	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184296	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Ghana to Liberia and south west Cameroon.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.	eng
184296	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo to Liberia.<br/><br/>In central and western Africa, the species is known from Ghana to Liberia and from south west Cameroon.	eng
184296	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184296	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184296	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184296	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184296	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184296	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184296	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184296	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction and agriculture.	eng
184296	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The major threats to the species are habitat loss due to drainage and destruction/deforestation of swampy habitats caused by agriculture and wood extraction.	eng
184297	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184297	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184297	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184297	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900's until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu), and assumed to occur in the area between Ghana and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184297	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is only known from the type series from Aburi (Ghana) in the early 1900s, and it hasn't been seen in the region since.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900s until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).	eng
184297	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The species is only known from Aburi (Ghana) from the early 1900s until recently, but discovered in central Democratic Republic of Congo by Dijkstra (2005).<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Democratic Republic of Congo (Lokutu), assumed to occur in the area between Ghana and Democratic Republic of Congo.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is only known from the type series from Aburi (Ghana) in the early 1900s, and it hasn't been seen in the region since.	eng
184297	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Swampy pools, possibly preferably with floating water plants.	eng
184297	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	Swampy pools, possibly preferably with floating water plants.	eng
184297	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Swampy pools, possibly preferably with floating water plants.	eng
184297	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184297	population	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	No information available.	eng
184297	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184297	threats	Clausnitzer, V., Boudot, J.-P., Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Suhling, F., 2009	The main threats to the species are unknown.	eng
184297	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown	eng
184297	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184298	conservation	Samraoui, B., 2007	Greater awareness of the value of biodiversity and impact studies should be developed.	eng
184298	distribution	Samraoui, B., 2007	<em>Enallagma deserti</em> is endemic to north-west Africa. It is present in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria; a single record exists for western Africa (Ghana), but this is very likely to be a mislabelled specimen (Schneider pers. comm.).	eng
184298	habitat	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitats include water reservoirs, ponds and dunary slacks. It is found in both freshwater and brackish water bodies.	eng
184298	population	Samraoui, B., 2007	Fairly abundant in semi-arid regions.	eng
184298	threats	Samraoui, B., 2007	Habitat alterations caused by dams are the major threat to the species, among which introduction of exotic fish, pollution and hydrological changes are the most serious.	eng
184299	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184299	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184299	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. More research is needed into threats to this species, and monitoring of population trends.	eng
184299	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (Gambles 1975).<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species is present in Cameroon and Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.	eng
184299	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (see Gambles 1975).	eng
184299	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species has been recorded from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon and Bioko (see Gambles 1975).<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria.	eng
184299	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184299	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184299	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Small rainforest streams.	eng
184299	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184299	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184299	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184299	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction.	eng
184299	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forest destruction caused by agriculture and wood extraction are threats to the species.	eng
184299	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction, primarily from clearance for agriculture.	eng
184300	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184300	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Uganda (Bwindi National Park in Buhoma, Munyaga Valley) and likely to occur in Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184300	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest streams.	eng
184300	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184300	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184301	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into taxonomy, and trends and monitoring of the species would be valuable.	eng
184301	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from the highlands of Ethiopia and western Sudan.	eng
184301	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Highland streams, often in forest. Common in the highlands at 1650-1850 m in rivers and streams with some gallery vegetation and forest.	eng
184301	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184301	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forest destruction caused by wood extraction and river pollution are major threats to the species.	eng
184302	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184302	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from Central African Republic, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184302	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Large streams and small rivers in rainforest	eng
184302	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184302	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The major threat to the species is deforestation caused by wood extraction.	eng
184303	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184303	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from two sites in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kalenge), and one site in Bambesa.	eng
184303	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Most likely found in and around forest rivers.	eng
184303	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184303	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184304	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184304	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184304	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184304	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong>  The species is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.	eng
184304	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.	eng
184304	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Nigeria to central Congo Basin.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Nigeria.	eng
184304	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams.	eng
184304	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Rainforest streams.	eng
184304	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Rainforest streams.	eng
184304	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184304	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184304	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184304	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area due to logging and agriculture, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184304	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184304	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184305	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No conservation measures known but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, and trends/monitoring would be valuable.	eng
184305	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184305	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Further research into the species habitat, ecology, population, range and threats is required, as well as monitoring of population trends.	eng
184305	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon. Possibly present in south east Nigeria , but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera.</em><br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184305	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species is known from south west Cameroon (occurs in Takamanda Forest of Cameroon). Possibly present in south east Nigeria , but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera</em>. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
184305	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Gabon. It is possibly also present in Nigeria.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from Cameroon, Gabon<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species is known from Takamanda Forest in south west Cameroon . It is possibly also present in south east Nigeria, but records from Nigeria may pertain to <em>P. guttifera</em>.	eng
184305	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Possibly rainforest streams.	eng
184305	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Possibly rainforest streams.	eng
184305	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Possibly rainforest streams.	eng
184305	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184305	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184305	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184305	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but agriculture and deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184305	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but deforestation, which is occurring in the area, is believed to be a threat to the species.	eng
184305	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Specific threats to the species are unknown, but ongoing deforestation caused by agriculture and wood extraction in the area is believed to be a affecting to the species.	eng
184306	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184306	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only known from two localities in southern Democratic Republic of Congo (Lubumbashi, Katonga in Katanga).	eng
184306	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information, but most likely to occur in rainforest streams and rivers.	eng
184306	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184306	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184307	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184307	conservation	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184307	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184307	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Nigeria and south-west Cameroon. Gives way to <em>S. gloriosa</em> in south Cameroon, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa regional assessment:</strong> The species has been recorded from south-west Cameroon.	eng
184307	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> It replaces <em>S. cilita</em> in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species gives way to <em>S. gloriosa</em> in south Cameroon, Gabon and the Congos. Reports from western Africa pertain to <em>S. ciliata</em>.	eng
184307	distribution	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species has been recorded from Cameroon and Nigeria. Gives way to S. gloriosa in southern Cameroon, Gabon and the Congos. Reports from western Africa pertain to <em>S. ciliata</em>.<br/><br/>In central Africa, it is known from south-west Cameroon.<br/><br/>In western Africa, the species replaces <em>S. cilita</em> in south west Cameroon and adjacent south east Nigeria.	eng
184307	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184307	habitat	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184307	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Forested streams and rivers.	eng
184307	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184307	population	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	No information available.	eng
184307	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184307	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occuring in the region isn't thought to be a threat.	eng
184307	threats	Clausnitzer, V. & Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2009	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occurring in the region is not thought to be a threat.	eng
184307	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is well adapted to farm bush, therefore deforestation which is occurring in the region isn't thought to be a threat.	eng
184308	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184308	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species is only recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo around the town of Mbuji-Mayi (Kabongo, Lulua, Tshibalaka). As the localities are 400 km apart and the entire area is under sampled, the species is expected to be widespread in the given area and its surroundings.	eng
184308	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Rainforest streams and/or rivers.	eng
184308	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184308	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Deforestation caused by wood extraction is a major threat.	eng
184310	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available. Further survey to determine the species range, ecology, habitat and population trends is required.	eng
184310	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	So far only recorded from Malawi and northwestern Zambia, but most likely more widely distributed due to confusion with <em>A. sinuatum</em>. It has been recorded from Northern Malawi (Mzimba District; 11º22.98’S, 33º58.86’E; alt. 1,325 m asl), central Malawi (Lilongwe District; 14º15.6’S 33º27.3’E; alt. 1,250 m asl), Limpasa Dambo (Malawi); Zambia (Kabwe, Lisombo river, Kabompo river). No records for the central Africa region. Much more restricted than <em>P. sinuatum.</em>.	eng
184310	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	Swampy areas in savannah and Miombo woodland.	eng
184310	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184310	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No information available.	eng
184311	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available but research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would be valuable.	eng
184311	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	The species has been recorded from south west Cameroon (Vick 2003) and Central African Republic. Occurrence in Democratic Republic of Congo is assumed.	eng
184311	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Found in and around forest streams.	eng
184311	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184311	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184424	conservation	Coughran, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species though it is located within a national park.<br/><br/><span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax leckii</span> is of conservation concern, and further research is required on the biology and ecology of this species. Finer scale mapping of this species’ distribution within Koreelah National Park is recommended, along with detailed investigations of its environmental tolerances (Coughran, Leckie and Gartside 2008). Further research is urgently required to ascertain how the population is affected by threats.	eng
184424	distribution	Coughran, J., 2009	This species is known only from a tributary of Koreelah Creek in the Koreelah National Park which can be found on the New South Wales/ Queensland Border in Australia (Coughran 2005). Two hundred and forty five sites were sampled in surrounding areas over a three year period (some sites were re-sampled) and no further specimens were found suggesting that this is a range restricted species (Coughran 2005).	eng
184424	habitat	Coughran, J., 2009	Specimens were collected from beneath cobbles and boudlers, in shallow depressions and multi-chambered burrows. Surface water was absent, but there was water in a pool overlying bedrock, and further upstream. This species' occurrence above an elevation of 400 m, is unusual for the <span style="font-style: italic;">Cherax</span> genus (Coughran 2005).	eng
184424	population	Coughran, J., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens.	eng
184424	threats	Coughran, J., 2009	There are a number of potential threats within this species' range: cattle trampling, pesticides and herbicides (used in park maintenance), and climate change (global temperature increase). A new and emerging threat is posed by specimen collection by hobbyists, especially for restricted range species such as this (J. Coughran pers. comm. 2010). Whilst the precise effects of these threats on the population are not known, they are considered a significant threat to this highly restricted range species.	eng
184425	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	Some populations occur in designated Ramsar sites.	eng
184425	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Persicaria amphibia</em><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is a Eurasian or subcosmopolitan species. It is found in Asia, North and southern Africa, North America and in most of Europe, where it is rare in the extreme south.<br/>In North Africa it occurs in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.	eng
184425	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	This perennial Hydrogeophyte prefers stagnant and slow flowing water bodies, ponds, freshwater or brackish marshes, reed beds, wet meadows and freshwater lakes.	eng
184425	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	In North Africa, <em>P. amphibia</em> is rare everywhere: Morocco (one location at the Atlantic coast), Algeria (rare, wetlands of the Algiers and Constantine regions of Tell) and Tunisia (only one locality, Garaet Sedjenane), where it is likely extinct due to the drainage of the lake to turn it into an agricultural area.<br/>It is widespread in France, Portugal and Spain (more common in the north), Italy and not rare in Croatia.	eng
184425	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	The wetland habitat of this species is generally threatened in the Mediterranean basin but the species is not facing specifc threat across its range. The populations are however restricted in North Africa and the only location in Tunisia has been destroyed by agricultural development .	eng
184430	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Nothing is known about the distribution, population, trends and effects of threats to the species. &#160;It is also confused for <em>E. montana.</em> &#160;Research in all the identified fields is recommended.	eng
184430	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	The species is distributed in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in India.	eng
184430	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It occupies slow to medium fast moving streams with sandy to muddy bottom.	eng
184430	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Information on population and trends is not available. &#160;This is not a very commonly caught species in fisheries.	eng
184430	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	Since its description in Rihand River near Pipri in 1950, a dam has been constructed in the type locality. &#160;The status of the species since the dam construction is not known, but it is presumed to be threatened by habitat loss due to the dam.	eng
184431	conservation	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There is insufficient information on the distribution, biology and potential threats for this species. Catch data for this species is also needed.	eng
184431	distribution	Vishwanath, W., 2010	<em>Mystus carcio</em> is widely distributed in the Brahmaputra River drainage in India (Assam, West Bengal and Tripura) and the Meghna River drainage in Bangladesh (Comilla District) (Darshan <em>et al.</em> 2010).	eng
184431	habitat	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It occupies flooded wetlands during monsoons and rivers and prefers sandy/muddy bottom.	eng
184431	population	Vishwanath, W., 2010	It is quite commonly found in Guwahati and Tripura markets and hence assumed to be abundant in the river systems (W. Vishwanath<em> pers. comm</em>.).	eng
184431	threats	Vishwanath, W., 2010	There are no threats identified for the species.	eng
184440	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	There is research currently underway to understand the reasons for the decline in the population.	eng
184440	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Only known from Lake Visovac, in the lower part of the Krka river.	eng
184440	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	A lacustrine species.	eng
184440	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Massively declining (Mustafic pers comm).	eng
184440	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	The reasons for the population decline is unknown. However pollution from nearby towns (Drin and Knin) could be a factor and sometimes there are fish kills without obvious reasons (Mustafic pers comm).	eng
184450	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
184450	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	From Loire drainage (France) eastward, in nearly all rivers draining to North and Baltic Seas. In Black Sea basin, widespread in Danube and coastal rivers south of Danube in Bulgaria and Turkey. In Mediterranean basin, in Rhône and some small coastal drainages from Provence (France) eastward to Genova (Italy), Aoos (Greece, Albania) and western Greece as far south as Sperchios drainage.	eng
184450	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Streams and rivers in foothills, with well oxygenated, fast-flowing water. Spawns on gravel in swift current. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years and usually only one or two seasons. Spawns in May-July, when temperature rises above 12°C. Single females spawn more than once during a season. Spawns in small groups, depositing eggs deep into gravel. Juveniles in a wide variety of shoreline habitats. All age classes inhabit open water of streams and small rivers. Feeds on terrestrial and drifting invertebrates.	eng
184450	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
184450	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Stream regulation, stocking of trout and pollution.	eng
184454	conservation	Freyhof, J., 2010	No information	eng
184454	distribution	Freyhof, J., 2010	This species is distributed in the river drainages of the southwestern Caspian coast from Samur down to rivers of the Lenkoran and most likely east to Atrek.	eng
184454	habitat	Freyhof, J., 2010	Streams and rivers in foothills, with well oxygenated, fast-flowing water. Spawns on gravel in swift current.	eng
184454	population	Freyhof, J., 2010	Very abundant	eng
184487	conservation	Ng, H.H., 2010	<p>More research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed, as there is insufficient information available. Potential threats to this species also need to be identified.</p>  <p>&#160;</p>	eng
184487	distribution	Ng, H.H., 2010	<p>    </p><p>This species is known from the Barak River drainage (the upper portion of the Surma-Meghna River system) in Mizoram, northeast India.</p>  <p></p>	eng
184487	habitat	Ng, H.H., 2010	<p>This species inhabits fast-flowing rivers and streams with a substrate of sand or gravel.</p>	eng
184487	population	Ng, H.H., 2010	<p>There is no information on the population and its trends for this species, but survey data suggests that it is relatively widespread and common.</p>	eng
184487	threats	Ng, H.H., 2010	<p>The threats to this species are unknown, since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats (especially those of an anthropogenic nature) remains unknown. The current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified. The impact of planned dams in the Barak drainage need to be studied.<br/></p>	eng
184488	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184488	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has recently only been cited from Agourai (Morocco) by shell-collectors.	eng
184488	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184488	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184488	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Shells are collected for sale. However there are few collectors and they are obviously trying not to kill off the whole population. Human populations in this area are expanding, and increasing drought, water diversion, pastoralization all represent significant threats to waterways in this area, so there is a decline in habitat quality.	eng
184489	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It would be beneficial to protect the springs and find other possibilities for drinking water for the local population.	eng
184489	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Aïn Louada spring in the region of Tétouan and Aïn Sfia spring in the Taza region, Rif Mnts (Morocco). It is very restricted and localised. These springs are very small.	eng
184489	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184489	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184489	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction for agriculture which is reducing the water level very rapidly. Villages nearby are also creating domestic pollution. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.	eng
184490	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the current extent of this species and its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to determine the effects of environmental change on the life history of the species. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Coelatura rotula</em>.	eng
184490	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura rotula</em> is endemic to central Africa in the the lower Congo, known from specimen records to occur from Malebo Pool up to the Sangha River. This species has a known area of occupancy of 500 km².	eng
184490	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184490	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184490	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	Malebo Pool is threatened by increasing urbanization and pollution due to increasing human population pressures in areas of Brazzaville and Kinshasa. Agriculture and increased organic and inorganic pollution are likely to become severe future threats (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, no specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura rotula</em>. Overfishing may potentially impact on the availability of host fish species for the species' reproductive cycle.	eng
184491	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional research on the taxonomy, distribution, population demography and life history is necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184491	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Mutela hargeri</em> is known from Lakes Mweru, Mweru Wantipa and Bangweulu, and it has been reported from the intervening Luapula River. Specimens referable to this species have also been collected in the upper Chambeshi River.	eng
184491	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184491	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184491	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela hargeri</em>. However, its habitat might be threatened in the future by growing human populations (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184492	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	To limit water pollution and reduce water abstraction.	eng
184492	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from the oued Makhfamane (Morocco).	eng
184492	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont, found in hyporheic water.	eng
184492	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184492	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Drought, deviation of waterflow for irrigation, pollution from villages, and pesticides from agriculture all threaten this species.	eng
184493	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184493	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the region of Massawa (Eritrea) and the Dahlak Archipelago (see Bacci 1951).	eng
184493	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It occurs in marine-brackish water, in mangroves.	eng
184493	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184493	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184494	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184494	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lobogenes pusilla</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC. It is known from two locations; Kibovu River, which flows into 'Lake de Retunue', and two sites on a large reservoir 'Lake de Retunue' on the Lufira River.	eng
184494	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits rivers and lakes; found on decomposing reeds at edge (Brown 1994).	eng
184494	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184494	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is reported from three sampling sites. No known major threats. Localised threats to sites from human use, sedimentation and pollution.	eng
184495	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	These species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, and piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells.It also needs reduced pumping of water, and reduced use of chemicals on farm.	eng
184495	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from two wells - a farm near Fes and a well 6 km from a town called Midar, region of Al Hoceima, Morocco.	eng
184495	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184495	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a very small population.	eng
184495	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table. The well on a farm is threatened by agriculture, e.g. chemical pollution, infiltration.	eng
184496	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184496	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (Uganda). The type locality is near Dagusi Island, although it appears to be uncommon in the lake (Mandahl-Barth 1954).	eng
184496	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is recorded near Dagusi Island in the lake at a depth of 12 - 13 meters, described as not common in the Lake.	eng
184496	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184496	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation, pollution and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
184497	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184497	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Oudref (Tunisia).	eng
184497	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It inhabits small streams in the oasis of Oudref.	eng
184497	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184497	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184498	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species requires protection of springs from pollution and degradation, and a reduction of water abstraction.	eng
184498	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has been recorded from Chbouka spring, Ouiwane spring, and Azerzou and Timdighas, Middle Atlas, Morocco. Chbouka and Ouiwane spring are recent records, the other two are old records (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
184498	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a crenobiont, found near springs.	eng
184498	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only found in small populations.	eng
184498	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pumping, pollution, and a lowering water table.	eng
184499	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Surveys are required to establish whether the species is present between these sites and to assess the oxygen levels need to maintain the species.	eng
184499	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Congodoma zariensis</em> is endemic to the Central Africa region, where it was known from DRC at Matadi. DBL collections have recently extended its known range; the species is known in the lower Zaire River near Kinshasa and the River Zaire around Matadi. The species may be present between these two sites on suitable rapids and possibly on Egeria reefs on the river.	eng
184499	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found among rocks in swiftly flowing rivers.	eng
184499	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184499	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	A locally distributed species where logging and sedimentation may impact the water quality.	eng
184500	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184500	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Kenya.	eng
184500	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184500	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184500	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Trout and other introduced species of fish and water regulation are potential threats.	eng
184501	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184501	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
184501	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia connollyi</em> is recorded from South Africa and DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in southeastern DRC (Shaba).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> This species is known in the region only from the type locality at Black River at Maitland, Western Cape, South Africa. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably present throughout Africa, though overlooked because its species are small (Brown 1994).	eng
184501	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ferrissia connollyi</em> is recorded from South Africa and southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba).	eng
184501	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits rivers and streams.	eng
184501	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
184501	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184501	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
184501	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
184501	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
184502	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184502	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Morocco: Berkane, Fez and Ouadi Korifla. These populations are very localised, and the sites where it occurs are threatened. It has been recorded from Algeria in the past, but it may no longer be found there.	eng
184502	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184502	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184502	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The habitat is under threat of degradation, as it is found near large towns with increasing urbanisation, and deviation of water flow. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184503	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
184503	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. This species is only recorded from Wiwane Spring in the Middle Atlas (Morocco).	eng
184503	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a crenobiont, only found in one spring. It is found in good quality, fresh cold water right near where the spring comes out.	eng
184503	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184503	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is known from one location only, Wiwane spring, which is situated in the Middle Atlas, a region which is hit very hard by  increasing drought and desertification. This evolution combined with the  demographic growth, overgrazing, overexploitation of water resources  does not bode well for these underground hydrobiids. Likely threats include over-exploitation of water resources, as this is a spring snail with very a small distribution, with habitat degradation due to 'improvement of the springs to offtake water' and water pollution as a secondary threat.	eng
184504	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184504	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Giuba basin, southeast Somalia.	eng
184504	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184504	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184504	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Taking in consideration the fact that there is a main town (Bardera),  i.e. with more than 100,000 inhabitants situated on the Middle Giuba,  without any wastewater treatment and with such highly polluting  industries as leather ware production it should be assumed that the  area, extent and quality of the habitat is severely affected downstream  during the dry season.	eng
184505	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of wells, and limiting pollution by waste water treatment.	eng
184505	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from a well at Aïn Bouquellal, region of Taza (a well inside a shop) and a locality in the region of Fès (Morocco).	eng
184505	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184505	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184505	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by water abstraction at Bouelal, and pollution at Fez because of very high urbanisation there.	eng
184506	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184506	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from the region of Oran, Tlemcen, Mosthaganem, Alger, Constantine, Biskra and Annaba (Algeria).	eng
184506	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in different types of surface waters including brackish ones.	eng
184506	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184506	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution and urbanisation.	eng
184507	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of wells, and limiting use of wells by bringing water from higher up in pipes into people's homes is needed, thereby reducing people's contact with wells.	eng
184507	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from wells in the villages of Oulad Zahra, Oulad Aamer and Oulad Ahmed in the region of Beni Mellal (Morocco). They are all in one basin.	eng
184507	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184507	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184507	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction for agriculture which is reducing the water level very rapidly. Villages nearby are also creating domestic pollution.	eng
184508	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184508	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga.	eng
184508	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184508	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184508	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to agricultural runoff, eutrophication in the northern part of its range.	eng
184509	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of spring area. Also limited contact between tourists and springs to reduce the chance of pollution and disturbance of habitat from tourists.	eng
184509	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Aîn Chfa spring at Immouzzer Kander, Aïn Aghbal near Azrou and Aïn Chkef near Fez (Morocco).	eng
184509	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont, which lives in cold water springs.	eng
184509	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is abundant in springs.	eng
184509	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Some sites are very close to urbanisation, e.g. a spring near Fes. Other threats include water extraction by bottling industry, and use by irrigation, diverting water from springs for intensive use by agriculture. Springs are also used to go into trout fisheries. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.	eng
184510	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
184510	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Lower Nile in Egypt. This species is only known from museum collections. It has not been collected during recent surveys, and is possibly extinct. (The type locality for this species is Lower Egypt near Ramses).	eng
184510	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in muddy bottoms in slow flowing waters in chaneks of the Nile Delta	eng
184510	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is possibly extinct.	eng
184510	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Aquatic pollution threatens this species.	eng
184511	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184511	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species was originally found in 1887 in Djebel Zaghouan in Tunisia in one single Roman temple where there was a bath, and it hasn't been found since.	eng
184511	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184511	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184511	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184512	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Increased pressure for improving water abstraction points may threaten this species, so EIA's required in region.	eng
184512	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Funduella incisa</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it is known only from Republic of Congo, western DRC. It was originally described it from specimens collected from the Fundu Fundu Stream. Other records exist It is known from the source of the Madienge River, northeast of Kimpese. There are additional records from "Kimana (Lukala)", which is thought to be in western DRC. There have been no further records of the species since the 1970s. This is a species with few survey records and as it is small, and occurs in the more inaccessible locations within the basin. This gives a disjunct range. It is possible that the western DRC records may be erroneous as there is another locality in western Zaire (Lukula)	eng
184512	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is only known from small streams and headwaters within the Congo basin (Mandahl-Barth 1982, Brown 1994), with records from upper and lower tributaries, but not the main river. This is a very small species (less than 3 mm) and as such it is likely to be overlooked in surveys. At first glance it looks like a juvenile of other species, but it is highly distinctive, so species-specific surveys should find this mollusc.	eng
184512	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184512	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from a few localities. Little knowledge of threats to habitats but the position of sites may make them less susceptible to logging. Use of sources and headwaters for water extraction and watering animals leads to habitat degradation (concreting, increased sedimentation, damming)	eng
184513	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184513	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Eupera sturanyi</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is recorded from Kinshasa and the Dungu river at Faradje (DRC). The species is likely to have a wide range in the Zaire River.	eng
184513	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in freshwater (riverine). A very small species occurring on oyster shells.	eng
184513	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184513	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184514	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184514	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	A common species of Lake Victoria (endemic).	eng
184514	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184514	population	Lange, C., 2004	This is probably an abundant species.	eng
184514	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184515	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legislation development and implementation at national level, as well as more research on its habitat trends and conservation are needed.	eng
184515	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184515	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
184515	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is present in the Lower Nile in Egypt and the Ethiopian highlands and Lake Nasser. Its type locality is the Mahmudia Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
184515	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from Lake Nasser (Egypt) (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999) and the Ethiopian Plateau (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile. The type locality is in Mahmudia Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
184515	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is known from the Lower Nile in Egypt, including Lake Nasser, and the Ethiopian highlands.	eng
184515	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits slow-flowing waters. Spread by birds. Needs relatively quiet waters and cold. Cold water species whose range is shrinking since the Middle Holocene (Van Damme 1984).	eng
184515	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives on slow-flowing waters and needs relatively quiet and cold waters. It drains in the lower Nile. It is spread by birds.	eng
184515	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is found in slow-flowing waters. It is spread by birds and needs relatively quiet, cold waters. Also found in drains in the lower Nile.	eng
184515	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184515	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is abundant in drains in the Lower Nile.	eng
184515	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is always rare.	eng
184515	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Its decline may be a consequence of climate change. It is very sensitive to the habitat and does not breed easily.	eng
184515	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	May be in decline due to climate change. It is very sensitive to habitat. Doesn't breed easily.	eng
184515	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
184516	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184516	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria basin (Mandahl-Barth 1954 categorises it as endemic to the lake). It is found near Bujjagali, 11 Km North of Jinja and Hippo bay, Entebbe.	eng
184516	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	It is found among lake habitats beneath stones - usually in association with <span style="font-style: italic;">Segmentorbis</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Burnupia</span>.	eng
184516	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184516	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to water pollution and tourist activities. Bujjali is proposed as a site for dam construction for a HEP station (plans passed by government) and is a tourist destination for white-water rafting, with possible Hotel developments.	eng
184517	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys are needed.	eng
184517	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pseudocleopatra bennikei</em> is endemic to DRC. It is known from two sites along the Zaire River, near Kinshasa (Stanley Pool) and near Matadi (Kala Kala). It is possibly present between the two sites; i.e. along about 300 km of river (with an area of occupancy around 450 km²).	eng
184517	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Potentially this species can adapt to a range of water flows, from faster flowing waters to slow rivers. In Kala Kala, it was found in a ravine.	eng
184517	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. The species was last collected in 1972, 1973 and 1974.	eng
184517	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species has a relatively narrow range and may be sensitive to pollution, increased sedimentation and changes in water quality. The construction of the Grand Inga dam is also a potential threat to this species.	eng
184518	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184518	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on soft substrate in all four countries.	eng
184518	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It is abundant on mud, silt or sandy substrates across a variety of water depths, 5-60 m.	eng
184518	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184518	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
184519	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184519	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to Lake Tana (3,500 km²) and possibly to the adjacent part of the Blue Nile.	eng
184519	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184519	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184519	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	The strong reduction of its former range clearly is temperature related.  This cold water species is hence likely threatened by climate change.  Additional local environmental threats listed for Lake Tana are: silt  load, pollution, water drainage, water level fluctuation, overfishing.	eng
184520	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184520	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is only reported from Green Island and the vicinity of Massawa (Eritrea).	eng
184520	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in coastal habitats and mangroves.	eng
184520	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184520	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184521	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184521	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Monlo-Sakassigan in Massai steppe and possibly represented by specimens from the Malagarasi river, northeast of Kasulu (Brown 1994).	eng
184521	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184521	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184521	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Agricultural and domestic pollution and deforestation all threaten this species.	eng
184522	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated, and more sampling is necessary to estimate population demography. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184522	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2009	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated, and more sampling is necessary to estimate population demography. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184522	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela joubini</em> is known from scant material from the Niger, Chad and Oubangi basins (Daget 1998). Graf and Cummings (2007) record the range as widespread in West Africa, from the Niger and Lake Chad Basins, south to the Congo. In the Zambongo Area, it is known only from the upper Oubangi drainage.	eng
184522	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2009	<em>Mutela joubini</em> is known from scant material from the Niger, Chad and Oubangi basins (Daget 1998). Graf and Cummings (2007) record the range as widespread in West Africa, from the Niger and Lake Chad Basins, south to the Congo. In the Zambongo Area, it is known only from the upper Oubangi drainage.	eng
184522	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184522	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2009	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184522	population	Graf, D.L., 2009	No information available.	eng
184522	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
184522	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented. In the general area there agricultural activities, some pollution from urban areas and fish poisoning occurs in some areas, but the severity of the effects of these activities on <em>M. joubani</em> is not known.	eng
184522	threats	Graf, D.L., 2009	No specific threats are documented. In the general area there agricultural activities, some pollution from urban areas and fish poisoning occurs in some areas, but the severity of the effects of these activities on <em>M. joubani</em> is not known. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184524	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184524	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is recorded from the thermal springs at Djenndel near Annaba (Algeria), Bourgignat 1862. That is the only time it is been seen, and these springs no longer exist.	eng
184524	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a crenobiont of warm springs.	eng
184524	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184524	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution and disappearance of springs threaten this species.	eng
184525	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of well, waste water treatment, and reduced water abstraction.	eng
184525	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only known from a single locality, a well at Ichafoudène in Morocco.	eng
184525	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont	eng
184525	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184525	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The well where this species is found is near a village, so there is extraction of water and possibility of contamination of the ground water.	eng
184526	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184526	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Shells only are known from DRC (Kalemie, Tembwe and Moliro) and Zambia (Nsumbu), but living animals have not been found.	eng
184526	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Empty shells have been dredged from soft substrates.	eng
184526	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184526	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Water pollution and sedimentation are the most likely potential threats.	eng
184527	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
184527	conservation	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution. Especially important to better understand the relationship between the species and their respective fish hosts.	eng
184527	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is found from Tanzania to Botswana and South Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> The species is known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern and north-eastern South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> The species is found in Malawi and Tanzania.	eng
184527	distribution	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	<span style="font-weight: bold;">Southern Africa: </span>The species is known from rivers in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland and northern and north-eastern South Africa.<br/><br/><span style="font-weight: bold;">Global distribution: </span>the species is found in Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.	eng
184527	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It has a parasitic life stage that depends upon fish. However, nothing is known about this and the parasitic stage has not been described. The species is found in rivers and floodplains in sand/mud substratum.	eng
184527	habitat	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	It has a parasitic life stage that depends upon fish. However, nothing is known about this and the parasitic stage has not even been described.<br/>The species is found in rivers and floodplains in sand/mud substrate.	eng
184527	population	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	No information.	eng
184527	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
184527	threats	Kristensen, T.K., Stensgaard, A.S. and Appleton, C., 2006	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g.mining, is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general.	eng
184527	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	There is no information on current threats to the species, but habitat disturbance, e.g. mining is known to be a threat to riverine bivalves in general. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184528	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184528	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia alta</em> is known only from the type locality in southeastern DRC (Kisanga River near Lubumbashi (Brown 1994).	eng
184528	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184528	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184528	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available; the species is only known from type locality.	eng
184529	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	The distributional range comprises part protected area.	eng
184529	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Aberdare range in East Africa, specifically the Kinangop Plateau and Mau escarpment (areas of Mau Narok, Molo and Kipkabus) in Kenya.	eng
184529	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in pools in streams 1940 - 2760m asl.	eng
184529	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184529	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Part of the species range is in fast declining wetlands in human settlements.	eng
184530	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184530	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia walkeri</em> is known only from the type locality in southeastern DRC (Lualaba River at Kalangwe) (Brown 1994).	eng
184530	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184530	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184530	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available; only known from the type locality.	eng
184531	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184531	conservation	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.  It would be very valuable to have more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all <span style="font-style: italic;">Ferrissia</span> spp.)	eng
184531	distribution	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	<em>Ferrissia zambiensis</em> is known only from the type locality for this species is Lwada stream, and Chiteti stream in Mtanda, Zambia. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably is present throughout Africa, although it is overlooked because it is a small species (Brown 1994).	eng
184531	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ferrissia zambiensis</em> is known only from the type locality: Lwada stream, and Chiteti stream in Mtanda, Zambia. The genus is believed to be widespread in the tropical region and probably is present throughout Africa, although it is overlooked because it is a small species (Brown 1994).	eng
184531	habitat	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
184531	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	It inhabits streams.	eng
184531	population	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184531	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
184531	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
184531	threats	Appleton, C., Jørgensen, A., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
184532	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184532	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Edward. It is found at one locality (one dead shell). No data is known about its habitat and it is suspected to be more widely distributed.	eng
184532	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available. Although most of the other species of the genus like well oxygenated water usually at lake edges.	eng
184532	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184532	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184533	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184533	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pseudogibbula cara</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. Originally it was described it from specimens collected upstream of Kisangani. It is still known only from the type locality and Mandhal-Barth (1982) noted it had not been rediscovered. This is an area which has been re-sampled over a period, and other very rare species which have also not been rediscovered. In 2001, at Unitas Malacologia Piechocki reported collecting in region, finding only common species.	eng
184533	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No specific data on the ecology, but habitat is likely to be river.	eng
184533	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184533	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184534	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184534	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184534	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184534	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species occurs in Zanzibar and the East African coast It is known from Somalia to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the East African coast It is known from Kenya to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from the coasts of Somalia.	eng
184534	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> it is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the eastern African coast from Somalia to South Africa.	eng
184534	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Coasts of Somalia. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is documented as occurring in Zanzibar and the eastern African coast from Kenya to South Africa.	eng
184534	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in mud beneath mangrove trees.	eng
184534	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Documented to thrive in mud beneath mangrove trees.	eng
184534	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is documented to thrive in mud beneath mangrove trees.	eng
184534	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184534	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184534	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184534	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	A main threat to the species is sedimentation.	eng
184534	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184534	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is threatened by mangrove destruction, sedimentation and degradation.	eng
184535	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.	eng
184535	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides liebrechtsi</em> is endemic to DRC. The species is known only from the type locality in Kinshasa, but it is not known whether the site is upstream or downstream from Kinshasa.	eng
184535	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. This species occurs on sand banks. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184535	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. It was last collected in the 1930s.	eng
184535	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available. If it occurs downstream, it will be affected by pollution, but if it occurs upstream there may be few, if any, major threats.	eng
184536	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184536	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra obscura</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it has been recorded from only three sites on the Kimilolo River in southeastern DRC. Its extent of occurrence is around 16,000 km².	eng
184536	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The principle habitat is rapidly flowing streams, but can tolerate standing water. It has been collected at the overflow of Kipopo Fish Dam.	eng
184536	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species is locally abundant. Nothing is known of population trends, but may currently be stable.	eng
184536	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No specific threats are known to this species. The environment has been altered for local human use and increased human use of the area with consequent habitat degradation is a potential future threat. Also, the possibility of increasing fish stocks causing increased predation on molluscs is a potential future threat.	eng
184537	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2004	No information available.	eng
184537	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2004	A widespread species particularly on the East African coast. In Kenya, it has been reported from Kitui, the coastal area and western region. In Tanzania it is found in the northwestern region, coastal region and Mwanza, and several parts of Uganda.	eng
184537	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2004	It lives in freshwater bodies, some drying up for up to 5 months. It is known to be a primary host of human urinary bilharzia parasites (S. haematobium).	eng
184537	population	Lange, C.N., 2004	No information available.	eng
184537	threats	Lange, C.N., 2004	Like most other <em>Bulinus</em> snails, it appears to be an adaptable species which is unlikely to face any major threats.	eng
184538	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species needs protection of springs.	eng
184538	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from springs and small streams in the Middle Atlas in Morocco, at Chbouka and Azerzou. The type locality is Timdighas in mid-Atlas. All sites are in same basin, so this is a very localised species (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
184538	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a crenobiont, found near springs.	eng
184538	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184538	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by pumping, pollution, and reduction of water table with climate change.	eng
184539	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184539	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>M. scalaris</em> occurs in the Middle Atlas, eastern Morocco and in Algeria. It has been recorded in the Fez river, which is heavily polluted. It is also known from the upper reaches of Rbia and Melouia. It has already gone from the lower reaches.	eng
184539	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184539	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species has disappeared from more than 50% of its range based on Ghamizi's records of the  species. A proportionate decline in the population size is believed to have occurred.	eng
184539	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184540	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184540	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only known from Tripoli, Libya.	eng
184540	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184540	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184540	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184541	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184541	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Gabbiella spiralis</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from the Zaire River at Kinshasa.	eng
184541	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Likely to be found in water margins within aquatic vegetation.	eng
184541	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184541	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is found only within a 20 km area which is directly impacted by urbanization, so increased pollution and sedimentation.	eng
184542	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of wells, and a reduction of pumping is needed.	eng
184542	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from a well at Tamait Izder south of the Souss River north of Temsia, Morocco.	eng
184542	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Stynobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184542	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	One specimen has been found only.	eng
184542	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, extraction of water, decreasing ground water level.	eng
184543	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of wells, and reduced abstraction of water.	eng
184543	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Rif (Morocco) where it is widespread. It is localised to wells - it is known from nine wells but is probably present in more.	eng
184543	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a stydgobiont, found from wells only.	eng
184543	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184543	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and lowering water table.	eng
184544	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184544	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Egreria bernardii</em> is known from Gabon, western Congo, western DRC, and maybe Angola.	eng
184544	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water. Mouth of streams.	eng
184544	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184544	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184545	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys in the area are needed to determine the status of this species.	eng
184545	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadomoides hirta</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from two sites on the Lualaba River; Nyangwe and Kasongo.	eng
184545	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184545	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184545	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from a few localities. Current threats are not known.	eng
184547	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184547	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is known from Lakes Ashangi (Ashenge) and Haik, Ethiopia (Brown 1994).	eng
184547	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found among vegetation shallow water of Lake Ashangi.	eng
184547	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No available data.	eng
184547	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Water extraction threatens this species.	eng
184548	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184548	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None.	eng
184548	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Cyrenoida rhodopyga</em> occurs in lagoons from the Côte d'Ivoire to Congo.	eng
184548	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, <em>Cyrenoida rhodopyga</em> occurs in coastal lagoons from Côte d'Ivoire to Congo.	eng
184548	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Brackish water.	eng
184548	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water.	eng
184548	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184548	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184548	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184548	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184549	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184549	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes congicus</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it is known from northern Angola, the lower DRC, and the Republic of Congo.	eng
184549	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184549	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184549	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184550	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Taxonomic study is necessary to determine the relationships of Congolese populations of this species to those of <em>Mutela rostrata</em> and <em>Mutela dubia</em>. Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extant of the range of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184550	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela mabilli</em> is widespread in the Congo Basin, from the vicinity of Malebo Pool up through the Lualaba and Ulele/Oubangui basins.	eng
184550	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184550	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184550	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela mabilli</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184551	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184551	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184551	conservation	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
184551	distribution	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	<em>Burnupia kempi</em> is known from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania and Lake Kivu.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It occurs in DRC close to Lake Kivu.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is reported from Kigezi and Lake Kivu in Uganda and an unspecified locality in northern Tanzania. It is believed to exist in the great lakes although needs research to clarify status.	eng
184551	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Burnupia kempi</em> occurs from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania and Lake Kivu. It also occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo close to Lake Kivu.	eng
184551	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	The species has been reported from Kigezi and Lake Kivu in Uganda and an unspecified locality in northern Tanzania. It is believed to exist in the great lakes although needs research to clarify status.	eng
184551	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in streams, rivers and lakes.	eng
184551	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Lives in mountain streams and great lakes.	eng
184551	habitat	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No reliable information.	eng
184551	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184551	population	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184551	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
184551	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
184551	threats	Jørgensen, A. & Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
184551	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Undocumented. Deforestation leading to the destruction of river water catchments, changes in river water volume and sedimentation is a potential threat. Other general threats include wild fires, organic and inorganic pollution from agro-pesticides, herbicides, sewage systems, industrial systems and domestic activities.	eng
184552	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184552	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from brackish waters of Morocco at Kenitra, Rabat, Salé and the estuaries of the Oued Sebou, Oued Bou Regreg and Oued Oum Rbia.	eng
184552	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in brackish waters, in estuarine areas of Morocco.	eng
184552	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184552	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a brackish species so may quite tolerant to pollution.	eng
184553	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184553	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known only from Enfidaville (Tunisia), but it has not been found since and the spring has disappeared, so it is certainly extinct.	eng
184553	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184553	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184553	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184554	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184554	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
184554	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Iphigenia delessertii</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.	eng
184554	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Iphigenia delessertii</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.	eng
184554	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in river mouths and lagoons	eng
184554	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in river mouths and lagoons. It is found in brackish water.	eng
184554	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184554	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184554	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184554	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184555	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures proposed.	eng
184555	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184555	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184555	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184555	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Lanistes carinatus</em> has a wide distribution range from Lower Egypt to Uganda and Kenya. Its type locality is in Kalidje Canal near Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
184555	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is restricted in two regions in north east Kenya (Lake Jilore and Hola area) and in north Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species appears to be distributed beyond eastern Africa	eng
184555	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999), south Sudan, south east Ethiopia and Uebi and Giuba rivers in south Somalia (Brown 1994)<strong>.</strong>	eng
184555	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is known from Egypt south through Ethiopia to Uganda and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species is restricted to two regions in north east Kenya (Lake Jilore and Hola area) and in north Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is probably found throughout the Nile, including Lake Nasser (Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in southern Sudan, southeast Ethiopia and Uebi and Giuba rivers in south Somalia (Brown 1994)	eng
184555	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in standing and slowly flowing waters with rich vegetation.	eng
184555	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Documented to thrive in standing and slowly flowing waters with rich vegetation.	eng
184555	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This common species lives on fringing vegetation of the Nile, slow flowing rivers and their extensions, floodplains and swamps, also thriving in ditches and pools flooded by rain. It may aestivate. It is present in colonies and associated with certain aquatic plants.	eng
184555	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is documented to thrive in standing and slowly flowing waters with rich vegetation.	eng
184555	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184555	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184555	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184555	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184555	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	It survives in areas that appear severely hit by drought and are most likely subject to intense disturbance by humans and livestock.	eng
184555	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It survives in areas that appear severely hit by drought and are most likely subject to intense disturbance by humans and livestock.	eng
184555	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	It survives in areas that appear severely hit by drought and are most likely subject to intense disturbance by humans and livestock.	eng
184555	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats identified.	eng
184556	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184556	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma angulata</em> is endemic to Cameroon in central Africa. Originally it was described it from specimens collected from Samanga and Yaoundé; it was last seen in Yaoundé in 1967. The species is also present in the Sanaga River close to Idea, suggesting that it may be in two different river systems. However there are no longer suitable habitats present at Yaoundé (van Damme, pers. comm.). It is possible that one of the names Samanga/Sanaga may be the same location which would leave one location on the Sanaga River. The extent of occurrence is estimated under 5,000 km², with low area of occupancy.	eng
184556	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams. This species is found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest with very iron-poor, low-calcium waters.	eng
184556	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184556	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from a few localities in Cameroon. Any disturbance to gallery forest (logging, cutting) as well as sedimentation in these rivers are a threat this species.	eng
184557	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184557	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (south western section) and Lake Edward.	eng
184557	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species thrives among papyrus thickets in the lakes and stony beaches.	eng
184557	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184557	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184558	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184558	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from small streams in the oasis of Oudref (Tunisia)	eng
184558	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184558	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184558	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184559	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further taxonomic research is needed for this species.	eng
184559	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Tomichia kivuensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from only two sites at the Ruzizi Plains and Lwiro.	eng
184559	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams.	eng
184559	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184559	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Current threats are unknown.	eng
184560	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184560	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is recorded from Moba bay (DRC), one location in Zambia (Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project), and Luiche River delta platform near Kigoma (Nyanza Project).	eng
184560	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It inhabits Mulobozi, one tributary of Lake Tanganyika and lives on muddy river deltas in Lake Tanganyika.	eng
184560	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Population status unknown, but shells occur in large numbers in the few sites where present.	eng
184560	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
184561	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184561	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. It is found on the Kenyan coast at Gazi and near Malindi and the Rufiji delta in Tanzania.	eng
184561	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species occurs in mangrove swamps.	eng
184561	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184561	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation caused by increased deforestation. It is threatened by habitat destruction caused by shrimp farming on mangroves. The destruction of habitat is currently being documented by EARO (IUCN).	eng
184562	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are essential to monitor the population trends for this species. Research and implementation of any measures to protect the species in Lake Mweru are also essential.	eng
184562	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra mweruensis</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it has been recorded only from Lake Mweru (Zambia and DRC). The lake has an area of 4,850 km², but this is declining.	eng
184562	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species occurs throughout the lake; it is not restricted to the margins of the lake.	eng
184562	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No direct information regarding population sizes. However, future population decline is expected due to drying out of the lake.	eng
184562	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from Lake Mweru. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 25-50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
184563	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184563	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma ponthiervillensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. Three localities are recorded; on the Zaire River, Tchopo River (below the falls), and Lualaba River. Main sites are towards Ubundu, 60 km south of Kisangani.	eng
184563	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. This genus is usually on hard bottoms on rocks amongst shaded areas.	eng
184563	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184563	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No major threats above Kisanangi but small-scale logging in  upper part of the species range may also be an issue.&#160; The habitat of the lower part of the species' range is degrading due to  urbanization, with pollution and sedimentation. The sites near the town may have been lost to urbanization, but no recent survey data.	eng
184564	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	Mzima springs is situated in the Tsavo National Park (but outside the northeastern Africa assessment region). The other areas where the species have been recorded are not protected.	eng
184564	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	Mzima springs is situated in Tsavo national park. The other areas where the species have been recorded are not protected.	eng
184564	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ewaso Nyiro River at Chanler's falls (Kenya).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Kiboko River at Hunters lodge and Mzima springs, Kenya.	eng
184564	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Ewaso Nyiro river at Chanler's falls, Kiboko river at Hunters lodge and Mzima springs, Kenya.	eng
184564	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It lives in shallow water, shaded by trees with a muddy sediment.	eng
184564	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in shallow water, shaded by trees with a muddy sediment.	eng
184564	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184564	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184564	threats	Lange, C., 2004	The Ewaso Nyiro at Chanler Falls is affected by drought. The Kiboko river flows through a very busy commercial and agricultural area, and the site is situated next to a hotel. Thus the water system is very vulnerable to organic and inorganic pollution. Mzima Springs are situated in a tourist area, and are tapped for water in Mombasa.	eng
184564	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	The Ewaso Nyiro at Chanler Falls is affected by drought. The Kiboko river flows through a very busy commercial and agricultural area, and the site is situated next to a hotel. Thus the water system is very vulnerable to organic and inorganic pollution. Mzima Springs are situated in a tourist area, and are tapped for water in Mombasa.	eng
184565	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184565	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has been recorded in the 19th Century from springs and head waters of brooks in the vicinity of Oran, Mascara, Bougie and in the forest of Zeralda between Stauéli and Koléah (Algeria).	eng
184565	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs and small streams near them.	eng
184565	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184565	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184566	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184566	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. It occurs in thermal waters in the vicinity of Constantine and El-Outaia near Biskra (Algeria). This species is only shell remains. It was last found in 1864. It is possibly extinct.	eng
184566	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont of thermal springs.	eng
184566	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184566	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	These thermal waters are polluted because used as bathing places, with soap and detergents.	eng
184567	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184567	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the White Nile (Sudan).	eng
184567	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184567	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184567	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184568	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184568	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania and Burundi).	eng
184568	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184568	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184568	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184569	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Coelatura luapulaensis</span> needs to be re-evaluated taxonomically, additional sampling is necessary to determine extent of its occurrence, and host-fish studies are necessary steps to understanding the status of this species for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184569	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura luapulaensis</em> is known from the Luapula and Chambeshi river basins, above Lake Mweru.	eng
184569	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184569	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184569	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <span style="font-style: italic;">Coelatura luapulaensis</span> is restricted to the upper Congo Basin in Zambia (and adjacent DRC) and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184570	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Taxonomic studies are necessary to determine the relationships of populations in the Ulele and Lualaba to those in the Luapula and Chambeshi. Additional sampling is necessary to estimate population demography, and studies are necessary to determine hosts for parasitic larvae. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184570	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Chambardia dautzenbergi</em> is known from the upper Congo Basin, including the Ulele and Lualaba in the DRC, and up through the Chambeshi River in Zambia.	eng
184570	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184570	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184570	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented against <em>Chambardia dautzenbergi</em>, but fresh waters throughout the range of the species are impacted by continued civil unrest (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184571	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184571	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Njema Pool, Bagamoyo area (Brown 1994), Tanzania. A possible record is also known from Mligasi River (West Tanzania).	eng
184571	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184571	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184571	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Pollution from domestic and agricultural activities threaten this species.	eng
184572	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from limiting pumping from ground water, and protection of the Blue Spring from degradation and pollution.	eng
184572	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	There are two populations of this species on the Atlantic coastal region of the Anti-Atlas at the Blue Spring of Tiznit, and it is also known from some wells of Mirhelft to the south west of Tiznit, all in Morocco.	eng
184572	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species found in wells and in a spring.	eng
184572	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184572	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Blue Spring is inside the city of Tiznit, and so there are many threats. The wells are specifically threatened by pollution and a reduction in the water table as ground water is taken out. Because the wells are near the sea, if too much ground water is removed, the water in the wells will become saline.	eng
184573	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184573	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Albert (Uganda) and Lake Cohoha (Burundi).	eng
184573	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is associated with areas in lakes with vegetation.	eng
184573	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184573	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available. It is an intermediate host for human intestinal bilharzia causing parasites (<em>S. mansoni</em>) and possibly tolerant to many changes affecting wetlands.	eng
184574	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184574	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184574	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184574	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It is found in Kenya (Rumuruti and Mt. Kenya), Tanzania and Uganda.  It is also documented as occurring beyond eastern Africa.	eng
184574	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known to be wide spread Afrotropical species (Ethiopia to Shaba).	eng
184574	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This is a widespread species occurring from north Africa south through Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, and possibly to South Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Kenya (Rumuruti and Mt. Kenya), Tanzania and Uganda. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> It is a widespread Afrotropical species that is recorded from Holocene deposits in the Fayum (Egypt) (Van Damme 1984).<br/><br/><strong>Southern Africa:</strong> It is reported from 'South Africa' but precise locations not known (see Korniushin 1998).	eng
184574	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	All types of fresh waters	eng
184574	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184574	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184574	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184574	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184574	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184574	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184574	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184574	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Sedimentation is the most likely threat.	eng
184576	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184576	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is only recorded from Dahlak Island (Eritrea).	eng
184576	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in diverse coastal habitats, mangroves.	eng
184576	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184576	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184577	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184577	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is restricted to the region of Oran and Mascara (Algeria).	eng
184577	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184577	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184577	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from a highly populated region with degraded habitats. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184578	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184578	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common along the Burundi, DRC, Tanzania and Zambia coastlines.	eng
184578	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	The species is restricted to hard substrates including cobbles, boulders and stromatolites, at moderate depths, 10-50 m. Occasionally found in shallow water but then only under rocks. Oviparous.	eng
184578	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	When present, this species is relatively common in deeper water.	eng
184578	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Water pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.	eng
184579	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184579	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Hydrobia luvilana</em> is endemic to central Africa in the Lower Zaire systems, where it is recorded from Republic of Congo and western DRC. The species is recorded from two localities about 250 km apart: the type locality 30 km inland from Pointe Noire and south of Loudima. The DBL collection has specimens from Nianga Stream near Kisantu. The area is under-recorded and the species may be more widespread.	eng
184579	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams and rivers. This species is found in streams with gravel with abundant vegetation (Brown 1994) as well as larger rivers.	eng
184579	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184579	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	At present this species is only known from two widely spaced localities. The region is known to have multiple threats of gold mining,  deforestation, pesticide pollution and pterochemical exploitation and as  such the species may be susceptible to changing quality of habitat.	eng
184580	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184580	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is known only from the Giuba (Jubba) River basin (southeast Somalia).	eng
184580	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184580	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184580	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184581	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184581	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to East Africa. This species occurs in the eastern Africa coastal strip (Kenya and Tanzania).	eng
184581	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is found on mud beneath mangrove trees.	eng
184581	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184581	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184582	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184582	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Salemba stream (and spring-fed pools) in Taita Taveta District, south eastern Kenya.	eng
184582	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is found on fallen tree branches and leaves in streams and spring-fed pools.	eng
184582	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184582	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Siltation, severe drought and destruction of the river catchment in the Taita Hills forests all threaten this species.	eng
184583	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184583	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common along the Congolese, Tanzanian and Zambian coastlines, but not known from Burundi.	eng
184583	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	The species is restricted to hard substrates including cobbles, boulders and stromatolites, at moderate depths, 10-50 m. Oviparous.	eng
184583	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Population trends unknown. When present, this species is relatively common in deeper water.	eng
184583	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	Water pollution and sedimentation are the potential threats.	eng
184584	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Future monitoring of this species is necessary.	eng
184584	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra johnstoni</em> is endemic to central Africa, where it occurs in Zambia and DRC. The species is recorded from Lake Mweru and the Luapula River. Seven collection sites are known, but the species is quite widespread along the Luapula River (with an extent of occurrence of approximately 30,000 km²).	eng
184584	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in lakes and rivers.	eng
184584	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is easy to find where it occurs; it occurs in high densities.	eng
184584	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there. This is a future threat to part of the population, but the rest of the population is relatively widespread in the Luapula River. Threats to the rest of the population depend on activities in Zambia.	eng
184585	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Taxonomic research and field sampling are necessary to determine the validity of this nominal species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Coelatura kipopoensis</em>.	eng
184585	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura kipopoensis</em> is a poorly characterized species reported from the area of Lubumbashi in the upper Congo. Specimens referable to this species (based upon Mandahl-Barth’s comments and figure) are known from the Luapula and Lake Mweru as well.	eng
184585	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184585	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184585	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented. The area near Lubumbashi is effected by mining and continued civil unrest (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184586	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184586	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Hydrobia plena</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known from two localities; one on the Zaire River at Ango Ango (4 km south of Matadi (upstream)), and the second on a small tributary river 100 km northeast near Kisantu. The two sites are about 250 km apart.	eng
184586	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found among rocks in swiftly flowing water at the Zaire rivers. This group may be good colonizers.	eng
184586	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184586	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from a limited number of localities. The presence of the species on the edges of rivers within fast flowing rivers makes it vulnerable to many types of threat which lead to declining quality of habitat. This species is threatened by sedimentation, urbanization and domestic water pollution in the dry season. If the Grand Inga dam proposal were to be adopted the site at Matadi would be lost.	eng
184587	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184587	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pseudocleopatra dartevellei</em> is endemic to DRC. It is known from the type locality on the Zaire River at Matadi, where it was first recorded in the 1940s and 50s.	eng
184587	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184587	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184587	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. Small-scale logging, and possible pollution from tributyltin which is used in antifouling paint on boats.	eng
184588	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The species is known from a limited number of museum specimens. Additional sampling is needed to determine both the extent of occurrence and occupancy of <em>Coelatura briarti</em>, as well as to estimate population demography. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184588	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura briarti</em> is known from the middle Congo, from as far down as the Sangha and Oubangi rivers and up into the Lualaba.	eng
184588	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184588	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184588	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura briarti</em>, but fresh waters within the area of occurrence of this species are impacted by continued civil unrest, logging and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184589	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.	eng
184589	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides nyangweensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is known from the lower Lualaba River at Nyangwe and other places (Brown 1994), but the exact locality is not known.	eng
184589	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184589	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes or trends.	eng
184589	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available; the location of this species is not clear.	eng
184590	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184590	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria nux</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found in the mouth of the River Zaire.	eng
184590	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in brackish water, mainly in mangroves	eng
184590	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184590	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184591	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184591	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Turkana. It is believed to be extinct. Mandahl-Barth (1988) comments that during Pluvial periods, the species may have had a distribution which included Lake Victoria and Lake Rudolf.	eng
184591	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184591	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184591	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Human disturbance, organic and inorganic pollution including sedimentation are detrimental to the species survival and need to be evaluated.	eng
184592	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184592	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Albert on the western shore between Kawa and Sabiloko. It probably exists (or at least existed) in Lake Edward according to the pleistocene/holocene lacustrine deposits.	eng
184592	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184592	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184592	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184593	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184593	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Albert.	eng
184593	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found between 8 - 40 m deep.	eng
184593	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184593	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Erosion and silting and water pollution from the catchment threaten this species.	eng
184594	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required.	eng
184594	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides agglutinans</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is recorded from the Zaire River at Kala Kala. Three surveys in the 1970s over a five year period failed to locate the species. It is known from only one location (the type locality).	eng
184594	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in crevices among rocks in swiftly flowing water. Perhaps asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184594	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184594	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. The species requires highly oxygenated waters. Since the original collection of the species, the human population in the area has increased and habitat degradation is ongoing. Sedimentation is a particular threat to this species. A future threat is the potential construction of the Grand Inga dam.	eng
184595	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184595	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is known from the Jonglei area in south Sudan. It is endemic to the White Nile, Sudan.	eng
184595	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in lagoons with Eichornia plants.	eng
184595	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184595	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No major threats are known for the location.	eng
184596	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184596	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lobogenes spiralis</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC. Originally it was thought to be very localised, but it now appears that it is a widespread species (based on DBL records).	eng
184596	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184596	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184596	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only known from a few localities. No major threats and present in widely distant localities	eng
184597	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184597	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria and the Victoria Nile.	eng
184597	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184597	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184597	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is most likely threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
184599	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184599	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184599	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184599	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Giuba-Shebeli River system (south east Somalia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>The species is known from northeastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi.	eng
184599	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	The species has been documented from north eastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi and in Somalia.	eng
184599	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is known from Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented from north eastern Kenya in Lake Jilore near Malindi.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is known from Somalia.	eng
184599	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184599	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184599	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184599	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184599	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184599	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184599	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184599	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats known but possibly sedimentation and drought.	eng
184599	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	Possibly sedimentation and drought.	eng
184601	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Requires good water quality, so control of logging, pollution and sedimentation is recommended.	eng
184601	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Septariellina congolensis</em> has been recorded only from DRC; at Matadi and Kala Kala on the River Congo. It has a very small range area, lying within a 20 km area.	eng
184601	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. Brown (1992) reported it from rocks at the edge of rapids, so species likes well oxygenated water.	eng
184601	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184601	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the small area near type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.	eng
184602	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184602	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma alutacea</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is restricted to only two localities; Tchope River in Kisangani, and Amankiti (Lupoto district). Mandhal-Barth (1982) suggested that it is known from Kisangani to Luputo district.	eng
184602	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits rivers and streams. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest.	eng
184602	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184602	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from a few localities. At Kisangani, urban development is reducing habitat quality through sedimentation, pollution and sewage in the river. Upstream the threats are reduced.	eng
184603	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184603	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma riperti</em> is endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from the eastern region at Mikel. The species is only known from the type locality and has never been seen since it was first located.	eng
184603	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184603	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184603	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184604	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184604	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is known from coastlines of Tanzania and Zambia.	eng
184604	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	The species found on soft substrates in moderate to deep water, 10-80 m depth.	eng
184604	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184604	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by water pollution and sedimentation.	eng
184605	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184605	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species was known from a spring at Casablanca and spring at Settat (Morocco). In both locations no active springs presently persist.	eng
184605	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184605	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184605	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184606	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Ex-situ breeding programmes and introductions are needed.	eng
184606	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Fresh empty shells were found in the late 1990's by Van Nienhuys (pers. comm.) in the Oued Grou just downstream of the hydroelectric dam east of Rabat. It is assumed here that populations of <em>A. pallaryi</em> still do occur in the artificial lake. The populations of the Oued M'da are extinct.	eng
184606	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in silty bottoms of standing or slowly flowing waters.	eng
184606	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Nothing is known of the present population size	eng
184606	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution probably is not a major threat but invasive molluscivorous species such as the Red Louisiana river XXXX that is rapidly spreading through Mediterranean Europe is, as well as food competitors such as the Ponto-Caspian bivalve <span style="font-style: italic;">Dreissena polymorpha</span>.	eng
184607	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells, and reduced pumping of water.	eng
184607	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found in a well in Douar N'Gar, Lamsantah, Beni Mellal, a well in Douar Oulad Zahra and Douar Oulad Aamer, and a well in Douar Oulad Ahmed, Sebt Oulad Nemma. As they are all part of the same groundwater basin, it is counted as one location.	eng
184607	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184607	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a small population.	eng
184607	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.	eng
184608	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extent of range of this species and its population demography. Detailed taxonomic research is necessary to verify how distinctive these populations are from <em>Mutela rostrata</em> in the Congo Basin and West Africa generally. Host-fish need to be determined in order to understand the impact of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184608	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Mutela langi</em> is recorded from the lowest reach of the Congo, based upon the types and paratypes specimens in various collections. However, its extent in the lower Congo (below the rapids) is unknown due to limited sampling effort. It was recorded from below an area of rapids in the lower reaches, so it is likely to be restricted to this area; area of occupancy is less than 500 km²; extent of occurrence may be less than 5,000 km².	eng
184608	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184608	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184608	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela langi</em> is known only from the lower Congo River, below the rapids (Graf and Cummings 2006). The area is threatened a high population density, deforestation and mining. Moreover, the Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from Kinshasa and Brazzaville. The Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184609	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Surveys are needed to check if is still present, and if so, its range.	eng
184609	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is known from Oued Melah near Aonana, Tunisia (Boeter 1976).	eng
184609	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Very localised in Oued Melah. In a river near a road.	eng
184609	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184609	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution and urbanisation.	eng
184610	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Surveys are needed to check if it is still extant.	eng
184610	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species was recorded from the region of Constantine (Algeria) in the 19th Century.	eng
184610	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184610	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184610	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by development and urbanisation.	eng
184611	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184611	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Lanistes nsendweensis</em> is endemic to central Africa, where the species is known from DRC and Central African Republic.	eng
184611	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184611	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184611	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184612	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184612	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Oudref and Oued Gabés near Gabés (Tunisia), found only by Letourneux and Bourguignat 1887. The three sites are all right near each other so one location. It has not been found since.	eng
184612	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Also lives on rocks by springs feeding oases in the desert. This species is a crenobiont. Most of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudamnicola</span> are like this - springs and clear springs coming from them. The snails are found only in the tiny distance between spring and oasis (mainly a metre or two). They are replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria</span> immediately below that level (physical succession). <span style="font-style: italic;">Mercuria</span> is spreading (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
184612	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184612	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	These are found on rocks where water seeps out of desert into oases. As soon as they start pumping water from the ground, the springs stop and the snails disappear.	eng
184613	conservation	Lange, C., Ngereza, C. & Seddon, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
184613	distribution	Lange, C., Ngereza, C. & Seddon, M., 2004	This species is endemic to Kichwambae crater lake and in region near Fort Portal, also Lake Lutoto (small lakes less than 2 km²).	eng
184613	habitat	Lange, C., Ngereza, C. & Seddon, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
184613	population	Lange, C., Ngereza, C. & Seddon, M., 2004	No information available.	eng
184613	threats	Lange, C., Ngereza, C. & Seddon, M., 2004	Erosion and silting threaten this species.	eng
184614	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184614	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic north African species which has only been recorded from Morocco and Algeria.	eng
184614	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184614	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184614	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184615	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184615	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Melanopsis chlorotica</em> was found in the Haouz Plain (Marakkech, Morocco) and is still found mid-Atlas (Ghamizi 1998). It is now not in the Haouz Plain any more. In mid-Atlas it only inhabits a small area, less than 10 km².	eng
184615	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184615	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184615	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184616	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184616	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Gabbiella matadina</em> is endemic to central Africa, known only from the type locality in western DRC at Matadi. It has not been rediscovered during recent surveys at Matadi.	eng
184616	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Only found within a water reservoir. This is a very distinctive species of <em>Gabiella</em> and maybe present in adjacent small streams draining into the reservoir. It is possibly from small streams on stones or branches.	eng
184616	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184616	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. Human population pressure in region is increasing with potential impact on the sites. This species is threatened by sedimentation, small scale wood extraction for charcoal and building and domestic water pollution in the dry season.	eng
184617	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184617	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is described it from Socotra Island only in the 19th century. It was not mentioned by Brown (1994), nor found during the latest intensive limnological survey (1999-2004) (Lab Ecology, Ghent University, Belgium).	eng
184617	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in brackish waters/creeks at river mouth.	eng
184617	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184617	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184618	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184618	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. It was reported from El Goléa, Nefta, Kebili and Limaguess (Tunisia) in 1887 by Letourneux and Bourguignat but Boeters did not find it any more.	eng
184618	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It was found in little streams.	eng
184618	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184618	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184619	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Benefits to this species would include: reduced deforestation, and restored habitats.	eng
184619	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to the Rif mountain range (Morocco) (Ghamizi 1989). There is a historical record found in Chechaouen, but it has not been found there again.	eng
184619	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in marshes and small shallow rivers. Also water storage ponds.	eng
184619	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184619	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by habitat degradation and deforestation. It is found in shallow habitats, which are easily filled up with mud from erosion, and during storms.	eng
184620	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Awareness of this species' existence in the rapid areas of the Zaire River is needed, particularly for those people involved in granting planning permission for dam projects in the area.	eng
184620	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma wansoni</em> is known from only one location in western DRC, at the Zaire River near Matadi (Brown 1994).	eng
184620	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in swiftly flowing water (rapids).	eng
184620	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184620	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality. The Inga Dam project is based on the Zaire River; this includes a possibility for the Grand Inga Dam, which could have a serious impact on this species' habitat. Local logging activities could have an effect, but no information is available to confirm this. The population of Matadi is increasing and this could also have an impact.	eng
184621	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this species needs to be re-evaluated to determine the status of the various populations, especially in the upper Congo parts of its range. More research into the basic population biology and life history of <em>Coelatura gabonensis</em> will be necessary for future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184621	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura gabonensis</em> is known from throughout the Congo Basin, from the mouth up through the Lualaba. It is also known from coastal drainages from Gabon north to Cameroon.	eng
184621	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184621	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184621	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented, but fresh water habitats in Africa are known to be effected by sedimentation due to logging, mining, etc. and pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184622	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184622	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is recorded in the 19th Century from Guelma, Hammam-Berda, Boghar, Boudjariah, Rivet, Boudounou, Mostaghanem, Mascara and other localities in Algeria. It has also been seen in Tunisia.	eng
184622	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184622	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184622	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184623	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution control is needed.	eng
184623	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Morocco and Algeria. It is only left in the upper reaches of rivers, mostly disappeared from lower down. It used to be more common.	eng
184623	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in slow moving, very clean waters with low water level (< 50 cm)	eng
184623	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184623	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by pollution, particularly resulting in oxygen deficiency. It is only left in the upper reaches, gone from lower areas. All species of <span style="font-style: italic;">Theodoxus</span> are in decline because of human alteration of habitat such as water pollution.	eng
184624	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184624	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma liricincta</em> is endemic to northeastern DRC. It is known from six locations; two sites are within the Ituri forests, and the other four sites are on the Zaire River (Lubuli-Kibale District, Buessa District). Brown (1994) and Mandahl-Barth (1982) recorded that this was a common species in northeast Zaire.	eng
184624	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams and rivers. This species is found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade. The genus can be found in small streams amongst forest with very iron-poor, low-calcium waters.	eng
184624	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184624	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Changes to the shading of sites through logging will impact this species.	eng
184625	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184625	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	It is recorded from type locality at the north east side of Dagusi Island in Lake Victoria, Uganda. It is believed to have spread to various sites in northern Lake Victoria (Uganda and Kenya).	eng
184625	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184625	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184625	threats	Lange, C., 2004	There is a possible threat of sedimentation and lake pollution.	eng
184626	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184626	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
184626	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Iphigenia curta</em> ranges from Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.	eng
184626	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Iphigenia curta</em> ranges from the Côte d'Ivoire to Angola.	eng
184626	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in river mouths and lagoons.	eng
184626	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in river mouths and lagoons. It is found in brackish water.	eng
184626	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184626	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184626	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184626	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184627	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184627	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known at 36 sites It is known from all four coasts, it is possible that further surveys may locate more sites for this species.	eng
184627	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It is abundant on mud, silt or sandy substrates across a variety of water depths, 5-60 m depth.	eng
184627	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184627	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Water pollution, deforestation, erosion and sedimentation are possible threats.	eng
184628	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184628	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	Unknown.	eng
184628	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria paradoxa</em> ranges from Sierra Leone to Angola.	eng
184628	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Egreria paradoxa</em> ranges from Sierra Leone to Angola.	eng
184628	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in mouth of streams.	eng
184628	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in river mouths, brackish water.	eng
184628	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184628	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184628	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184628	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184629	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of wells, limited contact with population, limiting flow of pesticides from agriculture into streams/rivers (particularly Oued Makhamane, where the stream is bordered by vineyards). Reducing use of chemicals for agriculture.	eng
184629	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is known from Oued Makhfamane; hyporheic water below this stream. It is present in wells in Jbilet near Marrakech, wells in Imin Ifri, Demnate, and wells near the Zat stream, near Ait Ourir village.	eng
184629	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in hyphoreic water under streams/rivers, and wells.	eng
184629	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is not very abundant.	eng
184629	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Threats to this species include domestic pollution and urbanisation, diversion of water for irrigation, pollution from pesticides, and climate change and the resulting droughts lowering water table and reducing flow.	eng
184630	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184630	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to two crater lakes south of Fort Portal, south west Uganda. It has not been collected from type localities since time of collection.<br/>A distribution map not possible due to lack of detailed information.	eng
184630	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184630	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184630	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184631	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184631	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma kadeii</em> is endemic to eastern Cameroon. It has been recorded only from the Kadei River from under the road bridge at Panna.	eng
184631	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species occurs in rivers, on large stones in shaded areas with hard bottom.	eng
184631	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184631	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality, which is in a region of heavy logging, which changes shade conditions on river and leads to increased sedimentation.	eng
184632	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184632	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only known from the type locality in north Africa and has not been recovered since the original description.	eng
184632	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Moved by birds, so distribution changeable. Form of shell probably varies with habitat leading to uncertainty over taxonomy.	eng
184632	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184632	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184633	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extant of the range of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184633	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. Most records for <em>Coelatura leopoldvillensis</em> are known from the Ulele and Congo River above the Central Cuvette, but the type locality is Malebo Pool and numerous specimens are known from Zambia in the region of the mouth of the Congo.	eng
184633	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184633	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184633	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Coelatura leopoldvillensis</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool and the lower Congo), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining. The Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from both Kinshasa and Brazzaville, and the Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184634	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184634	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has been recorded only from the region of Moulay Taieb (Morocco), but this is an old record.	eng
184634	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184634	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184634	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184635	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184635	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria schwabi</em> is restricted to Cameroon, where it is found in the lower Sanaga River.	eng
184635	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in brackish water, but further up river.	eng
184635	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184635	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184636	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the current extent of this species and its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to determine the effects of environmental change on the life history of the species. No specific conservation measures are known to be in place for <em>Mutela legumen</em>.	eng
184636	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Mutela legumen</em> is endemic to central Africa, known from the vicinity of Malebo Pool and the adjacent Congo Basin immediately above the Pool, as far up as the Oubangi and the Kasai. Less than ten locations are estimated, based on localised threats in much of the known range, and more severe threats around Kinshasa. The extent of occurrence is above the thresholds for criterion B, but area of occupancy based on the known range is approximately 600 km².	eng
184636	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences. <em>Mutela</em> occur in larger rivers, so this species is unlikely to occur in the smaller tributaries.	eng
184636	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184636	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	Malebo Pool is threatened by increasing urbanization and pollution due to increasing human population pressures in areas of Brazzaville and Kinshasa. Agriculture and increased organic and inorganic pollution are likely to become severe future threats. Elsewhere in the range of this species, continued civil unrest hampers research (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). However, no specific threats are documented for <em>Mutela legumen</em>.	eng
184637	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Urgently needs work. It needs protection of current habitat, and possibly propagation or translocation of some mussels to other suitable waterbodies.	eng
184637	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Former known range: Mediterranean Maghreb It is known from the streams in the Edough forest (western Algeria) to the marshes in the Algerian-Tunisian border region. <br/><br/>Present range: not recorded any more from Algeria since the early 20th Century, and it must be considered as extinct over most of its former range in Algeria, though populations possibly may still survive near the Tunisian border in the El Kala marshes. In Tunisia a new location was discovered in 2000 by Khalloufi and Boumaïza (2005) in the Oued Sedjenène downstream of the artificial lake Ichkeul (northeast Tunisia) .	eng
184637	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in slow flowing streams and marshes in the Mediterranean coastal region of Algeria and Tunisia.	eng
184637	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184637	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by drainage of sites, and alteration of habitat.	eng
184638	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of wells, in the same way as <span style="font-style: italic;">G. gofasi</span>. It is known that once waste water treatment is introduced, the water quality can improve.	eng
184638	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found at Khettara (old irrigation system) near Marrakech, some wells near the edge of the road to Safi near Tensift, a well at Guelmin, and one well at Tafraout.	eng
184638	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184638	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a small population.	eng
184638	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.	eng
184639	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184639	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Hydrobia gabonensis</em> is endemic to Gabon. The species is known from the type locality in the Ogowe River, but Brown (1994) also gave a record from Lake N'dougou near Gamba. Mandahl-Barth (1982) notes that the species was not rediscovered since Morelet originally described the species. The DBL database shows no records from Lake N'dougou near Gamba. Consequently the record from Lake N'dougou is questionable.	eng
184639	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. No details available on preferred habitats.	eng
184639	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184639	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species has a limited geographical distribution.	eng
184640	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of well with cover, limited pumping, and waste water treatment is needed.	eng
184640	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from a well at Ait Salah, Jihadia Dehairia and Arhbalou Masa, south of Agadir (Morocco).	eng
184640	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184640	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is abundant in wells.	eng
184640	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by groundwater extraction and water pollution from sewage and pesticides. Urbanisation also affects this species, with some wells now in a large city (previously a small town).	eng
184641	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184641	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa. It is recorded from one spring Aïn Sfa in the region of Oujda (Morocco).	eng
184641	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184641	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184641	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	People are moving to this area because it is a tourist area. Potential pollution and groundwater extraction are putting the spring in danger.	eng
184642	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated and the region of the Lobo and Nyang rivers needs to be surveyed in general for freshwater mollusks.	eng
184642	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura lobensis</em> is known only from the type material in the Lobo and Nyang rivers in Cameroon; only two locations only. This species is only a few specimens have been located; the species appears to be localised.	eng
184642	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is a riverine species. No specific information is available.	eng
184642	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available. This species is only known from the type material. Surveys carried out since the type was collected have failed to find the species.	eng
184642	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available for <em>Coelatura lobensis</em>, although freshwater habitats in Cameroon are known to be jeopardized by habitat destruction due to deforestation and other human activities (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184643	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184643	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra pilula</em> is endemic to the Kasai Region in southern DRC. There are four known collecting sites, and the species was last collected in 1958 (however collecting in DRC has been difficult after this time due to difficulties in getting permits).	eng
184643	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species has been collected from open water rivers and standing waters.	eng
184643	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes or trends; it was last collected in 1958. When it was collected it was considered locally abundant.	eng
184643	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only found in the Kasai region, Southern DRC. The area the species was collected from is known for mining activities resulting in sedimentation and disturbance of river beds. The species is apparently localised, and other threats add to the effects of mining (conversion of habitat to agriculture, logging activities, etc.)	eng
184644	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184644	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Athi River Plains. It is found in seasonal rivers downstream from Athi River town, south-east Kenya. It has an EOO of less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
184644	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is recorded by D. Brown on small seasonal streams along the Athi River Plains.	eng
184644	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184644	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Its distribution area is characterized by frequent prolonged droughts. Streams are known to go dry for several months. There is also development in the form of settlement schemes on the Athi River Plains which may have affected the regional streams.	eng
184645	conservation	Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184645	distribution	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi with a fragmented distribution. It is found at Monkey Bay, but total distribution is unknown.	eng
184645	habitat	Ngereza, C., 2004	It is found in sand and weed beds, common at 1.5m depth, but dredged from 35m. Uses burrowing behaviour to avoid predation by fish.	eng
184645	population	Ngereza, C., 2004	Papers by Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) provide population and growth information for Lake Malawi (information not available to this writer).	eng
184645	threats	Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is likely to be impacted by general habitat threats to Lake Malawi benthos (such as sedimentation, and dredging by fishermen). It is predated by fish and vulnerable to changing habitats at edge of lake margin, as well as pollution (Brown 1995).	eng
184646	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further taxonomic work is needed for this species.	eng
184646	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides bavayi</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known only from the type locality on the Lualaba River at Kibombo (Brown 1994); the exact location of the type locality is unclear.	eng
184646	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184646	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184646	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available. The species is known only from the type collection.	eng
184647	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from waste water treatment, protection of wells, limited agricultural pollution into rivers, reducing use of chemicals in agriculture bordering the river. It is proven now that when waste water treatment is introduced, the water quality can improve.	eng
184647	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is found in hyporheic water of the river Zat, wells and khettara (the name for the old irrigation system) of Marrakech, wells in the region of Guelmin, wells in Tahla near Tafraout and wells in Doutarga near Tiznit.	eng
184647	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont, found in hyporheic water below rivers and wells.	eng
184647	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184647	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Threats to this species includes pollution from domestic populations (i.e. sewage), water extraction, and a lowering water table because of climate change and drought.	eng
184648	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184648	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This is a northeast African endemic, only known from the type locality (near Debra Berhan) in Ethiopia.	eng
184648	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is known from the Ethiopian Highlands.	eng
184648	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	There is only a single population.	eng
184648	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Water extraction and degradation threaten this species.	eng
184649	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	&#160;None known.	eng
184649	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184649	conservation	Jørgensen, A. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
184649	distribution	Jørgensen, A. & Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Ceratophallus kigeziensis</em> is recorded from DRC and Uganda, and maybe as far north as Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is present in DRC.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Lakes Victoria, Edward and Kivu<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It probably also occurs in the northern part of the basin belonging to Ethiopia.	eng
184649	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	In central Africa, <em>Ceratophallus kigeziensis</em> is recorded from Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
184649	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from specimens recently  (2007) collected in small pools in the Turkana Basin (Kenya) but not in the lake were identified by the present assessor and belonging to this species. Probably also occurs in the northern part of the basin belonging to Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward and Kivu.	eng
184649	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in pools without vegetation in the Turkana Basin. Spread by birds.	eng
184649	habitat	Jørgensen, A. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is usually found in lakes.	eng
184649	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Mostly found in lakes.	eng
184649	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184649	population	Jørgensen, A. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184649	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
184649	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
184649	threats	Jørgensen, A. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184649	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184651	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184651	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184651	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from south Sudan and Ethiopia (Brown 1994)<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Uganda.	eng
184651	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is known from Sudan to Tanzania.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from Jinja bay in Lake Victoria (Type locality). It is also documented from Lake Mutanda, several undisclosed localities in Uganda and the Kenyan and Tanzanian shores of Lake Victoria.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in south Sudan and Ethiopia (Brown 1994)	eng
184651	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It lives in papyrus swamps and on stony beaches.	eng
184651	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives in papyrus swamps and stony beaches.	eng
184651	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184651	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184651	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184651	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184652	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184652	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).	eng
184652	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184652	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184652	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation is a potential threat.	eng
184653	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184653	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	&#160;This species is endemic to Lake Edward (2,203 km²) and Lake Mirambi Crate Lake (< 20 km²). No information from DRC shores of Lake Edward (Brown 1994).	eng
184653	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	It is commonly found in vegetation or sands up to 4 - 10 m depth.	eng
184653	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184653	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	There is a declining quality of habitat due to agricultural runoff. This species is likely to be very tolerant to such disturbance.	eng
184654	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184654	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi. Total distribution is unknown. It has been dredged from down to 70 feet.	eng
184654	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184654	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184654	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184655	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species should be protected by covering wells, and waste water treatment to avoid pollution.	eng
184655	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from wells at Attebane, Doutarga and at Agadir Izder in the region of Tiznit (Morocco).	eng
184655	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a stygobiont - it lives in groundwater.	eng
184655	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184655	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and lowering water levels.	eng
184656	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184656	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides dupuisi</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is known from DRC; Zaire River at Ngandu, Kinshasa and Ubangi River at Banzyville. These sites are far apart, but if it is assumed that the species occurs at some sites between these localities then area of occupancy is less than 2,000 km². The record from Banzyville (from the DBL database) may refer to a similar but different species (D. van Damme, pers. comm.); if this record is erroneous, the area of occupancy would reduce to less than 500 km².	eng
184656	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species was collected from riverine areas. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184656	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184656	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	At least part of the population (occurring downstream from Kinshasa) is threatened due to pollution from human activities.	eng
184657	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184657	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. This species is known only from Kala Bay, Zambia. Further sampling is needed to determine whether this species has a wider distribution outside this bay.	eng
184657	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It inhabits sand and mud substrates in shallow water, 2-7 m.	eng
184657	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184657	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Pollution and sedimentation are potential threats.	eng
184658	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184658	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is known from near Constantine (Algeria). This species is only mentioned in 1870 from Algeria.	eng
184658	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184658	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184658	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184659	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184659	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
184659	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species occurs in Lake Victoria at more than 30 meters deep.	eng
184659	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184659	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184660	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection from pollution.	eng
184660	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from a spring called Ain Meski, and hyporheic water of Ziz river, Morocco.	eng
184660	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in springs and hyporheic water. This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184660	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is an abundant species.	eng
184660	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table. This spring is visited a lot by tourists and may be polluted by them.	eng
184661	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184661	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184661	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is widespread along coasts of  eastern and southern Africa.	eng
184661	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is widespread in eastern and southern Africa main rivers, and on the Como islands. It can also be found along the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea.	eng
184661	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in salt marshes and mangrove swamps.	eng
184661	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Salt marshes and mangrove swamps.	eng
184661	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184661	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184661	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184661	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184662	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184662	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is known from the Ethiopian highlands between Addis Ababa and Dessie and north of Gondar (Brown 1994).	eng
184662	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in streams above 2,000 m flowing through grasslands.	eng
184662	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184662	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is affected by impacts of climate change.	eng
184663	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184663	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
184663	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Iphigenia messageri</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184663	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Iphigenia messageri</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184663	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits rivers.	eng
184663	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species inhabits rivers. It is found in brackish waters.	eng
184663	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184663	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184663	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184663	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184664	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184664	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.	eng
184664	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184664	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184664	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184665	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184665	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from Médénine, Djerba, Tunisia. Surveys in neighbouring areas did not find this species, so it is certain to be highly localised.	eng
184665	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in brackish water species, so not easily affected by pollution.	eng
184665	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Not abundant.	eng
184665	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Threats include over-exploitation of water resources, as this is a  spring snail with very a small distribution, with habitat degradation  due to 'improvement of the springs to offtake water' and water pollution  as a secondary threat. The island of Djerba has a population of roughly 60.000 but is visited annually by ca. 600,000 tourists. Considering that the island has a length of only 20 km and that tourists use water abundantly, the aquatic fauna of wells and underground springs can be  considered as endangered.	eng
184666	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184666	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2009	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184666	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Ceratophallus gibbonsi</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa. It also occurs in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo at Nalunda.	eng
184666	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2009	Globally, <em>Ceratophallus gibbonsi</em> occurs in eastern and southern Africa. It also occurs in eastern DRC at Nalunda.	eng
184666	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Found in comparatively permanent waterbodies.	eng
184666	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2009	It is found in comparatively permanent waterbodies.	eng
184666	population	Jørgensen, A., 2009	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184666	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
184666	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No major threats.	eng
184666	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2009	No major threats known.	eng
184667	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184667	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	Unknown.	eng
184667	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	The range of <em>Egreria kockii</em> is unknown; it possibly occurs in central Africa, but more information is required to confirm this.	eng
184667	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	The range of <em>Egreria kockii</em> is unknown; it possibly occurs in central Africa, but more information is required to confirm this.	eng
184667	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Unknown presumed to be brackish water	eng
184667	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	Unknown presumed to be brackish water.	eng
184667	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184667	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184667	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184667	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184668	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of wells, limited contact with wells by pumping the water directly into people's homes with just one pump, so that less contact and less pollution.	eng
184668	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is known from a well in Douar N'Gar, Lamsantah, Beni Mellal, and a well in Larbaa Fkih Ben Salah, region de Beni Mellal. These are part of the same groundwater basin, so count as a single location.	eng
184668	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184668	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a small population.	eng
184668	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.	eng
184669	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research on this species is necessary to determine its population demography, and host-fish studies are necessary to understand its life cycle. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184669	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184669	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Pleiodon spekii</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
184669	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	<em>Pleiodon spekii</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika.	eng
184669	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	Freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184669	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It lives in flat sand and mud bottoms. This species is found in some bands of littoral bays at about 0-10 m depth.	eng
184669	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
184669	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Population well represented in the lake occurring in high numbers.	eng
184669	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Pleiodon spekii</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005). As global warming effects the stratification of the lake, it may affect the status of this species in the future.	eng
184669	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	Pollution and sedimentation are the most likely threats. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184670	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184670	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides wagenia</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. It is known from two separate sites in the Kisangani district (Tschopo River and Bitumbi River).	eng
184670	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is recorded from tributary streams near Kisangani. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184670	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. It was last recorded in 1970.	eng
184670	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Small-scale logging activities threaten this species.	eng
184671	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184671	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Hydrobia schoutedeni</em> is endemic to DRC. The species is known from only two localities; one on the Zaire River at Ango Ango (about 4 km from Matadi (probably upstream)), and the second at Chaundron de Enfer. The two sites are closely located.	eng
184671	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers, living on rocks with well oxygenated waters.	eng
184671	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184671	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The presence of the species on the edges of rivers within fast flowing rivers makes it vulnerable to many types of threat which lead to declining quality of habitat. This species is threatened by sedimentation, urbanization and domestic water pollution in the dry season. If the Grand Inga dam proposal were to be adopted the site at Matadi would be lost.	eng
184672	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. This species has not been seen for many years and surveys are required to confirm that it still exists.	eng
184672	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Cleopatra langi</em> is endemic to central Africa; it is known only from the type collection (collected in the 1920s) from Kisangani, DRC.	eng
184672	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species has been collected from margins of the Zaire rivers.	eng
184672	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184672	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available; the species is only reported from the type locality. The species was collected from Kisangani, which is a rapidly expanding urban area.	eng
184673	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required to confirm the status of the known populations.	eng
184673	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides kinshassaensis</em> is endemic to central Africa. It is known from DRC, where the species has been collected from many sites, downstream from Kinshasa, and Stanley Pool (upstream from Kinshasa). It was last collected in the 1970s (1972, 1973 and 1974).	eng
184673	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184673	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. But it occurs in sites downstream from Kinshasa and is likely to be affected by habitat degradation from this highly populated area.	eng
184673	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species is known only from an area downstream from Kinshasa. Threats to this species include habitat degradation from pollution (domestic and sewage), sedimentation, and potentially from industrial pollution.	eng
184674	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2004	No information available.	eng
184674	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Jilore. However Brown suggests that the species' extent of occurrence could be between Lake Jilore and the coast at Takaungu, Kenya.	eng
184674	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2004	It occurs in small lakes.	eng
184674	population	Lange, C.N., 2004	No information available. This species is possibly declining due to habitat destruction.	eng
184674	threats	Lange, C.N., 2004	The biggest threats to this species are drought and siltation. Dr. Luke De-Vos reported that Lake Jilore is almost drying up due to soils brought to the lake from wild animals and livestock trails.	eng
184675	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184675	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is only known from Balleh Mersin, Ogaden Province, Ethiopia.	eng
184675	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184675	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184675	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184676	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is needed to determine both the extent of occurrence and occupancy of <em>Aspatharia semicorrugata</em>, as well as to estimate population demography. At present, the species is known from a limited number of museum specimens, and the taxonomy is confused. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184676	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <span style="font-style: italic;">Aspatharia semicorrugata</span> is known from few localities in the Congo River It is known from Malebo Pool to above Kisangani. A single record is also known listing the Kasai (Zambia).	eng
184676	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184676	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184676	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Aspatharia semicorrugata</em>, but fresh waters within the range of the species are impacted by continuing civil unrest and increasing human population pressures in the vicinity of Malebo Pool (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184677	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Surveys are required to determine where this species is still extant.	eng
184677	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Segmentorbis excavatus</em> is endemic to the central Africa region. The species is known only from southeastern DRC, where it is recorded from several localities in the Kisanga River, a tributary of the Kafubu River near Elizabethville (Brown 1994). It has not been recorded elsewhere, whereas other similar species have been found in a wider range. It may have a genuinely restricted range.	eng
184677	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits rivers.	eng
184677	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184677	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality and may genuinely have a restricted range. There are 250 mines in the Kitanga region and these are causing habitat degradation through siltation of rivers. Road construction is contributing to this heavy siltation of rivers throughout the region.	eng
184678	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184678	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides depravata</em> is endemic to central Africa. The species is known from eastern DRC; Lualaba River at Nyangwe, Nsendwe and Kibombo. The collection sites are about 100 km apart. It is not known whether the species has a restricted range or whether its recorded range is an artifact of sampling effort.	eng
184678	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184678	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184678	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from Lualaba River. Its known range is not within an area of high human impact, but localised threats (mining and deforestation leding to siltation) may affect the species.	eng
184679	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No data available.	eng
184679	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184679	conservation	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184679	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found from East African coast and coasts of the west Indian Ocean.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found on the coasts of Somalia<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in the eastern Africa coastal strip.	eng
184679	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been reported from the coasts of Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species has been reported from the eastern Africa coast and coasts of the west Indian Ocean.	eng
184679	distribution	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	The species occurs in the Eastern Africa coastal strip.	eng
184679	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	According to Brown (1994) is this species is mainly found in mangrove forests where specimens aggregate on trees and at high tide.	eng
184679	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	According to Brown (1994) is this species mainly found in  mangrove forests where specimens aggregate on trees.	eng
184679	habitat	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	It inhabits mangroves ecosystem.	eng
184679	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
184679	population	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184679	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Usually abundant where present.	eng
184679	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Destruction of mangroves.	eng
184679	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	The destruction of mangroves threatens this species.	eng
184679	threats	Ngereza, C. & Lange, C.N., 2003	The mangrove habitat in which <span style="font-style: italic;">C.decollata</span> resides is threatened by shrimp farming and use of wood (deforestation and sedimentation).	eng
184680	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184680	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184680	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> the species is found in north eastern Kenya at the Ewasso Nyiro River. It is also found at some locations in Sudan.	eng
184680	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in northeastern Kenya between the Ewasso Nyiro (Eusso Nyiro) river and Mount Marsabit, also found at some locations in Sudan.	eng
184680	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184680	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184680	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184680	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184680	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Affected by sedimentation induced by recently higher rates of rainfall.	eng
184680	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Affected by sedimentation induced by recently higher rates of rainfall.	eng
184681	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184681	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from little streams in the region of Oran, Mascara, Djelfa and in the Smendou region near Constantine, Algeria (Bourgignat 1862).	eng
184681	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a species of clear running waters.	eng
184681	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184681	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184682	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184682	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Edward (southwest Uganda and DRC).	eng
184682	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184682	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184682	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184683	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184683	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadomoides schoutedeni</em> is endemic to eastern DRC, where it is known from the rivers Luvua and Lualaba. Six collection sites are recorded (Glaubrecht and Strong 2007), relatively well spaced apart (it is likely to have a greater than 20,000 km² extent of occurrence).	eng
184683	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184683	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. Most recently collected in 1959, but surveys in that area have not been possible since that time.	eng
184683	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported fro a few localities. The area the species occurs in is not known to be heavily impacted by human activities.	eng
184684	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184684	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is reported from the vicinity of Géryville and in the springs of Chellala south-west of Boghar (Algeria).	eng
184684	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184684	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184684	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by the drying up of springs.	eng
184685	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184685	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is recorded from the Winum Gulf (type locality) though it is believed to be widespread in the lake.	eng
184685	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	The species is associated with clean shallow water but tends to be absent from areas with anthropogenic disturbances and pollution.	eng
184685	population	Lange, C., 2004	Not clearly understood. In an ongoing survey to document the freshwater gastropods of Lake Victoria less than 15 individuals have been recorded.	eng
184685	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Unspecified in publications but the ongoing gastropods biodiversity study in Kenya has indicated low preference of the species to disturbed and polluted lake sections but more research is needed to better identify the threats.	eng
184686	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184686	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
184686	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Mytilopsis africanus</em> is known from Senegal to Congo. It was possibly introduced.	eng
184686	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Mytilopsis africanus</em> occurs from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184686	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	This is an estuarine species, occurring in brackish water.	eng
184686	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	This is an estuarine species, occurring in brackish water.	eng
184686	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184686	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184686	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184686	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184687	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184687	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from northwest coastal Algeria, where it hasn't been seen in a long time, and two localities on the same stream (Berguent, Rais el Ain) in northeastern Morocco, where it is very rare.	eng
184687	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184687	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184687	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution, and water-extraction. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184688	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184688	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species was first recorded in Algeria from 'streams in the Sahara' by Bourguignat in 1864. Possibly the vague location Bourguignat gives is erroneous. Specimens offered for sale by a shell dealer with the notice 'very rare' had as locality 'Kerrando, Morocco'.	eng
184688	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in streams in the desert. Medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184688	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a very rare species.	eng
184688	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	A major threat to this species is shell-collecting. The use of all available water by people because of water scarcity is likely to be preventing normal flow in streams and rivers, on which this species relies.	eng
184689	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184689	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria.	eng
184689	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184689	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184689	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184690	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures are proposed.	eng
184690	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184690	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
184690	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Theodoxus niloticus</em> is present in the Nile and canals of the Delta in Egypt, as well as found in Lake Nasser. It is endemic to the Nile and also found in Ethiopia in the Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and Eritrea near Massawa (Bocci 1951), but these records may be erroneous according to Brown (1994). Its type locality is the Nile in Egypt.	eng
184690	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species has been reported in Ethiopia from the Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and from Eritrea near Massawa (Bacci 1951), but these records need to be confirmed according to Brown (1994). Also listed from Lake Nasser by Ibrahim <em>et al.</em> (1999).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is common in the Nile in Egypt. The type locality is the Nile in Egypt.	eng
184690	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the Nile. It is present in the Nile and canals in the Delta in Egypt, and in Lake Nasser. It is found in Ethiopia in Blue Nile (Bourguignat 1883) and Eritrea near Massawa (Bacci 1951), but these records may be erroneous according to Brown (1994).	eng
184690	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It lives in stony habitats in rivers, canals, lakes and in shallow areas. It is spread by birds.	eng
184690	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives on stony places on banks of rivers, canals, lakes and in shallow areas. It is spread by birds.	eng
184690	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Lives on stony places on banks of river, canal, lake and in shallow areas; also in brackish water.	eng
184690	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184690	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184690	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
184690	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	A tolerant species, seems to survive well despite pollution.	eng
184690	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	A tolerant species which seems to survive well despite pollution.	eng
184690	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a tolerant species, which seems to survive well despite pollution.	eng
184691	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184691	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None.	eng
184691	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Cyrenoida dupontia</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184691	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, <em>Cyrenoida dupontia</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184691	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Occurs in brackish water.	eng
184691	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species occurs in brackish water.	eng
184691	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184691	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184691	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184691	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184692	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	In southern Africa, restoration of mangroves is ongoing.	eng
184692	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184692	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from coastal Somalia (Giuba estuary).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from eastern African coasts to south Africa	eng
184692	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found from coastal South Africa northwards throughout Tanzania, Kenya and Somalia (Giuba estuary).	eng
184692	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Estuarine habitats.	eng
184692	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water. Mudflats, salt marsh and mangroves.	eng
184692	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184692	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184692	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184692	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	The destruction of mangroves threatens this species.	eng
184693	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the both extant of the occurrence and occupancy of this species, and studies to determine the hosts of parasitic larvae would be valuable to future assessments. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184693	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Chelidonopsis hirundo</em> is limited to the Congo Basin above Malebo Pool, up through the Lualaba, including the Cassai and Cuango.	eng
184693	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184693	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184693	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Chelidonopsis hirundo</em>. However, in the upper part of its range, fresh waters are impacted by continued civil unrest. In the lower part of its range (Malebo Pool), freshwater habitats are threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184694	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184694	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Liminitesta sulcata</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from the lower Zaire River. Four sampling sites are known; within Kinshasa and just downstream near Ngaliema.	eng
184694	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is apparently adapted to living on stones in rapidly flowing water (Brown 1994). Resistant to rapid changes in water levels and withstand very strong flows.	eng
184694	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184694	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species has a limited geographical distribution. Human population pressure in region is increasing with potential impact on the sites. This species is threatened by sedimentation and domestic water pollution in the dry season.	eng
184695	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184695	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma nyongensis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is known from Nyong river (TL) and Man River at Sakbayeme (North of Edea). Both sites are very closely localised, within 15 km of each other.	eng
184695	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. It is usually these species are found on hard bottoms. It requires clear fast flowing water with some shade.	eng
184695	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184695	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only known from a few sites within three locations. Much of the region is being converted to Oil Palm plantations, with logging to remove gallery forest. Creation of fish ponds close to the river for Tilapia. As species is vulnerable to changing shade qualities on the rivers.	eng
184696	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184696	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Hydrobia rheophila</em> is known only from DRC, where it has been recorded from the Zaire River on river rapids at Kala Kala near Matadi.	eng
184696	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found among stones in swift current requiring highly oxygenated waters.	eng
184696	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184696	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. It requires highly oxygenated water and is vulnerable to changes in habitat quality resulting from logging, sedimentation and domestic water pollution, especially in the dry season.	eng
184697	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184697	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Originally collected in the vicinity of Oran (Algeria), it is known only from springs which may not exist any more.	eng
184697	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in springs	eng
184697	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184697	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by groundwater abstraction, causing a lowering of the water table.	eng
184698	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184698	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Butiaba, Lake Albert, Uganda.	eng
184698	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184698	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184698	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184699	conservation	Kaunda, E., Mailosi, A., Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184699	distribution	Kaunda, E., Mailosi, A., Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This species is found in Lake Malawi and some of its influent rivers, Lake Malombe and the Shire river. It also occurs in rivers in southern Tanzania and Malawi.	eng
184699	habitat	Kaunda, E., Mailosi, A., Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This is a freshwater species.	eng
184699	population	Kaunda, E., Mailosi, A., Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184699	threats	Kaunda, E., Mailosi, A., Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	Lake level fluctuations and resulting increase in alkalinity. Introduction of exotic fishes that predate on native cichlids. Overfishing by an increasing lake shore human population. Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184700	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184700	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None.	eng
184700	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria heukelomii</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.	eng
184700	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Egreria heukelomii</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.	eng
184700	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in brackish water.	eng
184700	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water.	eng
184700	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184700	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184700	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184700	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184701	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is in need of conservation measures. In Spain, in situ (stringent protective regulation) and ex situ (successful breeding and reintroduction projects) have been instigated  since ca. 1995 for the protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudunio auricularius</span>. For breeding experiments, the easily reared Siberian sturgeon, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser baeri</span>, was successfully used as a substitute for the European sturgeon, <span style="font-style: italic;">Acipenser sturio</span> (see Araujo and Ramos 2000, 2001, Machordom <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2003)). In France a similar project for <span style="font-style: italic;">Pseudunio auricularius</span> has started in 2007 (see also  Cochet, 1999, 2001, 2002). <br/><br/>In Morocco no protective measures have as yet been taken even though this species is even more threatened than its European relative . Ecological research on the Moroccan species and the instauration of conservation measures should be given priority since it is so rare and the few representatives of the Margaritiferidae in the world are all rare and most are protected.	eng
184701	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species used to be found in the permanent rivers of Atlantic northwest Morocco, from the Oued Sebou till the Oued Oum er Rbia. The type locality for this species is Oued Fès, a tributary of the Oued Sebou (where it is now extinct). It occurred all along the river in large quantities according to Pallary, but is now located in a few tributaries in the upper mountains, including  Oued Denna and Oued Abid (both in the Oum Rbia basin), and Oued Beth, in the Sebou basin.	eng
184701	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a large (up to 17 cm), long lived (80 -100 years) najad. It occurred in the lower and middle parts of the Oued Sebou and Oued Oum er Rbia hydrographic systems but is presently restricted to two tributaries of the latter where it is found in deeper parts of the river (ca. 2 - 8 m) on coarser sediments. As virtually all unionoids is the larva ectoparasitic on a fish host, that as yet is unknown. It relies on a host fish so makes it particularly vulnerable. Host fish is probably trout which is also Endangered because of pollution.	eng
184701	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	There has been a massive reduction in the last 100 years and the estimated  remaining population size is fewer than 250 individuals with an  estimated continuing decline of more than 25% in 1 generation.	eng
184701	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species was possibly collected (till the 19th Century) for pearls since the old name of the Oued Derna is River of Pearls. The major threats for the few surviving populations are pollution or any kind of mechanical alteration/disturbance (impoundment, canalisation, dredging, etc.) to the waterbodies in which they still persist. Further rarefaction of their fish host or hosts or any type of activity causing barrier-effects for the fish hosts also constitute a major threat, as it relies on a host fish, probably trout, which is also endangered because of pollution.	eng
184702	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184702	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This species is endemic to the Kano plains in Western Kenya (an area of less than 5000 km²). So far has only been recorded from a wetland at Awasi, Kano plains (type locality) with an estimated area of less than 500 km².	eng
184702	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	It is found in streams and seasonal water pools/watercourses.	eng
184702	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184702	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Siltation and agricultural development and pollution threaten this species. Sugar cane and rice plantation expansions are reclaiming regional wetlands. Also increased water harvesting for the expanding regional human population and domestic pollution is having an effect.	eng
184703	conservation	Lange, C. & Darwall, W., 2004	No information available.	eng
184703	distribution	Lange, C. & Darwall, W., 2004	This species is endemic to Mount Kenya. It is believed to be found at high altitudes, possibly in streams and tarns.	eng
184703	habitat	Lange, C. & Darwall, W., 2004	No information available.	eng
184703	population	Lange, C. & Darwall, W., 2004	No information available.	eng
184703	threats	Lange, C. & Darwall, W., 2004	Trout and other introduced species of fish and water regulation are potential threats. Climate change is potential threat especially to high altitude restricted range species.	eng
184704	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184704	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma trochiformis</em> is endemic to Cameroon. It is now known from three localities: the Man River in the Nyong system, Obala, and Chutes de Nachtigal (DBL collection data).	eng
184704	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. These snails need tree cover for suitable habitat.	eng
184704	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184704	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Cobalt mining occurs in the area and there is high human habitation in the species' range. This species needs tree cover for suitable habitat; even local logging activities would affect its occurrence at local levels.	eng
184705	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184705	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known only from Oued Melah near Oudref (Tunisia) but Boeters did not find it there anymore so it is now considered extinct.	eng
184705	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184705	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184705	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184706	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184706	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is only known from the type locality, the Oued Uebi upstream of Gheledi (Somalia) (Bourguignat 1889).	eng
184706	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184706	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184706	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184707	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Monitoring of this population is needed.	eng
184707	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is recorded from the region of Essaouira and from the Middle Atlas in Morocco and there is old data from Algeria (in the region of Oran). It is not expected to be found in other sites (Ghamizi pers. comm.). The original population is extinct.	eng
184707	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, clear streams near springs, also irrigation channels pumped from wells where the water is very pure.	eng
184707	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184707	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is very sensitive to pollution because it is restricted to very pure water. It is not found in a region where there are serious threats for the moment. However where there are irrigation channels it is threatened by agricultural pollution.	eng
184708	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from breeding/translocation to other suitable habitats. Also restoration of flows in original habitats.	eng
184708	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Atlantic Morocco south of Agadir in the Oued Souss and Oued Massa. Originally it was only known from the Oued Souss where it has not been recorded any more in the last decades. A second population was discovered by Dr. M. Ghamizi (1998) in a small tributary of the Oued Massa at Ifentar Tassila. This is probably the last remaining population.	eng
184708	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in coarse substrate (gravel, coarse sand) of permanent slowly flowing limpid rivers flowing into the Atlantic in southern Morocco.	eng
184708	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only found in small relict populations.	eng
184708	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Increasing demand of water and due to global warming an irreversible trend of desertification. Damming and impounding increases the fragmentation. The Oued Souss and Oued Massa probably will cease to flow permanently and turn into ouadis. The extinction in the wild is therefore probably unavoidable if the present climatological trends persist.	eng
184709	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures needed.	eng
184709	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184709	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
184709	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Formerly restricted to the Nile Delta, its range has expanded during the last decades and it is now also found in the Nile as far south as Lake Nasser and is also reported from Taourga (northwest Libya) and north Sudan (Brown 1994). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> and therefore treated as a pest.	eng
184709	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is formerly restricted to the Nile Delta the species' range is expanding during the last decades and it is now also found in the Nile as far south as Lake Nasser. It has also been reported from Taourga (north western Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) and northern Sudan (Brown 1994). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma manson</em>i and therefore treated as a pest. Its type locality is in the Nile between Alexandria and Rosetta.	eng
184709	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the region of Lake Nasser and north Sudan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile, and is also reported from Taourga (north west Libya). It is the intermediate host of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> and therefore treated as a pest and destroyed with molluscicides. The type locality is the Nile between Alexandria and Rosetta.	eng
184709	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found everywhere. Vector of Schistosomiasis, treated as a pest. Lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thrives in man-made irrigation. Expanded to upper Egypt after the dam slowed the flow.	eng
184709	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a widespread species, vector of Schistosomia, and therefore treated as a pest. It lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thriving in man-made irrigation. Its distribution has expanded to the Upper Egyptian Nile after the High Aswan Dam slowed the flow.	eng
184709	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is found everywhere. It is a vector of <em>Schistosoma mansoni</em> treated as a pest. It lives in standing or slow flowing waters, thrives in man-made irrigation. Expanded to upper Egypt after the dam slowed the flow.	eng
184709	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184709	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184709	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a very common species, widespread in the Nile and irrigation canals.	eng
184709	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No known threats.	eng
184709	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No threats known.	eng
184709	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Not known threats.	eng
184710	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures exist. Similar measures as listed in the EU Water Quality Directive need to be imposed to save the species.	eng
184710	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is found in the rivers in Morrocco, Algeria and Tunisia belonging to the Mediterranean Basin, and some Moroccan rivers draining into the Atlantic.	eng
184710	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in permanent unpolluted slow flowing rivers and streams of the Maghreb (Mediterranean North Africa) in soft substrate.	eng
184710	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The number of mature individuals is currently less than 10,000 (and possibly less than 2,500). The population is believed to have declined by more than 50% in the past 30 years, and this decline is expected to continue into the future.	eng
184710	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution, damming, water use, erosion, aridification. This species, like al large freshwater bivalves is completely sedentary and therefore extremely vulnerable to all environmental changes. A single pollution event can wipe out all populations in a river.	eng
184711	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184711	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
184711	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Iphigenia laevigata</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184711	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Iphigenia laevigata</em> ranges from Senegal to Congo.	eng
184711	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in river mouths and lower parts of streams.	eng
184711	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in river mouths and lower parts of streams. It is found in brackish water.	eng
184711	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184711	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184711	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184711	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184712	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from sewage treatment, reduction in water use/pumping, and protection of the well with a cover to improve water quality in the well.	eng
184712	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from one well at Anzi (Morocco). It is only known from one empty shell (now in Paris Museum).	eng
184712	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184712	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184712	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.	eng
184713	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184713	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is only known from the northern shores of Lake Victoria; at Hippo bay and Buvuma channel up to 9 m depth.	eng
184713	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184713	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184713	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No specific threats but declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution. It is restricted to northern shores of Lake Victoria.	eng
184714	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Further surveys are needed to determine the status of this and other mollusc species in the area.	eng
184714	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadomoides broecki</em> is known only from its type locality in eastern DRC, at the Aruwimi River.	eng
184714	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184714	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184714	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. Current threats are not known.	eng
184715	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The subspecies of <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> need to be re-evaluated taxonomically, and host-fish studies of the mussel’s parasitic larvae are necessary steps to understanding the status of this species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184715	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> is reported from Lake Bangweulu as well as the Chambeshi River. The type locality is in the river Chozi (a tributary of the Chambeshi River).	eng
184715	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184715	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available. The species is not well characterized (Graff and Cummings 2007).	eng
184715	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats to this species have been documented, but <em>Coelatura choziensis</em> is restricted to a relatively small area and the human pressures of population growth are expected to increase in the region (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184716	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184716	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184716	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Uebi Shebele river in Somalia (Bacci 1951) and from the mouth of the Sagan River (south Ethiopia) (Piersanti 1941).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Zanzibar and the coastal strip of eastern Africa (Brown 1994).	eng
184716	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	This species is found in Somalia, Ethiopia and probably extends to eastern Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> It is documented to occur in Zanzibar and probably in the coastal strip of East Africa.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is recorded from the Uebi Shebele river in Somalia (Bacci 1951) and from the mouth of the Sagan River (south Ethiopia) (Piersanti 1941).	eng
184716	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in standing and slowly flowing waters.	eng
184716	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in standing and slowly flowing waters.	eng
184716	population	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184716	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184716	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184716	threats	Lange, C.N. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats known but sedimentation could be a risk.	eng
184717	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184717	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is known from Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, and Shire River.	eng
184717	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Taxa restricted to the edges of the lake, near river mouths. Has a limited range due to habitat preferences.	eng
184717	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184717	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is undergoing a declining quality of habitat, as the region is already very disturbed with sedimentation and pollution.	eng
184719	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.	eng
184719	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides crawshayi</em> is endemic to central Africa; it is known from Zambia and possibly also occurs in DRC (Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula River). The area of Lake Mweru is around 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining.	eng
184719	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits lakes and rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184719	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184719	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there.	eng
184720	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Surveys are needed to check if it's still there.	eng
184720	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is recorded from Tunisia, at one site only in Kebili. Ghamizi (1998) has not found it in Morocco.	eng
184720	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs	eng
184720	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184720	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by the lowering of the water table, pollution and degradation of the site of the springs. Many springs have already gone from this region, so it could be extinct already as this is a very old record (1887).	eng
184721	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184721	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Burnupia kimiloloensis</em> is known only from the type locality in the upper Luapula region, southeastern DRC.	eng
184721	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184721	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184721	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available; only know from a limited area of Southeast DRC.	eng
184722	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	There are no conservation measures in place specific for this species. Water quality needs to be maintained.  A region where logging may lead to loss of the species.	eng
184722	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Pseudogibbula duponti</em> is endemic to western DRC. Material in the collection at DBL dates from the 1930s. It was also sampled by Mandhal-Barth in the 1970s from two different sites on the River Matadi. It is likely to be restricted to a 20 km region.	eng
184722	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. Brown (1992) reported it from rocks at the edge of rapids, so species likes well oxygenated water.	eng
184722	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.  Mandhal-Barth (1982) reported it was very common, and there were three colour forms described.	eng
184722	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.	eng
184723	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184723	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria congica</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found found in the mouth of the River Zaire.	eng
184723	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in brackish water.	eng
184723	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184723	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184724	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184724	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to one river, the Oued Oum Rbi (Oued Oumer Rbia) in Morocco. It is found in the lower part of the river.	eng
184724	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It's a river that's degrading rapidly, with lots of pollution, abstraction and divergence for irrigation. All <span style="font-style: italic;">Melanopsis</span> are found in medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184724	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a very abundant population, not thought to be declining.	eng
184724	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in a river that is degrading rapidly, with lots of pollution, water abstraction and divergence for irrigation. A major threat to this species is shell-collecting.	eng
184725	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184725	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to north Africa, recorded from the 'province d' Alger' and from the region of Oran. There is no recent information available. The last records are from the 1800s, with no specific localities.	eng
184725	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184725	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184725	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184726	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.  Control of water quality in the river is required.	eng
184726	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Valvatorbis mauritii</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is known only from Matadi. The species was last recorded in the 1930s. Extensive research since in the region by DBL staff (1973-1976) failed to rediscover this species, although other similar species in these habitats were located.	eng
184726	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers. Fast flowing rivers on stones at the edges. This is a very small species (under 2 mm), so it is able to get into crevices.	eng
184726	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184726	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is only reported from the type locality. The extension of logging within the region may impact water quality within the river which will impact this species. Increased siltation in the river may changed the nature of the microhabitat. Detergents in the water would impact the species.<br/>The small size would make the species more vulnerable to oxygenation issues in the water.	eng
184727	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184727	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2007	<em>Melanoides nsendweensis</em> is endemic to eastern DRC. The species is known from the Lualaba River at Nsendwe, through Kisangani (Tshopo River) to Zambia. It occurs only in the margins of the main river, along an approximately 500 km length of the river (known from three localities). Area of occupancy is approximately 700 to 800 km² (based on an area of 500 x 1.5 km). Extent of occurrence is much larger than this.	eng
184727	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2007	It is found in rivers at sandbanks.	eng
184727	population	Jørgensen, A., 2007	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184727	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2007	Threats to the species are quite general, and include urbanization, overfishing, and some gold mining. Although the species is known from three locations at present, it seems to occur on sandbanks where large rivers converge and it is likely to occur at many more than currently known. The location at Kisangani may be affected by pollution.	eng
184728	conservation	Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of wells, reduced abstraction of water, and waste water treatment are needed.	eng
184728	distribution	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from a well at Sidi Abbou in Chtouka Massa plain northeast of Tiznit, a well at Ait Salah in Chtouka Massa plain, a well at Tamait Izder near Souss River north of Temsia and a well at Chtouka Massa plain, Morocco.	eng
184728	habitat	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184728	population	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only found in small populations.	eng
184728	threats	Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, pumping, decreasing water level.	eng
184729	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	Additional sampling is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species and its population demography. Host-fish need to be determined in order to understand the impact of environmental change on the life cycle of the species. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184729	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	This species is endemic to central Africa. <em>Coelatura stagnorum</em> is known from few localities, from the mouth of the Congo up to the Matadai and the rapids. It is not known from above the rapids or Malebo Pool. The extent of its distribution is the lower Congo (below the rapids) is not known due to limited sampling effort.	eng
184729	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	It is found in freshwater mussels in general have larvae that are parasitic on fish, but no specific host information is available for this species. No information is currently available on specific habitat preferences.	eng
184729	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184729	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Coelatura stagnorum</em> is known only from the lower Congo, below the rapids. The area is threatened by high population density, deforestation and mining. Moreover, the Congo receives untreated sewage and other wastes from Kinshasa and Brazzaville. The Grand Inga Dam is likely to substantially disrupt flow in the Lower Congo (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184730	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184730	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Tomichia hendrickxi</em> is known only from eastern DRC at Kakondo and Maya Moto, Katena.	eng
184730	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species is found in hot-water ponds in an area of volcanic activity.	eng
184730	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184730	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available. The species apparently already occurs in a stressful environment (hot water pools).	eng
184731	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184731	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Kriz and Limaguess (Tunisia).	eng
184731	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184731	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184731	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184732	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184732	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria tenuicula</em> is endemic to DRC, where it is found in the mouth of the River Zaire.	eng
184732	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in brackish water, but further up river.	eng
184732	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184732	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184733	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species. Monitoring of this and other species in Lake Mweru is necessary. Also research and implementation of measures to protect species in the lake.	eng
184733	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides mweruensis</em> is known only from Lake Mweru and the lower Luapula River (Zambia and DRC). The area of Lake Mweru is 4,850 km² (Brown 1994) but it is declining, however the species also occurs in the river (to at least 40 km² downstream of the lake, and a little way upstream). The extent of occurrence is likely less than 20,000 km².	eng
184733	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It inhabits lakes and rivers. It perhaps uses asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184733	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. However, the lake is drying out and the population is likely to be affected by this.	eng
184733	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The main threat to the species is the drying out of Make Mweru. In Lake Mweru, sedimentation is occurring as a result of natural processes. Lake Mweru is already very shallow (average 3 m), so it may dry out relatively soon (perhaps within the next 50 years). When the lake level reaches 1-2 m, monsoon rains cause extreme mixing of mud and water, resulting in deoxygenation of the lake and the death of species there. If the lake dries out, the river downstream of this will also be affected, therefore the species is under threat.	eng
184734	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184734	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma schoutedeni</em> is known from western DRC and the Republic of Congo. In the western region it occurs close to the coast, including Shilango River and its side tributaries (Lukulu River, Kouilou River and Tshela River at Lubuzi). It is also recorded from the Sala River, Mayumbe.	eng
184734	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species inhabits rivers.	eng
184734	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184734	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The only known potential threat is possibly increased siltation.	eng
184735	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of wells, covers on wells, and piping water into homes to reduce human contact with wells, as well as reduced pumping of water.	eng
184735	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is endemic to Morocco. It is sympatric with <em>G. mellanensi</em> and <em>G. costata</em>. It has been reported from a well in Douar Oulad Aamer, Lamsantah, another well in Douar Oulad Ahmed, Sebt Oulad Nemma, and one well in Larbaa Ben Salah, region of Beni Mellal. All wells are from the same groundwater basin, so count as one location.	eng
184735	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found in wells.	eng
184735	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has a small population.	eng
184735	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of wells, and water extraction lowering the level of the water table.	eng
184736	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184736	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	Unknown.	eng
184736	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria concamerata</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa	eng
184736	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Egreria concamerata</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.	eng
184736	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in brackish water.	eng
184736	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water.	eng
184736	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184736	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184736	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184736	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184737	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184737	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Webbi Giuba-Shebele system in southeast Somalia and Eill (northeast Somalia) (Brown 1994).	eng
184737	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Originally found in the Giuba-Shebele river system, but now also confirmed as present in a spring.	eng
184737	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184737	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184738	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from the reduction in water abstraction, protection of wells by putting a cover over the top, and waste water treatment.	eng
184738	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from one well at Bouzoug near Agadir and two wells at Tikiouine in the region of Drarga, Ait Melloul, in Morocco.	eng
184738	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont. It is found only in wells.	eng
184738	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is abundant in these wells.	eng
184738	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by groundwater extraction and water pollution from sewage and pesticides. Also, climate change leading to drought and the lowering of the water table.	eng
184739	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184739	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species has been found only in the basin of a Roman temple on Djebel Zaghouan, and springs at Kairouan (Tunisia). It has not been found since despite good surveys by Boeters so it is now considered extinct.	eng
184739	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184739	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184739	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184740	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
184740	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is recorded from the Nile Delta (Egypt) also Lake Qaron and Sinai (en Mosa) at a spring. It has also been described it from Cap Bon (Tunisia) and Malta, as well as Libya.	eng
184740	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in strongly mineralised waters. It is spread by birds. It is found in springs and can live in water which is too mineralised for other sprecies. It can live in brackish water. It is found in irrigation channels. In Egypt mainly around northern lakes of delta (i.e. where there is mixing of saline and freshwater).	eng
184740	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	When it is present, it is abundant.	eng
184740	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
184741	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2003	No information available.	eng
184741	conservation	Kyambadde, R. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184741	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184741	distribution	Kyambadde, R. & Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is known from Ethiopia, Uganda, and possibly also in Lake Chad.<br/><br/><strong>Eastern Africa:</strong> This species occurs at Butiaba in Lake Albert, Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It is found in Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethiopia,	eng
184741	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> It occurs at Butiaba in Lake Albert (18m deep), Uganda.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> It is known from Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethopia, Lake Chad, Lake Albert.	eng
184741	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from Lakes Awasa and Zwai, Ethiopia. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Lake Chad and Lake Albert.	eng
184741	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in bottom sediment of Lakes Albert, Awasa, Zwai and Chad.	eng
184741	habitat	Kyambadde, R. & Van Damme, D., 2009	In Lake Albert it is found at 18m deep.	eng
184741	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2003	No information available.	eng
184741	population	Kyambadde, R., 2003	No information available.	eng
184741	population	Kyambadde, R. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184741	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184741	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2003	Declining quality of habitat due to erosion/silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184741	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Declining quality of habitat due to erosion/silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184741	threats	Kyambadde, R. & Van Damme, D., 2009	No specific threats but there is declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184742	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184742	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Djebel Zaghouan (in temple basin), Kairouan, El Kis and Feriana (all in Tunisia).	eng
184742	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in springs and small streams; crenobiont.	eng
184742	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184742	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184743	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184743	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Gabbiella depressa</em> is endemic to Cameroon. Originally it was described it from specimens collected from the River Nyong, but it has also been recorded from a lake near Wum (Wright 1965, given in Brown 1994). It may well now be extinct in the lake as this is a crater lake which has experienced gas releases due to volcanic activity.	eng
184743	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species can be found in rivers and lakes. The genus <em>Gabbiella </em>is commonly found in <em>Valliscenaria</em> vegetation within waterbodies and does not tolerate drying.	eng
184743	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184743	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184744	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184744	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma ignobilis</em> occurs in eastern DRC and southeastern Central African Republic. It is known only from four localities, but these are quite widespread. It is probably it is under-recorded in the region. Brown (1994) recorded this species as being widespread in the region. Van Damme (pers. comm.) reported that it has a range across towards Lake Tanganyika.	eng
184744	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in streams and rivers.	eng
184744	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184744	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available.	eng
184745	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184745	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None.	eng
184745	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Egreria cailliaudi</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.	eng
184745	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Egreria cailliaudi</em> occurs along the Atlantic coast of Africa.	eng
184745	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in brackish water.	eng
184745	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in brackish water.	eng
184745	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184745	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184745	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184745	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184746	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184746	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This species is endemic to Kichwamba and Lake Bunyonyi (type locality) in south west Uganda.	eng
184746	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184746	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184746	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	Lake Bunyonyi is becoming a popular tourist site in the south west and pollution is a potential threat to lake biodiversity in addition to erosion from agriculture.	eng
184747	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184747	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only known from the type locality in north Africa. It is not considered here as distinct. Genetic analysis is necessary to elucidate the taxonomy of the African <em>Ferrissia</em> species.	eng
184747	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Spread by birds therefore the distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny.	eng
184747	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184747	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184748	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184748	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadomoides bequaerti</em> is known from two collection sites in eastern DRC, on the Luaba River (Kindu and Lokandu).	eng
184748	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	This species occurs in rivers, but not necessarily shaded habitat (van Damme pers. comm).	eng
184748	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. Surveys have been carried out in the general area the species is known from; it was last collected (from Lokandu) in the 1950s. Surveys in this part of DRC are now difficult. It is likely to be a very localised species.	eng
184748	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The only known localities are in an area that is not known as being under particular pressure from human activities.	eng
184749	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of thermal springs would have protected this species.	eng
184749	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is only recorded from thermal springs of Djenndel near Annaba (Algeria), which no longer exist.	eng
184749	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a crenobiont of thermal springs (42°C).	eng
184749	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184749	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is threatened by pollution of the thermal springs.	eng
184750	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
184750	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2009	This species is widespread in eastern Africa. It is very common in Lake Victoria, Victoria Nile, Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).	eng
184750	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2009	An ongoing study of freshwater gastropod diversity in Lake Victoria has found the species to be very abundant on the disturbed lake regions implying that it is fairly tolerant to disturbance and pollution and is also existing in other habitats. This species occurs from shore to about 12 meters in depth. It is an intermediate host of Bilharzia Schistosomiasis causing parasites (S. Mansoni).	eng
184750	population	Lange, C.N., 2009	Not fully described but in an ongoing study in Lake Victoria in Kenya, over 500 specimens have been recorded.	eng
184750	threats	Lange, C.N., 2009	Undocumented. In the ongoing study no threats have been identified. In fact, the species appears to be occurring in regions suspected to be unsuitable for them (the polluted and disturbed areas).	eng
184751	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184751	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is common on all shores.	eng
184751	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species thrives on muddy substrata from 10 - 150 metres.	eng
184751	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184751	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
184752	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184752	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known only from Artesian wells at Tougourt and Megarin (Algeria) from Bourguignat 1862. It has not been found since as no-one has sampled for it. It is not known even if it is the same species at these two wells.	eng
184752	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a stygobiont.	eng
184752	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184752	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by pollution of wells and lowering of water table.	eng
184753	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184753	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known from Thala (Tunisia).	eng
184753	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is a crenobiont.	eng
184753	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184753	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184754	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184754	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
184754	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	It is found in soft sediment (silt, sand, fine gravel) in Lake Malawi.	eng
184754	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	Population densities provided in Genner and Michel (2003) for mixed Malawi <em>Melanoides</em> give a max of 1370 individuals/m<sup>2</sup>, also in Louda <em>et al.</em> (1983) at 123 individuals/m<sup>2</sup> at Cape Maclear, shallow water.	eng
184754	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosa, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184755	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184755	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This species is endemic to northeastern Africa. It is found in the lower Awash River (Ethiopia) and Shebeli and Giuba rivers (Somalia).	eng
184755	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is found in marshes in the Lower Awash.	eng
184755	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184755	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184756	conservation	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No information available.	eng
184756	distribution	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is found in Tanzania, Burundi, DRC and Zambia waters. This species is only known from dead shells.	eng
184756	habitat	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	It lives in inshore muddy habitats.	eng
184756	population	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	No population data was traced.	eng
184756	threats	Nicayenzi, F., 2004	This species is threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic influences.	eng
184758	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184758	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is known only from Souk el Arba du Rharb (Morocco).	eng
184758	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in freshwater, medium-sized streams with low water level and stony bottom. Not usually in standing water.	eng
184758	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184758	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Shells are collected for sale. However there are few collectors and they are obviously trying not to kill off the whole population.	eng
184759	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None known.	eng
184759	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a species of the Atlantic coastal region of Spain and Portugal, and in Morocco it is restricted to the Bay of Tanger. This species occurs only in heavily polluted regions which are strongly urbanised.	eng
184759	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in brackish water species. It is spread by birds.	eng
184759	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is abundant where found.	eng
184759	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution is a potential threat to the species.	eng
184760	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	The taxonomy of this nominal species needs to be re-evaluated in the context of other rift-lake coelatura-type species.	eng
184760	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em> is known only from two localities in Lake Tanganyika; one from the eastern side (Tanzania) and one from the western side (Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
184760	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em> is known only from two localities in Lake Tanganyika; one from the eastern side (Tanzania) and one from the western side (DRC).	eng
184760	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
184760	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information available.	eng
184760	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available.	eng
184760	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available for <em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em>, although Lake Tanganyika (especially the northern end) is known to be effected by sedimentation, deforestation and water pollution (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
184760	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available for <em>Nyassunio ujijiensis</em>, although Lake Tanganyika (especially the northern end) is known to be effected by sedimentation, deforestation and water pollution (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005). Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
184761	conservation	Graf, D.L., 2008	More research is necessary to determine the extent of occurrence of this species in Lake Tanganyika. No conservation measures are known to be in place for this species.	eng
184761	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Moncetia anceyi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia). Mandahl-Barth (1988, and Brown and Mandahl-Barth 1987) reported that this species was known from only shells, but Kondo (1984) reported live specimens. It has been collected from five sites in the lake and the lower reaches of its tributaries.	eng
184761	distribution	Graf, D.L., 2008	<em>Moncetia anceyi</em> is endemic to Lake Tanganyika (DRC, Tanzania, Burundi and Zambia). Mandahl-Barth (1988, and Brown and Mandahl-Barth 1987) reported that this species was known from only shells, but Kondo (1984) reported live specimens. It has been collected from five sites in the lake and the lower reaches of its tributaries.	eng
184761	habitat	Graf, D.L., 2008	At least two fish are reported to serve as host for the larvae: <em>Lobochilotes labiatus</em> and <em>Lamprologus tretocephalus</em>. Kondo (1984) reported that <em>Moncetia anceyi</em> was common in the rubbled bottom between 3 and 7 m depth.	eng
184761	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	Kondo (1984) found live brooding individuals, but it is not known if juveniles were found.	eng
184761	population	Graf, D.L., 2008	No information is available. Kondo (1984) found live brooding individuals, but it is not known if juveniles were found.	eng
184761	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Moncetia anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al</em>. 2005).	eng
184761	threats	Graf, D.L., 2008	No specific threats are documented for <em>Moncetia anceyi</em>, but Lake Tanganyika is known to suffer from sedimentation due to surrounding deforestation, water pollution near urban areas and over-fishing. These effects are all worse at the northern end (Thieme <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
184762	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184762	conservation	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184762	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	It is recorded from Kenya near Lodwar as sub fossil shells. Elsewhere is documented to occur in south west Somalia.	eng
184762	distribution	Lange, C.N., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Kenya near Lodwar as sub fossil shells. <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Elsewhere, it is documented to occur in south west Somalia.	eng
184762	habitat	Lange, C.N., 2003	Documented to thrive in seasonal pools.	eng
184762	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This species is documented to thrive in seasonal pools.	eng
184762	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184762	population	Lange, C.N., 2003	No information available.	eng
184762	threats	Lange, C.N., 2003	Possibly drought and sedimentation.	eng
184762	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This species is possibly threatened by drought and sedimentation.	eng
184763	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184763	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Melanoides anomala</em> is endemic to southeastern DRC, where it is recorded from the rivers Lualaba, Lufira and Luapula. It is widespread in the Kasai region.	eng
184763	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in lakes, rivers and irrigation channels. It is found in sand or gravel without vegetation. Perhaps asexual reproduction (clonal lineages).	eng
184763	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes. The species is relatively widespread and common.	eng
184763	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	Although there may be localised threats, the species is not believed to be under global threat. It is widespread and tolerant of a relatively wide range of habitats.	eng
184764	conservation	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
184764	distribution	Jørgensen, A., 2008	<em>Potadoma zenkeri</em> is endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from the Lukonge River and the Changue River, with the type locality near Kribi.	eng
184764	habitat	Jørgensen, A., 2008	It is found in shaded rivers with hard bottoms with clear waters and gallery forest. The disappearance of this species from a water body is an indicator of declining water quality.	eng
184764	population	Jørgensen, A., 2008	No information available regarding population sizes.	eng
184764	threats	Jørgensen, A., 2008	The species occurs in an area of oil palm plantations. Deforestation is a major threat to the species as shaded habitat is removed, siltation increases in the rivers, and the chemical composition of the water is altered.	eng
184765	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184765	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria, possibly extending its distribution in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.	eng
184765	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184765	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184765	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184766	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184766	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184766	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The species is known from L. Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin. The more elongated  form recorded from the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia is here referred to as <em>C. bulimoides pauli</em>.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Egyptian Nile and in eastern Africa in the  Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda, Chad and Senega (Brown 1994). Some of these records may pertain to distinct species.	eng
184766	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	This subspecies is known from throughout the Egyptian Nile, Lake Nasser and the Sudanese Nile Basin, and in East Africa in the Lower Tana river and Lake Baringo in Kenya and Lake Albert in Uganda. It is found from Chad to Senegal (Brown 1994). Some of these records may pertain to distinct species.	eng
184766	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.	eng
184766	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	This subspecies occurs in rivers, lakes and even irrigation channels on muddy or sandy substrata usually with vegetation.	eng
184766	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184766	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184766	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Building of dams, pollution and drought all threaten this subspecies.	eng
184766	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184767	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184767	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria and inflowing tributaries and Victoria Nile.	eng
184767	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184767	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184767	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184768	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184768	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Victoria Nile and Lake Kyoga, Uganda.	eng
184768	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	It lives in fine sediment.	eng
184768	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184768	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	Agriculture threatens this subspecies, through erosion, siltation and loss of habitat.	eng
184769	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	If there is more water conservation and recycling, then the water quality of the lower wells would improve and the species would probably return.	eng
184769	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This new subspecies is recorded from different wells and springs in the region of Guelmin, Sidi Ifni, Marrakech, Ourika and Ait Ourir in Morocco. All these are the same groundwater basin, and therefore count as one location.	eng
184769	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is found in wells and springs.	eng
184769	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184769	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This subspecies is found near Marrakech so the groundwater is heavily polluted and it has already disappeared from several wells in the last 10 years. So the higher wells contain good populations, but the lower wells are contaminated.	eng
184770	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184770	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria. It is described as widespread and found in Kenyan, Ugandan and Tanzanian waters.	eng
184770	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is found in most of the lake habitats even in disturbed and polluted areas.	eng
184770	population	Lange, C., 2004	In an ongoing Kenyan freshwater gastropod study 2002/2003, the subspecies was reported in high abundance in the lake and described as stable.	eng
184770	threats	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184771	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No conservation measures known but information on taxonomy, population ecology, habitat status and population trends would be valuable.	eng
184771	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184771	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this subspecies is found from White Nile down to the Great Lakes and coastal Tanzania and Kenya.	eng
184771	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The subspecies is known from White Nile - Mountain Nile, Omo river, and coastal Kenya.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The subspecies is known from the Great Lakes, Tanzania.	eng
184771	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in large rivers.	eng
184771	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It inhabits large rivers.	eng
184771	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184771	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184771	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184771	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
184772	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It needs protection of wells.	eng
184772	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is known from two wells in southern Morocco, Larba Sahel near Tiznit, Tit Tarant near Sidi Ifni.	eng
184772	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This subspecies is a stygobiont.	eng
184772	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
184772	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This subspecies is threatened by pollution of wells, lowering of water table due to groundwater extraction.	eng
184773	conservation	Kyamabdde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184773	distribution	Kyamabdde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Edward, Uganda.	eng
184773	habitat	Kyamabdde, R., 2004	It lives in fine sediment.	eng
184773	population	Kyamabdde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184773	threats	Kyamabdde, R., 2004	Threats to this subspecies include the possible contamination of water by the cobalt stockpiled at the former kilembe mines in Kasese. Also habitat degradation by erosion from agriculture.	eng
184774	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184774	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to East Africa. It is found in Kenya at Lake Naivasha and other several localities. It also occurs in Uganda and several localities in northern Tanzania.	eng
184774	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is known to thrive in lakes.	eng
184774	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184774	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184775	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184775	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This subspecies is endemic to northeast Africa, in the Lower Omo, the Lower Awash Valley and the Giuba and Shebele rivers in Somalia.	eng
184775	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It inhabits rivers and large lakes.	eng
184775	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184775	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184776	conservation	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184776	distribution	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Victoria the Victoria Nile and small rivers flowing in to the lake.	eng
184776	habitat	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is known to occur from shallow water to about 20 m deep.	eng
184776	population	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184776	threats	Lange, C. & Ngereza, C., 2004	This subspecies is threatened by sedimentation and anthropogenic disturbances.	eng
184777	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184777	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tanganyika. It is present on all four shores according to the Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP).	eng
184777	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184777	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184777	threats	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is threatened by sedimentation.	eng
184778	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from treatment of waste water so that it doesn't pollute the ground water, and recovery of ground water in wells.	eng
184778	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The type locality for this subspecies is Oued Seyad, Morocco. It is also known from a well near Zat river at Ait Ourir, and hyporheic water of Ourika river at Tnine Ourika, as well as wells at Gueliz. All are found in the area around Marrakech.	eng
184778	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a stygobiont subspecies found in wells. Hyporheic waters of Ourika river at Oulmes. It lives in the flow under the ground below the river. It lives in flowing waters underground.	eng
184778	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Abundant population in the well near Marrakech.	eng
184778	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This subspecies is threatened by the pollution of water, water extraction, and the effects of climate change reducing the water table level.	eng
184779	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184779	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to East Africa. This subspecies occurs in the Lango district (most likely Lake Kyoga) in Uganda and eastwards. It is known from the shores of Lake Victoria to Shinyanga in Tanzania (Brown 1994).	eng
184779	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	It is found in seasonal water bodies, ditches and burrow pits. It is recognised as an intermediate host for the Bilharzia causing parasite.	eng
184779	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184779	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is threatened by erosion and silting as a result of agriculture. It is affected by water pollution.	eng
184780	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184780	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to a Crater lake in Western Uganda (Toro region).	eng
184780	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184780	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184780	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies faces a declining quality of habitat due to erosion and silting from agriculture and water pollution.	eng
184781	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184781	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>  The subspecies is confined to the rivers of south Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is present in east  Kenya.	eng
184781	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This subspecies is present in east Kenya, and the rivers of south Somalia.	eng
184781	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in large rivers and dams.	eng
184781	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	It inhabits large rivers and dams.	eng
184781	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184781	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184781	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	There is a main town (Bardera), i.e. with more than 100,000  inhabitants, situated on the Middle Giuba, without any wastewater  treatment and with such highly polluting industries as leatherware  production it should be assumed that the area, extent and quality of the  habitat is severely affected downstream during the dry season.	eng
184782	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	None known.	eng
184782	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Mutanda, Uganda.	eng
184782	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	It is found among aquatic vegetation (marginal and floating), around stones in slowly flowing streams, rivers, large dams and lakes. It is tolerant of shade.	eng
184782	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184782	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is threatened by erosion from agriculture and consequent loss of habitat due to silting and clearing of vegetation.	eng
184783	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
184783	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tana, Ethiopia.	eng
184783	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184783	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
184783	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	Environmental threats listed for Lake Tana are: silt load, pollution, water drainage, water level fluctuation, overfishing. Extent and quality of suitable habitat are therefore declining or likely to decline.	eng
184784	conservation	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184784	distribution	Lange, C., 2004	This subspecies is known from Lakes Victoria, Edward, and Albert.	eng
184784	habitat	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184784	population	Lange, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
184784	threats	Lange, C., 2004	Anthropogenic pollution, disturbance and sedimentation are possible threats.	eng
184785	conservation	Lange, C.N. & Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184785	distribution	Lange, C.N. & Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Tanganyika and affluent rivers and streams.	eng
184785	habitat	Lange, C.N. & Kyambadde, R., 2004	It lives in large lakes, rivers, tributaries and marshes (Brown 1994).	eng
184785	population	Lange, C.N. & Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184785	threats	Lange, C.N. & Kyambadde, R., 2004	General threats to this subspecies are water pollution, human activities, deforestation, and sedimentation.	eng
184786	conservation	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184786	distribution	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Albert, Uganda.	eng
184786	habitat	Kyambadde, R., 2004	This subspecies occurs in shallow waters (12 metres deep) in fine sediment.	eng
184786	population	Kyambadde, R., 2004	No information available.	eng
184786	threats	Kyambadde, R., 2004	Erosion and water pollution threaten this subspecies.	eng
184787	conservation	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184787	distribution	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This subspecies is endemic to Lake Malawi.	eng
184787	habitat	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	This is a freshwater subspecies.	eng
184787	population	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184787	threats	Kaunda, E., Magombo, Z., Kahwa, D. & Mailosi, A., 2004	No information available.	eng
184945	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None.	eng
184945	conservation	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No specific conservation measures are needed in the wider Mediterranean region. In northern Africa, more data are required to be able to determine the range of the species in this area and the status of any populations there.	eng
184945	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	No specific conservation measures needed in the wider Mediterranean region. In Northern Africa, more data are required to be able to determine the range of the species in this area and the status of any populations there.	eng
184945	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Ischnura evansi</em> ranges from Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) (Krylova 1972, Borisov 1984) through the Middle East (Schneider 1981, Dumont 1991) to the Libyan desert in the west (Kimmins 1950). In the Northern Africa assessment area the species occurs only in Egypt.	eng
184945	distribution	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	<em>Ischnura evansi</em> ranges from Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) (Krylova 1972, Borisov 1984) through the Middle East (Schneider 1981, Dumont 1991) to the Libyan desert in the west (Kimmins 1950). It has also been recorded from Legrand (Dijkstra pers. comm.) in a lake on the border with Ethiopia and Djibouti. It is present in Egypt (Siwa oasis area, where the records are relatively clustered). The species habitat (salt marshes and swampy areas) are common, and it is likely that the species is more widespread Dijkstra, pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, the species is recorded from Egypt and Sudan (single record), Tsuda's listing for Djibouti is likely but needs verification. Occurrence in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia is assumed.	eng
184945	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species occurs in North Africa, the Middle East, Azerbaijan and Iran.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has been recorded from Egypt and Sudan, Tsuda's listing for Djibouti is likely but needs verification. Occurrence in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia is assumed.	eng
184945	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	The larvae of the species tolerates high salinity (Schneider 1981) and is therefore often found in backwaters, irrigation/drainage ditches, saline marshes, and saline pools in oases. Because of similar requirements it is very often associated with its congeners <em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> and <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>. It is also the only <em>Ischnura</em> species known to migrate (nocturnal), and such movements may account for the widely scattered distribution in the northern part of the eremian zone (desert zone) (Waterston and Pittaway 1991).	eng
184945	habitat	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	The larvae of the species tolerates high salinity (Schneider 1981) and is therefore often found in backwaters, irrigation/drainage ditches, saline marshes, and saline pools in oases. Because of similar requirements it is very often associated with its congeners <em>Ischnura senegalensis</em> and <em>Ischnura fountaineae</em>. It is also the only <em>Ischnura</em> species known to migrate (nocturnal), and such movements may account for the widely scattered distribution in the northern part of the eremian zone (desert zone) (Waterston and Pittaway 1991).<br/><br/>Found  in oasis in western parts of northern Egypt, and in eastern Egypt along the Red Sea coast to Ethiopia.	eng
184945	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Unknown.	eng
184945	population	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No detailed information is available for this species. It has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean region and is locally abundant where it occurs. No population information is available from the northern Africa region.	eng
184945	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No detailed information is available for this species. It has a patchy distribution in the Mediterranean region and is locally abundant where it occurs. No population information is available from the Northern Africa region.	eng
184945	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available.	eng
184945	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	No major threats are known at present in the wider Mediterranean region. The species will tolerate higher saline conditions and may be more robust to drying conditions than other odonates. Nothing is known of the Northern Africa population.	eng
184945	threats	Schneider, W. & Clausnitzer, V., 2009	No major threats are known at present. The species will tolerate higher saline conditions and may be more robust to drier conditions than other odonates.	eng
184945	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	None known.	eng
184946	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	More research is needed in the northern African region to determine the range and status of the species there.	eng
184946	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Schneider, W., 2009	More research is needed in the northern African region to determine the range and status of the species there. In general, research into population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, threats, conservation measures, and trends/monitoring of this species would also be valuable. Habitat and site-based actions are also required.	eng
184946	conservation	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184946	conservation	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information available. Research needed into population numbers and range for this species, and trends/monitoring.	eng
184946	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Orthetrum ransonneti</em> is a species with a wide but discontinuous distribution from Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961), Iran (e.g., Heidari and Dumont 2002), Arabia (Ris 1910, Waterston and Pittaway 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997), Israel (Dumont 1991, Schneider 1986) and Jordan (Schneider 1986, Terzani 1995) to Africa. <br/><br/>Within the northern Africa region, it occurs in Egypt, where it reaches the Mediterranean via the Nile (Dumont 1980, Geene 1994, Ris 1910). Elsewhere in its global range, the species is restricted to inland desert habitats in the western Sahara, Niger, Chad, Algeria, and Sudan (Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000, Dumont and Martens 1984).	eng
184946	distribution	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	<strong>Global distribution: </strong>The species is found in all major desert mountain areas of the Sahara.<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa distribution:</strong> The species has only been recorded from the Red Sea Hills in Sudan within the region.	eng
184946	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution:</strong> The species just reaches into the north of the region - Algeria (Hoggar Mts), Niger (Air Mts) and Chad (Tibesti Mts).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species extends from Afghanistan and Arabia into the Sahara.	eng
184946	distribution	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Schneider, W., 2009	The species is present in the inland desert habitats in the western Sahara, Niger, Chad, Algeria, and Sudan (Samraoui and Menai 1999, Samraoui and Corbet 2000, Dumont and Martens 1984). <em>Orthetrum ransonnetii</em> is a species with a wide but discontinuous distribution from Afghanistan (Schmidt 1961), Iran (e.g., Heidari and Dumont 2002), Arabia (Ris 1910, Waterston and Pittaway 1991, Schneider and Dumont 1997), Israel (Dumont 1991, Schneider 1986) and Jordan (Schneider 1986, Terzani 1995) to Africa. Probably present in Libya, where there has been little survey (Boudot pers. comm.). From central Algeria to Egypt and Sudan.<br/><br/>Within the northern Africa region, it occurs in Egypt, where it reaches the Mediterranean via the Nile (Dumont 1980, Geene 1994, Ris 1910). <br/><br/>The species just reaches into the north of the western Africa region - Algeria (Hoggar Mts.), Niger (Air Mts.) and Chad (Tibesti Mts.).	eng
184946	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Desert.	eng
184946	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	Nothing is known on the ecology of <em>Orthetrum ransonneti</em>. Waterston and Pittaway (1991) report the species "occurring around deep rocky pools in boulder-strewn wadis", an observation that can be confirmed for Jordan (Schneider, unpublished data).	eng
184946	habitat	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Schneider, W., 2009	Nothing is known on the ecology of <em>Orthetrum ransonnetii</em>. In northern Africa, Waterston and Pittaway (1991) report the species "occurring around deep rocky pools in boulder-strewn wadis", an observation that can be confirmed for Jordan (Schneider, unpublished data).<br/><br/>In northeastern Africa, it is found in waters in desert mountain areas.<br/><br/>In western Africa, it is present in the desert.	eng
184946	habitat	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Waters in desert mountain areas.	eng
184946	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Schneider, W., 2009	Little information is available for this species. Few observations indicate that the species is never abundant at a given locality (Schneider, unpublished data).	eng
184946	population	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	No information available.	eng
184946	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No information is available for this species. Few observations indicate that the species is never abundant at a given locality (Schneider, unpublished data).	eng
184946	population	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	Population size is unknown.	eng
184946	threats	Clausnitzer, V., 2008	No information.	eng
184946	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B. & Schneider, W., 2009	No major threats known.	eng
184946	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	None known.	eng
184946	threats	Dijkstra, K.-D.B., 2006	Unknown	eng
184961	conservation	Suhling, F., 2006	Known to occur within protected areas in parts of its range. No information is available on conservation measures in place	eng
184961	distribution	Suhling, F., 2006	Within the southern Africa region, the species appears to be widespread in the tropical north (Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa), but has a very localised distribution. In South Africa, it is known only from Mjabeni swamp, where it was first recorded in the country in February 2001 (Samways 2006 in press). Globally, it has been recorded from Angola to Mozambique and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), and Tanzania.	eng
184961	habitat	Suhling, F., 2006	Swamps. It was recorded from swamp forest on Pemba Island. In South Africa it is recorded from extensive marshland bordered by trees (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
184961	population	Suhling, F., 2006	In South Africa, it was recorded to occur in large numbers at its only known site, but since it was not recorded here prior to 2001 and its only known site periodically almost dries out, it is thought to be a species whose range extends into the country only under periodically suitable conditions (Samways 2006 in press). No information is available from elsewhere in the range.	eng
184961	threats	Suhling, F., 2006	Current threats across its range are unknown. In South Africa, it is known only from a site within a protected area and the only threats are likely to be natural (e.g., El Niño droughts) rather than anthropogenic (Samways 2006 in press).	eng
185203	conservation	Agenbag, L., 2007	It is found in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park. However, this species requires habitat management and site protection as well as legal measures to avoid&#160; any future issues.	eng
185203	distribution	Agenbag, L., 2007	Endemic to KwaZulu-Natal coast, from Umdoni Park in the Umzinto district, to the St Lucia wetlands area as far north as Cape Vidal (Baijnath 1976), where it is very common. From Durban southwards, the range overlaps with the very similar <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus prolifer</span>, and several records of hybrids between the two species are known from this area (Baijnath and Getliffe 1977). <br/><br/>The collection records of this species indicate remarkable disjunctions along the KwaZulu-Natal coast - there is about 190 km between the St Lucia records and Durban and another 60 km between Durban and Umdoni Park. It can not necessarily be assumed that this species occurs nowhere in between these areas and that the localities known from herbarium records (below) are the only existing localities. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>St Lucia eastern shores, including Cape Vidal. Well protected area within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park world heritage site. No serious threats to subpopulations in this area. Herbarium specimens report that species is locally very common in the extensive coastal marshlands of this area.<br/>1) Hlabisa district, St Lucia, Eastern Shores. Altitude 8 m. Very common. (Feely, J.M. and Ward, C.J. 30-11-1959)<br/>2) St Lucia Park, 4 km from St Lucia estuary (Arnold, T.H. 0-9-1973)<br/>3) Zululand, Hlabisa district, Mhlambanyati pan (Michelmore A. 27-3-1941)<br/>4) St Lucia, Cape Vidal to St Lucia, 3 km. Altitude 5 m (Goetghebeur P. 31-1-1982)<br/>5) Bangazi lake, Cape Vidal, SE compartment (Musil, C.F. 30-9-1976)<br/><br/>St Lucia Area, western side of lakes to Kwambonambi. This area is <span style="font-style: italic;">ca</span>. 90% transformed to forestry plantations, which may have led to losses of habitat in the past, although the extent cannot be quantified. Much of the former state owned plantations in this area have recently been handed over to the conservation minded Siya Qhubeka forestry company. In order to maintain their FSC accreditation, Siya Qhubeka has done a lot of rehabilitation of remaining wetlands in the forestry plantations, especially at Langepan.<br/>6) Zululand, Hlabisa district, W of Charters Creek. Altitude 50 m. (Ward, C.J. 24-11-1955)<br/>7) Mtubatuba district, Makhakhatana (Ward 11-1969)<br/>8) Hlabisa Dist. Kwambonambi Forest, Langepan. Occurrence common. (Glen, R.P.  20-8-1996)<br/>9) North Coast, Lake Nhlabane, North Lake, south shores. Altitude 5 m. (Ward, C.J. and Begg, G.W. 17-9-1991)<br/>10) North Coast, Lake Nhlabane, South Lake, north shores. Altitiude 5 m. Occr: common. (Ward, C.J. and Rajh, A. 3-1-1992).<br/><br/>Durban. Two subpopulations are known within the urbanized Durban harbour area. There are very likely serious impacts on water quality of these wetlands due to disruption of water flow resulting in stagnation, pollution, eutrophication and probably invasion by alien species. However, whether this is likely to negatively affect subpopulations is not known, see notes on habitat.<br/>11) Wentworth, Happy Valley Bird Sanctuary. Occurrence common (Baijnath, H. 23-9-1978) Type locality.<br/>12) Merebank, Clairwood Race Course (Baijnath 12-1969)<br/><br/>Umzinto District. Only one record of this species from this area, although there are a number of records of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. prolifer</span> and the hybrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span> (Baijnath and Getliffe 1976). Severely threatened by rapid coastal development.<br/>13) Umdoni Park (Baijnath 2-1970)	eng
185203	habitat	Agenbag, L., 2007	Coastal grasslands and dunes. Associated with seasonal pans, forms a conspicuous zone around the water edge. Altitude 5-50 m. Perennial Herb. Species is potentially tolerant of wetland degradation.<br/><br/>The <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span> hybrid, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span>, is found in disturbed wetland areas where road construction and excessive trampling have impeded drainage (Baijnath 1976). It is not certain whether this could indicate that <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sensilis</span> is generally also tolerant of stagnant, degraded wetland habitats. <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span> has been recorded from the same sites as some known localities of <span style="font-style: italic;">C. x turbatus</span> (Clairwood Race course, Umdoni Park). However, on the eastern shores of Lake St Lucia, where <span style="font-style: italic;">C. sensilis</span> appears to be most common, wetland habitats are mostly pristine, so it cannot be assumed that the preferred habitat is degraded wetlands, although it may be tolerant of stagnation to a degree.	eng
185203	population	Agenbag, L., 2007	Estimate: 10-15 locations. 9 locations (see below) known but probably undercollected in areas between Durban amd St Lucia, and Durban and Umdoni Park.  <br/><br/>All localities/subpopulations on St Lucia eastern shores considered one location with no serious threats. Other subpopulations in St Lucia area each considered a separate location (estimated four locations) as Langepan site is well managed, but it is not known whether or not Makhakhatana area is also owned and well managed by Siya Qhubeka. Lake Nhlabane (two localities) are also considered a separate location as these sites which are closer to the coast appear to not be directly impacted by forestry plantations. Two Durban subpopulations are considered two locations, one is on a severely neglected piece of natural vegetation in the middle of a racecourse, while the other is in a park/bird sanctuary, although this does not mean that the habitat is protected from degradation at all, as the city council does not necessarily effectively manage such areas. Umdoni Park threatened by coastal development and considered a separate location.	eng
185203	threats	Agenbag, L., 2007	This species has probably lost a lot of habitat to forestry plantations in the past around St Lucia, although the extent of loss of to the population and the time frame cannot be estimated accurately. Forestry plantations, especially gum trees, have extensive impacts on the water levels of wetlands and drainage lines, and therefore, although much of the forests in the area is owned by a conservation minded company, the impacts of the plantations on the water levels of wetlands are likely to be ongoing.<br/><br/>In the Durban area the wetland systems are disrupted and polluted by surrounding urban areas, and although the species appears to still occur in degraded wetlands, there may also have been declines in the past due to drainage of wetlands for development.<br/><br/>Coastal areas between Durban and St Lucia are excessively transformed to commercial sugarcane (transformation = 74%, calculated using GIS), and between Durban and Port Shepstone coastal development is rapidly transforming coastal areas. If this species occurs in these areas, it is quite likely threatened and quite possibly not as common as the St Lucia area where the most extensive areas of suitable wetland habitat can be found.<br/><br/>South of Durban coastal development is causing ongoing, rapid declines in the habitat of coastal species such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus sensilis</span>.	eng
185204	conservation	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185204	distribution	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	South Africa and Namibia. Kalahari region, Transvaal, Ramalopa, 400ft.	eng
185204	habitat	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	Grows on flat pans or between rocks, after the seasonal water recedes. Annual Herb	eng
185204	population	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185204	threats	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	None known	eng
185205	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research in geographic range, population trends and the ecology of the species is needed.	eng
185205	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Records from Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria.	eng
185205	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant living attached to submerged rocks or wood in running water, in rapids or water falls of streams and rivers.	eng
185205	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available.	eng
185205	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought	eng
185206	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Habitat protection and restoration and research actions are needed.	eng
185206	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species present along the rivers of of western Africa from Senegal to Ghana (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone).	eng
185206	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Wet swamps, fresh or brackish, especially on the landward side of coastal mangrove	eng
185206	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Abundant along rivers.	eng
185206	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Impacted by habitat loss due to agricultural development, overharvesting and drought	eng
185207	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	None known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185207	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	This plants occurs throughout the western Tropical Africa to Chad and Angola. It is found in Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, Togo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Chad.	eng
185207	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	This annual plant grows in tufts which are found in damp places in savanna.	eng
185207	population	Juffe, D., 2006	No information available	eng
185207	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185208	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment. Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed. Further research is also needed in order to  understand better the species populations and range, and the habitat status.	eng
185208	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is a Central Africa endemic found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Congo.	eng
185208	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185208	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The plant present in three different countries, medium size population. In Cameroon it has been recorded in two sites; in Congo and DRC there are fairly numerous collections.	eng
185208	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat loss due to, dam construction, tourism and recreation	eng
185209	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185209	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in West Africa to Congo in Central in Africa.	eng
185209	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Plant living on river borders.	eng
185209	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185209	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution.	eng
185210	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185210	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Mostly Central African species, but can extends westwards to Nigeria.	eng
185210	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Undershrub of river border in forest.	eng
185210	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widely distributed species and in general locally abundant, therefore large size population.	eng
185210	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging.	eng
185211	conservation	Raimondo, D. & Helme, N., 2007	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Population trends should  also be monitored . Finally, legal protection measures for this species and&#160; its habitat should be put in place.	eng
185211	distribution	Raimondo, D. & Helme, N., 2007	This species is endemic to South Africa (Northern and Western Cape Provinces) (Cook 2004). Bokkeveld Mountains, Gifberg flats and Namaqualand at Hondeklip Bay. Found only in seasonal pools which are dry in summer, on plateau of the Bokkeveld Mountains east of Vanrhynsdorp. Described from seasonal pools on the Bokkeveld Mountains near Nieuwoudtville in the Northern Cape Province but known also from the foot of the nearby Gifberg-Matsikamma massif, in the Western Cape, and from the coastal flats near Hondeklip Bay in central Namaqualand (Manning and Goldblatt 2001).<br/><br/>At the time of revision this geophyte was only known from the Bokkeveld escarpment east of Vanrhynsdorp. It has, however, since been collected near Hondeklip Bay in the Namaqualand rocky hills.  <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Van Rhynsdorp, road to Gifberg, in pool. (Manning 2002)  / Van Rhynsdorp in seasonal pool (Helme 1997). Less than 60 plants. <br/>2) Van Rhynsdorp just S.E. of Mauwerskop (Oliver 1974)<br/>3) Van Rhynsdorp in flat clay pool, Randkraal towards national road (Snijman 1986)<br/>4) Calvinia, Nieuwoudtville in vlei (Glen 1994)<br/>5) Calvinia, between Van Rhyns Pass and Nieuwoudtville (De Vos 1968)<br/>6) Between Menzieskraal and Nieuwoudtville (Markötter 1933)<br/><br/>From Manning and Goldblatt 2001:<br/>7) 15 km E of Hondeklipbaai (Le Roux 1980)	eng
185211	habitat	Raimondo, D. & Helme, N., 2007	Vernal pools. Grows in seasonal pools which are dry in the summer months. The surrounding vegetation is either Namaqualand Broken Veld or Dry Mountain Fynbos or Western Mountain Karoo Veld.	eng
185211	population	Raimondo, D. & Helme, N., 2007	Specific to vernal pools. Seeds are not adapted for long distance dispersal as they drop into the water. Many vernal pools do not have this species occurring in them indicating that dispersal is limited.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >10,000; <br/>Estimated number of locations: seven;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: seven known but a few more likely;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): no; <br/>Overall population decline (current): no<br/>Estimated current localities: <10; common in pools where they occur.	eng
185211	threats	Raimondo, D. & Helme, N., 2007	Habitat being degraded due to heavy grazing and trampling of plants floating in shallow pools, observed by Helme at Vanrhysdorp subpopulation and by Raimondo at some Nieuwoudtville subpopulations. Agriculture is also posing a low to moderate level threat as some farmers plough up these seasonal pools. This has occurred in Nieudoutville in 2005, but it is not general practice as crops do not grow well in seasonally inundated areas (D. Raimondo pers. comm. 2006).  P.Goldblatt and J.Manning (pers. comm. 2005) also state that mining is a potential threat.<br/><br/>The specialized habitat requirements of this species may result in it becoming more threatened.	eng
185212	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No specific measures at the moment, but the species occurs in protected areas. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed. Raising public awareness is also needed.	eng
185212	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is endemic to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and south Nigeria. Its presence in Mali and Niger is uncertain.	eng
185212	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Limnophyton</span><em> fluitans</em> is an aquatic submerged herb, living in permanent or intermittent flowing waters.	eng
185212	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Regional endemic herb and low population due to low area of occupancy (AOO) and the ecology of the plant.	eng
185212	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	As submerged plant, any extreme fluctuation in the water condition (water component, temperature etc.) might cause the local extinction of the plant. The life of the plant will also depend on the water availability. Activities causing siltation (e.g. logging) can negatively impact these kind of species.	eng
185213	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185213	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Botswana and Lesotho) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185213	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Perennial helophyte. Marshes	eng
185213	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185213	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185214	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is not under any conservation initiatives. More research in population trends, geographical range and possible threats is needed.	eng
185214	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is known from Uganda (Mengo and Teso Districts), Kenya (North Kavirondo District from 1,000-1,400 m), Tanzania (Buha, Kahama and Songea Districts), Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia.	eng
185214	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This erect perennial species is found in swamps and seasonally water logged depressions.	eng
185214	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data is available.	eng
185214	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threat has been identified. But wetland reclamation to create land for rice farming in Yala swamps (western Kenya) and its environments could be a serious threat. But investigations are needed to establish the species distribution.	eng
185215	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	Requires taxonomic clarification with potential or actual synonyms.	eng
185215	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Thought to be endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185215	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known. It is an hemicryptophyte.	eng
185215	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185215	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185216	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185216	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is found in South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho.	eng
185216	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Its habitat is not well known. No information available.	eng
185216	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185216	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185217	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185217	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is present in Tropical Africa, from Ivory Coast and Ethiopia south to Botswana and South Africa (Cook 2004:183).<br/><br/>It is found in Sub-Saharan Africa in general. In Southern Africa it has been recorded from South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is found between 0 and 1,650  m above sea level. Recorded from Sesse and Bugala Islands of Lake Victoria and Namanve. Also recorded from Kenya and Tanzania (T1. 2, 3,4. Bukoba district).	eng
185217	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial aquatic herb, sometimes annual, floating in marshes of humid areas.  Found in temporary pools, ponds and rivers up to 1,660 m above sea level.	eng
185217	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Quite widespread species although it is probably rare in South Africa (Cook, 2004).	eng
185217	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future but this is yet to be confirmed:<br/>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br/>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.	eng
185218	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	It is present in protected areas although there is no clear data.	eng
185218	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Angola, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe	eng
185218	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	In seasonally wet swamps and moist or boggy grassland.	eng
185218	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is common in Tanzania and Kenya where it is found between 750 -1,500 metres above sea level. No information available from other countries.	eng
185218	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Agricultural activities have been identified as possible threats but this need to be confirmed.	eng
185219	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185219	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is native to Tropical Central and Western Africa.  It is widespread in western Africa and present in Central Africa.	eng
185219	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Aquatic and semi-aquatic geophyte. Its natural habitat is swamps; it is totally submerged or amphibious. It can aslo be found on understory or open areas of riparian forests. The natural growth of the species is very slow. Its forms little colonies and reproduces easily by stolon and side shoots.	eng
185219	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185219	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Wetland management for agriculture is a potential threat but it is not considered of major importance.	eng
185220	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185220	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape).	eng
185220	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In wet situations, in water surrounding seasonal pools or along stream margins and dams, 1000-2000m. Perennial cyperoid	eng
185220	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185220	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185221	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	This species occurs in protected areas. Research on population abundance, ecology and threats is needed. Western African botanists have found it hard to distinguish between this species and <span style="font-style: italic;">V. nigritana</span>, so more information is needed on these two (this species appears to avoid the Sahelian zone).	eng
185221	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	A western African species found from Senegal east to west Cameroon.	eng
185221	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	<span style="font-style: italic;">Vetiveria fulvibarbis</span> grows in alluvial plains around rivers, and in seasonally flooded rivers. Widely used for soil stabilization.	eng
185221	population	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Relatively abundant.	eng
185221	threats	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Expanding agriculture for crops and the increasing occurrence of periodic droughts are the main threats. Increasing bush fires are an added pressure.	eng
185222	conservation	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Four populations are within National Parks.	eng
185222	distribution	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	This species is native to Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It occurs between 2,750 m and 4,300 m asl. It is common in Mt. Rwenzori in Uganda, less common on Mt. Elgon. In Kenya, it is found in Aberdare and Elgon mountains between 2,700-4,300 m asl.	eng
185222	habitat	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Swamps, bogs and lake sides, ericaceous belt and giant Lobelia-Alchemilla zone (var. <span style="font-style: italic;">runssoroensis</span>)<br/>Alpine moorland and ericaceous belt, often on exposed rocks and tarns shores (var. <span style="font-style: italic;">aberdarensis</span>)	eng
185222	population	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Probably quite healthy where found.<br/><br/>The variety <em>aberdarensis</em> has also been recorded from Aberdare National Park and Mt Kenya National Park.	eng
185222	threats	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Increased population has resulted in a quest for more grazing land for the surrounding communities. Congestion by tourists is resulting in degradation of bogs.	eng
185223	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185223	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in Southern Africa and not declining.<br/><br/>Also found in northern, western, central, and Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>As <em>A. cafrum </em>var. <em>asperum</em> it has been recorded in Kenya (Trans-Nzoia District: Kitale, Prison dam, Uasin Gishu District: Kipkarren, ); Tanzania ( Iringa District: Mufindi, W side of Lake Ngwazi, Songea District: 2 km E of Songea by Nonganonga stream, Ufipa District: Tatanda mission, near Zambian frontiers on Mbala–Sumbawanga road); Uganda (Kigezi District: Kanungu, Masaka District: NW side of lake Nabugabo, Toro District: Nyakasura, on hill near crater. Also Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo; Ethiopia; Ghana; Guinea; Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; South Africa; Sudan; Zambia; and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>As <em>Adenostemma caffrum</em> var.<em> longifolium</em> it has been recorded from Kenya (Naivasha District: Lake Naivasha and S side of Lake Naivasha, Buha District: Kaberi swamp, Masaka District: Lwera, 32 km on Masaka–Kampala road, Teso District: Bugondo, Lake Kioga, Also in Botswana, Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
185223	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Weedy annual which grows in damp places or places where water stood during the rain and has dried out (Cook 2004).	eng
185223	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185223	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185224	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.	eng
185224	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon.	eng
185224	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small aquatic herb, annual, living on rocks in waterfalls.	eng
185224	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Endemic species, restricted habitat, only two localities, therefore low population. No significant exchange of propagules between the two known sites is  likely to occur.	eng
185224	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat loss through human activities (dam construction, tourism and recreation).	eng
185225	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	The taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, but population numbers and range, and its uses and harvest levels are needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185225	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is only known from Sudan (Jonglei Prov., Jonglei, S.-Sudan).	eng
185225	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Tall perennial grass (<span style="font-style: italic;">c. </span>3 m), with rhizomes, forming large monospecific patches among <span style="font-style: italic;">Cyperus papyrus</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Vossia ouspidata</span> in permanently moist and seasonally flooded sites with peaty soil overlaying sandy clay. <span style="font-style: italic;">Zehneria ainutflora</span> is the only associated species.	eng
185225	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare and restricted.	eng
185225	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Due to the species limited dispersal and restricted range, the species is threatened by drought.	eng
185226	conservation	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information.	eng
185226	distribution	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to the Cape Region (Western and Eastern Cape provinces), South Africa.	eng
185226	habitat	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This perennial geophyte is confined to permanently wet places, especially along streams and in seepage areas, 5-1,200 m above sea level.	eng
185226	population	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information.	eng
185226	threats	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information.	eng
185227	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This plant is not under any conservation measures but some populations are protected in forest and national reserves.	eng
185227	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species occurs Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. In Kenya it is present in upland at an atitude  between 2600-3400 metres above sea level.	eng
185227	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Swamps, flushes and streamsides in montane grassland, montane forest, upper bamboo zone, <span style="font-style: italic;">Hagenia </span>forest, lower alpine (ericaceous) zone, <span style="font-style: italic;">Juniperus </span>forest, also mist forest and seepage zones in craters.	eng
185227	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Area under this plant is not known.	eng
185227	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Agricultural activities are the main threats to this species.	eng
185228	conservation	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	This species requires habitat protection and site management. Legal measures to protect the species and habitat are needed. Habitat restoration is needed to increase species' suitable habitat.	eng
185228	distribution	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	This species is endemic to Eastern and Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) A specimen was collected from Aloes (Tippers Creek) Reserve at Blue Water Bay, Port Elizabeth. Specimen in GRA (June 2002). Another specimen from the same area in the 1970s.<br/><br/>From PRECIS (South African National Biodiversity Institute2007): <br/>2) Port Elizabeth. Korsten (R. Liversidge) / Port Elizabeth, Near Koster (E.A.C.L.E. Schelpe 1961) <br/>3) Port Elizabeth District, Zwartkops River Valley. 33°56'S; 23°33'E to 33°46'S; 25°38'E. 5-100 m a.s.l. (R. Anderson 1977) <br/>4) Red House near Port Elizabeth. (F.M. Paterson 1912) and (A.O.D. Mogg 1919) / Port Elizabeth Division, Upper reaches of Papenkuils Stream (R. Liversidge 1957)<br/>5) Alexandria Dist. Kolsrand, Kop Alleen rd (S.M. Johnson 1954)<br/>6) Flats near Bredasdorp. Grown at Kirstenbosch (Schelpe 1957) <br/>7) Riversdale, Cultivated in Kirstenbosh (E.J. Van Jaarsveld 1980) Common along edges of pond<br/>8) Also collected by J. Burrows in the Albertinia. Specimen in the Buffelskloof private herbarium (pers communication July 2007)	eng
185228	habitat	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Mat-forming plants found along the margins of seasonal pools and along water courses from near sea level to about 200 m.	eng
185228	population	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Estimated total population size: > over 10,000 individuals.	eng
185228	threats	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Habitat loss due to agriculture and urban development is an ongoing threat. Due to the fact that this species is restricted to wetlands in a densely populated and intensively cultivated region, its survival is threatened (J. Burrows pers. comm.). The population at Aloes Reserve (Tippers Creek) at Blue Water Bay near Port Elizabeth is threatened by urban development. The reserve is an informal reserve on municipal land (Dold pers. comm. 2004).	eng
185229	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.   Further research on threats, habitat status and population trends of the species have been recommended.	eng
185229	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is endemic to Western Cape (South Africa).	eng
185229	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Its habitat is not well known. No information available.	eng
185229	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185229	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185230	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185230	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185230	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Locally abundant, often in deep water in rivers and ponds but also in marshes and mountain streams; Perennial Hyperhydate	eng
185230	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185230	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185231	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No conservation measures in place. Conservation measures should be  directed towards the protection of&#160; its habitat. This can be  done improving communication and education of savanna residents. Policy  makers,  especially authorities in charge of the protection of the environment  should be aware of the presence and the importance of protecting  freshwater plants. They should be trained to be able to make decisions  based on knowledge and understanding of freshwater ecology.	eng
185231	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is known from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola. The plant is assessed as endemic to Central Africa, but this might be wrong although it is definitively endemic to Africa. The plant's distribution in Angola is unknown.	eng
185231	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Small herb growing in water of granite cracks in woody savanna.	eng
185231	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Rather rare species in view of its ecology. It is presumed that it has a small population size.	eng
185231	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Severe droughts and bush fire have been identified as major threats.	eng
185232	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185232	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa; Namibia, Botswana, South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Free State, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)	eng
185232	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Forms dense mats in vleis and at the edges of pools and along water courses	eng
185232	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185232	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None	eng
185233	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185233	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, Namibia and Swaziland) and not declining. Often confused with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. denudatus</span>.	eng
185233	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available. Perennial Cyperoid	eng
185233	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	The species is widespread.	eng
185233	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185234	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185234	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Found in Tropical Africa south to South Africa.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, it is present in Tanzania (Ufipa district Mwimbi - Sopa road, Mbeya district Mbosi circle, Ndungu Estate).<br/><br/><em>Zantedeschia albomaculata albomaculata</em> has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185234	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial geophyte is occasionally found in marshes from 350 - 2250 m above sea level.	eng
185234	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information	eng
185234	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185235	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Habitat protection through environmental authorities commitment is needed. Also formal education on nature conservation practices of local residents is recommended.	eng
185235	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa. Found in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola and Zambia.	eng
185235	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Terrestrial herb, growing in swampy savannas.	eng
185235	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Low extent of occurrence (EOO), probably low area of occupancy (AOO), therefore small size population.	eng
185235	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Although terrestrial, the major threat faced by this species depends on the availability and the quality of water. Sudden and severe drought, water pollution due to human activities will affect the quality of water while&#160; wood agriculture might affect the availability of water. Infrastructure development and human settlement can also threaten the habitat of this species.	eng
185236	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185236	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Mostly Central African species (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and probably the DRC), having Nigeria as its western border.	eng
185236	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Secondary forest understory or at streamsides.	eng
185236	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185236	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potetntially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging.	eng
185237	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185237	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs from Benin to western Central Tropical Africa. Recorded from Benin, Gabon, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo.	eng
185237	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Shallow waters of swamps, ponds and lakes	eng
185237	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185237	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	In the Central African Republic civil war has caused conservation budgets to be drained and human population in the area to increase. This has caused the WWF ecoregion to be endangered.	eng
185238	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185238	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Confined to SE and S Africa from Zimbabwe south to South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185238	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In permanently wet swamps, 1000m. Perennial herb	eng
185238	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185238	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185239	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available. Urgent research is needed to find out whether the species still exists or not.	eng
185239	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has only been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185239	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Rivers, lakes, pools, in deep water.	eng
185239	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The is no information available.	eng
185239	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threat to this species are unknown.	eng
185240	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185240	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Central Africa, in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola.	eng
185240	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Wet meadows, usually in shady stagnating waters.	eng
185240	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Rather rare species, small size population.	eng
185240	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution, and sudden and severe droughts may affect the species. The general region where the species occurs in DRC is severely impacted by mining.	eng
185241	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This plant is found in protected areas i.e. Aberdare National Park, Mt Kenya, Mt Kilimanjaro, Bale Mtns, Simien Mtns. <br/>The existence of putative hybrids with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. runssoroensis</span> (FTEA) require investigation.	eng
185241	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is native to Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded in Mts. Kenya, Aberdares and Elgon at altitudes of 2,700-4,400 m above sea level.	eng
185241	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Upper bamboo and Hagenia forest, grassland in ericaceous belt, swamps and lakes and streams near glaciers.	eng
185241	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The number of collections suggests a degree of rarity.	eng
185241	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	All the mountain parks suffer from some tourism impacts. Loss of glaciers on Mt Kenya and Kilimanjaro could affect this species.	eng
185242	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	No information	eng
185242	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa. It has probably escaped from cultivation in Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape. Widely cultivated in South Africa.	eng
185242	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Usually gregarious in shallow pools or slowly flowing streams, 300 m above sea level.	eng
185242	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
185242	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	None known.	eng
185243	conservation	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2004	None	eng
185243	distribution	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2004	Namaqualand to Biedouw Valley, Roggeveld, South Africa.	eng
185243	habitat	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2004	In permanent rivers. Dependant on hawkmoths (Hyles lineata) for pollination.	eng
185243	population	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2004	Widespread and no longer to be considered a rare species. <br/><br/>Estimated number of locations: six known <br/>Overall populations decline (past): unknown<br/>Overall population decline (current): none, unlikely	eng
185243	threats	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2004	None known	eng
185244	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185244	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal,possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)	eng
185244	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Permanently wet places, usually near the sea. Perennial herb	eng
185244	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185244	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185245	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185245	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa (Gabon, Cameroon and Congo).	eng
185245	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest of forest understorey, generally found on damp places, streams, rivers and lake borders.	eng
185245	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Locally abundant species, large size population.	eng
185245	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest clearing for agriculture.	eng
185246	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185246	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, possibly Gauteng, Northern Cape)	eng
185246	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Loosely tufted plants in seasonally flooded places, 600-1250m. Perennial Hydrophyte	eng
185246	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185246	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185247	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185247	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to the Drakensberg range (Lesotho and South Africa) (RSA: possibly Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal)	eng
185247	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Wet places, streams or still water. Annual Tenagophyte	eng
185247	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185247	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185248	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	No specific conservation measures have been suggested for the Pan-Africa region.	eng
185248	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	From Cameroon to Ethiopia and around Congolian forests to Angola, Namibia and South Africa, Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In western Africa it has only been recorded from Cameroon. Its widespread outside the Eastern Africa region. Recorded from Kenya (western Kenya in Mumias (K5) and Central Kenya in Machakos (K4), rare and occurs from 1,400 to 1,700 m above sea level); Tanzania (T2, 5. Floor of Ngurdoto Crater) and Malawi (Kasungu Game Reserve, Lingadzi Dambo).	eng
185248	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	This perennial aquatic herb, grows floating in more or less permanent marshes, dependent on big rivers and lakes, in savanna as well as in light forest. It also occurs in Interstitial waters which are sometimes briefly drained.	eng
185248	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Although it is considered as rare in North-eastern Africa, it is a widespread species in the other regions.	eng
185248	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Some of the following threats might affect the species in the future but these have to be confirmed:<br/>- Plantation of water demanding tree species as Eucalyptus use to dry up this type of habitat very fast.<br/>- For dry season agriculture, in certain areas especially in towns, people use permanent marshes as water source to water their garden.	eng
185249	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None for the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise  awareness are needed.	eng
185249	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Congolian distribution, from Nigeria in the west to Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.	eng
185249	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Geophyte of swampy forest understory, riparian bushlands and sandy streamsides.	eng
185249	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185249	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.	eng
185250	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment. This plant is generally very well adapted but its habitat should be protected.	eng
185250	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species from Senegal to the Central Africa.	eng
185250	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This rhizomatous herb grows in freshwater or weakly brackish water, stagnant or slow running shallow water. Frequently in the edges of marshy forest.	eng
185250	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a gregarious species, generally forming large populations where it grows. In great planting on edges of marshy forest.	eng
185250	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasion by other species (<em>Cyperus papyrus</em> for example), and water pollution.	eng
185251	conservation	Roux, J.P., Raimondo, D. & Ebrahim, I., 2006	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Appropriate legal measures should be put in place&#160; at a National and Regional level.	eng
185251	distribution	Roux, J.P., Raimondo, D. & Ebrahim, I., 2006	Endemic to a relatively small area in the south western part of Western Cape, South Africa (Cook 2004). Darling to Stellenbosch and the Cape Flats.<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Isoetesvlei (Strauss, M. 1970) a number of collections from this site - still extant but threatened by eutrification, numbers very scarce at this site.<br/>2) Cape Town. Duthie Reserve (Boucher, C. 1974) - possibly extant<br/>3) Worcester. Farm De Mond of Hartebees River (Roux, J.P. 2003) - healthy extant,  potential threat from alien invaders <br/>4) Aerodrome, Wocester near Koelenhof (Roux, J.P. 1987) - extant<br/>5) Harmony Flats (Boucher, C. 1974) - J.P. Roux says incorrect id is <span style="font-style: italic;">I. stellenboschensis</span><br/>6) Flats near Gordon's Bay (Van Niekerk, A. 1954) - highly likely to be extinct most of this area has been urbanised just the Harmony Flats fragment remains <br/>7) Vergenoegd Estate. Lat.: 34° 01.818' S; Long.: 18° 43. 68' E. (Roux, J.P. 2002) – extant, small population in a disturbed area<br/>8) Romansrivier, Wolseley. Old geometric tortoise reserve (I. Ebrahim. 15-Sep-05) - 100-1,000 plants, extant<br/>9) Stellenbosch Flats (Duthie, A.V. 1927) - extinct.<br/>10) Platteklip (1939 - unknown collector) - likely to be the Stellenbosch area <br/>11) Cape Flats, temporary vleis (Duthie, A.V. 1927) - and numerous other collections, most temporary vleis on the Cape Flats no longer exist	eng
185251	habitat	Roux, J.P., Raimondo, D. & Ebrahim, I., 2006	Seasonally flooded depressions and in pools on granite or shale.	eng
185251	population	Roux, J.P., Raimondo, D. & Ebrahim, I., 2006	This species is restricted to a specialised habitat of seasonal vleis that are never larger than 2 ha each.  Species occupies specialised habitats (seasonal vleis) that are small, natural disjunct and further severely fragmented by intervening agricultural and urban land uses. It is a very cryptic species and other populations may exist.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >1,000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 6;   <br/>Estimated number of past subpops: >40;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 6;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  90% decline over past 50-100 years.	eng
185251	threats	Roux, J.P., Raimondo, D. & Ebrahim, I., 2006	Urbanisation is a severe threat on Cape Flats. Many populations already lost. Eutrophication - severe threat on Cape Flats especially at Isoetesvlei. Alien plants potential threat to Rawsonville and Romansriver population.	eng
185252	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is not under any conservation measures. But some populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185252	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Zambia, Kenya and Uganda. <br/><br/>It is uncommon in Eastern Africa, found between 1100-3200 m., in Kenya. It has been reported from Western Kenya (Trans-Nzoia District, Mt Elgon); Central Kenya (Embu District, Aberdare Ranges, Mt Kenya) and Central Rift Valley in Kericho District. Also recorded from Uganda (Ankole District: Bunyaruguru; Masaka District: Kabula, and Mbale District: Benet).	eng
185252	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This species form tussocks in swamps. It also grow along streams in the moorland.	eng
185252	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The exact area covered by this species is unknown.	eng
185252	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threat has been reported. But this species suitable are perhaps suspectible to wetland reclamation and forest logging to create land for cultivation.	eng
185253	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and or conservation are also required.	eng
185253	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	A widespread annual in tropical and subtropical Africa but rarely collected (Hilton-Taylor, pers.comm.2009). Known from relatively few and scattered collections in eastern Africa, extending from southern Sudan and Kenya to South Africa (Kruger National Park, Limpopo, Mpumalanga). The Kenyan specimen may be a different species (Glenm pers. comm. 2009).	eng
185253	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	On the edges of pans, pools and slow flowing streams. Foun at an altitude of 450 m. The juveniles are submerged, the adults are floating, emergent or terrestrial. Does not always appear annually and capable of accommodating great changes in water level.	eng
185253	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In Southern Africa the estimated number of locations is 6. It is rare in North Eastern Africa.	eng
185253	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None except trampling by elephants but this is probably a natural occurrence.	eng
185254	conservation	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information.	eng
185254	distribution	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa, from Noodsberg to Lusikisk. It has been recorded from KwaZulu-Nata and, Eastern Cape. Widely cultivated across the workd by carnivorous plant growers.	eng
185254	habitat	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This perennial carnivore is not a true wetland species. It often&#160; grows on wet vertical rocks, betweeen 20-1200 m above sea level, near waterfalls.	eng
185254	population	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185254	threats	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known.	eng
185255	conservation	Cholo, F., 2004	No information	eng
185255	distribution	Cholo, F., 2004	Confined to southern Mozambique, Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal (Cook 2004). Maputuland endemic.	eng
185255	habitat	Cholo, F., 2004	Altitude: up to 1100 m. Locally common in seasonally inundated pans. Mat-forming plants, in mud at eadges of pans.	eng
185255	population	Cholo, F., 2004	No information	eng
185255	threats	Cholo, F., 2004	None	eng
185256	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None at the moment. But where necessary, people should be aware on the risk of wild fire and global warming on the humanity future, the necessity of preserving the environment.	eng
185256	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	West to east African distribution, from Senegal, Burkina Faso and Sierra Leone in the west to  Kenya, Sudan, Uganda in the East, then downwards to South Africa.	eng
185256	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	A scrambling or erect herb of damp open ground, especially in montane meadow above 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
185256	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread species in open meadow	eng
185256	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Habitat loss, caused by global warming with less rain as consequence, more wild or bush fire, therefore less damp grassland. Also human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, livestock agriculture, infrastructure development).	eng
185257	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Further research on the species threats, population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185257	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Recorded from Sudan and Uganda. In Uganda it was recorded at 900 m on the Victoria Nile at the junction with Lake Albert, it has also been recorded at Lake Bisinia. However the species may be more widespread as the species has also been recorded from Malawi, in the Lower Zambezi (lower Shire river).	eng
185257	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This submerged aquatic herb grows in still fresh waters.	eng
185257	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is rare.	eng
185257	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The water hyacinth may pose a threat to this species as it is a competitor for resources.	eng
185258	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185258	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian from Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire in West Africa to CAR and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185258	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Climber of forest understory and streamsides.	eng
185258	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185258	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.	eng
185259	conservation	Riddick, R., 2007	No information available. Further information on the species range, distribution and trends is required. Threats to this species need to be identified as it could easily be under serious risk.	eng
185259	distribution	Riddick, R., 2007	Endemic to Angola (holotype from Lunda, Angola).	eng
185259	habitat	Riddick, R., 2007	Presumably aquatic as most <em>Drosera</em> species are but this needs confirmation.	eng
185259	population	Riddick, R., 2007	No information available.	eng
185259	threats	Riddick, R., 2007	Lunda province, where this species was found,&#160; has two diamond mining areas that may be affecting the local flora. However, this needs to be confirmed once the exact location for this species is know.	eng
185260	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is not under any protection measures but species found in Mt Kenya, Aberdares, Mt Elgon and Mt Kilimanjaro are protected under national parks and forest reserves laws. Those in West Pokot could be under pressure from cultivation and livestock grazing.	eng
185260	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species has been recorded in the Aberdares, Mt Kenya and in West Pokot; Mt Kadam and Mt Elgon in Uganda, and Kilimanjaro and Ngorogoro  in Tanzania.	eng
185260	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Montane grassland, moorland and bogs, and next to streams.	eng
185260	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Three populations recorded from high altitudes of Mt Kenya, Aberdare as well as areas in West Pokots. Often dominant in Aberdare. Locally common on Mt Kadam and Mt Elgon.	eng
185260	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threats have been identified.	eng
185261	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
185261	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Records from Ghana, Mali, Senegal and Nigeria. Sudano-guinean in Africa.	eng
185261	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Grassy swamps and beside streams of sudano-guinean region.	eng
185261	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185261	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Potentially impacted by agricultural development.	eng
185262	conservation	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	This species is not under any conservation measures. Aberdare is protected as a National park as well as a Forest Reserve. However, the species is rare and only found from one locality.	eng
185262	distribution	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Recorded in Mount Aberdare on the Nyeri side at 2,700 m. This species is endemic to Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo and has been recently identified from Tanzania.	eng
185262	habitat	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Clearings in upper montane forest, bamboo and giant heath.	eng
185262	population	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	In Kenya only one population is found in Aberdare Forest on the Nyeri side. Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo from Ruwenzoris. In Tanzania it has been recorded from Mt Kilimanjaro.	eng
185262	threats	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	No major threats have been reported or observed for the species. However forest destruction and degradation is the major threat to  the Aberdare Mountains, through agricultural encroachment, forest grazing of livestock and forest-fires.	eng
185263	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185263	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), from the Kundelungu Plateau.	eng
185263	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.	eng
185263	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185263	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185264	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is not under any specific conservation measures although some populations are protected within established national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185264	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is present in Ethiopia, Kenya Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo. It is widely distributed in Kenya, in Mountain Elgon between 3,400-4,100 metres above sea level. Also recorded from Aberdares and Mt Kenya. In Uganda in Mgahinga and Elgon; in Tanzania in Kilimanjaro and Udzungwa National Park.	eng
185264	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Swampy areas in upland grassland and moorland, montane forest, Hageni-Hypericum alpine belt.	eng
185264	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data available.	eng
185264	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data available.	eng
185265	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment, but it's important to study the species in order to define its habitat and population status. Where necessary, the conservation measures will consist of educating the riverside residents and to aware the environmental authorities.	eng
185265	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	From West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria) to East Africa (Uganda) through Central Africa (Cameroon, Congo and Angola).	eng
185265	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Coarse perennial herb, growing in damp shady places.	eng
185265	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, important population.	eng
185265	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened locally by alien invasions, infrastructure development, natural disasters (drought) or water pollution.	eng
185266	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	Further information on the species range, distribution and trends is required.	eng
185266	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>This species is thought to be endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185266	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This species is found in seasonal streams. It is an hemicryptophyte.	eng
185266	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185266	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the activity of extractive industries.	eng
185267	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185267	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has a Afrotropical distribution. It is widely distributed within Western Africa. It also occurs in Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda	eng
185267	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Annual green clear plant with sometimes solitary stems, more frequently grouped in a short dense tuft; root purple. It is found on flooded rice fields or recently waterlogged, more or less muddy temporary flooded soils, and around stagnant water.	eng
185267	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is believed to be common throughout its range.	eng
185267	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Agriculture and drought have been identified as threats but not considered as major.	eng
185269	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	More&#160; research in population trends and size, ecology and current threats is needed.	eng
185269	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species is endemic to Africa. Known from Mount Cameroon (Cameroon), a single mountain on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and Mount Elgon (Kenya and Uganda).	eng
185269	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Wet places and by streams in upland grassland and moors.	eng
185269	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185269	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Restricted to high altitudes where there are few human impacts. However, lava flows on Mount Cameroon could wipe out known sites if the lava flow was in the same place (Mt Cameroon erupts approximately every 20 years). The mountain on Bioko has not erupted for <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>100 years but could again in the future.	eng
185270	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	Research needed on the species distribution within Western Africa.	eng
185270	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Pantropical, soudano-zambezian distribution, scattered throughout tropical Africa, endemic to Africa. Present in Senegal, Ethiopia, Angola, Malawi and Madagascar.	eng
185270	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Perennial briefly rhizomatous growing in a loose tuft. It grows in temporary flooded soils, border of freshwater pools.	eng
185270	population	Juffe, D., 2006	This species is common.	eng
185270	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Agriculture and drought.	eng
185271	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.	eng
185271	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
185271	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185271	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Low population. This plant is known from one collection from one locality only in Cameroon and from the type collection only in Gabon.	eng
185271	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction is a potential future threat, although no imminent plans are known. Also tourism disturbance is a problem.	eng
185272	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
185272	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Recorded from Benin and Ghana.	eng
185272	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Marshy meadows.	eng
185272	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185272	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Wetlands management for agriculture is compromising species survival.	eng
185273	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place.	eng
185273	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Benin, Ghana, Senegal, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Uganda.<br/><br/>In Uganda, it occurs in Teso, Omunyal swamp at 1,100 m above sea level.	eng
185273	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This plant grows in swamps and wet savanna.	eng
185273	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185273	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Over grazing and uncontrolled burning of the wetland may pose a threat to the species.	eng
185274	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185274	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa (distributed in the Limpopo province and North West province).	eng
185274	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plants sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Annual herb	eng
185274	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185274	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185275	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions on habitat status, threats, ecology, population numbers and range are needed.	eng
185275	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Recorded from Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon and Central African Republic.	eng
185275	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	The species grows in marshy areas.<br/><br/>Scapes usually numerous, less than six inches high; leaves rather thick  and opaque, acuminate; capitula hemispherical, palid or fuscescent about  4-5 mm diam., distinctly echinatewith protruding bracts.	eng
185275	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Population trends and abundance are unknown.	eng
185275	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185276	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185276	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Confined to but not widespread in southern Africa. Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho and possibly Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)	eng
185276	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In vleis, seepage areas below dams and at the edges of pools. Perennial cyperoid	eng
185276	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185276	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185277	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available. Further research is needed to confirm the species is still found in Zambia and Angola.	eng
185277	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is</strong><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>Endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo (one known site in Haut-Katanga), and possibly in Zambia and Angola although this needs to be verified.	eng
185277	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	Occurs in marshy dambos (wet springs, usually in open country).	eng
185277	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185277	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185278	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are needed.	eng
185278	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is present in East Africa (Uganda, Tanzania), then Congo and Zanzibar and throughout Southern Africa.	eng
185278	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Rhizomatous aquatic herb, growing in swamps, dams and rivers.	eng
185278	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Quite widespread species, especially in the southern part of Africa.	eng
185278	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No current major widespread threats. Potential threats are habitat loss through human activity (Human settlement, infrastructure development etc.); water pollution, and alien invasion.	eng
185279	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas (Lusaka East Forest Reserve in Zambia).	eng
185279	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Recorded from Southern Africa in Angola, Zimbabwe, south to South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland. Presence  is uncertain within Central Africa.	eng
185279	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial hydrophyte, grows in seasonally flooded areas and along rivers, up to 1,400 m above sea level. Also in temporary/permanent ponds, dry stream beds, roadside drains, seasonally flooded areas and, marginally in shallow waters.	eng
185279	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185279	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185280	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185280	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been only recorded from Angola, Zambia, Namibia and Botswana and South African Cape Provinces.	eng
185280	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Vegetative parts totally submerged, usually in pools in floodplains.	eng
185280	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
185280	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185281	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No specific measures are in place. Protection of the two known sites is required as well as further research on population trends and actual threats.	eng
185281	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Gabon.	eng
185281	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Rapids in fast-flowing rivers.	eng
185281	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	It is known from two sites so population is presumably relatively small.	eng
185281	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	General threats to other members of the family include water pollution and dam construction.	eng
185282	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures.	eng
185282	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Only known from one seasonal pool at Thika (Kenya).	eng
185282	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Recorded in seasonal pools in rocky areas.	eng
185282	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Only two collections have been recorded from the same site: Fort Hall District in Thika, at the north side of Thika river.	eng
185282	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is highly threatened by human-related activities. The area is under fairly intense development with a new highway under construction between Nairobi and Thika. Although this site is on the other side of Thika and hence not directly threatened by the road, the increased activity in the Thika area should impact on the site (W.R.Q. Luke pers. comm. 2010). The remaining population is situated in private land, and it my be threatened by agricultural and urban development.	eng
185283	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Occurs in protected areas (Mole National Park in Ghana). Need more research on the range, abundance and threats to this species.	eng
185283	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Has a fairly restricted range and is endemic to West Africa. Known only from Burkina Faso and Ghana.	eng
185283	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Grows in savanna mostly on disturbed secondary sites, but also in marshy savanna on floodplains. It is not known if the species is used or not.	eng
185283	population	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	The species is moderately abundant.	eng
185283	threats	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Major threats to this species are: loss of habitat due to increasing droughts and increased fire frequency.	eng
185284	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185284	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is found from Senegal to north Nigeria, Chad and Sudan.	eng
185284	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Marshes and beside pools on rock outcrops	eng
185284	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Localized population	eng
185284	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Agriculture and drought may threaten population locally although they are not considered as major threat.	eng
185285	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185285	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Central to East African distribution, from Angola, Gabon and Congo to Ethiopia and down to Mozambique. In Eastern Africa It has been recorded in Tanzania (Buha District: Gombe National Park, Upper Kakombe River and Mpanda District: Kungwe-Mahali Peninsula, Lubugwe River). Also in Uganda (Toro District: Kibale Forest and West Nile District: Zoka Forest)	eng
185285	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest or riverine forest's species, forest understory or across the river.	eng
185285	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185285	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for shifting agriculture of logging.	eng
185286	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185286	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	It is endemic to the Erongo mountains in Namibia at 1,200 m.	eng
185286	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Seasonally wet depressions and near seasonal springs.	eng
185286	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185286	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known.	eng
185287	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185287	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185287	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In water in a wide variety of habitats. Perennial Hydrophyte	eng
185287	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185287	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185288	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185288	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Probably endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape, possibly Gauteng).	eng
185288	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Along the coast in wet places or in still or flowing shallow water along streams and rivers, 5-1,680m.; Perennial Helophyte.	eng
185288	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	<p>There is no data available.</p>	eng
185288	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185289	conservation	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2007	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, and law and policy actions to protect the species habitat are urgently needed.</p>	eng
185289	distribution	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2007	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa between Eendekuil to Tygerberg (Goldblatt and Manning 2000).  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) 4 km NW of Philadelphia, Schoongezicht farm (Manning 2006)<br/>2) Cape Town. Tierhoogte Farm, about 2 km west of Philadephia.<br/>3) Cape Town. Vernal pools 13 km east of Hopefield (Goldblatt 1997) also seen by CREW in 2005 population highly threatened by alien grasses and infilling of pool by farmer subpopulation expected to be extinct in the next two years. <br/>4) Clanwilliam. Duikerfontein. NW Sandveld (Van Jaarsveld 1987) - likely to be extant<br/>5) Dwars in die Weg, 1 km SE of Eendekuil.  32°45' 27" S and 18°52'32.4" E. Small population of about 100 plants (Helme 2007) / Bellville, Tygerberg, in pools. (Compton 1947) - extinct<br/>6) Piquetberg. The Pools, Piquetberg District. 17 miles NNW of Porterville (Lewis 1937) and (Compton 1937) - extinct searched for unsuccessfully by CREW volunteers and D. Raimondo in 2006<br/>7) Malmesbury District. ½ mile east of Mamre Road station, on Road between Darling and Malmesbury (Rourke 1968) - possibly extant but area highly transformed and consisting now of dense stands of acacias<br/>8) Cape Peninsula. Porterville (Schlechter 1894) - extinct<br/>9) Kalabaskraal - possibly extinct	eng
185289	habitat	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2007	Vernal  pools on shale. Juveniles submerged, adults floating, emergent or temporally terrestrial (Cook 2004). Flowering from August to September. Disseminules cypselas with hairs below and bristles above, dispersal unknown but not by wind.	eng
185289	population	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2007	Although there are still many vernal pools remaining on the Swartland most of these do not have <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aquaticus</span>. This species is obviously not able to disperse easily.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >1,000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 4;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: >10;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 4;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes > 70% in past 100 years;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes.	eng
185289	threats	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2007	Livestock grazing and trampling especially by cattle and horses has likely led to the loss of this species in many of its historic localities. Infilling of wetlands and mechanical damage by heavy machinery is considered as a severe ongoing threat. Other less severe threats are invasion by alien grasses caused by dumping of cattle  feed in dry pools during summer and eutrophication (run-off from fertilizers used on surrounding ploughed lands).	eng
185290	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Further information required on the species ecology, population and range.	eng
185290	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in tropical Africa from Ethiopia and Ghana, south to South Africa. Central African Republic, Zambia, Angola, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Botswana, South Africa and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has bee recorded from Angola, Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls and Trour river) and South Africa in Southern Africa (KwaZulu-Natal).  Only known from 1 collection in South Africa but is fairly common in Angola where there is a lot of habitat with sparse human populations and no obvious threats. <br/><br/>Reported from Central African Republic and Zambia but is likely to be very much more widespread within the region, but few collections. In Kenya, this species is only known from Mua Hills (Lolokwi) in Machakos areas at 1,950 m above sea level. Also recorded north of Malawi (Nyika National Park).	eng
185290	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Found in and around black pools of mud, forest streams and lakes, usually in swampy land, 1400-1600 m above sea level, according to J.P. Roux occurs in seepage areas and never in standing water. It is not a strict aquatic plant. It also grows in damps grassland with scattered bushes, together with various sedges, <em>Eiocaulon, Ilysanthes Aeschynomene</em>, etc.	eng
185290	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species.	eng
185290	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major widespread threats identified. The species could be potentially affected by habitat loss and degradation due to agricultural activities.	eng
185291	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185291	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	South Africa: Widespread (Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal provinces) with 13 specimens and nine unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.	eng
185291	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	According to Cook (2004), this is not aquatic or wetlands species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places. Perennial Helophyte	eng
185291	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185291	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185292	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research into the species distribution and levels of harvest.	eng
185292	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Distributed in west Africa: Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone.	eng
185292	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Colonizes wet places. The plant is recorded as a weed on rice land in Sierra Leone	eng
185292	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	In places it is locally frequent	eng
185292	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought	eng
185293	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No specific conservation measures aimed to the species have been proposed.	eng
185293	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species has been recorded from Southern Africa in Zambia and Angola south to Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Also from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185293	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Annual aquatic herb, sometime perennial, floating in temporary marshes where rainwater is collected, in areas of  meridional dry forest sides, almost in the steppe region. Also in temporary pools particularly in the flood plains of rivers.	eng
185293	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Medium to wide population, despite a wide extent of occurrence.	eng
185293	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185294	conservation	Mahamane, A., 2005	None known	eng
185294	distribution	Mahamane, A., 2005	Western tropical Africa, Senegal (lower part of Casamance), Sierra Leone (Rokupr) and Guinea (Koba and Kabak).	eng
185294	habitat	Mahamane, A., 2005	This plants grows in flooded rice fields by freshwater or marshes recently waterlogged.	eng
185294	population	Mahamane, A., 2005	The species is moderately abundant throughout its range.	eng
185294	threats	Mahamane, A., 2005	Unknown	eng
185295	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness, education and further research on the population numbers and threats, have been suggested.	eng
185295	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species is widespread from West Africa to Central Africa down to Angola.	eng
185295	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Small aquatic herb, annual, submerged in rapids and waterfall, but can also be found into rocky streams during the rainy season.  The plant grows fixed by thallus on rocks.	eng
185295	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Quite well represented species, good population despite low Area of Occupancy (AOO) due to habitat specialization.	eng
185295	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought. Also dam construction and tourism.	eng
185296	conservation	Sieben, E., Raimondo, D., Matlamela P.F. & Cupido, C., 2007	No information.	eng
185296	distribution	Sieben, E., Raimondo, D., Matlamela P.F. & Cupido, C., 2007	South Africa: distributed in the SW, SE, NW (Bokkeveld mountains to Port Elizabeth).	eng
185296	habitat	Sieben, E., Raimondo, D., Matlamela P.F. & Cupido, C., 2007	Marshy flats and slopes (Goldblatt and Manning 2000).	eng
185296	population	Sieben, E., Raimondo, D., Matlamela P.F. & Cupido, C., 2007	No information.	eng
185296	threats	Sieben, E., Raimondo, D., Matlamela P.F. & Cupido, C., 2007	No information.	eng
185297	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Research actions on threats, habitat status, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185297	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Recorded from Senegal, Gambia, Mali and Sierra Leone. This species seems to be endemic to the west of Western Africa.	eng
185297	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Temporary pools in lateritic outcrops.	eng
185297	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	No information available.	eng
185297	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185298	conservation	Juffe, D., 2005	None known	eng
185298	distribution	Juffe, D., 2005	Tropical African species extending south to Botswana. Widespread in western  Africa.	eng
185298	habitat	Juffe, D., 2005	This annual plant grows in tufts in shallow waters such as  seasonal or permanent pools, along the marshy banks of pools, and in swamps.	eng
185298	population	Juffe, D., 2005	It is common throughout its range.	eng
185298	threats	Juffe, D., 2005	Main threat to this species is Agriculture. In western Africa, damming in the Okavango region could become a threat and this may affect its regional status.	eng
185299	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed.	eng
185299	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Endemic to Cameroon, in a small area going from the Lobe waterfalls down to Campo only. The area of occupancy is small and the species is only known from three collections from two localities.	eng
185299	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185299	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Population presumably low.	eng
185299	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction is a potential threat, but tourism is a current threat. The Lobe waterfall where this plant has been collected, as well as many other Podostemaceae species, is very attractive to tourists so unregulated trampling is a serious problem.	eng
185301	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. More research on its actual geographic range is needed.<br/></p>	eng
185301	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Mostly west African species, but extends through Central Africa (Angola, Congo) to East Africa.  The plant probably exists in Cameroon.  It has also been recorded in Kenya (Kilifi District and Kwale District) and Tanzania (Tanga District and Uzaramo District) but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
185301	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Mostly terrestrial shrub, but found at the water sources.	eng
185301	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185301	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution of all kinds and forest clearing for shifting agriculture.	eng
185302	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185302	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from DRC where, although it is a small and apparently rather inconspicuous annual, there are a fair number of collections (more than 10) (M. Lock pers. comm.).	eng
185302	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	A small and apparently rather inconspicuous annual; a distinctive taxon.	eng
185302	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185302	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185304	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and further research on the habitat status, biology and ecology of the species , have been suggested.	eng
185304	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	Ony present from western  to Central Africa, from Côte d'Ivoire to Nigeria, then in Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185304	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	This species is a stout perennial that grows in swampy places in forest and savanna.	eng
185304	population	Juffe, D., 2009	No information available about the population of this species, except that as a herbaceous species, its population is expected to be locally abundant.	eng
185304	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	Major threats will depend on water quality and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and water availability can be affected by drought or pumping for irrigation.	eng
185305	conservation	Raimondo, D., E. Sieben & J. Day, 2007	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Also, legal measures at a National and Regional level  should be put in place. More research is needed on its distribution and population trends.	eng
185305	distribution	Raimondo, D., E. Sieben & J. Day, 2007	This species is endemic to Lambert's Bay to Stilbaai, Western Cape, South Africa (Goldblatt and Manning 2000)<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Cape Town, Milnerton, Rietvlei (I E.L. St 1930) - likely to be extinct / Cape Peninsula, Milnerton, Rietvlei (A.A.Mauv)<br/>2) Cape Peninsula, Varsche Vley, pools in vley - extinct<br/>3) Cape Peninsula, Kommetjie, Kommetjie effluence (A.H.Wolley-Dod) - extinct<br/>4) Cape Peninsula Dist. Noordhoek, in vlei (A.A.Mauve R.H.Simons) / Clanwilliam Dist. Lamberts Bay, Lange Vlei (H.R.Tolken 1963) - not likely to be the correct ID this is a Cape Peninsula endemic.	eng
185305	habitat	Raimondo, D., E. Sieben & J. Day, 2007	Totally submerged in brackish pools by the sea. Annual (occasional perennial) herb	eng
185305	population	Raimondo, D., E. Sieben & J. Day, 2007	Decline from at least four locations in past to two at present.	eng
185305	threats	Raimondo, D., E. Sieben & J. Day, 2007	Eutrophication of wetlands as a result of human habitation in surrounding areas. Both of the potentially remaining wetlands at Noordhoek and Rietvlei have experienced much development over the past 20 years.  Alien plant invasions threatened both of the potentially remaining sites.	eng
185306	conservation	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	No conservation measures are in place. The species has been recorded as VU in Namibia (Golding 2002).	eng
185306	distribution	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185306	habitat	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Perennial Geophyte. In seasonally flooded pans, particularly in mopane woodland.	eng
185306	population	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Estimated total population size: one in Namibia.	eng
185306	threats	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	None known.	eng
185307	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions on population numbers and range, ecology and threats needed.	eng
185307	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	This species is only found in Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
185307	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Thallus with slender stem, to 15 cm long, naked or with scattered forming compact rosettes, occasionally loose and elongate. Its ecology is barely known.	eng
185307	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	<p>Population patterns for this species are unknown.</p>	eng
185307	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185309	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.	eng
185309	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Central African countries (Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Central Africa Republic, Angola).	eng
185309	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185309	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Although very gregarious plant where it grows, its specialization into very narrow habitat (waterfall) tends to make of it a low abundant plant. Known from four to five sites in Cameroon (three in Flora of Cameroon; plus Tello and possibly Vina: J.-P. Gogue pers. comm. 2008).	eng
185309	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction, but also tourism. The waterfalls are generally appreciated for tourism and excursions.	eng
185310	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and the various threats.	eng
185310	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon. The plant is known from two localities, one in the Littoral province Bakaka  (near Nkong'samba) and the other one in the South-west (near Mamfe).	eng
185310	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb, growing on rocks in flooded rivers.	eng
185310	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species has a low population and restricted area of occupancy.	eng
185310	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, temperatures extremes and sudden drought have been identified as main threats.	eng
185311	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185311	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a species is found from Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania through to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi down to Southern Africa.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Kenya (common and widspread from 1400-2700 m), it has been recorded from Cherangani hills in Elgeyo District, in Naivasha District and at Mt. Kenya in Embu District. In tanzania it has been met at Usambara mts. In Lushoto District, at Mbisi forest in Ufipa District and at Iheme in Iringa District. In Burundi, the species is known only in the high land rain forest area at Ryarusera marsh, Ijenda marshes, Mt Campazi, Rwegura peatbog and at Muyange marsh in the province of Bururi.<br/><br/>Central Africa: Occurs in Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi in the assessment region. It is also known from 2 sites in Cameroon.<br/><br/>In North Eastern Africa it has been recorded from Sudan (Imatong Mountains), Ethiopia (Abbassynia Chire), Somalia and Eritrea. Somalia distribution is uncertain.	eng
185311	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial herb grows in very wet swamps, along stream and river banks or growing in shallow water,  beside streams, pools or lakes. Also found in wet montane grassland.	eng
185311	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Common species.	eng
185311	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespreading threats.	eng
185312	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None.	eng
185312	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Benin, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>It occurs at 1,160 m above sea level. Recorded from Masaka and in West Nile in Uganda.  In Eastern Africa, it has also been recorded from Kenya, in Kitale area between 1,800-1,900 m above sea level	eng
185312	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	In swamps or on organic soil at lake edges.	eng
185312	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No Data available.	eng
185312	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Cultivation in wetlands and uncontrolled fires have been identified as threats but are not considered major.	eng
185313	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185313	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species occurs in Southern Africa, Eastern Africa and Ethiopia. <br/><br/><em>M. farinosa farinosa</em> is found in Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa (possibly North West, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal). <em>M farinosa arrecta </em> occurs in southern Botswana and northern South Africa (Cook 2004) (Limpopo and North West Provinces), Lesotho and Swaziland. Known localities: 1) South Africa, 40 km south of Grobbelar's drift on Potgietersrus road (Burrows, J. 1985) - Type locality 2) Gaborone Dist. Content Farm (1972) 3) 3 miles north of Gaborone (1974)<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is found Kenya where the species is known from two localities in Lukenya-Donyo Sabuk area (Machakos) in a seasonal water hole and a seasonal stream.	eng
185313	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial herb occurs in seasonally flooded places and along rivers and streams. Also in dry sandy river beds, in dried-out valleys, dried mud pans, on moist banks of dry river beds, usually forming large mats.	eng
185313	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Rare in North-eastern Africa. No more information is available.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa only two populations have been recorded. The area they cover is not known.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa, <em>M farinosa arrecta</em>  has been recorded in aproximately 5 locations.	eng
185313	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species and subspecies are situated in places with intense human and livestock activities. Many sites are also privately or communaly owned.  At a Pan Africa level the species faces no major widespread threats.	eng
185314	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	None at the moment. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved  communication to raise  awareness are needed. Research is need to confirm actual number of locations and population trends.	eng
185314	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Central African distribution (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia).	eng
185314	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Aquatic plant of swamps, <span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphaea </span>ponds and clayish dembo up to 1,850 m above sea level.	eng
185314	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Only three locations in the Democratic Republic of Congo. If the tendency is the same in Angola and Zambia, then the population size should be small.	eng
185314	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution and invasion by alien species.	eng
185315	conservation	Brett, H., 2008	No information available.	eng
185315	distribution	Brett, H., 2008	This species is only found in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (Aluka 2008).	eng
185315	habitat	Brett, H., 2008	In permanent lake with about 15 cm mud; found at 5.4 m depth with fertile leaves 30-45 cm high and in 0.6 m water with fertile leaves 15-20 cm high.	eng
185315	population	Brett, H., 2008	No information available.	eng
185315	threats	Brett, H., 2008	No information available.	eng
185316	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185316	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa (RSA: North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)	eng
185316	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Wet swampy places, tolerates periodic flooding, 350-3500m. Perennial helophyte	eng
185316	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185316	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185317	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185317	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Gabon and Angola (Mayombe).	eng
185317	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest shrub, found in shady situations along rivulets on the river.	eng
185317	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	The population is estimated to be small.	eng
185317	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution is a major threat associated with the survival of this plant.	eng
185318	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
185318	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Recorded from Senegal to Liberia.	eng
185318	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Edges of water particularly in the Gambia River.	eng
185318	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185318	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Wetland destruction for agriculture has been identified as major threat.	eng
185319	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is found in Ruwenzori National Park which is a World Heritage Site declared in 1995.	eng
185319	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is endemic to Uganda (Ruwenzori). It is found between 3,200 m and 3,850 m asl. This genus has only two more species in East Africa which are confined to western Uganda where the genus is known to have its northern limit.	eng
185319	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Found in mountain bogs along streams and on wet rocks.	eng
185319	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is believed to be rare (Haines and Lye 1983) but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
185319	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Rebel insurgence in the 1990s hence lawlessness in the Park may have resulted in changes in its population. Unhappy local communities about the loss of traditional rights to harvest resources from the National Park, and to freely use the footpaths.	eng
185320	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185320	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon).	eng
185320	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Understory of forests crossed by waterstreams.	eng
185320	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) includes two countries (Cameroon and Gabon) and it has medium size population.	eng
185320	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest clearing for agriculture and logging.	eng
185321	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185321	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Only known from Democratic Republic of Congo. It is an annual so it may have been possibly overlooked.	eng
185321	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	Anual aquatic plant.	eng
185321	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185321	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185322	conservation	Victor, J.E., 2005	Existing conservation: The species is found in the Oribi Gorge, Mpenjati, Vernon Crookes, Umtamvuna, Mkambati Game Reserve.	eng
185322	distribution	Victor, J.E., 2005	South African endemic: W and E Cape and southern KwaZulu-Natal. Uvongo southwards and from two localities near Dumisa. Disjunct in that it does not occur between Port St John's and Howiesons Poort (near Grahamstown), but it is common in the Western Cape.	eng
185322	habitat	Victor, J.E., 2005	Marshy coastal areas. An aquatic or semi-aquatic plant growing in and along rivers, mostly near the coast. Alt. up to 830 m. It sometimes grows so densely that it chokes rivers.	eng
185322	population	Victor, J.E., 2005	Estimated number of locations: > 10;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: >> 10;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes.   <br/>Range in Natal decreased by 60% (Hilton-Taylor (pers.com))	eng
185322	threats	Victor, J.E., 2005	Degradation of rivers due to diminishing water quality and quantity. Siltation and transformation of coastal vleis.	eng
185323	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
185323	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Present in South Tropical Africa to Namibia. Found in the northern part of South western Africa. Recorded from Angola, Zambia Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana, where it is frequent in the Okavango, Chobe, Zambesi and Quito Rivers and their tributaries. Also found in Democratic Republic of Congo in Luapula River.	eng
185323	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Vegetative parts totally submerged, grows at depths of up to 4m, in lakes, dams and ditches.	eng
185323	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information	eng
185323	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185324	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185324	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa (Western Cape)	eng
185324	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Usually in flowing water, emergent or submerged, sometimes under waterfalls. Perennial Emergent hydrophyte.	eng
185324	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185324	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185325	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but the authorities of the ministry of environment should be informed of the presence of this narrow endemic species in this site, who will inform the authorities of the dam and convince them to take protection measure during the construction of the dam. If possible, this plant can be reintroduced somewhere else.	eng
185325	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Endemic to Cameroon, where it is known from a single site (The Nachtigal waterfalls).	eng
185325	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing on rocks in waterfalls.	eng
185325	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Rather rare species, population very low.	eng
185325	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	A dam construction is planned at the exact site of this species (The Nachtigal waterfalls) in the near future. This plant is known only from this site.	eng
185326	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Occurs in protected areas (e.g., the transfrontier park Niokolo-Badiar). Research is required on population numbers and range and the threats.	eng
185326	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	A West African endemic, known only from Ghana, Guinea (Fouta Djalon mountains) and Sierra Leone. From current records known only from three separate localities. Possibly, it also occurs in Burkina Faso and maybe in Côte d'Ivoire.	eng
185326	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Marshy grass savanna subject to flooding. Not known if it is harvested for use.	eng
185326	population	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	The species is not common and appears to be scarce.	eng
185326	threats	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Increasing frequency of fires and periodic droughts are the main threats.	eng
185327	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185327	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185327	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	It is found on rocky river borders.	eng
185327	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	It is known from one locality only. Small size population.	eng
185327	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution has been described as an important threat. Also, there is a high mining activity in the Haut-Katanga region, where this plant is found.	eng
185328	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185328	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Lesotho and South Africa (RSA: possibly Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004:7 )	eng
185328	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In permanent water and along the banks of small, slow-flowing rivers. (Cook 2004:7 )<br/>Growing in areas with permanent standing water or along bank of slow flowing rivulets. (Tolken 1985). Alt. 50-3000m. Perennial (occ. annual) Hydrophyte.	eng
185328	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185328	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185329	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment. Formal education and habitat restoration and maintenance are needed.	eng
185329	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	West and Central African species, from Ghana in the west to Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185329	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Herb of generally shady and wet places. It can be found at the stream borders.	eng
185329	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It is a widespread species with large sized population.	eng
185329	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution.	eng
185330	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185330	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to South Africa where it is widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185330	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Annual herb. Freshwater swamp and aquatic veges.	eng
185330	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185330	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185331	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185331	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Perhaps endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185331	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	In water in pans and along rivers. Perennial Helophyte.	eng
185331	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	&#160;No information available.	eng
185331	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known.	eng
185333	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185333	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Restricted to the Kavango, Chobe and Upper Zambezi rivers in Angola, Namibia, Zambia and Botswana. Recent collections only from the Caprivi area. Probably undercollected because this is an inconspicuous aquatic.	eng
185333	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Aquatic on river edges.	eng
185333	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185333	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known.	eng
185335	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185335	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185335	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Along water courses and in moist and frequently flooded land, 610-2150m. Perennial herb	eng
185335	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185335	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185336	conservation	L. Agenbag & C.R. Scott-Shaw, 2007	The situation is quite dramatically different within the Sehlabathebe Nature Reserve, the type locality of this species, where the vegetation was observed to be in good condition (Zonneveld 1998) and where there are no serious threats at present (C.R. Scott-Shaw pers. comm.)<br/><br/>The only known South African locality is also well protected within the Ukahlamba Drakensberg National Park, and there are no known serious threats to this site.	eng
185336	distribution	L. Agenbag & C.R. Scott-Shaw, 2007	According to a number of sources (Zonneveld 1998, Scott-Shaw 1999, Carbutt and Edwards 2003, Pooley 2003) this species is known only from a small area (about 10 km across) in the Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho, and the bordering areas near Tarn Cave at the top of Bushman's Nek Pass, on the KwaZulu-Natal - Lesotho border. However, an other source (Meakins and Duckett 1993) also reports sightings of this species at the headwaters of the Bokong River in the Maloti Mountains, central Lesotho, where the habitat is severely threatened.<br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Lesotho Sehlabathebe Nature Reserve. 2 52’ S, 2 07’ E. Altitude 8500 ft. Deep pools on sandstone base (Jacot-Guillarmod, A.M.F.G. 15-12-1971) - Type<br/>2) Lesotho Sehlabathebe National Park (Schmitz, M.O. 0-12-1976)<br/>3) KwaZulu-Natal, Underberg district, Bushman’s Nek, vicinity of Tarn Cave above Bushman’s Nek in pools (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 21-11-1983)<br/>4) Lesotho, headwaters of Bokong River (Meakins and Duckett 1993).	eng
185336	habitat	L. Agenbag & C.R. Scott-Shaw, 2007	Rock pools, permanently wet tarns and high altitude mires, 2,400-3,300m. Basalt and Clarens sandstone. Confined to pools up to 7 m deep in Cave Sandstone [Clarens] formation at about 2,600 m altitude’ (Jacot Guillarmod and Marais 1972). High habitat specificity.	eng
185336	population	L. Agenbag & C.R. Scott-Shaw, 2007	This species occurs in two adjoining nature reserves, where it is only potentially threatened. However these reserves are likely to have different management practises as one is in South Africa and the other in Lesotho, and therefore they should be considered separate locations. This species is known from at least one locality in Lesotho outside of protected areas, but there may possibly be others as well. These should all be considered one location as all land in Lesotho outside of protected areas are severely impacted by overgrazing, trampling, overburning and subsistence farming.<br/><br/>Estimated number of locations: 1 in SA; ± 3 in Lesotho;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): 33% of the habitat has been degraded in Lesotho, stable in SA;  <br/>Time frame of decline (past): 60 years;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): continuing in Lesotho, stable in SA;  Ongoing;  Decline understood? Yes	eng
185336	threats	L. Agenbag & C.R. Scott-Shaw, 2007	Lesotho mires are very fragile ecosystems and extremely sensitive to grazing and trampling, as well as burning (Mucina and Rutherford 2006). Across Lesotho communally owned land is severely degraded due to overgrazing, trampling, overburning, erosion and subsistence farming, even in quite remote places such as the headwaters of the Bokong River in the Maloti Mountains where direct impacts of mire degradation on subpopulations of this species have been observed (Meakins and Duckett 1993).	eng
185338	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Occurs in protected areas. No further measures necessary.	eng
185338	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread in western Africa. Introduced to North America.	eng
185338	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Grows in permanent shallow water (1-2 m deep), in swamps, lakes, and dams. Always in still water.	eng
185338	population	Diop, F.N. & Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
185338	threats	Diop, F.N. & Ali, M.M., 2009	The increasing occurrence of drought, sedimentation and invasive species are the main threats.	eng
185339	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is not under any conservation or protection measures. More research is needed on population trends,habitat status, ecology and species' distribution. A site visit to check the species is still present is needed urgently.	eng
185339	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is very rare in Kenya and has only been recorded from Machakos District at 1,650 m. It is endemic to Kenya and occupies a very narrow range.	eng
185339	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	It grows at the edge of a seasonal pools in salt-marshes.	eng
185339	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Only one population and its size is unknown.	eng
185339	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is found in one site which is susceptible to road construction, livestock grazing and agricultural activities. This area (65 km from Nairobi) is now undergoing subdivision into smallholder plots.	eng
185340	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2005	It probably occurs in a protected area in the south of Senegal. However, better information on the range and abundance of this species is needed.	eng
185340	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2005	This species is endemic to the environs of Fouta Djalon, Senegal. Should be looked for in Gambia and Guinea. Possibly&#160; found from 200 m to over 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
185340	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2005	It only occurs on laterite pools (hard pans), edge of temporary water.	eng
185340	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2005	The species is not very abundant.	eng
185340	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2005	Increasing frequency of drought is the main threat to this species.	eng
185341	conservation	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
185341	distribution	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Endemic to Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal)	eng
185341	habitat	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Seasonally flooded areas, river beds and pans. Perennial Herb	eng
185341	population	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
185341	threats	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	None known	eng
185342	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185342	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to W Cape, from Vanrhyns Pass through the Cederberg to the Hex River Mountains. (Cook 2004: 78) There is a PRECIS record in Lesotho, but this is presumed an incorrect identification. This species occurs in mountainous areas and has many collections. (> 20 locations)	eng
185342	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	In shallow water in flat rock pools and flooded depressions on sandstone, 860-2000m and can survive under ice.(Cook 2004. 78). Usually growing in rock pools in Table Mountain sandstone. (Tolken. 1985. FSA 14:102); Annual Lithophyte	eng
185342	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185342	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185343	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More research is needed on distribution, threats, biology and ecology and habitat status. The species is in found in protected areas.	eng
185343	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Only recorded from Kenya. It has been recorded at Meru District in the Meru National Park, Joshua Lugga (1979) in the Northern Frontier District in Wamba (1958) and the Samburu-Isiolo Game Reserve (1974).	eng
185343	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Perennial herb of damp places.	eng
185343	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185343	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185344	conservation	L. Agenbag, 2007	Most known localities in South Africa are well protected within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park.	eng
185344	distribution	L. Agenbag, 2007	Along the eastern coast of Africa from Mozambique to northern E Cape and KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) (Cook 2004:130). EOO in South Africa (based on herbarium collections) is 7000-8000 km2, range in Mozambique not specified in Cook (2004), and therefore total EOO could not be calculated.	eng
185344	habitat	L. Agenbag, 2007	Marshland particularly along the coast, 1-120m.; Annual Tenagophyte	eng
185344	population	L. Agenbag, 2007	10 known localities in South Africa, but probably undercollected in areas between Durban and St Lucia, as well as between Durban and Port Edward and into the Eastern Cape Wild Coast. Unknown range and number of localities in Mozambique.	eng
185344	threats	L. Agenbag, 2007	Threatened by habitat loss due to forestry plantations and subsistence farming to subpopulations outside of the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park in northern KwaZulu-Natal, and urbanization around Durban. Threats in Mozambique not known.	eng
185345	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185345	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Central Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Angola).	eng
185345	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Herb growing into the mud, at the marshland borders.	eng
185345	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Rare species, small population.	eng
185345	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution is a major threat to this species.	eng
185346	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and so on.	eng
185346	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Central African distribution. Found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo&#160; (DRC), and Angola.	eng
185346	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Submerged freshwater plant, living attached to rocks' surface or any hard materials in rapids.	eng
185346	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Rather rare species. Only one or two subpopulations of less than 100 m<sup>2</sup> each in Cameroon. Some populations of the same size are mentioned in DRC and Angola. The population is severely fragmented.	eng
185346	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction has been identified as a major threat.	eng
185347	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185347	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: Northern Cape, Western Cape)	eng
185347	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Annual Helophyte. Marshes	eng
185347	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185347	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185348	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185348	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185348	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Perennial helophyte. Found in marsh habaitats.	eng
185348	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185348	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185349	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185349	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to Angola but as it grows in the River Cunene system it may be found in Namibia. (Cook 2004).	eng
185349	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Vegetative parts totally submerged, found in pans, dams and streams.	eng
185349	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185349	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic in Angola. Probably few threats as the area is sparsely inhabited.	eng
185350	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2006	None known	eng
185350	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2006	Widespread in western Africa (Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ivoiry Coast, Nigeria, Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Niger)	eng
185350	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2006	A rheophyte, found on rocks in rapids. It forms sometimes dense tufts in the rocks of waterfall or on the border of rivers.	eng
185350	population	Diop, F.N., 2006	<p>This plant is abundant throughout its range.</p>	eng
185350	threats	Diop, F.N., 2006	Potentially impacted by drought	eng
185351	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185351	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Gabon, Cameroon, Congo).	eng
185351	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Terrestrial herb of shady path in secondary forest and lake's border.	eng
185351	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No formal information about the population, but the extent of occurrence includes three countries. The plant is locally abundant, then the population can be estimated to be of large size.	eng
185351	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture are potential threats.	eng
185352	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No information	eng
185352	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa. In easternern Africa it is found in uplands and northern parts of Kenya between 800-2,200 m above sea level.	eng
185352	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	This perennial helophyte may be found in seasonally damp or wet places.	eng
185352	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Population is not suspected to be declining.	eng
185352	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	No major threats have been identified.	eng
185353	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185353	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Togo in West Africa to Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo in  Central Africa.	eng
185353	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Damp meadows at the border of temporarily flooded basin.	eng
185353	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185353	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution.	eng
185354	conservation	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Legal measures should be put in place at a National and Regional level. Restoration of sites for increasing species suitable habitat is highly recommended.	eng
185354	distribution	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	The species is endemic to Stellenbosch. Platklip seems to be the only remaining locality for the for this taxon. According to the ISEP file it had previously occurred on the Stellenbosch flats as well, but a university building has now been built on the site.	eng
185354	habitat	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Vernal pools on granite.	eng
185354	population	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Estimated number of locations: 1;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: 2 (but > 3 generations ago);   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 2;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing	eng
185354	threats	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	The granite outcrop here was blasted in the late 60s early 70s. The blasting was stopped but the major threat here is that local care takers will use the rockery for horticulture because it is very close to their offices. A sewerage farm site, municipal buildings is very close to remaining population. Alien plants threatened the second population just S of quartintine area, causing continuing decline as the site itself is very disturbed. Scattered garden plants have been noted amongst the populations of Isoetes in the Platkip sewerage farm (ISEP 1974).	eng
185355	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185355	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa (RSA: Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185355	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Seasonally submerged in temporary pools and vleis. Perennial geophyte	eng
185355	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185355	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known.	eng
185356	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is not under any conservation measures but the Langata record may stretch into Nairobi National Park. No other collection sites have any protection.	eng
185356	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is locally abundant in the central parts of Kenya from 1,500-2,500 m (Lari). It has been collected in the Naivasha District,&#160; Kiambu District (Lari near Uplands in 1976, Kahurananga and  Kibui); Nairobi (Eastleigh, 1971, Mwangangi and Mukenya). Several sites have been reported around Nbi - Langata, Msongari, French Mission, Mbagathi R. and Nyeri and Meru.<br/><br/>Present in Uganda in Lake Kyoga, but has either disappeared or this record was an error as it is no longer found there.	eng
185356	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Found in swamp sites along streams and marshy grassland characterised by black cotton soils.	eng
185356	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	It would appear to be locally common but the main area of collection, Nbi Distr, is under intense development and few of the sites remain.	eng
185356	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Observation shows that swamps along rivers are today being reclaimed and converted to agricultural lands. Severe land conversion around Nairobi and Naivasha has also been noted.	eng
185357	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions needed to discern its real distribution and impact of threats.	eng
185357	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Records from Senegal, Gambia, Nigeria, Burkina Faso (it was collected in two small stone ponds in Burkina Faso, in the centre and west of the country). But according to Airy Shaw <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1968) the species is found from Senegal to the Central African Republic.	eng
185357	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Genus of two species. On mud beside pools.	eng
185357	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185357	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.	eng
185358	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
185358	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species occurs in west central and east Tropical Africa. Recorded from Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Zambia.	eng
185358	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species occurs in <em>Miscanthidium</em> swamps with <em>Sphagnum</em>. Its very slender stems are supported by the larger grass stems.	eng
185358	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Very rare or perhaps overlooked (Lye 1983).	eng
185358	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Important threats identified are expanding tourism development, burning of swamps, and cultivation in wetlands.	eng
185359	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185359	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	Extending from Nigeria to Cameroon in west Africa, to Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola and Zambia.	eng
185359	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	Slender tufted annual growing in boggy ground.	eng
185359	population	Juffe, D., 2009	The population is expected to be locally abundant.	eng
185359	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	No widespread major threats known. The species is thought to be locally impacted by poor water quality and availability (drought or irrigation).	eng
185360	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of riverine populations and stakeholders. Measures should be taken during the construction of the dam to protect this species.	eng
185360	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Endemic to Cameroon and Gabon. Small area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO).	eng
185360	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in fast water of waterfalls and rapids.	eng
185360	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Generally gregarious species.	eng
185360	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The major threat to this species&#160; in Cameroon is the dam construction planned in the only site locality of this species: The Ntem Waterfall at Menve'ele near Nyabizan, 60 km east of Campo.	eng
185361	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed.	eng
185361	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species occrus in the drier northern part of western Africa from Senegal to N Nigeria, and E Cameroon, Sudan and further south east to Kenya. In Kenya one collection has been made in Kenya and Uganda border. In Uganda, recorded from Karamoja (Kotido), a semi arid area with communities with nomadic mode of living.	eng
185361	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	An aquatic plant with yelowwish flowers, floating leaves growing stagnant, shallow and sometimes temporary freshwater pools..	eng
185361	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Colonies are dispersed, it is rare in North Eastern Africa.	eng
185361	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In addition to the subsistence use of the tuber by locals as food; the species s of limited dispersal and restricted range. Not considered as majro threats.	eng
185362	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Research is urgently needed on the status and threats to this  species, as it could easily be threatened. Protection of the habitat through education and awareness of policy makers and local populations is needed.	eng
185362	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Nymphoides tenuissima</span> is restricted to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia only.	eng
185362	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb, floating in small temporary marshes, not deep (25-30 cm), on laterite or on rocks	eng
185362	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Presumably narrow population.	eng
185362	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The plant depends on a non-permanent habitat and therefore will be easily threatened by inappropriate land management and infrastructure development and drought.	eng
185363	conservation	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185363	distribution	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	Eastern part of southern Africa. South Africa and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).	eng
185363	habitat	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	Along river banks and around vleis, often spreading out over the water surface, 200-1600m. Perennial graminoid	eng
185363	population	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185363	threats	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185364	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185364	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from Zambia, Congo-Kinshasa (DRC) and Angola.	eng
185364	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	A bulbous-based species of open grasslands (doubtfully aquatic) which is rarely collected, perhaps because it flowers early in the wet season. It is may be an hemicryptophyte or geophyte.	eng
185364	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185364	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185365	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	None at the moment. But in need, research action to know better about the population numbers and range, the habitat status and the potential threats faced by this plant, then where possible, communication and education of the surrounding population about the potential freshwater plants' threats (pollution etc.).	eng
185365	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Present in Southern Africa: Zambia and Zimbabwe, south to Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape)<br/><br/>In Central Africa it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185365	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Locally abundant in shallow water, in pools, swamps, flood plains, seasonally inundated grasslands or on the muddy banks of rivers or ponds, 3300m. This perennial herb it is frequent in places where the water is shallow, often by less than 15 cm of water depth and more rarely can groe totally submerged.	eng
185365	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	<em>A. junceus</em> has been collected in one locality only in DRC, but this seems to be due to the fact that the species tends to be rather southern African's where it occupies at least 5 countries. Its Area of Occupancy (AOO) in these countries in not fixed, but it can be estimated that the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) is high enough to justify a high population.	eng
185365	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that most of the species of the genus Aponogeton have edible tubers, leaves and inflorescences (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is not explicitly clear for this species, but in any case, this is a lethal removal from the wild and if not controlled can affect the population and later on the survival of this species.	eng
185366	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although taxonomy, biology and ecology are in place, information on threats, population numbers and range are needed.	eng
185366	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Only recorded from Kenya and Ethiopia.<br/><br/>In Kenya it is found in Northern Frontier and Tana Districts and in Ethiopia it has been recorded in Gondaraba.	eng
185366	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	The species grows in damp places.	eng
185366	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Rare species, no additional information.	eng
185366	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Unknown.	eng
185367	conservation	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information	eng
185367	distribution	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Endemic to Gifberg and Cedarberg mountain ranges, Northern and Western Cape.<br/><br/>Localities:<br/>1) Gifberg, many temporary standing pools or rock flushes on the Gifberg have the plant, this is all one subpopulation (J.P. Roux) <br/>2) Pakhuis Pass, possibly more common on the Cedarberg. J.P Roux recently found additional sub populations of this species in the Cedarberg extending the range listed in Cook.  <br/>3) 22 km SE of Vanrhynsdorp, 1.0km south of Oubergpad, Gifberg road. 2001	eng
185367	habitat	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Submerged in a temporary pond, 565m, on rocks	eng
185367	population	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Estimated number of locations: >10;   <br/>Three known but probably many more, very cryptic undercollected species (J.P. Roux pers. comm. 2006).	eng
185367	threats	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No known threats - plants occur on rocky areas.	eng
185368	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185368	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Coastal easternern Cape (Wild Coast) and KwaZulu-Natal as far north as Maputaland. Aslo recorded in Zambia, Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185368	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	This perennial Cyperoid grows in lowland coastal swamps, in grassland or on the edges of swamp forest.	eng
185368	population	Juffe, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185368	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	None known.	eng
185369	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185369	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Confined to SE and S Africa from Zambia and Zimbabwe south to South Africa, Namibia, Botswana (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape).	eng
185369	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	In permanently wet or seasonally flooded areas such as vleis, river banks and marshes, 520-1520m. Perennial herb.	eng
185369	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185369	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185370	conservation	Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Habitat protection and management of the existing sites is required. The species would benefit from some kind of legal protection.	eng
185370	distribution	Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	This species is known from Darling to Agulhas, South Africa (Strelitzia 2000). The population is severely fragmented.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>Cape Province:<br/>1) Vredenburg. Southern edge of Paternoster, near Lizaseklip. Alt: 10 m. Common in damp sands near coast. (Helme, N.A. 2-7-2005)<br/>2) Riet Valley (Pole Evans, I.B.12-12-1920)<br/>3) Milnerton, Rugby (Tolken, H.R.  20-11-1963)<br/><br/>Western Cape:<br/>4) Zuur Fontein (Schlechter, F.R.R. 17-8-1896)<br/>5) Albertinia, Albertinia Commonage (Muir, J. 0-10-1913)<br/>6) Cape dist. Green point (Alexander-Prior, R.C. 0-8-1846)<br/>7) Riviersonderend Vill, Verdwaalkloof, 2 miles E of Riviersonderend (Taylor, H.C. 22-8-1962)<br/>8) Caledon Dist. Riviersonderend 2 miles E of Riviersonderend in river flats (Acocks, J.P.H.  22-8-1962)<br/>9) Riversdale (Schlechter, F.R.R. 14-11-1892) / Western Cape, South Africa (Bohnen, P. 24-9-1978) / Riversdale, Stillbay. <br/>10) Milnerton (Young, R.G.N.  12-9-1925)<br/>11) Cape Town, Kenilworth (Bolus, H.)<br/>12) Retreat Vley (Wolley-Dod, A.H. 2 -5-1897)<br/>13) Ceres Road. (Schlechter, F.R.R. 12-9-1896)<br/>14) Cape Peninsula, Chapmans Peak (Esterhuysen, E.E.  5-12-1954)<br/>15) West Coast National Park, Langebaan, Churchhaven. Alt: 0m (Mucina, L. 21-8-1997)<br/>16) Velddrif, Bergrivier (Hugo, L. 6-10-1981)  <br/>17) Rocher Pan Nat. Res. (Van Rooyen, N. and Ramsey, M.  8 21-1-1981)<br/>18) De Hoop, Potberg (Van Wyk, C.M.  18-9-1984) and (Burgers, C.J. 17-10-1978) / Potberg Nat. Res. <br/>19) Bredasdorp Dist. Rietfontein. (Esterhuysen, E.E. 11-8-1983)<br/>20) Modder River, 500 M from mouth (O'Callaghan, M.G. 12-11-1986)<br/>21) Pringle Bay (Greuter 1-10-1989)<br/><br/>Northern Cape<br/>22) Namaqualand, Groen River mouth	eng
185370	habitat	Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Marshy ground, pools and damp places on the Cape flats.	eng
185370	population	Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	There are more than 20 specimen location, but approximately five of these are likely to be extinct (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007).	eng
185370	threats	Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Agriculture (severe), aliens (moderate), urbanization (severe).	eng
185371	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No conservation actions are in place. There is a need for management plans to protect its habitat and more research in ecology, threats and utilization of this species.	eng
185371	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Widespread in western Africa.	eng
185371	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	It grows on the edge of swamps.	eng
185371	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available	eng
185371	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.	eng
185372	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185372	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, Gauteng, possibly Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape)	eng
185372	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Usually grows along streams in mountainous regions but also found in wet places in lowlands along the east coast. Perennial Herb	eng
185372	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185372	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185374	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185374	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Endemic to Guinea (Kinkon Falls close to Pita) (and possibly Cote D'Ivoire, according to GBIF records, though it cites Kinkon Falls as the locality which is in Guinea and not Cote D'Ivoire).	eng
185374	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Stem densely covered with triangular, entire or tridentate leaflets, two mm long. Very abundant, attached to rocks in the river below the falls, only the flowers emerging from the water.	eng
185374	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185374	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, mining and drought.	eng
185375	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185375	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Sao Tome, Equatorial Guinea and Angola).	eng
185375	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest undershrub found at the river border.	eng
185375	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185375	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Land and water pollution.	eng
185376	conservation	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
185376	distribution	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Confined to Zimbabwe, Angola and South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga);  <br/><br/>Known localities (PRECIS):<br/>1) Zoutpansberg Dist. Dongola Area, De Klundert (Bruce 16-3-1948)<br/>2) Kruger Nat. Park. Pretoriuskop (Van der Schijff, H.P. 25-2-1954)	eng
185376	habitat	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Seasonal pools, particularly on granite, rooting in mud. Gregarious and turf-forming. On Inselbergs and granite koppies.	eng
185376	population	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Locations: 2 in South Africa.  Likely to be >10 across range.	eng
185376	threats	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No signs of threats, based on a spatial assessment of range vs transformation in the region. The species has a patchy distribution, but is not in a threatened habitat.	eng
185377	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185377	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from the type specimen (DRC) and a small number of dubious records.	eng
185377	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.	eng
185377	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185377	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185378	conservation	Helme, N., Raimondo, D. & Sieben, E., 2007	No information.	eng
185378	distribution	Helme, N., Raimondo, D. & Sieben, E., 2007	Cape Peninsula to Caledon (Manning and Goldblatt 2000), according to PRECIS it also occurs in George, and potentially in Namibia according to Cook (2004), however the taxonomic status of specimen in Namibia is not clear.<br/><br/>Known localities: <br/>1) Onrust River. Alt: 3 m. (Schlechter F.R.R. 29-11-1896)<br/>2) George, Rondevlei (Jacot-Guillarmod, A.M.F.G., Shaw, I. and Saenger, P. 15-4-1971)<br/>3) Caledon Dist.Alt: 5 m. (Schlechter, F.R.R. 11-4-1897)<br/>4) Bredasdorp Dist. De Hoop Vlei, Moeraskloof (Van der Merwe, C.V. 2-6-1974)<br/><br/>Namibia:<br/>5) Swakop River mouth (Giess, J.W.H. 8-2-1964) - taxonomic status of this specimen is unclear	eng
185378	habitat	Helme, N., Raimondo, D. & Sieben, E., 2007	On drying sand or in shallow water or on marshy land. Near sea level.	eng
185378	population	Helme, N., Raimondo, D. & Sieben, E., 2007	Three to five locations.	eng
185378	threats	Helme, N., Raimondo, D. & Sieben, E., 2007	One locality (George) under threat of housing development (E. Sieben&#160; pers. comm.).	eng
185379	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Further research on population, range and threats is recommended.	eng
185379	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	The species is endemic to Somalia.	eng
185379	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	In damp grassy places.	eng
185379	population	Juffe, D., 2008	Considered to be common within Somalia.	eng
185379	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Unknown but pollution and natural disasters such as drought may threaten the species.	eng
185380	conservation	Juffe, D., 2005	None known	eng
185380	distribution	Juffe, D., 2005	Guineo-Congolian and Soudano-zambezian distribution. Widespread in western  Africa.	eng
185380	habitat	Juffe, D., 2005	Annual plant growing in tufts in swamps.	eng
185380	population	Juffe, D., 2005	It is a common species.	eng
185380	threats	Juffe, D., 2005	Invasing species may pose a threat to this plant.	eng
185381	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research actions needed.	eng
185381	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Records from Guinea and Sierra Leone.	eng
185381	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Found in backwaters. It has been described on cascade rocks in beds of torrential brook.	eng
185381	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Low occurrence in West Africa.	eng
185381	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.	eng
185382	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185382	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is found in Eastern Cape, South Africa. (Cook 2004).	eng
185382	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found in temporary pools.	eng
185382	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185382	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185383	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available. Urgent research is needed to find out whether the species still exists or not.	eng
185383	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Angola, Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo. In Zambia, only the type locality  has been recorded: six miles North of Kasama.	eng
185383	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Deep slow-moving water, rivers, lakes and pools.	eng
185383	population	Juffe, D., 2010	There is no information about its population.	eng
185383	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threat to this species are unknown.	eng
185384	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Research action for population and habitat status.	eng
185384	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo).	eng
185384	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small aquatic herb, annual, growing on rocks in waterfalls.	eng
185384	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Medium size population, two sites in Cameroon (Lobe Waterfalls; Lokundje river at Bipindi), one site in Democratic Republic of Congo (Island of Mimosas/Ile de Mimosas in Kinshasa), two sites in Gabon (Ogooué a Booué; Ogoulou, Mitingo).	eng
185384	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction, tourism and recreation have been identified as major threats.	eng
185385	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	There is a reserve in the area, but not sure if the species occurs in the area or not. Need to have a survey to establish the range, abundance and threats to this species.	eng
185385	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	This is a Guinean-Congolian species, known only from western Senegal and the Cape Verde Islands.	eng
185385	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Occurs in moist or flooded depressions on the littoral sand dunes.	eng
185385	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185385	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Increasing frequency of drought is leading to salinization of the area. Furthermore, much of the Cape Verde area has been developed for urban expansion of Dakar and expansion of agricultural lands.	eng
185386	conservation	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185386	distribution	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Confined to a relatively small region in south western part of Western Cape Province (Cook 2004). Darling to Stellenbosch and the Cape Flats. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Karbonkelberg<br/>2) Rondebosch Common<br/>3) Harmony flats<br/>4) Stellenbosch flats - many historic collections<br/>5) Stellenbosch, Jan Marais Park<br/>6) Duthraie reserve <br/>7) Koelenhof <br/>8) Vergenooigt estate<br/>9) Tulbagh <br/>10) Paarl Mountain<br/>11) Darling - Tienieversveld	eng
185386	habitat	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	On sandy soil in seasonally flooded pans and on seeps on rock faces.	eng
185386	population	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Estimated number of locations: >10; Each subpopulation is large.  <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: >10;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing	eng
185386	threats	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Harmony Flats and Rondebsoch Common populations threatened by aliens (grass and woody aliens). Safe in Darling area and in Paarl Mountains. Dutheriae Reserve and Jan Marais park - no significant threat - but many populations lost in the past to urbanisation. Koelenhof population next to the brick works where there is a threat of future development	eng
185387	conservation	Raimondo, D., 2007	Investigation is needed to determine whether it is still present in one of its last localities and whether it has a persistent seed bank. It is probably only present in one or two localities and it has not been collected for 30 years.	eng
185387	distribution	Raimondo, D., 2007	Distributed in the SW Cape Peninsula to Stellenbosch (Goldblatt and Manning 2000). No localities listed in digitised records in PRECIS (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007).	eng
185387	habitat	Raimondo, D., 2007	Marshy flats (Goldblatt and Manning  2000).	eng
185387	population	Raimondo, D., 2007	Overall populations decline (past): declining in Cape Flats;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): unknown distribution, might still be present in persistent seed bank. <br/>Two Locations	eng
185387	threats	Raimondo, D., 2007	Urbanization is a severe past and ongoing threat. Its habitat in Kenilworth Race course is heavily infested with alien grasses (C. Cupido and E. Siebert pers. comm.).	eng
185388	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	None at the moment.	eng
185388	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa (Gabon and DRC).	eng
185388	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Plant of river border in forest.	eng
185388	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	The extent of occurrence of this species includes two countries, the population is expected to be of small size.	eng
185388	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This plant is affected by land pollution.	eng
185389	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185389	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Sudan (Didinga Mountains NE Chukdum, N 4º 15´ - E 33 º 27´), Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya.<br/><br/>In Kenya at Baringo District: Kiserian; Northern Frontier District: Moyale; Tana River District: Baomo Lodge. In Tanzania at Dodoma District: Chaya; Kilwa District: Masoko; Musoma District: Kihunda, Zanaki. In Uganda at Karamoja District: Mt Kadam [Debasien], Napyenenya, and Lotome Mission.	eng
185389	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Perennial, rarely annual herb, of damp places.	eng
185389	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is common throughout its range.	eng
185389	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major wide spreading threats.	eng
185390	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available. Further survey is required to confirm the range and population of this  species.	eng
185390	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known from a single record in Haut-Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185390	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This perennial helophyte is found in seasonal wetlands, it was found in a grassy swamp in 1912.	eng
185390	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185390	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185391	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185391	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania,&#160; and Uganda.	eng
185391	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in alpine bogs and montane grasslands, giant heath zones, roadsides in rain forests, usually in swampy sites or on stream banks.	eng
185391	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Area covered by this plant is not known.	eng
185391	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threats had been reported. However, it must be noted this species lies in a high agriculture potential area where wetlands are being converted into other uses. Wetlands are also receiving a lot sediment from surrounding farms.	eng
185392	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185392	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa, Botswana, Namibia (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185392	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	In water surrounding seasonal pools or along stream margins and vleis. Perennial cyperoid	eng
185392	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185392	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185393	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Research is need to confirm its true native range and current threats. This species is not under any conservation measures. Lake Turkana in Kenya is not completely protected. Only the eastern side and the islands are protected within Sibloi National Park.	eng
185393	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is native to Kenya (Lake Turkana), Uganda, Angola, Botswana and Namibia.<br/><br/>There are two varieties of this species that are important. Variety <span style="font-style: italic;">trabeculata</span> is found in Angola, Botswana, Namibia<br/>Variety<span style="font-style: italic;"> microglumis</span> is only known from Type (Turkana at 600 m above sea level). More information is needed on its distribution and actual locations of these varieties.	eng
185393	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	It occurs in seasonal swamps and on mud beneath <span style="font-style: italic;">Acacia </span>seyal in case of <span style="font-style: italic;">var. microglumis</span>.	eng
185393	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The area occupied by this species in unknown.	eng
185393	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species may be threatened by grazing although more information on actual threats is needed.	eng
185394	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185394	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This species is endemic to South Africa (RSA: possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185394	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Permanently wet places, in full sun in swamps, marshes and seasonally flooded places. Perennial Cyperoid.	eng
185394	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185394	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known.	eng
185395	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185395	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is native to Cameroon to south Sudan and Southern Africa. It has been recorded from Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and South Africa.<br/><em></em>	eng
185395	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial helophyte inhabits marshes and wet mountain grasslands.	eng
185395	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread species.	eng
185395	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185396	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185396	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is endemic to southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa and perhaps also Zimbabwe (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185396	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Wet areas of vleis, seasonally flooded places and streams, sometimes grows in still or flowing water. Perennial Helophyte	eng
185396	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185396	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185397	conservation	Cholo, F., 2006	Mountain regions in the W. Cape are well protected.	eng
185397	distribution	Cholo, F., 2006	Endemic to Western Cape (South Africa). Likely to be undercollected.	eng
185397	habitat	Cholo, F., 2006	Attached to stones in fast flowing mountain streams and rivulets.	eng
185397	population	Cholo, F., 2006	No information.	eng
185397	threats	Cholo, F., 2006	None known.	eng
185398	conservation	Ghogue, J., 2009	None at the moment. But where necessary, people should be aware on the risk of wild fire and global warming on the humanity future, the necessity of preserving the environment.	eng
185398	distribution	Ghogue, J., 2009	Guineo-Congolian, mostly in western Africa (From Senegal to Nigeria and Cameroon), but extends to Central Africa where the Congo is its southern limit.	eng
185398	habitat	Ghogue, J., 2009	A perennial herb growing in damp grassland.	eng
185398	population	Ghogue, J., 2009	Widespread herbaceous species of savanna area, important population.	eng
185398	threats	Ghogue, J., 2009	Habitat loss due to more wildfires (probably due to changes in precipitation patterns caused by global warming)  or bush fire, therefore loss of damp grassland. Also human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, infrastructure development).	eng
185399	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment, but habitat protection is needed. The authorities of the ministry of environment should be aware about the presence of this species at the dam's site so that they can inform the authorities of the dam and incite them to take conservation measures.	eng
185399	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species' range extends from West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire - Rapids at Cavally at Soklodeba near Grabo) and Central Africa (south Cameroon, Lope river rapids in Gabon).	eng
185399	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Robust aquatic herb, annual, standing on rocks in waterfalls.	eng
185399	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Gregarious species, more or less important population, despite low area of occupancy (AOO). It has been collected recently in the Meve'ele waterfalls south  Cameroon, where there is a planned dam construction. It's also mentioned that this plant has been collected  in Makak and in the Nyong around Mbalmayo (Cusset 1987). The  river Nyong around Mbalmayo has been surveyed, as well as the Mpoume  waterfalls on the Nyong around Makak and this species has not been  found. The reason of this is not well know or we probably need more  field research.	eng
185399	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Habitat loss through human activities especially in this case dam construction.	eng
185400	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and stakeholders. Studies should also be carried out in order to better understand the species population and range, the habitat status and the various threats.	eng
185400	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to South Cameroon, known from a single collection in the Nyong river around Mbalmayo.	eng
185400	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, growing on rocks in flooded river bed.	eng
185400	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	No formal studies about the population. Area of occupancy is low and there is a low population.	eng
185400	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Water pollution, temperatures extremes and sudden drought have been  identified as main threats.	eng
185401	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place. Some research is needed on the habitat status and trends.<br/><br/>EA: None known or needed	eng
185401	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species has been recorded in Burundi, West Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Swaziland and South Africa.	eng
185401	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	It grows in forest, secondary areas in forest zone, stream-sides	eng
185401	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The abundance of this species is not well know although its presumed to be fairly common.	eng
185401	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Agriculture and drought have been identified as threats but they are not specific to this species.	eng
185402	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.	eng
185402	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	West to Central African distribution, from Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire to Central African Republic and Angola.	eng
185402	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest understory shrub, but can also be found at the river's borders.	eng
185402	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Quite widespread species, large size population.	eng
185402	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest clearing for shifting agriculture or for logging. None of them as considered as major threats.	eng
185403	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185403	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to South Africa and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells. Widely introduced, including North America and Australia.	eng
185403	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Perennial Helophyte. Moist conditions, drains, swamps, streams.	eng
185403	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185403	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185404	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185404	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique. Widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185404	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Annual Herb. In shallow wet soil on or around granite rock outcrops.	eng
185404	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185404	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185405	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185405	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is restricted to Nigeria to Cameroon and Congo.	eng
185405	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Riparian, shady, wet and flooded forest understory, rich in litter and sometime in altitude.	eng
185405	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185405	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.	eng
185406	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Wetland conservation and research actions on species taxonomy, threats and ecology are needed.	eng
185406	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant collected in Guinea (Sériba to Sambailo) and Senegal. Presence of species in other countries of West Africa possible, but no records found to confirm.	eng
185406	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Usually in temporary wet and marshy places.	eng
185406	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Population unknown.	eng
185406	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185407	conservation	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K., Bayer, B., Zietsman, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Part of the species remaining range is within the Elandsberg Nature Reserve.	eng
185407	distribution	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K., Bayer, B., Zietsman, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Currently distributed from Stellenbosch to Somerset West and Elandsberg, South Africa. Historically distributed from Piketberg to Cape Peninsula and Worcester (Cape Plants 2000).<br/><br/>Two extant localities:<br/>1) Stellenbosch (Chelchim farm), owner keen to conserve (K. Oberlander pers. comm.).<br/>2) Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve. - extant (D. Raimondo pers. obs. 2006) and numerous historic collections.<br/><br/>Extinct localities: note all Salter's historic localities have been searched for by B. Bayer and could not be found, this species has lost the majority of its localities in the past hundred years.<br/>1) Cape Peninsula, Wynberg Dist. Doornhoogde on the Cape Flats - extinct<br/>2) Cape Peninsula, Kenilworth Flats - extinct<br/>3) Cape Peninsula, Wynberg Flats - extinct<br/>4) Piquetberg Road - extinct<br/>5) Wynberg Church between German Church and Golf Links - extinct<br/>6) Cape Flats and Princess Vlei - extinct<br/>7) Claremont Flats - extinct<br/>8) Stellenbosch Dist, Uitspan, northwest of Koelenhof - extinct<br/>9) 12 miles south of Worcester - extinct<br/>10) Cape Peninsula. Kenilthworth Race Course - extinct<br/>11) Stellenbosch Dist. Uitspan, northwest of Koelenhof - extinct<br/>12) Bredasdorp. The Poort - extinct<br/>13) Cape Town. Grassy Park - extinct	eng
185407	habitat	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K., Bayer, B., Zietsman, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Seasonal pools, at altitudes of 50 - 200 m.	eng
185407	population	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K., Bayer, B., Zietsman, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Estimated total population size: >10 000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: 2;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes	eng
185407	threats	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K., Bayer, B., Zietsman, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Loss of habitat to urbanisation and agriculture is a severe past threat as >90 % of locations have been lost to these threats. Inbreeding depression, the subpopulation occurring in the disturbed area at Chelchim farm has shown significant decline in ability to set seed with less than 5% of plants naturally setting seed. 10 % of plants are handpollinated. This is completely contrary to the subpopulations at Elandsberg that have high natural seed set. <br/>Threatened in the long term by erosion of the seasonal streams. Cutback erosion leading from furrows in the adjoining ploughed fields are already apparent. This species appears to require very slow flowing water to survive. It is highly sensitive to eutrification and changes in hydrological flow. This is the suspected cause of loss of the Cape Flats populations (B. Bayer pers. com. 2006)	eng
185408	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Research on the species distribution, population status and impact of threats is needed. Various measures from habitat maintenance and conservation is also needed as the species could be threatened.	eng
185408	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Endemic to Guinea. Recorded near Siguri (Raynal 1971).	eng
185408	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Oligotrophic ponds in rocks.	eng
185408	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185408	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by drought	eng
185409	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185409	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185409	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest herb living at the river border or shady places. 400-500 m altitude. High density population.	eng
185409	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Low EOO, low AOO in Gabon (two locations only), locally abundant.	eng
185409	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture.	eng
185410	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185410	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185410	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest understory herb, generally found at the river's border.	eng
185410	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, therefore large size population.	eng
185410	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture or for logging.	eng
185411	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	More research is needed to know better population numbers and range, habitat status and potential threats. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185411	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Throughout tropical Africa and into the Transvaal and SW. Africa. Senegal, Mali, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria. Widely dispersed.<br/><br/>Good presence in many countries of West Africa. Recorded from Sudan (Blue Nile Province – Arshkol Mountains – Equatorial) in North-eastern Africa. In Southern Africa it found in Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng). <br/><br/>In Eastern Africa this species is rare. It was recorded in Lake Victoria area at Ahero. Also found in Western Kenya in Mumias and Central Kenya in Machakos. Recorded from Tanzania and Uganda.	eng
185411	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Aquatic herb, widely submerged. It grows in freshwater or brackish water, stagnant or current. Also found in swamps, ponds on laterite, rice fields. From 900 - 2575 m above sea level.	eng
185411	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Quite widespread species, covering the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa.	eng
185411	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	None at the moment. Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185412	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185412	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	From Senegal in West Africa to Ethiopia in the East, then southwards to Malawi.	eng
185412	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial herb of shady places and river borders.	eng
185412	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185412	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Land pollution may threaten the species locally.	eng
185413	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185413	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in west Africa to Congo in Central Africa. The species is abundant in Gabon and Cameroon.	eng
185413	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Geophyte of shady, damp or swampy forest understory.	eng
185413	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species. Large size population.	eng
185413	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution. Forest clearing for logging and agriculture.	eng
185414	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This plant is not under any specific conservation measures although the in the population found in Kenya is found within two protected areas, Aberdare Npand Mt Kenya National Parks.	eng
185414	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is native to Kenya and Tanzania. The only population known from Kenya is found in Lake Narasha (Timboroa) and in Kinangop in Aberdare Mountains at the altitude of 3,000 m above sea level. In Tanzania it has only been recorded in Ossirwa Crater.	eng
185414	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Upland bogs and marshes in ericaceous zone, streamsides, crater lake edges	eng
185414	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Rare species.	eng
185414	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Swamp drainage, droughts and agricultural expansion.	eng
185415	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research actions needed.	eng
185415	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Endemic to western Africa where the species is recorded from Ghana, Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire (and possibly in Guinea, Benin and Togo). More information is needed.	eng
185415	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	In marshy savanna.	eng
185415	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available.	eng
185415	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185416	conservation	Sieben, E. & Fish, L., 2006	It is listed as DD in Lesotho (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa). This species requires legal protection as well as the protection of its habitat.	eng
185416	distribution	Sieben, E. & Fish, L., 2006	This grass genus is confined to the ‘archipelago’ of high African mountain summits (White 1978), and this particular species is endemic to the Drakensberg Mtns (KwaZulu-Natal, RSA and Lesotho). (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa). Very wet places in high altitude grassland; on summit of Drakensberg; mainly in Lesotho. <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>South Africa:<br/>1) Sani River / Sani Pass. W of Pass, Sani Flats along river<br/>2) Hodson's Peak<br/>3) Underberg Dist. Sani Pass on summit of Drakensberg. <br/>4) Qachas Neck, Sani Pass.<br/><br/>Lesotho:<br/>5) 27 km from oxbow in to Letseng-la-terae in pan<br/>6) Butha Buthe.<br/>7) 33 km. NW of Mokhotlong<br/>8) Butha Buthe Dist. Pone Valley, Mothae Mt.	eng
185416	habitat	Sieben, E. & Fish, L., 2006	Wet places, in streams and moors at high altitudes (2,900-4,000 m). In shallow water along streamsides or in small ponds (C. Hilton-Taylor pers.comm. 2006).	eng
185416	population	Sieben, E. & Fish, L., 2006	The estimated number of locations is less than 10.	eng
185416	threats	Sieben, E. & Fish, L., 2006	Possibly threatened by unnatural fire regimes and climate change in South Africa and overgrazing in Lesotho.	eng
185417	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or in need.	eng
185417	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is present in North East Africa S. of Sudan (River Narije) and Ethiopia (Gaffat).<br/><br/>Also found in Angola, Tanzania, Kenya and possibly Madagascar. In Kenya it has been recorded from Embu District, in Tanzania from Iringa District: Kitulo Plateau, above Salala waterfalls; Njombe District: Ruhudji river waterfall; and Rungwe District: Kiwira river.	eng
185417	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	On sandstone and limestone, locally common on rocks in rapids of larger rivers.	eng
185417	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is ommon.	eng
185417	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No threats have been identified although this species is prone to be affected by any disturbance due to its limited dispersal and restricted range.	eng
185418	conservation	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185418	distribution	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Endemic to South Africa's W and E Cape (Cook 2004).	eng
185418	habitat	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Wet shaded banks in and along streams, also submerged in pools.	eng
185418	population	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185418	threats	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185419	conservation	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2005	Uncollected in the past 30 years. This species needs to be searched for (N. Helme pers. comm. 2006).	eng
185419	distribution	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2005	Endemic to Western Cape (near Cape Town), South Africa. (Cook 2004). Cape Peninsula: Green Point.<br/><br/>Most historic localities in PRECIS now extinct, this species could even be extinct as previously seasonal wetlands are now mostly permanent (see also Hall and Ashton 1983). Said to be endemic to the Cape Peninsula occurring on Table Mountain, the Cape Flats and Simonstown. <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Noordhoek Salt Pan (Waher 1971) - only site that this species may possibly still exist however there has been significant transformation of this wetland and its surrounds since 1971.<br/>2) Cape Peninsula. Submerged in vlei near Maitland (Stephens 1926) - highly likely to be extinct due to urban development and changes in water flow regimes.<br/>3) Muizenberg (Mitchell 1921) - highly likely to be extinct due to urban development and changes in water flow regimes.<br/>4) Chapmans Bay (Wolley-Dod 1897) - extinct.<br/>5) Capre Penninsula, Green Point (Schlechter 1896, MacOwan 1896) - extinct due to development - there are no longer seasonal water bodies in Green Point.	eng
185419	habitat	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2005	Primarily seasonal Coastal Pools. Altitude up to 2,000 m. Mostly in brackish water but also in fresh water. Growing in still or slowly moving water, sometimes forming floating mats. It is also found in marshes and on wet sand. It is usually annual, but in deep water, it may perennial. Flowers from April to June.<br/><br/>Pollinated by insects and is self incompatible, frequently setting no seed outside its range. Disseminules flattened cypselas without a pappus, perhaps dispersed by adhesion to animals. It has been reported to be a weed in drainage channels. It is a decorative plant.	eng
185419	population	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2005	Only the Noordhoek location is possibly still extant.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: unknown;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: < 5;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: 1;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): Unknown;	eng
185419	threats	Helme, N. & Raimondo, D., 2005	Urbanisation and development (e.g. Noordhoek Saltpans have been developed over the past 10 years). Drainage of wetlands - past severe threat (N. Helme pers. comm. 2006). Many historical seasonal wetlands are now permanent eutrophic wetlands. These wetlands are often invaded by aliens (past, present, severe threat)	eng
185420	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Some populations are protected within established national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185420	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is present in Kenya, Uganda, Ehtiopia, and The Democratic Republic of Congo. Records from two upland sites in Kenya are available: Cherangani and Naro Moro from 1,900-3,200 m asl. Also recorded from Mt Elgon, Naro moru, Cherangani, Simien Mtns, Bale Mtns, Ol Moti Crater.	eng
185420	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	On rocks, streams banks, heath areas.	eng
185420	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data available.	eng
185420	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threats have been identified. However, some populations are found in agricultural areas such as Naromoru. These are wetlands that may be converted to agricultural lands.	eng
185421	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	More research in population trends, threats and ecology are recommended. No specific conservation measures are in place.	eng
185421	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, south eastern border of Democratic Republic of Congo and Zimbabwe (van Bruggen 1973).<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is known from southern Zambia and may be expected in the Caprivi or Okovango regions (Cook 2004). <br/><br/>In Kenya this species has only been recorded in Central Kenya around Thika District (Fort Hall) at Thika Hillside. Its altitude is suspected to range from 1,000-1,600 m. In Tanzania it was found in Mbeya district Usangu plain near Utengule (Utencile), Iringa district 11 km SE of Iringa on Dabaga road.	eng
185421	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Locally common in open, temporary pools and rivulets on sand and clay in mixed dry scrub. Also found in swamps and marshes.	eng
185421	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No specific information available.	eng
185421	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185422	conservation	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	This plant has not been collected for > 30 years it is a very high priority to check the status of this species.	eng
185422	distribution	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	This species is endemic to South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Cape) (Cook 2004). Namaqualand to Pakhuis Pass (Cape Plants 2000).	eng
185422	habitat	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Seasonal pools, wet seeps and in streams on sandstone soils, 400-800 m. Perennial Geophyte.	eng
185422	population	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Known only from seven to 10 locations.	eng
185422	threats	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Agricultural transformation to rooibos tea is a very severe threat at all known localities. Most of these areas are severely transformed but seasonally wet areas are sometimes not ploughed as Rooibos does not grow well in seasonal wet areas.	eng
185423	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Information on population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats is needed.	eng
185423	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Distributed in tropical Africa from Senegal to Angola and to Tanzania.<br/><br/>It is widespread in western Africa<br/><br/>Known in East Africa from one gathering only, but widespread from Senegal to the Sudan (White Nile) and through the Belgian Congo to Zimbabwe.	eng
185423	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a small perennial aquatic 1-2in high in mud or up to 6 inches if growing in water. Present in shallow stagnant freshwater, in marshes and swamps, swampy forests and grasslands. Can also grow on emerged silt until 1500 m above sea level and therefore is smaller size, while the plant is bigger when submerged.	eng
185423	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species and presumably large population.	eng
185423	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by habitat loss due to agro-industry farming, development of dams, alien species, natural disasters such as drought, and intrinsic factors like limited dispersal.	eng
185424	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Recovery management and conservation measures are also required.	eng
185424	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is found in Somalia in Buur Heybo Bay (Bur Eibi). Very small population spreading into Ethiopia.	eng
185424	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Among short grass in seepage areas of granitic outcrops; associated with another apparently narrow endemic confined to similar habitats on granitic outcrops in the Bay Region;	eng
185424	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Very rare.	eng
185424	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Due to its restricted range and limited dispersal this species is threatened by sudden drought.	eng
185425	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Research actions on population numbers and range, threats and habitat status is needed.	eng
185425	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Essentially tropical African plant, extending from Sierra Leone in the West to Central Africa Republic (CAR) and Angola. Only five sites are known globally. One in Cameroon - Tchabal Mbabo Biem Pass; one in CAR -  La Pipi à Wadda; one in Angola; and two in Sierra Leone - River Mameli near Kroknaima,  Riv. Kolel, Kabala à Makeni. There is a possible record in Nigeria, but this is not mentioned by Cusset (1984) so it may be dubious.	eng
185425	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Moss-like annual aquatic herb, growing fixed on rocks, submerged in fast water. In Western Africa it has been found in falls.	eng
185425	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Only recorded in a few localities but this plant is said to be gregarious. Therefore we can consider the population may be reasonably large but highly localized.	eng
185425	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought. Dam construction will be the major threat faced by this species.	eng
185426	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The research action should be carried out in order to well understand the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and the conservation measures to be eventually undertaken.	eng
185426	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Central African species, restricted to Cameroon, Gabon,   Democratic Republic of Congo  and possibly Congo.	eng
185426	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Small rosulate ephemeral, living in muddy seepages in rocky and grassy places on blackish clay soil; 1,200-1,600 m above sea level.	eng
185426	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information about the population of this species.	eng
185426	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution and sudden drought.	eng
185427	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Further research on distribution range of the species is needed.	eng
185427	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a Sudano-guinean and zambezian species. <br/><br/>It is widespread in western Africa. No more information is available about its occurrence in other African countries.	eng
185427	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It grows on sandy wet places and on shallow pools particularly in the wet season.	eng
185427	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It forms dense plantings, sometimes great meadows, sandy humid places particularly on wet season.	eng
185427	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In its natural habitat there's no major constraints. It is increasing in certain region.	eng
185428	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185428	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present throughout tropical Africa.  In western Africa, it is found from Senegal to South Nigeria. Also found in Chad, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, and Angola.	eng
185428	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This is a robust annual plant with solitary stems or grouped in a small tuft. Leaves are greyish to brown reddish. It grows in marshy and open-water sites. Also in rice fields, grassy swamps, on muddy bed of stream, edge of pools, often on thin soil over rock.	eng
185428	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in high densities of population.	eng
185428	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Agriculture and drought may pose a threat to this species locally but they are not major widespread threats.	eng
185429	conservation	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Protection and effective management is essential for the remaining known localities. Legal measures at a National and Regional level are also required.	eng
185429	distribution	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Endemic to Eastern Cape (South Africa), confined to a relatively small area between Grahamstown and East London (Cook 2004). T.R. Sim (1915) recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Isoetes wormaldii</span> floating in ponds around East London, and in the Victoria Park, East London. These plants were abundant in these ponds in 1902.  <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/><br/>1. Grahamstown, Strowan Farm, west of Grahamstown (Still fine for now, but undergoing fluctuations: all gone until 2006, when found again).<br/>2. Grahamstown. Between 7 and 8 miles from town centre on Port Alfred Rd. In small natural pond/pan next to main road / Albany District: 8 miles on Kowie Road from Grahamstown (Stones Hill).<br/>3. East London. In Ponds - obliterated.<br/>4. Peddie.<br/>5. Possibly Table Farm.	eng
185429	habitat	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Recorded growing in temporary pools and streams or perenially submerged in slow-flowing rivers. Still or flowing, temporary or permanent water, at altitudes of about 50-800 m. It is rooted under water with the flattened leaves floating on the water surface. It only appears after disturbance by cows, then goes dormant for a few  years.	eng
185429	population	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	Not severely fragmented as spores can be dispersed over great distances by wind, and all sites are quite close together (none more than 50 km apart). Average population size about 10-15 mature individuals, possibly about three subpopulations in maturity at one time. Only appears after disturbance by cows, then goes dormant for a few years.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: 30-45; <br/>Locations: 3 (or 4) currently; 4 (or 5) in past but >3 generations ago<br/>Area of occupancy: 4 or 5 "ponds" of about 10 x 10 m each = 0.5 km	eng
185429	threats	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2007	One subpopulation (East London) has been lost to development. Remaining ones are subject to extreme fluctuations due to the nature of their life cycle.	eng
185430	conservation	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185430	distribution	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa. Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Northern Cape). In Botswana, it is known from the north in seasonal water pans. Probably under-collected and widespread (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa).	eng
185430	habitat	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	Not confined to wetlands but is often found in flooded seasonal pans, dams and water holes, also along the margins of vleis, usually in sandy soils 800-1900m. In Botswana, it is known from the north in seasonal water pans. Annual Graminoid.	eng
185430	population	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185430	threats	Fish, L., Victor, J.E., Cholo, F & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185431	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185431	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Angola, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia, Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185431	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This annual cyperoid occurs in pools among rocks and in streams.	eng
185431	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185431	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185432	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Research actions needed to determine its range, population trends, threats and habitat status.	eng
185432	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species has been recorded from Cameroon (locality unknown), Niger (locality unknown), Nigeria (Ogoja Province on the Boje-Aboabam path crossing the Afi River), Sierra Leone (Bumbuna waterfall, river Seli, tributary of Rokel river) and Gabon (inside Ogooué river at Lastoursville).	eng
185432	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in  waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other  hard object.	eng
185432	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185432	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.	eng
185433	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185433	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is Widespread in East tropical Africa.<br/><br/>Widespread in East Tropical Africa. Known from Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Malawi it is found opposite Matope Mission in the Lower Shire in Blantyre, Elephant Marsh in Chikwawa, and Lake Malawi at Mangochi Ferry on Shire River.  In Burundi the species has been met in  the Rusizi plain. Kenya The species is found in Nakuru, Baringo and Kajiado.  Tanzania T1-4,5,6,7.  Shinyanga district Seseku, Ufipa district Milepa Niombe R., Iringa district Mkwawa springs. Also recorded from Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Gabon.<br/><br/>In North East Africa it is found Sudan (White Nile) and Somalia. Considered as Extinct from Egypt.	eng
185433	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	It grows in sluggish streams and backwaters.	eng
185433	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	North-eastern Africa: Common	eng
185433	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread with no major threats.	eng
185434	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place.	eng
185434	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species has been recorded in Nigeria, Sudan, Chad, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Angola. <br/><br/>In Malawi it has been found in Marymount in Mzuzu, Kachere Village in Kasungu, Lunyangwa in Mzuzu, Lake Chilwa road from Zomba, Mabulawo in Mzimba, and Kongwe Hill in Dowa.	eng
185434	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in stream banks and moist places.	eng
185434	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185434	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats described.	eng
185436	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is not under any conservation measures. But some of its populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves (i.e. Kigogo Forest). Further research on the subspecies of this species is recommended as it may need to be assessed separately.	eng
185436	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is locally abundant and widely distributed, from 1,800-3,000 m above sea level. It has been recorded in Lake Victoria region, Western Kenya (Mt Elgon, Kitale), Rift Valley (Uasin Gishu, Mts Cherangani, Mau and Tinderet) and Central Kenya in Aberdare range. Also Tanzania in Loliondo.<span class="bold"><span class="bold"><br/><br/>Subspecies <em>mufindiensis</em> is known from Iringa District, around Mufindi tea estates and also from Malawi (<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Namanungu stream,  near Chongoni Forest) and Mozambique (<span class="dist-lvls-c"><span class="dist-lvl-src">Lichinga near Vila  Cabral).<br/></span>	eng
185436	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Found in stream banks and swampy environments.<span class="bold"><span class="bold">	eng
185436	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The area covered by this species is not known.	eng
185436	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threat has been identified. However, this species preferred habitats are being  reclaimed at an alarming rate to create land for subsistence farming.	eng
185437	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185437	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to Lesotho and South Africa, widespread in the Drakensberg mountains (RSA: Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004).	eng
185437	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	In or near water or in shaded rock crevices, 1,000-3,200m. (Cook 2004). Growing in moist places near standing water or in shaded rock crevices (Tolken 1985). Perennial Succulent.	eng
185437	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185437	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known.	eng
185438	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185438	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Central African species: Gabon, Congo and Cabinda (Angola).	eng
185438	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Perennial herb of muddy river's borders in forest, or forming small colony in a very shady river bed itself inside the dense forest, about 400 m altitude.	eng
185438	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Population rather difficult to estimate.	eng
185438	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water and land pollution have been identified as important threats.	eng
185439	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185439	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Central African species (Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon), extending eastwards to Uganda.	eng
185439	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Woody terrestrial forest shrub, liking swampy understory or river borders.	eng
185439	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185439	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture of logging.	eng
185440	conservation	Cholo, F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185440	distribution	Cholo, F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	South Africa: Endemic to the Cape region (Eastern and Western Cape provinces). <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) Piquetberg in shallow clayey seasonal pools between pools siding and Grey's Pass, 3 miles west of Piquetberg. <br/>2) Malmesbury, 8 miles south west of Hopefield. <br/><br/>No PRECIS specimens collected in E Cape, but Cook (2004) describes their distribution in this area.	eng
185440	habitat	Cholo, F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	Temporary pools, sometimes locally dominant, 180-400m (Salter, 1944). Perennial Geophyte	eng
185440	population	Cholo, F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185440	threats	Cholo, F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	None known	eng
185441	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Possibly in protected areas in Western Africa, but uncertain. Need better information on the distribution of this species and its threats.	eng
185441	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Native to west and west and central Africa but cultivated elsewhere. May have a wider or a narrower range as it has been confused with <em>C. papyrus</em>.	eng
185441	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	It grows in marshes, forming rafts in open water and fringing lakes.	eng
185441	population	Ghogue, J.-P., Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	As an herbaceous species, the population of this plant is expected to be locally important.	eng
185441	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Expanding agriculture (for crops), increasing frequency of droughts, and utilization are the major threats. This plant grows in marshes, and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. In fact any serious fluctuation in the habitat is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be the water pollution by human activities for example and the water availability can also be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought and irrigation for agriculture.	eng
185442	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185442	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to South Africa. Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004).	eng
185442	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found in temporary pools.	eng
185442	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185442	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185443	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. More research is needed on its ecology, distribution and threats.<br/></p>	eng
185443	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species collected in Guinea (falls of River Kinkon at Pita).	eng
185443	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species recorded at water falls. It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents).	eng
185443	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available.	eng
185443	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by drought and water pollution.	eng
185444	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2010	None at the moment.  Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved   communication to raise  awareness are needed.	eng
185444	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2010	Tropical Africa, from West (Togo, Nigeria) to East (Uganda). In Central Africa, the plant is present in Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Angola<br/><br/>Widespread in the forest regions of West and Central Africa, east to SE Sudan and south to N Angola, in East Africa it is known from across Uganda, western Kenya and western Tanzania.	eng
185444	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2010	Normal terrestrial woody plant, but also found at the river border.	eng
185444	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2010	Widespread species, tolerant with a large size population.	eng
185444	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2010	Potentially affected by land pollution.	eng
185445	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185445	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is endemic to Gabon.	eng
185445	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Herb growing on rocks at the middle of streams or at the border of fast water.	eng
185445	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is known from three locations only. Small size population.	eng
185445	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	The species is threatened by water pollution.	eng
185446	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2006	Research actions on threats, population numbers and range are needed.	eng
185446	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2006	Limited distribution in western Africa (records from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Senegal).	eng
185446	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2006	Stagnant, acidic, clear freshwater with sandy bottom. Found in rice fields.	eng
185446	population	Diop, F.N., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185446	threats	Diop, F.N., 2006	Agricultural development and drought	eng
185447	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Biotopes protection and regular evalution of situation.	eng
185447	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Cameroon, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin and Nigeria	eng
185447	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	In wet places and shallow muddy water, of upland savanna.The plant is commonly found in outcrop and rock hill-top pools. It forms masses in pure stands.	eng
185447	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant commonly met in important colonies in out crop and rock hill pools. Plant is used as ornamental and is cultivated or partially tended. Sometime it grows so much that it is considered as a weed.	eng
185447	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by drought	eng
185448	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185448	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	this species is endemic to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185448	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Perennial shrub of dry or flooded primary forests and woody river borders. Flowers from October - February.	eng
185448	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Very common in three localities only in DRC, therefore small population size.	eng
185448	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest clearing for agriculture or logging.	eng
185449	conservation	Raimondo, D., S. Todd & E. Marinus, 2006	Legal protection through relevant policy and habitat protection is required for this species.	eng
185449	distribution	Raimondo, D., S. Todd & E. Marinus, 2006	This species is endemic to the Bokkeveld escarpment, Nieuwoudtville, South Africa. The area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 20 km<sup>2</sup>, however this species is restricted to seasonally water logged areas and the area of occupancy might be less than 2 km<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>Recently discovered (1986) and described.  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) Type locality, Nieuwoudtville flower reserve<br/>2) Brakkerivier, farm in dolerite kopies, close to Nieuwoudtville waterfall<br/>3) Glen Lyon farm Dolerite vertisol - two sub-populations <br/>4) Oorlogskloof farm Dolerite vertisol - two sub populations	eng
185449	habitat	Raimondo, D., S. Todd & E. Marinus, 2006	Grows in seasonally waterlogged Dwyka tillite soils wedged between large dolerite rocks. Occurs in Western Mountain Karoo Veld in association with the rare <span style="font-style: italic;">Zantedeschia odorata</span> and the vulnerable <span style="font-style: italic;">Sparaxis pillansii</span>.	eng
185449	population	Raimondo, D., S. Todd & E. Marinus, 2006	Estimated total population size: <500;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: six;    <br/>Overall populations decline (past): no;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): no;  potential.	eng
185449	threats	Raimondo, D., S. Todd & E. Marinus, 2006	Although 48% of this habitat has already been lost to ploughing - it occurs amongst rocks so is relatively safe, the ploughing between sites is likely to be affecting geneflow between populations.<br/><br/>Grazing is also a potential threat especially as these areas are all used for livestock and livestock concentrate around these seasonal moist areas (the farmer adjacent to the Nieuwoudtville reserve has no <span style="font-style: italic;">Cynalle aquatica</span> despite having the correct habitat type due to over grazing.) S. Todd also observed no seed set due to grazing pressure.<br/><br/>Climate change is a very high potential threat facing this species.	eng
185451	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None in place or needed.	eng
185451	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread from Western Africa (Senegal to N Nigeria) to Central Africa (Congo Basin) and Eastern Africa. Also present in Sudan, Ethiopia, Zambia and Angola.<br/><br/>In Kenya where this species has only been recorded in Central Rift Valley, Kipkarren in Uasinn Gishu District (K3) from 1050-1700 m above sea level. In Uganda it is locally abundant.	eng
185451	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It grows in clear shallow water (-30 cm), particularly in temporary pools on laterite. <em>A. vallisnerioides</em> is an aquatic herb of marshes, ditches, small streams where the water generally is clean and shallow, on breast-plates and rock outcrops (laterite), between 200-1500 m above sea level.	eng
185451	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In Western Africa its found as isolated individuous or in small colonies. The plant has been abundantly collected in West Africa (See in FWTA) and in Central Africa (Flore du Cameroun and Flore d'Afrique Centrale). We can conclude to an important population.	eng
185451	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment. Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185453	conservation	Dold, A.P., Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2005	No conservation measures are in place. Legal measures are recommended in order to protect the species habitat.	eng
185453	distribution	Dold, A.P., Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2005	This species is endemic to South Africa. Albany district, between Alexandria, Grahamstown, Bathurst and East London.<br/> <br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Grahamstown near Salem. <br/>2) Bethelsdorp (Unknown if this is correct ID)<br/>3) Albany Div. Jagersdrift, between the Bushmans and Kareega rivers<br/>4) East London Dist. near Fort Jackson<br/>5) Alexandria. Albany, near Southwell Village / Waaiheuwel.<br/>6) Albany. Riebeck. 11 miles from Grahamstown.<br/>7) Bathurst Dist. 3 miles from Shaw Park<br/>8) Grahamstown, 5 km outside Grahamstown	eng
185453	habitat	Dold, A.P., Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2005	Natural wetlands in seasonal vleis.	eng
185453	population	Dold, A.P., Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2005	The population is severely fragmented.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: < 2000;   <br/>Estimated number of locations: eight;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): unknown;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): apparently none;  possible	eng
185453	threats	Dold, A.P., Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2005	Potentially threatened in some subpopulations by change in water quality through pollution caused by agriculture, and residential and industrial development.	eng
185454	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	It occurs in Saiwa National Park which is a protected area.	eng
185454	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This is a widespread species, from Mali and the Ivory Coast to Sudan and Ethiopia and south to South Africa. In Eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.	eng
185454	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Swamps, boggy grassland, temporarily wet grassland	eng
185454	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185454	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Recreation and tourism might be major threats but this needs to be confirmed. No threats reported at the moment.	eng
185456	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Rivers bank protection and conservation and rational management have been recommended.	eng
185456	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	This species is widely spread through the tropics including tropical Africa and Asia, temperate Asia and Australia. It is also naturalised and cultivated throughout the tropics.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Egypt. Chad, Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan, Eknya, Uganda, Cameroon, Rwanda, Cote D'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Angola, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Transvaal), and Swaziland.	eng
185456	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species grows on rivers banks in flooded zones.	eng
185456	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Species with wide occurrence through tropical Africa	eng
185456	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Rice farming, impacts from livestock, harvesting and drought have been identified as possible future threats but these are not major threats.	eng
185457	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Habitat protection and restoration and research actions are needed.	eng
185457	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant distributed widely in West tropical Africa (Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone).	eng
185457	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Swampy ground in savanna, wet ground, by rivers often forming thickets.	eng
185457	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Locally abundant.	eng
185457	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, harvesting and drought	eng
185458	conservation	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	No information available.	eng
185458	distribution	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Endemic to South Africa. Confined to the Cape region (Northern and Western Cape provinces)	eng
185458	habitat	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Seasonal ponds, wet marshy places and along streams, 300-500 m. Perennial Geophyte	eng
185458	population	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Estimated number of locations: <10 known	eng
185458	threats	Raimondo, D. & Cholo, F., 2006	Grazing is a potential threat at some localities but many of the localities of this species in Namaqualuland and even Anysberg have no known threats.	eng
185459	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is now easily propagated and cultivated at Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. The spring water where it is native is still flowing but it sequestered before it reaches the surface. However, with the appropiate conservation actions such as site protection and restoration, and a re-introduction programme, there could be an opportunity to reintroduce <em>Nymphaea thermarum</em> to Rwanda.	eng
185459	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	It is endemic to one single locality Mashyuza, southwest Rwanda, only known in the wild from the type locality, collected in 1987.	eng
185459	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Damp mud created by the overflow of a freshwater hot spring, where the water has cooled to around 25˚C.	eng
185459	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It disappeared from this location due to over-exploitation of the hot spring that fed this fragile habitat, and no plant is known to have survived in the wild. Repeated searchers of numerous hotsprings in Central Africa failed to find a single population (Fischer pers. comm. 2010). At present all the extant plants are in cultivation at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in United Kingdom and in Bonn Botanic Gardens, Germany.<br/><br/>Before becoming extinct in the wild, <em>Nymphaea thermarum </em>occurred in Mashyuza, southwest Rwanda (Africa). <br/><br/>There are over 50 <em>Nymphaea thermarum</em> plants in the Living Collection at Kew, which is the only place in the world where it is being propagated regularly and in large quantities.	eng
185459	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The only population of this species has died out as a consequence of over-exploitation of the aquifer that fed the hot spring that kept the plants moist and at a constant temperature.	eng
185460	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This is a near endemic plant, therefore its habitat has to be preserved. The possibility should be studied to know how to build damps that can preserve rapids and waterfall species.	eng
185460	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicraeanthus </span>is essentially Cameroonian. Some specimens of this genus have been collected in Central Africa Republic, but in localities very close to its border with Cameroon. One collection of <em>Dicraeanthus</em> sp. exists in Gabon and one in Democratic Republic of Congo, but it's not clear whether they are <span style="font-style: italic;">Dicraeanthus africanus</span> or not.	eng
185460	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb, submerged or semi-floating in fast water of waterfalls and rapids, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185460	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Where this plant grows, the population is generally dense and abundant.	eng
185460	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The dam construction is a major threat faced by waterfall and rapid species. In the case of Podostemaceae, they can support high degree of pollution.	eng
185461	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185461	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to southern Angola (Huila, Cuene) and northern Namibia (Ovamboland) (Cook 2004).	eng
185461	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Usually in permanent water in lakes, pools and slowly flowing rivers.	eng
185461	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185461	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185462	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Further research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185462	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	Only present in southern Somalia (Bay region, Bur Akaba inselberg, Baidoba).	eng
185462	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	In damp spots where water trickles over the rock after rain.	eng
185462	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare.	eng
185462	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Drought is the major threat to the species.	eng
185463	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185463	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	It is found in western Africa from Mali and Niger to Sudan and south to South Africa.<br/><br/>In North east Africa it has been recorded in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Also in Eastern Africa from Kenya to Malawi and south to Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and South Africa.  <br/><br/>In Kenya, it has been recorded from Masai and Northern Frontier districs. In Tanzania it has been found in Mbulu, Rufiji  and Ufipa districts.	eng
185463	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Wet and damp places.	eng
185463	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Fairly Common.	eng
185463	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Wide spread with no major threats.	eng
185464	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	None at the moment, but conservation measures overtaken should be those protecting the habitat of this species.	eng
185464	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa:    Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola, Zambia.	eng
185464	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Terrestrial herb living in swamps.	eng
185464	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Moderate extent of occurrence with small area of occupancy, therefore relatively small population size.	eng
185464	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water pollution.<br/>- Invasion by alien species<br/>- Infrastructure development (industrial and human settlement)..<br/>- Wood agriculture of water demanding trees close to the swampy area.<br/>- Severe drought followed by extreme temperature elevation.	eng
185465	conservation	Fish, L. & Victor, J.E., 2005	No information	eng
185465	distribution	Fish, L. & Victor, J.E., 2005	Endemic to the mountains of the south western part of Western Cape province (South Africa)	eng
185465	habitat	Fish, L. & Victor, J.E., 2005	Fast-flowing mountain streams over sandstone, often in waterfalls, 120-1220m. Perennial graminoid	eng
185465	population	Fish, L. & Victor, J.E., 2005	No information	eng
185465	threats	Fish, L. & Victor, J.E., 2005	None known	eng
185466	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N.; FTEATS, 2006	Not known if it occurs in any protected areas, but probably. Need better information on the true range, abundance and threats to this species.	eng
185466	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N.; FTEATS, 2006	This species is found in Western Africa and Southern Africa. It occurs in Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Chad.	eng
185466	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N.; FTEATS, 2006	Grows in marshy areas and sometimes on wet sands (seasonally damp ground). It can also be found in wet depressions in <em>Terminalia spinosa</em> wooded grassland	eng
185466	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N.; FTEATS, 2006	Unknown.	eng
185466	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N.; FTEATS, 2006	Increasing occurrence of drought  and agricultural activity (livestock - nomadic and small-holders) may pose a threat to this species.	eng
185468	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place.	eng
185468	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	The plant is present in tropical western, eastern, central, and south east Africa.	eng
185468	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	Semi aquatic annual growing in flooded savanna.	eng
185468	population	Juffe, D., 2009	Herbaceous plant, the population is expected to be locally abundant.	eng
185468	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	No specific threats to the species are known. It is likely that the species is locally impacted by drought, irrigation for agriculture and pollution by solid waste.	eng
185469	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed. Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.</p>	eng
185469	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	Guineo Congolian distribution. In west Africa the plant is present in Mali, Liberia, Guinea and Siera Leone while in Central Africa the plant is present in Congo.	eng
185469	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	Swamps and seasonal pools, swallow water at lake edges.	eng
185469	population	Juffe, D., 2009	Locally abundant population.	eng
185469	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	This plant grows in water and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. Water composition can fluctuate considerably due to human activities and the water availability can be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought, irrigation for agriculture and saturation by solid waste.	eng
185470	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185470	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is found in Western Cape (South Africa) (Cook 2004)	eng
185470	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found in temporary pools.	eng
185470	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185470	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185471	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment. More research on population numbers and distribution range is needed.	eng
185471	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Congolian (Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon). Its distribution within Gabon and Nigeria needs more information.	eng
185471	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Understory of dense and wet forest, often on damp or swampy soil. Also in gallery forest in savanna. Up to 1,000 m above sea level.	eng
185471	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Medium size population.	eng
185471	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture. No major widespread threats have been identified.	eng
185472	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185472	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon and Gabon).	eng
185472	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Liana of forest understory and river's borders.	eng
185472	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185472	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Forest clearing for agriculture or logging.	eng
185473	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No conservation measures in place. Land water management and awareness raising through training, education and communication are recommended.	eng
185473	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<strong style="font-weight: normal;">This species is e</strong>ndemic to Gabon.	eng
185473	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Generally an understory herb, but can grow in river valleys.	eng
185473	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	It has been found in four locations (Heine 1966). Populations are small.	eng
185473	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Land pollution and forest clearing for agriculture or logging have been identified as threats.	eng
185474	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185474	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>There are a number of records from Gabon (M. Lock pers. comm. 2008); also recorded from Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185474	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	The species grows in seasonally wet grasslands. It is an hemicryptophyte.	eng
185474	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185474	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and activities of extractive industries.	eng
185475	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185475	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to the Northern and Western Cape, South Africa with 14 herbarium specimens in eight unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells	eng
185475	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plant is sometimes found in moist situations but is not considered to be a wetland species. Perennial Herb	eng
185475	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185475	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185476	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	In Senegal at least occurs in some protected areas. Research on the population, range and threats are required.	eng
185476	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Limited area in western Casamance and in Guinea (Kindia and Friguiagbé) and Guinea-Bissau. The species could be further widespread, there is a record listed for Nigeria (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2002).	eng
185476	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Occurs in moist soils, rice fields and temporary flooded areas. Mat forming.	eng
185476	population	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185476	threats	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185477	conservation	K. Oberlander, L. Dreyer, N. Helme & D. Raimondo, 2006	Site management is required as well as implementation of&#160; legal measures to protect the species is required. Restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat is also highly recommended.	eng
185477	distribution	K. Oberlander, L. Dreyer, N. Helme & D. Raimondo, 2006	South African endemic: Clanwilliam valley (Cape Plants 2000);  <br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Brandewyn Rivier, northwest of Pakhuis Pass. Not common, growing close to the river in deepish sands, was in a disturbed area (L. Dreyer and K. Oberlanders pers. comm. 2006).<br/>2) Clanwilliam Div. between Greys Pass and Graafwater (Leipoldt 1940) - likely to be extinct due to agriculture and alien plant invasion.<br/>3) Clanwilliam, 10 miles north of town (Salter 1933) - highly likely to be extinct due to agriculture, area now under orchards.<br/>4) Clanwilliam Div. Warmbaths (Edwards 1915) - highly likely to be extinct.<br/>5) Clanwilliam (Schlechter 1896).<br/>6) Olifants River Mts (Schlechter 1894).	eng
185477	habitat	K. Oberlander, L. Dreyer, N. Helme & D. Raimondo, 2006	Marshy places or in seepage bands.	eng
185477	population	K. Oberlander, L. Dreyer, N. Helme & D. Raimondo, 2006	Estimated number of locations: 1;   <br/>Estimated number of past locations: at least 4;  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes severely;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): yes;  Ongoing;  yes	eng
185477	threats	K. Oberlander, L. Dreyer, N. Helme & D. Raimondo, 2006	The Brandewyn River is the only known extant locality, with decline in habitat caused by heavy livestock grazing and trampling and alien invasive plants.  All other localities are likely to have been lost due to being drowned by Clanwillian and Bulshoek dams, or to agricultural development.	eng
185478	conservation	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K. & Pillay, D., 2005	No information.	eng
185478	distribution	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K. & Pillay, D., 2005	Endemic to Brandewyn's river causeway between Pakhuis Pass and Doornbosch, Clanwilliam division, the Cape, South Africa. However it might be a form of a more common species (<span style="font-style: italic;">Oxalis dregei</span>).	eng
185478	habitat	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K. & Pillay, D., 2005	Wet marshy places and along streams. At an altitude of about 400 m.	eng
185478	population	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K. & Pillay, D., 2005	No information.	eng
185478	threats	Dreyer, L., Oberlander, K. & Pillay, D., 2005	Agricultural activities may be threatening the species but this needs to confirmed.	eng
185479	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is not under any conservation measures. Some of its populations are found in protected areas such forest reserves and national parks.	eng
185479	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	It has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.	eng
185479	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in moorland swamps, bogs, peatlands and wet grassland.	eng
185479	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The exact area covered by this plant is not known although it may be widespread, at least in Eastern Africa. It is locally common in Kenya, in high altitude from 1,800-4,350 m above sea level.	eng
185479	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threats have been identified.	eng
185480	conservation	Sieben, E., Day, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
185480	distribution	Sieben, E., Day, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	This species is endemic to southwestern part of the Western Cape, South Africa (Cook 2004);    <br/><br/>Big populations present at Grassy Park in Cape Town, Bredasdorp, Hopefield and Rawsonville. Also present in Princessvlei, Seekoeivlei, Riverlands, Kenilworth, Duthie Reserve near Stellenbosch, Elandsberg and Elandskloofberg. In three localities the species has probably gone extinct: Salt River, the Stellenbosch flats and around the forestry faculty in Stellenbosch.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):<br/>1) Elandsberg. Slangkop Road. Alt: 70m. (Parker, E. 29-6-1996) / W Coast, Riverlands Nature Reserve (Snijman, D.A. 28-9-2005)<br/>3) Cape Flats, Princess Vlei (Walgate, M.M. 29-8-1946)<br/>4) Worcester Div. Worcester Vlei (Tolken, H.R. 0-9-1965) / Rawsonville, Brandvlei, (Marsh, J.A. 17-9-1968) / Bokkekraals, Brandvleidam (Mauve, A.A. and Oliver, E.G.H. 18-9-1974)<br/>5) Hopefield Div. Darling Bot. Res. In Vlei (Mauve, A.A. 18-9-1967)<br/>6) Cape Town, Grassy Park (Compton, R.H. 18-9-1942) / Seekoevlei. Alt: 5m. (Koutnik, D.L. 6-7-1983)<br/>7) Duthie Reserve, Stellenbosch (Van Elsen 10-7-1968)<br/>8) Bredasdorp, Karsrivier vlei. Alt: 15m (Glen, R.P. 21-8-1994)<br/><br/>Extinct localities:<br/>9) Salt River (Marloth, H.W.R. 0-8-1884) - extinct<br/>10) Stellenbosch Div. Stellenbosch Flats (Thompson, M.F. 17-11-1967) / (Strey, R.G. 15-9-1946)<br/>11) Stellenbosch, Flats Of Old Golfcourse (Bos, J.J. 31-7-1963)<br/>12) Cape Province, Greenpoint, Cape Flats (Pappe)	eng
185480	habitat	Sieben, E., Day, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Sandy lakeshores that dry out in summer. Shallow pools or rivers with slow running water up to 300 m above sea level (van Bruggen 1985).<br/><br/>In water up to about 1 m deep in shallow pools or slowly flowing rivers, it can grow emergent for a while after the water level falls. Common in the permanent Cape vleis, such as Zeekoei Vlei and Princess Vlei (Cook 2004).	eng
185480	population	Sieben, E., Day, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	There are around 10 subpopulations (eight precise localities), three of which are probably extinct. A 30% decline in population can be in inferred. This species is considered severely fragmented as > 50 % of its known localities are isolated from one another and the seeds are known to be dispersed in water (van Brugen 1985) and it is thus presumed that dispersal between isolated water bodies occurs very seldom.	eng
185480	threats	Sieben, E., Day, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Drying up of vleis associated with urbanisation. Four of the 12 recorded  locations in PRECIS have been lost due to urbanisation of Cape Town and Stellenbosch over the past 120 years. According to J. Day (pers. comm.) there has been at least a 30 % loss of habitat in the past 50 years. <br/><br/>The species seems to be able to deal with the invasion of alien grasses such as <span style="font-style: italic;">Paspalum vaginatum</span>.	eng
185481	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185481	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	Endemic to Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), only present in Haut-Katanga.	eng
185481	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	The ecology of this helophyte in unknown. Only known from the type collected in 1911 in humus-rich soil in  savanna.	eng
185481	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185481	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	The species is threatened by mining activities affecting its habitat where around 250 mining concessions have been granted.	eng
185482	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but habitat should be protected through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. More research in habitat status and actual threats is needed.	eng
185482	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon. The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).	eng
185482	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb submerged or not in fast water of waterfalls, fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other hard object.	eng
185482	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	It is known from the type collection only, but this population is not expected to be very important.	eng
185482	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The waterfalls are generally appreciated for tourism and excursions, so trampling is a problem.	eng
185483	conservation	Matlamela, P.F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2007	No information. Research is needed to know more about the species distribution, trends and taxonomic status.	eng
185483	distribution	Matlamela, P.F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2007	Known only from the type locality on top of Table mountain above Cape Town (Western Cape, South Africa).&#160;  Known locality (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007): Tafelberg (Ecklon and Zeyher).	eng
185483	habitat	Matlamela, P.F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2007	Growing in shallow rock basins filled with humus (Tolken 1985); temporary pools and wet depressions (Cook 2004).	eng
185483	population	Matlamela, P.F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2007	No information available.	eng
185483	threats	Matlamela, P.F. & Kamundi, D.A., 2007	Unknown.	eng
185484	conservation	Archer, C., 2005	No information available.	eng
185484	distribution	Archer, C., 2005	South Africa and Swaziland endemic. Occurs on KwaZulu-Natal South coast (Port Shepstone to Port Edward) and into the Bizana area of Transkei.	eng
185484	habitat	Archer, C., 2005	Damp situations in sand along the margins of streamlets and pools and in hollows among sandstone outcrops. Not a wetland or aquatic species, but may be found in seasonally wet or damp places. Perennial Helophyte	eng
185484	population	Archer, C., 2005	No information available.	eng
185484	threats	Archer, C., 2005	None known.	eng
185485	conservation	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185485	distribution	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to Mozambique and South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Eastern Cape)	eng
185485	habitat	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Not very gregarious, usually found mixed with other floating plants or between emergent reeds in pools and lakes. Perennial herb	eng
185485	population	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185485	threats	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185486	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185486	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to the Western Cape Province, South Africa with 26 specimen in 9 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells	eng
185486	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plants sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Perennial Dwarf shrub	eng
185486	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185486	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185487	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185487	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It occurs in Southern Africa up to Kenya.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is known from Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State).  Also in Eastern Africa where the species has only been collected from Central Kenya (K4) near Thika Town (North -side of Chania Hill-side of Thika River) at 1,450 m above sea level. Also present in Malawi.	eng
185487	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial hydrophyte, locally abundant in temporary, shallow pools, flooded pans and on muddy or sandy banks, 800-1700 m. Perennial Hydrophyte	eng
185487	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185487	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185488	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185488	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has only been recorded in Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Angola and Zambia.	eng
185488	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185488	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185488	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185489	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185489	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Known from Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Rwanda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. In Malawi it is found in Dedza Mountain, and Chiakngawa Forest in Mzimba. The record from Malawi needs to be confirmed.	eng
185489	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Swamps, bogs, streamsides and moist ground in bamboo, <em>Hagenia</em>, <em>Hypericum </em>and <em>Erica</em> zones, moorland and upland forest, grassland with <em>Acacia</em>.	eng
185489	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185489	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threats to this species are unknown.	eng
185490	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Research on the species threats, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185490	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is known only from two locations northern Somalia and not known elsewhere.	eng
185490	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	It is found in small lakes and pools with very variable water level, sometimes fully inundated.	eng
185490	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Very rare.	eng
185490	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is likely to be disturbed by water level fluctuations due to the construction of dams.	eng
185491	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M., 2009	The species is found within Protected areas.	eng
185491	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M., 2009	This species is widespread in Eastern Africa extending to Mozambique and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In Tanzania, it has been recorded from Bukoba district; Munene Forest Reserve, Lushoto district; Wan guwe R. Gare foot path; Morogoro district; Uluguru Mts., Bunduki, Kisaki. Its presence in Gabon is uncertain.	eng
185491	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M., 2009	Rain forest, riverine and swamp forest. From 500 - 2,100 m above sea level.	eng
185491	population	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185491	threats	Ghogue, J.-P.& Ali, M., 2009	Unknwown.	eng
185493	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185493	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Widespread in Western Kenya and present in Uganda (e.g. Mt. Elgon, Timboroa). The species is endemic to Eastern Africa.	eng
185493	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in alpine bogs and grasslands. It grows  between 1,800-3,500 m above sea level.	eng
185493	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185493	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threats had been reported. However, it must be noted this species lies in a high agriculture potential area where wetlands are being converted into other uses. Wetlands are also receiving a lot sediment from surrounding farms.	eng
185494	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	More research is needed on the species' distribution and threats as it could easily be threatened or even extinct.	eng
185494	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endemic to southern Somalia. It has been recorded from an unspecified site near Baidoa, at about 200 m above sea level (Lye 1996)	eng
185494	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	The habitat is not fully known although it has been collected in a damp ground near a spring (Lye 1996)	eng
185494	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	It is a rare species.	eng
185494	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185495	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185495	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Tropical African species, mostly Guineo-Congolian (Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon), but extends eastwards to Uganda, and south to Angola.	eng
185495	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial shrub found into marshes.	eng
185495	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185495	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution.	eng
185496	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185496	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to the Western Cape Provice, South Africa with 28 specimens in 9 unique Quarter Degree Squared grid cells.	eng
185496	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	According to Cook (2004), this is a weedy plant sometimes found in moist situations but they are not considered to be wetland species. Perennial Dwarf shrub.	eng
185496	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185496	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185497	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and further research on the population status, biology and ecology of the species , are needed.	eng
185497	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species occurs from Western to Southern Africa.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Benin, Mali, Côte d'ivoire, Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, and Central African Republic. Also in one site in Niger and in Namibia. The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).	eng
185497	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, living on rocks in waterfalls.	eng
185497	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Unknown population in Western Africa and low in Central Africa.	eng
185497	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	The species is potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought. Also  habitat loss due to human activities (dam construction, tourism and education).<br/><br/>Although the species is considered as threatened in Central Africa where it is affected by a dam, none of this threats are considered major at a Pan Africa level.	eng
185498	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	No conservation actions are in place.	eng
185498	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species is endemic to the Southern part of the African continent, from Democratic Republic of Congo down to South Africa.<br/><br/>Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Eastern Cape).	eng
185498	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Central Africa: Piece of water or seasonal water drying up the major part of the year; stagnating, slow to fast water, about 1.8 m depth, on granite, clay or diorite, from 0-2,000 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: In still or flowing water up to 2 m deep, or in marshes and dams, in pools in outcrops, 60-1,220 m; Perennial Epihydate	eng
185498	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Central Africa: <span style="font-style: italic;">A. desertum</span> is a widespread species.	eng
185498	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Central Africa: The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that the tubers of this species are edible (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is a lethal exploitation and if not controlled can affect the population and even the survival of this species.<br/><br/>Southern Africa: None known	eng
185499	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but raising public awareness and formal education have been suggested.	eng
185499	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in the west to Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185499	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Geophyte of swampy forest understory and streamsides.	eng
185499	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185499	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.	eng
185500	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Research on taxonomy, population size, distribution and trends has been recommended.	eng
185500	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Native to Africa, Asia, Pacific and southern America. Pan tropical weed.<br/><br/>In Africa it is found in Ghana, Guine, Liberia, Senega, Sierra Leone, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cote D'Ivoire, Kenya, and Tanzania.<br/><br/>In Kenya, It has been recorded from Kwale District: Shimba Hills, Mwalunganji and Teita District: Taita Hills, Mnyuchi. In Tanzania in  Mpanda District: 11 km on Mpanda–Uruwira road, Mbinga, Mitomoni, and in Tanga District: Mnyusi, Manta.	eng
185500	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Annual or perennial with fasciculate roots; the leaves are opposite and the flowers are co linear. <br/><br/>Sometimes locally abundant, near the sea until 100 m or in cultivated places in the base of hills, mountains, along the roads. In swampy or low-lying ground. In New Caledonia, it is spontaneous herb.	eng
185500	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185500	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.	eng
185501	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185501	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Namibia and South Africa (Free State Province) (Cook 2004).	eng
185501	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found in temporary pools.	eng
185501	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185501	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185502	conservation	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2004	No information.	eng
185502	distribution	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2004	Endemic to the Okavango River, and currently known only from Namibia and Botswana (Golding 2002).	eng
185502	habitat	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2004	Spreading aquatic.	eng
185502	population	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2004	No information available.	eng
185502	threats	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2004	No information.	eng
185503	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185503	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to Angola and Botswana (Cook 2004).	eng
185503	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Not very gregarious, usually found mixed with other floating plants or between emergent reeds in pools.	eng
185503	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185503	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185504	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No conservation measures in place. Conservation measures should be  directed towards the protection of&#160; its habitat. This can be  done improving communication and education of savanna residents. Policy makers,  especially authorities in charge of the protection of the environment  should be aware of the presence and the importance of protecting freshwater plants. They should be trained to be able to make decisions based on knowledge and understanding of freshwater ecology.	eng
185504	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in Ubangi-Uele to Central African Republic (CAR). Here we assess this plant as endemic to Central Africa, but this may not be the case. In fact, we don't know the plant's distribution in CAR and the extent of occurrence (EOO) might extend out of the Region's boundary.	eng
185504	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Herb, semi-submerged in pond water on laterite.	eng
185504	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Ecologically specialist species. It is presumed it has a small size population.	eng
185504	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water and land pollution, severe drought, infrastructure development and human settlement are the main threats.	eng
185505	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders.	eng
185505	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon. It is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).	eng
185505	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small aquatic herb, submerged or not in waterfall's water, fixed with thallus on rocks.	eng
185505	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Medium size population (three different collecting sites in Cameroon).	eng
185505	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction, but also tourism and excursions.	eng
185506	conservation	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2005	No information	eng
185506	distribution	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2005	Endemic to South Africa and Lesotho: Harrismith, Ncandu area, near Ficksburg and Bethlehem to the Mpumalanga/KwaZulu-Natal border between Wakkerstroom and Ermelo.<br/><br/>Known localities (PRECIS):  <br/>1) Mountain Road<br/>2) Tandjiesberg, 27 km. NE of Ladybrand<br/>3) Ficksburg, Mpharane Mt.<br/>4) Bethlehem<br/>5) Slabbberts, Paterimo<br/>6) Harrismith, Loskop<br/>7) Uitrecht Dist. Naauwhoek<br/>8) Glencoe Dist. Biggarsberg, One Tree Hill<br/><br/>TPA record: <br/>9) Ermelo Dst. Lake Chrissie (Moss 1975)	eng
185506	habitat	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2005	Montane grassland, in mountain rock pools, pans and vleis. Marshy areas or shallow vleis at high altitude (1600-3400 m). Flowers from January to March.	eng
185506	population	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2005	7 localities known, but probably >10.	eng
185506	threats	Victor, J.E. & Dold, A.P., 2005	none	eng
185507	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions on population numbers, range, ecology, threats and conservation measures needed.	eng
185507	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Recorded from Cameroon (Bamenda; NW sopes of Mba Kokeka Mt. 7,500 ft above sea level;  Tchamba; Nakalba, 21 km WSW Tchamba).	eng
185507	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	This is a moss-like herb with a ribbon-like thallus. Anchored to wet rocks.	eng
185507	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185507	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought	eng
185508	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More research in population trends, biology and ecology, habitat status, and geographical range is needed.	eng
185508	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This plant has only been recorded from Ghana in western Africa and Kenya and Uganda in Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>In Kenya the species is locally common from 1,650-3,500 m, recorded from the Aberdare Ranges, Laikipia District and Nairobi area and Trans-Nzoia, Mt Elgon and Tinderet. In Ghana the species was found in Ejisu, Kumasi.	eng
185508	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in still or slow moving water in streams, lakes and reservoirs. Also submerged and fixed in streams and damp areas.	eng
185508	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Small occurrence in Africa.	eng
185508	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species may be potentially locally impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought although these are not considered major threats.	eng
185509	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of riverine populations and stakeholders.	eng
185509	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Central Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea).	eng
185509	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in the fast water of waterfalls and rapids	eng
185509	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Locally more or less widespread species, gregarious. Important population.	eng
185509	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction is a potential future threat. One of the sites in  Kienke (Kribi) is in the town and is likely to be severely affected by pollution of various kinds.	eng
185510	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185510	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endemic to Ethiopia. Only know from the type collection in Ethiopia (Asela region).	eng
185510	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Bare wet soil along small streams.	eng
185510	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	Rare.	eng
185510	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal and natural disasters such as drought.	eng
185511	conservation	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185511	distribution	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia and Botswana) and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185511	habitat	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Perennial Geophyte. Riverine and swamp species.	eng
185511	population	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	The species is widespread. Specimens where collected from at least ten quarter degree squared  (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185511	threats	Snijman, D. & Victor, J.E., 2006	None known.	eng
185512	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed. The species might is present in  protected areas.	eng
185512	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded in several African countries, from Nigeria to Ethiopia and south to Zimbabwe.	eng
185512	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Perennial herb of damp places.	eng
185512	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is common.	eng
185512	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespread threats.	eng
185513	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185513	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species has a Congolian distribution. It has been recorded from Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.	eng
185513	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Liana growing on the swampy or sloppy forest understory.	eng
185513	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, medium size population.	eng
185513	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water and land pollution, forest clearing for agriculture and logging.	eng
185514	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Research on threats, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185514	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	It has only been recorded in Sudan (unknown location).	eng
185514	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	It grows submerged in various water bodies.	eng
185514	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is rare.	eng
185514	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.	eng
185515	conservation	Cholo, F. and Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185515	distribution	Cholo, F. and Foden, W., 2006	Present in Mozambique South Africa and Namibia.	eng
185515	habitat	Cholo, F. and Foden, W., 2006	This perennial helophyte is not an aquatic or wetland species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places.	eng
185515	population	Cholo, F. and Foden, W., 2006	It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185515	threats	Cholo, F. and Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185516	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185516	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Perhaps endemic to southern Africa; Swaziland, South Africa and possibly Lesotho (RSA: North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185516	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Shallow water in seasonal or permanent pools, also found along the marshy banks of pools and in swamps. Perennial Herb.	eng
185516	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185516	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185517	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place.	eng
185517	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is known from Ethiopia to Cape Province in South Africa.	eng
185517	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs in medium altitude swamps between 1,500 m to 2,500 m asl.	eng
185517	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185517	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No known major widespread threats	eng
185518	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	None at the moment. Site based management, educational activities  and communication need to be put in place  to raise species awareness.	eng
185518	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Central Africa endemic. Found in Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia.	eng
185518	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Annual herb, rarely biannual of swampy savannas and meadows.	eng
185518	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This plant is not common in DRC where only two locations are mentioned. If this is the same case in Angola and Namibia, then naturally the population size of this species is small.	eng
185518	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Land pollution, infrastructure and agriculture development. Also severe drought.	eng
185519	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185519	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is found in Kenya (Nzoia District and Uasin Gishu District), Ethiopia (Tigre, Teramne), and Eritrea. Locality in Eritrea has not been confirmed yet although Osmara has been mentioned (Vollensen 2008), exact location need to be confirmed.	eng
185519	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Found in permanent  river, streams, lakes and pools.	eng
185519	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is rare.	eng
185519	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species vulnerable to any stress due to its limited dispersal and restricted range. Potentially threatened by natural disasters such as drought.	eng
185520	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185520	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo Congolian species, present in Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire from the west to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185520	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It grows in streamsides.	eng
185520	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185520	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution.	eng
185521	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185521	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Guinea in west Africa to Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.	eng
185521	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Liana of riparian forest, understory or ia flooded areas, more rarely in gallery forest understory, epiphytic or forming dense population on the ground.	eng
185521	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185521	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land or water pollution, forest clearing for logging of agriculture.	eng
185522	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Not known to occur in any protected areas. Surveys to determine the true range, abundance and threats to this species are recommended.	eng
185522	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	This species is endemic to western Africa, apparently only known from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, Togo and Gabon.	eng
185522	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	This is a perennial graminoid grows singly around pools and in marshy grassland.	eng
185522	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	There is no data available.	eng
185522	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Unknown, although increased occurrence of drought and bush fires could be considered as threats where they occur.	eng
185523	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185523	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North East Africa it has been found in Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, it has been recorded from Tanzania in Masai district Great north road Tarangire, Mbulu district 10km from Lake Manyara near kwa kuchinja (Kuchinia). In Kenya the species occurs widely (K1,3) from 450 - 1000 m above sea level. It is rare and has of recent been recorded in Lake Kamar in Baringo district in Uganda (Central Rift Valley).	eng
185523	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	In temporary seasonal pools, ponds and depressions which hold water for a few weeks after rain.	eng
185523	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Rare in North-eastern Africa.	eng
185523	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is mainly threatened by intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. It is therefore vulnerable to natural disasters such as drought.	eng
185524	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185524	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Endemic to South Africa where it is widespread and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185524	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	Perennial Helophyte. Marshes	eng
185524	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	No information	eng
185524	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2005	None known	eng
185525	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Protection of the habitat. The Lobe waterfall, the only place where this plant, as well as many other Podostemaceae species grow, is very attractive for tourists. Information should be made available so that everyone is aware that some threatened species exist in the area. More research and surveys are needed to confirm if this species is extinct.	eng
185525	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This plant is endemic to Cameroon. Believed to have been sighted in Equatorial Guinea according to the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Gardens), but this record is considered dubious and will not be considered (Central African Assessment Workshop 2008).	eng
185525	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged, fixed on rocks in the fast water of a waterfall.	eng
185525	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Only one collection so far in one locality with small area of occupancy. It has not been seen since the single type collection was made <span style="font-style: italic;">c.</span>1908.	eng
185525	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The Lobe Waterfalls in Cameroon, where this plant occurs, are very attractive to tourists, so unregulated trampling is a serious problem.  Dam construction is a potential future threat.	eng
185526	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	More information is needed on the species distribution and threats within the region.	eng
185526	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Bibliography shows that the species is collected in one country in West Africa, Senegal. However, its presence is possible in other countries of West Africa too. According to Flora of Tropical East Africa the species, as <em>M. nubica var. gymnocarpa</em>, is found in West Africa, from Mauritania and Senegal to Sudan and Namibia and also in Madagascar. The species has been recorded in South Africa.<br/><br/>Therefore, the species is believed to be present on Eastern, Western Africa, and Madagascar.	eng
185526	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Wet and swampy places.	eng
185526	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185526	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185527	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185527	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Congolian distribution, with all the central African countries (Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, DRC, Angola, Eq. Guinea and Cameroon).	eng
185527	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Swampy forest understory or streamsides.	eng
185527	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185527	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution. No major widespread threats have been identified.	eng
185528	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185528	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This plant is endemic to Southern Africa.	eng
185528	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Not an aquatic or wetalnd species but may be found in seasonally damp or wet places. Perennial Herb	eng
185528	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	It is widespread and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185528	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185529	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further information on the species range, distribution and population trends is required.	eng
185529	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is widespread in the Sudano-Zambesian Region, south to South Africa. <br/><br/>Found in Cameroon, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it occurs in South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, possibly north western and Gauteng), Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has been recorded from one region in Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda. In Kenya the species is locally common (K1,4,6,7) from sea-level to 1,700 m. The species has been recorded in South Rift Valley in Narok, Kajiado and Magadi areas. It has been reported along the Kenya Coast in Taita District (Mudanda Rock) and Kilifi District in Mariakebuni and Marafa areas. Other population have been collected in western  Kenya in Mumias.<br/><br/>In Sudan it has been recorded from the Blue Nile Province. Also present in Ethiopia and Somalia in North-eastern Africa.	eng
185529	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial hydrophyte is found in lakes, dams, ponds, in permanent or temporary water and in slowly flowing water. It prefers high light intensity, sheltered areas protected from wind, waves, and currents.	eng
185529	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Very Common species.	eng
185529	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known.	eng
185530	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185530	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to South Africa and Lesotho (Drakensberg Range) (RSA: FDS, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185530	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Along mountain streams, often partly submerged after rain. Perennial Geophyte	eng
185530	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185530	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185531	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Some populations are found in established National Parks and Forest Reserves.	eng
185531	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is native to Eastern and Central Africa. It is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.<br/><br/>It has been recorded in Central Kenya (Aberdare Ranges), Rift Valley (Nakuru District, Narok, Amboseli National Park). In Tanzania the species is known from Arusha, Lushoto and Musoma Districts. In Uganda the species is recorded from the Mengo and Toro Districts.	eng
185531	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found near springs, river banks, swamps and often on alkaline soils.	eng
185531	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is locally abundant in Kenya from 400-1,800 m above sea level.	eng
185531	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No widespread threats have been identified but the distribution of this species makes it susceptible to wetland reclamation to create land for subsistence agriculture and animal grazing.	eng
185532	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185532	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Tropical Africa, from West (Togo, Nigeria) to East (Uganda). In Central Africa, the plant is present in Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Angola.	eng
185532	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Normal terrestrial woody plant, but also found at the river border.	eng
185532	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, tolerant with a large size population.	eng
185532	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially affected by land pollution.	eng
185533	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place.	eng
185533	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Tropical Africa from Senegal to Somalia, south to Zambia. With records from Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.	eng
185533	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It is plant of moist savanna, pasture, marshes, peatlands, edges of streams  between 650 and 2000 m of altitude.	eng
185533	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is a very common species.	eng
185533	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threats.	eng
185534	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	None in place or needed.	eng
185534	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species has been recorded from Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon and Sudan (el Ehs. Am Weissen Nil - At the River uokko - In Lande der Mitten - Balv el Ghazal Province) and Ethiopia.	eng
185534	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This marsh-plant grows in wet or muddy places places or on the edges of water.	eng
185534	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Poor litterature concerning its population although it is believed to be common in North Eastern Africa.	eng
185534	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185535	conservation	Mahamane, A., 2006	None at this moment. Education of local people to raise awareness is recommended. More research is needed in the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and potential conservation measures.	eng
185535	distribution	Mahamane, A., 2006	In West Tropical Africa to Tanzania. Known  from Senegal, Benin, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Togo, Sierra Leone in Western Africa. It Central Africa it occurs, from Senegal in the west to Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).  The record from DRC is unclear and presence remains doubtful.<br/><br/>No Eastern African specimens have been recorded recently (H.J, Beentje pers.comm. 2010). Haines & Lye (1983) state this is “only known from Kigoma and Iringa Districts” but cite no specimens. It is therefore a taxon of doubtful occurrence in Tanzania.	eng
185535	habitat	Mahamane, A., 2006	Herbaceous plant of river banks and similar damp places. Also found in depressions of coastal dunes, rice fields, borders of water, waterlogged soils, river-banks and damp places. It is robust plant which is well establish because of its dense tuft.	eng
185535	population	Mahamane, A., 2006	Abundant in Western Africa and likely to be locally important in Central Africa	eng
185535	threats	Mahamane, A., 2006	No major widespread threats for the Pan-African region have been identified although agriculture, land reclamation, droughts and pollution can threaten the species locally.	eng
185536	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas: Parc national des Virungas (National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, II) which overlaps with Rwenzori Mountains (National Park, World Heritage Convention, Uganda). More research is needed on the species distribution, threats and habitat status.	eng
185536	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is only known from Uganda (with records from the western slopes of Mount Muhavura, Mount Elgon, and Ruwenzori range), Tanzania (Kilimanjaro), Kenya (Mount Kenya, Aberdare range, mount Elgon), Ethiopia and Democratic Republic of Congo. (Ruwenzori range and Virunga Mountains).	eng
185536	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Damp places and marshy grassland, usually in shade in higher part of upland rainforest and in upland moor.	eng
185536	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185536	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The threats to the species are unknown, though there are many general threats in region including agricultural expansion, deforestation and increasing population densities.	eng
185537	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None	eng
185537	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs from Democratic Republic of Congo to Kenya and Tanzania to Southern Africa. Recorded from Okavango and Zambesi rivers, in Uganda it is only known from an island on Lake Victoria and in Tanzania it occurs at Bukoba district in Lake Victoria.	eng
185537	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	A submerged plant in still or slow flowing water.	eng
185537	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data.	eng
185537	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major widespread threats. Locally impacted by human settlements and their pollution of water.	eng
185538	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	None at the moment, but is in need of habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders. Research action for population and habitat status. Especially, the authorities of the dam should be aware of the existence of this plant, and convinced to take any conservation measure.	eng
185538	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The monospecific genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Zehnderia</span> is endemic to Sanaga falls in Edea, Cameroon. The extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 200 m<sup>2</sup>.	eng
185538	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Submerged freshwater plant, attached on rock surface or hard objects in rapids.	eng
185538	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Rare species.	eng
185538	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This plant grows at the site of the dam at Edea. If for any reason the dam is extended 100 or 200 m to the left, then this plant is gone for ever.	eng
185539	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No information.	eng
185539	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Lesotho and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining. Also present in eastern Africa and The Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185539	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Perennial herb found in wet places at high altitudes.	eng
185539	population	Juffe, D., 2006	No information	eng
185539	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	None known.	eng
185540	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185540	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Central African species, that extends westwards to Ghana and Nigeria.	eng
185540	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Perennial herb of streamside in forest.	eng
185540	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Quite widely distributed species, large size population.	eng
185540	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water and land pollution of all kind.	eng
185541	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>Raising public awareness through communication and education, and further research on habitat status, ecology and population trends of the species need to be undertaken.</p>	eng
185541	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Eriocaulon</span><em> stipantepalum</em> is a rather rare Central African species, restricted to Cameroon,    Democratic Republic of Congo  and possibly Congo.	eng
185541	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Probably perennial herb, growing at the margins of small pools and flooded depressions in grassland, on iron-rich ground; 1,250 m above sea level.	eng
185541	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information about the population size.	eng
185541	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, alien invasion, sudden drought.	eng
185542	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2006	Information is needed on the species distribution, ecology and threats.	eng
185542	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2006	Limited information available. There are records from Mali and Ghana.	eng
185542	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2006	Shallow or deep water, temporary or permanent.	eng
185542	population	Diop, F.N., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185542	threats	Diop, F.N., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185544	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185544	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, although occurrence in Congo requires confirmation. It has been mentioned in Gabon and also extends into the forest zone in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville where it occurs in natural forest clearings on sandy soil. Probably confined to Kalahari Sands. Most likely endemic.	eng
185544	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	Helophyte. Probably confined to Kalahari Sands.	eng
185544	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185544	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries.	eng
185545	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions needed.	eng
185545	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	Records from Senegal, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leone, Benin and Burkina Faso.	eng
185545	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Marshes and swamps. Shallow water, temporary or permanent, still streams, grassy marshes and rice fields.	eng
185545	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185545	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Unknown.	eng
185546	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185546	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian, from Guinea in West Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in Central Africa.	eng
185546	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Shady forest understory, sometime marshy.	eng
185546	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185546	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture and logging. Water pollution.	eng
185547	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185547	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Confined to Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia.	eng
185547	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Permanent swamps and seasonally flooded vleis, often floating but also emergent or sometimes submerged	eng
185547	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185547	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known	eng
185548	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185548	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to SE Africa, extending from Zimbabwe to the eastern escapement. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga,possibly Free State, KwaZulu-Natal,possibly Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Naturalized in New Zealand and St Helena.	eng
185548	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Permanently wet places, along streams, in pans and around pools. Perennial Hyperhydate	eng
185548	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185548	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185549	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers, range and threats is needed.	eng
185549	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has a Soudano-zambezian distribution. It has only been recorded from Senegal, Burkina Faso Cameroon, Tanzania (Songea district 6.5 km west of Songea valley and near R. Mtanda, 9.5 km west of Songea), Sudan (Equatoria - Djur, "Grosse seriba Ghattas") and Ethiopia.	eng
185549	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Shallow or deep water. Temporary or permanent water also found in rice fields and pools in boogy grasslands.	eng
185549	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Unknown. Species has important population in many ponds, dams and swamps in Burkina Faso (Ouedraogo, pers. comm.).	eng
185549	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Potentially impacted by agricultural development and drought.	eng
185550	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185550	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from Congo-Kinshasa and Zambia (one collection; M. Lock pers. comm.).	eng
185550	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This is a freshwater species although its habitat is not well known.	eng
185550	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185550	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185551	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Research action about species needed.	eng
185551	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Records from Guinea (Kollangui) and Mali (30 km west of Kita).	eng
185551	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Dry beds of rivers and marshy places.	eng
185551	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185551	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Wetlands management for agriculture.	eng
185552	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	No conservation measures are in place. Habitat protection through formal education and awareness of the riverside residents, tourists and stakeholders is needed. Research action for population status should also be carried out. The authorities of the ministry of environment should be informed of the existence of this species, who should advice the authorities of the dam&#160; to take conservation measures to protect this plant. If possible, a possible introduction of this species in a suitable habitat should be considered.	eng
185552	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is endemic to Cameroon. This plant is found in a single locality (Edea waterfalls on the Sanaga river). The species is reported to occur in Equatorial Guinea in the Checklist of Equatorial Guinea (Madrid Botanical Garden), but this is considered dubious by experts at the IUCN Central Africa Workshop (2008).	eng
185552	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Small annual aquatic herb, submerged or not, growing on the rocks in waterfalls and rapids.	eng
185552	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Very low population as the location site has been seriously reduced by the dam.	eng
185552	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	At the location site of this plant on the Edea waterfalls, a dam has already been built and has drastically reduced the habitat available for the species, although it has been confirmed to persist at the site (J.-P. Ghogue pers. comm. 2008). The major threat faced by this species will be the extension of the dam as it is found only 100 to the left of the dam. Also, because the population is now much smaller than before it will be more vulnerable to other threats.	eng
185553	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	Further information on the species' range, threats, distribution and trends is required.	eng
185553	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	Known from five sites in Democratic Republic of Congo, including the type locality (Haut-Katanga, DRC).	eng
185553	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This species inhabits damp grasslands and swamps. It is an hemicryptophyte.	eng
185553	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185553	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185554	conservation	Burrows, J. & Agenbag, L., 2006	The Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal subpopulations are all safely protected within National Parks (Lesotho National Park in Sehlabathebe, and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park), however, this species is undergoing rapid declines in Mpumalanga and parts of Limpopo.	eng
185554	distribution	Burrows, J. & Agenbag, L., 2006	Occurs in seasonal pools at high altitudes, from KwaZulu-Natal, Free State and Lesotho Drakensberg to Mpumalanga and Limpopo (Burrows 1990).<br/><br/>Known localities.  <br/><br/>Limpopo Province:<br/>1. Lapalala Wilderness. Doornleegte Farm. Alt: 1,168 m. Few localised plants. (Klopper, R.R. 29-3-2004)<br/>2. Blaauwberg summit, Van der Schiff - type (Anthony and Schelpe 1982) / Blaauwberg at trig beacon, shallow pool in rocks (Codd, L.E.W. and Dyer, R.A. 12-1-1955) / Blaauberg, near Baken. Rain pool in rock (Strey, R.G. and Schlieben, H-J.E. 26-6-1961) / Blouberg, above mountain forest zone (Vorster, P.J. 19-4-1973) / Blouberg, farm Beauley, in shallow rock pool by trig beacon (Anderson, H.M. 8-4-1989) - this subpopulation was recently destroyed when a cellphone tower was constructed at the site (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>Mpumalanga:<br/>3. Quarry near Balmoral off-ramp on N 4 between Witbank and Bronkhorstspruit. On edge of seasonal rock pool. Occr: common (Burrows, J.E. and Burrows, 25-12-1995) - half of the subpopulation have been lost since this collection was made as a result of ongoing expansion of the quarry (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006). Subpopulation is declining.<br/>4. Lydenburg, Lisabon (now Uitsoek) State Forest. Occr: abundant. Partially submerged in quiet shallow pools next to small perennial stream (Burrows, J.E. and Burrows, S.M. 27-12-1995) - this subpopulation is still extant, but the locality is surrounded by plantations and exotic invaders are intruding into the wetland (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006). Subpopulation is declining.<br/>5. Dullstroom, on Kruisfontein road just south of Dullstroom (Burrows, J.E. 7-1-1984) - this subpopulation is still extant, but surrounded by housing developments. John Burrows has witnessed the recent destruction of at least two subpopulations in the Dullstroom area. This subpopulation will probably also be lost soon to ongoing development (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006).<br/>6. Pelgrims Rus Distrik, Mariepskop, plato by baken (Van der Schijff, H.P. 10-12-1963) / Pilgrim’s Rest, Mariepskop, permanent pools on rock table on mountain summit (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 18-1-1969) / Pilgrims Rest district, Mariepskop, top of mountain, Erica-Passerina veld, in sand in rock pools (Venter, S. 18-11-1987) - this locality is at the moment relatively safe from development (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>KwaZulu-Natal<br/>7. Underberg district, Bushman’s Nek, Thamathu cave (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 5-2-1976)<br/>8. Underberg, Cobham forest station, Sipongweni Caves (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)<br/>9. Mpendhle district, Mulangane ridge, above Carter’s Nek. In rock pools (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 4-2-1984)<br/>10. Underberg district, Chameleon cave area. Shallow pools on sandstone outcrops (Hilliard, O.M. and Burtt, B.L. 2-12-1984)<br/><br/>Lesotho:<br/>11. Underberg, Matsa a Mafikeng. Sehlabathebe National Park. Alt: 2,450 m (Hoener, F.K. 8-9-1978) / Underberg, Sehlabathebe (Anthony and Schelpe 1982) / Underberg, just outside Sehlabathebe National Park (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)<br/><br/>Free State:<br/>12. Excelsior district, Korannaberg (Du Preez, P.J. 9-3-1989)<br/>13. QuaQua. In seasonal pools near entrance gate to mountain road (Roux, J.P. 14-1-1987)<br/>14. Senekal district, Clocolan, Sherwood (Anthony and Schelpe 1982)	eng
185554	habitat	Burrows, J. & Agenbag, L., 2006	High altitude seasonal pools. Restricted to sandstones in montane grassland. Altitude 1,600-2,000 m (Anthony and Schelpe 1986, Burrows 1990).	eng
185554	population	Burrows, J. & Agenbag, L., 2006	Thirteen locations (based on herbarium locality information). May be overlooked in remote areas in the Drakensberg (J. Burrows pers. comm.). At least three subpopulations in Mpumalanga have been destroyed in the last 10 years.  <br/><br/>Extent of occurrence (AOO) <500 is an estimate. Seasonal pools tend to be small (<1 ha), and although this species has a large EOO, this is a very rare and restricted habitat (also in terms of altitudinal range), therefore AOO probably very small. Subpopulations are generally large in suitable habitat, unlikely to qualify for C criteria.	eng
185554	threats	Burrows, J. & Agenbag, L., 2006	The Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal subpopulations are all safely protected within National Parks. However, this species is undergoing rapid declines in Mpumalanga and parts of Limpopo. Three subpopulations in Mpumalanga and Limpopo have recently been destroyed by housing developments and the construction of cellphone transmitter towers, while a further three subpopulations are in decline due to invasive alien species, the expansion of a quarry and ongoing housing developments (J. Burrows pers. comm. 2006)<br/><br/>The status of this species in the Free State is unknown, localities are in areas that are untransformed according to NLC (16), but the populations will require surveys.	eng
185555	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Some populations occur within established national parks and forest reserves. For example, Elgon National Park and Mt Kenya National Park.	eng
185555	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Native to Uganda and Kenya. This species only occurs in Mbale, Uganda between 3,200 m and 3,650 m asl. It is known to be more widespread in Kenya where it is found in uplands areas between 3,200-3,650 m (Elgon, Timboroa, Mt Kenya).	eng
185555	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Afro-alpine swamps and riversides in Hagenia-Hypericum and heath zones, margins of bamboo forest.	eng
185555	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data available.	eng
185555	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The main threats identified in Uganda are: illegal harvesting of plant products and high human population density that results in increased encroachment and loss of habitats. In Kenya no threats have been reported. However, this species may be threatened by agricultural activities in the upland forests.	eng
185556	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	None known.	eng
185556	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread in western Africa and has been collected once in Democratic Republic of Congo. It's likely that the specimen of<em> M. brevipetiolata</em> collected in Democratic Republic of Congo is rather<em> M. africana</em>.	eng
185556	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Aquatic herb, growing in pools on laterite rocks.	eng
185556	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread species in West Africa, but rather rare in Central Africa.	eng
185556	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Main threats are drought, sedimentation, and human activities (land management, infrastructure development etc.).	eng
185557	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185557	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This plant is endemic to Gabon.	eng
185557	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Herb growing on shady river border.	eng
185557	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Rather rare species with small population size.	eng
185557	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Land and water  pollution of all kinds have been identified as threats.	eng
185558	conservation	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	The species occurs in protected areas. Additional research on the range and threats is needed.	eng
185558	distribution	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Found over most of western Africa (probably more widespread than the country list indicates).	eng
185558	habitat	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	A helophyte in the Guinean and Sudanian savanna. Ocurs frequently in ponds, pools and marshy areas. Also colonizes seasonally flooded rocky depressions and fallow rice fields.	eng
185558	population	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	Relatively abundant.	eng
185558	threats	Diop, F.N. & Mahamane, A., 2006	The increasing occurrence of periodic drought is a significant pressure, as the habitats are dependent on rainfall.	eng
185559	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The habitat of this species has to be studied and protected.	eng
185559	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This plat is endemic to Africa. It has been recorded from Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola and Zambia.	eng
185559	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Aquatic submerged herb, rooted in swamp mud.	eng
185559	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	No information about the population of this species. It is not a very common species.	eng
185559	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is prone to be affected by invasion by alien species, wetland reclamation for human settlement, sudden drought and extreme temperatures. However, none of these have been reported as critical for the species survival.	eng
185560	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	More information is needed on the species distribution, impacts of threats and population status and trends within the region.	eng
185560	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species has only been recorded from Gabon where it was found from one site only in 1917 (Chutes de Samba, Sindara, dans la Ngounyé).	eng
185560	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Dwarf herb up to 11 mm including the pedicellate infrutescence. Found in water falls.	eng
185560	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185560	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185561	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185561	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	West to East Africa, from Cote d'Ivoire to Uganda, through Cameroon, Angola and Congo. Also recorded in Uganda (Bunyoro District: Budongo Forest andMengo District: Sezibwa Falls).	eng
185561	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Ground herb of forest floor, at the shady and damp places or at the river borders.	eng
185561	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185561	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Forest clearing for logging or shifting agriculture. None of them as considered as major threats.	eng
185562	conservation	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	<p>No conservation measures are in place. More research on ecology, taxonomic status and population trends is needed.<br/></p>	eng
185562	distribution	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	According to Cook (2004), this species is not correctly published. He assumed this because the description is an illustration. However according to the International Code of Botanial Nomenclature (IBCN), illustrations are allowed, so this was a valid species. Subsequently, the species has been synonomised with <span style="font-style: italic;">C. compressa</span>. It is also possible that this species is naturalised in SA.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007):  <br/><br/>1) Eshowe, Dhlinza Forest (Strey, R.G. 1963)<br/>2) Port St. Johns, Ntafufu (Strey, R.G. 1969)<br/>3) Albany District, Kloof between Featherstone's Kloof and bottom of Woest. (Schonland, S. 1892)<br/>4) Grahamstown (Schonland, S. 1893)<br/>5) King Williams Town, Perie For. (Flanagan, H.G.)<br/>5) King Williams Town District near Komgha along streams. (Flanagan, H.G. 1894)<br/>6) Silver River (Schlechter, F.R.R. 1894)	eng
185562	habitat	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information is available.	eng
185562	population	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information is available.	eng
185562	threats	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information is available.	eng
185563	conservation	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185563	distribution	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to the coastal areas of south Mozambique and eastern South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185563	habitat	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Usually near the coast, locally common in swamps, around lakes, along streams and in floating mats of vegetation. Perennial helophyte	eng
185563	population	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185563	threats	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known.	eng
185564	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Research actions needed.	eng
185564	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	Senegal to Liberia.	eng
185564	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	In marshy meadows, particularly in lowland Casamance. Weed of rice-paddies.	eng
185564	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185564	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2006	This species is affected by wetlands management for agriculture.	eng
185565	conservation	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Occurs in protected areas. No further measures required.	eng
185565	distribution	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Appears to be widespread in western Africa, but occurrence in many countries needs to be confirmed as Its distribution outside western Africa is uncertain. Possibly endemic to the region.	eng
185565	habitat	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Occurs in temporary ponds and rice fields.	eng
185565	population	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Moderately abundant.	eng
185565	threats	Mahamane, A. & Diop, F.N., 2006	Trampling by livestock may be a problem.	eng
185566	conservation	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185566	distribution	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Endemic to South Africa (W Cape Province)	eng
185566	habitat	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Wet soil, marshes, stream margins and temporary pools. Occasionally grows in water. Annual (occ. perennial) hydrophyte	eng
185566	population	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185566	threats	Cholo, F., Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185567	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	The species is found in Upemba National Park. More research is needed about its ecology, status and current population trends.	eng
185567	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Known only from three collections from the Kibara Plateau, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185567	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This plant is an helophyte. Its habitat is not well known.	eng
185567	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185567	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	Habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and extractive industries.	eng
185568	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	Need to find out more about the range, abundance and threats to this species.	eng
185568	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	In western Africa known only from Mali and Chad. It has also been recorded from Tanzania.	eng
185568	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Grows in marshes and flood plains, submerged or floating.	eng
185568	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185568	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Unknown, but probably the increasing occurrence of drought.	eng
185569	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185569	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire in west Africa to Cameroon, Gabon and Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa.	eng
185569	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Undershrub of forest understory, river and lake's borders.	eng
185569	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185569	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture or logging, water and land pollution.	eng
185571	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation actions are in place. The completion of site management  plans, educational activities to train and raise awareness&#160; as well as communication initiatives have been  suggested.	eng
185571	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guinean species, from Nigeria in west Africa to Cameroon and Gabon in the centre.	eng
185571	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Undershrub of forest understory or river borders.	eng
185571	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Relatively widespread species, medium size population.	eng
185571	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by by forest clearing for agriculture and logging.	eng
185572	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research actions needed.	eng
185572	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Occurrence seems to be restricted to Guinea, Mali, Cameroon and Burkina Faso.	eng
185572	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Recorded from pools of ironstone plateau.	eng
185572	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available.	eng
185572	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Drought and crop production are potential threats.	eng
185573	conservation	Foden, W., Jacobseni, G & Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185573	distribution	Foden, W., Jacobseni, G & Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa (RSA) and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004).	eng
185573	habitat	Foden, W., Jacobseni, G & Sieben, E., 2006	In shallow standing water, often filling depressions, 2600-3230m. Perennial Herb	eng
185573	population	Foden, W., Jacobseni, G & Sieben, E., 2006	Very widespread in quite remote areas. 11 localities known in PRECIS. Possibly also found in Tiffindale.   Quite likely much more common than collections indicate.	eng
185573	threats	Foden, W., Jacobseni, G & Sieben, E., 2006	Habitat threatened by overgrazing and peat degradation.	eng
185574	conservation	Victor, J.E., 2006	This species range falls within the Table Mountain National Park, which means that most of the habitat is quite safe. Some areas, e.g. Steenberg and Muizenberg were affected by alien invasives in the past, but aliens have been eradicated across the Peninsula and are now carefully managed. Therefore alien species remain only a potential threat, along with too frequent fire.	eng
185574	distribution	Victor, J.E., 2006	This species is endemic to South Africa. It is known from the Western Cape in Summo monte "Steenberg", Muizenberg Plateau, Noordhoek mountains, Cape Point Patrys Vlei, Smitswinkel flats Cape Peninsula, S. Cape Peninsula on slopes above Noord hoek and Steenberg Plateau south to the Smitswinkel flats (Ornduff 1999).	eng
185574	habitat	Victor, J.E., 2006	Wet soil and marshes. Perennial herb.	eng
185574	population	Victor, J.E., 2006	Estimated number of locations: < 10 <br/>Overall population decline (current): probably	eng
185574	threats	Victor, J.E., 2006	Alien species and frequent fires are a potential threat.	eng
185575	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More information is needed on the species exact range and threats.	eng
185575	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Only recorded in Africa, from Tanzania to Angola. <br/><br/>Recorded from Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Angola, Zambia, and Tanzania. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Songea district, Kwamponjore valley.	eng
185575	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Still water, usually in temporary pools.	eng
185575	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185575	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185576	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	More research is needed on the threats, distribution and conservation actions for this species.	eng
185576	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species is endimic to Somalia. Only recorded from near a drying pool between Bihen and Las Anod.	eng
185576	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species forms groups in a drying pool.	eng
185576	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	No information available.	eng
185576	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Infrastructure development such as tourism and recreation and human settlement, and drought are potential threats to the species.	eng
185577	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185577	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to South Africa, Namibia and Botswana.	eng
185577	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Annual herb. Recorded from open pans in Namibia (Simmons et al 1999).	eng
185577	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread and not declining	eng
185577	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185578	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185578	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185578	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Not strictly a wetland species. Sometimes growing together with wetland species after rains. A weedy plant growing in damp places or places where water stood during the rains but has dried out. Annual Herb	eng
185578	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185578	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185579	conservation	Raimondo, D., L. Dreyer, K. Oberlander & N. Helme, 2006	Habitat and site management and protection is required. Also, legal measures to protect the species habitat  should be put in place. Restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat is also recommended.	eng
185579	distribution	Raimondo, D., L. Dreyer, K. Oberlander & N. Helme, 2006	Vanrhynsdorp to Clanwilliam and in Calvinia, Western Cape, South Africa.  <br/><br/>Known localities:  <br/>1) Cape Province, Calvinia. ca. 42 km SE of Nieuwoudtville (Goldblatt, Snijman. 1983) <br/>2) W Cape, Northern Bokkeveld Escarpment S of Perdekraal (Oliver 1983) - locally frequent aquatic near edges of pan, also seen by D.Raimondo Augst 2006 > 500 plants seen at this location<br/>3) Cape, Vanrhynsdorp. Along boundary of farm Sandkraal and farm 256 at base of Mitsikamma (Snijman 1983) - growing in abundance in seasonal clay pool. <br/>4) Cape, Calvinia. Bokkeveld escarpment (Tweevlei, Snijman 1980)<br/>5) Van Rhynsdorp, Rd. To Mauwerskop south of Vanrhynsdorp third of way from Raskraal (Oliver 1974)<br/>6) Calvinia. Lokenberg near Nieuwoudtville (Barker)<br/>7) Clanwilliam Div. 4 miles west of Clanwilliam (Salter 1932)<br/>8) Calvinia Dist. 2 miles north of summit of Botterkloof (Salter 1932). Refound by L. Dreyer and K. Oberlander 2006 July. <br/>9) Clanwilliam Div. Doorn River (Schlechter 1897)	eng
185579	habitat	Raimondo, D., L. Dreyer, K. Oberlander & N. Helme, 2006	Seasonal pools and pans in clay.	eng
185579	population	Raimondo, D., L. Dreyer, K. Oberlander & N. Helme, 2006	Seasonal pools are highly isolated from one another but it is unknown that if a sub population goes extinct whether it could be recolonised. Not much is known about the dispersal strategy of these aquatic oxalisis.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: >10,000; <br/>Estimated number of locations: six; < 20 subpopulations (eight localities in PRECIS. <20 suspected.)	eng
185579	threats	Raimondo, D., L. Dreyer, K. Oberlander & N. Helme, 2006	Habitat threatened by heavy grazing and trampling of plants floating in shallow pools was observed by Helme at Vanrhysdorp subpopulation and by Raimondo at some Nieuwoudtivlle subpopulations. Agriculture (low to moderate threat) as some farmers plough up these seasonal pools. This occurred in Nieuwoudtville in 2005, but it is not general practice as crops do not grow well in seasonally inundated areas.	eng
185580	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185580	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique and Swaziland (RSA: Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). The species has also&#160; been recorded from Malawi.	eng
185580	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This species grows on wet rocks in water of river beds; submerged or partly. Tightly fixed to rock under swiftly flowing water. Between1,000-2,700 m above sea level.	eng
185580	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185580	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185581	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185581	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to mountains of southern Africa. South Africa and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Also recorded from Botswana and Namibia.	eng
185581	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This annual epihydate grows in rivers.	eng
185581	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185581	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185582	conservation	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
185582	distribution	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Perhaps endemic to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, possibly Western Cape) (Cook 2004).<br/><br/>Known localities: Umbilo. This is from a very old collection (1911) from the Durban area.	eng
185582	habitat	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Terrestrial on wet soil but tolerating longer periods of flooding.	eng
185582	population	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
185582	threats	Sieben, E. & Raimondo, D., 2006	No information available.	eng
185583	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185583	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Southern Africa (Namibia and South Africa) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185583	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	The ecology of this shrublet or woody herb is unknown, found in a stream valley.	eng
185583	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185583	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185584	conservation	Manning, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Habitat and site management and protection is required as well as  restoration of  sites for increasing species suitable habitat. Population trends should also be monitored .	eng
185584	distribution	Manning, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	This species is endemic to South Africa's Western Cape from Piketberg to Malmesbury (Cook 2004). Manning (2005) states three locations, three seasonal pools all middle of farmland (wheat farming), all declining, number of plants in each about 100 in two and less than 50 in one of them. Two locations within 1 km apart and the other about 50 km away. <br/><br/>Known localities: <br/>1) Sandvlei vernal pool, Sandvlei farm (D. Raimondo 04-Sep-05) 100-1,000 plants / Hopefield. 3 miles S of Koperfontein (M. De Vos 1956) / Malmesbury, near to Soutrivier and Koperfontein (M. De Vos 1956)<br/>3) The Pools between Piquetberg and Greys Pass (Barker 1951) / Clanwilliam. Between Piquetberg and Olifants River Mountains (T. Oliver 1980s) / Piketberg. (M. De Vos 1956) (a few other collections from here) / Clanwilliam. 30 km S of Citrusdal towards Piketberg (Snijman 1985). Not found by CREW (Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers) in Septemeber 2006, possibly extinct (however there are more pools 20 km SE of the pools that need to be checked according to N. Helme)<br/>3) Vanrhynsdorp. In seasonal pools near Aries (Vlok 1994). This is far out of range of all other collections but still definitely correct species. J.Vlok says this has been dispersed by ducks. According to J. Manning and D. Snijman (pers. comm.) this is <span style="font-style: italic;">R. multisulcata</span>.	eng
185584	habitat	Manning, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Seasonal pools on clay flats.	eng
185584	population	Manning, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Sandvlei vernal pools have <1,000 plants other subpopulation not known.  Matrix vegetation between vernal pools all transformed to wheat fields.<br/><br/>Estimated total population size: unknown; <br/>Estimated number of locations: 5;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: <5; <br/>One probably gone; (although well collected only actually two localities).  <br/>Overall populations decline (past): yes;  <br/>Overall population decline (current): continuing decline;	eng
185584	threats	Manning, J. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Agricultural transformation to wheat is a severe past and present threat (J. Manning pers. comm. 2005). These vernal pools are completely surrounded by wheat fields, the farmers are unaware of the biodiversity within the pools pools are being degraded by being filled in and by allowing large numbers of stock to trample in the pools.<br/><br/>Of the five farms visited by CREW in 2005 in the Sandvlei Kooperfontein area all had vernal pools in degraded conditions. Only one pool at the entrance of Sandvlei had this species still on it.	eng
185585	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185585	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Confined to Namibia and Botswana.<br/><br/>In Botswana, it is known from the north (Samedupe Bridge) and the southeast (Content Farm). It is also found in Namibia, in seasonally flooded areas, growing in water. Probably under-collected and widespread (SABONET 2002 Red List of Southern Africa).	eng
185585	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Seasonally flooded places, dams and pans, also in vleis and growing in water. Altitude of about 1050 m	eng
185585	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185585	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known	eng
185586	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185586	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Southern Africa: Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, possibly Free State). <br/><br/>In Kenya the species has been recorded from Northen Kenya (Moyale), Nairobi Nationa Park, Thika District, Taita District and (Tsavo East National Park, Mudanda Rock) from 550 - 1650 m above sea level. In Tanzania, it is known from Musoma district 97 km. from Seronera to Klein's  Camp; Moshi district Sanya plain; Dodoma district kazikazi.	eng
185586	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial hydrophyte occurs in rain-fed pools on sandstone or granite, 500-2300 m above sea level.	eng
185586	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The plant is present in at least 8 countries and we can conclude that the population is high.	eng
185586	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185587	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research actions needed.	eng
185587	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant collected in Guinea (Ditinn to Diaguissa) and Sierra Leone.	eng
185587	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	&#160;It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents). <span style="font-style: italic;">Stonesia</span> species live attached to submerged rocks or wood in rushing water in rapids or falls of streams and rivers.	eng
185587	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available.	eng
185587	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by water pollution and drought.	eng
185588	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185588	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from West to Central Africa.	eng
185588	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Herb of lake and river borders.	eng
185588	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Quite widespread species, large size population.	eng
185588	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by water pollution.	eng
185589	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No information.	eng
185589	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	West to East African distribution, from Nigeria in the West to Uganda and Tanzania in the East. Recorded from Nigeria; Cameroon; Democratic Republic of Congo; Ethiopia; Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; Burundi, Sudan; and Zambia. Presence in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea needs to be confirmed.	eng
185589	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Swampy or moist grassland; Upland grassland or moorland, often in moist sites or bogs, riverine, in forest glades por bamboo margins, also in secondary scrub in this zone; may be locally common.	eng
185589	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Locally common.	eng
185589	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threats have been identified.	eng
185590	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information.	eng
185590	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	This species is endemic to South Angola (in Kubango river, which then turns to be the Okavango River) and Northern Namibia (Cook 2004).	eng
185590	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Aquatic herb, annual, submerged or not, growing fixed on rocks in  waterfalls and rapids. It grows fixed by a thallus on rocks or any other  hard object.	eng
185590	population	Sieben, E., 2006	This species is found in only two sites. Population is very likely to decrease between 30-50% if its existing habitat is destroyed or degraded.	eng
185590	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	If the dam on the Kavango river is being built this species may get drowned by the dam which would decrease its habitat in Namibia.	eng
185591	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185591	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Zimbabwe, Mozambique south to South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal).	eng
185591	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found in pans, dams and streams; Perennial Hydrophyte	eng
185591	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185591	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185592	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Some populations are found in conservation areas such as national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185592	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Burundi, Cameroon, Bioko island (Equatorial Guinea), Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of  Congo (Congo-Kinshasa), Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi. Widespread in upland area from 1,050-3,050 m above sea level.	eng
185592	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in damp upland forests, near streams and bogs. Also in wet grasslands, swamps and bogs, alongside water, in damp places in upland montane forest	eng
185592	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data is available.	eng
185592	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Currently, the species faces no major threat. However, its suitable habitats can easily be threatened by human activities such as wetland reclamation to create land for agriculture and pastures.	eng
185593	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range are needed. Habitat based actions such as maintenance/conservation are also required.	eng
185593	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	This species has only been recorded in Ethiopia (Wadela).	eng
185593	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	Submerged macrophyte in waterbodies.	eng
185593	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is rare.	eng
185593	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and is potentially impacted by drought.	eng
185594	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185594	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to south Angola, Namibia and possibly Botswana.	eng
185594	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Mat or loose cushion forming plants in vleis, along the margins of water courses. At altitudes between 600 and 1200m.	eng
185594	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information	eng
185594	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known	eng
185595	conservation	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2006	No information.	eng
185595	distribution	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2006	Endemic to Angola and Northern Namibia (Cook 2004).	eng
185595	habitat	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2006	Minute compact land plant.	eng
185595	population	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2006	No information.	eng
185595	threats	Sieben, E &  Archer, C., 2006	No information.	eng
185597	conservation	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185597	distribution	Sieben, E., 2006	Endemic to Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana.	eng
185597	habitat	Sieben, E., 2006	Mat forming or loosely tufted plants, in temporarily flooded places on sandy soils.	eng
185597	population	Sieben, E., 2006	No information available.	eng
185597	threats	Sieben, E., 2006	None known.	eng
185598	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	None known.	eng
185598	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species ins Widespread in Old World tropics.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Chad, Sudan, Niger, and Burkina Faso.	eng
185598	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Ponds, still rivers, lakes and flooded zones of rivers.	eng
185598	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	The species is generally common and sometimes abundant.	eng
185598	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	Potentially impacted by drought.	eng
185599	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species has been found within Kahuzi-Biega-National Park, in Mt. Kahuzi, Democratic Republic of Congo (Fischer 1993).	eng
185599	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species is native to Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.  It is found between 3,050 m to 3,150 m asl. It extends from south west Uganda to east of Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185599	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	In montane or afro-alpine bogs.	eng
185599	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is believed to be rare but locally dominant (Haines and Lye 1983)  but this needs to be confirmed.	eng
185599	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This species was previously heavily encroached by agriculture. High human population growth in the surroundings and illegal activities like harvesting of plant resources (bamboo) for building, agriculture, and firewood have been identified as threats. Extended dry periods and uncontrolled fire could impact this species severely.	eng
185600	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Edea Dam authorities, riverside populations and policy makers need to be informed about the threats faced by this species. Today, this plant is continuing surviving in torrents during the rainy season and one affluent opening to the dam. This is the only place on the earth where this plant can still be seen so far. If the dam infrastructure is extended 100-200 m towards the left,&#160; this plant will become extinct. The introduction or re-introduction of this species in a similar habitat is recommended.	eng
185600	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Endemic to a single locality: Edea waterfall in Cameroon.	eng
185600	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Annual aquatic herb, submerged in fast water of rapids and torrents, fixed by a thalllus on rocks or any hard object.	eng
185600	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	More or less dense population.	eng
185600	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Dam construction.	eng
185601	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	No conservation actions are in place. The completion of site management  plans, educational activities to train and raise awareness&#160; as well as  communication initiatives have been  suggested.	eng
185601	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This is a Central African species (Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon). It's distribution extends westwards to western Cameroon.	eng
185601	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Shrub liking river's or waterfall's borders in forest area or deep shade in forest	eng
185601	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This plant has a limited extent of occurrence and therefore a small size population.	eng
185601	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Water and land pollution. Forest clearing for logging or agriculture.	eng
185602	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Habitat protection and conservation are needed.	eng
185602	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	This species is found in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Angola, Ethiopia, Sudan and possibly in Egypt. It has also been recorded in India according (Karthikeyan <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1989).	eng
185602	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Submerged aquatic herb.  The ecology of this species is not well defined.	eng
185602	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	No formal study about the population, but it is rare in Angola and DRC. There is no information about its abundance in other countries.	eng
185602	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Sensitive to water pollution of all kind and temperature extremes.	eng
185603	conservation	Foden, W. &  Agenbag, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185603	distribution	Foden, W. &  Agenbag, L., 2006	It is confined to high altitudes in the Drakensberg (Lesotho and South Africa) (RSA: Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004). It is probably under-recorded as a recent survey of wetlands in the area revealed two new localities. It has also been recorded from Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Namibia.<br/><br/>Known localities (South African National Biodiversity Institute 2007)<br/>1) Lesotho. Indumeni Dome, between Indumeni Dome and Cleft Peak. Alt: 800 ft. (1958) <br/>2) Eastern Cape. Barkly East Dist. Ben Macdhui Alt: 8,600 ft (1983)<br/><br/>Isotype of current name<br/>3) Lesotho. Oxbow, 3 km from New Oxbow Inn to Moteng Pass. Occr: occasional Alt: 2,550 m (1987)	eng
185603	habitat	Foden, W. &  Agenbag, L., 2006	High altitudes. This species is rare and localized and prefers the most boggy areas of a wetland. Perennial Herb	eng
185603	population	Foden, W. &  Agenbag, L., 2006	No information available.	eng
185603	threats	Foden, W. &  Agenbag, L., 2006	This habitat is well conserved though may be potentially threatened from climate change and overgrazing in the Lesotho parts of its range. South African range is under private ownership so likely to be less intensively grazed.	eng
185604	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	No conservation actions are in place. More research is needed to know better about the population numbers and range, the habitat status and the potential threats faced by this plant. This information should be used for education, training and communication initiatives to raise awareness.	eng
185604	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Narrow endemic of the Haut-Katanga area in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).	eng
185604	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	<span style="font-style: italic;">Aponogeton bogneri</span> is an annual aquatic plant, living in deep and fast rivers in sunny areas.	eng
185604	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	Only three collections so far in the same locality (Kafubu in the DRC). The population is presumably narrow.	eng
185604	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2007	The major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought. It’s also mentioned that most of the species of the genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Aponogeton</span> have edible tubers, leaves and inflorescences (Flore d'Afrique Centrale). This is not explicitly clear for this species, but in any case, this is a lethal exploitation and if not controlled can affect the population and later on the survival of this species. Mining activity and logging are increasing in the general area where this species occurs, which may increase the turbidity of the water and have a negative impact on this species.	eng
185605	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of the following protected areas: Rwenzori Mountains (National Park, World Heritage Convention, Uganda) and Parc National des Volcans (Rwanda).	eng
185605	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This plant occurs in Ethiopia to eastern Central Tropical Africa. It has been recorded from Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.	eng
185605	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Tufted perennial in swamps and damp places from upper parts of upland rainforest and grassland into upland moor and moor grassland, sheltered or in the open among rocks at higher altitudes.	eng
185605	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185605	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	There is increasing pressure from human presence, expanding agriculture and habitat fragmentation in these areas. However, actual threats need to be identified.	eng
185606	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures.	eng
185606	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species has been recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia.	eng
185606	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in swamps and water pools.	eng
185606	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is recorded as having a restricted range and of being 'noteworthy flora' in the Lake Bisina (Uganda) Ramsar Information Sheet.	eng
185606	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threat has been identified. Could be locally impacted by wetland reclamation to create land for subsistence agriculture.	eng
185607	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Further research in population numbers and range,  taxonomy, biology and ecology is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185607	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species has been recorded from Tanzania in Masasi District: NE of Masasi, Pangani; Songea District: waterfall on R. Luhira; Ulanga District: Mlahi. Also present in Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Rwanda, Burundi, Zimbabwe, Victoria Falls, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.	eng
185607	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Damp sandy ground by drying water hole in boggy grassland.	eng
185607	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	No information.	eng
185607	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No known major threats	eng
185608	conservation	Archer, C. & Sieben, E., 2006	The protection of its habitat and&#160; management of the existing sites is required.	eng
185608	distribution	Archer, C. & Sieben, E., 2006	This species is endemic to South Africa and Lesotho (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) (Cook 2004). Restricted in range and localities because of a preference for wetlands at an altitudinal range where wetlands are rare.<br/>  <br/>Known localities: <br/>Localities in Lesotho and Maclear, Naudes Nek and Ongeluksnek.	eng
185608	habitat	Archer, C. & Sieben, E., 2006	In bogs, wet flushes or along rivers at high altitudes, usually in full sun. Perennial Helophyte	eng
185608	population	Archer, C. & Sieben, E., 2006	It is known from fewer than 10 locations.	eng
185608	threats	Archer, C. & Sieben, E., 2006	Localities in Lesotho and Maclear are under threat from overgrazing. Localities near Naudes Nek and Ongeluksnek are secure.	eng
185609	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2008	Research actions on population numbers, range and threats are needed.	eng
185609	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2008	This plant has been recorded from Ghana, Togo and Benin.	eng
185609	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2008	Ponds, flooded areas, rivers, calm often muddy temporary water. Generally eutrophic, but sometimes brackish, or oligotrophic.	eng
185609	population	Diop, F.N., 2008	<p>Population patterns for this species are unknown.</p>	eng
185609	threats	Diop, F.N., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185610	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185610	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to the Drakensberg mountains (Lesotho and South Africa).	eng
185610	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Rock pools and pools in marshes up to one m or more deep, 1,980-3,000 m; Annual Herb	eng
185610	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185610	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185611	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
185611	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185611	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Annual Herb found in damp places. It is not a strictly wetland plant.	eng
185611	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	The species is widespread. Specimens where collected from at least ten  quarter degree squared  (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185611	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known.	eng
185612	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Research&#160; actions are needed.	eng
185612	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Plant collected in Cameroon, Guinea (Great Falls, Kindia) and Sierra Leone.	eng
185612	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	<span style="font-style: italic;">Stonesia</span> species live attached to submerged rocks or wood in rushing water in rapids or falls of streams and rivers. It is a rheophyte ( lives in fast moving water currents).	eng
185612	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	No information available	eng
185612	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by water pollution and drought.	eng
185613	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185613	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is only found in Africa. It has been recorded from Benin, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.	eng
185613	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	It grows in seasonally wet depressions.	eng
185613	population	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is rare in Somalia but common in Western Africa and Eastern Africa.	eng
185613	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	The species is mainly threatened by natural disasters such as drought. Intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal may make the species more sensitive to disturbances.	eng
185614	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185614	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa. Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and possibly Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape)	eng
185614	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This perennial herb frequently grows in water. Prefers wetter habitats than <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fluviatilis</span> var. <span style="font-style: italic;">caledonica</span>.	eng
185614	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185614	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185615	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185615	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185615	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Its is an annual (occ. perennial) herb that grows in wet grassland by swamps or streams, and sandy lake margins.	eng
185615	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185615	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185616	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185616	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	<em>Juncus dregeanus</em> subsp.<em> bachitii </em> is endemic to Africa. Widespread in upland Kenya from 2100-3200 m above sea level. Also  found in Sudan and Ethiopia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.	eng
185616	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Swampy ground, often near streams and in shallow water.	eng
185616	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is widespread throughout its range.	eng
185616	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats.	eng
185617	conservation	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185617	distribution	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	Endemic to Eastern Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa.	eng
185617	habitat	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	This annual (occasionally. perennial) hydrophyte is found in temporarily wet places.	eng
185617	population	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	No information	eng
185617	threats	Cholo, F., Manyama P.A., & Kamundi, D.A., 2006	None known	eng
185618	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185618	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Probably endemic to Southern Africa. South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, possibly North West, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), Botswana, Namibia.	eng
185618	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Common near the coast and found in saline pools and estuaries. Perennial herb	eng
185618	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185618	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185619	conservation	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	None known	eng
185619	distribution	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Collected information shows that the species seems to be present in the soudano-Guinean zone in West Afrca. Recorded from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and probably in Benin.	eng
185619	habitat	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	In damp or marshy savanna and grassland, sometimes in cultivated ground.	eng
185619	population	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Population relatively abundant in west Africa.	eng
185619	threats	Ouedraogo, L., 2008	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought	eng
185620	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185620	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Probably endemic to South Africa (RSA: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, possibly Eastern Cape), introduced in Australia (Cook 2004:72)	eng
185620	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	This perennial herb grows seasonally submerged or emergent in permanent water. It is found 150-1450 m above sea level.	eng
185620	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185620	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185623	conservation	Riddick, R., 2008	Requires taxonomic study to confirm as a valid species. Also, more research in population trends, size and distribution is needed.	eng
185623	distribution	Riddick, R., 2008	<strong></strong>Recorded from Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo. Potentially endemic if a valid species.	eng
185623	habitat	Riddick, R., 2008	This helophyte grows in wet places in rain-forest (common along river banks). Also in pure  stands; bushland on steep slopes or&#160; mixed evergreen forest.	eng
185623	population	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185623	threats	Riddick, R., 2008	No information available.	eng
185624	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	None.	eng
185624	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	This plant is only found at 2,450 m, in Karamoja, Uganda.	eng
185624	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	In buffalo wallow in montane forest.	eng
185624	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data available.	eng
185624	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Tribal conflicts, human settlement in the forest, over stocking of livestock that may result in overgrazing and loss of this plant especially on overuse of the waterholes.	eng
185625	conservation	Jakubowsky, G., Sieben, N., Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Riverlands subpop is in a nature reserve.	eng
185625	distribution	Jakubowsky, G., Sieben, N., Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Endemic to Western Cape, South Africa. Cape Flats. (Cook 2004) Darling to Cape Peninsula (Goldblatt and Manning 2000). <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1. Verlorenvlei  32°19.00S, 18°21.70E (Low 2002)<br/>2. Malmesbury Distr. Riverlands (Esterhuysen 1983) - likely to be extant, threatened by change in surface water availability associated with heavy infestation of acacias in area surrounding Riverlands<br/>3. Piquetberg Div. 3.2 km NW of Sauer Post Office (Acocks 1970) - possibly extant<br/>4. Milnerton, Rugby (Tolken 1963) & (Levyns 1940) - Highly like to be extinct due to urbanisation. <br/>5. Cape Peninsula, Zeekoe Vlei (Wilman 1949) - Extinct not collected for over 68 years, and hydrology of Zeekoevlei much altered since 1970's due to urbanisation.	eng
185625	habitat	Jakubowsky, G., Sieben, N., Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Pools and damp places on the cape flats, tolerating brackish water; to 30m. It is a annual tenagophyte (juvenile submerged, adult usually terrestrial).	eng
185625	population	Jakubowsky, G., Sieben, N., Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	Only three subpops (5 in past).	eng
185625	threats	Jakubowsky, G., Sieben, N., Helme, N. & Victor, J.E., 2006	One subpopulation is known to be under threat (Verlorenvlei) due to groundwater pumping. Agriculture (severe); aliens (moderate); urbanization (severe). Urbanisation is severe past threat, Zeekoevlei and Milnerton subpopulations lost.	eng
185626	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185626	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa (Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa) and not suspected to be declining. Specimens collected from >=10 quarter degree squared (15'x15') grid cells.	eng
185626	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This perennial herb is found in wet vleis, marshes and riversides between 1,200–2,100 m above sea level.	eng
185626	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185626	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185627	conservation	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185627	distribution	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Probably native and endemic to South Africa (mostly in the Cape Flats and areas near Bredasdorp) (Cook 2004:80). Crassula natans var. minus has been introduced into Australia, where it now occurs widespread in temperate regions. (Tolken 1985)	eng
185627	habitat	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	Usually in shallow water or on mud around pools, 50-1000 m. Annual (occ. perennial) succulent.	eng
185627	population	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	No information	eng
185627	threats	Foden, W. & Potter, L., 2006	None known	eng
185628	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185628	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185628	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Along streams in mountainous regions. Perennial tenagophyte (Juvenile submerged, adult usually terrestrial)	eng
185628	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185628	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185629	conservation	Archer, C., 2005	Most specimens from large nature reserves.	eng
185629	distribution	Archer, C., 2005	Endemic to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal Province)	eng
185629	habitat	Archer, C., 2005	In open water in seasonal pans and vleis, in wet grassland mostly in coastal flatlands. Perennial helophyte.	eng
185629	population	Archer, C., 2005	No information	eng
185629	threats	Archer, C., 2005	None known	eng
185630	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185630	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape).	eng
185630	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Occasionally found in water. Marsh herb. Perennial geophyte.	eng
185630	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185630	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185631	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185631	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185631	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Perennial herb found in wet grasslands.	eng
185631	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information.	eng
185631	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185632	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185632	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185632	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Not considered to be a wetland species.  Weedy, grows in damp places or places where water stood during rains but has dried out. Perennial herb	eng
185632	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185632	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185633	conservation	Victor, J.E., 2005	A popular material for weaving, particularly for sleeping mats. It has been over-gathered in parts of Kwala-Zulu Natal. In St Lucia it may be gathered only in the month of May.	eng
185633	distribution	Victor, J.E., 2005	The subspecies krausii is confined to SE Africa, extending from Mozambique to South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, WC).	eng
185633	habitat	Victor, J.E., 2005	Brackish areas mostly near the coast, often forming large stands on salt flats. Growing from the sea level to about 1,200 m.	eng
185633	population	Victor, J.E., 2005	No information	eng
185633	threats	Victor, J.E., 2005	None known	eng
185634	conservation	Cholo, F., 2006	No information	eng
185634	distribution	Cholo, F., 2006	Widespread in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal)	eng
185634	habitat	Cholo, F., 2006	According to Cook (2004), the species grow in damp soil or in depressions and may be temporary flooded but they hardly qualify as wetland plants (Cook 2004:243). Perennial Herb.	eng
185634	population	Cholo, F., 2006	No information	eng
185634	threats	Cholo, F., 2006	None known	eng
185635	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185635	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to Lesotho, South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) and possibly Swaziland  (Cook 2004:80)	eng
185635	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Usually in shallow water or on mud around pools, tolerates brackish conditions, 50-3400m (Cook 2004:80). Annual (occ. perennial) succulent.	eng
185635	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185635	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185637	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place. However, some populations are found in protected areas such National Parks and Forest Reserves, for example, Aberdare National Park.	eng
185637	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Recorded in upland Kenya, West of Aberdare Mountains at an altitude between 2,100-3,200 m above sea level. This species has a narrow range, restricted to this locality in Kenya and and scattered locations in Tanzania. It may be present in Cameroon but this has to be confirmed.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Congo-Kinshasa and Zimbabwe.	eng
185637	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Stream banks, lake margins, swamps and seepage bogs in grassland or forest or woodland, sometimes growing in water	eng
185637	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data.	eng
185637	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	In the lower zones, there are agricultural and livestock rearing activities.	eng
185638	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185638	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to the southern and eastern parts of southern Africa. Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (RSA: Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape).  Naturalized in New Zealand.	eng
185638	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This Perennial helophyte grows in marshes, along streams and wet grasslands. It is found up to 2,840 m above sea level.	eng
185638	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185638	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185639	conservation	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Legal protection measures have been recommended for this species.	eng
185639	distribution	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Southern Botswana and northern South Africa (Cook 2004) (Limpopo and North West Provinces);  <br/><br/>Known localities:<br/>1) South Africa, 40 km south of Grobbelar's drift on Potgietersrus road (Burrows, J. 1985) - Type locality<br/>2) Gaborone Dist. Content Farm (1972)<br/>3) 3 miles north of Gaborone (1974	eng
185639	habitat	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Seasonally flooded places and along rivers and streams.	eng
185639	population	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Estimated number of locations: <5 known;   <br/>Estimated number of subpopulations: <5 known	eng
185639	threats	Roux, J.P. & Raimondo, D., 2006	Overstocking of livestock especially in Botswana main potential threat.	eng
185640	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185640	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Endemic to southern Africa. South Africa and Lesotho. (RSA: North West, Free State, possibly KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape).	eng
185640	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This perennial herb occurs in very wet situations. Prefers more terrestrial habitats than <span style="font-style: italic;">R. fluviatilis </span>var<span style="font-style: italic;">. fluviatilis.</span>	eng
185640	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
185640	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
185641	conservation	E. Akinyi, 2003	No information available.	eng
185641	distribution	E. Akinyi, 2003	Endemic to Lake Turkana (Seegers<em> et al.</em> 2004)	eng
185641	habitat	E. Akinyi, 2003	A pelagic fish. Max size: 31.5 cm TL (after Froese and Pauly 2003)	eng
185641	population	E. Akinyi, 2003	Not known.	eng
185641	threats	E. Akinyi, 2003	Overfishing.	eng
185642	conservation	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Unknown	eng
185642	distribution	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	E. Africa: Lake Baringo system, affluents of Lake Bogoria, Turkwell River system (Lake Turkana drainage) (Kenya) (Seegers et al., unpublished).	eng
185642	habitat	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Unknown	eng
185642	population	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Very rare (De Vos, pers. Communication). But population estimates are not available.	eng
185642	threats	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	1. Deterioration in habitat quality due to pollution and siltation.	eng
185643	conservation	T.K. Twongo & M. Hanssens, 2003	No targeted conservation in place.	eng
185643	distribution	T.K. Twongo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Found in western Uganda in the drainages of Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Lakes George and Edward (Seegers 1996).	eng
185643	habitat	T.K. Twongo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Streams and marginal vegetation of lakes and rivers. Feeds on insect larvae and small crustaceans.	eng
185643	population	T.K. Twongo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Not known.	eng
185643	threats	T.K. Twongo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Loss of habitat through agricultural encroachment.	eng
185644	conservation	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	No information available.	eng
185644	distribution	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Endemic to the Tana system (see Seegers <em>et al.</em>, unpublished). It probably doesn't occur above Garissa (± 0°28'S-39°38'E) (600 feet above see level) (see Whitehead and Greenwood 1959).	eng
185644	habitat	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Max size: 6.9 cm SL (after Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
185644	population	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	No information available.	eng
185644	threats	Emmanuel Vreven, 2003	Fisheries (Froese and Pauly 2003).	eng
185646	conservation	J. Kazembe, 2003	None known.	eng
185646	distribution	J. Kazembe, 2003	Endemic to Lake Malawi where it is known only from Nkhata Bay (north western part of the lake).	eng
185646	habitat	J. Kazembe, 2003	Occurs over both sand and mud/silt habitats at depths ranging from 40-100 m.  It feeds on snails. Reported not to have been exported in the aquarium trade (1990).<br/>Max Size: 20 cm TL.	eng
185646	population	J. Kazembe, 2003	No information available.	eng
185646	threats	J. Kazembe, 2003	Potential overfishing.	eng
185647	conservation	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185647	distribution	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Endemic to the Lake Baringo drainage and hotsprings near Lake Bogoria.	eng
185647	habitat	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Lives in shoals in the open water where it is most abundant species in the lake (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). Feeds on phytoplankton, mostly Microcystis and Botryococcus, rotifers and a few remains of Cladocera (Worthington and Ricardo 1936). The adults visit the inshore sandy water in 2 to 4 feet of water to breed. The male scours out a hollow in the sand where the female lays her eggs. After fertilisation the female guards the eggs and the developing fry in her mouth (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).<br/>Max Size: 36.0 cm TL (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).	eng
185647	population	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	There are no quantitative estimates but the population is visibly declining (Fisheries department of Kenya).	eng
185647	threats	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	1. Overfishing<br/>2. Deteroriation in water quality and quantity.	eng
185648	conservation	M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185648	distribution	M. Hanssens, 2003	Endemic to Suguta River system, Kenya.	eng
185648	habitat	M. Hanssens, 2003	Max Size: 171 mm SL (Trewavas and Teugels in Daget <em>et al. </em>1991).	eng
185648	population	M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185648	threats	M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185649	conservation	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185649	distribution	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Endemic to the Lake Turkana drainage.	eng
185649	habitat	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	Largely restricted to inshore waters where it occurs in large numbers along the sheltered sandy beaches. It does, however,  occasionally form shoals in the deep water. One one occasion, several shoals were reported at the surface a few hundred yards from the shore. Feeds mainly on phytoplankton, macrophytes, and possibly fish - fish remains were found in the stomach of one specimen. Males builds nests in the sand, sometimes over a yard in diameter, in only a few feet of water. After fertilisation the female broods the eggs and young fry in her mouth. Young fish live in very shallow water close to the shores, where they swim about in shoals (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).<br/>Max Size: 64 cm TL, but those in the crater lake on the central island only measured 18,5 cm TL (Worthington and Ricardo 1936).	eng
185649	population	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	No quantitative information available but thought to be increasing (Kenya Fisheries Dept.)	eng
185649	threats	E.A. Odhiambo & M. Hanssens, 2003	No information available.	eng
185650	conservation	J. Kazembe &  P. Makocho, 2003	No information available.	eng
185650	distribution	J. Kazembe &  P. Makocho, 2003	Endemic to the Lake Malawi basin, including the inflowing rivers, the Upper Shire River and Lake Chiuta.	eng
185650	habitat	J. Kazembe &  P. Makocho, 2003	It is an inshore species common in sheltered vegetated shores.  It is one of the most common fish in Lake Malawi, particularly in estuaries and reedy lagoons. It forms an important commercial species in Lake Chiuta, contributing over 70% of the total landings from 1979-1999.	eng
185650	population	J. Kazembe &  P. Makocho, 2003	No information available.	eng
185650	threats	J. Kazembe &  P. Makocho, 2003	No information available.	eng
185651	conservation	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185651	distribution	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	Rufiji River and its tributaries, the Kilombero and Great Ruaha rivers, and the Kingani and Mbenkuru Rivers (Trewavas and Teugels 1991).	eng
185651	habitat	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185651	population	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185651	threats	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185652	conservation	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	None known.	eng
185652	distribution	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	Found along the lower reaches of rivers along the East Africa Indian Ocean coastline.	eng
185652	habitat	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	Occurs in relatively shallow still to slow flowing waters. Inhabits freshwater streams, rivers and estuaries. Juveniles and subadults are usually found in estuaries while adults are found upstream in freshwater areas (Pethiyagoda 1991). Feeds on worms, crustaceans and zooplankton (Pethiyagoda 1991).	eng
185652	population	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185652	threats	Hanssens, M & J. Snoeks, 2004	No information available.	eng
185653	conservation	G. Ntakimazi, 2003	No information available.	eng
185653	distribution	G. Ntakimazi, 2003	Endemic to the Malagarasi river from its delta to the swamps of its upper reaches.	eng
185653	habitat	G. Ntakimazi, 2003	Found in shallow standing or slow-flowing waters, mainly in the marginal vegetation and swamps around the main river, lagoons, ponds and its delta. Feeds on finely divided plant material, protozoa and bacteria. This species represent one of the most important species in the delta fishery.	eng
185653	population	G. Ntakimazi, 2003	No information available.	eng
185653	threats	G. Ntakimazi, 2003	1. Overfishing<br/>2. Regression of the swamps in the wetlands around the main river due to agriculture and human settlement.	eng
185654	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available. More research is needed into this subspecies population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats, as well as monitoring.	eng
185654	conservation	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Research actions needed	eng
185654	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>In western Africa, this subspecies is known from the type specimen collected at Old Calabar, Nigeria. However the specimen from Old Calabar is suspected, by Tuegels and Hopkins (1998), to have originated from the Ogowe River (Gabon) as no other specimens have been found in this area.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong></strong> It is mainly known from coastal areas of Cameroon (Lower Ntem River Basin) and Congo.	eng
185654	distribution	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is known from the type specimen collected at Old Calabar, Nigeria. However the specimen from Old Calabar is suspected, by Tuegels and Hopkins (1998), to have originated from the Ogowe river (Gabon) as no other specimens have been found in this area. It is mainly known from coastal areas of Cameroon (Lower Ntem River Basin) and Congo.	eng
185654	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This mormyrid grows to 13.5 cm TL. It is found in rivers, small streams and deltas.	eng
185654	habitat	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This mormyrid is found in rivers, small streams and deltas. Non-migratory.	eng
185654	population	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
185654	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No information available.	eng
185654	threats	Olaosebikan, B.D. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	Unknown.	eng
185655	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
185655	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is only known from Chad basin.	eng
185655	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	This subspecies is a demersal fish. It matures at 53.5 cm in Lake Kaiji in Nigeria	eng
185655	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
185655	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
185657	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
185657	conservation	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	The Cameroon part of the population is included within the Dano Reserve in Nigeria. More information is needed on threats to this species, and population trends should be monitored.	eng
185657	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Northern Africa, <em>Ichthyborus besse besse</em> is Regionally Extinct, but used to be found in Upper Egyptian Nile.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises Khartoum, White Nile and Lake Nubia, Chad basin, and Bénoué.	eng
185657	distribution	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species is known from the Chad basin, River Nile and River Bénué.<br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> Although it used to be found in upper Egyptian Nile, it is now Regionally Extinct<br/><br/><strong>Northeast Africa:</strong> It is present in the Ghazal and Jebel systems, White Nile, Sudan, as well as the Baro River, Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Western Africa:</strong> This species is known from Chad basin (Nigeria, Chad and Central African Republic) and the river Bénué (Nigeria and Cameroon).	eng
185657	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	The fish used to descend the Nile in pairs for breeding. It reaches a maximum length to 19 cm. It inhabits open water and fringing vegetation. This carnivorous fish feeds on <em>Caridina</em> and fish fry.	eng
185657	habitat	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	This species inhabits open water and fringing vegetation, and feeds on <span style="font-style: italic;">Caridina</span> and fish fry. The fish used to descend the Nile in pairs for breeding.	eng
185657	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
185657	population	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No information available.	eng
185657	threats	Azeroual, A., Lalèyè, P. & Olaosebikan, B.D., 2009	No known major widespread threats to the species. However, there is a current (2006) proposal for a river basin water transfer between the Oubangui and Chari rivers which could have a major impact on many species.	eng
185657	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
185658	conservation	Schneider, W., 2007	Some of the sites where the species occurs should be monitored and protected, especially in its northern range (Orontes drainage in Syria).	eng
185658	distribution	Schneider, W., 2007	<em>Pseudagrion syriacum</em> is an endemic of the Levant with its distribution restricted to Turkey (two records), west Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Palestine (Dumont 1974b, 1991; Schneider 1981a,b, 1986, 1995; Salur and Kiyak 2006). Being a member of a tropically/subtropically distributed genus, it becomes rarer in the northern part of its range.	eng
185658	habitat	Schneider, W., 2007	The species prefers slow flowing brooks with dense vegetation, often associated with <em>Mentha</em> spp. (Dumont 1973, Schneider1981). It flies close to the water and is easily overlooked being dark and pruinose as adult.	eng
185658	population	Schneider, W., 2007	No information is available for this species. It can be locally abundant in the south of its range, but not in the north.	eng
185658	threats	Schneider, W., 2007	Major threats are water extraction and drying up of suitable habitats. Potentially drought and drying up of habitats as a result of climate change.	eng
185659	conservation	Jović. M., 2007	Current conservation actions in place are not known.	eng
185659	distribution	Jović. M., 2007	<em>Platycnemis pennipes nitidula</em> is restricted to the southern Balkans.	eng
185659	habitat	Jović. M., 2007	In Macedonia, the species is confined to areas with strong Mediterranean influence. Has been found in flowing waters. Specific habitat preferences are not known.	eng
185659	population	Jović. M., 2007	Population size is not known, however <em>P. p. nitidula</em> is very abundant within its range.	eng
185659	threats	Jović. M., 2007	<em>Platycnemis pennipes nitidula</em> has a restricted range. Habitat degradation is a general threat to Odonata and this species' restricted range makes it more susceptible to this. Potentially increased drought and drying out of habitats as a result of climate change is a future threat.	eng
185668	conservation	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
185668	distribution	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectiella praelongata</em> is a tropical species, native to tropical Africa, Australia and Papua New Guinea.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean region, it occurs only in Egypt: in the Nile delta, at the Mediterranean coast (Damietta) and in the Oases of the Libyan desert (Dakhla, 'Ain Shirif).	eng
185668	habitat	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	This perennial sedge is growing in rice fields.	eng
185668	population	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	<em>Schoenoplectiella praelongata</em> is common in the Nile delta.	eng
185668	threats	Daoud-Bouattour, A., Gammar-Ghrabi, Z., Limam-Ben Saad, S. & Muller, S.D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species, except for possible agricultural water pollution.	eng
185670	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is not under any conservation activities but some populations are found in parks and forest conservation  areas.	eng
185670	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Socotra, Madagascar, and Mauritius Islands. Not confirmed in Uganda. It has been recorded in Socotra, Yemen.	eng
185670	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Stream sides, forest clearings and margins, secondary vegetation derived from forest, rocky sites.	eng
185670	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No data	eng
185670	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threat has been identified but the species could be under threat from wetland reclamation for agricultural and settlement purposes.	eng
185671	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research on population numbers and range is recommended. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation is also required.	eng
185671	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2008	From central Somalia to north west India. In Africa it has only been recorded from Somalia.	eng
185671	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2008	It grows in wet places.	eng
185671	population	Ali, M.M., 2008	this species is rare.	eng
185671	threats	Ali, M.M., 2008	The species is potentially threatened by drought.	eng
185673	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185673	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is widespread in Kenya. It has been recorded in Kisumu, Nakuru, Naivasha, Nanyuki, Machakos and Nairobi. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Iringa, Musoma, and Pare District. In Uganda it is found in Busoga District: near Jinja, Mwiri, Turtle Pool.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Rwanda, Sudan, and Zambia.	eng
185673	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Grow in pools, streams and road sides ditches. From 800 – 1,800 m above sea level.	eng
185673	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No data is available.	eng
185673	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Found in agricultural and urban areas where there are road construction and farming activities. No major threats identified.	eng
185674	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Occurs in protected areas. No other measures required.	eng
185674	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Widespread species in Asia and Tropical Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the West to Uganda in the East.<br/><br/>The species is widespread in the Guinean-Congolian-Sudano-Zambezian zone of western Africa. In Eastern Africa, it is present in Uganda, known from Lake Nabugabo and from Namanve wetlands. Recorded from West Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo, and in South Western Africa countries.	eng
185674	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Delicate aquatic herb,  floating in lakes, rivers and Sphagnum swamps at 1,850 m above sea level. It grows in moving shallow water of streams.	eng
185674	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Western Africa: Abundant.	eng
185674	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	The increasing occurrence of periodic droughts leads to reduction and loss of habitat.	eng
185675	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational and training activities, and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
185675	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	One of the most widespread Acanthaceae in Tropical Africa. From Senegal to Angola. Not yet recorded from north or north-eastern Africa.<br/><br/>Also found in Arabia.	eng
185675	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Normally terrestrial perennial herb of wet ground and river borders.	eng
185675	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
185675	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land pollution.	eng
185676	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Research actions on population numbers and range and on threats.	eng
185676	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Relatively widespread in western Africa from Ghana and Burkina Faso to Nigeria.<br/><br/>Its distribution within central Africa needs more research. It has not yet been recorded in Cameroon.	eng
185676	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Floating on lagoons, marshes and still rivers. It occasionally forms pure settlements because of its high capacity of multiplication. Also found in eutrophic water and brackish water.	eng
185676	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	This species is abundant.	eng
185676	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	The invasion by <em>Salvinia molesta</em> could constitute a major threat for <em>Salvinia nymphellula</em>.	eng
185677	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	It is found in some protected areas in Western Africa. Additional research is required on the distribution, population and habitat management for this species.	eng
185677	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Global range of this species is tropical America and Africa extending south to South Africa. In Africa, it is present in Sudan (Imatong Mountains - Bahr Elghzal), Ethiopia, Angola, Botswana, and in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. Present in Lushoto district and Marui in Tanzania. It also occurs in rivers and lakes, in the driest and northern parts of western Africa (Sahelian region). It has been recorded from Mare d'Oursi and Mare aux Hippopotamus in Burkina Faso.	eng
185677	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial herb has a floating thallus usually curved in a semicircle, with the broadest part at the surface of still water. It is not very gregarious and usually found mixed with other floating plants or growing among reeds. Prefers calm water. It occurs From sea level up to 500 m asl.	eng
185677	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Its is rare in North East Africa and much more localised than other aquatic species in West Africa although it is locally abundant in some places.	eng
185677	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Drought is the only major threat affecting this species. In dry years the species has a more restrictred range being confined to the remaining water bodies and is more easily impacted by human activities, for example, trampling by livestock. However, the species appears to be resilient to this and recovers and expands its range during the wetter years.	eng
185678	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Research actions needed to gather more information on population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status, and threats.	eng
185678	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in Western and Central Africa down to Zimbabwe, including Sudan Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia and Eritrea.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it has only recorded from Lake Nabugabo (Uganda) and in Tanzania. It occurs between 1,000m and 1,125m.	eng
185678	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a submerged aquatic with the appearance of a Potamogeton species. It occurs in pools, marshes, puddles, swampy grasslands in stagnating or slow waters, often on laterite rocks.	eng
185678	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em>W. schweinfurthii </em>is found in at least 10 countries in Tropical Africa and is common throughout its range.	eng
185678	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Threatened by habitat loss resulting from livestock from agro-industry, land management of non-agricultural areas, and dam development. Water pollution from agricultural, domestic, commercial and sewage sources is also a threat.	eng
185679	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No conservation measures.	eng
185679	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is native to from New Zealand and Australia now a widespread weed , common in the warmer parts of the Old and New World.<br/><br/>This species is considered as introduced in Northern Africa, and Madagascar. However, it seems to be accepted as native in South Africa and Lesotho where it is and widespread. It is not clear whether it is native to Eastern Africa or not (recorded from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Malawi).	eng
185679	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Humid, subhumid, montane; freshwater wetland. Weed of gardens and ruderal sites close to human habitation, usually in moist places.	eng
185679	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is a common species.	eng
185679	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known	eng
185680	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	There are no conservation measures in place.	eng
185680	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in easternAfrica including Uganda, Tanzania, Congo Democratic Republic, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Angola and Madagascar. In Malawi it is found at Katoto in Mzimba District.	eng
185680	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in seasonally wet grasslands near lake edges, often inside Cyperus papyrus or Miscanthidium violaceum swamps. Also found at margines of lake side forests.	eng
185680	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185680	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Major threats are unknown.	eng
185681	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There is no information on direct conservation management of the species, however it is found within, or in the vicinity of Bangweulu (Game Management Area, VI, Zambia) which contains Bangweulu Swamps: Chikuni, (Ramsar site); and in  Lunga-Luswishi (Game Management Area, VI, Zambia).	eng
185681	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Very widespread throughout Africa and warm to subtropical N and C America, E Asia and Australia.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is  present in Agola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa (Mpumalanga), and Botswana (Okavango Delta). Just comes into South Africa at Loskop dam in Mpumalanga. In Central Africa it has been recorded from Cameroon, Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Angola. This species is rare in Kenya and has been recorded in Tinderet, Central Riftvally (K3) at 2700 m. Also found in Tanzania (Bukoba district Kongolero Lake, Njombe district Ukinga Bulongwa), and Ethiopia.	eng
185681	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	An aquatic herb of moderately deep water. It is found in lakes, swamps and slow waters, often associated with <em>Nymphaea </em>spp.	eng
185681	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Common species in many parts of Africa.	eng
185681	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major widespread threats have been identified for this plant.	eng
185682	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures an in place.<br/><br/>Central Africa: None at the moment, but it's important to study the species in order to define its habitat and population status. Where necessary, the conservation measures will consist of educating the riverside residents and to aware the environmental authorities.	eng
185682	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species has a Sudano-guinean distribution, it is found from Mali eastwards to Cameroon.	eng
185682	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a branched aquatic herb of swamps.	eng
185682	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Western Africa: Unknown<br/><br/>Central Africa: Narrow distribution, therefore medium size population.	eng
185682	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This plant may be potentially threatened by alien invasion., ifrastructure development, natural disaster (drought), wood plantation&#160; and water pollution. However, none are considered currently as major threats.	eng
185683	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	None	eng
185683	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is spread throughout Africa and Madagascar, described as a pantropical weed. It may be naturalised in southern Africa. Also recorded from Egypt.	eng
185683	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	A small spreading herb with numerous slvery-woolly flowers-head crowd in spike-like clusters; florets pale yellow. It grows on river sand and wastes places.Also on moist soil on rivers banks or dams after water retreat.	eng
185683	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Favours muddy or sandy streamsides and similar damp places. It often forms a dense carpet on river banks under trees.	eng
185683	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats identified although it may be affected by agriculture on river or dams bank.	eng
185684	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species is not under any conservation initiatives. Conservation of River Tana forests, delta  and associated biodiversity is yet to succeed due to resistance from the local people who have rejected government plans to resettle them elsewhere.	eng
185684	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	The species has  been reported from Coast Province in Tana River District along the Garsen-Malindi Road in Kiunga, Kui and Boni forests.<br/><br/>Also recorded from Tanzania (Mikumi National Park), Sudan, and Madagascar.	eng
185684	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Found in swamp and marshy places as well as margins of open waters.	eng
185684	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	No data on population size is available.	eng
185684	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No threat has been reported. But wetland reclamation in Tana River to create land for rice growing has been going on for several years. Fluctuations of water in lower Tana has been reported in recent years. Destruction of riverine forest has been going un	eng
185685	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No specific measures, but further research on population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185685	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread in Madagascar and in Africa from Morocco south to South Africa, and  Madagascar.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa where it is found in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe (Victoria Falls), Mozambique, South Africa (Limpopo Province), Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland.  Widely disjunct isolated popualtions occur throughout it's range.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa it is foun in Malawi where it is known from two localities: Zomba Mountain along Mangasanja Road, and Nyika Naional Park near Thazima in Rumphi District<br/><br/>In Sudan it was recorded at Im Land der Djur. Seriba Ghattas, Seriba Ghassar.	eng
185685	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It grows in seasonally flooded pans (growing in 13 cm of water or sometimes partially submerged) and along water courses or boggy rice cultivations, from 800 - 1100 m above sea level.	eng
185685	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In Africa too little is known about the exact number of sub-populations and where they occur to list this species as threatened but it is definitely a rare species that may be potentially threatened.	eng
185685	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	In Namibia potential threat of dam building. Overstocking of cattle in communal areas of Namibia may be impacting this species Various water pollutants released from agriculture land could be the major factors that threaten the species. Drought may also be a threat in the future.	eng
185686	conservation	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but it is recommended to study its distribution in Morocco and Algeria.	eng
185686	distribution	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in Europe, North Africa, Tropical Asia and Northern America (Maire 1957, Quezel and Santa 1962). <br/><br/>Maire (1957) indicates that <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardi</em> var. <em>eu-gerardi</em> (=<em>J. gerardi</em> Loisel) has been observed in eastern Algeria (rather common in Tell, High Plains, Saharian Atlas and Aures mountains) near Algiers and El-Harrach, and in Morocco (Atlas mountains, etc). The species is however not mentioned for Morocco in Hamada <em>et al.</em> (2002) nor in Valdès <em>et al.</em> (2002). <br/><br/>According to Maire (1957), this species is absent in Tunisia, present in Algeria (Tell, Hautes Plaines, Atlas saharien & Aurès) and in Morocco (Moyen and Grand Atlas: five locations) under the name: <em>J. compressus</em> subsp. <em>gerardii</em>.	eng
185686	habitat	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is a perennial species and geophyte. It is found in brackish wet meadows, rarely flooded, on various substrates (peat, clay, sand) mostly in wetlands along the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Channel.	eng
185686	population	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is found in large populations in Algeria and Morocco.	eng
185686	threats	de Bélair, G. & Grillas, P., 2009	<em>J. gerardi</em> is not directly threatened but suffers locally from the general trend of the degradation and destruction of wetlands.	eng
185687	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment.	eng
185687	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Guineo-Congolian distribution, from Senegal in west Africa to Dem. Rep. of Congo and Angola in Central Africa.	eng
185687	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Normally the species is found in various areas, in the forest understory, swampy or dry, on high altitude or not, roadside and savanna frequently under shade and among rocks.	eng
185687	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, normally large size population.	eng
185687	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land and water pollution of all kinds.	eng
185688	conservation	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, further research in population numbers and range is needed. Restoration and habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also recommended.	eng
185688	distribution	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	This species is present in Sudan (Fung District Southern Sudan), Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique and Madagascar. In Uganda it has been found at 900 m asl at Lake George. Also recorded from Kibimba Rice Scheme.	eng
185688	habitat	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	It occurs in standing water, often floating in swamps and irrigation canals. Also in muddy areas, in (dried-up) pools and in shallow water	eng
185688	population	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	Rare throughout its distribution range.	eng
185688	threats	Luke W.R.Q., 2010	No threats described at a Pan-Africa level. In eastern Africa suitable habitats are subject to wetland conversion into agricultural land and pastures. Cultivation on lake edges and increasing human population in the fishing settlements pose a threat due to excessive harvesting of plants, illegal livestock grazing and burning of wetlands. Increased tourism on Lake George can also threaten the population. Pollution of the wetland caused by spillage from cobalt rich pilings causes death of plants. Dredging of the water channels at Kibimba can result in further reduction of populations.	eng
185689	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known	eng
185689	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is distributed in West and Central tropical Africa and in the New World.<br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa where it has been recorded from Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, and Gabon.	eng
185689	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It has been found in wampy places although exact ecology is unknown. Only known from the type locality.	eng
185689	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Goog occurrence of population throught West tropical Africa.	eng
185689	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought.	eng
185690	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Research is needed to determine biology, ecology, range of distribution, and threats.	eng
185690	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North East Africa it is foun in Ethiopia and Eritrea (Amasen lungo un fosso asciutto presso medrizien).	eng
185690	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	The specific habitat if this aquatic fern is unknown.	eng
185690	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is rare.	eng
185690	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Unknown	eng
185692	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185692	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Found in Southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Certainly naturalized in west and south Europe, Northern Africa and South America.<br/><br/>In Africa it is native to Namibia and South Africa: Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape.	eng
185692	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This annual (occ. perennial) herb occurs mostly in brackish water but also in fresh water. It grows in still or slowly moving water, sometimes forming floating mats; it is also found in marshes and on wet sand, 2000 m above sea level.	eng
185692	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185692	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known.	eng
185693	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range in North Eastern Africa is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185693	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs in Arabian Peninsula, Asia Minor to Pakistan, Sicily and scattered in Africa from north to south.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is present in Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, possibly Mpumalanga Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In north-eastern Africa it is found in Sudan and Somalia.	eng
185693	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial helophyte is found in and around saline or alkaline pools and marshes, often in gypseous soils, up to 1,300 m above sea level.	eng
185693	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is rare in north-eastern Africa.	eng
185693	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The species might be sensitive to any disturbance due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal. No specific threats have been identified.	eng
185694	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Known to be within Protected Areas.	eng
185694	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Recorded from Chad, Kenya Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania and Madagascar.	eng
185694	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Mainly in wet areas, swamps, bordering lakes and ponds	eng
185694	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Widespread in upland Kenya  from 1,500-2,950 m. It is common in other countries at high altitudes.	eng
185694	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Conversion of wetlands to agriculture.	eng
185695	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	None	eng
185695	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	This is a Pantropical species which is widespread in western and Eastern Africa, extending to the south east to Zimbabwe and South Africa. Globally it is also present in North America and Indonesia.	eng
185695	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Forest, woodland, grassland, cultivate lands, riverbanks, wetlands, coastal dunes	eng
185695	population	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Great population growing in valleys and edges of rivers.	eng
185695	threats	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Potentially impacted by drought.	eng
185696	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185696	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	North and South America and South Africa (Northern Cape) (Cook 2004; pg 43).  Probably introduced in South Africa.<br/><br/>There is currently no information available regarding the distribution of this species in North Eastern Africa.	eng
185696	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This annual herb was recorded at the edge of a seasonal pan.	eng
185696	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185696	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185697	conservation	Rhazi, L., 2007	The following conservation measures have been proposed:<br/>- Surveillance of the existing sites and to search for new areas<br/>- To study the biology and ecology of the species and estimate the population size <br/>- Monitoring the population dynamics <br/>- Habitat conservation<br/>- Implementation of legal protection measures <br/>- Raising public awareness	eng
185697	distribution	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a species from the western Mediterranean. It is found in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco and Algeria. <br/>In North Africa, this species is considered as rare in Morocco with a distribution limited to Middle Atlas (Tazekka, Tioumliline, Ras-el-Ma, sources of the Ifrane river, the ex biological station of Ifrane, Ouiouane lake and valley of the Senoual) and in the Rif (Bni Zedjel). According to Valdés <em>et al.</em> (2002), it is also present in Tangier, Ouezane and Tazzeka. In Algeria, it is present in Oranie. Its extent of occurrence is about 42,000 km², with an occupied area estimated of 700 km².	eng
185697	habitat	Rhazi, L., 2007	<em>Carex mairii</em> is a perennial, calcicole plant (Hemicryptophyte or Geophyte) that is present in mountain marshlands. Its flowering periods are spring and summer.	eng
185697	population	Rhazi, L., 2007	The population size is unknown, but they seem to be fragile due to threats on its habitat.  In Morocco it is rare with a confirmed presence in eight localities and probable in three other. In Algeria it is very rare, reported only in Oran (Ghar-Rouban).	eng
185697	threats	Rhazi, L., 2007	Overgrazing, drainage, agriculture, water pollution and frequent droughts are major threats to its habitat.	eng
185698	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Formal education and  raiseawareness about the necessity of protection and conservation of freshwater plant species among local people and main stakeholders.	eng
185698	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Central to Eastern tropical Africa, from Nigeria to Ethiopia and south to Congo (Kinshasa) and Malawi, inlcuding Madagascar.	eng
185698	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Herb of damp mountain grasslands. Streamsides in grassland or forest, seasonally flooded grassland, swamp grassland. It is not freshwater specific species.	eng
185698	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No formal study about the population of this herbaceous species. Its Extent of Occurrence (EOO) covers 7 countries and therefore we can estimate its population as important.	eng
185698	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major specific threats to this species have been identified. Habitat loss through global warming and human activity (intensive livestock agriculture for example) may threatened species survival in the future.	eng
185699	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information available.	eng
185699	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Tropical and Southern Africa inlcuding Madagascar. <br/><br/>Widespread in western Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameoun, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo). Eastern Africa it has been recorded from Kenya where the species is locally common. In Malawi it is known from Likangwa River mouth on Lake Chilwa, Sanjika Hill in Blantyre, Sand Bar between Lake Chilwa and Lake Chiuta, Elephant Marsh on Shire River among many locations. Also known in Tanzania, Sudan, Ethiopia (Abyssinie: Chiré) and Eritrea. In Southern Africa it is present in South Africa (Limpopo, North western, Gauteng, Mpumalanga), Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland.	eng
185699	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This is perennial aquatic species of slow-moving waters, lakes and ponds. It grows in permanent, still or slowly flowing water or in temporary pools. Also found in dams and shallow moving water. It has submerged leaves and yellow or white flowers above water level.	eng
185699	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Fairly common species.	eng
185699	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The plant is widely spread with no major theats. Some potentially major threats include agricultural development, alien species, drought, or habitat loss through clearance of forests for agriculture and the extractive industries.	eng
185700	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Western Africa: Wetlands, ponds and swamps regular evaluation to detect early constraints.<br/><br/>Central Africa: None at this moment, but is in need the Communication and education with local people. Also the research action should be undertaken in order to well understand the biology and the ecology of the plant as well as its habitat status and the conservation measures to be eventually undertaken…<br/><br/>Southern Africa:No information	eng
185700	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is distributed throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar.  In western Africa it is found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritanie, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal. Found in Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, and Tanzania in Eastern Africa. In Malawi it is recorded from Shire River at Likwenu river mouth, and Mangochi. It is locally common in high rainfall areas of western and central Kenya between 900-1,980 m above sea level. Extending from Guinea in west to Cameroon and The Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa. Also found in South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) Namibia (Caprivi strip), Botswana (Okavango Delta), Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique.	eng
185700	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	This perennial graminoid&#160; grows floating in mats, on mud or in swamps, bogs and open  water edges. Species grows very well in shallow water, swamps and eutrophic conditions. It is found etween 1 and 1030 m above sea level.	eng
185700	population	Juffe, D., 2008	Western Africa: Species give very dense colonies in eutrophic ponds and swamps, elsewhere.<br/><br/>Central Africa: As herbaceous species, the population is expected to be locally important.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:No information	eng
185700	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Western Africa: Drought and wetlands management.<br/><br/>Central Africa: This plant grows in swamps, bogs and open water and the major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. In fact any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be the invasion of the water surface by alien species, the water pollution by human activities. The water availability can also be affected by a natural disaster as sudden drought and irrigation for agriculture. The marshland can also be filled-up for human settlement.<br/><br/>Southern Africa:None known	eng
185701	conservation	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Not under any conservation measures but population reported in Mt Elgon areas are protected with forest reserve.	eng
185701	distribution	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	The species is has been reported from Mt Elgon at 2600-2950 m. However, its distribution has not been fully investigated.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Tropical African Mountains in Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo-Kinshasa), Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.	eng
185701	habitat	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Fould in alphine swamps and wet grasslands. It is often found near streams.	eng
185701	population	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	Not known but probably undercollected due to altitude.	eng
185701	threats	Luke, W.R.Q., 2010	No threat has been reported	eng
185702	conservation	Ghogue, J.P., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Further research on the biology, the ecology, habitat status and possible conservation measures is needed. The is also a need of communication and education to local communities.	eng
185702	distribution	Ghogue, J.P., 2009	Tropical African distribution, from Senegal to Nigeria in the west. In Central Africa the plant is recorded from Cameroon, Central African Republic and Chad. The plant is also present from Tanzania to Zimbabwe and extends to Madagascar. It is also found outside Africa in Thailand and Vietnam.	eng
185702	habitat	Ghogue, J.P., 2009	Slender herb growing in rice fields and other marshy grounds. It can also be found in boggy ground and seepage zones in woodland zone.	eng
185702	population	Ghogue, J.P., 2009	The population of this herbaceous plant is expected to be important locally.	eng
185702	threats	Ghogue, J.P., 2009	This plant's life depends on water, therefore major threats will depend on water condition and availability. Any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This can be due to human activities such as agriculture, human settlement, solid waste deposit, droughts, irrigation for agriculture or flooding. However, no specific major threats have been described for the Pan-African region.	eng
185703	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	The plant is not under any conservtion measures. But some populations are found in national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185703	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	It is very common plant in Kenya, found in Central (Nairobi, Aberdare and Machakos); South Rift Valley (Kajiado, Narok); Central Rift Valley Kenya (Naivasha, Mau, Cherangani) and Western Kenya from Trans-Nzoia and Kitale  from 600 to 2500 m above sea level.<br/><br/>Also found in Madagascar, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Angola.	eng
185703	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	The perennial herb grows in river banks and swamp sites. Also in upland grasslands and edges of crops.	eng
185703	population	Juffe, D., 2010	The area covered by this plant is not known.	eng
185703	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No threat has been identified. But the distribution of this plant is suspectible to wetland reclamation to create land for agriculture that have been increasing in the recent past.	eng
185704	conservation	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No conservation measures needed.	eng
185704	distribution	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is found in Tropical and southern Africa. From Ghana to the Sudan, and southwards to South Africa.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa, it is known in Uganda: Lango District (Oruma), Ankole District (Ruizi river), Teso District (Amuria); in Kenya: Nothern frontier District (sololo), Nairobi District (Nairobi game park); in Tanzania: Tanga District (flats by Lwengera river 5 km E. of Korogwe), Moshi District (Mpololo) and in Zanzibar at pemba island (Vitongoge). In Burundi, that species is known only in the low lands of the country such as Rusizi plain. The species is found in Northern Kenya districts, Nairobi, Mumias and Kisii from 50 1410 m above sea level<br/><br/>Also known from Senegal, Ivory cost, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, Centra African Republic, Sudan (Nubia, Cordofanum, Araseh-Cool), Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Bostwana, South Africa (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal), and Namibia.	eng
185704	habitat	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This is a dioecious, perennial, rhizomatous herb. Leaves submerged or emergent. It is found along the banks of lakes and pools, in temporary ponds and in marshes, usually in shalow water.	eng
185704	population	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Its population is relatively stable.	eng
185704	threats	Ali, M.M. & Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is affected by water pollution as all aquatic species. It could be threated in the future by change of management regime of non-agricultural areas. However, no current widespread threats have been identified.	eng
185705	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No conservation measures for Pan Africa are in place. Formal education and training of local communities and officers, and more effective communication to raise awareness on species importance has been suggested. More research on threats and trends of this species is needed.	eng
185705	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Widespread in western Africa and present from Senegal to western Cameroon. It is also found in Madagascar and South America.	eng
185705	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Western Africa: Tufts on marshy places and flooded soils.<br/><br/>Central Africa: Annual herb, growing in marshland.	eng
185705	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Western Africa:Average to small.<br/><br/>Central Africa: As herbaceous annual, the population of this species is likely to be important locally.	eng
185705	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	As marshland species, any major threat will depend on the water condition and availability. Therefore, any serious fluctuation in the water condition is likely to affect directly the population. This fluctuation can be due to the invasion by alien species, water polluted by human activities, or natural disasters such as drought. Agricultural management has also been identified as a major threat.	eng
185706	conservation	Juffe, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place	eng
185706	distribution	Juffe, D., 2009	The species is found throughout tropical Africa. It is recorded from Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa and Swaziland. Also recorded from Madagascar.	eng
185706	habitat	Juffe, D., 2009	Tufted plant of about 120 cm high, growing in damp grassland or marshes.	eng
185706	population	Juffe, D., 2009	As herbaceous species, the population of <em>M. keniensis</em> is expected to be locally abundant.	eng
185706	threats	Juffe, D., 2009	No major widespread threats known. May be locally impacted by changes in water levels due to human activities (irrigation, dams etc.)	eng
185707	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	This species sn some Protected Areas, for example, Shimba Hills. Although, taxonomy is known, more knowledge on habitat status, biology and ecology, population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185707	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs in Madagascar, Mauritius Islands and the eastern coast of Africa. It has been recorded from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), Somalia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya. In Kenya the species is fairly widespread in low altitudes.	eng
185707	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial herb occurs building stands at the edge of lakes, pools and along streams especially along the coastal areas. Also in seasonally flooded grasslands, in wet mud or shallow water, between 5 - 455 m above sea level.	eng
185707	population	Juffe, D., 2010	It is rare in North Eastern Africa and quite common in coastal areas of Eastern Africa.	eng
185707	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	Threats are mainly due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.  It may also be affected by swamp drainage and land conversion to agriculture in Eastern Africa. No major widespread threats described.	eng
185708	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information. More research is needed on the population and exact distribution of the species	eng
185708	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Known from Mali, Ghana, Tanzania, Angola; Mali; Namibia; South Africa; Zambia; Zimbabwe (TANZANIA Tunduru District: just E of Songea District Boundary, 6 June 1956, Milne-Redhead & Taylor 10590!) (Zambia W: Mwekera, 14.iv.1967, Fanshawe 10026 (BM; K; NDO). (Zimbabwe N: Darwin, Musengezi Camp, 8.v.19S5, Whellan 849 (BM; SRGH).<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa where it has been recorded in Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe south to South Africa (Northern Cape) (Cook 2004:33). In South Africa it occurs in Lydenberg, Mpumalanga. In Namibia it occurs in Karibib District. (From Koos Roux - Isoetes expert);  Known localities:  Only one location known in South Africa from Mpumalanga: see locality below - Cook 2004 states that distribution extends to Northern Cape in RSA, but J.P Roux RSA Isoetes expert is not aware of this locality.	eng
185708	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Usually in temporarily wet places, such as shallow depression and stream beds, 1225 - 1350 m above sea level. It is a terrestrial species in flushes or in seasonal stream beds usually well below mud surface, obviously able to withstand dry conditions.	eng
185708	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Highly scattered populations over the range.	eng
185708	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potential threat of grazing and alien plants in Mpumalanga South Africa. No major widespread threats identified.	eng
185709	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	There are no conservation measures in place or needed.	eng
185709	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	This plant is distributed throughout Tropical Africa including Madagascar. In  western Cameroon it has been recorded from the Ndop plain. In tropical east Africa it can be found in Angola and Mozambique district at the east cost of lake Nyassa. It is also known in south Africa and Mascarene Islands. In Burundi, the species has been found in the high land marshes at Rushubi, Ijenda, Mahwa, Gitanga, Nyamuswaga, Mageyo, Muyange and Musigati. The species is widespread and locally common in Kenya from the altitude of 300-2,100m above sea level. Also found in Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Rwanda, Ethiop, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Botswana, South Africa, Swaziland and Mauritania.	eng
185709	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Robust plant to about 120 cm high with broad leaves and bracts, characterized by branched spikes of numerous spikelets with glumes arcuate at maturity. Present in pools, swamps, open water edges, and marshes, on the landside of Cyperus papyrus.	eng
185709	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Moderately abundant	eng
185709	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Although no major widespread  threats have been described, agriculture, drainage of its habitat, and drought can threaten the species locally.	eng
185710	conservation	de Bélair, G., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place, but it is suggested to study the inventory of the habitats of this species, its taxonomy, populations, the locations, etc.	eng
185710	distribution	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton hoggarensis</em> is only found in Algeria, central Sahara, Hoggar (Imarera 1,950 m above sea level). Aslo recorded from N. Chad in Tibesti.	eng
185710	habitat	de Bélair, G., 2009	<em>Potamogeton hoggarensis</em> is a perennial plant that grows in freshwater ponds more or less permanent. Flowers and fruits are unknown.	eng
185710	population	de Bélair, G., 2009	There is only one location in North Africa in Algeria.	eng
185710	threats	de Bélair, G., 2009	No information	eng
185711	conservation	Diop, F.N., 2009	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known. Further research in population numbers and range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185711	distribution	Diop, F.N., 2009	Over the rest of tropical Africa, and in central and south tropics. It is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa. Also found in Cuba and tropical South America.<br/><br/>In Africa it is widespread throughout Western and Central Africa, from Senegal to Kenya, and down to Mozambique, including Zambia and Angola. It is also present in Sudan and Ethiopia.	eng
185711	habitat	Diop, F.N., 2009	Aquatic herb floating upper leaves, in pools and streams. Stagnant or slow current freshwater, rice fields, marsy savanna.	eng
185711	population	Diop, F.N., 2009	Quite widespread species, found in almost all sub-Saharan African countries.	eng
185711	threats	Diop, F.N., 2009	None at the moment. Potential threats in the future could be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, temperature extreme, alien invasion, and sudden drought.	eng
185712	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major conservation measures except more information needed on population numbers and range, and habitat status.	eng
185712	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	This species is mainly distributed in the Afromontane region. It is widespread in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. In Northern Africa, it has been recorded from Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea.	eng
185712	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Ponds, pools and streams often moving water. <em>P. Richardii</em> grows mainly in regions with high rainfall. It occurs mostly at elevated altitudes.	eng
185712	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread and common in upland areas.	eng
185712	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	No major threats.	eng
185713	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is found within some protected areas.	eng
185713	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Afro-Madagascan and soudano-zambezian distribution. The species is widespread in western Africa, towards east, through Central Africa Republic and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), to Eastern Africa. <br/><br/>Recorded from Western Africa to Central African Republic, DRC, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Mozambique, Madagascar, Angola and Namibia.<br/><br/>In Kenya, it has been recorded from Teita District: Tsavo National Park (East), Buchuma Waterhole and in Dika Plains. In Tanzania it has been recorded in Pare District: Mkomazi to Mkombara.	eng
185713	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Small plant with stolons more or less underground. <em>Marsilea nubica </em>is found on temporary pools and rice fields.	eng
185713	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Abundant.	eng
185713	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major widespread threats.	eng
185714	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	None at the moment. But raising public awareness and more research have been suggested.	eng
185714	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Tropical Africa, from Guinea Bissau and Senegal in the West to Uganda, Sudan and Tanzania in the East, then down to South Africa. Also India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Pacific Islands, Indonesia<br/><br/>Present in From Senegal to Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Zambia, and west of South Africa including Swaziland.	eng
185714	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Annual weed of damp shady places mainly in forest. It grows in temporary water forming annual grassy meadows in weakly to moderately flooded soils.	eng
185714	population	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Quite widespread herbaceous species. Important population.	eng
185714	threats	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	Habitat loss due to human activities (Slash and burn agriculture, infrastructure development). It is also threatened by drought.	eng
185715	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	It is found within Protected Areas.	eng
185715	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	This species is widespread in western Africa and along the Old World tropics	eng
185715	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	It occurs in bare temporary humid well drained soils and edges of water.	eng
185715	population	Juffe, D., 2006	This species is abundant.	eng
185715	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	No major threats have been identified.	eng
185716	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information	eng
185716	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is found throughout tropical Africa. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa, it has been recorded from Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa (Limpopo, North West, Gauteng, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). <br/><br/>In Kenya, the species has been recorded in Machakos, Nairobi and Kajiado areas.	eng
185716	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Often found in stream beds, sometimes in running water with leaves floating or in dried up pools, vleis (shallow seaseonal lake) and pans, in temporarily flooded grassland,1800m.	eng
185716	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185716	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known	eng
185717	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	Some research is needed on the habitat status and population trends.	eng
185717	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	Tropical Africa and South Africa. It occurs in Burundi, Cameroon, Rwanda, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Swaziland and North-West province in South Africa.	eng
185717	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	Perennial or sometimes annual, with short rhizome, generally growing in tuft. Stems 20 - 40 cm high, 1-3 mm thick. Leaves are all inserted at the base of the stem. It grows in borders of rivers.	eng
185717	population	Juffe, D., 2006	Failry common throughout its range.	eng
185717	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	Agriculture and drought have been identified as possible threats.	eng
185718	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are known, research in population numbers and range is needed.	eng
185718	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	In north eastern Africa it occurs in Ethiopia (but there are no records in the flora area), Kenya, Tanzania, Angola, Zimbabwe, and in Cape Provinces, KwaZulu-Natal and North Western Province in South Africa.	eng
185718	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	It occurs in still water.	eng
185718	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is rare in North East Africa.	eng
185718	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known.	eng
185719	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	More research needed for distribution within Africa	eng
185719	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	Found in  Madagascar, Indian Ocean Islands, Reunion, Comoros, Mayotte. Distribution from Tanzania to Madagascar and Comoros.<br/><br/>The species has been recorded from Tanzania, Zanzibar, I. Mwera R., Pemba I. Chakechake and Bandani.	eng
185719	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This emergent aquatic plant occurs in pure stands in fresh water swamps, near sea level.	eng
185719	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	Unknown	eng
185719	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Unknown.	eng
185720	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Further research in population numbers and range, threats, and habitat status is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185720	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	Present in from Democratic Republic of Congo to Uganda and Tanzania, south to Botswana. Also Madagascar. <br/><br/>In Southern Africa it has been recorded from Okavango Delta and northern province in Zambia. Also present in Angola, and Zimbabwe.	eng
185720	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	This  perennial aquatic herb grows floating or loosely anchored. Roots sometime anchored in floating weeds, but more often in soft mud in pools and shallow lakes. Found in deep or flowing water.	eng
185720	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	No formal information about the population, but <em>W. filifolia</em> is a widespread species with a presumably large population.	eng
185720	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	he major threats for this species should be those affecting the quality and quantity of water especially water pollution, alien invasion, and sudden drought. However, these are not considered major threats.	eng
185721	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185721	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species has only been recorded from Tanzania in Maswa district; Simuyu R., near Shanwa, Singida district; Isuna on Singida - Manyoni Rd, Kondoa district; and in Sambala, Dodoma district, Kilimatinde.	eng
185721	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Shallow seasonal rapidly drying pools where tubers lie exposed on the surface.	eng
185721	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185721	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information available.	eng
185722	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More information on habitat and ecology is also needed so that preferred habitat can be identified. Also specific threats to the species need to be identified.	eng
185722	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Macaronesia and Mediterranean areas to Afghanistan. In Africa, it has been recorded only from Somalia in North Eastern Africa and from Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Morocco in Northern Africa. It may be present also in South Africa although this needs to be confirmed.	eng
185722	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Muddy sandy or gravelly margins of pond, lakes, streams and rivers on marshes. Also present in brackish situations such as mud and sand-flats, dune-slacks in coastal dune systems, and on the margins of saline and brackish lakes	eng
185722	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is rare in Somalia. There is no information about other countries.	eng
185722	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is prone to be threatened due to intrinsic factors such as its restricted range and limited dispersal.&#160; However, more information is needed to identify specific threats throughout its entire range.	eng
185723	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Formal education and awareness of the riverside residents and main stakeholders about the main threats faced by freshwater plant species and the necessity of nature conservation.	eng
185723	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Throughout tropical Africa, Sao Tome and Principe, Madagsacar and Mascarene islands. Some authors consider it as adventive in West and Central Africa where it is widespread.<br/><br/>It is present Eastern Africa where it is not a common species. Only recorded from Zanzibar and one locality in Uganda near Lake Victoria.<br/><br/>The species is found in the moist tropics of the New World in South and South-east Asia and America.	eng
185723	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Triannual or more species of swamps and damp places.	eng
185723	population	Juffe, D., 2010	Quite widespread herbaceous species, important population. In Eastern Africa it is quite rare, only recorded from Zanzibar (Unguja, Jozani Forest) and one locality in Uganda in Busoga district.	eng
185723	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No current major threaths. However, there is a risk of future habitat loss through global warming, human settlement, industrial development and water demanding trees plantations around wetlands. The invasion of Alien species can also be harmful in the future.	eng
185724	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	More research is needed to determine total range and population trends.	eng
185724	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in tropical and subtropical Africa, and in Madagascar.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Kenya (Machakos and Northern Frontier Districts, and Mt elgon), Tanzania (Arusha and near the source of Ngolo river) and Uganda (Ankole, Mengo and West Nile Dristrics) . The species si presumed to be present in other tropical African countries.	eng
185724	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This herb grows in damp places where water stood during rains but has dried out. Also in humid and sub humid forests.	eng
185724	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185724	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known.	eng
185725	conservation	Juffe, D., 2006	No data available.	eng
185725	distribution	Juffe, D., 2006	It is a widely spread species in tropical Africa, Madagascar and in the Middle East. Present from Senegal to south of Nigeria in western Africa. In Eastern Africa, the species grows in many parts of Burundi between 1,000 and 2,000 m above sea level. Common and wide spread in Kenya from 30 - 2,450 m asl. Also present in Egypt, South Africa  (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), Namibia, Botswana, and Swaziland.	eng
185725	habitat	Juffe, D., 2006	This helophyte occurs in the border of lakes and sometimes it forms great planting. Mostly gregarious in swamps or in open water, in wet or marshly places. It is a robust perennial, with short and lignified rhizome, often reddish root	eng
185725	population	Juffe, D., 2006	No data available although it seems a widespread species.	eng
185725	threats	Juffe, D., 2006	None major widespread threats are known.	eng
185726	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	It is considered as a threatened species in North Eastern Africa where conservation measures are needed. No conservation measures are needed at a Pan Africa level.	eng
185726	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	Recorded from Senegal to Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and from India to China and Thailand.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique.	eng
185726	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	An annual herb of damp or swampy, even brackish sites.	eng
185726	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is rare in Somalia. It is common from West to South Africa.	eng
185726	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	No major threats have been identified.	eng
185727	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	Further research in population numbers, habitat status, biology and ecology, and geographical range is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185727	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species occurs from Tropical to South Africa. Recorded from western, easten, southern and North Eastern Africa.<br/><br/>In Kenya, it has only been recorded from Karamoja. Also recorded from a single floral region in Mbulu district in Tanzania.	eng
185727	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	This perennial hydrophyte  grows in pools, ponds and swamps, submerged in still and slowly flowing water or in pools.	eng
185727	population	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is common.	eng
185727	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	It may be potentially impacted by agricultural development, invasive species and drought but this has not been confirmed as major threat.	eng
185728	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Research actions needed. Ithas been recorded in at least one protected area in chad (Plaines d’inondation des Bahr Aouk et Salamat).	eng
185728	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Formerly regarded as endemic to Madagascar, but discovered in northern Cameroon in 1964 (Letouzey (1967). Also present in Chad, in the RAMSAR site Plaines d’inondation des Bahr Aouk et Salamat. More information is needed to determine its distibution.	eng
185728	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Annual or perennial aquatic herb, floatting or rooting in substrate. It grows in fresh water, swamps and dams.	eng
185728	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is very uncommon.	eng
185728	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially impacted by agricultural development, alien species and drought.	eng
185729	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	Further research in population numbers, range and threats is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185729	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	Known from Mozambique and East Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and Malawi. Also present in Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Malawi, it has been recorded from Chikwawa on the edge harbour and Elephant marsh, Shire river banks at Liwonde National Park in Machinga, Ndindi marsh at Marka in Nsanje, Mangochi, Nkotakota at Chia lagoon, and Salima. Also recorded from Kenya (from Lamu District: Boni Forest, Maungi Pool) and Tanzania (Rungwe District: Mwaya).	eng
185729	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	Floating on water, sluggish streams and backwaters, marshes and river banks.	eng
185729	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	[Unknown]	eng
185729	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Threats are unknown.	eng
185730	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures but some populations are found in protected areas (national parks and forest reserves).	eng
185730	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Sudan, Ethiopia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, including Madagascar.<br/><br/>It is is widespread and common in upland forest  in Kenya, from 1,200 - 2,400 m above sea level. In Malawi it is found at Domasi River in Zomba. Also recorded from Burundi and Rwanda.	eng
185730	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	In wet habitats, on river banks, near streams, pools and in swamps.	eng
185730	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185730	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	The species may be under threat locally from land degradation due to cultivation and road constructions although this is not considered a major threat throughout Africa.	eng
185731	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species is not under any conservation measures. But some populations are protected in national parks and forest reserves.	eng
185731	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Occurs in Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda. This species is widespread in Kenya, from sea-level to 2,100 m. In Malawi it occurs at Marymount dambo in Mzuzu, and Chiakangawa Forest Reserve in Mzimba.<br/><br/>Its is widespread in west and central Africa, down into Angola and in Comoro Islands.	eng
185731	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The species is found in forest swamps, along-paths and streams. Also, along forest streams, occasionally in grassland or roadsides.	eng
185731	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Habitat fragmentation in form of logging, agricultural and animal grazing activities.	eng
185732	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known	eng
185732	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It is a species that is widely spread from Western to Eastern tropical Africa down to Southern Africa, including Madagascar and Mauritius Islands.<br/><br/>Recorded from Burundi, Cameroon; the Democratic Republic of Congo; Côte d'Ivoire; Equatorial Guinea; Ghana; Kenya, Malawi; Nigeria; Rwanda; Sierra Leone; South Africa; Zambia; Zimbabwe.	eng
185732	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It is a species of mountain forest area in marshes, peatlands and streams.	eng
185732	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information	eng
185732	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No threats	eng
185733	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185733	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	From Africa with a sudano-zambesian distribution. Widesspread in Western Africa. Also recorded from Tanzania (Moshi District: Kware), Mozambique, and Zambia.	eng
185733	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Temporary pools and rice fields.	eng
185733	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Relatively abundant.	eng
185733	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No major widespread threats identified.	eng
185734	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place althogh its likely to be present in protected areas.	eng
185734	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is present in Tropical Africa, with a scattered distribution from Guinea to Sierra Leone, Liberia and Nigeria, to Eastern Africa and Zimbabwe.	eng
185734	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<em> L. angolense</em> is a perennial aquatic herb, helophyte of shallow lakes, marshes, swamps, ditches until 1900 m alt.	eng
185734	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, no formal information about the population, but its wide distribution suggests a quite important population.	eng
185734	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None at the moment, but the hypothetical threat should be the habitat loss due essentially to alien invasion, water pollution or sudden drought.	eng
185736	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place but surveillance and monitoring of the existing sites, raising public awareness on wetlands importance, and further research on the population status and threats, have been suggested.	eng
185736	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Known only from north of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Congo, Central African Republic and Chad.	eng
185736	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Herb growing in savanna marshes on rocky breast-plates and outcrops.	eng
185736	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	The species is know from a few locations. Thus, the population of this species is presumably low.	eng
185736	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Fire, drought, Agriculture,  livestock farming and invasion by alien species.	eng
185737	conservation	Mahamane, A.; FTEATS, 2006	This species is not under any conservation programme, but some of its populations are found in protected areas such as National Parks and Forest Reserves.	eng
185737	distribution	Mahamane, A.; FTEATS, 2006	The species is widespread in Tropical and Southern Africa. It has also been recorded from India, Vietnam and North Australia.<br/><br/>The distribution of this species covers the whole of Afrotropical region, from Senegal and Mali in the West to East Africa, then down to Gabon to South Africa. The plant is also found in Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Eastern Africa,<em> Cyperus denudatus denudatus,</em> is widespread in Kenya from 100 - 2,100 m above sea level. <em>Cyperus denudatus lucentinigricans</em> is also widespread in upland Kenya  from 1,500-3,000 m above sea level.	eng
185737	habitat	Mahamane, A.; FTEATS, 2006	Humid to flooded soils, ditches, pools, edges of salted soils. Marshy grassland. It tolerates salinity. Also river banks, flood plains, swamps, damp grassland, moist rock crevices.	eng
185737	population	Mahamane, A.; FTEATS, 2006	As Herbaceous species, the population of this plant is likely to be locally important.	eng
185737	threats	Mahamane, A.; FTEATS, 2006	The species may be locally threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and improper land use practices such wetland reclamation for human settlements. However, no major widespread threats have been recorded.	eng
185738	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185738	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	It is Widespread in western Africa extending south to Bostwana.	eng
185738	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This annual creeping herb grows everywhere in the rainy season, but in the dry season it is found only in humid places like the "Niayes of Senegal" (depressions) and in field rice. Often found in stream-beds of the savanna and open country. Forms dense carpets at the edges of water.	eng
185738	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Locally common.	eng
185738	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by land management for agriculture.	eng
185739	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	No information.	eng
185739	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	The species is found in Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Western Asia, China, Indian subcontinent, Indo-China.<br/><br/>Widespread in Southern Africa (Botswana; Lesotho; Namibia; South Africa - Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal; Swaziland) and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Senegal in Western Africa; Upper Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.	eng
185739	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	This annual plant is not an aquatic or wetland species, but may be found in temporarily wet places.	eng
185739	population	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	A widespread weed, common in the warmer parts of the Old World.	eng
185739	threats	Ghogue, J.-P, 2009	None known.	eng
185740	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Although, taxonomy, biology and ecology are in known, further research in population numbers and range are is needed. No other conservation measures are in place or needed.	eng
185740	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	In tropical to warm temperate regions of Africa, Asia and Australasia.<br/><br/>The species is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia, Uganda, Ethiopia (Abyssinie in palibus prope Axum), Eritrea, and Malawi. In Kenya, it is found in Central Kenya (K3, 4, 6) from sea level to 600 m. It was recorded in areas such as Naivasha, Machakos, Maasai Mara plains, Taita District and Tsavo East National Park. Tanzania T1, 3-5. Musoma district Klein's camp to seronera, Mpanda district Katisunga. In Central Africa it has been recorded from Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. Also known from Zambia and Mozambique.	eng
185740	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Aponogeton abyssinicus</em> is an aquatic herb living in shallow temporarily marshes, rocky basins in open or close grassy vegetation, irrigation canals, inundated grasslands, stagnant river branches, salty sandy inundated soils, from the sea level up to 2,700 m.<br/><br/>They are fully aquatic herbaceous plants with milky sap, becoming dormant during drought conditions. Most species grow from tubers. The starchy tubercles of the African species are able to survive the dry season by shedding their leaves and undergoing a dormant period. <em>A. abyssinicus</em> seems to do best in softer water with a loose and nutrient rich substrate.	eng
185740	population	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	Widespread species, presumably important population.	eng
185740	threats	Ghogue, J.-P. & Ali, M.M., 2009	No major widespread threats are known.	eng
185741	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185741	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This species is present  in Southern Africa, India, and Madagascar.<br/><br/>In Southern Africa it is found in Angola, Mozambique, extending south to Namibia, Botswana and South Africa (Limpopo Province). Also recorded from Tanzania, Uganada, Burundi, Rwanda, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, south of Mauritania and south west of Mali.	eng
185741	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	This perennial aquatic fern grows at the edges of small pools and in seasonally swampy areas, from 800-1400 m above sea level.	eng
185741	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	No information.	eng
185741	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	None known.	eng
185742	conservation	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185742	distribution	Juffe, D., 2010	This species is present in Tropical Africa but there is no data available on specific distibution.<br/><br/>It is widespread in Southern Africa and not suspected to be declining.	eng
185742	habitat	Juffe, D., 2010	Not a strictly aqualtic or wetland species but may be found in temporarily wet places.; Annual (occ. perennial) Hydrophyte	eng
185742	population	Juffe, D., 2010	No information.	eng
185742	threats	Juffe, D., 2010	None known.	eng
185743	conservation	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	There are no conservation measures in place. Monitoring of exisiting sites and population dynamics, further research on species biology, ecology and population sizes and search for ne sites have been suggested as conservation measures.	eng
185743	distribution	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em>Carex demissa</em> is a circumboreal species. Its biogeographical distribution includes Europe, western Siberia, boreal America and North Africa. <br/>In Africa it is only present in Morocco. Its extent of occurrence covers about 40,000 km², occurring in 11 locations.	eng
185743	habitat	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a vivacious, herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte). Preferentially calcicole, this species is found in very humid pastures and along the edges of springs and streams of plains and mountains, in bioclimatic humid environments. Flowering occurs between mid spring and the beginning of summer.	eng
185743	population	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The species is common in the Mediterranean region, occurring in numerous localities, but it has a restricted distribution in North Africa (AOO <100 km²). The tendency of the populations is unknown. <br/>- Morocco: one location in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), four locations in the Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen in Arhbalou n'Aït-Amou at 1,700 m, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy path at the crossing of Oued Zad) and fairly common in the Rif (Tanger, Issaguène, Madissouka valley, Jbel Arhoud, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine). Its presence in the massif of Jbel Mtourzgane, near the Oued Ouerdane springs, is uncertain.<br/>- Portugal: fairly common; <br/>- Spain: 92 sites; <br/>- France: very common, occurring in numerous locations.	eng
185743	threats	Rhazi, L., Grillas, P., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage and agricultural usage of this species' habitat are its main threat.	eng
185744	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	Wetlands regular monitoring and rational management.	eng
185744	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	This species is found throughout tropical Africa, Central and east Asia and South America. It occurs in the northern part of western Africa from Mauritius to Niger and Cameroon. It is also present in Eastern, Noth Eastern and Southern Africa.	eng
185744	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	Shallow water, swamps and moist sites in differents conditions. Plant characterised by the lax-spicklettes, cylindrical, digitatly-arranged spikes of spreading spikelet, with a central golden stripe.	eng
185744	population	Juffe, D., 2008	Population evolution seems positive. Species grows well even in semi-aride lands.	eng
185744	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	Wetlands drought, wetlands management for agriculture have been identified as threats to this species.	eng
185745	conservation	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	No conservation measures in place. More research is needed on species actual distribution, population and habitat status.	eng
185745	distribution	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	Locally common in Kigezi and Toro in Uganda. Also recorded from Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.	eng
185745	habitat	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	This species occurs in medium altitude swamps between 1,500 m to 2,500 m asl.	eng
185745	population	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	No data available.	eng
185745	threats	Juffe Bignoli, D., 2010	The threats to the species are only known for the Ugandan part of the species range, where agriculture extension into the wetlands especially due to the high human population density has been identified as a major threat. Dairy farming in the wetlands may result  in changes in the available plant diversity which may ultimately result in loss of the species.	eng
185746	conservation	Juffe, D., 2008	None known	eng
185746	distribution	Juffe, D., 2008	In Africa it is found in Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Angola, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and Somalia. Also found in the tropics of Asia and America.	eng
185746	habitat	Juffe, D., 2008	In pools and river beds.	eng
185746	population	Juffe, D., 2008	No information	eng
185746	threats	Juffe, D., 2008	None known	eng
185747	conservation	Ali, M.M., 2009	In North Africa, there are currently no conservation measures in place. The following actions for conservation are recommended:<br/>- Legal protection (lists of protected species).<br/>- Application of legal measures of conservation.<br/>- Monitoring of the sub-populations and search for new ones.<br/>- Evaluation the population size.<br/>- Study of the population dynamics.<br/>- Study of the biology and ecology of the species.	eng
185747	distribution	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a Mediterranean-Atlantic species occurring from North Africa to southern Scandinavia. <br/><br/>In Africa it occurs in Algeria (El Kala-Annaba region), Morocco, and Tunisia. In Tunisia there are three populations in Kroumirie (Aïn Draham, Tabarka) and Mogods (Jbel Chitane).	eng
185747	habitat	Ali, M.M., 2009	<em>Baldellia repens</em> is a herbaceous perennial stoloniferous amphibious Helophyte, growing in weakly acidic water-bodies, on oligotrophic peaty soils, and on sandy banks of canals, pools and ponds, within the zone of water seepage.	eng
185747	population	Ali, M.M., 2009	While available data are insufficient to evaluate accurately the present-day status of <em>Baldellia repens</em>, it seems to be rare and declining over all its distribution area, especially in the Mediterranean region. It is Critically Endangered in Italy and Croatia (one subpopulation known in each country).	eng
185747	threats	Ali, M.M., 2009	Habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance, hydrological alterations and changes in water and substrate quality seem to be the most significant threats to <em>Baldellia repens</em>.	eng
185748	conservation	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	No conservation measures are in place. Proposed actions are to monitor the existing sites in North Africa and search for new ones, and to monitor populations dynamics.	eng
185748	distribution	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	<em></em> This is a Euro-American species. Its distribution covers Europe, eastern North America and Morocco. It is widespread in the Mediterranean region.<br/>In North Africa it is only present in Morocco, with an extent of occurrence under 20,000 km², eight locations and an area of occupancy (AOO) below 100 km².	eng
185748	habitat	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	It is a perennial herbaceous plant (Hemicryptophyte) that inhabits swamps and the edges of springs and streams, with a preference for chalky soils. Flowering occurs during spring and summer (May-July).	eng
185748	population	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	This species is common in the Mediterranean region (several locations and an AOO >200 km²). <br/>In North Africa it is rare, with restricted populations due to spatial limitations (eight locations and an AOO <100 km²). The trend of the populations is unknown. It is rare in Morocco, occurring in the High Atlas (Agoundis valley), Middle Atlas (Kerrouchen, Ari Hayan, Senoual valley and the Boudy road near Oued Zad) and the Rif (Issaguène, Ketama and Jbel Tidighine).	eng
185748	threats	Rhazi, L., Rhazi, M. & Flanagan, D., 2009	The drainage of its habitat is the main threat to this species.	eng
185750	conservation	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No conservation measures in place specific for this species.	eng
185750	distribution	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	<em>Tralia ovula</em> has only been recorded from Gabon (DBL collection data; Mandahl-Barth).	eng
185750	habitat	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	Brackish water. Species in this genus are likely to occur in mud flat areas (D. Van Damme, pers. comm.).	eng
185750	population	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information regarding population sizes.	eng
185750	threats	Aslak Jørgensen, 2008	No information available.	eng
185752	conservation	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	The genus <span style="font-style: italic;">Chigua </span>is listed on Appendix I of CITES. The current taxonomic reference used by CITES still refers to <span style="font-style: italic;">Chigua restrepoi</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">C. bernalii </span>so this taxon is still listed on CITES appendix I. Plants rescued from the area flooded by the dam have been replanted in a reforested area but it is uncertain whether or not this restoration effort will result in an increase in population numbers. This species is poorly represented in collections and <span style="font-style: italic;">ex situ</span> collections need to be strengthened.	eng
185752	distribution	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species is only known from a small area in northern Colombia in the province of Cordoba. It occurs along or near the Rio Sinu at altitudes ranging from 75 to 150 m.	eng
185752	habitat	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	This species occurs in wet lowland primary rainforest and in savanna.	eng
185752	population	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	Originally numbers of ca. 250 plants were referred to, however, a visit to the site in 2008 (Lindström 2009) indicated that there were only scattered individuals (<50). Plants rescued from the dam area have been replanted in a reforested area but the survival of these plants and their contribution to the population recruitment are not certain.	eng
185752	threats	Lopez-Gallego, C., 2009	Habitat destruction in the area where these plants are found is severe (cattle farming, mining and oil exploration). A dam has been built across the Rio Sinu at Urra and plants may have been lost as a result of the area being flooded. Plants are also removed and sold to collectors.	eng
185754	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185754	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185754	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	None known.	eng
185754	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	<em>Pisidium viridarium</em> occurs mainly in east and southern Africa, and Madagascar.<br/><br/><strong>Central Africa:</strong> It is known from the southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (Shaba Province) (Piechocki 1993).<br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> It occurs in Ethiopia.	eng
185754	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<em>Pisidium viridarium</em> occurs mainly in eastern and southern Africa Africa, and Madagascar. Within the central Africa region: southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo, in the Shaba Province (Piechocki 1993).	eng
185754	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from most of Central and southern Africa.	eng
185754	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found mainly in highland rivers and streams.	eng
185754	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is mainly found in highland rivers and streams. This is a cold water species.	eng
185754	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185754	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185754	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185754	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
185754	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	Although host specificity is not known, any impacts on the fish community e.g. overfishing and stocking, may affect the species.	eng
185754	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185754	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185757	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species would benefit from protection of springs from pollution and reduce groundwater abstraction are needed.	eng
185757	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species would benefit from protection of springs from pollution, reduced abstraction from groundwater.	eng
185757	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Pseudamnicola dupotetiana</em> is present in southern Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Ghamizi <em>et al</em>. 1997). Its type locality is in Algiers and Bejaia, Algeria.	eng
185757	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is known from southern Europe, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia (Ghamizi <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
185757	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is found in springs and adjoining parts of small clear streams with good water quality. Further downstream the other genus, <em>Mercuria</em>, is found.	eng
185757	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in springs and adjoining parts of small clear streams with good water quality. Further downstream the other genus, <em>Mercuria</em>, is found.	eng
185757	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is abundant.	eng
185757	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is an abundant species.	eng
185757	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution, groundwater level lowering and urbanisation are major threats to the species. The springs in Marrakech that were historically mentioned in old papers have all been lost. One of the springs is used for trout fishery.	eng
185757	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is threatened by pollution and groundwater level lowerin, as well as urbanisation. The springs in Marrakech have all been lost (ones mentioned in old papers). One spring used for trout fishery.	eng
185758	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information.	eng
185758	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Species (erroneously) cited in recent literature (Ibrahim <em>et al</em>. 1999) as belonging to the modern freshwater fauna of Egypt, endemic to Lake Qaron (or Quarun).	eng
185758	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185758	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185758	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information.	eng
185759	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185759	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185759	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.  It would be very valuable with more research into taxonomy, population sizes and distribution, ecology and biology. (applies to all Ferrissia spp.)	eng
185759	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong>   The species is known from Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The species is known from Egypt: Suez, Ismailia, Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region but rare in Egypt. Brown (1994) considers the records from Kenya and Yemen to be erroneous. The type locality is Ramleh near Alexandria, Egypt	eng
185759	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is present in Europe and northern Africa. In northern Africa, it occurs in Egypt, Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). It is rare in Egypt, where it can be found in Suez, Ismailia and Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region. Brown also considers the records from Kenya and Yemen. It is certainly not in north western Africa. Its type locality is in Ramleh near Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
185759	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is known from Egypt, Ethiopia and perhaps Sudan (Brown 1994). Its distribution may also extend into Europe. In Egypt it is known from Suez, Ismailia, and the Mahmoudia Canal in Alexandria region but it is rare.	eng
185759	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is spread by birds so its distribution is changeable. It inhabits all kinds of inland waters. It is very easily overlooked as it is a very small species. It sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water.	eng
185759	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Spread by birds so distribution is changeable. <em>Ferrissia iselli</em> live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water.	eng
185759	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Spread by birds so distribution is changeable. Live in all kinds of freshwaters, stagnant etc. Very easily overlooked, tiny. Sticks to leaves and trees that hang in the water. The genus is found in varied habitats including streams, lakes, seasonal pools and irrigation channels. It can be found in reasonably polluted lakes as well as cleaner water. (Applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.)	eng
185759	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185759	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185759	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
185759	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is threatened by pollution.	eng
185759	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is threatened by pollution.	eng
185759	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is likely to be threatened by human induced habitat degradation. (This applies to all <em>Ferrissia</em> spp.).	eng
185761	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Legislation development and implementation, as well as research and habitat conservation actions are needed.	eng
185761	conservation	Van Damme, D, 2008	No information available.	eng
185761	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
185761	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	A holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in highlands of northern and north eastern Africa. <br/><br/><strong>Northern Africa:</strong> This species occurs in Morocco. It is known from the region of Ifrane, and from the Middle Atlas at Lake Hachlaf, Aoua, Afourgagh and Tifounassine, Dayet Ifrha, the sources of Ben Smim and from Aïn Tataw (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria it was found in the region between Constantine and Mostagenem (Bourguignat 1864). <br/><br/><strong>Northeastern Africa:</strong> The species also occurs in the Ethiopian Highlands. Algerian records from 19th century It is known from area with large human impacts so probably no longer there. This species is only found in mid-Atlas. Very localised, probably in highlands of Mediterranean.	eng
185761	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Armiger crista </em> is a holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in the northern African highlands (Morocco and Algeria). In Morocco, it has been cited from the regions of Ifrane, the Middle Atlas at Lake Hachlaf, Aoua, Afourgagh and Tifounassine, Dayet Ifrha, the sources of Ben Smim and from Aïn Tataw (Ghamizi 1998). In Algeria, it was found between Constantine and Mostagenem (Bourguignat 1864). The species also occurs in the Ethiopian Highlands. Algerian records from the 19th century are from an area undergoing to large human impacts and therefore though to probably no longer been there. It is only found in mid-Atlas. It has a very localised distribution, probably restricted to the Mediterranean highlands. Its type locality is in Germany.	eng
185761	distribution	Van Damme, D, 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Ethiopia near Debra Berhan (Brown 1994).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> A holarctic cold water species whose southern limit lies in highlands of Northern Africa. The type locality is Germany.	eng
185761	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It can be found in fresh water of all kinds, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. Borders of lakes, but not man-made structures. Highland areas. This species likes colder water and is distributed by birds.	eng
185761	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It inhabits a broad range of freshwater habitats of highland areas, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. It is found on the borders of lakes, but not on man-made structures. It prefers colder waters. It is spread by birds.	eng
185761	habitat	Van Damme, D, 2008	Non-polluted fresh water of all kinds, even slightly brackish, where there are aquatic plants. Borders of lakes, but not man-made structures. Highland areas. Likes colder water. Distributed by birds.	eng
185761	population	Van Damme, D, 2008	No information available.	eng
185761	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185761	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widespread but only very localised, small populations exist in northeastern Africa and northern Africa.	eng
185761	threats	Van Damme, D, 2008	Climate change and habitat degradation because needs clean cold water. Bottled water companies.	eng
185761	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Climate change and habitat degradation due to pollution are main threats to the species due to its dependence on clean cold water. The activities of bottled water companies are also affecting to the species.	eng
185761	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	The major threats to this species are climate change and habitat degradation because it needs clean cold water. Threats are also posed by encroachment and over-abstraction by bottled-water companies.	eng
185762	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Conservation measures needed are reducing groundwater abstraction and avoid pollution of springs.	eng
185762	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This southern Paleartic species has been from five much localised areas in Morocco recently recorded. Its recent distribution in Algeria is uncertain, and it is likely to occur also in Tunisia.	eng
185762	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Stenotopic species that is spread by birds and therefore with a variable distribution. It is present in shallow quiet and clean waters, attached to vegetation that grows just below springs, in very restricted areas.	eng
185762	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185762	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Drying up of springs and water pollution are main threats affecting to this species.	eng
185763	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of springs limiting water use and abstraction from spring, as well as preventing climate change are needed.	eng
185763	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	In northern Africa, the species is known from the region of the Rif and eastern Morocco. <br/>In Morocco, it was found in the spring Ain Jdida, spring Ain Louada, the spring Ain Sendiyine, Larach and Ain Tamahdit, in the region of Tetouan.	eng
185763	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a crenobiont.	eng
185763	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185763	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution and use of water from springs are main threats to the species in the region, as well as lowering of the water level. Rising temperatures due to climate change are also affecting this species that lives in cold springs, so if water gets warmer, species won't be able to survive (and water may stop flowing).	eng
185764	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection from pollution and degradation and to avoid urbanisation around the spring is needed.	eng
185764	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Mercuria zopissa</em> is a species recorded from Italy. <em>Mercuria</em> cf. <em>zopissa</em> is a related form recorded from Aïn Sfa near Oujda (Morocco) by Ghamizi (1998). Other nearby springs were checked and this species was not found. Other species of this genus were also found.	eng
185764	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a crenobiont that lives in clean springs with good water quality.	eng
185764	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The taxon is not abundant in Morocco, where it is known only from in one spring.	eng
185764	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution and habitat degradation due to tourism are major threats.	eng
185765	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185765	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Paleartic south European species with a distribution range that extends into the Maghreb, where it has been recorded as widely dispersed from Morocco (Ghamizi 1990) and, according to recent data, also from near Algiers (Algeria). In northern Africa, it occurs in Morocco and Algeria. It is experiencing an increase in Morocco. Its type locality is Mitidja marsh in Algeria.	eng
185765	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This opportunistic species is suspected to be the intermediate host of parasites, although more information is needed to confirm this. It lives on vegetation around slow-moving waters and can stand some degree of water pollution. In is also present in man-made drainage ditches.	eng
185765	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Its populations are stable and possibly increasing in Morocco.	eng
185765	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats are known to this species.	eng
185766	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No conservation measures proposed.	eng
185766	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None.	eng
185766	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185766	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has been recorded only with certainty from Lake Tana (Piersanti 1941). Haas (1936) gives as locality 'Abyssinia'. No record in the last 50 years.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Species that is wide spread and very common in the Paleartic and reaches its southern limit in northern Africa. The type locality is in Thangelsted, Germany.	eng
185766	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species is widely spread and very common in the Paleartic realm, reaching its southern limit in the Maghreb where it appears to have become widespread and common during the last decades (Ghamizi 1998). It is known from Morrocco and Algeria. Its distribution in Tunisia is poorly known. Its type locality is in Thangelsted, Germany.	eng
185766	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This is a species that is widespread and very common in the Paleartic and reaches its southern limit in the Maghreb where it appears to have become widespread and common during the last decades (Ghamizi 1998). This species is known from Morocco and Algeria. The distribution in Tunisia is poorly known. It seems to be resistant to pollution.	eng
185766	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Does well in organic rich waters. It is distributed by birds. Seems to be increasing in Northern Africa but present situation in northeastern Africa is unknown.	eng
185766	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It does well in organic rich waters. It is spread by birds.	eng
185766	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species does well in organic rich waters. It is distributed by birds. Seems to be increasing in Northern Africa.	eng
185766	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It seems to have increasing populations in northern Africa.	eng
185766	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185766	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
185766	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information on present threats to the species in the region.	eng
185766	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185766	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	None known.	eng
185767	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Protection of springs is needed in the region.	eng
185767	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	In northern Africa, the taxon is present in the Middle Atlas in Morocco. Its type locality is near Banola (Catalan part of France) 1869. In Morocco, it was found in a spring at Ain Aghbal, a spring at Ouiwane, spring at Timdighas, a small stream at Sidi Addi - all Moroccan sites in the Middle Atlas.	eng
185767	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Crenobiont living in springs and brooks with good quality water.	eng
185767	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185767	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Pollution is a major threat to this taxon, which is also affected by drying up of springs, caused by groundwater abstraction and drought.	eng
185768	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Maintaining good water quality is in need.	eng
185768	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This subspecies is endemic to northern Africa. <em>Semisalsa aponensis</em> is a south European taxon, which is represented in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia by the wide spread subspecies <em>Semisalsa aponensis peraudieri</em>. Its type locality is in Biskra, Algeria.	eng
185768	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs on irrigation channels, stagnant pools, man-made or otherwise (e.g., concrete ponds). It only lives on freshwater, not brackish, and needs clean water to survive.	eng
185768	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185768	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The main threat to the species habitat decline due to water pollution.	eng
185770	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Control of pollution is needed.	eng
185770	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It would benefit from a reduction of pollution.	eng
185770	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is widespread and common Paleartic species, which is rare and localised in Africa. It reaches its southern limit in Morocco, where it is presently confined to the north western coastal region between Kenitra and Tangier (Ghamizi 1998). It has also been recorded from Algeria during the 19th Century (Brown 1994) but unlikely to still be there. It was once recorded in Egypt in Lake Qaron (Fayoum) but no longer can be found there as this is becoming highly salinized. Its type locality is in Germany.	eng
185770	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is widespread and common paleartic species, which is rare and localised in Africa, reaching its southern limit in Morocco, where it is presently confined to the northwestern coastal region between Kenitra and Tanger (Ghamizi 1998). It has also been recorded from Algeria during the 19th Century (Brown 1994) but unlikely to still be there. It was once in Egypt in Lake Qaron (Fayoum) but no longer there (this is becoming highly salinised).	eng
185770	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	It is found in stagnant, permanent and temporary freshwaters, but with good quality, less organic matter (unlike <span style="font-style: italic;">Lymnaea peregric</span>). It can also survive in oligo-mesohaline waters. It needs vegetation otherwise get eaten by fish.	eng
185770	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The species lives in stagnant, permanent and temporary freshwaters, but with good quality, with little organic matter (unlike <em>L. peregric</em>). It can also survive in oligo-mesohaline waters. It needs vegetation otherwise it will get eaten by fish.	eng
185770	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185770	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	No information available.	eng
185770	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Poor water quality due to pollution is a main threat to the species. Its disappearance from several ancient sites in Algeria, where it is possibly extinct, evidences that over the long term the species is also declining due to climate change.	eng
185770	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is susceptible to poor water quality. Over the long term it is also decreasing because of climate change (several ancient sites in Algeria).	eng
185771	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185771	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	Taxonomic research is needed.	eng
185771	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	<em>Mutela dubia</em> is widespread in Africa. The subspecies <em>Mutela dubia nilotica</em> occurs in the Nile from the Great Lakes downstream to the Nile Delta.	eng
185771	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Lake Nasser in Egypt, Sudanese Nile basin, Lower Omo (Ethiopia).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Great lakes, Egyptian Nile.	eng
185771	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in large rivers and lakes.	eng
185771	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It lives in large rivers.	eng
185771	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185771	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185771	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats are known to the taxon.	eng
185771	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185772	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	None conservation actions needed.	eng
185772	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None traced from literature.	eng
185772	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> This subspecies occurs in the Nile basin in Lake Nasser (Egypt), in the White Nile in Sudan and Lake Tana (Ethiopia). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong>  The subspecies has been recorded from the Nile in Egypt, and from Lake Victoria.	eng
185772	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The taxon is widely distributed in the Nile Basin.	eng
185772	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Inhabits large rivers and lakes.	eng
185772	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It live in large rivers and floodplains.	eng
185772	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It is a common species.	eng
185772	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No population data were traced.	eng
185772	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185772	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No major threats to the species.	eng
185773	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185773	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species has only been recorded from coastal Eritrea (near Massawa) (Pollonera 1898). <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Indo-pacific brackish water species.	eng
185773	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Beaches and brackish water pools.	eng
185773	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185773	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185774	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None required at present.	eng
185774	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from Dahlak Island, Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Seychelles, Reunion.	eng
185774	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	A marine species that extends to brackish waters (e.g., mangroves).	eng
185774	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185774	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185775	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185775	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from mangroves of Dahlak archipelago (Eritrea).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Red Sea coasts. It was originally described from Arabia.	eng
185775	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in marine-brackish areas (mangroves).	eng
185775	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185775	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185777	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185777	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from mangrove swamps in Somalia.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Indo-Pacific coasts.	eng
185777	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in mudflats and mangroves.	eng
185777	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185777	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185778	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185778	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
185778	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2009	Globally, this species is found on Bali, Indian Ocean and Pacific coastal and estuarine habitats. Within Africa, it is recorded from the Dahlak archipelago and Massawa (Eritrea) by Jickeli (1874) and Pollonera (1898) and from Djibouti by Morelet (1872) and Germain (1904).	eng
185778	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species is known from the Dahlak archipelago and Massawa (Eritrea) by Jickeli (1874) and Pollonera (1898) and from Djibouti by Morelet (1872) and Germain (1904).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from Bali, Indian Ocean and Pacific in coastal and estuarine habitats. In mangrove forests and mudflats.	eng
185778	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	In coastal and estuarine habitats e.g., mangrove forests and mudflats.	eng
185778	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2009	It is found in coastal and estuarine habitats e.g., mangrove forests and mudflats.	eng
185778	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185778	population	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
185778	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185778	threats	Van Damme, D., 2009	No information available.	eng
185780	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185780	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> This species is common along the Egyptian coast and hence logically should also  occur along the coast of Eritrea but there is no mention in literature. From the region only a single record is known (Laguna di Hordio, north Somalia) (Connolly 1928) <br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> Brackish waters in the Mediterranean Region, Red Sea and Gulf of Arabia (Brown 1994).	eng
185780	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in brackish /alkaline coastal and near coastal waters.	eng
185780	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185780	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185781	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185781	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The taxon is known from south Egypt (Lake Nasser), Ethiopia and northern Sudan. <br/><br/>It is also common in the Egyptian Nile down to the delta. The type locality is the Nubian Nile.	eng
185781	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185781	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185781	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185782	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185782	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	The spcies has been recorded from  Lake Turkana in Kenya. Probably also occurs in the part of the lake situated in south Ethiopia.  It is uncertain if this is a species restricted to the lake <span style="font-style: italic;">sensu stricto</span> or that it is some alkaline tolerant species with a wider distribution. The second is more likely, since this species is missing from the extensively studied Holocene deposits in the basin (Van Damme 1976) and hence seems to be a 'new' addition to the Turkana fauna.	eng
185782	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in alkaline waters.	eng
185782	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185782	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185783	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185783	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The species may possibly occur in Eritrea.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species was described by von Martens (1858) from the Red Sea.	eng
185783	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	Found in the brackish waters of the Red Sea.	eng
185783	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	No data available.	eng
185783	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185784	conservation	Van Damme, D., 2008	Further research into habitat and ecology are required.	eng
185784	distribution	Van Damme, D., 2008	<strong>Northeastern Africa region:</strong> The subspecies is known from Sudan and Lake Nasser (Egypt).<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution:</strong> The species is known from the Nile Delta southwards to Kenya and westwards to Senegambia, but localities widely scattered. The type locality is Alexandria, Egypt.	eng
185784	habitat	Van Damme, D., 2008	No information available.	eng
185784	population	Van Damme, D., 2008	It is common.	eng
185784	threats	Van Damme, D., 2008	None known.	eng
185785	conservation	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No conservation measures known, but would be valuable with information about ecology, population size and distribution.	eng
185785	distribution	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	Globally, this species is found from eastern and southeastern coasts of Africa. It may also be an Indo-Pacific species.<br/>In southern Africa it is known from a coastal strip (to about 5 km max in land) of Mozambique, Komati estuary and South African coast to Knysna.	eng
185785	habitat	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	A rock and mangrove dwelling species found in fresh and brackish water (euryhaline species). (Appleton 2002, Brown 1996).	eng
185785	population	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No information available.	eng
185785	threats	Appleton, C., Kristensen, T.K. & Stensgaard, A-S., 2009	No specific threats known, but habitat degradation and loss particularly of estuaries and mangroves is a likely threat. Another threat is the siltation of lagoons and estuaries which decreases tidal influence and the salinity of the water - this is mainly due to poor agricultural practices inland.	eng
185786	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	No information available.	eng
185786	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This is a Mediterranean species occurring on the Balearic Islands, Spanish coast and recently recorded from the Mediterranean coast of Morocco in the Oued Mellah and Oued Smir near Tetouan (Ghamizi 1998). It is possibly newly arrived in Africa, but this is a difficult group which is hard to correctly identify.	eng
185786	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	It occurs in the brackish parts of the rivers. It is found in coastal species. It is found only in the mouth of small estuaries, not large ones, and only in shallow estuaries.	eng
185786	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	This species is common where it occurs.	eng
185786	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2007	The water quality is threatened by urbanisation, and there is lots of tourism which is chasing away the local population, and will result in more pollution. There are lots of large hotels being built.	eng
185788	conservation	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Protection of spring from pollution and degradation, avoid urbanisation around the spring.	eng
185788	distribution	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	<em>Mercuria zopissa</em> is a species recorded from Italy. <em>Mercuria cf. zopissa</em> is a related form recorded from Aïn Sfa near Oujda (Morocco) by Ghamizi (1998). Other nearby springs were checked and this species was not found.	eng
185788	habitat	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is a crenobiont. It is found in springs, good water quality, clear.	eng
185788	population	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	Not abundant in Morocco - only in one spring.	eng
185788	threats	Van Damme, D. & Ghamizi, M., 2009	This species is threatened by pollution and degradation of its habitat because of tourism.	eng
185803	conservation	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	Although, taxonomy, habitat status, biology and ecology are in place, further research on population numbers and range are needed. Habitat maintenance and/or conservation are also required.	eng
185803	distribution	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	In North East Africa: Ethiopia and Somalia (1st record). Also found in Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
185803	habitat	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	Moist sites such as river banks, lake margins, near springs, in groundwater forest, on black cotton soils, in mangrove; occasionally on saline or alkaline soils	eng
185803	population	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	This species is rare.	eng
185803	threats	Magdi M. Ali, 2008	None known.	eng
185804	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species has rarely been reported and more information is needed.	eng
185804	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185804	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information.	eng
185804	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185804	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185805	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185805	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185805	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185805	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185805	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185806	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185806	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185806	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185806	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 50% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185806	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185807	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185807	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185807	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.	eng
185807	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 100% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 89% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185807	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185808	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185808	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185808	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185808	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185808	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185809	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185809	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185809	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185809	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 7% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 66% in 1978 to 0% in 1987. In 10 min trawls and large trawl shots carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08, and 1999-2008 respectively, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.	eng
185809	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185810	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185810	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185810	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185810	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185810	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185811	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185811	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185811	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185811	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185811	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185812	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
185812	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185812	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
185812	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes decrease from less than 2 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88, and then increased from less than 1 in 1993/95 to more than 30 for 2006/08. Although exact figures are not given, this was reported to be an abundant species during a large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf between 1999 - 2008.	eng
185812	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185813	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185813	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185813	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185813	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been recorded since 1980.	eng
185813	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185814	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	None known, but more information is needed on the range, biology and threats to this species, and the population trend should continue to be monitored.	eng
185814	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is only known from the Emin Pasha Gulf, Lake Victoria, Tanzania.	eng
185814	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
185814	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185814	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185815	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185815	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185815	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. This species is found over all substrates (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a phytoplanktivore.	eng
185815	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 50% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, and less than 1% for 1993/95 and 2006/08.	eng
185815	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185816	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185816	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185816	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185816	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185816	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185817	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185817	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185817	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. It is a prawn-eater.	eng
185817	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185817	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185818	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185818	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185818	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185818	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 41% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 96% in 1978 to 0% in 1987. In 10 min trawls and large trawl shots carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08, and 1999-2008 respectively, only occasionally was a specimen caught that might belong to this species, however due to apparent hybridisation, these specimens cannot be confirmed and are likely to have been misidentified.	eng
185818	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185819	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185819	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185819	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. <em>H. cinctus</em> feeds on detritus and phytoplankton.	eng
185819	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 26 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. '75', Haplochromis sp. nov. 'dusky wine red fin'</em> and <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. 'nigrofasciatus'</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.	eng
185819	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185820	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185820	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185820	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over a sandy bottom in the sub-littoral zone, in a relatively exposed area. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185820	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185820	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185821	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185821	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185821	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore. It is morphologically and ecologically partly molluscivore.	eng
185821	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.	eng
185821	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185822	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
185822	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is known from three islands scattered across south eastern lake Victoria: Chamagati (Sengerema Region ), Makobe (south-western Speke Gulf) and Nansio (Ukerewe). At each of these islands, it occurs with moderate abundance. It is unclear why it is absent from many other localities with similar habitats (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
185822	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates in the littoral zone. It lives and forages exclusively on the surface of the rocky substrate, usually exposed to wave action, and has never been observed  or collected in crevices, and rarely in sheltered embayment (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998). This species is an insectivore. Its diet consists of benthic invertebrates and periphyton.	eng
185822	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185822	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
185823	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185823	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185823	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. The species is a detritivore.	eng
185823	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 447 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. '75', Haplochromis sp. nov. 'dusky wine red fin'</em> and <em>Haplochromis cinctus</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.	eng
185823	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185824	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185824	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185824	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It belongs to the trophic group of oral shellers.	eng
185824	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 5 minute trawl across shallow sand in Mwanza Gulf (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 81% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88 and 1993/95. The figures for 2006/08 are still being sorted, but the population size is expected to have increased due to recent range extensions, as the species is adapting to new conditions in the lake.	eng
185824	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185825	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185825	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185825	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	There is no information known about the habitat requirements for this species. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information (the species is only known from the holotype).	eng
185825	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185825	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185826	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185826	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185826	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. This species is found over all substrates (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. The species is a phytoplanktivore.	eng
185826	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was present in Lake Victoria in the past but the population has declined since the 1970s. It has not been seen since 1986.	eng
185826	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185827	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185827	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185827	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species, only found off shore over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
185827	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185827	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185828	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185828	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185828	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185828	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185828	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185829	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185829	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185829	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185829	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185829	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185830	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185830	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185830	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is found over all substrates in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore (along rocky shores, over sand and over mud), except vegetation. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185830	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185830	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185831	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185831	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185831	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found in the littoral zone, the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185831	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 26 sampling days) showed a decrease from 38% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185831	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185832	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185832	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185832	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185832	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185832	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185833	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185833	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185833	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a parasite-eater.	eng
185833	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185833	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185834	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185834	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185834	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185834	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185834	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185835	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185835	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185835	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185835	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185835	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185836	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has not been reported since the 1980s. More studies are needed to establish if it is still extant.	eng
185836	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185836	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
185836	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 21% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 62% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185836	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185837	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185837	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185837	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185837	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185837	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185838	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185838	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185838	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. <em>H. plutonius</em> was believed to be a prawn-eater. At present this is uncertain.	eng
185838	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.	eng
185838	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185839	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185839	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185839	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
185839	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 53% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185839	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185840	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
185840	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185840	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species has been found over sand and mud. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
185840	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined since 1980. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes dropped from 6 in 1979/80 to 0.1 for 1987/88,  and 0 for 1993/95, rising to about 0.1 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed a drop from a mean of 2,000 caught per hour in 1978 to 0 in 1987. Although there is no information from recent large trawls, it is not expected that this species has been completely eradicated.	eng
185840	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185841	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185841	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185841	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information known about the habitat. The species cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information (the species is only known from the holotype).	eng
185841	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185841	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185842	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185842	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185842	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
185842	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185842	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185843	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185843	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185843	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over sand and mud in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a peadophage (piscivores <em>sensu lato</em>).	eng
185843	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s.	eng
185843	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185844	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185844	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185844	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone, sub-littoral zone and off shore. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185844	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185844	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185845	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	None known, but the population trend of this species should continue to be monitored.	eng
185845	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185845	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral zone, mainly occurring over mud substrate. It is classified as a zooplanktivore.	eng
185845	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The population of this species appears to be increasing. The results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number caught per 10 minutes increase from 0.3 in 1979/80 to 0.7 for 1987/88, 4.6 in 1993/95 to more than 5 for 2006/08. A large trawl transect carried out in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 7 catches in 1978, and 69 in 1987) showed an increase from a mean of 0 caught per hour in 1978 to 18 in 1987. Between 1999 - 2008, although exact figures are not given, it was reported to be a commonly caught species.	eng
185845	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
185846	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185846	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185846	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.	eng
185846	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 15 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. '75', Haplochromis cinctus</em> and <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. 'nigrofasciatus'</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.	eng
185846	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185847	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185847	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185847	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185847	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185847	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185848	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185848	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185848	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	There is no information known about the habitat requirements for this species. It cannot be assigned to a specific trophic group due to lack of information on the species (only known from the holotype).	eng
185848	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185848	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185849	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185849	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185849	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a parasite-eater.	eng
185849	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185849	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185850	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185850	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185850	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral and sub-littoral zone. The species is a detritivore.	eng
185850	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Population results from a small trawl transect in the Mwanza Gulf (based on 60 catches from Feb-Jan) show the mean number of this species caught per 10 minutes dropped from 91 in 1979/80 to 0 for 1987/88. For trawls carried out in 1993/95 and 2006/08 the exact figures are unknown as there were many unclear specimens that seem to represent hybrids among two or more detritivorous species (also including <em>Haplochromis cinctus, Haplochromis sp. nov. 'dusky wine red fin'</em> and <em>Haplochromis sp. nov. 'nigrofasciatus'</em>). Only very rarely specimens were observed that could be identified unequivocally as one of these four species, thus the current numbers of each of these species seems very low, and in some cases have not been positively identified for some years. Taken as a group (including hybrids), the total mean dropped from 1004 per 10 min small trawl in 1979/80 to 1 for 1987/88, and then increased to 25 in 1993/95 and ca. 300 in 2006/08.	eng
185850	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185851	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185851	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185851	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found in the sub-littoral zone and off shore, over sand and mud. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185851	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185851	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185852	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185852	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185852	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information known about the habitat. The species could be a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>), however this is not certain as the species is only known from the holotype.	eng
185852	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185852	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	Threats to this species are not fully understood, but are likely to include hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185853	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185853	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185853	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185853	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185853	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (eutrophication and erosion), and deoxygenation. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185854	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185854	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to island groups in the middle of the Speke Gulf, Lake Victoria (Seehausen <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
185854	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species is restricted to rocky substrates, living between 2 and 14 m depth (littoral and sub-littoral zone). It is a zooplanktivore.	eng
185854	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No population data is available from the past, although it was recorded from 6/22 catch localities within the Mwanza and Speke Gulf in 2004-2006 (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008), but appears to be rare.	eng
185854	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery. This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185855	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185855	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185855	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a prawn-eater.	eng
185855	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	No information available.	eng
185855	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185856	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185856	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185856	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185856	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185856	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185857	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185857	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185857	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the littoral zone. The species is restricted to rocky shores. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185857	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Although the frequency of occurrence of this species was recorded as 10-50% within the Mwanza Gulf in 1978/79, it dropped to 0% within Mwanze Gulf and Speke Gulf in 1990 (Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992). It was however still reported at 10/22 catch localities in the Mwanze and Speke Gulf between 2004-2006, so is still present in the Lake (Mizoiri <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
185857	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is capture as bait for long line fishery.	eng
185858	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185858	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Tanzania.	eng
185858	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This is a pelagic species from the sub-littoral zone. The species has mainly been found over mud substrate. The species is a phytoplanktivore.	eng
185858	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species was rare in the past and the population has declined since the 1970s, and has not been seen since 1986.	eng
185858	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185859	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185859	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. Exact details on its distribution within the lake are not known.	eng
185859	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. The species is a pharyngeal mollusc crushers.	eng
185859	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species has declined in numbers dramatically since 1980. Frequency of occurrence data per 10 min trawling in Mwanza Gulf (based on the value at the station with the highest frequency, with 10-28 catches, Witte <em>et al.</em> 1992) show a decrease from 60% in 1979-82, to 0% in 1987/88, 1993/95 and 2006/08. Frequency of daily occurrence in large trawl shots in northern Mwanza Gulf (based on 40-47 catches from 1977/78, and 69 from 1987) showed a decrease from 100% in 1978 to 0% in 1987, and 0% for 1999-2008.	eng
185859	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185860	conservation	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185860	distribution	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya and Tanzania.	eng
185860	habitat	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has been found over mud substrate in the littoral zone and sub-littoral zone. It is unknown if it also can be found over off shore mud substrate. It is classified as a piscivore (<em>sensu stricto</em>).	eng
185860	population	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The species has always been rare in the Mwanza Gulf area; from 1977 to 1980 only 45 specimens were collected. It is thought that the population has declined even further since the 1970s.	eng
185860	threats	Witte, F., de Zeeuw, M.P. & Brooks, E., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185861	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185861	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria. It has been recorded in surveys carried out in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185861	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over sandy substrate in the littoral zone. It is classified as an insectivore.	eng
185861	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185861	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). An additional threat is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185862	conservation	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	More information is needed on the presence and range of this species within the lake. Many fish species within Lake Victoria have suffered severe and dramatic declines since the introduction of the Nile Perch. Although numbers of the perch have now decreased, the degradation of the water quality is also thought to be having a significant impact on some fish species. More research is needed to monitor this species and how it is affected by these threats, as well as establishing the extent of its range within the lake. Policy based action is needed to decrease the degradation of the lake, as well as to prevent over fishing. Protected areas should also be established.	eng
185862	distribution	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	This species is endemic to Lake Victoria, where it has been recorded in surveys carried out in Uganda (Greenwood 1981).	eng
185862	habitat	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The species has been found over off shore mud substrate and mud substrate in the sub-littoral zone. <em>H. erythrocephalus</em> feeds on detritus and phytoplankton.	eng
185862	population	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	No information available.	eng
185862	threats	Witte, F. & de Zeeuw, M.P., 2010	The main threat to this species is predation by Nile Perch (a potentially reversible threat). It is also potentially threatened by hybridization due to decreased water transparency (on account of eutrophication and erosion leading to increased sedimentation and runoff) interfering with mate recognition visual cues (Mrosso <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is fished, although not targeted specifically.	eng
185863	conservation	Thomas, P., 2009	Very few subpopulations are within protected areas	eng
185863	distribution	Thomas, P., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Agathis moorei</span> (including <span style="font-style: italic;">A. corbassonii</span>) occurs in small subpopulations scattered throughout most of the main island of New Caledonia, at altitudes ranging from 250 to 1,000 m. The current extent of of occurrence is estimated to be 7,394 km<sup>2</sup>. Herbarium records indicate that it was formerly more widespread.	eng
185863	habitat	Thomas, P., 2009	A large emergent tree mainly restricted to areas of lowland rainforest that are mostly on non-ultramafic substrates.	eng
185863	population	Thomas, P., 2009	The total population for this species is estimated to be less than 10,000 mature individuals. Continued logging throughout its range is estimated to lead to at least a 10% reduction of the population within the next three generations, probably within the next ten years.	eng
185863	threats	Thomas, P., 2009	Substantial declines have occurred in recent years due to overexploitation of the timber. Logging is continuing. An increase in fires and conversion of forest to other uses has led to increased habitat fragmentation  and a lack of regeneration.	eng
186069	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186069	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> In Lower Guinea, <em>Mauligobius nigri</em> is apparently collected from coastal localities near Limbé, Cameroon and from island of Bioko. It has been previously reported as possibly entering estuaries, from Nigeria to Rio Muni and possibly also the Cape Verdes Islands. According to Brito and Miller (2001), the lack of reliable data for West African specimens suggests this species might be restricted to the Cape Verdes Islands and more likely a benthic inhabitant of marine intertidal zones.	eng
186069	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Mauligobius nigri</em> is a demersal species. It occurs inshore (Maugé 1986) and probably intertidal (Reiner 1996). The species has been collected in shallow water among large lava-pebbles under strong wave action, and smaller examples came from a boundary area between rocks and sand at 2-4 m depth (Brito and Miller 2001). According to Brito and Miller (2001), the lack of reliable data for West African specimens suggests this species might be restricted to the Cape Verdes Islands and more likely a benthic inhabitant of marine intertidal zones.	eng
186069	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186069	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
186073	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
186073	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Probably endemic to southern Africa: South Africa, possibly Namibia, Botswana (RSA: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, Free State, Northern Cape).	eng
186073	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Sometimes in water but flowering in drying mud, 1345m. Annual herb	eng
186073	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information	eng
186073	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
186074	conservation	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
186074	distribution	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal Province (Cook 2004:185)	eng
186074	habitat	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	Annual hydrophyte herb.	eng
186074	population	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
186074	threats	Cholo, F & Kamundi, D., 2006	No information	eng
186075	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	It is not known whether the species occurs in a protected area or not. No specific measures are in place.	eng
186075	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This species is found in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in Malela and Katala, Zambi and Angola. A lowland species. Potentially endemic, though distribution in Angola is not known.	eng
186075	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	This is a lowland species, found on the edge of small streams, in muddy areas.	eng
186075	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Only known from two sites in DRC.	eng
186075	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2008	Threats to this species are unknown but it is restricted to four sites which makes the species vulnerable to any disturbance.	eng
186077	conservation	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	<p>No conservation measures are in place. Site management plans, formal educational activities and improved communication to raise awareness are needed.</p>	eng
186077	distribution	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species in tropical Africa from the west to Kenya and then it extends southwards to South Africa.	eng
186077	habitat	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Annual forest herb, generally found on damp more or less shady ditch by track in secondary forest, also found by the river borders.	eng
186077	population	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Widespread species, large size population.	eng
186077	threats	Ghogue, J.-P., 2009	Potentially threatened by forest clearing for agriculture.	eng
186078	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186078	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Bathygobius casamancus</em> is only known from Banana, Lower Congo River and from a location in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. Elsewhere, it is known from Dakar, Senegal to southern Angola. It is also known from Mauritania (Harrison and Miller 1992), Cape Verde and the islands of Guinea (Miller 1990).	eng
186078	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Bathygobius casamancus</em> is a demersal species. It is an inshore species occasionally found in lagoons (Maugé 1986), found in intertidal rock pools and mudflats at high tide (Miller 1990). This is a marine species, inhabiting the intertidal zone, it may also enter brackish waters though (Stiassny <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
186078	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186078	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186079	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186079	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Oxymormyrus zanclirostris</em> is known from Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool) and from the Central Congo River basin.  It is not known from the southern tributaties of the Congo River basin. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lower Guinea region from the Ntem River, throughout the Ogowe basin, including the Ivindo River, the Nyanga River, and in the Kouilou River.	eng
186079	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a demersal species.	eng
186079	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186079	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186080	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186080	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Aplocheilichthys matthesi</em> is known from the Lufubu River at Chipili and from the Kalungwishi River. It is probably more widespread than currently known. Elsewhere, it is known from the Lake Rukwa drainage, from northern Zambia and from Burundi and Uganda.	eng
186080	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Lacustricola matthesi</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species.	eng
186080	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186080	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186081	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186081	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus macrolepidotus</em> is known from Kisangani upstream the Upper Congo River basin.	eng
186081	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Marcusenius macrolepidotus macrolepidotus</em> is a demersal, potamodromous species that prefers well-vegetated, muddy bottomed marginal habitats of rivers and floodplains. It is a shoaling species which moves inshore after dark and migrates within rivers. It has been recorded to move up tributaries in shoals during flood season (Bell-Cross and Minshull 1988). It feeds on invertebrates, especially midge and mayfly larvae and pupae taken from the bottom and off plant stems. It breeds during the rainy season in shallow vegetated localities; females carry up to 6,000 eggs (Skelton 1993). This species possesses electroreceptors over the entire head and on the ventral and dorsal regions of the body, but absent from the side and the caudal peduncle where the electric organ is located (Møller 1995). It has been caught with dipnets in the Kafue floodplain, Zambia.	eng
186081	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186081	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
186082	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186082	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> Subgenus (Mesaphyosemion): <em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is known from the Dja system of the upper Sangha drainage (central Congo River basin) in southeastern Cameroon. In Lower Guinea found in the upper Sanaga, Nyong, Lobo, Boume, Boumba and upper Ivindo Rivers of southern Cameroon, in eastern Equatorial Guinea and in the Ivindo basin of northern Gabon and northwestern Congo.	eng
186082	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Aphyosemion cameronense</em> is a benthopelagic, non-migratory species that occurs in swamps, swampy parts of shallow brooks and small streams under dark forest cover on the inland plains rainforest (Wildekamp <em>et al.</em> 1986). It is not a seasonal killifish.  Is difficult to maintain in aquarium (Huber 1996).	eng
186082	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186082	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	This is an aquarium fish with commercial importance.	eng
186083	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186083	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus radiatus aurantiacus</em> is known from parts of the Zambezi River system, from the Okavango River and swamps, westward and south-eastward flowing rivers of Angola.The presence of this species in the Lulua (Kasai) has recently been confirmed.	eng
186083	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	This is a benthopelagic species.	eng
186083	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186083	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186084	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186084	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is widespread, from Uganda southwards including the Zambian Congo, Cunene, Okavango, Zambezi, and east coast rivers south to the Phongolo system in South Africa. It is also known from the MalagaraSi River basin.	eng
186084	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	<em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is a benthopelagic subspecies. It prefers marshes and marginal vegetation of streams, rivers and lakes. <em>Barbus radiatus radiatus</em> is active in subdued light and at night (Skelton 1993). It feeds on invertebrates (Konings 1990).	eng
186084	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186084	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186085	conservation	Moelants, T., 2009	None known.	eng
186085	distribution	Moelants, T., 2009	<strong>Central Africa assessment:</strong> <em>Chromidotilapia guntheri guntheri</em> is in Lower Guinea known from throughout coastal Cameroon and Benito River in Equatorial Guinea. Elsewhere it is widespread from Liberia to Cameroon and the Niger basin from Guinea to Cameroon.	eng
186085	habitat	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186085	population	Moelants, T., 2009	No information available.	eng
186085	threats	Moelants, T., 2009	There is no information available on threats to this species.	eng
186091	conservation	Akinyi, E., 2003	No information available.	eng
186091	distribution	Akinyi, E., 2003	<strong>Eastern Africa distribution: </strong> L. Turkana.<br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong>Nile, Chad,  Niger and Bénoué, Cross, Ogun, Ouémé, Mono, Sio, Volta, Bia, Comoé, Agnébi, Bandama, Sassandra, Konkouré, Gambia, Sénégal.	eng
186091	habitat	Akinyi, E., 2003	Inhabits rivers, lakes, irrigation canals and fringing vegetation. Feeds on zooplankton, Caridina shrimp, insects, snails and vegetation.	eng
186091	population	Akinyi, E., 2003	No population estimates	eng
186091	threats	Akinyi, E., 2003	The main threats to the species are overfishing and aquarium trade.	eng
186094	conservation	Nguyen, T.Q., 2010	<p>This species has been found in Pia Oac Nature Reserve, Cao Bang Province in Viet Nam. &#160;Further research into population numbers, distribution, and ecology are needed.</p>	eng
186094	distribution	Nguyen, T.Q., 2010	This species is found in southern China and northern Viet Nam, and is known from only five localities.	eng
186094	habitat	Nguyen, T.Q., 2010	<p>This species inhabits high altitude grassland and secondary forest, up to 1,520 m a.s.l. in Viet Nam and up to 13,000 ft in China (Schmidt 1927, Walters 2008, Nguyen <em>et al.</em> 2010b).&#160;</p>	eng
186094	population	Nguyen, T.Q., 2010	<p>Populations are small (with only a few specimens), and isolated in both China and Viet Nam.</p>	eng
186094	threats	Nguyen, T.Q., 2010	<p>This species is at risk from habitat degradation and loss due to: shifting agriculture, infrastructure, and development.&#160;</p>	eng
186095	conservation	Guo, P., 2010	<p>There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species; however, its distribution coincides with protected areas. No further conservation measures are required at present. &#160;</p>	eng
186095	distribution	Guo, P., 2010	<p></p><p>This species is endemic to the northern Hengduan Mountains Region, in southwest China (Guo <em>et al.</em> 2006: 433). This area is west of Sichuan, and northwest of Yunnan (Zhao 2006). It is found at altitudes of 2,750 to 3,200 m above sea level (Zhao 2006).</p><p></p>	eng
186095	habitat	Guo, P., 2010	<p>This species is found in a variety of habitats, including: brushwood, on lawn, under trees, or in rocks.</p>	eng
186095	population	Guo, P., 2010	<p>Guo <em>et al.</em> (2006) described this species as rare, and hard to find.</p>	eng
186095	threats	Guo, P., 2010	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
186097	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
186097	conservation	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known.	eng
186097	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Synodontis batensoda</em> is extirpated. The species used to be found in Cairo during flood-time.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the Nile, Chad, Niger (including the Bénoué), as well as Senegal and Gambia basins.	eng
186097	distribution	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This species occurs in the basins, of Chad, Niger (plus Benue), Senegal and Gambia. <strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Outside the area covered here, it occurs in the Nile.	eng
186097	habitat	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	A benthopelagic species. Omnivore, feeds on plankton, algae and detritus.  May also feed on surface insects, chironomid larvae, benthic crustaceans and molluscs.	eng
186097	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	This species swims upside down with its belly facing upwards. Its specific name "batensoda" means black belly in Arabic. A surface feeder, feeds floating organisms i.e. mosquitoes, chironomid larvae and pupae, sometimes feeds on bottom organisms. It is provided with a well developed sieving apparatus enabling it to feed on planktonic and floating organisms. Its average length is 20 cm.	eng
186097	population	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	No available data.	eng
186097	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
186097	threats	Awaïss, A. & Lalèyè, P., 2006	None known	eng
186097	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the species are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
186098	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
186098	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Hyperopisus bebe bebe</em> was previously caught from the entire Nile System in Egypt from Delta to Aswan.<br/><br/>Its global range comprises the White Nile and Blue Nile, Chad, Senegal, and Niger basins.	eng
186098	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	It is a demersal and potamodromous taxon that inhabits both still and flowing waters, and breeds in the flood season. Food consists mainly of phytoplankton. It also feeds on molluscs and aquatic insects.  Its electric organ discharge (EOD) is steroid-sensitive. Fecundity value of 18,924 eggs has been reported for this taxon. It reaches a length to 48 cm.	eng
186098	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
186098	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to the taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
186099	conservation	Azeroual, A., 2007	No information available.	eng
186099	distribution	Azeroual, A., 2007	In northern Africa, <em>Barbus bynni bynni</em> is common along the Egyptian Nile, Wadi El Rayan Lakes and Nozha Hydrodrome.<br/><br/>Related to its global range, it is common in Lake Nasser, River Nile system, Lakes Victoria and Albert, the Murchison and Albert Niles and Lake Rudolf.	eng
186099	habitat	Azeroual, A., 2007	Males and females attain their first maturity at 55 and 60 cm total length. The spawning season extends from March to April. Food consists mainly of green algae, diatoms, blue algae and to a minor extent animal detritus, molluscs and insects. Its maximum length is about 75 cm.	eng
186099	population	Azeroual, A., 2007	In Egypt, Its catch firstly recorded during 1998 with 887 tones. Then the catch sharply decreased to 58 tones in 1999 and to 15 tones in 2000. Afterward the catch increased gradually to be 860 tones in 2004.	eng
186099	threats	Azeroual, A., 2007	The main threats to this taxon are dams, water pollution (agriculture, domestic and commercial/industrial), groundwater extraction and drought.	eng
186101	conservation	Bills, R., Johan Engelbrecht, & Jim Cambray, 2006	The species has no protection. It needs habitat and water quality conservation, and maintenance of flows in streams.	eng
186101	distribution	Bills, R., Johan Engelbrecht, & Jim Cambray, 2006	Populations of <em>B. eutaenia-</em> like fishes occur in South Africa (Mpumalanga, Kawazulu-Natal) and Swaziland.	eng
186101	habitat	Bills, R., Johan Engelbrecht, & Jim Cambray, 2006	Wide habitat preferences from rocky streams through to vegetated margins of floodplains. Perennial flowing waters. Appears to be sensitive to habitat disturbance and pollution.	eng
186101	population	Bills, R., Johan Engelbrecht, & Jim Cambray, 2006	Fairly common.	eng
186101	threats	Bills, R., Johan Engelbrecht, & Jim Cambray, 2006	In South Africa, the species is affected by varied threats - flow reduction, sedimentation and pollution.	eng
186102	conservation	Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known.	eng
186102	distribution	Lalèyè, P., 2009	<strong>Western Africa distribution: </strong>This subspecies is widely distributed in western Africa, it is known from Senegal and the coastal basins from the River St. John in Liberia to the Cross (Nigeria/Cameroon) and is also present in the Niger (Benue included) basin.<strong><br/><br/><strong>Global distribution: </strong></strong>Sierra Leone to Lower Cameroon and Benito River.	eng
186102	habitat	Lalèyè, P., 2009	This species is a benthopelagic fish that hunts macrofauna (predator).	eng
186102	population	Lalèyè, P., 2009	No available data.	eng
186102	threats	Lalèyè, P., 2009	None known	eng
186103	conservation	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	No information available.	eng
186103	distribution	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is native to Africa. It is found from Lake Chad to Somalia and south to Kwala-Zulu Natal. It is usually the commonest member of the genus <em>Sesbania</em>.<br/><br/>It is widespread in southern Africa and not suspected to be declining. Also recorded from Chad, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea.	eng
186103	habitat	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	Found at low altitudes on river or stream margins and lake shores, in wet or swampy ground, only away from water in areas of high and frequent rainfall. This is a perennial shrub, very common, specially above 1,000 m.<br/><br/>The species (<em>S. sesban</em>) is native to monsoonal, semi-arid to sub-humid regions with 500-2,000 mm annual rainfall.  Grows best where periodic waterlogging or flooding is followed by a progressively drier season (Cook <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005).	eng
186103	population	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	This species is widespread throughout its range.	eng
186103	threats	Cholo, F. & Foden, W., 2006	None known	eng
186106	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it may be present in some Marine Protected Areas within its distrbution. <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous benthic habitats and further inclusion of these habitats in Marine Protected Areas (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).	eng
186106	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from northern-central Norway southwards, excluding the Baltic Sea but including the southern coast of the United Kingdom, to Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea, including Madeira and the Canary Islands, but excluding the Azores and Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, the species is generally widespread, but it is very rare in the eastern Mediterranean, where it has been recorded from Lebanon but not from Israel in the Levant. It is not present in the Sea of Marmara nor in the Black Sea. This species probably also occurs around the main Mediterranean offshore islands, but additional infromation is needed (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
186106	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species usually lives in benthic coralligenous habitats. It also inhabits rocky overhangs, rocky cliffs and the entrances to underwater caves (Sartoretto <em>et al.</em> 1997), and it can also occur over sandy substrates (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is generally a solitary species but can also occur in small groups. Its diet consists mainly of benthic invertebrates. (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008)	eng
186106	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is considered to be relatively rare but as the habitat in which it lives is not generally trawled, few specimens are likely to be captured (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
186106	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats. In the Mediterranean, minor threats may include habitat degradation due to siltation and eutrophication. In the shallower parts of its depth range, boat anchoring may also detrimentally affect its habitat.	eng
187368	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187368	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from the eastern coasts of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago to Japan, Palau, western Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga and southeastern Australia. It is excluded from the Indian Ocean, except for offshore islands of northwestern Western Australia and the southern coasts of eastern Indonesia, west to about Java. It is also reliably reported from Sagami Bay, Japan, western edge of Micronesia, Samoa, Tonga, New Caledonia and Montague Island, New South Wales, Australia. Although known from Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands, it rarely occurs on the central Pacific geologic plate (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187368	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately small species, to about 144 mm SL.  Individuals are usually found at depths of 9-30 m. The species is almost always associated with living coral reefs. Juveniles are often found near black coral and gorgonians (Myers 1989).	eng
187368	population	Russell, B., 2008	This is a very common species. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187368	threats	Russell, B., 2008	Degradation of coral reefs from climate change and coastal development are possible major threats.	eng
187369	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is observed in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park through baited underwater video surveys (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Speare and Stowar 2007).  <br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choerodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choerodon</em> species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br/><br/>This species is poorly known, as it occurs in deeper waters and has not been well-studied. More information is needed on its distribution, population status, habitat requirements, biology, ecology, and major threats.	eng
187369	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is only known from four locations in the Western Central Pacific: Banggai Islands and Togean Island, Indonesia, Checkfield Bank, New Caledonia, and the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Allen and Adrim 2003, Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007, Speare and Stowar 2007). As this species is found in deeper waters, it is not well-known, but its distribution is likely wider than these three locations.	eng
187369	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is demersal  and has been recorded at a depth of 30-82 m (Bogutskaya 2007). There is no information on this species habitat requirements, biology or ecology. The maximum size of this species is 10.3 cm SL (Randall 1997).	eng
187369	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is a deeper water species, and has not been commonly observed.	eng
187369	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. Although this species was observed in an underwater biodiversity survey and was identified as being susceptible to trawling given its depth and habitat association in the Great Barrer Reef (Pitcher <em>et al.</em> 2007), it is probably not threatened in many areas of Australia due to the depth (to 82 m) of its occurrence (Bogutskaya 2007) and the maximum size of this species recorded at 10.3 cm SL (Randall 1997), which means it does not the current minimum legal capture size of 40 cm in many areas of Australia (Queensland Government, Government of Western Australia 2008, 2008a).	eng
187370	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187370	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Bali and Sumatra in Indonesia to western Thailand and to India.	eng
187370	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse found in shallow water reef flats in rubble. It is found in depths from one to five m.	eng
187370	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187370	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187371	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Given that is occurs in deeper water, it is unknown if species distribution includes Marine Protected Areas within its range. More research is needed to determine the population status, habitat requirements, biology and ecology of the species. Further research on the threats, utilization and harvest levels are also needed.	eng
187371	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species has only been recorded in the western central Pacific in New Caledonia, the Philippines (Parenti and Randall 2000) and Chesterfield Island (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).  This deep water species is not-well known, and its distribution is likely larger than these locations. The record from the Phillippines is the original description and is a specimen from a market (Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187371	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is demersal and is found to depths of 70 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is distinguished by a pale stripe or a horizontal series of spots directed horizontally from lower edge of eye extending around the tip of snout and adjoining stripe from opposite site, an additional stripe located dorsally on caudal peduncle and below most of dorsal fin base (Westneat 2001). The maximum size of <em>C. margaritiferus</em> is approximately 11 cm SL (Randall 1997).	eng
187371	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This deep water species is not commonly observed or collected.	eng
187371	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.  Given that this is a deeper water species, it is unlikely that its habitat is threatened.	eng
187372	conservation	Craig, M. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There are no species specific conservation actions currently in place for this species.  It may occur in protected areas, although this is unconfirmed.	eng
187372	distribution	Craig, M. & Choat, J.H., 2009	This species is known only from the Western Indian Ocean from Dhofar and Masirah Island, Oman.	eng
187372	habitat	Craig, M. & Choat, J.H., 2009	This species inhabits rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depth of one to at least 20 m. The species is dimorphic, with the largest males reaching 43.5 cm and the largest females reaching 31.1 cm. Like many other species of Labridae, it is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but no primary literature could be found to confirm this.	eng
187372	population	Craig, M. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is rare (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187372	threats	Craig, M. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There are no major threats currently known for this species.  However one of the paratypes for this species was purchased at the national fish market in Oman. This indicates that there is some degree of fishing effort for this species.	eng
187373	conservation	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187373	distribution	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	This species occurs in the Indo-Pacific from Oman and East Africa to South Africa, eastward to the Pitcairn group, northward to southern Japan and southward to southern western Australia in the west and southern Queensland including Lord Howe Island and Middleton Reef in the Tasman Sea. Records from Socotra Island and Yemen need to be checked to see if they are <em>H. sexfasciatus</em> or <em>fasciatus</em>.	eng
187373	habitat	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is a small wrasse (up to 30 cm) characteristic of shallow sandy and rubble bottoms around coral reef areas with a depth range from 1-35 m. It feeds mainly on small crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms (Westneat 2001). Juveniles are secretive on inshore reefs. Large adults swim openly on reefs, singly or in small loose aggregations (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). There are no demographic data available. Spawning occurs in small groups in reef passes (Colin and Bell 1991).	eng
187373	population	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187373	threats	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and in artisanal fisheries. It is one of a large number of small widely distributed wrasses taken occasionally.	eng
187374	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187374	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known from very few specimens collected at only four localities, the Comoro Islands and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean and Okinawa, Japan in the Western Pacific Ocean (Gomon 2006) with additional records from Guam (Myers and Donaldson 1996). This species is probably more widely distributed within the range, however it is a deeper water species and not commonly seen.	eng
187374	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This species reaches at least 177 mm SL. It is a deeper water species.	eng
187374	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187374	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187375	conservation	Russell, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, the Visayan Sea region is known to have the most number of Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines (PhilReefs.org) and may offer protection to this species.	eng
187375	distribution	Russell, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is found from Taiwan (Pen-hu) to the Philippines (Samar Sea and Visayan Sea). The range of this species may be larger than known as it inhabits deeper waters.	eng
187375	habitat	Russell, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This is a small species, to about 137 mm SL. It is found in sandy rubble type habitats. It feeds on small polychaete worms, small molluscs, ophiuroids, shrimps and unidentified crustaceans.	eng
187375	population	Russell, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is known from only a few specimens due to deep water habitat.	eng
187375	threats	Russell, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187376	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187376	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in southwestern India (Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187376	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species occurs in sandy bays at reef margins.	eng
187376	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.	eng
187376	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187377	conservation	Pollard, D. & Choat, H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187377	distribution	Pollard, D. & Choat, H., 2009	This species is found in the south-eastern tropical Atlantic only around Saint Helena Island. It was previously thought that it may also occur around Ascension Island, but these latter records are almost certainly a separate but closely related species, <em>T. ascensionis</em> (J.H. Choat pers. comm., Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Castagliola <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
187377	habitat	Pollard, D. & Choat, H., 2009	This species is reef associated, and inhabits shallow coastal waters near rocks and rocky reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008). <br/><br/>Although nothing appears to be known about its biology, like its congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates, it is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).	eng
187377	population	Pollard, D. & Choat, H., 2009	Nothing appears to be known about the populations of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2009). It has been reported that <em>T. sanctaehelenae</em> has very high abundances at their geographic locations (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187377	threats	Pollard, D. & Choat, H., 2009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187378	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187378	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is found from the Red Sea to the eastern coast of Africa (Kenya and Comoros Islands), Madagascar and eastward to Christmas Island (Australia). Records from the Comoros Islands are questionable since it might have been based on<em> B. tanyokidus</em>, which was thought to be a male of <em>B. opercularis</em>. However, species might most likely be found in the Comoros (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187378	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	A small species, to at least 132 mm SL. It occurs at intermediate depths, specimens collected in 42-61 m on deep rock and coral reefs and along vertical drop-offs (Gomon 2006). It was collected in 32 m depth in the Red Sea (Lieske and Myers 2004).	eng
187378	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187378	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187379	conservation	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187379	distribution	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is endemic to the Red Sea.	eng
187379	habitat	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This tropical species inhabits sand and rubble substrates in shallow coral reef areas (Randall 1999). It feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Thresher and Colin 1986). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.	eng
187379	population	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	Little or no information is available on the status of populations of this species. It is relatively common in the Red Sea.	eng
187379	threats	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in some local coastal artisanal fisheries.	eng
187380	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187380	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is only known from southern India, near Pondicherry and Madras.	eng
187380	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	There is very little information on this species. It is presumed to occur in sandy bottom habitat.	eng
187380	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is only known from the type specimen.	eng
187380	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187381	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It is found in the Bai Tu Long National Park (Viet Nam) (Quan 2006), the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland Australia) (Sweatman 2008),Solomon Island (Weiant and Aswani 2006), Hoi Ha Wan, Tung Ping Chau and Yan Chau Tong Marine Parks (Hong Kong) (Cornish 2000). It is also observed in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve (Hong Kong) and the Watamu Marine Park (Kenya) which has eliminated fishing for more than 10 years (AFCD 2008) and 20 years (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002), respectively. Spawning aggregation was observed outside the Great Barrier Reef marine park (Russell 2001) and elsewhere have been observed and reported. <br/><br/>Furthermore, the Government of Australia is currently revising the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef (Underwater Times 2008).<br/><br/>While many marine parks/reserves have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of this species, in places like Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Philippines (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004),  most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced due to the lack of expertise, resource and effective co-ordination. For instance, some of the fish sanctuaries in the Philippines are only managed and enforced by the resort management (Tubod fish sanctuary) or local communities (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). As the efficacy of any legislation depends entirely upon its enforcement (Claydon 2004), the majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187381	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is broadly distributed in the Indo-Pacific,  and occurs from Eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Line Islands, and from Japan to New Zealand. It is one of the most widespread reef fish in the southern hemisphere, found at equatorial regions ranging to 36° S (Ackerman 2004). It was also recorded in Pohnpei (Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187381	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is diurnally active (Pawlik <em>et al.</em> 1988), and inhabits coral, coastal, rocky and sheltered reefs at depths ranging from one to 30 m (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). In Hong Kong, it was found in areas of corals, boulders and bedrock along sheltered and highly exposed shores. It was observed singly or in groups (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>It feeds primarily upon small benthic invertebrates and fish eggs (Pawlik <em>et al.</em> 1988, Westneat 2001, Ackerman 2004), Randall <em>et al.</em> (1990) also noted that it occasionally consumes fishes. Juveniles are more abundant in coral areas where they remain close to the substrate, especially branching Acropora corals (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>No enlarged tooth can be found at rear of upper jaw, lateral line bends down below posterior portion of dorsal fin base with 25 pored scales (Westneat 2001). Small fish differs in colour from adults and possess a truncate caudal fin, whilst adults have a distinct lunate caudal fin (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Adults are bright green to blue with a vertical red band on each scale and most horizontal, red or purple lines on head, while small individuals are olive green on upper part of the body and blue-white ventrally (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>It is reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Robertson and Choat 1974, Ackerman 2004), where individuals change sex from females to males. Males were significantly larger and older than females of the same age. Male growth trajectory appears to continue increasing in size with increasing age, however, the increase in size with age for the females is markedly reduced in comparison. From age of three to five years the increase in size for mature females is relatively small. In the Great Barrier Reef, this species exhibited sex change at age of approximately three years and size of approximately 12 cm SL. Females were found to be mature at the age of one year and size of sevem cm SL, and few mature females were found to be remaining in the population beyond four years of age. The maximum longevity was 12 years (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975). <br/><br/>Cleaning behaviour was reported for this species (Okata 1994).<br/><br/>A general pattern of increasing longevity with increasing latitude was demonstrated in both the Indian Ocean and Pacific basins. In addition, it was found that reef exposure appeared to play a significantly role in shaping the life history parameters. Populations inhabiting in sheltered regions exhibited slow initial growth rates compared with those populations in exposed regions. However, the impact of reef exposure on the life histories is unpredictable (Ackerman 2004).<br/><br/>This species is not permanently territorial, it sets up temporary territories during spawning season. Pair spawning, involving a single male and female, or aggregate spawning in which one female and a group of males have been observed (Robertson and Choat 1974). In the Great Barrier Reef, spawning aggregations were observed in July and ripe gonads were found in August. Spawning events occur throughout the year at Palm Group Islands, Great Barrier Reef (Ackerman 2004). It uses the exposed habitats as spawning sites and spawn upon a strong current tidal effect, yet resides in more sheltered conditions (Robertson and Choat 1974). It was found that this species may move up to 500 m along a contiguous reef during periods of strong tidal movement for spawning purposes (Ackerman 2004).<br/><br/>Duration of planktonic larval stage was found to be 55 days in One Tree Lagoon, Great Barrier Reef (Brothers <em>et al.</em> 1983) and 46.8 +/- 6.3 days in Palau, Western Pacific (Victor 1986). The maximum recorded size of this species is 25-28 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon, the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during the first year was 29% and average annual mortality 4.9% +/- 1.2 %, it did not show any significant relationship between mortality rates and population of the species (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975, Eckert 1987).<br/><br/><em>Thalassoma lunare</em> x <em>T. quinquevittatum</em> and <em>Gomphosus</em> species x <em>T. lunare</em> hybrids were observed in the wild (Allen 2006).	eng
187381	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is common in reefs distributed throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific (Randall 1983).<br/><br/>In Australia, it was found to be one of the top fifth most abundant labrids (Fulton <em>et al.</em> 2001). It is found in large abundances along both the west and east coasts of Australia to as far south as Rottnest (32 °S) and Montague Islands (36 °S), respectively (Ackerman 2004). It is also one of the most common fish species in the Great Barrier Reef (Sale and Steel 1989), population abundant in the Lizard Island (Grutter 1995, Stewart and Beukers 2000), with a density of 13 individuals per 150 m<sup>2</sup> (Green 1996) and listed as the top ten most abundant fish species in One tree island (Caley 1995), density of 14 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup> (Ackerman 2004), the Great Barrier Reef. It is found throughout both inshore, mid-shelf and outer shelf reefs on the Great Barrier Reef, temperate rocky reef systems and exposed, sheltered and lagoon areas (Ackerman 2004). In addition, schooling has been reported in the Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia (Hutchins 2003), density of 30 and 25 individuals per site were found at Palm Islands and Whitsunday Islands, Queensland respectively (Graham <em>et al.</em> 2003). In 2004, Ackerman found this species in the Solomon Islands (15 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibiting greater density estimates than both Lizard Island and Port Stephens. Whilst at the Outer Reef regions, off Lizard Island and One Tree Island, potentially had the least number of individuals. However, it is worth noting that new recruits were released for other experimental study in Lizard Island (Beukers 1996) and so might cause bias to the density estimation in the underwater visual census surveys.<br/><br/>In Kimbe Bay of Papua New Guinea, it was found to be one of the top seventh most abundant species with a total abundance of 6,816 individuals and a mean density of 3.28 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Srinivasan and Jones 2006).<br/><br/>On coral reefs of the Adang-ra Wi Islands, The Adaman Sea, mean density was 27 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Satapoominl undated). <br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 353 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In New Caledonia, this species is the most common fish species, a total of 10,657 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-28 cm TL. In a total of 45 stations, 221 individuals were caught with total body weight of 1.7 kg (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 23 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 100-200 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 184 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In the Indian Ocean, it is the most abundant fish species in the Reunion Islands (Letourneur 1996). However, the most southern and northern regions (Abrolhos Island with seven individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>) exhibited the lowest estimates of density, whilst Ningaloo North exhibited a relatively higher estimates with 11 individuals per 200 m<sup>2</sup>. <br/><br/>Approximately 27 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> have been observed in the Okinawan coral reef (Nanami <em>et al.</em> 2005). A mean density of seven individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> was found in Eritrean coastal waters, Red Sea (Daw <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>It was found to be common in the Hong Kong waters (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 15.5 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 3.67 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.67 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).	eng
187381	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is taken by fish traps, hook and line and monofilament traps and sold for food and is also collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187382	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187382	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea south to Inhaca Island, Mozambique and east to the Hawaiian (one specimen) and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and Austral Islands.	eng
187382	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species inhabits a wide range of shallow reef habitats.	eng
187382	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is a high level of population structure, possible presence of cryptic species. This is a very common species.<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of two individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187382	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade in some localities.	eng
187383	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L., Sadovy, Y. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.	eng
187383	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L., Sadovy, Y. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Hawaiian and Easter Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island. <br/><br/>In Australia, it is known from the central Western Australian coast, around the tropical north of the country, and south to the central coast of New South Wales (Froese and Pauly 2008).	eng
187383	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L., Sadovy, Y. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits seagrass beds and algal-covered flats, occasionally in lagoon and seaward reefs to a depth of at least 30 m (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Gell and Whittington 2002), and is only occasionally found in reefs (Myers 1991). It is a benthopelagic species and usually solitary. Juveniles are secretive in seagrasses or attached Sargassum (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), adults usually occurs in small loose aggregations, but occasionally form large schools to spawn. It feeds mainly on crustaceans, mollusks, sea urchins (Myers 1999) and other hard-shelled prey (Froese and Pauly 2008).	eng
187383	population	Cheung, W.W.L., Sadovy, Y. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is common througout its range, especially in algal covered flats and seagrass beds.<br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of five individual were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 32-35cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In Fiji, a total of 148 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of  10-40cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia, a total of 673 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 3-40 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In Tonga, a total of 92 individuals were recorded in various UVC surveys, with a size of 5-50 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In New Caledonia, 13 individuals were caught in four stations with combined total weight of 255 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187383	threats	Cheung, W.W.L., Sadovy, Y. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It is caught in multi-species fisheries, and occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.  Current evidence however suggests that the scale of its fisheries is generally small (e.g., Boer <em>et al.</em> 2001, Williams <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187384	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, individuals were found in permanent marine reserves of Southwest lagoon of New Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/><em>Cheilinus chlorourus</em> was observed in the Tung Ping Chau Marine Park and Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, several small no-take zones, Surf Point, Mary Anne Island, and Sandy Point are likely to encompass habitat occupied by <em>C. chlorourus</em>. There are totally eight no-take zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park, spear-fishing is prohibited throughout the marine park and proposals are currently being considered for new marine parks in the Dampier Archipelago (Penn 2002) where <em>C. chlorourus</em> was observed (Hutchins 2004). It is worth noting that marine parks in western Australia do not necessarily imply no-take zones, but may include no-take zones within their boundaries or restrictions on catch limits or methods used for fishing. In Queensland, there is a minimum legal catch size for wrasses of 25 cm and daily catch limit of five fish per angler (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2003). <br/><br/>In the south coast region of Western Australia, there is no minimum legal catch size for wrasse (Labridae), however the daily bag limit for the wrasse is eight fish per angler (Government of Western Australia 2008) and spear-fishing for wrasse (Labridae) is restricted in all marine park waters (Government of Western Australia 2000).	eng
187384	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Marquesan and Tuamoto islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to New Caledonia and Rapa.	eng
187384	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species occurs in coral reefs, coastal reefs and in areas with mixed sand, rubble and corals, individuals are also recorded occasionally in sea grass areas (Allen 2000) at depths of two to at least 30 m (Myers 1991).  Coastal reefs and sand lagoons inside outer reef areas (Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Coloration of this species is similar to <em>C. trilobatus</em> (Myers 1991) and colours are variable in intensity but always include black and white specks on body and white specks on pelvic, anal and caudal fins. Caudal fin of adult males have upper and lower rays prolonged as filaments, conversely, fin rounded in females (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Juveniles of this species are protected by living in live branching corals, such as ,i>Labrichthys unilineatus and so might explain the generally low mortality (Eckert 1987). <br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon, the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during first year for  <em>C. chlorourus</em> was 25%, average annual mortality was 20.5 +/- 4.1 % (Eckert 1987).<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates including molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes and sea urchin (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/><br/>Maximum size of the species is 45 cm TL (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187384	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common in much of its range, and can be locally abundant.<br/><br/>In Solomon Islands, this species is rare (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>In Micronesia, this species is moderately common in areas of mixed sand, rubble and coral of lagoon reefs at depths of two to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). <br/><br/>In Hong Kong, abundance variable but exists in reasonable numbers in some shallow coral areas and less abundant in areas of boulders (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>One to 25 individuals of <em>C. chlorourus</em> have been observed during visual surveys in 1998 and 2000 at Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia (Hutchins 2004).<br/><br/>2.306 +/- 0.156 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> of  <em>C. chlorourus</em> which accounting 9.8 % of the total percentage of the density of all piscivores of the western side of Lizard Island (14°40’S, 145°28’E) have been noted in Stewart and Jones (2001).<br/><br/>Fourty-one individuals were observed in the lagoon areas in Rodrigues, Mauritius (Hardman <em>et al.</em>, 2008) and  <em>C. chlorourus</em> is listed as common fish species in Taiaro Atoll (Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia) (Galzin <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 1,286 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 50-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,644 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 30-400 mm TL. In 29 stations, a total of 68 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,203 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 1785 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 30-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 1,084 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 40-300 mm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 2.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187384	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is caught incidentally in the live reef fish food trade in some parts of its range, and is also collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187385	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187385	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is present in the west Pacific from southern Korea, Southern Japan, Ryuku Islands and Taiwan.	eng
187385	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 190 mm SL. This species inhabits rocky reefs, in depths shallower than 100 m (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). It lives in small haremic groups composed of one territorial male and many females, with individual body sizes varying considerably between and within species (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). <br/><br/>Spawning reported in October (Nakazono 1979) but more usually occurs from mid-November to mid-December with pair spawning occuring within TP male territories (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It forages in association with morwong, <em>Goniistius zonatus</em>, and feeds mainly on crustaceans and molluscs (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
187385	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is very common on the coasts of the Sea of Japan, but rare on the Pacific coasts (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). It is also rare in Korea (Kim and Go 2003).	eng
187385	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187386	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species speciific conservation measures in place.	eng
187386	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia).	eng
187386	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of one to at least 30 m.  It is haremic, with one dominant male and several smaller females, and like other members of the Labridae is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite (unconfirmed in primary literature).  It reaches a maximum size of at least 31.8 cm, and feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187386	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no data available on population trends for this species. However, it is considered to be common.	eng
187386	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no known major threats for this species. However, juveniles resemble a popular species (<em>Coris gaimard</em>) in the aquarium trade.	eng
187387	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is reportedly found in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve which is the only no-take zone in  Hong Kong waters (Cornish 2000). It is worth noting that the total area of the marine reserve is about 20 hectares which comprising less than 1 % of the total sea area of Hong Kong. <br/><br/>Currently, only the boat fishery and set-net fishery need licenses for operations in Japan, while recreational fishing is not included in the licensing system. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.	eng
187387	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Craig, M.T., 2008	This species is found in the northwest Pacific, from Korea and northern Japan to Taiwan and southern China.	eng
187387	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Craig, M.T., 2008	This species is demersal and is found near shore over pebble and sand bottoms to about 30 m depth (Yamada <em>et al.</em> 1995, Kuiter 2002, Nakabo 2002) in temperate waters (Fujiwara <em>et al.</em> 1994, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It is commonly found in the coastal waters of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikiko, Japan and is commercially important in Seto Naikai (Hashimoto <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/> <br/>Juveniles and females form small groups, while large males are often seen solitary (Kuiter 2002). It has been observed to hibernate in sand during winter months in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>One annulus of each scale is formed once a year in hibernating period from Jan to April. It spawns in early summer from late June to July in Seto Nakai (Hashimoto <em>et al.</em> 1991). It is known that the central part of Seto Inland Sea maintains a high frequency of primary males (43%, Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991).<br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. Terminal phase fish have a green body with orange lines on face, orange dotted along the body and develop a large blue-black blotch above pectoral fin (Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). The genus <em>Parajulis</em> is confirmed to be protogynous (Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). It is reported to be diandric protogynous (Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2007, Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007, Miyake <em>et al.</em> 2008). Large territorial males are derived either from initial females that change sex to male or from primary males into terminal phase males. Initial phase primary males maintain a higher testis to body weight ratio than terminal phase males who are derived from females (Fukui unpublished data in Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007). Sakai <em>et al.</em> (2007) also suggested that the transition from primary male to terminal phase is closely related to the dominance relationship (size order) within social group. Sex reversal has been shown based upon observations of external transformation of sex characters and internal changes of the gonad (Okada 1962).<br/><br/>Specimens from Seto Inland Sea showed that species larger than 140 mm were males or regarded as males, but in another study, specimens collected from Tokyo bay measuring 140 to 150 mm were females and above 160 mm were observed to be males (Okada 1962).<br/><br/>Terminal phase males maintain territories where they form pairs and spawn with females, whereas initial phase primary males have been found to exhibit parasitic mating behaviour, which is known as streak spawn, in the territory of terminal phase males (Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Kimura and Kiriyama 1992). During spawning season, territorial phase males frequently make active approaches to females, swimming quickly and continuously erecting all their fins (Kimura and Kiriyama 1992). While initial phase males or females that are not in a reproductive state usually swim away from the territories (Sakai <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>In a captive environment, Kimura and Kiriyama (1992) recorded continuous daily spawning and Kimura <em>et al.</em> (1998) found that it spawns from June to September during the period 0700-1100. Eggs of <em>P. poecilepterus</em> are buoyant and spherical with colorless yolk filled and a single oil globule. The diameter is approximately 0.67-0.72 mm while the diameter of the oil globule is around 0.13-0.16 mm (Kimura <em>et al.</em> 1998). Maximum size of this species is 34 cm TL (Masuda <em>et al.</em>, 1984).	eng
187387	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in some parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is a common labrid in temperate waters around Japan (Kinoshita 1936, Okada 1962, Nakazono 1979, Fukui <em>et al.</em> 1991, Kimura and Kiriyama 1992, Kobayashi and Suzuki 1994). More than 438 individuals have been observed in an underwater visual survey with 360 transects at Nagahama, Kyoto (Masuda 2008).<br/><br/>It is rare in Hong Kong, only few fish have been observed in areas of boulders and bedrock between three and 20 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>There are no quantitative data on the populations of this species in Korea Republic and Taiwan.	eng
187387	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for commercial and recreational fisheries in Japan.	eng
187388	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187388	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from eastern Australia, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs and New Caledonia.	eng
187388	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in sand and rubble areas of reef channels and seaward coral reefs in depths from one to at least 27 m.  It reaches a maximum known size of 10 cm.	eng
187388	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species, however it is considered common by most accounts.	eng
187388	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
187389	conservation	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187389	distribution	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is known only from northeastern Sulawesi to the Banggai Islands, and Palau.	eng
187389	habitat	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species occurs on open hard-bottom substrates with algae and sparse coral growth, usually in strong current zones between depths of 15 to 40 m.	eng
187389	population	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187389	threats	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade sometimes with the use of cyanide solution in Indonesia.	eng
187390	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187390	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Suez, Hurghada (Ghardaqa) in northern Red Sea, Gulf of Aden off the northern coast of Somalia, and Persian Gulf, Bahrain.	eng
187390	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 100 mm SL. Small aggregations of juveniles were observed in 25 m on open sand adjacent to coral reefs, but adults may prefer deeper water (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187390	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is fairly common.	eng
187390	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187391	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187391	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known conclusively from the Kyushu-Palau Ridge east of Okinawa, Japan.	eng
187391	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This is a small species, reaching a length of at least 148 mm SL. It occurs in deeper water, specimens collected at depths of between 320 and 395 m.	eng
187391	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187391	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187392	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is protected from spearfishing, but not line fishing around Lord Howe Island (where there is a bag limit of one fish per day). It occurs within Marine Protected Areas around parts of Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef, and at Middleton Reef, where it is totally protected. <br/><br/>As it has such a restricted distributional range and is only present at low densities in most areas, more effective conservation management is needed for the species, as well as further information on these and other aspects of its biology and ecology.	eng
187392	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This Australian endemic species is known only from several small isolated islands and reefs in the northern Tasman Sea (including Lord Howe Island, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, and Norfolk Island), though a single specimen was also apparently recorded off Byron Bay on the mainland coastline of northern New South Wales in eastern Australia (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It has a total area of occupancy estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187392	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This sub-tropical species inhabits coral, coral rubble and sand substrates in coral reef areas, including lagoonal and reef slope environments (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also known from shallow rocky reef habitats (Lieske and Myers 1994), and the young have been collected from tidepools (Randall 1999).   <br/><br/>This species is an active forager which feeds mainly on molluscs and crabs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It occurs in schools, with the largest male being the dominant individual (Kuiter 1993), and large groups can be found in back reef habitats (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Preliminary ageing studies have indicated that fish between around 40 and 65 cm were between six and 19 years of age (D. Ferrell pers comm., Ferrell 2005). The maximum size of fish found at Middleton and Elizabeth reefs was ~65 cm, with estimated ages of up to 21 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). The angling record for this species was 6.35 kg (Randall and Kuiter 1982).	eng
187392	population	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is little or no information available on the status of populations of this species, though it is relatively common in restricted habitats at Lord Howe Island and off the southern part of Elizabeth Reef, in both of which areas it is fished. Populations around Middleton reef are nominally totally protected in a Marine Protected Area, and the species is rare at Norfolk Island.<br/><br/>Densites at Middleton Reef averaged 3.3 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>, with 2.1-2.9 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in exposed reef habitats and 4.5-5.3 fish per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in back reef and lagoonal habitats. Juveniles were only found there in shallow lagoonal waters (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187392	threats	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is targeted locally for food in recreational line fisheries, particularly at Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth Reef where in addition to Middleton Reef, most of its population may be found.	eng
187393	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187393	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found from Oman to Tanzania in Eastern Africa to western Thailand, including the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra.	eng
187393	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs along reef margins on rubble, algae or coral zones at about 20-40 m depth (Kuiter 2002), and also on outer reef slope from 12 to 35 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females gather in small groups and males swim around them, often moving from one area to another between groups of females, while small juveniles are secretive and often appear singly or in small groups amongst the rubble (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187393	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in the Seychelles.	eng
187393	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187394	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187394	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the Indo-Pacific from Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia (including Western Australia). It is also found in Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs and New Caledonia.	eng
187394	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of 10 to at least 30 m. It has been recorded in shallow estuaries or lagoons, but appears more common in depths below 20 m. It reaches a maximum size of about 12 cm. Juvenilles are associated with sand living anemones (e.g. <em>Stichodactyla haddoni</em>).	eng
187394	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no data on population trends for this pecies. It is a common species in appropriate habitat.	eng
187394	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no known threats for this species.	eng
187395	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187395	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Zanzibar to the Hawaiian Islands. In the Indian Ocean it is found from Zanzibar, Mauritius, Maldive Is, and Chagos Archipelago.  In the western Pacific, it is found north to the Ryukyus, eastwards to Hawaii, and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187395	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species lives on open, clean, sandy areas of lagoon and seaward slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994). In Hawaii, it is widely distributed in suitable sandy habitat, it is more common in depths of about 15 m in aggregations (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187395	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It can be common in open sandy habitat.	eng
187395	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187396	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species has been observed at protected areas on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Hutchins and Sawinston 1996), at Ras Mohammed National Park, Egypt (Bshary 2003) and in the Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Garpe and Öhman 2003). Given the intensive collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the local and global impact of collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.	eng
187396	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from southern and eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Tuamotus in the south Pacific, and from southern Japan to the southern Great Barrier Reef and south-western Australia.	eng
187396	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits coral rich areas and subtidal reef flats to seaward reefs to depths of at least 40 m. It is widely reported to be a monandric hermaphrodite but further confirmed to display bi-directional sex-change, exhibits socially controlled sex reversal and lives in single-male, multiple female social groups (Kuwamura 1984, Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2002, Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). Males exhibit territoriality and the largest, oldest individual is a male which dominates all the females in the group (Robertson 1972, Nakashima <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>It feeds on crustaceans ectoparasites and mucus of fishes which gather at specific cleaning ‘stations’ for attention (Pott 1973). Males and females are the same in colour, juveniles are black with a single blue stripe running from snout to the upper part of caudal fin.<br/><br/>It is active in daytime and is reported to be able to produce a protective mucous cocoon at night. Seasonal fluctuation of the activity rate has been observed with almost all individuals always active during late spring and early summer (Kuwamura 1981).<br/><br/>In Japan, spawning occurred within 4-5 months of the year, from late May to early September. Larvae of about 1.8 mm in total length hatch at 30 hours after spawning (Kuwamura 1981).<br/><br/>This species is monochromatic, spawns in harem. Spawning ascent distance was about three m with rapid ascending speed. Spawning activities were seen in March, May, June and November at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991). The size of eggs is approximately 0.64 mm and spherical in shape. Eggs contained multiple oil globules<br/><br/>Maximum size of species has been recorded at 22 cm (TL) in New Caledonia and maturity is reached at a size of about six cm TL (Kuwamura 1981,  M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). All of the larger adults have an almost completely developed ventroanterior hook in the caudal fin. Maximum lifespan is estimated to be four years (Allsop and West 2003) and minimum population doubling time is approximately 1.4-4.4 years (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/>It shows cleaning behaviour, which only occurs during the day and particularly in the early morning (Grutter 1996). In captivity it is affected by abundance and size-frequency distribution of the monogenean parasites on the host of fishes, which was more pronounced on larger fish than on small fish (Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002). It spends 60 to 154 more times cleaning larger fishes (> 12.5 cm SL) than medium (9.5 to 12.5 cm SL) or small sized fish (< 9.5 cm SL). In the Great Barrier Reef, it was found to spend 256 +/- min per day cleaning 2297 +/- 83 fish (Grutter 1996) from over 132 species (Grutter and Poulin 1998). In New Caledonia, it spent 26% of its time inspecting a large number of fish (59.5 +/- 5.1 per 15 minute) (Grutter 1999).<br/><br/>It consumes a large number of parasites (1218 +/- 118) each day or 4.8 +/- 0.4 parasites per minute (Grutter 1996) and most of the prey items were juvenile gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997). The biomass of gnathiids in the diet in New Caledonia was lower than at Lizard Island, but higher than at Heron Island, suggesting that the role of gnathiids in cleaning behaviour is variable (Grutter 1999).<br/><br/>At One Tree Lagoon on the Great Barrier Reef, overall mortality during first year for <em>L. dimidiatus</em> was 50%, juveniles do not shelter within the substratum and displayed relatively high mortality over the first twelve months (Eckert 1987). The average annual mortality of<em>L. dimidiatus</em> was 11.1 +/- 2.2 %.	eng
187396	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is common in the southern coral areas of the Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Kataoka <em>et al.</em> 1970), on the inshore rocky reefs, whereas it does not live on the sand or pebble areas (Kuwamura 1981). The populations increased in summer and autumn, but decreased in winter, sometimes nearly zero. About 0.9 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> have been recorded at rocky reefs at Shirahama (Kuwamura 1981). <br/><br/>It is common in the Capricorn/ Bunker Group, One Tree and Heron Islands and Wistari Reef, Fairfax, Fitzroy, Llewellyn and Musgrave Islands on the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.77 recruits per 100m<sup>2</sup> (Eckert 1984).<br/><br/>In Australia, it was found to be one of the most abundant labrids at Lizard Island, GBR (three individuals per 150 m<sup>2</sup>) and occurred in similar densities in all habitat zones (Green 1996).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, it is common in shallow areas of boulders and coral areas, but never abundant (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 475 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-17 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 1,407 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-22 cm TL. In 31 stations, a total of 58 individuals were caught with a total weight of 242.1 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 568 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 205 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-11 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Mean density was 1.5 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> on coral reefs of the Adang-ra Wi Islands in the Adaman Sea (Satapoomin undated). <br/><br/>It is common at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006) and in the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998).<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 4.55 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187396	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade and there are occuring coral habitat degradation in parts of its range.	eng
187397	conservation	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Recommended conservation measures include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous habitats and the further inclusion of these habitats in Marine Protected Areas (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).	eng
187397	distribution	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway southwards to Senegal, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, it is widespread in the northern and western Mediterranean and common in Cyprus, but absent from the south-eastern Levant, including Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Lebanon and Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187397	habitat	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is mainly associated with coralligenous habitats, and particularly gorgonians. In the Azores (and probably in other Macaronesian islands), adults live bellow 50 m depth, only juveniles being sporadically found in shallower waters (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is usually either solitary or found living in pairs in the case of younger individuals in the Mediterranean and also in the Azoreas (P. Afonso, pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It mainly feeds on crustaceans, but may also consume small fishes and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and sex reversal is completed in seven months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Lönnberg and Gustafson 1937). It displays  marked sexual colour dimorphism, and in  the breeding season builds nests of seaweed (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187397	population	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is widespread in the Mediterranean Sea. The population is stable in Turkey (Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It is frequent but very minor catches in the Azores indicate that this species occurs in low numbers but is widespread and probably stable in its preferred habitat (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187397	threats	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	The greatest threat to this species is habitat degradation due to eutrophication. Other lesser threats to its habitat are boat anchoring, bottom gear and diving activities that may destroy gorgonian corals. Habitat degradation is primarily a threat in the shallower areas of the distribution of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>The larger individuals of this species may be caught and used as a food fish in the Mediterranean Sea and the Macaronesian islands. It is commonly caught in trammel nets in Cyprus (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). In spite of the reduced catches, this may present a threat in the future given the intrinsic factors such as the low density and the sexuality of the species (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187398	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187398	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Norway to Morocco, including the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens and the Canary Islands. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, there are some questionable records from the Adriatic and Marmara Seas and elsewhere (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is absent from the Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187398	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found mainly in inshore waters (10-20 m depth) around rocks, offshore reefs and amongst seaweeds. Young individuals are often found in intertidal areas. It feeds on crustaceans and molluscs (Quignard and Pras 1986).<br/><br/>All individuals are born females, and they change sex when they are between four and 14 years old (Muus and Nielsen 1999). One (or more) females spawn in a nest built of algae by the male in a rocky crevice. The male guards the nest for one to two weeks until the eggs hatch (Muus and Nielsen 1999). The larvae are pelagic.	eng
187398	population	Pollard, D., 2008	There was apparently a decrease in the Turkish population during the 1970s (M. Bilecenoglu pers. comm. 2007) but this may have been misidentifications of <em>L. viridis</em>.	eng
187398	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187399	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. Two thirds of its range is protected by the Papahanaumokuakea marine national monument.	eng
187399	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
187399	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species inhabits quiet sandy bottoms beyond the reef in depths from 6-76 m (Mundy 2005). In Hawaii, adult females maintain separate territories within the larger territory of a dominant male, spawning behaviour reported by Randall and Earle (2002).	eng
187399	population	Russell, B., 3009	This species is locally common, with the most abundant species at Kahe Point, Oahu (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187399	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187400	conservation	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187400	distribution	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	This species is found throughout Northern Australia (Allen and Swainston 1988) and southern Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987).	eng
187400	habitat	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	This species inhabits flat sandy or weedy areas. It is found between 10-40 m depth. The maximum length of this species is 20 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Allen and Swainston 1988).	eng
187400	population	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is not uncommon.	eng
187400	threats	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally captured in prawn trawls in Northern Australia which may also may have detrimental effects on the habitat.	eng
187401	conservation	Rocha, L. & Ferreira, B., 2008	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008). More research is recommended on this species population trends and habitat status, particularly as not much is known about the deeper habitats where the adults are generally found.	eng
187401	distribution	Rocha, L. & Ferreira, B., 2008	This species occurs from French Guiana to the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil.	eng
187401	habitat	Rocha, L. & Ferreira, B., 2008	This reef-associated species is found from three to 60 m depth, and also occurs in rubble areas. Juveniles up to eight cm act as specialized cleaners. Each individual tends a defined cleaning station sought by several species of reef fishes including damselfishes, goatfishes, and surgeonfishes. At the cleaning station this wrasse swims in a characteristic seesaw motion (Sazima and Gasparini 1998).	eng
187401	population	Rocha, L. & Ferreira, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be naturally rare, except in the islands of Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas. <br/><br/>Temporal trends from 2003-2006 based on stationary UVC in the offshore reefs of the Abrolhos Bank, eastern Brazil show densities of 0.035 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2003, 0.03 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2004, 0.025 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2005 and 0.05 individuals per m<sup>2</sup> in 2006 (Francini-Filho and Moura unpublished data).	eng
187401	threats	Rocha, L. & Ferreira, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187402	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187402	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found from southern Japan, the Ryuku Islands to the south China Sea (Mohsin and Ambak 1996)  including Taiwan, south Vietnam and Tioman Island, Malaysia (Randall and Jonsson 2008).	eng
187402	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species lives on sandy bottoms.	eng
187402	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187402	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats.	eng
187403	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007). The occurrence in marine protected areas should be monitored.	eng
187403	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in Indonesia, Malaysia (eastern Peninsula and Sabah), the Philippines, northern Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It has also been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef (Westneat 2001).	eng
187403	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in small to large groups along deep slopes or on slopes at the base of drop-offs, usually at depths of five m or more, but generally most common at about 25 m depth (Kuiter 2002). <em>P. filamentosus</em> also occurs in rubble areas and on the outer reef slope, occasionally seen in lagoons (Allen 2000), and feeds on zooplankton and other benthic invertebrate (Froese and Pauly 2008).<br/><br/>Males display to each other or to gravid females to spawn, flashing their colours whilst ‘racing’ past with erected fins (Kuiter 2002). During spawning, one or two males accompanied by a group of smaller females repeatedly formed tight aggregations a short distance above the substratum (Allen 1974). This was followed by a rapid vertical dash for a short distance, and an abrupt return to the bottom with the fish releasing a visible cloud of milt and eggs at the apex of the ascent (Allen 1974). <br/><br/>Colour variation exists for nuptial males, which are influenced by the presence of similar species (Froese and Pauly 2008). <br/><br/>The maximum size of this species is 15 cm SL (10 cm excluding the filaments (Kuiter 2002)).	eng
187403	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in some areas, it is considered occasional in eastern peninsular Malaysia.<br/><br/>From a 72-hour UVC using SCUBA in Indonesia, <em>P. filamentosus</em> was occasionally observed from 10 to 50 m depth in 11 out of the 47 surveyed sites (Allen 2002). Based on results from surveys using  SCUBA in 1974, <em>P. filamentosus</em> was suggested to be relatively common in Papua New and Solomon Islands and were often observed in groups of 20-30 individuals (Allen 1974). From a more recent 94-hour underwater visual census in the Solomon Islands, however <em>P. filamentosus</em> was found to be common and recorded in 33 out of 65 sites surveyed (Allen 2006).	eng
187403	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187404	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187404	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 3009	This species is restricted to the Hawaiian Islands from Kure Atoll, north of Midway to island of Hawaii and at Johnson Atoll (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) to Maui in the south and Johnston Island (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187404	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 3009	This species is common in rock and coral areas throughout those parts of the Hawaiian Islands that are not exploited by commercial aquarium fish collectors (Randall  pers. comm.). It was collected at depths of 8-35 m. Strasburg <em>et al.</em> (1968) recorded individuals from submarine observations in 30-110 m off Oahu. <br/><br/>Juveniles are known to clean other fishes (R. Myers pers. comm).	eng
187404	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 3009	There is no population information for this species. It is a common species.	eng
187404	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 3009	Juveniles of this species are utilized as aquarium fish (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). Large individuals are taken by spear fisherman and terminal males are uncommon in shallow waters of the main Hawiian Islands (Myers pers. comm., Randall 2007).	eng
187405	conservation	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures for this species.  It may occur in shallower marine protected areas throughout its range, however, deeper outer reef slope are not frequently included in marine protected areas.	eng
187405	distribution	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea to northern South America.	eng
187405	habitat	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species inhabits deep seaward reefs from 18-100 m.	eng
187405	population	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is not commonly observed given that it occurs in relatively deeper waters.	eng
187405	threats	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size.  It is not likely to be attractive to the aquarium trade.	eng
187406	conservation	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is found in protected areas in parts of its range (i.e. New Caledonia Lagoon - World Heritage Area).	eng
187406	distribution	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu and southern Great Barrier Reef and Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs.	eng
187406	habitat	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs. It is usually found over sand or rubble near coral heads at a depth range from 5-30 m.<br/><br/>Scaleless head. Caudal fin slightly rounded to truncate, the corners a little prolonged, pectoral fins of adults short. Initial phase  light greenish yellow to bluish grey with 2 series of vertically elongate orange spots on body that continue onto head as solid stripes, caudal fin orange to yellow, body of terminal male light greenish dorsally, white ventrally, with orange bars on side that become pale lavender-blue to purple bars anteriorly on lower side, an oval black spot on side of body dorsal to pectoral fin, head green with pink bands radiating from eye, caudal fin blue with a large, whitish semicircular area posteriorly. (Randall, 2005).	eng
187406	population	Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187406	threats	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.	eng
187407	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is well-protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).	eng
187407	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea to the islands of French Polynesia (except Rapa and the Austral Islands), the Pitcairn Islands, and the islands of Micronesia (type locality, Guam), Ryukyu Islands to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia.	eng
187407	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in caves and crevices (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is known from reefs at depths of 1-30 m, it is a very secretive species and is rarely seen. It feeds on benthic invertebrates.<br/><br/>Fresh specimens of adults are grayish brown to reddish brown, sometimes with dark narrow edges on scales on mid side of body. Dark edged light yellow bar on head behind and adjacent to eye, another at front of caudal peduncle, iris red and yellow. Juveniles (up to about 3.8 cm SL) have two broad pale bars on body. Spinous portions of dorsal and anal fins deeply incised. One predorsal bone.<br/><br/>It is distinguished from the two other species of <em>Wetmorella, W. albofasciata</em> and <em>W. tanakai</em>, by having two broad and slightly oblique white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults. <em>Wetmorella. Tanakai</em> also has a longer head, longer snout, and narrower interorbital space. <em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally (see Randall and Kuiter 2007).	eng
187407	population	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a difficult species to see as it is cryptic and secretive.	eng
187407	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species. It is probably not used in the aquarium trade as it is difficult to capture.	eng
187408	conservation	Yeeting, B. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187408	distribution	Yeeting, B. & Russell, B., 2009	This species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187408	habitat	Yeeting, B. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is found in sandy rubble bottoms usually at depths from 48 m.	eng
187408	population	Yeeting, B. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187408	threats	Yeeting, B. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187409	conservation	Russell, B., Fairclough, D. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, non-fishing areas within MPAs typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown. The West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery (in Western Australia) has recently undergone restructuring to become a managed commercial fishery. Changes to the management of the commercial fishery and restrictions to the recreational sector aim to reduce effort in the fishery by 50 % and reduce catches overall by a similar amount.	eng
187409	distribution	Russell, B., Fairclough, D. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in temperate Australia, from Byron Bay in northern New South Wales, to Victoria, South Australia, and to the Houtman-Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia.	eng
187409	habitat	Russell, B., Fairclough, D. & Pollard, D., 2008	A relatively large species, to about 400 mm TL. It inhabits mainly deeper offshore reefs in depths to about 60 m.  <br/><br/>Adults often aggregate in large numbers, juveniles more solitary in harbours and estuaries (Kuiter 2002). On the east coast of Australia, spawning occurs from January-March, sexual maturity is reached after second (2.1) year at 185 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 300 mm TL in 6 years, longevity is at least 13.8 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, sexually dichromatic, sex change occurs at about 295 mm TL (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It feeds mainly on polychaetes, polyplacophorans, marginellid gastropods (especially Austroginella sp.), bivalves and echinoids (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b).<br/><br/>On the mid-west coast of Western Australia, spawning occurs between September and February, and maturity of females occurs when at least three years of age and at 181 mm TL (L50). Males have small testes relative to most gonochorists, suggesting pair-spawning activity is likely, as for many labrids. Protogyny confirmed on the west coast, sex change occurring at 254 mm (L50) and 7.1 years (A50). Maximum age recorded of 10.4 years (Lek <em>et al.</em> in prep.).	eng
187409	population	Russell, B., Fairclough, D. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is rare in the Bass Strait region, but common and widespread elsewhere over its range. <br/><br/>It has a continuous distribution in southern Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found <em>O. lineolatus</em> to be frequent or abundant on the mid west coast (Port Denison) southwards and eastwards to Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep).	eng
187409	threats	Russell, B., Fairclough, D. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is captured in recreational fishing (Steffe <em>et al.</em> 1996, Henry and Lyle 2003, Kennelly and McVea 2003) and also sold commercially (Sydney Fish Market 2005) in NSW. It is also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery (South Australia). <br/><br/>It is likely to be bycatch species of West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery in Western Australia (although labrids are reported as one group, i.e. wrasse). <em>Ophthalmolepis lineolatus</em> suffers from barotrauma-related injuries and does not survive well after capture in waters > 10 m.<br/><br/>On the west coast of Australia, a substantial increase in the number of wrasse released by boat-based recreational fishers in a 2005/06 survey by Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) may be related to the increase in human population size since the last survey in 1996/97. While there is some evidence that recreational fishers are retaining more wrasse than previously (Harvey 2004), Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the number retained has declined since 1996/97. Stock assessments of indicator species (includes other large target species) on the west coast of Western Australia demonstrate that overfishing of those species is occurring in this region (Wise <em>et al.</em> 2007). There is potential for increases in the catches of labrids such as <em>O. lineolatus</em> to compensate. Fisheries of moderate-sized wrasse species in South Australia for a live reef fish trade saw rapid declines in stock when unmanaged (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187410	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187410	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known only from the Fiji Islands.	eng
187410	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found over coral and rubble bottoms between about 20 to 50 m.	eng
187410	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is common in its area of occurrence. Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187410	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187411	conservation	Russell, B., Yeeting, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187411	distribution	Russell, B., Yeeting, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Ryukyus and Ogasawara Is, south to Great Barrier Reef , Lizard Island, QLD (14°40'S) (AFD 2009) and Christmas Island, Australia (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also found in Guam (Myers 1999).	eng
187411	habitat	Russell, B., Yeeting, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is found over sandy bottoms of coastal areas and also in areas with some seagrass or algae. It ranges to a depth of over 18 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is usually in large spread-out groups on upper slopes of sand and mud banks with males defending its section that has numerous females (Clark 1983, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey, including mollusks and crustaceans (Gomon and Randall 1984).	eng
187411	population	Russell, B., Yeeting, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in the Philippines in marine reserves (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). It is most likely common throughout its range.	eng
187411	threats	Russell, B., Yeeting, B. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187412	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187412	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from Vietnam (Randall and Jonsson 2008), Hong Kong and Taiwan.	eng
187412	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	Species of Iniistius are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).  <br/><br/>Juveniles are found in coastal waters along reef edges on sand or rubble, or open patches on reef. Adults occur mainly in deep outer reef habitats in small loose group along sand ridges (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187412	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It was originally known from one specimen from Hong Kong. This species is now known from 76 additional specimens from Vietnam, from a fish importer in Sweden (Randall and Johnsson 2008).	eng
187412	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is probably targeted as a food fish (Randall and Jonsson 2008).	eng
187413	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187413	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean, and is known from the Amirante Islands and other locations in the Seychelles. There is one specimen from the aquarium trade from Kenya.	eng
187413	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species can be found over rubble or hard bottom with a depth range from 21 to 50 m (Randall 1999, Kuiter 2002). It is also found on rubble slopes (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187413	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common over rubble slopes near reefs (L. Rocha pers. comm.).	eng
187413	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are are no major threats known for this species, although it is found in the aquarium trade.	eng
187414	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187414	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the western Pacific from the southern Great Barrier Reef North to New South Wales, and east to Chesterfield Bank, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Tonga.	eng
187414	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits shallow areas of mixed sand and rubble, usually with algal cover. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187414	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.  It is generally considered uncommon.	eng
187414	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
187415	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species may be protected in marine reserves in parts of its range.	eng
187415	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Palau and the Marshall Islands.	eng
187415	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits reef and rubble from 55 to 92 m, including mixed coral, rubble, and sand slopes along the bases of steep protected seaward reefs.	eng
187415	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is common on slopes of rubble and sand bottoms. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187415	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.	eng
187416	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187416	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from the Red Sea in the western Indian Ocean, the Maldive/Laccadive ridge west to Natal, South Africa, and Madagascar and surrounding islands.	eng
187416	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits lagoons and sand or rubble patches on seaward coral reefs in depths of one to at least 30 m.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos and burrows in the sand in response to predators.	eng
187416	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species, however it is considered common by most accounts.	eng
187416	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
187417	conservation	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is well protected throughout its range.	eng
187417	distribution	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from the Maldives to Marshall Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Sydney, Tonga and Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey). It is also present on the Ashmore reefs in Western Australia.	eng
187417	habitat	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species occurs in depths from 1-34 m and reaches a maximum size of 15.1 cm.  It is typically found on protected reefs where there is more sand and rubble than coral.	eng
187417	population	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species at the moment. However, this species is considered common.	eng
187417	threats	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187418	conservation	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187418	distribution	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this Atlanto-Mediterranean species is present from Portugal southwards to around Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Selvagens and Cape Verde Islands. From Senegal southwards along the west African coast to Cape Lopez in Gabon, this species is probably replaced by a separate species, <em>T. newtoni</em>. References to this species occuring in Sao Tome and Principe (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 1999) probably refer to <em>T. newtoni</em> (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is found throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the northern coasts of the western Mediterranean and the Adriatic Sea. It is however found in the Ligurian Sea and around Sardinia (Molinari and Tunesi 2003, Molinari 2005, Tunesi <em>et al.</em> 2006, Tunesi and Molinari 2005, Sara <em>et al.</em> 2004, Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2004, Guidetti <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is absent from the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187418	habitat	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species inhabits coastal waters near rocks and seagrass beds. It is also often found near man-made structures such as shipwrecks and jetties, etc. (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is either gregarious, being found in small groups or forming larger aggregations in loose schools, in association with the two types of mating system, territorial haremic or group spawning, respectively (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). The juveniles of this species often clean other fishes (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with distinct sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It spawns in spring, and the eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187418	population	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is less common in the north-western basin, as it prefers warmer waters. It is mainly common elsewhere. <br/><br/>The population declined in the 1970's in the Ligurian Sea, but is now recolonising this area (Tunesi pers. comm.). This species is now also expanding its range in the Gulf of Lion, where it was not previously present (Quignard pers. comm.). Overall, the wider Mediterranean populations of this species appear to be stable.<br/><br/>It is the most abundant and common wrasse in the shallow rocky habitats of the Azores (Porteiro 1995, Afonso 2002), Madeira (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2006) and the Canaries (Falcón et al 1996, Brito <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is also common but not as abundant in Cape Verde (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187418	threats	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is fished locally in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Macaronesian islands with hook and line and with traps (Bariche pers. comm. and Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187419	conservation	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187419	distribution	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Philippines (Lieske and Myers 1994) to Indonesia and northwestern Australia.	eng
187419	habitat	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	This species is reef-associated and is found on deep outer reef habitats and flat sandy or weedy areas.	eng
187419	population	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This is not an uncommon species. It is rarely seen by diving and is usually caught on lines from deep water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187419	threats	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, it is caught as bycatch by lines (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and is possibly affected by blast fishing in the Philippines and Indonesia (A. Cabanban pers. comm., Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
187420	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known conservation measures for this species.	eng
187420	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species was taken only in Fatu Hiva and Nuku Hiva within the Marquesas Islands, and Henderson Island and Ducie Atoll in the Pitcairn Group. Although regions adjoining these islands have not been thoroughly sampled, it has not been encountered elsewhere in the Tuamotu Archipelago even though the area has been explored (Randall pers. comm. in Gomon 2006).	eng
187420	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This is a large species, to about 315 mm SL. It inhabits coral reefs in depths of 13-74 m.	eng
187420	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187420	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is possibly caught as bycatch.	eng
187421	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187421	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in Indonesia, from Yapen Island in the Birds Head area of west Papua.	eng
187421	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species was observed over a dense mixture of spindly, branched coral and algae in a gentle slope at 34 m depth (Allen and Erdmann 2006).<br/><br/>The courtship dance performed by male <em>P. walton</em> was observed to occur between 1,700-1,800 hours during which male fish continuously “flash” a short distance above the bottom (Allen and Erdmann 2006).	eng
187421	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. During the field investigations at Cenderawasih Bay, Indonesia, numerous groups of <em>P. walton</em> were observed, each containing about 1-3 males and up to about 20 females (Allen and Erdmann 2006).	eng
187421	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187422	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. More research is needed on this species population status, habitat type, biology, ecology and threats.	eng
187422	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is only known from a few specimens from the Arabian Sea in Oman and Socotra Island in the western Indian Ocean.	eng
187422	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species has only been collected from very shallow water (in 0-2 m depth) (Randall and Mee 1994). The main habitat is probably coral reefs (Randall and Mee 1994). From Randall’s FishBase photos, the males appear to be much more colourful than the juveniles, and no photos of the females are included.	eng
187422	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few individuals.	eng
187422	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187423	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. For example, it is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.	eng
187423	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in the Red Sea in the northern Gulf of Aqaba (Randall and Khalaf 2003) and is also known from Indonesia (including northern Sumatra and the Mentaiwai Islands) to Samoa, and from the Ryukyu Islands to New Caledonia.	eng
187423	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species inhabits coral reefs (Allen 2000) and deep slopes (Kuiter 1993) from 15-80 m (Westneat 2001). It is also found in seagrass beds, silty, sand and rubble (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), as well as algal beds. It feeds mainly on shrimps, fishes and other crustaceans (Kuiter 1993). Females swim in small groups.	eng
187423	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no known population information for this species. It is considered occasional in the Philippines, and is not considered common in Indonesia.	eng
187423	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species. There is no information on the level of fishing on this species neither for food or ornamental trade.	eng
187424	conservation	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of five fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>Stethojulis bandanensis</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is used in aquarium trade but quantitative data on its catcher are absent (Shao 2005). There is no information on the aquarium fish trade.	eng
187424	distribution	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Christmas Island and Cocos-Keeling Islands to the Pitcairn Islands and from Japan to New South Wales, Australia. It also occurs in the Eastern Pacific in Baja California and the Gulf of California, Costa Rica, Panama and all of the offshore islands.	eng
187424	habitat	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species inhabits reef flats, lagoon and seaward reefs to 30 m, generally in shallow clear water areas of mixed sand, rubble, and coral (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small benthic invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>Information on its reproductive biology and ecology is absent.	eng
187424	population	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in most of its range.<br/><br/>From Pratas Island, this species was found to be a relatively abundant fish in six out of seven sites surveyed using underwater visual census in Pratas Island (Chen 1995). But this species was reported to be rare from Hong Kong using underwater visual census (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>It is common in the Pacific Islands. In Fiji, a total of 472 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-10 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,354 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-20 cm TL. In 23 stations, a total of 50 individuals were caught with total body weight of 298 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 706 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-16 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 331 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-11 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187424	threats	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187425	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Rowley Shoals is a designated marine protected area (Department of Environment and Conservation 2009).	eng
187425	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known only from Rowley Shoals and Scott Reef off northwestern Australia, and has an area of occupancy estimated to be 900-1,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187425	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This is a small species that grows to about 90 mm TL. It inhabits coral reefs on deep rubble slopes that are below the outer reef walls in depths of 35-50 m, but it is also found in lagoons as shallow as 12 m. Large individuals, all male, occur in small groups (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187425	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is fairly common in deeper water.	eng
187425	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is threatened by oil and gas exploration and extraction on or near reefs off of the northwestern shelf of Australia. Other potential major threats to the habitat of this species include seismic survey drilling, pollution and mechanical damage. The oil industry in this region is going to continue developing into the future.	eng
187426	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	The legal minimum length (LML) is 28 cm, and the commercial fishery capped at 51 licenses in Victoria.<br/><br/>Minimum legal size of 30 cm  with no upper limit in Tasmania, and 58 fishing licences. There are concerns that bluethroat wrasses in Tasmania may not be adequately protected by the current minimum size limit because of life history characteristics (males are derived from mature females and are strongly site attached, therefore making them more vulnerable to overfishing).<br/><br/>Management plans need to be formed and research is needed on harvest, trends, conservation measures and management of the live fish trade for this species. Research is needed on reproductive demography.	eng
187426	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and eastern South Australia.	eng
187426	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A large species, to at least 405 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. It is a site attached monandric sequential hermaphrodite (Barrett 1995a, 1995b). Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em> have been reported. It is common on rocky reefs in shallow water, but present in depths over 100 m (P. Ziegler pers com).  It feeds principally on crustaceans and molluscs (Shepherd and Clarkson 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs in spring. Size-at-maturity (females) 20-25 cm TL. 12% of females change sex per year after age four. Fish in catches range in age from 3-23 years. Youngest male was five years (Barrett 1995a).	eng
187426	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This is an abundant wrasse in SE Australian waters (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). The population status is thought to be relatively stable.	eng
187426	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A major threat to this species is fishing (domestic live fish trade) in Tasmania and Victoria, with growing interest in South Australia. It is taken mainly by handlines and to a lesser degree in traps, but also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery. The major market is in Sydney, where wrasse are sold to Asian restaurants. Refrigerated trucks are used to transport the wrasse in cooled seawater.<br/><br/>The live fish fishery developed in the 1990s in Tasmania and Victoria. Catches (all wrasses, but dominated by bluethroat) inTasmania dramatically increased from 70 t (1991/92) to 100 t (1992/93), Since 1995/96, wrasse catches were relatively stable and consistently over 70 t. Over the last five years, they have generally increased and reached 108 t in 2006/07, largely due to higher handline catches (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria, catches peaked in 1998 at about 90 t, and subsequently declined to about 50 t.  Effort also has declined since 1998, but overall, catch rates are being maintained in Victoria (Smith et al 2003).<br/><br/>Fished recreationally and commercially (mainly live fish trade). In Victoria, commercial catches of females and males dominated by ages five and nine, and 8-17 years respectively. Estimates of total mortality by catch curve analysis: 0.32, natural mortality 0.2. In Victoria current legal minimum length (LML) of 28 cm TL, which represents a tradeoff between yield and proportion of males. Eggs per recruit estimates indicate females reach maximum reproductive potential at age five, below the current LML (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187427	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.	eng
187427	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Australia and the Coral Sea (Holmes Reef and Chesterfield Bank).	eng
187427	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits reef and rubble from five to 217 m.	eng
187427	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. Species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187427	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the international aquarium trade.	eng
187428	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187428	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean, around Maldives, Thailand, peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.	eng
187428	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found along the reef edge, in sand and rubble areas.	eng
187428	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187428	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187429	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187429	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known from only three specimens taken in deep waters off the Hawaiian Islands of Hawaii and Oahu and Maro Reef northwards. Its poor representation in collections is undoubtedly due to its deep distribution (Gomon 2006).	eng
187429	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species to at least 149 mm SL. It has been collected at depths of 67 to 238 m, though apparently preferring depths of 100-120 m.	eng
187429	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is apparently common in deep water. R. Pyle (pers. comm. 2006) reported he has seen it on almost every dive he has made in excess of 100 m off Hawaii. He encountered it most often in pairs, one individual usually being much larger than the other (Gomon 2006).	eng
187429	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187430	conservation	To, A., Liu, M., Pollard, D., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, its distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. Although marine parks and marine reserves, which encompasses seagrass habitat, with various levels of fishing pressure are in place within the range of this species, its occurrence within them is not documented. <br/><br/>In Australia, a minimum size of 300 mm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to all species in this genus (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closures to the taking of all coral reef fishes including <em>Choerodon</em> species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). However, there is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. cephalotes</em>.	eng
187430	distribution	To, A., Liu, M., Pollard, D., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to northern Australia, but may possibly be also found in the Aru Islands and southern Java, Indonesia. More research is needed to better determine the northern limit of this species distribution.	eng
187430	habitat	To, A., Liu, M., Pollard, D., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species inhabits shallow coral reefs and seagrass beds (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> 2008). Depth information is unknown, but is likely less than 10 m given its habitat preferences.<br/><br/>It is a solitary species and feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins.<br/><br/>Information on reproductive biology and ecology is lacking.	eng
187430	population	To, A., Liu, M., Pollard, D., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187430	threats	To, A., Liu, M., Pollard, D., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. However, given the reliance of both juvenile and adult <em>C. cephalotes</em> on seagrass habitats, there may be some localized declines due to habitat degradation from coastal development in some parts of its range.Though some seagrass beds are included within marine parks or reserves system and therefore gain certain levels of protection, these habitats are threatened in general by eutrophication, toxic pollutants from factories, dredging and sediment run-off (Kirkman 1997).<br/><br/>Western Australia harbors about 2,200 km<sup>2</sup> of seagrass habitats (Kirkman 1997). However, loss of seagrass beds, which may be important habitat for <em>C. cephalotes</em>, is reported (Kirkman 1997). Analysis using aerial photographs suggested over 70% loss of seagrass beds down to 10 m in Cockburn Sound since the 1960s (Kendrick <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Seagrass habitats cover over 18,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Northern Territory (Kirkman 1997). Anthropogenic damage to seagrass habitat is relatively rare but tropical cyclones and floods may cause serious degradation of the habitat (Kirkman 1997). About 4,300 km<sup>2</sup> of seagrass can be found in Queensland (Kirkman 1997). Recent studies show declines in seagrass beds in some locations (Cambell <em>et al.</em> 2002, Rasheed <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is targeted in recreational and commercial fisheries in various states in Australia, although there is no information on its landings and the level threat from these fisheries cannot be evaluated.	eng
187431	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187431	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	The species is found from the Red Sea to the east Andaman Sea, and eastwards to Tonga, north to Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (east Australia).	eng
187431	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is secretive and cryptic occurring on coral reefs where it hides among soft corals and benthic algae (Whiteman and Côté 2004). It inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs at depths 4-67 m (Myers 1999). It likes rich soft or hard coral growth or scattered algae and stays well hidden. <br/><br/>This species is a pair spawner (Donaldson 1995). At spawning both male and female assume a dark brown colour pattern without the normal white markings. It is monogamous. It feeds on benthic invertebrates (Whiteman and Côté 2004). <br/><br/>The largest recorded size was 9.5 cm TL (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990). Mature females were recorded at 36 mm and males at 45 mm.	eng
187431	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species was recorded in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, with a mean density of 1.6 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187431	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187432	conservation	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187432	distribution	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2008	This species ranges from South Korea (Ceju Island) to southern Japan (Randall 1999). Records from the Philippines (Parenti and Randall 2000) are either H. tenuispinis or a new similar species (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187432	habitat	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2008	This is a dermeral species that inhabits coral reefs and rocky reefs, and macro-algae covered substrates. The maximum length recorded was 12.2 cm SL male/unsexed (Randall 1999).	eng
187432	population	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
187432	threats	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2008	Habitat degradation is a threat - this species range falls within area of intensive coastal development.	eng
187433	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187433	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found from Japan (with questionable records off Ryukyo islands), Taiwan, South Korea (Cheju Island), China (Pratas Island) (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1999, Parenti and Randall, 2000, Randall and Lim, 2000, Shimada 2002) (R. Myers, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187433	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found in algal beds and rocky reefs (Kuiter 2002).  It is a protogynous sex changer (Nakazono 1979, Lee <em>et al.</em> 1992). Reproductive season includes May and June in Korea when water temperature begins to rise according to gonadosomatic index (Lee <em>et al.</em> 1992)	eng
187433	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.	eng
187433	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is taken in the local fishery in Japan and Korea as food fish.	eng
187434	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species, although there are no marine protected areas within its range, there are some uninhabited islands that may offer effective protection for this species.	eng
187434	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is endemic to the Marquesas Islands.	eng
187434	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species inhabits a mixutre of sand and rock (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) and is found in shallow waters from 0-10 m (Randall 2000), the deepest collection at 10.5 m.	eng
187434	population	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is abundant in the Marquesas.	eng
187434	threats	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187435	conservation	Rocha, L., Choat, H. & Craig, M., 2008	The Pelican Caye is a World Heritage Site but there is no actual protection. Given this species very small range and extensive habitat loss, it should be carefully monitored and effective conservation measures and outreach are needed.	eng
187435	distribution	Rocha, L., Choat, H. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is only found in the Pelican Keys, Belize and has an estimated extent of occurrence of less than 10 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187435	habitat	Rocha, L., Choat, H. & Craig, M., 2008	Adults are reef associated, and juveniles are mangrove and shallow reef dependent. It is found in shallow coral reefs over coral, sand, rubble or seagrass substrata (Randall and Lobel 2003) to depths of 10 m. Juveniles feed on zooplankton and form evasive, compact schools when threatened (Randall and Lobel 2003).  Estimated larval life of two to three weeks, however, it may not be able to disperse outside known area given the possible lack of suitable habitat.<br/><br/>Life history traits (longevity and age of maturity) are based on similar species in this genus of similar size.	eng
187435	population	Rocha, L., Choat, H. & Craig, M., 2008	Currently, population size and trends have not been assessed. From the original description, it may seem that the population numbers are high, as juveniles are abundant where they occur. However, adult individuals are rarely observed.	eng
187435	threats	Rocha, L., Choat, H. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is threatened by extensive habitat destruction within and around this species' very restricted range within the Pelican Caye World Heritage Site. Habitat loss is due to continued extensive mangrove and coral removal and dredging for coastal and resort development at least since 2003.	eng
187436	conservation	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187436	distribution	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	In the western and central Pacific Ocean and the eastern Indian Ocean, this species is found from the Tuamotu and Society Islands in the east to Christmas and Cocos Keeling Islands in the west and from southern Japan and Hawaii in the north to northern Australia in the south.	eng
187436	habitat	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	This tropical species inhabits coral, sand, and rubble of exposed outer reef flats and lagoon and seaward reefs to 78 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, including molluscs, crabs, tunicates and foraminiferans.<br/><br/>It shows a very distinct sexual colour dimorphism, and also between the juveniles and the adults (Kuiter 2002). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.	eng
187436	population	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	Although very widespread, little or no information is available on the status of populations of this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187436	threats	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as bycatch in local artisinal fisheries throughout much of its range.	eng
187437	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187437	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is only known from the central and southern portions of the Red Sea off Sudan and Ethiopia, and southern Egypt (Lieske and Myers 2004).	eng
187437	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	A small species, to about 45 mm SL. It occurs in aggregations on coral reefs and appears to feed on zooplankton about half a metre above the substratum. It was observed on exposed outer reef areas off Port Sudan at depths of 10-12 m and in sheltered harbour at Suakin in only 1.5 m.	eng
187437	population	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This is probably a common species.	eng
187437	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187438	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
187438	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from southern Japan to Sydney in Australia, and from peninsular Malaysia, east to Samoa and Tonga.	eng
187438	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 12 cm in length. It is found in lagoon and seaward reefs, in coral-rich areas. It is also found along drop-offs on the bottom of large caves. It inhabits depths of 2-40 m on reef slopes.	eng
187438	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no available population information for this species. This is a common species.	eng
187438	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats, although there is some aquarium trade collecting.	eng
187439	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas where it is likely offered effective protection in marine protected areas in approximately one-third of its range.	eng
187439	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found in the northern Great Barrier Reefs in the Coral Sea, New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands, and Vanuatu.	eng
187439	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found on coral, rock and rubble, on reef slopes from 7-55 m.	eng
187439	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187439	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187440	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187440	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found only in Papua New Guinea and the northern Great Barrier Reef.	eng
187440	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found on reef and rubble from 5-70 m.	eng
187440	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is common on slopes of rubble bottom. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187440	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.	eng
187441	conservation	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Liu, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of <br/>Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.	eng
187441	distribution	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Liu, M., 2009	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical waters (mainly ~30°N to ~30°S) of the Indo-Pacific Region. It is found from the Red Sea and East Africa (Oman to South Africa) in the west to the Galapagos Islands and Panama in the eastern Pacific, and in the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) and Hawaiian Islands in the north to Lord Howe Island (off eastern Australia) in the south.	eng
187441	habitat	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Liu, M., 2009	This species is found in sandy and rubble areas among coral reefs, including semi-exposed reef flats, lagoons and seaward reefs. It often occurs over areas of mixed sand and rubble subject to mild surge (Myers 1991). Juveniles are found over shallow rubble amongst large bommies or protected open patches on reef crests. Larger adults are often found in pairs over rubble areas, where they move pieces of coral debris with their mouths to search for food. <br/><br/>This species feeds on zoobenthos, including molluscs, echinoderms, polychaetes and crabs (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). The juveniles, which imitate floating leaves or algal fronds, are quite different in their form and colour pattern to the adults, which are highly territorial (Westneat 2001).	eng
187441	population	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Liu, M., 2009	There is no specific population information available for this species, although it can apparently be fairly common, though generally not abundant, in parts of its range.	eng
187441	threats	Pollard, D., Yeeting, B. & Liu, M., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is present in the marine aquarium fish trade but the degree of its extraction is not known.	eng
187442	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187442	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is present in the west Pacific from Southern Japan, Okinawa, Ogasawara Is, southeastern China and Taiwan.	eng
187442	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 207 mm SL. It is common on rocky reefs, in depths shallower than 30 m (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997).<br/><br/>It lives in small haremic groups composed of one territorial male and many females, with individual body sizes varying considerably between and within species (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). Spawning occurs from mid-November to mid-December with pair spawning occuring within TP male territories (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It forages in association with morwong, Goniistius zonatus, and feeds mainly on crustaceans and mollusks (Matsumoto <em>et al.</em> 1999).	eng
187442	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is very common along the Pacific coasts of southern Japan (Mabuchi and Nakabo 1997). In Korea, it is reported only from Cheju I. (Kim and Go 2003).	eng
187442	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187443	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187443	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, from Cocos-Keeling Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, south to New South Wales and Lord Howe Island.	eng
187443	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated from 1-15 m. It inhabits shallow reefs and rocky shores, and is commonly found in seagrass areas exposed to surge and rubble. It feeds on benthic crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes, forams, fishes, and fish eggs (Myers 1991). It is one of several similar species that have near identical juvenile and female stages (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187443	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is very common throughout its range.	eng
187443	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187444	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187444	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from South Florida, USA and Bahamas to Venezuela.	eng
187444	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found from 5-30 m, normally high above the bottom.  It feeds on various invertebrates. It is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite, it forms leks during breeding. Length at sex change = 7.9 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
187444	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in many parts of its range, although it is considered rare in South Florida. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected (Rocha 2004).	eng
187444	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
187445	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187445	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species occurs only from the two types collected at Kwajalein Atoll, in the Marshall Islands, but is no doubt more broadly distributed. There is a record from Palau misidentified as <em>B. opercularis</em> (Myers 1999).	eng
187445	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	A small species, to at least 97 mm SL. The types were collected on vertical dropoffs at depths of about 50 m.	eng
187445	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187445	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187446	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>This species was recorded in the Saikai National Park, including Fukue and Wakamatsu Marine Parks, Japan (DINRAC 2007). However, most of the MPAs situated in southeast Asia are considered to be poorly managed and subjected to heavy illegal fishing pressure (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187446	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species occurs in the northwest Pacific, including the Republic of Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.	eng
187446	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species occurs in coral and rocky areas from 3-10 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).  It has been observed in coral atolls (Nanami and Nishihira 2004). Juveniles feed on small crustaceans including copepods, isopods, tanaids and cumaceans from algal mats, while adults consume polychaetes, sipunculids, gastropods, chitons and crustaceans including crabs, shrimps and hermit crabs (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 1993).<br/><br/>It was reported to spawn during mid-morning, before 10:00 am (Moyer 1974, Meyer 1977), group or aggregate spawning (Meyer 1977) by the terminal phase was observed in the Japanese waters. There was no evidence of spawning during late morning and afternoon, and the observations of spawning were four days prior to the new moon (Moyer 1974). Breeding ground of this species is approximately 200 m<sup>2</sup>, varying from nine to 11 m in depth. Water temperature was 27 °C (Moyer 1974).<br/><br/>Spawning begins with the arrival of large numbers of initial-phase fish at the coral or rocky areas, where they begin to mill about in increasingly tighter aggregations (Thresher 1984). The size of aggregations varies from a dozen to as many as several hundred individuals with different-sized aggregates. In addition, it has been reported to perform a “bobbing” motion while swimming with the entire body arcing up and down (Moyer 1974, Meyer 1977). <br/><br/>Moyer (1974) described the spawning behaviour of <em>T. cupido</em> in detail. During the first day of spawning, this species aggregates close to the rocks, and split periodically into three or four groups of close to 100 individuals each. Larger fish appeared to be about 10-13 cm in length and were obviously the aggressors. Only one or rarely two or three fish in each group dash up to discharge their reproductive clouds. Second day, the number of fish participating had decreased remarkably compared to the first day. On the fifth day, reproductive activity has almost ceased, but small individuals of about fifteen fish were sighted. Little herding and no clouds of reproductive materials were observed.<br/><br/>Hatched in a captivity laboratory environment, eggs of this species were found to be buoyant and spherical with a single spherical oil globule. Diameters ranged from 0.54 mm to 0.65 mm and spawning was observed from June to August in the morning between 0800 to 1200 (Kimura <em>et al.</em> 1998).<br/><br/>It exhibits similar colour patterns with <em>T. purpureum, T. trilobatum, T. quinquevittatum</em> and <em>T. heiseri</em> (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004). It has been reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Devlin and Nagahama 2002), however, gonadal histology has not been studied in any detail (Sadovy de Mitcheson and Liu 2008). It has been noted as one of the cleaner fishes in Japan (Kuwamura 1976).	eng
187446	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is likely abundant throughout its small range.<br/><br/>It is one of the most common shore-fish in Igaya Bay, southern Japan (Moyer 1974).	eng
187446	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is caught in both recreational and commercial multi-species fisheries.	eng
187447	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures.  However, 80% of its geographic range lies within the northwest Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary.	eng
187447	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands. Vagrants can be found in Johnston Atoll.	eng
187447	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found on reef and rubble from five to 186 m. It inhabits mixed coral, rubble, and rocky slopes.	eng
187447	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is common on reef dropoffs. Currently, the population size or trends have not been assessed. It is not present in the FAO global production estimates.	eng
187447	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187448	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no size or bag limits. This species is monitored in five NE state recreational fishery surveys. Research is needed on the population numbers and range, biology and ecology and the habitat status of the species.	eng
187448	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species found in the Atlantic coast of North America and the offshore banks, from Conception Bay, east coast of Newfoundland, and the western and southern parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, southward to New Jersey, and occasionally as far as the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.	eng
187448	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	A common inshore small labrid that inhabit rocky areas and around pilings, seawalls and wharves. It is found to a depth of 120 m but most abundant in shallow water to 20 m. It usually occurs in schools or small groups. It achieves a maximum size of 1.1 kg and 38 cm. Maximum age six to seven years (Serchuk and Cole 1974).<br/><br/>It spawns chiefly from late spring through early summer. The eggs are buoyant, transparent, 0.75 to 0.85 mm. in diameter, and they do not have an oil globule. Incubation occupies about 40 hours at temperatures of 70° to 72°, but it is probable that about three days are required for hatching in the cooler waters of the Gulf of Maine (55° to 65°).	eng
187448	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	The population status of this species is unknown. Total recreational harvest in 2003/2004 from US wide recreational fishery record 60 metric tones comprising 161,000 individuals (US Marine Recreational Fisheries 2004).	eng
187448	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/>Recreational fishing by line is a minor threat. Historically dating back to the late 1800's large catches were recorded for commercial purposes for food (US Marine Recreational Fisheries 2004).	eng
187449	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).<br/><br/>It is recommended to collect more information on the population status and distibution.	eng
187449	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found from the Philippines to Flores Island, Indonesia, in reef bottoms up to 21 meters depth (Randall and Kuiter 2007).	eng
187449	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species occurs in shallow waters around reef areas.<br/><br/>It is distinguished from the two other species of <em>Wetmorella</em>, <em>W. albofasciata</em> and <em>W. nigropinnata</em>, by having a narrow oblique white bar behind the eye and two parallel, narrow, white bars in the middle of the body that are slightly oblique. <em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally. <em>Wetmorella nigropinnata</em> has two white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults, but the bars are broad and slightly oblique in the other direction. <em>Wetmorella tanakai</em> also has a longer head, longer snout, and narrower interorbital space.	eng
187449	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It was recently described, from three specimens (35.7 to 42.0 mm in standard length). <em> Wetmorella tanakai</em> was collected from a coral reef from a depth of 21 m off the Indonesian island of Flores, and also from the aquarium trade from southern Sulawesi. It is also known from a photograph of a Philippine fish.	eng
187449	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	The threats to this species are unknown.	eng
187450	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in some marine protected areas throughout its range.	eng
187450	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This is an Indo-Pacific species occurring from the north at Sagami Bay, Japan, south to Victoria, Australia and New Caledonia, and from Cocos-Keeling Atoll east to Tonga.	eng
187450	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits edges of coral reefs with rubble, sand, and algal cover. It likely feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187450	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information on population trends currently known for this species. It is uncommon in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009) and is most likely uncommon elsewhere also.	eng
187450	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats currently known to this species.  It may occasionally be taken in the aquarium trade, but the level of utilization does not appear to be causing population declines.	eng
187451	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place but probably occurs in some MPAs within its distribution.	eng
187451	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Sri Lanka and the Andaman Sea (R Myers pers. comm. 2009) east to Tonga including the Indo-Malay Archipelago, north to Ryuku Islands and south as far as Queensland in Australia.	eng
187451	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species inhabits shallow coastal reefs and seagrass beds in shallow waters from 1-10 m (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187451	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no available data on the population of this species.  It is one of a number of small abundant reef associated wrasses in this genus.<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 1.33 individuals from three 100m X 2m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 1.35 individuals from twenty 50m X 5m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187451	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats.	eng
187452	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187452	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found from Miyake-jima, Izu Islands and Ryukyu Islands Japan, Palau, Caroline Islands, Guam and the Mariana Islands.	eng
187452	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known from depths ranging from 10 to at least 40 m at exposed outer reef areas rather than in lagoons or harbors. It occurs in loose groups.	eng
187452	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is considered common in at least some parts of its range. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187452	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187453	conservation	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place except in New South Wales (south-eastern Australia), where it is a protected species. However, it is well protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution, at least in Australia.	eng
187453	distribution	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2009	This sub tropical to warm temperate species is known from the south-western Pacific Ocean, in southern Queensland, the (mainly northern) mainland coastline of New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, Norfolk Island (Australia), the Kermadec Islands and the north-eastern mainland coastline of the north island in New Zealand (Gill and Reader 1992). It may occur in New Caledonia, and also at Rapa, Mangareva, Pitcairn and Easter Islands in the south Pacific Ocean (Lieske and Myers 1994). Records from other areas in the south and south-eastern Pacific are probably erroneous.	eng
187453	habitat	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2009	This species generally occurs in island and coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs. Juveniles may be found in small schools amongst algae in coastal bays and harbours, with larger juveniles occurring in small aggregations on coastal reefs and adults often in deeper waters (Coleman 1981, Kuiter 1993). It is more likely to be encountered around offshore reefs and islands than mainland coastlines. <br/><br/>This carnivorous species feeds mainly on crustaceans, molluscs and worms (Ayling and Cox 1982). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the terminal males are territorial (Ayling and Cox 1982, Lieske and Myers 1994). Sexual ontogeny is unknown, but there are striking differences in colour patterns.	eng
187453	population	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2009	Populations of this species are less abundant in mainland coastal compared with offshore island waters, at least in south-eastern Australia. It is rare in most locations though it is common at Lord Howe Island, where it is found mainly in shallow fringing reef lagoonal waters (Randall 1974, Coleman 1981), and also at Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, where it occurs within the lagoons around reefs and over rubble (Gill and Reader 1992). In northern New Zealand it occurs at densities of less than two individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> of habitat (Choat <em><em>et al.</em></em> 1988). Parker (1999) found it to be relatively uncommon in deeper waters (15-24m) off the Julian Rocks in northern New South Wales.	eng
187453	threats	Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens may occasionally be captured for the aquarium trade.	eng
187454	conservation	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187454	distribution	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) to Solomon Islands, north to Japan, and south to the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.	eng
187454	habitat	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species occurs in shallow lagoons or bays to depths of 15 m, usually over sand, rubble, or seagrass bottom (Gell <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is usually solitary and aggressive towards members of its own species. It feeds on small crustaceans by picking them off the sandy bottom.  It is reportedly a protogynous hermaphrodite (Leem <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
187454	population	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is common throughout its range.	eng
187454	threats	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187455	conservation	Pollard, D., Afonso, P. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, but coastal marine reserves protect portions of its population (P. Afonso, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187455	distribution	Pollard, D., Afonso, P. & Liu, M., 2008	In the eastern and central Atlantic, this species is known from the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.<br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is only known from three specimens caught near Banyuls (SW France) in 1967 (Quignard and Pras 1986). Since then, no other specimens have been caught in the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187455	habitat	Pollard, D., Afonso, P. & Liu, M., 2008	This small species is usually found in shallow inshore areas near rocks and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986). It can be found in depths from 1-30 m. Males are generally larger than females, build nests with algae and guard the eggs (Almada <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187455	population	Pollard, D., Afonso, P. & Liu, M., 2008	This species apparently has populations in shallow waters around those eastern Atlantic island groups where it is known to occur. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is only known from three specimens caught off the coast of SW France in 1967, and has not been recorded there since.<br/><br/>It is relatively abundant in some areas studied. Using circular point census in the inshore waters of the Azores which covered 350 – 450 m<sup>2</sup> for each census, C. trutta was one of the most abundant wrasses and the 10th most abundant fish recorded and had a mean density per census of 10 fish at 0 – 10 depth (Harmelin-Vivien <em>et al.</em> 2001). In another fish survey, at Madeira Island, underwater visual census was conducted in a proposed marine protected area and the density of C. trutta was  found to be 0.48 +/-0.45 in 100 m<sup>2</sup> of transect (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>However, at the other sites, this species is generally of low abundance. For example, from a UVC in the Canarian Archipelago, it was reported in 7 out of 36 surveyed sites with a mean density of 0.552 in 8,100 m<sup>2</sup> (Tuya <em>et al.</em> 2004). In another, this species was recorded in 5 out of 7 sites surveyed in Gran Canaria (Canary Islands) and averaged 0.11 +/- 0.57 fish per survey using UVC and stationary point counts (Hajagos and Van Tassel 2001). <br/><br/>Extensive trawling activity in the Mediterranean off Al Hoceima in Morocco and off Spain has turned up no further specimens from the western Mediterranean area (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187455	threats	Pollard, D., Afonso, P. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187456	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Rocha, L. & Moura, R., 3009	This species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>In Brazil, <em>D. megalepis</em> has been managed through a Federal Act (56/04), established in 2004 by the Brazilian environmental protection agency, based on the establishment of export quotas for the aquarium trade. The quota for <em>D. megalepis</em> is 1,000 individuals/company/year.	eng
187456	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Rocha, L. & Moura, R., 3009	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Bermuda and southern Florida, USA to Santa Catarina, Brazil (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2003), and Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas. In the Eastern Atlantic it is only known from São Tomé and Cape Verde Island (Gomon and Forsyth 1990, Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
187456	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Rocha, L. & Moura, R., 3009	This species inhabits shallow beds of turtle grass (<em>Thalassia,/i> spp.) or weedy areas (Lieske and Myers 1994, Robins and Ray 1986) to depths of 15 m. In Brazil, it occurs primarily on macroalgae and in seagrass (Halodule sp.). <br/><br/>It exhibits sexual dimorphism, males usually are larger and more deeply colored than the females. This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite and the polygynous mating system occurs. <em>D. megalepis</em> and <em>Sparisoma radians</em> share the same space. The daily spawning periods for these two species coincide. The spawning season lasts at least from mid-May through late August (Farm 1993). Recruitment to Halodule sea grass habitats observed during summer in NE Brazil (from January to march) (Rezende pers. comm. 2008).</em>	eng
187456	population	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Rocha, L. & Moura, R., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species may be quite common but its habits and coloration may prevent it from being observed (Randall 1983). It is common but seldom noticed (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>In a study site at Arraial do Cabo, the density of <em>D. megalepis</em> was 0.06 ± 0.04 and the percent of the total observed was 0.01% (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2001).  It was the most abundant labrid captured by hand trawl net over sea grass (Halodule sp.) in NE Brazil, in sizes between 16.3 and 46.0 mm CT (Rezende in prep.).	eng
187456	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Rocha, L. & Moura, R., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species. <span style="font-style: italic;">Doratonotus megalepis</span> may be locally threatened by habitat destruction of shallow sea grasses from coastal development throughout its range.	eng
187457	conservation	Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Further investigation into the effects of the threats to seagrass habitat is recommended and also the dependance on the different species of seagrass.	eng
187457	distribution	Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is known from eastern and northern Tasmania, (D’Entrecasteaux Channel to Rocky Cape, including Bass Strait islands, South Australia and SW Australia (Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island).	eng
187457	habitat	Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species occurs in seagrass beds and is less commonly associated with algal covered rocky reefs in shallow water in sheltered bays and estuaries, and possibly over sand in deeper waters. It is a cryptic species. The deepest collected specimen was taken by scallop dredge in 47 m depth off Goose Island, Bass Strait (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187457	population	Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common.	eng
187457	threats	Russell, B., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	A major threat to this species is the depletion of seagrass beds and habitat destruction.	eng
187458	conservation	Myers, R.F., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187458	distribution	Myers, R.F., 2008	This species was formerly grouped with <em>C. fasciatus</em>. It is possible that both species occur in the Gulf of Aden.	eng
187458	habitat	Myers, R.F., 2008	Photographs taken in the Northern Red Sea as well as observations show that all individuals have a color pattern distinct from <em>C. fasciatus</em>. All large adults have a clearly different tail morphology: the entire outer margin is serrated or broom-like while it is smooth in fasciatus (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Habitat of <em>C. fasciatus</em> might apply to this species. It inhabits relatively shallow coral reefs, to about 30 m<br/>depth. Members of this species, as in others of the genus, are solitary in habit and do not congregate in large numbers.<br/>It feeds mostly on hard-shelled prey, including molluscs, crustaceans and sea urchins (Fischer and  Bianchi 1984).	eng
187458	population	Myers, R.F., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, species was formerly grouped with <em>C. fasciatus</em>. Specimens need to be obtained for further genetic study.	eng
187458	threats	Myers, R.F., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187459	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187459	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is endemic to Western Australia, from Rottnest Island northwards to Shark Bay.	eng
187459	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 101 mm SL. It inhabits rubble bottoms adjacent to rocky reefs from sheltered inshore waters to deeper water offshore. This species was trawled in depths of 200-204 m (NW Shelf).	eng
187459	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187459	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there is oil and gas drilling on the northwest shelf within the distribution of this species.	eng
187460	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known conservation measures for this species. More research is needed on this species distribution, depth range, habitat and ecology, and potential collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
187460	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Indonesia (Kalimantan and the Mentawai Islands), and is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187460	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is not well-known. It likely inhabits rubble flats above steep dropoffs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), in water deeper than 40 m.	eng
187460	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This is a recently described species. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187460	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it has been reportedly collected for the aquarium trade in Sulawesi and Cebu, Philippines (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187461	conservation	Yeeting, B. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is found in several marine protected areas in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud and Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA)).	eng
187461	distribution	Yeeting, B. & Rocha, L., 2009	The most widespread species of the genus (Randall 2005). This species is found in the Indo-Pacific: from the east coast of Africa (type locality, Pinda Mozambique) to the Line Islands and the Tuamotu Archipelago, Ryukyu Islands to the far northern Great Barrier Reef (Randall 2005) and Palau and Kwajalein in Micronesia (Myers 1999).	eng
187461	habitat	Yeeting, B. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is usually found on exposed reefs from 2-10 m but has been seen at 32 m (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>Caudal fin rounded in juveniles and females, double emarginated in males. Adult males olivaceous dorsally shading to white, pale blue or pink ventrally. With an oval black spot generally as large as or larger than eye posteriorly on caudal peduncle with its lower edge on the lateral line, a blue line  sometimes broken extending from below peduncular spot to beneath pectoral fin. An oblique blue line from corner of mouth above eye to nape and continuing along base of dorsal fin, another from behind eye, breaking up above pectoral fin, and a third from the corner of mouth to upper edge of pectoral fin base, base of pectoral fin with a blue-edged black bar, the margin of fin red, median fins with a variable amount of red. Juveniles and small females red with an oval blue-edged black spot posteriorly on caudal peduncle, and a medial white spot at front of snout.	eng
187461	population	Yeeting, B. & Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. In the southwest Pacific, this species is considered to be common, but is less common in Micronesia.	eng
187461	threats	Yeeting, B. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade. In the southwestern Pacific it is targeted but not always commonly traded as the collection is often driven by demand.	eng
187462	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187462	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the western Pacific, originally described from the Philippines but now known from Kochi, southern Japan, Milne Bay in Papua New Guinea (Kuiter 2002),Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), and Vanuatu.	eng
187462	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 69 mm SL. It inhabits deeper water usually at depths of 30-40 m or more  (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), on open rubble bottoms with small corals and soft corals.	eng
187462	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187462	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187463	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187463	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from the northern coast of Taiwan to the Philippines, Indonesia (Flores), and Papua New Guinea (Milne Bay).	eng
187463	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	<em>Leptojulis urostigma</em> is a small species, to about 76 mm SL. It feeds on small polychaete worms, crustaceans and small fish. This species occurs mainly over muddy bottoms, often in deep sediments deposited by rivers. Adults are observed at 30 m depth.	eng
187463	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187463	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187464	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187464	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This species occurs in tropical east-central Atlantic waters around Sao Tome Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, and possibly from approximately Ghana southwards to Angola along the West African coastline. <br/><br/>In the Cape Verde Islands and from Senegal northwards it is replaced by <em>T. pavo</em> (Bernardi <em>et al.</em> 2004, Costagliola <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
187464	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is reef-associated, apparently inhabiting shallow insular and coastal waters, around rocky reefs to depths of approximately 40 m (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).<br/><br/>Like its congeners, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, as photos in Fishbase show distinct dichromatism similar to that in <em>T. pavo</em>. And like the latter species, its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.	eng
187464	population	Pollard, D., 2009	In 50 UVCs, the density was estimated to be approximately five individuals/m<sup>2</sup> (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008). This species is one of the most abundant fishes in the Sao Tome Islands.	eng
187464	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187465	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187465	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and extends to Socotra.	eng
187465	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species inhabits reef rubble and rocky shores. It is found in depths from 3-25 m.	eng
187465	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187465	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187466	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. For example, it is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.	eng
187466	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Marshall Islands and Samoa, north to Taiwan and south to the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
187466	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and sheltered seaward reefs, from three to possibly 120 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is solitary. Although it has been observed to swim with a group of goatfish, change its colour to resemble these fish, and dart out from the group to capture small fish (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
187466	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is considered to be common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>Population information for this species has occasionally been recorded. For instance, from a beam trawl survey in Tanzania, the density was reported to be 0.01 individual per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in seagrass bed, which is less preferred habitat for this species (Gullström 2008), from a UVC using five 20 x 1 m belt transects, six individuals with size range 6-30 cm total length were sighted (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 2008), and from a dive survey in the Solomon Islands, this species was reported to be a moderately common species (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>In Fiji, Tonga and New Caledonia, this species was commonly recorded, 187, 242 and 769 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.). However, this species is not common in French-Polynesia, only five individuals were counted (M. Kulbicki pers. comm.).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 0.7 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187466	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats to this species. This species is not considered as a food fish in Taiwan (Shao 2005), however, it may be utilized in subsistence fisheries. This species was reported to be collected for the aquarium trade in Mozambique (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
187467	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187467	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Yemen, south to Natal, South Africa and east to Indonesia and western Thailand.<br/><br/>Range size 3,770,973 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
187467	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is common on reef rubble patches on flats and slopes from 1-31 m (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187467	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a very common species.	eng
187467	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species. This species is taken in the aquarium trade, but as bycatch and does not pose a threat.	eng
187468	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187468	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known from Easter Island.	eng
187468	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 222 mm SL. It inhabits rocky areas in deeper water, in depths down to 250 m.	eng
187468	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known from a few specimens. There is no known population information.	eng
187468	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187469	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Easter Island has three designated marine protected areas (Wood 2007).	eng
187469	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known only from the Easter Island. The area of occupancy based on 200 m bathymetry, is estimated to be 100 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187469	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species occurs over sand and rubble bottoms to depths up to 250 m.<br/><br/>Species of <em>Xyrichtys</em> are called Razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).	eng
187469	population	Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This deep water species is not commonly observed.	eng
187469	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187470	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Cabanban, A.S. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187470	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Cabanban, A.S. & Craig, M.T., 2008	Due to taxonomic confusion between <em>Halichoeres tenuispinis</em> and <em>H. bleekeri</em> (Randall 1999), to date, <em>H. tenuispinis</em> has only been confirmed in the Northwest Pacific Ocean including Japan, Hong Kong, Xiamen and Taiwan only. However, records from Japan are probably specimens of <em>H. bleekeri</em> (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).<br/><br/>The specimens present in Herre (1953), Kawamura (1980), Jeong <em>et al.</em> (2003), Choi <em>et al.</em> (2005), Kim <em>et al.</em> (2005) and Park (2005) could possibly be mis-identifications of <em>H. bleekeri</em>.	eng
187470	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Cabanban, A.S. & Craig, M.T., 2008	This species occurs in small groups on kelp reefs, with a colorful dominating male in charge (Kuiter 2002). It is also found in lagoons, reef flats and mangrove channels to depths of 20 m.<br/><br/><em>H. tenuispinis</em> and <em>H. bleekeri</em> are very similar in colour and general morphology. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> appears to lack the rose pink band across the lower part of the head posterior to the corner of the mouth. Males of<em>H. tenuispinis</em> are more red-orange overall, while males of <em>H. bleekeri</em> are more green colored. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> also differs from <em>H. bleekeri</em> by having nearly always 14 pectoral rays and 11 to 15 suborbital pores. Conversely, in <em>H. bleekeri</em>, 13 pectoral rays and 7 to 11 suborbital pores were observed (Randall 1999). Initial phase of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> has a distinct black spot at pectoral junction (Saodvy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Diets of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> also include amphipods and benthic crustaceans. It fed mostly early in the morning and pecks an average 362 times per day (Edgar and Aoki 1993). Previous records also showed that <em>H. tenuispinis</em> is a diandric species, maturing at six cm SL and changing sex between seven to nine cm SL. It is found in depths to at least 15 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>Due to taxonomic confusion, it is unclear to which species the following information applies:<br/>In Japan and Korea,<em>H. tenuispinis</em>/<em>H. bleekeri</em> was found to be a protogynous hermaphrodite fish (Jeong <em>et al.</em> 2003, Choi <em>et al.</em> 2005, Park 2005) which the terminal phase of this species are derived from either initial phase male or female that has undergone sex change (Warner 1984). Edgar and Aoki (1993) found that <em>H. tenuispinis</em> consume disproportionately high numbers of large sieve-size prey including Ericthonius pugnax and Gammaropsis japonica.<em>H. tenuispinis</em>/ <em>H. bleekeri</em> was found to be diurnally active and was relatively active during one to two hours after sunrise and one to two hours before sunset. <em>H. tenuispinis</em> was observed to hide themselves among the rocks and seaweeds (Nakazono andTsukahara 1972).<br/><br/>In Japan, seasonal patterns of larval settlement for <em>H. tenuispinis</em>/<em>H. bleekeri</em> were noted, and juveniles were observed on the rock reef in late July (Kishiro and Nakazono 1991). Otolith increments were reported to form daily. The shortest duration of planktonic life was 26 days.	eng
187470	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Cabanban, A.S. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is common in at least part of its range. In Hong Kong, abundance estimates have been found to be moderately abundant. It was not seen in shallow coral areas, but occurs in reasonable numbers over some exposed rocky reefs (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). However, there is no information available on the abundance in Taiwan and Xiamen.<br/><br/>Due to taxonomic confusion, it is unclear to which species the following information applies:<br/><br/><em>H. tenuispinis/H. bleekeri of <em>H. tenuispinis</em> was estimated in April, whilst 23 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 63 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were found in March and May respectively thru underwater visual surveys (Edgar and Aoki 1993, Nakazono and Tsukahara 1972). Along the coast of northern Kyushu, Japan, it is abundant (more than 100 individuals were observed in May, July, September and October) (Nakazono and Tsukahara 1972). <br/><br/>Maximum density recorded the fish smaller than 15 mm TL was 600 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> in August in Japan (Kishiro and Nakazono 1991).</em>	eng
187470	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Cabanban, A.S. & Craig, M.T., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187471	conservation	To, A., Liu, M., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Given this species restricted range within an area of intensive artesanal and multi-species fisheries, more reseach is needed on this species population and habitat status, harvest levels, and major threats.<br/><br/>In Mozambique, there is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>In Tanzania, there is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by a government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). These protected areas may offer protection to this species, however its occurrence within these areas need further investigation.	eng
187471	distribution	To, A., Liu, M., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is found iin Eastern Africa from Kenya to Mozambique, including Zanzibar. There is some confusion as to whether this species is found in Taiwan and Japan, as this species is reported to occur there (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984).	eng
187471	habitat	To, A., Liu, M., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is found in rocky reefs and over rubbles from 5-30 m depth. It feeds on crustaceans, shelled-molluscs and echinoderms. Nothing is known about its reproductive biology or ecology. The maximum size of the species is 20 cm TL.	eng
187471	population	To, A., Liu, M., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187471	threats	To, A., Liu, M., Myers, R. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is likely caught in artisanal and multispecies fisheries, however there is nothing known on harvest levels or on the impact of fisheries on this species. Fisheries within its restricted range are generally heavily exploited such as in Mozambique and Tanzania (Jiddawi and Öhman 2002, Afonso 2004).	eng
187472	conservation	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187472	distribution	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from the Ryukyus and Kashiwajima Island, Japan, to the Philippines, Indonesia and also in New Caledonia.	eng
187472	habitat	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species inhabits coastal sand and rubble reef, usually on flat substrates with remote coral bommies in current zones. It mixes with various other fishes in open water to feed on zooplankton (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is found in depths from 5-30 m (Kuiter 2002, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187472	population	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	Theres is no population information available for this species.	eng
187472	threats	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187473	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187473	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Seychelles to Indonesia and northwards to the Andaman Sea.	eng
187473	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 12 cm in length.  It occurs in shallow weedy areas of rocky shorelines, not where there is rich coral growth.	eng
187473	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Pangkor Island, Malaysia, with a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br/><br/>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
187473	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187474	conservation	Rocha, L., Craig, M. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187474	distribution	Rocha, L., Craig, M. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Ducie Islands, north to south Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia. There are also records from Hong Kong (Ni and Kwok 1999) and it has been recorded in the South China Sea from southwest Taiwan, Spratley Islands and Paracel Islands (M. Liu pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187474	habitat	Rocha, L., Craig, M. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and found from 1-30 m. It inhabits sandy areas of reef flats, lagoons, and semi-protected outer seaward reefs.  Juveniles occur in shallow, protected coastal waters, while adults are found to about 30 m depth (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds on sand and rubble dwelling invertebrates (crustaceans, molluscs, forams, polychaetes, fish eggs, and small fishes). It has the habit of following sand-disturbing fishes such as goatfishes in order to intercept escaping prey.	eng
187474	population	Rocha, L., Craig, M. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is very common.	eng
187474	threats	Rocha, L., Craig, M. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187475	conservation	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187475	distribution	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to northern Morocco and throughout the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, the Selvangens and the Canary islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). It is also found throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187475	habitat	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is generally found over vegetated rocky substrates and in coralligenous habitats. It is also found associated with seagrass beds (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on gastropods, bivalves, tubiculous worms, chitons, sea urchins and bryozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986), and also crustaceans (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is found from 1-70m depth.<br/><br/>Spawning takes place in spring, and the eggs are laid in a nest constructed by the male (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187475	population	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is generally common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except along the coasts of the eastern Levant, where it is less abundant. The population is stable in Turkey, and most likely also throughout the rest of the Mediterranean Sea (Bilecenoglu pers. comm.).<br/><br/>In the Azores it is quite common although found in relatively low numbers (Afonso 2002) throughout its preferred habitat, and populations are thought to be stable. In the Canary islands, it is occasional and thought to have diminished in the last two decades (Brito <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187475	threats	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no known major threats to this small species, although it may be utilised and sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187476	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/><em>Hemigymnus melapterus</em> is found in the Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Carpe and Öhaman 2003), the Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1994), Berbera Marine Protected Area, Somali (Schleyer and Bladwin 1999), Shark Reef Marine Reserve, Fiji (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006), NHA Trang Bay, Vietnam (Dung 2007), Curieuse Marine National Park (Pittman 1997), Bar Reef Marine Sancutuary, Sri Lanka (Öhman <em>et al.</em> 1997), Kepulauan Seribu Marine National Park, Indonesia (Aktani 2003), Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park (personal observations), Apo and Sumilon Island Reserve, Cebu, Philippines (Russ and Alcala 1989), Marine Protected Areas of Philippines (Abesamis <em>et al.</em> 2006), Amédée, Signal, Larégnère, Bailly and Maître Reserve, New Caledonia (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).  <br/><br/>In Phillippines:<br/>It is worth noting that those captioned marine parks do not necessarily equal to no-fishing areas since limited fishing activity is allowed. For instance fishing is allowed in Sumilon Island reserve and <em>H. melapterus</em> is reported to be targeted by local fishers. The mean density of <em>H. melapterus</em> in Sumilon Island Reserve has been observed to decline after fishing was allowed within the reserve areas (Russ and Alcala 1989).<br/><br/>In Western Australia, there is no legal catch size for Labridae but daily catch limit is seven individuals per angler. No spear-fishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a). In Queensland, the minimum legal size for wrasse is 25 cm and daily bag limit is five individual per species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: Queensland Government 2008).	eng
187476	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Myers 1991, Allen 2000), and is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to French Polynesia (Westneat 2001), north to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan and south to Lord Howe Island (Myers 1991). It is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey 2008).	eng
187476	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is found in coral reefs (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001), sub-tidal reef flats, lagoons, outer reef slopes and drop-offs at depths of at least 40 m. It is solitary (Richard and Field 1998, Kuiter 2002) or occurs in small groups (Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Juveniles were found inshore (Kuiter 2002) and settled among long spines of urchins or close to substrate among other stinging invertebrates for protection (Kuiter 2006). While in Micronesia, juveniles were observed to occur among branching corals (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>Colour phase varies drastically according to age and sex (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2006), juveniles are green and with a main white bar developing behind pectoral fin, at about a length of seven cm (Kuiter 2002) individuals develop a characteristic bi-colour pattern with pale anterior and dark posterior (Allen 2000). <br/><br/>Diet varies from demersal planktonic crustaceans to hard-shelled invertebrates with growth (Myers 1991). It feeds by picking at dead branching coral or taking in mouthful of sand, sorting out small invertebrates including crustaceans, polychaetes, mollusks and brittle stars in the mouth, and then expelling the sand through the gill operculae (Westneat 2001, Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002). The highest feeding rates occurred at mid-day with approximately 1.65 bites per 30 min and it does not feed at night (Grutter <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>At One Tree lagoon, Great Barrier Reef, the percentage mortality of the newly settled <em>H. melapterus</em> during the first 12 months was 51 % and the annual mortality was 18.6 +/- 1.6 %. Initial phase have been observed to move away from their home-range when becoming adults, thus, it is worth noting that the mortality might involved component of emigration (Eckert 1987). <br/><br/>Lewis (1997) revealed that the maximum percentage of post-recruit immigration at Heron Island, Australia, was 24.3 % and <em>H. melapterus</em> was more abundant on the reef flat than on the slope due to the influence of prey specific preference.<br/><br/>Gills of this species have been found to accommodate many gill- inhabiting copepods, Hatschekia hemigymni (Grutter 1994, 2002) and the ectoparasite numbers and compositions inhabiting the body varied spatially and temporally in the Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1994). <br/><br/>Grutter <em>et al.</em> (2002) suggested that the immune system of the juveniles are not as competent as the larger fish, thus, a high density of parasite <em>Benedenia lolo</em> was found on the relatively smaller fish. Grutter (1998) also analysed the differences in the abundance of parasites and suggested that the home range of this species was about hundreds of metres.	eng
187476	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This is a common species on shallow coral reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific (Grutter and Pankhurst 2000). It is noted as abundant in Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef (Grutter 1995) and is one of the most common wrasses in the Capricorn/ Bunker Group, One Tree, Heron and Wistari reefs, Fairfax, Fitzroy, Llewellyn, Musgrave, in the Great Barrier Reef (Eckert 1984). In Western Australia it occurs in some of the outer reefs, where it is considered more common (B. Russell per. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Micronesia, it is moderately common in areas of mixed sand, rubble and coral (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>In the rocky reef flat of Sesoko Island, Japan, mean density was recorded at 1.89 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup>. At Amédée, Signal, Larégnère, Bailly and Maître, New Caledonia, the mean density  and biomass was 2.19 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 432 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> respectively (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997)<br/><br/>Twentynine individuals were observed in Kambing Island, Indonesia (Sumadhiharga 2006). Mean density at Sumilon Island Reserve, Philippines in 1983 was 4.1 fish per 750 m<sup>2</sup>, however, mean density varied to 0.5 fish per 750 m<sup>2</sup> in 1985. Mean density at the Apo Reserve, Philippines was 1.4 individuals per 750 m<sup>2</sup> (Russ and Alcala 1989).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 766 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-45 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 4,834 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-55 cm TL. In 12 stations, a total of 29 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,725 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/> <br/>In French-Polynesia, a total of five individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 8-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 494 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-40 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187476	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Sadovy, Y., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted by spearfishers and is collected for the aquarium trade and in multispecies fisheries.	eng
187477	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187477	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean from the Red Sea to South Africa, to Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Johnston Island, Australia, Lord Howe and Tuamotu Islands, but not in the Hawaiian Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000).<br/><br/>It is found in Kimbe Bay (Papua New Guine) (Hubble 2003), Shark Reef, Beqa Lagoon, (Fiji), Mozambique (Pereira 2000), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006), at Guadalcanal (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1991), Reunion Island (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004)  and the Jordanian Red Sea (Khalaf and Kchhzius 2002).	eng
187477	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species occurs in seaward reefs among coral branches. It also occurs in clear coastal waters, dense coral habitats on shallow reef crest or slopes to a depth of about 20 m. It inhabits depths from 3-30 m (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006). It usually occurs in small loose groups. <br/><br/>This species is identified by the brightly colored line pattern and the small ocellus on the caudal fin base (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  It is a shy species, usually swimming amongst the protection of coral branches (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is commonly associated to Pocillopora (Hubble 2003). It feeds mainly on small crustaceans (Myers 1991). It is a secretive species (Myers 1999).<br/><br/>It is known to spawn just before sunset at Miyake-jima (Izu Islands), the upward spawning dash very short and rapid, to reduce predation risk upon spawning adults by crepuscular carnivores (Kuwamura 1981).	eng
187477	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered moderately common at depths from 2-35 m, but only a few were seen on each dive. This species displayed cryptic habits. It was occasionally seen at Pulau Tioman Marine Park, Tioman Island, Malaysia (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
187477	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is targeted and very popular in the ornamental aquarium fish trade.	eng
187478	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range.	eng
187478	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Philippines, western Thailand to Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and northern Australia. It is also found in Pohnpei and Chuuk.	eng
187478	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in coral-rich lagoon and inner channel reefs. It is also found in mixed coral and algae habitats.	eng
187478	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.	eng
187478	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187479	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	The fishery is subjected to comprehensive assessments among USA east coast states and is also subject to size limits (35-40 cm), bag limits (one to eight per day, but most at three to four), and seasonal closures.	eng
187479	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found from South Carolina, USA to Nova scotia, Canada. It is most abundant from Cape Cod to Chesapeake Bay.	eng
187479	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species has many of the same biological features as the <em>Achoerodus</em> species. It is fairly long-lived in the south and there is a possibility that nothern populations are even longer lived still but there is no available demographic data from northern populations (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>There is little field based biological information available especially concerning spawning and reproductive behavior despite the amount of effort put into the catch and fishery statistics of this species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species inhabits shallow water in the summer but migrates to deeper water (25-40 m) when temperatures fall below 10°C. Adults are usually associated with reefs and manmade structures (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001).  Adult males are territorial and active during the day to feed and rest in crevices at night.  Newly settled individuals and small juveniles occur in estuaries (Dorf and Powell 1997). Juveniles are found in seagrass or algal beds (Bigelow and Schroeder 2001). This species undergoes seasonal migrations (Olla <em>et al.</em> 1974)<br/><br/>Maximum size is 94 cm (TL) and 11.4 kg. Maximum age is 34 years, age at female maturity is 3-4 yrs and size 14-25 cm (White <em>et al.</em> 2003). This species is slow growing (Hottstetter and Munroe 1993). More recent work suggests that growth rates maybe higher in the far southern end of the range but that work has yet to be peer reviewed ASMFC (2006). Few age estimates from the northern range of this species. <br/><br/>Species is a gonochoristic (Cooper <em>et al.</em> 1997, LaPlant and Schultz 2007), serial spawner, with up to 58 spawnings per season (White 1996), peak spawning is from May to June. Spawning was noted in June-July in Canadian waters, but appears more protracted (April-July) in coastal waters of Virginia, USA. It feeds mainly on mussels, gastropods, other molluscs and crustaceans. This species has gained popularity as a prized food and sport fish (Leim and Scott 1966, Hostetter 1993, Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001). Investigation on the diel and seasonal activity patterns of the adult tautog in its southern range were conducted using ultrasonic telemetry (Arendt <em>et al.</em> 2001). It spawns in groups or in pairs. Pairing occurs between females and size-dominant males exhibiting strong territoriality and performing a protracted courtship (Hostetter and Munroe 1993). There is no histological evidence yet to prove or disprove the occurrence of hermaphroditism in this species.	eng
187479	population	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	A very good set of catch and fishery statistics is available for this species, but most of the data are fishery dependent. Peak abundance from fisheries estimate 40,000,000 individuals in 1982 and 20,000,000 in 2003 (ASMFC 2006). Therefore, over the past 24-30 years there has been a decline of 50% of the estimated population.	eng
187479	threats	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	The Tautog has been subject to an intensive fishery over the last two decades (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006) of which recreational fishing accounts for 90% of recorded landings. Over this time recreational landings in the Atlantic United States have declined from a peak of 4,201,575 kg in 1988 to 1,698,750 kg in 2004, a reduction of 60% in recorded landings (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006), with effort assumed to be at least constant. Declines in the northern (Canadian) portion of its range are not known. <br/><br/>Despite the development of a live fish trade element, the commercial fishery returns have remained stable and increases in fishing mortality are attributable to the recreational fishery. An intensive stock assessment (ASMFC 2006) confirmed that fishing mortality driven by recreational fisheries was above recommended levels. <br/><br/>A modeling exercise in the stock assessment program indicated a decline in the estimated spawning biomass from 39,916,128 kg in 1986 to 10,886,217 kg in 2004, a 73% reduction (ASMFC Fishery Focus 2006). The main conclusion of the ASMFC reports was that overfishing was occurring and that demography and habitat selection makes this species particularly susceptible to over fishing. Present management initiatives seek to reduce fishing pressure through bag and size limits and seasonal closures.	eng
187480	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187480	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in Australia, in northern New South Wales, Solitary Islands to Sydney, Western Australia (Abrolhos Islands to Dampier Archipelago), Northeastern New Zealand (Cape Reinga to Poor Knights Islands) and Norfolk Island. Records from southern Japan (Izu Islands) are a new species (R.Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187480	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 126 mm SL. It is a shallow water species, occurring in depths to about 25 m on rubble and rocky algal covered bottoms. It is sexually dichromatic and haremic, but sex change is apparently related to age (Francis 2001).	eng
187480	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
187480	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187481	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187481	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species occurs throughout New Zealand, including Three Kings Islands,  Chatham Islands,  Stewart Island and the Snares Islands (Francis 1996).	eng
187481	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 272 mm SL. It is common on exposed rocky reefs. It occurs mainly in deeper water as shallow as four m but more common in depths of 10-40 m.  <br/><br/>Food consists of crabs, hermit crabs and ophiuroids, (Graham 1939, Russell 1983). It searches for food among encrusting organisms and algal holdfasts using the large forward-jutting canine teeth to rake its food from the substratum (Russell 1983). Spawning occurs in late winter-spring, August – November  (Doak 1972, Francis 2001), and juveniles about five cm found in February-March in shallow water. They grow rapidly, maturing at one year old.  Females breed for two to three years before changing sex at about four years old (Francis 2001). Juveniles and females sometimes act as cleaners (Francis 2001).	eng
187481	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is common throughout its range. It is abundant at Three Kings Islands and the southern part of its range.	eng
187481	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187482	conservation	Rocha, L., Francini, R. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is present within several marine protected areas across its range. Baseline research on population trends is needed, as little is known about this species population status.	eng
187482	distribution	Rocha, L., Francini, R. & Craig, M., 2008	This species occurs from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Rio de Janeiro (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003) Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and throughout the Caribbean.	eng
187482	habitat	Rocha, L., Francini, R. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and found to at least 30 m depth. It is commonly found in rocky and reef areas in shallow waters.  It is less common in seagrass beds.  <br/><br/>It feeds on other fishes (Böhlke and Chaplin 1993) and gastropods (Cervigón 1993). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003).  It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Allsop and West 2003). It is diandric. It is also a pelagic spawner (Nemtzov 1985). Sex reversal is completed in more than three to four weeks (Roede 1972, Sadovy and Shapiro 1987). Length at sex change = 30.2 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
187482	population	Rocha, L., Francini, R. & Craig, M., 2008	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.  <br/><br/>Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected, except for the ones in North Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, which are genetically distinct and may represent a different species (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>This species is the most common wrasse in the Caribbean, but is considered to be relatively rare in Brazil.	eng
187482	threats	Rocha, L., Francini, R. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats  known for this species.	eng
187483	conservation	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187483	distribution	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species is found from Kashawa-jima, Japan and southern Taiwan, to the Philippines and the Macclesfield Bank, South China Sea.	eng
187483	habitat	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species usually occurs over rocky bottoms, six to 40 m deep.	eng
187483	population	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species is common over rocky bottoms within its range.	eng
187483	threats	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187484	conservation	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187484	distribution	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is known only from Indonesia and Christmas Island (Australia).	eng
187484	habitat	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species occurs over coral and rubble bottoms between depths of three to 20 m.	eng
187484	population	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common.	eng
187484	threats	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade sometimes by cyanide solution.	eng
187485	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187485	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in southern Japan (Okinoshima) and Hawaii (Oahu). It has also been recorded 200 m off northwest Australia (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187485	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 142 mm SL. This species inhabits deep shelf waters in depths of more than 40 m. Trawled in depths of 119-168 m (Oahu).	eng
187485	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few records.	eng
187485	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187486	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Shark Bay is a world heritage area covering more than 2.2 million ha (sharkbay.org).	eng
187486	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is known only from part of the sub tropical coastline of Western Australia in the Eastern Indian Ocean (Shark Bay and possibly south to Perth). It is only known from a few historical specimens.	eng
187486	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species was collected from shallow rocky and weedy reefs (Allen 1997).	eng
187486	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187486	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187487	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Myers, R., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187487	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Myers, R., 3009	This species is known only from Java, Indonesia (Eschmeyer 1999). Records from the Red Sea (Goren and Dor 1994) are suspect (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187487	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Myers, R., 3009	There is very little information about this species. It most likely inhabits sand and rubble bottom habitats.	eng
187487	population	Bertoncini, A. & Myers, R., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187487	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Myers, R., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187488	conservation	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	In Australia, a minimum size of 30 cm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to this genus (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes including <em>Choerodon</em> species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). In Caledonia, however, there is no specific management measures or regulation on this species. <br/><br/>This species is also present in some Marine Protected Areas within its restricted range. Marine parks are established within Queensland including the Heron Island where this species is recorded (Jones <em>et al.</em> 2004). Marine parks in Queensland are zoned for different purposes and they offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities. <br/><br/>In New Caledonia, no-take marine reserves have been established in five islands of the Southwest lagoon, which cover a total area of about 27 km<sup>2</sup>, in New Caledonia since 1989. Underwater visual censuses revealed significantly higher biomass and density of <em>C. graphicus</em> in these marine reserves after five years of protection (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997).<br/><br/>More information is needed on this species population status, harvest levels, and potential impact of fisheries.	eng
187488	distribution	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the Great Barrier Reef, Cardwell, Queensland, and Elizabeth or Middleton Reef, Australia  (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008), and in New Caledonia.	eng
187488	habitat	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, usually found solitary on rubble and sand bottoms at depths greater than 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), and down to 46 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>The recorded maximum size of the species is 80 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Information on its reproductive biology and ecology is lacking.	eng
187488	population	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	Descriptive account on this species by Lieske and Myers (1994) reported that this species was common along its range of occurrence. <br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total 5,094 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-80 cm TL. In a total of 19 stations, a total of 81 individuals were caught with total weight of 10.4 kg (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187488	threats	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is collected in recreational and commercial fishery in Australia and New Caledonia, however there is no information on its landings and the level of threat from these fisheries is unknown. Given this species large size and location in areas targeted by the live food fish trade, more research is needed on this species population status and harvest levels.	eng
187489	conservation	Cabanban, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There is some protection through the Marine Aquarium Council standards and certification and from quota regulations in Australia for aquarium fishes.	eng
187489	distribution	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa south to Algoa Bay, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to the Marshall and Tuamoto islands. In the western Pacific, this species extends from Sagami Bay, Honshu to New South Wales (Australia).	eng
187489	habitat	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species inhabits seagrass beds and areas of mixed sand, rubble, and algae of inner reef flats and shallow lagoons. <br/><br/>Female length is from (Masuda and Allen 1993). It swims in small aggregations over large areas. Maximum depth is 20 m (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Depth range is from 2-15 m (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The maximum length is 15.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) and seven cm TL (female). The larval duration is 23.4 days (SD 2.2) in Palau (Victor 1986).	eng
187489	population	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is common on the Great Barrier Reef and in many other parts of the range. It is rare in the central Philippines during a survey (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). In Indonesia it was found in two out of 19 sites in a study (Mous 2002). There is no specific population information.	eng
187489	threats	Cabanban, A., 2008	A major threat is the collection for the aquarium trade. There is also habitat degradation in southeast Asia.	eng
187490	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187490	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found from Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) to South Africa in the west (Randall 1986) to the Line, Marquesas, and Tuamoto islands in the east, northwards to southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007), southwards to Papua New Guinea (Jenkins 2002), to the Rowley Shoals and Lord Howe Island, Australia, northern New Zealand and Rapa Islands.	eng
187490	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found over shallow lagoon and seaward reefs at depths between 1-15 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1991) and over reef flats (Westneat 2001). Prey items are mainly crustacean zooplankton (Myers 1991). Feeding habits include selective plankton-feeding (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984) and the species was observed to be a diurnal carnivore in the Glorieusis Islands, western Indian Ocean (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Juveniles, females and young males have similar colour patterns, but those of larger males are different and often variable (Kuiter 2002). Small juveniles are sometimes found under ledges together with sea urchins, and they tend to form schools at an early age, often staying close to the reef substrate. Adults are often found in large schools of mixed sexes, feeding in midwater on zooplankton. Colourful males are often found separately from these schools (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Larvae collected in Palau had a larval duration mean of 72.4 days with a range of 53-90 (Victor 1986).<br/><br/>This species has been observed to be a group spawner (Nakazono 1979), at depths of 5-7 m, in channels or passages and around promontory or bommie areas of coral reefs (Collin 7 Bell 1991). School size was 2.8 individuals/school with average fish lengths of 8.57 cm. Density was .0029 individual/m<sup>2</sup> and biomass .0269 g/m<sup>2</sup> (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
187490	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is considered common in many parts of its range, such as in the Philippines and in Indonesia.<br/><br/>In the Great Barrier Reef, 93 +/-75 individuals were found in 104 sites at inter-reef and deep locations (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species is common in the Solomon Islands at depths of 0-15 m (Allen 2006) and in the Banda Islands, Indonesia where it was found in 15 out of 19 sites surveyed (Mous 2002). The maximum number found using Baited Remote Underwater Video was two individuals in the green zone of the Magnetic Shoals (site 14) of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia (Speare and Stowar 2007).	eng
187490	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade. This species may be subject to localized threats from habitat destruction in some parts of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2004, Hodgson 1999).	eng
187491	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.  However, in Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales, several marine parks have recently been established or are being established within its range and comprise “no fishing” areas. However, those areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown.	eng
187491	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in temperate Australia from New South Wales to South Australia, and Western Australia though not reliably recorded from Tasmania or Victoria (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187491	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	A small species, to about 126 mm SL. Inhabits rocky areas in depths of about 10-40 m (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).<br/>In Jurien Bay Marine Park, occurring on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with the substrate, among red algae, turfs and ledges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Biological data from a few individuals collected on mid-west coast of Australia suggests protogyny, e.g. differential size range of females and males and sexual dichromatism, coupled with histological analyses of gonads (males contain secondary testes), but not confirmed/conclusive at this stage (Fairclough, D. unpublished data).<br/><br/>Species is common in shallow water in Western Australia (to about 20 m), but tends to be in deeper water (to 40 m) in sponge habitats elsewhere (B. Russell pers. comm.2008).	eng
187491	population	Russell, B., 3009	Presumed continuous distribution in Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found <em>A. maculatus</em> to be frequent or abundant at seven locations surveyed between the Houtman Abrolhos Islands (ca 28-29°S, 114°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location, occurring on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with the substrate, among red algae, turfs and ledges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found <em>A. maculatus</em> to be abundant over reef habitats at Esperance. The population is probably stable.	eng
187491	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187492	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187492	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, where it found throughout most of this sea and the Sea of Marmara, though it is rare in the Levant. It is also present in the western and north-western Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187492	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species lives in small groups, mainly over algal-covered rocky substrates, but also in seagrass beds. It feeds on bryozoans, hydroids, tubiculous polychaete worms, shrimps, amphipods and molluscs. The young fish may act as cleaners of other fishes.<br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the male builds, maintains and guards a nest made of seaweed (Cystoseia), in which several females lay their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187492	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is relatively common thoughout the Mediterranean Sea, but is less abundant along the coast of the Levant.	eng
187492	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.	eng
187493	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187493	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in the West coast of Africa: from Western Sahara, Madeira and the Canary Islands in the north via the offshore Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome and Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, southwards to central Angola (Westneat in press).	eng
187493	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 50 cm but is more common at 40 cm. It inhabits rocky and reef-like areas, rich in algae, but is also caught in eel-grass beds (Westneat in press). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It was taken between one and 75 m depth. (Westneat in press). It appears to be common at depths of 20-40 m as evidenced by the many specimens collected in the 1973 International Guinean Trawling Survey. Juveniles occur, at least occasionally, in rocky areas at depths of 10-12 m.	eng
187493	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. There are suspected declines for this population, but there is no data to support this.	eng
187493	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	Fishing is considered a major threat for this species.	eng
187494	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187494	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is known from Indonesia from northeastern Kalimantan to western Papua (Sangalakki GRA, Borneo, Banggai I., Togean I., G. Tomini, Togean Is GRA, Raja Ampat GRA, Papua Comb).	eng
187494	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs on sheltered reefs with mixed low corals and algae-rubble, and may form small groups on shallow reef crests and mix with <em>Paracheilinus filamentosus</em> (Kuiter 2002). Males display with their spectacular metallic blue backs, swimming frantically to impress females (Kuiter 2002). It lives at 6-15 m depth, and can be found as deep as 35 m (R. Myers pers. comm.). Except the brief account on breeding behaviour of <em>P. cyaneus</em>, nothing about the biology, ecology or abundance is known for this species.	eng
187494	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be less common than <em>P. filamentosus</em> (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187494	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187495	conservation	Russell, B., Afonso, P. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The efficacy of these marine protected areas is not known.	eng
187495	distribution	Russell, B., Afonso, P. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary and Cape Verde Islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Based on 100 m bathymetry, the area of occupancy of this species is estimated to be less than 2,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187495	habitat	Russell, B., Afonso, P. & Pollard, D., 2008	This is a large species with males reaching at least 70 cm TL in the Azores (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). A maximum length of 80 cm has been recorded (Hanquet 2005). <br/><br/>It inhabits rocky reefs of island shores and offshore reefs and shallow banks in depths from 20-100 m. It prefers areas of high bottom relief and strong hydrodynamic conditions.<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on macro invertebrates (sea urchins, gastropods, etc.). It is a sequential protogynous hermaphrodite (all males result from sex-changing females at 45-65 cm TL). It shows marked haremic territorial system, typically one male to two to three females (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Supposedly a pelagic spawner, it does not build a nest or provide any parental care. Juveniles occur isolated below 30 m, sheltering within reef crevices and holes.	eng
187495	population	Russell, B., Afonso, P. & Pollard, D., 2008	There has a been a population decline throughout its range. <br/><br/>In the Azores it is common on rocky reefs from 15-50 m depth all across the archipelago and offshore shallow banks with suitable habitat, but naturally occurs in scarce numbers , especially in the northernmost islands (Afonso 2002).<br/><br/>In Madeira (Ribeiro <em>et al.</em> 2005, Ribeiro <em>et al. </em>2006) and the Canaries (Falcón <em>et al.</em> 1996) populations are less numerous, or even absent locally, although in the recent past they have supported local multispecies fisheries. The very limited information available also points to the rarity of this species in the Cape Verdes (Monteiro <em>et al.</em> 2008), its southern distribution limit (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187495	threats	Russell, B., Afonso, P. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is threatened by overfishing throughout its restricted range. Sensitivity to recreational fishing is also of major concern throughout its range due to increasing boatfishing and freediving.<br/><br/>In the Canary Islands it was recently considered commercially threatened due to overexploitation, mostly in the 1990s (Brito and Morales 1998). In Madeira it is rare or absent, most probably due to overfishing and habitat degradation of the coastal communities in past decades. In the Azores, numbers have been reduced in fished areas in recent years, particularly those of larger (male) individuals (Afonso 2002, Afonso <em>et al. </em>2006).	eng
187496	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. It has been recorded in a nature reserve at the Eilat area, Egypt (Rilov and Benayahu 2000).  More information on harvest levels for the aquarium trade is needed.	eng
187496	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species was observed from the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998) and Gulf of Aden (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187496	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits shallow reefs, especially in areas of rich coral and algae growth (Debelius 1993) to depths of 20 m (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). According to Richard and Field (1998), it is often seen in the lagoon areas, close to the fringing reef.	eng
187496	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered uncommon in the Red Sea. <br/><br/>Only eight individuals have been observed during a study at Mangrove Bay, Egypt (Lange 2006) and it has been recorded with a low relative abundance of 0.04 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and 0.1-1 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> at the south of Eilat and nature reserve of Eilat, Israel respectively (Rilov and Benayahu 1998, Rilov and Benayahu 2000).	eng
187496	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is collected for the aquarium trade, although there is no quantitative data and monitoring on the marine aquarium trade of this species. As this species occurs in coral reefs, it may also be affected by localized habitat decline.	eng
187497	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187497	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species is found from east Africa (Somalia to Sodwana Bay, South Africa) to Samoa, north to Izu Islands, and south to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. It is also found in Pohnpei (G. Allen, unpublished survey).<br/><br/>Range size 22,682,870 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
187497	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species is a small wrasse and is an uncommon inhabitant of coral-rich areas of clear outer lagoon and seaward reefs. It relies on live coral. Juveniles are cleaners while adults feed on coral polyps.	eng
187497	population	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species, but very widespread.	eng
187497	threats	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade and may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, these are considered to be localized threats.	eng
187498	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	More than 75% of the range of <em>C. ballieui</em> is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve. No species specific conservation actions are in place.	eng
187498	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (USA).	eng
187498	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs at depths from 10-108 m, although it is typically observed below 20 m.  Its habitat is typically sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs.  It utilizes the sand for protection from predators by “diving” into it.	eng
187498	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	No explicit data are available on population trends in this species.  Casual observations indicate that the species is common and has a stable population.	eng
187498	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187499	conservation	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187499	distribution	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is present in the West Central Pacific from Indonesia, the Philippines and northern Papua New Guinea.	eng
187499	habitat	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is found on semi-open sandy substrates along reefs, often in deep channels to lagoons that are prone to strong tidal currents and where seawhips thrive (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).This species is found down to 20 m and possibly found on shallow coral reefs at about five m. The maximum size is 18 cm TL.	eng
187499	population	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information for this species. This is a rare species.	eng
187499	threats	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Possibly fishing and habitat destruction on shallow reefs.	eng
187500	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. The islands within this species range are not heavily populated.	eng
187500	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is only known from the south Pacific Ocean around Pitcairn Island and Rapa Island, and possibly also the Tuamotu Archipelago.	eng
187500	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	The main habitat of this species is probably rocky reefs, and maybe also coral reefs to depths of 15 m. The diet probably comprises mainly benthic macro-invertebrates, and the eggs and larvae are probably pelagic.	eng
187500	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	Theres is no population information available for this species.	eng
187500	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187501	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species occurs within the Tomini Bay Marine Protected Area.	eng
187501	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known only from Tomini Bay, Indonesia.	eng
187501	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species occurs in small groups along reef edges with rubble patches in depths to about 15-30 m.  Juveniles are found in small groups in shallower depths (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187501	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends for this species have not been assessed.  It is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187501	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187502	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187502	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found at the Ashmore-Cartier Reefs, Scott Reef, and the Rowley Sholls off the coast of north-western Australia.	eng
187502	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found over rubble and coral bottoms from 10 to 40 m.	eng
187502	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187502	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187503	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187503	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean on the eastern African coast from Somalia to Mozambique and the islands of Zanzibar, Aldabra, Comoros Islands and the Seychelles.	eng
187503	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 88 mm SL. In Aldabra it inhabits seagrass beds on outer seaward edge of intertidal reef flats (Randall and Randall 1981). This species has a maximum depth of six m.	eng
187503	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is uncommon in Aldabra.	eng
187503	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There may be some habitat degradation of seagrass beds in some parts of its range.	eng
187504	conservation	Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187504	distribution	Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is endemic to southern Japan, from the Izu Islands, Ryukyu Islands and Ogasawara Island (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997). There are also records from the Philippines (Fuga Island, near Batangas, Buckwheat Bay, Dalumpiri Island) in the Sulu-Celebes Sea Dantis and Aliño (2002) (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187504	habitat	Cabanban, A., 2009	This species inhabits rocky habitats in bays and is reported to retire in the sand at night to depths of 12 m.	eng
187504	population	Cabanban, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187504	threats	Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187505	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187505	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in the Philippines, Indonesia and Palau.	eng
187505	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits rubble areas and finely branching corals on protected coral and rubble slopes, with a depth range of 6-40 m (Myers 1999). It occurs in schools or in small groups.	eng
187505	population	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187505	threats	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187506	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, H., Pollard, D. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species occurs on reefs within marine parks in Western and South Australia. There is no legal minimum size for retention of this species in Western Australia and, on the west coast of Australia, fishers are allowed to retain up to 40 fish per person per day (dependent on various other limitations). On the south coast of Western Australia, fishers are limited to a maximum of eight fish per person per day (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>These bag limits seem relatively high considering the life history parameters of this species, including its long generation time and longevity.	eng
187506	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, H., Pollard, D. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species is restricted to the temperate waters of southern Australia, with confirmed records from east of Mooloolaba, Queensland, New South Wales and northeastern Tasmania in the east and between about Port Denison, Western Australia and the York Peninsula, South Australia in the west (Gomon 2006).	eng
187506	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, H., Pollard, D. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This is a large species, reaching about 450 mm TL. It occurs on reefs at depths of 15-80 m. Scott (1962) reported the species (as <em>L. vulpinus</em>) to be reasonably common in somewhat deeper coastal waters off South Australia. In Western Australian waters, it frequents deeper coastal reefs with juveniles preferring ledges and adults venturing into more open areas (Gomon 2006).  It is associated with macro-algae in shallower waters (J. Meeumig pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, multiple spawner, spawns in late spring and summer. This species is very long lived, reaching ages of greater than 60 years (validated by marginal increment analysis, D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is frequent on reefs from Perth to Esperance in Western Australia (Hutchins 2001) and occurs commonly on shallow reefs (< 18 m) at Jurien (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008 ).	eng
187506	population	Russell, B., Choat, H., Pollard, D. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This is a relatively common species. There is no specific population information. Although there is some fishing catch data for this species (Cossington <em>et al.</em> 2008), reliable data is relatively unavailable. This species is only abundant along the southern coast of Western Australia, but relatively rare on the western coast of Western Australia.<br/><br/>The population is estimated to have declined at least 20%, if not more, over the past 50 years due to fishing pressure (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187506	threats	Russell, B., Choat, H., Pollard, D. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species is captured in trawl fisheries throughout its range in New South Wales, and in commercial and recreational line fisheries in Western Austraila. It is also collected for the aquarium trade, and has a high value (US$ 28.50-$35 per fish) but is probably collected in small numbers (Ryan and Clarke 2005). It suffers barotrauma when caught in waters greater than 10 m (D. Fairclough pers. comm. 2008)	eng
187507	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
187507	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species is found from Java to the Philippines, Ryukyu Islands, Moluccas, Palau (Belau), Solomons, Truk, Pohnpei (G. Allen, unpublished survey), and Kwajalein. Its southeastern range extends to Tonga.	eng
187507	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species inhabits shallow lagoon and channel reefs in coral reefs, up to a depth of at least 20 m, with rich soft-coral growth.  It occurs in small loose groups. It can get up to 17 cm in length.	eng
187507	population	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This is an abundant species. There is nothing known about the specific population size.	eng
187507	threats	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no known major threats, although there is some collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
187508	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187508	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known only from Rapa Island (Austral Islands, French Polynesia).	eng
187508	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 158 mm SL. This species inhabits rocky areas in moderately deeper water, in depths of 15-24 m.	eng
187508	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known from a few specimens. There is no population information available.	eng
187508	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187509	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187509	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is confined to the western coast of Australia between the Monte Bello Islands and the Houtman Abrolhos (Gomon 2006).	eng
187509	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This species is moderately large, to about 350 mm SL.  It is taken by trawl in deeper water, 61-108 m.	eng
187509	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information availalbe for this species.	eng
187509	threats	Russell, B., 2008	All the records are from trawlers or trap fishing records. These fishing methods are a potential threat.	eng
187510	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187510	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Southeast Atlantic from Tristan da Cunha Group, Gough, and the Vema Seamount. In the Western Indian Ocean it is found at St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands.	eng
187510	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This is a small species to about 176 mm SL. It occurs in tide pools and amongst kelp to depths of 30 m.	eng
187510	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187510	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187511	conservation	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>In New Caledonia for example, marine reserves are established within the natural range of this species (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997) These reserves cover reef habitat which are suitable to <em>C. fasciatus </em>(Lieske and Myers 1994). Though this species has not been recorded within these reserves, it is very likely that these no-take areas can provide protection to <em>C. fasciatus</em>.  About 60 marine parks (with no-fishing areas and buffer zones) are established in Japan including the Okinawa Kaigan Marine Park in Ryukyu where this species may occur (UNEP-WCMC 2008). Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, may also offer protection to this species though its occurrence in the area needs further survey. <em>C. fasciatus</em>, which may also occur among Western Pacific Islands, may be protected by the newly established Phoenix Island Protected Area in Kiribati, which is currently the largest marine protected area in the world.<br/><br/>In Australia, a minimum size of 300 mm TL and a bag limit of six fish apply to all species in this genus (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes including Choerodon species in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). However, there is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. fasciatus</em>.	eng
187511	distribution	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is occurs from East Africa including Madagascar and the Maldives to New Caledonia and Fiji, and from the Ryukyu Islands to Australia.	eng
187511	habitat	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is solitary and inhabits seaward reefs. It feeds on mollusks, crustaceans, various worms and echinoderms. It is territorial, and ranges over a large area of reef (Lieske and Myers 1994), and lives down to 35 m (Shao 2005).<br/><br/>This species is reported to be monogamous (Whiteman and Côté 2004). Other information on its reproductive biology or ecology is lacking.	eng
187511	population	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is no population information available for this species in the majority of its range. It is considered common in at least some of its range, including Australia and New Caledonia.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 368 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 10-43 cm TL. In two stations, two individuals were caught with total body weight of 272 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Fiji, this species is rare, only one individual was recorded with 22 cm TL during various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187511	threats	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. Due to its popularity in the aquarium trade, pressure for collection could represent a local threat to this species in some areas. However, the level of collection for aquarium trade relative to natural abundance is unknown.	eng
187512	conservation	Rocha, L. &  Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187512	distribution	Rocha, L. &  Craig, M., 2008	This species is found from Florida, USA and the Caribbean to Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
187512	habitat	Rocha, L. &  Craig, M., 2008	This reef associated species is found from 10 to 91 m. It is found over rocky reef and rubble substrates. Juveniles up to eight cm may act as specialized cleaners, based on observations from its sister species, <em>H. diimidiatus</em>.	eng
187512	population	Rocha, L. &  Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be common. In Brazil, 1,256 individuals were exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187512	threats	Rocha, L. &  Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is occasionally caught by anglers as bycatch.  Generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size.	eng
187513	conservation	Craig, M., 2009	This species is a no-take species in South Africa.	eng
187513	distribution	Craig, M., 2009	This species is endemic to the western Indian Ocean (South Africa and southern Mozambique).	eng
187513	habitat	Craig, M., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs to depths of at least 60 m. It feeds on macro zoobenthos (crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and ascidians).	eng
187513	population	Craig, M., 2009	There is very little population information available for this species. It is considered rare throughout its range. <br/><br/>In 2002 and 2003, underwater visual census (UVC) found a mean density of .33 fish/1,000m<sup>2</sup> in the Pondoland region between the Mtamvuna River and Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape, South Africa (Mann <em><em>et al.</em></em> 2006).  It was the ninth most dense species of wrasse (of 18 species observed).	eng
187513	threats	Craig, M., 2009	Formerly, this species was threatened by spearfishing, however it was recently made a no-take species in South Africa, although poaching may still occur.	eng
187514	conservation	Liu, M., To, A. & Yusuf, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187514	distribution	Liu, M., To, A. & Yusuf, Y., 3009	This species is found in the Philippines and north to Taiwan and Iriomote-jima (Ryukyu Islands), and in Anambas, Indonesia (Adrim <em>et al.</em> 2004). There are questionable records from northern Bali (Kuiter and Allen 1999, Allen and Adrim 2003) Flores, Indonesia and from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187514	habitat	Liu, M., To, A. & Yusuf, Y., 3009	This species is found at bases of steep outer reef slopes, close above rubble or coral, from 12 to 40 m depth (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003) Females occur in small groups, with males usually nearby (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187514	population	Liu, M., To, A. & Yusuf, Y., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered to be rare in Taiwan (Shao 2005), and is also considered rare in the Philippines (V. Hilomen and J. Pontillas pers. comm.).	eng
187514	threats	Liu, M., To, A. & Yusuf, Y., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187515	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, although it may occur in marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
187515	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is known only from Indonesia and the Philippines.	eng
187515	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species inhabits outer reef flats and upper slopes of coastal reefs to depths of 10 m with rich coral and hydrozoan growth.  It is usually solitary and found on shallow reef flats and crest (Kuiter 2002). It is one of the slightly larger wrasses, approximalty 18 cm length.	eng
187515	population	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.	eng
187515	threats	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no major threats, although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade as bycatch.	eng
187516	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187516	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to Durban, South Africa and extending eastward to Pitcairn Island. It appears to be excluded from the coasts of India. In the Western Pacific, it is found from Okinawa, Japan in the north to eastern and western Australia (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008) in the south.	eng
187516	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This species is moderately small, to about 143 mm SL. It inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs. Adults occur commonly in clear shallow waters at depths of 1-8 m. Large individuals do occasionally occur at somewhat greater depths, having been collected below 27 m at Cocos-Keeling Atoll. Juveniles are often found in caves and beneath ledges in moderately deep waters, occurring regularly at depths of 14 to 26 m. It is almost always associated with well-developed coral reefs. It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans. Juveniles act as cleaners by picking at bodies of other fishes (adults occasionally do this).	eng
187516	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common and widespread species.<br/><br/>In Pangkor Island, Malaysia an estimated mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Y. Yusuf unpublished data).	eng
187516	threats	Russell, B., 2008	This species is not commonly marketed and is occasionally seen in the aquarium trade. It is sometimes caught as fisheries bycatch.	eng
187517	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187517	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in the western Pacific from the Philippines, Palau, Indonesia, New Guinea, east to Baker Island and south to northwest Australia and the Great Barrier Reef (AFD 2009).	eng
187517	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species occurs in coral rich areas of shallow lagoons and sheltered seaward reefs. Adults feed mainly on coral polyps while juveniles remove ectoparasites from small territorial fishes (Randall and Springer 1973, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990). Adults swim in small groups. Usually, only small juveniles clean other fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187517	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is thought to be a common species.<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 3.4 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187517	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187518	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187518	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found at Pohnpei, Caroline Islands and Marshall Islands. Strays have been found at Johnston Atoll.	eng
187518	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species occurs in small groups over lagoon patch reefs in outer reefs from eight to 30 m.  It feeds on zooplankton in the water column.	eng
187518	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is common throughout its range. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187518	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187519	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187519	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is widely distributed throughout temperate southern Australia, including New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and southern Western Australia.	eng
187519	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 270 mm TL (Barrett 1995a). It occurs predominantly on algal-covered rocky reef in shallow water (Morton 2007), but also inhabits sponge covered bottoms to depths of about 40 m.  <br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. This species is a site-attached protogynous hermaphrodite, where females have widely overlapping home-ranges and males are territorial (Barrett 1995a, 1995b), at least during the breeding season, and exclude all other males from their range (Barrett 1995a). Spawning occurs from October-December (NSW, Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and late August to January (Tasmania, Barrett 1995b), sexual maturity is reached in first (0.9) year at <95 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 180 mm TL in three years, longevity is at least 4.8 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and maximum age estimate is 10 years (Tasmania, Barrett 1995b). Sex change typically occurs at about 130-150 mm TL, at two years in NSW (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a) and 3+-5+ years in Tasmania (Barrett 1995a). A generalist benthic carnivore with small individuals <150 mm TL feeding mainly on amphipods and small decapods, and larger individuals feeding mainly on trochid gastropods (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b).	eng
187519	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common in algal-covered rocky reef habitat throughout its range.	eng
187519	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in recreational line fisheries.	eng
187520	conservation	Choat, J.H., Gillanders, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	The current bag limit in Western Australia is one per day and size limit of greater than 500 mm TL.  This species is not protected in Victoria and is still subject to commercial fishing there. It is totally protected in the Spencer Gulf and the Gulf of St. Vincent in southern Australia, although the records of this protection are linked to <em>A. viridis</em> but refer to <em>A. gouldii.</em> <br/><br/>Management plans need to be developed and implemented, especially in western Australia where there is very little protection. Although this species exists in reasonable numbers in Esperance, there are continuing records of poor catches along the central Western Australian coast, and more fishers are moving down there. Moreover, research is needed on the population numbers and range, threats, conservation measures and trends (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187520	distribution	Choat, J.H., Gillanders, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is a large long-lived wrasse that is endemic to the southwestern and southern coasts of Australia. <br/><br/>Its geographic range extends from the Geraldton on the central western Australian coast to Bass Strait in the east. As this species only occurs in reef environments, its area of occupancy is estimated to be approximately 100,000 km<sup>2</sup>. However, its distribution within this range is not uniform.	eng
187520	habitat	Choat, J.H., Gillanders, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This is largest and longest-lived wrasse recorded, achieving a length of 170 cm and 70 years of age. The species is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite based on age and size distribution with a highly asymptotic growth pattern in both sexes and with males achieving a larger size than females. Spawning occurs in winter (June to October peaking in August). Recruitment to the reef habitat is highly episodic. Female maturity is late at 17 years, and occurs at a large size 653 mm TL with sex change at 35 years  and at 830 mm TL. Based on a longevity of 70 years and first maturity of 17 years, average generation length is estimated to be 25 years. As this species does not typically change sex until a relatively old age (35-39 years), the abundance of the males of this protogynous hermaphrodite would be especially at risk of becoming depleted through fishing (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>This species recruits onto more vegetated sheltered parts of reefs, and once they mature they move out onto deeper exposed coasts. Recruitment occurs on inshore reefs  and larger individuals occur offshore on deeper reefs. <br/><br/>Natural mortality is 0.054/year (0.021-0.090/year), and fishing mortality 0.039/year (0.003-0.073/year) (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
187520	population	Choat, J.H., Gillanders, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	Although the geographic range extends over 1,500 km along the Australian coastline, this species achieves relatively high abundances (seven individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup>) at only one section of it geographical range around Esperance. In the northwestern part of its range, its abundance has declined since the 1990s between 60% (near Albany) and 93% (near Capes which is 635 km to the west of Esperance) based on recorded landings from commercial gillnet fisheries. Abundance in this western part of its range has correspondingly declined to about  ~0.2 individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (DeLacy 2008). <br/><br/>This species has experienced declines of 60-90% over the past 20 years (since at least the 1990s) in at least a third of its range in the western part of its distribution, and due to fishing throughout its relatively restricted range, is considered to be in very low abundances and declining in almost all of its range. The overall population decline for this species is therefore conservatively estimated to be at least 30% over the past 30 years (J.H Choat pers. comm. 2008), and may likely increase with continued commercial fishing in some parts of its range. It is conservatively assumed that the population trend before this time was either stable or also in decline from fishing, and the population was in the same if not in greater abundance.	eng
187520	threats	Choat, J.H., Gillanders, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is subject to both recreational and commercial fishing including bylines, spearing and commercial gill netting. The commercial fishery is dominated by gill netting which targets individuals between 428-1,162 mm and six to 70 years of age (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Western Australia  in 2002 the recreational fishery for wrasse species caught 192,000 individual fish (Henry and Lyle 2003)  which have a smaller mean size than those taken in the commercial fishery. The blue groper component can account for 90% of the catch (DeLacy 2008). Direct observation and CPUE data (DeLacy 2008) and estimates of yield per recruit and fishing mortality (Coulson <em>et al.</em> 2009) demonstrate that this species is overfished in Western Australian waters. <br/><br/>In eastern Australia, this species has suffered such heavy fishing mortality in the 1980s, that the waters of that region were closed to commercial and recreational fishing for that species and still remain closed to spear and commercial fishing (Gillanders 1999).<br/><br/>However, monitoring of this species populations by fishery independent methods is sporadic. The rapid increase in the use of improved technology (e.g. echo sounders, GPS) for coastal fishing since 1990 shows the major impact of these instruments on fishing effort.	eng
187521	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps somel marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187521	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, from Madagascar, Basas d' India Banks, and South Africa. There are also records from the Comoros Islands (Randall 1999).	eng
187521	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species can be found in outer reef slopes and barrier reefs to a depth of 50 m, but usually in depths from 10-30 m (Froese and Pauly 2008).	eng
187521	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187521	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187522	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range..	eng
187522	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in the Eastern Atlantic, primarily in western European waters where is it present from Belgium to northern Morocco, and also reported down to Mauritania (Westneat in press). It is also an occasional inhabitant of the Mediterranean Sea, where it has been found off the coasts of Spain and the Balearic Islands (Quignard and Pras 1986).	eng
187522	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species inhabits littoral and inshore coastal habitats, mainly occurring around rocks but also in seagrass beds (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It is a small fish with a maximum length of around 20 cm (SL). It is found at depths of down to 50 m.	eng
187522	population	Pollard, D., 2008	Little is known about the Eastern Atlantic populations of this species, and there are only a few records from the Mediterranean. It is relatively uncommon.	eng
187522	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught as food in artisanal fisheries.	eng
187523	conservation	To, A., Liu, M., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. Individuals of this species have been recorded in several marine protected areas. However, details of their recent status is often lacking in many other countries. There are very few fishery management measures relevant to this species, and monitoring on its international trade is absent. <br/><br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Madagascar<br/>Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), but catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). This species was occasionally sighted during a rapid biodiversity survey in northwest Madagascar, and is likely protected within the protected areas (McKenna and Allen 2005).<br/><br/>Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of five fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>O. bimaculatus</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995). This species is used in aquarium trade but quantitative data on its catcher are absent (Shao 2005). There is no information on the aquarium fish trade.	eng
187523	distribution	To, A., Liu, M., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Eastern Africa and the Red Sea to the Hawaiian Islands and the Marquesas, north to Japan and south to Australia.	eng
187523	habitat	To, A., Liu, M., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs, over rubble or sand, also found in seagrass beds, from two to 110 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Sadovy and Cornish 2000). There is no information on the reproductive biology or ecology on this species.	eng
187523	population	To, A., Liu, M., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It can be common in some parts of its range. There are occasional accounts on the relative abundance of this species.<br/><br/>In Pondoland coast of South Africa where only six individuals of <em>O. bimaculatus</em> were recorded from 261 underwater point-counts and resulting in fish density of 0.38/1000 m<sup>2</sup> (Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006). In French Polynesia, a total of four individuals were counted in various UVC survey with body sizes of 709 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). While in Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, <em>O. bimaculatus</em> was one of the top 35 most abundant fish species, with a mean abundance of 0.27 at each site (Parrish and Boland 2004). The underwater visual census in Okinawa seagrass beds also reported relatively high density of <em>O. bimaculatus</em> among all fishes recorded (Nakamura and Tsuchiya 2008).	eng
187523	threats	To, A., Liu, M., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, atlhough it is utilized as both food fish and aquarium fish (Gell and Whittington 2002, Mulochau and Durville 2005, Shao 2005).	eng
187524	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187524	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is found throughout the Red Sea, from Saudi Arabia to Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia.	eng
187524	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	The main habitat of this species is coral reef margins and seaward reef slopes (Lieske and Myers 1994) to depths of 30 m. It feeds on benthic macrofauna (Masuda and Allen 1993).	eng
187524	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	Although it appears to be widespread in the Red Sea, there is no specific information available on the status of its populations there.	eng
187524	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Although it is taken in the marine aquarium fish trade, exploitation levels are unknown.	eng
187525	conservation	Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187525	distribution	Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 3009	This species is found from Indonesia to Papua New Guinea, Palau and New Caledonia.	eng
187525	habitat	Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 3009	This species inhabits deep coastal outer coral reef habitats, scattered small patch reefs. It is found between 25-100 m depth.	eng
187525	population	Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 3009	There is no population information available. It is thought to be uncommon and lives in deeper areas and so is not seen often.	eng
187525	threats	Yeeting, B. & Myers, R., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187526	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007). <br/><br/>It is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population.	eng
187526	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
187526	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in fringing reefs, among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth. Adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes. It relies on live coral.	eng
187526	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187526	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade and this could possibly pose as a threat.	eng
187527	conservation	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is well protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud and Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA).	eng
187527	distribution	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa and east to Samoa and the Line Islands. It is found from southern Japan south to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia. It is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187527	habitat	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species typically occurs over pockets or channels of sand and rubble areas near reefs from the lower surge zone to depths of over 30 m. Juveniles normally occur in closely-knit groups that remain close to the bottom. Adults are solitary or occur in loosely-knit groups and venture some distance from the bottom (Myers 1999). It feeds mainly on fishes and crustaceans, occasionally on brittlestars and polychaete worms (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>Elongated compressed body with small scales. Scaleless head. Juveniles whitish with three narrow orange-red stripes. Caudal fin slightly rounded in juveniles to double emarginate in large adults. Initial phase pale bluish, greenish or pinkish gray with 20-23 orange brown bars on body, a black spot on opercular flap, body of terminal males light blue-green, pinkish or yellowish with lavender-blue to purple bars, and often a pale yellowish bar in pectoral region bordered by purple bars, head pale green with a purplish red band in each lopeand elongate spots in central part (Randall 2005).	eng
187527	population	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is generally common within its range. There is no specific population information known.	eng
187527	threats	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187528	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187528	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known only from the type series collected in Rarotonga and Papua New Guinea, and a photo taken in New Caledonia (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187528	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, reaches at least 99 mm SL. It occurs at depths of at least 50-115 m.	eng
187528	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187528	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187529	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species has been observed in the Burnett-Mary Region including the Hervey Bay Marine Park, Fraser Island World Heritage Area and Woongarra Marine Park (Kirkwood and Hooper 2004). It is worth noting that the marine park doesn’t imply as a no-take zone since limited fishing activity is allowed within the marine park under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority).<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (Choerodon spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all Choerodon species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).	eng
187529	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is found in the northeastern Australia (Parenti and Randall 2000, Kirkwood and Hooper 2004).	eng
187529	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is demersal and is found in rubble and soft substrate (Pitcher <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been recorded at a depth of 60 m. The biology and ecology of this species is not well known.	eng
187529	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There is no information available on the abundance of this species across its geographic distribution range.	eng
187529	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is a relatively deep water species, and is not known to be specifically targeted by fisheries. However, in Australia the majority of <em>Choerodon</em> captured by commercial fish sectors are all reported as “<em>Choerodon</em> spp.” The commercial landing weight for <em>Choerodon</em> spp. in western Australia is approximately, 28 t each month (Penn <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
187530	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187530	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is known from southwest Madagascar and Rodrigues Island in the western Indian Ocean (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009) to Papua New Guinea and the Marquesan Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to Lord Howe Island, Lizard Island and Sydney Harbour, Australia (AFD 2009).	eng
187530	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species usually inhabits current zones such as tidal channels and is common over sandy areas of reef flats and shallow sandy lagoons to a depth of  20 m (Myers, 1999), but usually to about six m (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is also found in estuaries. Juveniles are often found in small outcrops of rubble and algae or around the edges of sparse seagrasses (Kuiter and Tonozuka, 2001). This species is capable of diving into sand when threatened. It reaches about 20.0 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka, 2001).	eng
187530	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187530	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187531	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. The Galapagos Islands are a designated marine reserve with a total area of 133,000 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187531	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is known only from the Galapagos Islands.	eng
187531	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species was recorded from a depth of 115 m.	eng
187531	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species, it is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187531	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats for this species.	eng
187532	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187532	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the eastern-central Atlantic, this species is found along the West African coastline southwards from at least Senegal to Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea, and around the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome Principe. Possibly extends from Western Sahara in the north to Angola in the south.<br/><br/>Although this name has been treated as a junior synonym of Coris julis (which occurs northwards of Senegal as far as Norway, and throughout the Mediterranean Sea), according to Randall (1999) it is a valid species (Aurelle <em>et al.</em> 2003, Guillemaud <em>et al.</em> 2000) (D. Pollard and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187532	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	As with the closely related <em>Coris julis</em>, this species probably occurs in littoral and inshore coastal waters around rocks and over seagrass beds. Also, as in the case of <em>C. julis</em>, it probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates, it is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, as it shows two distinct color morphs (an initial phase and terminal phase males), and its eggs and larvae are probably also planktonic.	eng
187532	population	Pollard, D., 2008	No information is available on the status of populations of this species, though it is thought to be relatively common.	eng
187532	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in local artisanal fisheries.	eng
187533	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187533	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in the western Pacific from subtropical and warm temperate eastern Australia, occurring in Queensland as far north as Port Douglas (J.H.Choat pers. comm. 2008) and in New South Wales at least as far south as Jervis Bay (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187533	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A small species, to about 148 mm SL. It inhabits algal covered rocky and coral reefs, generally in shallow water, in depths down to 20 m.  It reportedly spawns in winter (August – December) in southern Queensland (Russell <em>et al.</em> 1977).  Food items consist of small crustaceans (Choat 1969).	eng
187533	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common over its range of distribution.	eng
187533	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, though it may be caught as bycatch in recreational line fisheries.	eng
187534	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187534	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea down the coast of eastern Africa and Madagascar, to western Indonesia and Thailand.	eng
187534	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species inhabits open sand and rubble areas of seaward reefs and deep reef sandy slopes from 10-85 m.	eng
187534	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.	eng
187534	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187535	conservation	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Fairclough, D., 2008	There are no conservation measures directed at N. parilus specifically. However, in Western Australia, South Australia and Victoria (the range of <em>N. parilus</em>), several marine parks have recently been established or are being established within its range and comprise “no fishing” areas. However, those areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow-on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones is unknown. The West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery (in Western Australia) has recently undergone restructuring to become a managed commercial fishery. Changes to the management of the commercial fishery and restrictions to the recreational sector aim to reduce effort in the fishery by 50 % and reduce catches overall by a similar amount.	eng
187535	distribution	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species is known from Victoria (Queenscliffe), South Australia and southern Western Australia, from the Recherche Archipelago to Shark Bay in the north.	eng
187535	habitat	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species is common on rocky reefs in shallow water, down to about 20 m. It also occurs in seagrass beds on the west coast of Australia (Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Harvey <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bivoltisis 2007, Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep.)<br/><br/>A large species, to about 312 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is an indeterminate multiple spawner (Lek <em>et al.</em> in prep.). It spawns in the Austral winter and early spring on the mid-west coast of Australia. Spawning occurs in both reef and seagrass habitats. Males have small testes relative to most gonochorists, suggesting pair-spawning activity is likely, as for many labrids. Sexual maturity of individuals over reefs occurring at approximately three years and sex change at six (from logistic regression analyses, maximum age recorded: 10.4 years) Smaller size and age at maturity and sex change over seagrass than reefs, coupled with a shorter life span (or emigration).	eng
187535	population	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Fairclough, D., 2008	This species is abundant in shallow coastal waters in western Australia.<br/><br/>Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found this species to be abundant at eight locations surveyed between Kalbarri (ca 28°S, 114°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found this species to be abundant over reefs at Esperance.	eng
187535	threats	Pollard, D., Russell, B. & Fairclough, D., 2008	Recreational fishing and increasing human population. It is also a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab fishery (South Australia). It is likely to be bycatch species of West Coast Demersal Scalefish Fishery in Western Australia (although Labrids are reported as one group, i.e. wrasse). Notolabrus parilus suffers from barotrauma-related injuries and does not survive well after capture in waters > 10 m.<br/><br/>On the west coast of Australia, a substantial increase in the number of wrasse released by boat-based recreational fishers in a 2005/06 survey by Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) may be related to the increase in human population size since the last survey in 1996/97. While there is some evidence that recreational fishers are retaining more wrasse than previously (Harvey 2004), Sumner <em>et al.</em> (2008) indicate that the number retained has declined since 1996/97. Stock assessments of indicator species (includes other large target species) on the west coast of Australia demonstrate overfishing of those species is occurring in this region (Wise <em>et al.</em> 2007). There is potential for increases in the catches of labrids such as N. parilus to compensate, however, the flesh of this species is not typically considered to be of high quality. Fisheries of related wrasse species in South Australia for a live reef fish trade saw rapid declines in stock when unmanaged (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>Recreational fishers in Western Australia often use wrasse as bait, when caught incidentally, for larger target species. There is some evidence that recreational fishers are beginning to retain this species for food, as a result of declines in the stocks of typically targeted species (Harvey 2004).	eng
187536	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range. <br/><br/>This species has been observed in the Shark reef Marine Reserve, Fiji (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006) where no fishing is allowed in the marine reserve. In the Great Barrier Reef regions, only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for ornamental trade and currently it is monitored by the Department of Primary Industry, Australia. Fishing is allowed outside the protected areas and the use of chemicals to capture fishes and any destruction of habitat are prohibited (Dufour 1997). <br/><br/>While many marine parks and marine reserves have been introduced in areas within the geographic range of this species, for instance, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Philippines, however, most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or have poor legislation enforcement. Thus, the majority of these MPAs probably provide insufficient protection to the species that they are housing (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Within its distribution range, destructive fishing practices including poison, explosive and illegal fishing coupled with heavy fishing pressure might rapidly reduce the number of this species (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002). In addition, consumers' preference on the brightly coloured males and its relatively higher value (Sadovy and Vincent 2002) might contribute to its rapid decline in the numbers of males in assemblages locally. Furthermore, selective harvesting for males of particular populations might also lead to reproductive failure and ultimately population collapse due to heavily biased sex ratios in remaining schools (Vincent and Sadovy 1998). More information is needed regarding to the impacts of aquarium fish collecting on this species.<br/><br/>Worldwide coral reef decline has now been well documented (Stone <em>et al.</em> 1996), some 50% of the world’s corals would be completely destroyed over the next 30 years and massive coral species extinctions are to be expected (Stone 2007). As G. varius is highly associated with coral areas, data on the conservation and habitat status of this species are recommended.	eng
187536	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific (Westneat 2001). It is found from Cocos-Keeling to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto Islands, and from the Philippines, north to Ryukyu Islands, Japan, south to Indonesia, Australia, Papua New Guinea and Rapa Islands. It is replaced by <em>G. caeruleus</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1999).	eng
187536	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species inhabits lagoons, coral rich areas, rocky and seaward reefs at depths of two to at least 30 m (Allen 1999, Myers 1999, Mundy 2005). Juveniles are sometimes found in seagrass.  It is common on both ocean-side and lagoon reefs (Colin and Bell 1991).  It is diurnally active and found in small groups or solitary. Abundance is positively correlated with coral topography (Nanami <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>It is a trophic specialist that uses its elongate jaws to pick up small benthic crustaceans including crabs and alpheid shrimps, brittle stars, molluscs and small fishes from coral and rocky crevices (Hiatt and Strasburg 1960, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990, Westneat 2001). Hobson (1974) reported that approximately 70.4% of the diet volume consisted of crustaceans. It covers large areas and goes at high speeds when foraging (Bellwood and Wainwright 2001).<br/><br/>Sexual pattern of this species is still unknown. The colour pattern differs according to the sexual development. Females are generally lighter in colour than males (Allen 2000). The females possess a light white-cream colour on the front half of the body and the male has an all green body, ranging from a light olive to a dark green or greenish blue (Kuiter 1999). Jaws of adults are extremely elongate, while snouts of juveniles are less elongate (Myers 1999). Caudal fin rounded in small individuals, but truncate with prolonged into filamentous in large males (Westneat 2001). Lateral line curved below posterior portion of dorsal-fin base with 26 or 27 pored scales (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>Large terminal phase males have been observed to move to prominent corals within the reef areas to spawn (Thresher 1984). Pair and group spawning have been observed (Thresher 1984, Colin and Bell 1991, Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>Terminal phase males appeared territorial during reproductive hours, with terminal phase male – male aggression. Patrolling of territories was not observed. During courtship, terminal phase males' body colouration became bluish and the green bar intensified. Males positioned above and quivered while fluttering the pectoral and caudal fins. Spawning ascent distance was about two to four m with rapid ascending speed. Spawning activities occurred after high tide and were observed in March, April, May and November. Egg sizes ranged from 0.55-0.56 and were spherical in shape (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>In Hawaii, based upon the analysis of otolith increments, planktonic larval duration was found at around 65.3 +/- 5.8 days, while in Palau, the larval duration was recorded at 51.8 +/- 6.4 days (Victor 1986). Victor (1986) suggested that it has relatively long larval lives among the one hundred examined labrids.<br/><br/>Juveniles  have been observed to settle on the substrate at approximately 35-40 mm TL in French Polynesia (Lecchini and Galzin 2005). Furthermore, hybrids of <em>G. varius</em> with <em>Thalassoma lunare</em> and <em>Thalassoma duperrey</em> have been documented from Australia and Hawaii, respectively (Randall and Allen 2004).<br/><br/>Maximum size of this species is 30-32 cm SL (Westneat 2001, Michel Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187536	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is common throughout most of its range.<br/><br/>In general, it is possibly one of the most abundant species in Hawaii and French Polynesia, however, there are no data on total numbers of this fish. In French Polynesia, it is the most abundant species in the barrier reef community. Mean density of juveniles at eight sampling stations was recorded at 5.26 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Lecchini and Galzin 2005). In Pelekane Bay, Hawaii, 1.9 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were observed by using underwater visual census surveys (Tissot 1998). In Tonga, biomass was estimated at 12.35 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> in Tongatapu reefs (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996). <br/><br/>It is one of the most common fishes in the marine protected area of south central Vietnam (Nguyen and Phan 2008). <br/><br/>In Solomon Islands, it is common (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 285 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 2,241 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-30 cm TL. In 16 stations, a total of 39 individuals were caught with total body weight of 712 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In French-Polynesia, a total of 512 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-32 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 306 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-25 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In addition, more than 50 individuals have been observed at Lizard Island and found to be abundant in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Fulton <em>et al.</em> 2001). Stock was estimated at around 230,000 individuals in TUVALU (Secretariat of Pacific Community 2007).	eng
187536	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats for this species. However, this species is collected for the aquarium trade in many parts of its range. For example, aquarium trade of <em>G. varius</em> is reported in Sri Lanka (Ekaratne 2000). There are no detailed and long term information on the numbers of this species that are being collected, aquarium trade monitoring, and location of extractions. <br/><br/>An unknown number of amateurs collect this species throughout the Great Barrier Reef region (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986) and use chemicals such as chlorinated lime, quinaldine with potassium permanganate or methylene blue to capture fishes in the Great Barrier Reef regions (Whitehead <em>et al.</em> 1986). Researches indicate that use of destructive fishing practices is widespread in Southeast Asia, for instance, in the Philippines, approximately 70% of ornamental fishes are caught with cyanide (Hingco and Rivera 1991) and it is reported that poison fishing would cause severe damage to coral colonies and the intestinal lining of fishes (Bellwood 1981). High mortality in the aquarium trade can also exert stresses on wild populations if shops then purchase replacement animals (Sadovy and Vincent 2002). Thus, marine aquarium trade could be one of the main threats to this species.<br/><br/>Many of the focal organisms might be vulnerable to overharvesting since they possess complex life history characteristics, limited and highly specific habitat requirements (Ochavillo and Hodgson 2006). Destructive fishing techniques might directly destroy coral reef habitats or disrupt the ecosystem structure and function by poisoning or physically damaging the corals (Wood 2001). Coral reefs are currently suffering from both human- and natural- induced disturbances and worldwide declines have been well documented (Stone 2007). Since <em>G. varius</em> is highly associated with the coral habitats, it might be assumed that habitat destruction would be another main threat to this species.	eng
187537	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187537	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in southern Japan and Taiwan. It is also found in Ceju-do in Southern Korea and Pratas Reef.	eng
187537	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found on rocky and coral reefs at depths between 2-30 m.	eng
187537	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187537	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187538	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187538	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species has a disjunct range as it is known from New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, Palau and the Philippines.	eng
187538	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is found over rubble and coral bottoms from 30 to 90 m.	eng
187538	population	Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187538	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187539	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187539	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 3009	This species occurs in the Western Pacific, from Japan to Taiwan and south to Indonesia.	eng
187539	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 3009	This species is found on sandy rubble bottom habitats in depths from 1-7 m. They bury themselves in the sand and are not seen often.	eng
187539	population	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187539	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187540	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, there are 17 designated marine protected areas in Mauritius (Wood 2007).	eng
187540	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in the western Indian Ocean, and is currently known only from Mauritius.  It is likely to occur in Reunion and probably in Madagascar.	eng
187540	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in deep water, usually at depths in excess of 35 m (Kuiter 2002). It is found over rubble and sandy areas (Randall 1999).	eng
187540	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187540	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187541	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187541	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to Morocco, including the Azores Islands (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is present throughout the entire area except for the eastern Levantine Sea. It is not present in the Black Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187541	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found around rocks, amongst seaweeds and in seagrass beds. It exhibits some schooling but are more solitary when older. It feeds on sea urchins, ophiuroids, mollusks, crabs and worms. <br/><br/>Maturity occurs after two years at lengths between 15 and 20 cm. This species spawns from February to May in the western Mediterranean Sea (Quignard and Pras 1986). Demersal eggs are laid amongst seagrasses and are protected by the males (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187541	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is relatively widespread and common throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187541	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	Threats to this species include habitat degradation, specifically the reduction of Posidonia seagrass beds. <br/>Larger individuals may be caught in the artisanal fisheries and used as food locally in the Mediterranean region (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187542	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Non-fishing areas within marine protected areas typically represent a relatively small proportion of the area of those MPAs. Furthermore, trophic linkages to this species are relatively poorly understood and thus flow on effects of protection afforded to its predators by those “no fishing” zones are unknown.	eng
187542	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known only from southern Western Australia, from the Recherché Archipelago to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands (Hutchins 2001, Hutchins and Swainston 2002).	eng
187542	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A small species, to about 172 mm SL. It inhabits rocky algal covered reefs in shallow water in depths to at least 15 m. In the Jurien Bay Marine Park, it was observed to occurr on deeper more exposed reefs (> 10 m), closely associated with reef ledges comprising red algae and sponges (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep).<br/><br/>Biological data collected from reasonable sample size (approx 92 fish) on mid-west coast of Western Australia suggests protogyny, e.g. differential size range of females and males and sexual dichromatism, coupled with histological analyses of gonads (males contain secondary testes), but not confirmed/conclusive at this stage. Sexually mature individuals collected in winter and spring (D. Fairclough unpublished data).	eng
187542	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common over its range of distribution, particularly in offshore areas.<br/><br/>Presumed continuous distribution in Western Australia. Semi-quantitative underwater visual census (UVC, timed swims) of Hutchins (2001) found this species to be frequent or abundant at five locations surveyed between Port Denison (ca. 29°S, 115°E) and Esperance (34°S,122°E) in Western Australia. Quantitative UVC (measured transects) within the Jurien Bay Marine Park (ca. 30-31°S, 115°E) confirmed this species to be relatively abundant at that location (Fairclough <em>et al.</em> in prep). Harvey <em>et al.</em> (2004) also found this species to be abundant over reef habitats at Esperance.	eng
187542	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught by fishers and is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187543	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps the Cenderawasih Bay Marine Protected Area.	eng
187543	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Indonesia (Cenderawasih Bay). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be approximately 30,000 km<sup>2</sup> based on area calculations from 25-75 m depth within Cenderawasih Bay.	eng
187543	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits sheltered rubble substrates at the base of slopes (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is common on sheltered seaward reefs, primarily on the inner and eastern portions of the Cenderawasih Bay at depths between about 22 to 60 m, although it is more abundant below about 35 m.	eng
187543	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is considered common throughout its restricted range.	eng
187543	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally seen in the international aquarium trade.	eng
187544	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The Marine Aquarium Council sets standards and promotes certification of the aquarium industry around the world. There are also national regulations on operations and export quotas for aquiring fishes.	eng
187544	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is present in the Eastern Indian Ocean, from the Rowely Shoals (Myers 1991), Similan Islands, Andaman Sea and Christmas Island.  In the Western Pacific, it occurs from the Ryukyu Islands (Japan), Taiwan, Thailand, Philippines, Papua New Guinea (Lieske and Myers 1994), Palau, Indonesia to  the Great Barrier Reef (Australia).	eng
187544	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species forms aggregations pme to two m above coral or rocky bottoms and coral rubble along the edges of lagoon, channel, and outer reef slopes. It feeds on zooplankton in the water column. It sometimes forms large schools (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The habitat for this species is coral reefs, and is found at depths between 2-30 m (Westneat 2001). The maximum size 15 cm TL.	eng
187544	population	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information. This is a relatively common species. The populations are probably declining due to collection for the aquarium trade and habitat destruction.	eng
187544	threats	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	Threats to this species include habitat destruction on shallow reefs from collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
187545	conservation	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187545	distribution	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands, and eastwards through Malaysia to Indonesia.	eng
187545	habitat	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in shallow coastal reefs, mainly rock substrates with soft coral and algal growth. It occurs in small loose groups dominated by a large male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187545	population	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species, however it is inferred to have declined due to habitat degradation and collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
187545	threats	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade (Randall 1980) and there is occuring habitat destruction in Southeast Asia (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187546	conservation	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
187546	distribution	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Bermuda, southern Florida (USA), and Bahamas to Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
187546	habitat	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	This species inhabits outer reef areas and is most common at depths of 10-30 m, although it can occur to 40 m. It feeds planktivorously in aggregations off the bottom on copepods, jellyfishes, pteropods, tunicates and larvae.  Of 41 reef fish species counted as a monitoring program in the Gulf of Mexico, Flower garden reserve was the most abundant (Precht <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>This species is a small schooling wrasse that occurs in high densities in the near-reef pelagic zones. It is protogynous, monandric (Warner and Robertson 1978). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003). Length at sex change = 15.78 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
187546	population	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common throughout its range. For example, it is common in San Blas (Warner and Robertson 1978) and in the Gulf of Mexico (Precht <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187546	threats	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187547	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187547	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found from Micronesia to Samoa, reported from Rowley Shoals and Christmas Island off northwestern Australia, Taiwan, and Kermadec Islands. It is reported to extend to the Indian Ocean to the Maldives, Mauritius and East Africa.	eng
187547	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found up to a depth of at least 25 m in lagoon, channel and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It is often on open sand flats with large remote bommies in depths of about 20 m. Juveniles congregate on reefs, usually in depths of 10-20 m feeding on mysids. Aggregates (with females outnumbering the males) are found along upper edges of coral slopes to feed on zooplankton (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187547	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species. It is the most common and widespread species of the genus (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187547	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it may be occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187548	conservation	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187548	distribution	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific throughout the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean including the Red Sea.	eng
187548	habitat	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species inhabits reef flats, reef margins, and rocky shores to 40 m. It is found mainly in inshore weedy areas, such as seagrasses and macroalgae.	eng
187548	population	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is abundant throughout its range.	eng
187548	threats	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is rarely collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187549	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187549	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
187549	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-30 m. It is abundant on reef tops and in shallow rocky areas.  It is also found in Sargassum beds in Venezuela (Cervigon 1993).  <br/><br/>The tricolored pattern of the initial phase is similar to that of the juveniles of the yellowmouth grouper, Mycteroperca interstitialis, an aggressive mimic (Sazima 2002). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Allsop and West 2003).  It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992). It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003).  Length at sex change = 10.9 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
187549	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common throughout its range. In Brazil, 183 individuals were exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187549	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187550	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187550	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in the eastern-central Atlantic, off the West African coast in Sierra Leone and Guinea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187550	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is apparently rocky reef associated, having been caught in trawls over relatively deep (~100 m) rocky bottoms. Nothing is known about the diet or breeding biology of this species (D. Pollard pers comm. 2008).	eng
187550	population	Pollard, D., 2008	Nothing is known about the populations of this species, which appears to be restricted to coastal and insular waters off Sierra Leone and Guinea, where it has been caught by trawling (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187550	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known threats to this species, though it may occasionally be caught as bycatch of trawl fisheries.	eng
187551	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187551	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Red Sea. Records from the Gulf of Aden and Socotra Island need to be verified.	eng
187551	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species inhabits areas of coral reefs, sand rubble and sheltered areas (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species is found at depths between 1-20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187551	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is no population information for this species.	eng
187551	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187552	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187552	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in the Red Sea and Socotra Island.	eng
187552	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs over algae-rubble slopes, usually along reef margins, to a depth of about 25 m (Kuiter 2002), and also in coral-rich areas of seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). While juveniles swim in small groups close to the seabed and often shelter amongst large soft-coral colonies, adult females may swim higher above the substrate in pursuit of zooplankton with a single male in close vicinity (Kuiter 2002). It inhabits depth ranges from 5-45 (Baensch and Debelius 1997).	eng
187552	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is common throughout most parts of the Red Sea. From an UVC using SCUBA and transect survey, it  was found to be one of the most abundant species, accounted for 6.4% of all fish recorded (Khalaf and Kochzius 2002). In Eilat, Israel, an UVC using SCUBA around jetties of oil terminals, which is closed to the public and therefore almost undisturbed, revealed that <em>P. octotaenia</em> was the tenth most abundant fish around these artificial pillars (Rilov and Benayahu 1998). In another survey around newly established artificial reefs in the Gulf of Elat, northern Red Sea, <em>P. octotaenia</em> was found to be common (Golani and Diamant 1999). While from a recent region-wide underwater visual census to sites with high and low exploitation pressure for ornamental fish in Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Djibouti, the total counts of <em>P. octotaenia</em> ranged from 100-2,158, this species was one of the 25 most abundant fish species from the survey (PERSGA 2004).	eng
187552	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187553	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187553	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in Southwestern Australia: Western Australia (Shark Bay) to South Australia (Ceduna).	eng
187553	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, reaches at least 315 mm SL. It lives at depths of at least 100-250 m in areas with sandy bottom and some rock and coral rubble.	eng
187553	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187553	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187554	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187554	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Somalia to Durban, South Africa to the Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. In the Western Pacific, it is found from Wakayama, Japan to Bali, Indonesia and New Caledonia. It is evidently absent from the Red Sea, northwestern Indian Ocean and the east coast of Australia.  The relatively poor representation of this species in collections, especially from Indonesia and southeast Asia, may be due to its occurrence on deep offshore reefs. This habitat is poorly collected at many localities (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187554	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This is a large species, to about 310 mm SL. It occurs on deep reef slopes rich with invertebrates such as sponges and seawhips, but young adults are occasionally seen much shallower. Specimens have been taken at depths of 8-160 m. It is usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs. It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans. It is protogynous (DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005). Size at sex change: 38.6-40.5 cm L.	eng
187554	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This is fairly common in some areas and in deeper waters.	eng
187554	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187555	conservation	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument in the northwestern part of the Hawaiian islands. This is a federally regulated no-take reserve that, while not monitored efficiently, is very remote and difficult to get to.	eng
187555	distribution	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands chain.	eng
187555	habitat	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species occurs in insular coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs, and particularly around seaward coral reefs to depths of 136 m.<br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. A single male is usually found together with a group of females (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187555	population	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is common. However, there is no other population information available for this species.	eng
187555	threats	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although specimens are occasionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade. It is one of the most popular Anampses species in the aquarium trade (Rocha pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187556	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it is well protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).	eng
187556	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from Tanzania to the Hawaiian and Society islands, south to the Great Barrier Reef, Pohnpei and Marshall Islands in Micronesia. The type locality is from Mabul Island, Philippines (Randall 2005).	eng
187556	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This is a cryptic species that inhabits caves or crevices of lagoon and seaward reefs, reef slopes and drop-offs, usually taken at depths of at least 30 m (Myers 1999). Specimens were collected from depths of 10-42 m, but most from 30 m. It is rarely seen underwater (only fleetingly in the deep recesses of caves (Randall 2005).<br/><br/>It closely resembles juveniles of Cheilinus fasciatus and Epibulus insidiator. Since they have broadly overlapping meristics, color pattern is the only reliable distinguishing character (Myers 1991). Body of adults when fresh is grayish brown, becoming reddish brown on mid side and ventrally on some specimens. Grayish to reddish brown with three white bars narrower than pupil on body and three radiating from eye, a large black spot on abdomen between pelvic fins, and one on soft portion of dorsal, anal and pelvic fins (Randall 2005).<br/><br/><em>Wetmorella albofasciata</em> has two narrow white bars on the body, but they converge as they pass ventrally. It is distinguished from <em>W. tanakai</em> which has a narrow oblique white bar behind the eye and two parallel, narrow, white bars in the middle of the body that are slightly oblique. <em>Wetmorella nigropinnata</em> has two white bars on the body only as juveniles and subadults, but the bars are broad and slightly oblique in the other direction (see Randall and Kuiter 2007).	eng
187556	population	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species. It is seen mostly in deeper waters.	eng
187556	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species. It is probably not used in the aquarium trade as it is difficult to capture due to depths and probably would not do well in captivity.	eng
187557	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found in the marine protected area in Cheynes Beach. There are no species specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002) state “ there is no evidence for decline for this species” but suggested lower risk (near threatened) status as precautionary measure based on its very restricted distribution and apparent rareness.	eng
187557	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known only from south-west Western Australia (Cheynes Beach, near Albany), but is possibly more widely distributed.	eng
187557	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A small species, to about 74 mm SL. It is cryptic, inhabits shallow areas of algal covered reef in shallow water (Hutchins and Morrison 1996). Females occur in small aggregations.	eng
187557	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known only from a total of 5 specimens collected. There was only one specimen seen by J.B. Hutchins in 25 years of diving in SW Australia. The professional fish collector who collected the type series has never seen this species anywhere except in the type locality (Cheynes Beach) (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187557	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species has an extremely limited known distribution and an apparently small population size. Habitat degradation could affect this species within its narrow range in the future (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187558	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187558	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is distributed from eastern Australia, southern Great Barrier Reef to Jervis Bay (NSW), southern part of New Caledonia at Noumea.	eng
187558	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 91 mm SL. This species is found on silty sand or muddy substrates in harbours and estuaries and also deeper reefs and sand and rubble bottoms to at least 30 m depth (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187558	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187558	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187559	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>While many marine parks have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of this species, for example in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Philippines (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004),  most of these marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered to be poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced due to the lack of expertise, resource and effective co-ordination. For instance, some of the fish sanctuaries in the Philippines are only managed and enforced by the resort management (Tubod fish sanctuary) or local communities (White <em>et al.</em> 2002). As the efficacy of any legislation depends entirely upon its enforcement (Claydon 2004), the majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection (Licuanan and Gomez 2000, Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187559	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and occurs from east Africa to the Line and Tuamoto Islands and from Japan to Lord Howe and Austral Islands (Myers 1991), including Thailand, Taiwan, Pratas and Spratley Islands (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
187559	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species inhabits coral reefs (Allen 2000), shallow lagoon and seaward reefs, slopes and along drop-offs to depths of one to 15 m (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), but may be found deeper.<br/><br/>Bodies of terminal phase individuals have six vertical black bars which are progressively shorter posteriorly, the first black bar passing beneath pectoral fins to abdomen, whilst the last bar is a saddle-liked spot on caudal peduncle (Westneat 2001) and broad pink bands radiating from eye (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Kuiter 2006). Males and females differ slightly in colour although males are gaudier (Myers 1991). Initial phase is light green in colour with six wedge-shaped, slightly diagonal, dark bars dorsally on body (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Adults are diurnally active foraging over large (> 1000 m<sup>2</sup>) home ranges (Shima 1999a). It feeds on a variety of preys including fish eggs (eggs of Stegastes ngricans) (Shima and Osenberg 2003), benthic and planktonic crustaceans, small fishes, foraminiferans (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984) and fish larvae (<em>Dascyllus flavicausus</em>) (Holbrook <em>et al.</em> 2003)<br/><br/>The mean duration of the planktonic larval stage was approximately 47 +/-8 days and the maximum recorded duration was 63 days (Victor 1986). It was found to settle on live coral habitat during the early benthic life history (Shima 1999) and settlement occurred during discrete lunar periods (Shima and Osenberg 2003). In Moorea Island, French Polynesia, Dufour <em>et al.</em> (1996) found that settlement occurred over five consecutive nights surrounding new moons between January and June. It was observed to settle at 35 mm in length (1999). It settles directly to patch reefs composed of live coral habitats or algal turf and newly settled individuals remain relatively inactive in algal turf or within branching corals for one to three days while developing juvenile pigmentation patterns (Shima 2001). In addition, juveniles remain site-attached for approximately four to six months (Shima 1999a).<br/><br/>Shima (1999, 2001, 2001a) demonstrated that density dependent mortality occurred shortly after settlement to coral communities. And strength of the density dependence mortality was found to be heterogeneous in space and time and was correlated with coral community attributes (Shima 1999, 2001, Shima and Osenberg 2003, Shima <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>It has been reported to be diandric in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). During courtship, the terminal phase males had a dark spot on the center of the caudal fin which was absent on the initial phase females. The female ascent rapidly about three to four m when ready to spawn and the terminal phase male swam above her, rapidly fluttering pectoral and caudal fins. Spawning activities were observed in the morning after high tide in May at Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>Aggregation spawning was documented at Heron Island (Robertson and Choat 1974) and waters adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Russell 2001). However, such behaviour has rarely been study.	eng
187559	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range. <br/><br/>It is the most common labrid on Moorea, French Polynesia (Galzin 1987). A total of 6,090 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 803 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-17 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 809 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-25cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 3,712 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-23 cm TL. In 9 stations, a total of 20 individuals were caught with total body weight of 417 g(M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Marshall Islands, it occurred on most shallow reefs, but not abundant (Colin and Bell 1991). It is also a common reef fish in Solomon Island (Allen 2006), the Barakau Village and Papua New Guinea (Raga 2006) <br/><br/>It is the one of the top twentieth most common species of piscivorous fish at Lizard Island (14° 40’ S 145° 28’ E), Australia (Stewart and Beukers 2000). <br/><br/>In Kimbe Bay of Papua New Guinea, it was found to be one of the top fifteenth most abundant species with a total abundance of 3231 individuals and a mean density of 1.55 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> (Srinivasan and Jones 2006). It is also the dominant fish species in Trou aux Biches and Troud’ Eau Douce, Mauritius (Ministry of Agro Industry and Fisheries and Albion Fisheries Research Centre 2004).<br/><br/>In Micronesia, it is moderately common in clear water areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand, particularly along upper edges of protected reef slopes (Myers 1991). <br/><br/>Large numbers were found in the upper lagoon of the Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve (Kospartov <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, it is rare, only one individual was seen in area of coral at 3 m depth (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>8 individuals were observed in the Maumere, Indonesia through an underwater visual census survey (Kulbicki undated).	eng
187559	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade, but is not heavily targeted. Coral reef loss and habitat destruction may contribute to localized declines in some parts of its range.	eng
187560	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187560	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found from the Philippines (Cebu and Batangas), to Japan in the north (Ryukyu and Yaeyama).	eng
187560	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species can be found in the base of steep outer reef slopes, and can be found in small groups close above rubble or coral from 12 to 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>Males are more colourful and larger in size than females, colour of males intensify during courtship (Froese and Pauly 2008).	eng
187560	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187560	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187561	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187561	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is found in eastern Indonesia and western Irian Jaya, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.	eng
187561	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species reaches approximately 14 cm in length. It is found in coastal reefs and lagoons often on sand-rubble substrates with large staghorn coral colonies from 8-15 m depth range.	eng
187561	population	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is uncommon. There is no specific population information available.	eng
187561	threats	Choat, J.H. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although there is possibly some minor collection for the aquarium trade.	eng
187562	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187562	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is distributed in the western Pacific from  Korea, Japan, Taiwan, mainland China and Viet Nam.	eng
187562	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 114 mm SL. This species is found around coral and rock patches in shallow protected sandy areas. Amphipods, small crustaceans, and polychaetes have been reported from the stomachs of Japanese specimens.	eng
187562	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. There are only a few specimens for this species, most of them are from the initial phase.	eng
187562	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187563	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There is some protection through the Marine Aquarium Council standards and certification and from quota regulations in Australia for aquarium fishes.	eng
187563	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa, the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, south to South Africa and to the Solomon Islands in the east. And from the Philippines to New South Wales, Australia.	eng
187563	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in coral reefs on coastal to outer reef crests. In Japan, it is found in areas of mixed sand, rock and coral (Lieske and Myers 1994). It occurs in small groups to about 20 m depth (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). They aggregate to spawn (L. Squire and M. Samoilys in Russel 2000). Allen (2006) found them in a group of four at 10 m (schooling).<br/><br/>It feeds by sorting small animals from mouthfuls of sand and detritus.	eng
187563	population	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is rare in Malaysia, Indonesia the Philippines (Allen 2006, A. Cabanban pers. comm. 2008). It is common in western Australia.<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.75 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187563	threats	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	A major threat is the degradation of the coral reef habitat. This species is collected for the aquarium trade, which is considered a threat due to the fact that they are rare.	eng
187564	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187564	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Cocos-Keeling Island and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean and eastwards to the Pacific in the Philipiines, Marquesan, Pitcairn islands and Micronesia. It is also recorded from Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187564	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in steep outer reef slopes associated with rubble beds in depths from 10-55 m. It is rare in shallow water (Myers 1999, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
187564	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187564	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187565	conservation	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187565	distribution	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species ranges from the Philippines to Samoa, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Rowley Shoals and Ningaloo Reef in the west and southern New South Wales (Montague Island) in the east.	eng
187565	habitat	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species inhabits seaward reefs to at least 35 m depth, usually from seven to 35 m usually in areas of mixed coral and reef rock with sand patches (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is also found in reef crests and slopes on rocky or rubble-algae substrates (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  The maximum size recorded for male/unsexed is 12.0 cm TL (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187565	population	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	Estimates of population numbers are unknown.  It is inferred from its exploitation in the aquarium trade and from the degradation of coral reefs in Southeast Asia (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002) that there is probably a decline of the population in the south-east Asian part of the range. However, the range in Australia most likely acts as a refuge.	eng
187565	threats	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is traded in the aquarium industry. It is not clear whether the aquarium trade has caused the low numbers of such popular coral reef fishes in the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean due to lack of baseline data (Hodgson 1999). <br/><br/>It is also recorded as a rare minor component in the Guam subsistence and recreational fisheries records (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187566	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187566	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is largely restricted to the South Island of New Zealand, although also recorded from Wellington (Makara) and as far north as Napier on east coast of North Island and at Three Kings Is, but apparently rare at these localities. It is common at Chatham Is, Stewart I. the Snares Is and Auckland Is (Francis 1996).	eng
187566	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm SL. It is sexually monochromatic. It is common on rocky reefs. It occurs mainly in shallow water but recorded to depths of about 91 m (Graham 1938).  Food items consists of molluscs and small crustaceans (Graham 1939). Juveniles are cleaners (Francis 2001). Spawning appears to occur in summer (February to March).	eng
187566	population	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is common over most of its range, it is rare north of Cook Strait.	eng
187566	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187567	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it may be protected within some Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
187567	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is known only from northwest Australia (Joseph Bonaparte Gulf to Shark Bay). It has also been reported from the Gulf of Carpenteria, Australia (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 2004). This record needs to be checked. Records from Vietnam (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006) are probably incorrect.	eng
187567	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This reef-associated species generally occurs in shallower inshore coastal waters, from the surge zone down to around 25 m, where it is most often found singly or in pairs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It can also be found in rubble and algae (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic macro-invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>Although it is reported to show little change in colour with sex or age, photos from Randall in FishBase show two distinct colour morphs.  However, different colors for the initial and terminal phases as shown in Kuiter (2002).	eng
187567	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There is nothing known on the population of this species, but  it may be relatively common in northwest Australian coastal waters.	eng
187567	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be occassionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade and may also be taken locally for food.	eng
187568	conservation	Cabanban, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187568	distribution	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is found in the Western Central Pacific from Indonesia to Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines and New Caledonia.	eng
187568	habitat	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is demersal and inhabits coastal, usually turbulent waters with muddy substrates. It occurs in shallow inshore waters but ranges to deeper water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is found in coral reefs (Mohsin and Ambak 1996) and deep-water (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187568	population	Cabanban, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is not considered to be a common species. There are most likely declines in parts of the Philippines and Indonesia due to overfishing.	eng
187568	threats	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is collected for food and may be subject to overfishing and habitat destruction in the Philippines and Indonesia, but not in other parts of the range (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002). It is not common in fish markets and in the wild (A. Cabanban pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187569	conservation	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species has been recorded in several marine protected areas throughout its range of distribution. However, species-specific management on this aquarium fish is lacking and fisheries in its range of distribution are mostly ineffectively managed or unmanged. <br/><br/><br/>Country-specific general management<br/>Kenya<br/>Fishery management and regulation are not known. Several marine protected areas are established and fishing activities are regulated (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001, McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species occurs within the Watamu Marine National Park (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>Tanzania<br/>There is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by Government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). These protected areas may offer protection to <em>G. caeruleus</em>, however its occurrence within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). This species was recorded from 10 out of 11 marine protected areas (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>South Africa<br/>About 20 marine protected areas are established which encompass various habitat types and offer various level of protection to fish through zoning (e.g. no-take zone, controlled fishing zone) (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2008, SouthAfrica.info 2008). These protected areas represent about 18% of coastline in South Africa (WWF 2004). <em>Gomphosus caeruleus</em> has been reported from recent ichthyofaunal surveys in one marine protected area (Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006), the relatively large area of coastline and the representation of various habitat types within the marine protected area network is likely to encompasses more locations utilized by this species in South Africa. <br/><br/>Seychelles<br/>Several marine protected areas are established in Seychelles, which covers over 220 km<sup>2</sup>, however enforcement and regulations within them are suggested to be very weak (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of <em>G. caeruleus</em> within these areas is unknown. Fisheries operating in Seychelles, both artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries, are regulated by licensing system and mesh-size limit, and compliance to these regulations is maintained through regular patrols (Seychelles Fishing Authority 2008). <br/><br/>India<br/>Fishery management seems lacking. There are about 30 marine protected areas in India encompassing various habitat types, however details of the enforcement and occurrence of species is lacking (Singh 2003)<br/><br/>Indonesia<br/>There are licensing system, gear type restrictions, limited entry and total allowable catches for artisanal and coastal fisheries (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). Commercial fisheries such as the purse seine fisheries are not formally managed (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). There are marine protected areas in Indonesia but the occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Maldives<br/>There are management measures for shark and tuna fisheries, also a licensing system within some areas, however management measure is lacking for many other reef fisheries except for the export bans on rare species (Adam 2006). Marine protected areas are established, fishing is prohibited except for the traditional live bait fishing (Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment 2003).<br/><br/>Red Sea<br/>Fisheries in the Red Sea, which are shared by many countries such as Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan and Somalia are largely unmanaged and are heavily fished (De Young 2006). Over the 70 marine protected areas that are established or have been proposed in the Red Sea, however few are managed appropriately (PERSGA/GEF 1998, Gladstone 2000).	eng
187569	distribution	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to the Andaman Sea.	eng
187569	habitat	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs to at least 30 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). Nothing is known about its reproductive biology or ecology.	eng
187569	population	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	This species was suggested to be a common in underwater transect surveys in coral reefs in Jordan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia (PERSGA/GEF 2004). There is no other estimate on its population size or relative abundance throughout its range of distribution.	eng
187569	threats	To, A. & Liu, M., 2008	The main threat to this species likely comes from collection for the aquarium trade. A study on the impact of aquarium fish collection in Mozambique suggests that the aquarium collection poses little detrimental effect on the reefs studied (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000). Notably, the management on fish collection for aquarium trade in Mozambique is considered ineffective (Whittington <em>et al.</em> 2000). Long-term and increased harvest of this species throughout the species range may threaten this species if fisheries are not well-managed. <br/><br/>Coral reefs, which are important habitats for this species, is reported to be declining overall within Southeast Asia (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004), but less so within the western Indian Ocean (Ahamada <em>et al.</em> 2004). Habitat degradation can threaten survival of this species but this may not be the main threat currently.	eng
187570	conservation	Russell, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187570	distribution	Russell, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species occurs in the Western Atlantic from the Bermuda and offshore reefs east of the Carolinas to Honduras and northern South America, including the Antilles. It also extends down through the entire Brazillian coast from south of the Amazon to Santa Catarina including Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha. It is also found in São Tomé Island in the Gulf of Guinea (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007)	eng
187570	habitat	Russell, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 270 mm SL.  It is associated with rock and coral cover in depths of 18-110 m, but rarely at depths greater than 24 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It feeds on crabs and small shellfish (Gomon 1978). Juveniles pick parasites from other fishes (Lieske and Myers 1994). <br/><br/>It may hybridize with the Spanish hogfish, <em>B. rufus</em> (Sazima and Gasparini 1999).	eng
187570	population	Russell, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade export data for Brazil for 2007 recorded 3,531 individuals (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187570	threats	Russell, B. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Minor threats include capture for the aquarium trade.	eng
187571	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187571	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species occurs from Fanning Atoll in the Line Islands and Birnie to the Nikumaroro in the Phoenix Group (Allen pers. comm. in Gomon 2006). It has also been recorded in Howland and Baker Islands, north of the Phoenix group of islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187571	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	The length of this species was recorded at  210 mm SL. It is found around foliose corals and rarely swims out in the open. Adults found between seven and 20 m, while juveniles were seen only below 30 m depth (Gomon 2006).	eng
187571	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187571	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187572	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	Although it is the official New South Wales State fish emblem, this species is not a totally protected species in New South Wales. It is only protected against spearfishing, netting and commercial sale to protect it from large catches by spearfishers. In 1974, angling and commercial fishing were allowed again, but spearfishing was still prohibited. In 1975, concern over the large catches by commercial fishers led to a ban on bottom-set gill nets. All Blue Groper were banned from sale in 1980. There is currently a minimum size limit of 30 cm, and the bag limit is two per day with only one > 60cm (Smith <em>et al.</em> 1996, Gillanders 1999).<br/><br/>Angling is still allowed, with a bag limit of two fish in possession, taken by line only, and a "slot" size limit of >30 cm, with only one fish over 60 cm allowed. The spearfishing prohibition is in the form of a "rolling" ban, renewed possibly every 10 years. If this spearfishing ban were to be lifted, the species would very quickly decline in New South Wales waters given that they are very easy to spear, with even the biggest individuals up to almost a meter in length.<br/><br/>It is suspected that <em>A.viridis</em> which is smaller and maybe shorter lived than <em>A. gouldii</em>has a higher turnover rate but there is still no real information on the very largest and oldest elements of the population and Fisheries New South Wales has no demographic data on this species.	eng
187572	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to inshore rocky shores and rocky reefs off south-eastern Australia (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Its extent of occurance is less than 64,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and extends from Caloundra in southern Queensland to Wilsons Promontory in southern Victoria including east Bass Strait (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187572	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	Adult populations are the most common on coastal and offshore reefs. In an extensive study focused on central  New South Wales populations  (Gillanders 1999) gave maximum body length estimates of 100 cm and 18 kg. <br/><br/>Reaching  a peak abundance of approximately two individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (Gillanders and Kingsford 1998), adult individuals (>20cm TL) are most abundant on rocky reefs including open coastal  and offshore reefs. Juveniles and individuals (<20cm TL) are most abundant in estuarine and inshore reefs (Gillanders 1997). Newly settled larvae are collected from seagrass beds (Leis and Hay 2004) . Early juveniles in seagrass beds feeds on crustaceans. On rocky reefs food items are dominated by crabs molluscs and echinoderms. Adult foods also importantly include crabs, which is the main recreational line fishing bait used in New South Wales (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>A protogynous monadric hermaphrodite females reach sexual maturity at two to three years. This species is a winter/spring  (July/Sept) spawner (Gillanders 1995). Relatively little information on age-based demography. Gillanders (1999) provides estimates of age and size at maturity 295-300 mm (TL) or two to three years. All individuals < 600 mm TL are female. Maximum age estimates are 35 years with a 30 year fish reaching a total length of 725 mm. No comprehensive age-based demographic data including very large adults are available (J.H.Choat pers. comm.2008).<br/><br/>Generation length for this species is estimated to be between 12 and 15 years.	eng
187572	population	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There is no commercial fishery data for this species. The population has suffered severe declines of at least 30 to 50% in the past due to spear fishing (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), however spearfishing and the commercial net-fishing in New South Wales was banned in 1972. The population may now be stable.	eng
187572	threats	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	As with most large labrid species, larger adults are relatively rare with a habitat restricted to coastal reefs. This species is endemic to southeastern Australia and has a limited geographic range. It was subject to intense spearfishing prior to 1960, and is still subject to recreational and minor commercial line fishing in Victoria. It is also subject to substantial recreational fishing and minor commercial fishing throughout its range, although species-specific population information is not available (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187573	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187573	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is present throughout the whole Mediterranean basin and the western part of the Black Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187573	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species lives mainly over Posidonia seagrass beds, though it is also present on algal-covered rocky reefs. It frequently occurs in large aggregations and feeds on small benthic organisms such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. Spawning takes place in spring, when the male builds and guards a nest of algae, in which one or more females lay adhesive eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187573	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common and widespread in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
187573	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, although it may be utilized as food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.	eng
187574	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps a number marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187574	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is endemic to northwestern Australia. Records from Japan and Ogasawara Islands (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997) need clarification.	eng
187574	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. Trawled in moderately deep water (32-75 m) off the coast of NW Australia.	eng
187574	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187574	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187575	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It is worth mentioning that marine parks do not necessary imply as no take zones, for instance fishing and animal collections are allowed in the Sinub Island (Jenkins 2002). Given the intensive collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is need on the local and global impact of collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.	eng
187575	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the west Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean, including Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Island to the Line and Pitcairn Group of Islands, north to the Bonin Islands, and south to Rowley Shoals and the Great Barrier Reef (Myers 1991, Allen 2000, Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187575	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of seaward, clear lagoon reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000) and outer reefs (Kuiter 2002) at depths of 2 to 28 m (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>It is distinguished by the large black spot at lower edge of pectoral fin-base (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002). It has been observed to “clean” parasites from other fishes (Randall and Springer 1975, Allen 2000). It is reported that the combination of colour and dance-like movement of <em>L. pectoralis</em> is an advertisement to other fishes, including predators, for “cleaning” services (Kuiter 2002). “Cleaning” included removal of parasite, dead tissue from wounds, food scraps from teeth or gills. Juveniles were observed to be territorial, working singly along reef walls, while adults work in pair and specifically at particular caves which are known as “cleaning stations” (Myers 1991, Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>The mean plantktonic larval duration of L. pectoralis was 26.8 + / - 4.2 days and the highest larval duration was recorded to be 31 days in Palau (Victor 1986).	eng
187575	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is common in at least parts of its range. There is no other information available on the abundance of L. pectoralis. It is the most frequently observed species in Tutuila and Swains Island, Samoa (Brainard 2004), while in Micronesia, it is reported to be the smallest and least common cleaner wrasse (Myers 1991).	eng
187575	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade and there are occuring coral habitat degradation in parts of its range. <br/><br/>Overfishing, destructive fishing practices and pollution from the land have been reported within the area of highest coral reef diversity, such as the Philippines and Indonesia (Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004) and might cause habitat alteration or even loss. Such habitat alteration or degradation has been shown to influence the fish community (Öhman <em>et al.</em> 1997) and population depletions. Thus, habitat destruction might constitue as a main threat since most of this species habitat is in high coral cover areas.<br/><br/>The marine ornamental trade is an expanding industry and there is a threat of overcollection of the target species since most of them are taken from the wild (Ochavillo and Hodgson 2006). However, the data for the aquarium trade on is unregulated and with very limited documentation. There is no information available on the numbers that are being collected, location of extractions and monitoring on the trade.	eng
187576	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187576	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known conclusively from Indonesia: Sulawesi (near Maluku) and Flores (Pomana Besar), in the Western Pacific, and Fiji and Kiritimati Atoll, Line Islands in the Central Pacific (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). It was recorded from Sogod, Cebu, Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). The photograph was confirmed by M. Gomon (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187576	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species to at least 87 mm SL. It has photographed it at depths of 25-50 m, noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m, with juveniles observed at about 50 m (B. Russell pers comm. 2008).	eng
187576	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information avaiable for this species. This is an uncommon species.	eng
187576	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no known threats to this species. However, species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors.	eng
187577	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no specific management for this species. There are some marine protected areas in the distribution regions of this species. However, the presence of this species within the MPAs needs further investigation. In the Great Barrier Reef at least, this species has not been recorded in UVC (Sweatman <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187577	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in New South Wales, Chesterfield Bank in the Coral Sea, New Caledonia and Tonga.	eng
187577	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species has been found in protected waters of lagoons or harbors on mixed sand and coral-reef habitats at depth of 10-27 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187577	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no known population information available for this species. This species has been recently described.	eng
187577	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187578	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species has been observed in the Ningaloon Marine Park which includes both a sanctuary for no-take and recreation zones for anglers (Westera <em>et al.</em> 2003). Also, it was observed in the Wakatobi Marine Park, Indonesia (Unsworth <em>et al.</em> 2007), Marine protected area of Nha Trang Bay, Vietnam (Dung 2007), Masinloc marine protected areas, the Philippines (IW:LEARN 2008), the Great Barrier Reef, Tung Ping Chau Marine Park and Cape d’ Aguilar (Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>It is worth noting that the marine park doesn’t imply as a no-take zone since limited fishing activity is allowed within certain marine parks, such as Tung Ping Chau Marine Park, Hong Kong. Cage trap or monofilament nets are still allowed within the Tung Ping Chau Marine Park for licensed fishers (AFCD 2007). Furthermore, illegal and destructive fishing activities have been reported in the many Southeast Asian countries (IW:LEARN 2008) due to the poorly managed or legislation is poorly enforced (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002). Thus, such protected areas might provide insufficient protection to the species.<br/><br/>In Queensland, recreational fishing for reef fish for personal home aquariums is allowed, but currently, there is no information available on the level of recreational harvest of marine aquarium species. Only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for aquarium trade in Australia and in Queensland, the total number of fishes harvested for the ornamental fish fishery approximately 140,000 in 1991 involving about 150 species, 240,000 in 1995, 140,000 in 1997, 2,108,345 annually (1998-2003) (MCS 2001, Ryan and Clarke 2005).<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (Choerodon spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all Choerodon species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).	eng
187578	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from Sri Lanka to Tonga, and from Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands to New Caledonia and northeastern Australia (Myers 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
187578	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in seagrass beds and areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand of reef flats, channels and lagoons from depths of one  to 25 m.<br/><br/>This species spawns in aggregations. For example, at Palau, it aggregates to spawn along the outer edge of fringing reefs around the new and full moons of January to March (Myers 1991). The planktonic larval duration of <em>C. anchorago</em> was found to be 19.3 +/- 1.8 days in Palau (Victor 1986).<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, this species was found singly, although sometimes small groups were observed, in shallow boulder and coral areas in a depth of at least 10 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). In Micronesia, it was observed in rubble or sandy areas, seagrass beds and areas of mixed coral, rubble and sand of reef flats, channels and lagoon at a depth of 25 m (Myers 1991). In Australia, it inhabits reef crests and slopes with algae and soft corals. Juveniles occur inshore and often form small aggregations in seagrass beds where near mangrove or freshwater run-offs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter 1992, 2000). In the Solomon Islands, this species is moderately common and usually found in slity areas (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>An enlarged canine is present on each side at rear of upper jaw and lateral line continuous smoothly curved with 29 pored scales. This species is distinctive and can be recognized by a large rectangular white saddle situated dorsally on caudal peduncle extending forward below rear of the dorsal fin (Kuiter 2000, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Westneat 2001). The body colour undergoes very little change and does not change much according to size or age (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Adults are territorial (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and feed primarily on hard-shelled invertebrate prey such as crustaceans, molluscs, crabs , sea urchins (Tedman 1980, Ferry-Graham <em>et al.</em> 2002) and fishes (Bellwood <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species has been observed to use its large teeth to pick up rocks and search for prey beneath (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>Maximum size of this species is 38 cm SL (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001) and population doubling time is approximately 4.5-14years (Froese and Pauly).	eng
187578	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	Total numbers of this species are not known and there is limited information on the current population status of this species. However, this species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is moderately abundant in Hong Kong waters and was observed mostly in shallow boulders and coral areas at a depth of at least 10 m (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), but there is no quantitative data on this species in those areas. In Hong Kong, this species is also found in local markets (Situ and Sadovy 2004).<br/><br/>In Solomon Islands, this species is moderately common (Allen 2006).<br/><br/>Unsworth <em>et al.</em> (2007) found that this species is one of the most abundant seagrass fish species in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia with a mean density of 17.9 +/- 4.2 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> during high tide. <br/><br/>Large populations of <em>C. anchorago</em> have been found in Baraulu, and it is a common fish in the Duduli marine protected area (Aswani <em>et al.</em> undated).<br/><br/>Only 28 individuals of <em>C. anchorago</em> have been recorded in the Kambing Island, East Java, Indonesia (Sumadhiharga 2006).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 509 individuals were observed in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 8-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187578	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.  However, this species is one of the most common of the genus found in the locally-sourced live food fish trade. For instance, it is taken by hook-and-line, fish traps, monofilament nets or with spears by divers (Ishizuka <em>et al.</em> 1996, Westneat 2001) and turns up sporadically in markets particularly during summer months (Sadovy and Cornish 2000) or being exported for international trade (Ishizuka <em>et al.</em> 1996). However, the levels of fishing pressure and landing fishery data for this species are not known.<br/><br/>Furthermore, it has been reported to form spawning aggregations during the spawning season (Myers 1991), such grouping behaviour might put the species vulnerable to any kind of fishing pressure and increasing the possibility of permanent loss of the population from a particular site since heavily fishing on a specific spawning aggregation could have taken the entire adult population over a very short time period (Sadovy and Domeier 2005). However, the targeted of spawning aggregations of this species has not been reported.<br/><br/>The majority of <em>Choerodon</em> captured by western Australia commercial fishes are reported as “<em>Choerodon</em> spp.” (Penn <em>et al.</em> 2005) which making the catch statistics to be under-representative of the real landings of this species. The commercial landing weight for <em>Choerodon</em> spp. in western Australia is approximately, 28 t each month and in New South Wales, about 69 t of mixed species (wrasse, tuskfish and gropers) were collected commercially in a one year period (NSW Department of Primary Industries 2005).<br/><br/>This species is occasionally taken for the marine aquarium trade (Westneat 2001). It is marketed for export from Queensland, small size is valued at $ AUD 12, and medium and large sizes at $ AUD 16.5 (Ryan and Clarke 2005).	eng
187579	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, more research is needed on the population status, range and depth, biology and ecology of the species.	eng
187579	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species was recorded only from Sao Tome, in the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
187579	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species is a pelagic schooling wrasse similar to <em>C.parrae</em>, and is a semi-pelagic feeder. It is found in rocky reef and rocky shores. Depth information is unknown, but likely occurs from the surface to at least 10 m.	eng
187579	population	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.	eng
187579	threats	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187580	conservation	Rocha, L., Suharti, S. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. Many marine protected areas within this species range do not include deep water habitat, except for possibly Bunaken National Park, Indonesia.	eng
187580	distribution	Rocha, L., Suharti, S. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Vanuatu. It likely occurs also in the Solomon Islands, although it may not have been recorded there given that it is found in deep waters.	eng
187580	habitat	Rocha, L., Suharti, S. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found over sloping rubble bottoms from 55 to 82 m.	eng
187580	population	Rocha, L., Suharti, S. & Pollard, D., 3009	The abundance of this species is unknown, but it seems to be common below 55 m.	eng
187580	threats	Rocha, L., Suharti, S. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187581	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. It is not known if this species is effectively protected in any marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187581	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known from the Maldives and Chagos Archipelago, to Sri Lanka.	eng
187581	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is found in deep reefs over coral, rubble or sandy bottoms from 40 to 50 m.	eng
187581	population	Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187581	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187582	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187582	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found from New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, southern Western Australia. It was also recorded from Kent Group (Bass Strait) and probably occurs also in northern Tasmania.	eng
187582	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	A small species, to about 124 mm SL. It inhabits weedy rocky reefs in depths to about 40 m.	eng
187582	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is rare in the Bass Strait region, but common and widespread elsewhere over its range.	eng
187582	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187583	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187583	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Western Pacific from Tosa Bay, Kochi Prefecture, Japan, the Kanmu Seamount of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, and from the Coral Sea between Australia and New Caledonia (Gomon 2006). Distribution is likely more widespread but there are only a few records of this deep water species.	eng
187583	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This species reaches a size of at least 142 mm SL. It occurs in deep water, specimens collected at depths of at least 250–370 m.	eng
187583	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few records, but deeper water collecting would most likely extend the range.	eng
187583	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187584	conservation	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L. & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Florida, the Caribbean and Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008).	eng
187584	distribution	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L. & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is found from southern Florida, USA and the Bahamas to Santa Catarina, Brazil (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187584	habitat	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L. & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is found from one to 30 m depth in coral and rocky reef, seagrass, and over rubble substata. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is diandric. It forms leks during breeding.  Length at sex change = 8.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).	eng
187584	population	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L. & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is very common throughout its range. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected (Rocha 2004).	eng
187584	threats	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L. & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It is not heavily targeted for the aquarium trade. However, it is the most commonly caught species of this genus in northeastern Brazil by artisanal fisheries. It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
187585	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187585	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is endemic to Oman. The range size is 51,008 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187585	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is often seen at the interface of low rocky reef and sand, foraging either over reef or sand. It occurs mainly in small groups of one male and approximately 10 females, with the male observed swimming rapidly and making frequent courtship displays. It is found in depths of 7-12 m.	eng
187585	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.	eng
187585	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187586	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187586	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is distributed in the South Pacific from Pitcairn Group, Austral Islands, Tuamoto Archipelago and Society Islands. There is a possible new species found in Micronesia including Guam, and the Ogasawara Islands off southern Japan.	eng
187586	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 116 mm SL. It occurs in outer reef areas well above the bottom of exposed seaward reefs and clear lagoons (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species was collected in depths of 12-31 m.	eng
187586	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187586	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187587	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187587	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is the most common Bodianus in the western Indian Ocean and, in particular, the Mozambique Channel. It occurs from the Red Sea to South Africa (Natal), Comoro Is, Aldabra, Seychelles, Mauritius, Reunion, Chagos Archipelago, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Nicobars, Cocos-Keeling. This species is also reliably reported from Kenya, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman and Pakistan (Gomon 2006).	eng
187587	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This is a moderately small species, to about 169 mm SL. It is almost always associated with living coral reefs (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990). Juveniles often shelter near black corals and gorgonians, also frequent cave ceilings (Kuiter1992).  It feeds mainly on benthic  invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans.  Juveniles regularly remove parasites from other fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Although usually found at depths of 9–30 m, individuals have been taken at 36–49 m at Cocos-Keeling Atoll.	eng
187587	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This is the most common species in the genus.	eng
187587	threats	Russell, B., 2008	Possible threats from reef degradation.	eng
187588	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187588	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found form Northeastern New Zealand (Poor Knights Islands, Three Kings Islands) the Kermadec Islands (Francis 1993, 1996), and in Australia, central New South Wales, northeastern Victoria and eastern Tasmania.	eng
187588	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 113 mm SL. It inhabits sandy patches adjacent to rocky reefs in depths usually to about 40 m, but may range to 100 m (Ayling and Cox 1982).  <br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic, social organization and sexual behavior described by Doak (1972) and Ayling and Cox (1982). A facultative cleaner symbiont (Ayling and Grace 1971) removing parasites and damaged skin and scales from other species. It also feeds on small crustaceans from the bottom and from seaweed fronds. Spawning occurs repeatedly during June-December, and juveniles (one cm) settle out on seaweed covered reefs in January-February. They mature after seven months at about seven cm TL and reach 10 cm TL after the first year. They spend one to two spawning seasons as females then in February – March many change simultaneously into males and compete for new territories. <br/><br/>This species lives to a maximum age of about four years (Francis 2001).	eng
187588	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is moderately common at offshore localities in northeastern New Zealand, abundant at Three Kings Islands. It is less common and in isolated populations in Australia.	eng
187588	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187589	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187589	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from the East African coast south to Natal, South Africa, also from Madagascar, Seychelles and Chagos Archipelago.	eng
187589	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse to 11 cm. It inhabits deeper reef slope rubble habitats in depths from 5-43 m.	eng
187589	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a common species.	eng
187589	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187590	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187590	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is known only from Mauritius (approximate extent of occurrence 1,800 km<sup>2</sup>).	eng
187590	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species inhabits fringing reef slopes, over coral or rubble bottoms at depths from 40 to 60 m.	eng
187590	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187590	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187591	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187591	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Central Pacific in Easter, Pitcairn Group, Rapa and Austral islands.	eng
187591	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 134 mm SL. It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water, in depths down to 14 m.	eng
187591	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is common througout its range.	eng
187591	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187592	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187592	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is known only from Ua Pou in the Marquesas Islands.	eng
187592	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species inhabits sandy areas in shallow waters from 15-17 m. It may be found in a wider range of depths. It quickly dives into the sand when threatened (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187592	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187592	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187593	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187593	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in North Western Australia only on Dirk Hartog Island (around 26 degrees South)	eng
187593	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in sub-tropical coral reefs.	eng
187593	population	Cabanban, A. & Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is only known from one record (Dirk Hartog Island).	eng
187593	threats	Cabanban, A. & Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187594	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is well protected throughout its range in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud.	eng
187594	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Stockwell, B., 3009	In the western central Pacific, this species is found from southern Philippines to Indonesia and Micronesia (Parenti and Randall 2000). From Papua to Flores and Togean Islands (Allen and Adrim 2003), Celebes (Indonesia) to Palau and in Kimbe bay (Papua New Guinea) (Hubble 2003).	eng
187594	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Stockwell, B., 3009	This species is found in still coastal waters, where brittle corals grow high. It occurs in small groups that feed actively among the lower and dead parts of the corals with coralline algae. It is easily overlooked because of its small size. The recorded length is up to 6.5 cm, but usually much smaller (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). This is a species that relies heavily on corals. <br/><br/>It is a secretive species and feeds on amphipods and other small invertebrates. It is commonly associated to Anacropora (Hubble, 2003).	eng
187594	population	Bertoncini, A. & Stockwell, B., 3009	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered generally rare, but locally common on sheltered reefs, at depths from 5-25 m. It is also thought to be uncommon to rare in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187594	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Stockwell, B., 3009	There are no major threats to this species. Due to their reliance on live corals, coral bleaching may be a threat locally where it occurs.	eng
187595	conservation	Pollard, D., Afonso, P., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, coastal marine reserves in the region protect portions of its population.	eng
187595	distribution	Pollard, D., Afonso, P., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A., 2008	This species is found in the sub-tropical Eastern Atlantic, around the Azores Islands only (Azevedo 1999).	eng
187595	habitat	Pollard, D., Afonso, P., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A., 2008	This inshore demersal species is found around rocky reefs, sometimes with interspersed sand or gravel, in the shallow coastal waters of the Azores Islands. It is highly dependent on vegetated substrates (e.g. <em>Cystoseira</em> sp., <em>Dictyota</em> sp.) due to its feeding habits (on phytal invertebrates and algae, Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999), nest-building behavior and shelter for its recruits. Juveniles can also be found in tide pools. This species is rarely observed as a cleaner species on shallow rocky reefs, although it is abundant in the Azores (Bertoncini <em>et al.</em> in press). <br/><br/>It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with maturation occurring at lengths of 12 cm (TL) (for males) and 14 cm TL (for females). Males can thus be initial phase fish, with some females changing sex to become terminal-phase males (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999). During the spawning season (March to June, Azevedo <em>et al.</em>, 1999), larger terminal males form harems and defend territories (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008). Terminal males can attract several females at a time to spawn their demersal eggs in the nest, which eggs are cared for by the male. However, primary males, which have larger testes, can attempt to ‘steal’ fertilizations with the females (Azevedo <em>et al.</em> 1999, P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187595	population	Pollard, D., Afonso, P., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A., 2008	This species occurs only in the shallow coastal waters around the Azores Islands. It is very frequent in its preferred habitats, of shallow rocky reefs around all of the nine Azorean Islands (Afonso <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is the third most abundant labrid species in the Azores littoral waters (Porteiro 1995, Afonso 2002). Adults typically occur in small numbers locally (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008) and juveniles can be observed in small schools hiding among algal turfs of Asparagopsis armata (Bertoncini <em>et al.</em> in press). Densities of 0.071 fish/m<sup>2</sup> were obtained during summer months on shallow reefs at Terceira and Corvo islands (Azores) (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009)	eng
187595	threats	Pollard, D., Afonso, P., Liu, M. & Bertoncini, A., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187596	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.	eng
187596	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found only in the Marshall Islands, however, it is not certain if it occurs around all of the islands.	eng
187596	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, above coral, rubble or algae.  It feeds on zooplankton.	eng
187596	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187596	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it is exploited in the aquarium trade, and is commonly traded.	eng
187597	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187597	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from Southern Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia (Bali), northern Australia (Arafura Sea). This species may be more widely distributed than the known range, but it is a deeper water species and there are few records.	eng
187597	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, largest specimen examined 202 mm SL, but photographs of individuals up to about 300 mm are known. Photographs of it have been taken at depths of at least 50-70 m. It is found from 150 m off Scott Reef (M. Cappo pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187597	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187597	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187598	conservation	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187598	distribution	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from Sri Lanka to the Indo-Malayan region. The record from Christmas needs to be verified.	eng
187598	habitat	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in inshore, usually silty habitat on sand or mud near shallow reefs and seagrass beds (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It grows to about 12.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187598	population	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information for this species. It is probably common.	eng
187598	threats	Cabanban, A., Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific major threats to this species. General threats in the area of distribution are coastal development, sedimentation, destructive fishing, overfishing, and pollution of coral reefs (Burke <em>et al.</em> 2001, Hodgson 1999).	eng
187599	conservation	Rocha, L. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187599	distribution	Rocha, L. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is known from Australia (Coral Sea) to Pitcairn island.	eng
187599	habitat	Rocha, L. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is more common in outer reef areas than sheltered lagoon reefs. It is usually seen in small groups feeding a short distance above the bottom on zooplankton.	eng
187599	population	Rocha, L. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is not commonly observed in shallow waters, it is considered more common in deeper reefs throughout its range.	eng
187599	threats	Rocha, L. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187600	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, this species is found in Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park (Cornish 2000, Ku <em>et al.</em> 2007), Yan Chau Tong Marine Park and Tung Ping Chau Marine Park (Cornish 2000). It has also been recorded from the Mu Ko Surin National Park, Thailand (Comley <em>et al.</em> undated).<br/><br/>However, marine protected areas do not always imply the presence of no-take zones. For example, licensed fishing and specimen collecting are allowed in the Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park, Yan Chau Tong Marine Park and Tung Ping Chau Marine Park (AFCD 2008).  This species was also observed in the Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000) where fishing is prohibited for more than 10 years.<br/><br/>It is recommended that research be conducted to determine possible indicators of localized or regional declines due to current fishing activities within this species range.	eng
187600	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West-Pacific, from Taiwan, Philippines, Hainan Island, Singapore and Indonesia (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), and western Indian Ocean (Parenti and Randall 2000), from Durban, South Africa to the Gulf of Oman and southeast India, and the latitudinal range from Hong Kong to northwest Australia (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187600	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species inhabits shallow rubble and algae reef areas with little coral growth (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002), and is found to depths of 20 m. The abundance was observed to decline with water temperature, as it was rarely seen under 16.5 °C in Hong Kong waters. Small individuals have been recorded to clean other fishes (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>Although this species was reported to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Sadovy and Cornish 2000), detailed gonadal histology is needed for further confirmation. Males are larger than females in body sizes. In Hong Kong, females become sexually mature at less than 8 cm TL and the smallest mature males are about 10 cm TL. Spawning activities have been observed around mid-day in shallow areas from April to July in Hong Kong waters (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Histology study showed that it becomes mature from May to September and has a spawning season that lasts approximately three months. It was also found that sperm in the early developing stage aggregate in lobules with tails oriented towards the centre and such distinctive feature disappeared when gonads become ripe close to spawning (Valerie 2002).<br/><br/>Males are light greenish dorsally and pale ventrally with six to seven interconnected reddish brown bars (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It has approximately 13 pectoral fin rays and yellow corners to caudal fin (Allen 200). Black and yellow spots are present in the dorsal fin. Juveniles have a black spot on soft dorsal fins and there is a prominent dark spot at upper pectoral fin base in both sexes. The dorsal fin spot has been observed to flash occasionally (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
187600	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is relatively common throughout its range and can be locally abundant. It is common in Hong Kong waters. Sadovy and Cornish (2000) noted that it is the most abundant wrasse in shallow areas of corals and boulders in sheltered and exposed shores. <br/><br/>Visual surveys were carried out on the east coast of Zanzibar Island (6°6-13’S, 39°24-31’E), Tanzania, with a mean density found at 0.01 fish per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> and mean biomass of 0.088 g per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (Gullström <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>In Thailand, it was rarely found in the 10 sampling stations at Ko Tao and the frequency of occurrence was less than 10 (Scaps 2006).<br/><br/>Despite the broad geographic distribution of this species, there is no information on the total numbers and there is very limited information on its local population stocks. Thus, the population status <em>H. nigrescens</em> cannot be inferred due to insufficient data.	eng
187600	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is caught as bycatch in a number of different fisheries. It is vulnerable to a wide range of fishing gears. It is not known if the pressure from fishing within the distribution of this species is considered to be a major threat.	eng
187601	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures. However, at least 80% of this species range is included in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary.	eng
187601	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is only known from the Hawaiian Islands Chain and Johnston Atoll, though possibly also found in other locations in the Pacific to the south and north west.	eng
187601	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	The main habitat is coral reefs, especially clear lagoon and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Mundy 2005) to depths of 60 m. It is also found over rocky reefs.<br/><br/>The initial phase fish (juveniles and possibly females) are a uniform greenish colour, and the terminal phase fish (probably males) are a uniformly patterned greenish grey. The diet includes benthic invertebrates and also small teleost fishes (Lieske and Myers 1994). The eggs and larvae are probably pelagic.	eng
187601	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	Nothing is known about the status of its population. This species is abundant in surge zones in Hawaii.	eng
187601	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is caught by subsistence and recreational fisheries.	eng
187602	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	More than two thirds of the range of this species is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a no-take marine reserve (USA). There are no species specific conservation actions  in place.	eng
187602	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (Central Pacific).	eng
187602	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths of 1-98 m. It is generally listed as a protogynous hermaphrodite (e.g., DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005) but no primary literature could be found to confirm this. This species feeds on echinoderms, molluscs, gastropods, crustaceans, and polychaetes. The maximum recorded size is 56 cm and 2.8 kg.	eng
187602	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit data on population trends available for this species.  However, it is understood from casual observations that the species is more common in the unpopulated northwestern Hawaiian Islands than in the populated islands in the southeast. This is likely a cause of fishing pressure.	eng
187602	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is a relatively large wrasse and is taken by fisherman (line, spear, net and trap).  Fishing pressure for this fish may represent a significant threat to the species as the abundance in populated areas has anecdotally been noted as lower in these areas.  However, it remains to be tested whether or not fishing pressure is the direct cause for this change in abundance, or if it is an ecological difference stemming from habitat changes in the population high islands versus the low reefs and atolls of the unpopulated northwestern Hawaiian Islands.	eng
187603	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution may overlap some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187603	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the eastern central Pacific from the Pitcairn islands, Mangareva, Austral Islands, Rapa, and Rarotonga.	eng
187603	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble patches adjacent and scattered within coral reefs.  It has been collected from tidepools to 58 m.	eng
187603	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information on population trends available, however this species is considered common in most accounts.	eng
187603	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187604	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species was observed in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia covering 1,390,000 hectares (Bolton 2006) and Komodo National Park (Erdmann 2004).  It has also been recorded from the Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, Queensland (Ceccarelli <em>et al.</em> 2008) and Cape d’ Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong (Cornish 2000), which are strict no-take marine sanctuaries.	eng
187604	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is found from Indonesia to Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003), north to Guam and south to southeastern Australia (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187604	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is found in various habitats from shallow coastal algae reefs to deep offshore on soft bottom with sponges and hydroid colonies (Kuiter 1993, 2006), to a depth to 18 m (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). It also occurs in sheltered reef crest with stinging hydrozoans (<em>Aglaophenia</em> spp) for protection (Kuiter 2002). Kuiter and Tonozuka (2001) found that it rarely leaves its cover except to move quickly between hydrozoan colonies. <br/><br/>It is highly variable in colour and tends to blend with habitat (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Juveniles usually with eye-sized ocellus on gill cover, but intermittent in adults (Kuiter 2006). It is distinguished by the 9 spines in the dorsal fin (Kuiter 2002) and filaments extend from first two interspinous dorsal membranes in males (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
187604	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	In general, there is little information available on the abundance of this species across its geographic distribution. General abundance is difficult to estimate as this species is secretive and hides among algae.<br/><br/>It was rarely observed during an underwater census survey in the Raja Ampat Islands, Indonesia (McKenna <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In French-Polynesia, only one individual was counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008 ).	eng
187604	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and is utilized as food fish.	eng
187605	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187605	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species occurs in Ascension and St. Helena Islands on reefs, with areas of 39 km<sup>2</sup> and 37 km<sup>2</sup> respectively. It is also found in Sao Tome, in the Gulf of Guinea (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007, Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2008). However, taxonomic research is needed to determine if these are separate species.	eng
187605	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species occurs to a depth of at least 20 m, but likely occurs deeper. Direct observations at St. Helena indicates that this species is associated with sand pockets and sandy slopes. It occurs in haremic groups with single large males.	eng
187605	population	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population infromation available for this species. This species is abundant in each of the three island locations where it is found.	eng
187605	threats	Choat, J.H. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats to this species. This species occurs in relatively unaccessable habitat and in isolated populations.	eng
187606	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187606	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found on the Coral Sea reefs and in American Samoa.	eng
187606	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found over coral rubble from depths of five to 46 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187606	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187606	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187607	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187607	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, known only from Mauritius (Randall and Randall 1981) and the Seychelles (Randall and van Egmond 1994).	eng
187607	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 84 mm SL. It inhabits deeper water usually at depths of 50-60 m (Kuiter 2002) on rubble bottoms with some rock and coral (Randall and Randall 1981).	eng
187607	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187607	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187608	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species is present in at least one Marine Protected Area. More research is needed on this species distribution, population trends, habitat, ecology, and major threats.	eng
187608	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is endemic to the Western Gulf of Mexico, and is only known from Veracruz in southern Mexico, and the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, Texas. It was recently recorded from Alacranes Reef, a reef platform off northern Yucatan Peninsula, southern Gulf of Mexico (Aguilar-Perrera and Tuz-Aulub, 2009).	eng
187608	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is found in coral reef to depths of 24 m. More information is needed on this species biology and ecology.	eng
187608	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is only known from a few specimens.<br/><br/>This species was recorded as relatively common from Alacranes Reef, where it forms small (15 individuals) to large (200 individuals) aggregations in depths from 2-25 m (Aguilar-Perrera and Tuz-Aulub, 2009).	eng
187608	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	It is not known whether there are any major threats for this species.	eng
187609	conservation	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187609	distribution	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species is known from the Philippines to southern Indonesia.	eng
187609	habitat	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species usually occurs in moderately large groups commonly in depths of about 20-25 m. It occurs in a variety of habitats including coastal and inner reefs, and outer reefs over bottom of coral rubble or heads of small finely branched coral. It feeds on zooplankton, and occurs from 4-55 m depth.	eng
187609	population	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	This species is considered common throughout the Philippines, but can be uncommon in other parts of its range and in shallow waters.	eng
187609	threats	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187610	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187610	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from the Philippines to Indonesia (Sulawesi, Moluccas), Taiwan, Ogasawara Is, Samoa, Marshall and Marianna Is, Guam, and Hawaiian islands (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187610	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species occurs in shallow waters from six to nine m (Myers 1999) but in Hawaii was observed as deep as 15 m. It inhabits open sandy bottoms close to reefs in areas of strong current. This species is wary and dives into the sand with the approach of danger (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187610	population	Russell, B., 3009	This species is patchily distributed and wary, making population assessments difficult.	eng
187610	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187611	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, there are 16 designated marine protected areas in Taiwan (Wood 2007).	eng
187611	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from Taiwan, and Izu Oshima off southeastern Japan.	eng
187611	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species hovers in the water column about one to four m above reef slopes. It feeds on zooplankton during the day. It inhabits depths from 4-15 m (Chen and Shao 1995).	eng
187611	population	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187611	threats	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187612	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>It was found in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005), Ningaloo Reef Marine Park (Colquhoun <em>et al.</em> 2007) and marine park at Fiji (Jennings and Polunin 1997, Brown <em>et al.</em> 2007).  However, marine parks do not imply presence of no take zones as limited fishing activity is allowed within certain marine parks.<br/><br/>In Gascoyne region of western Australia, <em>Choreodon</em> spp. Is noted as vulnerable to localised depletion. The minimum legal catch size for <em>Choreodon</em> spp. Is 40 cm and daily catch limit is two individuals per angler. No spearfishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a). <br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choreodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choreodon</em> species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br/><br/>In Pilbara or Kimberley regions, Labridae is considered to have the highest risk of localised depletion (Government of Western Australia 2008). Besides, the minimum legal catch size for Labridae is 40 cm and the daily catch limit is two individuals per species per angler, while the mixed daily bag limit is seven individuals per angler. Currently, management plans are being developed for the new Marine Conservation Parks which including no-take zones (Government of Western Australia 2008).<br/><br/>Only licensed fishermen are allowed to capture fishes for aquarium trade in Australia and in Queensland and the total number of fishes harvested for the ornamental fish fishery is approximately 2,108,345 annually (1998-2003) (Ryan and Clarke 2005). Furthermore, the Government of Australia is currently revising the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef (Underwater Times 2008).	eng
187612	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found mainly in the western Pacific Ocean, north to the Ryukyu islands, Japan and south to Western Australia and the Great Barrier Reef, but scattered locations in southeast Asia (Allen 2000), east to Samoa and Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187612	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits sandy areas adjacent to reefs and is usually found at depths of 15-30 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). In Australia, it was observed singly or in small loose aggregations in rubble slopes below drop-offs at depth > 20 m (Kuiter 2006). <br/><br/>It preys on mollusks by means of a strong oral jaw (Sale 2002). Juveniles and adults of this species are almost morphologically identical (Kuiter 2006) and is distinguished by the blackish wedge on rear part of body and a pale spot situated below posterior end of dorsal fin base (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>Coral reef fishes avoid agonistic interaction between conspecific and other species by building up nests (Robertson and Sheldon 1979). Dome-type nest construction with a framework of dead coral skeletons (Takayanagi <em>et al.</em> 2003) by this species was observed on the sandy bottom near Sesoko Island, Japan. It thrusts its head under coral gravels and scrapes out sand to make one or two entrances. Then it lays the dead branching coral skeletons at the entrances. During daytime, it was found that this species patrolled and tidied the nest within its territory (Nanami and Nishihira 1999). At night, the nest was used as a sleeping site for this species. It forms a harem and spawns around sunset (Thresher 1984) but it has been reported that spawning activity of this species does not occur within the nest (Nanami and Nishihira 1999).	eng
187612	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	Total numbers of this species are not known and information on the current population status of is very scarce. It is rare where it has been studied. <br/><br/>Only two individuals were observed and a mean biomass of 1.73 g per 100 m<sup>2</sup> was estimated during an underwater census survey in Tongatapu reefs, Tonga (Matoto <em>et al.</em> 1996). A total of 15 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys in Tonga (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Biomass of this species in Fiji Islands was found to be accounting for approximately 0.1 % of the total biomass of reef fishes in 10 different census sites with 1.4% of occurrence frequency (Jennings and Polunin 1997).	eng
187612	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. However, it is collected for the marine aquarium trade and there is no up-to-date information regarding the impacts of aquarium fish collecting on this species. It is also collected for the ornamental trade. In areas such as the Philippines, Taiwan and Indonesia, cyanide has reportedly been used for capturing ornamental fishes. It is known that the use of poison to capture fishes can damage the intestinal lining of fishes (Bellwood 1981).<br/><br/>This species is one of the smallest Choerodon spp. (Kuiter 2006), it rarely reaches more than the legal capture size of the fishing regulations in the states of Australia, thus, it is generally believed that it is possibly less threatened in Australia under such regulations.	eng
187613	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187613	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from southern Florida, USA to the Antilles, to Suriname, and down the coast of Brazil to Rio Grande do Sul State (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187613	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species inhabits deeper waters and is mainly found over rocky bottoms of insular areas.	eng
187613	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187613	threats	Russell, B., 3009	The threats to this species are unknown. It is a decently sized fish and is caught for food, but it is not known  to what extent.	eng
187614	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187614	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Okinawa and the Ogasawara Islands, Japan and also recorded from southern Taiwan. Some specimens collected in Bali and the Sangihe Islands (Indonesia) have been tentatively identified as this species, but are likely undescribed species (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187614	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is collected at depths ranging from 23 to 55 m on dead coral and rubble substratum.	eng
187614	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species can be locally common, but not present over a very wide area. There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187614	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187615	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187615	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species occurs off the coast of Mozambique.	eng
187615	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This is a small, demersal species that occurs in depths up to 200 m.	eng
187615	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187615	threats	Russell, B., 3009	This species is collected for the aquarium trade, however, this is an unquantified threat.	eng
187616	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187616	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is endemic to Mauritius (Parenti and Randall 2000). The range was recently expanded into South Africa (Heemstra 1995), however, this record may need to be checked (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187616	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse, approximately 16 cm. It lives on sand and rubble to 20-85 m depth on reef slopes.	eng
187616	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187616	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is only known from Mauritius, where there is extensive coastal development, pollution and tourism impacts in at least the shallow part of this species depth range. However, it is not known how these potential threats may be affecting this species population.	eng
187617	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187617	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is found in the western Indian Ocean, in South Africa (Natal), Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues and the Seychelles.	eng
187617	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species occurs in small groups in rocky reef areas with little coral cover (Lieske and Myers 1994), at depths of 4-25 m (Baensch and Debelius 1997).<br/><br/>There appears to be some colour dimorphism between the initial phase (with a whitish belly) and the terminal phase (with a greenish body, darker above, and yellow bands behind the head and before the tail). It feeds on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993).	eng
187617	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is common in the Seychelles (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187617	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187618	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187618	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in the Red Sea, Horn of Africa, coasts of Yemen, Oman and the mouth of the Arabian Gulf.	eng
187618	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species inhabits coral reefs and adjacent rubble, sand and seagrass habitats typically along the edges of coral rich fringing reef slopes, (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled invertebrates, especially mollusks (Gomon and Randall 1984). It is generally associated in colonies of 4-8 individuals with single large males.<br/><br/>Preliminary demographic work (J.H. Choat, pers. comm. 2008) shows Oman populations have maximum age of 19 years and a rapid growth rate in males to ~55cm TL. It is protogynous. Primary and initial color phases Randall (1995). Juveniles are found in shallower water. Adult depth distribution ranges from 5-45m. <br/><br/>It has many similar characteristics to <em>Cheilinus undulatus</em> (large size rapid growth of males, low densities) but maximum size and age are smaller and younger.	eng
187618	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is a north-western Indian Ocean and Red Sea endemic with a restricted range size. It is another one of the big wrasses which has a very low abundance on the local scale and in this case a limited geographical distribution (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). <br/><br/>There are few estimates of abundance but as with most large wrasses, species is rare. Abundance in the Red Sea ranges from 0.1 to 1.7 per hectare. It is more abundant on the coast of Oman (up to three per hectare JHC unpublished).<br/>It does not extend into the central and northern reaches of the Arabian Gulf (A.M. Ayling pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187618	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.<br/><br/>This species is impacted by subsistence line and trap fishing. It is usually present in low numbers in the Muscat fish market. Low fishing pressure must be evaluated in the context of local rarity and a restricted geographic range.	eng
187619	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187619	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
187619	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This is a large species, reaches about 456 mm SL. It is restricted to deep waters (165-256 m) of the Hawaiian Islands. Chave and Mundy (1994) observed this species from a submersible at depths of 185-190 m over various substrates.	eng
187619	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187619	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187620	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187620	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Japan, Taiwan and the Philippines to Scott Reef, Australia. <br/><br/>Range size: 4,274,908 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
187620	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in rich coral reefs in clear coastal to outer reef habitats. Adults feed on coral polyps but may also clean other fishes.	eng
187620	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species.	eng
187620	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade. It may be susceptible to localized coral bleaching events.	eng
187621	conservation	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187621	distribution	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from East Africa to the Hawaiian and Ducie Islands, north to the Yaeyama Island, Japan and south to New Caledonia.	eng
187621	habitat	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from  2-50 m (Myers 1991). It occurs among rubble or live corals of seaward reefs, usually in caves and crevices with rich invertebrate growth. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans, but also takes small molluscs, echinoids (sea urchins), fish eggs, fish, copepods and crab larvae (Myers 1999, Randall 1999).	eng
187621	population	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There is no known population information available for this species. This species is abundant in many parts of its range.	eng
187621	threats	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187622	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187622	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species has been recorded from Palau, Philippines (Luzon and Cebu Provinces), Papua New Guinea (Madang Province, Milne bay), Indonesia (Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, Flores) and Solomon Islands. It is probably more widespread than recorded.	eng
187622	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is usually found in protected coastal coral reefs and coral lagoon areas. It is also found in seagrass adjacent to coral reefs. It feeds on fishes, crabs , shrimps and other crustaceans. Spawning was observed on several occasions at Ngerikuul, Palau, at Nikko Bay and Cemetery Bay in late afternoon, not correlated with high tide. Courtship and spawning variable, but different from <em>E. insidiator</em>. A ripe female was measured at 75 (SL) (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187622	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively common.	eng
187622	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade together with <em>E. insidiator</em>.	eng
187623	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187623	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from India and northern Australia (Northwest Shelf, WA (19°14'S) and Cape York, QLD (12°00'S) to Montague Island, NSW (36°15'S) (AFD 2009), and southern Japan and the China seas.	eng
187623	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found on the continental shelf (Hoese <em>et al.</em> 2006) in sandy bottom habitat.	eng
187623	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187623	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187624	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187624	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species is found in Christmas Island, Australia and in the western Pacific from the Solomon Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Rowley Shoals and New South Wales (Australia). It was recently reported from Tonga. It is replaced by Halichoeres leucoxanthus in the Indian Ocean, but with overlapping distributions in Indonesia.	eng
187624	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	This species inhabits outer reef slopes from 10-30 m (Kuiter, 2002).	eng
187624	population	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187624	threats	Choat, J.H. & Yeeting, B., 3009	There are no major threats to this species, although it is exploited for the aquarium trade and is a target fish.	eng
187625	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187625	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found from the Philippines to Indonesia, Malaysia, and Palau (Myers 1999). Records from the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea are questionable.	eng
187625	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is reef-associated.  It is found in sheltered inner reefs amongst broken coral and rubble. It is usually seen in less than 10 m depth, staying well hidden in reefs, but sometimes swimming amongst the long-spined Diadema urchins or in thick algae coverage (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>The maximum size recorded in Palau was 5.7 cm (Myers, 1999) but has been noted to 9 cm TL (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187625	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187625	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species. There is some minor collection for the aquarium trade as indicated by aquarium trade websites.	eng
187626	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187626	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is widely distributed. It is found from the Hawaiian Islands, Society Islands, Loyalty Islands, Cook Islands, Samoan Islands, Fiji, Lord Howe Island, Kermadec Islands, eastern Australia, Great Barrier Reef (Escape Reef to Sydney), southern Japan and Ryuku Islands, Taiwan, Philippines and Vietnam. In the Indian Ocean it is found in Mauritius, Reunion, Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa.	eng
187626	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. It commonly occurs in clear lagoon and seaward reefs over coral rubble bottoms, occasionally over live coral and algal clumps (Myers 1999) in depths of about 3-61 m, but generally in depths greater than 21 m (Liekse and Myers 1994). It is sexually dichromatic.	eng
187626	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187626	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187627	conservation	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).	eng
187627	distribution	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from Japan to Indonesia.	eng
187627	habitat	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species inhabits seaward reefs in areas of mixed sand, rubble, and coral.	eng
187627	population	Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is rare and is only known from a small number of specimens.	eng
187627	threats	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although juveniles are sometimes collected for the aquarium trade and adults captured as bycatch in subsistence fisheries.	eng
187628	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation actions currently in place.  However, the remote nature of its known area of occupancy (only known from Easter Island) likely affords protection from utilization in the aquarium trade (the only probable use for the species).	eng
187628	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only from Easter Island in the eastern Pacfiic.  Eastern island has approximately 60 km of linear coastline, and a relatively small continental shelf containing approximately 2 km of suitable habitat.  Thus, the area of suitable habitat for this species is approximately 120 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187628	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in areas of mixed sand and rubble in depths of 1-60 m.  Juveniles are often found in tide pools, but may occur in deeper waters. It feeds on gastropods (mainly <em>Strombus maculatus</em>), pelecypods (with mytilid and Lima), ophiuroids (<em>Ophiocoma</em>), hermit crabs (<em>Pagurus pascuensis</em>), crabs (with <em>Trapezia</em>), and echinoids, with molluscs as the major prey items (Randall, 1999).	eng
187628	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information on population trends available for this species.	eng
187628	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. However, its restricted area of occupancy (~120 km<sup>2</sup>) may make this species vulnerable to large-scale environmental perturbations (e.g., climate change and accompanying oceanographic changes).	eng
187629	conservation	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its range of distribution is a designated marine protected area (Wood 2007).	eng
187629	distribution	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Russell, B., 2009	This species occurs in Lord Howe Island and Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs (Australia).	eng
187629	habitat	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Russell, B., 2009	There is very little known about this species. It is only known from the type specimen. It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats. This species is found from depths of 10-25 m.	eng
187629	population	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187629	threats	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187630	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187630	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is present in the eastern Indian Ocean, restricted to Western Australia, from Recherche Archipelago to Rottnest Island.	eng
187630	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 141 mm SL. It inhabits rocky areas in exposed shallow water to depths of about 5 m.	eng
187630	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187630	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187631	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes numerous Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
187631	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical coral reef waters (mainly between ~25°N and ~25°S) of the Indo-Pacific Region, from Eastern Africa (Tanzania to Mozambique) and the main Indian Ocean Islands in the west, to Micronesia and Samoa in the Pacific Ocean in the east, and from southern Japan (Ryukyu Islands) and Taiwan in the North West Pacific Ocean in the north, via the eastern parts of South East Asia to northern Western Australia, the southern Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island in the South West Pacific Ocean in the south.	eng
187631	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This species inhabits coral rich areas from shallow lagoons to semi-protected seaward reefs, down to depths of around 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Letourner <em>et al.</em> 2004, Nguyen and Nguyen 2006), and outer reef zones on shallow crests and slopes (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>There is some adult colour dimorphism, the males having brighter blue markings on the head and around the margins of the fins and a broad yellowish bar on the body behind the head (Kuiter 2002), with the larger females having a generally more uniform dark greenish colour pattern. The juvenile colour pattern (blackish with a white stripe) is different from that of the larger adults (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>This species feeds on the polyps of hard corals, mainly on branching forms such as Acropora (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984). <br/><br/>The maximum recorded size of this species is around 20 cm (TL) (Kuiter 2002), 17.5 cm (TL) in FishBase.	eng
187631	population	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is thought to be relatively common but not particularly abundant in parts of its range.	eng
187631	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it may occasionally be taken in the marine aquarium fish trade. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.	eng
187632	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187632	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to South Africa and east to Maldives and Chagos Islands, western coast of Thailand, and northern Sumatra to Bali (Indonesia).	eng
187632	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species inhabits reef flats, clear lagoon and seaward reefs and feeds on small invertebrates, especially crustaceans and mollusks (Lieske and Myers 1994), it is also found on rocky substrate in the Reunion Islands (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004) and seagrass beds in Mozambique (Gell and Whittington 2002)<br/><br/>It is found singly or in small groups consisting of one male and a few females (Lieske and Myers 1994). In the Glorieusus Islands, West Indian Ocean, it was observed to be diurnal carnivores (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
187632	population	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered common in the Seychelles (L. Rocha pers. comm. 2008), as well as in Indonesia (S. Suharto pers. comm.).	eng
187632	threats	Cabanban, A. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although localized threats to the species include habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002). This species is rarely collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187633	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187633	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known from far southern Queensland and New South Wales, with a single record from Lord Howe Island.	eng
187633	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 360 mm TL (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). <br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic. It is common on algal covered rocky reef in shallow water, down to about 20 m (Morton 2007), but probably ranges deeper than this. Spawning occurs from April-October, sexual maturity is reached after first (1.8) year at 177 mm TL, with rapid growth to about 300 mm TL in six years, longevity is at least 9.6 years (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, sex change typically occurs at about 260-280 mm TL, 4-5 years, but early sex change can occur at lengths of 200 mm, 2.8 years (McPherson 1977, Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008a). <br/><br/>A generalist benthic carnivore with small individuals of <150 mm TL feeding mainly on amphipods, and larger individuals feeding mainly on decapods, trochid gastropods and bivalves (Morton <em>et al.</em> 2008b). Males are highly territorial, defending reef patches of approximately 400 m<sup>2</sup> from other males for periods in excess of two years (Morton 2007). Territories are shared with up to 10 juvenile and female individuals.	eng
187633	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is common in rocky reef habitat throughout its range.	eng
187633	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187634	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187634	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Western Pacific, from Taiwan to Japan to NE Australia, Sumatra and the Solomon Islands.	eng
187634	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is an abundant and widespread wrasse found in coastal, very shallow and usually algae-rocky coastal reefs.	eng
187634	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This is a very common species in shallow waters.	eng
187634	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187635	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187635	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in Indonesia (Bali, Togean Is, Sulawesi, Ambon, Ceran, Buru, Flores) and Ashmore-Cartier reef off of northwestern Australia.	eng
187635	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in coastal reef slopes and estuaries (Froese and Pauly 2008) to depths of 35 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003). <br/><br/>It occurs in small groups with numerous females, juveniles and several males, often covering a large section of reef (Kuiter 2002). Juveniles are secretive when small and form small groups at later life stages.	eng
187635	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187635	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187636	conservation	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187636	distribution	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 2009	This species is known from Sagami Bay, Japan and south Korea (Cheju Islands), the Philippines, Indonesia and northwestern Australia including the Ashmore-Cartier reefs.	eng
187636	habitat	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 2009	This species occurs over coral and rubble bottoms in seaward reefs at depths between three and 35 m. This species can form large schools.	eng
187636	population	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. In Nonoc Island, Philippines, this species occurs in great abundance when present, 540 individuals were recorded within 300 m<sup>2</sup> (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187636	threats	Rocha, L. & Hilomen, V., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187638	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187638	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan, the Palau Archipelago, New Guinea, New Britain, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Marshall Islands, Poor Knights Islands in New Zealand  (probably a vagrant) (Gomon pers. comm. 2006) and Queensland, Australia. It is also recorded from the Maldives,  Madagascar and Mauritius (Gomon 2006).	eng
187638	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This is a small species, to about 59 mm SL. It is shallow ranging, collected in depths of 30-60 m. Allen (1973) reported the species as “being moderately common” on deep reefs associated with vertical dropoffs in Palau. <br/><br/>It forms small aggregations in soft bottom habitats with sponges and soft corals. The group usually comprising juveniles and females which are dominated by a large male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>Although there appear to be red and yellow forms of this species, no morphological differences are apparent. B. Russell (pers. comm. 2008) observed juveniles and adults of both living together on deep reefs of Papua New Guinea, but did not see them interact. At depths in excess of 60 m, bright neon yellow individuals occurred in groups around isolated rocks on muddy slopes, and individuals with broader red lines on the flanks were more often seen near ledges or beneath overhangs on drop-offs.	eng
187638	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187638	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. There is a potential threat from degradation of coral reefs.	eng
187639	conservation	Cabanban, A., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within is range. Research needs include clarification on the distribution of the two species.	eng
187639	distribution	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is found from the Red Sea down the east coast of Africa, Madagascar, Maldives and Laccadives and possibly presence in Andaman and Nicobar Islands needs clarification. Records from most of South East Asia probably refer to <em>A. melanurus</em>.	eng
187639	habitat	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species inhabits coral reefs – lagoon and seaward reefs usually deeper than 20 m to at least 42 m.<br/><br/>Juveniles are solitary and adults form small groups, each with several females and a dominant male.	eng
187639	population	Cabanban, A., 2008	There is no population information for this species. The population status is unknown.	eng
187639	threats	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is exploited for the aquarium industry. Habitat degredation on coral reefs.	eng
187640	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures are in place, however the range of this species includes marine protected areas (e.g., Pulu Keeling National Park (Australia)).	eng
187640	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species occurs in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, from the southern Arabian Peninsula south to Zanzibar and South Africa (30°S) and east to Sumatra and Bali.	eng
187640	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits areas of rubble between and within coral reefs in exposed lagoons and seaward reefs in depths 0.5-50 m. It feeds on small invertebrates and is haremic (one dominant male with several smaller females).	eng
187640	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit data on population trends for this species, however casual observations indicate that <em>C. cuvier</em> is a common species and has an apparently stable population.	eng
187640	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.  It is utilized in the aquarium trade, however the level of extraction does not appear to significantly impact populations on a global scale. Local reductions in population may be present.	eng
187641	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187641	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, the Great Australian Bight to the far southern coast of Westerm Australia.	eng
187641	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 200 mm SL. This species occurs on rocky reefs mainly in deeper water, from about 10-218 m. It feeds on small invertebrates, predominantly crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs (Edgar <em>et al.</em> 1982). It has also been observed cleaning ectoparasites from other reef species (Barrett 1995a). It is sexually dichromatic. This species is a site-attached monandric protogynous hermaphrodite, where females have widely overlapping home-ranges and males are territorial (Barrett 1995a, 1995b), at least during the breeding season (late August to January), and exclude all other males from their range (Barrett 1995a). Maximum age is about 11 years with sex change occurring at 5+ - 7+ years (Barrett 1995a).	eng
187641	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187641	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is a non-target bycatch species of rock lobster and giant crab trap fishery (South Australia).	eng
187642	conservation	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187642	distribution	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from Ogasawara Is. Southern Japan, south to Indonesia and east to Tuamoto Islands including Cocos Island, French Polynesia, and Palau to the Coral Sea off northeastern Australia.	eng
187642	habitat	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found in exposed escarpments (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008) to depths between 25-50 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003) in deep outer reef drop-offs. It forms aggregations of females and a single dominating male (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). This species is a planktivore (Myers 1999).	eng
187642	population	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187642	threats	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187643	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187643	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	This species occurs in St. Paul Rocks, Ascension and St. Helena.	eng
187643	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm TL (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).  Ecological data are available for the holotype and 10 paratypes taken during a collecting trip to Ascension Island by R. Lubbock. The specimens were collected near rocks on calcareous algal rubble, rocks on sand and in an area of scattered rubble on relatively fine coralline debris. Capture depths ranged from 12 to 35 m. it is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with obvious sexual dichromatism (Gomon and Lubbock 1980). It is also collected by Choat and Robertson in Ascension and St. Helena. It is seen at depths of around 20 m in St Helena (J.H. Choat pers. comm.).	eng
187643	population	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is one of the more abundant wrasse species on Ascension and St. Helena (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008)	eng
187643	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
187644	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187644	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is known only from three specimens collected from Okinawa and the Oshima Islands, off Honshu, Japan. However, this species has been photographed in many locations in southern Japan and the Ryuku Islands (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187644	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found over rocky bottoms, along steep seaward reefs between 30 and 60 m but is more commonly observed at depths greater than 40 m (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187644	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187644	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187645	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187645	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known from the Indo-West Pacific, from Sri Lanka to Indonesia and as far north to the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan. It is possibly also in the Philippines and Saipan. This species is most likely found in more areas within the distirbution but there are no records, as the species lives in deeper waters.	eng
187645	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 92 mm SL. It occurs deep on offshore reefs in 50-60 m depth (Kuiter 2002). It is found mainly in open ground areas covered with rubble, it may also be found in areas with rock and coral patches (Bellwood and Randall 2000).  It is found in small harems and feeds on material on the substratum (Bellwood and Randall 2000).	eng
187645	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187645	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187646	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187646	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Niccobar Islands and eastward to Tonga. It is recorded from Wakayama Prefecture, Japan in the north and south to Elizabeth Reef and Sydney in eastern Australia and New Caledonia. <br/><br/>It is common in museum collections and is evidently excluded from the oceanic mid-Pacific plate (Gomon 2006).	eng
187646	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately small species, to about 147 mm SL. Ranging into subtropical zones as juveniles expatriates caused by warm currents during pelagic stage (Kuiter andTonozuka 2001). Adults occur mostly at depths of one to 20 m on coral and rock reefs, especially on steep, coral-rich slopes. Juveniles in caves, adults swim openly about, but usually close to the substrate, and often engage in cleaning larger fishes (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). <br/>Juveniles are not well represented in collections, but do appear to occur in depths similar to those of adults (Gomon 2006).	eng
187646	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is not uncommon. There is no specific population information available for this species.<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.05 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187646	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187647	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, more research is needed on this species population, range, biology and ecology.	eng
187647	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is only known from records in the Philippines, Chesterfield Island, the South China Sea and Taiwan (Rivaton 1989, Parenti and Randall 2000, Huang 2001). Because it is a deep water species, it has not been commonly observed or collected and its distribution is likely wider than these records.<br/><br/>Parenti and Randall (2000) found that records from New Caledonia were misidentifications of Choerodon jordani (M. Liu pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187647	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species has been observed to occur between 60 and 90 m. Although more information is needed on this species habitat, biology and ecology, given that it occurs in deeper waters, its habitat is not thought to be threatened.<br/><br/>It is distinguished by a broad dark, oblique band that present on the dorsal half of body and a dark band with pale marginal bands anteriorly and posteriorly (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>Specimens of C. melanostigma have been collected at depths of 60 – 90 m in the Chesterfield Island region (19°-22 °S and 157°-160 °E) and the size of the specimens ranged from 50-62 mm (Rivaton 1989). This record is a misidentification of <em>C. jordani</em> (M. Liu pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187647	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no information available on the abundance of this species. It is a deep water species and not commonly observed.	eng
187647	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	Given its deep water habitat, there are no threats known to this species.	eng
187648	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187648	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from Mauritius including Rodrigues Is. (Heemstra <em>et al.</em> 2004), Reunion and St. Brandon's Shoal. Records outside this area appear to be based on specimens of <em>B. bilunulatus, B. loxozonus</em> or <em>B. perditio</em> (Gomon 2006).	eng
187648	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 258 mm SL. It inhabits exposed seaward reefs with sand patches at depths of about 13-40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187648	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187648	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187649	conservation	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/><br/>Country-specific<br/>Tanzania<br/>There is no specific fishery management on this species. There are several marine parks and reserves in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). Marine parks are zoned for different purposes including no-take core zone and no fishing is allowed within the marine reserve unless authorized by Government department (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001). The build-up of these large species may reduce the abundance of small wrasses such as <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 1999). Nonetheless, these protected areas may offer protection to <em>C. oxycephalus</em>, however its occurrence within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). A fish survey in 2000 at various locations including marine protected areas did not record this species (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>Madagascar<br/>This species was reported from the Natural Reserve of the Glorieuses Islands (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), and catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. Fishery management or regulations are lacking.<br/><br/>Seychelles<br/>Several marine protected areas are established in Seychelles, which covers over 220 km<sup>2</sup>, however enforcement and regulations within them are suggested to be very weak (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these areas is unknown. Fisheries operating in Seychelles, both artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries, are regulated by licensing system and mesh-size limit, and compliance to these regulations is maintained through regular patrols (Seychelles Fishing Authority 2008). <br/><br/>Comoros<br/>One marine protected area is found in Comoros (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002), within which no-take areas are set up (Granek and Brown 2005). Co-management between government and local villages is adopted to regulate fisheries within the area. (Granek and Brown 2005). The occurrence of this species within the marine protected areas needs further investigation. Fishery management and regulation are not known. <br/><br/>Kenya<br/>Fishery management and regulation are not known. Several marine protected areas are established and fishing activities are regulated (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002). Studies reported higher abundance and species richness of commercially important fishes in some of the studied protected areas in the region (McClanahan and Arthus 2001, McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2007). However, the occurrence of this species within the marine protected areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>South Africa<br/>About 20 marine protected areas are established which encompass various habitat types and offer various level of protection to fish through zoning (e.g. no-take zone, controlled fishing zone) (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 2008, SouthAfrica.info 2008). These protected areas represent about 18% of coastline in South Africa (WWF 2004). Although <em>C. oxycephalus</em> has not been reported from recent ichthyofaunal surveys in some of these marine protected areas (Wood <em>et al.</em> 2000, Mann <em>et al.</em> 2006), the relatively large area of coastline and the representation of various habitat types within this marine protected area network is likely to encompasses locations utilized by <em>C. oxycephalus</em> in South Africa. <br/><br/>Western Pacific Islands<br/>There is no known fishery management on this species in Fiji, Tonga or Samoa. One and nine marine protected areas are established in Fiji and Tonga respectively (WWF 2006, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2007a). While in Samoa, two marine protected areas, covering 140 and 100 km<sup>2</sup>, are established and are co-managed between villagers and the government (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2007b, Conservation International 2008). The distribution of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> among Western Pacific Islands implies that the newly established Phoenix Island Protected Area in Kiribati, which is currently the largest marine protected area in the world, may provide protection to this species (Phoenix Island Protected Area 2007). However, occurrence data of this species within these marine protected areas are lacking.<br/><br/>Palau<br/>There are seasonal ban, gear restriction on fishing and a licensing system for aquarium fish collection, but there is no specific management on this species (Secretariat of the Pacific Community and Bureau of Marine Resources 2007). Several marine protected areas are in place but the occurrence of this species within these areas is unknown (Golbuu 2005). <br/><br/>Papua New Guinea<br/>There is no information on fishery management. The Kimbe Bay marine protected area may provide protection to this species (The Nature Conservancy 2008) but further investigation is needed.<br/><br/>Australia<br/>Western Australia<br/>Several marine parks and reserves, which have various level of fishing or no fishing, are established within Western Australia (Department of Environment and Conservation 2008). However the occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these marine parks and reserves is unknown. <br/>For fishery management, a bag limit of two labrids applies to recreational fishery in Pilbara/Kimberley region (Department of Fisheries 2008). However there is no specific management for the commercial fishery.<br/><br/>Northern Territory<br/>There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in either commercial or recreational fishery. Marine parks are in place (Northern Territory Government 2007). However the occurrence of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> within these marine parks and reserves is unknown.  <br/><br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland including the well-know Great Barrier Reef. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 250 mm TL and a bag limit of 5 fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>This species is collected as part of the international aquarium fish trade in Queensland. Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There is no specific management or regulation on <em>C. oxycephalus</em>. <br/><br/>New Caledonia<br/>Marine reserves are established within the natural range of <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (Wantiez <em>et al.</em> 1997) These reserves cover reef habitat which are suitable to <em>C. oxycephalus</em> (Lieske and Myers 1994). Though this species has not been recorded within these reserves, it is very likely that these no-take areas can provide protection to this <em>C. oxycephalus</em>. Regulation on either commercial or recreational fishing is lacking.<br/><br/>Maldives<br/>There are management measures for shark and tuna fisheries, also a licensing system within some areas, however management measure is lacking for many other reef fisheries except for the export bans on rare species (Adam 2006). Marine protected areas are established, fishing is prohibited except for the traditional live bait fishing (Ministry of Hone Affairs, Housing and Environment 2003).<br/><br/>Mainland China<br/>There is very limited information about the fisheries in Mainland China. There are seasonal protected area, mesh size limit in some fisheries, however enforcement is suggested to be weak (Chen 1999).<br/><br/>Japan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Japan. About 60 marine parks (with no-fishing areas and buffer zones) are established in Japan (UNEP-WCMC 2008) but occurrence data of this species within these areas need further investigation.<br/><br/>Taiwan<br/>There is no fishery management or regulations on this species in Taiwan. <em>C. oxycephalus</em> occurs within the Kenting National Park (Shao 2005). Its recorded occurrence in Tung Sha Tao (Pratas Island), which is now a protected area, offer protection to this species (Chen <em>et al.</em> 1995).<br/><br/>Philippines<br/>There is no fishery management or regulation specific for the fin-fish fishery. There are over 400 marine protected areas, within which no-take zone, regulated fishing zones are established (Haribon Foundation 2002). And these areas may allow the build-up of reef fishes (Russ and Alcala 1998). This species may occur within these areas but further investigation is needed.<br/><br/>Vietnam<br/>Fishermen have to be licensed and there are certain gear size and type restrictions, and seasonal closures but no specific fishery management for reef fisheries, however enforcement of these regulations are suggested to be weak (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007a). There are marine protected areas in Vietnam but information on enforcement is not available. <br/><br/>India<br/>Fishery management seems lacking. There are about 30 marine protected areas in India encompassing various habitat types, however details of the enforcement and occurrence of species is lacking (Singh 2003)<br/><br/>Indonesia<br/>There are licensing system, gear type restrictions, limited entry and total allowable catches for artisanal and coastal fisheries (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007b). Commercial fisheries such as the purse seine fisheries are not formally managed (Flewwelling and Hosch 2007b). There are marine protected areas in Indonesia but the occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation.	eng
187649	distribution	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, it is found from East Africa to the Marquesas, Society islands and Tuamoto, north to Taiwan, south to the southern Great Barrier Reef and the Austral Islands.	eng
187649	habitat	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	A secretive species which inhabits coral-rich areas of lagoon and seaward reefs from 1 to over 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), and stays close to shelter (Allen 2000).<br/><br/>Pairing-up of adults are reported (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), except for this, not much is known on its reproductive biology or ecology.<br/><br/>The maximum body size is nornally between 14 and 17cm, but there is one record of 35 cm TL (Michel Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187649	population	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common in at least some parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 15 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 153 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-35 cm TL. In nine stations, a total of 32 individuals were caught with total body weight of 428 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In French Polynesia, a total of 185 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187649	threats	To, A., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is occasionally caught in the aquarium trade, but given its small size it is not often targeted for food.	eng
187650	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187650	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species occurs in warm temperate waters of eastern Australia from southeastern Queensland to southeastern Tasmania and New Zealand around the North Island and the northern tip of the South Island at about 150 m. It has also been sighted by divers at the Poor Knights Islands in depths below 30 m (Doak 1972). It is collected to depths of 150 m (Gomon 2006).	eng
187650	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, reaches about 368 mm SL. It has been collected at depths of 30-150 m. Francis (1988) indicated that it is found in caves and archways on reefs.	eng
187650	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187650	threats	Russell, B., 2008	This species is caught in trawl fisheries.	eng
187651	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187651	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found in the eastern Mediterranean (a Lessepian migrant from the Red Sea) (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), from Turkey, Greece and Cyprus (Kaya <em>et al.</em> 2000, Taskavak <em>et al.</em> 2000, Corsini and Economidis 1999, Golani and Sonin 1992, Randall 1981). Its native range is in the western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea and the eastern coast of Africa southwards to Durban, South Africa, and around Madagascar and adjacent Indian Ocean Islands.	eng
187651	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species inhabits seagrass beds at depths from 0.5-28 m (Randall 1981).	eng
187651	population	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is likely common in some parts of its range.	eng
187651	threats	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187652	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>This species is found in marine reserves in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, USA (Grorud-Colvert 2006), Hol Chan Marine Reserve, Belize (National Parks of Belize), Barbados Marine Reserve, Barbados (Cheney and Côté 2003), Barbados Marine Park (Rakitin and Kramer 1996) and Bonaire Marine Park, Bonaire (Pattengill-Semmens undated). It is worth noting that Barbados Marine Park does not imply as a no-take zone, baited fishing and trawling are still allowed within the areas and currently two non-fishing zones are being proposed (STINAPA Bonaire 2007).<br/><br/>While many marine parks have already been introduced in areas within the geographic range of <em>T. bifasciatum</em>, it is worth noting that the degree of protection within marine reserve varies according to the effectiveness of management. Currently, there is little information on the effectiveness of those marine parks, therefore, more information is necessary to establish its conservation status.	eng
187652	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common in the tropical waters of the western central Atlantic Ocean, and is found in Bermuda, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea to Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago.	eng
187652	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is one of the best-studied protogynous hermaphrodites (Warner and Swearer 1991, Schärer and Vizoso 2003, Munday <em>et al.</em> 2006). It occurs in tropical waters and associates with coral reefs to depths of at least 40 m, and is also known to inhabit inshore bays and seagrass beds. Tagging studies showed that adults do not leave the reef upon which they have settled (Warner and Hoffman 1980). <br/><br/>Individuals feed primarily on zooplankton and small benthic crustaceans (Warner and Hoffman 1980), including echinoderms (sea stars, brittle stars), molluscs and polychaetes, in addition, diet consists of ectoparasites found on other fishes (Deloach 1999). <br/><br/>This species occurs in two major colour phases, initial phase individuals can be either males or females. The common terminal phase individuals are males and tend to be the largest individuals in any local population (Warner and Robertson 1978). Large females are able to change sex into secondary males (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975). Sex change and the transition to terminal phase coloration are reported to be controlled by local social conditions (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs on a daily basis throughout the year (Warner <em>et al.</em> 1975, Warner and Robertson 1978, Warner and Hoffman 1980, Fitch and Shapiro 1990), for about an hour in mid afternoon. Fertilization is external and there is no parental care of the pelagic zygotes (Warner and Hoffman 1980, Warner 1984). Randall and Randall (1963), however, noted that reproduction seemed to occur mostly within a period of a few days during the full moon and to a lesser extent, new moon. During the mating period, the majority of males are located at the down-current end of the reef, where they attempt to mate with the arriving females. <em>T. bifasciatum</em> is noted as resident spawning aggregation which is aggregated by locally abundant populations from the same reef (Domeier and Colin 1997). Seasonal recruitment was found in Barbados, West Indies and spawning was found to occur primarily between January and August (Herbing and Hunte 1991). <br/><br/>The largest terminal phase males aggressively defend breeding sites and therefore gain exclusive access to females visiting the site, conversely, initial phase females or males have no territorial defense and are much less aggressive (Warner 1984). The mean home range of adults is approximately eight m<sup>2</sup> at Tague Bay, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Island, while for juveniles it was less than two m<sup>2</sup> (Jones 2005). The home range area was positively correlated with the fish total length<br/><br/>It has been found that the predators of this species include Aulostomus maculates, Epinephelus guttatus, Myceteropera venenosa and Rypticus saponaceus. Length at sex change has been reported at 8.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003) and individual fish mature at 3.5 cm SL, size approximately 30 % of the maximum size (Warner 1998). Evidence showed that the final body sizes might have a strong influence on maturity sizes (Robertson 1972, Warner and Swearer 1991). Minimum population doubling time is less than 15 months (Froese and Pauly 2008) and maximum lifespan is estimated to be three years for individuals reaching the terminal phase (Warner 1998). <br/><br/>Eggs hatch at 1.4 mm (Cato and Brown 2003). Larvae are approximately 12 mm in length and the pelagic larval duration  has been found to be 38 to 54 days (Philibotte 2002).	eng
187652	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common throughout the northwest Atlantic (Warner 1984) and Caribbean coral reefs (Herbing and Hunte 1991, Warner and Schultz 1992). It is one of the most abundant species throughout the West Indies (Florida Museum of Natural History-Ichthyology Department).<br/><br/>Through a series of underwater visual surveys, 1,334 individuals and 2,335 individuals were observed in La Parguera Region, Puerto Rico and Rincón Region, Puerto Rico, respectively, and this species has been observed to be one of the most abundant reef fish species in both regions (Richard <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Virgin Islands (USA), fish density has been reported at 3.4 individuals m<sup>2</sup> and over 10,000 individuals have been observed at any one time at the aggregation (Warner 1995). It is one of the most frequently sighted species in Bonaire reefs, Netherlands Antilles (Pattengill-Semmens undated), and 5,087 individuals were observed in Barbados Marine Reserve, Barbados between August and December, in 1992 (Rakitin and Kramer 1996). <br/><br/>In addition, it is known that population varies according to the size of reefs, with about 200 individuals living on a small reef (under 600 m<sup>2</sup>) and up to 10,000 individuals on some of the larger reefs (over 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) (Warner 1984).	eng
187652	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is closely associated with coral reefs and shows high site fidelity. Adults remain on their home reefs, with no emigration or immigration after settlement (Warner and Hoffman 1980). <br/><br/>Habitat destruction may pose a local threat to this species.	eng
187653	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187653	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Gulf of Gascogne (i.e. Bay of Biscay, north-western Spain) to Gibraltar and northern Morocco. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the western and northern Black Sea.	eng
187653	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found near rocks and in seagrass beds, where it is mainly solitary (Quignard and Pras 1986). It feeds on molluscs, shrimps, sea-urchins and hydroids (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is constructed and guarded by the male, in which several females may lays their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187653	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is widespread and common in the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
187653	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, though it may be sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries.	eng
187654	conservation	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The regulation of spearfishing of this species is recommended. Further research should also be conducted to determine the population trends of this species in the western Mediterranean Sea and elsewhere in its range.	eng
187654	distribution	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from Portugal to northern Morocco. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present throughout most of the area, including Cyprus (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), although it has not been recorded from Israel (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), Lebanon or Syria (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). This species is also found in the western Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187654	habitat	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in seagrass beds and around rocky reefs, particularly algal-covered rocks. It is generally solitary or found living in pairs, but it may also be found living in small groups (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It feeds mainly on crustaceans and small fishes. It displays very distinct sexual dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The adhesive demersal eggs are laid in vegetated habitats (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>This species is similar in demography with <em>Notolbarus fucicola</em> which has a generation length of about 7.5 years based on age at fist maturity of 2.5 years in southern New Zealand (H. Choat and D. Pollard  pers comm. 2009). Generation length for this species is estimated to be approximately 8.5 years based on a longevity of 20 years and age of first maturity of three years.	eng
187654	population	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This is a widespread but now relatively uncommon species. In the northwestern part of the Mediterranean Sea the population is continuing to decline, and the situation in the rest of the area is unknown (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Declines in the numbers of large specimens have occurred over the past 10 to 20 years due to spearfishing in Italy (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008), and most likely also in France and Spain. The population decline in France has been around 80%, and in Tunisia around 50% (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). However, although this species may now be less commonly found in the western Mediterranean Sea, it is not known whether similar declines may have also occurred in other parts of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Based on overall declines of 50-80% in at least a third of its range in the western Mediterranean, overall population declines since at least the 1990s are inferred to be more than 30% and are predicted to continue into the future and in the eastern portion of its range.	eng
187654	threats	Pollard, D. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is caught in local artisanal fisheries in Italy and Tunisia. Spearfishing in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea is also a major threat, and there are some concerns about the spread of this sport throughout the whole Mediterranean Sea. <br/><br/>Habitat degradation, and more specifically seagrass bed reduction, is also a threat to this species (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187655	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R.F., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187655	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R.F., 3009	This species is distributed from southern Japan, south through Indonesia, and eastwards to Guam.	eng
187655	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R.F., 3009	This species occurs on the upper part of sand and mud banks, usually on the flat areas, just before sloping down in depths from seven m down to about 15 m. <br/><br/>It is found in spread out groups, often with <em>X. pentadactylus</em> in the same general area, but this species grows much larger and dominates. The biggest males swim over large areas and move away quickly when approached by divers rather than diving into the bottom (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
187655	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R.F., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187655	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R.F., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187656	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187656	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is known from the Philippines, Sabah (Malaysia), and northeastern Kalimantan (Indonesia).	eng
187656	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in sheltered reefs with rich coral and algae mix along upper parts of slopes, and over rubble. It often occurs in small groups of mixed sexes, but females outnumber males (Kuiter 2002). The depth ranges from 10 to 40 m (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187656	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no known population information for this species. This species is rare in the Philippines.	eng
187656	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187657	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187657	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from Mauritius to Madagascar and Christmas Island, Australia.	eng
187657	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This is a small species and is found in depths from 8-120 m (Randall 2007).	eng
187657	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. There are very few specimens of this species.	eng
187657	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is caught in artisanal fisheries as bycatch.	eng
187658	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187658	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from the Red Sea to South Africa, to Japan in the north and Australia to the west, and east to the Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands in the south (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is recorded in Seychelles, Pemba (Tanzania) and Aldabra Attoll. It is also recorded from Kimbe bay (Papua New Guine) (Hubble 2003), Solomon Islands (Allen 2006), Guadalcanal (Blaber <em>et al.</em> 1991), Shark Reef, Beqa Lagoon, (Fiji) and Kingdom of Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>In the western Indian Ocean, it is recorded in Mozambique (Pereira 2000), Reunion Island (Letourneur <em>et al.</em> 2004) and the Jordanian Red Sea (Khalaf and Kchhzius 2002).	eng
187658	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is commonly associated to rubble with turf (Hubble 2003). It was observed at Kuroshima (Japan) along the outer reef edge in depths of about 10 to 40 m, and usually solitary, being occasionally seen in groups of two or three individuals (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). It is rare in less than 20 m (Myers 1991). The depth range recorded in Fiji was from 3 to 30 m (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006).<br/><br/>Females are similar to males in color pattern, but are generally less intensely hued (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). This species is supposed to reproduce during summer (June to August) at Miyakejima (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). It is generally solitary and feeds on small benthic invertebrates (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is known to show red fluorescence, in which the red fluorescent pigment is associated with bony scales and fin rays (Michiels <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187658	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	For the Solomon Islands Marine Assessment (Allen 2006) it was considered moderately common, especially on outer reefs at depths from 6-40m. It is also common at Miyakejima (Izu Islands), found along eroded lava flows and rocky reefs in depths greater than 15m (Shepard and Okamoto 1977). Shepard and Okamoto (1977) also reported that although the holotype was found in a “deep tidal-pool in lava rocks”, Snyder (1904), reported specimens taken by the steamer “Albatross” about the Hawaiian islands from depths ranging between 50 and 140m.	eng
187658	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187659	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187659	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia).	eng
187659	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs at depths of one to at least 40 m.  It reaches a maximum size of at least 16.7 cm.  As with many other Labrids, this species is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but no primary literature could be found to confirm this speculation.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187659	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no population trend information currently available for this species.	eng
187659	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187660	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species occurs in MPAs in parts of its range (Pati Point, Piti Bomb Holes and Sasa Bay Marine Preserves, Haputo, Horote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area and Guam Territorial Seashore Park and National Wildlife Refuge).	eng
187660	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is found from Guam to Saipan (Myers and Donaldson 1996) and the outer margin of Okinawa Trough, Japan (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is not found in Taiwan (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187660	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	This species occurs in depths to about 100 m (Parenti and Randall 2000). It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats.	eng
187660	population	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187660	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is likely to be picked up in trawl fisheries.	eng
187661	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187661	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is restricted to the coast of India, Sri Lanka, and the Andaman Sea. Records for the Maldive Islands are questionable. Gomon (2006) cites Burgess and Axelrod (1973) for the Maldives record (misidentified as <em>B. luteopunctatus</em>), however Randall and Anderson (1993) point out that the species in the aquarium photograph were taken in Sri Lanka and not in the Maldives (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187661	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	A moderately small species, to about 170 mm SL. It inhabits shallow coastal reefs and turbid lagoon reefs at depths of 5-18 m.	eng
187661	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187661	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187662	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187662	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species occurs throughout New Zealand, including Stewart I. but not recorded at Snares Is., Auckland Is. Or Three Kings Is. (Francis 1996).	eng
187662	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 240 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em> have been reported (Ayling 1980). It is abundant on rocky reefs and estuaries. It occurs mainly in shallow water but recorded to depths of about 145m (Graham 1938). <br/><br/>Food items consists of small bivalve molluscs, grapsid crabs and hermit crabs (Russell 1983, 1988). It uses its forward-jutting front teeth to rake food from the substrate (Russell 1983).<br/><br/>It is monandric and sexual maturity is reached at about 100-110 mm SL, with sex/colour reversal occurring at about 150-170 mm SL (Jones 1980). This species is a pelagic spawner (Jones 1980), spawning occurs from late July until the end of October (Doak 1972, Jones 1980).	eng
187662	population	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is the most abundant and ubiquitous wrasse in New Zealand waters. The population is stable.	eng
187662	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187663	conservation	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, its distribution overlaps several Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
187663	distribution	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2009	In the north-western Pacific, this species is found in southern Japan (including the Ogasawara Islands), Izu Islands, Taiwan and the Philippines.	eng
187663	habitat	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2009	This sub-tropical species inhabits shallow inshore coastal waters around algal-covered rocks and reefs, deeper rocky reefs, and possibly also coral reefs. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates. This species may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187663	population	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2009	There is little information available on the status of populations of this species. This species is possibly uncommon in Japan (M. Craig pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187663	threats	Pollard, D. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in some coastal fisheries.	eng
187664	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	The range of this species overlaps some marine protected areas.	eng
187664	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is distributed in the western Indian Ocean from Oman and the southern Red Sea to South Africa  and east to Sri Lanka. It is also found in Madagascar, Reunion and Mauritius.	eng
187664	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas adjacent to coral reefs in depths from 2 to 30 m. It maintains harems with a dominant male and several smaller females and is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite, but primarily literature to confirm this could not be found. This species feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187664	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit data available on population trends. This is an uncommon species (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187664	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is occasionally taken in the aquarium trade, but this is not considered to be a major threat.	eng
187665	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187665	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is known in Australia only from northern New South Wales, Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, Northeastern New Zealand, Cape Reinga to East Cape and the Kermadec Islands (Francis 1996).	eng
187665	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, to about 325 mm SL. It is sexually dichromatic. Hybrid specimens of this species and <em>N. fucicola</em>in northeastern New Zealand have been reported (Ayling 1980, Russell 1988). It inhabits shallow rocky reefs to about 17 m depth, it is frequently associated with kelp (Ecklonia) beds. It feeds on small molluscs and crustaceans (Russell 1983).	eng
187665	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is abundant at the Kermadec Islands, Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island but apparently rare at other locations. It is found mainly around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001).	eng
187665	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187666	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in parts of its distribution (i.e. Saline L`Hermitage, Saint-Leu, L’Etang, Saint Pierre Fishing Reserve, Cap La Houssaye Marine Park (Reunión), Port Loius, Riviere du Rampart, Trou d’Eau Douce Fir, Flavq, Grand Port, Black River Fishing Reserve, Coin de Mire, île aux Cocos, île aux Sables  Nature Reserve, Blue Bay Marine Park (Mauritius).	eng
187666	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found from the Reunion, Mauritius and eastern Madagascar.	eng
187666	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species occurs in reefs  from 15-37 m. It most likely lives in coral reef and fringing habitat.	eng
187666	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187666	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187667	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187667	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the Western Indian Ocean from northern Natal in South Africa, Mauritius and Réunion and Madagascar. Records from Rodriguez need to be verified.	eng
187667	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is poorly documented. Like other species of Macropharyngodon, it likely inhabits sand and rubble patches on coral reefs in shallow waters.	eng
187667	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information available on population trends fro this species. It is thought to be rare in Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2003), and uncommon in other parts of the range.	eng
187667	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187668	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to occur in any protected areas. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.	eng
187668	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is restricted to the Marshall Islands, including Kwjalein Atoll and Bigej-Meck Reef.	eng
187668	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found over dense algal beds of deep lagoons to depths of 28 m, feeding on zooplankton 1-2 m above the bottom.	eng
187668	population	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered abundant over soft-bottoms covered in algae.	eng
187668	threats	Cheung, W.W.L., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Given its small size, it is not likely targeted for food.	eng
187669	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Sampaio, C. & Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species distribution overlaps two important protected areas, Fernando de Noronha National Park and Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve. Brazilian national Law (IN 202, 2008) bans collection of oceanic island endemic fish for aquarium trade, so it is protected from harvesting.	eng
187669	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Sampaio, C. & Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is endemic to northeastern Brazil. It was recorded from Parcel Manoel Luis Reefs (Rocha and Rosa 2001), Atol das Rocas (Rosa and Moura 1995), Fernando de Noronha (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003). It has been observed in the Parcel Manuel Luis (MA) (B. Ferreira pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from Luiz Rocha) and in the coast of Rio Grande do norte state (B. Ferreira pers. comm. 2008 as pers. comm. from C. Sampaio)  between depths of  30-35 m.  Rodrigo Leão has collected an specimen in Ceara state (MZUSP).	eng
187669	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Sampaio, C. & Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is known from Brazilian offshore islands, where coral-algal reefs are the main coastal habitats, and deep reefs (42 m) at the States of Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte (Sampaio <em>et al.</em> 2006).<br/><br/>It was observed to form groups of up to 30-40 individuals (Lubbock and Edwards 1981). Razorfishes spawn only in pairs (Clark 1983, Thresher 1984, Victor 1987) daily, during a late afternoon spawning period, all year-round (Clark Shen and Scarr pers. obs.)	eng
187669	population	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Sampaio, C. & Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. In Atol das Rocas, it was only observed but not recorded during belt transect census (Rosa and Moura 1995) probably due to its area of occurrence (sand bottom).	eng
187669	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Sampaio, C. & Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade but only rarely.	eng
187670	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It is present in conservation areas throughout the Caribbean, USA and Brazil.	eng
187670	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known from Bermuda and southern Florida (USA) to Brazil (including Fernando do Noronha and Trinidade Islands) (Bertoncini pers. comm. 2009), and throughout the Caribbean Sea.	eng
187670	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is most common in shallow, sandy areas in and around seagrass beds and coral reefs to depths of 15 m. It prefers clear waters over sand and rubble bottoms adjacent to reefs.<br/><br/>Species of <em>Xyrichtys</em> are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).	eng
187670	population	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is common throughout its range, and can be abundant in sand bottoms adjacent to reefs.	eng
187670	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187671	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187671	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Southeast Pacific and is known only from Islas Juan Fernandez and Isla San Felix, Chile.	eng
187671	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 103 mm SL. It inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water.	eng
187671	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is common over its range of distribution.	eng
187671	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187672	conservation	Xie, Y. & Russell, B., 3009	There is little conservation action that targets the Spanish Hogfish specifically in its distribution, nor are there any limits to domestic or international trading. An exception is Florida (USA), where <em>B.rufus</em> is subject to a minimum and maximum size restriction of two inches and eight inches, aside from bag limits and permitting requirements. In addition, there is a limit of fifty animals per person per day, and a maximum possession limit of 100 of either at any time aboard a vessel with two or more persons licensed as required (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission).<br/><br/>Continued monitoring is required to establish population trends. Research is also needed to establish areas of occupancy. It is highly recommended that density sampling performed at a large enough scale (sampling more area to obtain sound abundance-area relationships) and be conducted proportionally at all parts of the distribution.	eng
187672	distribution	Xie, Y. & Russell, B., 3009	This species occurs in tropical shallow waters of the western Atlantic from Bermuda and southern Florida (USA) to the state of Sao Paulo in southern Brazil (Gomon 2006). The extent of occurrence is estimated to be 26,970 km<sup>2</sup> based on area of coral reefs in the Caribbean and the east coast of Brazil, which is highly likely to be an overestimation due to the patchiness of the Spanish Hogfish’s distribution.<br/><br/>There is one doubtful record of <em>B. rufus</em> in St. Helena (Central South Atlantic) dating back to 1965 (Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences accessed 2008), probably based on a misidentification.<br/><br/>Its extent of occurrence is estimated to be 26,960 km<sup>2</sup> based on the area of coral reefs in the western Atlantic region (25,960 km<sup>2</sup> in the Carribean (Burke and Maiden 2004), and 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the Southern Atlantic (Spalding and Grenfel 1997). This is based on the assumption that the species is present on all reefs in the Caribbean and the east coast of Brazil, it is highly likely to be an overestimation since distribution of local population density is uneven and not all areas may be habited.	eng
187672	habitat	Xie, Y. & Russell, B., 3009	A moderately large species, to about 300 mm SL.  <em>Bodianus rufus</em> is commonly found near coral cover, but also occurs on rock reefs, algal covered reefs and seagrass meadows (Gardiner and Harborne 2000). Demersal, lives in close association with the reef substratum (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004) and inhabits inshore, midshore and offshore areas (Ferro 2005), usually at depths of 1-6m, but sometimes as deep as 30m (Gomon 2006). Diurnal (Reebs 2002) and relatively sedentary (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>Juveniles displayed a certain amount of habitat specificity during a regional study in Panama, and were found exclusively around large coral heads (such as Monastrea cavernosa) located at the offshore end of coral structure (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). Juvenile density is suggested to have a positive relationship with mean depth and the percentage of algal turf cover (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). However, this is only verified in one study. <em>Bodianus rufus</em> is able to delay metamorphosis but usually settle at relatively smaller sizes (8-10mm SL) during the minimum amplitude tides of the third-quarter moon and second minimum amplitude tide, which may be linked to currents as they are weak swimmers (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). Unlike most labrids, <em>B. rufus</em> settles directly to the reef, without burrowing in the sand. Larval duration is around 42 days (Victor 1986) and metamorphosis is gradual and occurs while these fishes remain above the substrate (Sponaugle and Cowen 1997). <br/><br/>Adults are mobile invertebrate feeders that predominately prey on mollusks, as well as brittle stars, crustaceans and sea urchins (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2004, Bardach 2002, Randall 1967). Juveniles actively pick parasites from larger fishes and are facultative cleaners (Johnson and Ruben 1988). The fish is infrequently the prey of the Bottlenose dolphin in Florida Bay (Torres 2007). <br/><br/>The species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with a dominant male guarding a permanent territory of several females (Hoffman 1983). The number of females varies throughout the distribution, ranging from 3-12 (Hoffman 1985) or up to 20 in some cases (Rocha 2000). The male will go around the territory to pair spawn with each female. Breeding cycle is acyclic, usually occurring at dusk, and mating takes place all year (Hoffman 1985). It may hybridize with spotfin hogfish, <em>B. pulchellus</em>.	eng
187672	population	Xie, Y. & Russell, B., 3009	No population estimates exist for Spanish Hogfishes, but an approximate estimate may be derived under very loose assumptions based on the number of individuals as the product of density, distribution area and sighting frequency (as an indication of the probability of occupancy at an area). <br/> N= Density*Distribution area*SF% <br/><br/>Assumptions: <br/>1. The average density of the animal is around 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup>. Three estimates of density are available in the relevant literature, although of which two are from a single locality at one time (2.8 /100 m<sup>2</sup>, Pattengill-Semmens 2000, 0.5/100 m<sup>2</sup>, Brosnan et al 2002 and 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup>, Opitz 1996). The 0.025/100 m<sup>2</sup> density was chosen since it applies to the Caribbean locality, which constitutes the majority of the distribution. However, as the estimates clearly indicate, density distribution is extremely patchy and the average density across the entire distribution could be vastly different.<br/><br/>2. The fish is commonly and almost exclusively associated which coral reef habitats across its distribution (Gomon 2006). Therefore the total area of coral reef is taken as habitat range, which totals 26,960 km<sup>2</sup> for the Caribbean and the Atlantic Brazilian coast.<br/><br/>3. The species occurs in low densities, and abundance is extremely patchy. Therefore sighting frequency for a particular site will be treated as probability of occurrence in a site. In this case, SF% is around 57% as average of respective SF% in different areas averaged over the known record (REEF, accessed May 4th, 2008).<br/>Upon such assumptions, the estimated total number Spanish Hogfish is ~3,841,800 individuals. Confidence limits cannot be stated but the estimate is clearly based on very loose assumptions. In order to better grasp the overall picture of population trends, density needs to be systematically sampled for larger areas to eliminate variations between sites. More study is needed research into variability in habitat use at different sites in order to make the estimate of total population size more rigorous.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade export data for Brazil for 2007 are 3,177 individuals (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187672	threats	Xie, Y. & Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats.<br/><br/>Exploitation and habitat degradation are probably the biggest potential threats to the Spanish Hogfish, both of which are extensive and continuing throughout its distribution. However, the lack of investigation prevents any substantial analysis of the responses to the present level of threats.<br/><br/>In terms of exploitation, which mainly occurs for the aquarium trade, it is estimated from GMAD data that labrids account for 6-7% of the global trade of fish (Wabnitz et al 2003). In the largest single trading country of <em>B.rufus</em>, Brazil (Wood 2001), the fish is under high pressure of the aquarium trade (Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2004). However, databases (e.g. GMAD) as well as official figures represent underestimations of the total number of captured specimens (Gasparini <em>et al.</em> 2004). Furthermore, it is unknown how the pressures of exploitation are distributed in different parts of the entire distribution. <br/><br/>Even less clear is whether or how habitat degradation is affecting <em>B.rufus</em>. However, as two thirds of Caribbean reefs are under medium to high threat (Burke and Maiden 2004), the animals will be hard-pressed to find a spatial escape, should there be any detrimental impact. The degradation of reef habitats is largely anthropogenic in source, and most severe near major urban centers, where discharge of storm water and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation for reefs (Burke and Maiden 2004). However, there is little information on how <em>B.rufus</em> utilizes the reef habitat or how sensitive it is to habitat loss of degradation.	eng
187673	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187673	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific, from the Red Sea south to Sodwana Bay, South Africa and east to the Line, Marquesan and Tuamoto islands, north to southern Japan, and south to the southern Great Barrier Reef.	eng
187673	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated from 1-30 m. It inhabits sand patches of lagoon and outer seaward reefs to at least 30 m (Myers 1991). It is also found on slopes to moderate depths along drop-offs (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  <br/><br/>Juveniles are common at the bottom of surge channels (Lieske and Myers 1994).  It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey, including mollusks, crustaceans and sea urchins (Westneat 2001).	eng
187673	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common in many parts of its range.	eng
187673	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187674	conservation	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. More species-specific information on population trends and harvest levels is needed.	eng
187674	distribution	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, and is found from Cocos-Keeling Island in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Pitcairn and Ducie islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Rowley Shoals in northwestern Australia.	eng
187674	habitat	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This is species is reef-associated and is usually found solitary in coral rich areas of clear lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 161 m. Juveniles are associated with soft corals and hydrozoans. It feeds mainly on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans (Westneat 2001). It may be ciguatoxic (Myers 1999).	eng
187674	population	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 52 individuals were recorded in several UVC surveys with a size of 6-28cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). In French Polynesia, a total of 16 individuals were recorded in several UVC surveys with a size of 8-22cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187674	threats	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally caught in minor fisheries and is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187675	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187675	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from the Solomon Islands to Samoa Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Loyalty Islands in New Caledonia, Tonga and Great Barrier Reef, Elizabeth and Middelton Reefs and Lord Howe Island, Australia.	eng
187675	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small, coral feeding wrasse (Cole <em>et al.</em> 2008)  associated with rich coral growth areas in lagoons, reef  passes and slopes.	eng
187675	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187675	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.	eng
187676	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187676	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is known only from the Maldives.	eng
187676	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species is known only from a juvenile captured specimen: The specimen was reared from May 3, 1985 to July 22, 1986 in an aquarium at the Musée de Zoologie de l'Université de la Ville de Nancy (Randall and Conde 1989).	eng
187676	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from the type specimen.	eng
187676	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187677	conservation	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. The Marine Aquarium Council also sets standards and certification for species collected for the aquarium trade. In Australia, there are regulations in place for the trade of this species.	eng
187677	distribution	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is found in the western Pacific, from the Ryuku Islands, southern Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984) south to the Great Barrier Reef in the east and the Kimberlys in the west of Australia (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1990) and east to Samoa (Wass 1984) and Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003). Western limits are most likely eastern Java, Indonesia. It is replaced by <em>Halichoeres vrolikii</em> in the Indian Ocean (Myers 1999). It is also known from Thailand and Nha Trang, Vietnam (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187677	habitat	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is found mostly on shallow coral reefs and rocky shores (Westneat 2001). The duration of the larval stage was recorded at 22.1 (SD 1.6) days, range: 20-24 m (Victor 1986). It feeds on small invertebrates such as polychaetes, copepods, isopods and forams (Myers 1991).	eng
187677	population	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is uncommon (found at only five out of 19 sites) in Banda Flores, Indonesia (Mous 2002).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 0.8 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187677	threats	Cabanban, A., Choat, J.H., Pollard, D. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there are human impacts on coral reefs in parts of its distribution (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187678	conservation	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (although it is possibly too deep). <br/><br/>Recommended conservation measures should include regulation of human activites in areas of coralligenous habitat and inclusion of these areas in Marine Protected Areas.	eng
187678	distribution	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is native to the western, northern and central Mediterranean Sea, including the Adriatic (Quignard and Pras 1986, Dulcic <em>et al.</em> 2006), where it is found in Spain, France, Italy, the eastern Adriatic and North Africa, within the Macaronesian North Atlantic islands it is found at Azores (F. Tempera and P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008) and Madeira (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187678	habitat	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species lives in benthic coralligenous habitat. It is also found in deep rocky areas, inhabiting overhangs, the entrances to caves and rocky cliffs (Sartoretto <em>et al.</em> 1997). It feeds on crabs, gastropods and polychaete worms (Quignard and Pras 1986).	eng
187678	population	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	This species is naturally rare. Few specimens are caught in the Mediterranean Sea as the habitat where it lives is not trawled (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187678	threats	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2008	Habitat degradation is a threat to this species in the shallower areas of its range. Siltation and water eutrophication are the leading causes of habitat degradation in this region, and boat anchoring can also cause habitat degradation in shallower areas (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). Threats can also result from the use of bottom gear over coralingenous habitats in the Azores, but this is currently not assessed (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187679	conservation	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187679	distribution	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	In the south-western Pacific, this species is found along the mainland coastline of south-eastern Australia (southern Queensland, New South Wales and occasionally to northern Victoria), in northern New Zealand (including the Kermadec Islands), and around some islands and reefs in the southern Coral Sea (Chesterfield Reefs off New Caledonia) and the northern Tasman Sea (Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs, and Norfolk Island).	eng
187679	habitat	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This sub tropical to warm temperate species inhabits shallow inshore coastal waters around algal-covered rocks, deeper rocky reefs and inshore and insular coral habitats. It is also commonly found around jetties and wharves (Whitley 1980). Adults may form aggregations (Kuiter 2002). Specimens found in the Chesterfield Islands in New Caledonia were taken from 84m depth (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 1994).<br/><br/>It feeds on small benthic invertebrates (especially small crabs and shrimps), and the juveniles may clean other fishes (Grant 1987). It may be a protogynous hermaphrodite, and its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic.	eng
187679	population	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	Little information is available on the status of populations of this species, though it is very common off the coastline of New South Wales.	eng
187679	threats	Pollard, D., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	There are no known threats to this species, though it may be taken as a bycatch in recreational line fisheries.	eng
187680	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for M. geoffroy, however two thirds of its range is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a federally protected no-take reserve.	eng
187680	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll (USA).	eng
187680	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits shallow water in depths from 6 to 32 m.  It occurs in rubble patches as well as well developed coral reefs. It feed on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187680	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit data on population trends available for this species, however casual observations indicate that the species is common throughout its range.	eng
187680	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade.	eng
187681	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187681	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986), and east to the Society Islands, the Line Islands and Hawaii (Randall et al 2006). In Australia it is found in Ningaloo Reef (22°00'S) , Rowley Shoals (17°20'S) and Scott Reef (14°03'S), WA, Ashmore Reef, Timor Sea (12°15'S) and Lizard Island (14°40'S) to Capricorn Group (23°30'S), QLD (AFD 2009).	eng
187681	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species reaches about 20.0 cm SL (Westneat 2001). It inhabits reef flats and shallow lagoons, in sandy, current-swept areas and sparse seagrass beds usually in shallow water to about six m (Lieske and Myers 1994) but may occur as deep as 27m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2006). This species is capable of diving into the sand with the approach of danger. It is rarely caught by fishers or aquarium collectors (Westneat 2001).	eng
187681	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187681	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187682	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known sepcies specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution falls within the Ashmore National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Protected Area.	eng
187682	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is known only from the Ashmore-Cartier Reefs (Hibernia Reef) off northwestern Australia.	eng
187682	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is common over flat bottoms covered with dense Halimeda at depths of 23-35 m (Allen 1999).	eng
187682	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species can be common. Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187682	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187683	conservation	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187683	distribution	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	This species occurs from the Gulf of Oman to Somalia and Kenya. It is also reliably reported from the coasts of Pakistan and western India (Manilo and Bogorodsky 2003).	eng
187683	habitat	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	A large species, to about 595 mm SL. It is reef associated and lives in areas with rocky bottoms. Specimens have been taken at depths of 3-65 m (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008). Juveniles have been observed in three m (Mee pers. comm. in Gomon 2006). It is sometimes found in macro-algae habitats (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187683	population	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. In southern Oman it is relatively rare - one per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers. comm.2008).	eng
187683	threats	Russell, B. & Choat, H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187684	conservation	Sadovy, Y. & Pontillas, J., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187684	distribution	Sadovy, Y. & Pontillas, J., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea to South Africa, east to Vanuatu, north to southern Japan (Kochi Prefectory),Taiwan, and south to central northwestern Australia (Burgess and Axelrod 1974, Yogo <em>et al.</em> 1986, Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187684	habitat	Sadovy, Y. & Pontillas, J., 3009	The species is found among algae patches (especially in mixed <em>Sargassum</em> and seagrasses), soft corals with mixed rubble or rocky reefs (Kuiter 2002). It is seen singly in weedy rocky areas. It sleeps below large rocks and macroalgae.<br/><br/>The maximum recorded sizes were 20.0 cm TL (male) and 15 cm TL (female) (Randall 1986), 27 cm (TL) (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975).	eng
187684	population	Sadovy, Y. & Pontillas, J., 3009	This species is common in sheltered bays (Kuiter <em>et al.</em> 2002). There is no population information available for this species.  It is very rare in southern Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975).  It is rare in the Calamianes group of islands, Philippines but this may be because of its cryptic habit (Werner and Allen 2000).	eng
187684	threats	Sadovy, Y. & Pontillas, J., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187685	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187685	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific, found from Eastern Africa in the west to Ducie Island (Pitcairn Islands group) in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007) and the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to far northern New Zealand, including the Kermadec Islands and Rapa Island in the south. <br/><br/>It is replaced by Thalassoma grammaticum in the tropical eastern Pacific (Myers 1999). This species is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187685	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species inhabits clear coastal waters to outer reef slopes and drop-offs in Australia (Kuiter 2002), over sand and rubble. It is found in depths from one to 30 m (Myers 1991, Baensch and Debelius 1997). <br/><br/>It forms spawning groups at 4-6 m depth, along channels or passages and promontories or bommies. It spawns from March to May and in October-November at full moon and on an ebb tide in the Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991). Juvenile and adult male colour patterns differ (Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/>Larval duration in Hawaii was 78 days (Victor 1986).	eng
187685	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is considered common in many parts of its range. For example, it is very abundant in the South Pacific, it is common in Indonesia, but is relatively uncommon to rare in Malaysia (L. Rocha, S. Suharti, Y. Yusuf pers. comm.). It is rare in Banda Flores, Indonesia, where it was found at only three of the 19 sites surveyed in 2002 (A. Cabanban pers. comm.).	eng
187685	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187686	conservation	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187686	distribution	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found in Japan and Taiwan (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187686	habitat	Yeeting, B., 2009	There is very little information for this species. It is most likely found in sandy bottom habitats.	eng
187686	population	Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187686	threats	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187687	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187687	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species was initially described as endemic to Papua New Guinea (Kuiter and Randall 1995) but subsequently recorded from Palawan province, Philippines (Werner and Allen 2000). <br/><br/>Range size: 1,848,338 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
187687	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse (12 cm) characteristic of sheltered lagoonal habitats over soft bottom environments up to 25 m (Kuiter 2002). The single species recorded from Palawan, Philippines was seen at depths from 10-20 m (Werner and Allen 2000).	eng
187687	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no available data but habitat and distribution patterns suggest that this species has a small population size.	eng
187687	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187688	conservation	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187688	distribution	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found from South Africa to the west, east to the Tuamotu islands and north to the Line Islands and Ryukyu islands, southern Japan (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008)<br/><br/>In the Indo-Pacific, this species is found from Taiwan, Seychelles, PNG, Palau, Indonesia, Fr. Polynesia, Christmas Is., Australia, and Chagos archipelago.	eng
187688	habitat	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is found in outer reef crests in loose groups. It inhabits depths from 2-54 m. Females occur in small groups, and usually a male is nearby. It is usually well above open bottoms with mixed sand, rubble, and coral. It feeds on zooplankton (Kailola 1987, Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1999).	eng
187688	population	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187688	threats	Sadovy, Y. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187689	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>It was observed in the Sinub Island Marine Wildlife Management Area, Papua New Guinea (Jenkins 2002), Wakatobi National Park (May 2005) and Muko surin national park, Thailand (Comley undated). Legal fishing and collecting are allowed in Sinub Island Marine Wildlife Management Area (Jenkins 2002).	eng
187689	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, and is found from Maldives to Samoa and Palau, north to Tokara Island of Japan and south to the Montague Island of Australia (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187689	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is often found on exposed shallow reefs (Allen 2000, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and outer reef habitats (Kuiter 2006) at depths from one to 20 m (Myers 1999). Small loose groups were found along upper edge of drop-offs or over reef crests in Australia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2006).<br/><br/>Initial and terminal phases differ markedly. Initial phase is greenish to brownish grey and with numerous whitish dots on upper two thirds of the body, while in terminal phase, three narrow pink stripes along the body and a 4th additional on the head which extends to partly onto the body, a dark spot can be found at mid-base of the caudal fin and gill rakers range from 25 to 28 (Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>This species is reportedly diandric in Japan (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). Claydon (2005) found that most spawn in discrete pairs within small aggregations (< 15 individuals). At Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea, it spawns at various times of the day and the spawning is not influenced by either lunar or tidal effects (Claydon 2005).	eng
187689	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species not particularly common within its range.<br/><br/>It is moderately common at depths of 1-10 m in Solomon Islands (Allen 2006). <br/><br/>In the inshore reefs of Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea 190 individuals were recorded at five sampling stations (Claydon 2005). <br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 88 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 5-12 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008). Whilst in Fiji, this species accounts for about 0.3 % of the total biomass of reef fishes in seventy census sites (Jennings and Polunin 1997).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 45 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-13 cm TL  (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Sabarini (undated) found that the mean densities in the coral areas and seagrass habitats at the Karimunjawa National Park, Indonesia were 197 individuals per hectare and 105 individuals per hectare, respectively. In addition, mean density of 123 individuals per hectare was recorded in the transitional area between corals and seagrass at the Karimunjawa National Park.<br/><br/>In Hong Kong, this species is very rare and specimens were purchased from market (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187689	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187690	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187690	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is known from relatively few specimens collected in Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian Ocean and southern Japan and eastwards to the Izu Islands, and Taiwan.  It is ikely to occur at Seychelles (Smith and Smith 1963). It is also found in Bali and Palau (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2002).	eng
187690	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species reaches at least 161 mm SL. It occurs on deep reefs in 50 m off Japan. It is found in depths from 35-200 m.	eng
187690	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens.	eng
187690	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
187691	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187691	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in southern Mozambique and Natal, South Africa, also in Reunion, Mauritius, Madagascar and Oman.	eng
187691	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in rocky bottoms or reefs rich in algae and found in seagrass beds. It goes to depths of 2-15 m.	eng
187691	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187691	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187692	conservation	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187692	distribution	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific ranging north from southern Japan and south to Sydney in Australia and east from Cocos-Keeling Atoll, East to the Pitcairn Islands.	eng
187692	habitat	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species inhabits shallow patch reefs, lagoons, and bays with sand and rubble substrate in depths of one to at least 30 m. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187692	population	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species. It is generally considered as common.	eng
187692	threats	Craig, M. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187693	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187693	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is recorded from the western and central Pacific, from eastern Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands (Australia), Kermadec Islands (New Zealand), to New Caledonia and Tonga (Randall 2003). It is also found in Niue (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187693	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species inhabits coral reefs, from inshore to outer reef areas, and also tide pools, with a depth range of 0-15 m (Randall 2003).	eng
187693	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187693	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187694	conservation	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Given the high loss of coral reef habitat within its range (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 2008), more research is recommended on this species habitat and population status.	eng
187694	distribution	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found in the western Pacific from the Philippines to Taiwan and southern Japan, and south to northwest Australia.	eng
187694	habitat	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species inhabits coral reefs or shallow rocky areas at depths of 5 to 25 m.	eng
187694	population	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is naturally uncommon.<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 1.4 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187694	threats	Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187695	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several Marine Protected Areas within its distribution.	eng
187695	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in Flores, Indonesia and in West Papua.	eng
187695	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in areas with brittle corals growing dense and high on rubble slopes of inner reef, coastal side, in depths between 10-35 m.	eng
187695	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.	eng
187695	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	It is not known if the collection for the aquarium trade poses a threat to this species.	eng
187696	conservation	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187696	distribution	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species has a widespread tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic distribution from North Carolina to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in the western Atlantic. It is found from southern Spain to Gabon, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome and Principe, in the Eastern Atlantic. It is also present throughout the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, but not in the Black Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>There is no record of this species in the oceanic islands of Brazil (C. Ferreira pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187696	habitat	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species generally inhabits clear shallow areas with sandy substrates, usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and coral reefs (Schneider 1990), although it can be found to 90m. It lives singly or in small groups (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on molluscs, but also on crabs and shrimps (Gomon 1978). <br/><br/>This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite, with sexual dimorphism apparent in the shape of the head and the length of the pelvic fin (Gomon and Forsyth 1990). It builds nests out of coral debris in coral reef habitats. When disturbed it may dive head first into the sand (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>The western Atlantic fish are generally smaller than the Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean fish.	eng
187696	population	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. However, it is considered common in the majority of its range.<br/><br/>For example, this species is common in Lebanon and Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, but there is little or no population information available for it throughout most of its Mediterranean range (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008). In the western Atlantic, this species is relatively common throughout most of its range. It is also common in the Azores islands on shallower sandy habitats (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187696	threats	Pollard, D., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187697	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187697	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from the Shizuoka and Wakayama Prefectures (Japan) to Taiwan, southward to New Caledonia and Norfolk Ridge. It has also been recorded in Palau (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008)	eng
187697	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 149 mm SL. Shallow ranging, specimens have been collected from rocky reefs at depths of 30–113 m, but the species may be more common at greater depths (Gomon 2006).	eng
187697	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187697	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
187698	conservation	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves throughout its range (i.e. Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA and Sangire Talaud).	eng
187698	distribution	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea and South Africa to the Society Islands and Pitcairn, north to Southern Japan and south to Great Barrier Reef and Rapa Island (Randall 2005).	eng
187698	habitat	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species occurs in areas of sand and rubble of clear lagoon and seaward reef slopes. Juveniles remain near bottom whilst adults may swim well above bottom. Mainly feeds on fish and crustaceans to a lesser extent (Myers, 1999)<br/><br/>This species has an elongated compressed body with small scales. Scaleless head. Jaws with 2 pairs of canine teeth infront. Caudal fin slightly rounded in juveniles, emarginate in adults. Initial phase brown to olive brown with 17-19 dark brown bars, a blue and black spot on opercular membrane, a black spot on side of lips, larger on lower, caudal fin with a large whitish crescent posteriorly, body of terminal males green sometimes shading to blue-green ventrally, with numerous bluish red bars, often with a pale yellowish bar on body above origin of anal fin, head light purplish with green to blue-green bands radiating from eye , one  forward onto snout expanding broadly and branching (Randall, 2005). Indian Ocean and Red Sea species males shows a white band central to the greenish body whilst the Pacific form shows a pale peduncular area when in nuptial mode.	eng
187698	population	Yeeting, B., 2009	This species is generally rare in Micronesia and uncommon in the Marianas (Myers 1999). This is an uncommon species, but common in some parts of its range (e.g. Philippines).	eng
187698	threats	Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured in local subsistance fisheries in the Pacific and is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.	eng
187699	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187699	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	This species occurs from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Marquesan and Tuamoto islands in the central Pacific, north to southern Japan, and south to the Great Barrier Reef. It is replaced by the closely related<em> H. ornatissimus</em> in Hawaii (Randall and Rocha 2009).	eng
187699	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-15 m. It inhabits lagoon and outer seaward reefs.  It feeds primarily on small benthic crustaceans and mollusks (Randall 1985).	eng
187699	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
187699	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187700	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187700	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in Japan and Taiwan. It is also found in Palau (P. Colin pers. comm. 2009). It has also been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef off Townsville, Queensland (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187700	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This is a small species that inhabits reefs and grows to about 16 (TL) (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984).	eng
187700	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187700	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species. It is considered a non-target trawl fish.	eng
187701	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in  parts of its range (Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME), shelters Bunaken National Park, Gorontalo MPA, Berau MPA, Sangire Talaud,Cartier Island Marine Reserve, Ashmore reef and Mermaid reef National Natural reserve, Scot reef nature reserve, Rowley schoals, Ningaloo, Barrow Island and Montebello Islands Marine Park, in Australia).	eng
187701	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000), Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Western Australia (Carpenter and Niem 2001).  The range was extended south on the western Australian coast to North West Cape (22° S) (Randall and Adamson 1982).	eng
187701	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is very little known of its biology. It is found in shallow (2-10 m) waters (Baensch and Debelius 1997) with dense coral growth on coral rubble and sand, also in weedy areas.	eng
187701	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187701	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187702	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187702	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, and Marshall Islands. It was recorded from Fiji in 2003 by G. Allen. This is interesting to note as there is often a break between the western Pacific and southern Pacific (Fiji, Tonga, etc.) distributions and Labropsis is a genus with very well defined patterns of regional distribution (H. Choat pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187702	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in steep reef slopes in lagoons and outer reef fronts in association with living coral in depths between 4-52 m. It is one of a group of obligate coral feeding wrasses, its abundance is linked to that of live digitate corals. This species is reliant on live corals.	eng
187702	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187702	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.	eng
187703	conservation	Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species distrubution overlaps with several Marine Protected Areas within its range.  More research is needed to determine if the Brazilian population is a separate species.	eng
187703	distribution	Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species is found from North Carolina (USA), Bermuda, and northeastern Gulf of Mexico to Margarita Island, Venezuela. There is also an isolated population in Southeastern Brazil.	eng
187703	habitat	Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species is reef-associated and is found from 8 -100 m. It generally inhabits deep reefs, but is found in shallow rocky reefs in Brazil.	eng
187703	population	Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not commonly observed as it is a relativey deep water species. However, in Brazil it is more common in shallower waters.	eng
187703	threats	Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187704	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species.	eng
187704	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known only off Rarotonga, Cook Islands.	eng
187704	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found on reef and rubble from 55-100 m, often in areas with strong current.	eng
187704	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed, although it is considered common on deep reefs.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187704	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species. It is exploited in the aquarium trade,  although it is not commonly traded.	eng
187705	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187705	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa (to Natal) to the Society Islands, north to southern Japan and Hawaii, south to New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island and New South Wales, Australia. In the Eastern Pacific, it is found from the Gulf of California to Panama and the Galapagos Islands (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187705	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	Species of Iniistius are called razorfish in allusion to their compressed bodies and the sharp leading edge of their forehead and snout, specialisations for quick entry into sand (Randall 2007).  <br/><br/>This species is usually solitary in lagoon and seaward reef areas with fine to loose, coarse sand bottoms (Myers 1991). It is found in areas with sandy bottoms, at depths of seven to at least 30 m (Gomon 1983). Adults rare in less than 20 m (Lieske and Myers 1994) but have been observed as deep as 100 m (Randall and Earle 2002). Juveniles are sometimes observed in shallow estuaries (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Individuals are encountered hovering just above the bottom, and dive headfirst into the sand with the approach of danger (Gomon 1983). It feeds mostly on hard-shelled prey, including molluscs and crustaceans (Gomon 1983). Juveniles mimic drifting dead leaves by holding the elongate detached front part of dorsal fin forward over head. Good to eat, flesh very white (Titcomb 1972).	eng
187705	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187705	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade, and captured occationally in aritisanal fisheries.	eng
187706	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps some marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187706	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known only from the Red Sea (Israel and Jordan).	eng
187706	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L. & Rocha, L., 3009	The species is found between 40 and 50 m along deep rubble slopes, also sometimes one to two m above rock and coral bottoms. This species feeds on zooplankton (Froese and Pauly 2008). Males are territorial and haremic.	eng
187706	population	Cheung, W.W.L. & Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187706	threats	Cheung, W.W.L. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187707	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187707	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is widespread and occurs throughout much of the Indo-West central Pacific region (Allen and Adrim 2003).  It is found from East Africa in the western Indian Ocean to the Pitcairn Islands in the east, the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) in the north (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007), and Rapa Island in the south Pacific Ocean.<br/><br/>This species was recorded from Bali, Komodo, Togean and Banggai Islands and Pulau Weh, with an Indonesian distribution from Papua to Sumatra (Allen and Adrim 2003). It is also known from the Spratly Islands (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). It was recorded in Malaysia (Anon 1987), Indonesia and the Philippines (Myers 1991).	eng
187707	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is generally found inshore (Randall 1985), over shallow exposed reef flats, usually with rock-base and mixed coral and algae (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Mundy 2005). It also occurs on surge-swept reef flats, reef margins, and clear rocky shorelines, but may venture into deeper waters up to 10 m depth (Randall 1985). It is benthopelagic (Mundy 2005). Habitats include seagrass beds and coral reefs in the Spratly Islands (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006).<br/><br/>The primary phase of this wrasse is almost indistinguishable from that of <em>T. purpureum</em>. The head of the male of <em>T. trilobatum</em> is plain brown to orange or shaded with blue. The female has a more spotted and shorter head which lacks the distinct 'V' on the snout that shows clearly on the female of <em>T. purpureum</em> (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The initial phase has a dark diagonal red line below the front of the eye (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>This species feeds on crustaceans (especially crabs), molluscs, and ophiuroids (brittle stars) (Randall 1985). Diet at recruit/juvenile stage is mainly zoobenthos and smaller nekton (Hobson 1974).The larval duration is 78.3 (s.d. +/- 12.3) days, range  is 60-99 (Victor 1986).	eng
187707	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is rare based on reports from Indonesia (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001) and it was only found in two out of 19 sites surveyed in Banda Flores, Indonesia (Mous 2002). In the Philippines, this species is only found at a few locations and is considered relatively uncommon (V. Hilomen pers. comm.).	eng
187707	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats may include overfishing and habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing in some parts of its range in SE Asia (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187708	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species distribution overlaps a few marine protected areas within its range, but it is not known if they provide effective protection.	eng
187708	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Japan from the Izu pennisula south to Kashiwa-jima.	eng
187708	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found on rock and rubble, in reef slopes from 20-40 m.<br/><br/>Observations at Kashiwa-jima Island and in adjacent waters showed the species to form loose groups comprising one or two males and several females, pairs, or solitary to several females.  In some cases, single male appeared to maintain harems of several females. This species often forms aggregations with <em>Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura, C. lunatus, C. rubrimarginatus</em> and <em>C. temminckii</em>, over rocky substrata.	eng
187708	population	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is considered common. However, population size or trends have not been assessed. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187708	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187709	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187709	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known in the eastern Pacific from Salt Point in northern California to southern central Baja California.	eng
187709	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs and kelp forests in depths of 1-73 m, but is most common above 20 m. It feeds on small invertebrates and may act as a “cleaner” for larger fishes.  It is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite.	eng
187709	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is one of the most common wrasses in southern California. It reaches densities of up to 0.5 fish per m<sup>2</sup>, and is among the top three species recorded by fisheries independent diver surveys (Craig <em>et al.</em> unpublished data).	eng
187709	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187710	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187710	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific region and in the western Pacific Ocean from the Kashiwa-jima Islands, S Japan, east to French Polynesia (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008) and southwestern and central eastern Australia (including Lord Howe Island) (Lieske and Myers 1994).  There are questionable records of the species from Mauritius in the western Indian Ocean.	eng
187710	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This species occurs in shallower insular and coastal waters, primarily around coral reefs, in depths from 3-25 m. It may also occur over algal habitats (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates, and especially crustaceans (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984, Lieske and Myers 1994, Broad 2003). It shows sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994, Leem <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
187710	population	Pollard, D., 2009	This is a relatively common species throughout parts of its range. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
187710	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occassionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade.	eng
187711	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. At least 70% of its range lies within the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, in the northwest Hawaiian Islands.<br/><br/>It was observed in Papawai and Red Hill South, a fishery management area where collection of aquarium fishes has been prohibited since 1991 (Tissot and Hallacher 2003) and it is present in the Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park which is currently managed by the State of Hawaii (National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior 2008).	eng
187711	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is endemic to the Hawaiin Islands and Johnston Atoll (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985, Barry and Hawryshyn 1999, Mundy 2005).	eng
187711	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is reef-associated and inhabits rocky, coral and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994) to depths of at least 21 m. It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans. It has been reported to act as cleaner by cleaning the ectoparasites of other fishes (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985).<br/><br/>It exhibits protogynous hermaphroditism (Ross 1984), lives in sexually integrated, overlapping home ranges and mates promiscuously rather than in a harem (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1983). Sex change is socially controlled , induced by the presence of smaller conspecifics and inhibited by the presence of larger conspecifics (Ross <em>et al.</em> 1983, Ross 1987, Ross <em>et al.</em> 1990).<br/><br/>Spawning occurs either in aggregations or pairs (Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000). In 1986, Victor found that the duration of the larval phase was 89.2 days. Minimum population doubling time of this species is less than 15 months (Froese and Pauly 2008) and maximum size was recorded at 28 cm TL (Randall 1985).	eng
187711	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no data on total numbers of this fish, but this species has been noted as abundant throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago (Ross 1984). <br/><br/>This species hybridizes with <em>T. lutescens</em> at Johnston Atoll (Rocha pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>The frequency of occurrence at 44 locations in the Hawaiian Islands was 95.4% (Brainard <em>et al.</em> 2002). In 1993, 1994 and 1999, it was recorded as one of the top ten most dominant species numerically and with 100% occurrence in 24 sites during the surveys in Hanalei Bay, Hawaii (Jokiel and Brown 2000).<br/><br/>In Coconut Island, density has been recorded with 3 +/- 0.64 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup>. It is a dominant fish species in Kahekili reef with density varying from approximately 26.7 +/- 2.1 individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> in 1994 to approximately 37.29 +/- 3.9 individuals per 250 m<sup>2</sup> in 1997, in addition, short term total fish abundance increases up to 79.4 individuals per 50 m<sup>2</sup> when people were feeding the fishes (Hultquist 1997). <br/><br/>This species is noted as an abundant species in Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (University of Hawai’I at Manoa) and more than 7,000 individuals have been recorded within the lagoon at Midway from 1981 to 1985 (Schroeder and Parrish 2006). <br/><br/>Biomass of 0.293 kg per 100 m<sup>2</sup> and mean density of 17 individuals per 100 m<sup>2</sup> were recorded at Kure Atoll and noted as the top twenty most abundant species at Kure Atoll (Walsh <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187711	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187712	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187712	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from Japan, Vietnam and Taiwan and down to Hong Kong. It was collected in Hue, Viet Nam at a fish market (Phil Hastings pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187712	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	There is little known about this species. It most likely lives in sandy rubble habitats.	eng
187712	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187712	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187713	conservation	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187713	distribution	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This Indo-Pacific species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Tuamotu Islands, north to southern Japan and south to Lord Howe Island, Australia (Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187713	habitat	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species inhabits depths from 3-60 m (Westneat 2001), usually 4-40 m (Baensch and Debelius 1997). It inhabits clear channels and seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juveniles are commonly found along drop-offs below 18 m. Adults usually found near caves while juveniles frequently live inside them. <br/><br/>Adults are solitary and feed on algae and small invertebrates. Juveniles have been observed 'cleaning' other fishes. Because of its dentition, it is regarded as a close relative to the parrotfishes (Scaridae), although it behaves like the species of <em>Anampses</em>.	eng
187713	population	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	This species is relatively common in some areas within its range. It is rare in Malaysia and the Philippines.	eng
187713	threats	Sadovy, Y., Pollard, D. & Rocha, L.A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187714	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187714	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the eastern Atlantic, this species is present from the Arcachon basin (Bay of Biscay, SW France) to Gibraltar. It is found throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Quignard 1986).	eng
187714	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is generally found on sandy substrates, but it can also be found around weed-covered rocks and in seagrass beds. Diet mainly comprises small benthic crustaceans and molluscs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). This is a small fish that is found between 1-30 m. It spawns in spring, and one or several females lay their eggs in a nest built by a single male (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187714	population	Pollard, D., 2008	There is little specific information available on the main populations of this species in the Eastern Atlantic or the Mediterranean Sea.<br/><br/>This small species 16 cm (TL) is not generally targeted by any large fisheries, although it is fished locally in the Thau, Berre, Bage-Sijean and Salse-Leucate lagoons in France, where it is used in fish soup. There have apparently been noticeable declines in these coastal lagoon populations in France (Quignard pers. comm. 2008), and it is possible that the populations found in these lagoons may comprise a separate sub-species (Quignard pers. comm.). If this turns out to be the case, this sub-species may warrant listing in a threatened or near threatened category (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187714	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	Major threats to this species in French coastal lagoons include overfishing, pollution and habitat degradation of seagrass beds. There are no known major threats to this species in the open sea.	eng
187715	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187715	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to Eastern Africa and extending to Okinawa, Japan in the north, eastward to the Tuamotu archipelago and south towards Eastern Australia (Queensland) (Parenti and Randall 2000, B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187715	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	This species is moderately small, to about 161 mm SL. It inhabits seaward reefs at depths of about 20–60 m, whereas juveniles have been taken at about 6 m within the Red Sea. It occurs on reefs rich with invertebrates such as gorgonians, sea whips and black corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is common along steep outer reef slopes deeper than 25 m in Micronesia. It is usually seen as lone individuals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Juveniles pose as cleaners (Kuiter 1992). It may be solitary or may exist in pairs (Cornic 1987).	eng
187715	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information for this species (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008). It is moderately common.	eng
187715	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. Aquarium collection of juveniles can be a potential threat to this species.	eng
187716	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Anampses caeruleopunctatus is present in the Bateman Bay, Ningaloo Reef Marine Park, Australia (Fitzpatrick and Penrose 2002), Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve, Australia (Oxley <em>et al.</em> 2003), Booderee National Park, Australia (Australian Government 2006), Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa (Green <em>et al.</em> 2005) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Kuiter 2006). Currently, creation of a fishing-free sanctuary zone in the Booderee National Park is under-reviewed (Australian Government 2006) and the proposal of establishing a 400,000 square mile Coral Sea Heritage Park, where fishing would be banned, in the Great Barrier Reef is under revising (Underwater Times 2008). Furthermore, in Micronesia, SCUBA fishing has been banned and Non-Governmental Organizations and Government are developing more MPAs (Kelty and Kuartei 2004). It is worth mentioning that marine parks or national parks do not necessary equal to no-fishing zones. For example, limited fishing is allowed for the licensed fishers in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks.<br/><br/><em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em>  is also found in the Watamu Marine National Park, Kenya where fishing has been prohibited for more than 20 years (McClanahan <em>et al.</em> 2002) and the Cape d’ Augilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong where recreational and commercial fishing are restricted (Cornish 2000).<br/><br/>While many marine protected areas (MPAs) have been introduced within the geographic distribution range of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em>, such as Kiribati possesses the world’s largest marine protected area that comprising about 410,500 km<sup>2</sup> including the Phoenix islands archipelago and both Winslow and Carondelet reefs (PIPA 2008), In Philippines, there is a rapidly increase in the number of MPAs (Alino <em>et al.</em> 2000). Thus, it is believed that <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> might be present in one of those MPAs, but yet to be documented.<br/><br/>However, marine protected areas, especially in the south and southeast Asia, countries, are considered to be poorly managed due to the lack of expertise, resource, effective co-ordination and proper enforcement (Chou <em>et al.</em> 2002, Tun <em>et al.</em> 2004). For instance, destructive fishing practises, unconfirmed dynamite fishing and anchor damage have been found in the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, Sri Lanka (Ohman <em>et al.</em> 1997). Thus, majority of these MPAs might not be able to provide sufficient protection to the species that they are housing.	eng
187716	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and is found from East Africa and the Red Sea and to the Line, Marquesan and Easter Island including Papua New Guinea, Marshall Islands, Samoa Islands and Phoenix Islands, north to the south Japan (Shinohara <em>et al.</em> 2000, Westneat 2001), and south to Australia and Lord Howe Island (Myers 1991).	eng
187716	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species occurs in shallow protected reefs, lagoons (Westneat 2000, Kuiter 2002) to depths of 30 m. It is also found on the surge zones of coral reefs, rocky coasts (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000, Thi and Quan 2006) and has been collected at depth of 20 m (Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>It is found to occur in groups (Westneat 2001, Kuiter 2002) or pairs (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juvenile and adults have been observed in rocky reef flat (Nanami and Nishihira 2002). Juveniles have been reported to feed primarily on small benthic crustaceans and polychaetes, while adults taking larger crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes (Myers 1991, Sadovy and Cornish 2000, Westneat 2001). Juveniles swim with their head pointing toward the bottom and undulate their body (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2002). It is diurnally active (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003) and buries itself at night (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>A single pair of incisiform forward-projecting teeth at front of each jaw, there is no teeth at corner of mouth or on roof of mouth. The lateral line of, <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> , continuous and deflected downward below base of ninth dorsal-fin ray to a horizontal section on caudal peduncle with 27 lateral line scales (Westneat 2001). Initial phase of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> is reddish brown and dorsal, caudal and ventrally with a dark-edged light blue spot on each scale, dorsal fin. Terminal males are olive with a dark-edged blue streak on each scale of body and irregular, narrow, dark-edged, blue bands are present on the heads (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>In Hong Kong, females of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> are shy and hide in crevices while males left the area (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). <br/><br/>In Micronesia, the standard lengths of females ranged from 14.7 to 23.8 cm, whilst males ranged from 16.3 to 26 cm (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>The maximum size of <em>A. caeruleopunctatus</em> is 42 cm TL (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).<br/><br/>This species is sexually dimorphic, spawning in harem with the male patrolling territory (Colin and Bell 1991). When patrolling a territory, the male occasionally raised his caudal fin momentarily and circled females when the male passed. Spawning activities was observed after high tide involving species ascent rapidly about two to four m to spawn. Females were reported to lead the spawning and during courtship, the blue band between the eyes and mouth and the single green bar on the body of the male became brighter. Spawning activities were found from March to May. Egg shape is nearly spherical.	eng
187716	population	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>In Lord Howe Island, density of A. caeruleopunctatus at depths of 14-20 m and three to six m was 7.3 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and one individual per 500 m<sup>2</sup>, respectively. Biomass of A. caeruleopunctatus in Fiji Islands was found to be accounting for approximately 1.9 % of the total biomass of reef fishes and the occurrence frequency of A. caeruleopunctatus in the ten census sites was 52.9 % (Jennings and Polunin 1997).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 12 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 7-20 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 86 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-27 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/><br/>In French-Polynesia, a total of seven individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 10-21 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. Comm, 2008).<br/><br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 36 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-30 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187716	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M. & Sadovy, Y., 2008	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and caught locally as a food fish in some parts of its range.	eng
187717	conservation	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, there is likely effective protection only in Lombok and in the Thousand Islands marine protected areas.	eng
187717	distribution	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is found in the Western Pacific, in Java Sea, Indonesia from southern Sumatra to the Timor Seas.	eng
187717	habitat	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is found in deep coastal slopes and is known from deep water trawls, but also lives in shallow muddy estuaries. Feeds above substrate on zooplankton. It is found from depths of five to 35m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>It is haremic (forming small groups of juveniles, females and a single large male) with sexual ontogeny. This species is highly suspected as being protogynous.	eng
187717	population	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is relatively uncommon.	eng
187717	threats	Yeeting, B., Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	<span style="font-style: italic;">Cirrhilabrus filamentosus</span> is a highly valued aquarium species and is commonly traded.	eng
187718	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution regions of this species. However, the occurrence of this species within these marine protected areas needs further investigation. In Mozambique, for example, there is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007), however, this species has not been recorded from any of these studied marine protected areas (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187718	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea to Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Samoa. There are also records from the Philippines (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003), however only one individual was recorded in Tubbataha (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008) and another individual from Calamianas Islands (J. Pontillas pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187718	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species feeds mainly on fishes, shrimps and other crustaceans (Westneat 2001). It favors steep outer reef dropoffs, and is found in caves from 25 m to over 46 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Randall and Khalaf 2003) with large gorgonians or soft corals (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), and is cryptic (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187718	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	The population size of this species is unknown. In Fiji, the density of this species was very low, about 0.00002/m<sup>2</sup> (Michael Kulbicki, personal communication). This species is uncommon in Indonesia, and rare in Philippines.	eng
187718	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species, although it is caught in seine-nets and fish traps (Gell and Whittington 2002).	eng
187719	conservation	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures. However, this species distribution overlaps a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
187719	distribution	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Maranhao to Santa Catarina, including St. Pauls rocks, Fernando de Noronha, Trindade Island, and Atol das Rocas.	eng
187719	habitat	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	This species is found to depths of 60 m, and is associated with reefs. Adults form large schools and feed on plankton from mid-water (10-20 m), while juveniles form large schools and are found closer to reefs. It occurs in large aggregations along the coast especially in offshore mid-shelf reefs.This species is a schooling plankton feeder.	eng
187719	population	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species forms large aggregations along the coast especially in offshore mid-shelf reefs. It is common in many places throughout its range, but it is rare at St Pauls rocks (Feitoza et al 2003).	eng
187719	threats	Choat, J.H., Rocha, L., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R. & Moura, R.R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187720	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L., Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for tuskfish (<em>Choerodon</em> spp.) is 30 cm and daily bag limit is five in total for all <em>Choerodon</em>  species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government). The legal size limit for other parts of its range is not known.	eng
187720	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L., Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is only known from northern Australia, and occurs from Queensland to northwestern Australia.	eng
187720	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L., Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	This species inhabits flat sandy, seagrass or macroalgae areas (Allen 1997) to 30 m depth (Bogutskaya 2007).	eng
187720	population	Cheung, W.W.L., Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187720	threats	Cheung, W.W.L., Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. However, it may be potentially threatened by fishing in some areas, but it falls below the legal size limit for this genus in Queensland.	eng
187721	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187721	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from Japan (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984) to Taiwan (Shao 1997), New Caledonia and New South Wales (Australia) (Yearsley <em>et al.</em> 1997). It has also been recorded in Palau (Bishop Museum 1999) and Papua New Guinea (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187721	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 92 mm SL. Shallow ranging, it occurs at depths of about 30-35 m on rocky reefs (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1975). It has also been recorded at depths of 20 m.	eng
187721	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187721	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187722	conservation	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/><br/>In Madagascar<br/>This species was reported from the Natural Reserve of the Glorieuses Islands (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003). Labrids are not major catches in the reef fishes surrounding the south-west Madagascar in 1997 (Laroche <em>et al.</em> 1997), and catch-per-unit-effort is still relatively high in these fishing grounds. There are two marine protected areas, with no-take zones, located in the northwest region of Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005). This species was commonly sighted during a rapid biodiversity survey in northwest Madagascar, and is likely protected within the protected areas (McKenna and Allen 2005).<br/><br/>In Mozambique<br/>There is no known fishery management or regulations on this species in Mozambique. There is a 22 km<sup>2</sup> marine reserve, two national parks and one wildlife sanctuary where coastal waters are protected (Francis <em>et al.</em> 2002, Wells <em>et al.</em> 2007). A fish survey in 2000 at various locations including marine protected areas did not record this species (Motta <em>et al.</em> 2002). The occurrence of this species within these areas needs further investigation. <br/><br/>In Australia<br/>Queensland<br/>Marine parks are established within Queensland including the well-know Great Barrier Reef. Marine parks are zoned for different purposes and offer different levels of protection from recreational and commercial fishing activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2008). For fishery management, a minimum size of 25 cm TL and a bag limit of 5 fish apply to all wrasses (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008a). There are three, nine-day closure to the taking of all coral reef fishes in Queensland east coast waters, which are in October, November and December each year around the new moon phase (Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries 2008b). There is no specific management measure or regulation on this species in commercial food fish fishery. <br/><br/>This species is collected as part of the international aquarium fish trade. Both recreational and licensed commercial aquarium fish collectors are allowed to operate within certain zones in the Great Barrier Reef (Ryan and Clarke 2005). While SCUBA and hookah are allowed for commercial collectors, recreational collectors can only use mask and snorkel for collecting aquarium fish. There are also gear restrictions (only by hands, small fishing lines or seine-nets) and bag limits (20 fish per person) on aquarium fish collection for both recreational and commercial collectors (Ryan and Clarke 2005). There is no specific management or regulation on <em>E. insidiator</em>.	eng
187722	distribution	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific and occurs from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to New Caledonia. <br/><br/>Records from the main Hawaiian islands are based on single individuals recorded in O'ahu and Lanai and are considered waifs (Randall 2007). In this region, reproducing populations are known only in Johnston Atoll and the central part of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands.	eng
187722	habitat	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reef down to 42 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). This species was suspected to be a protogynous hermaphrodite (Carlson <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/><em>Epibulus insidiator</em> male colour was observed to intensify during courtship (Colin and Bell 1991). Males swam with caudal fin collapsed and tilted up and the anal fin folded and extended down. Males can revert to normal colour pattern when disturbed. The territory sizes of males were approximately 500-1,000 m<sup>2</sup> and females seemed to have home ranges within this territory. Spawning occurred after or near high tide. It is sexually dimorphic with the size of male larger than the female. This species spawned in harem with males patrolling territory. Spawning ascent distance was about two to three m. Females were reported to lead the spawning. Spawning activities were found in March, April, May, July, September and October. The shape of the eggs is almost spherical.	eng
187722	population	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>This species was described as common in northwest Madagascar (McKenna and Allen 2005) and Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 230 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 4-30 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of 524 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-40 cm TL. In 15 stations, a total of 29 individuals were caught with total body weight of 2,127 g (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In French-Polynesia, a total of 210 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 3-33 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 130 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body sizes of 6-35 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 4.3 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187722	threats	To, A., Liu, M., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for food fish fisheries, and was reported in the Hong Kong fish market (Situ andSadovy 2004). This species is also collected for the aquarium trade and such trade may have significant effect on fish natural population (Tissot and Hallacher 2003), however the level of use in ornamental fish or food trade is unknown.	eng
187723	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187723	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout much of the Indo-West Pacific region, from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west to the Tuamotu Islands in the east, and from southern Japan in the north to northern Australia in the south (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187723	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This demersal species occurs in insular and coastal waters primarily around coral reefs, and particularly around seaward reef areas over mixed living coral, coral rubble, consolidated limestone and sand habitats. It may also occur over soft coral and sponge habitats (Randall 1972), and also in sheltered and back reef areas in northern Australia (Coleman 1981).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993).<br/><br/>It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187723	population	Pollard, D., 2009	This is a relatively common species throughout most of its broad range.	eng
187723	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are commonly captured for the marine aquarium fish trade (Edwards and Shepherd 1992, Wabnitz <em>et al.</em> 2003), particularly in Indonesia and the Philippines (Marine Aquarium Council 2004).	eng
187724	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas in the US and Caribbean.	eng
187724	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is found from South Florida, USA and Bermuda to Venezuela.	eng
187724	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-30 m depth. It is commonly found on shallow and deep reefs and exposed rocky ledges. It feeds on various invertebrates. It forms leks during breeding (Allsop and West 2003). It is a  protogynous hermaphrodite and a monandric species (Allsop and West 2003).  Length at sex change = 7.3 cm TL (Allsop and West 2003).<br/><br/>It is constantly on the move but easily attracted by divers.  It is generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size (Cervigón <em>et al.</em> 1992).	eng
187724	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common throughout its range. Populations throughout the range seem to be well connected genetically (Rocha 2004). The population from Bermuda has a different color pattern, but is genetically identical to the rest of the global population.	eng
187724	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187725	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, species is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Isla del Coco Marine Park, Isla del Caño, Corcovado National Park (Costa Rica), Biosphere Reserve of Isla Marias, Archipelago de Revillagigedo and Huatulco National Park (Mexico).	eng
187725	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found in the eastern central Pacific, from Mexico to Nicaragua, including Cocos Island.	eng
187725	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found over sandy bottoms associated with gravel and rocky reefs from 150 to 200 m.<br/><br/>Red above, whitish below, three or four yellow horizontal stripes on upper sides, curved yellow stripes on head, spinous dorsal fin black. Juveniles pink with more yellow stripes and a large black blotch on upper caudal peduncle (Bussing and Sanchez 2004).	eng
187725	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. Specimens are known from bycatch records.	eng
187725	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is caught as by-catch in industrial trawl fisheries.	eng
187726	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187726	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, including Socotra Island and Sri Lanka.	eng
187726	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species inhabits fringing reefs, over coral or rubble bottoms at depths of three to 43 m.	eng
187726	population	Rocha, L., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered common.	eng
187726	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187727	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187727	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the coasts of India (Gomon and Randall 1984), and eastern Papua New Guinea (Randall 1995). It has a disjunct distribution.	eng
187727	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in open sand areas adjacent to reefs and in deep lagoons.	eng
187727	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187727	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187728	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187728	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found from Belau to the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands.	eng
187728	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse that occurs in clear lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of seven to over 33 m. Juveniles usually associate with ramose Acropora corals to gain protection from the branches.	eng
187728	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187728	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats for this species, although it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Due to its reliance on corals, it may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, this is considered to be a localized threat.	eng
187729	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, this species occurs in protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
187729	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is found in Australia where it is known from New South Wales to the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is also found in New Caledonia.	eng
187729	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits shallow waters in rubble areas with algal cover. It is found at depths of 3-10 m.	eng
187729	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This is an uncommon species.	eng
187729	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187730	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187730	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found in the south western to central Pacific, from New Caledonia and Norfolk Island (Australia) to Fiji and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall 2003).	eng
187730	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is demersal and inhabits flats with patchy reefs (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is found in shallow waters from 0-6 m. It occurs in small groups over algal rubble on semi-open substrate (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187730	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is considered uncommon.	eng
187730	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187731	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187731	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species has a disjunct distribution from Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Solomons Island and Samoa (Randall and Jonsson 2008). It has also been recorded in the Red Sea off Eritrea based on a misidentification of <em>Xyrichtys melanopus</em> by Dor and Fraser-Brunner (1977) (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187731	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	Hawaiian specimens have been collected over sand in 15-32 m. Juveniles form small groups of widely spaced individuals off reef promontories at depths of about 15 m. Colonies of adults are found offshore far from the nearest reef in depths of 18-20 m. This species is territorial and dives into sand when threatened (Randall and Earle 2002).	eng
187731	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187731	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187732	conservation	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Rodrigo L. Moura & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. However, less than 5% of this species range is included within Brazil's no-take marine reserves.<br/><br/>More research is needed on the impact of recreational and artisanal fisheries on this species, as it is unknown if current fishing practices are sustainable. <br/><br/>It is recommended that MPAs are established within the species range, and legislation to regulate fisheries. Community management initiatives and awareness for managing artisanal fisheries is also needed.	eng
187732	distribution	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Rodrigo L. Moura & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil, and is found from Maranhão to Santa Catarina, including Trindade Island (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003)	eng
187732	habitat	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Rodrigo L. Moura & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found from one to 60 m. It inhabits biogenic and rocky reefs (Rocha and Rosa 2001). Large individuals are found at depths of 10 m or more, juveniles in areas as shallow as tide pools (Rocha and Rosa 2001).  It feeds on benthic invertebrates (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).<br/><br/>There is very little known on the biology of this species. <br/><br/>The maximum size was recorded at 50 cm (TL) (C. Ferreira pers comm. 2009).	eng
187732	population	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Rodrigo L. Moura & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is considered common. It is commonly caught by artisanal fisheries, and terminal "large" males are not often observed in areas of intensive fishing.<br/><br/>Aquarium trade data for Brazil show 310 individuals exported in 2007 (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187732	threats	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Rodrigo L. Moura & Ferreira, C.E., 2008	This species is intensively fished in artisanal fisheries, primarily by hook and line and spearfishing. It is taken in gillnets as part of the multi-species fisheries. This species is also important in sport fisheries, which may be a threat for many recreationally fished species (Lewin <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is not often observed outside of reserves which enforce no-take zones.	eng
187733	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187733	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Hawaiian, Marquesas and Tuamoto Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, and south to the Cook Islands and Lord Howe Island off eastern Australia (Randall 1990, Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007). It has been reported to occur in the Gulf of Aden (Kemp 2000). <br/><br/>It is replaced by Thalassoma cupido from southern Japan to Taiwan, Thalassoma heiseri in the Pitcairn Islands, and Thalassoma loxum in Oman (Myers 1999). It reportedly hybridizes with Thalassoma jansenii in the Banda Sea, Indonesia, and with Thalassoma nigrofasciatum at Holmes Reef in the Coral Sea (Walsh and Randall 2004).	eng
187733	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found on clear outer lagoon reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994) and exposed seaward reefs. It is abundant in shallow exposed areas with surge channels (Lieske and Myers 1994, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001), and in gutters, around large Acropora plates and on algal bottoms (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is benthopelagic (Mundy 2005). <br/><br/>Males are often found in small loose groups, swimming over reef sections where small groups of females stay close to the bottom. Juveniles are secretive in shallow gutters (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  It feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans (crabs, shrimps), small fishes, gastropod molluscs and sea urchins.<br/><br/>It forms spawning groups (Collin and Bell 1991) at ~1 m depth (Craig 1998), along channels or passages and around promontories or bommies (Collin and Bell 1991, Craig 1998), and at down-current margins of reefs (Craig 1998). Larval duration is 56.4 (s.d. +/- 7.9) days, range 46-68 days (Victor 1986).	eng
187733	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is common in at least parts of its range. For example, it is common in Banda Islands, Maluku, East Indonesia, where it was found in 10 out of the 19 sites surveyed (Mous 2002). It is occasional (but more common in sites exposed to tidal surges) in Solomon Islands (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187733	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats to this species. Localized threats to the species in some parts of southeast Asia are overfishing for the marine aquarium fish industry and coral habitat destruction from pollution and blast-fishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187734	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There is a minimum legal size limit of 30 cm, and a bag limit of six per day. Present populations are found in a number of no-fishing zones on southern GBR. Research is needed on the population numbers and range, biology and ecology of the species.	eng
187734	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is endemic to the tropical and sub-tropical eastern Australian coast. The focus of the fishery for this species is between 23 to 28°S on offshore shoals.	eng
187734	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species inhabits areas from shallow reef waters over coral rubble bottom to at least 95 m. Cappo <em>et al.</em> (2007) found this to be an indicator species of shallow offshore reef system of the southern GBR. Maximum size was recorded at 65 cm. Juvenile habitat unknown but possibly deep water rubble and seagrass beds. Major prey items include molluscs and benthic crustaceans.<br/><br/>It is more abundant on offshore reef and shoal systems (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2007) and does not extend into the Coral Sea reef systems.<br/><br/>It is protogynous although there is a need to examine sexual identity of juvenile fishes. It is reproductively active in April May.<br/><br/>Maximum age at 16 yrs, VBGF growth estimates range from Linf  829-839 cm, K  .08.  Age of sexual transition ~ six yr . Age at female sexual maturity two to three yrs. (Platten <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187734	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no direct estimates of population size. This is a common species on the deeper areas of the Great Barrier Reef.	eng
187734	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There is some evidence of overfishing in reefs close to mainland (Masthead Is) compared with remote reefs (Swains).<br/>Platten et al (2002) compare heavily and lightly fished areas. Results show heavily fished mortality rate Z=1.7, largest fish 40 cm. Lightly fished Z=0.4, Largest fish 60 cm.	eng
187735	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no specific management for this species. There are some marine protected areas in the distribution regions of this species. However, the presence of this species within the MPAs needs further investigation.	eng
187735	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It is also known from northwestern Madagascar (G. Allen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187735	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This is a solitary species inhabiting fringing reefs near coral heads from 1-20 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994). It was reported to be a mimic of the goatfish <em>Parupeneus macronemus</em>, changing colour when swimming close to the goatfish and this appears to help <em>O. mentalis</em>to approach unwary prey (Randall 2005).	eng
187735	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.	eng
187735	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187736	conservation	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187736	distribution	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is found in the western Atlantic from North Carolina, USA and Bermuda to Trinidad and Tobago. In Brazil, it occurs only in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas and St. Paul’s Rocks, and not along the continental coast.	eng
187736	habitat	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found from 1-55 m. Adults are found on shallow patches of coral or rocky reefs or deeper seaward reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994), juveniles and subadults are found in shallower (one to five m) coral reefs (Gomon 1978). It feeds on molluscs, sea urchins, crustaceans, and brittle stars (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187736	population	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is considered to be common.	eng
187736	threats	Rocha, L. & Craig, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187737	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187737	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in the Cook Islands, Austral, Pitcairn Islands and the Society Islands. It is also found in Tonga (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187737	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species occurs in deep reefs from 49-85 m (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187737	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is nothing known on the population size of this species. It has been recently described, and is found in deeper waters.	eng
187737	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187738	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187738	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found in the northwestern Pacific from Hong Kong, China (Hainan Island),Taiwan, Korea, southern Japan, the Spratley Islands, and Pratas Islands (Masuda <em>et al.</em> 1984, Shao <em>et al.</em> 1992, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997, Ni and Kwok 1999, Randall 2000, Kim <em>et al.</em> 2005). There are records from Viet Nam (Randall 2000).	eng
187738	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species inhabits coral reefs (Masuda and Allen 1993) in shallow waters from two to seven m (Randall 2000). It forms small to large groups to 25 m depth over sand or rubble gutters (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187738	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187738	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species. Although it is not dependent on live coral, coral reefs in most of the species' range are under threat from blast fishing and overfishing (Hodgson 1999, Burke <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187739	conservation	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range. More species-specific information on harvest and trade for is needed for this species.<br/><br/>This species is found in the Curieuse Marine National Park, Seychelles (Pittman 1997), Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania (Garpe and Öhman 2003), Natural Reserve of Glorieuses Islands, Western Indian Ocean (Durville <em>et al.</em> 2003), Marine conservation area of Tuvalu (Kaly 1997), Fiji Marine Protected Area (Brown <em>et al.</em> 2007), the Shark Reef Marine Reserve (Brunnschweiler and Earle 2006) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Russell 2001).<br/><br/>In Queensland, the minimum legal size for wrasse is 25 cm and daily bag limit is fivr individual per species per angler, in addition, closed season for fishing applies to coral reef finfish (Queensland Government).<br/><br/>In Pilbara or Kimberley regions, Labridae is considered to have the highest risk of localised depletion and valued for eating qualities (Bray and Kennedy 1998, Government of Western Australia 2008). The minimum legal size for Labridae is 40 cm and the daily catch for Labridae is two per individuals per species per fisher, while the mixed daily bag limit is seven individuals per angler. Currently, management plans are being developed for the new Marine Conservation Parks which including no-take zones (Government of Western Australia 2008).<br/><br/>In Gascoyne region of Australia, there is no legal catch size for the Labridae and daily catch limit is seven individuals per angler. No spearfishing is allowed within the Ningaloo Marine Park (Government of Western Australia 2008a).	eng
187739	distribution	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is broadly distributed in the Indo-West-Pacific, and occurs from east Africa to Micronesia, Samoa and Marshall Islands, and north to the Ryukyu Island (Myers 1991, Parenti and Randall 2000, Westneat 2001) and south to the Great Barrier Reef, northwest Australia and New Caledonia (Myers 1991, Allen 2000).<br/><br/>Species of <em>C.quinquecinctus</em> are formerly lumped with this species. The true fasciatus does not occur in the Red Sea. Populations of <em>C. fasciatus</em> recorded from the Gulf of Aden, Socotoa and NE Somalia are probably quinquecinctus, but this needs to be researched.	eng
187739	habitat	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in the coastal (Kuiter 2002, 2006), lagoon, seaward reefs, and usually in areas with mixed coral, sand and rubble (Lieske and Myers 1994, Allen 2000) at depths of four to at least 40 m (Myers 1991).<br/><br/>Juveniles of this species are often associated with the sea-grass beds and mangroves that adjacent to coral reefs (Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2006), along edges with algae-rubble and sand, and silty reefs (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Small juveniles are mistaken as adult of Wetmorella spp. or mis-identified as <em>Epibulus</em> spp. Due to their thin vertical white barring (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/>The jaw is prominent, especially lower jaw in adults, two strong canines situated anteriorly in each jaw and there is no enlarged tooth present on rear or upper jaw of this species. Caudal fin rounded in juveniles, while the upper and lower rays forming extended cadual fin lobes in large individuals, a trilobed appearance. The lateral line of this species is interrupted below the posterior portion of dorsal-fin base with a total of 22 or 23 pored scales (Westneat 2001). It is distinguished by the bright red area at front of body (Allen 2000, Kuiter 2002) and thin orange to red lines radiating from eyes (Kuiter 2006). In large individuals, the six dark bars are usually broader than the six light ones (Westneat 2001).<br/><br/>It feeds primarily upon benthic small hard-shelled invertebrates, such as molluscs, crustaceans and sea urchin (Myers 1991, Westneat 2001) by possessing a strong oral jaw (Sale 2002).<br/><br/>In Marshall Islands, spawning was observed on the winward lagoon. It was found that spawning was not influenced by tidal currents. It spawned in harem with males patrolling territory. Patrolling males swam with the caudal fin folded and the dorsal and anal fin tips folded to points. Spawning activities lasted for almost three hours and concurred with similar activity by male Epibulus insidiator. Females ascended about one to three m over patch reef or coral head when ready to spawn with slow ascending speed (two to four sec. to go up with a length of 1.5 m). Spawning was observed only during afternoon and occurred at different tidal phases. Spawning activities were observed in May and October, while courtship was found in June and November (Colin and Bell 1991). <br/><br/>Further, the mean planktonic larval duration of this species was found to be 25.7 +/- 1.4 days (Victor 1986). <br/><br/>The maximum size is approximately 40 cm SL (Westneat 2001).	eng
187739	population	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is common in many parts of its range.<br/><br/>It is one of the most commonly observed target-species in the Louisiade Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. The percentage occurrence of <em>C. fasciatus</em> was 88% in the underwater census surveys of fifty-seven sites at the Louisiade Archipelago (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>It is particularly common in areas of mixed coral and rubble of lagoon patch reefs in Micronesia (Myers 1991) and is also common reef fish in the Red Sea (Richard and Field 1998). In addition, it is common on lagoon and seaward reefs at Marshall Islands (Colin and Bell 1991).<br/><br/>Nakamura and Sano (2004) estimated the mean density of <em>C. fasciatus</em> in the Iriomote Island, Japan was 10 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>In the Island of Zanzibar, east Africa, mean density of <em>C. fasciatus</em> was found to be 7.2 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> and the highest density of this species was found at Morogo with 24.5 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Dorenbosch <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>Despite the wide geographic range of this species, there is little quantitative information available on the local population status of this species. Further, the total numbers of <em>C. fasciatus</em> are not known.<br/><br/>In Fiji, a total of 230 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body length of 6-40 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>In Tonga, a total of 153 individuals were counted in various UVC surveys with body length of 6-35 cm TL (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an estimated mean density of 2.6 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187739	threats	Shea, S. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.  This species is caught for food and for the aquarium trade in some parts of its range.<br/><br/>Labrids are frequently captured by recreational and commercial fishers in Australia which are known to contribute to significant reductions in labrid densities (Gladstone 2001, Platten <em>et al.</em> 2002).  Majority of the <em>Cheilinus</em> spp. captured by recreational fishers are reported as “wrasse/grouper” making the catch statistics under-representative of the real landings of <em>C. fasciatus</em>. In Gascoyne region, a 12 month survey indicated that 9,677 wrasse/groupers are captured by recreational fishers annually and in Shark Bay, western Australia, 10,082 individuals from wrasse/gropers were fishes annually (Summer <em>et al.</em> 2002). Meanwhile, on the west coast of western Australia, it was found that 65,000 individuals of various species from wrasse/groper were caught in recreational fishing (Summer and Williamson 1999).	eng
187740	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187740	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is found from Japan to the Hawaiian and Tuamoto islands, and south to the Austral Islands.	eng
187740	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species inhabits depths from 6-44 m. It is a secretive species that inhabits seaward reefs, among live coral or rubble. It is often observed hiding around the base of small heads of live coral, especially Pocillopora meandrina. Stomach contents of specimens taken from Oahu and Johnston I. consisted of demersal eggs, copepods, amphipods, alpheid shrimp, crab megalops, larval shrimp and gastropod. However, it is likely that the copepods and larval food items are from demersal plankton because this species is never seen more than a few centimeters off the bottom (Myers 1991, Randall 1999).	eng
187740	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There is no known population information available for this species. This species is cryptic.	eng
187740	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187741	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in some parts of its range (Cook Island Aquatic Reserve).	eng
187741	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	In the eastern central Pacific, this species is found in the Cook, Austral and Pitcairn Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
187741	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is reef-associated in rocky and fringing coral reefs, and is known at depths ranging from 23 to 48 m.	eng
187741	population	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187741	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187742	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species range overlaps the Kimbe Bay Marine Protected Area.	eng
187742	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
187742	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species inhabits lagoons, seaward reef slopes exposed to current (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008). It is found from five to 30 m over coral and rubble.	eng
187742	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed, it is a recently described species. It is considered common in most of its range. This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187742	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is potentially exploited by the aquarium trade, but is not targeted.	eng
187743	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187743	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the Cook, Austral, Society and Tuamoto islands.	eng
187743	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse that occurs in seaward coral reefs in areas of high coral growth. It is reliant on live coral.	eng
187743	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187743	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats for this species. It is collected for the aquarium trade and may be susceptible to coral bleaching events, however, these are considered to be localized threats.	eng
187744	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187744	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from the Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines, Marshall Is, Marianas, Indonesia (Bali), Queensland (Australia), New Caledonia and eastward to Pitcairn Island.  It does not occur in the Hawaiian Islands (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187744	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 227 SL. It was measured at 40 cm TL (Randall 2005). It inhabits clear lagoon and seaward reefs, on slopes or along upper part of drop-offs at depths of 3–50 m (Myers 1989, Myers pers. comm. 2008). It feeds mainly on benthic, hard-shelled, invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans (Westneat 2001).	eng
187744	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species in not uncommon.	eng
187744	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187745	conservation	Bertoncini, A., Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187745	distribution	Bertoncini, A., Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2009	This species is found in Ascension Island (Lubbock 2006) and St. Helena (Edwards and Glass 1987).	eng
187745	habitat	Bertoncini, A., Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2009	This species inhabits areas with sandy bottoms at depths ranging from five  (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2009) to 40 m (Gomon and Forsyth 1990).	eng
187745	population	Bertoncini, A., Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There is no population information available. It is a very common species.	eng
187745	threats	Bertoncini, A., Russell, B. & Choat, J.H., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187746	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187746	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, as it occurs from East Africa and the Red Sea to central America. It is replaced by Thalassoma virens in the Revillagigedo Islands (Myers 1999). This species is also recorded in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187746	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found around coral reefs between 0-10 m depth (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 2006), in clean coastal waters to outer reef flats, often in the surge zone but also down to 15 m (Kuiter 2002). <br/><br/><em>Thalassoma purpureum</em> and <em>T. trilobatum</em> (which have a similar geographic range, (Kuiter 2002)) have nearly identical initial (female) phases (Myers 1991), and only differ slightly in coloration and length of the head. <em>Thalassoma purpureum</em> has a slightly longer head and the female of this species is best distinguished by a V-shaped mark on the snout (Myers 1991, Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). The initial phase has a vertical dark red line below the front of the eye, usually with a branch to the front of the snout (Westneat 2001). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005), and forms spawning groups (Squire and Samoilys unpub. in Claydon 2004).	eng
187746	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is common throughout its range, and can be locally abundant. It is uncommon in Banda Flores, Indonesia, where it was found at only three of the seven sites surveyed (Mous 2002).	eng
187746	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187747	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187747	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific, from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf south to Mozambique and Mauritius,  to India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Taiwan and northwards to the Ryuku Islands off southern Japan.	eng
187747	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is found on deep (40-70 m) coral reefs.  It is solitary (Fischer <em>et al.</em> 1990) and found on deeper coral and rocky reefs. It feeds mainly on hard-shelled prey including crustaceans, mollusks and sea urchins (Gomon and Randall 1984).	eng
187747	population	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187747	threats	Cabanban, A. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187748	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187748	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from southern Norway to northern Morocco, including much of the Baltic Sea, and around the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Azores Islands. In the Mediterranean Sea, it is present in the western and north-eastern Mediterranean basins, the Levantine Sea and the Adriatic Sea.	eng
187748	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This  schooling, territorial fish  occurs around rocks, rocky reefs and seagrass beds, and also in coastal lagoon habitats. It feeds on molluscs, hydroids, bryozoans, worms and crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). <br/><br/>There is a clear sexual dimorphism, and this species is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite. The male constructs a nest of seaweed amongst rocks or in rock crevices, in which the adhesive eggs are laid (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187748	population	Pollard, D., 2008	There is very little population information available for this species. It is primarily a colder-water Eastern Atlantic species, and therefore is more common in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its abundance varies throughout the remainder of the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187748	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is sometimes caught as bycatch in local fisheries and sold for food.	eng
187749	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187749	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from Sri Lanka to the Andaman Sea (west coast of Thailand), southwest India (Vizhinjam), and Indonesia (Bali, Lombok, Sunda Strait).	eng
187749	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	<em>Leptojulis chrysotaenia</em> is a small species, to about 92 mm SL. It occurs close to the substratum over open bottoms of silty sand and coral rubble (Randall 1996), at depths of 15-30 m. The maximum depth reported is taken from (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Juveniles are observed in small groups, adults only seen singly. It feeds on benthic crustaceans.	eng
187749	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It can be locally common, but is never abundant.	eng
187749	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187750	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187750	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in East Africa, Seychelles and Maldives to western Indonesia.	eng
187750	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found on sandy areas of deep lagoon and seaward reefs, usually along deep drop-offs with large caves, rich with invertebrate growth in depths from 25-56 m.	eng
187750	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information availlable for this species.	eng
187750	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187751	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187751	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from central Norway southwards to Morocco, including the United Kingdom, Ireland and the southern Baltic Sea. <br/><br/>This species is present though rare throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, including up to Antalya in Turkey in the eastern basin, though it is absent from the Eastern Levantine Sea (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). It may occur around the main Mediterranean islands, although more information is needed.This species is also found in the Marmara Sea, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187751	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is most commonly present on rocky, weed-covered substrates down to depths of around 50 m. Larger, older individuals may be found in deeper waters. It feeds on bryozoans, crustaceans and gastropods (Bauchot 1987). <br/><br/>It reaches maturity at two years, displays no sexual dimorphism, spawns from winter to summer, and has a life span of up to eight years (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). During the spawning season the male defends a territory (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Spawning takes place in mid water, and the pelagic eggs hatch to become planktonic larvae (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187751	population	Pollard, D., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is relatively uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187751	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187752	conservation	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it can be found within Marine Protected Areas within its distributional range.	eng
187752	distribution	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2009	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species has a possibly disjunct northern European distribution from central Norway to Spain and Portugal, and thence occurs southwards along the West African coastline to around Senegal. It is not present around the United Kingdom or Ireland. It is also reported from the Azores, Selvagens, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Specimens from the Cape Verde Islands and Sao Tome Principe, and along the mainland coastline from around Senegal southwards to Gabon, belong to the closely related species Coris atlantica (Randall 1999, Guillemaud <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>This species is present along most of the Mediterranean coastline, including around most of the main Mediterranean islands. In the eastern Mediterranean basin, however, this species is rare, being absent from Cyprus and Israel, though one location is known from Lebanon. It is present in the Sea of Marmara and the far western part of the Black Sea (in Turkey and Bulgaria).	eng
187752	habitat	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2009	This common species generally occurs in littoral and inshore coastal waters around rocks and over seagrass beds. During the winter it can be found in deeper waters. It is typically found in aggregations but can also be found as solitary individuals, especially in rocky habitats. During the night, or when disturbed, it can bury itself in the sand. The eggs and larvae are planktonic (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). <br/><br/>It feeds on small gastropods, sea urchins, worms, shrimps, isopods and amphipods. Small individuals are known to clean other fishes. <br/><br/>It reaches sexual maturity at one year and is a protogynous hermaphrodite with pronounced sexual dimorphism (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006). The females change to males before reaching 18 cm in length. All individuals above 18 cm in length are males (Muus and Nielsen 1999). Sex change can take from several weeks up to 5.5 months (Sadovy and Shapiro 1987, Reinboth 1962, Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>It reproduces from May to August. Larger terminal phase males hold territories and spawn sequentially with haremic females, smaller terminal phase males can live in groups up to several tens of individuals. Initial phase males live and spawn in large groups, pelagic spawning and eggs (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>Mediterranean and Atlantic populations show strong morphological and genetic differentiation (Aurelle <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187752	population	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2009	Populations of this species are apparently increasing in the Gulf of Lion (France, north-western Mediterranean Sea). This may be explained by water temperatures having increased there due to the construction of numerous dams on the Rhone River, which have reduced cold water inflow, though climate change may also be playing a part. Another hypothesis which has been offered to help explain these population increases could possibly be the installation of artificial reefs, providing an increase in suitable reef habitat.	eng
187752	threats	Pollard, D. & Afonso, P., 2009	In some areas of the Mediterranean this species is caught in commercial fisheries. Many specimens are also captured for the local aquarium trade. In the Macaronesian islands it is caught in the small-scale, artisanal fishery (P. Afonso pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187753	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187753	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is known only from the east coast of Africa between the Gulf of Aden and Natal in South Africa. There is a possible record from south west Madagascar based on Mauge (1967) as <em>Bodianus luteopunctatus</em>.	eng
187753	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	A moderately large species, to about 230 mm SL. It is collected at depths from 50 to 82 m (Gomon 2006).	eng
187753	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187753	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187754	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187754	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is  known only from the Hawaiian Islands.	eng
187754	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This reef associated species inhabits depths down to about 119 m (Mundy 2005), it grows to at least 17.8 cm SL (Tinker 1978). It occurs over sand bottom in lagoon and feeds on fishes. (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1993)	eng
187754	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187754	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known. Although this species is collected for the aquarium trade, collection is an unquantified threat and is thought to be minor.	eng
187755	conservation	Pollard, D. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution includes some Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Given the collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the impact of its collection.	eng
187755	distribution	Pollard, D. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is found in the western and cental Pacific Ocean, from Samoa to Tonga, Cook Islands, Line Islands, Society Islands, French Polynesia and Pitcairn Island. <br/><br/>Records from the Philippines are almost certainly misidentifications (though they could possibly be of aquarium specimens), and those from Vanuatu, New Caledonia and the northern Great Barrier Reef need to be verified.	eng
187755	habitat	Pollard, D. & Rocha, L., 2009	This tropical species inhabits a variety of coral reef habitats, including lagoons and seaward reefs to at least 32 m depth (Lieske and Myers 1994).<br/><br/>There appears to be no adult colour dimorphism, the males and females having generally the same colour pattern. No information appears to be available on the juvenile colour pattern. <br/><br/>Like other species in this genus (<em>L. phthirophagus</em> and <em>L. dimidiatus</em>), this species is probably active in the daytime, and probably produces a protective mucous cocoon at night (Tinker 1978). It is probably also an obligate cleaner, feeding on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993).	eng
187755	population	Pollard, D. & Rocha, L., 2009	Little is known about the status of the populations of this species. This species is relatively common throughout its range.	eng
187755	threats	Pollard, D. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occassionally taken in the marine aquarium fish trade and coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.	eng
187756	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187756	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It is also present in the Sea of Marmara (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), but it is absent from the Levant (Golani pers. comm. 2008), the northern Adriatic, the northern Aegean, Cyprus and the Black Sea.	eng
187756	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species occurs in rocky areas and seagrass beds. It feeds on worms, small crustaceans (e.g. amphipods and copepods), bryozoans and hydrozoans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It also acts as a cleaner of ectoparasites from other fishes. Spawning takes place in spring and early summer, and the male guards a territory within which the females lay their eggs (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187756	population	Pollard, D., 2008	The abundance of this species is variable throughout the Mediterranean Sea. For instance, while it is common in Italy, it is uncommon in Turkey. However, there is no available information on the overall status of the Mediterranean populations (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187756	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this small species, although it may be sold as food when caught in artisanal fisheries.	eng
187757	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187757	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This newly described species is only known from Indonesia (Bird's Head Peninsula, New Guinea).	eng
187757	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species inhabits semi-sheltered areas expose to periodic strong currents. It is invariably associated with gradual rubble slopes at depths ranging from about 5-50 m or more, but is most abundant between 20-35 m (Allen and Erdmann 2008). Large aggregations of about 30 males and several hundred females, were occasionally encountered at theTriton Bay.	eng
187757	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is locally abundant.	eng
187757	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187758	conservation	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however, more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument in the north-western part of the Hawaiian Islands Chain. This is a federally regulated no-take reserve that, while not monitored efficiently, is very remote and difficult to get to.	eng
187758	distribution	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known only from the east-central and north-western Pacific Ocean, being found only around the Hawaiian Islands Chain and Johnston Atoll. Records from Indonesia are most probably incorrect (Randall 1972).	eng
187758	habitat	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species occurs in insular coastal waters around shallow rocky shores and reefs, and to a lesser extent around coral reefs to depths of 26 m. It is also occassionally found in tide pools and in deeper waters (Lieske and Myers 1994, Mundy 2005).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding primarily on benthic macro-invertebrates, including mainly crustaceans but also molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates, sipunculids, forams, algae and occasionally fishes (Hobson 1974, Randall 1985). It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, and is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994, De Martini <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
187758	population	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	This species is common throughout its range.	eng
187758	threats	Pollard, D., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally captured for the marine aquarium fish trade.	eng
187759	conservation	Pollard, D. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its relatively wide distribution.	eng
187759	distribution	Pollard, D. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout parts of the western Pacific Ocean, from southern Japan (Izu Islands) in the north to eastern Australia (Great Barrier Reef, and juveniles to as far south as to southern New South Wales), and from Taiwan and the Philippines in the west to Fiji and Tonga in the east (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is also recorded in Palau (Myers 1999, Randall 2005). This species is possibly also found further east to the French Polynesia (Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187759	habitat	Pollard, D. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species occurs in shallower insular and coastal waters, primarily around coral reefs, in living coral and over coral rubble and sand, including on reef crests and slopes (Masuda and Allen 1993, Lieske and Myers 1994, Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Westneat 2001).  It shows sexual colour dimorphism and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females are found in small groups, generally accompanied by a dominant male, and juveniles are generally solitary (Kuiter 1996).	eng
187759	population	Pollard, D. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This is a relatively common species throughout much of its range. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
187759	threats	Pollard, D. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occassionally captured live for the marine aquarium fish trade, and others are occassionally found in local fish markets.	eng
187760	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, it occurs in the Archipiélago de Juan Fernández National Park that encompasses an area of 95.71 km<sup>2</sup> (Wood 2007) in its range of distribution.	eng
187760	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in the southeast Pacific, where it is only known from the Juan Fernández and Desventuradas Islands.	eng
187760	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This species inhabits shallow water in littoral rocky reefs (Sepúlveda and Pequeño 1985,  Pequeño and Lamilla 2000, Pequeño and Saez 2000).	eng
187760	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187760	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species, it may be fished but there is no available harvest data to date.	eng
187761	conservation	Pollard, D., Choat, H. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures, though the species is present in marine protected areas within parts of its range.	eng
187761	distribution	Pollard, D., Choat, H. & Russell, B., 2009	This species occurs in sub-tropical to warm temperate waters of the south-eastern Indian Ocean, occurring only in south-western Western Australia from approximately North West Cape in the north and west, to Bremmer Bay in the south and east.	eng
187761	habitat	Pollard, D., Choat, H. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is found mainly in shallow protected seagrass (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008) and algal habitats. It is also found in clear waters around coastal reef margins (Kuiter 2002). Small juveniles are secretive and solitary in protected reefs, larger juveniles and adults forming small to moderately large groups, especially over seagrass beds (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>This species probably feeds on small benthic invertebrates. It displays some sexual colour dimorphism, but it is not known if it is a protogynous hermaphrodite.	eng
187761	population	Pollard, D., Choat, H. & Russell, B., 2009	There is no specific population information, though this species is claimed to be common and relatively abundant in seagrass and algal habitats in south-western Australia (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
187761	threats	Pollard, D., Choat, H. & Russell, B., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. However, there are human impacts on seagrass habitats within its distribution.	eng
187762	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are many marine protected areas throughout the distribution of this species. It is known that this species occurs within the Kenting National Park of Taiwan (Shao 2005). However, the occurrence of this species within these marine protected areas needs further investigation. Specific management on this species is largely lacking throughout its range of occurrence.	eng
187762	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found from Moluccas to the Solomon Islands, north to southern Japan, south to Rowley Shoals, and was recently recorded from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187762	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species inhabits protected coral-rich reefs from three to 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187762	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	The abundance of this species varies among different studied regions. This species is considered relatively common in Indonesia and in the Philippines.<br/><br/>From a UVC using SCUBA on a fringing reef around Iriomote Island in Japan, this species was shown to have a density of 0.55 fish per 20 m<sup>2</sup> (Nakamura and Sano 2004). While in another similar survey in coral-rich areas around the Ishigaki Island in the Ryukyu Islands, a total of seven individuals were sighted from ten transects (Shibuno <em>et al.</em> 2008). In the Solomon Islands, this species was reported to be moderately common from a UVC (Allen 2006). This species is rarely caught in Taiwan waters (Shao 2005). In New Caledonia, a total of seven individuals were counted with very low density of 0.000005/m<sup>2</sup> (Michael Kulbicki, pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187762	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats to this species. Habitat degradation could be a major threat to this species in some areas. There is little record on food and aquarium trades for this species.	eng
187763	conservation	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187763	distribution	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is widespread in the Indo-West Pacific, and is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to Tonga, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Lord Howe Island.	eng
187763	habitat	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found in seagrass beds, rubble covered with algae, and sandy algal flats of lagoons and mangrove channels.  It is secretive amongst the vegetation and well-camouflaged. It feeds on zoobenthos.<br/><br/>Juveniles are known to mimic <em>Ablabys</em> spp. (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187763	population	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species can be common.<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, a total of seven individuals were observed in several UVC surveys with a size of seven to 14 cm (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187763	threats	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats for this species.  However, this species may be locally threatened by habitat loss from coastal development in some parts of it range. It is present in the aquarium trade but degree of extraction is not known.	eng
187764	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187764	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is endemic to Western Austrlian. While the latitudinal range extends from 22° South (Ningaloo) to 33° South (Esperance) the greatest abundances occur in the central section of this range from Geraldton to Perth. It is recorded from Ningaloo Reef and Murion islands (NW Australia) (Hutchins 2001).	eng
187764	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is reef associated and is found in sandy areas. Although foraging over sand is strongly reef associated (Vanderklift <em>et al.</em> 2007). It occurs from 1-45 m depth range. It forages in groups that appear to be haremic in nature. Juveniles act as cleaners to larger reef fish. It has many ecological similarities with the eastern sister species <em>Coris sandageri</em>.<br/><br/>It achieves a maximum life span of 12 yrs (southern area of range). Mean life span of northern populations three to four years extending to seven years at Bremmer Bay. Mean size increase with latitude from 130-140 mm in northern regions to mean of 281 mm Esperance. This species is probably a monandric protogynous hermaphrodite.	eng
187764	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	This is a common species, and the population is most likely increasing due to the removal of larger wrasse species through fishing.<br/><br/>The greatest abundance is found on the central WA coast. Density estimates of 50 and 28 individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> at Jurian Bay and Perth respectively. Greatests abundances (52 per 125 m<sup>2</sup>) recorded from Rottnest island. Abundances fall rapidly from the SW corner to the southern WA coast to < eight individuals per 125 m<sup>2</sup> (DeLacy 2008). It achieves greatest abundances in areas subject to high fishing pressure on larger reef fishes. It is the most abundant wrasse at Marmion and Jurian Bay central WA (Vanderklift <em>et al.</em> 2007). At Abrolhos Islands, it achieves highest abundances in areas not protected from fishing (Watson <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
187764	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats. Although not targeted by the commercial or recreational fishery, declines in the abundance of co-occurring larger wrasses means that this species may be subject to increasing recreation fishing pressure, especially in the southern areas of the range.	eng
187765	conservation	Liu, M., To, A. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187765	distribution	Liu, M., To, A. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species is found in the western central Pacific, in the Marshall Islands, the Caroline Islands and Palau. It is replaced by <em>Paracheilinus filamentosus</em> in the Philippines.	eng
187765	habitat	Liu, M., To, A. & Rocha, L., 3009	This species occurs mainly on algae-rubble beds to about 8-31 m depth (Kuiter 2002), and also in deep lagoons (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187765	population	Liu, M., To, A. & Rocha, L., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common over algal beds in lagoons in the Marshall Islands (L. Rocha pers. comm.).	eng
187765	threats	Liu, M., To, A. & Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is occasionally collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187766	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187766	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in Western Sumatra and in the Andaman sea. It has also been recorded from West Papua (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187766	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs on rubble-algae reef flats and in seagrass habitats. It can cope with habitat disturbance.	eng
187766	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species has a restricted distribution. The population size is unknown.	eng
187766	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species.	eng
187767	conservation	Pollard, D., Yusuf, Y., Hilomen, V. & Pontillas, J., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes numerous Marine Protected Areas within its range.<br/><br/>Given the collection of this species for the aquarium trade, more research is needed on the local and global impact of its collection, as well as on the implementation of sustainable harvest and trade measures.	eng
187767	distribution	Pollard, D., Yusuf, Y., Hilomen, V. & Pontillas, J., 2009	This species is widespread in the tropical and sub tropical waters (mainly between ~25° N and ~25° S) of the Indo-Pacific Region, from eastern Africa (Oman to South Africa) and the main Indian Ocean Islands in the west, to the Tuamotu Islands (French Polynesia) in the south Pacific Ocean in the east, and from southern Japan in the north west Pacific Ocean in the north, and via most of South East Asia to northern Western Australia, the southern Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island in the south west Pacific Ocean in the south.	eng
187767	habitat	Pollard, D., Yusuf, Y., Hilomen, V. & Pontillas, J., 2009	This species inhabits coral rich areas from sub-tidal reef flats to deeper lagoons and seaward reefs, down to depths of at least 40 m (Lieske and Myers 1994, Letourner <em>et al.</em> 2004, Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). <br/><br/>Juveniles are generally solitary in deep ledges and are rarely seen cleaning. Adults tend to move over larger areas to clean, rather than waiting at fixed cleaning stations like some other cleaner wrasses (e.g. <em>L. dimidiatus</em>) (Kuiter 2002). It shows pronounced cleaning behaviour which only occurs during the day. <em>Labroides bicolor</em> is active in the daytime, and may possibly produce a protective mucous cocoon at night. <br/><br/>It is probably a monandric hermaphrodite, but might also undergo bi-directional sex-change (Robertson 1972, Kuwamura <em>et al.</em> 2002, Sadovy and Liu 2008, re <em>L. dimidiatus</em>).  There appears to be no obvious adult colour dimorphism, the males and females having enerally the same colour pattern (though the male may exhibit a bluer head, Kuiter 2002). The juvenile colour pattern (yellow with a black stripe) is however different from that of the adults (Kuiter 2002).<br/><br/>It feeds on the crustacean ectoparasites of other fishes, probably including gnathiid isopods (Grutter 1997), and also on fish mucus (Masuda and Allen 1993).	eng
187767	population	Pollard, D., Yusuf, Y., Hilomen, V. & Pontillas, J., 2009	This species is relatively common in parts of its range.  It is rare in many sites in the Philippines (Werner and Allen 2000, V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008) and in peninsular  Malaysia (Y. Yusuf pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187767	threats	Pollard, D., Yusuf, Y., Hilomen, V. & Pontillas, J., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species. However, it used to be targeted in the marine aquarium fish trade but not commonly traded. Also, coral habitat degradation may have some localized impacts on this species.	eng
187768	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187768	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species ranges in the Indo-Pacific from Sri Lanka and western Australia, through Indonesia. Although its current distribution includes Papua New Guinea, these records should be verified.	eng
187768	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits lagoon and sheltered seaward reefs, in areas with mixed sand, rubble, and coral to at least 30 m. It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187768	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species.  It is generally considered to be common.	eng
187768	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187769	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place for this species. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187769	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found on the Great Barrier Reef, and in New South Wales, Australia, including Lord Howe Island and the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs to southern New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa and Tonga.	eng
187769	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is found over coral or rubble on shallow protected reefs, and occasionally in exposed areas, from 2 to 32 m.	eng
187769	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is common over coral or rubble bottoms throughout its range.	eng
187769	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187770	conservation	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species distribution overlaps a few marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187770	distribution	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species is known from northeastern Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.	eng
187770	habitat	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	This species occurs over coral, rubble and sand bottoms between depths of 10 and 65 m (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187770	population	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187770	threats	Rocha, L. & Suharti, S., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187771	conservation	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L., Ferreira, C.E. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is present within several marine protected areas in Brazil. There is a quota of 1,000 individuals/company for each species of this genus targeted for the aquarium trade in Brazil in place since 2004 (IN 202/2008).	eng
187771	distribution	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L., Ferreira, C.E. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is found along the Brazilian coast, from Maranhão to São Paulo (Menezes <em>et al.</em> 2003, Luiz-Jr <em>et al.</em> 2008), and Trindade Island.	eng
187771	habitat	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L., Ferreira, C.E. & Liu, M., 2008	This reef-associated species is found from 1-30 m.	eng
187771	population	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L., Ferreira, C.E. & Liu, M., 2008	Currently, population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. It is more common in the northern part of its range.	eng
187771	threats	Rocha, L., Francini-Filho, R., Craig, M., Ferreira, B., Moura, R.L., Ferreira, C.E. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. It is too small to be of major importance in fisheries or in the aquarium trade.	eng
187772	conservation	Craig, M. & Stockwell, B., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187772	distribution	Craig, M. & Stockwell, B., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) east to the Philippines and Samoa, north to Ryukyu Islands, and south to northern Australia.	eng
187772	habitat	Craig, M. & Stockwell, B., 2009	This species inhabits areas of mixed sand and rubble adjacent to reefs in depths of 1-32 m.  It feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187772	population	Craig, M. & Stockwell, B., 2009	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species. It is generally considered  to be common.	eng
187772	threats	Craig, M. & Stockwell, B., 2009	There are no known threats to this species. It is generally not utilized, although juveniles may occasionally be taken in the aquarium trade.	eng
187773	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no species specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it occurs within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution. The species was previously assessed as being Data Deficient for the Australian region by Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> (2002).	eng
187773	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	In the south-western Pacific, this species is found along the mainland coastline of south-eastern Australia  (New South Wales and probably northern Victoria), in the northern Tasman sea (at Lord Howe Island, Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, and Norfolk Island), and in north-eastern New Zealand (especially around the adjacent islands) and the Kermadec Islands.	eng
187773	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This sub-tropical to warm temperate species inhabits coastal and island waters over algal-covered rocks, sandy substrates, deeper rocky reefs and coral reef habitats (Pogonoski <em>et al.</em> 2002). It occurs in small aggregations of juvenile to sub-adult individuals over deep sand slopes from 20-40 m, with larger adults occurring nearby (Kuiter 1993). It is common in the lagoons at Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, where it occurs around coral outcrops and over coral rubble (Gill and Reader 1992). In New Zealand it is often found over sand patches, but tends to avoid large expanses of purely rocky habitat (Ayling and Cox 1982).<br/><br/>It is active during the day and sleeps buried in the sand at night (Ayling and Cox 1982, Edgar 1997). Juveniles are cleaners of other fishes, and adults feed on small benthic invertebrates, and especially crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms and worms (Doak 1972, Ayling and Cox 1982).<br/><br/>It is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite, and the males maintain territories during the spawning season (December to March), courting any females that may be in the area at the time (Ayling and Cox 1982). Its eggs and larvae are probably planktonic. <br/><br/>Males may reach an age of 22 years (Choat unpublished), and the spearfishing record for this species in New Zealand was 2.7 kg (Doak 1972).	eng
187773	population	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	Little information is available on the status of populations of this species off the coastline of New South Wales, where it is relatively rare (Coleman 1980). Parker (1999) found it to be rare in 10-20 m depths around the Julian Rocks off Byron Bay in northern New South Wales. However, it is much more common in north-eastern New Zealand, where it occurs at densities of 0.8-12.6 fish per 100 m<sup>2</sup>. The highest densities (12.6 per 100 m<sup>2</sup>) were recorded off the Poor Knights Islands (Choat and Ayling 1987, Denny 2005), and densities there ranged from 4.4 to 7.2 per 100 m<sup>2</sup> during the period from 1975 to 1982 (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1988).	eng
187773	threats	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no known major threats to this species, though it is taken by spearfishers and may also be taken as a bycatch in recreational line fisheries. Because of its relative rarity in New South Wales coastal waters, the Underwater Research Group of New South Wales requested that this species be placed on this state's Protected Species list, but examination of spearfishing competition records indicated that there had been no declines in either fish numbers or fish sizes in these competition catches, so it was not listed (Smith and Pollard 1996).	eng
187774	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187774	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is restricted to the Marquesas Islands (Fatu Hiva, Tahuata, Nuku Hiva).	eng
187774	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 72 mm SL. It occurs on open rubble and sand bottoms. It was collected in depths of 19-41 m.	eng
187774	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. There are very few records of this species.	eng
187774	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187775	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187775	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	This Mediterranean endemic species is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the Gulf of Lion in the north-western basin, the eastern Levant (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006), and the north-western Aegean Sea. It is present in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea.	eng
187775	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species inhabits rocky shores and reefs, and also seagrass (<em>Posidonia</em>) beds. It feeds on bryozoans, worms, small molluscs and amphipods (Quignard and Pras 1986). Spawning takes place from May to July in the Western Mediterranean (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187775	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is abundant in the Mediterranean Sea where it occurs, but is generally more common in the western basin. There is no specific population information available for this species.	eng
187775	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187776	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. There are a number of established marine protected areas in Mauritius (Wood 2007).	eng
187776	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known from a single male specimen sampled in Pointe aux Canonniers, Mauritius.	eng
187776	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, known only from the holotype, a male 64.4 mm SL, collected by hand net in 25 m.	eng
187776	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from one specimen.	eng
187776	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187777	conservation	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it is protected in marine reserves in parts of its range (i.e. Raita and West St. Rogatien Bank Reserve Preservation Areas (RPAs) in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (NWHICRER). <br/><br/>The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve allows bottom fishing (Kelley and Ikehara 2006), but P. russelli is considered as bycatch. Kahoolawe Island Reserve does not allow bottom fishing.	eng
187777	distribution	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species is found in the western central Pacific from Okinawa and east to the Society Islands including Hawaii.	eng
187777	habitat	Bertoncini, A., 2009	This species inhabits deep rocky reefs, ranging from 100 to 353 m.<br/><br/>It is similar in color pattern to another deepwater labrid, Halichoeres raisneri described in 2001 from the southeast Pacific, Galapagos Islands. The former differs from <em>H. raisneri</em> in having three (vs. two) yellow stripes, the dorsalmost running along the base of the dorsal fin (see Baldwin and McCosker, 2001).<br/><br/>A juvenile of about 100 mm (TL) was videotaped by Randall in 315 m. Its most striking marking is a large pale-edged black spot at the upper base of the caudal fin. On adults this spot is red and less distinct (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1985).	eng
187777	population	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. Specimens are known from bycatch.	eng
187777	threats	Bertoncini, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is captured for food by trawls but mostly by hook and line.	eng
187778	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187778	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is only known from the northern Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). The distribution for this species is uncertain.	eng
187778	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 68 mm SL. Habitat of this species is not known.	eng
187778	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is only known from a few specimens which are initial phase individuals.	eng
187778	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187779	conservation	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187779	distribution	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is widespread in the western Indian Ocean, and is found from Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1992) to South Africa (Randall 1986) in the west, via the main Indian Ocean Islands, and eastwards to Madagascar and the Maldive Islands. It is also recorded in Sri Lanka (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187779	habitat	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is coral reef-associated (Masuda and Allen 1993), found on lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 30 m. There appears to be no distinctive colour dimorphism in this species.	eng
187779	population	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	This species is very common throughout its range.	eng
187779	threats	Pollard, D. & Cabanban, A., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade and is caught as food fish for subsistence fisheries. There is some destruction of its coral reef habitats in some parts of its range (Hodgson 1999).	eng
187780	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187780	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-West Pacific from the Maldives east to Fiji, and north to southern Japan, and south to the Solomon Islands and to Shark Bay in northwestern Australia. It is also reported from Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey).	eng
187780	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species occurs in coral reefs and reef flats (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006) from 1-15 m (Myers 1991) but is usually found in depths from 1-12 m (Baesch and Debelius 1997). Prey items include zoobenthos and macrofauna (Sano <em>et al.</em> 1984).<br/><br/>Color pattern remains generally similar throughout life. Large juveniles and females are mostly black with a single white band and white area below the head to the anus. Males retain the white central band, though this is more yellow, and they also develop a second narrow band halfway towards the head (Kuiter and Tonozuka 1994). <br/><br/>Initial phase is white with three black bars, the first on upper half of head and anterior body containing a yellow streak at edge of opercle, the second across dorsal fin and ventrally to anus, the third covering most of the body and posterior portions of dorsal and anal fins. Terminal male with yellow between black bars. Pectoral fins bluish (Westneat 2001).	eng
187780	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	This species is common in many parts of its range. For example, it is common in Indonesia (S. Suharto), and is considered moderately common in shallow waters (0-15 m) exposed to surge, in Solomon islands (Allen <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187780	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187781	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187781	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species occurs in three widely disjuct areas of distribution in the Indo-Pacific: from the Natal coast of South Africa to the Mascarene Islands, including St Brandon’s Shoals, and northern Madagascar, eastern Australia to the Pitcairn Group including New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji, Norfolk Island, southern Queensland and northern New South Wales coast south to Sydney Harbour, in the Northern Hemisphere from Taiwan and southern Japan northward to Sagami Bay and south to the Ogosawara Islands (Gomon 2006).	eng
187781	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, to about 460 mm SL. It inhabits the vicinity of coral and rocky reefs, often over sand or rubble in deeper water but juveniles may occur as shallow as nine m. <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans (Westneat 2001).	eng
187781	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is extremely common in New Caledonia (Gomon 2006). It constitutes approximatly 12% by weight of commercial fish landings in New Caledonia (Gomon 2006).	eng
187781	threats	Russell, B., 2008	Threats to the species are hook and line fisheries in New Caledonia. There are no major threats elsewhere.	eng
187782	conservation	Bertoncini, A. & Choat, H., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place. However, it occurs in MPAs in parts of its range (Pati Point, Piti Bomb Holes and Sasa Bay Marine Preserves, Haputo, Horote Peninsula Ecological Reserve Area and Guam Territorial Seashore Park and National Wildlife Refuge).	eng
187782	distribution	Bertoncini, A. & Choat, H., 2009	This species was described from specimens from D’Entrecasteaux Islands and Uama Island, Papua New Guinea, Guam, Mariana Islands, Wake Island, Normanby Island, and Gallow’s Reef. It is also found in the lagoon of Tahiti, Society Islands. It has been recorded from southern Japan (Senou <em>et al.</em> 2007),  New Caledonia and Vanuatu (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187782	habitat	Bertoncini, A. & Choat, H., 2009	This species inhabits sand or sand and rubble bottoms, at depths of 21-49 m. Generally at depths of 30 m or more, and well away from coral reefs (Randall and Lobel 2003).<br/><br/><em>Xyrichtys halsteadi</em> is distinct from the one other described species of the genus in the Indo-Pacific, the Hawaiian <em>Xyrichtys woodi</em>, in having the first two dorsal spines flexible (one in <em>woodi</em>), a more elongate body (depth 3.1–3.35 in standard length, compared to 2.7-2.8 for <em>woodi</em>), and in color (Randall and Lobel 2003).<br/><br/>Juveniles of <em>X. woodi</em>, however, more closely resemble the young and female stage of <em>X. halsteadi</em> in color. Juveniles and females of <em>X. halsteadi</em> are whitish with a red band from above eye to back at base of dorsal fin, males are more colorful, featuring a pale-edged black spot on the seventh lateral-line scale and scales in the next row below (Randall and Lobel 2003).	eng
187782	population	Bertoncini, A. & Choat, H., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187782	threats	Bertoncini, A. & Choat, H., 2009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187783	conservation	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. There are national regulations on exports and quotas. Also, the Marine Aquarium Council sets standards and certification for captures aquarium species.	eng
187783	distribution	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is distirbuted in the Western Pacific from southern Japan to Queensland, Australia. It is also recorded from Mentawai Island, Indonesia (Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola 1984).<br/><br/>It may ultimately be regarded as a subspecies of <em>Halichoeres zeylonsis</em> of the Indian Ocean. <em>Halichoeres hartzfeldii</em> is replaced by <em>H. zeylonicus</em> to the west of Bali (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187783	habitat	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	This species inhabits seaward reefs, prefers open expanses of sand or mixed sand, rubble, and pavement usually below 11 m.  It inhabits depths from 10–70 m (Shao 1986). It occurs in loose groups of one male and numerous smaller females and juveniles.  Small groups of females and males were observed moving over large areas by themselves, regularly checking females (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>The maximum size recorded was 18.0 cm TL (male/unsexed) (Kuiter 1993).	eng
187783	population	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187783	threats	Cabanban, A., Russell, B., Myers, R. & Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187784	conservation	Pollard, D., Cabanban, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, however its distribution overlaps several marine reserves in parts of its range.	eng
187784	distribution	Pollard, D., Cabanban, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This primarily tropical species is widely distributed throughout much of the Indo-Pacific region, from the Red Sea (Jordan) and East Africa in the west to the Tuamotu Islands and Rapa (French Polynesia) in the east, and from the Ryukyu Islands (southern Japan) in the north to the Great Barrier Reef in the south (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187784	habitat	Pollard, D., Cabanban, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This species occurs in insular and coastal waters primarily around coral reefs, and particularly in clear lagoon and seaward reef areas over mixed living coral, coral rubble and sand habitats, from the lower surge zone down to 30 m (Myers 1991, Lieske and Myers 1994).  <br/><br/>It is carnivorous, feeding mainly on benthic macro-invertebrates (Masuda and Allen 1993, Lieske and Myers 1994).  It shows some sexual colour dimorphism. It is not known whether this species is a protogynous hermaphrodite like most other members of the genus.	eng
187784	population	Pollard, D., Cabanban, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	This is apparently a relatively common species throughout most of its broad range. There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
187784	threats	Pollard, D., Cabanban, A. & Yeeting, B., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though specimens are occasionally captured live for the marine aquarium fish trade, and others are occassionally sold in local fish markets for food.	eng
187785	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures in place, however more than two thirds of its range is enclosed by the boundaries of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, a federally protected no-take marine reserve (USA).	eng
187785	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands (USA).	eng
187785	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble patches adjacent to and within coral reefs, usually among algae, in depths less than 10 m.  It feeds on mollusks, gastropods, crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes, amphipods, isopods, chitons, and foraminiferans (Randall, 1985).	eng
187785	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no available explicit information on population trends.  However casual observations and most species accounts indicate that this species is very common throughout its range.	eng
187785	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no known threats for this species.	eng
187786	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187786	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in Eastern Indonesia to Palau and the Line Islands. It is replaced by Halichoeres trispilus in the Indian Ocean. This species probably has a wider intermediate distribution not picked up due to the deeper habitat type.	eng
187786	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a small wrasse approximately 10 cm in length. It is found in deep reef slopes from 37-74 m. It occurs in small groups of females and dominating males.	eng
187786	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187786	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187787	conservation	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Moura, R., Rocha, L., Francini Filho, R., Sampaio, C. & Ferreira, C., 2008	In Brazil, <em>T. noronhanum</em> has been managed through a Federal Act (56/04), established in 2004 by the Brazilian environmental protection agency, based on the establishment of export quotas for the aquarium trade. The quota for this species is 1,000 individuals/company/year. More research is needed to determine if this quota is sustainable for all species.This species is present in a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range, including Fernando de Noronha Marine Park and Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve, the two places where it is most abundant.	eng
187787	distribution	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Moura, R., Rocha, L., Francini Filho, R., Sampaio, C. & Ferreira, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil. It is found from Maranhao to Santa Catarina, inluding all oceanic islands (Lubbock and Edwards 1981, Ramos 1994, Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999, Rosa and Moura 1997, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2003, Hostim <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187787	habitat	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Moura, R., Rocha, L., Francini Filho, R., Sampaio, C. & Ferreira, C., 2008	This species is associated with coral and rocky reefs and occurs at depths of 0 to 60 m (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). It has been recorded inside the lumen of tubular sponges (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2000). <br/><br/>The Noronha wrasse is classified as a specialized cleaner. Groups of 10-450 individuals, in initial phase, clean Surgeonfishes, Damselfishes, Parrotfishes and Groupers at Fernando de Noronha and Trindade Island (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). The following behavior was observed between the Noronha wrasse and the green turtle (<em>Chelonya midas</em>) where it was seen picking off particles stirred from the bottom by the turtle’s activity (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2004). It was also recorded following 15 species of fish at Fernando de Noronha: two species of grunt, two goatfishes, one damselfish, two wrasses, three parrotfishes, one surgeonfish, one triggerfish, one filefish, one boxfish and one trunkfish (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). <br/><br/>This species is diurnal, feeds mainly on small benthic invertebrates and zooplankton and is one of the last reef fishes to emerge from nocturnal shelters and one of the first to retreat (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2001, Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001). <br/><br/>Initial-phase individuals are predominantly dark-brown and white, whereas terminal-phase males are blue and purple. Usually form harems, but pair spawning was also recorded. The harems are dominated by a few terminal-phase males (Rocha <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
187787	population	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Moura, R., Rocha, L., Francini Filho, R., Sampaio, C. & Ferreira, C., 2008	This species is very abundant in the northern portion of its range, but is uncommon or rare in rocky reefs in the southern portion of its range. It is the most abundant fish species in the oceanic islands, except on St. Pauls Rocks.<br/><br/>For the northeastern Brazil, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> (2005) states that the population status of is abundant. A single subadult in a large rockpool at Sain Paul’s Rocks was recorded (Lubbock and Edwards 1981). In this same island, Feitoza <em>et al.</em> stated that the population status of the Noronha wrasse is rare. It was classified as very common (observed in a variety of habitats, with more than five individuals per dive) at Trindade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001).The Noronha wrasse is specially abundant around the oceanic islands of the Atol das Rocas and the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (Sazima <em>et al.</em> 2005). It was the most abundant fish (79,8% of the total number of individuals) in a study performed by Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> (2000) at Fernando de Noronha. The total length of the terminal individuals were about 115 mm (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000). In Atol das Rocas, the Noronha wrasse was the dominant teleost (30.5% of the total number of individuals) (Rosa and Moura, 1995).  It is apparently also common in Bahia (Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999).<br/><br/>There were 154 individuals exported in 2007 from Brazil (IBAMA 2007).	eng
187787	threats	Ferreira, B.P., Feitosa, C.V., Moura, R., Rocha, L., Francini Filho, R., Sampaio, C. & Ferreira, C., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187788	conservation	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. This species is not known to be present in any marine protected areas.	eng
187788	distribution	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is only known from Sumatra, Indonesia but may also range to Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Laccadives Islands in the Andaman Sea, and to southwestern Thailand (Kuiter 2002).	eng
187788	habitat	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species inhabits mixed coral, rubble, and sand slopes from depths of 12 to 40 m.<br/><br/>A group of 10-15 individuals were sighted and observed on rubble bottom at the base of a moderate slope. Twice during late afternoon males were observed chasing females and engaging in courtship displays in which dorsal and pelvic fins were fully erect (Allen 2000).	eng
187788	population	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	This species is common on slopes of coral, rubble and sand bottoms in northern Sumatra. Currently population size or trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187788	threats	Rocha, L. & Pollard, D., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187789	conservation	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187789	distribution	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is newly described and is only known from Holmes Reef, in the Coral Sea.	eng
187789	habitat	Sadovy, Y., 3009	This species is poorly known. The few specimens were collected in a depth range of 8 to 15 m on rubble and hard bottom (Randall and Walsh 2008).	eng
187789	population	Sadovy, Y., 3009	There is no population information for this species. It is recently described.	eng
187789	threats	Sadovy, Y., 3009	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.	eng
187790	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.<br/><br/>It is recommended that research be conducted to look at the full distribution of this species and also to assess the extent of the habitat development in the Arabian Gulf region.	eng
187790	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species has a restricted range, found only from northern Oman to Qatar in the Arabian Gulf (Randall and Earle, 1994). It has an extent of occurance of less than 65,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and an area of occupancy estimated to be approximately 1,600 km<sup>2</sup>.	eng
187790	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species occurs in shallow reef flats and rubble areas. The habitat has small pockets of reef.	eng
187790	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. However, there have been declines due to the coastal development of the habitat.	eng
187790	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	The shallow water habitat and restricted distribution of this species is threatened from seabed reclamation in many areas within the Arabian Gulf.	eng
187791	conservation	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187791	distribution	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is only known from reefs in the Coral Sea, Fiji, Tonga and Vanuatu.	eng
187791	habitat	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	This species is found between 46 to 56 m.	eng
187791	population	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187791	threats	Liu, M. & To, A., 3009	There are no major threats known to this species.	eng
187792	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species specific conservation measures currently in place for <em>C. centralis</em>, however a reasonable portion of its range is within marine protected areas (Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (USA)).	eng
187792	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from the western central Pacific in the Line Islands (Kiribati), Johnston atoll, and Phoenix Islands.	eng
187792	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits sandy lagoons and low-profile patch reefs from depths of 4.5-46 m. It reaches a maximum size of 10 cm.	eng
187792	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information known on population trends in this species. <em>Coris centralis</em> is a common species.	eng
187792	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187793	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187793	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known from the western Pacific in Japan and Taiwan.	eng
187793	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species inhabits areas of boulders and rubble with high algal cover in depths of 7-17 m.  It likely feeds on micro-zoobenthos.	eng
187793	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no explicit data available on population trends for this species.	eng
187793	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it may be caught as bycatch in the aquarium trade.	eng
187794	conservation	Cabanban, A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Trawl-fishery in northern Australia is relatively well-managed.	eng
187794	distribution	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species is found from Northwestern Australia (Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> 1985) to Papua New Guinea (Kailola 1987).	eng
187794	habitat	Cabanban, A., 2008	This species inhabits flat sandy or weedy areas.  It is a demersal species found in depths from 10-50 m.	eng
187794	population	Cabanban, A., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187794	threats	Cabanban, A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187795	conservation	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187795	distribution	Choat, J.H., 2008	This is a coastal species found in Kenya, Tanzania including Zanzibar, to Inhaca Island, Mozambique and extends south to Aliwal Shoal in South Africa. It is also found in Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles.	eng
187795	habitat	Choat, J.H., 2008	This species is a small highly secretive wrasses. It is associated with sheltered shallow reef and shore environments dominated by macroscopic algae (Kuiter 2002). It is a small species up to 15 cm (TL).	eng
187795	population	Choat, J.H., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187795	threats	Choat, J.H., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, there is habitat degradation from coastal development such as aquaculture.	eng
187796	conservation	Cheung, W.W.L., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. There are some 14 marine protected areas of various degree of protection around along the coast of O’ahu where <em>A. dicrus</em>was reported to occur (Wood 2005).<br/><br/>This species is not-well known, more research is needed on this species distribution, population status, habitat requirements, life history and major theats.	eng
187796	distribution	Cheung, W.W.L., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is known from Wake Atoll and from the Hawaiian Islands (Parenti and Randall 2000, Lobel and Lobel 2004, Mundy 2005).	eng
187796	habitat	Cheung, W.W.L., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	This species is found over open sand bottom and rocky shores, in small, swift-swimming schools (Randall and Carlson 1997). It is a benthopelagic species, feeding on zooplankton above the substratum (Randall 2007).	eng
187796	population	Cheung, W.W.L., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.  It is locally abundant in Oahu.	eng
187796	threats	Cheung, W.W.L., Craig, M. & Rocha, L., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. It may be locally affected by human disturbance such as coastal development and habitat loss.	eng
187797	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.<br/><br/>More information is needed on the  population numbers and range, biology and ecology, habitat status and threats to the species.	eng
187797	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from the Gulf of Oman (Bandar Sibab) to the Arabian Gulf, Sri Lanka (Negombo, Tricomalee), southwest coast of India (Vizinjam), Singapore (Salu Islet), E. coast of Malaysia (Pulau Chebeh, PulauTulai), Philippines, Indonesia (Flores, Ambon, Pulau Seribu, northeast Sulawesi), Solomon Is (Savo and Guadalcanal), Papua New Guinea (Madang) and Australia (Great Barrier Reef to Sydney, Western Australia (Ningaloo Reef to Monte Bello Islands), southwards to Point Quobba).	eng
187797	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	This is a small species, to about 108 mm SL. It occurs in aggregations on or near reefs on rubble bottoms, usually where water is turbid and rich in plankton. It feeds on zooplankton about a metre or more above substratum. It is collected in depths of 4-45 m. <br/><br/>This species is sexually dichromatic, IP fish are much more abundant than TP males, suggesting a haremic population structure. It is a fast growing species (B. Yeeting pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187797	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information avaialble for this species. It is uncommon in the Philippines (B. Stockwell pers. comm. 2009). This species can be locally common but not abundant.<br/><br/>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 33.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 0.5 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187797	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats to this species, although it is collected as bycatch for the aquarium trade.	eng
187798	conservation	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures for this species. It is not known to occur in any marine protected areas.	eng
187798	distribution	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is known only from Indonesia (western Sumatra and the Mentawai Islands).	eng
187798	habitat	Rocha, L., 3009	This species is reef-associated from 10-30 m (Randall and Kunzman 1998). This species is found in rubble and sandy areas.	eng
187798	population	Rocha, L., 3009	Currently, population size or trends have not been assessed for this species. This species is not considered to be very common. It is not present in FAO global production estimates.	eng
187798	threats	Rocha, L., 3009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187799	conservation	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187799	distribution	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This species is only found in the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Island.	eng
187799	habitat	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	This species occurs in reef flats and clear lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of 15 m. It feeds primarily on bivalves, polychaete worms, peanut worms, gastropods, various small crustaceans and foraminiferans.	eng
187799	population	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. This species is common.	eng
187799	threats	Craig, M., Rocha, L. & Liu, M., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187800	conservation	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species has a legal minimum length (LML) and the commercial fishery is capped at 51 licenses in Victoria. The minimum legal size is 30 cm with no upper limit, and 58 fishing licences have been issued in Tasmania. This species distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. <br/><br/>However, research is needed on population numbers and with regard to fisheries, trends should also be monitored.	eng
187800	distribution	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known in Australia from southern New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and eastern South Australia. Throughout New Zealand, including Three Kings Is,  Stewart I. and Snares Is. (Francis 1996).	eng
187800	habitat	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	A large species, to about 365 mm SL. It is common on rocky reefs in depths to about 90 m (Graham 1938).  Spawning occurs during the same period in New Zealand and Australia from about August to December (Barrett 1995a, Denny and Schiel 2002, Harwood and Lokman 2006). Spawning in southern New Zealand occurs once each lunar cycle during the spawning season, resulting in four batches of eggs each year around the time of the full moon (Harwood and Lokman 2006). Annual fecundity in southern New Zealand fish ranged between 298,000 (± 139,600) and 447,000 (± 209 400) eggs/kg body weight (Harwood and Lokman 2006).  <br/><br/>Sexually dichromatic, monandric and secondary gonochorists (Barrett 1995, Denny and Schiel 2002). The sex of purple wrasse appears to be genetically based and is determined before sexual maturity is reached (Barrett 1995a, Denny and Schiel 2002). <br/><br/>Early life history stages described by Welsford <em>et al.</em> (2004). Males and females attain maturity at around 15 cm TL. Maximum age in Tasmania is reported as about 20 years (Barrett 1995a, Ewing <em>et al.</em> 2003) and in Victoria 16 years (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003). The relationship between fork length and age was described by the von Bertalanffy growth function (L∞ = 368 mm, K = 0.116 and t0 = -1.87 for males and L∞ = 385.7 mm, K = 0.109 and t0 = -1.96 for females) (Ewing <em>et al.</em> 2003).<br/><br/>This species is site attached, but, males may range over at least 1,700 m<sup>2</sup> of reef (Barrett 1995b).<br/><br/>Hybrid specimens of this species and both <em>N. celidotus</em> and <em>N. inscriptus</em> have been reported (Ayling 1980, Russell 1988). Food items consists of crabs, hermit crabs, limpets and gastropod molluscs (Russell 1983, 1988).	eng
187800	population	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common throughout its range. Populations are thought to be curently stable, however there are some concerns that fishing pressure, if continued at current levels, may cause populations to decline in the future (B. Russell pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187800	threats	Russell, B. & Pollard, D., 2008	Major theats are fishing (domestic live fish trade) in Tasmania and Victoria. Taken together with bluethroat wrasse, <em>Notolabrus tetricus</em>, mainly by traps and to a lesser degree by handlines. There is an apparent market preference for bluethroat wrasse, but purple wrasse are more robust for live handling (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008).<br/><br/>Live fish fishery developed in 1990’s in Tasmania and Victoria. Catches are not separately reported, but total catches of purple (<em>N. fucicola</em>) and bluethroat (<em>N. tetricus</em>) wrasses in Tasmania dramatically increased from 70 t (1991/92) to 100 t (1992/93). Since 1995/96, wrasse catches were relatively stable and consistently over 70 t. Over the last five years, they have generally increased and reached 108 t in 2006/07, largely due to higher handline catches (Ziegler <em>et al.</em> 2008). In Victoria, catches peaked in 1998 at about 90 t, and subsequently declined to about 50 t.  Effort also has declined since 1998, but overall catch rates are being maintained in Victoria (Smith <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
187801	conservation	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place. This species range overlaps several marine protected areas within its distribution.	eng
187801	distribution	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is known from the north of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan through the Philippines, Sabah (Malaysia), Palau, and Indonesia to Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tonga. It has also been reported from Cocos-Keeling Islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009).	eng
187801	habitat	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is found in deep coastal to outer reef drop-offs and steep slopes. It occurs over rubble or sandy bottoms with small isolated patch reefs of low profile. Juveniles are solitary among large rubble, usually in 2-30 m depth. Adults are found in loose aggregations in moderate depths, usually 40 m or more around patch reef.	eng
187801	population	Rocha, L., 2009	This species is common in some parts of its range. It is considered occasional in Tonga and Vanuatu.	eng
187801	threats	Rocha, L., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, although it is exploited in the aquarium trade.	eng
187802	conservation	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187802	distribution	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa in the west (Randall 1986) to the Line and Ducie Islands in the east, northward to southern Japan, southward to Lord Howe Island, Rapa Islands and also in Pohnpei (G. Allen unpublished survey). <br/><br/>Indo-Pacific distribution achieves its highest abundance on the Australian plate, especially in Western Australia (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187802	habitat	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species occurs in the vicinity of sand or rubble patches of exposed outer reef flats, lagoon reefs, and seaward reefs (Myers 1991), often in semi-exposed surge zones (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).  Adults are solitary. Juveniles are common in shallow tide pools (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). It feeds mainly on hard-shelled invertebrates including crustaceans, molluscs and sea urchins (Westneat 2001). Minimum depth reported of three m from Baensch and Debelius (1997). Randall (1999) questioned the identity of specimens exceeding 70 cm. Size recorded to 120 cm but this record is questionable.  Largest size recorded from GBR was at 47.8 cm (FL).<br/><br/>It is a reef front species generally occurring on outer slopes of reefs to at least 45m (1-26m in Western Australia). Juveniles are found in shallow water of sheltered habitats. Maximum recorded age 16 yrs (J.H. Choat pers. comm.).  It is a rare fast growing wrasses achieving large size by rapid growth of males (J.H. Choat pers. comm.) This species is probably protogynous but this needs confirmation.	eng
187802	population	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	This is a common species although not always abundant. Abundance estimates (mean number per hectare) in Seychelles 0.3-0.5, Cocos Keeling 0.1-0.9, West Australia off shore 0.4-1.8 , GBR 0.4-0.9, and Coral Sea 0.33 with highest numbers on WA Offshore reefs (Rowley Shoals) (JH Choat pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This is one of the large tropical wrasses with a broad geographic distribution. As with most of the other widely distributed tropical species, it is relatively rare in any particular locality (0.1-1.8 individuals per hectare) over much of its range and we do not have a very good handle on numbers or trends. For the large wrasses, wide-spread tropical species such as  <em>C.undulatus, C.aygula, L.maximus</em> and possibly <em>C.schoenleinii</em> have been impacted by fisheries over much of their ranges.	eng
187802	threats	Choat, J.H. & Pollard, D., 2008	Threats to this species include harvesting of juveniles for the aquarium trade (Wood 2001), artisanal and subsistence fishing in the Indo-Pacific. <br/><br/>For the large wrasses, wide spread tropical species, such as<span style="font-style: italic;"> C. undulatus</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">C. aygula</span>, <span style="font-style: italic;">L. maximus </span>and possibly <span style="font-style: italic;">C. schoenleinii</span>, have been impacted by fishing over much of their ranges. Threats must be considered in the context of local rarity but widespread distribution (J.H. Choat pers. comm. 2008).<br/><br/>This species consistently shows up in subsistence and recreational fisheries in Guam (every year since 1985 -2007), caught mainly by hook and line and spear (R. Myers pers. comm. 2008, Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources data, unpublished annual reports).	eng
187803	conservation	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187803	distribution	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2009	This species is found in the Eastern Atlantic from central Norway southwards to Portugal, including the southern Baltic Sea, the United Kingdom and Ireland, and south-eastern Greenland. It was introduced into the Mediterranean Sea at Malaga, southern Spain, in 1979 (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187803	habitat	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2009	This species is apparently mainly found in shallow inshore areas near rocks and seagrass beds (Quignard and Pras 1986), although exact depth ranges are not available. It feeds on small benthic invertebrates, and particularly crustaceans (Quignard and Pras 1986). It is apparently used in salmon culture as a cleaner fish (Tethmeyer pers. comm.). It spawns in the summer, when the eggs are laid in a nest constructed of seaweed (Muus and Nielsen 1999). <br/><br/>Nothing is known on the reproductive biology of this species.	eng
187803	population	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2009	This species apparently exists as healthy populations in shallow waters around the cool temperate coastlines of Western Europe, where it is apparently relatively common. There is no specific population information available. It was also apparently introduced into the Mediterranean Sea, near Malaga in southern Spain, in 1979, though there is no current information on its survival in this area (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187803	threats	Pollard, D. & Liu, M., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
187804	conservation	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187804	distribution	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	This species is confined to the subtropical and warm temperate northwestern Pacific between Sagami Bay, Japan, and the northeastern tip of Taiwan. It was reported from the Southern tip of Korea (Kim <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
187804	habitat	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	A moderatly large species, reaches about 290 mm SL.This species lives in rocky reefs and coral reefs. Depths are estimated to at least 50 m, probably deeper (Myers pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187804	population	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187804	threats	Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187805	conservation	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187805	distribution	Pollard, D., 2008	In the Eastern Atlantic, this species is present from north-western Spain to north-western Morocco. It is present throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas.	eng
187805	habitat	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is found near rocks and rocky reefs, over seagrass beds, and sometimes also in saline coastal lagoons. <br/><br/>It lives singly or in small groups, and feeds on sea-urchins, ophiuroids, bivalves, shrimps and crabs.<br/><br/>There is a distinct sexual dimorphism, and the species is at least partially a protogynous hermaphrodite. Spawning takes place in spring, when a seaweed nest is built and guarded by the male, with one or more females laying their adhesive eggs in it (Golani <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
187805	population	Pollard, D., 2008	This species is common throughout the Mediterranean Sea.	eng
187805	threats	Pollard, D., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species. However, being the largest member of its genus, it is sold for food when caught in local artisanal fisheries (D. Pollard pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187806	conservation	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range (Wood 2007).	eng
187806	distribution	Craig, M.T., 2009	This species is known only from Natal, South Africa, and Madagascar.	eng
187806	habitat	Craig, M.T., 2009	Like other species in the genus, <em>M. vivienae</em> likely inhabits shallow areas of sand and rubble adjacent to reefs. It is found in depths from 10-30 m.	eng
187806	population	Craig, M.T., 2009	There is no explicit information available on population trends for this species.	eng
187806	threats	Craig, M.T., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species, although it is sometimes collected for the aquarium trade.	eng
187807	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187807	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found from Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, off the southern tip of New Caledonia, the Lord Howe Ridge and the Kermadec Ridge northeast of New Zealand.	eng
187807	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, reaches about 422 mm SL. It is collected at depths of 114–340 m.	eng
187807	population	Russell, B., 2008	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187807	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
187808	conservation	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species, though it is probably well protected within a number of Marine Protected Areas within its distribution, at least in Australia.	eng
187808	distribution	Pollard, D., 2009	This sub-tropical to warm temperate species is known from the south-western and south-eastern Pacific Ocean, from the southern Great Barrier Reef (Queensland), off the northern and sometimes southern mainland coastlines of New South Wales, and at Lord Howe Island, Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs in Australia, and in New Caledonia (Chesterfield Islands) in the south-western Pacific. <br/><br/>It is also reported to be found at Rapa (French Polynesia), and Pitcairn and Easter Islands in the south-eastern Pacific Ocean (Lieske and Myers 1994), though some or all of the latter south-eastern Pacific island localities could represent a different species. There are visual records reported from the Philippines that need to be confirmed (V. Hilomen pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187808	habitat	Pollard, D., 2009	This species generally occurs in insular and coastal waters around rocky and coral reefs (Coleman 1981) at depths of 10 to 30 m.<br/><br/>Small juveniles are secretive amongst kelp plants, and adults aggregate in small groups in deeper waters just below the kelp line (e.g. around the inshore rocky islands off northern New South Wales in SE Australia) (Kuiter 1996). This species is carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans, but probably also on other benthic macro-invertebrates. It has pronounced sexual colour dimorphism, and is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
187808	population	Pollard, D., 2009	In New Caledonia, 98 individuals were recorded in UVC surveys at the Chesterfield Reefs (M. Kubicki pers. comm. 2008). This species is relatively uncommon in SE Australian mainland coastal waters. In French Polynesia this species is considered uncommon.	eng
187808	threats	Pollard, D., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species, though it is occasionally taken for the marine aquarium fish trade.	eng
187809	conservation	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. It was observed in Bateman Bay, Ningaloo Marine Park by using baited underwater video surveys (Fitzpatrick and Penrose 2002). It was also recorded in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2004).	eng
187809	distribution	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	This species is found in the western Pacific, including northwest Australia (North West Shelf to Cape York) and New Caledonia, and throughout southeast Asia, the Indo-Malay-Phillippine Archipelago, and extending into the Indian Ocean in an area to the west of the Malay Peninsula (Allen 2000, Westneat 2001).	eng
187809	habitat	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	Ecology of this species is unknown (Westneat 2001). It inhabits flat sandy bottoms or rubble areas (Allen and Swainston 1988, Allen 2000) and coral reefs at depths of 35 to 85 m (Westneat 2001). <br/><br/>The maximum size is around 14 cm SL (Allen 2000). Curved canines are present on each side of rear of upper jaw and lateral line smoothly curved, uninterrupted, with 29 pored scales. Initial phase is olivaceous the upper part of the body and a broad blackish band present dorsally on side (Westneat 2001). It is distinguished by the four or five narrow blue stripes outlined with yellow-orange in front of eye and yellowish fins (Allen 2000).	eng
187809	population	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There is limited information on the population status of this species. This species is not well sampled, given its deeper water habitat.<br/><br/>60 individuals were recorded through a trawling survey in the Chesterfield Islands, on the Bellona plateau and Lansdowne Bank (Kulbicki <em>et al.</em> 1990). In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, two individuals and 69 individuals were found by using baited remote underwater video sampling and prawn trawls (Cappo <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>In the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia, Blaber <em>et al.</em> (1994) reported that the percentage of occurrence in 107 trawl stations was 0.9 %. In a summary of an internal report produced for the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australian Government, only two individuals were officially recorded in the gillnet, hook and trap fishery and great Australian bight trawl fishery from 1993-2004 (Bromhead and Bolton 2005).<br/><br/>In New Caledonia, only one individual with 12 cm TL was counted in various UVC surveys (M. Kulbicki pers. comm. 2008).	eng
187809	threats	Shea, S., Liu, M., Craig, M.T. & Rocha, L.A., 2008	There are no major threats known for this water as it inhabits deeper waters. However, it may be locally caught as it was found in by-catch during a shrimp trawl survey in the northern Australia Prawn Fishery (Stobutzki <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
187810	conservation	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known species specific conservation measures in place.	eng
187810	distribution	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is found in the western Pacific, from the Indo-Malay Archipelago, Philippines, to PNG, Solomon Islands and NE Australia. It has also been recorded from the Cocos Keeling Islands (R. Myers pers. comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Range size 8,058,943 km<sup>2</sup>	eng
187810	habitat	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is a moderately sized <em>Halichoeres</em> (18 cm). It is common on sheltered reefs and shallow rubble sites to 10 m (Westneat 2001).	eng
187810	population	Choat, J.H., 3009	This species is common in shallow water rubble sites.<br/><br/>In Langkawi Island, Malaysia, a mean density of 0.33 individuals from three 100 m X 2 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Lee <em>et al.</em> 2005).<br/><br/>On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, a mean density of 2.05 individuals from twenty 50 m X 5 m transects was recorded in underwater fish visual surveys (Yusuf <em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
187810	threats	Choat, J.H., 3009	There are no known threats to this species, although it is a minor component of the aquarium trade.	eng
187811	conservation	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures. There are some MPAs in Mauritius, however these are not thought to be effective.	eng
187811	distribution	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is known only from the type locality in Mauritius.	eng
187811	habitat	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is reef associated.<br/><br/>The maximum length is 28 cm (TL) (Randall 1972).	eng
187811	population	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2008	This species is only known from the type specimen. There is no other population information available.	eng
187811	threats	Cabanban, A. & Pollard, D., 2008	The habitat of <em>A. viridis</em> is threatened by human activities and coastal development (Spalding <em>et al.</em> 2001). Degradation of coral reefs resulting from pollution from domestic and industrial wastes, sedimentation, tourism activities, and blast-fishing. The reefs in Mauritius have also been affected by coral bleaching and also degraded by over-fishing.	eng
187812	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
187812	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species is found in the Southwestern Pacific. It is widely distributed in cool tropical and warm temperate waters of the southern Pacific. It is known so far from off southeastern Australia, Lord Howe Island (Francis 1991), Norfolk Island, New Zealand, the Kermadec Islands (Francis <em>et al.</em> 1987), Rapa and Easter Island. Future collecting will likely reveal <em>B. unimaculatus</em> to occur at intermediate island localities. It is also reliably reported in the literature as far north as Noosa, Queensland in eastern Australia (Grant 1978) and has been collected in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria in the south. <br/><br/>It has been previously confused with <em>Bodianus vulpinus,/i>, a West Australian endemic, <em>Bodianus oxycephalus</em> from Japan, and other similar species at Easter Island and Hawaii.	eng
187812	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A large species, reaches at least 365 mm SL. It occurs at shallow depths of about 6–60 m (Doak 1972) along “broken rocky coasts” and around offshore islands. Spawning season from July- September (New Zealand) (Francis 2001).	eng
187812	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is most abundant around offshore islands and coastal headlands (Francis 2001). There is no specific population information available.	eng
187812	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187813	conservation	Russell, B., 2008	There are no specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187813	distribution	Russell, B., 2008	This species ranges from Northeastern New Zealand (Cape Reinga to Bay of Plenty), Australia, south Queensland, northern New South Wales, southern part of New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Kermadec Islands (Francis 1993, 1996).	eng
187813	habitat	Russell, B., 2008	A small species, to about 117 mm SL. It inhabits sandy patches adjacent to algal and sponge covered rocky reefs, from estuaries to very deep offshore where trawled in depths to about 100 m. It is sexually dichromatic.	eng
187813	population	Russell, B., 2008	This species is abundant at Kermadec Islands but rare in mainland New Zealand (Francis 2001).	eng
187813	threats	Russell, B., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187814	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187814	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found in Fraser Island, Queensland(25°23'S) to Sydney, New South Wales (33°53'S) and Lord Howe Island, Australia. It was also recorded from north-western Western Australia (Sainsbury <em>et al.</em> 1985) based on an undescribed species (Australian Faunal Directory 2009).	eng
187814	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	There is very little information known. This species is most likely found in sandy rubble bottom habitats.	eng
187814	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
187814	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187815	conservation	Russell, B., 3009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
187815	distribution	Russell, B., 3009	This species is found from Indonesia (Bali to Flores) to Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) and Papua New Guinea (Madang).	eng
187815	habitat	Russell, B., 3009	<em>Leptojulis polylepis</em> is a small species, to about 80 mm SL. It occurs on silty sand or mud bottoms, in depths of 25-46 m. It feeds on small polychaete worms, crustaceans and small fish.	eng
187815	population	Russell, B., 3009	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from a few specimens.	eng
187815	threats	Russell, B., 3009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
187835	conservation	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species is listed on Appendix II of the CITES Appendices. Plants are found in the National Park Viñales and the protected area of Mil Cumbres in Cuba and also in both the Rió Abajo Forest Reserve and the Cambalache Natural Reserve of Puerto Rico. There are 26 plants in the National Botanical Garden of Cuba.	eng
187835	distribution	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species occurs in Jamaica, Western Cuba, and the North Central area of coastal Puerto Rico (forests of the Rio Abajo).	eng
187835	habitat	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species prefers grassland, ravines and open forest dominated by species of <em>Pinus</em> and <em>Quercus</em>. Plants occur on steep limestone hills and among limestone rocks.	eng
187835	population	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	The populations that have been surveyed in western Cuba indicate that there are four documented subpopulations with 171 individuals. No other population information is available.	eng
187835	threats	Stevenson, D.W., 2009	This species has been affected by habitat destruction as a result of road building and land clearance for agricultural practices. This species is very rare in the wild although quite common in cultivation. It may be extinct in Jamaica and is almost extinct in Puerto Rico as a result of habitat destruction and to some extent by over collection by commercial growers, rather than by cycad collectors.	eng
187867	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
187867	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
187867	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	In Europe, western tributaries of River Kuban in northern Caucasus. In Asia, coastal Black Sea drainages of southern Caucasus from Chorokh to Psyrtskha.	eng
187867	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	In Europe, western tributaries of River Kuban in northern Caucasus. In Asia, coastal Black Sea drainages of southern Caucasus from Chorokh to Psyrtskha.	eng
187867	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, in a wide variety of flowing waters from cold hill to foot hill streams. Never found in brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males guard eggs in gravel or rocky cavities. Biology not studied.	eng
187867	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Freshwater, in a wide variety of flowing waters from cold hill to foot hill streams. Never found in brackish water. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Males guard eggs in gravel or rocky cavities. Biology not studied.	eng
187867	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
187867	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
187867	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
187867	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
188113	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
188113	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Azov and northern Black Sea basins from Bulgaria to eastern Crimea. In freshwater only in Danube delta.	eng
188113	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, brackish lagoons, estuaries and lower part of large rivers, usually associated with rock bottom or sunken trees.  <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in December-April. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Feeds mostly on crustaceans.	eng
188113	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
188113	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
188114	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
188114	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
188114	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Caspian basin. In Volga upriver to Astrakhan until 1977, since spreading upriver to Lakes Ivankovskoje and Rybinskoje (2000). Invaded Don drainage (Black Sea basin) through Volga-Don canal (first record in 1972). Now abundant in Lake Tsimlyansk and lower Don.	eng
188114	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Caspian basin. In Volga upriver to Astrakhan until 1977, since spreading upriver to Lakes Ivankovskoje and Rybinskoje (2000). Invaded Don drainage (Black Sea basin) through Volga-Don canal (first record in 1972). Now abundant in Lake Tsimlyansk and lower Don.	eng
188114	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mainly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Most females spawn for the first time at one year, males at two years. Spawns in April-May, rarely until July. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds mostly on small fish, as well as on a wide variety of invertebrates.	eng
188114	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mainly found on well vegetated or rock bottom. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Most females spawn for the first time at one year, males at two years. Spawns in April-May, rarely until July. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds mostly on small fish, as well as on a wide variety of invertebrates.	eng
188114	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant.	eng
188114	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant.	eng
188114	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
188114	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
188115	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
188115	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black Sea basin: Danube, Dniestr, South Bug and Dniepr drainages. Since late 1990s, range regularly expanding upstream in Danube drainage, in 1999 recorded for first time in Germany (2,400 km from sea) and in 2005 in upper reaches of Rhine drainage close to canal connecting it with Danube. In Dniepr up to Kiev. Absent in Azov Sea basin.	eng
188115	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with very low salinity (less than 2 ‰). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers, harbours, on rock bottom. Mostly found on well vegetated or rock bottom in still waters as well as in rapids. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in March-May. Adhesive eggs deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates. Larger individuals take mostly small fish.	eng
188115	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant and expanding range.	eng
188115	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
188116	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
188116	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
188116	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins.	eng
188116	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Azov, Black and Caspian Sea basins.	eng
188116	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, large rivers on mud bottom. Restricted to coastal areas. In Caspian Sea does not enter rivers <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Spawns in March-June. Individual females may spawn twice during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish.	eng
188116	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Inshore habitats, estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons, large rivers on mud bottom. Restricted to coastal areas. In Caspian Sea does not enter rivers <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to four years. Spawns for the first time at 1-2 years. Spawns in March-June. Individual females may spawn twice during a season. Adhesive eggs are deposited under or between stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates and small fish.	eng
188116	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Abundant, particularly in Sea of Azov.	eng
188116	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Abundant, particularly in Sea of Azov.	eng
188116	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
188116	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
188118	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No information.	eng
188118	conservation	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No information.	eng
188118	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Since late 1990s, invasive immigrant in rivers of northern Black Sea basin. In Danube up to Vienna (about 2000 km from sea), in Dniepr up to Belarus. Recorded in 1996 from middle Vistula in Poland, where it arrived from Dniepr via a navigation canal. Fast spreading in Vistula observed in 2002. Invaded Volgograd reservoir through Volga-Don canal.	eng
188118	distribution	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Black, Azov and Caspian Sea basins. Since late 1990s, invasive immigrant in rivers of northern Black Sea basin. In Danube up to Vienna (about 2000 km from sea), in Dniepr up to Belarus. Recorded in 1996 from middle Vistula in Poland, where it arrived from Dniepr via a navigation canal. Fast spreading in Vistula observed in 2002. Invaded Volgograd reservoir through Volga-Don canal.	eng
188118	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with low salinity (< 2 ?). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers up to small, fast-flowing streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mainly found in well vegetated or high-complexity habitats. Abundant in backwaters and still channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June, occasionally until mid-August. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Usually spawns only for a single season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.	eng
188118	habitat	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	<strong>Habitat</strong>: <br/>Mostly in freshwater and brackish water with low salinity (< 2 ‰). Estuaries, brackish- and fresh-water lagoons and lakes, large rivers up to small, fast-flowing streams, on sand or mud bottom. Mainly found in well vegetated or high-complexity habitats. Abundant in backwaters and still channels. <br/><br/><strong>Biology</strong>: <br/>Lives up to 4-5 years. Spawns for the first time at two years. Spawns in April-June, occasionally until mid-August. Individual females may repeat spawning during a season. Usually spawns only for a single season. Adhesive eggs are deposited on stones, shells and aquatic plants. Males guard eggs until hatching. Feeds on a wide variety of invertebrates, especially molluscs.	eng
188118	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	Very abundant and expanding range.	eng
188118	population	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	Very abundant and expanding range.	eng
188118	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2008	No major threats known.	eng
188118	threats	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M., 2010	No major threats known.	eng
188306	conservation	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread common species may not require immediate conservation attention.	eng
188306	distribution	Subramanian, K., 2010	<span style="font-style: italic;"></span> Widely distributed in southeast Asia, extending from eastern India to Viet Nam and south into Peninsular Malaysia. Records from Sumatra are dubious (Lieftinck 1954).	eng
188306	habitat	Subramanian, K., 2010	Found in forest streams, usually perches on exposed boulders and riparian vegetation.	eng
188306	population	Subramanian, K., 2010	This widespread species is common over much of its range.	eng
188306	threats	Subramanian, K., 2010	There is no definite evidence of threats to this species and given its wide distribution it is not likely to be globally threatened.	eng
188307	conservation	Sharma, G., 2010	Fresh information is urgently needed on this species, and will only be obtained through extensive sampling in West Bengal and adjacent regions.	eng
188307	distribution	Sharma, G., 2010	This species is only known from the type series collected nearly ninety years ago at the Hasimara Tea Estate, Duars, West Bengal, India.	eng
188307	habitat	Sharma, G., 2010	No information is available, but it is likely that this species breeds in streams.	eng
188307	population	Sharma, G., 2010	No information available.	eng
188307	threats	Sharma, G., 2010	The known location is in a more developed part of India, with extensive tea estates and other forms of agriculture.	eng
188308	conservation	Mitra, A., 2009	There is a need for further data on this species, but it is not likely to need specific conservation measures at this time.	eng
188308	distribution	Mitra, A., 2009	<p>The species is fairly widespread  in the Himalayan belt, occurring from Uttarakhand (Prasad 1974, Kumar and Mitra 1998) to Darjeeling (Laidlaw 1922) and Arunachal Pradesh (Mitra, T.R. 2002) in India,  Nepal (Asahina 1955; St. Quentin 1970; Mahato 1988, 89) and Bhutan (Mitra, A. 2002). Records from Myanmar (e.g. Williamson 1907; Fraser 1924, 1934) may or may not actually refer to this species; those from <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Viet Nam do not</st1:place></st1:country-region>.  R. Dow (pers. comm.) has seen a specimen probably referable to this species from Pakistan.<em></em></p>	eng
188308	habitat	Mitra, A., 2009	Adults perch on partially submerged rocks or overhanging vegetation on the fast flowing hill streams. Teneral adults take rest among the nearby vegetation away from larval habitats. Breeding occurs inside the stream as well as in the side pools.	eng
188308	population	Mitra, A., 2009	This species is quite common throughout much of its range.	eng
188308	threats	Mitra, A., 2009	No information available although water pollution and sedimentation in hill streams could be a potential threat for the species.	eng
188309	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	There is a need for further data on this species, particularly on distribution, precise habitat requiremets and tolerance to disturbance. However it probably does not require specific conservation measures.	eng
188309	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	This species is known from India and Nepal. Records from India are from West Bengal (Darjeeling), Uttar Pradesh , Uttaranchal.	eng
188309	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	This species breeds in small streams. Adults are sometimes found patrolling over the small channel like streams.	eng
188309	population	Dow, R., 2009	No specific information is available, but this species appears to have been recorded with some regularity in Nepal and at Dehra Dun in India, suggesting that it may be fairly common.	eng
188309	threats	Dow, R., 2009	Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.	eng
188310	conservation	Dow, R., 2009	There is a need for much further data on this species, especially on distribution, precise habitat requirements and tolerance to disturbance. However, specific conservation actions are unlikely to be needed.	eng
188310	distribution	Dow, R., 2009	This species is known from India, Nepal and Myanmar.	eng
188310	habitat	Dow, R., 2009	This is a species of forest streams in hilly areas.	eng
188310	population	Dow, R., 2009	No information available.	eng
188310	threats	Dow, R., 2009	Deforestation caused by clearance for agriculture and forestry, as well as hydropower development, are significant threats across large parts of the region, especially in hill areas, but the impact of these threats on the known localities of the species is not known.	eng
188311	conservation	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There is a need for further data on this species, especially on its distribution, and on tolerance to disturbance, e.g. is it really as tolerant of disturbance as the record from Chiang Rai (see under Habitats and Ecology) suggests.	eng
188311	distribution	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species is known from Myanmar (e.g. Fraser 1934), Thailand (e.g.   Hämäläinen and Pinratana 1999), Peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Orr 2005) and Lao PDR (e.g. Yokoi 1999). The species is also recorded from India.	eng
188311	habitat	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species breeds in forest streams. In Chiang Rai, Thailand Dow (R. Dow pers. comm. 2010) caught a freshly emerged female at a highly disturbed stream with just patches of forest remaining, running through agricultural land, suggesting that this species is tolerant of a high degree of disturbance.	eng
188311	population	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	There are not all that many records of this species, but this is typical for tropical and subtropical gomphids, and it is probably fairly common over much of its range.	eng
188311	threats	Sharma, G. & Dow, R., 2010	This species appears unlikely to be threatened across its range.	eng
188655	conservation	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">There is an urgent need for Odonata surveys across Myanmar; such surveys are needed before any other conservation measures can be planned for this species.</p>	eng
188655	distribution	Dow, R., 2010	<p><a name="OLE_LINK2">The species is only</a> k<span lang="EN-GB">nown only from the holotype male collected at Toungoo in Myanmar (Fraser 1924, 1934).</p>	eng
188655	habitat	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Nothing has been recorded on the habitat requirements of this species, but it is almost certainly a stream species, and likely to be confined to forested areas. </p>	eng
188655	population	Dow, R., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-GB">Known only from a single specimen and there is no information on the&#160;species&#160;population.</p>	eng
188655	threats	Dow, R., 2010	<p>Although no specific information is available, it is likely that the species habitat is being lost through deforestation (agriculture and logging) and hydropower development.</p><p><span lang="EN-GB">Threats faced by this species cannot be assessed without fresh information on its distribution and habitat.</p>	eng
189707	conservation		The species is currently protected by French law at all times against actions that would lead to the destruction or removal of eggs and destruction of animals. The regional nature conservation agencies have listed it on the Action Plan for Protected Species in Picardie.	eng
189707	distribution		This species is endemic to France, and is believed to be restricted to Department Aisne in the Picardie region, where it is known only from 4 localities, but some more localities should be added through extensive survey. There are recent records suggested for Basse-Normandie (at Rogerville), but the taxonomic status of the sub-populations in this region are still under review. (J.-M. Bichain in prep., 2009).	eng
189707	habitat		This species is restricted to freshwater springs.	eng
189707	population		No current data on the status of these populations.	eng
189707	threats		The major threats to this species lie in exploitation of the water source, either through extraction of groundwater feeding the spring, or capping (off-take) of water from the springs.&#160; There are a variety of purposes for water extraction in the region,such as use for agriculture and use for domestic supplies.&#160; A secondary threat lies in pollution of the groundwater from nitrates as the result of agricultural run-off percolating into the groundwater.	eng
190674	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190674	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Australia from north of Sydney, New South Wales to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. It also occurs along the north and east coasts of Tasmania.	eng
190674	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in seagrass beds in estuaries and shallow coastal waters in depths to 15 m (Gomon<em> et al.</em> 2008). In estuarine habitats and sheltered waters it often forms large schools (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It is more abundant in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> seagrass beds than <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> or <em>Posidonia coriacea</em> (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).<br/><br/>It is sexually dichromatic, but little is known of its life history. Some females attain a maximum size equal to that of the largest males, and some males appear mature at a relatively small size (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It may exhibit size-related offshore movement from nearshore seagrass beds to offshore seagrass beds, where spawning is likely to occur (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).<br/><br/>Considered primarily as an opportunistic omnivore, feeding mainly on polychaetes; also gastropods, crustaceans (crab and amphipods), algae and seagrass (mostly <span style="font-style: italic;">Zostera</span>) are common; forams, bivalves, and ophiuroids were also found in the stomachs of individuals (Edgar and Shaw 1995, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007).	eng
190674	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is extremely common in many parts of the southern coast of Australia (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Attained maximum density of about five individuals per 500 m²<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span><sup><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></sup>in mid-estuary in the Port River-Barker Inlet Estuary, South Australia (Jones <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190674	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species at present time. Habitat destruction due to coastal development in New South Wales will likely impact this species in the future.	eng
190675	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190675	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia, from Newcastle, New South Wales to Beacon Island, Western Australia. It is also found along the north and east coasts of Tasmania.	eng
190675	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in depths down to about 25 m. It is mostly restricted to exposed coastlines with rocky reefs covered with brown macroalgae, and in offshore seagrass beds. Adults are much more common in beds of <em>Amphibolis griffithii</em> than other seagrasses, while juveniles are equally abundant in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001, Hyndes <em>et al.</em> 2003). It feeds on detritus, bivalves, gastropods, ascidians and bryozoans, with some seagrass and algae (Choat and Clements 1992, Smith <em>et al.</em> 2005, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). While it is sexually dichromatic, little known of life history. It is probably a protogynous hermaphrodite (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2010).	eng
190675	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Densities of up to 3.8 individuals per 500 m² were recorded in a kelp forest at the Althorpe Islands, central South Australia (Shepherd <em>et al.</em> 2005). A mean density of about 4–5 individuals per 500 m² was recorded in <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em>seagrass beds off Fremantle, Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It occurs at lower densities in <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia</span> beds.	eng
190675	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190676	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190676	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Australia from north of Sydney, New South Wales to Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. It occurs around the coast of Tasmania (Gomon and Paxton 1985).	eng
190676	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in depths down to about 22 m. It is very common in Tasmania where it is found primarily in estuaries and inshore sheltered waters in depths to 15 m. In Victoria, it occurs in seagrass beds, and in S. Australia is commonly found around shallow rocky reefs (Gomon and Paxton 1985). It is more abundant in <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia sinuosa </span>than <span style="font-style: italic;">Amphibolis griffithii</span> or <span style="font-style: italic;">P. coriacea s</span>eagrass beds in western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001), at depths of 3-10 m (Scott 1976). Diet consists mostly of benthic crustaceans (mainly gammarid amphipods), molluscs (gastropods and bivalves) and polychaetes (Scott 1976, Edgar and Shaw 1995, MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). It undertakes an ontogenetic shift in diet from predominantly gastropods in juveniles to predominantly amphipods in larger fish (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007).<br/><br/>Reaches about 16 cm SL (Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). Sexually dichromatic, but little known of its life history. Mature and ripe gonads were present in winter and spring in southwestern Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).	eng
190676	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is most common over the southern part of its range, in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.	eng
190676	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species at the present time. In Victoria, populations could be affected if the seagrass beds are threatened in the future.	eng
190677	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In the northern region of New Zealand, there is a daily recreational limit of 20 combined finfish, including Bluefinned Butterfish.	eng
190677	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is confined to a 25 km coastline around the Three Kings Islands, north-west of the northern tip of New Zealand. Although some individuals have also been recorded at Cape Reinga and isolated specimens have been seen on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand at Cape Brett and at the Poor Knights Islands (Brook 2002).	eng
190677	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits shallow kelp forest, 1-20 m depth. It is exclusively herbivorous as adults, feeding on laminarian and fucoid macroalgae (Zemke-White and Clements 2004). Appears to prefer the laminarian <em>Ecklonia radiata</em>, but when this is displaced into deeper water by ENSO events, it will eat the fucoids <span style="font-style: italic;">Landsburgia quercifolia </span>and the endemic <em>Sargassum johnsonii</em>. Epiphytic rhodophytes can also comprise up to 20% of their diet. Juveniles are probably omnivorous (like <em>O. pullus</em>).<br/><br/>Maximum age 7 years. VBGF parameters of Linf and K are 325.243 and 0.492, respectively. Sexually dichromatic protogynous hermaphrodite. Females reproductively mature at about 200 mm (Ayling and Paxton 1983). Age and size of smallest male 2 years and 265 mm (FL), respectively. Ratio of terminal phase to initial phase fish very low, varying from 1:48 to 1:164 (Ayling and Paxton 1983).	eng
190677	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are few data available on abundance, but Choat and Ayling (1987) give mean densities of 8.2 ± 1.4 SE per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in Southeast Bay, Great King Island. This species is abundant only at the Three Kings Islands.	eng
190677	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190678	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	New Zealand's Butterfish fishery is managed by strict quotas, which allow only a set amount of Butterfish to be taken commercially each year. The Total Allowable Commercial Catch (TACC) was set at 162 metric tonnes for the 2008/09 fishing year. In northern New Zealand, Butterfish may not be collected smaller than 35 cm, and with a net with a mesh size below 108 mm. In the Northern Region there is a daily recreational limit of 20 combined finfish, including butterfish. This species occurs in a number of marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
190678	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in New Zealand from Cape Reinga to Snares Islands, Chatham Islands, Antipodes Islands and Bounty Islands. It is absent from the Three Kings Islands, where it is replaced by the endemic <em>O. cyanoallix</em>.	eng
190678	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits shallow stands of kelp in exposed rocky areas, especially <span style="font-style: italic;">Carpophyllum maschalocarpum </span>and <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecklonia radiata</span> in the north, and <span style="font-style: italic;">Macrocystis pyrifera</span> in the south. It feeds on epiphytic red algae and crustaceans as juveniles; subadults and adults feed on brown algae. <br/><br/>Maximum size (FL) for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 531 mm, D’Urville Island: 543 mm and Stewart Island: 545 mm. Reported up to 70 cm. Maximum weight 2.5 kg, 1.5 kg in north.<br/><br/>Maximum age for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 11 years, D’Urville Island: 11 years and Stewart Island: 19 years. VBGF parameters of Linf and K are: Hauraki Gulf: 456.403 and 0.519, D’Urville Island: 522.743 and 0.361, and Stewart Island: 524.984 and 0.177, respectively. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, females release 2,000-6,000 eggs, several times over the mid-winter to mid-summer spawning season. Female age and size at first maturity is 1 year and 241 mm in the Hauraki Gulf (northern), and 3 years and 272 mm at Stewart island (southern), respectively. Age and size of smallest male (i.e. age and size at sex change) are Hauraki Gulf 3 years and 376 mm, D’Urville Island 5 years and 445 mm, and Stewart Island 5 years and 377 mm, respectively.	eng
190678	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is locally abundant where there is suitable kelp habitat, but is more common in southern New Zealand. Mean abundance for northern, central and southern populations (respectively) are: Hauraki Gulf: 1.27 ± 0.29, D’Urville Island: 2.38 ± 0.87 and Stewart Island: 13.73 ± 3.11 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup>.<br/><br/>They are more restricted to sites with water movement in northern New Zealand, so northern populations are likely to be more fragmented. <br/><br/>Annual landings of 50 t or more have been recorded from 1935 onwards, mainly in Cook Strait but to a lesser extent around the Otago, Southland and Stewart Island coasts. The recreational catch is unknown, but is estimated to be greater than the commercial catch, and the total annual catch may be as much as 500 tonnes (Paul <em>et al.</em> 2000).	eng
190678	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats to the species at present time. Severe storm events may impact habitat in some areas. Climate change may have some impact on the species at the northern end of its range, as haemoglobin work suggests that Butterfish are near their thermal limit in northern New Zealand in summer (Brix <em>et al.</em> 1998).	eng
190679	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190679	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Australia from Angourie Point, northern New South Wales to the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. It is also found around the coast of Tasmania.	eng
190679	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in kelp forest (mainly <span style="font-style: italic;">Ecklonia radiata</span>) down to about 30m depth. It occurs along exposed rocky coasts usually with brown macroalgae (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Jones 1992) and less frequently in <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> seagrass beds (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). Herbivorous as adult: feeds almost exclusively on <em>Ecklonia radiata</em> (Andrew and Jones 1990), but in South Australia also takes the apical receptacles of the fucoids <em>Cystophora spp</em>. and <em>Sargassum spp</em>. (Shepherd and Baker 2008). <br/><br/>Females are known to feed on meristems and primary laminae of <em>E. radiata </em> (which decapitates plants), while males feed only on laminae (Andrew and Jones 1990, Jones and Andrew 1990). In New South Wales in August to October this feeding by females creates clear patches of substratum, which are then colonized by recruit <em>E. radiata </em> (Andrew and Jones 1990), but this clearing behaviour was not seen in South Australia (Shepherd and Baker 2008).  It is sexually dichromatic, but little is known of its life history. Possibly a protogynous hermaphrodite, but males are generally smaller than the largest females in collected samples.	eng
190679	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species was frequently encountered on the southern coast of Australia but usually in low numbers (Gomon in Gomon<em> et al.</em> 2008). Jones (1992) reports mean densities between 0-7.6 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> at 12 rocky reef locations near Melbourne, Victoria. Maximum recorded densities are 2.25, 5.2, 10 and 11.6 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in Bunurong Marine National Park, Victoria, and at the Althorpe Islands, Haystack Islands, and Chinaman’s Hat Island, South Australia, respectively (Stewart <em>et al.</em> 2005, 2007). It is most abundant in Victoria at depths of 1.5-5 m (Jones 1992), and more abundant in 2-5 m than 10-15 m depth in South Australia (Shepherd <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
190679	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190680	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190680	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found the southern coast of Australia from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria to Rottnest Island, Western Australia and north-east Tasmania and Flinders Island. It is not recorded from the Great Australian Bight, but probably occurs there (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190680	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in depths from 5-35 m, but mainly deeper than 15 m. It is often found on rocky reefs and drop-offs near the bottom in fine brown and red algae zones or deeper areas with sparse seagrass (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008). It is recorded from both <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> and <em>Posidonia coriacea</em> seagrass beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is sexually dimorphic, but there is no data available on life history.	eng
190680	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190680	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190681	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190681	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Australia from Flinders Island, Bass Strait to Perth, Western Australia. It is not found around the island of Tasmania.	eng
190681	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in depths down to about 40 m, but usually to 15 m, in sheltered waters and embayments, it appears restricted to areas of seagrass, mainly Posidonia sinuosa (Gomon and Paxton 1985, MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). There are no known colour differences between sexes and little is known of the species' life history.	eng
190681	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190681	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190682	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190682	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia from Wilsons Promontory, Victoria to Rottnest Island,Western Australia. It is found in the northeastern coast of Tasmania and Flinder's Island (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190682	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in depths down to about 40 m, but more common in 15-20 m, where it congregates in small numbers. Juveniles are found as shallow as 5 m in sheltered bays, and juveniles and adults occur in small loose groups, whereas large adults (perhaps males) occur singly (R. Kuiter pers. comm. 2009). It is usually found at some distance from shore over sandy areas associated with seagrass and low rocky outcrops (Gomon and Paxton 1985). In Western Australia, it is almost entirely associated with patchy <span style="font-style: italic;">Posidonia coriacea</span> meadows (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). There is little information available on its life history characteristics.	eng
190682	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190682	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190683	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190683	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia from Portland, Victoria to Fisherman Islands, Western Australia, northern Tasmania, including the Furneaux Group and Tamar River Estuary, Tasmania (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190683	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in coastal waters with soft bottoms and seagrass in depths from 1-18 m (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon<em>et al.</em> 2008, MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). In Western Australia, densities are greater in <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> than both <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> and <em>P. coriacea</em> in autumn and summer, but not in winter and spring (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is most abundant in <em>P. sinuosa </em>(MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). It is usually found in less than 10 m, and may be absent from most of Victorian coast because of lack of suitable shallow habitat (R. Kuiter pers comm. 2009). It is less abundant in nearshore than offshore <em>P. sinuosa</em> beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001). <br/><br/>It feeds mainly on crustaceans and mollusks (Scott 1976), especially gammarid and caprellid amphipods, harpacticoid copepods, carid decapods, tanaids and mytilid bivalves (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). Gastropods can be important dietary items in <span style="font-style: italic;">P. sinuosa </span>beds (MacArthur and Hyndes 2007). It is sexually dichromatic, but there is no available data on life history.	eng
190683	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species achieves densities of well over 50 fish per 500 m<sup>2</sup> in both <em>Posidonia sinuosa</em> and <em>Amphibolis griffithii </em> seagrass beds in Western Australia (MacArthur and Hyndes 2001).	eng
190683	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190684	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190684	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the southern coast of Australia, from Wilsons Promontory and Portland Victoria to the Recherche Archipelago, Western Australia (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Allen <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190684	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species appears to be restricted to moderately high-energy exposed coastal locations with dominant stands of brown macroalgae in depths to 19m (Gomon and Paxton 1985, Gomon <em>et al.</em> 2008).  It is a poorly known species. It is cryptic.	eng
190684	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is rarely observed. There is no other population information available.	eng
190684	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.	eng
190685	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190685	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Kenya to at least Delagoa Bay in Mozambique, and east to the Marshall and Tonga Islands.  The record from Somalia needs to be confirmed (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190685	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in coastal bays and deep lagoons. It inhabits seagrass beds or dense beds of algae (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It feeds on these or the associated epiphytes (Bruce and Randall 1985). This species is well-camouflaged and easily overlooked (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).<br/><br/>Spawning at Aldabra Atoll was observed during January, August, September and October occuring above grassflats on the falling tide. Spawning was preceded with the males shaking its head from side to side while attempting to sit on the female's back. During sexual activity the yellow pectorals and yellowish head of the terminal phase male was very prominent and the body turned pinkish with a sooty overlay. The spawning act was very rapid; a terminal phase fish and an initial phase fish would leave the surface of the grass, rush towards the surface of the water and drop rapidly back down to the grass beds. The two fish, which were side by side, rotated in a spiral during the upward rushes. On several occasions, terminal phase males participated as satellite males in the pair spawnings. This species is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite with both primary and secondary males occurring (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1982).	eng
190685	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	At Aldabra and coast of Kenya, this species is relatively abundant in seagrass beds (Robertson<em> et al.</em> 1982). It is common in preferred seagrass bed habitats (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190685	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. However, habitat loss particularly of seagrass beds will likely impact the species population.	eng
190686	conservation	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fishery management in coastal areas in Japan is based on traditional local fishery rights: a group of fishermen (fishery cooperative associations) traditionally assume exclusive rights for operating certain fisheries and, thus, assume all the responsibility for long-term sustainability of resources (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development).This type of management appear to be stable (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).	eng
190686	distribution	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Taiwan and southern Japan, and at least as far as Tokyo, to Korea. The record from northwest Hawaii was an old record of mis-identified <span style="font-style: italic;">C. zonarcha</span> (R. Myers pers comm. 2010).	eng
190686	habitat	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is confined to coastal waters in rocky areas with seaweed (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is sexually dichromatic. <span style="font-style: italic;">C. japonicus</span> is a protogynous hermaphrodite: male specimens have secondary testes but primary males are relatively rare, if they occur at all. The species has a weak size-sex relationship: males range from 265 to 345 mm SL, and are larger than the females (202 to 260 mm SL) on average, but a female of 305 mm SL has been  obtained (Kusen and Nakazano 1991).	eng
190686	population	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common over its range. It is a prominent member of reef fish communities from central Honshu to Kyoshu, Japan (Kusen and Nakazono 1991).	eng
190686	threats	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190687	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, 70% of the species range is in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument where it is afforded protection.	eng
190687	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found along the entire Hawaiian Island chain (Bruce and Randall 1985).	eng
190687	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in areas of coral or rubble, from the lower surge zone to at least 10 m (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is mostly found from 12-93 m (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). Specimens from Laysan were taken in 150-170 m (Bruce and Randall 1985). It has been described as a protogynous hermaphrodite (DeMartini<em> et al.</em> 2005).	eng
190687	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is apparently rare, and found only in deep water (Bruce and Randall 1985).	eng
190687	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190688	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190688	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is the widest ranging member of the genus, and occurs from the east coast of Africa to the Galapagos and Revillagigedos islands. To the north it extends to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands and south to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. The record from Somalia needs to be verified (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190688	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits subtidal reef flats, and lagoon and seaward reefs to depths of at least 27 m (Myers 1991). It is found in coral, rubble, seagrass (Gell and Whittington 2002, Mundy 2005) and weedy areas (Lieske and Myers, 1994). It occurs singly or in small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds on a variety of benthic encrusting algae, e.g., Padina (Myers 1999) and seagrasses. <br/><br/>Spawning was observed in January and July in Aldabra Atoll (Indian Ocean). Spawning commenced when the terminal phase male started rapidly circling an initial phase fish on the reef slope. In one observed spawning, the two fish came together and the terminal phase stayed on against the back of the initial phase during a short upward rush. In another case, the two were side by side with their cheeks in contact during the upward rush. The pair parted immediately after spawning. This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite which may be monandric in having only secondary males (Robertson <em>et al.</em> 1982).	eng
190688	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is cryptic and widespread but is rare throughout its range (Russell and Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species was observed during underwater visual census in Bird's Head and Halmahera, Indonesia but was not recorded in large numbers (Lazuardi and Muljadi pers comm. 2009). It is rare in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190688	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In the Coral Triangle region, this species is threatened by habitat destruction by mining in western Indonesia, coastal development, destructive fishing practices like dynamite fishing in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines.	eng
190689	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190689	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is known only from the Red Sea, ranging from the Gulf of Aqaba to Chagos Archipelago, and Maldives.	eng
190689	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coral and rocky reefs and grass bed areas to depths of about 30 m. It occurs singly or in small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds mainly on marine angiosperms and epiphytic algae (Bruce and Randall 1985).	eng
190689	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Abundance estimates in the Red Sea record 2 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in reef environments (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190689	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190690	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190690	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Red Sea.	eng
190690	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a large parrotfish at 45-50 cm for terminal phase adults. This species occurs in small haremic groups in reef fronts and passes. It inhabits rich coral areas of seaward and lagoon reefs (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). There is no data available on demography and reproductive biology.	eng
190690	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species has a restricted distribution but is reasonably common over coral reefs within the Red Sea. In the northern Red Sea, it is found on outer reef slopes with a mean density of 2.2 per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190690	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190691	conservation	Choat, J.H., Pardede, S., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190691	distribution	Choat, J.H., Pardede, S., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from Somalia to South Africa, extending eastwards to the Tuamotos including eastern Australia and Middleton Reef, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to western Australia.	eng
190691	habitat	Choat, J.H., Pardede, S., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a large excavating parrotfish with large males exceeding 55 cm with a maximum size >70 cm (Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997) especially over the southern area of its range. It forms small haremic groups with a preferred habitat on reef fronts and slopes and reef passes to depths of 35 m. <br/><br/>The maximum age recorded for this species in the southern region of the Pacific at 25 years. The maximum age recorded was shorter in both the Solomons at 7-8 years and in the Western Indian Ocean at 11 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190691	population	Choat, J.H., Pardede, S., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a large parrotfish and is usually relatively rare (2-3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>) over most of its range.<br/><br/>Pacific Ocean marine reserve sites average 2-3 individuals per 1000 m<sup>2</sup> or 20-30 individuals per hectare. In the Indian Ocean (Seychelles) abundances are slightly lower at 7-10 individuals per ha (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Abundance estimates in Indonesia record 60-80 individuals per hectare in Aceh, and in Karimunjawa 40-50 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) and a catch rate of 1.6 kg/trip. It is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).  <br/><br/>In Guam, only 65 individuals of this distinctive species was recorded in commercial catches from 1985 to 2007. There are no numerical trends observed in the catch rates (R. Myers pers comm. 2009). This species is one of the rarest parrotfish recorded in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190691	threats	Choat, J.H., Pardede, S., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats for this species. In the Coral Triangle region, this species is threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction and destructive fishing practices (i.e. dynamite fishing).	eng
190692	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190692	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from East Africa (Kenya to Mozambique) and islands of southwestern Indian Ocean to East Andaman Sea (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It was recorded from Halmahera (Green and Muljadi 2009), however this record needs to be verified.	eng
190692	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a reef front and reef crest excavating species that occurs to 30 m depth. It has been observed to 60 cm (TL) in Christmas Island.	eng
190692	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Abundance estimates of this species at Cocos Keeling recorded ~5-10 individuals per 300 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009) but it is rare at other sites. It has also been observed in Chagos, Maldives and Mauritius but always rare (Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190692	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190693	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190693	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Red Sea including Gulf of Aqaba.	eng
190693	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits areas of open sand or rubble in lagoons, bays and on sheltered seaward reefs at depths of 1-25 m. It occurs in small slow-swimming groups near coral heads and patch reefs. It browses on filamentous algae growing on sand (Lieske and Myers 1994, 2004; Randall 1983).	eng
190693	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is relatively rare in the Red Sea (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).	eng
190693	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190694	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190694	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific from eastern Africa to Rapa and Line Islands in Polynesia, northwards to Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan and southwards to Australia including: north of Ningaloo Reef and the southern Great Barrier Reef, Rowley Shoals, Sunda Shelf Reefs, Coral Sea territories and Elizabeth/Middleton Reefs. <br/><br/>Records of this species in Comoro Islands, Phoenix Islands and Hong Kong need to be confirmed. The latter record is based on a photograph of an initial phase specimen (Sadovy and Cornish 2000). It is reported to be moderately abundant and the second most common scarid in Hong Kong (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).	eng
190694	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits clear outer reef flats and lagoons as well as outer reef slopes to 30 m. It is also found along reef crests and fronts (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It has been observed to spawn in groups or in pairs, usually on an outgoing tide. The initial phase sometimes form small aggregations. It is more common in outer reef habitats than in protected waters. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and diandric.	eng
190694	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate that out of 22 parrotfishes identified, this species ranked 17th by weight and 13th by numbers harvested with a peak annual estimated take of only 113 kg (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is common in parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190694	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190695	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190695	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the Philippines to the southern Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, eastwards to Marshall and Caroline islands, southwards to Scott Reef off northwestern Australia.	eng
190695	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coastal, sandy areas and lagoon reef slopes, occasionally as shallow as 2 m. It is found solitary or form groups (G. Allen pers comm.). The maximum age recorded was 5 years. It has rapid growth and high turn over rates. Juveniles recruit to shallow rubble areas.	eng
190695	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In Indonesia, this species is dominant in Siribu Island (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009) and was recorded as the most abundant parrotfish in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). Catch rates of 0.2 kg/trip were recorded from Karimunjawa (Wildlife Conservation Society unpub. data). <br/><br/>There was a 40-50% difference in abundance in fished and non-fished zones in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190695	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190696	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
190696	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is only known from northern Venezuela.	eng
190696	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef and seagrass associated.	eng
190696	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190696	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	It is not known if there are any threats to this species.	eng
190697	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190697	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Kenya (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009) through Mauritius, Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, Maldive Islands, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and the Indian Ocean coast of Sumatra and Java.<br/><br/>It has been recorded from Christmas and Cocos Islands, Ashmore Reef, east Timor and a market in Peng Hu, Taiwan (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is also found in Halmahera, Indonesia (Green and Muljadi 2009), Samboan and Sumilon Island, Cebu, Philippines (K. Carpenter pers comm. 2009).	eng
190697	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is generally solitary or in small groups. It inhabits reef flats to outer reef slopes from sheltered to moderately exposed environments.	eng
190697	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widespread but with patchy distribution. It is not common in its range of distribution (Bellwood 2001, Randall and Bruce 1983).<br/><br/>More than 1 and less than 10 individuals were recorded in 1 hour of roving surveys in Sumilon and Samboan, Philippines (K. Carpenter pers comm. 2009).	eng
190697	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. This species is captured for food in parts of its range. However, its habitat on outer reef slopes and small size precludes systematic targeting especially at remote sites.	eng
190698	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190698	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190698	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef associated from 1-25 m. It is found in shallow, clear coral and rocky reefs. It feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is often seen in groups of one terminal male with several young adults, most of which are probably females. <br/><br/>In Bermuda, the maximum size recorded was 44 cm (TL) and the maximum age was 20 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190698	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190698	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is caught in multi-species fisheries throughout its range. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in the population size (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).	eng
190699	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190699	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the east coast of Africa from Kenya to South Africa (Sodwana Bay), to Madagascar and east to Rodrigues.	eng
190699	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits reef front and outer slopes in depths from 1-25 m. The maximum length recorded was 36 cm (TL) (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004).	eng
190699	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is uncommon in most of its range and maybe abundant in Madagascar (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190699	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190700	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190700	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden to Natal, South Africa, eastwards to western Thailand and northwest Indonesia, southwards to Cocos-Keeling.	eng
190700	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is small, solitary or forms small schools. It inhabits sheltered water environments (Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190700	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is rare in most environments. It was common in the Seychelles with abundance estimates of 5-10 individuals per hectare. It is very rare in Cocos-Keeling and was not recorded from the Red Sea (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It was more common than <span style="font-style: italic;">S. russelli</span> in Pulau Weh, Aceh, Indonesia (Allen and Erdmann 2005).	eng
190700	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190701	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this  species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected  areas within its range.	eng
190701	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Senegal to Annobon Island off Gabon.	eng
190701	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits seagrass and rocky reefs.	eng
190701	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190701	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190702	conservation	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190702	distribution	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands to the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Guam.	eng
190702	habitat	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in coastal to outer reef crests and along drop-offs, usually in small groups (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001, Randall and Myers 2000). It is found in steep outer reef slopes and offshore banks and outer banks from depths of 20 to at least 40 m.	eng
190702	population	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190702	threats	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. It is a deeper water species and is not targeted by any fishery.	eng
190703	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected in parts of its range.	eng
190703	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Mauritania to Congo, including Cape Verde and Sao Tome archipelagos (Wirtz <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
190703	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs and seagrass associated from 3-30m. It feeds mainly on algae. It is found solitary or  in small groups (L. Rocha pers obs. 2009).	eng
190703	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common in Cape Verde and Sao Tome (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190703	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190704	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190704	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific: widespread in the Indian Ocean (Bellwood 2001), ranging from East Africa south to Natal, South Africa (Randall 1986) and east to Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, Chagos Archipelago, and Maldives through the eastern Indian Ocean to French Polynesia and Pitcairn. It is replaced by <em>Scarus forsteni </em>in most of the Pacific, with overlapping distributions in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia and Palau (Myers 1999). Recently reported from Tonga (Randall <em>et al.</em> 2003).	eng
190704	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits lagoon and seaward reefs, in areas with dense coral growth (Myers 1999) in depths from 10-40 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is usually solitary, sometimes in groups (Lieske and Myers 1994). It feeds on benthic algae (Bruce and Randall 1984). The maximum weight published was 2.5 kg (Bruce and Randall 1984).	eng
190704	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is moderately common. It was rare in Cocos Keeling and Christmas Island. Abundance estimates in the Seychelles record 10 individuals per hectare. It is abundant in the central Pacific with estimates of 50-60 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, it was common but not abundant in Aceh (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009), and occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).<br/><br/>It is clearly impacted by fishing in the central Philippines with 40-50% reductions observed between fished and non-fished areas (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190704	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. For example, there are 40-50% reported reductions in the central Philipppines through fishing but elsewhere in the region it is not specifically targeted (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009).	eng
190705	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190705	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Mediterrean (Bariche and Saad 2005, Bariche and Bernardi 2009) where it has likely entered through the Red Sea. It is also found in the Red Sea, Oman, Persian Gulf, East Africa from Somalia to Algoa, South Africa and Madagascar eastwards to Cocos-Keeling, India, Sri Lanka, western Thailand and southwest Indonesia.	eng
190705	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fast growing with a maximum age of 13 years. As with <em>S. pyrrostethus</em>, it occurs in deeper waters and marginal reef habitats including southern Africa and the Arabian Gulf. It can occur in small schools.	eng
190705	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a widespread species and is relatively rare in reef waters with an increase in abundance with depth. There has been a range expansion through invasion of the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal (Bariche and Saad 2005, Bariche and Bernardi 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, there was an observed increase in abundance from 2006-2008 in Aceh. In Karimunjawa, there was a decrease in abundance from 2005-2007. However, this record from Karimunjawa maybe <em>S.pyrostethus</em> (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Bohol, Philippines, fishermen were reportedly getting zero catches of <em>S. ghobban</em> since the 1990s with previous catches in the 1970s-1980s estimated at 10 kg/day (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, this may be <em>S. pyrostethus.</em>	eng
190705	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is caught in large number as bycatch from Malaysia and Indonesia (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009) and is common in markets but is not specifically targeted. However, these are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190706	conservation	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190706	distribution	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Somalia to Sodwana Bay, eastwards to India, Sri Lanka, west Thailand and Cocos Keeling. It was recorded from Pulau Weh, Aceh, Indonesia (Allen and Erdmann 2005).	eng
190706	habitat	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a moderate sized <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus</span> with a maximum size recorded at  51 cm (TL) (Lieske and Myers 1994) but median size ~32 cm (Randall and Bruce 1983). It forms small schools in sheltered reef slopes and lagoonal environments.	eng
190706	population	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widely distributed within the western Indian Ocean but uncommon over most of its range. It is very rare in Cocos with abundance estimates less than one individual per hectare. In the Seychelles, abundance estimates record 20-30 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009)	eng
190706	threats	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190707	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190707	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands, Japan to New South Wales and Western Australia south to the Abrolhos Islands and eastwards to Fiji.	eng
190707	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is solitary and is characteristic of sheltered and lagoonal marine environments from 1-30 m depth (Choat and Randall 1986). It can quickly alter or intensify its body color (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190707	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is moderately common over an extensive Indo-Australian west and southern Pacific range. Average abundance estimates in Australian waters were recorded at 15.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (Choat and Bellwood 1985).<br/><br/>In Halmahera, Indonesia abundance estimates recorded 40 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).  Stockwell <em>et al. </em> (2009) only found it in one site in the central Philippines.	eng
190707	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. In the Coral Triangle, increased fishing pressures and destructive fishing practices may be localized threats to this species. However, it is not commonly found in markets.	eng
190708	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190708	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Maldives to Vanuatu, extending northwards to Ryukyu Islands, Japan and southwards to New Caledonia.	eng
190708	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of outer channels and seaward coastal reefs including reef flats during high tides. It is known from depths of 1 to at least 18 m. It occurs singly or in small groups.	eng
190708	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is heavily fished in the central Philippines with reported 60% reductions compared with adjacent marine protected area sites. It is abundant in marine reserves in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Indonesia, it is abundant in Karimunjawa (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) and moderately common in Raja Ampat, usually on protected inshore reefs with increased turbidity (Allen 2003). It is a relatively small component of the parrotfish fishery in the Solomon Islands (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190708	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent.	eng
190709	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for all parrotfishes is permanently closed in Bermuda. It is protected and relatively abundant in Bonaire (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190709	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Bermuda and Maryland (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190709	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef associated from 3-40 m (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It feeds on algae and small benthic invertebrates in the sand. It sometimes forms large spawning aggregations (Lieske and Myers 1994). Juveniles are found on seagrass beds and mangroves. It is also found in shallow sand and rubble flats.	eng
190709	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Currently population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates. This species is naturally uncommon (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190709	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Even though fishery landings of these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean have been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densely populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).	eng
190710	conservation	Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Francour, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190710	distribution	Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Francour, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Atlantic from Portugal to Senegal, including the Azores, Madeira, Canaries and Cape Verde Islands. It is present throughout most of the Mediterranean Sea, except for parts of the north-western coast and most of the Adriatic Sea. <br/><br/>In the Mediterranean, Sparisoma cretense is more common along the eastern and southern coasts. It has also been recorded from south-eastern Italy (Guidetti 2001) and the Adriatic Sea (Dulcic and Pallaoro 2001), and also around Sardinia.	eng
190710	habitat	Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Francour, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a reef-associated species that generally occurs in shallow water along rocky shores. It feeds on algae and also small invertebrates (Quignard and Pras 1986, Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005). It is primarily herbivorous, with specialized pharyngeal bones and muscles (Bullock and Monod 1997, Monod <em>et al.</em> 1994). Breeding occurs from July to September, with juveniles recruiting in the late summer (Abecasis <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
190710	population	Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Francour, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In the Mediterranean Sea, this species is uncommon in the northern Aegean Sea but very common in the southern Aegean Sea (B. Yokes pers comm. 2007). It is also relatively uncommon in the north-western Mediterranean including Spain and France (P. Francour pers comm. 2007).<br/><br/>This species is common in the Canary Islands and in Cape Verde. It is considered one of the top two most common parrotfishes in Cape Verde (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190710	threats	Pollard, D., Yokes, B., Francour, P., Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no known major threats to this species.	eng
190711	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. However, unlike its sister species <em>C. bleekeri</em>, its range does not include reef areas which are well protected by marine reserves and it generally does not exist in areas where it is not exploited.	eng
190711	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the central west Pacific from the Philippines to Indonesia: northwestern Java, Komodo (Beger and Turak 2008), Halmahera (Green and Muljadi 2009) and western Papua (Raja Ampat, Fak-Fak and Kaimana) (Allen and Erdmann 2009), northwards to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands and eastward to Chuuk, Micronesia. It was also recorded in Hong Kong as <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus </span>sp. 2 (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
190711	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is similar to sister species <em>Chlorurus bleekeri</em>. It inhabits sheltered to moderately exposed reef flats and fronts (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is a small, solitary excavating parrotfish generally found in pairs. It inhabits coral reefs and adjacent rubble bottoms (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Generation length justification: 14 (longevity) - 2 (age of maturity) = 7/2 = 3.5 or 4 years	eng
190711	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is solitary and relatively rare in central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009). Abundance estimates record 0.5–1 kg per 500 m² (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). This species is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).<br/><br/>There was a slight decrease observed in Karimunjawa, Indonesia from 2005–2007. In Karimunjawa this species was observed to be common but not abundant (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).	eng
190711	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is caught for food and is heavily fished throughout its range along with other parrotfishes. Increased fishing pressures and habitat disturbance are its major threats. Moreover, its rarity makes it susceptible to overfishing. In the Philippines, it is exploited to at least the same level as <em>C. bleekeri, </em> which has experienced 50–60% declines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009) over a period of approximately 20–30 years.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure has increased and will undoubtedly continue to increase throughout its range. Based on estimates in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009), it is estimated that over the next 15 years, population declines will approach 30%.	eng
190712	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species distribution includes several Marine Protected Areas within its range. The quota for this species is 1000 individuals/company/year in Brazil for aquarium trade export.	eng
190712	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is found from Florida, Bermuda, Bahamas, eastern Gulf of Mexico, including the Antilles, and Central America to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including Atol das Rocas and Archipelago de Fernando de Noronha (Smith 1997, Carvalho-Filho 1999, Smith-Vaniz <em>et al.</em> 1999, Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
190712	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is found in small schools, forming probable harems. Juveniles and adults inhabit sea grass beds, mangrove areas, and shallow waters to depths of 12 m among soft corals and macro algae, rarely on coral reefs (Humann and DeLoach 2002). In the Brazilian coast, it is more common in tropical and subtropical reefs, and algal beds.	eng
190712	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range.<br/><br/>Densities in shallow rocky reefs in southeastern Brazil obtained with underwater visual census (UVC) are in the order of 0.8 to 0.11 individuals /40 m<sup>2</sup> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007), 0.66/40 m<sup>2</sup> in the Baixo-sul baiano in northeastern Brazil, and lower densities in its southern limit in Santa Catarina are 0.42/40 m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini and S. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).	eng
190712	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no major threats known to this species. This species is not targeted by fisheries, and it is rare in the ornamental trade or artisanal fishery in Brazilian waters.	eng
190713	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190713	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is found from Christmas Island to Fiji, Samoa and Caroline Islands, northwards to Ryukyu Islands, Japan and southwards to the Great Barrier Reef. It is found in Scott Reef off northwestern Australia (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190713	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species inhabits coral-rich areas of outer lagoon and seaward reefs in depths from 2 - 25 m (Lieske and Myers 1994), usually 2-15 m (Myers 1999). It is usually solitary (Lieske and Myers 1994). Females are usually in small groups with a male nearby; they may mix with females of similar species (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001).	eng
190713	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is widely distributed achieving only moderate densities but generally uncommon (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is an uncommon fish patchily distributed through much of its range. It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190713	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190714	conservation	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190714	distribution	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea (Randall 1986) and Somalia (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996) to the Arabian Gulf (Parenti and Randall 2000). It was recorded from Kuwait (Carpenter <em>et al.</em> 1997).	eng
190714	habitat	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in shallow water, in depths from 2-20 m, often over sand or weed bottoms with coral heads and is found in pairs or small groups (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
190714	population	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Abundance estimates from the Red Sea record 20.8 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). There is no other population information available for this species.	eng
190714	threats	Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Choat, J.H., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190715	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190715	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea, to the Gulf of Aden, Oman, Persian Gulf, Pakistan and India. In East Africa it is found to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, eastwards to Madagascar, western Thailand, southwest Sumatra, Java, Cocos and Christmas Island.	eng
190715	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a small species with an average length of ~15 cm TL over its range. The maximum size was recorded at 26 cm (TL) but achieves 39 cm (TL) in Musudam Peninsula, Oman. The maximum age recorded was 14 yrs (Oman). In the central Indian Ocean, the maximum age recorded was 8 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). Juveniles recruit into sheltered reef environments including seagrass beds (Heemstra and Heemstra 2004). It forms schools of 50 or more.	eng
190715	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is abundant in all reef environments investigated (Randall and Bruce 1983). In the central Indian Ocean at the Seychelles and Cocos Island, densities range from 15-180 adults per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the Arabian Gulf, it extends to Bahrain. It may occur in the northern Gulf but is extremely rare. It is rare in the Musandum Peninsula and the Arabian Gulf, densities range from 2-8 adults per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190715	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190716	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its range of distribution is a designated marine protected area.	eng
190716	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is known only from the Ogasawara Islands, Japan.	eng
190716	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits rocky and coral-encrusted slopes from depths of 3-55 m, usually below 25 m. It feeds on benthic algae.	eng
190716	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species.	eng
190716	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Major storm events could be a potential threat due to its limited distribution.	eng
190717	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190717	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Sri Lanka to Tonga, extending northwards to Kashiwajima, Japan, southwards to Australia including the Coral Sea territories, Elizabeth/Middleton Reefs, Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. Ni and Kwok (1999) reported this species as occuring in Hong Kong. It was also recorded from Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).	eng
190717	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coastal rocky and coral reefs including mangrove areas, turbid lagoons and the upper edges of clear seaward reefs from tidal pools to a depth of at least 20 m. It may form schools with 30 to 40 individuals, often mixed with other species. It often occurs in aggregations that may move onto reef flats at high tide for feeding (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It grazes on benthic algae and corals. Both group and pair spawning have been observed. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is a fast growing parrotfish with a maximum age recorded at 11-12 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190717	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common in inshore and sheltered areas in most parts of its range (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia, there was a recorded decrease in abundance (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is heavily fished in the central Philippines with reductions of 60-70% through fishing compared to adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190717	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Muljadi, A., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. For example, this species is heavily fished in the Philippines and has been documented to experience 60-70% reductions through fishing compared with adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is a very common market species in many localities in the Coral Triangle region.	eng
190718	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is protected in over ~70% of its geographical range by the newly established Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. It is also protected in Johnston Atoll where there is limited access and no commercial fishing and in marine reserves within the main Hawaiian Islands.	eng
190718	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is known only from the Hawaiian Islands, Northwest Hawaiian Island chain and Johnston Atoll.	eng
190718	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This excavating species is found solitary or in small schools. It inhabits reef fronts to 71 m depth. The major period of ovarian development is from  March to June; sexual maturity occurs at 20 cm (Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit Final Report 2009).<br/><br/>This species forms a hybrid with <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus spilurus</span> (Randall 2005).	eng
190718	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is moderately common over the Northwest Hawaiian Island chain.<br/><br/>Biomass was lower in the main Hawaiian chain where it is exposed to heavy recreational and commercial fishing by a factor of 14. In the main Hawaiian Islands biomass was recorded at 0.01 tonnes per hectare, Northwest Hawaiian Islands Marine Park at 0.14 tonnes per hectare (Friedlander and DeMartini 2002). <br/><br/>As a large parrotfish it achieves high abundances in the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Park ranging from 100 to 215 individuals per hectare in Pearl and Hermes, Kure and Midway reefs (DeMartini<em>et al.</em> 2005). Abundance estimates in the French Frigate Shoals recorded 71 indivuduals per hectare (DeMartini<em>et al.</em> 2002).	eng
190718	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Myers, R., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is heavily fished within the main Hawaiian Island group, representing about 30% of its range.	eng
190719	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190719	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Ryukyu Islands to eastern Indonesia and the Great Barrier Reef, east to Samoa, and Palau.	eng
190719	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a small excavating parrotfish. It is found solitary or in small groups on reef fronts and in sheltered seaward and lagoon reefs to 20 m.	eng
190719	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is generally rare over most of its range but can be locally abundant. <br/><br/>Abundance estimates in Kavieng, Papua New Guinea record 7.8 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the northern Great Barrier Reef, the southern limit of this species' range, estimates record <.1 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190719	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In some parts of its range in the Coral Triangle region, this species it locally threatened by fishing and habitat loss from from coastal development, pollution and climate change.	eng
190720	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190720	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Bermuda and South Florida to Venezuela.	eng
190720	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef associated from 5-75 m. It feeds on algae and can be observed (and heard) using their beaks to crunch off pieces of corals and other substrates during the day. It is more abundant along in-shore reef flats.	eng
190720	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Currently population size/trends have not been assessed.  This species is not present in FAO global production estimates, however, it is not abundant and anecdotal evidence suggests they may be decreasing in numbers.<br/><br/>Anecdotally, this species was present in the Antilles and Barbados but is not present there now. It is the most abundant large scarid at Las Rocas, Venezuela (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190720	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	A commercial fishery exists for some of the larger individuals. Exact population figures for this species are not known, however, anecdotal evidence suggests it is decreasing in numbers in parts of its range (i.e., in Antilles and Barbados).	eng
190721	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190721	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Massachusetts (USA) and Bermuda to Venezuela. It is also found in the eastern Atlantic, from Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea.	eng
190721	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-15 m. It occurs in shallow coral and rocky reefs, and seagrass beds. It prefers high energy areas of the reef. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It feeds on benthic algae and seagrass.	eng
190721	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190721	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).	eng
190722	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190722	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean from southern Oman to southern Mozambique, eastwards to Chagos Archipelago including Madagascar, Seychelles, Reunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues. The record from Somalia needs to be confirmed.	eng
190722	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coastal reefs and steep seaward reef slopes in depths 6-20 m. It feeds on benthic algae. It is a fast growing species with a maximum recorded age of 10 years and maximum size of 50 cm (TL) in the Seychelles. It forms schools on reef fronts and crests (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190722	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species forms large schools in the Seychelles averaging about 15-20 individuals per hectare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190722	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190723	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Feitosa, C., Ferreira, C.E., Floeter, S., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	There is a quota of 1000/specimens/year for export for the aquarium trade, but there are no havest limits for fisheries. This species occurs in several marine protected areas in Brazil within its range, where it is most abundant.<br/><br/>The effective implementation of the few marine protected areas in Brazil represent the most urgent conservation action to protect <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum</span> and the other large-sized Brazilian-endemic parrotfishes. The creation of new protected areas also ranks within priority actions for reef fish conservation in Brazil. <br/><br/><em>Sparisoma amplum</em> (Ranzani, 1842) occurs throughout most of the Brazilian coast. Remarkable sites where it is recorded include:<br/><br/>1) Manoel Luis Reefs (Parcel Manoel Luís), a large reef complex near the Amazon River mouth (Moura <em>et al.</em> 1999) encompassed by a State Marine Park created in 1991 and recognized as a RAMSAR Site. Although legally protected, Manoel Luis represent a paper park with no protection and research incentives or infrastructure, being systematically exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based in or near the city of São Luis, Maranhão State. <em>Sparisoma amplum </em>is also expected to occur in the nearby reefs Banco do Álvaro (included in the State Park) and Banco do Tarol.<br/><br/>2) Rocas Atoll (Atol das Rocas), the only atoll in the entire South Atlantic, this unique reef is encompassed by the first marine protected area created in Brazil (1979), the Reserva Biológica Marinha do Atol das Rocas. Although intermittently exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based between Touros and Recife, but especially in Natal, the reserve has permanent staff and infrastructure to carry on enforcement and research activities. The area is recognized as an UNESCO World Heritage Site too. Quantitative information about <em>S. amplum</em> is available for Rocas Atol, where it was the eighth most abundant species recorded through visual censuses (Rosa and Moura 1997). Further recorded in the area by Ferreira and Maida (2006).<br/><br/>3) Fernando de Noronha, lying 80 miles off Rocas Atoll, this archipelago is encompassed by two protected areas (Parque Nacional Marinho de Fernando de Noronha, created in 1998 and Área de Proteção Ambiental de Fernando de Noronha, created in 1986). Although exposed to illegal fisheries by local inhabitants of the archipelago and uncontrolled tourism (including cruise ships), the National Park has permanent staff and infrastructure to carry on enforcement and support research activities. There are density estimates for <em>S. amplum</em> in several sites and areas within the archipelago (Moura 2003), as well as information about its behavior (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2000), foraging activity and resource use (Bonaldo<em> et al.</em> 2005). It is further recorded in the area by Ferreira and Maida (2006).<br/><br/>4) João da Cunha Reef (Recifes João da Cunha), located in the border between Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte States, these reefs represent the second larger coralline formations in the northern coast of Brazil under influence of the west-flowing Equatorial current (the largest reef is Manoel Luis). Density estimates for <em>S. amplum</em> are available for a few sites and habitats within these reefs (Moura 2003), which were severely damaged by a seaport construction in the 1970s and chronic overfishing.<br/><br/>5) Maracajaú, a large complex of non-emerging coastal reefs off the Rio Grande do Norte State coast, included in the Área de Proteção Ambiental dos Recifes de Corais. Although legally established, this multiple-use protected area provides limited protection as it is not yet implemented and lacks no-take reserves. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> was recorded in Maracajaú by Ferreira and Maida (2006), but there are no specific data on its density in the area.<br/><br/>6) Paraíba State, an important reefal area in the eastern coast of Brazil where <em>S. amplum</em> was recorded by Rocha <em>et al.</em> (1998). It is remarkable that coastal reefs in Paraíba State are already critically damaged by water quality decline, overfishing and mass tourism, and still lack no-take marine protected areas. Best preserved reefs are those in the mid and outer shelf (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005), where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum</span> occurs in depths up to 54 m, but these are also nearly depleted of large sized commercially important reef fish species.<br/><br/>7) Pernambuco and Alagoas States (Corals Coast), a huge coastal area with coastal and mid/outer shelf reefs, encompassed by the largest Brazilian marine protected area (established in 1997), representing an important area where <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum </span>occurs. Although bearing a few small no-take zones, this MPA still lacks zoning, management plan and enforcement in order to effectively protect <em>S. amplum</em> and other commercially-exploited parrotfish populations.<br/><br/>8) Abrolhos Bank, a wide portion of the continental shelf (42 000 km<sup>2</sup>) with depths rarely exceeding 30 m, the Bank<br/>encompasses the largest and richest coralline reefs in Brazil, where all 18 coral species recorded in Brazil co-occur. Within the Abrolhos Bank <em>S. amplum</em> is relatively rare in shallow coastal reefs, while abundant in deeper offshore areas (Moura and Francini-Filho 2006). The only exception is Timbebas Reef, which is a coastal reef within the National Marine Park where  <em>S. amplum</em> individuals are common. There are three main marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region, the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Ponta da Baleia-Abrolhos” (340,000 ha, created in 1993), a “paper park” with no implementation since its legal establishment by the State of Bahia government, the Corumbau Extractive Reserve (89, 500 ha, created in 2000), with management plan and zoning, but currently with deficient enforcement (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007), and the Abrolhos National Marine Park (88, 200 ha, created in 1983), the first Brazilian National Marine Park, counting with management plan and zoning, but currently with a heavily deficient enforcement. Despite this MPA network, effectively protection of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. amplum </span>and other commercially exploited parrotfish populations is not being provided.<br/><br/>9) Trindade and Martin Vaz archipelago, an oceanic archipelago located 1,160 km off the eastern Brazilian coast where <em>S. amplum </em>(recorded as <em>Sparisoma aff. viride</em>) was ranked as common by Gasparini and Floeter (2001). Although the archipelago is not protected the great distance to the shore keeps fishing effort low, especially reef fisheries (fisheries for large pelagics is common in the region).<br/><br/>10) Southeastern Brazil coastal islands. Significant groups of islands occur off the coast of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> occurs in low densities throughout the region (e.g. Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007, Luiz Jr. <em>et al.</em> 2008), being more common in islands than in the mainland coastlines, with numbers decreasing from the North to South. There are few MPAS in the southeastern region, and most existing ones are not implemented and lack management plans and enforcement.	eng
190723	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Feitosa, C., Ferreira, C.E., Floeter, S., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Maranhão State and Santa Catarina State. It is absent only from Sergipe State due to the freshwater discharge of the São Francisco River. It is present in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll and Trindade, but absent from St. Paul’s Rocks.	eng
190723	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Feitosa, C., Ferreira, C.E., Floeter, S., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is found in coral and rocky reef to depths of 30 m. It is predominantly herbivorous, ingesting algae and detritus, this latter item corresponding to up to 60% of its gut contents (Ferreira and Gonçalves 2006). When compared to its other Brazilian congeners, it prefers crustose coralline algae, a fact that contributes to the large amount of inorganic detritus find in its gut contents. It may be primarily recognized as an excavating species, as well as the most specialized parrotfish coral predator in Brazil (Francini-Filho <em>et al.</em> 2008). The coral species most frequently consumed is the Brazilian endemic brain coral <span style="font-style: italic;">Mussismilia braziliensis</span>.<br/><br/>It is known to form spawning aggregations, at least in one locality, Rocas Atoll (R.L. Moura, pers comm. 2008), but seasonality in reproductive cycles is unknown. There is no information on longevity and age of maturity for this species to estimate generation length. However, based on sister species <em>S. viride</em>, the age of maturity is estimated to be 2.5 to 3 years and longevity of 9 years, but varies by location up to 14 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2003). Generation length is estimated to be 5 to 6 years.	eng
190723	population	Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Feitosa, C., Ferreira, C.E., Floeter, S., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species was recorded as having high densities in the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll and Trinidade Island (Gasparini and Floeter 2001). In Rocas Atoll, it was ranked among the ten most abundant visually accessible reef fishes (Rosa and Moura 1997). It is less common in most parts of its range. <br/><br/>In Manoel Luis Marine state park it is among the five most abundant fish where it was observed in 92% of visual underwater surveys between 1996-1999 (Rocha and Rosa 2001). In the Abrolhos Bank, a region with Brazil’s largest network of marine protected areas, biomass of <em>S. amplum</em> is highest in the older no-take reserve (National Marine Park of Abrolhos), followed by the no-take zone of Itacolomis Reef, established in 2001, and unprotected reefs respectively. Considering the Abrolhos Bank as a whole, there were no significant variations in the biomass of <em>S. amplum </em>between 2001 and 2005 (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008).<br/><br/><em>Sparisoma amplum </em>densities obtained with underwater visual census (UVC) (n=418 summer months at 6 areas) in shallow rocky reefs of less than 10 m depth in southeastern Brazil had a mean value of 0.001/m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini pers comm. 2008). In northeast of Brazil in Baixo-sul baiano, an Underwater Visual Census survey (n=713 at 5 reef areas) in shallow reefs from 10 to 25 m depth revealed mean density values of 0.003/m<sup>2</sup> (A. Bertoncini and C. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).	eng
190723	threats	Rocha, L.A., Gaspar, A.L., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Feitosa, C., Ferreira, C.E., Floeter, S., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is heavily fished because of its large size, and is the second largest Brazilian parrotfish. <em>Sparisoma amplum</em> is a preferred target by spearfishers, a fishing technique with increasing numbers of practitioners in the last decades, both recreational and professional.<br/><br/>In Trindade Island, this species is third most commonly caught species in spearfisheries (Pinheiro and Gasparini in press)<br/>In addition, entire multi-specific groups of scarids, including <em>S. amplum</em>, are captured with drive nets above the reefs, particularly in the Abrolhos Bank. In the Abrolhos Bank, data from both within and outside the protected area do not show any clear trend of decline (Francini-Filho 2005; Franicini-Filho and Moura 2008, 2008). However, in general this species is more abundant within protected areas with no-take zones. It is also collected for the aquarium trade, but targeting by fisheries is this species most important threat.	eng
190724	conservation	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species occurs in some Marine Protected Areas within its range. It is present in protected oceanic islands in Brazil such as Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Abrolhos reefs and in no-take areas in Costa dos Corais. There is a quota of 1000 individuals/company/year for collection for the aquarium trade in Brazil.<br/><br/>More research is needed on this species population trends and the impact of fisheries. Species-specific management plans, as well as sub-national legislation, and community resource management are needed because this species is used as both a commercial and subsistence resource.	eng
190724	distribution	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is found in the southwestern Atlantic, in Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago, and Brazil from Manoel Luis Reefs to Santa Catarina. It also occurs at the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, St. Pauls Rocks and Trindade (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
190724	habitat	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is found in coral reefs, algal reefs, seagrass beds and rocky reefs, at depths ranging from one to at least 54m (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005). Juveniles have been recorded in seagrass beds and coral reefs in the northeast region. This species spawns all year around (Véras 2008). There is limited information on this species' life history characteristics. But based on a similar species, <em>S. chyrsopterum</em>, with an age of first maturity of 2-3 years and a longevity of 12 years, the generation length can be estimated to be 8 or 9 years.	eng
190724	population	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is uncommon in Venezuela, but is common in Brazil. It is the second most common parrotfish in the Brazilian coast (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009). Abundances in protected areas are significantly greater than in areas open to fishing (Ferreira and Maida 2006). In southeast Brazil the terminal phase males are rare.	eng
190724	threats	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Myers, R. & Russell, B., 2009	This species is targeted in a variety of fisheries within its range, including spear fishing, trap fisheries, and drive nets. It may be threatened by the recent increase in commercial, large scale fisheries, with fish exported to the international market. It is the main scarid species caught in trap fisheries in northeastern Brazil. Both initial and terminal phase fish are caught by trap fisheries.The average catch size is 24 cm by trap fisheries (Evangelista pers comm. 2008). In the north region of Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte states trap catches on this species have increased in the last decade. <br/><br/>In 2003, in these two states, catches from 36 trap boats registered 36.14 tons of <em>Sparisoma spp</em>., mainly <em>S. axillare </em>at Pernambuco State and <em>S. frondosum</em> at Rio Grande do Norte State (Ribeiro 2004). It is also targeted in Venezuela by multispecies trap fisheries. The visual census in Abrolhos Bank indicates that this species population is stable outside and inside the no-take zone, but biomass is higher within the no-take zones (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). However, in southeastern Brazil, there is indication of possible overfishing as terminal phase males are increasingly rare. Analysis of official fisheries statistics show that there is a serious lack of data for this species. The annual catch of all <span style="font-style: italic;">Sparisoma</span> spp. is approximately 350 t/year in trap fisheries, but no species-specific catch data is available.	eng
190725	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190725	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Western Pacific from Cocos-Keeling to the Ryukyus and Taiwan, southwards to Australia, eastwards to Palau, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190725	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is an uncommon inhabitant of clear lagoon and seaward reefs, usually seen along drop-offs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It is most characteristic from 15-50 m depth. It is usually solitary.	eng
190725	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is uncommon. There is virtually no population information for this species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190725	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190726	conservation	Myers, R., Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190726	distribution	Myers, R., Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands and Kashiwa-jima, Japan to the Line and Ducie Islands including Lord Howe and Rapa Islands. It is not found in in Wake Atoll in Micronesia, Marquesas Islands, and US Equatorial Islands: Howland, Jarvis and Palmyra atolls (P. Mundy pers comm. 2009) in Polynesia.<br/><br/>It is likely also in eastern Philippines and eastern Indonesia where terminal phase individuals may be confused with terminal phase <em>S. xanthopleura</em> or <em> S. prasiognathos</em> (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).  Records of this species in this region need to be confirmed.	eng
190726	habitat	Myers, R., Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits outer reef flats and clear lagoon and seaward reefs at depths of 1 to 50 m. Juveniles and subadults often occur on shallow protected reefs but large adults prefer seaward reefs. Adults and subadults form groups, juveniles are usually solitary. It forms large aggregations (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is common along the shallow seaward reef margin in relatively unexploited areas, but in heavily fished areas, large numbers are usually seen only along deep dropoffs (Lieske and Myers 1994, Myers 1999, Bellwood and Choat 1990).	eng
190726	population	Myers, R., Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate the following:<br/><br/>This species ranked 5th out of 22 scarid species identified in terms of weight harvested and 6th in terms of numbers harvested. The annual harvest closely matched that of the entire family, increasing to a peak of 2 mt in 1999, then fell precipitously to under 100 kg in 2006 and 2007 (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>This species is common in parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It was the most abundant schooling parrotfish at Middleton Reef (Choat<em> et al.</em> 2006).	eng
190726	threats	Myers, R., Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In the Federal States of Micronesia to Guam, the commercial fishing for export is considered to be a localized threat.	eng
190727	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190727	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Pacific and the Eastern Indian Ocean from Western Australia northwards to southern Japan and southern China, eastwards to the Hawaiian Islands chain, southwards to eastern Australia to central New South Wales, all reef sites in French Polynesia, Marquesas, Rapa and Pitcain. It is present in all western and central Pacific reef sites.	eng
190727	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in reef habitats with juveniles recruiting to lagoonal environments (Crook 1999).  It occurs in small schools up to 50 individuals. It forms large (up to 200) residential spawning groups (Colin and Bell 1991, Sancho <em>et al.</em> 2000).<br/><br/>The maximum age recorded was 15 years in the Abrolhos Island, Western Australia. For most Pacific sites, the maximum age recorded was 8-10 years. The maximum size recorded for this species was 37 cm (TL) in the Abrolhos. For most Pacific sites, the maximum size recorded was 25-30 cm (TL) (Choat and Robertson 2002, DeMartini <em>et al.</em> 2005).	eng
190727	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is highly abundant over most sites recorded over throughout its range (Leiske and Myers 1994, Randall<em> et al.</em> 1997). In northeastern Australia, densities of up to 350 per 1,000 m<sup>2 </sup>on reef crests and slopes, 100-200 per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in more sheltered sites were recorded (Gust<em> et al.</em> 2001, Gust <em>et al.</em> 2002).<br/><br/>In Aceh, Indonesia, catch rates indicate that it is below maximum sustainable yeild (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190727	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is heavily fished at some sites, such as in the main Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit Final Report 2009). In the Coral Triangle Region, it is also heavily exploited. But it seems to be more resilient and is less obviously impacted by fishing than some of the larger species, such as <em>C. bleekeri</em> (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). In Guam, the mean weight of individual landed fish did not change from 1985 to 2007 (J. McIlwain pers comm. 2010).	eng
190728	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. In Samoa, night spearfishing using SCUBA has been banned.	eng
190728	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands to Indonesia and Australia, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia, and eastwards to Oceania (except Hawaiian Islands and Easter Island) (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). In the southerm hemisphere it extends south of coral reef formations. It is not found in Cocos Keeling Islands.	eng
190728	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a large excavating parrotfishes reaching 80 cm (TL) and forming schools of up to 40 individuals on reef fronts and crests. It is a rapidly growing species with maximum age of 15 yrs (identified as <em>C. gibbus</em>) (Choat<em> et al.</em> 1996). It is found in a wide range of habitats from inshore reefs to exposed oceanic reef fronts (Russ 1984).	eng
190728	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is one of the more abundant and widely distributed Indo-Pacific parrotfishes. It is moderately common especially at the southern limits of its range. This species is rare in the Philippines and is not commonly found in markets in the Coral Triangle region. There have been abundance declines in Indonesia but elsewhere it is locally abundant. It is unknown if its rarity in markets in the Coral Triangle is due to past overfishing or a natural phenomenon.<br/><br/>This species shows substantial changes in abundance over its distributional range. Numbers are mean abundance per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>:<br/><br/>Great Barrier Reef:                    9-12<br/>Middleton reef:                         3-13<br/>Coral Sea reefs:                        17-2.3<br/>West Australia (Rowley Shoals):  2.3<br/>Kavieng, Papua New Guinea:      1.7<br/>Samoa:                                    0.9<br/>Tuvalu:                                   5.5.<br/><br/>This species is heavily fished in Pacific Islands eg: Samoa but at Tuvalu this species is inedible due to ciguatera. The Great Barrier Reef has naturally very high densities 9-12 as opposed to the West Australia reefs at 2-3. Both areas sampled are marine reserves. High abundances are recorded at the southern limit of coral reef formation (Middleton Reef). Both fishing and natural processes modify abundances in <span style="font-style: italic;">C. microrhinos</span> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>Indonesia<br/><br/>Abundance data from 2005-2007 showed a decrease from 800 individuals per hectare to 80 individuals per hectare  (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>Underwater fish visual census in Kofiau, Raja Ampat in April 2009 recorded biomass estimates of 2,000 kg per hectare (M.E. Lazuardi and A. Muljadi pers comm. 2009). It is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190728	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	As a large parrotfish, this species is targeted for food in at least half of its range. It is also commonly taken by spearfishing at night and also during daytime including the Great Barrier Reef. It is heavily fished at some locations in Guam with declines of 86% in numbers landed since 1985 (Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources unpub. data). It is present in most markets observed including Palau and the Society Islands where it is heavily targeted in the Tuamotos. Fishing pressure is increasing in parts of its range such as in the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). Destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent in parts of its range (Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines).	eng
190729	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190729	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190729	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in reef and sea grass habitats from 2-20 m depth. It inhabits clear coral and algal-rich reefs. It is solitary or in small groups and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. Juveniles are often found in seagrass beds.	eng
190729	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190729	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190730	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, this species distribution includes some Marine Protected Areas within its range. More research is needed on population status and harvest levels.	eng
190730	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is found in the western Atlantic, from New Jersey, USA and northern Gulf of Mexico to southeastern Brazil. It is absent in Bermuda, Bahamas and West Indies, except the Greater Antilles.	eng
190730	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is reef-associated and inhabits seagrass beds, macroalgae, and sandy areas mostly in shallow water. Larger adults live in deeper water, and can be found to 73 m.	eng
190730	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There is no population information available for this species. It is rare except in a few locations where it can be locally common, such as in Venezuela.	eng
190730	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
190731	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190731	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the East coast of Africa to the Hawaiian and Line islands, French Polynesia (except Rapa and Austral Islands), northwards to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan, southwards to Australia and New Caledonia. It also occurs in the eastern tropical Pacific.	eng
190731	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a large<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scarus</span> (Robertson and Allen 2002) that may form dense schools (300-400 individuals). It is found solitary or in pairs (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It occurs on non-reefal rocky areas (Robertson and Allen 2002) and on coral reefs (Lieske and Myers 1994). It extends to deeper parts of the reef to 36 m (Humann and DeLoach 1993). It is a fast growing species with maximum age recorded at 15 years in Oman, 11 years in Seychelles and 12 years in the Great Barrier Reef (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190731	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is generally abundant, especially near its range limits, such as in the eastern tropical Pacific (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Indonesia, this species was recorded as common but not abundant in Aceh with estimates of 40-60 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009), moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003) and Kupang, west Timor (B. Russell pers comm. 2009). It was recorded in marine reserves in the central Philippines but not from fished areas (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>Over the Pacific, abundance estimates record 2-3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. In the Western Indian Ocean (Amirantes Seychelles), it was the most abundant large <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus </span>with abundance estimates of 10-20 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190731	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. It is heavily fished in the northern Solomon Islands with evidence of a decline in mean size and numbers of this species in the markets from 2004-2006. It is the second or third most important species in the parrotfish fishery in 2004, but by 2006 the importance of this species in the fishery had declined (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190732	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190732	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190732	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 3-30 m. It is found in shallow clear reefs and seagrass (Thalassia) beds. It forms schools and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, terminal males spawn individually with striped females, while sexually mature males in the striped phase spawn in aggregation. Juveniles are found on seagrass beds.	eng
190732	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is the most abundant parrotfish in the Caribbean and is common throughout its range (J.H. Choat and L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190732	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190733	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190733	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Western Indian Ocean from the Red Sea south to Mozambique Channel, including Madagascar and Seychelles and east to Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. It has also been recorded in Karimunjawa, Halmahera and Raja Ampat, Indonesia (A. Lazuardi, M.E. Muljadi and S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is likely to occur in Karimunjawa but not in Raja Ampat and Halmahera (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010). Records in the Coral Triangle region need to be verified.	eng
190733	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coastal regions associated with coral reefs and reef flats. It forms groups consisting of a terminal phase individual and numerous initial phase individuals (Lieske and Myers 1994). It also forms large foraging schools (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It feeds on benthic algae (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). The maximum published weight is 2.3 kg (Bruce and Randall 1984).	eng
190733	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is abundant in the Red Sea with recorded densities of 8 individuals per 1, 000 m<sup>2</sup>, where it is caught in the net fishery along the Egyptian coast. It is more abundant in the northern part of the Red Sea and less abundant in the Seychelles with densities recorded at 2-4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It is rare in Aceh and Karimunjawa, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).	eng
190733	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	&#160;There is some localized fishing in the Red Sea but this is not considered to affect the overall population of the species.	eng
190734	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190734	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190734	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-50 m. It inhabits coral reefs with clear water. It feeds mainly on soft algae, but has been observed to graze on live corals. It produces a significant amount of sediment through bioerosion using its strong beak-like jaws and constantly re-growing teeth (Gygi 1975). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. It is found solitary or small in small groups. Young may be found in seagrass beds and algae-rich areas of the reef.	eng
190734	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190734	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).	eng
190735	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps marine reserves in parts of its range.	eng
190735	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in reefs of Surin Island and the Similan Islands of Thailand, and Mentawai Islands off the southwest coast of Sumatra. In addition, this species was illustrated in Allen <em>et al. </em>(2003) in a photo labeled<em> S. hypselopterus</em>, taken by Rudie Kuiter at Pulau Putri, off Jakarta, Indonesia in the Java Sea.	eng
190735	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is not well-known. This species is solitary or found in small schools in shallow water crest and slope habitats (Westneat <em>et al.</em> 2007).	eng
190735	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species, it was only recently described.	eng
190735	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	It is not known if there are any major threats to this species.	eng
190736	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (i.e., Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Great Barrier Reef).	eng
190736	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific and is found from the Red Sea, Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Aden to Sodwana Bay, extending eastwards to Rapa and the Marquesas, northwards to southern Japan and southwards to Australia.	eng
190736	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is abundant and characteristic of reef fronts and also sheltered reef environments and lagoons to depths of 30 m (Choat and Randall 1986). It forms groups (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is a fast growing species with a rapid turnover rate. The maximum age recorded was  5 years (Choat<em> et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190736	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common in many parts of its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). Abundance estimates in the Red Sea recorded 1.5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. It is more abundant on Pacific Reefs with estimates recorded at 5-10 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). In Karimunjawa, Indonesia abundance estimates record 900 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190736	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. In Guam, it is the 3rd most important species in numbers and 6th most important species by weight. Catch declined by 74% during 1985-2007 (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). In most parts of its range, this species is not targeted and is mainly caught as bycatch. These threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190737	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It occurs in marine reserves in parts of its range.	eng
190737	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in East Africa and the southwestern tropical Indian Ocean.	eng
190737	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits outer reef slopes (Randall and Bruce 1983), and rich coral areas in depths between about 3-30 m (G. Allen and R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).	eng
190737	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is relatively rare. There are no abundance estimates or market records.	eng
190737	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. Localized threats in Madagascar include habitat destruction by sedimentation and coral bleaching events (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190738	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190738	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is known from the Bahamas and South Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190738	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in reef and seagrass habitats from 1-20 m depth. It occurs in coral and rocky reefs, and adjacent habitats, the young especially in seagrass beds. Juveniles or primary-phase adults rapidly assume a mottled pattern and blend with the substratum when they come to rest on the bottom. It feeds on benthic algae and seagrass.	eng
190738	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190738	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. Even though fisheries on these and other medium to large-sized parrotfish species in the Caribbean has been steadily increasing, there is no apparent global decline in population sizes (Friedlander and Beets 2008). There are however, severe population declines in reefs close to densily populated areas around Haiti and Jamaica (Hawkins and Roberts 2004).	eng
190739	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.  Given that there are many localized threats to this species including habitat loss and overfishing, its population status should be monitored.	eng
190739	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Ryukyu Islands south to the Great Barrier Reef, east to Samoa Islands and Micronesia, except the Mariana Islands (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190739	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coral rich areas of protected reefs to a depth of over 12 m and also in shallow protected reefs of lagoons and bays. It is common on coastal reefs throughout much of its range, but rare at Guam where its presence may be intermittent (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).  initial phase fish often form small groups. It feeds mainly on algae.	eng
190739	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common throughout its range (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). This is a dominant species on Philippine reefs. It is one of the more abundant parrotfish in central Philippines with a 30-40% difference between marine reserves and non-reserves (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).<br/><br/>Data for Guam fisheries harvest from 1985-2007 indicate that this species was unknown from the island until 1995 and was otherwise reported only in 1996, 1997 and 2001 (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia abundance estimates record 50-80 individuals per hectare (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190739	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in most parts of its range with indications of the percent of total catch increasing in the northern Solomons (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is a component of commercial spearfishing, particularly for export (Federal States of Micronesia to Guam). Destructive fishing practices, habitat destruction, pollution and sedimentation are prevalent in parts of its range, primarily in south east Asia.	eng
190740	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several well-policed marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190740	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Society Islands and Tuamotu Archipelago, northwards to Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan, southwards to the Great Barrier Reef, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia and Western Australia south to Shark Bay. It does not occur in Hawaii, Lines Islands and Marquesas.	eng
190740	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a small to moderate size reef Scarus (32-40 cm) (Randall and Bruce 1983, Randall <em>et al.</em> 1997). It is characteristic of reef fronts and crests to 30 m depth (Choat and Randall 1986, Lieske and Myers 1994). It has variable life spans with a maximum age recorded to 18 yrs (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is solitary except during courtship (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190740	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widespread and abundant on reef slopes and crests over most of its range. In the Red Sea, it achieves abundances of 176 individuals per hectare in some locations making it one of the most abundant parrotfish in this region. In the Western Pacific reefs abundance estimates were recorded at 5-10 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2 </sup>(J.H. Choat, pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>This species is heavily fished in Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009) with catch rates recorded at 0.058 kg/trip. It is heavily impacted by fishing in the central Philippines, with reductions in the order of 50-60% compared with adjacent marine protected area sites (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190740	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Myers, R., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190741	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190741	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is found from west Thailand to western and southern Indonesia to central Java and Cocos Keeling Island.	eng
190741	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	The maximum size recorded for this species is 40 cm (TL). It is found solitary or in pairs on reef slopes and lagoonal habitats (Bellwood 2001). It occurs in depths from 5-25 m (Lieske and Myers 1994).	eng
190741	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is apparently rare over most of its range.	eng
190741	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190742	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190742	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Aden (Socotra, Somalia, Southern Oman) through east Africa, southwards to Mozambique and Madagascar, eastwards to Cocos and Christmas Island, western and southern Sumatra, Java and western Thailand. <br/><br/>It was recorded from the Komodo National Park (Beger and Turak 2008). It has also been recorded from Halmahera, Indonesia, however, these records may likely be a misidentified <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus microrhinos</span> (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).	eng
190742	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is most common on reef fronts and outer flats. It is found from 2-35 m on reef fronts (Bellwood 2001).  The maximum age recorded was 9 years (males) and 8 years (females). Age at first sexual maturity is 2.8-3.0 years. The maximum size recorded was 70 cm (TL). At Cocos and Seychelles, the maximum size recorded was 45 cm (TL) (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190742	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is highly patchy in terms of abundance. <br/><br/>Abundance estimates from Seychelles including the remote Amirantes reefs recorded 1.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; Granitic reefs - 3.1 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; in Cocos 11.8-19.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>; in Christmas Island 1.3 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>In Aceh, estimates of exploitation rate indicate this species is being fished well below maximum sustainable yield (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).	eng
190742	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	In Aceh, Indonesia estimates of exploitation rate indicate this species is being  fished well below maximum sustainable yield (S. Pardede pers comm.  2009).	eng
190743	conservation	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190743	distribution	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Southeast Asia from Hong Kong to southern Japan, northwards to the south Korea, southwards to northern Luzon, Philippines including Taiwan, southeastern China and the Ryukyu Islands.	eng
190743	habitat	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits rocky areas of coastal waters from depths of at least 8 to 25 m. It is found as solitary or in small groups.	eng
190743	population	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is rare. In Hong Kong, it is known only from catch the of spearfishers who take small numbers of large fish during the summer months and a single initial phase fish seen on an exposed rocky reef (Sadovy and Cornish 2000).	eng
190743	threats	Russell, B., Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Industrial and agricultural pollution and sedimentation are a potential threat throughout much of its range.  It is harvested in most parts of its range,and spearfishing occurs in some areas where the species is rare (Hong Kong). Fishing pressure and habitat destruction are occuring and will likely increase in the future.	eng
190744	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190744	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from western Indonesia, to the Philippines, extending eastwards to Vanuatu, including the Great Barrier Reef. It is absent from Christmas and Cocos-Keeling. It was recorded from Aceh, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It was recorded from Vietnam (Dung 2007, R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).	eng
190744	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a moderately sized non-schooling species, characteristic of outer reef flats and slopes. It tends to inhabit sheltered to moderately exposed reef environments but rare on exposed ocean reef fronts. It is not recorded from exposed reefs in the Coral Sea. Large terminal phase males are usually between 30-40 cm (TL).<br/><br/>Generation length justification: 14(longevity) -2(age of maturity) = 7/2 = 3.5 or 4 years	eng
190744	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is not abundant over most of its range. It achieves greatest abundance in the central Philippines with 2-4 individuals per 500 m<sup>2</sup> (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009). It is considered to be the most abundant parrotfish in the Solomon Islands (Green <em>et al.</em> 2006). In the Solomons, it makes up approximately 10% of the catch. Since 2005, the percentage represented in the catch is increasing. The percentage of the smaller parrotfish is also increasing (Sabetian 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa National Park, Java Sea, underwater visual census (UVC) show that this species has displayed a 10-fold decrease in numbers from 2005-2006. In 2007, there was a 2-fold increase in Karimunjawa and Aceh (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190744	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Russell, B., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Overfishing, destructive fishing practices and habitat degradation are the the major threats to this species in the Coral Triangle Region. In the Philippines, local fishing can reduce numbers of parrotfishes by 50-60% over a period of approximately 20-30 years (Stockwell <em>et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190745	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190745	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Pacific Ocean from Cocos-Keeling Islands and Rowley Shoals in the eastern Indian Ocean to the Line and Tuamoto islands, northwards to the Ryukyu Islands, southwards to the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia. It is replaced by <span style="font-style: italic;">Hipposcarus harid</span> in the Indian Ocean.	eng
190745	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits sand and rubble areas around shallow lagoon reefs, but may also occur over seaward reef flats in 2-40 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It is usually seen in aggregations; females usually in small groups (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Large adults may occur to depths of at least 40 m (Myers 1999). It is abundant in reefs and outer slopes in exposed continental reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190745	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is moderately abundant with densities recorded at 3-4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in eastern Australia (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, Indonesia, this species was observed to have increased in population size inside the Marine Protected Area (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). In East Timor, it was seen occasionally in seaward reefs (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is moderately common at sites adjacent to sandy bottoms (Allen 2003).	eng
190745	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Even though this species is fished throughout most parts of its range, it is only perceived as a major threat in the Coral Triangle region where rates of harvesting are unknown.	eng
190746	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190746	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands in the north, southwards to Sulawesi and Halmahera, Indonesia. It was recently recorded from Manus Island and East Timor. Records from the Indian Ocean and North West Australia may be <em>C. cyanescens</em> and <em> C. rhakoura</em> respectively.	eng
190746	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a small <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus</span> not exceeding 45 cm (TL). It is found solitary or in small groups on reef fronts (Bellwood 2001). It is found in a variety of reef habitats and can occupy inshore reef areas (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190746	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is a relatively rare species over its entire range (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190746	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190747	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190747	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands to Ducie Island, northwards to the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, Japan and southwards to Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs. It is not present in Marquesas, Pitcairn Group and Palmyra Atoll (P. Mundy pers comm. 2009). <br/><br/>It has been recorded from Aceh and Karimunjawa, Indonesia (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is likely to be found in Karimunjawa. The record from Aceh needs to be verified by a photograph (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2010).	eng
190747	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits clear outer lagoon and exposed seaward reefs usually in rich coral habitats at depths of three to at least 30 m. It is generally solitary or in small groups. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite and is diandric.	eng
190747	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	Guam fisheries data from 1985-2007 indicate that out of 22 scarid species identified, this species ranked 12th in terms of weight harvested and 9th in terms of numbers harvested. The annual harvest trend closely matched that of the entire family, increasing to a peak of 490 kg in 1999, then fell precipitously (R.F. Meyers pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>This species is moderately common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). There was 50% difference observed between fished and and no-take areas in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009). In Indonesia, it was quite common in underwater visual surveys in 2006, 2008 and 2009 from Aceh, but not abundant with a catch rate of 0.03 kg/trip. In Karimunjawa, catch rate was 0.3 kg/trip (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).	eng
190747	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190748	conservation	Ferreira, B., Floeter, S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. Significant differences can be seen in this species abundance inside and outside protected no fishing areas (Ferreira and Maida 2006). For example, in a study of this species in a no-take zone, it was abundant and recovered within 3-4 years from previous levels when fishing was allowed (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). <br/><br/>A few populations are currently protected by reserves by no-take reserves along the coast, including some reefs in Abrolhos, in Costa dos Corais, and others where there is effective enforcement. However, the number of protected areas within its range does not include a large porportion of this species population or habitat.	eng
190748	distribution	Ferreira, B., Floeter, S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from Manoel Luiz Reefs on the northern Brazilian coast, to Santa Catarina on the southeastern Brazilian coast. It is absent from the oceanic islands.	eng
190748	habitat	Ferreira, B., Floeter, S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is reef-associated and occurs in seagrass, coral reef, algal and rocky reefs and on algal beds at depths of one to 45 m. It exhibits a functional role in substrate use because it is an important excavator that often feeds on live coral.<br/><br/>There is no direct information on its life history to estimate generation length. However, based on sister species <em>S. guacamaia</em>, a generation of 7 to 10 years can be inferred.	eng
190748	population	Ferreira, B., Floeter, S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	In 1996–1998, this species was the second most abundant species in Manoel Luis State Marine Park; it was present in 69% of underwater visual census (UVC) samples and had a mean length of 30 cm (Rocha and Rosa 2001). On the Abrolhos Bank, the largest coral reef area in the south Atlantic, this species represents 28% of total fish biomass, and has shown 50% decline in the past five years (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008).<br/><br/>In the southeastern part of its range (Arraial do Cabo), the biomass has declined by 60–70% over the last 15 years based on UVC and fishermen interviews (B. Ferreira pers comm. 2008). <em>Scarus trispinosus</em> densities obtained with UVC (n=418 summer months at six areas) in shallow rocky reefs of less than 10 m depth in southeastern Brazil had a mean value of 0.00018/m² (A. Bertoncini pers comm. 2008). In the northeast of Brazil in Baixo-sul baiano,  an UVC (n=713 at five reef areas) in shallow reefs from 10 to 25 m depth revealed mean density values of 0.0018/m² (A. Bertoncini and C. Sampaio pers comm. 2008).	eng
190748	threats	Ferreira, B., Floeter, S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is threatened by spearfishing throughout its range and also by net and trap fishing. Based on measured declines in at least two signicant parts of its range (Abrolhos Bank and the Arraial do Cabo), along with observations that large individuals have become very rare, it is estimated that at least 50% of the global population has declined over the past 20 to 30 years.	eng
190749	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190749	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the eastern Indian Ocean from western Australia to Indonesia, extending northwards to southern Japan and eastwards to the Gulf of California to Ecuador including Galapagos, Cocos and Malpelo. It does not occur in Hawaii, Marquesas, Tuamotos, Rapa, and Pitcairn.	eng
190749	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occupies deeper and non-reef sites. It was recorded to 100 m depth in the east Indian Ocean. It inhabits deeper sea grass beds and reef environments. It is a fast growing species with a maximum age of 14 years.	eng
190749	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is widespread and abundant at some localized sites.  It is abundant at the southern limits of its range with estimates recorded of 4-5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> at Rottnest Island, Australia. <br/><br/>In Karimunjawa, <span style="font-style: italic;">S.ghobban</span> was observed to have had decreased in abundance from 2005-2007. However, this record from Karimunjawa maybe <em>S. pyrostethus</em> (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). It is common in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003). <br/><br/>In Bohol, Philippines, fishermen were reportedly getting zero catches of<span style="font-style: italic;"> S. ghobban</span> since the 1990s with previous catches in the 1970s-1980s estimated at 10 kg/day (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010). However, this may be <em>S. pyrostethus</em>.<br/><br/>This species made up less than 5% of the fisheries catch in Guam over 1985-2007 (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009).	eng
190749	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. There have been some declines recorded in some sites (Guam, Philippines and Indonesia) due to capture in artisanal fisheries and bycatch by trawls, beach seines and traps (Lavides <em>et al.</em> 2010, S. Pardede pers comm. 2009). However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190750	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190750	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190750	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is reef and seagrass associated from 1-25m. It is found in shallow clear reefs and seagrass (<span style="font-style: italic;">Thalassia</span>) beds. It forms schools and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite. Juveniles are found on seagrass beds.	eng
190750	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common and locally abundant throughout its range (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009). It is abundant in lagoonal habitats in Bermuda where it is protected (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190750	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190751	conservation	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2009	This species is found in protected areas within its range. It is most abundant in oceanic islands where they are protected by no-take zones, such as in Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha Archipelago. It also occurs in other marine protected areas such as Abrolhos reefs and in no-take areas in Costa dos Corais.<br/><br/>There is a quota of 1000/individuals/company/year for collection for the aquarium trade. More data is needed on the effect of fisheries on this species population, especially population trends in areas outside of marine protected areas and no-take zones.	eng
190751	distribution	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2009	This species is endemic to Brazil and occurs from Manoel Luis Reefs in northern Brazil, to the Santa Catarina coast in southern Brazil. It also occurs at the oceanic islands of Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas and Trindade (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
190751	habitat	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2009	This species is found in coral reefs, algal reefs, seagrass beds and rocky reefs, at depths ranging from one to at least 54 m (Feitoza <em>et al.</em> 2005). Juveniles are found in seagrass beds and coral reefs in northeast region from 10 mm (TL) (Gaspar  2006). This species is a protogynous hermaphrodite but the size at sex change is unknown. Spawning occurs all year around (Véras 2008). Recruitment at Tamandaré is all year around, however higher rate of smaller individuals are recorded from September (Gaspar 2006). It was the most abundant scarid recruiting in sea grass beds in Tamandaré.	eng
190751	population	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2009	This species is the most abundant species of its genus in Brazil and is common throughout its range. However, large sized terminal males are relatively rare likely due to fishing pressure. Relative abundances in protected areas are significantly larger than in areas open to fishing (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2004).<br/><br/>In Sebastian Gomes Reef which is unprotected from fishing pressures, a 50% decline in the last 5 years for this species was recorded (Francini-Filho 2005, Francini-Filho and Moura 2008). This is the primary site within the Abrolhos Bank where population is declining, but in other areas of the Abrolhos Bank the population may be more stable.	eng
190751	threats	Ferreira, B., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2009	This species is targeted by fisheries with different gears throughout its range, and fishing pressure may be increasing with reported increases in catch and fishing effort. Analysis of official fisheries statistics show that there is a serious lack of data for this species. The annual catch of all <em>Sparisoma spp</em>. is approximately 350 t/year, of which this species comprises the majority. But no species-specific catch data is widely available. In addition, the average size fish captured by hook and line is 23 cm, which is close to size of female maturation (B. Ferreira pers comm. 2008). Terminal phase individuals and older females of <em>S. axillare</em> are caught mainly by traps (Gaspar 2006). Important indicators of potential overfishing include the rarity of large sized and terminal phase males, as well as small averge body size of catches.<br/><br/><em>Sparisoma axillare </em>(especially initial phase) represented 29% of artisanal fisheries captures on coastal reefs at Tamandaré, south of Pernambuco state (Brazil), being a significant component of line and spear fisheries catches (Ferreira and Cava 2001). This fisheries was small scale and restricted to inshore reefs. In the north region of Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte states trap catches of this species have recently increased. In 2003, in these two states, catches from 36 trap boats registered 36.14 tons of <em>Sparisoma spp.</em>, mainly <em>S. axillare</em> at Pernambuco State and <em>S. frondosum </em>at Rio Grande do Norte State (Ribeiro 2004). The catches are for the international or export market. In 2005, the total catch of scarids in Pernambuco state was 280 t (150 boats) and in the following year it increased to 356 t.	eng
190752	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190752	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is known only from the central to southern coast of Oman.	eng
190752	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is a large scarid reaching 52 cm (TL). It is fast growing with a maximum age of 9 years. It inhabits rocky reefs and coral patches, especially on offshore islands in its range. It was observed on the coast at Muscat but was very rare (Randall and Hoover 1995).	eng
190752	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	This species is rare over most of its known range (Randall 1995).  Abundance estimates record less than one  individual per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup>. It is more abundant in offshore islands along the southern coast of Oman (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190752	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Rahardjo, P. & Pardede, S., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190753	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range (i.e., Ras Muhammed Marine Protected Area).	eng
190753	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba. It does not appear to occur in the Gulf of Aden. A survey done in the eastern Gulf of Aden in 2005 recorded <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus strongylocephalus</span> (J.H. Choat pers comm 2009). The record from Socotra needs to be verified.	eng
190753	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a large excavating <span style="font-style: italic;">Chlorurus</span> up to 70 cm (Lieske and Myers 2004). It inhabits shallow reefs and adjacent sand areas of lagoons and bays at depths between about 2-30 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It forms small schools. <br/><br/>There is limited information on its life history. The age record of 14 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996) refers to <em>C. microrhinos</em>.	eng
190753	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is uncommon in the Red Sea. Mean density of 23.9 individuals per hectare was recorded at Duba, Saudi Arabia (A.M. Ayling pers comm 2009).	eng
190753	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190754	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
190754	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is known only from the Marquesas Islands.	eng
190754	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits rocky shore reefs in depths from 1-20 m (Randall and Choat 1980). It is solitary. There are no other data on the biology or life history of this species.	eng
190754	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is locally rare to patches of moderate abundance at the Marquesas. Abundance estimates recorded 1-5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).	eng
190754	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190755	conservation	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190755	distribution	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea to the Line and Ducie islands, north to southern Japan, south to Shark Bay, Western Australia and Lord Howe and Rapa islands.  It is absent from the Hawaiian Islands (Randall 1986).	eng
190755	habitat	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is usually found on exposed outer reefs, sometimes in very shallow water (Randall<em> et al.</em> 1990). Juveniles occur among coral and rubble of lagoon reefs. It grazes on benthic algae (Sommer<em> et al.</em> 1996). It is generally solitary (Myers 1991) but can often be seen in schools of mixed species when feeding (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It is a protogynous hermaphrodite (Choat and Robertson 1975).<br/><br/>The maximum age recorded in the Indian Ocean is 8 years and 20 years in the Pacific Ocean (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is faster growing and has higher turn over rates in the Indian Ocean (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190755	population	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is abundant in the Indian (Seychelles) and Pacific Oceans on reef crests and outer reef slopes. It is rare in Cocos Keeling (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>In Indonesia, it was only occasionally found in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003) and in Aceh, exploitation rate of this species in the wild is under MSY (S. Pardede pers comm. 2009).<br/><br/>It was only found in one marine reserve and is not included in any fishery catch data in the central Philippines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009).	eng
190755	threats	Russell, B., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is fished in some parts of its range where destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are prevalent. However, these threats are not considered to affect the overall status of its population.	eng
190756	conservation	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190756	distribution	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Indo-Pacific from the northern Red Sea and South Africa to Easter Island, northwards to southern Japan, southwards to Poor Knight's Island in New Zealand and Rottnest Island in Australia. In the Southeast Atlantic it is found from False Bay, South Africa.	eng
190756	habitat	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in sheltered bays, harbors and lagoons (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). It inhabits seagrass areas or hard substrates heavy with algal cover. It usually occurs in small groups. Unlike other parrotfishes, males and females look very similar and do not change sex (Kuiter and Tonozuka 2001). Larvae of this species is associated with drifting algae (Ohta and Tachihara 2004). It feeds on seagrasses and algae (Sommer <em>et al.</em> 1996). It is cryptic (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190756	population	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is relatively common (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). It is rare in Raja Ampat (Allen 2003).	eng
190756	threats	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. However, in the Coral Triangle region, this species can be locally threatened by habitat destruction by dynamite fishing (Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines), sedimentation, and coral bleaching events (G. Allen pers comm. 2009).	eng
190757	conservation	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
190757	distribution	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is found from Bermuda, South Carolina (Smith 1997) to southern Florida (USA), Bahamas, Antilles to Santa Catarina, Brazil, including Atoll das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha.	eng
190757	habitat	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species occurs in seagrass beds, macroalgae, coral rubble or around stands of gorgonians and soft coral, or on coral and rocky reefs to depths of 30 m (Carvalho-Filho 1999).	eng
190757	population	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	This species is naturally uncommon. Densities in shallow rocky reefs in Southeast Brazil obtained with Underwater Visual Census are in the order of 0.3 to 0.56 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Floeter <em>et al.</em> 2007), 0.33 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> Baixo-sul baiano. Lower densities occur along its southern limit, South Brazil (Santa Catarina) 0.1 individuals per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Bertoncini and Sampaio pers comm 2008). Along the Brazilian coast, it is more common from Bahia to São Paulo and is considered rare in Santa Catarina state (Smith 1997, Hostim-Silva <em>et al.</em> 2006).	eng
190757	threats	Bertoncini, A.A., Sampaio, C.L.S., Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Gaspar, A.L. & Feitosa, C., 2008	There are no major threats to this species.	eng
190758	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190758	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found only in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.	eng
190758	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a small excavating parrot fish found on outer reef slopes. It inhabits coral reefs at depths between about 6-31 m, but most commonly encountered below 20 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It has been observed to be solitary or in small groups to depths of 30 m.	eng
190758	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This endemic species is relatively rare in the Red Sea. In Duba, Saudi Arabia, an average of 33 individuals per hectare were recorded. It is more abundant in the northern Red Sea (Duba, Saudi Arabia as opposed to Jedda, Saudi Arabia) (A.M. Ayling pers comm. 2009).	eng
190758	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190759	conservation	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190759	distribution	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden to Somalia and Socotra, Oman and Arabian Gulf, but it is not recorded from the northern Arabian Gulf (Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190759	habitat	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits coral reefs of the Red Sea and rocky shores of Oman and the Arabian Gulf in depths from 1-60 m<br/>(Lieske and Myers 1994, Bruce and Randall 1984). The maximum age was recorded at 15 years (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190759	population	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is abundant over most of its range. It is abundant in the Red Sea with estimates of 76 individuals per hectare and 30.6 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Oman. It is also abundant along parts of the southern Arabian Gulf coast (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190759	threats	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190760	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is present in marine protected areas along the Brazilian coast, such as Recifes de Corais MPA, Costa dos Corais MPA, Abrolhos National Park. There is a collection quota of 1000 individuals/company/year for the aquarium trade. The effective implementation of the few marine protected areas in Brazil represent the most urgent conservation action to protect S. zelindae and the other large-sized Brazilian-endemic parrotfishes. The creation of new protected areas also ranks within priority actions for reef fish conservation in Brazil. Brazilian reefs, highly threatened by the country’s explosive growth, represent a priority area for biodiversity conservation in the Atlantic, due to their small relative area (0.5% of the world’s reefs) and concentration of high levels of endemism (up to 30% in reef fishes). Of particular concern is the disproportionately low redundancy for large-bodied parrotfish.<br/><br/>Remarkable sites where it is recorded include:<br/>1) Manoel Luis Reefs (Parcel Manoel Luís), a large reef complex near the Amazon River mouth (Moura et al. 1999)<br/>encompassed by a State Marine Park created in 1991 and recognized as a RAMSAR Site. Although legally protected, Manoel Luis represent a paper park with no protection and research incentives or infrastructure, being systematically exposed to illegal fisheries by fleets based in or near the city of São Luis, Maranhão State.<br/><br/>2) João da Cunha Reef (Recifes João da Cunha), located in the border between Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte States, these reefs represent the second larger coralline formations in the Northern coast of Brazil (with and E-W orientation) under influence of the west-flowing Equatorial current (the largest reef is Manoel Luis). Density estimates for <em>S. zelindae </em>are available for a few sites and habitats within these reefs (Moura 2003), which were severely damaged by a seaport construction in the 1970s and chronic overfishing.<br/><br/>5) Maracajaú, a large complex of non-emerging coastal reefs off the Rio Grande do Norte State coast, included in the Área de Proteção Ambiental dos Recifes de Corais (established in 200X). Although legally established, this multiple-use protected area provides limited protection as it is not yet implemented and lacks no-take reserves. <em>Scarus zelindae</em> was recorded in Maracajaú by Ferreira and Maida (2006), but there are no specific data on its density in the area.<br/><br/>6) Paraíba State, an important reef area in the northeastern Brazilian coast where <em>S. zelindae</em> was recorded by Rocha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (1998). It is remarkable that coastal reefs in Paraíba State are already critically damaged by water quality decline, overfishing and mass tourism, and still lack no-take marine protected areas. Best preserved reefs are those in the mid and outer shelf (Feitoza<em>et al.</em> 2005), where <em>S. zelindae</em> occurs in depths up to 54 m, but these are also nearly depleted of large sized commercially important reef fish species.<br/><br/>7) Pernambuco and Alagoas States (Corals Coast), a huge coastal area with coastal and mid/outer shelf reefs, encompassed by the largest Brazilian marine protected area (established in 1997), representing an important area where <em>S. zelindae </em>occurs. Although bearing a few small no-take zones, this MPA still lacks zoning, management plan and enforcement in order to effectively protect <em>S. zelindae</em> and other commercially-exploited parrotfish populations.<br/><br/>8) Abrolhos Bank, a wide portion of the continental shelf (42 000 km^2) with depths rarely exceeding 30 m, the Bank<br/>encompasses the largest and richest coralline reefs in Brazil, where all 18 coral species recorded in Brazil co-occur. Within the Abrolhos Bank <em>S. zelindae</em> is common in both shallow coastal reefs and deeper offshore areas (Moura and Francini-Filho, 2006). There are three main marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region, the “Área de Proteção Ambiental Ponta da Baleia-Abrolhos” (340,000 ha, created in 1993), a “paper park” with no implementation since its legal establishment by the State of Bahia government, the Corumbau Extractive Reserve (89,500 ha, created in 2000), with management plan and zoning, but currently with deficient enforcement (Moura <em>et al.</em> 2007), and the Abrolhos National Marine Park (88,200 ha, created in 1983), the first Brazilian National Marine Park, counting with management plan and zoning, but currently with a heavily deficient enforcement. Despite this MPA network, effectively protection of <em>S. zelindae</em> and other commercially exploited parrotfish populations is not being provided.<br/><br/>10) Southeastern Brazil coastal islands. Significant groups of islands occur off the coast of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina states. Scarus zelindae occurs in low densities throughout the region (e.g. Floeter<em> et al.</em> 2007, Luiz Jr.<em> et al.</em> 2008), being more common in islands than in the mainland coastlines, with numbers decreasing from the North to South. There are few MPAS in the southeastern region, and most existing ones are not implemented and lack management plans and enforcement.	eng
190760	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is endemic to Brazil and occurs from Manoel Luis Reefs in northeastern Brazil to the São Paulo coast in southeastern Brazil. It is absent from all Brazilian oceanic islands.	eng
190760	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species occurs in coralline areas and rocky reefs at depths of 1 to 60 m. <em>Scarus zelindae</em> is predominantly herbivorous, ingesting algae and detritus (Ferreira and Gonçalves 2006). When compared to its other Brazilian congeners, it prefers crustose coralline algae. This species life history is not known. Based on a sister species in Bermuda, <span style="font-style: italic;">S. taeniopterus</span>, longevity is estimated to be 12 years and average age of maturity would be 2 to 3 years. Therefore, the generation length is estimated to be 7.5 to 8 years.	eng
190760	population	Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is less common than other scarids in Brazil. <br/><br/>In the Abrolhos Bank, a region with Brazil’s largest network of marine protected areas, S. zelindae represents 0.9% of total reef fish biomass (Francini-Filho and Moura 2008), with highest values recorded within the no-take zone of Timbebas Reef (Francini-Filho 2005). Considering the entire Abrolhos Bank (i.e. both protected and unprotected reefs), there is no clear pattern of decreased abundance between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005). However, in one area open to fishing densities declined by 50% between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005).	eng
190760	threats	Rocha, L.A., Ferreira, C.E., Francini-Filho, R., Moura, R., Ferreira, B., Gaspar, A.L., Feitosa, C., Choat, J.H., Russell, B. & Myers, R., 2009	This species is fished in many areas of its range, especially by spearfishing in the southern portion of its range. Although data is limited, there does not appear to be any decline in the central and northern part of its range. However, in one area open to fishing near Abrolhos Bank, densities declined by 50% between 2001 and 2004 (Francini-Filho 2005). There is not enough data to estimate global population trends or decline.	eng
190761	conservation	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range. Although there are numerous marine reserves in the Coral Triangle, most reserves are not very well managed. In well-managed marine protected areas,  parrotfishes tend to recover comparatively quickly and therefore increased management and enforcement in protected areas might offset the overexploitation of the species. Continued monitoring of harvest levels and habitat status is needed.	eng
190761	distribution	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Gulf of Thailand to Indonesia from Anambas and Natuna Islands to West Papau, northwards to the Ryukyu Islands and Palau in Micronesia.	eng
190761	habitat	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits lagoon and coastal reefs, often in areas with abundant coral and coral rubble at depths of 10 to 30 m. Generation length is estimated to be approximately four years, based on an estimated longevity of at least 10 years (Choat <em>et al.</em> 1996).	eng
190761	population	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is generally uncommon and rare in some parts of its range. It was recorded as rare in Raja Ampat, Indonesia (Allen 2003). In the Java Sea, abundance estimates of 200 individuals per hectare were recorded by underwater visual census (P. Rahardjo pers comm. 2009).	eng
190761	threats	Myers, R., Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is captured for food in most parts of its range. Destructive fishing practices and habitat destruction are occurring in over 90% of its range. In the Philippines, it is exploited at least at the same level as other species which have experienced 50–60% declines (Stockwell<em> et al.</em> 2009) over a period of approximately 20–30 years.<br/><br/>Fishing pressure has increased and will undoubtedly continue to increase throughout its range. Based on estimates in the central Philippines (Stockwell <em>et al. </em> 2009), it is estimated that over the next 15 years, population declines will approach 30%.	eng
190762	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190762	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Ryukyu Islands in the north to the Great Barrier Reef in the south, to Micronesia, Line Islands, Tuamotu Archipealago and Pitcairn Islands in the east (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). It extends into marginal reef areas at the southern limits of its range: Middleton Reef, Rapa and Pitcairn. It was recorded from Nuie as the most abundant large parrotfish (R. Bonaldo pers comm. 2009) It has also been recorded from Halmahera, Indonesia (Green and Muljadi 2009).	eng
190762	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This is a large excavating parrotfish (50 cm TL). It is characteristic of exposed reef crests and and seaward reefs to 40 m. It is usually seen in small schools.	eng
190762	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is relatively rare over most of its range but fairly common in Middleton Reef, estimates of 2-8 individuals per hectare (Choat <em>et al.</em> 2006). It is abundant at Nuie. It achieves its highest densities on reefs at the southern limit of its range.<br/><br/>Catch records from Guam reported a total of 14,990 kg of <em>C. frontalis</em> landed over the period 1985-2007. It is the 7th most exploited species in Guam. From 1985-1989, an annual average of 669 kg was landed and from 2003-2007, 241 kg landed. The total landed weight of parrotfish in 1985 was 11,532 kg and in 2007 was 4,805 kg. The fishery follows a trend of reduced proportion of larger species (R.F. Myers pers comm. 2009). Recent underwater visual survey (UVC) undertaken in 2008 at 28 sites around Guam reveal this species is only present inside marine reserves (J.  McIlwain pers comm. 2010). It is particularly vulnerable to spearfishing because of its preference for shallow habitat.	eng
190762	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is captured by artisanal and subsistence fisheries in parts of its range. It is heavily fished in Guam. However, localized declines through harvesting are not considered to be causing global population declines.	eng
190763	conservation	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps with marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
190763	distribution	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is endemic to the north Arabian Sea. In Oman, it was only recorded from the south coast. Records from Pakistan and Somalia need confirmation. It does not appear to occur north of Muscat (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190763	habitat	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species achieves large size (more than 50 cm) and is solitary. The maximum age recorded was 25 years. It is a relatively long-lived parrotfish for an Indian Ocean species (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190763	population	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species occurs in low abundances in central and southern Oman. It is most abundant in shallow coastal waters of southern Oman on rocky reefs. It is present on the offshore islands of Al Halaniyat but is relatively rare (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009). If present in other areas it will be exceedingly rare. It is considered rare by other authors (Randall and Bruce 1983, Randall 1983).	eng
190763	threats	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190764	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species.	eng
190764	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is endemic to temperate China (Parenti and Randall 2000).	eng
190764	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no information available on this species' biology or habitat preferences. There are no illustrations, nor recent descriptions (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190764	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There is no population information available for this species. It is known only from the type material from Ningpo, a set of rocky islands just south of Shanghai.	eng
190764	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190765	conservation	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. Its distribution overlaps with some marine protected areas in parts of its range.	eng
190765	distribution	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Oman coast to the Arabian Gulf extending as far north as Kuwait (Carpenter<em> et al.</em> 1997,  Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190765	habitat	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits rocky reefs and coral patches in depths from 1-25m. It is a moderately sized<span style="font-style: italic;"> Scarus </span>with a maximum recorded size of 56 cm TL (male) and a mean size of 48 cm. Maximum age recorded was 22 years, with a mean age 14 years.	eng
190765	population	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common over most of its range except in the northern Arabian Gulf. It is abundant, forming small schools. Abundance estimates recorded 5.4 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in northern Oman and the Arabian Gulf. It is abundant on shallow coastal rocky reefs. In Southern Oman, abundance estimates recorded 1.5 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> (J.H. Choat pers comm. 2009).	eng
190765	threats	Choat, J.H., Russell, B., Rocha, L.A., Clements, K.D., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190766	conservation	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190766	distribution	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found from the Red Sea, east Africa to Sodwana Bay, Madagsacar, western Indian ocean, and east to the Maldives.	eng
190766	habitat	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is a large solitary parrotfish (Randall 1986) associated with deeper reef environments on outer slopes (40 -50 m) (Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190766	population	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is rare over most of its range (Randall and Bruce 1983).	eng
190766	threats	Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species. Its rarity and depth depth distribution precludes targeting by fishermen.	eng
190767	conservation	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is found in marine protected areas in Sri Lanka. The Dampier Archipelago is also a proposed marine park.	eng
190767	distribution	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is found in Sri Lanka and North West Australia (Hutchins 2004). It was recorded for the first time at Ujung Pulau Cut, west Sumatra and on Simeulue, Indonesia (Herdiana <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
190767	habitat	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is an inshore reef parrotfish (Randall and Anderson 1997). In Dampier Archipelago, an inshore environment, it occurs in areas of high coral cover (A. Halford pers comm. 2010). This species is found solitary or in small schools.	eng
190767	population	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is rare at most sites.	eng
190767	threats	Choat, J.H., Carpenter, K.E., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190768	conservation	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. It is present within several conservation areas throughout the Caribbean. Fisheries for parrotfishes are permanently closed in Bermuda.	eng
190768	distribution	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	The species is known from Bermuda and Florida (USA) to Venezuela.	eng
190768	habitat	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits feef and sea grasses from 3-55 m. It is found in reefs with thick algal cover and seagrass, more common in deeper areas. It forms small groups and feeds on algae. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite.	eng
190768	population	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is common (L. Rocha pers comm. 2009).	eng
190768	threats	Rocha, L.A., Choat, J.H., Clements, K.D., Russell, B., Myers, R., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190769	conservation	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no species-specific conservation measures in place for this species. However, its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range.	eng
190769	distribution	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is confined to southwestern Pacific from eastern Australia, to Rapa, Pitcairn and Austral Island. It is also found in southern Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia in the Coral Sea.	eng
190769	habitat	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species inhabits clear outer slopes and atoll reefs in 10-55 m (G. Allen pers comm. 2009). A small <span style="font-style: italic;">Scarus</span> with a maximum size recorded of 30 cm (TL) (Randall and Choat 1980) that forms small haremic groups. In the southern parts of the range it occurs in 1-20 m.  In northern areas it is confined to deeper water (to 50 m in the northern Great Barrier Reef). It is a fast growing species with high turn over rates. The maximum age recorded was 5-7 years.	eng
190769	population	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	This species is uncommon over most of its range but achieves high abundances 1-20 individuals per 1,000 m<sup>2</sup> in Coral Sea habitats (Ceccerelli <em>et al.</em> 2008).	eng
190769	threats	Choat, J.H., Myers, R., Russell, B., Clements, K.D., Rocha, L.A., Lazuardi, M.E., Muljadi, A., Pardede, S. & Rahardjo, P., 2009	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190770	conservation	Ferreira, C.E. & Floeter, S., 2008	There are no species-specific conservation measures for this species. However, its distribution includes a number of Marine Protected Areas within its range.	eng
190770	distribution	Ferreira, C.E. & Floeter, S., 2008	This species is endemic to Brazil and is found from the state of Bahia (Abrolhos Archipelago National Marine Park) to the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil, and also in Trindade Island.	eng
190770	habitat	Ferreira, C.E. & Floeter, S., 2008	This species is found in rocky shore and rocky reef, algal reef, coral reef and macroalgal beds ranging from one to 15 m depth.	eng
190770	population	Ferreira, C.E. & Floeter, S., 2008	This species is considered common throughout its range, and populations on the southeastern coast are stable. Abundance estimates in Arraial do Cabo, Brazil show 0.3+0.3 SD individuals&#160; per 40 m<sup>2</sup> (Ferreira <em>et al.</em> 2001).	eng
190770	threats	Ferreira, C.E. & Floeter, S., 2008	There are no major threats known for this species.	eng
190871	conservation	Secchi, E., 2010	<p><em>Sotalia fluviatilis</em> is listed in Appendix I of CITES and in Appendix II of CMS. The species is legally protected in most of the range countries.</p>	eng
190871	distribution	Secchi, E., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">Tucuxis are found in the Amazon drainage as far inland as southern Peru, eastern Ecuador, and southeastern Colombia. They occur in the main tributaries of the Amazon/Solimões River basin and they cross international boundaries in areas such as Leticia, between Brazil and Colombia. The species does not occur in the Beni/Mamoré river basin in Bolivia nor in the upper Rio Negro. Its putative presence in the Orinoco is controversial because of a stretch of rapids and waterfalls that are suspected to block the species movements to this area (Flores and da Silva 2009). <span lang="EN-US">During the flood season, Tucuxis may move into smaller tributaries, but apparently they do not move into the inundated forest to feed (as botos, <em>Inia geoffrensis</em>, often do), staying mainly in the main river channels, tributaries and lakes (da Silva and Best 1996). Tucuxis are largely sympatric with the Boto in the Amazon and Orinoco systems but generally do not interact with that species.</p>	eng
190871	habitat	Secchi, E., 2010	<p><span lang="EN-US">Tucuxis inhabit all three types of water of the Amazon basin: white water, clear water, and black water. Therefore, physical factors such as visibility and acidity appear not to affect their distribution directly.&#160; They seem to prefer the main channels of rivers and larger lakes where access is not limited by a narrow or shallow channel, while rapids and fast-moving turbulent water are avoided. Tucuxis also generally do not enter the flooded forest. They are mostly found within 50 m of the edges of rivers and channels (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Similarly to the sympatric boto, the tucuxi shows a distinct preference for junctions of rivers and channels (da Silva and Best 1996, Leatherwood <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2000, Martin <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2004). The most preferred habitat is where a sediment-rich whitewater channel meets the low pH- carrying black water. The resultant mixing produces productive and obviously attractive conditions for dolphins (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). The large seasonal fluctuation in river levels (10m) influences the distribution of tucuxis. They enter lake systems during periods of high water but leave these environments as the waters recede, thus avoiding entrapment. In the Peruvian Amazon, tucuxis were not found in waters <3m depth in rivers or <1.8 m depth in lakes. </p>  <p>Individuals may occur in the same area year-round. Two tagged individuals in the Amazon were found within 5 km of the tagging site up to 1 year later (da Silva and Best 1994). A long-term photo-identification study revealed a maximum range for individuals of 130 km in Peru's Pacaya-Samiria Reserve (McGuire and Henningsen 2007). This relatively small range is probably due to limiting features such as small channels and seasonally shallow waters. According to McGuire (2002), encounter rates were highest in confluences, intermediate in lakes, and lowest in rivers and did not differ among seasons in the latter two. During the dry season, tucuxis persisted longer in the confluences and occurred in higher densities than in any rainy or intermediate season; the reverse pattern was observed during high water.&#160; </p>  <p><em>S. fluviatilis</em> occurs most often in groups of one to six individuals. Groups of more than nine animals are rarely observed (da Silva and Best 1994, Faustino and da Silva 2006). The composition of groups is unknown. Vidal <em>et al.</em> (1997) reported overall mean group size of 3.9 in the upper Amazon. Tucuxis were most frequently seen as singles or pairs in rivers and lakes of Peru's Pacaya-Samiria Reserve; seasonal differences in group size were non-significant (McGuire 2002). </p>  <p>Information on reproduction is sparse. Males attain sexual maturity at approximately 140cm and females at between 132 and 137cm (da Silva and Best 1996). In Brazil, gestation lasts about 11 months and calves are about 80 cm long at birth, which occurs primarily from September to November during the low-water period (da Silva and Best 1996, Flores and da Silva 2009).&#160; Neonate tucuxi were observed in all seasons in the Peruvian Amazon, with a slight peak in encounter rates during high water (McGuire and Aliaga 2007).</p>  <p>At least 28 species of <span lang="EN-US">mostly small schooling fish belonging to 11 families are preyed upon by tucuxis in the Amazon region. The characoid family Curimatidae was represented in 52%, Sciaenidae in 39% and siluriforms in 54% of stomachs analysed (n = 29) (da Silva and Best 1994). During the dry season, fish concentrate in the main water bodies and thus are more vulnerable to predation. During the flood season, many species enter the floodplain and are largely out of reach of tucuxis.</p>	eng
190871	population	Secchi, E., 2010	To date, there is no information on the population structure of <em>S. fluviatilis</em>. The only data available suggest that the species has moderate to high genetic diversity, since 12 individuals from the same location in the central Brazilian Amazon had five different control region haplotypes (Cunha <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2005), and 21 dolphins from the Peruvian, Colombian and Brazilian Amazon had 13 haplotypes (combining the control region and ND2, Caballero <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2007). Microsatellite variation is also larger in <em>S. fluviatilis </em>(H = 0.531) than in <em>S. guianensis </em>(H = 0.364; Cunha and Watts 2007). The reason for a higher level of genetic variation in <em>S. fluviatilis</em>, in spite of its probably smaller population size, remains to be determined. <span lang="EN-US">There are no estimates of the total population size for <em>S. fluviatilis</em>, though it appears to be relatively abundant throughout most of its range (Flores and da Silva 2009). Local estimates of relative abundance exist for some areas. <span lang="EN-US">In the Amazon drainage, an average density (encounter rate) of approximately 1.1 dolphins/km of river was estimated between Manaus and Tefé in the Solimões River (Magnusson <em>et al.</em> 1980). Four boat surveys of about 1,525 km each, from <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Manaus</st1:place></st1:city> to Letícia, resulted in a mean estimate of 768 (± 104.7 SD) dolphins per trip or 1.02 individuals/km² (da Silva and Best 1994). More recently, mean density along the margins of main rivers in the central <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Amazon</st1:city>,  <st1:country-region w:st="on">Brazil</st1:country-region></st1:place> (1,320 km of strip survey) was estimated at 3.2 individuals/km². About 54% of the individuals were found within 50 m of the edge of rivers and channels (Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). Faustino and da Silva (2006) recorded on average 24 Tucuxis/km in the Mamirauá System, Central Amazon. Higher densities were found in deeper channels with high turbulence and productivity.<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>About 350 Tucuxis were estimated to inhabit the Samiria River system in Peru (Leatherwood 1996). Recent studies indicate that encounter rates in this area were within the range for these dolphins elsewhere in South America and that population numbers were stable over 10 years between 1991 and 2000 (McGuire 2002). Mean encounter rates in the Peruvian Amazon were 0.01-080 individuals/km in rivers and 0.05-2.17 individuals/km² in lakes (28 surveys over a four-year time period; McGuire 2002). The species is reportedly common in Colombia in the Loretoyacu River, in the Tarapoto River and in the El Correo Lake system (da Silva and Best 1994). Vidal <em>et al.</em> (1997) estimated that in 1993 there were 409 Tucuxis (CV=13%) along 120 km of the Amazon River bordering Colombia, Peru, and Brazil. Density (dolphins/km²) was highest in lakes (8.6), followed by areas along main banks (2.8) and around islands (2.0)<span lang="EN-US">. Those estimates of density or abundance in small portions of the range are of limited use for assessment of the conservation status of the species as a whole. </span>	eng
190871	threats	Secchi, E., 2010	<span lang="EN-US">There are no records of past or recent commercial fisheries for <em>Sotalia</em> spp. (IWC 2001). River dolphins in the Amazon region are threatened primarily by incidental mortality in fishing gear (IWC 2001). <em>S. fluviatilis</em> consumes 14 of the 30 species of commercially exploited fish in the Amazon, and thus incidental captures during fishing are frequent (da Silva and Best 1994, 1996; Martin <em>et al.</em> 2004). In one study in the central Amazon of Brazil, 74% of 34 tucuxis examined had been killed in gill nets and 15% in seine nets (da Silva and Best 1985). By-catch in fishing gear, caused by the proliferation of gill nets, and some evidence of poisoning by commercial fishermen, seem to be the main conservation threats to tucuxis in Peru (Reeves <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 1999).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Other potentially important threats are oil spills, boat strikes, chemical and noise pollution, overfishing of prey, and damming of rivers for hydroelectric projects (da Silva and Best 1994, Denkinger 2001, McGuire 2002). Dams can interrupt gene flow and create isolated groups of dolphins with reduced genetic variability and lowered demographic resilience. <span lang="EN-US">The use of pesticides banned in many countries continues to be common in some parts of South America (PNUMA 2002). Mercury is used to refine fluvial gold and then, like the pesticides, enters aquatic food webs. Dams, in addition to fragmenting dolphin populations, can have serious effects on migratory fish populations on which tucuxis feed (such as some siluriform fishes) (da Silva and Best 1994). The increased use of outboard engines and illegal fishing with explosives are also sources of concern in parts of these dolphins' range (e.g. Utreras <em>et al.</em> 2001, Zapata-Rios and Utreras 2004).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Although freshwater dolphins have been protected by superstitions in parts of Amazonia (Leatherwood and Reeves 1997), in Colombia and Brazil there was and may still be a small market for the eyes, teeth and reproductive organs of dolphins, used as love charms or aphrodisiacs when prepared in a special manner (da Silva and Best 1994, 1996; Trujillo and Diazgranados 2002; Alves and Rosa 2008). According to V. da Silva (pers. comm.), this market is no longer a significant threat in the Brazilian Amazon, although according to M. Borobia (in IWC 2007) the practice of selling dolphin parts continues in at least some local areas. However, according toV. Da Silva (pers. comm.), fishermen in the central Amazon do not kill tucuxi deliberately or use parts of its body as love charm.&#160; Teeth, eyes and body parts are from <em>S. guianensis</em>, most captured accidentally in the Para coast. Eyes of <span style="font-style: italic;">S. guianensis</span>, killed in the nets at the Amazon estuary are often sold in the markets as Boto eyes. Recent molecular analyses have shown that a high proportion of dolphin products sold as amulets and love charms are derived from Guiana dolphins (<em>S. guianensis</em>), even in the Amazon region (Cunha and Solé- Cava 2007, Gravena <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008, Sholl <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> 2008).<span lang="EN-US"><br/><br/>Recently, Loch <span style="font-style: italic;">et al.</span> (2009) found two Tucuxis and one Boto wounded by perforating and cutting objects, probably harpoons and machetes. Such kills indicate potential conflicts with locals using tucuxi and boto as bait in a catfish fishery (V. da Silva, pers. comm.). Trujillo and Diazgranados (2002) reported one death by harpooning in the Colombian Amazon, in a ten-year monitoring period.</span>	eng
